Pre-Hispanic Agricultural Fields in the Andean Region, Parts i and ii 9781407388533, 9781407388540, 9780860544661, 9781407346335

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1: TERRACE ABANDONMENT IN THE COLCA VALLEY, PERU
CHAPTER 2: PREHISTORIC AGRICULTURAL TERRACING AT CHIJRA IN THE COLCAV ALLEY, PERU: PRELIMINARY REPORT I
CHAPTER 3: PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION OF PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AND TERRACING AT ACHOMA, COLCA VALLEY, PERU
CHAPTER 4: CAMBIO EN LOS PATRONES DE ASENTAMIENTO Y EL USO Y ABANDONO DE LOS ANDENES EN CABANACONDE, VALLE DEL COLCA, PERU
CHAPTER 5: ANALISIS DEL USO DE TIERRAS REGISTRADO EN LAS VISITAS DE LOS SIGLOS XVI Y XVII A LOS YANQUECOLLAGUAS, AREQUIPA, PERU
CHAPTER 6: AN ECOLOGICAL MODEL FOR ESTIMATING PREHISTORIC POPULATION AT COPORAQUE, COLCA VALLEY, PERU
CHAPTER7: INITIAL INVESTIGATION OF SOILS IN AGRICULTURAL TERRACES IN THE COLCA VALEY, PERU
CHAPTER 8: CONTEMPORARY AGRICULTURAL TERRACING IN LARI, COLCA VALLEY, PERU: IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORIES OF TERRACE ABANDONMENT AND PROGRAMS OF TERRACE RESTORATION
PART II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 9: MAPPING AND DATING THE PREHISTORIC RAISED FIELDS OF THE GUAYAS BASIN, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 10: LOS CAMPOS ELEVADOS DE LA CUENCA DEL GUAYAS, ECUADOR: EL PROYECTO PE ON DEL RIO
CHAPTER 11: ARQUEOLOGIA DE ASENTAMIENTOS ASOCIADOS A LOS CAMPOS ELEVADOS DE PE ON DEL RIO, GUAYAS, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 12: EXPERIMENTOS DE REACTIVACION DE CAMPOS ELEVADOS, PaION DEL RIO, GUAYAS, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 13: CAMPOS ELEVADOS AL NORTE DEL SITIO ARQUEOLOGICO PENON DEL RIO, GUAYAS, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 14: EVIDENCE FOR PREHISTORIC MAIZE CULTIVATION ON RAISED FIELDS AT PCON DEL RIO, GUAYAS, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 15: RAISED FIELDS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, A.D. 1400-1600, RIO DAULE, GUAYAS, ECUADOR
CHAPTER 16: ESTIMATING LABOR INPUTS FOR THE GUAYAS RAISED FIELDS: INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 17: AGROENGINEERING DYNAMICS OF POST-TIWANAKU SETTLEMENTS IN THE OTORA VALLEY, PERU
CHAPTER 18: THE INCAIC ORGANIZATION OF TERRACED IRRIGATION IN CUZCO, PERU
CHAPTER 19: THE DATING OF RAISED-FIELD AGRICULTURE IN THE LAKE TITICACA BASIN, PERU
CHAPTER 20: AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS IN RAISED FIELDS IN THE LAKE TITICACA BASIN, PERU: PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 21: EVIDENCE FOR THE CULTIVATION OF QOCHAS IN THE PERUVIAN ALTIPLANO (SUMMARY)
CHAPTER 22: EVIDENCE OF PREHISTORIC DITCHED FIELDS ON SLOPING LAND IN NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR
CHAPTER 23: THE CHIBCHA RAISED-FIELD SYSTEM IN THE SABANA DE BOGOTA, COLOMBIA: FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS
CHAPTER 24: THE ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF CALIMA, COLOMBIA
Chapter 25: POBLAMIENTO Y ADECUACION HIDRAULICA EN EL BAJO RIO SAN JORGE, COSTA ATLANTICA, COLOMBIA
CHAPTER 26: THE HOLISTIC BASIS OF PREHISTORIC ANDEAN AGRICULTURE (ABSTRACT)

Citation preview

Proceedings

4 5 Congreso Internacional de Americanistas International Congress of Americanists Bogota, Colombia 1985

Pre-Hispanic Agricultural Fields in the Andean Region Part i edited by

William M. Denevan, Kent Mathewson and Gregory Knapp BAR International Series 359(i) 1987

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S 359(i), 1987: 'Pre-Hispanic Agricultura! Fields in the Andean Region', Part i

@The Individual Authors, 1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388533 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388540 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544661 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346335 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544661 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

D edicated t o J ames J . P arsons, E xp lorer o f t he S an J orge a nd G uayas R aised F ie lds

11

C ONTENTS

P ART i

P age L ist o f C ontents L ist o f C ontributors P reface S ection I .

i v v ii i x

A gricultura l T erracing i n t he C o lca V a lley, P eru

1

1 .

W illiam M . D enevan

T errace A bandonment i n t he C olca V a lley, P eru

2 .

M ichae l A . M a lpass

P rehistoric A gricu ltura l T erracing a t C hijra i n t he C olca V a lley, P eru: P reliminary R eport I

4 5

3 .

D anie l E .

P re liminary D iscussion o f P rehistoric S ett lement a nd T erracing a t A choma i n t he C olca V a lley, P eru

6 7

4 .

P ablo d e l a V era C ruz C hgvez

C ambio e n l os P atrones d e A sentamiento y e l U so y A bandono d e l os A ndenes e n C abanaconde, V alle d el C olca, P erd

8 9

5 .

M ar ia A . B enavides

A nä lisis d el U so d e T ierras R egistrado e n l as V isitas d e l os S iglos X VI y X VII a l os Y anquecollaguas, A requ ipa, P eru

1 29

6 .

J ohn T reacy

A n E cological M ode l f or E st imat ing P reh istoric P opu lat ion a t C oporaque, C o lca V a lley, P eru

1 47

7 .

J on S andor

I nit ia l I nvest igat ion o f S oils i n A gricu ltura l T erraces i n t he C olca V a lley, P eru

1 63

8 .

D avid G u illet

C ontemporary A gr icu ltural T erracing i n L an , C o lca V a lley, P eru: I mp licat ions f or T heories o f T errace A bandonment a nd P rograms o f T errace R estorat ion

1 93

S hea

i v

1

P ART i P age S ect ion I. 9 .

R aised F ields i n t he G uayas B asin, E cuador

J ames J . P arsons a nd R oy S h lemon

2 07

M apping a nd D at ing t he P rehistoric R aised F ie lds o f t he G uayas B asin, E cuador

2 07

1 0. J orge G . M arcos

L os C ampos E levados d e l a C uenca d el G uayas, E cuador: E l P royecto P eKön d el R iö

2 17

1 1. J ozef E . B uys a nd M ichae l M use

A rqueologia d e A sentamientos A soc iados a l os C ampos E levados d e P e5ön d el RA, G uayas, E cuador

2 25

1 2. M ichae l M use a nd F austo Q u intero

E xperimentos d e R eactivaciön d e C ampos E levados, e ra n d el R i o, G uayas, E cuador

2 49

1 3. V a lentina L . M artinez

C ampos E levados a l N orte d el S it io A rqueolögico P e5ön d el R i o, G uayas, E cuador

2 67

1 4. D eborah M . P earsall

E vidence f or P rehistoric M aize C ultivat ion o n R aised F ields a t P e7 iö n d el R io, G uayas, E cuador

2 79

1 5. D avid M . S temper

R aised F ields a nd A gricultura l P roduction, A .D. 1 400-1600, RA D aule, G uayas, E cuador

2 97

1 6. K ent M athewson

E st imat ing L abor I nputs f or t he G uayas R aised F ields: I nit ia l C onsiderat ions

3 21

S ection II.

R aised, D itched, a nd T erraced F ie lds i n P eru, E cuador, a nd C olombia

3 37

1 7. C harles S tanish

A groengineering D ynamics o f P ost-Tiwanaku S ett lements i n t he O tora V a lley, P eru

3 37

1 8. J eanette E .

T he I ncaic O rganizat ion o f T erraced I rrigat ion i n C uzco, P eru

3 65

1 9. C lark L . E rickson

T he D at ing o f R aised-Field A griculture i n t he L ake T iticaca B asin, P eru

3 73

2 0.

A gricultural E xperiments i n R aised F ie lds i n t he L ake T it icaca B asin, P eru: P re liminary C onsiderat ions

3 85

S herbondy

I gnac io G araycochea Z .

V

P age E vidence f or t he C ult ivat ion o f Q ochas i n t he P eruvian A lfi l 7fi r7 ( Summary)

3 99

2 2. G regory K napp a nd D avid A . P reston

E vidence o f P rehistoric D itched F ie lds o n S loping L and i n N orthern H ighland E cuador

4 03

2 3. S ylvia M . B roadbent

T he C hibcha R aised-Fie ld S ystem i n t he S abana d e B ogota, C olombia: F urther I nvest igat ions

4 25

2 4. W arwick B ray, L . H errera, M . C ardale S chrimpff , P . B otero, a nd J . G . M onsa lve

T he A ncient A gricultural L andscape o f C a lima, C olombia

4 43

2 5. C lemenc ia P lazas a nd A na M aria F alchett i

P oblamiento y A decuacic i n H idräulica e n e l B ajo R i o S an J orge, C osta A t lgnt ica, C olombia

4 83

2 6. R ichard T .

T he H olist ic B asis o f P rehistoric A ndean A griculture ( Abstract)

5 04

2 1. J orge A .

F lores O choa

S mith

v i

L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS

M aria A .

B enavides,

A v. J ose P ardo 2 39/13, M iraflores, L ima 1 8, P erü .

P edro B otero,

C entro I nteramericano d e F otointerpretaciön, A partado A ereo 5 3754, B ogota ' , C olombia.

W arwick B ray,

I nst itute o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f L ondon, 3 1-34 G ordon S quare, L ondon, W C1H O PY, E ngland.

S ylvia M .

J ozef E .

B roadbent ,

B uys,

D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f C alifornia, R iverside, C a lifornia, 9 2521, U .S.A .

a /c E mbajada d e B e lgica, C a lle A ustria 2 32, Q uito, E cuador.

W illiam M . D enevan,

D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison, W isconsin, 5 3706, U .S.A.

C lark L . E rickson,

D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f I llinois, U rbana, I llinois, 6 1801, U .S.A.

A na M aria F a lchett i,

J orge A .

F undaciön d e I nvest igaciones A rqueold gicas N aciona les, B anco d e l a R epdblica, B ogota ' , C olombia.

F lores O choa,

I gnacio G araycochea Z .,

D avid G uillet ,

P royecto A gricola d e l os C ampos E levados, C asilla 3 66, P uno,

D epartment o f S ociology, U niversity o f M issouri K ansas C ity, K ansas C ity, M issouri, 6 4110, U .S.A.

L eonor H errera,

G regory K napp,

A partado 5 82, C uzco, P eru ' .

I nst ituto C olombiano d e A ntropologia, M useo N acional, C arrera 7 , N o. 2 8-66, B ogota, C o lombia. D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f T exas, A ust in, T exas, 7 8712, U .S.A.

M ichae l M a lpass,

D epartment o f A nthropology, S t . L awrence U niversity, C anton, N ew Y ork, 1 3617, U .S.A.

J orge G . M arcos,

A partado 3 233, G uayaqu il, E cuador.

V a lent ina L . M artinez,

K ent M athewson,

J ose G . M onsalve,

D epartment o f A nthropology, S outhern M ethodist U niversity, D allas, T exas, 7 5275, U .S.A .

D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f N orth C arolina, C hapel H ill, N orth C arolina, 2 7514, U .S.A . H ugo d e V ries L aboratorium, U niversity o f A msterdam, K ruislaan 3 18, 1 098 S M, A msterdam, N etherlands.

v ii

M ichae l M use,

P rogram i n A nthropology, G raduate C enter, C ity U niversity o f N ew Y ork, 3 3 W est 4 2nd S treet , N ew Y ork, N ew Y ork, 1 0036, U .S.A.

J ames J . P arsons,

D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f C a lifornia, B erkeley, C a lifornia, 9 4720, U .S.A.

D eborah N i . P earsall,

A merican A rchaeology D ivision, D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f M issouri, C o lumbia, M issouri, 6 5211, U .S.A .

C lemenc ia P lazas,

F undaciön d e I nvest igaciones A rqueolö gicas N aciona les, B anco d e l a R epublica, B ogotä , C o lombia.

D avid A . P reston,

S chool o f G eography, U niversity o f L eeds, L eeds, L 52 9 JT, E ngland.

F aust° Q uintero,

J on S andor,

E scuela d e A rqueologia, E scuela S uperior P olitecnica d e l L itora l, A partado 5 863, G uayaqu il, E cuador.

D epartment o f A gronomy, I owa, 5 0011, U .S.A.

M arianne C ardale S chrimpff ,

D anie l S hea,

J eanette E .

R ichard T .

F undaciön d e I nvest igaciones A rqueolögicas N aciona les, B anco d e l a R epublica, B ogotä, C olombia.

D epartment o f A nthropology, W isconsin, 5 3511, U .S.A. S herbondy,

R oy S h lemon,

I owa S tate U niversity, A mes,

P .O.

S mith,

B e loit C ollege,

B e lo it ,

D epartment o f S oc iology, W ashington C ollege, C hestertown, M aryland, 2 1620, U .S.A.

B ox 3 066, N ewport B each, C alifornia, 9 2658, U .S.A. S chool o f G eography, U niversity o f L eeds, L eeds L 52 9 JT, E ngland.

C harles S tanish , D epartment o f A nthropology, F ield M useum o f N atural H istory, R oosevelt R oad a nd L akeshore D rive, C hicago, I llinois, 6 0605, U .S.A. D avid M . S temper,

J ohn T reacy,

D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison, W isconsin, 5 3706, U .S.A.

D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison, W isconsin, 5 3706, U .S.A.

P ablo d e l a V era C ruz C hgvez,

I nstituto d e E studios d el S ur, C asilla 2 160, A requipa, P er i l .

v iii

P REFACE

T his v olume c ontains r evised p apers o riginally p resented a t t he 4 5th I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists i n B ogo d , C olombia i n J u ly, 1 985. T hey c onst ituted t hree h a lf-day s essions i n t he S ymposium o n " The E cology a nd A rchaeology o f P re-Hispanic A gricultura l F ie lds i n T he C entral A ndes," o rganized b y W illiam D enevan a nd c haired b y t he e d itors o f t his c ollection. S everal a ddit ional p apers, r elated t o t he r esearch o riginally p resented, h ave b een a dded h ere: T reacy , S andor, G u illet , P arsons a nd S hlemon, a nd B roadbent . T he c hapter b y P arsons a nd S hlemon i s a n E nglish t ranslat ion o f a n a rticle p reviously p ublished i n S panish i n E cuador. I t i s a ppropriate ly i ncluded h ere i n t r ibute t o J ames P arsons t o w hom t his v olume i s d edicated i n r ecognit ion o f h is p ioneer w ork o n p rehistoric w et land a griculture i n n orthern S outh A merica. P rehistoric a gricultural f ields i n L at in A merica h ave r eceived s erious a ttention m ainly s ince t he 1 960s, f ollowing t he d iscovery a nd/or r ecognit ion o f t he i mportance o f v ast n umbers o f r e lic f ield f eatures, i nclud ing t erraces, r aised f ields, i rrigat ion a nd d rainage c anals a nd d itches, s unken f ields, a nd w ater c ontrol e mbankments. R ecent ly , t here h ave b een s everal g eneral s urveys o f t hese f eatures, i ncluding D enevan ( 1980), M atheny a nd G urr ( 1983), a nd S mith ( 1987). B rit ish A rchaeological R eports ( BAR ) h as p reviously p ublished t wo c ollections o f p apers o n p rehistoric f ields: D arch ( 1983) o n d rained f ields i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica, a nd F arr ington ( 1985) o n i ntensive f ields i n t he t ropics, i nclud ing 2 2 p apers o n L at in A merica. T his p resent v olume f ocuses o n p rehistoric f ie lds i n t he A ndean r egion, h igh land a nd l owland, o f C olombia, E cuador, a nd P eru. T he p apers h ere a re o rganized i nto t hree s ections. S ection I i s o n t erracing i n t he C olca V alley i n t he s outhern A ndes o f P eru. A ll t he c hapters e xcept t hat b y G u illet a re p roducts o f t he C olca V alley T errace P roject, d irected b y W illiam M . D enevan, 1 984-1986, w hich w as c oncerned w ith t he c auses o f a bandonment o f a gricultural t erraces. S ection I i s o n r aised f ields i n t he G uayas B asin o f c oasta l E cuador. M ost o f t hese p apers, e xcept t hose b y P arsons, S temper, a nd M athewson, r eport o n t he P en n d el R io P roject , d irected b y J orge M arcos, w hich c arried o ut a rchaeological e xcavat ions o f f ields a nd s ett lement a t a s ite o n t he B abahoyo R iver o pposite t he c ity o f G uayaqu il. S ection II c ontains r eports o n a v ariety o f f ield s ystems i n C olombia, E cuador, a nd P eru. I w ish t o t hank t he m any p eople w ho h ave c ontributed t o t he p reparat ion o f t his b ook. F oremost a re t he a uthors, w hose c ooperat ion i s m uch a ppreciated. D iscussants f or t he s essions a t B ogota w ere P atricia N etherly, A lfred S iemens, a nd J ames P arsons. S ome o f t heir s uggest ions w ere i ncorporated i nto t he f inal p apers. W e t hank t he E xecutive C ommittee o f t he 4 5th I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists f or t heir c ooperat ion a nd p ermission t o p ublish t his v olume. F inancial a ssistance f or t yping a nd g raphics w as p rovided b y B ritish A rchaeological R eports a nd b y t he U niversity o f W isconsin-Madison. M any o f t he m aps a nd f igures w ere d rafted b y t he U niversity o f W isconsin C artographic L aboratory u nder O nno B rouwer. T he t yping w as d one b y S a lly M onogue a nd C hrist ine S puh ler. E ditoria l a ssistance w as

i x

p rovided II).

b y

K ent

M athewson

( Section

I)

a nd

G regory

K napp

( Sect ion

F ina lly, I a m s ure t hat t he a uthors w ould l ike m e t o e mphasize t hat m ost o f t heir p apers a re p re liminary r eports, m ore e mp irica l t han a na lyt ica l, a nd t hat t he r esearch c oncerned i s s t ill i n p rogress.

R EFERENCES C ITED

D arch, J . P . ( editor) 1 983. D rained F ie ld A gricu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica. B rit ish A rchaeologica l R eports, In t ernaT T 6na l- T e r ie s 1 89, O xford. D enevan, W illiam M . 1 980. T ipologia d e c onfiguraciones A merica I ndigena 4 0:619-652. F arrington, I an ( editor) 1 985. P rehistor ic I ntensive

A gricu lture

i a gricolas

i n

t he

p rehispä nicas.

T ropics.

B rit ish

A rchaeo log ica l R eports , i n t ernat iond neT r es 2 32, O xford.

M atheny, R ay T . a nd D eanne L . G urr 1 983. V ariat ion i n P rehistoric A gricu ltura l S ystems W or ld. A nnual R eview o f A nthropology 1 2:79-103.

o f

t he

N ew

S mith, R ichard 1 987. I ndigenous A griculture i n t he A mer icas: O rigins, T echniques, a nd C ontemporary R e levance. I n L at in A mer ican D eve lopment : G eographical P erspectives, e dited b y D avid P reston, p p . 3 4-69. L ongman, L ondon.

W illiam M . D enevan M adison, J u ly 1 987

x

C HAPTER 1 T ERRACE A BANDONMENT I N T HE C OLCA V ALLEY, P ERU

W illiam M . D enevan

A BSTRACT T he i nterdisciplinary C olca V alley T errace P roject w as i nit iated i n J uly, 1 984 w ith t he o bjective o f s tudying t he h istory a nd e cology o f a gricultural t erracing, p articularly t he c auses o f f luctuat ing t errace u se a nd a bandonment. T he C olca V alley i s l ocated i n t he s outhern P eruvian A ndes n orth o f A requipa ( Fig. 1 ). T he m iddle s ection, b etween T ut i a nd C abanaconde, a t e levat ions f rom 3 ,287 t o 3 ,790 m , c ontains a lmost c ont inuous t erracing, o ne o f t he d ensest z ones o f b ench t erraces i n t he A ndes. T he p opu lation h as b een r educed f rom a bout 6 7,000 i n 1 530 t o 3 3,000 b y 1 972, a nd 6 2% o f t he t erraces i n t he v alley a re n ow a bandoned, w hich i s p robably c omparable t o t errace a bandonment t hroughout t he A ndes. I nitia l r esearch h as f ocused o n e xcavat ions o f b oth a bandoned a nd u sed t erraces a nd a ssociated h ouses i n t he c ommunities o f C oporaque, A choma, a nd C abanaconde; o n a nalyses o f v isita m anuscripts w ith l and u se d ata f or 1 591, 1 604, a nd 1 615-1617; o n c urrent l and u se a nd a groecology; a nd o n t he m apping o f a bandoned t erraces a nd c hanging t errace u tilizat ion, b ased o n a ir p hotos f or 1 931, 1 955, a nd 1 974. T he p roject h opes t o d etermine t he d egree t o w hich t errace a bandonment h as r esu lted f rom s ocio-economic a nd d emographic f actors, i n c ontrast t o n atura l f actors s uch a s c limatic c hange. D ata a nd p reliminary r esu lts a re r eported i n D enevan ( 1986a; a lso s ee 1 985, 1 986b). A n o verview o f t he p roject a nd p reliminary c onclusions a re p rovided h ere.

B ACKGROUND A ND O BJECTIVES T erracing i n t he A ndes A gricultura l t erraces a re f ound t hroughout t he m ountainous r egions o f t he w or ld. T hey o ccur i n m any f orms a nd s erve a v ariety o f e cological f unctions w hich m ake i t p ossible t o c ult ivate o therwise m arginal s lope l ands. T erracing i s a n a nc ient p ractice c ontinued m ainly b y t radit ional f armers b ecause i t i s l abor i ntensive a nd n ot c onducive t o m echanizat ion. T he t erraces o f t he p ast a re t he t erraces o f t oday - m aintained, m odif ied, r ebuilt, a nd e ven e xpanded i n s ome r egions, u tilizing t he b asic p rehistoric a gro-technology w ith l itt le c hange. W hile t he i mportance o f t erracing i n t he A ndes i s f requent ly a cknowledged, w e h ave l itt le i nformat ion o n t errace e cology, f unctions, m anagement , a nd p roductivity. T here i s t he g enera l s urvey o f t erracing i n t he N ew W orld b y D onkin ( 1979), w hich p rovides a n e xcellent o verview b ut o nly b rief d escript ions o f s pecific t errace s ites ( a f ew s entences a nd a p hoto f or t he C olca V a lley, p p. 1 00-101). F or M exico t here a re a n umber o f d etailed t errace s ite s tudies, b ut

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F igure 1 .

M ap s how ing t he C olca V alley, r oads ( dashed l ines), a nd v illages i n r e lat ion t o A requ ipa.

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t he o nly m onographic s tudy o f A ndean t erraces i s t hat b y F ie ld ( 1966) f or n orthern C hile a nd n orthwest A rgent ina. F ie ld p rovides g ood d escript ions o f t errace f orms a nd f unctions i n n umerous l ocales, b ut h e d id n ot e xcavate t erraces o r m ap t hem o r e xamine p roduct ivity. A nother t reatment o f t he C hilean t erraces i s t hat b y W right ( 1963), w hich i s b rief b ut g ives p articular a ttent ion t o s oils. T he m ajor a ttempt t o c lassify t erraces b y f orm a nd f unction o n aw orld b asis i s t hat b y S pencer a nd H ale ( 1961), b ut t he A ndean t erracing s uggests m uch g reater c omp lexity a nd a n eeded s ystemat ic t ypology . F or t he c entral A ndes, t he f ew s tudies w ith s ome i nformat ion o n t errace c onstruction, f orm, a nd u se a re c ited b y D onkin ( 1979:94-125). T he c lassic d escript ive s tudy i s " Staircase F arms o f t he A ncients" b y 0 . F . C ook i n 1 916. T erraces w ere m apped i n t he M achu P icchu r egion b y t he V ilcabamba E xpedit ion ( Fejos 1 944). B onavia ( 1967-68) i s o ne o f t he f ew P eruvian a rchaeologists t o e xcavate t erraces. T he C usichaca P roject i n t he m idd le U rubamba V alley, h as m apped, e xcavated, a nd r estored t erraces a nd a ssociated c ana ls, b ut f ew r eports a re y et a vailable ( Keeley 1 984, 1 985; F arrington n .d.). E arls a nd S ilverblatt ( 1981) d iscuss t emperature c ontrol f or t he c ircu lar I nca t erraces a t M oray. T he M oquegua V alley P roject, d irected b y M ichae l M oseley, i s e xamining p rehistor ic t errace a bandonment ( Stanish, t his v ol.). T here a re t echnical s tud ies o f p resent t errace e cology, r estorat ion, a nd p roduct ion i n P uno ( Coolman 1 986; IDSA 1 982). B rief e xaminations o f C olca V a lley t erraces a nd i rrigat ion a re p rovided b y M a laga M edina ( 1986), Z vietcovich ( 1986), a nd V alderrama F ernandez ( 1986). T he m onumental s tudy o f t he I fugao t erraces o f t he P hilippines b y C onklin ( 1980) i s am odel t o u s o f w hat i s p ossible w ith t errace r esearch. I n t he C entra l A ndes ( Peru, B olivia, n orthern C hile-Argent ina) t here a re p robably m ore a bandoned t erraces t han c ult ivated t erraces. A s i n s everal p arts o f t he N ew W or ld, i t i s a ppropriate t o r efer t o a n " agrarian c ollapse" f or w hich e xplanation i s n eeded. R ecent ly t he P eruvian e cologist L u is M asson ( 1986:1) e st imated t hat t here a re a bout o ne m illion h ectares o f t erraces i n P eru, o f w hich 7 5% a re a bandoned. ( Wright 1 963:13, e stimated 8 0% a bandonment i n n orthern C hile.) T he m agnitude a nd s ignificance o f t his a bandonment i s a pparent w hen w e r ea lize t hat ( 1) t here a re o nly 2 ,600,000 h ectares o f l and u nder c u lt ivation i n a ll P eru ( plus a dditional f allow l and) ( Masson n .d.); ( 2) t he e normous M ajes w ater d iversion p roject , c ost ing b illions o f d ollars a nd o ver 1 0 y ears t o c onstruct, t o b ring w ater f rom t he R io C olca t o t he c oast o f s outhern P eru, w ill o nly a dd 5 7,000 h ectares o f n ew a gricultura l l and ( Masson n .d.); ( 3) i n P eru l arge n umbers o f p eop le a re w ithout l and, h ave i nsufficient f ood, a nd a re m igrat ing t o o vercrowded c it ies; a nd ( 4) i n s ome t erraced r egions o f t he A ndes, i ncluding t he C olca, p rehistoric p opulations w ere s ubstantia lly g reater t han p opulat ions t oday. T he p ast i mportance o f t erracing a nd t he p otentia l f or t he f uture h as n ot o nly r ecent ly i nterested a n umber o f s cholars b ut a lso t he P eruvian g overnment. T he A sociaciön N aturaleza, C ienc ia y T ecnologia L ocal p ara e l S ervicio S ocia l h as s tudied a bandoned t erraces o n t he c entra l c oast ( Masson 1 986, n .d,; M asson e t a l. 1 984). T he C onsejo N acional d e C iencia y T ecnologia n ow f i r s a p rogram t o p romote a ppropriate t echnolo2y, a n e xamp le o f w hich i s t errace c onstruct ion a nd r estoration ( Sanchez Z evallos e t a l. 1 983); i n 1 985 t hey

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s ponsored a c onft i-e nce o n t he r ecovery o f t erraces a nd r aised f ie lds ( CONCYTEC 1 986). M arc D ourojeanni, n oted e cologist o f t he D epartment o f F orestry a t t he a gricultura l u niversity o f L a M olina i n L ima, h as s tressed t he n eed t o r estore a ncient t errace s ystems ( Dourojeanni 1 983:66,70). U .S.A .I.D. h as a m ajor p roject i n P eru ( a lso i n V enezuela a nd G uatemala) t o i mprove t radit ional t errace a griculture a nd c onstruct n ew t erraces ( Williams 1 986). F or a r ecent b ook o n t erraces i n r elat ion t o s oil c onservat ion i n P eru, s ee P ortocarrero ( 1986). G iven t he g rowing i nterest i n t radit ional a gricultura l t erracing, a m ajor q uest ion t hat n eeds t o b e a ddressed, t hen, i s t he m agnitude a nd c auses o f t errace a bandonment . T his w ill r equ ire a n a na lysis o f t errace e cology a nd p roductivity, a s w ell a s e nvironmental a nd m anagement f actors i nf luencing t errace c onstruct ion, m aintenance, a nd u t ilizat ion. C auses o f t errace a bandonment i n t he A ndes a re c onsidered o nly b riefly b y D onkin ( 1979:35-38), W right ( 1963:73), a nd F ield ( 1966:484-489). T he P roject T he C olca V alley T errace P roject w as m otivated b y t he l ack o f s erious r esearch o n a gricultural t erracing i n t he A ndes. W e w ere o riginally a ttracted t o t he C olca r egion b ecause o f t he m agnificent a ir p hotos p ublished f rom t he S hippee-Johnson e xpedit ions o f t he e arly 1 930 's ( Johnson 1 930; S hippee 1 932, 1 934), b ut a lso b ecause o f t he d ensity o f t erraces t here a nd t he a vailable h istorical a nd c adastral d ata. T o e xamine t he p roblem o f t errace a bandonment ( magnitude a nd c auses) a nd t o b etter u nderstand t errace e cology, w e h ave u ndertaken a t wo y ear p roject ( 1984-1986) i n t he C olca V alley i n t he D epartment o f A requipa i n t he s outhern A ndes o f P eru. T he s tudy s ector ( Fig. 2 ) f rom T ut i t o C abanaconde i s a bout 6 0 k m l ong, h as a lmost c ont inuous t erracing o f t he s tone-wall b ench t ype ( andenes), c ontains 1 2 s mall v illages w ith a bout 2 1,000 p eople ( Table 1 ) , h a s as emi-arid c limate a nd e levat ions b etween r oughly 3 ,200 a nd 3 ,800 m , a nd h as a bout 4 ,600 h a ( Table 2 ) c urrent ly i n c u lt ivat ion ( maize, p otatoes, b eans, q u inoa, w heat , b ar ley, a lfalfa), m uch o f w hich i s o n i rrigated t erraces. O f t he a rea i n t erraces, a bout 6 2% i s a bandoned, p rimarily o n t he h igher s lopes. O bjectives T he o bjective o f t he p roject w as t o b egin t o d etermine t he p roductivity o f a gricultural t erracing a nd t he e xtent a nd c auses o f t errace a bandonment i n t he C olca V alley. P roductivity i s s een a s h aving t wo d imensions: ( 1) p roductivity p er u nit a rea c ult ivated; a nd ( 2) t otal a rea c u lt ivated, w hich v aries a s t errace u se a nd a ssoc iated i rrigat ion e xpand a nd c ontract . P roductivity w ill b e c onsidered f or t hree p eriods: c urrent , l ate p rehistoric/ear ly c olonia l, a nd f uture ( potentia l). T he m ajor q uestion r aised i s, w hy i s c urrent p roductivity a pparent ly s ignificant ly l ess t han i n p reh istory, a s i s e videnced b y e xtensive t errace a bandonment a nd b y a m uch l ower p opulat ion t oday? A nd i s p ast p roductivity i ndicative o f a p otent ia l f or g reater f uture p roductivity?

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F igure 2 .

M ap o f t he c entra l C olca V a lley s how ing s tudy a rea, i nc lud ing t erraced l and c urrent ly u nder c u lt ivat ion ( shaded ).

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C onsiderable a ttention h as b een g iven i n r ecent y ears t o t he c oncept o f a gricultural i ntensification, i n p art i nspired b y t he B oserup ( 1965) m odel o f d emographic p ressure a nd r elative l abor e fficiency. T o u nderstand a gricu ltural c hange, c onsiderat ion m ust a lso b e g iven t o t he c auses o f d isintensif icat ion a nd l and a bandonment ( Brookfield 1 972); t hat i s, a grarian c ollapse. E xplanat ion o f t errace a bandonment w ill h elp w ith t he a nalysis o f b oth p ast i ntensif icat ion a nd f uture p ossibilities. T heories o f T errace A bandonment T he t wo m ost c ommon t heories o f t errace a bandonment i n t he A ndes a re d epopu lation a nd c limat ic c hange. T he s ixteenth c entury I ndian p opu lat ion o f t he C olca V alley w as r educed f rom a n e stimated 6 2,500-71,000 i n 1 530 t o 3 5,000 i n 1 570, p rimarily b y e pidemic d isease ( Cook 1 982). W ith a s maller p opulation, t he a mount o f i ntensive a griculture r equ ired w ould p resumably b e l ess; t erraces m ost r emote f rom s ett lements ( travel i ntensive) w ou ld b e a bandoned ( Donkin 1 979:34). S ubsequent p opulation r ecovery h as b een s low a nd f u ll t errace r ecovery s upposedly n ot n eeded. T he c limat ic t hesis i s t hat t here i s l ess r ainfall n ow t han i n t he p ast a nd h ence l ess w ater f or i rrigating t erraces ( Donkin 1 979:36). T h is i s a c ommon b elief a mong P eruvians t oday, b ut i t h as y et t o b e d emonstrated. A nother e nvironmental e xplanat ion i s t hat t ectonic u p lift d isrupted t errace i rrigation s ystems a s h as b een s uggested f or n orth c oast c ana ls ( Moseley 1 983). D onkin ( 1979:38) s uggests t hat a s hift o f h i llside I ndian s ett lements t o v alley r educciones ( new S panish t owns) c ontributed t o a bandonment o f t he h igher s lopes. D ollfus ( 1982:43,46) p oints t o t he h igh l abor c osts o f b uilding a nd m aintaining t erraces t oday, a nd h ence t heir d ecline. A ssoc iated w ith t his i s l ack o f m aintenance i n t he p ast l eading t o d eterioration. W illingness t o i nvest h igh i nputs i nto t errace s ystems r eflects p erception o f n eed ( subsistence o r m arket ) i n r e lat ion t o o ther o pt ions. T here d oes s eem t o b e a n a ssociation b etween t he a mount o f w ater a vailable a nd t he n umbers o f t erraces u tilized, b ut m ore t han c limate i s i nvolved. S ocia l f actors d etermine h ow m uch w ater i ndividua l f armers a nd s pecific c ommunities r eceive. T here h ave e ven b een s ome p itched b att les b etween C olca v illages o ver w ater r ights i n r ecent y ears ( Benavides 1 983). T he i ntroduction o f E uropean c rops a nd c att le c aused a b reakdown o f a f ragile a groecology ( Benavides 1 983:4). C att le r apidly d amage t erraces ( Fie ld 1 966:486). O vergrazing a nd v egetation d eteriorat ion l ead t o f aster r unoff a nd h ence l ess m oisture a vailability f or c rops. T he S paniards p robably b rought a bout a g reater e mphasis o n p astora lism, w hich h as l ow l abor r equ irements, b ut n eeds m obility, a t t he e xpense o f a griculture ( Gade a nd E scobar 1 982:442). T here m ay h ave b een a c hange t o m ore w ater d emanding c rops, t hereby r educing a rea c ropped ( Fie ld 1 966:485). F inally, B enavides ( 1983:4) p oints o ut t hat t he S paniards d estroyed a m acro o rganizat ion t hat m ade p ossible c omp lex t errace/irrigation s ystems, a nd t hat t he d ominant c lasses t oday a re n ot c oncerned w ith v iable p easant p roduction s ystems s uch a s a re a ssoc iated w ith t erracing.

AD ynamic M odel o f A bandonment T here m ay w e ll b e a d egree o f v alidity t o a ll t he a bove e xplanations o f t errace a bandonment , w ith v ar iat ion i n r e lat ive i mportance w ith t ime, p lace, a nd s ituat ion. F urthermore w e w ould s uggest t hat t here i s n o s imp le l inear p rogression o f e ither i ncreasing t errac ing o r a bandonment o f t erraces. R ather, t errac ing i s a v ery d ynamic p henomenon, w ith t he p roport ion o f e xist ing t erraces i n c ult ivat ion i n c onstant f lux, p art icu larly a s w ater a vailability v aries w ith c limate, s oc io-economic a ccess t o i rrigat ion, a nd o ther f actors. W e w ill a ttempt t o d emonstrate s uch v ariability f or t he p resent , a nd h ow i t l ike ly e xisted i n t he p ast . P eople r eadily a dapt t he t errace s ystem t o e xterna l a nd i nterna l i nf luences o n w ater s upp ly ( and a lso t o p roduct ion d emand). H owever, i n a dd it ion t o t hese y ear t o y ear v ariat ions i n e xtent o f t errace u se, t here s t ill m ay b e l ong t erm t rends t owards i ncreasing o r d iminishing u t ilizat ion. A lso, t here a re s hort p er iods o f p lanned f a llowing f or s oil r enewal, t he l ength o f w hich m ay b e d etermined b y t he a vailability o f f ert ilizer. T hus t here a re t hree t empora l l evels w hich m ust b e c onsidered i n a nalyzing t errace " abandonment ." A n h istor ica l s equence c an b e p roposed: a ) l ate p rehistory c haracter ized b y i ntensive t errace a gricu lture ( maize, p otatoes), p lus c amelid h erding; b ) S panish c onquest r esu lt ing i n d epopu lat ion a nd a s hift o f r emaining p opu lat ion t o r educc iones o r t o r enegade p astoria lism a t h igh e levat ions, w ith e xtensive t errace a bandonment ; c ) a s ubsequent d eemphasis o f a gricu lture, f or r easons t o b e d etermined; d ) ar ecent s hift a way f rom s ubsistence c rops t o i ntensive c att le p roduct ion b ased o n i rrigated a lfa lfa. H owever, w ithin e ach p eriod t here w as f luctuat ion i n t he a mount o f t erraced l and a ctua lly i n c u lt ivat ion. F ield R esearch W ork w as b egun i n t he s ummer o f 1 984 b y g eographers, a rchaeologists, a n e thnohistorian, a nd a s oil s cient ist . T he q uest ions a ddressed a re h ow m uch t erraced l and i s t here; h ow m uch i s c ultivated a nd h ow m uch i s a bandoned; w hen a nd w hy h as t erracing b een a bandoned; a nd w hat h as i nhibited t errace r estorat ion? T o c onfront t hese q uest ions t he r esearch i s m u ltidiscip linary a nd i nvolved, o r w ill i nvolve, t errace e xcavat ion, e thnohistory, a er ia l p hotography, a groecology, a t ypology o f t errace f orms a nd f unct ions, s oil h istory, w ater a vailability a nd m anagement , p ast a nd p resent p roductivity, e nvironmenta l c hange, d epopu laton a nd s ett lement a bandonment , a nd s ocio-economic i nf luences a nd o pt ions. T he p roblems a t t his s tage a re c onsiderable, p art icular ly c hronological c ontrol s ince t he t erraces h ave u ndergone c ont inuous d isturbance f or 1 500 y ears o r m ore. F urthermore, p revious r esearch i n t he v alley h as b een s uperficia l, s o t hat t here h as b een l itt le d ata b ase t o b u ild o n. B y e xamining t he c ondit ions a ccount ing f or t errace u se a nd n on u se w e h ope t o b etter e xplain t errace a bandonment a nd a ssociated a grarian a nd d emographic c o llapse n ot o n ly i n t he C olca V a lley b ut i n t he A ndes i n g enera l. C lear ly a bandonment i s n ot s imp ly a m atter o f 7

c limat ic c hange o r e pidemics. A p reliminary c onclusion i s t hat v aried n atural a nd h uman f actors h ave b een i nvolved a t o ne t ime o r a nother o r i n c ombinat ion a t t he s ame t ime. A s econd c onc lusion i s t hat e xpansion a nd c ontract ion o f t errace u t ilizat ion a re d ynamic, c ontinuing p rocesses, w ith b oth y ear t o y ear v ariat ion a s w e ll a s l ong t erm t rends a s p eople r eadily a dapt t he t errace a nd i rrigat ion s ystem t o e xternal a nd i nternal i nfluences o n w ater a vailability, p roduction d emand, a nd e conomic o ptions. T he r oles o f t he v ar ious f actors t hat m ay c ontribute t o t errace a bandonment a re d iscussed i n t he c onclusions. T he a bandonment o f t erraces, i rrigat ion c ana ls, a nd a ssociated c ultivat ion i n t he C olca V alley i s a f ascinat ing p uzzle o f c onsiderable i mportance, a nd i t w ill b e s ome t ime a nd c onsiderable w ork b efore t he p ieces c an b e f itted t ogether. W e h ave t ried t o m ake a s tart.

R EVIEW O F L ITERATURE A ND A VAILABLE D ATA A rchaeology. T he o nly p revious a rchaeological r esearch i n t he C olca V alley w as t hat b y N eira ( 1961) a nd b y L inares M alaga ( 1981). B oth a re m ainly s urveys ( incomplete) o f v isible r uins. C olonial. T he m ost u seful e arly C o lonial p ublished d ocument o n t he C ollaguas r egion i s t hat o f J uan d e U lloa M ogollön i n 1 586 ( 1965). O ther d ocuments a re c ited i n t he p apers i n C ollaguas I ( Pease 1 977a). T he s ame v olume i ncludes t he v isita ( census) f or Y anque C ollaguas u rinsaya f or 1 591, w hich c ontains d etailed d ata o n d emography a nd l and u se. V isitas c oncerning C oporaque f or 1 604 a nd f or 1 616-1617 w ere o btained f rom t he p arish a rchive i n Y anque a nd a nalyzed b y M aria B enavides ( this v ol. a nd i n D enevan 1 986). T he S hippee-Johnson E xpedit ion P hotography. U .S. N avy L t . G eorge J ohnson w hile o n a ssignment i n P eru w as t h e f irst t o u ndertake e xtensive a eria l p hotography i n t he A ndes. H is v olume o f p hotos P eru f rom t he A ir ( 1930) i ncluded l ow l evel o blique p hotos t aken i n 1 92777T t he— C F I-E a V alley, t hen a l itt le k nown r egion o f P eru, w hich a ttracted c onsiderable a ttent ion a nd l ed t o a l and a nd a erial p hotographic e xpedition t o t he C olca i n 1 931 w ith e xp lorer R obert S hippee ( 1932, 1 934). L arge n umbers o f p hotos ( and a f i lm, n ow l ost ) w ere t aken, i ncluding o bliques f rom t he p lane o f s elected v iews o f t he v a lley; a s et o f o verlapping v erticals c overing m ost o f t he v alley; a nd, a ccording t o S hippee ( pers. c omm.), " thousands" o f g round v iews. W e h ave t racked d own v arious o f t he o blique p hotos a t t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory, t he F ie ld M useum i n C hicago, t he A merican G eographical S ociety L ibrary i n M ilwaukee, a nd a t t he N at ional G eographic S ociety; w hile f ew n egat ives e xist , a vailable p rints a re o ften i n m agnificent c ondit ion. A s et o f t he v ertical p hotos w as f ound a t t he o ffice o f t he S ervicio A erofotogräfico N acional i n L ima, u nfiled, a long w ith s ome o bliques a nd a f ew g round p hotos. T he m ain s et o f g round p hotos s eems t o h ave v anished. T he a eria l p hotos p rovide a b asis f or m easuring t he e xtent o f u sed a nd a bandoned t erraces i n 1 931, a s c ompared w ith t oday. T he M ajes

t he

P roject.

T he

n ext e vent

t o

b ring

t he C olca V a lley

t o

a tte r it 7F— o f t he o utside w orld w as t he M ajes I rrigat ion P roject, 8

am ajor u ndertaking i n t he 1 970's t o d ivert w ater f rom t he u pper C olca t o t he P acific C oast ( see b elow ). T he P roject g enerated c onsiderable c limat ic, g eologic, h ydrologic, a nd o ther p hysical d ata, b ut m ost o f t his r ests i n P roject o ff ices. O ne p ublished f easibility r eport o n t he p hysical a nd h uman r esources o f t he a rea a ffected b y t he P roject i s t he s urvey b y O NERN ( 1973), w hich i s v ery u seful. H istorical S tudies. S erious h istorical r esearch o n t he C o lca r egion ( Province o f C ollaguas) w as i nit iated i n 1 974 b y F ranklin P ease w ho a ssembled a t eam o f h istorians t o e xamine t he 1 591 v isita w hich h e h ad d iscovered i n t he M useo N acional d e H istoria d e L i r ii7-i long w ith t he d ocuments b y U lloa M ogollön a nd m anuscripts i n t he a rchive i n A requipa a nd i n t he p arish a rchive i n Y anque ( see C ook a nd P ease, 1 975). T his r esu lted i n t he c ollected p apers t it led C ollaguas I ( Pease 1 977a), w hich a lso c ontains t he 1 591 v isita. P art icipants i n t he p roject i nc luded A lejandro M a laga M edina, J uan J ose C uadros, J uan C arlos C respo, J ose R enique C ., E frain T relles A ., G uillermo C ock, M aximo N eira A venda h, a nd N oble D avid C ook. O ther t han C ollaguas I , s ome o f t he o ther u seful p apers b y t his g roup a nd o thers i nclude C ock ( 1976-77), D eustua ( 1978), G aldos R odriguez ( 1984, a nd h is 1 985 b ook o n A requ ipa), a nd N oble D avid C ook ( 1975, 1 981, a nd e specially h is b ook o n T he P eople o f t he C olca V alley: A P opulat ion S tudy, 1 982). C ook h as b een c ont in ing h is r esearch o n f Fe c olonia l h . M (7 y o f t he C olca V alley i n t he a rchives i n S pain. A u sefu l b ook o n t he h istory o f t he C olca V alley, m ost ly f rom s econdary s ources, h as r ecent ly b een p ublished b y N elson M anrique ( 1985). S ocio-Economic S tudies. S everal a nthropologists a nd s ociologists h ave b een d oing f ie ld r esearch r ecent ly i n t he C olca V alley. D avid G uillet w orked o n h ousehold e conomies i n L an i i n 1 983-84 a nd h as p roduced s everal e xcellent p apers a lready ( Guillet 1 986, n .d., a nd t his v ol.). A t eam o f s ociologists f rom D ESCO ( Centro d e E studios y P romociön d el D esarrollo) h as b een d oing f ield s tudy i n t he C olca f or t he p ast s everal y ears ( Mar(a S alcedo 1 985-86). C olonial C hurches o f t he C olca. L uis E nrique T ord ( 1983) r ecent ly p ublished a w ell iT iustrated b ook o n t he c hurches o f C olca r egion. I t i s i n a ll t he b ookstores o f L ima a nd A requ ipa h as h elped g enerate p ublic i nterest i n t he C olca.

h as t he a nd

T heses, D issertat ions, a nd S tudent P apers. S tart ing w ith N eira ( 1961), t here h ave b een s eveFiT- s tudent r esearch r eports o n t he C olca, m ost o f t hem r ecent . T hese i nclude B enavides ( 1983) o n t he i mpact o f m arket p enetrat ion o n Y anque a nd M adriga l; B erna l M a laga ( 1983) o n f olklore; G omez R odriguez ( 1978) o n a grarian r eform; W illiam H urley ( 1978) o n r ural d evelopment a nd t he M ajes P roject ; D eborah M art in ( 1984) o n h er w ork r elated t o t his p roject ; C arolyn R ensch ( 1983) o n t he s tatus o f w omen i n Y anque; K ris M cCammant ( 1986) o n a gricu lture a nd s oils i n C oporaque; a nd J uana S uyo a nd M ercedes H uari ( 1985) o n a griculture i n t he C hivay-Achoma r egion. T heses i n p rogress i nclude P ablo d e l a V era C ruz ( Universidad C atölica, A requ ipa) o n t he a rchaeology o f C abanaconde, a nd L ourdes I zagu irre ( Universidad N acional A graria, L a M olina, L ima) o n t he a griculture o f C oporaque. G overnment R eports. T here h ave b een s everal d ata c ollections a nd a nalyses r ecent ly b y g overnment g roups. O NERN ( 1973) h as b een

9

m ent ioned. A v ery u sefu l r egiona l s urvey f or t he p urpose o f d evelopment i s t hat b y t he I nst ituto N ac iona l d e P lanificac iön ( INP 1 983). A nother i s t he M aenn ling R eport f or t he O rganismo R egiona l d e D esarro llo ( ORDEAREQUIPA ) ( Maenn ling e t a l. 1 981). F or o ur r esearch i n C oporaque, t he ICA-UNSA R eport ( 198§ T , i s q u ite u sefu l, a lthough n ot a lways a ccurate. A U NESCO P ilot P roject o n t he e conomic d evelopment o f t he C olca V allex i s u nder w ay i n c onjunction w ith t he U niversidad N aciona l S an A gust in a nd C ONCYTEC. M inistry o f A gricu lture, C adastra l S urvey. T he M inistry o f A gricu lture r egu lar ly c omp iles s t at ist ica l -1 7 173-r mat ion o n t he C olca V alley, a lthough n ot a lways a ccurate, a nd i s t he s ource o f m uch o f t he d ata i n t he r eports j ust m ent ioned a nd a lso f or s ome o f t he d ata u sed i n t his R eport . P art icu lar ly u sefu l i s a c adastra l s urvey o f t he C o lca V alley m ade i n 1 977, w hich p roduced m aps f or t he a rea a t as cale o f 1 :5,000 ( based o n t he 1 974 a ir p hotos), w ith 2 5 m c ontours a nd s how ing i nd ividual f ie lds a nd c ana ls, p lus d ata s heets f or t he m aps w hich f or e ach f ie ld p rovide t he n ame o f t he o wner, i rrigat ion d istrict , s ize o f f ield, a rea o f f ie ld i n c ultivat ion, a nd p r inc ipal c rops. A ir P hotos. V ert ica l a ir p hotos c overing t he e nt ire c entral C o lca V a117 7—e Xist f or t hree d ates, a ll a vailable a t t he S ervicio A erofotogräfico N aciona l i n L ima: 1 ) t he 1 931 p hotos o f t he S hippee-Johnson e xpedition, s ca le c a. 1 :13,000; 2 ) t he 1 955 c overage o f t he P lan d el S ur P roject , s cale c a. 1 :55,000 ; a nd 3 ) t he 1 974 p hotos t aken f or t he M ajes I rrigation P roject , s ca le c a. 1 :17,000. W e t ook a ddit iona l a ir p hotos o f m uch o f t he v a lley i n 1 6. M apping. T he g overnment t opograph ic m ap c overing t he C olca r egion i s t h e C hivay s heet ( Hoja 3 2-S) o f t he C arta N aciona l, s cale 1 :100,000, 1 980, b ased o n t he 1 955 a eria l p hotography . U sefu l t hemat ic m aps a re f ound i n O NERN ( 1973), M aenn ling e t a l. ( 1981), a nd e specia lly i n I NP ( 1983). I n s ummary, w e f ind t hat t here i s c onsiderable d ocumentary m ateria l f or t he C olca V alley, s ome a lready a na lyzed i nc lud ing t hat f or p opu lat ion. A rchaeo logical r esearch i s s canty. T here a re s evera l s tudies o f c urrent s oc ia l a nd e conomic c hange, c omp leted o r i n p rogress. T here i s g ood a ir p hoto, f ie ld m apping, c adastra l, a nd h ydrological d ata a vailable. T here i s l itt le, h owever, o n t errace e cology a nd p roduct ivity f or t he C olca, o r f or a nywhere i n t he P eruvian A ndes.

H ISTORY T he h istory o f t he C o lca V alley h as o n ly b een w orked o ut i n g eneral t erms, a nd m ainly r ef lects i nit iat ives o f t he F ranklin P ease g roup s tarting i n 1 974, a s i s d iscussed i n t he p revious s ection. T he b est s ynthesis i s t hat o f M anrique ( 1985), w hich m ainly r e lies o n s econdary s ources. M a laga M edina ( 1977) i s a lso a g ood s ummary . A b rief h istory p ublished i n E nglish i s p rovided b y C ook ( 1982:1-10). T he p roject ,

p rehistory o f t he C olca V alley , a s k nown i s v ague g iven t hat t here h ad o n ly b een

1 0

p rior t o o ur r econnaissance

a rchaeology ( Neira 1 961; L inares M ä laga 1 981). W hen t he S paniards a rrived t here w ere t wo m ain e thnic g roups, t he A ymara s peaking C ollaguas a nd t he Q uechua s peaking C abanas ( Cabanaconde a rea ). B oth, l egend h as i t , e ntered t he v alley f rom n earby m ountains a t u nknown t imes, r ep lacing p eople a lready i n t he v alley ( Ulloa M ogollö n 1 965; N eira 1 964). T he A ymara l anguage m ay i ndicate a n a lt iplano o rigin. B oth g roups w ere s ubjected b y t he I nca, a s e arly a s t he r eign o f M ayta C apac ( ca. 1 220 A .D.) a ccording t o s ome c hroniclers, b ut n ot u nt il a fter 1 47 0 i n t he j udgement o f J ohn R owe ( 1946:59). T here i s n ot m uch e vidence f or a s trong I nca p resence i n t he C olca V a lley i n t hat n o m ajor I nca c enter h as b een l ocated a nd I nca c eramics a re n ot c ommon. S ome i ndicat ion o f t he n ature o f p re-Collaguas p eople i n t he v a lley i s p rovided b y t he p resence o f W an i c eramics ( ca. 7 00-1100 A .D.) i n C abanaconde ( Vera C ruz, t h is v ol.) a nd a lso i n s ma ll a mounts i n t he l ower l evels o f t erraces e xcavated a t C hijra a t C oporaque b y M a lpass ( this v ol.). W hen t he S paniards a rrived t he I ndians w ere l iving i n n umerous s ma ll ( 50-100 p eop le), d ispersed s ett lements, b oth o n t he s lopes a nd o n t he v alley f loor, p ract icing i rrigat ion a gricu lture o n t erraces ( maize, q u inoa, b eans, t ubers) a nd h erding lamas a nd a lpacas i n t he h igher, n earby p unas - a s ystem o f e cological c omp limentarity ( "verticality" o r— " v ert ica l e c onomy " ) w hich i ncluded i nteract ion w ith C uzco, t he a ltip lano, a nd f ishing v illages o n t he c oast . Y anque h ad p asture l ands a nd t rading r e lat ionships i n t he a lt iplano o f L ake T it icaca ( Malaga 1 977:119), a nd S ibayo s t ill h as a ccess t o a c oasta l r egion a round P unta C oloca ( Cuadros 1 977:48). T he v alley s t ill i s o n a m ajor lama c aravan r oute b etween C uzco a nd Y auri i n t he h ighlands a nd t he s outhern c oasta l v alleys ( Flores O choa 1 979:105-106). T he I ndians o f t he C o lca p aid t ribute i n t he f orm o f c rop a nd a nima l p roducts i n b oth p rehistoric a nd c o lonia l t imes. T he m agnitude o f f ood e xported f rom t he r egion i s n ot y et c lear, b ut t he v alley d id h ave t he r eputat ion,of a b read b asket , o ne o f t he r ichest p rovinces o f t he I nca E mpire ( Malaga, 1 977). R eports o f t he C olca V a lley b eing r ich i n p opu lat ion, c amelids, a nd m aize l ed F ranc isco P izarro t o g rant a n e ncom ienda t o h is b rother G onzalo P izarro, c onsist ing o f Y anque C ollaguas - a m ajor p ort ion o f t he P rovince o f C ollaguas. T h is w as i n 1 540, t he s ame y ear t he c ity o f A requ ipa w as f ounded. W hen t he f irst S paniards a ctually e ntered t he v alley i s u ncertain, b ut G onza lo P izarro v isited t he v alley a round 1 547 ( Cook 1 982:3). L an i C ollaguas a nd t he C abanas f ormed o ther e ncomiendas. A s p art o f t he v isita g eneral o f P eru u nder V iceroy F ranc isco d e T o ledo, 1 571-1574, —7 72Ti ns w ere c onsolidated i nto S panish-style v illages ( centra l c hurch a nd p laza, g rid p attern o f s treets ). I n t he C olca V alley t his c reated 2 4 p ueblos d e i ndios i nvolving a bout 3 3,000 I nd ians. ( Some I nd ians r emained d ispersed w ithin t he v a lley o r o n t he p una.) S ome v illages w ere e stablished o n s ites o f p revious v illages, T s i iT h- a s C oporaque a nd L an , w hereas o thers w ere o n n ew s ites, s uch a s Y anque. ( Yanque, w hich h ad p reviously b een l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver [ Yanque V iejo, F ig. 3 ] w as m oved t o t he s outh s ide, b ut s t ill r etains l and o n t he n orth s ide.) F ifteen o f t hese v illages s t ill s urvive. T hey a re, f rom e ast t o w est d own t he v alley: T isco, S ibayo, C allalli, T ut i, C hivay, C oporaque, Y anque, I chupampa, A choma, L an , M aca, M adrigal, P inchollo, T apay, a nd C abanaconde. A ll a re 1

F igure 3 .

O blique a ir p hoto o f t he p re-Spanish v illage r uins o f Y anque ( Yanque V iejo), o n t he n orth s ide o f t he R io C olca. T he t erraces a re s t ill f armed b y f armers f rom t he p resent v illage o f Y anque o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver. T aken b y G eorge J ohnson, 1 929, A eria l E xp lorations, I nc., N ew Y ork.

1 2

l ocated i n t he P rovince o f C aylloma, o f w hich C hivay i s t he c urrent c apital. O ne o f t he a bandoned r educc iones i s s hown i n F igure 4 . T he S paniards i ntroduced w heat a nd b ar ley a nd E uropean l ivestock. B y 1 604 t he u pper l evel o f c u lt ivat ion w as a t C a llalli ( 3,867 m ), w ith s ome b ar ley a nd p otatoes b ut m ainly l ivestock; m aize b ecame i mportant a t C oporaque; Y anque p roduced p otatoes, o ca, b ar ley, b eans, a nd m aize; A choma r e lied m ore o n g razing; M adrigal a nd T apay g rew f ru its a nd v egetables; a nd C abanaconde c u lt ivated c onsiderable m aize, a s w e ll a s w heat a nd s ome f ru it . L lamas a nd a lpacas c ont inued t o b e h erded o n t he p una, a long w ith s heep, b ut c att le h ave b een g razed a pparent ly s ince i ntroduct ion i n t he t erraced a gricu ltura l z ones. M ajor s i lver m ines ( also g old a nd c opper ) w ere o pened u p a t C aylloma a nd C a llalli i n a bout 1 625, w ith s maller m ines e lsewhere. I ndian l abor w as t aken f rom t he C olca v illages t o w ork t he m ines, a nd t his c ontributed t o t he d ecline o f a gricu ltural a ct ivity. T he m ines g ave o ut a t t he e nd o f t he e ighteenth c entury . T he C olca V a lley h ad p oor t ransportat ion c onnect ions w ith A requ ipa u nt il r ecent ly . T here w as s teady o ver land m ovement v ia m u le a nd lama c aravans t o A requ ipa a nd a lso t o C uzco a nd t he c oast . N evertheless, t he v a lley r emained i solated a nd i gnored b ecause o f d iff icult a ccess - a " forgotten v alley" o r " lost v alley" ( Shippee 1 932, 1 934). W hen S hippee a nd J ohnson v isited t he C olca i n 1 931 t hey t raveled b y t rain t o S umbay a nd f rom t here b y m u le p ath t o C hivay. I n t he 1 940s a r oad w as b u ilt t o C hivay a nd a s f ar a s Y anque, w hich m ade t ravel t o a nd f rom A requ ipa p ossible i n 1 2 h ours d uring g ood w eather. S tart ing i n 1 972, i n c onjunct ion w ith t he M ajes P roject , t he 1 40 k m r oad t o A requ ipa w as i mproved ( gravel), p ermitt ing t ravel t o C hivay i n 5 -6 h ours, w ith a c ont inuat ion t o C abanaconde a nd H uambo, w ith a w estern c onnect ion f rom t here t o A requ ipa. O n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver t he g overnment b u ilt a r oad f rom C hivay t o t he M adriga l m ine i n 1 949. D espite t he g ood r oads o n b oth n orth a nd s outh s ides o f t he r iver, a ccess r oads i nto t he v arious v illages m ost ly r emain n arrow a nd p oor. T he C olca i s c rossed b y a v ehicle b ridge a t C hivay ( bu ilt o ver " e l p uente I nca," a n a ncient s tone b ridge). T here i s ah igh, c olonia l f oot b ridge o f s tone a t Y anque, a nd t emporary f oot b r idges e lsewhere. I n 1 971 t he c onstruct ion o f t he M ajes P roject w as i nit iated b y t he M ACON C orporat ion, w ith t he o bjective o f d ivert ing w ater f rom t he R io C olca v ia t unne ls a nd c ana ls t o t he c oasta l C amand V alley f or a gricultura l i rrigat ion ( most ly c omp leted b y 1 985; M aos 1 986). T he p roject h as h ad s ignificant i mpacts o n t he v a lley. A c onsiderable a mount o f w ater h as b een r emoved f rom t he C olca r iver. S upposedly t his w as n ot t o a ffect i rrigat ion f arming i n t he m idd le v a lley, s ince m ost o r a ll t he l oca l i rrigat ion w ater i s d rawn f rom t ributary s treams a nd n ot f rom t he C o lca; h owever s ome o f t he l oca l w ater s upp ly s ystems w ere d isrupted b y t he c onstruction o f t he M ajes c ana l. T he c onstruct ion o f t he n ew r oad a nd c ana l s ystem d estroyed a n umber o f t erraces a nd a rchaeo logical s ites. T he a ct ivity o f t he p roject a nd e mp loyment w ith i t h as b rought p rofound c hanges t o t he v alley w hich a re s t ill b eing a ssessed. O n t he n orth s ide o f t he v a lley a nother i nstrument o f c hange w as t he m odernizat ion a nd e xpansion o f t he m ine a t M adrigal ( z inc, c opper, l ead) b y t he H omestake M ining C ompany o f S an F ranc isco, w hich a cqu ired o wnership i n 1 969. T he m ine i s n ow t he m ain s ource o f n on-agricultura l e mp loyment i n t he v alley. R ecent ly,

1 3

F igure 4 .

A ir p hoto o f u nidentified a bandoned S panish r educciön i n t he C olca V alley. S hippee-Johnson, 1 931; A merican M useum o f N atura l H istory, N ew Y ork.

1 4

t ourism h as b een p romoted a s a m eans o f e xplo it ing t he v alley 's c o lonia l c hurches, m agnificent t erraced l andscape, a nd s pectacular c anyon. F or d iscussions o f t he M ajes P roject a nd t he M adrigal m ine, t heir i mpacts, a nd t he C olca v illages a nd p eople t oday, s ee B enavides ( 1983) a nd H urley ( 1978). D espite t he i mpact o f e xterna l i nfluences, m uch o f t he s ocia l a nd e conomic c haracter o f t he v alley i s s t ill t radit iona l. T he t errace a nd i rrigat ion s ystems s t ill f unct ion a s b efore, a lthough t here i s i ncreasing e mphasis o n c att le p roduct ion a nd o n a lfa lfa c ropp ing f or t he c att le. C ompetition c ont inues b etween v illages a nd b etween f armers f or l and a nd f or i rrigat ion w ater. W here a nd h ow m uch l and i s c u lt ivated i s d ependent n ot o nly o n h ow m uch w ater i s i n t he s treams b ut o n c omp lex w ater r ights a nd a llocat ion p rocedures. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he p re-hispanic m oiety ( kinship ) s ystem o f a yllus w as r etained b y t he S paniards a nd p ersists i n t he C olca v illages t oday. T he a yllus h ave a d egree o f c ontrol o ver r esources ( access t o l and a nd w ater ) a nd l abor f or c ana l u pkeep a nd p lay a r o le i n w ork p art ies ( faenas) a nd f iestas. T he p rincipal m oiet ies a re h anansaya a nd h urinsaya. H urinsaya ( lower h a lf ) i s t he s ide o f t he v illage a nd v illage l ands c losest t o t he r iver. H anansaya ( upper h a lf ) i s t he s ide u pslope f rom t he v illage. T he d ividing l ine o f t he t wo h a lves p asses t hrough t he m idd le o f t he p laza a nd t he c hurch. G enerally t hose l iving i n o ne h a lf o f t he v illage h ave t heir l ands i n t he c orresponding s ector. T he d ist inct ion, h owever, h as w eakened i n s ome o f t he v illages. T he t wo m oiet ies a re r eferred t o f requent ly i n l iterature o n t he C olca. F or f urther d iscussion, s ee B enavides ( 1983:14-21, 2 8-31) a nd H ur ley ( 1978:101-105). T he d emograph ic h istory o f t he C olca V alley h as b een r econstructed b y N oble D avid C ook ( 1982) b y m eans o f t he a vailable c ensuses a nd p roject ions f rom t hem. T he b est d ata a t t he v illage l evel, b ut n ot a lways c omplete, e x ists f or 1 570, 1 591, 1 604, 1 615-17, 1 688, 1 754, 1 764, 1 787, 1 804, 1 843, 1 876, 1 940, 1 961, 1 972, a nd 1 981. C ook 's g raph o f p opu lat ion t rends ( see B enavides, F ig. 1 , t h is v ol.) f or t he C ollaguas r egion s hows t he h ighest p opu lat ion i n 1 530 p rior t o S panish c ontact , w ith a v ery r apid d ecline t hereafter d ue t o e pidem ic d isease t o a bout 1 604, t hen a s lower r ate o f d ecline t o a bout 1 754, t hen a g radual r ecovery t o t he p resent . C ook e st imates t he 1 530 p opu lat ion t o h ave b een b etween 6 2,500 a nd 7 1,000. T his w as r educed t o a l ow o f a bout 4 ,500 b y 1 754. B y 1 972 t he t ota l h ad r isen t o 3 2,826, o r o nly a bout h a lf o f w hat i t h ad b een i n 1 530. C ook a sks ( 1982:85) h ow t his c an b e, a nd h e s uggests t hat " the a gricu ltura l p roduct ivity o f t he a rea h as d eclined s ubstant ia lly" s ince I nca t imes. T his, o f c ourse, i s t he f ocal i ssue b eing e xamined b y t he C olca V alley T errace P roject .

T HE S TUDY A REA T he C olca V alley T he m idd le s ector o f t he C olca V alley i s l ocated n orthwest o f t he c ity o f A requ ipa ( 130 k m b y r oad t o C hivay ) i n t he D epartment o f A requ ipa i n t he s outhern P eruvian A ndes. T he P roject s tudy a rea i s

1 5

t he 6 0 k m l ong p ortion o f t he v alley b etween t he v illages o f T ut i ( 3,790 m ) a nd C abanaconde ( 3,287 m ) ( Fig. 2 ). T his i s t he m ain a rea o f d ense t erracing, e xcept b etween P incho llo a nd C abanaconde w here t he r iver p lunges i nto a d eep g orge ( Caf ilö n d el C olca). T here i s v ery l itt le a griculture a bove T ut i b ecause o f e levat ion ( excessive f rost ) a nd l itt le b elow C abanaconde b ecause o f a ridity a nd r ough t errain ( unt il t he c oastal p lain i s r eached ). T he C olca f urther w est c hanges i ts n ame t o t he R io M ajes a nd l ater t o t he R io C amanä n ear t he P acif ic C oast . T he m iddle s ection o f t he C o lca V a lley i s c haracterized b ry s urrounding s teep s lopes r eaching t o p eaks o f o ver 6 ,000 m . T he R io C olca i s i ncised i nto a l arge, f lat r iver t errace o n w hich m ost o f t he v alley t owns a re l ocated. A gricultura l t erraces o ccur a lmost c ont inuous ly o n t he l ower m ountain s lopes, o n t he n atura l r iver t errace, a nd o n t he s lopes o f t he r ecent v a lley c ut b y t he C olca w hich i s s evera l h undred f eet b elow t he r iver t errace ( Figs. 2 , 5 ). R ainfall i s o nly 4 00-500 m m, c oncentrated i n t he N ovember-April g row ing s eason, a nd m ost a griculture m ust b e s upp lemented b y i rrigat ion. T he 1 2 v illages i n t he s tudy a rea a re, f rom e ast t o w est : T ut i, C hivay, C oporaque, Y anque, I chupampa, A choma, M aca, L an , M adrigal, P inchollo, T apay, a nd C abanaconde. F ie ld w ork h as b een c oncentrated i n t he v illages o f C oporaque, A choma, a nd C abanaconde, w hich p rovides f or c omparisons o f d ifferent s ectors a nd e levat ions o f t he v a lley. T able 1 g ives v illage p opu lat ions f rom 1 940 t o 1 981 i n o rder t o i nd icate r ecent t rends. I t c an b e s een t hat w hile s ome c ommunit ies o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver h ave b een g row ing ( Chivay, A choma, M aca), o thers, p art icular ly o n t he n orth s ide o f t he r iver, h ave r emained s table o r h ave e ven d ec lined s ince 1 972 ( Ichupampa, L an , T apay, T ut i). T he 2 5-30% i ncreases o f p opu lat ion s ince 1 940 f or C hivay a nd A choma m ay s eem s triking, b ut n ot w hen c ompared w ith t he i ncrease o f P eru 's p opu lat ion f rom 6 .2 m illion i n 1 940 t o 1 7 m illion i n 1 981. T he m ajor g rowth o f M adrigal f orm 6 91 i n 1 940 t o 3 ,808 i n 1 981 i s t he r esu lt o f t he d evelopment o f t he m ine t here, w ith a l arge p ort ion o f t he w orkers c oming f rom o utside t he r egion ( Benavides 1 983). T able 2 s hows t he a reas u nder c u lt ivat ion f or t he d istricts o f t he s tudy a rea f or t he y ears 1 975 t o 1 981. V ariat ion f rom h igh t o l ow r anges t o o ver 5 0% ( Yanque w ith 7 19 h a i n 1 975 a nd o n ly 3 27 h a i n 1 979). T rends a re g enera lly s imilar a mong t he v i llages, p robably b ecause o f a s imilar r ainfa ll p attern m ore t han a nything e lse. T he c onsiderably r educed p roduct ion f or a ll v i llages f or 1 979 a nd 1 980 r ef lects d ry y ears f or t he 1 978-79 a nd 1 979-80 g row ing s easons. W hereas t he a verage a rea c u lt ivated i n 1 975-1981 w as 4 ,959 h a, m apping f rom 1 974 a ir p hotos i ndicates a t ota l o f 1 4,355 h a o f f ie lds, o f w hich 6 ,070 h a w ere a bandoned ( Denevan a nd H artwig 1 986). I f a bout 5 ,000 a re n ow c ult ivated, t here i s a r ema ining c a. 3 ,200 h a t o b e a ccounted f or, i .e. l and w hich i s o nly p eriodica lly u sed. F or c omparisons o f p resent-day p opu lat ions a nd a rea c ult ivated w ith t hose a t t he t ime o f S panish c ontact a nd w ith t he e arly 1 7th c entury, s ee T reacy ( this v ol.). T able 3 s hows

p roduct ion b y

c rop

1 6

f or

t he d istricts o f

t he

s tudy

T able 1 .

R ecent P opu lat ions f or t he D istricts o f t he S tudy A rea.

A choma C abanaconde ( and P inchollo) C hivay C oporaque I chupampa L an i M aca M adrigal T apay T uti Y anque T otals

1 940a

1 961b

1 972c

1 981d

1 ,195

1 ,432

1 ,473

1 ,713

2 ,960 2 ,949 8 49 6 92 1 ,014 7 41 6 91 1 ,580 2 ,530

3 ,363 3 ,322 1 ,159 8 56 1 ,069 1 ,015 1 ,040 1 ,404 6 23 2 ,545

3 ,368 3 ,481 1 ,169 9 12 1 ,239 1 ,138 2 ,045 1 ,239 8 57 2 ,170

3 ,421 4 ,000 1 ,163 8 86 1 ,179 1 ,247 3 ,808 9 97 7 90 2 ,313

1 5,201

1 6,828

1 9,091

2 1,517

a . C ook 1 982:42 b . C ook 1 982:44 c . C ook 1 982:45 d . I NP 1 983:87

T able 2 .

A rea U nder C ult ivat ion ( ha), 1 975-1981, t he S tudy A rea ( INP 1 983:30).

f or t he D istricts o f

1 975

1 976

1 977

1 978

1 979

1 980

1 981

A v.

A choma C abanaconde ( and P inchollo) C hivay C oporaque I chupampa L an i M aca M adrigal T apay T ut i Y anque

7 30

7 57

7 37

6 08

3 19

4 07

6 10

5 95

1 ,156 6 37 4 04 4 35 4 38 4 99 3 10 2 43 1 44 7 19

1 ,118 6 40 3 99 4 72 4 38 5 06 3 25 2 58 1 48 6 09

9 46 6 38 4 22 4 08 4 82 4 90 3 48 2 49 1 46 6 66

1 ,076 5 25 3 70 3 57 4 24 5 02 2 94 2 54 1 73 5 21

9 46 4 91 3 28 2 61 3 51 3 75 2 49 2 31 1 34 3 27

9 29 3 82 3 22 2 91 3 48 3 74 1 86 2 43 1 25 3 89

1 ,231 5 17 2 29 3 41 3 39 3 84 2 53 2 46 1 25 5 10

1 ,057 5 47 3 53 3 66 4 03 4 47 2 81 2 46 1 42 5 34

T otals

5 ,715

5 ,570

5 ,532

5 ,104

4 ,012

3 ,996

4 ,785

4 ,959

1 7

a rea f or 1 981. T he h igh p roportion ( 31.5% ) o f a lfa lfa ( for c att le f eed ) i s a r ecent d evelopment . G rains c lear ly d ominate a nd p rovide t he m ain s ubsistence f ood; h owever, 2 2% o f g rain p roduction ( 10% o f a ll p roduct ion) i s f or b ar ley f or c ommerc ia l b eer ( IMP 1 983:39). I f t he l and u sed f or a lfalfa a nd c ommercial b ar ley w ere t o b e u sed f or s ubsistence p roduct ion, a h igher s ubsistence p opu lat ion w ou ld b e p ossible ( the a mount o f f ood b ought w ith i ncome f rom c ommercia l p roduct ion i s m inimal). I t i s a lso i nterest ing t o n ote t hat t here i s v ery l itt le p roduct ion o f t ubers, e ven a t T ut i n ear t he u pper l eve l o f c u lt ivat ion; c limate w ou ld n ot s eem t o b e t he l imit ing f actor. T able 4 s hows p roduct ion o f l ivestock f or t he d istricts o f t he s tudy a rea f or 1 980. S heep d ominate, b ut lamas a nd e specia lly a lpacas a re s t ill v ery i mportant . M ost o f t he l ivestock i s r aised o n t he h igh p lateaus a bove t he C olca V alley, b ut c att le i n p art icu lar a re g razed i n t he a reas o f c u lt ivat ion a nd a lso i n t he s ectors o f a bandoned t erraces. A f ew r emarks c an b e m ade h ere r egarding t he t hree c ommunit ies i n w hich f ie ld r esearch w as u ndertaken. C oporaque T his v illage ( F ig. 5 ) i s l ocated o n t he s econd l owest r iver t errace l evel, a t 3 ,575 m e levat ion. I t i s o n t he n orth s ide o f t he R io C olca a s hort d istance ( 7 k m ) f rom t he p rincipa l r egional c enter o f C hivay. R ecent d ata o n C oporaque, n ot a lways a ccurate, i s p rovided b y a s urvey b y t he I nst ituto I nteramericano d e C ooperaciön p ara l a A gricultura a nd t he U niversidad N acional S an A gustin i n A requ ipa ( IICA-UNSA 1 985). T he p opu lat ion i n 1 981 w as 1 ,163, o nly a s light c hange f rom 1 ,159 i n 1 961. I n 1 981 t here w ere 5 51 m en a nd 6 12 w omen; 9 06 p eople a re r ecorded a s u rban a nd 2 07 a s r ura l ( most f armers l ive i n t own ) ( IMP 1 983:87). S ome m embers o f t he c ommunity a lso h ad h omes i n A requ ipa o r e lsewhere. F or e arlier p opu lat ion f igures s ee C ook ( 1982). F or a rea c ultivated, c rop a nd l ivestock p roduct ion, s ee T ables 2 , 3 , a nd 4 . T he m ajor c rops i n 1 984 w ere b ar ley ( 123 h a), a lfalfa ( 112 h a), a nd m aize ( 56 h a ); t here w ere 3 69 h a i n c u lt ivat ion, a nd a bout 1 06 h a i n f a llow ( IICA-UNSA 1 985:29). C oporaque l ies a way f rom t he m ain b us r oute f rom C hivay t o H uambo a nd A requ ipa, t he a ctivity o f t he M ajes I rr igat ion P roject, a nd t he m ain t ourist r oute, a ll o n t he s outh s ide o f t he R io C olca; h ence e xterna l i nf luences h ay, b een s omewhat l ess t han f or t he v illages o n t he s outh s ide o f t he R io C olca. A choma A choma i s a lso o n t he s econd l owest r iver t errace l evel, a t a n e levat ion o f 3 ,400 m . T he p opu lat ion i n 1 981 w as 1 ,713, a n i ncrease s ince t he 1 972 p opu lat ion o f 1 ,473 ( Table 1 ). I n 1 981 t here w ere 9 16 m en a nd 7 97 w omen; 1 ,341 p eople a re r ecorded a s u rban a nd 3 72 a s r ura l ( INP 1 983:87). M ore a lfalfa ( 367 h a i n 1 981) i s p roduced i n A choma t han i n a ny o ther C olca d istrict ; g rains a re s econd i n i mportance w ith o n ly 1 31 h a ( Table 3 ). A choma i s t he l eading c att le p roducer ( 1 ,800 h ead i n 1 980) o f t he C olca v illages ( Table 4 ). 1 8

F igure 5 .

C oporaque r egion, s howing R io C olca a nd v illage o f C oporaque. 1 . C hijra, 2 . C hilacota, 3 . Y urac C cacca p eak, 4 . C hilacota r eservoir. S hippee-Johnson, 1 931: s cale 1 :13,000. S ervicio A erofotogräfico N aciona l, L ima.

1 9

T able 3 .

C rop P roduction ( ha) A rea ( INP 1 983:40).

G rains A choma C abanaconde ( and P inchollo) C hivay C oporaque I chupampa L an i M aca M adrigal T apay T uti Y anque T otals/% 4 ,726/100

i n 1 981 f or t he D istricts o f t he S tudy

B eans, i a -T w f

A lfalfa

F ruit

T ubersb

V egs.

1 31

3 67

9 1

8

1 0

3

8 98 1 83 1 44 1 91 1 46 6 8 1 01 3 1 6 4 1 98

1 25 2 00 2 3 6 5 9 8 2 30 1 03 4 9 1 9 2 20

7 8 19 4 7 7 5 2 4 4 6 4 0 5 3 6 8 0

13 4 2 2 3 9 3 0 2 2 24(?) 0 4

1 9 1 7 9 6 7 5 5 7

6 2 6 1 1 3 0 3 0 1

8 7/ 1 .8

2 6/ 0 .5

2 ,155/ 4 5.6

1 ,489/ 3 1.5

6 41/ 1 3.6

3 28/ 6 .9

a . M aize, q u inoa, b arley, w heat b . P otatoes, o lluco, o ca, i sal ro ( mashua, au)

T able 4 . L ivestock P roduction i n 1 980 f or t he D istricts o f t he S tudy A rea ( INP 1 983:45). A nimals n ot l isted i nclude p igs, c hickens, g uinea p igs, b urros, a nd d ogs.

C att le

S heep

L lamas

A lpacas

G oats

A choma C abanaconde ( and P inchollo) C hivay C oporaque I chupampa L an i M aca M adrigal T apay T ut i Y anque

1 ,800

2 ,500

3 50

6 00

3 5

8 00 1 ,590 6 20 5 50 1 ,000 9 00 8 00 1 85 5 00 8 50

5 ,800 1 8,000 4 ,100 2 ,200 1 ,800 1 ,200 3 ,200 3 ,710 3 ,500 3 ,300

2 ,250 6 ,000 1 ,300 6 00 3 ,800 5 50 8 00 1 ,000 1 ,100 5 ,000

4 ,600 1 7,600 4 ,400 2 ,300 8 ,500 1 ,800 1 ,200 1 ,300 3 ,300 1 5,000

6 0 8 0 2 0 1 0 6 0 6 0 1 00 1 00 1 5 1 9

T ota ls

9 ,595

4 9,310

2,750

6 0,600

5 59

2 0

C abanaconde T his v illage i s l ocated i n t he b road l ower v alley o f t he R io d e H ualca H ualca, a t r ibutary o f t he C olca, a nd 5 k m o r s o f rom t he C olca. A t 3 ,230 i n e levation, t his i s t he l owest v illage i n t he s tudy a rea. W ith m ild t emperatures, m aize i s t he d ominant c rop, a nd t here i s a c onsiderable p roduct ion o f f ruit . F or a rea c u lt ivated, c rop a nd l ivestock p roduct ion, s ee T ables 2 , 3 , a nd 4 . O f t he C olca v illages, C abanaconde h as b y f ar t he m ost l and i n c u lt ivat ion a nd t he m ost l and i n g rains ( Tables 2 , 3 ). T he p opulat ion i n 1 981 w as 3 ,421, a s light i ncrease s ince 1 961 ( Table 1 ). I n 1 981 t here w ere 1 ,690 m en a nd 1 ,731 w omen; 3 ,234 p eop le a re r ecorded a s u rban a nd 1 87 a s r ural ( INP 1 983:87).

T ERRACE F UNCTIONS A ND T YPOLOGY A s w ith m ost t erraces i n t he C entral A ndes, i n t he C olca V alley m ultiple e cological f unctions a re p rovided f or b y t he c onstruct ion o f s tone r etaining w a lls. F or t he b ench t erraces, w hich a re m ost c ommon, t hese f unctions i nclude ( 1) t he c reat ion o f a r elat ively f lat c ultivation s urface w ith m inimal e rosion, e ase o f w ater m anagement , a nd f acilitat ion o f c u lt ivat ion a ctivit ies; ( 2) t he c reat ion o f ad eep s oil m edium b ehind t he t errace w all, e ither t hrough h and f illing, s elf f illing ( downslope m ovement o f s oil), o r b oth; a nd ( 3 ) m icroclimate m odificat ion, i ncluding s oil m oisture, w ind p atterns, a nd t emperature. W e h ave n ot y et c arefully e xamined f unct ions a nd h ow e nvironmental c ondit ions a re a ffected b y d ifferent t ypes o f t erraces. A ll t he b ench a nd v alley b ottom t erraces a re i rrigated a nd i rrigat ion f eatures a re i ntegrated w ith t he t erraces. T he C olca t erraces i ndicate l arge l abor i nputs, b oth f or c onstruction a nd m aintenance, a lthough t he s tone w ork i s n ot a s e laborate a s s ome o f t he I nca t erraces i n t he C uzco r egion. T he C olca t erraces a re m ost ly s ingle w all, w hereas m any o f t he C uzco a rea t erraces a re d ouble w all w ith r ubble b etween ( Donkin 1 979:111-112). T he C olca t erraces a re o f b oth c ut a nd u ncut s tone c ompared t o t he p redominant ly c ut-stone w alls o f P isac, M oray, 0 11antaytambo, a nd e lsewhere. T he p rehistoric t errace w alls o f t he C olca a re n evertheless w ell c onstructed, o n s ome s lopes b uilt a s h igh a s 3m , w ith l arge s tones a t t he b ase a nd w ith s ubsoil f oundat ions. T hey a re, h owever, s ubject t o c ollapse f rom t he o utward p ressure o f t he s oil f ill b ehind t he w alls, e specially w hen s aturated w ith w ater f rom r ainfall o r i rrigat ion. A ncient t erraces h ave f requent b reaks ( washouts) i n t hem, a nd c urrent ly c ult ivated t erraces m ust b e r epaired f requent ly. W alls e xtend b elow t he o riginal g round s urface t o h elp p rovide s tability. T he q uality o f s tone w ork i n r epaired t erraces i s o ften i nferior t o t hat i n o lder t erraces. W ith t his e xcept ion, w e f ound i t d ifficult t o d istinguish t errace w all c onstruct ion t hat c ou ld b e c haracterized a s e ither p re-Collaguas, C ollaguas, I nca, C olonial, o r r ecent . A s imple t ypology o f C olca t erraces i s p ossible b ased o n o ur g eneral o bservat ions t o d ate, p rimarily i n t he C oporaque r egion. F or o ther t errace t ypologies, s ee S pencer a nd H ale ( 1961) a nd D onkin ( 1979:32).

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B ench t erraces ( andenes, s tair-case t erraces). T hese a re d escribed a bove. T hey h ave v ert ica l o r s light ly b ack s loping b ack w alls a nd n early f lat , f ront s loping c ult ivat ion s urfaces. T hey m ay s lope s light ly l aterally t o f acilitate d rainage. I n s ome p laces t hey a re d ivided b y v ertical w alls ( side w alls) o f s tacked o r p i led s tone w hich m ay h ave s erved a s b oundaries a nd/or w alkways. ( a ) C ontour t erraces. T hese a re l ong, r elat ively n arrow t erraces c urved t o m atch s lope ( Figs. 6 , 7 ). ( b) L inear t erraces. T hese a re s hort , r e lat ive ly n arrow s egments r unning 1 75 i-F i lly a cross s lope ( Figs. 8 , 9 ). ( c) B roadfie ld t erraces ( "apron t erraces"). T hese a re i nterspersed a mong c ontour a nd l inear t erraces o n g ent ler s lopes. T hey a re i rregu lar i n s hape o r r ectangu lar b ut n ot a s w ide a s v alley b ottom t erraces, w ith l ow s tone r etaining w a lls ( Figs. 1 0, 1, 1 2). V alley b ottom w alled t erraces ( Bottom land f ie lds, F ig. 1 2). T hese a re d t— T U ; T er7 - 7 J iäf i 7 5 1 57- o n t he n ear ly f lat r iver t erraces. T hey a re e nclosed b y s tone o r a dobe w alls a nd a re i nterspersed w ith u nterraced w alled f ie lds. T hese a re v ery b road t erraces w ith l ow r etaining w alls, d ivided b y w all f ield b oundaries, p ossibly a r ecent a dd it ion t o c ontro l l ivestock. U pland w a lled t erraces. T hese a re g enerally a bove t he b ench t errace z ones o n g ent ly s loping t errain. T hey a re s tone w alled, w ith s ide w alls c reat ing r ectangu lar p atterns. T hey a re s loping-f ie ld, s e lf f i lling ( colmataje ) t erraces. T hey d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een i rrigated. T hey d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een c orra ls f or l ivestock. T he s ide w alls a re r ubble f i lled r ather t han p laced s tone. T hese f ie lds m ay h ave o n ly p art ly b een c u lt ivated a nd o n ly i rregu lar ly w hen r ainfall w as h igh. S ome a t C oporaque m ay h ave b een w atered b y c ontrolled r unoff. T hey n eed t o b e c arefu lly e xamined t o d etermine f unction. S loping-f ie ld t erraces ( semi-terraces, " hanging f ie lds"). T hese a re f ound o n v ery s teep, h igh s lopes g enera lly a bove c urrent l eve ls o f c u lt ivat ion a nd a re m ost ly a bandoned. T here a re g ood e xamp les a round T apay. A pparent ly t hey w ere n ot i rrigated, b ut m ay h ave s erved i n p art t o t rap a nd r etain r unoff. T hese t erraces d o n ot h ave l eve led c u lt ivat ion f loors a nd t he n atura l s lope m ay o n ly b e s light ly m od if ied b y a l ow r ubble w a ll. T hese a re i rregu lar, s egmented t erraces r ather t han l ong, c ont inuous w a lls. W e h ave y et t o e xamine a ny o f t hem c arefu lly .

R ESEARCH C OMPLETED T he r esearch i nvest igat ions o f t he C o lca V alley T errace P roject c onsisted o f t he f ollow ing c omponents ( see D enevan 1 986a f or p reliminary r eports): 1 . A rchaeo logy. I n J u ly a nd A ugust , 1 984 a rchaeo logical e xcavat ions o f t erraces a nd o ccupat ion s ites w ere u ndertaken o n t he s lopes i mmediate ly w est o f C oporaque a t C hijra ( F igs. 5 , 1 3) b y

2

F igure 6 .

S emi-circular b ow l o f t erraces b elow Y anque. M ost ly r ock-embanked c ontour t erraces, w ith b roadfield t erraces i n t he m idd le p ortion o f t he b owl. W illiam M . D enevan, 1 984.

F igure 7 .

V ertical a ir p hoto o f c ontour t erraces n ear L an . T he R io C olca i s a t t he l ower r ight . E nlarged t o s cale o f c a. 1 :10,000. S ervicio A erofotogräfico N aciona l, L ima, 1 955.

2 3

F igure 8 .

C ontour a nd l inear t erraces a t C ayra ( lower) a nd A lto C ayra ( upper), C oporaque. N ote t he d istinct d ivision b etween c ult ivated ( lower) a nd a bandoned ( upper) t erraces. J ohn T reacy, 1 984.

F igure 9 .

H ighly d eteriorated, a bandoned, l inear b ench t erraces n ear C hivay. W illiam M . D enevan, 1 983.

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M ichae l M a lpass, P ablo d e l a V era C ruz, M äximo N eira, a nd M igue l B a ldärrago, a nd a t C hilacota b y D eborah M art in a nd P ablo d e l a V era C ruz. S even t erraces w ere t renched a long a n e levat iona l g radient f rom C hilacota a t 3 ,752 m t o C hacco a t t he e dge o f t he R io C olca a t 3 ,272 m . T he o uter w alls a nd f loor o f a r u ined h ouse a t C hijra w ere e xcavated. A s urvey w as m ade o f a bandoned t erraces, c ana ls, a nd b uildings i n t he s ame a rea b y T reacy a nd D enevan. B etween S eptember a nd N ovember, 1 984 S hea ( this v ol.) c arried o ut a n a rchaeologica l s urvey i n t he c ommunity o f A choma ( 3,400 m ) o n t he s outh s ide o f t he R io C olca w ith a t eam o f s tudents f rom B eloit C o llege. V era C ruz ( this v ol.) i ndependent ly e xcavated a t C abanaconde ( 3 ,230 m ) a t t he l ower e nd o f t he c entral C olca V alley. T hus w e h ave a rchaeological a nd o ther d ata f rom c ommunit ies a t t he u pper, m idd le, a nd l ower p ortions o f t he s tudy s ector, p roviding a l ongitudinal g radient , a s w ell a s d ata f rom v ert ica l g radients w ithin e ach c ommunity. 2 . S oils. S oils f rom t he a bandoned t errace t renches e xcavated a t C oporaque a nd f rom c u lt ivated t erraces w ere c ollected a nd a na lyzed b y J on S andor ( this v ol.). A nimal d ung w as a lso a nalyzed f or i ts c ontribut ion a s af ert ilizer. 3 . C limat ic c hange. W e a re l ooking a t i ndicators o f p ossible c limat ic c hange. - 1 5 7T en s amp les w ere t a ken i n t he f loor o f a n a bandoned, a pparent ly p re-Columbian r eservoir ( Chilacotacocha) a nd a lso f rom t he s oils b ehind t errace w alls. T hese h ave b een a na lyzed b y P atricia S anford ( in D enevan 1 986a). P ollen m ay i ndicate v egetat ion c hange; h owever s uch c hanges c ould r ef lect h uman d isturbance r ather t han c limat ic c hange. 4 . F aunal a nalysis. B ones w ere c ollected f rom t errace a nd o ccupat ion e xcavat ions a t C hijra a nd C hilacota i n o rder t o d etermine w hat w ild a nd d omest icated a nimals w ere p resent i n p rehistoric t imes a nd w hich o nes w ere u t ilized. A na lysis i s b y J ane W hee ler ( in D enevan 1 986a). 5 . E thnohistory. T here a re e arly c o lonia l v isitas ( off icial i nventories) f or m uch o f t he C olca V alley w hich p rovide l and-use d ata f or t he y ears 1 591 ( Pease 1 977b), 1 604 ( APY ), a nd 1 615-17 ( APY ). F or e ach h ousehold w e a re g iven t he s ize o f t he f amily, n ames o f s ectors o f f ie lds, s ize o f f ie lds, a nd c rops c u lt ivated. T he t oponyms ( p lace n ames) c ont inue i n u se t oday, s o n ot o nly c an w e r econstruct l and u se i n t he e arly c o lonia l p er iod, b ut c omparisons c an b e m ade w ith p resent d ay a griculture i n t erms o f c rops a nd a mount o f t erraced l and c u lt ivated o r a bandoned. M aria B enavides e xamined, c ata loged, a nd d up licated p arish r ecords i n Y anque, i ncluding t he v isitas o f 1 604 a nd 1 615-17. S ee B enavides ( this v ol.) f or a p artia l a na lysis a nd i n D enevan ( 1986a). 6 . A erial p hotography. T here a re e xce llent v ert ical a ir p hotos o f t he C olca V alley a vailable f or t he y ears 1 931 ( ca. 1 :13,000) ( Shippee-Johnson e xpedit ion), 1 955 ( ca. 1 :55,000), 1 974 ( ca. 1 :17,000 ). ( In M ay 1 986 w e h ired a light p lane a nd a ttempted o ver lapping o blique p hoto c overage o f t he v a lley, w ith o n ly p artia l s uccess). F rom t he p hotos, f or e ach d ate w e c an d etermine r ough ly w hich t erraces a re c u lt ivated a nd w hich a re a bandoned. T his m akes p ossible f airly p rec ise m easurement o f t errace e xpansion a nd

2 8

c ontract ion o ver t he p ast h a lf c entury. C omparisons w ill b e p ossible w ith t he e xtent o f p rehistoric t erracing a nd w ith e ar ly c olonia l t erracing. T hus f ar, t erracing h as b een m apped f rom t he 1 974 p hotos f or t he e nt ire C hivay-Cabanaconde s ector o f t he v alley ( Denevan a nd H artw ig 1 986). 7 . H ydrau lic e ngineering. I n J anuary-February 1 986 a t C oporaque, g eomorphologist R ichard W augh e xamined a spects o f t he w ater b udget o f t he c ana l a nd t errace s ystem a s i t e xists t oday ( Waugh a nd T reacy 1 986). H ow m uch w ater e nters a t errace s ector f rom r ainfa ll, r unoff, a nd i rrigat ion c anals, a nd h ow m uch w ater f lows o ut o f t he s ystem b y n ot b eing i ntercepted b y s oil, v egetat ion, a nd c rops? H ow m uch w ater i s l ost d ue t o e vaporat ion a nd s eepage i n t he c ana ls? H ow d o d ifferent f orms o f w ater c ontrol v ia t he c anals a nd o n t he t erraces a ffect w ater-use e ff iciency p ast a nd p resent? P resumably c hanges i n w ater-use e fficiency c ou ld r esu lt i n m ore o r i n r educed w ater a vailability f or i rrigat ion, t hus a ffect ing t he a mount o f t erraced l and c ult ivated. 8 . A griculture. W e a re d escribing a nd m apping p resent-day l and u se a nd t he i rrigat ion n etworks f or C oporaque ( John T reacy ) a nd A choma ( Char les M ahaffey ). T errace e cology i s b eing d escribed a nd a nalyzed i n t erms o f f unct ion. H ow d oes v arying t errace t echnology m anipu late w ater, s lope, s o il, a nd t emperature i n o rder t o o pt imize p roduct ion a nd a t t he s ame t ime m inim ize s ubsistence r isk? W e a re i nterested i n p resent c hanges i n l and u se a s w ell a s y ear t o y ear f luctuat ions i n a mount o f t errace u t ilizat ion. B oth m ay b e c lues t o p ast c hange. S uch c ontemporary c hange i s t he t opic o f a s eparate p roject b y a nthropologist D avid G u illet ( 1986, t his v ol.) i n t he C olca v illage o f L an i w hich i s n ear C oporaque. W e a re a lso l ooking a t t he r o le o f l ivestock, b oth o n t he g razing l ands o n t he h igh p una a bove t he C olca v illages a nd o n t he c u lt ivated a nd a bandoned t erraces w here s heep, c att le, lamas, a nd a lpacas c ontribute t o c rop s e lect ion, t o t errace d eteriorat ion, a nd t o v egetat ion d estruct ion a nd r esu ltant a cce lerated r unoff. T o m ore f u lly c arry o ut t he o bject ives o f t he o rigina l C o lca T errace P roject o f e xamining t he h istory a nd e cology o f t erracing a nd a ttempting t o e xp lain t he c auses o f t errace a bandonment , c onsiderable a ddit ional r esearch i s n ecessary. S o l itt le w as k nown a bout t he e nvironment , a rchaeo logy, a gricu lture, a nd t errace e cology o f t he C olca V a lley ( somewhat m ore a bout C o lonia l h istory ) t hat m uch o f o ur w ork w as a t w orst r econnaissance, a t b est p re lim inary. W e b elieve t hat w e h ave, a t l east , p rovided a b ase f or u nderstanding w hat i s h appening a nd w hat h as h appened r egarding t erracing i n t he v a lley. W e h ave b een p art o f a r ecent ly a cce lerat ing i nterest i n t he C o lca V alley, w hich i nvolves n ot o nly s cholarship b ut d eve lopment a nd t ourism. P art icu lar ly i mportant , P eruvians h ave d iscovered t he C o lca a nd a re c urious a bout i ts p eople, i ts p ast , a nd i ts m agnif icent ly t erraced l andscape ( Ganderats 1 984). A nd p eople a t b oth l oca l a nd n at iona l l evels h ave b een a sking w hat c an b e d one t o b ring a bandoned a gricultura l l ands b ack i nto p rodw -t ion ( CONCYTEC 1 986 ; P ortocarrero 1 986).

n eed

A ll a spects o f t he i nterdisciplinary r esearch w e h ave c arried o ut a mp lificat ion. A rchaeologica l s tudy i n d epth i s n eeded t o n ot 2 9

o nly u nderstand t he p rehistory o f t erracing b ut c ultura l e volution i n t his i mportant r egion o f s outhern P eru a nd c u ltura l r e lat ionships t o o ther a reas. A g reater e ffort n eeds t o b e m ade t o d ate c anals a nd t erraces. T o u nderstand t erracing a nd i rr igat ion i t i s n ecessary t o u nderstand t he p hysical e nvironment - g eology, s oils, s lope, v egetat ion, t emperature, r ainfall, h ydro logy . A s f or C olonial h istory, w e h ave j ust b egun t o a nalyze t he v isitas o f t he l ate 1 6th a nd e arly 1 7th c enturies. T hese c ensuses a re u nusually r ich i n d etailed d ata n ot o nly o n p opu lat ion b ut o n l and u se. W ater m anagement e fficiency, w hich m ay b e a n i mportant k ey t o t errace a bandonment , i s b eing s tudied b y J ohn T reacy . T wo i mportant r esearch a reas h ave n ot b een e xamined b y o ur p roject. T he f irst i s p aleoecology, p art icu lar ly f or t he p eriod f rom a bout 5 00 A D t o 1 500 A D, d uring w hich m ost o f t he C olca t erraces w ere l ikely c onstructed a nd m ay h ave i n p art b een a bandoned. W hat w as t he p hysical e nvironment d uring t his p eriod? D id i t c hange d uring o r s ince? I n p articu lar, h as r ainfall f luctuated s ignificant ly t hereby c ontributing t o t errace e xpansion o r c ontract ion? W e n eed t o e xam ine r iver t erraces, g laciers, v olcanic a sh, r eservoir a nd l agoon s ediments, a nd p ollen a nd p hytoliths f or e vidence o f c hanges i n c limate a nd v egetat ion. H as t ectonic u p lift b een a f actor i n t errace a bandonment ( Mose ley 1 983)? S econd, v ery l itt le h as b een d one b y o ur p roject o r a nyone e lse o n s oc io-economic a spects o f t errace m anagement a nd p roduct ion a nd a ccess t o l and a nd w ater. R esearch h as b een u nder w ay i n t he v alley f or s evera l y ears b y a eropologists a nd s oc iologists o f D ESCO ( Centro d e E studios y P romocion d el D esarrollo, P rograma R ura l V alle d el C olca), a nd d ata, r eports, a nd a na lyses w ill b e f orthcoming ( Maria S a lcedo 1 985). D avid G u illet 's w ork i n L an i h as b een m ent ioned, a nd o ther p rojects a re u nder w ay o r p lanned.

C ONCLUSIONS T he R io C olca A bandoned T errace P roject h as i nvolved a n i nterdiscip linary g roup o f A merican a nd P eruvian s cholars a nd s tudents o ver t he p eriod J u ly 1 984 t hrough J une 1 986. S ome o f t he p re liminary r esu lts f ollow i n t his v olume ( Malpass, S hea, V era C ruz, B enavides, T reacy, S andor), o r a ppear i n D enevan ( 1986a). T o m ore f u lly u nderstand t he h istory o f t errace e xpansion a nd c ontract ion w ill r equ ire t he a vailability o f a ddit iona l r esearch i n p rogress a s w ell a s o ther r esearch i n t he f uture, p articu lar ly o n ( 1 ) e nvironmenta l c hange a nd ( 2 ) o n t he s oc io-economic a spects o f a ccess t o l and, w ater, a nd l abor; p roduct ion a nd m arket ing; a nd a lternat ive l ivelihoods. T he M agnitude o f T errace A bandonment O ne o f t he o bject ives o f t he p roject w as t o m easure a s a ccurate ly a s p ossible t he a ctual a mount o f t he C olca V a lley t erraces t hat h ave b een a bandoned ( Denevan a nd H artw ig 1 986). T his h as n ever b een d one f or a l arge a rea i n t he A ndes. M easurements w ere m ade o n t he b est a ir p hotography a vailable, t hat f or 1 974 a t as ca le o f c a. 1 :17,000, b ased o n v isual i nterpretat ion o f c u lt ivated v ersus n on-CUTt ivated t erraces.

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A gricultura l f ie lds w ere c lassified a nd m easured a s b eing U p land T erraces ( unirrigated, s loping f ie ld t erraces), B ench T erraces ( irrigated, o n s lopes), a nd B ottom land F ie lds ( irrigated f lats, m ost ly w alled b ut n ot t erraced). F rom 2 25 a ir p hotos, 1 m aps w ere m ade o f t he a rea b etween C hivay a nd C abanaconde, a s i llustrated b y F igure 1 4 w hich c overs C oporaque a nd p arts o f C hivay a nd Y anque. P rocedures a nd p roblems o f e rror a re d iscussed i n D enevan a nd H artwig ( 1986). F or t he a rea c overed, w e f ound t hat 6 2% o f t he t erraces w ere a bandoned ( 42% o f a ll f ie lds). A bout 9 1% o f t he U p land T erraces w ere a bandoned, 6 1% o f t he B ench T erraces, a nd o nly 7 % o f t he B ottom land F ields. F or C oporaque ( Fig. 1 4), t here a re 8 0 h a o f U p land T erraces, 1 00% a bandoned; 6 58 h a o f B ench T erraces, 6 8% a bandoned; a nd 6 61 h a o f B ottom land F ie lds, 3 0% a bandoned. G round c hecking b y J ohn T reacy o f t he m easurements a nd i nterpretat ions f rom a ir p hotos f or C oporaque r evea led a f ew s ectors m isclassified, b ut o vera ll e rrors f or e ach c ategory w ere l ess t han 1 0%. C auses o f A bandonment O ur s tudy o f t he c auses o f t errace a bandonment a ctually i nvolves s evera l d ist inct , b ut r elated q uest ions. W hy h ave t erraces b een a bandoned i n t he p ast? S econd, w hy a ren 't a bandoned t erraces a nd c ana ls b rought b ack i nto p roduct ion t oday w hen t here s eems t o b e d emographic a nd e conomic j ust if icat ion f or d oing s o? R e lated t o b oth q uest ions a re t he r easons w hy i rrigated t erracing i s p ract iced i n t he f irst p lace. W hy i s t errac ing a v iable e cologica l, a gricultura l, a nd e conomic s trategy, a nd u nder w hat c ircumstances i s i t n ot v iable? F urthermore, w hat i s i nvolved i s n ot a s imp le l inear e xpansion o f t erracing o ver t ime f ollowed b y c o llapse o r c ontract ion a t s ome p oint i n t ime. I nstead t here h ave b een c ycles o f e xpansion a nd c ontract ion o ver a p eriod o f 1 500 y ears o r m ore u p t o t he p resent , a nd t he f actors i nvolved i n t hese e xpansions a nd c ontract ions h ave u ndoubtedly v aried. T hus e ach c hange t oward e xpansion o r c ontraction i s a p roblem i n i tself, w hether a t t he r egional o r l ocal l evel a nd w hether o ver t he s hort t erm o r o ver t he l ong t erm. A t t he p resent t ime, a ll t hat c an b e a ttempted i s a p re liminary d iscussion o f t he f actors t hat h ave o r m ay h ave a b earing o n t he q uest ions r aised a bove, b ased o n k now ledge g ained t o d ate. E ach o f t hese f actors m erits f u ller d iscussion a nd c an f orm a f ocus o f f urther r esearch. 1 . D epopu lat ion. W e k now f rom t he e thnohistorical s tudy b y C ook ( 1982) t hat t he C olca V a lley s uffered m ajor p opu lat ion d ecline i n t he 1 6th c entury d ue p rimarily t o e pidemic d iseases i ntroduced b y t he S paniards. F rom a n e st imated p opu lat ion f or t he P rovince o f C ollaguas o f 6 2,500-71,000 i n 1 530, t he t ota l d ropped t o a bout 1 0,000 b y 1 688. F or t he c ommunity o f C oporaque, t he p opu lation d eclined f rom a n e st imated 6 ,745 i n 1 530 t o 1 ,882 i n 1 604 ( Treacy, t his v ol.). C ommon ly u nder c ondit ions o f d epopu lat ion, t he m ost i ntensive f orms o f c u lt ivat ion a nd t he l east a ccessible a gricultural l ands a re a bandoned. W ith S panish c ontrolled I ndian s ett lements b eing l ocated o n t he f lats n ear t he r iver, t he t erraces o n t he h igher s lopes p robably w ere n ot c u lt ivated. P opu lat ion h as r ecovered, b ut o n ly t o

3 1

L EGEND B C

B o t tom land c u l t iva ted

B A

B o t tom land a bandoned

TC

T e r race c u l t iva ted

TA

T e r race a bandoned

UC

U p land c u lt iva ted

UA

U p land a bandoned

NC

N o t c u l t iva ted

. f un

( a pp ro

c 7 gr o T i E

b o un c i a r ,A c V

N C

N C

UA

I

N C

N C

F i e ld u n i t b ounda ry U nc lea r f i e ld u n i t b ounda ry D is t r ic t b ounda ry R oad V i l lage S CALE A PPROX IMATELY 1 :47 ,700

r --

--- _ J

T A N C

T A

T A N C T A ? T A

T A

T C

i g = p

N C \

N C

F igure 1 4. M ap o f f ie ld t ypes, s how ing d istr ibut ion o f a bandoned a nd c ult ivated f ields, D istrict o f C oporaque. B ased o n 1 974 a ir p hotos. B y L aura H artwig.

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3 2,826 b y 1 972 i n C ollaguas ( Cook 1 982; s ee B enavides, t his v ol., F ig. 1 ), s o t he s t ill l ow p opu lat ion t oday, c ompared t o 1 530, c ou ld a ccount f or t he h igh s lope t erraces n ot b eing r eclaimed. H owever, i t i s n ot c lear w hy t he p opu lat ion h as n ot b u ilt u p t o n umbers e qual t o o r g reater t han t hose i n 1 530 a s t hey h ave i n m ost o f L at in A merica. 2 . T he I nca i mpact . T he a rchaeo logy a t C hijra ( Malpass, t his v ol.) i ndiEiies t hat t he h igher, a bandoned t erraces p ertain t o t he C ollaguas c u lture ( immediate p re-Inca), w ith s ome I nca p resence, a nd t he l ower t erraces t o I nca ( ca. 1 470-1540), C olonia l, a nd p resent d ay p eople. I t i s p ossible t hat , r ather t han r ef lect ing C olonia l d epopu lat ion, t he c hange i n l ocat ion o f t errace c u lt ivat ion m ay r epresent a s hift f rom h igh t o l ow t erraces u nder I nca c ontro l, r esu lting f rom a s hift i n s ett lement f rom t he h igh s lopes t o t he l ower s lopes a nd a s h ift f rom e mphasis o n t ubers h igher u p t o a n e mphasis o n m aize a nd q u inoa o n t he l ower, w armer s lopes ( below c a. 3 500 m ). 3 . C limat ic c hange. L ess r ainfall w ou ld m ean a r educt ion o f w ater f or i rrigatfUn-- i r ld h ence t errace a bandonment . ( The C olca t errace f ields a re d ependent u pon a c ombination o f r a infall a nd i rrigat ion.) F armers t oday s ay t hey w ou ld r estore o ld, u nused t erraces t o p roduct ion i f t hey h ad m ore w ater. B ut t he w ater s ituat ion i s n ot s o s imp le. A n i ce c ore h as b een t aken b y g laciologists ( Thompson e t a l. 1 985) f rom t he Q uelccaya i ce c ap l ocated n ortheast o f C uzco. I ce a ccumu lat ion h as b een c onverted t o r e lat ive p recip itat ion o ver t he p ast 1 500 y ears. I f a ccurate, a nd g iven t hat p recipitat ion p atterns a re r e lative ly s imilar t hroughout s outhern P eru, t hen t he p recipitat ion c hronology i s r elevant t o t he C olca V a lley a nd i ndicat ive o f w hether p eriods o f r educed p recipitat ion a re a p ossible f actor i n t errace a bandonment . T he p rofile i ndicates m ost ly d rier t han a verage p recipitat ion f or t he p eriods A .D. 5 00-610, 6 50-740, 1 200-1500, a nd 1 710-1870 a nd m ost ly m uch h igher t han a verage p recipitat ion f or t he p eriod 1 520-1710 a nd s light ly h igher t han a verage f rom 1 870 t o 1 980. T his m eans t hat t he e ar ly t erraces ( A .D. 5 00-600) w e e xamined a t C hijra n ear C oporaque w ere i n u se d uring a d rier p eriod, a s a lso w as t he I nca o ccupat ion, w hereas e ar ly c o lonial t imes a nd m ost o f t he 2 0th c entury w ere w etter t han a verage. C limat ic c hange t hus w ou ld n ot s eem t o b e a f actor i n t errace a bandonment o r i n t he n on u se o f t erraces t oday. H owever, t here i s t he m atter o f t he h igh a bandoned s loping-f ie ld t erraces a nd w alled f ie lds ( up land t erraces), w hich s how n o e vidence o f c anal i rrigat ion. T hey w ou ld s eem t o b e e vidence o f h igher r ainfa ll i n t he p ast . S t ill, r ainfa ll i s s omewhat h igher a t s uch e levat ions t han i t i s l ower d own b y t he R io C olca, a nd p eriod ic c rops d uring w etter y ears m ay h ave b een p ossible. N o o ne h as s hown t hat r ain-fed c rops c ould o r c ou ld n ot b e g rown o n t hese t oday. A lso, t here i s e vidence ( John T reacy, p ers. c omm .) t hat f or s ome u p land f ie lds s lope r unoff w as c oncentrated v ia e mbankments a nd d irected t o c anals o r d irect ly t o f ie lds. 4 . T ecton ic u p lift . S tanish ( n .d .) h as a lso s uggested t hat t ectonic u p lift m ay h ave d isrupted t errace/canal c onnect ions r esu lt ing i n t errace a bandonment d ue t o t he c utoff o f i rrigat ion c ana l i ntakes f rom s tream c hanne l s ources w hich h ave d owncut ; a lso s ee M ose ley ( 1983), w ho h as w orked w ith t his i dea o n t he c oast . T his h as y et t o

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b e d emonstrated a nywhere i n h ighland P eru. R ichard W augh ( geologist a nd g eomorphologist ) o bserved t he C olca c ana ls i n 1 986 a nd i s d oubtfu l t hat t ectonic a ct ivity c ou ld h ave b een a s ignificant f actor i n t errace a bandonment . 5 . W ater a vailability a nd m anagement e ff iciency . H ow m uch w ater i s a ctually a vailable a t t he p resent t ime i n c anal s ystems i n r e lat ion t o c rop n eeds? T he p re liminary s tudy o f t he h ydrology o f t he i rrigation s ystem i n C oporaque b y W augh a nd T reacy ( 1986) s uggests t hat t here i s n ear ly t hree t imes a s m uch w ater a vailable t o c rop p roduct ion a s i s u sed b y t he p resent c rops. T his w ou ld s eem t o i ndicate t hat i n t erms o f w ater a vailability t he a rea c ropped c ou ld b e c onsiderably e xpanded. W e m ust k eep i n m ind, h owever, t hat d uring s ome p eriods o f t he g row ing s eason t here i s m ore i rrigat ion w ater a vailable t han c an b e u sed a nd t he s urp lus i s v ented i nto t he m ain q uebradas a nd t he R io C olca a nd t hus l ost t o t he c rop s ystem . F urthermore, n o s ystem o f w ater m anagement i s 1 00% e fficient i n c apturing f or c rop p roduct ion a ll t he w ater b rought i nto a n i rrigat ion s ystem . N everthe less, t he l oss o f t wo t hirds o f t he w ater a vailable s eems e xcessive a nd r aises t he q uest ion o f c hange i n w ater m anagement e ff iciency. V ariat ion o ver t ime i n w ater m anagement e fficiency w ou ld m ean i ncreased o r d ecreased w ater s upp lies f or i rrigation. F or e xamp le, i f w ater i s d ropped t oo r apid ly t hrough a t errace s ystem, m ore w ater r uns o ff r ather t han b eing a bsorbed b y t he s oil a nd b eing a vailable f or g reater c rop p roduct ion. I ndicat ions a re t hat w ater m anagement t echno logy i n p re-Inca t imes d iffered f rom I nca a nd c urrent t echnology. F or o ne t hing, t he S paniards d estroyed a m acro o rganization t hat p robably c ontributed t o e fficient m anagement o f c omp lex t errace/irrigat ion s ystems. 6 . V egetat ion a nd s oil c hange. A gricu lture a nd o vergrazing h ave d rast ically m odi fi ed— TR r educed t he n atural v egetat ion c over, m aking s lopes m ore s uscept ible t o r apid r unoff r ather t han w ater r etention i n t he s oil. H ence t he m oisture a vailable t o c rops f rom r ainfall a nd r unoff i s r educed. S oil a na lyses b y S andor ( this v o l.) i ndicate t hat s oil f ertility w as n ot l ike ly a f actor i n t errace a bandonment . S oils a re m ost ly d erived f rom v olcan ic a nd a lluvia l m ateria l a nd a re r e latively f ert ile. F urthermore, t hey a re n ow m aintained b y t he a pp licat ion o f m anure a nd c ompost a nd b y p eriodic f a llow ing, a nd b oth w ere l ike ly t rue p rehistorica lly . S andor s urprisingly f ound f ertility o f t he s urface s oils t o b e c omparable i n b oth c u lt ivated a nd a bandoned t erraces. T he l atter a re n ot a ctive ly f ertilized, b ut d o r eceive m anure f rom g razing l ivestock. 7 . C anal w ater l oss. S tanish ( this v o l.) s uggests t hat i n t he M oquegua -F JUn t i- 7 - s outhern P eru c hanging p rehistoric s ett lement l ocat ion r esult ing i n l onger c anals a nd t hus m ore w ater l oss f rom s eepage i n t he c anals, a nd a lso f rom g reater e vaporat ion, r esu lts i n l ess w ater b eing a vailable a nd t hus t errace a bandonment a nd a r eduction o f t he t ota l a rea i rrigated. T his d oes n ot s eem t o b e a f actor i n t he C olca V alley w here c anals a re o f r e lat ively s hort l ength. T he i rrigat ion h ydrology s tudy b y W augh a nd T reacy ( 1986) d oes t ake e vaporation i nto a ccount .

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8 . L abor i nputs. L abor i nputs t oday a re c lear ly l arger f or t erraces o n h ighg7-7 1-O T Ies c ompared t o t hose f or l ower s lopes. T his i s d ue t o ( a ) g reater d istances f rom s ett lements t o f ields a nd h ence t ravel t ime; ( b) t he d iff icu lty o f w orking o n h igh, s teep s lopes; a nd ( c) t he h igher l eve l o f m aintenance n ecessary f or t erraces o n s teep s lopes. A lso s oils m ay b e p oorer o n h igher, s teeper s lopes, r esu lt ing i n l ower c rop y ie lds p er i nvestment o f l abor. N everthe less, J ohn T reacy ( pers. c omm .) r eports t hat f armers i n C oporaque s ay t hat h igh l abor i nput i s n ot t he r eason w hy t hey d on 't r estore a nd f arm a bandoned t erraces. 9 . C hanges i n l and u se. T he i ntroduct ion o f E uropean c rops a nd c att le c aused t he b r. j j k-a own o f a f ragile a groecology . C att le r apid ly d amage t erraces. T he S paniards p robably b rought a bout a g reater e mphasis o n p astora lism, w hich h as l ow l abor r equ irements b ut n eeds m obility, a t t he e xpense o f a griculture. T here r ecent ly h as b een a s hift t owards a lfa lfa, r eplacing s ubsistence c rops. B enavides ' s tudy o f t he 1 604 a nd 1 615-17 v isitas f or C oporaque i ndicates t hat t he a mount o f l and i n c u lt ivat ion t hen w as a lmost t he s ame a s t oday, b ut t he p opu lat ion i n 1 604-17 w as 4 1% h igher. T his m ay r ef lect t he l arge a mount o f l and t oday i n a lfa lfa ( for c att le) a nd a lso b arley ( for c ommercia l b eer ) f or n on s ubsistence. 1 0. S oc ia l a ccess t o l and a nd i rrigat ion w ater. C ommunit ies a s w ell a s i ndividua l h ousiE ir E-T i o n ot h ave e q u a l i Zass t o i rrigat ion w ater ( and t his c an r esu lt i n v iolent c onf lict o r i n e fforts t o r enegotiate a ccess t o w ater ). T his c an m ean t hat o ne c ommunity o r s ome f armers c an h ave s uff icient w ater t o c u lt ivate a ll l and a vailable, w hereas a djacent c ommunities o r n eighbors d o n ot h ave e nough w ater t o i rrigate a ll t heir t erraces. F urthermore, i f m ore w ater w ere a vailable i t w ou ld b e v ery d iff icult f or p eop le i n a c ommunity t o a gree o n w ho w ou ld h ave a ccess t o i t a s w e ll a s t o t he n ew l and w hich w ou ld b e i rrigated. A dd it ional l and f or a dd it iona l i rrigat ion w ou ld n ot l ikely c ome f rom p rivate h old ings b ut r ather f rom u nused l and t hat i s a lmost a ll c ommuna l a nd u sed f or p asture. J ohn T reacy ( pers. c omm .) r eports t hat a f ew y ears a go i n C oporaque t here w ere p rospects o f o btaining a dd it iona l w ater a nd o pening u p a n a bandoned c anal ( the " Inca" c ana l e ast o f t he v illage ), b ut a greement c ou ld n ot b e r eached o n w ho w ould g et t he a bandoned t errace l and f or r estorat ion a nd t he n ew w ater t o i rrigate i t , a nd h ence t he p lan w as d ropped. 1. A lternat ive l ivelihoods. U nder c ondit ions o f p opu lat ion g rowth, a nd e ven w ith p opu lat ion s tability, t here m ay b e a ttract ive a lternat ives t o f arm ing t erraces u nder d ifficu lt c ondit ions a s w ell a s t o s ubsistence f arming i n g eneral. T hese a lternatives i nclude s eeking w age l abor l ocally a nd m igrat ion i n s earch o f j obs i n A requ ipa o r o n t he c oast . T he a ttractions m ay b e f ood, o r c ash, o r u rban e xcitement a nd o pportunit ies, o r h opes o f a b etter l ife f or t he n ext g enerat ion. R ura l t o u rban m igrat ion i s o ccurring t hroughout t he S outh A merican A ndes f or t hese r easons.

