Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Tropics, Parts i and ii 9781407391151, 9781407391168, 9780860543015, 9781407338941

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Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Tropics edited by

I .. S. Farrington

Part i

BAR International Series 23 2

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. S2)2 (I), 1985: 'Pre historic Inte nsive Agriculture

©

The

Individual Authors,

in the

1985.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407391151 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391168 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543015 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407338941 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543015 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Tropics' Part I

F oreword

P revious m ainly o n

t he

s cholars,

i dentification

s ystems t hemselves o r o n

i ntensive s ystems. w orking

H owever, i n v arious

s ystematically r ecord,

i n

s ystems a nd

t he e nvironments

i n

w hich

t he

1 0-15

w orld, h ave b egun

e xcavate,

o ther c ultivation

T he

b otanists,

p articular

e lucidate t he

a nd

a nalyse t he

f acilities a s w ell

o ut b y g eographers,

h ydrologists,

a s a rchaeologists,

t o

p roblems

y ears a n umber o f

t ropical

c lassify,

a nthropologists a s w ell e xpertise

t he

s ubsequent d evelopment o f

s uch s ystems o perated.

a gronomists,

a nd

T here h as b een r elatively

p arts o f t he

f eatures h as b een c arried

p edologists,

a nimals,

f ocussed

a nd o peration o f p rehistoric

t he l ast

d escribe,

r emains o f f ield

r elict

a griculture h ave

t he o rigins o f a griculture.

p ublished o n

a gricultural

t o

p rehistoric

t he d omestication o f p lants a nd

s urrounding l ittle

p ublications o n

a s

s tudy o f t hese g eomorphologists,

p alynologists,

e ach p ursuing h is o wn

p roblems o f a gricultural

i ntensification.

T hese v olumes r epresent t his d iversity o f a pproach w ith a s eries o f r egional t he

f ield

C anberra X III

c ase

f or i n

s tudies,

p repared

a c onference h eld

A ugust

1 981.

I nternational

a t t he

B otanical

M atthew S priggs,

a nd

J ack G olson

A nthropological

R esearch

2 6 p articipants

P rehistory,

R esearch

f rom

I an

S chool o f

U niversity,

D epartment o f

a nd

t he

a ssistance,

f or

N ational

d uplication

a griculture N orth a nd

w ork o n

A mericas a nd

A merica,

a nd

t hose

a re b ased m ainly i n

w ho

w ho

f ication,

A frica,

i ts e cological

p apers a s

a dopted s uch,

f or

a nd

t he

m easurement o f a gricultural

p rocess

i n

d iscussion.

t he

t he

T hird

N ational

A nthropology,

t he

F aculty

s ecretarial

i n

a lso

f or

w ho

t o

t he

P acific

p rehistoric

p articipate.

l andscape c onsequences a nd a nalyses.

O ther

t hemes,

i ntensit he v arious

w ith n o

f ormal

q uestions o f t he d efinition a nd i ntensification,

t oday,

T he

p resent p apers o utlining c ase

a nd

t he r ole o f t he

s tudy o f p ast a gricultures i n W orld

a nd

p art i n

r esearch i n

i nvited

t hose

i ntensive

t he m ost

N ew G uinea

O thers,

w ere

t ogether

t he h istory o f a gricultural

t hese

i ncluded

a rchaeologist a nd

F oundation

s ubsistence a t

p rehistoric

a re b ased

s pecialise

A ustralia.

A sia a nd

i llustrating e ither

a pproaches

f rom

t ravel g rant t o

p rimarily t o b ring

t heme o f t he c onference w as t o

s tudies

a nd

p rovided

p roblems c oncerning

t he

i n

w eek.

f acilities a nd v ehicles.

i n

a griculture m ain

w ho

f ollowing

A ustralian

P rehistory a nd

U niversity,

U niversity,

D epartment o f

S tudies,

a ccommodation

T he c onference w as o rganised r esearchers,

t he

i n

t o c omplement t he

W enner-Gren

a c onference

P acific

e xperts

w ith a ssistance

T he

c ontinents,

a g rant

A ustralian

F arrington

p rovided

a ll

N ational

p lanned

S ydney t he

D oug Y en.

U niversity p rovided

of A rts,

w as

C ongress i n b y

f or

A ustralian

T he c onference

T he c onference w as o rganised

b ring

i nitially b y t he l eading

b oth o f t hese

t he d evelopment

p roduced

a l ively

For the purposes of publication several of the papers have been revised or even rewritten in the light of post-conference reflection or further research, whilst others have been withdrawn to be published elsewhere and replaced by new papers. A number of papers appear more or less as they were originally submitted for discussion. Two authors, who could not come to the conference, J.R. Parsons and T.K. Earle, both submitted abstracts and have sent for inclusion in this volume full papers on their research. Two of the original participants have not resubmitted a paper, J. Powell and G. Benjamin. Three papers were originally presented at the XIII International Botanical Congress and are published here. These are by C. Earle �ith, Patrick, and Knapp and Denevan. In addition, two papers have been added to the collection to augment either the regional coverage, Galla, or a methodological area, Erickson. The papers are arranged generally into themes, i.e. wetland agriculture, irrigation etc., and rather more loosely into the major regions of the intertropical world. The tropics has been rather broadly defined to include papers on the temperate zones of New Zealand and the American Southwest, into which systems of tropical agriculture were introduced, as well as the hot, arid zones of Iran. The thematic and regional ·coverage is merely a reflection of who is working and where and not that there is no potential for studies in prehistoric intensive agriculture in those areas. For example, the diversity of intensive systems in South and South East Asia during the prehistoric and mediaeval periods is well known, and yet this vast and important region is covered by only three papers. It is hoped that this book will stimulate research, as did the conference, not only in those regions which are well studied but also in the lesser studied regions of Africa and Asia. The first paper i - s an introductory one to the theme of prehistoric intensive agriculture, and reflects in part the discussion of its definition and measurement at the conference. I would like to thank many who helped organise and run the conference and produce the manuscript. In particular, we owe a great debt to the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the two departments at the Australian National University who provided the financial support for the conference. During the period of the conference I would like to thank: David McGregor, Ken Heffernan, Monica Hince, Matthew Spriggs, CRES, Claire Shepherd, Allan Lance and many others. Over the last 15 months I am indebted to Louise Johnson as publication assistant who hRs worked long hours at the word processor producing the manuscript. Karen E.dwards prepared photographs of most of the diagrams ready for publication. Ken Heffernan and Julie Daleo have been avid proof-readers. To all of them, thank you. I. S. Farrington

Canberra

June 1984.

Volume

1

C ontents Foreword C ontents List

I .S.

o f

i ii c ontributors

Farrington

The

vii

wet,

s teep.

the

dry

imperatives of

B .L. W . M.

G .C.

Turner

I I

and

Denevan

and

Parsons, M .

V .

M .H.

Popper

May

and

Amador J . D. H.

s tudy

Prehistoric

manipulation

wetlands

in

the

a raised

f ield

1 1

o f

Americas: perspective

Chinampa

chinampas

o f

agriculture

urbanization

B . L.

in

M .F.

Ancient raised a griculture in

the

3 1

Mexico

and

Aztec

Valley

4 9

o f

lowlands

o f

f ield the Maya

9 7

S outheastern

Mexico Lambert

The of

ecological ancient

practices A . H.

the

intensification

Mexico

Taft

S . R. Ch essman, Turner I I, F .J. Rosado

1

t he

A note o f buoyancy and o ther dubious characteristics o f the

Wilken

Parsons,

and

agricultural

" floating" J .R.

and

Archaeological

S iemens

Maya in

c onsequences

B elize

Results o f r ecent a ir r econnaissance over the

Mexican

1 13

agricultural

s tate

1 27

o f

Veracruz J .J.

Parsons

Raised f ield farmers a s Pre-Columbian landscape engineers: from

the

looking

S an

1 49

north

Jorge

( Colombia) A .

Zucchi

Recent evidence Columbian water systems l lanos

in o f

111

t he

f or Premanagement Western

Venezuela

1 67

W . M. Denevan, K . Mathewson

Mounding, mangling:

and

on

R .

Whitten

the

the G .

Knapp

and

W . M.

Denevan

mucking and r ecent r esearch

raised

Guayas

f ields

Basin,

in

Ecuador

The use o f wetlands p rehistoric economy Northern

1 81

in o f

the t he

1 84

Ecuadorian

h ighlands C . L.

Erickson

Applications Andean in

raised

Huatta, D .E.

Vasey

o f

p rehistoric

t echnology: f ield

Lake

a griculture,

T iticaca

1 983

N itrogen f ixation and f low in experimental i sland b ed gardens:

2 09

experiments

implications

2 33

f or

archaeology A .J.

Barham

D . R.

Harris

T .

and

Relict the

Bayliss-Smith

f ield

Torres

s ystems

S trait

above taro The

Gorecki

2 47

Pre-Ipomoean agriculture in the New Guinea h ighlands 2 000

metres:

experimental

P .P.

in

R egion

data

2 85

s ome on

cultivation c onquest

o f

wet and dry" i ts mechanism

a new

3 21

t erritory: and i ts

archaeological c onsequence J .

Golson

A .

S teensberg

The

and

F .

Oldfield, and

A .T. A .F.

Guinea

Lake f or

in

Hughes

S priggs

3 47

the

highlands

s ediments

and

evidence

3 83

agricultural

s tudy

for

the

Papua

New

Guinea

a c ase

highlands

o f

Prehistoric man-induced soil erosion: examples from

M .

a gricultural

intensification:

Baron

P .J.

o f

intensification New

Worsley

t ools

3 93

Melanesia

Prehistoric landscape

man-induced

enhancement

in the Pacific: examples and implications

i v

4 09

Volume

2

C ontents P . V.

Kirch

W .S.

Ayres

A .E.

Haun

A .

Intensive

a nd

Hawai'i:

wet

dry

and

t he

Archaeological on

Sullivan

a griculture

Prehistoric

p erspectives

f ood

p roduction

Eastern

M icronesia

Intensification zone gardening New Z ealand

D .E.

Yen

C .E.

Smith

i n

4 55

in

i n i n

4 35

the

volcanic

4 75

Northern

The genetic e ffects o f agricultural intensification

4 91

Agricultural i ntensification in the Mexican h ighlands

501

A . Gonzalez Ja come

Home gardens Mexico

5 21

L . L.

Agave and Z ea i n h ighland Central Mexico: t he ecology

Jr.

Patrick

and H .C. M.

Keeley

C .A. Hastorf and T . K. Earle

h istory

S oils

o f

Parsons

Smith

Valley,

Peru

Intensive

the

o f

t errace

and

C entral

water

P eru 5 97

and in

early

t he

5 99

P eruvian

z one

t he

i rrigation P eru

5 69

o f p olitical Upper Mantaro

Operational s trategies, expansion and i ntensification

system

5 47

Cusichaca

P eru

Ground

within

539

metepantli

Late p rehispanic a gricultural intensification in the Junin

c oastal Farrington

t he

a griculture

t he g eography change in t he

agriculture

I .S.

C entral

prehispanic in

Puna, R .T.

o f

systems

r egion J . R.

in

o f

prehistoric a gricultural t he

Moche

Valley,

6 21

R . F letcher

I ntensification r esidential material

M .

Kahn

and

6 53

s tress:

b ehaviour

A sabotaged

a a nalysis

a queduct:

6 83

s ociopolitical c onstraints on a gricultural i ntensification in

l owland

Papua

New

Guinea

R .W.

Dennell

The dam

archaeology o f checkfarming in Tauran, I ran

6 99

G .W.

Olson

P edological s oil p roperties which indicate p rehistoric

7 17

chemical and in t he s oils J .E. G.

Sutton

physical

changes

I rrigation and t erracing Africa: intensification, specialisation

o r

i n

7 37

over-

specialisation G .

Connah

Agricultural

i ntensification

and s edentism N . E. N igeria A .

Heffernan

Aspects S ri

Van

o f

Liere

i rrigation a nd

Early

7 87

in

8 09

h istoric

agriculture

8 29

and

i n

mainland Mathewson

7 65

o f

Lanka

in

K .

f irki

Asia

prehistoric

W .J.

t he

S ome facets o f a gricultural intensification in Early

Galla

S outh K .

in

S outheast

Asia

Taxonomy o f raised and drained f ields: a morphogenetic

8 35

approach L . L.

Patrick

Energy the l and

W .C.

C larke

The

c ontrol

and

d iachronics u se

a groforms:

8 51

a gricultural

intensification

f abric

v i

o f

o f

t he

world

f arm

8 65

L ist o f C ontributors

A mador,

A .T.

C olegio

S uperior d e

C ARDENAS , A yres,

W .

A .

W CIX

7 BT ,

L iverpool, B ayliss—Smith,

T .

B rookfield,

H .C.

L IVERPOOL

G eography,

R esearch

o f

A ustralian

N ational

P acific

S tudies,

D ennell,

R .

C B2

C ANBERRA,

S ocial

a nd

A .C.T.

S outh

P rehistory a nd N ew E ngland,

f G eography, D epartment o M ADISON,

Y orkshire

C .L.

F arrington,

I .S.

S 10 2 TN,

U niversity of

W isconsin

U .S.A.

S outh

U .C.L.A.,

9 0024,

L OS

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity o f

I llinois,

6 1801,

U RBANA ,

I llinois

D epartment o f P rehistory a nd A ustralian

C ANBERRA,

S YDNEY,

N .S.W.

E nvironmental C alifornia,

A ustralian

C ANBERRA ,

A nthropology,

2 601,

A ustralia. A nthropology,

N ational

A .C.T.

S tudies,

A ustralia

U niversity o f

2 006,

P rehistory a nd

U .S.A.

N ational

A .C.T.

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity, S .R.

S HEFFIELD,

U .S.A.

F aculty o f A rts,

G liessman,

5 3706,

A rchaeology,

E ngland.

C alifornia

D epartment o f

A .

N .S.W.

f A nthropology, D epartment o

S ydney, G alla,

A rchaeology,

A NGELES ,

U niversity, R .J.

168,

A RMIDALE,

P rehistory a nd

F aculty o f A rts,

F letcher,

B ox

A ustralia.

f S heffield, U niversity o

E rickson,

A ustralia.

D evelopment,

P acific,

U niversity o f

D epartment o f

T .K.

S chool

F iji.

W isconsin,

E arle,

2 601,

E conomic

D epartment o f

2 351, W .M.

E ngland.

D epartment o f H uman

S UVA,

D enevan,

3 BX ,

U niversity o f E ngland.

S chool o f

G .

U niversity o f

3 EN,

U niversity of t he

C onnah,

U niversity C ollege,

L 69

C AMBRIDGE

U niversity, W .C.

U .S.A.

E ngland.

D epartment o f G eography, C ambridge,

U niversity o f

9 7403

D epartment o f G eography,

A .F.

C larke,

O regon,

D epartment o f G eography, L ONDON

B aron,

E UGENE ,

T ropical,

M exico.

D epartment o f A nthropology, O regon,

B arham,

T abasco,

A gricultura

2 601,

A ustralia

U niversity o f

S ANTA C RUZ,

C alifornia

9 5064,

U .S.A. G olson,

D epartment o f P rehistory,

J .

P acific

S tudies,

U niversity, G onzalez,

A .

D F,

2 601,

o f

A ustralia

U niversidad

A venida d e l os

M exico.

S chool

N ational

A .C.T.

A ntropologia,

I beroamericana, M EXICO 2 1

A ustralian

C ANBERRA,

D epartment° d e

R esearch

T orres

3 95,

G orecki,

P .P.

D epartment o f P acific

S tudies,

U niversity, H arris,

D .R.

H aun,

C .

A .

A ustralian

C ANBERRA ,

W CIH O PY ,

K .

3 1/34 G ordon

U .S .A.

C alifornia

E UGENE ,

9 0024 ,

O regon

S quare,

N ational

U .S.A.

A nthropology,

U niversity,

2 601,

A ustralia.

D epartment o f

P rehistory

C ANBERRA ,

C ANBERRA,

( ANUTECH),

S tudies,

L OS

U niversity o f

9 7403 ,

D epartment o f P rehistory a nd

U niversity,

R esearch

A ustralian

A .C.T .

2 601,

N ational

A ustralia.

D epartment o f A nthropology, B ryn

M awr

C ollege,

P ENNSYLVANIA

K irch,

A ustralia.

E ngland.

S chool o f P acific M .

2 601,

A NGELES ,

A .C.T. P .J.

K eeley,

A .C.T .

U .C.L.A.,

A ustralian

K ahn,

N ational

D epartment o f A nthropology,

H effernan,

S chool o f

D epartment o f A nthropology,

O regon,

H ughes,

R esearch

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ONDON

H astorf,

P rehistory,

H .M .

A ncient M onuments

P .V.

B ryn

1 9010,

L aboratory,

E nvironment,

R oom 5 37,

S aville

L ONDON

R ow ,

M awr,

U .S.A. F ortress

W IX 2 AA ,

D epartment o f A nthropology, M useum,

P .O .

D epartment o f t he

1 9000-A ,

H ouse,

2 3

E ngland.

B ernice

H ONOLULU ,

P .

B ishop

H awaii

9 6319,

U .S.A. K napp,

G .

D epartment o f G eography, T exas,

L ambert,

J .D .H. K .

F .

K IS 5 B6,

J .J.

L IVERPOOL

N ew Y ork

P arsons,

J .R.

P arsons,

M .H.

P atrick,

L .L.

T exas

7 8712 ,

F .J.

C olegio

M ichigan T abasco,

v iii

U .S.A.

U niversity o f M ichigan, U .S.A.

U niversity o f M ichigan, U .S.A.

U niversity o f T exas, U niversity o f M ichigan,

4 8109,

U .S.A.

S uperior d e A gricultura

C ARDENAS ,

9 4720 ,

U .S.A.

M useum o f A nthropology, A NN A RBOR,

R osado M ay,

U niversity o f

4 8109,

D epartment o f G eography, A USTIN ,

V .

M ichigan

U niversity,

U .S.A.

4 8109,

M useum o f A nthropology, A NN A RBOR,

P opper,

M ichigan

U .S.A.

E ngland.

C alifornia

M useum o f A nthropology, A NN A RBOR,

3 BX ,

C ornell

1 4853,

B ERKELEY ,

5 3706 ,

U niversity o f

L 69

D epartment o f G eography, C alifornia,

U niversity,

U niversity o f

W isconsin

D epartment o f A gronomy, I THACA ,

P arsons,

C arleton

D epartment o f G eography,

G .

U .S.A.

C anada.

M ADISON,

L iverpool, O lson,

7 8712 ,

D epartment o f G eography, W isconsin,

O ldfield,

T exas

D epartment o f B iology, O TTAWA

M athewson,

A USTIN ,

U niversity o f

M exico.

T ropical,

S iemens,

A .

D epartment o f G eography, C olumbia,

S mith,

C .E .

J r

R .T.

U NIVERSITY,

M .

W est

S teensberg,

A .

I nternational

1 331,

H awaii

D K2500 ,

J .E.G.

B ritish N AIROBI,

T aft,

M .

T urner,

B .L.

I I

L iere,

V asey,

W .J.

D .E.

G .C.

I mplements,

P .O .

B ox

D enmark.

W ELLINGTON ,

V ictoria

N ew Z ealand.

E ast

A frica,

B ox

3 0710,

P ittsburgh,

1 5260

G raduate P .O.

B ox

P ITTSBURGH ,

P A

S chool o f G eography, M assachusetts

1-1473,

C lark U niversity,

0 1610,

B ANGKOK,

H istory D epartment,

U .S.A.

T hailand.

U niversity o f

U niversity P .O.

B ox

4 829,

P apua

N ew

P ORT M ORESBY,

N ew G uinea.

D epartment o f G eography, W isconsin,

W ilken,

R esearch o n t he

U niversity o f

P apua R .

U .S.A.

D epartment o f A nthropology,

G uinea, W hitten,

f or

S tudies,

i n

E ngland.

K enya.

W ORCESTER , v an

V ALBY ,

I nstitute

U .S.A.

U niversity o f

9 6822,

S ecretariat

D epartment o f M aori U niversity,

S utton,

3 5086,

L S2 9 JT,

H istory o f A gricultural A .

C anada.

U niversity o f L eeds,

Y orkshire

H ONOLULU,

1 W5,

U niversity o f

D epartment o f A nthropology, H awaii,

S ullivan,

V 6T

A labama

S chool o f G eography, L EEDS,

S priggs,

B .C.

D epartment o f A nthropology, A labama,

S mith,

V ANCOUVER

U niversity o f B ritish

M ADISON,

W isconsin

D epartment o f E conomics, U niversity,

U niversity o f

F ORT C OLLINS ,

5 3706,

U .S.A.

C olorado S tate C olorado

8 0523,

U .S .A. W orsley,

A .T.

D epartment o f G eography, L iverpool,

Y en,

D .E.

P acific

S tudies,

U niversity, Z ucchi,

A .

L IVERPOOL ,

L 69

D epartment o f P rehistory,

D epto d e C ARACAS ,

A ntropologia,

E ngland.

R esearch S chool

A .C.T.

o f

N ational 2 601,

A ustralia.

I nstituto V enezolano d e

C ientificas,

V enezuela.

i x

3 BX ,

A ustralian

C ANBERRA,

I nvestigaciones

U niversity o f

A partado

1 827,

T HE W ET,

T HE D RY A ND T HE S TEEP.

A RCHAEOLOGICAL I MPERATIVES A ND T HE

S TUDY O F A GRICULTURAL I NTENSIFICATION

I .S.

I ntensification

h as b ecome

e conomic

p rehistorians i n

d escribe

a n

t he

a rea o ver

i n

s ame t he

f ood

c ontained o r

i ncrease

i n

r ecent y ears,

a s pecified

s uch g eneral

a nd

G rigg

( 1976,

s uch a s

1 979)

( 1965) , h ave a ddressed a nd

i dentified i s a greed f ood

a s w ell

i s v iewed

t he

t hat a gricultural

d isintensification I t m ay b e

a nd

t he

a gricultural a n umber

b y a n

( 1972:31)

am easure

o f a s ystem.

B oserup c hange

t hat c hange

D isintensification

i s

I n g eneral,

r epresents a n

p er

i t

i ncrease

u nit o f l abour,

i n

w hilst

t hese

t he

s ystem,

s impler

B oserup

s uggested h e

i ncreases

a nd

s ince

i n

O n

t o g auge t he l evel p roposed

a s pecified t he o ther

t hat t he l ength

h and,

t hat " intensification m ust b e m easured a nd

s kills

t hat

a gainst c onstant l and".

t hese

i nputs c ould

s ystems b y u sing a r anking

s uch a s

f ield m ounding,

w ith a s imilar

t o

T urner

( 1978)

D oolittle

f iring,

a chieve t he

s ystem o f

l evel

p roposed

b e a ssessed

d rainage e tc.

r anking o f c ultivation

f or c rop s egregation a nd

( 1965)

w ithin

y et e ffective, m easure.

M elanesian

s kills,

B oth

p roductivity ( output)

i t m ay b e

i nputs.

p roposed

a nd

F or many

s ystems m easurement o f p roductivity i s

o f r easons,

( 1971:88-124)

s imply s umming

i t b e

w ith H art)

E ster

a cknowledged

a mount o f i nputs t o

W ith

t raditional

s uch a s

1 971

i nput:output a nalysis.

a gree t hat

l abour

f or

1 972 a nd

k ind o f c hange.

a nd/or

b y i nputs o nly o f c apital,

t echnological

w hether

p roblem o f a gricultural

i ntensification

s imply r ecorded

w as a c rude,

H art

a ny c hange

i ntensification.

a ll

f requency o f c ultivation o f a u nit o f l and B rookfield

s ense,

i n

e xtinction o f l arge m ammals

a s

s ame d irection.

o f i ntensity b y m easuring t he

o f t ime

t o

i s a r eduction.

m ust b e a f unction o f t he

f or

t his

p rehistory,

( 1962,

h ave

u nit o f l and

e conomists a nd g eographers

t raditional

I n

a s e conomists,

t herefore a s t he o pposite

p roductivity p er

d ifficult

t hroughout

t hemselves t o

i n

i s g enerally u sed

u nit o f t ime.

B rookfield

i ntensification o r g rowth,

d oes n ot a lways o ccur

a nd

a mongst

p roductivity b y a g roup l iving

t opics a s t he

t he o rigins o f a griculture,

y ears g eographers,

s omewhat o f a " buzz—word"

s ubsistence

p rocurement r egime

w ithin

F arrington

a nd

f requency

o f i ntensity

a s ililar

s cale o f

i nputs t o m easure o f i ntensity u sing b oth a s cale o f

l agro—technology '

a nd

a rea.

o ne o f

B oserup

f requency i n c ultivation

( 1965)

s aw t hat

t here

t he d ensity o f p opulation

a nd

a lways d ependent u pon

f ormer.

t he

t he

f or a f ixed

l and

w as a p ositive r elationship b etween f requency o f c ultivation, S he 1

s uggested

t he l atter

t hat a s a r esult

i ntensification r educed a nd

t hat

s tudy ( 1963) p opulation

T o

p ressure

a lso

u sed

f rom

c ropping

( 1969)

i n

i n a g iven

f orest

f allow,

t o multicropping.

d escribed

a s trong

a ll

w ould

B rookfield

W est

a rea,

a ccept

( 1972),

H e

t hat

a dopt a s ystem w hich w ould g ive

i ncrease

i nvestments

a lready m ade

b arriers t o c hange. s uggested i n

F or

a rea

T urner

t hat

t heir

n oted

o pen

t o

s ystem

t echnological

p roducing o utlined

t hat a s

i t o ptimum r eturn

w ere

a s

p er

u nit

t hat l abour

n ot

f or

t he

i nput. i nputs m ay

b ut t hat e nvironmental

w ell

a s t echnological

t he c ost o f c hanging m ay b e

p roductivity.

c rops,

e ntirely.

o r

t he a nd

w ays

i n

c hange

c hange.

a dopt m ore

F ailure f arm,

s ignificant H e

a s a r esult o f a

t o

a nd

( Table

r ange o f

T hese

a re

t o e xpand

f requently,

i ntensive

a r eduction

i n

q uality.

( conference d iscussion)

s ystems c hange a nd

T his, m ore

i mportant

H e

s uggested

a spirations a nd

s timuli

t o c hange,

c ited.

2

e ven

s ize,poverty,

p ragmatic,

t he r easons v iew o f

p resents a m ore c oherent p icture t han o ne s upreme.

w ork

s ystems, o r

t he o nly v ariable c apable o f

B ayliss-Smith

1 ).

t he

a chieve o ne o f t hese m ay

n ot b e

w hich a gricultural

t hem

p ressure,

a d ecline o f e nvironmental

p opulation g rowth n eed

s atisfaction o f s ocial

p rofit

H owever,

p opulation g rew i t w ould

c rop e xisting l ands m ore

p opulation g rowth r eigns t he

s patial h ave

f ully r esponsible

s ocieties h ave a " limited

r etardation

a nd m otives b ehind a gricultural

t hem.

W hite

e fficiency i s n ot n ecessarily r educed.

i ncrease

a gricultural t he

t he

( 1977)

t hat a s a r esult o f p opulation

f ragmentation

H owever

f or

a nd

p opulation d ensity w as a n

p roductivity,

a nd

g row h igh y ielding

r esult i n

f allow,

G leave

e t a l.

t hat d isintensification c an o ccur

u nder c ultivation,

c hange

g rass

e xample,

i t i s n ot

e xpertise

L abour

a gricultural

o pportunities"

h arder,

B oserup

p opulation.

( 1976)

t raditional

s hortened,

o ne.

S ome a greement o n t his

T hrough a h ierarchy o f s ystems h e d emonstrated

t echnological

a s

T he d ensity o f p opulation c ould b e

A frica.

p roposed

c onditions,

G eertz'

w hich a griculture

f allow,

i ntensity.

w hilst n oting

c hanges w hich o ccur.

t o

f urther

s uch a r elationship.

c laimed

b e r eadily m ade

f allow t ime

p ositive c orrelation b etween

i ndependent v ariable,

G rigg

u nit l abour,

T herefore,

p opulation d ensity a s t he m ain c ause

d emonstrated s cholars

J ava.

t hrough b ush

f rom a n umber o f r esearchers.

r eduction

p er

s upported b y

a s equence o f s ystems t hrough

v ariation o f i ntensity i n

r urther

o utput

w ould b ecome a m ulti-cropped

a s a m easure of a gricultural

h as c ome

i .e.

t his v iew i s

i nvolution

i ncreased s ystem

p roposed

i ntensifies a nnual

s ome e xtent,

o f a gricultural

e ventually t he

( 1965)

e fficiency,

t he e nvironment w as a lways c apable o f a ccommodating

i ntensification.

a nd

l abour

i n

w hich

i mprovement o f w elfare,

t he m aximisation o f e xchange

b ut o thers l ikewise m ay b e

T able

1 :

W ays i n w hich a gricultural

s ystems c hange

R easons 1 .

A gricultural L arger

B ayliss-Smith)

E xpansion

a rea o f l and

u tilised,

( after

U nderlying M otives

b ut n ot

M ore

p eople t o

f eed.

i n

a ny d ifferent w ay.

A chieve

s ubsistence

w ith m inimum e ffort. o r G reater

o r

p roduction

a spirations o r

R ising

c oncern

t o m inimise

r isk o f s hortage. 2 .

A gricultural

C ontraction

( opposite o f

1 .)

3 . A gricultural I ntensification M ore c rops

p er

c ycle.

Y ields m ust

i mprove

b ecause a nd/or p er

M ore

c rop

M ore

i nputs

( labourer,

f ertiliser,

a nd

f urther

t o

t but n ecessarily

n o

m ore e ffort t han

l and

f or

e xpansion. o r M ore s ought

s ubsistence

w ith m inimum e ffort

p eople

f eed,

s kill).

A chieve

f ormerly). o r

A chieve

s urplus,

p roduction

s atisfy r ising

f or

a spirations,

s ame

p opulation, n o l and

a nd

f or

o r

t o

r educe r isk o f s hortages.

e xpansion. o r

L and b eing

u tilised w ill

w ill

n ot/

n o l onger

p roduce e xcept

a t a il w i ' : , 1 1

i ntensive m ethods.

4 .

A gricultural

D isintensification

( opposite o f 5 .

A gricultural

3 .)

D iversification

I ncreasing

D esire

p olyculture

d iet o r

t o d iversify r ange o f

A gricultural

c rop o r

p roducts.

6 .

M inimise r isk o f f ailure.

I mprove w elfare.

S pecialisation

T endeney t ,4aris m onoculture.

E xploiting

M aximise e nergy

c omparative

o utput

a dvantage o f

p opulation

p articular

o r

M aximise

i n

e xchange

i n

l ocal

c onditions.

3

c rops

i n

r elations.

f ace o f p ressure. p rofit

A n

a gricultural

d ecisions t aken t imes

i n

s ystem

r esponse

q uantities

s tatic;

t he

a nd

o ther

s ystem r egarded

w ell

a s:

s ocial a nd

t axation

t o

a n

s ocieties

e nvironmental

d egradation,

a n

t he

a s

w ell

h azards, a nd

f or m ore

a re l ong

t ern

s ystem

i nfestation

a ll

i gnored a nd

r esp (p 19es

i n o rder

t o

p ressures m ay b e l isted f ood;

t he d emands o f

s urplus; o rder

s uch a s d rought,

p est

y ields

E xpansion

t he d esire o f l ife

( Bayliss—Smith's c ategory o f w elfare

d isease

a s

a nd d isintensification,

S uch

e conomic

t he

u nder c ultivation,

e quilibrium.

q uality a nd

N o

a ddition o f f ertiliser,

a gricultural

t he n eed

y ear.

T he c limate,

v ariations m ust b e

s pecialisation

u pon

a rea

w eeding

t erm

i n d ynamic

a nd

p roduce

s urplus t o m aintain

b etween

a nd

c hange l evels o f p roduction.

p opulation g rowth a nd

t rade o r

t he

t heir o pposites c ontraction

p ressures i mposed

s ustain o r

u p t he c ropping

s uch a s t he

S uch s hort

a s d iversification

t o m ajor

i nputs,

a s o ne

p ressures a t v arious

a lways o ccurring.

t he d egree o f t illing

i ntensification, a s

n eeds a nd

a nd d istribution o f c rops g rown,

p ractices a nd

i rrigation

a s a s eries o f i ntegrated

w hich m ake

c hanges a re

v ary s lightly e ach y ear. a nd

t o c ertain

t he c ycle o f a ctivities

i s e ver

f arming

i n

s ystem c an b e v iewed

f lood,

f or

w ithin

a

a nd

i mprovement);

e arthquakes,

w hich r estrict o r

s oil

p rohibit

p roduction.

A lthough t hey a re r esponses t o i ntensification, s olutions. a reas.

I t

o nes.

E xpansion

G reater

p roductivity i s a chieved a chieves

f ertiliser,

i ncrease o r

s ystem t heir

a t

t he

w ithin

t he

e xisting

a rchaeological

i nto

n ew

a rea i n

a dditions,

D iversification

l and

a rea

u nder

a nd

i ntensive

O nly r arely d o a ncient s ettlements

t here a ny i ndications o f t he

s urvive

c rops g rown

Q uestions o f t he m easurement o f a gricultural u nderlying

a gricultural

f ield

k ept.

r easons

f or

c ultivation.

a re

t he

t he

i ncrease

a nd/or o ther

i nnovation.

u nit l and

p articular c ases o f i ntensification

f acilities a nd

n ature o f c hange a nd

p er

w ithin

o f m ethods:

i nputs

i dentification o f a n

i s v ery d ifficult. a ssociated

i n l abour a s

s ame r ate

s eldom

t o

s ystem

i ts g reater o utput

t echnological

s pecialisation m ay b e v iewed

T he

e xisting

c ultivation b y o ne o f a n umber

f requency,

t hey o ccur

e xpansion,

s pecialisation r epresent d ifferent

i s t he e xtension o f a n

I ntensification

a lready u nder

s uch a s

a nd

p roblems,

i nvolves n o n ew t echniques m erely a r eplication o f e xisting

a s b efore.

c ropping

d iversification

s imilar

i t a re

a nd

s ystems a nd t hen

a nd/or

e ven m ore

a nimals

i ntensity,

t he

e ven m ore d ifficult

s olve. W hat d etailed

a daptation L ocations

t o i n

s tudies t here h ave b een

w etlands, w hich,

i t

e xtremely d ry i s a rgued,

e xceptionally h igh t o c onstruct a ssociated

w orks,

z ones a nd

t hat

d ams,

t he m ost h ighly

e tc.

t he

o n

s teep h illsides.

i nputs m ust

a nd q i , iintain

s uch a s c anals,

t hat t hese r epresent

h ave c oncentrated

h ave b een

f ield

O ften

i t

s ystem

i ts

i s c ontended

i ntensive o f a gricultural

1 4

a nd

s ystems

a nd

t hat

t hey

H owever,

a s w ith a ll

l andscape v iable

w ere t ypical

f or

s tudy a re

s ystem c ould o r

l abour

t oo

b ecause

n o l onger

i nvestment

t he

s urvived

b ecause

t he

c hange

w hich

a s a erial t he

i n

i t

a nd

i n

t he

f ields o bserved

a reas

a dvanced.

e ven

s teep l and

p racticed M odern

s o

h ighly l abour

y et

f ield

i n

t he

p ast a nd

i n

t he

f arming s uch

i dentify

A frica

s ystem h as b een l ost.

t hat t he

( see

p eriod.

S utton,

p roduce r elatively h igh a nd

s ystem e xcept a s imilar

f or

c oupled

w ith

u se.

t raditional

G onnah a nd

e ach y ear,

t he

T hey

c onstruction a nd

e vidence

s uch a s

t hat t he

a nd/or

t race o f t he

a nd

t oday w ere

a s a r esult o f a

a rgument

a r egion

i t i s r ealised

t he o peration p laces,

a n

t he d ays o f t heir

f arming m ethods,

i n

t o

o n

w et/dry/steep z ones r epresent

r econstructed

a rchaeological

s ystems

t he

s ustain

i ntensive,

s ettlements a nd

T raditional

i n

t o

s ystems o f W est

s ystems a re

p rovide c lues t o

i n

w hen

a re

p ermanent

c an b e u sed

i ntensively f armed

i ntensity i n

e ven m arginal

p erhaps m ore

s canning,

t he

v egetation o r

a ctivity.

e vidence o f t he e arlier

v olume)

f arming

a nd d ryland

l ands m ost

i ntensively w orked

f lood

p ast.

s kills

s ystems.

b e t hat t he

r ecessional

e stablished

n atural

t echniques m ust h ave b een

w ould h e d ifficult

m ay h ave b een

n o

t o

f ields

p ractices h ave n ot

e ven r adar

h igh l evel o f a gricultural

t he

t o w hich t he

t echnological

M ost o f t he

t races o f p revious

f ield

t echnology a ll

e arthworks a nd

T his i s

T hey m ay h ave

o r b ecause o f a c hange i n

h as r everted

f arming

o f a ll

f ormer

t hose m ost

T herefore

l and

p hotography a nd

I t m ay w ell

c hange

o r b ecause

l ands

u rban g rowth h ave c overed much a nd o nly t echniques,

t races o f

a lso

a dapt,

l ands.

a gricultural

p ast a re n ow d evoid a nd

t oo d ry o r

v ast t racts o f w etland

i ntensive

m ethods

t he

t he

t oday m arginal

t here w as e nvironmental f urther

q uestion.

s urvives i n

s teep.

t echnology a nd

H owever,

T hey a re

w as i nsufficient,

b ecause

w hat

i n

t oo

p erception o f v alue o f t hese h ave

p eriods

w hich a re n o l onger c onsidered

s ame w ay. w et,

o r

s tudies,

t hose l ands

t hey a re

b ecome m arginal

p eriod

a rchaeological

a griculturally i n

s imply b ecause

o f t he

y ields a nd

h ence t here f or

i s

t he l ong—

c rop c omplex

s ome

t his

i n

t he

a rchaeology,

m ay

i ntensification o f p rehistoric H ighland

N ew G uinea o r

S outh

E ast

A sia. T he r egions, w ords m arginal, a ttracted

w hich a re a re

b ecause

l andscape. e xcavation

t oo

w et,

p recisely t hose

t here e xist

T oo o ften

t he

t oo d ry a nd t o

i n

e nquiry c eases

c ontraction

o r

h istoric

o f i ntensity,

e xpansion

a nd d isintensification

a s

5

i n o ther i s

f ields i n

t he

w ith t he d escription,

t he l andscape a s a w hole

a ssess t he v ariety o f s ystems p ractised T he l evel

s teep,

w hich t he r esearcher

p rehistoric

a nd m easurement o f i ntensity o f t hese

r esults b eing v iewed

t oo

i n

a nd w ell

s ystems w ithout t hese i n

a n

a ttempt t o

a r egion. i ntensification,

a nd

a s d iversification

a nd

specialisation of a system can be studied archaeologically. To put it slightly differently, these can be approached by sturlying the remains of fields and canals, prehistoric settlement patterns, plant remains, bones and palaeoenvironments and by some judicious use of analogy with the contemporary record, or by inference using historical documents to support an ethnographic or ecological interpretation. The factors behind the changes observed are even more elusive. The archaeological identification of an expanding system is possible provided that a fairly precise local chronology is available. In this case, one can simply map the distribution of sites and artefacts across a landscape to associate this with relict fields or canals to determine when an area was first brought into cultivation and for approximately how long it was intensively used. Even in the absence of field remains, it is often possible to infer expansion, if the study is associated with a detailed ecological study. Examples of this type of work include Parsons (1979) and Farrington (this volume). By the same token it may be possible to date contraction on the basis of artefact and settlement distribution. The identification of intensification is more difficult because only in unusual circum�tances is it possible to suggest (from the archaeological record) a change in cropping frequency or the addition of fertilizer. Furthermore, changes in tool types may be inferred as indicators of intensification (&tith and Young 1972) but the nature of the evidence for the most part is equivocal or non-existent. Yields are virtually impossible to obtain, although Kirkby (1973) has made a bold attempt to calculate maize yields for different periods on the basis of the productivity of contemporary cobs of different lengths. These drawbacks have led many researchers to measure the level of intensity by simply attempting some measurement of labour inputs. In other words, they use only a part of the Brookfield and Hart 1972 equation or Turner and Doolittle 1978 one. They regard investment in agrotechnological devices, such as terraces, raised fields and irrigation, which involve very large labour inputs in both construction and maintenance and, to some extent in cultivation, as being the physical manifestation of higher yields per unit area. Therefore, the presence of agricultural earthworks is seen as a reflection of the level of intensity of � -'3J$tem. Total labour input for earthwork construction is derived from published sources or by modern experiments. The original conference papers by Gorecki (1981) and Turner (1981) as well as contributions by Denevan and Turner, Erickson, Farrington, Gorecki and others all use this as a measure. Such a calculation is also applicable to systems which are expanding and may be used, along with area, to assess the scale of expansion. 6

T his r elationship m ay b e v alid: i nvestments a nd

h igher

y ields.

d ifficulties o f m easuring

t hat e arthworks r eflect h igher

t he

H owever,

i n

t he l ight o f t he

i ntensity o f c ontemporary s ystems,

u nlikely t hat t his r elationship w ill

h old

t rue.

I nvestments

w et/dry/steep a reas m ay b e m assive a nd

t he r eturns o btained

m ainly b ecause

s cale a nd v ery l ittle

t hese s ystems a re l arge

a lternative l and B asin,

L ake

i s a vailable

T iticaca,

t he

e qually a s l arge b ut t he l and a nd

w as

i mproved

t erracing

1 983).

f or

f or

M aya

N evertheless,

s chemes o f t he

S acred

e ven a fter

e .g.

w ill

s imply b ecause I ncas

l abour

T he

u se o f t his r elationship i s a dvocated. ( 1981)

a re g ood

A n

G orecki

D enevan

( 1982),

p robable

t his i s t hat f or i n

h as

t herefore c areful

( 1981)

f ield

a nd

T urner

t o e stimate

i t d oes n ot a ccount

f or

a gricultural

a rea r epresenting

G ood

i s t hat

a reas a nd

u sed a

i ntensity a nd

p opulations d ependent u pon t hem.

a nything o ther t han c onsumption. a l imited

h owever,

p roductivity o f a s ystem

w ho h as e stimated

l ocal m easurement o f s taple c rop y ield c alculate

a nd

t he

e xamples o f t his.

a lternative m eans t o e stimate

d eveloped b y

t race i n

a rchaeologist,

v ery l ittle w ith w hich t o d iscuss i ntensification

( Farrington

i ntensive s ystems

l eave v irtually n o

a bandonment.

t he

t he r iver c analization

V alley o f t he

a s a lready o utlined,

G uayas

i nvestments m ay b e

r eturns r elatively s mall,

d o n ot r equire e arthworks a nd l andscape,

z one.

s ome

l arge,

i ntensive c ultivation, e .g.

n on—economic r easons,

I n m any c ases,

i n

i t i s

T he d rawback w ith

p roduction b eing u sed

p reservation

f rom m any s ites

a n umber o f a rchaeological

p eriods w ill

a lmost c ertainly a ssist i n m aking c omments a bout d iversification

a nd

s pecialisation. I t

i s e qually d ifficult t o

a rchaeological p eriod

r ecord.

e stablish t he c auses o f c hange i n

T he c alculation o f p opulation

i s a lmost i mpossible a nd

p opulation ( 1979)

p ressure a nd c arrying c apacity h ard

t he

E ven

s cale o f p ublic

s o, m any l eave n o

i ndicated

i n

t he

b ecause t hey o ccur change

a s

a lthough t he

w orks m ay b e r egarded t race w hatsoever.

i n t he

p alaeoenvironmental t oday.

H owever,

t he

w hich

p resence o f s torerooms a s i mportant

E nvironmental

i ndicators.

h azards o n a

a gricultural

r ecord, o r

s ystem m ay

s imply i nferred

t endency t o v iew a gricultural

i nto

a ncient

i ntensive

a griculture h as a v ariety o f

t echniques a vailable w ith w hich t o e lucidate A lmost

P arsons

f orces i n

a r esult o f s ome c ataclysm m ust b e a voided.

T he r esearcher

t heir

t o e lucidate.

t o d emonstrate t hese

s cale l arge e nough t o w arrant c hanges b e

a ny

S imilarly t he n on—subsistence d emands o n a s ystem w ith a

s ociety a re d ifficult t o d etect, a nd

f or

t his r enders p opulation d ensity,

a mongst o thers h as a ttempted

a ction.

s ize

t he

l evel o f i ntensity,

t he

p rocesses o f c hange

i nevitably h e w ill b e d rawn t oday a re t oo w et,

t he

t oo d ry o r

t o

t hose

t oo

7

s ystems i n o peration, a nd

p reserved

s teep f or

t heir c auses. s ystems i n

e conomic

u se.

l ands C are

m ust b e t aken s ystem u nder t he

t o a ssess e ach s tage i n

t he a nalysis a nd

s tudy i n i ts b roader l andscape.

t o

s ee t he

O nly t hen c an

w e e valuate

q uestions w ith w hich t his b ook i s c oncerned — t he l evel

i ntensity,

t he p rocess o f c hange a nd

o f

t he c auses o f t hat c hange.

R eferences c ited B oserup, 1 965

E . T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth.

B rookfield, 1 962

L ondon.

H .C.

L ocal

s tudy a nd

N ew G uinea.

c omparative m ethod:

A nnals ,

a n

e xample

f rom

C entral

A ssociation o f A merican G eographers

5 2:242-252. B rookfield, 1 972

H .C.

I ntensification a nd d isintensification

a t heoretical B rookfield, 1 971

H .C.

a pproach.

a nd

D .

M elanesia.

D enevan, 1 982

P acific

a griculture:

P acific V iewpoint 1 3:30-48.

H art

L ondon.

W .M. H ydraulic

m easures, K .V.

a griculture

a nd

i n

t he

r ecent r esearch.

F lannery,

F arrington, 1 983

i n

A merican

t ropics:

f orms,

I n Maya S ubsistence ,

e dited b y

p p.181-203.

I .S .

P rehistoric l and

r iver c analization

r eclamation i n

t he

S acred

s chemes.

P reliminary n otes o n

V alley o f t he

I ncas.

I n

D rained F ield A griculture i n C entral a nd S outh A merica , e dited b y

J .P .

D arch,

I nternational G eertz,

p p.221 235. S eries

R eports

1 89.

Agricultural I nvolution.

c hange i n I ndonesia. G leave,

M .B .

1 969

a nd

H .P.

C alifornia

P ress.

W hite a gricultural

s ystems i n W est

E nvironment a nd L and U se i n W est Africa ,

T homas a nd G orecki,

T he p rocesses o f e cological

U niversity o f

P opulation d ensity a nd

I n

G .W. W hittington,

p p.273-300.

A frica.

e dited b y M .F.

L ondon.

P .P. A merican r aised

s uch a d ifference G rigg,

A rchaeological

C .

1 963

1 981

B ritish

f ields a nd i n

t heir

M elanesian d rains:

i nterpretation?

w hy i s t here

C onference m s.

D .B.

1 976

P opulation p ressure a nd

a gricultural

c hange.

Progress i n

G eography 8 :135-176. G rigg,

D .B.

1 979

E ster

r eview. K irkby, 1 973

B oserup's t heory o f a grarian c hange:

a c ritical

P rogress i n H uman G eography 3 :64-84.

A .V. T he U se o f L and a nd W ater R esources i n t he P ast a nd P resent 8

Valley of Oaxaaa, Mexiao. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan No. 8. Parsons, J.R. 1979 Settlement history of the Basin of Mexico (Late Horizon AD 1350 -1519). In The Basin of Mexiao, edited by W.'f. Sanders, J • R • Parsons and R. Santl ey , pp • 1 3-181. �ith, P.E.L. and T.C. Young 1972 The evolution of early agriculture and culture in Greater Mesopotamia: a trial model. In Population GPowth, edited by B. Spooner, pp.1-59. MIT Press. Turner II, B.L. 1981 The meaning of agricultural intensity and its measure in prehistory: two examples from the Maya lowlands. Conference manuscript. Turner II, B.L., R. Q. Hanham and A. V. Portararo 1977 Population pressure and agricultural intensity. Annala, Assoaiation of AmePiaan GeogPaphePs 67:384-396. Turner II, B.L. and W.E. Doolittle 1978 The concept and measure of agricultural intensity. PPofessional GeogPapheP 30:297-301.

9

P RJ 1L STQRJC M

U

r S T E A n E _ u

_

A R AISED F IELD TERSPECTIVE

B .L.

T urner

I I a nd W illiam M .

V estiges o f p rehistoric r aised e arly a s

1 939

( Boomert

1 976),

a nd

D enevan

f ields w ere d iscovered

i n S urinam a s

c hinampas o f t he B asin o f

t he

M exico h ave l ong a ttracted a ttention a s t he r emnants o f a m uch l arger s ystem i n a ntiquity ( West a nd A rmillas P alerm

1 973;

H owever,

S anders,

P arsons,

a nd

1 950;

S antley

C oe

1 979;

1 96) 4;

A rmillas

1 971;

P arsons e t a l.

1 982).

a r esearch f ocus o n a ncient A merind c ultivation o f w etlands

d id n ot e merge u ntil

t he

1 960s w ith t he d iscovery o f t he r emains o f

l arge s cale s ystems o f r aised

f ields i n w estern S outh A merica ( Denevan

1 962,

B owen

1 966,

D enevan

1 970;

1 967;

P arsons a nd

S mith,

D enevan,

a nd

1 966;

P arsons

H amilton

1 969;

1 968).

T he

P arsons a nd 1 970s w itnessed

t he e xpansion o f s uch d iscoveries a nd r esearch t o l owland

C entral

A merica ( Siemens a nd

1 97 )4 ,

P uleston

1 977;

P uleston

H arrison

1 977,

1 972; 1 978).

h as c ontinued t o i ncrease

( Denevan

1 983;

P lazas a nd

1 981;

1 983;

G liessman e t a l.

t his v olume;

F achetti

1 983);

P ozorski a nd

f ield

s ystems i n

N ew G uinea ( Harris

1 982;

1 982;

T urner

1 978;

T he n umber o f f inds i n b oth a reas

1 982;

T urner a nd

H arrison

1 981,

S iemens

1 983;

D enevan a nd M athewson

K napp a nd

R yder

1 983;

P ozorski

O ceania, G olson

K napp a nd

D enevan,

1 983).

C oncomitant w ith t he N ew W orld w etland

S iemens

s tudies w as t he d iscovery o f a ncient p articularly i n l owland a nd h ighland

1 977),

w here, a s i n t he B asin o f

M exico,

m any o f t he a ncient s ystems a re s till e mployed

G orecki

1 983). M oreover,

( Heider

1 970;

r eviews o f t he l iterature i ndicate r ather

e xtensive r eferences t o c ontemporary w etland r aised e lsewhere i n t he E astern H emisphere

( Denevan a nd

f ield

T urner

p ractices

1 97) 4).

T hese

s tudies h ave d emonstrated a r ange o f w etland c ultivation p ractices a nd v aried m eans o f t ransforming w etlands b y f ield r aising a nd c analization. T he s urge o f i nterest i n p rehistoric w etland/raised t ure h as i nvolved r esearchers

f rom a n umber o f d isciplines,

g eographers a nd a nthropologists h ave b een t he v anguard. g eographic

' Berkeley S chool'

w ith c rop m ounding b y A merinds.

( e.g.

a lthough

I n t he A mericas

i nterests d eveloped o ut o f t he l andscape m orphology t ra-

d ition o f t he r esponded

f ield a gricul-

a nd

C arl S auer's

( 1952:45)

f ascination

A nthropologists/archaeologists h ave

t o a g rowing c ultural-ecological o rientation t o p rehistory

S anders,

P arsons,

a nd

S antley

1 979).

B oth g roups h ave m ade n ote-

w orthy c ontributions.

H owever,

t icularly

p roviding i n-depth a ssessment a nd

f ruitful

i n

i nterdisciplinary e fforts h ave b een p ar-

1

u nderstanding

o f r elict r aised a nd

P uleston T his

t ure,

f ield

1 972;

p aper

s ystems

S iemens

( e.g.

1 977;

f ield r aising i n t he

a nd t he t raditional c ultivation

v ironmental a ssociations, F inally,

a gricultural

H arrison

r aised

A mericas.

1 979;

1 981,

S iemens

1 983).

w etland a gricul-

W etlands a re d efined,

p ractices a ssociated w ith t hem d is-

T he a ttributes o f r aised

d ating.

T urner a nd

D enevan

p resents a b rief o verview o f a ncient,

f ocusing o n

c ussed.

Z ucchi a nd

f ields a re e mphasised,

c onstructional c osts,

f ields a re e valuated

i ncluding e n-

c rops a nd y ields,

a nd

i n t erms o f t heories o f

i ntensification.

W etlands T he t erm

' wetlands'

r efers t o a reas t ransitional b etween t erres-

t rial a nd a quatic s ystems w here t he w ater

t able

i s u sually a t o r n ear

t he s urface o r l and i s c overed b y s hallow w ater a nd w here:

( i)

p eriodically t he l and s upports p redominately h ydrophytes;

o r

s ubstrate i s u ndrained h ydric s oil; a nd

o r

( iii)

a t l east ( ii)

t he

t he s ubstrate i s n on-soil

i s s aturated w ith w ater o r c overed b y s hallow w ater a t s ometime

d uring t he g rowing s eason o f e ach y ear a lly,

( Cowardin e t a l.

w etlands a re c haracterised b y l ong-term,

o r s hallow b ut

p ermanent

i nundation,

1 979). G ener-

b ut s easonal,

i nundation

o r s ome c ombination t hereof.

m on t erms u sed t o d escribe w etlands a re m arsh,

s wamp,

b og,

C om-

w et s avanna,

a nd l ake s hore. W hile v arious c lassifications o f w etlands a re p ossible, e t a l.

1 979),

t he b asic d istinction

f or a ncient w etland a griculture m ay

b e b etween r iverine a nd b asin o r d epression w etlands. a re n ot s elf-enclosed, p lay c yclical t he r iver.

e xhibit d iscernible s urface w ater

a nd d is-

b ut t his a ssociation h as n ot b een c onsistently

E xamples i nclude b ackswamps a nd a ny o ther l ow-lying,

f loodplain t errain w here w ater t ables a re h igh. r eferred t o e lsewhere a s f eatures,

r etain r unoff). p ermanent,

f low,

A gricultural r esponses t end t oward a b asic d rainage f unction

d emonstrated.

e nclosed

R iverine w etlands

i nundation p atterns a ssociated w ith t he r ise a nd f all o f

b y m eans o f d itches,

l ands,

( Cowardin

B asin d epression w et-

p alastrine a nd l acustrine,

w ith p erhaps s mall

t end t o b e

s urface o utlets t o c ollect a nd

S urface w ater t ypically h as v ery l ittle

a lthough i t m ay f luctuate i n l evel.

W ater

f low a nd c an b e

t ables m ay a lso

f luctuate l argely a s a r esult o f l oss b y e vaporation a nd t hrough s ubs urface o utlets. o f l akes,

E xamples o f t his t ype o f w etland a re t he

s easonally i nundated d epressions,

A gricultural r esponses t end t oward a r aised f unction.

F inally,

s wamps, f ield,

w hich r eceive s urface w ater

f rom r ivers d uring

1 2

m arshes,

a nd b ogs.

w ater r etention

h ybrids o f t he t wo b asic w etland

s uch a s d epressions w hose w ater t ables a re l inked

p eripheries

t ypes c an b e

f ound,

t o l ocal r ivers o r

f loods.

W etland ia s eroecosystems T raditional

f armers h ave,

s ince e arly t imes,

d eveloped a w ide r ange

o f w etland a groecosystems, m any o f w hich i nvolve h igh l evels o f t echnical e laboration. c ultivation w ith ( Sturtevant

b e r ecognised p arts:

' true'

1 970).

E ven

' deep '

w ater l akes h ave b een u sed

f loating g ardens a nd e levated

f or

t rellises

F our m ajor c ategories o f a ncient a groecosystems c an

f or w etlands,

w ater r ecessional,

e ach o f w hich h as c ontemporary c ounterd rainage,

h ydrophytic,

a nd r aised

f ields.

W ater r ecessional a groecosystems a re l argely p rocedural a nd

i nclude

m inimal t echnology. T hey i nvolve t he c ultivation o f a s easonably i nund ated s urface d uring t he t ime o f y ear t hat w aters r ecede. s easonal v egetation m ust b e r emoved a s t he i ng t he d ry s eason.

b efore t he s urface i s i nundated a gain.

( Wilk

1 981)

S chwerin

a nd

s urface e xpands i n a rea d ur-

Q uickly m aturing c ultivars a re c ommonly u sed,

p ending o n t he l ength o f t he r ecessional i nclude r iver e dge

p eriod.

i n S outh A merica

H arvest t akes p lace

M odern e xamples o f t his s ystem

D enevan

( Meggers

1 984),

1 971:139-142;

C had

( Connah,

a nd

i n p arts o f A frica,

t his v olume).

T he

D enevan a nd

m arceno c ultivation i n a v ariety

o f w etlands a long t he G ulf C oast l owlands o f M exico 1 979),

d e-

( playa ) o r l evee c ultivation i n s outhern B elize

1 978:19-23;

G liessman

O nly l ight,

( Orozco-Segovia a nd

s uch a s t he s ystem a t L ake

p rocedure c an b e u sed

i n a ny t ype o f

w etland w here t here i s a s ufficient w ater-free p eriod. w ater r ecessional a groecosystems a re d ifficult t o

p rove,

P rehistoric b ut b ecause o f

t heir s implicity i t i s a ssumed t hat t heir h istory i s a ncient. D rainage a groecosystems i nvolve t echnologies w hich r emove w ater f rom t he a rea o r a s wamp.

z one o f c ultivation,

A pparently,

s uch a s t he r emoval o f w ater

c omplete o r m ajor d rainage o f b asin w etlands

a griculture w as n ot a c ommon p ractice i n p rehistory. p referred

i n s uch i nstances.

a long t he e dges o f w etlands,

f or

f ields w ere

D rainage a groecosystems t end t o o ccur e ither b asin o r r iverine, a nd

s peed w ater r emoval o n a s easonally w et-dry s urface, c onditions,

R aised

f rom

f unction t o

o r t o m aintain d ry

o r a s urface t hat o therwise w ould b e p ermanently b ut

s hallowly i nundated.

T ypically,

d igging s mall c hannels,

e nvironmental c onditions. w ith t he s oils t aken

t hese

f unctions a re a ccomplished b y

t he n umber a nd

s ize o f w hich d epends o n

T he s urfaces t o b e c ultivated m ay b e r aised

f rom t he c hannels.

C ropping

p atterns c an v ary

e normously. F ew p urely d rainage a groecosystems i n t he a ncient A mericas h ave b een d emonstrated, a nalysis.

p artly a s a r esult o f i nadequate d escription a nd

I nterpretation o f a p rimary d rainage

f unction i s u sually

b ased o n c omparison o f s urface m orphology a nd h ydrology,

w hereas

s ystematic e xcavation i s e ssential t o s ubstantiate t he o bservation. S iemens

( 1983)

b elieves t hat t he r elict

1 3

f ields i n V eracruz,

M exico,

a re

b asically d rainage

f eatures.

B loom a nd c olleagues

( 1983 ,

g ood e vidence t hat d rainage m ay h ave b een t he p rincipal f ields a djacent t o t he

R io

H ondo a t

A lbion I sland

i n

n .d.)

o ffer

f unction o f

B elize.

S ome o f

t he S outh A merican a groecosystems p robably s erved b asic d rainage f unctions, D enevan R aised

s uch a s t hose i n s avannas

1 979:37,

8 0),

a nd

( Denevan

1 966:88;

i n s egments o f L ake T iticaca

Z ucchi a nd ( Lennon

1 982).

f ields a nd d itches r unning d own n atural l evees a djacent t o

r ivers c hanneled o verflow w ater

i nto b ack s wamps,

r egion o f C olombia

B owen

( 1978:23-33)

( Parsons a nd

1 966:329).

d escribe p resent d ay d itched

a s i n t he S an D enevan a nd

J orge

S chwerin

f ields o f K arinya I ndians i n

t he V enezuelan L lanos. H ydrophytic w etland a groecosystems a re

p redicated o n t he u se o f

w ater-loving c ultivars,

a nd a s s uch,

n ot b e a m ajor c oncern.

S uch s ystems h ave t raditionally i nvolved t he

O ld W orld

s taples o f t aro

s ativa).

I n t he P acific

t aro m ounds

( e.g.

B arrau

( Colocasia e sculenta)

P arry

1 979).

a nd r ice

( Orvza

t aro i s c ommonly g rown i n w etland m ud b eds o r 1 961:21-26),

m orphologies s imilar t o r aised 1 965:26;

d rainage d uring c ultivation m ay

W et o r

s ome o f w hich h ave s urface

f ield a groecosystems

( e.g.

S erpenti

p addy r ice i s g rown i n b asin w etlands

w ith r egularly f luctuating w ater t ables a nd i n r iverine w etlands.

P addy

t echnology i n w etlands c an b e q uite s ophisticated w ith u se o f w ater r egulating d evices, l iterature

( e.g.

t he d escriptions o f w hich a re p rofuse i n t he

H anks

1 972;

H ill

1 977).

B oth t aro a nd w et r ice

c ultivation a re o f c onsiderable a ntiquity. T he

A merican

I ndian c ounterpart t o t he s ophisticated w et r ice s ys-

t em w as t he d evelopment o f e laborate r aised

f ields a nd c anals.

a groecosystems w ere d esigned t o u se s easonal a nd w ith o r w ithout d rainage o f s urface w ater

S uch

p ermanent w etlands

f rom t he z one o f c ultivation.

' Non-drainage'

s ystems w ere e nacted b y a ltering t he s patial a rrange-

m ents o f w ater

i n t he w etland.

w etland,

C anals w ere c ut u p t o 2m d eep i nto t he

a nd a p lanting p latform o f e arth w as r aised b etween t he c anals

t o h eights c ommonly e xceeding

1m a bove t he o riginal w etland f loor.

T he

e ffect w as t o r etain w aters i n t he c ropping z one b y m eans o f c anals a nd t o m inimise h igh w ater t ables i n t he H arrison

1 983).

T he r aised

f ields b y r aising t hem ( Turner a nd

f ield c anal

b oth d rainage a nd i rrigation f unctions, T he m ost n otable r aised

f ield

i nundation. e laboration,

C halco i n t he

i n u se i s t hat

B asin o f M exico.

f ields t end t o b e a ssociated w ith t he s hallow

i nundated m argins o r l akes, d epressions,

s equentially o r s imultaneously.

s ystem o f a ntiquity s till

o f t he c hinampas of X ochimilco a nd R elics o f r aised

s ystem i s c apable o f s erving

w ith s wamps a nd

s easonally i nundated

a nd w ith r iverine l ands w hich a re s ubject t o A s a r esult o f t heir e xtensive d istribution, h ydraulic m anagement,

p rehistoric r aised

f ield

a nd

s ystems i n t he

a mount o f s cholarly a ttention.

1 4

p rolonged t echnological

d emographic i mplications, A mericas h ave d rawn a l arge

W etk e lw d_raised f ield ' Raised

f ield'

i n t he A mericas

i s a g eneric t erm r efering t o

v olving t he t ransfer a nd e levation o f s oil

' any p repared l and

a bove t he n atural

t he e arth i n o rder t o i mprove c ultivating c onditions' T urner

1 974:24).

p ractice, o r t erms.

A s s uch,

p rocedure,

I n w etlands,

d itches,

c hannels,

a r aised

f ield

s urface o f

( Denevan a nd

q ualifies a s a t echnique,

d epending o n t he d efinitions a pplied t o t hese

r aised

f ields a re i nvariably a ssociated w ith

o r c anals;

t hey a re m ulti-functional b ut u sually i n-

v olve d rainage a way f rom t he r ooting z one o f t he r aised s urface. d rainage a way f rom t he

i n-

M ajor

f ield-canal c omplex m ay o r m ay n ot o ccur a nd u n-

d oubtedly i s a s ite s pecific

f unction.

U ltimately,

t he v arious

f unc-

t ions c ombine t o f acilitate t he c ultivation o f u pland o r d ryland c rops i n a n e nvironment w here a griculture w ould o therwise n ot b e p ossible. H ere w e r efer t o p re-Columbian A merica W here h ydrophytic c rops, a s r ice a nd t aro, ( a)

w ere n ot

p resent

( Sauer

1 952:45).

D istribution

T he d istribution o f t he v aried f ields

i n t he

B asin o f C olombia;

G uayas

a ltiplano o f P eru/Bolivia; B arinas i n V enezuela; P eruvian C oast; c onfirmed

a nd

n orthern B elize; a nd t he

B asin i n E cuador;

a nd

s urvey. ( 1970,

E cuador;

T iticaca B asin o n t he

t he l ower

C asma V alley o n t he

t he S abana d e B ogota o f C olombia. i n

C entral

s outhern Q uintana R oo; B asin o f M exico.

A merica: R io

T here a re s ix

B elize

C andelaria,

I n a ddition,

r adar

R iver v alley; C ampeche;

i magery s uggests

P eten,

G uatemala ( Adams

b ut t his d istribution h as y et t o b e c onfirmed b y g round

1 982). f ields i n t he A mericas t end

e rine a nd b asin w etlands;

t o b e a ssociated w ith b oth r iv-

i n n umerous c ases b asins o r d epressions a re

a ffected b y f luvial a ctivity.

T he M ojos,

e rn

t he r ivers a nd

B elize

f ields o ccur a long

a re r eached b y r iverine f loods. z ones w hich r ange

f rom s easonal

G uayas,

S an

J orge,

a nd n orth-

w ithin d epressions w hich

T he T iticaca a nd

a re l ocated o n t he m argins o f l akes

B asin o f M exico f ields

i ndependent o f m ajor r ivers,

i n

t o p ermanent i nundation.

C onstructton c s ts

C onstruction a nd m aintenance i nputs e cosystems

i n t he

A mericas a re t hought

l ess t han 0 .8 m3 o f e arth m oved 1 983b).

J orge

T he l iterature o n t he A merican f ields i s r eviewed b y D enevan

R aised

( b)

S an

s econdary s ites i nclude c oastal S urinam;

h ighland

t hat t races o f w etland s ystems e xist t hroughout 1 981),

F our m ajor

t he L lanos d e M ojos i n B olivia;

z ones o f s uch f ields

V eracruz;

f orms o f r elics o f w etland r aised

A mericas i s e xtensive a nd w ell d ocumented.

s ites e xist i n S outh A merica:

e t a l.

s uch

f or m ost o f t he w etland a grot o i ndicate h igh l abor c osts,

p er h our

( Denevan

T his o bservation s tands i n c ontrast

1 982;

T urner

t o t he r ate a nd i nput

e stimates

f or d igging r aised a nd d itched

H ighland N ew G uinea, G orecki

1 981;

a s h igh a s

1 983:39-42).

f ields a t

3 .0 m3 p er h our p er

p erson

( see

A p ossible e xplanation o f t his d iscrepancy

i s t hat d ifferent e arth m aterials a re i nvolved. e arth r emoval d ata i ndicate t hat t he w etter, t he m aterial t o b e e xcavated, t he N ew G uinea c ase,

K uk S wamp i n

U nited

s tickier,

N ation's

a nd m ore m assive

t he l ower a re t he e xcavation r ates.

t he v olcanic s oil a pparently c an b e

e xcavated w ith r elative e ase.

( 1961)

I n c ontrast,

A mericas a re c omposed o f t hick,

' cut'

I n

a nd

m any w etlands i n t he

m assive c lays t hat r equire c onsiderable

e ffort t o p enetrate a nd e xcavate.

D enevan

( 1982:190)

e stimates t hat t he t otal e arth m oved

c onstruction o f t he r aised

t he

f ields a t n ine o f t he A merican l ocations w as

a pproximately

1 ,265.4 m illion m3 , i nvolving a bout

d ays.

( 1982:191)

D enevan

f or

4 86.7 m illion l abor

u ses a n a verage w ork r ate o f 2 .6 m3 f or

e arth e xcavated p er p erson d uring a 5 h our w ork d ay,

b ut t hese

f igures

d o n ot a llow f or c onsiderable r egional v ariation. M ore p recise e stimates c an b e d erived

f rom s ite s pecific e xca-

v ations w here c onstructional c haracteristics c an b e e stablished. e xample,

t he

1 979 s tudy o f t he r aised

n orthern

B elize,

d iffering l abor 1 983b).

f ields a t P ulltrouser S wamp,

r evealed t hree c onstructional m orphologies, i nputs,

M oreover,

F or

r egardless o f t he w ork r ate u sed

e ach w ith

( Turner

a n a nalysis o f w ork r ates b y s oil o r e arth t ype a nd

t echnology s uggests a p ossible w ork-rate r ange o f f rom 1 .2 m3 t o 4 .8 m3 p er

p erson p er

3 .1 m3 r ate

6h our d ay ( Denevan's 5 h our d ay r ate c onverts t o

f or a 6 h our d ay)

( Turner

1 983b).

T o e rr c onservatively,

a w ork r ate r ange o f 2 .4 m3 t o 4 .8 m3 w as u sed, w ork r ate e stimates. s urfaces a t

B ased o n t hese r ates,

P ulltrouser

S wamp r equired

a nd 5 90,000 t otal l abor d ays

( Turner

s omewhere b etween a bout

H owever,

( 1984)

d evelop i ncrementally a nd

f ields.

s uch a s

T he

N etting

t erraces a nd c hannel-bottom w eirs,

t he a rea u nder c ultivation e xpands.

h as p roposed a s imilar

S iemens

p ossibility f or m any t ypes o f w etland

T he a nswer t o t his p roblem i s p robably s ite s pecific a nd w ill

r equire a m easure o f p recise d ating n ot p rehistory. o f t he

i s a lso i mportant.

f ields.

a nd o thers h ave d emonstrated h ow d ryland

a gricultural t echnologies, ( 1982)

t he r esulting e stimates o f

i n i nterpreting t he c onstruction o f w etland

D oolittle

1 55,000

t otal l abor c ost i s n ot t he o nly

t ime o ver w hich t he c osts w ere e xpended ( 1968),

f ield

p articularly i n t hat t hey d o n ot i nclude u pkeep

o r c ultivation a ctivities. i ssue i nvolved

1 86 h a o f r aised

1 983b).

R egardless o f t he s pecific r ates u sed, t otal l abor a re h igh,

t he

o mitting t he l ower

H owever,

s tudies a t P ulltrouser

f ields t here c ould n ot h ave

c onstruction.

p ossible

i n s tudies o f

S wamp i ndicate t hat m ost

f unctioned w ithout c omplete

S ections o f t he s ystem m ay h ave b een c onstructed o r

r ebuilt a t d ifferent t imes,

b ut i ndividual

f ields a nd

p robably t he r esult o f o ne-time l abor e fforts. A

c anals w ere

C c ) cgtivarst J un gl i gl inn.Anä_22ngl ali s la P recisely w hat c ultivars w ere u sed o n t he a nd t heir y ields m ay n ever b e

f ields i n t he A mericas

f irmly e stablished,

w ith t he e xception

c hinampas o f M exico, w hich w ere c ultivated w ith m aize a nd

o f t he

o ther c rops a t t he t ime o f S panish r etrieve p ollen,

p hytoliths,

f rom t he

f ields a re n eeded,

r esults.

F or e xample,

C onquest.

I ntensive e fforts t o

a nd o ther r emains o f c ultivars d irectly b ut t his e ffort m ay p roduce d isappointing

h undreds o f b ags o f s oil

f rom t he

P ulltrouser

f ields w ere p rocessed b y f lotation t o r etrieve b otanical r emains, b ut o nly a s mall n umber w ere f ound

( Miksicek

1 983;

T urner a nd M iksicek

1 984). V arious e xotic u ses o f t he f ields h ave b een p roposed. ( 1978:27-28)

a nd D ahlin

t he M aya a rea,

( 1979:33-34)

T he r esults

p roposed t hat s ome o f t he

b een p rimarily

' canal

f isheries,'

1 981:404,

1 983).

S outh A merican s ystems m ay h ave

a t heme w hich w as d eveloped

A merican s ystems b y T hompson

a quatic

f auna c ould h ave b een e xploited i n t he c anals o f r aised

s ystems

( for

1 971).

I ndeed,

A merica s ee

P uleston

T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat

1 977;

p urpose o f t he

S wamp.

N evertheless,

f ield

P uleston

f ield s ystems.

d emonstrate t hat t hese

f isheries w ere n ot t he

T he c onstructional m orphologies

f ields a re n ot m ere t ailings o r d redged c anal

m aterials r esulting f rom a f isheries e mphasis, c arefully p lanned s urfaces. m ains w ere n ot

P uleston a nd

a c ontemporary f ish w eir o f p alm f ronds w as f ound a cross

a c anal a t P ulltrouser p rime

( 1974).

f or t he

C entral

C entral

f or

f rom P ulltrouser d o

n ot s upport t his p ossibility ( Turner a nd H arrison ( 1973)

f ields i n

e specially i n n orthern B elize, m ay h ave b een u sed

p roduction o f c acao ( Theobroma , s p.). S chorr

B oth H ammond

h ave s uggested t hat t he

f ound

a l arge n umber o f f ish o r

i n t he P ulltrouser

t he a ssociated s ettlements e thnohistorical d ata,

A lso,

( Turner a nd

a t l east

b ut r ather t hat t hey a re

f ields,

f ishing r e-

i n t he c anals,

H arrison

1 983).

f rom M esoamerica,

o r i n

M oreover,

t he

i ndicate a n e mphasis

o n c ultivation. T he c hinampas o f M exico a t

t he t ime o f E uropean c ontact w ere

c ultivated w ith a l arge v ariety o f c rops, d ominant

( Palerm 1 973).

F riedel a nd

a lthough m aize w as

p robably

S carborough ( 1982:131) n ote t he

s ixteenth c entury a ccounts o f S panish b attles i n t he l owlands a pparently t aking p lace a cross r aised c rops,

p articularly m aize.

f ound a t f ound 1 983).

P ulltrouser

i n t he

f ields)

T he b est e vidence

S wamp i s m aize a nd,

p erhaps,

P ollen f rom c anals a nd

a lso i ndicate m aize a nd B loom e t a l.

f ields c ultivated

i n s everal

f or a f ield c ultivar y et

( by p ollen a nd a f ew m acro-remains c otton

( Wiseman

f ields a t A lbion

p ossibly c otton c ultivation

n .d.).

1 7

1 983;

I sland,

M iksicek

n orthern B elize,

( Puleston

1 977:454;

T he

S outh A merican c rop e vidence i s m ostly i nferential s ince

c rop p ollen o r c rop r emains h ave b een f ound y et i n a r aised t ext.

I n M ojos t he s taple a t

C onquest w as m anioc

( Denevan

f ew

f ield c on-

1 966:94).

A t

T iticaca p otatoes a re g rown t oday o n l azy b eds b uilt o n t op o f r elict r aised

f ields,

a long w ith q uinoa

( ChelopocUum_Pallidi ,paule)

( Cheqopodium a uinoa)

( Smith e t a l.

a nd c aMihua

1 968:360-361).

T he G uayas

f ields o f E cuador a re a ssociated w ith d welling s ites t hat c ontain l arge q uantities o f g rater-bowl s herds, m etates,

i ndicative o f m aize

B arinas l lanos,

V enezuela,

i ndicative o f m anioc,

( Denevan a nd M athewson

C ucurbita p ollen w as

o f c ultivated s quash ( Zucchi a nd D enevan r aised

f ields i n t he

( Gumilla

s weet p otatoes,

1 963:429-430).

a nd m anioc

I n t he

f ound w hich m ay b e t hat

1 979:99). A d escription o f I n t he O ld W orld

r oot c rops a re t he m ost c ommon p lants o n r aised y ams,

1 983).

1 741 m entioned c ultivation o f

O rinoco l lanos i n

b oth m aize a nd m anioc

a nd s ome

s urfaces,

( Denevan a nd T urner

t ropics,

e specially

1 974:29).

A t t his

t ime i t i s r easonable t o c onclude t hat t he a rtificially r aised

s urfaces

i n w etlands i n t he A mericas w ere p rimarily a gricultural d evoted

t o s taple c rops.

f eatures

T he s pecific s pecies m ost l ikely v aried b y

c ultural a nd e nvironmental z ones. Y ield e stimates a re a t b est s peculative b ecause m anagement p roc edures a re

p oorly u nderstood,

s oluable s alt p roblems, f requency.

s uch a s t reatment o f s oil n utrient a nd

w eeding p ractices,

N evertheless,

t he

c rop m ixes,

a nd c ultivation

f ollowing e stimates p rovide b road

p ar-

a meters w ith w hich t o e valuate s uch i ssues a s p opulation s upported a nd s urplus p ossibilities.

Y ield d ata h ave b een p resented a s a ctual e sti-

m ates o r a s y ield e stimates c onverted t o p opulation.

( 1979:373 ,

3 00 ,

3 90)

h ave u sed c ontemporary m aize y ield d ata f rom t he

M exican c hinampas t o e stimate p otential t iquity.

T he y ield

f igure u sed

f or o ne h arvest a y ear o nly.

i s

p opulations s upported i n a n-

3 ,000 k g o f m aize

D enevan

i nformation a nd d ryland y ield d ata

f or m anioc a nd

p opulation e stimates f or n ine m ajor

p er h a,

a pparently

( 1982:190-191) h as u sed t his

f ield

p otatoes t o p roduce

z ones i n t he A mericas,

m atching e ach c omplex t o o ne o f t hese c ultivars. c onverts t o

S anders e t a l.

T he m aize d ata

1 9 p eople p er h a, t he m anioc d ata t o 1 6 p ersons/ha, a nd t he

p otato d ata t o

5 .7 p ersons/ha.

T he l ow f igure

f or

p otatoes a pplied t o

t he T iticaca f ields r eflects a ltitudinal c onstraints o n p roduction. t otal

p opulation r esulting

n ine a reas i s

f rom c omplete u sage o f t he

1 ,715,400. T he r esulting p opulation d ensity p er h ectare

o f c ultivated s urface i s a bout r aised

f ield

T he

f ields i n t he

s ites i n

f ield

o r 5 40/km 2 , l ess i f l and

i s

1 3.5.

W ith a n a verage o f a bout

s urface,

t his c onverts t o

f allowed.

s omewhat b y t he l ow y ield e stimates c onstitute t he l argest o f a ll

t he

T hese

f or

f ield

o f f ields i n q uestion).

1 8

4 0% o f

5 .4 p ersons/ha

f igures a re l owered

t he T iticaca f ields, z ones

( almost

w hich

3 0% o f t he a rea

A t l east

1 86 h a o f r aised

f ield

U sing t he c hinampa y ields

S wamp.

f ield u se

f or o ne h arvest,

s upported.

I f t he

s urfaces e xist a t

f or m aize a nd

a pproximately

P ulltrouser

a ssuming c omplete

3 ,500 p ersons c ould h ave b een

f ields w ere d ouble c ropped w ith m aize a nd

s econd c rop p roduced o nly h alf a s m uch a s t he

f irst,

p opulation s upported i ncreases t o a bout 5 ,200

( Turner a nd

1 983).

E ither

f igure e xceeds t he e stimated

s ettlement d ata)

a round

t he r esulting

p opulation

P ulltrouser o f a bout

2 ,000.

i f t he

H arrison

( based o n

H ence,

a p ossible

s urplus a bove s ubsistence r equirements t ranslating t o b etween 3 ,200 p eople i s c alculated.

O f c ourse,

t he

e mployed t o c apacity a nd w ere p robably u sed b esides m aize, s ystem w as

i ncluding c otton.

f or a n umber o f c ultivars

p oint i s,

h owever,

f arming p opulation.

D ating

U nfortunately, m ost r elict r aised

f ield s ystems i n t he A mericas

h ave n ot b een s tudied i n s ufficient d etail t o p rovide l ogical i n u se

t hat t he f ield

p robably a ssociated w ith a l evel o f p roduction t hat e xceeded

t he n eeds o f t he i mmediate ( d)

T he

1 ,500-

f ields m ay n ot h ave b een

i nformation.

p recise c hrono-

T he d ata s uggest t hat t he a grotechnology c ontinued

f rom a t l east a s e arly a s

3 00 B C t o

1 550 A D ,

a nd t he c hinampas

a re s till c ultivated. T he s canty e vidence f or t he a ge o f S outh A merican r aised m ostly i ndicates a l ate i nclude: e arlier

( Kolata

1 200-1400 A D f or

1 982:25); B arinas,

A D f or t he S an P ablo

o r

a nd

p ossibly

( c.

( Smith e t a l.

6 00-1500 A D). 1 968:365),

7 00-900 A D f or S urinam V enezuela

B asin i n n orthern h ighland

E cuador

( Knapp

E duador

1 00-700 A D

( Denevan, S an

M athewson a nd W hitten,

J orge,

( Plazas a nd

C olombia

F alchetti

f ields i n t he G uayas

M athewson a nd W hitten,

a merican

1 981:59).

( 1983c)

h as e xamined

f ield s ystems.

i n d etail

3 00-200 B C i n n orthern H arrison

1 981,

v arious

1 983;

( Palerm

I ndirect d ating f ield s ystem a nd b y

( i.e.

B elize a nd

A rmillas

P arsons a nd 1 978:123); ( Denevan,

c arbon o r c ultural f ield s ystems m ay h ave

i n t he

1 971).

B asin o f M exico

F rom t hat t ime u ntil

f ield s ystems w ere i n u se.

f ields w ere l argely a bandoned a fter i n u se

t his

1 978:123),

2 005 B C f or b uried

( Parsons

t he e arliest r aised

( Turner a nd

9 00-1000 A D,

1 983);

t he c hronology o f t he M eso-

U sing d irect d ating

a ppeared b y

t inued

B asin

1 250

t his v olume).

r emains t aken f rom a f ield),

a bout

( Parsons

t he c eramic e vidence s uggests a m ore r ecent a ge

T urner

1 976);

1 979:72);

S hlemon o btained v ery e arly d ates o f 5 90 B C a nd h owever,

( Boomert D enevan

1 200-1500 A D f or

s oils u nder r aised

R ough d ates

b ut p ossibly

( Zucchi a nd

6 00-700 A D f or G uayas, v olume);

p eriod o f o rigin

100 A D f or T iticaca

f ields

T he l owland

t hat t ime b ut h ighland

f ields c on-

1 973).

( i.e. o f c anals t hought

t o b e p art o f a n a djacent

f ield a ssociation w ith s ettlement c hronologies o r 1Q

e nvironmental

i ndicators)

s uggests p ossible u se o f w etland r aised

f ields i n e arlier t imes i n M esoamerica. b een e mployed

i n t he n orthern e xtremes o f t he

3 00 B C ( Sanders e t a l. A lbion

1 979:269).

m aterial

B asin o f M exico b efore

I n t he l owlands a r iverine c anal a t

i n w hich c anals w ere c ut.

f rom w hich t he m aterial 1 983;

c olleagues

( 1983)

1 983).

( Turner

a rgue

n atural d eposition,

T he c hronological l and r aised

B loom,

P ohl,

a nd

p redate a ctual r aised

1 983d).

H owever,

B loom a nd

f ield s ystem a djacent t o t he R io H ondo

i n t he d eposits a bove a re a p roduct o f

f ield r aising.

i nformation d emonstrates t hat,

f ields i n t he A mericas w as e arly,

p redate d ryland a griculture. o ften c orrespond t o t imes a nd p roduction,

( see

p ersuasively t hat t he c anals a re a ssociated

f ound

n ot

p roblem h ere i s t o r esolve t he

f ields c ontain c ultural m aterial d ating 1 983c,

w ith a p urely d rainage-oriented a nd t hat t he c eramics

f rom t he

w hich w as l ying o n a p eat b ed a nd

T his l evel c ould

b ecause t he

1 ,500 y ears l ater

T he

f or t he d ating w as t aken

B loom e t a l.

f ield c onstruction,

c ultural

100 B C ( Puleston

w ith s ubsequent d ating o f 6 70 B C f or m aize c harcoal

f unction o f t he l evel o f t he c anal,

s ome

f ield s ystem m ay h ave

I sland h as b een d ated b y r adiocarbon t o a bout

1 977:452),

S tein

A r aised

M oreover,

w hile u se o f w et-

i t w as n ot s o e arly a s t o

t he d ates a nd g eneral l ocations

p laces w here p opulation p ressure o n a gri-

a nd h ence,

d emand w as h igh.

I ntensification W etland r aised c ultural

f ields h ave b een a f ocus o f i nterpretations o f a gri-

i ntensification a nd c hange

a t l east t wo r easons. s ive'

F irst,

i n p rehistory i n t he A mericas

f or

t hey a re t hought t o b e r elics o f ' inten-

f orms o f c ultivation a ssociated w ith h igh l evels o f p opulation.

S econd,

t hey c onstitute a h ydraulic

a ddressed

i n t erms o f v arious h ydraulic t heses o f s ocietal o rganisation

( Sanders e t a l. 1 983c).

f orm o f c ultivation a nd h ave b een

1 979:385-95;

I t i s t he

M atheny

1 978;

S iemens

1 983:99;

T urner

f irst i ssue w hich i s o f i mportance h ere.

T he m eaning o f a gricultural p roceeding w ith d iscussion.

i ntensity n eeds c larification b efore

T oo o ften i t i s u sed a s i f a s tandardised

d efinition e xists,

r esulting i n m uch c onfusion.

t o r efer

( labor,

t o i nputs

v ation, a nd o utputs

c apital,

( Turner a nd

T he t erm h as b een u sed

t echnology),

D oolittle

t hemes t end t o r elate o utput i ntensity

1 978).

f requency o f c ultiM ost

( per l abor o r l and)

f requency o f c ultivation.

A l ong-held v iew w as t hat

e verywhere t he

( output)

p roduction

' intensification'

f or

a nd

f armers

i ntensity o f l and t ended t o r emain

a t i ts m aximum l evel, g iven t he g eneral s tate o f t echnology. w as c hallenged

i n t he

1 960's

1 976;

1 976),

a lthough t he a ntecedents o f t he c hallenge a re

B arlett

m uch o lder t raditional

( e.g.

C hayanov

( Boserup

1 966).

1 965,

1 981;

L ipton

T his v iew

1 968;

S cott

T he a lternative v iew h olds t hat a mong

f armers p roduction i ntensity i s e lastic a nd r esponds t o t he

l evel o f d emand

p laced o n a griculture,

e conomic c ircumstances. r elics o f i nput

g iven t he s pecific s ocio-

F or p rehistory,

t his p roblem a sserts t hat

i ntensive a griculture c an b e

i nterpreted a s i ndicating

t hat o utput i ntensity w as h igh a nd w as d eveloped t o m eet t he h igh l evels o f p roduction i n d emand. T he c hinampas o f t he

B asin o f M exico p rovide e vidence t hat a ll

t hree m easures o f i ntensity w ere h igh M oreover,

f or t hat w etland

s ystem.

t he e mployment o f t he s ystem w as a ssociated w ith l arge

p opulations.

D ata o n o ther r elict

f ield s ystems i n t he

A mericas c an

o nly a ssociate t he d evelopment a nd u se o f s uch s ystems w ith t he r elative l evel o f p opulation o r d emand a pparently a ssociated w ith t hat u se.

T hese s tudies c onfirm t hat r elict w etland

o ccur

i n s parsely s ettled o r i solated

z ones,

f ield s ystems d id n ot

b ut w ere e mployed w here

p opulation l evels w ere h igh ( relative t o o ther a reas),

o ften w ith

d ensities o f 3 00 p er k m2 o r m ore

l ocal d emand,

( Turner

1 983c).

T hus,

o r d emand w ithin a d istance r easonably s erved b y t he b e h igh.

M oreover,

o f c ultivation, f ield s ystems 1 983:253-256).

S anders e t a l.

f orms

i nvariably p receded w etland

1 979:272-281,

T urner a nd

H arrison

T his e vidence i s g enerally i nterpreted t o m ean t hat w hen

l evels o f d emand w ere l ow a nd c ould b e s ystems,

t ended t o

s ite s pecific s tudies d emonstrate t hat o ther

u sually d ryland s ystems,

( e.g.

f ields,

p resumed t o b e e fficient

t erms o f l abor a nd l and

f ulfilled b y l ow i nput i ntensity

( i.e. h igh

p roductivity),

p roductivity m easured i n

h igh i nput

i ntensity r aised

f ields w ere n ot d ominant f orms o f c ultivation. M ovement i nto w etlands t hrough t he u se o f l arge r aised b ecause o f t he n eed S everal

f ields s ystems w as t aken l argely

f or i ncreased o utput.

q uestions h ave e merged r egarding t hese i nterpretations.

s et i nvolves t he p resumed c osts o f c onstruction o f t he m ajor f ield t ems a nd t he t hem.

p resumed

O bservations o f t he c onstruction o f w etland

r elative t o o ther f orms o f a griculture,

f ields i n h ighland ( labor)

t hey a re n ot

m ay b e h igh

p articularly h igh

T herefore, m ight i t n ot h ave b een p ossible

A merinds t o h ave c onstructed t heir t hose o bserved

i n N ew G uinea,

f or

f ield s ystems a t c osts s imilar t o

a nd h ence h ave e ngaged i n t he a ctivity

p revious t o h igh l evel o f d emand? A s d emonstrated p reviously, f ields i n t he

s ys-

i nput-output r elationships o f c ultivation o n

N ew G uinea i ndicate t hat w hile c onstruction c osts b y w orld s tandards.

O ne

r aised

A mericas w ere b uilt i n c onditions t hat i mposed m uch

h igher c onstructional c osts t han d o t hose i n N ew G uinea. A r elated

i ssue c oncerns t he c ultivation c osts a nd

t he e fficiency i n w hich p roduction i s o btained) p ared t o t heir d ryland c ounterparts.

f ields w ould h ave b een a n o ption e ntered T his i ssue 2 1

o f f ield s ystems c om-

I f t he c osts w ere h igh a nd

d uctivity c omparable t o d ryland a griculture, w ere n o l onger a vailable.

p roductivity ( or

p ro-

t hen p resumably t he

i nto o nly w hen a lternatives

i s i ntricately l inked t o c onstrue-

t ional c osts.

E ven i f t he c ost o f r aised

f ield c ultivation w as l ow a nd

p roductivity w as h igh ( compared t o d ryland s ystems), c osts'

o f i nitially c onstructing t he

h ibited t heir u se u ntil

' threshold

s ystems w ould h ave p ro-

s uch t ime t hat d emand w as s ufficiently h igh,

a nd l abor w as a vailable, a bly,

f ield

t he

t o b e a ble t o o vercome t hese c osts.

C onceiv-

i nputs f or c onstruction c ould h ave b een m ade g radually o ver t ime, ompleted, O nce c

p aralleling t he b uild-up o f d ryland s ystems.

a l ow

c ost-high p roductivity f ield s ystem c ould h ave l ed t o a l essening i n i mportance o f d ryland a griculture.

U nfortunately,

n ever k now t he c ultivation c osts a nd e fficiency,

o f a ncient r aised

p atterns o f c ropping a nd u seful,

w e w ill

p roductivity,

p robably

a nd h ence

f ields b ecause w e d o n ot k now p recise

f ield m aintenance.

C omparative d ata w ould b e

b ut i t m ust b e r emembered t hat t he v ariables w ill d iffer b y e n-

v ironment,

c ultigens,

a nd

s o o n.

T he w ork a t P ulltrouser

c ates t hat v arious p roblems w ith s oluble

s alts,

S wamp i ndi-

s oil n utrient l evels,

a s w ell a s f ield e rosion a nd d egradation m ay h ave r equired c onsiderable e ffort t o m anage c ultivation.

T he r eward

f or t his e ffort w as t he p ossi-

b ility o f c ontinuous c ultivation. A s econd q uestion i nvolves t he r eason o ther t han d emand s tructing w etland

f ields.

S iemens

( 1982 ;

1 983)

f or c on-

a mong o thers,

s uggests

t hat t he i ncipient o ccupation o f w etlands i n t he M esoamerican l owlands m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith a ttempts t o s ecure s eason w hen d ryland p roductivity w as l ow. c orrect.

E xperimentation w ith w etland

e dges o f w etlands, p roduction,

e specially a long t he ' security'

a s i s m arce%o o r r ecessional c ultivation.

t he n eed

f or a ' security '

' pressure'

A mericas i nvolved a ' threshold'

o r

t o b e u ndertaken u nless t he n eed L ogically,

r ationale

a nd

( 2)

o r d ry s eason

S uch p ossi-

f or t wo r easons:

c rop r eflects a d emand

y ond t hat o btained b y o ther c ultivation;

h igh.

T his i nterpretation m ay b e

f ields,

m ay h ave b een i nvolved w ith

b ilities d o n ot c ontradict t he ( 1)

f ood d uring t he d ry

f or

p roduction b e-

w etland

f ields i n t he

i nitial c onstruction c ost n ot l ikely

f or t he r esulting p roduction w ere

t he d emand t hesis c ould b e d isregarded

p urely s ecurity t hesis o nly i f i t c ould b e s hown:

( a)

i n

f avor o f a

t hat d ryland

p roduction h ad d eclined s o t hat l ower l evels o f o utput h ad t o b e s upplemented b y a w etland c rop,

o r

( b)

t hat w etland

e xisted a mong e xtremely l ow l evels o f d emand, b y p opulation d ensity. d emonstrate;

f ield

s ystems

p resumably a s i ndicated

T he f irst p oint i s p robably i mpossible t o

t he s econd h as n ot b een d emonstrated,

a t l east

i n t he

A mericas. A t hird t ime w hen,

q uestion i nvolves t he p resumably,

e xtensive s ystems.

p ossible e arly u se o f f ields a t a

d emand w as l ow a nd c ould h ave b een m et b y m ore

F or e xample,

d o t he

i ndicate d evelopment a s e arly a s

1 000 B C,

p opulation

i ncrease i n t he M aya a rea?

p reviously

( Turner a nd

H arrison

s ome q uestion t hat t his r aised

f ields a t A lbion

2 2

B elize,

p resumably b efore a ny m ajor

T his i ssue h as b een a ddressed

1 978:359-360; f ield

I sland,

1 983).

F irst,

s ystem a ctually d ates t o

t here i s 1 000 B C

a nd t hat

i t

i s

i ndeed

' raised,'

a s n oted

p reviously.

B elize s hows a n e arly g rowth i n s ettlement c ompared e lsewhere i n t he M aya a rea

n orthern

1 977),

w hich s uggests t hat h igh

l evels o f d emand c ould h ave b een d eveloped

i n t hat a rea p revious t o

o thers.

F inally,

t he

( Hammond

S econd,

t o e vidence f rom

p recise d evelopment o f i ntensive a griculture i s

c ontingent o n m ore v ariables t han d emand. d emonstrated

t hat a n i nteraction t akes

e nvironment t hat c an l ead i ntensity o f c ultivation e xample,

S everal

p lace b etween d emand a nd

t o d isconformities b etween d emand a nd ( Brookfield

1 972,

l evels o f d emand a re n ot h igh o n

o ff N ew G uinea,

s tudies h ave

T urner e t a l.

1 977).

F or

F rederick-Hendrick I sland,

b ut t he s wamp e nvironment

p rovides

p eople w ith l ittle

o pportunity t o c ultivate o ther t han b y c reating r aised

f ields

( Serpenti

1 965). I n s ummary,

n o d ata o r a rguments h ave b een

s erious d oubt o n t he b roader f ields i n t he t ime a nd

A mericas.

i nterpretations g iven t o r elict r aised

f orms o f c ultivation r equiring l ess i nputs

c ould n ot a dequately s ustain d emand l evels.

A p recise c orrelation i s

t o e xist b etween t he c hronologies o f v arious s ystems a nd

t heir a ssociated d emand l evels b ecause i ntervening w hich i nclude s uch t hings a s c ultivar t ype, e nvironment.

t hat c ast

T heir o ccurrence i s s uggestive t hat f or t hat

p lace a lternative

n ot e xpected

p resented

N evertheless,

f orces w ere a t p lay,

s ocial o rganisation, a nd

i t i s n oteworthy t hat a t l east i n M eso-

a merica t he d evelopment a nd u se o f m ajor w etland s ystems i n t he s eem t o

p ast

f it r elatively w ell w ith m ajor p opulation b uild-ups i n z ones

w here w etlands w ere p revalent.

M ajor w etland s ystems a ppeared

p oorly d rained s egments o f n orthern B elize a nd d uring t he 1 983c).

s ignificant i ncrease o f C lassic

I n t he

B asin o f M exico t he m ajor

i n t he

s outhern Q uintana R oo

p eriod

p opulations

( Turner

f ield s ystems i n t he s outhern

s egments a re k nown t o h ave b een i n u se a nd w ere i n t he

p rocess o f

e xpanding a t t he t ime o f t he l argest p re-European p opulation l evels, s ometime b efore

R .E.W.,

1 981

( Sanders e t a l.

1 979:186,

2 73-281).

c itf td

R eferences A dams,

1 500 A D

W .E.

B rown,

R adar m apping,

J r. a nd

T .P.

a rchaeology,

C ulbert

a nd a ncient M aya l and u se.

S cience 2 13:1457-1463. A rmillas, 1 971 B arlett, 1 976

P . G ardens o n s wamps.

1 961

1 74:653-661.

P . L abor e fficiency w ith t he m echanism o f a gricultural e volution.

J ournal B arrau,

S cience

o f A nthropological R esearch 3 2:124-40.

J . S ubsistence A griculture i n P olynesia a nd M icronesia.

H onolulu:

B ishop M useum. 2 3

B loom, J .

P .,

M .

P ohl,

B all a nd J . 1 983

B uttleman,

F .

W iseman,

A .

C ovich,

C .

M iksicek,

P rehistoric M aya w etland a griculture a nd t he a lluvial s oils

n ear B loom,

C .

S tein

S an

P .,

n .d.

M .

A ntonio, P ohl a nd

R io H ondo, J .

B elize.

N ature 3 01:417-419.

S tein

A nalysis o f s edimentation a nd a griculture a long t he

N orthern

B elize.

P rehistoric P ohl. B oomert,

R io H ondo,

I n Q uestions a nd C ontroversies a bout

L owland M aya E nvironment a nd E conomy ,

P eabody M useum,

H arvard

U niversity,

e dited b y M .

C ambridge,

i n p ress.

A .

1 976

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f ields i n

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E .

1 965

T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth.

B oserup,

A ldine,

C hicago.

E .

1 981

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P ress, B rookfield, 1 972

U niversity o f C hicago

C hicago. H .C.

I ntensification a nd d isintensification i n P acific a griculture:

a t heoretical a pproach. C hayanov, 1 966

P acific V iewpoint 1 3:30-48.

A .V. P easant

f arm o rganization.

P easant E conomy , S mith, C oe,

p p.134-144.

G uadeloupe.

I n A .V.

e dited b y D .

p p.224-269.

R .D.

C hayanov,

T horner,

I rwin,

B .

H omewood,

T he T heory o f

K erblay,

a nd

R .E.F .

I llinois.

M .E.

1 964

T he c hinampas o f M exico.

C owardin, 1 979

L .M.,

V .

C arter,

U nited S tates.

1 979

G olet a nd

T .

L aRoe

C lassification o f W etlands a nd D eepwater H abitats o f t he

L ife D ahlin,

F .C.

S cientific American 2 11:90-98.

S ervices,

O ffice o f B iological U .S.

S ervices,

D epartment o f t he

F ish a nd W ild

I nterior,

W ashington D .C.

B .H. C ropping c ash i n t he P rotoclassic:

m ent.

a c ultural

I n Maya A rchaeology and E thnohistory ,

H ammond a nd

G .R.

W illey,

P P.21-37.

i mpact s tate-

e dited b y N .

U niversity o f T exas P ress,

A ustin. D enevan, 1 962

W .M. I nforme p reliminar

s obre l a g eografia d e l os L lanos d e M ojos,

n oreste d e

B olivia.

H istörica ,

S ucre 4 7:91-113.

D enevan, 1 966

T he A boriginal C ultural G eography o f t he L lanos d e M ojos o f

P ress,

1 970

l a S ociedad G eogr eica e

W .M.

B olivia.

D enevan,

B oletfn d e

I bero-Americana N o.

4 8.

U niversity o f C alifornia

B erkeley.

W .M. A boriginal

d rained-field c ultivation

S cience 1 69:647-654. 2 1 4

i n t he

A mericas.

D enevan,

W .M.

1 982

H ydraulic a griculture

m easures,

a nd r ecent r esearch.

M emory o f D ennis E . 2 03. D enevan,

i n t he A merican t ropics:

A cademic

I n M aya S ubsistence:

P uleston,

P ress,

f orms,

e dited b y K .V.

S tudies i n

F lannery,

p p.181-

N ew Y ork.

W .M.

1 984

E cological h eterogeneity a nd h orizontal

a griculture i n t he A mazon A mkzonig . , F lorida D enevan,

P ress,

W .M.

1 983

e dited b y M .

f loodplain.

S chmink a nd

G ainesville,

i n

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a nd S outh A merica , A rchaeological D enevan,

W .M.

1 978

C .H.

F rontier E xpansion i n W ood.

U niversity o f

p ress.

a nd K . M athewson

P reliminary r esults o f t he

G uayas

I n

z onation o f

I n

D arch,

I nternational

p p.167-181.

S eries

1 89,

A ntropologica ( Caracas), W .M.

1 974

a nd

F orms,

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D oolittle, 1 984

T urner

f unctions,

W orld T ropics.

B ritish

O xford.

S chwerin

A daptive s trategies i n K arinya s ubsistence,

D enevan,

p roject,

D rained F ield A griculture i n C entral

e dited b y J .P.

R eports,

a nd K .H.

S amborondon r aised-field

V enezuelan L lanos.

5 0:3-91. I I

a nd a ssociations o f r aised

f ields i n t he O ld

J ournal o f T ropical G eography 3 9:24-33.

W .E.

A griculture c hange a s i ncremental

p rocess. A nnals o f t he

A ssociation o f American G eographers 7 4:124-137. F lannery, 1 982

K .V.

Maya S ubsistence:

A cademic F riedel, 1 982

( editor)

D .A.

P ress, a nd V .

S carborough

S ubsistence,

t rade,

M aya S ubsistence: e dited b y K .V. G liessman, 1 983

S .R.,

S tudies i n M emory o f D ennis E . P uleston.

N ew Y ork. a nd d evelopment o f t he C oastal M aya.

S tudies i n M emory o f D ennis E .

F lannery,

B .L.

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p p.131-155.

I I,

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A rchaeological

I n

R eports,

N o r oom a t t he t op:

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1 981

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I nternational

p p.91-110.

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J .

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1 977

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a nd S outh A merica , e dited b y J .P.

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I n

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a gricultural

i ntensification i n t he N ew

I n S unda a nd S ahul,

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P .P. A merican r aised

f ields a nd M elanesian d rains:

s uch a d ifference i n t heir

i nterpretation?

P aper

w hy i s t here p resented a t

t he C onference o n P rehistoric

I ntensive A griculture

T ropics.

U niversity,

A ustralian N ational

2 5

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i n t he

G orecki,

P .P.

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P rocesses.

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S cientific A merican 2 36:116-133.

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H arrison a nd B .L. P ress, H anks,

D epartment o f

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p p.23-34.

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1 972

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1 970

T he D ugum D ani: A P apuan C ulture i n t he H ighlands o f W est

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c ulture.

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N o. 4 9.

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S oil,

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a nd w ater i n t he e quatorial A ndes: a s tudy o f

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d issertation, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsinM adison. K napp ,

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1 983

R yder

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f ields i n t he Q uito A ltiplano,

E cuador.

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A griculture i n C entral a nd S outh A merica , e dited b y J .P. D arch, p p.201-220. 1 89,

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O xford.

2 6

I nternational S eries

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p ortrait o f a n A ndean c ivilization.

o f N atural H istory B ulletin 5 3:8:13-18 , L ennon,

F ield M useum

2 3-28.

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1 982

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m anagement s ystem . o f A nthropology, L ipton,

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D epartment

U niversity o f C olorado.

M .

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S tudies 4 :327-351. M atheny,

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N orthern M aya L owland w ater-control s ystems.

M aya A griculture , p p. M eggers,

1 85-210.

e dited b y P .D .

H arrison a nd

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

I n P rehispanic

B .L.

T urner

I I,

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1 971

A mazonia : M an a nd C ulture i n a C ounterfeit P aradise. A ldine,

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C . M acrofloral r emains o f t he P ulltrouser a rea:

f ields.

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A griculture,

a nd S ettlement i n N orthern B elize , e dited b y B .L.

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p p.94-104.

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A ustin.

R .M. H ill F armers o f N igeria.

t he J os P lateau . O rozco-Segovia, 1 979

s ettlements a nd

C ultural E cology o f t he K ofyar o f

U niversity o f W ashington P ress,

A .D.L. a nd S .R.

S eattle.

G liessman

T he M arceno i n f lood-prone r egions o f T abasco,

M exico.

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p resented a t t he 4 3rd I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, V ancouver. P alerm ,

A .

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O bras H idräulicas P rehispänicas e n e l S istema L acustre d el

V alle d e M exico. M gxico, P arry,

I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologfa e H istoria,

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J .T.

1 979

P re-European r ing-ditch f ortifications,

R ewa d istrict,

V iti L evu ,

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t aro g ardens i n t he

R evue P hoto-Interpretation

3 :43-50. P arsons, 1 969

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f ields i n t he R io G uayas V alley,

E cuador.

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A ntiquity 3 4:76-80. P arsons, 1 978

J .J. M ore o n P re-Columbian r aised f ields

S an J orge a nd B ajo C auca,

C olombia.

A mericanist G eographers P ublication , S tate U niversity ,

M uncie.

2 7

( Camellones)

i n t he B ajo

C onference o f L atin N o. 7 ,

p p.117-124.

B all

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J .J . a nd W .M. D enevan

1 966

A ncient r idged f ields o f t he S an J orge R iver f loodplain,

C olombia. P arsons,

T he G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343.

J .J. a nd W .A.

1 967

P re-Columbian r idged f ields. S cientific A merican 2 17:92-100.

P arsons,

J .R.,

1 982

E .

B rumfiel,

M .H .

P arsons a nd J . W ilson

P rehispanic S ettlement P atterns i n t he S outhern V alley o f

M exico:

T he C halco-Xochimilco R egion .

A nthropology, P lazas,

B owen

C . a nd A .M .

1 981

U niversity o f M ichigan,

M emoirs o f t he M useum o f N umber

1 4,

A nn A rbor.

F alchetti d e S aenz

A sentamientos P rehisphnicos e n e l B ajo R io S an J orge.

F undaciön d e I nvestigaciones A rqueolö gicas N acionales, P ozorski, 1 983

B ogota.

T . a nd S . P ozorski P re-hispanic r idged-fields o f t he C asma V alley,

P eru .

T he

G eographical R eview 7 3:407-416. P uleston, 1 977

D .E. T he a rt a nd a rchaeology o f h ydraulic a griculture i n t he M aya

L owlands. H ammond, P uleston, 1 971

I n S ocial P rocess i n M aya P rehistory , e dited b y N . p p.449-467.

D .E .

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork.

a nd 0 .S. P uleston

A n e cological a pproach t o t he o rigins o f M aya c ivilization.

A rchaeology 2 4:330-337. S anders,

W .T.,

1 979

J .R.

P arsons a nd R .S.

T he B asin o f M exico:

o f a C ivilization. S auer,

S antley ( editors)

E cological P rocesses i n t he E volution

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork.

C .O.

1 952

A gricultural O rigins a nd D ispersals.

S ociety, S chorr,

A merican G eographical

N ew Y ork.

T .S .

1 973

T he s tructure ,

p urpose ,

a nd s ocial o rganization o f P re-

C olumbian r idged-field s ystems.

P aper p resented a t t he 7 2nd

A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation,

N ew

O rleans. S cott,

J .C.

1 976

T he M ora/ E conomy o f t he P easant. Y ale U niversity P ress,

N ew

H aven. S erpenti, 1 965

L .M. C ultivators i n t he S wamps.

S ocial S tructure a nd

H orticulture i n a N ew G uinean S ociety . S iemens, 1 982

R oyal V an G orcum ,

A .H. P re-Hispanic a gricultural u se o f t he w etlands o f N orthern

B elize.

I n M aya S ubsistence:

P uleston ,

e dited b y K .V.

S tudies i n M emory o f D ennis E .

F lannery,

p p.205-225.

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork. S iemens, 1 983

A ssen.

A .H. O riented r aised

f ields i n

C entral V eracruz.

A ntiquity 4 8:85-102. 2 8

A merican

S iemens,

A .H.

1 977

( editor)

T he R io H ondo P roject: a n i nvestigation o f t he M aya o f

N orthern S iemens,

B elize.

J ournal o f B elizean A ffairs 5 .

A .H. a nd D .E.

1 972

R idged

P uleston

f ields a nd a ssociated

f eatures i n S outhern

n ew p erspectives o n t he L owland M aya.

C ampeche:

A merican A ntiquity

3 7:228-239. S mith,

C .T.,

1 968

W .M.

D enevan a nd P .

A ncient r idged

f ields i n t he r egion o f L ake T iticaca.

G eographical J ournal S turtevant, 1 970

H amilton T he

1 34:353-367.

W .C.

A griculture o n a rtificial i slands i n B urma a nd e lsewhere.

P roceedings 8 th I nternational C ongress o f A nthropological a nd E thnological S ciences ( 1968), T hompson, 1 974

J .E.S. ' Canals'

o f t he

R io C andelaria B asin,

M esoamerican A rchaeology: p p.297-302. T urner, 1 974

3 :11-13.

B .L.

C ampeche,

N ew A pproaches ,

U niversity o f T exas P ress,

M exico.

e dited b y N .

I n

H ammond,

A ustin.

I I

P rehistoric i ntensive a griculture i n t he M ayan L owlands.

S cience 1 85:118-124. T urner, 1 978

B .L.

I I

A ncient a gricultural l and u se i n t he

P re-Hispanic Maya A griculture , T urner

I I,

p p.163-183.

C entral M aya L owlands.

e dited b y P .D.

H arrison a nd

I n

B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. T urner, 1 983a

B .L.

I I

T he e xcavations o f r aised a nd c hannelized

P ulltrouser S wamp. Agriculture, T urner P ress, T urner, 1 983b

B .L.

I I a nd P .D .

1 983c

p p.30-51.

U niversity o f T exas

A ustin. i nputs

f or m ajor a grosystems o f t he a ncient

I n D rained F ield A griculture i n C entral a nd S outh e dited b y J .P.

A rchaeological B .L.

H arrison,

I I

America ,

T urner,

f ields a t

A ncient M aya H abitat ,

a nd S ettlement i n N orthern B elize, e dited b y B .L.

C onstructional

M aya.

I n P ulltrouser S wamp :

R eports,

D arch,

p p.11-26.

I nternational

B ritish

S eries

1 89,

O xford.

I I

C omparison o f a grotechnologies i n t he B asin o f M exico a nd

C entral M aya L owlands:

t he

F ormative t o t he C lassic M aya c ollapse.

H ighland-Lowland I nteraction i n M esoamerica:

I nterdisciplinary

A pproaches ,

D umbarton O aks

e dited b y A .G .

M iller,

R esearch L ibrary a nd C ollection, T urner, n .d.

B .L.

p p.13-47.

I n

W ashington D .C.

I I

I ssues r elated

A ncient M aya.

t o s ubsistence a nd e nvironment a mong t he

I n Q uestions a nd C ontroversies a bout P rehistoric

L owland M aya E nvironment a nd E conomy , e dited b y M . P eabody M useum,

H arvard

U niversity,

C ambridge,

i n

P ohl. p ress.

T urner, 1 978

B .L .

I I a nd W .E . D oolittle

T he c oncept a nd m easure o f a gricultural i ntensity.

P rofessional G eographer 3 0:297-301. T urner, 1 977

B .L.

I I ,

R .Q .

H anham a nd A .V . P ortararo

P opulation p ressure a nd a gricultural i ntensity.

A nnals

A ssociation o f A merican G eographers 6 7:384-396. T urner, 1 978

B .L .

I I a nd P .D .

H arrison

I mplications f rom a griculture f or M aya p rehistory.

H ispanic M aya A griculture , e dited b y P .D . T urner I I,

I n P re-

H arrison a nd B .L.

p p.337-373. U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. T urner, 1 981

B .L. I I a nd P .D.

H arrison

P rehistoric r aised-field a griculture i n t he M aya L owlands.

S cience 2 13:399-405. T urner, 1 983

B .L.

I I a nd P .D.

H arrison ( editors)

P ulltrouser S wamp : A ncient M aya H abitat , A griculture ,

S ettlement i n N orthern B elize.

a nd

U niversity o f T exas P ress,

A ustin. T urner, B .L . 1 984

I I a nd C .H . M iksicek

E conomic p lant s pecies a ssociated w ith p rehistoric a griculture

i n t he M aya L owlands.

E conomic B otany 3 8:179-193.

U nited N ations 1 961

E arth M oving b y M anual L abor a nd M achines.

C ommission f or A sia a nd t he F ar E ast, W est,

R .C . a nd P .

1 950 W ilk ,

E conomic

B angkok.

A rmillas

L as c hinampas d e M exico.

C uadernos A meri canos 5 0:165-182.

R .

1 981

A griculture,

K ekchi M aya .

E cology a nd D omestic O rganization a mong t he

U npublished P h.D . d issertation,

U niversity o f

A rizona, T ucson. W iseman, 1 983

F . A nalysis o f p ollen f rom t he f ields a t P ulltrouser S wamp. I n

P ulltrouser S wamp : A ncient M aya H abitat , A griculture , a nd S ettlement i n N orthern B elize , P .D . H arrison, Z ucchi, 1 979

A . a nd W .M .

p p.105-119.

e dited b y B .L. T urner I I a nd

U niversity o f T exas P ress,

A ustin.

D enevan

C ampos e levados e h istoria c ultural p rehispänica e n l os l lanos

o ccidentales d e V enezuela. M ontalban ( Caracas) 9 :565-736.

3 0

AN OTE O l i B UOYANCY A ND O THER D UBIOUS CeRACT UISTICS O F T HE " FLOATING" CUNAMPAS O F M EXICO

G ene C . W ilken

" Antiguamente e stos h uertos e ran f iotantes." ( Islas E scärcega 1 961:96)

O ne o f t he m ost c harming a nd d urable f ables o f t he N ew W orld c onc erns t he b uoyant q ualities o f t he c hinampas o f t he B asin o f M exico. T hese f ertile g arden p lots a long t he s hores o f r emnant L akes C halco a nd X ochimilco a re a m ajor s ource o f v egetables a nd

f lowers f or t he m arkets

o f M exico a nd h ave b een f or t housands o f y ears.

T hey a lso a re a s ource

o f d elight f or t ourists w ho k now t hem a s t he " Floating G ardens",

a

s uggestive n ame u sed w ith s ome j ustification s ince t he i dea t hat t hey f loated i n t he w ater n ever h as b een l aid c ompletely t o r est. W hether c hinampas e ver a ctually f loated i s h ardly a n i ssue o f m ajor c oncern.

B ut b uoyancy i s n ot t he o nly c haracteristic i n q uestion:

e xamination i t a ppears t hat d escriptions o f m any,

i f n ot m ost,

u pon

c hinampa

s tructural f eatures a re p roducts o f c asual o bservation a nd s peculation r ather t han c areful s tudy a nd a nalysis.

F urthermore, t he c ase o f

c hinampas i llustrates c ertain t ypes o f e rror t o w hich a ll s tudies o f a gricultural s ystems,

p rehistoric, h istoric, o r c ontemporary,

s eem

s usceptible. T his p aper w ill r eview h istorical a nd c ontemporary a ccounts o f b uoyancy a nd o ther c hi r lamre c haracteristics.

T he p urpose i s n ot t o

c riticise e xisting s ources b ut r ather t o e xamine t he e volution a nd p ersistence o f i deas.

N ext, v arious p hysical p rocesses w ill b e

c onsidered a gainst w hich e xisting c hinampa d escriptions a re t ested. F inally,

t he p henomenon o f e rror w ill b e b riefly d iscussed,

s pecifically i n r elation t o c hinampas b ut a lso a s i t p ertains g enerally t o t he s tudy o f a gricultural s ystems.

C hinampa d escriptions F or c enturies c hinampas h ave b een a n i mportant s ource o f f ood t he c ore a rea o f M exico ( Coe 1 950; W olf 1 962:75).

1 964;

S anders

1 957;

f or

W est a nd A rmillas

I n f act, t hey a re s o c entral t o t he e conomy o f t he

r egion t hat t hey a re i ncluded i n a l ist o f t raits u sed t o d istinguish M esoamerica a s a c ulture a rea ( Kirchoff 1 952), a nd s ome w riters •m aintain t hat c htnamPas f ormed t he e conomic f oundation o f u rban 3 1

F igure 1 : F arm a float. E arly 1 7th c entury e ngraving o f aM exican a gricultural l andscape.

F rom : A mericae n ona f p ostrema p ars. F rankfurt : T heodor d e B ry , 1 602. R eproduced i n E rnst a nd J ohanna L egner, H ow T hey S aw t he N ew W orld . N ew Y ork : T udor P ublishing C o., 1 966.

3 2

c ivilisation

i n a ncient M exico

a nd

1 950).

A rmillas

( Armillas

C onsidering t heir

i nformation o n t heir c onstruction, i s s urprisingly s ketchy. c hinamitl,

e nclosure o r

1 971;

p ast a nd

o peration,

G arcia

( de

f ence o f r eeds,

L ameiras

I cazbalceta

1 955:29-44;

W est

p resent i mportance a nd b iophysical

p rocesses

T he n ame 9 . 1 Ung lapA p ossibly f rom t he N ahuatl i ndicates l ocation i n s hallow

w ater a mong a quatic p lants b ut d oes l ittle o r o peration

P alerm

1 974:21-23;

1 899:152-153).

T he

I slas

t o s uggest p lot c onstruction E scarcega

1 961:96-97;

f ollowing i s a f air

s ynopsis o f

r ecent d escriptions: CUnampas e ssentially a re r ectangular m an-made i slands i n s wamps o r

s hallow l akes.

T o b uild a

c hing r ap , m ats o f f loating a quatic v egetation a re c ut t o s ize a nd t owed t o a c onstruction s ite w here t hey a re s tacked o n t op o f o ne a nother o r a ltern ated w ith l ayers o f m ud u ntil t he l owest l ayer r ests u pon t he l ake b ottom a nd t he t op e xtends a bove t he w ater. m ud

e xtracted

c hina r pas t o

T he s urface i s t hen c overed w ith

f rom t he l ake b ottom o r f orm a p lanting b ed.

f rom o ld

F inally,

w illow

t rees a re p lanted a round t he e dges t o a nchor t he p lot.

W hether t he w hole s tructure e ver

f loated i s

u ncertain. C hinampas a re s urface a nd s ubirrigated w ith c anal w ater t hat e asily p enetrates t he s oils.

p orous,

o rganic

S ince p lots a re d ressed r epeatedly w ith

c anal m ucks a nd o ther a mendments t hey g radually e levate a nd m ust b e s craped o ff p eriodically s o t hat p lot s urfaces d o n ot r ise a bove t he l evel o f e ffective s ubirrigation. s truction,

C ontinued c htnampa c on-

p ossibly a ccording t o a n o verall

p lan,

r esults i n e xtensive a reas o f p roximate, g eometric ally a rranged 1 971;

C oe

A rmillas

p lots s eparated b y c anals

1 964;

S antamarfa

1 912:11-13;

1 950).

S ince n o m odern w riter h as e ver o bserved c hinampa

( Sanders

( Armillas

W est a nd

1 957:74;

W est a nd

A rmillas

t he c onstruction o f a 1 950),

t he d escriptions

f rom w hich t his s ummary i s d erived a re b ased l argely u pon h istorical a ccounts a nd d eductions.

M ost o f t hese a re c hallenged

i n t his a nalysis.

B uoyancy e ld m obility J ose d e A costa's s ixteenth c entury d escription t hat

f loated a nd t hat c ould b e t owed o r

3

p oled

( 1940:533) . o f p lots

f rom p lace t o p lace o ften

i s c ited a s t he o riginal " floating g arden" 1 964:557 f n.

a ccount

( Coe

1 964;

G ibson

13):

G ardens t hat m ove o n t he w ater h ave b een b uilt b y p iling e arth o n s edges a nd r eeds i n s uch a m anner t hat t he w ater d oes n ot d estroy t hem,

a nd o n t hese

g ardens t hey p lant a nd c ultivate,

p lants g row

a nd r ipen,

a nd

a nd t hey t ow t hese g ardens

f rom o ne

p lace t o a nother. B ut

P adden

( 1967:63-64,

2 83 f n.

i dea w as f irmly e ntrenched a rrived.

2 3)

h as s hown t hat t he f loating g arden

i n M exican m ythology l ong b efore t he S panish

T his r aises t he e xcellent p ossibility t hat e ven A costa d id n ot

a ctually s ee

f loating c hinampas b ut

i nstead,

s imply r epeated a n

A merind-told t ale. I n t he e nsuing c enturies s uccessive a uthors c onfirmed, q uestioned t hat c hinampas a ctually f loated.

F or

e xample,

d enied,

o r

i n t he n ine-

t eenth c entury c hinam pa m obility w as " described" b y n o l ess a n a uthority t han a re t owed

A lexander v on H umboldt

" They ( chingmPas)

o r p ushed w ith l ong p oles w hen w ished t o b e r emoved

s ide o f t he b anks t o t he o ther", O ber

( 1966:99-100):

a nd w as b luntly d ismissed b y

F rederick

( 1883:332): T he

f amous " floating g ardens"

b eyond t he e ye, S anta A nita; X ochimilco; L ake

C halco.

t he c anal,

i f o ne

p lace,

t hey a re a t

t here o ne w ill h ear o f t hem a s a t

B ut t here a re " floating g ardens" n ear

o nly t hey d o n ot

a nd n ever w ill

f loat, n ever d id

f loat,

f loat.

S ince a ll c hinampas n ow a re i ncapable o f b eing o therwise, d efend t he

f arther o n;

t hey a re d own t he c anal a t

a t t he l atter a nd

a re a lways j ust

f loating a l ittle

i s a t t he V iga b ridge,

f ixed s olidly i n p lace a nd a ppear

c ontemporary w riters a re r eluctant t o

f loating h ypothesis.

B ut m any o f t hese s ame w riters s eem

e qually r eluctant t o r eject i t a ltogether,

a nd d escribe o r

r esidual b uoyancy a t s ome p eriod o r s tage.

E ven t he o utspoken

O ber

f rom o ne

( 1883:336) ..

r eversed h is i nitial

i mmovable. f loats, p osition

B ut w hen

f reshly m ade i t u ndoubtedly

a nd m ay e ven b y d ragged

f rom i ts o riginal

..

m aintained

t hat t hey f inally w ere a nchored

F or e xample, r eed b askets,

a nchored,

c heerfully a ccepted

c hinampas f lotantes a nd

( 1912:11)

r afts,

u ntil

f inds a r esting p lace a nd b ecomes

S antamaria c ensus!

F rederick

p osition:

t he g arden s inks d eeper a nd d eeper,

f inally p erhaps i t

i mply a

f or t he c onvenience o f t he

s ome a rgue t hat c hinampas o riginally w ere f loating o r l ayers o f a quatic

o r t hat n ew c hinampas f loat b ut

p lants t hat n ow a re

f irmly

s oon b ecome s ettled.

s toutest s keptics d escribe s tages i n c hinampa c onstruction t hat

3 1 4

E ven t he i nvolve

l ayers o f a quatic v egetation s tacked

u p " like m ats"

" anchored" w ith s takes o r t rees

( Coe

1 962:159);

P ompa

1 978;

O yarzabal

x vii;

W est a nd

O lguin

f loat a way. A rmillas

P alacios a nd

A ugelli

F or e xample,

( 1950:166)

s tationary,

1 976:235-236)

D aumas

T amargo

G ömez-

S oustelle

1 961:

a s i f w ithout t hem t he p lots w ould

a fter r eview ing o ld r eferences W est a nd p lots a re

p ains n ot t o " deny a bsolutely t he p ossibility

t hat i n s pecial c ircumstances t here w ere c ultivated c hinampas".

1 962:396;

1 977;

s eem c onvinced t hat t he g arden

y et a re a t

( colchones ) a nd

f loating

A ll o f t his s uggests a l ingering b uoyant t endency, a s ort

o f c htn upa o ntogeny r ecapitulating p hylogeny, f loating m yth.

G ibson

( 1964:320)

t hey w ere e ver l iterally

b est

t hat

p erpetuates t he

s ums u p t he s ituation:

' floating g ardens'

" whether

i s a n u nresolved

q uestion".

C hinampa s pecifications S cattered a mong t he p oetic a nd a re

p rosaic d escriptions o f c hinampas

f ragmentary b its o f q uantitative d ata b ut b etween t hese i slands o f

f act l ie l akes o f u ncertainty t hat m ust b e

f illed i n w ith a ssumptions

a nd e xtrapolations.

S urface d imensions a re t he o nly c onsistently r eported c haracteri stic o f c htnampas. a nd

T he m ost c ommon r anges a re

1 0 t o 2 00 m l ong,

a lthough S antamaria ( 1912:13)

9 00 m l ong o ccasionally a re s uggests a nd a verage s ize o f

f ound n ear

t o

T he s ources,

I xtapalapa.

1 0 m w ide

s ays t hat c hinampas S anders

( 1957:76)

1 000 m2 a t S an G regoria A tlapulco.

C hiqamPas a t M ixquic a re m uch s maller. b een s mall.

f rom 3 t o

q uoted

A ncient c hinampas a lso m ay h ave

i n A rmillas

( 1971),

s pecify p lots 2 .5

3 .5 m w ide a nd o nly 6 t o 9m l ong. ( b)

P lot h eight

A lthough c anal d epth a nd h eight o f p lot s urfaces a bove w ater a re c ritical

f actors i n s ubirrigation,

l iterature.

C oe's

( 1964)

t hey a re n ot a vailable f rom t he

c omment t hat " ideally t he s urface o f t he

g arden p lot i s n o m ore t han a f ew f eet a bove t he w ater" i mprecise t o b e h elpful.

T he a ncient w riters q uoted b y A rmillas

p ut p lot h eights a t " less t han a v ara " ( 84 c m), H umboldt's ( 1962:20)

( 1966:100)

e stimate o f " nearly a m eter".

G arcia C astaf teda's 15 c m b elow s oil

s urfaces s uggests a p ossible a verage b ut n ot a r ange. ( 1912:12)

v alue o f " 20 a 2 5 c tms .

( 1971)

w hich r einforces v on

s tatement t hat g enerally c anal l evels a re

S antamaria's

i s t oo

A lthough

s obre e l n ivel d el

a qua " s eems e ntirely t oo l ow, w e c an t entatively a ccept i t a s a m inimum p lanting b ed h eight.

3 5

( c) _ Wt r _j , „§ L ej §.

C hi umpa . c anal a nd l evel

( Garcia C astaMeda

S antamaria

1 912:13;

w idths a nd

p orous s oils

f act,

p hreatic s urfaces e ssentially a re a t t he s ame 1 962:20).

W est a nd

S everal w riters

A rmillas

1 950)

h ave n oted

f acilitate h orizontal

a vailability o f g roundwater

t o p lants

( Armillas

1 961,

1 971;

t hat n arrow p lot

i nfiltration o f w ater.

( subirrigation)

c ited a s o ne o f t he b iggest a dvantages o f c hlnampas.

B ut g roundwater

a lso s ets l imits t o r oot d evelopment.

n otes:

o f m ost w ater

w here b oth a ir a nd w ater a re a vailable".

s hows t hat

" the r oots

A lthough G rable

p lant r esponse t o m oist o r s aturated s oil c onditions

i s b y n o m eans u niform, s tacle t o r oot g rowth.

t he w ater t able s till T hus,

p resents a s erious o b-

h eights o f c hingmre p lots a bove c anal

l evels c an b e e quated w ith t otal ( d)

( 1969)

p lants a nd c ultivated c rops d evelop a bove t he p erched s oil

t able,

( 1966)

A s M ore

I n

i s o ften

p lanting b ed d epths.

S oils

C hinampa s oil c haracteristics a re e qually d ifficult t o a scertain. f ew a nalyses p resented e lsewhere 1 979)

( Garcia C astaMeda

i ndicate t hat s oils c ontain u p t o

n ot s urprising c onsidering t he p opular v egetable m aterials, 1 950).

S anders

a nimal m anures,

( 1957:50)

1 962:39 f f.;

1 7% o rganic m atter,

W ilken

w hich i s

p ractice o f d ressing p lots w ith

a nd c anal muck ( West a nd A rmillas

d escribes c hinamoa . s oils a s " almost v egetal".

B og a nd m uck s oils o ften h ave b ulk d ensities o f l ess t han o ven d ry w eight p er c m3) . h olding c apacities

A

B ut o rganic

( Buckman a nd

B rady

1 .0

( one g ram

s oils a lso h ave h igh w ater 1 969:52-54,

u nder c ultivation a re n ever " oven d ry".

T hus,

3 62-366)

a nd s oils

a d ensity o f 1 .0 w ill

s erve a s a c onvenient a nd c onservative e stimate.

M atching d escriptions a nd s pecifications ( a)

P lot w eight

T hese a re s canty d ata i ndeed w ith w hich t o c alculate c haracteristics.

B ut

p erhaps t hey a re e nough t o

o f c hlnampa c onstruction a nd o peration. w ould h ave

f ewer

f lotation

p ermit s ome r ough t ests

A ssuming t hat s mall c hinampas

( and n avigation!)

p roblems t han l arge o nes,

w e m ay c hoose s ome c onvenient c ombination o f d imensions, 8m o r a bout

2 5 m2 , a lthough

p lot s urface.

T his

s uch a s 3m b y

I s uspect t hat s uch a t iny p lot i s a t

t he l ower e nd o f t he s ize r ange. s oil m antle w ould w eigh

p hysical

A t o ne g ram/cm 3 t he m inimum 2 0 c m

2 00 k g/m 2 , o r 5 m etric t ons

f or t he w hole

i s t he m inimum w eight t hat m ust s ail a bout o n a

h ull o f r eeds o r b e s upported b y l ayers o f w ater l ilies i f t he c hinampas a re t o f loat.

3 6

( b)

A c luatic P lants

T here a re a ccounts o f a quatic h orses a nd c ows

p lants s upporting d ogs, m en,

( Penfound a nd E arle

1 948;

W est a nd

s uggests t hat t hese m ats h ave g reat b uoyancy. g ives t he i mpression t hat c ottages,

A rmillas

w hich

( 1966:99)

f armers'

a s d oes A .P. M audslay i n h is t ranslation o f T he D iscovery a nd

C pnauest o f M exico

( Diaz d el

C astillo

1 965:198).

P robably t hese r ep-

r esent a ttempts t o r econcile t he i dea o f b uoyancy w ith t he s mall s helters o ften a re b uilt u pon t he

p lots.

c hinampas,

o n t he

f amous

f act t hat

H ouse l ots w ith

s ymbols a ppear i nterspersed w ith r ectangular s trips, 1 971)

1 950)

V on H umboldt

f loating c hinamPas s upported

a nd e ven

I ndian

p resumably

" Piano e n P eel M aguey" ( Coe

1 964;

S anders

w hich a gain c ould b e a c onfusing j uxtaposition i f o ne b elieved

t hat Olinampas

f loated.

B ut t hese i mpressive

b y c onsiderable e xpanses o f p lants. o ther h and,

p oint l oads a re d isplaced

C hinampa p lanting s urfaces,

o n t he

e xtend r ight o ut t o t he b ordering c anals w ith n o m argin o f

s upporting b ase

( Coe

1 964). W est a nd A rmillas

( 1950)

s tate t hat m ats o f

c esped a re c ut " to t he r equired s ize, a ccording t o t he d imensions o f t he p lanned c hinampa,

f requently 5 o r

1 0 m w ide a nd u p t o

1 00 m l ong".

I h ave b een u nable t o l ocate b uoyancy d ata f or m ats o f N Ympheg s pp. o r T vPha s pp., c onstruction.

t wo a quatic

p lants c ommonly a ssociated w ith c hinamPa

T he i ntroduced w ater h yacinth,

r eportedly u sed

E ichornia c rassipes„

i n ahing lana c onstruction a nd m ulching,

i s n oted

a lso

f or

f loating p ower a nd w ill s erve a s a n e xample.

P enfound a nd E arle

f ind m aximum l oading c apacity f or

( 1.5 m2 ) m ats o f w ater

h yacinth i s

1 6 s q f eet

9l bs/sq f oot ( 44 k g/m 2 ) .

d ata e lsewhere i n t he r eport s uggest t hese

f igures,

i ts

( 1948)

M at t hickness i s n ot g iven b ut 1 8 t o 2 4"

( 46 t o 6 1

c m).

B ased o n

i t w ould r equire a r aft o f t he b uoyant E .crassipes,

2 t o

3m t hick t o s upport t he p ostulated w eight o f t he 2 0 c m d eep p lanting s urface.

T he

p ossibility t hat s uch c umbersome s tructures c ould b e t owed

f rom p lace t o p lace s eems r emote. B erra

( 1864;

e nough w ater v essels. ( 1971)

q uoted

i n S anders

F urthermore,

1 957:40)

s oundings b y O rozco y

i ndicate t hat t here i s n ot

i n m any p arts o f t he l akes t o

f loat s uch d eep-draft

T he p rehistoric w ater d epths a nd c hanges r eviewed b y A rmillas

d o n othing t o c hange t his c onclusion.

( c ) C anoes A lternatives t o r afts o f a quatic p lants a re e qually p roblematical. N o m atter w hat t ype o f c raft i s e mployed,

i nevitable w eight,

d isplacement r elationships s et l imits t o t he

p ossibilities.

s ize,

a nd

F or e xample

p unt- o r b arge-type v essels h ave b etter w eight-to-draft c haracteristics t han h yacinth m ats b ut p unts c apable o f c arrying 5 m etric t ons o f s oil w ould b e s izable c raft

i ndeed.

M odern c hinampa c anoas v ary i n s ize

3 7

f rom

8 0 t o

1 45 c m w ide b y 5 t o 6m l ong.

T he s maller c raft n ormally a re

l oaded w ith n o m ore t han 3 00 t o 4 00 k g w hile t he l arger h old u p t o a T he h uge t rajines ,

t on.

m entioned b y W est a nd

( 1950),

c anoas l arge e nough t o s upport

p robably h ave g reater c apacities b ut t he w eights i nvolved

A rmillas

i n p lot s urfaces o r e ven s eedbeds w ould b e

e normous a nd u nwieldy c raft a nd c ould

p ass o nly t hrough t he l arger

c hinamp la c anals.

C anoas a re

T hey a lso w ould r epresent a c urious u se o f c apital.

e xpensive a nd l ast o nly a f ew y ears b efore t hey b ecome w aterlogged. T hus,

d epreciation i s h igh a nd c osts a re j ustified o nly b y h igh-return

t ransporation u se. u sed t o h old

e conomically b y S maller

O ne w onders i f s uch e xpensive t ools w ould e ver b e

p lanting s urfaces t hat c ould b e s upported m ore f ixed b ases.

p lanting b eds w ould r equire s maller v essels.

i f p lot d epth w ere r educed t o c ould h old b eds u p t o

( 100 k g/m 2 ) c anoas n ow i n u se

1 0 c m

1 0 m2 . T his i s t oo s mall

a nd t oo s hallow f or m ost m ature c rops, d uration s eedbeds

T hus,

f or a p roduction p lot,

b ut i t i s a dequate

f or s hort-

( almdcigas ), o r w hat i s p erhaps m ore l ikely, f or

t ransporting r oot c ubes c hinampas.

F or e xample,

( chapines )

f rom f ixed-plot

s eedbeds t o o ther

t he s uggestion t hat t he " floating g ardens"

w ere s eedbeds i n t ransit

( Armillas

1 971)

i n r eality

a t l east h as n autical a nd

p erhaps e ven e conomic c redibility. ( d)

A dvantage o f m obility

F inally,

a q uestion c oncerning a dvantages o f m obile p lots m erits

c onsideration.

A s c omplex a groecosystems c hinampas a re m any t hings:

t hey a re l and r eclamation s chemes t o l and s hortage o r c onstraints ( Palerm

( Sanders

1 955).

o perations?

W ould

p opulation 1 968),

( Coe

1 964;

S chilling

1 938), r esponses

p ressure w ithin p articular e nvironmental

a nd

i ntensive f ood-producing s ystems

p ortability e nhance a ny o f t hese s ubsystem

A ctually, m obility c omes a t c onsiderable c ost.

S tructurally,

b uoyant c hinampas w ould b e c omplicated.

t ake u p a s m uch s pace a s t hose t hat s tand s till,

P lots t hat m ove

o r e ven m ore s ince

w aterways w ould h ave t o b e w ide e nough t o a ccommodate t hem. c ertainly,

p ropelling a m ulti-ton

A nd

f arm t o m arket w ould r equire

i nfinitely m ore t ime a nd e ffort t han m oving o nly t he h arvest b y f ast c anoe. o r

It imed a s mall e mpty c anoa p oled b y o ne m an a t 5 0 m /minute

3k g/hour. S anders ( 1971) r eports t hat a c anoe c arrying a t on o f

m aize c ould b e p oled

f rom T lahuac

t o M exico C ity i n s ix h ours.

U nder

c ertain c ircumstances t here m ight b e a dvantages i n t ransferring s eedlings f rom p lot t o p lot b ut t he p urpose o f m oving e ntire c hinampas r emains o bscure e ven i f t he

f ormidable s tructural,

p ropulsion p roblems w ere s olved.

3 8

d isplacement,

a nd

( e)

PUnts A s s tructural c omponents

T he a rgument t hat c hinamPas a re s upported o r d ressed w ith s ized m ats o f v egetation P enfound a nd p er a cre

( 1948)

1 962:159)

a lso m ust b e q uestioned.

r eport a t otal w et w eight o f 1 23 t o

1 84 t ons

( 28 t o 4 1 k g/m 2 ) f or m ats o f e ight-year o ld E .crassipes.

m at c ut t o t o

E arle

( Coe

p lot-

f it e ven a s mall,

1 ,025 k g.

T owing a nd

A

2 5 m2 p lot w ould h ave a m ass o f s ome 7 00

p ositioning s uch m ats w ould p ose a d ifficult

c hallenge f or m en w orking i n n arrow c anoes a nd w ithout a nimal a ssistance. F urthermore,

t he s ystem w ould w ork o nly o n t he o uter o r l ake e dges

o f a c hinampa d istrict o r a long l arge c anals.

M ost c hinampas a re

n estled d eep w ithin m azes o r g rids o f w aterways t hat a re c onsiderably n arrower t han t he p lots t hey b order.

I t w ould b e i mpossible t o

f loat a

p lot-sized m at o f a quatic v egetation t o c hinampa s ites o ther t han t hose a djacent t o o pen w ater o r m ajor c anals. U sing m ats o f v egetation i n c hinampa c onstruction p oses a dditional p roblems. W ith t heir c ellular

s tructure a quatic

p lants w ould b e e asily

c ompressed b y t he c onsiderable w eight o f o verlying s oil l ayers. F urthermore, a nd

E arle

t he p lants s oon d ie

1 948).

p rovides,

i n

C oe's

( 1964)

w ords,

" a b uilt-in c ompost

f or e ach p lot b ut t he b enefits o f c ompost b elow t he w ater l evel

a nd t hus b elow t he r oot z one a re n ot i mmediately a pparent. a lthough c omplete d ecomposition i s e stimated t o o ccur y ears

( Penfound

S everal w riters m ention t his d ecomposition a s a n

a dvantage s ince i t h eap"

i f d eprived o f l ight a nd a ir

( Santamarfa

1 912:13; W est a nd

A rmillas

1 950),

F urthermore,

i n f our t o s ix

t he p rocess m ust

b egin m uch s ooner a nd c ould n ot t ake p lace w ithout n oticeable s ettling. A dditional m aterial a dded t o k eep p lot s urfaces a bove w ater w ould o nly a dd t o t he w eight a nd

f urther c ompress t he v egetable b ases.

t his s uggests t hat m ats o f a quatic l ayers o f muck, ( f )

p lants,

N one o f

e ven i f a lternated w ith

c ould p rovide a s tructural b ase

f or a f arm.

S ubirrigation c onsiderations

M y e valuations o f p revailing c hinampa c onstruction t heories h ave b een b ased u pon a m inimum p lot d epth o f 2 0 c m, t oo s hallow.

w hich g enerally i s m uch

C hlnampas a re a f orm o f s ubirrigation i n w hich c ultivated

s oils a re m oistened

f rom t he w ater t able b ut t he w ater

f urnish m oisture d irectly.

I nstead,

d evelop r oots a bove t he w ater w ater a nd a ir a re a vailable m oisture l evel

m ost

t able d oes n ot

p lants a nd c ultivated c rops

t able i n t he c apillary f ringe w here b oth

( More

1 969;

T olman

i tself i s n ot n ecessarily h armful

1 937:148). t o

A h igh

p lant g röwth b ut

a eration i n w aterlogged s oils i s d eficient a nd d eeper r oots w ill n ot d evelop o r

i f a lready g rown,

w ill d ie

3 9

( Weaver

1 926:63-64;

W esseling e t

a l.

1 957).

T hus,

i t i s n ot e nough t hat eina me s urfaces b e a bove

g roundwater l evels, t hey m ust b e f ar e nough a bove s o t hat u pward c apillary m ovement w ill n ot s aturate t he r oot z ones. T otal h eight a nd r ate o f c apillary r ise v aries p rimarily w ith s oil t exture. M aximum r ise r anges f rom p erhaps 2 5 c m i n c oarse s ands t o a s m uch a s 2 .5 o r 3m i n f ine-grained m aterials. t o

Ar ange o f 4 0

1 20 c m p robably w ould c over m ost a gricultural s oils u nder

c ultivation.

R ates o f r ise v ary s imilarly:

c apillary w ater i n

c oarse s ands a pproaches m aximum h eight r elatively q uickly w hereas i n f ine c lays a nd s ilts i t m ay t ake m ore t han a y ear ( Bear K alisvaart

1 958:17-18;

T olman

1 937:148 f f.).

1 955:77;

A lthough d ata a re s cant,

c hinamra s oils a ppear t o h ave r elatively h igh c apillary c onductivity ( Garcia C astafeda c haracteristics, w aterlogging.

1 962;

W ilken

1 979).

R egardless o f t heir e xact

p lanting s urfaces o nly 2 0 c m d eep w ould r isk s erious

I n a ddition, w ithout c areful c ontrol s ubirrigated s oils

c an b ecome s aline

( Fox e t a l.

1 956).

B ased u pon h ydrologic c onsider-

a tions a nd p ersonal o bservations i n c hinamre a reas, p lots a re i n t he o rder o f 8 0 t o

I s uspect t hat m ost

1 20 c m a bove c anal l evels.

N or w ould s hallow p lanting b ed d epths a llow f or w ater t able f luctuations. A s w ater l evels c hange, s ubirrigation s ystems m ust b e c apable o f a djusting p lot s urface-water t able r elationships t o m aintain f avorable m oisture c ontent i n c rop r oot z ones. T hey m ust a lso b alance w ater w ithdrawn f rom t he c apillary f ringe b y p lant r oots a nd e vaporation w ith u pward c apillary r ise.

H ence, s ubirrigation s ystems

m ust b e a djustable t o c rop r ooting d epths, e vapotranspiration r ates, a nd s oil c haracteristics ( FAO 1 967:430-431). I n s andy s oils c apillary f ringes a re n ot h igh a nd s oil m oisture c ontent v aries a ppreciably w ith e very c hange i n w ater l evel.

C layey

s oils h ave h igher c apillary f ringes a nd s oil m oisture c ontent v aries l ess.

F or s ubirrigation i n s andy s oils g roundwater t ables s hould b e

c ontrolled w ithin

1 0 c m.

C layey s oils a llow s omewhat m ore l atitude b ut

s till r equire c ontrol w ithin 3 0 c m ( FAO 1 967). f all s omewhere w ithin t his r ange

C hinampa s oils p robably

( Garcia C astaf teda

1 962; W ilken

1 979).

I n c onventional s ubirrigation s ystems s uch f ine a djustments a re m ade b y a rtificially a dding o r s ubtracting w ater u nderground ( Criddle a nd K alisvaart

1 967:905-921).

I n c hinamre a griculture, h owever,

f armers

h ave l ittle c ontrol o ver l ake o r c anal l evels, a nd p lot s urface g roundw ater r elationships a re r egulated, ( Armillas

1 961).

i f a t a ll,

b y a djusting p lot h eights

O ne a dvantage o f f loating c hinamoas w ould b e t hat

h eights o f p lot s urfaces a bove c anal l evels w ould r emain c onstant b ut f looding a fter h eavy r ains, r eported a s e arly a s t he s ixteenth c entury, r einforces t he a rgument t hat p lots a re f ixed ( West a nd A rmillas

1 4 0

1 950).

H erein l ies a c onundrum.

D istances

f rom p lot s urfaces t o w ater

l evels a re c ritical a nd m ust b e c arefully r egulated t o a chieve o ptimum s ubirrigation a nd a void r oot z one s aturation.

Y et c hinamue f armers h ave

a ccess o nly t o t he c umbersome p rocedure o f p lot h eight a djustment w hich i s s o a rduous a nd t ime c onsuming t hat i t i s u nsuitable t emporary c hanges.

f or o ffsetting

c hinamperoe' s trategy i s t o r educe r isk: t hey

T he

e valuate p lot h eights s ufficiently t o g uard a gainst r oot z one s aturation a nd s alinization u nder e xpected w ater l evels a nd f luctuations,

a nd c ompensate

s urface s prinkling A rmillas ( g)

1 950;

( Armillas

W ilken

f or

S anders

1 957:78-80;

W est a nd

1 977).

B ordering t rees

F inally,

a q uestion m ust b e r aised r egarding t he r ole o f t rees t hat

t ypically l ine c hina me b orders. D landiana?) i ng"

p artial l oss o f s ubirrigation w ith

1 961;

a nd o ther

t he p lots

T all w illows

( Salix a cumilata;

S . Lbon-

p hreatophytes c ommonly a re d escribed a s " anchor-

i n p lace,

e voking t he i mage o f t ree r oots g rowing d own

t hrough t he c hinampas a nd i nto t he l ake b ottom ( Coe

1 962:159,

1 964).

P hreatophytes o ften a re c onsidered a s p lants t hat o btain m oisture d irectly f rom t he w ater t able B ut M einzer t erm,

( 1923:55,

( Burgy e t a l.

1 942:260-261),

1 967;

R obinson

w ho c laims t o h ave

r epeatedly q ualifies t his d efinition o f p hreatophytes a nd a sks:

" do g roundwater

p lants d evelop r oot s ystems i n t he c apillary f ringe,

d o t hey s end t heir r oots i nto t he z one o f s aturation"? 1 4).

T he w eight o f o pinion s eems t o f avor t he

t rees h ave s pecial o xygen e xchange s ystems, p ermit g rowth u nderwater b ut m ost s uffer i nstead

f rom t he c apillary

K ramer

1 949:143;

f ringe

( Meinzer

o r

1 927:

f irst a lternative.

s uch a s a erial r oots,

S ome t hat

f rom t he l ow o xygen a nd h igh

c arbon d ioxide l evels f ound i n s aturated s oils, 1 968;

1 958:10).

p roposed t he

( Kalisvaart

v an't W oudt a nd H agan

a nd t ake t heir m oisture

1 958:17-18;

J aworski

1 957).

Ih ave b een u nable t o o btain d ata o n r ooting h abits o f c hlnampa S alix s pecifically b ut r oots o f o ther p hreatophytic t rees a ppear l imited b y t he w ater t able. r oots o f .. . a a nd

E lmendort

P opultu s s pp.

( 1955), a nd

( 1963)

( Alnus

F letcher i ncluding

" reach i nto t he c apillary f ringe o verlying

I n T laxcala,

M exico,

I h ave o bserved t he d ense r oots

f irm ijolia) g rowing b ack u nder c hinampa-like f ields i n b ordering c anals.

I n s o d oing t he r oots

p lot e dges a nd a ffect t he w ater r egime i n t he

n ot " anchor"

t o b e

f ound o nly a f ew

m ention t hat r oots o f p hreatophytes,

S alix s pp.,

a bove t he w ater l evel s tabilize

G ary

1 x pen i_ am tra . g rowing b elow g roundwater l evel.

t he w ater t able". o f a lders

F or e xample,

t he p lot.

w ith c anal s urfaces,

f ield b ut d o

W ith w ater t ables b eneath c hinampa p lots l evel

i t s eems d oubtful t hat e ven w ater-loving S alix

s ends a bundant r oots d eep i nto s aturated

1 4 1

s oils.

A lternative e Qr tetr u ctio r k B ut t hey

i f c hinampas , a re n ot l aminates o f p lant r afts a nd m ud h ow a re

f ormed?

I h ave e lsewhere d escribed a s ystem

l ike p lots t hat s eems a m ore l ikely p rocedure

f or b uilding c hinampa-

( Wilken

a re c onstructed s imply b y e xtending d rainage c anals s wamps o r m aterial

i s

f rom c anals c ontains p lant r emains,

f or " green m anure", I n

b ut a quatic

f act,

a nd p lants o ccasionally

p lants h ave n o s tructural r ole

t here s imply i s n ot e nough m aterial

f rom e ither t he n arrow b ordering c anals o r a quatic v egetation

t o a ppreciably r aise p lot s urfaces.

C hinamPas a re c reated m ostly b y

e xcavating c anals a nd o nly s lightly b y a ugmenting

p lot h eights.

B ordering t rees s tabilize b anks b ut d o n ot " anchor" l ake b ottom.

W est a nd A rmillas

t o c onstruct chk r iagmal a t

( 1950)

I xtapalapa,

I ztacalco, a nd i n t he T oluca f orm.

2 38)

o n

I t a lso f its

P alerm's

c hinampas l aguna a dentro ( within l akes) a nd

t ierra a dentro ( within l and), r eviewed b y A rmillas s tructural o r

I w ould a rgue t hat,

t his i s t he m ost l ogical m ethod a nd o ne t hat b est f its

k nown p hysical c haracteristics o f Ahlnam m ia . 2 2,

t he p lots t o t he

d escribe a s imilar t echnique u sed

V alley b ut a pparently c onsider i t a m inor t he c ontrary, ( 1973:19,

E xcavated

p iled o nto s paces b etween c anals t o f orm n ew p lot s urfaces.

i n p lot c onstruction. a vailable

N ew p lots

( zanjas ) o ut i nto

s hallow l akes o r b ack i nto l ow-lying s hores.

M ud d redged a re u sed

1 969).

( 1971)

a nd o ther d escriptions,

s uch a s t hose

t hat d o n ot i nclude a quatic

p lants a s

f lotational c omponents.

S ocio-political o rganization A erial

p hotographs a nd m aps r eveal s triking r egularities i n

c hi umpa o rientation.

I n f act,

p lots a nd c anals d epicted o n o ld m aps o f

t he A ztec c apital o f T enochtitlän c ity b locks a nd

s treet g rids.

( Calnek

1 973)

a re e asily m istaken f or

G eometric r egularity t ogether w ith l arge

h ydrologic w orks s uch a s t he

C anal d e V iga w hich f ormerly c onnected

X ochimilco w ith M exico C ity,

a nd t he d ikes o f L ake T excoco w hich

r eportedly s hielded t he c htnamoa d istricts f rom b rackish w ater 1 973:67-74)

( Palerm

s uggest t o s ome t hat c hinampa p lanning a nd c onstruction

w ere u nder s ome o verall a uthority. H owever t he p otentialities o f r ational m ust n ot b e i gnored.

p rocesses a nd s mall g roups

C onstruction o f i ndividual c hinampa p lots s hould

r equire o nly a f ew l aborers

( Sanders

1 957:77).

P lot d imensions a re

d ictated b y c ultivation a nd d rainage c onsiderations.

G eometric

a lignment o f p lots a nd c anals c ould a s e asily p roceed a dvantages

f or d rainage a nd c anoe n avigation a s

f rom p erceived

f rom a m aster

p lan.

E ven m ajor c anals a nd d ams c onceivably c ould h ave b een b uilt b y v illage w ork p arties c oordinated t o c entral

d irection.

f or t hat

p urpose b ut n ot n ecessarily s ubject

A s S anders a nd 1 4 2

P rice

( 1968:177)

p oint o ut:

A gricultural

s ystems m ay,

e conomic r ole

t herefore,

p lay a n

( essentially a p ermissive r ole,

i s t hat o f p roductivity)

o r a s ocial r ole

t hat

( in t hat

c ooperation o n a s upracommunity s cale i s r equired) i n t he e volution o f c ivilization.

C il inamum a nd

t errace c ultivation i nvolve o nly t he e conomic r ole; n either n ormally r equires l arge c ooperative u ndertakings

f or s uccess.

C onclusions T he o riginal w ater,

a nd

p urpose o f t his p aper w as t o i ntroduce a f ew s oil,

p lant r elationships t o s erve a s c hecks o n

d escriptions o f c hinampas b ut i n t he p rocess,

p ast a nd

t hat c hinampa s tudies w ere e xceptionally v ulnerable t o e rror, f urthermore,

t hat t his v ulnerability m ight b e s hared b y a ll

a gricultural

s ystems o f p rehistoric o r h istoric o rigin

T here a ppear t o b e t hree m ajor ( i)

S mall d ata b ase.

m ore t han

b asic m aterials

O f t hese,

( ii) c hinampa .s

f or d etails o f c hina t ua . c on-

S uch a s mall

T hus,

a lthough t here

t here a re o nly a f ew o riginal

d ata b ase g reatly i ncreases t he

f or r epetitive e rrors.

P rehistoric d evelopment:

c ontemporary o peration.

s till a re u nder c ultivation ' ,

s truction,

1 936).

o nly a h alf-dozen o r s o p rovided t he

i s a s izable b ody o f c hing : i a lpg l iterature, p ossibilities

( Jastrow

D uring t he l iterature r eview f or t his p aper

f rom w hich t he r est a re d erived.

o r b asic s ources.

a nd

s ources o f e rror:

1 00 s eparate w orks w ere c hecked

s truction a nd o peration.

p resent

t he i mpression e merged

A lthough

t hey n o l onger a re u nder c on-

a t l east n ot i n t raditional a reas b y t raditional m ethods.

I t

s eems d oubtful t hat e ven t he c hinamperos w ho n ow f arm t hem k now h ow t hey w ere c reated,

I f a ny c hinamoas w ere b uilt i n h istoric

a pparently e scaped e ye-witness r ecords. w riters a re

T he r esult i s t hat c ontemporary

f orced t o r ely u pon a ccounts o f u ncertain a ge a nd o rigin t o

d escribe a s till-functioning

f arming s ystem !

T he s ituation h as s ingular a spects.

C hinampas a re l iving f ossils,

a pparently o perating i n m uch t he s ame m anner a s t hey d id t imes.

t imes t hey

Y et t he s ocieties t hat d eveloped

o thers. W e a re l eft w ith t he q uestion: a re t he f unctions s imilar?

i n p rehistoric

t hem h ave b een r eplaced b y a lthough c hinam i ce f orms s urvive,

A rchaeologists,

w ho u sually a re

f orced t o

s peculate a bout t he u ses o f s tructures l ong s ince i n r uins m ust b e f rustrated

t o d iscover t hat s till-operating a rtifacts a re n o less

e nigmatic. ( iii)

N ar t r _ p _w_dg _t gj a § .t .

i nclude p hysical,

b iological,

A s a n a gricultural s ystem c hinampas a nd s ocial I i

n

f actors.

Y et t hey h ave e njoyed

f ew i f a ny t ruly m ultidisciplinary r esearch e fforts, c ommunication b etween d isciplines.

T he

f ew a gronomic a nd h ydrologic

s tudies a re g enerally d eficient i n s ocial c ontent. h ave b een m ore a ctive b ut

o r e ven m uch S ocial s cientists

f or t he m ost p art h ave s crupulously a voided

t echnical d ata i n t heir r eports. T his i s u nfortunate s ince t here i s m uch t o b e g ained b y t empering a nalyses o f o ne

f ield w ith d ata

f rom a nother.

T he p rocedure i s n ot

p rohibited b y t he p rehistoric n ature o f t he s ystem.

S oil, w ater,

a nd

p lant r elationships a re r elatively i ndependent o f c ulture o r t ime. S ince c hina was a re s till o perating, c an b e e xamined.

e ven s ocial a nd e conomic

f actors

A b roader r ange o f i nformation w ould r educe e rrors o f

i nterpretation a nd

s et l imits t o s peculation.

T hese s ources o f e rror a re n ot u nique t o t he c hXnampas o f M exico b ut a re c ommon t o s tudies o f a ll a gricultural

s ystems.

p rehistoric a nd e ven h istoric

T here i s h ardly a n e xample,

w ith t he p ossible

e xception o f s hifting c ultivation, w here f ield r eports a re a bundant a nd l aboratory r esearch h as

p roduced m ore t han r udimentary a nalyses.

m ost a ncient s ystems s till o perate, o pportunities a bound

f or

S ince

e ven i f o nly i n r emnant f orm,

s tudies o f s ystem o peration.

F inally, a ll

a gricultural s ystems a re c omplexes o f b iophysical, e cological, a nd s ocial

f actors.

T he s ubject w ill e scape a ny s tudy t hat

f ails t o m atch

t his c omplexity w ith b readth o f p erspective. W ere s tudies o f a ncient a griculture t o r emain p urely i n t he a rchaeological o r h istorical r ealms p erhaps s uch p rofessional p arochialism w ould b e o f l ittle m ore t han a cademic c oncern b ut i ncreasingly p roposals a re m ade f or c ontemporary a pplication o f t raditional t echnology.

F or

e xample,

i t a lready h as b een s uggested t hat

c hinampa a griculture b e e xpanded i n t he C olln

1 961:71-82)

a nd t ransferred

B asin o f M exico

t o o ther r egions

( Bercerril

( G5mez-Pompa

I f c hinamPas a nd o ther a ncient s ystems h ave a p lace i n t he m erit t he f ull

s pectrum o f r esearch a fforded

1 978).

f uture,

t hey

t o o ther m odern a gricul-

t ural m ethods. B ut i f t hese t echnologies a re t o b e s alvaged, w here t he t raditional w orld p ressure.

A s C oe

( 1964)

w e m ust h urry.

E very-

i s u nder h eavy d emographic a nd e conomic

c autions w ith r espect t o t he c hinampas,

w e m ust

s eize t he r esearch o pportunities i mmediately o r l ose t hem f orever.

R eferences c ited A rmillas, 1 961

P . L and

U se i n P re-Columbian A merica.

i n Arid R egions , A rid

Z one

e dited b y L .D.

R esearch,

P aris.

S tamp,

I n A H istory o f L and U se V ol.

1 7:255-276.

U NESCO

A rmillas, 1 971 B ear,

P . G ardens i n S wamps.

S cience 1 74:653-661.

F .E.

1 955

S oils i n R elation t o C rop G rowth.

B ercerril C olin, 1 961

R einhold,

N ew Y ork.

A .

P royecto P reliminar d e l a P lanificaci6n d e l a C uenca d el V alle

d e M e 'xico

( Pt.

3 ).

I ngenierfa H idräulica e n M gx ico ,

1 5(3):71-

8 2. B uckman,

H .O. a nd N .C.

1 969

T he N ature a nd P roperties o f S oils ( Seventh e d.).

M acmillan, B urgy,

B rady

R .H.,

1 967

N ew Y ork.

J .E.

F letcher a nd A .L.

W atershed M anagement.

S harp

I n I rrigation o f A gricultural L ands ,

e dited b y R obert M . H agen e t a l., o f A gronomy, C alnek,

M adison.

T he L ocalization o f t he S ixteenth C entury M ap C alled t he

M aguey P lan.

A merican A ntiquity 3 8(2):190-195.

M .D.

1 962 C oe,

A merican S ociety

E .E.

1 973 C oe,

p p.1089-1104.

M exico.

F rederick A .

P raeger, N ew Y ork.

M .D.

1 964

T he C hinampas o f M exico.

C riddle,

W .D. a nd

1 967

C .

K alisvaart

S ubirrigation S ystems.

e dited b y R .M .

S cientific A merican 2 11:90-98. I n I rrigation o f A gricultural L ands ,

H agen e t a l.,

p p.905-921.

A merican S ociety o f

A gronomy, M adison. D aumas,

M .

1 962

H istoire G eneral d es T echniques ( Vol.

U niversitaires d e d e A costa, 1 940

P aris.

H istoria N atural y M oral d e l as I ndias.

d e L ameinas,

B .B .

T erminolo ga A grohidräulica P rehispänica N ahua.

H istoria

1 3 ,

D iaz d el C astillo,

1 955

B .

N oonday P ress

H .C. a nd H .B .

( Farrar,

S traus a nd G iroux),

N ew Y ork.

E lmendorf

P hreatophytes - A S erious P roblem i n t he W est.

o f A griculture, W ashington, 1 967

C olecciön C ientffica

M exico.

T he Y earbook o f A griculture , F ood a nd

I nstituto

T he D iscovery a nd C onquest o f M exico , t ranslated b y A .P.

M audslay. F letcher,

F ondo d e C ultura

M exico.

N acional d e A ntropologfa e H istoria,

1 965

P resses

J .

E conomica, 1 974

F rance,

1 ).

A griculture O rganization

1 955,

p p.423-429.

I n W ater :

U .S .

D epartment

D .C. ( FAO)

I nternational S ource-Book o n I rrigation a nd D rainage o f A rid

L ands i n R elation t o S alinity a nd A lkalinity . R ome. 1 4 5

F AO/UNESCO,

F ox,

R .L.,

1 956

J .T .

P helan a nd W .D .

C riddle

D esign o f S ubirrigation S ystems.

A gricultural E ngineering

3 4(2):103-107. G arcia C astaMeda, 1 962

C .F .

E studio A grolögico e n l a Z ona X ochimilco-Chalco ,

C uenca d el V alle d e M gx i -co . H idräulicos,

d e l a

S ecretaria d e R ecursos

C omisf On H idrologia d e l a C uenca d el V alle d e

M gxico. G ary ,

H .L.

1 963

R oot D istribution i n F ive-Stamen T amarisk ,

A rrow W eed. G ibson ,

S eep-Willow , a nd

F orest S cience 9 (3):311-314.

C .

1 964

T he A ztecs u nder S panish R ule.

S tanford, G omez-Pompa, 1 978

S tanford U niversity P ress,

C alifornia.

A .

A n O ld A nswer t o t he F uture.

M azingira 5 .

P ergamon P ress,

O xford. G rable,

A .R.

1 966

S oil A eration a nd P lant G rowth.

1 8),

p p.57-106.

I slas E scgrcega, 1 961

A cademic P ress,

A dvances i n A gronomy ( Vol.

N ew Y ork.

L .

D iccionario R ural d e M exico.

E ditorial

C omoval,

S .A .,

M exico. J astrow ,

J .

1 936

( editor)

T he S tory o f H uman E rror .

J aworski, 1 968

D . A ppleton-Century, N ew Y ork.

J . E vapotranspiration o f P lants a nd F luctuations o f t he G round-

w ater T able. J une 1 966 , N o.

W ater i n t he U nsaturated Z one, V ol.

8 3:730-739.

H ydrology, K alisvaart, 1 958

I n P roceedings o f t he W ageningen S ymposium 1 9-25 2 ,

P ublication

I nternational A ssociation o f S cientific

T he N etherlands.

C .

S ubirrigation f or t he Z uiderzee P olders ( Publication N o.

I nternational

2 ).

I nstitute f or L and R eclamation a nd I mprovement,

W egeningen. K irchoff , 1 962

P . M esoamerica: I ts G eographic L imits, E thnic C omposition, a nd

C ultural C haracteristics. S ol T ax, K ramer, 1 949 M einzer, 1 923

p p.17-30.

1 927

T he F ree P ress,

G lencoe,

I llinois.

P .J. P lant a nd S oil W ater R elationships.

M cGraw-Hill, N ew Y ork.

0 .E. O utline o f G roundwater H ydrology.

W ashington, M einzer,

I n H eritage o f C onquest , e dited b y

U .S. G eological S urvey ,

D .C., W ater S upply P aper 4 94.

0 .E. P lants a s I ndicators o f G roundwater. U .S. G eological S urvey,

W ashington,

D .C., W ater S upply P aper 5 77. 1 4 6

M einzer,

O .E.

H ydrology .

1 942 M ore,

N ew Y ork.

R .J.

1 969

I n W ater ,

W ater a nd C rops.

H ydrology ,

G eomorphology ,

b y R ichard J . O ber,

M cGraw-Hill,

C horley,

E arth ,

a nd M an :

A S ynthesis o f

a nd S ocio-Economic G eography , e dited

p p.197-208.

M ethuen,

L ondon.

F .A.

T ravels i n M exico a nd L ife A mong t he M exicans.

1 883

P erry,

D enver. O lguin P alacios, 1 977

C . a nd

F .

O yarzabal T amargo

C onsideraciones s obre R iego y D renaje A gricola e n l a

P rehistoria d e M 4Xico.

I n A groecosistemas d e M exico:

C ontribuciones a l a E nsehanza , A gr5cola , O rozco y B erra,

p p.21-29.

I nvestigaciön ,

y D ivulgaciön

E scuela N acional d e M exico,

C hapingo.

M .

M emoria p ara l a C arta H idrogräfica d el V alle d e M exico.

1 864

M exico. P adden,

R .C.

T he H ummingbird a nd t he H awk .

1 967

C olumbus, P alerm ,

O hio S tate U niversity P ress,

O hio.

A .

1 955

L a B ase A gricola d e l a C ivilizaciön U rbana e n M esoamerica.

I n

L as C ivitizaciones A ntiques d el V iejo M ündo y d e A m6rica , p p.29-44. W ashington, P alerm,

U nion P anamericana,

E studios

M onogräficos

1 ,

D .C.

A .

1 973

O bras H idräulicas P rehispänicas e n l a S istema L acustre d el

V alle d e M exico .

I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologiä e H istoria

( SEP-INAH), M 4xico. P enfound, 1 948

W .T. a nd T .T.

E arle

T he B iology o f t he W ater H yacinth.

E cological M onographs

1 8(4):447-472. R obinson, 1 958

T .W.

P hreatophytes.

U .S. G eological S urvey, W ashington,

W ater S upply P aper S anders, 1 957

D .C.,

1 423.

W .T.

T ierra y A gua ( Soil a nd W ater ):

A S tudy o f t he E cological

F actors i n t he D evelopment o f M eso-American C ivilization. U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment o f A nthropology,

H arvard U niversity. S anders, 1 968

W .T. H ydraulic A griculture,

E conomic S ymbiosis, a nd t he E volution I n A nthropological A rchaeology i n

o f S tates i n C entral M exico.

t he A mericas. W ashington, S anders, 1 971

T he A nthropological S ociety o f W ashington,

D .C.,

p p.88-107.

W .T. S ettlement P atterns i n C entral A merica. 4 7

I n H andbook o f

M iddle A merican I ndians 1 0:3-44.

U niversity o f T exas P ress,

A ustin. S anders, 1 968

W .T. a nd B .J.

P rice

M esoamerica:

T he E volution o f a C ivilization.

H ouse,

R andom

N ew Y ork.

S antamaria, M . 1 912

L as C hinampas d el D istrito F ederal.

l a S ecretaria d e S chilling, 1 938

F oment°,

I mprenta y F btotipia d e

M gxico.

E .

D ie

" Schwimmenden erten" v on X ochimilco.

G eographischen I nstitutes d er U niversität K iel, S oustelle, 1 961

1 937

3 .

N ew Y ork.

C .L. G round W ater.

M cGraw-Hill,

B .D. a nd R .M.

N ew Y ork a nd L ondon.

H agan

C rop R esponses a t E xcessively H igh M oisture L evels.

D rainage o f A gricultural L ands , 5 78.

e dited b y J .N .

L uthin,

I n p p.514-

A merican S ociety o f A gronomy, M adison.

v on H umbolt, 1 966

H eft

D aily L ife o f t he A ztecs o n t he E ve o f t he S panish C onquest.

v an't W oudt, 1 957

B and I X,

J .

M acmillan, T olman,

S chriften d es

A .

P olitical E ssay o n t he K ingdom o f N ew S pain.

A NS P ress,

N ew

Y ork. W eaver, 1 926

J .E. R oot D evelopment o f F ield C rops.

W esseling, 1 957

J ,

W .R. v an W ijk,

M .

F ireman,

M cGraw-Hill,

L and D rainage i n R elation t o S oils a nd C rops.

i n A gricultural L ands ,

N ew Y ork.

B .D. v an't W oudt, a nd R .M .

e dited b y J .N .

L uthin,

H agan

I n D raingage

p p.461-513.

A merican S ociety o f A gronomy, M adison. W est,

R .C. a nd P .

1 950

L as C hinampas d e I v ixico:

F lotantes". W est,

A rmillas P oesfa y R ealidad d e l os " Jardines

C uadernos A mericanos 5 0:165-182.

R .C. a nd J . A ugelli

1 976

M iddle A merica ,

P rentice-Hall, W ilken, 1 969

1 977

E nglewood

C liffs,

N ew J ersey.

G .C . D rained-Field A griculture:

T laxcala, W ilken,

I ts L and a nd P eoples ( Second e d.).

M exico.

A n I ntensive

F arming S ystem i n

G eographical R eview 5 9(2):215-241.

G .C. M anual I rrigation i n M iddle A merica.

Agricultural W ater

M anagement 1 :155-165. W ilken, 1 979

G .C. M ucks ,

M ucking ,

a nd S oils o f t he C hinampas o f M exico.

p resented a t t he X LIII I nternational V ancouver, W olf ,

P aper

C ongress o f A mericanists,

B .C.

E .

1 962

S ons o f t he S haking E arth.

C hicago.

U niversity o f C hicago P ress,

J effrey R .

T his

P arsons,

M ary H .

P arsons,

p aper a ttempts t o u se

V irginia P opper a nd M ary T aft

p reliminary a nalyses o f n ew

a rchaeological d ata t o p rovide i nsights i nto t he d evelopment o f p rehispanic c hinampa a griculture ( Figure

1 ).

O ur

f ieldwork,

i n t he s outhern V alley o f M exico

u ndertaken i n

1 981,

i s p art o f a r esearch

p roject w hich a ddresses t he g eneral q uestion o f t he r ole o f c hinamPa a griculture i n p rovisioning t he l arge, o f M exico d uring t he l ast ( Table

1 ).

I n e ssence,

d ense

p opulation o f t he V alley

s ix o r s even c enturies o f t he p rehispanic e ra

t his i s a s tudy o f t he u rbanization p rocess f rom

t he p erspective o f f ood

s upply.

b y d iscussions o f c omparable

O ur w ork h as b een s timulated,

f ood

i n p art,

s upply p roblems f aced b y o ther

p reindustrial u rban c ommunities i n s uch p laces a s e arly m odern E urope ( Tilly

1 975)

a nd t raditional

C hina

( Kallgren

1 982).

I n o ur c ase,

u rban c enter i n q uestion i s T enochtitlän, a m etropolis o f 2 00,000 i nhabitants w hich, c enturies,

d uring t he

( Calnek

1 972,

l arge c oncentration o f n on-food q uantities o f b asic

f ifteenth a nd e arly s ixteenth

f ood

1 975;

S anders e t a l.

p roducers r equired

s taples.

C halco-Xochimilco,

1 5-30

1 979).

T his

t remendous

I t h as l ong b een a pparent t hat a

s ignificant p roportion o f t his w as o btained a bout

1 50,000-

s tood a t t he a pex o f t he A ztec s ocio-political h ierarchy i n

t he V alley o f M exico

o f L ake

t he

f rom t he c hinampa d istrict

a n s outheast o f T enochtitlän,

w here

1 0,000 h a o f s wamp w ere t ransformed i nto h ighly p roductive

a gricultural l and b y m eans o f l arge s cale d rainage.

O ur l ong t erm

o bjective i s t o u nderstand t he r elationship b etween g rowth a t T enochtitlan a nd t he d evelopment o f c hinampa a griculture. D ocumentary s ources

( e.g.

o bservations

( e.g.

S antamaria

a nd

1 950;

S anders

A rmillas

o f L ake

G ibson 1 912;

1 957)

1 964)

a nd e thnographic

N uttall

1 925;

S chilling

i ndicate t hat t he

1 939;

W est

f ormerly s wampy b ed

C halco-Xochimilco h as b een t he p rincipal c hinampa z one w ithin

t he V alley o f M exico t hroughout t he h istoric

p eriod w hen c hinampa

a griculture w as a m ajor s ource o f f oodstuffs

f or t he u rban p opulation

o f M exico C ity. p rior t o t he

A rchaeological a nd e thnohistorical r esearch c arried o ut

1 970s i ndicated t hat c hinampa c ultivation w as d eveloped

a nd e xtensively u tilized 1 971;

C alnek

1 972).

I n

i n p rehispanic t imes

p articular,

A rmillas '

( e.g.

C oe

1 964;

A rmillas

s urveys s howed t hat

c hinampa c ultivation w as p racticed o n a f ar l arger s cale d uring l ate p rehispanic t imes t han d uring t he h istoric

p eriod.

a rchaeological s urface s urveys i n

1 972 s uggested e ven m ore

c learly t hat t he d evelopment a nd

1 969 a nd

S ystematic

e xpansion o f c hinamre a griculture w as

a k ey d imension o f u rbanization a t A ztec 4 9

T enochtitlan d uring t he l ast

UMPANGO ,. . \ . „ i L AKE ZUMPANGO 4% „. . .

. .

F igure 1 : T he V alley o f M exico , w ith t he C halco-Xochimilco R egion o utlined . 5 0

t wo p rehispanic c enturies e t a l.

( Parsons

1 976;

1 982a). W hile t hese g eneral

S anders e t a l.

1 979;

P arsons

p atterns h ave b een c learly

d elineated, m any i mportant s pecific q uestions a bout c hronology a nd o rganization h ave r emained u nanswered.

I n

1 981,

w e u ndertook a p ilot

p rogram o f t est e xcavations d esigned t o p rovide a t l east p artial a nswers t o s ome o f t hese q uestions.

C hipa p ipa a griculture i n h istoric t imes C ht umQK c ultivation i n t he s outhern V alley o f M exico i s b asically a l abor i ntensive m ethod b y m eans o f w hich r endered h ighly p roductive.

p oorly-drained l and

T hroughout t he h istoric

l abor i nput h as b een j ustified b y t he h igh d emand p roduce i n t he n earby M exico C ity.

i s

p eriod t his h igh

f or a gricultural

I n b uilding c hinampas,

p lanting

s urfaces a re l aboriously c reated b y l ifting m asses o f s oil a nd a quatic v egetation a nd c onsolidating t hem a t a l evel t able s o t hat p roper s eed g ermination a nd e xtraordinary s ecurity a nd

p lant g rowth c an o ccur.

i s a p roduct o f t he f acility

f ertility a nd h umidity c an b e m aintained.

T he c hinamp la t echnique t ypically p roduces a l ong, f ield g enerally r anging b etween 2 -4 i n w ide a nd s ome a re

f ar l arger,

n arrow r idged

2 0-40 i n l ong,

a lthough

s urrounded o n a t l east t hree s ides b y d itches

w hich a re n avigable b y c anoe.

S oil

f ertility i n t he c hinampas c an b e

c ontinuously r enewed b y m eans o f s cooping u p o nto t he t he

T he

p roductivity o f c hinampa a griculture,

g enerally i n e xcess o f 3m t o f m aize p .a., w ith w hich s oil

f ar e nough a bove w ater

f ield s urfaces

f ine m ud s ediments a nd a quatic v egetation t hat a ccumulate n aturally

i n t he w aterways s urrounding e ach f ield A rmillas

1 950;

s upplemented,

W ilken

1 979).

T his n atural

o ver r estricted a reas,

s ome i ndication t hat i n l ate

( Santamarfa

1 912;

W est a nd

f ertilizer c an b e r eadily

b y h ousehold r efuse,

a nd t here i s

p rehispanic t imes l arge q uantities o f b at

d ung a nd h uman e xcrement w ere s ystematically a pplied t o t he ( Sanders

1 957;

H arvey

m aintenance o f s oil

1 976).

H owever,

a nd r eplacing t hem w ith n ew s oils 1 831:389-90).

s alt-charged

s oil

f rom s urfaces,

f rom a djacent c anals o r l ake b ottom

P eriodic s oil r emoval i s a pparently a lso

n ecessary t o p revent t he w here t here i s i nadequate A rmillas

i t a ppears t hat l ong-term

f ertility c ommonly r equires t he o nerous t ask o f

p eriodically r emoving m asses o f o ld, ( Alzate

f ields

f ield

s urface

f rom b uilding u p t o a l evel

p enetration o f m oisture

f rom b elow ( West a nd

1 950).

I n h istoric t imes,

c ontinuous l ong t erm p roductivity h as a lso b een

a chieved t hrough b oth multiple c ropping a nd c rop r otation w hereby s oil n utrients d epleted b y o ne c ultigen a re

p artly r esupplied b y a nother

( Sanders

f or s eed g ermination a nd

1 957).

S oil h umidity s uitable

g rowth c an b e m aintained t hroughout t he y ear a s a r esult o f t he 5 1

p lant

c ontinuous

p roximity o f t he w ater t able a nd t he e ase w ith w hich

s tanding w ater i n a djacent d itches c an b e s cooped s urface.

u p o nto t he f ield

W ith a dequate t echnology a nd c entralized a dministration,

w ater

t able c an b e m aintained a t a f airly c onstant l evel d espite m arked s easonal v ariation i n r ainfall. r ainfall

T he

f act,

t hat m uch o f t he h igh

i n t he r ugged v olcanic p iedmont s outh o f L ake C halco-

X ochimilco a ppears o n t he l akebed

i n t he f orm o f p ermanent s prings

r ather t han s easonal s urface r unoff, g reatly f acilitates t he p roblem o f f lood c ontrol

( Pef tafiel

S ince s oil

1 884).

f ertility a nd p roper h umidity c an b e s o e ffectively a nd

c ontinuously m aintained,

i t b ecomes

p ossible

f or c hinamPa c ultivation

t o c ircumvent t o s ome d egree t he s evere r estrictions p laced u pon p reindustrial a griculture

i n t he c entral M exican h ighlands b y s easonal

r ainfall,

a nd s carcity o f a nimal m anure.

s easonal

f rost,

C hinamp

f ields c an b e c ultivated c ontinuously o ver l ong p eriods o f t ime a t h igh l evels o f p roductivity. W hen t ransplanting t echniques a re u sed, i t p ossible t o o btain t wo h arvests o f m aize a nnually f rom t he s ame ( Alzate

1 831:392).

W hen s pecial

p recautions a re t aken, m ore

t olerant c rops c an b e g rown i n s pring a nd

f all m onths

T he c osts i n h uman l abor, h ydraulic t echnological a dministrative c omplexity a re,

o f c ourse,

i s

f ield

f rost

( Alzate

1 831).

s ophistication,

a nd

c orrespondingly h igh.

T ow&rds a t rial m odel o f C hinampa d evelopment A s w e d esigned o ur s ettlement d ata P arsons e t a l

1 981

( Armillas

1 982a)

e xcavations,

1 971;

P arsons

w e

f elt t hat r egional

1 976;

S anders e t a l.

1 979;

s upported t he a rgument t hat t he i mplementation o f

c hinampa c ultivation o n a ny s ignificant s cale w as c losely l inked

t o t he

h igh p opulation d ensity a nd l akebed o rientation o f t he

P ostclassic

p eriod

p ossible t hat

T able

( Table 1 :

1 ;

F igures 2 ,

3 ).