T he C o lca V alley m ay n ot b e a s pecial s ituat ion i n t erms o f l and a bandonment . B ut a s p opu lat ion c ont inues t o g row , t here m ay b e a m ovement b ack t o t he d ry m ountain v alleys, a nd t he q uest ion r emains,

3 5

c an i rrigated t errace l ands s uch a s t he C olca V alley s upport s ubstantia lly m ore p eople t han t hey d o t oday. E nvironmenta l c onditions w ould n ot s eem t o p reclude t his g iven w hat w e k now, b ut m ore r esearch i s n eeded o n e nvironmenta l c hange. M ore i mportant f actors d o s eem t o b e q uality o f r esource m anagement , l and t enure, a nd a lternat ive l ivelihoods. W e w ould s uggest t his a s a n h ypothesis f or f uture r esearch. W hat w as d one i n p rehistoric t imes s hou ld b e a ble t o b e d one t oday, a nd w ithout r esorting t o e nergy a nd c apita l e xpensive m odern t echnology .

A cknow ledgements. P rimary f unding f or f ie ld r esearch f or t he p eriod 1 984-1986 c ame f rom t he N at ional S c ience F oundat ion, G rant N o. B NS-840-6957, w ith s econdary f unding f rom t he N ational G eographic S ociety, G rant N o. 3 100-85, W illiam M . D enevan, P rinc ipal I nvest igator. I w ish t o t hank t he m any p rofessionals a nd s tudents w ho p articipated i n t he P roject a nd c ontr ibuted t o i ts s uccess, p articular ly M iguel B a ldärrago, M aria B enavides, H ildegardo C ordova, C arol G oland, M ichae l M alpass, D eborah M art in, C harles M ahaffey, M dximo N eira, J on S andor, D an S hea, J ohn T reacy, P ablo d e l a V era C ruz, R ichard W augh, a nd E llen W ebber. U ndergraduate s tudents p art icipated f rom B e lo it C o llege, U niversidad N aciona l M ayor d e S an M arcos ( Lima), a nd U niversidad N aciona l d e S an A gustin ( Arequ ipa). L ab a nalyses w ere p rovided b y P atricia S anford ( pollen), J ane W heeler ( fauna), R ay S teventon ( C-14), M ince S tu iver ( C-14), a nd D ata A na lytic, I nc. ( C-14). C artography i s b y t he U niversity o f W isconsin C artography L ab, O nno B rouwer, D irector. I nst itutional s upport a nd c o llaborat ion w as p rovided b y t he I nst ituto N acional d e C u ltura i n L ima a nd A requ ipa, t he P ontificia U niversidad C atö lica d el P erü i n L ima, a nd t he U niversidad N acional S an A gustin i n A requ ipa. O thers w ho p rovided a dv ice, a ssistance, a nd e ncouragement i nclude M auricio d e R omai r a, S ister A ntonia K ayser, D avid G u illet , a nd F ranklin P ease. F inally, R obert S hippee, w ho b rought t he C olca V alley t o t he a ttention o f t he w or ld i n t he e arly 1 930's, r emains a n i nsp irat ion t o a ll o f u s. H e i s a live a nd w e ll i n K imber ling C ity, M issouri a nd i s f ollowing o ur p rogress w ith g reat i nterest .

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3 8

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4 1

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4 2

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Z v ietcovich M ., G uillermo 1 986. T errazas a gricolas y a gricu ltura t radiciona l e n e l v alle d e l C olca-Coporaque. I n A ndenes y c amellones e n e l P eru a ndino: H istoria p resente y f uturo, e dited b y C ii los c g-T i T orre a nd l q anuel B urga, p p . 1 71-179. C onsejo N ac iona l d e C iencia y T ecnologia, L ima.

4 3

C HAPTER 2 P REHISTORIC A GRICULTURAL T ERRACING A T C HIJRA I N T HE C OLCA V ALLEY, P ERU: P RELIMINARY R EPORT I

M ichae l A . M a lpass

A BSTRACT P reliminary a rchaeo logical w ork w as c onducted b y t he R io C o lca A bandoned T errace P roject i n t he v icinity o f t he t own o f C oporaque. E xcavat ions w ere c arried o ut i n b oth a bandoned a nd p resent ly u t ilized t erraces, i n o rder t o i dent ify f orma l a nd a rt ifactual v ar iat ion p resent i n e ach. T he f ie ld w ork p rovided a s equence o f a t l east t hree c onstruct ion p hases f or t he t erraces. A s eries o f r adiocarbon d ates s uggest t hat t he e arliest p hase o f c onstruct ion b egan d uring t he M idd le H orizon, w hile t he l atest p hase w as d ue t o t he I nca c onquest o f t he v alley. T he n ature o f t he L ate I ntermediate P er iod o ccupat ion o f t he v a lley r emains u nc lear, e specia lly i n r e lat ion t o t he e arlier a nd l ater o ccupat ions. T wo m ajor s er ies o f c eramics h ave b een t entat ive ly i dent ified. T he f irst i s a n I nca o r I nca-influenced s eries e xcavated f rom t he p resent ly u t ilized t erraces a nd t he u pper l evels o f t he a bandoned o nes. T he s econd s er ies, p revious ly u nknown i n P eru, a ppears t o b e r e lated t o M idd le H orizon W an i c eramics f rom t he A yacucho r egion o f t he c entra l h igh lands. C eramics o f t he s econd s eries w ere f ound i n t he l ower l evels o f t he a bandoned t erraces o n ly , a ssoc iated w ith t he M iddle H orizon r ad iocarbon d ates. T he t ransit iona l m iddle l eve ls o f t he a bandoned t erraces a ppear t o i ndicate a n i n s itu d eve lopment o f t he l ater c eramics f rom t he e arlier o nes. H owever, i nfluences f rom t he A lt ip lano a re s een a s p ossible f actors i n t his t ransit ion. P resent i nformat ion s uggests t hat c onstruct ion a nd e xpansion o f t he t errace s ystems c ont inued t hroughout t he p re-Hispanic e ra. W hile t he a bandoned t erraces w ere c onstructed p rior t o t he I nca c onquest o f t he v alley, t hey c ont inued t o b e u sed b y t he I nca, w ho a lso b u ilt m uch o f t he p resent ly u t ilized t erraces. A gricu ltural r etract ion a nd t errace a bandonment a pparent ly o nly b egan i n t he C o lonia l P eriod. S uggested r easons f or t he a gricu ltural r etraction a re p opu lat ion r educt ion a nd S panish c o lonia l p olicies.

I NTRODUCTION T his r eport u pdates t he f irst a rchaeological p re liminary r eport ( Malpass 1 986) o f t he C olca V a lley T errace P roject , w hich i s s tudy ing t he c u ltura l e cology o f t erracing a nd t errace a bandonment i n t he C olca V a lley o f s outhern P eru. T his r eport i s m ore i nterpret ive a nd c omplete, a s i t i nc ludes a d iscussion o f t he f irst r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he e xcavat ions a nd a lso m ore i nformat ion c oncerning t he c eramics.

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T erraces a re w idely d istributed t hroughout t he A ndes, a nd t hey p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he a griculture o f m any h ighland v alleys w here l evel g round i s a t a p remium. I n t his c ontext, i t i s w orth n ot ing t hat m ore t erraces a re a bandoned t han a re p resent ly i n u se; e st imates a re t hat o ver 5 0% o f a ll t erraces i n t he P eruvian A ndes a re n ow a bandoned ( Denevan, t his v ol.). T h is s uggests t hat t here h ave b een f airly s ubstant ial d emographic a nd/or e cological c hanges w hich h ave i nfluenced t errace u se i n t he p ast . T he i dent ificat ion o f t he f actors r esponsible f or t hese c hanges i s t he p rinc iple g oa l o f t he C olca V alley T errace P roject . T he p roject i s a c ollaborat ive e ffort i nvolving A merican a nd P eruvian g eographers, a rchaeologists, a n e thnohistorian, a nd a s oil s cientist . T he p rincipal i nvest igator o f t he p roject i s W illiam M . D enevan o f t he D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin-Madison.

B ACKGROUND T he C olca V alley i s l ocated n orthwest o f t he c ity o f A requipa i n t he d istrict o f C aylloma, D epartment o f A requipa. T he m ain s ector o f d ense t erracing i s t he 5 0 k m l ong m iddle p ortion b etween t he v illages o f C hivay, 3 633 m a bove s ea l evel, a nd C abanaconde, a t 3 287 m ( Denevan, t his v ol.). J ust a bove C abanaconde t he C olca R iver p lunges i nto a d eep c anyon a nd l ater b ecomes t he M ajes a nd t hen t he C amara b efore i t e mpt ies i nto t he P acific O cean. U pon e ntering t he c entra l p ortion o f t he C olca V alley, o ne i s i mmediately s truck b y t he q uant ity o f t erraces. U pon f urther o bservat ion, i t c an b e s een t hat a c onsiderable n umber o f t he t erraces a re n ow a bandoned. T he p rocess o f a bandonment a ppears t o h ave s tarted a t t he u ppermost t erraces a nd p roceeded d ownward. T he h ighest t erraces i n a ny g iven a rea a re n ow a bandoned, w hile t hose f arther d own o n t he s lopes a nd o n t he r iver t errace a re s t ill i n u se. O ne c an a lso c learly d ist inguish a bandoned i rrigat ion c anals t hat f ormerly f ed t he u pper t erraces. T he c ommon r esponse b y l oca l f armers t o t he q uest ion o f w hy t he u pper t erraces a re n ot u sed t oday i s a l ack o f w ater.

E THNOHISTORY P rior t o t he S panish C onquest t his r egion w as o ccupied b y t he C ollaguas, a g roup t hat w as e thnically d ist inct f rom t he s urrounding p eople. T he C ollagua w ere d ivided i nto t wo g roups, t he C avanas a nd t he C ollaguas ( U lloa M ogollön 1 965). T he e xact n ature o f t he d ist inction i s u ncertain ( Pease 1 977:140). T he C avanas, o r C abanas, w ho o ccupied t he m ore t emperate z one a round C abanaconde, s poke Q uechua, a lthough v ery c rudely. B y t radit ion t hey c ame f rom H ualca H ualca, a l ocal v olcano, a nd b ound t heir h eads t o p roduce a l ow, w ide s kull ( U lloa M ogollön 1 965:327). T he C ollagua, w ho o ccupied t he c entral a nd u pper s ect ion o f t he C olca B asin, s poke A ymara, c ame f rom C ollaguata, a d ifferent v olcano, a nd d eformed t heir h eads i n a d ifferent w ay. E ach h ad d istinctive h eaddresses a s w e ll. B oth g roups a re s aid t o h ave d escended f rom t heir r espective p laces o f o rigin a nd c onquered a nd d isplaced t he l ocal i nhabitants o f t he a rea. I n a ddit ion t o t he C abanas a nd C ollaguas, t here m ay h ave b een o ther e thnic g roups i n t he r egion. U lloa M ogollön ( 1965:328-329) i n

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1 586 m ent ioned t hat t he t owns l ocated a t t he b oundary b etween t he C abanas a nd C o llaguas s poke d ifferent a nd s eparate l anguages, " very b arbarous" a nd m utually u ninte lligible, a lthough r e lated. H e a lso m ent ioned t owns i n t he r egion a round C abanaconde w hich s poke d ifferent l anguages. W hether t hese o ther l anguages r epresented c ultural r emnants o f t he o riginal o ccupants o f t he v alley o r w ere l oca l d ialects o f A ymara a nd Q uechua i s a n i nterest ing q uest ion, b ut o ne t hat i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper. T he C ollagua w ere f urther s ubdivided i nto t wo g roups, t he Y anque-Co llagua, w ho r esided o n t he s outh s ide o f t he r iver i n t he r egion a round Y anque, a nd t he L are-Collagua, w ho r esided o n t he n orth s ide, a round t he t own o f L are ( now L an ). O ra l t radit ion h as i t t hat b oth t owns w ere f ounded b y t he o rigina l m igrants f rom C ollaguata, L ani b eing f ounded b y t he b rothers a nd n ephews o f t he f ounders o f Y anque ( Ulloa M ogollön 1 965). N ot o nly w ere Y anque, L an i a nd C abanaconde i mportant t owns o f t he C ollaguas P rovince, t hey a lso c ontro lled a ccess t o r esources i n o ther a reas, b oth t o t he w est a nd e ast ( Ma laga 1 977:111). C ollagua m it imaes a re m ent ioned a s h aving e xisted i n t he M ajes, C amanä, V itor, a nd S ihuas v a lleys, a s w e ll a s i n A requ ipa ( Ma laga 1 977:112). C ollaguas g roups h ad a ccess t o l omas a nd c oasta l r esources, r ights w hich s urvived e ven i nto t he p resent : t he h erding t own o f S ibayo i n t he u pper C olca V a lley s t ill h as a ccess t o a c oasta l r egion a round P unta C o loca ( Cuadros 1 977:48). Y anque a lso h ad j urisdict ion o ver p asture l ands i n t he C o llao o f t he A lt iplano a nd m aintained t rading r e lat ions w ith o ther p una c ommunit ies ( Mä laga 1 977:119). A s P ease ( 1977:144) n otes, g roups i n t he C olca V alley h ad a ccess n ot o nly t o d ifferent e cological z ones w ithin i n t he v a lley, a s f its t he v ert icality m odel o f M urra ( 1972), b ut a lso t o t hose i n o ther a reas. F or o ur p urposes, i t i s w orth n ot ing h is c omment t hat a ll t he e vidence p oints t o s trong l inks b etween t he C ollaguas r egion a nd t he A lt iplano o f T it icaca ( Pease 1 977:157). I t i s n ot c lear f rom e thnohistorical o r a rchaeo logical s ources w hen t he I ncas c onquered t he C olca V a lley o r w hat c hanges t hey w rought i n t he e x ist ing s oc ia l s tructure. S ome w riters s tate t hat M ayta I nca m arried t he d aughter o f aC oporaque c uraca 9 nd c onstructed a h ouse o f c opper i n w hich t o r eside w hen v isit ing ( Ma laga 1 977:100). H owever, P ease ( 1977:141) n otes t hat t hese s ources a re d ubious a nd h e s uggests t hat t he M ayta I nca m ent ioned w as p robably t he c hief o f t he M ayta I nca p anaka ( an I nca r oya l l ineage) i n t he C olca r egion a nd h ence w as m istaken t hrough t ime a s t he M ayta I nca. I t i s m ore l ike ly t hat t he C olca r egion w as i n corpordTgU i nto t he I nca e mp ire d uring t he c onquest o f C ont isuyu b y T opa I nca Y upanqu i a fter 1 476. E vidence f or a s trong I nca p resence i n t he c entra l C o lca V a lley i s l acking, i nsofar a s n o a dm inistrat ive c enter h as b een p osit ive ly i dent ified, a nd e ven t he c eramics c haracterist ic o f t he C uzqu ao I nca a re r e lat ively r are. O n e cologica l g rounds, P ease ( 1977:159) s uggests t hat t he I ncas m ay h ave c oncentrated t heir e fforts i n t he v icinity o f C abanaconde, s ince i t w as m ore c onducive t o g row ing m aize. H owever, t he I nca p resence m ay h ave t aken a d ifferent f orm t han i s t ypical f or o ther a reas, t hus a ccount ing f or i ts p erceived a bsence.

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A fter t he S panish C onquest , t he C olla pas r egion w as g iven a s e ncomiendas t o s everal c onquistadores ( Ma laga 1 977:96). I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat G onzalo P izarro w as g iven t he r egion a round Y anque, d ue t o i ts k nown a gricultura l a nd l ivestock r iches. B etween 1 571 a nd 1 574, t he r educciön p olicy o f T oledo w as e nacted, w hich f orced t he i ndigenous p eoples t o l ive i n S panish-style t owns. T his p olicy w as s trongly r esisted b y t he i nhabitants, w ho p reviously h ad l ived i n s mall d ispersed s ett lements n ear t heir f ie lds ( Ulloa M ogollön 1 965:328). T he c entral p art o f t he C olca V alley r emained t he m ost i mportant p art o f t he C ollagua P rovince u nt il 1 616, w hen r ich m inera l d eposits w ere d iscovered i n C aylloma ( Malaga 1 977:110). T he v alley w itnessed a r ather s ubstant ial p opulat ion d ecline d uring t he e arly S panish p eriod w hich, t ogether w ith t he S panish r educc iön p olicy, d estroyed m uch o f t he i ndigenous s ocia l s tructure. T he C olca r egion t hen s lipped i nto a nonymity b efore b eing " rediscovered" i n t he e arly d ecades o f t his c entury ( Shippee 1 932, 1 934). I n s ummary, t he C ollaguas r egion w as t he r ichest a nd m ost d ensely p opulated c orregimiento u nder A requipa's j urisdict ion i n t he s ixteenth c entury ( Malaga 1 977:98). T he C ollagua n ot o nly c ontrolled t he r ich a gricultural c ore o f t he C olca V alley, b ut a lso h ad e conomic t ies b oth t o c oasta l a nd A ltiplano g roups. I n a dd it ion, t he v alley w as ( and s t ill i s) o n a m ajor lama c aravan r oute b etween C uzco a nd Y auli i n t he h igh lands a nd t he s outhern P eruvian c oasta l v alleys. T he f act t hat t he C ollagua s poke A ymara s uggests t hat t hey c ame f rom t he A lt iplano, a s uggest ion s upported b y t he s trong t ies t o t hat r egion t hat a re s t ill i n e ffect t oday. T he C ollagua a pparent ly w ere s trong e nough t o m aintain t heir e thnic i dent ity e ven a fter t he I nca c onquest o f t he v alley.

A RCHAEOLOGY A lmost n o a rchaeological w ork h as b een d one i n t he C olca V a lley, a nd t he t wo s tudies u ndertaken w ere b oth p re liminary s urveys ( Linares 1 981; N eira 1 961). N eira i dent ified m ost o f t he l arge v illage s ites i n t he C olca V alley a nd p rovided a t entat ive d escript ion o f t he m ajor c eramic t ypes p resent . T he C huqu ibamba s eries, o riginally d escribed b y K roeber ( 1944) w as t he m ost c ommon, a nd N eira a ssociated i t w ith t he C ollagua o ccupat ion o f t he v alley. T hese c eramics t ypically c onsist o f b lack p ainted d esigns o n a r ed s lip. L ess f requent ly, w hite p aint i s a lso u sed f or t he d esigns. C haracterist ic d esigns a re w avy l ines, c ross-hatched r homboids, a nd s tylized a nimals. B ow ls w ith r ound b ottoms a nd s traight t o c onvex s ides a re t he m ost c ommon f orms ( Lumbreras 1 974:213; N eira 1 961). C huqu ibamba p ottery a ppears t o b e c losely r e lated t o C hurajön w ares o f t he A requipa r egion, a s w e ll a s t o v arious c eramic t ypes f rom t he A lt iplano. T hey c ertainly w ould f it w ithin t he r ange o f t ypes c haracterist ic o f t he S outhern T ricolor H orizon ( Lumbreras a nd A mat 1 968). O n t his b asis, t he C huquibamba s eries i s c onsidered t o p ertain t o t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod ( 1000-1430 A D). F ew c eramic p eriod o ccupat ions d at ing I ntermediate P eriod h ave b een i dent ified i n t he

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p rior t o t he L ate C olca V alley a s y et ,

a lthough s ome p receramic s ites a re k nown. T h is i s a lmost c ertainly d ue t o t he l ack o f a rchaeological w ork i n t his r egion, r ather t han a n a ctual h iatus i n t he o ccupat iona l h istory o f t he r egion: V era C ruz ( this v ol.) i dent ified a W an i ( 500-1000 A D) s ite a nd p ossibly a n e arlier s ite a s w e ll i n t he v icinity o f C abanaconde. I n a dd it ion, p re lim inary a na lyses o f t he c eramics e xcavated d uring t he f irst f ie ld s eason a nd a ssoc iated r adiocarbon d ates, b oth d iscussed b elow , s uggest e ar lier o ccupat ions a s w e ll. T he e xact n ature o f t he I nca p resence i n t he c entra l C olca V a lley i s p oor ly u nderstood. P art o f t his s tems f rom t he r e lat ive s carc ity o f C uzque r n o p ottery t ypes i n t he v a lley. H owever, i t i s p ossible t hat s ome o f t he C huqu ibamba t ypes p ertain t o t he I nca p er iod ( 1430-1532 A D). L umbreras a nd A mat ( 1968:93) m ent ion t hat t he C huqu ito B lack-on-Red p ottery o f t he P uno z one i s c learly I ncaic, a lthough i t d eve loped f rom e arlier, i ndigenous f orms . M oreover, I nca m ot ifs a nd v esse l f orms a re f ound i n t he c eramics e xcavated i n 1 984. T hus, t he l ack o f I nca c eramics i s p robably d ue t o o ur p resent i nability t o d ist ingu ish e arly i ndigenous w ares f rom I nca-influenced o nes. I t m ay a lso b e p ossible t o d ist ingu ish C o llagua a nd I nca o ccupat ions b y v ariat ions i n a rchitectura l s tyles. N eira ( 1961) d escribes a t ypical C ollagua h ouse a s b eing r ough ly r ectangu lar w ith a g abled r oof a nd c onstructed o f f ie ld s tones. T he i dent ifying c haracter ics o f t he h ouses a re t heir t a ll, v ery n arrow d oors, m easuring 2 .5 m h igh b ut o nly 0 .5 m w ide, a nd t heir c arefu lly w orked c orner s tones, m ost o f w hich h ave b een r emoved t o c onstruct h ouses i n t he m odern v illages ( Neira 1 961:97-98). I n c ontrast , t he f ew I nca s tructures i dent ified h ave t he c haracterist ic t rapezoidal d oors a nd n iches, a nd c arefu lly f itted s tonework o ver t he e nt ire b u ild ing. C ircular c olcas ( for f ood s torage) a re a lso k nown f rom A choma ( Shea, t his v ol.) a nd s ite n ear C oporaque. V ar iat ions n oted i n t he t errace s ystems m ay a lso b e u sefu l i n d iscr iminat ing b etween t he I nca a nd e arlier o ccupat ions ( see b elow ).

F IELDWORK T he s pecific a rchaeologica l o bject ives o f t he p roject w ere t o d etermine, i f p ossible, t he d ates o f c onstruct ion a nd a bandonment o f a s amp le o f t he C olca V a lley t erraces. T oward t his e nd, t est e xcavat ions w ere m ade i n a gricultura l t erraces b y m yse lf a nd P ablo d e l a V era C ruz a nd i n a n a ssoc iated o ccupat ion s ite b y M ax imo N eira ( 1986) d uring t he s ummer o f 1 984. T he a rea s e lected w as t he r idge l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he C olca R iver a nd j ust w est o f t he v illage o f C oporaque. T his r idge d escends s outhward f rom Y urac C cacca, a p rominent p eak a t 3 817 m e levat ion, t o t he C olca R iver ( F ig. 1 ). I t h as s teep f lanks b ut a r e lat ively f lat s umm it . T wo m ain i rrigat ion c ana ls p rovide w ater f rom Q uebrada S ahuara e ast o f t he r idge t o t he e astern f lank a nd s outh s lope. A ll o f t he t erraces c urrent ly i n u se o n t his r idge a re w atered b y t hese t wo c ana ls. I n a dd it ion, t here a re a s ubstant ia l n umber o f a bandoned a gricu ltura l t erraces a bove t hese c ana ls, w hich w ere f ormer ly i rrigated b y a c ana l w hich f lowed d own t he s umm it o f t he r idge ( Ma lpass a nd S tanish 1 986). T he t erraces a bove t he t wo m ain c ana ls, w hich a re a ll a bandoned a nd i n

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I . Y u ra cC cacca r i dge I . C h i la co ta I I . C h i jra • T e r race T r enche s

I d F igure 1 .

Mode rn T own s

C oporaque r esearch a rea, w ith l ocat ions o f t errace e xcavat ions.

5 0

a g ood-to-poor s tate o f p reservat ion, w ill b e r eferred t o i n t he r emainder o f t his p aper a s t he " upper t erraces." T he t erraces b elow t he m ain c ana ls, w hich a re m ost ly s t ill i n u se, w ill b e r eferred t o a s t he " lower t erraces." I nvest igat ions w ere c oncentrated i n a g eographically d ist inct a rea o f a bandoned t erracing a nd h ouses c alled C hijra. T his a rea i ncluded s even h ouses l ocated a mong 3 0 a bandoned t erraces. N eira e xcavated o ne o f t he h ouses l ocated n ear t he p rinc ipal f eeder c ana l w hich b rought w ater f rom t he m ain i rrigat ion c ana l n ear t he s ummit o f t he r idge. F ive t erraces w ere s elected f or t renching ( Fig. 1 ). T hese a re l ocated a t i rregu lar i ntervals f rom t he e dge o f t he r iver ( 3,270 m ) u p t he s outh-facing s lope o f t he r idge t o a n e levat ion o f a bout 3 ,650 m . T he b ottom t wo a re l ocated i n t he l ower t erraces, w hile t he t op t hree a re i n C hijra, o ne ( Trench 1 ) v ery c lose t o t he h ouse w hich N eira e xcavated. A ddit iona l t est e xcavat ions w ere m ade a t C hilacota, a n o ccupat ion s ite w ith a ssoc iated t erraces a t a n e levat ion o f a bout 3 ,750 m j ust b elow Y urac C cacca ( Mart in 1 986). B ecause o f t he b revity o f t he f ield s eason, o nly l imited t est ing w as p ossible. N eira e xcavated a 2 m s quare p it i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he i nterior o f a n a bandoned h ouse, a nd c leared t he o uter f oundation o n t he n orth, e ast , a nd s outh s ides. A ll m aterials w ere s ifted t hrough a 0 .5 i nch m esh s creen. T he f ive t erraces w ere t renched f rom t he b ase o f t he r ear w all t o t he f ront r etaining w a ll, u sing a 1 m w ide t rench. E xcavat ions w ere c ont inued u nt il e ither b edrock o r a s terile s oil h orizon w as e ncountered. A ll s oil w as s ifted t hrough a 0 .25 i nch m esh s creen. E xcavat ion t echniques v aried f rom t errace t o t errace. T errace 1 , l ocated i n C hijra a djacent t o N eira 's e xcavat ions a t 3 ,605 m , w as e xcavated i n a rbitrary, 1 5 c m l evels u nt il a b uried w all f oundat ion f rom a n e arlier t errace w as e ncountered. S ubsequent e xcavat ion c ontinued u t ilizing l evels d efined i n t erms o f t he w all ( Figs. 2 , 3 ). W hile n atural s trata w ere i dentified a fter t he t rench w as e xcavated, t hey w ere n ot a pparent d uring t he e xcavat ion, h ence w ere n ot u t ilized. T renches 2 a nd 5 w ere a lso l ocated i n C hijra, t he f ormer a bove T rench 1 , t he l atter b elow i t . T hese w ere e xcavated u sing a rbitrary 1 0 c m l evels. T renches 3 a nd 4 , l ocated i n t he l ower t erraces a t C ayra a nd C haaco, h ad a 0 .5 m w ide t est t rench o pened f irst , u sing 1 5 c m a rbitrary l evels, t o e xpose t he s oil p rofile. A s econd 0 .5 m w ide t rench w as t hen e xcavated, u sing t he e xist ing p rofile a s a g u ide t o t he n atural s trat igraphy. T he t est e xcavat ions i n C hilacota w ere c onducted b y D eborah M artin, a g raduate a ssistant t o M alpass. S he e xcavated s even t est p its o f s izes 1 x 1 o r 1x2m i n b oth t he t erraces a nd s uspected h abitat ion a reas ( Martin 1 984, 1 986). S he u sed a rbitrary l eve ls o f e ither 1 0 o r 1 5 c m. A ll m aterials w ere s ifted t hrough a 0 .25 i nch m esh s creen. S oils f rom t he p rofiles w ere a nalyzed a t I owa S tate U niversity

5 1

c ollected b y J on S andor a nd w ere ( Sandor, t his v ol.). R adiocarbon

D a t

m L ine _ __ . ----- -------

A B 1M

F eature 1

-

" , ,

/

,

,

C ( Feature 2 )

O r ig ina l s o i l s urface

F eature 3

21 4 4

° Rock

D

4 62 cm t o r ear wall

F igure 2 .

9

T rench 1 , t errace w est w all p rofile. A . B . C . D . E . F . G .

1 90CM

S trata d escript ions:

1 0YR 5 /2 g rayish b rown, l oose l oamy s oil, w ith m any r oots, f ew a rt ifacts; 2 .5YR 5 /2 g rayish b rown, c ompact l oamy s oil, w ith m any a rt ifacts, s ome r oots, r ocks; 2 .5YR 5 /2 g rayish b rown, l oose l oam, w ith m any l arge r ocks, a rtifacts; 1 0YR 4 /3 b rown f riable, l oamy s o il, f ew r ocks, m any a rt ifacts; ( no M unsell c olor ) l ight b rown s o il. A rt ifactual c ontent u nknown; ( no M unsell c olor) l ight b rown s oil. P robable s oil d eposits i n e arlier i rrigat ion c ana l ( Feature 3 ); 7 .5YR 5 /2 b rown l oamy s oil. A rt ifactual c ontent u nknown; F eature 1 . 6 .5YR 5 /2 b rown s i lty s oil. A rt ifactual c ontent u nknown.

5 2

— —

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0-

i

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1 I i 1 I 1 1

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t I

1 I 1

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t

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I I I 1 I II I I 1 1 I 1 i % 1 I\ 1 I ! 3 = :

1

1

I I t 1 1

x _Y

t errace w est w a ll

1

E xcavat ion

1 1 1 1 i I 1 ! I I 1 I I 1 1 1 , t i 1 i 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 i I I" c ; 1_ _I .

,

S . • r — • U-

5 3

d ates w ere o btained f rom t he U niversity o f W isconsin-Mad ison, t he U niversity o f W ashington, a nd B eta A na lyt ic I nc. P ollen s amp les w ere a na lyzed a t t he U niversity o f W isconsin-Madison b y P atricia S anford ( 1986) a nd a nimal b one a t t he U niversity o f C o lorado-Bou lder b y J ane W hee ler ( 1986).

R ESULTS A ND I NTERPRETATIONS T he d iscovery o f a b uried w all f oundat ion i n T rench 1 p rovided i mportant i nformat ion c oncerning t he o ccupat iona l h istory o f t he a rea. T he p rofile o f t his t rench i s g iven i n F igure 2 . T his t errace h as f ront a nd b ack s ingle-faced w a lls o f u ncut s tone. T he f ront w a ll i s 1 .67 m a bove t he l evel o f t he t errace b e low i t ; i t e xtends a t l east 0 .72 m b elow t he s uface. T he t errace i s 4 .6 m w ide a t t he t rench a nd i s 1 0.5 m l ong. T here i s o ne w ater d rop d own t he f ace o f t he b ack w all. T here i s ar uined h ouse w all a t t he e ast e nd o f t he t errace. T hree f eatures m erit s ome d escript ion a nd e xplanat ion. T he f irst i s t he l arge b lock o f b rown s oil l ocated t o t he r ear o f t he t rench a nd d esignated F eature 1 . T his b lock w as b oth a d ifferent c o lor a nd t exture f rom t he s urrounding m atrix, a lthough i ts p resence w as o nly n oted a fter a r are ( and f ortuitous ) r ainfa ll. T his b lock m ay h ave b een s ome s ort o f l ow w all, a s i t w as f ound i n t he c orresponding l ocat ion i n t he o pposite w a ll p rofile. H owever, i rregu larly s haped i nclusions o f s imilar s oil w ere f ound a t t he r ear o f t he t rench ( Strata G ), s uggest ing t hat t his f eature o nly r epresents f ill f or t he t errace b rought i n f rom a d ifferent a rea t han t he r emaining f i ll. R egardless o f i ts f unct ion, t he r ubb le f rom t he e arlier t errace w a ll, t o b e d escribed b elow , i s p iled a gainst i t , s uggest ing a n e arlier d ate f or F eature 1 . F eature 2 i n T rench 1 h as b een i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f a n e ar lier t errace w a ll t hat w as p robably d eliberate ly d estroyed b ut m ay h ave f a llen d own n atura lly . T his e ar lier w all i s r epresented b y S trata C , a l ayer o f s tone r ubble. T he e xist ing t errace w as t hen c onstructed, i ncorporat ing t he s tones f rom t he e arlier w a ll a s f i ll. T he c onstruct iona l s equence h as b een r econstructed a s f ollows. A fter F eature 1 w as c onstructed, t he e ar lier t errace w all w as b uilt a nd s oil w as b rought i n, o r a llowed t o a ccumu late b ehind i t , c reat ing t he r ear p art o f S trata B . S ome s oil w ashed o ver a nd t hrough t he w a ll t o a ccumu late d ownslope, c reat ing S trata D . P resumably, t his t errace w as t hen u sed f or s ome t ime. T his e arlier t errace a pparent ly w as c onstructed a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s t he h ouse l ocated 2 m t o t he e ast , a s i t i s i n l ine w ith t he s ide w a ll o f t he h ouse. T his f act i ndicates t hat t he h ouse, a nd b y e xtension t he o ther h ouses n earby, w ere c onstructed p rior t o t he c onstruct ion o f t he e xist ing t erraces i n C hijra. H ow m uch e arlier a waits c omp lete a na lysis o f t he r adiocarbon s amp les c o llected d uring e xcavat ions ( see b elow ). S omet ime a fter t he e ar ly w all w as c onstructed, t he p resent t errace w a ll w as b u ilt , a nd t he e arlier o ne e ither f e ll d own o r w as d e liberate ly t hrown d own, c reat ing S trata C . I t s eems m ore l ikely

5 4

t hat i ts d estruct ion w as a d eliberate a ct , s ince t he s tones a re l ying a gainst t he l ater ( present ) w all. T he f ill f or t he e arlier t errace t hen w ashed o ver t he r ubble o f t he w all, o r w as t hrown i n, a ccount ing f or t he s teeper s lope o f S trata B . F ina lly, a ddit iona l f i ll w as b rought i n o r w ashed i n t o b ring t he t errace t o t he d esired h eight a nd d egree o f f latness, w hich a ccounts f or S trata A ( see S andor, t his v ol.). I t i s w orth c omment ing h ere o n t he o rigins o f t he t errace f ill. D avid G u illet ( pers. c omm .) n otes t hat m odern t erraces a t n earby L ani a re c onstructed u sing f i ll c ollected f rom t he a rea o f t he t errace, b ecause i t i s l and o wned b y t he t errace o wner. I f i nsuff ic ient s oil i s a vailable, i t m ay b e b rought i n f rom e lsewhere. C ook ( 1916:496) s tated t hat I nca t erraces a long t he U rubamba w ere c onstructed i n t his m anner, w ith f ill b rought f rom a nother a rea. H owever, h e a lso n oted t hat o ccasiona lly a w a ll w as c onstructed a nd a llowed t o f i ll u p w ith s lopewash d uring t he r ainy s eason, a m ethod a lso m ent ioned b y l oca l w orkers i n C oporaque. T hus, i t i s c onceivable t hat t he a rt ifactual c ontents o f t errace f ill a re o f o rigins c omp lete ly e xterna l t o t he t errace i tself. S andor ( this v ol.), h owever, r eports t hat a na lyses o f t he s oils f rom T errace 1 i ndicate l ocal o r igin. F eature 3 f ound d uring t he e xcavat ion o f T rench 1 w as a s tonel ined c ana l, l ocated a long t he b ase o f t he e arlier t errace w a ll ( Fig. 4 ). E xamp les o f c ana ls i n t he s ame l ocat ions r e lat ive t o t errace w a lls c an b e f ound i n C hijra t oday, a lthough t he s light ly a rcuate s hape o f t h is f eature i s u nusual. I t w as c omposed o f f lat s tones p laced u pright i n t he n atura l h i llslope, o ne o f w hich c an b e s een i n p rofile i n F igure 1 . S trata F m ay r epresent d eposits i n t his c ana l. I f i t w as a n i rrigat ion c ana l, i t p resupposes t he p resence o f a t errace c ontemporaneous w ith, b ut d ownslope o f, t he e arlier t errace i n T rench 1 . T he o n ly e vidence f or s uch a t errace i s t he r e lat ive ly f lat s urface o f S trata D , w hich s uggests i t w as i mpounded b ehind a n o bstruct ion l ower d own t he s lope. I t i s p ossible t hat t he s upposed e arlier t errace w as d estroyed d uring t he c onstruct ion o f t he p resent t errace s ystem. F urther e xcavat ions i n t he l ower t errace c ou ld c onfirm o r d eny t h is h ypothesis. T he e vidence f rom T rench 1 d oes s uggest t hat t here w ere a t l east t wo p hases o f c onstruct ion i n t he a bandoned t erraces o f C hijra. T he f irst , r epresented b y t he b uried w a ll f oundat ion, p robably d ates t o t he p eriod o f c onstruction a nd u se o f t he n earby h ouses. S ubsequent ly, t he t erraces w ere r ebuilt , a nd p robably e xpanded, t o t heir p resent c onfigurat ion. W hether t he h ouses w ere s t ill u sed d uring t his s econd p hase i s u nknown. T he d oor s ill a nd f oundat ion o f t he h ouse e xcavated b y N eira a re w ell b elow t he p resent t errace s urface, b ut i t i s c onceivable t hat t his i s d ue t o s oil b uildup s ubsequent t o t he t erraces ' a bandonment . A c onsiderable q uant ity o f c eramics, l ithics, a nd a nimal b one w ere r ecovered f rom t he e xcavat ions n ear C oporaque. U nfortunate ly, l itt le c ou ld b e a na lyzed p rior t o t he e nd o f t he 1 984 f ie ld s eason. H owever, a na lyses c arried o ut i n 1 985 h ave p rovided a t entat ive t ypology f or u se i n i nterpretat ions. I n a dd it ion, r adiocarbon d ates a re n ow a vailable a nd a re d iscussed i n t he f ollow ing s ect ion. R esu lts t o b e p resented, t hen, a re r estricted t o p re liminary i nterpretat ions

5

Unexcavated

balk

1

1 1 1 wa l l ' ) 1 1 1

f ounda t ion ( Feature 2 ) ,

Unexcavated b alk

orock 5 . 0c m

F igure 4 .

P lan v iew o f b uried t errace w all f oundat ion a nd c ana l a t 1 60 c m b elow d atum l ine i n T rench I .

5 6

b ased o n t he c eramics a nd o bservat ions o n t he r elat ive s ystems.

r adiocarbon d ates, a nd t o f urther a ges o f t he t erraces a nd i rrigat ion

T he c eramics c an b e d ivided i nto t wo g enera l g roups, d ecorated a nd u ndecorated w ares. T he m ajority o f t he d ecorated w ares i nc lude p ottery w ith p ainted d esigns, v irtually a ll b eing t he B lack-on-Red o r B lack-and-White-on-Red t ypes. S ome o f t hese a re c lear ly C huqu ibamba t ypes. T hese, f or t he m ost p art , i nclude a nima l o r g eometric d esigns. F orms i nc lude o llas a nd s traight-sided b ow ls ( Fig. 5 ). O ther c eramics a ppear t o b e b oth p re-Chuqu ibamba a nd I ncaic. A d ist inct ive g roup o f d ecorated p ottery h ad n o d esigns, b ut i nc luded a z one o f r ed s lip a pp lied o ver a f inely s moothed o r p olished b eige s urface ( F ig. 7 ). T he r ed s lip w as r estricted t o t he i nterior a nd e xter ior o f t he r im, e xtending d own e ither s ide a v ar iable d istance. T wo d ifferent t ypes w ithin t his g roup a lso i ncluded w hite p aint d ecorat ions s imilar t o t hose o f W an i c eramics ( Fig. 8 ). T he f orms o f t his g roup a re a lso v ery s imilar t o W an i f orms. T hus, a M idd le H orizon ( 500-1000 A D) o ccupat ion o f C hijra a nd C hilacota i s i ndicated. P lates a nd s hallow b ow ls w ith I nca m ot ifsl s uggest a L ate H orizon ( 1470-1532 A D) o ccupat ion a s w e ll ( F ig. 6 ). U ndecorated w ares w ere u sually s craped o n t he e xterior a nd/or i nterior a nd s omet imes w ere s moothed a s w e ll. N o f orms h ave b een i dent if ied y et . T he o nly t rench t hat s howed a ny t rends i n c eramics w as T rench 1 , w here B lack-on-Red p ottery d ecreased w ith i ncreasing d epth, a s t he w ares w ith a r ed s lipped r im i ncreased. U ndecorated c eramics d id n ot a ppear t o c hange f requency f rom t he t op t o t he b ottom. W hether t hese t rends a re a ssoc iated w ith t he t wo b uilding p hases o f t he t errace i s n ot c lear a t t his t ime. T here w ere a lso d ifferences b etween t he c eramics f ound i n t he d ifferent t erraces. T he m ost i mportant o f t hese i s t he a lmost t ota l l ack i n t he l ower t erraces ( Trenches 3 a nd 4 , t he o nes s t ill i n u se) o f t he c eramics w ith r ed s lipped r ims . E xcavat ions i n t hese t erraces r ecovered C olonia l a nd m odern s herds, a s w ell a s f orms t hat h ave b een t entat ive ly i dent if ied a s I nca, o r I nca-influenced. A s urvey o f t he l ower t erraces c onfirmed t he l ack o f t he p ottery t ypes o f p oss ible M iddle H orizon d ate t hat a re a ssoc iated w ith t he u pper t erraces. I n a dd it ion, t he l ower t erraces h ad v ery l itt le a nima l b one o r l ithics, w hile s ome o f t he a bandoned t erraces i ncluded a bundant e xamp les o f b oth. O ver 3 0 s mall, t anged p roject ile p oints a nd h undreds o f a nima l b ones, w ere f ound i n T rench 1 a lone. T he p resence o f b one a nd l ithics i n t he o ther a bandoned t erraces a t C hijra ( Trenches 2 a nd 5 ) s uggests t hat t he a bandoned t erraces w ere f unctiona lly d ist inct f rom t he l ower t erraces. Am ore v aried s et o f a ctivit ies a re t hus i nd icated f or t he u pper t erraces. A lternat ive ly , t he f ill f rom t hese t erraces c ame f rom a n a rea w here s uch a ct ivit ies w ere c arr ied o ut , w hile t he f i ll f rom t he l ower t erraces c ame f rom e lsewhere, b ut t h is i s n ot i ndicated b y t he s oil a na lyses ( Sandor, t his v o l.). T here a re a lso v ariat ions i n f eatures o f t he t erraces i n t he

5 7

t he o rganizat ion a nd c onstruct ion t wo a reas. T he l ower t erraces

F igure 5 .

C eramics o f t he C huqu ibamba s eries. L eft : u t ilitarian o lla. C enter a nd r ight : B lack-on-Red v essels, s how ing t ypical f orms. A ll c eramics f rom N eira 's h ouse e xcavat ions i n C hijra.

F igure 6 .

I nca o r I nca-influenced c eramics f rom t he g eneral C oporaque a rea.

5 8

Figure 7.

Typical ceramics with red-slipped rims, from lower levels of Trench I. Interiors shown.

Figure 8.

Ceramics with red-slipped rims on interior (not shown), and Black-and-White-on-Red decorations on exteriors. All three are from Chilacota (see Martin, 1986). 59

g enera lly h ave s ome s ort o f e nd w all w hich s ets o ff g roups o f t erraces f rom e ach o ther. T hese g roups u sually c onsist o f t iers o f t erraces o f e qual l ength, w hich g ive a v ery o rderly a ppearance. T his s uggests t hat t hey w ere c onceptualized a nd b uilt a s a u nit . T he i rrigat ion c ana ls f or t hese u nits r un h orizonta lly b etween t hem a nd a lso d own b etween t he e nd w alls. W ater i s d iverted f rom t he m ain c ana ls t o t he h ighest t errace i n au nit , t hen d iverted a cross t he t errace b y s cratch c anals, a nd f ina lly a llowed t o f a ll d own t he f ace o f t he t errace t o t he o ne b elow . I n c ontrast , t he a bandoned t erraces d o n ot h ave e nd w alls, a nd a re v ery u nequal i n l ength, g iving t he a ppearance t hat t hey w ere c onstructed i ndividua lly , r ather t han a s au nit . W hile a s ignificant a mount o f a na lytica l w ork r emains t o b e d one, a f ew p reliminary i nterpretat ions a re i n o rder. T he f irst , a nd p erhaps m ost i mportant , i s t hat t he a bandoned t erraces w ere p robably c onstructed a nd u sed p rior t o t he c onstruct ion o f t he p resent ly u t ilized o nes. T his i s s uggested b y t he d ifferences i n t he c eramics i n e ach a nd b y t he f ormal v ariat ion p resent i n b oth s ets o f t erraces a nd t heir i rrigat ion s ystems. B ased o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he B lack-on-Red a nd B lack-and-White-on-Red c eramics a re L ate I ntermediate P eriod i n d ate, t hen t he u pper t erraces a re a s w e ll. W hile a M idd le H orizon o ccupat ion i s s uggested b y t he c eramics, i t i s u ncertain w hether t he t erraces t hemselves a re t hat e ar ly. T he c eramics o n t he l ower t erraces a re L ate H orizon, C o lonial, o r m odern. A n I nca d ate f or t he c onstruct ion o f t he l ower t erraces i s s uggested b y t heir f ormal o rganizat ion, w hich i s h igh ly r eminiscent o f I nca t erracing e lsewhere i n t he A ndes. I n a dd it ion t o t he l inear t erraces, a rc-shaped t erraces a re a lso p resent i n t he l ower u nits, w hich a re v ery s imilar t o t hose i n t he U rubamba v alley. I n c ontrast , t he u pper t erraces a re m uch m ore r andom ly o rganized a nd d o n ot r esemble I nca t erracing i n e ither f orm o r o rganizat ion. I t s hou ld b e c autioned, h owever, t hat m uch a ddit iona l w ork r emains t o b e d one t o t est t hese h ypotheses. W hile i t i s a lmost c ertain t hat t he u pper t erraces w ere c onstructed p rior t o t he I nca o ccupation o f t he C olca V a lley, i t i s p robable t hat t he I ncas c ont inued t o u se t he u pper t erraces e ven a fter t he c onstruct ion o f t he l ower o nes. T his a lternat ive i s s uggested b y t he p resence o f I nca-style c eramics i n t he u pper t erraces a nd a lso a t t he l arge s ite o f S an A ntonio, w hich i s l ocated w ithin t he a bandoned t erraces j ust t o t he e ast o f C hijra.

R ADIOCARBON D ATES T h irteen r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een p rocessed f rom t he e xcavat ions n ear C oporaque w hich a re r e levant t o t he o ccupat ions. A l ist o f t hese d ates a nd t heir p roveniences i s f ound i n T able 1 . T he m ost s ignificant a spect o f t hese d ates i s t heir c orroborat ion o f t he r e lat ive a ges s uggested f or t he t erraces b y t he c eramics. S amp les 8 , 1 3, a nd 1 4, e ach f rom t he l ower l evels o f t he t hree a bandoned t erraces t ested i n C hijra, p rovided d ates o f 5 10, 5 70, a nd 50 A D, r espect ively . S amp les 8 a nd 1 3 w ere a ssoc iated w ith t he r ed r ims lipped c eramics, s upporting t he M idd le H orizon d ate s uggested b y t he c eramics. Ad ate o f 1 340 A D w as o btained f rom t he l ower l evel o f o ne

6 0

T able 1 . S amp le N o.

R adiocarbon D ates f rom t he C oporaque E xcavat ionsa L ab N o.

D ate ( yr B P)

P rovenience

D ate ( yr A D)

1 .

( QL-4011)

T rench 1 , 1 05 c m b elow d atum, b ottom o f l eve l 6

5 80 + 9 0

1 370

2 .

( QL-4012)

T rench 1 , 1 50 c m b elow d atum, w ithin b uried w a ll f oundat ion

9 30 + 1 30

1 020

3 .

( QL-4013)

T rench 1 , 1 43-150 c m b e low d atum , w ithin b uried w all f oundat ion

1 010 + 7 0

9 40

7 .

( QL-4015)

T rench 1 , 1 70 c m b e low d atum , b ase o f b uried c ana l

1 290 + 9 0

6 60

8 .

( WIS-1713)

T rench 1 , 2 40 c m b elow d atum , a t f ront o f t rench

140 + 8 0

5 10

1 0.

( QL-4016)

H ouse, l eve l t hree o f t est p it w ithin s tructure

2 90 + 6 0

1 660

1 3.

( WIS-1712)

H ouse t errace, 5 5 c m b elow t he g round s urface ( hearth)

1 380 + 8 0

5 70

1 4.

( WIS-1714)

T rench 2 , l evel 5

1 400 + 8 0

5 50

1 5.

( WIS-1736)

F rom f i ll i nside w all o f i rrigat ion c anal a t C hilacota a t 3 0 c m d epth

1 650 + 7 0

3 00

-

( WIS-1673)

T rench 1 , 6 3-134 c m b elow s urface ( samp le f rom s oil)

1 510 + 8 0

4 40

-

( WIS-1696)

s ame, s econd t est

1 660 + 8 0

2 90

( Beta-13738)

T rench 4 ( Chacco), 1 12-123 c m b elow s urface ( samp le f rom s oil)

1 610 + 7 0

3 40

( Beta-13739)

T rench 3 ( Cayra), 3 1-36 c m b e low s urface ( samp le f rom s oil)

6 10 + 6 0

1 340

( Beta-13740)

B e low t errace w all a t C hilacota, 1 10-150 c m b elow s urface, 4 3 c m b elow w all ( samp le f rom s oil)

a.

3 520 + 8 0

1 570 B C

D at ing b y t he R adiocarbon L aboratory, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison ( WIS), R ay S teventon, D irector; t he I sotope L aboratory, U niversity o f W ashington, S eatt le ( QL), M inze S tuivier, D irector ; a nd B eta A na lyt ic I nc., C ora l G ables ( Beta), M urry T amers, C o-d irector. 6 1

o f t he p resent ly u t ilized t erraces ( Terrace 3 ), w hich i s a lso a ccord w ith t he L ate I ntermediate o r L ate H orizon d ate i ndicated t he c eramics.

i n b y

T he s eries o f d ates f rom T rench 1 i n C hijra s hould b e t reated w ith s ome c aut ion. W hile f ive o f t he s ix d ates a re i n t he p redicted o rder, i .e., f rom e arly t o l ate a ccording t o r e lat ive d epth ( Fig. 3 ), t his m ay b e m isleading; s oil m ixing m ay h ave o ccurred a s a r esu lt o f t he d estruct ion o f t he e arlier t errace. I n t his r egard, i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat s amp les 2 a nd 3 c ame f rom w ithin t he e ar lier w a ll r ubble, t hus c ould b e e ither e arlier o r l ater t han t hat w all. I t i s s omewhat r eassuring, h owever, t hat b ofF- d ates o ver lap a t t he f irst s igma. I n a ddition, t he e arliest d ate, f rom s amp le 8 , c ame f rom t he b oundary b etween t he t errace f i ll a nd t he n atura l s oil h orizon; t hus i t m ay a ctually p redate t he t errace. T he p oo led c harcoa l s amp le f rom a s oil c olumn l ocated b etween 6 3-134 c m b elow d atum w as a na lyzed t wo s eparate t imes a t t he U niversity o f W isconsin-Madison R adiocarbon L aboratory. T he d ates o btained a re 4 40 a nd 2 90 A D. T he a na lyst ( R . S teventon) h as t he g reatest c onfidence i n t he e arliest d ate ( Denevan, p ers. c omm .). H ow t hese d ates s hould b e i nterpreted i s u ncertain. T he r adiocarbon d ates f rom T rench 1 s hou ld t hus b e t reated a s a ge b rackets w ithin w hich t he t errace w as u t ilized, r ather t han a s s pec ific d ates f or p art icular l eve ls, a t l east u nt il o ther c orroborat ing e vidence o f t heir v alidity f or d at ing s pecif ic o ccupat ions i s e stablished. T hese d ates d o, h owever, s uggest r e lat ively c ont inuous u se o f t he t errace. T he d ate o f 1 660 A D f or t he l owest l evels o f a t estpit l ocated w ithin t he a bandoned h ouse i n C hijra s uggests i t w as c onstructed d uring t he C olonia l P er iod. T his d ate i s c onsidered t o b e i n e rror, a s t he c eramics a ssoc iated w ith t he d ate a re L ate I ntermediate P eriod a nd L ate H orizon ( Neira, p ers. c omm .). P ossibly p ost-conquest l ooters h ad d ug i nto t he f loor o f t he h ouse. I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t hese d ates m ay r e late t o t he t erraces ' f ill, r ather t han t heir c onstruct ion. I f t he f i ll i ncluded m ateria l a nd c arbon f rom e arlier o ccupat ions, t hen t here m ay b e c onsiderable d iscrepancies b etween t he r adiocarbon d ates a nd t he a ctual c onstruct ion d ates. T his i s t he p robable r eason f or t he e ar liest d ates ( 290 a nd 4 40 A D) f rom T rench I . H owever t he d ates f rom t he l owest l evels o f t hree d ifferent t erraces, i ncluding o ne f rom a n u ndisturbed h earth a nd a nother f rom t he i nterface o f s terile s oil a nd f i ll, a ll o ver lap a t t he f irst s igma, s uggest ing a v irtual c ontemporaneity o f a ll t hree. T his l ends c redence t o t he i dea t hat t hey l egit imate ly d ate t he f irst c onstruct ion p hase o f t he t erraces, o r, a t t he v ery l east , t hey g ive a m aximum a ge f or t he t erraces. T he p resence o f c eramics t hat a ppear t o b e r e lated t o W an i p ottery f rom t he d eepest l eve ls o f T rench I , a ssoc iated w ith t he d ate o f 5 10 A D, a lso s uggests t hat t he t erraces m ay b e t hat o ld. N onetheless, i t i s e qually p ossible t hat t he a ctual c onstruct ion o f t he t erraces w as c onsiderably l ater, u t ilizing a s f i ll t he m ateria ls f rom t he e arlier o ccupation o f t he r egion.

6 2

F URTHER Q UESTIONS I t i s u ncertain w hen t he T rench I t errace w as r ebuilt a nd b y w hom. T here a re s evera l p ossibilit ies. I f t he M idd le H orizon d ates a nd c eramics c an b e t aken a s l egit imate i ndicat ions o f t he a ge o f t he f irst c onstruct ion o f t he t erraces, t hen i t i s p ossible t hat t he s econd p hase w as o n ly s light ly l ater, t hat i s, a lso M iddle H orizon i n d ate. A lternat ive ly , t he r ebuilding a nd e xpansion o f t he t erraces m ay h ave b een u ndertaken b y L ate I ntermediate P eriod p eop le. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat b oth t he e arly a nd l ate p hases o f c onstruct ion w ere u ndertaken b y L ate I ntermediate P er iod g roups. F ina lly, i t i s c onceivable t hat t he f irst p hase o f c onstruct ion w as u ndertaken b y L ate I ntermediate P eriod p eople, w ith t he s econd p hase u ndertaken b y t he I nca. A t p resent , i t i s i mpossible t o s ay w hich o f t hese a lternat ives, o r c ombinat ion o f a lternat ives, i s c orrect . A f urther p o int r equ iring c larificat ion i s t he r e lat ionship b etween t he C huqu ibamba a rchaeologica l s eries a nd t he e thnohistor ic C o llagua. N eira ( 1961) i s o f t he c onvict ion t hat t he t wo a re e xact ly e qu ivalent . I f s uch w as t he c ase, t hen t he C huqu ibamba s eries r epresents a n i ntrusive c eram ic t radit ion t hat o riginated i n t he A lt iplano, w here e thnohistoric a ccounts i ndicate t he C ollagua c ame f rom. A n e qually l ikely a lternat ive i s t hat t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i nhabitants o f t he C olca V a lley r esponded t o s trong i nf luences f rom t he A ltiplano b y i ntroducing t he l atter 's m ot ifs a nd c olor s chemes i nto t heir o wn p ottery t radit ions. T he l atter a lternat ive c ould b etter a ccount f or t he g eneral s imilarit ies, b ut s pecif ic d ifferences, t hat e xist b etween L ate I ntermed iate P er iod c eramics f rom t he A lt ip lano, s uch a s C o llau a nd A llita A maya, a nd t hose o f s outhwestern P eru, s uch a s C huqu ibamba, C hurajön, a nd E stuqu ii ia. A f inal u nsolved p roblem i s t he c ause, o r c auses, o f t he a bandonment o f t he u pper t erraces. P resent e vidence s uggests t hat t hey w ere u sed a t l east t hrough I nca t imes. N eira ( pers. c omm.) h as f ound C olonial s herds i n h is e xcavat ions i n C hijra, s uggest ing t hat t he a ssoc iated t erraces m ay h ave b een u sed d uring e ar ly C o lonia l t imes a s w ell. I n v iew o f t his e vidence, i t i s s uggested t hat t he p opulat ion d ecline d uring t he e arly s ixteenth c entury w as a m ajor f actor i n t he a bandonment o f t hese t erraces. I n a dd it ion, t he S panish r educc iön p olicy p robably c ontributed b y i ncreasing t he t ravel t ime b etween t he n ew t own o f C oporaque a nd t he u pper f ie lds. A t p resent , h owever, o ther f actors c annot b e d iscounted.

C ONCLUSIONS F rom t he e vidence r ecovered d uring o ur f irst f ie ld s eason, i t a ppears t hat t he t erraces i n t he C oporaque d istrict o f t he C olca V alley w ere c onstructed i n a t l east t hree p hases. T he e arliest t erraces a ppear t o h ave b een c onstructed o n t he m ountain s lopes, f rom w here c onstruct ion o f t he o thers p roceeded d ownslope. T he e arliest t erraces a re t hose o f C hijra a nd C hilacota. T hese w ere c onstructed i n a s omewhat r andom f ashion, u t ilizing r unoff f rom t he s nowf ie lds a bove t he v a lley, w hich w as c hanne led a round t he s umm it o f Y urac C cacca b y a m ain c anal. S tone-lined f eeder c ana ls t hen b rought t he w ater t o t he t erraces l ocated j ust b elow t he s umm it . T hese m ay h ave b een b u ilt b y

6 3

M iddle H orizon p eople, o r L ate I ntermed iate P eriod g roups i ncluding, b ut n ot n ecessarily r estricted t o, t he e thnohistorically d ocumented C ollagua. T hese t erraces a ppear t o h ave b een e n larged a t l east o nce. S ubsequent t o t he c onstruction o f t hese t erraces, t he t wo i rrigat ion c ana ls c urrent ly i n u se w ere d ug a long t he e ast f ace o f t he s lope b elow Y urac C cacca, a nd a m uch m ore f ormalized s ystem o f t erraces w as c onstructed b elow t hem . T hese w ere u sed b oth d uring I nca t imes a nd u p t o t he p resent . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he u pper t erraces m ay h ave b een u sed u nt il e ar ly C olonia l t imes, b ut n ot s ubsequent ly. P opu lat ion d ecline a nd t he S panish r educc iön p olicy o f t he s ixteenth c entury a re s uggested a s b eing m ajor c ontribut ing f actors t o t he a bandonment o f t he u pper t erraces. H ow r epresentat ive t he r esu lts o f t hese i nvest igat ions a re f or t he r est o f t he C olca V alley r emains t o b e s een. T he g enera l p attern o f a bandoned t erraces a bove p resent ly u t ilized o nes a ppears t o h old f or t he e nt ire v alley. T he d ifferences b etween t he p resent ly u t ilized a nd a bandoned t erraces i n o rganizat ion a nd t he u se o f e nd w alls a re a lso s uggested a s b eing p resent i n t he L an i a rea ( David G u illet , p ers. c omm .), a lthough t his r emains t o b e e mpirically p roven. D anie l S hea 's a rchaeological w ork ( this v ol.) i n t he v icinity o f A choma a nd V era C ruz 's w ork ( this v ol.) i n C abanaconde s hou ld a lso p rovide v a luable i nformat ion a s t o t he g enera lity o f t he c onc lusions g iven h ere. I t i s h oped t hat f urther r esearch w ill a nswer t hese q uest ions.

A cknow ledgements. T he a uthor w ishes t o t hank v arious p eop le f or t heir h elp. N at iona l S c ience F oundat ion G rant N o. B NS-8406957 f unded t he p roject . W illiam D enevan a llowed t he a rchaeologists a f ree h and i n d oing t heir r esearch. M aximo N eira a nd P ablo d e l a V era C ruz c ontributed f reely a nd g raciously o f t heir s tores o f w isdom c oncerning t he a rchaeo logy o f s outhern P eru. I n a dd it ion, m any o f t he i nsights a bout t he f ormal v ariat ion i n t he t errace s ystems c ame t hrough c onstructive c onversat ions w ith D avid G u illet o f t he U niversity o f M issouri-Kansas C ity, f or w hich t he a uthor i s p art icu lar ly g ratefu l. F inally, m y t hanks g o t o S usanne K essemeier, f or h er a ssistance i n t he f ie ld a nd l ab, a nd t o J ohn P ou lton o f t he U niversity o f N orth C arolina C omputer S cience D epartment f or t he u se o f c omputer f acilit ies.

N OTE 1 .

C raig M orris ( pers. c omm .) o f t he A mer ican M useum o f N atural H istory s ays t hat t he lama m ot ifs s een o n s ome o f t hese s herds a re v ery s imilar t o I nca m ot ifs.

R EFERENCES C ITED

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t he

C uadros, J uan J ose

6 4

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G eographic

1 977.

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K roeber, A lfred 1 944. P eruvian A rchaeology i n 1 942. V iking F und P ublicat ions i n A nthropology N o. 4 . W enner-Gren F oundat ion f or A nthropological R esearch, N ew Y ork. L inares M a laga, E loy 1 981. P royecto e special M ajes: e valuaciön d e r ecursos h istöricosa rgue° o gicos d e T os m onumentos d eT-- p royecto y z onas d e i nf luencia. O RDEAREQUIPA, A requ ipa. L umbreras, L uis 1 974. P eoples a nd C u ltures o f A nc ient I nst itution P ress, W ashington, D .C.

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M älaga M edina, A lejandro 1 977. L os C ollaguas e n l a h istoria d e A requipa e n e l s iglo X VI. I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease, p p. 9 3-129. P ontificia a liversidad C atö lica d el P eru, L ima. M alpass, M ichael A . 1 986. L ate P rehistoric T erracing a t C hijra i n t he C olca V alley, P eru: P reliminary R eport I . I n P erspect ives o n A ndean P rehistory a nd P rotohistory, e dited b y D aniel H . S andweiss a nd D . P eter K vietok, p p . 1 9-34. C ornell L atin A merican S tudies P rogram, I thaca. M alpass, M ichael A . a nd C harles S tanish 1 986. A grarian D ynamics i n t he C olca a nd O taro D rainages, C omparison. P aper p resented a t 5 1st S ociety f or A rchaeology M eeting, N ew O rleans. M artin, D eborah 1 984. A rchaeology i n t he C olca M anuscript , D epartment o f W isconsin, M adison. 1 986.

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d e S an

E xcavaciones a rqueolö gicas e n l as r uinas d e C hishra ( Chijra), C oporaque. I n T he C ultural E co logy, A rchaeo logy , a nd H istory o f T erracing a ig— T errace A bandonment i n t he C olca V alley o f S outhern P eru, e dit —e oE F y W illiam M . D enevan, p. 1 67-197. T echnical R eport t o t he N at iona l S c ience F oundat ion a nd N at iona l G eographic S oc iety, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison.

P ease, F ranklin 1 977. C ollaguas: U na e tnia d el s iglo X VI, p roblemas i nic ia les. I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease, p. 1 31-167. P ont ificia J niversidad C atö lica d e l P eru ' , L ima. S anford, P atricia R . 1 986. P o llen A na lysis o f A gricu ltural T errace S oils f rom C oporaque. I n T he C u ltura l E cology, A rchaeology , a nd H istory o f T erriE Tr i g a nd T errace A bandonment i n t he ZE Tca— T aT IT y 7 c f. S outhern P eru, e dited b y W illiam M . D enevan, p. 2 76-290. T echnical R eport t o t he N at iona l S c ience F oundat ion a nd N at iona l G eographic S oc iety, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. S hippee, R obert 1 932. L ost V a lleys o f P eru: R esu lts o f t he S hippee-Johnson P eruvian E xpedit ion. G eographica l R eview 2:562-581. 1 934.

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U lloa M ogollön, J uan d e 1 965 [ 1586]. R e laciön d e l a p rovincia d e l os C o llaguas . I n R e laciones g eogräficas d e I ndias, e dited b y M arcos J ime nez d e l a E spada, v or . 17 77326-333. E d iciones A t las ( B iblioteca d e A utores E spalo les, v ol. 1 83), M adrid. W heeler, J ane C . 1 986. F aunal R emains f rom A rchaeologica l E xcavat ions a t C oporaque. I n T he C ultura l E cology , A rchaeology , a nd H istory o f T erräTi ng a nd T errace A bandonment i n t he -( 5 51ca V a lley O T S outhern P eru, e dited b y W illiam M . D enevan, p. 2 91-3177 T echnical R eport t o t he N at iona l S cience F oundat ion a nd N at ional G eographic S oc iety, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison.

6 6

C HAPTER 3 P RELIMINARY D ISCUSSION O F P REHISTORIC S ETTLEMENT A ND T ERRACING A T A CHOMA, C OLCA V ALLEY, P ERU

D anie l E . S hea

A BSTRACT A choma i s l ocated i n t he c entra l s ect ion o f t he C olca V alley, d istrict o f C ailloma, D epartment o f A requ ipa, P eru. A n a rchaeological s urvey o f t he D istrict o f A choma w as u ndertaken i n 1 984 i n h opes o f d at ing a nd c orre lat ing u sage a nd a bandonment o f t erraced f ie lds. A f ocus o f i nterest w as t he p opulat ion s ize a nd f luctuat ions t herein d uring t he p re-Incaic t hrough R epublican p eriods. T he p icture i s c omp licated b y A choma 's i nvolvement i n p astora lism w hich h ad m arked ly d ifferent e conomic i mp licat ions i n t he I ncaic a nd S panish s ystems. I t i s c lear t hat t he m ain p opulat ion d istribution w as f ormer ly c entered v ertically i n t he Q uechua e nvironmenta l z one, a nd i t i s l ike ly t hat b oth I nca a nd S panish p olicies f orced v ar iat ions a bove a nd b elow t hat z one. I n a ddit ion, T oledan r educc iön ( or " congregac iön"), d islodged t he b u lk o f t he h ur insaya ( lower m oiety ) f rom a n e ffect ive r e lat ion t o t he l and. Ar ough p opu lat ion e st imate s uggests t his w as l arge e nough t o b e s ignificant i n A choma 's r apid d ec line i n s ignificance a nd p opulat ion.

I NTRODUCTION T his r eport d iscusses p re liminary r esu lts o f f ie ldwork c onducted b y a r esearch t eam f rom B e lo it C ollege f rom A ugust t o N ovember, 1 984 i n t he C olca R iver V a lley o f s outhern P eru. T he C olca V a lley T errace P roject s eeks t o p lace a gricu ltura l t errace a bandonment i n a g enera l e cological, g eographical, a nd h istorical c ontext . T he w ork r eported h ere, a n a rchaeo logica l s ubset o f t hat l arger p roject , d ea ls w ith c hronological a nd d emographic q uest ions f or t he c ommunity o f A choma. A choma ( F ig. 1 ) i s n ear t he c enter o f t he 5 0 k m t erraced s ect ion o f t he C o lca d rainage. I t i s l ocated o n t he s outh s ide o f t he v alley r oughly h a lf w ay b etween C hivay a nd t he C olca C anyon a bove C abanaconde ( Fig. 2 ). O ne o f t he c ongregaciones o f V iceroy T oledo o f t he 1 570 's, A choma w as a ppended t o i ts l arger n eighbor Y anque, a nd a s i ts p opulat ion w as d edicated t o " pastora lism," i t w as a pparent ly t he p astora l b arrio o f Y anque ( Ma laga 1 977:101). A choma c ont inues t hat t radit ion - 7 -i— s omewhat m odified f orm, a s i t i s n ow f amous t hroughout t he v a lley f or c heese, a nd i t i s n ot u ncommon t o s ee t he m ilking o f c ows i n A choma f ie lds a t a ll s easons a nd e levat ions.

E NVIRONMENTAL S ETTING T he C olca R iver w inds t hrough m uch o f t he D epartment o f A requ ipa, f low ing g enera lly f rom t he A ndes t o t he P acif ic. I n t he d istrict o f

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A ir p hoto o f v illage o f A choma a nd s urrounding a gricultural t erraces. T here a re a bandoned t erraces o n t he u pper s lopes b ehind t he v illage. F rom R . S hippee a nd G . J ohnson, 1 931 ( American G eographical S ociety C ollect ion).

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C aylloma, h owever, i t d eviates f rom i ts g eneral n ortheast t o s outhwest c ourse t o f low a lmost d irect ly f rom e ast t o w est , a nd t his s ection i s t he f ocus f or t he C olca V alley T errace P roject . T his s ection i s b oth a g eological a nd a gricultural m arvel. T he m ajor s ediments a re T ertiary v olcanics ( Proyecto M ajes 1 980) w hich h ave b een s ubsequent ly r eworked b y t he C o lca's p ast m eanderings i nto a s pectacular c urvilinear a nd p recipitous l andscape. H umans w ho h ave o ccupied t he v alley h ave f ound i t r elat ively f ert ile, e ven r ich i n a c ertain s ense, b ut i ts a gricultural p otential i s r ea lized o nly i f t he r e lat ively s oft s oils a nd s pectacular g eometry o f t he v alley a re d ominated b y a rtificial t erracing. A s a c onsequence, m ost o f t he 5 0 k m s tretch o f i nterest t o u s h ere i s i n s ome w ay m odified w ith a gricultura l t erracing a nd w ater d istribution s ystems. T he t erracing i s a we i nspiring, i n p art b ecause o f i ts s cale ( 500+ m v ert ical) a nd q uant ity, a nd a lso b ecause t he c urvilinear e rosion p attern g enerates a r emarkable v isual a spect . T his p articular s egment o f t he v alley i s s emi-arid, b ut r inged b y s now c apped m ountains w hich p rovide b oth a f ascinat ing b eauty a nd a r e latively s table w ater s upp ly. S now m e lt i s o ccasiona lly t rapped d irect ly i n h igh a reas b y i rrigat ion c hanne ls, b ut i t a lso v ery o ften e nters t he v alley i n t he f orm o f s prings w hich o ccur a t r e latively h igh l evel a long t he v alley w all, a lmost i deally s u ited t o a ct a s s upp ly p oints f or t he u pper e nd o f t he i rrigat ion s ystem. M ost o f t he l ocal s oil i s d ry n ear t he s urface, a nd t he m ost c ommon v egetat ion i s s crub a nd c actus. T he d ryness h owever, a ppears t o b e p art ly a m atter o f g radient a nd s oil t ype, s ince t he s prings s upply w ater c ont inuously a nd i n m oderate ly l arge q uantit ies. W ater m ust b e d irected t o a gricultural l ocat ions o r t he o utflow o f s prings w ould m ere ly b e d issipated d ownhill t o t he C olca a nd l eave t he v alley. H ence t he e xp lanat ion o f t he t erracing i s a c lear c ombinat ion o f p hysical g eography, s oil t ype, a nd a gricultural n ecessity. W hat r emains u nexp lained i s t he s cale a nd s cope o f t he t erracing, a nd t he s cale a nd s cope o f t he a bandonment o f l arge s egments o f t he p revious c onstructed t erraces.

H ISTORY T he h istory a nd l ate p re-history o f t he a rea h ave b een d escribed i n P ease ( 1977b; 1 978) a nd C ook ( 1982) a nd n eeds o n ly a g eneral s ummary h ere. T he d istrict w as o nce k nown a s t he h abitation a rea o f a h ighland g roup c alled t he C ollaguas, d escribed b y P ease ( 1978:141-79) a s a 1 6th c entury " ethnic g roup" ( etnia ) w hich f ormed a l ocal s ubdivision o f t he I nca E mp ire ( Rowe 1 948:184, M ap 3 ). T he a rea h ad s ufficient r eputat ion f or w ea lth t o a ttract t he a ttention o f G onzalo P izarro, w ho w as t he f irst e ncomendero i n 1 540 ( Cook 1 982:3), a lthough t his e ncomienda w as a bolished l ater a s ar esu lt o f P izarro 's r ebellion a gainst t he C rown. T he w ea lth o f t he a rea s eems t o h ave b een a c ombinat ion o f a griculture, p astoralism, a nd m inera l r esources; t here i s s t ill a c opper m ine i n t he V alley a t M adrigal, a nd t here a re f requent l ocal s tories c oncerning c opper o r i ts m anufacture ( see M alaga 1 977:100 f or a s tory o f a b ronze o r c opper p alace b elonging t o a w ife o f t he I nca). T he v alley c ont inued f or a t ime i n t he e arly d ays o f t he c onquest t o e xhibit t he a ppearance o f w ealth, a nd, f or e xamp le, b ecame a n a rea

7 0

o f c ontent ion b etween t he F ranciscans a nd t he s ecular o rders ( Mä laga 1 977:122-23) a nd a n a rea s ubject t o a r emarkable p hase o f c hurch b uilding ( Tord 1 983). A t t he s ame t ime t he z one w as s ubject t o r epeated e pidemics ( Cook 1 982:76; R enique y T relles 1 977:189), a nd v arious m embers o f t he p opu lat ion w ere d rawn o ff t o A requ ipa ( Cook 1 977:13 f f .; M g -l ap 1 977:120) a nd t o o ther l ocat ions ( Md laga 1 977:114, 1 20). T he d eplet ion o f l ocal p opulat ion t hat r esu lted w as s ignificant , p art o f a g eneral d ecline t hat l asted i nto t he 1 8th c entury ( Cook 1 982; R enique a nd T relles 1 977). I t i s d uring t his p eriod t hat h istorical e vidence s hows i nconsistencies. S ome s ources d escribe a ct ivit ies, s uch a s t he a forementioned c hurch b uilding a nd m ining, t hat i mp ly t he e ssent ia l i nfrastructure t hat a ccompanies w ea lth a nd p rosperity. A t t he s ame t ime s ome s ources i mp ly p opulat ion d epletion t hrough e pidemics a nd S panish l abor d emands. O ne p rinc ipal s ource, U lloa M ogollön, d escribed t he z one a s s terile a nd s hort o f w ood ( Ulloa M ogollön 1 586, a s q uoted i n C respo 1 977:61). ( U lloa M ogollön i s o ften h e ld i n d isregard a s a s ource, a s h e w as u nder i nvest igat ion f or d efrauding t he C rown, a nd h is c ontent ions c an b e s een a s s e lf s erving; C respo 1 977:60). A p lausible h ypothesis, o f c ourse, i s t hat b oth t hese v iews a re t o s ome e xtent v alid, a nd t hat t he c entra l s ection o f t he C olca w as w ea lthy i f e xplo ited i ntensively b y t radit iona l m ethods ( and I ncaic s tyle a dministrat ion), b ut u nable t o s upport t he b urden o f S panish t axat ion a nd E uropean s tyle e xploitat ion. J ohn M urra ( 1972) h as p roposed t hat a n e ssent ia l a spect o f A ndean e nvironmenta l e xploitat ion i s v ertical c ontrol o f am aximum n umber o f e cological n iches. T his m odel, s omet imes c alled t he " archipelago m odel", b ecause o f M urra 's d escription o f l ocalized e xplo itat ion o f v ertically s eparated a reas a s " vertical a rchipelagos", s eems t o f it t he C olca V alley w ell ( Pease 1 977; C asaverde 1 977:172 f f .). A lthough h e d oes n ot r efer t o M urra, M g -l ap ( 1977:112-13) d escribes c ertain h istorical d etails o f t he C olca i n t erms t hat f it M urra 's m odel a lmost e xact ly. I n t he c entral C olca, M urra 's m odel c an b e a pp lied i n b oth a " micro" a nd a " macro" v ersion. L ocal v ertically s eparated n iche a daptat ions t rade s ymbiotically w ith o ne a nother, s uch a s t he p una p astoralists a nd t he v alley f armers ( Casaverde 1 977), a nd l arger s c a le l inks a lso e xist b etween t he v a lley a nd m ore r emote r egions o f t he A ndes a nd t he c oast ( Ma laga 1 977). S uch c onnection b etween v arious n iches a nd r egions ( including a pparent ly a l ocal r oute o f t he I nca h ighway s ystem, P ease 1 977:143) m akes a nalysis o f e cologically s ensit ive s ystems o f t erracing a nd i rrigat ion e xtremely c omp lex.

A RCHAEOLOGY

I N A CHOMA

A choma w as p reviously i nvest igated a nd r eported i n t he a rchaeological l iterature b y M aximo N eira ( 1961), w ho i dentified t wo s ites w ithin t he z one g enera lly c onsidered t o b e t he d omain o f A choma. N eira 's s ites, P illoniy a nd A chomaniy, a re i mmediate ly t o t he e ast a nd w est r espectively o f A choma p roper, o n e levated p oints a bove t he m odern t own ( Fig. 3 ). B oth s ites c ontain r esidences, b uria ls, f ortificat ion w alls, a nd c onsiderable d eposition o f c eramic a nd o bsidian d ebris. A t A chomaniy s ome o f t he r esidences a nd s ome o f t he b urials a re c learly i ndicat ive o f s ome s ort o f l ocal e lite.

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3 0

T he s ingle m ost i mportant a spect o f t he A choma r esearch w as t he d iscovery o f f our a ddit iona l s ites ( a f ortress a nd t hree s mall v illages) t hat i mprove t he o verall v iew o f t he r esidence p attern o f A choma. T he f ortress, A uk inikita ( or A uqu inikita) a ccording t o l ocal i nformants, i s a n i sosceles t riangle w ith i ts b ase f ac ing t he p una b eneath t he s lopes o f M t . H ualca H ualca. L ocated o n t he r idge i nV e : N e ira 's s ite o f A chomaniy, i t c lear ly i dent ifies t he d irection f rom w hich a ttack w as m ost l ikely. T he t hree v illages o f E scalera, P otosina, a nd M a lata a re a ll l ocated w est o f A chomaniy i n t he w estern s ect ion o f t he d istrict o f m odern A choma. T he w esternmost v illage, P otosina, c omes c lose t o t he f ront ier b etween A choma a nd i ts n eighbor o n t he w est , M aca. W hile l ong s ince d estroyed, o vergrown b y c actus, a nd m odified b y r ecent f enc ing a nd c orra l b uilding a ctivit ies, t he s ites r epresent a s ignificant p opu lat ion s egment o f I ncaic A choma. T hey a ppear t o h ave h ad t heir w a lls t opp led r ather t han t o h ave b een a bandoned l ike A chomaniy, d espite t he f act t hat E sca lera a nd M a lata h ave a f ew s tructures o f f ine ly c ut s tone t hat s hould p robably b e i dent ified a s e lite r esidences.

T ERRACE E XCAVATIONS S even t erraces, s ome i n u se a nd s ome a bandoned, w ere e xcavated f rom c a. 3 ,300 t o 3 ,800 m e levat ion a t A chomaniy. M ost d id n ot h ave c learly d efined i nterna l s tructura l d eve lopment . T he g reatest s trat igraphic d etail a nd c eramic m ateria l w as o btained f rom t he l owest t errace ( Terrace 1 ), s hown i n F igure 4 . I t i s c urrent ly c ropped w ith a lfalfa, a nd b eing i mmediate ly b elow a r eservoir i t i s w e ll w atered. T he t errace i s 3 .9 m w ide a t t he p oint a t w hich i t w as t ransected b y o ur t rench, a lthough i t v aries i n w idth u p t o a t l east t hree t imes t hat . T he t errace i s a bout 8 0 m l ong ( measured b y p acing). T he f ront w a ll ( p irka) i s 0 .7 i n t hick a nd 1 .6 i n d eep, w ith a s ingle f acing. T he u pper 0 .65 m o f t he w a ll i s o f d ifferent c onstruction f rom t he p ort ion b elow, a s i s t he s oil m ateria l i n t he f ill, i ndicat ing a b uried t errace a nd t hus ( at l east ) a t wo s tage h istory. S oil a na lysis i s n ot a vailable. S mall f ragments o f c eramics w ere f ound i n a ll l evels, a s i ndicated i n T able 1 . I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat T erraces 5 a nd 6 n ear t he t op o f t he t ransect , a n a rea k nown a s R osat ira, a re a bandoned. O ur w orkers r eported t hat t he R osat ira t erraces w ent o ut o f c ropp ing a bout 2 0 y ears a go s ubsequent t o t he d rying o f t he s pring a bove w hich w as t he c irque 's s ource o f w ater. T he t erraces a re n ow u sed a s p asture f or lamas a nd a lpacas, a nd s ome o f t he t erraces s how s igns o f h aving b een m od ified a s c orra ls. A t R osat ira t here i s a mbigu ity i n t he t erm " abandoned", a nd o ne c an t hink o f a v ery f lexible l and u sage i n w hich t erraces o pportunist ically s lip i n a nd o ut o f p asturage a nd c ult ivat ion a s t he s pring w ater v aries i n a g iven y ear o r p eriod o f y ears. T he R osat ira t erraces y ielded o ne s herd b etween t hem, a r edd ish r imsherd w ith a s l ight r ed s lip a nd a " Black-on-Red" d ecorat ion. T he v isible d ecorat ion w as a c ursive b lack l ine j oining a r ectangu lar o ne, a f ragment o f o ne o f t he m ore c ommon B lack-on-Red m ot ifs. T his i s n ot a d iagnost ic c eramic d esign i n t his a rea. T he g enera l l ack o f c eramics i n t he h igh t erraces m ay v ery w e ll b e d ue t o n othing m ore

7 3

a gr icu ltura l

z one ./ -- __ -- ----

o lder

--------

t errace

› s ca le l . . .

F igure 4 .

..I

T errace 1 . I nterior s trat igraphy a s s hown b y t renching. T he v ert ical s cale i s e qual t o t he h orizontal s cale.

7 4

N lalata

T es t p i t

I m x 2m a t s urface

) Wes t w a ll It\\1 _ NM .

S‹ I

o

F igure 5 .

A A

Nor th

I A

. 5

I

I m

w a ll

>E s o il

t ypes ; Willia m

G ar tne r

T est p it f or c hronological s equence a t M a lata. S ee T able 3 . T he v ert ical s cale i s t he s ame a s t he h orizonta l s ca le.

7 5

t han a l ack o f d own.

t erraces a nd

h ouses

a bove f rom w hich

s herds c ould w ash

P RELIMINARY C ERAMIC A NALYSIS A nalysis o f t he c eramics f or t he A choma p ilot s tudy i s n ot y et c omplete ( Tables 1 , 2 , 3 ). T he c eramics o f t he a rea a s c urrent ly d escribed a re n ot d iagnost ic, o r a t l east t he d iagnost ic e lements a re n ot w ell k nown. T he m ajor p art o f t he c eramics a re " Black-on-Red," o r b lack l ine d esigns o n r ed s lip ( Linares 1 983; L umbreras 1 969; N eira 1 960; 1 961; R avines 1 982; V era C ruz, p ers. c omm.). W e l ocated o nly s herds ( no w hole p ots) i n a v ariety o f p otent ially i nformat ive s ituations. S ome s herds w ere e ncountered w ithin t erraces, s ome i n g olgas, m any i n at est p it a t M a lata ( Fig. 5 ) s pecifically i ntended f or c hronological s tudy, a nd q u ite a l arge n umber o n t he s urface. R ed s lipped b odysherds a re c ommon, a nd p resumably a re d erived f rom C ollaguas t ype " Black-on-Red" c eramics. B rown c olored s herds a nd " blackware" a re a lso q u ite c ommon. M ost o f w hat i s l abelled h ere b lackware i s i n f act e ither " f ire b lackened" o r a f iring v ariat ion o f " brown;" i n e ither c ase, t he b ulk a re u tilitarian c eramics. " Dark r ed" i s a p art icularly f ine s lip w ith a d eeply h ued r ed c olor t hat o ccurs i nfrequent ly. I t m ight b e e ither h igh g rade C ollaguas B lack-on-Red o r a f ine r edware o f p robably I nca d erivat ion. I n T able 2 , n ote i n p articular t he s trong r epresentat ions o f " orange" a nd " blackware." R ed i s t o b e e xpected g iven t he t endency o f C ollaguas w ares t o b e B lack-on-Red a nd g iven t hat t he g ood q uant ity o f " brown" p robably i s o rdinary h ousehold p ots o f d ay-to-day u t ilitarian t ype. O range a nd b lackware m ay i ndicate s pecial e thnic g roups, b ut " black" m ay b e f iring e rror. W hat i s s light ly p uzz ling i s t he g reat p redominance o f " orange" a s ac olor p hase. S ome o f t his m ay b e e ither w ell f ired " brown," o r u nslipped " red," b ut t hat i s i nsuff icient t o a ccount f or i ts n umerical a scendancy i n t he d ata. S everal p lausible h ypotheses a re s uggested: 1 ) " orange" m ay s imply b e c ommon i n t he C olca V alley b ut h itherto u nreported b ecause c onsidered " undiagnostic;" 2 ) " orange" m ay r eflect i nf luences f rom f urther d own t he v alley t oward t he c oast , A choma m ere ly b eing t he f urthest m anifestat ion; 3 ) " orange" c ould b e a t race o f I nca i nfluence; 4 ) " orange" c ould b e i ntrusive, p erhaps f rom a g roup m oved i nto t he v alley b y t he I ncas; 5 ) " orange" m ight b e t races o f e arly S panish i nfluence, f rom t he p eriod 1 535-1570 p receeding T oledo 's c ensus a nd c ongregaciön o f 1 571-1572. T he M alata t est t rench ( Fig. 5 ) r eveals h owever, t hat " orange" m aintains i ts s tat ist ical p redominance w ell d own t o t he s ixth l evel ( Table 3 ). T his i ndicates s ome a ntiqu ity, b ut p robably n ot e nough t o b e c haracterist ic l ocal w are. Is uggest t hat " orange" i n t his c ontext i s p robably i ndicat ive o f t ermina l p re-Columbian o ccupation a nd i s e ither I nca o r a n I nca i nf luenced g roup. F urther s upport f or t his h ypothesis c omes f rom t he f act t hat t he f ew c learly a nd u nmistakeably I nca s herds c ame f rom t his s ame t est t rench. A lthough n egat ive e vidence i s f requent ly o f v ery l itt le v alue i n a rchaeological r esearch, i t i s s ignificant I t hink i n t his c ase t hat

7 6

T able 1 .

C eramics i n T errace 1 . s trata. S ee F igure 4 .

D epth L evel 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

R ed

0 -10 c m 1 0-20 2 0-30 3 0-40 4 0-50 5 0-60 6 0-70 7 0-80 8 0-90 9 0-100 1 00-110 1 10-120

T able 2 .

T an

1 9 6 2 4

2 2 2 3 1 1

B uff

B rown

N eutral

1 5 3 5 3 3 4 3 1

1 1 2 1

B lack

6 4 3 2 2

1 2 1

1 2 4

O verall C ompilation o f A choma P roject S herds.

C olor r ed w hite d ark r ed o range t an b uff b rown " neutral" b lackware y ellow g rey

T able 3 .

O range

L evels c orrespond r oughly t o n atural

B odysherd

B ottom

R imsherd

H andle

N eck

S pout

4 85 8 3 9 8 35 4 9 2 5 37 9 0 5 05 3 2

8 0 0 1 6 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0

1 98 3 6 2 50 1 0 7 8 7 3 8 0 0

1 0 0 4 9 0 0 3 4 2 1 3 0 0

8 6 0 0 3 7 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

C eramics i n T est T rench a t M alata.

D epth L evel

R ed

W hite

s urface 1 . 0 -10 c m 2 . 1 0-20 3 . 2 0-30 4 . 3 0-40 5 . 4 0-50 6 . 5 0-60 7 . 6 0-70 ( 7+8). 6 0-80 8 . 7 0-80 9 . 8 0-90

4 1 2 1 2 3 0 3 2 2 0 1 0 2 2

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O range 2 2 5 2 7 0 8 8 2 4 4 6 2 6 0 0

7 7

T an 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

S ee F igure 5 .

B rown 2 2 2 2 0 3 8 2 0 1 2 2 2 0 4

B lackware 4 2 2 3 0 5 0 3 8 4 2 6 0 0

n o c learly c o lonial o r S panish m ateria ls a ppeared i n t he A choma c eramic c o llect ion. G iven t he T oledan c o n g r e g ac id n o f 1 571, t he s ite w as p robably a bandoned a t t hat d ate ( if n ot b efore), a nd t he c omp lete a bsence o f c olonia l m ateria l ( combined w ith t he l imited b ut c lear I nca m aterial) l eads t o t he i mpression t hat t he M a lata t est t rench p robably r epresents s trat igraphica lly t he l ate p re-Columbian p hase. T he c o lors " yellow ," " buff ," a nd " neutral" m ight p ossibly b e i nterpreted a s n on-local c eram ics, b ut t he o ccurrence i s i nsignificant n umerically a nd t hey a re r epresented b y b odysherds o n ly, s o i t i s d iff icult t o a rgue f or a s pecific h ypothesis. S imilarly, t here a re s ome a pparent d ifferences b etween s ites i n t erms o f s herd s amp les, b ut t hose t hat I h ave t ested s o f ar d o n ot p roduce s tat ist ically s ignificant r esu lts w hen a n i mprec ise t est l ike C hi-Square i s u sed. T his d oes n ot r u le o ut m ore p owerful t ests, a t t his p oint , b ut i s i ndicat ive o f t he f act t hat t he c eramic a na lysis i s n ot c omp leted. T he e xcavat ion a t M a lata d epicted i n F igure 5 w as c arried o ut i n h opes o f b u ilding a f airly s ound c hronology o f c eramic t ypes a t as ite i n w hich a pparent ly I nca a nd/or C olonia l m ateria ls w ere p resent o n t he s urface. T he l ocat ion c hosen w as i nterna l t o M a lata, b elow a r etaining w all a nd a bout h a lfway d own t he s outh s lope o f t he h i ll o n w hich M a lata i s l ocated. T he h ope w as t o c onstruct a s equence b ackward f rom a v erifiable d ate i n t he 1 6th c entury ( 1572, T o ledo 's c ensus a nd c ongregaciön), t oward t he e arlier C ollaguas p eriod. S uch a c hronology w as t hought t o b e a ppropriate t o t he a bandoning o f t he t erraces, a t l east i n t he C olonia l/Republican p er iod. I t i s n ot y et c lear w hether o r n ot t his g oal h as b een a chieved. S ome I ncaic s herds w ere p resent n ear t he s urface, h owever n o c lear ly C o lonia l m aterials h ave b een i dent ified, a nd i t i s s t ill n ot p roven . t hat t he s trata h ave n ot b een i n a ny w ay i nverted, a lthough t he s equence d oes a ppear i nternally c onsistent o n c lose i nspection.

P OPULATION D ISTRIBUTION G iven t hat t he h anansaya/hurinsaya m oiety d ivision f amiliar i n t he A ndes i s s t ill p resent i n A choma, w e c an c lassify t he e nt ire s et o f t hree v illages a s t he h urinsaya d ivision o f A choma. T he o dd d iscrepancy f rom a n a gricultura l v iewpoint i s t hat t he h urinsaya l ands t hat i nclude E sca lera, P otosina, a nd M a lata a re s evera l k i lometers c loser t o t he f oot o f H ualca H ualca, a nd t herefore t o t he s nowme lt w ater s ource, a nd a re v ery d esirable a nd p roduct ive l ands. A n o bvious e xplanat ion f or t he t erminat ion o f t he t hree v i llages a nd t he l ocat ion o f t he m ajor p ort ion o f t he p opu lat ion i n A choma i s t he c o n g r e g ac id n o f T oledo i n t he 1 570 's. I t a ppears t hat i n t he c ase o f A choma t he b urden o f t he f orced c onso lidat ion o f t he p opu lat ion i n t he v illage o f S panish c hoice f ell p rimarily o n t he r esidents o f h urinsaya. W ithout g oing t oo d eeply i nto a na lysis o f t he a rchaeological m aterials e xcavated, w e c an m ake t wo g eneralizat ions c oncerning t he p opu lat ion d istribut ion o f A choma. T he f irst i s t hat b efore T oledo 's c ongregaciön t he b u lk o f t he A choma p opu lat ion w as a l itt le b e low 3 600 m e levat ion f rom m ean s ea l evel, w hich i s t he l eve l, w ithin a f ew

7 3

m eters, o f P otosina, E scalera, a nd P illoniy; A chomaniy i s a bout 3 0 m h igher. I n c ontrast , m odern A choma i s a bout 2 00 m l ower, a nd o ther m odern t owns n earby i n t he v a lley a re 5 0-200 m l ower t han A choma. T he e levat ion o f 3 600 m i s i n t he " Quechua" e cological z one, w hich i s t he z one o f m ost c onsp icuous a gricu ltura l a ct ivity. I n t he p re-Toledan s ett lement p attern, t he p opu lat ion w as l ocated i n c lusters t hat w ere s omewhat d ispersed b ut a t t he a lt itude o f t he m ajor a gricultura l a ct ivity f ocus. T he s econd g enera lizat ion i s t hat t he e ffect i n A choma o f t he T oledan c ongregaciön w as v ery o ne s ided, o ne m oiety b eing m uch m ore d irect ly i mpoverished t han t he o ther. C ongregat ing t he A choma p opu lat ion i n t he s ite o f A choma h ad l itt le i mmediate e ffect o n t he m embers o f h anansaya, w ho w ere a lready a t t hat s ite o r a bove i t , b ut i t p laced t he m embers o f h urinsaya a t a d ist inct d istance, a nd t herefore a d ist inct d isadvantage, w ith r espect t o t heir t radit iona l a gricultural h old ings. A ll a ct ivit ies, i nc luding p low ing, m aintenance o f r etaining w a lls, i rrigat ion w ork, f ie ld p reparat ion, a nd a ttent ion t o l ivestock g raz ing i n f a llowed t erraces, w ere n ow m ore t ime c onsuming a nd c ost ly i n h uman e nergy b ecause o f t he e xtra d istance a nd e xtra a lt itude t hat h ad t o b e t raversed. A r ough i dea o f t he s ignificance o f d ispossession o f t he h urinsaya g roup f ollows f rom s ome c rude s tat ist ics b ased o n f ield d ata a nd o n a s light r eana lysis o f a c lassic a nthropological m u lt iplier. F ie ld d ata i ndicate t he f ollow ing:

H urinsaya

S ite E sca lera M alata P otosina T otal

N umber o f h ouses 6 1 3 5 4 6

1 4.7 " 1 2.9 " 1 9.05 "

1 42

* * 1 7.06

H anansaya A chomaniy

M ean S ize

n

R oofed A rea 9 00.9 " 4 54.4 " 8 76.3 " 2 231.6

n

( one e xamp le)

2 6

2 4.4 m2

6 34.7 m2

I nspect ion o f t he t able r evea ls d iscrepanc ies, s uch a s t he f act t hat r ounding e rrors c reate a s mall d ifference i n t he t ota l. T he m ean o f t he m eans g iven i s n ot 1 7.06 b ut 1 5.5, w hich i s n ot a n e rror b ut r ather a m inor s tat ist ical e vidence o f t he f act t hat t he d istribut ion o f h ouse s izes i s m arkedly s kewed! N ote t hat t he l argest m ean, f or A chomaniy, i s r ough ly t wice t he m ean f or M a lata! O ther a rchaeologica l i nformat ion c orre lates w ith t his. A chomaniy, f or e xamp le, a ppears t o b e a l ocal e lite C o llaguas s ite, w hereas c eramics a nd a rchitecture a t M alata i ndicate h eavy I nca ( and p ossibly C olonia l) i nf luence. T his p aper i s t oo p re liminary t o a dequate ly d iscuss t he m ater ia l e vidence, b ut i t i s c lear f rom o bservat ion a nd f ie ld d ata t hat t here i s s ome

7 9

i nterna l d ivision i n t he s ett lement p attern. S uch a d ivision r epresent d ivision o f l abor, o r o f e thnic g roups, o r b oth.

m ay

W e m ay u se t he e xist ing d ata t o t ry t o d erive a f irst a pproximat ion o f t he s ize o f A choma h urinsaya. N aroll ( 1962) o nce a ttempted a n e st imate ( now w idely q uoted) o f t he n umber o f s quare m eters o f r oofed a rea p er p erson i n w hat m ight v ery l oose ly b e t ermed N eolithic c ommunit ies. H e c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat a pproximate ly 1 0 m2 / person w as a s ort o f w orld-wide a verage. D issat isfact ion w ith r esu lts a chieved b y t his m u lt iplier c aused o ne a uthor, L eB lanc ( 1971), t o s uggest t he a dd it ion o f o ther c ases ( of s mall v illages) t o N aro ll's s ample i n h opes o f b etter r esu lts. V arious a uthors h ave m odif ied N aroll's s amp le i n r easonable w ays; o ne i s S chacht ( 1981) w ho t hrows o ut C uzco f rom N aroll's s amp le b ecause o f 0 .8 m2 / person i s u nacceptably l ow . W orking w ith a c ombined s amp le o f N aroll a nd L eB lanc 's d ata, t hrow ing o ut C uzco a s S chacht d oes, a nd a lso t hrow ing o ut t he B ella C oo la s amp le ( a lso t oo e xtreme a n e st imate t o b e b e lievable, b ut a t t he o pposite e nd o f N aroll's d istribut ion, a t 4 0+ m2/ person !), I a pp lied t wo m od ificat ions i n t he c alculat ion. O ne m odificat ion i s a " median o f m edians" s tat ist ic, a n onparametric t echnique r ecommended b y H ollander a nd W o lfe ( 1973), w hich e st imates a pproximately 7 m2/ person a s a c entra l t endency i n t he N aro ll a nd L eB lanc d ata. As econd m odificat ion i s t o c a lculate b oth t he m ean a nd v ariance a nd t o a djust t he m ean f or " group ing", t hat i s t o c a lculate n ot t he m ean b ut t he s ituat ion i n w hich t he m ean i ndividua l f inds h imself ( Hemenway 1 982). I nterest ingly t h is p rocedure e st imates 7 .25 m2/ person, v ery c lose t o t he n onparametric " median o f m edians." I t ake t his a s s trongly i ndicat ing t hat 7 m2/ person i s a b etter e st imator o f o ccupied, r oofed, a rea t han i s 1 0 m2/ person. T hus t he f ollowing e st imates:

N aroll e st .

S ite E sca lera M alata P otosina S ubtota l

( hurinsaya)

A chomaniy ( hanansaya) T ota l

S hea e st .

9 0 4 5 8 8

1 28 6 5 1 25

2 23

3 18

6 3

9 1

2 86

4 09

G iven t he e thnographica lly k nown A ndean p ractice o f l iving m ost o f t he d ay o utside, a nd u sing t he r oofed a rea p rimar ily f or s leeping, p robably 7 m2/ person i s h igh, a nd t herefore I s uggest t hat f or w hatever t hese f igures a re w orth, t hey p robably u nderest imate t he p opu lat ion o f A choma h urinsaya s omewhat . I t i s l ogical t o p resume t hat w hatever t he c auses o f t errace a bandonment i n A choma, s ubsequent t o t he T oledan c ongregac iö n t he p attern o f t errace a bandonment m ust h ave b een d etermined b y t he c ongregaciö n, a nd i t f ollows t hat t he l ands o f h urinsaya, a nd t he

8 0

h igher t erraces o f h anansaya w ere m uch m ore l ikely t o b e a bandoned t han w ere t he l ower t erraces o f h anansaya. R eferring b ack t o t he d isp lacement o f C olca V a lley r esidents t o A requ ipa a nd t o m ining a reas i n v arious p arts o f t he A ndes m ent ioned a bove, i t i s c lear t hat m embers o f A choma h urinsaya w ere m uch m ore s trongly m otivated t o l eave t han m embers o f h anansaya. U neven d isp lacements o f l ocal p opulat ion s egments c ould o n ly e xacerbate t he u nevenness o f t errace a bandonment .

A P LAUSIBLE

I NCA S CENARIO

I t i s p erhaps i nterest ing t o c onsider t he p robable e ffects o f I nca a dministrat ion o n t he A choma s ett lement p attern. T hese a re a s y et u nknown i n d etail, b ut a f ew g enera lizat ions c an b e m ade. M a lata, t he l owest s ite o f t he t hree d iscovered h urinsaya s ites, s upp lied s everal f ragments o f c eramics w ith u nmistakable C uzco I nca d esign. I n a ddition, a f ew c eramic f ragments w ere a lso e ncountered t hat b elong t o I nca p eriod a nd I nca i nf luenced s ites i n t he L ake T it icaca r egion, s uch a s f or e xamp le S illustani ( Feldman, p ers. c omm.; T schopik 1 946). T hese c eramics, a long w ith t he f inely d ressed s tonework w ith w hich t hey w ere a ssociated, i mply e xtensive c ontact w ith I ncas, p erhaps I nca p resence, a t M alata ( and a t E scalera). I t d oes n ot a ppear t hat I nca a dministrat ion o f t he a rea i n a ny w ay s uppressed t he p opu lat ions o f t he h urinsaya v illages. I n f act, s ome o f t he e xcavated a rchitecture a t M alata i ndicates b u ilding a ctivit ies d uring t he I nca p eriod. W hile o n ly a s ingle e xcavat ion u nit i s i nvolved, a nd t herefore o n ly o ne h ouse, w ith c lear e xcavated a rchitectural s trat igraphy, t he f inely w orked s tone a t s everal o ther l ocat ions w ithin t he s ite t end t o s upport t his n otion. T he h ypothesis s uggested i s t hat t he I nca a dministrat ion o f A choma a ctually e nhanced t he d evelopment o f t he h urinsaya p opulat ion. B ecause o f t he C olca V alley P roject 's e mphasis o n c ross s ectioning t erraces t o d iscover d atable a nd a nalyzable t errace s trat igraphy, i t w as d iscovered t hat t errace c onstruction a nd g rowth i s a p otentially c omplex p rocess, a nd t hat m ore t han o ne s equence o f e vents c an l ead f rom n atural h ill s lope t o f ina l t errace c onstruct ion. T erraces f requent ly s uffer p art ia l d estruction a nd a re v ariously r ebuilt. M any p roblems a re r elated i n s ome w ay t o t he i rrigat ion w ater b udget . T he p roblems a ccompanying t oo l itt le w ater s hould b e o bvious, b ut t here a re a v ariety o f p roblems a ssoc iated w ith t oo m uch w ater. T wo o f t he d ifficult ies a re 1 ) h ydraulic d estruct ion o f t he t errace d ue t o " floating" t he r etaining w all, a nd 2 ) c rop d estruction d ue t o f reezing. I nformants f rom A choma m ade j ust a s m uch a p oint o f s topping i rrigat ion a nd t iming i t a s t hey d id o f a ccess t o w ater. I n g eneral o ur e xcavat ion v alidated t he r emarks o f t he m odern v illagers, a nd a r eading f rom a w ell p laced t hermometer s upported t he d escript ion o f f reezing. P laced o n t he s urface o f a t errace, a m aximum/minimum t hermometer r ecorded a d aily r ange o f 1°C t o 2 9 °C d uring t he l ate p lanting a nd e arly g rowth p hase o f l ocal c rops ( late S eptember). T oo m uch w ater o n t he t errace w ou ld c reate s mall s tands o f i ce w hich w ould s e lectively d estroy y oung p lants. T hus I nca a dministrat ion, t o w hatever e xtent i t w as b eneficia l, w ould b e m otivated t o h ave t he l ocal p opulat ion i n a s c lose p roximity t o t he c rops a s p ossible t o p recisely r egu lar w ater.

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T he t opic o f I nca c ontro l i n t he C o lca s eems i nevitably t o b e b ound u p w ith m aize; f or e xamp le P ease ( 1977:150-151) r ecounts a m yth o f t he C olca V a lley, t he I nca, a nd s ome m aize k erne ls i n h is e xposit ion o f t he e conomic s ignificance o f t he c rop w ithin t he I nca s ystem. C respo ( 1977:56) i ndirect ly i ndicates t he c ont inuing s ignificance o f m aize i n t he C olonia l p eriod w ith h is r eferences t o l egal s quabbles r esu lt ing f rom t ax f raud a nd m aize s t orage. G iven t he e normous i mportance o f m aize a s a f oodstuff a nd a m edium o f c ommerce a nd t axat ion, i ts c u ltivat ion i s a c rit ical c onsiderat ion i n a ny d iscussion o f t errace u se o r c onstruct ion. M odern A chomef ios i ndicate t hat t hey d o n ot s ell m aize a nd a lso d o n ot i mport i t . L oca l m aize g row ing i s p rincipally c arried o ut f or h ome c onsumpt ion, c hicha b eing o ne o f t he m ain b yproducts. A nta iez d e M ayolo ( 1981:87-94, 1 78) e xp lains t he p hysiologica l s ignificance o f m aize c hicha a s a s ource o f p rotein, a s ource o f r e lat ively s afe w ater, a c almer o f i ndigest ion, a nd a s ource o f c alcium f or a p opu lat ion t hat g enera lly s peaking d oes n ot d igest l actose w ell. M ost A ndeanists a re f amiliar w ith a l arge b ody o f l iterature w ith r espect t o t he s ignificance o f m aize f or r itual a nd c ommerc ia l p urposes, a nd I w ill n ot g o i nto t hat . S uffice i t t o s ay t hat m aize i n A choma, a nd i n t he C olca g enera lly, s t ill r etains i ts u se a s a f ood a nd a s l iqu id r efreshment a nd s t ill r etains t he b u lk o f i ts r itual s ignificance, e specia lly w ith r egard t o t he l iqu id r efreshment c hicha. M aize c ontinues t o b e g rown o n t he t erraces a nd c ont inues t o b e a m ajor c onsiderat ion i n a gricu ltura l e xp lo itat ion. M odern A choma a gricu ltura lists, o ur a rchaeologica l e vidence, a nd t he r eading o f o ur t hermometer, a ll s upport t he g enera lization t hat m aize i s c rit ically i mportant a nd t hat i t i s g rown i n t he Q uechua z one f or r easons o f t emperature. I f t his i s c oup led w ith t he a rchaeological e vidence o f I nca p resence a t M alata a nd E sca lera, t hen t he q uest ion o f t he e ffect o f I nca p olicy o n t erracing h as t o b e a nswered i n o nly o ne w ay. T he I nca e ncouraged i ncreased m aize p roduct ion. S ince t his c ou ld o n ly t ake p lace w ith t he i ntensive e xp loitat ion o f t he Q uechua, o r m id-s lope, t erraces, t he c lear b yproduct o f I nca p resence w ou ld b e a n i ncrease i n t he d egree t o w hich t he m id-elevat ion t erraces w ere d evoted t o m aize. H owever i ncreasing e xp loitat ion o f m aize a t m id-e levat ion w ou ld f orce o ther c rops t o o ther e levations. L ocal p eople u nder t he p ressure o f I nca d emands c ould b e e xpected t o e xp lo it m argina l a reas f or t heir o ther c rops. B eans a nd r oot c rops p art icu lar ly , b ecause t hey a re h ardier t han m aize, c ould b e e xpected t o b e d isp laced u pward a nd d ownward f rom t he d esirable t erraces: u pward, b ecause t hese c rops c an s urvive t he r igors o f a lt itude a nd c old b etter t han m aize, a nd d ownward b ecause t he t endency o f c o ld a ir t o s ett le m akes t he l ower t erraces p oor l ocat ions f or m aize. I f h igher a nd l ower t erraces e xisted b efore I nca a rriva l, w e c ould e xpect h eavier u sage d uring t he I nca p eriod, a n h ypothesis t hat m ay o r m ay n ot b e e asy t o v erify a rchaeo logically . I f t he t erraces d id n ot e xist p revious t o t he I ncas, e specia lly t he h igher o nes, w e w ou ld e xpect t heir d evelopment d uring t he I nca p eriod. U nfortunate ly, t he h ighest t erraces e xcavated d uring t he A choma p roject l acked d ist inct ive c eramics a nd d id n ot r esolve t his d ilemma. T he f ew f ragments o f c eramic e ncountered w ere t oo s ma ll a nd i ncomp lete t o b e

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d iagnost ic a nd p ossessed o n ly t races o f B lack-on-Red d esign. B lack-on-Red c ould b e p re-Incaic, b ut c ou ld a lso b e e ither I ncaic o r p ost-Incaic; i t i s o n ly c ertain t hat i t i s l ocal. N everthe less, t he s trat igraphy o f t he h ighest a lt itude t erraces i ndicated r epeated r econstruct ion, r edevelopment , a nd e nhancement o f t he t erraces. S ince, a lmost b y t he d efinit ion o f o ur a rchaeologica l p rob lem, t he p opu lat ion w as d eclining a nd w ithdraw ing d uring p eriods f rom c a. 1 540 t o t he p resent , i t s eems u nlikely t hat t errace r econstruct ion a t h igh a lt itudes i s r ecent . T herefore, t he i nterna l c omp lexity o f t he h igh t erraces i s c ircumstant ia l e vidence o f t heir a nt iqu ity, s ince e ven i f t hey w ere r eused d uring I nca t imes w e m ay p arsimoniously a ttribute o nly o ne r estorat ion t o t he I nca p eriod. T hus t he m ost r easonable c onc lusion i s t hat t he h ighest l eve l a bandoned t erraces e xisted p revious t o I nca c ontrol, b ut m ay h ave r eceived i ntensive u se d uring t he I nca p hase o f c ontrol. T he d iscussion s o f ar i llum inates o ne h istorical p uzz le o f t he C olca, a t l east w ith r espect t o A choma. T hat p uzzle i s t he e xtreme n ature o f t he d evastat ion a nd t he d egree o f p opu lat ion d ec line f ollow ing E uropean i ntervent ion. N ot o n ly w as S panish a dminist rat ion d evastat ing b ecause i t w as d ifferent t han p revious c ontrol s ystems, b ut t he t rauma w as e xacerbated b y t he f act t hat t he e conomic c oncomitants o f S panish c ontrol w ere a n e xact r eversa l o f t rends d uring t he I nca p eriod. T he e ffect o f t he I ncas w as t o m ove p eople t oward r esources, o r c onsolidate s ett lement p atterns n ear r esources, a nd t o i ntensify a griculture a t m id-elevat ion i n s uch a w ay a s t o e xpand t he " vert ica l a rchipelago" a t b oth e nds. T he e ffect o f S panish a dm inistrat ion, i n c ontrast , w as t o m ove s ignif icant p opu lat ion c lusters a way f rom t radit iona l r esources a nd t o s et i n m ot ion p rocesses t hat p roduced r educt ion a nd a trophy i n t he v ert ical m icroniche s ystem . T errace a bandonment i n A choma h as t o b e s een i n t his l ight .

P ASTORALISM L inares ( 1983) t ranslates t he n ame A chomaniy a s a " p lace w here m eat i s p arcelled o ut ." W hile t ranslat ion o f t oponyms i s o ften o f l itt le u se o r r e liability, i t i s w orth n ot ing t hat t his a grees w ith t he d ocumentary o bservat ion t hat A choma w as d edicated t o a nima l r aising a nd p astora lism ( Mg laga 1 977:101). A s i ndicated i n c omments a bove, t his i s s t ill t rue i n t he s ense t hat m odern A choma h as a dopted t he E uropean i mport o f t he c ow a nd i s s t ill a c enter o f a nima l r aising. C ontact w ith t he p astora lists o n t he p una a bove i s m aintained. T hey o ccasiona lly b ring h erds t hrough t o wn a nd f requent ly u se t he p laza o f A choma a s a c onvenient l ocat ion i n w hich t o v end a lpaca w ool. I n a dd it ion, o ne o f t he m ain s tores i n t own s erves a s a v endor o f m eat d erived f rom a lpacas c u lled f rom t he h erds r aised o n t he p una a bove; i t i s s t ill a p lace w here m eat i s p arce lled o ut . A choma T s l isted b y C asaverde ( 1977:173 f f .), a nd t he C olca i s g iven a s a n e xamp le o f t rade b y a gricultura lists w ith p astora lists f rom t he p una a bove. A rchaeologically, t he e vidence a lso s upports t his c ontent ion. T he s ite o f P illoniy, a bove A choma b ut c lose t o i t , i s p rofusely c overed w ith u t ilized o bsidian f lakes. A lthough t he d ata a s y et a re n ot c omp lete ly a nalyzed, a t imed r andom c ollect ion o f o bsidian o n t he s urface o f P illoniy p roduced t hree t imes t he o bsidian o f a ll

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o ther A choma s ites t ogether. c onsistent w ith a p rofusion o f t rait i s.

B utchering a nd s kinning c ame lids i s o bsidian, b ut a lmost n o o ther A ndean

T here i s a lso t he m atter o f t he f ortress, A uk inikita, a bove t he s ite o f A chomaniy p roper. I t c lear ly d efends t he e lite r esidences o n t he p oint o f t he r idge, b ut a lso d efends t he e nt ire e xtent o f t he r idge f rom t he p una d own t o t he r esident ia l a rea. T he r idge b etween A ukinikita a nd A choman iy i s c overed w ith l ow s tone c onstruct ion. S ome a bandoned t erraces a re i ncluded, b ut t he b u lk o f t he r idge i s c overed w ith c orra ls. T hese c orra ls a re s t ill o ccasiona lly u sed, t hey w ere o bserved i n u se i n O ctober 1 984, a nd t he r idge c ont inues t o b e a c ommon r oute f or a ccess t o A choma f rom t he p una, w ith o r w ithout c amelid h erds. W e a re l eft w ith t he p icture o f c u ltura l c ont inuity; A choma w as d eeply i nvolved i n p astora lism a nd p erhaps d ominated o ne l ogical a ccess o f p astora lists t o t he v alley d uring I nca a nd p re-Inca t imes. A choma c ont inued t o b e p astora l i n e arly C o lonia l t imes a nd c ont inues d airying t o t he p resent . A choma a lso c ont inues i ts c ontact w ith t he h igh p una p astoralists, a ct ing a s a m arket f or m eat a nd a lpaca w oo l a nd g raze f or o ccasiona l h erds w hich s t ill t raverse t he r idge a bove a nd p ass t he f ortress o n t he w ay i nto t own. V arious a uthors ( Murra 1 975; A ntd l iez d e M ayolo 1 981:25-26) h ave e mphasized t he s ignificance o f p astora lism i n t he p re-Spanish p eriod a nd t he t ruly g reat n umbers o f lamas a nd a lpacas i nvolved. P ossession o f h erds w as c onsidered t o b e a n e ssent ial e lement o f w ealth, a nd t he p arcelling o ut o f a nima ls a nd m eat w as a p rerogat ive o f c uracas. T he a rchaeo logical e vidence f or A choma s upports t he i dea t hat t he s ite o f A chomaniy w as t he f ormer c uraca r esidence. I t i s c lear t hat t he h erds o f s uch a c uraca h ad t 7-5 T—Z orra lled s omewhere, a nd t he r idge a bove t he s ite t oward t he p una i s t he l ogical a rea. T hus t he f ortress o f A ukinikita m ust h ave h ad a s o ne o f i ts f unct ions t he i nhibit ing o f lama r ust ling. S ignificant ly, t he l imited e xcavat ion o f t he s ite o f M alata p roduced a n umber o f u nderground, c y lindrical, s tone-lined s torage s ilos, o r g olgas. C ontents i ncluded c eramics, s ome c opper a nd b ronze, o bsidian, g rinding s tones, a nd a s mall a mount o f c amelid b one. I n o ne c ase t he a nalysis o f t he j oints o f t he c ame lid b one ( using m easurements f rom K ent 1 982) d emonstrated t hat t he a nimal w as a v icuna. T he i mp licat ion i s t hat n ot o n ly w ere l ive c ame lids i mportant i n t he e conomy o f A choma, b ut t hat s ome h unting w as d one a nd t hat q uant it ies o f d ried m eat ( charque) w ere s tored. Am ajor p art o f t he l egal a ct ion a gainst U lloa M ogollön c oncerned t he p ossibility o f h is t rading i n lamas a nd a lpacas i n s uch a w ay a s t o d efraud t he c rown o f t ax m onies ( Crespo 1 977:57-61). T his u nderscores t he n ature o f t he e arly S panish t ax s ystem, w hich a ttempted t o m aintain p revious s tandards. U nfortunate ly, t he S paniards d id l itt le t o c ontrol t he h erds i n t he t radit iona l m anner, a nd A nt aez d e M ayo lo ( 1981:25-26) w as p robably n ot e xaggerat ing w hen h e m ade i t s ound l ike t he e ar ly c onquerors " ate t heir w ay" t hrough t he h erds o f P eru. N eglect o f t he h erds d uring e arly y ears o f E uropean c ontrol a lso a pparent ly c ontributed t o t he o utbreak o f m ange w hich

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t ook p lace i n 1 544 a nd c ont inued i nto s uccessive y ears u nt il w ere d ec imated ( Ant a lez d e M ayolo 1 981:25-26).

t he h erds

W e d o n ot k now t he e xtent o f t he r e lat ionship b etween t he c ame lid h erds a nd t he t errac ing o f A choma. M odern h erders e ngage i n v arious s orts o f i rrigat ion a nd f allow p ractices ( Pa lacios 1 977) t hat m ake i t c lear t hat d eliberate c reat ion o f p asture b y t errac ing i s a p ossibility. C urrent A choma p ract ice m akes f requent u se o f t erraces f or g razing c ows, a nd a s imilar p rocedure w ith c ame lids c annot b e r u led o ut e arlier. I ronically, i f t he t own m aintained s omewhat e xtensive h erds i n t he p re-Incaic a nd I ncaic p eriods, u pper l evel a nd l ower l evel t erraces a re t he l ogical a reas t o h ave b een s o e mp loyed. T he s ame a reas w ou ld b e a ffected b y a n I nca d emand f or m aize. T hus w e m ust a ssume t hat s ome o f t he e ffects o f t he c amelid m ange e pidemic, a s w e ll a s e ffects o f S panish n eglect o f t radit iona l m aintenance, w ou ld a ugment q uant itat ive ly a nd e xacerbate q ualitat ive ly t he d ebilitat ion b rought a bout b y r educ ing A choma h urinsaya t o t he c onfines o f m odern A choma.

C ONCLUSIONS A p reliminary a nalysis a nd d iscussion o f t he A choma s egment o f t he C olca V a lley T errace P roject c an b e b ased o n a n i ntegrat ion o f s ett lement c luster a nd f ortification i nformat ion w ith e thnographic a nd h istorical m aterial. T he l ocat ion o f t hree v illages i n t he w estern ( hurinsaya) s ect ion o f A choma p rovides c onsiderable i nsight i nto t he p re-Spanish s ett lement p attern. T he t hree a dd it iona l s ites, i n c onjunct ion w ith p reviously r eported A chomaniy a nd P illoniy, d emonstrate a v ery c lear a nd c onsistent a lt itude p attern f or t he A choma p opu lat ion. S torage f acilit ies, w hich o ccasiona lly c ontained c ame lid c harque, d emonstrate a c omp lex e conomy w hich i ncluded p roducts o f h erding v ia w ith n earby p astora lists. A p arsimonious i nterpretat ion o f I ncaic p ractices w ou ld h ave I nca e nhancing t he f avorable a spects o f t he e xist ing s ituat ion a ttempt ing t o a ugment t he p roduct ion o f m aize. E mphasis o n m aize c amelids w ou ld a lter t he e conomic s ignif icance o f t he u ppermost l owest t erraces. I nca a dministrat ion p robably i ncreased t he u se m arginal t erraces a nd m ay h ave a dded s ome t erraces t o t he s ystem.

t he a nd a nd a nd o f

S panish p ract ice, a lthough i ntended t o c ont inue a nd m aintain t he e x ist ing s ystem s o f ar a s p ossible, f ailed m iserably. A s ignificant a spect o f t hat f ailure c an b e t ied t o t he d is locat ions t hat a ccompanied t he c ongregaciones o f V iceroy T o ledo i n t he 1 570 's. I n A choma t he e ntire w estern ( down-river) m oiety o f h urinsaya w as m oved a c onsiderable d istance f rom i ts a gricultura l r esource b ase. I n t he c ase o f A choma, w e c an a rgue t hat t he a bandonment o f t erraces, a nd t he l ong t erm d ec line o f p opu lat ion, c ould w e ll b e e xp lained b y t he d is locat ions o f t he T oledan c ongregaciones. E ven g rant ing t he d emonstrated d epredat ions o f s mallpox, t he c ombinat ion o f T o ledan p opu lat ion s hifts a nd r eplace Llnt o f n at ive b y f oreign l ivestock g oes a l ong w ay t oward e xplaining w hy t he P eruvian p opu lat ion d id n ot i ntermittent ly r ecover f rom e pidemic l osses, b ut c ont inued a u niform d ownward t rend u nt il t he 1 8th c entury .

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A cknow ledgments. T he A choma r esearch w as c arried o ut u nder N SF g rants B NS-8406957 a nd B NS-8406957 A 01. T he l atter d esignates f unds f rom t he p rogram f or R esearch f or U ndergraduate I nst itutions ( RUI). M any p eople h ave c ontributed t o t he a nalysis, b ut I a ccept r esponsibility f or i nterpretations. T hanks a re d ue t o B e lo it C ollege f or a llowing m e t o t ake a s abbat ical l eave; t o m y d epartmental c olleagues f or c ooperating w ith a nd c ompensating f or m y a bsence f rom t eaching d ut ies, t o t he B e loit C ollege C omput ing C enter f or m any d irect s ervices a nd f or f ree a ccess t o c omputing h ardware a nd s oftware u sed b y m yself a nd m y s tudents; a nd t o m y s tudents w ho w orked i n t he f ield a s v olunteers a nd w ho c arried o ut a nalytic t asks b oth i n t he f ie ld a nd a t t he C ollege. A bove a ll I w ish t o t hank W illiam M . D enevan w hose h ost ing o f t he N SF-RUI g rant m ade i t a ll p ossible. B ill s et a h igh a nd e xemplary s tandard f or t hat d iff icult r o le, a nd a s P rincipal I nvest igator, c olleague, a nd e d itor h as m ade m any d irect a nd i ndirect c ontributions t o t he f ina l r esult , i ncluding t hose a spects o f t he s tudy t hat a re o f s ubstance a nd m erit .

R EFERENCES C ITED A ntünez d e M ayolo R ., S ant iago E . 1 981. L a n utriciön e n e l a nti po P eru . B anco P erd , °h a-F l a N umismat ici7Tima. C asaverde R ., J uvenal 1 977. E l t rueque e n l a e conomia p astoril. e dited b y J orge A . F lores O choa, p. E studios P eruanos, L ima.

C entral

d e

R eserva

I n P astores d e p una, 1 71-191. I nsfauto d e

C respo, J uan C arlos 1 977. L os C ollaguas e n l a v isita d e A lonso F ernandez d e B onilla. I n C o llaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease G . Y ., p. 5 3-92. P ontificia U n 5ersidad C atö lica d el P eru ' , L ima. C ook, N oble D avid 1 977. L a p oblaciön d e l a P arroquia d e Y anahuara, 1 738-47. U n m odelo p ara e l e studio d e l as p arroqu ias c olonia les p eruanas. I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease G . Y ., p. 1 3-34. P ontificia U niversidad C atö lica d e l P eru, L ima. 1 982.

T he P eople o f UT T-41-5 377— t aii n B oulder.

t he C olca V alley: A P opulat ion A merfUiT i- S £UUT67 ,— N o. 9 , W estview

H emenway, D avid 1 982. W hy Y our C lasses a re L arger M agazine 5 5(3):162-164.

t han

H ollander, M yles a nd D ouglas A . W o lfe 1 973. N onparametric S tat ist ical M ethods. N ew Y ork.

" Average."

J ohn

K ent, J onathon D w ight 1 982. T he D omest icat ion a nd E xploitat ion o f t he r aT ielids: M ethods o f A nalysis a nd t h-e 77

8 6

W iley

S tudy. P ress,

M athemat ics

a nd

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S outh A merican A pp licat ion t o

C ircum-Lacustrine A rchaeological S ites i n B o livia a nd P eru. U niversity M icrofilms I nt ernat iona l, A f i n-T rbor , M icf f i7än. L eB lanc, S teven 1 971. A n A dd it ion t o N aroll's S uggested F loor A rea a nd P opu lat ion R e lationship . A merican A nt iqu ity 3 6:210-211. L inares M ä laga, E loy 1 983. V is ita g u iada A requipa.

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L umbreras, L uis G . 1 969. A nt iguo P erd .

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M alaga M edina, A lejandro 1 977. L os C ollaguas e n l a h istoria d e A requ ipa e n e l s iglo X VI. I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease G . Y ., p. 9 3-130. P ont ificia U ni versidad C atö lica d el P er i l, L ima. M urra, J ohn V . 1 972. E l c ontrol v ert ical d e u n m aximo d e p isos e cologicos e n l a e conomla d e l as s oc iedades a ndina. I n V isita d e l a p rovinc ia d e L eon d e H uänuco e n 1 562, O rt iz d e Z d i iig %, V isitador, Ta il 7 ( 7- b y J ohn V . M urra ) v ol. 2 , p. 4 27-476. U niversidad N aciona l H ermilio V a ldizan, H uänuco. 1 975.

R eb Aos y p asto w e n l a e conomia d el T awant insuyu . I n F ormaciones e conomicas y p olit icas d el m undo a ndino, e dited b y J ohn V . M urra, p p. 17-144. I niT iit i to d e E studios P eruanos, L ima.

N aroll, R aoul 1 962. F loor A rea 2 7:587-589.

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P opu lat ion.

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A nt iqu ity

N eira A vendai io, M äx imo 1 960. 1 961.

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P a lacios R ios, F e lix 1 977. P ast izales d e r egadio p ara a lpacas. I n P astores d e p una, c omp iled b y J orge A . F lores O choa, p. 1 55-170. I nsfiluto d e E studios P eruanos, L ima. P ease, F ranklin 1 977 C o llaguas: u na e tnia d el s iglo X VI: p roblemas i nicia les. I n C o llaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease, p. 1 31-168. P ont ificia U niversidad C atö lica d el P eru, L ima. 1 978.

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T iiud ios P eruanos, Tima.

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P erd .

I nst ituto

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P royecto M ajes-Per t 1 980. I nformaciön g eneral. T echnical T echnical I nst itute, S tockholm. R avines, R oger 1 982. P anorama d e l a P eruanos, T ima.

a rqueologia

r eport

a ndina.

b rochure,

I nst ituto

R enique, J ose L uis, y E frain T relles 1 977. A proximaciön d emogräfica, Y anque-Collaguas C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease G . Y ., P ontificia U niversidad C atölica d e P eru, L ima.

d e

R oyal

E studios

1 591. I n p p. 1 69-190.

R owe, J ohn H . 1 946. I nca C u lture a t t he T ime o f t he S panish C onquest . H andbook o f S outh A merican I nd ians, e dited b y J u lian S teward, v ol. 2 , p p. 1 98-330. B u llet in o f t he B ureau A merican E thnology 1 43, W ashington, D .C.

I n H . o f

S chacht, R obert M . 1 981. E st imat ing P ast P opulat ion A nthropology 1 0:119-140.

o f

T rends.

A nnual

R eview

S hea, D anie l E . 1 986. T he A choma A rchaeology P ilot S tudy . I n T he C ultural E cology, A rchaeology, a nd H istory o f T erracing a nd T errace A bandonment i n t he C olca V alley o f S outhern P eru, e dTTE Cl - by W illiam M . D enevan, p p. 3 13-362. T echnica l R eport t o t he N at ional S c ience F oundation a nd N at iona l G eographic S oc iety. D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. T ord, L uis E nrique 1 983. T emp los c oloniales d el A t las, S . A ., L ima.

C olca-Arequipa.

I ndustria l

P apelera

T schopik, M arion H . 1 946. S ome N otes o n t he A rchaeology o f t he D epartment o f P uno, P eru. I n P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnFr ogy, H arvard U ni T eTiT ty, C ambr idge, M ass. U lloa M ogollö n, J uan d e 1 965. [ 1586]. R elacion d e l a p rovincia d e l os C ollaguas. I n R elaciones g eogräficas d e I ndias, M arcos J imenez d e l a E spada, e ditor. B iblioteca d e A utores E spano les, V ol. 1 83, p p. 3 26-333, M adrid.

8 8

C HAPTER 4 C AMBIO E N L OS P ATRONES D E A SENTAMIENTO Y E L U SO Y A BANDONO D E L OS A NDENES E N C ABANACONDE, V ALLE D EL C OLCA, P ERU

P ablo d e l a V era C ruz C hävez

R ESUMEN L os a sentamientos d el v alle d e C abanaconde e videncian u n p roceso d e c ambios d esde l a legada d e W an i h asta e l e stablecimiento d e l os e spai roles. L a v ariedad e colögica ( 1 9 e sta z ona p ermit iö u na e specializaciön e n e l c ult ivo d el m alz y s u e xcelente p roducciön m aicera r esu ltante f ue u n f actor d e e strecha r elaciön c on t ales c ambios. W an i e dificö u na a ldea a murallada e n m edio v alle y c onstruyö g ran p arte d e l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo. A l s er a bandonada l a a ldea, t ambien s e a bandonö p arte d e l os t errenos, y n o s e v olviö a h abitarla. L a p oblaci lön e stableciö n uevas a ldeas e n l as m ärgenes d el v alle e n c ima d e l os c erros y c uando legaron l os I ncas e stas a ldeas s igu ieron f uncionando a lli, a unque l os I ncas i ntrodujeron m odificaciones e i ntensificaron e l u so d e l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo. A demäs l os I ncas e stablecieron u n a sentamiento e n m edio v alle a s u p ropio e st ilo. L a p oblaciön c omenzö a c recer c on W an i y legö a l a t asa m äs a lta e n l a e p oca i nca. L os e spa i ioles j untaron l a p oblaciö n s abre e l a sentamiento d e l os I ncas c uzque r ios e n m edio v alle, d onde a n v i ve , ys e a bandonaron t odos l os a nteriores a sentamientos y g ran p arte d e l os t errenos d e c ult ivo.

A BSTRACT

T he v arious a rchaeological s ites o f t he C abanaconde V alley d emonstrate a s equence o f c hanges f rom t he a rrival o f t he W an i c ulture t o t he e stablishment o f t he S paniards. T he e cological c ondit ions o f t he z one p ermitted t he s pecia lization o f m aize c u lt ivat ion, a f actor i nfluenc ing t he c u ltural h istory. T he W an i c onstructed a w alled v illage a t m id-valley a nd c ult ivated m uch o f t he a djacent l and. W ith t he a bandonment o f t he s ett lement , w hich h as n ot b een r e-inhabited, c ame t he a bandonment o f p art o f t he l and. T he l ocal p opulation t hen e stablished n ew h am lets o n t he h illtops a long t he e dges o f t he v alley. W hen t he I ncas a rrived, t hese s ett lements r emained f unctioning, e ven t hough t he I ncas i ntroduced m odificat ions a nd i ntensified c ult ivat ion. I n a ddit ion, t he I ncas e stablished a v illage i n t he c enter o f t he v alley f ollowing t heir o wn s tyle. P opulat ion g rowth b egan i n t he W an i p eriod a nd p eaked d uring t he I nca p eriod. T he S paniards g rouped t he d ispersed i nhabitants o n t he s ite o f t he c uzqueno I ncas, w here t hey c ontinue t o l ive, a nd a bandoned a ll t he p eripheral s ites a nd a l arge p roportion o f t he c u lt ivated l ands. 8 9

I NTRODUCCION E l p resente t raba p e s e l r esu ltado d e e valuac iön p re liminar d e l as e videnc ias a rqueologicas y o bservaciones g eogrgficas o btenidas e n l os t rabajos d e c ampo e fectuados d esde 1 983 e n e l v a lle d e l C o lca. V er F igura 1 . T a les t rabajos c onsist ieron e n r econoc imientos d e l os s it ios a rqueolögicos y l a r ecolecc iön d e l a m ayor c ant idad d e i nformaciön y e videncias c u ltura les v isib les e n l a s uperfic ie y e n c ortes n aturales o d e d estrucciön. A si s e c onsiguieron c olecc iones d e c erämica q ue d espues f ueron a nalizadas e n e l l aboratorio. p rimer p roblema d e i nvest igaci A f ue l ograr u na a p rox imac iö n a c r ono lö g ica . C o mo v eremos a delante h emos l ogrado a mp liarla h asta e l H orizonte M edio d e l os A ndes C entra les, E poca 2 A ( Menze l 1 964, 1 968). L a c olumna c rono lög ica a qui p resentada a barca d esde e l H orizonte M edio h asta l a e p oc a a c tua l, a u nqu e e l m ayor e nfasis e n l a o bservaciön y d iscusiön e s s o lo h asta e l e stablec imiento d e l as r educc iones e n e l s iglo X VI.

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P osteriormente d ebiamos c aracterizar l os a sentamientos d e c ada e poca y e laborar h ipötesis s obre s us p atrones y s us c ambios. H emos l ogrado e stablecer c laras d iferenc ias e ntre l os a sentamientos d e l as d ist intas e pocas. F ina lmente h emos e stablec ido l as r e laciones e ntre l os a sentamientos y l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo p ara d eterminar l a e poca d e s u c o nst rucc iö n , f uncionamiento y a bandono. L a i nvest igaciö n, e ntre o tros, t enia c omo o bjet ivos e l c omparar l a i nformaciön a rqueolö gica c on l a i nformaciön e tnohistörica d e l os s iglos X VI y X VII y c on t odos l os p lanteamientos h asta a hora p ropuestos p ara e l v alle d e C abanaconde. L as r e laciones c on e l a ltiplano d el T it icaca, l a d iferenc iaciön e ntre C abanas y C o llaguas, l os o rigenes e n l a r elaci A c on l o a lt ip ldnico d e h abla a ymara, y o tros p roblemas s on t ocados m uy s uperficialmente. T odo l o e xpresado e n e l p resente t rabajo s e b asa e strictamente e n l as e videnc ias, a unque l o q ue s e f ormu la, ms q ue r esu ltados c oncluyentes, s on s ugerentes h ipötesis p ara p robar, c onfirmar o r eformu lar m ediante l a m ayor i nvest igaciön f utura.

D ESCRIPCION T OPOGRAFICA Y G EOLOGICA E l v a lle d e C abanaconde e stä c o nst it ui do p o r e l S r ea d e d eyecciön d e l r io H ualca H ualca, s obre e l b orde i zqu ierdo d el C andö n d el C olca. L a q uebrada d e e ste r i o a ntes d e c aer h acia e l C olca o riginö u n g ran c irco d e f orma s emicicu lar f ormado p or d eposiciones d e d etritos a luvia les d e o rigen v ol dnico ( Rondon 1 977), c ayendo l uego b ruscamente h acia e l C a n d el C olca d esde l a a ltura d e 8 00 m p or e nc ima d el l echo d e e ste. E l r io H ualca H ualca c ont ind a m odif icando l a m orfologia d el t erreno, q ue n o c onst ituye u n c ono d e d eyecc iön r egu lar s ino p or e l c ontrario, t iene u na f orma d e h oyada a m anera d e h erradura, d e s uperficie i rregu lar, d entro d e l a c ual q uedan a lgunas e levaciones i nteriores d e b aja a ltura. D e e sta m anera g eomorfolögicas:

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1 ) U na q uebrada a ngosta d e i ngreso d e l r io H ualca H ua lca. E n s u l echo, e stä f ormado d e d etritos a luvia les y s e l os u san a grico lamente. E n s us l aderas t iene f ormaciones d e t ufos v olcänicos q ue a lbergan l ugares f unerar ios. 2 ) L as l aderas d el v a lle, e n s u l ado s ur o este, p ertenecen a l a f ormaciön " Volcdn ico S illapaca," c on u na p endiente v ariable e ntre 6 0 y 8 0%. E n a lgunas d e s us p rominenc ias s e e stablecen a ldeas p rehispänicas. 3 ) E l f ondo d el v alle, d e i nclinaciö n h acia e l C olca, f ormado d e d etritos a luvia les d e o rigen v olcänico, t iene u na p endiente b aja e ntre 3 0 y4 0%. S obre e ste s e u bican l os c ampos d e c u lt ivo. 4 ) E levaciones e n m edio d el v alle, d e b aja a ltura, p romediando e n 3 0 my s obre e llos t ambien s e e stablecen c onjuntos h abitaciona les y e l p ueblo a ctual. U na c aracterist ica i mportante q ue g uarda r elac iön c on e l v alle d e C abanaconde s on l as l aderas y e levaciones q ue c onectan a e ste c on l a t erraza a luvia l g eneral d el v alle d el C olca. E s u na s uperficie o ndu lada d e b aja p endiente, f ormada p or d etritos a luvia les y l imos l acustres, p rovenientes d el n evado H ualca H ua lca, d epositados s obre e l b orde d el C ai lö n d el C olca d e r ocas i ntrusivas. C onst ituye p ues e l p ie d e m onte d e e ste n evado s obre e l C ar lön e i nterrumpe q ue e l v a lle d el C olca s ea c ont inuo h asta C abanaconde. E s u n a r ea i mportante d onde s e e ncuentran a ndenes m uy d ist intos a l os d el i nterior d el v a lle. E stä a 2 00 m m äs a lto q ue C abanaconde, e s d ecir e ntre 3 ,600 y 3 ,8000 m .

C ARACTERISTICAS E COLOGICAS Y C LIMA E l v a lle d e C abanaconde s e s itüa a u na a ltura p romedio d e 3 ,200 m . E sta a ltura d etermina u bicarlo e n l a r egion Q uechua, p ropuesta p or P u lgar V idal ( 1976), y e l M apa E colögico e laborado p or l a O NERN ( 1973) s e e ncuentra a e ste v alle e n e l ' f i nite i nferior d e l a f ormaciön e colö gica E stepa M ontano. A demäs, l a p o s ic iö n d el v a lle e n u na z ona d e a brupta t opografia p ermite q ue e n e sta a rea r educida s e e ncuentren p resentes h asta t res f ormaciones e colö gicas: E stepa M ontano, D esierto M ontano B ajo, y D esierto S ubtropical. L a r azön f undamenta l e s l a p resenc ia d el G a l lon d el r io C olca d e 1 ,000 m d e p rofundidad q ue o frece e n e ste ä r e a u n d esnivel e ntre 3 ,600 m e n l as l aderas i nferiores d el n evado H ualca H ualca y 2 ,200 m e n e l l echo d el r io d onde t ambie n e x isten t errenos d e c u lt ivo. A p esar d e c onst ituirse e l v a lle d e C abanaconde d entro d e l as f ormaciones e colögicas a ntes s en 'a ladas, p odemos p roponer d e m anera p re liminar, p or l a c arencia d e d atos m eteoro lö gicos y -nuestras t odavia e scasas o bservaciones, l as q ue r equ ieren v er if icaciön; q ue e ste v alle t iene u n m icroclima m äs c ä lido q ue e l r esto d e l v alle d el C o lca. L as r azones s on l as s igu ientes: 1 ) E stablece e l l imite m a 's o cc identa l, e n q ue e l v a lle d e l C olca c omienza a d escender e n a ltitud y p or l o t anto e s t ambien r e lat ivamente m a 's b ajo q ue l os d emäs t errenos h acia e l e ste.

9 2

2 ) E l v a lle d e C abanaconde t iene u na o r ient ac id n o blicua d e 4 5° e n d irecc iön s ur-oeste c on r especto a l r io C olca c on u na p endiente a scendente t ambien e n e sta d irecci A. 3 ) E l s o l a l a tardecer b ai ia e l v a lle s obre s u l ado e ste, t ambien s e u b ica l a m ayor c ant idad d e t errenos d e c u lt ivo q ue u na s uperficie s emic ircular r eceptora y a cumu ladora d el c alor.

d onde f orma

4 ) F ina lmente y c omo f actor d e i mportancia, u bicado e l v a lle d e C abanaconde s obre e l C a i iön d el r io C olca e n u n l ugar d onde s u l echo e sta ' a 2 ,000 m , r ec ibe e l a ire c aliente d el f ondo d el C aF iön, q ue a l s er e mpujado e n d irecc iön d el o este a l e ste d el v iento, a sc iende p or e l c a i io d eyect ivo d el v a lle y l o c limat iza c a lentändolo. E ste m icroclima m äs c d lido a s( f ormado d etermina u na r e lat iva e stabilidad d e l a t emperatura, s iendo m enos f recuentes l as h e ladas n octurnas q ue e n o tros l ugares d el v alle C olca, y f acilita l a e ficacia e n e l c ult ivo d e p lantas q ue e n e l v a lle a rriba e s ms d ificil l ograr. L a p rec ipitaciö n p luvial e s f avorable, s iendo d e 4 13 m m a nuales y a unque e sta c ant idad s ea i gual a l r esto d el v a lle d el C olca, e n C abanaconde l a t emporada d e luvias p arece s er ms p rolongada y c onstante e ntre l os m eses d e e nero y m arzo e n e spec ia l c on r especto a Y anque y H uambo, t a l c omo a parece e n l os c uadros d e r e g im e n d e d istribuc iön m ensua l d e luvia ( ONERN 1 973:11:44). E l r io H ualca H ualca p rovee d e a gua d urante t odo e l a l to a l v a lle, s iendo s u c audal m ayor e n l a e poca d e luvias e ntre n oviembre y m arzo. E ste r io c o lecta e l a gua d e d eshie los d el n evado H ualca H ualca d e n ieve p erpetua y t ambien d e v arios m anant ia les q ue c ontribuyen a e stabilizar s u c auda l. T oda e l a gua d e e ste r io s e u t iliza e n l a a gricultura. L as c ondiciones e colögicas y c limät icas s umadas a l a f ert ilidad d e l os s uelos d el g rupo A ndrosol V itrico y L itosol D esert ico, d e m ater iales d e o ri2en v olcänico, r esu ltan e n c ondiciones i dea les p ara e l c u lt ivo d el m aiz .

E L A SENTAMIENTO A CTUAL, S US C ULTIVOS Y E TNOGRAFIA E n l a a ctualidad l os h abitantes d el v a lle v iven c oncentrados e n e l p ueblo d e C abanaconde s ituado s obre u na d e l as e levaciones d e m edio v a lle a u na a lt itud d e 3 ,287 m , d e s uperf icie p lana, o cupando u n ä rea a proximada d e 3 2 h a. L as c a lles r ectas c orren d e e ste a o este f ormando u n c uadrillado i rregu lar. L a p oblaciön t ota l e s d e 3 ,421 h abitantes ( INE 1 981), c uya v ida e s c asi e xc lusivamente a ldeana, p ues e n e l p ueblo d esarro llan t odas s us a ct ividades d e c omercio, d e a dministraciön, y d e s ervicio. A ll( p asan l a n oche, s a liendo a l c ampo s ölo d urante e l d ia c uando s us a ct ividades a grarias o g anaderas l o e xigen. E sto l os d iferenc ia d e o tros p ueblos c ercanos c omo e l d e H uambo d onde g ran p arte d e s u p oblaciön h abita c asi t odo e l a i r o e n v iviendas a is ladas e n s us t errenos d e c u lt ivo, d istantes h asta 5 h oras d e c aminata d esde e l p ueblo a l q ue a s isten s ö lo a l as f iestas, a l as f unciones a dministrat ivas y p ara r ecibir s ervicios. V er C uadro 1 .

9 3

C uadro 1 . P oblacic in u rbana y r ural. C ensada e l 1 2 d e j u lio d e 1 981. P ueblo

T otal

U rbana

R ura l

C abanaconde H uambo T apay

3 ,421 1 ,369 9 97

9 4.5% 4 8.6% 2 1.8%

5 .5% 5 1.4% 7 8.1%

F uente:

I NE 1 981.

C uadro 2 . C u lt ivos d e C abanaconde e n 1 975 y 1 980. C u ltivos A lfalfa C ebada C ebada c ervecera M aiz g rano Q uinua ( Chenopodium q uinoa) T rigo M aiz c hoclo H aba v erde s eca 0 11uco ( Ullucus t uberosus) O ca ( Oxalis t uberosa) I za i io ( Tropaelum t uberosum ) P apa O tros T otal T otal

d e h a c u lt ivadas

F uente:

C ORDEA 1 981.

9 4

1 975

1 980

1 4.4% 4 .5% 4 .0% 6 7.5% 0 .9% 0 .3% 1 .3% 5 .0% 0 .3%

1 0.9% 4 .2% 7 5.5% 0 .2% 1 .3%

1 .7% 1 .8% 1 00.0%

6 .6% 0 .1% 0 .1% 0 .1% 0 .8% 0 .2% 1 00.0%

1 ,112 h a

8 28 h a

L as v iviendas s on c onstru Aas e n s u m ayoria p or h abitaciones r ectangu lares l argas y a ltas q ue e ncierran u n p at io c entra l, p ocas v eces u sado c omo c orra l, e l q ue q ueda d eträs d e t oda e l ä rea d e v ivienda. S e i ngresa a l as h abitaciones p or u n c a llejön a ncho d esde l a c alle a l p at io c entra l, p ero t ambien p uede h acerse d irectamente a u na d e l as h abitac iones q ue l a laman s a la y q ue s on u t ilizadas g eneralmente c omo t iendas c omerc ia les. L as p aredes t ienen u n b asamento d e p iedra h asta u n a lto d e 8 0 c m s obre q ue s e c olocan e n " soga" l as f ilas d e a dobe a unque u n g ran n dmero d e l as c asas t ienen p aredes d e p iedra d e c ampo y b arro. L os t echos s on d e d os a , g uas e mp leado c omo m ateria l l a p aja o l a c alamina y e sta d lt ima e s m as u t ilizada a hora. L a s alubridad e n e ste p ueblo e s c onoc ida c omo m a la e ntre l os d emäs, a unque e ste a nd( )s e h a i nsta lado e l s ervicio d e a gua y d esagüe. E xisten d iversos s ervicios e stata les d e l os q ue d estaca l a e ducaciö n, e stando C abanaconde e ntre l os t res p ueblos m ejor d otados p ara e l e fecto. L a p rincipa l a ct ividad d e s u p oblaciön e s l a a gricu ltura a unque s on i mportantes t ambien e l c omercio y l a g anaderia. E n e ste v alle s e s iembran a nualmente u n p romedio d e 1 ,000 h a b ajo r iego a unque e xiste a bandonada u na i nfraestructura a graria c onst ituida p or t errazas d e c ult ivo y c ana les q ue p odrian legar a l as 5 00 h a o m ucho m äs, c uyo a bandono d ataria c omo y a e xpondremos a delante d e d ist intas e p ocas . P räcticamente t oda l a i nfraestructura a graria e n u so a ctual f ue c onstruida y a e n e pocas p rehispänicas d esde c uando v iene s iendo u t ilizada. S d lo s e h an o bservado c u lt ivos b ajo r iego, s iendo l a m ayor p reocupac iön d e l os a gricu ltores l a e scasez d e a gua p ara e llos. L a f uente d e a gua e stä c onst ituida p or l os d eshielos d el n evado H ua lca H ualca y p or v arios m anant ia les, q ue a l d epender d e l a m ayor o m enor a cumu lacion d e n ieve y a gua d e s ubsuelo, q ue u t ilizan t oda e l a gua d isponible. A lgunas v eces l os a gricu ltores d ejan d e c u lt ivar u na p arte d e s us p arcelas, c omo p or e jemp lo e n e l a T io 1 980 q ue s e t uvo q ue d ejar d e c u lt ivar u n t ercio o u na d e c ada t res p artes d el ä rea a gricola. T odo e sto h a o bligado a q ue s e f orme u n a parato d e c ontrol d el r iego b ien e structurado y o rganizado q ue p osee m ucho p oder y a utoridad d entro d e l a e structura s oc ia l d e l a p oblaciön. L a i mportanc ia d el v a lle d e C abanaconde c omo p roductor d e m aiz e n t oda l a p rovinc ia d e C aylloma e s g rande. E sta p rovinc ia p rodujo e n 1 980 u n t ota l d e 1 ,154 t oneladas m et r icas d e m alz c osechado e n g rano, d el q ue 4 9.8% p rocedia d e C abanaconde. E n 1 975 s u p roducc iön f ue d el 5 5.2%. E l c u lt ivo d el m af z e n e l v a lle m ismo d e C abanaconde o cupa e l p rimer l ugar y a e st e s e l e d est inan e ntre 6 25 y 7 65 h a d e t ierras, q ue s on e l 7 5.5% d e l a f rontera a grico la ( Cuadro 2 ). E n 1 975 s e p rodujo e n C abanaconde 1 ,125 t one ladas m etricas d e m aiz e n g rano y e n 1 980 f ueron s olo 5 75 t one ladas. E l s egundo l ugar l o o cupa e l c u lt ivo d e a lfalfa, s iendo m ucho m enores c omparat ivamente l os d emäs c ult ivos d el v alle d e C abanaconde ( CORDEA 1 981). L os p ueblos m uy c ercanos a C abanaconde, e ntre e llos H uambo, T apay, y C osniwa, u bicados a a lt itudes m enores, t ienen s u p roducc iön a graria d ist inta. H uambo p roduce m aiz, p apas, q u inua, y c ebada, p ero e s r i n gs f amoso p or s u p roducc iö n d e r ocoto ( Capsicum p ubescens), a ji ( Capsicum a nnum ), l acayote ( Cucurb ita f icifolia ), y z apallo ( Cucurb ita m axima). n a5-a 7 y C osniwa s on f amosos e n t oda l a r egion p o r l a

9 5

p roducc iön d e d iversas f rutas d e c lima c ä lido y t emp lado c omo p eras, l ucuma ( Annonaceae p orce lia s affordiana) y m embrillo; p ero l as m anzanas y l a t una ( Opunt ia f icus ) s on l as f rutas m a 's i mportantes p ara l a p oblaciön. E n l as h uertas— g e rfondo d e l C anön s e p roducen f rutas d e c lima a un m äs c älido c omo e l o livo y e l p acae ( Inga f euillei) y e xisten n ot icias d el c u lt ivo d el f re jol ( Phaseolus v u-UaT is ). E sta v ariada p roducc iö n e s c omerc ia lizada c on l a g ente d e C abanaconde. T odavia e xiste l a p referencia p or e l i ntercambio d e e stos p roductos c on e l m aiz, e n d iversas m aneras p re-establecidas e n c uanto a l v olumen o n dmero d e p iezas d e l os p roductos, y u t ilizando v asijas, c estas, o m antos. E l c omercio d e l a m anzana y l a t una lega i nclusive a A requ ipa. E sta d lt ima e s l a q ue r esalta n o s ölo p or f ruta s ino p or q ue e n s u p lanta s e p uede c riar l a c ochinilla ( Dactylopius c onfusus), u n a nima l q ue a l s er r ecogido y s ecado p roduce u n t inte d e c olor r ojo-morado m uy v istoso y a preciado n o s olo p or l a g ente l oca l d esde e pocas p rehispänicas, s ino t ambien p or l a m oderna i ndustria e uropea q ue l o p rocesa. T apay t iene u n 4 2.7% d el t ota l d e t errenos c ult ivados d e t unas ( CORDEA 1 981) d e t odo e l v alle d el C olca. E xisten e n C abanaconde c inco c omerc iantes e xclusivos d e c ochinilla p ara s u c ompra y y enta p ara l a e xportaci A. D ebemos a gregar l a e x istenc ia s ilvestre d e p lantas c omo l a t ara ( Caesolp imia t inetoria) y e l m olle ( Schinus m olle) u t ilizadas p ara t en ir. L a g anaderia t ambie n e s i mportante e n e specia l l a d e l g anado v acuno. E n 1 979 s e c ensaron u na p oblaciön d e 2 ,570 a lpacas y d e 2 ,240 lamas p ertenecientes a C abanaconde p ero j untas s olo e ran u n 1 .7% d e l a p oblaci A d e t odo e l v alle d el C olca. L a p roducciön m aicera d e C abanaconde, q ue e s p rimord ia lmente d e a uto-consumo o e xclusivo p ara r ealizar t ransacc iones q ue a seguren l a s ubsistencia, n o s olo e s i mportante p ara e stas a ctividades c omerc iales c on l os d ist intos p ueblos d e a gricu ltores y c on l os p astores q u ienes legan e n t iempo d e c osecha a o fertar s us d iversos p roductos a grarios, c ärnicos, l anares, y d emäs p roductos m anufacturados c omo t ejidos o c e rd m ica , s i no q u e t a mb ie n r ige d e m anera i mportante e n l as r e lac iones d e p arentesco. E s i nteresante o bservar c omo l os d e l os p ueblos c ercanos t ienen m ucho i ntere s e n e stablecer m atrimonios c on l as m ujeres d e C abanaconde q ue t ienen f ama d e s er m ujeres b onitas e n e sta r e g ion p o r e l f uerte m est izaje d urante l a c olonia. T ambien l es i nteresa h acerse c ompadres c on l as f amilias d e C abanaconde, p ues e sto l es p ermite t ener a cceso a t ierras d e u na o pt ima p roductividad m aicera. L os h abitantes d e C abanaconde c onservan u na f uerte d iferenciac id n c on l os d emäs p ueblos d e l v alle d el C olca q ue s e p lasma e n s us c ostumbres, s us f iestas, s u c omportamiento, s u p ersona lidad, y m uy v isiblemente e n s u v est ido, e n e special e l v est ido d e l as m ujeres. U t ilizan e xc lusivamente u n s ombrero r edondo d e p ai ro, r ecargado d e b ordados, u nas f a ldas l argas y u n c orpf no c orto t ambien c on m uchos b ordados m u lticolores d e p d jaros , p eces, f lores y s imbolos. T oda l a d ecorac iön s e d iferenc ia d e l os d emäs p ueblos e n l a v ariedad, e l n dmero y l a f orma.

s u d e

T odas e stas c aracterist icas d el a sentam iento d e C abanaconde y d e p oblaciön l os h acen d ist intos d entro d e t odo e l v a lle d el C olca y l a r egiön d e A requ ipa y , e sto p odria s er c onsecuencia d el l argo

9 6

p roceso d e d esarro llo h istör ico e fectuado e n e ste v alle q ue v eremos e n a delante.

P RIMERAS E VIDENCIAS D E O CUPACION Y L A LEGADA D E W ARI A L V ALLE L os r econoc im ientos a rqueolö gicos e fectuados n os h an p ermit ido e ncontrar e videncias m uy e scasas p or a hora d e l as p rimeras e pocas d e o cupaciön a graria e n e l v alle. N o s e t rata d e a lgün a sentamiento e specificamente s ino d e u n l ugar f unerario a l q ue s e e ncuentra a soc iada e n l a s uperficie u nas f ormas d e c erämica q ue p odrian s er a nteriores a t odas l as e xpresiones c erämicas d e l os d emäs s it ios a rqueolögicos. E l s it io d e A uqui, u bicado e n l a l adera s ur d el v a lle a u na a lt itud a proximada d e 3 ,200 m d irectamente s obre e l n ivel d e c u lt ivos i rrigados, e stä c onst ituido p or u n g rupo d e t umbas s ubterräneas . E stas f ueron e xcavadas e n u n t erreno d e a luviön c uya s uperficie e s d e b aja p endiente. L uego d e t erminado e l p ozo e s t e f ue r evest ido p or p iedras d e u n p romedio d e 1 0 c m d e t a l m anera q ue f ormaba u n c i lindro d e u nos 8 0 c m d e d iämetro q ue f inalmente e ra c errado t erminando e n f orma d e b oveda. L as t umbas o bservadas f ueron d estruidas p or l a c onstrucc iön d e l a c arretera h acia H uambo q ue l as d eja v isibles e n s u c orte. N o s e h an e ncontrado e n s u l impieza r estos d el e nt ierro s ino t an s olo a lgunos d ispersos f ragmentos p equ dos d e c erämica. E stos f ragmentos p ertenecen a f ormas m uy c erradas d e u na e spec ie d e o llas s in c uello. S u p asta e s g ruesa p ero h omogenea c on d esgrasantes d e g ränulos d e c uarzo m uy v isibles y l a c o cc id n e s r educida d e c o lor m arrön 5 YR 5 /4. L os b ordes n o p resentan f orma d e c oma s ino r ecta y a cabada d e s us s uperficies i nteriores y e xteriores, y s on r estregados d ejando e strias p rofundas. N o p odemos a firmar l a e p oc a al a q u e p e rt enecen e s t os r e st os y t ampoco e stablecer u na a s oc iac id n c e rt era c o n t errenos d e c u lt ivo, a unque p odria s uponerse q ue a l e star e ste c ementerio u bicado d irectamente s obre e l l imite s uper ior d e l as t ierras i rrigadas, e s t as p o dri an h aber f unc ionado y a d esde e sa e p oca . P or l o q ue s e c onoce e n e l v a lle d e C abanaconde, t odavi a c arecemos d e i nformaciön s ufic iente a cerca d e l a e p oc a a n t er ior a l a legada d e l os e lementos W an , d e t a l m anera e l a sentamiento m äs a nt iguo, y a l m ismo t iempo, e stä b ien c aracterizado y c on b uenas a soc iaciones q ue l o s ituan e n e l H orizonte M edio d e l os A ndes C entra les, e s A chachiwa. A chachiwa e s u n g ran c entro d e p oblaciön u bicado e n u na e levaciön e n m edio d el v alle a u na a lt itud d e 3 ,131 m . S obre e lla e xiste u na s uperficie p lana c on o tras e levac iones a is ladas d e u nos 2 0 a3 0 m d e a lto. E l a sentamiento s e c aracteriza p or p oseer u na m ura lla m uy b ien c onstruida d el e st ilo w an i q ue a lcanza u na a ltura d e 5m y u n a ncho d e 2 .80 m e n e l t ramo m ejor c onservado. T oda s u m anposteria e s d e p iedra d e c ampo d e d iversos t ama i ios. E ste m uro e ncierra u n r ectängu lo d e 7 00 m d e l argo y 5 00 m d e a ncho, y a demäs d e e ste m uro, e xisten r estos d e

9 7

o tro m uro e xterior e n s us c ostados s ur y o este d9 a ndo u na f ranja d e t erreno e ntre a mbos, d e a ncho v ariable. L a p osicion e st rate g ica y s u s c aracter ist icas c o nst ruct ivas l e d an a l l ugar m ucha s eguridad. V er F igura 2 y F igura 3 . E n e l i nterior d e l a m ura lla s e e ncuentran e videnc ias d e q ue e xist ieron v iviendas c onstruidas s obre a terrazamientos d e b aja a ltura a unc jue n os h a s ido d ificil r econstruir s us f ormas y d istribucidn, p ues e stan m uy d estruidas y c asi n o q uedan e videncias d e m uros e n l a s uperficie. E s p osible s uponer q ue p artes d e e llas f ueron c onstruidas d e m adera o N ecesitamos e xcavar p ara c onocerlo. L o m a 's r esaltante e s l a a bundante f ragmenteria d e c e rdm ica q u e s e e n cuentra e n l a s uperficie. E sto n os p uede d ar l a i dea d e q ue l a c ant idad d e g ente v iviendo a ll( f ue n umerosa, o q ue e l p eriodo d e o cupac iö n h abia s ido l argo. E l e studio d e l a c erämica t odavia v iene r ea lizä ndose p ero t enemos a hora u na a proximaciön c onf iable. L a c eräm ica p resenta f ormas m uy e mparentadas c on e l e st ilo W an i y s e h an e ncontrado a lgunos f ragmentos d e l e stilo W an i Q oscopa, m äs d ifundido e n e l v a lle d e C huquibamba ( Lumbreras 1 974). V er F igura 1 2. E xisten a demä s u n g ran n ümero d e f ormas c uya d ecoraciön n o s e r econoce t odavia y n o p uede r e lacionarse e strictamente c on W an . P or e ste m otivo e stamos b uscando c onocer c uä les s on l as e xpresiones c erämicas l ocales y s u p osiciön c ronolögica. A l b uscar e n l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo l as e videncias d e c erämica d e e sta e poca , e n contramos a e lla d istribuida e n c asi t odos l os t errenos e n u so a ctual d el f ondo d el v alle, y e n o tros c ercanos a l a sentamiento y e n u nos q ue e stän a bandonados. D ebemos d ec ir q ue l a c antidad p resente d e e stos t ipos d e c erämica e n l os t errenos d e c ult ivo e s m uy p equenia , e n e special c uando e s c omparada c on e l v olumen d e l a d e e pocas p osteriores. E stos t errenos s e c aracterizan p or s er a terrazamientos r egu lares, l a m ayoria d e e llos c on u n a ncho v ariable e n 8m om a 's y u n l argo d e 3 0 a 7 0 m o m äs. E sto s e d ebe a l a b aja p endiente d el t erreno. S us m uros s e c onstruyeron c on c antos r odeados n o s eleccionados p or s u t am Ao y t ienen u n a parejo d escuidado q ue lega a u na a ltura d e 1 .50 m . E stos s ost ienen u n r e lleno h omogeneo d e t ierra n o s eleccionada. C ada a terrazamiento e stä c ircundado p or u n b orde d e t ierra y u n c ana l q ue n o p ermite q ue e l a gua d esborde y d estruya e l a nden s obre e l q ue s e d istribuyen u na s erie d e c anales p erpendicu lares y a veces p ara lelos a l m uro d e c ontenciö n, s egU n s ea e l a ncho d el a terrazamiento. S obre e l l as p lantas d e m aiz s on d istribuidas d e m anera r egu lar y a veces i rregu lar, p ero c asi n unca e n s urcos s ino c olocadas e n l a s uperficie p lana. E xiste u n g rupo d e t ierras d e c u lt ivo a bandonadas q ue e stän a l l ado, o este d el a sentamiento d e A chachiwa y t ienen c asi e xclusivamente c eramica d e l a e poca W an i e n s u s uperf icie. E sta i nteresante c aracter i/s t ica n os p ermite n o s olo t ener u n f echado r e lat ivo d e s u u so s ino t ambie n d e s u a bandono q ue s e t-f a i nmediatamente d espues d e l a d eclinaciö n d e W an , p or n o e xist ir f ragmentos d e c erämica d e e p ocas

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F igura 3 .

V ista p arcial d e l a m uralla i nterior d el l ado s ur d e A chachiwa. T iene 4 .50 m d e a lto y 3 m d e a ncho. L a c ergm ica a sociada a e lla e s d e e stilo W an .

F igura 4 .

M uro d e a nden c erca d e A chachiwa. S e o bserva l a m anera p eculiar d e u t ilizar p iedras g randes y p equei i as e n s u c onstrucciön. A lto d e 5 0 c m. 1 00

E xisten c aminos y c ana les a soc iados a e stos t errenos y q ue l os r e lacionan c on e l a sentamiento. E stos n os d aran i nformaciön s obre e l p apel q ue j ugö e ste p oblado e n e l c ontrol y d istribuc idfn d el a gua y s obre l a f orma c omo f ueron d ejados d e u t ilizar. V er F igura 4 .

L OS A SENTAMIENTOS D E L A E POCA P OSTERIOR A W ARI U na v ez a bandonado e l s it io d e A chachiwa, s e o bservö u n c ambio e n e l p atrön d e a sentamiento. L as a ldeas s e d istribuyeron y a n o s ö lo e n u n l ugar y e n e l c entro d el v a lle, s ino p or e l c ontrario e n v arios l ugares, e n l as l aderas d el v alle. T ampoco o cuparon p referentemente p artes p lanas s ino q ue s e s ituaron e n l as c imas d e l os c erros y s us l aderas. T odavia s e n ota u na i ntenc iö n p ara q ue s u u bicaciön f uera e strategica e n e specia l p ara e l c ontrol d e l i ngreso d e l os c ana les d e a gua a l v alle, y a unque y a n o e stdn p resentes l as m ura llas s e a provecha e fect ivamente d e l a p endiente y t opografia d el c erro p ara l a d efensa y s eguridad d e l a sentamiento. E x isten e ntonces v ar ios l ugares d onde s e e ncuentra a sentada l a p oblaciön, p ero n o t odos t ienen e l m ismo t ama i io n i c omp lejidad n i j erarquia, s iendo m uy n otoria l a p r imaci a d e u na a ldea m ayor y m ds c omp leja e i mportante s obre l os d emds l ugares. E n C abanaconde e st a s eria K a llimarca. K allimarca, c onoc ida t ambien c omo U chui K allimarca ( Neira 1 961), s e u bica e n l a c ima d e l c erro d el m ismo n ombre a u na a ltura d e 3 ,525 m e n e l s ur o este d el v alle, e n u n d rea d e 3 5 h a. L a c ima d e e st e e s d e s uperficie s uave p ero s us l aderas s on d e f uerte p endiente. T odavia n o s e h an d eterminado c udles d e l os c aminos q ue a ll( legan s on l os q ue d ieron a cceso y t ampoco s e c onocen e videncias d e q ue s us r ec intos h ayan p oseido i rrigaciö n, c osa q ue e s p oco p robable. L as h abitac iones s on i ndividuales d e f orma r ectangu lar c on u na p uerta. S us t amai ios v arian e ntre l os 4 p or 4 m y l os 4 p or 1 0 m . S u o r ient ac iö n d epende d e l a t opografia d el t erreno y g enera lmente s iguen l as c urvas d e n ivel. B ai rada p or e l s ol d e l a m ania na y p rotegida d el v iento, l a l adera e ste e s l a m ds p oblada, y a demds p or e lla i ngresan l os c ana les d e r iego a l v alle. E n l a c ima l as h abitaciones s on m a 's r egu lares y e stdn d istribuidas a l os c ostados d e u na c alle d e 2m d e a ncho q ue a traviesa a l o l argo d el c erro d e s ur a n orte, u niendo m ds e spacios a biertos a m anera d e p lazas d e 1 5 a2 0 m d e l ado. E ste l ugar n o p osee p or a hora d ataciones a bsolutas. P or e ste m ot ivo n os v alemos d e l a c e rdm ica p a ra l a a p rox imac iö n c ronolö gica. E l p roblema r ad ica e n q ue a l n o s er b ien c onoc idas l as e xpresiones d e c e rä m ica d e e sta e p oca , r e curr imos a r e conocer c u ä les s o n l as f ormas c erdmicas q ue n o p ertenecen n i a l e st ilo W an i n i a l I nca. L a c e rdm ica q u e s e e n cuent ra e n K a llimarca p uede d ividirse e n d os g rupos g randes: l a c e rd m ica d el e st ilo I nca y o tra q ue n o l o e s lamada h asta a hora C ollagua o C huqu ibamba ( Neira 1 961). D e e sta m anera s e o bservan d os e pocas m arcadas d e f uncionamiento d el l ugar. L a e p oca I n ca l a d escribimos m a 's a de lante. L a c erdmica q ue n o p ertenece a l a e poca I nca s e c aracteriza p or p oseer u na v ariedad d e f orma d e t azas, o llas, c dntaros y j arras. L as t azas t ienden a s er a ltas y c erradas c on u n e ngobe r ojo b rillante y

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p u lido e n e l e xterior y c on u na d ecorac iö n d e l fneas n egras q ue e xpresan m ot ivos g eometricos d e l fneas, t r iängu los, s emicfrcu los y t ambien f iguras z oomorfas, e n e specia l d e a ves. V er F igura 1 36. L a c erämica a ntes d escrita s e e ncuentra d istribufda e n c asi t odos l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo e n e l v alle d e C abanaconde, e i nclusive e n v arios d e l os t errenos d onde t odavfa n o s e h an e d ido e ncontrar f ormas r e lacionados c on e l e st ilo W an . E sto i ndicaria q ue csi t odos l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo q ue y a s e c onstruyeron e n l a 9oca d e W ani c ont inuaron s iendo u t ilizados e i nclusive, s e a mp lio l a f rontera a grfcola. L os n uevos t errenos e stän u bicados m äs e n e l l ado e ste d el v alle y a n iveles d e m ayor a lt itud. A unque h asta l a f echa n o h a p odido e stablecer u na t ipologfa d e e stas t errazas d e c u lt ivo, s e p uede a firmar q ue u nas c ont indan s iendo i guales a l os d e l a d poca a nterior e n c uanto a s u t e cn ica c o nst ruct iva y e n s u f orma y d imensiones , c osas d lt imas q ue e stän r elacionadas c on l a t o pogra da y p endientes. O tras a reas d e t errazas p resentan d iferencias c onstructivas, e s d ec ir p oseen s us m uros d e c ontenc iön m äs e levados y a ltos a sf c omo s u l argo e s v ariable y s us r e llenos d e t ierra s elecc ionada. L as r azones s on t opogräficas, p ero t ambien p ueden s er c u ltura les. N o s e h a e fectuado t odavfa u n e studio ms p rofundo d e l a r e laciö n e ntre l as d ist intas z onas d e t errenos d e c u lt ivo y l os d ist intos l ugares d onde s e e ncuentra a sentada l a p oblac i A, n i t ampoco d e l a d istribuciön d e e stos c on r especto a l c ontro l d e c ana les y d iversos r ecursos, p ero p arece q ue e xisten v incu los p rofundos a l r especto.

E L E STABLECIMIENTO D E L OS I NCAS E N E L V ALLE L as e videncias d el e stablecimiento d e l os I ncas e n C abanaconde s on m uchas y r evelan l a i mportanc ia q ue t uvo e ste v alle p ara e l i mperio. E stas p ueden d ividirse e n d os g rupos: ( 1 ) t odas l as c onstrucciones y d emäs r estos q ue s e h icieron e n l os a sentamientos d e l as p oblaciones l ocales y a e xistentes, y ( 2 ) l as c onstrucc iones i ncaicas d e e st ilo c uzqueno e n m edio d el v alle. D entro d el p rimer g rupo s e c onsideran l os l ugares d e v ivienda d e K allimarca, U mahuasi, y A nt isana e n l os c ua les s e e ncuentra a demäs d e l a c e rä m ica i n ca , c e räm ica l ocal lamada C huqu ibamba o C ollagua d onde l a p oblaciön t ambie n l oca l h abrfa e stado a sentada. S obre e llos l os I ncas a l legar i ntrodujeron s us e lementos c u ltura les c omo s u c eräm ica y e dificaron n uevas c onstrucciones. E n l a a ldea d e K a llimarca a que llo e s m äs r epresentat ivo. E n l o q ue h emos lamado P arte C entra l d e e lla, l os i ncas c onstruyeron m uros d e c ontenc iön d e 5 y 7 m d e a lto c on p iedras d e h asta 5 0 c m y a l r e llenar los c on t ierra y p iedras f ormaron a mp lios a terrazamientos q ue u t ilizaron c omo d os p lazas. E n t orno a e llas s e c onstruyeron g randes h abitaciones d e f orma r ectangu lar d e 1 7 y 2 7 m d e l argo y 7 m d e a ncho. E ntre a mbas p lazas s e l evantö u n u zno, e dificio r ectangu lar d e 1 0 m d e l argo y 5 m d e a ncho a l q ue s e ac 7 i i di a d esde u na d e l a p lazas m ediante u na e scalinata c entra l o rientada d e n orte a s un c on 1 2 g rados d e d esviaciön. V er F iguras 5 y 6 . T oda e sa a rqu itectura r evela c laramente s u f unc iö n a dministrat iva y c eremonia l. L as o tras c onstrucc iones s on d iferentes e n c uanto a s u 1 02

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F igura 6 .

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F igura 7 .

M uro d e h abitaciö n q ue m uestra e n a parejo ms c omün e n K a llimarca y q ue t iene a soc iada c ergmica d el G rupo C , od e l e st ilo I nca.

1 04

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1 06

t amai to y d isposiciön, s iendo e sta d iferenc ia f unc iona l y n o c ronolö gica. S on h abitac iones r ectangu lares d e 5a7m d e l argo y 4 m d e a ncho. S e h an c ontado d e l as m ejor c onservadas u nas 7 0 h abitaciones d e l as q ue u n 8 0% c omparte l as t e cnicas c onstruct ivas c on l os e d ificios d e l a P arte C entral, h aciendo l os m uros d e p iedras c anteadas c olocadas h orizonta lmente e n d oble h i lera, o bteniendo u n a parejo m uy r egu lar. A demäs s e e ncuentra c erdmica I nca a soc iada a e stas c onstrucciones, l o q ue i mp lica q ue t a les f ueron h echas e n l a m isma e p oc a . V er F igura 7 . E l s egundo g rupo c onsiste e n u n n d mero r educido d e v iviendas q ue s e u bican d entro d el p oblado a ctual d e C abanaconde. N o c oinciden e n s u o rientaciön n i e n s u d isposic iön c on e l t razo e spa i iol d e l as c alles a ctuales. H ay r estos d e e stos e dif icios y a demäs u n g ran c ant idad d e c e r4m ica I nca d ispersa e n a lgunas z onas d el p ueblo. L as c asas s on r ectangu lares d e 8 m d e l argo y 5 m d e a ncho. U na d e e llas t iene 5 .5 m d e a lto, s u t echo d e p aja e s a d os a guas y e s h abitada e n l a a ctua lidad p or u na a nciana. V er F igura 1 0. E stdn c onstruidas p or h i leras d e p iedras l abradas y p u lidas a l e st ilo c uzque i lo. E l c onjunto m ejor c onservado s e e ncuentra c erca d e A nt isana, e n l a m anzana s ur o este p roxima a l a p laza d el p ueblo. V er F igura 1 1. S on t res h abitaciones a lineadas q ue p oseen c orral y d epösito e xterior p ara a lmacenar e l m aiz e n s u t a llo. E n l a c asa h abitada a l p arecer s e h icieron m od ificaciones e n e l i nterior d urante l a e p oc a e spa i iola. A demäs, e n o tros l ugares d e l p ueblo, s e e ncuentran p iedras l abradas y p u lidas e n a quel e st ilo, d ispersas o f ormando p arte d e l os m uros d e c asas q ue f ueron c onstruidas o r econstruidas c on e llas r espetando e l t razo u rbano e sp dol. A sociada a e stas e videnc ias s e e ncuentra c erämica d el G rupo C , p udiendose i dent if icar a lgunos f ragmentos p rocedentes d el C uzco m ismo, d el e st ilo C uzco P olicromo ( Rowe 1 944: F ig. 1 8, n ümeros 1 7, 1 8, 1 9, 2 2 y2 3). N o h emos e ncontrado m ayores e videnc ias q ue r eve lan e l c ontacto e ntre C abanaconde y e l ä rea d el a lt ip lano d el T it icaca. E n U mahuasi e ncontramos l as b ases d e u na s ola c hu lpa c ircu lar q ue p odria c orresponder a t a l v (ncu lo y e n e l p ueblo d e C abanaconde e ncontramos u n f ragmento d el e st ilo S illustani N egro s obre R ojo ( Tschopik 1 946: F ig. 1 2) q ue p udo h aber legado p or c omercio. E l ä rea d e t errenos d e c u lt ivo t iene u n c onsiderable i ncremento d urante e sta e p oca . E sto s e c onsigue m ediante l a c o nst rucc iö n d e u n c ana l q ue v iene d e l as c ercanias d e l a l a/g una d e M ucurca, r ecorriendo u nos 1 5 k m d e d istancia. E l c ana l i rrigo t errenos a ltos a l e ste d el v alle h asta u na a lt itud c ercana a l os 4 000 m . V er F igura 1 4, s ector 6 ). A demgs d el c ana l, a quellos t errenos s on r egados p or m anant ia les, p or l os d eshielos q ue b ajan d e l n evado H ualca H ualca y a l p arecer a lgunas z onas f ueron c u lt ivadas c on luvias. E sos t errenos s on m uy d ist intos e n s u f orma y e n s u c onstrucciö n. S on a ndenes a mp lios c uyo a ncho v aria e ntre l os 5 y 3 0 m . S us m uros d e c ontenciö n s on b ajos d e 0 .5 o 1 m d e a lto. S u c aracterist ica p rincipal e s q ue s u s uperf icie n o e s an ivel s ino p or e l c ontrario s u s uperficie p osee u na p endiente q ue a lcanza u n 2 0% y p or l o t anto t ienen b uen d renaje. L os p obladores a ctuales a firman q ue s on b uenos t errenos p ara

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F igura 1 0.

U na v ivienda d el e stilo i nca c uzqueno, t a l v ez c onstruida p or g ente v enida d el C uzco. L os e spa i ioles e stablecieron s obre e llas l a r educciön.

F igura 1.

C onjunto d e h abitaciones d el a ntiguo a sentamiento d e C abanaconde c onstruido p or l os I ncas c uzquer los. S e u t ilizö l a m isma t ecnologia q ue h ay e n e l C uzco.

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s embrar p apa, o ca ( Oxalis t uberosum ) e i zano ( Tropae lum t uberosum ), y q ue e n a lgunos a ndenes s e s embraron e stos h ace y a v ar ios a los. C asi n o h a s ido p osible e ncontrar c erämica a sociada a e stos a ndenes y l os p ocos f ragmentos c onsegu idos t ienen l a m isma p asta c omo l os d e l a e p o c a I nca. E s c laro q ue t odos e stos t errenos y l os d el 911e m ismo c onstruidos e n e pocas a nteriores, f uncionaron d urante l a e poca i nca.

C ABANACONDE D URANTE L A O CUPACION E SPANOLA L os e spano les legaron a l v alle d el C olca e n l a c uarta d ecada d el s iglo X VI. C on s u u bicac iön e s t rate g ic a c e rcana a l C uzco y s iendo p aso o bligado p ara legar a il( d esde e l m ar, e ste v alle c obrd/ m ucha i mportancia. P or e sto e ra l a s egunda d e l as e ncomiendas d e A requipa e n e stablecerse. E l 1 d e a gosto d e 1 535 s e c oncediö e n c alidad d e d epö sito a C ristobal P e rez y a s u h ijo J uan d e A rbes e l C acique d e C abana c on 1 ,500 h ombres y t ambie n l os c aciques y p ueblos d e A yamarca, T irpa, P aseya, A pi, A ymora, Q u iguar, T ayan, G uanca, M arco, Z a lea, Y ura, T urco, G uaman, P ituo, y G ualliqu iman ( Manrique 1 985). D espues s e h icieron c argo d e e llos d urante 3 6 Aos n uevos e span 'oles e ntre d isputas y l uchas p or l a p osesiön d e e stos r epartimientos h asta 1 571 c uando legö F rancisco d e T oledo. E n e l p ropio v alle d e C abanaconde l os e spa i ioles e ncontraron a l a p oblaciön d istribufda t anto e n m edio d el v alle, e n A ntisana y C abanaconde, l ugares d onde s e e stablecieron l os c uzqu dos, c omo t ambien e n l as a ldeas e n l as l aderas d el v alle, e n l os c erros d onde l a p oblaciön l ocal h abfa p ermanecido d espues d el e stablecimiento d e l os I ncas e n e ste y e n v arios o tros l ugares m a ' s p equei ios d e c ardcter r ural. E sto s e p uede c ertificar e n l a d ocumentaciön d el s iglo X VI: ..Aunque a ntes d e l a v isita g eneral y a d icha t enfan m uchos p oblezuelos; a gora, p or o rden d el d icho sdor d on F rancisco d e T oledo, s e r edujeron a l os p ueblos m ayores e ms c ömodos, d onde v iven ( U lloa M ogollön 1 965:328). T oda l a p oblaciön e xistente e n e l v alle d e C abanaconde f ue r educida d e e sta m anera a l a ctual p ueblo d e C abanaconde s obre e l m ismo a sentamiento q ue l os d el C uzco e stablecieron a l legar a e ste v alle. L ope d e S uazo v isitö e sta p rovincia e ntre 1 571 y 1 574 p or e ncargo d e T oledo p ara e stablecer l as r educciones: P rocurando q ue s ean l os m ismos p ueblos q ue s er p udiera... T razar l os d ichos p ueblos p or s us c alles y c uadras a nchas y d erechas, a lejando e l n dmero d e p laza y s it io p ara l a i glesia, s i n o l a h ubiere, y p ara c asa d e s acerdote, y s olar p ara c asas d e c omunidad, y c abildo y j uzgado d e l os a lcaldes q ue h an d e h aber y c ärcel... ( Toledo 1 924:164). E sta n ueva f orma d e u rbanizaciö n r esu ltö b astante d ura p ara l os p obladores o ripinarios d el v alle, c ondicionändoles a u na v ida d ist inta q ue a carrearia a l q uebrantamiento d e s us v iejas c ostumbres y r elaciones. E ll s f ueron l os q ue s oportaron m äs f uertemente l as d isposiciones:

1 09

I ten, t razareis l as c asa d e l os i nd ios q ue t engan l as p uertas a l as c alles p dblicas y q ue n inguna c asa t enga o tra p uerta q ue s alga a c asa d e o tro i ndio, s ino q ue c ada i ndio t enga s u c asa a parte ( Toledo 1 924:164). T odo e ste p roceso d e c ambio e n e l p atrö n d e a sentamiento y e n e l a sentamjento m ismo d ebia e fectuarse e n u n t iempo b astante c orto e n q ue s e h ablan f ijado p ara q ue l os i ndios s e t ras ladasen a l os n uevos p ueblos y q ue a l n o s er c ump lidos s e h arian m erecedores a c ast igos t anto l os p obladores c omo s us c ac iques ( Md laga 1 977). A rqueolö gicamente s e e ncuentran e videncias d e q ue e n t a l c ambio p roponderö l a v iolencia y l a p repotencia d e l a a utoridad e spanola. S e h an e ncontrado e n l as a ldeas d e l os p obladores l ocales c omo K a llimarca q ue a lgunas d e s us v iviendas f ueron q uemadas y c onservan a i m nl as p aredes e nluc idas d e b arro, t ota lmente c ocido p or e l i ncendio. A d iferencia d e e sto l as c asas d e l os d el C uzco, s ituadas e n C abanaconde, s obre l os q ue e stablec ieron l os e spal ro les, s igu ieron f uncionando y a lgunas d e e llas s e c onservan h asta h oy i ntactas. V er F iguras 1 0 y 1. H asta e sta f echa e n q ue s e e stablec ieron l as r educc iones, l a p oblaciö n h abia d escendida e normemente. A ntes d e e stablecerse l os c orregimientos e n 1 530, e xistia u na p oblaciön d e 1,184 h abitantes y e n 1 570, c uando s e i nstalö l a r educc iön, s o lo h ubo 6 ,024 p ersonas ( Cook 1 982). E sto s e a crecentö c on e l c ambio d el p atron d e a sentamiento y a s( m uchos t errenos d e c u lt ivo f ueron a bandonados p or l as i ncomodidades q ue o frecia l a r educciön p ara e l l aboreo n orma l d e l os a gricu ltores. E sto i mp lica d os p roblemas: ( 1) E l a bandono d e l as t ierras d e c u lt ivo d urante e sta e poca f ue e n p arte p or e l c ambio d el p atrö n d e a sentamiento q ue a fectö a l as d emas p artes d e l a e structura d e o rganizaciö n y f unc ionamiento s ocia l ( Md laga 1 977). E sto s e p uede o bservar e n d ocumentos p ertenec ientes a o tras d r e a s . S e r edujeron e n p ueblos e n l as p artes q ue p areciö ms c ömodas a l os v isitadores y p arece q ue s erdn p ermanentes...puesto q ue a lgunos f ueron r educidos d e d os l eguas y d e u na l egua, s iempre s e q uejan d ic iendo q ue e n s us p ueblos v iejos t ienen s us s ementeras, q ue e ilos d icen c hacarras, y q ue l es d a m ucho t rabajo i llas a b erif iciar ( Monzön 1 965:239). ( 2) E l s egundo p roblema s e r efiere a l a b aja d e l a d ensidad p oblaciona l. A l e stablecerse l os r epart imientos, s e d iö e n e llos a l os e spai loles n o e xclusivamente t errenos s ino l os c uracas c on l as p ersonas q ue l es p ertenecian. A s( l a p oblaciö n s e c onvirt iö e n u na f orma d e r iqueza n o s ölo p or l os t ributos q ue d e e llos s e r ecogieron s ino t ambien p or s u f uerza d e t rabajo m ovilizable, i nc lusive a o tros t erritorios. D e e sta m anera a l a brirse l as m inas, l as d e P otosi e n e special, m ucha g ente q ue y a e staba a islada d e s us c u lt ivos e n l as r educciones f dcilmente p udo s er e mp leada e n l a m ineria. P ero l as r educciones n o s olo f acilitaron d e e sta m anera e l d escenso d e l a p oblaciön. M uchas d e l as e nfermedades t raidas p or l os e spar ioles p rosperaron e n l os p ueblos c oncentrados q ue f ormaron l os e spa7 lo les.

10

M uchos c ampos d e c u lt ivo e n C abanaconde n o p resentan l as f ormas d e c erdmica q ue s e e ncuentra e n e l p ueblo d e C abanaconde y q ue p ertenecen a u na e tapa t radiciona l d e l os e st ilos p rehispdnicos o l as f ormas e spaY rolas d e c erdmica v idriada.

E L C RITERIO C RONOLOGICO T odo e l o rdenam iento d e l os c ambios y l a e laboracid n d e l as h ipötesis s obre l os p atrones d e a sentam iento q ue h emos e xpuesto, t ienen c omo b ase c ronolö gica l os c ambios y d iferenc ias e n l a c erdmica. P ara e l v alle d e C abanaconde n o e xisten p or a hora f echados a bsolutos y t ampoco f echas r e lat ivas e n f unc iön d e l a e strat igrafia. P or e ste m ot ivo s olo u t ilizamos a l a c erdmica y a l as c aracterist icas a rqu itectönicas c omo i ndicadores c ronolö gicos d e l os e ventos. E l p roblema s e h ace m uy c omp lejo p orque n o t enemos u n c onoc imiento c abal d e e st ilos c erdmicos d el v a lle d el C olca y t ampoco s u p osiciön c ronold gica, a l os c ua les r ecie n e stamos f ormu lando l as p rimeras a proximaciones q ue c ont inuargn s iendo r eformadas y m ejoradas c on m ayores e studios. U tilizamos e ntonces c omo c omparat ivos a d os e st ilos m uy b ien c onoc idos y c aracterizados e st ilist icamente y c ronolö gicamente e n o tras r egiones. N os s irvieron p ara e llos l as f ormas d el e st ilo W an , e ncontrados e n A chachiwa, y l as d el e st ilo I nca. L uego r econocimos q ue f ormas d e c erämica n o p ertenecian a a mbos e st ilos, f ormando c on e llos u n ut ercer g rupo". L a e laboraciön d e l a s ecuencia c ronolö gica d e l a m ayor ia d e e stas f ormas s e c o n s igu iö c uando a plicando u n p rinc ipio d e up resenc ia-ausencia u , b uscamos c ug les d e l os s it ios a r qu eo ld g ic o s t e ni a n c erdm ica d el e st ilo W an i y q ue s it ios d el e st ilo I nca, d ebiendo e stos p ertenecer a l H orizonte M edio d e l os A ndes C entra les y H orizonte T ardio, r espect ivamente. A demd s, o bservamos q ue l a c erdmica I nca e std p resente e n a lgunos s it ios c on l a c erdmica d e l t ercer g rupo, y a s u v ez e sta d el t ercer g rupo s e l a e ncontraba d e m anera i ntrusiva o s uperpuesta e n l as c onstrucc iones d e A chachiwa d e l a e p oc a W an . D e e sta m anera c o locamos a l a c erdm ica d el t ercer g rupo c omo p erteneciente a l a e p oc a i nt rmedia e ntre W an i e I nca. S e h a v enido lamando a e ste g rupo d e c eramica c omo C huqu ibamba o C ollagua ( Neira 1 961:196, L inares M a laga 1 981). A p esar d e q ue h emos s egregado a e ste " tercer g rupo" c o locgndolo e ntre W an i e I nca, o bservamos u na g ran c omp lejidad e n e l, n o s olo e n s us c aracter i/s t icas s ino e n l a m anera c omo s e l e e ncuentra a soc iado. A lgunas f ormas d e c erdmica q ue s e v iene lamando c omo C huqu ibamba o C o llagua p resentan c aracterist icas e mparentadas c on I nca y a demds e stgn a soc iados e n l ugares i ncas. P or e stos m ot ivos p ensamos q ue n o p odemos c olocar a l e st ilo C huqu ibamba o C ollagua e xc lusivamente e n e l p eriodo I ntermedio T ardio d e l os A ndes C entrales d ebiendo c onsiderar a e ste e st ilo c omo u na t radiciön d e a mp lia t empora lidad d e u n p roceso q ue c omience t a l v ez a ntes d e l a legada d e W an i a l v a lle. E sta a f irmaciön t odavia e sta ' a u n n ivel d e h ipötesis e n l a q ue e stamos t rabajando. N ecesitamos m ayor i nformaciön e strat igrdfica y f echados r adiocarbönicos.

u n

P or t odo l o e xpuesto, c onsideramos q ue e l p resente t rabajo t iene d e u n e nfoque p re liminar d e a proximaci A a l p roceso d e

c a rd ct e r

11

c ambios e n l os p atrones d e a sentamientos y e n e l u so d e l as t ierras d e c ult ivo. L os d atos o btenidos m ediante e l r egistro d e l a d ispersion d e l a c e rd m ica y l as d iferenc ias a rqu itectö nicas e n l os a sentam ientos s on v erdaderos. L os g rupos d e c erämica e stän g raficados e n l as F iguras 1 2 y 1 3. E s c lara l a r e laciön e ntre l a f orma q ue leva l a l etra f d e l a F igura 1 2 c on l a F igura 2 4a y 2 4b d e P late XXIII d e M enzel ( 1968) d el H orizonte M edio E poca 2 A .

C uadro 3 .

A soc iaciö n d e c erdmica e n l os s it ios a rqueolögicos.

S it io

A lt itud

A sociaciön C ergmica

A chachiwa A nt isana C abanaconde C usqu i K allimarca U mahuasi

3 131 3 140 3 287 3 000 3 500 3 358

G rupo G rupo G rupo G rupo G rupo G rupo

m m m m m m

A ByG rupo C C C ByG rupo C ByG rupo C

D ISCUSION S OBRE L OS P ATRONES D E A SENTAMIENTO Y E L U SO D E L A T IERRA H asta a ntes d e c omenzar l as i nvest igac iones g eogräf icas y a rqueolögicas e n e l v alle d el C olca e n 1 984 ( Denevan, e ste t omo ), s e h abian p resentado l as e videncias a rqueo lögicas d e e ste v a lle c omo p ertenecientes a l g rupo e tnico C ollagua ( Neira 1 961:196), a c uya e x pres iö n c e rd m ica s e l e l amö y a a n t er iorment e c omo C huqu ibamba ( Kroeber 1 944, M orante 1 949). S e s ostuvo q ue e l d esaro llo c u ltura l d el g rupo e t n ico C ollagua s e d id e n l a e p oc a i nmediatamente a nter ior a l a e poca I nca ( Linares 1 981). A unque y a s e c onocia l a p resenc ia W an i e n l os v a nes c ercanos e n e l c urso i nferior d el m ismo v a lle d el C olca - e n M ajes, n o s e p resentaron n i i dent ificaron e videncias a rqueolögicas d e l a e p oc a W ani e n e l v a lle d el C olca y m enos a ün e n e l v a lle d e C abanaconde. N osotros p ensamos q ue e l p roceso d e u t ilizaciön a graria d e l v a lle d e C abanaconde, a si c o mo l o s p r imeros a s ent am ient os a grarios d e p oblaciön e n s u i nterior, p odria h aber s ido a ntes d e l a legada d e l os e lementos d e l a c u ltura W an i y /o d e W an i m ismo. N os b asamos e n t res r azones: ( 1) L a e xistenc ia d el c ementerio d e A uqu i q ue t iene a soc iada u na c ergmica, l a q ue a unque n o h a s ido i dent if icada a c abalidad, p arec iera q ue p ertenece a u na e p oca a n t er ior a W an . N ecesitamos o btener m ayores d atos. ( 2 ) L os f echados r adiocarbönicos t empranos, c onsegu idos p or D enevan d e l as m uestras o btenidas m ediante n uestros t rabajos e n C hijra ( en C oporaque), e n e l m ismo v alle d el C olca ( Malpass, e ste t omo ).

12

l • \

r educc iones,

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•

n i r --

C i l w

0

r •-

E

( x i 0

r --

0 0

C l )

r -

( 1 3 0 : S I C O C C : 1 3 0 0

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13

y a rquitectura i nca

R estos d e c erämica

CABANACONDE

•

4 ) r e i.• , 0 > C l ) ( n ( 1 )

( ) ) "V

0 C

0 a ) 1— C e t ; ( 1 3 C r e 0- U = ( 1 )

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C a ) 0 m s . e

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F igura 1 3.

P ueblo y t errenos c u ltivos e n C abanaconde. S hippee/Johnson 1 931. A merican M useum o f N at iona l H istory, N ew Y ork.

14

( 3 ) L a p osibilidad d e q ue W an i s e e stablezca e n e l v alle, a traido p or u na p roducciön a graria a ntes y a e fect iva. B asado e n u nos e scasos f ragmentos d e c eräm ica e ncontrados e n A chachiwa d iferentes a l a c erämica d e W an i y q ue p odrian s er l a e xpresiön l ocal y t a l v ez a nter ior. P ero n o c onocemos n ingün l ugar d e a sentam iento d e p oblaciones d e e sa e poca y p or e llo n o c onocemos s us c aracterist icas n i t ampoco c uä l e s e l a r ea a g rf co la q ue h abrian u t ilizado. P or e sto d ebemos p or a hora c onsiderar s u e xistenc ia c omo u na c ercana p osibilidad. C on s eguridad ms b ien, p odemos c aracterizar e l p atr A d e a sentamiento d urante l a e p oc a W an i e n a l v alle d e C abanaconde y c onsiderarlo c omo e l ms a nt iguo c onocido p or a hora e n e l s it io d e A chachiwa. T a l

c omo

l o h emos e specificado, s us c aracterist icas c orresponden a l e st ilo W an i d escrito e n e l ä rea d e A yacucho ( Lumbreras 1 980) y d e l a m isma m anera, l as f ormas d e c eräm ica y e st ilo Q osqopa ( Lumbreras 1 974:Läminas 7 8, 8 0) q ue t ienen a sociada, p ertenecen a e sta e p oc a .

a r qu it ectö n ic as

U n v alle c omo e l d e C abanaconde e s m uy a tract ivo p ara e l e stablecimiento y / o l ae x p lot ac iö n , e n e s p ec ia l p a ra u na s ociedad c omo l a d e W an i ( Lumbreras 1 980:20, 2 1), p art icu larmente p or s us e xce lentes p osibilidades a gricolas f undamenta les p ara l a p roducc iön d e m a f z . E l m icro-clima c ä lido, l a p osibilidad d e m ayor d uraciön d e l a t amporada d e luvias, l a c alidad d e s us s uelos v olcänicos y e l v olumen d e a gua e stable p rocedente d e l n evado y l os m anant ia les, a unque s ea e scasa p ara e l r iego d e t odos s us c ampos, c rean c ondiciones i dea les p ara e l c u ltivo d e m aiz e N o p odemos a segurar q ue d urante e l e stablec imiento d e W an i s e h aya c ult ivado m aiz e n t odos l os c ampos d e C abanaconde o e n a lguna p arte d e e llos, a unque h ayamos e ncontrado m ar los d e m aiz c omo p arte d e o frendas e n l as t umbas d e A chachiwa, p ero s i c o nocemos l a i mportanc ia q ue t u vo e l m ai z p a ra l a s ociedad W an , l a q ue i nc lusive l o c omo m otivo i conogräfico p ara d ecorar s u c erdmica ( Lumbreras 1 967). C reemos q ue l a e spec ia lizaci A d e l a g ente d e e ste v alle p ara e l c ult ivo d el m aiz, u t ilizando u na t ecno log(a p art icular q ue e s p osible o bservar y c onstatar h 9 /, p udo h aben c omenzado y a e n l a e p oca W an . L as c aracterist icas p o lit icas, c omercia les y e c onö m icas q u e t u vo e sta s oc iedad h abrian i ncent ivado y /o i mpuesto t a l e specia lizaciö n. A e sto a yudarian l as c aracterfst icas t opogräficas y l a d iversidad d e p isos e co lögicos d el d rea c ircundante q ue p ermite q ue l os p ueblos a ll( e stablecidos t engan u na v ariada p roducciön a gropecuaria q ue, o rientada a l i ntercambio c on C abanaconde, l e p e rm it irf a ae ste p ueblo e vadirse d e c ult ivar l a v ariedad d e p lantas q ue u n a utoconsumo l e e xigiria. T odo e sto s e p ract ica h oy. A demäs d el m alz, e xiste o tro r ecurso q ue t ambie n r esu lta a tractivo p ara W an i s i c onsideramos l a g ran i mportancia q ue t uvo e l t ejido n o s olo c omo p roducciön a rtesana l y v alor e conömico e i ntrinseco c on e l q ue s e o torgaban h asta l os p remios e n e l m undo a nd ino ( Murra 1 975:145-170), s ino t ambien c omo v ehicu lo d e l as i deas

15

r eligiosas e ntre T iwanaku y W an i ( Lumbreras 1 980:45-57). E ste r ecurso e s 4 1 d e l a c ochinilla q ue f ue u t ilizada p ara t inte m uy f ino d e c olor r ojo v ioläceo u sado e n l os t ext iles W an . T uvo u na g ran i mportancia e ntre l os p obladores d e e sta z ona t al c omo l o d emuestran l as n oticias d el p adre B arriga s obre l a c rianza, p rocesamiento y c omercializaciön d e e stos a nimales p ara e l t enido d e t elas e n v arios p ueblos d el v alle d e C otahuasi ( Barriga 1 952). C abanaconde e s e l m ayor p roductor d e c ochinilla e n t odo e l v alle d el C olca y s u i mportancia p uede s er e qu iva lente a l a d el v a lle d e C otahuasi, s iendo a mbos p räcticamente l os d nicos p roductores e n A requ ipa. A demäs, e n e sta z ona s e p ueden e ncontrar o tras p lantas t intöreas c omo e l m olle y l a t ara. A djunto a e ste r ecurso e ncontramos q ue C abanaconde t iene a cceso a t ierras a lto-andinas s obre 4 000 m e n l os q ue h oy s e c rian lamas y a lpacas, a unque e n u na m agnitud m enor q ue l os p ueblos d el a rea d e l os C ollaguas v alle a rriba. N o i ntentamos a firmar q ue e n C abanaconde W an i h aya e stablec ido u n c entro d e p roducciön a rtesanal d e t ejidos, s ino ms b ien h abrfa t enido u na g ran i mportancia c omo p roductor d e c ochinilla, u n m ateria l m uy n ecesario p ara l a p roducciön t extil d e l as p oblaciones d e W an , l as q ue l o e xplotarfan e i ntercambiarfan c on c iudades q ue p osefan a ctividad a rtesanal t extil. E n a reas d e a sentamientos W an i c omo A yacucho y C otahuasi, t ambien s e o bserva u na f uerte p roducciö n d e c ochinilla. E l a sentamiento d e A chachiwa s ituado a 3 200 m p resenta / c aracterist icas d el p atrön d e a sentamiento W an , s in o frecer e l m odelo t fpico d e l as c iudades p rovincia les, b ien p lanificadas y o rtogonales q ue s e o bserva e n P ikillaqta y W iraqocha P ampa, u bicadas a l a m isma a ltura q ue l a c iudad d e W an i e n A yacucho. A demäs d e s u a ltitud i gual a l a d e l a c iudad d e W an , e l e mp leo d e l a m ura lla e s u na d e l as m a 's t rascendentes s emejanzas a l m odelo, l a c ual q ue t iene h asta l a f orma r ectangu lar y d imensiones s imilares a P ikillaqta y W irac iocha P ampa, d iferenciändose d e e stos e n q ue n o t iene l a d istribuc iön o rtogona l d e l as u nidades a rquitectönicas d e s u i nterior. A chachiwa e s ms b ien u n a sentamiento d esordenado, e n e l q ue l a h omogeneidad d e s us c onstrucciones d a l a i dea d e q ue e l u so e xc lusivo d e e llas e ra p ara v ivienda, n o e nconträndose e structuras q ue p arezcan, o p ara l a Aministraciön d e s ervicios o p ara e l u so c eremonia l. N o e xisten p lazas n i c alles. P odemos p ensar q ue e n e l i nmenso e spacio i nterior d e l a m uralla u na e scasa p oblaciön a glutinada e xclusivamente e n l as e levaciones. T odas e stas c aracter i/s t icas n os p ermiten s uponer u n c ardcter a ldeano d el a sentamiento A chachiwa, 4 1 q ue n o t uvo u na p lanificaciön p ara s u c onstrucciö n. P ero, q ue m otiva l a c onstrucc icf r d e u na d oble m uralla q ue r odea a u n a sentamiento a ldeano e n u na e poca e n l a q ue e xisten y a c iudades y p ueblos b ien f ormados? S e p odrfa p ensar q ue e ste a sentamiento e staba e n e l i nicio d e u n p roceso d e c onstrucci A d e u na c iudad m äs g rande y c omp leja p ero s in p lanificaciön p revia. P ero p referimos f ormu lar s uposiciones a p art ir d e l as e videncias a rqueologicas y a c onoc idas. S i o bservamos l a

16

d i sp er s iö n d e l os r azgos w an i e n e sta z ona, v emos q ue p odemos f ormar e n b ase a e llos u na l inea s in p oder e ncontrarlos m a 's a llä d e e s t a . H acemos l a e xclusiö n d e l os h a llaz ps d e I sabel F lores e n T acna y d e C erro B ai ( Lumbreras 1 982). E sta l inea v a d esde l a c osta p or e l v alle d e S iguas ( Santos 1 976) h asta H uanca ( L inares D elgado n .d.) y p asando p or t odo e l v alle d e M ajes h asta H uambo y C abanaconde y t ambie n p or l a p arte a lta d el v alle d el C olca d e d onde pseemos m uy p ocas e videncias t odavia ( de l a V era C ruz, n .d.), p royectandose l uego a S icuani. E sto n os f orma l a i magen d e u na z ona d e l imite, p or a s( lamar la y h aciendo l a s a lvedad d e l as d iscusiones s obre e l c oncepto d e t erritoria lidad. E sta p odria r epresentar m äs b ien l a z ona d e c ontacto, e n p rimer l ugar e ntre e l A rea C entra l A ndina y e l A rea C entro S ur A ndina p ropuesta ( Lumbreras 1 981:39-182), y e n s egundo l ugar, e ntre l os a reas d e d ispersiön d e l os r azgos d e C u ltura W an i y l a C u ltura T iwanaku, p ues c uriosamente h acia e l s ur e ncontramos p rofusamente e videncias T iwanaku e n e specia l e n l a c osta. E ste e s u n i ntento d e e xp licar l a n ecesidad d e p roteger c on u n g ran a mura llamiento a u na p oblaciön p equena, s ituada e n u n l ugar q ue p odria s er e s t rate g ico t a nt o e c o nd M ic am ent e c o m o p o lit ic am ent e . F rente a t odo e ste p anorama d e d atos y p osibilidades, p ensamos q ue e l a sentamiento d e A chachiwa s e i nsta lö p ara a provechar l os r ecursos d el m aiz y c ochinilla, q ue e s c apaz d e o fertar e l v a lle d e C abanaconde, q ue t enia s u p oblaciön b äsicamente d e u n c arä cter a ldeano o d e C entro C omuna l s in c onformar u na c iudad p ropiamente d icha. Y a demäs d e l os r ecursos, t endria u na i mportancia e strat eca p ara e l c ontacto c on T iwanaku. T odo e sto h abria s ucedido e n l a e poca W an i e n e ste v a lle. S e h abria u t ilizado c asi t odos l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo q ue h oy s iguen e n p roducc iön. P or r azones q ue n o p odemos e stablecer, A chachiwa f ue a bandonado y n o v olviö a s er o cupado h asta h oy. T ampoco s e h izo u so d e l a m ura lla p ara p r ot ecc iö n e n o t ro s a s ent am ie nt o s p osteriores. P ensamos q ue u na p arte d e l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo c onstruidos e n l a e poca W an i f ue t ambien a bandonada y s e v o lviö a r eut ilizarla. D e e sta i mportante e videncia d e a bandono t emprano d e a ndenes p oseemos t odavia p ocos d atos d e j u icio, d ebiendo s er m ejor e studiada. A delantamos a s u e xp licac iön a lgunas a preciaciones d e l as q ue p odriamos e xclu ir u na c ausa e n l os c ambios t ectönicos, p ues l os e studios g eolögicos e fectuados e n e l v alle m uestran l a e stabilidad g eolögica d e l a z ona ( Rondon 1 977). L os c ana les q ue r egaban t a les c ampos p asan m uy c erca d e A chachiwa, c on e l q ue g uardaban s eguramente e strecha r e laciö n d e c ontro l d e a guas. A demäs, e stos t errenos d e c u lt ivo e stän e n u na z ona m arginal d el v alle, a l f ina l d el r iego y p or d e t rd s d el a sentamiento d e A chachiwa. A caso, a l a bandonar e sta a ldea, t ambien s e a bandons t errenos d e c u lt ivo m a 's c ercanos y d e m a 's d irecto c ontrol, b ajo u na m ot ivaciön p rimordia lmente c u ltura l? L a d ism inuiciö n d e l a c antidad d e a gua d isponible p ara l os c u lt ivos d e t odo e l v alle p uede s er o tra r azön, o bligando a l a p oblaciön a a bandonar l as p artes m argina les y f ina les d e r iego, p resentando m ayores d if icultades p ara e l r iego. D e t odas m aneras e stas s on t odavia s olamente s ugerentes h ipötesis. V er F igura 1 4, S ector A . D e l a e poca i ntermedia e ntre W an i e I nca p odemos d ec ir m uy p oco. L as e videnc ias q ue t enemos a l a m ano n o e stän b ien o rganizadas. P or u n

17

/ I

1 8 c m. R .

b •

C r

• R

' )20 c m.

1 8c m.

e

1 5 c m.

h

A

F igura 1 4.

G rupo A d e c ergmica p rocedente d e A chachiwa. P uede n otarse s u v inculo c on e l e stilo W an .

18

l ado l a e xpresid n d e c erämica d e e sta e poca q ue laman C huqu ibamba o C o llagua e s m uy c omp leja y s u c onoc imiento h oy e s m uy c onfuso a p esar d e q ue s e l a p uede d ist inguir c on f acilidad d e o tros e st ilos c omo e l C hurajön. T odo e sto e xplicamos a nteriormente e n " E l C riterio C ronoldgico". P or

o tro

l ado

l a m ayori a

d e

l os

a sentam ientos

p oblacionales

d e

e st a e p oca f ueron u t ilizados t ambie n d urante l a e p oca I nca. A s( p ues

e s m uy d ificil e stablecer c on d eta lle s us c aracterist icas y l as r e laciones e ntre e llos, a s( c omo c on e l u so d e l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo. R econocemos p ues q ue n o p odemos d ecir m ucho s obre l o s ucedido e n e sta e p oca y p r esent am os s o lo a lgunas c onsideraciones q ue e l i ntensivo e studio d e l a c erämica y s us a soc iac iones e n l os a sentamientos y t errenos d e c u lt ivo p odrian d ilucidar. U na d e l as c aracterist icas q ue o bservamos e s q ue a umentan e n n d meros l o s l ugares d e v ivienda, y a s ean e stos e stancias o v iviendas a is ladas d e u na o d os f amilias, o a ldeas m äs o m enos d ispersas c omo e l c aso d e U mahuasi y a ldeas a glut inadas c omo e n e l c aso d e K allimarca. A p esar e n e specia l K allimarka, p ertenecian

d e e sto e xiste u na p referenc ia e n c oncentrar l a p oblac ion e n l a c ima d e l os c erros, e n l as l aderas d el v alle. e n d onde s e e ncuentra e l m ayor n dmero d e v iviendas q ue a e sta e p oc a , e s u n b uen e jemp lo. S e n ota u na i ntenc iön e st rate g ica p a ra l a e leccic i n d el l ugar a s i c omo p ara e l c ontro l d e l i ngreso d e l os c ana les d e r iego a l v a lle. L a p oblacidn s e d istribuye e n h abitaciones d esordenadas e n t orno a p lazas y a u na c alle q ue l as u ne. P odemos p ensar q ue e n l a e poca a nterior s e i niciö u n p roceso d e c recimiento c ada v ez ms r äpido d e l a p ob laciön t a l v ez b asado e n e l e xito a grario. N o s olo e s m ayor e n n dmero d e v iviendas s ino t ambie n q ue c asi t odos l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo q ue h emos r ecorrido p oseen l a c e rd m ica d e e sta e p oc a . N uestras i deas a cerca d e l u so d e l os c ampos d e c u lt ivo s on m uy c onfusas. P ensamos q ue l os a ndenes c onstruidos p ar W an i o t a l v ez a ntes c ont inuaron s iendo u t ilizados, m enos l os t errenos q ue h abrian s ido a bandonados p ar W an i d e l os q ue y a h ablamos. S e h icieron a mp liaciones d e l a f rontera a gricola e n p artes a m ayor n ivel e n l a l adera d el v a lle q ue i ncrementaron l a c ant idad d e t ierras p ero n o d e f orma t rascendente. E l e stablecimiento d e l os I ncas e n e l v a lle p r o vocö g r an i m p act o n o s o lo e n l o s a s ent am ient os s ino t ambie n e n l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo,

a l p arecer i ntensificando e l u so d e i ntrodujeron n uevos c ambios e n e llos.

e stos

d lt imos

a unque

n o

s e

H emos i ntentado e stablecer c laramente l a d iferencia e ntre l a p oblaciön l ocal y l a p oblac iön v enida d el C uzco o d e o tros s it ios d urante e l e stablec imiento d e l os I ncas e n e ste v a lle. D e e sta m anera a l i dent ificar a C abanaconde c omo u n a sentamiento d e I ncas c uzque r ios n os p arece s ugerente q ue e n e ste l ugar s e i niciö u n n uevo m odelo d e a sentamiento m a ' s d isperso, a unque l a p oblaciö n l oca l d e I ncas c abanerms c o nt inuo ' b ajo s us p atrones d e a sentamiento a nteriores.

19

I nicia lmente p ensamos q ue l as c asas y e videnc ias i ncas e n e l p ueblo d e C abanaconde p ertenecen a l os p rimeros Aos d e l a r educc id n, y a p esar d e q ue l a g ente c ontinuö u t ilizando l a t ecnologia e n l a e p oca e s pa7 l o la y p o r l o t a nt o e s t o e s e n p arte c ierto; t odas l as e videncias c onfirman q ue f ue u n a sentamiento i nca l egft imo. A l s er e sto a sf , s e p l ant ea u n a i n t errogant e -p o r q u e , s i e l a sentamiento d e l os I ncas c uzque i Tos s e e stableciö e n C abanaconde, s e h acen c onstrucciones d e r e levante i mportancia e n e l a sentamiento l oca l d e K allimarca? P areciera q ue l a p oblaciö n l oca l a s * ( c omo s us a utoridades c onservaron s u p osiciö n y j erarquia d espues d e l a legada d e l os I ncas. L a c onstrucc iö n d e u n e dificio c eremonia l d e c oncepcic i n i ncaica e n e l a sentamiento l ocal d e K allimarca y t odo e l c onjunto d e e dificios q ue l o r odean d ebera e ntonces c orresponder a l as f avorables r e laciones e xistentes e ntre e l g obierno d el C uzco y l os c uracas y a dministradores p ropios o n at ivos d e C abanaconde. E s m uy p osible q ue l a r e laciö n d el C olca c on e l C uzco s ea m a 's a nt igua q ue l a q ue s e e stableciö c on e l I mperio d e l os I ncas. E sto s e v e e xpresado e n u n c onjunto d e e videnc ias e n c e rg a l ica y a r qu it ect ura q u e p o seen v f ncu los c o n a q u e lla r egiön. D e c ua lquier m odo l a r azön d ebiö s er e conc i mica y a l a v ez p olit ica. E n C abanaconde, l a m ayor a tracc iö n p ara e l I mperio I ncaico d ebiö s er e l m afz, i ndispensable y d e i mportanc ia n o s olo p ara l a a limentaci ü s ino f undamenta lmente p ara l a f abricaciön d e c hicha, n ecesaria p ara l as c eremonias r e ligiosas y p ara e l t rabajo c omuna l e n l as o bras p dblicas c omo s e h a p lanteado ( Murra 1 975:45). E sta i mportancia s e e ncuentra h oy e n G odofredo T icona:

q ue t uvo C abanaconde p or s u p roduccid n m aicera l a t radici A p opu lar c omo l a q ue r e lata D on

C uando a l os s iete a l ros v olviö a v enir e l I nka M ayta C apac, h icieron l a p rimera c osecha, p ara r epart ir a t odas l as t ribus q ue e xist ieron e n e sa e p oc a e n e s t a r e g iö n . E sas t ribus e ran J uchuy C allimarcas, H atun C a llimarcas, l os C usqu is, l os U ma w asis y l os A nqu is ( Pease 1 982:158).

A unque e sta v ersiön n o p uede s er e xactamente c ierta, l o e vidente e s q ue l as p oblac iones l ocales c ontinuaron f unc ionando y c u lt ivando t odas l as t ierras e xistentes a ptas p ara e l m aiz. N o s olo s e c u lt ivaron l as t ierras m aiceras, t ambie n s e a mp lic ( l a f rontera a gricola e n a lt itudes m ayores h acia e l e ste d el v alle, h abilitadas m ediante l a c o nst rucc iö n d e u n c anal d e u nos 1 5 k m q ue t rae a gua d esde l as c ercanfas d e l a l aguna M ucurca. E stos t errenos n o s olo s on d ist intos e n l a a lt itud s ino t ambie n e n s u f orma y p odrian h aber s ervido p ara e l c u lt ivo d e p apas y o tros p roductos. V er F igura 1 4, S ector B . D e e sa m anera l a p r oducc iö n a graria h abria s ido d e u na i mportanc ia t a l q ue c onvirt iö a C abanaconde e n e l c entro p olit ico d el a rea d e l os C abanas c on u na a cciön s obre l os v alles d e H uanca, L luta, S iguas, Y ura, y M ajes y q ue e n l a e poca H ispana c ont inuo ' f unc ionando

1 20

c omo c abecera d el g rupo d e C ollaguas y L an i C ollaguas.

l os

C abanas

y e qu ivalente

a l os

Y anque

D educiendo d el n dmero d e a sentamientos d e l a e poca i nca, d e l a a bundancia d e r estos d e c erämica y l a c ant idad d e t errenos d e c ult ivo c omparat ivamente m ayor e n e xtencion a l as e pocas a nter iores, s uponemos q ue l a p oblaciön s e i ncrementö e normemente, legando a a lcanzar l a d ensidad m a 's a lta y s e r egistra e n l os d ocumentos d el s iglo X VI ( Cook 1 982). N o c onocemos e xactamente l as r e laciones e ntre l as p ob laciones a sentadas e n C abanaconde c on l as d e L an i C o llaguas y Y anque C ollaguas. L a i nformaciön s obre e lla y l os o rigenes d e l os C ollaguas p roporcionada p or U lloa p uede c orresponder a e sta e poca e xc lus ivamente yn ecesitamos m ayor c onfrontaci ü c on l a e videnc ia a rqueolögica ( U lloa M ogollön 1 965). D e t oda m anera l os a sentamientos d e C abanaconde e xpresan e f icazmente l a j erarquia q ue a dqu iriö e sta c abecera d entro d e l as o tras d os d e l v alle d e l C olca y q ue s irve d e s ustento a p lanteam ientos r eferidos a l a o rganizaciön p olit ica e n e l v alle c omo l os d e R ostworowsk i ( 1985). L as r e laciones e ntre l as p oblaciones d el a lt ip lano d e l T it icaca y l as d e C abanaconde p arecen m uy e scasas y s olo s e i ncrementarian e n l a e poca I nca. C uando legaron l os e spar soles, i nsta laron l a r educc i A j ustamente e n e l a sentamiento d e l os I ncas c uzqu Aos. A l p arecer n o f ue m äs i mportante p ara l os e spa i r o l e se scoger e l l ugar m ejor a propiado y c omodo c omo s e a firmö ( Monzön 1 965:239, U lloa M ogollön 1 965:328), y c on b uena d isposiciö n g eogräfica, s ino q ue e ra m a 's i mportante e stablecer l a r educc i A s obre e l a sentamiento d e l os r epresentantes d e l p oder c entra l d el i mperio. P or e ste m ot ivo s e t razö l a r educc id n s obre l as c asas i ncas, l as q ue q uedaron d entro d e l os s olares y c on u na o rientaciön d ist inta. E sto t ambie n s e o bserva e n l os p ueblos d e L an , Y anque, y C oporaque. E n e l c aso d e l a r educciön d e C abanaconde, p arece q ue f ue c ond icionada p or e l a sentamiento i nca, d e t a l m anera q ue e l r esu ltado n o e s e l m odelo t f p ico d e l as r educc iones t oledanas d e f orma o rtogona l c on m anzanas c uadradas. L as c alles q ue p resentan m ayor d esviaciö n s on l as q ue p oseen c anales d e a gua q ue m uy p robablemente s erfan a nter iores al a r educc iön y q ue d eformaron s u p lan. V er F iguras 1 5 y 1 6. E l i mpacto d e l a r educci A e n l a p oblacic i n f ue g rande. C ondicionö a l a p ob laciön a u n m odo d e v ida e xclusivamente u rbana, y d e e sta m anera f avoreciö a q ue s e p ropaguen e nfermedades e pidemia les c on e l c onsecuente d escenso d e l a p oblaciö n p ero e sto n o e s e l p roblema m ayor. P arece q ue e x iste e strecha r e lac iön e ntre e l e stablecimiento d e l a r educc iö n y l a v ida u rbana c on e l a bandono d e l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo. S i c omparamos a l os v a lles d e C abanaconde y H uambo, p odemos o bservar q ue m ientras e n e l p rimero s e c oncentra l a p oblaciö n e strictamente e n e l p ueblo, e xiste m ayor a rea d e t errenos a bandonados; a l c ontrario d e H uambo e n d onde l a p oblaciön e s m ayoritariamente r ura l, e n e ste v alle c asi n o e xisten t errenos a bandonados. N o s ö lo l a v ida u rbana d e l a r educciön f avoreciö a l a bandono d e t errenos d e c u lt ivo s ino q ue e l a bandono d e l os a nteriores a sentamientos

1 21

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G rupo B d e c eräm ica lamada C huqu ibamba o C o llagua. G rupo Cd e e st ilo I nca. T odo p rocede d e A nt isana.

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1 24

i nf luyeron e n e l u so d e l a t ierra. E sta i nf luenc ia n o s ölo s e d a c on e l a bandono d e l os a sentamientos p rehispgnicos a c onsecuencia d e l a r educciön. L os a sentamientos e staban e n t odas l as e p ocas e n r e lac iö n c asi d irecta c on l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo. D e e sta m anera e l a bandono d e K allimarca y A chachiwa g enerö e l a bandono d e l os c anales y d e t errenos d e c u lt ivo t ambien. P ara e xp licar e l a bandono d e l as t ierras e n C abanaconde a demds d e l o e xpuesto a nter iormente, d ebemos c onsiderar f undamentalmente l a d isponibilidad d e a gua y e l m anejo d el r iego. L a p arte a lta d el v a lle e jemp lifica e sto. V er F igura 1 4, s ector B . E n e sa a rea s e r egaba c on e l a gua t raida p or e l c ana l p rocedente d e M ucurca. E l m antener o perat ivo t a l c anal r equeria u n o rdenamiento s incronizado e n l a a dministrac iön d e s u m antenimiento y d istribuciön d el a gua, y e l f a lbo d e e sto o casionaria e l d esabastecimiento d e a gua y p or l o t anto e l a bandono d e l as t ierras. P or e l i n t ere s p erponderantemente a grario q ue t enian l os I ncas, e ste s istema f uncionö , m ientras c uando l os e spai Toles legaron, d espreocupados p or e llo o riginaron e l c olapso d e s u f unc ionamiento. Q ueda p or i nvest igar e n C abanaconde v ar ios a spectos n o s d lo r eferidos a l os a sentamientos y s u r e laciön c on l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo p ara r eafirmar l as o p iniones e xpresadas o p ara f ormu lar n uevos c r iterios. E l e studio d e l as f uentes d e a gua, e l p otencial d e l os d eshie los y m anant ia les y s u u so, l a d isposiciön d e l as t omas d e l os c anales c on r especto a l l echo d el r io, y o tros a spectos s on t odavia d esconoc idos.

C ONCLUSION L a v ar iedad d e p isos e colö9icos c ircundantes y o tros f actores f avorecieron p ara q ue l a p oblacion d e C abanaconde s e e specia lizara e n e l c u lt ivo d el m aiz . L a e xcelente p roducc i A m aicera c onsegu ida, s umada a o tros p roductos c omo l a c ochinilla, s e ri an m a yores a t racc ione s p a ra e l e stablecimiento d e i mportantes c entros d e e xplotaciön, a dministraci ü y c ontrol, t anto e n l a e poca W an i c omo e n l a I nca. A chachiwa s e c onstruyö n o s ö lo p or l a p roducciön a gricola, s ino t ambie n p or l a t rascendencia d e s u p osiciön g eogr4f ica c on r especto a T iwanaku . E l a bandono d e l os a sentamientos g enerö t ambien e l a bandono l os t errenos d e c u lt ivo b ajo s u c ontrol a c onsecuencia d e d esintegraciön d e l a a dm in istraciön y s istema d e r iego, n o s ö lo p or c aida d e l a a utoridad a dm inistradora s ino t ambien p or e l c ambio l ugar d e p oblaciön. E sto s ucediö e n A chachiwa y K allimarca.

d e l a l a d e

L os I ncas c onservaron e n e l m ismo l ugar a l as p oblaciones l ocales y p robablemente a l as a utoridades l ocales t ambien, r ealizando a lgunos c ambios e n l os a sentamientos l ocales y e stableciendo s u p ropio a sentamiento a s u e st ilo e n m edio v alle. E l u so i ntensivo d e l a t ierra s e e stableciö e n l a e poca W an i y a unque p arte d e l os t errenos q ue c onstruyeron f ueron a bandonados d espues d e s u c aida, l os d emds s e s igu ieron u t ilizando. A l legar l os I ncas, i ncrementaron l a f rontera a gricola m ediante l a e jecuciön d e

1 25

g randes o bras h idräulicas y c onstrucc i A d e a ndenes e i ntensificaron l a p roducciön. L a p oblaciön c omenzö a c recer e n l a e poca W an i y a lcanzö l a m ayor t asa e n l a e poca I nca. F inalmente e l e stablecimiento d e l a r educciön a celerö l a b aja d e l a p oblaciön, a yudö a l a i ncapacidad p ara c ontrolar l as t ierras d e c ultivo y p or l o t anto a l a bandono d e e llas.

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C ORDEA ( Corporaciön D epartamental d e D esarrollo d e A requipa) 1 981. B oletfn M icroregional, A requipa 1 981. O f icina d e E stadist ica, A requ ipa. I NE ( Inst ituto N acional d e E stad(st ica) 1 981. C ensos N acionales, V III d e P oblaciön, A requipa.

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K roeber, A lfred L . 1 944. P eruvian A rchaeology i n 1 942. V iking F und P ublicat ions i n A nthropology N o. T . W enner-Gren F oundat ion f or A nthropological R esearch, N ew Y ork. L inares D elgado, L ucy n .d. E studio a rqueolögico e n S onco Q uilla. A requipa, L inares M älaga, E loy 1 981. P royecto E special M ajes: E valuaciön d e R ecursos H istörico Arqueolögicos d e TOT— M onumentos d el P royecto y Z onas d e I nf luencia. O RDEARE V IPA, A requ ipa. L umbreras, L uis G uillermo 1 967. L a a limentaciön v egetal e n l os o rfgenes a ndina. P eru I ndfgena 2 6:254-273.

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G eneral

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H istoria

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M ä laga M edina, A lejandro 1 977. L os C ollaguas e n l a h istoria d e A requ ipa e n e l s iglo X VI. E n C ollaguas I , e ditado p or F ranklin P ease, p p . 9 3-129. P ont if icia T niversidad C atö lica d e l P eru ' , L ima. M anrique, N elson 1 985. C olonia lismo y p obreza c ampesina: C aylloma y e l v alle d el C olca s iglos X VI - X. D ESCO ( Centro d e E studiös y P romodi n d e l D eii i7-71° ), L ima. M enzel, D orothy 1 964. S tyle a nd T ime i n t he M idd le H orizon. N awpa P acha 2 :1-112. M onzön, L u is d e e t a l. 1 965 [ 1586]. D escripciö n d e l a t ierra d e l r epart im iento d e l os R ucanas A ntamarcas d e l a c orona r eal, j urisdiciön d e l a c iudad d e G uamanga. E n R elaciones g eogräf icas d e I ndias, e d itado p or M arcos J imenez d e l a E spada. B ibTr oteca d e A utores E spanoles, V ol. 1 83, p p . 2 37-248, M adrid. M orante, J ose M aria 1 949. A rqueologia d e A requ ipa. R evista 2 1(29):67-76. U niversidad N aciona l d e S an A gustin, A requ ipa. M urra, J ohn V . 1 975. F ormaciones e conömicas y p olit icas I nst ituto d e E studios P eruanos, L ima. N eira A vendai io, M aximo 1 961. L os C ollaguas, T esis 77 ' sti n , A requ ipa.

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1 977b. C ollaguas: U na e tnia d el s iglo X VI: P roblemas i nicia les. E n C ollaguas I , e ditado p or F rank lin P ease, p p. 1 31-167. P ont ificia U niversidad C atö lica d el P er i l, L ima. 1 982.

E l p ensamiento m it ico. T omo I V. L ima.

P u lgar V idal, J avier 1 976. G eografia d el P eru ' : L as E d itoria l 5Tv erso, L ima.

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R ondon V ., W ilfredo 1 977. E studio g eolöfg ico e ntre P inchollo y C abanaconde. U niversidad N acional d e S an A gustin, A requ ipa. R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco, M aria 1 985. E structuras a ndinas d el P eruanos, L ima.

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R owe, J ohn 1 944. A n I ntroduct ion t o t he A rchaeology o f C uzco. P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology, V ol. 2 7, N o. 2 . H arvard U niversity, C ambridge. S antos R amirez, R ene 1 976. I nvest igaciön a rqueolögica e n e l v alle d e S iguas, T esis. P rograma d e H istoria d e l a J iiveTil ad - N d ETJTJT d e S an A gustin, A requipa. T oledo, F rancisco d e 1 924 [ 1570-75]. L ibro d e l a v isita g enera l d el V irrey d on F rancisco d e T oledo. R evista H istörica 7 :115-216 ( Lima). T schopik, M arion H . 1 946. S ome N otes o n t he A rchaeology o f t he D epartment o f P uno, P eru. P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology, V ol. 2 7, N o. 3 . H arvard U niversity, C ambridge. U lloa M ogollön, J uan d e 1 965 [ 1586]. R elacic in d e l a P rovincia d e l os C ollaguas. E n R elaciones g eogräficas d e I ndias, e ditado p or M arcos J imenez d e l a E spada. B iblioteca d e A utores E spa ' noles, V ol. 1 83, p p. 3 26-333, M adrid. V era C ruz C hgvez, P ablo d e l a n .d. I nforme d e l a r econoc imiento a rqueolögico e n e l v alle d el C olca. A requipa, m anuscrito.

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r io

C HAPTER 5 A NALISIS D EL U SO D E T IERRAS R EGISTRADO E N L AS V ISITAS D E L OS S IGLOS X VI Y X VII A L OS Y ANQUECOLLAGUAS, A REQUIPA, P ERU

M aria A .

B enavides

R ESUMEN E n e ste t rabajo s e i nforma s obre l os a vances l ogrados e n l a i nvest igaciön e tnohistörica d el p royecto m u ltidisciplinario q ue e studia l a a ndeneria a bandonada e n e l v alle d el H o C olca, p rovincia d e C aylloma, A requipa, P eru '. E l a nälisis e tnohistörico s e h a c entrado e n t res v isitas, o c ensos, r ea lizados a l a p rovinc ia d e C aylloma, a ntes C ollaguas, e n l os s iglos X VI y X VII: 1 591, 1 604, a nd 1 615-17. S e h a p rocurado c uant ificar l as t ierras a gricolas y l os c ult ivos d e C oporaque. L a a utora p ropone l a p osibilidad q ue l as m edidas d e ä rea, d efinidas e n l as v isitas m ayormente c omo t opos o t opos d e c häcara, p uedan r epresentar m edidas f ijas, p ero d iferentes s egdn e l c u lt ivo y l a z ona e colögica a l a q ue p ertenecen. S i a s i f uera, e l t opo d e m aiz e n l os ä ndenes p rotegidos d e l as l aderas p odria r epresentar u na u nidad d e m edida y l os t opos d e q uinua e n l as p ampas m äs e xpuestas a l os r igores d el c lima r e p r e s ent a ri an o tra. A mbas p odrian r epresentar m edidas c onstantes p ero d iferentes e ntre s i.

A BSTRACT M ost o f t he e thnohistoric r esearch f or t he C olca V alley T errace P roject h as f ocused o n t hree e arly c olonia l v isitas ( inspect ions) f or Y anquecollaguas, a nd s pecifically f or t he v illage o f C oporaque: 1 591, 1 604, a nd 1 615-17. L and a nd c rops h ave b een q uant ified a ccording t o t he u nit o f m easurement u sed i n t he v isitas: t he t opo, a p rehispanic e last ic m easurement w hich t he S panish a dministrat ion a ttempted t o s tandardize. A c onsiderable p art o f t he p aper d iscusses t he s ignificance o f t he t opo i n t he d ocuments a na lyzed a nd t he p roblems r aised b y s cattered -F inings a nd r egistrat ion o f a lmost e xclusively t wo c rops: m aize a nd q u inua. T he a uthor p roposes t he h ypothesis t hat s eventeenth c entury t opos c ould r epresent c onstant m easurements, b ut a ccording t o t wo d ifferent s ituations: o ne f or t he s heltered t erraces g row ing m aize a nd o ne f or t he m ore e xposed f ie lds w here q u inua, a h ardy A ndean c erea l, c ould g row i n s pite o f t he f rost p revalent i n t he r egion. T hus t he v isita t opos w ould r epresent t wo c onstant m easurements. I n b oth c ases, t opos Ta T ect t he u se o f i rrigation, s ince t his v a lley o n t he r ain-poor w estern s lope o f t he C entral A ndes i s u nsuitable f or a griculture w ithout s upp lementary i rrigat ion.

1 29

I NTRODUCCION E l o bject ivo d el p resente t rabajo e s i nformar s obre l os a vances l ogrados e n e l e studio d e l as v isitas, o r evisitas, d e 1 591, 1 604 y 1 615-1617 a l os c ollaguas d e l a C orona R ea l, o Y anquecollaguas. E n e l a nä lisis d e e stos d ocumentos s e h a p rocurado c uant if icar l as t ierras, l os c u lt ivos y l a p roducc iö n a gricola u t ilizando l os d atos r egistrados p or e l v isitador, c omo a porte e /t nohistörico a l p royecto m u lt idisciplinario q ue e studia l a a ndener ia a bandonada e n e l v a lle d e l r io C olca. E xisten d ificultades q ue l imitan l os r esu ltados q ue s e p ueden o btener e n c uant ificaciö n a gricola b asada e n d ocumentos d e l p rimer s iglo d e l a c olonia e spano la: l a t ermino logia d e l a e poca ( topo, c häcara, a nden, p ata, p edazo, p edac illo) e s o bjeto d e c ontroversias t odavia n o r esueltas. A demäs, e s d iscutible e l g rado d e v erac idad d e l os d atos c onsignados; y u no d e l os d ocumentos, l a v isita d e 1 591, e s i ncomp leto p ara C oporaque, p ueblo e n q ue s e h a c entrado l a i nvestigaciö n. S in e mbargo, c reemos q ue e l a nä lisis d e l a i nformaci ü d isponsible, a gregado a l t rabajo a rqueolö gico y a ntropolö gico, p uede s ignif icar u n a porte v alioso a l p royecto y p roporc ionar u na m ejor c omprensiö n d e l os c ambios m ater ia les y s oc ia les q ue s e d ieron d urante l a e poca v irreina l e n e l v alle d el r io C o lca y e n l os A ndes d e l s ur d el P eru. S e e scogiö C oporaque c omo c entro d el p royecto p or s u i mportanc ia e n e l p eriodo p rehispänico y p or s u p osiciö n e strate gica e n e l v a lle d e l C olca. E n e l p resente t rabajo s e p rocura u bicar C oporaque d entro d e l m arco g eogräfico, h istörico y t ed rico q ue l e c orresponde, p ara l ograr u na m ayor p erspectiva d el a nä lisis r ea lizado.

L A P ROVINCIA D E L OS C OLLAGUAS G eografia, H idrografia, E cologia D esde l a f undaciön d e A requ ipa e n l a c uarta d ecada d el s ig lo X VI, l a p rovinc ia d e l os C ollaguas e stuvo s ujeta a l a j urisdicciön d e e sta c iudad. C orrespondia a proximadamente a l a a ctual p rovinc ia d e C aylloma, a si lamada p osteriormente p or l a i mportanc ia q ue a dqu irieron l as m inas d e p lata d escubiertas e n 1 625 c erca d el p ueblo d e e ste n ombre ( Malaga 1 977). H idrogräficamente, l a p rovinc ia c orresponde a l a c uenca d e l r io C olca, p rinc ipal a f luente d el r io M ajes-Camanä ; y a l a lto S iguas y C hili-Vitor . E stos r i os d esembocan e n e l O cean° P acif ico. L a z ona m inera y p astoril d e C aylloma c orresponde a l a c uenca a lta d e l r i o A p urimac , q u e p e rt enece a l a v e rt ient e a t länt ica ( ONERN 1 973). C omo e s b ien s abido, l a v ertiente p acifica a ndina e s g enera lmente p obre e n p recipitaciö n p luvial. N o s e p uede r ea lizar a gricu ltura e n l as z onas q uechua y y unga s in e l r iego s up lementario. L os r ios c orren e n l echos m uy p rofundos, q ue l os v uelven i naccesibles p ara f ines a gricolas. L os c ana les d e r iego s e a bastecen c on l as a d g uas q ue p rovienen d e l os d eshie los y d e l as luvias e n l as z onas m as a ltas. L as a cequias c onducen e stas a guas a l os a ndenes y a l as p ampas c ult ivadas. 1 30

L as t ierras n o c u lt ivadas s on e rosionadas p or f alta d e b osques, i nexistentes p or l o m enos d esde l a e poca c o lonia l. L as h eladas s on f recuentes, y l as s equias a lternan c on a r l os d e luvia e xcesiva. T odos e stos f actores c rean c ondiciones q ue d emandan u na a lta i nversion d e e nergia h umana p ara m antener l a a ndeneria q ue e vita l a e rosiön, e l s istema d e r iego y l os c aminos d e a cceso a l as t ierras c u lt ivadas. L a p rovinc ia d e C aylloma, a ntes C o llaguas, c onsta p rinc ipalmente d e p una c on p astos n aturales e ncima d e l os 4 ,000 m etros s obre e l n ivel d el m ar. A qui s e c riaron, d esde l a e poca p rehispänica, v astos r eban 'os d e g anado a uquenido, l a m ayor f uente d e r iqueza d e l a p rovinc ia. E l i ntercambio e ntre l a z ona p astoril y l a a gricola f ue v ita l p ara l a p oblaciön d e a mbos s ectores. L as r elaciones s oc ia les d e i ntercambio e ntre l a p una, e l v alle y l a c osta h an s ido a mp liamente d ocumentadas t anto p ara l a e poca p rehispänica c omo p ara l a c olonia l y m oderna ( Cuadros 1 977, M a laga 1 977, B rougere 1 980, B rowman 1 979). L a a gricultura d e l a p rovincia s e d esarrollö p rincipalmente e n e l v alle c entra l d el r io C olca, d esde T ut i ( 3,790 m ) h asta C abanaconde ( 3,290 m ). T ambien s e c ult ivaron l as l aderas d e l a c uenca d el r io S iguas y d el v alle d el C hili-Vitor. E n e l p resente t rabajo n os o cuparemos d e l a a gricultura e n e l v alle c entra l d el C olca, y e specificamente d e l as t ierras c ontroladas p or l os i ndios r educidos e n e l p ueblo d e C oporaque e n e l p eriod ( ) e ntre 1 572 y 1 617. C oporaque ( 3,575 m ) e stä s ituado e n e l l ado n orte d el v a lle d el C olca, f rente a l p ueblo d e Y anque, q ue f ue c abecera d e d octrina y d e r epartimiento d urante e l v irreinato. E n 1 586 e l c orregidor d on J uan d e U lloa M ogollön d escribiö l a e cologia y l a p roducc i A a gricola d e e sta z ona e n s u " Relacjön d e l a P rovincia d e l os c ollaguas..." S e in U lloa, e l c lima e ra f rio y s eco, c on h eladas f recuentes q ue d estru lan l as c osechas. L os i ndios c ollaguas s embraban m aiz, q u inua y p apas, y s ufrian p or l a e scasez d e a gua d e r iego e n l os a rms d e p oca luvia. L a t ierra e ra " f laca y d e p ocos f rutos" ( U lloa 1 965:328-331). L a d escripciön d e U lloa M ogollön c orresponde a l as c ondiciones c limät icas a ctuales. P ero l a i nsistenc ia e n l a p obreza d e l a t ierra p uede s er i nteresada, p ues p or o tras f uentes s abemos q ue U lloa y s u l ugarteniente G onzalo G omez d e B uytrön q u itaban e l m aiz i legalmente a l os i ndios p ara c omerc ializarlo ( Crespo 1 977). E n l a a ctualidad, e n e l v alle d el C olca s e c u lt ivan, a demäs d el m alz, l a q uinua y l os t uberculos m encionados p or U lloa, g ranos y h orta lizas d e o rigen e uropeo, e spec ia lmente l as h abas, q ue s e s iembran c on l a q uinua y e l m aiz. L a c ebada y l a a lfalfa s on l os c ult ivos m äs c omunes, s iendo p au lat inamente d esplazada l a c ebada p or l a a lfalfa. S abemos p or a preciaciones g eogräficas q ue a proximadamente e l 6 1% d e l a a ndeneria a nteriormente c ultivada e n e l v alle d el C olca e stä a ctualmente a bandonada ( Denevan y H artwig 1 986). L a m ayor n ecesidad d e r iego d e a lgunos c ult ivos e uropeos p uede h aber s ido u n f actor e n e l a bandono d e t ierras. S eria p or t anto i mportant er ea lizar u n e studio c omparativo e ntre l as n ecesidades d e r egadio d e l os c ult ivos a u t ö ct o no s aq ue h ace r eferencia U lloa, y l os s embrios c ontemporäneos.