W hile

i t r emains q uite

P opulation i n t he C halco-Xoct itnilco . Region. A dapted

P eriod

f rom P arsons e t a l.

1 982a:265.

P opulation

A pproximate a bsolute d ate

E arly C lassic

5 820

A D

4 00

L ate

C lassic

5 545

A D

7 00

E arly T oltec

1 3,550

A D

9 00

L ate

T oltec

1 0,120

A D

100

E arly A ztec

5 0,190

A D

1 300

L ate

7 9,020

A D

1 500

A ztec

5 2

F igure 2 : T he C halco-Xochimilco R egion ,Early A ztec S ettlement .

o

I x tapa luca

'b , C u lhuacan

A C u it lahuac

+

A

Z.

.

•

• X och lm i lco

.Ae

.

4 .

4. • \

0.

0

•

• „ A. * *. • •;

0

'' ' ,0

A •

L ARGE L OCAL C ENTER L OCAL C ENTER

A

V ILLAGE/HAMLET

•

SMALL HAMLET

*

* *

A

4

AA

.

Ä %

.

•

•A%

AAA 0 . A A AA. • •• + • AA A

1 I *

.

A

•

I SOLATED NON -H ILLTOP C EREMON IAL-C IV IC P REC INCT

+

L OW -LY ING SMALL S ITE W ITH PROBABLE P UBL IC ARCH ITECTURE

•

ÄÄ

•

• .•

• •

•

F igure 3 : L ate A ztec S ettlement .

T ia lmana lco

.

-A• •

A

L IM IT O FC HALCO -XOCH IM ILCO S URVEY AREA

5 3

• •

A e a )

••ii

• +

( i )

5 KM

•

•

• ; i o t e l‚ . 1 -+

• .

• •

A .

LAKESHORE —

A•

C ha lco

M ixqu ic

• A yo tzmgo

A

0

A

ox

4

A t i s? • ••• ..• •••• ; A

•e

0

A

I

• •• •

••

•

A

•—

.

A •

• 0 Amecameca

• .++•

• •

•

e )

s ome

f orm o f c hinampa a griculture e xisted d uring

t imes,

F ormative a nd

C lassic

s ettlement d istribution c learly s uggests t hat i t w as n ot u ntil

t he E arly T oltec

p eriod t hat t he t echnique w as u sed

s ignificant w ay i n t he C halco-Xochimilco r egion.

P rior t o t hat t ime

m ost o ccupation w as o riented t oward h igher g round, l akebed

z one.

I t i s d ifficult t o a rgue

i n a ny r eally w ell i nland

f rom t he

f or a ny w idespread d evelopment

o f c hinampa a griculture u ntil t he b eginning o f t he A ztec p eriod b ecause t here w ere s o c omparatively f ew p eople r esiding i n t he l akebedl akeshore z one d uring e arlier p eriods. E ven

f or t he

E arly A ztec

p eriod

( c.

150-1350 A D),

s ettlement

p attern s tudies s uggest t hat m ost c hinampa c ultivation c ontinued t o b e c onfined t o e astern L ake C halco.

N ot u ntil t he l arge p opulation

e xpansion a nd i ntensified u rbanization o f L ate A ztec t imes 1 520 A D )

i s t here a ny c lear

i ndication

f or p urposes o f

T here a re L ate A ztec r esidential s ites

d istributed w idely t hroughout t he l akebed,

a nd

s ome o f t hese s ites a re

d efinitely a ssociated w ith a ncient c hinampa f ields 1 971;

P arsons

1 976;

1 350-

f rom s ettlement p attern d ata

t hat t he g reater p art o f t he l akebed w as d rained c hinampa c ultivation.

( c.

P arsons e t a l.

( Figure

3 )

( Armillas

1 982a).

A lthough t here i s a c lose c orrelation b etween i ncreasing p opulation d ensity a nd c htnamma a griculture i n o ur s tudy a rea, w e a re a ware o f t he i mperfections i n o ur a bility t o p erceive c ausal r elationships. W hile w e c an p oint t o a n u ndeniable c orrelation b etween p opulation g rowth a nd t he e xpansion o f g anam m c ultivation,

i t r emains m uch m ore d ifficult

t o s pecify t he u ndoubtedly c omplex c ause a nd e ffect i nterplay. e xample, A ztec

t here i s g ood r eason t o s uspect t hat

p eriod

d emands,

i s c losely r elated

o f t he

p opulation g rowth o f t he

t o t he p olicies,

s uch a s t ributary

T enochtitlan a dministrators w ho w ere p robably q uite

s ignificant i n e ncouraging, i n

F or

f amily s ize a nd

r equiring,

i mmigration

o r o therwise p roducing e xpansion

i n a n a rea o f e xceptionally l abor

i ntensive a gricultural p roduction.

T he d istinctly l imited A ztec-period

p opulation o f m any s ections o f t he p iedmont e ast o f L ake

C halco

s uggests t hat l and s hortage w as n ot a m ajor p roblem a t t hat t ime ( Figure

3 ).

P aradoxically,

h uman l abor m ay h ave b een i n s horter s upply

t han l and d uring t his e ra o f h igh p opulation.

A lso r emaining t o b e

e xplored i s t he w hole c omplex m atter o f h ow m uch t he g reat

p roductivity

o f l arge s cale c hinampa a griculture m ay h ave c ontributed t o p opulation g rowth a nd u rbanization.

S imilarly,

u nderstand v ery m uch a bout t he r ole o f c limatic

w e

f urther

s till d o n ot y et

f luctuation,

o r c hange,

i n t he i mplementation a nd e xpansion o f p rehispanic c hinampa c ultivation. ( 1971),

S everal w riters,

h ave s uggested,

b e l inked

s uch a s P alerm

( 1960)

a nd

A rmillas

t hat t he b eginnings o f c hlnampa a griculture m ay

t o l owered w ater t able d uring c omparatively d ry e ras.

5 1 4

Q uite a part

einamTe

f rom t he e nvironmental a nd d emographic i mplications o f

a griculture a nd t he c hronology o f i ts d evelopment i s t he

m atter o f t he o rganizational a t v arious

f ramework w ithin w hich i t w as c arried o ut

p oints i n t he p rehispanic

e arlier p aper w hich c oncluded,

p ast.

T his w as c onsidered

f ollowing t he l ead o f A rmillas

i n a n

( 1971),

t hat t here w as a m ajor c hange i n t he o rganization o f c hinamme a griculture b y t he L ate A ztec A ztec p eriod,

p eriod

( Parsons

1 976).

D uring t he E arly

s ettlement c onfiguration s uggested t hat a utonomous,

c ommunity-level s wamp d rainage a nd c hinampa c ultivation a round n atural i slands a nd a t

s ome l akeshore l ocalities w as t he d ominant

l akebed a griculture.

H owever,

s ettlement p attern, m arked

b y t he L ate A ztec

p attern o f

p eriod, a c hange i n

p rincipally b y t he a ppearance o f m ore t han

1 00 s mall s ites d istributed w idely o ver t he e ntire l akebed, g reat e xpansion o f l akebed c t anampa ,s,

t he

i mply a s ignificant c hange i n

t heir r ole w ithin t he e xpanding A ztec s tate. h ypothesis a s

a nd

I n

1 976,

w e s ummarized o ur

f ollows:

I n A ztec I II t imes

( 15th c entury),

e xpansion o f t he A ztec T enochtitlan, t he m ain

w ith t he

s tate a nd t he a scendancy o f

l arge-scale d rainage p rojects w ithin

C halco-Xochimilco l akebed w ere p lanned a nd

u ndertaken. M ost o f t he o lder c hinampas w ere i ncorporated i nto t he l arge d rainage a nd w aterc ontrol s ystem a ssociated w ith t he l arge s cale c hinampa a griculture o f t he

1 5th a nd

1 6th c enturies.

T he s tate's p urpose i n u ndertaking a nd m aintaining l arge-scale c hinampa c ultivation w as t o p rovide

f or

t he s ubsistence r equirements o f a l arge n umber o f n on-food

p roducers a t T enochtitlan.

p rehispanic c entury, i ntimately t ied

D uring t he l ast

c hinampa c ultivation w as

i nto t he l arge w ater-control s ystem

c onstructed, m aintained, a nd m anaged b y t he A ztec s tate ..

( whose p rincipal

f ocus w as a t T enochtitlan)

T his m eant a n i ncreased m easure o f d ependence

u pon T enochtitlan L ake

f or o lder c hinampa c ommunities i n

C halco-Xochimilco.

S uch d ependence m ay h ave

b een a n i mportant e lement i n t he n ew l evel o f p olitical d ominance a chieved b y T enochtitlan d uring t he

1 5th a nd e arly

1 6th c enturies

( Parsons

1 976:247-

2 48).

T be t 81 f L eL dü L gg XL_Immug JM2L A eUILKn W e d esigned o ur e xcavations o n t he b asis o f o ur e arlier s urvey o f t he e ntire s urface o f L ake p recise l ocations o f t he s mall

1 00%

C halco-Xochimilco. W e k new t he

h andful o f r elict c hinamba f ields

5 5

F igure 4 : T he C halco-Xochimilco R egion , s ites e xcavated i n 1 981.

5 6

f ortuitously p reserved i n a f ew p laces a t t he m odern g round s urface. W e h ad s imilar i nformation a bout a l arge n umber o f m ounds a nd c oncentrations o f p otsherds a nd r ock r ubble w hich p robably r epresented d estroyed m ounds. W e s uspected t hat t he m ounds a nd s herd r ubble c oncentrations r epresented r esidences o f 9 Unagu a c ultivators. T hus, w e

f aced a s ituation i n w hich w e w anted t o e valuate a nd

i mprove a p rovisional m odel o f c banamre d evelopment. n ot

H owever,

w e d id

f eel t hat w e k new e nough a bout t he c omposition o f o ur d ata b ase t o

d esign a f ull-scale e xcavation

p rogram.

t he p rincipal o bjective o f o ur

1 981

p otential

C onsequently,

f ieldwork w ould b e t o e valuate t he

f or f uture r esearch o f t he m ounds a nd

f ield r emnants.

p reserved c hinamza

T o t he e nd w e d esigned a p urposive s ampling p rogram i n

w hich a t otal o f 1 7 2 x2 m t est s ites ( Figure 4 ).

p its w ere e xcavated a t s even l akebed

T hese s even s ites w ere p resumed t o b e r esidences,

w ere s elected o n t he b asis o f t heir l ocation, c hronology.

w e d ecided t hat

s ize,

a nd

a nd o ccupational

I n a ddition, w e c arefully s ampled s oils f rom t he e xposed

c ross-section o f a n a ncient g idaggu a f ield.

T he e xcavations T his d iscussion b egins w ith t he e arliest s ite a nd p roceeds t hrough p rogressively y ounger s ites. C h-Az-192 - C lassic/Early T oltec P eriod. a bout

1 50 m e ast o f X ico

C halco,

a nd s ome

I sland,

o n t he

T his l arge s ite l ies

f lat b ed o f e astern L ake

1 .8 k m f rom t he e astern s horeline.

o f 4 m ajor m ounds a nd s ome

1 5 s maller m ounds,

a ll c lustered w ithin a n

a rea t hat m easures r oughly 8 00 x 8 00 m ( Figure 5 ). r ise a bout

2 -2.5 m ,

T he s ite c onsists T he m ounds g enerally

a lthough i n s ome p laces t hey s tand u p t o 4m .

P resumably t hese l atter a reas r epresent s tructures b uilt a top t he p rincipal b asal

p latforms.

O ur t hree t est

p its

( A,

B ,

C ,

o n

F igure 6 )

a re s ituated a long t he w estern e dge o f t he n orthwestern s ection o f t he s ite. S urface s urvey i n s ettlement

1 969 h ad

( Parsons e t a l.

i dentified t he s ite a s a n A ztec

1 982a:198-201).

p eriod

W e o riginally t hought t hat

t his m ay h ave b een o ne o f t he e arliest g roups w ho a ttempted t o u ndertake chinam izf t a griculture a way f rom t he i mmediate e nvirons o f X ico I sland.

O ur t hree t est

p its w ere p urposively p laced s o a s t o i lluminate

t hree d ifferent c ontexts w ithin t he s ite a rea: m ain

p latform,

a rchitecture

t his

a t t he t op o f t he

w here t here w as n o a dditional m ounding s uggestive o f

( Pit

A );

( 2)

a t a l ocality w here t here w as a dditional

m ounding s uggestive o f a rchitecture m ain p latform

( 1)

( Pit

C ).

( Pit

B );

a nd

( 3)

a t t he b ase o f t he

T he c ontents o f P it A a re t he m ost

p aper.

5 7

p ertinent

f or

c f ) 0 C D

•^ 4 — ) t f )

• r — i • H 0 " z j 4 1 C i l 0 • b 0 • ( 1 ) • 4— )

0 r ti

O • r— I ( f ) u ) U CN 1 , C ) C Y )

0

r — i › • •

g eneral p lan .

g

I

5 8

P it

A w as e xcavated

s tratified

t o a d epth o f 2 45 c m t hrough a s eries o f

f ill, m idden, a nd h ard-packed e arth f loors

( Figure 6 ).

A lthough w e h ad o riginally i ntended t o e xcavate t o s terile s oil,

t he

t hreat o f w all c ollapse

f orced u s t o s uspend o perations w hile s till

w ithin c ultural s trata.

A t t he b ase o f t he

p it w e h ave a s mall,

c apped s tructure f ormed o f e arth a nd r ock r ubble f ill. g eneral a ppearance o f t he b urials w ithin i t, e astern e dge,

a nd

p latform,

L ate

o ur t entative

F ormative,

i nclination i s t o r egard i t a s a m odest T he p otsherds i nside t he

T erminal

F ormative,

f ill t o t he e ast o f t he s tructure c ontains m ixed

p resence o f a t l east t wo

t he p aucity o f a ny m idden d ebris a long i ts

p ublic b uilding o f s ome s ort. m ixed

t he

a nd

p ottery o f t hese s ame t hree

E arly T oltec

p ottery,

s tratum G .

B BB ,

p eriods.

S imilarly,

C CC,

D DD,

t he

E EE)

a lso

E arly T oltec

F ormative i n s trata X X a nd

m ixed w ith e arlier m aterial,

p resent i n a ll o verlying l evels, u p u ntil

p latform a re

C lassic.

( strata A AA,

p ottery f irst a ppears m ixed w ith C lassic a nd W W .

c lay-

G iven t he

c ontinues t o b e

a lthough l arge q uantities d o n ot s how

I nterestingly,

t here i s n ot a s ingle

L ate T oltec

o r A ztec s herd i n t he e ntire d eposit. O ur p rovisional

i nterpretation i s t hat t he c lay c apped

a t t he b ase o f P it A w as b uilt d uring n earby X ico

I sland.

A fterwards,

C lassic t imes u sing f ill

f ollowed,

r efuse-laden s trata o verlying Z Z

( YY,

i n t hese l ayers,

I sland

X X,

W W,

V V,

a nd

a nd U U).

T he

p resence

a nd t he a bsence o f a ny

o nce a gain u sing

f ill

f rom n earby

( so t hat e arlier p ottery f rom o lder o ccupation o n t he

i sland c ontinued t o b e i ncorporated). y ears:

( stratum Z Z),

s uggest t hat t hese m aterials w ere

d eposited d uring E arly T oltec t imes, X ico

t he

r epresented b y t he r ock-and-

o f E arly T oltec p otsherds i n s trata W W a nd X X , l ater m aterial

f rom

p robably i n E arly T oltec t imes,

c lay c apped s tructure w as c overed w ith a n e arth f loor a s eries o f f illing e pisodes

s tructure

120 A D ( Beta-4475)

o f t he c omplete a bsence

A r adiocarbon a ge o f 8 30+80

f rom s tratum Y Y s eems o ut o f p lace i n v iew

i n t his o r o verlying l ayers o f a ny c eramic

m aterial y ounger t han E arly T oltec. T hese i nitial p acked e arth

f illing e pisodes w ere c apped b y a s eries o f h ard-

f loors

( strata T T a nd S S),

w hich,

i n t urn,

o ver b y a l ayer o f c arefully l aid d own a dobe b locks i n t urn,

( stratum F ).

T hese,

w ere s ubsequently c apped b y m ore r efuse a nd r ock r ubble

( strata G ,

J . a nd H ), I ,

K ,

a nd c apped b y a nother s eries o f h ard-packed e arth

f loors

( strata

y ears:

6 00 A D ( Beta-4474)

P ',

p redominantly C lassic A bove t he e arth f ill,

w ere c overed

0 ,

N ,

a nd M ).

A r adiocarbon a ge o f

f rom s tratum P -P'

i s i n l ine w ith t he

p eriod d ate o f t he a bundant c eramic m aterial.

f loor r epresented b y s trata M -N a re s ome 8 5 c m o f

p redominantly r efuse c ontaining m ixed

F ormative p ottery.

1 350+80

E arly T oltec,

C lassic,

a nd

T he p resence o f a f ew f ragments o f s tucco f looring

i n t he u pper p art o f s tratum A s uggests t hat a f loor m ay o nce h ave 5 9

e xisted o ver p ortions o f t he u ppermost p latform s urface. f loor p robably d ates t o t he A ztec p eriod.

T his l atter

A lthough n o A ztec p ottery

o ccurs o n t he s urface a t P it A , b ut s ome s herds d o o ccur i n n earby a reas a nd t hroughout t he s ite a s a w hole ( Parsons e t a l.

1 982a,

1 982b). I n s um,

P it A i ndicated q uite c learly t hat a l akebed s ettlement w as

e stablished h ere d uring C lassic t imes, a nd t hat o ccupation c ontinued a nd w as p robably i ntensified d uring t he E arly T oltec p eriod.

T his i s

f ar e arlier t han o ur o riginal p rediction, a nd r aises t he l ikelihood t hat m ore s ubstantial s wamp d rainage a nd c hinampa a griculture t han w e h ad o riginally e nvisioned w ere u nderway h ere d uring t he m id-late f irst m illennium A D. W e s till h ave v ery l imited u nderstanding o f e ither t he s ize o r c omplexity o f t he C lassic a nd E arly T oltec c ommunities i n t he C h-Az-192 s ite a rea. H owever,

w e s uspect t hat t he E arly T oltec

o ccupation, a t l east, w as p robably q uite s ubstantial. C h-LT-77

( Figure 7 ) - L ate T oltec P eriod.

T his s mall s ite i s

l ocated o n t he f lat b ed o f s outh-central L ake C halco, a bout

1 .5 k m

s outhwest o f X ico I sland a nd s ome 3 .2 k m n ortheast o f t he s outhern s horeline.

T he s ite c onsists o f a f eatureless s catter o f s urface

p ottery o ver a n a rea o f O .

h a.

c ultivated i n r ecent t imes.

O ur

I t h as b een i ntensively p lowed a nd 1 972 s urvey i dentified t his a s a

v irtually p ure L ate T oltec o ccupation, o ne o f t he v ery f ew s uch s ites o n t he e ntire l akebed

( Parsons e t a l.

1 982:153). W e e xcavated a s ingle

2x 2m t est p it a t a l ocality o f m aximal s herd d ensity n ear t he s ite's m idpoint.

T his w as e xcavated t o w ater t able,

a t a bout

1 20 c m d epth.

T he

u ppermost 7 0 c m o f t he d eposit c ontains p otsherds, a lthough t he g reat m ajority o f t his c eramic m aterial o ccurs w ithin t he t op 4 0 c m. c m t he d eposits a re c ulturally s terile, a nd

B elow 7 0

f rom t his p oint d own w e a re

p robably d ealing w ith i n s itu n atural s trata. O ur e xcavations f ailed t o r eveal a ny a rchaeological f eatures t hat c ould b e c learly l inked t o t he L ate T oltec p ottery.

H owever, w e s eem

t o h ave i nadvertently s tumbled u pon t he c ross s ection o f a n a ncient

c hina me f ield, n ow b uried b eneath s ome 3 0-50 c m o f d isturbed o verburden.

T he c ross s ection s hows a d istinct r idge,

m assive c lay d eposits

( strata K a nd E ).

c apped b y t wo

T his i s d emarcated b y d istinct

l ow a reas a long t he w estern a nd e astern s ides o f t he p it w hich m ay r epresent f ormer c anals o r d itches. O ur p rovisional i nterpretation i s t hat c hinampa b uilding a t C H-LT7 7 o ccurred i n A ztec t imes.

S uch c onstruction w ould h ave c ompletely

d isturbed t he o riginal L ate T oltec o ccupation.

I t i s e ven c onceivable

t hat L ate T oltec p ottery w as b rought i nto t his a rea i n A ztec t imes, i nadvertently i ncorporated i nto f ill u sed i n s ome a spect o f t he n äi m m al b uilding p rocess.

I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he c hinamDa

6 0

6 1

C h-LT -77, n orth p rofile o f P it A .

C en t ime te rs

c onstruction d ates t o L ate

T oltec t imes,

a nd t hat t he p ottery f ound

i n

t he u pper l evels o f o ur e xcavation d erives f rom h abitation r efuse p roduced a t a s tructure n ow o bliterated b y m odern p lowing. W e p resently f eel t his l atter p ossibility i s u nlikely,

b ut a t t his p oint w e h ave n o

r eal w ay o f b eing c ertain. C h-Ax-19d ( Figure 8 , 9 ) o n t he

f lat b ed o f e astern L ake

I sland, s ingle w ide,

- E arly A ztec P eriod.

a nd a bout

C halco,

a bout

T his s ite i s l ocated

1 .0 k m s outheast o f X ico

1 .8 k m f rom t he e astern s horeline.

i rregular p latform m ound m easuring a bout

I t c onsists o f a

1 60 m l ong b y

a nd s tanding a l ittle l ess t han 2 .0 m h igh ( Figure 8 ).

m ain p latform a re s ome 9 s maller m ounds,

2 0-50 c m h igh.

m easuring b etween 8 a nd

T he n inth m ound,

r ectangular s tructure,

a bout

A top t he

d istributed m ore o r l ess

e venly a long t he l ength o f t he m ain p latform m ound. s maller c ircular m ounds,

15 m

8 o f t hese a re

1 5 m i n d iameter a nd

o n t he w estern s ide,

1 5 x 4 0 m i n a rea,

i s a l arger

a nd 4 0-60 c m h igh. W e

a re p rovisionally i nterpreting t hese a s a c luster o f e ight s mall h ousehold-related s tructures, h ave h ad O ur

w ith a s ingle l arger b uilding t hat m ay

s ome p ublic f unction. 1 969 s urvey i dentified t his a s a p ure E arly A ztec o ccupation,

a nd i t a ppeared t o b e a n e xample o f a s mall c ommunity w hich p ioneered c hinampa a griculture o n t he m ain l akebed, I sland o r t he m ainland W e e xcavated a nd

P it

B ,

( Parsons e t a l.

2 2 x2 m p its:

o n a n u n-mounded

P it

A ,

1 982a:201) a top t he l arge r ectangular m ound,

s ection o f t he m ain p latform,

s outh o f o ne o f t he s mall c ircular m ounds m assive r ock p latform w hich

( Figure 8 ).

s ome 4 m

P it A r evealed a

p robably o nce s upported a s tructure w hose

o nly a rchaeological t races w ere

f ragments o f s tucco f looring r ecovered

f rom t he u ppermost e xcavation l evel. s eries o f d eposits,

w ell a way f rom e ither X ico

P it B r evealed a m uch d ifferent

a nd w e n ow p roceed t o a m ore d etailed

s ummary o f

i ts c ontents. P it

Bw as e xcavated t o a d epth o f a bout

l imited a rea t o a bout m idden d ebris a nd ( strata G ,

A D,

f ill

A E ,

A H,

3 70 c m,

a nd

i n a m ore

t hrough a n icely s tratified d eposit o f

( Figure 9 ). a nd

3 50 c m,

A G),

e xclusively E arly A ztec i n a ge.

W ith a f ew s ignificant e xceptions

t he a bundant c eramic m aterial

i s a lmost

A s a r esult o f t he h igh w ater t able,

w ere u nable t o r each a s terile d eposit.

N evertheless,

w e

t he b ase o f o ur

e xcavation p robably l ies c lose t o t he b eginning o f t he c ultural s equence a t t his l ocality,

a nd w e b elieve

P it B g ives g ood

i nsight

i nto

t he o verall b uildup o f t he C h-Az-195 s ite. T he n orth p rofile o f P it

B s uggests t hat t he m ain p latform m ound

w as b uilt u p t hrough t he a ccretion o f f ive m ajor k inds o f d eposits: b elow a bout

2 80 c m,

w here t here a re l arge r ocks, 6 2

i rregularly s haped

( 1)

.• C 1 ) ; 4

l e

t 4 i 0 4 3 g C D C D . r4

4 1 re • 0 a ) ; • 1r 4 * 0 2 g2 +. 3

f •

CD

4J

tA

. ) V ). 4 3 -

0 • • r_i i f ) r I cA , I P , . . , .0

5.

[ , 1 1

,, t 1.

1 c f ) , .

t f )

r e

0 4 a l ••r z 4 D C

.4 ) 0

g eneral p lan .

. i . 1. H 0 7 4 s ; .i

6 3

d eposits,

a nd l imited d omestic r efuse w hich c ontains l imited q uantities

o f E arly T oltec a nd E arly A ztec p otsherds; 1 50 c m,

( 2)

w here t here a re a g reat n umber o f t hin,

b etween a bout

2 80 a nd

e ssentially h orizontal

s trata, m ost o f w hich e xtend a cross t he e ntire w idth o f t he p it w all, w hich c ontain e xclusively E arly A ztec p ottery; a nd

5 0 c m,

a m assive X ,

W ,

Y ,

o n t he e astern

A C ,

a nd H ),

T ,

b etween a bout

S ,

R ,

1 50

w here t here i s

( strata A H ,

A D ,

( 4)

b etween a bout

P ,

Q ,

1 40 a nd

5 0 c m,

w here r ich m idden d eposits 0 ,

N ,

L ,

M ,

K ,

a nd J ),

o n t he w estern ( strata A F ,

( left

A A,

A B ,

w ith a bundant o rganic

m aterial a nd e xclusively o r v ery p redominantly E arly A ztec p ottery, u p o nto t he

p latform t o t he e ast;

a bout 5 0 c m) A ztec

o f p oorly d efined

p ottery,

U ,

w hich c ontain e xclusively o r v ery p redominantly E arly

s ide o f t he p it,

Z ,

( 3)

s ide o f t he p it,

f ill c omposed o f i rregular m asses o f s oil

T oltec c eramics; h and)

( right h and)

a nd

( 5)

a n u ppermost s eries

l ap

( above

s trata c ontaining p redominantly E arly

w ith s ome m inor a dmixture o f E arly T oltec m aterial.

O ur p rovisional i nterpretation o f t his s equence i s t hat t he f irst g roup o f d eposits, o f t he t errain.

b elow a bout

T his a ppears t o h ave b een i nitiated b y t he d eliberate

d umping o f e arth a nd r ock f ill I sland)

2 80 c m r epresent t he e arliest i nfilling ( probably b rought o n c anoes

w hich w as m ixed w ith s ome d omestic r efuse

f rom t he

f rom X ico f irst E arly

A ztec o ccupation o f C h-Az-195 i tself. T he s econd g roup o f d eposits b etween a bout w ith t heir v irtually p ure E arly A ztec c eramics,

2 80 a nd

1 50 c m d epth

w ould a ppear t o b e

m idden d ebris t hrown i nto t his a rea f rom a djacent E arly A ztec d omestic h abitations a nd g radually c ompacted o ver t he y ears. c ontain a n a bundance o f o rganic m aterial, b one

( duck,

t urtle,

a bundant w ell

f ish,

p reserved

d og,

d eer,

T hese s trata

i ncluding n umerous a nimal

a nd m iscellaneous r odents)

p lant r emains:

c omprising t he m assive e arth p latform b etween a bout o n t he e astern s ide o f t he p it, p latform c onstructed w ith w as a pparently t aken o ccupation).

1 50 a nd 5 0 c m d epth

p robably r epresents t he e dge o f a h ouse

f ill b rought o ver

f rom X ico

f rom a l ocality w ith u nmixed

l atter m idden d eposits c onstitute t he

I sland

( where i t

E arly T oltec

T his p latform a ppears t o h ave b een b uilt

w ith E arly A ztec m idden d eposits a ccumulating a round a bove.

a nd

T he t hird g roup o f d eposits,

f airly q uickly, i ts e dges.

T hese

f ourth g roup o f d eposits n oted

T he p latform a nd a djacent m idden d ebris w ere u ltimately c apped

b y a h ard-packed e arth a ccumulated t he f inal A t p resent,

f loor

( strata J a nd

p robably G ),

o ver w hich

5 0 c m o f t he d eposit.

w e a re r easonably s atisfied w ith t he a bove

i nterpretation o f t he d epositional s equence i n P it s hould n ote t hat c ertain d ifficulties a rise

( Beta-4456, 4457, 4458 a nd 4459). f ragments o f w ood c harcoal d eriving

H owever,

w e

f rom 4 r adiocarbon a ssays

T hese a ssays,

a ll

f rom s izable

f rom P it B m idden d eposits

c ontaining p redominantly o r e xclusively E arly A ztec

6 1 4

B .

p ottery,

y ield

d ates w hich c luster w ithin a f airly t ight r ange i n t he s eventh t o n inth c enturies A D.

T hese d ates a re q uite a t v ariance w ith t he a pparent

E arly

A ztec a ge o f t he m idden d eposits. W e h ave n ot y et r esolved t his i nconsistency b etween c eramic a nd r adiocarbon d ating.

H owever,

t wo p ossibilities s uggest t hemselves.

F irstly t he w ood m ay h ave b een s alvaged t imes

f or f uel d uring

f rom e arlier o ccupational r emains o n X ico

I sland.

E arly A ztec T his a ctivity

m ay h ave b een s timulated b y a l ocal s carcity o f f irewood o n t he l akebed d uring E arly A ztec t imes w hen n earby i slands, p robably l ong s ince d enuded o f t rees, i n t he p iedmont s outh o f L ake

C halco.

s uch a s X ico, h ad

a nd w here w ood w as o nly a vailable T he s econd

p ossibility m ight b e

t hat t here i s s ome g eochemical c haracteristic i n t he s wampy e nvironment o f L ake

C halco w hich p roduces e rroneous r adiocarbon d ates w hich a re

c onsistently t oo o ld b y a bout

4 00-500 y ears.

E valuation o f t his

p ossibility must a wait t he a vailability o f m ore r adiocarbon a ssays o ther

f rom

P ostelassic l akebed a nd p iedmont s ites.

W e h ave c ompleted

p reliminary s tudy o f t he e xceptionally a bundant

a nd w ell p reserved m acroscopic p lant r emains f rom t he r ich m idden d eposits i n

P it B .

A t t his p oint w e c an s uggest t hat d uring A ztec

t imes t he i nhabitants o f C h-Az-195 u tilized e nvironmental m aize,

z ones.

a maranth,

p lants

f rom d ifferent

O ne c omplex o f p lants i s t he c ultivated c rops:

b eans,

s quash a nd c hile p epper.

T hese, w hich m ay h ave

b een g rown o n c hinamre f ields a round t he s ettlement, p rovided p roteins,

c arbohydrates,

f ield w eeds w hich p robably g rew

o n t he c hinampas w hich f armers m ay h ave e ncouraged

( Phvsalis s pp.)

p iedmont

v erdolaga

r omero ( Sueda a pp.), a nd t he t omate

f ruits m ay h ave b een e aten.

A t hird c omplex i ncludes t he

f or f ood s ources:

t ender l eaves o f q uelites ( Chenorodium s pp.),

( Portulaca o leracea), a nd

w ould h ave

a nd e ssential v itamins a nd m inerals.

A s econd c omplex o f p lants i s t he y oung,

I

z one:

f our p lants w hich p robably w ere g rown i n

c aputin ( Prunus s erotina s pp.

( Crataegus r ubescens),

c apuli),

t ejocote

n opal ( Orunt U s p.), a nd m aguey ( Agave s p.).

T ejocote a nd c apulin f ruits c ould h ave b een c ollected f rom c ultivated o rchards o r f rom s cattered t rees g rowing a round p iedmont f ields.

T hese t rees a lso g row i n s econdary c olonies a nd

i n t he p ine-oak

f orests o n h igher g round. N opal a nd m aguey t hrive o n t hin d ry p iedmont

s oils,

b ut a f ew n opale a lso g row i n t he k itchen g ardens o f

m odern c hinam m f armers. f ruit w as e aten. l eaves.

T he n opal s eeds,

w e f ound,

s uggest t hat t he

N opals m ay a lso h ave b een e xploited f or t he e dible

T he p resence i n o ur d eposits o f m aguey t horns a nd s pines

s uggest t hat t his p lant w as u sed

f or s ome n on-subsistence p urposes.

S pines c ould h ave b een u sed a s n eedles a nd a nd t he l eaves c ould h ave b een p rocessed

6 5

f or r itual a uto-sacrifice,

f or

f ibers.

P ulque , a n

a lcoholic b everage p repared c onsumed a t

C h-Az-195,

f rom m aguey s ap,

c ould a lso h ave b een

b ut w e p resently l ack a ny d irect e vidence o f i ts

u se h ere.

A f ourth c omplex o f p lants i s r epresented b y a s ingle s pecies: t ule ( Scirous s p.). c ertainly d erived c anals.

I ts

T his i s a w ater-loving p lant w hich a lmost

f rom t he a djacent s wampy l akebed,

p resence i n t he

o r f rom c hinam m

C h-Az-195 m idden c ould b e a ccidental,

b ut

t he s eeds w e f ound c ould a lso c ome f rom p lants c ollected t o m ake m ats o r b askets,

o r

f rom p lants p urposefully d umped a t t he s ite t o h elp

b uild u p t he l iving

p latform.

A f ifth c omplex o f p lants i s t he w ood u sed c onstruction. ( gaf t im m ),

W e h ave i dentified c harcoal o f p ine

a lder

a nd c ypress a reas.

( Alnus),

( a uj ila g0

c herry ( Prunus),

t he

o f h ouseholds,

f or

( Pinus),

o ak

C upressaceae.

T he A lnus

i n t he m oist l akeshore

s ome A lnus s pecies p robably c ame f rom

i n t he p iedmont o r s ierra. p robably b urned

a nd

c ould h ave b een c ollected

T he o ther t axa a nd

I n s um,

f or f uel a nd

I t

f orests

s hould a lso b e n oted t hat m aize c obs w ere

f uel a s w ell.

C h-Az-195 o ccupation a ppears t o r epresent a s mall g roup w ho

p ioneered e inampa a griculture i n e astern L ake

C halco d uring E arly A ztec t imes. c ooperation w ith o thers,

T his g roup,

e ither a lone o r i n

t ransported l arge q uantities o f e arth a nd r ock

f ill f rom n earby i slands o f h igh g round,

p robably X ico,

p latforms o n s wampy t errain

s tructures a nd a t l east o ne

s mall

p ublic b uilding.

f or d omestic

I f o ur

f unctional

b uildings h ave r ock p latforms, p latforms.

t o c onstruct

i nferences a re c orrect,

p ublic

w hile d omestic s tructures r est o n e arth

O ver t ime t he l iving

p latform c ontinued t o b uild u p a s

m idden d ebris a nd o ther m aterial a ccumulated b etween h ouse m ounds. s till d o n ot k now h ow m uch t ime w ithin t he E arly A ztec r epresented b y t he

C h-Az-195 o ccupation,

p eriod

A ztec

h owever, p eriod,

i s

n or d o w e y et h ave a ny d irect

e vidence h ere o f E arly A ztec c hinamPa f ields t hemselves. c lear,

W e

t hat u nlike s ubsequent c hinam m

I t d oes s eem

f armers o f t he L ate

t he E arly A ztec s tructures a t C h-Az-195 w ere n ot b uilt

a top e xisting c hinampa f ields. C h-Az-237 i s l ocated I sland,

( Figure

1 0 )

- E arly A ztec/Late A ztec P eriod.

i n w est-central

L ake C halco,

2 .5 k m e ast o f m odern T lahuac,

C uitlahuac,

a nd s ome

w ith t wo v ery d istinct

s ome

2 .8 k m w est o f X ico

t he A ztec

2 .8 k m n orth o f t he

c onsists o f a s ingle m ound,

a nd a s maller,

a bout

p eriod c enter o f

s outhern l akeshore.

4 0 m i n d iameter a nd a bout

p arts: a b asal m ound,

T his s ite

s tanding a bout

I t 1 .8 m h igh, 5 0 c m h igh;

h igher m ound a top t he s outh s ide o f t he b asal s tructure.

T he l atter m easures a bout

1 5 m i n d iameter a nd

s omewhat o ver

1m h igh.

T he s ite l ies a bout

1 30 m s outheast o f C h-Az-236,

q uite i solated.

1 972 s urvey i dentified t his a s a L ate A ztec

O ur

6 6

b ut i s o therwise

o ccupation

( Parsons e t a l.

1 982a:207).

W e d ecided t o t est t he s ite i n

o rder t o i lluminate t he n ature o f s mall, s ettlements i n t he c entral l akebed.

W e e xcavated

o n t he w estern s ide o f t he u pper m ound; h igh p oint;

a nd

P it

C ,

i solated L ate A ztec P it

B ,

3 2 x2 m p its:

n ear t he m ound's c entral

o n t he n orthern p art o f t he l ower m ound.

p urposes o f t his p aper,

o nly P its B a nd

f eature o f t he e xcavation i s a l arge p latform

r etaining w all o f m assive r ock b oulders.

f ill.

N othing w as f ound a top t he

a longside,

T he

f ormed b y a T he p latform

a nd r ests a top a bout a m eter o f e arth p latform,

b ut

f ragments o f s tucco

f looring t hroughout t he u pper 4 0 c m i ndicate t he o verlying s tructure,

1 90 c m.

I nside t he r etaining w all t he

p latform f ill c onsists o f s maller r ocks m ixed w ith e arth. m easures a bout 6 0 c m i n h eight,

F or t he

C w ill b e d iscussed.

P it B w as e xcavated t o w ater t able a t a d epth o f a bout c entral

P it A ,

f ormer p resence o f a n

p robably a d omestic r esidence.

P otsherds w ithin,

a nd u nderneath t he r ock p latform s uggests a L ate A ztec d ate

f or i ts c onstruction a nd p rincipal u se. T he e arth f ill b elow t he r ock p latform i s c learly a j umble o f l akebed s oil d ifferent ( Ch-LT-77,

p iled u p i n i rregular m asses

( Figure

1 0).

I t l ooks q uite

f rom a ny o f t he c l Anam i oa p rofiles w e h ave n oted C h-Az-236,

X o-Az-46,

X o-Az-47,

a nd M ixquic).

e lsewhere

I t s eems

u nlikely t hat t his w as c onstructed a top a n e xisting c hinampa a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase a t C olonial s ites. A ztec

T here i s a m odest,

( or t ransitional

l ower e arth f ill i n P it

C ,

s ome o ther L ate A ztec a nd

L ate

i n P it

B .

b ut c onsistent,

T oltec-Early A ztec)

w as b uilt a top a n e xisting E arly A ztec

p resence o f E arly

p ottery t hroughout t he

A ztec

p latform a t

( or t ransitional

1).

C h-Az-237

L ate

T oltec-

o ccupation.

P it C w as e xcavated t o w ater t able a t a d epth o f a bout ( Figure

E arly

T his m aterial o ccurs i n g reater q uantities

a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he L ate

E arly A ztec)

f ield a s

T he u ppermost

6 0 c m a re n ot

r odent d isturbance i s e xtensive.

1 20 c m

p articularly i nformative:

T here i s a r ather i mpoverished

a rtifact a nd m idden c ontent d ominated b y a m odest q uantity o f L ate A ztec c eramics.

H owever,

s trata P ,

a nd

d ebris,

Q ,

S ,

t he l ower p art o f t he d eposit

u pper V )

( especially

c ontains a bundant u ndisturbed m idden

i ncluding a s ubstantial

q uantity o f c eramics t hat s tand o ut

t ypologically a s a t ransitional

L ate T oltec-Early A ztec a ssemblage.

W ithin t he n arrow c onfines o f o ur t est p it,

t here i s n o r ecognizable

a ssociation b etween t his m idden a nd a ny o ther a rchaeological T wo r adiocarbon a ssays o n w ood c harcoal

f rom t he l ower l evels o f

P it C h ave p roduced d ates w hich a re s omewhat d ifficult t o O ne

( Beta-4476),

f rom s tratum P , s econd

f eatures.

i nterpret.

y ields a r adiocarbon a ge o f 1 020+50

y ears:

9 30 A D ,

w hile t he

y ears:

5 70 A D.

B oth a re t oo o ld t o c onform t o s tandard

( Beta-4477),

6 7

f rom s tratum S 1 380+70 i deas a bout t he

F igure 1 0: C h-Az-237, w est p rofile o f P it B . R ocks s hown b y s lanting l ines; c ollapsed s oil b y b lack d ots; r odent d isturbed a reas b y c ross-hatched l ines.

n ive l

f rea t ico

-

1

"

Cen t i me ters

5 0

F igure 1 1 : C h-A2 -237, e ast p rofile o f P it C . 6 8

c hronology o f t he P ostclassic c eramics w ith w hich t hey a re a ssociated i n m idden c ontext.

O n t he o ther h and,

g eneral r ange o f t he a t

C h-Az-195.

f rom C h-Az-195.

t he e xcavation a t C h-Az-237 r evealed a n u nexpected E arly

A ztec d omestic o ccupation,

o f u ncertain c haracter.

a ppears t o h ave p rovided t he L ate A ztec t imes.

T his o ccupation

f oundation f or t he h igher s tructure o f

T he c haracter o f t he L ate

w holly c lear e ither, r esidence.

f rom E arly A ztec o ccupation

T his o verlap l ends a dditional s upport f or e ither o f t he

a lternatives c oncerning t he d ates I n s um,

b oth d ates f all w ithin t he

f our r adiocarbon d ates

A ztec o ccupation i s n ot

b ut i t w ould a ppear t o r epresent a s ingle d omestic

T he l inkage b etween E arly a nd

l ocality r emains u nclear.

L ate A ztec o ccupations a t t his

P rior t o t his e xcavation, w e h ad a ssumed t hat

E arly A ztec a gricultural o ccupation o n t he l akebed w as l argely r estricted t o t he e astern s ection o f L ake

C halco.

T he E arly A ztec

c omponent o f C h-Az-237 w ould a ppear t o b e a n e xception t o t his g eneralization,

a nd i ts e xistence m ay u ltimately r equire s ome

r ethinking a bout t he d istribution o f c hinampg a griculture a t t his p eriod.

I t i s a lso c onceivable t hat t he

E arly A ztec i nhabitants o f C h-

A z-237 w ere n ot a griculturalists a t a ll.

C h -A z -2 36 ( Figure 1 2) - L ate A ztec P eriod. 1 30 m n orthwest o f C h-Az-237, o f a s ingle s mall m ound, O ur

( Parsons e t a l.

t wo m ain r easons.

F irstly,

i t a s a m ixed 1 982a:209). i ts s mall

i ndicated t hat i t c ould p rovide s mall

L ake C halco.

I t c onsists

s ome 2 5 m i n d iameter a nd u p t o 7 0 c m h igh.

1 972 s urvey i dentified

o ccupation

i n w est-central

T his s ite l ies a bout

E arly A ztec/Late A ztec W e d ecided t o t est t he s ite f or

s ize a nd c entral l akebed s etting

i nsight i nto t he c haracter o f t he m any

L ate A ztec s ites w hich a re s cattered o ver t he c entral l akebed

a way f rom t he m ainland.

S econdly,

f ar

i ts m ixed E arly A ztec/Late A ztec

o ccupation o ffered s ome h ope o f e xploring L ate

P ostclassic l akebed

a daptation a long a d iachronic d imension. W e e xcavated a p air o f 2x 2m t est

p its:

p it A a t t he c entral h igh

p oint o f t he m ound,

t he n orthern l ower f lank o f t he m ound. t he p urposes o f t his p aper,

a nd n o

P it

a nd

p it

B ,

o n

A i s m ore s ignificant f or

f urther r eference w ill b e m ade h ere

t o P it B . P it

A w as e xcavated t o w ater t able a t a d epth o f a bout p ottery o ccur,

A lthough t races o f E arly A ztec m odest

q uantity o f p ottery w e

s ite.

t he v ast m ajority o f t he

f ound h ere i s L ate A ztec i n d ate

s ome m ixture o f m odern m aterial d etermine,

10 c m.

i n t he u pper 4 0 c m).

A s

( with

f ar a s w e c an

t here w as n o s ignificant E arly A ztec o ccupation a t t his

T he v ery l imited

q uantity o f E arly A ztec m aterial t hat d oes o ccur

w ould a ppear t o d erive f rom n earby C h-Az-237,

o r f rom s ome m ore d istant

i sland o r m ainland l ocality w here t he l arge r ocks u sed b uilding w ere a cquired.

6 9

f or p latform

S upe rf ic ie A CMS .

2 0

4 0

8 0-

1 00 —

n ive l

f rea t ico

Cen t i me te rs

0

5 0

F igure 1 2: C h-Az-236, e ast p rofile o f P it A . R ock s hown b y s lanting l ines; c ollapsed s oil b y d ots; r odent d isturbed a reas b y c ross-hatched l ines.

X o- A z-46 I

= •

-

A me r* T est

C h'o ' p.

P.

Con tou r L eve l 1 0 .5 m I n te rva l/

M o l d e rs

F igure 1 3 : Z o-Az-46, g eneral p lan .

7 0

I t i s s till n ot c lear w hether o ut e xcavation p enetrated i nto u ndisturbed n atural s ediments. i s n o c ultural m aterial,

H owever,

b elow a bout 7 5 a m d epth t here

e xcept i n t he c racks i n s tratum K .

p rovisional i nterpretation i s t hat s tratum H i s n atural d eposit,

a nd t hat

O ur

p robably a n i n s itu

s trata K a nd M m ay a lso b e.

A t a bout

5 0 c m

b elow g round l evel a c rude r ock p latform w as b uilt, c onstructed o f a s ingle l ayer o f m assive r ocks. t hese r ocks,

T he c ross s ection d oes n ot s how m any o f

b ut t hey w ere q uite i mpressive a s w e e xcavated t hem.

T he f unction o f t his r ock p latform i s n ot c lear. p robably p rovided t he b ase f or a h ouse, f ragments o f s tucco

f looring w ere

H owever,

w ith a n e arth f loor,

f ound.

i t s ince n o

A lthough w e a re s till

f ar

f rom c ertain, w e s uspect t hat t he r ock p latform m ay h ave b een b uilt a top a n e xisting g hinamma f ield.

E xtensive r odent d isturbance m akes i t

d ifficult t o e valuate t he s oil l ayers u nderlying t he r ock p latform, o ne

i nterpretation o f s trata E ,

D ,

F ,

b ut

a nd G i s t hat t hey l ie a long t he

l ongitudinal a xis o f t he e inampa f ield.

W e s eem t o h ave s imilar

s ituations a t b oth X o-Az-46 a nd X o-Az-47. I n s um, s tructure,

C h-Az-236 a ppears t o r epresent a s ingle L ate A ztec d omestic b uilt a top a c rude m assive r ock p latform,

w hich,

i n t urn,

m ay h ave b een l aid d own a top a n e xisting einamoa f ield r idge. b ecause o f o ur l imited r ecovery o f a rchitectural d ebris,

H owever,

f eatures a nd m idden

w e r emain s omewhat u ncertain a bout t he c haracter o f t he L ate

A ztec o ccupation a t t his l ocality.

X o -A z 7-4 6 ( Figures 1 3- 1 4- 1 5 ) - L ate A ztec/Early C olonial P eriod. T his s ite i s l ocated o f X o-Az 4 7,

i n c entral

L ate A ztec h amlet,

O ur

1 972 s urvey h ad d etermined t hat t his w as a

1 982a:228-29).

c onsisting o f a l ong,

a veraging a bout 5 0 m w ide,

c m h igh).

2 00 m s outheast

w ith o ccupation c ontinuing i nto t he E arly C olonial

( Parsons e t a l.

c onfiguration, l ong,

a bout

r oughly 2 .3 k m f rom t he s outhern s horeline, a nd s ome 2 .0

k m f rom t he n orth s hore. p eriod

L ake X oehimilco,

T his s ite i s s omewhat u nusual n arrow,

e levated a rea ( c.

i n

5 60 m

a nd g enerally s tanding b etween 5 0 -1 00

U pon t he u pper s urface o f t his e levated a rea a re s everal

s maller c ircular m ounds t hat r ise a n a dditional a nd m easure b etween

1 0-15 m i n d iameter.

s maller m ounds c an b e o f t he s ite,

a nd

A bout e ight o r t en o f t hese

p rovisionally i dentified,

s ix o r e ight

c onservative e stimate,

a nd

2 0-70 e ms i n h eight,

i n t he w estern

t wo i n t he e astern p art

( Figure

1 3).

s everal o thers m ay a lso e xist.

T his i s a T he g round

s urface i n t he g eneral v icinity o f t hese m ounds c ontains r elatively h igh p roportions o f p otsherds a nd r ock r ubble, i nterpret t hem a s b asal

p latforms

A t t he s ite's a pproximate m id e levation t hat m easures a bout t he g eneral

a nd w e

p resently

f or d omestic a rchitecture. p oint i s a d istinctive r ectangular

2 5 x 3 5 m i n a rea a nd

u pper s urface o f t he u nderlying b asal 7 1

s tands 5 0 c m a bove

p latform.

S urface

Cen t I me ters

3

2

0

7 2

t c 2

X o-A2-46, n orth p rofile o f P it A .

0

C enhme te rs

e ast p rofile o f P it A .

p ottery a nd r ock r ubble a re a bundant,

a nd t here a re s uggestions t hat

i t w as o riginally s urrounded b y a s tone w all a nd c ontained a t l east o ne i nternal

s tone w all.

A nother i nteresting a spect o f t he X o-Az-46 s ite w as t he

p resence

o n t he i mmediately s urrounding p lain s urface o f s everal w ell r emnants o f a ncient c hinamp4 f ields. p air o f e xceptionally l arge r idged c entral

p art o f t he m ain m ound

W e w ere a ble

p reserved

W e n oted w ith s ome i nterest t hat a

f ields a ppear t o e xtend b eneath t he

( Figure

1 3).

t o e xcavate o nly 1 2 x2 m t est

p it,

A .

T his w as

p laced

n ear t he n ortheast c orner o f t he l arge r ectangular e levation i n t he m iddle o f t he s ite,

a t a p oint w here t he

p resence o f r elatively

a bundant r ock r ubble a nd s urface p ottery s uggested s ub-surface r esidential o ccupation.

I t w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f a bout 2 i n .

w as n ot t aken d own t o w ater t able,

b ut,

t he l owermost e xcavated s ediments,

w e

l evel.

j udging

( stratum U )

f ragments o f a nimal b one a nd t urtle s hell. 1m .

( Aztec m odern.

A lthough t his p it c ontained

p otsherds w ere

T his c eramic m aterial

I II),

T he l owest

c ontained a f ew s mall o bsidian c hips a nd s ome s mall

v ery l ittle o rganic m aterial, u pper

f rom t he d ampness o f

p robably g ot v ery c lose t o t his

I t i s u nlikely t hat w e r eached a n atural l ayer.

d eposit

f airly a bundant i n t he

i s v ery p redominantly L ate A ztec

w ith o nly a l imited a mount o f E arly C olonial

( Aztec

I V )

o r

A ll m odern p ottery c ould w ell d erive f rom t he u ppermost p art

o f t he d eposit t hrough r odent d isturbance.

T his

i s i n m arked c ontrast

t o t he X o-Az-47 e xcavations w hich p roduced a lmost e xclusively A ztec p ottery.

I t

I V

T his l eads u s t o c onclude t hat t he o ccupation a t X o-Az-46 i s

p redominantly L ate A ztec. O ur e xcavation i ndicates t hat t he ' f irst s ignificant a ctivity a t t his l ocality w as t he c onstruction o f a c hinamue f ield.

F igure

a ppears t o s how a p artial c ross s ection o f s uch a f ield r idge V ,

W ,

X ,

Y ,

c anal d itch t o w hat w e

Z ,

A A ,

B B ,

( strata S , f ound i n

P it

C C , R ,

D D, Q ,

C a t

a nd

P ,

0 ,

E E) N ,

X o-Az-47.

o n t he r ight, M ,

a nd L ).

1 4 ( strata

l ying n ext t o a

T his i s q uite s imilar

A s i n t he l atter c ase,

t he

c anal d itch e xposed a t X o-Az-46 a ppears t o c ontain w ater-laid d eposits ( especially s tratum M ).

I f t his i s c orrect,

t hen t here i s g ood r eason

t o b elieve t hat t he c hinampa s ystem w as a ctually o perative t ime p rior t o t he f ield

f or s ome

f illing a nd m ound b uilding t hat o verlies t he c l i ajnampa

s urface h ere.

S ome s upport

f or t his r easoning c omes f rom t he

f act

t hat t he t op s urface o f t he l arge c hinampa f ield v isible o n t he g round s urface b elow t he e dge o f t he m ain m ound j ust t o t he n orth o f o ur e xcavation i s a t a bout t he s ame a bsolute l evel a s t he t op o f t he b uried r idge

( stratum V )

i n o ur e xcavation.

A fter t he c hinamp& r idge w as c onstructed, w as c overed o ver b y s ome 5 0-60 e m o f d ark, 7 3

t he e ntire a rea o f P it A

h ard s oil

( strata I a nd H ).

A t t he t op o f t he s tratum a w all w as b uilt a top a s ubstantial f oundation o f c ompact d ark s oil

( stratum H H i n

F igure

1 5).

a pproximately e ast-west a cross t he m iddle p art o f o ur p it, o f t wo t iers o f r oughly s quared-off s tone b locks, w ide a nd a pproximately 2 0 c m h igh.

I t r uns a nd c onsists

m easuring 4 5-50 c m

S ome r ock r ubble s cattered a long

b oth s ides o f t he w all a nd a t h igher e levations s uggests t hat t he w all w as o riginally s omewhat h igher. T he s tone w all w as p robably i ntended t o f ormally d elineate a c emetery.

T o t he s outh o f t he w all w e l ocated

f airly c omplete a nd t wo q uite f ragmentary. i nto s tratum H H ( strata J J a nd K K i n i nterred i n a c eramic v essel,

f our h uman b urials - t wo

T hese o ccurred i n p its d ug

F igure

1 5).

E xcept

f or a n i nfant

t here w ere n o a rtifacts i n c lear

a ssociation w ith a ny o f t he b urials.

H owever,

t he g eneral a bsence o f

a nything e xcept L ate A ztec p ottery i n t he l evels f rom w hich t he b urials d erive

( and

f rom o verlying a nd u nderlying l evels a s w ell)

s uggests

s trongly t hat t hey d ate t o L ate A ztec t imes. I t w ould t hus a ppear t hat t he u nusual r ectangular p latform a t X oA z-46 i s a f ormal L ate A ztec c emetery.

I t i s n ot

s urprising,

t herefore,

t hat l ittle d omestic r efuse w as e ncountered i n o ur e xcavation. m aterial

S uch

s hould p robably b e s ought a mongst t he c lusters o f w hat a ppear

t o b e h ouse m ounds t o t he e ast a nd w est o f t he e xcavation a rea. I n s um,

o ur s ingle t est p it a t X o-Az-46 i ndicates t hat a f ormal

c emetery w as b uilt a top a n e xisting c hi ,nampa f ield a rea d uring L ate A ztec t imes.

T he a pparent p resence

i n o ur e xcavation o f w ater-laid

d eposits i n t he d itch a djacent t o t he s ystem m ay h ave a ctually b een u sed c emetery c onstruction.

f ield s uggests t hat t he c hinampa

f or a s hort p eriod p rior t o t he

U ntil a dditional

p arts o f t he s ite a re t ested,

w e w ill c ontinue t o r emain u ncertain a bout t he p recise c haracter o f t he X o-Az-46 s ettlement. X o-Az-47

( Figures

1 6.

1 7.

s ite i s l ocated i n c entral A z-46.

1 8.

1 9)

- E arly C olonial P eriod.

L ake X ochimilco,

a bout

T his

2 00 m n orthwest X o-

I t i s r ather l oosely d efined c onsisting o f a s eries o f s mall

m ounds s cattered o ver a s izable a rea o f r elatively w ell-preserved a ncient c hinampa r emains d efinite s mall m ounds, i n h eight.

I n a ddition,

f airly l arge s ize,

( Figure

1 6).

a veraging a bout

T here a re s ix o r s even

f airly

2 5 m i n d iameter a nd 5 0-100 c m

t here a re a n umber o f v aguely m ounded a reas,

w hich m easure l ess t han 5 0 c m h igh.

j ust s outh o f t he C anal d e C halco, a rtery o f h istoric t imes,

o f

T he s ite l ies

a p rincipal e ast-west t ransportation

w hich p robably d ates t o t he l ate p rehispanic

p eriod. O ur

1 972 s urvey s uggested t hat t his w as a l oosely-clustered L ate

A ztec h amlet

( Parsons e t a l.

1 982a:229). 7 1

T his c hronological a ssessment

3

/ " 7-, "0 / , . .

_ s._ , .-L . •

' 4 1

_ ,

9

/ .4

—_

_ _ * -

F igure 1 6: X o-Az-47, g eneral p lan .

7 5

g E

4 0

.

0

5 0

F igure 1 7: X o-Az-47, n orth p rofile o f P it A .

c

F igure 1 8: X o-Az-47, s outh p rofile o f P it B .

5 0

F igure 1 9: X o-Az-47,east p rofile o f P it C .

w as m ade b efore w e p ost-hispanic. l ocation,

f ully r ealized t hat A ztec I V p ottery w as c ompletely

T he s ite's g ood p reservation,

i ts c entral

l akebed

a nd i ts p roximity t o a m ajor t ransportation a rtery ( the

C anal

d e C halco)

a ttracted o ur a ttention.

e xcavated:

P it A i n a n a ncient c hinampa f ield n ear t he s outhwest b order

o f t he s ite; C ,

P it

B ,

F ive 2 x 2 i n t est p its w ere

a top a w ell d efined m ound j ust n orth o f P it A ;

a top t he h ighest m ound a t t he s ite,

A z-47;

P it

D ,

n ear t he s outheast c orner o f X o-

i n t he s addle b etween a p air o f c losely-spaced m ounds

j ust n ortheast o f P it

C ;

a nd

P it E ,

a top a n a morphous,

l ow e levated a rea j ust s outheast o f P it p aper,

P it

o nly t he c ontents o f P its A ,

B ,

C .

p oorly d efined,

F or t he p urposes o f t his

a nd C w ill b e d iscussed i n a ny

d etail. P it A ( Figure c ompositional,

1 7)

w as i ntended t o p rovide c onstructional,

a nd c hronological d etail

f or a n a ncient _ c _ Ung j a ja f ield.

O ur w ork h ere w as s eriously i mpaired b y t he u nusually h igh w ater t able i n t his r egion n ear t he e nd o f t he w ere s uspended a bout

m odern

( glazed)

t hat w hich d id o ccur w as

I V ( now k now t o b e E arly C olonial i n a ge),

c eramics,

D espite

w e d id l earn s everal u seful t hings.

a lthough p ottery w as q uite s carce,

e xclusively A ztec W e

r ainy s eason a nd o perations

4 0 c m b elow t he t op o f t he c hinamba r idge.

t his l imited v ertical e xposure, F irst,

1 981

w ith s ome

p robably i ntroduced b y r odent d isturbance.

f ound n o d efinite L ate A ztec p ottery.

T here

i s t hus a p ossibility

t hat chi r lamba c onstruction h ere d ates t o e arly p ost-hispanic t imes, a lthough e ven t he A ztec p resent

I V p otsherds m ay w ell h ave r eached t heir

p ositions t hrough r odent d isturbance i n p ost-constructional

t imes. S econd,

w e f ound t hat t he g reat b ulk o f t he c hinamba r idge

c onsisted o f v ery h ard, d ark s oil

( stratum A ).

T his s ame m aterial w as

e ncountered e lsewhere a t X o-Az-47 w here i ts p resence p ermitted u s t o i dentify b uried c hinambas,

o r t o s uspect t heir e xistence.

S imilarly,

w e a lso n oted t hat a w ell-defined t hin l ayer r ich i n g ray-white v olcanic a sh c onstruction.

( stratum C )

f ormed a d istinctive c omponent o f c hinamna

T his v olcanic a sh w as d efinitely n ot i n s itu ,

b ut h ad

a pparently b een d ug o ut o f n atural l akebed d eposits i n t he i mmediate a rea.

S imilar a sh-rich d eposits w ere f ound

i n o ther e xcavations a t X o-

A z-47 w here t hey p rovided a dditional c lues a bout t he e xistence o f b uried c higamba f ields. P it

B ( Figure

1 8)

c ut t hrough a w ell-defined

i n d iameter a nd 8 0 c m h igh). a bout

1 20 c m.

s mall m ound

( c.

1 5 m

W e e xcavated t o w ater t able a t a d epth o f

A lthough s urface p ottery w as v ery s parse,

n o r ock r ubble o n t he m ound's s urface,

a nd t here w as

w e o riginally e xpected t hat t his

m ound w ould c ontain r esidential a rchitecture a nd d omestic r efuse. H owever,

t his w as n ot t o b e t he c ase,

a nd o ur e xcavation m akes i t

f airly c lear t hat t his m ound w as n ever t he l ocus o f a ny r esidential a ctivity. 77

9 5 c m o f t he P it B d eposit i s c learly o f c ultural

T he u ppermost o rigin.

P otsherds a re q uite s carce,

t hat d epth.

b ut a f ew w ere e ncountered d own t o

A ll d iagnostic s herds a re A ztec

m aterial o ccurs i n t he u pper 4 0 c m t hrough r odent a ctivity). t hose i n P it A , ( stratum A ),

a lthough s ome m odern

( probably d erived

G enerally,

b ut t hicker.

I V,

f rom t he s urface

t hese d eposits a re e quivalent t o

T he u pper l ayer o f v ery c ompact d ark s oil

u nderlain b y a s imilar,

l ess c ompact m aterial

( stratum H ),

w ith i ntermediate h orizontal l enses o f d isplaced v olcanic a sh.

T hese

m aterials o verlie w hat a ppears t o b e n atural s ediments

F ,

a nd E ), t hat

w hich i nclude a l ayer o f v olcanic a sh

f ound

C h-Az-192

i n s imilar s ettings a t ( Pit

C h-LT-77

( D)

( strata

D ,

c omparable t o

( stratum Q ,

F igure 8 )

a nd

C ).

A lthough t he P it

Bm ound i s c ompositionally a nd s tructurally

s imilar t o t he c hinampa r idge i n P it A , t his i mplies a s imilar,

w e a re u ncertain a s t o w hether

p resumably a gricultural,

a lso a n a gricultural chinampa,

w hy i s t he P it

f unction.

I f i t i s

Bm ound s o h igh,

s ome 8 0

c m h igher t han t he l ong n arrow c hinampa . f ield r idges t o t he s outh a nd e lsewhere t hroughout t he X o-Az-47 s ite a rea?

W as t his m ound o riginally

c onstructed a s a p latform f or a d omestic s tructure w hich w as n ever b uilt? W e c annot y et a nswer t hese q uestions.

F urthermore,

i t

i s l ikely

t hat t hey must a lso b e a sked a bout s ome o f t he o ther m ounds a t X o-Az-47 ( and e lsewhere t hroughout L ake C halco-Xochimilco)

w here s urface

p ottery

i s v ery s parse a nd r ock r ubble i s a bsent o n t he g round s urface.

S ome

o f t hese u ntested m ounds a re l arge a nd a morphous. P it

C ( Figure

1 9)

w as p laced n ear t he c entral h igh p oint o f a h igh

w ell d efined m ound n ear t he e astern e dge o f t he s ite. t o w ater t able,

a t a d epth o f s lightly o ver 2 m .

t his e xcavation

p enetrated u ndisturbed n atural

I t

I t w as e xcavated

i s u ncertain i f

s ediments,

a lthough

s tratum A B m ay f all i nto t his c ategory. T he l owermost f ield A J).

8 0 c m o f t he d eposit c onsists o f a b uried c hinampa

( capped b y s tratum V )

a nd a djacent c anal-ditch

T hese a re o verlain b y f ill

d omestic r efuse

( potsherds,

- s trata A H ,

T ,

Q ,

R ,

S ,

i nto w hich i s i ncorporated

a nimal b one,

A F ,

A G,

( strata A K a nd

0 ,

A E,

a nd c harred o rganic m aterial) a nd M ).

o f t he p it t his i s s ealed b y a h ard-packed e arth O verlying t his a re t wo a dditional e arth 4 0 c m d epth,

O ver t he e astern h alf f loor

( stratum J ).

f loors ( strata C a nd

s tratum C f loor,

a t a bout

s tone w alls t hat

i ntersect a t a bout r ight a ngles n ear t he

T he s tratum C f loor a nd w alls a re, f loor

( stratum B )

a t a bout

a bundant

B ).

T he

i s a ssociated w ith t wo w ell-made

i n t urn,

p it's c enter.

s ealed b y t he u ppermost

3 0 c m d epth.

A lthough o ur l imited h orizontal -d efinitive s tatement a bout m ound

e xposure d oes n ot

f unction,

p ermit a

i t s eems r easonable t o

i nfer

t hat t he s uccessive f loors a nd w alls r epresent d omestic r esidence o n

7 8

a b asal

p latform b uilt a top a n e xisting c hlpagpa f ield.

p otsherds o ccur a s d eep a s a bout 6 0 c m,

A f ew m odern

b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t hey w ere

b rought t o t his d epth b y r odent a ctivity i n p ost-constructional t ime. W e b elieve t hat o nly t he u ppermost

2 0 c m,

a ctually p ertains t o m odern o ccupation. p ottery i s a v irtually p ure A ztec A ztec I II m aterial. c m d epth,

a nd

w ith a t iny h andful o f

i n t hese s ame l evels t here a re l arge q uantities o f b ut a lso i ncluding s ome p ig a nd f auna a nd

p ractically p ure

I V c eramic a ssemblage s uggests a n e arly p ost-hispanic a ge,

p robably w ithin t he A D

B elow t he s tratum B f loor t he

P ottery i s e specially a bundant b etween a bout 5 0-150

T his a ssociation b etween i ntroduced

A ztec

o f t he d eposit

I V a ssemblage,

b utchered a nimal b one - m ostly c ow , d og.

o r s o,

( Charlton

1 968,

f irst h alf c entury a fter E uropean c ontact i n 1 972;

M atesanz

1 965;

C rosby

L ooking a t t he b uried c hinamPa i tself,

1 520

1 972).

w e s ee s ome i nteresting

p arallels w ith t he d eposits e xposed i n P its A a nd

B .

S tratum V i n P it

C

e ssentially d uplicates t he c ompact d eposits w hich w e i nterpreted a s t he u pper s ections o f c hinamma

f ields i n b oth o ther

A ,

F urthermore,

a nd s tratum A i n P it B .

p its:

s tratum A i n

t he t hin l ayers r ich i n

d isplaced v olcanic a sh,

w hich c haracterized b oth P its A a nd

C a nd

a re r epeated

B ,

r espectively),

P it

i n P it

B ( strata

C ( stratum X ).

T he a pparent

p resence o f w ater-laid ' d eposits i n t he e xposed c anal-ditch

( stratum A J)

s uggests t hat t he c hinampa a t X o-Az-47 m ay h ave b een i n u se p eriod

f or a

p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he h ouse p latform t hat o verlies

i t. I n s um,

P it C i ndicates t he d uring E arly C olonial t imes a h ouse

p latform w as c onstructed a top a n e xisting c ht lampa f ield, m idden r efuse w as u sed a s r efuse i s n ot c lear. t hat i t d erived

p latform

f ill.

T he s ource o f t his m idden

E xpanded e xcavation o n t he m ound

f rom t he i mmediate v icinity.

o f f ill h ad b een d eposited,

i tself m ight s how

S hortly a fter a bout 8 0 c m

a s tructure w ith a h ard-packed e arth f loor

a nd s tone w alls w as b uilt. W ithin A ztec I V t imes, b uilding o f t he f loors a nd w alls, f loor s urfaces a bove t he i nitial p ossible t hat

a nd t hat

t here w as s ome r e-

f or t here a re a t l east t wo m ajor f loor l evel

( stratum J ).

s ome r esidential a ctivity c ontinued

I t

i s

i nto t he m ore r ecent

p eriod.

G eochemical A nalysis o f S oils f rom t he M ix c luic C hinampa P rofile W e w ere

f ortunate e nough t o l ocate a d eep d rainage t rench r ecently

c ut t hrough a n a rea o f f ormer c hinampas a t t he s outheast e dge o f t he p resent-day chinamme z one o f M ixquic L ake

C halco

( Figure

s eries o f a bout

5 ).

i n t he

f ar s outheast c orner o f

T his t rench h as e xposed

2 0 b uried c hinamPa

f ields.

i n c ross s ection a

T hese l ie b eneath a bout

c m o f o verburden. W e t ook a dvantage o f t his o pportunity t o c lear a 7 9

6 0

s hort s ection o f t he e xposed p rofile i n o rder t o m ake a d etailed d rawing o f o ne r idge a nd i ts a djacent d itch, f or p alynological a nd g eochemical a nalyses

a nd t o t ake s oil

( Figure 2 0).

A lthough w e f ound a lmost n o c ultural m aterial c leaning a nd d rawing t he i mbedded

i n s tratum A ,

o ne w as u ndiagnostic,

p rofile,

s amples

i n t he c ourse o f

w e d id l ocate t hree

p otsherds

t he u ppermost s ection o f t he p rofile.

A lthough

t wo w ere c haracteristic L ate A ztec t ypes.

A lthough t hese s herds p rovide o nly v ery l imited

i nformation r egarding

t he c hronology o f c hinamre c onstruction a nd u se h ere,

t hey a re

c onsistent w ith t he s ettlement p attern d ata f rom o ur s urveys a nd w ith t he c eramic m aterial S trata A Z,

B A,

f rom o ur o ther e xcavations.

B B a nd

B C ( Figure 2 0),

i n-situ l akebed s ediments,

w hich a re

i nterpreted a s

a ll s hare a d istinct s et o f d etrital

c onstituents a nd c haracteristics o f c olor a nd c ompaction.

A ll a re

r eddish b rown t o d ark b rown c layey s ilts w ith n umerous C aCO 2 n odules ( 1 m m o r l ess i n d iameter). o ther m ineral g rains, f ine-grained m atrix. p eaty a nd c ompact.

F ish s cales,

a nd m atted

g astropod s hells,

p lant m aterial a re

i nterspersed

T hese s trata a re t hick ( 10-15 c m),

T hey s upport

F oreman's

q uartz a nd

( 1955:197)

i n a

c ontinuous,

r econstruction o f

t he l acustrine e nvironment f rom c ores t aken b eneath M exico C ity a s o ne o f t he q uiet w ater o f s hallow, f lora a nd

f auna.

S hells,

b ut v ariable,

f ish s cales,

c ompaction c learly i ndicate a v egetated e nvironment a quatic

d epth,

r ich i n a quatic

p lant r emains a nd p eaty s horeline o r n earshore

i n w hich t he d ecaying v egetation c ontributes t o a r ich

f ood c hain a nd p roduces

p eat-like d eposits o r h ighly o rganic

l acustrine m uds. G eochemical r atios a nd p H v alues s pecify t he d egree o f s alinity, f resh w ater i nflux, i s,

a nd l evel o f a cidity.

a ccording t o m any w orkers

S iegel

1 961),

c onditions.

( Bordine

T he C a/Mg r atio

1 965;

C hilingar

( Figure 2 1)

1 963;

B aer

a d irect m easure o f p aleotemperature a nd e vaporative I t i s a lso a f unction o f s alinity ( Folk

1 980:172-182).

A l ow C a/Mg r atio r epresents h igher p roportions o f M g p resent s ediment, a h igh

w hich i ndicates d eposition i n w arm,

s aline w ater.

i n t he

I nversely,

C a/Mg r atio r epresents c onditions o f l ower w ater t emperature a nd

d ecreased s alinity ( i.e. M g r emains

i n s olution.

l akebed s ediments ( Figure 2 1), B ordine

1 969;

i ncreased

p recipitation),

A lthough t he

( up t o 2.0)

C a/Mg r atios

d emonstrate m arked

i n w hich m ost o f t he f or t he M ixquic i nternal d ifferences

a ll a re v ery l ow w hen c ompared t o r atios r eported b y

( 1965:101),

w hich e xceed

r eports v alues e xceeding 5 0.

1 30,

F olk

a nd b y B aer

( 1980:173-179)

( 1969:61),

w ho

s pecifies r anges o f

C a/Mg r atios w hich c orrespond t o v arying d egrees o f s alinity.

H e

f reshwater l akes a nd

N ormal

c reeks i n a r ange f rom

s ea w ater h as a v alue o f 1 :3.

1 0:1 t hrough 2 :1.

p laces

W hen c ompared t o t he t ruly c ooler w ater

t emperatures a nd l ow r ates o f e vaporation r epresented b y v alues o f 1 30

8 0

CMS.

2 0-

4 0

1 00 — ,

2 40 — BC

BC

n ive l

2 60

f rea t ico

Cen t i me te rs

1 00

F igure 2 0 : M ixquic C hinampa P rofile .Collapsed s oil s hown b Y b lack d ots; r odent d isturbed a reas s hown b y c ross-hatched l ines .

8 1

a nd 5 0,

a h igh v alue o f

1 .69 m ust b e s een a s b eing s lightly b elow t he

l ower l imit o f f reshwater s alinity;

i t m ust r epresent a w arm, b rackish

e nvironment w hich r eceives r elatively l ittle f resh w ater.

A ll t he

M ixquic l akebed s ediments d emonstrate t his. T he

C a/K r atio i s i ntended t o d efine t he r elationship b etween

w hich i s p rimarily a n o rthochemical m ineral,

i .e.

C a,

o ne t hat i s

p recipitated w ithin t he b asin o f d eposition a nd s hows n o e vidence o f t ransport

( Folk

1 980:1),

o ne t hat w as i ntroduced

a nd K ,

w hich i s a t errigenous m ineral,

i .e.

i nto t he l acustrine d epocenter v ia t ransport

f rom a n e roded u pland s ource.

B aer

( 1969:45,

4 8)

r eports a s trong

n egative c orrelation c oefficient o f 0.92 f or t he c o-occurrence o f K a nd

C a,

w hich l ends

f urther s upport t o t he c ontention t hat t he t wo

m inerals r epresent t errigenous a nd a quatic e nvironments, I f C a i s t aken t o b e a n o rthochemical e nvironment,

r espectively.

p roduct o f a l acustrine

a nd K a e lastic i nflux i nto t hat e nvironment,

t hen t heir

r atio s hould m easure f reshwater i nflux i nto t he l ake s ystem a s a v ehicle f or e lastic s ediment t ransport.

T hus,

t he

C a/K r atio,

s ince i t

a cts a s a m easure o f t he p recipitation a nd r esultant e lastic i nflux, r einforces i nferences a bout t emperature,

e vaporation a nd s alinity d rawn

f rom t he C a/Mg r atio. T hree o f t he C a/K r atios

f or t he l akebed s ediments a re f airly h igh,

s uggesting a p reponderance o f C a o ver K : i nflux

( Figure 2 2).

s ediments,

l ow p recipitation a nd e lastic

T his a ccords w ith t he l ow C a/Mg r atios f or t he s ame

w hich a lso i ndicate l ow p recipitation a s w ell a s i ncreased

e vaporation a nd w ater t emperature. s uggest a w arm,

I n g eneral,

t he t wo r atios t ogether

s hallow l ake w ith b rackish w ater a nd a t endency t oward

e vaporative c onditions. T he p H v alues s upport t his r econstruction. v acillate b etween 7 .5 a nd i ndicates,

6 .4

( Figure 2 3).

T he b ottom f our s amples

A s R eeves

( 1968:50)

l ow p H v alues i n a l acustrine e nvironment a re g enerally

a ttributed t o t he

p resence o f H2 S O4 a nd o rganic a cids.

T he s hallow,

v egetated n earshore s wamp w hich i s d escribed a bove s hould b e r ich i n o rganic a cids a s a b y-product o f p lant l ife. e nvironment i n w hich t o c onstruct a c hinamba. i mmediately u nderlies t he

f irst

f oundational

T his w ould b e a r easonable A Z i s t he s tratum w hich s tratum o f t he c hinamba

a nd r epresents t his k ind o f e nvironment. A bove i t l ie A V,

A Y ,

f our t hin

A T a nd A S ( Figure

( 1-5 c m), 2 0),

u ndulose a nd d iscontinuous s trata,

a ll o f w hich a re d ark b rown t o b lack i n

c olor, m ottled w ith v olcanic a sh,

a nd r ich i n u ncharred

p lant m atter.

T hese a ppear t o r epresent t he i nitial s tage o f c hinamba c onstruction. T hey a pparently w ere c onstructed w ere s craped u p, t hickness,

f rom n earby l akebed s ediments,

a nd

p robably u ntil t hey w ere c lose t o t he w ater l evel.

s hape a nd c olor o f t he s ediments e asily d istinguish t hem

8 2

T he

f rom t he a ctual c ultivated s tratum A H,

a nd

s trata o f t he c hinamoa,

f rom t he i n-situ l akebed s ediments b eneath.

f oundation s trata l ack t he c ontinuous d eposition, s trata; c olor,

r ather,

f ish s cales, g astropod

s ampled

s hells,

T he

t hick,

a nd r eddish-brown t o b rown c olors o f t he l akebed

t hey a re c onsistently t hinner, m ore u ndulose,

a nd a re m ottled w ith v olcanic a sh.

c hinam i og d id n ot e xhibit a c ontinuous f oundation,

w hich b egin w ith

d arker i n

A lthough t his p articular

2 -5 c m v olcanic a sh b eneath i ts

t he n eighbouring o nes d id.

T he a sh i nclusions i n t he

f oundation s trata a re u ndoubtedly r emnants o f t his s tratum,

w hich w as d isturbed b y t he c onstruction o f t his p articular r idge. T he t hin

( 3-8 c m),

d iscontinuous a nd m ildly u ndulose s trata,

c onstitute t he b ody o f t he c hinamog . , F ,

b egin w ith A H a nd

w hich i s i n t urn o verlain b y s tratum E ,

t he a djacent c anal.

e xtend u pward t o

t he s ame s ilt w hich f ills

S trata A H t hrough F a re t hinner, o n t he a verage,

t han A V t hrough A S ( Figure

2 0), m ore e venly c rescent-shaped,

c olor, m ore h eavily m ottled w ith v olcanic a sh, c oncentrations o f s eeds a nd c ompaction a nd h orizontal s trata.

w hich

p lant m aterial,

l ighted

i n

c ontain h igher

a nd e xhibit g reater

f abric t han d o t he u nderlying f oundational

F rom m icroscopic i nspection,

A H t hrough

F a lso a ppear t o

c ontain h igher c oncentrations o f q uartz, g ypsum a nd o ther f ine s and s ized e lastic m aterial -t han d o t he u nderlying u nderwater s trata).

( and

p resumably

T his m ay b e t he r esult o f i ncreased e xposure o f t he

a bove w ater s trata t o t errigenous m aterial t ransported b y w ind,

a s b oth

q uartz a nd g ypsum a re

f requently t ransported i n t his m anner (F riedman

a nd S anders

S elley

1 978:566;

1 978:83).

I n s um,

t he c hinampa b ody s trata

e xhibit a n i nternally c onsistent s et o f s tructural a nd c ompositional c haracteristics, w hich a rgue

w hich s et t hem a part

f rom t he s trata b eneath t hem ,

f or a s imilar d epositional e nvironment

a nd

f or a ll o f t hem.

A lthough t he c htnam l oa f oundation i s m ost s imilar t o t he i n-situ l acustrine s ediments i n t erms o f i ts g eochemical

p roperties,

t he b ody

o f t he c hinampa , e xhibits a p ronounced s tratigraphic a lternation i n C a/K a nd

C a/Mg r atios

( Figures

v acillations i n t he

2 1,

2 2).

C a/Mg r atio i s

W hile t he m agnitude o f t he f airly m inor,

c hanges i n t he C a/K r atio i s q uite e xtreme. f luctuations i n r atio v alues a re n ot f oundation,

p resent

t he m agnitude o f t he

T hese s tratigraphic i n t he c hinamba

w hich s uggests t hat t he f oundation w as n ever c ultivated;

i t m ost p robably c onsists o f a rtificially e mplaced l akebed t aken f rom s omewhere i n t he v icinity. c learly l acustrine, v alues,

S trata A V t hrough A S a re a ll

b oth i n t erms o f t heir c omposition a nd g eochemical

w hich a re a ll w ithin t he r ange r eported

s ediments

s ediment,

( Figures 2 1,

f or i n-situ l akebed

2 2).

T he p attern o f h igh a nd l ow r atio v alues c oincides w ithin t he c hinamre b ody

( -1.5 t o 1.07 m ).

'o ccur w ith h igh s cores f or C a/K,

T hat i s, a nd 8 3

h igh v alues

f or C a/Mg c o-

t he d ifferences b etween h igh a nd

D EPTH B ELOW S URFACE ( M ) 25

20 I

15 I

10 I

05 I

00 1

F igure 2 1: C alcium/Magnesium r atio.Mixquic C hinampa P rofile. D EPTH B ELOW S URFACE ( M) 2 .5

2 .0

1 .5

1 .0

05

. 00

C )

C )• 0 o -5_ ‘ 7 : 1

0

-

0

C l )

c )

▪ •

L . )_

8

F igure 2 2: C alcium /Potassium r atio. M ixquic C hinampa P rofile. D EPTH B ELOW S URFACE ( M ) 25

20 I

15 I

10 I

05 I

00

O D —

F igure 2 3 : P h v alues. M axquic C hinampa P rofile.

l ow a re e xtreme,

r elative t o t he l akebed s trata.

A lthough t hese a re

a pparently t he v ery s ediments w hich w ere u sed t o c onstruct t he c hinamDa , b ody,

t he a queous c onditions p eculiar t o t his a griculture a nd t he

c ultivation o f c rops o n t hese h ave s ignificantly a ltered t heir c hemical c onfiguration.

L ow C a/Mg v alues i ndicating a w arm w ater,

e vaporative

e nvironment c oincide w ith l ow C a/K s cores, w hich i ndicate a n i ncreased c oncentration o f K , i n s trata A E,

A C,

a nd h ence o f e lastic f eldspars a nd c lay m inerals,

A A,

Y ,

U ,

S ,

K ,

a nd

R .

T he r egular a lternation o f l ow

r atio s trata w ith t hose e xhibiting h igh r atio v alues X ,

a nd W )

s uggests t hat s ome n atural

( AF ,

A B ,

V ,

Z ,

T ,

p rocess a nd/or c ultural p ractice

o ccurred a t r egular i ntervals w hich o n o ne h and p romoted t he c oncentration o f C a a nd M g i ons,

t he p recipitation o f M g a nd t he

c oncentration o f K b earing e lastics, i onic c oncentration,

a nd o n t he o ther h and,

l eft m ore M g i n s olution,

h indered

a nd p revented t he

c oncentration o f f eldspars a nd c lay m inerals. I t i s u nlikely t hat c ontamination

f rom t he m odern w ater t able w ould

s ignificantly a lter o r d etermine t his p attern o f c hemical r atios. m odern w ater w ere g oing t o a ffect t he s ediments, a ffect t hem a ll

i n a c onsistent m anner.

T hus,

i t w ould

p resumably

w hile m odern

c ontamination c ould c onceivably s kew t he r atio v alues, i tself c ause s uch e xtreme

I f

i t c ould n ot b y

f luctuations i n c hemical v alues f or s ediments

s o c losely a ssociated i n s pace. E ach s tratum b etween A H a nd s urface a t o ne t ime.

Fw as p robably t he t opmost c ultivation

S everal l ines o f e vidence s upport t his c ontention.

F irst,

t he s trata i n q uestion a re v irtually i dentical

c olor,

t exture,

d istinguished

i n t erms o f

c omposition a nd d etrital c onstituents.

T hey a re

f rom o ne a nother m ainly. i n d egrees o f c ompaction,

c olor o f t heir w eathered a sh i nclusions,

a nd

p roportions o f q uartz, g ypsum a nd m iscellaneous e lastic g rains, C aCO 3 n odules.

T hey a re d iscrete,

t he

i n t he r elative a nd

s eparate s trata w hich r epresent

r epeated d epositional e vents o f a p articular k ind. S econdly, d iffer

t here a re n o s trata a t t he t op o f t he ek inamme w hich

f rom t his c onsistent

i n u ncharred ' repeated'

p attern o f b lack,

c ompact,

p eaty s ilt r ich

p lant m atter, c arbonate a nd e lastic i nclusions.

I f t hese

s trata r epresented a r apid d eposition f ollowed b y

c ultivation o nly o n a t op l ayer,

t hen t he u ppermost s tratum ( F )

s hould

e xhibit a m arkedly d ifferent s et o f p hysical a nd c hemical c haracteristics f rom t he s trata b eneath i t. A dditionally, t hicker,

I t d oes n ot.

t he s trata i n t he c hinampa b ody s hould b e s omewhat

m ore u neven a nd a morphous i f t hey w ere a ll a pplied a t o nce

m erely t o s erve a s a f oundation.

T he s trata i n t he b ody a re e xtremely

t hin a nd n eatly c rescentic i n o verall

s hape.

T here a re n o s ignificant

u ndulations i n t heir s urfaces s uch a s t hose s een i n A Y,

8 5

A V o r A T.

G eochemical d ata p oint t o a p robable c ause o f c hinamoa a bandonment. T he e ight c onsecutive u ppermost s trata,

K t hrough F ( -1.25 t o 1.07 m )

e xhibit a n a verage C a/Mg v alue o f 0 .97 a nd a n a verage C a/K v alue o f 4 7.3.

T hese s trata h ave a n a verage

C a/Mg v alue 4 2% l ower t han t he

a verage f or t he c hinamoa b ody a s a w hole, a nd a n a verage l ower.

C a/K v alue 6 6%

T he c onsistent t endency t oward l ow C a/Mg r atios i n t he u pper

t hird o f t he e nf la me , b ody s trongly s uggests t hat e xtensive m oisture l oss a nd r esultant d ifficulties w ith h ypersalinity w ere a t l east t wo o f t he f actors d etermining t he l ifespan o f a g iven c hinamoa. o f t he f ield's s tructure a nd

i nfilling o f t he a djacent c anal d o n ot

a ppear t o h ave p romoted a bandonment o f t his s tructure i s c ompletely i ntact e xcept r odent b urrows, s tructureless, ( Stratum E ).

C ollapse

p articular c hinamoa.

I ts

f or p ost-depositional c racks a nd

a nd t he a djacent c anal

f ill,

w hich i s h omogeneous a nd

i s c ontinuous o ver t he t op o f t he c hina me i tself

T here a re n o c lay o r s ilt l aminae i n t he c anal w hich w ould

s uggest g radual e rosion f rom t he r idge a nd d eposition o n t he c anal b ottom. O ne i ssue, w hich i s r aised b y t he a pparent d egeneration o f t he c tanampa's p roductivity a nd l ifespan o f a ny g iven f ield. p reliminary c lues.

F irst,

i ts c onsequent a bandonment, A gain,

t his c hinamDa p rovides s ome

t he e ntire s tratigraphic s equence o f t he

b ody a ppears t o b e i ntact a nd c omplete.

I t e xhibits n o u nconformable

o r d istorted s trata w hich w ould s uggest t hat

p art o r a ll o f t he u pper

s trata h ad b een r emoved t o d ispose o f e xhausted s oil. ' reworking' s trata,

o r s oil r enewal

w hich i s

i s t he a ctual

i n t his c ast t ook t he

I t a ppears t hat

f orm o f a dding n ew

f ar m ore l abor e fficient t han d igging u p t he o ld r idge

f irst a nd t hen r e-applying n ew s oil. o nly a dded a nd n ot r emoved,

I f i t i s t rue t hat s trata w ere

t hen t he c hinamoq b ody m ust b e t he r esult

o f a r egular p rocess o f s oil r enewal; I t m ust a lso r epresent t he e ntire d epositional s equence.

T herefore,

c hinampa b ody ( AH t hrough F , l ifespan.

t he

p rofile)

1 8 c onsecutive l ayers i n t he m ust r epresent i ts e ntire

H ow l ong t his l ifespan w as i n t erms o f y ears c annot b e

a scertained a t t his s tage o f t he a nalysis. o verall b ody, i ts

W hat i s c lear i s t hat t he

s alinity o f t he c hinamoa i ncreased i n t he u pper t hird o f i ts

a nd

f rom t his w e m ay s uppose t hat

f inal y ears,

a pplied t o

h owever l ong t hat w as.

i ts p roductivity d eclined i n I f a dditional s trata w ere

i t i n a n e ffort t o k eep t he s oil

' fresh',

t he s urface w ould

b e r aised h igh e nough a bove t he w ater l evel t o a ccelerate e vaporation. D rainage m ay w ell h ave b een i nadequate

f or t he p ercolation o f f resh

w ater t hrough t he u pper l ayers o f t he s oil.

T he n atural t endencies o f

t he s wamp t oward h ypersalinity w ould b e a ccelerated. T he g radual a n a bove-water 8 ,

a nd

p rocess o f c onversion ' dry '

B D i n t he

f rom a s wampy c hinampa f ield t o

e nvironment i s r epresented b y s trata E ,

p rofile.

D ,

C ,

A ,

T his t ransformation f rom n earshore s wamp t o

b ackshore d ry l and i s d ue t o a eolian d eposition o f s ilt.

8 6

I n t he c ase

o f t he M ixquic chin a = f ield, w hich l ies l akeward a pproximately f rom t he p iedmont,

1k m

i nfilling o f t he c anal b ottoms ( e.g. s tratum A O )

w ould h ave r educed t he w ater d epth t o s hallow c hannels b etween a bandoned gnnampas. A eolian s trata E a nd D w ould h ave e liminated a ny r elict c hannels a nd t hus c ompleted t he f ield's c onversion t o a n a bovew ater e nvironment ( Figure 2 3).

T he a ctive s horeline w ould h ave m igrated

f urther t oward t he c enter o f t he l ake, a bandoned

a t l east i n a reas w here

f ields c lose t o t he o ld s horeline w ere u ndergoing a eolian

s ubmersion.

S trata C ,

A ,

Ba nd B D w ould t hen h ave b een d eposited a top

a n u neven, m oist t errain w hich w as p robably l acking a ny v egetation e xcept i nitial c olonizing s pecies. r espectively) w ere d eposited

T he t hickness

( 40 a nd 8 0 c m,

a nd i nternal c onsistency o f Aa nd B s uggest t hat t hey f airly r apidly,

a nd t hus m ay n ot h ave h ad t ime t o

d evelop a m ature p lant c ommunity. T he c olor, c ompaction a nd t exture o f E ,

C ,

A , a nd B s uggest t hat

t hese a re a eolian d eposits d erived f rom t he s outhern p iedmont d uring t he a ccelerated p osthispanic e rosion. b rown;

A ll f our a re d ark g ray t o g rayish

a ll a re h ighly c ompact y et l ightweight,

w ith a f ibrous t exture.

A ll a re h omogeneous a nd u nstructured, a nd n one d isplay a ny o f t he c haracteristics o f t he n earshore s wamp a nd c hinamoa s ediments: c arbonate n odules, c olor.

p eaty t exture, n oticeable p lant p arts o r b lack

T he C a/Mg a nd C a/K r atios f or t hese a eolian s ediments f urther

s upport t he p roposed p rocess o f c onversion f rom a n earshore s wamp t o b ackshore d ry l and

( Figs 2 1,

2 2).

S trata E t hrough B s how s teadily

d ecreasing C a/Mg v alues, w hich i ndicates p rogressively m ore e vaporative c onditions.

T he C a/Mg v alue o f 0 .59 f or s tratum B i s t he l owest v alue

i n t he e ntire s tratigraphic c olumn, s tage o f c anal i n-filling,

a nd a ppears t o r epresent t he f inal

i n w hich t he l ast t races o f m oist o r s wampy

c onditions d isappear w ith a d ropping w ater t able a nd r etreating s horeline.

T he h igh C a/K v alues s uggest t hat v ery l ittle K b earing

f reshwater w as r eaching t his s ection o f t he n ewly r eclaimed b ackshore. A bsolute e levation o f c hlnampas i n L ake C halco a nd . L ake X ochimilco S everal w riters h ave a rgued t hat l arge-scale r egulation o f w ater t able l evel w ithin t he e ntire C halco-Xochimilco l ake b asin w as a k ey d imension o f l ate P ostclassic c hinamoa c ultivation ( Palerm 1 960, A rmillas e t a l.

1 971;

1 982a).

B lanton

1 972;

P arsons

1 976;

S anders e t a l.

1 979;

1 973; P arsons

T hese d iscussions h ave e mphasized t he n ecessity t o

p revent i ncursions o f s aline w ater

f rom L ake T excoco,

a nd t o

c ontinuously m aintain w ater t able l evels w ithin a f airly n arrow v ertical r ange s o a s t o p rovide c onditions o f h umidity a nd d rainage a ppropriate f or s eed g ermination a nd p lant g rowth. A s f ar a s w e k now , a ll i nsights i nto t his h ave h itherto d erived a lmost e xclusively f rom e thnographic a nd e thf lohistoric s ources.

I f w e c ould d emonstrate w hether

t he e levation o f c htnampa s urfaces w ere u niform, 8 7

t hen w e m ight b e a ble

t o m ake a n a dditional, h ydraulics o n L ake

C halco-Xochimilco.

e xcavations w ithin L ake U nfortunately,

a rchaeological c ontribution t o p rehispanic T o t his e nd, w e t ied a ll o ur

C halco i nto a s ingle d atum p oint.

w e c ould n ot e xtend

e xcavations o n L ake X ochimilco,

t his i nstrumental l inkage t o o ur

b ut w e d id r elate t he f eatures

e xcavated a t b oth X o-Az-46 a nd X o-Az-47 t o e ach o ther.

T hus,

w e k now

t he c omparative a bsolute e levations o f t hree w idely d ispersed a ncient c hi .namDa. f ields o n L ake a nd

C h-Az-236)

C halco

a nd o f f ive

c entral L ake X ochimilco

( The M ixquic C hinampa P rofile,

f ields

f rom w ithin a m ore c ompact a rea o n

( Xo-Az-46 a nd X o-Az-47).

T he t op o f t he b uried c hina pma r idge a t t he M ixquic a bout

C h-LT-77,

2 .65 m b elow t he m ain d atum

( Figure 2 0).

P rofile l ies

T he t op o f t he b uried

f ield a t C h-LT-77 i s a bout 4 .4 m b elow t he s ame d atum,

w hile t he

c omparable s urface a t C h-Az-236 l ies a bout 2 .0 m b elow t his r eference p oint.

T his i ndicates t hat t here w as c onsiderable v ariation i n a bsolute

e levation o f c hinamp& f ield r idges w ithin L ake

C halco.

I f t he l ow-lying

f ields i n t he C h-LT-77 a rea w ere b eing c ultivated s imultaneously w ith t he t wo h igher f ields e lsewhere,

t hen t here m ust h ave b een s ubstantial

s ub-systems o f f lood a nd d rainage c ontrol t able l evels w ithin a cceptable r anges.

i n o rder t o m aintain w ater

I f t his r easoning i s c orrect,

w e

m ight e xpect t o f ind t races o f e xtensive a ncient d iking s ystems w hich d efined m ajor h ydraulic

' compartments'

w ith t he l ake b asin.

I n f act,

t here a re t races o f m any s uch o ld e mbankments ( none o f t hem y et m apped, d ated,

o r e xcavated)

a t n umerous l ocalities.

I t i s a lso c onceivable

t hat n ot a ll c hinampas . a t d ifferent e levations w ere b eing c ultivated s imultaneously.

I n s uch a c ase,

t here w ould h ave b een l ess n eed

f or

s ophisticated h ydraulic c ontrols o f t he s ort w e e nvision h ere. W ithin t he m ore c onfined a rea o f X o-Az-46 a nd X o-Az-47 o n c entral L ake X ochimilco,

t here i s l ess e xtreme v ertical v ariability:

C hinampa r idge l ocation

c m b elow l ocal d atum

X o-Az-46,

P it A

6 3

X o-Az-47,

P it A

1 60

X o-Az-47,

P it

B

X o-Az-47,

P it

C

X o-Az-47,

P it E

8 7

( chinamra s tatus u ncertain) 1 30

8 4 ( chinampa s tatus u ncertain)

T hese w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave b een w ithin t he s ame h ydraulic ' compartment'. I n s um,

t here

i s s ubstantial v ariation i n t he a bsolute e levations

o f a ncient c hinampa f ields.

T his v ariability r aises q uestions t hat

c annot

p resently b e a nswered a bout t he n ature a nd o rganization o f

h ydraulic t echnology,

a bout t he c ontemporaneity o f eina ma

c onstruction a nd u se,

a nd a bout

f ield f unction.

p ossibility t hat t here w ere s eparate h ydraulic

I n p articular, ' compartments'

t he w ithin

t he l ake b asin s eems w orthy o f a dditional c onsideration.

C onclusions

1 :

C omposition a nd

f unction o f c hinamoa f ields

W e t ested e ight s eparate a ncient c tgnampas: t hree o n L ake C halco ( Ch-LT-77,

C h-Az-236 a nd t he M ixquic C hinampa P rofile),

L ake X ochimilco

( all a ssociated w ith X o-Az-46 a nd

w hich a re s omewhat q uestionable). o lder t han L ate f ields.

T he

A ztec,

a nd

f ive o n

X o-Az-47, t wo o f

A ll o f t hese w ould a ppear t o b e n o

a nd w e s till l ack a ny d irect e vidence o f e arlier

f ields a t X o-Az-47 m ay h ave b een c onstructed d uring E arly

C olonial t imes. C hinamPa f ields a re r eadily r ecognizable a s s uch w hen e xposed a cross t heir s hort a xis

( width),

b ut m uch l ess s o w hen s een a long t heir

l ongitudinal d imension.

I n m ost c ases,

t he f ields w e t ested c onsist o f

r idges o f l akebed s ediments p iled u p i n a c onsistent a nd p atterned m anner: t here a re

f airly t hin,

r elatively h orizontal l ower l ayers

c omprised l argely o f d isplaced g ray-white v olcanic a sh, l ayers o f c ompact, r idge.

a nd t hick u pper

d ark s oil w hich f orms t he v ery d istinctive f ield

T he m ost r ecognizable o nes a re n ever m ore t han a bout 2 i n w ide,

a lthough s ome o f t he h igh, c hinamPas o f u nusual

i rregular m ounds a t X o-Az-47 m ay r epresent

s ize a nd

f orm.

O ur d etailed s tudy o f o ne b uried c hinampa P rofile)

h as

p rovided

p rovocative i nsights.

t o s how t he b uild-up o f t he t hin s oil l ayers a top t he

( the M ixquic

C hinampa

T he c ross s ection a ppears

f ield t hrough t he s uccessive a pplication o f

p rimary a rtificial r idge a nd i ts e ventual

a bandonment d ue t o s alinization a t t he e nd o f a c omparatively s hort p eriod.

W e a re

s till u ncertain a bout t he c hronology o f t his p articular

s equence o r t he d egree t o w hich i t r eflects t he o verall e nvironmental c onstraints a nd d evelopmental h istory o f c hinampas w ithin t he g eneral C halco-Xochimilco l ake b asin.

T hese q uestions c an o nly b e r esolved b y

t he s tudy o f a dditional c hinampa s oils a nd t hrough a b etter u nders tanding o f l akebed g eology a nd g eomorphology.

I n p articular,

t he

i ssues o f f ield c ontemporaneity a nd t he e ffect o f s alinity o n p roductivity n eed t o b e c larified.

O ur g eochemical d ata a re, a t l east,

c onsistent w ith t he e thnohistoric a nd e thnographic e vidence w hich i ndicates t hat s alinization w as a m ajor p roblem f or c hinampa a griculturalists o f h istoric t imes.

8 9

W e w ere s omewhat s urprised t o

f ind

s uch g reat v ariability i n t he

a bsolute e levation o f L ate A ztec c hinamma f ield

s urfaces:

d ifferences o f u p t o 2m o ccur w ithin L ake C halco, c entral

a nd

v ertical

s ome f ields i n

L ake X ochimilco a re v ertically s eparated b y m ore t han

1i n .

I n

k eeping w ith o ur p resumptions o f l arge s cale r egulation o f w ater t able i n t he m aximization o f c hinamue p roduction, a nticipated g reater u niformity. c hronological,

f unctional,

a nd o rganizational i mplications,

n ot n ecessarily m utually e xclusive. b een b uilt e arlier,

a nd

F irstly,

w hich a re

l ower f ields c ould h ave

s ubsequently a bandoned a s r ising w ater l evels

n ecessitated t he b uilding o f h igher l ower

w e h ad o riginally

T his v ariability h as p otential

f ields i n l ater t imes.

S econdly,

f ields m ight h ave b een u sed e xclusively f or t he c ultivation o f

w ater-loving p lants w ith g reater s alt t olerances,

w hile h igher f ields

m ight h ave b een u sed c oncurrently f or c rops r equiring b etter d rained a nd b etter a erated s oils.

T hirdly,

b oth l ower a nd

h ave b elonged t o d ifferent h ydraulic o ff s ections o f t he l akebed, o perations. 2 :

' compartments',

d efined b y d iked-

w hich w ere l argely a utonomous i n t heir

T hese q uestions r emain u nresolved.

T he c omposition a nd W e

h igher f ields m ay

f unction o f m ounds

f ind t hat t here a re a t l east t wo d istinct c ategories o f

i n o ur s tudy a rea:

( 1)

h ouse p latforms,

a nd

( 2)

h igh

' chinampas'.

f ormer g enerally c onsist o f e arth a nd r ock r ubble e levations, b y s tructures, r esidential

' mounds' T he

c apped

u sually v ery p oorly p reserved, w hich p robably h ad a

f unction.

T he l atter,

w ith n o r ock r ubble a nd a lmost n o

d omestic r efuse, m ay r epresent c hinampa f ields o f u nusual h eight a nd/or f orm. h igh

W e s till

u nderstand l ittle o r n othing a bout t he f unctions o f s uch

' chiin ampas',

b ut i t m ay b e i mportant t o n ote t hat v irtually a ll

o f t hose w e h ave p ositively i dentified a re a ge

( i.e.

t hose a t X o-Az-47).

T hus,

p robably o f E arly C olonial

s ome o f t he u nusual h eight a nd

f orm

w e o bserve c ould r elate t o c hanging c onditions o f t he e arly p osthispanic e ra.

F or e xample,

t he g eneral r ise i n w ater l evel o f t he

l ake b asin p roduced b y S panish-imposed l ate s ixteenth c entury ( Gibson

1 964;

W ithin t he c ategory o f h ouse

f lood c ontrol m easures o f t he

A rmillas

p latforms,

1 971).

w e n ote w hat s eems t o b e

a n i mportant d ifference b etween t he E arly a nd L ate A ztec

p eriods:

A ztec h ouse p latforms a ppear t o c onsist o f m asses o f r ock, m idden d ebris t hat r est d irectly o n t he l akebed,

e arth,

E arly a nd

w hile L ate A ztec

p latforms w ere u sually b uilt a top p re-existing c hina me f ields. W e w ere p articularly p leased t o f ind t hat t here i s e xceptionally g ood

p reservation o f o rganic r emains i n a t l east

s ome c ontexts:

m idden d ebris h as a ccumulated i n s oggy o r w ater-logged a longside h ouse p latforms,

w here

c ontexts

a nd w here t his h ousehold r efuse h as r emained

i n p lace t o b e g radually s ealed a nd c ompacted o ver t he y ears b y 9 0

o verlying d ebris.

T he r ichness o f t hese o rganic r emains s erves t o

p artially o ffset o ur d isappointment a bout t he g enerally p oor s tate o f a rchitectural

p reservation a top t he A ztec-period h ouse p latforms.

3 : E xchange _ gnc t u rban-rural r elationshios T here a re s everal

i ndications t hat t here w ere q ualitative

d ifferences b etwen t he E arly A ztec a nd L ate A ztec p eriods i n t he w ay einampa a griculturalists w ere e conomically l inked t o c onsumers i n o ther p arts o f t he V alley o f M exico.

p roducers a nd

A vailable e vidence

s uggests a much c loser l ink t o t he u rban m arketplace i n L ate A ztec t imes t han f or t he E arly A ztec p eriod. T his i s s een i n t he r eplacement o f t he l ower q uality,

b ut m ore r eadily a vailable g ray o bsidian m ost

c ommonly f ound i n E arly A ztec s ites b y t he h igher q uality g reen o bsidian w hich d ominates t he L ate A ztec l ithic a ssemblages a t t he c hinampa s ites.

I t i s k nown t hat T enochtitlan c ontrolled t he s ingle

s ource o f g reen o bsidian i n L ate A ztec t imes B rumfiel

( e.g.

C harlton

1 978;

1 980), a nd i t s eems q uite l ikely t hat L ate A ztec i nhabitants

o f t he ctinamPa z one a cquired t his m aterial d irectly f rom T enochtitlan. I t i s m ore d ifficult t o r econstruct t he a cquisition o f o bsidian d uring t he E arly A ztec p eriod w hen g ray o bsidian,

o f u nknown

p rovenance,

a nd

s mall a mounts o f g reen o bsidian m ade t heir w ay i nto t he C halcoX ochimilco l akebed.

H owever,

i t i s l ikely t hat m ore d iverse a nd l ess

c entralized r elationships s tructured t he E arly A ztec C omparable r elationships w ith t he

p robably p rovided

f low o f o bsidian.

E arly A ztec ckinamte f armers

p iedmont p lant p roducts t hat w e d etected

i n t he m idden a t C h-

A z-195. T hese l ithic d istributional m ore t entative i mpressions

p atterns c omplement a nd r einforce o ur

f rom v ery p reliminary c eramic a nalyses.

O ur

E arly A ztec d eposits h ave p roduced v ery l ittle o f t he e laborate b ichrome a nd

p olychrome

p ottery w hich i s s o c haracteristic o f n earby

E arly A ztec u rban c ommunities.

I n c ontrast,

o ur L ate A ztec d eposits

c ontain a n umber o f t he e laborately d ecorated c eramic t ypes w hich o ccur i n g reat

f requency a t l arger c enters o f t hat p eriod.

T he p resence o f b utchered c ow a nd m idden a t X o-Az-47 g ives a dditional P ork a nd b eef w ere b oth s old m id

1 520s,

p ig b one i n o ur E arly C olonial

i nsight i nto t his s ame p roblem.

i n t he M exico C ity m arketplace a fter t he

w ith i ncreasing q uantity a nd c heapness d uring t he s ubsequent

d ecades ( Matesanz

1 965;

C rosby

1 972).

W hile i t i s

p ossible t hat t he

u biquitous a nd h ardy p ig m ay h ave b een r aised l ocally w ithin t he c hinampg d istrict d uring E arly C olonial t imes, t hat b eef w as i mported

f ar m ore l ikely

f rom o utside t he i mmediate r egion.

f armers o f E arly C olonial t imes C ity m arketplace,

i t i s

C hinamPa

p robably a cquired b eef f rom t he M exico

a nd t his p robably r eflects a c ontinuation o f t he

c lose r ural-urban e conomic l inks w hich h ad b een e stablished i n L ate 9 1

A ztec t imes.

T he s herd o f l ate s ixteenth c entury C hinese

p ottery i n o ur

o riginal s urface c ollection a t X o-Az-46 a lmost c ertainly c ame t o t his s ite i n a s imilar m anner 4 :

( Parsons e t a l.

1 982a:461).

T he d evel u nent o f c hina ma a gricylture - &d&gchronlp p erspective O ur e xcavations a t

C h-Az-192 r einforce o ur e arlier b elief t hat

l ocal e inampa c ultivation o ver a s ubstantial a rea i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f X ico

I sland w as p robably w ell u nderway b y t he v ery

b eginning o f t he E arly T oltec

p eriod.

I t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand t he

p resence o f t his l arge E arly T oltec l akebed o ccupation i n a ny o ther w ay.

T he c ultivable l and o n X ico I sland i tself i s m uch t oo s mall a n

a rea t o s upport t he e stimated p robably r esided t here.

5 000-10,000 E arly T oltec i nhabitants w ho

W e s till h ave a lmost n o u nderstanding o f w hat

s timulated s uch a n i ntensification o f l akebed a griculture i n t he f irst p lace.

T he u nexpected

p resence o f C lassic p eriod a rchitecture a t t he

b ase o f o ur C h-Az-192 e xcavation m ay e ven i mply a m odest b eginning o f l ocal s wamp d rainage p rior t o t he e ighth c entury A D. T he r ole o f q hipam ie c ultivation d uring t he L ate T oltec p eriod 9 50-1150 A D)

r emains a lmost u nknown.

t hroughout t he

O verall

C halco-Xochimilco l akebed

p opulation d ecline

i n g eneral,

a nd a t X ico

i n p articular, m ay m ean t hat c ultivation w as d iscontinued p eriod o f t ime.

W hatever t he c ase,

( c.

I sland

f or s ome

o ur e xcavations b uttress o ur e arlier

i nterpretations a bout t he e xpansion o f s wamp d rainage a nd O inampa a griculture i n E arly A ztec t imes.

W e

f ind t hat d uring t his p eriod

r ather s ubstantial m asses o f e arth a nd r ock f ill w ere h auled, a lmost c ertainly b y c anoe,

t o m any l akebed l ocalities w here t hey w ere t hen

p iled u p t o f orm p latforms f or d omestic s tructures a nd m odest

p ublic b uildings.

A s a r esult,

p ossibly e ven

a g reat d eal o f e arlier

o ccupational d ebris w as s hifted a round t he l akebed s urface, i n s urprisingly l arge q uantities. n ecessary

I n t his r egard,

i t w ill

s ometimes

p robably b e

f or u s t o r e-interpret t he s ignificance o f s ome o f t he s mall

c oncentrations o f p re-Aztec s urface p ottery w hich w e l ocated o n t he l akebed d uring o ur e arlier s urface s urveys. A lthough w e s till l ack d irect e vidence t hat t hese E arly A ztec g roups w ere a ctually c ultivating c hinam i f l , e vidence t o t his e ffect i s s trong; p ermanently o ccupied h abitations; f rom n on-swampy t errain,

t hat

t he o verall

i ndirect

t he s ettlements a ppear s ubstantial, t he l akebed s ites a re s o f ar a way

i t i s d ifficult t o e nvision t hem

i mporting t he b ulk o f t heir s ubsistence n eeds f rom o utside t he l akebed z one;

u nless t here w as a v ery m arked g eneral l owering o f t he w ater

t able i n E arly A ztec t imes,

t here w ould a ppear t o b e n o o ther v iable

s ubsistence a lternative t o c hinamva i n t his s wampy t errain.

A s w e n oted e arlier,

i t a ppears t hat E arly A ztec h ouses w ere b uilt

a top r ock-earth-debris p latforms

p iled d irectly o nto t he l akebed

s urface.

P resumably,

c hinamma f ields w ere t hen c onstructed i n t he

a djacent v icinity i n c omparatively a utonomous f ashion b y t he i nhabitants o f e ach l ocal c ommunity. t he L ake A ztec/Early C olonial b een b uilt

T his c ontrasts q uite m arkedly w ith

s ituation i n w hich t hey a ppear t o h ave

p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he h ouse

c ommonly r est a top t he

f ields,

p latforms t hat

e xcept i n t hose c omparatively f ew c ases

w here L ate A ztec o ccupation d irectly o verlies a n E arly A ztec s ettlement,

a s a t C h-Az-237.

T his i mplies a r ather m assive p rogram o f

s wamp d rainage a nd ck inamma b uilding a t o r n ear t he b eginning o f t he L ate A ztec p eriod, s mall g roups.

p rior t o t he w idespread s ettlement o f t he l akebed b y

I t i s d ifficult t o i magine s uch a v ast c onstruction

p roject b eing u ndertaken i n a ny o ther f ashion t han t hrough t he d irect i mpetus a nd c ontrol o f a h ighly c entralized

p olity.

I t i s e qually

p lausible t hat t he s ubsequent L ate A ztec s ettlement o f t he c hinamDA , d istrict w as c omparably c ontrolled b y t his s ame

p olity,

l arge e states w ere p arcelled o ut t o u rban n obility, d istributed o ver t he

p roductive l andscape,

p resumably a s

a nd t enants w ere

n ewly c reated b y s tate

a uthority i n a n e ffort t o p rovide s ubsistence s ecurity f or i ts u rban c apital.

A cknowledgements F ieldwork h as b een c arried o ut w ith t he a ssistance a nd c ooperation o f m any i ndividuals a nd

s everal

i nstitutions.

P ermission

f or t he

p roject w as g ranted b y t he I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologfa e H istoria,

M gxico,

D .F .

G astön G arcfa C antü, G arcia-Barcena

I n

p articular,

A rqlgo.

w e a re g rateful t o

A ngel G arcia C ook,

P rofessor

a nd A rqlgo.

f or t heir m any e fforts o n o ur b ehalf.

J oaquin

O ur w ork w as a lso

g reatly f acilitated b y t he c ooperation o f s everal l ocal a uthorities. I n t he M unicipio d e C halco, P residente M unicipal; A yuntamiento; d e

C halco;

S r.

a nd S r.

E jidal d e

I sidoro

D .

I ng.

C arlos S änchez,

S ecretario d el

P residente d el

A ngel M elendez X olalpa,

C omisariado E jidal

P residente d el C omisariado E jidal D .F .:

G ral.

F elipe

S ubdelegado G eneral;

S r.

D .F.:

F elix M olotla, I ng.

A gustin J uarez

C omisariado E jidal d e X ochimilco; P residente d el

A storga

P residente d el

I n t he D elegaciön d e X ochimilco,

C omisariado E jidal d e T ulyehualco;

P residente d el

F elipe M edina S antos,

D aniel M edina B onilla,

T lahuac.

R eza V aldes,

P residente d el B ecerril,

J .

B rigido S alas,

I n t he D elegaciön d e T lahuac,

D elegado;

C omisariado L ic.

L ic.

d e M exico:

a nd S r. M elicio R omero,

d e X ico N uevo. O choa,

C .

E do.

a nd S r.

C omisariado E jidal d e S an

G regorio A tlapulco. T he b ulk o f o ur F oundation

f unding c ame f rom t he U .S.

( Grant B NS 8 0-04697).

A dditional

N ational S cience

f unding a nd l aboratory

.s pace w ere s upplied b y t he U niversity o f M ichigan M useum o f A nthropology,

t he

U niversity o f P ittsburgh,

9 3

a nd t he U niversity o f

C alifornia a t L os A ngeles. D uring o ur f ieldwork a nd a nalysis w e h ave b een a ssisted b y K urt A nchuetz, G orenflo,

N icholas J ames,

A ntonio R ibiero.

J ose a nd A sela C arriaga,

G retchen N eve,

A pphia P arsons,

L arry a nd M arco

K ay C lahessy p repared m any o f t he f igures,

M arcia

K ing-Johnson a nd J ill L opick t yped t he m anuscript.

R eferences c ited . A lzate,

D .J.A.

1 831

G acetas d e L iteratura d e M exico ( Vol.

O ficina d e H ospital d e S an P edro, A rmillas, 1 971 B aer,

I I).

I mpresas d e l a

P uebla, 4xico.

P . G ardens o n s wamps.

S cience 1 74:653-661.

J .L.

1 969

P aleoecology o f c yclic s ediments o f t he L ower G reen R iver

F ormation, S tudies B lanton,

C entral U tah. B righam Y oung U niversity G eology

1 6:3-96.

R .E.

1 972

P rehispanic s ettlement p attern o f t he I xtapalapa P eninsula

R egion,

M exico.

A nthropology , B ordine,

P ennsylvania S tate U niversity D epartment o f

O ccasional P apers i n A nthropology 6 .

B .W.

1 965

P aleocologic i mplications o f s trontium,

i n J urassic R ocks n ear T histle,

c alcium a nd m agnesium

U tah. B righam Y oung U niversity

G eology S tudies 1 2:91-120. C alnek ,

E .

1 972

S ettlement p attern a nd c hinampa a griculture a t T enochtitlan.

A merican A ntiquity 3 7:104-115. C alnek,

E .

1 975

O rganizaciön d e l os s istemas d e a bastecimiento u rbano d e

a limentos: e l c aso d e T enochtitlän.

I n L as c iudades d e A merica

L atina y s us a reas d e i nfluencia a t raves d e l a h istoria , e dited b y J .E . S .I.A.P., C harlton, 1 968

S chadel,

p p.41-60.

E diciones

T . P ost-Conquest A ztec c eramics:

i nterpretation. C harlton, 1 972

H ardoy a nd R .P .

B uenos A ires. i mplications f or a rchaeological

T he F lorida A nthropologist 2 1:96-101.

T . P ost-Conquest d evelopments i n t he T eotihuacan V alley, M exico.

P art

1 . E xcavations. O ffice o f t he S tate A rchaeologist o f I owa

R eport 5 . C hilingar, 1 953

G .V.

U se o f C a/Mg r atio i n l imestones a s ag eologic t ool.

C ompass

3 0:202-209. C oe,

M .

1 964

T he c hinampas o f M exico.

S cientific A merican 2 11:90-98. 9 1 4

C rosby,

A .W.

1 972

T he C olumbian E xchange:

o f 1 492. F olk,

G reenwood P ress,

b iological a nd c ultural c onsequences W estport,

C onnecticut.

R .L.

1 980

P etrology o f S edimentary R ocks.

F riedman, 1 978 G ibson,

G .M . a nd J .E .

H emphill P ub.

C o.,

A ustin.

S anders

P rinciples o f S edimentotogy . J ohn W iley a nd S ons,

N ew Y ork.

C .

1 964

T he A ztecs u nder S panish R ule.

S tanford U niversity P ress,

S tanford. H arvey,

H .R.

1 976

P ublic h ealth i n A ztec s ociety. P aper p resented a t t he 4 2nd

I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, H urlbut,

C .S.

1 977

J r a nd C .

M exico C ity.

K lein

M anual o f M ineralogy ( After J ames D . D ana).

W iley a nd S ons, K allgren, 1 982

J .K. F ood,

1 9th e d.

J ohn

N ew Y ork.

( editor) f amine, a nd t he C hinese s tate - a s ymposium. J ournal

o f J ournal o f A sian S tudies 4 1:685-801. M atesanz, 1 965

J . I ntroduccion d e l a g anaderia e n N ueva E spana,

1 521-1535.

H istoria M exicana 1 4:533-566. N uttall,

Z .

1 925

T he g ardens o f a ncient M exico.

S mithsonian I nstitution , P alerm ,

1 923 ,

Annual R eport o f t he

p p.453-465.

A .

1 960

T he a gricultural b ase o f u rban c ivilization i n M esoamerica.

I rrigation C ivilization : a c omparative s tudy , S teward. P alerm ,

I n

e dited b y J ulian

P an A merican U nion S ocial S cience M onographs

1 :28-42.

A .

1 973

O bras H idräulicas P rehispänicas e n e l S istema L acustre d el

V alle d e M exico. M gxico, P arsons, 1 976

D .F .

J .R. T he r ole o f c hinampa a griculture i n t he f ood s upply o f A ztec

T enochtitlan.

I n C ultural C hange a nd C ontinuity , e dited b y

C harles C leland, P arsons, 1 982a

I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologfa e H istoria,

J .R.,

E .

p p.233-257.

B rumfiel,

M .

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork.

P arsons a nd D . W ilson

P rehispanic s ettlement p atterns i n t he s outhern V alley o f

M exico: t he C halco-Xochimilco R egion. M useum o f A nthropology , U niversity o f M ichigan , M emoirs 1 4. P arsons, 1 982b

J .R.,

E .

B rumfiel,

M .

P arsons,

V .

P opper a nd M .

T aft

L ate p rehispanic c hinampa a griculture o n L ake C halco-

X ochimilco, M exico.

M anuscript o n f ile, M useum o f A nthropology,

U niversity o f M ichigan. P eMafiel, 1 884

A . M emoria s obre l as A guas P otables d e / a C apital d e M gxico.

O ficina T ipogräfica d e l as S ecretaria d e

F omento, M gxico,

D .F .

R eeves,

C .C.

I ntroduction t o P aleolimnology: d evelopments i n

1 968

S edimentology I I . S anders,

E lsevier P ress,

N ew Y ork.

W .T.

1 957

T ierra y A gua ( soil a nd w ater ): a s tudy o f t he e cological

f actors i n t he d evelopment o f M esoamerican c ivilization. U npublished H arvard S anders, W .T.,

1 979

P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity. J .R.

P arsons a nd S .

S antley

T he B asin o f M exico : e cological p rocesses i n t he e volution

o f ac ivilization. S antamaria,

A cademic P ress,

N ew Y ork.

M .

L as C hinampas d el D istrito F ederal.

1 912

l a S ecretaria d e S chilling, 1 939

F omento,

M 4-x ico,

I mprenta y F btotipia d e

D .F .

E .

D ie " schwimmenden garten" v on X ochimilco.

S chriften d es

G eographischen I nstitNtes d er U niversit t K iel, B and I X , H eft 3 . S elley ,

R .C.

A ncient S edimentary E nvironments. C ornell U niversity P ress,

1 978

I thaca. S iegel,

F .R.

1 961

V ariations o f S r/Ca R atios a nd M g C ontents o f R ecent C arbonate

S ediments i n t he N orthern

F lorida K eys A rea.

J ournal o f

S edimentary P etrology 3 1:336-342. T illy ,

C .

1 975

F ood s upply a nd

p ublic o rder i n m odern E urope.

I n T he

F ormation o f N ational S tates i n W estern E urope , e dited b y C harles T illy,

P rinceton U niversity P ress,

P 1 3.380-455.

P rinceton. W est,

R . a nd P .

1 950 W ilken, 1 979

A rmillas

L as c hinampas d e M e 'xico.

C uadernos A mericanos 2 :165-182.

G .

M ucks , m ucking , a nd s oils o f t he c hinampas o f M exico.

p resented a t t he 4 3rd

I nternational

V ancouver.

9 6

P aper

C ongress o f A mericanists,

A NCIENT R AISED F IELD A GRICULTURE I N T HE M AYA L OWLANDS O F S OUTHEASTERN M EXICO

S .R.

G liessman,

B .L.

T urner,

F .J.

R osado M ay a nd M .F .

h mador

R ecent s tudies h ave d emonstrated t hat t he p rehistoric M aya o f t he Y ucatan p eninsular r egion d eveloped s everal t ypes o f t echnologies w hich e nabled t hem t o c ultivate w etlands 1 981;

S iemens

( Siemens a nd

1 982).

( Puleston

1 977;

T urner a nd H arrison

I nitial o bservations w ere m ade a long w ater c ourses

P uleston

1 972), b ut w ere s ubsequently e xtended t o l ow-

l ying t errain t hroughout s outhern Q uintana R oo a nd n orthern B elize ( Turner

1 974;

H arrison

1 981,

H arrison

1 977,

1 978;

S iemens

1 978,

1 982;

T urner a nd

1 983), a nd p erhaps t o P etgn ( Adams e t a l.

1 981).

O bservations o f g round p atterns s uggested t hat l arge a reas o f w etlands h ad b een d evoted t o s ome k ind o f c ultivation,

p resumably i nput a nd

o utput i ntensive, w hich r elied o n s ystems o f c anals o r d rains, r aised p latforms, a nd o ther s tructures w hich p ermitted w ater m anipulation. D espite t he n umber o f o bservations o f g round p atterns t hought t o b e r elics o f w etland a gricultural s ystems, g round s tudies h ave b een l imi ted t o s mall n etworks o f f ields a long t he R io C andelaria, ( Siemens a nd P uleston n .d.),

C erros

C ampeche

1 972), a nd i n n orthern B elize a t L amanai ( Lambert

( Scarborough

1 980),

A lbion I s.

( Siemens

1 982;

P uleston

1 977;

S karie e t a l. n .d.)

a nd P ulltrouser S wamp ( Turner a nd H arrison

1 981,

1 983). M ost o f t he e vidence o f f ield-canal m orphology, a ssociated

c ultivars, d ates, a nd s o f orth c ome f rom t he l atter t wo s tudies o n s yst ems t hat i nclude n ot m uch m ore t han 3 00 h a o f w etlands. S iemens

( 1982)

o f f ields,

I ndeed,

e stimates t hat n orthern B elize c ontains a bout 3 ,200 h a

a lthough r emote s ensing w ork s uggests t hat w etland m anipu-

l ation m ay h ave e ncompassed a l arger a rea ( Adams e t a l. I n c ontrast t o n orthern B elize,

1 981).

s outhern Q uintana R oo c ontains a

v ast n etwork o f d epressions o r b ajos , m any o f w hich h ave g round p att erns i ndicative o f t he f ields a nd c anals 1 978;

S iemens

1 978,

1 982;

( Turner

T urner a nd H arrison

1 974;

1 981).

H arrison

1 977,

I ndeed, a c on-

s ervative e stimate o f t he a rea o f b ajos w ith g round p atterns i n Q uintana R oo i s 4 0,000 h a

( Turner a nd H arrison n .d.).

S uch l arge z ones

o f p otential w etlands f ields i s c ritical t o i nterpretations o f M aya p rehistory a nd h as s parked c ontroversy ( Puleston T urner a nd H arrison

1 979).

1 978;

S anders

1 979;

T his r eport p resents t he r esults o f g round

s urveys a nd a nalysis o f o ne p rojected w etland s ystem i n a l arge b ajo c omplex o f s outhern Q uintana R oo.

9 7

T he s tudy a re

T his s tudy w as c arried o ut i n t he

B ajo M orocoy,

s ituated i mmedi-

a tely n ortheast o f t he t own o f N icolas

B ravo i n t he s outheastern p art

o f t he s tate o f Q uintana R oo,

T he r egion i s p art o f t he

k arstic,

f lat,

l ow-lying c oastal m argin o f t he l imestone s helf f orming t he

Y ucatan P eninsula B ravo,

M exico.

i s

( Figure

1 ,323 m m,

M ay t hrough O ctober

1 ).

A nnual r ainfall,

r egistered a t N icolas

w ith 7 6% o ccurring d uring t he w et s eason m onths o f ( Lopez e t a l.

c an o ccasionally c ause s eriour n orth d uring N ovember a nd

1 977).

f looding,

D ecember.

a nnual t emperature i s 2 7.5 ° C .

C yclones i n

a s c an r are s torms

P lumeria r ubra

S arukhan

T he m ean

T he n atural v egetation o f t he l ow 4 -8 m t all, w ith

d ominant s pecies s uch a s H aematoxvlum c ampechianum, ( Pennington a nd

f rom t he

T he d riest m onth i s A pril.

d epressions i s s emi-deciduous t o d eciduous f orest, C amerAria l atifoli4 ,

A ugust t o O ctober

1 969;

f . aqutifolia,

C .P.

C owan,

M etor lium b rownei, A chras _ z aDota ,

p ersonal c ommunication).

T he

p articular d epression s tudied i s a t a n e levation o f 8 0-85 m a bove s ea l evel,

f orming i n t otal a n a rea o f a pproximately

1 5-20,000 h a.

T here i s

v ery l ittle s lope i n t he d epression,

t opographic s tudies d own b y t he

S ecretaria d e

H idräulicos i ndicate l ess t han a

A gricultura y R ecursos

0 .3%. o r b ajo ,

T he d epression,

h as s low i nterior d rainage,

v arious d egrees o f s easonal i nundation.

S oils i n t he b ajos t end t o b e m ollisols

i s u ncertain. T urner

R io U cum a rcs

a lthough t he e ffect o f t hat w ater c ourse i n t he b ajo

a round t he i t, 1 977;

T he i ntermittent

r esulting i n

1 978),

m ostly o f t he h aplaquoll v ariety,

( Lopez e t a l. t hat a re c harac-

t erised b y h igh l evels o f m ontmorillonite c lay a nd s urface c onditions w hich a re

s ticky a nd

t ively d eep

( 1-2 m )

i mpermeable i n t he w et s eason.

T he s oils a re r ela-

a nd l ight t o d ark g rey i n c olour.

T hey a re

f ormed

i n p art b y t he b reakdown i n p lace o f t he c alcareous b edrock a nd t he d ep osition o f c olluvium f rom s lopes s urrounding t he b ajos . B ecause o f t he p eriodic p lan

f looding,

f or t he s outheast o f M exico,

R eforma A graria g rowing r ice. 1 979 i n

( SRA),

p roposed

a dministered b y t he S ecretaria d e

t hat s uch b ajos b e u sed

B ajo M orocoy a nd

p lanted w ith t he a id o f t he S ecretaria d e

a nd a ll s eeding,

( SARH).

H arvesting w as b y c ombines.

t he f irst

p lanting s eason, 2 ,000 m m,

r eady t o h arvest, w as l ost, ( SARH,

1 979,

F ield

f ertilising,

a erially.

e xceeded

p rimarily f or

A n a rea o f 2 ,400 h a w as m echanically c leared i n e arly

A gricultura y R ecursos H idräulicos w ith t ractors,

t he a gricultural c olonisation

T he

p reparation w as d one

a nd s praying w as d one

i ntensity o f r ainfall d uring

w as m uch g reater t han n ormal, a nd

w ith a l arge p art o ccurring a t t he t ime t he r ice w as i .e.

N ovember-December.

a nd l ess t han h alf o f t he i nitial

1 980).

9 8

A l arge p ortion o f t he c rop i nvestment w as r ecovered

YUCATAN \

• •

CAMPECHE

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GU A T E MAL A

SCALE IS

90 °

1 :3500 000 70

I LO N I ETE.

8 60

F igure 1 : B a jo M orocoy , Q uintana R oo, M exico.

9 9

T he C olegio S uperior d e A gricultura T ropical

i n C ardenas,

T abasco,

a pproached t he p lanning a gencies c oncerning t he s tudy o f p resent b ajo c onditions a nd c ultivation s ystems, s tudies a t N icolas

B ajo M orocoy.

I t i s

a nd S ARH i nvited u s t o c onduct

p art o f a c omplex w hich s tretches f rom

B ravo t o U cum a nd w hich i s r eported t o c ontain z ones c overing

3 4,600 h a o f r elict

f ields a nd c anals.

b y T urner

( 1974),

I ndeed,

H arrison

( 1977),

a nd

S iemens

c leared b y t he p resent a gricultural s cheme.

1 7.2).

W e w ere a ble,

a pproximately

( Turner a nd H arrison

t hen,

t o

( 1978)

b efore i t w as

A erial p hotographs o f t he

c leared b ajo b y S ARH s howed t he s ame p lace a nd p hotographed b y T urner

s uch s ystems w ere

i n g overnment a erial p hotographs a t t he b ajo

p hotographed o r o bserved

p attern o riginally

1 978

:F igures

1 7.1

a nd

p inpoint o n t he g round t he l ocation

3 .6 k m n orth o f t he E scarcega-Chetumal h ighway, w here

S ARH h ad e xcavated

s everal t renches a cross a c omplex o f f ield-like

p latforms a nd c anal-like d epressions. W e w ere f ortunate t o a rrive i n t ime t o e xamine t he e xposed m aterial d uring t he d ry s eason o f M ay 1 980.

M ethods

I n o rder t o d escribe t he d ifferences o bserved i n t he m icrorelief o f t he b ajo ,

1 00 m l ong t ransects w ere s urveyed w ith a t ransit,

e levations t aken e very 5 m a long a t otal o f 4 0 l ines.

w ith

H alf o f t he

t ransects w ere c arried o ut a cross w hat a ppeared t o b e a m ajor c anal w ith r aised

s urface o n b oth s ides,

a nd t he o ther

i n a n a rea o f r aised

s urfaces a nd a c omplex l attice-work o f i nterconnected s maller c anals. A fter d etermining e levational d ifferences,

t he a verage h orizontal a nd

v ertical d i-mensions o f t he p latforms a nd c anals w ere c alculated. S ARH 's e xcavations, m ade b y a b ackhoe, d imensions o f 1m w ide, b oth,

1 .5 m d eep,

h ad o pened t renches w ith

a nd a pproximately 5 0 m l ong.

I n

t he t renches p assed t hrough a t l east t wo p latforms a nd o ne c anal.

O ne e xtended a cross a m ajor c anal a nd t he o ther t hrough a n a rea o f s maller c anals. W e c ollected s oil d ata a t p rofiles, u sing

r ecorded

s oil c olour,

a nd t ook s amples

d escribed

s oil

f or c hemical a nalysis

s tandard m ethodologies e mployed b y t he e cology a nd s oils l abora-

t ories a t t he a lso t aken

C olegio S uperior d e

1 05 ° C .

F or a ll

m iddle,

s amples,

p laced

S amples w ere

i n t ares f or g ravimetric

s oil m oisture a fter d rying

f or 2 4 h ours a t

e qual a mounts o f s oil w ere c ollected a t t he

a nd b ottom o f e ach h orizon,

s amples t aken f or a nalysis. a t l east

A gricultura T ropical.

f rom e ach s oil h orizon a nd

d eterminations o f p ercent

t op,

4m i ntervals,

w ell m ixed,

a nd t hen d uplicate

T otal s ample w eights i n t he

f ield e xceeded

2 00 g .

A n a dditional v isit w as m ade t o t he

s ite i n e arly S eptember

1 980 t o

m ake o bservations o f s oil m oisture c onditions a nd c rop r esponse f or t he 1 00

s econd s eason 's p lanting o f r ice a t t he p eak o f t he w et s eason. M easurements w ere m ade o n r ice p lants g rowing i n t he c anals a nd o n t he p latforms w ith t he i dea o f u sing t he p lants t hemselves a s i ndicators o f s oil c onditions. A t t en r andomly c hosen l ocations, o n b oth c anals a nd p latforms,

5 0 x 5 0 c m p lots o f r ice w ere c ut a t g round l evel.

T he t otal

n umber o f s tems, a verage h eight p er p lant, a nd b iomass p er p lot w eight a fter 4 8 h ours a t 7 0° C )

( dry

w ere d etermined.

R esults T he d ifferences i n m icrorelief i ndicate a f airly r egular p attern o f e levated s urfaces a nd i nterconnected d epressions b etween t hem.

T he a v-

e rage h eight o f t he p latforms i s 3 5-45 c m h igher t han t he d epressions f or t he s ite a cross a l arge c anal

( site

1 ),

w ith a l esser d ifference

o ccasionally f ound i n t he a reas o f s mall c anals ( site 2 ).

T he d epth o f

t he l arge c anals i s 2 5-30 c m l ower a t i ts l owest p oint t han t he a rea o f s maller i nterconnected c anals. a pproximately 0 .3 p ercent,

T he s lope s urveyed i n t he l arge c anal i s

i ndicating t he r elative f latness o f t he

b ajos.

T able

1 :

A verage d epth o f s oil h orizons i n c anals a nd p latforms a t t wo s ites i n t he B ajo o f M orocoy ,

n ear N icolas B ravo,

Q uintana

R oo, M exico.

S ite

1

S ite 2

H orizon d escription

P latform

C anal

P latform

( cm )

D ark b rown, d ry

C anal ( cm)

2 5.0+5.0

2 5.0+0

2 5.2+0.35

2 5.0+0

4 6.2+2.3

4 5.0+0

7 2.5+26.2

M issing

a ggregates S peckled g rey-brown

4 0.0+7.6

6 0.0+10.0

g ley D ark g rey g ley

7 0.0+12.6

M issing

V ery l ight g rey

10.0+0

1 00.0+7.1

1 28.3+22.5

9 6.7+5.8

10.0

1 00.0

1 28.3

9 6.7

g ley .

D ecomposed l imestone

1 01

T wo r epresentative t ransects a re p resented i n F igure 2 . H orizontal d imensions o f t he s ystem a re q uite v ariable.

T he p latforms a re s quare

t o r ectangular r anging f rom 1 0 t o 2 5 m w ide.

A rea o f t he r aised s ur-

f aces v aries

f rom 4 00 t o 6 00 m2 .

s tretch a cross t he c leared

T he s everal l arge c anals, w hich

p art o f t he b ajo , a re u p t o 2 0 m w ide,

w hereas t he i nterconnected s econdary c anals v ary f rom 8 -12 m w ide.

A ll

o f t he s econdary c anals c onnect w ith t he p rincipal c anals. C onsiderable s oil d ifferences a ppeared b etween t he p latforms a nd c anals

( Table

1 ).

C overing t he e ntire s urface o f t he b ajo t o a d epth

o f 2 5 c m i s a d ark b rown c rumbly c lay l ayer.

B elow t his i s a nother

1 5-

2 0 c m l ayer,

s peckled g rey-brown i n c olor, m uch m ore c ompacted t han t he

u pper l ayer.

I t i s i nteresting t hat t his l ayer e xtends a n a dditional

c m i n t he l arge c anal a t S ite

1 .

1 5

T he t hird h orizon o ccurs o nly o n t he

p latforms, b eing a v ery d ark g rey c lay 2 0-25 c m t hick ,

t hat i s v ery

d istinct f rom t he t wo l ayers a bove a s w ell a s t he 4 0-50 c m t hick v ery l ight g rey c lay t hat f ollows. c anals.

T he d ark g rey h orizon i s m issing f rom t he

T he u nconsolidated l imestone, l ocally c alled s ascab ,

u nder-

l ying t he e ntire a rea i s l ight g rey t o w hite i n c olour, a nd c ont ains c onsiderable c arbonate a nd g ypsum. t he u pper h orizons.

T he t otal d epth o f t he s oil l ayer i s g reater o n t he

p latforms t han o n t he c anals, c anals ( over

e specially i n t he a rea o f t he s econdary

3 0 c m d ifference).

c ategory o f t he m ollisol o rder

T able

R ock i s g enerally l acking f rom

T hese s oils c orrespond t o a h umic g ley ( Jenny

1 980).

S oil a nalysis o f s amples f rom p latforms a nd c anals a t t he B ajo o f M orocoy.

p H

H orizon

0 .M.

P O4

T otal N

N O3

C a

M g

K

P Pm m e/100g

S urface 0 -25

5 .8

3 .40

0 .70

. 153

4 7.00

5 1.20

1 9.2

. 406

P latform 2 5-45

5 .8

3 .55

2 .79

. 091

3 1.25

5 3.90

1 8.4

. 389

P latform 4 5-75

5 .8

2 .54

1 .87

. 041

2 .54

5 4.56

1 9.0

. 280

P latform 7 5-100

7 .4

1 .58

2 .17

. 021

0 .29

6 4.20

2 0.5

. 193

C anal

2 5-45

6 .5

3 .25

1 .08

. 140

5 4.70

5 8.48

1 8.0

. 558

C anal

4 5-105

7 .1

1 .26

0 .96

. 034

4 .60

5 8.98

1 9.6

. 278

S ascab

> 105

7 .3

T

0 .78

. 025

0 .50

7 8.26

2 3.2

. 225

1 02

L aboratory a nalysis o f t he s oils p oint o ut s ome i nteresting d iffere nces

( Table 2 ).

A s w ould b e e xpected

f or t his s oil t ype,

p H r ises w ith

g reater d epth, a lthough t he s oil o n t he p latforms i s m ore a cidic, e specially t he d ark g rey l ayer.

O rganic m atter d rops c onsiderably w ith

d epth, b ut l ess r apidly o n t he p latform, w here t he d ark l ayer s till r et ains m ore t han 2 .5%.

E xchangeable p hosphate i s l ow f or a ll h orizons,

b ut t here i s a t wofold d ifference b etween t he p latforms a nd t he c anals. T otal n itrogen i s h ighest a t t he s urface a nd d rops o ff r apidly w ith i ncreasing d epth.

T he s econd,

s peckled h orizon o n t he p latform s hows

l ower t otal n itrogen t han t he c anal s oil

f or t he s ame h orizon.

N itrate

i s h igh o nly n ear t he s urface, b eing g reatest i n t he s econd h orizon o f t he c anals.

P otassium s hows t he s ame t rend a s n itrate.

m agnesium, o n t he o ther h and, l evels a t b edrock,

C alcium a nd

i ncrease w ith d epth, r eaching h ighest

a nd s how s imilar t rends i n b oth t he c anals a nd

p latforms.

T able 3 :

G ravimetric m oisture d eterminations i n s oils c ollected d uring b oth t he w et a nd d ry s easons a t t he B ajo o f M orocoy.

1 5 M ay

S urface

0 .25

( %)

6S ept 1 980

1 980

2 5.0 + 4 .2

5 2.4 + 5 .3

P latform

2 5.45

4 7.3 + 2 .8

6 4.1 + 5 .4

P latform

4 5-75

6 2.5 + 5 .9

6 5.7 + 2 .8

P latform

7 5-110

6 7.1 + 5 .2

C anal

2 5 -4 5

6 6.4 + 6 .9

6 4.8 + 3 .2

C anal

4 5-100

7 0.8 + 2 .6

6 6.0 + 1 .8

> 100

4 1.7 + 3 .1

S as'cab

E xcept

n .d.

n .d.

f or t he s urface h orizon i n t he d ry s eason,

a ll o thers s howed

c onsiderable m oisture ( Table 3 ), b oth i n t he w et a nd d ry s easons. o nly f or t he f irst

( 0-25 c m )

a nd s econd

( 25-45 c m )

d ifferences o ccur f rom o ne s eason t o t he n ext. l evels i n t he s oil a re q uite h igh,

I t i s

h orizons t hat

B elow 4 5 c m, m oisture

w ith a nything a bove 7 0% p robably

b eing a t s aturation. T he l ow r eading f or t he s ascab m aterial i s d ue t o t he h igh r ock c ontent i n t he s ample. o f a d eep w ater t able ( Löpez e t a l. a t a d epth o f

I nterestingly, d espite r eports

1 977), w ater w as e ncountered

1 .5 m i n t he t rench o pened a cross t he l arge c anal.

B elow

4 5 c m n o d ifferences w ere f ound b etween t he p latforms o r t he c anals, r egardless o f t he s eason. W hen t he s tudy a rea w as r evisited a gain i n t he w et s eason, t he d evelopment o f t he 1 03

1 980 r ice c rop r eflected c losely

T able 4 :

R ice g rowth a nd d evelopment o n p latforms a nd c anals i n t he B ajo o f M orocoy.

P lanted 2 0 M ay

S tems/m 2

A ve. H t.

S ite

1 980, m easured 6 S ept

1 980.

P lant

B iomass/m 2

( cm)

g ms d ry w t.

1

P latform

3 46.7 ± 1 24.1

C anal

2 1.4 +

2 457.3 + 2 01.4

4 .7

1 03.5 +

2 7.0

6 8.1 + 1 8.6*

8 66.1 + 1 50.5

2 3.4 +

4 .6

1 22.5 +

6 1.6

5 3.5 + 1 4.8

6 76.0 +

6 1.4

S ite 2 P latform

8 29.3 + 4 78.7

C anal

1 466.7 + 2 64.0

* Plants f lowering i n t he c anal a t S ite

t he t opographic d ifferences. a spects m easured

1 .

B est g rowth t o f lowering i s s een i n a ll

f or t he p lants g rowing i n t he c anals

( Table 4 ).

T he

p lants o n t he r aised s urfaces w ere d ry a nd s tunted, a nd p robably w ould n ever f lower.

F or t he e ntire c rop ,

h arvest w as t o b egin o ne a nd a h alf

m onths a fter t he d ate o f m easuring.

D tscussion T he t opographic p atterning i n t he B ajo M orocoy, a s s hown b y g round s urvey a nd s oil a nalysis,

s upports t he b elief t hat s uch d epressions

w ere u sed b y t he a ncient M aya f or i ntensive a gricultural p roduction. T he i nterpretations o f o ur o bservations a re d iagrammatically p resented i n

F igure 2 .

A pparently t he d ark g rey s oil l ayer

( layer

3 )

f ound o nly

o n t he p latforms i s t he r emnant o f t he a ncient p lanting b ed t hat w as e xcavated f rom t he l ower c anal-like d epressions a nd m ounded u p t o f orm a p lanting s urface,

a vailable f or c ropping e ven a t t he p eak o f t he w et

s eason. T his s oil l ayer p robably f ormed t he o riginal b ed o f t he b ajo , w hich w as e xcavated d own t o t he p arent m aterial a nd m ounded u p ,

c re-

a ting p latforms t hat o nce s tood 6 0-70 c m h igh d uring t he t ime o f u se. T he p enetration o f t he s ascab z one m ay h ave b een a r esult o f a n a ttempt t o o btain a s uitable h eight b etween t he t op o f t he f ield a nd t he m aximal w ater l evel i n t he c anal. p latforms,

T he s urface a reas o f t he

4 00-600 m2 , i s c onsistent w ith t he s ize o f t he f ields

f ound a t P ulltrouser S wamp ( Turner a nd H arrison

1 0 1 4

1 981).

A 2

3

, : 2 :1 2 : 2 . • . • , . „ . .. . , : , . , / , .. : 1. , . : : . .

5

•

F igure 2 : At ypical s ection t hrough t hp r aised f ields o f t he B a jo M brocoy .

A =m ain c anal ( 8-10m w ide ) B =p latform ( 15-20m w ide ) C=s econdary c anal ( 6-7m w ide ) 1=d ark s urface f orest s oil 2=s peckled b rown r ecent f ill 3=d ark g rey r aised p latform 4=l ight g rey c lay 5 =w hite d ecomposed l imestone b edrock ( sascab )

1 05

T he l arge c anals a ppear t o o ccupy a s mall p ercentage o f t he a rea d evoted t o t he c anal n etwork ( less t han c lose t o 6 0% o f t he b ajo s urface f igure i s h igher t han D enevan's i nterpretation, ( Turner a nd

( Gliessman, ( 1979)

b ut w ithin t he r ange

H arrison

1 981).

1 0%),

a nd t he p latforms o ccupy u npublished d ata).

T his

c alculations b ased o n p hoto

f ound

f or o ther M aya f ields

T he i rregularity o f p latform a nd c anal

s izes a re a lso c onsistent w ith o ther M aya s ystems.

T he

f latness o f t he

b ajo f loor a lmost p recludes d rainage p er s e a s t he p urpose o f t he s ystem.

I ndeed,

S ARH a ttempts t o d ig d rainage c anals t o

f acilitate

h arvesting h ave m et w ith l ittle s uccess. T he s triking s imilarities b etween t he r esult o f a nalysis o f t he s urface l ayers a nd t he d ark g rey l ayer o n t he p latforms l ends m ore c redibility t o o ur a rgument t hat t he o riginal b ajo s urface w as u sed f or m ound c onstruction. m atter,

A cidic

p H ,

c onsiderable r esidual o rganic

h igher l evels o f p hosphate,

a nd l ower l evels o f c alcium a re a ll

d ifferences t hat c ould h ave b een e stablished b y m ounding u p t he o riginal t opsoil, c anal

a nd t hen m aintained b y a c ombination o f p eriodic

c learing a nd a gricultural

o rganic m atter

i nputs.

p ast u se.

i nto

f or c onstant

H igher t otal n itrogen a nd n itrates i n t he c anals

m ay b e m ore a r esponse t o a nd t hen w ashed

p ractices w hich a llowed

t he

f ertilisers a pplied t o t he c urrent r ice c rop d epressions,

r ather t han a ny r eflection o f

P eriodic e xcavation o f t he c anals a nd c onsequent c ontact w ith

t he c alcium r ich l imestone b elow c ould a ccount t hat e lement t here,

s imilarly f or m agnesium.

f or t he h igher l evels o f C onstant h igh h umidity

b elow t he s urface l ayer w ould h ave a ided g reatly i n m aintaining h igher o rganic m atter l evels,

a s w ell a s a ssociated a cidity.

o f c ertain

f eatures o f t he s oil,

p edological

a nalysis a nd s oil t exture, m ight p rovide f ields w ere u sed

i n t he

p ast.

u s t o b elieve t hat t he s oils o f t he

e ven i n t he d ry s eason, l eads

b ajos p robably n ever d ry o ut t o

e specially w hen s till c overed b y f orest.

w ould h ave g reatly l imited a gricultural c onstructing r aised

e specially c lay m ineral

f urther v erification t hat t he

T he h igh m oisture l evels i n t he s oil,

a ny s ignificant d egree,

F urther a nalysis

f ields.

T his

u se o f s uch w etlands w ithout

E ncountering w ater a t

1 .5 m i n o ne o f o ur

e xcavations h elps e xplain h ow t his m oisture i s m aintained.

O nly t he

u pper 4 5 c m,

d irectly a ffected b y h igh s olar i nput,

d ryness,

t his w ould b e g reatly r educed w ith a c ontinual v egetative

c over.

a nd

T he a rgument,

r esponsible

f or t he

s howed a ppreciable

t hat a t ype o f g ilgai a ctivity m ight h ave b een f ormation o f t he p latforms

( Puleston

1 978), w ould

n ot s eem p lausible w ith m oisture l evels a s h igh a s w e o bserved.

T he

r esponse o f t he r ice c rop a ided u s i n m ore c learly o utlining t he t opog raphic d iversity w hich u ndoubtedly w ould h ave b een m uch c lea re r a rea h ad n ot b een a ltered ‚ years

s o g reatly b y h eavy m achinery d uring t he t wo

p revious t o o ur s tudy.

f orested b ajo c ould

i f t he

C areful c learings o f a djacent s ections o f

p rovide i nformation o n t his p oint. 1 06

W e h ave o nly l imited e vidence o n t he t ypes o f c ultivation p ractices a ssociated w ith t hese r elict b ajo s ystems. S wamp a nd A lbion I sland

i n

E vidence

f rom P ulltrouser

B elize i ndicates t hat m aize a nd c otton m ay

h ave b een c omponent c rop s pecies

( e.g.

T urner a nd H arrison

1 981).

O therwise,

b y s tudying p resent d ay l ocal u se o f w etlands i n s outheast-

e rn M exico

( Gliessman

1 979;

W est e t a l.

f rom p ractices u sed d uring M aya t imes, a s t o s ome o f t he A s ystem f or

p lanting w etlands a s t he h as b een d escribed

1 979),

i n p art

f loodwaters r ecede i n M arch,

f or

a lternating w ith t he

l and a t w etter t imes o f t he y ear,

T he

T abasco

f orm t he b asis

m ay h ave i n t he p ast.

( Orozco-Segovia

p lanting o f a djacent h igher

f act t hat t erminology f or t he

v arieties a nd a ctivities h as M aya r oots h as M aize a nd b eans

p erhaps d erived

p ast u ses.

c alled t he m arceno , a nd G liessman

1 969),

c ertain i mplications c an b e m ade

i mportant i mplications.

f or t his c ropping s ystem,

S uch p ractices a re w ell

j ust a s t hey

s uited t o p eriodically

f looded l ands a nd c an a llow f or c ontinual c rop p roduction t hroughout t he y ear.

I nitial

p lanting o f t he r aised

p latforms p robably t ook p lace

a t t he o utset o f t he r ains i n e arly J une w hen c onditions i n t he c anals w ould h ave b ecome t oo w et i n l ate

S eptember,

f or

p lanting.

w ith m oisture l evels i n n ormal y ears b eginning t o

f all t hrough O ctober.

P lanting o f t he d epressions t hen w ould h ave b een

p ossible i n l ate N ovember

f or h arvest d uring t he e arly d ry s eason.

t he s eason t urned o ut t o b e v ery w et, p lanted o n t he

p latforms i nstead,

J anuary o r e arly

H arvest w ould h ave t aken p lace

F ebruary.

I f

a s econd c rop c ould h ave b een

b eing r eady t o h arvest i n l ate

F ollowing t he t wo w et s eason c rops,

a d ry

s eason p lanting c ould a lso b e m ade i n t he c anals a s l ate a s M arch b y u sing s hort c ycle v arieties o f c ultivars s till u sed t oday i n much o f r ural

s outhern M exico

( Orozco-Segovia a nd

G liessman

1 979).

I t

i s u n-

k nown w ith w hich f requency t he c anals m ay h ave b een c leaned f or m oundi ng u p o f t he p latforms, T he

a t hing w hich w ould h ave a ltered t his c ycle.

p robability o f t wo c rops a nd t he p ossibility o f t hree c rops c an b e

p ostulated.

T his i ntensity o f o utput c ould h ave b een m aintained

e cologically b y f requent t he c anals,

' mucking'

o f t he p latforms,

a pplying s oil

f rom

o r t hrough a d iversity o f c ropping p ractices s till

o bservable i n M exico b ased o n a c ombination o f s uch c oncepts a s multiple c ropping, ( Gliessman 1 981).

1 979,

h igh o rganic m atter

1 981;

G liessman a nd

i nputs,

A mador

1 980;

G liessman e t a l.

F ield t ests a re c urrently u nderway i n T abasco t o a ttempt t o r e-

c onstruct a nd m anage s uch a n a groecosystem f ield t o c anal

s ustained T he

( Amador e t a l.

s ystem p ostulated h ere d iffers

t he f ields a t P ulltrouser

1 980).

f rom t hat p ut

S wamp w here s urface w ater

T he

f orward

f or

i s m uch d eeper a nd

t hroughout t he y ear.

f requency o f c ultivation o n t he f ields i s u ncertain,

i t i s a ssumed t o b e h igh, 1 981)

a nd b iological c ontrol

g iven t he l abor c osts

( Turner a nd

a lthough H arrison

o f c onstruction a nd t he e cological c ontexts t hat a re s uitable 1 07

f or c ontinuous-type c ropping. d ensity o f s tructures,

T he a rea i s r eported t o c ontain a h igh

s uggesting a o nce l arge p opulation w hich w ould

h ave p laced h igh d emands o n p roduction s ystems o nly s peculate a s t o p roduction s uggest t hat

s ettlement

f or t rade a nd

s tudies w ill

( Harrison o ther

i ndicate a l arge

p resent i n t he a rea d uring t he l ate C lassic P eriod

1 981).

f actors,

W e c an

b ut

p opulation w as

( e.g.

H arrison

1 981). T he e astern a nd s outhern u plands s urrounding t he l arge b ajo c omplex s how h igh d ensities o f s tructures a lmost e verywhere t he l and i s c leared a nd,

o f c ourse,

N icolas

B ravo a nd T zibanche a re a ncient s ites

l ocated j ust w est a nd n orth o f t he b ajo ,

r espectively.

w e o bserved a l arge n umber o f s tructures o n a n atural s outhern e dge o f t he b ajo .

A nd,

s mall s tone-rubble s tructures,

s urprisingly,

o n n atural

T o o ur k nowledge,

i n a b ajo p er s e ,

i slands i n t he M aya a rea. b ut

F ry a s m ost

p resent.

c eramics a nd

a ssociated w ith e levated C lassic

( 600-850 A D )

( 800 B C-150 A D)

T hese d ates c oincide w ith t hose

f ound a t

i n

s pecimens

P ulltrouser

T he u se o f t he p latform-situated s tructures i s n ot k nown,

s hould b e r ecognised t hat

b ut i t

B ajo M orocoy i s l arge, m uch l arger t han a ny

o ther r aised-field o r c hannelised-field f ields

T he s tructures h ad b een

p robably L ate

o rigin, b ut p ossibly s ome L ate P reclassie S wamp.

p ermit

S ample c eramics w ere p hotographed a nd t entatively

i dentified b y R obert w ere

a s o pposed t o t he e dge o r

p repared s tone,

l ithics w ere c learly v isible i n t he s urface, p latforms.

t hese a re t he

W e h ad n o a rchaeological

a nd s o w ere l imited t o s urface o bservations. l evelled b y t ractor a nd c hains,

s ituated o n

1 .0 k m n orth o f o ur s tudy a rea,

t o t he i nterior o f t he b ajo .

f irst s tructures r eported

i sland n ear t he

f ound a s eries o f

p ossibly h ouse-sites,

r aised-field l ike p latforms a bout c loser

w e

I n a ddition,

z one y et s tudied,

a nd t hat t he

f ound t here a re s ituated a t a lmost 9 k m r ound t rip d istance t o

t he n earest m ainland. Q uintana

I t m ay b e t hat o ther l arge b ajo c omplexes o f

R oo w ill c ontain s ome s tructures a s w ell b ecause o f t he

d istances t o m ainland i nvolved.

C onclusions

T he s tudy o f t he B ajo M orocoy n ear N icolas B ravo h as p rovided t he n ecessary g round

s urvey e vidence t hat t he a ncient M aya u sed r aised

f ields t o c ultivate l ow-lying w etlands t echnology w as a pparently n ot t em,

T his a groecosystem f rom t he s ys-

r ather m ore a m eans o f e nsuring t he p resence o f s uitable p lanting

s urfaces, t he

( bajos ).

s o m uch t o e liminate w ater

o n o ne h and d uring t he

p latforms),

a nd

c anals

s eason

( the t ops o f

p erhaps b y t aking a dvantage o f w ater r etained

t he s ystem d uring t he d ry s eason c ould h ave a llowed

p eak o f t he w et

( the d epressions).

T hese

f or c ultivation t hroughout t he y ear.

p robably c ould h ave s erved t o e liminate w ater 1 08

i n

p rocedures

T he

f ew l arger

f rom t he b ajo

d uring t he i nfrequent h urricanes s ometimes o ccurring i n t he r egion, o r a cted a s c anoe r outes t o t he p roduction z one.

T he s econdary c anals

a ppear t o b e m ore a r emnant o f t he p latform b uilding p rocesses, i ncidentally s erved f or w ater c ontrol.

a nd o nly

T he c anals m ay n ever h ave c on-

t ained w ater t hroughout t he y ear, u nless t he e nvironment w as m uch d iff erent i n t he p ast o r t he M aya r egulated w ater l oss d uring t he d ry s eason.

R egardless, t he c ircumstance s eems t o d iffer

f rom t he y ear r ound

c anal w ater p ostulated f or P ulltrouser S wamp. T his s tudy c orrelates w ell w ith a erial s urveys a nd r emote-sensing w ork d emonstrating a v ery w idespread u se o f w etland c ultivation i n p reh istoric t imes.

O ur r eassessment o f t he a gricultural b asis o f t he M aya

c ivilisation c ontinues, e specially i n r elation t o s ociopolitical s truct ure,

p opulation d ensities,

c ropping s ystems a nd s ocial o rganisation,

a nd t he e nvironmental c onsequences o f s uch i ntensive l and u se i n a ssociation w ith t he c ollapse o f t he c lassic M aya c ivilisation.

A cknowledgements T he a uthors a re d eeply i ndebted t o t he f ollowing s taff m embers o f t he S ervicio d e A gricultura y R ecursos H idräulicos, w ithout w hose a ssistance t his s tudy w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible: V illanueva M .,

I ng.

J uan d e J gsus A barca P .,

I ng. M anuel E ncalada F .,

I ng.

a re m ost g rateful t o J ose W .

a nd i ndirect, t hat h e p rovided. f ield b y S ilas R omero B ., i n t he s pring

I ng.

C arlos C ervera S ., C han P uc

I ng. M ario E . E duardo F ranco V .,

a nd I ng. M ercadeo. W e

f or a ll o f t he a id, b oth d irect

I nvaluable h elp w as p rovided i n t he

A rturo a nd

F ernando A guilar, a nd t he s tudents

1 980 g raduate A groecology c ourse a t t he C olegio S uperior

d e A gricultura T ropical.

F inancial a ssistance f rom C SAT i s a cknowl-

e dged.

R efere r ices c ited A dams,

R .E.W.

1 980

S wamps,

c anals, a nd t he l ocations o f A ncient M aya c ities.

A ntiquity 5 4:206-214. A dams,

R .E.W.,

1 981

W .E.

B rown J r a nd T .P.

R adar m apping,

C ulbert

a rchaeology, a nd A ncient M aya l and u se.

S cience 2 13-1457-1463. A mador, M .F ., 1 980

S .R. G liessman,

R .

C oronado a nd

Agricultura T ropical ( CSAT-Mexico). D enevan, 1 979

F . M irafuentes.

E l u so d e b ancales c omo a lternativa e n l os s uelos m al d renados. I n p ress.

W .M . R aised f ield m easurement c omparisons.

S ummary o f p aper

p resented a t X LIII C ongress o f A mericanists, V ancouver,

B .C.,

C anada.

A ugust,

1 979,

G liessman, 1 979

S .R.

S ome e cological r elationships o f t raditional a groecosystems

i n t he l owland h umid t ropics o f S outhern M exico. t he X LIII C ongress o f A mericanists, G liessman, 1 981

V ancouver,

P resented a t

B .C.,

C anada.

S .R.

A spects o f n itrogen d istribution i n s everal t raditional

a groecosystems i n t he h umid t ropical l owlands o f s outheastern M exico. G liessman, 1 980

E cological B ulletins ( Sweden).

S .R. a nd M .F .

E cological a spects o f p roduction i n t raditional a groecosystems

i n t he h umid l owland t ropics o f M exico. D evelopment, G liessman, 1 981

I n p ress.

A mador

S .R.,

R .

e dited b y J .I.

F urtado,

E spinosa E . a nd M .

I n T ropical E cology a nd

p p.601-608.

K uala L umpur.

A mador A .

T he e cological b asis f or t he a pplication o f t raditional

a gricultural t echnology i n t he m anagement o f t ropical a groecosystems. H arrison, 1 977

A gro-ecosystems 7 :173-185.

P .D. T he r ise o f t he B alos a nd t he f all o f t he M aya.

P rocess i n Maya P rehistory: T hompson ,

e dited b y N .

I n S ocial

s tudies i n m emory o f S ir E ric

H ammond,

p p.469-508.

A cademic P ress,

L ondon. H arrison, 1 978

P .D. B aios r evisited: v isual e vidence f or o ne s ystem o f a griculture.

I n P rehispanic M aya A griculture , B .L.

T urner I I,

p p.247-254.

e dited b y P .D .

H arrison a nd

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. H arrison, 1 981

P .D. S ome a spects o f p reconquest s ettlement i n S outhern Q uintana

R oo,

M exico.

A shmore, H arrison, 1 978

I n L owland M aya S ettlement P atterns , e dited b y W .

p p.259-286.

P .D. a nd

B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

T urner

A lbuquerque.

I I

P rehispanic M aya A griculture. U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. J enny ,

H .

1 980

T he s oil r esource:

V ol.

3 7,

J .H.,

a nd

R enteria A .

I . 1 977

J .

p p.15-17.

L opez,

o rigin a nd b ehavior.

S pringer Verlag,

L anderos G .,

F . L opez M .,

N ew Y ork. J .H.

P ech L .,

F .

G alicia S .

E studio a grolögico s emidetallado d e l a C uenca d el A rroyo U cum,

Q uintana R oo.

S erie E studios ,

P ublicaciön N i imero I I,

A gricultura y R ecursos H idräulicos, M gxico, O rozco-Segovia, 1 979

E cological S tudies ,

D . a nd S .R.

S ervido d e

8 1pp.

G liessman

T he M arcego i n f lood-prone r egions o f T abasco , M exico.

P resented a t t he X LIII C ongress o f A mericanists,

V ancouver,

C anada. P ennigton, 1 968

T .D. a nd J .

S arukhan

A rboles T ropicales d e M exico. 10

I .N.I.F .,

F AO , M exico.

B .C.

P uleston, 1 978

D .E. T erracing,

r aised f ields, a nd t ree c ropping i n t he M aya

l owlands: a n ew p erspective i n t he g eography o f p ower. P rehispanic M aya A griculture, T urner I I,

p p.225-246.

e dited b y P .D.

I n

H arrison a nd B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. S anders, 1 979

W .T. T he j olly g reen g iant i n t enth c entury Y ucatan,

f ancy i n C lassic M aya a griculture.

o r

f act a nd

R eviews i n A nthropology

6 :493-506. S ecretaria d e A gricultura y R ecursos H idräulicos M osaic ( ) d e l a Z ona d e U cum , M arzo 1 977.

Q uintana R oo.

D iario d e a vances d el c ultivo d e a rroz,

r ecords. S iemens, 1 978

F echa d e v uelo

D irecciön d e E studios E specificos,

S ecretaria d e A gricultura y R ecursos H idrgulicos 1 980

( SARH)

C hetumal,

Q uintana R oo,

S ARH , M exico,

D .F.

( SARH ) L aguna

k n .

U npublished

M exico.

A .H. K arst a nd t he p rehispanic M aya i n t he s outhern l owlands.

P rehispanic M aya A griculture , T urner I I,

p p.117-144.

e dited b y P .D .

I n

H arrison a nd B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. S iemens, 1 982

A .H. P rehispanic u se o f w etlands i n t he t ropical l owlands o f

M esoamerica. E . P uleston , S iemens, 1 972

I n Maya S ubsistence. e dited b y K .V.

A .H. a nd D .E.

S tudies i n m emory o f D ennis

F lannery,

p p.205-225.

A cademic P ress.

P uleston

R idged f ields a nd a ssociated

f eatures i n s outhern C ampeche: n ew

p erspectives o n t he l owland M aya.

A merican A ntiquity 3 7:228-

2 39. T urner, 1 974

B .L.

I I

P rehistoric i ntensive a griculture i n t he M ayan l owlands.

S cience 1 85:118-124. T urner, 1 978

B .L.

I I

A ncient a gricultural l and u se i n t he c entral M aya l owlands.

I n P rehispanic Maya A griculture , B .L.

T urner I I,

p p.163-184.

e dited b y P .D .

H arrison a nd

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. T urner, 1 979

B .L.

I I a nd P .D.

C omment o f W .T.

A griculture. T urner, 1 981

B .L.

H arrison S anders R eview o f P rehispanic M aya

R eviews i n A nthropology 6 :544-555.

I I a nd P .D .

H arrison

P rehistoric r aised-field a griculture i n t he M aya l owlands.

S cience 2 13:399-405. T urner, 1 983 W est,

B .L.

R .C.,

1 969

I I a nd P .D.

H arrison

P ull t rouser S wamp. N .P.

U niversity o f T exas P ress.

P suty a nd B .G.

T hom

T he T abascan l owlands o f S outheastern M exico.

U niversity P ress,

B aton R ouge,

p .193.

L ouisiana S t.

T HE E COLOGICAL C ONSEQUENCES O F A NCIENT M AYA A GRICULTURAL P RACTICES I N B ELIZE

J ohn

D .H.

L ambert

D uring t he e arly e volutionary s tages o f a griculture t he e nvironmental

i mpact w ould h ave b een

s light.

s ystems,

d ominated b y s pecies a menable

a ttained

a fter a l ong

t his

b y p ermanent a gro-ecosystems.

r esulted

i n

i ncreasingly l arger

n ew a nd m ore s ophisticated

F ood

w ere o nly

1 978).

D uring

e cosystems

w ere

s urpluses m ay h ave

t echnologies t o m aintain

f ood

s upplies.

p ossible t he e xploitation o f l and n ot c onsidered

f or

h ave l ed

t o t he e stablishment o f l arger

s lash a nd b urn a griculture. W here p opulation i ncreases

a ctivities h ave g enerally h ad t he M aya r egion o f

C entral

a ncient e xtensive s lash a nd b urn w hile t he

p opulation c entres,

a s ubstantial

i ntensive s ystems w ere d eveloped. t oday,

a gricultural

p opulations w hich w ould h ave r equired

s uitable

I n

( Harris

i ntensification n atural

r eplaced

S uch t echnologies m ade

t o d omestication,

p eriod o f a melioration

p eriod o f i ncreasing

S pecialized

s ubsistence

i mpact o n t he e nvironment.

A merica o ne e xtensive a nd t wo B y a q uirk o f h istory i t i s t he m ore a griculture w hich i s s till

t wo i ntensive a gricultural

p ractised

s ystems u sed d uring t he

h eight o f t he M aya

C lassic c ivilization

( 300 B C-900 A D )

d iscontinued

i ts c ollapse a nd

s ubsequent d epopulation o f t he

a fter

t he

w ere

a rea. I n t he

r ecent y ears a rchaeologists h ave s hown a n

p ast

p hysical

c ultures.

e nvironment a nd

H owever, p art o f t he

t he l and

a pplied

C hapman

t o e arly l and

1 981).

b y W iseman

F or

( 1978)

e xample,

u se

p roblem a ssociated

( Butzer

t he

i s t otally u nrealistic

R hoades

r ain a nd

1 978;

s implified K ing a nd

f orest m odel

p roposed

e cologically i mpossible

a s a b iointensive a gricultural

s ystem.

t hat y ou c annot b ring t ogether

t ree s pecies t hat c haracterize t hree

d ifferent

s oil

a nd m oisture r egimes.

l imestone o utcrops, h eavy c lay s oils,

e ven M ayan r uins,

a nd

C acao w ith

A s t he d aily e xistence o f t he t o t he

i mmediate s urroundings,

o bjective i n

s ocial

f armer

w ould

i s a ssociated

f looding

i t i s a ssumed

t hat t hey w ere m ore

e nvironment.

e volution o f t he c ulture.

1 12

w ater.

i ntimately t ied

T he r elative

p hysiographic m odificiations a re r eflected

a nd c ultural

y ou

w ith

a nd m oving

M aya m ust h ave b een

e xpect a ll m odifications t o h ave b een

t ell

C ohune w ith m oderately d rained

s easonal

t he u tilization o f t heir

s uccess o f t heir

A ny M ayan

R amon

f or

w ith t his

i nvariably o ver

1 975;

a rtifical

r egard

u se a ctivities o f a ssociated

d evelopment i s t hat e cological c oncepts a re w hen

i ncreasing

H owever, w e

s uccessful.

i n t he

s hould n ot

T he a dverse

c onsequences o f c ertain m odifications m ight o nly h ave b ecome e vident y ears l ater, w hen t hey m ay h ave b een p revailing

t echnology.

I f t he e cological c onsidered, ( Odum

i mpossible t o r ectify w ith

c onsequences o f i ntensive a griculture a re t o b e

t hen t he o peration o f n atural

1 971;

S haw e t a l.

e cosystems m ust b e u nderstood

1 977).

A gro-ecosystems T he

p rinciples t hat o perate

a gro-ecosystems,

i n n atural

e cosystems a lso

y et t hose s ystems m anaged b y m en

a re o ften

f undamentally d ifferent f rom n atural

e cosystems.

p lants k nown,

t o b e o f m ajor

1 976).

T he

c assava ) t han

o nly 3 0 a re c onsidered

t op s even

( wheat, r ice, m aize,

e ach y ield m ore t han

t wice t he

p otato,

t onnage o f t he r emaining 2 3.

t hat h ave l ocalized

u se

O f t he

1 00 m illion m etric

i n t he

a pply t o

t housands o f

i mportance

( Harlan

s weet p otato a nd t ons a nnually, m ore

T here a re m any m ore p lants

w orld, a f act w hich r eflects m an's

p ast

c lose r elationship t o t he l and. T here a re a n umber o f i mportant d ifferences b etween n atural a gro-ecosystems ( Figure ( 1)

1 ):

A gro-ecosystems a re n ot s elf-sustaining.

s ystems w ith h igh p roductivity. n utrients a re d irected b y m an. r emoved

f low o f e nergy a nd c ycling o f

A l arge p roportion o f f ixed

T he r ecycling o f n utrients i s m inimal

l osses i s h igh. f ertilizer o r

N utrient s upplements a re n eeded

f allow.

C hanging

p attern o f n utrient u ptake a s p roductivity.

I n

am anaged

a nd

t he

i n t he

p otential

f or

f orm o f m ulch,

t he v egetation c omposition a lters t he w ell

a s t he

s easonal

p atterns o f p rimary

s ystem, m ajor l osses o f s oil

A gro-ecosystems l ack i nternal d iversity a nd

r esilience.

c an o ccur b y

r educed o r

s pecies.

e liminated.

P redators'

F or

e xample

h erbivorous i nsects ( such a s p athogens

a nd d ecomposers' i n t he M aya a rea,

S itophilus), m ammals

( such a s m aize m osaic v irus )

S implification o f t rophic p ool

t herefore

S ystems a re d ominated b y m any i ndividuals o f e ither o ne o r

a f ew p referred

i s r estricted

i n a m onocrop.

i n n atural

i n c ultivation.

t rophic l evels a re s usceptibility t o

( such a s Q uash)

o r

a ttack i s g reatly i ncreased.

s tructure r educes i nherent s tability.

o n t he b asis o f a f ew c haracters r ather ' characters i mportant r emoved

e nergy i s

a nd m ajor l osses o f n utrients b y l eaching.

( 3)

g ene

T he

T hey a re m anaged o pen

f rom t he s ystem a t e ach h arvest.

( 2)

e rosion

a nd

S eed

T he

i s a rtificially s elected

t han t he b road v ariety o f

s election.

W ild

p olymorphic

s trains a re

F igure

1 :

L abour I ntensive A gro-Ecosystem

M AN-MADE

I RRIGATION ,

I NPUTS

D RAINAGE ,

I NTERCROPPING,

N ATURAL I NPUT

M ULCH ,

S OLAR

F ERTILIZERS

E NERGY

' CROPS'

M AN

F OOD

E NERGY L OSS E NERGY F LOW N UTRIENT L OSS

( 4)

N UTRIENT C YCLE

P opulations a re n ot

s elf-regulating.

N either c rops o r a nimals

a re a ble t o r eproduce t hemselves s o a s t o m aintain c urrent h igh l evels o f p roduction.

P opulation s ize d epends o n am anaged

e nergy f low i nput

d irected b y m an. ( 5)

W ith n o b uilt-in r esilience t he

e xternal, b reed

i .e. m an-made,

e nergy i nputs.

s ystem m ust b e m aintained b y T here i s a c ontinual n eed

t o

f or h igh y ield, d isease a nd d rought r esistance.

( 6) s ociety,

A gro-ecosystems a re m aintained

u nder c onstraints s et b y

s o t hat w hat m akes s ense b iologically o r e cologically i s n ot

n ecessarily e conomically w orthwhile. T he a gro-ecosystem v egetation.

i s e stablished b y c learing t he n atural

I n a t ropical

f orest e nvironment a l arge b iomass i s r emoved

a long w ith i ts n utrient r eserve. c ycles a re b roken. t o d ifferent n atural

N utrient, h ydrological

T he m icro-climate i s c hanged.

f orms o f w eathering a nd

f orest.

C hanges i n

a nd b iological

s oil

i s e xposed

e rosion t han e xperienced u nder

s oil m icro-climate

p opulations t o a dapt o r t o b e r eplaced.

15

T he

f orce m icro-organism

t he

T wo t he

i mportant n utrient l eaks a re i ntroduced

f orest e cosystem t o a n

c an b e e xpected r emoved

w hen

t o

a gro—ecosystem: n atural

i ncrease;

a nd

a s ubstantial

s eed c rops a re h arvested.

o n t he n utrient p ool

w ith t he c onversion o f e rosion

a nd l eaching

r eserve o f n utrients i s

R oot c rops a re l ess d emanding

a s e ssentially t hey a re o nly a s ource o f

c arbohydrate.

C rop s trategies W ith a ny f orm o f a griculture m an r educes t he d iversity o f t he s ystem a nd

e xposes h is c rops t o am ultitude o f n oxious

p rinciple m eans o f c ombatting

i nsects, d iseases a nd

p ests.

T he

w eeds h as b een

t hrough h ost r esistance, b iological c ontrols a nd c ultural c ontrols. S eed

w ould h ave b een

f or r esistance t o

s elected

f rom m ature r esistant v arieties n ot o nly

p ests, b ut m any o ther c haracteristics.

S uch s election

h as g iven u s t he h undreds o f d istinct v arieties t hat w e k now t oday.

T he

g enetic d iversity o f s uch v arieties h as c onferred a p artial r esistance o r t olerance t o e nvironmental I n a r ecent b iological i n

p aper

C hacon

r ole o f g ood

T abasco,

M exico.

s tresses a nd a nd

a nd b ad

i nsect a ttack.

G leissman w eeds i n

( 1981)

d iscuss t he

t raditional

F armers h ave d eveloped a s ystem

a gro—ecosystems t o a void,

i ntroduce o r e liminate n on—crop p lants f rom t he c ropping C ertain w eeds a re,

t herefore,

c omponents o f t raditional

s easonally )

s oil

b e c rowded

u se,

( maize, b eans a nd

s quash o r

s weet p otato)

s ame b asic n eeds ( nutrients,

T he i s

l ight a nd

d uring t he g rowing

p eriod.

C ompetition i s r educed.

g ives d iversity a nd r esilience p rovide a s uitable h abitat S quash,

f or

a nd h elps t o m inimize i n

p lants w hich r espond

I n a ddition,

s uch a c ombination

t o t he a gro—ecosystem.

O ne c rop m ay

f or p redators o f i nsects a ttacking t he o ther

w ith i ts p rostrate g rowth

a lso p lay a r ole

T his a llows

s ince p lants w ith v arying e nvironmental d emands c an

t ogether m ore c ompatibly t han c an

i dentically.

c rop.

i mportant c ultural c ontrols.

t hey m ake m aximum u se o f t he e nvironment a t d ifferent t imes

( daily a nd b etter

i mportant

a gro—ecosystems.

t hat w hile t he c rops h ave t he w ater),

s ystem.

c onsidered b y f armers t o b e

I nter— a nd m ulti—cropping a re t wo v alue o f i nter—cropping

f avour,

f orm, b oth i nhibits w eed g rowth

s urface s oil m oisture e vaporation.

S quash c an

h olding n utrients t hat b ecome a vailable w hen

a re m ulched o r b urned

p lants

e ach y ear.

S ystems o f c ultivation I ntensive a griculture r equired ' technologies.

f armers t o d evelop n ew l and

T he c onstruction o f t erraces, 16

d rained

a nd r aised

u se f ields

a nd t he m any o ther

s ystems

c oncentrating o r r emoving M aya d evised

w ere e ssentially i nnovative w ays o f w ater

f or a s pecific

l ittle o pportunity t o t he

w hich h ave b een d ecade.

t o w ork,

s ystem t he

a s t here w as

s kills t o m odify t heir l ocal

T hat t he

e nvironments i s

i ncreasing n umber o f l ocalities o f i ntensive c ultivation i dentified

i n

I t m ust b e a ssumed

h ave b een

s urfaces. W hatever

i mport f oodstuffs i f t he c rop f ailed.

M aya h ad t he k nowledge a nd e vident i n

f rom l and

e nvironment h ad

p roductive o ver

t he

C entral

t hat n ot a ll t ime.

H ow t he

M aya

f ood

L owlands d uring t he

p roducing

M aya a ttempted

p ast

s ystems w ould t o c ope w ith

s uch p roblems w ill n ever b e k nown. W ithin n atural

B elize

w e h ave o bserved

a nd m odified l and

f orms

a nd

s tudied

s everal d ifferent

w hich w ere u sed

P hysiographically t hey c an b e d ivided

f or

L owland

D ry T erraces

R aised

F ields

D rained

( poorly d rained) T he

i dentification o f o ther

l umper o r

s plitter.

a nd

f orms i s b ased o n

W hat w e a re i nterested

d etermine t he e nvironmental m odify i n o rder

p roduction.

i nto:

U pland S lash & B urn

f ood

i n

t o u tilize t he n atural

w hat w ere t he e cological

( well d rained)

w hether o ne i s a

i s: w hether

c onditions t he M aya

F ields

w e c an

w ere a ttempting

r esources

f or

f ood

t o

p roduction;

c onsequences o f s uch m odifications.