1 31

L a P oblaciön:

D emogratia, O rganizaciön S ocial, E conömica y P olit ica

D urante l a C olonia, l a p rovincia d e l os C o llaguas s e d ividid e n t res r epartimientos: Y anquecollaguas, L aricollaguas ( o R ecollaguas), y C avana. N o n os d etendremos e n l os r epartimientos d e L aricollaguas y C avana, a mp liamente d escritos y c omentados e n o tros t rabajos ( Pease 1 977a). N os o cuparemos e xclusivamente d e Y anquecollaguas, c onocido t ambien c omo C ollaguas d e l a C orona R ea l d esde 1 562, a f i o e n q u e , p o r a usencia p rolongada d el e ncomendero c apitän F rancisco N oguerol d e U lloa, r evirtiö l a e ncomienda a l a c orona e spai iola. D e l os t res r epart imientos z Y anque f ue e l ms i mportante y e l m ä s e n p oblaciön y p roducc ion g anadera. A s( c omo l os o tros d os r epartimientos, Y anquecollaguas e staba d ividida e n d os p arcia lidades o m itades: H anansaya, o . p arte a lta, y U r insaya, o p arte b aja ( Mälaga 1 977). A l r educirse l a p oblaciön a p ueblos e n l a d ecada d e 1 570, e stos c onservaron e sta d ivisiön ( Benavides 1 983). L as v isitas y l a a djudicaciön d e t ributo s e r ealizaban p or p arcialidades, t anto a n ivel d e r epartimiento ( Cook 1 975) c omo a n ivel p ueblo ( Pease 1 977c, A PY 1 604, 1 615-1617).

r i co

R ecientemente, N oble D avid C ook h a p ublicado a lgunos r esu ltados d e l os e studios d emogräficos q ue v iene r ealizando s obre e l v alle d el C olca. S egün e stos c älculos, l a p oblaciön d e l a p rovincia d e l os C ollaguas b ajo d e u n t otal a proximado d e 6 2,513 h abitantes e n 1 530 a 3 4,966 h abitantes e n 1 570, legando a l p unto m äs b ajo d e 4 ,496 h abitantes e n 1 754. E n 1 972, l a p ob laciön h abia a umentado a a proximadamente l a m itad d e l a c ifra o riginal, o s ea a l m ismo n dmero q ue a f ines d el s iglo X VI ( Cook 1 982) ( ver F ig. 1 ). E s e vidente q ue e n l a z ona d e C oporaque l os c ambios d emogräficos d eben h aber a compa i n ado l as p roporciones d e l a p rovincia. L a p oblaciön, r educida a m enos d e u n d ecimo d el n ümero o riginal, n o p uede h aber m antenido l a i nfraestructura n ecesaria p ara e l c ult ivo y e l r iego d e l as t ierras m äs a lejadas o m a 's d if iciles d e r egar. E s p osible q ue e l a bandono d e t ierras a gricolas, y e l u so d e e llas p ara p astoreo d e g anado v acuno y l anar s e h aya e fectuado p rincipalmente e n l a e p oc a d e l a m ayor c atästrofe d emogräfica, o s ea e n l os s iglos X VII y X VIII. L as v isitas d e 1 604 y d e 1 615-1617 a Y anquecollaguas p roporcionan d atos r elat ivamente c omp letos p ara e l p ueblo d e C oporaque. C ook u t iliza l os d atos d emogräficos d e e stas v isitas q ue a rrojan 9 41 h abitantes p ara C oporaque U rinsaya e n 1 604 y 1 ,015 h abitantes p ara C oporaque H anansaya e n 1 615 ( Cook 1 982).

M ARCO T EORICO L a r elaciön p oblaciön-uso d e t ierras h a s ido a mp liamente t ratada e n l a o bra c läsica d e B oserup ( 1965). E n e lla, B oserup d emuestra q ue, e n s ociedades a gricolas p recapita listas, a m ayor p oblaci A m ayor e xp lotaciön d e t ierras a parentemente m arginales p ero u tilizables c on a ltos c ostos d e e nergia h umana. R ecientemente, A min ( 1980) h a r etomado e sta t esis d emostrando q ue l as s ociedades lamadas t ributarias a mp lfän l a e xp lotaciön d e t ierras

1 32

n o s o lamente p ara f ines d e s ubsistencia s ino t ambien p ara p agar e l t ributo, s ea e ste e n f orma d e e nergfa h umana o e n e spec ies. S egün e ste a rgumento, l as a ndenerias a ctualmente a bandonadas e n e l v alle d el C o lca y e n o tras z onas a ndinas, h ubieran s ido u t ilizadas d urante e l m äximo d esarro llo p ob laciona l y t ributario, o s ea d urante e l p erfodo i ncaico. A unque e l s istema c olonia l e spar io l f uera t ambien t ributario, l a c a d strofe d emogräfica y l a d esestructuraciön s oc ia l p ostcolombina t runcaron l a m axima , e xp lotaciön a gricola a ndina ( Wachte l 1 973). L a r e lat iva r ecuperaciön d emogräfica d e l os s iglos X IX y X X s e p rodujo e n c ond iciones e conömicas y s oc ia les d iferentes q ue p ermit ian a l os c ampesinos a lternat ivas p ercibidas c omo m äs f avorables q ue e l e sfuerzo d e l a r ecuperaciön a grfcola d e t ierras a bandonadas o u sadas c omo nb otaderos" ( pastoreo t empora l d e a nimales d omest icos).

L AS V ISITAS Y E L T RIBUTO D URANTE E L V IRREINATO L as v isitas f ueron e l m etodo u t ilizado p or l a a dministraciön v irreinal e spa T iola p ara d eterminar l a p oblaciön, s u c apacidad p roductiva, y e l t r ibuto a plicable a c ada p arcia lidad ( G ibson 1 964, P ease 1 977b). A ntes d e l a V isita G enera l d el v irrey F ranc isco d e T oledo, l a t asa d e l t ributo a ndino h abia s ido a p licada e n f orma a rb itraria p or l os e ncomenderos. T oledo p rohibiö e l s ervicio p ersona l n o r emunerado y e stableciö l a m ita a l as m inas y e l t ributo a p agarse e n p lata y e spec ies. E ste t ributo n o f ue u niforme, s ino a plicado s egun u na t asa e specif ica p ara c ada r epart imiento, t omando e n c uenta s u p oblaciön y p roducc iön ( Cook 1 975). A l r ea lizarse l a V isita G enera l e n 1 572, l os c o llaguas d el r epartimiento d e Y anque y a e staban p uestos e n l a c orona r ea l. S e e stableciö q ue Y anquecollaguas t enfa 4 ,026 t ributarios, 2 ,499 d e H anansaya y 1 ,527 d e U rinsaya. L a t asa f ue c alcu lada a r a zö n d e d os p esos d e p lata e nsayada p or t ributario, m äs e spec ies: g anado a uquenido y p iezas d e g enero d e l ana c orriente o a basca. E l r ecaudador r esponsable e ra e l c acique, q ue d ebia r ea lizar l a e ntrega d e l a p lata y d e l as e spec ies, o s u e qu iva lente e n p lata, e n d os p artes: u na e n j unio y o tra e n d ic iembre d e c ada S e c alcu lö q ue e l t ota l d el t ributo d e Y anquecollaguas r epresentaba u n v alor d e 1 7,982 p esos. D el t ota l, s e d ebfa r estar l os c ostos a dministrat ivos y e l s ustento d e l os p adres d octrineros, r estando 1 0,537 p esos p ara l a c orona. L os Y anquecollaguas n o f ueron s ujetos a l a m ita m inera s ino d espues d e 1 625, c uando s e d escubr ieron l as m inas d e C aylloma. T ampoco e stuvieron s ujetos a l a e ntrega d e e species a gricolas, a d iferenc ia d e l os C avana, c uyo t ributo i nc luia e l m alz ( Cook 1 975:226). E n l a V isita G enera l s e r ecomendö q ue c ada p arc ia lidad r eservara t ierras a t rabajarse c omuna lmente p ara e l p ago d el t ributo e n p lata, d ebiendose r epart ir e ntre l os ms n ecesitados e l s obrante d e l a y enta d e l a c osecha. S in e mbargo, l as v isitas a C oporaque n o d an i ndicio d e t ierras " de c omunidad".

l a

E s p osible q ue l os c aciques u t ilizaran o tros m etodos p ara r eunir t asa e n p lata. E n e fecto, a lgunos p rotoco los n otaria les i ndican

1 33

80 .000 -

7 0 .000-

80 .000 -

_ „ —Es t i ma te ( 1532-1572 ) b ased o n c ensus p ro jec t ion

60 ,000-

T o ta l p opu lat ion c urve ( 1 5721972 ) 40 ,000

b ased o n p opu la t ion c oun ts : • • • •

30 ,000 -

E s t ima ted t r end ( 16881800 )

T rend ( 1 5241572 ) 20 .000 -

b ased o n p ar ish r eg is te rs

b ased o n e s t i ma tes o f d isease mo r ta l i ty

1 0 ,000

T r ibu tary p opu la t ion ( 1 5721843 ) b ased o n t r ibu tary c oun ts

1 500

' 20

' 40

F igura 1 .

' 80

' 80

I 1 600

' 20

' 40

' 80

' BO

1 700

' 20

' 40

' 80

' 80

1 300

' 20

' 40

' 60

' 80

1 900

' 20

' 40

' 60

' 80

C ambios D emogräficos e n e l V alle d el C olca, 1 530-1972 1 982:84).

1 34

I i 2000

( Cook

q ue l os c aciques a v eces v endian g anado d e l a c omunidad, y a lqu ilaban l os i ndios y l as lamas p are t ransporte d e v ino y o tras m ercancias e ntre A requ ipa, C uzco y P otosi ( ADA ). L a t asa d el t ributo e ra c alcu lada s obre e l n ümero d e t ributarios, d efinidos c omo i ndios v arones h äbiles p ara e l t rabajo, e ntre l as e dades d e 1 8 y 5 0 a i ios. C uando s e p roducia u na f uerte d ism inuciön d e l os t r ibutarios p or a usenc ia, e nfermedad o m uerte, e ra c o mü n q u e l o s c a c iqu es s o lic it aran u n a r e v is it a a s u p art ido. L as f recuentes r evisitas a l os c o llaguas s e d eben c iertamente a l a i mpresionante d ism inuciön d e e sta e tnia, d ocumentada e n l as v isitas y e n l os r egistros p arroquia les y s intet izada e n e l a ng lisis d e C ook ( 1982).

C OPORAQUE E N L A V ISITA D E 1 591 A Y ANQUECOLLAGUAS U RINSAYA E sta v isita, p ublicada e n 1 977 p or F ranklin P ease G . Y ., f ue i niciada e l 1 0 d e m arzo d e 1 591 p or e l c orregidor G aspar V erdugo d urante e l v irreinato d e G arcia H urtado d e M endoza. V erdugo v i s itö l os p ueblos d e Y anque, T isco, C ibayo y T ute, s iendo l uego r eemp lazado p or e l c orregidor G aspar C olmenares. C o lmenares i niciö l a v isita a C oporaque U r insaya e l 1 3 d e a gosto d e 1 591, c on l a a sistenc ia d e f ray L u is d e O re , p grroco d e C oporaque, q u ien e nsei rö l os r egistros d e d efunc iön d e l os i ndios f a llecidos e n l a e pidemia d e v iruela y s arampiön ( Pease 1 977c :343). I nfelizmente, e l d ocumento e s i ncomp leto. L a v isita a C oporaque c ont iene l a r e laciön d e l a yllo C ollana, c uyo c acique o p rinc ipal e ra d on P edro Q u ispe; y l a m ayor p arte d el a yllo P ayana C ollana P ataca, c uyo p rincipal e ra d on M artin C huqu ianco. P odemos s uponer q ue C oporaque t uviera c uatro a yllos, y q ue p or Unto f a lta m a 's d e l a m itad d e l a v isita a e ste p ueblo. Y anque, T ute, y C ibayo f iguran c on c uatro a yllos c ada u no, T isco c on s eis , y s olamente C a llalli c on u n s olo a yllo. S e e nt iende q ue l os a yllos m enc ionados c orresponden a g rupos e t n icos p rehispänicos, c uyos m iembros f ueron r eubicados e n l as r educc iones t oledanas o p ueblos d e i ndios f undados e n l a d ecada d e 1 570. L a v isita d e 1 591 s igue e l f ormato e stablecido e n l a V isita G enera l y q ue s e r epite e n t odas l as r evisitas c onocidas a C ollaguas: 1 . N ombre d el a y llo. 2 . N ombre y e dad d e l os c aciques, p rinc ipales y m andones, r eservados d el t ributo, c ada u no c on s us r espectivas m ujeres e h ijos, y r elaciön d e s us t ierras y g anados. 3 . N ombre y e dad d e l os t ributarios c asados, d e s us e sposas e h ijos, y r e lac iö n d e s us t ierras y g anados. 4 . N ombre y e dad d e l os t ributarios s olteros, y r e laciön d e s us t ierras y g anados. 5 . N ombre y e dad d e l os v iejos e i mpedidos, d e l os m uchachos m enores d e 1 8 a i ios, d e l as m ujeres d e t odas l as e dades y c ondiciones n o n ombradas a nteriormente, y d e l os h uerfanos. E stas c ategorias t ambien f iguran a v eces c on t ierras y g anados. L as t ierras a parecen p or s uertes o l otes, r epart idos e n d ist intas z onas, c ada u na d efinida p or s u r espect ivo t opönimo. L as s uertes s on

1 35

d efinidas c omo t opo, t opo d e c häcara, c häcara, a nden, p ata, y f racciones d e l as m ismas, s iendo l a m edida ms f recuente e l c uarto d e t opo. T ambien a parecen l os t e rm ino s " peda p" y up edacill e. P ara m ayor c laridad, c itamos u n e jemplo d e u n t ipico t ributario: C assa F rancisco U issa d e u eynte y s iete a rms M adalena C arua s u m ujer d e s u e dad L orenso U ala s u h ijo d e q uatro a nos B artolome q u ipa s u h ijo d e d os a los F elipe C hulluni d e u n ao 1 /2 t opo e n G oaqu iri m edio t opo d e m afz q ue a linda ( f .104/ c on M artin P uyllo/ 1 04v) e n T ampaca u n q uarto d e t opo d e q u inua e n e l d icho l ugar o tros t res q uartos d e q uinua e n U tarana m edio t opo d e q u inua e n A popampa u n q uarto d e m aiz e n C ocat ire u n a nden d e m afz 2 t opos e n S uqui u n q uarto d e t opo d e q u inua ( Pease 1 977c:364).

2 7 a nos 2 7 a l ros 4a i ios 2a i ios 1a i io

E n e l e jemp lo c itado, e l r esumen e n e l m argen i zqu ierdo n o i ncluye e l a nden d e m aiz e n C ocatire. S in e mbargo, e n o tros c asos s e o bserva q ue l as n omenclaturas a nden, p ata y p edazo s on s umados c omo e quivalente d e c uarto d e t opo. E l t rabajo q ue s e h a r ealizado p ara e sta v isita a C oporaque, c omo p ara l as d e 1 604 y 1 615-1617, h a c onsist ido e n c onfeccionar u n c uadro e n q ue a parecen l os s iguientes d atos:

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E l c uadro a rroja l as c ifras s igu ientes: 3 12 t opönimos, 6 60 s uertes, 2 29.25 t opos d e a rea t otal; d e l os c uales 1 17.75 t opos d e m aiz, 1 00.25 t opos d e q uinua, 2 .25 t opos d e p apas, . 25 t opo d e c a i iahua, y 8 .75 t opos c uyo c u lt ivo n o s e e specifica o e s i legible ( ver C uadro 1 ). S e o bservara q ue e l m aiz y l a q u inua r epresentan r espectivamente e l 5 1 y e l 4 3% d e l as t ierras c u lt ivadas, s umando 9 4% d el a rea t ota l. E ste d ato p osiblemente n o d eba i nterpretarse l itera lmente, p ues p odria i ndicar s olamente l os c ultivos p rincipales d e l os l otes o s uertes. P ero e n t odo c aso, s ugiere u n a lto n ivel d e e specia lizaciön e n l a p roducciön a grfcola d e l a z o9a, p roducciön a grfcola d e l a z ona, p robablemente c ompensado e n l a e poca p rehispänica p or u n p erfecc ionado s istema d e r eciprocidad y r edistribuciön a n ive l d el a yllo y l a e t ni a , s e g t i n e l m odelo a mpliamente d esarrollado p or M urra ( 1975).

1 36

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1 37

C OPORAQUE E N L A V ISITA D E 1 604 A Y ANQUECOLLAGUAS U RINSAYA E sta v isita e s i nedita y s e e ncuentra e n e l A rchivo P arroqu ia l d e Y anque. E s l a ms c omp leta q ue s e c onoce p ara C oporaque U rinsaya, f altando s olamente a lgunos d e l os 1 37 f olios d e l os q ue s e c ompone ( APY 1 604:208-345v). E n g eneral, c onfirma y c ompleta l a i nformaciön d e l a v isita a C oporaque U rinsaya d e 1 591. S u f ormato e s i gual a l a nterior, y h a s ido t rabajado d e l a m isma m anera. L a v isita d e 1 604 s e i niciö e l 5 d e o ctubre y s e c oncluyö a ntes d e f inalizar e l m es. E l v isitador, J uan d e R ivero, a notö p or l o m enos u na p arte d e l a i nformaciön e n Y anque, n o e n e l m ismo C oporaque. E l c acique p rincipal d e Y anquecollaguas U rinsaya e ra J usepe G uassuri, y e l c acique p rincipal d e C oporaque e ra d on P edro Q u ispe, h ijo d e d on D iego Q uispe. L os a yllos q ue f iguran s on l os s iguientes: 1 . A yllo C ollana 2 . A yllo P ahana C ollana P ataca 3 . A yllo P ahanataypi P ataca 4 . A yllo O ficia les 0 11eros 5y 6 . A yllos C ollana P ataca y P ahanataipi P ataca d el a siento d e G uaraoma. E stos a yllos a parentemente f iguraban c omo r educidos e n C oporaque, p ero e n r ea p lidad e ran p astores e n l as a lturas. S e i ndica q ue G uaraoma p ertenecia a d os p ueblos: C oporaque y Y anque. E l c uadro e stadist ico d e t ierras y c ult ivos e laborado p ara e sta v isita a rroja l as s iguientes c ifras: 4 85 t opönimos, 1 ,697 s uertes; 4 71.25 t opos d e a rea t ota l, d e l os c uales 2 73.25 t opos d e m aiz, 1 93.25 t opos d e q uinua, 2 .75 t opos d e p apas, . 25 t opos d e c a i iahua y 1 .25 c uyo c ult ivo n o s e e specifica o e s i legible ( ver C uadro 1 ). E sta v isita h a s ido u t ilizada p or N oble D avid C ook p ara s u e studio d emogräfico d e C oporaque ( Cook 1 982). A rroja 9 41 h abitantes s egü n e l c omputo d e C ook y 1 ,008 s egün e l n u estro, q u e i nc luye l o s a yllos d e G uaraoma y a lgunos h abitantes q ue f ueron d eclarados p osteriormente p or e l c acique ( f. 3 15 y 3 45).

C OPORAQUE E N L A V ISITA D E 1 615-1617 A Y ANQUECOLLAGUAS H ANANSAYA E sta v isita e s t ambien i nedita y s e e ncuentra e n e l A rchivo P arroquial d e Y anque. E s l a m äs c ompleta q ue s e c onoce p ara C oporaque H anansaya, f altando s olamente a lgunos f olios d e l os 1 31 d e q ue e sta c ompuesta ( APY 1 615-1617; f . 4 80v-611v). N o s e c onoce n inguna v isita a nterior a C oporaque H anansaya. E l f ormato d e e sta v isita e s i gua l a l os d e C oporaque U rinsaya, y s e h a t rabajado s igu iendo l as m ismas p autas. L a s ecc ic in d e l a v isita q ue s e r efiere a C oporaque f ue i niciada e l 5 d e d iciembre d e 3 615 y c omp letada e l 5 d e e nero d e 1 616. E l v isitador f ue e l c apitan J eronimo d e P amanes, c orregidor y v isitador d e S u M ajestad ( f. 4 80v). E l d ocumento s ido r educidos d e

i ndica q ue l os i ndios d e C oporaque H anansaya h abian l os p ueblos d e M alcomussa, S aio M arca, C alocacupi y

1 38

C anocaca. S u c acique p rincipal e ra d on J uan A la N oca, h ijo y h eredero d e d on F ernando P acsi ( f . 4 80v ). L os a yllos q ue f iguran s on l os s igu ientes: 1 . A yllo C ollana M a lco 2 . A yllo I catunga M a llco 3 . A yllo C heca M a llco 4 . A yllo Y umasca 5 . A yllo C alloca 6 . A yllo A ipi 7 . A yllo C upi 8 . A yllo O f icia les 0 11eros. E l c uadro e stadist ico d e t ierras y c u lt ivos a rroja c ifras: 6 23 t o pö n imos , 1 ,572 s uertes; t otal d e t opos, c ua les 3 19.75 t opos d e m aiz, 2 10.75 t opos d e q u inua, p apas, 5 .25 t opos d e c a i iahua, y 8 t opos c uyo c u lt ivo n o oe s i legible ( ver C uadro 1 ).

l as s igu ientes 5 48.25, d e l os 4 .25 t opos d e s e e spec if ica,

E sta v isita h a s ido u t ilizada p or C ook ( 1982), j unto c on l os d atos d e 1 604, p ara c onfecc ionar e l c uadro d e l a p oblac iön d e C oporaque p ara l as p rimeras d ecadas d el s iglo X VII. A rroja u n n d m ero t ota l d e 1 ,015 h abitantes.

A NALISIS D E L AS V ISITAS E n l as t res v isitas s e o bserva q ue, e n l a g ran m ayoria d e l os c asos, c ada t errateniente p osee s uertes r epart idas e n d ist intos t opönimos y s iembran t anto m aiz c omo q u inua. C ada s uerte ( con r arisimas e xcepciones) e stä r egistrada c omo m onocu lt ivo. L os c ac iques t ienen m äs t ierras y g anados q ue l os d emäs h abitantes, y a demäs c ontrolan t ierras f uera d el t erritorio d e C oporaque, d onde s iembran p rinc ipalmente m aiz . N o s e h a i ncluido a qui l os d atos r eferentes a l g anado ( l lamas y a lpacas), y a l as t ierras f uera d el t erritorio d e C oporaque, y a q ue e l o bject ivo d el p resente t rabajo e s o btener u na c uant ificaciön d e l as t ierras c u lt ivadas e n e l v alle d el C o lca, s ector C oporaque. C on l os d atos t rabajados s e p uede c onclu ir q ue e l m af z y l a q u inu a e r an l o s c u lt ivos p r inc ipa les e n l a e p oca e n e studio, y q ue l os c ult ivos e uropeos t odavia n o f iguraban e n l a z ona d e C oporaque. L os p atrones d e t enencia r ef lejan l os d erechos d e l os c aciques y u na m arcada e strat ificac iön s oc io-econömica. A unque e n m uchos c asos l os f amilias d isponian d e l o q ue p odian s er t ierras s uf ic ientes p ara s u s ubsistencia, h ay u nidades d omest icas c on p ocos m iembros e i nc lusive i ndividuos s in f amilia c on ms t opos q ue f amilias c on m uchos h ijos d ependientes. T ambien s e o bserva c asos d e p arejas s in t ierras. E sta i rregu laridad e n l a t enencia d e t ierras n iega l a p osibilidad d e i nterpretar e n e l a nä lisis d e l as v isitas a l os c o llaguas a l t opo c omo c antidad d e t ier u a gricola n ecesaria era e l s ustento d e u na p areja s in h ijos, s egun e l s entido p rehispanico d el t ermino. E l v ocablo t opo d ebe p ar t anto t ener o tro s ignificado, q ue p uede s er c onstante o r e lat ivo, p ero n o d irectamente l igado a l as n ecesidades d e s ubsistencia.

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D IFICULTADES E N E L A NALISIS D E T IERRAS E N L AS V ISITAS L as d ificultades p rincipales e n e l a nä lisis d e t ierras r egistradas e n l as v isitas g iran a lrededor d e d os p roblemas: l a v eracidad d e l as d eclaraciones, y l a i nterpretaciön q ue s e d ebe d ar a l os t erminos u tilizados ( topo, c häcara, a nden, p ata, p edazo).

L a V eracidad d e l a I nformaciön L as v isitas p rocuraban e stablecer l a c antidad y c alidad d e l as t ierras, y s u p roduct ividad. S in e mbargo, e xistian i ntereses e n f alsear d icha i nformaciön. C ook ( 1975:14) n os d ice q ue e n l as v isitas p re-toledanas d el s iglo X VI, m uchos i ndios h uyeron o s e e scondieron p ara n o s er c ontados, o d estrozaron l os c ampos d e c ultivo p ara d emostrar s u i ncapacidad d e t ributar f uertemente, q uedando l as t ierras d evastadas d espues d e l as v isitas. L os c orregidores t ambien t enian i nteres e n h acer f igurar u na p roducciön i nfer ior a l a r eal, p ara l uego a propiarse d e l os p roductos e xcedentes y c omercializarlos ( Crespo 1 977, K ubler 1 946). P or o tro l ado, l a a dministraciön c olonial p rocuraba c ontrolar l as i rregu laridades, e nfrentando a l os c aciques, l os m agistrados, l os c orregidores y l os d octrineros e ntre e llos ( Crespo 1 977; K ubler 1 946; B enavides 1 984). Y a q ue a parentemente n adie t enia i ntere s e n d eclarar, u na p roducciön m ayor a l a v erdadera, s e p uede p roponer l a o pciön d e c a lcular l os d atos r egistrados a gregändoles u n 1 0 a 2 0 p or c iento p or l os n o d eclarados i ntencionalmente o p or d escuido. L as U nidades d e M edida L as m edidas d e t ierra m g ' s f recuentemente u t ilizadas e n l as v isitas s on e l t opo y e l t opo d e c häcara. O rigina lmente, e l t e rm ino c häcara p d p ede h aberse r eferido a t ierras d e y ungas, y a c ult ivos d e m alz, au i y q u izas c oca ( Murra 1 975:50). P ero e n l as v isitas a C oporaque, c reo q ue s e d ebe i nterpretar c omo t ierra d e c ult ivo b ajo r iego. P or e l c ontexto s e e nt iende q ue t opo, t opo d e c häcara y c häcara s on s indnimos. L a d iscusiö n s obre e l s ignificado q ue s e d ebe d ar a l t e rm ino t opo h a d ado l ugar a u na c ontroversia q ue g ira p rincipalmente s obre e l s entido p rehispänico d el t e rm ino , p e ro q u e i ncluye t ambien s u s ignificado d urante p or l o m enos e l p rimer s iglo d e d ominaci A e sparmla, y a q ue s e s upone q ue s e c onservara l a t erminologia r ural a ndina e n l os l ugares m a 's a partados ( Rowe 1 946, K ubler 1 946, M urra 1 964 y 1 975, R ostworowski 1 960 y 1 981). L a o pinion g enera l b asada s obre l os e scritos d e l os c ronistas y s obre l os d iccionarios m äs a ntiguos d e l as l enguas a ymara y q uechua ( Bertonio 1 956, S anto T omas 1 951, G onzales H olguin 1 952) e s q ue e l t opo s ignificaba e l ä rea c ultivable q ue n ecesitaba u na p areja s in h ijos p ara s u s ustento, y q ue p odia i ncluir l as t ierras e n d escanso a demäs d e l as s embradas. L as v isitas a l os c ollaguas i ndican c laramente q ue n o e xiste u na c orre laciö n d irecta e ntre e l n dmero d e m iembros d e l a u nidad d ome st ica

1 40

y l a c ant i e d e t opos d isponsible. S e h a d esechado p or t anto l a i nterpretacion d el t opo c omo c ant idad d e t ierra q ue n ecesita u na p areja s in h ijos p ara s u s ustento, p refiriendose u na i n t er p r et a c iö n d e m edida c onstante. P ero s urgen o tras d if icultades: s e d ebe c a lcular e l t op c omo m edida d e s embradura, d e p roducc iön, d e i nversiön d e e nergia h umana, o d e ä rea? L a m edida e spano la d el s iglo X VI e ra l a f anega d e t ierra, q ue s ignif icaba e l a rea e n q ue s e p odia s embrar l a c ant idad d e g ranos q ue c abian e n u n r ec ipiente q ue p odia c ontener a proximadamente 5 2 l itros d e a i g ua. D e a ceptarse e ste c oncept° d e m edida, u n t opo d e m aiz s eria u n a rea i nferior a u n t opo d e q u inua, y a q ue l a s emilla d e l a q u inua e s m ucho m äs c hica q ue l a d el m aiz. S in e mbargo, G ibson n os d ice q ue e n e l s iglo X VI e n N ueva E spa i ia, l as s uertes d e m a i z e r a n m a 's g randes q ue l as s uertes d e t r igo ( G ibson 1 964:258). E s p osible q ue u n t opo d e m aiz y u n t opo d e q u inua f ueran m edidas c onstantes, p ero d iferentes e ntre S i. E l a rgumento d e M urra ( 1975:215) r especto a l e sfuerzo r ealizado p or l os e spa r n o les d e r egu larizar l a c uant ificaciön p or ä r e a s , n o c ontradice l a p osibilidad d e q ue e n l as e pocas e studiadas l a u niformidad d e a rea e stuviera s ujeta a l t ipo d e c u lt ivo, m aiz o q u inua, e n e l v a lle d el C olca. P ropongo p or t anto l a p osibilidad d e d os, e n v ez d e u na c onstante, q ue t umaria e n c uenta l as d os p rinc ipales z onas e colögicas d e l v alle: l os a ndenes p rotegidos d e l as l aderas, d onde h asta a hora s e p uede s embrar m aiz ; y l as p ampas d el f ondo d el v a lle d onde c orren l os " vientos f rigidisimos" d escritos p or U lloa, d onde l a q u inua, m a 's r esistente q ue e l m aiz a l as i nclemencias d el c lima, p uede p rosperar. S i l os d atos r egistrados e n l as v isitas s on c orrectos, e s d ec ir, s i l a a gricultura s e r ea lizaba p or m onocult ivos c asi e xc lusivamente d e m aiz y d e q u inua e n l as p roporciones a notadas, e s l ö gico s uponer q ue l os t opö nimos c orrespondientes a l m aiz p ertenezcan a l a a ndeneria y l os t o pö n im o s c orrespondientes a l a q u inua p ertenezcan a l as p ampas. P or m edio d el t rabajo d e c ampo s e p odrä c omprobar s i l a h ipötesis p ropuesta a qui m erece m ayor d esarro llo. C omo s e h a v isto, l as d ificultades e n i nterpretar l os d atos c onsignados e n l as v isitas s on m ü lt iples. A un c omprobändose q ue e x ist iera u no o m äs c riterios p ara l a m edicic in d e l os t errenos, h ay q ue c onsiderar q ue e n e l c oncepto a ndino, a un e n e l p resente, l as m edidas s on s iempre f luidas, s iendo l os c onceptos e colö gicos y c limatolögicos l a c onsideraciön s uprema. L as d iferencias q ue s e p roducen d e a no e n ah y d e n icho e colö gico e n n icho e colögico d eterminan l a n ecesidad d e i nversion h umana y d e s emilla, y l as p osibilidades d e c osecha. H asta h oy, e xisten c atadores e specia lizados e n p rever l a p roducc iön y j uzgar e l v alor d e l as t ierras p ara l a y enta y e l a lqu iler, q ue s e e spec ializan e n z onas c ircunscritas c onoc idas a t raves d e l os ar t : ' 1 o s ( informante l ocal, Y anque, 1 984). A ctualmente, s e c onsidera q ue e l t opo a requ ipef ido e qu ivale a 3 ,496 m2 . S in e mbargo, a l e stablecer l a c uota a p agarse p or e l a gua d e r iego e n 1 972, l os i nger l ieros d el M inisterio d e A gricu ltura c a lcu laron " al o jo" e l n d m e r o d e t opos e n Y anque. A l m argen d e l as d if icu ltades m ateria les e n h acer u n l evantamiento m äs p rec iso p revaleciö

1 41

c iertamente e l c oncepto f lü ido a ndino, a jeno a l a e xact itud m atemät ica d e l a c u ltura o ccidental. C ONCLUSION E n e ste t rabajo s e h a a nalizado l as i nformaciones s obre e l c ultivo d e t ierras e n C oporaque e n 1 591, 1 604 y 1 615. S e h a p rocurado c uantificar l os d atos, t omando e n c uenta l as d ificultades e n e valuar l a t erminologia d e l a e poca. S e h a p ropuesto u na h ipötesis: q ue l a m edida t opo r epresenta n o u na, s ino d os c onstantes: u na p ara m edir l os ä ndenes d e l as l aderas d onde s e s embraba m aiz, y u na p ara m edir l as p ampas e n e l p iso d el v a lle, d onde s e s embraba q u inua. E n 1 977 F ranklin P ease s e i ialö l a i mportanc ia d e u n e studio e tnogräfico d e l os t o pö n imos q u e a p arecen e n l a s v isitas. E n 1 985 s e i niciö u n t rabajo s obre l os t opönimos d e C oporaque, c omparando d atos d e l as v isitas c on t opönimos a ctualmente e n u so. L os r esultados f ueron l imitados, y a q ue m uchos t opönimos a ctuales n o a parecen e n l as v isitas, y o tros t o pö n imos a nt iguos n o s e c o nocen a ctualmente ( Benavides 1 986). P or s us i nevitables l imitaciones, e l t rabajo e tnohistörico n ecesita l a c omprobaciön a rqueolögica, g eogräfica y a ntropolögica p ara a dquirir u n s ignificado v alioso. E l p royecto m ultidisciplinario e xpuesto e n e l p resente t rabajo p romete d ar a lgunas r espuestas a l as p reguntas q ue s urgen d el a nä lisis d e l os d ocumentos. E stas r espuestas t endran u n v a lor, p osiblemente m uy g rande, n o s olamente p ara e l v alle d el C olca, s ino p ara t oda l a z ona a ndina d el s ur d el P erü, d onde l as c ondiciones c limät icas y e colögicas s ean s inplares: e s d ecir, d onde s e s embrö e n e l p asado c asi e xclusivamente m alz y q uinua, y d onde e s i ndispensable e l r iego s uplementario t anto p ara p roporcionar s uficiente a gua a l as p lantas c omo p ara a bastecer l a t ierra d e l os e lementos f ertilizantes n ecesarios p ara l a a gricultura. M äs i mportante a un, p odrdn p roporcionar u na b ase s ölida p ara e valuar l a p osibilidad d e r ehabilitar l as t ierras a bandonadas, r estableciendo e l c u lt ivo d e l as e species a ndinas.

A gradecimientos. L a i n vest igac iö n r ecibiö a poyö d el C olca V alley A bandoned T errace P roject ( Proyecto d e A ndenes A bandonados d el V alle d el C olca), W illiam M . D enevan, D irector, a poyado e conöMicamente p or l a N at ional S cience F oundat ion y p or l a N ationa l G eographic S oc iety.

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H istorically

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1 42

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C oporaque T oponyms: C omparison a nd A nalysis o f P lace N ames i n t he 1 6th, 1 7th, a nd 2 0th C enturies. I n T he C ultura l E cology, A rchaeology, a nd H istory o f T erracing a nd T errace A bandonment i n t he C olca V alley o f S outhern P eru, e d ited b y W illiam M . D enevan, p p. TO7 -4 32. T echnical R eport t o t he N at iona l S cience F oundation a nd N at iona l G eographic S ociety, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison.

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V alley:

C urrent

A nthropology

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D enevan, W illiam M . a nd L aura H artwig 1 986. M easurement o f T errace A bandonment i n t he C olca V alley. I n T he C ultura l E cology, A rchaeology, a nd H istory o f T erracing 5 . 7t -dT errace A bandonment i n t he C olca — glley o f S outhern P eru, T dited b y W illiam M . D enevan, p p. 9 9-115. T echnical R eport t o t he N at ional S cience F oundat ion a nd N at ional G eographic S ociety, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison.

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G ibson, C harles 1 964. T he A ztecs U nder S panish R u le: A H istory o f t he I ndians o f 767 V alley o f M exico 1 519-1810. S tanford -g i i iversiii-7 17 g ss, S tan r n o t . G onzales H olguin, D iego 1 952[1608]. V ocabu lario d e l a l engua g enera l d e t odo e l P er i l lamada Q uech Tr a. E di-E rt n- gr- I Ta ituto d e H M6 17 .1 i 7 U niversidad M ayor d e S an M arcos, L ima. K ubler, G eorge 1 946. T he Q uechua i n t he C olonia l W or ld. I n H andbook o f S outh A merican I nd ians, e dited b y J u lian S teward, V ol. 2 , p p. 3 31-410. B u llet in o f t he B ureau o f A merican E thno logy 1 43, W ashington, D .C. M älaga M adina, A lejandro 1 977. L os C o llaguas e n l a h istoria d e A requ ipa e n e l s iglo X VI. I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease, p p . 9 3-129. P ont ificia g niversidad C atö lica d e l P eru, L ima. M urra, J ohn V . 1 964. U na a preciaciö n e tnolögica d e l a v isita. S an M iguel, V isita h echa a l a p rovincia 4 21-442. C a si-W -T a Tü r f üra , ar ia . 1 975.

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( editor ) V isita d e Y anque C o llaguas ( Urinsaya) ( 1591), a nd F ragmento d e V isita Y anque C ollaguas ( Hanansaya) ( 1591). I n C ollaguas I , e dited b y F ranklin P ease, p. 1 91-406. P ont if icia g liversidad C atö lica d el P eru, L ima.

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R owe, J ohn 1 946 . I nca C u lture a t t he T ime o f t he S panish C onquest . I n H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I ndians, e dited b y J u lian S teward, V o. 2 , p. 1 98-330. B u llet in o f t he B ureau o f A mer ican E thno logy 1 43, W ashington, D .C. S anto T omäs, D omingo d e 1 951. G ramät ica o a rte d e l a l engua r eynos d eT- 7Fl i , e di ted b y L ima.

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U lloa M ogollön, J uan d e 1 965[1586]. R elaciön d e l a p rovinc ia d e l os C o llaguas. I n R elaciones g eogräficas d e I ndias, e dited b y M arcos J imenez d e l a E spada, V 677 175 1 7 :- 3 26-333. E diciones A t las ( B iblioteca d e A utores E spar loles, V ol. 1 83), M adrid. W achte l, N athan 1 973. S oc iedad a ndinas.

e i deologia: e nsayos d e h istoria y a ntropologfa I nst ituto d e E studios P eruanos, L ima.

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C HAPTER 6 A N E COLOGICAL M ODEL F OR E STIMATING P REHISTORIC P OPULATION A T C OPORAQUE, C OLCA V ALLEY, P ERU

J ohn T reacy

A BSTRACT O ne m eans o f e stimat ing t he p rehistoric p opu lation o f ar egion i s b y e cological a nalysis o f a gricultural f eatures. H ere a n a gricultural s ystem b ased l argely u pon t erracing i s a nalyzed t o r etrodict a p reh ispanic p opulation f or C oporaque, a s ett lement i n P eru 's C o lca V alley. P hotogrammetric t echniques a nd e thnohistorical a nd c ontemporary d ata a re u sed t o g enerate a n o ptimum ( potent ial) p rec ontact p opu lat ion o f 5 ,233 p eople, o ver f our t imes t he p resent p opulation o f C oporaque. T his f igure i s s imilar t o o ne d erived f rom e ar ly c olonia l c ensus r eports a nd s upports d emographic e vidence t hat A ndean t errace a griculture i n t he p ast s upported l arger p opu lat ions t han t oday.

I NTRODUCTION R ecent r esearch o n a boriginal N ew W orld a gricultura l t echnologies s uch a s r aised f ields, s unken f ields, c anal s ystems, a nd t erraces h as d one m uch t o v indicate t he a grarian e xpert ise o f p re-Hispanic s ociet ies ( Denevan 1 980). T he s tudy o f t hese a gricultural f eatures d ocuments a ncient t echnologies w hich c ou ld s erve a s m odels f or c ontemporary d evelopment a nd p rovides a u seful a pproach t o s tudy ing p roblems i n h istorica l d emography ( Turner a nd D enevan 1 985). F or e xamp le, t he r aised-f ield c omplexes o f t he T iticaca B asin ( Smith e t a l. 1 968) a re e vidence f or d ense p opu lat ions i n P eru 's l acustrine c orridor. D enevan ( 1982:190), a pplying a c arrying c apacity m odel b ased u pon p otato p roduction, s uggests t he f ie lds t here c ould h ave s upported 2 15,000 p eople. E ven i f t wo-thirds o f t he f ields w ere r egu larly f allowed--a c ommon A ndean s trategy f or p otatoes--the n umber o f p eople s t ill r eaches 7 2,000. T his i s a n i mpressive f igure i ndeed, d emonstrat ing t he p roduct ive p ower o f t radit iona l A ndean c ropping t echniques. M easurements a nd a nalyses o f a ncient f ie lds y ie ld p opu lat ion f igures w hich, g iven t he u nknown v ariables s uch a s f allowing s chedules a nd h istoric u se p atterns, s hould b e r egarded a s t entat ive a t b est . N evertheless, t hese e xercises a re w orthwhile b ecause e ven f irst a pproximation f igures t hat s pring f rom e cological m odeling a re u seful b aseline n umbers w hich c an b e c ompared w ith n umbers d erived f rom e thnohistorical s ources a nd c ontemporary c ensuses. H ere I a ttempt t o a pply a n e cologica l o r c arrying c apacity m odel t o a n a gricultural s ystem i n t he C olca V alley, A requ ipa, P eru i n o rder t o e st imate a borigina l p opulat ions. T he v alley w as t he h eart land o f t he I ncaic p rovince o f C ollaguas, a n i mportant r egion d uring t he e poch

1 47

o f T awant insuyo, a nd t hroughout t he c olonia l e ra. T he t erraces a nd f ie lds o f t he C olca r egion a re s ome o f t he m ost e xtensive a nd b estp reserved i n t he h igh land A ndes ( see S h ippee 1 932, 1 934; D onkin 1 979:100). T he g oa l o f t he e xercise i s t o e st imate t he m aximum p ossible p opulat ion a s egment o f t he C olca s ystem c ou ld h ave s ustained p rior t o t he S panish C onquest . T he d ata p resented h erein i s g leaned f rom a eria l p hotographs, p rimary a nd s econdary w ritten s ources, a nd p re liminary f ie ld r esearch p erformed i n 1 984 i n t he D istrict o f C oporaque, o ne o f t he s ett lements i n t he m ost i ntensive ly t erraced p ortion o f t he v alley. T he r esu lts s hou ld p rovide a p re liminary p erspect ive o n t he C olca r egion's a gricu ltura l a nd d emographic p otent ia l.

T HE E COLOGICAL A PPROACH:

S OME F UNDAMENTAL C ONSIDERATIONS

B asic p rocedures o f e cological m odeling o f p rehist oric p opu lations a re f ound i n K irkby ( 1973), C ook a nd B orah ( 1979), S anders e t a l. ( 1979), a nd D enevan ( 1976, 1 982). A dd it iona l b ackground o n t he a pproach i s i n N . D . C ook ( 1981:14-30). E ssent ia lly, t he o perat ion r equ ires t hree s ets o f c a lcu lations. F irst , t he a rea l e xtent o f c ult ivable l and i s a scertained u sing m aps, a ir p hotos, a nd p hotogrammetric m easuring t echniques. S econd, p roduct ion e st imates a re g enerated b ased u pon c alcu lated y ie lds o f c rops b elieved t o h ave b een c u lt ivated. T hird, e stimates o f c onsumpt ion a re a dvanced. P opulat ion f igures a re t hen t he m athemat ica l r esu lts o f m anipu lat ing a rea, y ie ld, a nd i ntake. E ach s eparate c a lcu lat ion, h owever, r ests u pon a ssumpt ions o f p rocess a nd b ehavior w hich m ake t he p rocedure h azardous. T he f irst t ask, m easuring c ult ivable l and, i s r e lat ive ly s traightforward, e specia lly i f l and i s t erraced, r idged, o r o therw ise f ashioned i nto a gricultura l l andforms. T he e xistence o f s haped a nd b ounded f ie lds e liminates m any b ut n ot a ll o f t he p roblems o f c onfusing h istorically c u lt ivated l and a nd n on-cu lt ivated l and. S ome s imilar s tudies ( Sanders e t a l. 1 979; K eith 1 976) a re b ased u pon t he s imp le a ssumpt ion t hat a lf— Cji ivable l and w as c u lt ivated, s ince i t i s d ifficu lt h istorically t o d ist inguish a ctual l and u se f rom p otent ia l l and u se. A ndean a gricu lture, i n c ontrast , l ends i tse lf t o m easurement s ince f ie lds a re u sually w e ll-marked b y r idges a nd s wa les o r b y w alls, t erraces, a nd o ther c lues t o p ast c u lt ivat ion. A ndean a gricu lture i s w e ll-suited f or e cological s tudies a s w ell b ecause c ropping z ones a re u sually l imited t o w e ll-defined i ntermontane v a lleys. Y et e ven l oca l p opu lation a na lyses a re p roblemat ic b ecause a gricu ltura l z ones i n t he A ndes a re t raditiona lly i nter locked b y e xchange. I n p ract ice, g oods f low i n a nd o ut o f c ommunit ies a long v ert ical g radients ( Murra 1 960). U nder I nca h egemony t he f low t hrough t he i mper ia l e conomic c ircuit w as o n av ast s cale. H ence, t here i s n o r eason t o b e lieve t hat a ll o f t he p roduction i n a ny o ne p lace w as c onsumed t here, a nd p opu lat ion f igures s hould b e i n p art c onsidered s emi-regiona l. B y f ar t he m ost i ntractable d ifficu lty w ith t he e cologica l a pproach i s d iscovering h ow m uch o f a n a rea 's c rop l and w as c u lt ivated s imu ltaneous ly . I n a v acuum o f a rchaeo logical a nd h istorical

1 48

s equencing d ata, r etrod ict ing p opu lat ions i s i mpossible. A n ecessary a ssumpt ion i s t hat d uring a h ypothet ical d emographic o r p o lit ical a pogee p eriod a ll l and w ithin a s ystem c ou ld h ave b een i n s imu ltaneous p roduct ion. P roject ing f a llow ing s chedu les a nd i rrigat ion p ract ices p resents s imilar p roblems. I n t he c ase o f t he C olca V a lley 's i rrigated f ie lds, w e m ust a ssume a " climat ic a pogee" e xisted d uring w hich w ater w as f ree ly a vailable f or a ll t he i rrigated t erraces a nd f ie lds. A s H enige ( 1978:233) p oints o ut , c arrying c apacity i s a n o pt ima l c oncept o f w hat c ould b e i f a ll f actors o perate a t f u ll c apacity. A n e cological m odel e ssent ia lly m easures p opu lat ion p otent ia l. M any v ariables a ffect p roduct ion. C rop s e lect ion, c ropping t echniques, t emperatures, s oil c ondit ions, f ertilizat ion p ract ices, s eed s e lect ion, a nd p est p redat ion a re a mong t he s a lient o nes. S ome o f t he p roblems o f t echnology a nd s ite d eteriorat ion h ave b een r eviewed b y S treet ( 1969). C o lonia l d ocumentat ion o ften i nc ludes u sefu l d ata o n A ndean c rop s e lection. V iceregal v isitas f or C oporaque, f or e xamp le, s uggest t hat a f ew c rop s pecies d ominated t here, a nd t he p roport ions o f e ach c an b e c a lcu lated b ecause t hey w ere t a llied b y l and u nits ( topos). S t ill, t he t opo w as a v ariable u nit o f m easurement i n I ncaic t imes, c hanging i n s ize a ccord ing t o a f ie ld 's e cological p osit ion, y ie ld p otentia l, a nd o ther f actors. A gronomic v ariables c an b e c ontro lled t o a n e xtent b y t he p rinc ip le o f e thnographic a na logy, t hat i s, b y o bserving a nd r ecording c ontemporary c ropping p ract ices. A ndean a gricu lture t oday h as, i n m any r espects, c hanged l itt le s ince I nca t imes. S cholars c an a nd m ust s tudy t he p resent t o u nderstand t he p ast ; s ee, f or e xamp le, M itchell's 1 980 s tudy o n s chedu ling i n A ndean a gricu lture. A t i ssue i n e cologica l a na lyses a re p roduct ion f igures p er h ectare a nd p robable v ariances b etween p resent e st imates a nd p ast p erformance. T he t ask i s d oubly d ifficult b ecause p resent e st imates a re o ften c ontradictory o r u ntrustworthy. N onethe less, p rudent h andling o f y ie ld e st imates c an g enerate d efensible p re-Hispanic p roduct ion f igures. C a lculat ing p rehistoric c onsumpt ion p atterns i s m ore d aunt ing t han e st imat ing p roduct ion. A d ietary m inimum m ust b e e stablished, b ut t here i s n o c onsensus o n w hat t hat s hou ld b e. K irkby ( 1973:127) p osits a 3 ,200 k ilocalorie d aily m inimum f or s outhern M exican m aize c ult ivators, w hich i nc ludes a s mall s urp lus f or e xchange. T his f igure r epresents a h igh m inimum a nd p erhaps r ef lects a b ias s temm ing f rom t he u se o f c ontemporary n utrit iona l s tandards. C ook a nd B orah ( 1979:163-164), o n t he o ther h and, e st imate a p robable m inimum o f b etween 1 ,400 a nd 1 ,800 k ilocalories d aily f or c entra l M exico. T hey a rgue t hat p eop le c an l ive n ormal l ives i n a s tate o f " compensated u ndernutrit ion," a nd t hat p re-Hispanic c u lt ivators i n M exico p robably g ot a long o n s partan d iets. T his w as l ikely t rue f or P eru a s w e ll. A r eview o f d ietary p atterns o f t radit iona l g atherers a nd c u lt ivators c ompiled b y E llen ( 1982:131) s eems t o i ndicate t hat f igures o ver 3 ,000 k ilocalor ies d aily a re r elat ively r are. O ther p itfa lls l ie i n c alcu lat ing m inimum d iets f or p opu lat ions w here s ex r at ios a nd a ge s tructures i nfluence c onsumpt ion p atterns. A veraging c onsumpt ion f or a ge s tructure i s o ne m ethod o f t ackling t he p roblem . E co logica l c onsiderat ions ( h igh a lt itude i n t he A ndean

1 49

c ontext ) d emand d ietary a djustments a s w e ll. H ere a gain r easoning b y a na logy i s u sefu l. D ata o n s tandard r ural d iets a re a vailable f or t he A ndes a nd t hey c an b e u sed t o r epresent I ncaic d iets.

C OPORAQUE:

S ITE D ESCRIPTION A ND C ULTIVATED A REA M EASUREMENTS

T he t own o f C oporaque i s o n t he n orth s ide o f t he C olca R iver, 5k m f rom C hivay, t he c apita l o f t he p rovince o f C ay lloma ( F ig. 1 ). T he t own i s t he d irect d escendant o f t he T oledo-era r educc iön o f C oporaque d e V illacastfn f ounded b etween 1 571 a nd 1 574 ( Mä laga M edina 1 977:99). D uring I nca t imes, C oporaque w as t he C o llaguas r egion 's m ajor t own, t he r esidence o f t he c uraca p rinc ipal ( the v alley 's p rimary p olit ica l a uthority), a nd t he -i iie — o f t he I nca's r oya l t ambo. S ome 1 7 p re-Hispanic r esidence s ites ( pob lados) w ere a ma lgamated t o f orm t he n ew r educc iön ( Malaga M edina 1 977:101). T hese s mall s ites w ere p robably d ispersed t hroughout t he t erritory o f m odern C oporaque. P reliminary a rchaeo logica l s urveys ( Neira 1 961; M a lpass, t his v ol.) i ndicate s ome s ett lements w ere o n s loped l and, o n o r a long s ide o f a gricultural t erraces, w hile o thers w ere h ouse c lusters o n v alleyb ottom l ands. C oporaque w as p art o f I ncaic Y anque C o llaguas o r t he h anansaya h a lf o f t he v alley ( Ma laga M edina 1 977:119). T he C oporaque a rea s hould b e c onsidered a s amp le o f al arger s ystem w hose h istorical o r p olit ica l b oundaries m ay b e e stablished a t a l ater d ate. C oporaque r ests u pon a w ide, s loping a lluvia l t errace a t a n e levation o f 3 ,542 m a bove s ea l evel. T he c limate i s a rid w ith 3 00-400 m m o f p recipitat ion a nnually . T his i s b are ly s ufficient f or c ropping, b ut p ract ically a ll o f C oporaque 's l ands a re i rrigated w ith w ater b rought f rom p ermanent s now p acks 2 0 k m a way o r f rom s mall, n atural s prings. A gricu ltura l f ie lds m apped f or m easurement ( Fig. 2 ) e xtend f rom Q uebrada H uasamayo o n t he w est , w hich s eparates C oporaque f rom t he D istrict o f Y anque, t o t he e dge o f a b road, h i lly z one w ith e vidence o f r elic f ie lds b ordering t he C olca R iver o n t he e ast . A s m entioned a bove, t hese b oundaries m ay h ave n o p re-reducc iön r e levance, b ut t hey c orrespond t o c ontemporary l and l imits. E vidence o f c u ltivat ion f ades r apidly b eyond t erraced s lopes t o t he n orth . A bove t he c u lt ivated z one i s a r ugged e xpanse o f p eaks a nd n atura l p astures c a lled t he M ountain H igh lands o n F igure 2 . T he C olca R iver a nd t he l ands o f t he D istrict o f C hivay f orm t he s outhern b oundary . F ield o r a gricu ltura l z ones a re d ivided i nto t hree b asic c ategories: U p land Z ones, I ntermediate o r T errace Z ones ( s loping s ectors w ith l arge i nsta llat ions o f v alley-side t erraces), a nd v a lleyb ottom o r s imp ly B ottom land Z ones. T he z onat ion i s b ased u pon l andform a nd e levat ion c haracterist ics. E ach m ajor c ategory i s f urther s ubdivided i nto n umbered s egments. M ost o f t he s egments r epresent n on-cont iguous p ort ions o f z ones, a lthough i n t he c ase o f B ottom lands t he s egments r epresent c learly a bandoned a reas a nd c learly c ult ivated a reas. A ll z ones a nd s egments a re m apped o n F igure 2 . F uture f ield " ground t ruthing" m ay p roduce a lterat ions t o t his s cheme; a lso, a t oponomy o f t he z ones w ill b e p rovided.

1 50

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1 51

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ZONES

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Terraces Bottomlands

/, River

Scale: 1: 55,000

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Zone Boundary

Field zones in Coporaque (J. Treacy). Based on 1955 (1:55,000) and 1974 (1:17,000) air photos; see Figure 1 in Chapter 2 and Figure 1 in Chapter 9. Areas in hectares: Ul U2 U3-4

us

5.0 17.3 38.5 24.7

ha. ha. ha. ha.

T1 T2 T3 T4

TS

152

165.1 5.7 22.7 3.2 393.7

ha. ha. ha. ha. ha.

81

B2

83 84 85

164.8 13.4 240.5 126.0 226.6

ha. ha. ha. ha. ha.

T he z ona l a reas w ere t raced f rom a f our-power e n largement o f o ne 1 :55,000 s cale a eria l p hoto, a lthough 1 :17,000 s ca le s tereo p airs w ere e xam ined t o c onfirm l andform d etails. A verage p hoto s ca les n eeded f or a rea l m easurements o f e ach z one o r s egment w ere c a lcu lated u sing g round a lt imeter r eadings. AT ALOS m ap d igit izer w as u sed t o m easure a reas ( readings w ere r ounded t o t he n earest 0 .1 h a.).

U pland T errace Z ones T he U p land T errace Z ones a re p robable f ormer c u lt ivat ion a reas, u nirrigated, a t o r j ust a bove a pproximate ly 3 ,700 m e levat ion. T hey a re r e lat ive ly l eve l o r g ent ly s lop ing ( about 1 0-20 °) , w ith e vidence o f r elic f ie lds a nd w a lls. M ost t oday s eem l ong a bandoned, a lthough a rchaeological d ata i s f orthcoming w hich m ay c onfirm d ates a nd u se s equences o f t hese f ie lds. O nsite e xaminat ion o f U p land Z one O ne ( U 1 ) s uggests t he f ie lds t here a re w ide, s loping-f ie ld t erraces w ith l ow s tone r etaining w a lls a nd t hick, r ubb le-f illed p erpendicu lar s ide w a lls c alled s ucwas, m ade o f s mall s tones r emoved f rom t he p lant ing s urfaces. T hese t erraces a re h igh ly e roded a nd o ften s egmented. T he t errace f i ll m ay h ave b een f ormed b y t he d ownslope m ovement o f s oil c arr ied b y s easonal r ains. S e lf-filling o r c o lmataje t erraces ( Pu lgar V idal 1 972:68) a re c ommon i n P eru ; S andor ( this v ol.) s uggests t hat C olca t errace s oils a re d erived f rom i n s itu m ateria l i n a f ashion p erhaps s imilar t o t he c o lmataje m ethod7 Zone T wo ( U 2 ) a ppears t o b e a nother e xamp le o f t his k ind o f t erracing.

a nd T he h ave o ld, t han

U p land Z ones T hree, F our, a nd F ive, a ccording t o p hoto a na lysis a b rief v isit , d iffer s omewhat f rom t he a forement ioned f ie lds. f ields i n t hese z ones a re o n s loping t o l evel t errain b ut m any b een c onverted i nto c att le c ora ls b y r aising s tone w a lls a round l ow t erraces a nd s ucwas. T he t erraces a re g enera lly n arrower t hose i n Z ones O ne a nd T wo; m any a re s egmented b y e rosion.

F ie ld m easurements o f U pland Z ones a re a s f ollows: U U U U

1 2 3 , 4 5

5 .0 1 7.3 3 8.5 2 4.7

h a h a h a h a

8 5.5 h a t ota l

T his i s am inor p roport ion o f t he t ota l a gricu ltura l l and i n t he s tudy a rea. F urthermore, i f c u lt ivat ion o ccurred u pon s oil a ccumu lated b y r un-off b ehind t he r etaining w a lls o f t hese f ie lds, t hen s teeper a reas w ith t hinning s oils u ps lope s evera l m eters b ehind t he w alls w ou ld h ave b een l ess c u lt ivable. P erhaps o n ly 5 0% o f t he U p land Z ones ( 42 h a) w as a ctual c rop l and. T he f igure w ill s tand a s a n a pproximat ion b ut w ill b e l eft o ut o f t he f inal c rop l and t ota ls, s ince n ot e nough i s k nown a bout t hese a reas o r t he f unct ion o f t he f ie lds. T hey m ay h ave b een s ome o f t he e ar liest c ropp ing s ites i n C oporaque. A s w e ll, n one o f t hese U p land f ie lds s how s igns o f i rrigat ion b y c ana l. T ownspeople s uggest t hey w ere e ither f armed o pt iona lly i n y ears o f a bundant

1 53

rainfall or farmed year round with lloclla, or sheetwash. fields need thorough examination.

These

Bench Terrace Zones Most of Coporaque's bench (flat floored) terraces occupy a variety of slopes and soils at elevations ranging from 3,270 m at the edge of the Colca River to about 3,600 m on the edge of the Upland Zones. In general, soil types include volcanically-derived soils with mollic epipedons and fluvial deposits of volcanic sediments (see Sandor, this vol.). Soils on terraces, however, are intensively reworked anthroso 1 s with man-made horizons and with good to excellent edaphic characteristics. Since the top edges and slightly sloping faces of terrace walls and paths and other features are non-cultivable, terrace areas ea 1 cula ted from verti ea 1 aeria 1 photos were reduced by a generous 10% correction factor. This terrace zone inc 1 udes a semiTerrace Zone One (T 1) • circular "bowr-ofcultiva ted terraces below and an area of mostly abandoned terrace slopes above. Two major terrace forms, based on morphology, are present: rock-embanked contour terraces, both concave 11 1 and convex in shape, and rock-embanked 1 broadfield terraces. Sinuous concave and convex forms are the results of sculpting irregularly shaped slopes. The term "rock-embanked contour terrace" is from the typology of Spencer and Hale (1961 :6), referring to walled terraces built to match lateral slope topography. On laterally straight s lopes, terraces are essentially linear. The provisional term "broad field terrace" is my own, describing broad, wide, and generally level or slightly sloping fields retained by stone walls. These are found within a matrix of more steeply sloping and therefore narrower terraced fields. The zone measures 165.1 ha. Terrace Zone Two (T 2). This is essentially an extension of the above zone, a much smalTerarea measuring 5.7 ha. Terrace Zone Three (T 3). Contour and broadfiel d terraces are f ound in thisQUebrada area-north of the town. They are now mostly abandoned. The area measures 22.7 ha. This is a small segment of contour Terrace Zone Four (T 4). terraces 1n QuebradaSahuarameasuring 3.2 ha. Terrace Zone Five (T 5). This large zone stretches all along the face of Pampa7='Tnaya and-consists of linear and contour terrace types, with broadfield terraces on the lower edges bordering the Bottomlands. In some areas along the upper edges and on the northeastern flanks of Finaya the terraces are highly eroded, narrow linear and contour terraces with, in some places, perpendicular boundary walls. A dimly discernable irrigation canal runs laterally across the terraced slope; terraces below the canal would have been irrigated while terraces above would have been rain-fed. The areal extent is large: 393.7 ha. All but the lowest terraces are abandoned. 154

B ottomland F ie ld Z ones B ottomlands a re l evel o r n early l evel i rrigated l ands o n t he b road a lluvial p lains o f C oporaque a t 3 400-3500 m e levat ion. M any o f t he f ie lds a re e nclosed b y s tone o r a dobe w alls, a lthoug l ) f ie ld w alls m ay b e a r ecent a ddition t o c ontrol g razing a nimals ( Cordova e t a l. 1 986). A rea m easurements o f B ottomland f ields a re r educed b y 2 0% t o a ccount f or w alls, p aths, r ockpiles, h ousing s ites, c ora ls, a nd o ther u ncultivable a reas. M any o f t hese f ie lds a re n ot t rue t erraces; s ome z ones a re c urrent ly c u lt ivated, b ut o thers a re l argely a bandoned, e specially Z ones 4 a nd 5 . B ottomland Z one O ne ( B 1 ). m easures 1 64.8 h a.

s ma ll

T his z one,

s urrounding t he t own a rea,

B ottomland Z one T wo ( B 2 ). M easuring 1 3.4 h a, c orridor o f- W i lfe rf ig 13% i n t he S ahuara a rea.

t his

z one

i s

a

B ottom land Z one T hree ( B 3 ). T his l arge a rea i s h i lly a nd u neven a nd c ontains a c om l iF iii ion-- a f l evel f ields a nd c ontour t erraces s cu lpted i nto t he e dges o f l ow b luffs. I t m easures 2 40.5 h a. B ottomland Z one F our ( B 4 ). T his i s s imilar t o a pparent ly i s w hEITTäbi i iBor ild7 I t m easures 1 26 h a.

Z one T hree b ut

B ottom land Z one F ive ( B 5 ). T he z one i s a l arge e xpanse o f s wirled r idges a nd v alleys, 7 r aably t he r esult o f a n e xtensive l ava f low o ver t he r iver t errace. I nterspersed a mong t he r idges a re p atterns o f r e lic f ie lds. Ie stimate t hat a pproximately 2 0% o f t he z one i s o ccupied b y f ields, a mount ing t o 2 24.6 h a. S ummary T he t otal i s a s f ollows:

c ultivated o r c u ltivable l and i n p re-Hispanic C oporaque

U pland T errace Z ones ( deleted i n t otals) B ench T errace Z ones ( relic a nd c u lt ivated) B ottomland Z ones ( relic a nd c u lt ivated)

5 90.4 h a 7 69.3 h a 1 359.7 h a

A ccording t o t he a bove s ummat ion, a pproximately 4 3% o f t he f ields a re r ock-embanked c ontour t erraces a nd b roadfie ld t erraces i n t he t errace z ones, a lthough t he o ther z ones a lso c ontain t erraced s ectors. S ince t he s amp le a rea r ough ly c orresponds t o t he D istrict 's p resent b oundaries ( pastures e xcluded), c omparisons w ith c ontemporary a gricultural l and u se a re p ossible. I n 1 983-84 t here w ere 3 69 h a o f l and u nder c u lt ivat ion i n C oporaque, p lus 1 06 h a i n f allow ( IICA-UNSA 1 985:31). R oughly 8 85 h a o f c ult ivable l and ( 65%) a re t hus i n s ome s tate o f a bandonment . T he p ercentage o f a bandoned l and a grees w ith t he e stimate o f t wo-thirds a bandonment o f l and i n n earby L an , d own t he v alley t o t he w est ( David G uillet, p ers. c omm.).

1 55

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( 1 )

F igure 3 .

M ap s howing l ocations o f d escribed s oils ( Pedons 1 -12). R efer t o F ig. 1 f or d escriptions o f a lluvial s urfaces a nd d eposits ( Qa12 4 6 7 ). P edons 2 , 7 , a nd 1 1 a re o n c olluvial h ill höpes. C ross s ymbols ( t) s how l ocations o f c hurches i n C oporaque a nd Y anque. M ap b ase i s e nlargement o f 1 :100,000 t opographic m ap ( see F ig. 2 ).

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F igure 4 .

V iew o f s oil d escription t ransect . N umbers r efer t o a pproximate l ocations o f d escribed p edons.

F igure 5 .

N atural s oil o n u nterraced h illslope. N ote m ollic e pipedon, a rgillic h orizon, a nd c alcic h orizon.

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d etermined b y t he c lod m ethod ( Method 4 A1b). W ater r etention a t 1 .5 M Pa w as d etermined b y M ethod 4 62. O rganic C w as d etermined b y t he M odified M ebius p rocedure ( Nelson a nd S ommers 1 982). C arbonate w as m easured b y t he g as v olumetric m ethod o f D reimanis ( 1962). A s ensit ive q ualitat ive m ethod ( Method 6 E2a) w as u sed t o d etect t race a mounts o f c arbonate. T ota l N w as m easured b y t he s emimicro K jeldahl p rocedure ( Method 6 62). T ota l P w as d etermined b y t he a lkaline o xidation m ethod o f D ick a nd T abatabai ( 1977). A vailable P w as e st imated w ith t he s odium b icarbonate e xtract ion p rocedure d escribed b y O lsen a nd S ommers ( 1982). S oil p H w as m easured w ith a g lass e lectrode o n 1 :1 s oil t o w ater m ixtures ( Method 8 C1a). T he p H o f a f ew s amples w as d etermined w ith 1 M N aF ( Method 8 C1d ) t o c heck f or a morphous m aterials i n t he v olcanic-der ived s oils. M inera logy o f < 2 pm c lay f ractions w as d etermined b y x -ray d iffraction u sing p reparat ion t echniques o f T heisen a nd H arward ( 1962). S tandard s amp les a nd r eplicate s ubsamp les w ere i ncluded i n a ll a na lyses o f s oil p roperties.

S OIL F ORMING F ACTORS C limate a nd V egetat ion S everal c haracterist ics o f t he c limate a nd v egetat ion a re i mportant d eterminants o f s oil a nd a griculture i n t he C olca V alley. T he c limate i n t his m ountainous r egion i s s emiarid a nd c ool. M eteorological d ata f rom C hivay ( 6 k m e ast o f t ransect, 1 4 y ears o f g overnment r ecords b etween 1 967-1982) i ndicate t hat a bout 7 5% o f t he 4 00 m m m ean a nnual p recipitat ion f alls d uring t he s ummer. A reas a bove 3 ,800 m m ay r eceive l ight s now r ather t han r ain d uring c old s pells. T he m ean a nnual t emperature a t C hivay ( elevat ion 3 ,633 m ) i s a bout 9 .7 °C a nd, b ecause o f t he h igh-alt itude l ocat ion w ithin t he t ropics, d aily t emperature f luctuat ions e xceed s easona l t emperature d ifferences. D aily f luctuat ions a t C hivay ( 1973-1983) a verage a bout 2 4 °C ( mean d aily m aximum 2 2 °C , m ean d aily m inimum 2 °C ), w hile t he m ean d ifference b etween w inter a nd s ummer t emperatures i s a bout 4°C ( summer m ean t emperature 1 1.7 °C , w inter m ean t emperature 7 .4 °C ). F reezing c an o ccur a t a ny t ime o f t he y ear a t e levat ions > 2500 m ( Donkin 1 979). T hese d ata i ndicate t hat s oils a long t he t ransect h ave u st ic m oisture r egimes a nd i somesic t emperature r egimes ( So il S urvey S taff 1 975). T he h ighest s oils e xamined ( Pedons 8 -10) m ay h ave i sofrigid t emperature r egimes. N o a gricultural t erraces w ere o bserved a bove e levat ions o f a bout 4 ,000 m i n a erial p hotos o f t he C olca V alley s tudy a rea. L itt le i s k nown a bout c limat ic c ondit ions d uring t he e ntire p eriod o f t errace a griculture. H owever, a l ong-term r ecord ( 1500 y r) f or t he s outhern P eruvian A ndes b ased o n d ata f rom Q uelccaya I ce C ap ( Thompson 1 985) i ndicates e xtended d ry p eriods b etween A D 1 720 a nd 1 860, 1 250 a nd 1 310, a nd 5 70 a nd 6 10, w ith w et c ondit ions o ccurring b etween 1 500 a nd 1 720. T he d ry p eriod b etween A D 5 70 a nd 6 10 o verlaps w ith a f ew o f t he e arly r adiocarbon d ates o btained f rom a gricultura l t erraces ( Table 1 ). N atura l v egetat ion i s s parse ( Figs. 5 , 6 ), c onsist ing m ainly o f p erennia l g rasses ( Festuca, C alamagrost is), h ardy s hrubs ( e.g.,

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L epidophyllum s pp ., M ut isia s pp ., a nd L egum inosae s pp .), a nd v arious c acti ( Opunt ia s pp .). L ichens w ere o bserved o n t he s urface i n t he C hilacota a rea ( Fig. 3 - Q a1 7 ) . T he l ack o f n at ive t rees i s t yp ical o f t he w estern A ndes a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat v egetat ion h as b een a ltered b y l ong-term l and u se ( Donkin 1 979). M o llisols c ommon t o t he a rea r eflect t he d ominant i nf luence o f g rasses. N o s oil f eatures i ndicat ing f orest v egetat ion ( e .g. E h orizons) w ere o bserved. B edrock G eology a nd V olcanism T he s oil p arent m ateria l i s p rimarily a lluvium a nd c olluvium d erived f rom v olcanic r ocks w hich d ominate t he r egion ( F ig. 2 ; O NERN 1 973). A ndesite o utcrops t hroughout t he t ransect a nd w e lded r hyolit ic t uff o utcrops n orth a nd s outheast o f t he C h ilacota a rea ( F ig. 3 Q a1 7 , F ig. 6 ). T hin s ect ions o f t he a ndesite r evea l a t rachyt ic f abr ic a nd a ugite a s t he d ominant m afic m inera l. T he w e lded t uff i s d evitrif ied, c ontaining s pherulites a nd s anidine, o rthoc lase, a nd q uartz . A g eneral g eology m ap ( ONERN 1 973) s hows t he a rea u nderlain b y l ate C retaceous-ear ly T ert iary f lows a nd t uffs o f b asa lt ic t o r hyolit ic c omposit ion. O ther r ocks i n t he R io C olca w atershed p robably c ontribut ing t o t he p arent a lluvium i nc lude J urassic s edimentary a nd m etasedimentary r ocks ( quartzite, s ha le t o s andstone, l imestone, a nd d olomite ), C retaceous p lutonic r ocks ( granite t o d iorite c omposit ion), a nd l ate T ert iary a nd Q uaternary v olcanics. M ajor v olcanism h as i nf luenced t he r egion d uring t he P leistocene a nd H olocene e pochs. T hick r hyolit ic t uff d eposits a round A requ ipa a re l ikely o f P leistocene a ge ( Fenner 1 948) a nd v olcanoes ( e .g. E l M isti n ear A requipa) h ave b een a ct ive i n h istoric t imes. F reshl ooking v olcanic f lows c overing a n e xtensive a lluvia l t errace ( F ig. 1 - Q a1 4 ) w ere o bserved o n a eria l p hotos o n t he n orth s ide o f t he C olca R iver n orth o f C hivay. V olcanic a ct ivity d uring t he p er iod o f p rehistor ic a griculture i s i ndicated b y t he a pparent b uria l o f a gricu ltural t erraces b y l ava i n t he n eighboring A ndagua V a lley ( Shippee 1 932). U nweathered v olcanic a sh o ccurs i n p arts o f t he s tudy a rea a nd a l arge a sh d eposit o ccurs o n a n a lluvia l t errace ( Qa 1 4) a t M aca 1 2 k m w est o f C oporaque. S team r ising f rom a v olcano ( Mt . A mpato) l ocated n ear t he C olca V a lley w as o bserved i n 1 986. G eomorphology T he C olca V alley i s c haracterized b y a s equence o f s tepped g eomorphic s urfaces s eparated b y s teep s carps o r h i llslopes ( Figs. 1 , 2 , 4 ). T he s tepped s urfaces a re a lluvia l t erraces o f t he R io C olca a nd i ts t ributaries. O n t he b asis o f i nit ia l f ie ld w ork a nd p re lim inary c orre lat ion o f s urface r emnants u s ing t opographic m aps a nd a eria l p hotos, e ight c learly s eparate s urfaces h ave b een m apped. T hese s urfaces a nd a ssoc iated d eposits a re l abeled Q a 11_8 i n o rder o f i ncreasing a ge a nd h eight a bove t he v alley f loor. S ma ll a reas o f a lluvia l t erraces i ntermediate b etween 011_8 ( espec ia lly b etween 011-4) a re p resent b ut a re l eft o ut o f t he p re liminary m ap p ending f urther f ie ld w ork. T he s urfaces a re n ot y et d ated b ut t heir c haracter a nd s oils i ndicate t hey a re m ost ly P leistocene i n a ge. F uture r esearch w ill b e a imed t oward d eveloping a c hrono logy b ased o n r ad iocarbon d at ing a nd d at ing v olcanic d eposits a ssoc iated w ith t he a lluvium . V olcanic a sh s amp les c o llected f rom M aca a nd C oporaque ( Qa14) m ay b e d atable.

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F igure 6 .

L andscape u pslope o f P edon 8 w ith a bandoned t erraces. R hyolit ic t uff i n b ackground.

F igure 7 .

E xposure o f a lluvial t errace f ill ( Qa1 P erson a t b ottom c enter f or s ca le.

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5)

n ear Y anque.

P resent i nformation o n t he d eposits i s g iven i n F ig. 1 . T he l owest a nd y oungest s urface ( Qa11) i s t he n arrow c hannel a nd f loodplain o f t he R io C olca. E xposed b edrock i n s evera l l ocat ions a long t he m eandering c hannel i ndicates t he r iver i s e ntrenched i n r ock a nd t hat i ts a lluvium i s t hin. Q a12 i s i nterpreted a s a l ow a lluvia l t errace, b ut m ay b e s ubject t o s easona l w etness, a s i ndicated b y t he p resence o f m ott les i n t he s oil. M ost o f Q a12_6 a re c onstruct iona l s urfaces w ith t hick f ills o f g ravel ( up t o l arge b oulders), s and, a nd f ine-grained s ediments ( Fig. 7 ). F or e xamp le, Q a 14 b etween C oporaque a nd Y anque ( Fig. 4 ) a nd Q a16 n ear t he m outh o f t he R io P icomayo c onsist o f a pproximately 1 00 a nd 2 00-250 m o f a lluvial f ill, r espectively. C onsidering t he l arge a mount o f f ill a nd c last s izes a nd t he f act t hat t he R io C olca d rains l arge, f ormer ly g laciated a reas, i t i s p robable t hat m any o f t hese f eatures a re o utwash t erraces. P arts o f Q a15_6 a nd a ll Q a17 r emnants a re e rosiona l ( Fig. 4 ). T hese p ediment s urfaces a re u nderlain b y t hin a lluvium l ess t han a bout 5 m t hick o verlying b edrock. T he h igh p lateaus s urrounding t he C olca V alley a t e levat ions > 4,000 m ( Fig. 4 ) a re l abeled Q T8 b ecause s ome o f t hese s urfaces m ay b e T ertiary i n a ge ( Tosdal e t a l. 1 984). T hey f orm p art o f t he e xtensive a lt iplano i n t he A ndes a nd p redate t he m ain p eriod o f i ncision b y t he R io C olca. G laciers p resent ly o ccur a bove 5 ,000-5,200 m n ear t he C olca V alley ( Chivay 3 0 m inute q uadrangle; C lapperton 1 983). P leistocene g laciers a re e st imated t o h ave a dvanced 4 00-1,000 m l ower i n e levat ion, i .e. t o a bout 4 ,000-4,800 m ( Clapperton 1 983). H owever, n o o bvious g lacial f eatures ( e.g., m oraines) w ere o bserved i n a reas o f Q T8 s hown i n F igure 1 ( limit o f a eria l p hotos i n a uthor 's p ossession). E ither g laciers d id n ot d escend a s f ar a s 4 ,600 m o r e vidence i s n ot r eadily d etected i n t he 1 :50,000 a erial p hotos. C irque-like f eatures a re s een o n t he t opographic m ap a t 4 ,800 m n ear p resent g laciers a bout 2 k m n orth o f t he a rea s hown i n F igure 1 . I n F igure 1 s teeply s loping a reas o f c olluvium, b edrock, a nd a lluvium a re n ot d ifferent iated. P rominent l andslide f eatures a re s hown, f or e xample, a l arge l andslide < 1 k m e ast o f I chupampa c overing a bout 4 5 h a. I t b uries p art o f Q a14 a nd l ooks f resh i n s pite o f t he f act t hat i t i s a pparent i n a1 928 p hoto ( Shippee 1 934). A gricultura l t erraces a ppear t o b e c onstructed o n i t . L ater g enerat ions o f s lumping h ave p robably o ccurred, j udging f rom t he f resh a ppearance o f s ome s carps i n t he l andslide. S evera l l andslides w ere o bserved i n t he s tudy a rea, s ome w ithin a gricultural t erraces o n v ery s teep s lopes. M ore e xtensive l andslides w ere o bserved f arther d own t he C olca V alley n ear t he v illages o f M aca a nd L an . F actors c onducive t o l andsliding i n t he C olca V alley i nclude s teep s lopes, u ndercutt ing o f s lopes b y s treams, u nstable a lluvia l o r o ther s ediments, e xcess s ediment w etness r esu lt ing f rom s eepage o r e pisodes o f h igh p rec ipitat ion, a nd e arthquakes. N ATURAL S OILS N atural p ropert ies o f t erraced s oils i n t he C olca V a lley a re d iscussed i n o rder t o p rovide: 1 ) i nformat ion o n n atural s oil d evelopment a nd v ariability a nd 2 ) a r eference a gainst w hich i nfluences o f t errace a griculture c an b e m easured. B ecause o f t he

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F igure 8 .

P edon 1 . N ote b uried o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons s eparated b y l ight-colored C h orizon.

F igure 9 .

P edon 8 . N ote a rgillic h orizon w ith p rismat ic s tructure a nd u nder lying c alcic h orizon a nd d uripan. B ase o f t ape i n p hoto a t a bout 5 0 c m d epth. 1 73

l imited a mount o f f ie ld w ork a nd t he e xtensive a nd i ntensive a griculture, t here a re u ncertaint ies i n k now ing w hat o rigina l t opsoils w ere l ike. M ost s ubsoils e xhibit m orphologies i ndicat ing t hat t hey h ave n ot b een p hysically c hanged b y a gricu lture. C lassificat ions a nd l aboratory d ata f or t he s oils ( Pedons 1 -12) s tudied a re g iven i n T ables 1 a nd 2 . R efer t o S andor ( 1986) f or c omp lete s oil d escript ions. T he m ajority o f s oils o utside o f v ery s teep s lopes o r b edrock e xposures a re M ollisols; i .e., m inera l s oils w ith t hick, d ark, o rganic m atter- a nd b ase-rich t opsoils c alled m ollic e pipedons ( Soil S urvey S taff 1 975; T ables 1 a nd 2 ). T here i s s ome u ncertainty a bout t his i n a gricultural t erraces b ecause t opsoils h ave b een a rt ificia lly t hickened. H owever, e vidence t hat t he o r iginal s oils w ere M ollisols i s: 1 ) r oadcuts t hrough u nterraced a reas i ndicate m ost ly M o llisols, e ven o n f airly s teep s lopes ( Fig. 5 ), a nd 2 ) t he c ommon o ccurrence o f b uried A h orizons b eneath a gricultura l t errace d eposits a nd d irect ly o verlying B h orizons s uggests t hat t hese a re o rigina l m ollic e pipedons ( e.g. P edon 1 0, 1 10-150 c m ). M ollisols a re u sually a ssoc iated w ith g rasslands, a nd s oil o rganic m atter l evels a re o ften h igh a t h igh a ltitudes i n t he t ropics ( Jenny 1 980). T he c ommonly n eutra l t o b asic s oil p H i n t he s tudy a rea, p robably r esu lt ing i n p art f rom a tmospheric a dd itions o f b asic c at ions, a lso c ontributes t o M ollisol d evelopment . A g eneral s oil m ap o f t he C olca V a lley ( ONERN 1 973) s hows A ndepts, s oils w ith s pecia l p ropert ies i nherited f rom v olcanic a sh, a re c ommon i n t he s tudy a rea. W hile A ndepts a re p resent , f ie ld a nd l aboratory w ork i ndicates t hey a re n ot p revalent . F or e xamp le, s oil b ulk d ensit ies a re h igher t han t he < 0.85 M g m3 e xpected f or A ndepts ( Soil S urvey S taff 1 975). P roperties o f s ome d escribed s oils, i ncluding p resence o f a morphous-low c rysta llinity m inera ls, m oderate p H r ise w ith N aF, a nd r at ios o f 1 .5 M Pa w ater c ontent/clay>l, i ndicate t he i nfluence o f a morphous v olcanic m ateria ls, b ut n ot t o t he d egree o bserved i n A ndepts. M ollisols o f t he C olca V alley d iffer p rimarily i n t heir s ubsoil p roperties i n a ccordance w ith t heir g eomorphic s ett ing a nd a ge ( Figs. 1 , 2 , a nd 3 , T able 1 ). W ith i ncreasing a ge a nd d egree o f w eathering, s ubsoils i ncrease i n c lay c ontent , r edden, a nd a ccumu late c arbonate. T hese s oils c onst itute a c hronosequence s imilar t o o thers r eported i n t he l iterature ( Birkeland 1 984). S oils o n f loodplains o r l ow a lluvia l t erraces ( e.g. P edon 1 , F ig. 8 ) a re y oung a nd l ack s ubsoil d evelopment s uch a s c ambic o r a rgillic h orizons. I n P edon 1 , t he s ubsoil c ontains b uried A h orizons a nd w ide t extural v ariat ions ( lithologic d iscontinuit ies), r ef lecting s trata f rom a lluviation n ear t he r iver. S oils o n i ntermediate a lluvia l t erraces h ave m oderately d eveloped a rgillic h orizons, a s i llustrated b y c lay a ccumulat ion a nd c lay f ilms i n t he B t h orizon o f P edon 3 . S oils o n s table p arts o f h igh a lluvia l t erraces ( Qa16_7) h ave s trongly d eveloped a rgillic h orizons a nd c alcic h orizons. P edon 4 o n Q a16 h as a c lay m aximum o f o ver 6 0%, r e lat ive t o 1 0-20% c lay i n t he B Ck h orizon, a nd h as a bout 1 0% c arbonate i n t he B Ck h orizon ( Table 2 ). P edon 8 o n Q a17 h as a n a rgillic h orizon s imilar i n m aximum c lay c ontent a nd c olor t o P edon 4 b ut a ppears e ven m ore s trongly d eveloped w ith t hick c ontinuous c lay f ilms a nd p rismat ic s tructure ( Fig. 9 ).

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T able 1 .

C lassificat ion, E nvironmenta l D at ing o f D escribed S oilsa

S ett ing, a nd R adiocarbon

P edon 1 C lassificat ion: C umu lic H aplustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: L ow a lluvial t errace ( Qa12), e levat ion 3 ,350 m , s lope < 2%. A gricultura l s ett ing: P resent ly u sed a gricultural t errace ( last c rop o ats o r q u inoa). B ase o f a gricultural t errace w all 6 3 c m d epth. R adiocarbon d ate: 1 610+70 y r B P ( Beta-13738) f rom s oil o rganic m atter i n 4 Ab h orfion, 1 12-123 c m d epth. P edon 2 C lassificat ion: T ypic A rgiustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: B ackslope o f m ountainside, e levat ion 3 ,500 m , o riginal s lope a bout 2 0-30%. A gricultural s ett ing: P resent ly u sed a gricultural t errace ( last c rop m aize), s lope < 2%. A gricu ltural t errace d eposits 0 -45 c m d epth. R adiocarbon d ate: 6 10+60 y r B P ( Beta-13739) f rom s oil o rganic m atter i n A kb h ori zon, 3 1-36 c m d epth. P edon 3 C lassificat ion: U dic A rgiustoll, f ine, m ontmorillonit ic, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvial t errace ( Qa14), e levat ion 3 ,550 m , s lope a bout 5 %. C ultural s etting: U ncult ivated a rea ( cut n ear i rrigat ion c anal a long v illage t rail). P edon 4 C lassificat ion: T ypic P aleustoll, f ine, m ontmorillonit ic, i somesic. G eomorphic s etting: A lluvia l t errace ( Qa16, e rosion s urface), e levat ion 3 ,600 m , s lope a bout 5 %. A gricultural s etting: A bandoned a gricultural t errace. A gricu ltura l t errace d eposits p robably i nclude m ost o f A h orizon. P edon 5 C lassificat ion: C umulic H aplustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvia l t errace ( Qa16, e rosion s urface), e levat ion 3 ,600 m , p resent s lope < 2%. C ultural s ett ing: A djacent t o w all o f a bandoned h ouse i n a rea o f a bandoned a gricultura l t erraces. C u ltural i nf luence t o a t l east 1 03 c m d epth. R adiocarbon d ate: 1 380+80 y r B P ( WIS-1712) f rom c harcoal a t 5 5 c m d epth n ear w here s T il d escribed.

1 75

T able 1 ( Continued).

P edon 6 C lassificat ion: C umu lic H ap lustoll, c oarse-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvial t errace ( Qa16, e rosion s urface), e levat ion 3 ,600 m , o riginal s lope a bout 2 0%. A gricultural s ett ing: A bandoned a gricultura l t errace a djacent t o a bandoned h ouse, p resent s lope a bout 7 %. A rt ifacts ( pot s herds, l ithics, b one, c harcoal) p resent 0 -134 c m d epth. R adiocarbon d ates: 1 510+80 y r B P ( WIS-1673) a nd 1 660+80 y r B P ( WIS-1696) f rom c häFcoal i n A 3 h orizon, 6 2-134 d i d epth ( about 2 -3 m u pslope f rom f ront o f t errace w a ll, s ee M a lpass, t his v ol.); 1 440+80 y r B P ( WIS 1 713) f rom c harcoal a t A h orizon/C h orizon b o t i aary d ownslope f rom w here s oil d escribed. S ee M alpass ( this v ol.) f or o ther d ates. P edon 7 C lassificat ion: C umulic H ap lustoll, l oamy-skeletal, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: B ackslope o f m ountainside, e levat ion 3 ,640 m , o rigina l s lope a bout 3 0%. A gricultura l s ett ing: A bandoned a gricultura l t errace, p resent s lope a bout 1 3%. A gricultura l t errace d eposits t hrough a t l east 5 8 c m ( Ak3 h orizon), p ossibly t hrough 7 5 c m ( 2BAk h orizon). R adiocarbon d ate: 1 400+80 y r B P ( WIS-1714) f rom c harcoal p robably i n A k3 h orizon. P edon 8 C lassificat ion: T ypic D urustoll, c layey, m ontmorillonit ic, i somesic, s hallow . G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvia l t errace ( Qa17, e rosion s urface), e levat ion a bout 3 ,740 m , s lope a bout 5 %. A gricultural s ett ing: E dge o f a bandoned a gricu ltura l t errace a rea. A h orizon w as p robably c ultivated. P edon 9 C lassificat ion: T ypic A rgiustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvia l t errace ( Qa17, e rosion s urface), e levat ion a bout 3 ,750 m , o riginal s lope a bout 2 0%. A gricultural s ett ing: A bandoned a gricultural t errace, b ase o f t errace w all, p resent s lope 1 3% ( Pedon 1 0 j ust u ps lope o f s ame w all). W all e xtends t o 4 3 c m d epth ( top o f 2 Btb h orizon). P edon 1 0 C lassificat ion: P achic A rgiustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s ett ing: A lluvial t errace ( Qa17, e rosion s urface), e levat ion a bout 3 ,750 m , o riginal s lope a bout 2 0%. A gricultural s etting: A bandoned a gricultural t errace, j ust u ps lope f rom t errace, p resent s lope a bout 1 5% ( Pedon 9 j ust d ownslope o f w all). W all e xtends t o a bout 1 32 c m d epth. R adiocarbon d ate: 3 520+80 y r B P ( Beta-13740) f rom s oil o rganic m atter i n 2 Ab h orfion, 1 10-150 c m d epth. H orizon e ither o riginal A h orizon e xist ing b efore t erracing o r p art o f e ar ly a gricultural t errace d eposit .

1 76

T able 1 ( Cont inued).

P edonllb C lassificat ion: P achic A rgiustoll, f ine-loamy, m ixed, i somesic. G eomorphic s etting: B ackslope o f m ountainside, e levat ion a bout 3 ,550 m , o riginal s lope a bout 5 0%. A gricultural s ett ing: P resent ly u sed a gricultura l t errace ( last c rop m aize), p resent s lope < 5%. T errace w all e xtends a bout 2 .5 m i nto Ba nd C h orizons. P edon 1 2b C lassificat ion: A quic o r T ypic U storthent , f ine-silty o ver s andy, m ixed, n onacid, m esic. G eomorphic s ett ing: R eservoir s ediment o ver lying a lluvia l t errace ( Qa17, e rosion s urface), e levat ion 3 ,800 m , o riginal s lope a bout 1 0%. C ultural s ett ing: R eservoir c onnected t o a bandoned i rrigat ion c ana ls, m ay b e o f s imilar a ge a s a gricultural t erraces a t P edons 6 a nd 7 ( 1400-1700 y r B P).

a See S andor ( 1986) f or c omp lete s oil d escript ions. L ocations o f d escribed s oils a re g iven i n F igure 3 . S oils c lassified a ccording t o S oil S urvey S taff ( 1975). b Pedon 1 n ot s amp led f or l aboratory c haracterizat ion. P edon 1 2 s ampled f or p ollen a nalysis b ut n ot l aboratory c haracterizat ion.

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F igure 1. T rench t hrough a gricultural d escribed.

F igure 1 2. A rea a round P edon 1.

t errace w here P edon 7 i s

N ote t errace w alls p art ly r emoved. 1 84

a gricultural t errace f i lls w ere u sually e mp laced b y a lluvial/colluvia l s lope p rocesses ( Donkin 1 979; K eeley 1 985; S andor e t a l. 1 986a). C ases o f a rt ificia l h and-filling o f t erraces, s ometimes w itTd ifferent l ayers o f m ateria l t ransported c onsiderable d istances, w ere s ummarized b y D onkin ( 1979). T erraced f ills i n t he C olca V alley c onsist o f l ocally r edistributed s oil p robably e mplaced b y s lope p rocesses. T he s edimentological e vidence f or t his i s t he 1 ) w edge-shaped f orm o f t he f ill ( e.g. F ig. 1 0 - a bove n atural 2 Bkb h orizon), t yp ical o f s edimentat ion u pslope o f d ams ( Leopold a nd B u ll 1 979), 2 ) s imilarity o f s and f raction d istributions a nd m ineralogy b etween f ills a nd u nderlying n atural h orizons, a nd 3 ) m ineralogical s imilarity b etween f ills a nd l ocal b edrock, f or e xamp le, t uff f ragments i n P edons 9 a nd 1 0 o riginat ing f rom a n o utcrop d irect ly u pslope ( Fig. 6 ). S ubsoils w ere e xcavated i n c onstructing w all f oundat ions a nd i t i s p ossible t hat f ronts o f t erraces w ere p art ly f illed b y m oving s oil f rom u ps lope, b ut o bvious e vidence o f t opsoil/subsoil m ixing w as n ot o bserved. B uried o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons w ithin f ills ( e.g. P edon 2 , 3 1-36 c m ), s hapes o f f ill h orizons a nd t extural d ifferences a mong f ill h orizons ( Pedon 7 , F ig. 1 0), a nd p ossible b uried w alls ( Malpass, t his v ol.) s uggest t hat w a ll c onstruct ion a nd f illing m ay h ave o ccurred e pisod ically r ather t han a ll a t o nce. H owever, t he u nified l ayout o f t he e xtensive t errace/cana l s ystems s uggest i nit ia l c onstruction w ithin t he s ame g enera l p eriod. L ong-term c ult ivation, a ddit ions o f f ert ilizers, a nd i rrigat ion h ave a ffected s everal s oil p roperties. B oth p resent ly c ultivated a nd a bandoned t erraced A h orizons h ave d ist inctive s tructure a nd p ores. T he c ompound s tructure i s m edium s ubangu lar b locky p art ing t o f inev ery f ine s ubangu lar b locky t o g ranular ( Sandor 1 986). E arthworm c asts a re c ommon i n p resent ly c ultivated s oils ( Pedons 1 a nd 2 ). W right ( 1963) r eported n umerous e arthworms i n p resent ly c ultivated t erraced s oils i n C hile, n oting t heir a bsence f rom n atura l s oils. H e a ttributed t he l ack o f e arthworms i n a bandoned t erraces t o i nsufficient m oisture b ecause a bandoned t erraced s oils c ontained p lenty o f o rganic m atter. T erraced A h orizons h ave m any t ubu lar p ores a nd a r e lat ively h igh p roportion o f m acropores. P ujol ( 1983) f ound t hat t erraced s oils i n S pain a re l oose a nd o pen i n c omparison t o u nterraced s oils. O rganic m atter c ontents o f t erraced s oils a re g enera lly h igh b ut o ften a re i rregu lar w ith d epth ( e.g. P edons 1 , 2 , 7 , a nd 1 0; T able 2 ), i n c ontrast t o r egu lar d ecreases w ith d epth i n m ost u p land M ollisols. O rganic C a nd t otal N c ontents a re h ighest i n p resent ly c ultivated s o ils ( Pedons 1 a nd 2 ). M orphological a nd P d ata i ndicate a t l east t hree f orms a nd m odes o f o rigin f or b uried o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons. T hose w ith u niform c olor a nd P c ontents s imilar t o a djacent h orizons a re l ikely f ormer A h orizons b uried b y s edimentat ion d uring t erracing. S ome b uried A h orizons d irect ly o ver B h orizons m ay b e o r iginal A h orizons p rior t o t erracing ( e .g. P edon 1 0, 10-150 c m ), w hile o thers m ay h ave d eveloped d uring c ult ivat ion b ut w ere b uried b y r enewed s edimentat ion f ollowing b uild-up o f w alls. A t hird t ype o f h orizon, c onsist ing o f a P -rich m ixture o f v ery d ark a nd l ighterc olored s oil, i s i nterpreted a s a n a dd it ion o f o rganic f ert ilizer s uch a s d ung ( e.g. P edon 2 , 3 1-36 c m; F ig. 1 3). T he o rigin o f b uried o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons i n P edon 1 ( 95-105 a nd 1 12-123 c m; F ig. 8 ) i s u ncertain b ecause t he d epth o f

1 85

a gricultural i nfluence i s u nknown. I f t hey a re b elow a gricultura l i nfluence, t hey p robably a re n atural b uried A h orizons c ommon ly f ound i n f loodplains. T he l ower h orizon h as a l ow b ulk d ensity ( Table 2 ), s uggest ing a v olcanic a sh d eposit, b ut t he N aF t est d oes n ot c onfirm t his. S imilar r adiocarbon d ates o btained f or t he 12-123 c m d epth o f P edon 1 ( 1610+70 y r B P) a nd d efinite a gricultural d eposits i n t he C hijra a rea ( V edons 5 -7, 1 400-1700 y r B P ) a re s uggestive, b ut t he q uest ion o f o rigin r emains o pen. F urther r adiocarbon d at ing o f o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons m ay h elp c larify t heir o rigin a nd t he h istory o f i ndividual t erraces. P reservation o f o rganic m atter-enriched h orizons o ver c enturies i s a ttributed t o ac ombinat ion o f d eep b urial b elow m ain b iot ic z ones, c ool t emperatures, a nd s emiarid c limate. S imilar f eatures w ere r eported b y W right ( 1963) a nd K ee ley ( 1985) i n o ther A ndean a gricultural t erraces. C arbon t o N r at ios o f t hese a nd m ost o ther h orizons i n t he C olca V alley s oils a re m ainly 1 0-13:1, i ndicat ing f u ll h umificat ion o f t he o rganic m atter ( Table 2 ). T hese C /N r atios a re t ypical o f o ther M ollisols ( Stevenson 1 982). H igh c oncentrat ions o f t ota l P o ccur i n s everal p resent ly c ultivated a nd a bandoned t erraced s oils ( Table 2 ). M any o f t he s oils p robably h ave a nthropic e pipedons ( Soil S urvey S taff 1 975). P hosphorus l evels a re e specia lly h igh i n A h orizons o f P edons 5 a nd 6 b ecause t hey c ontain d ebris ( including b one) f rom a djacent h ouses. T he m aximum t otal P l evel o f a bout 1 0,000 m g k g1 i s e xtraordinary, e ven i n c omparison t o l evels m easured i n u rban a rchaeologica l s ites t hat s upported d ense p opu lat ions ( Eidt 1 984). H owever, P l evels a re a lso v ery h igh i n s ome t erraced s oils n ot a ssociated w ith h ouses, f or e xample u p t o 4 000 m g k g1 i n P edons 2 a nd 7 . T hese P l eve ls p robably r ef lect r esidual a ccumu lat ion f rom a ddit ions o f f ert ilizers. T hese a dditions w ere l ikely m ade o ver a l ong t ime p eriod, c onsidering t hat 1 ) a s ample o f p ure lama d ung f rom C oporaque c ontained 2 870 m g k g1 ( Sandor 1 986:267), 2 ) t he h orizons a re m ineral (

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E xcavaciön E n f unc iö n al os i nd icadores a rr iba m encionados, s e e ligieron l os s it ios O GGqDu-12, 1 3 y 1 5 p ara s er i nvest igados p or e l a utor p r incipa l m ediante p ozos d e p rueba ( cateos). S o lamente e l s it io O GGqDu-12 p r o por c ionö e videncia f ehaciente d e o cupaciön h umana d urante c ierto l apso d e t iempo; l os o tros m ostraron h a llazgos d e s uperf icie p ero e n l a e xcavaciön n o f ue p osible i dent if icar e stratos n it idos f ormados p or l a a ctividad d e l h ombre e n e l p asado . U bicaciön g enera l. E l s it io O GGqDu-12 s e u bica a u nos 2 30 m a l s ur d e l B anco d e l a P lata, e n e l e xtremo o cc identa l d e l s ector 1 y a l a a ltura d onde e l e stero ( fuente p rincipa l d e a gua) c urva 9 0 g rados h acia e l n orte . H acia e l b anco s e n otan m u lt ip les c ampos e levados l argos y a ngostos m ientras q ue i nmed iatamente a l s ur d e l s it io s e a precian f ormas m äs p eque i ias e i rregu lares ( F ig. 2 ). D escr ipciön d e l s it io . E l y acimiento q ueda c asi a l e xtremo d e u n c ame llö n l argo y a ngosto q ue c orre e n d irecc iön e ste-oeste . D onde e mp ieza e l s it io p rop iamente d icho, s e p uede o bservar u na m a yor e levaciön s obre e l n ive l d e l os s urcos q ue e n e l c aso d e l c ame llön, e llo p robablemente d ebido a l a a cumu laci A d e d esechos, p roductos d e l a o cupaciön h umana . D onde s ube e l t erreno , t ambie n s e n otan d os p rotuberancias : u na p equel r a h acia e l n orte y o tra , m a 's p ronunciada, h acia e l s ur. L a p rotuberancia d e l n orte a cusa u na p end iente b astante f uerte , m ientras q ue l a d e l s ur m ant iene c asi s u e levaciön , b ajando s uavemente h acia e l l im ite m er id iona l d e l s it io d onde, e n e l b orde, s e v e u n c orte a brupto. M äs h acia e l o este d e l as p rotuberanc ias a parece l a c o nt in ua c iö n d e l c ame ll A, s ea u n p oco ms a ncho, p ara f ina lamente e ncontrarse c on e l e stero ( F igs. 3 , 4 , 5 , y 6 ). E n e sta p arte , l a s uperficie v a e n u n d ec live s uave h asta e l b orde d e l a gua. E n t ota l e l a rea s obresa liente o cupa u nos 2 3 m p or 1 9 m d entro d e l c ua l s e e xcavaron c inco c ateos ( 1 mp or 1 m ) y d os u nidades e n d r ea d e 3m p or 2m ( F ig. 3 ). R esu ltados. L os e stratos e ncontrados e n e l s it io p roveen l a e videnc ia q ue s e b uscaba a l i n iciar l a i nvest igaciö n e n e l s ent ido q ue d emuestran l a o cupaciö n h umana d urante u n t iempo b astante l argo. E l p rimer d epö sito ( D 1) e s e l p roducto d e l a a cumu laciö n d e m ateria l c u ltura l e nc ima d e u na s uperf icie o r igina l, e videnciada p or l a p resenc ia i n s itu d e l os f ondos d e d os r asgos a m odo d e v asijas g randes e nt& r ;aN ( F igs. 7 y 8 ) m 4 s o t ro s r estos b astante d ensamente p resentes, a unque d esp lazados p or l a a cc iön d e l a t ierra ( arcillas e xpansivas). R asgos s im ilares y c asi c omp letos s e d escubr ieron e n l os d epö sitos d e l a o cupaciö n M ilagro d e l s it io O GGqDu-1 ( F ig. 9 ). S e h a p ropuesto u na f unciö n d e h orno p ara l a c occ iön d e a l imentos ( Tarrage ,/ 1 985 :22) y p odriamos t amb ie n p ensar e n u na f unc i A d e a lmacenam iento. L a s uperf icie d e l s egundo d epö sito, D 2, t odavia m uestra l as i ntrusiones e n f orma d e m o ldes d e p oste ( F igs. 1 0 y 1), f ormando p osiblemente p arte d e u na e structura q ue, p or l o l im itado d e l a e x ca va c iö n , n o s e h a p od ido r ecuperar e n s u t ota lidad. E l m ater ia l c u ltura l p erteneciente a e ste D 1 c o incide c on e l q ue s e c onoce a t rave s d e l as p ub licaciones d e E strada ( 1957a :29-30) c omo u per rodo " o " c o mp le jo " M ilagro . E l d epö sito 5 , e ncontrado s o lamente e n e l c ateo 4 , p arece s er u n p iso d e v ivienda, a j uzgar p or s u c ompactaciön y l a g ran c ant idad d e r estos c u ltura les e ncima y d entro d e 4 1. S e n ota q ue

2 40

e ste d epö sito s e v ue lve g radua lmente m a 's a ncho d esde e l p erf il e ste h acia e l p erf il o este ( F ig. 1), i nd icando q ue l a e structura d e e sta e poca e staba c entrada e n l a p arte m ed ia d e l a p rotuberanc ia s ur d e l s it io. E l m ater ia l c u ltura l a sociado a e ste e strato, s i b ien c ae d entro d e l o M ilagro , p arece s er u na e xpresion m a 's t emprana d e e sta c ultura. E l u lt imo d epösito, D 4, r esu ltö s er l a c apa c u ltura lmente e ster il p orque d entro d e e lla n o s e h a llo m ater ia l, a unque e n m uchos c ateos s i s e e ncontraron f ragmentos d e c eräm ica e n s u s uperf icie , i nd icando s u c a lidad d e s uperficie d e u so. L os p ocos t iestos o bservados v is lumbran l a e xistencia d e l p eriodo d e D esarro llo R egiona l e n e l s it io. E s i nteresante n otar q ue l a s uperf icie d e l D 4 e s m uy o ndu lado y q ue e l c ontacto c on e l D 3 s e c aracter iza p or m ü lt ip les i nfiltraciones p equenas d e l D 3 e n e l D 4. C abe m enc ionar q ue e ste d epö sito ( D4) y e stas c aracterist icas s e p resentan e n l os o tros s it ios t amb ie n . L os d epö sitos i ntermed ios ( D2 y D 3) c onst ituyen e stratos c on m uy p oco m ater ia l c u ltura l y b astante r evue lto p or l o q ue s e p ostu la q ue s e t rata d e c apas d e r e lleno o d e p reparaci A d e p iso. L a o cupaciön M ilagro d e l s it io O GGqDu-1, c ercano a l O GGqDu-12, s e r estringe, c on u na p robabilidad d e 9 9 p or c iento, a l os s ig los I X h asta X IV y s e i nsta la d espue s d e u n h iato d e v ar ios s iglos ( Muse y T arragd 1 984:10). S in e mbargo, e llo n o q u iere d ecir n ecesar iamente q ue O GGqDu-12 s e o cupö t an t ard iamente . P or u n l ado l a f racc id n e xcavada d e a mbos s it ios e s m uy p equega y p ara O GGqDu-12 f a ltan t odavia f echas d irectas d e s us c ontextos. P or o tro l ado , t an c erca c omo e n S amborondö n ( F ig. 1 ) l as f echas r ad iocarbönicas d e c ontextos h ab itaciona les a dyacentes a l os c ampos e levados y l a b uena a soc iaciö n, t anto d e l a c eräM ica c omo d e o tros e lementos r ecurrentemente M ilagro, h acen i nferir u na t enaz a ct ividad c onstructura y d e o c u p a c iö n d e g ente M ilagro e n l os s iglos I V-VII ( Denevan y M athewson 1 983:171). A hora b ien, c uä les s on l as c ausas d e l a bandono d e O GGqDu-1 a p enas m ed io s iglo a ntes d e l a legada d e l os E uropeos a l a z ona? e i mp lica e llo u n a bandono g enera l d e l c omp le jo " Pegön d e l R io"? S i b ien n o p odemos c ontestar d irectamente a e stos i nterrogantes , l os t rabajos e n e l c omp lejo a gri co la d e C o limes d ocumentan a l a g ente M ilagro, o rganizada b ajo u n c acique, e mpegada e n f uertes e pisod ios d e c onstrucciön y p roducc iön d entro d e u na i nfraestructura d e c ame llones . C rono lö gicamente, s e u bica n o s o lamente e n e l s iglo X V p ero t amb ien e n l os s iglos X VI-XVIII ( Stemper , e ste t omo). G racias a l os t raba jos d e l os ü lt imos a gos y l os e nsa yos d e l r ad iocarbono , c om ienza a e merger u na c rono logia y u na c oro logia r egiona l y a unque t odavia n os e ncontramos e n l os i n icios d e e ste p roceso i nvest igat ivo, y a s e p uede r echazar d ef init ivamente l as t eor las t anto d e u na i nvasiö n d e l a C uenca p or g ente M ilagro, c omo l a d e u na d esapar icid n m ister iosa. I nc luso s i l as e videncias d e " Pegön d e l R io" p or s i s o las p odrian d efender l a s egunda h ipötesis, e xisten a parentemente t odos l os e lementos n ecesar ios p ara e ntender e sta p arte d e l a h istoria d e u na m anera m d s l ö gica e n l a r eg ion m isma.

C ONCLUSIONES C ontexto H abitaciona l V ersus C ontexto A gri co la E l h ombre, d esde q ue a sentam ientos e stab lecidos

s e v ue lve s edentario, v ive n orma lmente e n e n l ugares d e f äcil a cceso a l os r ecursos 2 41

q ue n ecesita. L a i magen t rad iciona l s e c onst ituye p or l os s it ios d e o cupacic i n h umana r odeados p or l os c ampos d e c u lt ivo, l os r i o s , l a s c a ntera s , e tc., h acia d onde l os m oradores s a len d iar iamente p ara e fectuar s us l abores d e s ubsistencia . R espect° a l as t ierras d e c u lt ivo c oncretamente, s e s upone q ue l a a cc ion d e l h ombre a gr icu ltor , e n c uanto a l c ontend ido d e a rtefactos s e r ef iere , p roduce c oncentraciones b ajas , p orque s enc illamente t rabaja l a t ierra y e llo , a l o m g x imo, o cas iona c ambios q uimicos e n e l s ue lo , s a lvo o b jetos p erd idos o d aK ados y b otados. P or c onsigu iente , l a p robabilidad d e e ncontrar m ateria l c u ltura l e n u n c ontexto a grico la r esu lta m uy b aja. A s( m ismo, e n e l c aso d e l os c ame llones s e p e nsö q u e e x istf a u n ä rea g rande d e t ierras c u lt ivab les c on s it ios d e h abitacid n e n l os b ordes. E sta t esis p uede s er v ä iida p ara l as t errazas d e c u lt ivo q ue s e c onstruyeron c u idadosamente p ara e vitar l a e rosiö n d e l a t ierra , p ara g arant izar l a p ermeabilidad y e l a bastecimiento d e l a gua p or m edio d e r eservor ios, c ana les, e tc. O tra e s l a s ituaciön d e l as f amosas c hinampas d e M exico , d onde s e e ncuentran c ontextos h abitacio9a les f recuentemente e ncima d e l os c ampos d urante e l p eriod° d e u so m aximo, A zteca T ardio ( Parsons e t a l. 1 985 :93). E l c omp le jo " Pe i iön d e l R io" r epresenta u n t e rm ino m gd io e n t re e s t os e xtremos. E l c ontext° h abitaciona l d e O GGqDu-12 p or e jemp lo , s e u b ica e n f unc iö n d e l s istema d e c ame llones d onde e l f lujo d e a gua q ueda s ujeto a l r itmo d e l as m areas y d onde h asta l a c a lidad d e e ste l iqu id° c amb ia s e gü n l a e p oca d e l A° . E n r esumen, e l f uncionam iento a decuado d e e ste s istema a grico la r eside p rincipa lmente e n e l a bastecimiento d e l a gua, e l m antenim iento d e l os c ana les y e l a bono d e l a t ierra . L os ü lt imos d os e lementos s e c onsiguen m ed iante u na s o la a ct ividad, l a d e l imp iar l os s urcos d e l a d eposiciön d e l imo t raido p or e l a gua y h echar lo e n l os c ame llones ( mucking). E l c ontro l d e l a gua d eb iö g arant izar t anto l a c ant idad c omo l a c a lidad d e l f lujo e ntrante . A l a h ora d e m area a lta e ra p reciso d ejar e ntrar e l a gua c ontro ladamente p ara q ue n o s e i nundaran l os c u lt ivos; c on m area b aja h abia q ue c errar l as " esclusas" p ara q ue n o s e d renen l os c ana les . C uando l a s a linidad d e l a gua s obrepasaba e l p orcenta je t o lerab le p or p arte d e l as p lantas , e s d ecir d urante l os m eses d e a gosto h asta d iciembre a prox imadamente , h abia q ue e mpozar e l a gua , e n c ant idad s uf iciente p ara p oder s obrevivir e ste p eriod° d ificil. T odo e llo s ignif ica q ue a l o l argo d e l as c auces "fuentes", e n c iertos p untos c laves, s e n ecesitaba d e u n c ontro l p ermanente . E s l ö gico e ntonces l a e xistencia d e l O GGqDu-12 c on e sta u b icacid n y a unque l os o tros y acimientos i nvest igados ( OGGqDu-13 y O GGqDu-15) n o c onst ituyeron p ruebas f ehacientes c omp lementarias, e s p rudente s uponer q ue d ebe h aber m äs d e e ste t ipo d e s it ios d entro d e l c omp lejo " Pel ron d e l R io". L os e lementos d e j u icio p ara l oca lizar m gs s it ios c on e l p otenc ia l d e r eforzar l os r esu ltados h asta a hora a lcanzados, p ueden t omerse d e l os i nd icadores d e l a h ipötesis d e t raba jo, m äs l os d atos e mp iricos o btenidos d urante e sta i nvest i9aciön. S e e ncontrarg e l a sentam iento e n l a c abecera d e u n c ame llon y c erca d e u na f uente d e a gua p rinc ipa l d e l s ector . E l y acimiento a cusarä u na m od if icacid n e n l a m orfo logia u sua l b a jo l a f orma d e u na ( o m äs ) p rotuberanc ia (s), c on u na e levaciön l igeramente m ayor q ue e s e l r esu ltado d e l a d eposicid n d e r estos 91tura les a t raves d e l t iempo. E l t amano d e l a o cupaciö n h umana s era p robab lemente l im itado a u na s o la e structura , c on q u izä ' s

2 42

a lgunas d ependenc ias y d e l t ipo d ome st ic° , r ef le jando l os q uehaceres d iarli os d e u na f am ilip . C rono ld gicamente , l a m ayoria s e u bicard e n e l P er iod° d e I ntegracion p ero n o h a y q ue e xc lu ir l a p osibilidad d e q ue r emonta m as e n e l t iempo. E n c iertos c asos, e l p atron d 9 l os c ame llones a lrededor d e u n s it io d e e sta i ndo le a cusara u na d isposicio,n d iferente ( "nudo ") p ara f acilitar e l m ane jo d e l f lujo a cudt ico . E ste p unto m uchas v eces q uedard d ificil d e d ef inir d eb ido a l as m od if icaciones i rreversib les q ue h a s ufrido l a z ona . S e p uede p ensar q ue a lgunas d reas a biertas e ntre d eterm inados s ector s d e c ame llones s irvieron c omo r eservor ios p ara l as t emporadas c rft icas ( F ig. 2 ). U na r dpida i nspecc iön d e l a f otografia a e rea p red ice l a p resenc ia d e m äs s it ios c on e stas f unciones a t rave ' s d e l c omp le jo " PeKön d e l R io". J erarquia d e S it ios E n r ea lidad, l as f uturas i nvest igaciones d eberän e xp lorar u n s innümero d e e lementos y p osiblidades q ue, h oy e n d ia , r ecie n s e v is lumbran y q ue d eben p erm it ir i nterre lacionarse d entro d e u na p erspect iva r egiona l. L as i ndagaciones q ue h asta l a f echa s e h an levado a c abo e std n d ando f orma a u na j erarqufa d 9 s it ios q ue, s e e spera , f uturas p rospecc iones y e xcavaciones p odran i mp lementa l. -y d esarro llar . C entros g randes. C omo c entro u rbano, e l s it io d e J erusa le n ( F ig. 1 ) n o t iene p ara le lo c omparändo lo c on l os q ue h an e scapado a l a d estrucciö n d e e sta p arte d e l a C uenca d e l G uayas ( ver M eggers 1 966, P l. 4 1). As imp le v ista e l c onjunto d e m onticu los o " to las" d e v ar ios f ormas y t amagos, a lgunos r ea lmente e spectacu lares , l os i dent if ican c omo u n l ugar d e p roducc iö n u rbana . S in e mbargo s e r eq u iere u rgentemente d e t raba jos d e c ampo ( p .e. l evantamiento t opograf ico, p rospecc iön y e x paciön ) p ara d eterminar s u e xtensiön e i mp lantaciö n, a na lizar s u c aracter/funciön c omo c entro ( residenc ia l, c eremonia l, m ercant il, r e ligioso, e tc.) y l a n atura leza e spec if ica d e s us a ct ividades p roduct ivas . S u i mp lantaciön a l e ste y a dyacente a l c omp lejo m 4 s g rande d e c ampos e levados d e l a c uenca ( Denevan y M athewson 1 983:Fig . 9 :2) y s u e qu id istanc ia d e l os r fos C himbö y B o liche s ugieren t odos q ue u na d e s us f unciones c onsistia e n l a a dm inistraciön y r ed istribucidn d e l e xcedente a gri co la. E stos s istemas f luvia les f on man l as a rterias p rincipa les e ntre l a b a ja C uenca d e l G uayas y l a H oja d e C agar ( rfos T aura, B o liche, B u lubu lu ), l a C ord illera d e C himbo y e l a rea d e C himborazo y A lausi ( rfos Y agauchi, C himbö , yC han C han) ( Ponce 1 979 :3). L a d ocumentac iön e tnohistör ica i nd ica u na p osible a sociac iön e ntre u n c azicago y n l a z ona d e D au le p ara e l s iglo X VI, y e sta f orma d e p roducc iö n a 9r ico la ( Esp inoza S or iano 1 981; S temper , e ste t omo ). O tros s it ios c entr icos d e i mportanc ia p ara e sta z ona s on Y aguach i V ie jo m enc ionado p or W o lf ( 1975 :170) y E strada ( 1957b :233) y L a C ompa V ta ( Evans y M eggers 1 954 :318-320 ; G ardner 1 979 :24 , 1 982:11). C entros m enores. E x isten o tros y acim ientos d e m enor t ama A p ero d ef init ivamente c on i nd icadores d e u n p roceso u rbano. O GGqOu-1 o e l s it io a rqueo lögico " Pe i n d e l R io", p or s u u bicaciö n y l im itado n dmero d e c onstrucc iones " pdblicas , ", p arece s er u n c entro p ara l a d istribuciön d e p roductos a grico las , e specia lizado a demd s e n s ervicios c omerc ia les e videnc iado p or l a p resenc ia d e m ater ia les c omo l a 2 43

o bsidiana , i nf luencia s errana e n l a c erd m ica, c onchas d e l a c osta, e tc. ( A lvarez e t a l. 1 981; M use e t a l. 1 984 ; M use y T arragö '1984). S u d ependenc ia d e— a i—g Un c entro m ayor -Nomo J erusa len ) e s i ndudab le p ero q ueda p or d emostrar e l c ua l, d esde c ud ndo y c uä l e ra e l c aracter d e e sta r e laciön. L os s it ios d e G uaja lata ( F ig . 1 ) y C hurute s on p tros q ue p odr lan r epresentar e l m ismo n ive l d entro d e l a c ategor ia d e c entros ( Muse 1 984 :16). A ldeas . L os s it ios d e e ste t ipo s e u bican d entro d e l os b ancos q ue E öT ITTae e l c omp lejo " Pe i Tö n d e l R io" ( M use 1 984). R esu ltan s er n umerosos a unque r educidos e n t ama i io y a cusan u na c lara o r ientacid n h acia l as t ierras d e c u lt ivo ( F ig. 2 ). S i l os s it ios d e l B anco d e l a P lata s on r epresentat ivos p ara e l r esto d e l c omp le joe h ay u na a usenc ia g enera l d e a rquitectura p dblica y a un d e m ont icu los b ajos p ara h abitaciö n. A unque l a m ayoria h a r eve lado s o lo e l c omponente d e l P eriod° d e I ntegraciön, n uestras p ruebas l imitadas h an e ncontrado r estos d e l P eriod° d e D esarro llo R egiona l e n e l s ubsue lo d e p or l o m enos d os d e e stos s it ios. O tro b anco , h acia e l n oreste d e O GGqDu-1, s in d uda a cusa l a c oncentraciön d e p ob lacid n m äs s ignif icat iva d e l c omp le jo " Pei n d e l R io" o uT aur9 N orte" e n e l P eriod ( ) d e I ntegraciö n y W o lf m enc iona u na p arte d e l r io e n Y aguachi, c on a bundantes b ancos e n a mbos l ados, " rio a rr iba y a ba jo p or u na l egua" ( 1975 :170). E stancias. L os s it ios c omo O GGqDu-12, p or s u t amd r io , c onst ituirian e stancias, p ero p or s u f uncid n p odrian s er m a ' s d irectamente a sociados c on l os c entros m enores q ue c on l as a ldeas d e a gricu ltores. R epit iendo l o a nter iormente m encionado , s on s it ios d e u na s ola e structura y s us d ependenc ias , p osib lemente o cupados p or u na f am ilia c on l a f unc iö n d ef inida c omo l a d e l c ontro l d e l a gua. E l h echo d e q ue e l s it io f ue e specia lmente c onstruido e n l os p untos i mportantes ( intersecciones d e c auces y s ectores d e c ame llones) e sta e n c ontraste c on l os a sentam ientos q ue y acen e n l os b ancos d onde n o h ubo m ayor i nversion d e t rabajo p ara a decuar los c omo l ugar d e h abitaciö n . L os d atos e mpiricos h asta a hora a na lizados d e l O GGqDu-12 t odavia n o p ermiten d iferenc iar lo d e l os y acimientos e n e l b anco e n c uanto a a cceso a l os v ariados b ienes e n c ircu lacidn s e r ef iere .