E xtensive a griculture S hifting c ultivation a griculture i s g enerally t hought o f a s p rimitive w asteful

( Boserup o f l and

1 965)

a nd

A rnason

( 1957)

a nd h uman r esources.

e conomically e fficient a nd a nd

t he F AO

T he

c ondemned

s ystem, h owever,

e cologically s ound

t o

t wo m ajor

t ropical

e nvironment: r apid d epletion o f s oil

b urning;

a nd

a nd

A tkins

t he

p eriodic

a r apid

1 979).

i ncrease

i n

I n e cological

1 971;

L ambert

t erms,

f orest;

i n

e nergy e xpenditure.

e conomic

t erms,

f eatures o f t he

n utrients

i nsect p est a nd

w eed

f ollowing

p opulations ( Cox

s hifting c ultivation r epresents

e xploitation o f t he n utrient c apital

m inimal

l and b ase.

( Rappaport

i s b oth

1 981).

S uch a s ystem e xists i n r esponse

U nder

t he s ystem a s

o f t he n atural

i t r epresents t he m aximum e nergy r eturn

f or

s lash a nd b urn c ultivation t here i s n o m odification o f t he T he

J anuary w hen

f arming c ycle

t raditionally b egins i n

f armers s elect t heir l and

e xhibit m oderate

t o g ood d rainage w ith

17

f or c learing.

D ecember o r S uch s ites s hould

f ew a reas w here w ater m ay

a ccumulate d uring t he r ainy s eason. i s t he

C ohune

I n

R idge d ominated b y t he

B elize t he

p alm

p referred

O rbignya c ohune.

l acks s econdary g rowth a nd b urns r apidly o n d rying, r elatively c lear

a rea

a re m aize, b eans a nd s weet p otato a nd

f or t he

s quash, o ften

d epend l ocal a nd

p lant h is s eed.

i nter—cropped

p roperties.

c limate.

b urn

O ur d ata

f ields i n

t he b urn t here i s a s harp i ncrease

t han t wo

B elize a fter

t hat i n

s ystematic l and mulching.

u se

s oil

t he

f amily.

m ore t han

p ast t he

a bandoning s lash

M aya

i n

s oil

S hifting c ultivation a s

w ould h ave f ollowed

f or p eriods o f l onger

p ractised

t oday i s s eldom

n eeds o f t he

f ault o f t he s ystem;

p ractised b y M aya

d oes s uch a s ystem b reak d own f or

t hat w ould

i ts d emise

a nd

f armers

a nd

f or m illennia. W hy

b ecome u nproductive?

T he

s oil

s ystem d oes

A r eason

w ould h ave b een a r apidly i ncreasing

h ave n ecessitated

t o d eclining

f armer

i t i s j ust t hat a ny

n ot b reak d own e cologically i f f amilies a re l eft a lone. p ast

a

f amily n eeds i s w asted.

T he s ystem h as b een

t he

f ertility.

p olicy o f i nter—cropping, m ulti—cropping a nd

T his i s n ot t he

t he

i n t he

t wo—three y ears i s a r esult o f

H igh y ields c ould h ave b een m aintained y ears.

y ams,

p roperties, a nd

f or

n ot b ecause o f a d ecline

c apable o f s upplying m ore t han j ust t he b asic h is

w ith j acama,

i ndicate t hat t he r eason

w eed g rowth a nd

i s a ssumed

T he m ajor c rops

T he d egree a nd d uration o f s uch c hanges

o n t he o riginal v egetation c omposition,

i ncreased I t

t o

l eaving a

s esame.

I mmediately f ollowing s oil c hemical

f armer

f orest t ype T he t ree

s horter

f ertility a nd

f allow p eriods,

l ower

y ields.

A ll

i n

p opulation

w hich c ould l ead

t his g ives r ise t o

t he n eed

t o c hange t he t echniques o f c ultivation.

T hat i t i s c onsidered

w asteful

t oday,

s mall

i s b ecause

f allow p eriods a re i ntensive d egrade

p eople a re c onfined

i mpossible d ue

f orms o f a griculture ( Gross e t a l.

w hen

f amily g roups a re r estricted

f or c ultivation.

I n o ur

s tudy a t S uccotz,

l ow l evels o f p hosphorous a nd a nd

s oil

z inc

e rosion l eads t o c oarser

t o

a reas w here

t o e ncroachment b y s edentary

w ere

1 979).

i n

t he l and

B elize

f ound

t extured

T he

s oils q uickly

a rea t hey m ay u se

( Arnason e t a l.

1 981)

t o l imit c rop p roduction

s oil

w ith l ow w ater

r etention. I ntensive a griculture L abour i ncreasing

i ntensive p ermanent a griculture p opulation

f orms t o m aximize s ystem m aximized

a nd

t he c ontinued

s ystems d epend o n w ater

I n

p rehispanic

C entral

t he r ole o f e cological m echanisms, w as m aintained

u se o f l ocal

u se o f l and

u nder c ultivation. a nd

h merica t he

e mphasized

b y h uman l abour.

e nvironmental

p recipitation

f low o r d irect w ater

t o a n

i t o ften r equires a m odification o f l and

p roduction.

o f r enewable r esources a nd a griculture m ade

i s a r esponse

c onditions a nd B oth l owland

t he

P ermanent a llowed a nd

18

f or

u pland

a lso t ake a dvantage o f n atural

t hrough i rrigation c hannels.

u se

( 1) I n

U pland u pland

s ystems

s ites t he m ost o bvious n eed

m ovement o f s oil C aracol,

a nd n utrients i n t he

a s ingle w all

w all

f illed

o f l arge b oulders b acked s eepage w ater

c onstruction i s p robably a n f low a nd

T wo b asic t he

i nterior

a llow s ub—surface

s urface

f low.

i n t he M aya M ountains, c an b e e ither

o uter b oulders w ith a n w ould

i s t o m inimize a ny d ownslope

w ater

t errace

T errace w alls a t

a d ouble w all o f l arge,

w ith s mall

s tones a nd

b y s maller

s tones.

t o

p ass d ownslope.

f ines, o r

B oth t ypes T he t ype o f

i ndication o f p recipitation p atterns,

a ngle o f s lope.

p rocesses w ould h ave b een

s oils.

M echanical

i nvolved

i n t he d evelopment o f

w eathering w ould l ead

t o d isintegration

o f a ggregates a nd d ecomposition w ould b e r esponsible f or c hemical c hanges.

T he d ecomposition

t o m aintain

a nd/or b urning o f p lant m aterials w ould h elp

a dequate o rganic m atter

p rocesses a cting t ogether d escriptions w ere m ade

a nd

n itrogen l evels.

A ll

t hree

w ould r esult i n a n utrient r ich s oil.

f or a ll

h orizons b ut,

a s p article s ize a nalysis

i ndicated l ittle d ifference b etween h orizons, t o b e t he r esult o f l eaching h umic

C olour

t he c olours a re l ikely

a cids f rom d ecomposing o rganic

m atter. T here

i s a l ack o f t erraces a t u pper

e levations, a nd

a ssumed t he M aya l eft a f orest c over o n h ill c over

w ould h ave i ntercepted

r educing t he a mount o f w ater t hrough t he v egetation a nd c arried h elped

f lowing o ver

s oil

p rofile,

C a,

N a,

s lopes.

i n t he

p assing

s lopes w hich w ould h ave

T he t ree a nd

O n

p recipitation w ould h ave z one w ould h ave a lso

a nd a s ource o f w ood,

p lants. F low o f w ater o ver

w alls w ould h ave a lso r esulted

f ood,

a nd

t hrough t he l imestone t errace

a dditional r elease o f a ggregates

M g a nd K i ons.

I f c ultivated w alls,

t he l ower

a ggregates a nd n utrients t o t he l ower t o m aintain n utrient r ichness.

m edicinal

T he v egetation

a p roportion o f a ny p recipitation, t hereby

s erved a s a b iological r eservoir,

a nd

s ummits.

i t c an b e

s oils w ere c lose

t o o r l evel

w ith t he t op o f t he

t hen o verflow c ould b e e xpected d uring t he r ainy s eason.

s urface e rosion t he t op o f t he w all s urface.

T he

p roblem t hen

p article f low.

w ould

n eed

t o b e a bove t he

i s t hat t he b ack w all

T o

s top

s oil

s erves a s a d am t o

S uch m aterials, h owever, c ould b e e asily r edistributed

a t a l ater d ate o ver t he t errace s urface. E xcept

f or t he o ccasional

b uried

t otal l ack o f p articles > 1 m m o n t he s uggest t hat a ll t errace w alls.

t he

s tony l ayer, t here i s a n s ampled

s tones w ere r emoved

P article

p rofiles.

t errace

r ecognizable h orizons.

19

T his w ould

f or t he c onstruction o f t he

s ize a nalysis o f C aracol

a v ery h igh c lay c ontent f or a ll

a lmost

s oils r eveals

T he r eason

f or

s uch h igh c lay l evels c ould b e t he r esult o f

i ntensive a griculture w hich r educed l ed

t o a n

i ncrease

p articles c ould a ggregates a nd

i n

h ave c logged s oils c ould

W ater w ould e ither w ould b e h ard

a nd d ense.

t illage

p rimary c rops i s s uited

w ould

a ir

a nd

w ith t he a vailable

t he

s oil

n ot h ave

h ave b een d ifficult.

i ncreased.

t o b oth t ypes o f l and t o

w ater.

O n d rying,

s lash a nd b urn

T he c ultivation o f t he u se a nd

w ould n ot h ave

i ntroduction o f n ew v arieties o r c rop s pecies.

f armers w ould h ave h ad

t hese s mall

t he l arger

a ggregates w ould

w ould h ave r eplaced

p opulation

t ime,

A t t he t ime o f

i mpervious t o

S ince s tructural

c ultivation a s t he l ocal t he

I n

p ores b etween

i nfiltration.

h ave b een

t erraces, w e b elieve,

r equired

c lay.

f low o ver t he s urface o r p uddle.

b een e asily b roken d own, T he

p ercentage o f a ggregates a nd

t he l arger

s tones, d ecreasing

a bandonment t he

t he

p ercentage o f s ilt a nd

H owever,

s ynchronize t heir c rop m oisture r equirements

s oil m oisture

s upply.

h ave b een d ifferent o n s lopes u sed

f or

S uch s oil

w ater l evels w ould

s lash a nd b urn a nd

l ater

t erraced. C harcoal

f ragments p resent i n

s uggest t hat c ultivar r emains a nd f or

p lanting a nd

h ave b een

a n

t o

t he

t errace s oils ( Healy

w eeds w ere b urned

p rovide n utrients.

u nlikely c omponent o f t he

T rees a nd

1 980)

t o c lear t he

s oil

l arge s hrubs w ould

t errace s ystem b ecause t heir

r oot s ystems w ould h ave b een d estructive t o t he w alls. T he e cological c onsequences o f t errace c ultivation t ime,

t he

p hysical

p articles,

p roperties o f t he

w hich c an

s oil

s eriously i nhibit

s oil

w ater

i nfiltration r ates.

T he a ccompanying c hange i n b ulk d ensity w ould h ave h ad o n b oth g rain a nd

r oot c rop y ields.

E ven

a re t hat o ver

b ecome d ominated b y c lay am arked

e ffect

i f t he t erraces w ere c leared

f or a griculture t oday t hey w ould b e d ifficult t o w ork o nce t he o rganic m atter

i n t he u pper h orizons w as d epleted.

( 2)

L owland s ystems ( a)

C entral

M aya

f looding,

t he

a griculture.

D rained f ields. L owlands.

S ince t he r egion

s oils o f r iver H owever,

l imestone, t hese

s ystems o ffer

a s b ottomlands a nd

U pon d rainage,

7 .0.

t o

s ystems i n

t he

s easonal

a s uitable s ite

f or

i s u nderlain b y

s oils w ith a h igh

E cologically,

r iver v alleys a re

c haracterized b y s easonal

t he d eposited

p rofile b y t he c ombined

-o rganisms.

s ubjected

s oils a re c alcareous a lluvial

u sually m oderately w ell d rained

s oil

i s

b ecause m ost o f t he r egion

C aCO 3 c ontent a nd a p H a bove c lassified

T here a re n o l arge r iver

f looding a nd

s oils. s ediments a re i ncorporated

a ctivities o f a nimals,

T he r ate o f h omogenization o f t he 1 20

i nto

t he

p lants a nd m icro-

s ediments h as i mportant

a gricultural l imited,

i mplications b ecause

a gricultural

p otential

w here b iological

i s a lso l imited.

s oils r equires c ontrol o f d rainage, w ater c ontrol

a dvantages o f a lluvial

W e h ave c alled R iver

f loodplain

L amanai,

p roposed b y

a nd

a s w ell

1 977), c ome u nder

H arrison

a nnual

D enevan

f ields.

( 1980).

a t

f eatures i n t he

t he d efinition o f d rained

a long t he e ast s hore o f t he

f ields a t

m onths o f e very y ear, b e r egular, f ound

a nd

f arming m ight h ave b een

T he d rained

n atural

P eten

f rom J une t o

w ater

f low c hannels.

a rchaeological

t he v alue o f t he t hey w ere

f ield.

a re s ubmerged D ecember.

A l arge

A t t he

1 ,700 k g/ha.

P hysical

A t t imes c anals a ppear

t o

t he d ry s eason.

c hemical

f ind

i n

u sed

f ields.

a nd

P ,

s hown

p ottery

f low c hannels i f

c ontrol C a,

t o b e

i s e asier

M g a nd

F e i s

S ediments

i n e xcess o f f ield

p otential. t o

r emove u nnecessary p lants.

a s l ong a s

f looding o ccurs,

C ultivation o ver

B y r emoving t he

a s oil

T hey c ould m ake

R aised

a nd

p roperties o f t he d rained

o bjectively.

a lmost c ertainly r ecognized ( b)

f ollow

s uggest t he M aya u nderstood

p eriod h ave b een

e cological e ffect.

p resent—day f armers w ould

a lso

t o

f ields a re e vidence o f m an's

p articularly

t o b urn e ach y ear

i t i s p ractised

t hat o ccur

R iver w here

p H a pproaches n eutrality.

S uch a s ystem c ould o stensibly b e n o d etrimental

h as i dentified

f lint b lade, c harcoal t he

s oils c learly i ndicate t he a gricultural T here i s n o n eed

T hey c over

f or a pproximately s ix

s tress i s e liminated, w eed

f lood a nd

s urface

u se o f t he a rea.

s ame t ime t he

d eposited d uring t he

( Puleston

a nd r ecognized t he n eed t o e ither d ig

t he a vailability o f n utrients,

p roviding

H ondo

( 1971)

c anals a nd/or t o m odify e xisting n atural

W ith f looding, w ater

S wamp d own r iver

S imilar

C opan

f its

f ields

p ossible.

t rench i n

f loodplain

t o m ake o ptimal

i ncreased.

R io

N ew

t erm a lso

N ew R iver l agoon.

a long t he

S uch i ndicators c ould b e u sed

a dditional

T he

B order

a s t hough t hey w ere m an—made b ut t hey c an

i n a n

p resence.

L amanai

w ith t he

P ulltrouser

a rea o f a pproximately 2 ,000 h ectares. W ilken

i ntensive

O nce a

d eposition o f a lluvium.

f orms a ssociated

( 1981)

a s s imilar

f loodplain r egions i n t he

a nd

a nd

s ystem a t L amanai, d rained

t he d efinition

p atterns o ccur a n

f looding.

s oil c an b e e xploited; e ase o f w ater

t he m odified l and

d escribed b y T urner f rom

a nd

s ystem h as b een e stablished, t he t hree a gricultural

d istribution; m inimum e rosion;

w ithin

i rrigation

h omogenization i s

U se o f t he a lluvial

s uitable

t ime w ould h ave

f orest c over,

t he

f or a griculture d uring

u se o f a r esource t heir

a ncestors

e xploited.

R aised

f ields a re m an—modified l and

f orms

a reas o f f looding w here w ater l oss i s r estricted

p rimarily t o e vapo—transpiration.

I n

1 21

B elize t hey h ave b een

i dentified

b y S iemens

( 1977)

i n b oth

m orphologies a re v aried

f loodplain

a nd

a nd b ajo h abitats.

l argely r elated

t o

t heir

T heir

p osition w ithin

t he s ystem. A t

P ulltrouser

m ottled

S wamp t he c anals a re c onsidered

s ilty z one o verlies a b uried o rganic l ayer

b y a h umus l ayer.

T he t hickness o f t he

i ndividual r aised

f ields a nd

l evels a nd b e a dded

i s

t o e ach

P roviding t hat c limatic

T heir

n utrient-rich

s ediments.

t hey c annot b e u sed

f ields,

f ertility i s b ased

N ew

R iver.

T he

c ould b e c ultivated

o n a n

a nnual d eposition o f

s ix m onth p eriod o f e xposure m eans t hat

c ontinuously t hroughout t he

y ear a nd

t hat o ther

u sed.

K itchen g ardens

i s t he " kitchen"

b y m any o bservers f rom s erved

o f t he

t he

i ndication o f p ast w ater

A f orm o f i ntensive c ultivation p ursued b y m ost

h ave

i s i tself t opped

a nd h ydrologic c onditions h ave n ot c hanged,

f orms o f c ultivation m ust b e

s till

a n

i n s upplying t he v egetables,

w astes a nd

( 1971).

a nimal

G ardens w ould

i mmediate d aily n eeds

f ruits a nd

h ave b een c ultivated.

f rom h ousehold

f amilies w as a nd

T he r ole o f g ardens h as b een d iscussed

B ishop d e L anda t o W ilken

s uch a s s pices,

p lants w ould

b enefitted

g arden.

i mportant r ole

f amily,

m edicinal

s hade.

i mmediately r ecycled, w hen r eturned t o

C a,

F e o r

A l

a nd

t o

e xcreta.

E vidence o f s uch

t he r esource l evel, T he

t echnology c an b e d eveloped

t ransition

t ransformation c hange i n

1 977).

r esources i s

W hen t he e nvironment c annot

i s h ow m any p articular

t hrough t ime b efore t he

l onger m aintain t he b alance b etween t he d emand

T he

( Eidt

a s ociety m ust d evelop o ther k inds o f

q uestion t hen,

t he e nvironment c an

I f n ot

i t b ecomes t ightly

s et o f n atural

i ndicative o f t he a daptability o f m an. t echnology.

s oil

t herefore i s u navailable

T he d evelopment o f a p articular s ustain

t he

U seful

G ardens w ould h ave

g ardens c an b e d etermined b y i norganic p hosphorous a nalysis. b onded

A

s urrounding t errain, m uck f rom t he c anals

f ields, l ike t he d rained

i ndefinitely.

( 3)

f orm.

T he s urface o rganic l ayer w ould

p ossibly b y f loodwater o verflow f rom t he

t he r aised

i n

y ear b y t he d eposition o f s ediments b rought i nto t he

s wamp b y s urface r unoff f rom a nd

u se.

a nd

f ill v aries b etween

p robably a n

p eriods o f a gricultural

r egular

k inds o f

s ystem c an n o

f or r esources a nd

w hat

s upply. f rom e cosystem-manipulation t o e cosystem-

( Harris

1 978)

i nter-cropping

t hat t he c rops w hich w e

w as,

I s uggest,

a nd m ulti-cropping

a ccomplished t echniques.

k now t oday w ere a lready i n

p rinciple o f d iversity, o r

u se

i nter-cropping, w as w ell

a griculturalists a t t he m anipulation 1 22

s tage.

T he n eed

w ithout

Ia m a ssuming a nd

t hat t he

u nderstood b y M aya t o m aintain

b iological d iversity w ould h ave b een r ecognized b oth o f s upplying a n utritious d iet a nd m ajor c hange w ould h ave b een a nd

t heir h ydrological

s ites s till

f rom t he v iewpoint

o f c rop p rotection.

i n t he m odification o f c ertain l and

a ppear

c hanges w ere r elated

t o

t oday t o h ave a gricultural v alue a t

d evelopment o f s oils w ith a h igh c lay c ontent. o f s uch s oils w as r educed i n

t he

f orms

i mproved d rainage,

T errace c onstruction o n s lopes t o m anage w ater h as r esulted

a gricultural

T he

s ystems.

W here t he h ydrological t he

am ethod

t o

3 % t hen

t he

C aracol. i n t he

I f t he o rganic c ontent

s oils w ould h ave h ad l ow

p otential.

T he r e-established

f orest c over h as r esulted

p resent-day s oil

o rganic c ontent o f

1 5%.

T he r esult i s a s oil

w ith a h ighly a ctive c lay-humus c omplex, c apable o f r etaining m ineral e lements i n e xchangeable f orm. t o b e u sed o ne g ood

t oday,

T he p roblem w ith s uch s oils i f t hey w ere

i s t hat i f t he h umus c ontent d eclines a ppreciably,

r ain w ould b e s ufficient t o w ash o ut t he h ighly s oluble

a s c arbonates o f p otassium, m agnesium a nd t herefore,

a mmonium.

W e w ould,

s uggest t hat l arge p opulation c entres t hat a rose

m ountainous r egions,

a nd r elied o n d ry t errace a griculture,

p robably s hort-lived. s lash a nd b urn s eldom b een M aya c entre,

C entres t hat u sed

a nd d rained

s hort o f f ood.

L amanai o n t he

i s c onsidered b y

c ontinuous o ccupation

a d iversified l and

f ield o r r aised

f ield

A s tage m ust i nevitably b e r eached

i n w ere u se

s ystem,

a griculture w ould h ave

N ew R iver

P endergast t o h ave h ad

f rom 6 00 B C u ntil

s alts

L agoon, a m inor a n e xtremely l ong

1 250 A D. i n a s ociety 's c ultural

e volution w hen

i t e xhausts t he e nvironment o f i ts a gricultural b ase.

I f t he c ulture

i s t o s urvive i t m ust m ove

E urope w hen t his s tage w as r eached e nvironment

( Rifkin

1 980).

i nto a nother

i t m oved

i nto a n

T his w as n ot t he c ase

a dvanced a re,

a gricultural

b ut a lso t he m ost

t herefore,

i n M esoamerica a nd t he

o bjective

a nalysis w e

s uitable e ver d evised

u se o f a n f ind

T oday w e t end

t echnologies a s n ot o nly b eing t he m ost f or t he

a mazed a t w hat e arlier " less a dvanced"

a ble t o d o w ithout t he

i ndustrial-based

s ituation. W e

c ultures w ere

t echnology.

O n

t hat m any o f t he e arly t echnological

i nnovations d eveloped b y t he M aya, c learly s how t hat t hey h ad g ood

u nderstanding o f p lant b reeding,

a v ery

c ropping s ystems, h ydrology a nd

p edology.

C onclusion O f t he c ultivation s ystems d iscussed, o nly t he d ry t erraces h ave n o b uilt

i n r ecovery s ystem.

p opulation g roups, ' weeds d uring t he

I n

i ndustrial

s ystem o f l arge s emi-autonomous c ity s tates c ollapsed. t o t hink o f o ur

e nvironment.

S lash a nd b urn,

a s

r eplenishes i ts n utrient p ool

f allow p eriod.

D rained 1 23

u sed b y s mall a nd

r ids i tself o f

f ields a nnually r eceive a

d eposition o f n utrients a nd m ineral a dditions a re n ot o nly b eneficial

s ediments f rom

f loodwaters.

f or c rop g rowth, b ut t hey a lso h elp

t o p revent t he e stablishment o f w eeds.

T hrough n ecessity, t he M aya w ere

f orced t o u se t he e xtensive, p oorly d rained b ajo/lowland c ultivation.

T hat s o m uch o f t he

t o b e c overed b y r aised n atural

S uch

C entral

s ites f or

L owlands a re n ow b eing s hown

f ields s uggests t hat t hey r ecognized

t he

f ertility o f s uch a reas a nd h ad b oth t he k nowledge a nd s kills

t o m odify s uch a r esource b ase t o t heir e conomic a dvantage.

T hrough a

s ystem o f c anals a nd t he r aising o f t he g round s urface a bove l ow w ater l evels, t hey t urned w hat a re e ssentially i nhospitable e nvironments i nto a gricultural o ases.

I f l ocal

f armers w ere t o r emove t he f orest c over

f rom r aised a nd d rained

f ield a reas t oday t hey w ould h ave a vailable

g ood a gricultural l and.

T his w ould n ot b e t he c ase w ith t errace s oils.

A cknowledgements It hank P aul t he m anuscript, M s

J oan

H aire.

H ealy a nd

T hor A rnason f or t heir c ritical r eview o f

a nd g ratefully a cknowledge t he e ditorial a ssistance o f R esearch f unds f or t he B elizean s tudies w ere r eceived

f rom S SHRCC G rant

N o.

4 10-80-0454.

R eferences c ited A rnason, 1 981

J .T.

e t a l.

D ecline o f s oil

f ertility d ue t o i ntensification o f l and u se

b y s hifting a griculturalists i n B elize. B oserup, 1 965

M anuscript.

E . T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth:

A grarian C hange u nder P opulation P ressure. C o., B utzer, 1 975

T he E conomics o f A ldine

P ublishing

C hicago.

K .W. T he E cological A pproach t o A rchaeology: A re W e

R eally T ry ing.

A merican A ntiquity 4 0:106107. C hacon, 1 981

J .C.

a nd

S .R.

G leissman

T he u se o f t he " non-weed" c oncept i n t raditional

a groecosystems i n C ox,

G .W. a nd M .D .

1 979

s outheastern M exico.

t ropical

M anuscript.

A tkins

Agricultural E cology.

F reeman a nd

C o.,

S an F rancisco.

D enevan, W .M. 1 980

T ipologfa d e c onfiguraciones a grfcolas p rehispänica. A mgrica

I ndegena 4 0:619-652. E idt,

R .C.

1 977

D etection a nd e xamination o f A nthrosols b y p hosphate a nalysis.

S cience 1 97:1327-1333.

1 2 1 4

F AO 1 957 G ross,

S hifting c ultivation.

T rop.

A gr.

( Trinidad)

3 4:159-164.

D .R. e t a l.

1 979

E cology a nd a cculturation a mong n ative p eoples o f C entral

B razil. H arlan,

S cience 2 06:1043-1050.

J .R.

1 976

T he p lants a nd a nimals t hat n ourish m an.

S cience A merica

: 57-68. H arris,

D .R.

1 978

T he e nvironmental

a gricultural b y J .G. H ealy,

P .F.,

1 980

i mpact o f t raditional a nd m odern

s ystems.

H awkes.

I n

C onservation a nd A griculture , e dited

D uckworth.

C . v an W aarden a nd

T .J.

A nderson

N ueva e videncia d e a ntiguas t errazas M ayas e n B elice.

A merica I ndegena 4 0:773-796. K ing,

F .B . a nd

1 981

R .W. G raham

E ffects o f e cological a nd

s ubsistence a nd

p aleoecological p atterns o n

p aleoenvironmental r econstructions.

A merican

A ntiquity 4 8:128142. L ambert,

J .D .H.

1 981

B elize. O dum,

a nd J .T .

A rnason

P re-Hispanic d rained

f ield a griculture i n t he N ew R iver,

M anuscript.

E .P.

1 971

F undamentals o f E cology.

P uleston, 1 977

S aunders

E xperiments i n p rehistoric r aised

f rom t he p ast. R appaport, 1 971

W .B.

Co.

D .E. f ield a griculture:

l earning

J ournal o f B elizean A ffairs 5 :36-43.

RA.

T he

f low o f e nergy i n a n a gricultural

s ociety.

S cientific

A merican 2 25:116-132. R hoades, 1 978

R .E. A rchaeological

u se a nd a buse o f e cological c oncepts a nd

s tudies: t he e cotone e xample. R ifkin, 1 980

A merican A ntiquity 4 3:608-614.

J . E ntropy:

A N ew W orld V iew .

V iking P ress.

S anders, W .T. 1 973

T he c ultural e cology o f t he l owland M aya:

C lassic Maya C ollapse , e dited b y T .P .

C ulbert.

a r e-evaluation.

I n

U niversity o f

N ew M exico P ress. S haw ,

M . e t a l.

1 977

A groecosystems.

W orld S iemens, 1 977

F ood,

P roceedings o f t he

S ymposium o n C anada a nd

O ttawa.

A .H. S ome p atterns s een f rom t he a ir. J ournal o f B elizean A ffairs

5 :5-21.

1 25

T urner, 1 981

B .L. a nd

P ulltrouser W ilken, 1 971

P .D .

H arrison

P rehistoric r aised-field a griculture i n t he M aya L owlands: S wamp,

N orthern B elize.

S cience 2 13:399-405.

G .C. F ood-producing s ystems a vailable t o t he a ncient M aya.

A merican A ntiquity 3 6:432-448. W iseman, 1 978

F .M. A gricultural a nd

H istorical

E cology o f t he M aya L owlands.

P re-Hispanic Maya A griculture , e dited b y P .D . T urner,

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress.

1 26

H arrison a nd

I n

B .L.

R ESULTS O F R ECENT A IR R ECONNAISSANCE O VER T HE M EXICAN S TATE O F V ERACRUZ

A lfred

H .

S iemens

A ir r econnaissance h as b een a n e arly p art o f e ach g ional

p hase o f t he

l owland e nts i n t he

i nvestigation o f p rehispanic w etland

M esoamerica.

C andelaria

R iver

i n t he

C ampeche

i nitiated

i nquiry.

P eten

I n

C entral

T hese p aralleled

V eracruz.

t he l ower 1 977).

N autla

t he c entral g ood d eal

a nd

i t h as b een

n orthern

F rom

f or

N orthern

a nd t hen t o t he

B elize.

A n e xten-

e vidence o f p atterning i n t he f or a griculture - w ithout

1 977 e xploratory f lights w ere u ndertaken

R iver v alley,

S ince t hen

S outh A merica.

P eninsula,

s ome i ndications t hat t hey w ere u sed

p ositive r esults.

i ts a nteced-

i nto v arious n eighboring r e-

H ondo R ivers i n

s earch w as m ade o ver t he

I t h ad

P arsons a nd o thers i n

f lanks o f t he Y ucatan

f loodplains o f t he N ew a nd

b ajos,

t he

s earch w as e xtended

g ions o n t he w estern

s ive

a griculture i n

A s ighting d uring a ir r econnaissance o ver t he

s ightings b y D enevan,

C andelaria,

s uccessive r e-

i n

i ndependent s ightings b y S chmidt i n

s ome d istance t o t he n orth p ossible t o

p ortions o f t he

f ly r epeated s tate,

o f g round e xploration a s w ell,

a nd

a ir

i ntensive

S an

j ust w est o f t he p ort o f V eracruz

1 982a,

1 980,

s urveys o ver

t o u ndertake a

t o b egin

i nvestigation o f p atterns i n t he w etlands o f t he ( Siemens

( Schmidt

J uan

R iver b asin,

1 983a,

1 983b,

1 983c). T he r esulting c ollection o f s everal

t housand o blique a ir p hotos o n

a v ariety o f f ilms i s p roving t o b e a r ich r esource. b lack a nd a ll

w hite a nd

t aken w ith

t hrough a n o pen l ine, t o

f alse c olor i nfrared

R olleiflex,

a nd

a re i ncluded.

f reeze m ovement i n

s olve s wamp v egetation

3 00 m .

a nd

f ield c omplex t ogether

e xploration a nd

s peed o f

c ultural

1 /500,

r e-

w ith s ome o f i ts c ontext. a s w ell

t he l ocation o f a rchaeological

T hey a re a lso a r epository o f a g reat d eal o f p hysical a nd

C essna

y et e ncompass a g ood d eal o f a ny

T he p hotos h ave s erved a s a r ecord o f s ightings, t o g round

a lways

A t t his a ltitude i t i s u sually p ossible

t he l andscape w ith a s hutter s harply,

s eries o f

T he p hotos w ere

N ikon e quipment,

w indow o r d oor i n o ne m odel o r a nother o f t he

a t a ltitudes o f c .

g iven r aised

H asselblad

S everal

i nformation o n t he w etlands.

a s g uides

e xcavations.

e nvironmental

T hey a re v ery u seful

i n t he

i nterpretation o f i magery p roduced w ith e missions b eyond t he v isible s egment o f t he

s pectrum,

i n

p articular

L owlands

t he c ontinued

e xpansion o f r anching a nd m echanised d ry s eason a gricul-

i ncursions i nto t he w etlands,

1 981).

i magery o btained

o ver t he M aya

t ural

( Adams e t a l.

r ecent r adar

W hat w ith r ecent d rainage,

s ome o f t hem h ave a lready b ecome

1 27

a r ecord

o f e nvironments p ast.

t he r esulting o blique a ir

B eyond

a ll

t his,

a ir r econnaissance a nd

p hotos s timulate c onceptualisation, m ainly

b ecause t hey a llow s triking p erspectives. T he v iew i s

f rom a p oint

s omewhere b etween t hat o f t he o bserver o n

t he g round, u sually s urrounded e tation, o f t he

a nd

i n

t ropical l owlands b y o bscuring v eg-

t hat o f t he v ertical

a ir

p hoto c amera m ounted o n t he

f usilage o f t he s pecially a dapted

s urvey p lane.

f loor

T he p erpendicu-

l ar v iew t ransforms a l andscape

i nto s ymbols;

t ones a nd

s ubject a rea m ust b e l earned b efore

j uxtapositions o f t he

s uch a p hoto c an b e

i nterpreted.

T he o blique

h and, c an b e i nterpreted d irectly. o r d irections o n g raph.

T he

t he c haracteristic

p hotograph, o n t he o ther

H owever, o ne c annot m easure s izes

s uch a p hotograph a s o ne c an o n

s cale o f t he

t he p hotograph t o t he

f orms,

a v ertical

a ir

p hoto-

f irst v aries c ontinuously f rom t he b ottom o f

t op a nd d irections a re c onvergent.

c annot e asily o btain

t he

s equential,

p hotos n ecessary f or

s tereo v iewing,

s ystematically o verlapping v ertical p hoto i s m ore v ersatile;

A lso,

p artially o verlapping

o ne

p airs o f

w hich i s r outine w ith t he u sual c overage.

H owever,

t he o blique

i t a ccommodates t he e asy s hifts

i n t he d irec-

t ion o f v iew t hat a re p ossible d uring l ight p lane r econnaissance. i s s een

i s

f amiliar

o f t he c leared t ion.

a nd

l owland

y et r emarkable. a rchaeological

A s o ne n ears t he t op,

t ion a nd

c an

T he a scent o f a p yramid

s ites c an

i n o ne

p rovide a n a pproxima-

o ne i s s uddenly f ree o f t he

s ee t o t he h orizon.

W hat

f orest v egeta-

F or a m oment o ne s enses s omething o f

t he p rivilege o f t he a ncient p riests. A ir r econnaissance a nd v agaries o f p erception, o bliterates i n p erson

a s i s a ll d ata.

a ccordance w ith t he

f lown o ver

S elective

i nterest a nd

w ithout n oticing

a ir

o r

f orms o f i nterest

s till

t he p atterns i n

a vailable

f or

s ettlement a nd f or

t o r emain

t his s ort o f e nthusiasm

g raphic r esults,

' linear g eo-art'.

f rom t he a irport i n a s

T ampico

h ydrological

( Figure

i tself i n J alapa o ver

1 ).

w e m ay

t ransportation,

t he

e xpansion, t he l and-

p etroleum a nd t he a ctual w eb T hose o f u s l ooking

f or

i nterstices h ave b ecome a dept a nd o n

s eriously c alled

A n o pportunity p resented

r eviewed

T he a ttention

i maginative i n t he r ecognition o f r ectilinear

a ll m ight n ormally b e e xpected

f ar

R easonably a lert

s wamps.

i ts e xploitation.

c ultural r emains i n t he w etland o ccasion

t he

f or a gricultural

i n t he e xploration

o f f acilities i nstalled

a s

p reparation o f t he

p hoto c overage r epeatedly,

f ocussed o n o ther t hings: m odern

l and o ccupied

f lights

f ocus h ighlights a nd

a ll o f t he w etlands d iscussed h ere a nd

t he c orresponding v ertical

b e s ure, w as

p hoto a re s usceptible t o t he

s canning t he l andscape o r h andling a c amera.

p eople h ad a ll

t he o blique

a morphous.

S omeone h as s emi-

' linesmanship '

O ctober o f C entral

f eatures w here

a nd

1 982 f or

a nd

t he c arto-

s everal

N orthern

V eracruz

T hese w ere m eant t o p rovide d ata o n

c onditions i n t he w etlands a t t he h eight o f t he w et 1 28

l ong

1 29 T he w etlands o f V eracruz .

s eason,

w ith f loodwaters a t t heir

h ad b een m eager a nd h ence l ittle d eal

w as l earned.

R epeated

o ther l owland r egions. s ome v ariations. t aken

I n

p eak.

a ddition,

U nfortunately, t he r ains

f looding w as a pparent.

e xploration h as b een

T he

p hysical

f ound

f rom a d ifferent

c omplexes t hat a re s trikingly c lear

t o b e u seful

i n

s omewhere a nd r egrowth

C ropping c ycles a re o bserved

e ach v iew i s

H owever, a g ood

e nvironment a lmost a lways p resents

C learing h as a lways a dvanced

p lace e lsewhere.

p oints.

a nnual

a t d ifferent

p erspective:

f ield

a t o ne t ime m ay b e a lmost i nvisible

t he n ext.

O bjectives

T he r oughly d rawn i n

1 80 n ew i mages o btained,

f rom e arlier a nd

i nvestigations o f w etland

s ome o f t he p rospects

c orroborate v arious a spects o f a m odel p osed

i n a r ecent p aper

c omplexes,

a s s ome t hat w ill b e

f lights a re t he b asis o f t his r eflection o n t he

r esults o f a ir a nd g round V eracruz t o d ate,

a s w ell

( Siemens

f or

o f w etland

1 983c).

s ome o f w hich a re p uzzling.

a griculture i n

i ts c ontinuation.

i ntensification p ro-

T hey i nclude e ntire

f ield

B y m eans o f t he r econnaissance

i t w as p ossible t o

f irm u p t he n orthern b oundary o f t he w etland

c ulture p henomenon

i n V eracruz.

w ere n oticed,

i n

p articular

e xpected,

a gri-

N ew a spects o f t he w etland e nvironment

s ome h ints r egarding c hange

o f t he w etlands a nd h ence i n

T hey

t heir m ean w ater l evels.

r ecent c hanges i n l and

i n t he e xtent A s m ight b e

u se a re a pparent o n e very h and.

I n t he

i ntervening h ill l and m any m ound g roups n ow s how u p w ith s triking c larity,

g iven t he r ecent e xpansion o f r anching.

i s i ndicated

i n

i t w as p ossible

s everal t o

l ocations.

s ight

M ay o f

1 982 t he n ewly p lowed

o f J alapa h ave o ffered

z onation.

f ields o n t he

s everal

t he m arks o f t he h ouses a nd

t erracing

O n t he w ay t o t he c oastal w etlands,

i nto m any b arrancas,

w ell-defined, a gro-altitudinal

A gricultural

s urprises:

s ome o f w hich h ave a

D uring

f lights u ndertaken

i n

s loping t ablelands j ust e ast a ncient

f ield b oundaries a nd

s treets o f e ntire c ommunities.

C onceptualisation T he m odel o utlined

o f w etland

i n r ecent

i ntensification t hat i s b eing

p apers,

s urrounded b y t erra f irma , C entral

V eracruz,

b oth w ith r espect t o t he w etland e nclave w hich i s

f requently f ound

a nd t he b ackslope o f l evees,

m ost o f t he p rehispanic

f ield v estiges s ighted

( Siemens

T he

1 983a,

s ituations;

t he

1 983c).

t ested h as b een

p rocess

t he i n

i n c oastal

p hysical c ontext N orthern V eracruz

s eems t o h ave b een

s imilar

p ossible d ifferences a re c urrently u nder

i nvestigation.

1 30

f or

i n b oth

T he p oint o f d eparture h as b een u se o f w etland m argins, a griculture p ractised l ocations i n ( 1980)

t he

f ound

i n t he c urrently o bservable

a reas s ubject t o a nnual

i nundation.

i n t his c ontext h as b een d escribed

f or v arious

t he l owlands o f M esoamerica, n otably b y C oe a nd

f or t he e nvirons o f t he

w etlands u sed b y t he K ekchi c ommunity o f E l

P almar i n

C oatzacoalcos

M aya

i n

C entral

o bservation b y t he a uthor

T he

D iehl

R iver a nd b y W ilk f or t he

B elize.

A n

i nstance n ear

t he

V eracruz i s c urrently u nder

( 1983d).

O ther

e xamples h ave b een

s ighted

d uring t he r ecent a ir r econnaissance a nd w ill b e i nvestigated o n t he g round d uring t he

1 983 o r

1 984 f ield

a pparent o n t he w etland m argin, o f

s easons.

T he a griculture,

i s r iskier t han w et s eason c ultivation

t erra f irma - t he m ainstay o f t he t raditional

r epresents a v enture,

a g amble.

y ear, b ut w hat i t d oes y ield c omes a t a n

y ear,

w hen t he

s tocks o f f ood l ow a nd

p rospect. W ith a n i ncreased

c ommunity.

p roduced

a dvantageous t ime i n t he

i n t he p revious w et s eason a re

i n

p opulation o r

s ome o ther

i mperative

f or

p roduction, t he a griculture o n t he w etland m argins c an b ecome I t b ecomes i mportant t o r educe t he r isk.

T o v isualise h ow r isk m ight b e r educed t he e arth—moving,

i t s eems u seful

f iguration o f t he v estiges o f p rehispanic w etland ( 1977),

i n t he d iscussion o f t he

p lanting p latforms h e t he

t o p roject

t he s urface m anipulation a lready g oing o n

s easonally c ultivated w etland m argin w hile k eeping

B ocas i n

i n a ny

s ome t ime b efore a n ew w et s eason c rop i s i n

i ncrease

t he p ressure p oint.

S chmidt

I t

I t m ay o r m ay n ot y ield w ell

g iven

p robably r unning

t hat i s

f ound o n t he

i n m ind

i n t he t he c on—

f ield c omplexes.

s triking c omplex o f c anals a nd

f loodplain o f t he

E stero d e

T res

N autla R iver b asin, n otes h ow c anals h ad b een c ut o n l evee

b ackslopes i n o rder t o

i mprove d rainage o n t he d ownward

s ides o f b anana

p lantations. O n o f t he

s ome o f t he

a ir o bliques t aken b y t his a uthor o ver

N autla b asin,

o f m any a ncient

s imilar r ecent c analisation i s a pparent.

f ield c omplexes s ighted

V eracruz h ave a r aked

a ppearance.

e xcept w here a n o rientational o f C entral

V eracruz a g rid

r epeatedly ( Siemens s everal a round

N orthern

i n b oth C entral

a nd

p art

T he e dges

N orthern

T he c anals g enerally t rend d ownslope,

s cheme o btrudes.

s ome

1 983a).

T hroughout t he w etlands

1 50 e ast o f n orth h as b een n oticed

O ther o rientations a re s uggested

V eracruzan l ocations.

t he e dges a re p arallel

a nd o pen

c anals r unning m ore o r l ess d ownslope. p recisely t he

a nother

M ost o ften, u p—slope,

h owever,

i n t he

f ields

w ith i ntervening

T hey s eem t o r epresent

s ort o f c analisation w ith w hich t he

s erious i ncursion

i nto t he w etland m ight b egin. T he e ffect o f s uch c analisation w ould b e t o a ccelerate t he d rainage o f t he w etland m argins a t t he e nd o f a g iven w et a ccess t o t he -s tarted o n

f ields t hat m uch s ooner.

p lanting b eds,

a p ractise 1 31

I f t he

s eason

a nd t hus g ive

p lants h ad

s till g oing o n

a nd

a lready b een

a lso r eported

a s a p art o f t he t raditional t hen

t he

a gricultural r epertoire o f t he

T otonacas,

f irst d ry s eason c rop c ould b e b rought t o m aturity e ven m ore

q uickly.

I t i s c onceivable t hat c ropping o n t he b ackslope o f t he l evee

o r o ne t he w etland/terra f irma m argin a lso c ould b e s taggered, w ith d ue a ttention p aid

t o t he

s uitable t o t he r esulting

f alling w ater t able, s oil

c onditions a nd

v arieties o f c rops t he

t ime r emaining b efore

t he n ormal o nset o f t he r ains. I t m ust b e k ept

i n m ind

t hat t he w etlands u nder d iscussion h ave a

s hallow s aucer-like p rofile.

S ome

o f s uch a d epression, b etween b ackswamp i n t he l owest t he o ccluded

f ield c omplexes o ccupy o nly o ne

t he l evee t ops o r

p arts o f t he w etlands.

l evee b ackslopes o n

p atterned

r ight a cross t he l owest a reas. t he m ain

s ulting

i ntermittent

b een d ammed,

i f n ot t o r etain

t hen a t l east t o r etard t he o f t he

T hese d epressions m ust d rain

i t i s a pparent i n m any p laces t hat t he r e-

s treams w ere c analised

d uring t he d ry s eason.

w ater

i n

a nd t hat t hey c ould h ave

t he d epression i ndefinitely,

f all o f t he w ater t able

T he d epth a nd

i n t he w etland

e xtent o f t he c anals, t he h eight

f ields a nd t he h eight o f t he d am o n t he m ain d rain w ould

h ave b een

t he m ain

s tructural v ariables i n t he

s ystem,

l ength o f t ime e ach y ear t hat t he v arious p arts o f t he c ould b e u sed. a bles c ould

A dditional

e xpand

p roduction o n a c omplex

o n t he w etland

l abor e xpended

a lready e xtended

e vidence

p rofile;

f or

s eem t o

d etermining t he f ield c omplex

o n o ne o r a nother o f t he v ari-

t he s ystem d ownslope o r

c onsiderable v isual

t he

i n p articular

f loodplains o f m eandering r ivers, a re

b ack i nto

s tream;

t erra f irma a nd O thers,

s ide

i ntensify t he a gricultural

a cross a w etland.

T here i s n ow

f ield c omplexes a t v arious p ositions

t he c ontrol o f t he o utflow i s m ore a nd m ore

p lausible a s m ore a nd m ore d rains a re e xamined.

S everal

t ransverse

s tructures a re i ndicated b y v egetational d iscolorations o f t he t ype t hat i ndicate t he

f ields a nd c anals o f t he a gricultural c omplexes

t hemselves.

t here i s t he e vidence o ut o f t he t raditional

A lso,

w etland m argins t hat a tions i n

s lope a nd

i magine t he a ncient s ion a nd

i ntricate

a djustments a re c ommonly m ade t o v ari-

w ater t able. f ield

c ontraction,

I t i s n ot d ifficult,

f looding.

i ntensification a nd d isintensification.

i s t he m enace, o r

p erhaps o ne s hould

s ufficiently t o b e a bove m ean h igh w ater l evel. y ear-round

u se,

r udimentary a nd

s uch a s t he

f ertilisation,

l ining t he c anals. e nvisaged

f unction a nd c hange o f

I t i s n ot n ecessary t o e nvisage a f ield

s ort o f c ulmination,

s ay t he r ole o f s ystem a s r aised

T hat m ight w ell b e a

c hinampa s ystem, w ith i ts i ntensive

s coop i rrigation a nd

s tately t rees

M any c omplexes a re l ikely t o h ave b een m uch m ore

t o h ave b een

a s b eneficent,

t errestrial

t herefore, t o

s ystems o f t he w etlands a s s ubject t o e xpan-

O ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f t he s uch a s ystem

u se o f

p ests a nd

f looded

l aying d own

w eeds,

y early. f resh

f lushing o ut

a ccumulated o n t he s urface o f t he

f ields, 1 32

T his m ay e asily b e

s ediments,

k illing

s alts t hat m ight h ave i n e ffect b ringing a y early

F igure 2 : V estiges o f c anals a nd p lanting p latfolms o n al evee o f t he E stero d e T res B ocas, n orth o f t he R io N autla . T he m ound g roup a nd s tream a re t o t he t op r ight.

1 33

f allow.

T he o ccasional, m uch h igher t han n ormal w ater l evels a pparent

i n t he r ecords a vailable f or a ll o f t he m ain r ivers o f t he V eracruzan l owlands w ill,

n o d oubt,

h ave o ccurred d uring t he t ime o f t he f ield

s ystems a nd m eant d estructive f looding, a ffecting h ouses a nd g ardens o n t he l evee t ops,

e roding

f ield e dges d ownslope a nd d epositing c oarse

s ediments w hich w ould r uin a g ood

s oil.

T he a gricultural u se o f t he w etlands,

w ith a ll i ts v ariations,

m ust, o f c ourse, b e s een a s o ne c omponent i n a l arger s ubsistence s ystem.

T his w ould

t erra f irma ,

i nclude w et s eason a griculture o n

p erhaps d ry s eason c ropping ( toncamil ) o n t hat l and a s w ell. w ould i nvolve g ardening a round t he d welling,

F ish c ould b e o btained o ut o f t he s tream o r c anal l atter c ould f unction a s g igantic t hem d uring t he

I t

p erhaps a rboriculture.

f ish t raps.

s ystems,

i n f act t he

T he f ish c ould c ome i nto

f loods a nd t hen n ot b e a ble t o l eave a gain w hen t he

w ater l evel d ropped.

T hey c ould t hen b e d riven a nd n etted.

I n a ddition,

t here w ould b e w ater-fowl t hat m ight b e h unted, a lgae t o b e s kimmed f rom t he w ater's s urface a nd e xploited.

s till o ther

f ood r esources t o b e

T he k ey c ontribution t o a ll o f t his f rom t he f ields i n t he

w etlands w ould b e c rops m aturing a t a t ime o f y ear w hen s tocks o f s taples w ould b e r unning l ow .

L ocation T he d istribution o f t he v estiges o f w etland

f ield c omplexes i n

C entral V eracruz h as b een d escribed i n v arious p apers 1 983a,

1 983b).

( Siemens

D etailed p lotting i s n ow u nderway i n t he S an

b asin j ust w e t o f t he p ort o f V eracruz,

1 980,

J uan R iver

i n p articular t he c oastal

r egion f rom n orth o f P unta D elgada, w here t he S ierra M adre O riental r eaches t he s ea,

u p t o t he e nvirons o f T ampico ( Figure

s outhernmost i nstances o f w etland p atterning h ave b een

1 ).

T he

f ound n ear V ega

d e l a T orre a nd t he n orthernmost j ust s outh o f t he f loodplain o f t he P anuco R iver.

T he r ather c omplex c hannels o f t he l ower p ortion o f t his

r iver s ystem n eed

f urther e xploration, b ut i n t he r econnaissance

c arried o ut a cross t he l ower e nd o f t he b asin

i n O ctober

1 982, n o

p atterning w as e vident. O f g reatest i nterest h as b een t he Q uaternary a lluvium a long t he m ain s treams a nd j ust b ehind t he c oast.

A s a lready i ndicated, t he f ield

c omplexes a re u sually f ound o n l evee b ackslopes a nd

i n b ackswamps.

T he

m ost d ramatic e xample i s u ndoubtedly t he c omplex n ear t he l arge m ound g roup i n t he E stero d e T res B ocas k nown a s S anta E lena ( Figure 2 ).

T he

a reas b etween t he m ain s tream v alleys a re o f h orizontally b edded M iocene a nd e .

O ligocene m arine s ediments, e roded

5 0 m i n a ltitude.

w etlands.

A mong t hem o ne o ften

i nto r ounded h ills o f

f inds a ttenuated, b ranching

A fter t he p rincipal c omplexes o n t he f loodplains o f N orthern 1 3 1 4

F igure 3 : Aw etland e nclave a mong h ills o f T ertiary s ediments i ndicating a n a pparently r udimentary a gricultural i ncursion.

1 35

F igure 4 : H ill-top s ites o n T ertiary s ediments b etween T uxpan a nd t he R io T ecolutla . Ar oad a nd a p ipeline b isect t he p hotograph .

1 36

V eracruz h ad b een l ocated, e xploratory c hallenge.

t hese e nclaves h ave

p rovided t he g reatest

T he w etland n orth o f t he

p rovides a n e xample o f t he c omplexes

f ound

E stero

B oca d e L ima

w ithin t hem

( Figure

3 ).

T his

p articular o ne h as t he

a ppearance o f a t entative i ncursion t hat o nly

i nvolved a p art o f t he

p otential

s tage i n

w etland

a rea,

p erhaps r epresenting a n e arly

i ntensification.

F orm T he

f orm o f t he

a lly l ess r egular, m ost i nstances i n S anta

f ield v estiges

a bout

i rregular

1 4° w est o f n orth.

I n

N orthern V eracruz,

( Eckholm

1 944),

i s

t he

p roposed o n o ther

r emains t o b e t ested.

f eatures

D uring t he e xploration o f N orthern c learly i dentified d etailed

V eracruz a g ood d eal

i n m any p laces

H ill

( Figure

t op s ettlement

4 ).

o f a ttens ites c an b e

I n t he e ventual m ore

i nvestigation o f w etlands i n t he r egion i t w ill b e n ecessary,

f irst i nstance t o c ollate r elevant i nformation a lready g athered

o n t hese

s ites.

a djacent f ield

I ntegrated

e xcavations o f s ettlement

f rom t he h ill

T hroughout t he c oastal h ill l and

t op s ites i s i nteresting

t he h orizontally b edded m arine

s ediments o ften g ive t he l andscape a l ayered l ook. s lopes h ave b een f ashion.

f ound

t o b e l ayered

O ne e xample m ay b e

a s hort d istance r esidential

f rom t he

r aces i n t he h ill b ank o f t he

N orthern

( Donkin

A s ubstantial R io

a l ess r egular,

s ome p laces t he l ess c oncentric

s een o n t he n orth b ank o f t he

s ea

( Figure 5 ).

R io

C azones,

T hese m ay b e t he r emains o f

a s eries o f p rehispanic c ross-stream t er-

l and j ust w est o f t he

T ecolutla

f or

N ew W orld

i n

I n

t erraces, b ut t hey c ould b e a gricultural a s w ell.

W ilkerson h as r eported

i s n oted

s ites a nd

s ystems w ould b e h ighly d esirable.

T he h illy t errain j ust d own

o f t he

i n

s ubstance t o t his c omparison, o r

H uastecs a nd t he M aya

t ion h as b een g iven t o t he h ill l and.

t oo.

f ound

T he c omplex n ear

f ield c omplexes o f t he M aya r egion o ften c ome t o m ind.

g rounds s ome y ears a go

i n t he

1 983a).

i ts p attern i s q uite r egular a nd

t o t he l inks b etween t he

R elated

N orthern V eracruz i s g ener-

l ess s trictly r ectilinear t han w hat w as

W hether o r n ot t here i s a ny f urther i ndeed

i n

C entral V eracruz ( Siemens

E lena i s a n e xception,

o riented

f ound

R iver.

N either

V eracruz i n

S anta

t his n or

L ouisa

s ite o n n orthern

a ny o ther t errace c omplex

D onkin's r eview o f t erracing

i n t he

1 979). c omplex o f a ncient t erraces w as

f ound n ear

T uxpan d uring t he c ourse o f t his i nvestigation 1 37

t he m outh

( Figure 6 ).

F igure 5 : Ah ill-top s ite o n t he I ' do C azones w ith t he r emains o f w hat s eem t o h ave b een a gricultural t erraces.

1 38

F igure 6 : R emains o f s ettlement a nd w ht w ould s eem f airly c learly t o h ave b een a gricultural t erracing , j ust s outh o f T uxpan .

1 39

I t o ccurs o n a n

' island'

o f h ill

l and w ithin a n e xpanse o f s aline

m arsh, m uch o f i t c overed b y m angrove,

a f ew k ilometers f rom t he s ea.

S cores o f c learly a rtificial b ench-like h ills o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he n orthward

t o t he

R fo

s tructures l ine a g roup o f

' island'.

T he

' island'

i s l inked

T uxpan b y a w aterway t hat w as c learly c analised.

W e m ay p ostulate a r elatively i solated, d efensible c ommunity h ere, w ithout a ccess t o

f reshwater w etlands a nd

s uitable f or c ultivation. t he i nhabitants r esorted

T o

s trictly l imited

i ntensify a griculture

t o t erracing,

a c lassic

i n

i n l and

s uch a c ontext,

w ay o f d eepening

a nd c onserving m oisture i n a n a rea w ith a d istinct d ry s eason. a ccessible,

s oils

W here

t he m oist l and o f t he n umerous w etlands s eems t o h ave b een

p referred.

C urrent a nalogues I t w ould t ure

i n

s eem t hat i n t he

N orthern

f urther

i nvestigation o f a ncient a gricul-

V eracruz i t w ill b e a s i mportant a s i t h as b een

o ther r ecent i nvestigations o f p rehispanic a ttention t o

s easonal

a nd

s ubsistence t o p ay g reat

a ltitudinal c omplementarity.

A nd h ere,

a s e lsewhere, e thnographic a nalogues c an b e s uggestive. o ne n otes

f ields o n t he

i n a gain

F rom t he a ir

s easonally e xposed m argins o f v arious w etlands;

t here a re u ndoubtedly n umerous i nstances o f t he h igh r isk d ry s eason c ultivation r eported

f rom e lsewhere

a ddition,

i t w ill b e u seful

p ractise.

I n

p ost-Contact

i n t he l owlands

C entral

a nd b rowse d uring t he d ry s eason, l ike t his

i nto t he w etlands t o g raze

r etreating t o h igher g round w hen t he

p asture m anagement.

s ources o n t he s ubject

f all

b e e xtensively c onsulted

N orthern

D rainage c an m ake t he d ry s eason. i mportant a tion.

f looded

V eracruz;

t o

V eracruz a s w ell.

t errain a ccessible t o c attle e arlier

i n

i t w orthwhile t o c arry o ut e xtensive c analis-

t he

p rehispanic

T his u sually m eans t hat i rrigation

i nstalled

a s w ell

s ince t he d rained

b efore t he o nset o f t he r ains. i s a d eserving

l ines h ave

p atterns i n m any w etlands o f

p rocess h as n ot g one n early a s

V eracruz.

m anipulation

R anchers w ill n eed

s traight a nd o ften d endritically l inked c anal

r ecently b een l aid o ver C entral

o f w ater l evels.

W here r anching i s q uite i ntensive t his c an b e a n

f actor, m aking

L ong,

i n t he w etlands - t he

s ince t here h as b een v ery l ittle a ctual

m easurement o f t he r ise a nd i n

s omething

I n t he p rocess t hey h ave

b ecome k nowledgeable a bout t he b ehavior o f w ater m ain

I n

V eracruz t he h alf-wild c attle e nacted

S ubsequently r anchers h ave i ncorporated

i nto t heir

1 983d).

t o d raw i n d ata r egarding c urrent r anching

a k ind o f t ranshumance o n t heir o wn, c oming w ater l evels r ose.

( Siemens

f ar

i n

N orthern

f acilities m ust b e

p astures o ften d ry o ut e xcessively

T he h istory o f t his e nvironmental

s eparate s ubject

f or

c lear a lready t hat t he r eactivation o f w etland

i nvestigation.

a griculture a long

h ispanic l ines i n a id o f m odern e conomic d evelopment, 1 40

I t i s p re-

w hich h as o ften

b een r eferred

t o a s a p ractical b enefit o f t he i nquiry i nto a ncient

s ubsistence i n w etlands.

t he l owlands,

i s n o l onger t o b e c ontemplated

E ven w here t he e nvironment i s

i n a ncient t imes, a ncient t imes,

t he w etland

t he w etland

p roprietors a nd

f or m any

s till m ore o r l ess w hat i t w as

i s m ostly m ore o r l ess w hat i t w as i n

i s m ostly i n t he h ands o f p rivate

t hus n ot a ccessible t o p easant a griculture a long t ra-

d itional l ines o r

e ven

t o e xperimentation.

N atural p rocesses V arious i ndications o f n atural o ver

N orthern

l abyrinthine

V eracruz a s w ell. f loodplain o f t he

V erlandung:

s edimentation

a nd

t he g radual p lant g rowth

c hange a re n oticeable

O n t he m argins o f a l ake o n t he P anuco o ne c an

t he p rocess t hat i s u nderway i n c alled

e nvironmental

s ee c learly i llustrated

w etlands e verywhere; f illing

i t i s s ometimes

i n o f a w etland

( Figure 7 ).

T he r ound

t hrough

a nd g rowing

i slands t hat r esult m ay h ave b een a n e arly o bject l esson o n h ow , s ome a dditional l abor, w etlands. f ield

a gricultural

s urfaces m ight b e w on w ithin

S triking j uxtapositions o f n atural h ummocks a nd v estiges o f

s ystems m ay b e s een

( Siemens

w ith

i n m any o f t he w etlands o f N orthern

B elize

1 982b).

V ertical

a nalysis o f a ir p hoto c overage

f or

C entral

a nd

N orthern

V eracruz i ndicates t hat w etland b oundaries i n a n umber o f p laces w ere f ormerly m ore r estricted c onformal w ithin

T he t opographically

e arlier b oundaries s how t hrough i n t he v egetational

t he

p erimeters o f t he

l evel c hanges w ill p lanned,

t han t hey a re n ow.

p resent w etlands.

p robably b e c oming o ut o f t he w etland e xcavations

p resumably e laborating o n t he r ecent r ise

p ostulated

t ones

F urther d ata o n w ater i n

s ea l evels o ften

f or t he c oast a round t he G ulf.

A ltitudinal c ontext T he w etlands m ay b e s een a s t he b ase o f a n t hat p roceeds a nalysed

i nto t he h igher

a ltitudinal

z onation

t opography t o t he w est a nd t hat c an b e

w ith p rofit a t v arious s cales.

A lexander v on

H umboldt

w as m uch i mpressed b y t he v ertical d ifferentiation o f n atural t hat h e

f ound o n t he e astern

o f h is d iscussion o f t he a ltitudinal

e cological

s lopes o f t he

p henomena

S ierra M adra O riental.

I ntendency o f V eracruz i s o rganised

M uch

i n

t erms, a s i s h is d iscussion o f t he r elationships

b etween t he c ore o f t he c ountry a nd

i ts e astern c oastal r egions.

S ubsequent n ineteenth c entury o bservers e laborated o n t he p articular a G erman r esident o f M exico,

C arl

S artorius

z onation,

( 1961),

d escription o f t he l owlands i n m id-nineteenth c entury i s s till i n t he

( 1811)

i nterpretation o f t hese l andscapes t oday.

1 41

i n

w hose u seful

I t i s a pparent

f rom

F igure 7 : V erlandung e vident i n o ne o f t he n umerous l agoons o f t he l ower P anuco-Tamesi R iver s ystem .

1 42

e ven a l imited

e xamination o f e arly p ost-Contact h istorical

t hat t here w ere

i ntriguing e cological

r elations b etween

u plands a nd l owlands.

i nvestigation o f p rehispanic w etland e ventually b e p rojected a ltitudinal

a spects t o p re- a nd

u pslope,

p ost-Contact

I t i s h oped t hat t he c urrent

a griculture i n

s o t o s peak,

z onation o n a b roader

s ources

t he l owlands c an

i nto a n a nalysis o f

s cale.

B y-products

O ne o f t he t opics o f t hat b roader o f t he b arranca.

S ince m ost o f t he r econnaissance

V eracruzan l owlands h ave o riginated t hat c ut t he e astern l ast o n t he w ith t he

s lopes o f t he

i tinerary;

i n

J alapa,

f lights o ver t he

t he i mpressive c anyons

S ierra h ave a lways b een

i t h as b een d ifficult t o a void

f irst a nd

r egarding t hem

s ame a ttention t o m icroaltitudinal v ariations t hat w as

f ocussed o n t he

w etlands d ownslope

a long t he t ypical t he a ir.

i nvestigation w ill b e t he e cology

V ariations i n l and u se

U -shaped b arranca p rofile a re e asily i dentified

S ome l imited

s outheast o f

( Figure 8 ).

f ield

i nquiry i n o ne m ajor b arranca t o t he

J alapa h as i ndicated

s ome o f t he p hysical

b ases f or t hem a nd a c orresponding v ariation i n l and a pparent t hat t he b arranca h ad s lavery a nd b anditry.

f rom

e nvironmental

t enure.

I t i s

i nteresting r oles i n t he h istory o f

I t w ill b e i ntriguing t o e xamine i ts r ole i n t he

p re-Contact c ultural l andscape. T he o ther b y-product o f w etland i s t he

s triking e vidence o f s ettlement a nd

t ablelands b etween b arrancas, n ewly p lowed

i n e arly s ummer

o f s tructures a nd s everal

r econnaissance a lready r eferred

l ocations.

a griculture o n t he

s loping

v isible j ust a fter m any f ields h ave b een ( Figure 9 ).

T he r emains o f s izable g roups

e xtensive f ield b oundaries h ave b een I t w ould

t o

s ighted

i n

s eem t hat t here i s t he p ossibility h ere

f or

s ome t esting o f i deas a lready i n t he l iterature r egarding t he

f orm a nd

d ensity o f s ettlement i n

t he

r emains t raced o ut i n

p re-Contact

t he p lowed

C entral

V eracruz.

f ields b egin

t o

s ubstantiate s ome

r emarkable o bservations m ade b y S artorius.

H e l ived

E l

a nd

M irador, a n h acienda n orth o f H uatusco,

v ery w ell.

H e d escribed t he r emains o f a ncient

t hroughout t he

s loping t ablelands,

A lso,

f or m any y ears a t

k new C entral

V eracruz

s ettlement t hat h e

f ound

i ncluding e xtensive t erracing.

S ampling w ill b e a p roblem, b ut w ith c ontinued

a ir

p hotography a t

i ntervals i t s hould b e p ossible t o o utline t he

s tructures a nd

f ields o f

s everal c ommunities a t l east.

S ummary B y m eans o f a ir r econnaissance i t h as b een d eal

r egarding t he d imensions a nd

p hysical 1 13

p ossible t o l earn a g ood

e nvironmental c ontext o f

F igure 8 : Ab arranca e ast o f J alapa, s howing f rom t op t o b ottom : a ) a n e xposure o f t he c liff -forming T ertiary c onglomerate; b )precarious w et s eason f ields; c ) at rail t o as mall s ettlement o n t he r iver ( Barrancas w ere c onvenient h ideouts f or e scaped s laves, b andits a nd r evolutionaries .); d ) am ango p lantation o n t he v alley b ottom .

1 44

F igure 9 : T he r emains o f ac ommunity r evealed j ust a fter p lowing i n M ay o n t he f lat, g ently s loping t errain b etween b arrancas e ast o f J alapa.

1 45

w etland

a griculture

M esoamerica.

i n t he n orthern

T he g ross

f orm o f i ts v estiges i s n ow c lear;

t he s ystem t hey r epresent h as b een i s l aid

p roposed

e nvironmental c oncomitants.

r esearch q uestions h ave s uggested U nder

s crutiny,

a nd

t he

N orthern

i mmensely s timulating.

p otential

A long t he w ay,

i s a ltitudinally o rdered, a nd

i n

t he

S ierra

b y c ultural

I t h as a s trong

s easonal

e vents:

r hythm a nd

t he

e xtraordinarily h igh

t o n ame t he m ost o bvious.

t o t he c oast.

a mong

r epertoire o f t raditions.

s tudy o f

n umerous s pecific

I ts e nvironment

w ithin m eters a long t he m argins o f w etlands

O riental

r emains;

T he b asis

V eracruzan l andscape h as b ecome c om-

a nother o rder o f m agnitude a long M adra

o f

t hemselves.

f or h ighly d isturbing o ccasional

w ater l evels a nd h urricanes,

a m odel

a nd e laborated.

f or t he e xamination o f s tratigraphy a nd d etailed

p hysical

p lex

e xtremity o f t he t ropics o f c oastal

t he

t he c ontinuum A ll

f rom t he p eaks o f

t his i s w ebbed

a nd

s tippled

p resent p opulation t here i s s till

T here

i s a mple r oom h ere

f or t he

a r ich

i nter-

d isciplinary i nquiry t hat h as a dvanced

t he u nderstanding o f p re-contact

s ubsistence c onsiderably o ver t he l ast

f ew d ecades.

A cknowledgements T he r esearch r eported o n h ere w as s upported b y g rants S ocial

S ciences

R esearch

C ouncil o f C anada;

c ooperation

i n v arious o ther

N acional d e

I nvestigaciones

l ogistical

r espects w as r eceived s obre

R ecursos

f rom t he

a ssistance a nd

f rom t he

B ioticos i n

I nstituto

J alapa,

M exico.

R eferences c ited A dams,

R .E.W.,

1 981

W .E.

B rown

R adar m apping,

J r

a nd

T .P.

C ulbert

a rchaeology a nd a ncient M aya l and

u se.

S cience 2 13:1457-1463. C oe,

M .D .

1 980 D onkin, 1 979

a nd

R .A .

D iehl

( editors)

I n t he L and o f t he O lmec.

U niversity o f T exas

P ress.

R . A gricultural

F und

P ublication

T erracing i n t he A boriginal i n

A nthropology,

N o.

5 6,

N ew W orld.

V iking

U niversity o f A rizona

P ress. E kholm, 1 944

G .F. E xcavations a t T ampico a nd

P anuco i n

t he

H uasteca,

M exico.

A nthropological P apers o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory , S artorius, 1 961

3 8.

C .

[ 1858]

Mexico a bout 1 850.

S tuttgart.

1 46

S chmidt, 1 977

P .J. U n s istema d e c ultivo i ntensivo e n l a c uenca d el

V eracruz. S iemens, 1 980

B oletik d e I NAH 2 0:50-60.

A .H. I ndicios d e a provechamiento a gricola p rehispänico d e t ierras

i nundables e n e l c entro d e V eracruz. S iemens,

A provechamiento a gricola p recolombinas d e t ierras f rundables

e n e l V aste d e V eracruz.

P re-Hispanic a gricultural

B elize. 2 25. 1 983a

B iotica 7 :343-357.

A .H.

1 982b

S iemens,

B iotica 5 (3):83-92.

A .H.

1 982a S iemens,

R io N autla,

u se o f t he w etlands o f N orthern

I n M aya S ubsistence , e dited b y K .V .

A cademic

P ress,

F lannery,

p p.205-

N ew Y ork.

A .H. O riented r aised

f ields i n

C entral V eracruz.

American

A ntiquity 4 8:85-102. S iemens, 1 983b

A .H. W etland a griculture i n t he l owlands o f p rehispanic

M esoamerica. S iemens, 1 983c i n

G eographical R eview 7 3:166-181.

A .H. M odelling p rehispanic h ydroagriculture o n l evee b ackslopes N orthern V eracruz.

I n

D rained F ield A griculture i n C entral

a nd S outh A merica , e dited b y J .P. A rchaeological S iemens, 1 983d

R eports

D arch.

I nternational

B ritish

S eries

1 89,

O xford.

A .H. R educing t he R isk:

s easonal c ultivation o f w etland m argins.

M anuscript.

1 47

UISED F IELD F ARMERS A S P RE-COLUMBIAN 1ANDSCAPE E NGINEERS: L OOKING N ORTH F ROM T HE S AM J ORGE ( COLOMBIA)

J ames

J .

P arsons

I t h as b ecome i ncreasingly e vident t hat t he w etter

t ropical l ow-

l ands o f t he A mericas w ere t he s cene o f s ome o f t he m ore e arly m oves t owards a gricultural me f loodplains o f n orthern b een p ostulated r esources a nd

i ntensification.

C olombia a nd

i mportant

T he c oasts a nd r iver-

E cuador,

i n

p articular,

t o h ave o ffered b oth t he a bundant a quatic

h ave

p rotein

t he s oil a nd m oisture c onditions t hat w ould h ave

e ncouraged t he e arly e stablishment o f p ermanent s ettlements a nd t he s election a nd s ystematic e xploitation o f u seful p lants. ( 1952)

a nd

G erardo

R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1959)

t han t wenty y ears a go a nd 1 973)

a nd o thers.

s o,

m ore r ecently,

f loodplains

( 1970,

f ield o r g arden b ed

f it i nto t he e volutionary p attern

o f N ew W orld a griculture i s y et t o b e d etermined. t antalising h ints,

S auer

h ave D onald L athrap

J ust w here t he e xtensive r aised

s ystems o f t hese t ropical

C arl

a rgued t o t his e ffect m ore

T here a re

a s y et l argely c ircumstantial,

t hat t hese r emarkably

e ngineered l andscapes m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith s ome o f t he e arlier h uman s teps t owards a s ettled

f arming l ife i n t he N ew W orld.

e xploitation o f t hese w etlands, 1 492, m ay w ell h ave p receded

u pland s urfaces

A t t he s tem e nd o f t he S outh

( Siemens

A merican c ontinent,

l ena v alley s tands i n a u niquely s trategic p rehistory.

p art,

a nd A trato s ystems, f rom e arliest t imes.

C auca a nd

S an J orge,

f unnel,

a nd

t he

p assed a ll l and

I ts e xtensive

t he o pen a ccess t o t he i nterior w hich t he r iver t he

C olombia's M agda-

p osition i n r egard t o

t hrough w hich m ust h ave

m igrations i nto t he s outhern h emisphere.

i ts t ributaries,

1 979)i

I t w as o f n ecessity a p art o f t he

m ost e asily t raversed

p rior t o

t he g eneral a doption o f s hifting

c ultivation o n b etter d rained

A merican

T he

a lmost c ertainly m alaria-free

f loodplains a nd

p rovided,

a long w ith

a s w ell a s t he a djacent S inü

s uggest a m ajor c rossroads o f c ulture a nd c ommerce H umans q uite

A merican c ontinent i n t his a rea.

p robably f irst

s et

f oot o n t he S outh

S ome w ould h ave

f ound t he e nvironment

s ufficiently c ongenial t o i nduce t hem t o r emain.

P ottery f rom a s hell

m ound a t w ith t hat

P uerto H ormiga o n t he

C aribbean c oast,

d ated

f rom t he V aldivia c ulture o f t he P acific f rom t he

R eichel-Dolmatoff

1 975).

I n b oth c ases

f ields a re

f ound n earby.

e xtensive

L athrap

p rehistoric r aised

T he n orthern

C olombian r aised

f ields,

A mericas

( Estrada

1 958;

f loodplains w ith

l ying n ear t he c enter o f

g ravity o f t he o ccurrence o f s uch f eatures i n t he

1 49

a long

c oast o f E cuador,

s till s tands a s t he o ldest k nown 1 965b;

3 090 B C,

N ew W orld,

a re

F igure 1 : R aised f ields n ear S an M arcos, C olombia, a s s een f rom t he a ir ( Instituto G eografico ' Agustin C odazzi', B ogota. S cale 1 :5,000 ). 1 50

c onsiderably m ore e xtensive t han t hose o f a ny o f t he o ther i dentified l owland

f loodplains w ith s imilarly e ngineered

S uriname,

V enezuela,

E cuador,

l ower S an J orge v alley,

n ear

f eatures - i n

B elize a nd M exico.

B olivia,

A ir p hotography o f t he

i ts j unction w ith t he M agdalena,

h as r e-

v ealed a m inimum o f 9 0,000 h a o f s uch p atterned g round, m uch o f i t m ade v isible

f rom t he a ir o nly a s a r esult o f r ecent c learing o f t he

f or c onversion t o p asture.

t housands o f a dditional h ectares l ie b uried d eposited r iver a lluvium

f orest

T here i s s trong e vidence t hat t ens o f

( Parsons & B owen

u nder a v eneer o f r ecently

1 966,

P arsons

1 978).

O nly i n

t he q uite d istinct e cological s ituations o f t he l imestone k arst o f Y ucatan a nd o n t he

f lood-prone m argins o f L ake

T iticaca,

a t

a bove s ea l evel, d o t hey a pproach i n e xtent t hose o f t he n orth c oast.

B ut

f or v arious r easons,

t he C olombian r aised m ajor

f irst

4 ,000 m

C olombian

i ncluding d ifficulty o f a ccess,

f ields h ave t o d ate r emained l ittle s tudied.

A

s tep t o c orrect t his d eficiency h as r ecently b een t aken b y

t wo C olombian a rchaeologists f rom t he B anco d e l a R epublica's M useo d e O ro

( Plaza a nd

F alchetti

1 981).

T he S an J orge r aised f ields T he i ntricacies o f t he S an J orge t ion d ifficult.

A s s een

f ield

p atterns m ake t heir d escrip-

f rom a bove t hey a re a n a rtistic e xtravaganza,

t aking o n l inear a nd g eometric p atterns t hat e voke u nconstrained a dmiration a nd w onder. E cuador,

T heir c losest c ounterparts s eem t o b e t hose i n

i n e astern B olivia a nd

c auseways,

d istinctive

m inor i mportance.

p erhaps l owland M exico.

f eatures o f o ther r aised

F or t he m ost p art t he

n ated b y b undles o f l inear r idges f ields")

S an

C anals a nd

f ield a reas,

a re o f

J orge l owlands a re d omi-

( hence t he e arlier t erm " ridged

r eaching a t r ight a ngles b ack f rom t he n atural l evees o f t he

m ain o r t ributary s treams t o t he i nterfluvial b asins. d istinctive " combed" a ppearance, c ontrasts,

T hus t hey h ave a

e specially c onspicuous

a r eflection o f d ifferential

f rom v egetation

s oil/moisture c onditions b e-

t ween r idge a nd s wale. O nly f rom a bove,

a s i n a n a irplane, c an o ne g ain a c lear

o f t hese m an-made l andscapes o f t he S an

J orge

( Figure

1 ).

i mpression

T hey w ent u n-

n oticed b y t he o bservant e arly c hroniclers. W e c annot e ven b y s ure t hat t hey w ere e llers,

i n u se a t t he a rrival o f t he S paniards.

i f t hey s aw t hem a t a ll,

s ee

N or d id l ater t rav-

f it t o c all a ttention t o t hem.

T here a re v ague r eferences t o t he a bundant m ogotes ( "de c ima p lana

p ero p equ e lo q ue s iempre q ueda f üera d el a gua ") i n F rancisco V ergara y V elasco's N ueva G eograf ta d e C olombia o f D olmatoff ( 1965a)

c asually a lludes t o

r idges s eparated b y f urrows' r esidents,when a ware o f t hese

i n t he

1 901,

a nd

' reports o f a cres o f p arallel

S an J orge a rea.

f eatures

R eichel- . C ontemporary

( lomillas o r c amellones ),

h ave n aively a ttributed t hem t o n atural p rocesses o f s edimentation. 1 51

O ur

1 966 r eport,

g reeted a t

r elating t hem t o p re-Columbian a griculturalists,

f irst b y m uch s cepticism.

p erhaps t hey w ere t he f ish t raps,

I f t hey w ere n ot n atural

w as

f eatures

p roduct o f e arlier g old d redging a ctivities, o r

o r e ven t he c onstructs o f t he l ost t ribe o f I srael!

E stimates o f t he a rea a ffected c overage b ecame a vailable. w ould h ave r equired

i ncreased a s m ore c omplete a ir-photo

T heir c onstruction,

t he e quivalent o f s ome

b y b asket b rigades.

H ad

t hey s upported

i t h as b een c alculated,

5 0 m illion m an-days o f l abor

t wo o r t hree

p ersons p er

h ectare i t w ould h ave m eant a p opulation o f c lose t o h alf a m illion o n l and t hat i n o ur t ime s upports o nly a f ew t housand T oday t he a rea i s d evoted

p ermanent s ettlers.

t o l ivestock g razing d uring t he d ry s eason,

s abanas d uring t he m onths o f

t he s tock b eing e vacuated t o t he h igher f looding.

C onsiderably l ess t han h alf o f t he t otal l and t he a ctual r aised s urfaces o r

p latforms.

t hese w ould h ave s upported c rops i n t he O ctober), s tage,

d uring t he d ry s eason,

t he s oils o f t he

s urface c onstitutes

I t h as b een

p resumed t hat

p eriod o f h igh w ater

( June t o

w hen t he r ivers a re a t t heir l ow

s wales b etween t he r idges w ould

t ained s ufficient m oisture t o m erit c ultivation.

s till h ave r e-

I f s uch a p lanting

c ycle w as f ollowed v irtually t he e ntire a rea c ould h ave b een p roductive i n t he c ourse o f t he y ear. A t t heir a rrival t he S paniards o ccupying t he

f ound m anioc-based s ocieties

C aribbean l owlands o f C olombia a nd i t h as s eemed r eason-

a ble t o a ssume t hat t his h igh-yielding t uber w as t he g rown o n t he r idged

f ields

p ossible c andidate,

g enerally h as b een

i nvasive E cuador a s

f rom t he n orth.

f rom e arliest t imes. H owever,

p rincipal c rop

M aize,

r ecent d iscoveries i n c oastal

p oint t o a h earth o f e fficient m aize a griculture

2 400 B C i nvolving r aces o f m aize o f a t ype a nd

M esoamerica u ntil c onsiderably l ater r ole o f t his m onster c ereal

1 977).

f irst m aize

t he s outh,

a t l east b y 6 00 B C a nd p robably m uch e arlier I t h as b een

f rom

T hus t he

i n e arly S outh A merican a griculture r emains

I n

1 980).

t here a s e arly

s ize n ot k nown

( Galinat e t a l.

e nigmatic. R anere

P anama t he

t he o ther

p resumed t o h ave b een l ate a nd

p roposed

i s n ow j udged

t hat

t o h ave d erived

f rom

( Linares a nd

t he c ontinuing b ack-crossing o f

e arly d omestic m aize w ith i ts w ild r elatives i n i ts M exican-Guatemalan a rea o f o rigin r estricted i nto S outh A merica,

i ts

i mprovement,

w here t hese g rasses w ere a bsent,

g ene d ilution w ere n ot a vailable. v arieties c ould

T he

b ut t hat o nce

i ntroduced

s uch s ources o f

H ere s election o f h igher y ielding

p roceed u nimpeded.

f loodolain e nvironment T he

C auca a nd

t he M ompös

S an

D epression,

T he r egime o f t hese

J orge r ivers j oin t he m ain M agdalena s ystem i n s ome

2 00 k m

f rom t he

t ropical s treams,

C aribbean c oast

( Figure

c ontrolled b y t he a nnual m arch

2 ).

F igure 2 : T he d istribution o f r aised f ields i n t he B a jo S an J orge d istrict, C olombia .

1 53

o f p recipitation i n t heir u pper d rainage b asins, d etermines t he p lains.

T he C auca,

C aucasia,

e ven t oday l argely

p atterns o f l and u se a nd h uman o ccupancy o f t he e merging

f lood-

f rom t he m ountains o f A ntioquia n ear

c arries a n e xceptionally h eavy l oad o f s uspended

s ediment.

W hen i ts f loodwaters i ntermittently o vertop t he l eft b ank i n t he r iver's l ower c ourse d uring t he m onths o f M ay t hrough N ovember a s ign ificant r iver.

p art o f i ts

f low f ans o ut a s a s heet t owards t he S an

T wo m ajor d istributary c hannels,

J orge

t he M ojana a nd t he P anseguita,

a s w ell a s C aMo R abon a nd C aMo S an M atias,

a id

i n c arrying s urplus

w aters n orthwards, w hile C an ( ) B arr° t akes a s horter n orthwesterly

c ignaga o f A yapel, w hich i n t urn d rains t o t he S an

c ourse t o t he J orge.

A s a r esult o f s uch a nnual

1 00 k m l ong o n i ts l eft b ank. s urface o f t he c one, c hannels.

f looding t he C auca h as b uilt a

( cono d e d errame ) s ome 7 5 k m w ide a nd

s lightly c oncave a lluvial c one

T he

f loodwaters s pread s heetlike o ver t he

t hough c oncentrating i n t he l obes m arked b y t hese

I ts g radient i s m ore t han 0 .5 m /km 1 .

A s t his p eriodically i nundated d epression,

w here t he

J orge w aters m erge w ith t hose o f t he M agdalena, m ent t rap, m inor s urface

f eatures w ithin

i t,

c ess.

T he m aximum r ate o f s ubsistence,

b y a D utch e ngineering c onsortium, M agdalena t rough.

T he

o f t he a lluvium, w ards t o

a nd

c ontributes t o t his p ro-

d emonstrated

i n t est h oles m ade

o ccurs c losest t o t he a xis o f t he f loodplain a lluvium a buts t he

P liocene s urface k nown a s t he S abanas.

t he r aised

C ontinuing i sostatic

s lowest r ate h as b een r ecorded o n t he w estern

p eriphery o f t he d epression w here t he h igher

a cts a s a g reat s edi-

c alculated a t a s m uch a s o ne m eter i n 2 00 y ears,

a ssociated c ompaction o f t he u nderlying b eds,

S an

i ncluding m an-made r aised

f ields, m ay r apidly b e m asked b y s edimentation. d ownwarping,

C auca a nd

I t

i s a long t he m argins

e specially i n t he l ower c ourse o f t he S an

f ields a re b est

p reserved,

J orge,

t hat

t heir v ertical r elief r anging u p-

1 .2 m .

E xcavations o n t he

f loor o f t he A yapel

w hen i t l argely d isappears,

c i Aaga i n t he d ry s eason,

h ave y ielded e vidence o f a t l east t hree

e pochs o f l atest Q uaternary s edimentation,

s eparated b y s hort p eriods

o f l andscape s tability a nd

T his c yclic s edimentary h is-

s oil

f ormation.

t ory p robably r eflects a c ombination o f r egional

i sostatic

s ubsidence,

a ccelerated e rosion c aused b y m an-induced d eforestation i n t he h eadw aters o f t he C auca a nd b ations.

t he

S an

J orge,

a nd

R emarkably, m ore t han h alf o f t he

k m x 1 0 k m),

s hort t erm c limatic

p ertur-

f loor o f t his c ignaga ( 5

f ed b y f loodwaters o f b oth r ivers,

i s c overed w ith b arely

d iscernable g eometric d esigns o r

p atterns o f w hat w ere o nce r aised

f ields t hat t oday a re u nderwater

f or e ight m onths a y ear.

r emarkably,

i n r andom p its d ug o n i ts

d uring t he d ry s eason w e e ncountered E ither w e w ere

f ortunate t o h ave

c ultural r emains

( rare

E ven m ore

f loor t o d epths o f a bout f ragments o f r otted

1 .5 m

p ottery.

p icked a s pot w here t here w ere

i n m ost r aised

f ield a reas)

o r a p otentially

v ery r ich a rchaeological t ract h ere a waits e xcavation a nd a nalysis.

W hether t he C olombian r aised t ation t o s easonal

f ield s ystem r epresents a h uman a dap-

f looding o f t he s ort t hat w ould b e e xpected

g roup o ccupying s uch a n e nvironment,

o r w hether

f rom a ny

i t i s a s ystem o f

c ultivation o f s ufficient s ophistication a nd o riginality t o b e b est u nderstood a s a n " idea"

d iffused

f rom o ne o riginating c ulture g roup,

n ot r eadily a nswerable.

I f t he l atter h as b een t he c ase t he S an J orge

i s

v alley a nd t he G uayas v alley o f E cuador s eem l ikely c andidates a s e arly h earths a nd

f rom w hich e xpansion o utward o ccurred.

i nconclusive.

I n

C olombia a d ate o f c .

C arbon d ates a re s canty

7 55+80 B P h as b een t aken

f rom o rganic m atter i n a p aleosol h orizon o n t he M arcos w here r idge a nd f rom o ne

f ortuitously l ocated

c ontamination b y m odern r oots i s

J orge.

T his i s a m inimum f igure;

s ite h ave d ates b een o btained a nd

p robable.

w hich t hey c ome u nderlies a t l east

T he c arbon-rich h orizon

1m o f s ediments,

t he c onstruction o f t he e arthworks.

s ince

T his r apid,

c ontinuing s edi-

m entation a pparently d istinguishes t he S an J orge

f rom o ther k nown

f ield l ocations i n t he N ew W orld.

m ounds i n t he s ame a rea h ave b een C hristian e ra

( Plazas a nd

O rganic m atter f rom h ouse

C 14 d ated t o t he b eginning o f t he

F alchetti

1 981).

I n t he G uayas l owlands w e h ave d ates o f 5 90+85 B C y ears a nd 9 5 B C y ears

f or s imilar

f rom

e mphasising t he

r apid r ates o f d eposition t o w hich t his a rea h as b een s ubjected

r aised

S an

s wale h as b een n eatly c ross-sectioned b y a n

e roding t ributary c hannel o f t he S an o nly

C an .° C arate n ear

p aleosols i n r aised

f ield c omplexes,

2 005+

w hile

e arly V aldivia-type p ottery r ecently h as b een f ound a ssociated w ith r aised

f ields i mmediately n orth a nd a cross t he r iver

V aldivia s ites

( the o riginal o ne,

d ating b ack t o a bout

t he c oast s ome 8 0 k m w est o f G uayaquil) v ation o f c otton, c anavalia b eans, a nd P earsall a nd

K aplan

1 981).

f rom G uayaquil. 2 600 B C,

i s o n

a re a ssociated w ith t he c ultip robably m aize a nd a chira

I n c ontrast,

( Damp,

P uerto H ormiga w as o ccupied b y

p re-agricultural s hellfish g atherers. R adiation o f t he e astward s hells

p recocious G uayas c ultural c omplex s outhward

t o t he A ndean h ighlands,

f rom t he w aters o f t he

w ith t he g iant S pondylus a nd L athrap

( 1970,

1 975),

f or

s ees t he t ropical l owlands b oth o f P acific E cuador a nd

A mazonia a s h earths o f e xpansion c ultures w ith e xpanding c ommon

S trombus

E cuador a nd M esoamerican c oasts a s a

c onspicuous e lement, h as b een s uggested. e xample,

a nd

f or a ggressive, r oot-crop b ased

p opulations,

a n etwork o f e xchange c ementing a

f ertility c ult i n w hich t hese s hells

s ymbolic r ole.

T he

I sla d e l a

a nd r eligious c enter M arcos a nd

N orton

I t

p rocessing

w as a t rade

( Paulsen

1 974;

i s s peculated t hat s uch c ultures, m oving

w ould t here h ave e ncountered v aried e cological

n iches t hat w ould h ave d iversification.

o ff t he E cuador c oast,

f or t heir c ollection a nd

1 979).

i nto t he h ighlands,

P lata,

p layed a n i mportant

s timulated

t heir

f urther e laboration a nd

I n a s omewhat m ore t entative m anner t he l ower

1 55

M agdalena a nd

S an

J orge m ay b e

p roposed a s a c ulture h earth

e xpansion n orthward a cross t he ( Figure

f or

C aribbean t o M esoamerica a nd b eyond

3 ).

I n t he n orthern P eruvian A ndes t he H uantar

i s l ocated a t

1 200 B C a nd

100 B C a s o ne o f t he p robable

h igh c ulture, ( Lathrap

C havin c ulture

t he

1 973).

f irst

i nitial h earths o f A ndean

p an-Andean c enter o f h ighland i nfluence

P otatoes,

l lamas,

g uinea p igs a nd

t he h ighland g rains

a nd r oots a re h ere a dded t o t he c omplex o f t ropical i ncluding t he j aguar, c aiman.

f orest e lements,

t he c apuchin m onkey a nd, a s s upreme b eing,

T he g iant o belisks a t C havin t ell

l owland l inkages,

( Chavin d e

2 900 m a bove s ea l evel) e merges s ometime b etween

t he

t his s tory o f t ropical

a s d o s tylistic a nd d ecorative t echniques i n

c eramics. A t a pproximately t he s ame t ime, l ishment o n t he M exican c oast

s uggestively,

w e h ave t he e stab-

s outh o f V era C ruz o f t he a ntecedents o f

t he e nigmatic O lmec c ivilisation w hich h as a ppeared b lown a round e volution. a nd

S an

b ase,

t o e merge f ull

1 200 B C w ithout e vidence o f p revious t echnologic

T he g reat b asalt f aces a nd

L orenzo,

w ith t heir

t he e arthen

p yramids o f L a V enta

i mplications o f a w ell e stablished u rban

h ave r evolutionised a rchaeological t hinking i n t he l ast q uarter

c entury. l owland

T he c onnections b etween t his h ighly s tructured a nd d isciplined s ociety a nd

t hat e volving

r emains t o b e e stablished.

H ere,

i n t he v alleys o f M exico a nd O axaca a s a t C havfn,

h ave c ome t o c all a h igh c ulture, a t heocratic t erface o f t wo c ompeting s ocieties, l owlands,

w e m ay h ave h ad w hat w e s tate,

a rise a t t he

i n-

t he o ne o riginating i n t he t ropical

p erhaps w ith S outh A merican l inkages,

t he o ther e volving

f rom

t he m ore a rid a nd d iverse m ountain e nvironments. R aised

f ield t echnology t hroughout t he w orld

s imilar w herever 1 970;

s eems t o b e b asically

i t o ccurs u nder g iven c onditions o f h abitat

D enevan a nd

T urner

1 974).

d ently a t m ore t han o ne t ime a nd

I t h as u ndoubtedly e volved p lace,

Am ind-set

f loodplains t hat r equires t he

c onstruction o f s uch p lanting r idges o r

p latforms w ould h elp e xplain

t he a pparently d isproportionate e ffort r epresented o btained.

i ndepen-

b ut i ts d iffusion a s a c ulture

t rait o r p art o f a c ulture c omplex c an l ikewise b e i nferred. f avoring a n e cological a daptation t o

( Denevan

f or t he r esults

N or c an r itual b e e ntirely r uled o ut.

L ook ing n orth T he n ature a nd

t iming o f t he l inkages b etween M esoamerica a nd t he

A ndean h igh c ultures r emain o ne o f t he m ajor q uestions o f N ew W orld p rehistory b ut t hat t here w ere s ubstantial l inkages, w ere m ostly b y s ea,

i s n ow h ardly c hallenged. 1 56

a nd

t hat t hey

T o t he m any k nown

p arallels i n a rt n ow a dd r aised

s tyles,

c eramics,

r eligious a nd b urial c ustoms w e c an

f ields.

B eginning w ith t he d iscovery o n t he

( drained?)

C andelaria r iver

i n

C ampeche

( Siemens & P uleston

1 972),

w e h ave s een a

s urprising s equence o f r eports t hat n ow s how c learly t hat i ntensive l owland u tilisation e xtended a t l east M exico b order

c anals,

R io H ondo o n t he

t o t he R io N autla i n n orthern V era C ruz

H arrison & T urner e xtent a nd

f rom t he

1 978;

T urner e t a l.

f unction o f t hese r aised

1 980;

f ields,

( Schmidt

S iemens

1 983).

t hose o f t he S an

J orge

( Adams

1 980).

p erhaps r ivaling

T heir l attice o f l adder-like

s ignatures.

T hey a re u nique i n t hat

b ajos

i n t heir g reatest e xtent t hey a re a ssociated w ith k arstic w ithout s urface d rainage. c anals o n t he 1 977)

a nd

R io H ondo g oes b ack t o a t l east

c onstruction. O lmec

R adiocarbon d ating o f w orked t imber

p ollen d ata i ndicates t he

1 977; T he

w ith a ssociated d rainage

i s i n c ontroversy b ut t hey c over a v ast a rea,

w aterways g ives d istinctive r adar

B elize-

f ound

i n

110+230 B C ( Puleston

p ossibility o f e ven e arlier

C ontemporaneity o f t hese d evelopments w ith t he e arliest

f lorescence i s t hus i ndicated.

T hey m ust a lso h ave

s ignificant r ole i n t he r ise o f t he M aya c ivilisation

p layed a

( and t he

O lmec?). I n t he

A merican t ropics r aised

w ith m ounds o r

p yramids.

f ields h ave o ften b een a ssociated

D oes t his w arrant t he s uggestion o f a l ink

b etween t he t ropical l owland c ultures t o t he b uilders" o f t he e astern w oodlands o f t he o bservers w ere m ounds,

s ome

s outh a nd t he " mound

U nited

S tates?

E arly

s o i mpressed b y t he s ize a nd n umber o f t hese e arthen

1 0,000 o f t hem r eaching

f rom t he G ulf C oast t o C anada,

t hat t hey c ould n ot c onceive o f t hem a s t he w ork o f t he o ccupying t he a rea

( Squier & D avis

1 848;

S ilverberg

p eoples t hen

1 968).

T hese b urial

m ounds a nd t runcated t emple m ounds w e n ow k now t o h ave b een b uilt a bout

1 000 B C o nwards b y d ifferent g roups o f p eople.

l ess b asketfuls o f d irt o ver t he l og-lined

B y h eaping e nd-

t ombs o f t heir e lite

c reated t he g reat e arthen m onuments t hat h ave s urvived p ecially i n t he O hio a nd C ahokia m ound n ear s even h ectares, p yramid.

E ast

U pper M ississippi v alleys. S t L ouis,

I llinois,

i s

t hat o f P overty P oint,

o f t he m ost e laborate. a l arge g eometrical e arthen r idges,

t hey

t o o ur d ay,

T he l argest,

e st he

3 0 m h igh a nd c overs

i ts v olume e xceeding b y t hree t imes E gypt's l argest

P erhaps s ignificantly t he o ldest m ajor

y et d ated,

f rom

U .S. m ound c omplex a s

L ouisiana ( 1200 B C-1000 B C ),

i s o ne

I t c onsists n ot o nly o f s everal m ounds b ut a lso

f igure c omposed o f s ix c oncentrically a rranged

r ounded

i n

p rofile,

a bout 3 0 m a part a nd

1 .8 m h igh

t hat a ppears t o h ave b een h alf e roded a way b y t he s weep o f a n a rm o f t he A rkansas r iver P overty P oint,

( Ford & W ebb

1 956).

O ne t heory i s t hat i t w as

w hich s uggests s ubstantial O lmec

i nfluence,

m ound-building c omplex s pread n orthward a nd e astward. a n e ssentially i ndigenous o rigin P overty

P oint a p ossible

f or

d ead

r eached

1 57

A nother

t he O hio v alley c ultures,

p recocious d erivative o f t heir

O hio t he c ult o f t he h onored

f irst

i ts c ulmination

f rom

t hat t he p rojects w ith p hase.

i n t he

I n

F igure 3 : S ome s peculative l inkages a mong ' earth m oving ' s ocieties i n t he l ' bw W orld .

1 38

A dena

( 800 B C-200 B C )

a nd

r epresented b y t he g reat

H opewell

( 200 B C-300 A D)

S erpent M ound

m etric e arthwork c omplexes a t

u se,

i n

p arts o f t he

H ernan D esoto's e xpedition

i f n ot u nder c onstruction, O f s pecial

i nterest h ere

i n

I llinois)

s outh u p t o t he

( Michigan,

W isconsin, ( 1860)

i n

T hey w ere g enerally n arrower a nd m ore t ightly s paced f ields o f l ower a ttitudes b ut o therwise s imilar.

o f c onsiderable a ntiquity, h e n oted,

j udged t hem t o b e

f or m ature o ak t rees g rew u pon t hem.

T hey

" a s urprising c apacity t o r esist t he a ction o f t he e le-

t he d isturbing

f rom t he

G rand

f orce o f v egetation".

A s h e k new o f t hem t hey

R iver v alley o f M ichigan s outhward

w aters o f t he W abash a nd t he M iami R ivers i n O hio a nd r eports o f t hem a s

f ar n orth a s M ichilimackimac.

r eported t hrough m uch o f s outh-central W isconsin T he

1 20 y ears

r ectangular b undles o f p arallel r idges

S choolcraft w as m uch i mpressed w ith t heir e xtent a nd

r anged

I ndiana

1 00 a cres o r m ore s eparated b y p athways a nd l aid o ut

t han t he r aised

m ents a nd

s aw m ounds i n

i n G eorgia.

i n p roximity t o w hat H enry S choolcraft

r egular r ows.

h ad,

V irginia.

i s t hat t hese m ounds a nd e arthworks o ccur

a go d escribed a s " garden b eds", i n b locks o f

W est

( 1539-1542)

F lorida a nd

t hroughout m uch o f t he U pper M iddle W est a nd

C ounty a nd t he g eo-

i n t he n orth w ell b efore t he a rrival o f

E uropeans i t s eems t o h ave c ontinued A t l east

A dams

N ewark a nd a t M oundsville,

A lthough m ound b uilding c eased

C onquest.

i n

p hases a s

' garden b eds'

t o t he h ead-

I ndiana.

L ater t hey w ere a lso ( Fox

1 959).

c learly w ere n ot c onstructed t o a void

f or t he p rairies o n w hich t hey o ccurred w ere g ravelly o utwash m aterials.

H e h eard

f looding,

u nderlain b y w ell-drained,

I n t heir n orthern e xtent,

a t l east,

t he

b uilders m ay h ave b een s eeking t he a dvantage o f a ir d rainage a fforded b y s uch m icro-relief t o a void l ate s pring t hus t o p rolong t he a gricultural y ear, a nd

F reimuth

( 1979).

a s r ecently p roposed b y R iley

T heir d istribution,

m ore o r l ess c oterminous w ith w ith

f rost d amage t o m aize a nd a s m apped b y t hese a uthors,

f rost-free

i solines o f

a t t he n orthern l imits o f m aize c ultivation. s truction, p resumed

i s

1 20-150 d ays,

T hey r elate t heir c on-

w hich t hey p ropose t o h ave o ccurred a round

1 000 A D,

t o t he

p eriod o f c limatic a melioration w hen m aize m ay h ave b een

p ushed t o i ts n orthernmost c ultivation l imits. H owever g arden b eds a re a lso r eported w ell s uch a f rost p rotection

f unction m ay b e p ostulated.

N ational M onument n ear M acon, f urrow s urface,

s outh o f t he a rea w here

G eorgia,

A t O cmulgee

a h ard-packed c lay r idge a nd

k nown a s t he " sacred c orn

f ield,"

h as b een u nearthed

u nder

s everal m eters o f a ccumulated m ound m aterials

( Figure

a bout

1 000 A D

f orms a re

( Kelly

1 938;

F owler

i ngly r eminiscent o f t he t ropical F lorida,

n ear L ake O keechobee,

r eported

( e.g.

1 969). S outh

T he l inear

A merican r aised

l inear r aised

3 )

d ated a t s trik-

f ields.

s urfaces w ere a lso e arly

B artram 1 958:64) a nd h ave r ecently b een c onfirmed

1 982).

1 59

I n ( Sears

M aize h as b een f ields,

p resumed t o h ave b een t he c rop g rown o n t hese

w hich S choolcraft t hought o ften t o b e " too l arge t o b e

g ardens",

b ut t here i s n o k nown d escription o f N orth A merican

p lanting m aize i n r idges. M aize, h illed,

a s e very s choolchild k nows,

u sually a long w ith b eans a nd

s quash.

n o d irect e vidence o f a ny a griculture, o f i t i n t he d ensely s ettled p uzzles r elating t o t he

a t

I ndians w as a lways

T here i s n o m aize,

i ndeed

P overty P oint a nd v ery l ittle

O hio V alley.

I n

f act,

o ne o f t he m ajor

A dena a nd H opewell m ound c ultures i s t he

r elative a bsence o f s ignificant

i ndications o f a griculture.

A lthough

i t s eems c ertain t hat t hese h ighly s tructured s ocieties w ere a griculturally b ased,

t he

f irst i ndisputable a rchaeological e vidence o f

m aize i n t he e astern U nited S tates i s d ated 2 80+140 B C - a s ingle p rimitive c ob g ourd)

a nd

1 979).

T hese,

( Murphy

1 971).

C ucurbits

( pepo s quash a nd t he b ottle

p erhaps t obacco l ong p receded

i t ( Struever

a nd s uch s emi-domesticated

C henopodium a nd A maranth, f orgotten, m ay h ave b uilder

s ocieties,

1 973).

P erhaps,

p lants a s

t he g arden b eds,

w ith i mproved

s ignal t he i ntroduction o f a n ew a nd i mproved

c onstruction o f t he g reat F owler

U nited

f lorescence t hat s upported t he

C ahokia c omplex b etween

6 00 A D a nd

1 000 A D

1 969).

A f urther i nteresting t he s outheastern

P olygonum,

a long w ith h unting a nd g athering ( Struever & V ickery

a s h as b een s uggested,

1 969;

p arallel b etween t he S outh A merican c oast a nd

S tates i s t he o ccurrence i n b oth a reas o f e arly

f iber-tempered p ottery i n c onjunction w ith r ings o f s hell u p t o m eters p laces,

i n d iameter. S tallings

1 00

T hese a re k nown t o a rchaeology f rom o nly t wo

I sland,

G eorgia,

a nd a djacent S outh C arolina, w here

e ight o f t hem h ave b een d ated t o 2 000 B C , ( 3090 B C-1900 B C )

F ord

l ater r eplaced b y m aize a nd l argely

a griculture a ssociated w ith t he c ultural F ord

R .I.

p rovided t he s ubsistence b ase o f t he e arlier m ound

v arieties o f m aize,

( J.A.

1 971;

b ehind C artagena

( Stuart

a nd t he 1 972).

P uerto H ormiga s ite I n b oth c ases t he

r ings a re d oughnut-shaped h abitation s ites b ounded b y a t wo-meter h igh e mbankment w ith t he c enter k ept s crupulously c lean o f r efuse.

W hile

t he v illage p lan a nd t he d istinctive c eramic t empering s eem t o l ink S tallings I sland a nd

P uerto H ormiga,

t he p ottery s hapes a nd d ecorations

a re a lmost i dentical t o s ome o f t he

f eatures o f t he V aldivia s ite i n

E cuador

D id n avigators,

f rom a bout

t he G ulf S tream,

2 000 B C l evels.

c arry t his s ettlement

p attern a nd

p erhaps c aught i n p ottery s tyle

f rom

t he n orth c oast o f S outh A merica t o t he s hores o f t he s outheastern U nited

S tates?

o f t he

S mithsonian

p arallel.

A t l east o ne a rchaeologist, I nstitution,

t he l ate

J ames

F ord

s aw n o o ther w ay t o a ccount

P erhaps e ven t he c ircular r idges a t

P overty

o ther s outhern m ound c omplexes h ave s imilar o rigins.

( 1969)

f or t he

P oint a nd s ome

F ord,

a n

u nreconstructed d iffusionist,

w as e ven t empted t o s ee s uch f eatures a s

r elated t o a n a rchaic v illage

p lan w ith l inks t o t he c amp c ircles o f

t he N orth A merican

P lains

I ndians a nd

A mazon b asin. 1 60

t he c ircular v illages o f t he

Ap l ant&

f or e arth movt l IK

I s e arth m oving o n s uch a m assive s cale a n atural h uman i mpulse? A re w e l ooking h ere a t a c ase o f c ultural d iffusion - a t rans-Caribbean t hrust i nto t he M ississippi v alley - o r p erhaps s imply o f h uman i ngenu ity a dapting s imilarly t o s imilar w ith m aps

s ituations?

Is uppose t hat g eographers t end t o s ide,

w ith t he d iffusionists.

T he

n orth c oast o f C olombia,

o r p erhaps l owland

p ulses r eached s outhern

U nited

( Ekholm & W illey

S tates

1 966). T exas

a bout

f rom w hich i m-

A ndes a nd n orthward a cross

f rom t here a cross t he G ulf o f M exico t o

( Figure

3 ) a t l east d eserves a h earing

f or t hem i n

( Griffen

S ome a nthropologists, u nderlying

E cuador,

O verland c ontacts c annot b e r uled o ut,

t here i s n ot m uch e vidence i n C oahuila a nd

p erhaps t oo o ften,

i dea o f a c ulture h earth s omewhere o n t he

s outhward t owards t he c entral

t he C aribbean t o Y ucatän a nd t he

S ince t hey l ike t o w ork

C entral

A merica a nd h ardly a ny

1 980).

b eginning w ith S pinden, h ave

f ormative c ulture

a lthough

p ostulated a n

t hroughout t he A mericas w hich d iverged

3 000 B C i nto m any c hannels a nd d irections.

T he i dea i nvolves

e xtensive r elationships a nd c ultural t ransfers b etween S outh A merica, M esoamerica a nd t he S outhern U nited

S tates,

t he A merican M editerranean a t a t ime a nd A bout

1 200 B C ,

r aised

i ncluding n avigation a cross

s cale n ot o ften c onsidered.

p erhaps s ometime a fter t he a pparent e stablishment o f

f ield a griculture i n t he t ropical A merican l owlands,

b eginnings o f t he T heocratic

w e h ave t he

F ormative i n b oth P eru a nd M exico w ith t he

f irst a ppearance o f m ound s tructures a nd o ther a ppurtenances o f o rgani zed

p olitico-religious c ontrol.

t hat l ed

t o C han

i nitiated.

C han,

W ith i t t he t rend t owards u rbanization

T eotihuacan a nd a ll t he r est s eems t o h ave b een

T he s imilarities b etween t hese w idely s eparated a reas r aises

u nanswered q uestions. e ngineering o n a g rand

A n a pparent s cale,

' mania f or e arth m oving'

l andscape

r uns a s a t hread t hrough m uch o f N ew

W orld

p rehistory,

w ays,

e ffigies a nd p yramids a s w ell a s v ast e xpanses o f r aised a nd

r idged

f ields.

i nvolving e rection o f e arthworks,

E very b asin o r

p lain w here s easonal

e ven i n t he h ighland v alleys o f M esoamerica a nd h ave b een a c andidate

e nclosures,

f looding o ccurred,

t he

A ndes,

f or t he c onstruction o f s uch r aised

a nd a ssociated d rainage s ystems.

T hey a re

a tion w ith o ther t ypes o f e arthworks,

s ometimes

f ound

p ractical

s eems t o p lanting b eds i n a ssoci-

o ften o f i mpressive p roportions.

I t h as b een d ifficult t o r ationalise t he e xtravagant e ffort r epresented b y t he e xtensive

c ause-

C olombian r aised

a dvantages t hat t hey m ight h ave y ielded

p hysical

f ields w ith t he

t o t heir b uilders.

I n

a s easonally d ry t ropical c limate t he a lluvial l owlands c learly c ould h ave b een o ccupied,

e ven i f n ot q uite s o i ntensively,

s uch e normous e fforts. t he

S an

J orge

I n

f ields a re

C olombia t he h igher p roductive e nough,

w ithout r esort t o

S abanas s urfaces b ehind

e specially o f m anioc,

w arrant a t l east a l imited a gricultural e xploitation e ven t oday.

1 61

t o W hile

t he r idges, w ere q uite

a nd

i n t he d ry s eason t he m uck-filled

p robably u sed

f or

f arming,

u tilitarian m otives i nvolved m eter h igh r idges a nd

s wales b etween t hem,

t here m ay w ell h ave b een n on-

i n t heir c onstruction.

I s a f ield o f 2 -

f urrows a ny l ess e ffective a t p ropitiating a

f eared G od t han a p yramid? W e d o n ot k now f or s ure. s eems t o b e n o s ystematic r egularity o r a lignment

H owever,

t here

t o t he e arthworks

s uch a s o ne w ould e xpect f rom a r eligiously m otivated s ociety. p roduction o f s urpluses a ry n eeds i s a nother

f or

p restige

p ossibility.

I n t he p ast t wenty y ears o ur t hinking h as b een t urned b y n ew d ata o n b oth h istoric a nd c rossing o ver b y i nvestigators y ield

S ocial

p urposes r ather t han t o m eet d iet-

i mportant r eturns.

t opsy-turvy

p rehistoric a gricultural

s ystems.

M ore

f rom o ne N ew W orld a rea t o a nother c ould

S o w ill c omparisons b etween t he

O ld a nd t he

N ew W orld. W hen t hose f amiliar w ith t he S outh A merican s ituation h ave w orked m ore i ntensively i n t he M aya a nd i sts h ave c ome t o k now t he S an J orge,

O lmec a rea,

a nd t he M exican-

t he G uayas a nd

t he M ojos,

w e w ill

b e o n o ur w ay t o a n e ven b etter u nderstanding o f t he a gricultural

p ast.

R eferences c ited A dams,

R .E.W.

1 980

S wamps,

c anals,

a nd

t he l ocation o f M aya c ities.

A ntiquity

5 4:206-214. B artram, 1 958

W . T he T ravels o f W illiam B artram [ 1791],

H arper, D amp,

J .E.,

1 981 D enevan, 1 970

N aturalists'

D .M.

B eans

E d.,

Y ale

P earsall a nd L .T.

f rom V aldivia.

e dited b y F rancis

U niversity P ress,

N ew H aven.

K aplan

S cience 2 12:811-812.

W .M. A boriginal d rained

f ield c ultivation i n t he A mericas.

S cience 1 69:647-654. D enevan, 1 980

W .M. T opologfa d e c onfiguraciones a grfcolas p rehispänicas.

Amgrtca I nd -rgena 4 0:619-652. D enevan, 1 974

W .M. a nd F orms,

W orld E kholm, 1 966

G .

B .L.

f unctions,

T ropics. a nd

T urner

G .

I I

a nd a ssociations o f r aised

f ields i n t he

O ld

J ournal o f T ropical A griculture 3 9:27-33.

W illey

A rcheological

( editors)

F rontiers a nd

o f M iddle American I ndians ,

I nternal

V olume

4 .

C onnections.

H andbook

U niversity o f T exas,

A ustin. E strada, 1 958

E . Las C ulturas P recläsicas,

P ublication

5 .

M useo V ictor

F ormativas e Arcaico d el E cuador , E milio E strada,

1 62

G uayaquil,

E cuador.

F ord,

J .A.

1 969

A C omparison o f F ormative C ultures i n t he A mericas:

D iffusion o r t he P sychic U nity o f M an. C ontributions t o A nthropology, I nstitution, F ord,

W ashington,

V olume

S mithsonian 1.

S mithsonian

D .C.

J .A. a nd C . W ebb

1 956

P overty P oint, a L ate A rchaic s ite

i n L ouisiana.

A nthropo-

l ogical P apers o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory , V olume 4 6, F ord,

P art

1 .

R .I.

1 979

P alaeoethnobotany i n A merican a rchaeology.

A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory , 2 , F owler,

p p.285-336.

I n Advances i n

e dited b y M .B .

S chiffer, v ol •

A cademic P ress.

M .L.

1 969

M iddle M ississippian a gricultural f ields. American A ntiquity

1 4:365-375. FO X,

G .

1 959

T he p rehistoric g arden b eds o f W isconsin a nd M ichigan a nd t he

F ox

I ndians.

W isconsin A rcheologist 4 0:1-19.

G alinat, W .C. e t a l. 1 977

T he S an P ablo c orn k ernel a nd i ts f riends.

S cience 1 96:385-

3 87. G riffen,

J .B .

1 980

T he M esoamerican-Southeastern U .S.

C onnection.

E arly M an

2 (3):12-18. H arrison, 1 978

P .D. a nd

1 938

1 970 L athrap, 1 973

A lbuquerque.

1 975

B ureau o f A merican E thnology B ulletin 19:1-68.

D .W. T he U pper A mazon.

T hames a nd H udson, L ondon.

D .W. G ifts o f t he c ayman:

C havin.

L athrap,

s ome t houghts o n t he s ubsistence b asis o f

I n V ariation i n A nthropology , D ouglas,

D ouglas,

p p.91-105.

p p.91-105.

1 980

I llinois A rcheological

1 979

L athrap

S urvey,

U rbana.

U rbana.

D .W. A ncient E cuador:

C ulture,

0 .F .

a nd A .J.

R anere

C lay ,

a nd C reativity 3 000-300 B C .

C hicago.

( editors)

A daptive R adiation i n P rehistoric P anama.

A rcheology a nd E thnology, M arcos,

e dited b y D .W .

I llinois A rcheological S urvey,

F ield M useum o f N atural H istory, L inares,

U niversity o f N ew M exico

A p reliminary r eport o n a rchaeological e xplorations a t M acon,

a nd J . J .

( editors)

A .R.

G eorgia. L athrap,

T urner I I

P re-Hispanic Maya A griculture.

P ress, K elley,

B .L.

J .G. a nd P .

P eabody M useum o f

C ambridge, M assachesetts.

N orton

F rom t he Y ungas o f C hinchay S uyo t o C uzco:

P lata I sland i n t he s pondylus t rade. 1 63

t he r ole o f L a

P aper p resented a t t he

X LIII I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, A ugust M urphy ,

V ancouver,

B .C.,

1-17.

J .L.

1 971

M aize

f rom a n A dena M ound i n A thens,

C ounty,

O hio.

S cience

1 71:897-898. P arsons,

J .J.

1 978

M ore o n P re-Columbian r aised

S an J orge a nd B ajo C auca ,

f ields ( camellopes)

C olombia.

i n t he B ajo

I n P roceedings o f t he F irst

I nternational C onference o f L atin A mericanist G eographers, e dited b y W .M . P arsons,

D enevan,

J .J. a nd W .M .

1 966 P aulsen,

f ields o f t he S an J orge R iver f loodplain,

G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343.

A .C.

1 974

T he t horny o yster a nd t he v oice o f G od: s pondvl ,us a nd s trombus

i n A ndean p rehistory. P lazas,

C . a nd A .M.

1 981

A merican A ntiquity 3 9:597-607.

F alchetti

A sentamientos P rehispänicos e n e l B ajo R io S an J orge.

F undaciön d e

I nvestigaciones N acional,

P ublicaci6n I I, P oleston, 1 977

B ogota,

C olombia.

T he a rt a nd a rchaeology o f h ydraulic a griculture i n t he M aya I n S ocial P rocess i n M aya P rehistory :

m emory o f S ir E ric T hompson , A cademic 1 959

e dited b y N .

t ive. A ctas X XX

S an

P raeger,

N ew Y ork.

G .

E xcavaciones a rqueolögicas e n P uerto H ormiga ( Departamento d e

B olivar). T .J.

1 979

= C ongreso I nternacional d e A mericanistas ,

G .

C olombia.

R eichel-Dolmatoff , 1 965b

f rom t he C olombian p erspec-

C osta R ica.

R eichel-Dolmatoff , 1 965a

p p.449-479.

G .

T he f ormative s tage: a n a ppraisal

J ose ' ,

S tudies i n

H ammond,

P ress.

R eichel-Dolmatoff,

A ntropologia ,

a nd G .

V olume

2 ,

B ogotä,

C olombia.

F reimuth

F ield s ystem a nd f rost d rainage i n t he p rehistoric a griculture

o f t he U pper M idwest. S auer,

B anco d e l a R epüblica,

D .E.

l owlands.

R iley,

p p.117-125.

B owen

A ncient r idged

C olombia.

P ublication 7 ,

A merican A nthropologist 4 4:271-285.

C .O.

1 952

A gricultural O rigins a nd D ispersals.

S ociety , S choolcraft, 1 860

A merican G eographical

N ew Y ork.

H .R.

A rchives o f A boriginal K nowledge,

V olume

1 . J .P.

L ippincott,

P hiladelphia. S chmidt, 1 977

P .J. U n s istema d e c ultivo i ntensivo e n l a c uenca d el R io N autla,

V eracruz.

A ntropologia e R istoria 3 (20):50-59,

1 64

M exico.

S ears,

W .H.

1 982

F ort C enter : a n A rchaeological S ite i n t he L ake O keechobee

B asin .

I n R ipley P .

H istory, S iemens,

N umber 4 ,

B ullen M onographs i n F lorida S tate M useum,

A nthropology a nd G ainesville,

F lorida.

A .H.

1 979

P rehistoric u tilization o f w etlands i n t he t ropical l owlands

o f M esoamerica. M s.,

D epartment o f G eography,

U niversity o f

B ritish C olombia. S iemens,

A .H.

1 983

O riented r aised

f ields i n c entral V era C ruz.

American

A ntiquity 4 8:85-101. S iemens,

A .H. a nd D .

1 972

P uleston

R idged f ields a nd a ssociated

f eatures i n S outhern C ampeche,

n ew p erspectives o n t he L owland M aya.

A merican A ntiquity

3 7:228-239. S ilverberg, 1 968

R .

M ound B uilders o f A ncient A merica:

N ew Y ork G raphic S ociety , S quier,

E .G . a nd E .H.

1 848

G reenwich,

A ncient M onuments o f t he M ississippi V alley.

W ashington, S truever,

1 972

N o.

S mithsonian

1 , S mithsonian I nstitution,

D .C.

S . a nd K .

V ickery

T he b eginnings o f c ivilization i n t he M idwest R iverine A reas

o f t he U nited S tates. S tuart,

C onnecticut.

D avis

C ontributions t o K nowledge ,

1 973

T he A rcheology o f aM yth.

A merican A nthropologist 7 5:1197-1220.

G .E. W ho w ere t he

' mound b uilders'?

N ational G eographic M agazine

1 42:783-802. T urner, 1 978

B .L.

I I a nd P .D. H arrison

I mplications f rom a griculture

H ispanic Maya A griculture , T urner I I,

p p.337-373.

V ergara y V elasco, 1 901

e dited b y P .D .

I n P re-

H arrison a nd B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico,

A lbuquerque.

F .J.

N ueva G eografia d e C olombia ,

B ogotä,

f or M aya p rehistory.

C olombia.

1 65

V olume

1 .

I mprenta d e V apor,

R ECENT E VIDENCE F OR P RE-COLUMBIAN W ATER M ANAGEMENT S YSTEMS I N T HE W ESTERN L LANOS O F V ENEZUELA

A lberta

U ntil r ecently t he e ral

S outh

Z ucchi

A merican

s avannas

z ones, o ccupied m ainly b y h unting,

t ropical 1 948;

f orest a griculturalists

M eggers

p otential, l ogical

1 954).

t he

s easonal

p overty,

1 942a,

t hat t heir

1 942b;

S teward

1 946,

p oor a gricultural

a vailability o f f ood r esources,

l imited

p eriph-

f ishing g roups o r a t b est,

( Cooper

I t w as b elieved

w ere c onsidered

t he e xistence o f m ore c omplex

a nd

t echno-

c ulture t ypes.

H owever, d uring t he l ast t wenty y ears t here h as b een a d rastic c hange i n

t his t raditional v iew,

w ith t he l ogical

a s a r esult o f a dvances i n r esearch d ealing

p hysical c haracteristics o f t hese e nvironments, a nd

e thnohistorical

e xistence o f r idged n ow v iewed

f ield

r ecord,

s ystems.

I n

t he

C ertain

f requent r eports o n t he a reas o f t hese

a s t he h istoric l oci o f m ultiple g roups,

c ulturally c omplex c ultures, ( Denevan

a nd

1 966;

M orey

V enezuela t he

h abiting t he l owland r esult o f t heir

t he a rchaeo-

s avannas a re

i ncluding

s ome o f t hem w ith c onsiderable

1 975). s ubsistence s trategies o f t he

p opulations i n-

s avannas o r l lanos s eem t o h ave b een v aried.

s easonal

w ater r egime,

g rass e nvironments w ithin t he

s avannas

f requently r equired t he I n t his p aper

a lternatives w ill b e a nalyzed

t hat c ould h ave b een

p rehispanic g roups i nhabiting

t he W estern L lanos o f V enezuela

t o

A s a

t he a ctive e xploitation o f t he

d evelopment o r u se o f w ater m anagement t echniques.

n eed

s ocio-

p opulations

t wo

u sed b y t he i n

t he

i ntensify t he e xploitation o f t his e nvironment.

E nvironment o f t he E astern L lanos T he

V enezuelan

L lanos c onsist o f a w idespread

a rea o f a pproximately 3 00,000 k m2 ( Figure p rincipal m ountains o f t he c ountry: A ndes

i n

t he

t hey t urn

w est a nd t he

t hey g radually m erge p lain.

t he

S hield

E astern

i nto t he

O rinoco

a djacent t o t he

C oastal i n t he

C olombian

a n

R ange i n s outh.

L lanos,

D elta a nd

t he

t he n orth,

t he

I n t he w est w hile i n

t he e ast

A tlantic c oastal

T he m orphological d ifferences o f t his d epression o riginated

t hrough t he T hus,

G uayana

s outh t o j oin t he

t he

1 ),

l owland, c overing

t ectonic

e volution o f t wo

T ertiary b asins

t hree d ifferent a reas c an b e d istinguished

E astern

L lanos,

L lanos w ith m esas o f t abular

c haracterized

t opography.

b y l ow h ills,

I t i s t o t he l atter

a nd

t opography,

t he

t he

1 960:106). L lanos:

C entral

t he W estern L lanos w ith a f lat

t hat w e w ill 1 67

( Vila

w ithin

r efer

i n m ore d etail.

CA R I

8 8 E 4

N

S E

A

' LA

.

0


> 4 2000 -6000 M

F igure 1 : N atural r egions o f V enezuela .

1 68

T he t opography o f t he l lanos i s t he r esult o f a l ong g eological g eomorphological

e volution, m ostly o f Q uaternary d ate.

c onsists o f e xtensive a lluvial z one.

I n

t his r egion,

e nough t o

a nd

t he

n orth a nd

d epressed

a nd

A ndean

e astward;

t his i mpeded

z ones:

t he

1 00 a nd

p iedmont;

t he t hird

a nd

o f p articular t he l evel

s outhern p art r emained

p rocesses h ave p roduced

2 00 m a nd

i nterest

s outhern

p iedmont a ffected b y u plift, t he

c overs a n

f or

t his p aper

p arts o f t he

A rauca a nd

a nd

a rea,

a bove t he

w ith t he h eavy p recipitation t hese n atural d ikes a re

T he n umerous

r elatively

a rea n ear

t he

1 00 m .

c omprises t he

S tate o f A pure

P ortuguesa.

f looding.

i n t heir b eds,

s avanna l evel. a nd

T he l atter i s W hen

s uch a s t he O rinoco,

p roducing e xtense

b anks a re g radually r aised

s alidas d e m adre o ccur.

d rainage w as

h as

t hey d am t he l esser

g reat a mounts o f s ediment a re d eposited

c urrents,

f illed

t he m iddle

S tates o f B arinas a nd

M eta r ises,

c hanging t heir c ourses a nd

s eason,

f ast

t hree d ifferent

i rregular

i s g enerally l ess t han

o f t he m ain r ivers o f t he

P ortuguesa,

w as

A s t he W estern L lanos

p iedmont l ies a bove 2 00 m ;

r anges b etween

a nd t he

B arinas-Apure b asin

e ffective d rainage.

T hese g eomorphological a ltitudinal

T his t opography

p lains i n m ost o f t he W estern

s ubsidence o f t he

i mpede c omplete a lluviation.

w ith a lluvium, p romoted

f ans a nd

a nd

A pure,

a ffluents, I n

a ddition,

w hile t heir

D uring t he r ainy

t he o verflow o f t he

f requently b roken,

s econdary

a nd o penings o r

T his c auses n ew d epositions o f s ediments.

s tream c hannels,

f ormer l evees,

a nd o ther

h ydrological

s urface modifications h ave c reated a p lain o f i rregular m icrot opography. T he h ighest a reas, a re

u sually s elected

o verflow b asins,

1 -2 m a bove t he

f or

s ettlement a nd

l ocally c alled

a gricultural

w hich a re s easonally f looded,

r etained d uring m ost o f t he i ntermediate l and b etween i s s easonally f looded; r ainy s eason

p lain,

( Roo

y ear,

a nd

b ancos ,

p urposes.

T he

w here w ater

i s

e steros . T he

a re l ocally c alled

b anco a nd t he e stero c alled b ajio ,

t he

h owever,

1 981:33-34).

t he w ater

T he

i s

q uickly l ost a fter

p roportion o f b anco ,

t he

b ajio a nd

e ster° s eems t o b e d ifferent f or e ach a rea o f t he W estern L lanos. T he r egional h umid

c limate

a nd d ry p eriods,

i s u niform w ith v ery d efinite a lternation o f

t he l atter l asting

n atural v egetation o f t he f orests, s mall f ound.

h umid g rasslands,

l ocalized

i mportant

a rea h as b een g rouped d ry g rasslands a nd

z ones s easonal

A lthough i n t he f actor

f rom 4 t o 5 m onths.

p ast

s wamps,

p oor

i nto

s wamps.

p alm g roves a nd t here

v egetation

a nd

t he t opographical,

c limatic c onditions,

a ccount

t he

H owever,

i n

s hrub a reas a re a n

D ifferent

f actors,

i nfluence o f t he n atural

g eomorphological,

l ithological

f or t he d ifferent k inds o f s oils 1 69

t ypes:

i s n o o ne-to-one

c orrelation b etween t hem a nd g rassland v egetation. s uch a s t he a ge o f t he d eposits,

f our m ain

s oils h ave b een c onsidered

i n g rassland g enesis,

T he

a nd

f ound

i n

t he

a rea.

A lluvial

s oils o r r egosols w ith a n

t he m ore r ecent s ediments. d rained

a reas,

O ver

A BC p rofiles w ith t extural

r esult o f t he l ixiviation p rocess. p rocess h as o ccurred, a h orizon c oncretions i s

f ound.

S ilva

I n

s oils a re

i n

t he b etter

B h orizon h ave d eveloped a s a

a reas w here t he l aterization

w ith i ron o xides,

H ydromorphic

l ateritic-hydromorphic

A C p rofile l ie o ver

t he o lder d eposits o r

f orming h ard

s oils a re w idely d istributed

f requent

( Sarmiento,

a nd

1 971:55).

T he v arious c ombinations o f m orphological, t opographic c onditions o f t he W estern i nterest, f or

a nd

M onasterio

L lanos o f V enezuela a re o f p articular

s ince t hey o ffered d istinctive o pportunities a nd

t he a boriginal

a nd d rainage c hallenges

e xploitation.

I ndigenous s ubsistence i n t he W estern L lanos E thnohistorical

a ccounts i ndicate t he e xistence o f f airly d ense

p opulations i n

t he W estern

( Morey

T his w as m ade u p o f a v ariety o f g roups w hich i ncluded

1 975).

n omadic

f oragers,

a ll b ound o n

s pecialized

p roducts ( Morey

t he

t ime o f t he

f ishers a nd

t ogether b y a w idespread

s pecial

s everal

L lanos a t

s edentary a griculturalists,

a nd c omplex

1 975:197).

t he m ajor r iverine

o thers f ormed o n a rtificially b uilt r aised r esources, w hile

s trategic

f oragers r oamed

t he

t rading n etwork, b ased

D uring e arly h istoric

a gricultural g roups c ontrolled

F ishing c ommunities o ccupied

f ields i n

a reas k nown

i nterfluvial

A l arge n umber o f p lants w ere u tilized b y t he C orn a nd m anioc

s eem

t he l lanos a reas.

t o h ave b een

e mphasized 1 965, M iddle

H owever,

O rinoco

a nd

s ince a g reater p alms a nd 4 42;

f ruits

M orey

t he

i n

a nd

w estern

s ome a reas,

G uaviare, m aize

e mphasis w as p laced ( Rivero

1 956:335;

w ere g rown

i n

s everal

t wo m onths),

( Gumilla

w as

1 963:431;

t he

a ll

G ilij

U pper a nd

w as a pparently l ess

i mportant

o n t he e xploitation o f s everal C assani

1 967:240;

G umilla

1 963:440-

1 975:46).

t ypes w ere

p referred

p rocessing

t echniques

T obacco,

y ear-round

p eople o f t he L lanos.

s uch a s a long

S everal v arieties o f m anioc w ere c onsumed,

p otatoes,

t he g rasslands.

f ormer, o f w hich

L lanos

w hile

r egions.

( including o ne t hat m atures i n

i n t he n orthern

1 :185).

t imes,

z ones,

f or t heir

t he m ain c rops a nd

T he c ultivation o f t he

v arieties w ere k nown

S panish c ontact

y ams,

f or

t heir

( Morey

f lavour

1 975:46).

s quashes, m elons,

c otton a nd

a nd

a g reat r ange o f o ther

u tilized.

1 70

a daptability t o d ifferent

O ther

b eans a nd

a lthough t he b itter f ood

p eppers

c rops i ncluded ( Morey

f ruits a nd

s weet

1 975:46-47).

p lants w ere a lso

T he w ritten a gricultural o f t he

s ources a lso

f ields.

f orested

a ttest t o

T he t ypical

a reas.

t he e xistence o f t hree t ypes o f

s lash a nd b urn

S ometimes i n

t hese

f ields,

p roving t he l ocal d rainage,

w ere c onstructed

( Morey

t ype

1 975:48).

p lains a nd o n

T he s econd

f loodwaters r eceded

r iver

( Gilij

o f g arden w as a c lear g arden, o f r aised

f ields l ocated

l lanos g roups e xpended

f or m anioc c ultivation p laced m ainly i n

T hese g ardens,

2 :276;

p lanted

i n h umid

i n

s ites

a g reat d eal

M orey

h unting,

f ishing a nd g athering.

g ame a nd

f ish a s a s ource o f p rotein

s easonally a s t he

1 975:50).

T he t hird t ype

t he g rasslands. ( Gumilla

o f t ime a nd

f ood

f ertilized t hrough a

s ilt, w ere p lanted

1 965 ,

g enerally c ut o ut

s mall m ounds f or i m-

w as a w et g arden

t he e dge o f l agoons.

c ombination o f a shes a nd

p lot,

T his c onsisted

1 963:429-430). e nergy i n

A ll

t he

a ctivities o f

E ven c ultivators r elied h eavily u pon ( Morey

1 975:56).

W ater M anagement S ystems R elated t o S ubsistence T he ( Zucchi i tially,

f irst k nown

i nhabitants o f t he W estern L lanos,

1 967 ,

1 973),

1 972 ,

t hese g roups o ccupied

a nd d rainage c onditions, a ctivities t o g rasslands

t he

f or

a nd

f orested

s ettlement.

a ctivities a lso G arson

e ntered

t he a rea a bout

t hose

a reas t hat o ffered

p robably l imited

a reas a long r ivers a nd f ishing

O soid

t he b est

t he

i n t he W estern

s treams,

t heir

a nd

u sing

h unting

( Zucchi

f irst m illennium A D o ther g roups e ntered L lanos,

a nd b etween 5 00 a nd

1 400 A D t he

a nd

O soid,

1 972 ,

p ressures,

c auseways a nd r aised n ot o nly w ithin

O rinoco

f ields

( Zucchi

s tructures s eems t o

f loodplain

i ndicate

t he l lanos, b ut a lso ( Zucchi

i ntensify t heir g rasslands

s ubsistence a ctivities,

p roper,

a n e nvironment

w hich

e xclusively f or v illage l ocation a nd a ctivities.

t he

1 973).

T he

p opulation a djacent a reas s uch T he

i ncreasing

s ome o f t he g roups t o t hem t o

t he

p reviously h as b een

f or h unting

s uch

u sed

a nd g athering

e xploitation

u se o f e arth s tructures.

f ields p resent o nly t wo r aised L lanos.

O ne a t

Z ucchi a nd

D enevan

C alzada

f orced

e xtending

T his i ntensification o f g rassland

o ccasionally i mplied

i n

1 978:349-365).

c ompetition b etween c ommunities a pparently

2 45;

1 967;

a s w ell

a s m ounds,

c onstruction o f t hese

W estern

t he

s ettled

e arth s tructures,

A t

s oils

s ubsistence

a s o ther g roups, b egan t o c onstruct a rtificial

R idged

I n-

1 980:286).

D uring

a s t he

p eople

t heir e arly a gricultural

B esides a griculture,

i ncluded g athering,

t he

3 000 y ears a go.

( Garson

r esearch c arried

CA°

f ield

V entosidad

1 980:565-736),

1 980), b oth i n t he o ut

i n

s ystems h ave b een r eported

C aMo

( Denevan a nd

B arinas

V entosidad 1 71

a nd

f or t he

a nd

Z ucchi

1 978:235-

t he o ther

a t t he

H ato d e l a

S tate.

T he r esults o f t he

t he c omparisons e stablished

E stero

Ca u j a ra I l a bow

F igure 2 : R idged f ields o f C ano V entosidad .

0

2 .0

6 .3

1 0 .2

8 .0

1 0 .5

1 2 .5

2 2 .0

1 4 .0

0 . 1 .

0 .08

C , C r

0 . 79

Base

R idge

Loa m

0 .43

0 .41

L oa m

Loa m

C.

El — 1 84

1 . 87 Z01

-

Cl

2 . 13

-

0 .76

B ase o f R idge

0 .86

0 .84

C3

2 .00

2 .02

1 . 88

-

C lay

1 . 91

. 5 1 89

1 . 87

C lay 2 .26

2 .00

2 .09

E l-8

C9 C o 3 .00

I A I C

I C West

R idge

I D

I D

I B I E

I E

D itch

X : She rds

F igure 3 : E xcavated r idge a nd c anal, C ano V entosidad .

1 72

E ast

R idge

b etween

t his s ystem a nd

p roject c alled m odulos

a m odern d evelopmental

d e Ap ure ( C ODEI MA 1 976), c urrently b eing u ndertaken i n t he L O W L lanos,

a llowed

t he

f ormulation o f s everal

c haracteristics o f t he ( 1)

T he r idged

V entosidad a n

a nd

t he r idge a nd

s ystem,

V entosidad

V entosidad

s treams,

a nd

r un

p erpendicular

a re a rranged

s avanna b etween

p airs

i n

t o t he

p airs w ith

( Figure 2 ).

H ow-

c anals a re n ot t he o nly c onstituent p arts o f t his

t he

t he e stero a nd

t he s paces o f s avanna

p airs o f r idges a re a lso

1 980:74 -8 1).

D enevan

i ts p robable m ode o f o peration:

C ago

a nd o pen

s ince t he r iverbank,

l ocated b etween a nd

f ields o f

o ther a djacent

i ntervening c anal

e ver,

s ystem a nd

c onclusions r egarding t he

I n s ynthesis,

s ystem c ombines

f unctional

i t c an b e

s aid

f unctionally b oth n atural

u nits ( Zucchi t hat t he

a nd

C aho

a rtificial

f eatures. ( 2)

S ome o f t he r idges o f C ago

a rtificial 3 ). t he

a re c ompletely

w hile o thers s eem t o b e p artially o r

T his i ndicates t hat e ven C hoque

f eatures,

V entosidad

p eople, s uch a s

f or r aised

t otally n atural

s tructures t he c onstructors,

t ook a dvantage o f p re-existing n atural f ormer l evees,

n atural r aised

V entosidad

s ystem h ad

t opographic

a nd

a dapted

t heir o wn

i t

p rovided d ry s urfaces t hat c ould b e c ultivated d uring t he r ainy

T he

p urposes.

a reas,

t o

( 3)

p articular

( Figure

s eason;

a nd

w ater r etention a nd

( Zucchi

a nd

D enevan

( 4)

a nd

T he r etention a nd

t hat c ould

s torage,

f unction:

f or

u se

i n

s torage o f w ater

i ts u sers,

b e i ncorporated

p robably p rovided

s uch a s: t o

t he

f ertilize

p roduction o f o rganic t he a gricultural

T he l imited

s cope o f t he

a ttain a w ider d istribution p arent p roductivity. b uried

t hat o ther u nder

C ago

s oon a fter

i n

V entosidad

s imilar

p roject d id

f or

1 980).

s ystems h ad o nce e xisted b ut h ad t heir c onstruction m igrated

t he

P örtuguesa

s ince b een t hat t he

f rom t he t he

p opulation

( Zucchi

s tate

a rea a nd

p ermit a n

o pening u p a n ew p erspective r egarding

s trategies d eveloped b y p rehispanic g roups a gricultural

a nd

t hus r educing

t heir o riginal d evelopment

R ecent d iscoveries i n

a lternative e xplanation,

n ot

t wo p ossible e xplanations w ere s ug-

t his t echnology w as i ntroduced, i nstigated

n ot

L lanos i nspite o f i ts a p-

s ediments w hich h ave p revented d iscovery;

p ressure t hat h ad

t heir

r esearch

w hy t his k ind o f s ystem d id

t he W estern

A t t hat t ime,

p opulations r esponsible

D enevan

r idges,

f auna t hat c ould

t hese a rtificial b odies o f w ater.

p ermit a s atisfactory e xplanation a s t o

g ested:

s ince

t he d ry p eriod

a s a s ource o f p rotein r epresented b y t he a quatic

l ive i n

d rainage,

1 980 :74 -8 1).

a dditional b enefits t o m atter

a d ouble

t hem

p ractices

i nto t he

1 73

i n

t heir

e fforts t o

s easonally f looded

e xtend

s avannas.

T hese

f inds a llow u s t o

t ures o f t he

i rregular

s ee t he

p otential

i mportance o f n atural

s avanna t opography i n

t he

f ea—

s ubsistence s trategies

i mplemented b y t hese g roups. T he

s ite r eferred

r egular o val t o

s avanna

3 0 m w ide,

s ome

R amon

L epage

( P-59),

w ith t wo o penings t o

t he

s tructure

T he t wo o penings t he o uter

t he

s outheast a nd

i s s lightly h igher

i nto t he

i nner

s urface o f t he T his i s n ot

s uch a s c auseways a nd s ites,

i n

t he

c entral

c ould

i n t he r idge,

d irect r esult o f t he

w ater

f rom w as

e xcavations w ere c arried

L lanos,

s oil. t he

r idged

a rtifical

e arthworks,

w as o btained.

p rofile

f ields.

u s t he o riginal

a gricultural

t o

s urface i mpression

s ystem, w ith c ultivation

a quatic

z one c ould h ave

p lants o btained

f rom t he

f rom a djacent e steros a nd

a s

i nto t he

s urface o f t he c ultivated

H owever,

a c areful

i ndicate t hat t he

a rea

e xamination o f t he

p reliminary a nalysis o f t he

f luvial

s imilar T he

w hile t he l ower c ental

M ulch a nd

h ave b een w orked

p hotographs a nd

a rea.

g enerally d o n ot c ontain

s tructure a s w ell

t o e nrich t he

o btained

a rea,

r etention.

p art o f t he

i n o rder

i nternal

a rchaeological m aterial n o

i ts l ayout g ave

a n • a rtificial

t he e levated

f or w ater

I n

s avanna

t he a rea l ies s ome 2 k m f rom

I n t he

f ields,

f or o ther c auseways a nd

t hat i t r epresented p racticed o n

T he

u nless t hey s tem d irectly o ut o f s ettlement

m orphology o f t he r idge a nd

a erial

N o

s ection t he r idge h as a t rapezoidal

t hat d escribed

p onds,

t han

f rom w hich s ome o f t he c onstruction m aterial

I n c ross

s erved

s ite

u nusual.

r idged

a rchaeological m aterial

s pace.

s tructure a nd

T he n earest a rchaeological

t he r idge.

s outhwest.

c anal.

p robably a llow t he e ntrance o f e xcess r ain

s avanna

f ound o n t he

c onsists o f a l arge i r—

s urrounded b y a r idge 0 .50 t o 0 .80 m h igh a nd 2 0

p arts t he r idge i s d ouble w ith a c entral

s urrounding

o ut.

t o,

s tructure

a ctivity o f t he a rea

s oil

s amples

w as n atural

a nd a

( Schargel, p ersonal

c ommunication). S imilar n atural i rrigated

s urfaces

s tructures,

p roviding e levated

f or c ultivation,

u tilization o f n atural

f eatures,

c onstruction o f a rtificial V entosidad.

s tructures a nd f ield

T his c alls a ttention

w ould

t herefore

s ystems,

T he

CA°

t ime a nd

V entosidad

r idged

e nergy i nvolved

i n

f or t he

s uch a s t hat

t o a v iable

T he

p reclude t he a ccount

a lternative

e xploitation o f p oorly d rained g rasslands t hat w ould i nvestment o f t he

a t t he s ame t ime

f requent i n t he a rea.

s uch a s t hese

s carcity o f m ore e laborate r idged C aho

a re

a nd

f ound

i n

f or t he

n ot e ntail t he

a rtifical e arthworks.

f ields c onstitute a w ater m anagement s ystem

t hat t akes a dvantage o f b oth n atural

a nd

i t i s l ikely t hat t he l lanos g roups w ould n atural

f eatures e xisting

i n

t he a rea,

w ithout

f urther m odification o r

f ormal

1 7 1 4

a rtifical h ave

s uch a s l ayouts.

f eatures.

T herefore

u tilized m any o f t he

b ancos , w ith o r

T his d oes n ot i mply t hat a ll a reas,

w ere i n

a s p otential s hould

f act, u sed

b e s tudied

t he

i nto

c arefully.

I f t he

a nd

a boriginal

f eatures a s e vidence

i n t hese

f rom

f or t his r eason

p opulation t ook

C ano

V entosidad

s uggests,

s avannas w hich c ould b e e asily

f ields c ould b e c onsiderably e xtended, w ith l ittle

i nvestment o f t ime a nd

e nergy d evoted

e videnced b y t he r idges a t t he

t o t heir c onstruction.

R amon L epage s ite,

e stablish t he a rtificiality o f e arth b ased

f ound

f or t his p urpose, b ut t hey m ust b e c onsidered

s urface o f s easonally f looded

t ransformed

f eatures

p rehispanic a gricultural g rounds,

a dvantage o f t hese t hen

t he e levated

B ut,

a s

i t i s i mpossible t o

s tructures i n t he W estern

L lanos

o nly o n s urface m orphology.

C auseways I t i s p ossible t hat c auseways w ere c onstructed w ater m anagement s ystems, a quatic

r esources.

l engths,

t hat r un

( Figure 6 ).

i ntended

p arallel o r

H ato d e

L a

p erpendicular

e arth r idges w ith v ariable t o n earby w ater c ourses

T heir h eight u sually r anges b etween

s ettlement s ites.

1 0 m .

s ite

i n

t he

1a nd

2 m ,

a nd

U sually t hey a re r elated

R ecent r esearch o n O soid

C alzada

s erve a s d ikes i n

i ntensify t he e xploitation o f

C auseways a re a rtificial

f rom 3 m t o m ore t han

w idths

t o

t o

i ncludes:

s tate o f B arinas,

t hat c onnect a nd

c auseways t hat

l ed

t o t he

( 1966)

h ouse

f loors,

w ork,

G arson

f eatures

c auseways

t hat c auseways c ould h ave s erved

n ot d iscounting

u se a ttributed

a nd h unting g rounds.

t he d ifficulties

s tructures a re

p rincipal

f ound.

I n

f or

a reas

f oot t ravel

a s r oads,

I n a r ecent

f unction w as t o

s econdary f unctions,

H is i nterpretation i s b ased

t o c auseways i n o ther

s treams;

1 980:291-329).

( 1980) m aintains t hat t heir

p osed b y C ruxent. a nd

p roposed

( Garson

a reas o f c ultivation

s erve a s r oads,

4 87);

s ettlements;

s ettlements w ith a ctivity a reas a long r ivers a nd

i ntrasettlement c auseways C ruxent

i nterconnect

t o

s ettlement p atterns a t t he

e stablishment o f a p reliminary t ypology o f t hese a rtificial t hat

t heir

s uch a s t hose p ro-

o n t wo a rguments:

( Denevan i n

1 966;

R ouse

t he 1 953:

t he a reas w here t hese

s upport o f t his a rgument t his a uthor r eports

t hat: t he a rea o f t he f ace a s

C alzada

p ock m arked

p onds,

s treams a nd

t ravel

s low,

t he d ry a nd r oad

I f t he

w ith d epressions, m arshes, o ther

i ndirect a nd

f eatures t hat m ake

f oot

t reacherous d uring b oth

t he r ainy s eason.

A n

e levated

p ath o r

i s o ne m anner o f m itigating t hese d ifficulties

( Garson

c onsidered,

P aez i s a w et s avanna s ur-

1 980:323).

p eculiar c haracteristics o f t he W estern L lanos a re t hen

a nother

n eglected, w as r elated

i mportant

f unction o f t he c auseways,

t o w ater m anagement. 1 75

s o

f ar

S ome c auseways c ould h ave

b een c onstructed

f or

t he e mbankment o f r ain a nd

i ncrease t he n umber, t he d ry s eason,

d epth a nd

a s am ean

t o

f loodwater,

e xtension o f a quatic

i n o rder

t o

e nvironments d uring

i ntensify t he e xploitation o f a quatic

r esources.

I t h as a lready b een m osaic o f t opographic l evels o f f looding. y ear,

I n

w ater

s easonally a ffected b y d ifferent w ater r emains t hroughout t he

s ectors d ry u p c ompletely s oon a fter

T he o ngoing

r esearch i n

i s a rtificially d ammed

p ortant d ata o n t he a quatic g ives s ome

t hat t he W estern L lanos c onsist o f a

t he l owest a reas,

w hereas t he m ore e levated

t he r ains h ave e nded. w here

s tressed

u nits w hich a re

t he Modulos d e A pure,

a nd c ontrolled,

f auna o f t hese m odified

i dea o f t he p ossible b enefits t hat t he

c ould h ave d erived

f rom a n

h as

a rtificial

p rovided

i m-

e nvironments.

a boriginal

I t

p opulation

w ater r etention s ystem,

f ormed

b y

a n etwork o f c auseways. T he

i ncrease o n

d ikes i n t he w et m ents,

s urface w ater b rought a bout b y t he c onstruction o f

s avannas,

p roduces a m osaic o f n ew a quatic e nviron-

e ach h aving d ifferent c onditions o f d epth,

c al-chemical

p roperties,

s tability a nd

a ll o f w hich d irectly a ffect t he d ynamics o f

t heir r espective l iving c ommunities.

I n

t he Modulos , t he

c onstruction o f d ikes h as e ffectively e xtended t he o riginal e nvironments o f t he g rassy s avannas,

a ddition,

p ally b y r ain

w ater a nd

T his i mplies t hat t he w hich w as t rapped ( Pinowki

y ear.

t he c onstruction o f t he d ikes h as p roduced

i solation o f t he e mbanked

i n

1 981:81).

a reas,

f ish

f ound

w ithin e ach M odulo c ell

C ertain v ertebrates,

s uch a s C ayman c rocodilus a nd

p roduced b y t he c ell

s ince t he c hanges s pecies.

p ermanent w ater b odies,

t he e mbanked

a reas o f l ow w ater,

a nd

l engthened

p eriod o f w ater r etention w hich,

h as e liminated t he n eed D anieliwski

h and,

s ubmerged

a reas c overing

C olomine

a re

s pecimens o f l arger

s ystem w ere t he Modulos o f

a nd

f or t he b reeding o f

I n

a ddition,

t urn,

t he

p rolongs t he

f ood

1 981:79-103).

f ish p opulations

i ndicates

e ach a quatic e nvironment o f t he M odulos. p rior v egetation ( large

s tolons a nd v egetal m atter

d ecomposition)

i ts

f or l ong m igrations d uring t he d ry

t he d ata r egarding

q ualitative d ifferences i n f looding

a nd

i n

i n

a lso d ry z ones,

i nmature s pecimens o f t he c ayman.

O n t he o ther

T he

a nd

f or n esting

n ewly b orn

( Ramos,

a rea o r

T he c o-existence w ithin

p rovides t he n ecessary e nvironments

s eason

i s t hat

t he a rea, a t t he moment o f d ike c onstruction

s urroundings,

s upply,

p rinci-

w hose e xcess e xits, o nly t hrough f lood g ates.

i n

t heir

a p artial

w hose n utrients a re s upplied

P odocnemis v ooli, h ave r emained f avorable t o

a quatic

w hile n ew o nes h ave b een a dded,

s ome o f w hich r etain w ater d uring t he w hole I n

p hysi-

i n d ifferent

i nhabited o nly b y s mall

1 76

s tages o f

s pecies,

s pecies w hich p refer d eeper

a mounts o f

o r j uvenile

w ater b odies ( Pinowski

a nd

M orales

1 981:91).

a s b orrow p its, e stablished

O n t he o ther

l arger

s pecies a re

a reas

f ree

i n

f ound.

a reas o f d eeper

I n g eneral,

w ater,

s uch

i t h as b een

M odulos , l arge f ish a re u sually f ound i n

t hat w ithin t he

t he d eep w ater

h and,

f rom v egetation,

a nd

w ith t he b est o xygen

c onditions. F inally, m ore t han g eneral

a rea.

1 00 s pecies o f b irds h ave b een

2 0 o f t hese b elong

2 0 a re p redators,

w hile t he o ther

e xtension o f t he a quatic

T he m ammalian f avouring

f auna i s a lso

t he a quatic o r

( Ojasti

c auseways, a ncient

a re a quatic.

a ffected b y t he

T hus,

t o a n

i ncrease o f t he

a rtificial

r esearch i n

t his

w ater r etena s t hose t hat

f ield

i s s till

1 981:59-66).

t o a p robable

m odulos r esearch c annot b e d irectly

p rehispanic

i ts d ata m ust b e c onsidered

i ndigenous s ubsistence

w ater r etention w hen t rying

t o

s ystem

i n t he M odulo ss tudies,

f rom

t hrows a n ew l ight o n

f unction o f p rehispanic c auseways i n

t he

L lanos,

f ormed b y

r econstruct t he

s trategies o f t he W estern

H owever, t he d emonstration o f t he b enefits a ccruing a s s hown

t he a rtificial

a mphibious s pecies a s w ell

H owever,

A lthough t he r esults o f t he e xtrapolated

t he

s pecies.

c an r eact q uickly t o c hange. i ncomplete

6 5

i n

s avanna-forest e nvironment,

e nvironments m ust l ead

p opulation o f a quatic b ird

t ion,

t o t he

i dentified

L lanos. s uch a s ystem,

t he

p ossible

a nd d eserves f urther

s tudy. T he c reated

p robable u se o f c auseways a s w ater r etention f avorable e nvironments

f or

a quatic

s upport b y t he r ecent d ata o btained O soid g roups. f ruits, t he

I n a ddition

f ishing

O soid

p referred

H owever

a nimals,

t he g athering o f w ild

w ere t he o ther m eans o f f ood

f ish,

f ollowed

r eceives a dditional

s ubsistence p atterns o f t he

t o a griculture a nd

a nd h unting

p eople.

o n t he

s pecies,

f eatures, w hich

r eptiles a nd

a mphibians

p rocurement o f w ere t he

b y m ammals, b irds a nd m oluscs ( Garson

1 980:271). T hese

t wo a lternatives

t ation o f t he g rassland t unities o ffered n oticed b y t he

f or

s avannas,

p rehispanic

p loyed b y t he m ain

p opulations a nd

q uire y ears o f a ctive r esearch.

a nimal

e xpl-

a f act w hich u ndoubtedly w as f avoured

t he d evelopment o f

T he c omplete k nowledge o f t he

L lano g roups,

o nly i deas t hat w ill

a griculture a nd

c all a ttention o n t he d iverse o ppor-

b y t his e nvironment,

m ultiple a lternatives.

l ogical

p rehispanic

a nd T he

t heir

t echniques e m-

i nter-relationships w ill r e-

p ossibilities p resented

h ave t o b e c arefully e xplored

r esearch.

1 77

i n

h ere a re

f uture a rchaeo-

A cknowledgements

I w ould

l ike

t o a cknowledge t he

r eceived

f rom

f rom t he

V icerrectorado d e

D rs

P .

t he

s tudents

t he

f ieldwork o f t he

U rriola,

w ho m apped

S chargel

w hile

D r

i nterpretation.

W agner o f

S chargel,

t he

a nalyzed

E .

P acheco

a nd

E xtensiön A gricola a t G uanare, R amon

L epage

s ite.

s tudents o f U NELLEZ,

p hoto

m ade u seful

R .

i nterest a nd g enerous c ooperation

t he

s oil

D r

I VIC,

G utierrez t o

G utierrez s upervised

a nd m ade t he c alculations,

s amples a nd

K ay T arble o f

R .

a nd a lso

h elped

w ith t he a ir

D epartment o f A nthropology,

c omments a nd c orrected m y E nglish.

C .

S chubert a nd

E .

I VIC a lso m ade v aluable s uggestions.

C .

Q uintero m ade a ll

t he

d rawings.

R eferences c ited C assani, 1 967

J . H istoria d e l a

R eyno d e

G ranada e n l a

N acional d e d e

P rovincia d e l a A merica.

C ompafia d e

J esus d el

B iblioteca d e

/ a A cademia

/ a H istoria 8 5, F uentes p ara l a H istoria

V enezuela.

I talgräfica

C .A.,

N uevo

C olonial

C aracas.

C ODEIMA 1 976

P lan I ntegral d e A provechamiento y P roducciön d e l os M odulos

d e Apure. C ooper, 1 942a

M CP-MAC-SAS ,

C aracas.

J .M. A real

a nd

T emporal

A spects o f A boriginal

S outh A merica.

Primitive Man 1 5:1-38. C ooper, 1 942b

J .M. T he

E ight C ruxent, 1 966

S outh A merican

A merican

M arginal

S cientific

C ultures.

C ongress

I I,

Proceedings o f t he

W ashington

D .C.

J .M . A puntes s obre l as

I nformativo 4 ,

C alzadas d e

D epartamento d e

B arinas,

V enezuela.

A ntropologia

B oletin

I VIC:10-22,

C aracas. D enevan, 1 966

W .M. T he A boriginal

B olivia.

1 970

G eography o f t he L lanos d e M ojos o f

I bero-Americana 4 8 ,

B erkeley a nd D enevan,

C ultural

U niversity o f

C alifornia

P ress,

LD S A ngeles.

W .M. A boriginal

D rained

F ield

C ultivation

i n

t he

A mericas.

S cience 1 69:647-654. D enevan, 1 978

W .M.

a nd

R idged

F eo

Z ucchi

F ield

V enezuela. B rowman,

A .

I n

E xcavations i n

t he

C entral

O rinoco L lanos,

A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeology ,

p p.235-245.

M outon,

T he

e dited b y

D .L.

H ague-Paris.

C odecido 1 969

C ontribucion a l a

M emoria d el

E stratigraffa d e l a

I V C ongreso

G eolögico

C uenca

V enezolano,

B arinas-Apure.

B olett ih d e

G eologea ,

P ubl.

H idrocarburos, G arson,

5 ,

T omo

I I.

M inisterio d e

M inas e

C aracas.

A .

1 980

P rehistory,

R egion o f

L a

d issertation, G ilij,

S ettlement a nd

C alzada

P aez,

F ood

P roduction i n

V enezuela.

t he

U npublished

D epartment o f A nthropology,

S avanna

P h.D.

Y ale U niversity.

F .S.

1 955

E nsayo d e H istoria A mericana.

N acional, G umilla,

V ol.

L XXXVIII,

E d.

B iblioteca d e l a

S ucre,

H istoria

B ogotä.

J .

1 963

E l O rinoco I tustrado.

d e e ste g ran r fo. E ditorial M eggers,

A BC,

H istoria n atural, c ivil

B iblioteca d e l a

P residencia d e

y g eografica C olombia

8 ,

B ogota.

B .J.

1 954

E nvironmental

L imitation o n t he

D evelopment o f C ulture.

A merican A nthropologist 5 6:601-824. M orey,

N .K.

1 975

E thnohistory o f t he

U npublished O jasti,

C olombian a nd V enezuelan

P h.D. d issertation,

L lanos.

U niversity o f U tah.

J .

1 981

P apel

E col6gica d e M emfferos e n

I nformativo 1 39,

S abanas

I nundables.

B oleten

S ociedad V enezolana d e C iencias N aturales 3 5:

5 9-66. P inowki,

J .

1 981

a nd

G .

M orales

M orales A spectos E colögicos d e l as A yes d e l os M odulo d e

A pure.

B oleten I nformativo 1 39 ,

S ociedad V enezolana d e C iencias

N aturales 3 5:67-78. R amos,

S .,

1 981

S .

D anielewski

C ontribuciön a l a

E steros y B ajios d e

a nd

G .

C olomine

E cologfa d e l os V ertebrados A ct4ticos e n S abanas M oduladas.

B oletek I nformativo 1 39 ,

S ociedad V enezolana d e C iencias N aturales 3 5:79-103. R ivero,

J .P.

1 956

H istoria d e

l as M isiones d e l os L lanos d e C asanare y l os

R ios O rinoco y e ta. 2 3. R oa,

l ü mpresa

B iblioteca d e l a

N acional d e

P residencia d e

P ublicaciones,

C olombia

B ogotg.

P .

1 981

A lgunos a spectos d e l a

l ögica d e l a

L lanura

E voluciön

A luvial d e

B oletin I nformativo 1 39,

S edimentolögica y G eomorfo-

D esbarde e n e l

B ajo

L lano.

S ociedad V enezolana d e C iencias

N aturales 3 5:31-47. S armiento, 1 971

G .,

M .

M onasterio a nd

R econocimiento

J .

S ilva

E colögico d e l os

U nidades E colögicas

R egionales.

L lanos

O ccidentales.

1 .

L as

A cta C ientifica V enezolana 2 2:

5 2-60. S chargel, 1 973

R .

a nd

R .A.

G onzalez

E studio A grolögico P reliminar.

M OP ,

D ivision d e

E dafologfa,

S ectores B ruzual-Mantecal.

C aracas.

S teward, 1 946

J .H. I ntroduction.

J .H.

S teward,

W ashington S teward, 1 949

H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, e dited

B ureau o f A merican

B ulletin

b y

1 43,

D .C.

J .H. S outh A merican

C ultures.

o f S outh A merican I ndians , A merican V ila,

E thnology,

E thnology,

A n

I nterpretative S ummary.

e dited b y

B ulletin

1 43,

J .H .

S teward,

H andbook

B ureau o f

W ashington

D .C.

T erritorio

N acional

P .

1 960

G eograff c t d e

V enezuela.

A mbiente F isico. Z ucchi, 1 967

1 972

E l

E diciones d el

M inisterio d e

y s u

E ducaciön.

A . L a

B etania:

V enezuela. Z ucchi,

1 .

U n

2 v ols.

Y acimiento

A rqueolögico d el

U npublished

P h.D.

t hesis,

O ccidente d e U CV ,

C aracas.

A . A boriginal

E arth S tructures i n

t he W estern

V enezuelan

L lanos.

T he C aribbean J ournal o f S cience 1 2:95-106. Z ucchi, 1 973

A . P rehistoric

L lanos. Z ucchi, 1 978

H uman

A . L a

V ariabilidad L lanos

e n H omenaje a J .M. E diciones 1 980

V enezuelan

A merican A ntiquity 3 8:182-190.

t ura e n l os

Z ucchi,

O ccupations o f t he W estern

A .

a nd

E colögica y l a V enezolanos.

E n

I ntensificaciön d e l a a gricul— U nidad y V ariedad.

C ruxent, e dited b y E .

W agner

a nd

A .

E nsayos Z ucchi.

C EA—IVIC:349-365. W .M.

D enevan

C ampos E levados e H istoria

O ccidentales d e

V enezuela.

C ultural

P rehispänica e n l os L lanos

A l ontalban 8 :565-736.

1 80

A bstract: M OUNDING,

M UCKING,

A ND M ANGLING:

R ECENT R ESEARCH O N T HE R AISED F IELDS

I N T HE G UAYAS B ASIN,

W illiam M .

D enevan,

E CUADOR

K ent M athewson,

R ichard W hitten

O ne o f t he l argest c oncentrations o f p re-Columbian r aised i n

S outh A merica

i n c oastal s avanna. P arsons ( 1982) f ield

i s i n

E cuador,

t he M iddle G uayas B asin

S ubsequently,

c arried o ut

f urther

f ields a t

p artially m apped

s everal

I n

i n

P egon d el

G uayas e arthworks,

J .

S hlemon

a dditional

A d ate o f c .

2 005+95

a s wale b etween t wo r idged R io c omplex;

a nd o ne o f

e lliptical

t he a rchaeology a nd

p latform

e ach a ssociated

m ounds o r

t olas , a nd c auseways ( Figure 1 , T able 1 ).

T able

R aised f ield c omplexes o f t he G uayas B asin R io - l ong,

M athewson

n ine d istinct c omplexes o f r aised

o f v arious t ypes t hroughout t he b asin,

P egon d el

e cology o f t he

w ith a f ocus o n t he t own o f S amborondon.

i dentified, n amed, a nd m apped

1 .

R oy

T aura.

1 979-1980 w e i nvestigated

1 :

b y J ames

T hey m apped

e xcavations.

f rom a b uried v ertisol

C ago M atanzas i n t he

1 976.

5 90+85 B C f rom a m ollic e pipedon a t t he b ase o f a n f ield n ear

t ropical

P arsons a nd g eomorphologist

f ieldwork i n

s ystems a nd c onducted

B C w as o btained

a nd

f ields

t he e ast o f G uayaquil

a l arge a rea o f s easonally i nundated,

T hey w ere f irst d escribed ( 1969).

t o

l inear

r idged

f ields,

f ields

w ith o ccupation

( Figure

w ith g eneral

1 ) n orth-

s outh o rientations. 2 .

T aura - m edium s ized, c ircular s ome b undles o f s ub-parallel,

3 .

p latform

P iedmont - i rregular o riginating

i n t he

p latforms,

f ields,

7 .

B abahoyo - i rregular

r idged

f ields i nterspersed

f ields. p latforms,

p ossibly f or

a long

t he m iddle c ourses o f r ivers

p arallel

t o r ectangular

p latforms w ithin o xbows.

p latforms,

w ith

s ome

p atterns.

D aule - i rregular

t o r ectangular

p latforms, m ostly i n

a bandoned

r iver c hannels.

9 .

w ith

f ields.

A ndes.

C olimes - t ight c heckerboard,

c heckerboard

p latform

a rboriculture.

6 .

8 .

l inear,

C hilintomo - e xtremely r egular r ectangular s pecialized

5 .

l inear r idged

S amborondon - b undles o f s hort, w ith m ounds a nd r ectangular

4 .

t o r ectangular

B ulu B ulu - a pparent d itched

f ields,

s urface. 1 81

w ith l ittle o r n o r aised

— e 4-

C AR TOGRAPH IC L A BORATORY . U N IV ERS I TY O FW ISCONS IN —M AD ISON

R a i sed F ie ld C omp lexe s 1P e on D e l R io

5P i edmon t

2Taura

6Colimes

3S amborondön

7B abahoyo

4Chilintomo

8Daule 9Bulu

E N

A rea s Mapped b y P ar son s a nd S h lemon

A dd i t iona l A rea s Mapped b y Ma thew son 0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

K M

I

B u lu o

5

10

M I

F igure 1 : R aised f ield c omplexes i n t he l ower G uayas b asin . 1 82

T he t otal

a rea o f f ields r ecorded

d ates o f c .

i s s upported

w hich i s

T he t hem,

w ith r aised

b y c eramic m aterial

p redominantly o f t he

G uayas r aised

m echanized

5 0,000 h a.

6 30+70 A D a nd 7 10+70 A D ( Bender

t wo o f t hese m ounds a ssociated d ating

i s a bout

1 981:150) f ields a t

w ere o btained S amborondon.

f rom t he a djacent r aised

M ilagro-Quevedo

p hase

( 500 t o

f ields a re c urrently b eing d estroyed

w et r ice d evelopment.

a s w ell

R adiocarbon

E fforts t o

a s t o c onstruct e xperimental

c arried o ut b y a rchaeologists i n

G uayaquil

f ields,

( Marcos

1 982;

T his f ields

1 500 A D).

r apidly b y

p reserve t hem a nd

r aised

f or

t o

s tudy

a re b eing P earsall

n .d.).

A cknowledgements F ield t he

r esearch w as s upported b y t he

F ulbright-Hays

A ntropolögico d el P rograma d e a nd

t he

d el

L itoral,

P rogram, B anco

N ational

w ith

E cuadorian

a ssistance

C entral,

G uayaquil,

u nder

A ntropologfa

p ara

E l

E cuador,

E scuela T 6chnica d e A rqueologfa, G uayaquil,

S cience F oundation a nd

u nder

Q uito,

O laf H olm; u nder

E scuela

f rom t he M useo t he

P resley N orton;

S uperior

P olftecnica

J orge M arcos.

R eferences c ited B ender,

M .M.

1 981

e t a l.

U niversity o f W isconsin

R adiocarbon

D ates X VIII.

R adiocarbon 2 3:145-161. D enevan,

W .M.

1 983

a nd K .

M athewson

P reliminary R esults o f t he

G uayas B asin ,

E cuador .

a nd S outh A merica , A rchaeological M arcos,

J .G.

1 982

S amborondon

I n D rained

e dited b y J .P.

R eports,

F ield

R aised-Field A griculture i n

D arch.

I nternational

p p

S eries

1 67-181. 1 89,

C entral B ritish

O xford.

( editor)

P roject° A rqueolögico y E tnobotanico P e en d el

p reliminar y p lanteamiento d e c ontinuaciön . d e

P roject,

A rqueologfa,

E scuela

S uperior

I nforme

E scuela

P olftecnica d el

T echnica

L itoral,

G uayaquil. P arsons, 1 969

J .J. R idged

F ields i n t he

R io

G uayas V alley,

E cuador.

A merican

A ntiquity 3 4:76-80. P arsons, 1 982

J .J. N uevo

C uenca d e 2 :

a nd

R .J.

S hlemon

i nforme s obre l os c ampos e levados p rehistöricos d e l a G uayas,

E cuador.

M iscelinea A ntropolögica E cuatoriana

3 1-37

P earsall, n .d.

D .M. P ef ion d el

R fo

P roject a nd

p resented

a t t he

A mazonian

A rchaeology a nd

t he

E leventh A nnual

S an

I sidro

M idwest

E thnohistory,

1 83

P roject.

P aper

C onference o n A ndean a nd B loomington,

1 983.

7 8° 1 5 '

l ba r ra - 0° 2 0 '

' A tun taqu i

0 S igs icunga *

< Z7 ' O tava lo # S an P ab lo

S an J ose ' d e M inas * . —( Pu r

O tmedo

L ake

c .

L arge L eve l

P aqu ie s tanc ia *

E leva t ion o ver 3 000 me ters L eve ls w i th r a ised f i e lds

° ° 0

5

1 0km . 7 8°1 5 '. / 1

F igure 1 : R aised f ield l ocations i n t he N orthern E cuadorian H ighlands .

1 84

T HE U SE O F W ETLANDS I N T HE P REHISTORIC E CONOMY O F T HE N ORTHERN E CUADORIAN H IGHLANDS

G regory K napp a nd W illiam M .

W hen

S panish t ravellers a nd c hroniclers

D enevan

f irst d escribed t he w et-

l ands o f t he n orthern

E cuadorian

A ndes,

c over o f m arsh r eeds,

b rush,

r ough p asture

s outh o f Q uito

w ere

b y t he

s ettlers

S an

S panish

P ablo l ake

a nd

' brushy a nd m arshy '

p lain

i n

Q uinto

t hey r eported a nd

w as c overed w ith o ne l eague o f

f ew h ighland

t rophes o f t he

O ld W orld d iseases 2 04)

w hich s uffered

1 965:212).

c lesiastical a rea,

T he

S an

i mproved

w etlands.

1 965:202).

1 965:235;

f led

a lmost

1 965:210).

a nd t he

i ntroduction o f

L arrain

B arros

( Rodriguez d e

1 980),

A guayo

1 965:

f rom s ites c lose t o t he

1 980:90-95).

p assed

i nto t he

A ccording t o

f lats w ere h acienda

i n

s uc-

p ossession o f e c-

a c urrent l andowner

i n

p roperty b y t he e arly

a nd c reated m odern l arge d airy f arms i n t he

a nd r eeds r emoved;

w ith h erbicide,

t erraces,

T he

B rush h as b een c ut d own, d rainage d itches c onstructed, p lowed,

F ormerly l arge

u se o f t he

s lopes. i nvasion

c ropped,

p lanted

p eriodically

t o

i mproved

i n m ore i nten-

s ides h ave b een c arved

a nd d elimit

p roperty b oundaries t han

E rosion, b oth b y w ind

f arms i s s triking

d rained

p lain

a nd a nd

p rehistoric

l arge w etlands i n a s i gnored.

s tate o f a ffairs a s w ell.

p rehistoric

D onkin's

( 1979)

t o

f latten

w ater,

i s

s lopes

( Figure 2 ).

T he c ontrast i s s o u biquitous t hat i t h as o ften b een r esent t he

i nto s emi-

m ojones , a nd w alled f ields d esigned m ore t o

T he c ontrast b etween g rassy,

c rowded w ith s mall

a nd

i ncrease h as r esulted

T he m ountain

s urfaces o r l imit e rosion.

w idespread.

p astures h ave b een

p opulations o f w aterfowl h ave d isappeared.

p opulation

l ocally c alled

p revent c attle f ield

f or g razing

D uring t he p resent c entury p rogressive l andowners

A t t he s ame t ime, s ive

M any h ad

f lats o ften

P ablo

p asture

m arshes d rained, g rasses.

f lats

t he d emographic c atas-

S panish i nvasion,

l atifundia .

o r l ay

t he

s eventeenth c entury.

t reated

u sed

p attern o bserved b y t he e arly r eporters w as m aintained

c eeding c enturies.

h ave

T he

t erribly f rom t he d epredations o f r oaming S panish

S panish h ighway ( Salomon

t he

s urvived

1 ).

' box-wood',

( Anonymous

s lopes a bove t he l evel w etlands

( Anonymous

T he

w ho h ad

( Paz P once d e L eön

f arming

c attle

I ndians,

I nca c onquest,

w ere

w ere b eing

( Rodriguez d e A guayo

c ertainly a l ow w oodland o f n ative s pecies

T he

a v egetation

( Figure

t aken

t o r ep-

T he r ole o f t hese

e conomies h as b een n ot s o m uch d enigrated

p ath b reaking 1 85

s tudy o f t erracing d id

a rgue

t hat A ndean p rone,

w etlands w ould

a nd

h ave b een

t oo d ifficult t o

c ommon h as b een

w ork f or

t he h ypothesis t hat

d ensity c ould b e p redicted b y t he v ertical

z onation

s urprisingly, d etermining

( Athens

e cological

1 980:180-184;

m ust b e g iven

t o l ocal

m oisture,

f ertility a nd

a nd

s ocial

p rehispanic p rehistoric

s patial

M urra

o ther

p opulation,

i n d ifferent e cological

p oorly d rained,

t han

a nd

a nd

1 972).

t emporal

o r

N ot

a ltitude,

a re i mportant i n

v ariation

i n

A ttention

t emperature,

t o t he c omparative r isks a nd o pportunities

i mportant w ith t he c urrent r e-evaluation

p opulation d ensities i n t he

T he h istorical d emographer

' strongly i nclined

t o p refer'

E cuador.

I n

A tuntaqui,

L arrain

B arros

S antillän's

1 549 t he O tavalo E ncomienda, O tavalo,

a nd

S an

P ablo

A lthough b y

i n t his a rea

1 582 t he p opulation o f t he

u nder h alf t hat o f t he 2 :147),

O tavalo

1 981;

D enevan

( 1980 2 :126-128)

i s

s ixteenth-century

i n t he n orthern

w hich i ncluded

A ndes o f

t he a reas o f

1 ) h ad a p opulation o f 9 ,400.

p opulation,

( Larrain

( Cook

( 1968:117)

( Figure

I f t his i s o nly 2 5% o f p re-conquest w ould h ave l ived

A ndes, b ased o n

e arthworks

e stimate o f a 7 5% p ost-conquest d epopulation

B arros

t hen

3 7,600 p ersons

1 980 2 :

1 26-127,

1 47).

I barra-Zuleta-Cayambe r egion w as

E ncomienda

( Larrain

B arros

1 980

t here i s e vidence t hat t his r egion w as s ubstantially

d epopulated b y t he

I nca

i nhabitants o f t he

C ayambe a rea w ere d eported

I nca e mpire ( 1962:123) c hiefdom

( Larrain r eported

p rior

B arros

p owerful

a nd m ore

1 980

I barra a nd

1 :124-129).

( Figure

( Carangue)

w hile

S an

P ablo,

a nd

L e n

I nca

a rmy.

I t

' Carangue' s eems

C ayambe r egions w ere o riginally m ore O tavalo i n

E ncomienda r egion

( Larrain

t he a rea o f O tavalo,

i t m ay n ot b e u nreasonable t o

n umber l ived

C ayambe,

C ieza d e

2 0,000 f ighting m en o f t he

I f 3 7,600 l ived

a nd

T housands o f

t o o ther p arts o f t he

h ad b een k illed b y t he

t hat a t l east a n e qual

I barra

S panish c onquest.

1 980 / :129),

p opulated t han t he

i ncluding A tuntaqui s uppose

t o t he

t hat a t l east

( Ibarra a rea)

p lausible t hat b oth t he

o r

a round

i n t he m ore i mportant a reas 10,000 i n t he r egion

1 ).

D ifferent m ethods o f p opulation r econstruction h ave b een b y a rchaeologists. o logical

A thens

( 1980:180)

s uggests t hat c ertain

s ites w ith q uadrangular m ounds w ith r amps,

a ll o ccupied

s imultaneously p rior

s ite p opulation o f 3 ,000. t he p opulation o f t he c onquest d epopulation. F igure

a nd

p rocesses.

u pward o f p rehistoric

o f

H owever m ore

s ettlement l ocation

s ettlement l ocation.

a nalysis o f e arly c olonial d ocuments a nd

B arros

f armers.

f rost-

s ituations u nder d ifferent d emographic a nd

T he d ebate h as g rown m ore

1 982).

t oo

s ingle v ariable o f a ltitudinal

f actors,

p roduction,

t oo

T his

t o t he

a n

h as i ncreased

w ith a n

a verage

e arly a ccount o f

O tavalo c hiefdom a nd a ssuming a 3 3-50% p ostT he

1 5 s ites h e l ocated

w ithin

1w ould t hen h ave h ad a p opulation o f 4 5,000.

h owever,

a rchae-

t olas , w ere

o r

I nca c onquest,

f igure i s b ased o n

e mployed

t he n umber o f k nown 1 86

t he c onfines o f R ecent w ork,

t ola s ites w ithin t his

F igure 2 : S lopes a nd p lain n ear S an P ablo.

1 87

a rea t o a t l east

2 1

( Gondard

a nd

L opez

1 981).

K napp's

i nterpretation o f e arly s ources s uggests a verage h ave b een

a bout

4 ,700.

T hus t otal

1 00,000.

T he d iscovery o f o ver

p opulation

i dea o f h igh W here d id

u sing a re

s lopes

p re-Spanish

t hese

p eople

s eems t o b e

f requently l ocated

f arm?

f lats i n n orthern h ighland t echnology a nd d rained

s upports

1 977).

w ith t he

f act t hat

t o/a s ites

E ven m ore s uggestive h as b een t he

r aised

f or

( Plaza

T he n otion t hat t hey w ere c hiefly

f lats.

p aper e xamines t he e vidence

p hotographs a lso

p opulation d ensities

r ecent d iscovery o f a bandoned

r e-

2 ,000 s ites w ith e arthen m ounds i n t he

i nconsistent

i n

3 36)

s ize w ould

f or t he r egion o f a bout

E cuadorian h ighlands n orth o f Q uito o n a erial t he

( 1984:

s ettlement

f ields i n t he w etlands.

p re-Columbian r aised

E cuador,

a nd

T his

f ields i n w etland

t hen r econstructs p rehistoric

p roductivity o n t he b asis o f a nalogy w ith a p resent-day

f ield o n t he

S an

P ablo

p lain.

T he d iscovery o f r aised f ields i n t he A ndean h ighlands I n

1 923 M ax

U hle

f ields o f a s pecial t han a m eter a s i n

( 1954:86) t ype,

i n w idth '

s outhern

i n

o n t he

E cuador.

T he

b riefly m entioned

t he

' ancient c ultivated

f orm o f s lightly e levated b eds m ore

B olivian

p assage,

s hore o f L ake

l ittle n oticed

T iticaca,

a t t he t ime,

h aps r epresented t he m odern r ediscovery o f am ajor h ighland r eclamation t echnology. n oticed d id

s imilar

p er-

A ndean

T here i s e vidence t oo t hat H umboldt m ay h ave

f eatures i n

C olombia

n ot d emonstrate t hat t he

c autiously t ermed t hem

a s w ell

( Broadbent

1 968).

f eatures w ere a ncient.

' abandoned',

U hle,

o f c ourse,

H e s hould h ave

n or d id h e t ry t o

i nterpret t heir

f unction. I n t he

1 960s l arge a reas o f a bandoned

i n w etlands n ear T iticaca 1 979,

i n

h ighland a nd i n

P eru a nd

1 982;

a bandoned

E cuador

S an

E arle n ear t he

a nd

J auja,

a t

a nd

1 )

( Ryder

P eru

L opez

1 968)

S igsicunga a nd

a

fe w

f ields.

L ennon

( 1979),

f or

i n

T iticaca r idges.

I n

a round

R yder d iscovered

1 970;

H amilton

1 968;

B atchelor

1 980).

d iscovered

1 981;

I n

f urther

t his v olume), K napp a nd

n orth o f O tavalo,

n ear

s ites t o t he

S an

R yder J os

1 970 h e r idges

p rehistoric

f ields h ave b een

1 980:12,

( Knapp

L ennon

p lains o f n orthern

f eatures w ere i nterpreted a s

o ther

L ake

a nd

1 969,

P aquiestancia

( Earle e t a l.

( 1981)

a nd

I n

R ecently, m ore a bandoned

Q uito a ltiplano

f ields w ere d iscovered

D enevan,

c ommunication)

T hese

U sually i t h as n ot b een

L ake

( Smith,

C ayambe a nd

( personal

f ields.

e dge o f t he

b y G ondard

t he

P ablo p lain.

a gricultural

( Broadbent

t his v olume).

( Figure

S iemens

C olombia

B olivia

E rickson,

r idges i n

A lfred t he

B ogotä ,

r aised

f ound b y

b y K napp a t 1 983),

a nd

d e M inas,

w est o f O tavalo

( Figure

p ossible t o d ate a rchaeologically t he e xample, a ll

f ound

' very l ittle c eramic r emains'

c ases, h owever,

1 88

p roximity t o h istoric

s ites,

l ocation

e rosion,

a nd

l ack o f r esemblance t o k nown h istoric

n ologies h ave s uggested a p rehistoric t ailed

s tudy o f t he p hysical

f eatures, m ajor

l atifundia , p hysical

i n r elatively u nder-utilised

a ge.

c ontexts a nd

a lthough w ater m anagement h as

a gricultural

t ech-

T here h as b een l ittle d ef unctions o f t hese h ighland

u sually b een

s uggested

a s t he

f unction.

I n

1 980 w e

E cuador

i nitiated

a f ield

t o d etermine t he a ge,

o f t he a bandoned b e t he o utward

r aised

p roject i n

c ultural

f ields t here.

t he n orthern h ighlands o f

c ontext, T hese

a nd

p hysical

f unctions

f ields w ere c onsidered

p hysical r emains o f a p rehistoric

a daptive

t o

s trategy.

T he

i ntensive u se o f t he w etlands i mplies t hat a lternative n iches w ere p res enting p roblems e conomic t he t o

f or

a gricultural

j ustifications,

i n

i ntensification.

t he l ight o f p hysical

T here m ust h ave b een c ontext, d emand,

a rray o f a lternative t echnologies a nd n iches a vailable, i nvestment i n

r aised

f ields.

C haracteristics o f t echnology a nd

v ironment h elp e xplain t he u se o f r aised

f ields i n

a nd

w hich l ed

h ighland

e n-

E cuadorian

w etlands.

A ge, m orphology, F igure

a nd c ontext o f p rehistoric r aised f ields

1s hows t he l ocation o f t he m ajor

w etlands i n a p ortion o f

t he n orthern E cuadorian h ighlands.

F our o f t hese l arge w etlands h ave

a bandoned r aised

s everal

f ields,

E ach o f t he

f our l arge

c onjunction

w ith a n

a s w ell a s

f lats h as r aised

a rchaeological

s maller w etlands

f ields w hich o ccur

s ite w ith r amp

t olas .

t ola s ites h ave b een i dentified b y A thens ( 1980;137, p olitical c enters o f L ate

P eriod c ommunities

p lausible t hat t he a bandoned l ate p re-Inca.

I ndeed,

a t t he

a rchitecturally i ntegrated a nd t he r aised

r aised

f ields c ontain

A c arbon

s ample

1 450 A D + 1 00 y ears.

s outhern

p re-Inca

f rom d itch f ill b etween

f ields h ave a lso b een

Q uito

P ablo

a ltiplano.

i n c lose

1 80)

a s t he

( 1250-1525 A D).

s ite r aised t ola ; ' Carchi

I t

s eems

i .e.

f ields a re

b oth t he r amp N egative '

t hese r aised

1 ).

S uch r amp

f ields h ave a s imilar a ge,

i nto a r amp

d ated a t

R aised

S an

( Table

t ola

c eramics.

f ields h as b een

i dentified o utside t he a rea i n

t he

A lthough t hey a re n ot a ssociated w ith a r amp

t ola s ite, c ultural r emains f rom t he a djacent C hillogallo a rchaeological s uch a s r aised R yder

s ite

C ayambe

i ndicate a n a ffinity w ith m ore n ortherly c ultures,

( Echeverria

f ields a re d iscussed

1 976 a nd

p ersonal

i n g reater d etail

c ommunication). e lsewhere

T hese

( Knapp a nd

1 983).

G ondard f lat n ear

a nd

S an

L opez

( 1981)

J ose d e M inas

h ave r eported ( Figure

1 ).

t he w est o f t here. 1 89

r aised

T here

f ields a t a s mall

i s a r amp

t ola s ite t o

T able

1 .

R aised Q uito

f ield

s ites

i n t he

N orthern

E cuadorian

A ndes a nd t he

A ltiplano.

A rea w ith e vidence N ame o f s ite

A rea o f F lat

o f r aised

1

( ha)

f ields 2

E levation

( ha)

( m)

C ayambe

4 ,230

1 ,237

2 ,800

S an

1 ,170

5 12

2 ,700

2 54

2 9

2 ,940

2 40

2 4

2 ,560

s mall

3 3

P ablo

P aquiestancia P insaqui S an

( Otavalo)

3

J oSg d e M inas

S igsicunga S an

P edro

t han

s mall ( other

4 s mall

2 ,380

7 a reas k

2 ,900

8 4

3 ,050-3,150

S igsicunga)

S outh Q uito

1 ,800

8

2 ,855

A ltiplano

1 .

2 .

A rea w ith u nder 5 %

s lope,

s oil m aps.

' Small'

m eans t hat e ither

o r w as t oo

s mall

D ata

G ondard

t he

a nd

f ield

f igures, ( 1970)

3 .

4 .

a nd

L opez

i nterpolation

w hich a re h igher

t han

t hose

A thens

s ites,

R yder

w ith 6 ,

3 7,

a re l ocated

a nd

w etland

L opez

a nd

L opez

h a o f s urviving r aised d iffer

a nd

L opez

s et o f r amp

( 1981).

I t i s h ere

t olas .

t o t he w est o f S igsicunga.

( 1980),

( 1981),

B atchelor

K napp a nd

f ields a t

T hese

s ites w ere

F our o ther ( 1981)

f ields.

f rom t he r est

( 1980),

R yder

K napp

( 1981),

( 1983).

S igsicunga w est o f O tavalo.

w hich i s n ot c lose t o a ny,

s ettlement.

c ated b y G ondard

t o a rrive a t t heir

3 h a o f r elic r aised f ields r e-

8 a nd

A thens

T here a re a lso r aised a rchaeological

t ook i nto

i ndications o f p rior

b y t he a uthors.

( 1970),

G ondard

R yder

p reviously p ublished b y R yder

P eguche b y G ondard

T hese

n ot e xamined

K napp a nd

( 1980:122).

P insaqui a fter t he n earest

P edro,

p hoto

u sed

s pectively,

S an

a nd

( personal c ommunication)

n amed

i s a s mall

1 :50,000 s cale s oil m aps.

a nd

a nd

p resence

T his s ite w as n amed

S ources:

f lat i s l ess t han 5 0 h a,

L opez ( 1981:171-173)

a ccount a reas w ith r elatively f uzzy a ir r aised

P RONAREG-ORSTOM ( 1979)

t o b e r epresented o n t he

f rom G ondard

( 1983).

a s m easured o n

r aised

a s

y et,

f ield

s ites,

i n t heir e levation 1 90

i dentified

s ites h ave b een l o-

w est o f S igsicunga,

T hese l atter

T his

n one w ith o ver 3 7

c ollectively c alled ( over

3 ,000 m )

a nd

F igure 3 : C ross s ection o f r aised f ield a nd a d jacent d itch , S an P ablo r aised f ield s ite. A : s andy o r s ilt l oam , 1 0 Y R 2 /2 m oist, p H 6 .2, p hosphorus c ontent 1 9 k g/ha ; B : s andy o r s ilt l oam , 1 0 Y R 3 /3 w ith a bundant m ottles, p H 6 .2, p hosphorus c ontent 4 9 k g/ha ; C : g ray s and ( probably v olcanic a sh d eposited s hortly b efore r aised-field c onstruction ); D : s andy o r s ilt l oam , 1 0 Y R 3 /3, w ith a bundant r oots, e arthworms, a nd c uzu o r j une b ug g rubs, p H 6 .2, p hosphorus c ontent 8 k g/ha.

F igure 4 : P ortion o f s emi-circular e mbankment i n C ayambe r aised-field a rea ( right o f c enter ). R aised f ields i n l eft b ackground .

1 91

i n t he

f orms o f t he

b een r eported t hese

f ield

f ields;

( Gondard

a nd

c ircular L opez

a nd

f an-shaped

1 981:177-178).

s ites b ut t hey m ay h ave

p erformed

t o k nown

L ate

P eriod

a rchaeological

T he m orphology o f t he r aised s omewhat u niform

( Figures

f ields a re d eep a nd

a gronomic

3 ,

4 ,

5 ,

r elatively n arrow r idges r ather f ields'.

T he

r idge c enter, a bout t he

6 ).

' wavelength', v aries

t han w ide

f rom 3 t o 7 m .

t he

i .e.

n arrow p latforms t o t he

3 ).

' amplitude' f ield

o f t he r aised t op )

f ields

i s u sually u nder

( i.e. d ifference 5 0 c m.

f ound

t hat t he d itches h ave a lways b ecome p artially f illed T he o riginal

r aised

a mplitude o f t he r aised

i s p robably t he b est

( Robert

t he a mplitude o f t hese

E idt,

0 .75 t o

f ields w ith t he

T he r aised

T here

m ents a re o riented

1 ).

T he u nusual

p reted

t he

f rost. S an

i n b undles, o ften

a t

B atchelor s uch

S an

C ayambe,

1 980).

i n

f lats

l arge

s emi-circular e mbank-

f or

T he

C ayambe p lain i s t he

f rom 2 ,380 t o 2 ,940 m e levation

s ites o ccur a t h igher

u nclear

i f t hese

e levations

f ields c an b e

i nter-

a s t he o thers.

r aised

f ield

s ites o ccur

F rosts a re m ost c ommon d uring t he f lats,

a lternating

f eatures.

P edro

b ut i t i s

s ame m anner

t he h ighland

P ablo

i n

R aised-field l engths a re e x-

e n e chelon p erpendicular t o t he s lope a s i f t o

f ields m ostly o ccur 3 ,150 m ),

A ll

E cuador w e a re

t echnology i nvolving t he c reation

p attern.

I ndeed,

( Figure 4 ;

( 3,050 t o i n

I n h ighland

i s l ittle e vidence t hat d itches w ere a rranged

o nly s ite w hich e xhibits

( Table

0 .5 m

E cuadorian h ighland

a mplitude a nd w ave l engths c haracteristic o f

a c heckerboard

f acilitate d rainage.

R aised

M odern

1m .

f ields a re a rranged

t remely v ariable.

w ater

A lthough

f ields.

o rientations i n

i mpound

a ge.

f eatures h as n ot e xceeded

u naware o f a ny h istorically-utilised

t o

1m .

( huachucuna ) h ave e ven l ess a mplitude a nd a

w ave l ength o f o nly a bout

t he a bandoned

w ith e roded

i n r ecent t imes i n h igh w etlands o f

p ersonal c ommunication).

p otato a nd m aize r idges

o f r aised

W e h ave

f ields w as a bout

i ndicator o f p rehistoric

f ields h ave b een c onstructed

C olombia,

t o a djacent

p robable t hat e rosion h as b een

s ilt.

A mplitude

' ridged

O riginal d itch w idth w as

I t i s

( Figure

b etween d itch b ottom a nd

p latforms,

f rom r idge c enter

r esponsible f or t he r eduction o f o riginal

A t p resent,

s eparating t he

s o t hat o nly a bout h alf o f t he t otal

a rea w ould h ave b een c ropped. p resent c oncave r idges

f ields l ocated

s ection t hey h ave c oncave

o r d istance

s ame a s r idge w idth,

e conomic

f our m ajor w etlands i s

T he d itches

I n

a nd

s ites.

f ields o f t he

c losely s paced.

s ets h ave

W e h ave n ot s tudied

f unctions q uite d ifferent t han t hose o f t he r aised c loser

f ield

e xample,

t he

a verage

1 92

i n

f lats

s ubject t o

J une-August d ry s eason. s easonal

I n

t he

a bsolute m inimum

f or

F igure 5 : R aised f ields, P acquiestancia s ite.

F igure 6 : R aised f ields, S an P ablo s ite; r amp t ola t o l eft.

1 93

t he

J une-August

s urface.

D ata

s eason

i s

f rom t he

S an

t here h as b een o nly o ne s urface t he

1 .2 ° C a t

P ablo w eather

f rost i n

f rosts h ave o ccurred

f our

y ears

a ir m asses, n ights.

f rom

1 977 t o

b ut r ather

s helter h eight a nd s tation

1 8 y ears a t

E xperiments b y K napp

s helter l evel

T hey a re n ot d ue t o

a re r adiation

K napp a nd

s urfaces m ay b e

f lats o n n ights w ith

f rost.

f ields.

a nd

R yder

A n

1 983).

T he r aised

f or r aised

b eds

( Riley a nd

p rotection ( Knapp

w as s hown

1 984:

1 972)

1 979).

I n

m arch o f p recipitation a nd

t he d rier

N orth

K napp a v ital

f or

A merican

t he

E cuadorian c ase,

N ew G uinea I ndian g arden

f rost

r aised

f ields o f t ropical i s d rought.

e xplanation o f f ields a s

A merica.

F igure 7 i llustrates t he

e vaporation t hrough t he y ear a t S an

s lopes.

D ecember-March p eriod,

d ictates a n

T here

P ablo.

i t i s t his w hich r enders O ctober-November

p lanting

i s a lso a r isk o f d rought d uring t he

t he l ittle s ummer o r

v eranillo.

o ften i s n ot w ell d istributed t hrough t he g rowing d rained

1 983;

A s imilar

f or h ighland

a nd

J une-August d eficit i s o bvious;

d ouble-cropping d ifficult a nd f or

( Knapp

W e h ave h ere a p robable p artial

A nother m ajor r egional h azard

d ate

s uggested

w avelength o f t he h ighland

w ith t he l owland r aised

T he m ajor

i s s ufficient t o

t o d epend o n t he c lose s pacing o f t he d itches

2 86-288).

t he r elatively s mall c ompared

i n t he d itches b etween

i n t he h ighlands o f E cuador.

( Waddell

F reimuth

h ave

f ields a lmost c ertainly p erformed

f ields h as b een

s weet p otato r idges

1 983)

T his e ffect i s a pparently t he

p eriod b y s everal m onths

f rost-protective f unction f unction

R yder

i mprovement o f t his m agnitude

s afe g rowing

s urface i s a ffected.

1 .3 ° C w armer t han

r esult o f t he d evelopment o f t ubes o f w arm a ir l engthen t he

i n

i nvasion o f c old

f rosts w hich d evelop o n c lear

2 80-288;

f ield

( 1963-1980),

a t l east o nce e very m onth o f t he y ear 1 980.

( 1984:

t hat r aised

a djacent

r aised

s how t hat a lthough

O nly a t hin a ir l ayer c lose t o t he g round

i ndicated

1.9 ° C a t t he

P recipitation

s eason.

T he p oorly-

l evels h ave t he a dvantage t hat c rop l oss a s a r esult o f d rought

v irtually v anishes. T he

s oils o f t he h umid

f lats h ave d eveloped o ver l acustrine a nd

f luvio-glacial d eposits o f v olcanic m aterials. p resent,

c reating

s tony o r e ven b oulder

a reas h ave s ufficient

s ilt c ontent

f or

M oroinal d ebris i s o ften

s oils.

N evertheless,

A lthough s toniness m ay i mpede u se o f m achinery, e xcellent t exture t o w ork a nd

a nd

s tructure

r eadily f orming

l arge

a dequate w ater r etention.

f or h and-tool

t he

s oils h ave a n

a griculture, b eing e asy

s table b anks a nd d itches.

T he

s oils a re

f ertile b ut d evelop p hosphorus d eficiency a fter r epeated c ultivation. T he s oils o f t he P RONAREG-ORSTOM

f lats s hown ( 1979:

f ertile v olcanic

s oils

S eventh A pproximation)

r barra,

S oil

F igure

1h ave b een c lassified b y

C ayambe,

( Typic o r V itric o r a s

s ubsurface c lay h orizon, E utrandepts).

i n

a nd

S an

P ablo s heets)

E utrandept

f ertile b lack p rairie

t ransitional

p H i s c lose t o

t o v olcanic

6 .0. 1 94

a s

s uborders i n s oils w ith a s oils

( Andic

t he

M odern d airy f arms h ave d ug d rainage d itches i n t he v ent p asture Z uleta,

f lats t o p re-

f looding a nd o ccasionally t o e nable c ultivation.

C ayambe,

a nd

f icient t o a ssure

S an

P ablo

f lats,

s afe c ultivation.

d itches

2 00 m a part a re

T here i s n o n eed

r idging w ith c losely-spaced d itches t o d rainage m ay h ave b een o nly a m inor

I n s uf-

f or e laborate

e nsure d rainage.

f unction o f t he

t he

T herefore,

p rehistoric

r idges.

C ertain v ation. s mall

f lats w ith s andy s oils d o n ot r equire d rainage f or c ulti-

T hese

p rovide p oor

f armers,

T o d ate,

a s a t S an

p asture a t b est a nd

R oque a t t he

a bandoned r aised

a re o ften c ultivated b y

s outheast e nd

f ields h ave n ot b een

o f S an

f ound

i n

P ablo L ake.

s andy s oils

( Psamment o r V itrandept c ategories).

C urrent i ndigenous w etland t echnology: M ost o f t he l evel p atches o f m aize,

w etlands a re s till

p otato,

o r

d airy f arms h ave c onstructed d ifficult t o i n

t he

f ind

w etlands.

T his s mall

T he

f arm

s mall-grain

f ield

p asture,

i n t he

B oth t he

i s l ocated b etween

f or t he

t wo d itches.

f or t he

c ultivated

f unctioning o f t he

T he

w ater

s hrubs

p roducing

b erry b ushes c ommunis). f ence.

T he w ire i s

( Euphorbia s p.),

A c anal i s u seful

( Agave,

O ld W orld

f arm

p lants,

F urcraea),

0 .03 h a

f armer d oes

T he

f arm i s a bout

i s h ouse g arden

E ucalyptus,

s trung b etween

i ncluding i ndigenous

f ound

a nd

f orm a l iving

A

n otably

( Ricinus

b y a b ank w ith a b arbed

w ire

t ree f ence.

T he d itches a nd

p ond; c anal

( Calceolaria t ripartita,

N asturtium o fficinale).

1 95

f ruit-

p lants.

o n t he b anks,

w ay t o a s hallow c attle

p lants

T he

f iber-

a nd t he c astor b ean

i rrigation d uring d ry p eriods. C arex s p.,

s urface.

s takes o f t he l echero

f arm o n t he

p ort b lue-green a lgae a nd v arious

f ield

a nd m any m edicinal

p lants a re a lso

w hich r apidly s prout a nd

g anum p ersicariodes,

w ere i nter-

s urrounding

S olanum c aripensis),

i tself i s s urrounded

c rosses t he

f or

p receding

1m d eep d itch a nd c orresponding b ank

( Rubus s p.),

T he

A bout

( Physalis p eruviana,

h maryllids

f ew i ntroduced

f arms

t hey a re n evertheT he

f ields.

t able 5 0 c m o r m ore b elow t he

b ank n urtures a v ariety o f u seful b earing

f ields.

a bundant a bandoned r aised

f ield.

m aintain t he

s ix

A lthough t he

t o t he m aintenance o f t hese d itches,

o f w hich m ost i s p asture.

i s

( Figure 8 ).

t he o wner

l ess i mportant 5 0 m s q,

I t

t imes a nd m apped.

n ot c ontribute

p astures c ontain

i ntervals.

P ablo p lain

f armers a nd

s everal

O wners o f l arge

i ndigenous s ubsistence

S an

p lot h ad b een c ropped

f arm w as v isited

w ith o nly a f ew

p roduction.

d rainage c anals a t w ide

s tudied

I ndian c ouple.

a nd t he

i n

e xamples o f t raditional O ne w as

s hare-cropper

y ears b y a n v iewed,

a d rained

t his s upP oly-

T otora r eeds

P rec ip i ta t ion ( 1964 -1977 ) / Mean 1 60

, ------\

I Mean-S tandard D ev ia t ion

•

M ILL IMETERS

1 20

- - - - - Mean E vapora t ion ( 1964 -1975 ) • \ • •

8 0

•

• •

•

4 0 •

A

A

S

0

MONTHS

F igure 7 : P recipitation a nd e vaporation a t S an P ablo, E cuador .

- t X- X

-X

-X

- X-

X - X-

- X

- X - X - X- 1

-. 0 -

x-x--x -

C ana l

D i tch a nd b ank

B ank w i th f ence

F ie ld r i dge

1

0

1

1

5 me te rs

P a th

F igure 8 : M ap o f s mall f arm i n S an P ablo f lats. L : l echero t ree; M : p otato-maize f ield ; P : p otato f ield ; Q : q uinoa ; T : t ree t omato ; Z : s quash . 1 96

( Scirpus t otora) p roduction.

a lso

f lourish i n t he d itches,

P arts o f t he

S an

P ablo p lain

a re

a nd

i n

a re u sed

f or m at

f act d evoted

t o r eed

p roduction. T he

f arm h ouse

i s s urrounded b y a s mall

w ith l echero t rees, c lumps o f O ld g uaba

t ree t omatoes

( Tacsonia s pp.)

T he h ouse a nd

( Carica

f ruits g rown

s pp.),

e lsewhere

f lanked b y t wo

p otato-maize d ouble c ropping

a nd

t he o ther

f or

0 .018 h a.

A ccording

t o t he o wner,

t ilised

e very o ther

y ear

f rom n earby p astures.

p er h a p er

y ear.

B oth

t ool

f or

a nd t hen

s own

A lthough t he d omesticated f arm.

i s c ommon

A fter

i n

A ugust.

A t t he

l ines o f O ld W orld b road b eans,

m utabilis)

t asco

O ne

i s u sed

a nd

f or

t hey a re

f er-

( free

7 ,600 k g o f m anure

a zadon.

h oe o r

P otatoes a re

s ame t ime,

p eas,

f lats.

p otato d ouble c ropping.

T his c onstitutes

f urrows w ith h andfuls o f m anure. a nd

f ields.

f ieldwork i s t he l arge m etal

f ields a re w orked

s everal

w ith 6 00 l bs o f c attle m anure g athered

o f c harge)

T he b asic

y ard

i n t hese

a re

f ields c ontain

a nd a nd

i ts g arden

T he t wo

a nd

C apulin c herry ( Prunus c apuli),

b abaco a nd c hihualcan

a re o ther c ommon

g arden

( Cyphomandra b etacea),

W orld c ulinary h erbs.

( Inga s pp.),

k itchen

s own

i n

c lumps o f q uinoa

a lfalfa a re

s own.

( Chocho o r t arwi , L upinus

l upine

i n t he a rea,

a f ew w eeks t he l and

i t i s n ot g rown o n t his p articular i s w eeded, a nd

t hen t he d istinctive

h uachucuna o r 1m w ide p otato r idges a re f ormed b y m ounding u p t he e arth o n h eight o f I n

e ither

O ctober m aize, f ield

J anuary. I n

s quash,

f ield.

a nd

r each a n u ltimate

b eans a re p lanted

S ome m aize a nd

( Figure 8 ).

i n t he

f urrows o f

s quash i s a lso p lanted

P otatoes a re h arvested

T he m aize i s r idged

t he y ear o f o bservation,

A pril,

p lants t o

1 5 c m.

t he p otato-maize p otato

s ide o f t he g rowing

f rom b oth

f ields i n

h uachucuna t o p revent w ind-throw.

i nto

t his m aize w as h arvested

f or g reen c orn

a lthough i t r eportedly c ould h ave b een l eft t o r ipen.

y ear o bserved, c rop o f p eas.

t he

p otato c rop i n t he p otato

R eportedly,

t he

f ield

w as

J une o r

i n

I n t he

f ollowed b y a

p revious p attern h ad b een

c rop o f p otatoes f or h arvest i n

i n t he

t o

s ow a s econd

J uly.

P roductivity T his f arm i s s aid e quivalents, b eans,

a nd

t o

p roduce,

1 4,200 k g o f p otatoes,

1 70 k g o f q uinoa.

p ortion o f o utput o nly p er h ectare.

i n

f or

L ess p otato

4 0,800 k cal/ha/day,

S eed

a n

c onverted t o

2 ,500 k g o f g reen c orn,

r equirements a re

p otatoes,

s eed,

a verage y ear,

l ess m inor c rops

1 97

( kcal

6 30 k g o f

a s ubstantial

a nd c an b e e stimated

t his s ystem

a t

1h a

p ro-

1 ,400 k g

p roduces t he e quivalent o f e quivalents t aken

f rom L eung

1 964).

B ased o n a r ecent a verage k cal

f or v illagers i n ( n.d.),

t he a rea

t his s ystem w ould

( Knapp

i ntake o f

1 98) 4:

s upport

1 66;

1 ,733 k cal

V argas a nd

2 ,350 p ersons

p er

p er c apita

G allegos

k m2.

L abor I nputs

T he o n

s lopes o r o n

t he g round w eeding, l ow.

h uachu c ultivation a re f airly s tandardised, w hether

s teps i n

f lats.

a fter

P otatoes r equire o ne o r m ore i nitial

r eclamation o f l and

o f h arvest,

p otato c ultivation w ith h and t o

( Knapp

1 98) 4:

f ields r eclaimed

f ertility a nd h igher F or m aize,

l ess l abor

l abor

h owever,

i s r equired

h a

i nitial

t he l abor

( Knapp

t he t ype o f i nitial

t he

r eclamation

1 983).

f or

f ields t o b e

W e c alculate p er

p lus

0 .6 t imes 7 0 f or m aize,

S ince

1h a

p roduces a bout l abor

t his m ay b e e stimated

w hen d itches a re s paced

2 68 p erson-days

y ear,

T here n eeds t o b e a dded,

p eriodic d itch c leaning;

p otatoes,

p er

a nd m aize-

a bove w ould r educe t he a mount o f w ork

p reparation o f l and.

a re c leaned t wice a y ear.

k cal

10 t o

f or r idge c onstruction, a nd

D epending o n

1 5 p erson-days p er c ultivated h a,

m illion

f rom

s ize

1 97). T he h igher l abor i nputs

p articular c ombination o f p otato d ouble-cropping

n ecessary f or

d rained

t ools m ay r equire

t he

f rom b rush w ith c orresponding h igher

p otato d ouble-cropping d escribed

a nd

w orking a nd

f ol-

f or m aize c ultivation m ay v ary f rom u nder 7 0 t o a bout

1 60 p erson-days p er

a s

l and

p lanting,

a nd h arvest

y ields p er h a.

h arvest i s m uch l ess w ork. r equired,

( aporques),

t he d ifficulty o f i nitial

2 50 p erson-days p er h a c orrespond

T he

f rom b rush o r g rassland;

t wo o r t hree r idging o perations

D epending o n

w orkings o f

t otal

h a

p lus

4 0,800 k cal

l abor

( 1.4 t imes 1 5

2 00 a part

f or m odern 1 51

f or

f or d itch c leaning).

p er d ay o r

i nput p er m illion k cal

1 4.9 p roduced

i s a bout

1 7 p erson-days. D iscussion T he h eavily f ertilised d rained m ore

f ield

s ystem j ust d escribed

p roductive

p er h a t han c ompeting u nfertilised

s ystes.

p otato o r m aize

s ystems m ay p roduce 7 o r 9m illion

k cal/year

v ated

h a,

m uch l ess

b ut m uch l and m ust r emain ( Knapp

1 984:

2 14).

O n

i n

t he o ther h and,

a griculture r equires l ess l abor

t o

a s c ompared

( Knapp

w ith

1 7 p erson-days

a vailability i s n ot a c onstraint, f ield

f allow;

o verall

i s m uch

L ong-fallow p er c ulti-

p roductivity i s

l ong-fallow m aize

p roduce o ne m illion k cal - o nly w e d o

1 984:

2 16).

n ot e xpect

f ertilised d rained

a griculture t o b e a ttractive.

W here l and d rained

f ield

i s a t a p remium, a griculture

i s

t he l abor e fficiency o f f ertilised

q uite c ompetitive w ith 1 98

1 2

W here l and

s hort-fallow o r

a nnual c ropping o f p otatoes o r m aize. d rained

f ield

b y m ost

f amilies.

s ystem r equires m anure r esources b eyond A t ypical

t o 2 ,500 k g/year o f m anure ( Knapp

1 984:

t oo d istant

f or

r eason

( dry w eight,

e asy r ecovery.

f amilies t o u se t heir

t hose p ossessed

f amily i n t he a rea m ay h ave a ccess t o i ncluding 7 00 k g o f n ight

1 80), b ut m uch o f t his m aterial F urthermore,

i s d eposited

f ertilisation,

s oil)

i n p astures

w hich w ould b e t he

u sually t he m edium-fallow p otato

r ather t han c ontinuously c ropped o r d ouble c ropped l and. f or t his i s t hat t he h igh i nitial

r esults

2 ,000

i t i s m ore e fficient f or

s carce m anure r esource o n l and

m ost p roductive w ithout f ields,

T he d ifficulty i s t hat t he

f ertility o f f allowed

i n t he m inimum p ossible c ultivated

a rea

p er

f amily,

T he

f ields

a nd

t here-

f ore t he m aximum p ossible c oncentration o f m anure p er h a c ropped. h eavily-fertilised d rained

f ields,

i t i s l ikely t hat c ertain n utrients

w ill n ot b e a dequately r eplaced b y t he m anure a lone; c an b e t ated

f ound

t o

e nhance

s oil

I n

f ertility,

u nless o ther m eans

t he l and m ust b e r ested o r r o-

w ith l ess p roductive c rops.

I n

p rehistoric t imes,

l imited,

t he m anure r esource i n

s o t hat i t w as e ven m ore

m ethods t o m aintain

s oil

E cuador

w as e ven m ore

i mportant t o e stablish e ffective

f ertility i n c ontinuously c ropped

r eturn n ow t o a c onsideration o f t he

p rehistoric

f ields.

W e

s ituation.

R econstructing p rehistoric a gricultural t echnology A n e arly d escription

s uggests t hat

t he t echniques o f w etland d rainage. t hat t he

E cuadorian

o f Q uito, d rained b eans,

a nd

a ccount

i nto

f ields'.

p otatoes i n

f or

t he

( about 6 00 t o ( based

1 ,200 k g o n m odern

h istoric

p er h a),

t he p rocess o f g rowing m aize,

s uggesting s hort

f allow-yield t ool

r aised

w ooden

1 965:227 a nd i n t he

2 0-40 t o

f allows o f

r elationships).

w as a h ard,

f ields

w ith

1 5 m ).

I ndeed,

A n

i nteresting

T he

' spade '

1

1t o 4

s ame s ource

( pa/a ),

f ootnote).

E cuadorian h ighlands d iffer

t he d itches w ere c omparable

f rom

t hey w ould

t end

t o

i n d epth

a lthough s paced m uch m ore

i mplication o f t he d itch d epth i s t hat t he

d itches w ere p robably f illed s ilt i n

d itches w ere c leaned

d itches,

i nhabitants

M aize w as y ielding a bout

w ith w idth t o m odern d rainage d itches,

f ield

f ormer

h uachucuna i n t hat t he d itches w ere m uch d eeper ( 1 t o 1 .5 m

a s c ompared

c losely.

9 0 k m n ortheast

I ndians w ere g rowing t heir c rops i n r idges

f ootplow ( Anonymous

T he a bandoned

( 1965:248) m entioned

l ocated

' which t he

S imilarly,

a f oot a part.

t ells u s t hat t he m ajor p ossibly t he

1 582 B orja

f armers u nderstood

h uachucuna i s a ncient, a s i ndicated b y a 1 573

Q uito a rea.

a l ittle m ore t han

y ears

I n

s ettlement o f P imampiro,

w as l ocated b y a b ig l agoon

a nd m ade

p rehistoric

w ith s tanding o r

u nless c leaned t wice a y ear,

1 5 p erson-days o f l abor

p er 1 99

s lowly m oving w ater;

f requently.

I f t he r aised

a s a re m odern d rainage

1 00 m o f d itch w ould h ave b een

r equired

p er

y ear

o f 4 .5 m a part,

f or c leaning.

I f t he d itches w ere s paced

3 33 p erson-days o f l abor w ith s hovels i s

a bout

i ndicated.

U sable

o f w etland;

m oreover, o riginal

t han m odern

s hovels.

f ield

s urface w as o nly a bout o ne h alf t he t otal

E rasmus

( 1965)

s uggested t hat d igging s ticks w ere

E ven

i nput r equired

i f t he d itches w ere c leaned b ut o nce a y ear, i s c learly g reater

d ouble c ropping w ere p racticed,

t han t he m ost o nerous

a nd

i f a ll

t ook 2 .7 t imes a s m uch l abor a s t oday p erson-days w ould h ave b een r equired

f ield-

s teps e xcept m aize h arvest 1 965),

a s m uch a s

2 ,512

t o c ultivate o ne h a o f r aised

s urface.

s truction h austed,

a lternative a gricultural i n t he

t ime o f r aised

f ield c on-

p ossibilities m ust h ave b een e x-

s ense t hat i ncreasing

p roduction

f rom s lope o r d rained

h uachu c ultivation w ould h ave r equired c omparable o r g reater

e ffort.

M odern d ata

r equire 2 16). r aised

s uggests t hat c ontinuously c ultivated

19 p erson-days o f l abor p er m illion k cal I n

r equired p er

t he l abor

I f t he a bove d escribed

( Erasmus

O ne o bvious c onclusion i s t hat a t t he

f ield

1 ,800 p erson-days p er

( 333 x 2 /0.37) w ould h ave b een r equired j ust f or d itch

p reparation t asks o f c ompeting t echnologies.

f ield

p rehistoric 2 31

t imes e ven

p erson-days

f ields p roduced o ver

y ear,

s imilar

p ossible t hat r aised f ields i n

k cal

( Knapp

1.8 m illion k cal

p otatoes.

1 983).

I f p rehistoric

p er h a o f f ield

s urface

s hort-fallow

f or m anured d rained

f ields.

H ow i s i t

f ields m ight h ave m atched h eavily m anured d rained

w e h ave t o l ook a t t he m aterial

s oils a nd

f rom d itch Q uito

S oil

w hich w as d redged

p robably t wice a y ear.

f ills b etween r aised

a ltiplano w etlands.

5 8+ 16 k g/ha ( 6 s amples).

f ields i n t he

A verage

w hich a ccumulated

S an

W e P ablo,

p hosphorus c ontent w as i n

a t ank b y a

d rainage d itch h ad c omparably h igh p hosphorus c ontent

( 45 k g/ha).

c ontrast,

h ad

s amples o f r aised

p hosphorus v alue o f o nly

f ield

t opsoil

1+4.5 k g

p er h a

i nclude o nly s oils w ith p H f rom 6 t o 7 ; p hosphorus

( Knapp

P hosphorus

1 984:

a nd

am ean

T hese s amples

l ow p H s amples w ere a ll l ow i n

i s t he m ost i mportant l imiting

c ultivation.

s ubsoil

( 5 s amples).

I n

2 89-291)

E cuadorian h ighlands.

r epeated

1 984:

T his a mount o f p roduction i s

o ut o f t he d itches d uring d itch c leaning, C ayambe,

( Knapp

p roductivity?

F or t he a nswer, s ampled

p roduced

t hey w ould h ave b een m ore l abor-efficient t han

t o t hat d ocumented

p otatoes

s hort f allow c ultivation p erhaps

p er m illion

c ropping o f u nfertilised

t he

a rea

i mplements w ere p robably l ess e fficient

3 7% a s e fficient a s s hovels. T his i ndicates t hat c ultivable h a c leaning.

a n a verage

A vailable

E lsewhere,

f actor

f or a griculture i n

p hosphorus d eclines r apidly w ith

K napp 2 00

( 1984:

17))

h as d eveloped

e quations r elating m aize p hosphorus;

1 k g/ha

a lone o f d itch m aterial

f ields.

i s a r elatively g ood

p ig m anure

a nd d istributed

p erhaps

f or m anure w ould b e t o

o r

3 3 k g o f n itrogen

t o r aised

p orted o n a h ectare o f r aised y ear

p er h a.

e quations d eveloped

f ertiliser.

l and

e lsewhere r elating f ield

s ucceeding y ears s o

y ield

c ropped

t o p otatoes a nd m aize

a llowed

f or l oss t o p ests,

I f t hree

f amilies w ere s up-

t hey w ould

a bout

S imilarly,

b e a dded

i n

a nd

1 984:

s poilage, a nd

3 02-303).

w aste,

o r

i n t urn c ould c onstitute t hree

f ive-person

s upplying

a ssumed

t heir

f ields c ould

1 67 d ays

f orce w ould h ave h ad

g razing a nimals t he c hildren d itch-cleaning l abor. o r m aize s lope I t i s

P rior

f or m aize

1 5 p ersons p er 1 5 p ersons

i mpossibly o ner-

I t i s t rue t hat m uch o f t he

y oung,

t ools,

p er h a o f f ield

b ut

i n

t he a bsence o f

f ree t o h elp w ith t he l abor

i n

i ntensive p otato

n ot h ave b een m uch l ess p er

p erson.

t hat t he r esulting a griculture w as r oughly s imilar

t o t he M exican c hinampas t o t he r aised

p erson.

t o m etal

E ven i f 3 7% i s

t his e xercise.

1 5 p ersons

w ould h ave b een

a griculture c ould

s uggested

p er

t o h ave b een

f arm

i nitial

T hese

l abor r equirements w ould n ot h ave b een

r epresenting o nly

U sing

f amilies c apable o f

p rior t o

h ave s upported

h a

t o u se

1 ,733 k cal p er p erson p er d ay.

t he m anure i nputs w e

o ver t he l ong

t he m anure.

p er h a w hen d ouble

t his p roduction w ould b e s ufficient t o s upport a t a r easonable

9 k g o f

1 0 k g p er h a a dded

1 5 m illion k cal

( Knapp

s upply

i s b eing d ouble c ropped, a bout

w ould h ave 5 8 k g p er

w hich w ould

s urface,

A lthough o nly a

f ertility t o m odern l arge

p hosphorus,

l abor

i n

f or e ach c rop.

5 0 k g p er h a a dded n itrogen,

o us,

7 k g o f p hosphorus.

t he h ouse.

s urface,

S ince t he

w e e xpect a r aised

I f r aised

t he r aised

f amilies

y ear o f h uman a nd g uinea

b e r eleased

p hosphorus,

y ear

i t i n

t his m anure c ould e asily b e c ol-

1 0 k g p er h ectare o f p hosphorus w ould

b eer,

p re-Inca

a nd

f ields n ear

f ield

h alf o f t his w ould b e a pplied

y ields,

p lace

3 3 k g/year r egimen w ould b e e quivalent t o a c om-

p arable a pplication o f c hemical

p er

p er

s ource o f

3 k g o f n itrogen w ould b ecome a vailable t o p lants i n

t hat e ventually t he

r un

n itrogen.

1 ,100 k g

f irst a pplication, m ore w ould

n itrogen

t he b lue-green

s ource o f n itrogen b ut a p oor

U nlike t he m anure o f g razing a nimals,

t he

a nd

T he w eeds

p hosphorus b ut d eficient i n n itrogen,

( dry w eight)

f raction o f t he

D itch f ills,

w ere a lso r elatively h igh i n

A lthough l acking l arge d omestic a nimals, a ccess t o

t o b e

p hosphorus c ontent

( pH 6 t o 7 o nly).

f ix

T he m ost e fficient u se

w ould h ave h ad

l ected

t he

f or g reen m anure,

a lgae w hich t hrives i n d itch w ater

s oils a lready r ich i n

T hat i s,

t ank f ill,

4 .4 p er c ent

i n d itches a re v aluable

p hosphorus.

p hosphorus c an b e e xpected

p hosphorus.

w ith t he e xperimental

M anure

s oil

c an m ore t han d ouble c rop y ields.

o rganic m atter c ontent: g rowing

p otato y ields t o a vailable

p roductivity a t 5 6 k g/ha

2 .2 t imes t hat a t

c ombined

a nd

( Armillas

1 971),

f ields i n h ighland W est 2 01

a nd

p erhaps e ven m ore

N ew G uinea.

I n

s imilar

t he l atter c ase,

a boriginal

f armers,

d itches a bout

u sing

s imple d igging

2m d eep a nd

d itches a re d ug t o r eclaim l and a nd

i rrigation.

d itches i s

H owever,

a nd

f rom s wamps a nd

' probably t he m ost

f ertilisation'.

g arden t rash,

s ticks,

w eeds

d ig c losely-spaced

2 t o 5 m w ide i n a lluvial

T opsoil

w ashed

' combine t o

p lains.

s erve

T he

f or b oth d rainage

i mportant

f unction o f t he

f rom t he p lanting b eds,

f orm a r ich m ud d eposit'

( Heider

1 970:40-42).

I t w as m entioned p roduce

t hat h eavily-manured d rained

1 4.9 m illion

k cal

p er

y ear,

a nd

t hat

f ields t oday c an

f ield

s urfaces w ith p hos-

p horus a mounts a nd m anure a dditions c haracteristic o f h ypothesised

p re-

h istoric r aised

1 5

m illion k cal u sed, p er

t he

y ear.

k cal

w ill

r aised

y ear.

S ince o nly h alf o f t he w ould h ave b een

s upport o ne p erson a t

f our

l arge p lains i n

t he

t ogether c ontain

f ields o ccur

i n a bout

a rea o f r aised

t hese t wo v alues; 1 3,500 a nd

t hat t he o riginal

p ests, o ne m illion

p er d ay f or a y ear.

s tudy a rea i n w hich r aised a bout 5 9 k m2.

f ields h ad

T hus

i f 7 50 p ersons p er

o n o nly

p ersons c ould

f lats o nce h ad

i n t he

r aised

p opulation o f t he a rea

h ave b een

a t p opulation d ensities

a nd

L opez

1 981:174).

T he

s omewhere b etween

a rea.

f our

f lats.

f ields.

i s a bout

W e d o n ot

I f w e e stimate

1 00,000,

a bout

1 3 t o

s upported o n t he l arge

T he o ther 5 6,000 t o

e asily , s upported o n t he r emaining f rom

r elict

k m2 w ere s upported, b etween

s upported

1 .8% o f t he t otal

f ields h ave

O f t his t otal,

t o h ave b een

4 4% o f t he e ntire p opulation m ay h ave b een

8 7,000 3 ,100 k m2

1 8 t o 2 8 p ersons p er k m2.

A t s uch h igh p opulation d ensities, r aised

p er h a

7 .5 p ersons p er h a o r 7 50

1 8 k m2 ( Gondard

4 4,250 p ersons w ere

k now i f t he o ther l arge

f lats,

a bout

s urface w as

k m2.

b een d iscovered p rehistoric

1 ,733 k cal

w ell h ave s upported

t otal

7 .5 m illion k cal

A ssuming a 3 7 p er c ent l oss t o w aste a nd

f ields c ould

T he

p ractices c ould l ikewise h ave p roduced

' carrying c apacity '

p ersons p er

r aised

f ield

p er h a p er

t he w etlands r eclaimed

w ith

f ields w ould h ave c learly c onstituted t he c ores o f e conomic a nd

d emographic

p ower

i n t he h ighlands.

e ssay t o p ursue t his i dea

I t i s b eyond

t he

s cope o f t his

i n d etail, b ut t wo p oints a re w orth m aking

h ere. 1 .

A thens

( 1980:137 ,

w ith t he ( Knapp

h as a ssociated

1 984:

2 1

s uch s ites i n t he

3 24-325).

O f t hese

t he e dge o f f lats i n t he

2 ,000 m ). a bout

r amp

t ola s ites

p olitical c enters o f l ate p re-Inca c ommunities.

T here a re a t l east o n

1 80)

2 1

s tudy a rea

s ites,

8 a re

t emperate e levations

T here a re 5 o thers w ithin

i n o r ( above

2 k m o f f lats.

S ince o nly

5 % o f t he a rea i s f lat, t here i s a c lear c oncentration

o f s ettlement a t o r n ear e vidence

f or

f lats.

p reference a s t o 2 02

I n c ontrast,

a ltitude u p t o

t here

i s l ittle

3 ,000 m ;

r amp

t ola s ites a re d istributed p retty e venly t hroughout t he m aize-growing e levations. 2 .

L arrain

B arros

( 1980 1 :114-120,

d ence t hat b y f ar t he m ost n orth o f Q uito w as c entered I nca c ontact.

T he

a t

i n

p resents e vi-

p olitical

e ntity

C ayambe a t t he t ime o f

C ayambe a rea

t he l argest w etland

1 27-129)

p owerful

i s n ot o nly t he

t he n orthern

s ite o f

E cuadorian h ighlands,

b ut i t a lso e xhibits t he l argest a rea o f s urviving r aised f ields.

C onclusion

W hen b rushy '

t he

s ixteenth c entury S paniards o bserved

w etlands o f n orthern h ighland

E cuador,

t he

t hey w ere g azing o n t he

e conomic c ores o f a r ecently p opulous c ivilisation. p reviously t he m arshes a nd r aised a nd

f ields,

q uinoa,

a s w ell

a s

p otatoes a nd m aize,

f ruit t rees. p rovided

a nd, m ost i mportantly, P olitical

w etlands.

T he l argest w etland,

p owerful s pread

p olitical

h elped

p referentailly o ver

c ontrast,

r elied o n

a bly i n

a nd

t he

t he

f requently s pread o ver

a nd g uinea f ields.

i n

a nd

f or m at-making.

f ield

a djacent t o t he w ith t he m ost

p ig d ung p robably w ere

S lope a griculture,

f ertility r estoration.

i n

P atches o f

r abbit a nd g ame b irds.

a nd n ear

i nter-field d itches a s w ell.

f iber,

i n o r

w as a ssociated

t o d eer

f ish w ere o btained

o f t otora r eeds f ruit,

s oil

f or

b rush a nd w oodland g ave s helter W aterfowl

t o b e

t he r aised

f allowing

s ur-

i n t he a ccumulation o f p hos-

C ayambe,

N ight

l upine,

D itches b etween t he p lanting

c enters w ere o ften l ocated e ntity.

b eans,

s ub-irrigation, m oderated t emper-

p horus-rich s ilt a nd o rganic m atter s urfaces.

O nly a f ew d ecades

f lats w ere c overed b y d ense c lusters o f

p robably n ourishing

f aces i mproved d rainage, a tures,

t he

' marshy a nd

L ake

S an

P ablo,

a nd

p rob-

P erhaps t oo t here w ere s tands

A r ich v ariety o f w ild

p lants

p rovided

a nd m edicine.

T oday a f ew e vidences o f t he g reat w etland

c ulture

f orm o f a bandoned

t olas . T he s ites a re

i mpressive, i magine l ation A frican r aised

a n

e ven

f ield r idges a nd e arthen

i n t he c urrent p astoral

c ontext.

O ne

s till

s urvive

i s c ompelled

t o

e xceptional d iversity o f a griculture a nd d ensity o f p opu-

w here n ow d ry, k ikuyu g rass. f ields a nd

d itched

f lats s upport t wo d airy c ows p er h a o n

I t w ould b e g ood

t o p reserve a t l east s ome o f t he

t olas , s o t hat f uture g enerations c an c ome t o

v isualise t he w ay o f l ife t hat h as l ong

s ince

p assed a way.

A cknowledgements T he r esearch f or F oundation

i n

( Grant

t his p aper

N umber

w as

1 4 12345)

f unded

b y t he

N ational

S cience

a nd b y a F ulbright g rant t o t he 2 03

s enior a uthor M olestina,

.

W e p articularly w ish t o t hank M aria d el

w ho c onducted

s ite u nder t he

a rchaeological

a greements w ith t he

P atrimony a nd

O tavalo

t he

w ith t he M useum o f t he T oral.

C entral

B ank a nd

C arlos

P erez,

l aboratories a t t he C himborazo

S anta

P olytechnic

p articularly

P ierre

S chool,

a nd

G ondard a nd

i n c ooperation

H ernan

C respo

J ose-

G ustavo H inojosa,

E xperimental t he

a nd

M aria M ogollön,

G ab oP laza L asso, C atalina

P ablo

I nstitute o f C ultural

i ts d irector,

R yder,

S an

F ieldwork w as u ndertaken

N ational

I nstitute o f A nthropology,

W e a lso w ish t o t hank R oy

E cheverria,

e xcavations a t t he

s enior a uthor's s upervision.

u nder c ontractual

C armen

S tation

p ersonnel

F reddy L opez,

t he s oil

a nd t he

o f P RONAREG-ORSTOM,

f or t heir a id a nd

h ospitality.

R eferences c ited A nonymous 1 965

[ 1573]

L a c ibdad d e S ant F rancisco d el

G eogr eicas d e I ndias , p p.205-232. A rmillas, 1 971

e dited b y J imenez d e l a

B iblioteca d e A utores

E spagoles

I n

R elaciones

E spada,

1 84,

V ol.

2 ,

M adrid.

P . G ardens o n

A thens,

Q uito.

s wamps.

S cience 1 74:653-661.

J .S .

1 980

E l P roceso E volutivo e n l as S ociedades C omplejas y / a

O cupacion d el P eriod ( ) T ardio - C ara e n l os A ndes s eptentrionates d el E cuador. A ntropologia, B atchelor, 1 980

O tavalo,

L os c amellones d e

F r.

1 965

E cuador.

A .

C ayambe e n l a S ierra d e

R elaciön e n

s uma d e l a d octrina e b eneficio d e q ue e n

b eneficiado e l

I n

P .

e dited b y

A ntonio

B orja.

J img nez d e l a

e lla h ay,

d e l a c ual e s

R elaciones G eogr eicas d e

E spada,

B iblioteca d e A utores E spagoles 1 968

A merica

d e

[ 1582]

I ndias ,

E cuador.

4 0:671-689.

P imampiro y d e l as c osas n otables

B roadbent,

O tavalego d e

B .

I ndigena ( Mgxico) B orja,

I nstituto

1 84,

V ol.

2 ,

p p.248-253.

M adrid.

S .M.

A p rehistoric

f ield

s ystem

i n

C hibcha

t erritory,

C olombia.

k awpa P acha 6 :135-147. C ieza d e L eön, 1 962

P .

[ 1553]

La C ron I -• ea d el P erü.

P rimera

p arte.

E spasa-Calpe,

1 520-1620.

C ambridge

M adrid. C ook,

N .D.

1 981

D emographic C ollapse:

U niversity D enevan, 1 982

P ress,

I ndian P eru ,

C ambridge.

W .M. H ydraulic

m easures, K .V.

a griculture

a nd

F lannery,

i n

t he

r ecent r esearch. p p.181-203.

A merican

t ropics:

f orms,

I n Maya S ubsistence , e dited b y

A cademic

P ress,

N ew Y ork.

D onkin,

R .A.

1 979

Agricultural T erracing i n t he A boriginal N ew W orld.

F und

P ublications i n

A rizona E arle,

T .K.,

1 980

P ress, T .N.

U niversity o f

C .J.

s ettlement

L eBlanc,

C .A.

H astorf,

T .Y.

L eVine

p atterns i n t he u pper M antaro v alley,

J .H.

C ontribuciön a / c onocimiento a rqueolögico d e

P ichincha :

s itios C hilibulu y C hillogallo.

U niversidad E ducaciön, E rasmus,

a nd

Journal o f N ew W orld A rchaeology 4 :1-49.

E cheverria, 1 976

N umber 5 6.

T ucson.

D 'Altroy,

C hanging

P eru.

A nthropology,

V iking

C at6lica d el

E cuador,

l a p rovincia d e

P ontifica

F acultad d e

C iencias d e l a

Q uito.

C .J.

1 965

M onument b uilding:

s ome

f ield

e xperiments.

S outhwestern

J ournal o f A nthropology 2 1:277-301. G ondard,

P .

1 981

a nd

F .

L opez

I nventaire Archaeologique P reliminaire d es A ndes

S eptentrionates d e H eider,

P RONAREG-ORSTOM ,

Q uito.

K .G.

1 970

T he D ugum D ani:

N ew G uinea. 4 9. K napp,

l 'Equateur .

a P apuan c ulture i n t he h ighlands o f W est

V iking F und

W enner-Gren

P ublications i n

F oundation,

A nthropology,

N umber

N ew Y ork.

G .

1 981

E l

n icho e colögico l lanura h ümeda e n l a e conomfa p rehistörica

d e l os A ndes d e a ltura: a rqueolögica. K napp,

e videncia e tnohistörica,

S arance ( Ecuador)

g eogräfica,

y

9 :83-95.

G .

1 983

S oil,

S lope a nd W ater i n t he E quatorial A ndes:

p rehistoric a gricultural a daptation . d issertation,

U npublished

D epartment o f G eography,

a s tudy o f P h.D.

U niversity o f W isconsin-

M adison. K napp,

G .

1 983

a nd

R .

R yder

A spects o f t he o rigin, m orphology,

f ields i n t he

Q uito

a ltiplano,

a nd

E cuador.

f unction o f r idged I n

D rained F ield

A griculture i n C entral a nd S outh A merica , e dited b y J .P.

D arch,

p p 2 01-220,

S eries

1 89, L arrain 1 980

B ritish A rchaeological

B arros,

H .

D emograf ra y A sentamientos I ndt igenas e n / a S ierra N orte d el

A ntropologra, 1 979

I nternational

O xford.

E cuador e n e l S iglo XVI.

L ennon,

R eports

O tavalo,

T wo

V olumes.

I nstituto

O tavalefo d e

E cuador.

T .J. R idged-field

i nvestigations i n t he

P aper r ead a t t he

4 3rd

I nternational

V ancouver.

2 05

L ake

T iticaca r egion,

P eru.

C ongress o f h mericanists,

L ennon,

T .J.

1 982

R aised F ields o f L ake T iticaca ,

m anagement s ystem . o f A nthropology, L eung,

W .T.

1 964

P h.D .

d issertation,

U niversity o f C olorado,

D epartment

B oulder.

W u

T abla d e c omposici A d e a limentos p ara u so e n A merica

L atina. M urra,

U npublished

P eru: a p re-hispanic w ater

I nteramericana,

M exico.

J .V.

1 972

E l

' control v ertical'

d e u n m äximo d e p isos e colögicos e n l a

e conomfa d e l as s ociedades

A ndinas.

I n

V isita d e

d e L eön d e H ugnuco e n 1 562, e dited b y J .V. p p.427-476.

U niversidad

P az P once d e L eon, 1 965

[ 1582]

S .

I n

V ol.

2 ,

H uänuco,

d e

R elaciones G eogräficas d e I ndias ,

d e l a E spada, P laza,

M urra,

H ermilio V aldizan,

R elaciön y d escripciön d e l os p ueblos d el

O tavalo. 1 84.

N acional

l a P rovincia

V ol.

2 ,

p p.233-242.

P artido d e

e dited b y J imenez

B iblioteca d e A utores E spa r loles

M adrid.

F .

1 977

C ontribuciön a t E studio d e

l os Monticulos P rehistöricos d e

l os A ndes S eptentrionales d el E cuador : a erofotointerpretaciön a rqueolögica. I nstituto O tavaleno d e

A ntropologia,

a puntes d e M anuscript a t t he

O tavalo,

E cuador.

P RONAREG-ORSTROM 1 979

Mapas d e s uelos p or r egionalizaclon.

A ntilles, R iley,

T .

1 979

a nd

M artinique.

G .

F ield

F reimuth

s ystems a nd

c ulture o f t he u pper R odriguez d e A guayo, 1 965

[ n.d.]

p or

e l

M idwest.

I n

t he

p rehistoric

American A ntiquity 4 4:271-285.

C iudad d e Q uito l icenciado

yv ecindad d e e lla P edro

R odriguez d e

R etaciones G eogr ficas d e I ndias , e dited

E spada,

1 84.

M adrid.

a gri-

P .

D escripciön d e l a

d e l a R yder,

f rost d rainage i n

a rcediano d e s u i glesia,

A guayo.

O RSTOM C entre d es

V ol.

2 ,

p p.201-204.

b y J imrnez

B iblioteca d e A utores

E spaf ioles

R .

1 970

E l

v alor d e l a f otograffa a erea e n l os e studios h istöricos y

a rqueol6gicos d el

E cuador.

R evista G eograft ia d el I GM ( Quito)

6 :40-42. S alomon, 1 980

F . L os s enores j ' tnicos d e Q uito e n / a 6 poca d e l os I ncas.

I nstituto S antillän, 1 968

O tavaleno d e A ntropologfa,

[ 1571]

R elaciön d el

I ncas.

p p.377-463. C .T., W .M.

1 968

E cuador.

H . d e

d e l os S mith,

O tavalo,

o rigen,

d ependencia,

I n B iblioteca P eruana ,

F irst

p olftica, s eries,

y g obierno

V ol.

3 ,

L ima. D enevan a nd

A ncient r idged

P .

f ields i n

H amilton t he r egion o f L ake

G eographical J ournal 1 34:353-367.

T iticaca.

T he

U hle,

M .

1 954

[ 1923]

T he a ims a nd

r esults o f a rchaeology.

1 856 -1 944, e dited b y J .H . C alifornia V ol. V argas, n .d.

4 6,

M .R.

1 972

N o.

a nd

S .

1 ,

p p.54-100.

A merican

I n

M ax U hle,

U niversity o f

A rchaeology a nd

E thnology,

B erkeley.

G allegos

D iagnöstico n utricional y a limentario d el E cuador .

N acional W addell,

P ublications i n

R owe,

P olit6cnica d e

C himborazo,

R iobamba,

E scuela

E cuador.

E .

T he M ound B uilders: a gricultural p ractices ,

s ociety i n t he c entral h ighlands o f N ew G uinea . W ashington

P ress,

S eattle.

2 07

e nvironment ,

a nd

U niversity o f

A PPLICATIONS O F P REHISTORIC A NDEAN T ECHNOLOGX : E XPERIMENTS I N R AISED F IELD A GRICULTURE. _ n UATTAt _ L AKE T ITICACA :

C lark L .

181-

E rickson

I ntensive h ydraulic a gricultural s ystems o f t he N ew W orld a re j ust b eginning t o b e t he s ubject o f d etailed a rchaeological a nd e cological i nvestigation

( Denevan

1 970 ,

1 982).

T his p aper d escribes a p roject

w hich i s i n t he p rocess o f s tudying t he p rehistoric i ntensive a gricult ural

f eatures o f t he a ttip/ano o f t he L ake T iticaca B asin i n t he

D epartment o f P uno, s outhern P eru ( Figure l ogical g round r econnaissance,

c onstruction o f e xperimental r aised R aised e levated

f ields,

a nd

f ield-garden p lots.

I t i s t hought t hat t hey w ere c onstructed

f or a c ombination o f b etter d rainage, c ontrol

I t i ncludes a rchaeo-

k nown l ocally a s c amellones o r w aru-waru , a re

p lanting s urfaces.

m odifications,

1 ).

l imited a rchaeological e xcavation,

c limate a nd m icro-environmental

s uch a s i mproved s oil a nd g rowth c onditions a nd m oisture

( Denevan a nd T urner

1 974).

T hese s ystems h ave b een l ocated i n

v arious t ropical l owland a nd h ighland c ontexts t hroughout t he N ew W orld ( Denevan d ation,

1 970 ,

1 982), m ost c ommonly i n z ones o f s evere s easonal i nun-

s uch a s t he t ropical s avannas o f t he L lanos d e M ojos i n B olivia

a nd t he f lat p ampas s urrounding L ake T iticaca i n P eru a nd B olivia.

I n

t he T iticaca B asin, t he

4

t o

f ields r ange

f rom s ome 2 0 c m t o 7 5 c m t all,

1 0 m w ide a nd u p t o 5 0 m l ong o r m ore w ith i ntervening c anals o r

s wales. M ax U hle ( 1954) t ems.

f irst r eported t he L ake T iticaca r aised f ield s ys-

I t w as n ot u ntil t he l ate

1 960s t hat t hese r aised f ields r eceived

s cientific a ttention i n ad etailed d escriptive s tudy u ndertaken b y g eo graphers S mith,

D enevan a nd H amilton

( 1968,

1 981).

i nvestigated t he v icinity o f t he R io I lpa ( 1982). t hat L ake T iticaca r aised

I n

1 977 T om L ennon

I t h as b een e stimated

f ields c over a t otal o f 8 2,056 h a,

s ome

5 6,533 h a o f w hich a re l ocated i n t he a rchaeological s tudy z one s urr ounding H uatta f orm i n t he

( Smith,

D enevan a nd H amilton

1 968 ,

f ields i s i mpressive ( Figures 2 a nd

i n f orm m ay r eflect c hronological, d ifferences ( Erickson

3 ).

1 981).

T he r ange o f

T hese v ariations

f unctional a nd/or c ultural

1 982).

E nvironment o f L ake T itiQaca T he L ake T iticaca p lain e xtends t hrough s outhern P eru a nd n orthern B olivia i n t he h igh a ltiplano a t a n e levation o f 3 803 m a bove s ea 2 09

2 10

L ake T iticaca .

0

5 0

10 0

1

m etere

F igure 2 : V arious r aised f ield p atters o f t he H uatta a rea :

A . " Open C heckerboard" ( Candile S AN 1 76-70-1005) B . " Riverine" ( Coata S AN 1 76-70-1007) C . " Irregular e mbanked" ( luanina S AN 1 76-70-1003 ) D . " Linear" ( Capachica S AN 1 76-70-945) ( Terminology f rom S mith e t a l. 1 968)

2 11

l evel.

B ecause o f t he h igh a ltitude,

a nd g enerally

m uch o f t he a ltiplano i s c onsidered m arginal

p oor s oils, t ure

i rregular r ainfall,

( ONERN-CORPUNO

1 965a,

1 965b).

f or a gricul-

S ome o f t hese c hallenges t o a gricul-

t ure a re a meliorated b y t he m oderating e ffect o f t he l ake o n i ts i mm ediate e nvirons.

F or

i nstance,

r ainfall i s m uch h igher a nd s lightly

m ore r egular a t t he l ake e dge a nd m inimum t emperatures a re s omewhat h igher, 1 968;

w ith l ess d iurnal-nocturnal v ariation

O NERN-CORPUNO 1 965a).

I n a ddition,

( Kessler a nd M onheim

t he r ich a lluvial s oils i n

p rotected a reas a djacent t o t he l ake a re s uitable

f or i ntensive a gri-

c ulture. T hese f actors h ave a n i mportant i mpact o n p resent d ay s ettlement p atterns a nd

s ettlement d ensity a nd

o n p rehistoric a round a nd

L ake

p opulations.

p robably e xerted s imilar e ffects

A s a r esult,

t he r ural

p opulation d ensity

T iticaca i s o ne o f t he h ighest i n t he A ndes

H amilton

1 968,

1 981).

( Smith,

E ven s pecial v arieties o f m aize c an b e s uc-

c essfully g rown i n s heltered a reas a round t he l akeshore. a gricultural w ealth,

D enevan

I n a ddition t o

t he l ake p rovides r ich r esources i n t he

f orm o f

f ish a nd b ird l ife,

a nd n umerous v egetable p roducts,

u tilitarian a s

w ell a s f oodstuffs,

s uch a s t otora r eed,

e tc.

1 948;

C ollot

1 980;

H enek

1 982;

l ake w eeds,

R ichardson

( Labarre

1 977).

A m ajor d rawback t o t he a gricultural u tilization o f t he l ake i s t hat m ost o f t he r ich s oils a re w aterlogged y ear-round, v ast a reas o f m arsh.

I n a ddition,

t he i rregular

r ainfall w ithin t he

w atershed o f L ake T iticaca c auses l ake l evels t o t ially b oth s easonally a nd c yclically ( Hill 1 968).

A verage s easonal l ake l evel

m uch a s 4 .6 m ( Hill

1 959).

f luctuate s ubstan-

1 959;

f luctuation i s 6 0 c m, s uä l l

b ut m ay b e a s

f luctuation c an c ause w ide-

i nundation o r e xpose l arge a rea o f p otentially r ich f armland.

F rost d amage t o c rops i s a c onstant t hreat t o a /tip/ano e ven a round t he s hores o f L ake c ritical

f armers o f t he

T iticaca a nd

i s e specially

i n l owlying a reas a round t he l ake w here c old a ir d rains

s urrounding h igher g round a ddition t o

f rost,

( Smith,

i nundation,

a lso a t hreat t o a griculture s eason,

K essler a nd M onheim

A s a r esult o f t he e xtremely f lat t op-

o graphy o f much o f t he l ake p lain, s pread

p lain

c reating

D enevan a nd

H amilton

1 968,

a nd w aterlogging o f s oils,

i n t his a rea.

f rom

1 981).

d rought

D uring t he w inter d ry

a reas w hich w ere w aterlogged d uring t he w et s eason m ay b ecome

p arched w ith c rusts o f a lkaline d eposits.

O n a verage,

i s l ost a s a r esult o f r ainfall d eficiencies o r

f rost

o ne c rop i n f ive ( Weil

1 974).

E nvironment o f H uatta H uatta i s l ocated s ome 3 0 k m n orth o f t he c ity o f P uno w ithin t he v ast

I n

i s

p ampa,

n ortheast o f L ake T iticaca. 2 12

T he H uatta p ampa i s a f lat

l andscape,

c reated b y t he

p rocesses o f l acustrine d eposition a nd a lluv-

i al a ction b y t he I lpa a nd f ound i n t he

C oata r ivers.

f orm o f n umerous a bandoned

l evee f ormations a nd c ultural p ation m ounds,

f eatures,

s ome o f w hich a re

s till

M icro-topographic r elief i s s tream a nd r iver c hannels,

l ow

s uch a s l ow p rehistoric o ccuu sed a s h ouse s ites,

r aised

f ields a nd c anal n etworks. S oils o f t he p ampas h ave b een c lassified a s G ley H umic A ndean P lanosols o f t he " Titicaca"

a nd

" Limno"

a ssociations.

T hese a re c harac-

t erised b y f ine t extured l acustrine a nd a lluvial d eposits w ith p oor d rainage b ecause o f t he h igh w ater t able a nd l ow r elief. ( 8.5 i n p laces)

a nd s ubsoils g leyed.

a re c onsidered t o h ave " limited

T he

T he G ley H umic A ndean

a gricultural

p otential"

p H i s h igh

P lanosols

( ONERN-CORPUNO

1 965b). M ajor v egetation c onsists s p.,

F estuca s p.,

M uienhmergia s p.,

w hile c ommunities o f a quatic M vrioptalum s p., s p.)

a re

S mith,

p rimarily o f a v ariety o f g rasses p lants

P otampgeton s p.,

f ound a t t he l ake s hore

D enevan a nd H amilton

1 968,

C alomograstis s p.,

s heep,

C hara s p., ( Collot

N itella s p.,

1 980;

s tructed

n arrow r idges

f rom o verturned

O NERN-CORPUNO

p ampa

f rom t he

w hich s tresses p astoralism o ver c ultivation. c onsidered

a re c on-

A l arge p ortion o f C entral M oro

F requent

C ooperative

f rost a nd

c reating e ither d rought o r i nundation,

a re

t o m ake l arge s cale i ntensive a griculture i n t he

i mpractical.

I n

p ampa w ith a t eam u sing

i s c ontrolled b y t he S AIS B uenavista

i rregular r ainfall,

t o g razing o f c attle

c alled w achos ,

c hakitagllas , t he t raditional A ndean f ootplow. t he

1 965b;

f ields a re c ultivated.

( 50-75 c m w ide),

s ods c ut

a nd S cia Umiu

1 981).

a nd o nly a f ew p rivately o wned

t hese f ields,

e tc.),

( Schoenoolectus t atora L .,

C urrent u se o f t he p ampa i s g enerally l imited a nd

P oe , s p.

( Stipa

f actors

p ampa

T he s ame c onditions w ere m ost l ikely a p roblem t o t he

i ndigenous p rehispanic

p opulations o f t he L ake T iticaca

s olved b y d eveloping a c omplex a gricultural

B asin,

s ystem o f r aised

b ut w ere

f ields a nd

c anals.

C ulture h istory a nd e conomy o f t he L ake T iticaca z one T here

i s s ome e vidence t hat t he m ixed e conomy o f c ultivation,

m arily o f p otatoes,

p ri-

a nd t he h erding o f c amelids c ommon i n t he

a ltiplano t oday m ay h ave b egun b efore 1 000 B C ( Erickson a nd H orn 1 979). T he

F ormative P eriod

a rchaeological r ecord

( 1800-100 B C)

t han t he

p revious

2 13

i s m ore f ully d ocumented p receramic e ra,

i n t he

b ut t here i s

r elatively l ittle d etail.

T he c amelid

p astoralism,

t uber,

a nd c henopod

g rain c ultivation e conomy a ppears t o h ave i ntensified a nd s ome d egree o f r egional

i nteraction a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace,

f or t he z one i s

c learly i nfluenced b y t he c eremonial a nd u rban c enter o f P ukara d uring t he E arly I ntermediate a nd A mat

P eriod

( Kidder

1 9) 43;

L umbreras

1 974;

L umbreras

1 968).

I n t he M iddle H orizon,

a m uch t ighter

p olitical a nd/or r eligious

c entralisation a ppears t o h ave b een o rganised a t

T iwanaku,

e mbracing

t he c ultures a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he T iticaca B asin p robably u nder i ts i nfluence. A s eries o f s maller k ingdoms r eplaced

t he T iwanaku c entralised c on-

t rol a fter t he e nd o f t he M iddle H orizon. a nd

I n t he P uno a rea t he L upaca

C olla h ave b een w ell d ocumented e thnohistorically,

k ingdoms b efore f inally b eing c onquered b y a nd I nca e mpire i n t he f ifteenth c entury L umbreras

1 97 )4 ; L umbreras a nd

A mat

( Murra

1 968).

a s p owerful

i ncorporated w ithin t he

1 968;

J ulien

1 979;

T hroughout t his h istory,

t here i s l ittle t o s uggest a ny m ajor c hanges i n t he e conomy o ther t han i ntensification,

b ut u nfortunately t here i s r elatively l ittle a rchae-

o logical d ata o n t his.

I t m ay h ave b een t hat t he I nca i ntroduced a n ew

e mphasis o n t he c ultivation o f t heir s acred c rop, m aize,

a nd t he c on-

s truction a nd u se o f t erraces, b ut p roof a waits f urther e xcavation.

I t

i s c ertain t hat m ajor c hanges i n e conomy w ere b rought b y t he S panish, w ho i ntroduced n ew c rops, n ew d omestic a nimals,

s uch a s w heat,

c ows,

s heep,

a nd

b arley,

p igs.

a lthough t he n ew d omesticates w ere a ccepted, c hange t he t raditional

o ats,

f ava b eans a nd

I t s hould b e n oted t hat, t hey d id n ot s ubstantially

p attern o f t he m ixed e conomy.

I t

i s n ot u ntil

m odern t imes t hat t here a re i ndications t hat t he p atterns o f r esource e xploitation c hange,

w ith t he a ttempts o f a gricultural d evelopers t o

i ntroduce h igh t echnology m onocropping o f c ommercial, r ather t han i ndigenous,

s ubsistence c ultigens.

T he c hronology, t ural

o rigin, a nd e volution o f t he r aised

s ystems a re u nknown.

T he e arly c hronicles o f A ndean h istory m ake

n o r eference t o t hese s ystems, i ndigenous t erraces, A ndes.

a lthough c ommentary i s m ade o f t he

a ndenes , a nd i rrigation c anals o f t he s outhern

I t i s l ikely t hat t he u se o f r aised

b y t he t ime o f t he a rrival o f t he S panish. d ucted

i n

f ields h ad c eased t o e xist A rchaeological

s urvey c on-

1 981 h as l ocated s ome 5 0 a rchaeological o ccupation s ites

a ssociated w ith t he r aised a mics

f ield a gricul-

f ield c omplexes o f t he H uatta p ampa.

C er-

f rom t hese s ites s pan t he k nown c ultural c hronology o f t he L ake

T iticaca B asin. P eriod,

T he e arliest d atable s ites a re

s ome 3 000 B P.

P recise c hronological

f rom t he

F ormative

p lacement o f t he r aised

f ields w ill h ave t o w ait u ntil s tratigraphic e xcavation o f o ccupation s ites a nd r aised

f ields i s u ndertaken

2 1/ 4

i n

1 983.

F igure 3 : P rehistoric r aised f ields n ear H uatta i n t he d ry s eason a nd a nd s hows t he o rganic d eposits w hich f orm i n t he c anals.

F igure 4 : E xperimental r aised f ields ( center ) a nd p rehistoric r aised f ields ( foreground ) o n t he p ampa o f M achachi. W ater h as c ollected i n t he o ld f ield c anals. 2 15

E xperimen4Al Taj i sed f ield r eeearch E xperimental r aised l owlands o f B elize P ompa

1 976,

V enezuela F reimuth l abor

( Puleston

1 976),

G ömez-Pompa e t a l.

( Zucchi 1 979).

i nput,

f ield p lots h ave b een c onstructed

1 975a,

v arious l ocations i n M exico

1 982),

1 975b)

i n t he M aya

a nd i n

I llinois,

U SA

( Riley a nd

U nfortunately s canty d etails o n c rop p roductivity,

s oils a nd m icro-climate a nd e cological m odifications c an

b e g leaned f rom t he r eports a vailable o n t hese e xperiments. t ion i s t he w ork o f P uleston i nput,

( 1976)

a nd p reliminary r esults

T he e xcep-

w hich d etails c onstruction,

f or o ne y ear's p lanting.

e xperiments a re n ot d irectly a pplicable t o r aised l ands,

( Gömez-

t he L lanos d e O rinoco i n

l abor

P uleston's

f ields i n t he h igh-

b ecause o f a t ropical l owland c ontext a nd d ifferent c onstruction

t echniques.

E xperimental r aised f ields i n H uatta T wo s mall e xperimental N ovember, i mental

1 981.

s ites.

( Figures 4 -6)

p lots w ere c onstructed

i n t he m onth o f

T wo d ifferent p ampa l ocations w ere s elected T he

f irst,

M achachi,

i s

f or e xper-

3 k m w est o f t he t own o f H uatta

i n a p ampa w here l ittle c ultivation i s c urrently p ractices, b ecause o f f requent

p roblems w ith f rost d amage t o c rops.

s ome 3 k m e ast o f H uatta a nd m ore t emperate.

1k m f rom L ake T iticaca,

T his p ampa i s a fflicted w ith p lant

w orms a nd n ematodes. a ctual

T he o ther

B oth e xperimental

p rehistoric r elict r aised

t o b e r epresentative o f r aised

i s

C andile,

w here c limate i s

p ests s uch a s

p otato

f ields w ere c onstructed o n

f ields,

c arefully s elected e specially

f ields w ithin e ach p ampa.

P reliminary t est t renches w ere e xcavated t o o btain i nformation o n t he o riginal c anal m orphology a nd d epths, e xcavations. p robe.

S oils a nd

s ilting, a nd c anal r e-

p ollen s amples w ere a lso t aken w ith a s oil

T he M achachi f ields c onsist o f 3l inear r idges w ith a t otal o f

1 68.2 m2 o f p lanting s urface a nd a pproximately 3 3.64 m3 o f e arth w as m oved d uring c onstruction.

I n

s urface o n 2 r idges w as c reated,

C andile,

5 4.45 m2 o f p lanting

a nd a t otal o f 2 5.94 m3 o f e arth w as

m oved.

C onstruction a nd t ools T he e xperimental

f ields w ere c onstructed o ver a 5 -day p eriod w ith

t eams m ade u p o f 2 -3 w orkers. d itional, a nd, a nd

t he c hakitaq Ua a nd

a t t imes,

s hovel a nd

T ools u tilised

i n c onstruction w ere t ra-

t he r awkana , a s mall a dze-like h oe,

p ick.

B locks o f s ods w ere c ut

f rom t he c anals

p artially t urned o ver b y c hakitaqlla o n t wo c ontiguous s ides.

T hese w ere t hen l ifted a nd i nto s maller c lods.

p iled o n t he r idge,

w here t hey w ere b roken

T he o riginal c anal d epth w as d eeper t han t hat

F igure 5 : E xperimental r aised f ields i n t he p ampa o f C andile, p lanted i n p otatoes, q uinoa a nd c anihua .

F igure 6 : M hchachi p ampa e xperimental r aised f iled . T he c rops a re p otatoes a nd q uinoa. 2 17

u tilised,

b ut t he c anal

f ill c onsisted o f a h eavy d ark c lay,

t he h umus-rich t opsoil w as r emoved

( Figure

3 ).

m uch m ore e fficient t han t he s hovel w hile w orking i n s od, w as v ery e ffective i n h eavy,

w et c lay.

b ut o nly

T he c hakitaq Ua w as b ut n either

I t i s m ore t han l ikely t hat t he

p rehistoric b uilders t ook a dvantage o f t he s od c onstruction t echniques. T he m etal b lades o f t he p resent d ay c hakita c illa a nd

r awkana a re

p robably s omewhat m ore e fficient t han t he p rehistoric b lades u sed i n t he o riginal c onstruction o f r aised

f ields,

b ut i t i s d oubtful w hether

t hat d ifference i s a s g reat a s t hat b etween t he d igging s tick a nd s hovel. M any f ragments o f g round a nd

f laked s tone h oe b lades m ade

f rom

a d ark g rey b asalt h ave b een r ecovered d uring t he a rchaeological s urvey. h ave

S everal o f t hese a re v ery t hin a nd s harp a nd c ould p robably

f unctioned a lmost a s e fficiently a s m odern m etal b lades i n t he

p ampa s oils.

L a B arre

( 1948)

i ndicates t hat a w ooden-bladed

c hakitaqi/a-like t ool w as i n u se i n h istoric t imes a nd i t w as p robably u sed i n p rehistoric t imes.

A n e xperimental t est o f t he

e fficiency o f b oth w ooden a nd s tone b laded t ools w ill b e m ade i n t he c oming y ear. W ooden c lod-breakers a re s till c ommonly u sed,

a nd o ften

p referred t o t he m etal b laded r awkana.

L abor c alculations L abor c alculation d ata w ere c ollected d uring c onstruction o f t he e xperimental r aised

f ields.

D aily o utput v aried r elatively l ittle e ven

t hough d ifferent m en w orked o n d ifferent d ays a nd s oil c onditions v aried

f rom w et t o d ry

o f v arying a ges

( Table

1 ).

T he w ork t eams w ere m ade u p o f m en

f rom t he c ommunity,

i n a ddition t o t he a uthor a nd h is

w ife.

T able

1 :

L abor c alculations f or e xperimental r aised f ield c onstruction

N umber

T otal t ime

T otal o f

E arth

E arth

o f

W orked

c onstruction

m oved

m oved

W orkers

( hrs)

1

( m 3) V olume e xcay.

p er

p erson

p er d ay

( m 3/ hr/

( 5 h r d ay)

p erson)

( m 3/ day/ p erson)

M achachi

2

1 5

3 3.64

C andile

3

1 0

2 5.94

1

T he l abour t ime e stimate

1 .12

5 .6

. 865

i ncludes t he t ime u tilised

4 .33

t o b reak u p t he

c lods a s w ell a s t he b uilding u p o f t he r idges w ith s od b locks.

S ince w achos a re t he t raditional t echnique i n t he H uatta p ampa, a c omparison o f t he l abor o f f ield

p reparation t o t hat o f r aised

i nterest.

D ata

p lots i s u sed

f rom t wo

f or

p reparing f ields

i nvolved i n t his s ystem

f ield c onstruction i s o f

f ields l ocated n ear t he e xperimental

f or t his c omparison

f ield

( Table 2 ).

L gPor c alculations f or 3 4 acho c onatruction

T Able 2 :

W acho f ield

T otal e arth

n ame

m oved

( m3)

T otal e arth m oved

p er

E arth m oved

p erson

( m 3/ hr/person)

M achachi

1 08.0

p er

d ay p er p erson ( m 3/ day/person)

3 .6

1 8.0

2 .561

1 2.805

w acho 3 8. 14 2

C andile

w acho

s hows t hat i n w acho c onstruction,

T he t able

m ore e arth c an b e m oved i n a d ay. o nly

u p t o t hree t imes

I n w acho c onstruction,

s ods a re

f lipped o ver o n t he s ide a fter b eing c ut o ut b y c hakitaqlla

t eams,

w hereas i n r aised f ield c onstruction,

t ransferred

f rom c anal t o r idge s urface,

m ay p artially a ccount

t he s od m ust b e

a d istance o f u p t o 5m .

f or t he d ifferences i n l abor

t he l abor c alculation f or t he e xperimental r aised

i nput.

T his

I n a ddition,

f ields p resented

a bove i ncluded t he b reaking u p o f s od a nd c lods o n t he p lanting s urface w hereas t he e stimates o f w acho c onstruction d id n ot i nclude t his l abor.

T he w orking u p o f t he s oil

i s c onsidered a n e xtra d ay 's w ork b y

i nformants s ince t he c lods t end t o d ry o ut r apidly. D enevan S temper

( 1982),

( 1978),

u sing u npublished d ata

f rom M athewson

t ion o f t he r aised

f ields o f t he L ake T iticaca B asin.

f rom E rasmus

h e u ses a l abor

o f 5 h ours o f r aised

( 1978)

a nd

h as a ttempted t o c alculate l abor i nvolved i n c onstruc-

1 965,

B ased o n d ata

f igure o f 2 .6 m3 / person/work d ay

f or e xcavation w ith d igging s ticks o ver a t otal o f 3 7,746 h a f ield s urface a nd a n a verage o f 1m t all r idges.

e stimates t hat

H e

3 77 m illion m3 o f e arth w ere m oved i nvolving 1 45

m illion m an d ays o f l abour. l abor i nvestment i n r aised h ave b een s uggested

T his i ndicates a n i mpressive a moünt o f f ield c onstruction.

i n e xperimental w ork.

e xperiments i n B elize u sing m etal

t ools, 2 19

O ther l abor e stimates

P uleston f ound

t hat

( 1977)

i n

2 .7 m3 / day/person

o f m arl c ould b e e xcavated.

D enevan a nd M athewson

( 1982)

e stimate t hat

1 m3/ day/person c ould b e m oved i n d ry s eason a nd 2 m3/ day/person c ouldbe m oved i n t he w et s eason d uring e xperiments i n l owland T urner a nd

H arrison

E cuador.

c ite M exican c hinampa c onstruction f igures

( 1981)

o f 0 .172 m3 / hr/person. P reliminary r esults

f rom t he

p resent e xperimental r aised

c onstruction d emonstrate t hat t he l abor i nvolved 4 .965 m3/ person/day) p erson/day )

( an a verage

f ields f igure o f

i s much l ower t han D enevan's e stimate ( 2.6 m3 /

f or t he e xcavation o f e arth.

T his i s p robably t he r esult

o f t he e fficiency o f t he c hakitaqlla a s a n a gricultural t ool a nd t he s trategy o f s od e xcavation,

i nstead o f d igging

i n h ard o r l oose s oil

a s i n t he c ase o f t he e xperiments o f P uleston a nd E rasmus. i mpressive t otal l abor r idges w ere a ugmented

1m h igh.

i nput w as a lso b ased o n h is e stimate t hat t he T he h eight o f t he e xperimental

2 0 c m a nd t his w as

D igging b eyond

f ound t o b e s ufficient

f ields w as o nly f or

p otato g rowth.

t he s od h umus l evel b rought u p h eavy c lay s oils,

s umably l ess s uited s truction.

D enevan's

I t i s

p re-

f or c ultivation a nd v ery d ifficult t o w ork i n c on-

f airly c ertain t hat a f ield d id n ot r each i ts m aximum

h eight a ll a t o nce,

b ut g rew i n a s eries o f s tages.

h igh f ield m ight r epresent a p eriod o f c onstruction a nd e rosion,

T hus,

a o ne m eter

1 00 y ears o r m ore o f g radual

m aking i t a m isleading i ndicator o f t he l abor

i nvestment n ecessary a t a ny o ne t ime t o r aised

f ields.

f igures a s

D enevan,

p erimental

f ield c onstruction o f 4 .965 m3 / day/person,

U sing t he s ame

b ut w ith t he r evised l abor e stimates

f rom t he

a l esser

ex-

f ig u re

o f 7 5,931,520 m an d ays o f l abor c an b e c alculated. K napp a nd w ere

i nvolved

D enevan ( this v olume)

i n t he c onstruction a nd m aintenance o f c anals,

p roduction o f " muck" E cuador.

s uggest t hat e normous e xpenditures

H owever,

f or d ouble c ropping t he r aised

a nd t he

f ields i n H ighland

i n t he c ase o f t he L ake T iticaca r aised

f ields,

d itch

c leaning d oes n ot a ppear t o b e e ssential b ecause g reat a mounts o f s ilt d o n ot a ppear t o a ccumulate.

I n a ddition,

q uire m uch l abor i f s od w as a llowed

t o

t hese c anals w ould n ot r e-

f orm,

a s i t c ould t hen b e e asily

r emoved.

P lanting a nd m aintenance o f t he T he e xperimental r aised c rops.

T he m ajority o f t he

( Sola r ium s p.) t uberosuq ),

f ields

f ields w ere

f ield s urfaces w ere

a nd t he r est i n o ca

q uinua

p lanted w ith i ndigenous A ndean p lanted

( Oxalis t uberosa),

( ChenoDodium a uinoa),

a nd c aMihua

i n p otatoes

i sa f t ( Tropoleum ( 0 1 1enoDodium

m ulidicaule). L ittle l abor i nput w as i nvolved f irst y ear b ecause

i n

f ield m aintenance d uring t he

f ew w eeds g rew i n t he 2 20

f ields.

S oil w as

p eriodically

m ounded a round t he r oots a nd c rops a nd t he e xperimental 5m an h ours, a dditional w ater

n ormal

f or

f orming t ubers o f p otatoes a nd o ther t uber

f ields w ere w orked

2 t imes e ach, a t otal o f

p otato c ultivation i n t he H uatta a rea.

4m an h ours w ere n ecessary t o i rrigate t he

S ome

f ields s plashing

f rom t he c anals b y h and.

S oil h umidity R ainfall a nd t he h igh w ater t able o f t he

p ampa m aintained w ater t o

a d epth o f 3 0-40 c m i n t he e xcavated s wales b etween t he o ut m ost o f t he g rowing s eason.

I t i s l ikely t hat t he d ense a nd r ela-

t ively i mpermeable c lay s trata l eft t ion.

T his w ater p rovided

f ields t hrough-

i n t he s wales a ided

i n w ater r eten-

s ubstantial s oil m oisture f or t he c rops,

f iltering i nto t he r idges w ithin t he r oot z ones o f t he c ultigens. f irst

p art o f F ebruary

w as d ry.

W hile o ther

1 982,

T he

u sually t he r ainiest m onth o f t he y ear,

f ields s howed e ffects o f t he d rought,

t he e xperi-

m ental

f ields w ere i rrigated b y h and w hen n ecessary.

T he f unctioning o f

r aised

f ields a gainst t he o pposite p roblem o f i nundation h as n ot y et

b een i nvestigated.

F rost O ne o f t he h ypotheses r egarding t he B asin r aised

f unction o f t he L ake T iticaca

f ield a gricultural s ystems i s t hat t hey s erved t o

o r m inimise

f rost d amage t o c ultigens i n t he l ow l ying p ampa

D enevan a nd

H amilton

1 968,

1 981).

p revent

( Smith,

T his h ypothesis i s b ased o n t he f act

t hat c old a ir i s d enser t han w arm a nd d rains i nto l ower z ones o f a f ield,

s uch a s t he s wales o f t he r aised

t o t he c rops

f rom t he c old a ir.

1 979),

f or r aised

N ew G uinea

D enevan,

( Waddell

t his v olume).

f erences b etween m ost i mportant r ainfall, p ampa w ell

f ield

1 972),

( Riley a nd

a nd h ighland

f ound,

h owever,

s urface a nd c anal,

E cuador

F t ieimuth

( Knapp a nd

t hat t he e levational d if-

u p t o

1m ,

f actor i n t he L ake T iticaca r aised

r unoff,

m ay n ot b e t he

f ields.

S ince h igh

a nd a h igh w ater t able d uring t he w et s eason k eep t he

s aturated,

t ain a t l east

s wales d uring n ights w ith f rost h ave

f ields i n I llinois

I t w as

t hus m inimising d amage

C hanges o f a f ew d egrees t emperature

d ifference b etween t he r idges a nd b een d ocumented

f ields,

t he r econstructed c anals b etween t he f ields c on-

s ome w ater t hroughout t he r ainy s eason,

w hich h aving a

h igher h eat c apacity, r adiates l ong w ave r adiation t o t he s urrounding a rea a t n ight.

T he d ifference

i n t emperature b etween t he g round o r

p lant s urfaces a nd t he w ater w ould c alm,

w indless n ights w hen

s et u p s mall c onvection c ells d uring

f rosts a re m ost

p revalent.

T his,

i n i tself,

m ay s ubstantially r aise t he t emperature e nough t o m ake a d ifference d uring a l ight

f rost.

s erve t o " roughen"

M orlon

( 1979)

s uggests t hat r aised

f ields w ould

t he t errain o f t he p ampa s o t hat e ven a s light a ir 2 21

m ovement w ould c ause a ir t urbulence o ver t he a nd w armer a ir a bove d uring a r adiation

f ields, m ixing c old

f rost,

a nd t hus,

f rost

p rotecting t he

p lants.

C ampesinos, l iving n ear t he M achachi e xperimental f ields, s tressed t hat

f rost w as

p articularly c ommon i n t his p ampa,

a nd t hat

p lanting o f a nything o ther t han r elatively f rost r esistant c rops, a s r uki , q uinua,

( a v ariety o f b itter

p otato u sed

o r c aMihua w as b ound t o

f ail.

s uch

f or c huno ), b arley

I t w as s aid t hat o ca,

i saf tu,

a nd

n on-ruki p otatoes w ould n ot s urvive. T he

f irst

f ew m onths o f t he g rowing s eason,

t he p lants f lourished,

e ven t hough t hey h ad b een p lanted a pproximately a m onth l ater t han m ost o ther

H uatta

f rost

p roblems u ntil t he m iddle o f F ebruary w hen t he n ight o f t he

a s erious

f ields,

a t t he e nd o f N ovember.

T here w ere n o s erious

f rost h it t he M achachi p ampa s eriously d amaging

t hroughout t he a rea.

I n a b rief s urvey o ne d ay a fter t he

1 5th

f ields f rost,

i t w as

f ound t hat o nly r uki a nd a nachu v arieties o f p otato a nd q uinua a nd c aMihua w ere u naffected,

w hile t he t op h alf o f o ther

b lack t he d ay f ollowing t he a ffected,

f rost.

T he r aised

t hough n ot t o t he s ame e xtent.

p lants h ad t urned

f ields w ere s imilarly

T he t op t hird o f e ach p otato

p lant w as d estroyed, a nd t he o ca h ad c ompletely w ithered. A fter o ca,

s everal d ays o f l ight r ainfall,

a ll p lants r ecovered.

T he a ssessed d amage a fter r ecovery w as much

l ess t han t he p ampa w acho f ields. m ay a lso h ave p rovided b y c reating a m ore

f rom t he s everity o f t he f rost

f avorable m icro-climate.

t o h ave b een r efuted, p lants,

f ields s erved a gainst

h owever t he

a n a dequately c onclusive c ase. f ield

T he d enser v egetation c anopy c over

s ome p rotection

T he h ypothesis t hat r aised

r aised

w ith t he e xception o f t he

I t

f rost o f F ebruary

p lants.

1 5 m ay n ot

p rovide

s hould b e k ept i n m ind t hat t he

t hough a ffected b y t he

t he n earby w acho f ield

f rost d amage s eems

T he

f rost,

f ared b etter t han

f ailure o f t he c anals t o

f unction

e ffectively a s a h eat s ink m ay h ave b een d ue t o a l ow w ater l evel, F ebruary w as u nseasonally d ry t his y ear. b er t hat t here a re d egrees o f f rost, s evere.

A gainst

a nd h ow t he f rost

S oil

a s

I t i s a lso i mportant t o r emem-

a nd t hat o f t he

1 5th w as u nusually

s ome f rosts t here m ay n ot b e a ny p ossible p rotection,

f ields w ould h ave

f unctioned a gainst a s lightly m ilder

i s s till u nknown.

f erti ,litv I t w as

f ound

g rowing m edium. 'i ng w ater

t hat t he r ich s oil

f rom t he c anals w as a f ertile

S ince t he n ative v egetation o f t he c anals n eeds s tand-

f or m ost o f t he g rowing s eason, 2 22

t hey q uickly d ie a nd

d ecompose i n t he r idge t ops. c ultigens, b ut r ather

T hus,

f orm a g reen m anure,

v egetation p roduces a f riable, S oon a fter

t hey d o n ot c ompete w ith t he a nd t he m at o f s oil a nd

e asily w orked t exture.

t he c onstruction o f t he e xperimental

f ields,

l ayer o f v egetation b egan f orming i n t he w aterlogged

a n ew s od

s wales.

R oots o f

c hinca n ot r emoved d uring t he c onstruction s prouted n ew p lants a nd b egan t o c over t he c anal

f loors a nd w alls.

o n t he s urface o f t he s tagnant w ater. y ears,

f ormed

B oth o f t hese s pecies w ill i n-

c rease t he o rganic c ontent o f t he c anal a nd

A t hin l ayer o f a lgae

s oils.

W ithin a c ouple o f

t his n ew h umus l evel c ould b e r emoved a s s od o r " green m anure"

p laced o n t he p lanting s urface

f or a n i ncrease i n

I t h as b een s uggested t hat r aised m aintenance

i n t hat t he c anals w ould

f ertility.

f ields a re i mportant i n f ertility p roduce

f ertile o rganic " mucks"

w hich c ould b e p eriodically u sed a s f ield t reatments t o m aintain f ert ility i n a ddition t o c leaning o ut o f c anals D enevan a nd M athewson,

t his v olume;

D enevan a nd K napp,

1 974;

t his v olume).

i n c hinampa a griculture a nd i n r aised

T his h as b een d emonstrated

f ield a griculture i n N ew G uinea ( Waddell c ase o f t he

( Denevan a nd T urner

T iticaca r aised

f ields,

1 972)

a nd e lsewhere.

i t i s n ot k nown i f t he

r etained w ater y ear-round t o p roduce g ood q uality " muck",

I n t he

f ield c anals s uch a s t he

c hinampas o f M exico. T he d rastic m oisture r egime d ifferences b etween t he w et a nd d ry s eason a nd B asin m ay h ave

p revented s imilar " muck"

A fter a y ear o f u se, t he

f ield

s urfaces

f or

f ormation.

t he c anals h ad a t hin l ayer o f s ilt w ashed o ff

( less t han

o f c hinca w as b eginning. b locks

f luctuating w ater t able i n t he L ake T iticaca

1c m),

d ead a lgae,

a nd a n ew s od l evel

F rom e xcavations i n t he p ampa t o o btain s od

c hampa w all c onstruction, o ne c an s ee t hat t he v egetation

r ecovers q uickly i f s ome o f t he r oots a re l eft, a nd a n ew l ayer o f s od w ill

p robably f orm w ithin

o rganic m atter w ill

3 -5 y ears. A n ew t opsoil r ich i n h umus a nd

p resumably f orm i n r aised

r elatively s hort t ime,

f ield c anals w ithin a

a nd c ould b e r emoved a s s od a nd

p laced o n t he

f ield r idges. W ith t he u se o f c hakita c illa t o c ut t he s od, e asier

p rocess i n t erms o f l abor

c anals a re d ry p art o f t he y ear.

i nvestment t han " mucking" I n

f ields l ocated

a y ear-round h igh w ater t able o r n ear t he m ore

f easible t o p eriodically " muck"

a quatic v egetation, u tilised

t his m ethod m ay b e a n

s uch a s t otora o r

t he

i f t he

i n l ower z ones w ith

p resent l ake e dge, f ields.

i t m ay b e

I n t hese a reas,

l lachu , c ould b e m anaged a nd

f or g reen m anure a nd m ore p roduction a s t hey a re u tilised t o-

d ay b y t he U rus

f or

s mall

p lots o n

c anals d o n ot h ave r unning o r

f loating

f lowing w ater,

i slands.

S ince t he p ampa

t he s ilting u p o f c hannels

w ould n ot b e a s s erious a p roblem a s i n i rrigation s ystems o r o ther c ontexts. 2 23

S oil a nalysis A n i nitial

s eries o f s oil s amples f rom l ocations a ssociated w ith

t he e xperimental r aised

f ields w ere t ested.

f rom o riginal h umus l evels, f aces o f r idges, y ear,

s amples w ere t aken

s urfaces o f o riginal r idges,

s oils b elow h umus i n t he c anals,

p lanting s urfaces a fter o ne y ear,

W ith t he l imited n umber o f s oil e ral

S oil

e tc.

s amples

t he c anals a fter o ne

( Table 3 ). p rocessed,

i nterpretations c an b e m ade u sing t hese s amples,

t hat s ome s ignificant d ifferences c an b e n oted d ifferent

w orked s ur-

o nly b road g enb ut t he d ata s how

f rom w ithin a nd a mong

f ield m icro-topographies.

A s t he O NERN s oil

s tudies n ote

( ONERN-CORPUNO

1 965b),

t he

a ltiplano p ampa s oils a re v ariable i n p H , b ut h ighly a lkaline s oils h ave b een d ocumented

f or t he l ake e dge

( as h igh a s 8 .8).

p ampa z ones

T his a lkaline c omponent s ometimes i s s o s evere t hat w hite d eposits o f a lkaline

f orm o n t he p ampa s urface a fter t he r ainy s eason a s w ater

e vaporates.

L ocal

t hese z ones. t he r aised

i nformants s ay t his t ends t o " burn"

t he p lants i n

E specially a ffected b y t hese d eposits a re t he s urfaces o f

f ields i n l ow z ones a round H uatta a nd n ear t he l ake.

T he

r esults o f s oil a nalysis d emonstrate m icro-environmental d ifferences i n p H l evels b etween s wales a nd r idges o f t he r aised s ubstantially l ower

t erms o f p lant g rowth c onditions, o f t he o riginal s wales w as m ore s oils.

f ields.

T he

p H i s

i n t he s wales t han o n t he u nmodified r idges.

I n

t he s lightly a cidic t o n eutral s oils

f avorable t han t he v ery h ighly a lkaline

S wale s oils, w hen p laced d irectly o n t op o f t he u nmodified

r idge a nd b roken u p,

p rovided a p H f avoring p otato g rowth

N o d ata w as a vailable o n t he p H r anges h ypothesised t hat t he r aised

( pH 4 .8-6.5).

f or o ther A ndean c rops.

I t i s

p otatoes w ere t he m ajor c rop p rehistorically g rown o n

f ields a nd

f unctioning r aised

f ields p rovided a f avorable

g rowing m edium i n t erms o f p H. O f t he t hree m acro-nutrients, p otassium, f ound

i t w as

f ound t hat h igher

i n t he s wales.

t he w orked

s urfaces,

d uring c onstruction. s wales o f C andile.

p hosphorus, a nd

p roportions o f t hese e lements w ere

N itrate n itrogen w as

f ound t o b e e ven h igher o n

p robably d ue t o t he i ncorporation o f g reen m anure P hosphorus w as l ower o n t he m odified r idges a nd

T his m ay b e d ue t o l eaching l osses s ince t he s amples

w ere n ot t aken i mmediately u pon m ents w ere

n itrate n itrogen,

f ield

c onstruction.

f ound t o b e i n q uantities a dequate

A ll o f t hese e le-

f or c rop g rowth.

M edium l evels w ere i nitially p resent b ut h ave d ropped a fter t he f irst y ear o f c ropping.

I t i s a nticipated t hat t he h umus l evel i n t he

c anal w ill i ncrease w ith t he v egetation,

f ormation o f o rganic " muck"

b ut o ne y ear's g rowing s eason h as n ot

2 24

a nd n ew

i ndicated t his.

T able 3 :

S oil t est r eports

P h

1

6 .4

N

P

K

7 .5

7 5

1 75

C a

l ow

1 000

l ow

M g

M n

l ow

m ed

A l

v ery

6 2.5

< 50

h igh 2

5 .8

1 7.5

5 0

1 50

m ed

1 000

v ery

l ow

l ow 3

7 .4

5

1 00

1 30

m ed

1 750

v ery

l ow

m ed

v ery

l ow

l ow

7 .5

< 50

l ow

l ow

2 .5

1 000

l ow 4

6 .4

2 0

1 00

2 00

m ed

1 750

h igh 6

6 .6

2 5-

5 0

1 50

m ed

1 000

3 0 5

8 .2

7.5

v ery

l ow

m ed

v ery

2 5-

l ow

m ed

l ow

h igh

6 2.5

v ery

l ow

m ed

v ery

7 .5

l ow

5

1 00

2 00

m ed

5 000

v ery

5 0

< 50

h igh l ow

l ow

l ow

7 .5

2 50

h igh

7 .5

1 00

m ed

v ery

2 5

l ow

h igh

m ed

h igh

l ow 7

7 .0

5

6 2.5

l ow

l ow

3 500

m ed 1 4

5 .6

1 5

5 .6

2 0

2 0

5 0

5 0

1 75

1 75

l ow

l ow

1 400

l ow

1 750

l ow

1 00 2 5

m ed

A ll

f igures e xpressed i n p qrts-per-million

( except p H)

K ey t o s ample n umber l ocations: S ample n umber

1 .

S wale, M achachi

2 .

W orked r idge s urface,

3 .

U nmodified r idge s urface, M achachi

4 .

S wale,

5 .

W orked r idge s urface,

6 .

U nmodified r idge s urface,

7 .

M achachi

C andile

B elow h umus i n c anal,

C andile C andile

C andile

1 4.

R idge s urface a fter

1y ear o f u se,

C andile

1 5.

C anal s urface a fter

1y ear o f u se,

C andile

2 25

5 0-

5 0

C alcium w as h ighest o n t he u nmodified r idges, s amples.

A mmonium n itrogen,

l ow t o m edium,

n on-toxic,

i n t he u nmodified

m agnesium,

q uantities.

a nd a bundant i n a ll

a nd m anganese w ere p resent i n A luminium c oncentration w as h igh

s wales a nd l ower o n t he u nmodified r idges,

b ut h igh

a luminum c oncentrations a re n ot t oxic t o p lants u nless i n a ssociation w ith e xtremely a cidic s oils. r idges, C rops,

F erric

i ron w as h igh o n u nmodified

b ut l ow t o m edium i n u nmodified h owever,

c ondition.

a ppeared h ealthy a nd

s wales a nd o n m odified r idges.

s howed n o t endency t o a c hloritic

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a fter o ne y ear,

t he i ron c on-

t ent o f b oth t he p lanting s urfaces a nd s wale i ncreased. O nly o ne e xperimental

f ield h as b een a nalysed a fter o ne y ear's

c ropping.

I n C andile,

t he n itrate n itrogen a nd

t he s ame,

l evels o f p hosphorus d ropped s omewhat.

s is s howed l ower n itrate n itrogen a nd p otassium.

I n g eneral, t o s upport

f ull

T he c anal s oil a naly-

p hosphorus,

I t c ould b e e xpected t hat o rganic

a c ouple o f y ears t o i mprove t he

p otassium h as r emained a nd h igher l evels o f

" muck"

f ormation w ill t ake

f ertility o f t he c anals.

t he p ampa s oils a ppear t o b e m oderately f ertile, e nough s cale a griculture.

I t w as

f ound t hat t he s wales a ppear

t o b e m ore f ertile t han t he o ld e roded r idge s urfaces a nd m ost i mporta ntly,

l ower

i n p H.

T he t ests d ocument t hat t here a re s ubstantial

l evels o f a ll m ajor

s oil m acro-nutrients a nd m icro-nutrients.

F rom t he l imited n umber o f p rocessed s amples a nd l imited d istrib ution o f s amples,

n o g eneralisation c an b e m ade f or a ll t he p ampa

s oils a ssociated w ith r aised

f ields.

T he s triking v ariation i n s oil

p H

a nd m ineral c ontent s uggest t hat t he m icro-topography o f t he r aised f ields

p lays a s ignificant r ole i n t he c ycling o f m inerals,

b ut m ore

r esearch w ill b e n eeded t o d efine a nd i nterpret t hese p athways.

F urther

w ork i s a lso b eing d one i n r egard t o s oil

s amples

c ollections a nd s oil

p rofile s tudies,

s oil a nalysis t o p rovide a m ore g eneral

f ertility i n t he p ampa.

I n a ddition,

s oil

p icture o f t he

t he c ollection o f s oil

s amples e ach y ear a fter h arvest w ill g ive a n i dea o f s uccessive c ropp ing

p otential o f t he r aised

f ield a griculture.

A nimal l ife T he o nly n on-domestic a nimals a ttracted t o t he n ew m icro-environm ent c reated b y t he r aised p lanting,

t he c anals w ere

p robably a ided u al b enefit a lso n ourish

f ields w ere t oads a nd b irds. f illed w ith t adpoles.

i n t he b uild

u p o f f ertile s oil

f or t he p lanting s urfaces. f ish,

a nd t he c anal

a n e xcellent s etting

f or t he

T he

p opulations

i n t he c anals,

T adpoles a nd

a n e vent-

s mall t oads c ould

s ystem o f t he r aised

p ractice o f p isciculture.

2 26

S oon a fter

f ields p rovides

B irds w ere o nly a p roblem a t h arvest t ime w hen t hey a rrived t he m ature q uinua a nd c af tihua s eed, g round i n t he C andile f ields. f ield s ystems,

t o e at

k nocking a l arge p ercentage t o t he

I t i s l ikely, h owever,

w ith m ore e xtensive b odies o f w ater,

t hat t he a ncient p rovided a m ore

a ttractive h abitat f or d ucks a nd o ther e dible g ame b irds a nd a nimals. S uch w ildlife i s

p resently f ound c loser

t o t he s hores o f t he l ake a nd

r ivers.

P ests

P lant p ests w ere n ot a p roblem i n t he r aised a ffect n earby w acho f ields a nd a t H uatta.

f ields a long t he s lopes o f t he c erro

T his w as p robably t he r esult o f t he

e xperimental

f ields, b ut t hey d id

f act t hat t he

f ields h ad n ot b een r ecently c ultivated a nd t he m ajority

o f t he p lanting m edium w as t he r ich s oils o f t he s wales w here p ests h ad n ot b uilt u p p opulations. f ields,

W hen w acho f ields a re b uilt o n r elic r aised

t he s wales a re n ormally l eft u ntouched.

p ests h ad n ot h arvest, a nd d one t o t he

i nvaded t he

f ields.

t wo p lants h ad

T hus,

A f ew p otato w orms w ere

s pots o f l eaf f ungus,

p lants o r t ubers.

p opulations o f

M ore

f ound a t

b ut l ittle d amage w as

p roblems a re e xpected w ith p ests i n

n ext y ear's c rops i n t hese f ields.

P roduction o n t he e xperimental r aised f ields T he

p roduction o f p otatoes a nd o ther c rops g rown o n r aised

d uring t he

f irst y ear o f e xperimentation w as v ery g ood. a nd i sanu w ere n ot

S ince t he

q uinua,

c af tihua,

f ields,

i t i s d ifficult t o p recisely c alculate p roduction o f t hese

c rops w ith r espect t o a rea. 1 981-2

a nd

f igure

p otato T his

D enevan

s ome b ad y ears, P eruvian S ierra.

1 955 a nd

w hilst T he

i s c ertainly s triking,

s oil a nd

i t

s ince h alf o f a r aised

( 1982),

T he

f ig-

u sing d ata f rom C hristiansen

p otato y ield

f or t he D epartment o f P uno

1 964 w as o nly 3 ,050 k g/ha/yr,

f ield

f ield's

T he r esultant

w hich i ncluded

5 ,340 k g/ha/yr i s t he a verage g iven

f or t he

p otato p roduction b etween

p lots a nd t he D epartment o f P uno a verage

b ut m ust b e c onsidered w ith c aution.

f icult t o c ompare a 1 0-year, 1 83.52 m2 a verage.

f or a ll t he e xperimental

n ot c ultivated.

2 .77-fold d ifference i n

t he e xperimental r aised

( Table 4 ).

f igure s hould b e h alved t o c ompare i t

f igures,

n otes t hat t he a verage

b etween t he y ears

p roduction

a nd t herefore,

8 ,439.663 k g/ha.

( 1976),

P otatoes w ere g rown e xtensively d uring

f ield p roduction

t otal a rea i s c anal, u re i s

f or

1 6,879.326 k g/ha.

t o " regular"

i n l arge b locks o n t he

t heir p roductivity h as b een e stimated

T he a verage p lots i s

p lanted

f ields

I t

i s d if-

d epartment-wide a verage t o a o ne y ear,

f irst y ear's

p lanting w as d one o n f allowed

i s n ot y et k nown i f t his 2 27

p roduction c an b e s ustained o ver

s everal c roppings.

T he

D epartment o f P uno d ata a verages p oor p otato

p roducing a reas w ith g ood f ields w ere p robably n ot

p roducing a reas a nd t he m ajority o f t he f allowed s oils.

O n t he o ther h and,

g enerally r eceive a t reatment o f o rganic a nd i norganic w hile t he e xperimental

T able 4 :

P uno

f ields

f ertilizers,

f ields r eceived n one.

P otato p roduction o n r aised f ields

R idge n ame

F ield

p lanting

P roduction

s urface a rea

E xtrapolated

o f p otatoes

p roduction p er h ectare *

M achachi W est

5 5.1

m2

6 4

k g

1,615.25 k g/ha

M achachi E ast

5 5.1

8 5

1 5,426.5

C andile W est

4 0.64

9 0.5

2 2,268.7

C andile E ast

3 2.68

5 9.5

1 8,206.854

* T his c alculation i ncludes o nly t he p lanting s urfaces,

e xcluding t he

c anals.

D enevan

( 1982)

h as c alculated t hat a d ensity o f 5 .7 p ersons/ha

c ould b e s upported o n t he f ield s urface a rea) o n t he

p roduction o f r aised

f ields). h a/yr

L ake T iticaca r aised

w ith a t otal

f ields

I n n ew c alculations,

f or t he

f ields

( calculating

p opulation o f 2 15,000 p eople s upported ( assuming

1 00% u tilisation o f t he

u sing t he r evised e stimate o f 1 6,879 k g/

f ield s urface a rea o nly a nd

D enevan's

f igures,

a f igure

o f 3 1.7 p ersons/ha c an b e c alculated w hich w ould g ive a t otal p opul ation o f

1 ,194,782.

T his

f igure i s s trikingly d ifferent t han t he

e stimate c alculated b y D enevan i n r egard t o t he t otal n umber o f p eople p otentially s upported b y r aised

f ields.

C onclusion T he

f easibility o f r aised

s ults o f t he g rowing s eason o f

f ield a griculture i s s upported b y t he r e1 981-2.

c ultural t echnology i n t he T iticaca f urther

T his i ntensive

B asin p rovides a n a lternative w orth

s erious s tudy t o c urrent d evelopment s chemes

o f P uno.

C urrent a gricultural d evelopment p rojects i n

s tress h igh c apital t ilisers,

p rehistoric a gri-

f or t he

P uno c ommonly

i nput b ased o n h eavy f arm m achinery,

h erbicides,

i rrigation,

a re n on-indigenous c rops,

a nd

i ntroduced

s uch a s r apeseed,

2 28

D epartment

c hemical

f er-

s eed, m ost o f w hich

a lfalfa,

w heat a nd b arley.

A l arge

p ercentage o f t he

p ampas s urrounding t he L ake T iticaca

B asin h ave b een c onsidered b y O NERN-CORPUNO t o b e o f l imited a gricult ural

p otential,

r elic r aised

t he v ery z ones t hat a re c overed w ith t he p rehistoric

f ield a nd w ere u nder

b efore t he a rrival o f E uropeans. t he

i ntensive e xploitation a t s ome t ime T oday,

o nly a s mall

p ampa o f H uatta i s u nder c ultivation,

i sed t hrough c onstruction o f r aised r equires m inimal c apital f amily l abor, L ocal

f ields.

i nvestment,

p ortion

( 3-5%)

o f

b ut m uch m ore c ould b e u tilT his

f orm o f c ultivation

u tilises t raditional c ollective

a nd w ell-adapted t raditional

i ndigenous c rops a re g rown.

c ampesinos h ave s hown v aried d egrees o f i nterest i n t he

p roject,

r anging

f rom a pathy t o e nthusiasm a nd

f armers h ave s aid t hey w ill c onstruct r aised h ave a sked

f or a dvice o r

f urther

s upport.

S everal

f ields n ext y ear a nd m any

i nformation.

W hether t his

f orm o f

a griculture w ill b e f ully r evived r emains t o b e s een. T he e xperiments w ill c ontinue i n t he

1 982-3 g rowing s eason o n a

m uch l arger s cale a nd w ith m ore s ystematic a s t he r aised r elic r aised t he l and r aised M oro

p lanning.

A t t he s ame t ime

f ield e xperiments a re b eing u ndertaken,

l arge e xpanses o f

f ields a re b eing l evelled b y h eavy m achinery,

f or a griculture.

W ithin t he l ast y ear,

t o p repare

s ome 8 h ectares o f

f ields h ave b een p lowed u nder b y t he S AIS B uenavista C entral

C ooperative n ear I lpa.

p reserved

T hese w ere a t o ne t ime s ome o f t he b est

f ields o f t he H uatta p ampa.

p rehistoric

T his i s r egrettable w hen t hese

f ield t echnologies m ay v ery w ell

p rovide a b etter s olution

t o P eru's a gricultural d evelopment.

A cknowledgeme rül S upport f or f rom t he

S ocial

m ent G rant

t his p roject i s b eing s upplied b y a F ellowship A ward S cience

R esearch C ouncil a nd a D issertation

f rom t he N ational S cience

F oundation.

c arried o ut u nder t he s upervision o f t he

I NC,

f ilial e n

T he r esearch i s b eing

C entro d e

R estauraciön d e B ienes M onumentales o f t he C ultura a nd t he

I mprove-

I nvestigaciön y

I nstituto N acional d e

P uno.

T he a uthor w ould l ike t o e specially t hank c ampesinos o f t he c omm unity o f H uatta w ho h ave a ided t icular,

S rs M aximo V ilca,

D oroteo L uque,

E lias

V ilca,

a nd

e xcellent e ditorial c omments a nd D r

B arry G race a nd

i n t he e xperimental r esearch,

F idel V ilca, M iguel M amani, J acinto

V ilca.

C andler

i n p arC alcin,

p rovided

s uggestions r egarding i nterpretations.

S r M ariano B anegas o f t he

v ided c omments a nd d ata r elated

K ay

J ulian

C onvenio

P eru-Canada p ro-

t o a gricultural m eteorology.

2 29

R eferences c ited C hristiansen, 1 967 C ollot,

J .

E l c ultivo d e l a p apa e n e l P eru.

L ima P eru.

D .

1 980

L es M äcrophytesde q uelques L acs A ndins ( Lac T iticaca , L ac

P oopo ,

L acs d e v allees D 'Hichu K kota e t D 'Ovejhuyo).

r ealises a u c ours d u V SNA e n B olivia, L a P az,

T ravaux

B olivia.

D enevan, W .M . 1 970

A boriginal d rained-field c ultivation i n t he A mericas.

S cience 1 69:647-654. D enevan, W .M. 1 982

H ydraulic a griculture i n t he A merican t ropics:

f orms m easures

a nd r ecent r esearch. M aya S ubsistence , e dited b y K .V . p p.181-203.

D enevan, W .M . a nd G . 1 981

F lannery,

A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. K napp

E cology o f p rehistoric w etland a griculture i n s ome h ighland

b asins o f E cuador.

T his v olume.

D enevan, W .M . a nd K . M athewson 1 982

M ounding, m ucking, a nd m angling: a ge/area a nalysis o f t he

r aised f ields a t G uayas B asin,

E cuador.

T his v olume.

D enevan, W .M. a nd B .L. T urner 1 974

F orms,

f unctions, a nd a ssociations o f r aised f ields i n t he O ld

W orld T ropics. E rasmus, 1 965

J ournal o f T ropical G eography 3 9:24-33.

J . M onument b uilding: s ome f ield e xperiments.

S outhwestern

J ournal o f A nthropology 2 1:277-301. E rickson, 1 982

C .L. L a i nvestigaciön d e l os s istemas p rehispänicas i ntensivos

a gr5colas y l a o rganizaciön s ocial e n / a h oya d el l ago T iticaca ,

P eru.

P reliminary r eport p resented t o t he C entro d e

I nvestigacion y R estauracion d e B ienes M onumentales, N acional d e C ultura, L ima, E rickson, 1 977

C .L . a nd D .

I nstituto

P eru.

H orn

D omestication a nd S ubsistence I mplications o f P lant a nd A nimal

U tilization o f t he T iticaca B asin. M anuscript o n f ile a t t he D epartment o f A nthropology, W ashington U niversity, G ömez-Pompa, 1 978

A .

A n o ld a nswer t o t he f uture.

G 6mez-Pompa, 1 982

A .,

H . M orales,

E .

J imenez

E xperiences i n t raditional h ydraulic a griculture.

P ress, G .

1 982

M azingira 5 :50-55.

J imenez a nd J .

S ubsistence , e dited b y K .V . H enek ,

S t L ouis.

F lannery ,

p p.327-342 .

M aya

A cademic

N ew Y ork.

( editor) L a p esquerfa e n e l l ago T iticaca ( Peru):

D ocumentos T gcnicos d e P esca .

p resente y f uturo.

O rganizaciön d e l as N aciones

U nidas p ara l a A gricultura y l a A limentaci6n, R ome. 2 30

H ill,

R . I nflow o f L ake T iticaca. J ournal o f G eophysical R esearch 6 4:

1 959

7 89-794. J ulien,

C .

I nca a dministration i n t he T iticaca b asin a s r eflected i n

1 978

t he p rovincial c apital o f H atuncolla . d issertation, C alifornia, K essler,

A . a nd

1 968

U npublished P h.D.

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity o f

B erkeley.

F . M onheim

D er W asserhaushault d es T iticacasees n ach N eueren

E rdkunde 2 2:275-283.

M essergebnissen. K idder,

A .

1 943

S ome e arly s ites i n t he n orthern L ake T iticaca B asin.

P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology 2 7(1), H arvard U niversity, L a B arre, 1 948

C ambridge.

W . T he A ymara I ndians o f t he L ake T iticaca P lateau o f B olivia.

A merican A nthropological A ssociation M emoirs , N o. L ennon,

6 8.

T .J.

R aised f ields o f L ake T iticaca , P eru: a p re-hispanic w ater

1 982

m anagement s ystem . o f A nthropology, L umbreras,

U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment

U niversity o f C olorado.

L .G.

L os r einos p ost-Tiwanaku e n e l a rea a ltiplänica. R evista d el

1 974

M üseo N acional d e L ima 4 0:55-86. L umbreras, 1 968

L .G. a nd H .

A mat

S ecuencia a rqueolögica d el A ltiplano O ccidental d el T iticaca.

A ctas y M emorias 3 7,

C ongreso

( Buenos A ires

2 :75-86.

M athewson, 1 978

1 966),

I nternacional d e A mericanistas

K .

E stimating l abor e xpenditures f or r aised-field c omplexes i n

t he N ew W orld T ropics. M s o n f ile,

D epartment o f G eography,

U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. M orlon,

P .

1 979

A puntes s obre e l p roblema a gronömico d e l as h eleadas a specto

E studio A groclimatologico d e l a c uenca d el L ago

m eteorologico.

T iticaca , M urra,

N o.

2 ,

C onvenio P eru-Canada,

P uno.

J .

1 975

U n R eino a ymara e n

d el M undo A ndino.

1 967.

F ormaciones E conömicas y P oliticas

I nstituto d e E studios P eruanos,

L ima.

O NERN-CORPUNO 1 965a

P rograma d e i nventario y e valuaciön d e l os r ecursos

n aturales d el D epartamento d e P uno . C apitulo I I : C limatologia . O NERN,

L ima,

V ol.

I .

O NERN-CORPUNO 1 965b

P rograma d e i nventario y e valuaciön d e l os r ecursoa

n aturates d el D epartamento d e P uno . C apitulo V : S uelos . L ima,

V ol.

3 . 21

O NERN,

P uleston, 1 977

D .E. E xperiments i n p rehistoric r aised

f rom t he p ast. R ichardson, 1 977

P .J.,

J ournal o f B elizean A ffairs 5 :36-43.

C . W idmer a nd T .

K ittel

T he l imnology o f L ake T iticaca ( Peru-Bolivia).

E cology, R iley ,

f ield a griculture: l earning

P ublication N o.

T . a nd G .

1 979

1 4,

I nstitute o f

U niversity o f C alifornia,

D avis.

F reimuth

F ield s ystems a nd

t ure o f t he U pper

f rost d rainage i n t he p rehistoric a gricul-

G reat L akes. A merican A ntiquity 4 4(2):271-

2 85. S mith,

C .T.,

1 968

W .M.

D enevan a nd P .

H amilton

A ncient r idged f ields i n t he r egion o f L ake T iticaca.

G eographical R eview 1 34:353-367. T ecnolo

A e n e l M undo A ndino-I , p p.25-50,

S temper, 1 978

1 982.

A lso p ublished i n L a e dited b y H .

L echtman a nd A .M.

M exico.

D . R aised f ields a nd p opulation d ensities: a n a nalysis f or S outh

A merica.

M s o n f ile,

D epartment o f G eography ,

U niversity o f

W isconsin, M adison. T urner, 1 981

B .L.

I I a nd P .D .

H arrison

P rehistoric r aised-field a griculture i n t he M aya l owlands.

S cience 2 13:399-405. U hle,

M .

1 954

( 1923)

1 856-1944,

T he a ims a nd r esults o f a rchaeology. e dited b y J .H .

R owe.

I n M ax U hle:

U niversity o f C alifornia

P ublications i n A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnography, W addell, 1 972

E . T he m ound b uilders: a gricultural p ractices ,

s ociety i n t he C entral H ighlands o f N ew G uinea . W ashington P ress, W eil,

B erkeley.

e nvironment,

S eattle.

T .E.

1 974

A rea h andbook f or B olivia.

A merican U niversity, Z ucchi,

F oreign A reas S tudies o f t he

W ashington D .C.

A .

1 975a

C ampos d e c ultivo p rehispanicos v s. m odules d e A pure.

B oletik I nd5genista V enezolano 1 6:37-52. Z ucchi, 1 975b

A . L a t ecnologia a borigen y e l a provechamiento a gricola d e

n uestras s abanas.

L ikeas ,

N o.

2 32

2 19,

C aracas.

a nd

U niversity o f

N ITROGEN F IXATION A ND F LOW I N E XPERI UNTAL I SLAND B ED G ARDENS: I MPLICATIONS F OR A RCHAEOLOGY

D aniel

E .

V asey

N itrogen i s t he n utrient w hich i s m ost o ften l imiting t o c rop g rowth.

P roductivity u nder s ustained c ultivation i s

f requently

d etermined b y t he a mount o f a tmospheric n itrogen t hat i s t he a gricultural e cosystem. t hunderstorm a ctivity, m icro-organisms. n itrogen

E xcept f or a s mall c ontribution f rom

i n n ature a ll n itrogen i s

f ixed b y c ertain

T here i s a n e xtensive l iterature o n b iological

f ixation i n w ell-drained,

a gricultural

f ixed w ithin

a erated

s oils,

w hich s upport m ost

p roduction, b ut t here i s l ittle p ublished c oncerning

n itrogen f ixation a ssociated w ith

f ood

p roduction i n w etlands.

T here

h ave b een v aluable i nvestigations d uring t he p ast t wo d ecades o f n itrogen a lgal

f ixation b y b lue-green a lgae

N -fixation)

( from h ere o n r eferred t o a s

i n w et r ice c ultivation,

e quivalent r esearch o n o ther w etland e ven t rue o f f ish c ulture,

b ut t here h as b een a lmost n o

s ystems.

S urprisingly,

w hich i s e conomically a nd n utritionally

i mportant a nd t he s ubject o f m uch s cientific e nquiry. t herefore,

t his i s

I t

f ollows,

t hat t here w ould n ot h ave b een a ny r esearch i nto n itrogen

f ixation a nd c ycling i n a w etland

s ystem k nown o nly f rom a rchaeological

s urveys a nd a f ew i solated c ontemporary c ases. E xisting d escriptions o f w hat s hall h ere b e t ermed s ystems,

i sland b ed

r eferring t o t he c ultivation o f g arden b eds r aised a bove

s urrounding s easonal o r

p ermanent w aters,

v ated c ontinuously o r w ith o nly s hort

s how t hat t he b eds a re c ulti-

f allows,

a nd t hat c onditions i n

t he w aters a re o ften c onducive t o a lgal N -fixation. i s a t ransfer o f o rganic m atter t o t he b eds.

I n s ome c ases t here

A ll o f t his e vidence i ndi-

c ates a p ossible r ole o f a lgal N -fixation i n t hese s ystems. R esearch i nto n itrogen

f ixation a nd

u ndertaken i n o rder t o d etermine t he

f low i n i sland b ed

p otential

f or h igh,

s ystems w as

s ustained

y ields i n v arious e nvironments a nd t he m ethods o f m anagement n ecessary f or m aximum p roductivity.

E xperiments h ave b een d evised

a r eview o f t he l iterature o n a lgal

f ollowing u pon

N -fixation a nd o n i sland b ed

g ardens.

N itrogen f ixation b y b lue-green a lgae B lue-green a lgae o f c ertain g enera a nd 5 )

a re t he

p rincipal o rganisms r esponsible 2 33

s pecies

( Venkataraman

f or n itrogen

1 972:

f ixation i n

w ater a nd

o n t he s urface o f m oist

o rganisms r equiring s unlight.

s oils.

T hese a re

p hotosynthesising

U nder t he r ight c onditions,

b ute l arge a mounts o f c ombined

( fixed)

n itrogen.

t hey c ontri-

R eported N -fixation

r ates b y f ree-living b lue-green a lgae i nclude 5 3 k g/ha/month i n a e utrophic l ake i n S iberia

( Mishustin a nd

h a/day o n a c oral r eef s urface

( Wiebe,

t o 4 8 k g/ha i n s ix w eeks i n w et r ice A nabaena a zollae,

( Talley,

1 971:294),

J ohannes a nd W ebb

f ields

1 975)

( De a nd M andal

1 .8 k g/ a nd

1 5

1 956).

a b lue-green a lgae w hich o nly g rows i n s ymbiotic

a ssociation w ith w ater k g/ha/day

S hil'nikova

f erns o f t he A zolla g enus,

( Mishustin a nd T alley a nd

S hil/nikova

R ains

1 971:304)

f ixes u p t o 2 o r

a nd

6 0 k g/ha i n

2 .5

4 6 d ays

1 977:277).

T hese r ates w ould b e v ery i mpressive i f t hey w ere m aintained w hole y ear o r a l ong g rowing s eason.

I n c omparison,

o ther

f or a

f ree-living

s oil m icro-organisms g enerally c ontribute l ess t han 5 0 k g/ha/year. r ates o f a lgal

T he

N -fixation o ver a f ew d ays o r w eeks c ompare f avourably

w ith t he r ates o f R hizobia s pp i n s ymbiotic a ssociation w ith l egumes. T hus,

t ropical

f orage l egumes o rdinarily c ontribute 2 50 t o 3 00 k g

n itrogen/ha/year u nder

f avourable c onditions,

a lthough e xceptional

r ates h ave b een r eported o f 5 42 k g/ha/year w ith S esbania c a r in »inus a nd 8 97 k g/ha/year w ith D esmodtu r i l s pp g enerally c ontribute n itrogen r emoved k g/ha

( Nutman

1 976:231).

1 00 t o 2 00 k g/ha/year.

i n t he h arvested

U nfortunately, p eriods

a lgal

( Cooke

1 00 k g/ha f or h igh-

( Stewart,

1 972:275).

N -fixation r ates o ver w hole g rowing s easons

f all w ell

a bove s hort-term r ates. N -fixation

s hort o f w hat w ould b e p rojected

s tanding c rop,

H aystead a nd

D harmawadene

1 975).

I t i s

p ossible

i n t he

a lthough t his p roposition h as n ot t o m y k nowledge b een A t a ny r ate, m ost a lgal

N -fixation i s s elf-limiting.

p ossible e xception i s A nabaena a zollae,

w hich c an

A

f ix n itrogen i n t he

p resence o f h igh c oncentrations o f c ombined n itrogen 2 51),

f rom t he

H igh l evels o f c ombined n itrogen s uppress a lgal

t hat p redation o n b lue-green a lgae i ncreases w ith a r ise i nvestigated.

1 5 t o 4 0

T ropical g rasses c an r emove a s m uch a s 9 00 k g/ha/year

u nder h eavy f ertilisation

o r l onger

p ulses

p ortions o f s ingle c rops a re

f or m ost s ubsistence a griculture a nd a bout

y ielding c ereals.

T ropical

S ome r ough e stimates o f t he

b ut t he h ost A zolla p opulations a re k nown f or

( Peters

1 977:241-

s udden " crashes"

w hich l eave b ehind o nly s pores. N itrogen r ecovery b y c rops

i s o n a verage l ess e fficient o n

o r w aterlogged s oils t han o n w ell-drained r ecover

2 0 t o 5 0% o f a dded

s oils.

f ertiliser n itrogen

C alifornia r ice c rop r ecovered

f looded

W et r ice c rops

( Sanchez

1 976:211).

A

i n t he h arvested g rain a bout o ne-third

o f t he n itrogen a dded b y a g reen m anure c rop o f A zolla f iliculoides ( Talley,

T alley a nd

R ains

1 977:277-279),

a ssuming a 6 % p rotein c ontent.

Y ields o f 5 0 T /ha o f t aro h ave b een o btained

2 3 1 4

f rom H awaiian p ondfields

t o w hich 5 60 k g o f n itrogen h ad b een a pplied A ssuming a p rotein c ontent o f r ecovery i n t he t uber

1 .4%

p er h a

f or w et t aro

p ortion w ould

b e a bout

a lthough p rotein c ontent i n t aro v aries a nd

( Sanchez

( Onwueme

1 976:211).

1 978:220),

2 0% o f t he a dded n itrogen, i nclusion o f t he p rotein

c ontent o f t he l eaves w ould s omewhat i mprove t he e stimated r ecovery e fficiency.

T ilaDia h arvested

a verage o f 3 6 k g n itrogen/ha

f rom M alaccan ( Hickling

f ish

p onds c ontained a n

1 971:113).

T he p onds w ere o n

v ery p oor s oil a nd w ere n ot s upplied w ith n itrogen s upplementary f eedstuffs, q uantities s ufficient t o t his c rop r emoval r ate.

b ut l ime a nd

f avour a lgal N -fixation a t r ates w ell a bove B y c omparison,

g enerally r eaches a t l east m anagement.

c rop r ecovery o f a dded n itrogen

5 0% o n w ell-drained

s oils u nder a ppropriate

E xamples i nclude r ecovery b y v arious c rops

h andled a nimal m anures

( Brady

1 974:54),

b y w heat

f ertilisers i n t ropical o r t emperate r egions a nd b y v arious c rops l eaching i s m inimal, ( Sänchez

f rom w ell-

f rom a rtificial

( Sanchez

1 976:211,

5 80),

f rom g reen m anures i n n umerous r eported t rials.

C rops r ecover a s m uch a s 7 0% o f a dded 8 3%

f ertilisers o r

p hosphorous w ere a dded i n

a nd t ropical

f ertiliser n itrogen w here

p erennial g rasses r ecover u p t o 7 7 o r

1 976:211).

L ow e fficiency o f n itrogen r ecovery i n w etlands d oes n ot n ecessa rily p reclude h igh y ields,

h owever.

S priggs'

d ata o n y ields

V anuatan p ondfields i ndicate r ecovery i n t he t uber k g/ha/year

( 1980),

v ery l ikely a r ecord

n ot b ased u pon s oil a mendments. i n a lgae

( Spriggs

1 981),

p ortion o f 9 3 t o

1 51

f or a c rop p roduction s ystem

T he i ncoming i rrigation w aters a re r ich

i ndicating t hat

t he s ystem i s r esponsible

f rom

i mportation o f n itrogen i nto

f or t hese r emarkable y ields.

T he m ain r eason t hat n itrogen r ecovery i s

p oor

f rom w ater a nd

w aterlogged s oils i s t hat n itrite a nd n itrate t end t o b e l ost t hrough d enitrification,

i .e.

r eduction b y c ertain b acteria t o f orms,

p ally e lemental n itrogen, T he w ater c omposition f ixation a re

w hich e scape i nto t he a tmosphere. f actors k nown t o m ost

p H a nd d issolved

b y b lue-green a lgae,

p hosphorous.

b ut e xperience w ith

i nfluence a lgal N -

O ther n utrients a re r equired

f ish p onds s hows t hat t hese

c onsistently r espond o nly t o a dditions o f p hosphorous a nd, p onds a re o n a cid

s oils,

l ime.

c onsistently i ncrease t he c onsiderable a lgal a re s atisfactory.

e t a l.

f act,

w hen t he

t hat a dded n itrogen d oes n ot i s e vidence o f

p hosphorous l evels

B lue-green a lgae i n c ulture m edia g row b est w ithin 9 .0,

F ay a nd W alsby

( 1973:318)

T he

p roductivity o f f ish p onds,

N -fixation w hen p H a nd d issolved

a p H r ange o f 7 .5 t o S tewart,

p rinci-

a nd t here i s n o g rowth b elow p H 5 .7

1 973).

F rom a s urvey o f f ield r eports,

( Fogg, F ogg

c onclude t hat g rowth s lows m arkedly b elow p H 6 .0 a nd

i s " rare o r n onexistent b elow p H 5 .0". f rom t he t ropics o r s ubtropics,

h owever.

N one o f t he c ases c ited w ere S hallow b odies o f w ater e x-

c hange i ons w ith t heir b ottom s oils r apidly e nough t hat t heir 2 35

p H a nd

p hosphorous a vailability a re n ormally c lose t o t hose o f t he s oils.

S oil

a nalysis i s t herefore a g ood

N -

i ndication o f t he p otential

f or a lgal

f ixation w hen t he a rea i n q uestion i s u nderwater.

I sland b eds M ounding,

r idging a nd t he e xcavation o f d itches a re f eatures o f

m any a gricultural o ften

s ystems,

p articularly i n w etlands,

f unction t o r emove w ater

c ases,

b ut i n t hese t hey

f rom t he v icinity o f t he c rop.

t here a re b eds b ut n ot i sland b eds.

I n s uch

T he d istinction i s i mportant

b ecause t here i s s ome e vidence t o s uggest s ignificant d ifferences b et ween t he s oils a ssociated w ith i sland b eds a nd t hose a ssociated w ith c omplete d rainage.

D enevan a nd T urner

t inguished d rained

f ields

( 1974:24) h ave a lready d is-

f rom " raised

f ields",

s urfaces a re r aised w ith s oil e xcavated I sland b ed g ardens i n

A rmillas

1 950),

1 968;

C oe

l ess w ell-known c ases i n t he

1 970) a nd K olepom I sland

c oastal c ommunities of B urma 1 948:

f rom t he d itches.

p ermanently i nundated a reas i nclude t he r e-

n owned c hinampas o f M exico ( Armillas H eider

i n w hich p lanting

( Serpenti

( Sturtevant

1 964;

W est a nd

B aliem V alley ( Brass

1 965), 1 970),

W est

1 941;

I rian, a nd s ome

M alaya a nd

I ndia

( Adams

2 70-271).

I sland b eds a re m ore w idely r eported i n s easonally f looded s ava nnas.

R emains o f g arden r idges o r m ounds a re r eported

i n m any l o-

c ations i n t he A mericas w here r ainy s eason d rainage w ould n ot b e p ract icable:

t he

S an

J orge

f loodplain,

C olombia

t he w estern V enezuelan l lanos ( Denevan Z ucchi

1 973),

P uleston t he

t he

1 972),

C andelaria

f loodplain,

B olivia

( Denevan

C ampeche,

( Denevan a nd M athewson,

1 970),

B owen

D enevan a nd

t he H ondo a nd N ew f loodplains,

L lanos d e M ojos,

E cuador

( Parsons a nd

1 970;

M exico

B elize

( Turner

W eam

1 958:16)

( Williams

a nd a t W aidoro

1 935:218)

i n

( Laba

G uinea,

I rian

T here a re a lso s everal

i n u se n ear H ood

p hotographed

B ay,

f rom t he a ir b y I an

T here a re s everal r eports o f s oil a mendments f rom t he s urrounding d itches.

e tation a re t ransferred i n t he I sland

W est

i n P apua N ew

w here r ecently a bandoned e xamples h ave b een o bserved o n t he

g round b y t he a uthor a nd

t aken

f loodplain,

1 975, H arris a nd L aba 1 982) a nd

P apua N ew G uinea.

v erbal r eports o f i sland b eds s till

1 978),

I sland b eds a re s till

u nder c ultivation i n e nvironments o f t his t ype n ear M erauke, ( Barrau

1 978;

( Siemens a nd

a nd t he G uayas

t his v olume).

1 966),

Z ucchi

( Serpenti

1 965:25-26)

S ediments,

B aliem V alley

J ohnston.

f or t he b eds b eing

b ottom m ud a nd v eg-

( Heider

1 970:42),

a nd t he M exican c hinampas.

K olepom

S oil a nalysis

i ndicates r egular a dditions o f o rganic m atter w ere m ade t o t he p rehist oric b eds o f t he H ondo f loodplain c ommunication)

( Turner

1 978:173).

L aba

( personal

s tates t hat t he t aro b eds a t W aidoro a re c ontinuously 2 36

c ultivated o nly i f s ediments a nd v egetation a re r epeatedly a pplied, a re p eriodically f allowed w hen t his i s n ot d one. m ay b e

S ome u se o f s ediments

p resumed a nywhere t hat c ultivation i s c ontinuous,

w ater

i n a s emi-arid

c limate,

f rom a round t he b eds,

s easonal

a lso

a nd t his m ight h ave b een a t l east a

p ractice i n t he s avanna c ases.

n ently i nundated o r w aterlogged l ands,

p eaty s oils o f p erma-

a lthough i sland b eds

s ometimes e ncountered o n s uch s oils

i n t he

P acific.

f or t aro

P eaty s oils a re

g enerally s trongly a cid a nd o ften l ow i n a vailable p hosphorous, t hus d o n ot

f avour a lgal N -fixation.

a bundant n itrogen, i sland b ed

s tanding w ater i n t he

P aneai

W hen d rained,

t hese s oils s upply

C ompletely d rained l ands o ften o utwardly

s ystems,

e xcept

i n t he d itches; L akes a rea,

W est

f or t he a bsence a t m ost t imes o f

e xamples i nclude v alley b ottom g ardens I rian

( Pospisil

1 965)

i n t he c entral h ighlands o f P apua N ew G uinea. n itrogen,

a nd

b ecause t he i mproved a eration a ccelerates t he m iner-

a lisation o f o rganic m atter. r esemble

f or

i rrigate w ith t he a lgae-rich

C omplete d rainage i s t he r ule o n t he t ypical

a re

i f o nly

T he c hinamperos ,

t he c onscious p urpose o f m aintaining t he d itches. w ho l ive

b ut

a nd

s everal c ases

T he d iffering s ources o f

b etween t hese s ystems a nd t rue i sland b eds,

c ould h ave a

s ignificant e ffect o n l ong-term m anagement. S everal

i sland b ed

s ystems h ave b een d eveloped o n

w etlands w hose s oils a re m ore

f avourable t o a lgal

p ermanent

N -fixation.

T he

c hinampas a re m ade i n s hallow, s pring-fed l akes t hat a re s lightly a lkaline a nd t he

c arry a f lourishing g rowth o f a lgae.

p redominant p eaty s oils a re a voided

s oils

( Serpenti

1 965:25-26).

p hotographs i n G ardner a nd t hat a l oamy s oil d erived

B rass'

H eider

i n f avour o f c layey o r s andy

d escription

( 1969)

O n K olepom I sland,

a nd

( 1941)

H eider

f rom l imestone i s u sed

a nd t he

( 1970)

f or

i ndicate

i sland b eds i n t he

B aliem V alley. T here a re s izeable a reas i n t he w et-dry t ropics o n w hich s oil c ond itions s hould

f avour a lgal

N -fixation w hen t here

m atter t ends t o b e f airly l ow, o ften n eutral o r g reatly. s ites,

a nd s oil r eaction

s omewhat a lkaline.

b ut

T hus,

O rganic

v aries b ut i s

p hosphorous v aries

f rom p ast o r

s oils o f t he " central

i sland b eds a re n ot

s avanna"

z one o f t he

w hile t he s oils o f t he H ondo a nd w ere m ade a nd w here f or a lgal

a s H ondo c lay, a lkaline,

( pH)

f looding.

p resent i sland b ed

C lassic M aya s ite d istributions s uggest a n i nfluence o f s oil

t ype o n s election.

a ble

A vailable

P ublished s oil d ata a re s carce

i s

f ound o n t he h ighly a cidic

P eten

N ew f loodplains,

s oil a nalyses a re a vailable,

N -fixation.

T hese s oils,

( Turner

1 978:174),

o n w hich i sland b eds a re m ostly q uite s uit-

c lassed b y R omney e t a l.

P ucte c lay o r .ahAl_Ingly_glAy,

( 1959)

a re n eutral t o s lightly

a nd a re c overed d uring t he r ainy s eason w ith w aters r ich i n

2 37

c alcium a nd m agnesium. a ssays

T hey a re a lso d escribed a s

f ertile,

b ut n o

f or a vailable p hosphorous a re g iven.

T here i s g ood r eason t o w ork f rom t he a ssumption t hat s ubstantial q uantities o f n itrogen a re f ixed

i n t he w aters o f i sland b ed s ystems,

b ut t here a re s everal r outes b y w hich t he c ombined n itrogen m ight t hen r each t he c rops o n t he b eds.

E xperimentation w as u ndertaken t o d eter-

m ine t he r elative e ffectiveness o f t hese r outes.

E xperimental d esign a nd r esults T he

f irst h ypothesis t ested w as t hat c rops o n i sland b eds t ake u p

n itrogen

f rom t he w ater

w ithout t he

i n t he s urrounding d itches d irectly,

f low b eing a ssisted

i .e.,

t hrough t ransfers o f o rganic m atter.

T he m ethods a nd r esults o f t he e xperiment a re p resented

i n m ore d etail

i n V asey ( 1983). P ara g rass t o a p ond,

( Brachiaria m utica) w as

i n r ectangular

P hosphorous,

p onds

t race e lements a nd

p lanted i n

3 0 c m p ots,

f illed t o a bout m id-height o n t he p ots. p otassium w ere a dded

w ould b e t he l imiting n utrient a nd c onditions w ould p H i n p ots a nd

s ix p ots

f ixation,

s oil

p onds w as 7 .8.

f ull s un.

P lywood c overed t he o ther

p onds,

p rotruded t hrough h oles i n t he p lywood.

s o t hat n itrogen f avour a lgal N -

H alf t he p onds w ere i n

b ut n ot t he

p ots,

w hich

T here w ere t hree r eplications

o f e ach t reatment.

A lgae h igh, w ere

f lourished i n t he s unny p onds a nd t otal n itrogen l evels w ere

r eaching a p eak m ean v alue o f f illed.

T otal n itrogen i n t he s haded

l ow t o b e m easured,

T he p onds,

p onds w as a t a ll t imes t oo

l evels o f i norganic c ombined n itrogen,

f orm o f n itrogen w hich h igher t imes m uch h igher

9 7 d ays a fter t he p onds

c ertainly l ess t han 2 m g/1.

O n t he o ther h and,

t han 0 .8 m g/1

1 2.1 m g/1

p lants n ormally t ake u p,

i n t he s haded

t he o nly

w ere a t a ll

p onds t han i n t he s unny p onds, m ore

c ompared w ith a bout

0 .16 m g/l.

P ara g rass c rop m ade s ignificantly b etter g rowth i n t he s haded n early t wice a s m uch d uring t he

p eriod

f rom 5 0 t o

1 61

d ays a fter

t he c rop w as p lanted, t he p eriod o f m aximum g rowth o f t he c rop u nder b oth t reatments.

I t i s c lear t hat t he c rop d id n ot b enefit

h igh l evels o f t otal n itrogen w hich d eveloped

i n t he s unny p onds,

p resumably b ecause t he r oots c ould n ot c ompete w ith a lgae c ombined n itrogen.

T his i s e specially s ignificant

s ystems b ecause t he d esign o f t he e xperimental

f rom t he f or

f or a ctual i sland b ed

p onds a nd

p ots p rovided

a p articularly g ood o pportunity f or n itrogen f low t o t he c rop.

2 38

i norganic

F or o ne,

t he a rea o f c ontact b etween t he w aters a nd t he s oil g reater t han w ould b e t he c ase i n i sland b eds, S econd,

i n t he p ots w as

w hich a re l arger.

P ara g rass i s v ery t olerant o f w et c onditions,

t he t est c rop v ery e arly e xtended

a nd t he r oots o f

t hroughout a ll t he p onds. M ost o f t he

s taple c rops t hought l ikely t o h ave b een c ultivated o n u pland c rops t hat p refer w ell-drained t heir r oots w ould r each f ar e xception w ould b e t aro, T he

s oils,

i sland b eds a re

a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat

i nto t he w ater i n t he d itches.

t he d ominant c rop o n P acific

A n o bvious

i sland b eds.

f low o f n itrogen f rom t he d itches t o c rops o n i sland b eds m ust

t herefore b e a ssisted t hrough t ransfers o f a lgae-rich w ater, p lants a nd d itch s ediments. l ike t he t ypical i s w ell k nown;

T he v alue o f m ucks h igh i n o rganic m atter,

s ediments d eposited u nder e utrophic b odies o f w ater,

t heir n itrogen c ontent i s r eadily a vailable.

m anures a re a lso g enerally c onsidered o f n itrogen,

p rovided t heir

c ase w ith w ater o f n itrogen i n

w ater

p lants.

G reen

f airly q uickly a vailable s ources

f ibre c ontent i s l ow ,

a s i s u sually t he

P ublished d ata a re l acking o n t he a vailability

i rrigation w ater r ich i n a lgae.

d esigned t o t est t his a vailability.

A s econd e xperiment w as

T he r esults h ave n ot

p reviously

b een r eported. T he e xperiment w as a p ot t rial t hree

i n w hich m aize w as

s olutions rs wamp w ater r ich i n a lgae,

a s tandard

u rea i n t ap w ater, a nd a c ontrol o f t ap . w ater. a nalysed a nd

f ound t o c ontain n o d etectable n itrogen.

p repared a t t he s ame t ime. i mmediately a nd c ontent,

B oth s olutions w ere

t hen t hawed a s r equired.

T he s wamp w ater

s olution o f u rea

f rozen i f n ot n eeded

T here w as s ome v ariation i n

( Kjeldahl w ith r eduction o f n itrite a nd n itrate) b etween 9 .4 a nd

q uantities u sed

1.1 m g/1,

i n t he t rials,

w as

b ut t he m ean, 1 0.4 m g/1.

b efore p lanting.

A fter t he 5 7th d ay a fter

o nly t ap w ater.

U p t o t hat t ime,

i rrigation s olution. t arpaulin w as u sed t hinned

s olution o f

T he t ap w ater w as

w as o btained a t w eekly i ntervals a nd t he s tandard

t he t otal

i rrigated w ith

T he

t o

P ots w ere

a ll

e ach p ot h ad r eceived

p ots w ere i n f ull

f or t he

W atering b egan

p lanting,

2 8 d ays

p ots r eceived 1 5.5

s un e very d ay,

p rotect t hem f rom r ain.

t o t wo p lants.

w eighted

n itrogen

1o f

e xcept w hen a

T he m aize i n e ach p ot w as

2 2 c m a nd t here w ere

f ive

r eplications. T he m aize w as h arvested 7 0 d ays a fter j ust b eginning t o d evelop. s oil.

T he c rop w as d ried

b lended, f or

t otal

T able

w hen t assels w ere

T he r oots w ere h arvested b y w ashing a way

f or

1 6 h ours a t 7 0° a nd t hen w eighed.

c omposite s ample w as

t icular t reatment,

p lanting,

p repared o f a ll m aize

p lants g iven a p ar-

a nd t he t hree s amples w ere a nalysed

( Kjeldahl)

n itrogen.

A

i n t riplicate

T he r esults o f t he w eighing a re s hown i n

1 .

2 39

T gble

1 :

D rvjmatter v ie Ms o f m aize i n p ots i rrigated w ith t ap w ater.

q lgae -r ich w ater a nd u rea s tandard s olution ( in g rammes/pot)

T reatment

R eplication

1

R ep 2

R ep 3

R ep 4

R ep 5

M ean

T ap w ater

1 2.3

1 3.3

1 4.8

1 4.9

1 3.3

1 3.8+1.05

A lgae-rich

1 7.9

1 8.0

2 0.1

1 7.9

1 7.8

1 8.3+0.99

1 8.5

1 8.0

1 6.9

1 7.9

1 6.7

1 7.6+0.77

w ater U rea s tandard

T he d ifferences i n m ean y ields a re s ignificant b etween t he s wamp w ater t reatment a nd t he c ontrol s tandard a nd t he c ontrol

( t=2.53 ,

( t=2.31,

p

b . ( ) •• 0 N . 1 4 ) 0

4 . 7 f . o

6 06

s uggested, c ould

e xisted a t o ne t ime a t b oth C hilca a nd P escadores a nd i t

t heoretically o ccur a t a ny r iver m outh w here e xcess f lood o r

i rrigation w ater w as a vailable

( Rowe

1 969).

W ater r etaining s ystems o r

f lood

f arming m ethods w ere d evised

f or m any w adis o f t he O ld W orld.

H ere,

t he o bject w as t o t rap w ater W hich c ame

i n a s f lash f loods f rom

s urrounding c anyon h eads.

T hese a ncient r unoff f arms m ostly c omprised

a s eries o f b road t erraces

f ed a t t he u pper e nd b y o ne o r m ore c anals.

T he l atter w ere d esigned b oth t o t rap a nd c onvey t he o ccasional

f lood

w ater a nd a lso t o h elp s pread m uds t o i mprove t he g eneral w ater h olding c apacity o f t he a rid s ubstrates.

T he i mpounding s tructures o r t errace

w alls a re b est d escribed a s c heck d ams a nd t he r ectangular f ields t hey s urround a re k nown i n E gypt a s K urum ( Kedar F arms of t his t ype h ave b een r eported A fghanistan a nd t he N egev

( Evenari

1 957;

M urray

f rom t he S ahel,

1 977)

a nd E gypt

1 955).

T unisia,

( Murray

1 955).

H owever,

i t w ould b e i dle t o p retend t here w as a ny r eal p hysical o r

c ultural

p arallel b etween m ahamaes a nd k urum e ven t hough o n o ccasion

t hey may b oth h ave f unctioned S o i f t he

i n m uch t he s ame w ay.

P eruvian m ahamaes i s t o b e r egarded a s u nique,

t his s o? P resupposing

f or t he m oment t hat t hese a re a ctually w ater-

s eeking b asins ( to b e d iscussed m ore f ully) t able,

w hy i s

e specially o f a c oastal t ract,

t o t he t ropical s un w ould a ppear

u nrealistic i n r elation t o s alinization. m arkedly r educe e vapotranspiration.

t he e xposure o f t he w ater

T he

f requent f ogs,

A dditionally,

h owever,

t he s andy s ubstrates

h ave a l ower c apillary p orosity t han m ost c ommon s oils w hich l essens t he

s ensitivity o f t he s ystem t o c apillary w ithdrawal o f w ater a nd

s urface s alt a ccumulation.

A lso m ahamaes p rovide a y ear-round b asis

f or p lant g rowth a s c ompared w ith a reas o f s urface i rrigation d ependent o n s easonal

f lood w ater.

A gain,

a s a lready m entioned i n t he S aharan

c ontext, t he a tmospheric s tability o f t his r egion l eads t o m inimal s andblow a nd b asin f ill.

F inally,

p rovide t he h umid p hysical b asis

t he c oastal h ills a nd r iver s ystems

f or t his a griculture w hereas i f w e

c onsider o ther r egions a ssociated w ith c old o ffshore c urrents s uch a s S outh W est A frica o r W estern A ustralia w e n ote t he l ack o f s uch s trong r elief i nland c oastline.

t o g enerate t he m oisture a t r egular p oints a long t he

B ut t rying t o e stablish a p hysical-based

p redictive m odel

u nfortunately o verlooks t he f act t hat c ognate s ystems w ere n ot d evelo ped

i n o ther a reas b ecause a gricultural m ethods h ad n ot b een d eveloped

b y t he i ndigenous p opulations.

U se a nd a gronomic _ p roblems S unken g ardens p roduced a w ide r ange o f f ood a nd a ssociated w ith s unken g ourds,

s quash,

f ields a t

p eanuts,

r eeds a nd t he t ree

c oca,

f ruits,

f ibre.

C hilca r eveal m aize, b eans,

c hile p eppers, m anioc,

M iddens c otton,

c attails,

t otora

l ucuma , c iruela d el f raile a nd c ereza , 6 07

w hile p ollen

f rom f ield s oils c onfirms a l arge n umber o f t hese t ogether

w ith m embers o f t he C henopodiaceae, 1 979;

P ickersgill a nd

S mith

i ncluding

1 981:105).

d iverse r ange o f p roduce t o b e g rown. p ollen o f t he p otato f amily, V iru v alley o f t he n orth.

p ossibly q uinoa

C learly t he W est

( 1979)

( Smith

f ields p ermitted a h as a lso f ound

m aize a nd b eans a t P uerto M oorin i n t he

A n umber o f t he a bove p lants a re a quatic i n

a ffinity w hile m any a re s alt t olerant.

T he g ourd

f amily f or e xample

t olerates h igh b romine l evels w hile t he C henopods t olerate h igh b oron l evels,

b oth b eing e lements c haracteristic o f c oastal

s oils.

T he f ield

p ollen r emains s uggest a z onation o n t he b asis o f w etness a nd a cross t he a rea s ampled a t

c learlY i ndicated b y t he v ariety o f p lants r ecorded C ieza d e L ei in

( 1553/4)

s ame h ole a s s eed,

r eported t hat

( Smith

t his p ractice h aving b een g eneral a long t he P eruvian

h owever,

( Rowe

1 969).

u sed b y C han C han f armers o n t he n orth c oast,

w ho a re r eported t o h ave h ad i t b rought a s m uch a s C hincha I slands n ear P isco s ources,

1 979).

f ish h eads w ere p lanted i n t he

c oast a nd a pparently m ore w idespread t han t he u se o f guano T he l atter w as,

s alinity

C hilca w hile a w ide r ange of c onditions i s

( Reparaz

p articularly f ish,

a s

1 958).

4 35 m iles f rom t he

S uch u se o f m arine r e-

f ertilizer u nderlines

c oastal p eople o n t he s ea a nd t he r ole o f t he s ea, t he d evelopment o f a griculture.

t he d ependence o f

a nd o f f ishing,

i n

W e c an o nly g uess a t t he r ole w hich t he

f ields p layed i n a nimal h usbandry a nd w hich t he l atter m ay h ave c ont ributed t o s oil o rganic m atter,

f ertility. h owever,

T he g reatest p roblems i n s oils o f v ery l ow

a rise f rom s hortages o f n itrogen a nd

p hosphate

w hich e xplains t he u se o f f ish f ertilizer. W e s hould b e a ble t o g ain s ome c lues a s t o t he o riginal m anagement o f m ahamaes T here a re, g rass

f rom t he v ariety o f s ituations w e f or e xample,

( 0istichlus s p.);

d eeper p its,

p resent.

d ry b asins o ccupied b y t he u biquitous s alt t here a re b asins i n w hich f ig t rees,

r oot t o t he w ater t able;

b rackish w ater,

f ind i n t hem a t

s ome o f w hich a re u sed

i n e ven

t here a re b asins f illed w ith f or r eed

p roduction.

S till o ther

p lots u tilize p umped w ell w ater f or t he s urface i rrigation o f c rops s uch a s m aize,

g ourds a nd s weet p otatoes.

I t h as b een a ssumed b y m ost

p eople t hat m ahamaes w ere w ater-seeking b asins a nd t hat t hey w ere a ble t o s ustain t he g rowth o f f ield c rops b y a s ub-irrigation p rocess.

I

h ave a lready a rgued t hat t his p resents p roblems e specially f or y oung s eedlings a nd

f or s ubsequent c ontrol o ver a dequate moisture,

d epth a nd s alinity

( Smith

1 979).

r ooting

A f urrow s ystem w as c onsidered

o ne p ossible s olution t o t hese p roblems.

A gain,

t o b e

a lthough s easonal

o scillations i n g roundwater m ight h ave b een u sed a s a t ime f rame f or p lanting a nd h arvesting,

t his a ssumes t hat t he m aximum h eight o f t he

w ater t able w as v ery c onsistent

f rom y ear t o y ear.

K nowledge o f r iver

r egimes a nd t heir v ariability s uggests t his t o b e h ighly u nlikely ( Farrington,

t his v olume).

w ould h ave b een

A ll

i n a ll,

t he s ub-irrigation m echanism

f ar t oo c lumsy t o h ave b een a p racticable p roposition

f or t he p roduction o f t ubers,

c orn a nd c otton.

T here i s e vidence a t C hilca,

A sia a nd C han C han t hat w ells w ere

u sed i n p reviously a bandoned f ields t hough i t i s n ot k nown f rom d ocumentary s ources w hether s urface i rrigation t ook p lace f rom t he i nception o f t he s ystem. I deal

T he

f ields t hemselves,

a s e nclosed b asins,

a re

f or s urface a pplication o f w ater a nd i n v iew o f t he n eed f or

d rinking w ater a nd t he b enefits o f f resh w ater f or t he g ermination o f s eeds i t

i s h ard t o i magine a p ast

c rucial o r e ven s eminal r ole. o f t hese b asins,

i n w hich w ells d id n ot p lay a m ost

B ut

i f w ater w as a pplied t o t he s urface

w herever i t o riginally c ame f rom, w hy s hould m en h ave

l aboured t o e xcavate t hese a reas? e vidence,

O ne r eason,

f or w hich t here i s

f ield

i s t hat e xcavation r evealed c ertain s ilty l ayers w hich p ro-

v ided s etter s oil t han t he s urface v eneer o f l ittoral s and a nd, e xcavated t he f ield, c onstruction.

h aving

t here w as p resumably l ess o f a p roblem i n w ell

T hese a re,

h owever,

s econdary b enefits a rising f rom a n

i nitial d ecision t o e xcavate a nd t he m ost s atisfactory r eason i s t hat t he d epressions w ere m ade i nitially t o g row t otora a nd c attail r eeds a t a t ime o f h igher w ater t ables. m oisture,

T hese r eeds,

w hich r equire p erennial

w ere a nd s till a re t he e ssential r aw m aterial

f acture o f i ndigenous f ishing c raft a nd p rovide, a dobe, m ore,

a m ost e ffective b uilding m aterial

f or t he m anu-

i n a ccompaniment w ith

f or t his c limate.

F urther-

a t P uerto V iejo o n t he s outhern l imit o f t he C hilca c omplex, a

s eries o f d eep ,

p arallel,

w ater-filled d epressions a re t o b e f ound.

T hese a re v ery c lose t o t he s ea s hore,

a re m uch n arrower t han t he u sual

m ahamaes a nd t hough c onceivably r eed b eds a t o ne t ime, t ain a t race o f t he l atter, w ater.

T hese c ould a lso h ave b een r epositories

e ven s omething a s b izarre a s I t

i s t hen,

d o n ot n ow c on-

p ossibly b ecause t hey c ontain b rackish f or f ishing c raft o r

f ish s torage b asins.

e ntirely r ealistic a nd

i n a ccordance w ith f ield e vi-

d ence t o s tate t hat m ahamaes s erved v arying f unctions a nd e xhibited a t l east t wo t ypes o f o perational m ode i n t he c ourse o f t heir h istory.

P attern a nd e volution I n a p revious a rticle i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he o verall p att ern d isplayed a t C hilca

( Figure

3 )

r epresents a p lanned a nd i ntegrated

l ayout a nd t hat w hile p arts o f t he s ystem p ossibly h ad

l ittle l ong t erm

u se,

( Smith

o ther a reas w ere a ctively u sed

E vidence f or t his d erives f rom t he

f or m any c enturies

1 979).

f act t hat u nderneath t he a pparent

c omplexity o f t he p attern o ne c an d iscern m ajor l ineaments a nd o ne o ne n aturally a ssumes t hat t o a lteration.

i n t ime a n o riginal

p attern h as b een s ubject

R easons f or w hy p arts o f t he a rea w ere p redestined

l ittle u se a re n ot h ard t o f ind.

f or

T he s alinity v ariation a cross t he a rea

i s m arked a nd s alinization s eems t he most l ikely r eason f or e arly a band onment o f l arge p arts o f t he s ystem.

I t i s a lso p ossible t hat a fter a n

e arly c risis p eriod w hen m aximum p roduction w as s ought,

6 09

t he n eed b ecame

A l luv iu m

R o c k L ands w e

M a jo r b l o cks o f mode rn i r iga ted f i e lds

P AN AMER ICAN H IGH WAY I M l le IK do me lre

P UERTO VI EJ O

F iuure 3 : S unken f ield p atterns a t C hilca .

s eA

L eveL .

--S a l'I r u t

r :. . . .. . . . w

--

-

-

F resh

Eer

F igure 4 : H ydraulic r elationships a long t he P eruvian c oast . 6 10

v 4 e .c ty "

l ess,

e specially i f t hese b asins w ere l abour i ntensive.

E xploitation o f

t he w ater t able b y r eed b eds a nd w ells l ed t o g roundwater l evels f alli ng.

I n

F igure 4 I h ave i ndicated t he g eneralised h ydraulic r elation-

s hips w hich a pply i n t his c oastal s ituation, G ilboa

( 1969)

a nd M andel

t aking n ote o f w ork b y

( 1977).

W e n ote f rom t his t hat a s t he f resh w ater t able f alls, z one a t t he b ase r ises h ydrostatically.

t he s aline

W ells o riginally s unk i nto

f resh w ater w ill t hus b ecome s aline i n t ime g iven t he e phemeral n ature o f t he C hilca s tream f low .

T hose p arts o f t he s unken f ield a rea n earest

t he l ittoral t ract w ould b e m ost a t r isk. p ears

T his i s p recisely w hat a p-

o h ave h appened a t C hilca i n t hat f ield b asins n earest t he s ea

a re s hallowest a nd a ppear a mong t he l east u sed a nd m odified. a ccording t o R owe

( 1969),

s ixteenth c entury r eports i ndicated t hat

c oastal a griculture w as e xperiencing p roblems, w hich w ould s uggest t hat

I ndeed,

i ncluding s alinity,

i f w ell w ater w as b eing u sed i ts q uality b y

t his t ime h ad d eteriorated.

H owever,

t he r elief o f e xcavated

p lots,

e specially t hose c lose t o t he s hore,

w ill b e s ubject t o s and

f ill,

a nd

f ields m ost d istant f rom t he C hilca s ettlement m ight a lso b e a bandoned b ecause o f t he l ength o f j ourney i nvolved i n m aintaining t hem. A t

C hilca t here i s w idespread

h orizons,

s oil

e vidence,

b y w ay o f i ron-stained

t o s how t hat t he w ater t able h as f allen a t l east 2 -3 m etres

s ince t he o riginal e xploitation o f t his c oastal t ract. T he i nitial c reation o f s unken a reas i nvolved n o m ore t han h alf a m etre i n s everal a reas a s j udged b y t he f ield s urface i n r elation t o t he b uried l and s urface b eneath d ebris m ounds. e vidence f ell.

H owever,

t here i s l ittle s ubstantive

f or a s ystematic l owering o f f ield s urfaces a s t he w ater t able

T his m ust s urely c onfirm e arlier s uspicions t hat w ater w as m ainly

a pplied t o f ield s urfaces.

N evertheless, m idden d ebris c ontinued t o

a ccumulate i n t ime a nd i ncluded s alt, r esidues. T hus,

c aked m ud,

s and a nd c rop

t he h eight o f m idden m ounds i ncreased t he l onger

c ertain a reas r emained i n u se a nd w ithout a ny c onscious e ffort b eing m ade t o l ower f ield s urfaces. i n t ime,

W hat a ppears t o h ave h appened w as t hat

a s t he m idden m ounds g rew ,

i t b ecame e asier t o c reate s maller

f ields w hich r educed t he p roblem o f r ubbish r emoval a nd t ipping. F urthermore,

a s t he w ater t able f ell,

m ore e asily b e e xcavated

n arrower e longate z ones m ight

f or g rowing a quatic p lants.

Ih ave e xpressed t he v iew e lsewhere

( Smith

1 979)

t hat t he C hilca

f ields m ay h ave f unctioned a s i mpoundments f or e xceptional w aters,

a c onclusion w hich h as a ppeared

v alley o n t he s outh c oast.

i nescapable f or t he P escadores

T he e vidence f or t his l ies i n t he i ntercon-

n ecting a rrangement o f p arts o f t he K napp ( 1982)

f lood

f ield l ayout a nd i n a r ecent s tudy,

i s c onvinced t hat f lood w ater w as t he r eal b asis o f t he

. system a t C hilca.

W e h ave b oth i ndependently a bandoned t he c oncept o f

w ater t able f arming, t he d ifference b eing t hat K napp c an a fford t o 6 11

t reat t he w ater t able i ssue v ery l ightly w hich,

o ddly e nough,

w ould

h elp t o e xplain h is u ncertainty o ver t he a bandonment o f p arts o f t he s outhern z one a t C hilca t hrough t he i ngress o f s aline w ater.

I r emain

o f t he o pinion t hat t he C hilca c omplex r epresents s everal p revious m odes o f u se a nd w hile f loods m ay h ave m ade a w elcome a nd e fficacious c ontribution t hey c ould n ot h ave s ustained a quatic p lants, n or i n m y v iew h ave b een s ufficiently p redictable o r p rolonged a t C hilca t o h ave b een m ore t han a n o ccasional b onus

( Smith

1 983).

F urthermore,

i f t he

C hilca s tream h as b een a s r egular i n i ts c ontribution a s K napp b elieves,

i t m ight h ave b een e xpected i n t he c ourse o f t he l ast f ew

m illennia t o h ave e liminated t he e ntire g eomorphic l ow z one i n w hich t hese f ields a re f ound.

T he t iming a nd s ignificance o f s unken f ield a griculture S unken s cape,

f ields n ot o nly o ccupy a p articular p osition i n t he l and-

a s s tated e arlier,

b ut a ppear a t a p articular t ime

a nd i t i s t herefore i mportant t o l andscape e volution. 2 000 y ears a go

( Figure 5 )

f irstly t o u nderstand t heir r elationship

T hese s ystems h ave b een d ated b ack t o a bout

( Parsons a nd

P suty

1 975;

W est

1 979)

w hile e arlier

r emains l ie i nland o f t he c oast a nd a t h igher l evels.

T hus,

a t C hilca,

s hell m iddens o n f ossil c liff l ines d ate t o a round 4 000 y ears a go.

I t

i s e vident t hat m any a reas o f l ow c oastal p lain a re n o m ore t han 3 000 y ears o ld a s j udged ( Craig a nd P suty i ng a h alt i n t he

f rom t ectonic m ovements d ated t o 3 000-3600 B P

1 971).

T his r eflects a s light r ise o f t he l and f ollow-

P ost-glacial r ise o f s ea l evel.

I rrespective o f s horter t erm c hanges i n r ainfall p atterns e ither l ocally o r i n t he A ndes, l ong t erm.

I n t he f irst

t wo m ain f actors w ill h ave o perated i n t he p lace t he d ischarge o f r ivers w ill h ave d e-

c reased t hroughout t he l ast I ce c aps.

1 0,000 y ears i n r esponse t o d epletion o f

T his h as r esulted i n a lluviation a nd s horter o verland f lows

o wing t o t he i nherently s easonal n ature o f r ains i n t he w estern s ierra. I n c onjunction w ith t his, t ive

f all

t he l ast 3 -4000 y ears w ould h ave s een a r ela-

i n v alley w ater t ables n ear t he c oast o n a ccount o f u plift.

V alleys w hich h ad e arlier b een a dequately w atered m ay h ave b ecome l ess h ospitable i n t heir l ower c ourses s o t hat p eople d ependent u pon t hem g ravitated e ither t o t he c oast i tself o r t o v alleys w ith p ermanent s treams.

E ngel

( 1976)

f inds t hat p eople i n t he C hilca v alley w ho h ad

b een u sing w ells f or i rrigating t he v alley f loor l eft a round 2 00 A D, w hich,

a ccording t o P arsons a nd P suty

s unken f ield a griculture.

( 1975),

i s b efore t he p eriod o f

A v ariety o f a rchaeological e vidence s uggests

t hat w ith t he o nset o f t he C eramic p eriods a round a ctually b ecame l ess p opulated e vidence o f v ery r apid u plift

3 800 B P,

( Pickersgill a nd S mith ( Craig a nd P suty

1 971)

t he c oast

1 981).

T here i s

w hich c ould h ave

b etokened c oastal t sunamis b ut i t w as m ost l ikely t he a dvent o f c anal 6 12

i rrigation w hich, m ore t han a ny o ther f actor, d ependence o n m arine r esources a fter 3 800 B P. v alleys w ith

l ed t o a d ecrease i n T his w ould

p erennial s treams a s m ajor c entres o f p olitical

d evelopment w hile, a s w ater t ables c ontinued t heir f all m illenia,

f avour t he

i t

i n s ubsequent

i s p ossible t hat t he c oast b egan t o b e m ore a ttractive

t han t he d ry u p-valley p ortions o f t he l ess w ell e ndowed r ivers,

s uch

a s t he C hilca v alley. W e m ay n ow t urn a ttention t owards e xplanations s o f ar o ffered t he e mergence o f t he s unken g arden 1 975; f orm

S mith

1 979).

H ere i t

( Parsons

1 968;

P arsons a nd

f or

P suty

s eems t hat a lthough t he o ccurrences a ll c on-

t d much the s ame m orphological a nd h ydrological f rame t hey a re n ot

l ocated w ith r eference t o a ny o ther c ommon f actors s uch a s p erennial s treams o r

s ettlements.

A t C han C han t he s unken f ields a re n ear a m ajor

u rban c entre w hile a t C hilca t he e xtensive g round

p lan i s a ccompanied

b y s o l ittle e vidence o f s ettlement t hat o ne i s h ard p ressed t o s ee a j ustification f or i t. c ouraged t o t hink o f

A t C hilca a nd o ther m inor s ettlements o ne i s e n' spontaneous l ocal d evelopments'

o ther i t c learly r epresented i rrigated,

' overspill'

w hile o n t he

a griculture i n a reas a lready

s uch a s a t C han C han i n I mperial C himu t imes a round

1 100 A D ( Farrington

1 974;

i ng i n t he V irü v alley,

F arrington a nd P ark

1 978).

W est

1 000-

( 1979),

w ork-

f inds e vidence o f a s pecialisation d eveloping

b etween d ifferent s ettlements a nd t hat t he s unken m odule i n a n i ntegrated l andscape.

f ields r epresent o ne

T his i s a u seful c oncept a nd o ne

w hich m ay h ave a pplied t o C hilca o n a n e ven g rander s cale. T his i s d efinitely a c ase w here a rchaeological s ite a nalysis h as t o g ive w ay t o a c onsideration o f w ider c ultural a nd m ents.

T he

f ields

( Engel

p olitical d evelop-

f act t hat T iahuanacoid p ottery i s a ssociated w ith C hilca's 1 976) m ay s ignify t hat h ighland H uari p eoples w ere

b eginning t o e xploit c oastal r esources a nd t he C hilca l ocation w as f avoured

o n a ccount o f a c onvenient t hrough r oute

I t c ould

s upply a v ariety o f p roduce - p robably m ainly f ish - r ather

t han b eing a n i deal s pot v elopments p robably,

f rom t he h ighlands.

f or a gricultural d evelopment.

t herefore,

T he C hilca d e-

r epresented e xpansion o r i ntensifi-

c ation i n c oastal

f ishing a ctivity a nd t he n eed t o s upport a l arger

l ocal p opulation.

J udging f rom t he p aucity o f e arly s ettlement r emains,

t his p opulation m ust s urely h ave l ived o n m uch t he s ame s ite a s t he p resent t own o f C hilca.

T his i dea n ot o nly g ains s upport f rom t he

i mprobability t hat h ighland

p eople w ould c ome a ll t his w ay f or m ere

m arginal a gricultural s ubsistence b ut

f rom t he c onclusions r eached

e arlier a bout e xcavations o riginally m ade f or r eeds a nd s ailing c raft. C hilca's

f ields a re a lso s uggestive o f a p lanned d evelopment,

p erhaps

i mplanted b y h ighland p eoples a t a p oint w here t hey m ight m eet r elatively l ittle r esistance.

P aulsen

( 1976)

•e xpansion w as t riggered b y a d rought p eriod, I nterpluvial

( see

F igure 5 )

h as a rgued t hat s uch a n t he M iddle H orizon

w hich l ed t o t he H uari p eoples e xtending 6 13

C LIMATE

C ULTURE P ERIODS

S UNKEN F IELDS

P resent

H istoric 1 500

M odern d estruction p ost-conquest a bandonment

D RY I nca E mpire

1 400 E xtensive u se o f s unken H UMID

L ate I ntermediate I mperial C himu

f ields a t C hilca a nd C han C han

1 000 D RY

M iddle H orizon

M ain p eriod o f s unken f ield d evelopment

6 00 H UMID

E arly I ntermediate p eriod

U se o f s unken f ields i n V iru v alley

A .D. B .C. 1 00 H UMID 5 00

F igure 5 :

P eriod c ontext o f s unken f ields

( after P aulsen

1 976).

C limatic d ivisions b ased o n u se o f w ells i n c oastal E cuador.

6 14

t heir c ontrol a long t he c oast f rom C hicama t o S outh P eru. a nd S mith

( 1981),

P ickersgill

h owever, h ave c oncluded t hat a lthough t he c limatic

h ypothesis i s a ttractive i n t he c ontext o f p opulation p ressure,

l and

e xhaustion a nd l ack o f f ertility c ould e qually h ave b een r esponsible. F or t his r eason,

p opulation p ressure i s am ost m isleading c oncept a nd,

a s w e a re a ll a ware,

o ne d oes n ot r equire a c limatic e xcuse f or

e xcursions i nto m ilitarism ,

i f s uch i t w as.

A p ostscript o n . o rigins H oy a re s uch a gricultural m ethods d iscovered i n t he f irst p lace? I n R owe's

1 969 p aper h e i ndicates t hat d epressions w hich w ere n aturally

f illed w ith f resh w ater w ere a lso e xploited, g iving c ause f or w ondering w hether s unken f ields w ere d eveloped o ccurred.

f irst i n a reas w here n atural o ases

C oastal s alt m arsh v egetation c ould h ave i ndicated t he p res-

e nce o f m oisture b elow , f or c rops.

e ven i f t his p articular s ource w as u nsuitable

I t m ay h ave b een t hat d igging t o p roduce m ud b ricks h ad b een

i nstructive a bout s oil m oisture g enerally , o rigin o f q anat s ystems,

y et h ow d o w e e xplain t he

t he g roundwater o f w hich o riginally g ave n o

s urface m anifestation a t a ll? I t h as b een a c ommon p ractice t o e xplain i nnovation i n e arly s ocieties e ither i n t erms o f c hance o r m ore b roadly i n t erms o f t he e nvironment,

t he l atter i ncreasing o r d ecreasing t he l ikelihood o f d is-

c overy a nd s ubsequent e xploitation o f t he n ew-found t echnique. c urrently k nown b y t he a ppelation

' cultural m aterialism '.

T his i s

S imilarly a

g eological a pproach t o a rchaeological m aterials c onstrains u s t o t hink t hat a n e volutionary l ink e xists b etween s uccessive a ssemblages. i s, o f c ourse,

T here

a d istinctly D arwinian a nd h eavily m aterialist i nfluence

a t w ork h ere a nd o ne w hich g ains i ts c redibility f rom t he c laim t hat i t i s b ased o n s olid p hysical e vidence. W hat w e s o o ften h ave f ailed t o r ecognize i s t hat e arly s ocieties w ere i nvariably r uled b y a n i nitiated e lite.

' Priests'

a nd s hamans

a like t herefore e xercised i ncalculable i nfluence o ver m an's a ctivities. W e f ind t hat t he s haman a ssisted i n t he h unt a nd c ould d ivine t he f uture

( Eliade

1 964;

a nd i ts q uality.

H alifax

1 979).

S urely h e c ould d ivine w ater a lso

T he a ncient M esoamerican c ultural i mpulse s eems l ikely

t o h ave b een t riggered b y i nitiate r ulers, o n s telae.

s o a bundantly c ommemorated

T he a nimal h eaddress a ssociated w ith s uch p ersonages

s ymbolised t he i nitiate a nd i n a r ecent a rticle,

S tocker e t a l.

( 1981)

s how a r elationship b etween e arly i conography a nd p lant d omestication. K nowing,

t herefore,

t hat e arly t ribal s ocieties s imply w ere n ot a t t he

m ercy o f n ature o n t he s cale p reviously i magined,

i t i s m uch l ess

r easonable t o a rgue t hat c hance o r e ven t rial a nd e rror p layed s o l arge a p art i n c ultural d evelopment.

I n t he t wentieth c entury t he s haman o r 6 15

w itch d octor i s c ertainly m uch d ebased b ut h e s till s urvives i n n earby h ighland B olivia a nd p lays a t t he v ery l east a c eremonial r ole i n s uch a ctivities a s c rop p rotection

( David

P reston:

p ersonal c ommunication).

W e c an t hus u nderstand m ore o f h ow s unken f ields m ay h ave b een u sed a nd w hy t heir d evelopment m ay h ave a risen b ut t his p ostscript i s i nt ended t o d raw a ttention t o t he k ind o f q uestion w hich d igging i n t he s and a nd a nalysis o f s patial

p atterns s eems u nlikely t o a nswer.

T he

d ifficulty i s t hat w ithout t he b alance o f a n e thnographic v iew t he w ork o f a rchaeologists a nd g eographers c an s o e asily b e c ondemned t o d ry c hronology a nd m echanistic a rgument.

A cknowledgements T he a uthor's o riginal w ork o n s unken f ields t ook p lace a s p art o f a n a rchaeological i nvestigation i nto m ahamaes b ased a t

C hilca.

T his w as

l ed b y J effrey R .

P arsons o f t he M useum o f A nthropology a t t he U niver-

s ity o f M ichigan,

A nn A rbor.

M ary,

Iw ould l ike t o t hank J eff a nd h is w ife,

f or t he s timulation t hat t his w ork h as p rovided a nd f or t heir

h elp a nd h ospitality.

R eferences C ited B arrau,

J .

1 965

L 'humide e t l e s ec:

a n e ssay o n e thnobiological a daptation t o

c ontrastive e nvironments i n t he I ndo-Pacific a rea.

J ournal

o f

t he P olynesian S ociety 7 4:329-346. B romehead, 1 942

C .E.N.

T he e arly h istory o f w ater s upply.

1 42-151 B utzer,

( wells)

1 83-195 ( aqueducts).

K .W.

1 972

E nvironment a nd a rchaeology.