C ONSIDERACIONES F INALES C abe i nsist ir q ue l o m enos i mportante e s e l a parato c lasif icator io d e y acimientos a qui u t ilizado f rente a l e stud io d e l c ontenido d e l p roceso u rbano q ue e s e vidente a un a l os c om ienzos d e l p roceso i nvest igat ivo. S e t rata s o lamente d e u n i ntent ( ) p ara v er l as c osas e n u na p erspect iva r egiona l y q ue p erm ite r esum ir l a i nformaciö n h asta a hora a cumu lada. L os m oradores d e l a r e g ion e n d onde s e e ncuentran l os c ampos e levados d e l a C uenca d e l G uayas h an t ransitado d urante a lgynos s iglos u na t ra yector ia h acia l a f on mac iö n u rbana . P ara e l P er iod° d e I n t egra c id n s e n o t a u n a j erarquia d e a sentamie es q ue r ef leja d iferencias f undamenta les e n l os p rocesos d e p roducc ion . P or u n 1 9do e sy )s p ueb los e stän e n c ontro l d e u no d e l os c entros d e p roducc ion a gr ico la m d s f orm idab les e n t oda l a C osta P acif ica d e l c ont inente ( Marcos 1 981:51). P or o tro l ado l a p roducc id n e specia lizada p ara e l c omercio p arece c orresponder a p or l o m enos u na p arte d e e sta c lase u rbana e mergente , h echo q ue q u izäs s ea r esponsab le d e a lgunas d iferencias p ercibibles e ntre l os p rocesos s ocia les d e l os g rupos a nd inos m a 's a l s ur y l os d e l a rea N or-and ina ( Lumbreras 1 981:61). 2 44

P ara legar a c onc lusiones a certadas p ara l a r egiön, e s u rgente q ue s e s istemat ice e l r egistro d e l os s it ios e xistentes e n t oda l a c uenca, y , e l l evantam iento t opogräf ico d e e llos d eb ido a l a d estrucc iön i nmanente d e e sta f uente d e i nformaciö n h istör ica y l a n ecesidad d e o rganizar s u r escate . A gradecimiento. L os a utores a provechan l a o portunidad p ara e xpresar s u s incero a gradecimiento a t odas l as p ersonas o ve h an c o laborado d e d iversas m aneras e n l as i nvest igaciones d e " Penön d e l R io": J orge M arcos, d irector d e l a E scue la d e A rqueo logia ; l os c o legas d e l a f acu ltad, a rqueö logos J ames Z e id ler , J udith K re id, y M yriam T arragö ; S i lvia A lvarez, a ntropö loga ; y l os e stud iantes d e l a E scue la d e A rqueo log ia . D e u na , u o tra f orma, t odos h an c ontribu ido a l c onocimiento q ue h oy e n d ia s e t iene d e l a p rob lemd t ica d e l a C uenca d e l G yayas x q ue s e t rata d e a vanzar e n e ste a rticu lo . G racias t amb ien a V ictor O rt iz p or h aber a yudado e n c orregir e l m anuscr ito. E n c uanto a l os e rrores q ue c ont iene , s on d e e ntera r esponsabilidad d e l os q ue e scr iben.

L ITERATURA C ITADA A lvarez, S ilv ia, L u is B arr iga, J ozef B uys, J orge G . M arcos, M ichae l M use, I d ilio S ant illana, J ames A . Z eid ler 1 981. P royecto A rqueo lö g ico y E tnobotänico " Pei rön d e l R io": I nforme P re liminar y P lanteam iento d e C ont inuaci 671 7P ub li Ci ET E E specia l d e l a E scue la d e -Ar queo logia, E scue la S uperior P o lite cnica d e l L itora l, G uayaqu il. B uys, J ozef 1 984. I nforme d e e xcavaciö n " Penön d e l R io" 1 984. C opias d ispon ible d e l C entro d e E stud ios A rqueo lögicos y A ntropo lög icos, E SPOL, G uayaqu il. D enevan, W illiam M . 1 970. A bor igina l D ra ined F ie ld C u lt ivat ion i n t he A mer icas . S cience 1 69 :647-654 . 1 980.

T ipo logia d e c onf iguraciones A mer ica I ndigena 4 0 :619-652.

a gr ico las

p rehispänicas .

1 982.

H ydrau lic A gr icu lture i n t he A merican T ropics: F orms, M easures, a nd R ecent R esearch. I n M aya S ubsistence , e d ited b y K ent V . F lannery, p p . 1 81-203. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

D enevan, W illiam M . yK ent M athewson 1 983. P re lim inary R esu lts o f t he S amborondön R aised F ie ld P ro ject , G uayas B asin, E cuador . I n D ra ined F ie ld A gr icu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A mer ica, e d ited b y J .P. D arch. p p . 1 67-1817 B rit ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 1 89 , O xford. D enevan, W illiam M ., K ent M athewson, y R ichard W hitten 1 985. M ound ing, M ucking a nd M angling: R ecent R esearch o n R a ised F ie lds i n t he G uayas B asin, E cuador . I n P rehistor ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T ropics, e d ited b y I . S . F arr ington, p p . 1 81-183. B r ifi sh A rchaeo logica l R eports , I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. 2 45

E sp inoza S or iano , W . 1 981. E l r e ino d e l os C honos a l e ste H istor ia y C ultura 1 3-14 :1-47.

d e

G uayaqu il.

R evista

d e

E strada, E . 1 957a. L as ü lt imas c ivilizaciones p rehistö r icas d e l a c uenca d e l r io M useo V .E. E strada, P ub licac iö n N o. 2 G uayaquil: 1 957b. C rono logia d e l a c uenca d e l A rqueo logia 1 9-21:232-246 .

G uayas .

C uadernos

d e H istor ia y

E vans, C lifford 1 957. L os P eriodos C horrera y T ejar d e l a P rovinc ia d e l G uayas, E cuador . C uadernos d e H istor ia y A rqueo logia 2 1:243-246 . E vans, C lifford a nd B ett y M eggers 1 954 . P re lim inary R eport o n t he A rcheo log ica l I nvest igat ions i n t f je G uayas B asin, E cuador . C uadernos d e H istor ia y A rqueo log ia 1 2 :308-347. 1 957.

F ormat ive P er iod C u ltures i n t he G uayas E cuador . A mer ican A nt iqu ity 2 2 :235-247.

B asin ,

C oasta l

G ardner , J oan S . 1 979 . P re-Co lumbian T ext iles f rom E cuador : C onservat ion P rocedures &P re lim inary S tud ies. T echno logy Y C onservat ion 4 :24-30 . 1 982.

T ext iles p reco la mb inos E cuator iana 2 :9-30 .

d e l

E cuador . M isce l4nea A ntropo löi g ica

I nst ituto A nd ino d e E stud ios A rqueo lögicos 1 982. C o loqu io I nternaciona l d e A rqueo logia e n H omena je a C ar los Z eva llos M ene ndez. G aceta A rqueo lög ica A nd ina , s up lemento 1 . L umbreras, L uis G . 1 981. A rqueo logi a L ima.

d e

l a

A mer ica

a nd ina .

E d itor ia l

M illa

B atres,

M arcos, J orge G . 1 981. E sbozo d e p rehistor ia e cuator iana . E n E cuador a l a s ombra d e l os v o lcanes, e d itado p or C ar los R omero , p p . 4 476. L ib iT M6 7 1-d i, Q uito. 1 982.

E l A rea S eptentriona l A nd ina. P onenc ia p ara e l I nternaciona l " Car los Z eva llos M ene ndez" s obre S eptentriona l a nd ina , G ua yaqu il.

C o loqu io e l A rea

M eggers, B etty J . 1 966 . E cuador . P rager , N ew Y ork. M use, M ichae l C . 1 984. S ummary o f A ct ivit ies U ndertaken f rom A pr il, 1 983 t o M arch, 1 984 w itf iT h -UT-WIETent A gr icu lt iFiT-T echno lg li g"-T ro ject . E T E r i eT T-T gC r iTa d e A rqueo logia , E SPOL . P reparado p ara l a m isiön d e U SAID, Q uito, P ro ject A ID/ESPOL 9 36-5542. 2 46

M use, M ichae l C . yM yriam T arragö 1 984. E tapas d e p oblamiento e n P e i iön d el R io, b aja c uenca d el G uayas , G uayaqu il. M anuscrito e n p osesiön d e l os a utores . M use, M .C., M . T arragö , F . D ugas , yG . P igeon 1 984. M edios s ed imentölög icos d e l as c u lturas d e l os p eriodos C horrera , d esarrollo r egiona l, M ilagro y Q uevedo e n e l s it io P enön d el R io, b aja c uenca d el G uayas. M anuscrito e n p osesiön d e l os a utores . P arsons, J .J. 1 969. R idged F ie lds i n t he A ntiqu ity 3 4 :76-80. 1 973.

R io

G uayas

V a lley,

E cuador.

A merican

C ampos d e c u lt ivos p rehistöricos c on c amellones p ara le los e n l a c uenca d el r io G uayas , E cuador. C uadernos d e H istoria y A ntropologia 4 0:185-193.

P arsons, J effrey R , M ary H . P arsons, V irginia P opper a nd M ary T aft 1 985. C hinampa A griculture a nd A ztec U rbanizat ion i n t he V a lley o f M exico. I n P rehistoric A griculture i n t he T ropics, e d ited b y I .S. F arr ington, p p . 4 4-96. B rit ish A FTEäeo o g ica l R eports , I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford. P once R ., P au l J . 1 979. D atos g eogräficos s obre e l s it io " Jerusa len" c oma o bjet ivo y o bservaciön d el m onumento a rqueolö g ico d e l a c u ltura M ilagro-Quevedo. D iscurso p resentado e n l as J ornadas d e A rqueologia S oc ia l, M ilagro. P royecto R egiona l d e 1 979a. C rit icas y d e T rabajo R egiona l d e

P atrimonio C u ltural A nd ino P erspectivas d e l a A rqueologia A nd ina . D ocumento N o. 1 . P repaFiao p or L u is G . L umbreras . P royecto P atrimonio C u ltura l A nd ino U NESCO/PNUD, L ima.

1 979b. C omentarios S obre e l C onjunto d e N otas q ue C onst ituyen e l D ocumento d e T rabi 7 N o. 1 . D ocumento 7F- T rabajo N o. 2 7 : P reparado r L u is G7- L i i mbreras . P royecto R egiona l d e P atrimonio C u ltura l A nd ino U NESCO/PNUD, L ima. T arrago, M yriam N . 1 985. I nforme f ina l d e a ct ividades y d e i n v e st ig ac iö n . M anuscrito a rchivado e n e l C entro d e E studios A rqueolög icos y A ntropolög icos, E SPOL, G uayaqu il, E cuador. T urner , B .L., y W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. P rehistoric M anipu lat ion o f W et lands i n t he A mericas: A R aised F ie ld P erspective. E n P rehistoric I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e ditado p ar I .S. F arrington, p p . 1 1-30. B ritfif i T IFEhaoe o g ical R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford. W olf, T eodoro 1 975. G eografia y g eologia d el C u ltura E cuatoriana , Q ui77 .

2 47

E cuador.

E d itoria l

C asa

d e

l a

Z eidler , J ames A . 1 982. L a S ubd rea S eptentriona l A nd ina O este . P onenc ia p resentada e n e l C oloqu io I nternac iona l " Carlos Z evallos M enendez" s abre e l A rea S eptentriona l A ndina, G uayaqu il.

C HAPTER 1 2 E XPER IMENTOS D E R EACTIVACION D E C AMPOS E LEVADOS, Pa I ON D EL R IO, G UAYAS , E CUADOR

M ichae l M use y F austo Q u intero

R ESUMEN E l P royecto A rqueo lögico - A grico la " Pe n d e l R io" e stä e n o peraciön d esde o ctubre d e 1 980, a p licando u n e nfoque i nterd iscip linar io a l p rob lema g enera l d e l a h istor ia n atura l y s ocia l d e l a C uenca d e l G uayas. D e u n t ota l d e 5 0,000 h a d e i nfraestructura a gr ico la r eportado p or D enevan y M athewson ( 1983) p ara l a C uenca d e l G uayas, 1 ,600 d e e llas c omprenden e l lamado " comp le jo P el rön d e l R io". A p esar d e s u a nt igua a bundancia e n l a z ona, e s c ada v ez m äs d ificil e ncontrar 9 rupos d e c ampos p reservados q ue p erm it ird n l o s e nsayos d e r eact ivacion t an i mportantes p ara e sta r ama d e i nvest igaciö n. L os p rimeros e nsayos d e e ste t ipo, levados a c abo d esde s ept iembre d e 1 983, m d s l as a ct ividades d e p r o specc iö n , e xcavaciön, ,y t rabajos t opogrä f icos, n os p roporcionan d atos p ara l a r econstrucc ion d e l o q ue d eberia h aber s ido u n a grosistema d e ‚g ran d iversidad y e stabilidad p roduct iva. M ientras q ue l a c onstrucc ion d e e stos c ampos, i nd ica u na /t ransformaciön m uy f uerte d e l p aisaje p or a cc iö n h umana, l a d istribucion a ctua l d e f lora s e d ebe m uy c laramente a u na s ituacid n d e a bandono y d escuido . A sim ismo, l a a cumu laciön d e s ed imentos, q ue h oy e n d ia " ahoga" t odos l os c ampos s obrevivientes, f ue c ontro lada a nt iguamente a t rave s d e a ct ividades d e m antenim iento/reconstrucciön. E n c ontraste c on o tros l ugares e n l a C uenca d e l G uayas, c onocer l as m areas y a nt icipar l os " aguajes" h an , s ido y s on c laves p ara c ua lquier m ane jo d e e stos t errenos. M ä s a lla d e l p rob lema d e l n ive l r e lat ivo t ierra/agua, e l a gr icu ltor p reh ispänico a demd s e nfrentö : u n s ue lo d e t , extura a rcillosa p esada, u na v ar iedad d e p lagas y e nfermedades, y e pocas d e l a r i o q u e e la gua lega s a lobre e i nservib le p ara r iego. A p esar d e e stos p rob lemas, l os e nsa yos n os i nd ican q ue e l r end im ientd d e c hinampas e st imados p or S anders e t a l. ( 1979) e n 3 ,000 k g/ano/ha ( maiz) y e s r azonab le p ara l os c ampos e levados d e Paö n d e l R io.

A BSTRACT S ince 1 980, t he P el rön d e l R io A gr icu ltura l - A rchaeo logica l P ro ject ( PRAAP) h as b een c onduct ing i nterd iscip linary r esearch i nto t he n atura l a nd s oc ia l h istory o f t he G uayas B asin. O f t he 5 0,000 h a o f a ncient a gricu ltura l i nfrastructure ( ra ised f ie lds) r eported b y D enevan a nd M athewson ( 1983) f or t he G uayas B asin, t he P e on d e l R io C omp lex i s c omprised o f 1 ,600 h a . I nit iated i n S eptember o f 1 982, r eactivat ion e xper iments a ttempt t o r e-d iscover t he o perat ing p rocedures o f a n a groecosystem o f h igh d iversity, p roduct ivit y, a nd s tability. T his p aper w ill e xam ine t he e xper iments c arr ied o ut d uring o ne a nnua l r ound ( summer 1 983 a nd w inter 1 984), w ith r espect t o : l ocat ion 2 49

a nd o rganizat ion o f p lots , c rop y ie lds, a nd c ost b enef it a na lysis . I n a dd it ion t o i mp licat ions f or m odern-da y i nhabitants, t hese r esu lts, i n c onjunct ion w ith a rchaeo logica l, b otanica l, a nd t opographic i nformat ion g athered b y t he P RAAP, p rovide h istor ica l i nsight i nto t he p rocesses a ffect ing h uman s ett lement a nd l and u se w ith in t he r egion. T he c onstruct ion o f t hese f ie lds, e st imated a t 2 ,000-3,000 y ears a go, r ad ica lly t ransformed t he l andscape a nd m ust h ave e ventua lly h ad s ocia l r epercussions d ue, i n p art , t o t he h igh l abor i nputs w hich w ere n ecessary t o m aintain p roduct ivity. I ronica lly, t he c urrent s ituat ion t hroughout m uch o f t he r aised-f ie ld r eg ion, a s r ef lected b y t he d istribut ion o f t he f lora, i s o ne o f a bandonment a nd n eg lect . T he t ons o f r iver s ed iment w hich " choke" t he c ana ls, a nd i n s ome c ases b ury t he f ie lds, m ust h ave b een k ept i n c heck d uring t he a ct ive y ears o f t his c omp lex. U n like m ost o ther r a ised-f ie ld c omp lexes i n t he G uayas B asin ( and e lsewhere ), a p rerequ isite f or l and/water m anagement i n t he P e on d e l R io C omp lex r equires k now ledge o f t he d aily t ides a nd m onth ly t ide c yc les. I n a dd it ion, t he p rehistor ic f armers w ere c onfronted w ith t he n eed t o a lter t he c layey t exture o f t he s oil, a s w e ll a s c ontro l a w ide v ar iet y o f p lagues a nd p lant d iseases. F urthermore , a t t he h eight o f s ummer e ach y ear t he w ater-supp ly b ecomes s o s a lty t hat i t i s n ot f it f or i rr igat ion. I n s p ite o f t hese p rob lems, t he r esu lts o f t he P RAAP r esearch t hus f ar i nd icate t hat t he y ie ld e st imates b y S anders e t a l. ( 1979) o f 3 ,000 k g/year/ha ( maize) f or c hinampas a re n ot u nreag a gIe f or t he r a ised f ie lds a t P en c i n d e l R io.

I NTRODUCCION S iendo e ste u n p er iod° e n e l c ua l l a g eogra da , c omo d iscip lina , e sta a p unto d e e xt inciön, e s a prop iado e specu lar s obre l o q ue n o c onocieramos d e l os c ampos e levados p reco lombinos d e l a C uenca d e l G ua yas, s i n o f uera p or l os t raba jos d e l os g eö grafos c u ltura les . E stos c ampos f ueron i dent if icados y d escr itos p rimero p or J ames J . P arsons h ace 2 0 a i ios ( Parsons 1 969, 1 973). P arsons y S h lemon c ont inuaron t rabajos d e c ampo e n e l a no 1 976 ( Parsons y S h lemon, e ste t omo). E n 1 979-1980, u n g rupo d ir ig ido p or W illiam D enevan, i nvest id0 l os c ampos e levados y a sentamientos h umanos e n l a z ona d e S amborondon. E ste p royecto d emoströ q ue l os c ampos t uvieron u na e xtension d e p or l o m enos 5 0,000 h a, y M athewson h a i dent if icado y e laborado l os m apas d e n ueve c omp lejos d e c ampos e levados p ara l a c uenca ( Denevan y M athewson 1 983; D enevan, M athewson, y W hitten 1 985). E n 1 980, l a E scue la d e A rqueo logia d e l a E scue la S uper ior P o lite cnica d e l L itora l ( Gua yaqu il) i n iciö u na o peracid n d e a rqueo logia d e r escate q ue s e h a t ransformado e n u n p royecto i nterd iscip linar io d e m u lt i-etapas. E ste p ro yecto, b ajo l a d irecc iö n d e J orge M arcos, r ec ibiö f ondos b ajo U SA ID G rant N o. 9 36-5542; c on e l n ombre d e " Tecno logia e i co la A nt igua", legö a l a m äx imo a ct ividad d e c ampo d urante l os a nos 1 983 y 1 984 . L as a ct ividades d e c ampo i nc luian : e xcavaciones d e s it ios h ab itaciona les y a grico las , p rospecc iön a rqueo lö gica d entro d e l os c omp lejos d e c ampos e levados d e l a c uenca, e stud io e tnogräf ico c on l os h abitantes d e l a z ona , t rabajos d e b o d nica , z oo logia y e co logia d 9 l a z ona d e c ampos e levados, e stud ios t opogräf icos y e nsa yos a gronomicos.

2 50

E l p resente t rabajo p resentarä l os r esu ltados d e e nsa yos d e r eact ivaciö n d e c ampos e levados, a demäs d e a lgunas d e l as i mp licaciones d e e stos p ara u na c omprensiö n h istör ica d e l os c ampos y e l p roceso d e a sentam iento. D e a cuerdo a l c onvenio s uscr ito e ntre l a E scue la S uper ior P o lite cnica d e l L itora l ( ESPOL) y e l I nst ituto N aciona l d e I nvest igaciones Aropecuar ias ( INIAP) s e i niciaron, e n 1 983, t rabajos d e i nvest igacion a gronöMica p ara d eterm inar e l v a lor p otencia l d e l os " campos e levados" p reco lomb inos, y m ed ir l a p osibilidad d e i ncorporar los a l a a gr icu ltura m oderna, y a q ue, a ctua lmente s on p ocos c u lt ivados. E l s it io d e p arce las e xper imenta les f ue s e lecc ionado d entro d e l ä rea d e e stud io " Pe i lön d e l R io", a s u v ez s iendo d entro d e l os t errenos d e l a c ooperat iva " Las D e licias" ( F ig. 1 ), p ara f ines d e o bservaciö n d e l c iclo v egetat ivo d e a lgunas d e l as p lantas c u lt ivadas , n at ivas d e e sta z ona . E n e ste i nforme , e stä n i nc luidos l os r esu ltados o btenidos d e t rabajos r ea lizados d urante e l v erano d e 1 983 ( agosto-d iciembre) y e l i nvierno d e 1 984 ( enero-ju lio). A mb iente F isico L os s ue los d e l ä rea d e e stud io P ern ö n d e l R io ( F ig. 1 ), s e h an f ormado p or d epö sitos a luvia les, r esu ltado d e l as i nundaciones d e l os nos. E l t ipo d e s ue lo e n l os c ampos e levados y e n l a p arte b aja d e e stos, e s a rcilloso p esado, t iene u n p H p räct icamente n edtro, c on b ajo c ontenido d e n it rö geno , a l to e n f ö sf oro , p o tas io y m agnesio, m ed iano e n z inc y c obre . e stos s ue los n o e s p osib le c onservar s uf iciente h umedad d urante l a e poca s eca, c omo p ara l ograr s iembras c on h umedad r esidua l ( Quintero 1 984 ; F ig. 2 ). E stado A ctua l D e L a P roducc iön E ncuestas r ea lizadas p or a lumnos d e l a P o lite cnica i nd ican q ue l a a ct ividad ms i mportante e s l a c osecha t rad iciona l d e a rroz e n l a p arte b aja d e l os c ampos e levados ( fondo d e l os c ana les) u na v ez a l a no y e stablecido e l p eriodo luvioso ( F ig. 3 ). L os c ampos e levados o c ame llones e n g enera l n o h an s ido n i s on a provechados, s a lvo y n l a c onstrucc iön d e s em illeros d e a rroz y q uema d e c arbö n . E s ; ta u lt ima a ct ividad d eja l os c ame llones l imp ios d e l b osque t ipo " ga le na" q ue e s t i /p ic 9 d e l os c ampos e n s u e stado d e , " abandono" ( Pearsa ll, 1 982). L a m eyor ia d e l os c ampos, d entro d e l a rea d e e stud io, e stan i ntactos, a unque ü lt imamente h an s ido d estru idos a lgunos d e e llos p or e l a vance d e u rbanizaciones y p or m ovim ientos d e t ierra p ara f ines a grico las . M anejo D e L os E nsayos L a p reparaciön d e l t erreno , r iego y c ontro l d e m a lezas f ue m anua l p ara /t odos l os c u lt ivos ( F ig. 4 ). E n l as s iembras c orrespond ientes a l a e poca s eca d e 1 983, l as m ed idas d e p rotecc iö n c on p roductos q u im icos c ontra e nfermedades e i nsectos-p lagas, f ue l a n ecesar ia . P oster iormente ( invierno 1 984), n o s e u t ilizaron i nsect icidas n i f ert ilizantes, i ntentando a proximar l as c ond iciones p reh ispä nicas . O tra d iferencia e ntre l os e nsayos d e v erano y i nvierno f ue e n c uanto a s emilla e mp leada. M ientras q ue s e e mp leö s em illa d e I NIAP y v ar iedades m ejoradas p ara e l v erano , d eb ido a u na h ue lga d e t rabajadores, f ue i mposible d e o btener a que lla p ara l a s iembra i nverna l, y s e s embrd v ar iedades c r io llas, e xcepto e l m ai z, o btenidas e n l os m ercados d e G uayaquil. C abe s en 'a lar q ue l os d atos d e l i nvierno 2 51

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F igura 1 .

A rea d e e stud io e n e l c omp lejo " Penön d e l R io" i nd icando l a u bicaciön d e l as p arce las e xper imenta les y l os s it ios h abitaciona les c ercanos. J . B uys y M . M use. 2 52

F igura 2 .

P erf il n orte d e u nidad C l e n e l s it io O gGqDu-15. N ötense l as g rietas, t extura t osca, y t errenos g ruesos. E ste p erf il e s r epresentat ivo l os d e l c omp lejo

F igura 3 .

T oma d e l c ame llön N o . 1 2 h acia e l n orte m ostrando l os s urcos a c ada l ado s embrados e n a rroz. 2 53

F igura 4 .

P unto e n e l s urco e ntre l os c ame llones 1 2 y 1 3 l imp iado d e p lantas p ara f acilitar e l r iego d e b a lde d e l a p arce la d e m aiz a l f ondo d e l a f oto.

F igura 5 .

R äbano.

2 54

son superiores desde el pun to de vista de una aproximaci on de las condiciones prehispanicas. E1 tamano de 1as pa reel as fue de 100 y 2 00 m2, y se consideraron las siguientes variables segun los cultivos: altura de planta, altura de carga, longitud del fruto, cantidad de fruto po r hectarea, rendimiento por hectarea, y analisis econanico correspondiente. Desde el punto de vista arque ologico, sera interesante en el futuro, "trad ucir" las tazas de rendimiento y la lib reta de jornales a otras unidades de medicion, (p. ej. cal or{as y horas de trabajo}. RESULTADOS, EPOCA SECA, VERANO 1983 I

Mel on Se sembro directamente a espeque con distanciamientos de siembra por 2 m po r 2 m. Se utilizo la variedad EDIS TO 47. Las principales insectos-plagas fueron defoliad ores y pulgones, controlad os con Lorsban y Ambush respectivamente. En cuanto a enfennedades, se detect& la incidencia de Mildiu, controlad o con dos aplicaciones de Rinomil. El promedio de ciclo vegetativo fue de 85 dfas y el tamano promedi o del fruto, 14 cm. Se 1 ogro cosechar 6,774 frutos /ha que dieron un rendimiento de 4,705 kg/ha. A pesar de los rendimientos obtenid os, el cultivo no es rentable, ya que los costos de produccio'n supe raron al ingreso bruto. El compo rtamiento observad o bajo las condiciones que se llevo el cultivo, sugieren la posiblidad para un mayor ingreso neto. Sand{a Se sembro la variedad Charleston Gray, en fonna directa a espeque con distanciamientos de 3 m x 3 m. El porcentaje de genninacio'n de plantas fue bajo y las plantas supervivientes fue ron destruidas por animales silvestres. Par este motivo no se logro obtener infonnacio'n sobre el compo rtamiento y rendimiento del cultivo. Rabano (Fig. 5} Se sembro di rectamente a espeque, con distanciamiento de 2 5I cm entre las pl antas 1 50 cm entre cal les. Durante su corto per1odo vegetativo (35 d1as} no se presento ataque de insectos ni enfennedades. Se logro un rendimiento de 4,444 kg/ha y un tamano promedio de fruto de 5 cm. El fodice de 1. 73 encontrad o en el analisis de beneficio-costo, detennina que este cultivo es rentable en las condiciones sembradas. Pepino Se utilize la variedad Bethalpa, a distanciamientos de 2 m x 2 m. Durante el desarrollo del cultivo, hubo ataque de defoliad ores y pulgones (Fi�. 6), controlad os con Lorsban y Ambush �espectivamente. A los 60 d1as de edad de las plantas se presento la enfennedad cenici11a Oidium sp • } contr o1a da con Bay1 eton • A 1 os 7 5 d {as de siembra se comenzo la cosecha; obteniend ose un tamano promedio de fruto de 17 cm y un rendimiento de 5,000 kg/ha, que no produjo ganancias segun el analisis de beneficio-costo. 11

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F igura 6 .

P epino c on h oja b ajo f uerte a taque d e p u lgones.

F igura 7 .

D al ros c ausados p or e l g usano c ogo llero. N ötese u n g usano a dentro , d onde l a h oja s e u ne c on l a t a lla. 2 56

M aiz L a p arce la e xper imenta l s e s embrö c on l a v ar iedad I NIAP 5 13 c on e spaciamientos d e s iembra d e 1 m x 1 m , d ejando t res p lantas p or s it io. E n e l e xper imento s e o bservö f uerte a taque d e g usano c ogo llero ( F ig. 7 ), c ontro lado c on a p licaciones f itosanitar ias d e L orsban y F urudan. E l t amano d e l as m azorcas f ue d e 1 5 c m l ogrändose c osechar 2 7 ,917 m azorcas/ha e n e stado t ierno ( choc lo ). D ebido a l a lto c osto, n o s e o btuvo m ayor v entaja e conöm ica , s egün e l a nd lisis d e b enef icioc osto. A soc iaciön M aiz-Caupf E n e l s istema m ai z-caupi, s e u t ilizö l a v ariedad d e m ai z I NIAP 5 26 y e l c u lt ivar I N IAP c aupf ( fri jo l). E l c aupf s e s embrö a l os 1 5 d fas d e g erm inado e l n li z, e ntre s us c a lles . S e o bservc r d a i io d e C ladospor ium s p . e n c aup i. E l r end im iento d e m aiz f ue d e 1 ,979 k g.ha, e l c iclo v egetat ivo d e 1 20 d fas y e l t am% d e m azorca 1 5 c m p romedio. E l c aupi s e c osechö e n e stado f resco y s eco ; e n e stado f resco s e o btuvo 1 ,500 k g/ha y e n e stado s eco 1 ,000 k g/ha. L os r end im ientos n o c ubr ieron l a i nversiön r ea lizada, y a q ue s e o btuvo u n i ngreso n eto n egat ivo e n e ste s iste ma d e p roducc i A.

E POCA L LUVIOSA 1 984 A m a 's d e l os c u lt ivos s embrados e n e l s emestre a nterior s e e va luaron o tros c u lt ivos n at ivos c omo c amote , z apa llo , y a jf . L os c u lt ivos s e s embraron e ntre e nero-febrero u na v ez e stab lecido e l p er iod ( ) luvioso. C amote ( F ig . 8 ) S e u t ilizö u na v ar iedad c r io lla d e f rutos c o lor l i la, c on e spaciamientos d e 1 .5 m e ntre y d entro d e l as h i leras . D urante e l d esarro llo d e l c u lt ivo s e n ecesitaron d os d esyerbas. L a c osecha c omenzö a l os 2 04 d fas d e s embrado y s e o btuvieron r end im ientos d e 1 2,898 k g/ha. E l c u lt ivo e s r entable e n e sas c ond iciones p ues, s e o btuvo u n f nd ice d e .3 .83 e n e l a nä lisis d e b enef icio-costo. A ji L a s iembra f ue d e t rasp lante c on d istanc iam ientos d e 6 0 c m e ntre h i leras , y 3 0 c m e ntre e llas. S e d ejö u na p lanta p or s it io y s e u t ilizo u na v ar iedad c r io lla c omercia l. D urante e l c iclo v egetat ivo ( 120 d fas) e l a jf t uvo u n b uen c omportamiento a gronö m ico . E l r end imiento o bten ido f ue d e 3 ,826 k g/ha q ue r epresenta u n a ceptab le b enef icio e conöm ico . P im iento S e s embrö d e t rasp lante c on d istanciam ientos d e 9 0 c m x3 0 c m d e jando u na p lanta p or s it io. E l c iclo v egetat ivo d esde l a s iembra h asta e l t erm ino d e c osecha f ue d e 10 d ias . T uvo u n r end im iento d e 4 ,674 k g/ha q ue r epresenta u n f nd ice d e b enef icio-costo d e 2 .36.

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F igura 8 .

C amote .

F igura 9 .

Y uca.

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Y uca ( F ig. 9 ) S e s embraron d os v ar iedades c r io llas : c p lorada , y a mar illa c o lecc ionadas e n S an I s idro ( Manabi ) y S imon B o livar ( G ua yas) r espectivamente. E l d istanciam iento d e s iembra u t ilizado f ue d e 1 .5 m y f ueron n ecesar ias c uatro d esyerbas d urante l os 2 04 d ias q ue d urö e l c u lt ivo. A p esar d e l b uen c omportamiento a grondM ico y l os r end im ientos o bten idos d e 1 2,898 k g/ha ( amar illa) iy 1,250 k g/ 9 ( co lorada), l os i ngresos n o s on lamat ivos s egun l a r e lacion b enef icio-costo. F ig. 1 0) M a i/z ( S e u t ilizaron l as v ar iedades I NIAP 5 25 o I NIAP 5 13. E l a taque d e g usano c ogo llero f ue l eve y s e r ea lizaron 3 d es yerbas . I NIAP 5 26 s e c osechö e n e stado s eco a l os 1 01 d ias d e s embrado y r ind iö 3 ,750 k g/ha. E n c ambio , I N IAP 5 13 s e c osechö e n e stado d e c hoc lo a l os 8 2 d ias, p roduciendo u n t ota l d e 3 7,000 m azorcas p or h ectärea . L a c osecha e n e stado t ier, p rodujo m a yor i ngreso n eto q ue l a c osecha e n e stado s eco , e ncontrd ndose u n i nd ice b enef icio-costo d e 1 0 .72, e s d ec ir, p or c ada s ucre i nvert ido s e o btuvo S /10 .72 ( s ucres) l o c ua l r epresenta m a yor b enef icio e conöm ico . C aupi ( F ig . 1) S e u t ilizö l a v ar iedad c r io lla c omercia l u T i lmbez" c on d istanc iam ientos d e s iembra d e 5 0 c m e ntre y d entro d e l as h i leras, d epositändose t res p lantas/s it io. E l c omportam iento d e l c u lt ivo f ue a ceptable d urante t odo e l d esarro llo v egetat ivo. N o s e o bservö a taque d e i nsecto-p lagas n i e nfermedades, y d os d es yerbas f ueron s uf icientes p ara l ograr p roducc iön . E l c aupi s e c osechö a l os 8 3 d ias d e s embrado , l ograndose u n r end im iento d e 1 ,071 k g/ha d e f rutp s eco. E l i nd ice b enef icio-costo f ue i nferior a l s istema a sociado m a lz-caup i. A sociacion M aiz-Caupi ( F ig. 1 2) S e u t ilizaron e n c aup i l a v ar iedad c r io lla c omercia l " Tümbez" y e n m a lz l a v ariedad m ejorada I NIAP 5 26. L os d istanciam ientos, m etodos y e p oca s d e s iembra , f ueron s im ilares a l s emestre pterior . E l a taqud d e l g usano c ogo llero e n m aiz f ue l eve, y e n c aup i n o s e r eportö d al r o d e i nsectos n i e nf rmedades. F ueron n ecesar ias c uatro d es yerbas e n m alz y d os e n c aup i. S e o btuvo 3 ,750 k g/ha d e m au s eco y 8 33 k g/ha d e c aup i. P or l os r end im ientos o btenidos, e ste s istema d e p roducc ion e s r entab le y a q ue s e o btuvo u n i nd ice b enef icio-costo d e 3 .75. Z apa llo ( F ig. 1 3) E sta f otograffa d emuestra e l d esarro llo f uerte f lorecimiento d e l c iclo v egetat ivo, p ero n o s e r end im ientos d e e ste c u lt ivo.

2 59

d e h a

l a e tapa d e m ed ido l os

F igura 1 0 .

M aiz.

F igura 1.

C aupi .

2 60

F igura 1 2 .

A soc iaciö n m aiz-caupi.

F igura 1 3 .

Z apa llo . 2 61

S OBRE E L F UNCIONAMIENTO D EL C OMPLEJO " PE5 ON D EL R IO" E N L A E POCA P REHISPANICA A unque l a l iteratura s obre l os c ampos e levados h a a umentado c onsiderablemente e n l os ü lt imos 2 0 a f i j o s ( Denevan 1 970, 1 980, 1 982; T urner y D enevan 1 985), l a f unciön d e l os c ampos r ara v ez h a s ido t ratado ( M use 1 984 :1; T urner y H arr ison 1 983:256). D ebido a l a c ant idad d e t iempo i nvert ido e n l os t rabajos d e c ampo y e n l a d iversidad d e p ersona l T ie h an p art icipado e n s u e stud io, l os c ampos e levados d e l c omp lejo P enön d e l R io ( y d ef inat ivamente l a p arte d entro d e l a rea d e l e studio) n os o frecen l a o portunidad d e a preciar l a r e laciö n q ue g uardan e ntre s us f ormas y f unciones. E l t 4 r m ino " m u c k in g " e s u no i ntroducido e n l a l iteratura a parentemente e n u n t rabajo d e A rm illas ( 1971:654) y q ue h a e xper imentado u na u t ilizacion f recuente . L a g ran m ayoria d e l os t rabajos q ue i nc luyen e ste t erm ino, l os h acen e n c a lidad d e s ugerenc ias d e l os q ue p odria h aber s ido p ract icado p or l os a gricu ltores d e l p asad9 . E xT eT ETU nes e n l a l iteratura q ue s um inistran e videnc ia d e e ste f enomeno v a le l a p ena m encionar : W est y A rm illas ( 1950) s obre e l f uncionam iento d e l as c hinampas d e M e xico c entra l; G o lson ( 1985) o bservaciön e tnogrä f ica d e p roducciön a grico la d e c ampos e levados e n l a s ierra d e N ueva G uinea ; T urner y H arr ison ( 1983) v arios e v idenc ias y a rgumentos p ara " mucking" y a ct ividades d e m antenimiento e n l os c ampos e levados d e P u lltrouser S wamp , B e lize; y E r ickson ( 1985) r eporta q ue n o h ace f a lta e ste t ipo d e p roced imiento e n s us e xper imentos a gri co las e n l a C uenca d e l L ago T it icaca. E l a sunto b dsico d e " mucking" e s l a r enovaciö n d e n utrientes d e l s ue lo , p ero o tros e fectos t ambien s on i mportantes c omo t extura d e l s ue lo, l a a ltura d e l a s uperf icie d e l c ampo s obre e l n ive l d e l a gua, y l imp ieza d e l os c ana les . H ay b uen9 e videncia d e " mucking" d e l os c ortes q ue m uestran l a e strat if icacion d e l os c ampos d e l a , c ooperat iva L as D e licias . E vento II ( Pearsa ll, e ste t omo ; M art inez, e ste t omo) a parentemente r epresenta e n r ea lidad u na s erie d e e ventos d e t ipo " m u c k in g " . S in m eternos a a na lizar l os p erfiles q ue e stän s iendo t ratados p or M art inez, l as f ormas d e a lgunos c ame llones c omo s e v e e n l a s uperf icie s ugieren q ue s e p ract icaban a ct ividades d e m antenimiento q ue a umentab4 l a a ltura d e l a s uperficie d e s iembra . C uando e sta a cumu lac iön d e s ed imento/sue lo legaba a c ierta a ltura , f ue n ecesaria r eba jar l a s uperf icie d e u so p ara f acilitar l a a cciön c apilaria q ue p erm ite a l as p lantas t omar a gua a t rave s d e l as r a ices. C omo e jemp lo e specif ico d e e sta s i t u a c id n , v er F igura 1 , e n l o c ua l c ampos d e e ste t ipo e s d n i nd icados c on x , y p arecen s er p roductos d e r ebajar c ampos a dyacentes y d epositar l a t ierra e n l a p arte c entra l d e l os s urcos. / U na d e l as r azones p or l a c ua l l os c onstructores d e l c omp le jo " Tendo n d e l R io" o ptaron p or c ampos a largados q ue s e d ivid ieron e n S ECTORES ( Muse 1 984 :8 ; B uys y M use, e ste t omo ) f ue p ara p oder c ontro lar e l n ive l d e a gua a t r a ve s d e p untos e specif icos a sociados a c ada s ector ( nudos). L os e nsa yos d e r eact ivac iö n e ncontraron p rob lemas e n l a c oord inaciö n d e l s um inistro d e a gua d ebido a l as d iversas a ct ividades p roduct ivas q ue c aracter izan e l a rea ( ganado , a rroz e n p ozas t rad iciona les, a rroz e n m e lgas m ecanizadas, e t c.). D e h echo, t odo e l c omp le jo d e P er i l ön o cupa u na p osiciön e n r e laciö n a l R io

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y G o lfo d e G uayaqu il q ue m u iere e ste a rreg lo p ara n o d ejar l os c ampos s ecos l a m itad d e l d ia y p ara n o d ejar e ntrar a gua s a lada d urante l os m eses d e s et iembre - d iciembre e n u n A° c on c ic lo luvioso n orma l. E s p robab le q ue l os c ampos d e l as p artes s urenas d e l os c omp lejos d e T aura y P iedmont t a les c omo l o d ef inen D enevan y M athewson ( 1983) t ambien c uentan c on a lgun a rreglo p ara f ines d e c ontro l d e m areas y e ntrada/sa lida e n g enera l d ebido a s u c ont igü idad a l R io G uayas y G o lfo d e G ua yaqu il. U na s ituac iön m arcadamente d ist inta e s l a d e l os c ampos d e T aura N orte, S amborondön, C hilintomo, P iedmont N orte , B abahoyo, D au le ( ? ), y B u lu B ulu ( ver D enevan y M athewson 1 983:Fig . 9 :2) q ue n o s e e ncuentran a fectados p or m areas, y c uentan c on p ermanente a gua d e d esagüe s errana o d e l a a lta c uenca s obre g ran p arte d e s us e xtensiones. L a h idrod inäm ica d e l c omp le jo C o limes i nvo lucra a ün o tras v ar iab les d eb ido a s u p osiciön n orte r i a e n l a c uenca , c on e l c orrespond iente i n crementö e n : l a i nscr ipciö n d e l r io e n s u c auce, d iferenc ia e n n ive l d e a gua e ntre v erano e i nvierno , y v ar iab ilidad t opogräf ica-geomorfo l id gica ( Stemper , e ste t omo). L a c uest i A d e l os o rigenes d e e sta t ecno logia p ara l a C uenca d e l G uayas o a un p ara e l c omp lejo P ei lö n e stä t odavla a b ierto. E l f echem iento d e c ontexto a grfco la a nt igua e s u n p rob lema e spec ia l. M art inez ( este t omo) o bserva q ue l os r estos c u ltura les r escatados e n l as e xcavaciones d e l os c ampos e levados d e l c omp lejo P el rön i nd ican u na f echa d e c onstrucc iön d entro d e l p eriod° d e D esarro llo R egiona l ( o m äs t arde). O tra e videnc ia e s e l c om ienzo d e c onstrucc iö n d e m ontfcu los d e t ierras ( p lataformas d e v iviendas) e n e l s it io h ab itaciona l c ercano , O GGqDu-1, d urante e l p erfodo C horrera c a . A .C. 1 000 ( Muse y T arragö ) . 984:9). C ambios e n e l p atron d e a sentam iento y g rado d e a soc iaciön e ntre c ampos y y acim ientos c ontempord neo s h an s ido u sados p ara i nfer ir p eriodos d e u so d e c ampos p or T urner y H arr ison ( 1983) y P arsons ( 1982). S e h a d ocumentado e l c om ienzo d e c onstrucc iones d e t ierra ( monticu los , d e v ivienda) e n e l s it io c ercano d e O GGqDu-1 ( F ig . 1 ) d urante e l p eriod ( ) C horrera c a. A .C. 1 000 ( Muse y T arragö 1 984 :9). S i l os h abitantes d e O GGqDu-1 c rearon s uperf icies d e v ivienda p or e nc ima d e l n ive l d e i nundaciö n d e l a p lanicie, n o e s i rrazonab le p ensar q ue 2 00 m a l n orte a montonaron t ierra p ara f ines a grico las y q ue l os c ampos a bajo d e l os c ampos a ctua lmente v isibles e n l a c ooperat iva L as D e licias ( Martinez, e ste t omo ; P earsa ll, e ste t omo ) c orre lacionan c on e sta o cupaciön d e l F ormat ivo T ardfo. N o e s n uestra i ntenc iön r echazar l a e videnc ia p ub licada p or P arsons y S h lemon ( este t omo) d e u na e xcavaciön a l l ado e l E stero M atanzas ( comp lejo P el rön d e l R io ) d onde s e o btuvo u n v ert iso l e nterrado e n e l f ondo d e u n s urco e ntre d os c ame llones c on e dad r ad iocarbono d e 3 995 + 9 5 ahs: A .C. 2 000 . A l c ontrar io, l os h a llazgos d e c eräm ica r a ld ivia d e l a f ase 7 -8 a l p ie d e l C erro d e C a lentura ( A lvarez e t a l. 1 981:3) r efuerzan y c onf irman l a p resenc ia d e e stos a groa lfareros e n e l a rea i nmed iata a unque n o n os a yuda i nfer ir l os d eta lles d e s u p roducc ic i n a grico la ( sea c on c ampos e levados, a provechando l as v egas d e l r fo, p ract icando r osa y q uema e n l as p artes b ajas d e l os c erros o e n l os a mp lios y n umerosos b ancos d e l a z ona ). C abe d estacar q ue a p esar d e u na i n ic iaciön d urante e l p eriod ( ) F ormat ivo, e l s it io h abitaciona l O GGqDu-1 s ufre u na t ransformac iön s ignif icat iva t emprano e n e l p eriod ( ) d e D esarro llo R egiona l ( Muse y

2 63

T arragö 1 984:12). S i e l m onticu lo 6 e s r epresentat ivo d e l r esto d e l s it io, 7 0% d e s u v o lumen s e d eposita d urante e ste p eriod ( ) ( con a lgunos e ventos q ue r epresentan c ientos d e m etros c dbicos d e r e lleno c argados d e l a dyacente C err ito d e C a lentura ) y a l f in, t iene u na f orma p oco d iferente q ue l a r esu ltando d e l a o cupaciön d e l p eriodo d e I ntegraci A od e c omo s e v e h oy e n d ia ( Muse y T arragö 1 984 :10). A unque d esconocemos l a a nt igüedad e n l a C uenca d e l G uayas d e l as p lagas e specif icas q ue a fectaron l os e nsa yos d e r eact ivaciön , e s d if icil i maginar e sta z ona s in i nsectos d e a lguna c lase y e l a gr icu ltor a nt iguo d eberia h aber u t ilizado a lguna m ed ida p ara c ontro lar e stos e spec ia lmente d urante l os m eses d e v erano c uando l as p lagas a umentan t erriblemente. E n n uestras p arce las e xperimenta les, s e o bservö q ue e l c amote s erv -i a c omo u na e specie d e r epe lente n atura l c ontra h ormigas a unque, a s u v ez, f ue s ujeto d e u n a taque d e r atas . B ordeando l as p arce las c on c amote e n a nt icipaciön d e l a s iembras d e o tros p roductos s e p odria d esviar l as m u lt itudes d e h orm igas q ue c ayeron s obre n uestras p ar9e las fr ecien s embradas y q ue c a r e ci a n d e c ua lqu ier t ipo d e p roteccion q uimica. S e n o tö t a m b ie n q ue l a y uca s iempre m antuvo u na h oja f uerte, v erde y s in d ar los d e i nsectos d e n ingdn t ipo, a p esar d e l a t emporada y f uertes i mpactos a o tros c u lt ivos. S e s ugiere q ue l a i nterca laciö n d e p lantas o h i leras d e p lantas d e y uca, t abaco, u o tras p lantas c on e stas p ropiedades t endria u n e fecto p osit ivo e n c uanto a l a i ncidenc ia d e p lagas e i nsectos. T odos l os c u lt ivos p robados e n l os e nsayos s ufrieron p or l a t extura g erm inaciön, o tros a penas p lantones q uedaron c on l as r a icitas a rrancadas p or l a e xpansion y c ontracc iön d e l as a rcillas c on c ada r iego. S e s ospecha q ue a un l a y uca , q ue c r e c id m uy b ien e n l a p arte a lta d e l c ame llö n, s e c osecha c on u n t ubercu lo e storbado d ebido a e ste f actor . C amb iar l a c a lidad d e e stos s ue los i mp lica u na e norme c ant idad d e t rabajo a parte d e l a c o n st r u cc iö n , s e a p or m etodos s imp les, m e cä n ico s ( arrados) o a umentando e l /m ateria l o rgänico ( lechuga y /o l ima d e l s urco ) p ara c rear u na c apa h um ica . E n c onc lusiön, h emos v isto e videncia q ue l os c omienzos d e l c omp lejo a g ri co la " P el r ö n d e l R io" p odria t ener s us r aices e n e l F ormat ivo T ardio, a lgunas i deas p ara r ef inar y c ont inuar l a i nvest igaciön e n e sta z ona , y n otables r end im ientos d e m aiz c u lt ivadD e n c ampos d e c ame llones . T omando e n c uenta l os r esu ltados p rovisiona les p roveldos p or P earsa ll ( 1984, e ste t omo ) y l os r esu ltados d e l os e nsa yos d e l i nvierno d e 1 984, p ensamos q ue e s m uy p robable q ue Z ea m ays f ue e l p roducto d e m a yor i mportancia p ara l os s ectores d e l E a i r i ßr ej i i—P el rdn y a t rabajados. F ina lmente , e l r end im iento d e c hinampas e st imado p or S anders e t a l. ( 1979) e n 3 ,000 k g/a f io/ha ( ma lz) s er ia m enos d e l os 3 ,750 i 7 g 7h7 d e l c iclo i nverna l e n s f . A demäs, s on c asi e l d ob le d e l p romedio a nua l n aciona l s egün l os d atos d isponib les a t r a ve s d e l M inisterio d e A gr icu ltura y G anaderia. S umando l os r end im ientos d e l c iclo luvioso y s eco a qui r eportados, e l r esu ltado d e 5 ,759 k g/ha e s d ob le d e l p romed io a nua l n aciona l y e l t r ip le d e l o e st imado p or S anders e t a l. ( 1979 ) p ara l as c hinampas e n t iempos p rehispänicos.

A gradecim iento. L os a utores q u ieren e xpresar s u a gradecimiento a t odas l as p ersonas q ue h an c o laborado 2 64

s incero e n l as

i nvest igaciones d e l os c ampos e levados d e l P e Un d e l R io : A l os e studiantes , l a f acultad, y e l d irector J orge G . M arcos d e l a E scue la d e A rqueo logia ( ESPOL); a S egunda S o lis, s u f am ilia y l os o tros c omp Aeros d e l a c ooperat iva " Las D e licias"; a l os c o laboradores d e I NIAP; y a G lor ia A lmg yda d e S temper y V ictor O rt iz p or h aber a yudado e n c orregir e l m anuscr ito.

L ITERATURA C ITADA A lvarez, S i lv ia , L u is B arr iga, J ozef B uys, J orge G . M arcos, M ichae l M use, I d ilio S ant illana, y J ames Z e id ler 1 981. P ro yecto d e I nvest igac iön A rqueo logica e n e l S it io P e i lön d e l R io : I nforme P re lim inar y P lanteam iento r i aeri-- T gE i i ica d e A rque O logia , U nidad c g- I nvest igac iön, E scue la S uper ior P o litecnica d e l L itora l ( ESPOL), G ua yaqu il, E cuador . A rm illas, P edro 1 971. G ardens o n S wamps. S cience 1 74 :653-661. D enevan, W illiam M . 1 970. A bor igina l D ra ined F ie ld C u lt ivat ion i n t he A mer icas. S cience 1 69 :647-654 . 1 980.

T ipo logia d e c onf iguraciones a grico las p rehispänicas. A mer ica I ndigena 4 0 :619-652.

1 982.

H ydrau lic A gricu lture i n t he A mer ican T ropics: F orms, M easures a nd R ecent R esearch. E n M aya S ubsistence , e d itado p or K ent V . F lannery, p p . 1 81-203. A cademic P ress, N ew Y or k.

D enevan, W illiam M . yK ent M athewson 1 983. P re lim inar y R esu lts o f t he S amborondön R aised F ie ld P ro ject , G ua yas B asin , E cuador . E n D rained F ie ld A gr icu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A mer ica, e d itado 1 3 1 5T-0 : P . D arch, p. 1 67-181. B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , I nternat iona l S er ies 1 89 , O xford. D enevan, W illiam M ., K ent M athewson, y R ichard W hitten 1 985 . M ound ing, M ucking a nd M ang ling : R ecent R esearch o n t he R aised F ie lds i n t he G uayas B asin , E cuador . E n P rehistor ic I ntensive A gr iculture i n t he T rop ics, e d itado p or I . S . F arr ington, p p . 1 81-183. TT - ni gh A rchaeo logica l R eports , I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. E r ickson, C lark L . 1 985. A pp licat ion o f P rehispanic A ndean T echno logy : E xper iments i n R a ised F ie ld A gricu lture , H uatta , L ake T it icaca: 1 981-2. E n P rehispan ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T ropics, e d itado p or I . S . F arr ington, p p . 2 09-232T F it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. G o lson, J . yA . S teensburg 1 985 . T he T oo ls o f A gricu ltura l I ntensif icat ion i n t he N ew G u inea H igh lands. E n P rehispanic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T ropics, e d itado p or I . S . F arr ington , p p . 3 47-384. 1 3 7-i ti gN A rchaeo log ica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. 2 65

M use, M ichae l C . 1 984. S ummary o f A ct ivit ies U ndertaken f rom A pril, 1 983 t o M arch, 1 984 w ithi n t he " Ancient A gricyltjFiT- T ech n o ldbi eg n -T ro ject . r i ae la I Ari a d e A rqueolog ia, E SPOL. P reparado p ara l a m ision d e U SAID, Q uito, P ro ject A ID/ESPOL 9 36-5542. M use, M ichae l C . y M yriam T arragö 1 984. E tapas d e P ob lamiento e n P e i id n d e l r io, B aja C uenca G uayas, G uayaquil. M anuscr ito e n p osesiön d e l os a utores. P arsons, J .J. 1 969 . R idged F ie lds i n t he A nt iquity 3 4 :76-80. 1 973.

R io

G uayas

V a lley,

E cuador .

d e l

A mer ican

C ampos d e c ult ivos p rehistör icos c on c ame llones p ara le los e n l a c uenca d e l R io G uayas, E cuador. C uadernos d e H istor ia y A ntropo logia 4 0 :185-193.

P arsons, J effrey R . 1 982. P rehistor ic S ett lement P atterns i n t he S outhern V a lley o f M exico : t he C ha lco-Xochimilco R eg ion. M emo irs N o. 1 4 , M useum o f A nthropology, U niversity o f M ichigan, A nn A rbor . P earsa ll, D eborah M . 1 982. I nforme p re liminpr s obre l a p r imera e poca d e c ampo d e l p rq yecto e tnobotanico e n P e i iön d e l R io. M anuscr ito a rchivado e n e l C entro d e E studios A rqueo ld gicos y A ntropo ld gicos, E SPOL, G uayaquil. 1 984.

P rogress R eport o n E thnobotanica l R esearch f or t he A nc ient A gricultura l T echno logies P ro ject ( A ID/ESPOL n o. 9 36-5542). M anuscr ito e n p osesiö n d e l os a utores.

Q uintero, F austo 1 984. I nforme e ' c n ico d e l abores e fectuados e n e l p royecto " Tecno log ia A grico la A nt igua" ( PeKön d e l R io) C onvenio I NIAP-ESPOL. M anuscr ito a rchivado e n e l C entro d e E studios A rqueo logicos y A ntropolögicos, E SPOL, G uayaqu il. S anders, W illiam T ., J effrey R . P arsons, y R obert S . S ant ley 1 979. T he B asin o f M exico : E co logica l P rocesses i n t he E vo lut ion o f A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. T urner, B .L. y W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. P rehistor ic M anipu lat ion o f W et lands i n t he A mer icas: A R aised F ie ld P erspective. E n P rehistor ic I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e ditado p or I . S . F arrington, p p . 1-30. B r itf h 5chaeo logica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. T urner, B .L. y P eter D . H arr ison ( editors) 1 983. P ulltrouser S wamp : A ncient M aya H abitat , A griculture , a nd S ett lement i n N orthern B e lize. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ust in. W est , R obert C . y P edro A rm illas 1 950. L as c hinampas d e M e xico. C uadernos A mer icanos 9 (2):165-182. 2 66

C HAPTER 1 3 C AMPOS E LEV4DOS A L N ORTE D EL S ITIO A RQUEOLOGICO P ENON D EL R IO, G UAYAS , E CUADOR

V a lent ina L . M artinez

R ESUMEN E xcavaciones i nd ividua les e n c ampos e levados s ituados a l n orte d e l s it io a rqueo lö gico P ef ijö n d e l R io ( Cöd igo O G-GQ-DU-001) p rovee i nformaciön s obre l a t e cnica d e c onstrucc iö n e h istor ia c u ltura l d e d ichos r asgos. L os c ame llones e xcavados s ug ieren p or l o m enos t res d ist intos p eriodos d e c o n st r u cc id n y u so. E n l os n ive les, md s t empranos, c uatro p e p aos c ame llones e stä n a soc iados c on c eram ica p erteneciente a l P er iod° d e D esarro llos R egiona les ( 500 B .C. - A .D. 5 00). U n s egundo n ive l d e u so i nc luye e l r e llenam iento d e l os c ana les a soc iados a l os c ame llones m gs t empranos y a grandemiento d e l a s uperf icie d e c u lt ivo. L a e videnc ia c eräm ica s ug iere q ue e ste p roceso e stä a soc iado c on e l P eriodo d e D esarro llos R egiona les t amb ie n. S ubsequentemente , l a s ecuenc ia e strat igräf ica y l os d ist intos p atrones d e u so e stg n a soc iados c on d ist intos e p isod ios d e l P eriod ( ) d e I ntegraciö n ( A .D . 5 00 - 1 500). U n a ng lisis q uim ico d e l os s ue los a soc iados p rovee i nformaciön p re lim inar s obre l os p atrones d e u so. F ina lmente , r econstrucc iones d e f orma, a nä lisis d e p asta y d e s ecc iones d e lgadas e n v ar ios d e l os f ragmentos e ncontrados e n l os c ampos e levados n os a yuda a l oca lizar e stos r asgos d entro d e l c ontexto e spacia l eh istör ico d e l a r egion.

A BSTRACT E xcavat ion o f i nd ividua l r a ised-f ie lds j ust t o t he n orth o f t he P enön d e l R io a rchaeo logica l s ite y ie lded i nformat ion c oncerning c onstruct iona l a s w e ll a s c u ltura l h istory o f t he f eatures. F irst; ' t he f ie lds e xcavated s uggest a t l east t hree d ist inct p er iods o f c onstruct ion a nd u se. A t t he o ldest l eve l, f our s ma ll c ame llones y ie lded c eram ic e vidence o f R egiona l D eve lopment ( 500 B .C. - A .D . 5 00) o ccupat ion . A s econd l eve l o f u se a nd r estructuring i nc ludes c ana l i nfilling a nd f ie ld a ma lgamat ion. T his a ppears t o b e c orre lated w ith t he R egiona l D eve lopment P er iod a s w e ll. S ubsequent a nd d ist inct ive u se p atterns s eem t o b e a ssoc iated w ith s evera l I ntegrat ion P er iod ( A .D. 5 00 - 1 ,500 ) e pisodes . A ssoc iated s oils w ere a na lyzed f or m inera l c ontent a l lowing a dd it iona l i nformat ion o n u se p atterns. F ina lly, p aste a na lysis a nd t hin s ect ion a na lysis o f c eram ic f ragments f ound i n t he f ie lds m ay h e lp t o l ocate t he f ie lds w ithin t he l arger s pat ia l a nd h istor ica l c ontext o f t he P e i lön d e l R io c omp lex.

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I NTRODUCCION L a i mportancia d e l s it io a rqueo lög ico P e i lön d e l R io d esd i gnado c on e l c öd igo 0 G-GO-DU-001, n o s o lo s e d ebe a s u l arga o cupacion c u ltura l q ue a barca d esde e l f ormat ivo m ed io h asta 6ocas c o lonia les, s ino t amb ie n a l c ontexto e n e l q ue s e i nscr ibe : d entro d e u n a nt iguo s istema a grico la d e c ame llones o c ampos e levados q ue o cupan 5 0,000 h a d e l a s abana i nundable d e l a b aja c uenca d e l G uayas ( Denevan y M athewson 1 983:173; B uys 1 984:2). S e h an i dent if icado h asta e l m omento n ueve c omp lejos d ist intos d e c ame llones, s iendo u no d e e ilos e l d e P egö n d e l R io, c onst ituido p or l amas l argas y l inea les c on u na o r ientaciön g enera l n orte-sur ( Denevan y M athe wson 1 983). L as f ronteras n atura les d e e sta r e g iö n f ueron d e lim itadas p or M ichae l M use ( M use 1 984). A l o este y n orte s e h a llan l os r ios G uayas y B abahoyo, a l e ste , l os r fos M ilagro y C h imbö , y e l e stero B o liche a l s ur. D entro d e e stos " 'm ites n atura les s e h a t or nado c omo m uestra r ; epresentat iva d e l c omp lejo u n a r e a d e a proximadamente 3 k m 2. D icha a rea s e e ncuentra l oca lizada a 1 00 m a l n orte d e l s it io h ab itaciona l, e ntre e l B anco d e l a P lata a l n orte, e l e stero H osp ita l a l s ur, e l e stero L as D e licias a l e ste y a l o este e l r io B abahoyo ( F i9. 1 ). A qui, e l C .E.A .A . ( Centro d e E stud ios A rqueo lögico/s y A ntropo log icos) h a v enido r ea lizando e stud ios d e c aracter a rqueo logico, a ntropo lö gico y a gr ico la. L os o b jet ivos d e l a i nvest igac io/n e n l a z ona d e c ampos e levados s on ( Marcos, e ste t on ic): 1 ) L a r econstrucc iön d e l os c ame llones e n e l p asado y s u p roduct ivo a certado . 2 )

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3 ) E l r escate d e l os c ame llones e xistentes y l a p osibilidad d e r etonar los a l a p roducc iön a t rave s d e l as c ooperat ivas a grico las c ampesinas . N uestra i nvest igaciön e st4 d ir ig ida a c onstatar l a t 4 cn ica u t ilizada p ara c onstruir l os c ampos e levados y u na p osible a soc iaciön c on r estos c ultura les q ue p uedan a portar i nformaciön s obre q u ienes l os c onstruyeron y u t ilizaron .

E VIDENCIAS E STRATIGRAFICAS D E L A C ONSTRUCCION D E C AMELLONES N uestra u nidad d e e stud io e s l a d e l c ampo e levado i nd ividua l c on s us d os c omponentes b äsicos: l a ma y c ana l, c omo e lementos c onstruct ivos f undamenta les. P ara l a e xcavaciön s e e scogieron l amas p ertenec ientes a d oga S egunda S o lis P oveda, a gr icu ltora c ooperada d e l s ector d e l a h acienda L a D e licia, e n e l m ismo l ugar d onde s e levan a c abo l os c u lt ivos e xper imenta les d e l a g ranja p i loto d e l C EAA a c argo d e l i ngeniero a grönomo F austo Q uintero ( M use y Q uintero , e ste t on ic). L os c ame llones f ueron d esignados c on l os n d m er o s 1 0 y1 ( F ig. 1 ). P ara e laborar e l p erf il e strat igräf ico , s e a provechö u n c orte t ransversa l e xcavado c on m aqu inar ia p er l os c ampesinos a ctua les 2) /q ue e s u tilizado c omo c ana l d e r iego. H ubieron d e c onstruirse a demas d os m uros p erpend icu lares a e ste c orte i mp id iendo l a e ntrada d e a gua a l 2 68

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M apa d e c ame llones, c omp lejo P er r i ön d e l R io. B asado s obre l a f otografia a erea d e l I nst ituto G eogräf ico M ilitar 1 966 y l a p rospecciön a rqueo lö gica a p ie d e 1 982. J . B uys y M . M use.

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. / a rea d e e xcavac ion, p uesto q ue e l t erreno e s m uy b ajo q ue s e i nunda p er iöd icamente c on l as m areas. R azön p or l a c ua l h ubo q ue b ombear c onstantemente p ara e xtraer e l a gua e stancada. E ste c orte o t r inchera e xpuso d os p erf iles , u no a l n orte y o tro a l s ur, d e 2 1 m d e l argo c on u na o r ientac idn e ste-oeste . D icho c orte c ubre l os c ame llones 1 0 y 1 c on u n c ana l o " poza d e p re stamo n i ntermed io. E l a nä iisis e strat igräf ico d e l p erf il s ur p ermit id i dent if icar p or l o m enos t res s uperficies d e u so d e l os c ame llones e levados. L a s uperficie d e u so m a 's a nt igua c orresponde a l a c ima d e c uatro c ame llones p eque i ios c onstru idos d irectamente s obre l a a rc illa m adre d e l s it io, l os c ua les e stdn r e lacionados c on l os d epö sitos 1 2 ( came llö n 1) y 1 9 ( came llön 1 0) ( F ig. 2 ). L os l im ites d e e ste e strato s e p resentaron c laros e i rregu lares; e structura-masiva ; a dhesivo; m uy p läst ico ; c o lor M unse ll 2 .5Y 6 /8 o live b rown; a demäs d e m otas r o jizo-cafe d e p resenc ia d ebil, e scasas S obre e l d epösito s e e ncontraron c inco f ragmentos c eräm icos , u no d e e llos e s u n b orde d e o l la g lobu lar c on l igero b ai ro r o jo e n e l b orde y c uerpo d e l a v asija c uyas c aracterist icas d e f orma, p asta y a cabado d e s uperficie s e a semejan a l as d escr itas p ara l a f ase G uayaqu il ( Parducc i y P arducc i 1 975 :Fig. 3 5-b). T amb ien s e r eco lectaron d os f ragmentos d e m etate a soc iados a e sta s uperf icie d e u so. U n e vento p oster ior a l u so d e e sta s uperf icie f ue e l r e llenamiento d e l os c ana les q ue s eparan a l os c ame llones m 4s a nt iguos c on e l o b jeto d e n ive lar l a s uperf icie y a grandar e l c ampo e levado . E ste e vento c orresponderia a l d epösito 1 3 ( came llön 1) y 2 0 ( came ll A 1 0). E l l im ite s e p resentö a brupto y o ndu lado ; e structura g ranu lar ; a dhesivo; m uy p läst ico ; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 3 /2 d ark o l ive b rown. E l h echo d e q ue s e t rate d e u n r e lleno s e v7i-T iF it-1 5. ( 5 1 - s u m isma n atura leza : e staba c ompuesto p or u na m ezc la h eterogenea d e s ed imentos q ue l e d aba u na a par iencia m oteada. E stas m otas p resentaban c o loraciön c afe -amar illa y g ris. L as a mar illas e ran p rec isas, c omunes y f inas, m ientras q ue l as g rises e ran d eb iles, e scasas y m ed ianas . N o s e e ncontrö n ingün r esto c u ltura l a sociado c on e stos c ana les. S obre l os c ame llones p equenos, u na v ez q ue f ue r e llenadp e l c ana/l , s e d ef inieron o tras d os s uperficies d e u so c on a soc iac ion d ec eram ica p robablemente d e l D esarro llo R egiona l. D epösitos 1 ( came llö n 1) y 1 8 ( came llc i n 1 0) p ertenecen a l a s uperficie r a gs p rofunda. D icha s uperf icie s e p resentö c on u n l im ite c laro y o ndu lado ; e structura g ranular ; a dhesivo ; l igeramente p läst ico ; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 2 .5 b lack. S obre e ste d epösito s e e ncontrd l a o tra p robable s uperf icie d e u so c on a soc iaciön d e c eräMica m uy s eme jante a l a a nter ior . E n e stos d epösitos 1 0 ( came llö n 1) y 1 7 ( came ll A 1 0), l os l imites s e o bservaron d e m anera s uave y o ndu lada; e structura g ranu lar ; l igeramente a dhesivo; l igeramente p läst ico ; p resenc ia d e r a kes m uy f inas; v etas d e C O3Ca; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 4 /2 o live-gra y; p resenc ia d e m otas c afes, p recisas, c omunes y f inas . D ichas s uperf icies d e u so a grandaron e l t erreno c u lt ivab le d e l a c ima d e l a l oma d e t a l m anera q ue l o q ue o r igina lmente f ueron c uatro l a mas p equenas, a hora s on s o lamente d os ( F ig. 2 ). L os e stratos

e ventos p oster iores c orresponden d iferenc iab les d e l os c ua les e l 2 70

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( came llö n 1) y 1 6 ( came llö n 1 0) p odrfa c orresponder a u na s uperf icie d e u so d e e poca m a 's t ardia p uesto q ue e l m ater ia l c u ltura l a soc iado e s m uy s emejante a l a c eräm ica M ilagro-Quevedo d e l s it io h abitaciona l ( V ictor ia D om inguez, c or n . p ers.). L as c aracterfst icas d e e ste d epösito f ueron; l fmites c laros y o ndu lados, a unque e n a lgunas p artes s e p resentö q uebrado ; e structura g ranu lar ; a dhesivo; l igeramente p lä st ico ; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 2 .5/2 b lack. H a y q ue d estacar q ue e n e ste d epösito s e e n co nt rd m ucho m enos c ant idad d e c eräM ica q ue e n l os a nter iormente d escr itos. S e e ncontrö e l d epösito s uper ior , 8 ( came llön 1) y 1 5 ( came llö n 1 0), c on u n l fm ite s uave y o ndu lado p ero q uebrado e n c iertas p artes ; e structura g ranular ; l igeramente p läst ico ; l igeramente a dhesivo ; p resenc ia d e r afces m uy f inas; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 4 /1 d ark g ray. P odrfa s er o tra s uperficie d e u so p ero l amentab lemen U T s e e ncuentra p erturbado p or l a a ct ividad m oderna q ue h a d ejado u n s ed imento c on e structura d e b loques a ngu lares; l igeramente p lä st ico ; a dhesivo ; p resencia d e r a kes f inas a m edianas; c o lor M unse ll 1 0YR 3 /2 v ery d ark g ra yish b rown q ue c orresponderfa a l a s uperf icie a ctua l , d e —T6 -g c ame llones, e s d ec ir, d epösitos 7 ( came llön 1) y 1 4 ( came llö n 1 0). U na v ez q ue l os c ame llones f ueron a bandonados, e l f enöMeno d e d eposiciön a luvia l f ue r e llenando s ucesivamente e l c ana l. L as c aracterfst icas d e e stas d eposiciones, e mpezando c on l a ms a nt igua h asta l a m oderna , s on s im ilares. E l d epösito 6 c orresponde a u n l ente c on u n s ed imento b ien o scuro y p edazos p eque i ios d e c arbön. L os t res d epösitos m a ' s p rofundos ( 5 , 4 , y 3 ) t ienen l im ites a bruptos e i rregu lares; e structura m asiva; a dhesivo ; l igeramente p läst ico ; c o lor M unse ll 1 0YR 4 /1 d ark g ra y, y 1 0YR v ery d ark g ray. E l d epösito 2 c on u n l fm ite a brupt° e i rregu lar ; e structura m uy a dhesivo ; m uy p läst ico ; c o lor M unse ll 5 Y 2 .5/1 b lack, p resenta g ran c ant idad d e r a i ce s m odernas , m ed ianas y f inas q ue c orresponden a r estos d e u n c u lt ivo d e a rroz h echo e n e l c ana l. E l d epösito 1 e s t odo e l s ue lo r edepositado p or e ncima d e l a s uperficie a ctua l d e l os c ampos e levados, h echo p or l a m aqu inar ia c uando s e c onstruyö e l c ana l d e r iego m oderno .

P OTENCIAL A GRICOLA D E L OS C AMELLONES U n a nä lis is q uimico d e l os d iferentes s ed imentos q ue c omponen l a e strat if icaciön d e l os c ampos e levados, t anto d e l c ana l c omo d e l as l amas, s ugiere q ue l as a nt iguas s uperf icies d e u so e stuvieron s omet idas a u n c u lt ivo m äs i ntensivo q ue l as s uperf icies a ctua les . L os p orcentajes d e e lementos n utrientes c omo e l f ösforo, e l p otasio y e l n i t rö g eno c o inc iden c on l a u tilizaciön d e l as s uperficies d e u so p ara a gricultura i ntensiva. N it rogen° E l c ontenido d e n itrö geno t anto e n l os c ampos e levados c omo e n l os c ana les e s b ajo. E n t odos l os d epösitos s e m anif iestan l as m ismas c ant idades, e ntre 2 y 3 m g p or m ililitro . E sto s e d ebe p robab lemente y t a l c omo l o e xp lica D arch ( 1983:81-2) a q ue e s n ecesar io r enovar c onstantemente l a s uperficie d e u so m ed iante l a a d iciön d e s ue lo c on g ran c ant idad d e m ater ia o rgänica p ara m antener l os n ive les n ecesar ios

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d e n itratos y f osfatos e n e l s ue lo c u lt ivab le. C omo e stas s on s uperf icies a bandonadas, e ste n utriente h a d ism inuido n otab lemente. F ö sforo L os c ontenidos d e f ösforo v ar ian m ucho. E n l os d epö sitos s uperficia les d e l os c ampos e levados e l r ango v a d esde b ajo a m oderado y a lto. A m ed ida q ue p rofund izamos s e m ant iene b ajo, y e n l as s uperficies d e u so m a 's a nt iguas d epösitos 1 2 ( came llön 1) y 1 9 ( came llön 1 0), s ube d e m oderado a a lto. E l n ive l d e f ösforo o rgänico t iene m a yor f acilidad d e m inera lizarse y d e e sta m anera e star p resente e n s ue los a bandonados ( Darch 1 981:81-2). P otasio E ste e lemento t iene e l r ango ms a lto e ntre l os n utrientes p resentes y s u p orcentaje d e o currenc ia v a a umentando c on l a p rofund idad. E l p otasio e s m ayor e n s ue los q ue h an s ido c u lt ivados d e m anera i ntensiva y m ientras m äs a lto e s s u p orcenta je, m ayor e s l a c apacidad n utriciona l d e l s ue lo . O tros E lementos L os m inera les d e c obre , h ierro , c a lc io, m agnesio , m anganeso y z inc t ienen u n p orcenta je d e o currenc ia v ar iab le, s iendo m a yores l os r angos d e c a lc io y m agnesio. N orma lmente e l c a lc io m inera l o curre e n l os s ue los s in n ecesidad d e e nr iquecer l as s uperf icies c u lt ivables , c omo e n e l c aso d e l os n utrientes d onde e s n ecesar io l a i ntervenc iö n d e l h ombre p ara c ubr ir l os r equer im ientos n utriciona les d e l os c u lt ivos.

C OMENTAR IOS F INALES L os d atos p roporcionados e n e ste b reve a nä lis is d e l a c onstrucc iön y p osible u t ilizac iön d e l os c ampos e levados q ue l a p rehispänicos, / c uya f ert ilidad e s a dn h oy e vidente ,ma ' s a ctividad a gr ico la f ue e n t iempos a nt iguos m ucho i ntensa q ue e n e pocas m odernas . E l c omp lejo d e c ampos e levados c onst ituye u n s istema d e o pt im izacidn d e t errenos p otenc ia lmente c u lt ivab les p ero d e d ificil a cceso p or e star i nundados l a m a yor p arte d e l g io , y q ue p osiblemente f ue p roducto d e u n l argo p roceso d e e xper imentaciön q ue d eb iö i mp licar p rogresos t ecno lögicos e n e l m ane jo y e xp lotaciön d e r ecursos n atura les. P or l o t anto r equ iriö d e u na o rganizac iön s ocia l c apaz d e c ontro lar e l p roceso d e p roducc iön a grico la. A l i rse e xtend iendo l as ä reas d e c u lt ivo d esde p equ das l amas a l os c ampos e levados q ue h qy s e o bservan, s ugiere t amb ien u n i ncremento d e f uerza d e t rabajo n ecesar ia p ara r eproducir e l s istema. L amentablemente n o c onsegu imos m uestras d e c arbon i dea les p ara t ener u n f echado d e e stos c ampos e levados e xcavados, p ero l os r estos c u ltura les a soc iados a l as s uperf icies d e u so d e l os c ame llones i nd ican q ue e stos f ueron u t ilizados p ar l o m enos d esde e l p eriodo d e D esarro llo R egiona l ( F ig. 3 ). E sto n o d escarta l a p osibilidad d e q ue l os c ampos e levados h a yan s ido c onstruidos e n e pocas m äs t empranas ( Parsons y S h lemon, e ste t omo). 2 73

___ _____ r

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Figura 3. a) y b): Ceramica perteneciente al Per{odo de Desarrol los Reg iona 1 ( 500 B • C • - A • D • 5 00) ; c) y d) : Ceramica perteneciente al Per{odo de Integracion (A.D. 500 - 1500). V. Mardnez. 274

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ESCUELA

S I MBOLOG IA •0 2

" P• i idn d e l R io"

A rea d e E s tud io 1 980-1984

B y J . B uys a nd M .

A nother a spect o f e thnobotanical r esearch u ndertaken a s p art o f t he P e i iön d el R io p roject i nvolves a nalysis o f s amp les f rom e xcavat ions a t t he P enö n d el R io s ite i tself. L arge s oil s amp les w ere t aken f rom a ll e xcavat ion u nits a nd p rocessed b y w ater f lotat ion t o r ecover c harred a rchaeological b otanical r emains. S uch r emains a re n ot a bundant i n t he P e i iön d el R io d eposits, b ut c harred w ood, s eeds, a nd c ult ivated p lant m aterials, i ncluding c orn, h ave b een r ecovered. S oil s amples w ere a lso c ollected f or p hytolith a nalysis f rom c ultural c ontexts a t t he P e5ön d el R io s ite. P hytoliths h ave b een r ecovered f rom a ll s amples a nalyzed t hus f ar a nd a re w ell p reserved. M aize p hytoliths h ave b een f ound i n a n umber o f s amp les. P reliminary r esults o f t his r esearch h ave b een r eported ( Pearsall 1 984); f inal a nalyses a re i n p rogress a nd w ill b e r eported a t a l ater t ime.

P HYTOLITH A NALYSIS:

B ACKGROUND A ND P ROCEDURES

P hytoliths o ccur i n s tems, l eaves, a nd i nflorescenses o f m any p lants. S ilica t hat f orms p hytoliths i s c arried u p f rom g round w ater a s m onosilicic a cid ( Jones a nd H andreck 1 967), a nd i s d eposited i n c e lls o f g rowing p lants. I n s ome t axa d ist inct ively s haped b odies a re f ormed w hen s ilica c omp letely f ills a c ell, s olidifies, a nd r etains t he c ell s hape a fter o rganic t issue h as d ecayed o r b urned ( B lackman 1 971). G rasses a re h eavy p hytolith p roducers. I n t his f amily s mall p hytoliths, c alled s hort c ells, w hich a re p roduced i n t he a rea o f t he l eaf v eins, c an o ften b e c lassified b y s hape i nto t hree d ist inctive c lasses; f estucoid, c hloridoid, a nd p anicoid ( Twiss e t a l. 1 969). T his c lassificat ion c an b e u sed t o d ist ingu ish m ajor g roups w ithin t he g rass f amily. D etailed s tudy o f o ne p anicoid s hort c ell t ype, t he c ross-shaped s hort c ell, h as l ead t o i ts u se f or i dent ificat ion o f m aize ( Pearsall 1 978, 1 979, 1 982; P iperno 1 983, 1 984). I n a ddit ion t o s hort c ells, l arger s ilicified b odies, s uch a s p rickles, e pidermal c ells, a nd s tomata, c an b e d iagnost ic b ecause o f t he v ariat ion i n t heir f orms a mong p lant t axa. L arger d iagnost ic p hytoliths h ave b een f ound i n a n umber o f d icotyledon f amilies, s uch a s t he C ompositae a nd C ucurbitaceae, a s w ell a s i n t he G ramineae a nd o ther m onocotyledon f amilies, s uch a s C annaceae ( Pearsall 1 979; P iperno 1 984, 1 985; R ovner 1 971). O nce d eposited i n t he s oil, m ost p hytoliths r esist d ecay o r b reakage. T hey a re r ecovered f rom s oil b y c hemical f lotat ion, u sing a h eavy l iqu id w ith t he s pecific g ravity o f 2 .3. E xtracted p hytoliths a re t hen s tudied u sing e ither l ight o r s canning e lectron m icroscopy a nd i dent ified b y c omparison t o k nown m ateria l e xtracted f rom m odern p lants ( refer t o P earsall 1 982 a nd R ovner 1 983 f or a dd it ional i nformat ion o n t he p hytolith t echnique). P hytolith a nalysis i s ap aleoethnobotanical t echnique w ell s u ited t o i nvest igat ing a gricultural f ie ld f eatures. A na lysis o f s amp les f rom o ld f ield a reas c an y ield d irect d ata o n c ropping s ystems, s ince d ecay o r b urning o f c rop r esidue o ften o ccurs i n f ie lds r ather t han a t h abitat ion s ites. P hytoliths o ften p reserve i n c onditions d etrimental t o p ollen o r m acrobotanical p reservat ion. T hey a re r e leased t o t he

2 81

s o il t hrough n atura l d ecay p rocesses, w hich d o n ot r equ ire d e liberate o r a cc identa l b urning. A n i dea l s ituat ion f or a pp lying p h yto lith a na lysis t o a nc ient f ie ld s oils w ou ld o ccur w hen f ormer c u ltivat ion s urfaces a re b uried, a nd n ot m ixed w ith m odern s urfaces b y d eep p low ing o r e rosion . A p rofile t hrough s uch a n i dea lized f ie ld w ou ld s how t he m odern s urface , o ld b uried s urfaces, r epresent ing c u ltivat ion s urfaces, e pisodes o f f a llow, f lood ing, m ucking, a nd t he l ike, a nd l ower s oil h or izons. S amp les t aken f rom e ach d iscrete l ayer s hou ld a llow d escr ipt ion o f t he p h yto lith a ssemb lage o f t he l ayer a nd i dent ificat ion o f s pec if ic p lants o r v egetat ion f ormat ions p resent . F or e xamp le, i n as tudy o f p rehistor ic f ie ld a reas i n H awaii, P earsa ll a nd T r imb le ( 1983, 1 984) w ere a b le t o d ist ingu ish f ormer c u lt ivat ion s urfaces f rom s ubsequent p asture f ormat ion a nd r eforestat ion u sing t he p h yto lith t echnique. S amp ling f rom a n e xposed v ert ica l p rof ile o f a f ie ld g ives " po int" d ata : t he p h yto lith a ssemb lage o f t he s oil a t e ach l ocat ion. I n t rad it iona l t rop ica l a gricu ltura l s ystems i t i s n ot u ncommon f or a v ar iety o f c rops t o b e g rown m ixed i n o ne p lot . I n t his s ituat ion, s amp ling a s er ies o f c lose ly s paced l ocat ions o n a n e xposed h orizonta l s urface, o r c reat ing a c omposite s amp le o f s uch a s urface b y c o llect ing p inches o f s o il f rom a ll o ver i t w ou ld i ncrease t he p robability o f r ecover ing p h yto liths f rom t he f u ll r ange o f c rops p resent . S uch s amp ling w as p lanned f or t he s tudy o f t he P e Un d e l R io f ie ld c omp lex, b ut t he h eavy r a ins o f t he 1 982-1983 E l N if io m ade t h is i mpossible. T he s oil s amp les t o b e d iscussed b e low w ere o btained b y p oint s amp ling a v ert ica l p rof ile c ut t hrough t wo r a ised f ie lds a nd t he i ntervening s wa le. R aised f ie ld e xcavat ions w ere c arr ied o ut o n l and o wned b y S ra . S egunda S o lis P oveda. A 2 1 m p rof ile w as e xcavated, d rawn, a nd s amp led b y E SPOL s tudent V a lent ina M artinez ( Fig . 2 ), u nder t he s upervis ion o f p ro ject f ie ld d irector M ichae l M use. S o il s amp les w ere t aken a t i nterva ls o f 1m f rom a ll d ef ined s trata. B ecause t his s amp ling s trateg y u sua lly g enerated s evera l s amp les f or e ach s urface o n e ach f ie ld ( see b e low ), i t i s h oped t hat a f air ly d eta iled p icture o f c u lt ivat ion c an b e o btained. S o il s amp les w ere p rocessed a nd s canned a t t he U niversit y o f M issouri b y e thnobotany l aboratory a ssistant M arce lle U m lauf , w or king u nder t he a uthor 's s upervision.

I DENTIFICATION O F M AIZE P HYTOLITHS D uring r esearch a t t he R ea l A lto s ite , aV a ld ivia p er iod ( 3000 1500 B .C.) v i llage l ocated i n s outhwestern G uayas p rovince , t he a uthor d eve loped a t echnique f or d ist inguish ing m aize p h yto liths f rom t hose o f o ther g rasses ( Pearsa ll 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 982). B ecause m aize p roduces p an ico id p h yto liths , d ist ingu ishing t he i ntroduced, c ultivated g rass f rom n at ive, w ild p anico id g rasses i s b asic t o t he i dent if icat ion p rocess . C ross-shaped s hort c e ll p hyto liths , c ommon ly p roduced b y m aize, w ere m easured a nd c lassif ied i nto f our s ize c ategor ies b y t he l ength o f t he s hortest s ide. M aize w as f ound t o p roduce m any l arge ( 16.03 - 2 0 .56 m icron ) a nd e xtra-large ( 20 .61 2 5 .19 m icron) c rosses. O n ly f ive o f 6 2 n at ive w ild p anico id g rasses s tud ied p roduced l arge c rosses, a nd t hose o n ly a t l ow f requenc ies; n one p roduced e xtralarge c rosses ( Pearsa ll 1 979 , 1 982). C ross-shaped p h yto lith a ssemb lages c ontaining l arge a nd e xtra-large b od ies a re m ost p robably p roduced b y d ecay o r b urning o f m aize r emains. 2 82

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2 83

DEPOS IC ION A LUV IAL

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4 0

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CA MELL O N

F IGURA 2

A dd it iona l w ork o n m aize i dent if icat ion u sing p h yto liths h as b een d one b y P iperno ( 1983, 1 984). S he d eve loped a t hree d imensiona l s cheme w hich d ef ined e ight v ar iants o f c ross-shaped p h yto liths . M aize p roduces p redom inant ly V ar iant 1 c rosses; f ew w ild p anico id g rasses p roduce t his f orm o f c ross . U sing a c ombinat ion o f c ross-shape s ize a nd t hree d imensiona l m orpho log y, i dent if icat ion o f m aize u sing p hyto lith d ata c an b e m ade w ith c onf idence .

D ISTR IBUTION O F R A ISED-FIELD S OIL S AMPLES T hree s tages o f f ie ld c onstruct ion w ere r evea led i n t he p rof ile c ut t hrough t wo r a ised f ie lds i n t he P e i iön d e l R io c omp lex ( F ig. 2 ). T hese h ave b een d escr ibed a nd d iscussed i n d etail b y M artinez ( this v o l.). P hyto lith s amp les, w eighing a pproximate ly 5 0 g e ach, w ere c o llected f rom t he s urfaces ( interfaces) o f a ll d eposit iona l e pisodes ( Depösitos) d ef ined i n t he p rof ile. S tage I S tage I r efers t o t he e ar liest b uild-up o f s oil t o c reate r a ised f ie ld s urfaces. F our b ur ied r a ised f ie lds o r c ame llones ( Depö sitos 1 2 a nd 1 9) w ere e xposed a t t he b ase o f t he p rofile. T hese f ie lds w ere c onstructed i n o ne d eposit iona l e pisode. T heir u ppermost s urfaces w ere s amp led a t 1 2 p oints a long t he p rof ile. T he m ost e xtensive s et o f s amp les, s ix, c omes f rom t he s urface o f t he l eft c ame llö n o f D epö sito 1 2. A ll s o il s amp les f rom t he e ar ly c ame llones w ere a na lyzed. F ive s herds w ere r ecovered f rom t he s urface o f t hese f ie lds. T hese a re d escr ibed b y M artinez ( this v o l.) a s b eing s im ilar t o G uayaqu il P hase c eram ics ( Regiona l D eve lopmenta l P er iod , 5 00 B .C. A .D. 5 00). S tage I S tage I r efers t o t he f i lling o f t he s wa les l ocated b etween t he e ar ly c ame llones. P hyto lith s amp les w ere t aken f rom t he b ase o f t wo p reserved s wa les. T his b asa l l eve l l ies b e low s ubsequent s wa le f i ll ( Depö sitos 1 3 a nd 2 0). T wo b asa l l eve l s amp les f rom e ach s wa le w ere a na lyzed. N o c u ltura l m ater ia l w as f ound i n s wa le f i ll o r a t t he b ase o f t he s wa les. S tage II S tage II i nc ludes t wo p rocesses, t he b uild ing u p o f t he t wo l ater c ame llones, d esignated 1 0 a nd 1, a nd t he c orresponding d eepening o f a s wa le b etween t hem . S ix e pisodes o f b uild-up o f c ame llones w ere i dent if ied i n t he p rof ile. T he l owest ( Depö sitos 1 3 a nd 2 0) i s t he f i ll o f t he o ld s wa les. D epösitos 7 - 1 a nd 1 4 -1 8 r epresent t he b u ild-up o f t he n ew c ame llones 1 a nd 1 0 r espect ive ly . S ix t o e ight p h yto lith s amp les w ere t aken f rom t he s urface o f e ach d epö sito i n c ame llön 1; t wo t o t hree i n c ame llö n 1 0 . A pprox imate ly h a lf o f t hese s amp les w ere a na lyzed ( 20 s amp les). C eram ics d escr ibed b y M artinez ( this v o l.) a s p robably d at ing t o t he R egiona l D eve lopmenta l P er iod a re a ssoc iated w ith D epösitos 1 0 , 1, 1 7, a nd 1 8 . C eram ics d escr ibed a s v ery s im ilar t o M ilagro-Quevedo ( Integrat ion P er iod, A .D . 5 00 - 1 500) w ere r ecovered f rom D epösitos 9 a nd 1 6. 2 84

O ver t ime, t he wa le b etween c ame llones 1 0 a nd 1 b ecame f i lled w ith s oil. D epö sitos 3 , 4 , a nd 5 r epresent f i ll p rior t o m odern r euse o f t he s wa le f or g row ing r ice . D epö sito 2 i s f i ll f rom r ice c ult ivat ion. D e ö s it o 1 , w hich c overs b oth c ame llö n 1 0 a nd t he wa le, i s o verburden f rom r ecent e arthmoving a ct ivit ies.

R ESULTS T he r esu lts i n t his p aper a re l im ited t o t he c lassif icat ion a nd i dent if icat ion o f g rass s hort c e ll p h yto liths o n ly. S hort c e ll d ata c an b e u sed a s a n i nd icat ion o f a bundance o f g rass p h yto liths i n s oil, t o i dent ify c lasses o f g rasses p resent , a nd t o d eterm ine p resence o r a bsence o f m aize. U pon c omp let ing t he c ount ing a nd c lassif icat ion o f l arger s i lica b od ies, p resence o f o ther c u lt igens c an b e d eterm ined. T he r e lat ive a bundances o f p h yto liths p roduced b y g rasses, f orbs, t rees, a nd a quat ic p lants w ill b e u sed t o t race t he h istory o f u se, r estructuring, a nd a bandonment o f f ie lds. T he d ata d iscussed b e low a re p resented i n T ab les 1 a nd 2 . T ab le 1 s ummar izes p ercentage o ccurrences o f s hort c e lls i n a na lyzed s amp les. T wo h undred s hort c e lls w ere c ounted f or e ach s amp le, o r t he e nt ire m icroscope s l ide w as c ounted. P ercentage o ccurrences w ere n ot c a lcu lated f or c ounts u nder 7 5 b od ies. T ab le 2 p resents c ross-shaped p hyto lith c lassif icat ions a nd c ounts f or a ll s amp les. C ross-shape c ounts w ere m ade f or t he e nt ire m icroscope s lide. S ize c lassif icat ion f o llows P earsa ll ( 1982); v ar iant c lassif icat ion f o llows P iperno ( 1984). S tage I : E ar liest C ame llones G rass s hort c e lls a re v ar iable i n a bundance o n t he s urfaces o f t he e ar liest c ame llones. O n t he l eft c ame llö n o f D epösito 1 2, f or e xamp le, s amp les n earest t he e dges o f t he f ie ld h ave a bundant s hort c e lls, w hile s amp les t aken n ear t he c enter o f t he f ie ld d o n ot . T his p attern i s r epeated o n t he r ight c ame llön o f D epö sito 1 2. S hort c e ll o ccurrence i s d om inated b y f estuco id b od ies ( 36%- 4 3 %). G rasses p roducing f estuco id p h yto liths o ccur i n h igh a lt itude g rass land f ormat ions a nd i n l oca lly m o ist h ab itats ( Twiss e t a l. 1 969). T he l ast c ond it ion p revailed i n t he c ame llö n f ie ld s ituat ion, r ead ily e xp laining t he o ccurrence o f w ild f estuco id g rasses o n t he f ormer r a ised f ie ld s urfaces. P an ico id p h yto liths r ank s econd i n a bundance ( 15%-31% ), w ith c h lor ido id t ypes o ccurr ing l east f requent ly . E ach o f t he o ldest c ame llön s urfaces s hows e vidence f or m aize c ult ivat ion ( Tab le 2 ). T aking a ll s amp les t ogether , 2 2.7% o f c rosses r ecovered f rom t he f ie ld s urfaces a re l arge ; 4 .5% a re e xtra-large. V ar iant 1 c rosses p redom inate ( 54 .5%). T his i s ac lear i nd icat ion f or t he p resence o f m aize. S tage I: B ase o f E ar ly S wa les T he l eve l m arking t he b ase o f t he e ar ly s wa les i s c onsidered c ontemporary t o t he s urfaces o f t he e ar liest c ame llones ( Martinez, t h is v o l.). P hyto lith a ssemb lages p roduced b y s amp les t aken f rom 2 85

s wa le b ases a re s im ilar t o t hose f rom t he s urfaces o f t he o ldest c ame llones. G rass s hort c e lls a re a bundant i n a ll s amp les. F estuco id t ypes a re t he m ost a bundant ( 36%-48% ). C onsistent ly h igh l eve ls o f p anico id o ccurrence ( 25%- 24 %) a re s een i n wa le s amp les. C ross-shape p h yto lith o ccurrence ( Tab le 2 ) i nd icates t he p resence o f m aize. T aking t he f our s wa le s amp les t ogether , 3 2.1% o f t he c rosses a re l arge; 6 4.3% a re v ar iant 1 t ype. S tage II: B uild-up o f C ame llones 1 0 a nd 1 D e ö s it o 1 3 ( f ill o f r ight,swa le) i s r epresented b y t wo s amp les t aken f rom t he t op o f t hat d epösito i n c ame llö n 2 . O n ly o ne s amp le h as s uff icient s hort c e lls t o a llow c a lcu lat ion o f p ercentage o ccurrences. F etuco id p h yto liths m ade u p 3 4.0% o f t hat s amp le ; p anico id t ypes 2 9.0% . F ewer l arge c ross-shaped p h yto liths ( 14 .3%) o ccurred i n t hese s amp les t han i n a n y o thers a na lyzed f rom t he r a ised f ie lds. O ccurrence o f e xtra-large c rosses w as 7 .1% . V ar iant 1 t ypes d ominated t he c ross-shaped a ssemb lage ( 78 .6%). T hese d ata i nd icate t hat m aize w as g rown, b ut t hat a bundant w ild g rasses w ere a lso p resent . D epösitos 1 0-11 a nd 1 7-18 a re d eposit iona l e pisodes o f c ame llones 1 1 a nd 1 0 r espect ive ly w hich a re a ssoc iated w ith R egiona l D eve lopmenta l c eram ics ( Martinez, t his v o l.). S even s o il s amp les h ave b een a na lyzed f rom t he s urfaces o f t hese d epösitos ( Interfaces D 10 , D 11, D 17, a nd D 18). D epö sitos 1 0 a nd 1 7 s amp les a re c haracter ized b y d om inance o f f estuco id p h yto liths ( 47%-52% ), a nd a bundant o ccurrence o f p anico id t ypes ( 21%-31%). D epösitos 8 a nd 1 1 s amp les a re q u ite s im ilar ( 42%-48% f estuco id, 2 4%-38% p anico id ). T he s ize a nd v ar iant d istribution o f c ross-shaped p h yto liths i nd icates t he p resence o f m aize. L arge c rosses m ake u p 2 2.2% o f t he c ross-shape a ssemblage ; e xtra-large 2 .2% . V ar iant 1 c rosses m ake u p 6 0.0% o f t he a ssemb lage. T he u ppermost t hree D epösitos o f c ame llones 1 a nd 1 0 , D epö sitos 7 -9 a nd 1 4-16, a re a ssoc iated w ith I ntegrat ion P er iod c eramics ( Marti nez, t his v o l.). E leven s amp les w ere a na lyzed f rom t he s urfaces o f t hese d epö sitos ( Interfaces D 7, D 8 , D 9 , D 14, D 15, a nd D 16). F ew c hanges a re o bserved i n t he s hort c e ll p h yto lith a ssemb lages o f t hese s amp les. F estuco id p h yto liths c ont inue t o d om inate , o ccurr ing a t 4 5%-64% i n D 7 a nd D 14 , 3 9%-51% i n D 8 a nd D 15, a nd 4 3%-68% i n D 9 a nd D 16. P anico id p h yto lith r ank s econd i n o vera ll o ccurrence , o ccurr ing a t 1 7%-29% i n D 7 a nd D 14 , 1 8%-29.5% i n D 8 a nd D 15, a nd 1 2%-28% i n D 9 a nd D 16. T his i s as omewhat h igher o ccurrence o f f estuco id p h yto liths t han o bserved i n m ost o f t he o lder s amp les. E vidence f or c u lt ivat ion o f m aize c ont inues. O vera ll, l arge c ross-shaped p h yto liths m ake u p 1 7.0% o f t he c ross a ssemb lage ; e xtra-large 5 .7% . V ar iant 1 c rosses m ake u p 5 2.8% o f t he a ssemb lage. C rosses a re m ore a bundant i n t he c ame lldn 1 0 t han i n t he c ame llon 1 s amp les.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS A na lysis o f p h yto lith s amp les f rom t he P e Un d e l R io c ame llön c omp lex a nd h abitat ion s ite i s s t ill i n t he p re lim inary s tage. W ork r emains t o b e d one o n i dent ifying s ources o f l arge s i lica b od ies

2 86

p resent i n t he s amp les. I nterpretat ion o f r esu lts f rom h abitat ion c ontexts i s i n p rogress . D escr ipt ion o f p h yto liths i n m odern p lants c o llected i n t he s tudy a rea i s u nderway, a nd h as r evea led a n umber o f d iagnost ic t ypes w hich m ay e ventua lly a llow f or i dent if icat ion o f d icot yledon c rops, f orbs, a nd t rees. S uff icient s tudy o f s hort c e ll p h yto liths f rom t he P enön d e l R io r a ised-f ie ld c omp lex h as b een d one t hat t est ing f or p resence o f m aize i s n ow f easible. A s d eta iled a bove, b oth t he e ar ly c ame llones a nd t he l ater , l arger f ie lds ( 10 a nd 1) s how p resence o f p h yto liths i dent if iable a s m aize. M aize p h yto liths a lso o ccurred i n s amp les f rom t he e ar lier wa les ( Depösitos 1 3 a nd 2 0). I t i s c lear t hat w hatever o ther c rops w ere u nder c u lt ivat ion o n t he f ie lds, m aize w as p art o f t he f ie ld a ssemb lage. T h is e vidence f or c u lt ivat ion o f m aize o n r a ised f ie lds d ated t o t he R egiona l D eve lopmenta l p er iod ( 500 B .C. A .D. 5 00), a s w e ll a s t he l ater I ntegrat ion p er iod ( A .D . 5 00 - 1 500), c onf irms t he c ont inued i mportance o f t h is N ew W or ld g rain i n w estern E cuador . L itt le c an b e s a id a t t h is t ime c oncerning i dent if icat ion o f e p isodes o f r e-mucking, f a llow, o r a bandonment o f f ie lds u sing p hyto lith d ata . I dent if icat ion o f m aize p h yto liths i n s wa le s amp les c ould i nd icate s lump ing o f c ame llö n s o ils i nto t he s wa le o r d eposit ion o f p h yto liths f rom c rop r esidue d ecaying i n i t . U nt il w ork i s c omp leted o n i dent ifying a quat ic p lant p h yto liths , n o l ayer b uild-up c an b e i dent if ied b y p h yto lith a ssemb lage a s b e ing o f s wa le m uck o r igin. O nce i dent if icat ion o f l arger p h yto liths i s c omp leted, r at io o f t ree , g rass, a nd f orb-produced p h yto liths w ill b e u sed t o i nvest igate w hether f ie lds w ere l eft i n l ong f a llow o r a bandoned a t a ny p o int p rior t o f ina l a bandonment . P hyto liths h ave b een s hown t o p reserve w e ll i n a v ar iet y o f e nvironments a nd t o p rovide v a luab le i nformat ion o n s ubsistence , c ropp ing s ystems, a nd p a leoenvironment ( Pearsa ll 1 982). A pp licat ion o f t he p hyto lith t echnique t o s tudy o f s o ils f rom t he P e i iön d e l R io r aised-f ie lds c omp lex h as b een d emonstrated t hat p h yto liths a re p reserved, a nd o ften a bundant , i n c ame llones, a nd t hat m aize w as o ne o f t he c u lt ivars g rown o n t he f ie lds t hroughout t heir p er iod o f u t ilizat ion . I n m ore g enera l t erms, t h is r eport o f t he P eKön d e l R io p hyto lith a na lysis h as d emonstrated t he u t ility o f t he t echn ique f or r ecover ing s ubsistence d ata d irect ly f rom f ie ld c ontexts .

A cknow ledgments. I t hank J orge G . M arcos, d irector o f t he A rchaeo logy p rogram a t E SPOL a nd p rinc ipa l i nvest igator f or t he P e i lön d e l R io A rchaeo logica l-Agricu ltura l P ro ject , f or t he o pportunity t o s tudy p a leoethnobotanica l m ater ia ls f rom P eron d e l R io . F und ing f or t he a na lysis r eported h ere w as p rovided b y t he A gency f or I nternat iona l D eve lopment ( A .I.D ./ESPOL N o . 9 36-5542). L aboratory f acilit ies a nd a dm inistrat ive s upport w ere p rovided b y t he A mer ican A rchaeo logy D ivision, U niversity o f M issouri-Co lumb ia , M ichae l J . O 'Br ien, d irector . S pec ia l t hanks g o t o V a lent ina M artinez a nd M ichae l M use f or p rovid ing b oth t he c ame llö n s oil s amp les a nd a n e xce llent p rof ile d rawing.

2 87

T ab le 1 . P e n P ro ject S hort C e l 1D ata

I 0 19(R ) 1 8 2 69 4 98

S TAGE I I D 12(L) I 0 12(L) 1 2 1 2 55 2 49 5 00 5 01

L ocat ion * M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o.

D 19(L) 2 1 2 83 4 97

#T otal G rass S hort C e lls % D umbbells %N odular %C renates %A ngu lar %C ross %R otated %H alf-Dumbbe lls 2T ota l P anicoid C ells %R ound/Oblong %R ectangu lar/ S quare %R otated %T otal F estuco id S hort C ells %S addles %R otated %T ota l C h lor idoid C ells %H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles %H alf-Rotated #R ows C ounted

2 00

2 00

2 00

7 6

4 1

7 5

6 .0

1 3.0

5 .0 3 .0

p **

4 .0

3 .5 0 .5 1 5.0

4 .0 4 .0 8 .0 1 .0 2 8.0

1 2.0 1 .0 5 .0 0 .5 0 .5 5 .0 2 .0 2 6.0

1 .0 1 6.0

P P

1 .0 7 .0 1 5.0

2 3.0 1 9.0

1 3.0 1 5.0

1 8.0 1 3.0

1 3.0 1 7.0

P P

2 0.0 3 1.0

2 1.0 6 3.0

8 .0 3 6.0

1 8.0 4 8.0

1 2.0 4 3.0

P

8 .0 5 9.0

1 0.0

1 2.0 1 .0 1 3.0

1 0.0 3 .0 1 3.0

1.0 5 .0 1 6.0

P

1 0 .0 1 .0 1.0

1 0.0 7 .0 5 .0

9 .0

P P P P

1 .0 1 .0

1 .0 3 .0

5 .0 3 .0 4 .0 3 .0

. 75

1 .0 1 1

1 1

5 .0

1 0.0 4 .0 2 .0 2 .0 4 .0 1 .5

1 .0 4 .0

I 0 12(L) 7 1 87 5 05

I 0 12(L) 1 0 2 41 5 02

2 5.0

S TAGE I I D 12(R ) I 0 12(R ) 5 2 9 5 7 3 5 06 5 07

I D 12(L) 9 2 29 5 03

2 7.0

1 D 12(R) 1 4 9 5 08

1 .0 1 1

L ocat ion * M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o.

D 12(L) 8 2 09 5 04

#T otal G rass S hort C ells % D umbbells % N odular %C renates %A ngu lar %C ross %R otated %H alf-Dumbbells %T ota l P an ico id C e lls %R ound/Oblong %R ectangu lar/ S quare %R otated %T otal F estucoid S hort C e lls 2S addles %R otated %T ota l C h lor idoid C ells %H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles %H alf-Rotated #R ows C ounted

2 00

1 46

5 0

3 0

5 5

2 03

1 0.0 0 .5 0 .5 2 .0 3 .0 7 .0 1 .0 2 5.0

5 .0

P P

P

P

1 4.0

1 .0 1 .0 8 .0

P P P P

P P P

P P P P

1 5.0

I D 12(R ) I 0 .0 3 3 5 09

3 .0 1 .0 1 2.0 1 .0 3 1.0

1 3.0 3 3.0

1 5.0 2 9.0

P P

P P

P P

1 8.0 1 9.0

8 .0 5 4.0

6 .0 5 0.0

P

P

P

7 .0 4 4.0

8 .0 1 .0 9 .0

1 5.0 1 .0 1 6.0

P P

P

P

5 .0 1 .0 6 .0

6 .0 2 .0 3 .0 1 .0

1.0 3 .0 3 .0

P P

P P

P P P

1 0.0 8 .0 0 .5 0 .5

1

1

8

1 0.5

P 1 .0 1

P 1

2 88

I

T able 1 . P e Un P roject S hort C e ll D ata ( cont .)

L ocat ion*

D 20 B&S 2 0 3 17 5 11

0 20 B& S 1 9 3 16 5 10

#T ota l G rass S hort C ells % D umbbe lls % N odular %C renates %A ngular %C ross %R otated %H alf-Dumbbells %T ota l P anico id C e lls %R ound/Oblong %R ectangu lar/ S quare %R otated %T otal F estuco id S hort C e lls %S addles % R otated . %T otal C h lor idoid C e lls % H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles %H alf-Rotated #R ows C ounted

2 18

2 01

1.0 1 .0 0 .5 3 .5 2 .0 1.0 1 .0 3 2.0

1 2.0 0 .5 2 .5 3 .0 4 .0 1 .0 2 5.0

1 2.0 1 7.0

S TAGE I 0 13 B& S 5 1 47 5 13

S TAGE II 8 7 I

0 13 B&S 4 1 21 5 12

8 7 I 8 2 25 5 20

4

1 98

2 01

1 93

1 67

1 8.0 0 .5

4 .0

2 .5 4 .0 7 .0 2 .0 3 4.0

1.0 0 .5 0 .5 2 .0 2 .0 1.0 2 .0 3 0.0

0 .5 2 .0 0 .5 9 .0 1 .0 1 7.0

2 1.0 0 .6 0 .6 0 .6 0 .6 5 .0 1 .0 2 9.0

1 2.0 2 6.0

1.0 2 8.0

1 5.0 1 5.0

1 5.0 4 4.0

1 8.0 2 2.0

6 .0 3 6.0

1 0.0 4 8.0

3 .0 4 1.0

7 .0 3 7.0

5 .0 6 4.0

5 .0 4 5.0

8 .0 2 .0 1 0.0

7 .0 1 .0 8 .0

5 .0 1 .0 6 .0

1.0 2 .0 1 3.0

5 .0 5 .0

1 8.0 1 .0 1 9.0

1.0 4 .0 5 .0 1 .0

1 0.0 5 .0 3 .0

6 .0 9 .0 2 .0

7 .0 6 .0 5 .0 1 .0

6 .0 3 .0 4 .0 0 .5

1 .0 6 .25

1 .0 7 .75

0 .5 0 .5 1 0.25

1 .0 4 .5

0 .5

L ocat ion * M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o.

8 8 I 5 1 61 5 26

0 8 I

#T ota l G rass S hort C e lls % D umbbe lls % N odular %C renates %A ngu lar %C ross % R otated %H alf-Dumbbells %T ota l P anico id C ells %R ound/Oblong %R ectangu lar/ S quare % R otated %T ota l F estucoid S hort C ells %S addles %R otated %T ota l C h loridoid C e lls %H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles % H alf-Rotated # R ows C ounted

M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o.

1 39 5 23

5 .0 0 .5 0 .5

8

1

1 35 5 22

S TAGE II D 8 I 0 9 I 2 5 8 7 1 57 5 47 5 25

D 9 I 4 1 33 5 21

8 9 I 2 8 3 5 48

8 8

1 74

1 06

1 07

1 50

2 00

9 .0

1 0.0

1 2.0

1 0.0

1 .0 6 .0 2 .0 1 8.0

1 .0 2 .0 2 .0 1 0.5 0 .5 2 6.0

1 .0 4 .0 1 .0 4 .0 2 .0 2 4.0

3 .0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0

1 7.0 2 9.0

1 3.0 2 2.0

5 .0 5 1.0 1 5.0

1

1 .0

2 .0 3 .0 6 .0

1 2.0

2 1.0

2 2.0 0 .5 1 .0 2 .0 1 .0 7 .5 4 .0 2 8.5

1 4.0 2 0.0

1 5.0 4 0.0

1 5.0 3 3.0

2 3.5 1 7.0

5 .0 4 0.0

5 .0 3 9.0

1 3.0 6 8.0

9 .0 5 7.0

2 .5 4 3.0

1 5.0

1 7.0 1 .0 1 8.0

2 1.0 1 .0 2 2.0

5 .0 1 .0 6 .0

1 0.0 1 .0 1 1.0

1.0 0 .5 1 1.5

9 .0 4 .0 2 .0 1 .0

8 .0 2 .0 5 .0 0 .5

8 .0 2 .0 5 .0

6 .0 2 .0 4 .0 1 .0 1 .0

6 .0 1 .5 3 .0

1 0.0 1 .0 3 .5

1

0 .5 1

1

1

0 .5 1 1

2 .5 8 .25

2 89

T able 1 . P el rö n P ro ject S hort C e ll D ata ( cont .)

L ocat ion * M eters B o lsa N o. L ab N o.

0 10 I 7 1 95 5 51

D 10 I 4 1 29 5 17

S TAGE II D ll I D ll I 7 5 1 91 1 51 52 5 19

D ll I 4 1 25 5 16

D ll I 2 7 7 5 53

#T ota l G rass S hort C ells % D umbbells % N odular %C renates %A ngu lar %C ross %R otated %H a lf-Dumbbe lls %T otal P anico id C e lls %R ound/Oblong %R ectangu lar/ S quare %R otated %T ota l F estuco id S hort C e lls %S addles %R otated %T ota l C hlor idoid C e lls %H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles % H a lf-Rotated #R ows C ounted

1 49

2 07

5 3

2 02

1 04

1 36

1 2 .0 2 .0

P

1.0 0 .5

1.0 2 .0

5 .0 2 .0 7 .0 3 .0 3 1.0

8 .0 1 .0 3 .0 1 .0 1 .0 4 .0 3 .0 2 1.0

3 .0 7 .0 0 .5 2 4.0

6 .0 7 .0 1 .0 2 7.0

1 5.0 3 .0 1 .0 1 .0 4 .0 1.0 3 .0 3 8.0

1 9.0 2 1.0

1 9.0 2 2.0

P P

2 3.0 1 9.0

1.0 2 5.0

1 3.0 2 1.0

7 .0 4 7.0

8 .0 4 9.0

P

6 .0 4 8.0

1.0 4 7.0

7 .0 4 2.0

9 .0 3 .0 1 2.0

1 3.5 0 .5 1 4.0

P

1 4.0

1.0

6 .0

1 4.0

1 1.0

6 .0

3 .0 2 .0 2 .0

7 .0 4 .0 4 .0

P

8 .0 3 .0 3 .0

9 .0 2 .0 3 .0

5 .0 2 .0 1 .0

3 .0 1 0

0 .5 0 .5 4 .25

P P 1 1

4 .5

1 .0 1 0

1 .0 5 .0 1 0

L ocat ion * M eters B o lsa N o. L ab N o.