C ieza d e L eön, 1 553-54

M ethuen,

L ondon.

P .

T he I ncas.

O klahoma P ress, C raig,

a nd

G eographical J ournal 9 9:

E d.

V on H agen,

V .

( 1959),

U niversity o f

N orman.

A .K. a nd P suty, N .P.

1 971

P aleoecology o f s hell m ounds a t O tuma,

P eru.

G eographical

R eview 6 1:125-132. C ressey, 1 958 D enevan, 1 970

G .B. Q anats,

K arez a nd F oggaras.

G eographical R eview 4 8:27-44.

W .M. A boriginal d rained

f ield c ultivation i n t he A mericas.

S cience 1 69:647-654. 6 16

E liade , M . 1 964

namanism :

W illard R .

a rchaic t echniques o f e cstacy. T ranslation

T rask.

B ollingen S eries 7 6.

P rinceton U niversity

P ress. E ngel,

F rederic A ndre

1 976

An a ncient w orld p reserved:

i n t he A ndes , u pdated. E nglish,

1 972

H achette.

r elics a nd r ecords o f p rehistory E nglish T ranslation r evised a nd

C rown P ublishers I nc.,

N ew Y ork.

P .W .

1 968

T he o rigin a nd s pread o f c l anats i n t he O ld W orld.

P roceedings o f t he A merican P hilosophical S ociety 12:170-181. E venari ' , M . 1 977

A ncient d esert a griculture a nd c ivilizations:

t he w ay t o t he f uture? Y . M undlak a nd S .F .

D o t hey p oint

I n A rid Z one D evelopment , e dited b y

S inger,

p p.83-97.

B allinger P ublishing C o.,

C ambridge M ass. F arrington, 1 974

I .S.

I rrigation a nd s ettlement p attern:

r esults f rom t he n orth c oast o f P eru. o n S ociety ,

e dited b y T .E.

1 980

I .S.

a nd P .S.

I n I rrigation's I mpact

D owning a nd M cG.

U niversity o f A rizona P ress, F arrington,

p reliminary r esearch

T ucson,

G ibson,

p p.83-94.

A nthropology P apers N o.

. 2 5.

B ellwood

P rehistoric i rrigation h ydrology o f p ondfield t aro:

s tudies f rom P olynesia.

t wo c ase

A rchaeology a nd P hysical A nthropology

i n O ceania 1 5:120-127. F arrington, 1 978

I .S. a nd C .C.

P ark

H ydraulic E ngineering a nd I rrigation A griculture i n t he M oche

V alley ,

P eru c .

A .D.1250-1532. J ournal o f A rchaeological

S cience 5 :255-268. F lannery, 1 967

K .V.,

A .V.T. K irkby, M .J .

K irkby a nd A .W. W illiams

F arming s ystems a nd p olitical g rowth i n a ncient O axaca.

S cience G ilboa ,

1 58:445-54.

Y aakov

1 969

T he g round w ater g eology i n t he r ainless c oastal a rea o f

P eru . H alifax, 1 979

T el

A viv.

J . S hamanic V oices:

t he s haman a s s eer ,

p oet a nd h ealer .

P enguin. H yams, E . 1 952

S oil a nd c ivilization.

J acobsen, 1 958

T .

a nd

T hames a nd H udson.

R .M. A dams

S alt a nd s ilt i n a ncient M esopotamian a griculture.

S cience

1 28:1251-1258. K autz,

R .R. a nd R .W.

1 977

K eetinge

D etermining s ite f unction:

A merican A ntiquity 4 2:86-97.

6 17

a n orth P eruvian c oastal e xample.

K edar,

Y .

1 957

W ater a nd s oil f rom t he d esert:

a chievements i n t he c entral N egev.

s ome a ncient a gricultural G eographical J ournal

1 23:179-187. K inzl,

H .

1 944

D ie K ünstliche B ewässerung i n P eru.

Z eitschrift f hr E rdkunde

1 2:98-110. K napp ,

G .

1 983

P rehistoric f lood m anagement o n t he P eruvian c oast: r einter-

p reting t he " sunken f ields" o f C hilca.

A merican A ntiquity

4 7:144-154. K obori, ' I. 1 964

H uman g eography o f m ethods o f i rrigation i n t he c entral A ndes.

I n L and U se i n S emi-Arid M editerranean C limates, U NESCO A rid Z one R esearch X XVI:135-137. M andel, 1 977

S . T he o ver e xploitation o f g round-water r esources i n d ry

r egions.

I n A rid Z one D evelopment , e dited b y Y . M undlak a nd

S .F . S inger,

p p.31-51.

B allinger P ublishing C o.,

C ambridge

M ass. M oseley , M .E. 1 969

A ssessing t he a rchaeological s ignificance o f m ahamaes.

A merican A ntiquity 3 4:485-487. M urray , 1 955

G .W. W ater f rom t he d esert:

s ome a ncient E gyptian a chievements

G eographical J ournal 1 21:171-181. P arsons, 1 969

J .J. R idged f ields i n t he R io G uayas v alley,

E cuador.

A merican

A ntiquity 3 4:76-80. P arsons, 1 967 P arsons, 1 968

J .J. a nd W .

D enevan

P re-Columbian r idged

1 975

T he a rchaeological s ignificance o f m ahamaes c ultivation o n t he J .R. a nd N .P.

1 976

P suty

A merican A ntiquity 4 0:259-282.

A .C. E nvironment a nd e mpire: c limatic f actors i n p rehistoric A ndean

c ulture c hange. P ickersgill, 1 981

A merican A ntiquity 3 3:80-85.

S unken f ields a nd p re-hispanic s ubsistence o n t he P eruvian

c oast. P aulsen,

W orld A rchaeology 8 :121-132.

B . a nd R .T.

S mith

A daptation t o a d esert c oast:

t ime i n c oastal P eru. I slands ,

e dited b y D .

1 958

s ubsistence c hanges t hrough

I n E nvironmental a spects o f c oasts a nd B rothwell a nd G .W.

B ritish A rchaeological R eports • Reparaz,

S cientific A merican 2 17:93-100.

J .R.

c oast o f P eru. P arsons,

f ields.

D imbleby, p p.89-115.

I nternational S eries N o.

9 4.

G . d e L a z one a ride d u P grou.

G eografiska A nnaler 4 0 E :1-62. 6 18

R iley,

T .J. a nd G .

1 979

F reimuth

F ield s ystems a nd

f rost d rainage i n t he p rehistoric a gricul-

t ure o f t he u pper G reat L akes. R owe,

A merican A ntiquity 4 4:271-285.

J .H.

1 969

T he s unken g ardens o f t he P eruvian c oast. American A ntiquity

3 4:320-325. S imon,

J .

1 907

O asenkultur i n d erchilenischen W üste A tacama.

T ropenpflanzer

1:387-392. S mith,

C .T., W .M.

1 968

D enevan, a nd P .

A ncient r idged

, Geographical J ournal S mith,

H amilton

f ields i n t he r egion o f L ake T iticaca. 1 34:353-367.

R .T.

1 979

T he d evelopment a nd r ole o f s unken f ield a griculture o n t he

P eruvian c oast. S mith,

G eographical J ournal 1 45:387-400.

R .T.

1 983

M aking a m eal o ut o f m ahamaes.

A merican A ntiquity 4 7:155-

1 57. S oldi,

A .M.

1 980

L ancha:

d esierto. S tocker, T ., 1 980

u n c aso d e e xplotaci6n a gricola r acional e n e l B oleten d e L ima 1 (4)

S . M eltzo-f f a nd S . A rmsey

C rocodilians a nd O lmecs:

p eriod i conography. W ebster, 1 980

1 980:1-9.

f urther i nterpretations i n f ormative

American A ntiquity 4 5:740-758.

C .C. a nd P .N . W ilson A griculture i n t he T ropics ( second e d.).

L ongman.

W est, M . 1 979

E arly w atertable f arming o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru.

A merican A ntiquity 4 4:138-144.

6 19

O PERATIONAL S TRATEGIES.

E XPANSION A ND I NTENSIFICATION W ITHIN T HE

P REHISTORIC I RRIGATION A GRICULTURAL S YSTEM O F T HE M OCHE V ALLEY. P ERU

I .S.

F arrington

T he q uestions o f t he e xpansion a nd

i ntensification o f a p rehistoric

a gricultural s ystem a re m ost d ifficult t o s olve. T hey r equire s ubstantial a reas o f r elict f ields,

w hich c an b e p ositively d ated b y

e ither ' s herd s catter, s ite a ssociation o r e xcavation, a nd s ome a ssessment o f t he l evel o f i ntensification.

T he l atter m ay b e s imply

o n t he b asis o f t he p resence o r a bsence o f a p articular s et o f f eatures o r m ay b e am ore s ophisticated a ttempt t o m easure t he a mount o f i nput a nd o utput o f t he s ystem. T he N orth C oast o f P eru i s a n e xtremely g ood a rea i n w hich t o s tudy t hese f or t he f ollowing r easons: ( i)

t here h ave b een d etailed s ettlement s urveys i n v arious v alleys f rom C asma t o L a L eche;

( ii)

t here h as b een e xtensive e xcavation i n s everal i mportant s ites a nd p reservation o f o rganic m aterials i s g ood;

( ill)

t here i s d ocumentary m aterial, w hich r efers t o t he I nca a nd C himu p eriods,

a nd p rovides s ome l ight o n t he n ature

o f t he p olitical, s ocial a nd e conomic o rganisation o f t he v alleys.

T his m ay b e c ompared w ith t he b etter k nown

a nd m ore e laborate d ocumentation f rom e lsewhere i n P eru; ( iv)

t he c limate, a nd h ence r iver r egime, d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave a ltered d ramatically i n t he p ast

1 000 o r e ven 2 000

y ears; ( v)

t housands o f h ectares o f f ield a nd a ssociated c anal s ystems a re f ound o n t he d esert m argins o f a ll t he m ajor r iver v alleys, v irtually u ntouched s ince t hey w ere a bandoned a round

1 532 A D.

A s a c onsequence t hese

v alleys h ave b een m uch r esearched. I n g eneral, m uch o f t his w ork h as

f ocussed o n p resenting d ata f or

t he a nalysis o f t he W ittfogel h ypothesis a nd t he r elationship b etween i rrigation a nd s tate f ormation.

M ore r ecently,

t he t echnological

a spects o f t he s ystems h ave b een s tudied i ncluding m ethods o f c onstruction, h ydraulic e ngineering a nd h ydrology.

T he a im o f t his

p aper i s t o d evelop t he p reviously e stablished r elationship b etween p rehistoric c anal d ischarge a nd c rop i rrigation r equirements i n t he M ocha V alley ( Farrington a nd P ark

1 978), b y d escribing p ossible

a gricultural s trategies a vailable t o t he a ncient f armer a nd t o e xamine t he e xpansion a nd i ntensification o f t he s ystem i n r esponse t o e conomic,

s ocio-political a nd e nvironmental p ressure. 6 21

E nvironment T he N orth C oast i s a n e xtremely a rid r egion b ecause o f t he c ombined e ffects o f t he s outheast T rade W inds a nd t he C old M ean a nnual r ainfall i s l ow , o nly

P eruvian C urrent.

f or e xample a t T rujillo ( 1943-1960)

1 .7 m m w ith a r ange b etween 0 -8.0 m m ,

h igh. M ean a nnual t emperatures a re c ool,

i t i s

w hilst r elative h umidity i s

f or T rujillo i t i s

C loud c over i s e xtensive i n t he c ooler w inter m onths. t here i s a s trong o nshore b reeze f rom t he s outhwest.

1 9.30 C .

E ach a fternoon T hese c limatic

c onditions a re u nderstood t o h ave b een r elatively c onstant f or s everal t housand y ears. T he o nly m oisture a vailable f or c rop p lant g rowth i s e ither g roundwater o r t he r unoff f rom p erennial s treams w hich r ise h igh i n t he A ndes i n t he z one o f h eavy r ainfall a nd f low s teeply t o t he s ea. A way f rom t he r ivers a nd c oast, s upport p lant l ife.

t he w atertable i s g enerally t oo d eep t o

R iver r egimes a re e xtremely s easonal. T hey a re i n

s pate i n t he s ummer m onths b etween J anuary a nd M ay b ut f lows a re c onsiderably r educed d uring t he r est o f t he y ear. M oche R iver h as a m ean s ummer d ischarge o f b etween

F or e xample, t he 1 0 a nd 3 4 m3s ec 1

w hilst i n t he r emaining s even m onths i t d iminishes t o l ess t han 4 m3s ec 1

a nd i s o ccasionally d ry.

d ischarge i s c onveyed i n T able

1 .

T he e rratic n ature o f t he m onthly A ny a gricultural s ystem t herefore

m ust b e a dapted t o t his s easonal r egime f or i ts s uccess.

T able 1 :

M ean m onthly d ischarge ( m 3s ec 1 )o f t he M oche R iver

1 912-

1 978 s .d.

R ange

J anuary

6 7

9 .87

1 4.21

0 .12

F ebruary

6 6

1 6.96

1 5.53

0 .64 -

M arch

6 5

3 3.17

2 1.80

2 .27 - 1 22.43

A pril

6 6

2 4.46

1 7.36

3 .23 -

8 6.47

M ay

6 7

9 .62

6 .12

0 .51

-

3 2.75

J une

6 7

2 .45

1 .35

0 .50 -

5 .89

J uly

6 7

1 .11

0 .73

0 .13 -

3 .93

A ugust

6 7

0 .67

0 .50

0 .0

-

2 .24

S eptember

6 7

0 .73

0 .67

0 .0

-

3 .44

O ctober

6 7

1 .72

1 .92

0 .0

-

1.37

N ovember

6 7

2 .35

2 .75

0 .0

-

1 4.09

D ecember

6 6

3 .83

5 .17

0 .0

-

3 5.09

6 22

1 07.54 9 5.27

,

.

01 01 , :0000

.

I II I

KEY Heavy , we t l ands

Upper r iver t erraces

S and d eserts a nd d esert p ave men ts 0

1

2

3

4

5 kms .

L and t oo s teep a nd a r id I F

F igure 1 : E cological z ones o f t he M öche V alley .

6 23

T he l ower M oche V alley, s hort

( 25.6 k m)

b ut b road

b elow t he 2 00 i n c ontour,

( 15 k m)

f loodplain i n w hich t hree m acro-

e cological z ones c an b e r ecognised, v ariations i n s oil t ypes ( Figure ( i)

f ans o ut i nto a

a lthough w ithin e ach t here a re

1 ).

T he a rea i mmediately a djacent t o t he r iver w hich i s p rone t o s easonal w ater t able,

f looding a nd c haracterised b y a h igh

s prings a nd h eavy,

p oorly d rained s oils.

T he n atural v egetation w as p robably a t hick m onte w oodland.

I t i s n ow l argely c leared

f or m echanised s ugar

c ane c ultivation. A part f rom e xcess w ater, t he s oils a re l iable t o s alinisation.

Aw hole r ange o f t raditional

a gricultural s ystems c ould h ave b een p ractised i n t his a rea,

s uch a s f loodwater f arming,

d rained

f ields,

r aised

f ields a nd s unken f ields. ( ii)

T he u pper t errace l ands o f t he f loodplain w hich a re p articularly e xtensive o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver. T hese h ave a l ighter, m ore s oil t han z one ( i)

f ertile a nd b etter d rained

a nd t he n atural v egetation c over w as

a l ess d ense m onte. A ccording t o t he s oil s tudies o f t he C orporacion P eruana d el S anta,

t hese s oils a re i deal f or

c ultivation b ut n eed t o b e i rrigated l ittle b ut o ften. ( iii)

T he v alley s ides, d ry t ributary v alleys a nd f ans a re v irtually d evoid o f s oil.

T hey c omprise m ainly a s and

a nd g ravel m atrix w ith v arying a mounts o f a lluvial c lays. T hey d rain f reely b ut w ith t he a ddition o f i rrigation w ater a nd s ilts a re c apable o f b eing c ultivated. A griculture i n t he M oche V alley i n a ny p rehistoric p eriod h ad t o b e a dapted t o t he p erennial h azards o f d rought, t he s easonally f luctuating r iver r egime i ncluding f looding, d eposition o f s ands.

a nd a eolian e rosion a nd

O nce t he s ystem h as a djusted t hese h azards w ould

c ause l ittle o r n o d isturbance t o t he s ystem u nless i t w ere s tressed i n o ther w ays. N atural H azards: t ectonic u plift,

d une

M oseley ( 1978, f ormation a nd

1 983) h as l isted e arthquakes a nd p eriods o f ,

a nd s ubsequent t o,

E l

N if tos a s s ignificant h azards w hich c aused c hanges w ithin t he a griculture o f t he M oche V alley a t p articular t imes i n p rehistory. T he f irst t wo o f t hese I f ind t o b e o nly o f m inor i mportance w hereas t he l atter d eserves s ome c onsideration.

T he c oastal a rea r eceives m any

e arth t remors a nnually a nd o ccasionally t hese a re o f s ufficient m agnitude t o c ause u plift a lthough I f ind l ittle e vidence t o s upport h is c ontention t hat s uch e vents s everely a ffected t he o peration o f a griculture ( Farrington

1 983).

T he e ncroachment o f s and d unes o nto

f ields h as a lways b een a p roblem i n t he m ore m arginal a reas o f t he

6 24

f ields h as a lways b een a p roblem i n t he m ore m arginal a reas o f t he v alley a nd s hould n ot b e r egarded a s am ajor s timulus t o c hange. S uch e ncroachment m ust b e r egarded a s a p ost-abandonment e vent b ecause n ormal f ield m aintenance w ould h ave e nsured i ts c ontrol. T he E l

N ino p henomenon i nvolves t he p eriodic b reakdown o f t he

c limatic r egime a nd b rings w ith i t w armer, w etter, m ore t ropical c onditions. M ajor o nes o ccur p robably o nce e very a re m ore m inor e vents a bout e very 6 -8 y ears.

1 5-18 y ears a nd t here

T hey v ary i n i ntensity

f rom e vent t o e vent a nd s patially a long t he c oast.

T he s evere t ropical

s torms a nd g eneral r ain p roduces l arge a mounts o f r un-off w hich w ashes o ut u nconsolidated e mbankments,

r oads a nd c anals a nd s oils.

C rops m ay

b e l ost a nd t he h igher t emperatures a lso s erve t o i ncrease c rop d isease a nd p est

i nfestation. T he p eriod o f d estruction m ay l ast f or

3 -4 w eeks

b ut i ts e ffects o n t he e nvironment a nd t he p opulation c an l ast f or u p t o ay ear.

N evertheless, a part f rom r epair,

Ic an s ee n o o ther p hysical

r esponse i n t he a gricultural s ystem t o E l N i f io. H owever, N etherly ( 1977 )

d oes n ote t hat t he s egmented n ature o f c anal o wnership a nd

m aintenance r esponsibility w as p robably a n o rganisational r esponse t o t hese e vents.

I rrigation a nd o ther a gricultural s ystems A lthough m uch o f t he l ower M oche V alley a nd a djacent v alleys i s n owadays u nder i rrigated s ugar c ane c ultivation, a n umber o f t raditional

f arming s ystems s urvive i n t he c ommunity l ands o n t he

v alley p eriphery. T hese h ave b een d escribed i n t he e thnographic l iterature.

T hey a re p rimarily f or s ubsistence o r m arket g ardening.

T hey p rovide t he p rehistorian w ith h ints o f t he r ange o f s ystems a vailable t o t he p rehistoric

f armer i n a ddition t o c anal i rrigation.

S unken f ields h ave b een e xtensively s tudied 1 975 ;

W est

1 979).

( e.g.

P arsons a nd P suty

I n t he M oche V alley o ver 5 27 h a h ave b een m apped

f rom a erial p hotographs a lthough o nly a v ery s mall p roportion r emain. T hese d emonstrate a r ange o f c onditions f rom d ry, t hrough m ulti-cropped

f ields,

t o p ermanently w et g ardens f or t he

g rowing o f t otora, a nd a bandoned, s unken

a bandoned p lots,

w et a nd s aline o nes.

T he c ultivated

f ields a re u nder c rop f or m ost o f t he y ear w ith m aize, b eans a nd

a v ariety o f m arket g arden p roduce. l ess t han

1h a.

F ield s izes v ary, a lthough m ost a re

I n t he c orner o f e ach i s a w ell t o a llow f or

s upplementary i rrigation w hen t he w ater t able i s l owest i n

t he w inter

m onths a nd t o e nable g ermination t o o ccur. F loodwater

f arming w as p robably a v ery a ncient t echnique i n t he

M oche V alley w ith p lanting o ccurring a s t he f loods r eceded.

T he c ontrol

a nd d istribution o f f loodwaters b y t he c onstruction o f d iversions 6 25

K EY R e l ic t f ie ld s yste ms

S unken f i e lds

0

1

2

3

4

PS

P a mpa P uente S errano

CM

P a mpa Cabo l lo Muer to

5 kms .

I F

F igure 2 : P ampas a nd r elict f ield s ystems o f t he M bche V a lley .

6 26

s tructures,

c anals a nd b asins h as n ow a ll b ut d isappeared f rom t he

a rea, a lthough W est ( 1981)

s uggests t hat s and d unes w ere m odified t o

i mpound f loodwater n ear t he m outh o f t he V iru d uring t he C himu p eriod. D rainage s ystems a re c ommon i n t he c entral p art o f t he L ower M oche t oday. T he m ain d rains ( puquios o r s angrias )

a re d epicted o n M iguel

F eyjoo's m ap o f 1 760 a nd a re b elieved t o b e p rehistoric i n o rigin.

T he

G uaman c anal i s a d rain w hich a llows p ermanent c ultivation i n t he m iddle p art o f t he f loodplain a nd s ubsequently s erves a s a n i rrigation c anal t o t he l owest p arts o f z one ( ii)

o n t he n orthern s ide.

I n t he

l ower C hicama v alley, t he C hongopongo c anal i s a lso b oth a d rain a nd a n i rriggtion c anal.

R ecently,

a nother t ype o f d rained

b een d escribed i n V iru ( West

f ield s ystem h as

1 981) a nd i n C hicama ( Watson

1 979).

T his

c omprises a s eries o f e mbanked f ields w ith h ighly s aline p artitions. A ll t races o f s uch f ield s ystems h ave n ow d isappeared f rom t he M oche V alley. R aised

f ields r epresent a nother p ossible a gricultural s ystem f or

t he N orth C oast i n p rehistoric t ime.

D enevan

( 1980:640) h as b riefly

n oted a r aised f ield s ystem i n t he C asma V alley. h ave b een d escribed b y P ozorski e t a l.

( 1983)

r aised e mbayment n ear t he m outh o f t he C asma.

M ore r ecently t hese

t o l ie i n t he l ow-lying I f s uch s ystems e xisted

i n t he s easonally w ater-logged z ones o f t he M oche,

t hen t hey h ave b een

o bliterated b y c ommercial a griculture. C anal i rrigation i s t he d ominant a gricultural p ractice a nd h as b een s ince t he a dvent o f c ultivation i n t he s econd m illennium B C ( Farrington 1 974:83).

I ts o peration i s c ontrolled b y t he a vailability o f r iver

w ater a nd t herefore a gricultural a ctivities a re g enerally c onfined t o t he s ummer m onths w hen t he r iver i s i n f lood.

O nly o ne c rop p er a nnum

i s p roduced b ut c loser t o t he r iver i t i s p ossible t o r aise a s econd c rop w ith a c ombination o f i rrigation a nd w atertable f arming m ethods. T able 2 i llustrates t he t ypical a ctivities o f a p resent-day q uasit raditional m aize g rowing c ommunity a t M otupe, a m arginal i rrigation a rea i n t he M otupe V alley,

L ambayeque ( Hatch

1 976).

T he u se o f t he

p lough, a s w ell a s t he a ddition o f f ertiliser a m onth a fter p lanting, a re n ot p rehistoric t echniques.

I n a ddition, t he f requency o f

i rrigation i s n on-traditional a nd a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f i nfluence f rom g overnment a gricultural a gencies.

O n t he w hole, t hough H atch 's

w ork i s o f s ome u se i n d efining p ossible w orkloads f or e ach a gricultural t ask.

F ield p reparation a nd

f urrowing h as b een c alculated

o n t he b asis o f w ork f rom N u f loa t o b e

1 9 w orking d ays p er h a

( Brooke-Thomas

i n h is e thnography o f M oche,

1 973).

G illin

( 1948),

r eported t hat i rrigation t ook p lace e very 9 d ays a nd t hat t here w ere t wo p ossible c ropping s easons, a m ain o ne b etween D ecember a nd M ay a nd am inor d ry s eason o ne b etween J une a nd O ctober. w as g rown c lose t o t he r iver. 6 27

T he l atter p resumably

T able j 2 :

A cti i ties i n c ontemporary m aize c ultivation a t M otupe

D ays

T ask

M an d ays p er h a

47 t o 21

c learing l and

19 t o 16

r aking a nd b urning s talks

15 t o 14

s oaking

7

1 1 1

3

p loughing w ith a rd a nd h orse

0t o

+ 3

f urrowing w ith a rd

2

0t o

+ 3

p lanting

3

9t o

1 0

r eplanting

1 .6

3 0 t o

3 5

f ertilising

4 .6

3 7 t o

4 2

a porque/mounding

5

4 4 t o

4 9

r epair o f i rrigation s tructures

4

5 0 t o

5 1

i rrigate

1

5 3 t o

5 6

r epair o f d ikes

2

5 8 t o

6 2

w eeding

5

i rrigate

0 .75

s tanding l odged c orn

0 .5

7 3 7 4 t o

7 5

9 4 t o

9 5

1 00 t o 12

i rrigate

1

w eeding

5

9 6 t o

1 27

b ird s caring

1 28 t o

1 33

d oubling s talks

2

1 35 t o 1 40

c utting

6

1 42 t o

s acking t o s tore

1 54

T he m ain c rops g rown u nder t raditional i rrigation p ractices i nclude:-

m aize, b eans,

s quash, m anioc, s weet p otato, c hili p epper a nd

p eanuts a s w ell a s m any i ntroduced s pecies v arious i ndigenous f ruit t rees, p acae,

( Gillin

s uch a s a vocado,

( 1948).

c hirimoya,

C otton a nd l ucuma,

c ansaboca a nd g uanabana a re a lso g rown i n i rrigated f ields a nd

a s f ield b orders. A ll o f t hese c rops a re r eported i n t he a rchaeological r ecord

f rom t he v alley ( Pozorski

K eatinge a nd

B egler

1 978;

1 976;

K autz a nd K eatinge 1 977;

B rennan 1 978).

I nterpretation o f t he

p rehistoric c rop i nventory i s o pen t o q uestion i f r aw e xcavated q uantities o f e ach s pecies a re c ompared.

I t s eems b etter a t t his s tage

t o s imply d raw u p a p resence t able f or s ites o f d ifferent p eriods i n t he M oche V alley. M aize a nd c otton a re b elieved t o h ave b een t he m ainstays o f t he p rehistoric a gricultural e conomy ( e.g. N etherly 1 977). T his i s c onfirmed b y o ne o f t he e arliest S panish a ccounts o f N orth C oastal a griculture b y C ieza d e L eön ( von H agen d own t he c oast i n

1 547.

1 959), w ho t ravelled

H e d escribed t he r ange o f c rops a nd n oted t hat 6 28

m aize o ften y ielded t wo c rops p er a nnum. e xtensively c ultivated a nd t hat,

H e n oted t hat f ruit t rees w ere

i n s ome v alleys, t here w ere

p lantations o f c otton. H e a lso c ommented i ngenuity o f c onstruction o f t he c anal

i rrigation s ystems.

C rop w ater r eouirements a nd i rrigation s trategy T he m odern r equirements f or t he e ffective i rrigation o f v arious c rop p lants i n t he M oche V alley a re l isted i n T able 3 . T able

C rop r eauirementa 0 1 ,31ha 1 M aize

1 0000

S weet P otato

9 000 - 1 2000

M anioc

1 8000

P otato

9 000

S quash

7 000

C hili P epper

8 000

T hese f igures d o n ot i nclude c onveyance a nd

f ield l osses w hich a re

e stimated t o b e i n t he o rder o f 3 0-40% f or t he u nlined, e arthen c anals o f t he a rea. t he r iver

T herefore t he t otal a mount n eeded t o b e a bstracted f rom

f or s uccessful m aize c ultivation i s a pproximately t he o ffical

1 969 M oche f igure o f 1 0000 m3h a1 1 971:4).

p er s eason ( Rodriguez S uy S uy

A lthough i t i s a rgued t hat i n p rehistoric t imes t his

r equirement w as s pread e venly t hroughout t he c ropping p eriod ( Farrington a nd

P ark 1 978),

t here a re c ritical p eriods i n w hich

m oisture s tress t o w ilting p oint c an s everely a ffect c rop y ields. m ost c ritical i s a t

f lowering ( +55 - + 65 d ays)

T he

w hen t he p lant u tilises

t he m ost m oisture. A s evere d rought a t t his t ime o f 6 -8 d ays m ay r educe y ields b y 5 0% a nd e ven a m oderate 2 2%.

1 -2 d ay d rought w ill r educe t hem b y

P rolonged s tress f rom t he s even l eaf s tage ( +30 d ays)

t o

f lowering o r a fter f lowering p roduce y ield r eductions o f b etween 2 02 5%.

I f t here i s i nsufficient m oisture a t p lanting t ime, g ermination

m ay n ot d ays.

f ully o ccur i n w hich c ase p lanting m ay b e d elayed f or

1 0-14

A m oderate m oisture s tress b efore f lowering d oes n ot

s ignificantly a lter y ields. R esults o f t he a nalysis o f e xcavated c ross s ections a long t he V ichansao c anal

i n t he M oche V alley h as d emonstrated a c lose

r elationship b etween e stimated c anal d ischarges a nd r equirements f or m aize c ultivation

( Farrington a nd

f ield a rea P ark 1 978;

T able 4 ).

T his s hows t hat p rehistoric f armers u nderstood c rop r equirements a s w ell a s b oth c onveyance a nd

f ield l osses. M any l engths o f c anal w ere

p recisely c onstructed t o c arry t he r equired a mount o f w ater. T he m ain 6 29

c anals f low f ull c ontinuously t o e ach f ield a rea a nd w ithin e ach a rea t here w as a 1 0 d ay d istribution r otation. T he s econdary c anals w ithin t hese

f ield a reas w ere a lso p recisely c onstructed t o e ach c arry t he

s ame a mount o f w ater i n r otation ( Farrington

1 980).

s tated t hat f or t he M oche V alley t he s oils o f z ones r equire

1 0000 m3h a1

p er s eason ( i.e.

i rrigation w hilst t hose o f z one ( i)

T hus i t m ay b e ( ii ) a nd

( iii)

1 .157 m3s ec 1 h a1 ) p er

o nly h alf a s m uch o n a 2 0 d ay

d istribution c ycle. T able 4 :

V ichansao c anal d ischarze m 3§1Q1 E xcavated c ross s ection

P redicted d ischarge:

E stimated d ischarge

f ield a rea r equirements

3 .79

I ntake P VT2a

2 .48

P VT1a

2 .69

A renal

2 .82

J unction J T1a

2 .48

J T1b

2 .37

2 .29

R io S eco

1 .62

C onejita

1 .16

E l M ilagro

1

0 .79 E M1K1

1 .69

E M1K3

1 .84

E M1K4

1 .79

E M1K6

1 .80

E M2T1

0 .60

E M2T2

0 .50

E M2T3

0 .68

E l M ilagro 1

0 .62

0 .45

H uanchaco H VT8b

0 .55

H VT3b

0 .53

C otton w as i ncluded i n t he

1 978 a nalysis a s h aving a s imilar

m oisture r equirement a s m aize. H owever, c ommunication)

V reeland ( 1978 ,

p ersonal

p oints o ut t hat t his i s f or m odern h ybrid c otton a nd

t hat i ndigenous v arieties p roduce v iable c rops w ith m uch l ess. H e n otes t hat t oday t hese v arieties a re g rown i n t he m ost m arginal o f e nvironments a nd r eceive w ater i rregularly.

T hey c an e ven s urvive f or

u p t o 5y ears w ithout a dditional i rrigation a fter g ermination.

T he

n ative c otton i s t herefore w ell a dapted t o t he N orth C oast a nd m ust h ave b een a n i mportant d rought r esistant a lternative t o m aize i n m ore m arginal a reas w here w ater

f or i rrigation i s a vailable i nfrequently. 6 30

P rogeas of a s triQultural d ecisianimüd lAzin t he M oche V alley T able 5 i llustrates t he p ossible d ecision m aking p rocesses u ndertaken b y p rehistoric

f armers i n t he M oche V alley e ach y ear.

T he

d ecision t o s elect a p articular s trategy d epends o n c ertain p hysical i nformation, l osses,

s uch a s c rop m oisture r equirements,

s oils,

i rrigation

p redicted y ields a s w ell a s s ocio-economic i nformation, s uch a s

s ubsistence n eeds a nd t ribute d emands. s elected, d elayed,

O nce t he s trategy h as b een

t he f ields a re p repared a nd w atered a nd p lanting m ay b e i f i nsufficient m oisture i s a vailable f or s uccessful

g ermination. A t e ach i rrigation,

t he f armer m ust d ecide w hether t he w ater h e i s

r eceiving i s s ufficient, a nd i f n ot,

w hether h e w ill s pread t he w ater

e venly a cross a ll h is f ields o r w ater c ertain f ields o nly. N aturally, t hese d ecisions w ill b e a ffected b y t he s tage o f c rop p lant g rowth.

I t

i s t hought t hat t he f irst o f t hese t wo s trategies w as p robably t he m ost f requently a dopted. A fter h arvest t he f armer m ust a ssess w hether t he y ield i s s ufficient t o m eet d emands, p lanting a s econd c rop, p redicted.

a nd

i f i t i s s o, h e h as t he o ption o f

i f t here i s an eed a nd s ufficient m oisture i s

I f t he h arvest i s i nsufficient,

e lucidated.

t he r easons w hy a re

F our p ossible r easons a re o utlined. T wo o f t hese,

e arthquake a nd

f looding, m ay s everely d isrupt p roduction i n a ny o ne

y ear, b ut t he b asic r esponse t o t hese i n p rehistory w as t o r ebuild a nd r epair d amage,

a nd t o a cquire f ood f rom l ess s everely a ffected a reas

a long t he c oast. At hird r eason i s d rought w hich i s a p erennial p roblem i n t he M oche V alley.

T he p rovision o f i rrigation w ater e nables c ultivation t o t ake

p lace, b ut w ater r esources a re l imited t o t he r iver, w hose r egime f luctuates q uite m arkedly f rom y ear t o y ear.

T herefore a s t he s ystem

i s e xtended, m ore a nd m ore d emands a re p laced u pon r iver w ater t o t he p oint a t w hich t here i s i nsufficient f or t he e conomic o peration o f t he s ystem. W hen t his p oint i s r eached,

t he

f armer h as a n umber o f

a lternatives w hich c an b e g rouped i nto 5 t ypes o f r esponse. ( i)

T hese a re: -

t o p lant d rought r esistant c rops a nd t o d iversify t he c rop c omplex;

( ii)

t o i mprove t he e fficiency o f t he w ater c onveyance a nd d istribution s ystems a nd t he c onservation o f m oisture i n t he

( iii)

f ield;

t o s eek a lternative w ater s ources t o m aintain t he s ystem;

( iv)

t o i ntensify a gricultural p ractices o n t he w etter s oils;

( v)

t o a bandon t he h igh r isk , m arginal l ands c ompletely.

6 31

T able 5 : A gricultural d ecision m aking i n t he M ache V alley .

6 32

A f ourth p roblem i s t hat d emand s imply i s t oo h igh t o b e m et w ith t he e xisting f ield a rea a nd s o t he f armer m ust e xtend h is c anals a nd i ntake m ore l and. H aving r esolved t hese p roblems d uring t he w inter m onths, t he f armer c an b egin t o p repare f or t he n ew a gricultural y ear.

M ethods Q f a nalysis ( a)

D ating a nd f ield a rea e stimation

T he m ajority o f p rehistoric s ites c luster o n t he v alley m argins i n a ll p eriods. A gricultural l and w as a lways a t a p remium, a nd a lthough s ettlements h ad t o b e n earby,

t hey w ere l ocated o n l and u nwanted

c ultivation a t t hat t ime. T herefore,

f or

t hey w ere s ituated a bove o r

a djacent t o t he u ppermost c anals o r o n m ounds a nd h ills w ithin t he c ultivation a rea.

T he o nly s tructures b uilt w ithin t he f ields w ere

s mall h uts a nd l arger 1 974; K eatinge

' villa-like'

a dministrative o nes ( Farrington

1 974), t herefore b y p lotting t he d istribution o f

s ettlement p eriod b y p eriod i t i s p ossible t o e stimate t he a rea u nder c ultivation a t a ny o ne t ime ( Farrington a nd

F igures

1 974; M oseley

1 978,

s ee T able 6

3 a-f ).

T he p rehistoric c anal s ystems o f t he M oche V alley h ave b een d escribed i n d etail e lsewhere 1 978).

( Farrington

1 983;

F arrington a nd

P ark

T hese r elict f eatures a re s imply e xtensions o f t he m ajor c anals

o f t oday,

n amely,

t he M oro,

V ichansao a nd M ochica o n t he n orthern s ide

a nd H uatape a nd G eneral d e M oche o n t he s outhern. T hus i t i s p ossible t o d ate t he p eriod o f i nitial c onstruction o f a l ength o f c anal o r r elict) ( b)

( active

b y i ts a ssociated p rehistoric s ettlements.

I rrigation r eauirements a nd t he c alculation o f r isk

O n t he b asis o f t he p reviously m entioned r elationship b etween c anal d ischarge a nd

f ield a rea i t i s p ossible t o e stimate t he i rrigation

r equirements f or m aize c ultivation f or e ach a rchaeological p eriod ( Table 6 ).

S ince t here a ppears t o h ave b een n o m ajor c limatic c hanges

f or t he l ast 2 000 y ears, t hese e stimated r equirements c an t hen b e c ompared w ith r iver d ischarge r ecords f rom

1 912-1979.

T his m ethod n otes

w hether t here i s s ufficient m oisture f or s uccessful c ultivation u sing v arious 4 -monthly c ropping s trategies t hroughout t he y ear. s teps i n t his a nalysis a re,

f or e ach s trategy,

T he n ext

t o r ecord t he f requency

o f f ailure t o o btain t he r equired d ischarge a nd t o c alculate f or e ach f ailure t he p ercentage o f t he r equirement o btained.

T he s uccess o f

o btaining s ufficient w ater c an a lso b e c onverted i nto s ome e stimate o f c rop l oss b y u sing s tandard

f igures f or m aize y ield l osses. T herefore, 6 33

i rrigation s trategies f or e ach r equired d ischarge c an b e e valuated. C learly, a s t he s ystem g rew ,

t he n umber o f p otential a lternative

c ropping s easons d eclined a nd d rought b ecame a p roblem. T he c ritical t hreshhold a t w hich c rop l osses b ecame i ntolerable a nd n ew s trategies a dopted c an b e e stimated. T able 6 :

E xPansio ln o f t he N ewly c ultivated

Uri etion s veteg i

R equired

T otal

T otal

N ew

P otential

D ischarge

A rea

D ischarge

I nputs

M aize

( m s ec-1)

( ha)

( ha)

( man d ays)

( M. T ons)

1 .35

1 510

1 .35

3 73,114

3 86.75

0 .63

2 170

1 .98

8 7,300

9 18.00

2 .20

4 320

4 .18

3 50,895

7 59.43

a rea

y ield/ha

( ha) C havin

S al mar

a

8 10

b

7 00

a

1 1 50

b

2 00

G allinazo/ a 1 650 E .Mochica

b

5 00

L ate

a 3 253

3 .76

7 573

7 .94

3 44,743

3 854.09

a 2 805

3 .25

9 728

1.25

7 83,027

2 177.40

I nca

8 92

1 .03

1 0270

1 2.28

6 7,464

2 177.40

S unken

5 27/

M ochica L ate C himu

f ields

c

D rained

7 ,000,000

3 69 1 066

f ields a

-

i rrigation

b

-

f loodwater f arming

c

-

a ctual

f ield a rea

( c ) I nputs L abour i nputs i n c anal a nd

f ield c onstruction c an b e e stimated w ith

r eference t o s tandard p rocedures f or c onstruction a nd ( Table 6 ).

f or

f ield m onument a nd c anal

f ield o peration t o t he m odified H atch s cheme

F or m ain c anal c onstruction t hree e stimates h ave b een m ade: A21 i

g ar

I cy

• 11 me.

i rrigarl s •t l ienam E xisting d ial . ...an d ial . M ain c eremonial building. *

O ther

c eremonial b uil d . ..

F igure 3 a : E xtent o f a griculture : C havin .

F igure 3 b : S alinar.

F igure 3 c : G allinazo/E . M bchica . 6 35

F igure 3 d : L ate M bchica .

F igure 3 e: L ate C himu .

F igure 3 f : N ew a dditions : Inca p eriod .

6 36

f or s imple 3 m2 t rough,

( i) ( ii)

4 800 m an d ays p er k m;

f or a c anal c ut t hrough r olling t opography w ith e mbanked a uaeducts a nd c uttings,

( iii)

1 4,133 m an d ays p er k m;

f or t he V ichansao c anal c ut t hrough h eavily d issected c ountry,

8 4,000 m an d ays p er k m.

F or o ne h ectare o f s econdary c anals 2 2 m an d ays h as b een e stimated, a nd

f or t he c onstruction o f f ield b oundaries, d itches a nd f urrows 2 0

m an d ays p er h a.

T hese r epresent m inimum e stimates o nly.

F or e xample,

m ain c anal c onstruction d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount t he r emodelling o r e nlargement o f a n e xisting s ystem d uring a p eriod o f e xpansion. A nnual s ystem m aintenance a nd

f ield p reparation a re g enerally t hought t o b e

i n t he o rder o f 3 5-40 m an d ays p er h a c ultivated. ( d)

O utput

K irkby ( 1973:126), o n t he b asis o f h er w ork i n O axaca, e stablished a l inear r elationship b etween m ean m aize c ob l ength a nd y ield p er h ectare.

C ob l engths h ave b een p ublished b y T owle

( 1976) a nd

B ird

( 1978 ,

1 980)

( 1952),

f or s ites o n t he N orth C oast

P ozorski ( Table 7 ).

T his r elationship h as b een u sed h ere a lthough i t m ust b e u nderstood t hat t his n ecessarily d oes n ot r epresent t he m ain c rop g rown i n s ome o f t he m ore m arginal f ields o r t hat t he m aizes r ecovered a rchaeologically a re r epresentative o f t he s izes i n u se f or t he p eriod c oncerned. T able 7 :

M ean m aize c ob l ength ( cm ) C havin

5 .12

S alinar

6 .36

G allinazo

4 .72

M ochica

7 .4

C himu-Inca

5 .2

R ange 3 - 1 0.4 c m

E arly h istory o f t he M oche S ystem ( Figure 3 ) T he d evelopment o f t he M oche s ystem h as b een o utlined e lsewhere a nd w ill o nly b e b riefly d iscussed h ere ( Farrington

1 977).

I t h as b een

s uggested t hat b efore 1 000 B C a griculture w as b ased u pon f loodwater a nd h igh w ater t able m ethods w ith l ittle o r n o c ontrolled m anagement o f r esources. T he

f irst i ndirect e vidence f or i rrigation, b ased u pon s ettlement

d istribution,

d ates t o t he C havIn p eriod

( 1000-200 B C).

T he m ain s ites

o f t his p eriod a re a ssociated w ith t wo c anals o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he r iver w ith o nly a v ery l imited a rea o n t he s outhern. u nder c ultivation w as 1 510 h a,

T he t otal a rea

a bout 4 6% o f w hich w as i n z one ( i)

t herefore w ould h ave r equired l ess w ater. 6 37

a nd

T he r equired d ischarge i s

o nly

1 .35 m3s ec 1 . F ield

p reparation c ould h ave b egun i n D ecember

a nd a ny 4 m onth s trategy a dopted b etween t hen u ntil a lmost t otal s uccess;

J une w ould h ave

v ery s light r eductions i n y ield i n 1y ear i n 6

w ith a w atering s trategy f rom M arch u ntil J une. T he h eavier s oils a t t his t ime c ould h ave b een d ouble c ropped u sing b oth i rrigation w ater a nd t he h igh, e arly w inter w ater t able. T he b est t ime f or t he s econd c rop w ould h ave b een J uly t o O ctober.

T he e stimated l abour i nput i s

r elatively h igh b ut t his c ould b e t he r esult o f t he

f act t hat t he

s ystems b egan e arlier. T he S alinar p eriod

( 200 B C-0 A D )

w itnessed t he s ignificant

d evelopment o f a n ew i rrigation s cheme o n t he s outhern s ide b etween C erro O rejas a nd C erro A rena.

T he n ew a rea w as a bout

c omprised l and i n b oth z ones ( i)

a nd

( ii).

6 50 h a a nd

T he a dditional r equired

d ischarge r ules o ut f ull s cale c ommencement o f p lanting i n D ecember a nd f avours a m ajor p lanting i n J anuary/February w ith h arvest i n A pril/May. T he l ater c ycle, M arch t o J une, t hough v iable, d oes s uffer y ield r eductions, b ecause o f w ater d eficits i n J une,

i n a lmost

1y ear i n 2 ,

o f w hich a bout h alf a re q uite s evere i n t he o rder o f o nly 2 0% o f r equirement.

A s econd c rop c ould c ontinue t o b e p roduced u sing b oth

i rrigation a nd h igh w ater t able d ry f arming m ethods.

I nputs w ere

r elatively l ow i n t his s hort p eriod, a lthough y ields p er h ectare i ncreased. T he f irst m ajor e xpansion o f t he s ystem c ame i n t he G allinazo/Early M ochica p eriod

( 0-300 A D )

w hen t he v alley a ppears t o h ave b een

u nified i nto a c hiefdom o r s mall s tate. T here a re n o i ndications i n t he r ecord t hat t hese e xtensions w ere a ssociated w ith s tate l and,

s uch a s

i dentified b y K us ( 1980). A ll t hree c anals o n t he n orthern s ide w ere s ignificantly l engthened t o e nclose

1 400 h a o f n ew l and.

s outhern f lank, t he H uatape c anal w as e xtended a round h ectares).

O n t he

C erro A rena ( 250

Am ajor d evelopment i n t he l ower v alley w as t he o pening u p

o f 5 00 h a o f z one ( i)

l ands a t M ocha i tself w ith t he c onstruction o f

t he G eneral d e M oche c anal. T he s trategies a vailable t o t he f armers o f t his p eriod b ecame m ore r estricted a s t he s ystem e xpanded t o a d ischarge r equirement o f 4 .18 m3s ec 1 .

I f t he s ame a gricultural c ycle w as t o r un c oncurrently

t hroughout t he s ystem,

t hen t he o ptimum s trategy w ould b e s oak a nd

p lant i n b etween l ate J anuary/late e arly J une.

F ebruary a nd t o h arvest i n M ay o r

T his w ould t ake a dvantage o f t he b est m onths f or w ater

a vailability, M arch a nd A pril,

d uring w hich f lowering w ould o ccur.

R eductions i n y ield b ecause o f a w ater d eficit a t t his t ime w ould o ccur o nly o nce i n 7 0 y ears a nd t he l oss w ould n ot b e s erious.

F urthermore

s uch a s trategy w ould h ave f airly g ood w ater s upplied b etween f lowering a nd h arvest w ith a r isk o f i nsufficient w ater o nly i n o nly

1y ear i n 7w ith

1i n 2 0 s evere e nough t o c ause l osses i n t he o rder o f 2 0%. 6 38

S oaking a nd

p lanting o f a l arge a rea i n D ecember o r e arly J anuary

w ould h ave b een a p roblem. s taggered l osses.

H owever, t here i s t he p ossibility t hat a

s trategy o f p lanting w as p racticed t o r educe t he r isk o f c rop

T wo o f t hese h ave b een e xamined o n a 5m onth c ycle,

A pril a nd

J anuary-May .

t hen 4 .2,

4 .2,

T hese a re:

4 .2 a nd 3 .7;

0 .3 m3s ec 1

a nd 0 .5,

4 .2,

D ecember-

i n t he f irst m onth,

4 .2, a nd 3 .5.

B oth

s trategies c ommencing i n D ecember w ould b e h it b y s evere d rought i n J anuary i n a bout 4 0% o f t he y ears. H owever, t he s trategies b eginning i n J anuary h ave v ery h igh s uccess r ates a nd v irtually n o p redicted l osses. T hese r esults e ffectively r educe t he p ossibility o f u sing t he r ising r iver i n

D ecember.

T his c ould h ave b een o vercome b y u tilising a 6 m onth

c ycle ( December-May )

o f s ay:

0 .3,

0 .5,

4 .2,

r isks w ould b e e ffectively e liminated.

4 .2,

3 .9,

3 .4,

i n w hich

I t w ould s till h ave b een

p ossible t o o btain a s econd c rop o n t he w etter s oils b etween J uly a nd O ctober.

L abour i nputs f or t his p eriod a re s imilar t o t hose r ecorded

f or t he much l onger C havin p eriod a nd

p roductivity p er h ectare w as

i ncreased. T he L ate M ochica p eriod

( 300-700 A D) w itnessed a v ery m ajor p eriod

o f c anal b uilding a nd f ield a rea e xpansion.

T he M oche V alley b ecame t he

c entre o f a n a dvanced c hiefdom o r s tate w hich s tretched o ver a n umber o f N orth C oastal v alleys.

T here a re s ome i ndications t hat s ome o f t he

s chemes c onstructed a t t his t ime w ere s tate o nes.

K us ( 1980) n otes t he

s imilarity i n o rientation b etween m ajor l ate M ochica s tructures a nd t he l ayout o f f ield s ystems w hich m ay i mply s ome t ype o f f ormal s tate p lanning.

T his c an b e s upported w ith r eferences t o l abour i nputs i n

c anal c onstruction t o t he P ampas A renal,

F lorencia a nd E speranza. O ver

1 0.75 k m o f t he V ichansao w ere c onstructed a t t his t ime t hrough t he b roken t opography a nd s and d unes o f t he n orthern f oothills.

T he c anal

i s i n c uttings o r r aised o n s and a nd g ravel e mbankments f or t he w hole o f t his l ength a nd

i t h as b een p resumed t hat a w ork i nput o f 8 4,000 m an

d ays/km i s a n a ppropriate m easure.

T hus f or t his o ne s cheme a l ittle

o ver 9 00,000 m an d ays w ere n eeded.

I n a ddition t o t his,

a queduct w as c onstructed

( Farrington

1 972).

t he m ampuesto

T his s and a nd g ravel

s tructure o ver 9 m h igh a nd 6 00 m l ong w ould h ave t aken a bout 9 4,300 m an d ays t o c onstruct. s mall a rea o f a bout

T hese a re m ajor s chemes t o o pen u p a r elatively

100 h a.

A s c an b e s een f rom T able 6 a lthough

p roductivity p er h ectare h as i ncreased,

i t d oes n ot a ppear t o b e

s ufficient t o w arrant s uch a m assive l abour i nvestment u nless i t w as s tate o rganised a nd t he s urplus p roduced o f a ' non-economical'

o r

s ocio-political n ature. T he t otal i ncrease o f 3 253 h a i n z ones ( ii)

a nd

( iii)

i ncreased t he

t otal d ischarge r equirement f or t he w hole s ystem t o 7 .94 m3s ee 1 . I rrigation s trategies n ow a lmost e ntirely f avour a s taggered s cheme, a lthough a s ingle o peration t ime w ould b e p ossible

( Table 8 ).

T his

w ould h ave h ad t o h ave b egun i n l ate J anuary w ith a h arvest i n l ate 6 39

A pril a nd M ay t o t ake a dvantage o f t he h igh w ater a vailability i n M arch a nd A pril a nd t o m inimise l osses b ecause o f a 1y ear

i n 7d rought i n

M ay.

T able 9 :

P otential i rrlgati m e trate l es :

L atel ee liea .

R equirement 7 .94 m3s ec 1 %r isk o f f ailure t o a chieve 7 .94 m3s ec 1 A R isk %

0 .537

0 .254

1 .8

4

0 .059

0 .045

1 6.9

2 2.2

0 .477

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

I f o nly 3 .97 m3s ec 1

s atisfactory A

J R isk %

2 .1

0 .328

0 .134

3 .1

7 .5

0 .015

0 .015

0 .149

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

6 7

6 7

6 .7

6m onth c ycle A

R isk %

0 .3

1 .5

7 .9

7 .9

7 .6

6 .1

0 .059

0 .119

0 .254

0 .059

0 .045

0 .298

1.9

5 .9

4

1 6.9

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

2 0

3 .3

7m onth c ycle

R isk %

M

k

M

0 .3

2 .2

4 .3

7 .9

7 .6

5 .2

3 .1

0 .059

0 .224

0 .149

0 .059

0 .045

0 .209

0 .657

4 .5

6 .6

5

1 .5

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

1 6.9

1 6.9

2 0

An umber o f s taggered s trategies h ave b een a nalysed, o ne s taggering p lanting o ver 3 m onths w ith a c ultivation p eriod l asting 6 m onths, a nd a s econd h aving 4 p lanting m onths a nd a 7 m onth c ultivation p eriod ( Table 8 ).

T he 6 m onth s cheme h as t wo c ritical t imes, t he f irst i n

F ebruary w hen t here i s a 1y ear i n 4c hance o f f ailing t o r eceive s ufficient o f t he r equired m oisture t o p lant t he m ain c rop, a nd t hat t here i s n o w ay t he m ain c rop c ould b e d elayed b ecause s evere l osses w ould o ccur b efore h arvest.

S ince p lanting i s n ot s uch a c ritical

t ime, b ecause y ield i s n ot s ignificantly r educed b y d eficits a t t hat t ime, t hen i t i s p ossible t o r un t he s ystem o nly o n h alf t he r equired d ischarge. T he r isk o f f ailure i s h alved t o p roblem i s i n M ay w hen

1y ear i n 8 . T he s econd

1y ear i n 3d oes n ot h ave s ufficient w ater

a vailable. A 2 0% y ield l oss

is

T he s econd s trategy o f a

p redicted f or t his s trategy.

7m onth

c ultivation p eriod w ith p lanting

t aking p lace o ver 4 m onths m ay h ave o vercome s ome o f t he d ifficulty o f t he 6 m onth s cheme.

P lanting c an b e s taggered s o t hat e ven i n t imes o f

e arly p lanting f ailure, t he s ystem w ould s till h ave b uilt i n o ptions t o p lant a nd t ake t he r isk o f c omplete f ailure o r n ot t o p lant a t a ll a nd d istribute w ater a ccordingly.

T he 7 m onth s cheme i n T able 9 r eveals

s ome c ritical p eriods w here f ailure r ates a re g reater t han

1y ear i n

7 . A gain m oisture d eficit w as n ot s o c ritical a t t he p lanting t ime b ut c rop l osses w ould h ave o ccurred w ith t he m ain c rop b ecause o f a d rought o ccurring o n a verage 2 y ears o ut o f 3 .

F urther o nce e very t hree y ears

i t w ould h ave b een s ufficient t o r educe t he h arvest b y 2 0%. A ll o f t he p ossible s trategies i ndicate t hat t he s ystem w as b eginning t o s uffer s erious p roblems.

S ignificant c rop l osses c ould

o ccur w ith a 4 m onth c ycle a nd t hat t he r esponse w as p robably t o l engthen t he c ycle b y s taggering p lanting o ver 3 -4 m onths.

T he i mpact

o n o verall p roductivity o f t he s trategies v aries b ut w as p rogressively r educed w ith a l onger c ycle

( Table

1 0).

N o o ther a lternative

s trategies a ppear t o h ave b een a dopted o n a ny s cale i n t he M oche V alley. T hat t he s ystem w as b eginning t o r each i ts v iable l imits i s c onfirmed b y M oseley ( 1978)

w ho s uggested t hat t here w as a c ontraction

i n l and u nder c ultivation a t t he e nd o f t he M ochica p eriod. M uch o f t he l ower H uatape s ystem c ertainly f ell i nto d isrepair a nd s and d unes a ccumulated o ver t he f ield s ystems. T he P ampa L a E speranza h as i ndications o n i t t hat i t w as a bandoned a nd s ubsequently r ebuilt w ith a d ifferent w ater d istribution s ystem.

T he m ampuesto a queduct b uilt

d uring L ate M ochica t imes w as a bandoned a nd a llowed t o s lump f or s ome t ime b efore t he b eginning o f t he I mperial 1 972).

C himu p eriod

( Farrington

I s uspect t hat t he r eason f or t hese c ontractions w as t he

i nability o f t he s ystem t o c ope w ith t he p eriodic d roughts, c oupled w ith t he

f act t hat t he M ochica s tate w as n o l onger i n e xistence.

6 1 41

T able 1 Q :

P robabllitv o f a chieving 7 0% h arvest L ate M ochica P eriod A

Y ield

P robability 0 .585

Y es

0 .907

1

0 .016

0 .26 0 .662 0 .062

0 .364(

o 1

0 .338

/ //

N o

-

o

0 .25

0 .031

0 .75

0 .092

0 .1

0 .016

0 .9

0 .145

0 .636

1

0 .27

0 .25 0 N N N

O .5 -------1

0 .027

P robability o f a chieving 7 0% h arvest = 0 .71

L ate C himu a nd I nca a gricultural h istory ( c. C han C han,

t he c apital o f t he C himu E mpire, w as l ocated o n t he

n orth s ide o f t he M oche V alley. a round

100-1532 A D )

1 462 A D.

T he E mpire w as o verthrown b y t he I nca

T he c onquerors d ecentralised g overnment o n t he N orth

C oast a nd a dministered t he p rovince t hrough a s eries o f g overnors a nd t he l ocal l ords.

B asically, t he w ay o f l ife f or t he o rdinary p eople

d oes n ot a ppear t o c hange. T ypical C himu b lackware p ottery a bounds o n m any s ites a nd t here a re v ery f ew i tems o f I nca p ottery o r a rchitecture o r m uch I nca i nfluence i n t he l ocal w ares o r b uildings w hich c an b e p ositively r ecognised.

T his d ifficulty h as l ed t o s ome c onfusion i n t he

p recise d ating o f c ertain s ites a nd o f t he o pening u p o f p articular 6 42

f ield a reas.

Im aintain t hat c ertain s chemes d o d ate t o t he I nca

o ccupation a nd t hat t his i s i ndicated n ot o nly i n c ertain p ottery t raits b ut a lso i n e stimated c anal d ischarges o f c anals, V ichansao b efore a bandonment

s uch a s t he

( Farrington a nd P ark 1 978).

D uring t he L ate C himu p eriod a n umber o f m ajor n ew l and d evelopment s chemes f or i rrigation w ere u ndertaken w hich w ere a ll s tate p lanned a nd a dministered. a reas

S everal l arge

( Keatinge

' villa-like'

b uildings w ere b uilt i n t hese

1 974) a s w ell a s a w hole r ange o f f ield h uts.

T he m ain

s chemes w ere t he r emodelling a nd e xpansion o f t he P ampa L a E speranza s cheme ( 560 h a),

a nd t he e xtension o f t he V ichansao n orthwards a cross

t he R ib S eco t o t he P ampa E l M ilagro ( 885 h a).

T here w as a lso a n

e xtension o f t he M ochica c anal t o t he n orth o f C han C han t o V aldivia a nd H uanchaco ( c.

2 000 h a).

I t i s a lso p robable t hat t he I ntervalley

c anal w as b egun t o b e b uilt a t t his t ime ( Kus P ozorski

1 972;

P ozorski a nd

1 982).

D uring t he I nca o ccupation t he V ichansao w as c ompleted a cross t he P ampa E l M ilagro a nd l ed d own t o a s tate p lanned, g ridiron f ield s ystem o n t he P ampa d e H uanchaco ( Kus

1 980;

F arrington a nd P ark 1 978).

D rought c ontinued t o b e a p roblem f rom L ate M ochica t imes o nwards a nd a s t he s ystem e xpanded t he r isk o f h arvest f ailure m ust h ave b een i ncreased w ith w hatever s trategy w as a dopted.

I f 1.25 m3s ec 1

i s

t aken a s a n e xample, t he f ollowing d ifficulties m ay b e h ighlighted ( Table

T able

1).

1:

R equirement

P otential i rrigation s trategies:

L ate C himu

1.25 m35 ec 1

R isk %

0 .746

_ F

1

A

0 .493

0 .104

0 .134

0 .676

7 .5

1 .5

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

1 .34

2

1 0

I f h alf s ufficient A R isk %

0 .4

0 .21

0 .045

0 .045

5

4

2 2.2

2 2.2

0 .24

F ailure r ate 1y r i n -

6 1 43

4

I n a s ingle c ropping c ycle t he c ritical t ime o f f lowering A pril)

w ould h ave h ad a 1 y ear i n

a chieving s ufficient m oisture.

1 0 t o 1y ear

c ycle,

i n 8 r ate o f n ot

S uch d eficits i nstantly a re m irrored i n

s ignificant c rop l osses o f u p t o 5 0%. h ave b een a r isk o f a lmost

( March a nd

I n a bout

t otal c rop l oss.

1y ear

I n a s taggered c ropping

t he h ighest d ischarges a vailable i n M arch a nd

f lowering a s a bove o r t hey m ay b e

i n 2 0 t here w ould

p re-flowering.

d elayed u ntil t he e nd o f F ebruary o r e arly M arch,

A pril m ay o ccur a t

I f p lanting w ere t hen t he r isk o f

f ailure a s a r esult o f a w ater d eficit a t f lowering i n M ay w ould h ave b een a bout 2 y ears i n d isastrous.

T herefore,

3 ,

a nd

1y ear

i n 4w ould h ave b een a bsolutely

i n o rder t o o vercome t hese d ifficulties,

p rehistoric f armers a nd t he s tate l ooked

t he

f or a lternative s trategies.

A lternative s trategies ( 1)

I mprovement o f s ystem e fficiency

T his c ould h ave t aken t wo f orms:

i mprovement i n t he c onveyance

s ystem a nd i mprovement o f i n-field w ater d istribution a nd c onservation. I mprovements i n t he c onveyance s ystem t o t he m ajor s tate l and s chemes a long t he V ichansao w ere i n t he f orm o f c anal p articularly i n t he L ate M ochica c onstructed f oothills t o t he n orth o f P orvenir.

s traightening, s ection t hrough t he

S ix s uch s chemes c an b e i dentified

t here w hich i nvolved q uite m assive l abour i nputs t o d ig t hrough l ow h ills

( Figure 4 ).

C himu p eriod.

O ne s uch s cheme c an c learly b e d ated t o t he L ate

T he b enefit o f r iver s traightening i s t o c onvey w ater

q uicker a nd m ore e fficiently t o t he

f ield s ystem. M inor s chemes o f

c hannel b ed a nd b anks i mprovement a nd r emodelling a lmost c ertainly w ent h and i n h and w ith t his b ut r emain u ndetected. i nvestment,

H owever, d espite t he

t he l ack o f w ater c ould n ot b e o vercome a t c ritical t imes.

I mprovements t o i n-field w ater d istribution i s a p ossible s trategy f or e fficient w ater u se a dopted b y C himu f armers. r ecognised s ix t ypes o f p rehistoric

K us

( 1972) h as

f urrow s ystems a nd c an o ffer n o

m ajor r eason w hy t here s hould b e s uch d iversity.

C ertainly t he

v ariations o n t he E -shaped l ayout a nd t he r ectangular b unded f ields w ith s hort,

s traight,

p arallel

f urrows o n t he

P ampa d e H uanchaco a re

c lear a ttempts a t w ater c onservation. M ulching a nd p lanting i n t he r idges w ould a lso s erve t o m ake m oisture u se b y t he

p lant m ore

e fficient. ( 2)

D iversify c rop c omplex

P ozorski

( 1976)

l ists o nly o ne m ajor c rop c hange a t t his t ime

o ccurring i n t he s equence o f p lant r emains i s,

f rom t he M oche V alley,

t hat

t hat t here a ppears t o b e g reater e mphasis p laced o n t he g rowing o f 6 4 / 4

f ruit t rees. A ll m iddens s tudied f or b oth p eriods s how t his p henomenon, a lthough I 'm n ot s ure w hether t his r eflects a r eal s ituation.

C learly

i n a n e nvironment s uffering a cute d rought p roblems, t he c ultivation o f m oisture-loving f ruit t rees c ould n ot h ave t aken p lace i n t he m ore m arginal f ields.

H owever t here c ould h ave b een m ore t rees g rown i n t he

w etter a reas a nd z ones w here m oisture

f or g rowth i s m ore r eadily

a vailable a nd t hus l iberate m ore w ater f or u se i n t he m ore a rid a reas. ( 3)

P lant d rought r esistant c rops

T he a rchaeological m aizes f rom t he N orth C oast h ave n ot y et b een g rouped i nto r aces a nd,

t herefore i t i s v ery d ifficult t o s ay w hether

t here i s a d efinite m ove t owards m ore d rought r esistant v arieties. c eramic e vidence d escribed b y G robman e t a l.

( 1961)

o f r elatively s hort s eason v arieties w ere g rown.

T he

s uggests a s eries

T he r ange o f s izes

p resent i n C himu a nd I nca m iddens a lso s uggests t hat a v ariety o f t ypes w ere c ultivated,

s ome o f w hich m ay h ave b een s pecific d rought r esistant

r aces. M idden a nalysis i n t he v alley d oes n ot a ppear t o i ndicate t rends t owards t he c oncentration o n p lants w hich r equire l ess m oisture t han m aize.

B eans a nd s quash a nd p eanuts c ontinue t o a ppear i n s ignificant

q uantities, a nd o nly a t C erro L a V irgen d o b oth v arieties o f b ean b ecome t he m ost d ominant f ood c rop ( Pozorski

1 976:184).

T his m ay

i ndicate t hat b eans w ere g rown i n t he m ore m arginal l ands i n t he v icinity o f t his v illage, s uch a s t he P ampa d e H uanchaco o r V aldivia b ut i t m ay b e s imply a n a berration. I t i s p erhaps m ore s ignificant t hat a t t he s ame s ite c otton i s t he m ost a bundant o f a ll p lant s pecies r ecovered a nd m ore s ignificant t here t han a t a ny o ther s ite i n t he v alley.

A s a r esult,

P ozorski ( 1976:184)

s uggests t hat m uch o f t he s tate l and n ear t he C erro L a V irgen w as d evoted t o c otton p roduction. G iven t he w ater r equirements, t olerances a nd r ates o f f ibre p roduction o utlined b y V reeland

( 1976),

t he

i ndigenous v ariety o f GO SSV TA U M b arbadense i s c learly t he b est a lternative t o m aize p roduction i n t he m arginal s tate l ands.

I t i s a

p lant w hich c an w ithstand l ong p eriods o f d rought a nd c ontinue t o f ruit.

N aturally,

i t d oes b etter i f i rrigation w ater i s a vailable.

F urthermore c otton w as a h ighly p rized c ommodity i n b oth C himu a nd I nca t imes a nd w as s ometimes t raded a nd c arted b y t he s tate a nd a ristocracy. T herefore, i t i s p roposed t hat t here w as a d efinite s trategy a dopted a t t his t ime o f p lanting d rought r esistant c otton o n f ields w hose w ater s upply c ould n ot b e f ully g uaranteed.

T here w as p robably a m ove t o

p lant m ore d rought r esistant f ood c rops b ut t he e vidence, a t p resent, i s n ot c onvincing.

6 45

( 4)

A lternative w ater s ources

O ne o f t he m ajor r esponses t o t he p erception o f t he d rought h azard i s t o s earch f or a lternative w ater s ources.

T his w as d one p robably i n

I mperial C himu t imes w hen i t w as d ecided t o t ap t he m ore r eliable a nd l arger C hicama r iver t o t he n orth.

A n

I ntervalley c anal w as c onstructed

t o e xtend a n e xisting C hicama v alley c anal a f urther 6 0 k m o ver t he w atershed a t L a C umbre t o a j unction p oint t o t he n orth o f C han C han. F rom h ere i ts w aters c ould b e u sed t o i rrigate t he s tate l ands o f t he P ampas E speranza,

R io S eco,

M ilagro a nd H uanchaco.

s ystems w ere c onstructed a t L escano ( 500 h a) h a)

O n t he w ay n ew f ield

a nd Q uebrada d el O so ( 120

a nd o thers w ere i n t he p rocess o f b eing l aid o ut o n b oth s ides o f

t he d ivide. T he m ain t ask o f t his c anal w as t o b ring 2 .3 m35 ec 1 t he s tate l ands o f t he M oche V alley.

t o

I t h as b een a rgued e lsewhere t hat

t his s cheme f ailed t o d eliver t he c orrect a mount b ecause o f p roblems o f e rosion a s i t c rossed t he R io'Seco.

I n f act,

o nly 0 .86 m3s ec 1

o r

4 0% o f t he r equired f low c ould b e e fficiently c onveyed t o t he j unction ( Farrington a nd P ark 1 978).

O rtloff ,

M oseley a nd

F eldman ( 1982 )

h ave

s uggested t hat t his c anal f ailed b ecause i ts c ourse w as d isrupted b y t ectonic m ovement. ( 1982) a nd

T his h as b een r efuted b y P ozorski a nd

F arrington ( 1983).

P ozorski

P ozorski a nd P ozorski p rovide e vidence

t hat t he c anal w as n ever c ompleted b ecause c ertain l engths r un u phill a nd m ust b e r egarded a s a n i mpressive, b ut u seless,

s tatement o f t he

p olitical a nd o rganisational p ower o f t he C himu k ings.

R ecent

f ieldwork i n t he a rea o f Q uebrada d el O so c onfirms t hat t ectonic a ctivity w as n ot t he r eason f or f ailure.

I t i s c lear t hat t here a re

c ertain l engths w hich h ave b een c onstructed o n a s lightly u phill g radient,

a nd t hat t here i s e vidence t hat a n ew c ourse w as b eing

e xcavated t o s olve t his p roblem w hen t he p roject w as e ventually a bandoned.

T he o verwhelming i mpression o f t his c anal i s t hat c ertain

l ong l engths o f i t w ere b uilt i n ah urry b y s eparate l abour g angs ( Moseley

1 978;

K us

1 980)

a nd t o a s imple d esign, n amely a n

h ydraulically s traight c hannel. N evertheless, P ozorski

i t w as a m ajor s tate u ndertaking.

P ozorski a nd

( 1982) h ave e stimated t hat o ver 4 .1 m illion m an d ays w ere

n eeded t o c onstruct i t a nd t hat t his c ould o nly h ave b een s tate o rganised,

a lthough I w ould e stimate p erhaps o nly 2 5% o f t his a mount.

I ts f ailure r epresented n ot o nly a n e ngineering d isaster b ut w as q uite c atastrophic f or t he s tate a gricultural p roduction s ystem i n t he M oche V alley. h a),

A s a c onsequence,

p art o f t he H uanchaco s ystem,

w as a bandoned o r n ever e ven b rought i nto u se.

T he

p hase B ( 350 I ntervalley

c anal m ust h ave b een p lanned a s t he s olution t o t he d rought p roblem b ecause i t w ould h ave d ivorced t he s tate l ands f rom a r eliance u pon t he M oche R iver f or t heir w ater. M oche V alley s ystem,

T his w ould h ave h elped t o m aintain t he

w hich w as c ommunity l and u nder l ocal l ords,

a t a

l evel o f r isk o nly s lightly g reater t han t hose e xperienced i n L ate M ochica t imes. 6 1 46

( 5)

A bandonment o f h igh r isk l ands

T his i s o ne s trategy w hich w as a dopted f or w hich t here i s c lear e vidence o f a bandonment o r s ystems c ontraction b ecause o f d rought.

T he

f ailure o f t he I ntervalley c anal m eant t hat c ertain f ield c onstruction p rogrammes w ere n ever c ompleted, e .g. L a C umbre.

i n t he R io S eco a nd o n t he P ampa

T he P ampa d e H uanchaco p hase B s cheme w as p robably n ever

f ully b rought i nto u se,

a lthough t he c anals a t t he f ar e nd o f t he P ampa

E l M ilagro a nd t he t op o f t he P ampa d e H uanchaco w ere c onstructed t o t ake s ufficient f low t o w ater i t.

C omparison o f e stimated c anal

d ischarges f rom t wo s ets o f c ross-sections a t t he J unction a nd a t P orvenir o n t he V ichansao i ndicate t wo p eriods o f o peration a nd r eduction o f f low o f t he s ame m agnitude.

T his h as b een r elated t o t wo

a ttempts t o a ctivate t he P ampa d e H uanchaco s ystem p hase.

T hus t he

f ailure o f t he I ntervalley c anal s ystem c aused f ield a bandonment i n M oche.

O ther

f ield a reas a bandoned a t t his t ime w ere a t t he f ar e nd o f

t he M ochica s ystem a t V aldivia. T he l oss o f t hese l ands r educed i n p art t he w ater n eeds o f t he s ystem a nd h ence t he r isk o f c rop l oss, b ut t hese w ere s till s ignificantly h igher t han i n M ochica t imes. ( 6)

I ntensification o n w etter s oils

I t h as b een a rgued i n a p revious p aper t hat, o n t he b asis o f s ettlement p attern a nd p lacename e vidence,

t he s oils o f z one ( i)

i n t he

l ower v alley w ere n ot o ccupied f or a gricultural p urposes u ntil l ate i n t he s equence ( Farrington

1 974).

T hese l ands w ere o pened u p b y a s cheme

o f s unken f ields a nd a s eries o f d rains w ith a ssociated f ields. T he 5 27 h a o f s unken

f ields, m apped b y P arsons a nd

h ave b een s ubject t o f airly i ntensive, t his a uthor.

P suty ( 1975),

f ield s urvey a nd e xcavation b y

A ll s ettlement a nd s herd s catter o n t he r idges b etween

f ields a re l ate ( Chimu o r I nca)

a nd e xcavations t hrough f ield

e mbankments r eveal b oth C himu a nd C himu-Inca s tyle p ottery i n t he s and m atrix b elow t he p rehistoric s oil l ines. r ecent s urvey w ork b y M oseley ( 1975 ,

T he d ating i s s upported b y

p ersonal c ommunication)

a nd b y

K autz a nd K eatinge ( 1977). T he s unken f ields r epresent a m ajor i nvestment i n t erms o f l abour i nput.

I t h as b een e stimated t hat t he

3 69 h a o f f ield s urface w ere

e xcavated b y r emoving c .

1m o f t op s oil a nd t he s poil h eaped o n t he

s urrounding e mbankments.

S hallow w ells w ere a lso d ug i n e ach f ield.

O n

t his b asis i t h as b een c alculated t hat 7 m illion m an d ays w ere i nvolved i n t heir c onstruction.

T his

f igure i s e normous c ompared w ith t he s mall

s ize o f t he a rea, b ut i t i s p ossible t o c rop t hese f ields a t l east t wice p er a nnum.

E ven f ield o perations a nd m aintenance m ust h ave b een

q uite i ntensive f or n ot o nly i s t here a n eed t o h and w ater y oung p lants, b ut a lso t he s oils o f t hese

f ields a ccumulate s alts w hich m ust

b e p eriodically r emoved. 6 47

A w ide v ariety o f c rops w ere p robably g rown i n t hese f ields. E xcavations i n a ssociated m iddens a t C horoval o n t he s outh s ide a nd a t M edanos l a

J oyada n orth o f H uanchaco r evealed a f ull r ange o f c rop

p lants i ncluding

f ruit t rees

( Pozorski

1 976).

N o i mportant a dministrative b uildings h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hese t hat t he s unken h azard.

f ields a nd,

a s a c onsequence,

i t c ould b e a rgued

f ield s cheme w as a c ommunity r esponse t o t he d rought

I n o ther w ords, m ore a nd m ore w ater c ould h ave b een d irected

t o t he s tate l ands a nd t his s timulated t he c ommunities t o i ntensify t heir

p roduction.

E vidence z one ( i)

f or p rehistoric d rains

f lowing

i n t he l ower v alley i s i ndirect.

f rom p erennial s prings i n

H owever,

L ate C himu

s ettlement a nd c emetery s ites h ave b een r ecorded i n t he a rea o f t hese d rains,

a nd

p ueblo o f H uaman s ettled t here d uring t he

R odriguez S uy S uy ( 1971) b y t hese c anals.

1 066 h a o f f ields w ere d rained

D rainage w ould h ave p ermitted c ultivation o f a w hole

r ange o f f ield c rops, a nd s weet

h as n oted t hat

I nca o ccupation.

i ncluding m aize, b eans a nd t he r oot c rops, m anioc

p otato.

I t c an b e s een t herefore t hat a s t he c anal s ystem w as e xtended i n t he L ate

C himu a nd

s tate s urplus,

I nca p eriods

f or r easons o f t he

p roduction o f a

t he d rought p roblem b ecame a cute a nd v arious s olutions

w ere a ttempted.

C onclusions T he p ractice o f i rrigation a griculture i n t he M ocha V alley w as d eveloped b y

1 000 B C.

I t w as c onditioned b y t he a vailability o f r iver

w ater a nd o ne m ajor a nd o ne m inor c ropping s eason c an b e d efined f or t he e arly p eriods.

A fter

1A D u nder

i ncreases i n p opulation s ize a nd

s ocial d emand t he s ystem w as e xpanded w hilst t he a gricultural r emained l argely t he s ame.

T he i ncreased d emand

r educed t he o ptions a vailable t o t he c ropping s eason, a lways b e r aised.

f or w ater t hough

p rehistoric f armer i n t he m ain

a lthough i n t he m inor o ne a s mall s econd c rop c ould B y t he L ate M ochica p eriod,

u npredictable s upply,

w ith w ater i n l imited a nd

t he h igh d emands p robably c aused a v ariety o f

a lternative s trategies t o b e p racticed. N evertheless, t hat s mall y ear i n

p ractices

p roductivity l osses o ccurred

1 0 t here w as a s evere r eduction.

f requently a nd

i t i s s uspected t hat

r egarded a s c lose t o t he l imits o f t olerance o f c rop l osses. t he e nd o f t he M ochica p eriod a nd

p robably

t he E arly C himu p hases,

T owards

p arts o f t he

s ystem w ere p robably a bandoned b ecause o f a r eduction i n s ocial d emand.

6 1 48

1

T he L ate M ochica s ystem i s

T he r ise o f t he C himu s tate a nd i ts s ubsequent c onquest a nd r ule b y t he

I nca w itnessed f urther e xtensions t o t he a lready s trained

s ystem.

D rought w as p erceived a s t he m ain h azard a nd v arious s trategies

w ere e xplored t o s olve t he p roblems c reated b y t he c onstruction o f n ew s tate l ands.

T hese w ere n ot o nly s tate r esponses,

s uch a s t he

i mprovement o f s ystem e fficiency, d iversification o f c rop c omplex, p lanting o f d rought r esistant c rops,

t he s earch f or a n a lternative

w ater s upply a nd u ltimately a bandonment o f h igh r isk l ands, b ut a lso c ommunity o nes i n t he f orm o f i ntensification i n s unken f ields a nd d rained

f ields.

A ll o f t hese c an b e r ecognised i n t he a rchaeological

r ecord. C rop l osses w ould h ave b een q uite s evere i n

1y ear i n e very 8 .

I n

o rder t o r educe t hese i n t he s tate l ands a nd t o r elieve t he b urden o n t he c ommunity l ands, t he I ntervalley c anal w as c onstructed w hich i nvolved a m assive l abour i nput.

I t w as p lanned d uring t he L ate C himu

b ut w as n ot c ompleted u ntil d uring t he I nca o ccupation.

T echnologically

i t w as a d isaster a nd f ailed t o s upply t he s tate f ields w ith s ufficient w ater,

i f a ny a t a ll. T he c onsequences o f t his w ere t he a bandonment o f

s ome l ands, a c oncentration o n t he c ultivation o f c otton a nd o ther d rought r esistant v arieties, a nd p robably t he f urther i ntensification o f t he c ommunity p rojects i n t he l ower v alley. I n t he M oche V alley c hange u sually o ccurred i n t he f orm o f e xpansion i n r esponse t o i ncreased d emands

f or

p roduction, b ut t he m ove

t owards i ntensification o f e ffort i n c onstruction a nd i n o ther a gricultural a ctivities w as a r esponse t o t he c onstraints w hich p erceived d rought p laced u pon t he c ontinued e xpansion a nd o peration o f t he s ystem.

R eferences c ited B ird,

R .M.

1 978

A rchaeological m aize f rom P eru.

Maize G enetics C ooperation

N ewsletter 5 2:90-92. B ird,

R .M. a nd J .B .

1 980

B ird

G allinazo m aize f rom t he C hicama V alley,

P eru.

A merican

A ntiquity 4 5:325-332. B rennan, 1 978

C . I nvestigations a t C erro A rena ,

d issertation, D enevan, 1 980

P eru.

U npublished P h.D.

U niversity o f A rizona.

W .M. T ipologia d e c onfiguraciones a gricolas p rehispänicas.

A m ' irica I ndfgena 4 0:619-652. F arrington, 1 974

I .S.

I rrigation a nd s ettlement p attern:

6 49

p reliminary r esearch

r esults f rom t he N orth C oast o f P eru. o n S ociety ,

e dited b y T .E .

I n Irrigation's I mpact

D owning a nd M .

G ibson,

p p.83-94.

T ucson. F arrington, 1 977

I .S.

L and u se,

i rrigation a nd s ociety o n t he N orth C oast o f P eru

i n t he p rehispanic e ra.

Z eitschrift f r B ewNsserungswirtschaft

1 2:151-186. F arrington, 1 983

I .S.

T he d esign a nd

f unction o f t he I ntervalley C anal:

o n a p aper b y O rtloff ,

M oseley a nd

F eldman.

c omments

American Antiquity

4 8:360-375. F arrington, 1 978

I .S. a nd C .C .

P ark

H ydraulic e ngineering a nd i rrigation a griculture i n t he M oche

V alley , G illin,

P eru.

J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 5 :255-268.

J .

1 947

M oche.

A P eruvian C oastal C ommunity.

A nthropology, G robman,

I nstitute o f S ocial

S mithsonian I nstitution P ublication N o.

3 .

A . e t a l.

1 961

R aces o f M aize i n P eru:

c lassification .

t heir o rigins,

N ational R esearch C ouncil

e volution and P ublication 9 15.

W ashington D .C. v on H agen, W .V. 1 959

T he I ncas o f P edro C ieza d e L eön.

U niversity o f O klahoma

P ress. H atch,

J .K.

1 976

T he C orn F armers o f M otupe.

L and T enure C enter M onographs

1 , M adison. K autz,

R .R. a nd

1 977

R .W.

K eatinge

D etermining s ite f unction:

a N orth P eruvian c oastal e xample.

A merican A ntiquity 4 2:86-97. K eatinge, 1 974

R .W. C himu r ural a dministrative c enters i n t he M oche V alley,

P eru.

W orld A rchaeology 6 :66-82. K eatinge, 1 979

R .W. a nd E .B .

B egler

T heoretical g oals a nd m ethodological r ealities:

t he r econstruction o f s ubsistence e conomies. K irkby, 1 973

A .V. T he U se o f L and a nd W ater R esources i n t he P ast a nd P resent

V alley o f O axaca,

M exico.

U niversity o f M ichigan N o. K us,

M emoirs o f M useum o f A nthropology , 5 .

J .

1 972

K us,

p roblems i n

W orld A rchaeology.

S elected A spects o f I rrigated A griculture i n t he C himu

H eart/and .

U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

C alifornia,

L os A ngeles.

U niversity o f

J .

1 980

L a a gricultura e statal e n l a c osta n orte d el P eru.

I ndegena 4 0:191-196. 6 50

Amgrica

M oseley,

M .E.

1 978

A n e mpirical a pproach t o p rehistoric a grarian c ollapse:

c ase o f t he M oche V alley ,

P eru.

T he

I n S ocial a nd T echnological

M anagement i n D ry L ands , e dited b y N .L. G onzalez,

p p.9-43.

W estview P ress. M oseley ,

M .E.

1 983

T he g ood o ld d ays w ere b etter:

t ectonics. N etherly, 1 977

a grarian c ollapse a nd

A merican A nthropologist 8 5:773-799.

P . L ocal L evel L ords o n t he N orth C oast o f P eru.

P h.D. d issertation, O rtloff,

C ornell U niversity.

C .R., M .E. M oseley a nd R .

1 982

U npublished

F eldman

H ydraulic e ngineering a spects o f t he C himu C hicama-Moche

I ntervalley c anal. P arsons,

J .R. a nd N .

1 975

American A ntiquity 4 7:572-595.

P suty

S unken f ields a nd p rehispanic s ubsistence o n t he P eruvian

c oast. P ozorski, 1 976

A merican A ntiquity 4 0:259-282.

S .G. P rehistoric s ubsistence p atterns a nd s ite e conomics i n t he

M oche V alley,

P eru.

U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

U niversity

o f T exas. P ozorski, 1 982

T . a nd S .G . P ozorski R eassessing t he C hicama-Moche I ntervalley C anal.

American

A ntiquity 4 7:851-868. P ozorski, 1 983

T . e t a l. P re-hispanic r idged f ields o f t he C asma V alley,

P eru.

G eographical R eview 7 3:407-416. R odriguez S uy S uy, V .A. 1 971

I rrigaciön p rehistörica e n e l V alle d e M oche.

C encira 1 ,

L ima. T homas,

R .B .

1 973

H uman A daptation t o a H igh A ndean E nergy F low S ystem .

P ennsylvania S tate U niversity. T owle, M . 1 952

T he E thnobotany o f P re-Columbian P eru.

V reeland, 1 978

A ldine.

J .M . A lgodon p ais:

u n c ultivo m ilenario o lvidado.

B oleten d e l a

S ociedad G eografica d e L ima 9 7:19-24. W atson, 1 979

R .P. W ater C ontrol a nd L and U se o n t he A rid N orth C oast o f P eru:

p rehispanic a gricultural s ystems i n t he C hicama V alley. U npublished M .A. d issertation,

U niversity o f T exas.

W est, M . 1 979

E arly w atertable f arming o n t he N orth C oast o f P eru.

A merican A ntiquity 4 4:138-144. W est, M . 1 981

A gricultural r esource u se i n a n A ndean c oastal e cosystem.

H uman E cology 9 :47-78. 6 51

' I LZ TI alFC Ua T LO L IL A IL I L S I ME TIAL_I T2. 0 .5 _ : _ i_ u r

R oland

mA LIFei lku mu La ta m m

F letcher

I n t his p aper I w ill c onsider s ome o f t he w ays i n w hich w e t ry t o e xplain a gricultural i ntensification. e xplanation o f f ailure.

T he e xample I s hall u se i s t he i ntensification

o f c rop e conomies i n M esa V erde, d uring '

M y p articular c oncern i s t he

i n t he s outh-west o f t he U .S.A.,

t he t enth t o t wentieth c enturies A D a nd t he s ubsequent

a bandonment o f t he r egion a round 1 300 A D. Iw ill a rgue t hat w e n eed t o t ake t he i nternal p atterning o f c ommunity b ehaviour i nto a ccount w ithout f alling i nto t he t rap o f d escribing t hat b ehaviour i n t erms o f " ideals" o r " normative" v alues. T he a bandonment i s s een a s a p roduct o f t he i nteraction b etween e nvironmental s tresses,

s uch a s d rought a nd r esidential s tresses g ener-

a ted b y t he m aterial b ehaviour w hich w as b uilt i nto t he c liff d wellings o f M esa V erde. F irst,

Iw ill d iscuss a daptation a nd t he p roblems o f e xplanation

w hich a re i nvolved.

Am odel w ill b e p roposed a nd

i ts i mplications o ut-

l ined. T he m iddle p ortion o f t he p aper i s a r eview o f t he e nvironment o f M esa V erde, a d escription o f t he s ystem o f i ntensification a nd a n a ssessment o f t he e xplanatory p roblems. Iw ill o utline t he e vidence

I n t he t hird p art o f t he p aper

f or r esidential s tress a nd r eview t he c om-

b ination o f f actors w hich a pparently c ontributed t o t he a bandonment o f t he r egion.

A daptatito r i E nvironmental f actors a nd e xplanations o f a daptation I f e nvironmental f actors a re d escribed a s s electors f or a nd a gainst g roup b ehaviour t hey c annot t hen b e d efined a s t he i nitiators o f p articular h uman a ctions.

A " needs" m odel w hich s pecifies t hat

p articular c ircumstances w ill g enerate a p articular r esponse i s t herefore l ogically i nadequate a nd o perationally s uspect.

C ircumstances

d elimit o nly t he w ays i n w hich s pecific s trategies w ill s ucceed o r f ail, n ot t he n ature o f t he s trategies w hich m ight o ccur.

T he c apacity

o f ah uman g roup t o p roduce a p articular s trategy m ust t herefore d epend u pon t he i nternal s tructure o f t he g roup 's b ehaviour n ot u pon t he i ntensity o f t he d emand o r n eed.

J ust b ecause t here i s an eed f or m ore

f ood, w hether b ecause f ood s upply h as d iminished o r p opulation h as 6 53

g rown,

i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat a h uman g roup w ill m ake t he n ecessary

t ransformations i n i ts b ehaviour. L arge n umbers o f p eople m ight b e o rganised t o i ntensify t he

f ood e conomy , o r m ore l ikely l arge n umbers

o f p eople w ill d ie o f s tarvation.

E ither w ay t he f ood n eed w ould b e

s olved. W e d o n ot a t t his s tage h ave t o c oncern o urselves w ith a m oral i ssue o f w hether o r n ot e ither o f t he a bove s trategies i s m ore d esirable,

( however t hat i s d efined).

B ut p lainly i t w ould b e " double-

t hink" l anguage t o u se t he t erm " adaptive" d escribe b oth p rocesses.

i n a s implistic

v ery d ifferent a nd w e n eed t o t ry a nd e xplain w hy. f or a n a daptation v iewpoint

( Kirch

1 980 )

T herefore t he i ssue

a nd t he p roblem w hich h as

p ersistently p lagued a nthropology i s t hen, w ay a nd s ome t he o ther?"

f ashion t o

T he o perations a nd t heir c onsequences a re

" why d o s ome g roups g o o ne

I f t he p ressures o n h uman c ommunities a re

i nsufficient a s a n e xplanation, w hat i s n eeded t o b uild a l ogical a nd s atisfactory e xplanation? Ac ultural m odel o f a daptation J ust a s t he b iological m odel o f a daptive a nd m aladaptive b ehaviour h as t he g ene s ystem a s a n i ndependent g enerator o f v ariability ,

u pon

w hich e xternal s election o perates, s o l ikewise w e n eed a n e quivalent f or a c ultural m odel o f a daptation ( Fletcher 1 977a:139-145).

A t t his

p oint i n t he d ebate w e u sually r un i nto t he p roblem o f n ormative m odels a nd t he " ideals" o f g roup b ehaviour,

w ith a n i nevitable a ssociation t o

t he v erbal p ropositions o f t he a ctors a bout w hy t hey h ave b ehaved i n a p articular m anner

( Chang

1 967:227-228;

D ouglas

1 972).

T he p roblem c an

b e o bviated b y u sing a " message" m odel a pproach ( Fletcher 1 08-9).

1 981a:71,

I t i s t he n ature o f t he i nternal c oherence o f t he " messages"

c arried a nd t ransmitted b y a c ommunity w hich d efine h ow m uch v ariab ility i t c an t olerate

( Fletcher

1 977a:96-104).

W e n eed n ot r efer t o

s ome a bstract c onsensus w hich i s s upposed t o r eside i n t he m inds o f t he m embers o f t he c ommunity a nd s uch a v iewpoint d oes n ot h elp t o e xplain v ariability. T he p ower o f t he b iological m odel l ies p recisely i n t he d istinction b etween " messages" a nd " ideals".

I t i s t he w ay " messages"

a re c arried i n t he g enetic s ystem w hich i s c rucial, n ot a n a bstract d ebate a bout t he p latonic " ideal" o f a p articular s pecies.

T he l atter

i s s imply i rrelevant i n a d iscussion o f a daptation a nd o bfuscates a n a ssessment o f t he s ources a nd n ature o f v ariability. A t t his p oint i t i s i mportant t o e mphasise t hat I a m i n n o w ay d enying t hat h umans t hink a nd a lso b elieve t hat t hey h ave c oncepts i n t heir h eads, n or d o Id oubt t hat i ndividuals h ave i ndividual i denti ties.

T hat i s p recisely t he v alue o f a " messages" a pproach.

W hat i t

e mphasises i s t hat a ll p eople a re i ndividuals, m ay b e i diosyncratic a nd n eed n ot b elieve w hat t hey s ay o r e ven a gree w ith t heir o wn a ctions. A ccording t o a " messages" a pproach t he c rucial

f actor i n t he r elation-

s hip b etween g roup b ehaviour a nd t he c ircumstances e xerting p ressure o n 6 54

a c ommunity i s t he a ctual c ommunication w hich t akes p lace not . t he u ns tated i ntentions o f t he g roup,

i .e. i t i s t he m essages W hich t he g roup

t ransmits t o i tself w hich a re o perationally r elevant n ot , t he p rivate p erceptions o f t he a ctors. T he n ature o f t he c ommunication a nd t he n ature o f i ts e ffect i s a n a ppropriate t opic

f or r esearch, w hether o r

n ot t he a ctors b elieve t hat t he e ffects w ill o ccur o r e ven b elieve t hat t hey a s i ndividuals s hould b e d oing w hat t hey a re d oing. T he n ext i ssue i s w hether o r n ot t here i s a ny c oherence i n t he c omm unications o f a h uman g roup ,

w hether v erbal o r n on-verbal.

a ssume t hat t here i s n o c oherence,

I f w e

t hen w e c an s top t he d ebate a t t his

p oint. T here w ould b e n o n eed t o f uss w ith a n i ntegrated a nalysis.

I f,

h owever,

t hen

w e a ccept t hat t he p roposition a bout c oherence i s u seful,

w e c an g o o n t o a sk a bout i ts s pecifics. T he n ature o f c ultural m essages W e f irst h ave t o d eal w ith t he p roblem o f w hat i s m eant b y a " messa ge".

C ommunication c an b e v erbal o r n on-verbal,

i .e.

i t c an c onsist o f

s ounds, a ctions o r t hings a s s ignals. T hese s ignals o perate a nd p ersist f or v arying l engths o f t ime. n al d eteriorates r apidly.

S peech i s a t ransient a ction a nd t he s ig-

S tanding i n a s pecific l ocation i s a n a ction

b ut t he l ocational m essage c an b e s ustained s peech s ignal.

f or m uch l onger t han a

P lacing a m aterial l ocational m arker i s a n a ction w hich

c reates a s ignal.

T he p osition i ndicator m ay t hen h ave a l ong e ndurance

a nd a n e ffect i ndependent o f t he i ntentions a nd t he a ctions w hich c reated i t.

T he m arker i s a p iece o f m aterial b ehaviour a nd l ike t he

r est o f t he p hysical u niverse i t i s d egenerating.

T o b e p recise,

t he

m arker 's o ccurrence i s a ctually a n e vent, a v ery s low e vent w hose n ature i s i mperceptible i n t he s hort t erm. M aterial t hings a re p arts o f s low m essage s ystems. W hat f ollows i s t hat w e c an s tudy t he l ong t erm e ffects o f s low m essages o f m aterial b ehaviour o nly i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord. W e n eed n ot t herefore w orry a bout l osing s peech i nformation i n t he a rchaeological r ecord.

A ll w e h ave t o d o i s g et o ut o f t he h abit o f r e-

g arding w ords a nd t he k inds o f m eanings w e a ttach t o t hem a s t he o nly p roper m essage s ystem.

I nstead w e c an a nalyse t he l ong s low s ignals o f

m aterial b ehaviour m essages a bout s patial a nd t emporal o rganisation. G iven t he o ccurrence a nd u se o f m athematical s ignals b y h umans a nd n onv erbal s ignalling b y a ll a nimal s pecies, a ccept a c laim t hat s peech a nd

i ncluding h umans, w e n eed n ot

i ts a ssociated m eanings a re s omehow t he

n ecessary h uman m essage s ystem w ithout w hich h uman a ctivity b ecomes i nc omprehensible.

I t i s o nly t he b elief t hat s peech i s s omehow a p roper

a nd n ecessary i ndication o f w hy a ctions a re c arried o ut w hich m akes u s f eel t hat a rchaeological e vidence i s s omehow i nadequate b ecause,

6 55

u nlike

a n e thnographer o r p sychologist,

w e c annot a sk p eople a bout t heir

m otives o r t heir p erceptions o f a s ituation. W hat w e s eem t o h ave n eglected i s t hat w ords a re n ot c o-terminus w ith m otives a nd p ercept ions,

t hey a re s imply a nother w ay o f d escribing s ome a spects o f m otiv-

a tion a nd p erception.

I t i s a lways a m essage s ystem w hich w e a re

a nalysing n ot t he i nternalised p henomena t o w hich t he m essage s ystems a re s aid t o r efer.

B y m oving a way f rom a n " ideals" v iew ;

o bviating t he

e xclusive r ole o f w ords a s i ndicators o f w hat g oes o n i n t he h uman m ind, a nd r ecognising m aterial b ehaviour a s a s low m essage s ystem w e c an g et o n a nd u se t he a rchaeological r ecord t o f ind o ut w hat s uch m aterial m essages d o. U nless w e a re s pecifically i nterested i n t he r elationship b etween t ransient,

s hort-term m essages a nd d urable, l ong-term m essages w e d o

n ot n eed t o t ake t he f ormer i nto a ccount i n a n i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological r ecord.

A fter a ll,

p hysics h as c learly s hown t hat w e d o

n ot n eed t o k now a bout e very s hort-term s ub-atomic e vent i n o rder t o m odel a tomic a nd m olecular p rocesses ( Zukav

1 979:132-136).

F or e xplana-

t ory p urposes t he u niqueness o f i ndividual e ntities i s n ot a n e xclusive c haracteristic o f h uman l ife

( Higgs a nd J arman

1 975:1).

F or i nstance,

w e d o n ot s uppose t hat m odels o f t he l ong-term e ffects o f a g ene s ystem n eed t o c onsider t he i diosyncratic m otives a nd f eelings o f t he a ctor a nimals,

e ven i f t hose i ndividuals a re h uman.

T o a rgue t hat l ong-term

p rocesses c annot b e u nderstood u ntil t he f ine d etail o f s hort-term e vents i s k nown w ould r equire a d emonstration t hat l ong-term o perations a re m erely a s um o f t heir c omponent s hort-term e vents.

I t w ould a lso

r equire, i n t he c ase o f h uman m essage s ystems a d emonstration t hat s peech m essages p redefine w hat h umans d o w ith n on-verbal m essages. w ould a lso b e n ecessary t o s how t hat s hort-term p henomena, w alking r ate a nd s peech v olume,

I t

s uch a s

c an o bviate t he i mpact o f m aterial

p henomena o n t he l ong-term c haracteristics o f i nteraction w ithin h uman g roups.

T his w ould b e d ifficult t o a rgue.

F or i nstance , b rick w alls a re

am ore e ffective p hysical b arrier t o s ound t ransmission t han t imber f rame a nd p aper w alls.

P eople w ho l ive i n b uildings m ade o f f limsy

m aterials c an k eep t heir v oices d own a nd t hereby c ontrol s ound v olumes b ut t hey a re i nevitably r estricting t he r ange o f s ignal i ntensities w hich t hey m ight u se,

i .e. t hey a re e xpending e ffort p ersonally t o

c reate a c ircumstance w hich t he p resence o f b rick w alls a chieves w itho ut t he s ame p ersonal e fforts a nd c onstraints. t he " effort",

t he e nergy d emand,

W hen w e u se b rick w alls

h as b een s hifted t o t he c apital a nd

l abour c osts o f t he m aterial u sed. I f w e u se a s ound a bsorbent m aterial m ore,

t hen m ore p eople a nd

m ore d iverse n oise p roducing d evices c an b e p acked

i nto a f inite s pace

w ithout u nduly i ncreasing t he i nteraction p roblems t hat s uch a c oncent ration o f a ctivities w ould o therwise c reate.

6 56

T here a ppears t o b e a n

a P riori a rgument t hat w e c an u sefully c onsider t he l ong-term i mpact o f m aterial b ehaviour, s uch a s b uilding f orm, w ithout r eference t o t he n ature o f t he s hort-term v erbal a nd a ctive m essage s ystems o f t he a ctors w ho w ere i nvolved i n c reating t he m aterial b ehaviour. T his a pproach a llows u s t o a void t he p roblems i nherent i n t he a ssociation a nalogies o f s ocial r econstruction ( Fletcher a ny m odel, h owever s ophisticated,

w hich c laims t hat

o r p olitical f orm h as t o o ccur w ith

L

1 977b).

I n

s ocial p henomenon

m aterial b ehaviour,

t he l ogical

p roblem i s t hat t he a ssociation m ay b e f unctionally v iable a t t he p res ent t ime b ut i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t he a ssociation i s i nevitable ( Fletcher

1 977b). T he p recise d escription o f t he a bove a ssociation i s x

w ith . y . =w orkable ( adaptive) o peration. d ifficult

( maladaptive) o peration.

B ut t his a llows t hat x w ith

=

A n a ssociation a nalogy s ays n othing

a bout t he i nevitability o f t he a ssociation u nless w e u se a s pecious a ssumption t hat h umans a lways m ake a daptive c hoices.

T herefore w e n eed

a u niformitarian m odel w hich s pecified t hat v iable c ommunity l ife o pera tes w ithin p arameters s uch t hat i f t hose p arameters a re i nfringed, t hen t he g roup u sing t hat b ehaviour w ill n ot b e a ble t o t hrive a nd m ay e ven c ease t o f unction a s a c ommunity.

I f t he u niformitarian m odel c an

b e r eferred t o t he n ature o f m aterial b ehaviour, t hen t he a nalysis c an b e c arried o ut d irectly i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. A nother l ogical r equirement i s t hat t he m odel t o b e u sed s hould b e o pen t o t he p ossibility o f r efutation b y r eference t o t he d ata w hich i t p urports t o d escribe. T his c ondition d oes n ot d ispute t hat c ation m ay b e d ifficult t o c arry o ut

( O 'Hear

1 980:90-123).

f alsifi-

I t m erely

a ccepts t hat i f w e a re c laiming t o m ake a s tatement a bout t he o pera tional c haracteristics o f s ome p henomenon,

t hen w e n eed t o c reate

p ropositions w hich a re c heckable. N o a mount o f c onfirmation m akes a p roposition c heckable.

C heckability i s o nly p rovided b y t est c ases

w here t he p roposition m ight b e s hown t o b e i nadequate, f iable.

i .e.

f alsi-

T herefore t he b asic p roblem w ith a m odel w hich l inks s oft

p henomena,

s uch a s s ocial o rganisation, a s d escribed i n t he t erminology

o f t he s ocial s ciences,

t o m aterial b ehaviour,

s uch a s b uildings,

t hat i t i s u nfalsifiable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord.

i s

O ne c ould n ever

d emonstrate i n t he a bsence o f w ritten d ocuments t hat a p articular k ind o f s ocial o rganisation d id n ot o ccur w ith a p articular k ind o f b uilding i n t he p ast. o logical

T here i s s imply n o w ay w e c an f ind o ut

f rom t he a rchae-

r ecord w hether t he a ssociation d id o r d id n ot o ccur.

A ny

c hange i n a ttitude t o t hat r elationship i s u navoidably a f unction o f s tudies o f t he d ocumented p ast o r t he e thnographic r ecent.

T he a rchae-

o logical r ecord i n i tself p lays n o r ole i n f alsifying s uch p ropositions ( Murray

1 978).

I n s ocial r econstruction w e h ave a ssumed s imilarity w hen

t he t ask o f a ny t ime d epth d iscipline m ust b e t o f ind o ut w hether a nd i n w hat w ays t he p ast d id o r d id n ot , r esemble t he p resent.

6 57

U niformitarian b asis W e s hould d evise a u niformitarian m odel o f h uman m aterial b ehaviour w hich c an b e s ubject t o p ossible f alsification.

T he u niformitarian

b asis i s s imple. W ithin f inite r anges o f t ime h uman b rain p hysiology h as a f inite d ata s torage a nd a nalytic c apacity.

I n r elation t o

s pecific c ircumstances w e c an o nly p rocess f inite a mounts o f d ata a nd, i n p articular, c an o nly t olerate a f inite a mount o f i nteraction w ith o ther h umans a nd t heir m aterial a djuncts. T herefore m aterial b ehaviour, i f u sed t o p roduce a p redictable c ontext a nd t o c ontrol i nteraction f requencies s hould r elate i n s ome c onsistent f ashion t o t he p ersistence o f a h uman c ommunity.

C onversely i f m aterial b ehaviour p roduced a n u n-

p redictable c ontext a nd l ed t o i ncreasing i nconvenience a nd c ost i n i nt eraction,

t hen t his s hould h ave a d eleterious e ffect o n t he c ommunity.

W e n eed n ot c oncern o urselves w ith t he i ntentions o f t he h uman a ctors s ince m aterial t hings c an g enerate c onsequences u nanticipated b y t heir m akers.

H owever w e s hould b e a ble t o r elate t he c haracteristics a nd

c hanges o f m aterial b ehaviour i n a c onsistent f ashion t o t he f ortunes a nd p ersistence o f h uman c ommunities. a ble i n t he a rchaeological r ecord.

B oth k inds o f e vidence a re a vail-

I n p rinciple t herefore t he p roposed

m odels m ight b e s hown t o b e i nadequate. t hose c onditions, o r e ntities,

T he m odels s tand o r f all o n

n ot b y r eference t o p henomena,

f or w hich t here a re n o d irect,

s uch a s s ocial r ules

u niformitarian r eferents i n

t he a rchaeological r ecord. I mplications T he o rganisation o f s pace a nd t ime b y a c ommunity i s p art o f i ts m essage s ystem ( Fletcher

1 981a).

T he m essages a re n ecessary a s an on-

v erbal s tatement t o a c ommunity a bout t he w ay i n w hich i t o rganises s pace a nd t ime.

A n i llustration u sing a ctive n on-verbal b ehaviour i s

t hat p roxemic s ignalling a s w ell a s i ndicating p articular k inds o f i nterpersonal r elationships s imply s pecifies h ow t he a ctors i n ac omm unity a re t o a rrange t hemselves i n s pace ( Hall

1 966).

S imilarly t he

d istances e xpressed i n t he s tructures o f a s ettlement c an b e u nderstood a s am ass o f s ignals a bout t he w ay s pace i s t o b e o rganised i n t hat c ommunity.

A t t he s ame t ime s tructures, u nlike a ctions,

p ossess i nertia

a nd t herefore a lso a ct a s a c oncrete c onstraint o n t he w ay i n w hich a c ommunity o perates i n s pace.

T he c rucial

p oint i s t hat i n a ctive b e-

h aviour a n e rror o f s ignal t ransmission c an b e r apidly r emedied a nd c an b e e dited

f rom t he b ehaviour o f t he c ommunity v ery r apidly.

B y c ontrast

m aterial b ehaviour w ill t end t o c arry a n e rroneous s ignal f or m uch l onger.

A ny m essage s ystem h as t o p ossess a d egree o f i nternal c ode c o-

h erence i f i t i s t o w ork a s a t ransmitter o f i nformation. T his d efines t he d egree o f v ariation w hich c an b e c arried b y a m essage s ystem w itho ut i t l osing c oherence. T he c rucial p oint i s t hat w e c annot a lways a ssume t hat a c ommunity w ill a ccurately r eplicate i ts m essage s ystem. 6 58

E rror i s i nherent i n r eplication,

a nd l oss o f i nternal c onsistency d ue

t o i ncreasing s ignal v ariation i s a lways a l iability 1 42-3).

( Fletcher

1 977a:

T he a ctive b ehaviour o f a c ommunity c ould t hen e nd u p t rying t o

c ope w ith a n i ntractable u namenable s patial c ontext. W hat h appens w hen t he m aterial b ehaviour i s a t o dds w ith s ustained c ommunity l ife? T he r elevance o f s pace/time p atterning t o a d ebate a bout t he s uccess o r

f ailure o f i ntensification,

i s t hat a m ove t oward i ntensifi-

c ation i s b asically a r earrangement o f a g roup 's a ctivities i n s pace a nd t ime.

I t n eed n ot f ollow t hat i ndividuals a re n ecessarily w orking

h arder, t hough t hey m ay b e.

I ntensifications c ould o ccur b ecause

a ctivities t hat w ere p reviously s cattered i n s pace a nd t ime a re c oncent rated a nd r epeated i n o ne l ocation, o ver a nd o ver a gain i n ac onsiste nt f ashion.

I n t he a bsence o f p rofound c oercion, m ore a nd m ore p eople

i n t he s ame p lace a t t he s ame t ime w ould d epend u pon t he t olerance o f a p attern o f m essages a bout s pace a nd t ime w hich w ill c onsistently l ead t o p eople t urning u p w here a nd w hen t hey a re r equired.

T here s hould

t herefore b e a r elationship b etween t he w ay i n w hich t ime a nd s pace a re m anipulated t o e conomic e nds a nd t he o verall w ay i n w hich a c ommunity a rranges i ts m essages a bout t he o rdering o f s pace a nd t ime. i t s hould

f ollow t hat,

w ith e ach o ther,

F urthermore

i f t hese t ime/space p atterns g et o ut o f p hase

t hen t he e conomic s ystem m ight b reak d own.

A n o bvious

i llustration i s t he i mpact o f s ome f actor w hich a ffects t he c apacity o f a c ommunity t o p roduce a c onsistently o ccurring g roup o f p eople a t t he s ame t ime i n t he s ame p lace.

A n e xternal

f actor, s uch a s s evere e n-

v ironmental c hange, m ay p ut a s train o n t he g roup 's a bility t o o rganise i tself.

H owever t he u ltimate i ssue i s n ot t he d egree t o w hich t he

g roup 's m essage p atterning o f t ime a nd s pace c an a djust t o d eal w ith t he e xternal s tress. W hat i s n eeded i s am odel o f t he r elationship b etween m aterial b ehaviour a nd e nvironmental c ontext a nd i ts p ossible o utcome.

M esa V erde. W hat

I ntensification a nd e nvironment

Iw ant t o d o i n t his e xample i s t o s how t hat t he e xercise c an

b e c arried o ut, h owever

f allible t his p articular i llustration m ay b e.

T he a nalysis c onsiders t he r elationships b etween c ontext,

i n t his c ase

t he l ong t erm e nvironmental c onditions a nd t he n ature o f t he i ntensif ication;

t he n ature o f t he m aterial b ehaviour b uilt i nto t he s ettle-

m ents o f t he r egion; a nd t he o utcome,

t hat i s t he a bandonment o f t he

r egion. T he m odel i s e asily s tated.

I n t he v ery l ong t erm i t i s t he n ature

o f t he e nvironment w hich c reated t he s tresses w ith w hich t he c ommunit ies i n M esa V erde h ad t o c ope.

T hese s tresses i ncluded t he i mpact o f

t he r elationship b etween l and c learance p ractises a nd t he f requent 6 59

C hap in mesa

F igure 1 : M esa V erde a nd M ug H ouse .

6 60

o ccurrence o f u npredictable d roughts. a s ad evice, s tances.

T he i ntensification c an b e s een

o perating o ver s everal c enturies,

t o d eal w ith t he c ircum-

B ut e xplanation o f t he f ailure o f t hat s ystem d erives f rom t he

w ay i n w hich t he c ommunities w ere a rranging t heir r esidential b ehaviour i n t he s hort t erm.

T he f ailure i s s een a s a p roduct o f t he p roblems o f

i nteraction g enerated b y t he m aterial b ehaviour w hich h ad d eveloped i n t he c liff d wellings o f M esa V erde.

T hese p roblems u ltimately m ilitated

a gainst c oherent c ommunity c o-operation,

p reventing t he m aintenance o f

t he i ntensification, w hich i n t urn p revented t he c ommunities o f M esa V erde f rom c oping w ith t he s evere, b ut e ndemic,

p roblems o f d rought.

E nvironment M esa V erde i s a l arge d issected u pland p lateau, c onsisting o f l ong n arrow m esa t ops r unning a pproximately n orth-south s eparated b y d eep c anyons ( Figure

1 ).

T he m esa e dges a re b ordered b y s teep c liffs d rop-

p ing t o t alus s lopes w hich r un d own t o t he i ntermittent s treams i n t he b ottoms o f t he c anyons. A t p resent M esa V erde i s c overed b y p inyon-juniper w oodland w ith s ome s tands o f G ambel's O ak ( Queroue R ambelii) r idges a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he p lateau. c enturies A D , a s n ow ,

t here w ere c ervids,

I n t he s eventh-thirteenth c arnivores a nd n umerous s mall

m ammals i n t he r egion ( Cattanach 1 980:371-390). V erde h ad " domesticated" t urkey ( Pinkley 1 965; T hey g rew c orn,

e specially o n t he h igher

s quash a nd b eans ( Cattanach

T he o ccupants o f M esa C attanach

1 980:397).

1 980:369-371; W inter

1 974).

C onsiderable c learance o f t he m esa t ops a ppears t o h ave b een c arried o ut s o t hat b y P ueblo I II t imes,

t he f requency o f t ree p ollen d rops t o

r elatively l ow v alues, a nd w hich o nly r ecovered a fter t he a bandonment o f t he c liff d wellings ( Cattanach 1 980:401). M esa V erde w as a r elatively f avourable p lace t o g row c orn i n t he S outh-West ( Franke a nd W atson

1 936;

S teward

1 940).

S teward

( 1940:214)

p oints o ut t hat i n m ost y ears M esa V erde i s b etter s upplied w ith p rec ipitation t han o ther r egions t o t he s outh a nd w est.

H e a lso n otes

t hat: a d emonstration c orn-field h as b een p lanted e ach y ear b y t he N avahos a t t he p ark o n a n a rea w hich r eceives s ome l ocal r un-off a nd i s l ocated n ear C hapin M esa.

C orn c rops h ave b een m atured e ven

a fter r elatively d ry y ears w hen p lanted b y m ethods s imilar t o t hose u sed b y t he P ueblo I ndians

( 1940:

2 14). I n 5 7 y ears u p t o

1 977 c rop f ailures o ccurred o nly i n

1 922,

1 934 a nd

1 972 w hen t here w as a l ack o f w ater d uring t he g rowing s eason 1 980:56).

6 61

( Wenger

T he m ain p roblem f or a n a gricultural e conomy i s t he c onsistently u npredictable c limate, e specially t he u nreliable s upply o f p recipitation.

R ainfall i s f requently i nadequate a nd i s t he m ain f actor

c ontrolling c rop g rowth ( Steward

1 940:201,

2 21).

T he 2 1" r ainfall o f M esa V erde i s l ower t han w ould b e n eeded t o p roduce m aximum c rops

( Steward a nd

D onnelly 1 943:32). .. t he d istribution o f t he r ain i s i rregular d uri ng m any y ears a nd i n

1 0 y ears o ut o f 1 7 h as b een

d eficient o r e ntirely l acking d uring J une.

T his i s

t he m onth i n w hich c orn w ould p robably b e p lanted a nd p oints t o a n eed f or s upplementary w ater d uring t he e arly g rowth o f c rops

( Steward

1 940:212).

T he g rowing s eason i s a lso u npredictable. A s tudy o f t he f rost

f ree p eriod a t M esa V erde

s hows a n otable v ariation i n t he d ate o f t he l ast k illing f rost d uring t he l ast

1 6 y ears

( Steward

1 940:211). .. t he f ull f rost i n

1 924 t o

f ree p eriod v aried f rom 1 46 d ays

1 97 d ays i n

1 936

( Steward

1 940:212).

T hese t wo f actors o f p recipitation s upply a nd t he i ncidence o f f rost h ave a lso b een i nvoked o n a l arger t ime-scale a s p ossible e xplan ations o f t he a bandonment o f M esa V erde. t here h ad b een a l ong d rought f rom a bout 1 929:737-770).

I n

1 929 D ouglass a rgued t hat

1 276 t o

1 299 A D ( Douglass

B ut m ore r ecent s tudies h ave s hown t hat d roughts w ere

e ndemic t o t he r egion, 1 300 A D ( Fritts,

w ith s even s evere o nes o ccurring b etween 5 00 a nd

S mith a nd S tokes 1 965:118-119).

a pparently o ccurring a t a r ate o f a bout

1 0 t o

L esser d roughts w ere

1 2 p er c entury ( Wenger

1 980:62). A nother s uggestion m ade i n t he

1 960s w as t hat t he c limate b ecame

s lightly c ooler i n t he t hirteenth c entury A D w hich d ecisively r educed t he f rost-free p eriod ( Cattanach Is uspect t hat t his c ondition,

1 980:416).

T his i s s till t entative a nd

l ike t he d roughts,

w ill b e f ound t o b e

e ndemic t o M esa V erde. O verall, a griculture o n M esa V erde w as f easible b ut w as l iable t o u npredictable f ailure.

G iven t hat d rought w as e ndemic,

w e s hould e xpect

t he a gricultural e conomy t o h ave b een w ell a dapted t o t hat e xigency b y t he t hirteenth c entury A D. 170 A D a nd d ry i ntervals i n

T hey h ad w ithstood a s evere d rought a round 1 218 a nd

1 237 A D ( Fritts,

S mith a nd S tokes

1 965:120). M inor d roughts w ould p robably h ave o ccurred i n a ny p erson's l ifetime. W e c ould t herefore e xpect s ome c ontinuity i n r esponse t o t hat p roblem.

6 62

A s S teward r epeatedly p oints o ut, a c rop e conomy o n M esa V erde w ould b e w ell s erved b y s ome k ind o f c ontrolled w ater s upply ( 1940, 1 943).

F rom P ueblo I I t imes o nwards a nd c ertainly b y l ate P ueblo I I

( 100?-1100 A D )

( Rohn

1 977:238)

t aking p lace i n M esa V erde. t anks d id

a n a gricultural i ntensification w as

P recisely w hat t he s ystems o f c hannels a nd

i s a n i ssue o f d ebate.

F rom a s tudy o f C hapin M esa,

( 1963) h as a rgued t hat i rrigation w as b eing c arried o ut.

R ohn

T his w as a lso

S teward's v iew ( 1940:43). W hat c an c ertainly b e s aid o f t hese c onstruct ions i s t hat t hey d irected a nd s lowed d own w ater f low , l ing s ilt d eposition ( personal c ommunication, w hat t heir s pecific f unctions,

w hile c ontrol-

J ack S mith).

N o m atter

t he b uilding a nd m aintenance o f t hese

s tructüres n eeded c o-ordination o f l abour i n s pace a nd t ime i n am anner n ot r equired b y t he a ntecedent a gricultural s ystem. I ntensification a nd r esidential l ocation M ost o f t he p ublished d etail o n i ntensification i n M esa V erde c omes f rom C hapin M esa ( Rohn

1 963,

1 977) a nd t his w ill b e u sed h ere.

O ther

d etailed s urveys e lsewhere i n M esa V erde b y t he U niversity o f C olorado h ave s hown t hat w ater c ontrol s ystems d o o ccur o n o ther m esas. e xample,

F or

t here i s a r eservoir o n M occasin M esa a nd s ome w ater d iversion

s ystems i n t he c anyons ( Wenger c ommunication, a re p ublished f or o ther

J ack S mith).

1 980:34;

L ikewise,

f or C hapin M esa ( Rohn

L ister

1 968:495;

a nd p ersonal

d etailed s urveys o f o ccupation

1 977) b ut w ill s oon b e a vailable

p arts o f M esa V erde a s w ell

( personal c ommunication,

J ack

S mith). T he r elevant t ime s pan i s f rom a bout 9 00 A D t o

1 300 A D w hich

i ncludes t he P ueblo I I p eriod f rom 9 00-1100 A D a nd t hat o f P ueblo I II f rom 100-1300 A D . 1 000?-1100 A D , P ueblo I II ( a)

T he c rucial p hases a re l ate P ueblo I I ( Mummy L ake)

E arly P ueblo

( Cliff P alace)

I II

( Far V iew )

100-1200 A D ,

1 200-1300 A D ( Rohn

a nd L ate

1 977:238-245).

O ccupation .

I n b road t erms t he s tory o f t he o ccupation o f M esa V erde i s r elat ively s imple.

P rior t o

1 000 A D i t w as p rimarily o n t he m esa t ops.

T here w as a t rend t oward l arger s tructural a ggregations a nd a s hift o ff t he m esa t ops i nto t he r ock s helters o f t he m esa e dge c liffs.

T he e nd

r esult o f t hese t wo t rends i s a f ew l arge c liff d wellings, e ach o f a pproximately 2 00 " rooms", H ouse o n W etherill M esa; 8 0-120 " rooms",

s uch a s C liff P alace o r

C hapin M esa a nd l ong

s everal m edium-sized s ites c ontaining a bout

s uch a s S pruce T ree H ouse o n C hapin M esa a nd M ug H ouse

o n W etherill M esa; a nd a m yriad o f s maller d wellings, t he c liffs o f C hapin M esa a lone w ith o nly o ne " room" ( Figure

3 ).

63

i ncluding 4 3 i n ( Rohn

1 977:81)

T he o verall i ndication i s t hat b y L ate P ueblo I II

( 1250-1300 A D )

p ermanent o ccupation o f t he m esa t ops w as m uch r educed. B adger H ouse o n W etherill M esa a Java w as b uilt a round

F or e xample,

i n

1 250 A D b ut i t

s eems t o h ave b een s hort l ived a nd i ts g ood b uilding m aterial w as r em oved f rom t he s tructure, L ancaster

p erhaps f or r e-use i n L ong H ouse

( Hayes a nd

1 975:185).

B y t he l ate t hirteenth c entury A D a ll t he l arge a nd m edium s ized c liff d wellings h ad f illed t he a vailable b uilding s pace i n t heir r ock s helters.

K iva c ourtyards w ere a rranged t wo t o t hree d eep f rom t he r ear

t o t he f ront o f t he s helters 1 971). E ven s mall s ites, H ouse

( 12 " rooms"),

( Rohn

1 977:84-85).

( Rohn

1 977:83;

C attanach

s uch a s B alcony H ouse

1 980:10-11;

( 44 " rooms")

R ohn

a nd M ummy

h ad l ittle o r n o s pace l eft f or l ateral e xpansion S helter h eight a nd t he t echnical l imits o f t he

a rchitecture c onstrained v ertical e xpansion.

T he l ocational o ptions

a vailable i n t he r esidential P attern, e specially i n t he l arge s ites, w ere s everely r estricted i n t he l ate t hirteenth c entury A D .

T his f ac-

t or i s o f c onsiderable c onsequence i n a n a ssessment o f t he p roblems o f r esidential s tress. ( b)

I ntensification

T he m ain f eatures o f t he i ntensification a re r eservoirs, d itches a nd c heck d ams. s lopes ( Rohn p resent,

T here a re a lso s ome

1 977:93).

A nother

f arming t erraces o n t he t alus

f eature w hich i s n ot w ell u nderstood a t

o ccurs i n M orfield c anyon a nd c onsists o f a d iversion c hannel

l eading o ut o nto a l arge,

f lat t opped m ound o f s ilt.

W ater w as a ppar-

e ntly d iverted a way f rom t he m ain s tream a nd a s i t s lowed d own d ropped I ts s ilt.

J ack S mith ( personal c ommunication)

s uggests t hat t he w ater

m ay t hen h ave p oured o ver t he s lightly r aised l ip o f t he t op o f t he s ilt m ound. T here a re a lso s maller s torage t anks, H ouse ( Rohn ( i)

1 971:64-65)

a nd m esa t op d ams ( Rohn

R eservoirs a nd d itches

s uch a s n ear M ug

1 977:101-103).

( Figure 2 )

T he b est k nown s ystem i s o n C hapin M esa ( Rohn 1 977, 2a nd 3 ).

1 963)

( Figures

A t t he h igher, n orthern e nd o f t he m esa i s a 1 0 h a c atchment

a rea. W ithin t his c atchment a f an o f c hannels l ed t o a c atchment b asin w hich t hen f ed t he w ater

i nto a l ong c hannel r unning d own t he r idge o f

t he m esa t o am asonry l ined r eservoir n ow c alled " Mummy L ake" a bout 2 7.43 m a cross. n orth.

T he c hannel d id n ot e nter M ummy L ake d irectly f rom t he

I nstead i t s wung w est o f t he r eservoir a nd t hen b ack o n i tself

s o t hat w ater a ctually f lowed n orthward i nto t he w est s ide o f t he r eservoir.

T his w ould h ave d rastically s lowed t he w ater f low a nd l ed t o

s ilt d eposition o utside t he r eservoir.

T he r eservoir w as o riginally

3 .66 m d eep, b elow t he l evel o f t he i ntake c hannel.

E ven w hen t he

r eservoir w as f ull, n one o f t his w ater c ould h ave b een r edirected o ut

6 64

I n J

3 2

C a t c h m e n t

D

L L

6 65

o f M ummy L ake f or d istribution t o t he s outh u nless a m echanical l ift l ike a ä haduf w as i n u se. T here i s n o e vidence f or t he u se o f s uch a d evice. T wo b road,

s hallow g ullies r un s outh o f M ummy L ake, o ne t o t he w est

a nd t he o ther c urving e astward.

I f t hey o perated a s a n i rrigation s ys-

t em t heir d irect s upply o f w ater w ould h ave h ad t o c ome f rom t he n orthe rn c atchment.

T he l onger e astern c hannel,

F ar V iew D itch, m ay o rig-

i nally h ave r un a s f ar s outh a s t he h ead o f C liff c anyon w here P alace i s l ocated

( Rohn

1 977:108).

F ar

C liff

V iew D itch i s a pproximately 9 .14

m w ide ( 7-12.6 m r ange) a nd a bout 0 .3 m d eep ( 0.15-0.45 m r ange) w ith a g radient o f 4 % o ver i ts e ntire l ength

( Steward

1 940:207).

I n s everal

p laces w here i t r uns n ear t he e dge o f t he m esa, m asonry r einforcement w as b uilt.

T here a re o ccasional r ows o f s tones a cross t he d itch w hich

m ay r epresent d iversion s ites i nto a djacent f ields ( Steward a nd D onnelly

1 943:136;

R ohn

1 963:452).

S teward c omments t hat t he d itch i s: a lmost i dentified w ith t he t ype o f d itch o utline d eveloped b y t he s oil c onservation s ervice f or t err ace o utlets -and o ther v egetated w aterways

( 1940 :

2 08). T he w ide r elatively f lat c hannel o f t his d itch s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave b een p lanted t o c orn i n t he s ame m anner t hat n atural

f lood w ater w ays i n

m odern H opi a nd Z uMi c orn f ields a re s till t reated ( Steward a nd D onnelly

1 943:137).

P ottery e vidence i ndicates t hat M ummy L ake w as b uilt d uring t he P ueblo I I p eriod

( Rohn

1 977:108).

T he

F ar V iew d itch s ystem i f o ne

a ccepts i t a s a w ater d istribution d evice m ay b e a P ueblo I II c onstruct ion b uilt a fter M ummy L ake

( Rohn

1 977:109).

I n R ohn's v iew t hese

c onstructions c oincide w ith t he d evelopment o f l arger r esidential g roupings o n t he m esa t ops a nd p recede t he f ormation o f t he l arge, c ompact c liff d wellings. I n t he t enth-twelfth c enturies A D w hile t he a gricultural i ntensif ication w as g oing o n t here i s n o i ndication t hat c limatic c onditions w ere m arkedly d ifferent o verall c enturies

( Fritts,

S mith a nd

f rom t hose o f p receding o r s ucceeding

S tokes

1 965:118).

D rought a lone c annot

t herefore e xplain w hy t he a gricultural i ntensification a nd t he u se o f t he c liff d wellings f ailed t o p ersist, p revent e ither

s ince e ndemic d rought d id n ot

f rom o ccurring. W e c annot l ogically a rgue t hat d rought

b oth p rompted a nd r uined t hese d evelopments.

T here i s e ven a p ossi-

b ility t hat M ummy L ake w as n ever e ffective a s a w ater s torage d evice ( Wenger

1 980:36).

B ad

p lanning c annot b e a scribed t o e nvironmental

f actors. W hether o r n ot M ummy L ake w as a t echnical m istake - t he 6 66

v iewpoint d epends u pon t he e nvisaged f unction o f M ummy L ake - w e h ave t o a llow t hat h uman c ommunities c an b ecome i nvolved i n m aladaptive s trategies.

T he e nvironment a s a s elector a gainst s uch s trategies

c annot l ogically b e a scribed t he r ole o f i nitiating c ause. t his o ur c ontentions a bout t he r ole o f e nvironmental

I f w e a llow

f actors l ack a ny

e xplanatory c ontent, s ince o pposite e ffects a re b eing e xplained a s d erivatives o f t he s ame c ause.

N or c an i t b e a rgued t hat t he c umulative

e ffect o f s uccessive d roughts i s a s ufficient e xplanation.

W hat t he

h uman c ommunities w ere d oing m ust a lso b e t aken i nto a ccount.

T hey

c ould h ave m oved t o t owards m ore c o-ordination o f e ffort a s am eans t o c ope w ith a dverse c ircumstances. W hy t hey d id n ot d o s o i s t herefore t he c entral t opic o f d ebate. ( ii)

C heck d ams ( Figure 3 ) T he c heck d ams i n M esa V erde c onsist o f l ow m asonry w alls b uilt

a cross s mall g ullies a nd t he u pper e nds o f c anyons. a bout

T he w alls w ere

1 .09 m h igh a nd a cted t o t rap s ediment b eing w ashed d own t he

s tream c hannels. C hapin M esa. o f f armland

C heck d ams o ccur i n f lights o f 3 -60

( Rohn

1 977:95) o n

T he 9 00 r ecorded c heck d ams p rovided b etween 8 a nd

1 2 h a

i n t otal. I n a ny o ne g roup o f c heck d ams t he s upply o f

f armland c an b e v ery s mall. S ite 8 00 w hich m ay o riginally h ave h ad 5 5 c heck d ams

p rovided o nly 0 .13 h a o f f arm l and.

T he b road i ndications

a re t hat c heck d ams w ere b uilt a nd u sed i n l ate P ueblo I I a nd P ueblo I II t imes

( Rohn

1 977:95).

T here a re d ivergent o pinions a bout t he d urability o f t he c heck d ams a nd t he c osts o f b uilding a nd m aintaining t hem ( Glassow 1 980:52; 1 963:442-444;

S teward

1 943:34,

1 940:219).

R ohn

S ome e xperimental a rchaeology

i s n eeded. I n p rinciple, t he c heck d am s ystems c ould a lways h ave b een e xt ended.

S evere s oil e rosion o n t he m esa t ops, c aused b y o ccasional

f lash s torms w ould s imply h ave s erved t o b uild u p s oil b ehind t he c heck d ams.

S teward r emarks t hat w ith

1 -1.3 i n o f s oil t hese g arden p lots

w ould h ave b een a dequate t o m ature s hallow r oot c rops s uch a s e arly c orn,

s quashes,

p umpkins a nd b eans

( Steward

1 940:210).

H owever, t he

a bility o f t he c heck d ams t o r etain t op s oil c an b e q uestioned.

C heck

d ams o n N avaho M ountain w ith a s light g rade o f 1 -3% a nd a p oor v ege tation c over h ad l ost m ost o f t heir s urface s oil a s h ad f ield t erraces o n g rades o f 4 -6%

( Steward

1 943:36).

W hen

f irst i nstalled,

a re p robably e ffective c onservers o f s oil a nd w ater D onnelly

1 943:134).

c heck d ams

( Steward a nd

B ut:

T here w as h owever s ome w ashing a way o f t he s loping s urface s oil s o t he g reater

p art o f t hese i nstil-

l ations c ould n ot b e c lassed a s am ethod o f s tabil -

6 67

i sing a p ermanent s ystem o f a griculture a nd D onnelly I n M esa V erde,

1 943:135-136).

t he c heck d ams o n C hapin M esa w ere b uilt o n s lopes

w ith g rades o f 1 0-30% ( Rohn 1 977:95-97). r emoved,

( Steward

I f t he t ree c over h ad b een

t hen t hese c heck d ams w ould h ave b een l iable t o s evere s oil

e rosion. W hether w ind e rosion m ay h ave c ontributed t o s oil l oss w ill a lso h ave t o b e c onsidered.

A lthough t he i ntact M esa V erde c heck d ams

n ow c ontain g ood s oil d epths, w e c annot s imply a ssume t hat t his i s a r eflection o f t heir P ueblo I II c ondition.

T he p lots c ould h ave b een

s everely d egraded b y l ate P ueblo I II a nd t hen h ave r efilled w ith t op s oil

f ter t he a bandonment,

a s w oodland r egrowth b egan t o r educe t he

r ates o f s oil l oss. E ven i f w e t ake t he w orst s cenario, w e c annot j ustifiably a rgue t hat t his s uffices t o e xplain t he a bandonment o f M esa V erde.

T he c en-

t ral p roblem s till r emains - w hat p revented t he o ccupants o f M esa V erde f rom o rganising t heir l abour t o c ope w ith t he s oil e rosion?

C heck d ams

c ould h ave b een r epaired a nd l ow b arrier w alls c ould h ave b een b uilt t o s low d own t he w ater

f low i nto t he g ullies.

C o-operative s haring o f

l abour a nd f ood s upplies w ould h ave o vercome t he f ailure o f p articular c heck d ams i n a ny o ne g rowing s eason. M any o f t he s ystems m ight h ave f ailed. M any p eople m ight h ave s tarved o r m oved e lsewhere t o s eek a lternative f ood s ources, t ural

p atterns d o n ot c ease j ust b ecause o f s evere f amine.

y et c ulT here i s

l ocal c ultural c ontinuity i n o ther r egions o f t he w orld, s uch a s I ndia a nd C hina, w hich h ave s uffered f rom d evastating f amines. T he i ssue t hen i s n ot h ow m any p eople d ied o r l eft.

T he s urvival o f am iniscule n umber

o f t he c ommunities i n M esa V erde w ould h ave a llowed c ultural c ontin uity.

R ather,

t he q uestion i s,

w hy w as t hat c ultural

s ystem u nable t o

c ope w ith t he e nvironmental s tress a nd r emain i n i ts s ettlements?

F or

a ll w e k now , a l arge p roportion o f t he p opulation o f M esa V erde m ay h ave s urvived b y e migrating.

E xcept f or n ear e xtinction, t he

w ho d ied i s n ot c onsequential.

p roportion

T he s urvival o f h uman b eings a nd t he

p ersistence o f t heir p articular c ultural s ystem i s n ot t he s ame.

T he

p roblem r eally r evolves a round t he a daptive p otential o f t he m aterial b ehaviour w hich w as b eing u sed i n M esa V erde.

T his r equires a d is-

c ussion o f t he p atterning o f s pace/time i n t he m aterial b ehaviour o f t he c ommunities o f M esa V erde.

M esa V erde_residential b ehaviour:

a s tudy o f MI = U puse

Am odel o f m aterial s patial b ehaviour S uccessive s tructural a dditions t o a s ettlement m ay c reate a 6 68

s patial c ontext w hich i s a n o bstacle t o s ustained, v iable c ommunity l ife. E ven i n a u ser-builder c ontext w e c annot a ssume t hat s tructures w ill n ecessarily b e c oincident w ith t he n eeds o f t he o ccupants '

s ocial

s tructure. W e n eed n ot r egard b uildings m erely a s r eflections o f s ocial o rganisation.

I n a s tudy o f l ong-term p rocesses w e c an m ore u sefully

v iew s ettlement s tructure a s a n i ndependent v ariable, m aterial b ehaviour o f t he c ommunity ( Fletcher

1 977a,

p art o f t he 1 981a).

P ossible

d issonance b etween a ctive b ehaviour a nd m aterial c ontext s hould b e e nvisaged

( Fletcher

1 977b,

1 978).

T hat a p attern o f r esidence c ould b e

b ehaviourably i ntolerable, e ven t hough p roduced b y t he o ccupants o f a s ettlement,

i nevitably r equires t hat t he w orkability o f h uman c ommuni-

t ies c an b e u nderstood w ithout n ecessary r eference t o t he t axa o f s ocial a nd p olitical p rocesses.

T his c an b e d one b y u sing a m odel o f

t he u niformitarian b ehavioural p arameters w hich c onstrain v iable c ommunity l ife. I n t he d escription o f a s election p rocess s uch p arameters a ct a s c onstraints o n w hether o r n ot a p articular s ocial s ystem c an s ustain c ommunity l ife.

T he p arameters d o n ot , p redefine w hat i nstitutions c an

o ccur, n or d o t hey d efine h ow t hose i nstitutions m ay t ry t o f unction, n or d oes i t m atter w hat p articular s ocial o rganisation i s i nvolved. T he p arameters o nly s pecify t hat,

i f t he b ehavioural r equirements a re i n-

f ringed, t hen a ny s ocial s ystem w hich h as g ot i nto t hat s ituation w ill b e l iable t o

f ail,

w hether t he i nstitutions i nvolved w ere a d irect o r

a n i ndirect c ause o f t he b ehavioural p roblems. T he b asis o f t he m odel i s a u niformitarian p roposition t hat h uman b eings c an o nly t olerate a f inite a mount o f i nteraction. T hat t his i s a g eneral l imitation i s s uggested b y a s tudy o f r esidential d ensities ( Fletcher

1 981b).

A t t he u pper l imits o f m aximum t olerable r esidential

d ensity i n s ettlements w e f ind t hat t he l arger t he c ommunity t he m ore s pace o n a verage i s r equired p er p erson.

Am odel o f f inite, t olerable

i nteraction

f requency i s n ecessary a nd s ufficient t o d escribe t his

p henomenon.

I f h uman t olerance o f i nteraction i s f inite,

t hen a n i n-

c rease i n p roblems a ssociated w ith i nteraction s hould h ave a n a dverse e ffect o n c ommunity l ife, e ither i mpelling f ragmentation o f t he g roup o r d emanding m ore a nd m ore e nergy e xpenditure t o d eal w ith t he p roblems w hich a rise

( Fletcher

1 981b).

T his m odel c an b e u sed a s ad evice f or

a nalysing a nd i nterpreting t he g rowth a nd d emise o f s ettlements. W e c an l ook a t t he s tructure o f a s ettlement a s a d evice w hich e ither a ids o r c omplicates

i nteraction.

T he e ffects m ay b e p ositive.

F or e xample, t he

u se o f c ompact m aterials f or w alls h elps t o b lock s ound t ransmission a nd s hould a llow m ore p eople t o l ive i n a f inite s pace w ithout s ufferi ng f rom t he n egative e ffects o f i ntolerable a mounts o f n oise. e ffects c an a lso b e n egative.

B ut t he

I f d urable b uildings a re e rected t hey c an

b lock a n e stablished r oute t hrough a s ettlement a nd s everely r estrict t he e ase o f a ccess b etween n eighbouring r esidence u nits.

69

T he p roblem i s

t hat a s tructure,

w hich i nitially h as a b eneficial e ffect b y s eparating

t wo g roups i n a s ettlement, m ay b ecause o f i ts i nertia g radually h ave a n a dverse e ffect o n t he s pace/time p attern b y f orcing o ne o f t he g roups i nto a n u navoidable a nd i nconvenient a ccess r oute.

T he s ame

s tructural f eature i n d ifferent s patial c ontexts c ould h ave d iffering e ffects.

I t i s n ecessary t o c onsider t he " holistic" r elationship b e-

t ween f eatures a nd c ontext, n or j ust t o s eek s implistic c orrespondence b etween f eature a nd e ffect. A n a nalysis o fjpaterial b eha t our AM aterial b ehaviour a nalysis o f i nteraction l ooks f or s patial a lterations,

s uch a s b locked d oors a nd n ew s tructures,

i n r elation t o

t he e xisting a nd a ltered r oute p atterns o f a s ettlement.

T he s tate o f

t he s ettlement a s a n i nteraction c ontext a t s uccessive p oints i n t ime i s t he i ssue o f c oncern, n ot t he f orm o f t he f eatures a s ar eflection o f s ocial/political i nstitutions,

s uch a s m atrilineages o f c hiefdoms.

T his a pproach d oes n ot n eed e stimates o f c ommunity s ize, n or d oes i t d emand i nformation o n t he e xact u se o f e ach r oute i n t he s ettlement. T he v arious r outes c an b e a ssessed i n t erms o f t he n umber o f a ccess o ptions t hey o ffered,

t he a mount o f d ifficulty i nvolved i n u sing t hem,

t he d egree t o w hich r outes f rom o ne r esidence a rea r equired t he u se o f s pace i n a djacent,

d iscrete r esidential u nits, a nd t he i ncidence o f

p otential i ntervisibility p roduced b y r oute a lterations.

T he n umber o f

s tructural a lterations a nd r earrangements w hich o ccurred i n a r esidence u nit a re a m ark o f t he d egree t o w hich t he o ccupants p erceived, w hether t acitly o r c onsciously, t he c hanging d emands o n t heir s pace. F rom t his v iewpoint i t d oes n ot m atter w hat t he o ccupants w ould h ave s aid h ad t hey b een a sked. a ctivities o f c onsequence.

N or a re t he n ow i nvisible s ocial

F irstly, t here i s n o c lear e vidence t hat

s ocial r egulation a ctually m itigates p roblems o f t he s cale b eing c ons idered h ere.

R ather,

s ocial r ules m ay m erely r eallocate t he s tresses

o ccurring i n a c ommunity.

S econdly,

a rchaeological e vidence s hould b e

u sed i n r esearch e nquiries f or w hich i t i s a ppropriate. I f t here a re n o o bservable i ndicators o f a p henomenon,

t hen c laims a bout i ts p roposed

e ffects c annot b e s ubject t o a ssessment a nd a re n ot a n a ppropriate t opic o f r esearch.

T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he i ssue i s n ot i mportant,

o nly t hat a ppropriate d ata,

s uch a s i n a n e thnographic c ontext,

s hould

b e s elected i f w e w ish t o p ursue t hat e nquiry. T o c arry o ut t he m aterial b ehaviour a nalysis a d escription o f t he d evelopment o f t he s ettlement a nd i ts a bandonment i s r equired.

F rom

t his e vidence w e c an a ssess t he p roposition t hat t he a bandonment o f a s ettlement s hould r elate t o t he w ay i n w hich i nteraction i n t he s ettlem ent b ecame u nmanageable. o f r oute c hoice,

S uch p roblems w ould a rise

f rom r estrictions

i ncreasing d ifficulty o f a ccess a nd i ncreasing o verlap 6 70

67 1

M u g H o u s e ( a f t e r

K I V A M A T C H

T E R A C E W A L

C C

a

o f p reviously d iscrete r outes.

T he n ature o f t he a bandonment s hould

c orrespond t o t he n ature o f t he a ccess p roblem c reated b y t he g rowth o f t he s ettlement.

T his l eads t o a s et o f a ssessible p ropositions w hich

a re o pen t o r efutation b y o bservation s tatements a bout d ata w hich a re d irectly a ccessible i n a n a rchaeological s ite.

S uccinctly,

t he m odel

s pecifies t hat t hose p arts o f t he s ite w hich w ere m ore d ifficult t o e nter,

h ad t he l east r oute c hoices a nd r equired t he l argest a mount o f

a ccess v ia o ther r esidential u nits, s hould d isplay s patial a lterations w hich c an b e u nderstood a s d evices t o s olve a ccess p roblems.

T hey

s hould a lso b e t he a reas o f t he s ite w hich w ould b e a bandoned

f irst.

W hat w e w ould b e o bserving i s a l oss o f c oherence i n t he s pace/time p atterning o f b ehaviour i n t he s ettlement. A ccording t o t he i nteraction m odel, c hange a nd i nertia i n t he p atterning o f m aterial b ehaviour w ould h ave c reated a s ituation a t o dds w ith t he a ctive b ehaviour o f t he c ommunity. MI R H ouse:

s tructural c hange a nd i nteraction p roblems

M ug H ouse s tands i n o ne o f t he l arge r ock s helters i n t he s andstone c liffs o n t he w estern s ide o f W etherill M esa. a bout n inety r ooms

( Figure

) 4 ).

T he s ite n ow c ontains

M ud l ines o n t he c ave r oof m ark t he

f ormer p ositions o f t he u pper s torey r ooms. e ntire s heltered a rea o f t he c ave i s

A t g round l evel,

f illed w ith s tructures.

t he A t t he

f ront t he b uildings e xtend o ut i nto t he d rip l ine a nd h ave b een d amaged b y w ater.

A long t he r ear w all o f t he c ave i s a n u pper l edge w hich i s

w ide a nd e xtensive i n t he n orthern h alf o f t he c ave, a bsent i n t he c entre a nd p resent a s a s mall n arrow l edge i n t he s outhern t hird o f t he c ave.

B y l ate P ueblo I II t imes t hese l edges w ere a lso c overed w ith

b uildings a nd t rash. T he g rowth o f t he s ite i s w ell d efined a nd r elatively e asy t o t race.

I n b road t erms R ohn s howed t hat

K iva D i s t he e arliest n ow

e xtant s tructure a nd w as a ssociated w ith r ooms n orth t errace

( Rohn

1 971:21).

1 0 a nd

1 2 o n t he u pper

T he u nit a round K iva B w as a pparently

a dded n ext,

f ollowed b y t he c ourtyard a nd r ooms a ssociated w ith K iva C

( Figure 5 ).

A t t his t ime,

p rior t o 1 250-60 A D t he c entre r ear o f t he

m ain c ave f loor, t he m iddle p art o f t he n orthern u pper l edge a nd p roba bly p art o f t he s outh u pper l edge w ere c overed w ith s tructures.

T he

r emaining t wo-thirds o f t he s ettlement w as b uilt a nd u sed i n t he l ast f orty y ears o f o ccupation p rior t o a re i n t he

T he l atest t ree r ing d ates

1 270s b ut t he a bandonment o f t he s ite a nd

g eneral i s u sually a scribed t o P rior t o r outes.

1 300 A D .

1 300 A D ( Rohn

f or M esa V erde i n

1 971:19-27).

1 250-60 A D a ll t he u nits o f t he s ite h as u nimpeded a ccess

E ven t he o ccupants o f t he n orth t op t errace c ould h ave w alked

,t o t he n orth a nd c ome d own a l adder o utside t he n orth w all o f c ourtyard D .

I t i s m ore l ikely h owever t hat t hese u pper r ooms w ere t he d omestic 6 72

= DI M

F igure 5 : M ug H ouse. D evelopment p rior t o 1 250-60 A .D .

L ADDER

S TRUCTURE T OUCHING C AVE R OOF

C L ECS /3 2

T ERRACE W ALL

E DGE O F U PPER T ERRACE

A CCESS R OUTES

P OSSIBLE S TRUCTURES

p os t-1250-60 AD

F igure 6 : M ug H ouse. I nitial d evelopment a fter 1 250-60 A .D .

6 73

r esidence a ssociated w ith c ourtyards D a nd C .

I f s o,

t hen a ccess a t

t hat t ime w as u nimpeded a nd w as n ot c omplicated b y r oute o verlaps. K iva E p redates K iva A ( Figure 6 ). l ater K ivas i s u nclear. s equence o f E a nd A , t o B .

T he m ain,

T he p recise s equence o f t he

F or m y p urposes i t i s e nough t o k now t he

a nd t he r elationship b etween A a nd t he a lterations

f irst s torey b alcony i n u nit B p rovided a ccess a cross

r esidential s pace w hich w as i ntegral t o c ourtyard A ,

s o t he b uildings

a round K iva B w ere a pparently s till i n u se a s a r esidence u nit a fter K iva A w as b uilt.

T he d ating i s c onsistent w ith t he b uilding s equence.

A part f rom r e-used t imber, t here i s a n e arliest c utting d ate f or t imber i n K iva E o f 1 259 A D. e arlier t han

T he b alcony s upport b eam i n U nit B w as c ut n o

1 262 A D ( Rohn

fter A t s ome t ime a

1 971:25).

1 260 A D t he

c ourtyards w ith t he m ost s evere p roblems o f a ccess c hoice, e ffort a nd o verlap w ere B a nd C ( Figure 7 ).

T he p roblems f or C w ere c aused b y t he

w estern r ange o f r ooms n orth o f c ourtyard A . U nit B d isplays t he m ost e xtensive a nd c luttered s patial a ltera tions i n t he s ite,

i ncluding a t hird

o nly 2 -3' a t t he r ear o f t he c ave. r elatively c ramped a fter

f loor b alcony w ith a c learance o f

T he u se o f s pace w as b ecoming

1 260 A D .

W hether t his w as d ue t o i ndigenous

p opulation g rowth o r t o i mmigration i s n ot o f i mmediate c oncern s ince t his v iewpoint d oes n ot d epend o n k nowing h ow m any p eople w ere i nvolved n or o n k nowing h ow r ecruitment o ccurred.

K iva B w as b eing u sed a s a

t rash d ump b efore i t w as

f inally b urned a nd i ts r oof c ollapsed

1 971:27 a nd f ieldnotes).

I n t he s outh w all o f u nit B t here i s a r ough

d oorway p unched t hrough a n e arlier w all a t f irst f loor l evel.

( Rohn T he d oor

i s a ssociated w ith t he l atest p laster w ork o n t he w alls o f u nit E . d oorway g ave a ccess b etween u nits B a nd E .

T his

T he e vidence s uggests t hat

u nit B h ad b een a bandoned b y i ts o ccupants a nd t hen b een t aken o ver b y t he u sers o f u nit E . K iva C a lso h as a n i nteresting h istory a nd w as a pparently i n r uins b efore t he l ate c onstructions a nd t rash a ccumulated o n t he u pper t errace.

K iva C s hows s igns o f h aving b een a d ump b efore i t b urned.

T here i s n o e vidence t hat t he k iva w as t hen f illed i n.

O nce t he r oof o f

K iva C h ad c ollapsed t he l adder a cross w hich r an f rom i ts r oof u p t o t he u pper t errace b etween r ooms n umbered u nusable ( Figure 3 ). f eet t o t he n orth.

1 2 a nd

1 5 w ould h ave b ecome

I t a ppears t hat t he d oor w as s hifted a bout

T his s hift w ould h ave p laced t he l ower e nd o f t he

a ssociated l adder o n t he s table f ill b etween K ivas C a nd D . u pper t errace t he g ap b etween r ooms w alls.

1 2 a nd

O n t he

1 5 w as f illed b y t wo s tone

O nly a fter t hey w ere b uilt d id t rash p ile u p t o t hree f eet o n

t he u pper t errace ( Rohn,

f ive

( Figure 8 ).

f ieldnotes).

O n t hat t rash f our r ooms w ere b uilt

I t f ollows t hat K iva C w as a bandoned b efore m uch

o f t he t rash d evelopment a nd c onstruction w ork o r t he t op t errace.

6 7 1 4

a

I

6 75

L A D E R G R O V E S

T E R A C E W A L

E D G E O F B A L C O N Y

V E N T S H A F T

K I V A H A T C H

K I V A O U T L I N E

F igure 8 : M üg H ouse. T he U pper T errace.

6 76

S TRUCTURE

T he a bandonment o f M ug H ouse a ppears t o b egin w ith t he d isuse o f t he

t wo m ost

i naccessible c ore c ourtyards.

W ith a ccess b locked o n a ll

s ides a nd r outes g oing o ver t he o ne o r t wo s torey b uildings a t t he f ront o f t he s ite,

t he a ccess r outes o f t he c ore c ourtyards w ould h ave

b een l ess m anageable,

r equired m ore e ffort a nd b een s ubject t o m ore

i nteraction d emands t han b efore p rising t hat

1 260 A D.

K iva C w as a mong t he

d oned a nd t hat u nit

f irst

o f t he

w hich i s t he o ldest e xtant k iva, a ppears t o b e m ent.

p arts o f t he s ite t o b e a banT his c annot b e a scribed t o t he

k ivas o r t o t he d amage c aused b y s tructural

c ollapsed o n t he

f ires.

K iva D ,

w as a pparently i n u se u ntil i ts r oof

p ottery a nd e quipment l ying o n t he f loor.

K iva D

p art o f a l ate o ccupation a t t he n orth e nd o f t he s ettle-

N one o f t he n orthern r ooms c ontained d omestic t rash.

a bandonment d ue t o d estructive f ires. b efore i ts r oof b urned b urned t wice.

s ur-

Bw ent t hrough a m ore e xtensive p rocess o f d eterio-

r ation t han a ny o ther c ourtyard u nit. a ge

I t i s t herefore n ot

K iva B w as a lready a t rash d ump

f or t he l ast t ime.

T he e arlier

f ires w ere

N or w as k iva

K ivas B ,

Ca nd D h ad a ll

f ar m ore s evere.

N onetheless a ll

t hree k ivas w ere r enovated a nd r ebuilt b y t he o ccupants o f M ug H ouse a nd

h ad t hen b urned

a gain d uring t he d eterioration o f t he s ite.

T he r ooms a round c ourtyards G a nd D r emained i n u se u ntil t he s ite w as

c ompletely a bandoned.

u p r ooms.

U ndisturbed g ear l ay o n

f loors a nd

i n s ealed

T hese c ourtyards h ad a lways r etained d irect a ccess t o t he

o pen s pace o n t he a ccess o ver

f ront t erraces.

t he t op o f r oom 5 8,

C ourtyard D w ould h ave p ossessed a n

a n o dd l ittle s pace

f itted i nto t he

s outhwest c orner o f c ourtyard G b ut w ith n o o ther a pparent t o c ourtyards

f unction.

T he

s ame e ase o f a ccess w ould h ave a pplied

Fa nd

H b ut

t he

s equence o f a bandonment a t t he s outh e nd o f t he s ite i s d ifficult

t o u nravel. W hat w e c an s ee i n M ug H ouse i s a n i ncrease i n p roblems o f i ntera ction.

T he t rash

p iling u p o n t he n orth u pper t errace u nit a nd t he

i solation o f t he a rea a re t he k inds o f r esponse t o r oute a ccess c omplic ations w hich w e w ould e xpect.

I n

p art t herefore,

t he o ccupants o f M ug

H ouse w ere a ttempting m aterial b ehaviour s olutions t o t he p roblems c reated b y t he c ultural t opography o f t heir

s ettlement.

B ut w ithin

t heir b ehaviour

p attern t hey c ould n ot c reate a s tructural s olution f or

t he

p roblems o f t he c entral

i nteraction

a ctive b ehaviour d onment.

s trategy w as t aken u p,

T he c ommunity b egan t o d ie

p art o f t he s ettlement.

A n

w hich w e p erceive a s s ite a ban .

f rom t he c entre o utwards w ith l ate

o ccupation a t t he n orth e nd o f t he s ettlement.

T hat a rea w as s ub-

s equently a bandoned w ith m uch o f t he r esidential m aterial

i n s itu .

C onsequences W e n ow n eed t o d iscuss t he r elationship b etween t he a ctive b ehavi our o ption a nd

i ts e cological c ontext, 6 77

s ince i nteraction p roblems i n

t hemselves c annot e xplain t he c omplete a bandonment o f M ug H ouse. o ccupation d windled e rn p art,

i nto i solated a reas o f t he c ave,

s o t he i nteraction

s uch a s

A s t he

t he n orth-

p roblems w ould h ave b een r educed.

A nd i n

t he v ery s mall s ites n o p roblems o f i nteraction w ould h ave a risen. i nteresting c orollary i s t hat e cological

f actors,

T he

s uch a s f amine, a lso

c annot a dequately e xplain t he l ate t hirteenth c entury A D a bandonment o f M esa V erde.

T he

p re-1300 A D o ccupation o f M esa V erde h ad l asted a t

l east 7 00 y ears.

D roughts h ad b een o ccurring a ll t hat

f ication h ad b een t aking p lace a t l east, d rought.

f rom 9 00 t o a bout

t ime a nd

100 A D .

I n

i ntensip rinciple

t he e conomy s hould h ave b een a dapted t o t he e xigencies o f A lthough e nvironmental d amage m ay h ave b een c umulatively m ore

s evere d uring t he t welfth a nd c ould n ot r ule o ut r educed f orm, r equired w as

f urther

t hirteenth c enturies,

t hat, i n

i tself,

i ntensification a nd t he s urvival,

o f t he e stablished c ultural t raditions.

e ven i n a

A ll t hat w as

f urther c o-operation a mong t he o ccupants o f t he

l arge

s ettlements. I f,

h owever,

w e a dd

i n t he r esidential

p roblems t he p icture b ecomes

r ather d ifferent a nd w e m ay b e a ble t o e xplain w hy t hat c rop e conomy a nd i ts a ssociated r esidence p attern d id n ot i nteraction m odel

p ersist

i n M esa V erde.

T he

s uggest t hat c ommunity i ntegration m ay h ave b een

f ailing a s a r esult o f i ntractable b ehavioural

p roblems.

T his c ombines

w ith t he e vidence o f e pisodic d epartures f rom t he c liff d wellings.

I n

M ug H ouse t here w ere s tore r ooms w hich h ad b een s ealed u p.

Mug H ouse

g ained i ts n ame

i f s omeone

f rom t he n umerous m ugs l eft i n t he s ite, a s

p lanned t o c ome b ack a nd u se t hem a gain. p ermanent d ispersal w as n ot t he i nitial m ents.

S hifting a way o n s easonal

T he

p arsimonious m odel i s t hat

f unction o f t he e pisodic m ove-

j ourneys w as a n a ctive b ehaviour

s trategy w hich w ould h ave h elped t o a lleviate s ome o f t he p roblems a nd p rovide a lternative f ood s upplies.

A ccording t o t his v iew t he a bandon-

m ent o f M ug H ouse i s t he c umulative e ffect o f m ore a nd m ore groups f ailing t o r eturn: a n a bandonment b y d efault r ather

t han g eneral

i ntent. W hile t he s easonal j ourneys w ould a lso h ave p rovided a n e conomic s olution t o t he p roblems o f f ood n or a s ufficient

s trategy.

e ffort c ould h ave b een p ut

s carcity,

t his w as n either a n ecessary

T here w as a n a lternative.

M ore c o-operative

i nto l and a nd w ater m anagement.

s ee t he c onjunction o f r esidential s tress a nd e nvironmental r esidential c onditions w ere s uch t hat t he

H ere w e c an s tress.

i ntegration a nd c ohesion o f

t he c ommunity i n a c liff d welling w as t ending t o b reak d own,

p reventing

t he m aintenance o f t he c o-operative l abour n ecessary t o r un a n s ive a gricultural e conomy,

T he

i nten-

b ased o n w ater c hannels a nd h olding t anks.

W hether o r n ot t he c heck d ams w ere e asily e roded a n e xplanation o f t heir

f ailure t o s ustain t he c ommunities o f M esa V erde l ies

s mall

f ield a reas p rovided b y a ny o ne g roup o f c heck d ams a nd

6 78

i n t he t he w ide

d ispersal

o f t he g roups o f c heck d ams.

T o u se s uch s mall, d ispersed

p lots t o s upply o ne l arge c ommunity i n a p eriod o f u nreliable c rop y ields w ould h ave d emanded c o-operation, m utual

s upport a nd e xchange

w ithin a s ettlement. W ithout r ain a t t he a ppropriate t ime a ny o f t he c heck d am s ystems c ould h ave

f ailed.

E ither

p ooled l abour a nd a c o-

o perative d istribution o f t he a vailable c rop, i ndependend

o r,

a t t he o ther e xtreme,

f arming w ith s upport g iven t o t hose w ho w ere s hort o f f ood,

w ould b oth d emand c onsiderable i nteraction w ithin . a c ommunity.

A lthough

t he c heck d ams m ay h ave b een a n e conomic s olution t o t he e xigencies o f d rought,

t hey c ould n ot h ave b een e ffectively u sed,

i f i nteraction

p atterns w ere b ecoming i ntolerable w ithin t he s ettlements. F or e conomic r easons a n e xclusive d ependence b y p art o f a c ommunity o n o ne o r

t wo c heck d am s ystems w ould n ot h ave h elped t o m aintain

e ither a l arge s ettlement o r t he s mall i solated c ommunities. w ere o btained b ut n ot

I f c rops

s hared :then t he d estitute m embers o f a l arge

c ommunity w ould b e f urther i mpelled t o o btain f ood b y o ther m eans, a s v iolence o r d ispersal.

N or c ould

i solated c heck d am s ystems

a n a dequate d efence a gainst c rop f ailure p ossible s upport

s uch

p rovide

f or s mall c ommunities.

W ithout

f rom t he c rop y ields o f o ther c heck d am s ystems,

r eliability o f t he f ood s upply w ould h ave d ecreased e ven f urther. t he i ntensified e conomy b roke d own i t w ould h ave b een d ifficult

t he O nce

e ven

f or s mall c ommunities t o s urvive. T he r esidents o f M esa V erde w ere a pparently t rapped i n a p attern o f m aterial b ehaviour w hich m ilitated a gainst a r evival o f t he l arge c omp act s ettlements a round w hich t heir c ultural l ife c entred t hirteenth c entury A D.

i n t he

T hey w ere a lso t rapped i n a d ownward s piral o f

r educed a nd p rogressively m ore u nreliable f ood y ields. t rol o f b oth t he e conomic a nd

H aving l ost c on-

r esidential c ircumstances o f t heir l ives,

s easonal a nd

p ermanent d ispersal a way f rom M esa V erde w ould h ave b een

t he s urvival

o ption.

W hile t his c ould n ot s ustain t he c ommunities w hich

l ived i n t he c liff d wellings i t m ay w ell h ave a ided t he s urvival o f t he m embers o f t hose c ommunities.

T here i s n o s keletal o r c ultural e vidence

w hich i ndicates t hat t he a bandonment w as a l ocal b iological c atastrophe i n M esa V erde

( Rohn

1 971:27),

t hough t he d eath r ate m ay h ave b een h igh

d uring d ispersal.

C onclusions T he

f ailure o f t he i ntensification s trategy u sed i n M esa V erde

may b e u nderstood b ehavioural

i n t erms o f a c onjunction o f e nvironmental a nd

s tresses.

A n a nalysis o f t he m aterial b ehaviour o f t he

o ccupants o f M ug H ouse o ffers a n ew a pproach t o t he t he l ate t hirteenth c entury A D a bandonment.

6 79

p roblem p osed b y

T he v alue o f a m aterial b ehaviour a nalysis i s t hat i t a voids e xplanations b ased o n a n a ppeal t o i nvisible c hanges o rganisation.

i n s ocial

A ttention i s d irected t o t he c onstraints c reated b y

m aterial b ehaviour. T he s pace/time m essages o f m aterial b ehaviour u sed b y a c ommunity c an b e s een a s a n i ndependent v ariable w hich m ay t ransform o r l ose c oherence a s a r esult o f c hanges d uring r eplication. T his i ndependent v ariable, t he s urvival o f a

l ike t he g ene s ystem, m ay a dversely a ffect

g roup w hich c arries a nd r eplicates i t.

O ne o f t he

i ssues o f i ntensification i s t herefore t he w ay i n w hich p atterning o f s pace a nd t ime b y h uman c ommunities c an h elp o r h inder t heir a bility t o c ope w ith c ircumstances.

A s a r esult o f t he u niformitarian p remises

w hich l ink t he e nvironmental a nd t he b ehavioural p ropositions t o t heir p rimary d ata,

a r efutation o f t his t hesis c ould b e c arried o ut u sing

d ata d irectly a vailable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord.

A cknoWledgements M y t hanks g o t o t he s taff o f M esa V erde N ational P ark f or g oodwill,

k indness a nd

i nterest.

a ll h is h elp a nd a dvice.

t heir

M y e special t hanks t o J ack S mith f or

F or a ssistance

i n t he

f ield a nd t he c hance

t o d iscuss m y i deas o n s ite I t hank t he s easonal R angers w ho g ave t heir t ime t o h elp m e.

R eferences c ited C attanach, 1 980

L ong H ouse.

7 H, C hang,

G .S. N ational P ark S ervice P ublications i n A rchaeology

W ashington.

K .C.

1 967

M ajor a spects o f t he i nterrelationship o f a rchaeology a nd

e thnology. D ouglas,

C urrent A nthropology 8 :227-243.

M .

1 972

S ymbolic o rders i n t he u se o f d omestic s pace.

S ettlement a nd U rbanism , G .W. D imbleby, D ouglass, 1 929

e dited b y P .J.

p p.513-522.

T ringham a nd

A .E. T he s ecret o f t he s outhwest s olved b y t alkative t ree r ings.

J .A.,

1 969

C .L.

D ouglas a nd

V ol.

F letcher,

5 6,

p p.737-770.

J .W. M arr

E nvironment o f M esa V erde ,

C olorado.

A rchaeological R esearch S eries N o. 1 977a

R .

L ondon.

N ational G eographic M agazine , E rdman,

U cko,

I n Man ,

7 -B,

N ational P ark S ervice W ashington.

R .J. S ettlement s tudies.

C larke,

p p.47-162.

I n S patial A rch eology,

A cademic

P ress,

6 80

L ondon.

e dited

b y D .L.

F letcher,

R .J.

1 977b

A lternatives a nd d ifferences.

A nthropology , e dited b y M .

I n Archaeology a nd

S priggs,

p p.49-68.

B ritish

A rchaeological R eports S upplementary S eries 1 9. F letcher, 1 978

R .J . I ssues i n t he s tudy o f s ettlement s pace.

I n S ocial

O rganisation a nd S ettlement , e dited b y D . G reen, a nd M .

S priggs, p p.225-240.

C .

H aselgrove

B ritish A rchaeological R eports

S upplementary S eries 4 7. F letcher,

R .J.

1 981a

S pace a nd c ommunity b ehaviour.

I n B .

L loyd a nd J . G ay ( eds),

p p.71-110. F letcher,

R .J.

1 981b

P eople a nd s pace:

P attern o f t he P ast: b y I . H odder,

H ammond,

P P.97-128.

C ambridge

C ambridge.

P .R. a nd D . W atson

1 936

An E xperimental C orn F ield i n M esa V erde N ational P ark.

U niversity o f N ew M exico B ulletin, F ritts,

H .C.,

1 965

D .G.

S mith a nd M .A.

T he b iological m odel

O ctober.

S tokes

I n C ontributions o f t he W etherill M esa

A rchaeological P roject ,

e dited b y B .S.

K atz a nd D .

M emoirs o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, G lassow ,

O sborne.

N umber

1 9.

M .A. Prehistoric A gricultural D evelopment i n t he N orthern

S outhwest: a s tudy o f c hanging p atterns o f l and u se . P ress A nthropological H all,

T he

f or p aleoclimatic i nterpretation o f M esa

V erde T ree-Ring S eries.

1 980

I n

s tudies i n h onour o f D avid C larke , e dited

G . I saac a nd N .

U niversity P ress, F ranke,

a c ase s tudy o n m aterial b ehaviour.

P apers N o.

1 6.

B allena P ress,

B allena S ocorro.

E .T.

1 966

T he H idden D imension:

p rivate. H ayes,

B odley H ead,

A .C. a nd J .A.

1 975

m an's u se o f s pace i n p ublic a nd

L ondon.

L ancaster

B adger H ouse C ommunity. N ational

A rchaeology ,

N umber 7 -E ,

P ark S ervice P ublications i n

W ashington.

H iggs, E .S. a nd M .R. J arman ( editors) 1 975 K irch,

P alaeoeconomy .

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C ambridge.

P .V.

1 980

T he a rchaeological s tudy o f a daptation:

m ethodological i ssues. T heory , P ress, L ister, 1 968

V ol,

t heoretical a nd

I n A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd

3 , e dited b y M .B.

S chiffer,

p p.101-156.

A cademic

N ew Y ork.

R .H. A rchaeology f or L ayman a nd S cientist a t M esa V erde.

S cience

1 60:489-496. M urray , 1 978

T . P atterns i n P rehistory.

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U npublished

B .A. d issertation,

U niversity o f S ydney. AR1

O 'Hear,

A .

1 980

K arl P opper.

T .

H onderich.

P inkley,

I n T he A rguments o f t he P hilosophers , e dited b y R outledge & K egan P aul,

L ondon.

J .

1 965

T he P ueblos a nd t he t urkey.

W ho d omesticated w hom?

I n

C ontributions o f t he W etherill M esa A rchaeological P roject ,

R ohn,

K atz a nd D .

O sborne,

A rchaeology ,

N umber

p p.70-72. 1 9.

P rehistoric s oil a nd w ater c onservation o n C hapin M esa,

S outhwestern C olorado.

A merican A ntiquity 2 8:441-455.

A .H.

1 971

Mug H ouse.

S eries, R ohn,

M emoirs o f t he S ociety o f A merican

A .H.

1 963 R ohn,

B .S.

N o.

N ational P ark S ervice A rchaeological R esearch

7 -D ,

W ashington.

A .H.

1 977

C ultural C hange a nd C ontinuity o n C hapin M esa.

P ress o f K ansas, S teward,

L awrence.

G .R.

1 940

C onservation i n P ueblo a griculture.

5 1

[ Part 1 :201-220 ,

S teward,

G .R. a nd M .

1 943

D onnelly

S oil a nd w ater e conomy i n t he P ueblo S outhwest.

N orthern A rizona, c onservation,

I .

: 31-44.

T he

F ield s tudies a t M esa V erde a nd I I.

E valuation o f p rimitive m ethods o f

: 134-144.

G .R.

1 980

T he s tory o f M esa V erde N ational P ark.

C enter, W inter,

T he S cientific M onthly

P art I I:329-3401.

S cientific M onthly 5 6:

W enger,

T he R egents

V isual

C ommunication

D enver.

J .C.

1 974

A boriginal A griculture i n t he S outhwest a nd G reat B asin.

U npublished

P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity o f U tah. Z ukav, 1 979

G . T he D ancing W u L i M asters: a n o verview o f t he N ew P hysics.

6 82

A S ABOTAGED AQUEDUCT:

S OCIOPOLITICAL C ONSTRAINTS O N A GRICULTURAL

I NTENSIFICATION I N L OWLAND P APUA N EW G UINEA

M iriam K ahn

I n s tudies o f i rrigation s ystems, t o e mphasize a nd

t he

t here h as b een a g eneral

t endency

s ocial c ooperation n eeded t o m aintain d ams a nd c anals

t o a llocate w ater.

T his i dea,

t hat

i rrigation s ystems

p redicate

s ociopolitical c ooperation, h as b een t he b ackbone o f m ajor t heories a bout t he n ature o f a gricultural u tion.

F or

i nstance,

e cological

i n c ontrast t o

p ressure o f p opulation

i ntensification, i rrigation w ater,

i ntensification a nd c ultural e vol-

W ittfogel

t echnology a nd

B oserup

( 1965), w ho a rgued

i ncrease l eads t o a gricultural

( 1957),

v iewed

t he n eed

t he e xistence o f c omplex

t o a llocate

s carce s upplies o f

a s p recipitous i n t he d evelopment o f l arger

p olitical

i dea t hat

i rrigation s ystems l ead

p olitical c ooperation d eserves e qual a ttention. ' that

r uptive f orce'

f or a ntagonism a nd c onflict a nd

( Millon

1 962:84).

i n

f act,

p otent s ource o f f riendship a lliances, d ivisiveness

( Fernea

M illon e t a l.

1 962).

1 959:200; I ndeed,

H unt a nd

i stic o f a ll

s ystems i nvolving

i rrigation'

b oth a

H unt

1 974;

f eel t hat

..

L each

1 961:9-65;

' this t wo-edged

f undamentally c haracter-

t he a llocation o f a s carce s upply o f

( Millon e t a l.

1 962:19-20).

T hese d isruptive e lements i nherent p ervasive t hat,

i s a p otentially d is-

a n a mbivalent o ne,

M illon e t a l.

f or c ohesion a nd c onflict i s

a gricultural

h as

a s w ell a s o f h ostility a nd

p otentiality

m echanisms,

f or o ne,

T he m utually d ependent r elationship

w hich e xists a mong i rrigators i s,

f or

M illon,

t o s ocio-

t he p ractice o f i rrigation a griculture c arries w ith i t a

s trong p otential

w ater

p opulations a nd

s tratification.

T he c orollary t o t he

n oted

t hat t he

i n

i rrigation s ystems m ay b e s o

l acking s trong s ociopolitical l eadership o r u nifying

a n i rrigating s ociety m ay b e u nable t o m aintain l ong-term i ntensification.

S ociopolitical o rganisation,

t hereof , m ay c onstrain a gricultural

i ntensification.

o r a l ack

I n t his p aper,

I

e xamine p recisely s uch a s ituation i n w hich a s ociety e ngages i n o ccasional a gricultural i ntensification,

y et d ue t o t he l ack o f

p olitical c ontrol n ecessary t o o vercome d ivisiveness,

f ails t o

i ntensify t heir a gricultural s ystem o n a p ermanent b asis. T he p eople o f W amira v illage t he

l argest

d epend o n

i t

e sculent ).

i n l owland

P apua N ew G uinea p ossess

i rrigation s ystem p resently i n u se f or T he

i n t heir c ountry.

t heir y ear-round c ultivation o f t aro

T hey

( Colocasia

i rrigation s ystem i ncorporates t he o ccasional u se o f a n

6 83

6 84

a queduct,

w hich i s t he o nly i ndigenously c onceived a queduct i n

T he W amirans l ament t he t hat t hey s uffer s trongest

f act t hat t heir l and

f rom a l ack o f a bundant

P apua.

i s d ry a nd d esolate a nd

t aro.

Y et,

o ne o f t heir

f ears i s t hat i f t hey w ork o n t he a queduct,

a llows t hem t o i ncrease t heir s upply o f t aro,

w hich,

i n

f act,

t hey w ill d ie.

I p ropose t hat t he b alance o f b oth t he i rrigation s ystem w ithout t he a queduct

p lus t he o ccasional u se o f t he a queduct a re n ecessary i n

t he W amirans'

l ong-term m ode o f a daptation.

T he c onstruction a nd m ain-

t enance o f t he a queduct a re t he o nly a ctivities w hich c all c ooperation a nd i ncrease t heir d uct-watered

f or s ocial

p olitical c ontrol o n a v illage-wide s cale. s upply o f r eplantable t aro s uckers,

p lain e very f ew y ears.

H owever,

I n o rder t o

t hey u se t he a que-

l acking t he

p olitical c on-

t rol w hich i s n ecessary t o o vercome t he a ntagonism a nd c onflict w hich t he a queduct e ntails, t he W amirans a re t han a re

f ive o r p resent

s ix y ears.

T hus,

u nable t o m aintain

a lthough t he t echnological

f or g reater i ntensification a nd c hange,

s ociopolitical s tructure s eems t o h inder b asis.

i t

f or m ore

i ngredients

t he o verriding

i ntensification o n a p ermanent

T he W amiran d ata i llustrates h ow i rrigation a griculture c an b e a

d isruptive

f orce a nd h ow a l ack o f a ny s ociopolitical m echanism t o

o vercome t his d ivisiveness,

m ay c onstrain

f urther a gricultural

i ntensi-

f ication.

E thnographic b ackground W amira,

a c oastal v illage a t t he s outheastern t ip o f P apua N ew

G uinea, l ies

i n a d ry s avanna b elt w hich e xtends a long t he c oast

a pproximately

3 0 k m ( Figure

1 ).

T he v illages w ithin t his b elt a re

b acked b y r ain-sheltering m ountains. m m a y ear,

i s i nsufficient

c rop o f r itual

f or t he

s ignificance.

f or a bout e ight m onths

P recipitation,

a veraging o nly

p roper g rowth o f t aro,

l asting

N ovember.

S ince t aro r equires a l arge a mount o f w ater t o g row,

t he W amirans,

a s w ell a s t he i nhabitants o f t he n eighboring c oastal v illages, t aro g ardens.

a h ollowed

l og a queduct a s

r iver w ater

I n

1 300

t heir m ain

T he d ry s eason i s u nusually l ong,

f rom A pril u ntil

g ate t heir

f or

i rri-

p recontact t imes t he W amirans a lone d evised p art o f t heir

t o a l arge a lluvial

i rrigation s ystem t o t ransport

p lain d irectly b ehind t he v illage.

I t

a ppears t o b e t he o nly i ndigenously c onceived a queduct i n P apua, a lthough o thers e xist i n t he g rasslands o f t he F or e xample, a nd

b amboo c onduits h ave b een u sed b y t he

t he B aruya

( Godelier

W antoat ( Schmitz 8 2;

1 960:42)

1 977:131) a nd

t he

P apua a nd N ew G uinea V illager T aro i s

N ew G uinea m ountains.

t he W amirans'

o f t he

E astern

A wa

H ighlands,

P atep ( Hipsley a nd 1 950:22)

( Loving

C lements

1 976)

a nd b y t he 1 947:B1-

o f t he M orobe a rea.

m ain c rop o f r itual

s ignificance.

i t c omprises o nly a bout 2 0% o f t heir v egetable d iet,

A lthough

t hey c onsider i t

" food"

p ar e xcellence.

t able

f oods,

t aro,

y am ( Dioscorea),

g reen l eaves,

( Manihot e sculenta). f ish a nd

p ork.

W amirans,

a nd

s weet

f ruits.

8 5% c onsists o f v ege-

T he m ain v egetable f oods a re

p otato ( Ipomoea b atatas),

T he r emaining

a lthough n ot e xcellent,

a nd c assava

1 5% o f t he t otal d iet c onsists o f i s

f airly a dequate

w hich i s r oughly s quare i n s hape,

5 00 o f w hich a re

p otential g arden l and.

o n t he e ast a nd w est b y t wo r ivers, r espectively;

a bout

M y d ata i ndicate t hat t he n utritional

T he v illage, 6 00 h a,

O f t heir t otal d iet,

t he

s tatus o f t he ( Kahn

1 981).

c omprises a n a rea o f

T he v illage i s b ounded

U ruam R iver a nd

W amira

R iver,

t o t he n orth b y t he s ea, a nd t o t he s outh b y u ndulating

f oothills w hich r ise t o m ountainous

p eaks i n t he i nterior.

l and b elongs t o n eighboring v illages.

A vailable l and

i s

A djoining

t hus c ircum-

s cribed. T he p opulation w ithin t he v illage h as r emained r elatively s table o ver t he p ast c entury.

T he e arliest

W amira w ere r ecorded

1 896 b y C opland K ing, o ne o f t he

a ries, 3 7).

w ho t allied 3 83 p eople

S ince t hen,

r ange b etween R eport

f igures a vailable f or

1 952-1960).

I n

4 87

( Papua A nnual R eport

106-1978,

a nd i n

f irst m ission-

( British N ew G uinea A nnual R eport

e ach a dditional c ensus h as a rrived a t

3 68 a nd

p opulation o f 3 79, p eriod

i n

p opulation

1 896:

f igures w hich

1 922:22;

B aniara P atrol

m y o wn c ensus i ndicated a n a verage

1 981 a p opulation o f 4 40.

f or w hich r ecords a re a vailable,

t he

v illage h as a lways r emained c lose t o 4 30,

T hus,

p opulation

f or

t he

w ithin t he

n ever d eviating b y m ore t han

1 5%. T he d emographic s ituation s eems t o p lay a n i mportant r ole i n p reserving a p ulsating e quilibrium b etween a vailable r esources a nd p opulation g rowth. i n

1 896,

S ince t he e arliest

t here h as b een a t hreefold

p opulation,

p opulation

f igures w ere r ecorded

i ncrease i n t t al W amiran

p erhaps d ue t o t he c essation o f w arfare a nd

i mprovement o f m edical

s ervices s ince c ontact.

T oday,

t o t he h owever,

a s m any

a s t wo-thirds o f t he t otal W amiran p opulation l ive o utside W amira, e ither i n o ther v illages o r i n t owns. p opulation b e d rained o ff a nd v illage d oes n ot e xceed v illage,

I t s eems c rucial

t hat t he

p opulation r esiding w ithin t he

5 00. W ere a ll W amirans t o r eturn t o t he

r esidential c onditions w ould b e c rowded

i nsufficient.