D 13 I 7 1 83 5 54

0 13 I 5 1 43 5 18

S TAGE II 0 14 I 0 15 I 1 0 2 1 2 45 2 99 5 14 5 46

0 16 I 2 1 2 97 5 45

D 17 I 2 1 2 95 5 44

#T ota l G rass S hort C ells % D umbbe lls % N odu lar %C renates %A ngu lar %C ross % R otated % H alf-Dumbbells %T ota l P anico id C ells % R ound/Oblong % R ectangu lar/ S quare %R otated %T ota l F estucoid S hort C ells %S addles %R otated %T ota l C h lorido id C e lls %H orned T owers %F lat T owers %R egu lar S pools % I rregu lar S pools %A ngles %H alf-Rotated #R ows C ounted

6 7

2 09

1 99

2 00

1 30

7 5

P

7 .5 0 .5

1 2.0 0 .5

1 1.0

1 4.0

1 .0 4 .0 1 4.0 1 .0 2 9.0

0 .5 2 .0 1 2.0 1 .0 2 7.0

1 0.0 1 .0 0 .5 1 .0 5 .5 9 .0 2 .5 2 9.5

3 .0 3 .0 6 .0 1 .0 2 3.0

1 .0 4 .0 1 .0 6 .0 1 .0 2 7.0

1 2.0 1 2.0

1 3.0 2 2.0

1 8.0 2 1.5

1 8.0 2 9.0

1 7.0 2 6.0

1 0.0 3 4.0

1 0.0 4 5.0

5 .5 4 5.0

7 .0 5 4.0

9 .0 5 2.0

1 5.0 2 .0 1 7.0

1 5.0 2 .0 1 7.0

1 0.5 1 .0 1.5

1.0 3 .0 1 4.0

1 5.0 1 5.0

P P P

1 0.0 3 .0 7 .0

7 .0 2 .0 2 .0

4 .5 2 .5 5 .5 1 .0 0 .5

2 .0 3 .0 3 .0

1 .0 3 .0 1 .0

P 1 1

3

1 .5

7 .5

1 .0 1

1 .0 1 1

*

L ocat ion:

P P P

P

P P P

P P

D= D epösito n umber, L = L eft c ame llön o r s wa le, R = R ight c ame llön o r s wale, I = I nterface, B & S = B ottom a nd S ide

* * P=P resent

2 90

Table 2. Penon Project Cross Types Location* Meters Bolsa No. Lab No. SMAL L Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

MEDIUM Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

L ARGE Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

EXTRA LARGE Total variant 1 variant 2 variant 5/6 variant 7

019([) 21 283 497

Dl9(R) 18 269 498

STAGE I 012(() I D12(L) 12 11 255 249 501 500

D12(L) 10 241 502

D12(L) 9 229 503

0

1

0

0

4 1 2 1

1

0

10 6

0

4

0

1

1 1

0

0

0

1 100 0

Location* Meters Bolsa No. Lab No.

012([)

D12([)

D12(R)

1 2 5/6 7

L ARGE Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

EXTRA LARGE Total variant 1 variant 2 variant 5/6 variant 7 TOTAL CROSSES % Large % Extra Large

0

0

0

1 1

0

1

0

1 12 8.3 0

MEDIUM Total variant variant variant variant

1 1

1

0 0 0

1 2 5/6 7

1

1

T OTAL CROSSES % Large i Extra Large

SMALL Total variant variant variant variant

0

8 209 504 1 1

7 187 505

5 95 506

0

0

1 0 0 STAGE I

bl2(R) 2 73 507 1

2 0 50

5 20 0

bl2(R)

bl2(R)

1 49 508

0

33

509

0

2 2

0

4 2

1

2

2 2

2 1

2

3 3

1 1

1 1

1 1 1

0

0

1 1

2 1 1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1 100 0

25

1 6 50 0

3 33

2 0 0

0

291

3

0

33

8

0

Table 2. Penon Project Cross Types (cont.) Location*

Meters Bolsa No. Lab No.

SMAL L Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

MEDIUM Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

LARGE Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

EXTRA LARGE Total variant 1 variant 2 variant 5/6 variant 7

020 B & S 20 317 511

D20 B & S 19 316 510

0

1 1

STAGE II D13 B& S 5 147 513 1 1

STAGE III D7 I

D13 B& S 4 121 512

D7

8 225 520

4 139 523

2 1

0

0

1 1

I

1 5 2 3 4 2

3 2 1

5 4

2

1

1

2

1

2 2

2 2

1 1

1

0

1

2 0

0

0

0

% %

TOTAL CROSSES Large Extra Large

9 44 0

6 33 0

8 25 0

5 20

Location* Meters Bolsa No. Lab No.

D8 5 161 526

D8 4 135 522

D8 2 87 547

1 1

2 1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

3 2 1

1 1

0

2 1

0

0

0

1

SMALL Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

MEDIUM Total variant variant variant variant

1 2 5/6 7

LARGE Total variant variant variant variant variant

1 2 3 5/6 7

EXTRA LARGE Total variant 1 variant 2 variant 5/6 variant 7 TOTAL CROSSES Large % Extra Large

%

0

STAGE D9 5 157 525 0

0

0

50 0

2

1 0 0

D9 4 133 521

D9 2 83 548

2 1

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 0 0

4 50 0

0

1

0 0 0

5 0 0

2 50 0

0 292

T able 2 . P endö n P ro ject C ross T ypes ( cont .) L ocat ion * M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o. S MALL T ota l v ariant 1 v ariant 2 v ar iant 3 v ariant 5 /6 v ar iant 7 M EDIUM T ota l v ar iant v ariant v ar iant v ar iant

1 2 5 /6 7

L ARGE T ota l v ariant v ar iant v ariant v ariant

1 2 5 /6 7

S TAGE II D 11 I 5 1 51 5 19

0 10 I 7 1 95 5 51

0 10 I 4 1 29 5 17

D 11 I 7 1 91 5 52

2 1

2

2

1

2

2

1

4 3

0

5 5

3 3

1

1

8 2 1 5

o

1 1

0

6 6

1

2 2

5 2

D ll I 4 1 25 5 16

D 11 I 2 7 5 53

o

1

1 2

1

1

E XTRA L ARGE T ota l v ariant 1 v ar iant 2 v ariant 5 /6 v ariant 7

0

T OTAL C ROSSES %L arge %E xtra L arge

3 0 0

7 1 4 0

2 0 0

L ocat ion * M eters B olsa N o. L ab N o.

D 13 I 7 1 83 5 54

0 13 I 5 1 43 5 18

0 14 I 1 0 2 45 5 14

0

2 1

8 3

3 2

1

4 1

1

8 6

6 3

1 8

2

1 2

2 2

2 1

S MALL T ota l v ar iant v ar iant v ar iant v ar iant

1 2 5 /6 7

M EDIUM T ota l v ariant v ariant v ar iant v ar iant v ar iant

1 2 3 5 /6 7

L ARGE T ota l v ar iant v ar iant v ar iant v ar iant

1 2 5 /6 7

1 1

0

E XTRA L ARGE T ota l v ar iant 1 v ar iant 2 v ar iant 5 /6 v ar iant 7 T OTAL C ROSSES %L arge %E xtra L arge

2 0 3 0 5 S TAGE I 0 15 I 2 1 2 99 5 46

6 1 7 0

6 3 3 0

0 16 I 2 1 2 97 5 45

0 17 I 2 1 2 95 5 44

0

0

1 1

1 1

0

0

3

0

2 1

3 2 1

1

1 1

0

0

0

3

2 0 5 0

1 2 1 6.7 0

1 6 1 2.5 0

1 7 1 7.6 0

4 0 7 5

1 0 0

' N L ocat ion: D = D eposito n umber , L= L eft c amellon o r s wale, R = R ight c amellon o r s wale, I = I nterface, B & S = B ottom a nd S ide 2 93

R EFERENCES C ITED

B lackman, E lizabeth 1 971. O paline S ilica B odies i n t he R ange G rasses o f A lberta. C anadian J ournal o f B otany 4 9(5):769-781.

S outhern

D enevan, W illiam M ., a nd K ent M athewson 1 983. P reliminary R esults o f t he S amborondon R aised-Fie ld P roject, G uayas B asin, E cuador. I n D rained F ie ld A griculture i n C entral a nd S outh A merica, e dited b y J .77-1 5 irch, p p. 1 67-181. B rit ish A rchaeolo PC7 1-- e ports, I nternat ional S er ies 1 89, O xford. J ones, L .H.P., a nd K .A. H andreck 1 967. S ilica i n S oils, P lants, A gronomy, V ol. 1 9, e dited A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. P arsons, J ames J . 1 969. R idged F ie lds i n t he R io A ntiquity 3 4(1):76-80.

a nd A nimals. I n b y A .G. N olman,

G uayas V alley,

A dvances i n p p . 1 07-1477

E cuador.

A merican

P earsall, D eborah M . 1 978. P hytolith A nalysis o f A rcheological S oils: E vidence f or M aize C ultivat ion i n F ormat ive E cuador. S cience 1 99:177-178. 1 979.

T he A pplicat ion o f E thnobotanical T echniques t o t he P roblem 7 —S ubsistence i n t he E cuadorian F ormative. U n i5 afii-h ed P h.D. T i ssertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f I llinois.

1 982.

P hytolith A nalysis: A pp lications o f aN ew P aleoethnobotanical T echnique i n A rcheology. A merican A nthropologist 8 4(4):862-871.

1 984.

P rogress R eport o n E thnobotanical R esearch f or t he A ncient A gricultural T echnologies P roject ( A .I.D./ESPOL N o, 9 36-5542). M s. 3 0 p p.

P earsall, D eborah M . a nd M ichael K . T rimble 1 983. P hytolith A nalysis o f S oil S amp les. R eport 1 8. I n A rchaeological I nvest igat ions o f t he M udlane-Waimea-Kawaihae R oad C orridor, I s land o f H awai i-.—AT I nterd isc ip linary S tudy o f a nd E nvironmgTfir-Y ransect, e dited b y J .T . C lark a nd P .V. 1 7-1 -C F 7 p. 4 72-497. D epartmenta l R eport S eries, R eport 8 3-1. B ernice P . B ishop M useum, H onolu lu. 1 984.

I dentifying P ast A gricultura l A ctivity t hrough S oil P hytolith A na lysis: A C ase S tudy f rom t he H awaiian I slands. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 1:119-133.

P iperno, D o lores R . 1 983. T he A pp licat ion o f P hytolith A nalysis t o t he R econstruct ion 7 -P lant S ubsistence a nd E nvironments 1 7- 0 7T h ist or ic P anama. U npUETT7 hed P h.D. D issertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropo logy , T emp le U niversity, P hiladelphia. 2 94

1 984 .

A C ompar ison a nd D ifferent ion o f P hyto liths f rom M aize a nd W ild G rasses : U se o f M orpho log ica l C r iter ia . A mer ican A nt iqu ity 4 9(2):361-383.

1 985 .

P hyto lith T axonomy a nd D istribut ions i n A rcheo logica l S ed iments f rom P anama. J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 2 :247-267.

R ovner , I rw in 1 971. P otent ia l o f O pa l P hyto liths f or U se i n P a leoeco logica l R econstruct ion . Q uaternar y R esearch 1 (3):343-359 . 1 983.

P lant O pa l P hyto lith A na lysis : M ajor A dvances i n A rchaeobotanica l R esearch. I n A dvances i n A rchaeo logica l M ethod a nd T heory, V o l. 6 , e dited b y M ichae l S chiffer , p p . 2 25-2667—Ac i de-FU— P ress , N ew Y ork.

T wiss , P .C., E dw in S uess, a nd R .M . S m ith 1 969 . M orphologica l C lassif icat ion o f G rass P hyto liths . P roceed ings o f t he S o il S cience S oc iet y o f A mer ica 3 3(1):109-115.

2 95

C HAPTER 1 5 R AISED F IELDS A ND A GRICULTURAL P RODUCTION, A .D. 1 400-1600, R IO D AULE, G UAYAS, E CUADOR

D avid M .

S temper

A BSTRACT T he G uayas B asin o f c oasta l E cuador e xhibits a n u nusually w ide r ange o f m orphological v ariat ion w ithin i ts r aised-fie ld c omp lexes, w ith p erhaps t he l argest n umber o f d ifferent f orms i n A ndean A merica. Y et, l itt le i s k nown a bout t he c ulture h istory o f t he G uayas r aisedf ield f armers. R esearch w ithin t he C olimes C omplex o n t he R io D aule f loodplain p rovides i nformat ion o n p eriods o f u se o f 2 7 h a o f r aised f ie lds a nd r esidential s tructures. M ilagro-Quevedo p eoples l ived i n t hese h ouses a nd p lanted t he f ields c oncurrent ly, s omet ime b etween t he l ate 1 400s a nd e ar ly 1 600s A .D. A ccording t o p ollen, p hytolith, a nd c eramic e vidence, f armers g rew m aize a nd p ossibly m anioc, c otton, a nd o ther c rops o n t he f ie lds. T he r esu lts o f t he C olimes r esearch m ay h ave i mplicat ions f or u nderstanding p o lit ical o rganizat ion i n s edentary s ociet ies f arming t he t ropical A ndean l owlands.

I NTRODUCTION B efore 1 532 s everal c omplex s oc iet ies i n A ndean A mer ica f armed r aised f ields. T he r emains o f f ie lds h ave b een i dent ified p reviously i n t he E xtreme N orthern A ndes ( mainly C olombia) ( Parsons a nd B owen 1 966; B roadbent 1 968; P lazas a nd F alchett i 1 981) , t he N orthern A ndes ( mainly E cuador) ( Parsons 1 969; P arsons a nd S h lemon 1 982; D enevan a nd M athewson 1 983; K napp 1 984; M arcos 1 981a), a nd t he L ake T it icaca r egion ( Smith e t a l. 1 968; K olata 1 982, 1 986; E rickson 1 983). 1 I n m ost o f t hese a reas, t he f ields l ie w ithin w alking d istance o f v illages o ccupied b y p rehispanic c hiefdoms a nd s tates. T he C hibcha ( Broadbent 1 968), C hi t ra l ( Pozorski e t a l. 1 983), a nd W anka o r I nka ( Hastorf a nd E arle 1 985), f or e xamp le, m ay h ave f ed a nd c lothed l ocal p opulat ions w ith t he g rains a nd t ubers g rown o n r aised f ields. T he q uestions t his r aises t hen, a re: w hat d oes i ntensive a griculture i mply a bout s ocia l a nd p olit ical o rganizat ion, a nd w hat f orces a re r equ ired t o m obilize l abor f or f ie ld c onstruction, u se, a nd m aintenance? I n m any r espects t he G uayas B asin i n t he N orthern A ndes i s a n i deal a rea f rom w hich t o m arshall t he n ecessary e vidence f or a nswer ing s uch q uest ions. I t e xhibits a n u nusually w ide r ange o f m orphological v ariat ion i n i ts r aised-field c omp lexes, w ith p erhaps t he l argest n umber o f d ifferent f orms i n A ndean A merica. M oreover, w ork b y D enevan, L athrap, M arcos, P arsons, R aymond, a nd t heir a ssoc iates h as p roduced h elpful i nformat ion f or u nderstanding t he s ignificance o f i ntensive a griculture i n e thnohistorically k nown c hiefdoms. F or e xample, i t s eems l ikely t hat t wo o f t he n ine c omp lexes i dent ified i n t he B asin, t he C olimes a nd D aule, o ccupy w et lands o nce c ontrolled b y a s ixteenth c entury c hiefdom o n t he R io D aule f loodplain ( Vargas 1 970:257; E spinoza S oriano 1 981:10; L enz Volland a nd V olland 1 985). 2 2 97

Y et , l itt le i s k nown o f t he c ulture h istory o f t hese r aised-fie ld f armers. I n a ddit ion t o c ulture h istory, r esearch o n t hese c omp lexes c an p otent ia lly s hed l ight o n a p oor ly u nderstood t opic o f A ndean s tudies--the f orm o f p olit ical o rganizat ion i n s edentary s oc iet ies f arming t ropical l owlands. M y s tudy o f s oil, t opographic m aps, a nd a eria l p hotographs d emonstrates t hat t he C olimes C omp lex t ypifies m ost o f t he e nvironmenta l f eatures f ound i n t he R io D aule f loodplain. T he R fo D aule, i n t urn, i s r epresentative o f a s ign ificant p ortion o f t he G uayas B asin. D uring t he p eriod A .D. 1 400-1600, s edentary a gricultura lists g rew m aize a nd, p ossibly, m anioc, c otton, a nd o ther c rops o n s ome o f t he C olimes r aised f ie lds, l ived i n w att le a nd d aub h ouses, a nd b u ilt h abitat ion a nd b urial m ounds. T his r econstruction o f D aule R iver c ulture h istory i ncorporates r esu lts o f f ie ldwork c arried o ut i n 1 983-1984 w ithin t he C olimes r aised-field c omp lex. T wo d atable r esident ial s tructures w ere e xcavated. W ithin 1 k m o f t hese s tructures, s urvey a nd e xcavation o f a 3 3 h a e arthwork c omp lex f urnished m ateria ls f or r adiocarbon a ssays o n p eriods o f u se o f r aised f ie lds a nd o ne a rtificial h abitat ion m ound. T his i nformat ion i ndicates t hat t he s tructures a nd e arthworks w ere i nhabited c oncurrent ly s omet ime b etween t he l ate 1 400s a nd t he e arly 1 600s A .D. T he e vidence p resented h ere p rovides n ew d ata o n t he i nfrastructure o f a gricultural p roduct ion d uring t his t ime p eriod. F urther s tudy o f t hese na gro-infrastructural u f eatures s hould h e lp t o r econstruct t he p rocesses a nd p atterns o f r eproduction a nd c onsumpt ion t hat s ustained t he G uayas r iverine p olit ies.

R ESIDENTIAL S TRUCTURES O N A N O LD A LLUVIAL T ERRACE O ne l andform d ominates t he Y umes a rea: a r iver t errace l y ing 1 0-12 m a bove t he m ound-dotted w et lands. T his f ormer f loodplain, t hough d issected i n p laces, s tretches n orth a nd s outh o f Y umes f or m ore t han 1 0 k m . E strada ( 1957), E vans a nd M eggers ( 1957), R aymond e t a l. ( 1980), a nd W . B urgos ( pers. c omm.) h ave s urveyed s ome p arts 77 t he a rea. T wo r esults o f t he s urvey a nd e xcavat ion m ade b y R aymond e t ( a l. s hed l ight o n s ett lement h istory i n t he C olimes C omp lex. F irst , a V aldivia o ccupat ion a t O GDA-34 ( Fig. 1 ) c onfirms t he p resence o f F ormat ive s edentary p eoples a bout 5 k m n orth o f t he c omp lex. S econd, e vidence f rom D aule p eriod ( 500 B .C.-A .D. 5 00) t errace s ites ( PL-41, F ig. 1 ), s uggests t hat i ntensive a griculture m ay h ave b een p racticed a s e arly a s 2 000 y ears a go i n t his c omp lex. S ite P L-41 i s l ocated 1 00 m e ast o f w here a erial p hotos ( Inst ituto G eogrgfico M ilitar, J u ly 1 971, R oll 1 68, N umbers 2 20 a nd 2 22) s how r aised f ields. F or m illenia t he r iver t errace h as b een a n a ttractive p lace f or o ccupation. I t r ises w e ll a bove t he s wampy f arm land a nd a ctive f loodplain, r eceiving c ooling w inds, a nd a llowing s ome r espite f rom t he n uisances o f m osqu itos. O f t he g eomorphological u nits s urveyed, t he t errace y ie lded t he g reatest d ensity o f a rtifacts. A ccording t o t his e vidence, m ost r aised-field f armers r esided o n t he t errace r ather t han i n t he a ct ive f loodplain. Ic hose a 5 0 b y 1 00 m s ector o f t he t errace ( labeled P L-31, F ig. 1 ) f or c oncentrated s tudy, a fter s urveying a bout 2 k m2 o f t he h igh g round.

2 98

OgDa34

Road t o B a lzar

L im its o f

Dau le R iver

P a leochanne l a nd L ake a t 1 0 m a bove s ea l eve l

F ig .

3

S trea m Channe l 0 500 1 000 m F ig . 2 F ig . 4 1 ,

P L-31 Road t o Guayaqu i l

P a lest ina

F igure 1 .

A rchaeo log ica l s ites n ear Y umes a nd l ocat ion o f a reas i n F igures 2 , 3 , a nd 4 . 2 99

I n s urve ying a nd e xcavat ing p ort ions o f t he t errace , I f ound e v idence t hat i dent if ied t he s lopes o f t he t errace a s a n a nc ient t oss z one f or r efuse. O bsid ian f lakes a nd b lades, i gneous r ock m anos a nd m etates, s p ind le w hor ls, f air ly c omp lete v esse ls, a nd w att le a nd w ere c o llected o n t he s urface . B ased o n m y s tud ies o f Y umes c eram ics a nd r eview o f t he l iterature o n N orthern A ndean p ottery ( Ho lm 1 981; M arcos 1 981b ; M eggers 1 966) I e st imate t hat a pprox imate ly 8 0% o f t he s herds w ere a ssignab le t o t he M ilagro-Quevedo p er iod . T he r emainder a re a ssoc iated w ith t he e ar lier D au le p er iod . T he M ilagro-Quevedo p ottery d ates f rom a bout A .D . 5 00 t o 1 600 ; D au le p ieces s eem t o a ppear a bout 5 00 B .C. O bsid ian a nd i gneous r ock t oo ls w ere c o llected o n t he s urface i n o ther p arts o f t he C o limes e arthworks a nd t errace. T he a rt ifacts o f i gneous r ock w ere s ubm itted t o g eo logists a t t he E scue la S uper ior P o lite cnica d e l L itora l-Guayaquil f or i ndent if icat ion. T he y a re p robably a ndesite . O bsid ian f ound i n t he C o limes a nd o ther r a isedf ie ld c omp lexes i n t he G uayas B asin ( Denevan a nd M athewson 1 983:172; M use a nd S tocker 1 982) m ost l ike ly c ame f rom M ullum ica, s outh o f Q uito ( Sa lazar 1 980). T his i s t he s ource o f o bsid ian a lso f ound o n t he S anta E lena p eninsu la ( L ynch 1 983:170). A n e xchange n etwor k l inking t he s ierra a nd l ittora l p robably a ccounts f or t he o bsid ian f ound a t Y umes. E xchange b etween t he A ndean f oothills a nd t he c oast m ay e xp lain t he p resence o f i gneous r ock i n Y umes. A lternat ive ly, t he i gneous s pec imens m ay h ave b een q uarr ied f rom t he P ascua les g eo logica l f ormat ion n ear G uayaqu il. C ontemporary i nhabitants o f Y umes h ave d ug i nto p rehispanic g raves a nd f ound a t hird i mport : s ma ll a mounts o f c opper ( W . B urgos, p ers. c omm .). T hese e xogenous i tems s upport t he a ssert ion t hat r a ised-f ie ld f armers p art icipated i n l ong-d istance e xchange. R ather t han m oving f rom t heir s ources t o t he C o limes c omp lex b y e xchange f rom p erson t o p erson, t he c opper , o bsidian , a nd i gneous r ock m ay o ccur i n t he a rea b ecause f armers o btained t hem b y g o ing d irect ly t o t heir s ources ( see H odder 1 984 :26 o n e xchange a nd u nverif iable a ssumpt ions, a nd K oh l 1 985 :112-113 f or a c r it ique o f H odder 's a gnost icism ). S tructure 1 T he t errace d esignated P L-31 c ontained p rehispanic a rchitecturaT f eatures; s ee S temper 1 986 f or t he r easons t hese f eatures r epresent t he r emains o f h ouseho lds. S urveys o f a n 0 .5 h a l eve l a rea o n t he t op o f t he t errace l ed t o t he i dent if icat ion o f t hree f eatures c omposed o f w att le a nd d aub. F eature 1 , a bout 1 5 m f rom t he s outheast e dge o f t he t errace, c onsisted o f 6 0-80 w att le a nd d aub f ragments c oncentrated w ithin a n a rea o f a bout 4 0 m2 . M app ing t he d istribut ion w ithin t h is a rea r esu lted i n t he i dent if icat ion o f f our p laces i n a 6 m2 a rea w here t he p ieces w ere c oncentrated s o c lose ly t he y f ormed a c ont inuous s urface. T he f ragments i n t he m ost t ight ly p acked c oncentrat ion c overed a n a rea o f 0 .8 b y 0 .55 m . D uring t he s urface c o llect ion o f t his c oncentrat ion, I f ound o ne w att le a nd d aub f ragment c onnected t o a nother o ne t hat w as i n s itu a nd b e low t he s urface . E xcavat ion o f a1 b y 2m t est s quare r evea led t hat t he p iece b e low t he s urface w as t he t ip o f a b lock o f w att le a nd d aub w hose b ase w as 0 .8 m b e low t he s urface . F rom 0 1 -0.3 m b e low t he s urface, t he b lock c onsisted e nt ire ly o f w att le a nd d aub o ver a n a rea o f 0 .2 m b y 0 .15 m . F rom

3 00

0 .3-0.8 m b e low t he c onta ined v ery d ark c harcoa l.

s urface t he c enter o f t he w att le a nd d aub b lock g ra y s ed iment , s ome s herds, c a lc ined b one , a nd

I i nterpret t he s urface a nd u nderground r emains o f F eature 1 t o b e t wo e lements o f ap rehispanic s tructure : aw a ll a nd i ts u nderground f oundat ion . W ood c harcoa l f rom i nside t he w att le a nd d aub b lock a t 0 .65 m b e low t he s urface w as s ubm itted t o t he R ad iocarbon L ab a t t he U niversit y o f W isconsin. T he a ge o f t h is m ater ia l i s 3 90 + 8 0 y ears: A .D. 1 560 ( uncorrected ; W IS-1689). C o lonia l d ocuments c an a id i n t he i nterpretat ion o f t h is d ate . M ost d ea l w ith t he a rea w ith in 1 5-20 k m o f t he c ontemporary t own o f D au le. E sp inoza S or iano ( 1981:10-16), h owever , s uggests t hat t he i nformat ion i n t he d ocuments p robably a pp lies t o t he C o limes a rea a s w e ll ( the d istance f rom D aule t o Y umes a long t he r iver i s a pprox imate ly 6 2 k m ). H e c onc ludes ( 1981:37-41) t hat v ery f ew i nd igenous p eop les s urvived n ear D aule a fter a bout 1 630 . T herefore , I s uggest t hat t he f oundat ion o f S tructure 1 w as f ired i n t he e ar ly 1 500s. S tructure 2 S urface c o llect ion o f p ottery a bout 4 0 k m n orthwest o f S tructure 1y ie lded e vidence o f a s econd f eature . E xcavat ion o f a 2 m u nit s howed t hat F eature 2 , a d aub o f b aked c lay a nd g rass w ithout c ane p o les, c overed a 1 .5 b y 1 .0 m a rea . I mmed iate ly u nder t he d aub w ere s evera l b urnt l ogs w hich, i n t urn , s at o n y e llow s andstone a t 0 .2 m b e low s urface , t he u pper l im it o f t he t errace C h or izon . I i nterpret F eature 2 t o b e t he w a ll o f ac o llapsed s tructure . A na lysis o f t he b urnt l ogs p roduced a r ad iocarbon a ge o f 3 20 + 7 0 y ears: A .D. 1 630 ( uncorrected ; W IS-1688). T he d ates f or S truct iFe 1 a nd 2 d isclose t hat p eop le i nhabited t he b u ild ings a t r ough ly t he s ame t ime i n t he 1 500s.

S PINDLE W HORLS, C OMALES, A ND G RATERS B esides i dent ifying t he t errace a s o ne a rea w here f armers p robab ly l ived, e vidence f rom s urvey a nd e xcavat ion c an a lso i nd icate w hat c rops m ay h ave g rown o n t he r a ised f ie lds. F ragments o f c eram ic c oma les ( gr idd les), s p ind le w hor ls, a nd g raters w ere c ommon i n t he r efuse n ear S tructures 1 a nd 2 . T he c oma les a nd g raters b e long t o t he M ilagro-Quevedo p er iod b ecause t heir w a ll t hickness, p aste , a nd s urface t reatment a re s im ilar t o p ottery M eggers a nd E strada a ssigned t o t his p er iod . T hree o f t he 1 2 s p ind le w hor ls s urface c o llected a t P L-31 w ere w ith in 3 m o f S tructure 1 . T hus t he w hor ls w ere p robab ly u sed i n t he 1 500s, t he p er iod w hen S tructure 1 w as m ost l ike ly i nhabited . G raters, c oma les, a nd s p ind le w hor ls m ay h ave h ad d iverse f unct ions. S ince t he w hor ls w eigh f rom 1 -6 g , t hey m a y h ave b een u sed a s b eads ( W ilbert 1 974 :28 f or s im ilar d iscuss ion). T he a rea a round a ll t he w hor l h o les, h owever , s how c onsiderable w ear w hich s uggests t hat t he w hor ls s erved a s s p ind le w eights . B ased o n w eight ( see M . H . P arsons 1 972 f or t he r e lat ion o f w hor l w eight t o t ype o f f ibers s pun),

3 0 1

t he w hor ls w ere p robab ly u sed t o s p in y arn f rom c otton. C oma les a nd g raters m ost l ike ly f unct ioned i n t he p reparat ion o f f ood f r om c orn o r m an ioc ; s ee D eBoer ( 1975) f or t he f unct io ns o f c oma les a nd J arr in ( 1971) f or g raters. B ased o n t he P L-31 c eramic e vidence , c rops g rown o n r a ised f ie lds p robab ly i nc luded c orn , m anioc, a nd c otton .

R A ISED-FIELD A GRICULTURE S ome r esidents o f t he P L-31 t errace , l ike m any i nhabitants i n t he C o limes c omp lex, f armed r a ised f ie lds t o p roduce f oods f rom c orn, m anioc, a nd o ther c rops, a nd t ext iles f rom c otton a nd o ther f ibers. T he f ie lds p robab ly b egan 1 50 m n orth o f t he t errace , a djacent t o a p a leochanne l ( oxbow m eander ). U nfortunate ly, c ontemporary a gricultura l a ct ivit ies h ave e lim inated p ossible v est iges o f t hese p rehispanic f ie lds. A r a ised-f ie ld c omp lex 8 50 m n orthwest o f P L-31 p rovides a n e xamp le o f i ntensive a gricu lture t hat m ay h ave o ccurred n earer t he t errace. C overed b y f orest , t he f ie lds d o n ot a ppear o n a er ia l p hotos, a f act w hich p revented M athewson f rom i nc lud ing t h is a rea i n h is d efinit ion o f t he C o limes c omp lex ( Denevan a nd M athewson 1 983:176). T he f ie lds, c over ing 2 6.87 h a , b egin o n t he w est b ank o f a n a ct ive s tream c hanne l t hat e mpt ies i nto t he D au le R iver . C haracter ist ic o f m eander ing r ivers, t he s tream c hanne l c onnects a p a leochanne l a nd l ake, k nown a s P oza R e licario, l ocated 2 k m n orth o f t he 2 7 h a o f f ie lds. W hen t he r iver f loods, w ater f i lls t he c hanne l, t hen s p ills i nto t he l ake, f i lling i t . O ne c an s ee i n t he 1 971 a er ia l p hoto ( F ig. 2 ) t hat t he c hanne l o nce s upp lied w ater t o s evera l s quare k ilometers o f w et lands a nd r a ised f ie lds . B u lldozers h ave l eve led m ost o f P oza R e licar io ( F ig. 3 ). T hirty-three h a o f e arthworks a re s t ill i ntact a t t he j uncture o f t he s tream c hanne l a nd t he R io D au le . W orking w ith a l oca l t opographer , A ure lio I tura lde, I m apped t he c omp lex t o i dent ify t he f unctiona l r e lat ions a mong t he f ie lds, d itches, a nd d epressions ( F ig. 4 ). R aised f ie lds, d itches, a rt if icia l d epressions, a nd u nmod if ied l and a ssoc iated w ith t he f ie lds r epresent 2 6 .87 o f t he 3 2.81 h a o f e arthworks. M easurements o f f ie ld l ength a nd s urface a rea i nd icate( s ignif icant a spects o f s pat ia l p atterning ( Tab le 1 ). R aised-f ie ld s urfaces c over a t ota l a rea o f 1 0 .6 h a. T hus, t he d ensit y o f r a ised f ie lds ( rat io o f f ie ld s urface, 1 0 .6 h a , t o t ota l s urface a rea , 2 6.9 h a ) i s 0 .39 . B y c ompar ing t h is f ie ld d ensit y n ear t he R io D aule w ith t hat ( st ill u ndeterm ined ) o f t he P oza R e licar io f ie lds o ne m ay b e a b le t o e st imate w hich a rea w as m ore i ntensive ly c u lt ivated. C ompar ing t he m easurements p ublished b y D enevan ( 1982:190), t he d ensity o f t he C o limes f ie lds i s h igher t han t hat o f o ther G uayas f ie lds. T he C o limes d ensit y i s r ough ly s im ilar t o t he d ensit ies o f f ie lds i n S an J orge ( Extreme N orthern A ndes), S outhern C ampeche ( Mex ico ) a nd L ake T it icaca ( Southern C entra l A ndes). O ne c an s ee i n F igures 2 a nd 4 t hat p reh ispanic m ound b u ilders u sed a c omp lex s er ies o f d itches, r a ised f ie lds, a nd d epress ions t o c ontro l t he f loodwater s p illing o ver t he b anks o f t he s tream a nd f illing t he o xbow l ake. T he a nc ient i nhabitants o f t he f loodp lain u ndoubted ly a ttempted t o c ontro l w ater f or a gr icu ltura l p urposes a nd m ay h ave u sed d itches a nd a rt if icia l d epressions f or p iscicu lture a nd w ater s torage. 3 02

F igure 2 .

A er ia l p hoto s how ing g round p atterns o f r a ised f ie lds a nd o ther e arthworks. I nst ituto G eogräf ico M ilitar p hotograph N o . 2 20 , R o ll 1 68 , J u ly 1 971.

3 03

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F ie ld 1 l a 2 3 3 a 3 b 4 4 a 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8

L ENGTHS A ND S URFACE A REAS F OR R A ISED F IELDS 1 -18 , Y UMES E ARTHWORK C OMPLEX. 1 L ength ( m ) 1 54 3 52 3 03 3 56 8 9 1 02 8 7 2 48 3 84 3 16 5 70 18 3 31 3 39 1 79 4 28 16 9 5 2 46 3 85 3 88 1 52

S urface A rea ( ha) 0 .18 0 .48 0 .47 1 .03 0 .09 0 .11 0 .075 0 .28 0 .52 0 .54 2 .12 0 .19 0 .44 0 .40 0 .20 1 .33 0 .15 0 .10 0 .68 0 .57 0 .43 0 .22

T ota l R aised-Fie ld A rea : 1 0 .60 h a 1 . L ength d eterm ined d uring f ie ldwork. S urface a rea"was m easured o n t he 1 :1000 s ca le t opographic m ap r esu lt ing f rom f ie ldwor k. F ie ld p er imeters w ere t raced o n t he m ap w ith a L asico p lanimeter a nd a utos ca ler . T he p er imeter w as i dent if ied a s t he c ontour i nterva l c orrespond ing t o t he p oint , d eterm ined o n t he g round, w here f ie ld s lope e nded a nd d it ch b egan.

T o d eterm ine t he a gricu ltura l f unct ions, I e xcavated 1 5 t est/ s quares i n t he c omp lex a nd t wo t renches p erpendicu lar t o t he l ong a xis o f t wo d ifferent f ie lds. S o il p rof iles i n t he t est s quares a nd t wo t renches e xposed h or izons o f a lmost p ure s and . I i nterpret t hese h or izons t o b e a nthrop ic d eposits . T hus , e xcept f or s ome s ed iment d eposited b y t he b ankfu l d ischarge o f t he s tream, m ost o f t he 2 7 h a r epresent p rehispanic l abor a ct ivit ies r ather t han g eomorphic e vents . T he s pat ia lly r estricted a reas w here t hese a ct ivit ies o ccurred s hou ld s erve a s t he f ocus o f a s amp ling s trategy, a t echnique t o s e lect s ome p ercentage o f t he 2 7 h a o f f ie lds f or d eta iled s tudy. F ew i nterpretat ions o f r a ised f ie lds, h owever , h ave a ttempted t o i dent ify a ct ivity a reas , c ontexts L umbreras ( 1984 :3) w ou ld d escr ibe a s " la u nidad a rqueo log ica s oc ia lmente s ignif icat iva". I ndeed, t he l iterature o n i ntensive a gricu lture h as p rovided o n ly a f ew g enera l o bservat ions a bout t he o rganizat ion a nd u se o f s pace i n r a ised f ie lds. W ere s uch g enera lizat ions a vailable, o ne w ou ld k now b etter h ow t o s amp le t he Y umes f ie lds i n o rder t o e st imate w ith g reater c onfidence t he a mount o f a rea f armed d uring a ny o ne p er iod . F or e xamp le, B arham

3 05

e arthworks

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ed F ie lds , Mounds , a nd A rt if ic ia l Depress ions .

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3 06

a nd H arris ( 1985:269), P arsons e t a l. ( 1985:51), S mith ( 1985:507), a nd W est a nd A rmillas ( 1950:174), a ll h ave i dent ified o ne g enera l f eature o f f ield m orphology t hat a ids i n d esigning a s amp ling s trategy. F rom r esearch i n P apua N ew G uinea a nd M exico, t hese i nvest igators r ecognized t hat f ield h eight o r w idth m ay b e l imited b y w hat B arham a nd H arris ( 1985:269) d escribe a s a h ydrological t hreshold. O ver t ime, f ields b ecome t a ller a nd w ider d ue t o a ctivit ies s uch a s m ucking, r emoval o f p lants a nd s oil f rom d itches t o t he r idge t ops, a n a ctivity t hat c leans d itches a nd f er uilizes f ields. T hese a ct ivit ies e n large t he f ie lds. A s t he f ields g et l arger, h owever, w ater f rom t he c enter o f t he d itches p ercolates i nto t he c enter o f t he r idges m ore s low ly. A t a c ertain p oint i n f ie ld m aintenance t he f ie lds b ecome t oo t a ll o r w ide. T herefore, t he f armers r emove s ome o f t he r idge t o i mprove w ater p enetrat ion. A pparent ly t hey f ill i n t he d itch b etween t wo f ields w ith t his r idge s oil, c onverting t wo s eparate r idges i nto o ne l arge o ne. Ap rofile d rawing o f aP ei i c in d el R io f ie ld i llustrates t his m aintenance a ctivity, a r ebuilding t hat t ransformed t wo s mall r idges a nd o ne d itch i nto o ne l arge r idge ( Mart(nez, t his v ol.). C onsider t his g enera l f eature o f r aised-field m orphology, o r " hydrological t hreshold," i n t he c ontext o f t he Y umes f ields. H ow m any s pat ia lly r estricted a ct ivity a reas w ould r ebuild ing t he f ie lds c reate? W ould t hese a ctivity a reas b e e venly d istributed t hroughout t he 2 7 h a, c lustered n ear t he c onfluences o f t wo o r t hree d itches, o r n ear t he a rtificial d epressions ( Fig. 4 )? A n i nability t o a nswer s uch q uest ions m akes t he s election o f t he p ercentage o f a rea l c overage, t he s ample s ize, a n a rbitrary d ec ision. Ip referred, t herefore, t o s elect t he l ocat ions o f f ield e xcavat ions o n t he b asis o f m y u nderstanding o f t he a rea r ather t han q uantitat ive s amp ling t echniques. E ventually, w ith m ore o bservat ions, s uch a s h ydrological t hresholds, p robablist ic s ampling c an b e c ombined w ith s amp ling b y p ersonal a ssessment . T he c ombinat ion w ill p roduce m ore r e liable p redict ions a bout t he n umber o f Y umes f ields c ult ivated i n t he 1 500s. T renches w ere l aid o ut i n o rder t o c ompare p er iods o f u se o f f ields n ear t he s tream w ith t hose f ie lds i n t he m iddle a nd n orthwest e nd o f t he c omp lex. T he t rench i n R aised F ie ld l a ( Fig. 4 ) c uts t hrough t he m iddle o f t he c omplex, a bout 3 50 m f rom t he s tream c hannel. T he e xcavat ion r evea led p edogenic e vidence o f a griculture( d own t o m ore t han 3 .0 m b elow s urface. T he A h orizon o n w hich t he f irst r idge o f F ie ld l a w as b uilt l ies a t l east 1 -2 m b elow t his d epth, b ased o n s hovel t ests i n t he t rench f loor. L ack o f t ime p revented s earch f or t his b uried h orizon a nd d atable m ateria ls a ssociated w ith i t . T hin l enses o f b urnt b one w ere s cattered t hroughout t he f ie ld a t 1 -2 m b elow t he p resent s urface. A t ota l v olume o f 2 .1 1 o f b one f ormed p art o f a h eavy f raction, t he m ateria ls l eft f rom p rocessing b y f lotat ion o f 5 7 1 o f s oil c ollected a t t his d epth i n F ie ld l a. T he f lotat ion m ethod r equ ired s everal p ieces o f e qu ipment . T hey i ncluded a 5 2 I b arrel, a n a lum inum t ub w ith t he b ottom r emoved a nd r eplaced w ith w indow s creen, a nd a s coop t hat u sed c arburetor m esh t o s kim o ff t he m ateria ls f loat ing o n t he w ater s urface. T he f lotat ion t echnique u sed i n Y umes r epresents a v ariat ion o f t he o il-drum t echnique d escribed b y W atson ( 1976:80). A ccording t o t he f lotat ion r esu lts, t he 5 7 1 o f s oil c ontained n o f lora l r emains. T he b one r ecovered b y f lotat ion n o l onger c ontained e nough o rganic m atter f or r adiocarbon

3 07

a na lysis , e ither d ue t o e xtreme b urning o r s oil p rocesses . ( pers. c omm .), a f auna l s pecia list , c ou ld n ot c lassify b ecause o f i ts p oor p reservat ion . W hen e xposed i n F ie ld l enses o f b one a lso i nc luded s ma ll s pecks o f c harcoa l. W hen t he c harcoa l w eighed 0 .2 g , t oo l ight a s amp le t o a na lyze r adiocarbon l abs.

P . S tah l t he b one l a, t he c leaned, a t m ost

A t est s quare t o s tudy s oil p rof iles i n R aised F ie ld 1 0 , 4 0 m f rom t he t rench i n R aised F ie ld l a, e xposed a c oncentrat ion o f b one a nd c harcoa l a t 0 .6-0.9 m b e low t he s urface . T he e nt ire c oncentrat ion m easured a bout 4 0 1 i n v o lume. W hen p rocessed b y f lotat ion , t he 4 0 1 y ie lded a bout 1 1 o f b one a nd n o p lant m ater ia l. B ecause o f l ack o f o rganic m atter a nd p oor p reservat ion, t he b one c ou ld n ot b e d ated. A ccord ing t o S tah l's t entat ive c onclus ion, t hree s pec imens m ay r epresent b ones o f al arge m amma l. T he U niversity o f W ash ington C -14 l ab p rocessed a 0 .88 g s amp le o f c harcoa l c o llected f rom a mong t he b ones d uring e xcavat ion. O n c ombust ion t he c harcoa l p roduced o n ly 0 .3 go f c arbon, t oo l itt le t o a na lyze a t t heir l aboratory. A lthough t hey d id n ot p roduce r ad iocarbon d ates, t he m ater ia ls f rom R aised F ie lds l a a nd 1 0 w ere f ound a t s im ilar d epths . J udg ing f rom s uch s im ilar it ies, b oth s ets o f m ater ia ls w ere d eposited a t a pprox imate ly t he s ame t ime, p robably d uring t he M ilagro-Quevedo p er iod . T herefore , f loodp lain r esidents m a y h ave c ontemporaneous ly o ccup ied t he m idd le s ect ion o f t he Y umes e arthworks, t he s ect ion n ear t he s tream c hanne l, a nd m uch o f t he n earby a lluvia l t errace .

E XCAVATION A T R A ISED F IELD 5 A s econd t rench w as e xcavated w ithin t he c omp lex a t R aised F ie ld 5 n ear i ts p oint o f o r igin o n t he c hanne l l evee ( F ig. 5 ). S uper imposed a gricu ltura l u se s urfaces a nd r ebuild ing e pisodes w ere e xposed t o a d epth o f m ore t han 4 m b e low t he c ontemporary f ie ld s urface ( F igs. 6 a nd 7 ). A ccord ing t o r esu lts o f s hove l t ests i n t he f loor o f t he t rench, t hese d eposits e xtend d ownward a t l east a nother m eter . H owever , s evera l f actors, s uch a s l ack o f t ime, n arrowness o f a 1 .5 m w ide t rench, a nd p otent ia l c o llapse o f t he e xposed w est p rof ile, p revented t he s earch f or d atab le m ater ia ls a ssoc iated w ith d eeper r aised-f ie ld d eposits. F rom t he c ontemporary s urface t o a d epth o f 4m , e xcavat ion u ncovered t wo l oc i o f b urning, F eatures 1 a nd 5 , w ith e nough c harcoa l t o s ubm it f or d at ing. F eature 1 h as a r ad iocarbon a ge o f 3 40 + 7 0 y ears: A .D. 1 610 ( uncorrected, W IS-1691). F eature 1 c onsists o f c harcoa l f ragments a nd 5 0-75 f ragments o f b aked c lay a nd c overs a h or izonta l a rea o f a bout 0 .6-1.2 m b y 0 .6-0.8 m a t 0 .3 m b e low t he c ontemporary s urface ( F ig. 7 ). I n p laces t he b aked c lay i s c lose ly p acked f orm ing a h ard , c ont inuous s urface . T he c haroca l d ated b y C -14 a na lysis c ame f rom t he c enter o f t he f eature , o ut o f a s ha llow p it . T he f eature i nterface ( see H arr is 1 979 :45-47 f or s trat igraphic t erms), t he s urface s eparat ing t he s oil m atrix o utside t he p it f rom t he a rea w ithin t he p it , c onsisted o f b aked c la y a bout 1 m m t hick. T he p it i s 0 .3-0.5 m i n a rea a nd 0 .3-0.4 m d eeper t han t he c ontemporar y d itch s urface . T he p ieces o f b aked c la y, b oth i n t he p it a nd o n t he a ssoc iated h or izonta l s urface , m easure b etween 1 -3 c m . T he ir t op s urfaces, o r t he s urface f irst e xposed d uring e xcavat ion, a re f lat a nd r edd ish o range ; t he u ndersides a re i rregu lar 3 08

0 • C S - < 1 ) • e• ( 1 . 1 4 -) S U) S . L I 1 0 C D 4- 0) 40 C 0

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-C 4 -) ( 1 )

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3 09

Z.. = S . U 4 -) S . - • r ( 1 3 "0 0

n ortheast e dge

0

3 10

e xcavat ion

CD . i IA . . . -4 a )

5 4 ) = t r s4 ) C d c C D

3l a t 1 5

S . - •0 1 : 3 C a Z 5 1 .0 0 1, r I VD 5 1 .) . -4 U-

• C D • C ) • O . ) .4 V I .- •• r e u l ce 5 . C d 4- C L ) 0 > > G . ) CD 1 - r -. ,4- 4 - 1 0 S - CD c i - dr e ) 4 > ( 1 ) C D 0 3 4 -)

3 11

a nd b lack. H ence t he f ire i n t he p it a nd a cross t he h orizonta l s urface p roduced e nough h eat t o t ransform t he c layey s oil i nto b aked c lay. T herefore t he r edd ish o range r esu lted f rom t he t op p ort ion o f t he b aked c lay r ece iving m ore h eat a nd o xygen t han t he u nder lying p ort ions w hich w ere p oor ly o xid ized. A t t he t ime o f e xcavat ion v ery f ew o f t he r edd ish o range s urfaces w ere o r iented d ownward , a l ike ly o r ientat ion h ad t hey s uffered p ost-deposit iona l d isturbance . N either w ashed d own t he s lope o f t he f ie ld , n or d umped d ur ing f ie ld m aintenance , t he b urnt c lay a nd c arbonized f lora w ere f ound i n s itu . T hese m ater ia ls r epresent a h earth f ired 3 00-400 y ears a go.

P LANT R EMA INS A SSOCIATED W ITH T HE H EARTH S amp les s ubm itted f or r adiocarbon a na lysis w ith c harcoa l i nc luded o ne a nd a h a lf c harred f ruits. S evera l b otanists e xam ined t he f ru its , p rior t o r ad iocarbon a na lysis, i n a n a ttempt t o d eterm ine w hich c ult igens g rew o n t he f ie lds d uring t he p er iod o f h earth u se . H . H . I lt is , a n a uthor it y o n E cuador ian f lora , u sed m orpho log ica l c r iter ia t o a ssign t he f ruits t o t he g enus A mbrosia . F or f urther e xam inat ion , h e f orwarded t hem t o P ayne ( Payne , 1 964 ; P ayne a nd J ones 1 962), m onographer o f A mer ican m embers o f t h is g enus, a nd t o S tuess y ( 1972), a s pecia list o n t he f am ily t o w hich A mbrosia b e longs, n ame ly, t he C ompositae . B oth c onc lude , b ased o n t he i nterna l m orpho logy o f t he l ocu le ( the s eed c avit y o f t he f ruit ) t hat t he f ru its a re A mbrosia , b ut h esitate t o a ssign t hem a s pec ies d esignat ion. B ecause o f t heir s ize, t he f ru its m ost r esemb le t he E cuador ian s pec ies A . a rborescens, a p erennia l a nd s omewhat s hrubby ( to 4 .0 m t a ll) s pecies c ommon i n d isturbed h abitats . T he a nc ient f ruits, h owever , d iffer m orpho logica lly f rom c ontemporar y s pec imens o f A . a rborescens i n a l l o ther a ttributes. A ccord ing t o S tuessy a nd P ayne , t he f ruits a re n ot A . a rborescens. T hey m ay r epresent a h itherto u nknown s pecies . P hyto lith a na lysis c an p rovide r esu lts f or p art ia lly a nswer ing t he q uest ion r a ised b y t he p resence o f t he A mbrosia f ruits . W as R aised F ie ld 5 c u lt ivated a t t he t ime t he h earth w as f ired? D . M . P earsa ll a na lyzed s oil c o llected b eside t he h earth t o d etermine i f p hyto liths a re p resent ( pa lyno logica l a na lyses o f t his s oil a re s t ill i n p rogress). S he i dent if ied f ive, c ross-shaped p h yto liths , w hich , ( ' b ased o n s ize c lassif icat ion ( Pearsa ll 1 982:864), r epresent t he c e ll s hape o f m aize. N ext , s he c lassif ied t he c ross-shapes b y t heir t hreed imensiona l c haracter ist ics ( P iperno 1 984 :368-370) a nd i dent if ied t he t hree-d imensiona l s tructure o f o ne o f t he c rosses t hat i s t yp ica l o f m aize a nd n ot o f w ild g rasses. T his i dent if icat ion s trongly s uggests t hat m aize w as g rown o n o r n ear t he s urface a djacent t o t he h earth . T o r ecover a ny r emains o f s uch p lants, 2 6 1o f F eature 1 s oil w as c o llected f or f lotat ion . W hen f loated, t he s oil y ie lded n o p lant o r a nima l r emains.

I NTERPRETATION O F S OIL H ORIZONS B ETWEEN F EATURES 1 A ND 5 A s F igure 7 s hows, s evera l d ist inct s oil h or izons s eparate t he t wo c ontexts w ith r ad iocarbon e vidence . E xcavat ion u ncovered m ater ia l i nd icat ing t hat t he h or izon a t 0 .3-0.7 m b e low s urface w as c u lt ivated a t a pprox imate ly t he t ime t he h earth w as u sed. F irst , t h is h or izon 3 12

h e ld s ix c omp lete , c harred A mbrosia s p . f ruits s cattered t hroughout t he e nt ire l ength o f t he f ie ld c ross-sect ion. S econd, t he c oncentrat ion o f c harcoa l, t hough i nsuff icient t o d ate ( labe led F eature 2 d uring f ie ldwork), w as f ound i n a n a rea 7 b y 4c ms a t 0 .68 m b e low t he h ighest p o int o f t he f ie ld . T he c harred f ruits a nd c harcoa l f rom F eature 2 , i n t he s ame h or izon a nd a t s imilar d epths, s uggest l oca lized f ires, p erhaps n atura l w ildf ires o r f ie ld b urning e vents d uring t he m aintenance o f R aised F ie ld 5 . I n t he c ase o f f ie ld b urning a s a m aintenance t echnique, t he f o llow ing s cenar io i s s uggested. F o llow ing h arvest , f armers b urned t he h arvest d ebr is w hich c harred t he m ater ia ls f ound d uring e xcavat ion ; n ext , t hey c leaned t he d itches o f a ny s oil a nd p lants a ccumu lated d uring c u lt ivat ion o f t he r idge o r d it ch; t hen , t hey t ossed t h is m ateria l o n t he t op a nd s lopes o f t he r idge ( muck ing). T hese m aintenance a ct ivit ies f ert ilized t he f ie ld , i mproved w ater f low i n t he d itches, a nd c overed t he m ater ia ls f ound d uring e xcavat ion . T he i dent if icat ion o f c u lt igens i n t he s oils f rom 0 .3-0.7 m b e low t he s urface f rom p o llen a nd p h yto lith a na lysis w ill l end s upport t o t he i nterpretat ion t hat t his h or izon w as f armed. T he i dent if icat ion o f c u lt igens i n t he s ame h or izons c ontaining A mbrosia f ru its h as y et a nother i mp licat ion. B ecause s evera l A mbrosia s pec ies a re u sed i n m ed icines a nd t ies ( Payne a nd J ones 1 962:159-162), t he p lants p roducing t he e xcavated f ruits m ay h ave b een c omponents o f t he r a ised-f ie ld f lora l a ssemb lage. A s ar esu lt o f s uch c u lt ivat ion a nd m aintenance , f armers b uilt u p F ie ld 5 f rom a p o int a t 2 .2 m b e low s urface t o 0 .7 m b e low s urface . C onfirmat ion o f a n a nthropic a s o pposed t o g eomorphic o r igin o f t h is c onstruct ion h or izon d epends o n : t he f orthcom ing i nterpretat ion o f a na lyses f or p H , o rganic m atter c ontent , t exture, p o llen, a nd p h ytoliths . F eature 5 T he s econd o f t he t wo d ated b urning e vents ( Feature 5 ) w as u ncovered a t 2 .2-2.3 m b e low t he s urface o f t he h ighest p oint o f t he f ie ld . V is ib le i n F igure 7 , t he 0 .1 m e levat iona l c hange f rom o ne l imit o f t he f eature t o t he o ther f ollows p erfect ly t he c ontour o f t he r idge a s i t s lopes i nto t he d it ch. F eature 5 i s 0 .8-1.3 m i n a rea a nd a bout 1 c m t h ick. W ith r espect t o t ota l v o lume, i t m easures a bout 1 8' 1 , m ost ly s oil w ith s ome c harcoa l. F lotat ion o f t h is s oil r ecovered n o f auna l o r f lora l m ater ia ls. T he c harcoa l c o llected d uring e xcavat ion w as v ery f ine-gra ined a nd p owdery, p erhaps t he r esu lt o f a f ire t hat b urnt h erbaceous r ather t han w oody p lants . T he t h inness o f F eature 5 a nd i ts m ar ked d ifferences i n c o lor a nd t exture f rom s urround ing s oils a id i n i nterpret ing i ts c ontext . T his e vidence s uggests t hat t he b urning e vent w as b r ief , p roducing o n ly 5 -10 p ieces o f b aked c lay i n t he f eature a nd n one i n t he s urround ing s oils. W hen e xposed d uring e xcavat ion, t he r edd ish o range s urfaces o f t he c lay f aced u pward . T he s lope a nd b aked c lay i nd icate t hat t he c harcoa l i n F eature 5 b urnt i n s itu a nd u nderwent l itt le s ubsequent d isturbance . I n t he c arbon-r ich s oil, P earsa ll h as p osit ive ly i dent if ied m a ize p hyto liths . P . S anford ( pers. c omm .) h as a lso i dent if ied m a ize p o llen i n F eature 5 s oils. T herefore t he f eature r epresents a n i n s itu s urface f or g rowing m aize t hat w as b urnt a nd t hen c overed b y l ater r ebu ild ing e p isodes a nd u se s urfaces . A na lysis o f t he c harcoa l i n t he s urface p roduced a r ad iocarbon a ge o f 2 90 + 7 0 y ears: A .D. 1 660 ( uncorrected, W IS-1690). 3 13

T he d ates f or F eatures 1 a nd 5 a re r eversed : F eature 5 i s a lmost 2 .0 m b e low F eature 1 , y et i t d ates 5 0 r ad iocarbon y ears e ar lier . C ou ld i t b e t hat o lder f ue l, p erhaps d r iftwood f rom n earb y p oint b ars a nd l evees o r w ood f rom e ar lier s ett lements, w as b urned i n t he m ore s ha llow F eature 1 ? C ou ld g eochem ica l p rocesses h ave e nr iched t he h earth c harcoa l w ith o lder c arbon? A dd it iona l C -14 a ssa ys f rom t he f loodp lain w ill a id i n e va luat ing t hese i nterpretat ions. F or t he p resent , I w ou ld a rgue t hat t he t wo d ifferent d ates r epresent t he s ame f act : t he t wo s urfaces u sed f or m aize c u lt ivat ion a re a pprox imate ly c ontemporaneous. T he s trat igraphic r e lat ions s how c onc lusive ly t hat t he F eature 5 s tratum w as d eposited b efore F eature 1 . I b e lieve t hat t he u se s urfaces a nd c onstruct ion e pisodes s eparat ing t he t wo d ated s urfaces a ccumu lated i n a s hort t ime, p robably i n l ess t han 5 0 y ears. T he d eposits b etween t he d ated u se s urfaces r epresent a b r ief p er iod i n t he l ong h istor y o f c u lt ivat ion a nd m aintenance o f R aised F ie ld 5 , a h istor y p robably s pann ing h undreds o f y ears a s r epresented b y m eters o f s uper imposed s urfaces b e low F eature 5 .

D ISCUSSION A ND C ONCLUSIONS T he r adiocarbon e vidence f rom R aised F ie ld 5 ( A .D . 1 610 + 7 0 a nd 1 660 + 7 0) a nd t he P L-31 s tructures ( A .D. 1 560 + 8 0 a nd 1 630 4-7 0) a nd c erami c m ater ia ls i nd icate t hat M ilagro-Quevedo p eop les wg i ced a nd l ived i n t he C o limes C omp lex d uring t he l ate p rehispanic t o e ar ly h ispanic p er iods, a nd p robably e ar lier . A t o ne s tandard d eviat ion , t he c omposite r ange o f t he f our a ssays s pans t he p er iod A .D. 1 480-1730 . A ccord ing t o e thnohistor ic d ocuments ( Esp inoza S or iano 1 981:37-41), f ew a bor igina l p eop les l ived a long t he f loodp lain a fter a bout A .D. 1 600 . A ccept ing t hat , Ic onc lude t hat t he f our a ssa ys p ertain t o a c ontemporaneous o ccupat ion f rom t he l ate 1 400s t o t he e ar ly 1 600s A .D. M ost o f t he C o limes r a ised f ie lds w ere p robably c u lt ivated a t t he s ame t ime, b etween t he l ate 1 400s a nd t he e ar ly 1 600s. T wo t ypes o f e vidence s upport t his i nterpretat ion. F irst , d ated m ater ia ls f rom R aised F ie ld 5 w ere a t a bout t he s ame d epths a s t he u ndated m ater ia ls ( ' f rom R aised F ie lds l a a nd 1 0 . M oreover , t he s oil p rofiles i n t hese f ie lds a nd t he f ie lds e xam ined a t t he t est s quares s hare c ommon t exture a nd c o lor c haracter ist ics. S im ilar s oil h or izons w ith a ct ivity l oci a t s im ilar d epths i n f ie lds s eparated b y h undreds o f m eters s uggest t hat t he m ater ia ls w ere d eposited c ontemporaneous ly. S econd, t he a rt if icia l h abitat ion m ound, P L-18, c ontained n umerous M ilagro-Quevedo s herds. T hus, t he m ound w as p robably o ccup ied w hen t he m ateria ls i n R aised F ie lds l a, 5 , a nd 1 0 w ere d eposited. I t s eems l ike ly t hat t he r esidents o f t he m ound a nd n earby a lluvia l t errace c ult ivated m ost o f t he 2 7 h a d uring t he l ate M ilagro-Quevedo p er iod . C rops g rown o n t he f ie lds i nc luded m a ize, a nd, p ossibly m anioc, c otton, a nd o thers. A s ignif icant r esu lt o f t he r esearch o n t he C o limes f ie lds i s a n i nd icat ion o f o ne m easure o f a gricu ltura l i ntensit y, f requency o f c u lt ivat ion ( see T urner a nd D enevan 1 985 f or a d iscussion o f m easures o f a gricultura l i ntensity a nd r aised f ie lds). A ssum ing t he e vidence f rom F ie lds l a, 5 , a nd 1 0 i s v a lid a nd r epresentat ive n ot o n ly f or t he

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e nt ire l ength o f t hese f ields b ut a lso f or o thers, i t i s c lear t hat f armers i nvested l arge a mounts o f l abor i n m any h ectares o f f ield c onstruct ion a nd m aintenance o ver s hort p eriods o f t ime. A gricultura l l aborers r epeatedly r ebuilt f eatures l ike F ie lds l a a nd 5 . M ost l ikely, t hey d id s o f or t wo r easons: t o m aintain f ie ld f ertility b y m ucking a nd t o r egu late t he g radients i n t he d itches. P roper g radients w ould c ontrol b ankfu ll d ischarge o f t he s tream d uring t he r ainy s eason. S uch c ontrol w ould a lso h elp p revent w ater f rom f looding a f ie ld. M oreover, i t w ould a llow w ater t o b e s tored i n t he c ana l s umps o r a rt ificial d epressions ( Fig. 4 ). S uch i ntensive l abor a nd c arefu l w ater c ontrol a re e vidence t hat t he f ie lds w ere p robably s e ldom f allowed. P re liminary i nterpretat ions o f t he C olimes c omp lex s hows t hat t here a re n o e asy a nswers t o t he t heoret ical q uest ions p osed a t t he b eginning o f t his a rt icle. T he a vailable e vidence, h owever, o verwhelmingly i ndicates t hat b y A .D. 1 500 t he r esidents o f t his r egion h ad d eveloped a w ell-organized s ociopolit ical o rganizat ion, a n a bility t o c arry o ut l arge-scale c ommunity p rojects, a nd a n e conomy b uilt o n as ignificant i nvestment i n i ntensive f arming.

A cknowledgments. R esearch i n E cuador w as m ade p ossible b y t he g enerous s upport o f t he M useo A ntropolögico y P inacoteco ( Banco C entra l d el E cuador-Guayaqu il) a nd i ts d irector, O laf H olm; T he C entro d e E studios A rqueolögicos y A ntropolögicos ( ESPOL-Guayaqu il), a nd i ts d irector, J orge M arcos; T he W enner-Gren F oundat ion f or A nthropological R esearch; t he N at ional S cience F oundat ion D octora l D issertat ion C omm ittee; a nd t he F ulbright-Hays D octoral D issertat ion P rogram. M aria C armen d e M olest ina, a t t he I nst ituto d e P atrimonio C ultural, a ided m e i n f u lfilling E cuadorean r equirements c oncerning p roper r esearch p ermits. R adiocarbon d ates f rom t he R adiocarbon L ab o f t he C enter f or C limat ic R esearch, U niversity o f W isconsin-Madison, w ere f unded b y t he C limat ic D ynamnics P rogram, N at iona l S cience F oundat ion u nder g rant N o. A TM82-19079. I t hank B ruce B enz, W illiam D enevan, K ent M athewson, D ouglas P rice, a nd P atricia S anford f or t heir c omments o n e arlier v ersions o f t his a rt icle.

N OTES 1 . I n 1 979 a U NESCO-PUND m eet ing p roposed t hat a s tandard g eographic n omenclature b e u sed f or f uture a rchaeological d iscussion o f t he A ndean a rea. T heir t erms a nd c oncepts a re u sed h ere. T his n ew c oncept o f t he A ndean a rea, a long w ith o ther a na lyt ical i ssues, a re t he p rinc ipal t opics d iscussed i n w hat I c onsider t o b e t he b est r ecent s ynthesis o f A ndean a rchaeology, A rqueologfa d e l a A merica A ndina b y L umbreras ( 1981). 2 . E ditors ' N ote. K ent M athewson, i n h is 1 979-80 s urvey o f a ir p hotos o f t he G uayas B asin, f irst i dent ified r aised f ie lcs i n t he o xbow m eander c hannels a long t he R i o D aule n ear C olimes. S temper h as d iscovered s ub-comp lexes o f r aised f ields a t s evera l o ther l ocat ions a long t he R i o D aule, i n a dd it ion t o t he r aised f ie lds d iscussed i n t his a rticle.

3 15

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P ayne, W illard W . a nd V olney H . J ones 1 962. T he T axonomic S tatus a nd A rchaeological S ignificance o f a G iant R agweed f rom P rehistoric B luff S helters i n t he O zark P lateau R egion. P apers o f t he M ichigan A cademy o f S cience, A rts, a nd L etters 6 7:147-163. P earsall, D eborah M . 1 982. P hytolith A nalysis: A pp licat ions o f aN ew P aleoethnobotanical T echnique i n A rchaeology. A merican A nthropologist 8 4:862-871. P iperno, D olores R . 1 984. AC ompar ison a nd D ifferentiat ion o f P hytoliths f rom M aize a nd W ild G rasses: U se o f M orphological C riteria. A merican A ntiqu ity 4 9:361-383. P lazas, 1 981.

C lemenc ia a nd A na M aria F a lchett i d e S aenz A sentamientos p rehispänicos e n e l b ajo r i o S an J orge. F undaciön d e I nvest igaciones N äT ioniI, B anco d e l a R epublica, P ublicaciön 1, B ogota. 3 18

P ozorski, T homas, S he lia P ozorski, C arol M ackey, a nd A .M.U. K lymyshyn 1 983. P re-Hispanic R idged F ie lds o f t he C asma V alley, P eru. T he G eographical R eview 7 3:407-416. R aymond, J . S cott , J orge G . M arcos, a nd D onald W . L athrap 1 980. E vidence o f E ar ly F ormat ive S ett lement i n t he G uayas E cuador. C urrent A nthropology 2 1:700-701. S a lazar, E rnesto 1 980. T alleres p rehistöricos e n l os A ndes U niversidad d e C uenca, E cuad 77.

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W atson, P atty J o 1 976. I n P ursu it o f P rehistoric S ubsistence: A C omparat ive A ccount o f S ome C ontemporary F loatat ion T echniques. M id-Cont inenta l J ournal o f A rchaeology 1 :79-99. W est , R obert C . a nd P edro A rmillas 1 950. L as c hinampas d e M exico. C uadernos A mer icanos 2 :165-182. W ilbert, J ohannes 1 974. T he T hread o f L ife, S ymbolism o f M iniature A rt f rom E cuador. TET id Ws— j f P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rch A7Togy, N o. 1 2, D umbarton O aks, W ashington, D .C.

3 19

C HAPTER 1 6 E STIMATING L ABOR I NPUTS F OR T HE G UAYAS R A ISED F IELDS: I NITIAL C ONSIDERATIONS

K ent M athewson

A BSTRACT A ttempts t o e st imate l abor e xpend itures f or r a ised-f ie ld c omp lexes h ave g enera lly f o llowed t he l ead o f s im ilar e xerc ises i nvo lv ing c eremonia l c onstruct ions. H owever , a gro-infrastructura l f eatures, i nc lud ing r a ised f ie lds, a re n ot s trict ly a na logous t o m ounds, t emp les, a nd p yram ids. B y d ef init ion, a groecosystems a re d ynam ic, g enerat ing e nergy a s w e ll r equ ir ing i t f or c onstruct ion a nd m aintenance . R aised f ie lds w ere c ore f eat ures i n t he p roduct ion s ystems o f s oc iet ies t hat b u ilt t hem . B e yond d eterm ining v o lumetric d imensions o f t hese c onstructs, o ther f actors m ust b e c onsidered. T hey i nc lude : e nvironmenta l a nd t echno log ica l v ar iables, t empora l f actors, d emographic a nd c u ltura l e co logica l c ond it ions, a nd s oc iop o lit ica l a spects o f t he g roups t hat c onstructed a nd m aintained t hem . C urrent e vidence i mp licates e ga litar ian r ather t han s tate l eve l s oc iet ies i n G uayas r a ised-f ie ld p roduct ion . T herefore , i t i s a rgued t hat m ode ling c onstruct ion r ates s hou ld k ey o n p ostu lated r ates o f p opu lat ion i ncrease w ithin t he c ontext o f l oca l e nvironmenta l c onstra ints .

I NTRODUCTION I n t he l ast t en y ears a n i mpressive n umber o f p apers, r eports , b ook l ength s tud ies a nd n ow s ymposia h ave f ocused o n r a ised-f ie ld f arm ing i n t he N ew W or ld t rop ics ( F lannery 1 982, D arch 1 983, T urner a nd H arr ison 1 983, F arr ington 1 985, P oh l 1 987). A t t he r egiona l s ca le t h is w ork h as p roceeded w ithin t he t rad it ion o f c u lture h istory a nd l andscape a rchaeo logy, r e ly ing o n s imp le a rt ifact c o llect ions 3 nd a er ia l o bservat ions ( Denevan a nd M athewson 1 983). A t t he s ite s pec if ic l eve l, w ork i s b eing d one w ithin t he p urview o f c u ltura l e co logy o r e nvironmenta l a rchaeo logy, w hich r equ ire i nterd iscip linary e fforts a nd o ffer s cient if ic a pproaches t o d ata c o llect ion a nd a na lysis ( Turner a nd H arr ison 1 981). W ork a t b oth l eve ls h ave y ie lded s uff icient i nformat ion t o a llow f or t entat ive s yntheses a nd g enera lizat ions ( Turner a nd D enevan 1 985). Y et t hese s tud ies a lso d emonstrate t hat r ef inements i n t he m ethods a nd a ssumpt ions m ade f or p urposes o f a na lysis m ust p roceed a pace a s w e ll a s. I w ill f ocus o n o ne a rea o f a na lysis t hat n eeds r ef inement , n ame ly, t he p rob lem o f e st imat ing t he a mount o f l abor i nvo lved i n t he c onstruct ion a nd m aintenance o f r a ised-f ie ld s ystems . T o m ake s uch e st imates, o ne c an d raw o n c omparat ive d ata f rom v ar ious s ources : e thnohistor ic, e thnographic, a nd e xper imenta l. I n t urn , t h is d ata c an b e c ompared a gainst m ode ls f ormu lated a nd i nformed b y t he a rchaeo logica l r ecord. T hrough b etter u nderstand ing o f t he a mount o f l abor t hat a ncient p eop les i nvested i n l andscape m od if icat ions f or 3 21

a gr icu ltura l p urposes, w e c an b egin t o a ddress q uest ions o f a l arger s cope. T wo k ey q uest ions a re : W hat w as t he n ature o f t he s oc iet ies t hat b u ilt a nd m aintained t hese i ntensive a groecosystems? W hat w ere t he p roduction p rocesses t hat d ef ined a nd s ustained t hese s oc iet ies? Iw ill b r ief ly m ent ion s ome o f t he p rior a ttempts a t c a lcu lat ing a nc ient a gr icu ltura l l abor i nvestments a nd h ow t hey m ight b e i mproved. Ip ut t hese e fforts i n t he c ontext o f t he r a ised-f ie ld c omp lexes t hat h ave b een d iscovered a nd s tud ied o ver t he p ast t wo d ecades i n t he G uayas B asin o f E cuador . I n t h is p aper , Io n ly p oint t o af ew o f t he a reas w here r ef inements s hould b e m ade. A m ore c omp lete d iscussion o f t hese q uest ions, a nd a " m inima list " m ode l f or a nc ient G uayas r aised-f ie ld c onstruct ion i s p resented e lsewhere ( Mathewson 1 987).

P RELIMINARY Q UEST IONS I n c onceptua lizing t he p rob lem o f a nc ient l abor i nputs f or t he G uayas r a ised f ie lds, s evera l p re lim inary q uest ions m ust b e c onsidered. F irst , d o w e h ave a n a ccurate k now ledge o f t he p resent a nd f ormer e xtent o f r a ised-f ie ld f eatures i n t he G ua yas B asin? T he d iscovery a nd i nit ia l m app ing o f r a ised f ie lds i n t he r egion b y J ames J . P arsons ( 1969 ; P arsons a nd S h lemon 1 982, t his v o l.) w as d one m ore t han a d ecade a go. S ince 1 978 , I h ave d one a dd it iona l m app ing ( Denevan a nd M athewson 1 983). A t t he s ame t ime i ntensive a rchaeo log ica l w ork o n r aised f ie lds h as b een c arr ied o ut a t t hree s ites: n ear S amboronddn, P e i lö n d e l R io, a nd Y umes. T hese i nvest igat ions w ere d irected b y R . G . W hitten ( Denevan , M athewson , a nd W hitten 1 985), J . G . M arcos a nd M . G . M use ( Marcos n .d .; B uys a nd M use; t his v o l, M artinez, t his v o l.), a nd D . M . S temper ( this v o l.) r espect ive ly. I t n ow a ppears t hat t he r egiona l e xtent o f t he r aised f ie lds i s w e ll e stab lished. S ome f eatures p resent ly t hought t o b e r a ised f ie lds, m ay p rove o n c lose i nspect ion n ot t o b e, o r o n ly p art ia lly s o. I n a dd it ion , p erhaps a s m uch a s 2 0% o r m ore o f t he o nce e xtant r a ised f ie lds h ave b een o b literated o ver t ime b y b oth n atura l c auses a nd h uman a gency, m aking a n a ccurate a ccount ing o f t he t ota l a rea o f r aised-f ie ld c onstruct ion i mpossible w ithout r esort ing t o s tat ist icä l p ro jections. N everthe less , m y e st imate t hat r aised-f ie ld c omp lexes o nce o ccup ied s ome 5 0 ,000 h a o f t he G uayas w et land l andscape, c an b e u sed t o m ake o ther i nferences a bout a nc ient s ubsistence p atterns a nd p rocesses i n t he r egion . A ssum ing t hat w e c an e stablish t he e xtent a nd v o lumetric d imensions o f r aised f ie lds, t here a re a dd it iona l p rob lems t o c onsider . A t l east f ive m ajor c ategor ies o f f actors m ust b e a ccounted f or . T hey a re : 1 ) e nvironmenta l v ar iables; 2 ) t echno log ica l v ar iables; 3 ) t empora l l abor f actors i nc lud ing d aily r ates, s easona l f luctuat ions, a nd s upra-annua l c ycles; 4 ) d emographic-cu ltura l e co log ica l v ar iab les; a nd 5 ) s oc io-po lit ica l o rganizat iona l f actors i nc lud ing i deo log ica l a nd s ymbo lic a rt icu lat ions o f t he s oc ia l f ormat ion i mp licated. I n t urn , e ach o f t hese c ategor ies h ave c r it ica l v ar iables. F irst , t he e nvironmenta l c ontext c onstruct ion m ater ia ls, p art icu lar ly 3 22

i nc ludes v ar iables s uch a s : s o ils; s easona l h ydro log ic

c hanges; a nd l ift a nd t ransport d istances o f e xcavated m ater ia l. S econd, t echno logica l v ar iables i nc lude a w ide v ar iet y o f e xcavat ion t oo ls a nd i mp lements u sed i n c onveyance . T hird, t he t empora l d imension m ust b e e xam ined i n u nits a t l east a s m inima l a s t he n umber o f h ours o f w ork p er d ay, t o p ossib ly l onger p er iods o f w ork s chedu les. F ourth, d emographic a nd c u ltura l e co logica l f actors i nc lude t he p opu lat ion c haracter ist ics o f t he f armers, e co logica l v ar iab les s uch a s c u lt igens c ropped a nd f ood s ources a vailab le f or h unt ing, f ish ing, a nd g ather ing. F ina lly, t he n ature o f t he s oc ia l a nd p o lit ica l o rganizat ion o f g roups e ngaged i n r a ised-f ie ld f arm ing a re f actors t hat i nf luenced i f n ot d eterm ined t he i ntensit y a nd w ays i n w hich l abor e xpend itures w ere a llocated. M oreover, t he r ea lm o f i deo logica l o r s uperstructura l c oncerns s hou ld n ot b e d ivorced f rom c onsiderat ions o f t he s oc io-po lit ica l f actors i nvo lved i n l abor i nvestments .

S OURCES O F D ATA O N E ARTH M OVING T here a re s evera l s ources o f p ub lished d ata o n m anua l e arthmoving o perat ions t hat c an b e a pp lied t o r a ised-f ie ld s tud ies. T he m ost e xtensive s ources a re t he c a lcu lat ions m ade b y c ivil e ngineers, o ften i n c oncern w ith T hird W or ld d eve lopment p ro jects ( United N at ions 1 961, I nd ian M in istr y o f I rr igat ion a nd P ower 1 965). T hese s tud ies o ffer a ccurate d ata o n v ar iat ions i n d igg ing r ates u nder d ifferent s oil c ond it ions , w ith d iffer ing t oo ls, a s w e ll a s p recise d ata o n d ifferent ia l c onstruct ion r ates i nvo lv ing l ift ing a nd t ransport . W e a lso h ave d escr ipt ions o f e arthmoving a nd m ound ing f rom t he e thnographic r ecord o f p remodern s oc iet ies ( Barrau 1 957, P osp is il 1 963, L erche a nd S teensberg 1 973, G orecki 1 985). I n a dd it ion, a rchaeo log ists, b otanists, a nd g eographers h ave a ttempted t o d er ive l abor e st imates f or a gro-infrastructura l f eatures t hrough e xper imentat ion ( Pu leston 1 977, T urner a nd H arr ison 1 981, G omez-Pompa e t a l. 1 982, T urner 1 983, E rickson 1 985, M athewson 1 987). T his w ork T i a-s-T receded a nd i n p art i nsp ired b y e xper iments r un b y a rchaeo logists s eeking t o l earn m ore a bout t he l abor i nvestments i n m onumenta l c onstruct ion, p rimar ily e arthen m ounds, s tone t emp les, a nd o ther c eremonia l s tructures ( At kinson 1 961, E rasmus 1 965, C o les 1 973). D ata f rom e xper iments o n c eremon ia l w orks c an b e u sed, b ut e ach h ave l im itat ions t hat p revent u ncr it ica l a pp licat ions i n d er iving l abor c a lculat ions f or r a ised-f ie ld c onstruct ion . K eeping t hese l im itat ions i n m ind, t hese d ata c an h e lp i n f ormu lat ing m ode ls o f t he c ond it ions i nc lud ing t he c onstraints a nd o pportunit ies u nder w hich t he G uayas r aised-f ie ld f armers l abored.

O N A NCIENT M ONUMENTALITY I n t he p opu lar m ind, a nc ient c onstruct ion w or k i s a lmost s ynonymous w ith p ublic w orks o n h uge s ca le ( if n ot a rea l e xtent ) c arr ied o ut o ver e xtensive d urat ions. A s a dage m akes c lear , R ome w as n ot b u ilt i n ad ay, n or w ere t he p yram ids o f E gypt b uilt b y s ma ll b ut c ivic-m inded g roups ( Mende lssohn 1 971). T hese i mages o f a nc ient ( and b y e xtension) n on-Western s oc iety h ave a ided m odern O cc identa l s oc iet y t o d ef ine i tse lf i n o pposite t erms ( Sa id 1 978). A pparent ly, f ew o f t he m assive e arth a nd/or s tone m oving p ro jects u ndertaken b y a nc ient e mp ires a nd s tates i nvo lved t ime p er iods a s p rotracted a s t he r ece ived 3 23

i mages w ou ld s uggest . O n t he o ther h and, t he m ass ive a groi nfrastructura l w orks s uch a s r aised f ie lds b uilt b y n on-state s oc iet ies p robab ly w ere p rotracted a nd a ccret ionary e xerc ises, b ut t his m ay h ave b een m ore b y c ho ice t han n ecessity ( Doo litt le 1 984). I t i s l arge ly a q uest ion o f d emand o r p ressures: w hether d emographic, e conom ic, o r i deo logica l ( Turner a nd D enevan 1 985). T hough i mprec ise, t he p opu lar i mages o f t he n ature o f l abor i n b oth a ncient a nd p rimit ive s oc iet ies r aise s evera l i mportant q uest ions c oncerning c orporat ive e arth a nd s tone w orks: 1 ) H ow m uch e nerg y w as i nvested? 2 ) H ow l arge w ere t he p opu lat ions t hat c arr ied t hem o ut? a nd 3 ) O ver w hat s pan o f t ime?

A RCHAEOLOGY O F T HE G UAYAS W hile t he G uayas B asin i s n o l onger t erra i ncognita i n t erms o f i ts a rchaeo logy, s er ious w ork h as b een f ocused o n ly o n af e w s ites a nd a t s porad ic i nterva ls ( Estrada 1 957, M eggers 1 966 , R a ymond, M arcos, a nd L athrap 1 980). L itt le a rchaeo log ica l w ork b e yond s imp le a rt ifact r ecovery h as b een d one i n m ost o f t he n ine m ajor r a ised-f ie ld c omp lexes d ef ined b y D enevan a nd m yse lf ( 1983). O n ly a f ew C -14 d ates a re a vailable f or t he r egion w here r a ised f ie lds o ccur, a n a rea o f s ome 1 0 ,000 k m2 ( Bender e t a l. 1 981; P arsons a nd S h lemon, t h is v o l.; S temper , t his v o l.). S ySTUmat ic s ett lement s urvey o f t he G ua yas B as in h as n ot y et b egun. I n t his n ear v acuum o f i nformat ion, t o p ro ject p opu lat ion f igures f or t he r egion a s aw ho le, o r t o d eterm ine t he t ime s pans i nvo lved i n t ransform ing t he w et lands f rom n atura l t o a nthrop ic l andscapes, w ill r equ ire m uch a dd it iona l a rchaeo log ica l w ork. H owever , t he l andscape a rchaeo log y o f t he r a ised-f ie ld a reas a lready c omp leted w ill a llow f or e st imates o f t he a mount o f t ota l l abor i nvested i n t hese l andscapes. F rom t hese f igures w e c an a t l east b egin t o p ro ject c ertain m axima l a nd m inima l f igures. W e c an b egin t o a sk q uest ions s uch a s: W hat w as t he m inima l t ime f rame w ith in w hich t he t ransformat ion c ou ld h ave t aken p lace? W hat w as t he m aximum p opu lat ion t hat c ou ld h ave b een s upported a t o ne t ime w ith in t he r egion o f r a ised f ie lds? T hese f igures c an t hen b e u sed t o f rame a m ode l o f l andscape c hange i ncorporat ing v ar iables i nvo lv ing e nvironmenta l, t echno logica l, t empora l, d emographic, a nd s ociop o lit ica l f actors. I n c onsider ing e ach o f t he v ar iables o r f actors t hat r e late t o t he l abor i nvestment i n t he G ua yas r a ised f ie lds, i t i s p erhaps b est t o f irst c onsider t he t empora l f actor . O f a ll t he v ar iab les , t he t empora l d imension a t i ts v ar ious l eve ls i s t he p erhaps m ost i mmediate ly t ractab le, b ut b ecause o f t h is , i t i s t he v ariable w here i mprecision i s m ost n otable. Q uite s imp ly, a rchaeo log ists a nd g eographers, i nc lud ing m yse lf , h ave u sed f igures f or d aily, a nnua l, a nd s upra-annua l w ork r ates t hat a re o ften i nappropriate , b ut w ere c onvenient b ecause o f t heir a vailability i n t he l iterature, o r t he y c ou ld s imp ly b e p roposed i n t he a bsence o f d ata .

L ABOR E STIMATES E st imates o f t he a mount o f l abor i nvested i n N ew W or ld c eremonia l s tructures c an b e t raced b ack t o A lexander v on H umbo ldt 's ( 1811:2 :63) v o lumetric e st imates o f t he m ater ia l n eeded t o b u ild t he p yram id o f 3 24

S un a t T eot ihuacan . A s a n e ar ly a dvocate o f t he l andscape a rchaeo logica l a pproach, h e w as a lso i nterested i n t he g enesis a nd c onstruct ion o f t he M ex ican c hinampas, b ut h e d oesn 't s eem t o h ave o ffered l abor e st imates f or t hem ( Mathewson 1 986). S pecu lat ions o n t he a mount o f l abor i nvested i n N ew W or ld r a ised f ie lds h as f o llowed t he l ead o f s omewhat e ar lier a ttempts t o e st imate t he l abor e xpend itures f or c eremonia l s tructures. E rasmus ' ( 1965) e xper iments o n e arth e xcavat ions a nd t ransport h ave b een t he m ost w ide ly c ited f igures. F rom a l oose ly c ontro lled e xperiment r un o nce , i nvo lv ing M ayo I nd ians i n S onora , E rasmus ( 1965 :285) c a lculated t hat " a f iveh our m an-day o f d igg ing w ou ld c onservat ive ly p roduce .. . 2 .6 c ub ic m eters b y d igg ing s t ick." M y ( 1978) o wn e ar lier a ttempts t o e st imate l abor i nvestments f or r aised-f ie ld c onstruct ion u sed t his f igure i n t he a bsence o f o ther d ata ( see a lso D enevan 1 982). M athen y ( 1976) u sed t he s ame f igure t o e st imate l abor i nputs f or c ana l b u ild ing a t E dzna. A t t he s ame t ime P u leston ( 1977) p ub lished d ata o n h is e xper imenta l r a ised-f ie ld w ork a t S an A ntonio, i n w hich h e i mp lied t hat w orkers t here d ug a nd t ransported 2 .7 m3 o f m ar l f or r a ised-f ie ld f ill p er d ay. N ot a ll o f t he c ond it ions w ere s pec if ied i n h is p ub lished a ccount , s uch a s t he t oo ls u sed a nd o r t he l ength o f t he w ork d a y. N everthe less, t he c loseness o f P u leston is f igure t o E rasmus ' e st imates r e-enforced t he n ot ion t hat a bout 2 .6 m3 o f e arth c ould b e e xcavated d uring a f ive t o s ix h our w ork d a y u s ing w ooden i mp lements . S ubsequent ly a n umber o f e st imates f or d ifferent e nvironments u nder d iffer ing c ond it ions h ave b een p ub lished t hat s uggest a r ange o f v ar iance o f n ear ly t en f o ld e xists b etween h igh a nd l ow r ates o f e xcavat ion ( Turner 1 983, G o lson a nd S teensburg 1 985, E r ickson 1 985). W ith t his u nderstood , a nd s teps a re t aken t o d eterm ine t he s ite s pecif ic c ond it ions o f t he a rea f or w hich t he e st imates a re t o b e m ade, t hen t he p otent ia l i mprec ision i n e st imat ing e xcavat ion r ates c an b e a dequate ly c ontro lled. A m uch g reater p rob lem m ust b e c onfronted i n t rying t o e st imate t he d urat ion o f t empora l i nvestments i n r aised-f ie ld c omp lexes. W ithout d irect e thnohistor ica l d ocumentat ion t e lling h ow m an y h ours p er d ay a g iven g roup o f p ersons w orked, a nd h ow m any d a ys p er y ear t h is s chedu le w as f o llowed, i t i s d iff icu lt i f n ot i mpossible t o s ay w ith c ertaint y t hat a g iven c omp lex t ook s o m any w or ker-years t o b uild . R ather t han c onfront ing t h is p rob lem, m ost e st imates h ave b een b ased o n a rb itrary a nd a dm itted ly u nrea list ic w or k s chedu les i n a n e ffort a t s tandard izat ion . F or e xamp le, T urner a nd H arr ison ( 1981:405) p osited a n e ight h our w or k d a y a nd a 3 65 d a y w ork y ear f or t he M a ya r a ised-f ie ld b u ilders a t P u lltrouser S wamp , w hile a cknow ledg ing t hat i t w as " doubtfu l t hat a 3 65-day w or k y ear w as u sed b y t he M aya." O ne o f t he e ssent ia l q ua lit ies o f p re-cap ita list s oc ia l f ormat ions i s t he a llocat ion o f t ime f or a ct ivit ies o ther t han t asks o f a s trict ly u t ilitar ian-subsistence n ature . E ven i f t he M a ya, f or e xamp le, b u ilt r a ised f ie lds i n c oncert w ith r itua l o r r e ligious i mperat ives, t he r egimen f o llowed w ou ld n ot h ave b een a t ota lizing e xpend iture o f t he y ear . T he n ot ion t hat a nc ient i mper ia l o r d espot ic p o lit ies e xerc ised a bso lute a nd t ota l c ontro l o ver t heir s ubjects i s a nother a spect o f t he i magery m odern p o lit ies p romote a s p art o f t he ir s e lf-conceptua lizing p rocess. L abor m ob ilizat ion o n ap er manent a nd t empora lly t ota lizing b asis p robab ly f its v ar ious c ap ita list s oc ia l f ormat ions, e spec ia lly t he S ta linist e xper iment i n s tate c ap ita lism , 3 25

m ore a ccurate ly t hat t he a ncient d espot isms ( Erasmus 1 965). O n t he o ther h and, i t i s p ossib le t hat t he M a ya c oord inated t he ir r a isedf ie ld c onstruct ions o n s upra-annua l s chedu les. L ike t heir t emp le b uild ing, a gro-infrastructura l f eatures m ay h ave b een g eared t o c a lendr ica l c yc les w e ll b e yond a y ear 's d urat ion. E rasmus ( 1965) a lso t ried t o e st imate a m inima l n umber o f d ays p er y ear t hat f am ilies w ere e xpected t o c ontribute t o c ommuna l o r c orvee l abor p ro jects u nder d ifferent s oc ia l f ormat ions. H e s uggests t hat u nder a c hiefdom t he f igure w ou ld b e a bout 4 0-45 , u nder " m ild ly-coerc ive" s tate s oc iet ies t he f igure j umps t o a bout 1 50-170, a nd u nder e xtreme ly c oerc ive c ond it ions s uch a s S ta linist R ussia t he f igure c ould e xceed 5 00 . H is f igures a re b ased o n l im ited s amp les a nd p ro jected w ith m onument b u ild ing i n m ind . I t i s l ike ly t hat m uch o f t he l abor i nvo lved i n t he v ast r a ised-f ie ld s ystems o f t he A mer ican t rop ics w as o rganized a nd p erformed b y s ingle f am ilies o r a ff ina l g roups w ith in a n e ga litar ian c ontext . T hus t he n umber o f d a ys a llocated t o c entra lized a uthor ity f or e ither c eremonia l o r a gronomic l abor w ou ld h ave b een n i l, b ut t he n umber o f d a ys s pent p er y ear o n a gro-infrastructura l a ct ivit ies c ou ld h ave b een c onsiderab le. W hereas t he l im it ing f actors u nder t he m ore h igh ly " evo lved" f orms o f p o lit ica l o rganizat ion a re l arge ly a q uest ion o f s oc ia l p ower , t he l im it ing f actors m ed iat ing l abor a llocat ions u nder n ons tate s oc iet ies a re m ore d emographic a nd e co log ica l. F or e xamp le, i n t he G uayas B asin t here a re f ive m onths w hen m uch o f t he r a ised-f ie ld a rea i s u nder w ater . U n less r afts w ere u sed t o t ransport f i ll f rom t he a rea 's o utcrop h i lls t o t he r aised-f ie ld s ites, t hen t his t ime w ou ld h ave b een u navailab le f or m ound ing. A ssum ing a t l east 1 20 d ays p er y ear o f w ater l eve ls h igher t han 0 .5 m i n t he s paces b etween t he f ie lds, w e h ave 2 45 d a ys l eft f or h eavy c onstruct ion w or k. B ut j ust a s h igh w ater s eason i s a l imit ing f actor , s o a re t he l ast m onths o f t he d r y s eason . T he d ominant v ert iso ls b ecome b r ick h ard, a nd e xcavat ion c an b e d one o n ly b y p rying l oose t he l arge p edons w hich h ave f ormed w ith t he w ater 's r ecession. F rom e xper iments I r an a t t he e nd o f t he d r y s eason i n 1 979 , i t w as p ossible t o e xcavate 1 .0 m3 o f p edons ( using d igg ing s t icks), a nd t ransport t hem 1 0 m i n as ix h our d ay. I n t he i ndurate c lay n ot f issured b y s oil c racking, t he p ace w as l ess t han h a lf t his . T hus d uring t he d ry s eason a bout 0 .75 m3 o f c lay c ou ld h ave b een e xcavated w ith p rimit ive t oo ls a nd m oved a s hort d istance d uring a w or k d ay o f f ive t o s ix h ours. I d o n ot h ave f igures o n h ow m uch t ime i t t akes t o d ig a nd t ransport t he G uayas c lay w hen w et . C omparat ive f igures f rom N ew G u inea a nd e lsewhere s uggest t hat t he r ates c an v ary u p t o t en f o ld d epend ing o n t he s oil t ype ( Gorecki 1 985). G enera lly h owever , d igg ing w et s oil s eems t o b e m ore e ff icient i f l ift a nd t ransport d istances a re h e ld c onstant ( United N at ions 1 961). A ssum ing t hat a t l east t w ice a s m uch s oil c ou ld b e e xcavated u nder w et r ather t han d ry c ond it ions i n t he G uayas, t he o pt imum t ime f or r a ised-f ie ld c onstruct ion w ou ld h ave b een a t t he b eginning o f t he d ry s eason. N ot o n ly w ou ld t he f lood w aters b e i n r ecession, b ut t he w inter o r w et s eason h arvest w ou ld h ave t aken p lace , l eaving t he f armers f ree t o d ress t he e xist ing r aised f ie lds w ith f resh m uck, a nd t o c onstruct n ew p latforms i f n eeded. As econd, a nd s horter p er iod o f f ie ld c onstruct ion m ight h ave t aken p lace a t t he e nd o f t he d ry s eason w hen t he l arge p edons c ou ld h ave b een p ried l oose a nd m ounded f or n ew f ie lds, o r t o r a ise t he

3 26

h e ight o f e xist ing o nes . T his w ou ld m ean t hat o n ly a bout 6 0 d ays o ut o f t he y ear w ere o pt ima l f or f ie ld c onstruct ion, a nd t hat t he n umber o f d ays i n w hich f ie ld b u ild ing p robably t ook p lace d id n ot e xceed 1 00 . T hough t he l im itat ions i mposed b y c limat ic f actors, f lood ing, a nd s ubsistence a ctivit ies a ssoc iated w ith h unt ing, f ish ing, p lant ing, a nd h arvest ing a ll i nf luenced t he n umber o f d a ys p er y ear a vailable f or r a ised-f ie ld c onstruct ion, t he m ain d eterminant w as p robab ly l ess o f a l im it ing f actor t han a n i mpetus. T his w ou ld h ave b een t he p ressure p osed b y d emographic g rowth . T h is a rgument i s p resented i n d eta il e lsewhere ( Mathewson 1 987), w ith e xamp les o f a t heoret ica l r ate o f r aised-f ie ld e xpansion w ith in s pecif ic b iotopes d rawn f rom t he l andscape a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f t he G uayas B as in. W e n eed n ot e laborate t he s pec if ics o f t h is p rocess h ere , e xcept t o p oint o ut t hat u nder o ur a ssumed e ga litar ian o r p oss ib ly c hiefdom l eve l s oc iet ies i n t he r a ised-f ie ld z ones, t he p ace o f c onstruct ion w ou ld h ave f o llowed, b ut p robably n ot g reat ly e xceeded, t he n atura l r ate o f p opu lat ion g rowth . I t c an t herefore b e s uggested i n a ttempt ing t o m ode l t h is p rocess, t he a mount o f r a ised-f ie ld a rea n eeded p er h uman g enerat ion t o s ustain a nd a llow a p opu lat ion t o r eproduce i tse lf s hou ld s erve a s a n i nit ia l c ond it ion . F o llow ing f rom t h is, o ne s hou ld a ssume t hat l itt le p roduct ion f or t rade w as c arr ied o ut . A t p resent , t here i s l itt le c oncrete e vidence t o d emonstrate t he u se o f t he G uayas f ie lds f or f iber , c ond iment , o r f oodstuff p roduct ion f or e xchange. O f c ourse, i t i s h igh ly l ike ly t hat t he f ie lds d id p roduce s urp luses f or e xchange, e spec ia lly d uring t he R egiona l I ntegrat ion P er iod w hen f arf lung t rade n etworks c ircu lated b oth e xot ic a nd m undane i tems t hroughout t he A ndean r ea lm a nd b e yond ( Stemper , t h is v o l.). H owever , p osit ing a h ypothet ica l r ate o f r a ised-f ie ld c onstruct ion b ased o n d emograph ic p ressures a lone s hou ld p rovide a m inima l f igure o f t he r ate a t w hich t he G uayas f ie lds w ere b u ilt , p roduced, a nd, i n t urn, a llowed f or t he r eproduct ion o f t he r eg iona l p opu lat ion. F rom t here , t he m ode l c ou ld b e a djusted t o a ccomodate v ar iables s uch a s s oil d ifferences, w ater h e ights, l ift a nd l ead d istances, h ours/days/years w orked, f amily s ize, s ubsistence r esources a vailab le o utside t he a gricultura l s ystem , a s w e ll a s v ar iab les i nvo lv ing t r ibutar y p ressures a nd t rade o pportunit ies. W ith t h is a pproach w e c an m ove b e yond t he r e liance o n s imp list ic f igures s uch a s 3 65 d ay w ork y ears, 8 h our d a ys, o r i mp licat ing p opu lat ions g reater t han c ou ld h ave b een a ctua lly s upported b y t he a vailable r esources, f or t he p urpose o f e xtrapo lat ing h ypothet ica l c onstruct ion r ates . T he m ode l c an b e t ested w ith t he G uayas d ata , a nd i t s hould b e a pp licab le t o o ther a reas w here r e lic r a ised f ie lds h ave b een d iscovered. T he u se o f m axima l f igures ( da y l ength, d ays p er y ear , e tc.) h as b een b orrowed u ncr it ica lly f rom t he l iterature o n e st imat ing l abor i nvestments i n w orks o f m onumenta l a rchitecture . A s S anders ( 1979 :498) c ommented : N ow w e a re c ompar ing t emp les w ith a gricu ltura l s ystems ! I t i s o bvious ly m ore m eaningfu l t o c ompare t emp les w ith t emp les. F or a c ompar ison o f a gricu ltura l w orks [ at E dzna] i t m ight h ave b een m ore i l lum inat ing t o h ave u sed, f or i nstance ,

3 27

P a lerm 's ( 1973) a ssessment o f d ike c onstruct ion i n t he B asin o f M exico d uring t he f ifteenth a nd s ixteenth c enturies... I c oncur, b ut w e m ust a lso g et a way f rom t he t emptat ion o f v iew ing t hese a dm itted ly m agnif icent a gricu ltura l w or ks i n t erms o f " geo-super lat ives" - a s m ere ly w onders o f t he a nc ient N ew W or ld . W e m ust s ee t hem i n o n t heir o wn t erms , a s s ystems t hat a llowed f or t he p roduct ion a nd r eproduct ion o f t i-e s oc iet ies t hat b u ilt a nd m anaged t hem . T o d o t his w e f irst h ave t o c onstruct r ea list ic a pproaches f or u nderstand ing t he c ond it ions a nd c onstraints u nder w hich t hey o perated . F rom t here w e c an b egin t o m ake c ompar isons b etween d ifferent r egions a nd e nvironmenta l s ituat ions a s t he d ata p er m its .

P RELIMINARY M ODEL F OR S AMBORONDON W e h ave l itt le i nformat ion o n t he b eg innings o f h uman o ccupanc y i n t he G uayas B asin . O n t he a djacent S anta E lena P eninsu la, S tothert ( 1985 :613), h as u ncovered e vidence o f e ar ly a gr icu ltura l p opu lat ions d at ing t o a t l east 8 ,000 B .P. L athrap ( 1977) h as p osited w idespread o ccupancy o f t he A mazonian f loodp lains b y h ort icu ltura lists b y 1 0,000 B .P. a t t he l atest . T herefore , i t i s n ot u nreasonab le t o a ssume t hat e ga litar ian a ggregat ions o f f armer-f isherfo lk w ere w e ll e stab lished a long t he G uayas ' r iverbanks a t t he o utset o f t he e ar ly F ormat ive P er iod ( ca . 3 500 B .C.). H assan ( 198 1:221) s uggests t hat a n i nit ia l p opu lat ion o f 5 0 p ersons w ith a f am ily s ize o f f ive i nd ividua ls i s ar easonable f igure f or c a lculat ing p opu lat ion g rowth r ates u nder N eo lithic c ond it ions i n t he N ear E ast b etween 8 000 a nd 4 000 B .C. H e p osits g rowth r ates b etween . 08 - 0 .12% p er a nnum . Iu se a s im ilar f igure ( r = . 1) f or p ro jecting t he n atura l r ate o f p opu lat ion i ncrease a mong s edentar y a gricultura lists i n c oasta l E cuador , 3 500 B .C. - A .D . 1 500 . S tart ing i n 3 500 B .C. w ith a n h ypothet ica l p opu lat ion o f t en f amilies ( 50 i nd ividua ls) a t t he p resent s ite o f S amborondön , I 've c onstructed a s imp le m ode l t hat p ro jects p opu lat ion g rowth o ver t he n ext f ive m illenia ( Mathewson 1 987). T he s ustaining a rea e ncompasses 5 0 k m2 ( 5000 h a ). T his a rea i nc ludes 2 5 k m o f r iver f rontage a long t he L os T intos, B abahoyo, a nd V inces R ivers ( F ig. 1 ). B ased o n c urrent c ond it ions, I p osit a m aximum o f 6 2.5 h a ( 25 m x 2 5 k m ) o f u nimproved l evee l and a vailable f or c o lon izat ion. T he l evee e nvironment s hou ld h ave b een t he m ost a ttract ive b iotope t o e ar ly c o lonizers i n t he S amborondö n a rea . T he n eed f or a lternat ive s pace a nd n ew m odes o f f arm ing w ou ld h ave b een c onfronted o n ly w hen t he l evees w ere f u lly o ccup ied, o r w ith a p opu lat ion o f 3 12 .5 ( f ive p ersons p er c u lt ivated h ectare ). T his d ensit y f igure i s p robably o n t he c onservat ive s ide ( see S anders 1 972). I t w ou ld h ave t aken 1 840 y ears ( by 1 660 B .C.) t o " f ill" t he l evee a t t h is d ensit y. I f w e u se a 3 0 y ear i nterva l f or o ne h uman g enerat ion, t hen b y 1 660 B .C. o r s ome 6 0 g enerat ions l ater , t he c ore p opu lat ion ( 312 .5) w ou ld c reate a " surp lus" o f 1 9 i nd ividua ls e ach s ucceed ing g enerat ion. A fter 1 660 B .C. t he m ain o pt ions o pen t o t he l evee d we llers t o d ea l w ith t h is i ncrease w ou ld h ave b een m igrat ion , p opu lat ion c ontro l, 3 28

1 \ \ ,

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S amborondön s tudy a rea; l evees, c a. 5 0 k m2 .

b ounded o n t hree s ides b y n atura l

3 29

d ecreased f ood c onsumpt ion, a gricultural i ntensificat ion o f t he e xist ing s ystem, o f c reat ion o f n ew c u lt ivable l and. A ssuming t he l atter, t hen w e c an p roject t he r ate a t w hich t his p roduct ion o f n ew s pace o ccurred.'

O FF T HE L EVEE;

I NTO T HE S WAMP

I n s eeking n ew s pace f or c ultivation a nd h abitat ion, t he l evee f armer f ound i t c lose a t h and, v iz, i n t he w et lands b ehind t he l evee. T he a dvantage w as p roximity, b ut t he c osts i nvolved l abor i n b u ild ing t he n ew i nfrastructure. T hese c osts m ay h ave e ven b een o ffset i n p art b y t he n ature o f t he n ew s pace. I n c reat ing a rtificia l m ounds a s p lant ing m edia, t he f armers p robably w ere a ble t o r egu late w eed i nvasion a nd s oil f ert ility w ith g reater c ontrol. F or t he p urposes o f t he m odel, I w ill a ssume t hat t he n ew f ields a mounted t o l itt le m ore t han a r eplicat ion o f t he o riginal l evee s pace. A s p reviously d iscussed, t he m aximum a mount o f e arth t hat c an b e e xcavated, p laced i n b askets, a nd c arried 1 0 m i n o ne s ix-hour w ork p eriod i s a bout 1 m3 g iven t he c ondit ions a t S amborondön. W e c an a lso a ssume t hat t he p roductivity o f t his n ew l and w as n ot s ignificant ly g reater t han t he o ld, o r s upported f ive p ersons p er c ult ivated h ectare. F ina lly, f ollowing t he p rinciple o f " least e ffort," w e c an p osit t hat t he r ate o f r aised-field c onstruct ion w ould n ot h ave e xceeded t he r ate o f n atural p opulat ion g rowth. W e m ight a ssume t hat a t l east f or a n umber o f g enerat ions, t he e xcedent p opu lat ion ( 19 p er g enerat ion p lus t heir o wn o ffspring) w ere a ided b y t heir k insfolk l iving o n t he l evee. W ith a l abor p ool d rawn f rom t he " permanent" 6 2.5 l evee f amilies, p lus t heir " excess" o ffspring a nd t hose p ersons n ow r esiding o n m ounds i n t he b ackswamps, t he n ecessary l abor t o r eproduce t he s ystem c ould h ave b een a ccomplished w ith o nly 1 2 d ays p er y ear p er f amily f rom t he s tart ( 1660 B .C.) t o e nd ( A .D. 1 500). W ith t he r ate o f p opulation i ncrease h e ld c onstant, t he r ate o f r aised-fie ld c onstruction r emains v irtually c onstant. F or t he p urposes o f t he m odel, w e c an a ssume t hat a fter c a. 1 000 B .C. t he r aised-f ield f armers a chieved p roductive p arity w iTT t h eir l evee-farming c ounterparts, n o l onger n eeding t heir h e lp i n c onstruct ing n ew f ields. W e m ight a ssume f or t he n ext 1 ,500 y ears, t he r aised-fie ld f armers w ere c ontent w ith b uild ing s imp le a nd g eometrically a morphous m ounds w here t he m icro-topography f avored t he e asiest c onstruction. B ut b y a bout A .D. 5 30 t hey w ould h ave f illed i n t he s tudy a rea w ith a 1 0% ( 500 h a) c overage o f r udimentary r aised f ie lds, a nd t he t otal p opu lation ( levee p lus r aised-farmer p opu lation) w ou ld h ave r eached 2 ,812.5. T his p roject ion i s s upported b y t he c urrent e vidence. T here a re i ndicat ions t hat a t l east 5 00 h a o f " s imp le" m ounds o nce o ccup ied t he s tudy a rea, t hough m any o f t hese h ave b een d estroyed i n r ecent d ecades. P erhaps s ignificant ly, i t i s t hat o ur p opulat ion m odel b egins t wo p ersons o ver t he n et i ncrease t he f ina l m illenium ( A.D. 5 32 t o d oubled, f rom 2 ,812.5 t o 7 ,475.

o n ly a fter t his p oint ( ca. A .D. 5 00) t o r egister i ncreases o f m ore t han o f t he p revious g enerat ion. D uring A .D. 1 500) t he p opu lat ion m ore t han I t w ould h ave r equ ired c onstruct ion

3 30

o f a n a dd it ional 9 32.5 h a o f r aised f ields t o m eet t he m odel's c ondit ions a nd s upport a f inal p opu lat ion o f 7 ,475. T hus t he e xtent o f r aised f ields w ould h ave b een n early t ripled ( 1,432.5 h a t ota l), a ll w ithin t he R egiona l I ntegration P eriod. T his c o inc ides w ith t he w idespread e arthmoving a ct ivity f or o ther p urposes t hat h as b een a scribed t o t his p eriod ( Meggers 1 966). I n a ll o f t he m odel's d imensions, t he p arameters a re s et c onservat ively . T his i s m eant t o d emonstrate t hat t he w ork a nd i ts p roduct (s) c ould h ave b een a ccomp lished w ithout i nvoking u nrea list ically o nerous w ork s chedules, o r u nnecessarily b urdensome s oc io-polit ical s tructures. O f c ourse, t here a re a n umber o f q uestions t hese c onclusions r aise, a nd c hallenges c ould a nd s hould b e m ade c oncerning t he m odel's a ssumptions. F urther r efinements n eed t o c onsider q uest ions s uch a s s urplus, b oth " normal" a nd t hat w hich m ight h ave b een e xtracted f or t ribute, a nd t rade; i nfrastructural c hanges, i .e. t ighter f ie ld " packing" f or i mproved h ydraulic f unctions; i ntroduction o f n ew o r i mproved c rops, e spec ia lly v arieta l m aize; a nd d iscont inuit ies i n t he c ultural r ecord c hallenging u niform r ates o f c onstruct ion. O n t he o ther h and, e ven w ithout s uch r efinements, w e c an u se t he r esults o f t his e xerc ise t o p roject m inimal p opu lat ion f igures f or t he G uayas B asin ( 33,000 k m2) a s aw hole. I f a ll t he a rea 's r aised-fields w ere i n p roduction s imu ltaneously, w hich s eems l ikely d uring a t l east t he l ate I ntegrat ion P eriod, t hen n o l ess t han 5 0,000 p ersons w ould h ave b een i nvolved i n t he r eproduction o f t hese s ystems. U sing a c onservat ive e st imate o f t he n umbers o f p ersons t hat p robably w ere s upported b y r aised-f ield p roduction ( 10-15 p er h a), w e c an p roject a p opulat ion o f 1 00,000 - 1 50,000 w ithin t he r aised-f ie ld z ones. T he e xtent o f G uayas r aised-f ie ld c omp lexes ( 50,000 h a) c omprise l ess t han 2 % o f t he t otal a rea o f t he B asin. P rojecting a c onservat ive f igure o f 0 .1 p ersons p er h a ( 10 p er k m2) f or t he r emaining u nmodified b iotopes ( levees, c erros, b ancos, a nd i nterfluvia l f orest l ands) g ives u s a p opu lat ion o 1 3 2 5,000 . B ased o n t hese c alculat ions i t i s n ot u nreasonable t o a ssume t hat t he G uayas B asin s upported a p opulat ion o f a t l east 4 00,000 t o 5 00,000 b efore A .D. 1 500.

A cknow ledgments. T his p aper i s p art o f r esearch t hat w as c arried o ut i n E cuador f rom 1 978 t o 1 980 w ith s upport o f a F u lbright H ays D issertat ion F ellowship ( 1979-80), a N .S.F. D octora l D issertat ion I mprovement G rant , f unds f rom t he M useo A ntropolögico d el B anco C entral d el E cuador ( Guayaqu il) u nder t he d irection o f O laf H olm, t ravel f unding f rom E l P rograma d e A ntropologia p ara E l E cuador h eaded b y P resley N orton, a nd l ogist ical a id e xtended b y J orge G . M arcos, t hen D irector o f t he E scuela T ecnica d e A rqueologia, E .S.P.O.L. ( Guayaqu il). M y i nterest i n w ork o n a gro-infrastructura l l abor e xpenditures w as o riginally s parked b y D ennis E . P uleston, a nd h as s ubsequent ly b enefitted f rom d iscussion w ith m any p ersons, p art icularly K .W. B utzer, W .M. D enevan, W .E. D oolitt le, G .W. K napp, J .J. P arsons, H . S ilverman, D .M. S temper, a nd B .L. T urner, I. Ia lso t hank W .M. D enevan f or i nvit ing m e t o c hair t he G uayas s ession o f t he S ymposium i n " The E cology a nd A rchaeology o f P rehispanic A gricultural F ie lds i n t he C entra l A ndes" a t t he 4 5th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mericanists, B ogotä, C olombia, w here t his p aper w as p resented. 3 31

N OTE 1 . A dmittedly, t his m odel d ictates a n e arly d ate f or t he i nit iat ion o f r aised-field c onstruction a t S amborondön. M ost d at ing o f N ew W or ld r aised f ie lds, b y e ither r e lative o r a bsolute m eans, s uggest p ost-A .D. 5 00 o rigins. P erhaps s ignificant ly, t he e arliest d ate ( 2005 B .C. + 9 5) a ssociated w ith a r aised f ie ld ( sensu s trictu) i n t he N ew W orrJ c omes f rom t he P 67 16 d el R io C omplex i n t he G uayas B asin ( Parsons a nd S hlemon, t his v ol.). P uleston r etrieved a c omparably e ar ly d ate ( ca. 1 100 B .C.) f or a b uried p ost a ssociated w ith f eatures n ow d escribed a s " ditched o r c hanne lized" f ie lds a t S an A ntonio, B e lize ( see P ohl 1 987). T herefore, i t m ay n ot b e a ltogether u nrea list ic t o s uggest M iddle F ormat ive b eginnings f or r aised-fie ld c onstruction i n t ropical r iverine c ontexts. T he C -14 d ates ( 630 + 7 0 A .D., 7 10 + 7 0 A .D.) o btained f or S amborondön ( Bender e t a l:— 1 981) i ndicate— t hat t wo h abitation m ounds a ssoc iated w ith r ri s a— f i e lds w ere o ccup ied a t t he o utset o f t he I ntegrat ion P eriod, b ut d oes n ot r ule o ut e ar lier b eginnings t here a s w ell.

R EFERENCES C ITED A aberg, S tephen a nd J ay B onsignore 1 975. A C onsiderat ion o f T ime a nd L abor E xpenditures i n t he C onstruct ion P rocess a t t he T eotihuacan P yramid o f t he S un a nd t he P overty P oint M ound. I n T hree P apers o n M esoamer ican A rchaeology, e dited b y J .A. G FT5ir a nd H eizer, p p. 4 0-79. C ontributions o f t he U niversity o f C a lifornia A rchaeological R esearch F acility, N o. 2 4. U niversity o f C alifornia, B erke ley.

R . F7

A tkinson, R .J.C. 1 961. N eolithic E ngineers. A ntiqu ity 3 5:292-299. B arrau, J acques 1 958. S ubsistence H onolulu.

A griculture

i n

M e lanesia.

B ishop

B ender, M argaret M . e t a l. 1 981. U niversity T T -W isconsin R adiocarbon D ates X VIII. 2 3:145-161. C oles, J ohn 1 979. E xperimenta l A rchaeology. D arch, J anice P . 1 983. D rained B rit ish O xford.

A cademic P ress,

M useum,

R adiocarbon

N ew Y ork.

F ie ld A griculture i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica. A rchaeological R eports, I nterndiT ina l S eries 1 89,

D enevan, W illiam M . 1 982. H ydraulic A griculture i n t he A mer ican T ropics: F orms, M easures, a nd R ecent R esearch. I n M aya S ubsistence, e dited b y K ent V . F lannery, p p. 1 81-203. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork.

3 32

D enevan, W illiam M . a nd K ent M athewson 1 983. P re liminary R esu lts o f t he S amborondö n R aised F ie ld P ro ject , G uayas B as in , E cuador . I n D rained F ie ld A gr icu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A mer ica, e d ited b y J .P. D arch, p p . 1 67-181:B r it ish -TaFigUr ogica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 1 89, O xford. D enevan, W illiam M ., K ent M athewson a nd R ichard G . W hitten 1 985. M ound ing, M ucking, a nd M angling : R ecent R esearch o n t he R aised F ie lds i n t he G uayas B asin, E cuador . I n P rehistor ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T rop ics, e d ited b y 1 .S. F arr ington, p p. 1 81-1837- gi r t-i sh A rchaeo log ica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford. D oo litt le, W illiam E . 1 984 . A gricu ltura l C hange a s a n I ncrementa l P rocess . A nna ls o f t he A ssoc iat ion o f A mer ican G eographers 7 2 :124-137. E rasmus, C har les J . 1 965 . M onument B u ild ing : S ome F ie ld E xper iments . J ourna l o f A nthropology 2 1 :277-301.

S outhwestern

E r ickson, C lar k 1 985. A pp licat ions o f P reh istor ic A ndean T echno logy : E xper iments i n R aised F ie ld A gricu lture , H uatta, L ake T it icaca , 1 983. I n P reh istor ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T rop ics, e d ited b y I .S . F arr ington , p p . 2 09-232. B rit i-g h- A 7Ehaeo logica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford . E strada, E m ilio 1 957. U lt imas c ivilizaciones p re-histor icas d e l a c uenca d e l R io G uayas. P ub. N o. 2 . M useo V ictor E m ilio -ntrada, G uaya-471 -. -F arr ington, I an S . ( ed itor ) 1 985. P reh istor ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T ropics. B r it ish A rchaeo logica l R eports, I nternat ionaT- S eT T es 2 32, O xford. F lannery, K ent V . ( ed itor ) 1 982. M aya S ubsistence : S tud ies N ew Y ork, A cademic P ress.

i n M emory

o f D ennis E .

P u lesto6 .

G o lson, J ack a nd A xe l S teenburg 1 985 . T he T oo ls o f A gricu ltura l I ntensif icat ion i n t he N ew G u inea H igh lands. I n P rehistor ic I ntensive A gr icu lture i n t he T ropics, e d ited b y LS . F arrington, p p . 3 47-384. 7 1-i t-i g F A rchaeo log ica l R eports , I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford . G ömez-Pompa, A rturo , H ector L u is M ora les, E p ifanio J ime nez, a nd J u lio J imenez 1 979 . E xper ience i n T rad it iona l H ydrau lic A gr icu lture . I n M aya S ubsistence : S tudies i n M emory o f D ennis E . P uleston , e d ited b y K ent V . F lanner y, p p. 3 27-3427- A cademic P ress , N ew Y ork.

33

G orecki, P . P . 1 985 . T he C onquest o f a N ew " Wet " a nd " Dry" T erritory: I ts M echanism a nd i ts A rchaeo logica l C onsequence . I n P rehistor ic I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e d ited b y I .S . F arr ington p. 3 21-3457— BFf ish A rchaeo logica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 2 32, O xford . H assan, F ekri A . 1 981. D emographic A rchaeo logy.

A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y or k.

H umbo ldt , A lexander v on 1 811. P o lit ica l E ssay o n t he K ingdom o f N ew S pain . 4v o ls. L ongman, H urst , R ees, O rme, Brown, L diT I nd ian M inistry o f I rr igat ion a nd P ower 1 965 . R epo r t o f t he R ates a nd C osts C omm ittee ,

o f

n

P art I . G overnment

L athrap , D ona ld W . 1 977 . O ur F ather t he C ayman, O ur M other t he G ourd : S p inden R evisited, o r a U nitary M ode l f or t he E mergence o f A gricu lture i n t he N ew W or ld . I n O rig ins o f A griculture , e d ited b y C . A . R eed, p p . 7 13-751. M outon , T he H ague. L erche, G . a nd A xe l S teensburg 1 973. O bservat ions o n S pade-Cult ivat ion i n H igh lands. T oo ls a nd T illage 3 :111-124 .

t he

N ew

G uinea

M arcos, J orge G . ( ed itor ) n .d . P rq yecto A rqueo lö gico y E tnobotj nico " Pel r on d e l R io" I nforme P re lim inar y P lanteamiento d e C ont inuaciö n. E scue la T e cnica d e A rqueo logia ( ESPOL), G uayaqu il. M atheny, R ay T . 1 976 . M aya L ow land H ydrau lic S ystems. S cience 1 93:639-646. M athewson, K ent 1 978 . E st imat ing L abor E xpend itures f or R aised-Fie ld C omp lexes i n t he N ew W or ld T rop ics. M s. o n f i le, D epartment o f G eograpAy, U niversity o f W isconsin, M ad ison. 1 986 .