F or o ur

t hat t his e xcess

p urposes h ere,

a nd g arden l and

i t i s i mportant

t o n ote t hat

a lthough t otal W amiran p opulation h as s teadily i ncreased, t he p opulation/land r atio w ithin t he v illage h as r emained s table o ver t he p ast c entury

( the g eographical u nit a nd

t emporal

p eriod

w ith w hich m y

a nalysis i s c oncerned). T he s ociopolitical o rganisation o f W amira i s o ne o f d ecentralised, a utonomous g roups w hich h ave n o s trong u nifying m echanism, l eader o r i deology f or t he v illage a s a w hole.

6 86

G eographically,

W amira i s

d istinctly d ivided i nto t wo w ards,

D amaladona a nd R umaruma.

I n

p recontact t imes, W amira c onsisted o nly o f D amaladona, b ut a s p opulation i ncreased, t he e xcess s pilled o ver a nd s ettled i n R umaruma, w hich n ow i s o ccasionally r eferred t o a s " Wamira N umber T wo". A ntagonism a nd c ompetition e xist b etween t he t wo w ards a nd, m ost t raditional v illage a ctivities, f easts, a nd d ances,

t herefore,

s uch a s h orticultural p roduction,

a re c onducted s eparately.

T he o nly a ctivity w hich

c alls f or a c ollective e ffort b y t he v illagers a s a w hole i s t he o ccasional c onstruction a nd m aintenance o f t he a queduct. E ach w ard i s f urther d ivided i nto n amed h amlets o f w hich D amaladona h as e ight a nd R umaruma h as t en. i nto n amed h amlet s ections. o f n uclear g arden l and

S ix o f t he l arger h amlets a re d ivided

H ouseholds w ithin t hese c onsist p rimarily

f amilies w hich l ive p atrilocally.

O wnership a nd u se o f t aro

f ollow h amlet r esidence p atterns b y 9 8%.

T hus,

p atrilin-

e ally r elated t aro g arden g roups c orrespond t o p atrilocal r esidential h amlet u nits, a lthough t hese c orporate u nits o f e conomic p roduction a nd c ooperation a re u nnamed. T here i s n o o ne t raditional l eader f or t he v illage a s a w hole, a lthough e ach w ard h as i ts o wn m an, r espected f or h is g eneral w isdom a nd h orticultural k nowledge.

T he m ain t ype o f l eadership f or d aily

c ollective e fforts i s t hat o f h eadman a t t he h amlet l evel.

T he h amlet

h eadman i s t he i ndividual r esponsible f or i nitiating t he v arious s tages o f t he c ultivation c ycle a nd c alling t he f easts w hich m ark t heir c ompletion. o r

H e m otivates t he m embers o f t he g roup t o w ork b y p roviding,

p rompting t he h amlet m embers t o p rovide, t he

n ecessary c ompensation f or t heir l abor.

f ood w hich i s s een a s

Ah amlet h eadman i nherits h is

r ights a nd d uties p rimarily t hrough p atrilineal p rimogeniture, a lthough , a s i s c ommon i n M elanesia,

c ompetition a mong m en i s f ierce,

a nd o ften r esults i n r ivalries a nd o ccasional s orcery a ccusations. S orcery i s r ife a mong m en a t a ll s tructural l evels, a lthough t he g reatest t hreat o f s orcery o ccurs a cross w ards. b e t he c ause o f m ost d eaths.

S orcery i s b elieved t o

I t m ay a lso b e a imed a t a r ival's t aro, a

c rop w hich W amirans e ndow w ith h uman c haracteristics a nd v iew a s m etonymically r elated t o i ts c ultivator. T he t raditional f orm o f l eadership h as b een a mplified, b ut n ot s upp lanted, s ince

1 964 w hen l ocal g overnment c ouncils w ere e stablished.

S ince t hat t ime, W amirans e lect o ne v illage c ouncillor e very t hree y ears. T he c ouncillor u sually i s c hosen f or h is e xperience w ith w hite p eople a nd k nowledge o f g overnment w ays, r ather t han f or a ny g reat r espect h e h olds w ithin t he v illage.

I n t he r ecent p ast s uch v illage-

w ide c ouncillors h ave n ot b een v ery i nfluential i n h orticultural a ctivities.

I ndeed, a r ecent c ouncillor w as a ccused o f c ausing g reat

s ocial d estruction b y c ommitting t he e pitome o f W amiran s ins, n amely, s tealing t aro f rom p eoples'

g ardens.

T he

p roblem o f v illage u nification p resent i n t raditional p olitical

o rganisation i s a lso l ors.

F or e xample,

f ound

i n t he i ntroduced s ystem o f v illage c ouncil-

t he e lected

c ouncillor i n

1 976 p ersistently t ried t o

h ave a s econd c ouncillor e lected s ince h e f ound m otivate

i t i mpossible t o

p eople t o w ork t ogether o n v illage-wide a ctivities s uch a s

b uilding t he v illage

s chool.

f or e ach o f t he t wo w ards. a nd w hen

H is a im w as t o h ave t wo c ouncillors, o ne H is a ttempts

I r eturned t o W amira i n

e mbroiled

1 981,

f ailed a t t he g overnment l evel

I f ound

t he n ew c ouncillor s till

i n a n i dentical s truggle t o d ivide h is j ob b etween t wo

c ouncillors. N ot o nly d oes t he d ecentralised

p olitical o rganisation f ail

p rovide a m echanism f or v illage u nification,

b ut W amiran b eliefs a bout

a ncestral a ffiliation a nd l ineage i dentity l ikewise s ense o f v illage c ollectivity.

o rigin.

T hese m atrilineages, o f w hich

d istinguish t hemselves a ccording t o g eographical

E ach t races i ts r oots t o a d ifferent l ocale a nd

d ate t o a d ifferent t hus,

f ail t o c reate a

, Membership i n n amed l ineage g roups i s

d etermined a ccording t o m atrifiliation. t here a re 2 0,

p eriod.

M oreover,

p lace o f

i ts s ettling

t hese l ineages a re e xogamous a nd,

a re g eographically d ispersed t hroughout t he v illage.

A lthough l ineage a ffiliation i s t he s eparate a nd o ften a ntagonistic s ocial m arriages,

p rimary l ink a cross o therwise u nits,

t hese b ridges f ormed a t

a nd r ekindled a nd r edefined a t d eaths,

a re n either s trong

n or n umerous e nough t o b ond t he v illage t ogether a s o ne a ll,

t o

o nce a w oman m arries,

s he

u nit.

F irst o f

s evers m ost t ies t o h er n atal f amily,

i ncluding t hose t o r esidential a nd h orticultural l and. h er h usband's l and e ven a fter h is d eath.

S he r emains o n

S he m oves b ack t o h er n atal

l and a fter h er h usband's d eath o nly i f s he b ore n o s ons a nd t hus h as n o m ale t ies t o t he l and.

A s econd r eason w hy b onds o f m atrifiliation

f ail t o c reate a n a miable l ink a cross v illage w ards i s t hat 8 2.5% o f W amiran w omen t heir w ard.

( 83%

T hus,

f or

D amaladona a nd

e ven m arriages,

8 2%

f or

d eaths, a nd

R umaruma)

m arry w ithin

t he a ssociated

f ail t o b ring t ogether p eople o f t he t wo w ards v ery o ften. o f l ineage e xogamy a nd t he r einforce w ard

p revalence o f w ard e ndogamy,

s eparation r ather t han p rovide a m eans

f easts A s a r esult

t he l ineages

f or t heir

u nification.

T he i rrigation s ystem T he

s ociopolitical s tructure o f W amira i s m irrored

l ayout o f t he a mple,

i rrigation s ystem w hen u sed w ithout t he a queduct.

e ach o f t he t wo w ards i rrigates i ts t aro g ardens

e nt r iver

i n t he p hysical

( Figure

R umaruma u ses t hat

2 ).

D amaladona u tilises w ater

f rom t he

U ruam.

a lmost t wice t hat o f D amaladona,

R umaruma,

f rom a d iffer-

f rom t he W amira a nd

t he p opulation o f w hich i s

u ses t wo s eparate d ams o n t he

6 88

F or e x-

U ruam.

W ithin e ach w ard, s eparated h amlet

t he t aro g ardens o f o ne r esidential h amlet a re

f rom t hose o f a nother.

W ithin e ach h amlet,

h ouseholds o f o ne

s ection c ultivate p lots a djacent t o o ne a nother,

y et s eparate

f rom t he g ardens o f t he o ther h amlet s ections.

A s a r esult o f t he a mong c ultivators, p eople

a nd

f rom o ne w ard

p revailing a tmosphere o f s uspicion a nd r ivalry t he i ntense

f ear o f s orcery,

i t

i s t aboo

f or

o f W amira t o c ross o ver t he c anals o r t o l ook i nto

t he t aro g ardens o f t he o ther w ard.

L ikewise,

m ust n ot c ross o ver t he c anals w hich l ead

w ithin o ne w ard,

p eople

t o t he g ardens o f o ther h am-

l ets w ithin t he w ard.

A s w ards a nd h amlets a nd h amlet s ections b ecome

m ore n arrowly d efined,

s o t oo d o t he d emarcating l ines o f c anals o ver

w hich p eople a re

f orbidden t o c ross.

C ooperative e fforts t o b uild a nd m aintain t he d ams, c anals,

a nd t o a llocate w ater,

s ociopolitical l ength a nd 2 k m.

a ll m ale a ctivities,

s tructure o f W amira.

1m h igh,

a lso p arallel t he

S tone d ams, a pproximately

h ave b een p acked a cross t he r iver a s

U nlined e arth c anals s nake t heir w ay d own

t he f oothills,

c risscrossing t he l and b ehind t he v illage.

f rom a c ommon m ain c anal,

a re e xpected

a nd

s ources i n

F rom t hem

M en,

w ho u tilise

t o c ooperate i n r epairing

t he s tone d am a cross t he r iver a t t he s ource o f t he c anal, a nd c leaning t he c anal,

1 5 m i n

f ar i nland a s

f rom t heir

s ubsidiary c anals r amify t hroughout t he g arden a reas. w ater

t o c lean t he

i n s haring t he w ater.

i n d igging

S ubsidiary c anals a re

c leared o ut o nly b y t hose h amlet m embers o r h amlet s ection m embers t o w hose g arden t he c hannel l eads. T he a llocation o f w ater w ater

f or a bout 8 t o

f ollows a p rescribed o rder:

1 2 h ours,

t he e dge o f h is g arden s o t hat a mount o f t ime,

t hen

C ,

D ,

p erson A g ets

t hen c loses t he s luice g ate o f s tones a t Bc an r eceive w ater

f or a bout t he s ame

F ollowing t his,

p rocess b egins

e tc.

t he

a gain.

W ater r ights p roceed a long a l ine a s t he g arden's l ocation c omes

c loser

t o t he

s ea.

A fter a bout o ne w eek e veryone u tilising t he s ame

c anal h as r eceived w ater.

T he

i rrigation w ater i s c onsidered

P eople d o n ot n ormally d rink f rom, i s a lso o ne of t he

p rime v ehicles

b espelled l eaves a nd T he i rrigated i solated t he

f ood

w alk,

o r b athe

C anal w ater

f or t ransporting s orcery,

p eelings,

t o t he g arden o f o ne's

t aro g ardens o f D amaladona a nd

v ia f oe.

R umaruma l ie

i n

p ockets a ccording t o h amlet g roups o n t he e k . ,:eme o utskirts o f

p lain a t t he b ase o f t he

p rise a bout

2 00 o f t he t otal

f oothills.

T hese d ispersed g ardens c om-

5 00 h a o f p otential g arden l and a nd a re

t he g ardens w hich a re u sed m ost o f t he t ime. t wo y ears

i n i t.

s acred.

( taro

t hen s ugar c ane

f or s ix m onths, f or

t hen s weet

1 2 m onths).

f or

s ix m onths,

T his h amlet g arden l and

a nd a fter a f allow p eriod o f o nly r eturn t o c ultivate

A p lot i s c ultivated

p otato

t he s ame p lot.

f our o r

f ive y ears,

i s l imited,

a p erson m ust

T he W amirans c ontinue

6 89

f or a nd

t o u se t hese

Co mmuna l

I r r igat ion

T aro

Cana l

Ga rden

0

4

I /

1 / 2

Km

F igure 2 : W amira i rrigation s ystems .

1 892 —

L ons 1 904? — LOGS

1 948 — LOGS

1 977 — P I PE

1 1 1

1 890

1 900

1 9 10

1 920

1 930

1 940

1 950

1 960

F igure 3 : H istory o f t he G wagwamore a queduct . 6 90

1 970

1 980

i solated h amlet g arden p lots c ultivation a nd

f or a bout t wo o r t hree c ycles o f

f allow , o r a t otal

p eriod o f a bout

t he c ycles o f h amlet g arden u se p rogress, t hat t heir

t aro t ubers a re d eteriorating

i n s ize a nd

T he g arden l and w hich t he W amirans l aud m ost f ertility i s t he l arge p lain, v illage.

T his c an o nly b e

s ince a r iver b ed,

1 2 t o 2 0 y ears.

A s

W amirans b egin t o c omplain

3 00 h a i n e xtent,

q uality.

f or i ts s ize a nd d irectly b ehind t he

i rrigated w ith t he s ervice o f a n a queduct

w hich i s d ry f or m ost o f t he y ear,

p lain f rom t he U ruam R iver,

s eparates t he

i ts o nly s ource o f w ater.

T he a c lueduct A t a t ime b eyond t he m emory o f W amirans l iving t oday, built a n a queduct, " troughs"), r iver b ed

w hich t hey n amed

t o t ransport w ater

t o t he

p lain.

G wagwamore

( gwagwa r efers t o

f rom t he U ruam R iver a cross t he d ry

I t i s n ot

f easible t o i rrigate t he

t he W amira R iver b ecause o f t he t opography. w as b uilt b y p lacing t hree o r

t he v illagers

T raditionally,

p lain

f our h ollowed l og t roughs o ne

i nside t he

n ext f or a d istance o f 2 8 m a nd s upporting t hese o n p oles s ome a bove t he d ry r iver b ed.

made b y w alking a cross t he s tructure a nd i dols ( kokoitau)

w ithout

R epairs c ould e asily b e

s itting i n t he t roughs.

w ere c arved o n t he t ops o f t he

l ofty p oles w hich s upported t he l ogs a nd G wagwamore.

f lanked t he s ides o f

S ince W amiran w itches a re u nable t o c ross

p hysical

s upport,

f righten t he w itches,

t he k okoitau w ere

p laced o n t he

( Seligmann

f irst g lance t he s cheme i nvolving t he u se o f G wagwamore

i n r eality i t n ecessitates a nd

d ifferent

p osts t o

1 910:643).

f t he r egular appears t o b e a n a lternative e xtension o s ystem,

f lowing w ater

w hich o therwise m ight s eek t o c ross t he c reek

c linging t o t he s ides o f t he a queduct A lthough a t

1 0 m

T hrough w ear a nd t ear o f t he h ollowed l ogs,

t he a queduct r equires c ontinuous m aintenance. S pirit i nhabited

f rom

t he a queduct

s ociopolitical a rrangements.

i rrigation

s ymbolises c onsiderably G wagwamore i s t he o nly

o u nite t hemselves a s o ne e nterprise w hich r equires t he W amirans t v illage,

t o

p ool

nd t heir l abor t heir w ater r esources a

j oin w hat a re o therwise f ragmented, A lthough t hey

f orces,

a nd t o

s ocially a ntagonistic g roups.

f ollow t he s ame s ocial b lueprint o f c anals a nd c anal

c rossing t aboos o n t he p lain, d istance b etween g roups i s c ollapsed, t he t wo a ntagonistic w ards m ust g arden i n c lose

p roximity t o o ne

a nother. I n a ddition,

t he e ntire v illage m ust e quitably s hare t he s ame

a mount o f w ater w hich o therwise o nly h alf o f R umaruma u ses. -p lain w atered b y G wagwamore, w ater i s t wice a s l ong a s

O n t he

t he i nterval b etween t imes o f r eceiving

i n t he d ispersed h amlet g ardens. 6 91

T hus,

a nd

i nstead o f r eceiving w ater o nce a w eek, w eeks u ntil

c ultivators m ust w ait

t hey a re a ble t o i rrigate t heir g arden.

o f w ater a vailable

p er g arden w hen G wagwamore

' when G wagwamore

i s i n u se,

s carcer s upply o f w ater f lict t han a l imiting

T he s maller a mount

i s i n u se s eems t o b e a

m ajor i ssue o f c ontention a mong t he v illagers. t hat

f or t wo

W amirans o ften

p eople a rgue a bout w ater'.

Y et,

f actor

i n t he g rowth o f t he t aro. i s u tilised, t here

t he W amirans u se t heir h amlet g ardens.

i s m ore t aro t han w hen

T aro g ardens o n t he p lain y ield

a n a verage o f 2 3.2 m t/ha/year c ompared t o a n a verage y ield o f f rom t he d ispersed h amlet g ardens.

M uch o f t he

i s t he r esult o f a p rofusion o f s uckers o n t he I ncrease

i n p lantable c ormlets,

o pen p lain.

T he r eason

1 7.9 m t/

i ncreased y ield

t aro c orms, a nd

t hus a n

w henever t he t aro i s m oved o nto t he

f or t his r emains u nclear a s s oil s amples

i ndi-

c ate t hat t he d ifference b etween t he t wo t ypes o f g ardens i s n ot i stically s ignificant ( Vasey

i f t hey w ork o n r epairing t he a queduct, t hey w ill d ie.

o r i f t hey c ultivate g ardens

W hy,

w e m ay a sk,

w hich v erbally b emoans i ts l ack o f a bundant t aro, p roducing m ore?

A nd w hy,

c ontinue t o b uild a nd r ebuild

s udden

d oes a s ociety, l ive w ith s uch g reat

g iven t heir a nxiety,

d o t hey

t he a queduct w hich t hey b elieve h as t he

p ower t o c ause t heir d estruction? t heir b ehavior,

T hey b elieve t hat

T he c ause o f t his s ymptomless a nd

d eath i s b elieved t o b e s orcery. a nxiety o ver

s tat-

1 983).

W amirans e xpress g reat a nxiety o ver G wagwamore.

w atered b y i t,

t he

i s m ore a s ource o f s ocial i rritation a nd c on-

I ndeed, w hen G wagwamore

h a/year

t old m e

F or a m ore t horough u nderstanding o f

w e m ay t urn t o a h istorical a nalysis o f t he p eriods o f

u se a nd a bandonment o f G wagwamore.

T he c yclical p attern o f a queduct u se F rom a rchival r ecords a nd c ontemporary o ral a ccounts,

Ih ave r econ-

s tructed

t he h istory o f t he c ycles o f u se a nd a bandonment o f G wagwamore

o ver

p ast c entury.

t he

A f airly r egular p attern o f a f ive-to-six y ear

p eriod o f u se i nterspersed b y p rogressively p rolonged d onment o f t he a queduct i s v isible. b een

5 ,

5 ,

1 0,

1 5,

a nd

p eriods o f a ban-

T hese p eriods o f a bandonment h ave

2 0 y ears r espectively.

T heir l engthening m ay b e

d ue t o t he i ncreased r eliance o n s tore-bought

f oods w hich t he v illagers

n ow u se t o s upplement t heir

t raditional d iets.

T he h istory o f G wagwamore

i s i llustrated

a bsence o f a rchaeological d ata,

i n

F igure

r ately.

I n t he

t he g athering o f w hich i s n ot

b ecause o f t he t aboos a nd a nxiety w hich s urrounds t he a nd t he a queduct,

3 .

f easible

i rrigation

i t i s i mpossible t o d ate G wagwamore's o rigin

a ccu-

M y i nquiries h ave l ed m e t o b elieve t hat G wagwamore d ates

6 92

s ystem f rom

s ometime

i n t he m id t o l ate

i nception

1 800s.

T he o ne w ritten r eference t o i ts

i ndicates o nly t hat t he a queduct w as b uilt p rior t o

( Pa lma A nnual R eport

1 875

1 927:4 ) 4).

T he e arliest r ebuilding o f G wagwamore w hich w as w itnessed b y o uts iders o ccurred i n

1 892 ,

a nd a f airly d etailed d escription o f t he e vent

w as r ecorded b y o ne o f t he m issionaries w ho a ttended t he c elebrations ( Dogura

R1 892).

Lo

S eligmann, u se a t t hat t hat t his

A nother a queduct w as b uilt s lightly b efore

w ho v isited W amira i n t ime

1 904,

( Seligmann a nd S trong

1 906:364-65).

i s t he s ame o ne a s t hat b uilt i n

I t i s u nlikely

1 892 s ince a ll W amirans

q uestioned a greed t hat G wagwamore n ever l asted a s l ong a s appears t hat i n

1 914 G wagwamore w as r ebuilt a gain,

two n ew kokoitau w ere c arved,

1 925,

M iss F orman,

1 2 y ears.

a n a ctivity w hich i s c arried o ut o nly

L ionel D idibara,

t he m ission t eacher

1 927:4) 4).

t he v illage c onstable o f W amira, a sked i n t he v illage,

w hether s he c ould

w rite t o t he g overnment a nd a sk t hem t o g ive t he W amirans m etal f or t heir

a queduct ( Papuan V illager

t o m easure

1 929:6).

I n

t he s ite a nd s oon t hereafter p ipes,

bags o f c ement l anded b y b oat. missionaries

F ather A .H.

1 926,

s urveyors a rrived

a nd u p t he o pposite b ank.

O n A pril

2 0,

s upervised t he

T he m etal p ipes w ere i n-

a cross t he d ry r iverbed,

1 928 t he p ipe w as o fficially

opened a s government e mployees, m issionaries, a nd v illagers s urrounding a rea l ooked o n 1 928;

P apuan V illager

H owever, f looded,

a nd

o ne o f t he A nglican

f rom t he n earby m ission s tation o f D ogura,

l eading d own t he s ide o f o ne c liff ,

p ipes

3 6 c m i n d iameter,

L ambton,

w ork d aily a s G wagwamore w as g iven d urability. s talled,

( Baniara P atrol R eport

1 928;

f rom t he

2 42ggrA jog

1 929).

e ven t he m etal p ipe d id n ot l ast l ong.

t he c urrent t hrashed s tones a gainst t he

W henever t he r iver

p ipe a nd a fter s ix

y ears i t h ad b ecome s ufficiently p unctured t hat w ater w hich p assed t he

p ipe

p romptly l eaked

t he g ardens. government

i nto t he d ry r iver b ed,

G wagwamore w as a bandoned b y

e ngineers t ried

1 935.

i nto

i nstead o f f lowing t o I n

i n v ain t o r epair t he

l arge s ection o f i t w as c ompletely w ashed a way R eport

I t

s ince a t t hat t ime

f or t he e rection o f a n ew a queduct ( Papua A nnual R eport A bout

1 904.

d escribes s eeing a n a queduct i n

1 937 a nd

p ipe,

1 938,

a nd b y

1 942 a

( Samarat D istrict latrol

1 945:16).

T he W amirans r ebuilt t he a queduct u sing t heir t raditional h ollowed l ogs i n

1 948.

B y

1 956 t he l ogs h ad c racked b eyond r epair a nd t he

Wamirans r eturned t o t heir o ld g arden s ites. Gwagwamore I n

a gain a t t he W amirans'

r equest

f or a m ore

p ermanent

g overnment o fficials v isited W amira a nd d rafted a p lan

a nother m etal l ater t he

2 0 y ears

w as a bandoned.

1 965,

aqueduct,

F or t he n ext

p ipe

( Rabaraba G overnment F iles

p lans m aterialised a nd i n

1 965).

M ore t han

f or

1 0 y ears

1 976-1977 G wagwamore w as r ebuilt.

T his t ime G wagwamore w as c onstructed o f a n i ron d iameter, c emented

a nd

f inanced b y t he

1 4,000 k ina

w hich c ame S ince

0 .5 m i n

s uspended b y a c able b etween t wo A -frames, w hich w ere

i nto t he g round o n t he b anks o f t he r iver b ed.

d esigned a nd c ost o f

p ipe,

I t w as

P apua N ew G uinea g overnment a t a t otal

( approximately

U S $ 12,000 a t t he

t ime),

2 0 k ina o f

f rom t ax c ollected i n W amira. I l ived i n W amira d uring t his p eriod,

I w as

a ble t o w itness

t he s ociopolitical c onflicts a nd g eneral a nxieties w hich a rose a s a r esult o f t he a queduct's 1 976,

t he

i nstallation.

p ipe s ections w ere b rought

b arge o nto t he

s hore o f W amira.

F or e xample,

H owever,

s uddenly w hile w orking i n h er g arden. ' killed b y G wagwamore'. G wagwamore.

f rom a

W amirans a greed

f or t heir l ives,

t hat s he

w as

t hey c eased w ork o n b y offering t o

e nticed t he m en t o c ontinue b uilding t he

p ay f or

a queduct.

A s t hey

t hey c ontinually b ickered a bout w hich w ard w as d oing m ost o f

t he w ork.

B y t he e nd o f S eptember,

s caffold a nd g ether.

A pril o f

s oon t hereafter a w oman d ied

S everal m onths l ater t he g overnment,

t heir l abor, w orked,

F earful

i n e arly

f rom A ustralia a nd u nloaded

O n

t he

J une

m en

f rom b oth w ards h ad e rected a

p ipe p ieces w ere l aid a cross t he g ully a nd b olted t o1 0,

1 977,

g overnment l eaders

f rom t he

p rovincial h ead-

q uarters o f A lotau c ame t o o fficially o pen t he a queduct. O n t he d ay o f t he o pening, m ission s tation s prinkled

F ather H annington

i ncense o n t he p ipe,

s hort s peech a bout w ater b eing t he p ipe,

f rom t he D ogura

b lessed

' giver o f l ife'.

i t, a nd m ade a

A s h e b lessed t he

c anal s tones w ere r emoved a nd w ater b egan t o f low t owards t he

a queduct.

A s t he w ater

f lowed t hrough G wagwamore a nd

e arth o f t he a lluvial p lain,

t he d eputy c ommissioner

s eeped

i nto t he

f rom A lotau s poke

a bout t he b arrenness o f t he W amira r egion.

H e e xpressed h is h ope t hat

W amirans w ould e njoy p roductive g ardens a nd

p ermanent

p rosperity f rom

t he n ew a queduct a nd t hat t hey w ould n ot a bandon G wagwamore a s d one w ith t heir

A ccording t o t he W amirans, t he

f irst

t ion.

i nstalled,

n ow a m etal o ne l evel,

p ipe'

f or

t he

f irst b eing

i n

1 928 w hen t he

a nd

f irst m etal

W amirans t oday

t heir t raditions b ecause

' the a queduct i s

' incense w as s prinkled o n i t',

m eaning t hat, o n

t hey w ant t o r eplace t heir o ld w ays o f m agic, s orcery a nd

a nxiety b y l ess

u se

1 977 c onstruction of G wagwamore i s

n o n ew k okoitau w ere c arved.

e xplain t hat t hey a bandoned

W hen

t he

t ime t hat n o t raditional m agic w as u sed d uring i ts c onstruc-

F or t he s econd t ime,

p ipe w as

t hey h ad

p ast a queducts.

f ear-inspiring c ustoms.

Ir eturned t o t he v illage f our y ears.

W amirans h ad

W ith t he

i n

1 981,

t he a queduct h ad b een i n

i nstallation o f t he

f ound a n ew s olution t o t heir

p ermanent p ipe,

t he

i nability t o u nite a s o ne

v illage a nd g arden b elow G wagwamore.

F or t he

t ory,

o nly o ne w ard of W amira h ad m ade

a s

f ar a s t hey c ould

r ecollect, 6 91 4

f irst t ime i n t heir h is-

n ew g ardens b elow t he a queduct. g ardened o n t he

p lain.

F rom

I n M arch o f

1 977 u ntil

1 982 ,

t heir d ispersed h amlet g ardens a nd

1 982,

R umaruma

R umaruma p eople m oved b ack t o

p eople

f rom D amaladona e ntered t he

p lain t o g arden b elow G wagwamore. T hus,

e ven w hen e ndowed w ith i ron d urability,

P apua N ew G uinea g overnment, G od,

s anctioned b y t he

a nd u ltimately g uaranteed b y t he

p ower o f

G wagwamore a ppears t o b e a r elatively w eak s tructure w hen c ompared

t o t he s ociopolitical s tructure a nd t raditional n ation o f t he W amiran p eople. o ne v illage,

T heir

i deological d etermi-

i nability t o c ooperate s ocially a s

t o u nite p olitically u nder s trong l eadership,

d on

t heir b elief i n a nd f ear o f s orcery,

t he

a queduct a nd g reater a gricultural

a ll h inder

a nd t o a ban-

p ermanent u se o f

i ntensification.

C onclusion T he W amiran

i rrigation s ystem s eems t o c onsist o f t wo s eparate

p hysical s ubsystems.

O ne i s t hat o f s cattered,

g roups, e ach w ith i ts o wn g arden l eader, r esources, t he

a nd h orticultural

p roducts.

h amlet g ardens.

H amlet

m aintain s eparate l and,

w ater

T he o ther i s t he s ystem w here

a queduct i s u sed a nd w here t he v illagers m ust u nite a s o ne g roup.

I t a ppears

t hat o ver a l ong

f icient f or t he a dequate

p eriod t he h amlet g ardens a lone a re

i nsuf-

p roduction o f t aro. W amirans m ust o ccasionally

a bandon t heir r egular h amlet g ardens i n o rder t o i ncrease t heir s upply of t aro a nd r eplantable t aro s uckers.

T his s hort u se o f t he a queduct

a dds a n e xtra c ycle o f f allow t o t he h amlet g ardens, a llows t he

s oil

H owever, r uption, f or

i n t hese d ispersed g ardens t o r ejuvenate.

w hen u sing t he a queduct,

c ooperation a nd

t o m aintain t heir a queduct A fter t his

s hort

p otential

p olitical c ontrol, f or m ore

p eriod o f u se,

s till a vailable o n t he t he

t he

s uspicion a nd a nxiety i s s o g reat t hat,

s ocial

p lain,

t han

G wagwamore

I n t he p ast,

a mong t he

p olitical

R appaport

( 1968:116)

t hey h ave

p otential

i t n ecessitates a nd

T sembaga o f t he

I t s eems t hat

f or

s ocial

i mplies.

d escribes t he

f ound a I n m uch

' irritation

N ew G uinea H ighlands,

t he s ocio-

c onflicts i n W amira r ise a nd t rigger t he e ventual a bandonment

o f G wagwamore.

I n t he T sembaga c ase,

t his r efers t o t he

i nability o f

i nstitutions t o d eal a dequately w ith t he i ncrease i n p ig

p opulation. d eal

p olitical c ontrol

i s

t he W amirans s imply c eased

w ith a n i ron p ipe,

s abotage t heir a queduct a nd d eny t he

c oefficient' p olitical

t he v illagers a re u nable

f rom i ts u se c reate p roblems

N ow ,

s ame f ashion t hat

l acking t he m echanisms

i s a bandoned.

r epairing t he w ooden t roughs.

t he

d is-

f ive o r s ix y ears a t a t ime.

w hich o utweigh i ts b enefits.

c ooperation a nd

f or c onflict,

a lthough a bundant u ncultivated l and

s ociopolitical c onflicts r esulting

n ew w ay t o

w hich p erhaps

F or W amirans,

t he s ociopolitical o rganisation i s u nable t o

w ith t he s carcer s upply o f w ater,

6 95

t he i ncrease

i n r ivalries a mong

p otential

l eaders,

a nd t he g reater o ccurrance

e ach t ime t he a queduct i s u sed.

A s t he

i n s orcery a ccusations

' irritation c oefficient'

r ises,

t he v illage p eople a bandon t he a queduct a nd d isperse t hemselves i nto h amlet g roups w here w ater i s m ore a bundant,

r ivalry l ess a pparent, a nd

s orcery l ess r ife. T raditionally,

s cholarly s tudies a bout i rrigation s ystems h ave

f ocused o n t he s ocial c ooperation a nd n ecessary e lements i ndicates,

i n s ystems o f i ntensification.

c ontrastingly,

a re p resent

p olitical c ontrol w hich a re T he

W amiran c ase

t hat a lthough a ll t echnological i ngredients

f or a gricultural

i ntensification,

t echnological d evelopment

a lone i s n ot s ufficient t o u nite t he v illagers o n a p ermanent b asis. A s o ne W amiran s o a ptly p hrased t he s ituation t o m e,

' if w e c ould a ll

b e

u nable t o b e,

f riends,

t hen w e w ould u se G wagwamore,

b ut w e a re

s o

w e a bandon i t'.

A cknowledgements T he r esearch u pon w hich t his p aper f rom J une

1 976 t o M arch

v ery g rateful N ational

1 978 a nd

f rom A ugust

f or t he s upport f rom t he

I nstitute o f M ental

A nthropological

R esearch, a nd

w hich m ade t he r esearch

i s b ased

H ealth, t he

w as c onducted

1 981

N ational

t o M arch

I nstitute

f or

1 982.

Ia m

S cience F oundation,

t he W enner-Gren

f inancially p ossible.

i n W amira

F oundation

I ntercultural

t he

f or

S tudies

I h ave b enefited c on-

s iderably f rom t he i nterest a nd a dvice o f v arious p eople w ho r ead e arlier v ersions o f t he i deas e xpressed h ere. H underfund, t he N ational

M atthew S priggs, S cience

M ichael Y oung,

D aniel

C ornfield,

D onald

a nd a nonymous r eferees f or

F oundation o ffered h elpful c omments.

l ike t o t hank t he l ocal g overnment o fficials i n t he

I w ould a lso

p rovincial h ead-

q uarters o f A lotau a nd t he s ub-provincial h eadquarters o f R abaraba w ho g ave m e a ccess t o t heir r ecords.

M ost o f a ll,

It hank m y m any f riends

i n W amira w ho p atiently a nd m agnanimously h elped m e w ith m y w ork, e specially t he

p eople o f I nibuena h amlet,

i n t heir h orticultural a ctivities. D obunaba,

M y d eepest g ratitude g oes t o A lice

A idan G adiona a nd S ybil G isewa f or b eing m y

p ermanent w ay t han t he m e s uggests.

21/2 y ears t hey

f ed,

s heltered,

f amily i n am ore a nd c ared

Ia lone a ccept r esponsibility f or a ny e rrors i n

R eferences c ited B aniara P atrol R eport

•B oserup, 1 965

A rchives,

P ort M oresby,

P apua N ew G uinea.

E . T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth. 6 96

A ldine,

f or

f acts o r

i nterpretation.

N ational

a nd

w ho c ontinually i ncluded m e

C hicago.

B ritish N ew G uinea A nnual R eport G overnment P rinters,

V ictoria,

A ustralia.

D ogura L og A nglican A rchives a t t he U niversity o f P apua N ew G uinea.

P ort

M oresby. F ernea,

R .

1 959

I rrigation a nd S ocial O rganization A mong t he E l S habana:

A

G roup o f T ribal C ultivators i n S outhern I raq . U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment o f A nthropology,

U niversity o f C hicago.

G odelier, M . 1 977

S alt M oney a nd t he

B aruya.

I n P erspectives i n M arxist A nthropology , e dited b y M .

G odelier, H ipsley ,

p p.127-151.

E .H. a nd

1 947

C irculation o f C ommodities A mong t he

F .W .

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C lements

( editors )

R eport o f t he N ew G uinea N utrition S urvey E xpedition 1 947.

D epartment o f E xternal T erritories, H unt,

C ambridge.

E . a nd R .

1 974

C anberra.

H unt

I rrigation, c onflict,

a nd p olitics - a M exican c ase.

I rrigation's I mpact o n S ociety , e dited b y T . G ibson, A rizona,

p p.129-157. N o.

2 5.

I n

D owning a nd M .

A nthropological P apers o f t he U niversity o f

T he U niversity o f A rizona P ress,

T ucson.

K ahn, M . 1 981

A lways i n H unger : F ood a s M etaphor f or S ocial I dentity i n

W amira ,

P apua N ew G uinea .

U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment o f A nthropology,

B ryn M awr C ollege.

K ahn, M . 1 984

T aro i rrigation:

N ew G uinea. L each,

a d escriptive a ccount f rom W amira,

P apua

O ceania 5 4:204-222.

E .

1 961

P ul E liya: A V illage i n C eylon.

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C ambridge. L oving, 1 976

R . U se o f b amboo b y t he A wa.

J ournal o f t he P olynesian S ociety

8 5:521-542. M illon, 1 962

R . V ariations i n s ocial r esponses t o t he p ractice o f i rrigation

a griculture.

I n C ivilizations i n D esert L ands , e dited b y

R ichard W oodbury,

p p.56-88.

U niversity o f U tah , M illon, 1 962

A nthropological

P apers N o.

6 2.

S alt L ake C ity.

R . e t a l. C onflict i n t he m odern T eotihuacan i rrigation s ystem.

C omparative S tudies i n S ociety a nd H istory 4 :494-524. P apua a nd N ew G uinea V illager 1 950

P atep N umber T wo.

P apua a nd N ew G uinea V illager , p .22.

P ort M oresby. P apua A nnual R eport G overnment P rinters,

V ictoria. 6 97

P apuan V illager 1 929

T he W amira A queduct. P apuan V illager , p p.1-6.

P ort M oresby.

R abaraba G overnment F iles 1 965

L etter

R appaport, 1 968

f rom E .R.

J ohnson,

A ssistant D istrict

C ommissioner.

R .

P igs f or t he A ncestors: R itual i n t he E cology o f a New

G uinea P eople.

Y ale U niversity P ress,

N ew H aven.

S amarai D istrict P atrol R ebort 1 945 S chmitz, 1 960

G overnment A rchives,

S eligmann,

K ölner U niversitäts V erlag,

K öln.

T he M elanesians o f B ritish N ew G uinea.

S eligmann,

N ordost

C .G.

P ress, 1 906

P apua N ew G uinea.

B eitrage z ur E thnographie d es W antoat T ales,

N euguinea. 1 910

A lotau ,

C .

C ambridge U niversity

C ambridge.

C .G .

a nd W .M.

S trong

A nthropological i nvestigations i n B ritish N ew G uinea.

T he

G eographical J ournal 2 7:347-369. W ittfogel, 1 957

K arl

O riental D espotism : A C omparative S tudy o f T otal P ower . Y ale

U niversity P ress,

N ew H aven.

6 98

T HE A RCHAEOLOGY O F C HECK-DAM F ARMING I N T AURAN,

R .W .

W ater m anagement h as a lways o f t he

T auran,

c heck-dam

a nd

I ran. t he

l ogical e vidence

D ennell

p layed

a n

T his p aper

a re v ery s imple:

i n

a nd

c hange o f l and

a gricultural

d esert

s oils. f orm.

s ystem h as b een

h ydrologists w orking

t o

I n

s ome a reas a n

i n

p roduces a s ubtle t his t ype o f

t he M iddle

E ast.

f or d ams

F or e xample, t he r emains

w hich s erved

t o

c onditions t han

s tore

t he

w ater

p resent

1 965).

h istorical f irst

m aterial

a nd

e nvironmental

i s o ne o f d ating. t hat c an b e

d ate t hem

u sed

c hange h as I t

E venari e t a l. a griculture

i n t he

N egev

w ho

A n

s uggested

A ge

t he

s herd

e arlier d ate T he s econd

f rom c lear. e cological

s ilts b ehind t o

a nd a ttempts t o

s catters f ound

i n

t heir

p roblem i s t hat o f

t hat M iddle B ronze

u pon c heck-dam

A ge

f arming o n t he

s ettlements w ere l ocated S tager

J udean d esert t o t he

i n

p roblems.

n ear

t he

y et t hese w ere d ated b ecause t hey w ere n ear

s catters o f t his p eriod.

s ystem i n

s herd

e xample o f t his

w as b ased

g rounds t hat M iddle B ronze r emains o f c heck-dams;

p resented t wo m ajor

t o d ate t heir c onstruction,

s uspect.

( 1971:97)

t his t ype o f s ystem a nd

i s r are t hat t he c heck-dams i nclude

i ndirectly b y r eference t o

v icinity must r emain

a n

f ields.

T his

f requently m isunderstood b y a rchaeologists

T he s tudy o f t he r elationship b etween

f ound

a cross t he

c an b e e xtended.

A s a c onsequence,

p eramanent r eservoirs u nder m oister

s herd

o ften

o r c eases d uring

a c rude b arrage

T hus t he c heck-dam

o f c heck-dams h ave b een m istaken

T he

a nd

s ubsidiary u se o f c heck-dams i s t he c ollection o f s ilt t o

s uperficial

( Raikes

n amely t he

s tone,

f low i s r educed

t hrough c hannels o n

p oor,

i n

e conomy

p rinciples o f c heck-dam c onstruction

s tored b ehind

i mprove t he

a nd

r ushes, m ud o r

t hus t he c ultivation p eriod

w ater c an b e d iverted i mportant

T he

a reas w here r iver

w ater c an b e

s tream c hannel

t he

f or c heck-dams.

h as t o b e r ebuilt e ach y ear. s ummer,

i n

c oncentrates o n t he a rchaeo-

T he c heck-dam m ay b e m ade o f w ood,

t he

i mportant r ole

T wo m ethods h ave b een w idely u sed,

q anat.

I RAN

( 1976)

I ron

A ge

a c heck-dam,

s imilar r emains

i n

t he

a nd

d ated ( c.

t he

6 00 B C)

b ecause h e

s aw n o r eason t o

a ssign

N egev.

p roblem i s t hat t he h istory o f c heck-dam

T here h ave b een

u se o f o ne

s ystems i s

f ar

f ew a ttempts t o r elate t hem t o t heir

a nd

e conomic c ontexts b y e stablishing

t heir

r ate o f

s edimentation,

t he l ength o f t ime t hat t hey w ere

u sed,

o r

u pon t he l andscape. 6 99

t heir

e ffect

I n

T auran,

h owever,

t heir

b ecause t hey a re e ssential i rrigated n ot h ave

h istory d eserves c areful c onsideration

f or c rop c ultivation a nd

a griculture o ccurs o n e xtensive a reas o f s ilts, f ormed n aturally u nder

D etailed

of t wo o r a nd t he

s ilts w ere

W ithout t he

M an

1 982).

r ainfall

t rapped

t hree c enturies.

a ccumulating

i n h is w ay,

p robably w ithin a p eriod

T his s ystem s ubsequently f ell o ut o f u se,

T auran

i s a n e xtremely i nhospitable

A lthough d etailed

f luctuation f rom y ear

s howers o ften l ocalised

a nd

a rea

( Spooner

y ear,

t o y ear.

a lthough t here i s

T he m ost

a re t hat i t

i mportant

f alls a s

i nfrequently s paced.

e rratic,

a t t he w rong t ime,

t he

a nd m aximum a ir

s ummer, d uring w hich m ean

T he

p rincipal d rainage i s t he

a long t he

s outhern e dge o f t he

s outhwestern c orner

a nd

S alt D esert.

o r

w hich r un n orthwards

f oothills a nd T he

a cross t he

I t

i s

c hannels,

K al-i-Shur a nd

f rom M t

P eighambar

1m i n d iameter.

n otably t hat o f t he

r anges

f rom c lay t o g ravel

t he

H ojjaj

r eveal

t he G reat

t hrough t he a djoining

P lain.

s treams t end t o b e

a nd

p oorly-sorted,

p rofile.

c oarse

P eak d ischarge a nd t ransport

T he t exture o f d eposits i n w ide

H ojjaj, v aries g reatly a cross t he b ed, o ver

a s hort d istance.

S ections a long

t wo s uperimposed d eposits o f u nsorted g ravels.

i s v ery h eavily c emented

a nd o nly s lightly c emented.

a nd c oarse;

W hilst n either

i ndicate l ittle c hange i n c limate o r t housand

f lows w estwards

u ppermost s ections o f w adis c an b e v iolent

b oulders u p t o

e arlier

w hich

s ea, t urns n orth t hrough i ts

s ands a nd g ravels a long m ost o f t he c hannel a long t he

s and a reas,

f ed b y n umerous e phemeral t ributaries,

T auran

s ediments o f t hese

i s v irtually n o

I rrigation t herefore i s e ssential.

H ojjaj r iver

s and

i n

t emperatures a verage 2 0° C ,

e ventually j oins t he

K avir, o r w adis,

T here

t emperatures c an e xceed 5 5° C i n t he

e vapo-transpiration r ates a re h igh.

f all

t oo i nfrequently o r t oo v iolently

t o g uarantee a n e conomically w orthwhile c rop. i n

i ntense

A s a r esult, d ry

f arming i s a h igh r isk e nterprise, b ecause r ain i s l ikely t o p lace,

a nd

c limatic d ata a re n ot a vailable, m ean

1 20-150 m m p er

c haracteristics o f p recipitation

r ainfall

t hat

p artially e roded.

i s p robably a bout

t he w rong

( Dennell

h as r evealed

u se o f t echnologies f or c onserving w ater a nd

s oil

c onsiderable

a ncient c heck-dams

i nvestigations o f o ne s tream c hannel

u p t o 6m o f s ilts w ere

w hich c ould

p resent o r r ecent c limatic c onditions,

b ut w hich m ust h ave b een d eposited b ehind 1 982).

p resent-day

T he

t hose o verlying a re f iner

h as b een d ated,

s tream b ehaviour o ver

t hey t he l ast

f ew

y ears.

S oil d evelopment i n

T auran h as b een n egligible,

a nd t he

p resent

s urface c omprises t ransported m aterial o r l ocally w eathered b ed-rock. T he

s outhern p art o f t he

P eighambar,

c .

a rea i s d efined b y t he l imestone o f M t

2 000 m h igh.

A gainst t his, 7 00

t here r ests a l ow r ange o f

h eavily d issected h ills o f m etamorphic s hales.

T hese h ills a lso d ip f rom t he w est a nd

n arrower

i n

t he e astern

p art o f T auran.

g enerally f lat p lain o f c ompacted a q anat

r ocks, m ainly c onglomerates a nd

s haft n ear

t hick i n

s o a re l ower

a nd

N orth o f t hese i s a l ow a nd

s ands a nd g ravels.

A s ection t hrough

K ariz i ndicates t hat t he g ravels a re a t l east

t he n orthern p art o f t he

p lain.

c overed by a t hin m antle o f d rifting

1 5 m

T his p art o f t he a rea i s n ow

s and d erived

f rom t he

s and d esert

t hat d efines t he n orthern b order o f T auran. T he

s ands a nd g ravels o f t he p lain a re c ultivable b ut c ontain

l ittle o rganic m atter

a nd

a re v ery p orous.

t echnology o ffers a p ractical i n

s olution

T herefore c heck-dam

t o t he

p roblems o f a griculture

T auran b y c reating p ockets o f a lluvium a long s tream c hannels,

by s toring

a nd d istributing

s tream w ater

a nd

t o t hem.

T he most s uitable a reas f or c heck-dam c onstruction a re t he m ids tream s ections o f w adis w here t he w idth o f c hannel

i s l ess t han 5 0 m ,

a nd i ts g radients a re s ufficiently g entle t o e nsure t hat o nly t he c omponents o f t he

s ediment w ill b e

t ransported,

a nd

y et

t hat a r easonable d epth o f s ediment w ill b e d eposited. c ourse i s

a lso

t he s tream

T he

s tream

s trongly i nfluenced b y t he s urrounding t opography a nd

f low i s t hus m ore p redictable.

of m aterial

f iner

s teep e nough

I n a ddition, a l arge a mount

i s l ikely t o b e c ontributed b y r un-off f rom t he s urrounding

s lopes. I n T auran t oday, s upplementary i rrigation w ater p rovided

f rom q anats , w ith a l ow b ut c ontinuous d ischarge.

t hey c onsiderably i mprove c rop y ields, t he check-dam t hem.

i s s ometimes

f arming,

a nd m any o f t he

U nlike c heck-dams,

qanat i s n ot e ssential

s ystems i n

T auran

c l anats r equire s pecialised

c onsiderable o utlays o f c apital h ave n ot b een w idely b uilt i n

A lthough

f or c onstruction

t his p art o f I ran

f unction

t o

w ithout

s kills a nd

a nd m aintenance a nd ( Wulff

1 968;

B eaumont

1 971).

M odern a griculture i n T auran A griculture

i n

T auran

w hich u tilise d ifferent of p roductivity a nd

i s n ow b ased

s ituations a nd

l abour

h igh-risk a nd o pportunistic:

i n c urrent

t echnologies

a re m arked b y d iffering l evels

s implest i s d ry-farming.

l argely o n t he p lain, w here t he

T his i s u ndertaken

s urface i s c oarse a nd

p orous.

I t i s

y ields a re l ow a nd g enerally i t i s

w ith p astoralism a nd

T he n ext

f our m ajor

r equirements.

T he m ost w idespread a nd

p ractised

u pon

i rrigation a griculture.

s implest t echnology i s c heck-dam

u se a re r ecent a nd m ade w ith t he 7 01

f arming.

M any o f t he d ams

u se o f b ulldozers;

s ome i n

t he n orthern p art o f t he

p lain

b e a bandoned

f ew y ears.

i n t he n ext

p revious s ection, o f c heck-dam

f ound

B riefly,

p lain

t he

I n v iew o f t he a rgument i n

t he

i n t he d ownstream r ather

t han m idstream

u ses,

w ill b e

p resented

i n g reater d etail

s ediments t rapped b ehind m any m odern c heck-dams o n

a re d erived

u pstream,

a nd m ay

T he r easons f or t his, w hich d erive l argely f rom

f actors o f p revious l and t he

b y d rifting s and

i t i s p erhaps s urprising t hat m ost modern i nstances

f arming a re

s ections o f w adis.

l ater.

a re t hreatened

f rom a n e arlier

s ystem o f c heck-dams f urther

w here c onsiderable v olumes o f s ilt h ave b een

s tored

o ver t he

T akht,

s lope-

l ast m illennium. I n t he

u pstream s ections o f w adis,

t erracing i s

f ound.

M aterial

r etained b ehind e arth o r w adi.

A s t he

n eeded

t ransported d own-slope b y r un-off i s

s tone w alls p arallel

s tream-bed i s n arrow a nd

s teep, r evetments a re often

T his t echnique o f a ccumulating s oil

d ams a cross p art o f t he w adi c hannel. p rovided

f rom a l arge s pring a t t he

T he m ost c omplex i rrigation o n

a gricultural

s ystem a t K alata

i rrigated w heat,

( Figure

f ields d uring p eak i s s upplemented b y c heck-

A t T akht,

f oot o f M t

s ystem u sed

f lat o r g ently s loping l and.

s lopes g ently f rom

i rrigation w ater

s trip f ields, e ach c .

i n

T auran

i s d ivided

1 5 h a o f l and

S oil

c .

6m w ide.

f acilitate

i rrigation a nd

n eighbouring i s t he m ost T auran

f ields o r

t he

p roductive a nd

t o

s ome

c ondition w as m aintained

T erracing h as b een

l abour

t hat

I n

1 977

t obacco w ith d ung

a nd f rom

u ndertaken h ere b oth t o

p revent l oss o f w ater

p resent

i s t he

i nto o ver a hundred

c otton a nd v egetables w ere t he m ain c rops; s heep a nd g oat p ens.

i s q anat

A c onvenient e xample

4 0 m l ong a nd

i s

P eighambar.

1 ) w hich c omprises

s outh t o n orth a nd

p ulses w ere a lso g rown. l ocal

t o t he l ong a xis o f t he

t o p revent t he e rosion o f t he b anks a nd

f looding.

f ield

p articularly a t

s tream b ed.

t hrough s eepage i nto

T his t ype o f a griculture

i ntensive o f t hose

p ractised

i n

t oday, i t

i s

t oday.

I n a ny a nalysis o f t he t otal e ssential

t o c onsider

r etentive s oils,

a gricultural

t hat t he a reas o f f lat,

t hat a re n ow c ultivated

c reated b y a n e arlier

a gricultural

a nd

s ystem

e asily-tilled a nd i rrigated

s ystem b ased

w ater-

b y q anats, w ere

u pon c heck-dam

f arming

a long t he m id-sections o f s tream c hannels.

T he h istory o f c heck-dam f arming i n K alata, U nlike a reas s uch a s t he ( Raikes

1 965),

e vidence f or

N egev

( Evenari e t a l.

T auran h as n o a rchaeological

t hem

g eomorphological

i s i ndirect a nd

T auran 1 971) o r

e xample of c heck-dams.

c onsists l argely o f t he

c onsequences o f c heck-dam

7 02

B aluchistan

f arming.

T he

UV '

me lons

o rc bdowe a l m arSon s

a

a o rpnu rn /

c

C otten

1

f o l low

g

t rees

W ea l l egu mes 1 0 110 1fot

1 00

r ee g

a h

f(

\ • *e

4 P e

‘ *

r nongu ianon

Zi l8

m i lm i l la bl

e 3 1 1 ) 1 1 \\

F igure 1 : M bdern l and u se a nd d rainage o f t he K alata b asin .

2 0 1 1 1

G u l l y

1 6

1 8

G u l l y

1 2

G u l l y

S c r ee ,„ ,

I c g rove l

p oo r

p r e se r va t ion

25-5V 8 13

1 0Y R8 13

05

- — —

L . • • 1 7 Y R4 1 1 5

S cree RWO

F igure 2 : M id -stream v arved s ection a t K alata .

7 03

T he t he

K alata b asin l ies

f oothills a nd

c onglomerates. P eighambar

p lain.

I t c overs

H ojjaj.

I n

1 976 t he

e xposed d etail

p resent

n umerous i n t he

T oday,

w hich c arries w ater

t he w estern

w hilst t he e astern

i s i ntensively c ultivated

a t t he j unction o f

1 5 h a, b ounded b y l ow r idges o f

I t i s d rained b y a c hannel

t owards t he

l argely u ncultivated, a nd

2 00 m e ast o f B aghestan,

( Figure

s ide

f rom M t

p art o f t he b asin

i s

i s i rrigated b y c l anat

2 ).

s tream h ad d own—cut t hrough 6 m o f d eposits a nd

s ections.

f ollowing

T hese

y ear

a nd

s ections w ere w ere

f ound

i nvestigated i n g reater

t o c ontain

t hree t ypes o f

d eposit: ( a)

U niform s ilts

T hese

s eem t o r epresent t he d eposition o f s ediment u nder c onditions

o f g ently f lowing w ater

s uch a s t hose e ffected b y t he c onstruction o f a

c heck—dam a cross t he w adi c hannel, c ausing l ess e phemeral u sed

a nd l ess i ntense.

T he

s tream—flow t o b ecome b oth

s ilts w ould s ubsequently h ave b een

f or c ultivation. ( b)

V arve—like d eposits

A lthough t hese d eposits a re n ot, t erm i s u sed

i n o rder

c haracteristics.

E ach i s c .

2 -10 c m t hick,

o f s andy s ilt w hich t hen g rades i nto i mportant d etail s howed

n o

s trictly s peaking, v arves,

t o e mphasise t heir m orphology a nd

a nd c omprises a b asal b and

s ilt a nd

f inally a c lay s kin.

o f t hese v arves i s t hat t he c lay s kin

s igns o f d isturbance b y c ultivation o r

d istortion a nd w ere r ecorded

t his

s edimentary A n

w as i ntact a nd

t rampling, n or

f issuring b y p rolonged e xposure t o d irect s unlight. o ver 7 0 m o f s ection a nd m ost t aper

T hey

s lighly u pstream.

T his d etail m ay b e e xplained a s a r esult o f t he g ravity f low o f m aterial

a lready d eposited,

s uspended o f w ater s everal i n t he

s ediment w ould w as g reatest.

a re u neven.

a nd b y t he

f act t hat t he l argest a mount o f

a lso b e d eposited d ownstream w here t he d epth

F ew v arves s how a p erfectly s mooth s lope,

T hese

i rregularities m ay r esult f rom u nevennesses

u nderlying s urface, m inor d ifferences i n

t urbulence o f s tream

a nd

f low a nd

p ost—depositional

t he v elocity a nd c ompression ( Figure

2 ). A t l east

1 0 a nd

u p t o 6 0 v arves w ere n oticed

l ength i s d ifficult t o e stimate, g ullies.

A s a r esult, m ost o f t he

5 -10 m l ong,

v ariation a ppear

u ndisturbed v arved

a lthough t wo w ere t raced

A lthough t he v arves w ithin i n r espect t o t heir

i n e ach s ection.

T heir

l argely b ecause m ost h ave b een c ut b y s ections w ere o nly

o ver 2 0 m .

e ach s ection e xhibit c onsiderable s lope a nd

t o d iffer m arkedly b etween

t hickness,

s ection. 7 04

T hus t he

t hese v ariables s ection f urthest

u pstream

( Figure

g ently s loping;

3 )

c ontains v arves w hich a re g enerally t hick a nd

t hose f urthest d ownstream a re t hin a nd

s teep.

T he u ppermost v arves i n e ach s ection g rade g ently a nd i nto t he u niform

s ilts. B oth e nds o f v arves i n

i nto t his t ype o f s ilt, t he

f our

i mperceptibly

s ections a lso g rade

s o t hat v arved d eposits a nd t he l ower

s ilts s hould b e r egarded

a s c ontemporaneous.

u niform s ilts p robably r epresent v arves, d isturbed b y e xposure t o a ir T he t extural g radation

w ords, t he

w hich w ere s ubsequently

a nd c ultivation.

w ithin e ach v arve

f rom s ilt t o c lay p rovides

a c lear

i ndication t hat t his d eposition o ccurred

o r e ven

s tanding,

w ater.

I n o ther

p art o f

I n t he

s ection

u nder g ently f lowing,

f urthest u pstream t he b asal

d eposits c onsisted o f b ands o f g ravels a lternating w ith s ands a nd b ecoming

i ncreasingly f ine u ntil

t hey m erged

i nto v arves l ike t hose

j ust d escribed. T he d ating o f t he s ections b y d irect s tratigraphic e vidence i s d ifficult.

T he

f ineness o f e ach v arve

p recluded

l arge o bjects,

s uch a s a rchaeological

a rtefacts, w ould b e t ransported

d ownstream d uring f ound.

H owever

s edimentation

a nd n o d iagnostic m aterials h ave b een

t he l owest o f w hich c ontained

c lay b rick ( Figure 3 )

t o 9 75 A D+120. f ramework,

p ossibility t hat

i n t he b asal v arve o f t he u pstream s ection f ine g ravel

l enses w ere r evealed, o f ab aked

t he

a n

a braded

f ragment

w hich w as d ated b y t hermoluminescence

W hilst o ne d ate i s s carcely a s ecure c hronological

t his e vidence d oes s uggest t hat s edimentation i s u nlikely

t o h ave b een b efore t he 9 th-11th c enturies A D. O ne

f urther d iscovery a ssociated

a s hallow ,

V —shaped c ut,

i ncised

s everal

s o t hat i ts b ase r ose w ith t he d eposition o f v arves. n o l onger b e k ept c lear o r ( c)

c lay a nd

( Figure 4 ).

f eature i s t hat i t w as a n

I t a ppears t o h ave b een r ecut o n

f illed b y a f ine, m ottled

s ediments w as

i nto a s eries o f v arves

A r easonable i nterpretation o f t his i rrigation d itch.

w ith t hese v arved

w as

E ventually,

p robably a bandoned

w as n o l onger

o ccasions i t w as

w hen i t c ould

r equired.

G ravels

T he u niform

s ilts a nd v arves a long

t he

K alata c hannel

e ventually

a ttained a t hickness o f o ver 6 m b ut w ere c ut b y a t hick l ayer o f c oarse a nd

u nevenly—bedded g ravels w ith l enses o f s ands a nd

l arge c omposite s ection o ver w as

f ound

3 0 m l ong

f urther d ownstream a nd

s ection o f v arves.

a nd c ontaining

c ould b e t raced

T here i s e very r eason

i ndicative o f a r eturn t o a n ormal

u ntil

t o r egard

s ilts.

A

s imilar g ravels i t c ut a l ong

t hese g ravels a s

s tream r egime.

A lthough t he v arved s ections a t

K alata c an b e r eadily e xplained a s

t he r esult o f s edimentation u nder g ently—flowing w ater, t heir 7 05

p reservation c ultivated f issuring

p resents

a nd a nd

t heir

p roblems b ecause s urface

t rampling.

r egularly r etains w ater e xplanations

f or

F irstly t he r emained b ecause

t his

t he

w ater

t hat

t hroughout t he

t his

t he

p lant g rowth, i n

T auran

T here a re t hree p ossible

e xplanation d am

a t

t his

T auran a t t he

w ould

u nder

h ave h ad

T he

p rovided

K alata b asin

i mprobable

f urthest

p resence o f a n

p art o f a v arved

h ave

w hich

t o h ave b een

t he e nd

s ection

p oint w as n ot g reat.

w ould

w ater

s eems m ost

s ediments a t

w ith w ater.

t he d ownstream

i n

t he c atchment a rea

T his

b ehind

t he d am w ere c overed

r ainfall

s ummer.

e nsure t hat t he

t he d epth o f w ater

w hether

b y t illage,

h ave b een d eposited

s ummer.

t rapped

i rrigation d itch i n

a re n ormally

N one o f t he modern c heck—dams

s ediments c ould

2 .5 m d eep t o

a way f rom

i s d isturbed

s oils

p henomenon.

t hroughout t he

a t l east

s uch

I t

i mplies

i s d oubtful

s ufficient r un—off f rom

t o r esult

i n

a b ody o f w ater

o f

s ize.

S econdly t he u ndisturbed. w hich

s oils c ould

w ater

a nd

e xposed

T he v arved d eposits c ould

s lowly r eceded

c ultivated

h ave b een

a nd

a nd

t heir

w hich d eveloped b een r efilled

i n

t heir

w ith

h ave b een

g radually e xposed

s urface d isturbed.

w ere n ot e xposed

u ntil

a fter

t he

a ir

b ut r emained

l aid

u nder

f loodwaters

s ediments.

T hese

w ere

H owever

s ome r emained

c rops h as b een

s urfaces o nce e xposed

s ediment w hen

t o

p lanted.

t o a ir

c ould

u nder F issures

t hen

h ave

p rocess o f d eposition w as

r epeated.

T his h ypothesis d oes n ot n ecessitate d am,

a nd

e xplains t he

r esult o f t illage a llows

f or

c heck—dam.

t he

h ave

p reservation b oth o f t he

a nd

e xposure

a nnual

t o

a ir,

i t

s till

s ilts a s a

o f t he v arves.

r emains u nacceptable.

w hich d evelop i n modern

p enetrated

a nd

u niform

I t a lso

c ultivation o f c rops o n m ost o f t he l and b ehind

N evertheless,

d eep a s t hose

t he c onstruction o f a h igh

s everal

v arves a nd

s ediment

a re a lmost

s urfaces c ertain

F issures a s i n

T auran

w ould

t o h ave l eft

s ome

t race. T hirdly t he b y a s pring o r v arved

d istrubed.

i n

q anat.

s ediments

t hese d eposits

a long

w ater

w ould

e nvisage

a s hallow b ody o f

w ater

f rom

a nd

a s pring o r

p art o f t he c hannel

w as

s upplemented

t he d eposition o f

f loodwater;

h ave b een c ultivated,

I rrigation

t he l owest

s ilts w ere d eposited

T his m odel

u nder

w ould

W hich

a s

t heir

i t r eceded,

s urfaces

qanat w ould

h ave

f lowed

a nd d itches,

a nd

e nsured

t he

u nlikely w ay o f s upplementing

t he

s tanding w ater

p reservation o f e ach v arve.

S prings r etained

s eem

b ehind

a n

a c heck—dam

a t

K alata.

O n

t he o ther

a m ore l ikely s ource o f s upplementary w ater. I ran

f or

a t l east

2 -3000 t housand

7 06

h and,

a q anat i s

T hey h ave b een

y ears ( Wulff

1 968;

a

u sed

B eaumont

i n

1 971),

A

4A

A A

A

6

P

A

/ 2 \_

- a a a, a a A a

A A A A

A

A

A

° A

A

a

A

A

A

A

A

A

p

A

K ey

A

A

, A° -

o f c eram ic s amp le A f i ne g rave ls med ium g rave ls

A coarse

g rave ls

RWD

F igure 3 : U p-stream v arved s ection a t K alata .

p oor p reserva t ion g u l ly

•

•

l i gh t b rown

. 7A

5 V 8 1 1

• •

— DL

s andy- s i l t

A•d i

A l

-A

f i ne g rove ls

5 Y 8 11

- b rown mo t t led c l oy ▪

y e l low- \ b rown c loy

•

S cree RWO K ey •

t 1 s herds "

, 3 s tones i f

c l ay n uggets 0

i 5 mot •R :

I

• y -b

•

/

d gl

d ark b rown c loy

—

9m ,

S ca le -h or izon ta l I .2 0 v ert ica l 1 10

F igure 4 : D own-stream v arved s ection w ith i rrigation d itch a t K alata.

7 07

a nd

t here a re m odern e xamples i n

p oint

f or

t he e xit o f a q anat w ould

o f t he c hannel. W ater c ould c rops g rowing o n

a re m ost

p rocesses a nd c hannel

t o

r eceded; w ater. l ong,

t hin

S imilar

f ed d ownstream t o

p reservation o f t he v arves a long t he

p lausibly e xplained

t echnologies.

s econd

u niform

c ultivated,

t he m ost

h ave b een a t t he h ead

T he

a s t he r esult o f t wo

f irst

i s a s imple,

i rrigate

i s a q anat t o

K alata

i nteracting

l ow d am a cross t he

t rap s ediments w hich c ould b e c ultivated

t he

T he

t hen h ave b een

u pper

s ilts b ehind a c heck-dam.

T he d eposition a nd c hannel

A s t he

s tream-bed d rop a lmost 7 m t hrough b ed-rock,

s ections o f t he c onvenient

t he v icinity o f K alata.

a fter w ater

p rovide a dditional

h ad

i rrigation

s ilts t hus r epresent s ediments w hich h ave b een

w hilst t he v arves w ould h ave r emained s trip o f p ermanent w ater b ehind o ne,

s ubmerged

o r

u nder a

s everal d ams.

p atterns o f s ilts a nd g ravels h ave b een n oted

e lsewhere i n

T auran. T he r ate d epended f irst

a t w hich t he

u pon

s everal

K alata b asin

f actors w hich

i s t he r un-off r ate.

n otably t he

a mount,

s ize,

a nd

s lope

s econd m ajor v iewed

f all

d istribution

a nd

i nfluencing

i ntensity o f r ainfall,

T hirdly,

t he

T he

y ield

a nd

a nd

t he

i s t he

t his c an b e

t ype o f b ed-rock a nd

s edimentation r ate t he c hannel,

a nd

w ould h ave d epended t he

s ediment y ield

y ear. N one o f t hese v ariables i s d ocumented

d etailed m odel o f t he N evertheless,

t o

t o

K alata,

r un-off a nd

a nd h ence

s ediment

s ediment,

g reatly i ncrease a s s iltation w ould

e nclose o nly

T auran

i s n ot

a nd a

f easible.

o f t he

w ay

i f o nly t o h ighlight m ajor

s uggest t he c ourse o f f uture r esearch.

K alata b asin c an b e a pproximated

a rea o f w ater,

K alata

i n

s uggest a s imple m odel

p roceeded a t

a reas o f u ncertainty a nd I f t he a nnual

i n d etail

s edimentation r ate a t

i t s eems u seful

s edimentation m ay h ave

t he

S ediment

s ediment r ates,

a s d ependent u pon r un-off r ates a nd

s oil/surface c over.

h ave

b y n umerous v ariables,

c over o f t he c atchment a rea.

p arameter

w ith s ilt w ould

i nto t hree m ain g roups.

T his i s a ffected

u pon v ariations o f p rofile w ithin p er

f illed

y ield

t o t he

c onstant,

a nd

s hape a nd

s ize, t he

s urface

r etained b ehind

p roceeded.

3 125 m2 , b ut

r emained

T hus a n

i f

a c heck-dam w ould

a rea o f w ater

5 0,000 m2 w hen 4 m d eep.

1m d eep

A

t entative e stimate c an b e m ade o f t he r elationship b etween t he a rea a nd t hickness o f s ediment d eposited s imple t erms,

a g iven v olume o f s ediment w ould

i ncreasingly l arge a rea t hinner. t ime

C onsequently,

( Table

a t v arious s tages o f i nfilling.

t hrough t ime,

b e d eposited o ver

7 08

a n

a nd b ecome c orrespondingly

t he r ate o f s edimentation w ould d ecrease

1 ).

I n

w ith

T his i nformation e nables u s t o c alculate a c rude r etardation t o

e xpress t he r ate a t w hich

f actor

s edimentation w ould h ave p roceeded.

T he

f inal r ate of s edimentation w ould h ave b een o nly o ne—seventeenth a s f ast a s d uring T able 1 :

i nitial

s iltation.

S uggested r elationship b etween v arve t hickness a nd s urface a rea i n Q alateh b asin a t v arious s tages o f i nfilling.

T he

v olume o f s ediment p er d epositional e vent i s a ssumed t o r emain c onstant D imensions o f b asin

V arve d imensions

H eight o f s ediment

L ength

s urface

B readth

A rea

( m)

( Lx 1/2 B )

( m)

a bove

V arve

V arve

V olume

( sq m )

R etardation

t hickness

( m3 )

( cm)

f actor

c hannel b ase ( m) 1

1 25

5 0

3 ,125

3 12.5

1 0.0

1 .0

2

2 50

1 00

1 2,500

3 12.5

2 .5

4 .0

3

3 75

1 50

2 8,125

3 12.5

1 .1

9 .1

4

5 00

2 00

5 0,000

3 12.5

0 .6

1 6.7

I f t his i s a pplied t o t he v arves a t K alata, a nd i s e stimated b y c ounting

t he n umber o f v arves w ithin a s ection o ne

metre t hick a t v arious p oints a long t he n umber of d epositional

e vents,

d epth o f 4 m , c an b e c alculated. a nd

8 00 e pisodes o f d eposition,

s ediment,

t he m ean t hickness

t he s tream c hannel r equired

t o

f ill

( Table 2 ),

t he c hannel

t hen

t o a

T he r esults i ndicate t hat b etween 4 60 e ach c omprising t he

w ould h ave b een r equired

t o e ffect t he

s ame v olume o f

i nfilling o f t he

K alata b asin. T o e stimate t he

t otal

a mount o f t ime t aken

t he t ime r epresented b y

e ach v arve n eeds t o b e k nown.

A r eliable a nswer n ecessitates t he

c ompilation o f d etailed l ocal

c limatic

s uch a s t he

a mount,

i nfiltration a nd c atchment

a rea.

f requency a nd

a nd h ydrological d ata o n t opics

i ntensity o f r ainfall, r ates of

r un—off o n d ifferent t ypes o f g round c over, U ntil

t his i nformation

t o

e stimate

t he n umbers o f d ays d uring

o n

w hich s ufficient r ain

w ould

h ave

s lope

a nd

i s c ompiled,

i t i s i mpossible

t he y ear

f rom y ear

f allen t o

a nd

i nitiate

t o

y ear,

s tream—flow a nd

r un—off. I f i t i s a ssumed w ould h ave

f lowed

a s m any a s

f our

t hat o n a verage a nd o ver

a long t he

a t en—year c ycle, w ater

K alata c hannel a t l east o nce,

t imes, d uring

t he

y ear, 7 09

s o

a nd

p ossible

t hat e ach v arve i s r egarded

a s s ediment d eposited

i n a t l east t hree,

a nd

p ossibly a s m any a s

m onths, t hen t he b asin a t K alata c ould h ave b een a fter, a s am inimum, T able 2 :

15 y ears, o r a t m ost,

1 2

f illed w ith s ilts

8 00 y ears

S uggested n umbers o f d epositional e vents,

( Table 4 ).

T wo

r epresented b y

v arves, t o r esult i n t he i nfilling o f t he Q alateh b asin L ocation

U pstream

U pper

L ower

D own-

m id-

m id-

s tream

s tream

s tream

1 6

1 5

2 6

1 9

3 ,125

1 .0

6 4

6 0

1 04

7 6

1 2,500

4 .0

1 47

1 37

2 37

1 73

2 8,125

9 .1

2 73

2 51

4 35

3 18

5 0,000

1 6.7

5 00

4 63

8 02

5 86

o f s ection

O bserved n o. o f v arves p er

S urface

R etardation

a rea

f actor

(m 2)

1i n

o f d eposit S uggested n o. o f d epositional e vents: b etween

1 -2 i n

a bove c hannel b ase b etween 2 -3 i n a bove c hannel b ase b etween 3 -4 m a bove c hannel b ase S uggested

t otal

n o. o f d epositional e vents f rom 0 -4 m a bove b ase

f actors a rgue a gainst a s low m ean r ate o f d eposition o ver a l ong p eriod.

F irst,

i f r ain

f ell

w ith s ufficient i ntensity a nd d uration t o

i nitiate s ignificant r un-off a nd

s tream-flow o nly,

y ear, t hen i t f ollows t hat i n s ome y ears, n o

o n a verage, o nce a

s edimentation t ook p lace

I f t hat h ad b een t he c ase, o ne w ould e xpect s ome v arves t o s how e vidence o f e rosion a nd p ossible f issuring; o bserved.

S econdly,

t here a ppears t o b e a n i nverse r elationship, i n

a rid a reas e lsewhere, b etween t he ( Evenari e t a l.

t hese p henomena w ere n ot

1 971:32).

f requency a nd

I f r ainfall

h ad b een

i ntensity o f r ainfall s ufficiently i ntense t o

c ause s ediment t ransport o nly, o n a verage, o nce a y ear, i t s eems l ikely 7 10

t hat v iolent

f looding w ould h ave o ccurred,

p eriodic d eposits o f c oarse m aterial.

a nd b e r epresented b y

T hese a re n ot f ound a nd a m ore

f requent b ut l ess i ntense p attern o f r ainfall m ust b e i mplied b y t he r egularity a nd h omogeneity o f t he v arves. K alata c ould r epresent T able 4 :

I n t his c ase, t he s ilts a t

1 50-250 y ears o f d eposition

( Table 4 ).

S uggested n umber o f y ears r epresented b y t he Q alatch s ilts. T he e xpected n umber o f d epositional e vents i s b ased o n d ata i n T able 2 L ocation o f s ection U pstream

U pper

L ower

m idstream

m idstream

5 00

4 63

8 02

5 86

o nce a y ear

5 00

4 63

8 02

5 86

twice a y ear

2 50

2 32

4 01

2 93

t hree t imes a y ear

1 67

1 54

2 67

1 96

f our t imes a y ear

1 25

16

2 00

1 47

N o.

o f e xpected

d epositional

D ownstream

e vents

f rom 0 -4 m a bove c hannel b ase L ength o f t ime i n

y ears

r epresented b y s ediments i f e ach d epositional e vent o ccurred:

F inally,

t he q uestion o f h ow m any c atchment d ams w ould h ave b een

n eeded t o c ause t he s iltation a long t he K alata c hannel m ust b e c onsidered.

T he m odern s ystems i n

T auran s uggest t hat s everal d ams a re

l ikely t o h ave b een u sed a t a ny t ime. F igure 6 s hows a s chematic v iew o f t he l ongitudinal f alls

p rofile o f t he w adi; a s c an b e

1 2 m o ver 6 00 m .

I n o rder

c overed w ith s ilt e ach y ear, f our o r t hree d ams, e ach 2 , p roceeded,

s een,

t he s tream b ed

f or t he w hole o f t he b asin

f loor t o b e

i t w ould h ave b een n ecessary t o b uild

s ix,

3o r 4m h igh r espectively. A s s iltation

t he d ams c ould h ave b een r aised o r b uilt e lsewhere.

T his m odel

i s h ighly s implistic, a nd

i s i ntended o nly t o p rovide

a r ough a ppoximation o f t he t ime a nd m ethods n eeded t o f ill t he w adi w ith s ilt. n or

I ts l imitations a re o bvious s ince t here i s n o c limatic d ata

a ny p recise d ata i n r un-off,

s ediment y ield, o r

i nfiltration r ates.

A lthough t here i s m uch e vidence f or t he e rosion o f t he s ilts i n t he K alata b asin l ittle c an b e s aid

a bout i ts d ate a nd c auses. 7 11

I n

• j o

. 3 ) c • l ) ( 1 ) „ J o t : 1 0 ( 1 )

•E

4 — )

c z 0 c l t 4 0 14 4 b . 0 0

0 r l 4 — ) • c i 3 4 — ) a > • , I 5 C O t o • H 4 — ) t o c d •• Lf l t D O • H t o ) 4

F i g u r e 6 : G r a d i e n t s a l o n g t h e K a l t a b a s i n .

t o

c d

2 0'0

r c 1 A C 3

x , h

7 12

p articular,

c eramic

s amples

g ravels c utting t hem

f rom t he t op o f t he

s hould b e d ated

s ilts a nd

b y t ypological

a nd

f rom t he

c hronometric

m ethods. I f i t

i s a ccepted

A D a nd c ontinued h ave t aken

t hat

s edimentation h ad b egun b y t he

a t l east t wo c enturies,

p lace b efore t he

i nformation, e ast

f or

i t h ad c eased

s lopes o f t he

1 3th c entury. w hen

e rosion i s

1 0th c entury

u nlikely t o

A ccording t o l ocal

t he v ineyard

s outhern e nd o f t he b asin

w as c onstructed o n i n

t he

t he e arly y ears o f t his

c entury. T he r easons w hy t he s ilts w ere e roded a re l ikely t o h ave b een c omplex, o f g eomorphological, c limatic, o perated b oth w ithin f actors.

f or

a nd

T auran.

a ttribute

i t

M ongol

s olely t o t hem.

b een r esponsible.

I n

L ocal

p articular,

a nd

0 .02 b y t he t ime

t op o f t he

i ts s ilts.

h ave

f lowed

a long

e asily e roded c ontrol

a nd

c ollapse

a nd

r isen

t o

c onservation

t he

i ncreasingly d ifficult.

A

t he o riginal

i s l ikely t o h ave b een, a s t oday,

w as c omplete,

t he g radient a long

C onsequently,

t he

f loodwaters w ould a cross a reas o f

l ong-established m ethods o f w ater

p roved

s ocio-economic

a nd

i s p rovided b y t he g radients o f

i neffective,

a bandonment o f t his a gricultural a nd

f actors m ay h ave

A s F igure 6 s hows,

0 .033.

A t s ome p oint,

t o b e

i ncautious t o

o f f loodwater

s teeper g radients t han b efore a nd

s ilts.

s oil

e nvironmental a n

s edimentation

s ilts h ad

f ound

i t w ould b e

t he c ontrol

g radient a long m ost o f t he w adi b ed c .

s ilts w ere

a nd l ess d ramatic

t hat t his m ay h ave h appened

t he o riginal c hannel

f actors w hich

I t w ould b e e xceedingly r ash

i nvasions,

m aintenance o f c heck-dams m ay h ave b ecome s uggestion

i nvolved a c ombination

e conomic

t his e rosion a t t he e xpense o f o ther

E ven i f t he d own-cutting o f t he

c ontemporaneous w ith t he

t he c heck-dams a bandoned

a nd m ay h ave

s ocial

a nd o utside

t o a dduce a s ingle c ause

a nd

a nd l ed

s ystem.

t o t he

E xogenous

f actors m ay t herefore h ave

p layed o nly

a ncillary r ole.

C onclusions A n h istorical

s tudy o f c heck-dam

p rofitless a s h as

s ometimes b een

f arming

s upposed

n o d irect h istorical o r a rchaeological a ttention

h as b een

r emains o f d ams,

p aid

i n

t he

p atience p ostulate

a nd

c onsequences a nd

w hen,

a s i n

e vidence.

T auran,

I ndeed,

p ast t o d irect e vidence

f ield b oundaries a nd

i ndirect e vidence d iscernible e nvironmental

i s n ot a s i ntractable o r

c hannels a nd

t here

i s

t oo m uch

i n t he

f orm o f

n ot e nough t o

w ith t he a id o f h ypotheses a bout t heir l ife-histories.

G iven

f avourable c onditions o f p reservation,

t he h istorical d evelopment o f c heck-dam

d etail.

7 13

s ufficient i t i s

p ossible

s ystems i n

s ome

t o

T he

s ediments,

a nd e specially t he v arves,

a t K alata r epresent a

u nique r ecord n ot o nly o f a p ast a gricultural e nvironmental c ontext. p rove t o c ontain a lso c ontain

M uch c ould b e l earnt i f t he v arved

s ediments

p ollen, d iatoms o r o ther o rganic r emains.

a eolian d ust w hich c ould b e u sed

f luctuations i n c ould

s ystem b ut o f i ts

s and m obility i n t he

a lso b e d ated d irectly o r

s and

t o m onitor

s ea,

5k m t o

T hey m ight

p ast

t he n orth.

T hey

i ndirectly.

T his s tudy w as s everely h ampered b y t he a bsence o f c omparative d ata o n

p resent c limatic a nd h ydrological

c onditions i n T auran,

e rosive r ate o f i ts s urface c over, a nd i nvestigation h ave h ad

i n a nd

p rofound

a round

e ffects u pon t he

I ndeed,

t he c heck-dam a nd

a dapted

t o p revious a gricultural

g eomorphological i rrigation l and;

f arming.

w ith d istributing w ater o n t o a rable B aghestan

i ndicates t hat m ost o f

s ediment b ehind m any o f t he c heck-dams n ow i n u se t hat h ad

p reviously b een t rapped b ehind

u pstream. ' T he o verall

h ave b een l ost,

M odern c l anat

w as c reated b y a p revious s ystem o f f lood-channel

M uch o f t he

p ast h as b een t o

t he a rea.

u sage o f t he a rea a s t o p revailing

f rom K alata a nd

i s r edeposited m aterial d ams f urther

T he

f arming s ystems

t oday h ave b een a s m uch

a nd' e conomic c onditions.

i s p rimarily c oncerned

t his a rable l and

p ast

p resent-day a griculture i n

c l anat s ystems u sed

c limatic

t he e vidence

i ts g eomorphology.

K alata s uggests t hat

t he t ype a nd

s imilar

e ffect o f t hese a ctivities i n t he

s tore l arge a mounts o f s ediments w hich w ould o therwise a nd

t o c onvert t hem

i nto a reas o f h igh p roductivity.

R eferences c ited B eaumont, 1 971

P . Q anat s ystem

i n

I ran.

B ulletin o f t he I nternational

A ssociation o f S cientific H ydrology 1 6:39-50. B owen,

R .L.

1 958 D ennell, 1 982

R esearches i n S outh A rabia.

J ohn

D ryland

a griculture a nd

s tudy o f c heck-dam

s oil

p erspective, 1 971 H udson, 1 969

M .,

1 965

L .

f arming a nd

e dited b y B .

S hanan a nd

T he N egev.

w adi

N .

H arvard

s iltation.

I n

d ryland e cology i n s ocial

S pooner a nd H .S . M ann.

T admor

a rchaeological

A cademic P ress.

( editors)

U niversity

P ress,

C ambridge.

N .W. F ield E ngineering for A gricultural D evelopment.

P ress, R aikes,

B altimore.

c onservation: a n

D esertification a nd D evelopment: E venari,

H opkins,

R .W.

C larendon

O xford.

R . T he g abarbunds o f a ncient B aluchistan.

1 5:26-34.

7 14

E ast a nd W est

S pooner, 1 982

B .

a nd

H .S .

1 976

( editors)

D esa ,eification a nd D evelopment:

p erspective. S tager,

M ann

A cademic

d ryland e cology i n s ocial

P ress.

L .E. F arming

i n t he J udaean d esert d uring t he

I ron A ge.

B ulletin

o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 21:145-158. W alton, 1 969 W ulff , 1 968

K .

T he A rid Z ones .

H utchinson a nd

C o.,

L ondon.

H .E. T he

c l anats o f I ran.

S cientific A merican 2 18:98-105.

7 15

P EDOLOGICAL S OIL P ROPERTIES W HICH I NDICATE P REHISTORIC C HEMICAL A ND P HYSICAL C HANGES I N T HE S OILS

G erald W .

T his l ogical o logy, a nd

p aper

i ntroduces a n ew c oncept

r esearch.

i n

W ith t echniques o f s oil

s tudy o f s oils i n l andscapes,

a nthropological s cience a nd

a bout t he

b ut a lso e nables a nthropological s oils t hemselves.

a rtifactual

m ent.

a nd

T his

t o t he n ature o f h umans

i n o ther

R ecently

Iw as i nvited

s urvey

i nterpretations, d ata t o

S oil s urvey

c ontext o f

b y h uman

u se,

f or l ong

a nd

p eriods a nthro-

w ith w hich t o d evelop n ew

i n r elation

w rite

( Thomas

t he

r elating

p lanning a nd

e nviron-

s earch

f or n ew i deas

f ields c apable o f c ontributing

p roblems"

t o

t o t heir

s tatement t hat t he

F oundation " has b een c onstantly o n t he

t echniques d eveloped

t ions, a nd

s oils

P edology o ffers t o

p erspective i s c onsistent w ith t he

s olutions of a nthropological

s oil

a bout

n ew t ypes o f, d ata b y w hich n ew i nformation c an b e

r elating

W enner-Gren a nd

s oils.

a rchaeology a n ew s eries o f t ools

s ources of, g athered

s oils a re m odified

a ttributes o f t he

a rchaeo-

i nterpretations o f d ata

e vidences o f t hose c hanges a re m anifested

t he p edological

p ology a nd

T hus,

a nd

e specially p ed-

d ata c an b e g athered

e nvironments w hich n ot o nly e stablish t he e cological

a rtifacts,

i n

O lson

t o

1 955).

f irst c omprehensive t extbook o n

t o t he

p redicting

u se o f s oil m aps, d escrip-

f or t he

f uture

( Olson

1 983).

i nterpretations c ombine a ll o f t he d isciplines o f s oil

s cience ( physics, c hemistry, m ineralogy, b iology,

f ertility, g enesis,

c lassification, m anagement,

a lso e nable c orre-

l ations a nd

l ife, I n

a rchaeology,

g eology,

i t

p lant

s cience,

p lanning, h ealth a nd

a nd many o thers.

p line,

a nd

p redictions t o b e m ade w ith o ther d isciplines,

a nthropology, f orestry,

a nd c onservation)

I n r eviewing t he s trata a re

a rtifacts t hat r ecord e vents a nd

i ncluding

e ngineering,

n utrition, e cology a nd

a nimal

s ubject m atter o f m y d isci-

q uickly b ecame a pparent t hat t he

t he a rchaeological

e conomics,

p hysical,

p ast

i s a k ey t o t he

c hemical,

f uture.

a nd b iological

p rocesses d uring m illennia o f h uman

o ccupation of d ifferent s oils.

S uch a l ong-term r ecord

a nywhere e lse.

c ontemporary u se o f s oils i s n ot g reatly

d ifferent c hanged d ominant

a nd

I n m any p laces,

i s n ot a vailable

f rom a ncient u se o f s oils;

i n o ther

p laces t echnology h as

a g reat d eal, b ut a lways t he

s oils i n

l andscapes h ave a

i nfluence

u pon t he l and

O ften,

t he a rchaeological

a bused

t heir

t he e cological p opulations

s oils,

a nd

a nd

r ecord

p atterns. p roves t hat a ncient p eople m isused

t hat t heir c ivilizations

e nvironmental

w ere l arger t han

u se

c onsequences.

t he m odern 7 17

I n

w ere d isrupted b y

p laces,

p opulations.

t he a ncient

T he a rchaeological

c onsiderations g ive r easons o ur r esources m ost

w isely,

p opulation d eclines a nd G enerally,

p rosperity o f a n ation

t o

s hifts

t he m ajor a nd m ost

t he h usbandry o f t he a nd

f or u s t o a nd

p onder i f w e o urselves a re

s eek t he e xplanations

s o t hat w e m ight a void i mportant

a nd

l and

w ar,

u sing a ncient

a s imilar

f actors i n t he

a re n ot i ts c onquests i n

s oil

f or t he

f ate.

c ontinuing

b ut t he n ature o f

r esources t hrough c enturies o f u se

o ccupation.

T he s oil s urvey T his i s o ne o f t he m ost v aluable e xpressions o f e nvironmental d ata r elating t o u se o f l and

a reas.

s elected

( representative l andscape

s oil m ap u nits

a re d escribed

a nd

s ampled.

t ions m ade i n t he

f ield.

i nvestigations a re m ade d ifferences m ap u nits.

( between A erial

I n m aking a s oil

A uger c orings a nd o ther t o

t he

s oil

p hotographic

a nd t he

c an b e m ade a t a ny s cale

d etail,

a nd

i n

s oil d escrip—

t he s oil

s oil v ariability w ithin

i nterpretations a re m ade

c ourse,

i n

s oils

a nd g eologic

f ully s tatistically d escribe

s oil m ap u nits)

p its a re d ug

s egments), a nd

L aboratory d ata s upplement

e xtent, b ut t he m ajor e mphasis i s o n t he

s urvey,

f ieldwork.

S oil

t o t he

f ullest

s urveys,

o f

a ny d egree o f g eneralization o r

f act t hat t hey d isplay d ata v ertically a s w ell

a s

h orizontally a cross t he e arth s urface c an b e o f t remendous c onsequences t o a nthropologists a nd t he m ost d rainage,

a rchaeologists.

p rimitive h umans, s lope,

a gricultural

p roperties,

a nd

s oil

i nitial

t rafficability, e tc.

a nd

t rade r outes a re c hanneled

a nd g eomorphic c haracter o f t he l andscapes.

v ery q uickly,

t he

t he n ature a nd i mplications i n

i n

a ll a reas.

u nderstood b y m ost

s trategic

b ut d etails a bout

1 977a,

1 977b,

1 980a,

f rom

T he n ature o f t he

1 981a,

f ar

1 981b;

( Olson

S oil

1 971,

S urvey

s ubtle

s oil

f rom t he

s ite

s oils d iscussions i n

b ecause o f t he

s pace

s ome o f t he m ore m inute

t he a uthor

i nfluences i n

f ar—reaching

s ituations a nd d ecisions

s oils a re l ocated.

a re r eadily a vailable

f or g reat d istances

O ften,

p eople h ave

b y t he

i n m odern

c haracteristics r emain d ominant

t his p aper m ust n ecessarily b e g eneral l imitations,

E ven

p eople c an b e t ransported

b ehavior o f p eople

d ifferences l ittle w here t hose

s oil

A dvancement o f a

u rban d evelopment i s i nfluenced b y s oil

t ransportation a nd

s ocieties w here g oods a nd

s ite s election b y

w as d etermined l argely b y s oil c onditions o f

f ertility,

s ociety f or

T hus,

s oil a ttributes

1 975a,

S taff

1 975b,

1 976,

1 975).

T he M aya a rea M uch o f t he 1 973;

s peculation h as b een m ade a bout t he r ole o f s oils i n

M aya c ivilization H arrison a nd

T urner

i n

C entral

1 978;

A merican

O lson 7 18

1 981b).

( Coates T he

1 972;

t he f all

C ulbert

M aya a rea i s

s omewhat

u nique b ecause

t he M aya c ulture, d eveloped

s ustained

a l arge

c ollapsed

r ather

c ultural

p opulation, s uddenly a nd

o ccupied

a l ong

t o

a n

o f t ime, a nd

O bviously t he e arliest a gri-

s ystems c onsisted l argely o f s lash-and-burn a n e ver-increasing

u nderstanding o f t he c ultural

n utrient r ecycling o f t he r ain

p eriod

a v ery e xtensive r egion,

c ompletely.

c ould n ot i ndefinitely s ustain c ritical

o ver

a griculture,

p opulation.

w hich

S oils a re

c ollapse b ecause t he

f orest w as i n

a n arrow s tate o f

e cological b alance u nder n atural c onditions; a s h umans g radually d estroyed

t he

f orest t hey c ould

d egradations.

A pparently t he

u nderstanding

a nd

c lassifying

e vidences of i ntensification, i llustrate b ut a t

S ocial

t he d eclining

t heir

t he

s trife a nd

s oils ( Williams

s uch a s r idged

1 980).

f ields a nd

s ampled,

I n

f act,

s oils,

i nadequate t o t he

t he M aya e xample

o f t he " tragedy o f t he c ommons" w hich h as c onsiderable

i n t he

t ask

i s a n early

( Hardin

i mplications

P eten r egion o f G uatemala,

a nd m apped a t a s cale o f

e ngineering

y ears a go.

u se

T he

s uch a s s oil

1 :2,000

a nd m anagement,

i nvisible a nd

1 968)

i n

f or h umans i n

s oils w ere d escribed,

( Olson

1 977a).

a g ood e xample

p roblems

t o l ook a t

f or

a nd

e rosion,

t he M aya. a nd

i s t he m ost d etailed, l arge-scale a nd s pecifically f or

M aya a rea

( Olson

A t T ikal, o ther

s oils

V ertisols,

a voided t hese

M aya c ity.

I nceptisols,

V ertisol

a reas,

M ollisols. F igure

i s

f rom, b ecause

i t

s urvey e ver

T he b ajo s wamps h ad

c ity.

i n

i n

t he c entral

t he

( Figure

N orth

Z one

1 ).

a fforded

( Figure 2 ).

c ore

V ertisols w ith s oil

f or h eavy u rban c onstructions;

s hallow t o l imestone b edrock,

T ikal

s urvey o f T ikal

E ntisols, a nd v arious

a nd m apped

a reas f or t heir b uildings

p attern o f t he

a bandoned

s oil

t o g eneralize

a rchaeological c orrelations

s upport o f h eavy l imestone b uildings s oil

T he

c aused m any

c omprehensive s oil

w ere d iscovered, d escribed,

p roperties e xtremely p oor M ollisols,

s oils a nd

h owever,

2 ,000

p rocesses,

1 977a).

M ollisols,

o f t he a bandoned

p roperties r elated

t hrough e xperience, m ore t han

i n d etail,

c onducted

T he M aya

l ess v isible d egenerative s oil

f ertility d epletion

i nsidious l ong-run

t he M aya

I n c ontrast,

e xcellent

s ites

t he f or

F igure 3 i llustrates

q uadrangle o f t he m apped

N o r uins o f b uildings a re l ocated

i n

p art o f t he t he

1 0/A

a nd d ense c lusters o f r uins a re c ongregated o n t he

T he a guada w ater h ole

( 11/A),

l ocated

i n

t he c enter o f

3 , w as a M aya w ater r eservoir, a nd t he s ediments i n t he b ottom

r ecord t he t he

I ncreasing

t erraces,

p rotect t he

a pparently a chieved g ood m astery o f t he v isible s oil

t he

i n

f uture. A t T ikal

t o

p rogress

o ther d isruptions w ere l ikely e ffects o f

s oil r esources.

r esource m anagement,

s oil

s ome c onsiderable

t echnology o f t he t ime w ere

p erfect i llustration t he

M aya m ade

f or

t hat a ttempts w ere m ade t o c onserve a nd

t he m easures a nd h and.

n ot c ompensate

p eriods o f s oil

e rosion a nd

s urrounding h igher g round.

7 19

p ollution

f rom t he

M aya a buse o f

F igure 1 : V ertisol s oils ( 10/A) i n b a jo s wamps a t T ika l.These s oils a re e xtremely s ticky a nd e xpansive w hen w et , a nd s hrink a nd c rack w hen d ry .

7 20

M ollisols o f t he u plands a t

T ikal

w ere n aturally v ery f ertile b ut

e xtremely v ulnerable t o e rosion a nd d amage b y M aya o f t he s hallowness o f t he a ppearance o f t he b ecause t he t he

f orest

t hin

t opsoil

s oil

t o l imestone b edrock.

s urface s oil

w as

A s t he

s oil d epletions a ccelerated

M aya

u ntil

e xcessive d eterioration o f t he d isturbed by t he M aya, c olored f erent

s oil

u ndisturbed

s ilt l oam p laces b ased o n

f rom t he M aya o ccupation t he r ain

( Figure

e xtremely s ticky, by t he M aya i ncreased. i n

I n

l ight—

a lone.

L ight

a nd m apped

s oils

S oils a t T ikal

w ere

h ave n ot 1 ,000 y ears o f

s ites 1 ),

e ven t o

w ere s trictly a voided b y t he

( Figure 3 ).

a nd

t he a nd

p laces a re

w et i n t he

s oils w ith m ontmorillonite c lays a re

p edestrian

f or a gricultural

T hese

t raffic.

o ther

S herds w ere c ommonly f ound

T he

V ertisols w ere

p urposes a s t heir i n t he

t he e dges.

T he

s urvey b orings m ade

V ertisol

s oils c ould b e

w ithin

w here s tructural

a gainst o ne a nother, v erifying t he

w etting.

G ilgai

s tability o f t he a nd

p eds r ubbed

a ction o f t he s oils

s welling

F igure

a nd

a reas o f t he T ikal

d ifferent s lopes ( Olson i n

s oils ( as e xamined

w ith c racking a nd

( mound—and—pit m icrorelief)

s oils,

S oil m apping a t

t he

s oil

f acilitated

V ertisol

i n

p its),

e xpansion u pon d rying a lso v erified

t he m apping o f t he

t he

i n—

s hrinking

s oils.

i dentified

1 977a);

u sed

p opulation

i dentified b y " slickensides"

a nd

i n

f orest.

t he b ajos, e specially n ear

' churning'

a reas

A reas i n t he

e ven a fter m ore t han

T he b ajo l owland V ertisols a t T ikal

r ainy s easons

1 968).

f orced

t hat w ere d istinctly d if—

M ollisols.

s oil c olor

r ecovered

f or c onstruction

( Hardin

M aya, c ould b e l ocated

d ark s oils w ere n utrient—rich.

M aya

a nd d epleted b y e rosion w hen

r esources

d epleted;

t o

s ettlers,

p opulation e xpanded, e rosion a nd

E ntisols w ere m apped

t he d ark—colored

a bandonment

M aya

t he " tragedy o f t he c ommons"

u plands o f T ikal d isturbed b y t he t he

t he

i ncluding c auseways a nd b uilt—up a reas,

I nceptisols a nd f rom

T he d ark M ollisol

f ormation m isled

q uickly o xidized

w as c leared.

p opulations b ecause

1 d ifferent

s ome o f t he

3f or t he N orth Z one q uadrangle.

S oil s ymbol

s oil T he

s oils o n p attern

s oils a nd

s ix

i s i llustrated s lopes a re:

B rief d escription

1

W ell d rained

2

W ell d rained

c lay l oam u pland

s oil

4 5 c m t o

s oft

l imestone. t o 4

s ilt l oam d isturbed

a lluvial

s oil

1 28 a m

s oft l imestone.

W ell d rained

s ilt l oam u pland

s oil

2 8 c m t o h ard

l imestone. 5

S omewhat p oorly d rained

c lay s wamp s oil

4 8 c m t o

s oft

l imestone. 6

W ell d rained t o

7

s ilt l oam d isturbed

u pland

s oil

1 42 c m

s oft l imestone.

M oderately w ell 1 50 c m t o

d rained

c lay u pland

s oft l imestone.

s oil d eeper

t han

F igure 2 : R uins o f aM aya s tructure a t T ikal. H eavy b uildings w ere m ostly c onstructed o n M i ollisols s hallow t o l imestone b edrock .

7 22

8

W ell d rained

s ilty c lay l oam u pland

s oil 4 0 a m t o

s oft l imestone. 1 0

P oorly d rained

c lay s wamp s oil d eep t o s oft l ime-

s tone. 1

V ery p oorly d rained t o

1 8

W ell d rained i n

1 9

c lay s wamp ( water h ole)

s oil d eep

s oft l imestone. s oft

s ilt l oam d isturbed

u pland

s oil

f ormed

s ilt l oam l imestone m aterial.

W ell d rained a tely h ard

s ilt l oam u pland

s oil

6 5 a m t o m oder-

l imestone.

S lope d esignation A

0 -3%

B

3 -8% s lopes

C

8 -15%

D

1 5-25% s lopes

E

2 5-35%

F

3 5-45+ s lopes

I n a f ew p atches t illed a t o n

t he M ollisols a t T ikal

a bout 7 50 k g/ha a nd

f ertilizer

a bout

a dditions.

y ear r otation o n f or

i n

F or

1 ,000 k g/ha

t he

2 50 k g/ha

s econd

i n

t he

U nited l eft

M aya c ould

n ot h ave m aintained

i ncreased,

a nd

t he c onsequent s oil

n ature o f s oil

e rosion a nd

s ediments w ere d eposited S edimentation a nd

t his i deal

e ffect u pon

t he l imited

e rosion i s d etrimental c overed i n

( Olson

1 975b)

H onduras m ore t han

t hat e xpanded e xpanded,

f rom

t o

s oil

w ater

a nd

t he

w as

a nd

f orest i s

f orest r e-

O bviously,

t he

p opulation T he

p robably a lmost

s low a nd

i nsidious

L arge a mounts o f e roded

i n

M aya r eservoirs.

t o

t he

u rban

s etting.

s how t hat e xcessive

s oil

s oil

p rofile w as d is-

f armed b y t he

M aya

i n

i n

E ventually,

y ields d eclined

f rom t he

Ab uried

1 ,000 y ears a go.

t he c ivilization c ollapsed,

A gri-

e rosion h ad a h ighly d etrimental

s upply i n

e veryone.

t hat

i n

a c onsiderable

p lace w ere

t o

i s a vailable

f orests w ere c leared

t he v alley,

o wing

i nto t he h ills a round

g reatly a ccelerated.

h ad

i n d rainageways a nd

Ag reat d eal o f e vidence

y ear

t he c enturies o f M aya o ccupation.

M aya,

M aya

a nd

r otation a s t heir

n utrient d epletion.

p ollution

F ood

f or c ropping.

c hanges t aking

c ompletely u nnoticed b y t he

t he

1 0 y ears f or

s oil d ecline,

i nfluence o n t he c ulture d uring

f irst

a bout 5 00 k g/ha

a rea c leared

f allow f or

g rowth, b efore c learing t he a rea a gain

i mportant b ut g radual

y ear,

t he

N ations o fficially r ecommends a 1 5-

t hese s oils - w here a n

f ive y ears, a nd

i n

f ourth y ear - w ithout a ny

s hifting c ultivation,

c ulture O rganization o f t he c ropped

s lopes

y ields a bout

t he

y ear,

s lopes

p resent b y s hifting c ultivation, m aize

a fter c learing, t hird

s lopes

V alle d e

M aya h ad

ad ense

p opulation

A s t he

p opulation

u plands a nd

s oil

e rosion w as

e xcessive e rosion c aused

i n

t he

t he

N aco

t he v alley s ite.

t he

T he

t he

u plands.

p opulation

7 23

A bout

f looding

i n

1 ,000 y ears a go

a bruptly d eclined.

T he

F igure 3 : S oil m ap o f N orth Z one q uadrangle a t T ikal .

7 24

a lluvial s tream b ank c ut, r ecords s ame o f t he e vents o f t he p ast M aya h istory. T he l ower p rofile w hich t he M aya u sed, h as a rtifacts o f t he p eriod s cattered t hrough t he

s oil a nd

p ollution o f t he h uman h abitations; a rtifacts.

a ccumulations o f p hosphorus f rom t he u pper p rofile i s s terile o f

A pparently, t he e rosion d epleted t he s oil r esource b ase a nd

c aused f looding, s o t hat p roduction d eclined a nd c ould n o l onger s upport t he d ense M aya p opulation. W hen t he p opulation d eclined, t he v egetation r ecovered - a nd

t he c ycle a ppears t o b e r epeating w ith t he

modern l and

a buse.

t han

M aya p eriod, b ut i t i s i ncreasing.

i n

i n t he

t he s oils,

T he p resent p opulation

i n t he a rea i s p robably l ess T his h istory, r ecorded

i s am essage t o b e h eeded b y m odern p lanners a nd

s oil

c onservationists f or t he f uture. I n p laces i n E l

S alvador, d eterioration o f M aya

e ruptive v olcanoes a s w ell a s b y s oil ( Olson

1 981a).

A s eries o f s oil

v olcanic m aterials a t t he S alvador.

A ll

e rosion a nd n utrient d epletion

p rofiles w ere f ound

C ambio a rchaeological i nfertile

d ark c oarse c inders, a n i ndurated y ears, a s oil

s oil

p rofile

T he s ite s hows a f ormed m ostly i n

t ephra l ayer d ated a t a bout

1 ,000

p rofile f ormed m ostly i n w hite v ery f ine s and a sh d ated

a t a bout 2 ,000 y ears, a nd a l ower

f ertile c layey s oil p rofile f ormed

o lder m ore h ighly w eathered r eddish m aterial, y ears o ld.

i n d ifferent

s ite n orthwest o f S an

p rofiles h ad M aya a rtifacts i n t hem.

c ontemporary h ouse, a n u pper

mils w as c aused b y

i n

t ens o f t housands o f

T he s urface s oil h as 4 .3% o rganic m atter a nd r elatively h igh

l evels o f n utrients d ue t o

t ree l itter r ecycling a nd a nthropic a ccumu-

l ations f rom t he m odern h ousehold. h ouse h as o nly

S oil

i n a n e roded

1 .8% o rganic m atter a nd m ore a cid p H .

f ield b ehind

t he

T his l andscape w as

p robably f airly s table f rom a bout 4 0,000 y ears t o 2 ,000 y ears b efore p resent, s o t hat a f ertile

s oil c ould d evelop w ith g ood n utrients a nd

e xcellent w ater-holding c apacity i n w eathered c layey t extures. A v olcanic e ruption o f 2 ,000 y ears a go c overed t he a rea w ith f ine s andy a sh i n w hich a m uch i nferior s oil

f ormed w ith r elatively l ow w ater-

h olding c apacity f or p lants i n t he d ry s eason - b ut t he M aya r esettled i t a nyway.

F inally, t he l ater d eposits o f c oarse c inders g ave a n e ven

w orse s oil

f or t he l ater a nd r ecent o ccupation.

a nd

o xidation u pon t he s oil

d egradation

T he e ffects o f e rosion

s urface i llustrate v ery w ell t he s oil

t aking p lace a t t he p resent t ime t o d eteriorate f urther t he

n utrient l evel o f t he m odern s oils. A t m any l ocations i n M aya a reas, l ike t hese m entioned

f urther o bservations c an b e m ade

i n t his b rief d iscussion,

w here e rosion a nd

s edi-

m entation o f t he s oils a re a ssociated w ith M aya d ecline a nd a bandonm ent.

S ome of t hese s oil o bservations h ave b een d ocumented b y H arrison

a nd

' D arner

( 1978).

f or

e xample,

A rchaeologists d igging i nto M aya m ounds i n B elize,

r eported:

I n o ur e xcavations o n t he h ighest r iver t errace l evel

..

w e n oted t hat u nderlying t he m ounds a t a 7 25

l evel

a pproximately

g round

l evel

1 .00 m b eneath t he

t here w as a s tratum o f b lack o rgani-

c ally s tained

s oil

a bout 7 0 c m t hick.

s tratum c ontrasted b eneath i t a nd

z one o ver t he

w as s imilar

s ite.

s truction b egan

i n a ppearance

i n

P eriod

t empting

t imes h ad

t heir

s oil

t he b lack s oil.

p henomenon

I t i s

t o t he

f ollowing

e xplanation.

f irst M aya

V alley i n

s ettlers a rrived

P reclassic

i f e ver,

s ubstantial

a t a

s terile b rown c lay i ntervening

s tratum,

c ould

a ccumulate.

i t w as

w aters,

r epresented W hen

t he

u ppermost

A s t oday,

r eached b y f lood

z one o f h umus,

a long

t imes, t he

t errace w as h eavily f orested.

s oil

w hose c on-

s lightly i nto t he b lack

t o a scribe t his

t he

r arely,

t he

u ppermost s oil

t hat m ounds

P reclassic

t he m ound b ase a nd

h ypothetical

B elize

t o

a nd

w hile m ounds w hose c onstruction b egan

l ater d ate h ad

W hen

f orms t he

W e n oted

b ases d irectly o n o r

b etween

T his b lack

w ith t he b rown c lays a bove

p resent h umus s tratum w hich

s tratum,

p resent

s o

t hat a

b y t he b lack t he l and

w as

c leared

f or h abitation t his h umus a ccumulation w as

h alted.

A t a bout t he

w as b eing

s ettled,

s ame

t ime a s t he

M aya g roups

B elize

V alley

w ere a lso o ccupying

t he l imestone c ountry t hroughout t he d rainage b asin o f t he r iver.

A s s ettlement o f t he r egion b ecame

m ore e xtensive a nd

p opulation

i ncreased,

f iciently l arge t racts o f h igh f orest f or

a griculture

a nd

m oisture-holding

a nd

a bsorbing

f orest c over a s a w hole.

B arton

a ccounting

r esulting

q ualities o f t he

i n b oth q uantity a nd

i n m ore

s evere

T he

f looding d own-

u ppermost r iver

t errace

R amie n ow w as o ccasionally f looded, f or t he

t he o ld h umus m ounds.

f elled

T his m eant t hat t he r ainy

s tream a long t he r iver. a t

w ere

s ettlement t o e ffect t he

s eason r unoff w as i ncreased i ntensity,

s uf-

s terile a lluvial d eposit b etween

z one a nd

I ncreased

t he b ases o f t he l ater

f looding m ight a lso

a ccount

f or a n

a pparently i ncreasing t endency f or h igher h ouse s ubs tructures d uring o f t he

s ite.

A fter

n early a bandoned, P hase,

t he

t he l ater

f orest a s w ell

A long b ackwater B elize,

r idged

( Willey

w as a bandoned

a t t he c lose o f t he

t he c onditions w hich h ad o ccupation

p hases o f t he o ccupation

t he r egion

o r

N ew T own

a s t he r iver r everted t o p revailed

p rior

t o

t he M aya

1 965).

a reas o f t he

R io

H ondo a nd

o ther

f ields c onstructed b y t he a ncient M aya 7 26

r ivers i n

n orthern

h ave r ecently

b een d iscovered.

T hese

f ields w ere a n a ttempt b y t he M aya

t heir a griculture a nd

p roduce h igher

t unately,

a reas

t he l owland

f loods a nd

s ediments f rom

i ntensifying a s t he

v ations i nto t ried t o a nd

t he r idged

i mprove

t heir

e rosion a nd

s oils

w e d iscovered

( Olson

i ntensify

a reas.

U nfor-

w ere a lso d amaged b y

r unoff f rom t he

u plands - w ith I n

e xca-

e vidence t hat t he M aya

1 975a), b ut u ltimately t he

s erious t o c ontrol,

f ields t oday a re c overed

b lanket o f c lay p roviding

s maller

f orests w ere g radually c ut.

f ields,

s edimentation w ere t oo

o f t he M aya r idged

f rom

i ntensively u sed

t he

f loods

y ields

t o

a nd

f looding

t he a bandoned

s oils

w ith a s terile a lluvial

p roof o f t he e cological

s hifts.

S ardis R elationships b etween h umans a nd a ll

a rchaeological

l ogical s ite

s oils a re i llustrated

s ites.

S ardis i n

w estern

t hat h as h ad

e xtensive

s oils i nvestigations

T urkey i s a l arge a rchaeo-

S ardis i s a r uined c ity a bout 7 5 k m e ast o f p robably f irst

s ettled

i n

d roughts, e arthquakes,

l andslides,

a nd

s ieges.

I t

f amines,

w as t he c apital

w estern

H erodotus,

a c enter o f a dministration u nder

t erminus o f t he

P ersian r oyal

p rovince o f L ydia

s trategic m ilitary l ocation, A natolian

p lateau a nd t he

f ertile p lain o f t he

i n

t he

i n l ater

( Olson

w estern

1 971).

T urkey,

T he c ity h as

f ires, o f t he

L ydia, t he

m etropolis of t he

I zmir

t he t hird m illennium B C.

e xperienced

a t a lmost

f loods,

i nvasions,

a ncient k ingdom o f r oad d escribed b y

R oman e mpire, a nd

B yzantine

t imes.

t he

A

i ts p osition o n am ain h ighway b etween

A egean c oast,

a nd

G ediz r iver v alley,

t he

i ts a ccess t o t he w ide

a ll

c ontributed

t o

S ardis'

i mportance. S ardis

w as r eferred t o

A lcman a bout 6 50 B C, i n

i n t he

c entury B C, i n

G reat 1 7 A D ,

i n

t he

i n

t he

B ible.

b y t he

A thenians i n

t he

t he t hird c entury B C.

t o t he

T urks i n

l atest c onflicts a t

s ince

S oils o f t he

T he

1 958 b y a C ornell-Harvard S ardis

S oil

w ere o f s pecial

i s r eflected

i n

a nd

s ampled

S urvey a nd

S tates ( Figure 4 ). t he

a nd

s ixth

b y A ntiochus

f ort o n t he A cropolis w as

I t w as c aptured b y R uins a t

T imur

i n

1 402 .

S ardis h ave b een

I n a n

t he

a mazing

s oils.

i n

T he t he

e xca-

e xpedition.

i nterest

i n e fforts t o r econstruct

e volution o f t he u rban c ommunity i n r elation t o T urkish

i n t he

S ardis w ere b attles o f t he G reco-Turkish w ar

S oils w ere d escribed t he

C ities o f A sia

I t w as d estroyed b y a n e arthquake

f irst q uarter o f t he t wentieth c entury. v ated

P ersians

f ifth c entury B C,

T iberius.

1 306.

S even

I t w as c aptured b y t he

s eventh c entury B C, b y t he

b ut w as r ebuilt u nder

h anded o ver

I liad, m entioned b y t he G reek p oet

a ddressed a s o ne o f t he

t he B ook o f R evelation

C immerians t he

a nd

i n

a ccording

t o

i ts e nvironment.

s tandard

C ooperative S oil

p rocedures o f

S urvey o f t he

U nited

f ashion, m uch o f t he h istory o f S ardis

M ost o f t he 7 27

s oils a re E ntisols a nd

F igure 4 : D escribing t he s oil p rofile f rom a p it a t S ardis.

7 28

I nceptisols o n

s teep s lopes o r

s lides, e rosion, a nd b een

o vergrazed b y g oats a nd

h ave h ad t heir

( Figure 5 ).

m ountains,

b ut t he

f irewood

d estroyed

a lluvial v alleys,

t hrough t he

t he

R oman b aths.

( Figure 6 ).

I n o ne

I n a s ense,

p lace a t

a nd

1 2 m d eep t hrough a R oman d ump c ontaining

b ones.

A s a r esult o f t he o vergrazing

R oman e ngineers w ere

f orced

w ater l ines a t

s oils o n t he

a nd

e nvironmental a rchaeologists d ug a

t housands o f a nimal

s ubsequent

t o d esign s ettling

S ardis,

s o t hat

s oil

e rosion,

p ots a t c lose

s oil

t o

t he c ivilizations

S ardis,

t rench

i n certain

t he

f or b uilding c onstructions a nd

t hemselves b ecause o f t he e cological

d egradations

s lopes h ave

a ctions o f e rosion a nd

F orests o riginally p rotected

t rees w ere c ut

f or

a ffected b y l and-

S oils o n u pper

s heep f or c enturies; m any o f t he r uins

f oundations d estroyed

l andslides p rovide

i n

a lluvial d epositions.

i ntervals

s ediments c ould b e

p eriodically r emoved.

T he

L ydian o ccupation s eems t o h ave b een m ost

a ffected b y

a nd

t he m ost c onspicuous l andslides

t he

G reek a nd

1 300 t he a t

f looding, R oman

p eriods.

B C b uried m ore t han f loods a nd

t he t ime,

A s tratum a t o ne p oint h ad

1 2 m b elow t he m odern

l andslides w ere d isastrous

s oil

f or t he

t hey p reserved

i n

a rtifacts f rom

s urface.

A lthough

i nhabitants o f S ardis

t he d eposits o f s oil m aterials w ere a b oon

a rchaeologists b ecause

f ollowed

s ome o f t he r uins

t o f rom

f urther

d estruction b y n ature a nd b y h uman b eings. M any o f t he

s oils a t S ardis h ave l arge c ontents o f m ica

w hich c ontribute t o s tructure i n a lso

i ndicates

l ikely t o s till

g ives c ause

w hen t he

f or

p rovide h eat

f or

T he

u s t o

t heir

s plendor o f a ncient

p onder o ur o wn

R omans b uilt t heir

t he e cology o r

s ustained

N or d id

s oil

t he s oils o f S ardis?

S ardis a nd many o ther s oil

w atersheds. l ar

E rosion c ontrol

s iderations.

w orld, S oil

u rban c onstruction

s ilting o f w ater

t o s ome o f o ur

f ertility f or

p arts o f t he

p eriods w ithout c ausing

T he

i s

f ood

s iltation

F or

t heir

f orests c ut p art,

t he

f loodplains.

c ommon t o

p redicted b y i nternal

e rosion, w hether

a t a ncient

c annot e xtend

s evere d amage t o

s ystems a t

w ell

e mphasize t o

L andslides,

c an b e

a reas,

p articularly c ritical

G uiding h uman

t hey d id

f loodplains a re l ikely t o b e

o ver l arge

s tructures a nd

S ardis w as r emarkably s imi-

p roblems i n m unicipal

p roduction a s

( Figure 6 ).

f or t he

S ardis s hould

a lluvial d eposits.

c haracteristics.

i n m odern

a reas f or l ong

S ardis,

f rom e valuation o f p ast c ivilizations

E xperiences a t

d amaged b y f loodwaters a nd

S ardis o r

s oil

t he G reeks c omprehend

e rosion.

f uture g enerations t hat c onstructions o n

e xternal

f actors

t he h azards o f b uilding o n a lluvial

W hat b enefits c an b e o btained

a nd

f uture

h uge b ath c omplexes, y ield

w ater b aths.

e ffects o f t heir g oat h erds o n

L ydians o verlooked

o n

T he

s oil m ovements, b ut

p ossible d irections a nd m agnitudes o f f uture l andslides

e vident,

O bviously,

t he

e specially w hen t hey a re w et.

f ollow m ajor e arthquakes.

n ot c onsider t o

s liding,

t hese p laces n ot o nly r ecords p ast

f lakes,

w ater r eservoirs.

f or m aintenance o f s oil

a s i n

e nvironmental

q uality c on-

a ctivities t oward c onsideration o f e cology 7 29

F igure 5 : P art o f t he r uins a t S ardis, w ith m uch o f t he v isible b uilding d estroyed b y s oil e rosion a nd l andslides.

7 30

a nd

n atural

s oil

a ssuring t hat s ist l onger

l andscape v ariations,

w ould b e a p ositive s tep t oward

f uture c ivilizations w ill

t han d id

b etter u nderstand o f i nhabitants,

e njoy g reater

p ast c ivilizations.

t he e nvironment a nd

s uccess a nd

p er-

I nterdisciplinary e fforts t o

i ts r elationships t o t he w elfare

w ould c ontribute t oward a m ore o ptimistic v iew o f t he

f uture.

A rid r egions A rid r egions, a re

l ike t ropical

r ain

i n ad elicate b alance r egarding

a buse o f p ast c enturies i s m aking p resent a nd

f uture

( Stamp

d esert o f n orthwestern c ulture a bout b ut

1 961;

I ndia,

2 000-1700 B C .

f orests a nd o ther c limatic s oils a nd

a reas,

t heir m anagement.

S oil

s oil m anagement d ifficult f or t he

C lawson e t a l.

t he

1 971).

I n t he

H arappan c ivilization h ad

A pparently t he c limate

R ajasthan

a t hriving

w as m ore h umid

t hen,

i t a ppears t hat t he a ridity o f t oday h as b een c aused b y p ast a nd

p resent e xcessive h uman a nd o logists,

a nd o ther

y ears ( Bryson

a nd

a nimal

s trong

M urray

a nd

s ink,

w inds.

D ust

i nstead

o vergrazing

h as

1 977).

i n

p ersisted

e at a ll

I t a ppears t hat o vergrazing a nd

e xcessive s oil a nd

t o t he

r ising

a nd

t o b e h oly c reatures i n

t he

e rosion, e specially f rom f orming I ndia,

s o

d epleted.

f ertility o f t he

T he v icious c ycle o f s oil

" tragedy o f t he c ommons", f uture i n t he I n t he

s ocial

N egev

a nd

w ill

a buse

i s a nother

h ave i ncreasing

e xample o f t he t he

s tations h ave b een e stablished

a nd

c onsequences.

d esert, e xperiment

i nto a ncient

i nterdisciplinary t eams i ncluded g eologists, e ngineers,

A f arm a t

f or

i mplications i n

t he e nvironment

t orians.

f irewood.

s oils i s f urther

r elationships b etween h uman b eings a nd T he

p opu-

u sed a s f uel

i nvestigations

1 971).

H uman

f or

i nterdisciplinary t eams h ave c onducted

a gronomists,

T he

t hat t hey a re

t hat t hey c an r each.

f orests t hat o nce e xisted

c onsequently t he

t o c ool

p recipitation.

S hortage o f f uel d ictates t hat c ow d ung m ust n ow b e c ooking, a nd

a buse

p resent t ime.

t he v egetation

l ations h ave d estroyed

a rchae-

t he a rea f or m any

t he a ir c auses t he m oist a tmosphere

o f w arming

COWS a re c onsidered a llowed t o

M eteorologists,

s cientists h ave i nvestigated

of t he v egetation h ave c aused t he

p opulations.

p hotogrammetrists,

s oil

( Evenari e t a l a rchaeologists,

s cientists,

A vdat w as r econstructed n ear t he

a nd h is-

a ncient c ity o f

S hivta t o d emonstrate t hat t he d esert e nvironment c ould b e m ade h abita ble o nce a gain w ith c areful h usbandry o f t he N egev h as b een M esolithic

i nhabited

p eoples ( before

l ithic ( 5000-4000 B C ) f armed t he i n

i n t he

s outhern t he B ronze

1,000 B C)

A ge

c entral ( about

N egev

p lains.

p opulated,

F or

a bout

w as a bandoned.

2 ,000 B C). 7 31

B y

a nd

T he

P aleolithic

w ere m ainly h unters.

t he a rea w as w ell

w adis a nd l oess a nd

s parse r esources.

f or m any t housands o f y ears.

I n

t he

a nd N eo-

p eople l ived

a nd

2 ,000 y ears, m uch o f C olonization w as i ntense

1 000 B C t he

N egev w as

p art o f

F igure 6 : R oman b ath b uilding b elow t he a cropolis a t S ardis. A bout s ix m eters o f s ediments h ave b een d eposited a bove t he o riginal b ase o f t he b uilding .

7 32

t he

I sraelite k ingdom.

w as d estroyed b y t he w ith t heir

f locks.

A round

T rade

i n t he

N egev

a nd

a nd

f lourished

i n

A rab

6 00 A D t he a nd

t he w ere

a nd c aravan

t he a rea o nce a gain

a bandoned.

a rtifacts o f a ll

N egev

p roposed

p eriod,

f orced

t he

N abatean-Roman-

t he a rea

B yzantine

c onquest

f arms a nd c ities

t oday c ontain

K ingdom o f J udah

B edouin n omads g razed

3 00 B C t o

t he d esert,

r outes w ere e stablished. T he i nto d ecline,

s ixth c entury B C t he

B abylonians,

F rom a bout

B yzantine c ultures o ccupied i ntermittently.

t he

S oils a nd

s ubstrata

t hese c ivilizations,

r ecord m uch o f t he h istory o f t he m ilitary c onquests a nd

a nd

e nvironmental

c hanges a t e ach s ite. T he

s oils o f t he

N egev

c ontain

a griculture, n arrow t erraced s heds, h ad r esources

am ost r ational ( Evenari e t a l.

w adis a nd

a nd

s ystems w ere e xpanded

t ations w ere g reater t han l eading

t o e rosion,

f arm u nits w ith

T he

s mall

p lots

f it

t he e nvironment.

t he

a nother

t he r esources a nd

s ilting u p,

l andscape c ould b ear, t he T he o vergrazing t hat N egev a lso

o f t he c ommons". t ook o ver

t he

A s

N egev

f arming f ollowed

t he

a rea

s oil

h owever,

r esulted

T he a gricultural

a nd

f lourished, b ut w hen

y et a nother

E venari e t a l.

( 1971)

t hey m ismanaged

t he

f arming

e xample o f t he " tragedy

s tate:

" When

t he

t he d esert i n a nother

s ome o f t he n atural

l ife d eteriorated

w hen

w ater r esources o f t he

r esources,

t he

p astures

B edouin

w ay.

T hey

i ndigenous

T hey n ever m ade t he

s lightest

w hich c onsist o f t he

p lant c ommunities o f t he v arious d esert e cosystems. a nimal

t he e xpec-

i n " miscalculation

t he d estruction o f t he

p rovided

o verexploited o ne o f i ts m ain n atural

a nd

t he a gricul-

s ystems c ollapsed.

v egetation, b y c ontinuous o vergrazing. e ffort t o r estore

i nto t he n atural

i llustration o f t he " tragedy o f t he c ommons";

y ield e xpectations w ere m odest,

t he

w ater-

a nd d estruction b ecause t his a pproach

y ield d emands w ere g reater t han t he

s ystems i n

s mall

W hen

i nto l arge c atchments,

t o c ultivation o f t he d esert w as o verambitious". s ystems a re

s ystems o f a ncient

w ise u se o f t he a vailable n atural

1 971).

s oils l andscapes w ithout d amaging t ural

e vidence t hat t wo

C onsequently p lant

s eriously".

P lanning f or t he f uture I n

t he

a nd l and

f uture, m uch m ore

u ses w ill b e n ecessary t o

m istakes a re n ot r epeated 1 968;

L owdermilk

s oil

s pecific

1 981b)

p ortant.

i nterpret d ata 1 981;

1 981b;

E venari e t a l.

T homas

t o k nowledge a bout

f rom t he

1 955).

p ast l and

s oils

p ast

1 971;

s o t hat H ardin

A nthropological u ses,

a nd

p edology

s cience c an c ontribute d ata a bout r elationships b etween

h umans a nd 1 980a,

( Coates

1 975; O lson

f ields c an c ontribute a nd

i nterdisciplinary w ork r elating t o

a bout

s oils a nd

s oil

s oils a nd

t heir

T he v ehicle o f S oil

p roperties.

T raining

u ses w ill b ecome

T axonomy ( Soil

7 33

( Olson

1 977b,

i ncreasingly i m-

S urvey S taff

1 975)

p rovides

t he

f ramework f or a s ystematic c lassification a nd u nderstanding o f

s oils o f t he w orld, a nd h elps d ata

f rom o ne s ite t o b e e xtended t o

o ther

s oils.

s ites o n t he s ame o r

s imilar

s urvey i nterpretations ( Olson ( Troeh e t a l. t he s oils. o f s oils

1 980),

w ill

1 981b)

T he a pplication o f s oil

a nd s oil m anagement t echniques

e nable b etter c onservation a nd

T he p ast i s a k ey t o t he

p rotection o f

f uture, a nd d ata r elating t o u ses

f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord c an s erve u s w ell

r elate t hem a dequately t o s pecific

s oil p roperties a nd

i f w e c an

p lan l and u ses

a ccordingly.

R eferences c ited A nonymous. 1 969

I mproving o ff-road m obility.

C ornell B ryson,

A eronautical

R .A. a nd T .J.

1 977

L aboratory,

C lawson,

M .,

1 971

T he

N ew Y ork.

H .H.

U niversity o f W isconsin P ress,

L andsbury a nd

L .T .

M adison.

A lexander

T he A gricultural P otential o f t he M iddle E ast.

E lsevier D .R.

1 972

P ublishing

A merican

N ew Y ork.

Co.,

( editor)

E nvironmental G eomorphology a nd L andscape C onservation.

V olume 1 : P rior t o 1 900. H utchinson, a nd C oates,

B uffalo,

M urray

C limates o f H unger: m ankind a nd t he w orld's c hanging

w eather .

C oates,

R esearch T rends 1 7:3-8.

R oss,

B enchmark P apers i n G eology.

S troudsburg,

D owden,

P a.

D .R.

1 981

E nvironmental G eology.

C ulbert,

T .P.

1 973

J ohn W iley,

N ew Y ork.

( editor)

T he C lassic M aya C ollapse.

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress,

A lbuquerque. E venari,

M .,

1 971

N .

T admor

t he c hallenge o f a d esert .

H arvard

U niversity

C ambridge, M assachusetts.

G .

1 968

T he t ragedy o f t he c ommons.

H arrison, 1 978

S hanan a nd

T he N egev :

P ress, H ardin,

L .

P .D .

a nd

B .L .

T urner

I I

S cience 1 62:1234-1248.

( editors )

P re-Hispanic M aya A griculture.

P ress,

U niversity o f N ew M exico

A lbuquerque.

L owdermilk, W .C. 1 975

C onquest o f t he L and t hrough 7 ,000 y ears.

I nformation B ulletin 9 9 , m ent o f A griculture,

S oil

U .S .

C onservation

A griculture

S ervice,

U .S .

D epart-

G overnment P rinting O ffice, W ashington

D .C. N guyen H oai 1 962

V an

I nventory a nd N omenclature o f V iet N am S oils.

D epartment o f A gronomy,

C ornell 7 34

U niversity,

M S T hesis,

I thaca,

N ew Y ork.

O lson,

G .W.

1 971

D escriptions,

n otes, m aps,

T urkey:

a c ollection o f m aterials

f or r elating t he

t he

a nd

C ornell O lson,

L ydian,

G reek,

U niversity,

s oils e nviron-

B yzantine r uins a nd

t o

t he

C ornell A gronomy M imeo 7 1-1,

N ew Y ork.

t he

B elize ( British

s ustaining a rea a round H onduras):

S an

A ntonio

i n

i mplications t o M aya r idged

f ields.

C ornell A gronomy M imeo 7 5-1,

I thaca,

N ew Y ork.

O lson,

C ornell

U niversity,

G .W.

1 975b

S tudy o f s oils i n

C anteada

( near

C opin)

a nd o ther r uins. s ity, O lson,

I thaca,

V alle d e

N aco

H onduras:

( near

S an

P edro

S ula)

a nd

L a

i mplications t o t he M aya m ounds

C ornell A gronomy M imeo 7 5-19,

C ornell

U niver-

N ew Y ork.

G .W.

1 976

O pportunities f or s oil s urvey i nterpretation:

t he G overnment o f V ictoria.

S oil

C otham

V ictoria,

R oad,

K ew,

M elbourne,

C onservation

a r eport t o

A uthority,

A ustralia

3 78

3 101.

G .W .

1 977a

T he

s cale,

s oil

s urvey o f T ikal:

s oil d escriptions,

g ations a round G uatemala, C ornell

a r eport o n

a nd l aboratory d ata

t he a ncient M aya r uins a t

C entral

A merica.

U niversity,

s oil m apping a t f rom

T ikal,

E l

1 :2,000

s oils i nvestiP eten,

C ornell A gronomy M imeo 7 7-13,

I thaca,

N ew Y ork.

G .W.

1 977b

T raining

e ast

A sia

k ey p eople i n

( for

S outheast A sia B anos,

I thaca,

S oil

s oil

R esource

R egional

P hilippines,

D evelopment.

a nd

s urvey i nterpretations i n

I nventory

C enter

T raining

f or G raduate

s ponsored b y

S tudy,

A gency f or

C ornell A gronomy M imeo 7 7-15,

C ourse)

S outh-

t aught a t

S EARCA,

L os

I nternational

C ornell

U niversity,

N ew Y ork.

G .W.

1 980a

D escription o f c ourse o n " Multidisciplinary A pplication o f

S oil

S urveys"

D esarrolo

t aught a t

I ntegral d e

( University o f t he M imeo 8 0-44, O lson,

S ardis.

I thaca,

S tudy o f s oils i n

n orthern

O lson,

R oman,

G .W.

1 975a

O lson,

s oils o f S ardis,

m ent t o

a ncient c ivilizations a t

O lson,

a nd d ata o n

C IDIAT

C entro

A guas y T ierras)

A ndes)

C ornell

( El

1 0-21

i n

N ovember

U niversity,

I thaca,

I nteramericano d e M erida, 1 980.

V enezuela

C ornell A gronomy

N ew Y ork.

G .W.

1 980b

T he

s trategic s ituation i n

I ran

a ccording

t o t he s oils.

S oil S urvey H orizons 2 1:21-24. O lson,

G .W.

1 981a

D escriptions a nd d ata o n b uried

V alley a nd C ornell

a round

S an

S alvador,

A gronomy M imeo 8 1-16,

E l

M aya

S alvador,

C ornell

Y ork. 7 35

s oils i n

t he

C entral

U niversity,

Z apotitan A merica.

I thaca,

N ew

O lson,

G .W.

1 981b

S oils a nd t he e nvironment: a g uide t o s oil s urveys a nd

t heir a pplications. Y ork), S oil

S urvey

1 975

a nd

C hapman

D owden a nd

a nd

C ulver

H all

( London),

( Stroudsburg,

M ethuen

P a).

S taff.

S oil T axonomy: a b asic s ystem o f s oil c lassification for

m aking a nd i nterpreting s oil s urveys. A griculture S oil

C onservation

G overnment S tamp,

( New

S ervice,

P rinting

U .S.

O ffice,

H andbook

4 36,

D epartment o f A griculture,

U .S.

W ashington

D .C.

L .D.

1 961

A H istory o f L and U se i n A rid R egions.

E ducational, T homas, W .L. 1 955

J r

a nd

C ultural

F .R.,

1 980

N ations

O rganization,

P aris.

( editor)

Man's R ole i n C hanging t he F ace o f t he E arth.

C hicago T roeh,

S cientific,

U nited

U niversity o f

P ress. J .A.

H obbs a nd

R .L.

D onahue

S oil a nd W ater C onservation f or P roductivity and

E nvironmental P rotection.

P rentice-Hall,

E nglewood

C liffs,

N ew

J ersey. W illey,

G .R.

1 965

e t a l.

Prehistoric M aya S ettlements i n t he B elize V alley.

o f t he

P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd

U niversity, W illiams, 1 980

C ambridge,

E thnology,

P apers

5 4 ,

H arvard

M assachusetts.

B .J. P ictorial

e vidence b y W .V.

f rom t he

C odex

D avidson a nd

H istorical C . W est.

r epresentation o f s oils i n V ergara.

J .J.

I n

P arsons,

G eography o f L atin

G eoscience and M an , p p.51-61.

A merica.

S chool o f G eoscience,

R ouge.

7 36

t he V alley o f M exico: V olume 2 1.

P apers i n

L ouisiana S tate

e dited

H onor o f

U niversity,

R obert B aton

I RRIGATION A ND T ERRACING I N A FRICA;

I NTENSIFICATION.

S PECIALISATION

O R O VER-SPECIALISATION?

J .E.G.

A frican a gricultural s ystems:

S utton

s ome g eneral o bservations

A griculture i n A frica s outh o f t he S ahara i s u sually c haracterised a s

' extensive'.

T he i mpression c onveyed i s o f a s ystem - o r v ariety o f

l ocal s ystems - i n w hich p roblems o f s oil e xhaustion a nd p opulation i ncrease a nd o f l ow o r u nreliable r ainfall i n p laces a re c ountered n ot b y i ntensifying t he a grarian m ethods t o i ncrease t he y ield p er a cre, b ut r ather b y c learing n ew l ands.

T his r equires t hat a f air p roportion

o f t he a vailable l and, o ften t he l arger p art o f i t, u ncultivated i n a ny p articular y ear,

r emains

a nd t hat p eriodically i f n ot

a nnually n ew c learings a re m ade, w hether i nto v irgin f orest o r b ush,

o r

i nto l and w hich h ad b een c ultivated a nd a bandoned s ome t ime p reviously. S uch c learance i s f requently r eferred t o, a lbeit l oosely , a nd-burn',

a s

' slash-

w hile s uch s ystems o f l and u se m ay b e d escribed a s

' shifting'.

T his l atter t erm c an b e j ustified, b ut w ith t wo i mportant

q ualifications.

C onceptually,

a ny c onsideration o f m odes o f l and u se

h as t o t ake a ccount o f t he u tilisation o f l abour a nd t he r elated t echnology ( a t echnology c onsisting o f m ore t han m ere s lashing a nd b urning).

S econdly, a pplied g libly,

t he t erm

' shifting'

o verlooks t he

v ariety o f A frican a gricultural s ystems a nd l and u se p atterns, a s w ell a s t he s pecialised n ature o f l ocal e nvironmental a daptations 1 965;

B iebuyck

1 963; M iracle

1 967;

d e S chlippe

1 956;

H ill

( Allan

1 970:15).

T hese s pecialisations m ay n ot n ecessarily m erit t he e pithet ' intensive'; a nd,

b ut t he w ord d oes o ccur i n A fricanist a grarian l iterature

p artly f or t hat r eason, t he i ssue d eserves d iscussion h ere. B efore e xamining t his t heme o f s pecialisation a nd c laimed i nstances

o f ' intensification'

i n A frican a griculture,

s ome b rief o bservations

a bout t he g enerally e xtensive r egime w ould b e p ertinent.

T echnologi-

c ally, a griculture i n A frica ( except i n t he N orth a nd E thiopia) b ased o n t he h oe, n ot t he p lough. n ature o f t he s oils,

i s

T o a d egree t his i s r elated t o t he

e specially t he t opsoil a nd l ack o f t urf.

f urther a ssumed t o r elate t o a r eady a vailability o f l and.

I t i s

B ut t his

n otion o f p lentitude s hould b e e xamined c ritically,

f or s parsely a s

w ell a s d ensely p opulated r egions: a t l east,

( communities,

p eople

l ineages a nd

i ndividuals a like)

a re e verywhere c onscious o f p ressures

o n t he l and,

e ven i n a reas o f s parse s ettlement a nd t he m ost p ronounced

s hifting w hich m ay t hemselves o f c ourse b e o ccasioned b y t he n ature o f

7 37

t he s oil a nd c limate.

U ninvited s ettlers, a nd t hose w ho c lear a bandoned

b ush o n t he a ssumption t hat i t i s s pare, r arely e njoy u nchallenged u se o r p ossession.

N evertheless,

i f w e c ompare s ubSaharan A frica g enerally

w ith t he M editerranean b asin o r E urasia,

i t i s n oticeable h ow

u ndeveloped h as b een t he c oncept o f l and-ownership i n t he f ormer. L and d ivisions s imilarly a re,

r elatively s peaking,

i nformal.

A ll t his

r elates t o c oncepts o f s pace b ut a gain i t w ould b e n aive t o t ry i dentifying c auses a nd e ffects. M oreover ,

i t h as b een n oted t hat

A frican a gricultural e conomics i s m ore c oncerned w ith t he p roductivity o f l abour t han w ith t hat o f l and a s s uch ,

w hilst i n A frican p olitical

e conomy a u nit

i s b etter u nderstood n ot s o

( whether a k ingdom o r n ot)

m uch a s a n a rea w hich c an b e d emarcated o n am ap, a s a c ommunity; o ther w ords t he p eople, a nd e specially t he n umber o f p eople, w ithin a ' tribe'

o r

' state'

i n

c ontained

( or s ubject t o a r uler) a re m ore i mportant

- a nd a re s een a s m ore p roductive - t han t he t erritory t hey o ccupy a nd i ts b oundaries

( Goody

1 971;

B urnham

1 980).

T hese o bservations a re v ery g eneral, a nd c ould e asily d egenerate i nto p latitude.

T hey a re b ased n ot o n a rchaeology b ut o n e thnography

a nd o f c ourse g eneral e cological c onsiderations.

I ndisputably t hey

p rovide i nsights i nto t he p ast - m uch t hough i t i s n ecessary t o g uard a gainst u ncritical b ackward p rojections p resuming a s tatic ' traditional'

A frica.

T he e vidence n ow a ccumulating f rom a rchaeology,

h istorical l inguistics a nd m ore r ecently f rom o ral s ources, i s g radually p roviding a b asis o n w hich t o t est t his b ody o f e thnographic i nformation f or c hange a s w ell a s c ontinuity. N evertheless, i t m ust b e a cknowledged t hat m ost o f o ur e vidence i s o f a v ery g eneral n ature: s pecifically a gricultural e vidence,

i n t he f orms o f p lant r emains,

f arming i mplements o r a bandoned f ields, o logical r ecord.

A nd

a re v ery s parse i n t he a rchae-

i n t hose r are i nstances w here a ncient f ield

s ystems a re v isible o n t he l andscape,

t heir d ating p roves h ighly

p roblematic. F or a b road i mpression o f t he h istorical d evelopment o f e xtensive a griculture,

w e m ight l ook b riefly a t t he s outhern t hird o f A frica,

t hat i s r oughly t hat p art o f t he c ontinent s tretching f rom t he e quator s outhwards a nd p opulated b y p eoples o f B antu s peech.

H ere a griculture

w as r ather l ate i n b ecoming e stablished, i n f act n ot u ntil t he b eginning o f t he

I ron A ge a round t wo-thousand y ears a go.

B antu s ettlement h istory c an b e d istinguished. e arly t o m id

f irst m illennium A D ,

T wo s tages i n

T he e arliest,

i n t he

w as a p rocess o f e xtension i n t he

m ost l iteral o f s enses, a r adiation b y an ew p opulation w ith g raina griculture a nd a n i ron t echnology f rom t he i nterlacustrine r egion t hrough t he s avanna-woodlands o f e astern a nd s outhern A frica, h itherto s parsely i nhabited b y s emi-nomadic h unter-gatherers w ith a L ate S tone A ge t echnology.

T his e xpansion i nvolved c learance a nd s ettlement, b ut

n ot n ecessarily f ixed s ettlement o r t rue v illages.

7 38

R ather, a fter a

f ew s easons t he c ommunity o r p erhaps t he n ew g eneration, m aybe a s ingle f amily, w ould m ove o n t o c lear a nd s ettle a new , a s t he n umerous d ated s ites w ith d istinctive p ottery w ares s how . T his w as t hus a p opulation e xpanding s patially r ather t han i ncreasing i n d ensity ( Oliver P hillipson

1 966;

1 977).

B ut s pace w as n ot l imitless.

O nce B antu c olonists h ad r eached t he

s outhern e xtremities o f c ultivable t erritory, a ny i ncreases i n p opul ation i n t he v arious B antu r egions h ad t o b e a ccommodated b y o ther m eans. M obility w as n aturally r educed, t housand y ears a go o r s lightly m ore,

a nd i t i s f rom t his t ime, a

t hat a n umber o r r egional

B antu

c ultures s tarted e merging f rom t he o ld g eneralised B antu b ase o f t he e arly I ron A ge.

E ach o f t hese B antu r egions, a nd e ach s ub-region o r

t ribe o r s ub-tribe w ithin i t,

h as d eveloped i ts o wn e nvironmental

a daptations a nd i ts o wn a gricultural t radition.

W ithin t his d iversity

c ertain g eneral e lements h ave p ersisted h owever. m obility w as o nly r elative,

T he r eduction o f

f or t here r emained m uch s pace t o b e f illed

i n o r t o b e u sed r ecurrently.

I ndeed,

i n m ost o f B antu A frica

s ettlement a nd a griculture h ave r emained q uite t he h omesteads a re d ispersed;

f luid.

I n s ome r egions

a nd e ven i n t hose w here n ucleated

v illages p revail, t he a ctual v illage s ites a re r arely o ccupied f or m any g enerations,

e ven t hough t he v illage, a s a c ommunity, m ay m aintain i ts

I dentity m uch l onger, d espite s hifting i ts s ite f rom t ime t o t ime ( Sutton 1 981).

C attle-keeping,

w hich w as c ombined w ith a griculture i n

s uitable r egions, e ncouraged s uch a f luid, o pportunistic a nd e xtensive u se o f t he l and a nd t his i s i n c ontrast t o f ormally m ixed p astorala gricultural s ystems o f s ome o ther c ontinents. A ltogether, t here i s l ittle e vidence i ndicating r adical c hanges i n b asic a gricultural t echniques.

C learly,

p opulation i ncrease ( assumed r ather t han p roven!)

h as n ecessitated t hat m ore l and b e c leared a nd t hat t he f allows b e s horter,

w hether t he r otations b e f ormal o r i nformal.

f ollowing

P resumably t oo,

B oserup, m ore l abour h as b een r equired f or t he s ame r esults.

T hus, a n e ssentially e xtensive a pproach t o c ultivation h as b een p reserved, a nd d ense

e ven i n a reas o f h igh f ertility,

r elatively h igh r ainfall

p opulation, s uch a s t he K ikuyu h ighlands i n K enya, t he

n ortherly m argins o f L ake V ictoria, t he h ighlands a bove L ake N yasa a nd t he s outh-eastern B antu c ountry o f N atal. h elped.

I n s ome a reas n ew c rops h ave

T he o utstanding e xample i s t he b anana,

i ntroduced t o e astern

A frica p robably d uring t he f irst m illennium A D, w hich h as m ade i tself t he s taple i n c ertain w et r egions - K ilimanjaro,

B uganda a nd B uhaya o n

t he n orthern a nd n orth-western s hores o f L ake V ictoria, a nd R ungwe i n t he s outh o f T anzania. r egenerating, a re n ot,

S ince b ananas a nd t heir g ardens a re s elf-

i n a w ay t hat

f ields o f s orghum, m illet o r o ther g rains

m obility a nd e xcessive e xtension a re c urbed.

b anana c ultivation b ecome a ' monoculture',

R arely d oes

b ut c oncentration o n t his

c rop i n d ensely p opulated z ones h as a lmost c ertainly l ed t o a r eduction

7 39

i n t he v ariety o f t he d iet w ith a ttendant n utritional e ffects. W e m ight d escribe t hese p rocesses, d is-cussion,

i mpressionistically a nd

f or

: he s ake o f t he

a s t he i ntensification o f a n e xtensive s ystem.

I n g eneral t he t erm s oe aalisation s eems m ore a ppropriate.

O ne c an

s peak o f: ( i)

s pecialisation i n t he c hoice o f c rops a nd o pment o f n ew v arieties;

f or i nstance t he a lmost c ount-

l ess v arieties o f b anana, s upposedly a p urpose, ( ii)

i n t he d evel-

e ach w ith a n ame, a nd

o f i ts o wn,

i n B uganda ( McMaster

1 963);

s pecialisation i n t he r ange o f c rops u tilised a nd i n t he s patial a nd s easonal a rrangements f or c ultivating t hem, i ncluding i ntercropping;

( iii)

s pecialisation i n t he

f ield t echniques,

s uch a s w hether

t o m ound o r r idge t he s oil; ( iv)

s pecialisation i n t he s torage o f t he h arvest, a nd i n c ulinary h abits, t o c ook t he

w hether t o g rind o r c rush,

a nd h ow

p roduct.

T hese d etails c an v ary f rom d istrict t o d istrict o r e ven f rom v illage t o v illage.

S ome o bservers

( and s ome l ocal i nformants) t end t o e xplain

t hem a s c ultural i diosyncrasies;

o thers e mphasise p ractical a nd

e nvironmental c onsiderations, n otably t he s uitability o f l ocal c rops a nd t echniques t o t he c limate a nd

s oil.

t ake a ccount o f b oth s ets o f f actors. v ariability a nd l ocal i ndividuality, o bjective o nes,

A p roper u nderstanding m ust E xplanations o ffered

f or t his

b oth s ubjective a nd s upposedly

a re o ften n o m ore t han r ationalisations w hich m ay e rr

s implistically t owards e ither t he c ultural o r t he e nvironmental e xtreme.

I t i s i mportant m oreover t o k eep t his t heme o f l ocal

v ariability i n d ue p roportion. a nd a griculturally, I dentities.

d istinct,

N eighbouring t ribes m ay b e c ulturally, a s m ay b e e ssential

f or t heir s eparate

B ut r arely d o t he c ontrasts o utweigh t he s imilarities.

T he

c ommon f und o f t radition i s a s s ignificant a s a re t he i diosyncrasies. S pecialisation i s e qually p revalent i n t he k eeping o f l ivestock i n A frica.

L eaving a side t hose p eoples i n p arts o f e astern A frica a nd t he

S aharan

f ringes w ho l ive f or a c ombination o f e nvironmental a nd c ul-

t ural r easons a lmost e ntirely o ff c attle a nd o ther l ivestock, a b road r ange o f c ombinations o f c attle, g oats a nd c ultural

e conomies ( Monod

s easonal t ranshumance, c ommunities, o r a ge,

1 975;

M urdock 1 959).

s heep w ith a gri-

I nstances o ccur o f

o f i nterdependent P astoral a nd a gricultural

o r o f s ingle c ommunities w hich d ivide o n t he b asis o f s ex

t he y oung m en t ending t he h erds t ranshumantly o n t he

w hile t he w omen,

w ith t he o lder p eople a nd c hildren,

t he h omesteads s ituated o r a t t he

t here i s

f orest e dge.

p lains

c ultivate a round

i n t he b etter-watered l ocalities i n t he h ills S uch p atterns o btain i n p arts o f e astern A frica

w ith i ts s udden c hanges i n a ltitude,

7 40

c limate a nd t errain, a lthough n o

t wo i nstances a re i dentical. i mportant a s c attle,

F or m eat,

g oats o r s heep m ay b e a s

e specially a mong p eople w ho r ely o n m ilk a s a

s taple o r s imply a s a n e ssential a nd r egular s ource o f p rotein. C onversely,

t here a re r egions w here c attle a re k ept,

m oderate n umbers,

b ut a re n ot m ilked:

c ultural-historical q uestion;

u sually i n

t his p oses a n i ntriguing

b ut i t i s w orth n oting i n t he f irst

p lace t hat t hese a re u sually r egions o f l imited g rass s o t hat s ubstantial m ilk p roduction,

e ven i f d esired, w ould b e l imited.

H ere

a nd e lsewhere t setse-fly r estricts o r p revents t he k eeping o f c attle, e xcept f or c ertain r elatively i mmune b reeds i n W est A frica, w hich, b ecause a gain o f t he s hortage o f g rass a nd t he s mall n umber o f c ows r elative t o t he p opulation, m ake a r ather l imited c ontribution t o t he l ocal d iet.

T setse b elts a re n ot s table,

a nd i t h as b een a rgued t hat

m uch o f t heir s pread i n t he p resent c entury, r esults

e specially i n E ast A frica,

f rom t he u ndermining o f a ncient e mpirical c ontrols i n t he a gro-

p astoral s ystems f ollowing t he r inderpest a nd o ther e cological c rises o f t he

1 890s

C attle,

( Ford

1 971;

1 977;

K jekshus

I liffe

1 978).

s heep a nd g oats a re n ot d omesticates o f i nter-tropical

A frica.

B ut n either a re t hey r ecent i ntroductions.

r ecord,

t hough o f c ourse i ncomplete,

T he a rchaeological

s hows t hat c attle-keeping w as

e stablished o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he S ahara a nd a t t he N ile c onfluence a round 1 981),

a nd

f ive t o s ix t housand y ears a go ( Shaw 1 977; H aaland

i n t he e quatorial h ighlands o f E ast A frica b y t hree t housand

o r s o y ears a go ( Sutton

1 973;

a s l ong- a nd s hort-horned,

P hillipson

1 977).

h umped a nd h umpless,

D ifferent b reeds,

s uch

h ave b een i ntroduced

a nd d eveloped o ver t ime, b ut t his i s n ot t he p lace t o d iscuss t he d etails.

T o a l arge e xtent t he b reeds s eem t o h ave b een m odified a nd

a dapted w ithin A frica,

a nd t hus i ntegrated e cologically a nd

e conomically w ith t he r egional a gricultural r egimes. d egree o f f lexibility i n t he e conomy, o n a nimal a nd v egetable p roducts, w ell,

S uch f lexibility i s e ssential

e specially a llowing f or n atural d isasters a nd

T his e mphasis o n

f lexibility, a s a lready a rgued,

e xplain t he l ack o f o bvious s igns o f a gricultural m any a reas;

p roduce a s

f luctuate m arkedly, n ot o nly a ccording t o s eason,

b ut a lso y ear b y y ear, s tock t heft.

i n t he d egree o f r eliance p laced

w hich c an i nclude w ild

b oth a quatic a nd t errestrial.

b ecause m ilk y ields

T his a llows a f air

h elps

i ntensification i n

i nstead t he c ommunity c an m ake a s horter- o r l onger-term

a djustment t o t he a gricultural-pastoral b alance.

O ver t ime,

h owever,

i t

I s l ikely t hat t he g eneral t rend h as b een f or p eople t o r ely m ore o n a gricultural

p roduce;

s ince i f w e a re r ight i n a ssuming t hat

p opulations h ave b een g enerally i ncreasing o ver t he m illennia, h ave b een e asier t o a dd t o t he c ultivable l and b y c learing b ush - o r e ven p astures - t han t o e xtend t he g rasslands.

i t w ould

f orest o r

H owever,

t his

i s n ot t o s uggest t hat t he c attle-keeping c apacity o f t he l and c annot b e i ncreased.

F or i n p arts o f t he W estern S udan,

H ausaland n otably,

t he

f uller u se o f t he s avanna f or a griculture s eems t o h ave p rogressively

7 41

r estricted t he b ush a nd t he t setse,

t hus g iving m ore s cope t o F ulani

p astoralism w hich i tself h elped p revent t he b ush f rom r ecolonising a bandoned c ultivations.

H ere t he c attle m ay g raze t he s tubble a nd t hus

m anure t he f ields b efore t he n ext p lanting.

T his i s o ne o f t he m ore

o bvious e xamples o f a gricultural-pastoral i nteraction, ' intensive'.

b ordering o n t he

C ontrasting w ith t his a re a f ew r estricted l ocalities i n

e astern A frica,

s uch a s l ake-islands a nd i solated h ill a reas, w here

p asture a nd a rable a re s carce, c attle a re s tall-fed a nd t heir m anure i s c arried t o t he f ields 3 51).

( Jensen

1 936; M urdock

1 959:199-200 ,

3 43 ,

3 49,

H ere a s e lsewhere t he m aintenance o f p astures, a nd o ften t he

r estriction o f t he t setse, d epend o n r egular g razing. M anagement o f t he h erds, n o l ess t han u se o f t he a vailable l and, d emands s pecial s kills a nd e xperience t herefore. C ombined w ith c attle o r n ot a nd d espite a lmost i nfinite v ariety, c ertain g eneral o bservations a bout A frican a griculture a re p ossible. A lthough i t i s b asically e xtensive a nd n ot u ncommonly s upports s parse o r s cattered

p opulations,

t he g eographical c ontinuity o f a griculture

a cross s ub-Saharan A frica i s s triking. a s w ell a s a g eographical o ne.

I t i s a n h istorical c ontinuity

I n t he s outhern B antu t hird o f A frica,

t he h istory o f a griculture i s b arely t wo t housand y ears l ong, w hilst i n t he m iddle p art o f A frica, h ighlands, a m uch g reater, a pparent. h ighlands,

f rom t he N iger b asin t o t he E thiopian

i f r ather i ndeterminate, a ntiquity i s

B etween t he f orests a nd t he s avannas, t he s wamps a nd t he o f t his b elt, a n umber o f i mportant f ood-crops, b oth p lanted

a nd s own a s w ell a s a rboreal, p lants ( Murdock

h ave b een d eveloped

1 959:22-23; S haw 1 977:69-125;

f rom i ndigenous

H arlan

1 976).

I n f ew

p arts o f t he w orld i n f act h as t he a gricultural r egime b een b ased o ver t ime o n s o h igh a p roportion o f l ocal c ultigens. A nd, d espite t he i ntroduction o f b ananas a nd o ther c rops f rom a round t he a nd m ore r ecently o f A merican c rops, o verall s ystem a nd t echnology, v ersatility a nd

I ndian O cean,

t hese h ave b een a dapted w ithin t he

s erving u sually t o i ncrease t he

f lexibility o f A frican a griculture. H ence,

i mportant

c hanges a s w ell a s a b asic c ontinuity a re b ecoming d iscernible i n A frican a gricultural h istory. T he i ssue t hen c an h ardly b e t hat A frican a griculture h as n ot h ad t ime t o i ntensify,

b ut r ather t hat i t h as f ound o ther s olutions, m ain-

t aining i ts e ssentially e xtensive c haracter t hrough l ocal s pecialisa tions.

T hese s pecialisations,

a nd c ultural t radition,

b ased o n b oth e nvironmental r esponses

f requently a ppear i diosyncratic, e specially i n

m ore i solated a gricultural

p ockets o r w here a n e lement o f i rrigation i s

e mployed. W hile s ome e xamples a re e xtreme, w e w ould g enerally h esitate t o c all t hem

' intensive';

a rguable s o d escribed, c ation'

a nd e ven w here w e f ind s ystems w hich c an b e

t here i s r arely m uch e vidence o f ' intensifi-

a s a p rocess o r g rowth.

T he w ord i s i nappropriate.

7 42

I rrigation ane t erraning o f t he A frj .can p ast a nd p resent:

t he m essage

o f t he l iterat u re c ontrasted _ w ith t he e vidence o n the g round H illside t erracing,

e specially i f r evetted w ith d ry-stonework,

a nd

i rrigation c hannels, w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e s tone-lined, h ave f requently b een d escribed a s a ccomplished e ngineering w orks a nd ' intensive'

a gricultural t echniques.

c ontinent c ertain w riters,

F or t he e astern s ide o f t he

c oncerned w ith d eveloping a b road v iew o f

A frican c ultures a nd t heir h istorical d evelopment, h ave n oted a longside t hese a n a rray o f o ther a rchaeological l iterature,

' intensive'

f eatures,

e thnographic t raits a nc o f

a gain e specially o f s tone,

t o p ropound t heories o f v anished

r ecorded

' civilisations'

a dvanced t han t he g eneral r un o f r ecent A frican c ultures S utton

1 969,

1 973,

t hinking d eveloped

1 978:37).

i n t he m ore

( Murdock

1 959;

I t h as t o b e r emembered t hat t his l ine o f

i n t he e arly a nd m iddle p art o f t his c entury b efore

c omparative e thnographic e vidence w as s ubjected t o m ethodical c ontrols a nd a lso b efore a rchaeological r esearch a nd m ethods o f d ating, e ssential w ay.

f or t esting i ssues o f c omparison,

A s i t i s,

h ad b egun i n a n o rganised

t his o lder b ody o f l iterature c ontains o bservations

w hich s till d eserve n otice b y a nthropologists,

h istorians a nd

a rchaeologists.

H owever,

t he p rimary r ecording i s a m ixture o f a ccuracy

a nd i naccuracy.

T he l atter i s e xacerbated i n t he s econdary w orks b y

u ncritical r epetition o r e xaggeration, a s w ell a s b y w hat n ow s trike u s a s e xtravagant o r f anciful d eductions.

T he i naccuracy o f t he b asic

e vidence h as b een p erpetuated u ntil n ow b y s cholastic p iety, t he p ractice o f p referring w ritten a uthorities, o bscure,

w hich c an b e c ited

n egative, w orks',

i n

v isible o n t he g round

t erracing,

t hat i s

o bscure a nd l ess

f ootnotes, t o t he e vidence,

p ositive o r

f or t he e xistence o f ' megalithic

i rrigation c anals e tc.

A ny r eliable c onspectus o f t erracing a nd i rrigation i n A frica m ust t herefore b e b ased o n r eexamination o f t he l andscape i n d ispersed o f t he c ontinent.

p arts

O ur c oncern i s n ot s imply t o p roduce c ontinental m aps

o f t hese f eatures m ore a ccurate a nd c omprehensive t han t heir p redec essors H ale

( Jensen

1 966),

1 936:576,

5 78;

S ummers

b ut r ather t o a fford t hese

h ave d evised t hem, u nderstanding,

1 958:247f; f eatures,

D avidson

a nd t he s ystems w hich

a m ore s ensitive c omparative t reatment w ith a n

i f p ossible,

o f t he p urpose a nd o peration o f e ach

e xample w ithin i ts c ultural a nd p hysical e nvironment. c onsideration i s,

19 59: 16 7;

i n

T his l atter

f act, m uch m ore i mportant t han t he s imple i ssue o f

c omprehension a nd a ccuracy f or t he c ontinent o verall.

I t s hould h owever

b e t ackled m ore e ffectively t hrough a c omparative a pproach, n ot b ecause t his m ight h elp u s i dentify a ncient h istorical c onnections o r l ines o f d iffusion,

b ut s imply b ecause t he e xercise o f r ecognising s imilarities

a nd c ontrasts s hould s harpen o ur o bservations a nd o verall u nderstanding a nd e xplanations. c an b e o f v arious t ypes a nd g rades. 7 43

s hould i mprove o ur

B oth t erracing a nd i rrigation

T erracing m ay o r m ay n ot i nvolve

S A

H

A

R e

Hausa

—— —C A NCER

A

C had

•J . Mara

\S Nu b a.

‚T u la

• Harar

• Konso CO •Marakwet

EQUATOR — — —

•U kara • . K i l imanjaro c jo ' 0 •Pare

b ee . I nyanga

C APRICORN — — —

F igure 1 : A frica , s howing l ocations m entioned i n t ext .

7 44

p roper l evelling,

a nd m ay o r m ay n ot b e r evetted w ith s tone,

t ype a nd q uality o f t he r evetting c an v ary w idely.

a nd t he

B ut s ome

c ommentators a re a pt t o a ssume c oursed s tonework m erely b y s eeing m ention o f

' terracing'!

I ts p urpose m ay o r m ay n ot b e a gricultural.

I rrigation s imilarly d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean a rtificial w atering t hrough f ormally c onstructed

f urrows,

b ut i ncautious s cholars a ll t oo

f requently i nfer t his o n s canning t he l iterature,

a nd o ccasionally e ven

d educe t he s ame f rom a m ere m ention o f t erracing! T he m oral o f a ll t his i s t hat t he p resent w riter s hould e schew t he t emptation t o p roduce a ny f orm o f g eographical s urvey o f e ither t err acing o r i rrigation i n A frica.

N evertheless,

d iscussion a n i mpression n eeds t o b e o ffered. p ersonal i nspections, m ostly i n E ast A frica,

f or t he p urpose o f t he W hat f ollows i s b ased o n a nd o n a cquaintance w ith

p ublished d escriptions a nd p hotographs o f o ther a reas. r acing i n i tself i s t ural d iscussion,

A lthough t er-

p robably l ess i mportant t han i rrigation i n a gricul-

i t i s c onsidered

f irst a nd m ore

f ormally h ere s ince

i t l ends i tself m ore r eadily t o a m easure o f g azetteering. t rying t o p ress p recision, p ossess e xamples,

i n e ither c urrent o r f ormer u se,

t erraces l aid o ut r oughly a long t he c ontour. r evetted w ith s tone,

W ithout

t he f ollowing r egions s outh o f t he S ahara o f c ultivation

U sually t hey a re

w hether r oughly p iled o r l ined o r n eatly c oursed;

t heir h eight d epends o n t he l ie o f t he l and,

t he n ature o f t he s oil a nd

o ther f actors a nd v aries b etween a n i nsignificant s tep a nd a t wo-metre w all. N igeria:

S everal c entral,

e xtending i nto C ameroon.

e astern a nd n orth-eastern d istricts,

T he t erraces u sually c over r estricted h ill

a reas a nd i n m ost c ases c ontinue t o b e b uilt o r u sed A llan

1 965:247-9).

i mpressive

( Plate

S udan: o f N uba

E thiopia . :

1 ). 1 948)

a nd

1 947), m uch o f w hich i s a c ontinuing p ractice. W idespread,

e astern

b ut c ertainly n ot c ontinuous,

( Harari e scarpment)

a nd

i n s everal

s outhern h ighland d istricts.

S ome t erraces a re u sed n ow, b ut i n c ertain a reas, f or i nstance,

1 968;

T hose o f t he T ula h ills a re a mong t he m ost

H ills o f D arfur, e specially J ebel M ara ( Paterson

( Nadel

n orthern,

( Netting

K onso i n t he s outh

t hey s eem t o b e p artly o r l argely a bandoned o r u sed o nly

i ntermittently ( Hallpike

1 972;

M urdock

K enya a nd n orthern T anzania:

1 959).

A v ery f ew l ocal e xamples o f s tone-

r evetted t erraces: t he E lgeyo e scarpment, n otably a t T ambach, w here t he w alls c ontinue t o b e r oughly b uilt a nd a rranged; P are h ills, t he

V udee i n t he S outh

w ith b uilt t erraces w hich c ontinue t o b e u sed;

E ngaruka a t

f oot o f t he r ift e scarpment a nd r elated s ites i n t hat d istrict,

w hose n umerous w ell-built t erraces a re e ntirely a bandoned

7 45

( Sutton

1 969,

P late 1 : S tone-revetted t erraces a t T ula, n orth-eastern N igeria .

7 46

1 978).

T he c onstruction o f m ore e phemeral t erraces h eld b y e arth, w ood

a nd t rash o ccurs e lsewhere i n t hese h ighlands a nd h as b ecome m ore c ommon r ecently i n a reas o f a gricultural e ncroachment i nto f orested h ills. I t i s w orth o bserving t hat i n t his r egion, a s i n s ome o thers,

t here

a re s everal e xisting e xamples o f i rrigation w ithout t erracing o r s tonew ork. T hese i nclude t hose o f K ilimanjaro a nd N orth P are, w here t he f urrows a re s upplementary t o t he r ains a nd t hus h elp m aintain p ermanent b anana g roves a nd d ense p opualations; a nd a lso t he m ore e xquisite s ystems o f M arakwet a nd S onjo w hich c oncentrate o n g rains 1 973; S oper

1 969)

( Plates 2 a nd

3 ).

s mall s tream d escending t he h ills,

( Sutton

1 969,

T he u sual s ource o f w ater i s a f rom w hich f urrows a re t aken o ff a t

s uitable p oints w ith t he h elp o f d amming d evices. A n i deal p osition i s t he h ead o f a g orge,

f rom w hich a f urrow ,

o r f urrows o n e ither s ide,

c arefully s upported o r e mbanked, w hether w ith e arth, s tone, w ood o r t rash,

c an b e t urned a way a t a w ide a ngle t hus t o c ommand a h eight a nd

t o r each a b road a rea o f c ultivable l and. m iles.

T hey m ay r un f or s everal

R arely m easuring m uch a bove a m etre w ide a nd u nder h alf t hat i n

d epth, a nd s ub-dividing a s t hey r each t heir d estinations, t hey a re b etter d escribed a s

' furrows '

t han a s

' canals'.

A lthough a ny b ut t he

c rudest f orms o f i rrigation r equire t hat t he c ultivator p ay s ome a ttention t o t he l evel o f h is f ields a nd t o s oil c onservation,

t he

p resence o r a bsence o f a ctual t erracing a ppears t o d epend o n a n umber o f f actors, b oth c ultural a nd e nvironmental. W estern R ift h ighlands

( Burundi,

R wanda a nd s outh-western U ganda):

C onsiderable e xtents o f b oth s tone a nd n on-stone t erracing a ppear t o e xist i n t hese c ountries.

I n K igezi d istrict o f U ganda, a nd a pparently

I n R wanda a nd B urundi, m uch o f i t i s m aintained w ith s ome r ecent m odifications. r ecorded,

I n t his r egion a lso s upplementary i rrigation i s

n ot n ecessarily c onnected w ith f ormal t erracing

I nyang& ( eastern Z imbabwe):

( Plate ) 4 ).

T his d istrict c ontains s ome o f t he

m ost e xtensive a nd i mpressive s tone-terraced l andscapes i n A frica. t erracing i s a lmost e ntirely a ncient a nd a bandoned 1 906;

C rawford

T ransvaal:

1 950;

S ummers

1 958).

C ursory a ccounts i ndicate s cattered o ccurrences o f t er-

r acing i n t he e astern T ransvaal, ( Trevor 1 930;

T he

( Randall-MacIver

F robenius

1 931;

a nd a pparently i n S waziland a s w ell

S ummers

1 958;

B reutz

1 956:158).

O ther i nstances a re r ecorded, n otably i n e astern B otswana ( Frobenius

1 931:257); o n t he Z ambezi e scarpment i n Z ambia ( Trevor

3 91); a bove t he w estern s hores o f L ake T anganyika .o n U kara ( Thornton a nd R ounce

1 936:352-355;

A llan

( Cameron

1 877:297);

1 965:200) a nd

c ertain o ther s mall i slands i n L ake V ictoria; a nd i n n orthern T ogo 7 47

1 930:

P late 2 : H illside t erracing w ithout s tone i n K igezi, s outh-eastern U gandi.

7 48

( Baumann 1 947:413;

A llan

1 965:249).

B ut t he n ature a nd i ndeed

g enuineness o f t hese, a s i ndeed o f y et m ore v aguely r eported o ccurrences

i n b oth w estern a nd e astern A frica,

a re o ften v ery

u nclear. A s a lready s tressed, a ny a ttempt a t ag azetteer h as t o f ace i ntractable

p roblems n ot o nly o f d efinition b ut a lso o f e valuation o f

d isparate o bservations a nd d escriptions. T he m ost n otoriously m isleading c ase i s t hat o f t he s outhern h ighlands o f T anzania, w here e xtensive t erracing w as h appily r epeated i n t he l iterature f or s everal d ecades, a lthough t he e vidence w as b ased a lmost e ntirely o n t he r omantic i magination a nd m isobservation o f c ontinuing r idging p ractices b y a l ocal e nthusiast ( Wilson

1 932;

S utton

1 969).

S ome o f t hese t errace s ystems w ere a nd a re c ultivated b y f ormal i rrigation,

b ut o verall o ur k nowledge i s s urprisingly v ague o n t he

d egree t o w hich t erracing i s o r h as b een r elated t o i rrigation. t his i nstance t oo t he l iterature,

I n

e thno-agricultural a s w ell a s

a rchaeological, n eeds t esting i n t he f ield.

A t E ngaruka a nd r elated

s ites i n n orthern T anzania h owever, a d efinite c orrelation i s c lear. H ere t he p urpose o f t he s tone r evetments w as t o a rrange a nd l evel t he f ields f or w atering f rom s tone-lined f urrows, o f w hich t he a rteries m easure a m etre o r m ore i n w idth, l ed f rom b oth p ermanent a nd s easonal s treams d escending t he r ift e scarpment

( Plates 5 , 6 , 7 ).

T hus a t

E ngaruka i tself t he g rid o f f ields a f ew c enturies a go r eached t wo t housand h ectares i n e xtent,

p robably g rowing s orghum a s t he m ain c rop.

W ithout t hese a rtificial c hannels a griculture w ould h ave b een i mpossible t here b ecause o f t he i nadequacy o f t he r ainfall

( Sutton

1 978). T he s ituation a t I nyanga w as c ertainly n ot i dentical. t hose f ields h ave n ot b een d escribed a dequately,

A lthough

t hey a re m ore

e xtensive t han t hose o f E ngaruka a nd c over m ore v aried t errain, w hich r eceives c onsiderably m ore r ain t han E ngaruka.

T he i ssue h ere m ay n ot

n ecessarily b e w hether t he r ainfall i s i nsufficient b y i tself f or a ny a griculture,

b ut w hether i t c ould s upport a p opulation w ithout

a rtificial w atering, s eason.

e specially f or p urposes o f e xtending t he p lanting

T his i s t he c ase w ith s ome e xisting i rrigation s ystems,

n otably t hat o f t he C hagga i n t he w et f orest z one o f K ilimanjaro i n n orthern T anzania ( Sutton

1 973:72).

I t i s c lear f rom t he p hotographs

a nd d escriptions o f p arts o f I nyanga t hat i rrigation

f urrows w ere

c onstructed

B ut t his m ay n ot

( Wieschhoff 1 941:23-25;

h old f or t he w hole d istrict:

f or,

F inch

1 949:38).

i f w e a re c orrectly i nformed t hat

s ome c onical h ills a re t erraced t o t heir v ery t ops, b een b eyond t he r each o f g ravity-fed

f urrows.

t hese w ould h ave

I t i s n oteworthy t hat a

l ittle i rrigation i s r eported i n I nyanga d istrict n ow , b ut t hat t he e thnographic r ecord f or s outhern A frica a s a w hole c ontains o nly i nfrequent m ention o f s uch p ractices.

P late 3 : I rrigation f urrow i n M ärakwet, w estern K enya , d escending t he e scarpment .

P late 4 : M ärakwet : f urrowed w ater e ntering a f ield . 7 50

P late 5 : E ngaruka , n orthern T anzania : ag rid o f a bandoned f urrows a nd f ields b elow t he e scarpment .

7 50a

P late 6 : E ngaruka : t he r emains o f a n a rtery f urrow , i ts l ower s ide r etained b y l ava b oulders.

7 50b

T his s uspicion t hat i rrigation w as a n i mportant i ngredient i n t he I nyanga s ystem, l eads o ne t o d emand a m ore c areful i nspection a nd r econsideration o f o ther t erraced a reas. s uggest t hat t erracing w as, a nd i s, i rrigation.

N evertheless,

I t w ould b e e xtravagant t o

i nvariably d esigned

f or p urposes o f

w ater m anagement a nd r etention,

i f n ot

f ormally c hannelled w ater, m ay p rove n ot o nly t o b e a m ore i mportant f actor t han h as b een a dmitted, b ut a lso t o b e m ore c losely i ntegrated w ith t he o ft-cited

f actor o f s oil c onservation i n t erracing t han h as

b een a ppreciated. T his n eeds t o b e c onsidered f or t he N igerian e xamples,

f or t hough

f ormal f urrows t o i rrigate g rids o f f ields s eem a bsent o r u nusual t here, t he m anner i n w hich t he f ields r eceive a nd r etain m oisture, a nd a ccommodate b oth s hortages a nd e xcesses i n r egions s ubject t o m arked s easonality o r t o s udden h eavy s torms, m ay p rove t o b e a n e ssential,

i s o f c rucial i mportance, a nd

i f e mpirical,

f actor i n l ocal t erracing

o f v arying q ualities. T he s ame m ay a pply i n t he h ills o f t he e astern S udan, a lthough h ere s ome e xamples a ppear t o b e c onnected w ith q uite f ormal i rrigation. I n E ast A frica,

s ome o f t he r udely b uilt t erraces a t T ambach o n t he

E lgeyo e scarpment r ely p artly o n w ater f rom r oughly c onstructed f urrows i n s ome y ears, b ut t his m ight n ot b e a pparent a t f irst s ight o r t o t he p assing v isitor o n w hom w e r ely f or s ome o f o ur r eferences.

O ne w onders

t herefore a bout t he m ore c arefully b uilt t erraces o f V udee i n S outh P are i n n orth-eastern T anzania w hich i s a d istrict w here i rrigation i s w ell k nown ( Baumann 1 891:Ch. e rn E thiopia.

6 ) a nd a lso a bout t hose o f K onso i n s outh-

H ere a gain t he i ssue i s n ot w hether i rrigation e xists,

w hether i t i s, o r w as, u sed o n t he t erraced f ields,

o r

f or c onfirmation

c an b e h ad o f b oth p oints, b ut i t i s t he e xtent t o w hich t he r emarkable t errace w alls o f K onso w ere c onstructed t o m eet t he r equirements o f i rrigation, y ears.

i f o nly n eeded i n c ertain d rought y ears o r s easons o f

I t a ppears t hat m ost o f t he t erraces o f K onsoland a re n ow

r arely u sed

( Hallpike

1 972),

b ut t hat t he c onsiderable p opulation

w hich e xists t here u ndertakes c areful c ommunal m easures t o u tilise r ainfall e fficiently, e specially b y c hannelling r unoff t hrough s tone l eats a nd w alled g ardens d uring a nd a fter u npredictable d ownpours. H ere, a s e lsewhere i n E thiopia, t antalising i nadequate. b y b rief f ield v isits.

t he e thnographic i nformation i s

T he q uestions r aised a bove c annot b e a nswered T hey r equire c lose o bservation o f t he w hole

a gricultural e conomy i n a ll s easons. I t c ould w ell b e t hat i n c ertain i nstances t erracing e volved a t f irst f or r easons o f s oil c onservation a nd w ater r etention r ather t han f or f ormal

i rrigation, b ut t hat b ecause o f t he e ffort i nvested i n s uch

,l evelling a nd d ry-stone b uilding a nd i ts m aintenance,

7 51

t he c ommunity

7 52

f ound i t i n t ime p referable t o i rrigate m ore f ormally s uch t erraces t hrough c onstructed f urrows r ather t han p repare m ore l and i n t he p lain i n t he u ncertain h ope o f s ufficient r ain. t hese

' intensive'

T here i s a s uspicion t hat

p ractices a re a pt t o b ecome p rogressively m ore e x-

t reme i n r ather i solated s ituations t hrough a v icious c ircle o f t echnol ogical e ffort a nd e conomic d ependence.

T hus w hat c ould h ave b egun a s

o ptional t echniques o r d evices m ay i n t ime b ecome r egular o r e ssential. W e m ay d iscern h ere t he r oots o f c ultural a ddiction, w hereby o pportuni stic a daptations t o c ertain p articular s ituations d evelop i nto f ormal l ocal s pecialisations,

i ncreasingly l ess f lexible t o t he p oint o f i rre-

v ersibility. T wo o bvious f actors w ould h ave a ccentuated s uch a t endency.

O ne

w ould h ave b een t he r elative i solation f rom t he g eneral c ontinuity o f A frican a gricultural p ractice o f t hese s mall g roups o f s edentary c ultiv ators i n r emote h ills o r i n r estricted i rrigation b asins s urrounded b y e xtensive, o ffered,

d ry g rassland p lains.

T he r easons,

f or l iving i n t hese l ocations,

a vailability, b arely a ffect t he i ssue.

o r r ationalisations

s uch a s s ecurity o r w ater S econdly,

i nitial s uccess w ould

h ave r esulted i n p opulation i ncrease a nd t herefore i n p ressure o n t he a vailable l and a nd i ts p roductivity i n s uch s pecial h ydrological s ituations.

S o t he m ost e xquisite a nd i ndividual s ystems o f t erracing

a nd/or i rrigation, o ccasionally c ombined w ith s tall-feeding o f l ivestock a nd m anuring o f f ields,

f or i nstance U kara,

K onso a nd S onjo

i n e astern A frica, a re h ighly s pecialised b ut n ot v ery d eveloped i n t he m odern s ense o f t hat w ord. a ttention

f rom o utsiders,

A lthough t hey h ave r eceived a dmired i ncluding a gricultural o fficers,

f or t heir

s upposedly a dvanced t echniques a nd t heir m anagement o f w ater,

s oil a nd

l and i n g eneral, t hese s mall r emote a nd s elf-sufficient g roups h ave,

i n

f act, l ittle t o o ffer t o t he g eneral r un o f f lexible e xtensive c ultivators i n o ther d istricts.

F or t hey a re i n e ffect c ulturally o ver-

s pecialised, t heir a daptations b eing i rretrievably t ied t o t heir i ndividual s ituations.

F or t hese r easons t hey a dapt p oorly t o t he

p ressures a nd o pportunities o f t he m odern w orld a s t heir r emoteness i s b reached.

T heir s ystems, c ultural a s w ell a s a gricultural,

s hould

p erhaps b e s een n ot s o m uch a s i ntensive a s r estrictive, b oth l ocationally a nd t echnologically, a nd t his m ay r ender t hem d angerously f ragile. T he a bove l ine o f t hinking i s a dmittedly r ather s peculative a nd w ill c ertainly r equire m odification a s s pecific c ases, l ogical a nd e thnographic, r eceive r igorous e xamination.

b oth a rchaeoI n o ffering i t

h ere I m ay b e u nduly i nfluenced b y t he e xistence o f t he S onjo v illages i n t he n orthern T anzanian r ift, a nd m ore p ointedly b y t he d eserted s ite o f E ngaruka w ith i ts t wo-thousand i rrigated h ectares l ying l ess t han a h undred k ilometres s outhward a long t he r ift w all.