A lexander v on H umbo ldt a nd t he O rig ins A rchaeo logy. J ourna l o f G eography 8 5 :50-56.

1 987.

L andscape C hange a nd C u ltura l P ersistence W et lands, E cuador . P h.D . D issertat ion , G eograph y, U niversit y o f W isconsin, M ad ison.

o f

L andscape

i n t he G ua yas D epartment o f

M eggers, B etty J . 1 966. E cuador . P raeger , N ew Y or k. M ende lssohn, K urt 1 971. A S cient ist 5 9 :210-220 .

L ooks

a t

3 34

t he

P yram ids.

A mer ican

S c ient ist

P a lerm, A nge l 1 973. O bras V a lle

h idrä u licas p rehispd nicas e n e l s istema l acustre d e l d e M exico . I nst ituto N iEioni l d e A ntropo logi a e

E iiidr ia , MAT EZT

P arsons, J ames J . 1 969 . R idged F ie lds i n t he A nt iqu ity 3 4 :76-80.

R io

G uayas

V a lley,

E cuador .

A mer ican

P arsons, J ames J . a nd R oy S h lemon 1 982. N uevo i nforme s obre l os c ampos e levados p reh ispänicos d e l a c uenca d e l G uayas, E cuador . M isce lanea A ntropoldgica E cuator iana 2 :31-37. P oh l, M ary E . ( ed itor ) 1 987. A nc ient M aya W et land A gricu lture : E xcavat ions I s land, N orthern B e lize. W est v iew P ress , B ou lder .

o n

A lb ion

P osp isil, L . 1 963. K apauka P apuan E conomy. Y a le P ub licat ion i n A nthropo logy N o. 6 7 . Y a le U niversit y, N ew H aven. P u leston, D ennis E . 1 977 . E xper iments i n P rehistor ic R aised F ie ld A gr icu lture : L earning f rom t he P ast . J ourna l o f B e lizean A ffairs 5 :36-43. R aymond, J .S ., J .G . M arcos a nd D .W . L athrap 1 980. E vidence o f E ar ly F ormat ive S ett lement i n t he G uayas B as in, E cuador . C urrent A nthropo logy 2 1:700-701. S aid, E dward 1 978 . O rienta lism . R andom H ouse, N ew Y ork. S anders, W illiam 1 979 . T he J o lly G reen G iant i n T enth C entury Y ucatan, o r F act a nd F ancy i n C lassic M aya A gricu lture . R eviews i n A nthropo logy 6 :493-506 . S anders, W i lliam T . 1 972. P opu lat ion, A gricu ltura l H istory, a nd S oc ieta l E vo lut ion i n M esoamer ica . I n P opu lat ion G rowth : A nthropo log ica l I mp licat ions, e dited b y B . S pooner , p. 1 01-133. M IT P ress , C ambr idge. S teensburg, A xe l 1 980. N ew G uinea G ardens : A S tudy o f H usbandry w ith P ara lle ls T i aiiiö7iC E urope. A cad-ai d- P ress , N ew Y or k. S tothert , K aren E . 1 985 . T he P receramic L as V egas C u lture A mer ican A nt iqu ity 5 0 :613-637.

o f

C oasta l

i n

E cuador .

T urner , B .L., I 1 983. C onstruct iona l I nputs f or M ajor A gros ystems o f t he A nc ient M aya. I n D ra ined F ie ld A gricu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A mer ica , e dited 17--- j .P. D arch, p p . 1-26. -- B riT i gN A rchaeo logica l R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 1 89, O xford. 35

T urner , B .L., I a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. P reh istor ic M anipu lat ion o f W et lands i n t he A mer icas : A R aised F ie ld P erspect ive. I n P reh istor ic I ntensive A gricu lture i n t he T ropics, e d ited b y I .S . F arr ington, p p . 1 13 0 . B r it i- F A rchaeo logica l R eports , I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford . T urner , B .L., I a nd P eter D . H arr ison 1 98 1. P reh istor ic R aised-Fie ld A gr iculture S cience 2 13 :399-405 . 1 983.

i n

t he

M aya

L ow lands.

P ulltrouser S wamp : A ncient M aya H abitat , A griculture , a nd S ett lement i T I—Tj i -thern B elize . U n iT e7iily o f T exas P ress ,

A ust in .

36

C HAPTER 1 7 A GROENGINEERING D YNAMICS O F P OST-TIWANAKU S ETTLEMENTS I N T HE O TORA V ALLEY, P ERU

C harles S tanish

A BSTRACT V ast e xpanses o f a bandoned t errace s ystems d ominate t he e xtreme s outhern P eruvian d rainages. T he M oquegua V a lley i s o ne o f a n umber o f m ajor d rainages l ocated i n t his e xtreme ly a r id e nvironment . T his p aper o ffers ( 1) a r econstruct ion o f t he p atterns o f a grarian l and u se i n o ne s ma ll v a lley o f t he M oquegua B asin, f rom t he l atest p hases o f t he T iwanaku o ccupat ion t o t he S panish C olonia l p eriod, a nd ( 2 ) a t estable m odel o f a gricultural c ontraction a nd m icro-regiona l p atterns o f l and u se t hrough t ime. Ac ont inuing a nd v ar ied s et o f p ressures o n t he a gricultural s ystem a re i solated a s t he k ey e lements i n t his c ontract ion p rocess. T hese s tresses i nclude d emographic g rowth, l abor m inimizat ion, i ncreased p roduct ive d emands, a nd p ossibly a r educed l eve l o f a vailable h ydrological r esources.

I NTRODUCTION T he p roduct ive b ase o f t he l abor i ntensive a grarian e conomies o f p rehispanic A ndean A merica w as i rrigat ion a gricu lture. T he i mp licit o r e xp licit r ecognit ion o f i rrigat ion a gricu lture a s c entra l t o A ndean s oc iety h as g u ided a l ong a nd s uccessfu l h istory o f r esearch i nto a grarian t echnology a nd e cology ( Day 1 970; D enevan 1 966 ; F arrington 1 974, 1 977; F arrington a nd P ark 1 978; K osok 1 940, 1 965; K us 1 972; N ur iez 1 974; M itchell 1 976; P ozorski a nd P ozorski 1 982; R ega l 1 970; R owe 1 969; S herbondy 1 979). T he l ast d ecade h as s een a s hift i n t he r esearch f ocus f rom ee e mp irica l d escript ion o f a gricultura l t echnologies t o o ne c oncerned w ith t he l ong-term l and u se d ynamics a nd s oc iologica l c oncomitants o f r egiona l a grarian s ystems. T he w ork o f M oseley a nd a ssoc iates i n t he M oche V a lley h as p rovided a m ethodological a nd t heoret ical f ramework f or a ddressing d iachronic c hanges i n l and u se s ystems ( Moseley e t a l. 1 983; M oseley 1 974, 1 978; O rt loff e t a l. 1 982, 1 983). R eT iona l p atterns o f f ie ld l ocat ion, c anal u se Ti namics, a nd l ong-term t ectonic l andscape a lterat ions f igure p rominent ly i n t heir r econstruct ion a nd e xp lanat ion o f t he e vo lut ion o f M oche V alley a griculture. T he e nsu ing d ebate o ver i nterpretat ions o f t he M oche d ata ( Pozorski a nd P ozorski 1 982; F arrington 1 974, 1 977) h as s erved t o e xpand t his f ramework t o i nclude t echnological v ariables o f c ana l c onstruct ion a nd e ngineering s uccesses a nd f ailures. T he O tora V a lley o f t he M oquegua d rainage o f s outhern P eru ( Figs. 1 , 2 ) i s l ocated i n t he h eavily d issected a nd a r id u pper s ierras. T his l andscape i s d ominated b y a bandoned a gricu ltura l t erraces. T hroughout t he P eruvian s outh a nd C hilean n orth, s uch a bandoned

3 37

11 1

0

C

= I l m mig b

1 50Km

SOUTHERN PERU i CHILE

F igure 1 .

S outhern P eru.

3 38

3 39

M oquegua V a lley.

t errace s ystems a re f ound a ssoc iated w ith p rehispanic s ett lements i n v irtua lly e very i rrigable d rainage a s y et i nvest igated. T opographica lly, e cologica lly, a nd a gricu ltura lly, t he O tora V a lley t ypif ies t he m ajority o f o ther s outh c entra l A ndean d rainages. T he e mpirical p atterns o f h uman l and u se d ocumented i n O tora s hou ld t herefore b e r epresentat ive o f t he s outhern d rainages a s aw hole. T he O tora r esearch s ought t o i nvest igate t he p rehispanic a gricultura l s ystems w ithin t he b . soad f ramework d eveloped i n t he M oche V a lley . A n i ntensive s urface r econnaissance l ocated 1 7 p rehistoric a nd e ar ly S panish C olonia l s ites i n t he v a lley. A ir p hoto a nd g round s urvey d efined t he a rea o f a bandoned t errace s ystems. T hese t errace t racts w ere t hen a ssoc iated w ith t heir r espect ive s ett lements t hrough s imp le g eographical p roximity a nd o ther c ana l-site-terrace r e lat ionships. A s ix p eriod c u ltura l s equence ( Fig. 3 ) w as d eveloped b eginning i n t he l atest p hase o f t he M oquegua T iwanaku o ccupat ion ( ca. A .D. 1 200). T he d iachronic p atterns o f l and u se w ere i ncorporated i nto t his h istorical s equence a nd a re p resented b elow . A s w ith t he M oche V a lley, t he O tora d ata d emonstrate a p rogressive a gricultura l l and u se s hift t hrough t ime: t erraced l and w as a bandoned i n a c ontext o f d emographic g rowth a nd a gricu ltura l i ntensif icat ion. U nlike t he M oche p atterns, h owever, t he O tora V a lley s ett lements a nd t erraced l ands c ontracted u p-river t oward t he c ana l s ources, a p attern n ot p revious ly r eported i n t he c entra l A ndes. A s o pposed t o t he M oche c oasta l f loodplain, t he O tora d ata s uggest t hat t he d iffering t opographical a nd e cologica l c haracterist ics o f t he s outh c entra l s ierras p romote a d iffer ing s et o f a grarian s trategies.

P REHISPANIC A GRO-TECHNOLOGY I N T HE O TORA V ALLEY A f undamenta l a nd i nit ia lly s urprising r esu lt o f t he O tora r esearch w as t hat t he e ngineering f eatures o f m odern a gricu lture s how r emarkable s imilarit ies t o t he p rehispanic s ystems. I n t he p ast , a s t oday, a ll p lant a gricu lture a nd a nima l h usbandry w as p ossible o n ly w ith c ana l-watered t erraces b elow a pproximate ly 3 ,200 m eters a bove s ea l evel ( Dolan 1 985). T he v ast m ajority o f a gricu ltura l l and i s f ed b y p ermanent r ivers, w hose s ources a re f ound i n t he e xtens ive s ubterranean a qu ifers a nd s now m e lts a bove 4 ,000 m . O ccasiona lly, s ma ll a reas o f l and a re w atered b y p ermanent s prings c alled p uk ios. A lthough t hese p ukios a re p articu lar ly c ommon a round 3 ,200-3,500 m w here a qu ifers b reak ( F. S tevenson, p ers. c omm .), t hey d o n ot p rovide a s ignificant p ercentage o f t he t ota l a gricu ltura l w ater u t ilized i n t he O tora V a lley, a n o bservat ion w hich h o lds t rue f or t he M oquegua d rainage a s aw hole. T he b asic p rincip le b ehind s outh c entra l A ndean a griculture i s t o c onstruct a n e arth b anked c ana l f rom a p ermanent w ater s ource t o t erraceable l and. V irtually a ll a gricu ltura l l and b e low 3 ,000 m i n t he M oquegua d rainage i s t erraced, e ven t hat i mmediate ly a djacent t o t he r ivers. T his i s d ue t o t he s teep l andscape g radients, a p roduct o f s evere t ectonic u p lift a nd d owncutt ing o f t he w atershed ( M . M oseley, p ers. c omm .). I n s uch a n e cologica l c ontext , t he c ontrast b etween i rrigated a nd n on-irrigated a reas i s d ramat ically e vident w ith a d ark g reen v egetat ion s trip m arking c ana ls a nd i rrigated f ie lds

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F igure 3 .

O tora V alley c hronology.

3 41

a gainst a v irtually p lant less, b rown l andscape ( see T osi 1 960 f or a d etailed d escript ion o f t he e cologica l c haracterist ics o f t h is a rea). A t ypology o f c ana l c onstruction, b ased p rimarily u pon t opographica l p lacement a nd f unction h as b een d eve loped f or t he O tora p rehispanic c ana ls. T hree t ypes o f c ana ls w ere ( and a re ) u t ilized i n t he v a lley. A " contour c ana l" i s o ne t hat d raws o ff a w ater s ource a nd f ollows a h illside a t l ess t han a 1° s lope. T o t he e ye, i t a ppears t o b e a n e ven c ontour. A " ridgetop c ana l" i s o ne t hat d raws o ff a w ater s ource a nd t hen f ollows a d escending r idgetop, u sually s tradd ling t he c rest i n a s inowy p attern a llow ing a ccess t o e ither s ide o f t he h i ll. A" vertical c ana l" i s d efined a s a ny c ana l t hat i s p laced m ore o r l ess p erpendicu lar t o t he c ontours o f t he h i ll a nd i s d esigned t o f eed i ndividual t erraces o r t errace t racts o ff o f a c ontour o r r idgetop c anal. I n m any c ases, b oth p rehistoric a nd m odern, n atura l e rosiona l c hanne ls w ere u sed a s v ertical " cana ls" t o d rop w ater f rom a c ontour o r r idgetop c ana l d own a g u lly t o t erraces c onstructed i n t he l ower, c olluvia l f ans. T here i s n o e vidence o f a ny s tone l ining o f t he n atura l e rosion p oints a lthough t here w as p robably a c ertain r ework ing o f t he w ater f lows t o t he t erraced f ie lds. C ontour c ana ls a re p articu larly p rone t o s eepage l osses d ue t o t he g enerally s evere s lopes ( >25-30 ° ) a nd t he o ccasiona l r ocky t errain o nto w hich t hey m ust b e c onstructed. I n c ases o f s evere s eepage l oss i n c oncentrated a reas, m odern f armers o ftent imes c onstruct s mall t erraces w hich c ollect t he o therw ise l ost w ater ( Dolan 1 985). T hese " opportunist ic t erraces" a re p laced t o c ompensate f or s evere t opographical c ondit ions. S imilar s ma ll t erraced a reas c an b e s een a long n ow-abandoned s ystems. C ontour c anals a re a pproximate ly 5 0-80 c m w ide a nd, w ith a f ew m odern e xcept ions, a re n ot s tone p aved. R idgetop c ana ls t end t o b e s light ly w ider d ue t o t he a bsence o f g radient c onstraints o n c onstruction. T he s ides o f b oth r idgetop a nd c ontour c ana ls h ave b een c ont inually r eenforced a nd r aised w ith s ediment c leaned o ut o f t he c hanne l. T he e ffect o f s uch a p ractice i s t o p roduce a 5 0 c m w ide c ana l, a pproximate ly 5 0 c m d eep f rom s urface l evel, w ith e ither o ne ( contour) o r t wo ( r idgetop) s ediment-raised w alls r anging f rom 2 0 t o 1 00 c m h igh. O n r are o ccasions, v ertical c ana ls i n t he t errace a reas t hemselves w ere s tone s ided, b ut w ere n ever p aved ( this d iffers f or s ome m odern c ases). V ert ical c ana ls a nd s teep g radient r idgetop c anals w ere o ften f lanked o n o ne s ide b y ap irca w all. T hese w alls w ere a pproximate ly 1 m h igh ( using m odern 70-T g a s a na logies) a nd s erved a t l east t wo f unctions. F irst , t oday t hey m ark o ff p roperty l ines a nd k eep a nimals f rom g razing i n o ther f ie lds. S econd, t he w alls a re a lmost a lways o n t he d own-slope s ide o f t he c ana l w hich p revents l atera l m ovement o f t he c ana l i tse lf . T his p rotects a gainst f ie ld a nd c ana l e rosion a nd d eteriorat ion o f t he w ater d elivery s ystem t o i ndividual t erraces ( see D olan 1 985). I n ag eophysical c ontext o f a h igh ly a ctive t ectonic l andscape i n w hich g round m ovements a re t he r ule, a nd n ot t he e xceptiona l o ccurrence, s uch a n e ngineer ing f eature i s e xtreme ly u sefu l ( see M ose ley e t a l. 1 983). 3 42

SURFACE 1 0YR 6 /3 GRAVELLY LOAM

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P rehispanic r eservoir e xcavat ion i n O tora.

3 43

T errace w all h eight a nd d istance b etween i ndividual t erraces i s p ure ly a f unct ion o f s lope w ith t he l argest a nd m ost c lose ly p acked t erraces o n t he s teepest s lopes w hile l ow g radients p ermit t he c onstruction o f s horter t errace w alls. O n l ow s lopes ( 2 010°) t errace h eights a re a s l ow a s 5 0 c m, w hile o n t he s teepest s lopes ( over 2 5 °) w all h eights a pproach 1 -2 m . D istance b etween t he t erraces r anges f rom a m inimum o f 1m u p t o s evera l m eters a part . A ll a ncient t errace w alls w ere c onstructed w ith f ie ld s tones a nd m ud m ortar, v irtually i dent ica l t o r esident ia l s tructure w a lls. T here i s n o i ndicat ion o f a ny r igid s election f or s tone s ize n or p lacement o f p articular s tone t ypes w ithin t he w all. I n s ome a bandoned, p rehispanic t erraces, r epairs w ere m ade w hich a re c learly d etectable a s m ortar less s ect ions i n t he w all. U nlike t erraces i n r ainfall a reas, s uch a s t he T it icaca B asin, t here a re n o h ouses o r n on-agricu ltura l s tructures b uilt d irect ly i n t he t erraced a reas. R ather, a ll s tructures a re b uilt a bove t he c ontour c ana l o utside o f t he a gricultura l a rea i n o rder t o c onserve c ult ivable l and a nd a void h aving t he s tructure p eriodically i nundated b y i rrigat ion w aters. A ny c ase i n w hich d omest ic s tructures a re f ound b uilt o ver t erraces i ndicates t hat t he a gricu ltura l f ie lds w ere o ut o f u se a t t he t ime o f d omest ic c onstruct ion. R eservoirs a nd a queducts w ere a lso v ita l e ngineering c omponents o f t he p rehispanic a gricultura l s ystems. A t l east f ive r eservoirs h ave b een l ocated i n t he O tora V a lley, a ll c urrent ly o ut o f u se a nd a ssociated w ith a bandoned c ana ls. T hese w ater-hold ing s tructures w ere b uilt w ith s tone s ided, e arthen f illed w a lls a pproximate ly 1 i n w ide. T hey w ere p laced d irect ly o n t he m ain c ana l l ines. E xcavat ions i nto s evera l o f t hese d iscovered a p attern o f l aminated s i lty s ediments e xpected i n s uch a d eposit iona l c ontext ( Fig. 4 ). T hree p rehistoric a queducts w ere l ocated i n t he O tora V a lley. T hese w ere m odest c onstruct ions d esigned t o m aintain w ater f low o ver u nusually l ow s wa les. T he s ide w a lls w ere c onstructed i dent ica lly t o t he w a lls o f t he r eservoirs w ith a w ide b r ick w all f illed w ith e arth . T hese e cological f actors a nd e ngineering r esponses p rovided a s ystem c haracterized b y a l ong c ana l o ff o f a r iver s ource t o i ts p rincipal f ields, w ith a s eries o f s mall a gricultura l a reas a lobg i ts r oute w here s eepage w as s evere o r w here n atura l g u llies a llowed t erraceable l and. T he " princ ipal f ie lds" w ere c hosen a s t he a reas o f m inima l s lope c lose t o t he w ater s ources. I n t he c ase o f m ajor, m u lt i-contour c ana l s ystems h owever, s oc iological a nd e conomic f actors e ntered i nto t he f ield l ocat ion c alcu lus. I n s um , t he O tora V a lley s urvey h as i dent ified f our t echno logica l c omponents o f p rehispanic a gricu lture: e arth-banked c ana ls, t erraces, r eservoirs, a nd a queducts. W ith t hese f our c onstruct ion t echniques, w ater c an b e e fficient ly d elivered t o l eve l p lant ing s urfaces. • E ven t oday, p easant a gricu ltura l l and i s e ngineered u nder s imilar p rincip les a nd c an b e u nderstood a s m inor v ariat ions o f t he a nc ient t echniques ( see D olan 1 985 f or a n e xtended d iscussion o f c ontemporary a gricultural p ract ices).

3 44

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T HE O TORA V ALLEY C ULTURAL S EQUENCE S eventeen s ites w ere l ocated i n a n i ntensive s urface s urvey o f t he O tora V a lley ( Fig. 5 ). T hese a re d esignated P 1 - P 17 (HP " = P orobaya). T he s ites w ere d ated p rinc ipally b y c omparing c eram ics f rom e xist ing c hronologies a nd s tyles f rom t he T it icaca B asin ( Lumbreras a nd A mat 1 968; R yden 1 947; T schopik 1 946; A re llano 1 975; J u lien 1 978), t he M oquegua a nd Hp V a lley ( Ghersi 1 956 ; B e län 1 981), a nd N orthern C hile ( Dauelsberg 1 969, 1 972; F occaci 1 969, 1 981). D omest ic a rchitecture a nd f unerary s tyles p roved t o b e c hronologically s ensit ive a s w ell. E ight o f t he 1 7 s ites w ere s mall s herd s catters o r p roved t o b e m inor a ncillary s ett lements i n al arger s ystem ( P9, P 11 - P 17). T hese w ere s urface c ollected. T he r emaining 9 m ajor s ites w ere e ither e xcavated b y c omp lete r oom u nits o r w ere i ntensively s urface c ollected. A s ix-period c hrono logy w as d efined ( Fig. 3 ). T he i nit ia l o ccupat ion w as a v ery l ate T iwanaku h am let ( P5) d ated t o " Moquegua T iwanaku V I" o r p ost-Tiwanaku E xpansive ( see G oldstein 1 985). P 5 w as t he o n ly s ite i n t he v alley d uring t h is p eriod. A lthough t he s ett lement w as s mall, w ith n o m ore t han f our d omest ic u nits, e xcavat ions r evea led a p ermanent ly o ccupied a nd i ntensively u t ilized s ite. T he s ite w as c u lturally l inked t o t he l arger M oquegua V a lley T iwanaku s ett lement s ystem a nd r epresented a p ioneering o ccupat ion i n a n a rea o f p rime a gricultural p otent ia l. T he s ubsequent O tora p er iod i n t he M oquegua V alley r epresents a t ime o f p rofound s oc io-polit ical a nd e conomic r estructurings a fter t he c o llapse o f T iwanaku h egemony. I n t he O tora V a lley, a t l east f ive s ites h ave b een l ocated t hat d ate t o t his p eriod. T wo o f t hese s ites ( P4 a nd P 8) a re b est i nterpreted a s c oasta l a nd c ircum-Tit icaca b asin c olonies r espect ively, w hile a t hird ( P7) i s m ost l ikely a l ocal p opulat ion d eveloping o ut o f t he T iwanaku h am let . T he s mall s ite o f P 9 a nd a n a ssociated c orra l ( P12) a re a lso d ated t o t his p eriod. T he e xact c hronologica l p osit ion o f t he O tora p eriod s ites r e lative t o o ne a nother r emains p roblemat ic a lthough t here i s l itt le d oubt t hat a ll o f t hese a re b racketed b etween t he T iwanaku a nd l ater E stuqu ina p eriods. P 7, P 9, a nd P 12 w ou ld a ppear t o b e e ar lier, b ased u pon c eramic c riteria, w hile P 4 a nd P 8 s hare d ist inct ive p roto-chulpas ( Stanish 1 985a) a nd h ave l ater d ecorated c eramics ( Chiribaya a nd a c ontemporary T rico lor d el S ur v ariant , p robably C o llao b lack-on-red - s ee L umbreras 1 974; T schopik 1 946; a nd R yden 1 947). C ultura l h a llmarks o f t he s ucceeding E stuquif ia ( P1, P 2, P 3) a nd E stuquil i%-Inka ( P1, P 3, P 6) p eriods i nc lude t he d evelopment o f f ortified a rchitecture, i ntensification o f i nterregiona l e xchange, t he f ormat ion o f a n ascent e lite, a nd t he d evelopment o f c hulpa f unerary s tyles. D uring t his p eriod P 4, P 7, P 8, P 9, a nd P 12 w ere a bandoned. T he m u lt i-ethnic c haracter o f t he O tora V alley g ave w ay t o a n i ndigenous, r egiona l s ierra c u lture ( Estuqu ea) o f w hich P 1, P 2, a nd P 3 a re b ut t hree o f m any o ther e xamp les i n t he M oquegua a nd s outhern T ambo d rainages.

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O tora P eriod T he s ite o f C uesta A lta ( P7) w as f ounded a s P 5 w as a bandoned. T he p opu lat ion o f P 7 u t ilized t he s ame c anal a s P 5 ( C-1) b ut o pened u p 4 5 h a o f t erraced f ie lds o n s lopes a veraging 1 7° ( Fig. 7 ). C ontemporary w ith t his r esett lement u p-cana l w as t he c onstruct ion o f a v ery l arge r eservoir a t t he s wale w here C -1 e nters t he P ara laque d rainage. A s maller t ank w as c onstructed n orth o f t he f irst o ne o n t he c ana l s egment w hich w aters t he f ie lds d irect ly b elow t he r esident ia l a rea o f P 7. T he s econd c ana l ( C-2) i n t he s equence w as c onstructed o n C uesta C uajone a nd i s a ssoc iated w ith t he i ntrusive c ircum-Tit icaca B asin p er iod s ite o f P 8 ( Cuajone). T his r idgetop c ana l d rew i ts w ater i mmediate ly t o t he s outh o f O tora. I n e ffect , b y d raw ing w ater f rom a n eighboring d rainage, C -2 w as t echnically a n " intervalley" c ana l w hich d iverted t he w ater r esources o f t he P ara laque r iver o ver t he C uajone r idge i nto O tora. C -2 i s 6 .3 k m f rom i ts s ource t o t he f urthest f ields a ssoc iated w ith P 8. T his i s t he o n ly O tora p eriod s ite l ocated o n t he C uajone r idge. T he c anal i s c onstructed s imilarly t o C -1 ( earth b anked) a nd f ollows a s inowy p attern a cross t he r idgetop. T he e nt ire d ista l e nd n ear P 8 h as b een a bandoned b ut t he m ore e asterly s ect ions o f t he c ana l a re c urrent ly u sed t o w ater a s ma ll a mount o f p asture l and. A long t he n orthern s ide o f t he C uajone r idge ( Otora d rainage s ide) v ert ical c ana ls w ere o pened u p t o n atura l g u llies a nd a s eries o f s ma ll, t erraced t racts a re f ound f ollow ing t he c ana l l ine ( F ig. 7 ). W e c an t herefore s urmise t hat C -2 w as p robably u sed i n t he f ollow ing E stuqu ina p eriod t o w ater t he t erraces f ound a bove t he C -1 c ana l l ine. P orobaya C hica ( P4) i s a ssoc iated w ith a n e xtension o f t he i n-use v alley b ottom c ana l o f C -4 ( C-4a). T he d ate o f t his c ana l s egment i s a lso d iff icult t o d etermine. C -4 p arallels C -1, b ut i s l ower b y a pproximately 3 0 m . C -4 m ay o n ly b e a ssoc iated w ith t he l ater I nka o r S panish C olonia l p eriod o ccupat ions a nd t herefore i ntrusive o n P 4. A s ection o f C -4a a ctually c uts t hrough a n a queduct o n C -1 a s w ell a s d omest ic s tructures o n P orobaya ( P1). T herefore, a t l east i n i ts l atter p hase, t he c anal w as i ntrusive o n P 1 a nd l ater t han t he E stuqu ir i a-Inka p eriod. O n t he o ther h and, t he e ar liest p hases o f t he c anal m ay h ave b een u tilized b y t he c olonia l ( Chiribaya) s ett lement a t P 4 e ither a fter t he a bandonment o f P 7, o r w hile t he l atter s ite w as s t ill o ccupied, a s a n a ttempt t o m aintain i ndependent c on t rol o ver i rrigat ion w aters b y e thnically d ist inct g roups. E stuqu ina P eriod T he p rincipal s ites o f t his p eriod i n O tora a re P 1, P 2, a nd P 3 ( Fig. 8 ). A ssoc iated w ith t he f ounding o f P 2 o n t he C olana r idge w as t he c onstruct ion o f t he t hird m ajor c ana l i n t he v alley ( C-3). T he 1 39 h a C olana r idge a gricu ltura l s ystem w as f ed b y t his s ingle c ontour a nd r idgetop c anal 3 .0 k m f rom t he i ntake t o t he f irst t errace. I ncluded i n t his s ystem w ere t wo r eservoirs a nd t wo l ow a queducts u sed t o s hunt w ater o ver a s wale a nd a round t he r esident ia l a rea o f t he s ett lement .

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E stuqu ir la P eriod

C O W

C C 1 — —

0 0

> Z < — I CC O C C < WI JJ

c r ZC f l D U i < W O U C C C r

0

a )

E stuqu aa-Inka

— 0

C D 0) L t_

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P eriod l and u se.

B oth C -3 a nd P 2 w ere a bandoned b efore t he E stuqu iga-Inka p eriod. T his i s c lear ly d ocumented b y t he l ack o f a ny I nka o r I nka inf luenced c eramics o n t he s urface o r f rom r oom e xcavat ions. P 2 i s t herefore t he o n ly s ingle o ccupat ion E stuqu iga p eriod s ite w ithout a n I nka i nf luenced p hase. T he f act t hat t he a gricu ltura l s ystem a ssoc iated w ith t his s ite r epresented t he m ost s ophist icated c onstructions i n t he v alley e mphasizes t he i ndigenous o rigin o f t errace a griculture. T hat i s, t he e xpansive t erraced h i llsides a nd e xtensive w ater d elivery s ystems w ere n ot I nka i mperia l i mposit ions, a s i s s uggested b y e arly h istorical a ccounts. B oth S ajena ( P3) a nd P orobaya ( P1) h ave e xtensive L ate H orizon c omponents b ut d o n ot r epresent I nka c ontrol. I n i ts e ar lier, E stuqu iga p er iod, P 1 p robably u tilized t he C l a nd/or C 4 c ana ls w hich w ere l imited t o w ater ing a s ma ll a rea o f f ie lds n ear t he s ites. P 3 o pened u p a l arge t errace s ystem o n t he R io S ajena ( cana l C -7) a round 3 000 m . T he p rincipa l o ccupat ions a t b oth P 1 a nd P 3 w ere d uring t he l ater I nka i nf luenced p hase. T he d egree t o w hich t hese l atter a gricultura l p atterns r ef lect t he e ar lier E stuqu iga p eriod o nes r emains u nresolved f or b oth P 3 a nd P l. E stuqu iga-Inka a nd I nka P er iods W ith t he a bandonment o f C -3, t he v alley b ottom c ana l o f C -5 w as c onstructed a nd C -4 w as p robably e xpanded d own t o i ts p resent l ocat ion w est o f t he f ork o f t he R ios S ajena a nd P orobaya ( F ig. 9 ). T he w ater c onserved f rom t he a bandonment o f C -3 w as d iverted t o t hese l ower c ana ls a nd t o s ome s mall a reas o f f ie lds n ear P 4 a nd P l. I t i s u ndoubtedly n ot a c oincidence t hat t he s ignif icance o f t he l ower c ana ls i ncreased w hen I nka i nf luence f irst a ppeared. S uch c ana ls w ere c onsiderably m ore w ater e ff icient a lthough t hey f orced l ineat ion o f a gricultura l l and a nd r esident ia l s ett lements. W hile s uch a s ett lement s ystem m ay h ave b een p ossible i n ac u ltura l c ontext w ithout i ntermittent w arfare, s uch a s t hat f ound i n t he L ate H orizon, i t w ou ld h ave b een d ifficu lt t o m aintain i n t he p reInka p eriods w here d efensibility w as a m ajor s ett lement d eterminant . T he t erraces a nd c anals a ssoc iated w ith t he s ett lement o f P 1 a ye d ifficult t o a ssess d ue t o t he s ite 's p roximity t o P 4, t he O tora p er iod s ite . C ompounding t his p rob lem , i t i s v irtually i mpossible t o d etermine t he e xtent o f t he E stuqu iga p eriod o ccupat ion a t P l, a lthough a f ew p re-Estuqu iga c eramics c aut iously s uggest a n e arly f ounding o f t he s ite. I t w ou ld a ppear t hat t hose t erraced q uebradas n ear t he s ite a s w ell a s t he C -1 t erraces w ere i n u se d uring t he E stuquiga a nd E stuqu iga-Inka p eriods. C ertainly t hese t erraces a re s ome o f t he s teepest i n t he v alley a nd r epresent a n i ntensive l abor i nvestment i n c onst ruct ion a nd m aintenance. T he m ajor c hange i n t he I nka p eriod ( F ig. 1 0) w as t he c onstruct ion o f C -5, a s i ndicated b y t he f ounding o f P ll o n t he n orth s ide o f t he R io O tora. P 11 i s t he f irst s ite o n t his s ide o f t he r iver. I t w as c onstructed o ff o f t he R io S ajena a nd f ed v alley b ottom t erraces a ssoc iated e xclusively w ith l ow d ensity, I nka p er iod s ett lements a longside t he r iver. S imilarly, a nother v alley b ottom c ana l ( C-8) w as c onstructed b elow O tora i n I nogoya ( F ig. 2 ). C -7 w as n ot a bandoned b ut c ontracted s evera l h undred m eters u p r iver t o t he 3 55

s ite o f P 13. A ll I nka v alley b ottom c ana ls.

s ites i n O tora a re a ssoc iated e xclusively w ith

I n s um , t here w ere e ight s eparate c ana ls b uilt i n t he O tora d rainage t hroughout a h a lf m illenium o f h uman o ccupat ion. T he t echnological n ature o f t his a gricultura l b ase r emained f undamenta lly u nchanged, e ven t hough t he e thnic c omposit ion o f t he v a lley f luctuated. U nlike d omest ic a rchitecture, f unerary p ractices, p ottery, a nd o ther m ateria l c ultura l c haracterist ics, c ana l a nd t errace t echno logy w as n ot e thnically s ensit ive. A gricu ltural c onstruct ions r esponded e xc lusively t o t he d emands o f t he l oca l e cologica l e nvironment ( Stanish 1 985b).

H ISTORICAL A GRARIAN D YNAMICS T hroughout t he h a lf m illenium o f h uman, a gricultura lly b ased o ccupat ion i n t he O tora V alley, t here w ere f our m ajor, n onc ontemporary p eriods o f l and u se i n g eographically d iscrete a reas. T his p attern o f l and u se w as c haracterized b y p rogressive s ett lement a nd a gricultura l l and s hifts u p t he r iver s ource u nt il t he E stuqu iNa-Inka p eriod w hen t here w as a m ajor s hift t o v a lley b ottom c anals. I ncredibly, a gricultura l l and w as a bandoned i n a c ontext o f n et a gricu ltural e xpansion a nd d emographic g rowth. G iven t he e mp irical p atterns i ndicated a bove, t he q uest ion t hat i mmediate ly a r ises i s w hy w ould t he i nit ia l T iwanaku p opu lat ion o f n o m ore t han t en n uclear f amilies o pt t o b u ild a 7 .5 k m l ong c anal i nstead o f c hoosing a s horter c ana l n ear t he s ource, a s trategy u sed b y l ater o ccupat ions? F irst , i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he c onstruct ion o f s uch a l ong c anal i s n ot . b eyond t he c apacities o f t he p opu lat ion r epresented a t P 5. I t i s n ecessary t o v iew t his s ett lement i n t he p olit ical c ontext o f a h ierarchical T iwanaku s tate i n w hich a m uch l arger b ody o f l abor a nd o verarching p olitica l s ystem c ould b e o rganized. B ased u pon p re liminary w ork a lready c omp leted b y m embers o f P rograma C ont isuyu i t w ould a ppear t hat i n t he l atest p hases o f t he T iwanaku p eriod t here w as a n e xpansion o f p opu lat ion f rom t he M oquegua V a lley i nto t he m id a nd u pper s ierra. C auses o f t his p opu lation m ovement a re a s y et u nknown, b ut i t i s c lear t hat P 5 r epresents o ne o f t he h ighest s ett lements i n t his e xpansion p rocess d esigned t o e xp lo it u noccup ied, s ma ll d rainages h aving a gricultura l p otent ia l. A s s uch, t he s ma ll g roup o f p eople a t P 5 w ere p art o f a l arger s ocio-political n exus w hich a ssisted i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he c ana l a nd p rovided s ubsistence f or a m issed p lant ing p eriod. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he n earest c ontemporary T iwanaku s ite i s o n ly a m ere 4 h ours w alk a way o n t he f lanks o f C erro B aul. T he c onstruct ion o f a7 .5 k m l ong c ana l i s t herefore n ot b eyond t he o rganizat ional c apacity o f as ett lement s uch a s P 5, a s l ong a s t he l arger s ocio-polit ica l c ontext o f a s tate ( or p ossibly i mperial s tate) i s t aken i nto a ccount . T he O tora d ata s uggest t hat t wo f actors a re p rimarily r esponsible f or i nit ia l s ett lement l ocat ion i n t he v alley: ( 1 ) p rogressive ly l ower h illslopes a way f rom t he r iver, a nd ( 2 ) l abor m inimizat ion i n a gricultura l c onstruct ions. T hat i s, i n t erms o f l abor r equ irements

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i t i s m uch m ore e fficient t o b uild l ong c ana ls t o c u lt ivate f lat l and w ith l ow t erraces t han i t i s t o b u ild s hort c ana ls t o s teep l and w hich r equ ire h igh a nd c lose ly s paced t erraces. I n t he d eeply i nc ised u pper a nd m id s ierras, w here v a lley g radients a verage 6° ( ONERN 1 974), t here i s a g ross r elat ionsh ip b etween d istance f rom t he r iver a nd l ower s lope g radients. T opograph ically, t he c u lt ivated l and a ssoc iated w ith P 5 i s t he c losest l ow g radient l and ( < 1 0°) t hat c ou ld b e r easonably r eached f rom a c anal i ntake o n t he R io P orobaya. I n t he f ie lds o f P 5 t he a verage g radient i s 9 °, w hich c ontrasts s harp ly w ith l ater f ie ld s ystems w here t erraces s omet imes w ere c onstructed o n s lopes o f 3 0° o r g reater. T here i s a p rogressive i ncrease i n a verage f ield s lope t hrough t ime ( Table 1 ). I n s upport o f t his p rinc iple o f i nit ia l f ie ld c hoice, i t i s i mportant t o e mphasize t hat t he c ana l t renches a re n ot , i n t hemselves, l abor i ntensive c onstructions. A part f rom b edrock o bstruct ions, w hich r equ ire c utt ing o f s o lid r ock, t he e arth-banked c ana ls a re n ot n early a s l abor i ntensive a s t errace c onstruct ion. F urthermore, b edrock o bstruct ions a re v irtually a bsent i n t he C -1 c ana l p ath. I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat c ana l t echnology w as w e ll d eveloped i n t he a gricu ltura l f ie lds a t o ther l arge T iwanaku s ites i n t he M oquegua V a lley, b ut t errace c onstruct ion i s r are, r estricted t o v ery l ow g radients ( M. M oseley a nd R . F e ldman, p ers. c omm .). T he s ett lement s hift i n t he O tora p eriod t o a n a rea o f c onsiderably g reater g radients a nd t herefore l abor r equ irements n eeds e xp lanat ion, p art icularly s ince t here w as a bundant l and n ear t he f ie lds o f P 5 f or e xpansion. T he f act t hat t he e arlier P 5 f ie lds w ere a ctually a bandoned i n a c ontext o f d emographic g rowth s erves t o e mphasize t he. " dramat ic" n ature o f t his r esett lement . T hroughout t he h istorica l s equence i n O tora ( at l east u nt il t he I nka p eriod ), t here i s i ndicated a c ont inual e ffort t o r espond t o a gricultural s tresses. T his i s t he o n ly p ossible e xp lanat ion o f t he p rogressive, p atterned a nd " trans-ethnic" s ett lement s hifts t hrough t ime. O nce a c anal a nd t errace s ystem w as i n p lace, d emographic i ncreases, i ntensification o f p roduct ion, a nd p ossibly r educed h ydrological r esources c ombined t o s tress i ts p roduct ive c apacit ies. U nder t hese c ircumstances, t he o ptions a vailable t o t he p opu lat ion w ere ( 1 ) r educe d emographic l evels, ( 2) o pen u p n ew w ater s ources, ( 3) c hange s ite l ocat ion t o h ydrologically m ore e fficient a reas, ( 4) a dopt m ore e ff icient a gro-engineering c onstruct ions a nd/or ( 5 ) d eve lop a ncillary, n on-agricu ltural e conomic i nst itut ions. A ll o f t hese o pt ions w ere u t ilized a t v arious t imes i n t he O tora V a lley. T he s h ift f rom P 5 t o P 7 r epresents t he u t ilizat ion o f t he o pt ion i n w hich t he s ett lement a nd a gricultura l f ie lds w ere m oved t o m ore e ff icient l ocat ions. T he p rinc ip le b ehind t his s trategy i nvolves e ssent ia lly t he s hortening o f c ana l l engths w hich r educe e vaporat ion a nd p art icularly s eepage l osses, a s trategy i solated a nd d escribed i n d etail b y M oseley e t a l. ( 1983) f or t he M oche V alley. M odern s tudies o f e arth-banked c a naTi- i ndicate t hat m ore t han 5 0% o f t he i nit ia l i ntake w ater i s l ost t o s uch f actors ( USDA 1 955). E vaporat ion r ates i n t he P eruvian s outh a re s ome o f t he h ighest i n t he w orld ( F . 3 57

S tevenson, p ers. c omm .). O ne o f t he s imp lest a nd m ost e ff icient w ays t o c onserve w ater i n s uch e nvironmenta l a nd t echnologica l c ontexts i s t o s horten t he l ength o f t he c ana l i tse lf. T his s imp le s trategy p roportionally c uts t he a bsolute r ate o f w ater l oss. S uch a s trategy i s n ot w ithout i ts c osts, h owever, g iven t he t opographica l c haracterist ics o f t he O tora V alley . U p-va lley m ovement f orces a gricultural t errace c onstruction o nto g radients o rigina lly n ot c onsidered o pt ima l i n t erms o f l abor i nput . C -1, f or i nstance, w as o rigina lly c onstructed i n a c ontext o f s uff icient w ater r esources ( maximum o f t en n uclear f amilies). I ts e xtensive l ength r ef lects t he d esire t o r each l ow g radient l and w hich p ermitted l ow t errace c onstruction. T hat i s, C -1 w as o ptimal i n l abor e ff iciency t erms i n t hat i t b alanced b oth c ana l l ength a nd a gricultural t errace h eight . O nce c onservat ion o f w ater r esources b ecomes a c rit ica l f actor i n a gro-engineering s trategies, h owever, s hortening o f t he c ana l f orces t errace c onstruct ion o n h igher s lopes. I n t he O tora p eriod, t he s hift f rom P 5 t o P 7 d ecreased c anal l ength b y 1 .6 k m o r 2 1% o f t he o riginal C -1. S uch a m ove c ut w ater l oss a nd, i n g ross t erms, w e c an c alcu late t hat t here w as a pproximately a 1 0-20% i ncrease i n w ater d elivery b y t h is s imp le s trategy. T able 1 i llustrates t his p rocess t hroughout t he h istorica l s equence. T he a verage c ana l l ength p er p eriod i s c ut m ore t han h a lf w hile t he a verage s lope o f t he f ie lds m ore t han d oubles f rom t he T iwanaku p eriod t o t he E stuqu aa-Inka p eriod. T hat i s, t here i s a r ough i nverse p roportional r e lat ionship b etween c ana l l ength f rom t he s ource a nd s lope g radient . T he n ext t wo s ites f ounded i n t he O tora V a lley w ere P orobaya C hica ( P4) a nd C uajone ( P8). T he c ana l a ssoc iated w ith C uajone ( C-2) d raws o ff o f t he Q uebrada C ueva Q uemada f rom t he P ara laque d rainage a nd d oes n ot i n a ny w ay c ompete f or w ater w ith t he s ystems t hat d raw o ff o f t he R io P orobaya ( C-1, a nd t he l ater C -3 a nd C -4 c ana ls). I n c ultural t erms t his p attern m ay b e u nderstood a s a n a ttempt b y a n e thnically d ist inct p opu lat ion t o c ontrol i ts o wn i rrigat ion w aters. V iewed f rom t he p erspect ive o f v a lley-w ide w ater r esource u t ilizat ion, t he c onstruct ion o f C -2 r epresents t he u se o f o pt ion 2 a bove, i n w hich a n ew w ater s ource i s o pened. T he p lacement o f C -2 o n t he r idgetop c onsiderably r educes s eepage l osses r e lat ive t o C -1 b ecause t he f ormer w as n ot b uilt o n s teep h illsides, s uch a s C -1. S uch a q ualitat ive d ifference b etween t hese t wo c ana ls h e lps e xp lain w hy c ontract ion r ates f or t he f ormer a re c onsiderably g reater t han f or t he l atter ( see T able I ). I n t he O tora p eriod, t hree o ut o f t he f ive h ypothet ica l o pt ions w ere u tilized b y t he p opu lat ions i n t he v a lley. T he s ite o f P 5 w as a bandoned f or m ore a gricultura lly e fficient f ie lds u p c ana l; t wo r eservoirs a nd t wo a queducts w ere c onstructed; a nd a n ew w ater s ource w as o pened. T here w ere, o n t he o ther h and, n o p opu lat ion r educt ions, a t l east a s e vident i n t he i ncrease o f d omest ic u nits ( Table I ). F urthermore, n o i ntensificat ion o f a gricu ltura l e conomic p roduct ion i s e vident , a t l east n ot o n a ny a rchaeo logica lly r ecognizable s ca le s uch a s t hat f ound i n t he E stuqu ii ia-Inka p eriod.

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T he E stuqu aa p eriod i nvolved a s ett lement s hift o f t he p opu lat ion i nto a t l east f our, p ossibly m ore s ites ( F ig. 8 ). T he p rinc ipal s ite o f P 1 c ont inued t o u se t he C -1 c ana l w hile o ther s ett lements e ither m oved d own t o l ower c ana ls ( P6), o pened u p a n ew a nd m ore e fficient c ana l o n t he s ame s ource a s t he P orobaya ( P2), o r o pened u p m ore e ff icient c ana ls o n o ther s ources s uch a s P 3 o n t he R io S ajena. C -2 c ont inued t o b e u t ilized w ith v ery l arge v ert ical c ana ls t hat f unct ioned b y o pening u p t he r idgetop c ana l a t n atura l e rosiona l p oints a nd d ropping t he w ater t o t erraces o r o ther c ana ls b elow . O ne s uch c anal f unct ions t oday i n w hich w ater f alls a lmost 3 50 m f rom t he t op o f C erro C uajone t o t he m odern C -4 c ana l w here i t i s c ollected a nd s erves t o a ugment w ater f rom t he R io P orobaya. T he O tora/Estuqu aa p eriod s ett lement s hift o n C -1 ( P7 t o P 1) r epresented a s hortening o f t he c anal b y a pproximate ly 2 .2 k m o r 3 7% o f t he O tora p eriod c anal l ength. C oncomitant w ith t he c ontraction o f C -1 w as t he o pening o f t he C olana r idge a gricultura l s ystem a nd t he d efended s ett lement o f P 2. T his s ystem h ad o ne c ana l ( C-3) d raw ing o ff o f t he R io P orobaya, w hich i n e ffect s erved t o s hift t he w ater * s aved i n t he c utt ing o f C -1 t o t his n ew s ystem. T his i ndicates t hat t he p opu lat ion h ad n ot y et r eached a bsolute w ater s upp ly l imits r e lat ive t o i ts p roduct ive r equirements. T hat i s, t here w as n o n eed t o r educe p opu lat ion n or p resumably p roduct ion l eve ls d ue t o w ater r esource c onstraints. I t w as o nly a fter t he a bandonment o f t he C o lana a gricultura l s ystem t hat t he O tora V a lley r eached a bsolute l im its f or c ont inued g rowth. T he o pt ion o f c ana l s hortening a nd o ther w ater-efficiency m easures w ere i nsuff icient t o c ompensate f or t he d emands o n t he a gricultura l s ystem . A ny s ubsequent c ontract ion o f C -1 w ou ld h ave b een s o c lose t o t he r iver t hat t here w ou ld h ave b een i nsufficient l and t o c u lt ivate. A h a llmark o f t he E stuqu ii ia-Inka p eriod w as t he e xpansion o f e conomic e xchange n etworks t hroughout t he r egion. E xtensive c oasta l a s w e ll a s a lt iplano c ontacts a re e vident f rom t he q uant it ies o f f ish b one, s hell, c eramics, a nd c ame lid b one r ecovered f rom t he d omest ic r esident ia l m iddens. T he b eginning o f t h is r egiona l e conom ic p rocess c orrelates t o t he c ollapse o f t he C olana s ystem a nd a bandonment o f P 2, w hich i n t urn s ignifies t he a bsolute m aximum e xpansion o f p rehispanic a griculture i n t he O tora V alley. T he I nka o ccupat ion r emains p roblemat ic a t t his p oint . A s s uggested a bove, t here a ppears t o b e ad ist inct ion b etween c eramics o n P 1 v ersus t hose o f P 11 a nd P 15, w ith t he l atter s ites ' c eram ics s uggest ing g reater i conographic a ffinit ies t o t hose f ound a t t he l ater s ite o f T orata A lta. T he s hift t o v alley b ottom c ana ls o ccurred a fter I nka i nfluence w as f e lt i n t he O tora V a lley, a s d etermined b y t hese c eramic i ndicators ( F ig. 1 0). I n t erms o f s eepage l osses, t his s trategy i s t he m ost e fficient b ecause t he f ields a re p laced d irect ly b e low t he c ana l. A ny s eepage f alls o nto t he f ie lds o r i nto t he r iver w here i t c an b e p icked u p b y l ower c ana ls. F urthermore, e vaporat ion l osses a re m inimized w ith v alley b ottom c ana ls. T his s trategy, h owever, f orces a l inear d ispersa l o f s ett lements a long t he t op o f t he c anal, a s i s c ommon t oday i n t he v alley.

3 59

T he L ate H orizon s ett lement d ata i ndicate a c onsiderably r educed p opu lat ion f rom t hat i n t he p revious p eriod . Ac onscious d epopu lat ion a nd r esett lement t o a gricultura lly m ore p roduct ive a reas o f t he M oquegua d rainage b y t he I nka s tate i s s uggested. W hile t he L ate H orizon d emographic l eve ls o f t he M oquegua V alley a s a w hole a re u nknown ( and m ay, i n f act , i ndicate n o c hange o r e ven p opu lat ion i ncreases), t he O tora d ata i ndicate c onsiderable r educt ions i n p opu lat ion s izes.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS T he d ata f rom O tora c lear ly s upport t he p roposit ion o f a p rogressive l and a bandonment p rocess b eginning w ith t he e ar liest a gricultura l o ccupat ions t o a t l east t he I nka p eriod. A s w ith t he M oche v a lley s ett lement s equence ( Mose ley e t a l. 1 983), t he p roximate c ause o f t his c ontract ion p rocess i s a s et -7 c ont inual a nd s evere a gricultura l s tresses. U nlike t he M ache v alley h owever, w here s ett lements r esponded b y m oving d own t he s ource t oward t he c oast , t he O tora p attern i s o ne o f u p-river r esett lement t oward t he w ater s ource. I h ave s uggested t hat t he d iachronic g eographical p atterns o f a gricultura l l and u se b ased u pon i rrigated t erraced h i llsides c an b e u nderstood a s t he i nterplay b etween l abor m inimizat ion a nd a gricultura l s tresses. I nitia l, l ow d ensity o ccupat ions s eek l ow g radient l and i n o rder t o m inimize l abor i nputs f or t errace c onstruct ion. A s p roduct ive d emands i ncrease a nd/or a s w ater s upp lies d ecrease, s ett lements c ut c anal l ength t o p revent s eepage l osses. S uch a s trategy i s h ydrologically e ff icient b ut f orces t errace c onstruct ion o n s teeper g radient l and r equ iring i ncreased l abor i nputs t o b u ild h igh t erraces. F rom t he p erspect ive o f s eepage l oss a nd e vaporat ion, v alley b ottom c ana ls a re t he m ost e ff icient a nd c haracterize L ate H orizon t hrough m odern a gricu ltural s trategies. F or t he u pper s ierras ( above 2 000 m ), t herefore, w e c an p redict t hat i n l ow d ensity r egional d emographic c ontexts w ith a r e lat ive a bundance o f w ater, s ett lements w ill b e f ound o n l ow g radient l and a way f rom t he d eeply e ntrenched r iver b asins. A s a gricultura l s tresses m u lt ip ly, s ett lements s hould m ove p rogressively u p c ana l. W e p redict t hat v alley b ottom c ana ls r epresent t he f ina l s tages'in t he l ocal e volution o f a gricultura l l and u se a s p opu lat ions c hoose t his h igh l abor i nput , b ut a gronomically e ff icient o pt ion.

A cknow ledgements. T his p aper b enef itted f rom t he c omments a nd a ssistance o f m any p eop le i n C hicago, L ima, M oquegua, A requ ipa, a nd O tora. T hese i nclude D on R ice, M ichae l M ose ley, R obert F e ldman, L uis W atanabe, L uis L umbreras, J oyce M arcus, R obert M c C . A dams, D avid J essup, C har les O rt loff, V ictor B arua, F rank S tevenson, J ose C havez, A ugusto B e lgn, R omu lo P ari, M arc B ermann, M anuel G arcia, G loria S alinas, J esus G ordillo, P au l G oldstein, P atricia D odson, R ita B asuray, M ark A ldenderfer, A ntonio O qu iche, E lva A latrista, E dmundo d e l a V ega M achicao, m embers o f P rograma C ont isuyu, a nd t he A rchaeo logy P rogram o f t he U niversidad C atö lica d e " Santa M aria" o f A requ ipa. A s pecia l t hanks g oes t o B arbara D olan w ho c onducted e thnographic s tudies i n O tora a nd t ook t ime t o h e lp m e w ith m y o wn r esearch. B ob 3 60

F eluman, M ike M oseley, a nd J im R ichardson u nselfish ly l oaned m e t heir v ehicles. T he S outhern P eru C opper C orporat ion p rovided i nvaluable l ogist ical s upport . A s pecial t hanks g oes t o V ictor B arua a nd N e lson M olina o f S PCC, w ho t ook a p ersonal i nterest i n t he s uccess o f m y p roject . F unding w as p rovided b y t he H enry a nd G race D oherty F ellowship i n L at in A merican S tudies, a N at ional S cience F oundat ion D issertat ion I mprovement G rant , t he T inker F oundat ion t hrough t he C enter f or L at in A merican S tudies a t t he U niversity o f C hicago, I ng. V ictor B arua, L ucy B arua, a nd M r. a nd M rs. R obert P ritsker. T he F ie ld M useum o f N atural H istory, C hicago, p rovided a g raduate e ducat ion f ellowship. T he S chool o f A merican R esearch, S anta F e, p rovided a p ost-doctoral f e llowship w hich a llowed m e t ime t o f inally c omp lete t his a rt icle. T he h elp o f a ll i s g reat ly a ppreciated.

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3 64

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C HAPTER 1 8 T HE I NCAIC O RGANIZATION O F T ERRACED I RRIGATION I N C UZCO, P ERU

J eanette E .

S herbondy

A BSTRACT T he m ajor i rrigat ion c anals a nd t he t erraced l ands t hey w atered f ormed d e f acto i rrigat ion d istricts t hat w ere t he h eart o f t he l ands b e longing t o e ach o f t he p anacas a nd a yllus o f I nca C uzco. A t o ne p oint t he r ights t o t he c a lT i l 7i i id t he l ands t hey w atered ( irrigat ion d istricts ) w ere d istributed t o t he v ar ious p anacas a nd a yllus i n t he v alley o f C uzco. T h is d istribut ion w as m ade i n ah i erarch ica l o rder s o t hat t he p olit ical r ank o f t he p anaca o r a yllu c orresponded d irect ly t o t he r elat ive i mportance o f i t s d istrict f or C uzco. T hese r ights w ere c oded i nto t he c eque s ystem b y e mp loy ing s evera l o rganizat ional p rinciples.

I NTRODUCTION T he C uzco V a lley i s o ne o f t he l argest h igh land v a lleys i n t he c entral A ndes a nd w as t he m ajor m etropo litan a rea o f t he I nca e mp ire. I t i ncluded t he u rban c enter o f i ts c apita l c ity a s w e ll a s a n i mportant r ural a rea o f t erraced a nd i rrigated f ie lds a nd i rrigated p astures. I t i s n ot s urprising t hen t hat t he I ncas o rganized t he v alley b y i ntegrat ing u rban a nd r ura l a reas i nto t he p olit ical s ubd ivisions. T he b asis f or t hese s ubd ivisions i nto w ards o r p rec incts w as t he d e f acto i rr igat ion d istrict . M any i rrigat ion c ana ls d escend f rom t he 1 3 17 77 t o t he v a lley f loor a nd i rrigate t erraced f ie lds. T he I nca s tate h ad t o s olve s everal a dministrat ive p roblems c oncerning t his m u ltiplicity o f c anals: 1 . W hat c r iter ion d id t hey u se f or s ubdividing t he C uzco v alley? 2 . T o w hom a nd h ow d id t hey d istribute r ights t o t hese s ubd ivisions o r w ards? 3 . H ow d id t hey m ap t hese s ubdivisions? I n t his p aper I o ut line t he f undamental p rinciples t he I ncas u sed t o a ccomp lish t hese g oals. T hese t heories a re b ased o n m y f ie ld w ork i n C uzco a s w e ll a s e thnohistorical r esearch. W ater w as t he b asis f or t he s ubdivisions o f t he C uzco V alley . T he n atura l w atersheds a s w e ll a s t he a rt ificia l o nes c reated b y i rr igat ion c anal n etworks d efined s evera l l evels o f u nits. I n t he f irst p lace t he C uzco v a lley i tself w as d efined a s t he d rainage b asin o f t he u pper r eaches o f t he H uatanay R iver a s f ar a s t he g ap, L a A ngostura, t o t he e ast o f C uzco. T his a rea w as e xpanded t o i nc lude t he i rrigat ion c anal f rom C hinchero t hat b rought w ater f rom t he A nta R iver b asin i nto t he H uatanay b asin. T his a rea r oughly c o inc ides w ith t he a rea d efined b y t he c eque s ystem, w hich I w ill d iscuss l ater.

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Q UESTION 1 : S UBDIVISIONS O F I NCA C UZCO T he p rimary p olit ical a nd s ocia l s ubd ivision o f C uzco w as t he m oiety . H anan C uzco w as t he u pper m oiety a nd H urin C uzco w as t he l ower m oiety. I n a ddit ion, t he m oieties s erved a s t he f undamenta l l and d ivision o f C uzco. I ts e ffect ive b orders w ere d ef ined b y t he l imits o f h ydro logical a reas. T he l ands i rrigated b y c ana ls t hat o riginated i n t he u pper m oiety w ere p art o f t hat m oiety, a nd t he l ands t hat c anals i n t he l ower m oiety i rrigated f ormed t he l ower m oiety. T he p oint a t w hich s evera l t ributary s treams j oin t o f orm t he H uatanay R iver w as c onsidered t he b eginning o f t he l ower m oiety, s o t hat l ands t hat w ere w atered b y c anals t hat c ame d irect ly f rom t he H uatanay R iver f ormed p art o f t he l ower m oiety. L ands t hat w ere w atered b y c ana ls f rom t ributary s treams s uch a s t he S aphi a nd t he T u llumayu f ormed p art o f t he u pper m oiety . T he b order b etween t he t wo i s t he d ivision b etween t he e ffective i rrigat ion d istricts. T hese i rrigat ion d istricts a re c omprised o f ac ana l, i ts b ranches a nd r eservoirs, a nd t he l ands i t i rrigates. T hese d istricts a re t he d ivisions w ithin t he m oieties. A l arge i rrigat ion d istrict m ay b e s ubd ivided f urther i nto d iscrete u nits t hat a re b ranches o f t he l arger c ana l n etwork. I n t his c ase I f ound t hat t here i s u sually a r eservoir p laced a t t he h ead o f t he b ranch, t he p oint w here i t d iverts w ater f rom t he m ain c ana l. T he r eservoirs p ermit w ater t o b e s tored d uring t he n ight f rom t he m ain c ana l s o t hat t he b ranch a nd t he m ain c ana l m ay b e u sed s imu ltaneous ly d uring t he d ay. I n t he C uzco V a lley, t hese r eservoirs a re g enera lly p laced a t a bout 3 ,600 m e levat ion, w hich c o incides w ith t he u pper l imits o f m aize c u lt ivation i n t he r egion a s w e ll a s t he u pper l im its o f t he l arge, w e ll b u ilt s tone t erraces t hat a re a ssoc iated w ith m aize a griculture. O ther t erraces w ere b u ilt t o t he t ops o f t he h i lls, b ut t he o nes b elow 3 ,600 m s tand o ut f or t heir l arge s ize a nd h igh q uality o f c onstruction. T he i rrigat ion d istricts w ere a lso p art o f l arger u nits b ased o n a c ommon w ater s ource f or s evera l s eparate c ana l n etworks. T hat i s, a ll t he c ana ls t hat t ake w ater f rom o ne r iver w ere c onsidered a u nit : I n s ummary, w ith in e ach m oiety, i rrigat ion d istricts w ere a b asic u nit t hat o ften f ormed l arger u nits b ased o n a c ommon w ater s ource. S imilarly, i rrigat ion d istricts w ere a lso s ubdivided a long t he l ines o f s eparate b ranches o f o ne m ain c ana l. U rban a reas w ere i ntegrated i nto t hese u nits. T he c ity o f C uzco w as l ocated a t t he c onvergence o f t he i rrigat ion d istricts o f t he u pper a nd l ower m oiet ies w here s evera l s treams m eet t o f orm t he H uatanay R iver. T he I nca s ett lement p attern i n t he C uzco V a lley i nc luded a c entra l c eremonia l a nd a dministrative c enter ( Cuzco) a nd o ther v illages d ispersed t hroughout t he v a lley . T his m eans t hat p robably a ll i rrigat ion d istricts i nc luded a n u rban a rea.

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Q UESTION 2 : D ISTRIBUTION O F W ATER A ND L AND R IGHTS T he I ncas d istributed i rrigat ion d istrict r ights t o t he f undamenta l s ocia l a nd p olit ical g roup i n t he A ndes: t he a yllu . T hese w ere c orporate g roups t hat c onsidered t hemse lves t o b e d escendants o f c ommon a ncestors a nd w ho w orshipped t he o rigina l a ncestors t hat h ad e merged f rom t he e arth - u sually a t w ater s ources - a nd h ad g iven t hem t he l ands t hey w ere b orn o n, l ived o n, a nd w ere b uried i n w hen t hey d ied. T his i deology p rovided a b asis f or t he l ocal g roup a s w ell a s t he s oc ial g roup . T he a yllu o wned l ands a nd w aters c orporate ly . T he c oncept o f t he a yllu m erges s oc ia l a nd l oca l c riter ia, a nd c an b e d efined a s a g rO T4 5 - -7 p eople ( who c onsider t hemselves r e lated) w hich h olds c ommon r ights t o c ertain l ands a nd w aters a nd w hich h as c orporate p ower t o d ecide o n t he d istribut ion o f r ights t o s pecific f ie lds t o s pec ific m embers o r f amilies w ithin t he a yllu . T he I ncas d istributed r ights t o t he w aters a nd l ands o f t he C uzco v alley t o a yllus o f n on-Incas ( conquered a nd a llied p eoples) a nd t o a yllus o f I ncas c alled p anaca. T he p anaca h as b een f orma lly d efined a s a r oya l I nca l i neage w ith o f t he ( deceased) I nca k ings a s i ts h ead f ounder. T he p anaca a lso h ad a l ocal o r t erritoria l b asis c omparable t o t hat o f a n T he I ncas h ad t en p anacas a nd t en a yllus t hat w ere d istributed t o t he t wo m oiet ies: f ive p anacas a nd f ive a yllus t o e ach m oiety. E ach p anaca w as r anked a ccording t o t he g enea logical d istance o f i ts f ounder k ing f rom t he r eigning I nca. T he a yllus w ere r anked l ower t han p anacas. M y r esearch h as s ubstant iated t hat r ights t o t he m ost i mportant i rrigat ion d istricts o f C uzco w ere d istributed t o t he p anacas i n o rder o f t heir p olit ical r ank. T he s ma ller a nd l ess i mportant i rrigat ion d istricts w ere d istributed t o t he n on-Inca a yllus. F or e xamp le, t he l argest a nd m ost i mportant c anal s ystems f i T IF- T f i e c ity o f C uzco w ere t he c ana l f rom C hinchero m ent ioned a bove a nd t he C hacan c anals t hat u se t he w aters o f t he u pper S aphi r iver. T hese c ana ls f low i nto t he c ity a nd i rrigate t he l ands n earest t o a nd i n i t . T he t wo h ighest r anking p anacas, C apac a nd H atun, c ontro lled t hese t wo i rrigat ion d istricts. T he n ext t wo h ighest r anking p anacas c ontrolled t he c ana l f rom T ambo M achay t hat i rrigates l ands n ear C uzco t o t he e ast o f t he c ity. I n f act, t he c ana l i s s t ill u sed b y t he d escendants o f t hose t wo p anacas, w ho c onsider t hemselves t he t rue " owners" o f i t . O ne o f t he b ranches o f t his l arge c ana l s ystem w as d istributed t o al ower r anking a yllu. A yllus a lso h ad t he d istricts o f t he s horter c anals l ocated i n t he v a lley b ott om b order ing o n t he l ower l imits o f t his l arge i rrigat ion d istrict o f t he p anacas. T hese t wo " macro" i rrigat ion d istricts ( Tambo M achay a nd JW IFEJ 7- c ana ls) f ormed t he b asis f or t he m ajor s ubdivision w ithin t he u pper m oiety, t he s uyu o r q uarter. H owever, t he m ajor d ist inction t hat a ffected t he p anacas ' r ights t o l ands w as t he m oiety d ivision. T here w ere f ive p anacas i n t he u pper m o iety a nd f ive i n t he l ower. M embers o f p a nacas i n u pper 3 67

m oiety c ou ld n ot o wn l ands i n t he l ower m oiety, a nd m embers o f t he l ower m oiety c ould n ot o wn l ands i n t he u pper m oiety. Al it igat ion i n 1 560 b etween I ncas f rom t he u pper a nd f rom t he l ower m oiet ies o ver a p iece o f l and i n t he C uzco V alley i ncluded v aluable t est imonies a bout t he p re-Hispanic r ights t o t he l and g iven b y f ormer I nca o ff icia ls w ho s pecifically s tated t hat n o o ne f rom t he u pper m oiety c ou ld o wn l and i n t he l ower m oiety a nd n o o ne f rom t he l ower m oiety c ou ld o wn l and i n t he u pper m oiety.' T his i s t he f irst c oncrete e vidence t hat t he m oiet ies w ere m ore t han a n a bstract s ocia l d ivision. I n f act , t hey w ere t he l ocalized s ocia l g roups, a f undamenta l t err itoria l d ivision o f I nca C uzco. T he e vidence p resented i n 1 560 d emonstrates t hat t he d isputed p iece o f l and i s i rr igated f rom a c ana l o f t he l ower m oiety, p robably f rom t he H uatanay R iver. I t w as t herefore p art o f t he l ower m oiety e ven t hough i t w as c ont iguous w ith a p iece o f l and i n t he u pper m oiety t hat t he d isputant c lear ly o wned a nd t hat w as i rrigated b y ac anal o f t he u pper m oiety. S ince t he d isputed p iece o f l and w as i rrigated f rom a c ana l o f t he l ower m oiety, i t c ou ld n ot b elong t o a ny m ember o f t he u pper m oiety.

Q UESTION 3 : T HE C EQUE S YSTEM A S M AP F rom t he e vidence i n t his l it igat ion i t i s o bvious t hat t he I nca a dministrat ion h ad c learly d efined l im its f or t he m oiet ies a nd f or t he i rrigat ion d istricts. T hey i ncorporated t his i nformat ion i nto t he c eque s ystem. T his w as a s er ies o f i nvisible l ines, l ike p ara llels a nd m eridians, t hat r adiated f rom a c entra l p oint . P oints o n t hese l ines w ere i dent ified b y b enchmarks t hat w ere h uacas o r s hrines. O stensibly t he l ines f unct ioned a s a r ecord o 1 s t at e r ecognized s hrines. W hat I d iscovered w as t hat t hey a lso m apped t he i rrigat ion d istricts o f C uzco a nd t hat t hese i rrigat ion d istricts w ere t he b asis f or t he a dministrat ive s ubdivisions o f C uzco i nto w ards o r p recincts t hat w ere t he p anacas a nd t he a yllus. A ll o f t he l ines r adiated f rom a c entra l p oint i nside C uzco -the t emp le o f t he s un, C oricancha. T his m eant t hat t he C uzco V alley w as s ubdivided i nto p ie-shaped s ectors. E ach s ector i ncorporated a t l east o ne i rrigat ion d istrict . T hese s ectors w ere d istributed t o t he p anacas a nd t he a yllus. T his s ort o f r ad ia l d istribut ion o f l ands t o a yllus i s s t ill T— o t i id i n s ome a reas o f t he A ndes, s uch a s t he v illage o f S an A ndre s d e M achaca, B olivia ( A lbö 1 972). T here w ere 4 1 l ines o r c eques t hat h ad a t ota l o f 3 29 h uacas d istributed o n t hem. O ne t hird o f t he h uacas w ere w ater s ources, m ost o f t hem s ources f or i rrigat ion c ana ls. T herefore a c eque m arked t he s ource o f e ach c anal. T he r ecord o f w hich l ines w ere a ssigned t o w hich p anacas a nd a yllus w as o rigina lly k ept o n a q uipu . T he i nformat ion w as d ictated t o o ne o f t he e ar ly S paniards, p ossibly t o P o lo d e O ndegardo, a n e ar ly g overnor o f C uzco, a nd F ather B ernabe C obo ( 1956) i ncluded t he i nformat ion i n h is H istoria d el N uevo M undo i n 1 653. T he l ines t hat i nc luded t he s ources o f t he m ajor i rrigat ion c ana ls o f C uzco w ere s pec ifically a ssigned t o t he c are o f t he p anacas. 3 68

T he f ormal h ead o f e ach p anaca w as o ne o f t he d eceased I nca k ings a nd t here w as a l iving I nca c hief f or e ach p anaca. F or e xamp le, t he m ost i mportant c ana ls i n t he u pper m oiety o f C uzco w ere t he C hacan c ana ls a nd t he C hinchero-T icat ica c ana l. T he s ources o f t hese c ana ls a re l ocated o n t he c eques a ssigned t o t he p anacas C apac a nd I naca. T hese w ere t he h ighest r anking p anacas s ince t heir h eads w ere t he m ost r ecent ly d eceased I nca k ings, T upac I nca Y upanqu i a nd P achacut i I nca. T he l ines t hat i ncluded t he s ources o f t he m inor c ana ls ( or b ranches o f t he m ajor i rrigat ion s ystems) w ere a ssigned t o t he c are o f s pec if ic n on-Inca a y llus. F or e xamp le, t he c ana l f rom t he s pring P ilco p uqu io, n ow r i-j i— o a s t he Q engo R iver, w as a ssigned t o t he c are o f G uacaytaqu i a yllu . I n a ll, 1 9 o f t he 4 1 c eques w ere a ssigned t o s pec ific p anacas a nd a yllus. O ne p anaca, R aurau p anaca i s n ot m ent ioned - 1 5T— U obo 's d escript ion o f E FT-5-q u es , a nd r- 57 E- e l sewhere p resented a n a rgument t hat t his i s b ecause R aurau p anaca w as i n c harge o f t he l ands o f t he s un i n C uzco ( Sherbondy n .d:T . "-- 7 -t her c eques d emarcate t he s ides o f i rr igat ion d istricts. T his s ystem o f p oints o n r adia l l ines w as a mazingly f lex ible. I t i ncorporated t he v ita l i nformat ion o f w here i rrigat ion d istricts w ere l ocated r egardless o f t heir c onfigurat ion. T his s omet imes m eans a n " irregu lar" p lacement o f t he l ines. T hese " irregu larit ies," h owever, c orrespond d irect ly t o t he d emands o f m apping s pec ific i rrigat ion d istricts a nd I d oubt t hat t hey w ere s een a s i rregu larit ies b y t he I ncas s ince t he l ines a lways r adiated t heoret ica lly f rom t he c entra l p oint . F or e xamp le, t hree c eques i n t he n ortheast q uadrant , A nt isuyu , f ollow o ne o n t he o ther f cT i i iiT iE g a s ingle l ine . T he r eason f or t his p lacement i s t hat t he c anals i n t hat s ector o f A nt isuyu a re s hort o nes t aking t heir w ater f rom s prings o n t he l ower s lopes o f t he h i lls. T his s ector w as a ssigned t o t hree a yllus, e ach o ne c orresponding t o o ne l ine t hat a utomat ica lly f ormed- o ne t hird o f t he s ector. 2 T he l ines h ad t o b e l ocated w here t he w ater s ources f or t he c ana ls w ere. W hereas t he d esignat ion o f s pec ific c eques t o s pecif ic p anacas a nd a yllus c orresponds d irect ly t o t he l ocat ion o f t he s ources o f t he c ana ls -O f t heir i rrigat ion d istricts, i t h as n o c orrespondence w ith t he d esignat ion o f r ank o f t he c eques. T he c eques a re p laced i n o rdered g roups o f t hree t hat a re r anked O lin-a ( h igh ), p ayan ( middle), a nd c ayao ( low ). S ome p anacas a re a ssigned t o c o llTT r i l ines, o thers t o p ayan l ines, a nd o ne t o a c ayao l ine. T here a re a yllus a ssigned t o-T OTT äna , p ayan, a nd c ayao l ines. T he a ssignment o f a p anaca o r o f a n a y l lu t o o ne o f t he T i rr ei w as d etermined n ot b y t he r ank o f t he l ine b ut b y t he l ocat ion o f t he s ource o f t he c ana l, a nd t he o ther t wo l ines o ften i ndicated t he b orders o f t he a rea t he c ana l i rrigated. 3 W hat I h ave d emonstrated i s t hat t he c eque s ystem i ndicated w here e ach p anaca a nd a yllu h ad t heir l ands a nd c ana ls. T he c eque s ystem w as m ore t han a n a bstract m odel o f t he s oc ia l a nd p olit ica l o rganization o f I nca C uzco, a s Z u idema ( 1964) s tated. I t w as a m ap o f t he i nterna l o rganizat ion o f t he c apita 1. 4 I n

f act ,

a fter m apping

t he

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c ana ls

i n

C uzco

i n 1 975,

Ir ea lized

t hat t he c eque s ystem h ad e ncoded t he l ocat ions o f t he c ana ls, t he l im its o r b orders o f t he l ands t he c ana ls i rrigated a nd, i n a ddit ion, t he i nformat ion o f w hich p anaca a nd a yllu h ad r ights t o t hose i rrigat ion d istricts. I t i s e vident t hat t he p anacas w ere c orporate g roups o f I ncas t hat h e ld t he r ights t o t he m ajor i rrigat ion d istricts o f I nca C uzco a nd t hat t he a yllus t hat w ere p rivileged t o h ave l ands i n C uzco h e ld r ights t o m inor i r r igat ion d istricts.

C ONCLUSION T he a ssignments o f i rrigat ion d istricts d emonstrate a d irect c orre lat ion b etween t he p olit ica l r ank o f t he p anaca o r t he a yllu a nd t he r elat ive i mportance o f i ts i rrigat ion d isf ti-E r , a n i ndicat ion o f h ow t he I nca s tate p lanned a nd a dministered t he m etropolitan a rea o f i ts c apita 1. 5 T he s tate d istributed t he i rrigat ion d istricts t o p rivileged g roups a nd e xcluded o thers e nt ire ly f rom r esidence i n t he C uzco V alley: h owever t he i nterna l m anagement o f t he i rrigat ion d istricts w as l eft t o t he a uthorit ies o f t he p anacas a nd a yllus, t hereby a voiding t he c reat ion o f a l arge h ydraulic b ureaucracy a nd m aintaining a g ood b alance b etween c entra l a dministrat ion a nd l oca l a utonomy o f i rrigat ion a ffairs.

A cknow ledgements. T his p aper i s b ased o n r esearch t hat w as c arr ied o ut i n P eru f rom 1 975 t o 1 977 w ith t he s upport o f aF u lbright H ays D issertat ion F ellowship ( 1975-76) a nd a g rant f rom t he G raduate C ollege o f t he U niversity o f I llinois ( 1976). P ostdoctora l a rchiva l r esearch i n 1 983 w as f unded b y a g rant f rom t he J oint C omm ittee f or L at in A merica o f t he A merican C ounc il o f L earned S oc iet ies a nd t he S ocia l S cience R esearch C ounc il. T his s upport i s g ratefu lly a cknow ledged. I w ou ld l ike t o t hank t he d irectors o f t he A rchivo D epartamental d el C uzco, M anuel A paricio V ega a nd H oracio V illanueva U rteaga f or f acilitat ing m y h istorica l r esearch i n C uzco, a nd G u illermo D urand F lörez, D irector o f t he A rchivo G enera l d e l a N acid n, a nd G racie la S anchez C erro o f t he B iblioteca N aciona l d el P eru f or f acilitat ing m y w ork i n L ima. Iw ish t o t hank t he s taff o f t he L illy L ibrary o f I ndiana U niversity, e specia lly R ebecca G ibson, t he A ssociate C urator o f M anuscripts . M any p eop le h ave g iven ' m e e ncouragement d uring t he p ast t en y ears t hat I h ave b een w ork ing o n t his p roject . Iw ould l ike t o t hank i n p art icular M ar(a R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco f or h er e xce llent a dvice r egarding e thnohistorical r esearch a nd f ie ldwork, G uido D e lrgn, t he D irector o f t he C entro d e E studios R ura les A ndinos B artolome d e L as C asas, f or g enerous ly e xtending t he f acilit ies o f t hat i nst itut ion t o m e a nd f or p ub lishing s ome o f t he e ar ly r esu lts o f m y p roject . Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank B illie J ean I sbe ll, H elen N ader, a nd F rank S alomon f or t heir i nterest a nd e ncouragement . I e specia lly t hank P atric ia N ether ly f or h er a dvice a nd f or r eading t his p aper i n m y a bsence a t t he A mer icanist C ongress i n B ogota.

N OTES

1 .

I i nit ia lly p resented t his i nformat ion i n a p aper, " Lands a nd W aters o f H urin C uzco" t o t he A merican S oc iety f or E thnohistory, N ashville, T ennessee, i n 1 982. 3 70

2 .

S ee S herbondy 1 979 a nd 1 982 f or a m ore d etailed d iscussion o f t he d ata a nd a rguments p resented i n h ere. I n t his p aper m y p urpose i s t o s ynthesize s ome o f t he m ajor p oints o f I nca d istribut ion o f l and a nd w ater r ights i n C uzco t hat I e laborated i n m y e ar lier a rt icle a nd i n m y d issertat ion.

3 .

T he d irect c orrespondence o f l ines a ssigned t o a s pec ific p anaca o r a yllu a voids t he n ecessit . " o f h ypothesizing t hat C obo w as c are less i n h is r ecord ing o f t he c eque s ystem o r o f h ypothesizing t hat t he p anacas s hou ld b e a ssigned er clusively t o p ayan l ines a nd t he a yllus t o c ayao l ines, a s Z uidema ( 1964 A7- 9 ) i nit ia lly s uggested.

4 .

Ia m g ratified t hat Z u idema h as m ade g ood u se o f m y w ork a nd h as i ncorporated i t i nto v arious a rticles o f h is a fter 1 976, i n p art icu lar, Z u idema 1 978.

5 .

F or a m ore d etailed a rgument s ee S herbondy 1 979, 1 982, a nd n .d.

R EFERENCES C ITED

A lbö , J avier, 1 972. D inamica M achaca. C obo, B erna l : 1 956 [ 1653].

e n, l a e structura i ntercomunitaria A merica I ndigena 3 2:773-816.

d e

J esus

H istoria d el N uevo M undo. B iblioteca d e r i-T ai irr e s, V ol. 9 2. C dfc öne s A t las, M adrid.

d e

A utores

S herbondy, J eanette E . 1 979. L es r eseaux d 'irrigat ion d ans l a p eographie p olit ique C uzco. J ournal d e l a S ociete d es A mericanistes 6 6:45-66.

d e

1 982.

T he C ana l S ystems o f H anan C uzco. P h.D. D issertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f I l linois, C hampaign-Urbana.

n .d.

O rganizaciön h idräu lica y p oder e n e l C uzco d e l os I ncas. R evista E spa i iola d e A ntropologfa A mericana ( Madrid ), i n p ress.

Z u idema, R . T . 1 964. T he C eque S ystem o f C uzco: T he S oc ia l r aT i iii i— T f t he I nca. B rill, CFd en . 1 978.

O rganizat ion

o f

t he

L ieux s acres e t i rrigat ion: t radit ion h istorique, m ythes e t r ituels a u C uzco. A nna les: E conomies, S oc ietes, C ivilizat ions 5 -6:1037-1056.

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C HAPTER 1 9 T HE D ATING O F R AISED-FIELD A GRICULTURE I N T HE L AKE T ITICACA B ASIN, P ERU

C lark L . E rickson

A BSTRACT P reviously, t he r aised-f ield a gricultura l s ystems o f t he L ake T it icaca b asin o f P eru a nd B olivia h ave b een a ttributed t o v ar ious p rehistoric c ultures t hrough i ndirect d at ing o f t he f ields b y u sing t he r egion 's a rchaeological s ites. H owever, t hese d ates a re u ncertain d ue t o t he l ack o f a rchaeological r esearch o n t he a ctual f ie lds. B ecause r aised f ields i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin w ere s tructurally c omplex a nd a ppear t o h ave b een l abor i ntensive, t here h as b een a t endency t o p lace t hem l ate i n t ime w hen A ndean s tate s tructures w ere w ell e stablished, a nd p opu lat ion s tress w as a t a m aximum. A rchaeological f ie ldwork d one f rom 1 981-1983 u sed c ontrolled t renching i n p rehistoric r aised f ields a nd p rovided t he f irst d irect d at ing o f t he a rea 's r aised f ields. S trat igraphic p rofiles o f t renches w ere u sed t o d ocument t he o rigina l f ield m orphology, c onstruct ion s tages, p eriods o f u se, a nd f inal a bandonment. T he t rench p rofiles a lso p rovided a g ood c ontext f or i n s itu r ecovery o f a ssociated c u ltural r emains. T hese r emains w ere -d it a '—T i sing a bsolute m ethods s uch a s t he t hermolum inescence t echnique a nd c omparat ive d ating o f c eramics. T he r esu lt ing d ates f rom v arious c ontexts w ithin t he f ie lds i ndicate t hat t here w ere a t l east t wo d ist inct p er iods o f c onstruct ion a nd a bandonment . T his d ata, c ombined w ith r adiocarbon d ates a nd s eriat ion o f c eramics f rom a ssociated o ccupat ion s ites, d emonstrates t hat r aised-f ie ld a griculture p robably b egan a round 1 000 B .C., a nd w as w ell e stablished b y 5 00 B .C. T he r aised f ie lds w ere a n i mportant p art o f t he e conomic b ase o f P ukara c ulture. A fter t he c ollapse o f P ukara, f ield c onstruct ion a nd u se i n t he n orthern l ake b asin a ppears t o h ave d ecreased s harply . T his p robably r esulted f rom s ocia l a nd p olit ic 0 c hanges o ccurring a s T iwanaku g ained p rest ige a nd p ower i n t he s outh. A r esurgence o f r aised-field c onstruction i n t he n orthern l ake b asin o ccurred a fter A .D. 1 000, a nd l asted u nt il t he I nca c onquest o f t he a rea. C hronological d ocumentat ion o f t he o rigins, e volut ion, a nd a bandonment o f t his P rehispanic s ystem o f i ntensive a griculture h elps u s t o e valuate g eneral t heories a bout a gricu ltural d evelopment a nd i ts r e lat ionship t o P rehispanic s ocial o rganizat ion.

I NTRODUCTION P reviously, i ndirect d at ing h as b een u sed t o a ssoc iate t he r aised-fie ld a gricultural s ystems o f t he L ake T it icaca b asin o f P eru a nd B olivia w ith t he o ccupat ion s ites o f v arious p rehistoric c ultures ( Smith e t a l. 1 968, 1 981; K olata 1 982, 1 986; T urner a nd D enevan 1 985). H owever, f F g se d ates a re u ncertain d ue t o t he l ack o f a rchaeological r esearch d one i n t he f ields t hemselves. B ecause t he r aised f ie lds o f t he L ake T it icaca b asin a re s tructura lly c omp lex a nd a ppear t o b e l abor i ntensive, t here h as b een a t endency t o a ssociate t hem w ith

3 73

l ater p eriods w hen i t i s p resumed t hat s tate s tructures w ere w ell e stablished a nd p opulat ion s tress w as a t a m aximum. A rchaeological f ie ldwork d one d uring 1 981-1983 i n t he D istrict o f H uatta, D epartment o f P uno, P eru, h as p rovided t he f irst d irect d at ing o f t he a rea 's r aised f ie lds, a nd i ndicates t hat t hey h ave a t ime d epth o f a t l east 2 ,500-3,000 y ears. T he a lt ip lano ( high p lain) o f P eru a nd B olivia, a t a n e levat ion o f o ver 3 ,800 m a bove s ea l evel, i s a v ery d ifficult e nvironment f or a griculture. T he L ake T it icaca b asin i s s light ly m ore f avorable, a nd i s w here t he d ensest p opulat ions ( both p rehistoric a nd m odern) a re f ound ( Fig. 1 ). T he r emains o f p rehistoric r aised f ie lds ( came llones i n S panish; w aru w aru i n Q uechua) a re a lso f ound i n t his a rea, d istributed t h-F a ig 'FT i E m ore t han 8 2,000 h a o f t he s easonally i nnundated p ampa ( p lain) n ear t he l ake ( Smith e t a l. 1 968, 1 981). T he s oils o f t F e 7- 7, 5 ne a re c onsidered t o b e g enera ll7 p oor d ue t o t heir h igh p H l evels, s alt a ccumu lat ions, a nd i mpermeable c lays ( ONERN-CORPUNO 1 965). I rregular r ainfall c ausing s poradic d roughts a nd f looding a nd f requent h ail a nd f rost d uring t he g row ing s eason, c ause a dditiona l p roblems f or t he f armers ( Monheim 1 963; M orlon 1 979; O NERN-CORPUNO 1 965). T he p rehistoric f armers o f t he p ampa a dapted t o t hese l imitat ions t hrough t he d evelopment o f a n e laborate s ystem o f r aised f ields w hich i mproved h ydraulic c ontrol, i ncreased t he d epth o f f ertile s oil, a nd p rovided s ome f rost c ontrol. T he c ana ls b etween t he r aised f ields c onserved w ater, s tored h eat f or p rotect ion a gainst f rost, p roduced g reen m anure f or f ert ility r ecycling, a nd m ay h ave b een u sed f or a quaculture a nd t ransportat ion ( Smith e t a l. 1 968, 1 981; L ennon 1 982; E rickson 1 985, 1 986; G araycochea 1 986, 7f f is v ol.; D enevan a nd T urner 1 974). T he a rchaeological i nvest igat ion o f 1 981-1983 f ocused o n t he z one o f H uatta, l ocated i n t he c enter o f t he l argest b lock o f r emains o f r aised f ields i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin. T he p roject c ombined a rchaeological s urvey, e xcavation o f r aised f ie lds a nd p rehistoric s ett lements, a nd t he c onstruct ion o f e xperimental r aised f ie lds u sing p rehistoric m odels ( Erickson 1 984, 1 985, 1 986; G araycochea 1 984, 1 986, t his v ol.). O f m ajor i nterest w as t he e stablishment o f a c hronology f or t he e volut ion o f t he r aised-fie ld a gricultural s ystems. I n o rder t o d etermine t heir o riginal m orphology, r ecover s oil a nd p ollen s amples, a nd r ecover a rt ifacts i n s itu f or d irect d ating, t renches w ere e xcavated a cross r aised f ie lds a nd t heir a ssociated c anals ( see F igs. 2 , 3 ). I n a ddit ion, t est e xcavat ions w ere m ade i n s everal p rehistoric o ccupat ion s ites t o o btain a ddit iona l d ata f or t he i ndirect d at ing o f f ield s ystems a nd t he s tructure a nd o rganizat ion o f t he a ssociated p rehistoric p opulat ions.

E XCAVATIONS

I N R AISED F IELDS

S trat igraphic t renches e xcavated i n r aised f ie lds p rovided e vidence t hat t here w ere v arious s tages o f f ie ld c onstruction a nd m aintenance. A ll o f t he s oil e xcavated f rom c ultural s trata o f t he r aised f ields a nd c ana ls w as c arefully s creened t o r ecover a rtifactual r emains f or d irect d ating. I n m ost o f t he t renches, a s m ay b e e xpected f or a gricultural c ontexts, f ew a rt ifactual r emains w ere r ecovered. T he m ajority o f t he c ultural r emains r ecovered c ame f rom r aised f ield e xcavat ions n ear p rehistoric s ett lement m ounds. 3 74

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3 75

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E xcavation o f U nit A a t t he s ite o f V iscachani P ampa ( PPu7-58). 3 76

U sing t he t hermolum inescence ( TL) t echnique o f d at ing, s even s amp les o f c eramics f rom t hree d ifferent r aised f ie ld l ocat ions w ere s ubmitted t o t he U niversity o f D urham L aboratory f or d at ing. A s ummary o f t he T L d ates a nd t heir c ontexts i s p resented i n F igure 4 . T hese s even T L d ates p rovide d irect d ates f or k ey s trata w ithin t he r aised f ie lds t hemselves. I n a ddit ion, i ndirect d ates o btained f or t he f ie lds ( through r adiocarbon a nd d iagnost ic c eramic e vidence f rom a djacent s ett lement s ites) s upported t he i nterpretat ions o btained t hrough T L d at ing. S ummary o f t he P hases T he r aised f ie ld s trat igraphy a nd t he d ates o btained b y T L d at ing i ndicate t hat t here w ere t wo m ajor p hases o r t ime p eriods o f r aised f ie ld c onstruct ion, r eferred t o h ere a s P hase I a nd P hase I. P hase I . T he r aised f ie ld r emains o f P hase I a re t he e ar liest t hat w ere d i scovered i n t he H uatta p ampa. I n t he s t rat igraphy o f t wo t renches i n r aised f ie lds n ext t o t h e s ite o f P ancha ( PPu7-28), t here w as e vidence o f a s er ies o f s ma ll r aised f ields u nder l arger s uperimposed r aised f ie lds w hose r emains f orm t he m odern p ampa s urface. T he m ean w ave length o f t hese e ar ly r aised f ie lds i s a pproximate ly 5 m , t he o rigina l s urface o f t he f ie lds w as 2 .5 m w ide a nd . 5 m t a ll ( see F igs. 2 a nd 5 ). T he o ldest T L d ate f or t hese r emains i s 1 320 B .C. + 6 60 y ears, o btained f rom a s amp le r ecovered f rom a s tratum o f a bg aoned c ana l s ediment . A lthough t his d ate i s v ery e ar ly, i ts l arge s igma v alue o ver laps w ith t hat o f t he n ext o ldest d ate, 4 00 B .C. + 5 00 y ears. T his c omes f rom a nother t rench ( Unit N ) a t t he s ame sne f rom a s tratum i nterpreted a s r aised-f ie ld c onstruct ion f ill. T hese t wo d ates i ndicate t he c onstruction a nd u se p eriod o f t he P hase I f ie ld . T hree o ver lapping T L d ates, A .D. 8 0 + 3 80, A .D. 3 80 + 3 20, a nd A .D. 4 40 + 3 10, d ate t hree d ifferent P hase 1 7 c ana l f ill c oniexts ( Pancha U nit M-ä nd U nit N ; J uchatta P Pu7-57, U nit A ) a nd i ndicate t he t ime o f p ost-abandonment s edimentat ion a nd e rosion. A s eries o f r adiocarbon d ates f rom a ssoc iated s ett lement l ocat ions c orroborate t he T L d ates o f P hase I . T he d ates f or t hese p re-Pukara o ccupat ions c luster b etween 6 00-800 B .C. P hase I. A fter a p er iod o f a bandonment o r d isuse, t he r aised f ie lds w ere m odif ied b y a dding c onstruct ion f ill t o a lternat ing a bandoned c ana ls, t hus i ncreasing t he f ie ld s urface t o 5m w ide, 1 m o r m ore t a ll, a nd r esu lting i n aw ave length o f 1 0 m . W e d o n ot h ave a d irect d ate f or t his p er iod o f r econstruction a nd m odif icat ion i n P hase I; d ates o f A .D. 1 325 + 1 20 y ears a nd A .D. 1 540 + 9 0 y ears o btained f rom s amp les f rom s ediments o f c ana l f ill ( PancEä U nit N ) i ndicate t he p eriod a fter t he f ina l a bandonment o f t he f ie lds o f P hase I. D iagnost ic c eramics i n a ssoc iated o ccupat ion s ites s upport t hese t ermina l d ates a nd i ndicate t hat t he c onstruct ion a nd u se o f t he r aised f ields o f P hase I c an b e a ttributed t o t he c u ltures o f t he L ate I ntermediate p er iod ( A .D. 1 000-1476) a nd w ere p ossibly c ont inued b y t he c u ltures o f t he L ate H orizon ( A .D. 1 476-1534) i n t he n orthern l ake b asin. I n s ummary, t here w ere t wo d ist inct p hases o f c onstruct ion a nd u se o f t he r aised f ields i n t his z one. C onstruction o f P hase I r aised f ie lds b egan s omet ime b efore 1 000 B .C. a nd, u sing d ates f rom 3 77

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3 79

a ssociated s ett lement m ounds, a ppears t o h ave r eached a p eak a round 6 00-800 B .C.; t heir a bandonment o ccurred s omet ime a fter A .D. 3 00. T he r econstruct ion a nd r eut ilizat ion o f t hese r aised f ie lds i n P hase I p robably b egan a bout A .D. 1 000 a nd l asted u nt il t he I nca c onquest o f t he l ake z one s omet ime a fter A .D. 1 450.

D ISCUSSION R e lat ing t he T L d ates t o w hat w e k now a bout t he p rehistor ic c ultures o f t he z one p ermit u s t o i nterpret t he s ignificance o f t he r aised f ields i n t erms o f l ocal c u lture h istory . T he r emains o f e ar ly f arming c ultures o f t he a lt ip lano, Q a luyu , W ankarani, a nd C hiripa, i ndicate a n e conomic o rientat ion t owards t he l akeshores a nd w et land z ones. T he e xp loitat ion o f l acustrine r esources w as p robably s imilar t o t he e conomy o f t he p resent d ay l akeshore d we llers, w hich c ombines a griculture, f ishing, h unt ing a nd c ollect ing. B esides i ncreasing t he a rea o f a rable l and a round t he l akeshore a nd r ivers, t he p ractice o f r aised-f ie ld a griculture w ou ld h ave a lso e xpanded t he e cozone t hat f avored w et land f lora a nd f auna ( Erickson 1 986). C onstruct ion o f t he r aised f ie lds p robably b egan a long t he s hores o f t he l ake a nd r ivers, e xpanded t hroughout t he s easonally f looded p lains, a nd l ater e xtended i nto t he d rier a reas o f t he p ampa. T he p eak i n e ar ly r aised f ie ld u se d uring P hase I a pparent ly E JTFE lded w ith, o r p erhaps b egan s omewhat e ar lier t han, t he r ise i n i mportance o f t he c eremonia l c enter o f P ukara i n t he n orthern l ake b asin. T he l ocat ions o f m aim. 'a nd m inor P ukara s ett lements o n t he l ake e dge s uggest a n e conomy b ased o n r aised f ie lds a nd q ochas ( sunken f ie lds), p robably a lso i ncluding a ndenes ( terraces) 6 F— F l ifT s lopes i n c lose p rox imity t o t he l ake. D uring t he p er iod a round A .D. 2 00-300, t he s outhern l ake b asin c ulture, T iwanaku, u surped t he p ower a nd p rest ige o f P ukara. W ith t he s ubsequent c ollapse o f P ukara, t here i s e vidence o f t he a bandonment o r d isuse o f t he r aised f ields i n P hase I o f t he p ampa o f H uatta. W e s uggest t hat t his a bandonment w as r e lated t o t he s hift o f p ower f rom t he n orthern t o t he s outhern c apita l. W e c an a ttribute t he l ack o f d iagnost ic c eramics o f t he T iwanaku p eriod i n t he p ampa o f H uatta t o o ne o f t wo f actors: a m ajor d epopu lat ion o r m idFiii c in o ut o f t he a rea, o r t he c ont inuat ion o f t he l ocal n on-T iwanaku c eramic t radit ion ' . A lan K olata ( 1982, 1 986) s uggests t hat t he r aised f ie lds i n K oani P ampa i n B olivia a re r e lated t o T iwanaku o ccupations I V a nd V , w hich c oincide w ith t he p eriod o f a bandonment o f r aised f ie lds i n t he n orth. W ith t he c o llapse o f T iwanaku a round A .D. 1 000, r aised f ie ld c onstruction a ppears t o h ave s topped i n t he s outhern b asin, a nd a r esurgence o f c onstruction o f r aised f ields i s s een i n t he n orth ( Phase I). T hese r aised f ie lds a re r e lated t o t he L upaca a nd Q o lla e thnic g roups. I t i s h igh ly l ikely t hat t he f ina l a bandonment o f t hese r aised f ie lds o ccurred d uring t he I nca o ccupat ion o f t he L ake T it icaca b asin. T he S panish a nd i ndigenous c hroniclers m ake n o r eference t o r aised-f ie ld a gricu lture, w hereas t hey w rote d eta iled d escript ions o f o ther f orms o f i ndigenous A ndean a gricu lture; t hus, w hen t he S panish a rrived, t he r aised f ie lds w ere p robably i n d isuse. I t i s s uggested t hat t he a bandonment t hat e nded P hase I, i n a dd it ion t o t hat o f P hase I , c an b e a ttributed t o s oc io-polit ica l c hanges i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin. I n o ther p ublicat ions, t hese e xplanat ions w ill b e e xamined i n m ore d etail. H ere i t c an o n ly b e e mphasized t hat t he d ates o btained b y T L f or t he b eginning o f P hase I r aised-f ie ld u se 3 80

c orre late c losely w ith t he d ates, e stablished b y o ther i nvest igators, f or e ar ly s edentary a gricultura l c ommunit ies i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin; a nd t he T L d ates f or t he d ecline o f P hase I r aised-f ie ld u se c orrespond t o t hose p revious ly d etermined f or t he c o llapse o f t he P ukara c u lture.

L ABOR O RGANIZATION A ND I NTENSIFICATION I N R AISED-FIELü A GRICULTURE T he d irect d ates o btained t hrough T L, w hich i ndicate a v ery e arly u se o f t he r aised f ie lds i n P hase I , c ontrad ict t he h ypotheses o f o ther i nvest igators. T he a ttribut ion o f r aised f ie lds t o l ate p rehistoric c u ltures i s b ased o n t he n otion t hat t he c onstruct ion o f t he s ystem w ou ld h ave r equ ired l arge d ense p opu lat ions w ith a n a dvanced b ureaucrat ic s tructure t o o rganize a nd d irect t he l abor, a nd t hat t he p ressure t o d eve lop s uch a n i ntensive s ystem o f a gricu lture a rose f rom t he n ecessity o f f eeding t his l arge p opu lat ion ( Harrison a nd T urner 1 978; K olata 1 986; T urner a nd H arr ison 1 983; T urner a nd D enevan 1 985). D ata f rom t he 1 981-1983 a rchaeologica l i nvest igat ions a nd c ont inuing a gronomic i nvest igat ion f rom 1 983 t o t he p resent i ndicate t hat t hese i deas a re n ot n ecessarily r e levant t o t he d evelopment o f r aised-f ie ld a griculture i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin. D iscussions o f l abor i nput r elated t o t he c onstruct ion a nd m aintenance o f r aised f ie lds a re g enera lly b ased o n t he f igures d erived b y E rasmus ( 1965), P u leston ( 1977), o r n on r aised-field a na logies ( see T urner a nd D enevan 1 985; K napp 1 984; D enevan a nd M athewson 1 983, M athewson, t his v ol.), b ut t he r esu lts f rom t heir e xperiments c an n ot b e d irect ly a pp lied t o t he c onstruction o f r aised f ie lds i n t he P eruvian a lt ip lano. W ith t he c hakitaqlla ( Andean f ootp low ) . , a n e xce llent a gricu ltura l t ool f or c utt ing p ampa s od, a s ingle w orker c an c onstruct 1 m3 / hour u nder i dea l s oil c ond it ions ( Erickson 1 985; G araycochea, t his v ol.). T his f igure r esu lts f rom m ore t han 4 y ears o f e xperimenta l c onstruct ion o f r aised f ie lds i n t he z one o f H uatta. T he l abor r equ irements f or t he c onstruction o f r aised f ie lds a re t hus n ot n ecessar ily a s h igh a s p revious ly b e lieved. D ue t o t he s ophist ication o f t he s ystem o f r aised f ie lds, i t h a ' s b een c ommonly a ssumed t hat s ome f orm o f c entra lized a dministrat ion w ou ld h ave b een n ecessary f or f ie ld p lanning a nd m anagement ( Kolata 1 982, 1 986; H arrison a nd T urner 1 978; T urner a nd H arrison 1 983). C onstruct ion a nd u se o f r aised f ie lds i n H uatta h ave d emonstrated t he c ontrary : t hat s mall c ommuna l g roups o f 2 0-40 f am ilies c an e ffectively m anage t his t echnology; a nd s ma ller g roups, e ven i ndividual f am ilies, h ave a lso b een v ery s uccessfu l. T here i s n o e vidence t hat a m ore e laborate s oc io-polit ica l o rganizat ion t han t he t radit iona l A ndean a yllu ( local-leve l l and h old ing g roup ) i s n ecessary f or t he c onstruct ion a nd m aintenance o f r aised-fie ld s ystems. M any i nvest igators, f ollow ing B oserup ( 1965), b elieve t hat i ntensive a gricu lture o n ly d eve loped i n r esponse t o s evere p opu lat ion p ressure. A lthough t he r aised f ie lds s upported a l arge a nd d ense p opu lat ion, t he n ew d at ing e vidence i ndicates t hat t he s ystem w as d eveloped l ong b efore t here h ad b een s evere p roblems i n s upport ing a l arge p opu lat ion. A s e xplained e arlier, i t s eems t hat t he r aised f ie lds o f t his z one d eveloped e ar ly i n o rder t o i ncrease t he a rea o f 3 81

p rehistorica lly p referred e cozones, r iver a nd l akeshore m argins, w hich t oday a re c onsidered ' margina l' f or a gricu lture ( Erickson 1 986). A cknow ledgments. Iw ou ld l ike t o t hank t he f ollow ing f or t heir a ssistance i n t he a rchaeologica l a nd a gronomic f ie ldwork o f t he P royecto A grico la d e l os C ampos E levados: D anie l A . B rinkmeier, K ay L . C andler, I gnacio G araycochea Z ., M anuel G arcia M arquez, t he I nst ituto N aciona l d e C u ltura, a nd e veryone i n t he C ommunity o f H uatta. E ditor ia l a ssistance w as p rovided b y K ay L . C andler a nd D anie l A . B rinkmeier . F unding f or t he p roject c ame f rom t he N at iona l S cience F oundat ion D issertat ion I mprovement G rant ( Dona ld A . L athrap, P rincipal I nvest igator ) a nd a f ellowship f rom t he S oc ia l S ciences R esearch C ounc il. Iw ish t o a lso t hank I an B ailiff a nd l ain W atson o f t he U niversity o f D urham T hermolum inescence L aboratory, E ngland, f or p roviding t he T L d ates, a nd t he U niversity o f I l linois G raduate C ollege f or t he f unding t o d ate t he s amp les. T he a uthor a lone i s r esponsible f or t he c ontents o f t his a rticle.

R EFERENCES C ITED B oserup, E ster 1 965. T he C ondit ions o f A gricultura l G rowth.

A ld ine, C hicago.

D enevan, W illiam M . a nd K ent M athewson 1 983. P re liminary R esu lts o f t he S amborondö n R aised F ie ld P roject , G uayas B asin, E cuador. I n D rained F ie ld A gricu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica, e dited b y J . P . D arch, p p . 6 7-181. B rit ish A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 1 89, O xford. D enevan, W illiam M . a nd B . L . T urner I 1 974. F orms, F unctions, a nd A ssociat ions o f R aised F ie lds i n t he O ld W or ld T ropics. J ournal o f T ropica l G eography 3 9:24-33. E rasmus, C har les J . 1 965. M onument B u ilding: S ome F ie ld E xperiments. J ournal o f A nthropology 2 1(4):277-301. E rickson, C lark L . 1 984. P utt ing A nc ient A ndean A griculture B ack t o W ork . i n p ossession o f a uthor.

S outh-western

M anuscr ipt ,

1 985.

A pp licat ions o f P rehistoric A ndean T echnology : E xperiments i n R aised F ie ld A griculture, H uatta, L ake T it icaca; 1 981-82. I n P rehistoric I ntensive A gricu lture i n t he T ropics, e dited b y I . S . F arrington, p p . 2 09-232. -N i.f t li-h A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford.

1 986.

A gricu ltura e n c ame llones e n l a c uenca d el L ago T it icaca: A spectos t e c n ic o s ys u f uturo. I n A ndenes y c ame llones e n e l P eru a ndino: H istoria p resente y faUFE 17- aited b y C ar los -E l a T orre a nd M anuel B urga, p. -1 31-350 . C onsejo N ac iona l d e C ienc ia y T ecnologia, L ima.

3 82

G araycochea, I gnacio 1 984. H uatta: A l 2 :44-46. 1 986.

r escate

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c ame llones.

H ojas

P otenc ia l a grico la d e l os c ame llopes e n e l a lt ip lano p un do. I n A ndenes y c ame llones e n e l P eru a ndino: H istoria p resente y f r iTE UTU:- e dited b y C arT 8s d e-l i- 1-6 17 (T-3 / M anuel B urga, p. 2 41-251. C onsejo N aciona l C iencia y T ecnologia, L ima.

H arr ison, P . D . a nd B . L . T urner I ( editors) 1 978. P rehispanic M aya A gricu lture. U niversity P ress, A lbuquerque. K napp, G regory 1 984. S oil, S lope, a nd W ater i n P rehis ' EF F- W i C i T ITT ral— D epartment o f G eography, U niversity M icrofilms, A nn

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t he E quatoria l A ndes: AS tudy o f F dr ptat ion. P h.D. D isiertat io T U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. A rbor.

K olata, A lan L . 1 982. T iwanaku: P ortrait o f a n A ndean C ivilizat ion. o f N atural H istory B u llet in 5 3(8):13-18, 2 3-28. 1 986.

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T he A gricu ltural F oundations o f t he T iwanaku S tate: f rom t he H eart land. A mer ican A nt iqu ity 5 1:748-762.

A V iew

L ennon, T homas J . 1 982. R aised F ields o f L ake T it icaca, P eru: A P rehispanic W ater M anagement S ystem. P h.D. D issertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropology 7 , FT iersity o f C o lorado, B oulder. M onheim, F e lix • 1 963. C ontribuciö n a l a c limatologia e h idrologia d e l a c uenca d el T it icaca. U n nersidad N aciona l -T e cnica d el Ä ll g rano, P uno. M or lon, P ierre 1 979. A puntes s obre e l p roblema a grond mico d e/ l as h e ladas, a specto m eteorolögico. I n E studio a groclimatologico d e l a c uenca d el L ago T it icaca, N o. 2 . C onvenio P eru-Canada, O NERN-CORPUNO 1 965. P rograma d e I nventario y E valuaciön d e l os R ecursos N aturales d el D epartamento d e P uno . O f icina N acT3T a l d e E va luaciön d e . U e arsos N aturales, L ima. P u leston, D ennis 1 977. E xperiments i n P rehistor ic R aised F ie ld A gricu lture: L earning F rom t he P ast . J ournal o f B e lizean A ffairs 5 :36-43. S mith, C lifford T ., W . M . D enevan, a nd R . H amilton 1 968. A ncient R idged F ie lds i n t he R egion o f G eographica l R eview 1 34:353-367.

3 83

L ake

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Antiguos campos de camellones en la region del Lago Titicaca. In La tecnolog/a en el mundo andino, edited by H. Lech'bnan a ndA. M. Soldi , Vo 1, pp. 25-50. Universidad Naciona 1 Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico.

r.

Turner II, B. L. and w. M. Denevan 1985. Prehistoric Manipulation of Wetlands in the Americas: A Raised Field Perspective. In Prehistoric Agriculture in the Tropics, edited by I. S. Farrington, pp. 11-30. BrftTsn Archaeological Reports, International Series 232, Oxford. Turner II, B. L. and P. D. Harrison (editors) 1983. Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Bel12e-.-un1vers1ty of Texas Press, Austin.

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C HAPTER 2 0 A GRICULTURAL E XPERIMENTS I N R AISED F IELDS I N T HE L AKE T ITICACA B ASIN, P ERU: P RELIMINARY C ONSIDERATIONS

I gnacio G araycochea Z .

A BSTRACT A gricultura l e xperiments o n r aised f ie lds n ow b eing c onducted w ith in t he D epartment o f P uno, s outhern P eru, a re p roving t hat t he l arge-scale a bandoned f arm ing s ystems o f p ast c u ltures c an b e r eintroduced s uccessfu lly. A pp lied s tudy o f a nc ient t echno logies s uch a s r aised f ie lds c an p rovide v aluable i nsights i nto c urrent a gricultura l d eve lopment p roblems. I n a dd it ion, r esearchers a re g aining a n ew p erspect ive o n h ow a nd ient f armers m ay h ave u sed t hese a nd o ther p re-Co lombian f arm ing s ystems s uch a s t erraces, s unken f ie lds, a nd i rr igat ion c ana ls. E xperiments o n r aised f ields i n P eru s how t hat t here i s a n eed f or m ore i nterdiscip linary c ooperat ion i n a ll T hird W orld d eve lopment e fforts, e spec ia lly w hen t hese e fforts i nvolve t he r ehabilitat ion o f a bandoned t echno logies. A rchaeologists, a gronomists, g eographers, a nd a nthropologists n eed t o w ork t ogether a nd s hare w hat i s k nown a bout p rehistoric f arming t echniques. P erhaps o ne o f t he m ost i mportant l essons g ained t hrough o ur w ork i n P eru i s t hat t he c ommon f armer m ust b ecome m ore i nvolved i n t he d evelopment p rocess. K now ledge o f a nc ient t echnologies m ust p ass f rom t he d omain o f s cient ists a nd a cademics, a nd b e m ade a vailable t o t he w orld 's s mall-scale s ubsistence f armers. I t i s o n ly r ight t hat t he " forgotten f armers" a re t aught t o u se a nd u nderstand t he u nique a gricultural h eritage l eft b y t heir a ncestors.

I NTRODUCTION A gricultura l e xperiments o n r aised f ie lds n ow b eing c onducted o n t he a lt iplano i n t he D epartment o f P uno, s outhern h igh land P eru, a re p roving t hat l arge-scale f arm ing s ystems o f p ast c u ltures c an b e s uccessfu lly r eintroduced. T he R aised-Fie ld A gricu ltura l P roject , a m ult idiscip linary t eam o f a gronomists a nd a rchaeologists, i s i nvest igat ing r aised-f ield a gricu lturel i n d etail i n o rder t o e xpand c ultivat ion o f v ast p ampas o f t he a ltiplano n ot c urrent ly i ntensive ly u t ilized. T he a pp lied s tudy o f a ncient t echno logies s uch a s r aised f ie lds s uggests a p ossible a lternat ive t o c onvent iona l a gricu ltura l d evelopment . I n t his p aper, p re liminary r esu lts o f t wo y ears o f c ult ivat ion o n r aised f ie lds a re p resented.

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R AISED F IELDS T he e roded r emains o f r aised f ie lds c over m ore t han 8 2,000 h a i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin o f s outhern P eru a nd n orthern B o livia ( Sm ith e t a l. 1 968, 1 981). T he p lains ( pampas) a round t he l ake a t a n T f tfT r ide o f m ore t han 3 ,800 m a bove s ea l evel p resent s erious l imitat ions o n a gricu lture. P eriod ic d roughts, f loods, f requent f rosts, a nd g enera l l ow s oil f ert ility l imit t he s uccess o f c onvent iona l a gricu lture ( ONERN 1 955). R ecent a rchaeo logica l i nvest igat ions i ndicate t hat t he r aised f ie lds i n s outhern P eru w ere u sed t o f eed a v ery l arge p opu lat ion f or s evera l t housand y ears, b ut w ere p robably a bandoned l ong b efore t he S panish C onquest i n t he 1 6th c entury ( Erickson 1 985, a nd t his v ol.). T he r aised-f ie ld s ystems n ear L ake T it icaca w ere b u ilt b y p rehistoric f armers i n r esponse t o n umerous g eographic a nd e nvironmenta l f actors ( Lennon 1 982, 1 983). T he f ie lds w ere u sed t o e xp loit l ow-lying l and f looded d uring t he r ainy s eason. T he c onstruct ion o f r aised f ie lds i ncreases t he a mount o f c u lt ivable l and b y r aising t he f ield s urfaces a bove t his f lat , s easona lly f looded p ampa. C rops p lanted o n t he e levated f ield s urfaces w ere p rotected 57 -6 7 1Fh igh w ater. T he w ater i n t he c ana ls b etween t he r aised f ie lds, w armed b y t he s un d uring t he d ay, p rovided s ome p rotect ion a gainst s evere n ight f rosts. T h is w ater a lso w as p robably u sed f or " sp lash i rrigat ion" d uring s hort p eriods o f d rought . D uring p eriods o f f looding, s oil i n t he c ana ls w as e nriched w ith n ew o rganic m atter. T his g reen m anure f rom t he c ana ls c ould b e u sed a s n atura l f ert ilizer ( Smith e t a l. 1 968, 1 981; E rickson 1 981, 1 986; D enevan a nd T urner 1 974). R afied f ie lds, m ost o f w hich a re a bandoned b ut i n s ome c ases a re s t ill i n u se, h ave b een f ound i n m any a reas o f t he w or ld ( Denevan 1 970, 1 982). I n B e lize, P u leston ( 1977) c onducted s ome o f t he f irst e xperiments i n r econstruct ing M aya r aised f ields. S imilar a pp lied s tudies o f r aised-f ie ld a griculture w ere c onducted i n M exico ( Gomez P ompa e t a l. 1 982; G omez P ompa 1 976 ; A mador A larcön e t a l. 1 980, 1 981). -- TF 6- f irst e xperimenta l r aised f ie lds i n t he C i ke T it icaca b asin w ere r econstructed b y E rickson ( 1985, 1 986) n ear H uatta, P eru, i n 1 981. T hese f ie lds a re s t ill i n u se a nd a re g radually b eing e xpanded b y l ocal f armers. W e s elected s ix s ites i n w hich t o r ebuild r aised f ie lds, a ll l ocated o n l and b elonging t o t he c ampesino c ommunity o f H uatta, l ocated 3 0 k m n orth o f t he p rovincia l c apita l o f P uno. T hese w ere V iscachani P ampa; C hojnocoto I , I, a nd II; S ancachi; a nd P ancha P ampa ( Fig. 1 ).

R A ISED F IELD S OILS A ccording t o s tudies b y O NERN ( 1965, 1 984), t he s oils i n t he p ampa o f t he c ommunity o f H uatta a re n ot c onsidered t o b e p rimarily a gricultural. O n t he c ontrary, t he s tudy i ndicates t hat t hese s oils a re o nly a ppropriate f or g razing d ue t o h igh l evels o f s a lt a nd p oor d rainage. L oca l f armers a lso c onsider t hese s oils i nappropriate f or c ult ivat ion, a nd t he p ampa i s u sed p rimarily a s p asture l and. F requent f rosts a nd f looding a dd t o t he a gricultura l p roblems o f t he p ampa a s p erceived b oth b y O NERN a nd t he l ocal f armers. D espite t hese 3 86

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u nfavorable c ondit ions, p rehistoric f armers m ade t his s ame a rea h igh ly p roduct ive w ith t he t echno logy o f r aised f ie lds. T here i s am arked d ifference b etween r aised-f ie ld p latform s o ils a nd c ana l s oils ( Erickson 1 985). W e t ook a t ota l o f 8 0 s oil s amp les a t ad epth o f 1 5 c m i n c anals a nd p latforms i n e ach e xperimenta l a rea. E ach s amp le w as a nalyzed f or o rganic m atter, p H, n itrogen, a nd p hosphorus. O rganic M atter.

T he p latform s oils c ontained s ignificant ly l ess t he c ana l s oils. T he p ercentages o f o rganic m atter i n s oil s amp les f rom c ana ls a veraged 8 .61%; t he h ighest ( 11.18%) w as f rom a m ore h um id a rea, a nd t he l owest ( 4.72% ) w as f rom a l ess h um id a rea ( Table 1 ). P latform s amp les y ie lded a n a verage o f 3 .5% o rganic m atter, a m ax imum o f 6 .88%, a nd a m inimum o f 1 .75%. I n g eneral t erms, t he s oils t ested c ontained p roport ions o f o rganic m atter t ypical o f p asture s oils a nd s uff icient f or a griculture. T he h igh p ercentages o f o rganic m atter i n t he c ana l s oils c ould b e e xp lained b y t he a bundant a quat ic v egetat ion w hich g rows t here d uring t he r ainy s eason, o r b y d ung d eposited d uring t he d ry s eason a nd t he e rosion o f o rganic miter f rom t he p latforms t o t he c ana ls.