7 53

T his d esertion,

w hich o ccurred a t l east t wo c enturies a go, may h ave

b een g radual, b ut i t w as a ll t he s ame b oth a n e cological a nd c ultural c ollapse,

f or t he

p eople o f E ngaruka n o l onger e xist.

A pparently t his

c ommunity w as i n t he l ong r un t oo s pecialised t o c ope w ith a l imited a mount o f l and,

o r r ather a l imited s upply o f w ater t o f eed t he b asin.

T he e xact c auses r emain t o b e d emonstrated, b ut s alinity a nd i nfert ility g enerally,

a s w ell a s e rosion o f s oil t hrough e xcessive c ulti-

v ation a nd w atering, d ecline i n t he

a re v ery p robable, w hile t here a re i ndications o f

f low o f t he s treams s upplying t he s ystem ,

p erhaps o wing

t o e xcessive w ood-cutting i n t he c atchment o n a nd a bove t he e scarpment i tself.

O ne h esitates t o p osit a s udden c limatic c hange o r t o b lame t he

d esertion o n t he s upposed a ggressiveness o f t he p astoral M asai,

w ho

w ould h ave h ad l ittle t o g ain f rom d isrupting a t hriving a gricultural s ystem i n t heir m idst, h ave b een r eached.

p rovided a greement o ver w atering o f c attle c ould

N evertheless,

i f w e b ear i n m ind t he e laborate

b alance o f t he c ultural-economic s ystem o f E ngaruka w ith i ts a bsolute d ependence o n t he h ydrology o f t he e scarpment a nd o n t he u ndisturbed m aintenance o f i ts h ydraulic w orks,

i t i s n ot d ifficult t o i magine t hat

a ny s light n atural o r h uman u pheaval

i n t he d istrict w ould p rove

d isproportionately d amaging t o t he c ommunity's w ay o f l ife a nd e xistence.

I n o ther w ords,

h ave b een t he i nherent

t he u nderlying c ause o f i ts d esertion w ould

f ragility a nd

i nflexibility b orne o f i ts v ery

s uccess. B efore c losing t he d iscussion, w e n eed t o c omplete o ur b asic o bserv ations.

W hile i t i s s uggested t hat t erracing m ay a fter a ll b e m ore

c losely a llied t o i rrigation b roadly d efined t han s ome c autious c omment ators

( myself i ncluded)

s hould n ot b e p ressed.

h ave l ately a llowed,

t he c onverse c onnection

A lthough a ll b ut t he c rudest

f orms o f w atering

d emand s ome a ttention t o t he l ie o f t he l and a nd e specially of t he t illed s oil, t he e ffort.

f ormal t erracing m ay o r m ay n ot b e a ppropriate - o r w orth A s n oted,

e xamples o f i rrigation c hannels c an b e

f ound

n owadays i n n umerous d istricts i n t he h ighlands o f n orthern T anzania a nd K enya,

b ut o nly o ccasionally a re t hey c ombined w ith t erracing t o

l eave a c lear m ark o n t he l andscape. b ench-terraces,

w hich m ay o r m ay n ot c ontain g athered

n ot e ven t hese a re m ade. w hich t he l ocal g eology, t he s urface,

S ometimes o ne s ees e phemeral s tones,

b ut o ften

T here a re a n umber o f r elevant f actors, o f a nd w hether t here b e a ctual

t he n ature o f t he s oil,

s tones a t o r n ear

t he s lope o f t he g round,

a nd t he

c rops a nd t heir p lanting t echniques a re a mong t he m ore o bvious p ractical a nd e nvironmental o nes. f urrows a re l ed o ther c rops,

T herefore o n K ilimanjaro,

f rom m ountain s treams i nto g ardens

s ystematic t erracing i s n ot s een.

g rain f ields o f S onjo a nd o f M arakwet, m ore e xquisite i rrigation. i s u sed

I n M arakwet,

w here

f or b ananas a nd

T he s ame i s t rue o f t he

w ith t heir m ore e ssential a nd h owever,

s ome l imited

s tonework

i n t he b anks o f t he a ctual a rtery c hannels a s t hey t raverse t he

e scarpment f ace

( Soper

1 981).

H ere a l arge p roportion o f t he 7 54

f ields a t

7 55

M arakwet a re o n t he f lat o r v ery g ently s loping r ift f loor,

w hile t hose

o f S onjo a re s ituated m ostly o n n early l evel a lluvial l and b elow s prings o r i n r iver v alleys o f v arying b readth.

S pecialisations i n t he f ields:

t heir i nfinite v ariety

S uch o bservations c ould b e e laborated. T hey d emonstrate t hat s pecialisation i s b y d efinition o f i nfinite v ariety, d egree. e ral.

a s w ell a s

T his p aper c annot a ttempt t o s urvey A frican f ield t ypes i n g en-

T he c oncentration h as i nstead b een o n t he m ore s pectacular a nd

s upposedly m ore i ntensive s ystems w hich h ave, r easons,

e njoyed

f or r ight o r w rong

f uller n otice i n t he l iterature,

n otices m ay f requently b e.

f aulty t hough s uch

T herefore I h ave e xcluded

f rom t he d is-

c ussion s uch f orms o f f ield p reparation a s s mall h oed r idges, w hich a re c ommon f or v arious c rops o ver l arge p arts o f t he A frican s avannas, e specially t hose r eceiving m edium r ainfall a nd l ying a t m edium o r l ow a ltitudes ( Plate 8 ).

T here a re a lso v arious t ypes o f m ounds, h alf-a-

m etre m ore o r l ess i n h eight,

a nd t hus e phemeral a rchaeologically,

w hich m ay b e g athered u p f or y ams i n t he b etter w atered p arts o f W est A frica,

a nd

f or o ther t ubers a nd g rains e lsewhere.

S uch r idging a nd

m ounding d evices c an h elp p rovide a g reater d epth o f t ilth, m ore m oisture f or t he r oots, b etter a eration o r f reer d rainage, o r i ndeed b alanced c ombinations o f t hese r equirements.

Iw ould n ot i nclude t hese

u nder t he g eneral h eading o f i rrigation b y a ny u sable d efinition o f t he w ord, a lthough e xamples e xist o f m ore-or-less f ormal i f i rregular i rrigation b eing a pplied t o s ome t ypes o f r idges a nd m ounds. A nother c onscious l imitation i n t his p aper i s i ts g eographical c onc entration o n t he e astern s ide o f A frica.

S pecifically e xcluded a re

M editerranean A frica a nd t he N ile v alley w ith i ts i rrigated

f loodplain.

W hile W est A frica i s t reated b etter i n C onnah's p aper ( this v olume), a f ew o bservations h ere w ould b e p ertinent f or c omparative p urposes. T he U pper N iger a nd i ts

' inland d elta '

a re e specially i nteresting w ith

a gricultural r egimes u tilising s ubtle c ombinations o f n atural f looding a nd a rtificial m anipulation i n w hat a re g enerally k nown a s d gcrue s ystems ( McIntosh a nd M cIntosh

1 980). M odifications o f t his c an b e s een

i n t he v alleys o f n orthern N igeria a nd o n t he s wampy l owlands a round L ake C had

( Connah, t his v olume);

a nd t he r ange o f t hese m anipulations

c ould b e e xtended t o t he f adama c ultivation,

f requent i n s mall

v alleys a nd s wamps i n H ausaland, w here s ub-surface m oisture i s r etained i nto t he d ry s eason.

G enerally t hese a re n ot a ctively w atered b y t he

f armers, a lthough i n s ome p laces t he m oisture i n t he s oil i s .a rtif ically r eplenished b y l ifting w ater f rom w ells,

r esidual s treams o r

p onds b y m eans o f a s haduf , w hile m ore f requently t he l ie o f t hese s wampy g ardens h as b een l owered a nd l evelled, a nd t he e dges o f t he c ultivations a nd t he s tream-beds m odified, b y y ears o f t illing, t hus 7 56

f urther a ssisting t he n atural i rrigation o f t he r oots.

N evertheless,

g enerally i n t he W estern S udan t he b ulk o f t he s taple g rains a re d ependent o n t he r ains.

T he s ignificance o f f adama a nd d gcrue

c ultivation a nd t he u se o f t he s haduf i s t hat t hey h elp t o e xtend c ultivation f urther n orthward i nto c ertain a reas w here t he r ains a re t oo s hort o r u nreliable ( Connah 1 981;

t his v olume).

A lternatively,

i n

z ones o f b etter r ains t hey l engthen t he p lanting s eason a nd t hus i ncrease t he o verall a gricultural y ield, v egetables.

e specially o f s upplementary

T his n ot o nly e nsures m ore f ood, b ut e qually i mportant a

m ore n utritious v ariety.

I t m ollifies,

b ut d oes n ot e ntirely o bviate,

t he f requent i f n ot a nnual h unger a t t he e nd o f t he d ry s eason.

P roduction o f s urplus a nd c ommercial f arming W hile i t i s p ossible t hat "the s haduf w as i ntroduced t o t he W estern S udan a t s ome p articular t ime, s emi-irrigation)

i n g eneral t hese i rrigation ( or

t echniques m ust h ave d eveloped o ver v ery l ong p eriods

a s i ntegral p arts o f t he W est A frican e conomy.

P resumably t hey h ave

i ncreased t heir i mportance a longside p opulation g rowth, o r c oncentrations o f p opulation. M oreover, o ne p articular a spect w hich s eems t o h ave e ncouraged s ome i ntensification o f f ädama i n H ausaland a nd o f d gcrue o n t he U pper N iger d uring t he l ast u rbanisation

( Hopkins

1 973;

H ill

1 977).

f ew c enturies i s

L eaving a side t he g reat t owns,

s uch a s J enne w ithin t he N iger's i nland d elta a nd K ano o n t he H ausa p lains, t hese r egions h ave p ossessed n umerous p rovincial t owns a nd o vergrown v illages, t hemselves a gricultural b ut a t t he s ame t ime s erving a s m arkets f or b oth l ocal a nd d istant t rade a nd s upporting a r ange o f i ndustries ( notably,

l eatherwork, m etalwork, c eramics a nd

c loth m anufacture). M any o f t hese t owns c ould n ot f eed t hemselves o n t he l and w ithin d aily w alking d istance.

T herefore a round t he t owns,

a nd i n s ome c ases o ver c onsiderably b roader z ones, m ore i ntensive l andu se a nd a gricultural t echniques h ave e volved.

B eside m ore e fficient u se

o f w ater r esources, a s w ith d d crue a nd f ädama , m anuring o f t he r ain-fed

f ields i s o ften i mportant.

I n H ausaland, t his r equires

a rrangements w ith t he c attle-herders. c ultivation i s u ndertaken b y p easants,

A lthough t he b ulk o f t he t here i s s cope f or l arger-scale

o rganisation a nd l abour u tilisation i n t he m ore p opulated p arts o f t he W estern S udan d ependent o n i ts d elicately t imed a nnual s orghum h arvest. E specially i mportant a re g rain-storage t echniques, w hich i n t he c ases o f l arger t owns s upporting t roops, a s w ell a s r ural r efugees i n t imes o f i nsecurity,

w ould h ave n eeded t o b e i nstitutionalised i n o rder t o

p rovide t hrough t he l ong d ry s eason. A n e qually i mportant e lement i s t ransport o f t he p roduce f rom t he f ields,

t he f ädäma a nd t he r ural g ranaries,

t o t he t own a nd m arket

( not t o o verlook t he c arriage o f m anure t o t he f ields). 7 57

I n t his

d onkeys p lay a n e ssential r ole i n t he W estern S udan, a nd c amels i n i ts n ortherly p art,

t hus e xtending t he r ange o f o perations v ery

s ubstantially w here t he d emand i s h igh.

I n t he f orest-edge a nd f orest

z one n earer t o t he G uinea c oast, h owever , i ncluding c attle,

w here b easts o f b urden,

d o n ot t hrive, a d ifferent s et o f a djustments h as

b een n eeded t o s upply t owns.

H ere t he l onger w et s eason, l ower

e vaporation r ates a nd r icher n atural v egetation, c oupled w ith c oncentration o n p lanted c rops r ather t han o n g rains,

a s i n t he

s avanna, a ll c ompensate f or t his l ack o f a nimals a nd t heir m anure, s o t hat a s ufficient a creage c an b e c ultivated w ithin h ead-loading d istance.

T hough p lanted c rops a nd f orest v egetables d o n ot p reserve s o

w ell a s g rains,

e specially i n t his z one o f h igher h umidity ,

m ore l atitude i n w hen t o p ick o r u proot t hem,

t here i s

s o t hat p roblems o f

t iming a nd l abour a re l ess a cute t han i n t he S udan b elt.

L ooking a t

t he i ssue h istorically, o ur i nformation r emains r ather i mpressionistic: h owever,

t he g rowth o f K umasi, t he c apital o f A shanti i n t he e ighteenth

a nd n ineteenth c enturies,

s eems t o h ave b een a ccompanied b y t he

d evelopment o f a gricultural s ettlement s trategically s paced a round i t. M oreover, a round B egho, t he e arlier e ntrepöt o f t he g old t rade m oving b etween t he f orest a nd t he U pper N iger a nd S ahara,

t here a re

s uggestions o f a c learer l andscape t han n ow a nd m ore i ntensive l and u se b efore i ts d ecline i n t he e ighteenth c entury. T he i nterior o f E ast A frica, b y c ontrast, f ormal m arkets t ill m ore r ecently.

l acked

t owns a nd l arge

I n t he n ineteenth c entury t here a re

s igns o f a gricultural i ntensification o n t he c oast a nd i ts h interland t o p roduce a s urplus f or s ale a s t he p lantation e conomy o f Z anzibar d eveloped, a nd a lso i n s uitable p laces u p-country a long t he c aravanr outes ( Iliffe

1 971:8-11).

T he a ctual c ultivation m ethods b y w hich t his

i ncrease i n p roductivity w as a chieved m ay n ot b e k nown i n e xplicit d etail, b ut, b y c ombining l ate n ineteenth c entury s ources w ith l ater e thnographic o bservations,

i t a ppears t hat t he a doption o f , o r e xperi-

m entation w ith, n ew c rops a nd v arieties a nd

f easible r otations,

m ore i ntensive u se o f l abour, w ere t he m ain m eans.

a nd t he

I rrigation e xists i n

s ome o f t hese d istricts a nd m ay h ave p layed a p art i n t his i ncreased p roductivity, N jemps,

i n p articular a t c ertain c aravan s tops s uch a s T aveta a nd

a nd a t s uitable

' oases'

i n t he p lains o f M asailand.

T he m ost

s pecialised a nd e xtreme e xamples o f E ast A frican i rrigation p redated t hese d evelopments. E ngaruka,

T hey h ad e ither e xpired l ong b efore, s uch a s

o r t hey c ontinued l argely u naffected b y t hese n ineteenth c en-

t ury c hanges o f s cale a nd c ontacts i n t he b roader r egion.

T he b ulk o f

t he n ew c ommercial p roduction w as d oubtless r ealised b y a dapting a nd i ntensifying t he e xisting

f lexible e xtensive s ystems, r ather t han

t hrough e laborate i nnovations o r r evolutionary s pecialisations. T his i ssue o f s urplus f or s ale a nd m arkets, t o s upport c aravans a nd p lantations i n n ineteenth c entury E ast A frica a nd t owns o ver l onger 7 58

p eriods i n W est A frica, s hould n ot b e c onfused w ith t hat o f t he p rod uction o f a s urplus p er s e.

I f w e m ay r evert t o t he g eneral

d iscussion o f A frican a griculture i n t he f irst s ection o f t his p aper, t he a im t o p roduce m ore t han o ne's n ormal r equirement o ver o ne's a verage c onsumption i s a n e ssential f eature o f a s ubsistence a gricultural e conomy, a nd s hould n ot b e s een a s a s ign o f i ntensification o r o f a n e xplicitly c ommercial c onnection. a iming a t t he

' normal s urplus',

a s A llan ( 1965:38)

F or w ithout

c alls i t, a nd

w ithout t herefore p roducing i n m ost y ears s omewhat m ore

f ood t han i s

a ctually n eeded f or u sual c onsumption, t he e conomy, a nd t he s ociety d ependent o n i t, w ould c ollapse o n e xperiencing a p oorer t han a verage y ear.

T he i mportance o f t his s hould b e f elt o n c onsidering t he o bvious,

t hat o ver a ny p eriod o f t ime h alf , n eed b e

' below a verage'

o r n early h alf , o f t he y ears m ust

- t hat i s e ven w ithout m ore e xtreme v agaries o f

t he w eather, o r o ther d isastrous e vents a t u npredictable i ntervals, i nflicting m ore s evere c onstraints. d epend u pon f lexibility.

S uccess a nd s urvival i n b ad t imes

R eserve p roduce f rom p revious h arvests,

t he

u se o f f amine f oods, e ven w ild o nes, a nd e xchange w ithin t he s ociety a nd w ith n eighbours - f or e ven i n t he w orst o f d roughts o r o ther a fflictions t he i mpact w ill v ary, l ocality b y l ocality a nd c rop b y c rop -a ll t hese h elp p rovide t he n ecessary r esilience.

D ifferential

s pecialisation a nd i nterdependence t hus p ay o ff, w hereas i solation a nd o ver-specialisation r ender o ne's s ituation m uch m ore f ragile. f lexibility,

T herefore

s urplus p roduction a nd e xchange s hould n ot b e i nterpreted

a s i ndications o f i ntensification. o f a r obust e xtensive s ystem.

T hey a re r ather e ssential e lements

B ut t he f urther p oint t o o bserve i s t hat

t hey p rovide t he b ase f rom w hich,

i f t he o pportunities a rise,

p roduction f or m arkets a nd t owns c an t ake o ff n aturally a nd s moothly. T he m ove f rom a n e xtensive s ubsistence s ystem t o am ore c omplex, i ntensive ( or i ntensifying)

o ne,

c ombining a c ommercial e lement, d oes

n ot n eed t o b e s een a s a r evolutionary d evelopment.

S pecialised a nd u ltra-specialised s ystems T he b urden o f t his p aper h as b een t hat i rrigation w orks, r acing, w hich m ay l eave i ts m ark o n t he A frican l andscape, b e s een a s i solated e xamples o f i ntensification, i sations.

F urther,

a nd t er-

s hould n ot

s o m uch a s s pecial-

s uch t echniques t end t o b e m ore e xquisite i n i so-

l ated s ituations w here, t hrough a c ombination o f e nvironmental

f actors

a nd t he e volution o f a l ocal c ultural t radition, t hey m ay b ecome u ltras pecialised a nd p rone t o e ventual d isaster f or e ssentially i nternal r easons.

B ut t hese c ases a re u nusual;

f or w hile a ll A frican

a gricultural s ystems a re i ndividual a nd s pecialised i n o ne w ay o r a nother, m ost o f t hem a re f lexible a nd l ocally v iable v ariations o f a b roader e xtensive r egime.

7 59

I f t hen f ormal i rrigation a nd o ther u ltra-specialisations a re n ot t ypical - a nd e qually u ninfluential u pon p eople i n n eighbouring d ist ricts, a nd t hus n ot t he s tarting-points f or m odernisation - t he u sef ulness o f s tudying s uch s ystems, e xamined a nthropologically,

e ither t hose w hich e xist a nd c an b e

o r t hose w hich h ave c ollapsed b ut l eave

a rchaeological t races, m ay b e q uestioned.

C ertainly t he t emptation t o

e nthuse o ver t hem i n a s entimental o r a ntiquarian w ay m ust b e r es trained. h ealthy.

N evertheless,

i n a rchaeology t oo n arrow a v ision i s n ever

T he a ttraction o f a ncient s tone t erraces a nd o f i rrigation

d evices, w herever t hey c an b e i dentified,

i s t hat t hey r epresent a ctual

f ields a nd a gricultural w orks o f t he p ast, o n t he A frican l andscape.

w hich a re o therwise s o r are

T o a ppreciate t he p ertinence o f t his p oint w e

m ight r eflect o n t he a mount o f a rchaeological r esearch w hich h as b een d evoted t o A frican a gricultural h istory i n r ecent y ears, l eading i ndeed t o v ery e xciting r esults,

b ut w ithout i nforming u s,

e xcept i n t he m ost

g eneral o f w ays, o f t he a ctual l ook o f t he f ields o r t he n ature o f t he t illage t hrough w hich t he c rops w ere g rown.

T hrough a rchaeology o ur

v ision o f t he w orld a t w ork i s o ften s o u nreal a nd u nsatisfying! i f w e c annot d iscover o r r ecognise t he t ypical a nd r eaped i n a ntiquity,

S o,

f ields w hich w ere h oed

i t i s w orth s tarting w ith t he f ew a typical

o nes w hich w e c an s ee o n t he g round,

a nd t hen t rying t o d evise a pposite

c ontrols a nd a djustments w hich w ould a llow u s t o e nvisage m ore t ypical s ystems a nd t heir o peration. W ithout w ishing t o b elittle t he s cientific p roblems i n s uch a p rocedure, i t i s w orth r eflecting t hat i n a ny c ase t he m ore o bvious e vidence i s l ikely f or t hat v ery r eason t o b e t he l ess t ypical. O bservable f ields l end t hemselves t o o ther t ests,

i n p articular o n

y ields a nd t he s ize o f t he p opulations w hich b oth t ended t he f ields a nd w ere s upported b y t hem. S tated t hus, o ver-simplified;

f or,

t erraced h illsides,

t he i ssues a re, o f c ourse, g rossly

i n e xisting e xamples o f i rrigation t echniques o r

i t i s u sually o nly a p art o f t he a gricultural l and

w hich i s t reated i n s uch s pecial w ays, a nd p ractice a nd y ields m ay v ary y ear b y y ear.

T he a rchaeologist m ust t herefore h esitate b efore

a ttempting d emographic c alculations f rom a ncient f ields.

I t i s,

h owever, i n t he m ost a typical a nd u ltra-specialised c ases t hat t he f ull s ystem i s m ost l ikely t o r eveal i tself.

A t E ngaruka,

f ood c ould h ave b een r aised w ithout i rrigation,

w here v ery l ittle

t he t wo-thousand

h ectare g rid w hich r emains o bservable l eads o ne t o a sk a bout t he s ize o f t he a nnual h arvest a nd t he n umber o f p eople w ho c ould h ave l ived o ff i t.

O ne c an a lso v iew t he i ssue i n t erms o f t he l abour r equirements o f

t he l and a nd o f t he m aintenance o f t he i rrigation w orks a nd t erraces. T he f ortunate c oincidence t hat i n t his c ase t he v illage s ites a re p reserved i mmediately a bove t he i rrigable b asin, a llows o ur d emographic c alculations t o b e c ross-checked,

a t l east a t a n i mpressionistic l evel,

w ith t he l iving s pace a nd n umber o f h ouse s ites ( Sutton 6 50). 7 60

1 981:620-627,

L astly,

t here i s a s eparate h istorical a spect o f t erracing a nd

i rrigation w hich w ill n eed t o b e f aced

s oon,

t hat i s t he q uestion o f

t he d ating o f t he v arious e xamples r ecorded h ere, p ossibility o f s ome c ontemporaneity, A frica,

i n t heir r ise a nd d ecline.

N ow,

' megalithic'

t he

w e h ave t ended t o r eject o lder i rrigation o r o ther s upposedly

w orks s hould b e a ttributable,

c ivilisation,

f urther,

a t l east o n t he e astern s ide o f

p resumptions t hat e xamples o f t erracing, ' intensive'

a nd

o r o therwise,

i n o rigin,

t o s ome a ncient

w hich d iffused

i tself o r i ts

i nfluence d own t he r ift v alley a nd h ighland s pine o f e astern A frica. N evertheless,

i f i t s hould t urn o ut t hrough f urther w ork a t E ngaruka

and I nyanga o r i n E thiopia,

t hat t here w as a m easure o f c ontemporaneity

i n t he d evelopment o f t heir i rrigation w orks a nd t erraces, w e s hould a t l east a sk w hether t his w as d ue t o s ome g eneral

f actors - p ossibly c li-

matic - affecting l arge p arts o f t he m id o r m id t o l ate I ron A ge o f A frica.

T here i s n o p oint i n d eveloping t his l ine o f s peculation h ere,

but m erely t o n ote t hat q uestions o f d ating n eed t o b e t ackled a nd t he p ossibility o f b roader u nderlying

t hat

f actors m ust b e k ept i n m ind,

f or

t he l atter c ould h elp u s i n u nderstanding m uch m ore a bout t he g enera lity o f A frican a gricultural h istory d uring t he l ast o ne t housand y ears. A nd w ithin m ore r estricted r egions, m ore s pecific p oints o f r elationship h ave t o b e c onsidered.

F or e xample,

I nyanga w orks r elative t o t hat o f G reat f ied.

T he two c ultures c over a djacent d istricts

1 980);

i f t hey w ere c ontemporary,

t he d ating o f t he

Z imbabwe r emains t o b e c lari( Garlake

1 973;

e ach m ust s urely h ave b een o f s ome

i mportance t o t he o ther's h istory:

t hey c ould n ot h ave b een b lind t o

e ach o ther's e xistence ( as e xisting l iterature a lmost i mplies). t hey w ere n ot c ontemporary,

B each

O r,

i f

o ne h as t o a sk w hy t wo d ifferent p eriods o f

t he I ron A ge w itnessed h ighly i ndividual w orks o f d ry-stone i n a djacent d istricts,

a nd w hy e ach s et w as a bandoned

i n t urn.

E ither w ay,

h istory of Z imbabwe a s a c ountry w ill h ave t o b e r ewritten, I nyanga u plands must a t s ome t ime h ave b een b oth

f or t he

f airly p opulous a nd

f airly p roductive.

R efereqpes c ited , A llan,

W .

1 965

T he African H usbandman.

B aumann, 1 947 1 891 B each,

H . 0 . U sambara u nd s eine N achbargebeite.

B erlin.

D .N.

1 980 B iebuyck, 1 963

E dinburgh.

L es P euples e t l ee C ivilisations d e l 'Afrique.

B aumann,

T he S hona a nd Z imbabwe , D .

9 00-1850.

( editor)

African A grarian S ystems.

L ondon.

7 61

t he

L ondon.

P aris.

B reutz,

P -L.

1 956

S tone k raal s ettlements i n S outh A frica.

African S tudies

1 5:158. B urnham,

P .

1 980

C hanging a gricultural a nd p astoral e cologies i n t he W est

A frican s avannah r egion. m ents,

e dited b y D .R.

I n H uman E cology i n S avanna Environ-

H arris,

p p.147-170.

A cademic P ress,

L ondon. C ameron,

V .L.

1 877

A cross A frica ( Vol.

C onnah,

1 ).

L ondon.

G .

1 981

T hree T housand Y ears i n Africa: m an a nd h is e nvironment i n

t he L ake C had r egion o f N igeria . C rawford, 1 950

O .G.S. R hodesian c ultivation t erraces.

D avidson, 1 959 F inch ,

C ambridge. Antiquity 2 4:96-98.

B . O ld A frica R ediscovered .

L ondon.

E .M.

1 949

P it p eople o f t he I nyanga D owns. P roceedings o f t he R hodesia

S cientific A ssociation 4 2:38-59. F ord,

J .

1 971

T he R ole o f T rypanosomiases i n A frican E cology .

F robenius, 1 931

G reat Z imbabwe.

L ondon.

J .

1 971

T echnology ,

H aaland,

T radition a nd t he S tate i n A frica.

L ondon.

R .

1 981 H ale,

B erlin.

P .

1 973 G oody ,

L .

E ryth ea.

G arlake,

O xford.

M igratory H erdsmen a nd C ultivating W omen .

B ergen.

G .

1 966

C ultivation T erraces i n W estern D arfur .

d issertation,

D epartment o f G eography ,

U npublished P h.D .

U niversity o f C alifornia

a t L os A ngeles. H allpike, 1 972 H arlan, 1 976 H ill,

T he K onso o f E thiopia . J .R.,

O xford.

J .M.J. d e W et a nd A .B .L .

S temler ( editors)

T he O rigins o f African C rop D omestication.

T he H ague.

P .

1 970 H ill,

C .R.

S tudies i n R ural C apitalism i n W est Africa.

C ambridge.

P .

1 977 H opkins, 1 973 I liffe, 1 971

R ural K ano .

C ambridge.

A .G . A n E conomic H istory o f W est A frica.

L ondon.

J . A gricultural C hange i n M odern T anganyika.

A ssociation o f T anzania,

P aper 7 62

1 0.

H istorical

I liffe,

J .

1 978

R eview o f K jekshus

1 977.

J ournal o f A frican H istory 1 9:139-

1 41. J ensen,

A .E.

I m L ande d es G ada.

1 936 K jekshus,

S tuttgart.

H .

E cology C ontrol a nd E conomic D evelopment i n E ast A frican

1 977

H istory . M cIntosh,

L ondon.

S .K . a nd R .J. M cIntosh

P rehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne. C ambridge

1 980

M onographs i n A frican A rchaeology N o. 2 , M cMaster, 1 963

O xford.

D .N. S peculations o n t he c oming o f t he b anana t o U ganda.

U ganda

J ournal 2 7:1631i5. M iracle,

M .P.

A griculture i n t he C ongo B asin.

1 967 M onod,

T .

( editor)

P astoralism i n T ropica' , A frica.

1 975 M urdock ,

L ondon.

G .P.

A frica:

1 959 N adel,

M adison.

i ts p eoples a nd t heir c ulture h istory.

N ew Y ork.

S .F .

T he N uba .

1 947 N etting,

L ondon.

R .McC.

H ill F armers o f N igeri . S eattle a nd L ondon.

1 968 O liver ,

R .

1 966

T he p roblem o f t he

B an iu e xpansion.

J ournal o f A frican

H istory 7 :361-376. P aterson, 1 948

R .T. D arfur P rovince.

J .D .

T othill,

P hillipson,

I n A griculture i n t he S udan ,

p p.867-872 .

D .W.

T he L ater P rehistory

1 977

e dited b y

L ondon.

o r Eastern

a nd S outhern A frica.

L ondon. R andall-MacIver,

D .

M ediaeval R hodesia.

1 906

d e S chlippe,

S hifting C ultivation i n A frica: T he Z ande s ystem o f

1 956

a griculture. S haw ,

L ondon.

P . L ondon.

T .

1 977

H unters, g atherers a nd

f irst

f armers i n W est A frica.

I n

H unters , G atherers a nd F iPst F armers B eyond E urope , e dited b y J .V.S. S oper,

M egaw ,

p p.69-125.

L eicester.

R .C.

1 981

A s urvey o f t he i rrigation s ystems o f t he M arakwet.

r ead a t t he s eminar,

K erio V alley:

U niversity o f N airobi.

7 63

p ast,

P aper

p resent a nd f uture.

S ummers, 1 958

R . I nyanga.

C ambridge.

S utton, J .E .G. 1 969

' Ancient c ivilizations' a nd m odern a gricultural s ystems i n t he

s outhern h ighlands o f T anzania.

A zania 4 :1-13.

S utton, J .E.G. 1 973

T he A rchaeology o f t he W estern H ighlands o f K enya .

N airobi

a nd L ondon. S utton, J .E.G . 1 978 S utton, 1 981

E ngaruka a nd i ts w aters. J .E.G .

E stimating p opulation s ize f rom s elected A frican I ron-Age

s ites. C .

A zania 1 3:37-70.

I n A frican H istorical D emography ( Vol.

F yfe, p p.607-653.

2 ), e dited b y

E dinburgh.

T hornton, D . a nd N .V . R ounce 1 936

U kara I sland a nd t he a gricultural p ractices o f t he W akara.

T anganyika N otes a nd R ecords 1 :25-32 . T revor, 1 930

T .G. R elics o f p re-European c ulture i n R hodesia a nd S outh A frica.

J ournal o f t he R oyal A nthropological I nstitute 6 0:389-399. W ieschhoff , H .A. 1 941

T he Z imbabwe-Monomotapa C ulture.

G eneral S eries i n

A nthropology , N umber 8 . W ilson, G .E .H . 1 932

T he a ncient c ivilization o f t he r ift v alley.

2 98.

7 64

M an 3 2 ,

A rt

A GRICULTURAL I NTENSIFICATION A ND S EDENTISM I N T HE F IRKI O F N .E. N IGERIA

G raham C onnah

W hen I s at d own t o w rite t his p aper,

Ii mmediately f ound m yself

s truggling w ith a p roblem o f d efinition.

H ere w as I , a sked t o w rite

a bout a n a spect o f p rehistoric i ntensive a griculture i n t he t ropics, a nd,

i n m y c ase,

Iw anted t o w rite a bout a p articular s ystem i n t he

m iddle o f a c ontinent w hich h as b een g enerally d escribed a s h aving e xt ensive r ather t han i ntensive a gricultural s ystems.

I t h as b een o nly

r arely c onceded t hat A frica h as, a nd h as h ad i n t he p ast, o ccasional e xceptions t o t his g eneral r ule,

s uch a s t hat w hich h as b een d escribed

a t E ngaruka i n E ast A frica ( Sutton i rrigation s ystem e xisted

1 978)

w here a c omplex s tone-built

i n l ater p rehistoric t imes.

b othered m e w as w hether t he s ystem i n p art o f N .E. a bout t o d iscuss w as a nother s uch e xception.

T he q uestion t hat

N igeria t hat

Iw as

S ince i t w as b asically a

s ystem t hat c ould b e p aralleled i n o ther s imilar p arts o f A frica,

i ts

t reatment a s a n i ntensive s ystem m ight m ean t hat o ne w ould b e j ustified i n c hallenging t he a ccepted i dea t hat A frican a griculture w as g enerally e xtensive r ather t han i ntensive.

T he q uestion s eemed t o m e t o t urn o n

t he d efinition o f i ntensi e a griculture s o Id ecided t o d iscuss t he m atter w ith s omeone w ho k new m ore a bout s uch t hings t han I .

T he f irst

p erson I a sked w as a n a gricultural b otanist b ut h e t old m e t hat t here r eally w as n o g enerally a ccepted d efinition o f i ntensiv t urned, t herefore, t o a n a gronomist ( McWilliam,

a griculture.

I

p ersonal c ommunication)

a nd h e i mmediately g ave m e t he d efinition t hat I h ad e xpected. I ntensive a griculture w as i ntensive, h e s aid,

i n t he s ense t hat l arge

a mounts o f i nput w ent i nto a g iven a rea o f g round; m easured

s uch i nput c ould b e

i n t he m odern s ituation i n t erms o f t he f inancial c ost o f

p roduction b ut i n t he p re-modern s ituation o ne c ould p resumably m easure i t i n t erms o f t he l abour e xpended o n p roduction. t his p aper B ayliss-Smith ( 1982 )

( Since I f irst w rote

h as d iscussed w hat h e c alls

' energy

i nput', a lthough n one o f h is e xamples a re d rawn f rom A frica.) s eems t o m e t o b e a g ood d efinition,

T his

a lthough i t i s c lear t hat m any

p eople w ould i nstead d efine i ntensive a griculture i n t erms o f i ncreased y ields p er h ectare

( e.g.

B urnham 1 980:159).

M y r eason f or p referring

t he l abour-input d efinition o ver t he i ncreased y ields d efinition,

i s

t hat i n p rehistoric s ituations t here m ay b e ag reater p ossibility o f d emonstrating i ncreased l abour-input, i ncreased y ields.

t han t here i s o f d emonstrating

Id o a gree w ith B urnham,

h owever, w ith r egard t o h is

m ore g eneral r emarks a bout a gricultural i ntensification i n t he W est A frican s avanna.

I t i s n ot s imply a c ase o f t here b eing c haracteristic

s ystems t hat a re e xtensive a nd

s ome s ystems t hat a re i ntensive,

r eality t here i s w hat h e c alls a ' continuum ' 7 65

i n

b etween t he t wo e xtremes.

I n p ractice,

Iw ould l ike t o u se t he t erm i ntensive i n ar elative

f ashion. W ithin t he A frican c ontext s ome s ystems a re c learly m ore i ntensive t han o thers,

a nd i t s eems m ore u seful t o a dmit t his t han t o

v iew a ll t hose s ystems i n a w orld-wide c ontext a nd d escribe A frican s ystems a s e xtensive. T he l abour-input d efinition o f i ntensive a griculture w ould a t f irst s ight s eem t o e xclude m ost W est A frican s avanna f arming s ystems, s imply b ecause e xpenditure o f l abour o n f arming i s a t a r elatively l ow l evel o ver t he y ear a s a w hole b ut B urnham ( 1980:151,

1 58) h as a lso i ndicated

t he s ignificance o f ' seasonal l abour b ottlenecks' d uring t he y ear. s hould,

I n s hort, t he e xtent,

a t p articular t imes

t o w hich a s ystem i s i ntensive

p erhaps b e j udged b y t he l abour-input d uring t hose

' short-term

s easonal b ottlenecks i n l abour s upply', r ather t han b y t he l abour-input o ver t he y ear a s a w hole.

B urnham v iews t hese b ottlenecks a s am ajor

c onstraint o n a gricultural p roduction,

a nd g ives a s a n e xample o f s uch

a l abour b ottleneck t he e arly w et s eason i n n orthern C ameroon a nd C had, w here s ome

f armers i n t he m odern s ituation f ind t he g rowing o f c otton

a s a c ash c rop c ompetes w ith t heir w et-season s orghum c ultivation ( Burnham 1 980:151). I f w e a ccept t hat s ome A frican a gricultural s ystems m ight b e d ef ined a s i ntensive, w hat t ypes o f s ystems a re t hese ?

F ormally c on-

s tructed i rrigation s ystems h ave a lready b een m entioned a nd o ne c ould a lso c ite e xamples o f i ntensive

f arming i nvolving c onstant m anuring,

s uch a s i s f ound i n t he K ano C lose-Settled Z one o f N igeria ( Mortimore 1 972), o r o f c rop r otation o n h ill t erraces a s f ound o n s ome o f t he s lopes o f t he M andara M ountains o f N igeria a nd C ameroon ( Burnham 1 980: 1 60-1).

I n a ddition, t here a re c ases k nown i n A frican t raditional

a griculture o f t he s tall-feeding o f c attle, a nd i n s ome o f t he d rier p arts o f t he s avannas s mall g arden p lots ,

a djacent t o w atercourses o r

a reas o f s urface w ater, h ave t raditionally b een w atered w ith t he a id o f t he s hadoof ( Connah

1 981:72-4).

O ne g roup o f i ntensive a gricultural

s ystems i n A frica, h owever, h as h ad d eserves.

f ar l ess a ttention t han i t

Ir efer t o w hat i s v ariously k nown a s

' recessional c ultivation', ' falling-flood

f arming'.

' floodwater f arming',

' dgcrue ' a nd ' crue ' a griculture a nd

A s t hese t erms i mply,

t hese a gricultural

s ystems i nvolve t he c ultivation o f n aturally i rrigated a reas e ither a s f loodwaters r ecede o r a s t hey r ise.

S cudder ( 1980:390), i n a

frican s avannas, h as t he d iscussion o f r iver-basin d evelopment i n A f ollowing t o s ay o n t his s ubject: S uch l ow-cost,

ystems b ased o n l abour-intensive s

ore a ttention f rom n atural i rrigation d eserve m uch m hey h ave s o f ar r esearchers a nd d evelopers t han t he p roductivity o f r eceived. L ittle i s k nown a bout t s uch s ystems

..

7 66

H e d iscusses t hree e xamples o f t he m any a reas w here s uch s ystems c an b e f ound

i n A frica:

Z ambezi

t hese a re t he a rea o f t he G wembe T onga o f t he M iddle

i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe,

S udd r egion o f t he N ile i n M ali

i n t he

t he a rea o f t he S udan,

( on t his a rea s ee a lso H arlan a nd

m entions o ther p arts o f t he N iger, E gypt,

a nd t he

w here r ecessional

t he

C had

B asin.

S enegal

N iger,

R iver,

I ts w aters

C had,

C ameroon,

t o a p art o f t he

( Lawton a nd W ilke

Iw ish t o

S ahel

z one,

a nd N igeria b ut t his d iscussion w ill b e c onfined

N igerian L ake r egion.

L ate i n t he d ry s eason,

i n t he N igerian L ake r egion v aries d ecreasing a s o ne g oes n orth,

t o a round 4 3° C f all t o a round

2 0° C

T he m ean a nnual

f rom a bout 7 60 m m t o a bout

a nd i t i s m arkedly s easonal w ith

m ost o f t he a rea e xperiencing a t otally d ry s eason

f or a bout

m onths o f t he y ear, a pproximately f rom N ovember t o M ay.

I n

f ive f act,

t he

i s e ven s horter t han t hese d etails w ould s uggest,

f or o ver

1 20 d ays t o t he

8 0 d ays t o i ts n orth. h owever,

a nd t he

f orm t he m eeting p oint o f t he c ountries o f

d uring t he d ay a nd t o a s l ow a s 8° C a t n ight.

l asting

1 979)

f rom t he A tlantic t o t he G ulf o f A dan

d uring t he d ay b ut e arlier i n t he d ry s eason c an

r eal w et s eason

i n

p aper.

t emperatures i n t he N igerian L ake r egion c an r ise

2 50 m m,

H e a lso

t he N ile

C had s its i n t he m iddle o f t he t ranscontinental

1 ).

r ainfall

1 969).

I t i s t o a p art o f t he l atter a rea t hat

t hat s tretches a cross A frica ( Figure

D elta o f t he N iger

P asquereau

d irect my a ttention t o t he r emainder o f t his L ake

I nland

N uer i n t he

c ultivation s eems t o h ave b een t he

a gricultural b asis o f p rehistoric E gypt L ake

D inka a nd

s outh o f t he r egion b ut

f or l ess t han

S ignificantly f or t he d iscussion t hat

t he a rea o f N igeria t o t he

f ollows,

i mmediate s outh o f t he L ake h as a n

a typically l ong w et s eason r ising t o o ver N igerian L ake r egion i s c learly w hat

1 40 d ays.

H all e t a l.

N evertheless,

t he

( 1979) m ean b y a s emi-

a rid e nvironment. L ake t he

C had h as h ad a c limatic h istory o f s uch e xtremes t hat d uring

P leistocene

i t v aried

f rom a v ery m uch l arger l ake t han a t

t o a d ried-up b asin a cross w hich s and-dunes f ormed 1 968;

S treet a nd

G rove

1 976).

t hese c hanging c onditions:

p resent

( Grove a nd W arren

T he g eomorphology o f t he a rea r eflects

i n t he

N igerian L ake r egion a s ubstantial

a rea t o t he w est o f t he l ake i s c overed b y a eolian s and

p lains a nd

s tabilised d unes b ut a l arge a rea t o t he s outh o f t he l ake c onsists o f l evel

p lains o f l agoonal c lays b roken b y o ccasional

s and

i slands a nd

b etween t hese t wo a reas i s a n e xtensive m ixed a rea o f d eltaic c lays w ith s ome a eolian

s ands.

s outh-west b y t he R ama R idge, b y a l arger

f ormations a re b ounded t o t he

a b each r idge o f s ands a nd g ravels f ormed

L ake d uring t he e arly H olocene.

g eomorphological ( Bawden

B eyond t his f eature a re

f ormations t hat n eed n ot c oncern u s,

M andara M ountains, R idge

A ll t hese

s ands a nd

e xcept

t he n orthern e nd o f w hich a lmost r each t he

1 972).

7 67

f or t he R ama

. 2

, B N ( obe

N IGER

N IGER IA

B arna R idge — 3 -%

F irk i p la ins

• L and a bove 5 00m • •

• • • •Mr .•

• • • A rea o f s e tt lement mounds

c o c l i

f o o m > -

I

••

• .)

. . . /••• • ' • y e k. ' %

••

x . 1 a t

n o

• "• • • J D,l b

'

CAMEROON (

I ( ' GC83

e

9

59

km

F igure 1 : T he L ake C had B asin s howing m ain m ounds a nd v illages. 2 -B ornu 3 8 -K ursukata 6 -S angaya 7 -D aima

7 68

•

•

1 y0

•

T he p attern o f l and u se i n t he N igerian L ake r egion r eflects t he c limatic a nd g eomorphological v ariations w hich h ave b een o utlined. T here i s a nother

f actor, h owever,

t hat h as a n i mportant i nfluence o n

l and u se: t his i s t he a vailability o f s urface w ater.

L ake C had o ccupies

p art o f a n i nland d rainage b asin b ut m ost o f i ts w ater c omes f rom t he h umid t ropics f urther s outh, t he R ivers C hari,

L ogone,

f lowing i nto t he l ake p rincipally a long

a nd E l

B eid

( Sikes

1 972).

f orms p art o f t he n orth-east f rontier o f N igeria. N igerian R ivers,

Y obe,

N gadda a nd

Y edseram,

T he l ast o f t hese I n c omparison, t he

c ontribute l ittle w ater t o

t he l ake b ut, b oth t hey a nd t he m ore i mportant c ontributory r ivers a re t he s ource o f s ubstantial s easonal a reas o f t he

f loodwaters t hat i nundate e xtensive

f lat p lains a round t he l ake,

p articularly t o i ts s outh.

S ince t he g reater p art o f t he w ater i s c oming f rom s uch a d istant c atchment a rea, t hese f loods t end t o r each t heir p eak e arly i n t he d ry s eason, a l ittle a fter t he l ocal r ains h ave c oncluded.

T he r esult i s

t hat s urface w ater i s a vailable f or a l onger t ime e ach y ear t han t he l ocally s emi-arid c limate w ould o therwise m ake p ossible.

I n p ractice,

m uch o f t he N igerian L ake r egion h as t oo l ittle s urface w ater o f t he y ear,

f or m ost

b ut s ome p arts o f t he r egion h ave t oo m uch w ater f or a

p ortion o f t he y ear. T he r esulting l and u se i s a c omplex m osaic o f c ultivation a nd g razing,

i n w hich m arginal c ultivation o f m illet a nd s orghum a nd w et -

s eason g razing o f c attle, s heep a nd g oats t end t o d ominate t o t he w est o f L ake C had

i n t he N igerian L ake r egion b ut d ense c ultivation o f

s orghum a nd d ry-season g razing o f c attle, s heep a nd g oats t end t o d omin ate t o t he s outh o f t he l ake i n t he N igerian L ake r egion ( Connah F igure 3 .5).

1 981:

I t i s i n t his s outhern a rea t hat t here o ccurs t he i nten-

s ive a griculture t hat I w ish t o d iscuss.

M uch o f t he a rea c onsists o f

b road, t reeless p lains o f b lack, m ontmorillonitic c lay k nown l ocally a s f irki. T hese p lains l ie i n t he a rea o f s lightly l onger w et s eason, a nd t hey a re s ubject t o e xtensive i nundation d uring t he w et s eason a nd t he e arlier p art o f t he d ry s eason.

D uring t he l ater d ry s eason t he f irki

c lay d evelops d eep, r egular c racks a nd t he s oils t hat l ie o ver t his c lay a re s elf-mulching; e ach d ry s eason f ragments o f d ead v egetation a nd s urface s oil

f all d own t he c racks a nd w ith t he f irst r ains t he

c racks c lose u p. i tself o ver,

O ver a p eriod o f m any y ears t he s oil s lowly t urns

i n t his w ay r etaining i ts m oderate f ertility a nd a llowing

c ropping w ithout t he l abour o f c ultivation ( i.e. t illage). T his i s f ortunate b ecause w hen w et t he s oil i s e xtremely s ticky a nd w hen d ry i t i s i ron-hard.

D uring t he w et s eason a nd t he e arly d ry s eason l arge

a reas o f t hese p lains d isappear u nder s hallow f loodwater,

w hich r ecedes

o nly g radually b ecause o f t he l evel c haracter o f t he c ountry a nd b ecause o f t he e xtraordinary i mpermeability o f t he m ontmorillonitic c lay.

F urthermore,

t his c lay i s h ighly r etentive o f m oisture a fter t he 7 69

f loods r ecede,

a nd t he p lains o ffer, t herefore, e xcellent o pportunities

f or f alling-flood f arming ( Connah I som a nd W orker

1 981).

( 1979:204) h ave d efined f alling-flood f arming, o r

' recession f arming '

a s t hey c all i t,

i n t he f ollowing w ay:

R ecession f arming i s a s ystem i n w hich c rops a re p lanted i n f looded a reas a s t he r ainy s eason e nds a nd t he w ater r ecedes.

T his s ystem t akes a dvantage

o f a t horoughly s aturated s oil p rofile.

I t a lso h as

t he a dvantage o f s ilt a nd n utrients l eft b ehind b y t he f lood w aters,

t hus s oil

f ertility m ay b e b etter

t han w here s oils a re n ot f looded. I n t he c ase o f t he N igerian f irki , t he r etreat o f t he d elayed b y b uilding l ow b unds,

a bout 4 0 c m h igh,

s light c ontours o r a round t he f ields

f loodwater i s

e ither a long t he v ery

( Figure 2 ).

T hese a re m ade b y d ig-

g ing a s hallow t rench i nto t he c lay a nd h eaping t he l oosened c lay i n a s mall b ank.

T he b unds a re r edug o r r epaired l ate i n e ach d ry s eason,

r eady f or t he w et s eason i nundation. T he c rop, n aturally i rrigated

f ields,

i s a d ry-season v ariety o f s orghum,

p robably a v ariety o f S orghum o audatum, H arlan a nd S temler a lthough D alziel

1 976:475)

( de W et e t a l.

1 937:547 t hought t hat t his t erm w as m ost u sually

1 978,

A ccording t o o ne o f m y

M odu R awa o f S angaya, t he m asakwa f ields a re

c ropped e very y ear a nd a re n ot s hifted. t hat t he

1 976:456;

w hich i s k nown l ocally a s m asakwa ,

a pplied t o S orghum d urra v ar. n ilotioum. i nformants i n

w hich i s g rown o n t hese

T his i s i n s pite o f t he f act

f ields a re n ot s ystematically m anured,

a lthough a ny g rass

g rowing o n t he f ields i s c ut a nd b urnt o n t he f ields t hemselves b efore p lanting.

A lso,

Ih ave m yself o bserved

t hat l ivestock a re a llowed t o

b rowse o n t he c rop r esidues a fter h arvesting h as c oncluded a nd t his p ractice r esults i n t he d istribution o f s ome a nimal m anure o ver t he f ields. M odu R awa a lso c onfirmed m y o wn o bservations o ver s ome y ears, t hat t he m asakwa i s p lanted

f irst i n s eed-beds,

i n a reas a bove t he

l evel o f i nundation, d uring t he w et s eason i tself.

T he s eedlings a re

t hen t ransplanted t wo o r t hree p lants t o e ach h ole w hen t hey a re 3 0-50 c m h igh.

C urtis

( 1965)

w as a n a gronomist w ho k new t his a rea w ell a nd

h is a ccount o f i ts d ry-season s orghum c ultivation c an b e a dded t o m y o wn i nformation.

A ccording t o h im ( 1965:148):

I n N igeria,

f lood w aters d raining t o L ake C had a re

h eld b ack b y c ontour b unds o n h eavy, d eep-cracking, c lay s oils.

T he b unds a re b roken i n O ct.

t he l and h as d rained,

a nd, w hen

t he c rop i s t ransplanted f rom

s eed-beds e stablished d uring t he r ains i n A ug. P lanting h oles

1 2 i n. d eep ,

1 -2 i n.

i n d iam. a nd

s paced 3 -6ft a part a re m ade w ith l ong, s takes.

p ointed

A l ittle w ater i s p oured i nto e ach h ole a nd

t he t ransplant i s d ropped i n a fter t he t op h alves o f t he l eaves h ave b een t wisted o ff . 7 70

N o f urther

Figure 2: Bund construction in the firki.

771

o perations a re c arried o ut a nd h arvested

i n

F eb. a nd

M ar. r emains r emarkably f ree

f rom d iseases a nd i nsect

p ests.

A n e arlier m ention o f m asakwa g rowing J ames

( 1977:51-55)

( 1980:151)

o bserved

t he c rop w hich i s

i s f ound

i n W hite

i t d uring t he d rought o f

( 1941)

1 972-3.

B urnham

r efers t o t he f irki d ry-season s orghum c ultivation

N igeria a nd a lso t o s imilar

p ractices i n n orthern

c lay s oils a re c alled k arat.

a nd

i n

C ameroon w here t he

H e i s i n n o d oubt t hat t he

' dry-seaon

s orghum c ultivation i s m ore l abour i ntensive t han c ultivation o f w ets eason s orghums'. I n f act,

t he

f armers o f t he f irki a re c ultivating

w et-season s orghums. o f t he f irki i n t he f or

s ettlements,

I n s o d oing t hey a re e xploiting t he o pportunities f ace o f c onsiderable c onstraints.

f or

i nstance,

i n t he m ain,

S uitable s ites

a re l imited i n n umber a nd a rea i n t hese

p lains w hich f lood s o e xtensively d uring a nd a fter s ites c onsist,

b oth d ry- a nd

o f o ccasional s and

t he w et s eason.

S uch

i slands o r s pits t hat

r ise a f ew m etres a bove t he l evel o f t he c lay p lains. l ocated o n s uch s andy a reas a nd w et-season s orghum,

S ettlements a re

k nown l ocally a s

d awa , i s g rown a round t he s ettlements, t ogether w ith o ther c rops o f l esser i mportance. i slands.

B urnham

T he m asakwa s eed-beds a re a lso l ocated o n

( 1980:150-1)

t hese

w rites o f t wo h arvests of w et-season

s orghums a mongst m any p lains-dwelling p eoples o f n orthern C ameroon a nd C had:

e arly r ipening

s eason w hite' c ase

' wet-season r ed'

s orghums.

s orghums a nd l ater r ipening

I a m n ot a ble

t o c onfirm t hat t his i s a lso t he

i n t he N igerian f irki b ut i t w ould s eem l ikely.

t he f irki ,

t herefore,

a re

o f s orghum i n t he y ear,

p roducing t wo a nd

a nd

t he s hifting c ultivation

' wet-

T he

f armers o f

p robably t hree h arvests

s ome l esser c rops a lso,

w ithout r ecourse t o

p ractices t hat c haracterise t he s upposedly

t ypical e xtensive a gricultural s ystems o f A frica. T his e xploitation o f t he c haracteristics o f t he f irki a nd o f i ts s easonal

f looding a re,

a griculture o f t hese a lso m ixed i slands, a lso

f armers.

h owever,

p lains.

o nly p art o f t he b asis o f t he

T he

d uring t he w et s eason t he s and

T he m ain p roblem i n d oing t his i s t hat i slands h ave i nsufficient f odder a nd t he

f looded, w hile d uring t he late d ry s eason b oth

a nd w ater m ay f ail,

a lthough t he

p lains d o c arry a bundant

t he e arlier p art o f t he d ry s eason. r est

s mall

s tock a s

p ossible o n o r n ear t he

e ast o f t he f irki p lains a nd t he 1 972 a nd W hite

s and

1 941).

f odder

f odder d uring

T he s olution i s t o k eep a s m any

' carry o ut a n o scillatory t ranshumance'

L eeuw e t a l.

t he s and

b ut t hey k eep l arge h erds o f c attle a nd

f locks o f s heep a nd g oats.

c attle a nd

f armers o f t he f irki a re

N ot o nly d o t hey f arm t he c lay p lains a nd

a s a lready e xplained,

c lay p lains a re

s orghum

i ntensive

i slands w hile t he

b etween t he r ivers t o t he

p lains t o t heir w est

J ames

( 1977)

( after d e

r eveals a m ore c omplex

s ituation i n w hich t he e xtent a nd c haracteristics o f l ivestock m ovem ents v ary a ccording t o l ocation w ithin t he a rea, 7 72

r acial g roup,

relative importance of cultivation and livestock, local environment, and the dryness of a particular year. In this way the herds pass the settlement to which they belong twice in each year and on those occasions can be sorted out, together with those that have been left at the settlement. Again it should be noticed that the stock, retained in or around the settlement during the wet season and early dry season, feed on the crop residues of the sand-island cultivation and, by this means, provide some casual manuring of areas used for the cultivation of wet-season sorghums and other crops. I conducted archaeological field research in the fiPki plains from 1963 to 1971 and again in 1978 and 1981. Whilst doing so I was able to observe the agricultural system just described, although in only a casual fashion. Over a very short period of a few days in 1978 I attempted to make more direct and more formal observations. The description of the fiPki village of Sangaya (Figure 1) that follows is drawn from these observations and may be taken as typical of many of the fiPki settlements. It is based on field notes made by myself during March 1978. I was able to talk at length with the Zanna Sangayama, the head of the village, who thought that he was between 70 and 80 years old and w�th his advisors, all men, who were in most cases also of advanced age. I had the benefit of an interpreter, Modu Rawa. He was born and brought up in Sangaya and then went away and was trained as a primary school teacher. In 1978 he was teaching at the primary school at Suwa (Connah 1981: Figure 4.4), another fiPki settlement about 15 km f�om Sangaya. Nevertheless, he still maintained close contacts with Sangaya and I was able to meet both his mother and a brother. Modu Rawa was briefly seconded from the Barna Local Government Education Department to help in my inquiries, a secondment that was arranged by the Emir of Dikwa, the traditional ruler of the area. The following account has obvious deficiencies, any account of the agricultural and economic system of such a settlement ought to be based on at least a whole year's observations, as Burnham (1980:158) has suggested. Nevertheless, it is the best that can be done at the present time and I would emphasise that a detailed analysis of the traditional agricultural system of the fiPki plains has never been undertaken and is now a matter of urgency in the face of very rapid developmental changes in this part of Nigeria. Sangaya is a nucleated settlement of pise mud buildings with a population that in 1978 I guessed to be of at least 500 Kanuri-speaking people. It is located on a settlement mound of considerable archae­ ological importance, and the significance of such settlement mounds is discussed below. It is assumed that the mound has built up over a small natural sand island and it lies in an extensive fiPki clay plain which surrounds it on all sides and which floods during the wet season and early dry season. From archaeological evidence elsewhere in the 773

F igure . 7 ) : M äsakwa h arvest .

F igure 4 : S orghum h ead .

7 74

f irki ,

i t s eems l ikely t hat t his s ettlement h as b een c ontinuously

o ccupied

f or b etween 2 000 a nd

3 000 y ears.

O ral t radition a t S angaya

c laims c ontinuity f rom t he t ime o f S o s ettlement,

t he S o b eing t he

s emi-legendary p redecessors o f t he K anuri i n t his a rea. m entioned a s e xisting i n the

1 575 b y i bn

F artua

( 1926)

S angaya i s

i n h is H istory o f

f trst t welve Years o f t he retzn o f M ai I drts A lgoma o f Bor r ig ( 1571-

1 583) w hich i s a c ontemporary a ccount o f t hat p eriod w ritten i n A rabic. T hat s ame s ource a lso m entions t he g rowing o f g uinea-corn t his a rea

f or

T he p resent i nhabitants o f S angaya g row s orghum: f alling-flood

b oth d awa ( wet

T he m asakwa g rowing n ecessitates

f arming o f f ields o n t he

I g ained w as t hat t he y ield

g reater t han t hat i s

i n

f ood.

s eason) a nd m asakwa ( dry s eason).

i mpression

( sorghum)

s urrounding f irki a nd t he f rom t he m asakwa w as f ar

f rom t he d awa. N evertheless,

t he w et-season s orghum

p articularly v aluable b ecause i t i s h arvested i n S eptember a nd

O ctober a nd

b rings t o a n e nd

t he w et-season h unger

w idespread

i n A frican s avanna s ocieties.

M arch

t he

1 978

A t t he t ime o f m y v isit i n

f inal s tages o f t he m asakwa h arvest w as i n

S ome o f t he c rop w as s till f ields.

p eriod t hat i s s o p rogress.

s tanding i n t he b y-then d ry a nd c racking

I ts s pacing w as w ide s o a s n ot t o o verdraw o n t he r esidual

m oisture o f t he f irki ( Figure

3 ).

T he c entral h eads o f t he s orghum

h ad b een c ut s ometime i n t he p revious m onth, v isit t he

F ebruary,

s ide h eads w ere b eing c ut a nd g athered.

a nd d uring m y

T he h ead

( Figure 4 )

w as c ut o ff i n e ach c ase j ust b elow t he c luster o f g rain a nd s tems c ut

s eparately a s b uilding m aterial,

w et-season

s orghum w ould b e p referred

s uch a s l eaves a nd t hinner s tems, s tock t o e at. p ile i n t he t hreshed,

a lthough t he l onger-stemmed

f or t his p urpose.

w ere l eft o n t he

T he s orghum h eads w ere c arried

O ther r esidues,

f ields f or t he l ive-

i n b askets t o a c ircular

f ields w here t hey w ere n eatly s tacked.

T he h eads w ere t hen

a f ew a t a t ime, o n a s wept a rea o f g round n earby.

s ticks w ere

u sed

f or t his t ask.

W innowing

t he l ong

T -shaped

f ollowed b y g ently p ouring

t he g rain a nd c haff f rom a c alabash b owl h eld a t h ead-height.

T he

s light b reeze b lew t he c haff t o o ne s ide a nd t he c lean g rain c ascaded o nto a h eap o n t he g round a nd w as t hen b agged

u p b y h and.

n oticed t hat a ll t hese t asks w ere c arried o ut i n t he w here t he r epair o f t he b unds ( Figure

2 ).

f or

I n g ood y ears t he y ield

1 970s

( James

1 973),

f ields t hemselves,

t he n ext f loods h ad a lready c ommenced i s s ufficient

masakwa t o b e t raded o ut o f t he v illage. e arly

h owever,

f or s ome o f t he

D uring t he d rought o f t he

t he p roduction w as n ot e nough t o

s ustain t he v illage i tself a nd d uring t he g reat d rought o f ( Grove

1 973)

p eople d ied o f h unger i n

w hom I t alked c ould r emember t he E mir o f D ikwa, s till d ate

t hat d rought m igrate

s ome o f t he

S angaya.

p eople w ere

f rom t he v illage t o t he M andara a rea 7 75

a ccording t o

K anuri o f t he a rea a s a w hole

f rom t he t ime o f t his S angaya

1 913-1914

S ome o f t he o ld m en w ith

s uch d eaths t aking p lace a nd,

s ome o f t he o lder

t heir b irths

I t s hould b e

s erious

f amine.

D uring

f orced b y h unger t o ( Figure

1 ).

T he i nhabitants o f S angaya a lso g row m aize, o kra, c owpeas, g arden e gg,

o nion, g ourd, a nd u sed t o g row m illet b ut g ave i t u p b ecause o f

p roblems w ith i nsects a nd b irds. u sed

f or d yeing t heir t eeth r ed.

I n a ddition t hey g row a p lant t hat i s S ome o f t hese l ess i mportant c rops a re

g rown i n g ardens i rrigated f rom a m odern b orehole-fed l ake a t t he e dge o f t he v illage.

P rior t o t he e xistence o f t he b orehole, t his l ake o nly

h eld w ater i n t he r ainy s eason a nd d eep w ells w ere n ecessary t o g et w ater t hroughout t he y ear.

T hese w ere a bout

3 0 m d eep b ut w ere v ery

r eliable s o t hat, a ccording t o t he Z anna S angayama,

t here w as w ater i n

t hem e ven d uring t he g reat d rought o f 1 913-1914. T he S angaya v illagers k eep c attle w hich d uring t he w et s eason a re s talled i n c ow-houses t hroughout t he d ay b ecause o f b iting f lies, b oth t setse a nd o thers, a nd t aken o ut t o p asture a t n ight.

I n t he d ry s eason

t hey a re s talled a t n ight b ecause o f t he r isk o f t hefts.

I n s evere d ry

s easons t he c attle a re t aken t o L ake C had o r t o o ne o f t he r ivers w hich d oes n ot h appen e very d ry s eason a nd i t i s l ack o f g rass r ather t han l ack o f w ater w hich i s t he d eciding f actor. a re n ecessary,

W hen s uch c attle m ovements

t he a nimals m ay b e e ntrusted t o o thers f rom o utside t he

v illage, w ho w ill t ake t hem i n s earch o f p asture. O ther a nimals k ept b y t he o ccupants o f S angaya i nclude s heep a nd g oats, d onkeys, h orses, c hickens, d ucks b ut n oticeably n ot c amels w hich a re a bsent f rom t he f irki p lains a lthough f airly c ommon i n t he m ore n ortherly s andy p arts o f t he N igerian L ake r egion.

F ish c an b e c aught

i n t he v illage l ake a nd e ven i n t he d ry s eason

f ish ', t he c urious

l ungfish P rotopterus a nnectens ( Holden a nd R eed f rom t he h ardened f irki.

' mud

1 972:7), c an b e d ug u p

I n t imes o f f amine t he v illagers m ay e ven

r aid t he n ests o f t he h arvester a nt, a s mall b lack a nt t hat s tores t he g rains o f o ne o f t he w ild g rasses.

T hese n ests c an b e f ound

s cattered

a cross t he f irki p lains. S orghum i s t he s taple f ood o f t he v illage a nd i s s tored t wo y ears i n p its d ug i n t he g round w ithin t he s ettlement. c ircular h oles a bout

1 .5-2.0 m i n d epth.

f or u p t o T hese a re

T he b ottom a nd s ides a re

l ined w ith c oils o f g rass ( it i s s aid t hat t his s tops t he a nts f rom g etting i nto t he g rain) a nd t he g rain i s p oured i s a bout t hree-quarters f ull.

T he s urface o f t he g rain i s t hen l evelled

o ff a nd c overe c ; t r f .th a t hick l ayer o f c haff, o f g rass.

i n l oose u ntil t he p it

f ollowed b y at hick l ayer

A l ayer o f c lay i s t hen u sed t o p lug t he t op o f t he

p it a nd

t his i s m ade s lightly h igher t han t he s urrounding g round s urface, s o t hat t he l ocation o f t he p it c an b e r eadily i dentified.

S eed g rain i s

n ever s tored i n p its, h owever, b ut i s p ut i nto p ots o r i nto s pecially m ade m ud c ontainers. T o p repare t he s orghum a s f ood i t i s u sually h usked w ith a w ooden p estle a nd m ortar a fter m oistening

( Figure 6 ). 7 76

W hen d ried i t i s t hen

F igure 5 : A gricultural t ools o f t he f irki : l eft t o r ight , h oe, s ickle, w eeding k nife, k nife f or g rass a nd s orghum , a xe a nd h oe f or d igging b unds.

F igure 6 : L ong p ointed w ooden s take o r d igging s tick .

7 77

g round i nto a f lour,

t raditionally o n ag rindstone, n ow i n a d iesel-

p owered g rinding m achine.

F inally,

i t i s s ifted, n owadays t hrough a

f ine w ire m esh i nto a b asketry t ray.

V arious f oods c an b e m ade f rom

s orghum b ut t he m ost c ommon i n t he f irki s ettlements s eems t o b e t hat g enerally k nown a s t uwo ( Curtis

1 965:149).

T his i s m ade b y s tirring

f lour i nto h ot w ater a nd a llowing t he t hick p aste t o c ool a nd g el. W hen c old,

p ieces o f t uwo a re b roken o ff a nd e aten w ith s oup t hat i n s ome

c ases i s m ade f rom c owpeas.

I n a ddition t o b eing u sed a s a f ood,

s orghum i s a lso m ade i nto g uinea-corn b eer. T here i s l ittle w ood a vailable i n t he S angaya a rea a nd d ried c akes o f c ow m anure a re u sed a s f uel

f or c ooking.

C ooking i s d one o n

s pecially b uilt c lay f ireplaces w hich a re p robably d esigned t o e conom ise o n f uel.

I n o ne p lace I o bserved p ats o f m anure s et o ut t o d ry,

f or u se a s f uel, o n t he t op o f a l ow m ud w all a round a c ompound w ithin t he s ettlement.

I n a nother p lace I o bserved a q uality o f m anure l ying

i n a p it w ithin a c ompound, h aving c ome a pparently f rom o ne o f t he c owh ouses.

Iu nderstood t hat t his w as i ntended t o g o o n s ome o f t he

f ields a nd

Ip resume t hat t hese w ould b e s ome o f t he f ields f or w et-

s eason c rops. T he a gricultural t ools i n u se a t S angaya w ere f ew i n n umber, s imple i n d esign a nd l ocally m ade

( Figures 5 a nd 6 ).

T he t otal a ssemblage t hat

Iw as a ble t o g ather t ogether c onsisted o f a p ick-like t ool f or d igging f irki , a c hisel-ended t ool w ith a s traight w ooden h andle f or d igging h oles o f v arious s orts, a l ong p ointed w ooden s take f or t ransplanting m asakwa s eedlings, a h oe, a s ickle

f or c utting t hatch,

a n a xe,

a nd

t wo d ifferently-shaped k nife-like t ools: o ne f or c utting w eeds a nd t he o ther f or c utting g rass a nd s orghum s tems. a ll e xcept t he w ooden s take w ere o f i ron.

T he c utting c omponents o f T his l imited a ssemblage o f

t ools p robably r eflects t he e ase w ith w hich t he s andy s oils o f t he a rea a round t he v illage c an b e c ultivated

f or t he w et s eason c rops a nd t he

f act t hat t he m asakwa i s t ransplanted i nto f ields t hat d o n ot r equire t illage. T he m ost i nteresting a nd p erhaps t he m ost s ignificant o f t hese t ools i s t he p ick-like t ool, c alled i n K anuri d ungulusu . T his t ool i s o f c onsiderable v alue i n t he e xploitation o f t he f irki m asakwa f ields,

f or i t i s w ith i t t hat t he a ll-important b unds a re d ug.

F rom t his a ccount o f t he a gricultural s ystem o f t he f irki , f rom t he p articular e xample o f S angaya, i t i s a pparent t hat,

a nd

c ompared

w ith m any o ther A frican a gricultural s ystems, t his o ne lg i ntensive. F or i nstance, a s ubstantial l abour-input i s r equired t o p repare t he b unds a nd t o t ransplant t he d ry-season s orghum.

B y s uch m eans t he

s orghum c ropping s eason i s c onsiderably e xtended a nd t he y ields i ncreased.

F urthermore,

t his s killed u tilisation o f t he p eculiar

c haracteristics o f t he f irki s oils, a nd o f t heir s easonal f looding, _ has e nabled

f armers t o c rop t he s ame f ields c ontinuously. 7 78

I n a dddition

a f orm o f m ixed f arming h as b een d eveloped w hich o n o ccasion m ay u tilise s easonal t ranshumance a nd s talling.

A ll t his h as m eant t hat

s ettlements h ave b een a ble t o r emain i n t he s ame p eriods o f t ime.

p lace f or v ery l ong

I ndeed, t his s edentary t endency h as b een a ccentuated

b y t he r elatively l imited n umber o f s and i slands a nd s pits i n t he s easonally i nundated, f irki c lay p lains.

S uch s edentism, c oupled w ith

t he p ractice o f b uilding n ucleated s ettlements i n m ud, a nd w ith a r elatively l ow a nd m arkedly s easonal r ainfall, h as l ed t o t he g rowth o f h igh s ettlement m ounds l ike t he o ne o n w hich S angaya s tands.

T his i s

o nly o ne o f m any s uch m ounds, a l arge p roportion o f w hich a re s till o ccupied,

t hat a re s cattered t hrough t he N igerian f irki , a nd a cross

t he c lay p lains o f n orthern C ameroon i nto w estern C had ( Figure

1 ).

T hese h igh m ounds c onstitute a n A frican e quivalent t o t he s outh-west A sian t ell:

t hey r esult f rom t he g radual a ccumulation o f s tructural

r emains a nd d omestic r ubbish f rom s uccessive h uman s ettlements t hat h ave b een l ocated f or l ong p eriods o f t ime o n t he s ame s ite. a lso,

T hey a re

Iw ould s uggest, a n a rchaeological i ndicator o f t he e xistence o f

i ntensive a griculture.

C ertainly, t he r ather l imited d istribution o f

s uch h igh s ettlement m ounds i n W est A frica, c onfined t o r iver v alleys a nd

f loodplains,

a nd t heir t endency t o b e w ould i ndicate t hat t his m ay

i ndeed b e t he c ase. I f m y s uggestion t hat t he f irki h igh s ettlement m ounds a re i ndic ators o f i ntensive a griculture i s c orrect, t hen t he r adiocarbon c hrono logy o f t hese m ounds ( Connah

1 981)

s hould h ave s omething t o t ell u s

a bout t he p rehistory o f i ntensive a griculture i n t his p art o f t he A frican s avanna. T he e arliest o f t he m ounds i n t his a rea, w hich h ave b een e xcavated,

i s a r ather a typical o ne,

k nown a s ' Borno 3 8', w hich i s

s ituated o n l acustrine s ands a nd g ravels t hat o nce f ormed a b each o f L ake C had, b eyond t he s outh-western e dge o f t he f irki ( Figure

1 ).

T his m ound, w hich i s a l ittle u nder 3 m h igh, a ppears t o c onsist o f t he r emains o f a s eries o f a t l east s emi-permanent v illages w hich o ccupied a r elatively s mall s ite a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m illennium a nd d uring t he

f irst h alf o f t he f irst m illennium B C a nd p erhaps u ntil t he l ast

f ew c enturies B C.

I t h as n ot b een p ossible

f rom t he a vailable e vidence

t o s ay m uch a bout t he s ubsistence e conomy o f t his s ite b ut t he e vidence o f p ermanent o r s emi-permanent s ettlement a nd t he f requency o f g rindstone a nd g rinder/pounder w as,

i n p art,

f ragments m ight s uggest a n e conomy t hat

c ereal-based.

T he e arliest e vidence f or t he o ccupation o f t he f irki i tself c omes f rom t he m ound o f K ursakata,

w hich i s 5 .87 m h igh a nd c onsists o f

t he r emains o f a s eries o f a t l east s emi-permanent s ettlements t hat o ccupied t his s ite

f rom t he b eginning o f t he f irst m illennium B C t o

s ome t ime i n t he f irst m illennium A D ( Figure

1 ).

T he s ubsistence

e conomy o f t he K ursakata v illagers w as p robably b ased o n m ixed a nd s ome h unting a nd f ishing b ut a gain t he e vidence i s n ot v ery s atisfactory.

f arming

T he b est e vidence t hat w e h ave f or t he d evelopment o f t he f irki a gricultural s ystem c omes f rom t he g reat m ound o f D aima w hich i s

1 0.65

m h igh a nd i s s ituated i n t he e astern p art o f t he f irki p lains ( Figure

1 ).

T he s ite s eems t o h ave b een o ccupied

t he m iddle o f t he m illennium A D.

f rom a l ittle b efore

f irst m illennium B C t o s ome t ime i n t he e arly s econd

T he e arliest o ccupants l acked m etals a nd w ere h erding

c attle a nd g oats a nd d oing s ome h unting a nd

f ishing.

T he e vidence o f

p ermanent o r s emi-permanent s ettlement a nd t he o ccurrence o f g rindstone a nd g rinder/pounder f ragments m ight a gain s uggest a n e conomy t hat w as a lso e xploiting c ereals a nd a t t his d ate o n t he f ringes o f t he S ahara o ne w ould e xpect t hese t o h ave b een c ultivated c ereals

( Munson

1 971).

T he s tructures i n w hich p eople l ived w ere m ade o f a l ight w ooden f rame, p robably c overed w ith g rass o r m ats.

I t w as n ot u ntil t he e arly f irst

m illennium A D t hat t he p ractice o f m ud b uilding s ite a nd,

s ignificantly,

f irst a ppeared a t t his

t his w as a fter t he f irst a ppearance o f i ron a t

t he b eginning o f t hat m illennium.

N ot o nly d id

i ron r eplace t he s tone

a nd b one t ools o f t he e arlier o ccupants o f t he s ite b ut i t m ust a lso h ave p rovided t he i ron h oes a nd s pecialist d igging t ools w hich a re n ow s uch a n i mportant p art o f t he e quipment o f t he f irki f armer.

F irki

s oils a re e xtremely d ifficult t o d ig b ut w ith i ron t ools i t w ould h ave b een m ore p racticable t o d ig t he c lay f or m ud b uildings a nd t o d ig t he d eep w ells w hich w ere n ecessary f or r ound-the-year s ettlement i n m uch o f t his a rea.

I n a ddition,

Iv ery m uch s uspect t hat t he d igging o f

c ultivation b unds f or d ry-season s orghum-growing m ay o nly h ave b ecome w idely p ractised a fter i ron t ools b ecame a vailable.

I n s hort,

i t m ay

w ell h ave b een t he a cquisition o f i ron t ools b y t he i nhabitants o f t he f irki t hat e nabled t hem t o i ntensify t he e xploitation o f t heir e nvironment e arly i n t he f irst m illennium A D a nd w hich l ed,

i n t urn, t o

t he g rowth o f h igh s ettlement m ounds o n t op o f t he e arlier r elatively l ow m ounds.

I t w as,

i ndeed,

p robably a t t his t ime t hat t here d eveloped

t he i ntensive a gricultural s ystem t hat s till o perates i n t he f irki p lains.

G rindstone a nd g rinder/pounder f ragments c ontinued t o o ccur i n

t he u pper p arts o f t he D aima m ound a nd

f rom v ery r oughly A D 8 00

c arbonised g rains o f s orghum a ppear i n t he d eposits.

T hese g rains a re

o f S orghum c audatum, v ery m uch l ike t hat s till g rown i n t he r egion t oday ( de W et e t a l. b ones f ound

1 976:456).

H owever, i t i s c lear f rom t he a nimal

i n t he m ound t hat c attle a nd g oats c ontinued t o b e h erded

b y t he D aima v illagers a nd t hat h unting a nd f ishing a lso c ontinued t o c ontribute t o t heir s ite w as a bandoned

f ood s upplies.

I n t he c ase o f t he D aima m ound,

a lthough t here i s n ow a s uccessor v illage n earby. t radition,

A ccording t o o ral

i t h as o nly e xisted s ince t he m iddle o f t he n ineteenth

c entury A D.

A l arge p roportion o f t he f irki m ounds a re,

n evertheless, t herefore,

t he

i n t he e arly p art o f t he p resent m illennium,

s till o ccupied b y s ettlements, l ike S angaya, a nd a re,

s till i n t he p rocess o f g rowth.

T his i s n ot t he p lace t o e xamine t he a rchaeological e vidence t he f irki s ites i n a ny m ore d etail, a s t his h as a lready b een d one

f rom

e lsewhere

( Connah

1 981).

I t m ight b e u seful, h owever, t o p ropose a n

h ypothesis c oncerning t he p rehistory o f a gricultural i ntensification a nd s edentism i n t he f irki p lains. T he m ain a uthority o n s orghum f avoured t he v iew t hat c ultivated s orghum w as d eveloped i n t he E thiopian h ighlands, t hat a W est A frican o rigin h ad b een s uggested l an, d e W et a nd S temler, h owever,

a lthough h e a dmitted

( Doggett

1 970:2-3).

H ar-

h ave a rgued t hat t he i nitial d omesti-

c ation o f s orghum p robably t ook p lace i n a n arrow b and o f c ountry s tretching

f rom t he u pper N ile t o t he p lains w est o f L ake C had ( de W et

a nd H arlan

1 971;

d e W et e t a l.

1 976).

H arlan a nd S temler ( 1976)

s aw

t his i nitial d omestication a s b eing o ne i nvolving S orghum b icolor, a nd c arbonised s orghum g rains e xcavated f rom J ebel e t T omat,

i n t he S udan

R epublic, w hich h ave b een d ated t o 2 45+60 A D ( UCLA 1 874M ) a re, o f f ully d omesticated S orghum b icolor ( Clark a nd S temler a nd S temler

i n f act,

1 975).

H arlan

f urther i ndicated t hat t hey t hought t hat b efore 3 000 B P

d omesticated s orghum w as s preading f rom t he a rea o f i nitial d omestication i nto W est A frica,

i nto S outh E ast A frica,

S ind-Punjab r egion o f t he I ndian s ubcontinent 1 976:473).

I n a ddition,

H arlan a nd S temler

a nd t o t he

( Harlan a nd S temler

( 1976)

s uggested t hat t he

a rea o f i nitial d omestication w as a lso t he a rea i n w hich S orghum . aga g latag s ubsequently e volved s eem , t hen,

( Harlan a nd S temler

1 976:477).

I t w ould

t hat t he L ake C had r egion m ust h ave c ontributed t o t hese

i mportant d evelopments a nd i t i s n o s urprise t o f ind t hat, a ccording t o d e L eeuw e t a l.

( 1972:20),

S orgh in i s pp. p redominate a mongst t he

g rassland c ommunities o n t he v ertisols o f t he N igerian p art o f t he l ake r egion. T he

p resence o f s uch w ild s orghums w ould s uggest, t herefore,

t hat t he f irki p lains m ay h ave p layed a p art i n t he i nitial d ome stication o f s orghum b ut t he a rchaeology d oes n ot s upport t his i dea S ome y ears o f a rchaeological s earch e arly i n

f ield r esearch,

n orthern e nd o f t he M andara M ountains i n p ress),

( Connah a nd J emkur

1 982;

C onnah,

h ave f ailed t o p roduce c lear e vidence o f h uman s ettlement

p rior t o 3 000 B P, m ountains.

i ncluding a n i ntensive

1 981 o f a s ample a rea b etween t he B ama R idge a nd t he

e xcept a t t he v ery e dge o f t he p lains a djacent t o t he

I t s eems l ikely, t herefore, t hat t he f irki c lay p lains

s till l ay u nder t he w aters o f L ake C had u ntil a bout t his t ime. E lsewhere

Ih ave h ypothesised t hat a bout 4 000 t o 3 000 y ears a go, a s t he

c limate i n t he S ahara a nd a long i ts m argins g radually s ettled d own t o i ts p resent c ondition, g roups o f p eople i n t he M andara M ountains b egan t o m ove o ut a cross t he w ide p lains t hat e merged a s t he l ake l evel f ell ( Connah

1 981).

I t i s u nknown a t w hat d ate t hese p eople b ecame

f ood-producers b ut i t m ust s urely b e s ignificant t hat t he p lains, o nto w hich t hey m oved,

f orm p art o f H arlan a nd S temler's a rea o f s orghum

i nitial d omestication. p erhaps,

T hey m ay h ave a lready b een f ood-producers o r

h unter-gatherers,

t hey c ame i nto c ontact w ith p eople f rom

f urther e ast w ho w ere a lready c ultivating s orghum. s eed i mpressions o n l ate

Am ajority o f t he

f ourth m illennium B C p otsherds f rom K adero, 7 81

e ast o f t he N ile n ear K hartoum, c ultivated'

( Krzyzaniak

a re o f s orghum w hich w as

1 978:166 ,

1 72).

I n a ddition,

' most p robably

i t i s l ikely t hat

b y a bout 4 000 t o 3 000 y ears a go s uch h ypothetical p eople m oving o ut f rom t he M andara M ountains h ad c ome i nto c ontact w ith c attle p astoralists f rom t he S ahara s eeking n ew a reas f or d ry-season g razing. S omehow , o ut o f t hese i ngredients o f s orghum c ultivation a nd p astoralism, i n t he

t he m ixed f arming o f t he f irki a rea e volved a nd b y e arly

f irst m illennium A D t here c ommenced t he p rocess o f a gricultural

i ntensification t hat l ed t o i ncreased s edentism a nd,

u ltimately, t o t he

g rowth o f t he o ften h uge s ettlement m ounds t hat c haracterise t hese c lay p lains. O ne i s t empted t o a sk w hy t his p rocess o f i ntensification t ook p lace.

I nevitably,

s ible e xplanation.

i n t his e nvironment, o ne t urns t o s tress a s a p osIh ave e xplained h ow t he f irki c lay p lains o ffer

c onsiderable o pportunities f or t hose w ho a re a ble t o a dapt t o t heir c onsiderable c onstraints.

Ih ave a lso c ommented o n t he d rought o f t he

e arly 1 970s a nd o f 1 913-1914, a nd h istorical r ecords r efer t o f amines I n B orno, a s tate t hat g rew u p i n t he n orth-east o f N igeria i n t he m iddle o f t he s ixteenth c entury A D ( Hunwick

1 971:207)

s econd h alf o f t he s eventeenth c entury a nd t he e ighteenth c entury A D ( Adeleye d roughts h ave,

1 971:504-5).

a nd d uring t he

f irst h alf o f t he

I t i s l ikely t hat p eriodic

i ndeed, b een a f eature o f t he c limate o f t his a rea f or

t he l ast t wo o r t hree m illennia.

G iven t hat t he a rea w as u sually a

r elatively p roductive o ne, t here w as c learly a s trong i ncentive t o I ntensify t he a gricultural s ystem o f t he c lay p lains i n o rder t o s urvive t he d ry y ears. t his,

R ecessional c ultivation w as o ne w ay o f d oing

p astoral t ranshumance w as a nother.

C ombined,

t hey p rovided a

s trategy t hat c ould p roduce a s urplus i n g ood y ears a nd c ould a lso c ope w ith a ll b ut t he c ruelest y ears. f ace o f a n o ld m an a t S angaya i n f amine,

Ic an s till r emember t he l ook o n t he 1 978 a s h e r ecalled t he

w hen h e h imself m ust h ave b een a t av ery i mpressionable a ge.

M odu R awa t ranslated h is w ords f or m e

' I s aw a y oung g irl d ie'

' a y oung g irl w ho o nly j ust h ad b reasts. e yes.

1 913-1914

S he d ied o f h unger'.

h e s aid

Is ay h er d ie w ith m y o wn

T hat s ort o f e xperience i s e nough t o m ake

m ost h uman b eings t ry h arder a nd, a s Iu nderstand m atters, i t w as i nc reased l abour-input t hat c haracterised

p rehistoric

i ntensive a gricul-

t ure.

A cknowledgements D etailed a cknowledgements t o t he m any p eople a nd

i nstitutions t hat

h ave a ssisted m e i n m y B orno r esearch o ver t he y ears w ill b e C onnah ( 1981). e ver,

T he

f ound i n

1 978 f ieldwork a t S angaya d iscussed a bove w as, h ow-

p art o f a p rogramme o f r esearch w ork t hat w as m ade p ossible b y a

g rant f rom t he N igerian

F ederal

D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd c onsider7 82

a ble p ractical a ssitance f rom t he C entre a t A hmadu B ello U niversity,

Z aria.

T he

f or N igerian C ultural S tudies

f ieldwork w as c onducted w ith t he

p ermission o f t he t hen M ilitary G overnor o f B orno S tate a nd w ith t he c ooperation o f H is H ighness, t he S hehu o f D ikwa.

T here w ere m any o ther

p eople w ho a lso h elped a nd m y d ebt t o M odu R awa o f S angaya, a nd t o t he p eople o f S angaya i n g eneral,

i s o bvious.

R eferences c ited A deleye,

R .A.

1 971

H ausaland a nd B ornu

e dited b y J .F .A .

1 600-1800.

A jayi a nd M .

I n H istory o f W est Africa ,

C rowder,

V ol.

1 , p p.484-530.

L ondon. B awden,

M .G.

1 972

G eomorphology.

e dited b y P . B ayliss-Smith, 1 982

I n T he L and R esources o f N orth E ast N igeria ,

T uley,

V ol.

T he E cology o f A gricultural S ystems.

P ress, B urnham,

S urbiton.

C ambridge U niversity

C ambridge.

P .

1 980

C hanging a gricultural a nd

A frican s avanna r egion. E nvironments, C lark,

1 , p p.60-70 & m ap 2 .

T .P.

J .D. a nd A .

1 975

p astoral e cologies i n t he W est

I n H uman E cology i n S avanna

e dited b y D .R.

H arris,

p p.147-170.

L ondon.

S temler

E arly d omesticated s orghum f rom C entral S udan.

N ature

2 54:588-591. C onnah,

G .

1 981

T hree T housand Y ears i n Africa: m an a nd h is e nvironment i n

t he L ake C had r egion o f N igeria .

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C ambridge. C onnah,

G .

I n p ress.

A n a rchaeological e xploration i n s outhern B orno.

T he

African A rchaeological R eview 2 . C onnah,

G . a nd J .

1 982

J emkur

P rospecting t he 3 000 B P b arrier:

B orno

1 981.

N yame A kuma

2 0:35-43. C urtis,

D .L.

1 965

S orghum i n W est A frica.

D alziel,

J .M.

1 937

T he U seful P lants o f W est T ropical A frica.

t he C olonies, d e L eeuw , 1 972

1 971

C rown A gents f or

L ondon.

P .N. e t a l. P resent a nd p otential l and u se.

N orth E ast N igeria , d e W et,

F ield C rop A bstracts 1 8:145-152.

J .M.J. a nd J .R.

e dited b y P .

I n T he L and R esources o f

T uley,

V ol.

4 .

S urbiton

H arlan

T he o rigin a nd d omestication o f S orghum b icolor.

B otany 2 5:128-135.

E conomic

d e W et,

J .M.J.,

1 976

J .R.

H arlan a nd E .G .

V ariability i n S orghum b icolor.

D omestication , S temler, D oggett,

H arlan ,

J .M.J . d e W et a nd A .B .L.

T he H ague.

S orghum .

L ondon.

A .T.

1 973

An ote o n t he r emarkably l ow r ainfall o f t he S udan Z one i n

1 913. G rove,

S avanna 2 :133-138.

A .T. a nd A . W arren

1 968

Q uaternary l andforms a nd c limate o n t he s outh s ide o f t he

S ahara. H all,

e dited b y J .R .

p p.453-463.

I n O rigins o f A frican P lant

H .

1 970 G rove,

P rice

G eographical J ournal

1 34:194-208.

A .E. e t a l.

1 979

A griculture i n S emi-Arid E nvironments.

H arlan,

J .R.

1 969

a nd J .

P asquereau

D gcrue a griculture i n M ali.

H arlan,

J .R.

1 976

a nd A .

E conomic B otany 2 3:70-74.

S temler

T he r aces o f s orghum i n A frica.

D omestication , S temler, H olden, 1 972

e dited b y J .R .

p p.465-478.

M . a nd W .

I n O rigins o f A frican P lant

H arlan,

J .M.J . d e W et a nd A .B .L.

T he H ague.

R eed

W est African F reshwater F ish.

H unwick,

L ondon.

J .0.

1 971

S onghay,

B ornu a nd H ausaland i n t he s ixteenth c entury.

H istory o f W est Africa , e dited b y J .F .A. V ol. i bn

1 , p p.202-239.

F artua, 1 926

A .

A jayi a nd M .

I n

C rowder,

L ondon.

( translated H .R.

P almer)

H istory o f t he F irst T welve Y ears o f t he R eign o f M ai I dris

A looma o f B ornu I som,

B erlin.

( 1571-1583).

L agos.

W .H. a nd G .F . W orker

1 979

C rop m anagement i n s emi-arid e nvironments.

i n S emi-Arid E nvironments , a nd J ames,

H .W. L awton,

e dited b y A .E .

p p.200-223.

H all,

I n A griculture G .H.

C annell

B erlin.

A .R.

1 973

D rought c onditions i n t he p ressure w ater z one o f N orth-Eastern

N igeria: J ames,

s ome p rovisional o bservations.

S avanna 2 :108-114.

A .R.

1 977

L ivestock M ovements i n N orth-East N igeria. U npublished P h.D.

d issertation, K rzyzaniak, 1 978

U niversity o f C ambridge.

L .

N ew l ight o n e arly f ood-production i n t he C entral S udan.

J ournal o f African H istory 1 9:159-172. L awton, 1 979

H .W. a nd P .J. W ilke A ncient a gricultural s ystems i n d ry r egions.

i n S emi-Arid E nvironments ,

e dited b y A .E .

a nd H .W.

B erlin.

L awton,

p p.1-44.

7 84

H all,

I n A griculture G .H.

C annell

M ortimore, 1 972

M .J.

L and a nd

p opulation p ressure i n t he K ano C lose-Settled Z one,

N orthern N igeria. S ahara , M unson,

I n P eople a nd L and i n Africa S outh o f t he

e dited b y R .M.

P rothero,

p p.60-70.

L ondon.

P .J.

1 971

T he T ichitt T radition: a l ate p rehistoric o ccupation o f t he

s outhwestern S ahara . U npublished P h.D. d issertation,

D epartment

o f A nthropology, U niversity o f I llinois. S cudder,

T .

1 980

R iver-basin d evelopment a nd l ocal i nitiative i n A frican

s avanna e nvironments.

I n H uman E cology i n S avanna E nvironments ,

e dited b y D .R. H arris, S ikes,

p p.383-405.

L ondon.

S .K.

1 972 S treet,

Lake C had. F .A.

1 976

a nd A .T.

f luctuations i n A frica.

N ature 2 61:385-390.

J .E.G.

1 978 W hite,

G rove

E nvironmental a nd c limatic i mplications o f l ate Q uaternary

l ake-level S utton,

L ondon.

E ngaruka a nd i ts w aters.

A zania 1 3:37-70.

S .

1 941

N otes o n m ixed f arming a s p ractised b y s ome S huwa A rabs i n

p arts o f D ikwa E mirate.

F arm a nd F orest 2 :24-26.

7 85

S OME F ACETS O F A qPICULTURAL I NTENSIFICATION I N E ARLY S OUTH A SIA

A mareswar G alla

a neka-hiramna-kodigosatasahasa-hala-satasahasa-padäyi =S IC:

aneka-hiranya-koti-go-satasahaera-hala-satasahasra-pradäyin

O ne w ho b estowed m any c rores o f g old c ows

a nd h undreds

( coins),

o f t housands o f h ala(s)

h undreds o f t housands o f

( plough m easures

o f l and)

( An e pithet o f t he f ounder o f t he f irst l ocal d ynasty.)

T his p aper a ims a t u nderstanding t he b eginnings o f a gricultural i nt ensification i n e arly A ndhra P radesh i n t ropical

S outh

I ndia.

W hile

t he v ariations i n r elief h ardly a ccount f or a ny s ignificant d ifferences i n t emperature, r ainfall

t hey h ave i mportant b earing o n t he d istribution o f

( Figure

1 ). T he d rainage p attern i s m arked b y t wo p erennial

r ivers, t he K rishna a nd t he G odavari,

a nd a n umber o f s maller r ivers

a nd s treams. T he l ower b asins o f t he r ivers a re v ery f ertile a s c omp ared t o t he i nland b lack a nd r ed s oils.

T he P andukal o r M egalithic

s ites n ot o nly a bound o n t he l evees o f t he l ower K rishna b asin b ut a re w idespread a lso i n t he d rier I I).

i nland d istricts

( Galla

1 982:6-13,

F igure

I t w as t he f ormer w hich b ecame t he e arly n ucleus o f a gricultural

i ntensification. T he q uestion o f a gricultural i ntensification, a n o ngoing p rocess i n S outh A sia,

c an b e d elimited n either i n s pace n or

m illennium B C ,

I n t he t hird

w hile a gricultural s urpluses e nabled t he g enesis o f

u rban c entres w ith s ubstantial p opulations i n t he i ng r egions,

i n t ime.

I ndus a nd t he a djoin-

t he l arger p art o f t he s ub-continent w as s till o ccupied b y

m ore h umble c ommunities w ith m eagre o r n o k nowledge o f a griculture.

T wo

t housand y ears l ater, w hile t he G angetic b asin w itnessed t he g rowth o f n umerous u rban c entres, s till o n t he

a ll t he a djacent a reas a ppear t o h ave b een

f ringes o f f ood-production.

E ven t o t his d ay, w hile I ndia

i s v irtually s elf-sufficient i n f oodgrains,

t here s till r emains c uls-

d e-sac w here h unting-gathering p eople c ontinue. t hat t he

I t i s n ot s urprising

p rocess o f i ntensification w as a r elatively l ate p henomenon i n

A ndhra P radesh. V arious d efinitions o f i ntensive a griculture h ave b een f ormulated o ver t he

p ast

f ew d ecades.

I n a m odern c ontext,

s tood i n t erms o f i ncreased y ields p er h ectare. t ext,

i t i s p opularly u nderI n a p re-modern c on-

I s hall t entatively u nderstand i t a s a s ystem i n w hich a l arge 7 87

F igure 1 : R elief a nd m ean a nnual r ainfall, A ndhra P radesh .

, . . . .. .,

v ‘ v "-‚ 3 , I , . '\ ••,, i . 1 ‘. . „ .

K a l in0 , 10 . 10 1 1

* . • •

. (

-

, • ,1 7 ‘ -- ', • • — ,

•

/ . ,— — ‚

, . ' 1., .

•B h imumpens en

•Sw im .. 1 , -

. " •

: 1, t h epu re en

D A LRF : ' • 5 • -°

t . > . . .. . •

t , e

• o .

A .

#un ‘ . n . a u • l o ik 5 17 0 1. 1: ; s

• . * . •

* ,

g •.. ‘

. . , *

* G * u

\

. *

• G d '9 1:' I s Crh '1 i pa tnam

B err i , & Mk

1

t

O ngo le

1A l empu r 2N • pa rpne honda 3C handeve rem 4D ha ren .ko te 5 Vo l yawa c la

/

r

e

, \

**

* e

‘.

e,

* . t

1 *NN W*

•P anduka l o r ' Mega l i th ic s i tes o P anduka l-ea r ly h i s tor ica l s i tes

%

•E ar ly h is to r ica l s i tes . ‘

1 0 0

F igure 2 : A rchaeological s ites i n A ndhra P radesh, B .C .300-300A .D . 7 88

a mount o f l abour i nput i s a n i mportant f actor i n a grarian a ctivity t o i ncrease p roduction. i ts c haracter t he

T here a re a n umber o f o ther v ariables w hich m ould

f rom r egion t o r egion.

T he t ransition t o s uch a s ystem o r

p rocess o f i ntensification i nvolves f urther q uestions.

a q uestion o f i ncreased l abour i nput? I f s o,

I s i t m erely

h ow w as t he l abour o rgan-

i sed? A re t here a ny t echnological c hanges i nvolved?

I s t here a n i n-

c rease i n c ropping f requency? A re a ny n ew c rops i ntroduced?

W hat a re

t he i deological f actors b ehind i t? T hese a re s ome o f t he q uestions r aised i n t he s tudy o f t he a grarian h istory o f e arly S outh A sia. F or c onvenience,

t he p eriod u nder s tudy h as b een d ivided i nto t wo

p hases b ased o n t he d ominant c ultural r emains.

T he f irst, d ealing w ith

t he t hree c enturies p rior t o t he C hristian e ra,

i s m arked b y t he

b urials o f t he P andukal c omplex b elonging t o t he e arly I ron A ge o f S outh I ndia

( Ramachandran

1 971;

L eshnik 1 974:1-13).

E vidence, h owever

m eagre, r elating t o t he e xternal i nfluences i n t he r egion a nd t o c onseq uent d evelopments h as a lso b een d iscussed. i ng t he f ollowing f our c enturies,

T he s econd p hase, c ompris-

i s d ominated b y e arly h istorical

s ettlements a nd m onuments a nd a l arge c orpus o f i nscriptions w hich a re m ainly B uddhist i n n ature

( Galla

1 982:217-223)

b rackets a re n ot m utually e xclusive.

( Figure 2 ).

T hese t ime

I n f act, t he e arly i nscriptions

d ate b ack t o t he f ourth-third c enturies B C w hile t he P andukal t radition c ontinued i nto t he p resent e ra. T he b eneficiaries o f i ntensive a griculture w ere t he p eople o f t he l atter p hase,

a nd e vidence f rom t he

f ormer h elps u s t o u nderstand t he

n ature o f t he c hanges t hat c ame a bout. T he d earth o f e vidence, h owever, h as p ut c onsiderable l imitations o n t he u nderstanding o f t he s ocial a rrangements i nvolving t he u se o f l and a nd i ts p roducts.

I t i s t he e vi-

d ence f rom t he P allava a nd o ther r ecords o f t he s ubsequent c enturies w hich i llustrates t he e ssence o f a grarian r elations w hich e ndured u ntil r ecent t imes

( Dirks

1 976 ;

S tein

1 980:63-89).

T he e xtent o f t he p re-Pandukal c ultures i n A ndhra P radesh a nd e lsewhere i n S outh I ndia i s s till v ery a mbiguous.

I n a ny c ase,

t here

i s e nough e vidence t o c onclude t hat t he n umbers o f a rchaeological s ites i ncreased c onsiderably d uring t he P andukal p hase

( Leshnik

1 974:251-

2 53; D eo 1 978:11-12). W ithin a s pan o f f ive t o s ix c enturies t hey s pread a ll o ver A ndhra w ith a s ignificant v ariation i n t he b urial m ethods.

P andukal r emains o ccur p rincipally i n t he i nland d istricts,

w ith s ignificant c lusters i n t he i nland t a/uks o f t he G untur d istrict o n t he c oast. E xcept

f or t he s ites a long t he R iver G odavari, t he m ajority o f

P andukal a re i n d ry a reas w ith p oor s avannah s crub.

T hey o ccur

m ostly a mong g ranite o utcrops a nd a reas w ith l imestone a nd s andstone i n G untur d istrict.

A lthough t hey p redominate i n l ands u nsuitable f or 7 89

c ultivation, a f ew a re i n a rable t racts ( Figure 2 ).

A s n ew l ands w ere

r equired f or s lash-and-burn a griculture, a nd a s f resh p astures n eeded f or c attle,

i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t hese p eople w ere c onfined t o

d rier a reas w here t he p astures a nd v egetation w ere m ore c ongenial f or s emi-sedentary l ife.

T he h eavier r ainfall o f t he c oastal d istricts,

e specially n orth o f t he R iver K rishna, w ould h ave i mpeded m ovement. T he d ecisive f actor, h owever, w as t hat r aw m aterial i n t he f orm o f g ranite b oulders w as r eadily a vailable f or t he s tone t ombs i n t he i nland d istricts. V ery f ew h abitational s ites o f t hese p eople h ave b een d iscovered. T he P andukal s ites i n A ndhra P radesh h ave n ot y ielded a ny a rchitectural r emains i n t he h abitational s trata a nd a ppear t o r epresent p eriodic c amps o f s mall i tinerant g roups.

T he p redominantly m artial c omponent o f

t he g rave g oods, t he b urial o f a nimal r emains,

e specially d og, a nd t he

n ature o f a gricultural i mplements l ead u s t o s upport t he v iew t hat t hey w ere n omads p robably p ractising s ome f orm o f s emi-sedentary a griculture ( Leshnik

1 974:247-248;

G alla

1 982:14-15).

I t w ould a ppear t hat n o n ew c rops n or a ny n ew s ystem o f a griculture w ere i ntroduced b y t he I ron A ge p eople b ut u ntil w e h ave m ore d ata o n t he a gricultural p ractices b efore t he P andukal p hase,

i t w ill b e

d ifficult t o m ake a ny i nferences a s t o t he c hanges b rought a bout.

S ome

o f t he p eriodic c amps e xcavated d epict a c ontinuity f rom t he p receding N eolithic t o t he P andukal p eriods.

T here a ppears t o b e ar emarkable

s imilarity i n t he e conomic b ase o f b oth c ultures. T he P andukal p eople,

h owever,

i ntroduced i ron t echnology,

w hich

b ecame u biquitous i n S outh I ndia a nd q uite r apidly s upplanted t he g round s tone a xe i ndustry,

a nd i ron t ools w ere i n e xtensive u se b y t he

e nd o f t he m illennium ( Leshnik 1 42ff ;

C hakrabarti

1 974:172-185;

1 977:182-183).

A grawal a nd K usumgar

1 974:

T he m etal t ools o f t hese p eople a re

p redominantly m artial r ather t han a gricultural a nd c annot b e u sed a s i ndicators o f a c hanged e conomy. H owever,

i ron h as b een a ttributed a s pecial p lace i n t he p rocess o f

i ntensification o f a griculture i n t he G angetic v alley 1 974,

( Sharma

1 973,

1 975:2-3). W hile t he i ron a xe f acilitated t he c learance o f

j ungles o f d eep-rooted,

h ard-fibred t ree&f t he i ron-tipped p lough m ade

i t e asy t o t ill t he h eavier s oils o f t he p lains.

I n

f act, i ron i s c on-

s idered a s t he s ingle f actor w hich b rought a bout a t ransformation i n t he m aterial c ulture o f t he p eople, e nabling t he p roduction o f a s ocial s urplus. W hile b ronze t echnology, w ith a s cratch p lough o r a rd w as p robably a dequate t o e xploit t he l ighter s oils o f t he 1 970;

T hapar

1 973),

I ndus r egion ( Lal

t he u se o f i ron i s c onsidered c rucial i n t he

G angetic v alley f or t he a bovementioned r easons, v ation o f r ice. 7 90

p robably t he c ulti-

Ar ange o f i ron t ools a re k nown.

I n t he P andukal g raves o f A ndhra

P radesh i ron a xes h ave b een r ecovered.

I n a ddition, s ickles, a multi-

p urpose c utting i mplement, a nd b illhooks h ave a lso b een w idely f ound. T hese b y t hemselves d o n ot n ecessarily i mply a griculture.

T here i s

c onsiderable d ispute o ver t he e xact n ature o f t he a rtifacts c ategorised a s

' ploughshares'.

T hey d o n ot h ave a s ocket b ut r ather s traight s ided

f langes w hich c ould g rip t he s ides o f a w ooden s hoe o r k nee s haft. T hey a re n arrow a nd s mall, o nly 2 0 t o 2 8 c m l ong. o ur e vidence,

I n t he p resent s tate o f

i t i s d ifficult t o a scertain w hether t hey a re p lough-

s hares o r a rdshares,

p ick-axes,

q uarrying o r t ool-making i mplements

( F .R. A llchin 1 954:441; D eo

1 978:8;

L eshnik 1 974:180-1,

2 13).

E ven i f

t hese w ere t o b e c onsidered

p loughshares o r m ore p recisely a rdshares,

t hey s uggest t he u se o f a l ight, s cratch p lough i n d ryland c ultivation, w hich w ould h ave b een p robably u nsuitable f or i ntensive a griculture. M oreover,

s uch a t ool w ould h ave b een l ight e nough t o m anoeuvre a round

r oots a nd t ree t runks, w hich a re o ften l eft u ncleared i n s lash-and-burn t ype a griculture.

A ll o f t hese f inds a re r elatively l ate a nd c an

r oughly b e d ated t o t he l ast c entury B C.

T heir d istribution i n A ndhra

P radesh a nd t o t he n orth o f N agpur i n c entral

I ndia m akes t heir i ntro-

d uction f rom t he G angetic v alley a p ossibility. T he p lough i tself W as n ot i ndispensable i n t he t racts w here t he P andukal

p eople o perated.

D uring t he d ry s ummer m onths,

t he B lack

C otton s oils a nd o ther s oils i n t he i nland d istricts, l ose m oisture a nd s hrink c onsiderably.

T he r esultant d eep g aping c racks i n t he s oil

l et i n a bundant a ir a nd s unshine.

S ufficient a eration i s a chieved b y

t his n atural p rocess w ithout a ny a rtificial m eans o f i ntervention ( Leshnik

1 973:81-82) a nd t his h as g iven r ise t o av ery a ppropriate

s aying t hat h owever,

' the B lack C otton s oil p loughs i tself '.

S uch a m ethod,

w ould h ave p ermitted a r elatively l ow l evel o f p roductivity.

S imilarly,

i ron t ools w ere n ot i ndispensable f or e xtensive a griculture.

T he B lack C otton s oils o f M aharashtra a ppear t o h ave b een c ultivated w ithout i ron t ools ( Leshnik 1 973:80). N umerous h oes o f t wo c ategories h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he g raves.

A l ong, n arrow s pud w ith o verlapping s ide f langes a t t he b utt

w as p robably u sed f or d igging u p r oots a nd t ubers ( Leshnik 1 974:180). T he s econd t ype h ad a l ong o r s hort b road b lade w ith a c onvex t ip a nd i nturned

s ide f langes a t t he b utt.

T hese a re m ulti-purpose t ools w hich

a re u seful n ot o nly f or t he p reparation o f s eed b eds b ut a lso f or t hinning b roadcast c rops, w eeding, r idging a nd s o o n. T he

p oorer s oils o f t he i nland d istricts a nd t he m eagre r ainfall

w ere s uitable f or p asture a nd t he r ed

f orage c rops

( Alam

1 974:III-IV).

W hile

s oils l ocated a t h igher l evels i n t he T elangana d istricts w as

p oor i n o rganic m atter a nd c ould h ardly r etain m oisture,

t he B lack

C otton s oils a re n ot o nly r ich i n n utrients b ut a lso h ave a g ood 7 91

c apacity t o a bsorb a nd r etain g reat a mounts o f w ater.

H owever, a s a

r esult o f t he m eagre r ainfall, a griculture i n t he i nland d istricts i s e ntirely d ependent u pon d ry-farming t echniques.

T he c rops i ncluded

r agi a nd j owar w hich p rovided f ood b oth f or c attle a nd f or

m illets,

h uman b eings.

T he s traw f rom t hese w as u sed a s f odder

f or c attle a nd a

h ay-fork h as b een t entatively i dentified n ear H yderabad ( Guraraja R ao 1 972:204). T here i s a rchaeobotanical e vidence f or r ice c ultivation d uring t his p eriod b ut g iven t he s mall a mounts o f w ater, t he d ry v ariety, m ust h ave b een l imited. i nto S outh

i ts c ultivation,

I t w as p robably i ntroduced

I ndia s ome t ime b efore t he t urn o f t he e ra.

g rown d uring t his p eriod a re p ulses, a nd c otton.

e ven o f

T he o ther c rops

s uch a s g reen g ram a nd h orsegram,

T erracotta s pindle w horls f rom t he P andukal b urials o f

N agarjunakonda a nd o ther p laces i n A ndhra P radesh s uggest t hat c otton w as g rown

( Subrahmanyam

1 975:167 ,

1 74 ,

1 76 a nd

1 82).

T he B lack C otton

s oils o f t he i nland d istricts a re i deal f or g rowing c otton. c otton i s a r abi c rop,

A lthough

i t m ust h ave b een c ultivated w herever

p ossible, b ut t he p reference w as o bviously f or f ood g rains.

C otton,

h owever b ecame q uite i mportant i n e arly h istorical t imes. A n i mportant a speci , o f t he c ultivation o f f oodgrains w as t he a vailability o f w ater, a nd s ince t he P andukal p eople o perated i n t he d rier d istricts, h ow d id t hey c ope w ith t he s hortage o f w ater? i rrigation i n A ndhra P radesh, a s i n t he r est o f I ndia, b ack i nto r emote a ntiquity, w ith e xactitude.

W hile

s eems t o e xtend

i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish i ts b eginnings

A n i mportant f eature o f t he s ettlements o f t he

N eolithic p eople o f s outhern I ndia w as t he t erracing o f h ills.

T his

h elped n ot o nly i n c onserving s oil b ut a lso i n m aintaining m oisture a fter t he m onsoon. S uch t erracing i s c onsidered b y A llchin a nd A llchin ( 1968:261)

a s a s tep t owards t he e arth a nd s tone e mbankments o f t he

P andukal p eople.

I s i t s urprising t hen t hat t hey d evised m eans o f

c ollecting t he w aters o f s treams i n n atural h ollows a nd a rtificial b asins f or a gricultural p urposes? S ome e vidence f or t his p eriod h as b een d iscovered i n S outh I ndia ( Brinivas a nd B annerjee

1 953:103; W heeler

1 959:163).

T he r eservoirs,

o ften r eferred t o a s t anks, w ere a lways v ery i ngeniously p laced a t t he f oot o f m ountain s lopes w here w aters g ather o r i nfiltration s ources a ppear.

T heir i mmediate c ontact w ith a rable p lains,

a nd t heir

d imensions r elative t o t he s ize o f t he t errain t hey h ad t o w ater, a re s till t o b e i nvestigated.

C onsidering t he c ommunal e ffort i nvolved i n

b uilding t heir m onuments,

i t i s n ot i mpossible t o a ppreciate h ow t he

P andukal p eople b egan t o c onstruct t anks. T ank i rrigation w as p ractised o n a l arge s cale i n b oth t he i nland a nd c oastal d istricts s outh o f t he R iver K rishna i n A ndhra P radesh. t errain w as s uitable f or t his t ype o f i rrigation a nd t here w ere a lso

T he

m any l arge h ollows w here w ater c ollects d uring t he r ainy s eason.

T he

m ajority o f t hese t anks h ad a l arge w ater s urface i n r elation t o v olume, r esulting i n r apid e vaporation 2 ).

S eepage w as a lso h igh.

( Spate a nd L earmonth 1 967:231-

W ith t he e xception o f a f ew c ases, t hese

t anks m ust h ave b een s easonal.

T hus t he a gricultural s ystem r equired

s purts o f a ctivity a fter t he r ains.

D uring t he d ry m onths, r elieved o f

t he a gricultural t asks, t hey p robably m igrated t o a reas w here t hey w orked o n t he s tone c hambers f or t heir d ead. A nother

s ource o f w ater w as w ells.

T he e arly I ndian t exts n ot o nly

r efer t o t he u se o f w ells b ut a lso g ive d etails o f t he a ctual d rawing o f w ater ( Adiceam

1 966:154-161).

C onsidering t hat t he P andukal p eople

w ere l ocated i n s emi-arid a reas, w e m ust a ccept t heir u se o f g roundw ater.

I t i s v ery p robable t hat t he e xcavation o f f unerary c averns l ed

t o t he d iscovery o f t hese w aters, ( Casal a nd

C asal

1 959).

a nd w e h ave s ome e vidence f or t his

T he W ells a nd c hannels o f t his p eriod,

e specially w hen t hey a re r udimentary, a fford o nly m eagre e vidence a nd d isappear w ithout l eaving a t race. W ells w ere p robably n ot l ined.

T he

d earth o f h abitational s ites a lso m akes i t d ifficult t o a scertain t he i rrigation p ractices. T hroughout t he P anaukal p hase, t here w as a g radual d evelopment i n c ommunication n etworks w ith t he o utside r egions, a nd e specially w ith t he G angetic b asin. T his i s n ot t o s uggest t hat A ndhra P radesh w as f orm erly a n i solated r egion.

O n t he c ontrary,

i ts P andukal c ulture w as

p art o f a c omplex c overing t he w hole o f p eninsular

I ndia.

T he t rade

l inks o f t he r egion w ith t he r est o f I ndia h ave b een s tudied e lsewhere ( Galla n .d.(a)).

S uch l inks b ecame m ore s ignificant w hen t he i ntro-

duction o f B uddhism a nd t he M auryan p enetration o f A ndhra P radesh, l ed t o t he i nflux o f n ew i deas a nd i nstitutions,

w hich i n t urn l ed t o

g radual c hanges b ringing a bout a s tructural t ransformation i n t he s ubsequent c enturies. A n i mportant a spect o f t he n ew d evelopments w as t he i ntroduction o f t he e arly B rah e i s cript.

T he e arliest e xtant e vidence o f w riting i n

A ndhra P radesh, r oughly d ated t o t he f ourth c entury B C, i s f rom A marav ati.

I t

i s i n t he f orm o f a p otsherd,

t he i nner s urface o f w hich w as

r oughly i ncised w ith B rah e l etters r eading " ... s ame s ite h as y ielded a lso,

T he

e vidence f or M auryan a uthority i n t he

r egion o n a p illar i nscription o f A soka. a s cript,

t husa p ata ..".

T hus w ith t he i ntroduction o f

w e h ave a n umber o f i nscriptions w hich p rovide s ome e vidence

f or u nderstanding t he c hanging a grarian s ituation. T hese r ecord n ot o nly c ollective d onations m ade b y v illages a nd a nonymous c ommunities,

b ut a lso t hose b y i ndividuals.

T he l atter o ften

b ear o fficial d esignations a nd i ndicate a n i ncipient l ocal p ower

7 93

s tructure.

T he v arious o fficials w ith M auryan t ype d esignations, s uch

a s anagapa,

k umara i ndicate t he i mpact o f t he e xtension o f M auryan

a uthority i n t he r egion ( Galla

1 982:173).

T he m ention o f a f ew v illages

( ga ms), a lthough i mportant, c annot

b e s tretched t o c over t he w hole r egion u nder s tudy, a nd n ature i s u nknown.

f or t heir e xtent

T hey m ay h ave b een t he f irst s ettlements o f t he

r egion t o r eceive t he p recepts o f B uddhism.

A s m entioned e arlier,

u nless t he N eolithic-Chalcolithic a nd P andukal p eriods o f A ndhra a re s tudied i n d etail,

i t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand t he n ature o f t hese

e arly s ettlements i n t he a rea. G ama o r g rama m ay m ean a h amlet o r at emporary s ettlement.

T hey m ay

v ery w ell h ave b een t he f irst s ettlements o f k in g roups i n A ndhra P radesh.

I n t he V edas a g rama,often r eferred n ot t o a p lace,

e xtended k in-group, a s ept o r s ub-section o f a t ribe.

b ut t o a n

I n s uch a c ase,

i t i s o nly r easonable t hat s ome o f t he e arly d onations s hould b e c orporate i n n ature. S ome i nscriptions r efer t o t he n igama o f D hfnyakataka w hich i s i dentified a s m odern D haranikota.

I n a ncient t imes,

j acent B uddhist e stablishment, t he m odern A maravati.

i t i ncluded t he a dT he u nnamed n igama

f rom B hattiprolu i nscriptions m ay b e e ither D hfnyakataka o r a nother s ettlement. t own,

T he t erm n igama h as b een u nderstood a s a m arket t own, a

a t ownship a nd a d istrict ( Wagle

1 966:21,

1 65-166; G hosh

1 973:

4 6). D hfnyakataka w as a n i ncipient u rban c entre d uring t his p eriod.

T he

e arliest e vidence f or p ermanent s ettlements i n A ndhra P radesh c omes f rom t his p lace, c hannel

( Galla

w hich i ncludes a w ooden w harf a butting a n avigation

1 982:115).

T he l argest n umber o f i nscriptions r ecording

d onations o f t he p re-Christian e ra c ome

f rom t his p lace.

I t w as h ere

t hat t he f irst a gricultural s urpluses b ecame a vailable t o s upport o fficials,

t raders a nd m onks n ot i nvolved i n f ood

p roduction.

T he g rowth o f t rade w as a ccompanied b y t he s pread o f B uddhism , w hich a ppears t o h ave b een i ntroduced i nto A ndhra P radesh e ven b efore t he r eign o f A soka ( Galla

1 982:115).

T he b eginnings o f t he S tnpa a t

k maravati h ave b een a ttributed t o a p re-Asokan p eriod d atable t o t he f ourth c entury B C .

A f ew o ther B uddhist s ettlements c ame i nto b eing i n

t he p re-Christian e ra a t p alli,

J aggayyapeta,

G oli a nd s o o n, a ll i n t he l ower

B hattiprolu ,

K esanapalli,

K rishna v alley.

G untu-

T he e xistence

o f B uddhist s tnpas a nd m onasteries c alls i nto q uestion t he n ature o f t he a gricultural h interland, a s t hese r epresent f or t he f irst t ime a c ategory o f p eople w ho w ere n ot f ood

p roducers.

T he o nly p laces w hich

h ave b een s ystematically e xcavated a re N agarjunakonda a nd Y eleswaram b ut t hese h ave y ielded h ardly a ny B uddhist r emains o f t he p re-Christian 7 94

e ra.

A t p resent, d etailed s tudy o f t he a vailable m aterial h as s hown

t hat i t i s i mpossible t o f ind a ny s ignificant s ettlements i n o ur r egion p rior t o t he

f irst c entury B C , w ith t he s ingle e xception o f

D hänyakataka.

I t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he M auryan p enetration i s t he

m ost o bvious a t t his p lace. W e c an s ummarise t he a grarian s ituation o f t he P andukal p eople a s f ollows. T hey o perated m ainly i n t he d rier i nland d istricts.

T heir

r emains s uggest a c ertain i ncrease i n p opulation d uring t his p eriod. T hey p ractised b oth p astoralism a nd a s emi-sedentary f orm o f a griculture, c ultivating f ood g rains t hat w ere m ore s uitable f or d ryland f arming.

C ultivation w as m ainly c entred a round t he h oe, a nd

s ome r udimentary i rrigation.

A lthough t hey w ere b etter e quipped t han

t heir N eolithic p redecessors w ith w hat t hey h ad a cquired o f i ron t echnology,

i ts u se w as r estricted t o w eapons.

a griculture w as o nly r ealised

I ts i mportance i n

i n t he s ubsequent c enturies.

W ith t he i ntroduction o f B uddhism, w ith t he d evelopment o f l ong d istance t rade,

a nd w ith t he e xtension o f M auryan a uthority i n t he

r egion, c ertain c hanges b egan t o t ake p lace. T here d eveloped i n t his a rea B uddhist e stablishments s upported b y t he s urplus f rom a f ew a grarian s ettlements w hich w ere p robably s mall a nd w hose g rowth b ecame n otable i n t he f ollowing c enturies.

S edentarisation o f t he P andukal

p eople b egan a nd D haranikota-Amaravati w as a lready e merging a s t he d ominant c entre.

I t w as h ere t hat t he f irst i mpact o f c hanges w as f elt,

a nd f rom h ere t hat n ew i deas a nd i nstitutions d iffused t o t he r est o f A ndhra P radesh. T he g rowth o f a grarian s ettlements i n t he e arly c enturies o f t he C hristian e ra w as r apid

( Figure 2 ).

W hile s ome o f t he s ites r eveal a

t ransition f rom t he P andukal p hase t o t he e arly h istorical p eriod, t he m ajority o f t he s ites w ere c oncentrated i n t he l ower K rishna-Godavari v alley a nd a long t he c oast.

T hus a n i ntensification o f a ctivity c an b e

s een i n t he t raditional a reas a nd a s pread t o t he w etter, b ut m ore f ertile v alley a nd c oastal r egions i s n oted. W hat t echnological c hanges c aused t his s purt o f a grarian s ettlem ents?

T he r emains o f e arly h istorical i ron t ools d o n ot s how a ny

r ecognisable a dvance o ver t he p revious p eriod.

I n

f act,

t he c lassifi-

c ation u sed f or t he P andukal p hase i s q uite a dequate f or t his p eriod. H owever,

t here w as n ow n ot o nly t he e xtensive u se o f i ron b ut a lso

t here i s e vidence o f s edentary b lacksmiths a nd t heir w orkshops ( Galla n .d.). F rom t he d oubtful e xistence o f t he p lough i n t he e arlier p eriod, .t here i s n ow d efinite i nscriptional e vidence. u sed i n t he e pigraphs o f t he I ksväkus, 7 95

T he t erm h ata c ommonly

l iterally m eans a p lough ( Sircar

1 966:125).

I t c ould h ave a lso b een u sed a s a u nit o f l and m easure.

c ontemporary i nscription r efers t o a d onation b y a o f o ne w ho o wns a p lough ( EI , t ion o f t he d onatrix, w ho,

X V :56;

L t iders

h a tik a

1 973:1084).

o r

A

t he w ife

T his d escrip-

f rom t he n ature o f t he d onative e pigraph

a ppears t o h ave b een w ealthy ,

c an t entatively b e i nterpreted

i n t erms

o f t he p restige a ssociated w ith b eing t he o wner o f a p lough.

I n t he

c ase o f t he p lough b eing a s tatus m arker, i t i s o nly n atural t o i nfer t hat t hey w ere n ot y et w idespread.

A ssociated w ith t he d onation o f

h undreds o f t housands o f h atas i s a lso t he d onations o f h undreds o f t housands o f c attle.

A lthough t he n umbers a re c onventional,

l east i nfer t hat c attle s o c rucial t o a griculture i n

w e c an a t

I ndia, w ere a lso

d onated. T he s ignificance o f t he u se o f t he

p lough h as b een e mphasised b y a

n umber o f h istorians o f I ndia ( Basham 1 967:196; 1 978:41).

F rom a p resent-day a nalogy,

S harma

i t a ppears t hat

1 973;

T hapar

p lough c ulti-

v ation a nd r ice c ultivation a re s ynonymous i n S outh I ndia.

B ut i n t he

i ntensive c ultivation o f p addy t racts t he p lough i s n ot i ndispensable. E ven t o t his d ay,

i n c ertain p arts o f S ri L anka,

I s c arried o ut e ffectively ( B.L.C.

J ohnson,

i ntensive h oe-farming

p ersonal c ommunication) a nd

d uring t he E do p eriod i n J apan t here i s a n e xcellent e xample of i ntensive h oe-farming o f r ice ( Horio

1 974).

An ecessary s trategy f or t he i ntensification a nd e xtension o f a gric ulture w as i rrigation. c enturies,

W hile i t h ad b een u ndertaken i n t he p revious

i rrigation b ecame m ore w idespread d uring t his p eriod.

c ontrol a nd u tilisation o f w ater w as i mperative,

e specially f or

T here i s e vidence f or a rtificial i rrigation o f t hree t ypes:

T he p addy.

s torage

i rrigation w ith i ts o rigins i n t he e xploitation o f n atural c atchment a reas; t he u se o f g ravity f low f or c anals o r i nundation;

a nd t he

e xcavation o f w ells. T he e arliest e vidence f or i rrigation i n S outh I ndia o ccurs i n A ndhra P radesh 1 923).

( Venkayya

1 903-4;

S arma

1 962 ;

A diceam

1 966; M .S.S.

T o w hat e xtent t his k nowledge h ad b een b orrowed

G angetic b asin i s d ifficult t o a scertain.

f rom t he

T here i s e vidence f or

a dvanced e ngineering s kills i n t he p receding c enturies, b oth i n I ndia a nd i n t he n eighbouring r egion o f K alinga 1 69).

S arma

( Sircar

N orth

1 965:40-41,

I f w e a ccept t hat t he M auryan p enetration c ould h ave g iven t he

s timulus,

i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he D haranikota s ettlement w hich

h ad d efinite t rade a nd p olitical l inks w ith t he G angetic b asin,

s hould

y ield t he e arliest e vidence f or s uch s kills. Ar eservoir s urrounded b y a n e mbankment d ating t o t his p eriod w as e xposed i n t he v icinity o f D haranikota

( I.A.A.R.

1 963-4:2). A t t he s ame

•s ite e xcavations h ave e xposed t he r emains o f a c hannel c onstructed i n v arious s tages.

A lthough i t w as u sed

f or n avigational p urposes,

s kills r equired t o c onstruct i t m ay v ery w ell h ave b een u sed f or

t he

i rrigation p urposes.

S imilarly u seful s kills c an b e i nferred f rom t he

e xcavations a t C handavaram w hich h ave r evealed t hree m onastic c omplexes o n a rtificial t erraces w ith r etaining w alls a nd ( I.A.A .R .

f lights o f s teps

1 976-77:9).

C ontemporary i nscriptions r ecord t he e xcavation o f r eservoirs ( Galla 1 982:35).

A n i nscription f rom A doni t aluk i n K urnool d istrict

r ecords t he c onstruction o f a r eservoir b y a h ouseholder ( grhapati ) o f t he v illage o f V 4puraka. S imilarly,

t here i s t he c onstruction o f a r es-

e rvoir n ear a B uddhist e stablishment b y a l ay-worshipper a long w ith h er r elatives.

B odhisiri

A N agarjunakonda i nscription r ecords t he c on-

s truction o f a t emple b y v arious i ndividuals w ith r oyal t itles, a nd a dds t he c onstruction o f t wo r eservoirs.

T here i s a lso a n i nscription

f rom A lluru i n N andigama t a/uk o f K rishna d istrict w hich r ecords t he d edication o f a n a lready e xisting r eservoir t o t he l ocal B uddhist c ommunity ( Gopalacari 1 976:94: '

A .

G alla n .d.(b)).

F rom N agarjunakonda t here i s a n e xcellent e xample o f t he u se o f g ravity f low. E xcavations h ave r evealed a c anal: i n w idth a nd a nd M isra A D ,

1 .82 m i n d epth ( I.A.A.R.

1 972:24).

1k m i n l ength,

1 954-55:22-23 ;

1 958-59:8;

9 .14 m S arkar

I t h as b een d ated t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies

w hen t he I ksvfku d ynasty r uled o ver t he l ower K rishna b asin w ith

t heir c apital a t V ijayapuri n ear t o t he c anal.

Ad etailed s tudy o f t he

c anal r eveals t hat t he g radient o f t he l and, t he s lopes o f t he h ills, a l ong s trip o f d epression a nd t he l ocal p attern o f s treams a nd r ivulets h ad b een c arefully s tudied b efore i ts c onstruction ( Sarma 1 962:3093 11).

I ts s loping e mbankments a nd

f loor w ere r einforced w ith a h ard

l ime g ravel m ixed w ith k ankar a nd s tones t o w ithstand t he s couring o f w ater. A r ubble w all a bout

1 .4 m w ide w as c onstructed o n t he s outhern

s ide, s o a s t o p revent a ny l andslips f rom t he a djoining h ill-slopes. T he c anal w as f ed b y r ainwater a nd s everal s treamlets. p urpose i s n ot c lear,

A lthough i ts

i rrigation m ust h ave b een i mportant. N o r eligious

o r s ecular r emains o ccur n ear t he c anal,

a nd t he m ain h abitational

a reas w ere 4 k m a way b etween i t a nd t he R iver K rishna. T here m ay h ave b een o ther w aterworks.

A n e xample i s f rom t he

m onastic a rea e ast o f t he c itadel i n t he s ame v alley w here a n i solated b rick d rain o r c hannel h as b een e xcavated.

I t r an f or a bout

e ast t o w est, t aking o ff f rom a b rick p latform ( 3.2 x 1 .6 m ) c overed w ith a t hick r ubble w all.

1 4.5 m f rom w hich w as

I t s erved a s a n e mbankment a gainst

t he w ater c oming f rom t he n earby h ills d uring t he r ains. w as p robably d esigned n ot o nly t o d ivert w ater

T he s tructure

f rom t he i mportant

b uildings i n t he l ow-lying a rea b ut a lso t o c ollect t he w ater i n a s torage a rea f or t he d ry s ummer m onths.

T hus, n atural c hannels m ay h ave

b een e xploited b y t he c onstruction o f a rtificial c ourses l eading o ff f rom t hem.

7 97

T here i s s ufficient a rchaeological f rom b oth i nland a nd c oastal d istricts 1 970-71:2;

1 976-77:4). M aterial

e vidence o f t he u se o f w ell. ; ( I.A.A.R.

1 962-63 ;

1 968-69:2;

f rom e xcavations, h owever, i s m ainly

f rom h abitational s ites a s t hese a re t he a reas e xplored a nd e xcavated. T here w ere n ot o nly r ing w ells b ut a lso w ells l ined w ith b ricks.

A t

P eddabankur, a rchaeologists h ave d iscovered r emains w hich a pparently w ere m eant f or t wo w ooden p oles c arrying a p ulley o ver a w ell t o d raw w ater

( I.A.A.R.

1 972-3:2).

N umerous o blong s haped w ells h ave b een

d iscovered i n N agarjunakonda

( Sarkar a nd M isra

1 972:24). T hey w ere

l ocated n ot o nly i n a nd a round t he c itadel b ut e ven a long t he r iver b ank.

T he l atter m ay h ave a cquired g reater i mportance i n t he h ot

s eason w hen t he r iver b ed w as d ry.

I n f act, w hile t he r ole o f w ells

w ould h ave b een o f a s upplementary n ature i n t he c oastal d istricts w here p lenty o f w ater w as a vailable, t hey w ould h ave b een c rucial a nd i n s ome p laces t he o nly s ource i n t he i nland d istricts

( I.A.A.R.

1 971-

2 :2). A lthough t he w ells i n t he h abitational s ites, m ainly f or d omestic p urposes,

w ere l ined,

t hose u sed

f or i rrigation p robably w ere n ot,

e specially i n t he c oastal d istricts w here t he h eavy m onsoon r ains c ould h ave d amaged t he w alls.

I nvesting i n p ermanent s tructures h as b een

u neconomical. T his p attern e ndures e ven t o t his d ay. w here w ater p umps a re u sed,

I n f act,

e xcept

t he m ode o f u tilisation o f w ater a ppears t o

h ave c hanged l ittle. B ased o n e xisting p ractices i n s ome o f t he i nland a rea o f A ndhra P radesh, t here i s t he p ossibility o f a n i nfield-outfield s ystem.

T he

i mmediate v icinity o f t he w ells w here t he l and c ould h ave b een w atered a nd b est c ared f or,

w as p robably u sed

f or t he c ultivation o f p addy.

M illets a nd p ulses, h owever, w ere p robably g rown i n t he a reas w here w ater c ould b e t ransferred.

I n t he d rier m onths,

w ith a s hortage o f

w ater a nd w ith l ess i nput o f l abour r equired, t he c rops w ere p robably c loser t o t he w ells.

P roduction w as d ependent n ot o nly o n t he a mount o f

w ater a vailable, b ut a lso o n t he a vailability o f l abour a nd t he d rawing o f w ater.

f or p loughing

C attle, w hich f igure i n d onative r ecords,

c ould h ave b een q uite c rucial.

T he r ise a nd f all o f w ater t ables o f t he

w ells w ould h ave l ed t o t he e ndemic i nstability o f s uch i rrigated t racts. T hese i rrigation s ystems w ere s mall a nd r equired o nly a v illage l evel o f o rganisation.

T he e xcavation o f w ells a nd r eservoirs w ere

p robably c oncerns o f t he l ocal e lite w ho c ontrolled t he a gricultural l and.

A s w e h ave n oticed e arlier,

p ious l aity a nd h ouseholders c ould

e ngage i n s uch a ctivities. S ome m ajor w orks w ould h ave r equired n ot o nly p lanning b ut a lso m ustering o f l abour.

A lthough t here i s n o

e vidence o f ' state'

i ntervention,

e lsewhere i n I ndia,

t hat c orvee l abour w as e mployed t o b uild c anals

i t m ay b e a ssumed f rom a nalogies

7 98

a nd c hannels.

T he a vailability o f l abour w ould n ot h ave b een a p roblem

i n s ummer m onths w hen t he d emands o n l and w ere m inimal a nd t he w ater i n t he r ivers a nd s treams w as l ow o r n on-existent.

I t i s n ot s urprising

t hat t he n avigational c hannel a nd a r eservoir w ere n ear t he r egional c apital o f t he S ätavähanas, a nd t he i rrigation c anal w as a djacent t o t he

I ksväkus. T he e ssential p urpose o f i rrigation w as t o f acilitate a nd i ncrease

t he r egular s upply o f f ood t o t he n on-food-producing p opulation l ocated i n t he u rban c entres a nd e lsewhere. N o n ew m ajor c rop w as i ntroduced d uring t his

p eriod.

R ice a nd r egi r emained t he s taples.

F rom t he n ature

o f t he c limatic v ariations a nd t he d istribution o f e arly h istorical s ettlements, i n v ogue.

i t c an b e s uggested t hat p addy c ultivation m ust h ave b een

T here w ould h ave b een a m ajor c hange f rom t he d ry h ill v ar-

i ety o f r ice,

e ven t o t his d ay g rown i n t he s emi-arid i nland d istricts.

I f w e a ssume t hat t he p roportional y ield o f r ice a nd m illets, s uch a s j owar ,

b ajra a nd r agi ,

c onstant,

w hich a re t he m ost p roductive, h ave r emained

t hen t he f ormer, w hose y ield i s t wice t hat o f t he l atter,

w ould h ave a cquired g reater s ignificance. M oreover,

i n t he

' new l ands',

w ith a g reater a mount o f p recipitation a nd w ith a lluvial t racts a nd w ith b etter

f acilities f or i rrigation,

t here i s t he p ossibility t hat

m ore t han o ne c rop c ould b e h arvested a nnually.

T hese f actors w ould

h ave i ncreased p roduction c onsiderably, m aking t he p roliferation o f a grarian s ettlements a nd m onastic e stablishments p ossible. A n i mportant a spect o f i rrigation w as t hat i t f acilitated t he c ult ivation o f d ifferent v arieties o f p addy. n eighbouring r egions, s aii ,

t hree s uch s trains a ppear t o h ave b een g rown:

v rthi a nd e yamaka ( Das 1 969:95).

k nowledge of

e au

I n A ndhra P radesh a nd t he

i n t his a rea.

T here i s d irect e vidence o f t he

T his a ssociation i s p reserved i n t he

a ncient n ame o f a n e arly B uddhist s ite,

S alihundam, w hich w as

S alipetaka o f t he s econd-third c enturies A D ( Subrahmanyam 1 964:121). T he n ame i tself h as b een t ranslated a s a n e mporium o f r ice.

T his r e-

m inds u s o f a s imilar n ame D hanyakataka , w hich c an a lso b e t ranslated a s a n

' emporium '

o f r ice.

A f ew c enturies l ater,

t hat A n-to-lo ( Andhra ) a nd T e-na-ka-che-ka c ountry m odern A maravati-Dharanikota a rea) y ielded a bundant c rops ( Beal

( Dhanyakataka o r t he

h ad f ertile s oil a nd t hat t he l atter

1 968:217-227).

A s a d ominant u rban c entre,

i t w as p robably a n i mportant m arket p lace f or r ice 1 20).

H st ian-tsang o bserved

( Galla

1 982:111-

I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hese p laces p roduced n ot o nly a bundant

r ice b ut a lso d ifferent v arieties o f i t. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he c ultivation o f o ther c rops.

I nscrip-

t ional r eferences t o g uilds o f b etel-leaf g rowers o r s ellers a nd o f c onfectioners i ndicate t he c ommercial i mportance o f b etel-vines a nd .s ugar-cane a s l ocal c rops

( EI ,

X XXV:6-7).

P art o f t he s ugar e xported t o

t he M editerranean f rom I ndia p robably c ame f rom A ndhra. 7 99

F rom a l ater

t ext

i t i s k nown t hat s ugar w as g rown i n p arts o f A ndhra P radesh a nd

M aharashtra, a nd t hat a d evice c alled g udayantrika w as u sed t o e xtract t he j uice ( Basak

f rom t he c ane a nd t his w as t hen b oiled t o

1 971:

V I,

p roduce molasses

4 1).

T here i s e vidence f or o ther c rops f rom t he a djacent M aharashtra f or t his

p eriod.

A lthough a t

p resent t his i s l acking

b ased o n t he c ontact b etween t he t wo r egions, t hose c rops w ere a lso g rown t here. ( rajika) o f o il I t

a nd c astor

p ressers.

( eranda)

a nd

f or

A ndhra

P radesh,

i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat

T hey i nclude t he o ilseeds,

s esame

( ti/a).

T here w ere e ven g uilds

l ava o r b arley w as g rown i n t he u pper

G odavari v alley.

i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat yaVa o ccurs a s a p ersonal n ame

s cription o f t his p eriod 1 2).

A part

r eaped

f rom A maravati

f rom t hese c rops,

m ustard

( Aiyappan a nd

i n a n i n-

S rinivasan

1 969:

v arious k inds o f m illet m ust h ave b een

i n t he d ifferent i nland d istricts o f A ndhra P radesh.

C otton,

w hich w as a lready g rown i n t he e arlier

g reater s ignificance.

p hase, a cquired

T hat c otton w as w idely g rown a nd w oven

i nto f ab-

r ics i s t estified t o b y t he P erinlus o f t he E rvthrean S ea w hich r efers t o l arge q uantities o f m uslin g rown i n t he r egion o f M asalia.

T he B lack

C otton s oils o f t he i nland t aluks o f G untur a nd o ther d istricts i nland a re i deal

f or g rowing c otton.

I n a ny c ase,

c otton must h ave b een l im-

i ted t o t he a dequately d rained o uter a reas a nd c ould c ompeted w ith g rains f or l and

( Galla,

T here i s n ot m uch t hat c an b e

n .d.(a)).

i nferred

f rom a vailable e vidence r e-

g arding t he r otation o f c rops, m ultiple c ropping o r d ar.

A ccording t o t he A rthaslstra ,

w hile v rehi a nd

a t t he b eginning o f t he r ainy s eason, s eason o nly a nd t he l atter a l ater t ext 8 9),

i n w inter

p laces t he h arvesting o f

i n n o w ay h ave

t he

s eeds w ere s own

f ormer m atured i n t he r ainy

( Shamasastry

B a li

t he a grarian c alen-

a n ti

1 967:bk I I).

i n a utumn

( Basak

1 971:VII

w inter a nd a utumn a re n ot a lways c learly d istinguishable

P radesh. B ajra ,

A lthough

i n A ndhra

T he s turdier m illets w ere p robably g rown a s k harif c rops.

h owever,

a m ajor

r abi c rop a part

f rom r ice,

w as

p robably s own o n

t he l ess f ertile t racts. A griculture p robably r emained e xtensive i n s ome a spects a nd t he e arlier

f orm o f s emi-sedentary a griculture w as

p ractised i n s ome a reas.

T he d ry g rass c overed b hanjar l ands o f t he i nland d istricts a nd t he d rier a reas o n t he

p eripheries o f i ntensively c ultivated a reas,

h ave p rovided e xcellent g razing T here

i s a n i nscription r eferring t o a g reat c owherd

A s m entioned b efore,

( EI ,

X V:

N o.

o f w hich m ay h ave b een t o

p astoral

f ull-time a griculturalists a nd

c ommunities.

O ur

e vidence

p astoral

p eople.

p ermits t he

F rom a nalogies e lse-

i t i s o nly p ossible t hat s uch a r elationship c ould h ave

f lourished.

4 1).

i nscriptions a lso r ecord d onations o f c attle, s ome

v ery l ittle u nderstanding o f a ny s ymbiotic r elationship b etween

w here,

m ust

f or t he h erds o f n omadic p astoralists.

I f t he p roliferation o f a grarian s ettlements i s a n i mportant f eature o f e arly A ndhra h istory, t hen t he c rucial q uestion i s t he r eason f or s uch a p henomenon. t echnology.

T here w as n o n oticeable a dvance i n i ron

T he m etal, h owever, w as w idely u sed.

c ultivation c ame i nto v ogue.

s kills. A part f rom f ood c rops, c ash c rops,

P lough a nd p addy

T here w as a d efinite a dvance i n i rrigation i ncluding t he d ifferent s trains o f r ice,

s uch a s c otton w ere a lso g rown, a pparently o n a s ignificant

s cale. T he t echnological d evelopments b y t hemselves c ould n ot h ave c aused t he i ntensification o f a griculture,

a lthough s uch p otential w as i mpor-

t ant. S emi-sedentary a griculture r equires r elatively l ittle l abour. F ire i s q uite a dequate f or c learing t he l and.

W ork o n t he l and w as

p robably c arried o ut c ommunally b y t he P andukal c lans. o f m ore t han o ne c rop p er y ear,

T he c ultivation

p erennial a nd e ven s easonal i rrigation,

t he i ntensive p loughing a nd m anuring o f t he s oil a nd t he d iversion o f e fforts t o n on-food c rops, w ould h ave r equired g reater i nputs o f l abour i n s edentary a griculture. S o t he q uestion o f g reater i nputs o f l abour f or g reater o utputs o f p roduce b ecomes i mportant. I n o rder t o u nderstand t he e xtent o f l abour i nput i nto r ice c ultiv ation, l et u s e xamine ' e thnographic m aterial o n a p addy t ract o f p resent-day S outh I ndia ( Claus a nd L intner l abour d ays p er a cre p er y ear

1 975:219).

T he n umbers o f

f or v arious t asks a re a s f ollows:

m anuring

2 5

p loughing

1 05'

l evelling a nd r epairing

8

t ransplanting

1 2

h arvesting

2 1

t hreshing

1 5

w innowing

9

3 9

p rocessing p ackaging

8

b roadcasting

4

7'

i rrigating

T OTAL

3 23 d ays

A s t he t ract a ppear t o b e l east t ouched b y m odern t echniques, w e c an u se t he a nalogy.

S ince t hese l abour a ccounts a re f or o ne p rimary

a nd t wo s econdary c rops, w e m ay r educe t he d ays b y h alf.

S uch a r e-

d uction a ppears r easonable i f w e a ssume t hat p addy c ultivation i n e arly h istorical t imes w as s till i n t he i ncipient s tages o f i ts e volution. f eed a n a verage n uclear

T o

f amily a nd t hen t o h ave s urplus f or t axes o r

t ribute a s w ell a s b artering f or o ther i tems r equired i n t he h ousehold,

8 01

w e c an p ut t he e ssential q uantity o f l and p er a cres.

f amily a t f our t o s ix

I f t he n umber o f l abour d ays r equired f or o ne a cre d uring t he

e arly h istorical

p eriod w as

1 61.5,

t hen f or e ach h ousehold t he r equire-

m ent w ould b e b etween 6 46 a nd 9 69 d ays. A lthough t he m odel o f a n uclear o ut o f s ocial c haracter, l abour i nput. a ccount.

f amily i n t he a nalogy i s s omewhat

i t i s s ufficient t o g ive a r ough i dea o f t he

T his c alculation i s t aking p lough c ultivation i nto

I f c ultivation w as w ith t he h oe, t hen t he r equirement w ould b e

f ar g reater, a s t he p reparation o f t he f ield w ould r equire n ot o nly m ore h ands b ut m ore t ime, s o p recious a t t he b eginning o f t he m onsoon ( Clans a nd L intner

1 975:211).

I n f act, i n a s ituation w here p loughing

t ook a lmost o ne t hird o f t he l abour i nput t he u se o f t he p lough, a s c ompared w ith t he l ess e fficient h oe, w ould h ave m ade c onsiderable d ifference.

I t i s o nly r easonable t o u nderline i ts i mportance

e specially i n t he w etter a reas. b y r eference t o t he p lough,

I f t he d onation o f l and w as m easured

t hen s edentary a griculture c an b e

a ssociated w ith t he k nowledge a nd u se o f t he p lough. I f t he a vailability o f l abour i s s o i mportant,

t hen h ow w as i t

p rocured? W e m ay h ere r ecall t he h ypothesis o f E ster

B oserup t hat

i ncreasing p opulation p ressures i n E urope a nd A sia l ed t o t he d evelopment o f m ore i ntensive f orms o f c ultivation w hich, w hile i ncreasing t he o utput p er u nit o f l and, d ecreased t he o utput p er u nit o f l abour

( Boserup

1 965:28-42). W e h ave n oticed e arlier t hat d uring t he

P andukal p eriod, w ith i ncreasing n umbers o f s ites a s c ompared w ith t he p receding c enturies, t here w as a g rowth o f p opulation.

S uch a g rowth

c ould h ave c reated a c ertain a mount o f p ressure o n t heir p ractices o f e xtensive a griculture,

l eading t o t he a daptation o f i ntensive f orms o f

a griculture. T he p otential o f t he l and a nd t he e xisting t echnology a nd t he g rowth o f c ontacts w ith N orth I ndia w here s uch f orms o f a griculture w ere p ractised, w ere t he c rucial e lements i n t he p rocess. S uch a p rocess l ed t o i ncreased o utput p er u nit o f l and, c ommunities.

p ermitting s edentary

I t i s, h owever, d ebatable w hether i t d ecreased t he o utput

p er u nit o f l abour a s B oserup p ostulated.

T his p art o f h er h ypothesis

m ay b e a pplicable t o s ome r egions o f A sia a nd E urope, b ut i n t he c ase o f A ndhra P radesh, n oticed b efore,

t he e vidence c an b e i nterpreted o therwise.

A s

t he s hift t o i ntensive a griculture w as a ccompanied b y

t he d evelopment o f p addy c ultivation. l and c ould b e t wice t hat o f m illets.

T he y ield o f r ice p er u nit o f H ence,

i n t his r egion w ith t he

i ntensification o f a griculture a nd t he i ntroduction o f w et r ice, t he y ield p er u nit m ust h ave v irtually d oubled

i f n ot t rebled.

T hus n ot

o nly a n i ncreased o utput p er u nit o f l and b ut a lso a b alanced,

i f n ot

i ncreased, o utput p er u nit o f l abour c an b e p ostulated. T he i ntensification o f a griculture a nd t he r esultant s urplus a nd t he r egular s upply o f f ood-grains a ppear t o h ave h ad c ertain 8 02

d emographic c onsequences.

S uch a n a grarian s ituation i ncreased t he

s upply o f p rotein s ubstantially, p opulation. l ed

T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he i ncrease i n p rotein b y i tself

t o f ertility, b ut i t

r ate a nd

t hereby c ontributing t o t he g rowth o f

p robably h elped t o r educe t he i nfant m ortality

i ncrease t he l ife-span o f t he

p eople.

T he g rowth o f p opulation

i n t urn n ecessitated t he r eclamation o f m ore l and. I nput l ed

t o i ncreased

p roductivity.

I ncreased l abour

H ow e lse c an w e e xplain t he

p roliferation o f s ettlements i n t he e arly h istorical p eriod? I f t here w as i ncreased l abour a vailable, g anised?

h ow w as i t u tilised o r o r-

T he t ransition f rom e xtensive t o i ntensive a griculture i s

a ccompanied b y i ncreasing s ocial

s tratification.

T he n ew s ocial

f orm-

a tions, w herein d isparities i n w ealth b ecame a pparent, w ere m arked b y a n ew c lass o f p eople c alled g rhapatis .

T his t erm o riginally r eferred t o T he g rhapatis o f N orth I ndia i n

a h ouseholder i n t he V edic l iterature. t he m id-first m illennium c hal h ouseholds w ealthy a nd c rafts.

( Wagle

B C,

h owever,

1 966:151-156;

w ere t he h eads o f l arge p atriarK osambi

F rom t he n ature o f t he d onations m ade

m ay i nfer c ontrol.

1 970:100-101).

T hey w ere

i nvolved n ot o nly i n a griculture b ut a lso i n t rade a nd i n t he i nscriptions,

t hat t heir p osition w as d ue t o s ocioeconomic a uthority o r K osambi i nterprets t he e vidence o f i nscriptions a nd s tates

t hat t he g rhapatis m arked t he r ise o f a n ew p ropertied c lass. h owever, s hip '

w e

u seful t o r efrain f rom u sing t he t erms

' property '

a s t hese a re c oncepts q uite a lien t o t raditional

I t i s,

o r

' owner-

I ndia.

A c ommon

l aw n otion o f p roperty o wnership c ould b e q uite m isleading a nd c ould o bscure u nderstanding o f t he c ontrol o f l and a nd w ealth i n e arly I ndia. I t h as b een

p ointed o ut t hat i n n orthern

a lly e merging a s a d istinct s ocial e ntity l arly ,

i n

A ndhra P radesh,

o f t he P andukal a s a s ocial d onations

w ith s edentary a griculture,

c ategory.

I n t he

S imi-

t he e arlier c lans

i nscriptions t here a re n o c ollective

M ost o f t he g ifts a re m ade t o

B uddhist e stablishments b y

An umber o f d onations m ade b y t he g rhapatis a nd

o ther d onors a re m ade a long w ith

f amily m embers a nd

A lthough s uch a ssociations i n d onative

a lready n oticeable s ignificant. t o

I n

f act,

t he r elatives a nd

s ometimes e ven w ith

i nscriptions w ere

i n t he p re-Christian c enturies,

i n t he i nscriptions g ive t he

T here a re

t hey n ow b ecome

i mmediate f amily m embers p icture o f e xtended

f amilies.

s ome i nscriptions i n w hich d onors r efer t o t heir

r elationship t o s ome g rhapati . w ho r eferred t o t heir b efore,

1 980:658-659).

p eople h ad u ndergone c hanges a nd t he g rhapati e merged

i ndividual d onors.

r eferred

( Thapar

b y c lans a nd v arious g roups o f p eople a fter t he t urn o f t he

p resent e ra.

f riends.

I ndia w ith s edentary a gri-

t he e arlier c lan u nderwent a c hange w ith t he g rhapati g radu-

c ulture,

T hus t here w ere m erchants a nd a rtisans

f athers o r g randfathers a s g rhapatis. A s n oticed

g rhapatis w ere a lso i nvolved i n t he e xcavations o f r eservoirs. 8 03

A lthough w e d o n ot h ave m any r eferences t o t he o ccupations o f t hese p eople,

t hey w ere n ot u nlike t heir c ounterparts

t ime o f B uddha o r

i n

i n M aharashtra a t t he s ame t ime.

N orth I ndia a t t he S ome o f t he

i nscrip-

t ions r efer t o h ouseholders a s k utubikas o r k udubikas w ho a ppear t o b el ong t o t he s ame c ategory a s g rhapatis. f ollow,

I n

f act,

i n

t he c enturies t o

t he r ural h ouseholder w as i nvariably a ddressed a s k utumbika.

W e c ould,

p erhaps,

c onclude b y s aying t hat t he l abour r equired f or

i ntensive a griculture w as o rganised a round t he

p atrilineal h ousehold,

w here t he l and c ontrolled b y t he g rhapatis w as c ultivated b y t he m embers o f t he

f amily a nd

h andicrafts r equired

l abourers w ere p robably h ired.

S ome o f t he

f or t he h ousehold w ere a lso p roduced b y s uch e m-

p loyees a nd a n i ncrease i n s uch a n a ctivity b ecame t he s ubstructure f or e xchange p atterns a nd l ong d istance t rade.

W ith t he i ntensification o f

a griculture a nd t he v arious o ther c hanges,

t here w as t he d evelopment of

n uclear m odules o r

s mall t erritorial u nits.

e cologically a nd h istorically d efined,

h ad a c entral

c entre w here t he t erritory s ubordinate t o t erland.

T hese u nits w hich a re p lace o r

d ominant

i t b ecame t he s upporting h in-

S uch c entres w ith a n u rbanising c ommunity b ecame t he

e conomic a ctivity, p ower s tructure.

s ocial

i nteraction a nd

T he g rhapatis ,

i ntensification o f a griculture,

f ocus o f

t he e volution o f t he l ocal

a n e lite w hich w as t he r esult o f t he p layed

ac rucial r ole

i n t his

c om-

m unity. T here i s o ne m ore c omment t hat c ould b e m ade o n t he i ntensification o f a griculture.

T he r eligious p ractices o f t he P andukal

c entred a round s tone.

T his c ould h ave c onfined t hem t o a n a rea w here

s uch p ractices w ere p ossible. w idespread

i nfluence,

W ith t he

i ntroduction o f B uddhism a nd i ts

t he l inks o f t hese p eople w ith t he d ry i nland

d istricts w ere b roken. a nd,

T hey w ere

i deologically

f reed

g iven t he e conomic p otential o f t he r egion,

a rable t racts.

p eople w ere

f rom t he

s tones

t hey t ook t o m ore

T he i mportance o f s tone a s a n o bject of d evotion f or t he

P andukal p eople a nd i ts w idespread u sage i n t he e arly o f w orship i s a n i mportant

B uddhist

p laces

f acet t o t he s pread o f B uddhism i n e arly

A ndhra.

N otes T his p aper

i s a bridged

c urrently b eing r evised

f rom a c hapter o f m y P h.D.

f or

p ublication.

Iw ould l ike

t he h elp I r eceived

f rom m y t eachers a t t he

S tudies,

N ehru U niversity,

M r K .

J awaharlal

C owan,

M s M .

B urns,

C entre

N ew D elhi,

f or

t hesis w hich i s t o a cknowledge H istorical

P rofessor A .L.

a nd t he E ditor o f t his v olume.

h ave b een k ept t o a m inimum.

B asham,

R eferences

T he c onclusions a re t entative a nd a t

t imes t he r econstruction d epends o n t he c ultural e xperience of h aving l ived

i n t he a rea a nd b een b rought

u p i n t he l ocal 8 04

t raditions.

R eferences c ited A diceam,

E .

L a G eographie d e l 'irrigation d ans i s T amilnad .

1 966 A grawal,

D .P. a nd S .

P aris.

K usumgar

P rehistoric C hronology a nd R adiocarbon D ating i n I ndia.

1 974

D elhi. A iyappan,

P .R.

S rinivasan

G uide t o t he B uddhist A ntiquities .

1 952 A la i n,

A . a nd

S .M.

P lanning A tlas o f A ndhra P radesh.

1 974 A llohin,

M adras.

( editor) H yderabad.

B . a nd R .

T he B irth o f I ndian C ivilization.

1 968 A llohin,

H armondsworth.

F .R.

T he D evelopment o f E arly C ultures i n t he R aichur D istrict o f

1 954

H yderabad .

U npublished'Ph.D. d issertation,

U niversity o f

L ondon. B asak ,

R .G.

G athasaptasatt.

1 971 B asham ,

C alcutta.

A .L.

T he W onder t hat w as I ndia.

1 967 B eal,

( editor)

L ondon.

S . S i-YuKI: B uddhist R ecords o f t h e ' W cctern w orld ( reprint).

1 968

N ew Y ork. B os.e rup,

E .

T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth: t he E conomics o f

1 965

A gricultural C hange u nder P opulation P ressure . C asal,

C hicago.

J .M. a nd G .

S ites u rbains e t r ites f uneraires d es e nvirons d e

1 954

P andichery . C hakrabarti, 1 977

P ondiohery.

D .K .

D istribution o f i ron o res a nd t he a rchaeological e vidence o f

E arly I ron i n

I ndia. J ournal o f t he E conomic a nd S ocial H istory

o f t he O rient 2 :166-184. C laus,

P .J. a nd S .

L intner

T he c ultural e cology o f a P addy T ract. T ools a nd T illage 2 :

1 975

2 11-227. D as, D .

E conomic H istory o f t he D eccan .

1 969 D eo,

D elhi.

S .B .

1 978

T he M egalithic

p roblem: a r eview.

P aper p resented t o t he

X th I nternational C ongress o f A nthropological a nd E thnological S ciences , D irks ,

P ost-Plenary S ession,

P une.

N .

1 976

P olitical a uthority a nd s tructural c hange i n e arly S outh

I ndian h istory.

T he I ndian E conomic a nd S ocial H istory R eview

1 3:125-158.

8 05

:E pigraphia I ndica, G alla,

A rchaeological S urvey o f I ndia.

A .

1 982

S ociety A gainst t he S tate: p erspectives o n t he h istory o f

E arly A ndhra P radesh. U npublished o f A sian H istory,

P h.D .

d issertation ,

A ustralian N ational U niversity,

D epartment

C anberra.

G alla,A . n .d.(a)

N otes o n l ong d istance a nd l ocal t rade a nd c ommerce i n e arly

A ndhra P radesh.

T o b e p ublished i n t he J ournal o f t he E conomic

a nd S ocial H istory o f t he O rient f or G alla,

1 984.

A .

n .d.(b)

A f orgotten i nscription f rom A lluru,

K rishna d istrict.

U npublished m anuscript. G hosh,A. 1 973

T he C ity i n E arly H istorical I ndia.

G opalacari, 1 976

K .

E arly H istory o f t he A ndhra C ountry ,

G ururaja R ao, 1 972 H orio,

S imla. 2 nd e dition.

M adras.

B .K .

T he M egalithic C ulture i n S outh I ndia.

M ysore.

H .

1 974

F arm t ools i n t he

' Nogu-Benri-Ron'. T ools a nd T illage 2 :169-

1 85. I .A.A.R.

:I ndian A rchaeology - A R eview ,

A rchaeological S urvey o f

I ndia. K osambi,

D .D.

1 970 L al,

T he C ulture a nd C ivilization o f A ncient I ndia.

D elhi.

B .B .

1 970-71

P erhaps t he e arliest p loughed

w here i n t he w orld. L eshnik ,

L and u se a nd e cological

I ndia. 8 4. 1 974

S arkar, 1 972 S arma,

H ammond,

p p.67-

L ondon. L .S. S outh I ndian

' Megalithic' B urials.

W iesbaden.

H .

A L ist o f B rahmi I nscriptions ( Reprint).

R amachandran, 1 971

f actors i n p rehistoric N orth-West

I n S outh A sian A rchaeology , e dited b y N .

L Uders B erlin, 1 973

PO,a tattva 4 :1-3.

L .S.

1 973

L eshnik ,

f ield s o f ar e xcavated a ny-

V aranasi.

K .S .

A B ibliography o n I ndian M egaliths. H . a nd

M adras.

B .N. M isra

N agarjunakonda.

N ew D elhi.

I .K.

1 962 S arma,

A ncient C anals.

J ournal o f I ndian H istory 4 0:301-12.

M .S.S.

1 923

I nscriptions - R eservoirs.

A ndhra P atrika Annual ( Telugu ),

p p.81-84. S hamasastry, 1 967

R .

( editor)

K autilya's Arthasastra ,

8 th e dition. 8 06

M ysore.

S harma,

R .S.

1 973

M aterial M ilieu o f t he B irth o f B uddhism.

P aper p resented a t

t he X XIXth I nternational C ongress o f O rientalists , S harma,

P aris.

R .S.

1 974

I ron a nd u rbanization i n t he G anga B asin.

I ndian H istorical

R eview 1 :98-103. S harma,

R .S.

1 975

C lass f ormation a nd i ts m aterial b asis i n t he U pper G angetic

b asin ( c.

1 000-500 B .C.).

I ndian H istorical R eview , V ol.

I I:1-

1 3. S ircar,

D .C.

1 965

S elect I nscriptions,

S ircar,

I ndian E pigraphical G lossary. 0 .H.K. a nd A .T.A .

1 967

2 nd e dition.

C alcutta.

D elhi.

L earmonth

I ndia a nd P akistan: ä G eneral a nd R egional G eography ,

e dition. S rinivas, 1 953 S tein,

I ,

D .C.

1 966 S pate,

V ol.

3 rd

L ondon.

K .R. a nd N .R.

B anerjee

S urvey o f S outh I ndian M egaliths. A ncient I ndia ,

N o. 9 :103ff.

B .

1 980

P easant S tate a nd S ociety i n M edieval S outh I ndia.

S ubrahmanyam , 1 964

R .

S alihundam ,

S ubrahmanyam, 1 975

a B uddhist S ite i n A ndhra P radesh.

H yderabad.

R . e t a l.

N agarjunakonda ,

T hapar,

D elhi.

1 954-60,

V ol.

I .

N ew D elhi.

B .K.

1 973

N ew t raits o f t he

I ndus c ivilization a t K alibangan:

a ppraisal.

I n S outh A sian A rchaeology , e dited b y N .

p p.85-104.

L ondon.

T hapar,

a n

H ammond,

R .

1 978

A ncient I ndian S ocial H istory: S ome I nterpretations.

N ew

D elhi. T hapar,

R .

1 980

S tate f ormation i n E arly I ndia. I nternational S ocial S ciences

J ournal 3 2:655-669. V enkayya, 1 903-4

V . I rrigation i n S outhern I ndia i n a ncient t imes.

R eport o f t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I ndia , W agle,

N .

1 966 W heeler, 1 959

S ociety a t t he T ime o f t he B uddha. R .E.M. E arly I ndia a nd P akistan.

L ondon.

8 07

B ombay.

A nnual

p p.202-211.

A SPECTS O F I RRIGATION I N P REHISTORIC A ND H ISTORIC S RI L ANKA

K en H effernan

Aw ealth o f i nformation o n t he e xpansion a nd i ntensification o f a gricultural s ystems i n S ri L anka e xists i n t he f orm o f n ineteenth a nd t wentieth c entury s urveyors '

a nd e ngineers'

d escriptions. T hese w ere

c oncerned w ith t he h ydraulic t echnology o f e xisting t ank a nd c anal i rrigation w orks i n t he D ry Z one.

S tudies b y m edieval a rchaeologists

h ave f ocussed u pon t he i dentification a nd c hronology o f i rrigation w orks, b ased u pon t he i nscriptions a nd c hronicles d ating t o t he e arly S inhalese p eriod. t ural e cology,

T his p aper w ill d iscuss i n g eneral t erms t he a gricul-

p rehistory a nd h istory o f S ri L anka a nd p rovide a c ase

s tudy o f a n e xpanding a gricultural p attern.

C omparisons w ill b e m ade

w ith s imilar s ystems e lsewhere i n S outh a nd S outheast A sia.

C ultural b ackground

.

T he p opulation o f m odern S ri L anka c onsists o f t hree c ultural g roups.

V edda t ribes o f s outheastern S ri L anka d escend f rom t he

i sland's a boriginal p opulation.

T he p redominantly B uddhist S inhalese

s ettled t he

I ndia a fter 6 00 B C .

T amilnadu, a fter

i sland f rom n orthern

H indu p eoples f rom

s outhern I ndia, g radually s ettled t he n orth o f S ri L anka

1 000 A D ( Allchin a nd A llchin

1 968:43).

Ad istance o f o nly 2 0 k m

s eparates t he J affna p eninsula f rom t he T amil h omeland, h as p robably b een s trong a t a ll t imes

( Gunawardana

s o t hat c ontact

1 979:262;

R oberts

1 980:36). E arly S inhalese s ettlements w ere r iverine i n l ocation.

B y t he f irst

c entury B C h owever,they e xtended t hroughout t he d rier n orthern r egion, i nto t he w et t ropical d istricts o f K agalla a nd C olombo i n t he s outhwest, G ampola,

a swellas t he l ower m ontane a rea a round K andy,

b ution o f B rahmi i nscriptions R oberts

T eldeniya

B ogoda a nd M ätale. T his p attern i s d emonstrated b y t he d istri( Nicholas

1 959:43-46;

G unawardana

1 971:4;

1 971:2).

A fter t his d ate r eferences t o S inhalese o ccupation c ome a lmost e xclusively f rom t he D ry Z one. t he e pigraphic r ecord o f t he W et

T here i s ag ap o f a t housand y ears i n Z one.

T he r elationship b etween s mall

a nd i solated s ettlements i n t he s outhwest,

a nd t he n orthern c entres o f

S inhalese d evelopment i s l ittle u nderstood ( Roberts

1 971:2).

D isen-

c hantment w ith t he W et Z one m ay h ave b een a r esult o f i ts f requent

8 09

f loods, d ense u ndergrowth a nd h igh e rosion r ates w hen c leared ( Nicholas 1 971:2).

L ater,

t hese p roblems a ppear t o h ave b een s een a s l ess

p ersuasive d eterrents. T he T amil i nvasions f rom t he t enth c entury o nwards m ay h ave e ncoura ged t he s hift o f S inhalese p eople t o t heir p resent p osition i n t he s outh. R oberts

( 1971:2,

1 980:36) h as s uggested a dditional f actors w hich

i nclude: ( i)

a n i ncreasing a bility o f t he S inhalese t o c ontrol r ain f orest e nvironments;

( ii)

t he v alue o f c ertain p roducts o f t he s outh w est, s uch a s c oconut, b etelnut a nd c innamon,

i n t he c ontext o f g rowing

t rade c onnections b etween t his p art o f S ri L anka a nd t he C oromandel a nd M alabar c oasts o f I ndia; ( iii)

t he e ase w ith w hich,rain-fed p addy c ould b e p roduced.

U ntil t he e leventh c entury t he S inhalese c ivilisation c entred u pon t he a ncient c apital A nuradhapura w hen i t w as t ransferred t o P olonn oruva.

A fter

1 246 A D t he c apital m oved b etween a n umber o f l ocations

w ithin 8 0 k m o f m odern C olombo.

T he D ry Z one p rovince o f R ohana i n

s outheastern S ri L anka . a ppears t o h ave m aintained a d egree o f i ndepend ence f rom t he a uthority o f t he n orthern S inhala k ings ( Gunawardana 1 971:14). T he P ortuguese a rrived i n

1 505 k eenly i nterested i n t rade,

t aken c ontrol o f t he T amil k ingdom i n J affna a nd M annar b y t he

a nd h ad 1 580s.

A

d ecade l ater t hey h ad c ontrol i n t he l owlands o f t he s outhwestern r egion.

T he P ortuguese c apitulated t o t he D utch i n

1 658.

T hey h ad a n

i nterest i n a griculture i n t he w est a nd s outhwest c oastal r egions. B ritish c ontrol b egan i n

1 796 a nd w as c onsolidated b y t he d efeat o f t he

S inhalese k ingdom o f K andy i n

1 815 ( Roberts

1 980:36;

W ikkramatileke

1 963:57-8). A t t his t ime s ettlement i n t he D ry Z one w as s parse, y et t he c omp lexity a nd u tility o f t he a ncient i rrigation s ystems f or m odern e xpans ion o f l and u se w ere a ppreciated.

R estoration o f t anks a nd c anals

g ained i mpetus i n t he m id-nineteenth c entury,

e xciting a s pecial

i nterest a mong t he s urveyors a nd e ngineers o f t he c olony ( see B rohier 1 93 4 /5 w ho s ummarises m any o bservations). . A C eylonese o rdinance i n 1 856 w as e nacted " to F acilitate t he R evival a nd E nforcement o f t he A ncient C ustoms r egarding t he I rrigation a nd C ultivation o f P addy l ands", e ven t hough s mall s chemes h ad c ontinued t o b e o rganised a t a l ocal l evel ( Wikkramatileke

1 963:60).

F rom i ts i nception i n

1 900 u ntil

1 931, t he

I rrigation D epartment o f S ri L anka i s r eported t o h ave b een a lmost e ntirely e ngaged i n t he r epair, m aintenance a nd o peration o f t hese a ncient s chemes ( I.B .R.D .

1 952:192).

8 10

F i ure 1 : T he w et a nd d ry z ones o f S ri L anka .

8 11

E nvirgnMent:

t he w et a nd t he d ry

L and u se o n S ri L anka i s d ominated b y t he d istinction b etween t he W et Z one i n t he s outhwestern q uarter o f t he i sland a nd t he D ry Z one, w hich e ncompasses t he n orthern a nd e astern s ectors ( Figure 1 ). t he D ry Z one i s l argely s econdary t ropical

T oday

f orest, w ith a reas o f p oor

s avannah i n t he e astern r egion, c reated b y b urning ( Farmer 1 957:32 ). T he D ry Z one h as b een d efined a s t hat a rea w ith a m ean a nnual r ainfall b elow 1 900 m m,

h owever m ore u seful i n a gronomy i s t he s cheme w hich

i ncorporates b oth v ariation f rom y ear t o y ear, a nd t he p robability o f a n e ffective d ry p eriod o f t hree o r m ore c onsecutive m onths, l ess t han

1 00 m m r ainfall

( Wikkramatileke

1 963:30;

T he D ry Z one r eceives r ain w ith t he n ortheast m onsoon

( December t o

F ebruary) b ut i s i n t he r ain s hadow o f t he s outhwest m onsoon t o S eptember),

e ach w ith

D omros 1 974:18-19). ( mid-May

w hereas t he W et Z one r eceives r ain i n b oth s easons.

C onsequently t he D ry Z one s uffers a c onsistent w ater d eficit i n t he s eason o f t he s outhwest m onsoon w hen p otential e vapotranspiration e xceeds r ainfall. M onthly t emperatures a re i n c ontrast r elatively s table d uring t he y ear, a t a bout 2 70 C i n t he l owlands a nd b etween 1 3 a nd

1 5°C a t h igher a ltitudes i n t he s outh-central r egion.

A gr jcu J .tur e j n

t on e ,

r i 4 m edieval S ri L anka

T he p rqblem f acing D ry Z one c ultivators i s a c limatic r egime i nv olving a p eriod o f a ridity. A vailability o f w ater i s t he c ritical p ara meter i n d esigning t he s chedule o f a gricultural a ctivities.

T he d e-

g ree t o w hich c limatic c onditions l imit c ultivation d epends u pon t he f arming s trategy e mployed a nd t he r equirements o f p articular c rops.

A s

T erra(1958:157-182) h as s hown i n h is S tudy o f S outheast A sian a griculture, a n umber o f p ractices m ay c ombine t o f orm a n i ndividual s ubsistence p ortfolio, a nd t his i s e qually t rue o f S ri L anka. S widden c ultivation

( chena )in S ri L anka w as d escribed b y J ohn

D avy i n t he n ineteenth c entury a s b eing ' chiefly c arried o ut o n t he s ides o f t he h ills, ( 1821:

2 01).

o r o n p lains w here t here i s n o c ommand o f w ater '

C hena i s n owadays o nly c ommonly p ractised i n t he D ry

Z one e xcept f or t he S abaragamuwa H ill 1 974:34).

T he

C ountry i n t he W et Z one

f orest w hich e ncircles v illages i s c ultivated b y t he s ame

p eople w ho u se a t ank f or p ermanent p addy c ultivation 1 963:51;

( Domros

( Wikkramatileke

F armer 1 957:47).

M ixed g ardens ( vatta) a re f ound i n c lose p roximity t o v illage h ouses i n t he W et Z one.

T his f orm o f c ultivation c omplements t he s ub-

s istence e conomy b ased u pon p addy ( Perera f ruit,

b readfruit,

y ams,

s pices a nd h erbs. 8 12

1 971:87).

C rops i nclude j ack-

T he a ncient S ri L ankan

c hronicle,

C ulavamsa , d escribes g ardening a t a r egal l evel.

r elates t hat

K asyapa ( 476-496 A D)

m ango g roves o ver t he i sland' f lower a nd

f ruit g ardens

a nd

( Perera

I t

' planted g ardens i n t he c ity a nd K asyapa

I I

1 971:77).

( 641-650 A D )

l aid o ut

T he D ry Z one c limate

r estricts t he r ange o f p otential g arden t rees a nd g ardens a re s trategically p laced n ear t he m oister s oils o f t he t ank ( Farmer 1 957:47). C ultivators i n t he W et

Z one g enerally r estrict c ultivation o f l ow-

l and t ropical r oot c rops t o a ltitudes b elow r idging a nd d rainage m ethods r equired f loodplain

a reas,

n iques o f s oil

T hey a re a ware o f

f or y am c ultivation i n s wamp a nd

b ut t end t o a void c rops d emanding i ntensive t ech-

p reparation.

T aro g rows w ild a long a rtificial w ater-

c ourses, banks o f r ivers a nd l akes, c ultivated

1 000 m .

a nd o n s wamp m argins;

o n t he l owest s lopes o f t he

t hey a re

v atu w hich i s u nfit

o ther c rops b ut l ittle c are i s t aken o f t he p lants

f or m any

( Perera

1 971:83).

P lantation a griculture i n S ri L anka i s a D utch a nd m ore s ignific antly , a B ritish c olonial l and i s c ultivated, c oconut,

t ea a nd

c innamon a nd t he

p henomenon.

B etween 5 5 a nd

c ardamom.

1 974:39,

2 22).

M inor c rops i nclude

T he e xtent o f t his c ultivation m ay a ccount f or Z one t oday.

D ry Z one i s p resently c ultivated,

t he e arlier h istory o f S ri L anka,

O nly a bout

p rimarily w ith p addy.

I n

c oconut g roves a re m entioned i n t he

Mahavamsa c hronicle a t t he t ime o f D utthagamini a n

Z one

a nd t he m ajority i s u nder c ommercial c rops of

r ubber ( Domros

s carcity o f c hena c ultivation i n t he W et

1 0% o f t he

7 5% o f W et

( c.

1 61-137 B C)

a nd

i nscription o f t he f irst c entury A D r efers t o g roves o f p alms h aving

b een d edicated t o t he M inhitale m onastery ( Perera E xtensive w ell

i rrigation i s o nly f ound

a long t he n orthwest c oast. J affna n otes

( Baldaeus

i n t he J affna a rea a nd

A s eventeenth c entury d escription f rom

' large c ompounds a ttached t o t he d wellings i n w hich t here

a re m any b etel c reepers. w ater t heir

1 971:77).

T here a re a lso g ood w ells o f w ater,

f or t hey

p lants t wice a d ay i n t he d rought o r w hen t here i s n o r ain'

1 672:350-351).

T ravellers'

a ccounts o f S ri L anka i n t he n ineteenth c entury a lways

d raw a ttention t o t he d ifferences b etween l owland p addy f ield a nd t err ace c ultivation s ystems.

O ne o bserver i n t he m ountains r elates:

' paddy f ields a re a s uccession o f t erraces o r f lights o f s teps w alled a nd

u p,

.. m any o f h is b eds a re a ctually

a nd m any o f t hem a re n ot

t hough g enerally l ong,

s hort

o ccasionally t hey a re s o

f rom t he n ature o f t he g round,

n arrow,

f our f eet w ide,

a s w ell a s

t hat o ne w ould n ot s uppose t hey w ere w orth

t he l abour o f k eeping i n r epair a nd much l ess o f m aking'

( Davy

1 821:203). 8 13

I n s upplying w ater t o t hese f ields,

D avy w rites

s kill o f t he c ultivator a re m ost e xercised.

' the j udgement a nd

S ometimes,

t wo o r t hree m iles a long t he s ide o f a h ill,

i t i s c onducted

a nd o ccasionally i t i s

e ven c arried

f rom o ne s ide o f a m ountain t o a nother b y m eans o f w ooden

p ipes'

1 821).

( Davy

R ice w as c ertainly m ore e xtensively g rown o n t he

l evel l owlands o f t he W et R obert K nox, 1 679,

Z one a t t his t ime

( Percival

1 805:224).

w ho l ived i n t he K andyan k ingdom b etween 1 659 a nd

n oted t hat t he c ultivators o f w et r ice h ad a c hoice o f t ypes

w hich m atured i n p eriods o f f rom t hree t o s even m onths, b ut t hat I s s oonest r ipe

..

y ieldeth t he l east i ncrease'

a nd

i s a ccording a s t hey f orsee t heir s tock o f w ater w ill 1 681:12).

l ast'

( Knox

I t a ppears f rom t his a ccount t hat s eed w as g erminated u nder

l eaves a nd t ransplanted i n J uly o r A ugust. c rowded

' which

' the r ice t hey s ow

p arts o f t he

h arvesting o ccurred

P lants w ere t aken

f rom

f ield t o r eplace t hin a reas o f g rowth, a nd i n

F ebruary.

T he e arly E uropean s ources g enerally r efer t o r ice c ultivation i n t he W et

Z one,

h owever K nox h ad a b rief e ncounter w ith

D ry Z one a gricul-

t ure, g iving u s t his d escription: " Where t here a re n o S prings o r R ivers t o f urnish t hem w ith W ater,

a s i t i s i n t he N orthern P arts,

t here a re b ut t wo o r t hree S prings, d efect b y s aving o f r ain W ater;

w hich t hey d o, b y

c asting u p g reat B anks i n c onvenient a nd c ontain t he R ains t hat t hey h ave o ccasion t o l et

w here

t hey s upply t his

f all,

p laces t o s top

a nd s o s ave

i t o ut i nto t heir

i t t ill F ields:

T hey a re m ade r ounding l ike a C o r H alf-Moon, T own h as o ne o f t hese P onds, g et

f illed w ith W ater,

g ood a s i n t he B arn.

w hich i f t hey c an b ut

t hey c ount t heir C orn

t here i s a g reat n umber,

B ank,

a nd

s ome t hree

T hey a re n ow g rown o ver

a nd s o s eem n atural

H ills.

W hen

t hey c ut a g ap i n o ne e nd

s o d raw t he W ater l ittle b y l ittle,

a s t hey h ave o ccasion T hese

o f w hich

a nd i n l ength s ome a bove a M ile,

t hey w ould U se t he W ater, o f t he

B anks,

b eing s ome t wo,

s ome l ess, n ot a ll o f a s ize. w ith g reat T rees,

i s a s

I t w as n o s mall w ork t o t he

a ncient I nhabitants t o m ake a ll t hese F athoms i n h eight,

e very

f or t he w atering t heir c orn.

P onds i n d ry w eather d ry u p q uite"

( Knox 1 681:

1 3-14). P resent D ry Z one v illages c ontain a t ank f or d omestic a nd a gricult ural

p urposes,

p addy l and,

d wellings o n h igher g round, o ften

s urrounded b y f orest u sed

f or s widdens,

( Wikkramatileke

S uch w as t he p attern o f s ettlement

1 963:51).

8 11 4

p asture,

w ood a nd g ame i n t he

N uwarakalawiya d istrict a round A nuradhapura i n t he n ineteenth c entury ( Fhrmer 1 957:10). K nox n oted.

A n e normous n umber o f d isused t anks a lso e xist, a s

T he T opographical S urvey o f C eylon c onsidered t he

1 873

f igure o f 2 877 t anks e xisting i n t he N orth C entral P rovince a lone, a s b eing a n u nderestimate c aused b y o vergrowth u pon t he t ank l andscape ( Brohier 1 934/5 1 1:2).

A rchaeological f eatures a nd t heir f unction i n S rt lankan a griculture ( i)

I rrigation w orks

T he t ank, a nicut a nd a ssociated c anals o f p resent S ri L ankan D ry Z one a griculture h ave a n a ntiquity w ell r ecorded i n m edieval c hronicles a nd i nscriptions, a nd s urvive,as m ajor f ield m onuments. m ay b e o f e arth,

T anks w hich

b rick , r ough o r d ressed s tone c onstruction,

s torage r eservoirs.

T hey r ange i n s ize f rom a bout a h ectare i n s urface

a rea t o s everal t housand h ectares ' 2 m iles t o t he i nch '

a re w ater

m aps,

( Brohier

1 934/5 c ontains n umerous

i ncluding o perational a nd a bandoned t anks).

C apacity i s a f unction o f b oth t opography a nd h eight o f b und.

M any

t anks a re q uite s hallow a nd t hus s ubject t o h igh l evels o f e vaporative l oss. A t ank m ay b e r ain-fed,

s tream-fed,

o r s upplied w ith w ater b y a

c anal i ndirectly f rom a w ater s ource. S pillways w hich m ay b e r einforced w ith b rick o r s tone, a re

f ixed i n b unds t o a llow o verflow a nd c ontrol

t he l evels o f w ater r etained.

O utflow t o t he f ield s ystem o r f urther

c anals i s r egulated b y s luices o r i n e arth-bunded v illage t anks, b y c utting t he b l in % I. A nicuts a re l ow d ams o r w eirs b uilt a cross r ivers o r s treams t o c heck f low a nd r aise t he w ater l evel s ufficiently t o d ivert s ome o f t he d ischarge i nto c anals. s tream o f t he a nicut.

T he c anal

i ntake i s s lightly u p-

I n S ri L anka t hey a re n ormally b uilt f rom o r r e-

i nforced w ith s tone a lthough v ernacular c onstructions o f b rushwood c an s uffice ( Grist

1 975:

P late

1 0,

o f d am i n M alaysia). C anals i n S ri L anka

w ere p rincipally u sed t o s upplement t he w ater l evels o f t he l arger t anks o r f or d irect i rrigation. T he t echnology o f s uch s ystems i s r elatively s imple a nd t he m ain v ariations e xist i n t he s cale a nd q uality o f d ifferent w orks.

S ome

t anks a nd a nicuts d emonstrate t he e xpenditure o f c onsiderable e ffort i n t he u se o f d ressed s tone, m erely a n e arthen b und.

w hereas a s mall v illage t ank i nvolves

I n a ddition t o t he s tronger c onstruction o f

s pillway a nd s luice l ocations,

l arger b unds w ere i n s ome c ases p itched

w ith s tone o n t he i nside t o c ounter e rosion d ue t o w ave a ction 1 934/5 I :12A ,

1 1:10,15,51).

k otuwa i s a lso r eported

A n u nusual

( Brohier

f orm o f s luice c alled

1 93 4/5 1 :4,

t ures a s tone w ell w ithin t he t ank ,

1 1:49).

( Brohier

b iso-

T his s ystem f ea-

w hich i s f ed b y a d rain f rom t he

t ank, a nd h as a s tone o utlet d rain r unning u nder t he b und t o t he f ields. T here i s a d earth o f i nformation o n t he l ining o r o ther s urface 8 15

t reatment o f c anals.

C anal g radients w ere o ften e xtremely s light, e .g.

t he J aya G anga c anal h ad a g radient i n t he o rder o f 1t o 1 0,000 o ver 2 7 k m o f i ts l ength ( Brohier

1 934/5 I I:11).

O ccasionally a s tream

c ourse w as u tilised a s p art o f a c anal s ystem,

i .e. a c anal w as l ed t o

a s tream w here i t d ischarged a ll o f i ts w ater a nd s ome d istance d owns tream a f urther a nicut w as c onstructed t o r edirect w ater i nto a nother c anal o r t ank ( e.g. t he M inipe-ela s cheme, ( ii)

i n B rohier

1 93 4/5 I :9-10).

T he f unction o f i rrigation

D evelopment o f t he t ank s ystem i n t he D ry Z one s ecured, a nd p ermitt ed a n e xtension o f t he a rea c ultivated w ith, a w et s eason o r m aha c rop o f w et-rice, a nd i t e nabled t he p roduction o f a s econd c rop d uring t he y cac t o r d ry s eason.

T he w ater r equirements a nd e cology o f w et

r ice h ave b een w ell s tudied. M uch d epends u pon t he p articular v ariety o f r ice i n u se, h owever t he m inimum r equirement t o b ring a c rop t o m aturity i n A sia r anges b etween 5 20 a nd 2 549 m m, a nd

1 200 m m ( Grist

1 975:41-2).

a veraging b etween 8 00

I t i s e ssential t o a dd a s mall a mount

f or c ontinuous t hroughflow t o r egulate i nfield w ater t emperatures, t o p revent d isease o r p est i nfestation a nd t hus m aintain y ields. W ater i s a lso l ost

f rom t he s ystem t hrough t ranspiration, e vaporation a nd

p ercolation t hrough t he s oil.

I t i s n ot o nly w ater i tself , b ut i ts

m anagement w hich h as b een t he p rimary t echnological p ath t o g ood r ice h arvests

( Grist

1 975;

R aj

1 977;

N g

1 979:266;

B erg

1 981:299).

T o b ring a

f ive m onth v ariety o f r ice t o m aturity i n t he D ry Z one o f S ri L anka r equires

1 200 m m o f i rrigation w ater i n t he m aha s eason a nd

i n t he y ata s eason ( Domros

1 974:58).

I ncreased w ater s torage c learly

p rovides f or t he p ossibility o f c rop c hange,

f rom o ne l ong s eason r ice

t o t wo o f am ore r apidly m aturing v ariety ( Sastry 1 976:55). c apacity o f a t ank, w ater,

1 800 m m

T he

s o f ar a s i t r eflects a ctual c apability t o c ollect

i s t hus e xtremely i mportant a s a f unction o f t he a rea i t e nables

t o b e c ultivated w ith w et r ice,

i n ag iven p eriod.

A n a dditional

v ariable a rises i n t he c ase o f t anks w hich c ontinue t o b e f illed a fter t he r ains, b y c anals f lowing f rom p erennial r ivers. t he o riginal c apacity o f t anks,

I nformation a s t o

t he s ize o f t heir s luice g ates a nd t he

a reas c ultivated i s a t p resent s carce a lthough s ome e xamples a re g iven i n t he s ection o n N orth C entral

S ri L anka.

T he p rehistory o f t ank i rrigation S harma a nd J ha ( 1974:75)

h ave s tressed t he b enefits a waiting I ndian

a rchaeology t hrough s tudies o f i rrigation b ased u pon e pigraphic d ata. I n S ri L anka t he w ork o f N icholas i s n otable i n t his r egard 1 959).

( 1954/55,

A nalysis i n a ny d etail o f t he t echnology a nd o peration o f t he

•a ncient s chemes h as h owever,

b een n eglected. W hat i s m ore, t he

e pigraphic s ources o ften a rose

f or t he p urpose o f g lorifying t he w orks 8 16

o f i mportant p eople a t a t ime o f a dvanced g overnmental i nterest i n l and a nd w ater m anagement s chemes.

T he k ings f eature a s b uilders o f i rri-

g ation s chemes, a nd a lso a s d onors o f s uch p roperty t o t he B uddhist m onastic i nstitutions ( Nicholas

1 959;

G unawardana

1 979).

T he p rehis-

t oric c onfiguration o f t he t ank s ystem a nd i ts e arly d evelopment r emain s peculative. T here i s n o e vidence f or t ank c onstruction i n S ri L anka p rior t o S inhalese s ettlement.

P resent h ypotheses s uggest t hat u ntil t he f irst

c entury B C o nly s mall v illage t anks w ere c onstructed 4 6;

R oberts

1 971:1).

( Nicholas

1 959:

L arge n umbers o f t hese a re f ound b uilt a t d iffer-

e nt l evels a long t he s hallow v alleys o f t he D ry Z one

( Brohier

1 93 4/5

I I:1). V illage t anks d o n ot r ely u pon w ater b eing b rought i n b y a rtif icial c hannels,

r ather t hey a re b ased u pon l ocal s torage o f r ainwater

c ollected b y t ransverse b unding o f s treams a nd d rainage l ines ( Leach 1 959:8).

T he l evel o f s uch t anks i s d ependent u pon t he m onsoon r ains

a nd i s r elated t o t heir c atchment a rea ( Sastry 1 976:52).

T hey m ay d ry

o ut b efore t he o nset o f t he h eavy r ain

V illage i rri-

( Cantor

g ation i s d escribed b y G unawardara ( 1971:4)

1 967:70).

a s u nsophisticated w ater

c onservation, a ' one-tank-one-village e cological p attern w ith a m ethod o f r eproduction b y t he d uplication o f t he e cological u nit'.

T he

p rehistoric i nference c learly d erives f rom o bservation o f t his e xtant m ode o f i rrigation a nd s ettlement. D evelopments u pon t his b ase a re r eflected i n t heir i ncreasing n umb er a s a f unction o f l and s ettlement,

i n s ize,

a nd i n t he u se o f c anals

a nd a nicuts i n c omplex f eeder s ystems f or t he t anks.

E ven l arger t anks

a nd a nicuts t end t o b e o n s mall r ivers o r t ributaries i n t he h eadwaters o f m ajor r ivers,

t hus m odifying t he e ngineering r equirements.

E ventually w ater w as d iverted

f rom n eighbouring v alleys b y a nicuts

t hrough c anals b ecause c atchment a reas c ould b e i nadequate t o s upply t anks ( I.B.R.D .

1 952:191).

I n t he f ifth c entury A D t wo m ajor c omplexes

o f i rrigation w orks e xisted, t ributaries,

o ne b ased u pon t he M ahavali g anga a nd i ts

a nd a s econd w hich u sed t he w aters o f t he M alvatu a nd K ala

r ivers ( Gunawardana

1 971:9).

B y t he n inth c entury i rrigation s chemes

h ad c onnected t he A mban g anga, ( Nicholas

1 959:61).

K ala o ya, M oderagam a ru a nd M alvatu o ya

D uring t he r eign o f P arakkamabahu I ( 1153-1186 A D )

t he w aters o f t he M ahavali g anga s ystem w ere l inked w ith t he s cheme ( Nicholas

1 95 4/5 : 612).

T o w hat e xtent w as t he v illage p attern o f i ndependent t anks d ist urbed, o r o n t he o ther h and, d uring t he

c oncurrent a s a d istinct p henomenon

p eriod o f c onstruction o f l arge a nd c anal-fed t anks?

I t i s

i nherently d ifficult t o e stablish h ow m any s mall t anks w ere o perating c ontemporaneously w ith o ther s chemes. m ent t otals,

t ank c apacities a nd

A c onsideration o f w ater c atch-

p lacement i n t he l andscape c ould

i ndicate t he l imits o f p robability f or s uccessful c o-operation. 8 17

PAK ISTAN r / I

e4 e . \•

r

7/

// ' . . . .• • /

%

\

i . \ , . . _ ; NEPAL ' . . . . .. . . . . .

/

1 .' ' 1R

. .- ,

' '\ ,

UTTAR - , ,,-,

AJAST H A N

Q

PR ADES H

I ND IA

s t . ,. I , . . _ , .. , ,. , s . ,

. 94

B IHAR' - ; ;

GUJA RAT M A DH YA

PR ADES H ORISS A

M A H A R AS HT R A A ND HR A PR ADES H M YSORE TA MIL NADU

4 1 . Mohen jo -daro 2 .

Cauvery R .

3 .

Ta mraparni R .

, i/

c n e

SR I LANKA

F igure 2 : T ank s ystems i n I ndia .

8 18

G unawardana's g eneral s ynthesis i s t hat i ndeed t he p attern w as d isturbed

i n t he r egions o f t he m ajor s chemes n ear A nuradhapura a nd

P olonnaruva, b ut t hat t his w as n ot s o i n t he J affna d istrict o f t he n orth w here w ell i rrigation p redominated, n or i n R ohana i n t he s outhe ast w here b ut f ew l arge w orks o ccur b eside t he e xtremely n umerous v illage t ank s ettlement u nits ( 1971:4-5,

1 4-15).

T ank w ater s torage s vatems e lsewhere i n s outh a nd s outheast A sia ( Figure

2 )

I t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he a ncestors o f t he S inhalese f rom t he I ndus a nd F entress

G anges V alleys w ere a cquainted w ith f orms o f i rrigation. ( in p ress)

c omments t hat

f low ,

l ift a nd d am i rrigation w ere

w ell w ithin H arappan t echnological c apability,

a nd t hat u nless r ainfall

w as t hen d istributed t hrough t he w inter, v ery p robably p ractised.

T he

f inely c onstructed b rick b ath a t M ohenjo D aro d ating t o a round 2 000 B C w as f illed w ith w ater f rom a w ell i n a n a djacent s tructure ( Allchin a nd A llchin

1 968:246).

I t w ould h ave h eld o nly a bout 2 00 m3 o f w ater

a nd w as n ot a p urely a gricultural f acility. T he 2 000 y ear o ld S hringaverapura t ank i n A llahabad,

U ttar P radesh,

i s f ar m ore c omplex.

A 1 700 m3 s iltation t ank s erves a l arger b rick t ank w ith a c apacity o f 2 3,000 m3 w ith e xcavation i ncomplete f ed b y a c hannel

( Lal a nd D ikshit

1 982).

I t i s

f rom a s easonal w atercourse, a nd h as w ells s unk i nto

i ts b ed t o a llow s ub-soil w ater t o r ise. M any c omplex s ocieties a rose i n S outheast A sia i n t he l atter h alf o f t he f irst m illennium A D w ith d ifferent f or w et-rice p roduction ( Hill e mphasises,

a t t his t ime,

1 977:

C h.

f orms o f i rrigation,

2 ).

A s M abbett

o ften

( 1977:7)

a nd p erhaps s ince t he e arly c enturies A D,

I ndia a nd S outheast A sia w ere n ot t wo s eparate o rganic c ultural u nits. E arly h istoric s ources i ndicate S ri L ankan r elations w ith I ndia, B urma, T ibet, 1 979:137,

N epal,

2 42-280).

C hina,

C ambodia,

S umatra a nd J ava ( Gunawardana

T here a re n umerous c ases o f b oth d iffused a nd i nde-

p endently a chieved i rrigation t echniques i n t he p rehistory o f a rid l ands ( Lawton a nd W ilkes

1 979).

I n e ither c ase,

t he t echnology m ust b e

a pplied t o p articular e nvironmental c ircumstances, a nd o ften d iffusion m eans i nteraction. W et r ice i rrigation s ystems r ecorded i n J ava i ncorporate a s tone d am o r a nicut w hich f eeds a p rimary c anal, a nd u se s luice g ates t o c ont rol f loodwater ( Cantor 1 967:69).

I n E ast J ava t here i s a n i nscrip-

t ional r eference f rom 8 04 A D t o d am c onstruction a nd a lso t he c onnect ion o f a s mall t o a l arge r iver.

I t h as b een s uggested t hat e arly

J avanese v illages " would h ave o rganised s mall d ams o f b amboo a nd b ranches a cross s teams a nd s imple e mbankments a round n atural d ep ressions,

w hich w ould h ave s erved a s t anks f or v illage u se' 8 19

( Van

S etten v an d er M eer

1 979:7-9). W heatley ( 1965:135-6)

h as g iven t he

f ollowing s ketch o f a t ank-stone t erracing t radition f irst n oted b y C olani i n t he G ioLinh u plands o f V ietnam , a nd w hich p robably d ates t o a fter t he f irst c entury A D. a re d ry f ield t erraces, w ater;

A t t he h ighest p oint o f a v illage t here

b elow t his a t ank c ollects s tream o r s pring

l ower d own t here i s a t ank f or d omestic u se f ollowed b y o ne o r

m ore e xtensive w etfield t erraces. B eyond S ri L anka t he m ain e vidence f or t ank i rrigation c omes f rom I ndia, a nd i s m entioned i n t he M ahabharata ( Adiceam 1 966:158).

M ost

e xtensive a re t hose s chemes r ecorded i n T amilnadu, s outheastern I ndia, h owever i n t he n orth t anks a re r ecorded R ajasthan ( Chattopadhyaya A D i n A ndhra P radesh

1 973:302),

( Galla,

f rom t he s eventh c entury A D i n

f rom t he f irst t hree c enturies

t his v olume),

i n a ddition t o t he M ohenjo

D aro a nd S hringaverapura s ites. I rrigation o n t he T amraparni i n a ncient T amiluadu f eatured b oth t he s imple a nicut a nd c hannel,

a s w ell a s t he c anal-fed t ank t echnique.

T here a re s even a nicuts o n t he T amraparni, t wo f or d irect c hannel i rrig ation,

f ive w hich w ere t o l ead w ater b y a c anal i nto t anks a t t he t ime

o f h igh f low.

T he K annadiyan a nicut i s o f f ine c ut s tone,

2m w ide a t t he t op ( Krishnaswamy

1 966:453-54).

3m h igh a nd

T he G rand A nicut o n t he

C auvery m ay d ate t o t he f irst c entury A D a nd h ave b een c onstructed b y a l arge l abour f orce o f S inhalese. 3 05 m l ong,

1 6 t o

I t i s b uilt o f r ough s tone i n c lay,

1 8 m w ide a nd 4 .5 t o 5m d eep ( Adiceam 1 966:170).

T he a nicut a nd f loodbanks c ollected w ater, w hich c ould b e d rawn o ff i n f loods a nd s tored i n b unded

f ields ( Krishnaswamy 1 966:461).

A s h as b een s uggested f or S outheast A sia,

t he e arliest a nicuts i n

T amilnadu w ere p robably s emi-permanent w orks ( Krishnaswamy 1 966:454; N g

1 979:265).

L ike S ri L anka,

T amilnadu h as a l arge n umber o f s mall

t anks u sing m inor c atchments o f r unoff a nd s treams. c omments t hat

l arge i rrigation w orks a t t imes, i n a c ellular,

L udden ( 1978:8)

' though i mportant i ndividuals i n t he s tate s ponsored s egmented m anner:

t he i rrigation s ystem a s aw hole g rew s imilar, a llied b ut

s taunchly

i ndependent u nits w ere m erely a dded o n a s p opulation a nd i rrigated a creage i ncreased'.

N orth C entral S ri L anka a nd A nuradhapura . ( Figure 3 ) T he e arliest S inhalese s ettlement i n t his a rea w as p robably c haract erised b y t he v illage t ank p attern, t emporary d esign.

T he

p erhaps c orresponding t o t he c on-

f irst t anks b uilt u nder t he a uspices o f t he

k ing m ay h ave b een i n t he l ower r ange o f r ecorded s izes.

An umber o f

s mall t anks o f u nknown d ate h ave b een m apped w ithin t he p recincts o f A nuradhapura ( Brohier

1 93 4/5 1 1:14).

H owever,

f rom t he l arger, b etter d ocumented t anks. 8 20

s ome d raw t heir w ater

T ANKS

N u N a

T i ssawewa B ass a wak ul am

A

Nu varawewa N ach chaduwa

B a K a

M a haga lkadawe la

A ka tt i .m ur ippu T ank K a tawewa B a ta t uwewa K an ada rawa G i an t ' s T ank

F igure 3 : T ank s ystems o f N orth C entral S ri L anka.

8 21

T he B assawakulam i n A nuradhapura m ay d ate t o t he B C.

f ourth c entury

T issawewa n earby i s a ttributed t o t he t ime o f D evanampiya T issa

( 247-207 B C).

N uwarawewa,

1 k m t o t he e ast i n a s hallow v alley b eside

t he M alvatu O ya i s m entioned i n a n i nscription o f t he e arly s econd c entury A D ( Nicholas

1 959:44).

T hese t anks w ere a lmost c ertainly

e nlarged i n l ater t imes, t hus c omplicating a ssessment o f t heir c apacity.

i nitial

T issawewa n ow h as a b und o ver 3 k m l ong a nd 7 m h igh.

T he i ntroduction o f f eeder c anal t echnology f or t anks e nsures: ( i)

t he m aintenance o f t ank l evels i n t he p lace w here w ater o f t he e xtended c atchment i s m ost n eeded;

( ii)

a s upplementary w ater s ource f or r egions a long t he c ourse o f t he c anal a nd h ence a dditional s ecurity f or s ettlement a nd c ultivation i n t he d ry p eriod.

B rohier ( 1934 1 1:17 a nd m ap)

s uggests t hat t he N uwarawewa ( c.

1 20

A D )

w as f ed b y a c anal o riginating a t a d estroyed a nicut o n t he M alvatu

O ya

1 3 k m a way. O nly 8 k m o f c anal r emains b ecause t he N achchaduwa t ank

w as b uilt o n t his p art o f t he r iver i n t he s ixth c entury A D. ( 1959:44)

N icholas

a sserts t hat t he c anal w as b uilt a t t he s ame t ime a s t he

N achchaduwa a s a f eeder c anal, a nd t hat t he N uwarawewa w as t hen e nlarged t o a ccept t he a dditional

i nflow .

T he N uwarawewa p resently h as a 7 k m b und,

1 0 m h igh a nd s ubmerges

198 h a b ut i t c ould o nly h ave i rrigated a n a rea o f 2 84 h a. p arison t he N achchaduwa h as a 1 .6 k m b und,

1 m h igh,

w ith a c apacity o f 5 5 m illion m3 . I t i rrigates

B y c om-

s ubmerges

1 700 h a.

1 784 h a

T he s mall

a rea i rrigated b y t he N uwara t ank a t A nuradhapura i ndicates t hat i ts m ajor p urpose m ay h ave b een d ifferent ( Nicholas

1 959:55).

P erhaps i t i s

e vidence o f s pecialisation i n a d omestic w ater s upply t ank . A l ate h ist orical a ccount f rom K andy r elates h ow m uch e ffort w as e xpended i n b uilding a t ank i n t he h ills s o a s t o s upply t he p alace w ith w ater v ia a c anal

( Knox

1 681:70-71).

C onsiderable r egal

t he g reat w orks o f c orvee l abour,

p restige c ould a ttach t o

r egardless o f a gricultural b enefit.

T he G iant's t ank i n t he M annar c oastal d istrict w as p robably c ons tructed d uring t he r eign o f D hatusena 2 7 k m c anal

( 455-473 A D).

f rom a n a nicut o n t he A ruvi k ru.

A kattimurippu t ank s imilarly f ed b y a c anal i ts j unction w ith t he A ruvi A ru.

I t i s f ed b y a

T o t he s outh i s t he f rom t he M alvatu O ya n ear

T he t ank m ay d ate t o t he n inth c entury

A D w hen t he c anal a nd a nicut w ere b uilt.

I t c ould o nly h ave b een s mall

b efore t hen. T he s ystem c onsidered s o f ar i s b ased d irectly u pon t he M alvatu O ya.

C onstruction i n t he t ime o f D hatusena, b ased u pon a nother

-r iver s ystem, A nuradhapura.

t hat o f t he K ala O ya, h as s pecial s ignificance

f or

T he K alawewa d ams t he D ambulla O ya a nd h as a s outhern 8 22

s ector, c alled t he B alaluwewa, w hich a ccepts w ater f rom f urther s ources.

T his t ank h as a 5 -6 k m b und,

m illion m3 a nd i rrigated

2 838 h a.

1 2 m h igh, a c apacity o f 8 9

I t w as c onnected w ith t he T issawewa

a t A nuradhapura b y c onstruction o f t he J aya G anga, a n 8 7 k m c anal, t hereby f urther s ecuring t he w ater s upply o f t he n orthern d istrict a nd t he l ands a long i ts c ourse.

A t t his t ime t he T issawewa a nd B assawakulam

w ere e nlarged t o t ake t he i nflow .

N achachaduwa w as a lso l inked t o t he

J aya G anga b y a n ew 1 0 k m c hannel f rom i ts e astern b ank. T he N uwarawewa w as n ow r eceiving w ater f rom t he J aya G anga v ia k m o f c hannel a nd t he N achchaduwa t ank. o f M ogollona I I ( 531-551).

Ac anal,

1 8

I t w as e nlarged i n t he r eign

1 4 k m l ong,

e xists b etween

N uwarawewa a nd a t ank ( Moggallana) o n a nother s ource o f t he A ruvi A ru. K anadawara t ank w as b uilt a cross h eadwaters o f t he s ame s ource i n t he l ate s ixth c entury A D.

T he s ource i tself w as s upplemented a bove t he

K anadawara b y a 1 9 k m c anal b uilt i n t he n inth c entury,

o riginating a t

a n a nicut o n t he M älvatu O ya. T anks h ad a chieved e normous s izes i n t he p eriod o f t he S inhalese k ings. T here w as a n i ncreasing c oncern a bout t he s ecurity o f w ater s upplies a t v arious l ocalities i n t he A ruvi A ru c atchment f rom t he r isk o f d ry s eason f ailure :The c anal a nd l arge r eservoir s ystem w as s uperimposed u pon t he v illage t ank l andscape, r eplicating i ts e ssential t echnology o n a l arger s cale a nd w ith i ncreasingly c omplex i nterdependence. T he s cheme w as m ost c omplex i n r elation t o A nuradhapura a nd r eflects i ts g rowing n eeds.

T he s ame t echnology w as

u ltimately i mplemented i n o ther r egions s uch a s t he P olonnaruva a nd M annar d istricts,

i llustrating a n e xpansion i n t he p rovision o f m ore

s ecure, m an-made D ry Z one e nvironments.

C onclusion T he s ocial i mplications o f t ank c onstruction a nd e nlargement i n S ri L anka h ave b een a nalysed b y L each ( 1959).

H e

f ound n o s upport f or t he

W ittfogel h ypothesis b ecause t he w orks w ere c onceived a nd c onstructed o ver a l ong p eriod i n a c ellular, m anner. N or d id,

p iecemeal r ather t han c entralised

a s W ittfogel a ssumed, o riental d espots s ucceed

r etarding t he g rowth o f r eligious w ealth ( Gunawardana t imes,

1 979:339).

i n A t a ll

f rom t he S inhalese s ettlement a nd d uring t he p eriod o f m ajor e x-

p ansion i n t he g rand i rrigation s chemes,

t here w ill h ave b een a n u nder-

l ying e conomic s tratum b ased u pon t he v illage t ank.

T he d emand f or m ore

w ater, a nd h ence b igger t anks a nd m ulti-catchment s ystems, w as p robably t he r esult o f i ncreased p opulation s ize a nd c oncentration, t he

f ollowing

p eriod o f e xpansive s ettlement w hich h ad a dequately p rogressed b y

r eplication o f t he s impler v illage d esign.

8 23

I ntensification o ccurred i n

t erms o f t he l abour i nput f or c onstruction, b ut t he r esult w as s imply t o i ncrease t he a rea u nder c ultivation,

e nsure t wo r ice c rops p er a nnum

i n s ome r egions, a nd p rovide f or t he c entres o f p opulation.

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T opographically t his r egion

I t i s c haracterised b y a h igh

o f w hich m ore t han

I n t he

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I rrawaddi

M un

w ere o riginally o pen

e vergreen o r m ixed d eciduous L ake o f t he

T hailand,

p lants h ad

f alls d uring

w et

f lat p lains s eparated

s eason m any o f t hese

t he d ry a re v ery a rid.

C hi b asin, s avanna.

R ed T he

f orests a nd

R iver,

C hao

T he

P hraya a nd

s urrounding h ills s upport

i n t he d elta a reas a nd

t aken

f inds a t

S pirit

i t i s s peculated

p lace,

a nd t hat b y

C ave,

N on

N ok T ha a nd

5 000 B C r ice a nd

t aro w ere

A round

u se o f i ron,

t he l owlands w ere c haracterised b y i rrigated r ice

D espite d ominated

3 000 B C a s a r esult o f p opulation p ressure a nd

t he

f act t hat a griculture o f M onsoon

b y r ice a nd h as b een

f or m illennia,

S outheast

A sia

E ven

a re q uite

b oth i n h earth

i n o ther d ebris o f

a bundant,

h abitation s ites,

p its a nd

a s w ell

r emains i nclude t he r emains o f r ice. u nusual

i t a lways o ccurs t ogether

s hould b e

t hat i s w hen

f ar d ominant.

F urthermore,

d itches a nd b unds. p eriods,

O n t he p rehistoric

w hen

T hese

r ice i s n ever

p eople f ull

p lant r emains

p lants.

p lant p re—

T his i s

s tart t o g row r ice a s

f armers,

T his i s i ndeed t he c ase

t hen r ice r emains

i n l ater p eriods.

r ice r equires e arthworks,

s uch a s

W hile t hese a re a bundantly p resent i n l ater

t hey a re u nknown

o f ad itch a round

p otsherds.

H owever,

t hey b ecome

g rowing l owland

t hough,

w ith m any o ther

s ince o ne m ay e xpect t hat,

a p rofession,

a s i n

i s

t here h as b een a g eneral

i ts p alaeoethnobotany.

e minent,

t he

w ere d ensely p opulated.

l ack o f i nterest i n p rehistoric

B ang

t hat b y 7 000 B C d omestication o f

c ultivated.

s ystems a nd

G reat

M ekong t here w as m angrove.

O n t he b asis o f r ecent C hieng i n

8 0%

T he w inter m onsoon i s d rier.

i s d ominated b y w ide,

b y r ather n arrow m ountain r anges. f loodplains o f t he M ekong,

s tates o f B urma,

f or t he

p rehistoric

s ites,

w ith t he e xception

t he s ettlements.

s trength o f t hese o bservations, s ettlers w ere n ot

e xtent o n c ollected

f ood.

t rue c ollectors a nd f ull

f ull

Ib elieve t hat t he

f armers, b ut

H ow l ong

s till

t his i ntermediate

f armers l asted,

8 29

r elied t o

s ome

s tage b etween

i s a nyone's g uess.

I t m ay

w ell b e t hat t he

H oabinhians w ere a lready p lant m anipulators, b ut s uch

a c onsideration i s b ased m ore o n p hilosophical g rounds t han o n d irect o berservations. Ib elieve t hat f ull

f arming,

b egan n ot l ong b efore t he t his r egion a nd

t he

i ntroduction o f t he

t hat i t i s t hese r eligions,

w hich g ave a m ajor I n

r ice g rowing,

I ndian r eligions i nto

p articularly B uddhism,

i mpulse t o i ts s pread.

f ollowing t he p ossible d evelopment a nd

e arly f arming w ill b e d iscussed S outheast

t hat i s m onocultural

f or

s ome ' case'

i ntensification o f

a reas w ithin m onsoon

A sia.

T he M un C hi b asin i n n ortheast T hailand T he M un T hailand.

C hi b asin

i s a l arge,

T he n ame i s d erived

t o t he M ekong

R iver,

m orphological

e lements i n

s aucer s haped

f rom t he N un a nd

p lain C hi

i n n ortheast

R ivers, t ributaries

t hat t raverse t he b asin w est—east.

T he m ain

t his b asin a re v ast l owlands c onsisting o f

f loodplains a nd l ow t erraces a nd e qually v ast u plands c onsisting o f w ide,

s lightly u ndulating p lains.

P rehistoric

s ettlements a re c onfined t o t he l owlands.

L ateritic

s purs a djacent t o b ackswamps o r t o d epressions w ith p ermanent w ater w ere c hoice l ocations. t he p resence o f s alt,

A nother e xtracted

a ttraction f or

s ettlement m ay h ave b een

f rom t he s oil o r e ven

f rom g round—

w ater.

T he d istribution o f p rehistoric p ossible a nywhere, r ise a nd

i mmense

s ettlement w as

i rrespective o f t he d epth, d uration a nd s peed o f t he

f all o f t he

f lood

p rovided

w ater w as a vailable n earby a nd F or e xample,

s ites i n t his b asin

s ites o ccur

f loodplain o f t he M un

i s r ather u nfavourable

t hat t here w as a d ry s pot a nd t hat

y ear—round.

i n t he w ide v alleys t hat l ead t o t he R iver.

Y et, h ere t he s urface h ydrology

f or g rowing r ice i n t hese v alleys.

w ith e xtensive b unding a nd

E ven

l evelling t he c rop i s u ncertain.

t oday,

N aturally,

t he g eographic d istribution o f s ites m ay n ot b e a d ecisive a rgument, b ut

t he

f requent o ccurrence o f t hese s ite

s wamps o r

t here w here t he

f lood

s ituation

A t l ocations s urrounded b y i3

u nfavourable,

i s

i ndicative t hat g rowing r ice w as n ot t he m ain o ccupation. I n

t he M un

C hi b asin t he

s ites h ave v ery d eep d eposits, o ften m ore

t han 5 m ,

s o t hat t hey c onstitute a c onspicuous e lement i n t he

o therwise

f lat l andscape.

w ell

s tratified

T hese d eposits a re u sually t hin l ayered a nd

a nd r emnants o f c lay p laster a re c ommon. 8 30

A ll t his i s

i ndicative

t hat

p ise w alls. m aterial, t empered

p rehistoric h ouses w ere m ade w ith c lay p laster a nd,

S uch c onditions a re

f avourable

s ince c onstruction c lay a s w ell

f or r ecovering

w ith i t.

T he g reatest c oncentrations o f p rehistoric f ar

s treams.

s mall, n ot m ore t han

M any o f t he s ites a re

a lthough s ome a re l arge. t heir c entre,

T he l arge

t here i s n o s pecific

p eriod

i n t he M un

r oads r adiating

f rom i t.

a s

i t i s c ertain

a nd

o ccupation.

i nformation

C hi b asin

T hese

t he

p ermanent 5 0 m i n d iameter, i n

A lthough t here a re

a vailable r egarding

c lay b ricks,

u sed

r ice h usks.

T he

i n

s uitable

a reas w here t he

f or

f loodwater

s mall g rains,

U ndoubtedly t he c anals a nd p atterns c onnected

f loods r ise

f arming.

c haracterized

s uggesting a b road

c onditions.

r oads o pened

u p t he l owlands,

b ut

f ield

w ith t hese e ngineering w orks a re n owhere e vident.

i t i s b elieved t hat t he r ice w as g rown a s

b roadcast o n l and

T he

c ontain a g reat n umber o f

i mprints s how a g reat v ariety o f r ices, l arge a nd

s uch

r ice h ad b ecome t he m ain

f or t he r eligious e difices,

s lender,

I t i s

b y l arge m oats w ith c anals o r

t hat g rowing

a daptation o f r ice s trains t o l ocal

F or t his r eason

i s q uite d ifferent.

a re t he e arliest t emple c ities,

T hese c ities a re l ocated

s lowly a nd h ence a re

b y s tubby,

i n

s ites o ften h ave a d epression

c haracterized b y s ettlement s urrounded

f all

f ound

s ystems o f t his p eriod.

T he n ext

B uriram,

s maller,

p robably i ndicating a v illage s quare.

p lant r emains, a gricultural

f rom t he

s ites a re

f loodplain o f t he M un r iver n ot

a nd

p lant

a s p otters c lay i s o ften

f lood

r ice,

c leaned b y b urning.

M any r evolutionary c hanges t ook p lace d uring d o t he p rehistoric b urial r ituals d isappear,

t his s tage.

N ot o nly

b ut a lso t echniques o f

p ottery m aking a nd d ecoration u nderwent c hanges.

A bove a ll,

t hat f rom n ow o n,

h ouses w ere b uilt o f

w ood

i n n ortheast

T hailand

a t l east,

i nstead o f r eeds a nd c lay p laster.

A s a c onsequence,

a rchaeological d eposits o f t his a nd l ater W hile m ost o f t hese n ew i deas w ere

L ower M ekong a nd t he G reat L ake, T his a rea d eveloped

i mported

f rom s omewhere e lse,

i s q uite d iverse l evees,

a nd

t echniques.

I t i s

l ocally.

C ambodia

f ormed t he h eartland

t here

t he

p eriods a re v ery t hin.

t his i s n ot n ecessarily t he c ase w ith a gricultural l ikely t hat a s a r ule t hese e volved

i t a ppears

o f t he

K hmer c ivilization w hich

f rom t he e ighth c entury A D. w ith t he M ekong a nd

i ts d istributaries l ined

s ubstantial a reas o f b ack s wamps, 8 31

T opographically t his a rea w ith

w hich a ct a s n atural

flood regulators. The largest of these is the Great Lake, which can cover as much as a million hectares when the Mekong is in flood. Surrounding the swamps are alluvial plains and terraces which may occasionally flood in the wet season. Prehistoric sites are rare in this area but it is believed that it was settled by farmers practising a broadcast rice system using natural flooding (van Liere 1980:267). By the eighth century it appears that large areas of lowland forest were converted into small bunded fields. Most streams were bunded and the flood spread over a large area. The most famous is the diversion of the Stung Siem Reap at Angkor. During the height of the Khmer civilization, a receding flood agriculture based upon transplanted rice and bunded fields was practised in the Great Lake area (van Liere 1980:272-273). It has often been argued that irrigation enabled cultivation to be extended into the dry season (Groslier 1974: 100), however there is no positive evidence to support this (van Liere 1980:273-279). The massive political and religious centres of Angkor were surrounded by large symbolic lakes and moats which retained floodwaters but which had no sluices to irrigate the surrounding lands. The Red River delta The natural conditions of the Red River delta of Viet Nam are quite different from those of the Mun Chi basin. Although annual rainfall is not much higher, its distribution is not at all the same. The Red River delta is subject to severe typhoons. During the rainy season floods of extraordinary force occur regularly. This is the reason why rainy season rice, that is rice planted in June and harvested in November could only come into general use with the construction of flood protection dikes (Gourou 1936; Gaspardone 1955). The building of these required a strong central power, since they must have required a large labour force. While it seems that local embankments had been built as early as the tenth century, hydraulic engineering, applying construction methods developed during the Sung dynasty on the Yangtze river, was introduced only in the thirteenth century during the rule of the Tran dynasty. This opened the way for general use of the '10th month' rice. However, before that, rice was grown in the delta through agronomic adaptation to the local conditions. Predominant among these rices was 'fifth month' rice, that is rice planted in February-March and harvested in June, before the rainy season. The climate of the Red River delta is damp and humid in spring and, although rainfall is low, there is enough moisture to grow a crop of rice without irrigation. However, the crop succeeds only on moist lands of the backswamps and around depressions. This is undoubtedly the agriculture which the Chinese described when they occupied the country about 200 BC. The 832

s oil

w as w orked

u sed.

T he

t idal

w ith p olished

s tone t ools, b ut d raft a nimals w ere n ot

t ranslations f rom t he

t exts a lso m ention

i rrigation u sing

i nundation, b ut t hat a ppears t o b e am isinterpretation.

t idal l ands o f t he d elta w ere c overed

s wamp

( mural -a d e / a nuit ) a nd f urthermore, t he t exts s eem t o b e

v egetation

a mbiguous. W hether d ate, a s i t p ossible,

w ith i mpenetrable

T he

' fifth m onth'

r ice w as t ransplanted

i s t oday, c annot b e a scertained,

s ince w eed c ontrol m ust h ave b een

a t a n e arly

b ut i t i s c ertainly i mportant t o g et a c rop.

C entral B urma C entral m m.

B urma

i s a d ry a rea w ith a n

T his i s c ertainly i nsufficient

p rehistoric

s ites a bound

i n t he v alley o f t he

T he

a griculture m ust h ave b een f lood

t he l and

a t a n

i s c lean,

c rop, p lanting

i s d one w ith a d igging

w ith a h oe.

T his t ype o f a griculture

l ocations a long t he r iver c ourses, I n a ddition g rown i n t he p reparation

t o r eceding

s ame g eneral

f lood

a rea.

i s n eeded a fter t he

b roadcast a nd

t he

n o

s oil i s e nriched w ith

a nd h arvesting

n ormally f ar O utside i n

C entral

1 913).

s till i n

s ilt.

p ractised

T his i s m ore l abour f irst r ains i n T he

O ctober.

i s n owadays

i ntensive. T he

L and s eed

i s

b efore t he

f loodwaters T he

f avourable

L aos.

A pril-May.

e stablished

i s p repared a t

f lood r ice

f all

f lood

i n

f ields a re

a way f rom t he v illage.

B urma.

L arge

s lightly r olling p lains

i rrigation n etworks w ere c reated

w ith w ater d rawn

f rom t ributaries o f t he

W eirs w ere c onstructed

d istributaries

f ollowed c arefully t he

w ater v elocity r emained a lways c onstant; t raditional

e ngineering.

T he

u ncertain.

S ome a re c laimed

t o

i rrigate

I rrawaddi

a cross t hese r ivers a nd t he w ater

d iverted b y m eans o f i mpressive c onveyance s ystems. a nd

f lood

D epending o n t he

C ambodia a nd

t he r iver v alley t here a re v ast,

t hese p lains

R eceding

p lowing, b urning o r w eeding

a griculture,

i s d one i n

u ntil

f orms o f a griculture.

f resh

i s

f loodwaters a rrive a t t he e nd o f J une. S eptember

f rom m id-June

s tick o r a s eed b ed

a lso

p lants m ust b e w ell

M any o f t he

a djacent t o a ncient

e arly d ate.

a nd

T he

y et

p lausible t hat r eceding

a mong t he e arliest

i s n ecessary.

a griculture,

p eriod,

w hich m akes i t

f lood a griculture w as p ractised A fter t he

f lood

o f a bout 5 00

I rrawaddi.

s ites a re u sually s ituated

o xbows a nd o ther d epressions,

r ainfall

f or l owland

v illage s ites a re i solated d uring t he m id-September.

a nnual

p recise

s lope o f t he l and, a r emarkable

s o t hat

f eat o f

a ge o f t hese s ystems i s

i s t hought

t o h ave b een c onstructed b y a K ing o f

c entury A D

( Stuart

8 33

w as

T he m ain c anals

t o h ave g reat a ntiquity a nd

1 913:7).

( Stuart

P agan

a t l east o ne

i n t he t enth

C onclusion

T he p icture o f t he p articularly o f r ice F rom c ircumstantial a gricultural d ry s eason f lood

f arming,

c ropping

T hailand,

i n t he

R ed

R iver d elta;

t he M ekong d elta a nd i n

C entral

R iver d elta,

B urma;

B urma a nd e lsewhere.

T hese

Y et t his i s a n

S till,

e xposed

i deal

t anks w ere o nly u sed i n t he d riest

a rea'for t he

M any p rehistoric

i ncreasing

f or

f ormal

B urma. s tudy o f e arly i ntensification o f

s ites w ith t hick a rchaeological d eposits

s tudy.

I n T hailand t here

p rogramme o f c onstructing p ublic w orks,

c anals, e xtraction o f b uilding m aterials, d etailed

s ystems

W ith t he p ossible e xception

f rom w hich p lant m aterials c an b e r ecovered.

I s a n e ver

r eceding

a griculture must h ave

t ransplanting b egan m uch l ater;

i rrigation s ystems w ith c anals a nd

a griculture.

i n

s uch a s

f lood a griculture

C entral

T he p low w as n ot u sed.

r egions o f C entral

e xist,

R ed

a g reat v ariety o f r ice s trains.

b een e xtensive. o f t he

t hat a v ariety o f

s ystems w as k nown b y t he e nd o f p rehistoric t imes,

a griculture a lso

r equired

i n m onsoon S outheast A sia i s s till v ague.

e vidence i t c an b e i nferred

( spring)

i n n ortheast

i ntensification o f e arly a griculture,

S uch

e tc.,

a nd m any s ites a re

s tudies m ust n ecessarily b e

i nformation o f s pecific l ocal

p articularly b y i nformation r elated

r oads,

s upplemented b y

c onditions o f t he s ites,

t o t he s urface h ydrology.

R eferences c ited G aspardone, 1 955 G ourou,

J ournal A siatigue 2 43:461-477.

P .

1 936

L es P aysans d u D elta T onkinois.

G roslier, 1 974

E .

C hamps l o e t c hamps h iong.

P aris.

B .P. A griculture e t r eligion d ans l 'Empire a ngkorien.

ktudes

R urales 5 3-56:95-117. v an

L iere, 1 980

W .J.

T raditional

w ater m anagement i n t he l ower

M ekong B asin.

W orld A rchaeology 1 265-280. S tuart, 1 913

J .M.B . O ld B urmese I rrigation W orks.

8 31 4

G overnment

P rinter,

R angoon.

T AXONOMY O F R AISED A ND D RAINED F IELDS:

A M ORPHOGENETIC A PPROACH

K ent M athewson

T he u se o f t he t erm m orphogenesis i n

a rchaeology a nd g eography h as

b een p rimarily l imited

t o t he s tudy o f u rban g enesis a nd

a tions o f u rban

W heatley ( 1971)

f orm.

m orphology i n c omparative

f ocus.

p roduce u rban

f orm.

h as c oncentrated o n g enesis a nd

V ance

g enetic a pproach o ffers a w ay t o

( 1977)

p roposes t hat t he m orpho-

s tudy t he c onjunctive p rocesses t hat

V ance d efines t he n ature o f u rban m orphogenetic

c hange a s u nevenly r adical w ith " intervening e quilibrium".

t ransform-

R enfrew ( 1979:421)

p eriods o f c onditional

h as s uggested t hat c atastrophe

t heory, w ith i ts e mphasis o n m orphogenesis a nd d iscontinuous b ehavior w ithin s ystems o f v arying c omplexity, c an b e e ffectively a pplied t o a rchaeological ( 1979:91)

p roblems.

I n i ts w idest

s ense, b iologist

h as d efined m orphogenesis a s " the g eneration o f p attern a nd

f orm i n [ any]

p opulation o f i nteracting e lements".

I t m ight b e r easonably a rgued t erminology a ssociated h uman s ystems, b ations",

o ne

t hat d igging b elow t he a u c ourant

w ith t he c oncept o f m orphogenesis a pplied t o

s uch a s " punctuated e quilibria"

a nd " systemic p ertur-

f inds a r esearch s trategy l ittle c hanged

S auer's p rogrammatic W hat n ew t hen,

s tatement o f

1 925.

i f a nything, a re w e

g eneral m ethodology,

p erhaps n othing.

t he w ay t he m aterial

i nsights c oncerning b oth t he

p roposing h ere?

a gricultural o bjectives: ( Denevan

l andforms. ( i)

1 970;

g enetic m odel" t his m odel,

S pecifically,

t o a id

T urner

1 974);

i n c lassification;

f unctions a nd

t echniques)

i n t urn

a nd

i nfluence

M orphogenesis a s p rocess:

a nd d escribed m ay y ield n ew

f or c lassifying r aised ( ii) a nd

( iii)

c ontext,

p roduction

i ncorporate i nto t echnology ( i.e.

p ressures t hat m ediate

f orm.

c yclical o r s ystemic?

i ts s enescent e xtremes.

A s

B utzer

e xamining t he m acro-units o f c ultural o r l ization,

f ields

e laborate a " morpho-

T he u se o f t he c oncept o f m orphogenesis n eed a nalogy t o

e cological

w e h ope t o a ccomplish t hree

i nformation o n e nvironmental

c rops, t ools, a nd

B y w ay o f

f unction o f p rehistoric

u pdate p revious p roposals D enevan a nd

C arl

H owever, b y a pproaching t he

i s o rdered f orm a nd

f rom

" The M orphology o f L andscape".

t axonomic t ask w ith a n e mphasis o n m orphogenesis a nd c ontext,

R obert R osen

n ot c arry t he b iologic

( 1980)

s ocietal

h as p ointed o ut,

f orms,

s uch a s c ivi-

t hrough t he l ens o f b iological m etaphor h as t raditionally

8 35

m eant a ccepting t he o rganismic t eleological

f allacy.

o f v iewing c ulture i es o f i ndividual p robabilistic p laced o n o n

B utzer

t ranscend

t he l imitations

s ystems o ntogenetically, o r a s d evelopmental

r ather

s hort,

t rajectories.

A n e mphasis i s

p rocesses t o e xplain c hange r ather

t han r elying

i nterplay o f " sequentially p redictable

t he

h istor-

w e v iew c ulture s ystems a s e cosystems w ith

t han d eterministic

a daptational I n

T his a lso m eans a ccepting

p roposes t hat t o

o rganisms,

s ome p reprogrammed

c esses".

a nalogy.

f amiliar

p arables a nd m onolithic

p ro-

p arabola o f

d oom a nd d estiny a re r eplaced b y c ultural-cum-bio-physical s ystems i n m utual

a nd

a teleological

f lux.

W hile s trictly s peaking, m orphogenesis d oes n ot d evelopment b eyond o rigin; t orical I n

s tudies i s v ery m uch c oncerned

t his d iscussion,

a nd

s imilarities,

a s w ell

p attern,

a nd

s tates:

t o

T aking a c ue

w ith t he s chemata

f rom B utzer's a dvocacy o f t he

h is s uggestion t hat t he b iologic a nalogy n ot b e r ather

a mplified

t o

i nclude e cological m odels,

s truct a m orphogenetic o n e nvironmental

t axonomy o f r aised

c ontext,

t echnology,

f actors m ediating

f orm a nd

c ussion

i n

i s

f ramed

f unction

e co-systemic

i n

p art o n

a nd

f orm,

f unction, t echnology,

w e a re n ot o vertly c on-

" form d etermines f unction"

a re p rincipally c oncerned

s uch a s

c ertainly n ot a t

i s a p roject t hat p romises n o m ore t han l ogical W e

h is-

i ncluding e nvironmentally h omolo-

c haracteristics r elated

w ith q uestions o f c ausation;

d ictum t hat

f ields i s b ased

a s a ffinities o f r esemblance,

s ocioeconomic c ontexts. W ith t his m odel

c erned

i n m ost c ultural

w ith w hat h appens a fter g enesis.

c lassification o f r aised

a ssumed d evelopmental g ous c ontexts, s hape,

t he c oncept a s u sed

i mply c oncern w ith

o r

t he l evel

o f

i ts o bverse.

T axonomy

o rdering o f p henomena. f or t his o rdering. s ystemic

a pproaches, a nd

a bandoned e ntirely, w e c an

b egin t o c on-

f ields t hat

p laces

p riority

s ocio-economic p ressures a s

( Knapp

1 981:126).

t erms w e c an b egin

O nce t he d ist o e ffectively

s peculate,

p erhaps e ven d emonstrate t he r elationship b etween r aised

f ields a nd

o ther

a rtificial

a nd t he c ivilizational

l andforms u sed

f or

i ntensive a griculture

p rocess.

F orm I n d efining c ategories o f f orm f or c lassifying s eems w orthwhile t o m ake D enevan a nd S hape, a nd

s ize,

T hey d id a nd

n ot

a ggregate

f orm.

( 1974:24)

a nd

" aggregate"

c onsidered

f orm

p attern a nd d ensity o f r aised

a ssociated p lace

s tructures)

T urner

c ross-sectional

s tructures. a nd t he

S hape

f orm

f orm ( i.e. g roup t o r efer

t o:

f ields

i ncludes b oth

a erial d esign.

p articular F or

f ields i t

t he d istinction b etween " individual"

( i.e. a ttributes o f s ingle p attern).

r aised

e mphasis o n d ifferentiating i ndividual

p urpose o f " morphogenetic" 8 36

c lassification

t hat a ssumes a d evelopmental

c haracter,

i t i s n ecessary t o m ake a c lear

i ndividual

r aised

d istinction. ( a)

I ndividual

V iewed p rofiles:

f orm

i n c ross-section, c ambered

a nd

f lat-surfaced.

f aces. M ost o f t he " ridged c ategory.

M ounds,

f ields"

a lso h ave c onvex

w ithin t he c ategory o f c ambered p rise t he

f ields

1 966:85). r aised

I n

s urfaces,

f ields.

a nd r aised

h as b een

f ield

F lat

w ere u sed

p roposed

s urface

s ur-

i nto t his

i n t his s ense

f all

s tructures c om-

f ields a nd

s ome p lanting t he t erms

i nterchangeably

( Denevan

s tandardize t he n omenclature,

a s t he g eneric

l and

i nvolving

t erm

t he t ransfer

a tion o f s oil a bove t he n atural i n o rder A v ertical

( Denevan

a nd

T urner

o r

a erial v iew i s t he o ther o ne d imensional

n omenclature o f i ndividual

s ectional

p erspective, t he v ertical

c lassifying

a ggregate

b e d istinguished:

T urner

( 1974:24)

T hese c an b e o rdered

m ounds.

I ntervening

r idges,

c rescent r idges,

i ncluded.

r ectilinear,

s hapes w ould

s ecular

f orms c an

q uadrangular.

c ombining b oth

i nclude:

s equence

p latform

c ategory,

c eremonial

f rom

s mall m ounds

f ields t opped

l arge m ounds,

l inear r idges, m onolevel

a nd

a nd

h ave s uggested,

W hile l argely h ypothetical,

n exus b etween

f or

F our b asic

a rray o f p ossible t hree-dimensional

t o b ilevel

A n a dditional

u seful

( patterns).

i n h ierarchical

t wo m i n d iameter)

p erspective.

i s b ased o n t he c ross-

p erspective i s

o val, c urvilinear,

A s D enevan a nd

p latforms.

f orm

f orm c ategories

o ne d imensional d esigns g ives a n ( less t han

a nd e lev-

s urface o f t he e arth

t o i mprove c ultivation c onditions.

W hile t he

l evel

a nd

f all

f or d escribing: a ny p repared

s hapes.

f ields h ave c onvex

I n t he e arlier l iterature,

a s ubsequent e ffort t o

f ield

1 974:24)

C ambered

t he l iterature

s econd c ategory o f w hich p latform

b eds a re c onspicuous e xamples. p latform

i n

f ields h ave t wo b asic

w ith

c urvilinear

p latforms,

a nd b i-

e ffigy f ields m ight b e

e ffigy

f ields w ould r epresent a

c onstructions,

a nd

a s s uch o ccupy

a p lace a t o r n ear t he t op o f t he h ierarchy.

( b)

A ggregate f orm

T he s patial

a rrangement o f f ields i n r elation

r ise t o a ggregate

f orm o r g roup p atterns.

t unity f or c lassification.

T he

N aming h as p roceeded

t o t he w hims o f t he d escriber.

N omenclators

t o o ne a nother g ives

p atterns p resent o ppori n

s ome c ases a ccording

s eems t o c hoose

d ifferent r ealms o f e xperience o r o bservation

i n g iving

t he

f rom

f our

p atterns

n ames. A t t he m ost v iewer w hen

s ubjective l evel,

p atterns a re

s een

i mages e voked

f rom t he a ir

8 37

a re

i n

t he m ind o f t he

u sed.

T he r esemblance

o f p atterns t o t he n aming.

f orm o f f amiliar o bjects s erve a s t he b asis

T hough m etaphoric

t his m ethod o ffers l ittle o r e nvironmental c ombed,

a nd

T he f or

u nderstanding t he

l adder

f ields.

T hree e xamples a re:

a pproach c onstitutes

B asically o bjective,

a t hird m ethod

i t a ssumes " on-the-ground" T he

f unctional a ttributes i n t hat t hey a re n amed

p atterns i mply

f or a ssociational

T hree e xamples a re: e mbanked, d itched, a nd

P attern n ames d erived c riteria m ake u p t he

b iotopic t erms.

f rom e nvironmental f ourth c ategory.

E xamples a re:

C aT io i n c oastal B owen

s cattered, h erring-

T hese a re p urely s tatic m orphological

i nspection o f a t l east a s ample o f s ites.

a nd

a l ess s ubjective w ay

P rocess i s n ot i mplied.

p attern n aming.

t ual

c aho ;

a nd

1 966).

B ajo a s u sed

i n

t he

c hannelized.

p hysiographic c ontex-

T hey u sually e mploy l ocal

b ajo ;

r iverine

C olombia r efers t o a bandoned

d epressions i n t he k arst l andscape

s tream c hannels

Y ucatan

( Siemens

p atterns.

a rea r efers t o n atural

A T rinomial C lassificatory S ystem?

T he

i dea o f u sing b iotopes a nd t heir l ocal d esignations p attern

t ext c an b e

i s p erhaps t he b est i nitial

t ern d escription. r aised

f ields;

s avanna, r aised p ared

a pproach.

a ugmented b y f unctional/associational,

m etaphoric d esignations t o g ive a g reater E xamples m ight b e:

( 2)

o xbow,

A t

f ields;

r iverine, b ajo,

h as p ointed

o ut c onfusion

o logy i s l ikely t o o ccur

( cf.

S anders

1 979;

f ields;

c aiman-back,

i n

( 3) p latform

s eems u nwieldy c oma s

T urner

t he u se o f t ermin-

u nless t he c ontributors h ave

k nowledge o f t he l iterature

p at-

l inear, r idged

N evertheless,

a nd d uplication

c on-

e ven

p recision t o

f irst g lance a t rinomial o rdering

t o t he c urrent l aissez-faire a pproach.

( 1979)

g eometric o r

t axonomic

( 4)

f or d e-

E cological

c heckerboard, p latform r aised

e mbanked, m ound r aised

f ields.

( 1)

( Parsons

1 978).

( c)

s cribing

g enetic,

p atterns.

f unctional/associational

f eatures.

f unctional,

T hree e xamples a re:

c onfigurations o ffer

p atterns.

c urvilinear.

c ategories.

a nd

o n g eometric

t o c lassify s erial b one,

t hus t he n ames a re n ot e asily f orgotten,

t oward

a ssociations o f t he

c heckerboard,

N ames b ased

a nd

f or

a n " encyclopedic"

B ruhns

1 981).

F orm i n m orphogenetic p erspective ( a) L ike

S imple f orm a s m imicry o f n atural a ny n umber o f o ther

t he e xact a gent,

e xamples i n p rehistory,

i nstance, a nd

l ation b y p eople o f n atural

f eatures?

c ontext o f t he

w e w ill n ever

a ppropriation a nd m anipu-

p rocesses t o c reate c ultural 8 38

k now

a rtifacts.

S peculation c an b e c onditions a nd

f ocused

l ocational

l ikely t ook p lace. ( 1961)

h ave t he

c ontexts w here t he

W e h ave w ell

n omination o f t he

w here f ire

w ith p recision h owever,

E ast

f irst c ame u nder

( Sauer

B y a nalogy, a rtifacts c ally i n

a rguments,

A frican r ift v olcanic b elt a s t he p lace

f ields c an b e

w ith a ncestral

f or r aised m ind a nd

f orms,

A s w ith

f ire,

f ields e xist i n

i n n ature.

f orms a re

s mall

g rove h ummocks,

p lant a nd

a lso

a nimal

s een m orphogenetically a s c ultural

p lants a nd a nd

w indthrows,

a nd o ther c ategories

i nanimate - p ossible p arent f or

a nd n atural

A s t he a rtificial

f orms

A t l east t en c andidates

s wamp m ounds. a nd

modifying

s wamp a nd o pen

E ach o f t hese

e ach b iotope w ithin

i n

p roposing

a n eologism h ere.

f eatures h ave b een

( 1970:160)

i ntuited

f loodplains t o

t he

p ro-

p otential o f

s erve a s m odels

f or

s avanna l andscapes b ehind n atural l evees.

a ppropriation a nd m odification o f m angrove h ummocks

f or c ultivation

N ew G uinea

( 1980)

e sized

w as n oted b y B arrau

t he

a nd T urner f lattened

I ndian r idged

( 1974)

t eristic r aised

a nd t hen m ounded

f or

s ections o f

i n t he

p lanting.

D enevan

a s m odels o r

a nd

Z ucchi

w ere

i nterpretation

( Harrison

g ilgai.

o pposite c oastal

s erved

p roblem o ccurred

( Siemens,

D enevan

s peculates

i mproved b y e arly

d etermined

f ields w ere

T urner

P uleston

T urner

1 978).

i n c er-

f ields i n

( 1976)

i nitially

b ajo b iotopes o f B elize

S ubsequent w ork h as d isproved i n

p robably n atural

g ilgai h ave c reated m uch

1 978).

f ields i n t he

t hat t he

c hurning

t he d iscussion o f r aised

t his

I t r emains p ossible t hat i f

z ones w here r aised

a s m odels o r b ases

r egion o f M exico,

a rtificial

i n

a nd

( Harrison a nd

g ilgai a ction d oes o ccur m ay h ave

w ere

( 1978)

L lanos r idged

f elt t hat m any o f t he r aised a nd M exico

( 1978)

N atural m ounding c aused b y s oil

s ome c onfusion

t he M aya l owlands

h ave h ypoth-

t rees i n-

U pper M idwest.

S iemens

t ain e nvironments c arrying t he g eneric n ame c ontroversy a nd

i n

a nt a nd t ermite m ounds a re s ometimes

s erved

V enezuelan

s avanna c orrugations.

t oppled

T he

f ormed b y t he n atural m ounding a ction c harac-

o f s wamp e volution

f ield b uilders.

R iley e t a l.

f ormed b y w ind

f ield b uilders

n ote t hat o ld

t hat n atural s wamp m ounds

b asal

( 1958).

t hat w indthrows o r m ounds

s tructed

I

f eatures " physiomimetic".

L athrap

f ormations i n r iverine

f ield

s uch a s r iver l evees, m an-

f or p hysimimetic

p oint b ar

r aised

f eatures a re p utatively m imetic o f

f eatures w e m ight b e j ustified

s uggest c alling t hese a rtificial

i ndividual

f eatures,

s pecific b iotopes,

t he l iterature.

a nimals,

p hysi-

s everal m odes a nd m anifestations - b oth i n

T he b est c andidates

f eatures o ccur w ithin

i n

f irst

W e

e xisting e ither c ognitively o r

s cale t opographic

d ifferent b iomes.

S auer's

1 952).

r aised

n ature.

s uch a s

s ustained c ontrol b y e arly m an.

o f d omesticates - b oth a nimate

p osed

t ransformations m ost

v arious h ypothesized h earths o f t he

d omestications

n atural

i nformed

o n t he e cological

f or r aised

f ields a re f ield

f ound,

c onstruction.

t hey T he

w hen n atural b each d une r idges i n t he G ulf v iewed

p ersonal

f rom t he

a ir

c ommunication). 8 39

w ere t hought t o b e

M ats o r e ven

i slands o f v egetation

e specially r ivers m ay h ave g ardens"

r eported

P eru a nd

B olivia

i n

A sia

( Sturtevant

( Denevan,

p lentiful

s ome

w ater

1 977b)

i nvolved

f or

p ersonal

1 970)

a nd

i n

L ake

c ommunication).

i rrigation,

g reater m icro—climatic

t hat n atural

p rocess o f r aised

e tc.

i conographic b lueprints

s uggested

f or

t he l owland

a ncient r aised

M aya

c onnection b etween c eremonial

I n

a n

N evertheless, s tands o n

f ield

i deology a nd a lone,

( b)

e ngineers. f or t he c entrality o f

s wamp m odification.

i t i s a n otion t hat d eserves f urther A s

P arsons a nd

w e m ust n ot d ivorce t he r ealm o f t he

I f

f rom

i nvestigation.

B owen

( 1966)

s acred

f armers m ove

I t

f rom o ur

s o m uch e arth,

i n s uch

p atterns.

D evelopmental

i nference f rom i ndividual

f orms?

I f i t i s a ccepted t hat a t l east s ome s imple r aised h ave t heir o rigins i n n aturally o ccurring z oomorphic,

t hen

w e m ight

s peculate o n

s equence m ight e xist a fter l ogical,

s hields

h is a rgument w ould b e c ompelling.

c onsiderations o f w hat m ade m undane i ntricate

i maginative b ut

w orldview P uleston o utlined t he

i ts h euristical m erits.

c oncurred,

( 1976,

a s n atural

e xplanations o f p rocess o r e ven g enesis w ere d educible m orphological c orrespondence

i .e.

c onstancy, P uleston

t hat t he e pidermal

M arshalling a n a rray o f i nterpretative e vidence i n

w ould

z oomorphic i magery m ay h ave b een

f ield g enesis.

p erhaps u nprovable p roposition, h e

o f

T hese s pace

o n c rocodilian b acks s erved a s " cognitized m odels" o r

t he c aiman

T iticaca,

r aft b uilding m aterial a nd

f or c rop p ests a nd d iseases,

p roposed

i n t he

s wamps, l akes, a nd

a dvantages o ver l and—based r aised g arden b eds,

e ffective b arriers

1 977a,

i n

i nspired t he b uilders o f a ctual " floating

e fficient i slands a re m ade o f l ocal s eem t o h ave

s et a drift

s tructional, o rganizational

o r

s ize a nd

i t w ould

i deational

f orms

t opographic

i f a ny,

t he g enesis o f i ndividual

b ut c ulturally b iased g rounds,

m oves a way f rom s mall

f eatures,

w hat,

f ield

o r

d evelopmental f orms.

s eem

A rguing o n

t hat c on—

c omplexity i ncreases a s

r oundedness t oward l arger

f orm

s ize a nd

r ectilinearity. A ccordingly, w ould

s mall m ound

i nsect m ound a nalogs

o ccupy t he l owest l evel o f t his h ierarchical c ontinuum.

m ounds w ith h ummock a nd s econd

f ields w ith t heir

l evel.

s wamp—mound

R idges o f a ll

n atural

c lasses w ould

b ars a nd

n atural

r iver l evees w ould

P latform

f ields w ith r ectilinear

g reater c omplexity t han

t he

f orm t he t hird l evel.

s erve a s a nalogs

s ides a nd

p revious

L arge

a nalogs w ould c onstitute a

f or r idged

P oint f ields.

f lat s urfaces s uggest

f orms.

T opographic

i n n ature.

e xpressing

q uality p robably d efine a f ifth

a n " ultra—quadrangular"

P latform

f eatures

e xpressing r ectilinearity a re r are

f ields

l evel. A f inal

c ategory o r l evel

l argely h ypothetical

f orm,

i n

t his

s cheme c ould b e b ased o n

e ffigy f ields.

F rom m y o wn

a

s urvey of t he

r aised

f ields

i n

t he G uayas

B asin,

a t l east o ne

f ield l ooks s us-

p iciously z oomorphic.

A ggregate

f orm i n e nvironmental c ontext

P atterns, o r r aised f orms s eem d iffering

t o h ave N ew W orld

t o b e d one

f ield

f orms i n

a ggregate,

s ome d egree o f a ssociation p hysiographic

a s w ell

a s i ndividual

w ith d istinct t iotopes i n

p rovinces o r b iomes.

M ore w ork n eeds

t o e stablish t he n ature o f t hese r elationships, b ut e nough

i s n ow k nown

t o

s uggest t hat t axonomic

t reatment o f r aised

i ncorporate a spects o f e nvironmental c ontext.

N ietschmann

f ields m ust ( 1972:97)

n as

d efined b iotopes a s: e cological a nd

u nits w herein

f auna a nd

p rimary h abitat c onditions,

f lora a dapted

t o t hem,

E ach b iotope i s d ifferentiated c al

f eatures a nd b iota

T hallasia t urtle b ank, d ifferent p laces]

a re u niform

..

b y d istinctive p hysi-

s uch a s am angrove s wamp, o r a r iver

s and b ar

[ all

w here v arious r eptiles l ay t heir

e ggs. S ynonymous

w ith b iotopes

i s m icroenvironment,

a rchaeological l iterature r iverine,

( Coe a nd

s wamp, m arsh, s avanna,

F lannery

a t erm o ften

1 967).

l acustrine,

a nd

g roup, o r l ake

e .g.

t he

T he m icroenviron-

b ajo w ithin

s hore w ith t he l acustrine g roup,

i n

f orest w ith a v ariety

o f s pecific m icroenvironments m ust b e c onsidered. m ental d ivisions w ithin b iotope g roups,

u sed

S ix b iotope g roups:

s hould

t he

b e

s wamp

s pecified

i n

f uture c lassifications. ( a)

R iverine b iotopes

S auer

( 1957),

L athrap ( 1970)

a nd

e arliest a ppearance o f a griculture t ropical

f orest b iome.

p opulation s hifting

a ccretion

T his

p rime l ocations

f or

i n

f irst p ushed

f armers t o

T he n atural

( moving w ater)

h abitats a nd g rasslands o r

f orests,

s ituation

n atural

f or c ultural

a nd

P ermanent h ouse g arden s trategy f or

a nd

p ermanent l evee o ccupation

t iced o n p layas o r b eaches. b een c ontinuously o ccupied o r " channelized"

t hrough a rtificial

N eo-

z one w here

s ettled,

n on-

l evees o f r ivers o ffer A s t hey a re e ffectively

l entic

t he n atural b iotic

h e

( standing w ater) l evee o ffers a m aximal

p roductivity.

h orticulture m ay h ave b een t he o riginal

f ield c ultivation m ay h ave b een

" drained",

p ractice

i ntensive e xploitation.

l otic

f or t he

t he r iverine b iotopes o f t he

s ame h abitat . : Gy h ave b een

i ntensive a griculture.

e cotones b etween

o thers h ave a rgued

( Lathrap

s imultaneously o r

W ater s ites. f ield

1 977).

s ubsequently p rac-

l evels p ermitting, I n

t he

s ame

L arge p lot

p layas w ould h ave

s ense t hat " ditched",

s urfaces a re p aradoxically r aised

p hreatic l owering, 8 41

p laya

s urfaces n aturally e merge

a nd

s ubmerge

a ccording

v agaries o f f looding, h ave b een ( b)

s ought o ut

t o c hanges i n r iver l evel. s ites i n

f or

t he t rans-levee

a rtificial

r aising a nd

s wamps a nd

t he

s avannas m ay

p ermanent c ultivation.

S wamp b iotopes

S everal d ifferent s wamp h abitats o ffer d evelopment o f r aised c ultivation e cotonal g ood

T o e scape

B y

f eatures.

M angrove

a n e arly

s wamps o n t heir

t erra f irma f orests o r s avannas w ould h ave o ffered

s ide w ith

s ites.

p ossibilities f or

6 000 B C p receramic

a griculturalists h ad o ccupied m an-

g rove s wamps i n c oastal

E cuador a nd

T hese e arly f armers h ad

a v ery w ide r ange o f b iotopes t o d raw u pon

s ubsistence, t ats.

e staurine, r iverine,

I n t he s ubsequent m illennia,

m ounding h ave

i ncluding m arine,

i n m angrove s wamps,

i nspired T he

i t

t heir r eplication

f or t he s ame

i nter-riverine s wamps o n l owland

M exico t o t he G uayas B asin, i n t hese h abitats a re

a nd u pland

f or

h abi-

f or c ultivation, m ay

p urpose.

f loodplains a re t he l ocations

f ield c omplexes a nd o ccur

E cuador.

1 977).

f rom

T he o pportunities f or

V era

C ruz,

s ubsistence

p erhaps n ot a s v aried a s t he b anks o f l arge

r ivers o r m angrove n iches, b ut d uctivity m ay s urpass e ven f ield

( Stothert

s eems l ikely t hat t he n atural

c leared o f v egetation

o f m any o f t he l argest r aised

r aised

p erhaps e lsewhere

i n t hese a reas t he g ross b iomass p ro-

t ropical

f armers i nto t he

f orest h abitats.

i nter-riverine

E xpansion b y

s wamps m ay h ave c ome f rom

e arlier n atural l evee o r m angrove b ased h abitation. I n

s ome c ases r aised

o xbow f ormations. s cribed. l evees

a n

A s w ith

s tratified

t he

s ites.

f orm o f r elict n atural F rom a erial

E cuador o n t he m iddle

a nd o thers

b urnt w ood y ielded

D aule

p hotographs

( 1980)

a nd

u ncovered a s tratified

e arly V aldivia-phase

S hlemon's

f ields o ccurring

E xcavation

s ite.

c eramic-bearing

f ield A t

p ottery w ere t han 2 500

C aAo M atazanas l inear r idged

i n c lose

I

p latform f ields R iver.

r adio c arbon d ates o f s lightly o lder

P arsons a nd

w e h ave r aised

s tream c hannels a nd

r iver l evee w ithin a f ew k ilometers o f t he r aised

t he l owest l evel B C.

C olimes,

R aymond

T he w ood

a bandoned

a pparent c omplex o f o xbow c heckerboard

a bandoned

c omplex b y f ound.

f eatures i n

p rovide c onvenient h abitation

h ave l ocated

i n

S wamps o ccupying t hese a reas a re c learly c ircum-

S ignificant n atural

n ear t he t own o f o f a n

f ields o ccur

f ields,

p roximity t o v ery e arly

s ites s uggesting

a n

e arly F ormative

o ccupancy. R aj° s wamps o r n atural d epressions i n h ave b een a f avored l ands.

A s s uch,

o ften a t

a nd

f or r aised

f ield c onstruction

t hey r epresent y et a nother

s upport c onsiderable t angular,

s ite

t ree g rowth.

s quare p latform

s ome d istance

k arst l andscapes

s eemed

i n t he

s wamp b iotope.

t o

M aya l ow-

Bajos o ften

S mall o r m edium-sized o valoid, r ec-

f ields o ccur

f rom r ivers,

i n b ajos.

T hese

p robably w ere c olonized

8 2 42

h abitats, r elatively

l ater t han a nd

r iverine r aised

f ield

z ones.

o xbow f ormations, b ajos o ffer

t ations.

T his

T urner a nd

H arrison

t his i s p ossible.

( 1982)

a t

( c)

p otential

c omplexes.

P ulltrouser

O nly w ith a n

s ingle c omplexes c an w e b egin d iffering

s ome p recision

q uality i n t urn o ffers

s tanding o f s ingle w ell d efined

L ike a bandoned i n

s tream c hannels

t heir d elimi-

f or m orphogenetic u nder-

P reliminary r eports b y S wamp h ave d emonstrated

u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f t o c ompare d ifferent

p atterns i n

e nvironments.

M arsh b iotopes

T he t erm, m arsh, t han f or t he e tational

i s p erhaps m ore a ppropriate

t ropics.

I t

f or t he m id-latitudes

i mplies h erbaceous r ather t han

d ominance. W hen

t he

t erm i s t ransported

w oody v eg-

t o t ropical

l ocations

i t r epresents p erhaps a t ransitional b iotopic c ategory b etween a nd

s avanna.

H owever,

i t

T he e quivalent w ord a lso

d istinction T urner

t hat

a nd

s tanding w ater,

S iemens

( 1978)

i nundation.

h ave p ointed o ut t he n eed

o rigins.

a nd

r elief

t heir o wn

t he u se o f l ocal

t o u sing t erms w ith

a nd

B oth

f or

c ontext o f r aised

T his i s a s ubject t hat d eserves m ore d iscussion.

p ossible,

p referable

p antano.

i n c ontra-

d iscussion o f t he h abitats o r e nvironmental

f ield c omplexes. W herever

p ermanent

S panish i s

t o w et s avannas t hat e xperience s easonal

( 1978)

t axonomic

i mplies

f or m arsh i n

s wamp

b iotopic n omenclature m ay b e

N orth

A tlantic r eferents,

c onnotations,

S imply s ubstituting t he

S panish e quivalents

f or h abitats

f eatures m ay n ot a lways b e t he a nswer a s t hey o ften h ave i berocentric l imitations.

I t w ould o r d itched

s eem t hat t here

i s a g eneral

f ields a nd m arshlands.

s hallow w ater

a reas o f p ermanent

s tanding

s upporting a quatic g rassy o r r eedy v egetation,

d itching m ay b e c ultivable.

I n

a ssociation b etween d rained

a ll

t hat i s r equired

L ittle a rchaeological

w ork h as b een d one o n d itched/drained

f ields a s c ompared

t o r aised

s peculate o n

a ntiquity o r d evelopmental

t heir

f ields.

p urposes t hey m ight b e c onsidered f ields, c o-equal

f ield

t o m ake t he r esultant s urfaces I t i s t herefore p remature t o h istory.

F or

t axonomic

a s a s econd m ajor c ategory o f r aised

t o m ounds-ridges-platforms.

A s h as b een

s uggested,

t heir c ultivable s urfaces a re c reated b y s urface m oisture r eduction o r l owering. ( d)

S avanna b iotopes

W hile o ccur

s ome o f t he b iotopes i n

i n a g eneral

s easonally

f looded

d iscrete c ategory. a nd

M exico

t he c ategories a lready d iscussed

s avanna c ontext,

a nd

t herefore o verlap,

o pen-savanna l andscape I n t he c oastal

w here r aised

s ome a reas c onstitute a

s avanna r egions o f

f ields o ccur,

p roperly i nto e ither t he r iverine,

i n

E cuador,

C olombia,

t hose c omplexes p robably f it m ore

s wamp, 8 1 43

s ectors o f

o r m arsh d ivisions.

H owever,

f rom t he w ork o f D enevan f ields f ound

i n t he

( 1966)

f ields,

l ogical

( 1980)

i n

B olivia,

s avanna.

L ittle w ork h as b een d one

s o s peculation o n t heir

a ge i s p remature.

t radition.

f ield b uilders c ame

T his c ould e ither

A mazonian

f orest e nvironments, o r

i ntroduced

f rom a T ropical

f ound i n

F orest c ultural

s uggest t hat t he M ojos r aised

b uilders d eveloped t his a daptation

( e)

t o d ate

i t m ight b e s afe t o c onclude t hat t he c ultural p redecessors

o f t he M ojos r aised

T ropical

r aised

F rom a rchaeo-

s urvey o f t he m ounds a nd o ther a ssociated e arthworks

t he a rea,

w ere

E rickson

i nterior s avanna o f t he M ojos o ccupy i n p art t his

d istinctive b iotope, o pen t hese

a nd

f ield

i n s itu a fter o riginally o ccupying i t c ould

s uggest t hat t he t echniques

f rom o ther r egions t o t hese i nterior

s avanna b ased

F orest c ultural g roups. L acustrine b iotopes

T he s everal r aised

f ield b iotopes f ound

b asins p resent p erhaps t he m ost l ogical g enetic p rocess. l ake b asins a re

R aised f ound

f rom C entral

i n

f or

i nferring morpho-

M exico t o t he

B olivia.

l akes i n

i nland

s hore e cotone b etween l ake p lain L ater

t o m odify t he l ake p lain.

s ome c ases a s w ith t he c hinampas i n M exico, r aised

p latforms w ere a pparently b uilt i n o pen w ater. g ardens a s o ccur

i n

A sia, o r o n

f ormer

T he i nitial c on-

w here h abitation w as p resumably c oncentrated.

c onstructions w ould h ave m oved F inally,

p icture

f ields b uilt i n, o n, o r a round

s tructions w ere p robably b uilt i n a nd o pen w ater,

i n l acustrine m ontane

f ields

A nchored " floating"

L ake T iticaca w ould r epresent

s till

a nother m orphogenetic d evelopment. T he s wamps a nd C entral i n

M exico,

p lains o f a ncient l ake b asins i n

C olombia,

a v ariety o f f orms.

E cuador,

f rom t hem.

r elict c hinampas o f h ighland 1 000 A D .

I n

f ields h ave b een

a ll c ases,

s ave

M exico, t he a ge o f t hese

I f t his i s t rue,

f ields

s cant, a s

f or p erhaps t he f ields

s eems t o

a nd t heir c losest l owland

c ounterparts t urn o ut t o b e s ignificantly o lder, t hen l eft o pen

p laces -

B olivia h ave r aised

E fforts t o d ate t hese

h ave t he d ata r etrieved b e l ater t han

P eru a nd

s everal

f or t he p ossibility o f d iffusion

t he d oor m ust b e

f rom t he l owlands

t o t he

h ighlands.

C ontinental p rojection o f r aised f ield m orphogenesis

A t p resent t here i s n ot e nough d ata t o p roject w ith c ertainty t hat a ny o f t he t hree g rand b iotic d ivisions o r p hysiographic r egions w here r aised

f ields a re

t han t he o thers.

f ound

s how s igns o f g reater a ntiquity o r p recocity

H owever,

f rom w hat i s c urrently k nown o f t he

f or a ntiquity o f d ifferent r aised c ontexts,

i t i s c lear

l ikely c andidates

f or

f ield c omplexes i n d iffering b iotopic

t hat t he c oastal p rimacy.

e vidence

p lains o f t he

N eotropics a re

O ne m ight a lso s peculate, w ithout 8 1 4 1 4

n ecessarily i nvoking d iffusion,

t hat r aised

f ields a ppeared i n a s tring

of l ake b asins f rom M exico t o B olivia a fter i n t he l ittoral l owlands.

t hey w ere w ell e stablished

T he t ime l ag m ay h ave b een

f ew c enturies t o m ore t han t wo m illennia.

a nywhere

T he r aised

f rom a

f ields i n t he

h ighland l acustrine b asin c ontext e xhibit t he g reatest c orrelation w ith " advanced"

o r c omplex

s ocio—economic

T he r elationship b etween t he d ocumented

( Armillas

1 971).

f ormations.

A ztec s tate a nd c hinampas i s w ell

I t a lso s eems r easonable t hat t he r aised

f ields o f t he A ndes b asins w ere a n

i mportant

p art o f t he e conomic b ase

of t he c hiefdoms i f n ot s tate l evels o f o rganization t hat c haracterize t he

C hibcha o f C olombia,

I nca g roups i n I t i s a lso

t he

C ara

i n

E cuador,

a nd v arious o ther

p re—

P eru a nd B olivia. i n

t hese h ighland

l ake b asins t hat W ittfogelian t heories

o f w ater management a nd l arge ' scale p ublic w orks l eading t o d espotic s tates a nd

c entralized s ocial

r aised f ield

f arming.

t hat e nvironmental

c ontrol

I n a r elated

i ntensive a griculture i n t he

s ocieties.

C arneiro's

p rime m over

i f a t a ll, t o ( 1970)

i n t he r ise o f

i n t he c ontext o f l acustrine b asins f ormation o f n on—egalitarian

f ormation i n r elation t o r aised

f ield

f arming i n

T hat s hould b e t he s ubject o f a n e xtensive d iscussion

o f i tself.

a rgument

I t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his p aper t o e xamine t hese

t heories of s tate d etail.

f ashion,

c ircumscription i s t he

e arly s tates s hould b e c onsidered a nd

w ould b est a pply,

H owever, w e c an

i n a nd

s uggest h ere b y w ay o f h ypothesis t hat t he

f armers c ultivating t he i nterior s avannas o f n orthern

S outh A merica a nd

p s p arts o f M esoamerica d id n ot m ake t he m assive c hanges i n t heir o nments n ecessary f or r aised

f ield

c enturies a fter t he b eginning o f t he

f arming u ntil a t l east s everal

C hristian e ra.

C onclusion T he c oncept o f m orphogenesis c an b e a pplied t o t he p roblem o f r efining c urrent r aised

f ield t axonomy w ith p romise o f i ntroducing a

g enetic d imension t o t he e ffort.

T his m ay b e i mportant f or u nderstand—

i ng n ot o nly p rocess a t t he l evel o f s ocio—economic a lso c ould g reatly e xpand o rigins, p aths, t o

w hich h ad

t he t raditional

i nteraction, b ut i t

a pproach t o a gricultural

p reviously f ocused o n c ultivars a nd t heir d iffusion

i nclude q uestions c oncerning

E mphasis o n t he o rigins o f t he

f orms o f i ntensive a griculture.

f orms a nd

s tructures t hat m ake

a griculture p ossible, m ust a ssume t hat q uestions w ill o n t he n ature o f a gricultural

i ntensification i tself.

l em w ith t he u se o f t he B oserup m odel

f or p rehistoric

i s h eavily b ased o n s ynchronic d ata g athered c olonial o r r ecently d ecolonialized

i ntensive

a lso b e f ocused A p ossible p rob— s tudy i s t hat i t

i n t wentieth c entury

l ands ( Boserup

1 965).

H ow t empor—

a rily u niversal o r a pplicable a re h er t heories a nd a llied a pproaches t o 8 45

t he

p rocess o f p rehistoric

a gricultural

i ntensification?

o ther t han d emographic o nes i nfluence t he d evelopmental d ifferent a rtificial ( Brookfield

l andforms a ssociated w ith

m ay h elp t o u nderstand s hip b etween c rops, r aised

F or

f ield

s hape,

f orms i f f ound

c ropping t echniques, a nd i f i t

p attern,

s ocietal

a long m orphogenetic

a nd

e nvironmental

c ontext

s uch a s c otton o r c acao,

t hem.

l ines,

w ould

t raditional

p erspective

p otentially n omothetic h istorical

c lassifying

t he

s tatic o r

e xplanation

s terile.

p lanters a nd

T he m orpho-

f or v iewing g enetic

f or t he

p rehistorians s o

f orms t hat

i t

f rom a c ultural

i nclined t o v iew c rops,

p roducers i n

q uantifiable a nd

w ays t hat r epresents a b reak w ith t he o lder

t radition.

p rehistoric

f ields

s eem t o b e a l ong o ne.

s ubsistence a ctivities

a llows

a nd

t hrough

p hysical c haracteristics o f r aised

p roviding a p artial

c ropping p rocedures, c ultural

f or

t hen s imilar

p rocess t hat c an b e g enerated

w ork n eed n ot b e e ither

S tudying

e cological

w as u sed

T he l ist o f q uestions

a pproach o ffers a t t he m inimum a m odel

p rocess a nd

d evelopment o r

s hould b e d iscovered t hat a s pecific

p lants,

s ocio-economic

T axonomic

f ields

e lsewhere m ay i mply s imilar l evels o f s ocio-economic

o rdering k nowledge o f t he

o rders.

i ntensive a griculture

p rocess i n c lassifying r aised

o rganization b y t hose w ho b uilt o r u sed

g enetic

h istories o f

p reviously u nexamined a spects o f t he r elation-

e xample,

c ropping " commercial"

c oncerning

p ressures

1 972)?

A n e mphasis o n m orphogenetic

e volution.

D o

T he m orphogenetic

a gricultural

e arlier c oncern w ith o rigins,

a pproach t o

l andforms c arries

p rimacy,

f orward

a nd r elative l ocations,

t he w hile

r ecognizing t he p ossibility o f a pplying t he m ethods a nd c oncerns o f c ultural

e cology t o

t he

s tudy o f p ast a s w ell

a s p resent a gricultural

e nvironments.

R eferences c ited A rmillas, 1 971 B arrau, 1 958

P . G ardens o n

s wamps.

S cience

1 74:653-656.

J . S ubsistence A griculture i n M elanesia.

B ishop M useum,

H onolulu. B atchelor, 1 980

B .E.

L os

C amellones d e

C ayambe e n

l a

S ierra d e

E cuador.

America

I ndigena 4 0:671-689. B oserup, 1 965

E . T he C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth.

B rookfield, 1 972

A ldine,

C hicago.

H .C.

I ntensification a nd d isintensification

a t heoretical

a pproach.

i n

P acific A griculture:

P acific V iewpoint 1 3:30-48. 8 1 46

B ruhns,

K .O.

1 981

P rehispanic r idged

f ields o f C entral

C olombia.

J ournal o f

F ield A rchaeology 8 :1-8. B utzer,

K .W.

1 980

C ivilizations: o rganisms o r s ystems?

American S cientist 6 8:

5 17-523 . C arneiro, 1 970

R .L. A t heory o f t he o rigin o f t he

S tate.

S cience 1 69:733-738.

C oe, M .D . 1 964

T he c hinampas o f M exico.

C oe, M .D. 1 967

a nd

K .V .

S cientific A merican 2 11:90-98.

F lannery

Early C ultures a nd H uman E cology i n S outh c ostal G uatemala.

W ashington, D enevan, 1 966

D .C .

S mithsonian

C ontributions i n A nthropology 3 .

W .M. T he A boriginal C ultural G eography o f t he L lanos d e M ojos o f

B olivia .

U niversity o f ' C alifornia

P ress,

B erkeley.

r bero-

A mericana 4 8. D enevan, W .M. 1 970

A boriginal d rained-field c ultivation i n t he A mericas.

S cience 1 69:647-654. D enevan, W .M. 1 974

a nd B .L .

F orms,

W orld

f unctions a nd

T ropics.

D enevan, W .M. a nd 1 978

T urner

A .

I I a ssociations o f r aised

J ournal o f T ropical G eography 3 9:24-33. Z ucchi

R idged-field e xcavations i n t he

V enezuela.

1 980

C entral

O rinoco L lanos,

I n A dvances i n A ndean A rcheology , e dited b y D .L.

B rowman, p p.235-245. E rickson,

f ields i n t he O ld

M outon, T he H ague.

C .L. S istemas a grfcolas p rehispänicos e n l os L lanos d e M ojos.

A merica I ndrgena 4 0:731-755. H arrison, 1 973

P .D . a nd B .L .

T urner

I I ( editors)

P rehistoric M aya A griculture.

U niversity o f N ew M exico

P ress. K napp ,

G .

1 981

T he f ull e xtent o f t he f ield: a c ommentary o n t he " New

C ultural

G eography"

o n L atin A merica: G .

E lbow,

8 ,

M uncie.

L athrap, 1 970 L athrap, 1 977

i n L atin A merica.

p p.217-224.

G eographic R esearch M artinson a nd

C onference o f L atin A mericanist G eographers

D .W. T he U pper A mazon.

P raeger,

N ew Y ork.

D .W. O ur

f ather t he c ayman, o ur m other t he G ourd:

r evisited, o r a u nitary m odel i n

I n

B enchmark 1 980, e dited b y T .L.

t he N ew W orld.

R eed,

p p.713-751.

N ietschmann, B 20.

S pinden

f or t he e mergence o f a griculture

I n O rigins o f A griculture, e dited b y C .A. M outon,

T he

H ague.

1 972 B etween L and a nd W ater . A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork 8 1 47

P arsons, 1 966

J .J.

a nd W .A .

B owen

A ncient r idged

C olombia. P uleston, 1 976

f ields o f t he

S an J orge R iver

f loodplain,

G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343.

D .E. T he p eople o f t he c ayman/crocodile: r iparian a griculture a nd

t he o rigins o f a quatic m otifs i n

A ncient M aya i conography.

I n

A spects o f A ncient M aya C ivilization , e dited b y F .A. d e M ontequin, P uleston,

p p.1-25.

H amline

U niversity,

S t.

1 977a

T he a rt a nd a rchaeology o f h ydraulic a griculture i n t he M aya

l owlands.

I n

S ocial P rocess i n M aya P rehistory:

m emory o f S ir E ric T hompson , e dited b y N . A cademic P uleston,

P ress,

s tudies i n

H ammond, p p.449-467.

L ondon.

D .E.

1 977b o r

P aul.

D .E.

R aised

f ields i n M esoamerica a nd

i ndependent i nvention.

S outh A merica: c olonization

A p aper p resented a t t he 4 2nd A nnual

M eeting o f t he S ociety t or A merican A rchaeology, R aymond, 1 980

J .S.,

J .G .

T .J.,

1 980

C urrent A nthropology 2 1:700-701.

C .

M offat a nd G .

C ampos E levados

E stados U nidos. R osen,

L athrap

E vidence o f E arly F ormative S ettlement i n t he G uayas B asin,

E cuador. R iley,

M arcos a nd D .W .

N ew O rleans.

F reimuth

P rehistöricos e n e l M edioeste

S uperior d e l os

A merica I ndt igena 4 0:797-815.

R .

1 979

M orphogenesis i n b iological a nd s ocial

T ransformations , e dited b y C . 10.

A cademic

P ress,

s ystems.

R enfrew a nd K .L .

I n

C ooke, p p.91-

N ew Y ork.

S anders, W .T . 1 979

T he J olly G reen G iant i n t enth c entury Y ucatan, o r f act a nd

f ancy i n

C lassic M aya a griculture.

R eviews i n Anthropology

6 :493-506. S auer,

C .O.

1 925

T he m orphology o f l andscape.

U niversity o f C alifornia

P ublications i n G eography 2 :19-54. S auer,

C .O.

1 958

M an i n t he e cology o f t ropical A merica.

N inth P acific S cience C ongress , S auer,

1 957 ,

P roceedings o f t he

2 0:105-110.

C .O.

1 961

F ire a nd e arly m an.

P aideuma: M itteilungen z ur K ulturkunde

7 :399-407. S iemens, 1 978

A .H. K arst a nd t he

P re-hispanic M aya

i n t he s outhern l owlands.

P re-hispanic M aya A griculture , e dited b y T urner

I I,

p p.117-143.

P .D .

H arrison a nd B .L.

U niversity o f N ew M exico

A lbuquerque.

8 48

I n

P ress,

S tothert, 1 977

K .E. P receramic a daptation a nd t rade i n t he

P aper

p resented a t t he 7 6th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican

A nthropological S turtevant, 1 970

A ssociation,

A griculture o n a rtificial

i slands i n B urma a nd e lsewhere.

1 968,

T okyo a nd K yoto,

3 :11-13.

B .L .

A ncient a gricultural l and u se i n t he c entral

I n Pre-hispanic M aya A griculture , B .L. T urner,

T X.

8 th I nternational C ongress o f A nthropological a nd

E thnological S ciences , 1 978

H ouston,

W .C.

P roceedings , T urner I I,

i ntermediate a rea.

T urner,

B .L.

1 979

a nd

p p.163-183.

P .D .

H arrison a nd

U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress.

H arrison

C omment o n W illiam T .

a griculture

M aya l owlands.

e dited b y P .D .

( Reviews i n

S anders'

r eview o f P re-Hispanic M aya

A nthropology 6 [47:493-506).

R eviews i n

A nthropology 6 :544-555. T urner,

B .L.

1 981

a nd

P .D .

H arrison

P rehistoric r aised-field a griculture i n t he M aya l owlands.

S cience 2 13:399-405. V ance,

J .

1 977 W heatley, 1 971

T his S cene o f M an.

H arper's C ollege P ress,

N ew Y ork.

P . T he P ivot o f t he F our Q uarters.

8 49

A ldine,

C hicago.

E NERGY C ONTROL A ND A GROFORMS:

T HE D IACHRONICS O F A GRICULTURAL

L AND U SE I NTENSIFICATION

L arry L .

I n t his o btaining

p aper

f ood.

d iachronic

P atrick

I t ake a v ery b road v iew o f t raditional m ethods o f Iu se

t his t o r ealize

t hree e nds.

u nderstanding o f a p rocess o f a gricultural

i ntensification a s i t u nfolded

i n

t he

N ew W orld

o f t he f ood g etting t echniques n ow k nown l ikely e xisted c reation a nd a ttention.

s ide b y s ide,

u se.

Is eek a

u se W hile s everal

u sed b y h merinds

o thers i n t heir

p erspective t hat a ttracts m y

t his u nderstanding c omes a t a t ime w hen

s ome

s tatements h ave e merged r egarding t his i ntensification

p rocess ( Patrick

1 977,

1 981a;

w hen s everal m ore a re n eeded

P rice

1 971,

( Patrick

s pecific

more a nalytical

s trategies o n

f ield

p ush u s m ore

S econdly, a nd m ore t o

1 981)

b ut a lso

f ew h mericanists a re

s tudies n ow b eing

f ood g etting

t o t he e nd t hat t hese

t hrough t ime m ight

i n t his d irection.

t his p aper's c ontent,

i ntensification

T urner

T oo

s tatements o n t he u se o f l and

I h ope t o

u se

1 977;

1 981b).

t aking a dvantage o f t he m any e xcellent c ompleted o n

t he l and

l and

t ropics.

t o h ave b een

s urely s ome p receded

I t i s t his l atter

M y s earch f or

a nalytical

e merge.

F oremost

Ia ttempt t o u nderstand

p rocess b y f ocusing o n a p rogression o f

c ontrols b rought t o b ear b y s uccessive g enerations o f A merinds o n e nergy f lows a nd t ropics.

T his

t ransformations a s e ncountered

e xpenditure r eturned

N ew W orld

o n c hanging e nergy c ontrols a lters t he u sual

foc us

m anner b y w hich e nergy h as b een p rocurement.

i n t he

t reated

i n a c ontext o f e arly f ood

T hat t reatment s trives t o l ink a s eparate e nergy t o o btain

f rom i t.

f ood

It urn

w ith a n e qually i ndependent a mount o f e nergy f rom t his t reatment b ecause

t his t ype o f

i nput-output a nalysis r emains t oo s implistic a s a n e xplanation a daptation i tself.

B rookfield

v iew t aken I n

a nd, e ven w orse,

t oward

a ddition,

( 1972)

S econd

i nitially q uestioned

i nput-output a nalysis a s a n e nd

( Adams

M ore

i t.

p roduct i s n ot t he t he

i nnovative a pproaches l ie

T he b ulk o f m y e ffort c onsists o f a pplying p rinciples o f t he

L aw o f T hermodynamics t o t he e volution o f f ood r elated

c ontrol d evices.

W hile u se o f t he

" only n ow t imidly p enetrating 1 977:222), t heme.

1 975).

u nto

t his u sually s imple Im erely r eiterate

t aken b y s ystems a nalysts W ho w ould u nderstand

w orkings of h uman g roups a t h and.

t ends t oo o ften t o b e a s cientific e nd

l abor i nput t o a griculture;

d irection n ow b eing

f or

I f eel

I u se t he

..

L aw a nd t he

a ll

s ocial

o f i ts r amifications i s

s ciences"

i t t imely t o l ink s ome o f t hese S econd

e nergy

( Berthoud

p rinciples t o t his

L aw t o d emonstrate a l ikely s uccession o f

e nergy f low r elationships t hat d eveloped b etween 8 51

f irst

f ood c ollectors

a nd

t hen h orticulturalists a nd a griculturalists a nd c ertain c omponents

o f t heir u se

r espective h abitats.

T hese r elationships v aried a s t he l and

i ntensification p rocess u nfolded.

L astly,

I t ake t his b road v iew s o a s t o e nable m e

c lassification s cheme o f a ll g etting.

T he c hosen

r eached r egarding t ropical

t he

t o p resent a

t echniques o f f ood

s cheme e xpresses my p reliminary c onclusions a nd u se o f e nergy f low b y

I t r eflects t he m anner b y w hich

i ntensification p roblem

Id raw h eavily f rom, p ublished

N ew W orld

t he c apture, c ontrol

A merinds.

u nderstand

k nown

y et b uild

u pon,

I c urrently

s et b efore u s.

D enevan's

F or t his s cheme

( 1980)

r ecently

c lassification s ystem o f N ew W orld a griculture.

D enevan

h imself r ecently e xpressed h ope t hat h is a dmittedly p reliminary t ypology w ould b e " a s timulus t o t he ( Denevan

1 979:5).

I ndeed,

i n t his

s tudy o f a ncient a griculture"

i nstance i t h as b een.

C lassification i s a p rerequisite t o e xplanation a nd b ecause o ur o f d iversity o f p rehistoric

f ood g etting i s t oday s o

n umber o f e qually v alid c lassification

i n

s chemes s hould

s ense

i ts i nfancy a ny

n ow b e

c onsidered. A s a b asis o f d eparture t ypology i s s ignificant

f or

f or m y c lassification s cheme, D enevan's s everal r easons.

I t

p rovides a f irst s et

o f u niform t erminology r egarding a ncient a groforms o f t he N ew W orld. T oo,

f or

t he

f irst t ime a b asic d escription o f e ach k nown f orm

w orld r egion h as b een p ut d emonstrated

t he

f orth.

D enevan, m ore t han a nyone, h as

f ood g etting d iversity o f p rehispanic

F inally h is t ypology i s a t ruly m odern c lassification i t

f ocuses n ot o n t he

p hysical

t his c ase

s oil

s cheme

i n t hat

i t a nd o ther o bjects o r v ariables,

p articles, m oisture a nd n utrient a vailability.

p articularly a ttempt t o e xtend B ut

A merica.

p roperties o f f ood g etting b ut i nstead

o n r elationships e xisting b etween i n

f or t his

t his l ast a ttribute t o m y o wn

D enevan's c lassification

w ork.

s cheme i s a lso l imited b y i ts

f orm-

f unction d ominance,

a nd

h as m ade

u se o f c arefully r ecorded d escriptions o f a groforms

p articular

a nd h as t hen c atalogued p layed

i t i s h ere t hat

I

t hese

i n a l ocal n atural

f orms a ccording

s etting.

T hree

o f p redominant s lope,

a nother o f a rid

d rained

e nvironment.

F orm,

D enevan

t o t he

c anal f or

c oupled

t o a s uggested

s ettings a re

c onditions a nd

w ith t hese l ocal

f unctions o f c rop t erraces, r aised

s ystems a nd

e xample, a ll

t he l ike.

T hese

f unctions a re

t erraces m ore s imilar

k inds o f a groforms.

i t r eifies

f ar

I t a lso r emains a s s ynchronic

i n

a f inal

p oorly

c onditions,

l eads

s o g rouped a s t o m ake, t han t o o ther

i nductive m ethod

W hile t his

s o c haracteristic

f or m aterial

i ts r each a s h as b een

8 52

r ole

f ields, h ydraulic

t o e ach o ther

t oo much a c oncern

H e

i dentified, o ne

T his n eed n ot n ecessarily b e t he c ase.

a pproach c aptures t he e ssence o f t he o f g eography,

Id epart f rom h is l ogic.

c ulture.

t he s tudy o f

a griculture—related

e nergy i ssues m entioned

p erspective o n c omparative a nd 1 979:2-3)

a bove.

T his f unctional

' recognizable e cological n iches'

a nd i s n ot c onducive t o t he d iachronic c onclusions

Ia lso h ave d ifficulty a ccepting t he w hich D enevan g ives u s.

U nder

s hifting e xplanatory v ariable

s ome c onditions t opography l ooms l arge

i n d efining w hich a groforms a re m ore m oisture r egime o f e ither

( Guzman

I s eek.

s imilarly a like;

e xcessive a ridity o r

e lsewhere a

e xcessive m oisture

a vailability p lays t he k ey r ole i n d efining h omogeneous g roupings o f t hem.

T hese c riteria e mphasize l and

" otherwise

t oo

s urfaces c onsidered

s teep, t oo d ry, o r t oo w et"

d etrimentally i nevitable t hat a d iscussion s urfaces i n

t he t ropical

w hich w ere m arginal i n

N ew W orld

( Denevan

a rises o ver

w ere o ptimal

f or p urposes o f f ood

moment w hen

i t w as

L astly, T o

w hich l and W as a g iven

a ctivity u ntil

s lope

t hat

I t hink n ot.

D enevan's t ypology d oes n ot r ecognize t hat s ome s ystems o f

p rehistoric t oday.

f irst t erraced?

I t i s

t o t he A merind a nd

p roduction.

t he A ndes a lways t oo s teep f or a gricultural

t o b e

1 979:2).

i ntensive a griculture l eft e xplain

f or

u s t o o bserve

t his b y s uggesting t hat t hese s ystems w ere i n b enign

e nvironments n ot i n n eed o f a lteration i ncorrect.

f ew r esiduals

I ntensification o f l and

u se o f m arginal l ands a nd

i s t oo

s implistic,

i f n ot

u se i s n ot s ynonymous o nly w ith t he

w ith r elict p lants n ow f ound

t here.

I ts

d efinition m ust b e f ound e lsewhere. P erhaps

5 ,000 t o 7 ,000 y ears a go i n t he

u userved t hat d isturbance

a g reater

a griculture c ould n ow b e

a griculture.

T his t rend

t oward

u se

a mount o f s olar

p racticed,

c aring

g reen p lants w as n othing l ess t han i n t he l and

a n

p aper.

F rom o ne

s ystems,

s ay,

i ncipient,

a nd v ery l ong,

d angerously t oward d eterioration

I n a ll t ransfers

s eeds i n

s tick i nvolved

s eed m aterials,

e nergy t o t heir

s tage

Iw rite.

s o m any

p revent a d etailed d iscussion o f t hem

s eason t o t he n ext

t ransferred

p lanted i n

a d igging

A nnual

s pecially c reated

T he mere d ropping a bout t he h earth o f d omesticated c ombination w ith t he u se o f,

e nergy.

i tself a f orm o f i ntensive

f or h ome—bound

i ntensification p rocess o f W hich

e nergy t ransfers a s t o

w omen

a bout t he h earth p lus o therwise g enetic

m anipulation o f p lants f ixed r ainfall

N ew W orld, m en a nd

i n

t his

a s e quilibrium

e nvironment a s t hey t ended

i f n ot s tored

p roperly a nd

t hen

t ime. o f t his, e arly f armers h ad t aking

p hase o f s eed

p lace.

p rotection.

M ost c ontrol T hat i s,

l ittle c ontrol

o ver

t he e nergy

w as e xerted d uring t he s torage

o nce s eeds w ere p lanted

t hese

e arliest a griculturalists h ad l ittle c apacity t o e xtend t heir i nfluence,

v ia a n e nergy t rigger m echanism a s d efined

a bove, o ver

e nergy e xchange t aking p lace a t t he c ellular l evel b etween t hese s eeds

8 53

a nd t he m edia o f s oil,

w ater

a nd n utrient m aterials.

T he l ack o f

c ontrol o ver t hese e nergy p rocesses m ay l ikely b e ar eason W hy f ew r elict f eatures f rom t his h orizon a re t oday o bservable. m iddens a nd a n o ccasional

s tratified

o f t his e arliest o f i ntensification

O nly h earths,

s ite r emain a s l andscape r emnants p hases ( Figure

1 ).

O nly t hey c an

t ell u s s omething o f t his s tage o f f ood g etting. F igure

1 :

D issipative s ystem o f o pportunity

H earths

N atural p opulations

\ Nb i ogeochemical o pportunism H earths

S pecially

A nnual c ropping

c reated p opulations

R iverine A griculture h igh w ater

D issipative

t able

s ystems o f

f arming

o pportunity

u ncontrolled

O pportunity

f loodwater

o f i mmediacy 0

f arming

N aturally d rained p layas N aturally d rained l agoons S unken

f ield

a griculture

M edium o pportunism

S plash i rrigation P ot i rrigation

_

_ _

H ouse g arden w ells

O pportunism o f p roximity

W alk—in w ells

T his w as f ollowed b y a nother i ntensification p rocess. c alled " media o pportunism"

s hift i n t he a gricultural

P lant h abitat, ( Figure

1 ).

p oint i s n aturally c hannelized w ater,

t oo,

c hanged.

T his

Ih ave

T he m edium o f c oncern a t t his a s o pposed t o

o pportunistically b y e arlier h orticulturalists.

s eep w ater u sed

P ertinent t o t his

p articular c oncept o f o pportunism i s t he a vailability o f t his c hannelized w ater. e xistent. T hose

A t a v ery e arly d ate t his w as m inimal

i f e ven

Ih ave c alle d t his s ituation t he " opportunism o f i mmediacy".

f armers p racticing t his o pportunism w ere t he

f rom t he h earth.

f irst t o

p lant a way

T hey c hose t o d rop s eeds w here n aturally f lowing

w ater w ould l iterally r un o ver o r o f s oon—to—emerge p lants.

i mmediately b eneath t he r oot s ystems

H igh w ater 8 5 1 1

t able

f arming,

u ncontrolled

f loodwater 1 ).

f arming a nd,

i n g eneral,

r iverine

f arming w as b orn ( Figure

I n a ddition t o t he c learing o f v egetation p rior t o p lanting, w hich

w as a lso r equired s eeds o ver

a bout t he h earth, e ffort w as n ow e xpended t o d eliver

l inear d istance t o a s ource o f w ater.

T hat d elivery

c onstituted a t rigger m echanism o f e nergy f low b etween a nother e nergy s ystem, r elative

f lowing w ater.

t o t hose r ealized

o rder t hat t he t rigger

A merinds a nd y et

C onsiderably h igher

y ields,

a bout t he h earth, m ust h ave b een r ealized

e xpenditure o f e nergy c ould b e j ustified.

h igher y ields l ikely w ere d ue t o t he p lants o f s ilts a nd c lays

i n

T hese

s imultaneous d elivery o f t hese

p lus n utrients c arried b y t hat w ater.

I n m y opinion e nergy t ransfer

f rom o ne

f orm t o a nother w as

c onsiderably m ore c ontrollable b y e arly s tream c hannel

a nd h igh w ater

t able a griculturalists t han w hen o nly s eedbeds a bout t he h earth w ere p lanted a nd m aintained. p roduction

a nd

t o m ove

A merind

a bility t o p ick a nd c hoose s ites o f

s eeds t o t hose

T he t ransfer o f s eed m aterial

s ites g enerated t his c ontrol.

f rom s ite o f s torage t o

s ite o f p lanting

f ormed a t rigger m echanism i n t he s ense c reated b y A dams. A griculturalists o f t he h earth a nd o f t he

s tream c hannel b oth u sed

n ature o pportunistically b ut t he l atter c ould c ontrol d egree t he

a vailability o f m oisture n eeded b y y oung

t o a g reater

p lants.

I f t he

e nergy c ost r atio o f s hifting t o r iverine a griculture w as s ufficiently l ow, a s i t m ust h ave b een, t his m ay h ave h ad

s ome b earing c n t he

a pparently e arly w idespread d istribution o f r iverine a griculture. W e m ust b ear c ontrolled

i n m ind

t hat b oth t echniques o f f ood g etting

l ittle e nergy,

b iogeochemical

i n

s ome a bsolute

p rocesses w ere s till b eyond

s ense.

M icroscopic

t he r each o f A merinds a s

c arbon c ompounds w ere m anufactured a t t he c ellular l evel. p laces n ot

f ar

f rom t he h earth,

N ow i n

s ome

e nergy r eleased b y t he g ravitational

movement of n aturally c hannelized w ater

w as o nly s natched b y t hese

h orticulturalists. S till

a f urther

s hift i n b oth l abor

o f e nergy t ransfer m erged opportunism, o ne w hich O pportunistic t he r ather

A merind

Ih ave l abelled

t he

f irst

p lots o f l and

p roduction

t ime

i n b oth s urface a nd

i n m y c lassification,

i t t o t heir b eloved

t hese g reen

j eopardy.

f or

s etting

A s b efore,

s ubsurface s trata.

A merind m oved

w ater o ut o f i ts

p rimary f ixers.

p lants w ould h ave r emained

t his s uggested

p rocess may o r m ay n ot h ave c hanged

p hase o f t he

i n

i ntensification

f rom t hat a ssociated

8 55

F or

ad istance a nd o nly t hen

a nd s pecially c reated

W ithout t hat d elivery, T he

t he

i t o ver

s hared

a djacent t o,

w ithin, c hannels o f n aturally f lowing w ater.

e nvironment, t ransported

d elivered

t he " opportunism o f p roximity".

f armers a t t his s tage o f f ood

t hese c hannels w ere f ormed n atural

w ithin a f inal c ontext o f a gricultural

s imple d istinction o f u sing

r ather t han

i nput r equirements a nd c ontrol

w ith f arming

p ractices a lready d iscussed. h igh-sun s un

h igh w ater

F or

O r,

a nd n ever

l and

u sed

a nnual c roppers u sing

t able m ight h ave c ome t o h arvest a n

s econd c rop b y r aising w ater

f ields.

e xample,

s urfaces,

p reviously

a djacent t o n atural

p ermit

e cology,

p ot

i rrigation.

g rowers a nd

i n

c hannels

s ame s hallow w ells w ere d ug

R egardless o f t he

a nd m ore p aramount t o

t he c hange t hat o ccurred

s tream

a griculture, m ight h ave c ome t o b e

a nnually c ropped o r m ulticropped o nce t hese t o

i n s itu l ow-

f rom s hallow w ells d ug o n t heir

l ocated

f or

a

t he

p articular

s etting

a nd

p resent c lassification s cheme,

t he e nergy r elationship b etween l ocal

i ts

w as f ood

t hat s etting.

T hat c hanged

r elationship r equired

t hat A merind

f armers n ow

d irectly a nd c onstantly i nterject t hemselves a s t rigger m echanisms i nto a nother

e nergy s ystem,

t here t o c reate a nd m aintain

e quilibrium s ystem o f d issipative e nergy. a nd

s urvival

l ying

o f t heir d omesticated

a midst

l ower

f or

t he

( stream)

i nterjection,

s urface t o i n

f act,

w ay w as d riven

r aising

A merind

a h igher

c reated

i n

t he

s o

f ar

s tructure.

c ostly i n

t ime

f armers'

a nd m ore

O n

a nd

t he

s urface.

f irst o f w hat

T his d egree o f

Ic all a t ruly w arped

f rom e quilibrium b y b oth w ithdrawing c ontour a s t o c reate t his

e nergy a nd f rom

s ystem t o

f rom

f or

t his r egard

t he

f irst t ime i n t o

u tilize

T his e ffort e lsewhere w as

t he v iewpoint o f

s ystem o nly o ver

s hort

t his c lassification e ffort,

w ater

i n a w ay o ther

( e.g.

t hat t he t echniques o f s plash i rrigation,

t o e ach o ther

e nergy, m an,

a nd g ardening b y w alk-in

( Figure

t o r aise a nd

1 ).

E ach r equired

r elocation

a nd m aintenance o ver

w ater.

A merinds '

t han b y g ravity f low.

t he " opportunism o f p roximity")

h ouse g ardening b y w ells,

r aised

I p ropose

i n

p ot i rrigation,

w ells w ere

ad issipative

T hat t rigger g ave

a n ow v ery a ltered

t o a

h ighly f orm o f a dded

d issipative s ystem.

s mallness o f s cale o f t hese o perations s peaks o f h ow d emanding t his

c ontrol

a nd m aintenance w ere.

S unken o f

a nd

s tructure b ut m en

s ufficiently h ard.

c ould b e j ustified

i n

a w hole n ew

h igher c ontour e ither b y h ands c upped o r b y u se o f g ourds.

T he

f rom a

ad aily b asis t his c onstant i nterjection

w as l ocally ( e.g.

c ontrol

a t t his

l inear d istances.

c apacity e merged

s imilar

f ields

i nterjection

s ource o f w ater

N ature c ould n ot c reate

c osts o f e nergy t ransfer o n-field)

W ater

f or t he b enefit

t he c apacity t o c oncentrate e nergy p reviously s pent

u niverse.

T hus

W ith m ore

( planting)

l ocally c ould b y w orking r egularly a nd g enerated

s o

T he e nergy f lux o f a ny s tream i mpacted

i ts c ontents t o a h igher

d issipative

p lants.

p urpose o f r aising a l ocal

d issipative e nergy s ystem. t his

T hey d id

f rom

s tream c hannels d uring a d ry s eason o r o nly a djacent t o

t hese c hannels d uring a ny s eason, p oint w as

a f ar

f ield

D issipative

r equired

t o

a griculture h as a lso b een p laced

S ystems o f O pportunity.

r emove t he o verburden

G iven

s urrounding 8 56

i n

t his s upra-class

t hat m uch l abor u nderground

w as

s treams, t his

system d id d iffer

f rom,

s ay,

a w alk—in w ell.

t echnically, m oisture f rom t hese p lants b y g ravity b ut r ather i nto t he

u nderground

w as a ttracted

H owever,

s treams d id n ot f low t o

u pward b y c apillary a ction

z one o f p lant r ootlets g rowing o n t hese

p laced t his t echnique

f ields,

Ih ave T he

t hen d erive b enefit f rom s unken

f ield a griculture w as a pparently s o h igh a s t o

p rohibit t heir

u se.

Ad istinct l ine s eparates t he a ncient O pportunity t hus

f ar d escribed

a llies I h ave c alled ( Figure 2 ). s ucceeded

s unken

i n t he c lass o f " opportunism o f p roximity".

e nergy c ost r atio t o c onstruct a nd w idespread

s ince,

A ltered

f rom a nother

s upra—class o f a gricultural

E nvironments o f D issipative

S ystems

M ost, b ut n ot n ecessarily a ll, m embers t o t his s upra—class

t hose a ffiliated

F igure 2 :

D issipative S ystems o f

w ith t he

f irst.

A ltered e nvironments o f d issipative s ystems:

p otential

e nergy d ecreased S lash a nd

b urn

----- N utrients

a griculture

-- ---

L oma b ordo a griculture

D itched

T opsoil

( silt)

m edium

P otential

e nergy

d ecreased

f ields —

W ater m edium

D rainage d ikes D rained

f ields

c anals w ithout r eservoirs S urface c anals

A ltered

S ubtArranean c anals

e nvironments

C overed

o f D issipative

c anals

s ystems A queducts

w ithout

r eservoirs P otential e nergy i ncrease P otential

e nergy

b oth i ncreased a nd d ecreased

8 57

T his l ine s eparates t he

a bility o f A merinds t o

b y d ealing d irectly w ith i t s tructure b y a ltering

f rom

t he

w arp a n

a bility t o

e nergy s tructure

w arp t hat s ame

t he e nvironment c onstraining

i t.

T hus a

d istinction m ust b e m ade b etween

t he d irect

d issipative

d issipative s ystem a nd

o f t hat t he

s ystem w ith a s econd

i nteraction o f a ' first '

f irst s ystem w ith t he e nergy c onstraints,

s econd.

W hen

t he e nvironmental

a re t hemselves a ltered, s tructure c onfined a ccordingly.

o r

e nvironment, o f

c onstraints t o t he

t he e nergy c ontained

w ithin

t he i nteraction s econd

s ystem

t he d issipative

b y t hat e nvironment m ust t o a d egree r eact

T his i s,

d issipative s ystem.

i n

f act,

t he v ery d efinition o f a n on-living

T his c oncept

i s e mbodied

i n

t his

s econd

s upra-

c lass o f f ood g etting t echniques. W ithin

t his s upra-class,

h merinds w ere s till

o pportunistic

r egards t o t he e nergy f ixing c apabilities o f a utotrophs. c hanged. W orld,

B ut, c onsidering o nly t he

A merinds n ow n o l onger

e nvironment. u nleashed

t hat w ater,

p opulations of t he N ew

t ook a dvantage o f j ust t he

p roximity o f n aturally c hannelled e xtended b eyond

a gricultural

a nd

w ater.

I nstead

w as n ow a pplied

l abor

t o a n

T his a lteration a lso c reated a w arped

a d ifferent t rigger m echanism

w ith

T hat n ever i mmediacy o r i nput

w as

a lteration o f i ts

e nergy s ystem, y et

f or c ontrolling

e nergy

t ransfers. S ome e nergy c onstraints w ere i ntentionally a ltered A merinds s o a s t o d ecrease B eyond

t he

a t t he h ands o f

p otential e nergy o f d issipative

t hat o f f lowing w ater, o ne

w as t hat o f o rganic m aterials,

s ystems.

s uch s et o f m edia o f e arly i mportance

t hemselves d issipative

s ystems.

T hese

m aterials w ere e specially i mportant i f o ne's a gricultural h oldings w ere l ocated

s ome d istance

f rom

f allow a griculture o f t he p otential

( Figure

s lashed v egetation i mmediate

f orward.

o r

o f p roducing

2 ).

u se.

s ome

p rocess

p hysical

t ropics s erved

s ystems,

s hallow w ell

t o d ecrease t he

a t l east t hose l ocked

o f b urning

f elled o r

i n

p reviously

p ortion o f t hat v egetation's c omponents w as s ped

w as o verwhelmingly b iochemical r ather t han T his o ut-field

s ide b y s ide

t echnique o f p roducing

w ith s ome o r

p ractices d iscussed

a way f rom n aturally c hannelled w as

w ell

s hort

e xplains w hy l ittle e vidence o f t his a ncient w ay

c ould e asily h ave e xisted

a griculture

B oth l ong a nd

N ature's r ate o f e nergy c onversion

f ood r emains.

s tream a nd/or

s treams.

T his m ethod

y ielded

T hat t his

m echanical

f arther

N ew W orld

e nergy o f t hese o rganic

l iving b iomass

f or

s ilt b earing

u ndoubtedly a n

m ade m uch u se o f t his l inear

w ater,

i ncipient

d istance

a ll

a bove. s lash a nd

o f t he O n

a nd

i n-field

i nterfluves,

b urn

f orm o f a griculture.

f actor

f ood

A gain,

I

o f a s ufficiently l ow

e nergy c ost r atio r ealized b y e arly s hifting c ultivators. E xamples o f p urposeful d ecrease o f e nergy p otential t oo,

a re

a vailable

f rom

p urposefully i nduced

f ield

t opsoil

r eports. e rosion

8 58

S pores'

( 1972)

i n o ther m edia, a ccount o f

( loma b ordo a griculture)

i n

t he

N ochixtlan H ere,

V alley o f M exico i s i ntriguing

o n l ocal

t his s ense

p articularly o f t opsoil

g athered b elow a nd

t here u sed

l ocated a t l ower

i n

p articles.

p otential

b ody c onstituted

' constrained'

s urfaces

t o a l ower c ontour

w as i ncreased.

A gain,

o f a groforms s till v isible t oday i n

N ew W orld

t his c lass of s tructures. v ariety o f c anal

T hese

f ields,

t ypes a nd

t he

i nclude i n

L aw.

t ropics a ttest t o

s ome o rder o f s cale a nd

d rainage d ikes, d rained a quaducts

( Figure 2 ).

a llies o f t his c lass o nly r educed s ilt

n ature w as

V arious c ategories

f ields a nd

G iven

f acilities a ssociat e d w ith t hese p articular

e ither r unning w ater,

w as r educed

i n t hat t he r ate o f m ovement o f w ater S econd

d itched

w ater

T he d raining o f a ny n aturally t rapped w ater

t his r eduction,

g iven a ssistance w ithin c onfines o f t he

a gricultural

T his t opsoil w as

t he c onstruction o f f ield

e nergy o f

b y t echniques o f d rainage.

r eservoir

t he d ownhill

e levations.

E lsewhere t he

c omplexity,

( Figure 2 ).

s lopes, i ntentional d eforestation a betted

f low o f r unoff a nd

f rom a h igher

i n

a

t he a bsence o f

a groforms,

a ll

t he e nergy p otential o f

p articles o r n utrient m aterials.

T he e nergy p otential o f a ny g iven d issipative s ystem c ould a lso h ave b een

i ncreased b y t he c onstruction

e nvironment—altering d evices

a nd u se o f a nother c lass o f

( Figure 3 ).

O ne o f t hese d evices a ltered

f urther t he c onstraint o f f lowing w ater. a nd

a ssociated

u pstream r eservoirs t hat

v olume o f w ater

a nd

a t a p articular

p lace.

' cross—channel I f

e nt,

n e

w er

t o h old a g iven

t o c oncentrate t he e nergy p otential o f t hat w ater P erhaps, a s D enevan n otes ( 1979:8)

s tructures w ould h ave p ermitted w ater

s urface,

s omething

f ields a lso c oncentrated

l ocal m ass,

i n t his c ase b y c hecking

p rincipally o f w ater

t he m ovement o f t opsoil r ather

( Figure 3 ).

s imultaneously t oward g reater

a nd

i ts c argo

e nergy p otential

t rincheras , m etepantli t erraces, s lope f ield t erraces a nd

w hen

w eirs,

c oca

t erraces

( Figure 3 ).

w ere b uilt t o a lter n atural

f lows o f s urface w ater

W ith t hese s tructures i n p lace t he k inetic

m edia w as c hecked

a nd a ltered

t o a g reater

T he s ignificance o f t his p articular m ust b e u nderscored. b e regions

l inear

t he e nergy p otential o f

F rom f ield r eports n ow a vailable, d issipative w ater o f s oil w ere a ltered

t o p ass t o t he

S and d une s tone l ines,

r aised

W hich t here

t his i s w hy

u ndesirable i f t he e nergy p otential o f

w as t o b e i ncreased.

b orders a nd t han

f unctioned

t o c heck d am t erraces

w alls o f s tone u sually d o n ot c ontain d rop s tructures'.

t hese

t rapped w ater

Ir efer

B lum

p otential.

w ay t o a lter

a n e nvironment

( 1962 :206 ) h as s uggested t hat ' regions i n

w as l ocally [ an i n

e nergy o f t hese

i ncrease

i n

e nergy p otential] m ight a lso

w hich c omplexity c ould d evelop,

i ncrease i n o rganization a nd

t hat i s

[ where a n]

i n c omplexity m ight b e e xpected

8 59

t o g o h and

i n h and'. i n t he

A f urther s tage i n t he a gricultural

N ew W orld m ight b e

i nferred

i ntensification p rocess

f rom t his a bility t o i ncrease l ocal

e nergy p otential b y a ltering t he e nvironment h ousing t hat p otential. T he a rgument h as b een m ade t hat s ome e nvironments n aturally c hecking t he e nergy t ransfer o f d issipative s ystems w ere a ltered b y A merinds s o t hat t he p otential d iminished o r

i ncreased.

e nergy w ithin t hese s ystems w as e ither

A l ogical

s cheme l ends a v iew t oward a ltered d ecrease a nd y ielded

e xtension o f t his c lassification e nvironments t hat c ould b oth l ocally

i ncrease t his p otential

( Figure 4 ).

s ome o f t he m ost s ophisticated o f f ood

f or u s t o o bserve t oday i n t he F igure 3 :

T his d ual

a bility

p roducing a llies l eft

N ew W orld t ropics.

A ltered e nvironments o f d issipative s ystems:

p otential

e nergy i ncreased P otential e nergy d ecreased

C heck d am t erraces - - w ater m edium

S and d une s tone l ines L inear b orders

_ __t opsoil

( silt)

m edium R aised

f ields P otential

e nergy

i ncreased

A ltered e nvironments o f d issipative s ystems

W eirs T rincheras S emi—terraces

_

( metepantli)

t opsoil

a nd

w ater m edia

S lope f ield t erraces C oca t erraces P otential e nergy b oth i ncreased a nd d ecreased 8 60

A ny g ravity f low c anal movement o f w ater s elected

w ith t he a bility t o h old

p oints i n

e nergy f low c ontrol t erraces, a nd

a n e nhanced d ownslope

t hat w ater

i n r eservoirs a t

s pace q ualifies f or t his d istinction.

c ombination o f w ater c lassification

s ystem t hat c ombined

T his

f low w ith w ater c heck p rovided t he u ltimate f ound

s cheme,

i n t he

N ew W orld.

D rawing

t he a ndenes o f h ighland

i n

f rom D enevan's

P eru, v alley f loor

c audros , b ordered g ardens, c anals s erviced w ith c heck d ams

p artitioned

f low c ontrol F igure 4 :

f ields

q ualify a s t echniques o f t his t ype o f e nergy

( Figure 4 ).

A ltered e nvironments o f d issipative s ystems:

p otential

e nergy i ncreased a nd d ecreased

P otential e nergy d ecreased P otential e nergy i ncreased NNNN\N A ltered A ndenes

e nvironments o f d issipative

V alley f loor

t erraces

s ystems

C uadros

B ordered g ardens

C heck d ams

w ith c anals

W ater

P otential

m edium

e nergy b oth i ncreased

P artitioned

f ields w ith c anals

a nd d ecreased

R eservoirs w ith c anals

U nder

n o c ircumstances d id

t echniques

s ubsumed u nder

t he e nvironment a ltering a gricultural

t his s econd

s upra c lass o f a groforms r aise

a ny o f t he m edia o f e nergy f low a gain t o ä h igher c ontour. l ocal l evel

T rue, t he

o f w ater o r o f t opsoil m ay h ave r isen b ehind a r etaining

d evice p laced

s trategically a cross a s tream o r b arranca

u pon b eing d iverted o r o therwise

u sed

( gully ), b ut

a griculturally w ithin

i ts

e nvironment o f w arped e nergy t hat m edium t ravelled d ownhill, n ot o nly l iterally but a pplies t o r egard,

i n t he

w ater

a nd

s ense o f t he

S econd

L aw.

t o i ts l oads o f s ilts a nd

t he g ravity f low h ydraulic

T his g eneralization s oil

n utrients.

s ystems o f t he a rid 8 61

I n t his

n orth c oast

o f

P eru w ould a ppear

t o b e l ess i mpressive t han t he

s plash i rrigation s ystem u sed n ot

f or

i n

t he

s mall s cale

O axaca V alley o f M exico w ere i t

t he d istinction b eing m ade h ere b etween e arly

t o d eal d irectly w ith d issipative s ystems o f w ater p ropensity t o d eal

p ot o r

A merinds'

a bility

f low v ersus a l ater

w ith t he e nvironment c onstraining

t hat f low.

L abor

o nce e xpended d aily t o m ove w ater

s hort d istances b y m eans of p ot

i rrigation,

a ny o ther

h ouse g arden w ells o r

s ources o f w ater e xpended

w ere g iven u p f or, b ut u sually s upplemented

b y, l abor

t o r eshape a nd m aintain e nvironments c apable o f c onstraining

d issipative w ater

s ystems o ver l onger l inear d istances.

e nvironments s upported s patial

t echnique o f u sing c lose-by

f ood

T hese

p roduction a t a c ompletely d ifferent

s cale o f e ndeavor.

T o c onstruct t hese e nvironments w as t o

e xpend g reat a mounts o f t rigger

e nergy.

T hus,

i n o rder t o r ealize a

l ow e nergy c ost r atio,

A merinds r equired a c heap e nergy c ontrol d evice

i f t hey w ere

s ubstantially l ess t otal

t o e xpend

e nergy a s a t rigger

m echanism t han t he e nergy l ost b y w ater n ow m oving t hrough a ltered e nvironments.

T his c ontrol d evice t ook t he

g ates b uilt i nto t hese l ong d istance g etting o ne's h ands w et,

f orm o f

f acilities.

' nested'

f lood

L iterally,

l ittle e nergy w as r equired

w ithout

t o c ontrol

c onsiderably m ore e nergy f lowing t hrough a ny p ortion o f a n a ltered e nvironment. A f inal

s upra-class o f a gricultural a llies c onsists o f t he

t ablones a bout L ake A titlan, G uatemala a nd t he c hinampas i n a nd a bout

s ome o f t he h ighland b asins o f M exico.

s upport a re s pecial A merinds' a nd

i n t hat t hey a chieved

d rive b oth t o a lter

t o c ircumvent l ocally t he

w ith t he

s ystems t hemselves.

B oth t echniques o f c rop

t heir

s uccess t hrough

t he e nvironment o f d issipative S econd

L aw b y t hen

i nteracting d irectly

T hrough t he u se o f t hese a groforms

A merinds c ontrolled b y t heir o wn m aking t he l evel o f w ater a djacent t o w ater

f ields ( Turner

p lus t he

1 979)

f low,

s ilts a nd n utrients c ontained f ields.

w ithin W ilken

i t t o a h igher ( 1979:3)

t o t his e ndeavor a s a ' recycling s ystem'.

A merinds a t t hese p laces a ltered

t he n atural

w arped o f a gricultural N othing d ual

i n

t ask.

t he

c onstraints t o l ocal

e nergy s ystems

f ound

i n

t he

N ew W orld

N ew W orld c ould h ave b een m ore l abor c onsuming

T his p urposefully c reated

s tate o f v ery f ar

e arlier

i n

i mmediately a bove.

t ropics. t han t his

f rom

' opportunism o f p roximity '

t he e volution o f i ntensive a griculture b ut a lso

f rom t he l ong d istance g ravity f low c ontrol t he

t o i mpact

T his d ual a pproach p roduced t he m ost

e quilibrium d iffered n ot o nly f rom t he a llies u sed

r ecently

I n t erms of e nergy

d issipative s ystems o f e nergy f low b ut a lso c ontinued d irectly u pon t hose s ystems.

f low

b ut a lso w ere r equired t o l ift t his

c ontour - t o t he s urfaces o f t hese r eferred

s ystems

T he l abor

n eeded

s ystems d escribed

n ot m erely t o b uild a nd m aintain

t ablones a nd c hinampas b ut t o s ustain t hem d aily o r a s n eeded

b y t he u p-slope t est t he

t ransfer o f m aterials m ust h ave b een

s o g reat a s t o

u pper l imit o f t he e nergy c ost r atio v ariable. 8 62

O ne w onders i f

t he e nergy c ost t o

A merinds u sing t hese a groforms w as l ikely n ot

s ignificantly l ess t han t he e nergy c ost o f t he a ltered t hemselves.

B oserup 's

( 1965)

i deas n ow t ake o n s pecial

c himompa u sers w ere i n c onstant n eed s elves i nto e nergy s ystems a nd T hey, m ore t han a nyone, h ad t han

t o

s ystems s ignificance.

i nterject t heir d issipative

i nto t he e nvironments o f t hese s ystems.

i ntensified

t heir

l and

u se b ut a lso m ore

h ad a nyone e lse l ost t he m ore l eisurely l ifestyle o f t heir

a ncestors. ' Species'

o f a groforms h ave b een

i dentified

a nd v ariably g rouped

t ogether u sing a c riterion o f e nergy r elationships t hought t o b etween t hose u se c omes

f orms a nd t he

f rom i dentifying

i s a t ool, n ot a n e nd

p eople w ho b uilt t hem.

e xist

B ut n o s cientific

s omething j ust a s a s pecies.

C lassification

p roduct.

R eferences c ited A dams,

R .N.

1 975

Energy a nd S tructure:

o f T exas B erthoud, 1 977

P ress,

a t heory o f s ocial p ower.

U niversity

A ustin.

G . C omments [ to B arbara

O rganization:

P rice's

' Shifts i n

a C luster-Interaction

P roduction a nd

M odel'].

C urrent

A nthropology 1 8:221-222. B lum,

H .F.

1 962

Time's Arrow a nd E volution.

3 rd

e d.

H arpers a nd

B rothers,

N ew Y ork. B oserup, 1 965

E . The C onditions o f A gricultural G rowth.

C o.,

P ublishing

C hicago.

B rookfield, 1 972

A ldine

H .

I ntensification a nd

D isintensification

a t heoretical a pproach.

i n

P acific

A griculture:

P acific V iewpoint 1 3:30-48.

D enevan, W .M. 1 979

T ypology o f P re-Columbian

i n t he

A gricultural

S ymposium o f " Pre-Columbian

R esearch a nd

N ew P erspectives",

A mericanists,

V ancouver,

C anada,

L andforms.

I ntensive

P aper

A griculture:

X LIII I nternational

r ead

N ew

C ongress o f

A ugust.

D enevan, W .M. 1 980

L atin

A merica.

M anagement , S ons, G uzman, 1 979

I n

W orld S ystems o f T raditional R esource

e dited b y G .A .

K lee,

p p.217-244.

J ohn W iley a nd

N ew Y ork.

L .E. T errace,

R ainfall

A griculture i n

t he 7 5th A nniversary o f t he A nnual

M eeting,

M esoamerica.

P aper r ead

A ssociation o f A merican

P hiladelphia,

A pril.

8 63

a t

G eographers,

P atrick,

L .L.

1 977

A C ultural G eography o f t he

T errain:

T he M etepantli

U npublished P atrick,

U se o f S easonally D ry,

P h.D . d issertation,

U niversity o f P ittsburgh.

L .L.

1 981a

G eographic

R esearch o n t he

o n A griculture.

P re-Hispanic

P eriod w ith E mphasis

I n G eographic R esearch o n L atin A merica:

B enchmark 1 980, e dited b y T .L.

M artinson a nd G .S .

P P.188-197.

P roceedings o f t he

G eographers,

V ol.

P rice,

S loping

C rop T erraces o f C entral M exico.

8 ,

M uncie,

E lbow,

C onference o f L atin h mericanist

I ndiana.

B .

1 971

P rehispanic

I rrigation A griculture i n N uclear

L atin A merican R esearch R eview P rice,

A merica.

6 :3-60.

B .

1 977

S hifts i n

M odel. S pores, 1 969

P roduction a nd O rganization:

C urrent A nthropology 1 8:209-221.

R . S ettlement,

F arming T echnology, a nd

N ochixtlan V alley. T urner, 1 981

E nvironment i n t he

S cience 1 66:557-569.

B .L . R esearch R oles a nd

A boriginal a nd

P easant

G oals:

A C ommentary o n t he S tudy o f

C ultures b y L atin

I n G eographic R esearch o n L atin A merica: e dited b y T .L . o f t he M uncie, W ilken, 1 979

A C luster-Interaction

M artinson a nd

G .S .

E lbow,

A mericanist G eographers. B enchmark 1 980, p p.225-229 .

P roceedings

C onference o f L atin A mericanist G eographers, V ol.

8 ,

I ndiana.

G .C. M ucks,

M ucking, a nd

r ead a t t he P resent", V ancouver,

S oils o f t he

C hinampas o f M exico.

S ymposium o f " Mexican A gro-Ecosystems:

X LIII I nternational C anada,

P ast a nd

C ongress o f h mericanists,

A ugust.

8 64

P aper

T HE F ABRIC O F T HE W ORLD F ARN

W illiam C .

C larke

T he a ims o f g eography a nd p rehistory a re c losely a nd i ncreasingly l inked ; w ith t he

b oth a re e ssentially c oncerned

d istribution o f h uman

o f n atural r esources , a nd t he w ith h is e nvironment .

p opulation , t he u se i nterrelations o f m an

C olin R enfrew ( 1969:74)

R enfrew 's o bservation p rovides a t ext f or m y g eographer's e mphasis i n t his p aper o n a gricultural i ntensification i n t oday's a nd t omorrow 's t ropical w orld r ather t han i n p rehistoric t imes.

H owever,

Iw ill u se

t he l ink s pecified b y R enfrew a nd p lace m y c ontemporary c oncerns w ithin t he f ramework p rovided b y s tudies o f p rehistoric a nd p resent-day p alaeotechnic s ystems o f a griculture. T he s tudy o f a gricultural i ntensification o ffers e xcellent m aterials f or c onsideration o f t he i nterrelations o f m an a nd l and. M ediating b etween t hem a s b oth c ause a nd e ffect o f c hange i n b oth,

p ro-

c esses o f a gricultural i ntensification h ave b een w oven t hrough h umank ind's m aterial h istory e ver s ince t he e arly d omesticators b rought t he e volution o f m any p lants f irmly i nto t he c ultural r ealm a nd c reated t he e ver d ynamic

i nterchange b etween h umankind a nd a griculture.

A gricultural i ntensification i n a utonomous t erritories M ost s tudies o f a gricultural i ntensification b y p rehistorians, g eographers, s ome c ases,

o r a nthropologists h ave b een o f s mall t erritories o r,

i n

o f l arger r egions w herein t he d ynamics o f a gricultural

c hange r emained l argely a utonomous, a s a mong t he p rehispanic M aya ( Harrison a nd T urner

1 978).

T he f ewer s tudies,

w hich h ave e xamined

p rocesses o f i ntensification t hat w ere s trongly i nfluenced b y e xtrat erritorial o r e xtra-regional

f orces,

i nclude G eertz's

s tudy o f i nvolution i n J ava, a nd H anks'

( 1963)

c lassic

( 1972) e xamination o f c hanging

m odes o f r ice c ultivation o n t he c entral p lain o f s outhern T hailand o ver t he p ast c entury.

I n t hose c ommoner s tudies,

w herein t he

f ramework o f r elative a utonomy f rom e xternal h uman i nfluences p revails, e xplanations a ccounting f or a gricultural i ntensification m ost c ommonly h ave r eference t o p opulation p ressure a s am ajor c ause. F or i nstance, ( 1965),

Io nce a rgued

t hat a mong f our s mall

( Clarke

1 966),

f ollowing B oserup

P apua N ew G uinean c ommunities p ractices

m ore i ntensive t han c lassic s hifting c ultivation w ere a s imple r esponse t o i ncreased d emand

( more s weet p otatoes f or m ore p igs o r p eople) o r t o

t he e nvironmental a lterations t hat a ccompanied t he s hortened p eriods r equired f or m eeting i ncreased d emands.

f allow

Ir elated i ntensifi-

c ation t o a l essened r eturn p er h our o f l abor a nd t o a d eterioration i n t he d iet, c oncluding t hat t he r esponse, n ecessarily d esirable.

t hough n ecessary , w as n ot

S imilar g rowth a nd s hortage o r d eterioration o f

r esources t o a gricultural i ntensification h ave b een e xpressed i n m any o ther s tudies.

G rigg

( 1976) r eviewed m uch o f t his w ork i n a p aper e n-

t itled P opulation P ressure a nd A griculture C hange a nd a rgued t hat, i t i s t he s pur o f p opulation p ressure, w hich i s t he c ondition w hich o btains w henever p opulation r ises a bove t he o ptimum,

t hat

f orces f arming c ommunities

t o c hange e ither t heir t echnology o r t heir r esources s o t hat t hey r eturn t owards t he o ptimum d ensity o r e stablish a n ew o ptimum.

I ndeed p opulation p ressure

i s e ver p resent i n p re-industrial c ommunities;

b ut

i t i s o nly u nder c onditions o f s ustained p opulation g rowth t hat s ocieties a re c ompelled t o m ake m ental c hanges i n t heir a ffairs ( Grigg

f unda-

1 976:140).

T wo d ata-rich a nd s tatistically r igorous p apers t hat p rovided f urther s upport f or t he B oserup t hesis w ere b y t he a nthropologists, B rown a nd P odolefsky ( 1976), P ortararo ( 1977).

a nd t he g eographers,

T urner,

H anham , a nd

T he a nthropologists a nalyzed d etails t hat h ad b een

r eported w ith r egard t o 1 7 g roups o f N ew G uinean h ighlanders a nd c onc luded t hat p opulation d ensity i s a ssociated w ith, d ictor o f ,

a nd i s a g ood p re-

a gricultural i ntensity - t hough t hey a dded t hat t he d irec-

t ion o f t he c ausal a rrow c ould n ot b e d etermined b y t he s tatistical f acts

( Brown a nd P odolefsky

a nthropologists' c onclusion.

1 976:229).

T he g eographers, d rawing o n t he

s ynthesis a nd o n o ther w ork,

A f ew y ears e arlier,

c ame t o as imilar i nitial

W ilkinson's b ook P overty a nd P r g ress

( 1973) o ffered a l ess c autious d efence o f B oserup.

H is c ounter-

M althusian a pproach c onferred o n p opulation g rowth t he s tatus o f a n i ndependent v ariable a nd o n a gricultural i ntensification t he m erit o f p roblem s olver.

A s W ilkinson p ut i t:

t he m ain f eatures o f l ongterm e conomic d evelopment i ncluding c hanges i n t he r esource-base, o f l abour,

t he d ivision

t he d evelopment o f t rade a nd i ndustry,

i ncreasingly i ntensive a gricultural m ethods a nd m any o ther a spects o f a s ociety's c hanging p roductive a ctivity, o f n eed.

a re a ll

p redictable r esponses t o t he g rowth

T hey c annot b e u nderstood a s a ttempts t o

i ncrease e conomic e fficiency.

T he n otion t hat e conomic

d evelopment i s a p rocess o f i ncreasing e fficiency d ies h ard, b ut i t w ill b e s hown t hat d evelopment i s a ccompanied - a s o ften a s n ot - b y a d ecrease i n t he r eal e fficiency o f s ocieties

( Wilkinson

1 973:90).

B oserup's c ompelling t hesis h as n ot, o f c ourse, b een w holly a ccepted w ithout q uestion o r w ithout a ttempt a t r efinement. t hese a re c omprehended w ithin B ronson's o bservation

M ost o f

( 1975:74)

t hat a g-

r iculture i s a c omplex, m ulti-faceted a daptive s ystem t hat d oes n ot h ave a s ingle a ll-efficient c ause.

I n t hat v ein,

B rown 's a nd

P odolefsky's u ncertainty a bout t he d irection o f t he a rrow o f c ausality b etween p opulation d ensity a nd a gricultural i ntensity c an b e e xtended t o t heir o pinion t hat t he r elationship i s i nteractional a nd n either c omponent c an b e c onsistently a ntecedent t o t he o ther P odolefsky

1 976:229).

s ystems f ramework, n oting t hat

( Brown a nd

I n h is r ecasting o f B oserup 's t heory w ithin a

D atoo ( 1978:142)

c ame t o a s imilar c onclusion,

' the n ormal p rocess o f c hange i nvolves i nteraction a nd r e-

c iprocation'.

A lso i n

1 978,

B rown,

i n a r eview o f N ew G uinean e cology,

s ociety, a nd c ulture, e laborated o n h er e arlier l ine o f a rgument r eg arding t he r elations b etween c hanges i n p opulation a nd a griculture: D o i mproved t echniques l ead t o p opulation g rowth,

o r

d oes p opulation g rowth d emand i mprovement i n t he t echnology o f f ood p roduction? T he v ariety o f p ract ices s uggest n o s ingle d irection.

T he a gricultural

s ystems a re f lexible a nd t he p eople h ave d eveloped t echniques o f i ntensification w ell s uited t o t he l ocal c onditions.

O bservation a nd c omparison s uggest

t hat p opulation i ncrease r equires s ome i ntensific ation, a nd i mproved p roduction p ermits g reater d ens ity: t he t wo a re m utually s timulating a nd i nterdep endent. W ithin a nd b etween a reas a v ariety o f f orms i s k nown a nd p ractised,

a s a ppropriate t o l ocal c on-

d itions a nd g roup n eeds ( Brown

1 978:277).

B rown's e mphasis o n v ariety r aises a nother c riticism o f B oserup o ther t han t hat h er t heory w as o verly b iased t oward u ni directionality. T his i s t he a ccusation, s omewhat u njust C oexi3tence o f C ultivation S ystems"), v ariation i n a gricultural s ystems.

( see B oserup 's c hapter " The

t hat s he n eglected s ynchronic

I t i s, o f c ourse,

w ell k nown e thno-

g raphically a s w ell a s i mplicit i n a gricultural l ocation t heory t hat m any c ommunities u tilize i ntensive m ethods i n o ne p art o f t heir t errit ory a nd e xtensive i n a nother; c an r epresent e ach '

( Netting

c hanges i n t he d egree o f i ntensification

' ... m erely a n a lteration i n t he r elative p roportion o f 1 974:39).

O ne o f t he m ost d etailed a nalyses o f t he v ar-

i ety w ithin a nd b etween l ocal a gricultural s ystems c omes f rom t he w ork o f H arold

B rookfield i n M elanesia. C omparing d ata

p laces i n

' old M elanesia',

f rom f orty-four

B rookfield e stablished a n i ntensity r anking

t hat c ontained a w ide r ange o f t echniques a nd l evels o f i ntensification ( Brookfield w ith H art i llustrated

1 971:105-116).

B rookfield

f urther t he c omplexity o f t he p rocesses o f i ntensification

a nd a lso p ointed o ut t he c ation,

B uilding o n t hese d ata,

f requency o f

' retrogression', o r d isintensifi-

i n c ultivation p ractices i n M elanesia. 8 67

H is m ajor c ontribution

w as t o m ove b eyond a p opulation-based t heory o f i ntensification o r a way f rom t he

' long-lived c alorific o bsession '

( Beookfield

1 972:46)

t o a

d isaggregation o f p roduction i nto d ifferent t ypes a ccording t o m otive. T hus, a side f rom s ubsistence n ecessities a nd a ' normal s urplus', d uction m ay b e c arried o ut t o m eet d esires o r n eeds f or r itual, p restige,

p ros tatus,

p ower, o r t rade, o r s ome i nter-woven c ombination o f t hese.

m ight b e e xpected,

I t

B rookfield a rgued, t hat s ubsistence p roducers w ould

n ormally b ehave i n a ccordance w ith t he p rinciple o f l east e ffort b ut w hen t hey t urn t o s ocial p roduction, I nputs

t hey m ay a ct v ery d ifferently , a nd

' ... m ay b e w ildly u neconomic w hen m easured b y c alorific

r eturns,

y et w holly r easonable w hen m easured a gainst s ocial r eturns'

( Brookfield

1 972:38).

O n t he o ther h and, t he c ultivator m ay b e m ore i n-

t erested i n m inimising r isk t han l abour ( Netting T hus,

1 974:39).

b ehavioural c onsiderations c an t ake c ausal

p opulation d ensity.

p recedence o ver

I t s hould, h owever, a lso b e n oted t hat e ven i f t he

p rinciple o f l east e ffort i s a m otive,

t he m ove a long t he g radient o f

i ncreasing i ntensification n eed n ot a lways m ean a d iminished r eturn p er u nit o f l abour o r a n e conomic d isadvantage.

F or e xample, W addell

( 1972), w ho s tudied o ne o f t he m ost e laborate o f t he h ighland N ew G uinean f orms o f i ntensification, d oubted t he c omparative e fficiency o f s hifting c ultivation; a nd N akano ( 1980:61), o n t he b asis o f d etailed m easurements c arried o ut a mongst c ultivators i n n orthern T hailand, c oncluded t hat

' ...

i t s eems c ertain t hat t he l abour p roductivity o f

r ice s widdens a t m y s urvey v illage w ill b e e valuated t o b e f ar l ess t han 5 0 p ercent a s c ompared w ith t hat o f i rrigated p addy f ields'. I nterestingly,

N akano a ttributes t he d ifference i n l abour i nput b etween

t he t wo s ystems m ainly t o t he h eavy l abour r equirement f or t he s econd w eeding o f t he s widdens. A gricultural i ntensification h as b een s een t o b e a c omplex p rocess w hen c onsidered s olely w ithin t he f ramework o f a utonomous t erritories. I n t oday's w orld, m ous.

A s D atoo

s carcely a ny a gricultural e ndeavours r emain a utono-

( 1978:142)

c ommented:

' it m ust b e a ccepted,

t hen, t hat

t he a gricultural s ystem i s e mbedded i n ah ierarchy o f s ystems

..'.

I t

f ollows t hat p rocesses o f l ocal i ntensification h ave b ecome s ubject t o p olicies a nd m otives o riginated a t a d istance.

T he f ormation o f t he w orld f arm I nfluences f rom a d istance e xisted p rior t o w hat W allerstein ( 1974) h as c alled m aize,

' the m odern w orld-system'.

T he A ztec c ollected t ribute o f

c acao, a nd o ther a gricultural p roducts;

i mperial w ars

c hanges i n p opulation d ensity i nto a gricultural s ystems ;

f ed

l evies f or

l abour o r m ilitary s ervice a ffected a gricultural w ork i nputs;

a nd t he

t axman o r h is e quivalent c ame t o m any p arts o f t he w orld l ong b efore 8 68

t he E uropean c olonialist a rrived. m eans o f f orce;

Y et t hese w ere c rude e xtractions b y

s uch a lso o ccurred a t t imes d uring t he c enturies o f

E uropean e xpansion. M y c oncern i s w ith s omething d ifferent: s ubtle, a n a lmost i nternalised, a nd W allerstein ( 1974:15-16)

am ore

f ar m ore p ervasive i nfluence.

p ut i t w ell:

P olitical e mpires a re p rimitive m eans o f e conomic d omination. e rn w orld,

I t i s t he s ocial a chievement o f t he m odi f y ou W ill, t o h ave i nvented t he t ech-

n ology t hat m akes i t p ossible t o i ncrease t he f low o f t he s urplus f rom t he l ower s trata t o t he u pper s trata,

f rom t he p eriphery t o t he c enter,

f rom t he

majority t o t he m inority, b y e liminating t he " waste" o f t oo c umbersome a p olitical s uperstructure

..

T he

s tate b ecomes l ess t he c entral e conomic e nterprise t han t he m eans o f a ssuring c ertain t erms o f t rade i n o ther e conomic t ransactions.

I n t his w ay,

t he o per-

a tion o f t he m arket ( not t he f ree o peration b ut n onetheless i ts o peration) c reates i ncentives t o i ncreased p roductivity a nd a ll t he c onsequent a cc ompaniment o f m odern e conomic d evelopment. P rior t o t he d evelopment o f t he m odern w orld-system,

t he f orces

t hat b rought a gricultural i ntensification m ay h ave b een s imilar f rom o ne a utonomous t erritory t o a nother, b ut t he i ndividual s equences c ould h ave b een t aking p lace o n d ifferent p lanets.

F rom t he s ixteenth c entury

o nwards t he t erritories s hare t hat t endency t o b e i nvolved, w illyn illy, i n t he

' gambles' o f c apitalism ( Evaudel

b erg 's ( 1979:30-46) f rom 1 492 t o

a ccount o f t he

1 973:443,

' developmental p lays'

4 45).

D ahl-

s tretching

1 972 s ummarised t he t ransformations b rought t o t ropical

a griculture b y t echnological i nnovations a nd t he p olitical-economic a ss imilations o f t he c olonial c enturies.

H ere I w ill o nly o utline t he

c haracteristics o f t he p resently e xisting s ub-systems o f t he w orld t hat h ave r eplaced a utonomous

' integral'

s ubsistence s ystems

f arm

( Conklin

1 957). Y en ( 1980) h as d escribed t he i ntroductions a nd t ransformations t hat uitability h ave a ffected P acific i sland a griculture a nd c onsidered t he s o f p resent s ystems f or f uture d evelopment. s ystems o ccurred i n t wo m odes:

f i ntegral T he r eplacement o

f s ubt he s mallholding w ith a m ix o

s istence a nd c ash c ropping a nd t he l arge-scale p lantation. m ercial p roducts o f t he f irst m ay b e i ntended u rban m arkets ( see a lso F isk

1 978);

T he c or n-

or l ocal f or e xport o r f

roduction t he t otally c ommercial p

o f t he s econd i s d esigned a lmost w holly f or e xport.

I n e ither c ase, t he

c ommitment t o t he c ash e conomy i s a lso t o e xternal i nfluence a nd t o i ncrease o utput o f v alue,

w hich i n m ost c ases m eans i ncreased

p roduction f rom t he t erritory. W est A frica,

G leave a nd W hite

W ithin a f ramework o f s mallholdings i n ( 1969:288-291)

8 69

d istinguished t hree s tages

o f m odification r esulting f rom t he i ntroduction o f c ash c ropping: f ixation o f s hifting c ultivation, s pecialisation i n a s ingle c rop.

i ntensification o f p roduction, T hey f ound t hat t he

a lso b rought a bout b y p opulation g rowth;

a nd

f irst t wo w ere

p erhaps t he t hird w as t oo i n

t he c ase w ith t he d ominance o f s weet p otato i n t he P apua N ew G uinean h ighlands

( Clarke

1 966) o r t he p resent-day d isplacement o f s ubsistence

c rop d iversity b y m anioc i n l ands s tressed b y o verpopulation. T wo r ecent a nd p articularly p enetrating c ase s tudies o f t he t ransf ormation

f rom s ubsistence i solate t o c ommercial a ppendage a re t hose o f

G udeman ( 1978) a nd G rossman ( 1979).

G udeman's n arrative i s ( 1978:1)

' ... a bout a r ural e conomy c aught i n t he m oment o f t ransition b etween t wo c ompetitive f orms o f o rganisation, d uction f or e xchange'.

p roduction f or u se a nd p ro-

A lthough t he P anamanian v illage o f L os

B oquerones t hat G udeman d escribes h ad l ong b een s ubject t o e xternal i nf luences,

i t w as o nly i n t he e arly

1 960s t hat c ash c ropping o f s ugar

b egan t o r eplace a s ubsistence a griculture b ased o n r ice a nd m aize - a t ransition t hat G udeman v iews e quivocally: T he q ualitative n ature o f t he o bject d ominates i n p roduction f or u se, b ut q uantities a lso a re i mporta nt,

f or a g ood m ust b e p roduced i n s ufficient

a mounts t o m eet t he p roducer's n eeds.

T he c amoesinos

a re a cutely a ware o f t he q uantities o f p roduct t hey r equire.

T he L os B oquerones s ystem o f f abricating

u seful o bjects, h owever,

i s n ot p redicated u pon

e ver-increasing p roduction. i s t he a im

..

S ufficiency n ot s urfeit

C ane h as ' utility'

p easant r ids h imself o f i t, w hich h e d oes w ith r ice.

o nly w hen t he

t he r everse o f t hat

M ore p rofoundly,

t he s ugar

c ane t riggers a c hange i n t he r elations b etween t he p easant a nd n ational e conomy. t he

T hrough t he s ugar c ane

p eople r eap t he a dvantage o f b ecoming n ational

c onsumers;

a s t hey a re

' integrated'

n ational e conomy, h owever, t heir p roductive m eans.

i nto t he

t hey l ose c ontrol o ver

T hus, t his m inimal s hift i n

p roductive t echniques a ctually r epresents a nd l eads t o a t otal e conomic t ransformation, c hange t heir w orldly c onditions, d ent,

f or t he

p easants

f rom b eing i ndepen-

s elf-sufficient p roducers t o b ecoming p etty

c apitalists a nd d ay l abourers

( Gudeman 1 978:34,

1 21-

1 22). A mongst t he P apua N ew G uinean h ighlanders s tudied b y G rossman, t he t ransition h as n ot

p rogressed s o f ar;

b ut t he i ntroduction o f c offee

a nd s mallholder c attle p rojects h as b rought e nvironmental d egradation, t he c reation o f a n e conomic e lite, s istence m alaise,

w hich i s

a nd w hat h e

( 1979:309) c alls s ub-

' ... a c ondition i n w hich t he p reviously 8 70

s trong c ommitment t o s ubsistence p roduction h as d eclined b ecause o f a n egative c omparison w ith i ncome-producing e ndeavours a nd o ther e xternally-derived a ctivites, w ith a r esulting r eduction i n t he p roductive l evel a nd r esilience o f t he s ubsistence s ystem '. s ees i t a s

G rossman

f ortunate t hat t he P apua N ew G uineans a re n ot y et a s l ocked

i n c ommercial a griculture a s a re t he L os B oquerones p easants d escribed b y G udeman.

' Indeed',

G rossman ( 1979:353)

w rites,

' given a w orld s ystem

d evoted t o e conomic g rowth a nd t he c lose l inkage b etween t he s ubs istence s ector a nd c ash-earning a ctivities, t he f ailure o f t he i ntern ational m arket s ystem t o o ffer c onsistently h igh p rices f or p rimary p roducts i s o ne o f t he s aviours o f s ubsistence s ystems'. G rossman's o bservation m ay b e t rue b ut w ould n ot b e p opularly r ec eived b y a griculturalists.

F or b oth s mallholder a nd l arge-scale

t he c ash i ncentive i s s trong,

a nd t he

f armer

f orces i t i nitiates t oward i n-

c rease i n p roduction a re d ifferent i n q uality f rom b iologically-based i mperatives f or i ntensification.

A s R oy R appaport

f or a N ew G uinean h orticultural s ystem , s uch g ood b iological t hings a s p igs;

( 1968) d emonstrated

t here c an b e t oo m any o f e ven

t heir d epredations i nto g ardens

a nd t he g rowing a mount o f h uman l abour n ecessary t o f eed a g rowing h erd l ead t o a n egative f eedback t hat e ventuates i n t he s laughter o f t he p igs a nd a l essened n eed

f or p roduction o f s weet p otatoes t o f eed t hem.

W ithin t he c ommercial s phere t here c an b e a ' wheat g lut' n ever b e t oo m uch m oney.

b ut t here c an

U nlike t hings b iological, m oney h as w hat

G regory B ateson h as r eferred t o a s am onotone v alue: Am onotone v alue i s o ne t hat e ither o nly i ncreases o r o nly d ecreases.

I ts c urve h as n o k inks;

I ts c urve n ever c hanges

t hat i s,

f rom i ncrease t o d ecrease o r

v ice v ersa. D esired s ubstances,

t hings,

p atterns, o r

s equences o f e xperience t hat a re i n s ome s ense ' good'

f or t he o rganism - i tems o f d iet, c onditions

o f l ife,

t emperature, e ntertainment,

s ex, a nd s o

f orth - a re n ever s uch t hat m ore o f s omething i s a lw ays b etter t han l ess o f s omething.

R ather,

f or a ll

o bjects a nd e xperiences t here i s a q uantity t hat h as o ptimum v alue.

A bove t hat q uantity,

t he v ariable b e-

c omes t oxic. T o f all b elow t hat v alue i s t o b e d ep rived.

T his c haracteristic o f b iological v alue d oes

n ot h old f or m oney

..

M ore m oney i s s upposedly a l-

w ays b etter t han l ess m oney. t o b e p referred t o $ 1,000

..

F or e xample,

$ 1,001

i s

T he p hilosophy o f

m oney, t he s et o f p resuppositions b y w hich m oney i s s upposedly b etter a nd b etter t he m ore y ou h ave o f i t,

i s t otally a ntibiological.

l ess, t hings

I t s eems,

n everthe-

t hat t his p hilosophy c an b e t aught t o l iving ( Eäteson

1 979:53-54).

8 71

B eyond t he c ash i ncentive,

o r c ommercial i mperative, a re o ther

f orces t hat f urther l ink m ankind's a gricultural e ndeavours i nto a s ingle s ystem,

t he w orld

i ded i nto:

t he m otives o f h umanitarian c oncern t o

( 1)

f arm.

I n a n a bbreviated w ay,

t hese c an b e d ivf eed t he h ungry

a nd t he e conomic d esire t o a ugment t he p rofits o f g lobal a gribusiness; ( 2) t he m echanisms o f g lobally-uniform t echnological a nd a gronomic i np uts,

t he g lobal d ispersal o f s imilarly-trained m anagers, w orld-wide

t rade,

t he c onsolidation o f l and h oldings,

a nd i nstitutions,

t he C onsultative G roup o n I nternational A gricultural w hich i s n ow ' parent'

t o I RRI,

i cal a gricultural i nstitutes.

CAT,

C IMMYT ,

s uch a s

R esearch ( CGIAR),

a nd o ther w ell-known t rop-

W ortman ( 1980) h as r ecently d escribed t he

p lace o f t he C GIAR n etwork w ithin i nternational e fforts t o i ncrease f ood

p roduction a nd n oted t hat i n t he l ast t hree d ecades: t here h as b egun t o e merge w hat s ome c all a " threet iered" s ystem o f a gricultural r esearch w ith a ll e lements i nterlocking ,. n ational p rograms,

O ne t ier c onsists o f t he

l arge o r s mall,

i n e ach c ountry.

A s econd c onsists o f t he i nternational o r r egional r esearch i nstallations i n t he t ropics o r s ubtropics w hich b ackstop t he n ational e fforts a nd p rovide s ome l inkages t o c enters o f s pecialization e lsewhere. T he t hird t ier c onsists o f t he c enters o f s pecialization i n t he d eveloped c ountries f or t he m ost p art, w here a dvances t hrough b asic a nd s upporting c ategories o f r esearch a re g enerated

( Wortman 1 980:161).

T he C GIAR n etwork s ymbolises t he l ate t wentieth c entury s tyle o f d estruction o f t erritorial o verview. t hat t he e xtent o f t he w orld

I t c an b e a rgued,

f or i nstance,

f arm c onceals t he c onstraints t hat m ust

s till e xist i n a ny f inite w orld, n o m atter w hat i ts s ize.

O n t he o ther

h and, e xpansion o f a gricultural l and a nd f urther i ntensification a re f oreseen b y s ome s cholars a s c ontinuously p ossible ( e.g.

C ampbell

1 979;

S imon

1 980).

f ar i nto t he

f uture

S ince t he m ajor p urpose o f t he w orld

f arm i s t o p roduce w ithout l imit a p ecuniary a bstraction d ivorced f rom o rganic r ealities, g lobal a griculture d oes s ometimes s eem f ree o f t he s ort o f n egative f eedback p rovided b y R appaport's p igs i n t he N ew G uinean c ommunity 's a utonomous t erritory.

T here a re,

h owever,

e lements

i n t he o peration o f w orld f arm t hat c an b e s een t o f unction i n a s imil ar w ay;

t hey m ight b e t hought o f a s

' ghost p igs'.

G host p iRs o n t he w orld f ar t, Ih ave a lready t ouched o n s everal c ontradictions o r a ntinomies p revalent i n m ankind's t hinking a bout t he w orld's a griculture t oday. H ere,

Iw ill b riefly e xpand o n t hese a nd o utline a f ew o thers, c oncen-

•t rating o n w hat a ppear t o b e g host p igs, t hat i s, t inually i ntensifying p roduction. 8 72

l imitations t o ac on-

O ne o f t he h ighest o rder a ntinomies i s d erived f rom t he w orld f arm 's s ize,

w hich m akes i t e asy t o c onsider a griculture i n t he f rame-

w ork o f ac ognised e nvironment t hat i s f ar r emoved f rom t he o perational e nvironments o f t he a groecosystems w here t he p hysical p rocesses o f a gr iculture t ake p lace a nd w here e conomic a nd s ocial p rocesses a nd e vents o ccur a t t he m icro-scale. I f t he o utput g oals f or t he c ognised e nvironm ent a re t oo d isparate f rom t he p hysical p ossibilities o f t he b ios phere, t he o perational c onsequences m ay, s tructive t o t he s ystem.

B rookfield

l ike t oo m any p igs, t urn d e-

( 1978:129) m ade t his s ame p oint i n

am ore g eneral w ay w hen h e n oted t hat d iscussion o f t he d evelopment i mp erative i s r arely r elated t o t he m ore u niversal i mperative o f m anagem ent o f t he b iosphere.

J ohn F riedman ( 1980:9-10) w ould n ot e xplain t his

n eglect b y r eference t o s cale b ut b y p ointing t o t he d ominance o f w hat h e c alls ' functional' o ver t erritorial

f orces, a d ominance t hat m akes

d evelopment t heory a n i deology,t o u nderwrite t he g lobal e xpansion o f c apital. C ertainly , l ight:

t he g reen r evolution c an b e i nterpreted i n t hat

i t s upplied t o t ropical a griculture t he i nvestment o f c apital

t hat h ad b een t he m issing f actor i n n on-plantation p roduction.

F rom

t hat a pplication o f c apital - w hich m eant t he i ntroduction o f t he ' throughput'

m ode o f i ndustrial a griculture t o t he t ropics - c ame t he

s tring o f d isheartening c onsequences t hat h ave b een t he s ubject o f s o m uch w riting o ver t he p ast d ecade.

( See,

f or e xample,

B eyond t he G reen R evolution f or a w ide-ranging,

D ahlberg's ( 1979)

t houghtful s ummary.)

A f ocus o n a griculture w ithin t he e cosphere, o nly o ne s ide o f t he p revious a ntinomy, b rings m ore a mbiguities a nd c ontradictions.

T echno-

l ogical o ptimists s ee i nvestment i n i ntensification a s t he k ey, m ore i n: m ore o ut.

O thers s ee b iological l imits a nd p hysical c onstraints t o

c ontinuing i ntensification o n b oth t he o ptimists '

e quation.

F or t his t opic,

' in'

a nd

' out'

s ide o f t he

t he l iterature i s e ven m ore

o verwhelming t han f or t he g reen r evolution; o nly t he s parest s uggestions o f t he i nter-related c omplexities c an b e g iven.

O n t he

g lobal s cale, a griculture i s c onnected, n ot a s m ajor c ause b ut c ertainly a s c ontributor, t o b oth t he r eduction o f s tratospheric o zone;

' CO 2 q uestion '

a nd t he

f eedback e ffects f rom b oth t o f uture

a griculture a re i nevitable a s e arth's c limatic p attern b ecomes a ffected o r a s s olar r adiation r eaching t he e arth's s urface c omes t o h ave a d ifferent p roportion o f w ave l engths.

O n ar egional s cale,

q uality o f w ater s upply o ffer c onstraints X Lindh

q uantity a nd

1 979), a nd a griculture

c ontributes t o o ngoing d esertification, w hich a gain f eeds b ack a l imitation o n f uture p roductivity. L ocally,

t here a re c hanges i n s oil

s tructure, t here i s d ecline i n y ields a ssociated w ith t he o vera pplication o f a gricultural c hemicals, a nd t here a re e rosion a nd s alinisat i on. C ornucopians t o t he c ontrary, m any r esources t hat m ake u p t he i nt ensification-input p ackage a re i ncreasingly i naccessible. M easurements o f ' agricultural e nergetics'

s how t he n egative e nergy r eturns o f

i ndustrial a griculture ( e.g. 1 978).

F luck a nd B aird

1 980;

L each

1 976;

A pologies t hat a griculture a ccounts f or o nly a s mall

K ing

p ercentage

o f f ossil-fuel u sage d o n ot c heer; t hat w ithdrawals a re s mall d oes n ot d iminish t he l ogic t hat d ependence o n t errestrial c apital s tock r ather t han s olar

f low c an m ean e xhaustion o f r esources d uring s ome f uture

t ime. S hortages o f p hosphorus,

a n e ssential c onstituent o f f ertiliser,

a re o ften s een a s a nother o ncoming l imiting f actor t o f urther i ntensif ication. A rable l and, a b asic

f actor o f p roduction,

u ses c ompetitive t o a griculture.

L astly ,

i s c onsumed b y

t here a re b iological c on-

s traints t o c ontinuing s traight-line i ncreases i n y ield p er h arvest o r p er d ay,

a s m ulti-cropping m ight b e m easured

( Evans

1 980).

s traight-line i ncreases c an b e c laimed f or a l imited

W here

p eriod, t hey h ave

u sually b een a ttained a t t he c ost o f a d isproportionate i nput. l anguage,

I n o ther

c ontinued i ntensification g enerates a n a ccelerating e nviron-

m ental r esistance t hat c an o nly l ead t o d iminishing r eturns. S everal d ifferences o f v iew a ppear i n i deas a bout t he p roper m ana gement o f t he w orld f arm , o f t hese,

t he m atter o f s cale o f l andholding

r elates d irectly t o a g eographer's c oncern w ith t he p hysical l andscape. I t i s w idely r ecognised t hat s mall h orticultural p lots c an b e m uch m ore p roductive p er u nit a rea t han l arger, h ighly m echanised s ystems, a s o n t he s mall p lot t he s ubtleties o f g ood h usbandry c an b e h armonised w ith m icro-environmental v ariation 1 76).

Y et

( e.g. W ortman

1 980:159;

D ahlberg

1 979:

f orces o f e conomic e fficiency p ush t oward i ncreased s ize o f

h oldings, a s i s c learly i llustrated i n t he d ecreasing n umber o f s mall f arms i n t he U .S.A. 1 978)

( Heady

1 976:126).

T ime m agazine's ( 6 N ovember

e ulogy o f t he n ew b reed o f A merican f armer s uccinctly e xpresses

t his c hange w ith t he r uling m axim o f m odern a gricultures:

G et gg o r

g et o ut. T he c ontradiction, o n t he o ne s ide, b etween d emands f or g reater a ggregate p roduction a nd y ields p er u nit a rea a nd, o ther,

o n t he

f or g reater e conomic e fficiency i n t erms o f g reater y ields p er

m an h our o r i nvestment u nit i s n ow b eing r esolved a cross t he w orld f arm I n f avour o f T udge's ( 1977)

' commercial i mperative', w hich a cts t o

d rive o ut w hat h e d escribes a s i s t he

' rational a griculture'.

p roblem t o b e s olved o n t he w orld f arm,

I f w orld h unger

i ndustrialisation o f

a griculture o n t he I owa m odel i s n ot t he p roper s olution.

V iewed i n a

l onger t ime s cale, o ne o f t he m ost s erious d isadvantages a ssociated w ith t he w orkings o f t he c ommercial i mperative i s t he l oss o f c rop a nd l ivestock d iversity f rom a gricultural s ystems b ecause o f s pecialisation f or a n arrow e fficiency

( Harris

1 978;

R eichert

1 982).

R elated t o t he c onnection b etween w orld h unger a nd t he w orld f arm a re t he d isputes t hat s urround t he c ause o f t he c hronic u ndernourishm ent o f 5 00 m illion t o 1 980:1415).

T he

1 ,000 m illion o f t he e arth's p eople

1 960s-style, d oom-predicting a nnouncements o f i mminent

c atastrophic s hortfalls o f f ood h ave s ubsided, b ut b etween

1 961 a nd

( Wharton

f ood p roduction

1 976 c an b e s een t o h ave b arely k ept p ace w ith

8 74

p opulation g rowth i n t he m ajority o f d eveloping c ountries O n t he o ther h and, c ountries a nd

p roduction h as i ncreased f aster i n s ome d eveloping

i n t he g lobal a ggregate.

T hus, t he e xplanation f or h unger

i s n ow c ommonly p laced n ot i n e cology b ut i n e conomics, p overty a nd i n t he s earch f or p rofit. a nd

( FAO 1 977).

s pecifically i n

T he r ecent b ooks b y D ando ( 1980)

T udge ( 1977) m ake t his p oint, a s d oes G eorge: T oday a s y esterday n ature a nd s ometimes g overnments' p olicies m ay p roduce a bundance, b ut o nly m an c an c reate s carcity.

A ccording t o t he s implest r ule o f

l iberal e conomics, a v ital c ommodity i n s hort s upply w ill b e e xpensive a nd h e w ho h as s ome t o s ell w ill m ake m oney.

T his b asic r ule i s b eing a pplied o n a

g lobal s cale,

w ith c onsiderable s uccess

( George

1 976:1) 40).

T he f abric o f t he w orld f arm F rom t he s mall a nd s cattered a utonomous a gricultures o f p rehistory h as c ome a g lobally-connected w orld f arm , h erent s ystem,

e ither i n i ts o peration o r i n o ur p erception o f i t.

s trained b y s carcity a nd s ify,

t he w orld

b ut b y n o m eans a w holly c oC on-

p ollution b ut c ompelled t o e xpand a nd i nten-

f arm c an b e s een a s a b roken p lanetary f abric t hat b e-

c omes e ver m ore i nfluentially i nterwoven i nto t he e cosphere.

I ts a real

e xpansion w ill b e l imited a nd i n p laces t here w ill b e r etreats, w hile W ortman's ( 1980:159) t ral b oth t o

e mphasis b ecomes i ts p rincipal

f uture p ath:

' Cen-

f ood p roduction a nd t o r ural i ncome g eneration i s i ntensi-

f ication o f a griculture

.. m ost i ncreases i n t he f uture m ust c ome f rom

h igher c rop a nd a nimal y ields'. W hat w ill b e t he m otives a nd m ethods o f t his i ntensification,

o r, a t a d ifferent l evel,

f uture e volution o f i ntensification o n t he w orld

w hat c an b e s aid o f t he f arm?

E volutionary s urvival d epends u pon t wo c ontrasting p rocesses: i s c onnected

i nward t o t he r egularities a nd p atterns o f t he p ast;

o ther m ust b e d irected o utward t oward t he c hanging e nvironment. d ominant i nward-facing p aradigm o f t he w orld

o ne t he T he

f arm i s t hat o f m aterial-

i st s cience a nd i ts p ast s uccesses;

i ts v alues a re t hose o f e xponential

g rowth a nd u nlimited s atisfactions.

T he w orld f arm's e volution, o n t hat

b asis,

i s t oward f urther i ndustrialisation o f a griculture b y m eans o f

i nstrumental r ationality a nd a n e ver-greater t hroughput o f m aterials a nd e nergy. T his a pproach n eglects t he o ther s ide o f e volution,

t he n ecessity

t o a dapt t o a nd n ot t o a ffect t oo v iolently t he n urturing e nvironment. W ith t he p rocess o f i ntensification d ominated b y t he i nward, o r b ackw ard,

l ooking v iew ,

t he w orld

f arm h as b ecome a p ump t hat d raws i nto

i tself c omponents o f t he l ithosphere, a tmosphere, a nd h ydrosphere a nd 8 75

s pews t hem o ut i n a r e-organised t here s ources w ere s eparate t ure.

f orm a s t hough t hose c omponents a nd

f rom t he b iosphere t hat i ncludes a gricul-

F rom a n e volutionary p oint o f v iew ,

t he o pposite i s t rue:

t he

b iosphere i s a c ondensation o f t he i norganic e nvironment, a nd i n i ts o ngoing e xistence r emains i nseparable f rom i t.

T he i ncreases i n y ield

t hat e ver-greater t hroughputs f orce f rom t he w orld t he c ost o f m ore e ntropy,

f arm a re g ained a t

a nd l oss o f f uture p otential,

i n t he l arger

g lobal s ystem. T he d emands f or i ncreases i n s peed o f p roduction b ring a s imilar r esult: ' labour'

t omorrow 's r eward t oday , g ained f rom t he a ccumulated

o f t he b iosphere i n t he p ast.

i ntensification h astens i ts f light.

I f ' entropy i s t ime's a rrow ',

T his i s e videnced b y t he s ea o f

e nvironmental d isorder t hat s urrounds t he i sland o f o rder b rought b y i ntensification. O n t he b righter s ide, d espite t he t heoretical c ertainty o f e nt ropy 's i ncrease,

p erhaps t he w orld h as a n atural r esilience a nd c an

a bsorb m ore i nsults t han w e s uppose;

a t l east,

s o H are ( 1980) a rgued

I n a j udicious r eview o f e nvironmental i ssues c entral t o t he h abitability o f t he e arth.

M odern m an , t oo,

s hows s igns o f a daptations

t hat c ould c ounteract t he e nvironmental t hreats f rom a gricultural i nt ensification o n t he i ndustrial m odel. w ith t he s upport b y G leave a nd W hite

S uch c hanges w ould b e i n l ine

( 1969)

o f t he i dea t hat W est

A frica's i ntensifying a griculturalists m ay m ove i nto a c onserving s tage f ollowing o ne o f m ining t he s oil's f ertility. c onserving a daptations a re t he s ustainability o f y ields

' soft'

( Janzen

T he m odern w orld f arm's

t echnologies,

1 973;

t he c oncern w ith

A ltieri e t a l.

1 983)

a nd t he

b elief t hat t raditional a nd l ong-lived a gricultural m ethods m ight b ring b enefits t o p resent-day s ystems ( Clarke

1 978;

I nnis

1 980).

T he s oft

t echnologies h ave b een m uch d iscussed i n r ecent l iterature a nd h ave b een s hown o ften t o b e l ess c ontradictory t o t he g oals o f m odern o rthod ox a griculture t han h ad b een a ssumed b y t echnological e nthusiasts ( Lumley-Smith 1 981).

1 979;

K lepper e t a l.

F ukuoka

1 978; L ockeretz e t a l.

N o-tillage a griculture h as b een s hown t o h ave a n umber o f a dvan-

t ages w ithout a l oss o f y ield a l.

1 977;

1 980).

( Triplet a nd V an D oren

1 977;

P hillips e t

S cientific a ppraisal s upports t he c ontinuance a nd e xpansion

o f t he o rganic a nd n o-tillage a pproaches;

c ontemporary s cientific r e-

s earch m ay l ead t o a b iotechnology o f n itrogen f ixation t hrough g enetic m anipulation. l isers,

S uch a p rocess w ould c ut t he n eed

f or c hemical

f erti-

a d ecrease t hat w ould m ean l ess w ater p ollution a nd a l ower

f ossil f uel

i nput i nto a griculture w hile t he a vailable n itrogen s upply

w as m aintained, t hough c rop y ields w ould d ecrease M acNeil e t a l.

1 978).

( Gutschick 1 978;

H owever p romising g enetic m anipulation a nd g en-

e tic t ransfer o f d esirable t raits m ay b e, c onventional p lant b reeding r emains a s o r m ore i mportant i n t he c ontributions i t c an o ffer, n ot o nly w ith r egard t o y ields b ut a lso w ith r egard t o d isease,

a nd p est-

r esistance a nd c rop t olerance t o e nvironmental e xtremes ( Borlaug 1 983). 8 76

M ankind's

i ncrease i n n umbers a nd t he c ontinuing n eed o r d esire

e conomic g rowth m ean t hat t he w orld's a gricultural e ver m ore s ubject t o t he c alls t he

p rogressive

' ecological t ransition',

i ncorporation o f n ature

f or

p otential w ill b e a s B ennett

i nto h uman

f rames o f p ur-

p ose

a nd a ction.

s oil

f ertility a nd b iotic d iversity w ill b e l ess t hreatened a nd e nergy

i nput

I f t he s ofter t echnologies p revail

( 1976:3)

i nto a griculture c an b e d ecreased.

t inued a nd

A lso h eartening

p erhaps g rowing e thical c oncern w ith l and

t o t hat e xpressed s hows t hat

i n t his

s o e loquently b y A ldo L eopold

p rocess,

i s t he c on-

i n a v ein s imilar

( 1949).

D aly ( 1977)

s uch e thical c oncerns c an b e d irectly r elated t o t he s econd

l aw o f t hermodynamics - a n a cceptance o f w hich l eads t o a c hanged a nd g entler w orld v iew

( Georgescu-Roegen

1 971;

R ifkin

1 980),

i ntroduce i nto i ntensification k inds o f m otives - o r a bles - d ifferent

f rom p opulation p ressure o r

o ptimism i s h ardly c alled

f or,

p rofit.

a p rocess w herein t he

o f culture a re w oven t ogether

i ndependent v ariT hus,

t hough

t here i s t he p ossibility t hat t he w orld

f arm m ay y et b ecome w hat a griculture i s a nd h as b een p laces o n e arth:

w hich c ould

i n s cattered

f abric o f n ature a nd

t he

f abric

i nto a v aried t apestry w hich d elights a nd

s ustains m ankind.

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