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S oil R eact ion ( pH ). T here w as a lso a d ifference i n p H b etween c anal s oils a nd p a tf i iim s oils. C ana l s oils h ad a n a verage p H o f 5 .62 ( 5.44 h igh, 6 .03 l ow ). I n c ontrast , t he a verage p H o f p latform s oils w as 7 .83 ( high 8 .67, l ow 6 .69). T he l ow p H v alues o f c ana l s oils c ould b e r elated t o t he a lum inum c ontent ( Table 2 ) f ound i n t hree o f t he f ive t ested a reas; n everthe less, t his s hou ld n ot b e d etrimenta l t o c rop g rowth. A nother p ossible s ource o f a cidity c ould b e d ecomposit ion o f o rganic m atter i n t he c ana ls a nd t he s ubsequent p roduction o f o rganic a nd i norganic a cids. T he p latform s oils a re w ithin t he n orma l r ange o f m edium a lkaline-sa line s oils. T here w as n o e xcess s od ium . T he h igh p H o f t he p latform s oils c ould h ave i ts o rigin i n s o luble s a lts ( carbonates, s u lfates), r esu lt ing f rom c apillary r ise a nd e vaporat ion, w hich d eposits a c rust o f s a lts o n s oil s urfaces. N itrogen ( kg/ha). C ana l s oils c ontained m ore n itrogen t han p latform s oils. C ana l s oils, a reas o f h igh o rganic m atter, m easured a n a verage 3 08 k g/ha o f n itrogen, w ith a h igh o f 4 26 k g/ha. T he l owest l evel o f n itrogen i n a c ana l s oil ( 199 k g/ha) c orrespond t o a n a rea o f l ower o rganic m atter. A verage n itrogen i n p latform s oils w as 1 28 k g/ha ( 235 h igh, 6 4 l ow ). T he h igh l evel o f n itrogen i n c ana l s oils c an b e e xp lained b y t he r e latively r apid i ncorporat ion o f s oil o rganic m atter a nd l iberat ion o f a vailable n itrogen d uring t he r ainy s eason. D ecomposing d ung a nd n atura l e rosion t end t o a ccelerate t he f ormat ion o f s oil o rganic m atter d uring t his t ime o f t he y ear. T he r ate t hat d ecomposit ion o f o rganic m atter i n t he s oil p roduces a vailable n itrogen d epends o n t emperature, m oisture, a ereat ion, p H, a nd t he t ype o f o rganic m atter. G iven t he z one 's e nvironmenta l c ondit ions, t he a vailability o f n itrogen ( n itrate) i s i n g enera l l imited d ue t o s low d ecomposit ion r ates. P hosphorus ( kg/ha). F o llow ing t he a bove p attern, a verage p hosphorus ( phosphoric a cid) i n t he c ana l s oils w as h igher t han i n t he 3 88

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p latform s oils. C anal s oils h ad a n a verage o f 3 63 k g/ha ( h igh 4 79 k g/ha, l ow 2 80 k g/ha). T he a verage f rom p latform s oils w as 1 25 k g/ha ( high 1 68, l ow 7 4). P hosphorus w as f ound i n b oth o rganic a nd i norganic f orms ; b oth a re i mportant t o p lant g rowth. I t i s p ossible t hat t he m ore s oluble i norganic p hosphates ( trica lc ium , d ica lc ium , a nd m onocalc ium ) e roded f rom t he p latforms a nd a ccumu lated i n t he c ana ls. A s m entioned a bove, c ana l s oils a re r ich i n o rganic m ateria l a nd t his c ould a lso p roduce o rganic p hosphate c ompounds. C onc lusions R egarding S oils. I t i s c lear f rom t he a bove a na lysis t hat t here a re s oils w ith g ood e daphic q ualit ies o n t he H uatta p lain; h owever t heir u se r equires s oils e ngineering. R ehabilitat ing r aised f ie lds m eans t ransferring t he r ich c ana l s oils t o t he e roded p latforms ( Fig. 2 ). T his p rocess c aptures t he f ert ility o f t he c ana l s oils a nd r aises t he p latform h eight t o a l eve l w hich s erves t o l imit f rost d amage a nd f looding a nd p rovides a d eep s oil. T he g rowth o f a quat ic f lora a nd f auna i n t he c ana ls d uring t he r ainy s eason i s a c ont inua l s ource o f o rganic m atter w hich c an b e t ransferred t o t he p lant ing s urface. T he c u lt ivat ion o f r aised f ie lds i s a m anagement p rocess w hereby s oil f ert ility i s c onstant ly r eplenished.

R ECONSTRUCTION O F R AISED F IELDS T he e xperimenta l f ie lds i n t his s tudy w ere r econstructed p rehistor ic r a ised f ie lds. T he r econstruct ion w as d one b y f armers f rom t he c ommunity o f H uatta w ork ing t ogether i n s ma ll g roups. T he o r iginal s izes a nd f orms o f t he a bandoned f ie lds w ere u sed a s m odels. T he t ota l a rea, b oth p latforms a nd c ana ls, r econstructed d uring t he 1 983-84 a nd 1 984-85 c rop s easons w as a pproximate ly 1 4,000 m2 . F or m ost o f t he r aised f ie lds, t he w idth o f t he c ana ls w as a pprox imate ly e qual t o t hat o f t he p lant ing s urfaces, t hus p roviding s ufficient f i ll f or t he n ew s urfaces. T he f ie ld w idths r anged f rom 1 .5 t o 5 .0 m , a nd l engths r anged f rom 1 5 t o 5 0 m . R econstruct ion w as b egun b y s tringing l ines p ara llel t o t he o ld f ie ld s urfaces. T hese l ines d ivided t he c ana ls a nd e roded p latforms a nd w ere u sed t o g u ide r econstruct ion. A long t he l ines, s od b locks ( champas) w ere c ut f rom t he c ana ls w ith t he t radit iona l A ndean f ootp low ( chakitaqlla). S ome s od b locks w ere u sed t o m ake l ow w a lls ( pe t-g as) f or t he e dges o f e levated p latforms. T he r est o f t he s od w as u sed t o f i ll t he s pace b etween t he w a lls. S omet imes i t w as n ecessary t o e xcavate b elow t he h umus l evel t o o btain s uff icient f ill f or t he f ie lds. L arge d irt c lods w ere t hen b roken u p , a nd a ny v egetat ion o n s od b locks w as c overed w ith l oose s oil. T he f ie lds w ere m ade c onvex i n p rofile t o f acilitate d rainage ( Fig. 2 ). T he n umber o f w orkers i n e ach c ommuna l w ork p arty ( faena c omuna l) v aried f rom 3 0 t o 7 0, a nd t he a mount o f w ork c omp leted e ach d ay d epended p rimarily u pon s oil c ondit ions. W hen t he w ork s easons b egan i n O ctober o f 1 983 a nd 1 984, t he s oil w as s t ill v ery d ry , m aking t he c utt ing o f s od b locks a nd r emoval o f c anal s oil d iff icu lt . W e f ound t hat t he m ora le a nd i nterest o f t he w orkers a lso a ffected t he q uality a nd a mount o f w ork d one. S ome o f t he w ork p arty l eaders w ere m ore e ffective t han o thers, a nd t his h ad a n a dd it iona l e ffect o n t he r ate o f w ork.

3 90

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I n V iscachani P ampa a nd S ancachi, t he w ork w as o rganized d ifferent ly d uring t he 1 984-85 s eason. I nstead o f c ommuna l w ork p art ies, e ach m ember o f t he c ommunity w as a ssigned a n i ndividual s ect ion o f f ie ld t o c onstruct , at ask o r t area. E ach w orker e xcavated a bout 4 m3 o f c ana l s oil, a nd u sed t he MTEFT a l t o e levate a n a rea o f a bout 2 0 m2 o f f ield s urface. A t area w as u sually c omp leted i n o ne o r t wo d ays. T his m ethod w as c onsidered b y m ost w orkers t o b e m ore e ff icient t han t he f aena, a nd m ore e qu itable b ecause a ll m enbers w ere r equ ired t o d o t he s ame a mount o f w ork . M oreover, w orkers b u ilt b etter f ie lds. T he t area m ethod w as a lso s uccessfu lly u sed t o o rganize l oca l l aborers f or r aised-f ie ld r econstruct ion i n B e lize ( Pu leston 1 977). R ecords w ere k ept o n t he c ommuna l w ork p art ies i n o rder t o d etermine t he a mount o f l abor i nvested. F or e xamp le, i n V iscachani P ampa, 3 0 m en a nd w omen w orked a pproximate ly 5 h ours t o r ebu ild 6 42 m2 o f c u lt ivable s urface o n t wo p latforms. T his i s e qu iva lent t o 1 25 m3 o f e arth m oved, o r a pproximate ly 4 m3 p er d ay p er w orker. B y e xtension, s ome 4 50 m an-days o f l abor w ou ld b e n eeded t o r econstruct 1 h a o f p lant ing s urfaces, t hat i s, 2 h a o f p latforms a nd c ana ls.

P RODUCTION O N R A ISED F IELDS T he 1 983-84 c rop s eason y ie lded a n u nusually h igh p otato h arvest ( Table 3 ), a veraging 1 5 m etric t ons p er h a. T his c ontrasts s harp ly w ith a r egiona l a verage o f a pprox imately 4 .8 m etric t ons o f p otatoes p er h a ( Ma letta e t a l. 1 984). M oreover, s ince a 1 .0 h a r aised f ie ld h as o n ly 0 .5 h a o f c u lt ivable s urface, t he r esu lts a re a ll t he m ore i mpressive. A ddit iona l f actors c ontributed t o t h is f avorable p erformance. A n on-local h igh-yie lding v ariety, Y ungay, w as p lanted i n 1 983 b ecause l ocal v ariet ies w ere n ot a vailable d ue t o d rought i n 1 982-83. T he 1 983-84 s eason h ad r elat ive ly f ew k i lling f rosts, w hich a re c ommon i n t he p ampa a round H uatta. A lso, t he r ecent ly r econstructed f ie lds f eatured l ong-uncu ltivated s oils, a nd n o p lant p ests o r d iseases w ere o bserved. D uring t he 1 984-85 c rop s eason ( Table 3 ), t here w as a 4 4% d ecline f rom t he p revious y ear 's y ie ld. T he a verage y ie ld f rom f ive f ie lds w as 8 .0 m etric t ons. T wo o f t hese f ie lds ( Viscachani P ampa a nd C hoj i iocoto I ) h ad b een c onstructed a nd s eeded w ith p otatoes i n 1 983. T hree f ie lds w ere c onstructed i n 1 984 a nd w ere p lanted w ith t he s ame v ariety o f p otatoes a s t he o ther t wo f ie lds. T he l ower y ie lds o f t hese f ive f ields r esu lted i n p art f rom s evere f rosts o ccurr ing d uring t he e arly g rowth s tage. T he h ighest y ie ld c ame f rom P ancha P ampa ( 12,257 k g/ha ). D espite t he s econd-year d ecline i n p otato p roduct ion, t he y ie lds w ere s t ill f ar s uperior t o t he r egiona l a verage o f 4 .5 m etric t ons ( Ministerio d e A gricu ltura 1 985) f or t hat y ear, e specia lly c onsidering t hat n o f ert ilizer o r c hemicals w ere u sed o n t he r aised f ie lds. T he m icroclimates p rotection a gainst t he

c reated b y u sing r aised f ie lds p rovided s ome s evere c old a nd k illing f rosts t hat c an o ccur 3 93

F igure 3 .

F igure 4 .

V iew o f r aised f ields i n V iscachani P ampa, c ult ivated i n p otatoes. A pril, 1 985.

C urvilinear r aised f ields i n C ho g iocoto P ampa, p otatoes; 2 m w ide. A pril, 1 985.

3 94

p lanted i n

a t a ny t ime d uring t he g row ing s eason. T his w as d emonstrated d uring t he 1 984-85 s eason w hen t wo o f t he e xperimenta l f ie lds w ere p lanted w ith q u inoa ( Chenopod ium q u inoa ), k ai l iwa ( Chenopod ium p allidicaulae ), a nd t wo v ariet ies o f w inter w heat . A lthough t he y ie lds a re s t ill b eing e valuated, n early a ll t he q u inoa a nd k a i i iwa p lanted i n c onvent ional f ie lds w as l ost t o f rosts, w hereas t he c rops o n r aised f ie lds w ere r e lat ive ly u naffected.

C ONCLUSIONS T hese p re liminary r esu lts f rom r aised-fie ld e xperiments i n P uno i ndicate t hat t he c u lt ivat ion o f r econstructed f ie lds p rovides g reat ly i ncreased c rop y ie lds. T he p re liminary s oils a na lyses i ndicate t hat r aised f ie lds a re m ore t han s uff icient ly f ert ile. B ut m ost i mportant ly , r aised f ie lds c an b e b u ilt b y l oca l f armers u sing t heir o wn t ools a nd f orms o f s oc ia l o rganizat ion o n l ands t hat a re n ot u t ilized a dequate ly, o r a re e ssentia lly a bandoned ( F igs. 3 , 4 , 5 ).

A cknow ledgements W e w ish t o t hank t he c ommunity o f H uatta f or c lose c ollaborat ion i n t his p roject . K ay C andler, J ohn T reacy, D anie l B rinkmeier, B lenda F emenias, a nd C lark E rickson a ll h elped w ith t he t ranslat ion o f t his p aper. T he a uthor r emains s olely r esponsible f or t he c ontent .

N OTES 1 . R aised f ie lds a re c a lled c amellones o r c ampos e levados i n S panish, a nd w aru w aru i n Q uechua.

R EFERENCES C ITED A mador A larcön, M o ises e t a l. 1 980. E l u so d e b anciTes c omo a lternat iva e n l os s ue los m a l d renados. C olegio S uper ior d e A gricu ltura T ropical, H . C ardenas, T abasco, M exico, m anuscr ipt . 1 981.

A ng lisis e i mp lementaciön d e s istemas h idroagricolas. C olegio S uper ior d e A gricultura T ropical, H . C ardenas, T abasco, M exico, m anuscript .

D enevan, W illiam M . 1 970. A borigina l D rained-Fie ld S cience 1 69:647-654. 1 982.

C u lt ivat ion

i n

t he

A mericas.

H ydrau lic A gricu lture i n t he A merican T ropics: F orms, M easures, a nd R ecent R esearch. M aya S ubsistence, e dited b y K ent V . F lannery, p p . 1 81-203. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork.

3 96

D enevan, W . a nd B . L . T urner I 1 974. F orms, F unct ions, a nd A ssociat ions o f R aised F ie lds i n t he O ld W or ld T rop ics. J ournal o f T ropica l G eography 3 9:24-33. E r ickson, C lark L . 1 985. A pp licat ions o f P rehistoric A ndean T echnology : E xperiments i n R aised F ie ld A gricu lture, H uatta, L ake T it icaca: 1 981-82. I n P rehistoric I ntensive A gricu lture i n t he T ropics, e dited b y I . S . F arr ington, p p. 1 85-207. B r i -TEh A rchaeologica l R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford. 1 986.

A gricu ltura e n c amellones e n l a c uenca d el L ago T it icaca: a spectos t e cnicos y s u f uturo. I n A ndenes y c amellones e n e l P er i l a ndino : h istor ia p resente y f uturo, e T ited b y C ar los U T 1 7-T orre a nd M anuel B urga, p p . 3 31-350. C ONCYTEC, L ima.

G araycochea Z ., I gnacio 1 984. H uatta : a l r escate 2 :44-46 ( Puno ). 1 986.

d e

l os

c amellones.

H ojas

E scritas

P otencia l a gricola d e l os c amellones e n e l a lt iplano p un do. I n A ndenes y c amellones e n e l P eru a ndino: h istoria p resente y f uturo , gited b y C arr 6 g -a -T i- T orre a nd M anuel B urga, p p . 2 41-251. C ONCYTEC, L ima.

G io mez-Pompa, A rturo, H . L . M orales, E . J imenez Ä villa, y J . J imenez A villa 1 982. E xperiences i n T radit iona l H ydrau lic A gricu lture. I n M aya S ubsistence, e d ited b y K ent V . F lannery, p p . 3 27-342. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork . L ennon, T homas J . 1 982. R aised f ie lds o f t he L ake T it icaca B asin, P eru: A P rehistoric W ater M anagement -37 stem . P h.D. D iT ilF5 . 1 TF I-, D epartment o f A nthropology , U niiiTii i3 t o f C olorado, B ou lder. 1 983.

P attern A na lysis o f P re-hispanic R aised F ie lds o f L ake T it icaca, P eru . I n D rained F ie ld A gricu lture i n C entra l a nd S outh A mer ica, e dited b y J anet D arch, p. 1 83-19 7 .- 1 37 ft " M A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 1 89, O xford.

. . M a letta, H ector, M . E resue, V . G omez, R . G o.m ez d e Z ea 1 984. P e ru ' : E l a gro e n c ifras. C entro d e I nvest igac iön d e U niversidad d el P acifico-Departamento d e E conomia d e U niversidad N aciona l A graria. L ima. M inister io d e A gricu ltura 1 985. O f icina d e E stadi st ica P uno. O NERN 1 965.

y P lanificaciö n.

E n

l a l a

p reparaciö n.

P rograma d e i nventario y e valuaciö n d e l os r ecursos n atura les d el D epartamento d e P uno, V ol. 3 . -7 f i c ina N aciona l d e E va luaciö n d e R ecursos N atura les, L ima.

3 97

1 984.

I nventario, e va luaciön e i ntegraciön d e l os n aturales d e l a m icro r egi i in P uno ( Reconoc Mer ii i7. N aciona l d e E 77 1 1ITET A d e R ecursos N atura les, L ima.

r ecursos O f ic ina

P u leston, D ennis E . 1 977. E xper iments i n P rehistoric R aised F ie ld A gricu lture: L earning f rom t he P ast . J ourna l o f B e lizean A ffairs 5 :36-43. S mith, C . T ., W . M . D enevan, a nd P . H amilton 1 968. A ncient R idged F ie lds i n t he R egion G eographical J ourna l 1 34:353-367. 1 981.

o f

L ake

T it icaca.

A nt iguos c ampos d e c ame llones e n l a r egiön d el l ago T it icaca. I n L a t ecnologia e n e l M undo A nd ino, e dited b y H . L echtman a nd -T : M . S old i, p. 26 30. U nT7 F gidad N ac iona l A utönoma d e M exico, M exico.

3 98

C HAPTER 2 1 E VIDENCE F OR T HE C ULTIVATION O F Q OCHAS I N T HE P ERUVIAN A LTIPLANO ( SUMMARY) *

J orge A .

F lores O choa

P re lim inary r eports o n t he c u lt ivat ion o f w hat a re c a lled q ochas i n t he P eruv ian a lt ip lano h ave a ttracted t he a ttent ion o f s cholars. T hese a re a rt ificia l d epressions m ost ly l ocated n orth o f L ake T it icaca ( Fig. 1 ). T hey p robably a re o f p rehispanic o rigin, w hich i s o f p articular i nterest b ecause t hey m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he d evelopment o f c ivilizat ion o n t he a lt iplano, g iven t heir l ocat ion a round t he m ajor a rchaeological s ite o f P ukara. T hey w ere f irst r eported b y s tudents a t t he U niversidad N aciona l d el C uzco i n 1 962. C ont inuity o f u se t o t he p resent m akes i t p ossible t o u nderstand d etails o f q ocha t echnology s uch a s w ater m anagement , c rop r otat ion, f orm o f p low ing, m aintenance o f t he q ochas a nd a ssoc iated c ana ls, a nd p asture m anagement , a s w e ll a s t he r elat ionship o f q ochas t o s ett lement , i deology ( myths, c eremonies), a nd s oc ia l o rganizat ion a ll i nformation w hich c an b e o btained f rom e thnographic s tudy . Q ochas, i n c ontrast t o s unken f ie lds, a re n ot d ependent o n f iltrat ion o f g round w ater b ut i nstead c o llect r ain w ater. T hey r ange i n d epth u p t o 4 m a nd a re o ften 1 00 m o r m ore i n d iameter, w ith s ha llow s lopes. T hey m ay b e c ircu lar ( Fig. 2 ), r ectangu lar, o r i rregu lar i n s hape. A s w ater l eve ls r ecede, t hey a re p rogressive ly p lanted i n p otatoes, r otat ing w ith o ther c rops ( qu inoa, c anihua, o ats, b ar ley) a nd p asture, w hich a re g rown o n l azy b eds ( huachos, w achus). T hey m ay c ontain a nd b e f ed b y c ana ls. T here a re o ver 2 0,000 i ndividual q ochas i n a n a rea c overing 2 56 k m2 ( F lores O choa a nd P az F lö rez 1 984). Q ochas a re v ery e fficient i n m aking u se o f r ainfall, a lthough t hey a re v u lnerable t o i nsuff icient r ainfall. T hey a re o ne p art o f t he a dapt ive m acro-agroecosystem o f t he h igh lands w hich m akes p ossible a gricultura l d eve lopment o f l and w hich i s h igh, c old, a nd a pparent ly l itt le s u ited f or c u lt ivat ion. A l imited r esearch p roject o n q ochas w as u ndertaken i n 1 984 b y p rofessors a nd s tudents o f t he ( 7 17 67-s idad N aciona l d el C uzco. E thnographic i nformat ion w as o btained o n v arious a spects o f t he t echnology o f q ochas a nd t he f orms o f c u lt ivat ion u sed b y t he l oca l c ampesinos. F or p reliminary r eports o n t he q ochas, s ee F lores O choa ( 1987), a nd F lores O choa a nd P az F lö rez ( 1984, 1 986), a nd R ozas A . ( 1986). * T ranslat ion, t he e ditors.

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3 99

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E VIDENCIAS D EL C ULTIVO E N " LAGUNAS"

( QOCHA )

E N E L A LTIPLANO P ERUANO

L as i nformaciones p reliminares d el c ultivo lamado q ocha ( laguna e n r una s imi o q uechua), e n e l a lt iplano p eruano, h d7-1 7-a mado l a a tencion d e d iversos e specialistas. S u p robable o rigen p re-invasiön h ispänica, l e c onfieren m ayor v alor, p orque p uede e star r e lacionado c on e l p roceso c ivilizatorio d el a ltiplano, d ada s u c ercani a c on e l c entro a rqueolö gico d e P ukara, a l n orte d el L ago T it icaca. L a , c ont inuidad d e s u u so p ermite c onocer s us c aracterist icas t ecnologicas; m anejo d el a gua; r otaciön d e c ultivos; f orma d e a rado; c onservac iö n ym antenimiento d e q ocha y c anales; a provechamiento c omo p astizales; r elaciones c on p a t roT er—d e p oblamiento; i deologia ( mitos, c eremonias); y a rreglos s ocia les p ara c ult ivar los, e n f in a l a i nformaciön q ue s e p uede o btener c on t rabajo e tnogräfico. L as q ocha h an m ostrado p oseer a lta e fectividad p ara u tilizar a decuadame i T U—l as luvias, a unque e sta e s t ambie n s u p arte v u lnerable. S on p arte d el g ran m acrosistema a daptat ivo a l a a ltura q ue p e rm it iö e l d esarrollo d e l a a gricultura e n l as t ierras a ltas, f rias, y a parentemente p oco p ropicias p ara e l c ultivo. E stä e n d esarrollo ( 1984) u n P royecto d e I nvestigaciö n m uy l imitado d e l as q ocha, p or p rofesores y e studiantes d e l a U niversidad N acional d el C uzco. L a i nformaciön o btenida, s e p resenta e videncias e tnogräficas d e v arios a spectos t ecnolö gicos d e s u u so y d e l as f ormas d e c ultivo q ue e mp lean l os c ampesinos i ndigenas d e l a r egiön.

R EFERENCES C ITED F lores O choa, J orge A . 1 987. C u ltivat ion i n t he Q ocha o f t he S outh A ndean P una. I n A rid L and U se S trategies -U T ZTisk M anagement i n t he A ndes, e dited b y D a7 37 1- L . B rowman, p p. 2 71-296. W estview P ress, B oulder. F lores O choa, J orge A . a nd P ercy P az F lörez 1 984. E l c ult ivo e n q ocha e n l a P una s ur a ndina. I n C ontribucion s a l os e studi5i- d e l os A ndes c entrales, e dited b y S hozo g asuda, p p. 5 9-100. t r ni ve r i—f i o f T okyo, T okyo. 1 986.

A gricultura e n l agunas ( qochas). I n A ndenes y c ame llones e n e l P erd a ndino: H istoria p resente y f u turo , e d ited b y C ar los T € l a T orre a nd M iguel B urga, p p . 8 5-106. C onsejo N acional d e C ienc ia y T ecnologr a, L ima.

R ozas A ., J esus W ashington 1 986. E l s istema d e c u lt ivo e n q ocha. I n A ndenes y c ame llones e n e l P eru a ndino: H istoria p resente y f uturo, e dited b y C ar los l i—T orre a nd M anuel B urga, p p . TO 7 -126 . C onsejo N acional d e C iencia y T ecnologia, L ima.

4 00

F igure 1 .

A ir p hoto o f c l ochas i n t he v icinity o f P ucara. S ervicio A erofotogräfico N aciona l, P er i l , 1 961. S cale: c a. 1 :32,000. 4 01

F igure 2 .

S ketch o f t he c ircular f orm o f c l ocha, s how ing c entra l c ana l a nd t hree s ectors o f l azy b ed f iTE I s. p rogressively c ult ivated a s t he w ater l evel d rops ( from F lores O choa a nd P az F lörez 1 984: 7 0). 4 02

C HAPTER 2 2 E VIDENCE O F P REHISTORIC D ITCHED F IELDS O N S LOPING L AND I N N ORTHERN H IGHLAND E CUADOR

G regory K napp a nd D avid A . P reston

A BSTRACT V ertical l ines v isible i n a ir p hotographs o f t he P imamp iro a rea o f n orthern h igh land E cuador a re i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f l ate p rehistoric d itched f ields. F ield d itches, w here n ot o bliterated b y p low ing o r s lopewash f rom t he a djacent f ie lds, a re t oday a ppreciated f or t heir r ole i n f acilitat ing r unoff. O rigina lly t hey m ay a lso h ave f unct ioned t o d emarcate f ie lds, p rotect a gainst l andslides, a nd/or c reate s pecialized m icroenvironments f or c rops. R e lic d itched f ie lds a re p articu larly a bundant i n t he r egion o f t he p re-Inca c hiefdom o f C hapi w ith A mazon b asin c ultural a ffinit ies a nd u nusually h eavy s oils. O riginal c onstruct ion o f t he d itches p robably w as f acilitated b y u se o f w ater a s a n atural e rosive a gent . T he l imited d istribut ion o f r e lic d itched f ields i n h igh land E cuador m ay b e r e lated t o t he r e lative r arity o f h eavy c lay-rich s oils.

I NTRODUCTION I n r ecent y ears s evera l o bservers h ave i dent ified l inear f eatures r unning d ownslope i n p arts o f n orthern E cuador a nd c entra l C olombia. N o s uch f eatures h ave b een r eported f urther s outh i n E cuador. T he l argest a rea w here t hese f eatures h ave b een i dentified i s i n P imampiro w here P reston m apped f ie ld l ines f rom a eria l p hotographs a nd l imited f ie ld o bservat ion i n 1 983 a nd 1 985 ( Fig. 1 ). K napp a nd a ssociates i nvest igated t hese f eatures f urther i n 1 984 a nd 1 985. T his p aper p resents o ur c urrent v iews o n t heir d istribut ion, p robable a ge, a nd p ossible f unctions.

A GRICULTURAL C ONTEXT:

N ORTHERN H IGHLAND E CUADOR

T he e quatorial A ndes f rom c entral E cuador i nto s outhern C olombia h as l ong b een a ttract ive t o h uman s ett lement a nd b een a n e nvironment t hat w as p ermissive o f a gricultural i ntensification. M oderate t emperatures a nd p recipitat ion, a nd, a bove a ll, f ertile s oils d erived f rom r ecent v olcanic a shfalls, h ave s upported a p opulat ion o f f armers f or a t l east 1 ,500 y ears, i f n ot l onger ( Porras 1 982:240-241). C rops h ave i ncluded p otatoes, m aize ( to 3 ,100 m ), a nd, a fter t he S panish C onquest , w heat a nd b ar ley. T he m ost f avored a reas a re c ropped a nnually o r e ven t wice a y ear; l ess-favored a reas, t hose t hat a re t oo m oist , t oo c ool, o r t oo d istant f rom s ett lement, a re c ropped w ith v arying l engths o f f allow . T he m ost a ttractive l ocat ions h ave b een t he a reas o f h um id l evel l and, m ost o f w hich w ere i ncorporated i nto 4 03

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h aciendas b y t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury. I n p rehistoric t imes s ome o f t hese l evel a reas w ere c ult ivated b y m eans o f r aised f ields, e nabling s imu ltaneous m anagement o f s oil f ertility, s oil m oisture, a nd f rost r isk, a nd a llow ing p opulat ion d ensit ies o f p erhaps 7 50 p ersons p er k m2 ( Ryder 1 970; B atchelor 1 980; G ondard a nd L öpez 1 983; K napp 1 984; K napp a nd R yder 1 983; K napp a nd D enevan 1 985). I n g enera l, e vidence o f h ow u se w as m ade o f h illside l and h as b een l acking. H illfoot l and e x priencing a m ild c limate a nd w ith m oderate p recipitation i s a nnually c ropped, b ut y ie lds a re l ow w ithout f ert ilizat ion o r i rrigat ion. I n p rehistoric t imes, g iven t he s carc ity o f m anure a nd i ntensive c ultivat ion o f m oist t errain b y m eans o f r aised f ie lds o r o f l and p rovided w ith s ilt-rich i rrigat ion w ater, i t i s l ogical t o e xpect l ess i ntensive u se o f u nirrigated s lopes ( Knapp 1 984).

D ESCRIPTION O F F IELD L INES F ie ld l ines c an b e r eadily d ist inguished f rom r aised f ie lds. T he d itches o f r elic r aised f ields a re f rom 3 t o 7m a part ( wavelength) i n t he n orthern h ighlands. R aised f ie lds a re l ocated i n t errain s uff icient ly f lat t o h ave p ermitted t he r etent ion o f s tanding w ater i n t he d itches f or s ub-irrigat ion, f rost m anagement, a nd m ucking. I n c ontrast , f ield l ines a re 1 0 t o 2 0 m a part a nd o ccur o n s loping l and. A s o bserved b y P reston ( 1984b), t he l ines a re o ften v ery l ong ( 300 o r e ven 9 00 m ). P restcn a lso o bserved t hat t he l ines o ccur w here r ainfall i s s ufficient f or u nirrigated f arming. T he l ines a re s eldom s traight a nd, a lthough, i n s ome p laces t hey a ppear t runcated b y b oundaries s uch a s t racks, i n o ther p laces t hey a ppear t o r un f rom h illcrest t o t he b ottom o f t he s lope .. t hey a re f ound p redominant ly o n s lopes o f 1 5-20 p ercent ... T he l ined f ields a ppear i n a n umber o f l ocalit ies i n t he a rea a t a ltitudes v arying f rom 2 ,450-3,000 m , m ost f requent ly b etween 2 ,700-2,900 m . A n umber o f p rocesses, n atural o r a rt ificial, c an r esult i n t he c reat ion o f d epressions r unning d ownslope. N atural g u llies o r d rainageways a re n ot i nfrequent ly f ound o n s teeper, s emi-arid, a nd/or h ighly d isturbed s lopes. B etween E l T ejar a nd E l A lisal ( Fig. 1 , F ig. 3 ), a r oad f rom P imampiro t o M ariano A costa c uts a cross a s equence o f g u llies l eading t o t he C hamachan R iver. I n a t l east o ne c ase, t he t ops o f t hese d rainageways h ave b een f illed i n w ith v ery p ale b rown ( 10YR 7 /3 d ry, 1 0YR 3 /3 m oist ) s ilt l oam, d ue e ither t o s lope w ash f rom a djacent f ie lds, o r v olcanic a shfalls b etween 3 ,500 a nd 1 ,600 y ears a go ( Gondard 1 985); t his f ill c ontrasts w ith t he l ight y ellowish b rown ( 10YR 6 /4 d ry, 7 .5YR 3 /4 m oist ) s ubsoil. T he w avelength o f t he i nfilled g u llies i s 4 5 m a nd t he g u llies w ere o riginally 5 m d eep a nd 1 2 m w ide ( at t heir t ops). T he w avelengths a nd m easurements o f t hese n atura l g u llies c learly d ist ingu ish t hem f rom t he m ore r egu larly a nd c losely s paced l inear f eatures n earby. I t p roved p ossible t o s tudy o n t he l ines i dent ified o riginally b y P reston. 4 05

g round t hree a reas o f f ield I n C asachupa ( Fig. 3 ) a nd

F igure 2 .

A ir p hotograph o f C olimburo ( lower l eft ), P adre R umi ( left ), a nd C asachupa ( upper). I nst ituto G eogräfico M ilitar, C arta N acional P roject, P age 2 4, L ine 5 4, P hotograph 7 166, F ebruary 8 , 1 965. 4 06

F igure 3 .

/ A ir p hotograph o f C asachupa. I nst ituto G eografico M ilitar, C arta N acional P roject, P age 2 4, L ine 5 4, P hotograph 7 166, F ebruary 8 , 1 965. 4 07

L ita t he l inear d epressions w ere c learly i dentified i n J u ly 1 985 b y l ines o f g reener m aize i n a f ield o f r ipening, y ellowing m aize. M easurements o f t he l ines i n s everal l ocat ions h ere s howed a m ean w avelength ( distance f rom d epression t o d epression) o f 1 6.6 m , b ut w ith v ariat ions f rom 8 .2 t o 2 8.7 m eters. L inear d epressions c ontain d eeper s oil r esu lt ing i n t he o bserved d ifferences o f v egetat ion g rowth. I n o ther p laces t hese f eatures h ave b een a ccentuated b y m odern e rosion a nd s ome l ines i n b oth C asachupa a nd E l A lisal h ave b ecome g u llies. A t C olimburo, a r elat ively s teep s ite ( 40 p ercent s lopes), t he l ines c orrespond t o d epressions w ith w avelengths o f 1 0-20 m a nd a mplitudes ( difference b etween d itch e levat ion a nd e levat ion o f h ighest p art o f i ntervening f ield ) o f 0 .5-1.0 m ( Figs. 2 a nd 5 ). I n a n earby s lope n ow i n p asture, a d epression h ad b een f illed w ith s lope w ash o f t opsoil ( recent v olcanic a sh) a nd e xhibited t he f ollow ing d imensions: 1 55 c m d epth, 1 60 c m w idth a t t op, a nd 5 0 c m w idth a t b ottom. A t S hanshipamba, a m ore g ent ly s loping s ite ( 10 p ercent ), s hallow d itches a re 1 0 m a part ( Fig. 4 ). F ield l ines t end t o f ollow t he s lope r ather t han b eing p erfect ly r ectilinear, a nd t he d epth o f t he d epressions i n t he u nder lying c angahua m aterial s uggests t hat n atural e rosion h as a lso p layed a r o le i n t heir f ormat ion i n s teeper a reas. I ndeed, G ondard ( 1985) h as s uggested t hat t he f ield l ines i n s teeper a reas r epresent a p revious e rosive p hase o f l andscape e volut ion f ollowed b y a n e pisode o f v olcanic a sh d eposition ( 3,500-1,600 y ears a go), a nd t hat h umans p layed n o r ole i n s teep l and f ie ld l ine f ormat ion. T his v iew s trikes t he p resent a uthors a s t oo e xtreme; i t i s h ard t o i magine u nder w hat c onditions n atura l p rocesses a lone c ould h ave c reated s uch r egu lar p atterns o f n arrowly s paced g u llies, p art icularly s ince s uch f eatures s eem r are e lsewhere i n E cuador. T hus w e w ill a ssume a c onsiderable e lement o f h uman i nvolvement i n t he e volut ion o f t hese f eatures, o n s teep l ands a s w ell a s i n g ent ly s loping a reas.

F UNCTIONS O F F IELD L INES T he w idth o f t he a rea b etween t he l inear d epressions i s s uch t hat e ach s trip b etween t he d epressions m ight h ave c omprised a h ousehold l andholding u nit . P reston ( 1984b) a lso s uggested t hat d ifferent c rops m ay h ave b een p lanted i n d epressions a nd o n i ntervening f ie ld s urfaces. A ccording t o t his h ypothesis, d epressions w ould h ave d eeper, m ore h umid s oil; r idges w ould b e d ryer. C rops s u ited t o m ore h umid s oils w ould h ave b een p lanted i n t he d epressions, w hile l essp rized o r d ry-soil a dapted c rops w ould h ave b een p lanted o n t he i ntervening s urfaces. T hese f eatures m ay a lso h ave s erved a s f ield b oundaries, c reat ing l ong t hin h oldings e nsuring t hat d anger f rom f rost , h ail, a nd o ther n atural h azards w as e venly s pread. B ray e t a l. ( 1983:17) h ave s uggested t hat s imilar f eatures i n C olombia m ay r epresent a ncient f ield b oundaries, d rainage f eatures, a nd/or p rotection a gainst l andslips ( see a lso t he c ontribut ion b y B ray e t a l. i n t his v olume). E idt 's ( 1984) s tudies o f t he s ame f eatures i n C J IöMBia h ave l ed h im t o h ypothesize a d rainage f unction f or t hese f eatures w hich o ccur i n a reas o f h eavy s oils a nd p erched w ater t ables. H e i nterpreted d itch 4 08

F igure 4 .

A ir p hotograph o f S hanshipamba. I nst ituto G eogräfico M ilitar, C arta N acional P roject, P age 2 4, L ine 5 4, P hotograph 7 168, F ebruary 8 , 1 965.

4 09

f orm a s t he r esu lt o f c ontrolled e rosion i n d rainage d itches. D rainage a nd l andslide c ontrol a lso a ppear t o b e f unctions o f m odern v ertical f urrows i n E spinar, P eru ( Orlove 1 977:96). A lthough i t i s g enera lly s upposed t hat E cuadorian s lope s oils a re a dequate ly d rained, t he a rea s outh o f P imampiro h as u nusually h igh s oil c lay c ontent ( over 3 0 p ercent ) ( PRONAREG-ORSTOM 1 979: M ar iano A costa a nd P imampiro S heets). S ubsurface m ott ling i s s omet imes p resent s uggest ing p erched w ater t ables. I n a dd it ion, i n w et w eather t hese s oils b ecome d ifficult t o w ork a nd v ery s lippery f or f oot o r v ehicle t ransportat ion. I ndeed, t he g ent ler s lopes a t S hanshipamba c urrent ly a re m arshy a fter p rolonged p eriods o f r ainfall. T hus, a lthough K napp h as c laimed e lsewhere t hat h igh land s oils e ven o n f lat l and c an b e a dequate ly d rained w ith d itches 2 00 m a part , u nder c ondit ions o f h eavy s oils m ore c losely s paced d rainage a nd r unoff f eatures m ay h ave p roved d esirable i n t he p ast a s i n t he p resent ( Knapp 1 984:190). A s a n a rea o f f requent l andslips, l andslide c ontrol c onceivably w as i mportant a s w ell. T he F rench g eographer P ierre P ourrut , w ho o bserved t he C olimburo f eatures i n 1 979, h ypothesizes t hat t he d epressions m ay h ave e nabled d rip i rrigat ion ( pers. c omm.). S ince t he r egion n orma lly r eceives a mp le p recipitat ion i n t he w inter, t his i rrigat ion w ou ld h ave b een a pp lied o nly d uring d ry p eriods a nd p art icularly d uring t he J une-August d ry s eason. R eliable s ources o f w ater w ou ld h ave b een t he h eadwaters o f t he a djacent C hamachan o r C ha lguayacu R ivers. T here i s h owever n o m odern c ana l h ere n or a ny s igns o f a bandoned c anals. L oca l f armers d eny t hat i rrigat ion h as e ver b een a vailable. T he o ther s ites, e xcept S hanshipamba, a lso l ack e vidence o f p ast o r p resent i rrigat ion. G ondard a nd L öpez ( 1983:157-158), s uggest t hat t he f latter f ie ld l ine s ites a t S hanshimpamba a nd A ngochagua p ossibly r epresented c ombinat ions o f i rrigat ion a nd d rainage. U nlike C o limburo a nd t he o ther m ore s teeply s loping s ites, t hese a reas c urrent ly h ave r eady a ccess t o i rrigat ion w ater n earby. I rrigat ion h ere w ould h ave e nabled d ouble-cropping a nd i ncreased r e liability o f p roduction. I n 1 984 K napp i nterviewed f armers i n C olimburo ( F ig. 5 ) t o d iscover t heir p erception o f t hese f eatures. F armers s aid t hat t he f ie ld l ines w ere a rtificia l l inderos ( field b oundary m arkers) e ven t hough t hey p lain ly d id n ot p rg-s iT rr rhave t hat f unction. O ne f armer a lso v olunteered t hat t he d epressions w ere a lso u sefu l f or d irecting r unoff ( crecientes d e a gua), i n c ombinat ion w ith s maller d itches r unning d iagona lly a cross t he s lope. F armers d enied t hat t he d epressions p erformed a ny i rr igat ion o r s oil f ertility e nhancement f unction, o r t hat s pecia lized p lant ing i n d epressions a nd i ntervening s urfaces w as n ecessary o r d esirable. I n t he E cuadorian c ontext , f ie ld b oundaries, m arked b y a n otch, d itch, b ank, h edge, o r w all, a re t he o bvious s ites f or m anagement o f w ater f low, m ovement o f c att le a nd p eople, o r t he g rowth o f u sefu l s hrubs. C onversely, a ny l inear f eature i n t he l andscape i s o ften a ssumed t o b e a p ast o r p resent b oundary . F or e xamp le, p rehistoric s ett lement t erraces a t P adre R um i ( Colimburo ) ( Fig. 1 ) a re r eferred t o b y t he c urrent r esidents a s I nca b ordos ( boundaries). O ur o wn v iew i s t hat t he p rimary a gronomic f unction o f t he d epressions i s t o f acilitate s peedy r unoff , b ut t hat a v ariety o f 4 10

4 11

o f C o limburo

P rest on, 1 963.

( JD

4 12 D avid P reston,

•

4 13 D avid P reston,

s econdary f unctions ( including f ie ld b ounding) a re l ikely . I n t he C olimburo a rea, t he l ight y ellowish b rown l oessal a sh s ubsoil i s d ifficult t o w ork, b ut i s n ot c emented i nto h ardpan. T he d arker t opsoil i s a bnormally d eep b y E cuadorian s lope s tandards ( 30-75 c m ), s uggest ing t hat t hese r elatively h igh-clay s oils a re n ot r eadily e roded. W hen t he d epressions a re c omp lete ly f illed w ith s lopewash o r b y p low ing, t he i ncreased m oisture a nd n utrients i n t he s oils r esults i n n arrow ( 1-2 m w ide) b ands o f l us) g rowth v isible i n a eria l p hotos. S ince s uch i nfilling r epresents a d estruction o f d rainage f unction a s w e ll a s a r eduction o f t opsoil d epth i n a djacent a reas, i t p robably d oes n ot r epresent a n i ntent ional f unction o f t he f ie ld l ines. A ny s ystem o f c u ltivation o f t he n arrow s trips o f l and b etween t he d epressions w ould p robably h ave b een a cross t he s lope a nd, i f t he d epressions w ere u sed t o c ollect s urface w ater a fter h eavy r ain, h orizonta l r idges c reated b y a t ool s uch a s a m attock w ould h ave p revented f low d ownslope a nd w ould h ave d iverted w ater i nto t he d epressions, a s i n f act o ccurs t oday a t C olimburo. P reston 's f urther f ie ld i nvest igat ion i n 1 985 o f l ined h illsides a t d ifferent t imes o f t he d ay w ith a v ariety o f a ngles o f n atural l ight c onfirmed t hat , i n s everal l ocations, c losely s paced, s hort h orizonta l l ines j oining t he v ertical l ines c an b e d etected. F urthermore, i n C asachupa, l onger h orizonta l l ines c rossing m any v ertical l ines c an b e t raced i n t hree l ocat ions. T hese m ay b e t he l ocation o f f urther c hanne ls t hat m ay h ave s erved t o c atch s urface w ater d raining f rom t he f ields a nd t o d ivert i t i nto d epressions, o r t o d ivert w ater f rom d epressions i nto n earby r avines.

O THER E VIDENCE O F P REHISTORIC F ARMING T he a reas o f f ield l ines a ssoc iated w ith w hat w e n ow p ropose t o c a ll d itched f ie lds a re l argely i n a reas t hat h ave o n ly r ecent ly b een c leared o f f orest . T he a rea c ultivated i n p rehistoric t imes c ertain ly w ould h ave i ncluded a ll t he n ear-level a reas w ith d eep s oils, b ut c ontinuous c u lt ivation a nd t he r ecent u se o f m achines f or c u ltivat ion b y l arge e states w ill h ave e radicated m ost e vidence o f e arly f ield s ystems i n s uch a reas. O ther e vidence o f p rehistoric l and u se i n t he P imamp iro a rea i s t he v isible r elics o f a n e xtensive s ystem o f h illside t erracing t hat i s v isible o n t he h illside s outh o f C huga, t o t he n orth o f L a M esa, a nd i n v ar ious p arts o f t he e ast-facing s lopes o f t he C ha lguayacu V alley o pposite C olimburo, C asachupa, a nd L ita ( see F ig. 1 ). T he b est-preserved t errace-like f eatures o ccur a bove t he r oad t o t he n orth o f H acienda L a M esa ( Fig. 8 ). S evera l o f t hese t erraces w ere e xamined a nd a re a s m uch a s 7m w ide a nd e ach s tep i s 2 -3 m h igh. N one o f t he r isers t hat w ere v isible w ere s tone-faced, b ut c arbed d irect ly o ut o f v olcanic a sh o n 2 0-45 ° s lopes. K napp 's i nvestigation o f t hese t erraces l eads h im t o b elieve t hat t hey w ere p rimarily t o p rovide e asily d efensible d welling s ites, a lthough t heir e xtension c ertainly i mp lies t hat s uch d wellings w ould h ave b een a ssociated w ith f arming. G ondard a nd L öpez ( 1983:135 f f .) h ave i dentified s ome 2 ,500 h a o f t errace f orms i n n orthern h ighland E cuador, b ut t he L a M esa s ite i s t he s econd l argest a rea o f t hese t erraces. T he e xact p urpose o f t hese f eatures i s u ncertain a nd, i ndeed, K napp b elieves t hat m uch o f t he 4 14

4 15

s outhwest .

t erracing o utside t he P imamp iro a rea, w here n ot i ntended f or s ett lement , i s s emi-terracing, t hat i s, i t w as f ormed a cc identa lly b y t he c u lt ivat ion o f h i llsides r ather t han c onstructed p urpose ly t o p rovide n ear-level l and f or f arming. A lthough n o e vidence h as y et b een f ound t hat l inks p rehistoric w ater c ana ls t o a reas o f t errac ing, l ocal l egend i n L a M esa r ecords a nc ient c ana ls h igh o n t he m ountain t hat c ould h ave w atered a t l east s ome o f t he t erraces. F urthermore, t he f lat b ench o f L a M esa i tse lf w as e xtensive ly f urrowed b y a n e laborate i rrigat ion w ater d istribu: ion s ystem a s t he 1 965 a eria l p hotographs s how ( Figs. 9 a nd 1 0). T his w as o bliterated b y t he p resent l andowner. W hatever t he o rigin a nd e xact p urpose o f t he t errace-like f eatures n ear P imamp iro, t hey w ere a ssoc iated w ith t he p eopling o f s teep h illsides, a nd t his i mp lies e ither c onsiderable d anger f rom w ar like n eighbors n ecessitat ing e laborate d efense, o r a h igh p opu lat ion d ensity l eading t o e xtensive c onstruct ion o f t erraces t o a llow s teep h i llsides t o b e f armed w ithout u ndue s oil l oss. A GE O F D ITCHED F IELDS T he e xcept ionally d etailed a ccount o f P imamp iro, p repared b y i ts p arish p riest i n 1 582, p rovides a n e xce llent p icture o f t his r egion s hort ly a fter t he S panish C onquest . T he a rea f rom P imamp iro s outhward w as p art o f t he i ndigenous c hiefdom o f C hapf i n l ate p rehistoric t imes. T he c hiefdom c onsisted o f t wo p arts o r s ections. T he s oc a lled w oodsmen ( monta T ieses) l ived i n t he m ountain f orest t wo l eagues s outh o f P imamp iro, w here t he P imamp iro c ana l o riginated. T hey p aid t r ibute i n p art w ith t imber f rom t he f orest . T hey s poke a l anguage r e lated t o t hat o f t he Q u ijos p eople o f t he A mazon s lope ( Borja 1 965 :248-249, 2 52). T he o ther p art o f t he C hap( p eople ( which w e w ill c a ll t he n on-woodsmen) s poke t he s ame l anguage a s t he r est o f t he I ndians o f t he h igh lands s outh o f t he M ira R iver ( Borja 1 965 ;249). P rior t o t he S panish C onquest n either o f t he C hap{ g roups l ived i n P imamp iro ( a S panish r educc iön ) b ut r ather h ad t heir h ouses " on s ome v ery h igh m ountains" w hich f acilitated d efense a nd o ffense ( Borja 1 965:251). Ap ossible s ite o f t he t own o f t he C hap( w oodsmen i s P adre R um i a t C asachupa w here, i n t he s ummer o f 1 985, G regory K napp , S ang S ock K napp, a nd J ose E cheverrfa d iscovered s evera l t olas ( house m ounds o f e thnic l ords) a nd v erified t he p resence o f n umerous p rehistoric s ett lement t erraces w ith a s ubstant ia l a mount o f c eram ics. A lthough S hanshipamba l acks t olas, K napp a nd E cheverria v erif ied t he p resence o f s ett lement t erraces h ere a s w e ll, o n t he b asis o f c eramic a bundance. P ueblo N uevo i s a nother, a lbeit s mall, s ett lement t errace s ite. A ll t hese s ites w ere p robably o ccup ied b y t he C hap( w oodsmen. T o t he n orth o f L a M esa l ies t he m ajor g roup o f t erraces w ith a bundant c eramic s catter a nd s ubsoil e vidence o f h abitat ion s uch a s k itchen r efuse. T his s ite, a nd t he t erraces a long t he s lopes o f t he M ataqui R iver t o t he n orth, w e s uggest , i s t he m ost l ike ly l ocat ion o f t he n on-woodsmen o f C ha o ' . T hey c ertain ly c ult ivated l ands w est o f t he M ataquf R iver, i rrigated b y w ater f rom a c ana l w hich m ay h ave b een i n r oughly t he s ame l ocat ion a s t he o ne u sed t oday b y t he t own o f P imampiro ( F ig. 1 ) ( Borja 1 965:249). T hey t rave lled t o a nd f rom t heir f ie lds b y c abuya f ibre b ridges ( Borja 1 965:251-252). T he

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4 16

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F igure 9 .

L a M esa t erraces ( upper m argin o f p hotograph) a nd l inear i rrigat ion ( ?) f eatures ( center ). I nst ituto G eogrgfico M ilitar, R oll 8 3, P hotograph 7 588, F ebruary 1 7, 1 966.

4 17

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4 18

n eighbouring c hiefdom o f C arangue ( Borja 1 965:251). T he S paniards m oved f irst t he w oodsmen a nd t hen t he n on-woodsmen o f C hap( t o t he n ew t own o r r educc iön o f P imamp iro, w hich a lso r eceived t he p opu lat ion o f f our i ndigenous c ommunit ies o f t he s ubtrop ical p art o f t he M ira V a lley t o t he n orth ( Borja 1 965:248, 2 52). T he a rea o f d itched f ie lds w as p robably s ubject t o p rogressive a bandonment a s a c onsequence o f t he r esett lement o f p eople i n d istant P imamp iro a nd t he g enera l p opulat ion d ec line f ollow ing t he S panish c onquest o f t he n orthern h igh lands ( Larrain 1 980; P reston 1 984b). V elasco 's t a le t hat 1,000 p ersons f led t o t he A mazon s lope f rom t he P imamp iro a rea i n 1 679 n eed n ot b e a ccepted a t f ace v alue ( Stutzman 1 974:66), b ut i t i s c ertain ly c onsistent w ith t he n ot ion t hat t he l ands s outh o f P imampiro w ere l argely u nderut ilized i n c olonia l t imes. B y t he e ar ly t went ieth c entury, t he e nt ire a rea a round a nd t o t he s outh o f P imamp iro w as p art o f H acienda S anta R osa, o wned b y t he T obar f amily, w ith o nly a f ew s ett lements o f s erfs ( huasipungueros) w hich, h owever, i nc luded C olimburo ( Costa les a nd T heisen 1 970:46). I n a bout 1 907, 3 0 f amilies f rom A ngochagua c rossed t he m ountains a nd s ett led i n P uetaqui a nd G uanupamba n ear w hat i s n ow M ar iano A costa; b y 1 919 t he p opulat ion o f M ariano A costa h ad r eached 6 00. T he s ett lers u lt imate ly o btained t it le t o t he l and a fter a l ong l ega l b att le w ith t he T obar f amily ( Preston 1 985). A fter W or ld W ar I t he S hanshipamba s ite, c overed w ith b rush land, w as s old t o t he C evallos f amily. A ccording t o t he h acienda a dministrator, t he d itches a ppeared w hen t he b rush w as r emoved, s trongly s uggest ing t hat t hey a re p rehistoric. T he c hildren o f t he o r igina l s ett lers t est ify t hat a ll t he m ain s ites w here d itched f ie lds c an n ow b e s een w ere c overed w ith f orest a t t he b eginning o f t he p resent c entury . T he c omparison o f S an J uan ( Fig. 1 1) a nd C asachupa i s i nstructive. A lthough b oth s ites a re m orphologically s imilar, t here a re f ew t races o f d itched f ie lds i n S an J uan, w hich i s c urrent ly i ntensively f armed a s p art o f a n h acienda, a nd w hich h as b een s o f armed s ince t he n ineteenth c entury ( according t o a 1 00 y ear o ld i nformant ), i f n ot b efore. I n C asachupa, d itched f ie lds a re e asily v isible o ver b oth h i llside a nd l ess s teeply s loping l and, b ut t his a rea w as f orested i n l iving m emory, a nd i s c u lt ivated b y s ma ll-scale f armers. T his c learly i mp lies t hat t he d itched'f ie lds a re m ost v isible i n l and t hat h as r ecent ly b een c leared o f f orest a nd w hich h as n ot b een p loughed b y t ractors. N o e vents i n t he r ecorded h istory o f t his a rea m ake i t l ikely t hat l and p resumably a bandoned f ollow ing t he S panish C onquest w ould h ave b een c leared a nd t hen a bandoned a gain. I t i s t herefore p robable t hat t he a gricu ltura l s ystems f rom w hich t he v est iges o f d itched f ie lds a re d er ived e xisted p rior t o t he S panish C onquest .

C ONCLUSIONS O n b alance, i t i s l ikely t hat m ost o f t he d itched f ie lds w ere c onstructed i n p rehistoric t imes. P erhaps t wo c lasses o f d itched f ie lds a re i nvolved. I n f latter a reas s uch a s S hanshipamba a nd A ngochagua, t he d itches m ay r epresent c ombinat ion d rainage-irrigat ion f eatures. S omewhat s imilar f eatures i ndeed a re f ound o n p art o f t he C ayambe f lats, a lthough n ot o f p rehistoric a ge ( Batche lor 1 980:674 4 19

F igure 1.

V iew o f S an J ose ( center) a nd S hanshipamba ( relat ively f lat a rea, u pper l eft ). D avid P reston, 1 983. 4 20

f f ., K napp 1 984:190). O n s teeper s ites t yp if ied b y C o limburo, w idely s paced d itches w ou ld h ave s ped r unoff f rom c lay-rich s oils t o i mprove w orkability, l imit d amage t o p lants, a nd p erhaps i mprove r oot a erat ion. P roperty m arking i s p robably a s econdary f unct ion o f b oth t ypes o f d itches. I n c ontrast w ith r aised f ie lds, d itched f ie lds a re n ot p articularly l abour i ntensive a nd, o n s teeper s lopes a t l east , w ou ld b e l argely s e lf-maintaining o r e ven l argely s e lf-construct ing o nce i nit iated. T heir e mp loyment i s t herefore c onsistent w ith m oderate ly i ntensive ( one o r t wo y ear f a llow ) s lope c u lt ivat ion o f m aize, a l ike ly l and u se p attern f or a reas a way f rom t he h eart land o f t he C hap{ c h iefdom. C urrent s lope a griculture i s a lso n ormally a ccompanied b y c onstruct ion o f s lope d rainage f eatures ( Knapp 1 984:187-189). T hese f eatures d iffer f rom a nc ient d itched f ie lds i n t hat t he d itches f orm a c heckerboard l att ice i n a ccordance w ith t he s quare o r s light ly e longated f orm o f m odern f ie lds. F eatures s uch a s t hose o f t he a nc ient d itched f ie lds a re i n f act r are i n t he E cuadorian A ndes, a nd w ere n ot d escribed b y t he S panish . T he h ypothesis t hat d itched f ie lds a re s pecif ically a daptat ions t o h eavy, c lay-r ich s oils e xp lains t his r arity i n E cuador a nd p ossibly a lso t heir p resence i n p oorly d rained s lopes o f C olombia.

A cknow ledgements. G regory K napp 's r esearch w as m ade p ossible b y t he g enerous a ssistance o f t he T inker F oundat ion a nd t he I nst itute o f L at in A merican S tudies a t T he U niversity o f T exas, A ust in. F ie ld s tudy i n E cuador w as a uthorized b y t he N at iona l I nst itute f or C ultura l P atrimony. S pec ial t hanks a re d ue t o D r. M aria d el C armen M o lest ina o f t hat i nst itut ion. A rchaeological f ie ld w ork w as p erformed i n c onjunct ion w ith J ose E cheverria o f t he O tava lo I nst itute o f A nthropology . H ernän C respo T ora l, D irector o f t he M useum o f t he C entra l B ank, a lso p rovided v aluable h e lp. D avid P reston 's r esearch w as f inanced b y t he B rit ish C ounc il a nd t he U niversity o f L eeds. T his p aper i s t he p roduct o f j oint d iscussions b etween b oth a uthors a nd h as b enefitted f rom d iscussion w ith P ierre G ondard a nd R ichard S mith .

R EFERENCES C ITED B atche lor, B ruce 1 980. L os c ame llones d e C ayambe e n I ndigena 4 0:671-689.

l a S ierra d e E cuador.

B orja, F ray A ntonio d e 1 965 [ 1582]. R e lac iön e n s uma d e l a d octrina e b eneficio P imampiro y d e l as c osas n otables q ue e n e lla h ay, e s b eneficiado e l P adre A ntonio B orja. I n g eogräf icas d e I ndias, e dited b y M arcos J imenez d e V o l. 2 , p. 2 48-253. E diciones A t las ( Biblioteca E spa i ioles, V o l. 1 84), M adrid.

4 21

A mer ica

d e d e l a c ual R e laciones l a E spada, d e A utores

B ray, W arw ick, L eonor H errera, a nd M ar ianne S chrimpff 1 983. R eport o n t he 1 981 F ie ld S eason i n C a lima. ( Base l) 3 :2-31.

P ro

C osta les S amaniego, A lfredo a nd A ndrew T heisen ( editors) 1 970 . A rea d e P imamp iro. M isiö n A ndina d el E cuador, I nvesii5ac iones S ocia les, Q uito.

O ficina

C a lima

d e

E cheverria, J ose a nd M aria V ictoria U ribe 1 981. P apel d el v alle d el C hota e n l a e conomia i nter-andina d e l os A ndes s eptentriona les d el E cuador. S arance 9 :23-45. E idt , R obert 1 984. A dvances i n A bandoned S ett lement A na lysis: A pp licat ion t o P rehistori 7 A nthrosols i n C olombia, S outh A merica. I T J C enter f or L at in A merica, U niversity o f W isconsin, M ilwaukee. G ondard, P ierre 1 985. L a o rga n iz a c iö n d el e spacio p recolombino e n l os A ndes s eptentriona les d el E cuador. P aper p resented a t t he 4 5th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists, B ogot4 . G ondard, P ierre a nd F reddy L öpe7 1 983. I nventario a rqueologico p re liminar d e l os s eptentrionales d el E cuador. M AG-PRONAR M=ORSTOT . C entra l d el E c u a5 7 : Q u it o .

A ndes

3 ir 7 6

K napp , G regory 1 984. S oil, S lope, a nd W ater i n t he E quatoria l A ndes: AS tudy o f 1 5 e F T s WE— A — g F i c aT—A M—p t a t i o n . P.D . D •kieTTiTion, D epartment o fG eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. 1 985.

I nvest igat ion o f R elic D itched F ie lds o n S loping L ands, N orthern H igh land E cuador. P aper p resented a t t he 4 5t I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mericanists, B ogota ' .

K napp, G regory a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. T he U se o f W et lands i n t he P rehistoric E conomy o f t he N orthern E cuadorian H igh lands. I n P rehistoric I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e dited b y I . S . F arrington, p. 1 85-207. B r iTia A rchaeological R eports, I nternat ional S eries 2 32, O xford. K napp, G regory a nd R oy R yder 1 983. A spects o f t he O rigin, M orphology a nd F unction o f R idged F ie lds i n t he Q u ito A ltip lano, E cuador. I n D rained F ie ld A griculture i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica, e dited b y J . P . D arch, p p . 2 0 17 2u 7— - A r T i T i F A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S er ies 1 89, O xford. L arrain B arros, H oracio 1 980. D emografia y a sentam ientos i ndigenas e n l a s ierra n orte d el E cuador e n e l s igl o X VI, 2 - 77 1T .— I nsir tuto O tav-7 17 iT o—d eA ntropol gia, O fi Tg r o.

4 22

O rlove, 1 977.

B enjamin S . I ntegration T hrough P roduction: T he U se E spinar. A merican E thnologist 4 :84-101.

P orras, P . P edro 1 982. A rqueologia d e I nvest igaciones

Q uito:

I :

TF IT I JU lö g icas

F ase

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o f

Z onation

i n

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P RONAREG-ORSTOM ( Programa N acional d e R egionalizaci A A graria, O ffice d e l a R echerche S cientifique e t T echnique Q utre-Mer) 1 979. M apas d e s uelos p or r egionalizaciön. C entre d es A nt illes-Bureau d es S OT s-, M art inique a nd Q u ito. P reston, D avid A . 1 984a. F ie ld R idges i n N orthern H ighland E cuador. U niversity L eeds S choo l o f G eography W orking P aper 3 80, L eeds.

o f

1 984b.

F ie ld L ines i n N orthern H ighland E cuador. U niversity o f L eeds S chool o f G eography W orking P aper 3 80, r evised e dit ion, L eeds.

1 985.

E nvironmenta l C hanges a nd H uman R esponses i n N orthern H ighland E cuador. U npublished S eminar P aper, D epartment o f H uman G eography, A ustralian N at ional U niversity, C anberra.

R yder, R oy 1 970. E l v alor d e l a f otograffa a erea e n l os e studios h istöricos y a rqueolögicos d el E cuador. R evista G eogräfica d el I nst ituto G eogräfico M ilitar ( Quito) 6 :40-42. S tutzman, R ona ld L ee 1 974. B lack H ighlanders: R acism a nd E thnic S trat ificat ion i n E cuadorian S ierra. -- T ED. U Ti7iFiation, D epartment A nthropology, W ashington U niversity, S t . L ouis.

4 23

t he o f

C HAPTER 2 3 T HE C HIBCHA R AISED-FIELD S YSTEM I N T HE S ABANA D E B OGOTA, F URTHER I NVESTIGATIONS

S ylvia M .

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A BSTRACT T his p aper s ummarizes r esearch c arried o ut f rom 1 968 t o 1 973 i n t he S abana d e B ogota, C olombia. Ar aised-f ie ld s ystem s imilar t o o nes f ound e lsewhere i n S outh A merica w as d iscovered a nd e xcavated. A s ixteenth c entury s ource i ndicates t hat t he s ystem w as p rimarily u sed f or m aize c u lt ivat ion. C ircumstant ial e vidence s uggests t hat t he m ain f unction o f t hese r aised f ie lds w as h umidity c ontrol, p erhaps w ith f ish-farming i n t he i ntervening d itches, a s t he a rea i s n ormally v ery w et a nd s ubject t o f looding. F rost p rotect ion i s a nother p ossibility, a s h as b een h ypothesized f or o ther a reas i n B olivia, E cuador, a nd M exico. M odern h ome g ardening t echniques p rovide r e levant a na logies t o a ncient r aised-fie ld a gricu lture. R aised b eds p romote b etter s oil d rainage, a llow t he s oil t o w arm m ore q u ickly, a nd p revent s oil c ompaction. T hey a re e specia lly u sefu l w here s ubsoils a re p oorly d rained o r w here i ntensive c u ltivat ion i s r equ ired, d ue e ither t o a s hortage o f a rable l and o r a l ack o f d raft a nima ls o r m echanized t ransportat ion.

I NTRODUCTION I n 1 968, I r eported m y 1 967 d iscovery o f t races o f a n e xtensive a ncient f ie ld s ystem i n t he S abana d e B ogotä, C olombia, i n t he p rotohistoric t erritory o f t he C hibcha o r M uisca p eople ( Fig. 1 ) ( Broadbent 1 968). A ll I h ad s een t hen w ere c ropmarks v isible f rom t he a ir ( Fig. 2 ), w ith n o d etectable g round-truth s urface r e lief, b ut I c oncluded t hat t hese t races m ust r epresent f ormer r aised f ields, s uch a s h ave b een f ound e lsewhere i n S outh A merica, e ither a bandoned ( Parsons a nd D enevan 1 967; D enevan 1 970, 1 982; K napp a nd R yder 1 983; K napp a nd D enevan 1 985; K napp 1 984; P lazas a nd F alchett i 1 981; B ray 1 981- 1 985; E idt 1 984) o r i n r ecent u se ( Eidt 1 959). F rom o ne d ocumentary s ource, I c ould r elate t he s ystem t o m aize a griculture: A guado 's s tatement t hat " e l m aiz n o s e s iembra e n l a t ierra a rada d e l os b ueyes e n e ste R eino, s ino e n c ierta m anera d e c amellones a ltos q ue h acen a m ano . . . ( Aguado 1 956-57:1:439). H

S ince 1 968, I h ave i nvest igated f urther. I n 1 969 I e xtended t he a ir s urvey, f inding a w ider d istribut ion, a nd I p ut a t rench a cross s ome o f t he m arks o n t he G uaymaral a irfie ld ( Fig. 1 ). W hile f inishing t he l atter, I w ent t o l ook a t af ield n ew ly c leared o f m ature b rush o r s crubby f orest n ear t he e astern e nd o f G uaymaral. H ere I f ound i mpressive r idges i n e xact ly t he s ame p attern a s t he c ropmarks ( Fig. 3 ). I d id n ot t hen h ave e nough f ie ld t ime l eft t o p ut i n a nother t rench i n t his a rea, a nd w hen I r eturned t he n ext y ear i t h ad a ll b een b ulldozed l evel. I a lso s tarted g ett ing v erbal t est imony f rom r esidents a round G uaymaral t hat t here h ad b een r idges p resent w hen t he 4 25

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h ad b een c leared 2 0 o r 3 0 y ears b efore f rom t he a reas w here a re n ow o n ly c ropmarks. L ater, I f ound o ther r idges i n a reas t o t he r iver a nd i n a f ew o ther s pots. S urviving r idges a re 6 0 m ore h igh a nd s ome 2 t o 4 m a part o n c enters ( wave l ength); v aries f rom a bout 1 0 m t o 6 0 m o r m ore.

S ince i t s eemed p retty c lear t hat t hese m ust b e t he k ind o f " high r idges" t hat A guado w as t a lking a bout , t he o bvious q uest ion w as w hy i t h ad b een t hought n ecessary t o b u ild s uch s ubstant ia l e arthworks o n w hich t o p lant c orn. Ia lso w ished t o d etermine h ow a nd w hen t hey w ere b u ilt a nd w hat o ther f unct ions t hey m ight h ave h ad. I t w as i n h opes o f s hedd ing s ome l ight o n t hese q uest ions t hat I d ug a t G uaymaral. Iw anted t o f ind o ut i f t he s oil s tructure u nder ly ing t he c ropmarks w as l ike t he p attern s een i n a d itch n ear S uba ( Broadbent 1 968:135-137), o f d ark s oil i ntrusions o f s emi-circular s ect ion i nto t he c lay s ubsoil, a nd t o g et s amp les f or p ollen a na lysis a nd s oil c hemistry.

E XCAVATIONS T he t wo c uts m ade d id n ot p roduce e xact ly w hat w as s een i n t he S uba d itch, b ut a w avy p rofile s howed u p i n a r e lat ive ly t hin c layl ike l ayer, w ith d ips u nder t he h igher g rass o h t he s urface ( Fig. 4 ). W hen t he b ottom o f t he t rench w as l evelled o ff a nd s craped c lean j ust b e low t he t op o f t h is l ayer, a d ist inct ive p attern a ppeared, o f b ands o f d ark s oil o ut lined a gainst t he l ighter m ateria l, w hich i s p robably v olcanic a sh . I n ot iced a s imilar p attern i n t he b ottom o f w ide, s ha llow d itches a longside t he r unways o n t he a irfie ld, s o t here i s r eason t o t hink t hat u nder t he c ropmarks t here i s g enera lly a c orresponding p attern o f s ha llow g rooves a nd r idges i n t he b uried s urface o f t he a shy l ayer, a t l east i n t he v icinity o f G uaymaral. S amp les f or p ollen a na lysis w ere t aken a nd s ent t o T homas v an d er H ammen, b ut n o r esu lts a re y et a vailable. U nfortunate ly, I c ould n ot g et a s oil s cient ist t o l ook a t t he p rof ile b efore t he t renches h ad t o b e r efilled, a nd t he s amp les t hat w ere t aken f or s oil c hemistry h ave b een l ost . A s ignificant r emaining p roblem w as w hether t he h igh g rass, w ith a d ip i n t he u nderlying l ayer, c orresponded t o ar idge o r a d itch i n t he o rigina l s urface. I t s eemed d esirable t o s eek a l ocat ion w ith s urviving r idges t o p ut i n a nother c ut . T he f ie ld s easons o f 1 969 a nd 1 970 w ere m ain ly d evoted t o o ther p rojects, a lthough s ome a dd it iona l a ir s urvey w as d one. I n 1 971, I d evoted s ome t ime t o w alking a round L a C onejera, t he h acienda w ith t he l argest c oncentrat ion o f c ropmarks ( F igs. 1 a nd 2 ), a nd v isit ing n eighbor ing h aciendas, l ooking f or a nother s ite w ith r idges s u itable f or a nother t est t rench. I n L a C onejera, I f ound o n ly s cattered, l owp rofile r emnants o f r idges. O n a nother p roperty, I f ound a v ery w e llp reserved g roup o f r idges i n t he o n ly s urviving p atch o f f orest , b ut t he o wner w as u nwilling t o a llow m e t o e xcavate f or f ear o f i njuring t he t rees. F inally, o n a h acienda c alled L os A rrayanes ( Fig. 1 ) I f ound s ome c lusters o f r idges; t he o wner w as c ooperat ive, b ut i t w as t hen t oo l ate i n t he s eason t o s tart d igging. Ir eturned i n t he s ummer o f 1 973 a nd w as t hen a ble t o m ake a c ut, a lthough b etween m id-June a nd l ate J u ly t he g roup i n w hich I w as m ost i nterested h ad b een l eve lled. H owever, a nother g roup a dequate f or m y p urposes w as s t ill e xtant , a nd a 1 m b y 1 1 m t rench w as d ug d own t o w ater t able 4 29

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( F ig. 6 ). A s oils s pec ia list , E llis K nox, w as k ind e nough t o e xam ine t he p rofile a nd a id m e i n i nterpret ing i t . It ook s oil s amp les, w hich w ere a nalyzed a t t he s oils l aboratory o f t h9 I nst ituto G eogrgf ico ' Agusti n C odazz in t hrough t he c ourtesy o f A bdon C ortes a nd F ranc isco L una. P ollen s amp les w ere a gain s ent t o T homas v an d er H ammen. T he s oil p rofile i s s hown i n F igure 5 . T he m ost s triking f eature o f t he s oil s tructure i s t he w ay t he l ower l imit o f t he t op l ayer f ollows t he s urface c ontour, c utt ing t hrough t wo u nder lying l ayers w hich a re p resent i n t he r idge b ut n ot i n t he d itch. T he u pper o f t hese t wo i s ac laylike a shy l ayer, w hich p robably c orresponds t o t he u ndu lat ing l ayer f ound a t G uaymara l. T his s uggests t hat i n t he G uaymaral p rofile t he d ips, a nd t he h igh g rass o ver t hem, c orrespond t o d itches, n ot t o r idges; a nd i n f act a t L os A rrayanes t he g rass w as t a ll i n t he d itch a nd s horter o n t op o f t he r idge. T he a lmost u niform t hickness o f t he u pper ( A ) l ayer o ver b oth r idge a nd d itch s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he s oil w as w orked d eeply o ver b oth r idge a nd d itch. I t d oes n ot s uggest t he l azy-bed t echnique o f t hrowing u p a r aised p lant ing-bed b y d igging a t rench a nd p iling t he d irt f rom i t , s od d own, a longside. T his w ould n ot l eave a d eep l ayer o f w orked s oil i n t he d itch. S ome o f t he t hickness o f t he u pper l ayer i n t he d itch m ight b e d ue t o s liding a nd s ett ling a fter t he f ields w ent o ut o f c ult ivat ion, b ut t he u niformity o f t he l ayer m akes i t s eem u n like ly t hat i t c an a ll b e a ccounted f or i n t hat w ay. T he s oil c hemistry r esu lts a re s hown i n T able 1 . I t i s n ot iceable t hat m ore p lant n utrients a re p resent i n t he d itch t han i n t he r idge, w hich i s c onsistent w ith t he h igher g rowth o f g rasses i n t he d itch. T his i s p resumably d ue t o l eaching. M y s oils s c ience c o lleague L . L und t e lls m e t hat t he c oncentrat ion o f b ases i s c onsistent w ith a w et c limate a nd i s c omparable w ith I nd iana a nd I llino is, w hich a re g ood c orn g row ing a reas. T he h igh c oncentrat ion o f b ases i n t he s urface l ayers d oes n ot s eem n atura l, a ccording t o L und, b ut s uggests s ome f ert ilizing p ractice. F ray P edro S imon ( 1953:2:300) i n 1 625 s aid t hat t he C hibcha h ad a c ustom o f b urning t heir h ousehold r ubb ish i n M arch, c ollecting t his a sh a nd a ny o ther a sh a vailable a nd t aking i t o ut t o t he f ie lds. I t i s n ot l ike ly t hat t he r idges h ave b een d eliberate ly f ert ilized i n m odern t imes. T he f ie ld i s n ow i n p asture, w ith c over o f k ikuyu g rass a nd c lover, a nd t he r idges w ou ld n ot h ave k ept t heir f orm i f t hey h ad b een p loughed f or c rops. I t i s p rec isely b ecause t hey a re a n o bstacle t o p loughing t hat m ost o f t hem h ave b een e liminated. A part f rom t he h igh b ase c oncentrat ion i n t he t op l ayer, t he s oil c hem istry i s l ike a t ypical g rass land s o il. T his c onflicts w ith v an d er H ammen a nd G onzg lez . ( 1963:257) f inding t hat t he n atura l v egetat ion o f t he S abana f loor w as f orest , a nd w ith t he f act t hat t he e xact s pot w as i ndeed f orested i n v ery r ecent t imes, a s s hown b y 1 940 a ir p hotographs. H owever, h istorical e vidence i ndicates t hat t his i s ap ost-conquest f orestat ion ( Broadbent 1 968:139), w hich s uggests t hat b efore t he l and f e ll i nto S panish h ands i t m ust h ave b een k ept c lear o f f orest f or a l ong t ime t o a ccount f or t he s oil c hemistry. S amp les 1 a nd 2 i n b oth c olumns w ere b oth f rom t he u ppermost l ayer ( A h orizon); t wo s amp les w ere t aken b ecause t he l ayer w as t hick a nd n ot e nt ire ly u niform, a lthough I c ou ld f ind n o c lear b oundary w ithin i t . C hemica lly, t he u pper a nd l ower p arts o f t he l ayer t urn o ut t o b e s omewhat d ifferent , w hich s hows t hat t he u pper ( A ) l ayer w as

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n ot c omp lete ly h omogeneous. R idge a nd d itch A h orizon s amp les d iffer f rom e ach o ther; d itch A h orizon s amp les a re r icher i n c lay, o rganic m atter, a nd b ases, a nd h ave a h igher p H. O therwise, b eneath l ayer A , c orresponding s amp les i n t he r idge c olumn m atch q u ite w ell w ith t hose i n t he d itch ( note t hat 1-3,4,5 c orrespond t o 1 -5,6,7 b ecause t he l ayers c orresponding t o 1 -3 a nd 1 -4 w ere a bsent i n t he d itch). A lum inum s hows r e lat ively h igh v alues i n t he r idge, a nd t he o n ly d eterminat ion t hat c ould b e m ade i n t he d itch s amp les i s v ery h igh .

F UNCTIONS A na lyzing f or a lum inum s a lts w as s uggested t o m e b y m y s oil s cientist c olleague, t he l ate N . C oleman, o n t he t heory t hat t he r idges m ight h ave s erved t o g et t he r oots o f c orn f arther a way f rom t oxic a lum inum s a lts e manat ing f rom t he c lay s ubsoil. T he f indings a re n ot r eally c onc lusive, b ut t he h igher v alue i n t he o ne d itch d eterminat ion s uggests a s light d ifference w hich m ight h ave b een e nough t o h e lp. T here i s p lenty o f o rganic m atter i n t he s oil a nd g ood n itrogen l evels; t he p H i s o n t he a cid s ide f or c orn a nd m ost o ther v egetables, b ut a d ressing o f a shes w ou ld h ave h e lped r emedy t hat . T he h igh c arbon a nd n itrogen l evels i n t he l owest s amp le s how t hat t his b lack l ayer j ust a bove t he w ater t able ( E , F ig. 5 ) i s a b uried s o il h orizon w hich m ust l ong a ntedate t he f ormat ion o f t he r idges. A lthough c ontrolling a lum inum t oxicity m ay h ave b een o ne b enefit , Ib elieve t hat t he m ain f unct ion w as p robably h um idity c ontro l. T he a nalyses n ow s how n o a ppreciable m oisture d ifference b etween r idge a nd d itch, b ut 1 973 w as a n e xcept iona lly d ry y ear t here ; t he m anager o f t he h acienda t old m e t hat t he w ater t able w as a bout 5 0 c m b e low w here i t w ould n ormally a ppear. T his e nabled u s t o e xpose a d eeper p rofile t han w e c ou ld h ave i n m ost y ears, a nd t he u pper l ayers w ere b etter d rained t han u sua l. W ater m ust h ave b een m uch h igher b efore t he S abana w as c risscrossed w ith d eep d itches f or d rainage, e ven t hough m any o f t he c ropmarks a re i n a reas n ot n ow s ubject t o f looding ( Broadbent 1 968:138). C olonia l p eriod m aps o ften s how m arshy a reas t hat d o n ot a ppear o n m odern m aps ( Broadbent 1 985). W hen I w alked o ver t he c ropmark a reas a t L a C onejera, I w as s urprised t o f ind v ery m arshy g round i n p laces t hat d id n ot l ook w et f rom t he a ir. A n ew g roup o f r idges f ound b y R udolf S chrimpff i n 1 973 n ear S opo ( F ig. 1 ) i s i n a s pot w hich m ust n orma lly b e m arshy, a lthough i t w as t hen c omp lete ly d ry; I c ollected t wo w ater-loving C yperaceae t here ( Cyperus f lavus a nd E leucharis d ombeyana ), a nd t here a re p eaty t ussocks c haracterist ic o f m a rshy g round. I n t his g roup ( see F ig. 7 ), t here a re s evera l p airs o r t rios o f r idges w hich a re j oined a t o ne e nd a nd o ne p air j oined a t b oth e nds, m aking a n o val u nit , b ringing t o m ind t he p ossibility o f f ish-farming i n t he d itches, a s I h ave s uggested e lsewhere ( Broadbent 1 968:142). L ocal p eople c a ll s urviving r idge p atterns " zanjas d e l os i ndios" ( Indian d itches), w hich s uggests t hat t he d itch m ight h ave b een a s i mportant a s t h e r idge. T here i s a c atfish n at ive t o t he R io B ogota c alled c apitän w hich m ight b e d omest icable. P erhaps i n m arshy a reas, a gFT EUT i i i i -e o n t op o f t he r idges w as c ombined w ith f ish-raising i n t he d itches.

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p laces w ould b e r eally w et w ithout m odern d rainage p rograms a nd a rt if icial l evees. S ome o f t he r iverside r idges a re c urved a nd m ore o r l ess p arallel t o t he r iver; t hey m ay w ell b e n atura l l evees d ivided i nto s hort s ect ions. T he i dea o f p lanting o n r idges m ight e ven h ave g ot i ts s tart o n n atural l evees. I f t he p rehistoric f armers t ried p lanting o n l evees a nd f ound t hat c rops d id w e ll, t hey m ight t hen h ave t r ied b u ilding a rtificia l o nes. A nother q uest ion i s w hat c rops o ther t han A guado 's c orn w ere g rown o n t he r idges. T he m odern p easants a lmost i nvariably p lant a l eguminous c rop ( kidney o r l ima b eans o r p eas) a long w ith c orn, a nd I s ee n o r eason t o t hink t hat t his i s a n ew i dea. M ult icropping o r c ompanion p lant ing i n g eneral i s v ery c ommon, i nvolving b oth i ntroduced a nd n at ive c rops: T ropaeolum w ith a rracacha o r O xalis t uberosum w ith p otatoes, t o c ite c rops m ent ioned b y t he e arly S panish c hroniclers. T hese c ould w e ll h ave b een g rown o n t he r idges a lso. O ne c rop I a m f airly s ure w as n ot g rown o n t he r idges o r a nywhere e lse o n t he S abana i s q u inoa, a lthough m any w riters a ssume t hat i t w as a C hibcha c rop. I h ave n ot f ound a ny r eference t o i t i n t he c olonia l l iterature, p ublished o r u npublished. I t i s n ot g rown t here n ow, e xcept o n a n e xperimental b asis, w hile a ll t he o ther c rops m entioned a re c ommonly g rown b y t he p easants. P ollen a na lysis m ay s how w hat c rops w ere g rown o n t he r idges, a lthough i t i s l ikely t hat n o p ollen w ill b e f ound i n t he s amp les t aken. B efore t he r idges w ere d iscovered, a nother k ind o f e arthworks h ad b een r eported w hich w as t hought t o b e r e lated t o a nc ient a griculture, n amely h orizontal t erraces ( Haury a nd C ubillos 1 953:83-86; B roadbent 1 964). T he o nly o ther r easonable e xp lanat ion f or t he p urpose o f t hese t erraces w as h ouse p latforms, a nd t hey s eemed t oo b ig f or t hat . H owever, o ccupat ional d ebris ( such a s p otsherds, f laked s tone t ools, a nd s pindlewhorls) i s a bundant o n t he t erraces b ut n ot i n t he r idge a reas. W e f ound o nly t wo p otsherds i n t he t hree r idged-f ie ld t renches Ie xcavated. I f w et s oil w as o ne r eason f or b u ilding t he r idges, t hat w ou ld b e a g ood r eason n ot t o l ive t here, a lthough l arge o ccupat ion s ites d o e xist o n t he v alley f loor ( Broadbent 1 968). I n ow a ssume t hat t he h illside t erraces w ere v illage s ites, a nd t hat t he t erraces p rovided s pace f or h uertas o r d ooryard g ardens a round t he h ouses. S o f ar, n othing q u ite l ike t he S abana f loor r idged-fie ld s ystem h as b een f ound a nywhere e lse i n C olombia. T he a ncient r aised-fie ld s ystems r eported f or o ther p arts o f t he c ountry a re s omewhat d ifferent . T hose a round t he l ower S an J orge R iver s eem t o c onsist p rimarily o f i nnumerable f airly l ong r idges r adiat ing d irect ly f rom n atural w ater c hanne ls o n f loodable b ottom land ( Parsons a nd B owen 1 966; P lazas a nd F alchett i 1 981; E idt 1 984). T hose r eported b y B ray e t a l. ( this v ol.) a nd o thers i n c entral a nd s outhern C olombia a re m or F ologically s imilar b ut o ccur a t l ower e levat ions a nd s eem t o o ccupy s maller a reas. P atterns o f m ore o r l ess v ertical h illside r idges a nd/or d itches h ave b een r eported f rom t he C alima a rea i n t he W estern C ordillera, f rom t he Q u indio a nd R isara lda, a nd f rom N arino, w here t he G uambia I ndians w ere s t ill m aking t hem i n t he 1 950 's ( Bray 1 981-1983; E idt 1 984; B roadbent 1 968:139; B ruhns 1 981; W est 1 959). V ertical d itches a re a lso s een i n t he P imampiro a rea o f E cuador ( Knapp a nd P reston, t his v ol.). T hey m ust s erve a d ifferent f unct ion f rom t he b ottom land r idges. H illside r idges o r d itches o f t his t ype h ave n ot b een f ound i n C hibcha t erritory, b ut t he p art o f i t t hat s eems 4 37

m ost c omparable t o t he a reas w here t hey o ccur, t he s lopes t owards t he M agdalena V a lley a nd t he L lanos, a re s t ill a rchaeo logica lly v ery l itt le k nown. F rom d ocuments a nd m odern a na logy , n ot t o m ent ion g eographic l ogic, i t i s c lear t hat c rops w ere g rown t here w hich w ere n ot g rown o n t he S abana, n otably c otton a nd c oca. W e a lso k now t hat s ome c ommunit ies l iving o n t he S abana o wned f ie lds o n t he l ower s lopes a nd m oved u p a nd d own s easonally ( Broadbent 1 971:174). R aised-f ie ld p atterns m ore o r l ess l ike t he S abana r idges h ave b een f ound o utside C olombia, i n t he L lanos d e M ojos a nd t he L ake T it icaca b asin i n B olivia ( Denevan 1 970), i n s evera l w et lands o f t he n orthern E cuador ian h igh lands ( Knapp a nd R yder 1 983, K napp 1 984, K napp a nd D enevan 1 985, G ondard a nd L opez 1 983) a nd a lso i n M exico ( Armillas 1 971). K napp a nd D enevan ( 1985:192-194) s uggest t hat f rost p rotect ion m ay h ave b een o ne f unction o f t he h igh land E cuadorian f ie lds, w hich a re i n a reas s ubject t o r adiat ion f rosts. T he s ame i s t rue f or t he S abana d e B ogota; i n J u ly 1 984, c orn i n v arious p arts o f t he S abana w as s evere ly s corched f rom f rosts i n J une. S ince b oth t hese h igha ltitude a reas a re d eep i n t he t ropics, w here s easona l t emperature v ariat ion i s s light , f rosts c an o ccur a t v arious s tages o f c rop g rowth. E ven a s ma ll e levat ion m ight a llow c o ld a ir t o d rain a way f rom t he c rops. P erhaps t hat i s w hy t he r idges w ere b uilt s o h igh. A s y et , d irect e vidence f or t he a nt iqu ity o f a gricu lture i n C olombia i s l imited, e specia lly i n t he C hibcha a rea, b ut t he f ie ld p atterns s uggest a n a gronomic s ystem t hat d id n ot d eve lop v ery q u ickly . T he c ropmarks o ccur o ver a n a rea o f s evera l h undred s quare k ilometers, a nd t here a re a n umber o f t errace s ites; t his a dds u p t o a l ot o f s ubstant ial e arthworks a nd m ust r epresent a v ast a mount o f h uman l abor. Ia m n ot i n a p osit ion t o p rovide a ny p recise e st imate o f t he n umber o f m an-hours o r p erson-years, b ut g iven a p opu lat ion o n t he o rder o f h a lf a m illion I w ould a ssume t hat i t m ust h ave t aken s evera l c enturies a t l east t o m ove t hat a mount o f e arth w ith n othing b ut d igging s t icks. A nd p resumably t he p eop le d id n ot s tart c onstruct ing r idges a nd t erraces a s s oon a s t hey a cqu ired c rop p lants, w hether m aize o r a nything e lse. Iw ou ld t h ink t hey h ad b een w orking w ith p lants f or s ome t ime b efore t hey s tarted g oing t o a ll t his t rouble.

P OSTSCRIPT :

T HE P ERSPECTIVE O F AH OME G ARDENER

M ost o f t he p receding w as w ritten i n 1 973 f or p resentat ion a t a s ymposium o n e ar ly m aize a gricu lture o rganized b y R ichard S chu ltes a t t he H arvard B otanical M useum . S ince t hen, I h ave d one n o f urther f ie ld r esearch i n C olombia, b ut I h ave d one r ather a l ot o f g ardening. A nyone w ho r eads m uch c urrent g ardening l iterature s oon n ot ices t hat a mong d edicated h ome g ardeners " raised b eds" a re a lmost a s f ashionable a s c ompost . T here a re m any w ays o f m aking t hem ; t hey c an b e p ermanent , f ramed i n w ood o r o ther m ateria ls, o r r emade e ach g row ing s eason. Iw ork s oil t wo s pade-lengths d eep ( a m ethod c alled d oubled igging) a nd c reate r aised b eds w hich d o n ot l ook m uch l ike t he S abana r idges--they a re f lat-topped, a bout 2 0 c m h igh, 9 0 c m w ide a nd 1 80 c m l ong, w ith 4 0 c m p aths b etween--but t hey a re r aised, a nd I t hink t heir a dvantages f or m odern g ardeners a re a lso r iT eViT i l- t o a ncient r aised f ie lds o f v arious t ypes.

4 38

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T he k ey t o t he w hole s ystem [ "intensive g ardening"] i s t he r aised b ed. B y s eparat ing t he g arden f rom t he p ath, t here i s n o p roblem w ith s oil c ompaction, s ince n o o ne e ver w alks o n t he b eds. W ater, f ert ilizer a nd l abor a ren 't w asted o n p aths e ither. T he s oil i n r aised b eds w arms q u ickly, d rains w ell a nd i s w ell a erated ( Carr e t a l. 1 978:607). O r a s a nother w riter p uts i t : T he m agic b ehind t he m ethod l ies i n t hree b asic e ffects a chieved b y r aising a p lant ing b ed: t he s oil d rainage i s g reat ly i mproved, t he b eds h eat u p e ar lier i n t he s pring, a nd t he s oil i s n ever c ompacted ( because i t i sn 't w alked o n) ( Ferguson 1 985:24). T here i s r ea lly n o g reat m ystery a bout r aised b eds: t hey a re t he w ay m ost p eop le g row f lowers. T he m ystery t o m e i s t hat f riends w ho w ou ld n ever t hink o f s tepp ing i n m y f lower b eds h ave t o b e a lmost f orc ibly r estrained f rom w a lk ing a ll o ver m y v egetable b eds. T he t erm " intensive g ardening" i n t he f irst q uotat ion r eflects t he h istory o f t he m ethod . An ame a ssoc iated w ith t he i ntroduct ion o f r aised b eds i n t he U .S. i s A lan C hadw ick, a B rit ish m aster g ardener w ho w orked a nd t aught a t t he U niversity o f C a lifornia a t S anta C ruz u nt il h is d eath i n 1 983 ( MacFadyen 1 985:42). H e c alled i t " biodynamic F rench i ntensive g ardening", r eferring t o a m ethod o f g row ing e ar ly s a lad g reens u sed i n t he e nvirons o f P aris, w hich w as i ntroduced i nto B ritain i n 1 906 ( Quarre ll 1 938:74-104; S mith 1 937:47-74). R aised b eds a re a s omewhat i ncidenta l p roduct o f t he F rench m ethod: t hey a re h otbeds, u sing t he h eat p roduced b y r ott ing s table m anure t o s t imu late g erminat ion a nd g rowth i n f rost-tender c rops s uch a s l ettuce, w hich a re f urther p rotected b y c loches o r c oldframe l ights o n t op o f t he b eds. F u lly c omposted, t he m anure b ecomes a b lack s pongy m ateria l c a lled t erreau, w hich i s p ut o n t op o f f resh m anure t o s erve a s t he a ctual -g r o ) .Ti n—g - m edium . T erreau i s a t rue a nthrosol, a m an-made s oil, a nd t he g ardener c ou ld l egally t ake i t w ith h im w hen h e m oved. T his s ystem a pparent ly d eveloped i n t he P aris b asin, a P leistocene b asin w ith c layey s ubsoils; i t b ecame p opu lar i n t he T hames b asin, w hich a lso h as h eavy c lay s ubsoil. T he S abana d e B ogota i s aP leistocene l akebed, w ith i mpermeable c lays u sually n ot m ore t han am eter b elow t he s urface. Is uspect t he s ame m ay b e t rue o f t he L ake T it icaca b asin ( see E rickson, t his v ol.). T he d rainage a nd a erat ion p rovided b y r aised b eds w ou ld b e e specia lly u sefu l i n s uch s ituat ions. P erhaps t h is i s a c lue t o w here e lse t o l ook f or r aised f ie lds: p laces w here s ubsoils a re p oorly d rained, w hether b ecause o f P leistocene c lays o r f or o ther r easons. H owever, G ardeners a ll p roduct ive i f t hat d evelops i t . Is uspect

I d o n ot t hink t hat i s t he o n ly p lace t o l ook. o ver s eem t o l ike t hem, b ecause t hey c an b e e normous ly p roperly b u ilt a nd m aintained. T he l ight , f luffy s oil i s v ery p leasant t o w ork, a nd r oot s ystems f lourish i n t hat t he r eason t hey l ook s trange t o u s, a nd m y f riends 4 39

d o n ot k now h ow t o b ehave a round t hem, i s b ecause w e a re s o a ccustomed t o t he f lat-field, n arrow-row, m onoculture s ystem o f r aising v egetables a nd c ereals. T hat s ystem i s a n a rtifact o f t he p lough, w hich w orks b est i n l ong s traight r uns o n m ore o r l ess f lat s urfaces. A ny e levations t end t o b e e liminated w here t he p lough i s u sed--w itness w hat h as b een d one i n r ecent y ears t o t he S abana r idges. T he p lough i s t he e nemy o f r aised f ields. W here t he s oil i s w orked w ith h and t ools, a s m ost o f u s d o o ur f lower b eds, m u lt icropped r aised b eds t ended f rom a longside m ay b e a c ommon a nd n atural a pproach. T he r esu lts c an b e s pectacular, e specially i f t he b eds a re w e ll-fed w ith c ompost a nd m u lch. M echanical c ult ivat ion i n f lat f ields m ay s ave l abor, b ut i t t ends t o w aste p roductive s pace; o ne o nly h as t o l ook a t t he w eeds t o s ee t hat . W herever a w eed f lourishes, a c rop p lant c ou ld g row . I n d ensely p lanted b eds, w eeds a re c rowded o ut. A nd e ven w here t here i s n o s hortage o f c ultivable l and, g row ing f ood i n t he s mallest a rea p ossible h as i ts a dvantages, e specially i f o ne g ets a round o n f oot : o ne d oes n ot h ave t o w alk s o f ar t o p lant , t end a nd h arvest i t . M oreover, t he c ook c an g et i t i nto t he p ot q u icker t o s ave f reshp icked f lavor i f e ven t he f arthest p arts o f t he k itchen g arden a re a s c lose a s c an b e t o t he k itchen.

A cknow ledgements. I w ant t o e xpress m y a ppreciat ion t o t he f ollow ing: t o A bdön C ort4s, F rancisco L una, a nd E llis K nox, a nd t he I nstituto G eogräfico " Agustin C odazzi" f or a ssistance i n i nterpretat ion a nd a nalysis o f s oils; t o L . L und a nd t he l ate N . C oleman, f or a ssistance i n c ontact ing s oil s cient ists i n C olombia a nd i n i nterpret ing s oil a nalysis r esults; t o R udolf S chrimpff, w ho p iloted t he s urvey p lane; t o R oberto J aramillo o f t he U niversidad N acional, B ogota, f or a id i n i dentifying p lants; t o t he o wners a nd s taff o f t he h aciendas " La C onejera" a nd " Los A rrayanes" f or t heir c ooperat ion a nd a ssistance; t o R ichard S chultes, f or e ncouraging m e t o w rite t his p aper o riginally; a nd t o W illiam D enevan f or i ncluding i t w ith t he p apers o f h is s ymposium . T his r esearch w as s upported i n p art b y s abbatical l eave a nd I ntramura l R esearch g rants f rom t he U niversity o f C a lifornia, R iverside.

R EFERENCES C ITED A guado, P edro 1 956-57 [ 1581]. R ecopilaciön h istorial .., 4 v ols. l a P residencia d e C olombia, B ogota ' .

B iblioteca d e

A rmillas, P edro 1 971. G ardens o n S wamps. S cience 1 74:653-661. B ray, W arwick ( editor) 1 981-1985. P ro C alima 1 , 2 , 3 .

B asel.

B roadbent , S ylvia M . 1 964. A gricultural T erraces i n C hibcha A merican A nt iquity 2 9:501-504. 1 968.

A P rehistoric F ield S ystem K awpa P acha 6 :135-147.

4 40

i n

C hibcha

T erritory,

T erritory,

C olombia.

C olombia.

1 971.

R econocimientos a rqueolc i gicos d e l a l aguna d e R evista C olombiana d e A ntropologia 1 5:171-214.

1 985.

C olonia l P eriod M aps o f t he S abana d e P roceedings o f t he C a lifornia M ap S oc iety.

B ruhns, K aren O lson 1 981. P rehistor ic R idged F ie lds F ie ld A rchaeology 8 :1-8.

o f

C entra l

" La H errera".

B ogotä,

C olombia.

C o lombia.

J ourna l

o f

C arr, A nna ( editor ) 1 978. T he E ncyclopedia o f O rganic G ardening. R evised e dit ion b y t he s taff o f O rganic G ardening M agazine. R oda le P ress, E mmaus, P ennsylvania. D enevan, W illiam M . 1 970. A bor igina l D rained S cience 1 69:647-654. 1 982,

F ie ld

C u lt ivat ion

i n

t he

A mericas.

H ydraulic A griculture i n t he A merican T ropics: F orms, M easures, a nd R ecent R esearch. I n M aya S ubsistence: S tud ies i n M emory o f D ennis E . P u leston, e c iTE C T b y K ent F lannery, p p . T1-2O3. T E aU g i T IT E- P ress, N ew Y ork.

E idt, R obert C . 1 959. A borigina l C hibcha S ett lement i n C o lombia. A nna ls A ssociat ion o f A merican G eographers 4 9:374-392. 1 984.

o f

t he

A dvances i n A bandoned S ett lement A na lysis: A pp licat ion t o P rebistori7 A nthrosols i n C olombia, S outh A merica. 1 1 7 E C enter f or L at in A mer ica, U niversity o f W isconsin, M ilwaukee.

F erguson, B arbara 1 985. P eter C han 's P erfect P atch.

H ort icu lture 6 3(5):23-35.

G ondard, P ierre a nd F reddy L öpez 1 983. I nventar io A rqueo lö g ico P re lim inar d e l os S eptentriona les d el E cuador . M AG-PRONAR MORSTUW . C entra l d el E cuad-6 7-, Q uito. H uary, E m il W . a nd J u lio C esar C ubillos 1 953. I nvest igaciones a rqueoldgicas e n l a C o lombia ( Cu ltura C hibcha). U niversity 2 4(2). K napp, G regory 1 984. S oil,

S lope

a nd W ater

i n

t he

E quatoria l

A ndes

1 3 i F t-c -c 7

S abana d e B ogota, o f A rizona B u llet in

A ndes:

A S tudy o f

P rehistor ic TUFiZ MI T räl- A daptat ion. P h.D. D i eF fiTion, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison.

K napp, G regory a nd R oy R yder 1 983. A spects o f t he O rigin, M orphology, a nd F unct ion o f R idged F ie lds i n t he Q u ito A lt ip lano, E cuador. I n D rained F ie ld A gricu lture i n C entral a nd S outh A mer ica, e dited b y J . P . D arch, p. 2 01-220. -- A riii7g A rchaeological R eports, I nternat ional S er ies 1 89, O xford.

4 41

K napp, G regory a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. T he U se o f W et lands i n t he P rehistoric E conomy o f t he N orthern E cuadorian H ighlands. I n P rehistoric I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e dited b y I . S . F arrington, p. 1 85-207. B riT-f il A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford. M acFadyen, J . T evere 1 985. T he C all t o D ig.

H orticulture 6 3(3):38-47.

P arsons, J ames J . a nd W illiam A . B owen 1 966. A ncient R idged F ie lds o f t he S an J orge C olombia. G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343. P arsons, J ames J . a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 967. P re-colombian R idged F ie lds. 9 3-100. P lazas, 1 981.

S cient ific

R iver

F loodplain,

A merican

2 17(1):

C lemencia a nd A na M aria F a lchett i d e S aenz A sentamientos p rehispänicos e n e l b ajo r io S an J orge. F undaciön d e I nvestigaciones A rque 7-6 , 0757 J N ETonhT s, B anco d e l a R epublica, B ogota.

Q uarre ll, C . P . 1 938. I ntensive S alad P roduction, C rosby L ockwood, L ondon.

I ncluding

S ome

V egetables.

S imön, F ray P edro 1 953 [ 1625]. N ot icias h istoriales d e l a c onqu istas d e T ierra F irme e n l as I ndias o ccidentales, 9 v ols. B iblioteca d e A utores T O-1 6 gianos, B ogotä. S mith, T homas ( editor) 1 937 [ 1911]. T he P rofitable C ulture o f V egetables .. R evised .. b y W . 77- S hewell-Cooper. L ongmans, G reen -ar i d- C o., L o r i n-F . v an d er H ammen, T homas a nd E nrique G onzälez 1 963. H istoria d el c lima y v egetaciön d el p leistoceno s uperior y d el h oloceno d e l a S abana d e B ogotä. S ervicio G eolögico N acional, I nforme N o. 1 322. B oletin G eolögico 1(1-3): 1 89-266. W est , R obert C . 1 959. R idge o r " Era" A griculture i n t he C olombian A ndes. A ctas d el X XXIII C ongreso I nternacional d e A mericanistas 1 :279-282.

4 42

C HAPTER 2 4 T HE A NCIENT A GRICULTURAL L ANDSCAPE O F C ALIMA, C OLOMBIA

W arw ick B ray, L eonor H errera, M arianne C ardale S chrimpff, P edro B otero, a nd J ose G . M onsalve

A BSTRACT I nterdisciplinary r esearch i n t he C alima r egion, i n t he W estern C ordillera o f t he C olombian A ndes a t 1 200-1600 m , h as p rovided i nformat ion a bout c hanging p atterns o f a gricultura l l and u se f rom t he f ifth m illennium B .C. t o t he p resent . M aize p roduct ion a ppears i n t he p ollen r ecord d uring t he p receramic p eriod ( fifth m illennium B .C.) a nd c arbonized k ernels h ave b een f ound w ith t he e arliest lama p ottery o f t he f irst m illennium B .C. N o f ield s ystems c an b e a ttributed t o t hese e arly p eriods, a nd t he l andscape r etained m uch o f i ts n atura l f orest c over. D uring t he Y otoco p eriod ( A .D. 1 00 - 1 200) l arge s cale c learance t ook p lace. A gricultural s oils o f t his p eriod h ave b een f ound o n h illslopes, b uried b eneath l ater c onstruct ional f ill, a nd i n E l D orado t he f irst d rainage d itches a nd r aised f ie lds w ere c onstructed i n t he s easonally f looded v a lley b ottom. M aize p hytoliths w ere f ound i n a ll t he c ult ivat ion s oils o f E l D orado. T he v alley b ottom f ields s eem t o h ave b een legely a bandoned b efore A .D. 1 200, p erhaps b ecause o f a l owering o f t he w ater t able d uring a c ooler a nd d rier i nterval r epresented b y P ollen Z one 5 B. D uring t he S onso p eriod ( A .D. 1 200 1 600) t here i s a bundant e vidence f or h illslope c ult ivat ion. T he s ides a nd e nds o f r idges a re c overed w ith r ough ly p ara llel d itches r unning v ertically d ownslope. S ome o f t hese w ere c onstructed b y S onso p eople; o thers m ay b elong t o t he Y otoco p eriod. T he f unction o f t hese d itches r emains e nigmat ic; t hey m ay s imply b e f ie ld b oundaries, o r t hey m ay b e d esigned e ither t o i mprove d rainage o r t o c ontrol l andslips. A fter t he C onquest , t he C alima r egion w as a lmost d epopu lated ad d m uch o f t he P rehispanic l andscape r everted t o f orest . I t r emained i n t hat c ondit ion u nt il t he a rea w as r ecolonized i n t he t went ieth c entury. I NTRODUCTION T he C alima r egion i s s ituated i n t he C ordillera O cc identa l i n t he C olombian D epartment o f V alle d el C auca ( Fig. 1 ). R esearch a ctivity w as c oncentrated i n t he m unicipios o f D arien a nd R estrepo, w ith e xtensions i nto Y otoco, V ijes, a nd D agua. T he g eographical t erm " Calima" h as b een u sed f or m uch o f t his a rea s ince C olonia l t imes ( Cardale d e S chrimpff e t a l. 1 985:7), a nd i t t akes i ts n ame f rom t he R io C alima, w hose u pper c ourse w as d ammed i n t he 1 960s n ear t he t own o f D arien t o c reate a r eservoir f or h ydroelectric p ower. O ur s tudy z one l ies o n b oth s ides o f a l ow p ass ( at a pproximate ly 1 ,600 m ) l inking t he C auca V a lley, o n t he e astern s ide o f t he C ordillera, w ith t he C hocö r ainforest a nd t he P acific c oast t o t he w est . A m ajor 4 43

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C olonial ‚ route c rossed t his p ass a nd d escended t o t he P ac if ic b y w ay o f t he R io D agua, a s d oes t he p resent d ay B uga - B uenaventura h ighway . T he C a lima a rea i s o ne o f r o lling h ills, i nterspersed w ith s everal f lat - f loored, p oor ly d rained v a lleys, o f w hich E l D orado i s a p rime e xamp le. W est o f L ake C a lima t he m ountains r ise t o o ver 2 ,000 m w ith c loud f orest o n t he p eaks, b ut m ost o f t he s urvey a rea i s c lassic " coffee b elt" t errain a t 1 ,200-1,600 m . I t f a lls w ithin t he l ower p art o f t he t ierra t emp lada, h um id a nd s ubhum id t o s emi-ar id, w ith p atches o f d rier l and o n e ast-facing l eeward s lopes i n r ainshadow z ones. A verage m onth ly t emperatures r emain f air ly c onstant t hroughout t he y ear ( 19.2 °20.2 °C a t R estrepo, 1 8.6 °19.2 °C a t D arien). T he r ecords d o n ot g ive d iurnal t emperature r anges, b ut n ight f rosts a re n ot a p rob lem f or f armers a t t hese a lt itudes. T he f rost-protect ion f unct ion o f t he r aised f ie lds i n h igh land E cuador ( Knapp a nd D enevan 1 985; K napp 1 984) i s n ot e ssent ia l t o t he C a lima r idges. M ean a nnual r ainfa ll a t R estrepo ( 1 ,400 m ) i s 1 ,138 m m ( FEDECAFE 1 972:12). W ithin t he a rea a s a w hole, a nd d epending o n a lt itude a nd l oca l c ondit ions, a nnual p rec ipitat ion f igures r ange f rom 5 00 m m t o 2 ,000 m m . D istribut ion i s b imodal, w ith a m ajor r ainy s eason i n l ate S eptember - O ctober ( up t o 2 00 m m p er m onth) a nd a l ess r e liable o ne i n A pril a nd M ay. A verage v a lues ( at R estrepo) f or t he d riest m onths o f J anuary a nd F ebruary a re a round 5 0 m m . W ith t his t emperature a nd p rec ipitat ion r egime, r ainfall a griculture i s t he n orm, t hough i t c an b e r isky i f t he ' litt le r ainy s eason ' f ails a t t he t ime o f f lower ing o f a nnual c rops. T he n atura l v egetat ion o ver m ost o f t he z one i s s ub-Andean f orest w ith s uch g enera a s A calypha, A lchornea, a nd C ecropia ( yarumo), t his l ast a n i ndicator o f s econdary g rowth. T he h istory o f c learance a nd r egenerat ion o f t his f orest i s ak ey e lement i n o ur s tory. P ollen c ores f rom L usitania a nd t he H acienda E l D orado a re i n c ourse o f s tudy b y J ose M onsa lve ( 1985), a nd a bridged v ersions o f h is d iagrams a re p resented i n F igures 2 a nd 3 . T he e ar lier p arts o f t he s equence a re Q uaternary a nd d o n ot c oncern u s h ere. A l itt le m aize p ollen, w ith n o s ignificant f orest c learance, a ppears i n P ollen Z one 5 A , f irm ly d ated t o t he m id-fifth m illennium B .C. i n t he E l D orado c ore ( Fig. 3 ), a nd t his i s f ollowed b y a m ajor e pisode o f d eforestat ion a nd a s harp r ise i n G ramineae a nd i n m aize. T his m ajor l andscape c hange c oincides w ith t he a rchaeologica l e vents d iscussed b e low . S oon a fter t he S panish C onquest t he C a lima r egion w as v irtually d epopu lated. M uch o f t he f ormer c u lt ivated z one r everted t o f orest , r emaining i n t hat c ondit ion u nt il r ecolonized e ar ly i n t he p resent c entury b y A nt ioquel ro i mmigrants f rom f urther n orth a long t he c offee b e lt ( Parsons 1 968). A ccording t o e yew itness a ccounts, t hese n ewcomers f ound a m ixed l andscape, p art f orest a nd p art g rassland ( Carda le d e S chrimpff e t a l. 1 985:12). T hese r ecollect ions a re c orroborated b y o ur p ollen d iagrams ( upper p art o f Z one 5 C ). W ith t he f ounding o f D arien a nd R estrepo t he c yc le o f c learing a nd b urning b egan a gain, a nd c ontinues u nt il t oday. I n c onsequence, a t l ower a lt itudes o nly a 45

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r esidue o f t he o riginal w oodland s urvives. S ubsistence a nd c ash c rops a re g rown o n t he b etter s oils, b ut v ast a reas o f l and h ave b een c onverted i nto c att le p asture. T his r eplacement o f f orest b y g rassland, r ather t han b y m aize f ields, c ontrasts w ith t he a boriginal p attern a nd i s s een v ery c learly i n Z one 5 D o f t he p ollen c ore f rom E l D orado ( Fig. 3 ). W herever t he f orest h as b een r ecent ly c leared, t he a ncient l andscape r e-emerges, w ith i ts r oads, f ie lds, c emeteries a nd h ouse t erraces ( tambos). P rotected b y w oodland, a nd i n s ome p laces u ndisturbed s ince t he C onquest, i t i s s t ill i n a n e xcellent s tate o f p reservat ion a nd, i n g rassland a reas, s hows u p w ell o n a ir p hotographs. T his c ombinat ion o f c ircumstances h as a llowed t he C alima P roject t o m ap e nt ire t racts o f p rehistoric a gricultura l l andscape, s omething w hich h as n ot p reviously b een a ttempted f or t he m id-a lt itude n iche o f t he n orthern A ndes.

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL S EQUENCE T his, w ith a rt ifact i nventories, i s p ublished i n f u ller d etail e lsewhere ( Bray e t a l. 1 981, 1 983; H errera e t a l. 1 982-3) a nd o n ly t he c hronological o dtf ine i s g iven h ere. T he r i c i r ien d iagrams ( Figs. 2 a nd 3 ) i ndicate t hat m aize c ult ivat ion i n o ur s urvey a rea g oes b ack t o t he f ifth m illennium B .C. T he e arliest a rchaeological e vidence f or h uman o ccupat ion o f t he C alima r egion i s a r adiocarbon d ate o f 7 350 B .C. + 1 00 ( Beta-18841) f rom t he s ite o f E l S auza lito, i n t he m unicipio o T D arien. T his i s f ollowed b y a p receram ic s tone i ndustry r ecent ly d iscovered b y H ector S algado ( 1986) a t E l P ital, o nly 5 k m d ownriver f rom t he C alima d am, a nd d ated 5 360 B .C. + 1 40 ( Beta-13348). A t E l P ital, a nd t hroughout t he C alima z one, t he T receramic i s f ollowed b y a c eramic s equence d ivided i nto t hree s tages : Hama ( f irst m illennium B .C.), Y otoco ( A .D. 1 00 - 1 200), a nd S onso ( A .D. 1 200 - 1 600). O f t hese, t he lama p eriod i s s t ill p oorly u nderstood. N o f ie ld s ystems c an b e a ttributed t o t his p hase a nd o nly o ne s ett lement s ite h as b een e xcavated b y t he P roject, a t E l T opacio o ver looking t he R io C a lima u pstream f rom t he l ake ( Cardale d e S chrimpff e t a l. 1 985). T his e xcavation p roduced e vidence f or f arming, i n t he f orm o f c arbonized m aize k erne ls ( identified b y E arle S mith). P resumably t he v illagers o f t he l ate p receramic a nd lama p eriods c ult ivated t he h illslopes i n w ays t hat h ave l eft n o t races. T he r e latively l ow p ercentage o f m aize p ollen a nd t he d ominance o f f orest s pecies s uggests a s mall p opulat ion ( or e lse a d iet l ow i n m aize) a nd p robably s ome k ind o f f arming, p erhaps s hift ing c u lt ivat ion, i n w hich m ost o f t he t erritory r emained f orested. T here i s s ome c onfirmat ion f or t his a t E l T opacio w here o ur s oil s tudies s uggested a g ood d eal o f w oodland c lose t o t he s ite ( Cardale d e S chrimpff e t a l. 1 985:36). T he m ajor e poch o f l andscape t ransformat ion ( w ith c onstruct ion o f d itched f ields, a r oad n etwork a nd m ost o f t he v isible h ouse p latforms) w as d uring t he Y otoco a nd S onso p eriods. I n t he d iscussion w hich f ollows, w e c onsider h i llslope f arming a nd w et land c ult ivat ion s eparate ly s ince t hey r equ ire d ifferent , i f c omplementary, t echnologies.

4 48

H ILLSLOPE C ULTIVATION T he S oils o f t he C a lima S lopes B edrock b elongs t o t he D iabase G roup, a s u ite o f C retaceous b asa lts, d oler ites a nd g abbros, i nterbedded i n p laces w ith m etasedimentary s ha les, s lates, c herts a nd s andstones ( Ne lson 1 957; B arrero-Lozano 1 979). T his b edrock i s d eeply w eathered a nd i s c overed b y a m ant le, s omet imes m ore t han 5 0 m t hick, o f m assive c layey a lterite a nd r edistributed s lope s ediment ( Fölster a nd v on C hristen 1 977; E idt 1 983a, 1 984:50). T hese w eather i nto r ed o r y e llow c layey m ater ia ls w hich a re a lmost i mpermeable a nd c ause d rainage p roblems w herever t hey c ome c lose t o t he s urface. I n g eneral, s oils d erived f rom t he D iabase G roup ( invariably m ixed w ith a p roport ion o f a sh) h ave p H v a lues b etween 4 a nd 6 , a re r easonably f ert ile, b ut a re p oorly d rained ( FEDECAFE 1 972:32). T he l ower t he a sh c ontent , t he w orse t he d rainage. W herever a c oncave b reak o f s lope r educes t he s peed o f s urface a nd s ubsurface r unoff , h ydromorphic f eatures d eve lop i n t he s urface s oil w ith t he f ormat ion o f ag rey P seudogley h orizon f rom 2 0 t o 1 20 c m i n d epth . O n s urfaces o f l ow r e lief, p ure a lterite m ater ia l m ay g ive r ise t o h ydromorphous m ott ling, t hough a dm ixture w ith a sh p revents t his ( Fö lster a nd v on C hristen 1 977:251). T he f ie ld s ystems e xcavated a t L oma L arga a nd a t C eildn i llustrate t hese c ondit ions, w ith m ott ling ( indicat ive o f s easonal w ater logging) b eginning w ithin 1 0 c m o f t he m odern g round s urface ( Fig. 5 ; B ray e t a l. 1 981). D uring t he Q uaternary p er iod t he s oils o f C a lima w ere e nr iched b y f a lls o f v olcanic a sh f rom t he C entra l C ordillera w ith m ajor e pisodes a round 3 3,000-26,000 B .P. a nd 1 0,000 B .P. ( Fö lster a nd v on C hristen 1 977). O ver m uch o f t he r egion t hese a shes f orm a y ellow ish l ayer s ome 2 0-200 c m t hick, a nd c onst itute a nother s ource o f p arent m ateria l. M ixed i n v arious p roportions w ith e xist ing p alaeosols a nd s lopewash, t hey i n t urn b ecome s oils i n t heir o wn r ight . T he s tudy c arried o ut b y A re va lo e t a l. ( 1983) i n t he Y otoco-Dari A-Restrepo t r iangle i ndicates t hat f i l i p redominant s oils t oday a re A lfisols ( 40%) a nd I ncept isols ( 30% ) ( USDA 1 975). B oth o f t hese s how t he i nf luence o f t he v olcanic a sh o n a n o ld l andscape w hose r eddish c layey s oils; d erived f rom t he D iabase, c an b e c lassif ied a s O x ic P a leusta lfs o r P a leudu lts w ith c at ion e xchange c apac it ies a l itt le a bove t he l imit f or O xisols. R ough ly h alf o f o ur t ota l a rea c onsists o f s oils d er ived f rom v olcanic a sh ( FEDECAFE 1 972), a nd t hese a re t he p referred s oils f or c ult ivat ion t oday. U nder n ormal c ondit ions t hey a re s ilty c lay bar ns w ith a h igh l evel o f o rganic m atter a nd p hosphorous, w ith p H v a lues i n t he 5 -6 r ange, a nd e xce llent p hysical c haracter ist ics a nd i nnate p roperties, i mproved s t ill f urther a s a r esu lt o f w orm a ctivity. T hese s oils h ave g ood i nternal d rainage, a s o ur o wn o bservat ions c onfirm ( F ig. 5 ). T he F EDECAFE s urvey n otes t hat v olcanic s oils h ave a h igh s tructural s tability a nd a re r esistant t o e rosion. O n t he s lopes t he s oil l ayer i s r are ly m uch m ore t han 5 0 c m t hick . A rchaeological m ateria ls a re f ound t hroughout i t , r ight d own t o t he t op o f t he a sh ( Fig. 5 ). A t est p it i n t he b ottom o f a s ma ll

4 49

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4 51

d ry v alley, w here t he s trat igraphy w as l ess c ompressed, s howed t hat a f orest s oil w ith t ree r oots h ad d eveloped o n t op o f t he a sh, w ith s ome e vidence f or c learance a ssociated w ith Y otoco s herds i n t he u pper p art o f t he s tratum . A bove t his w as 5 5 c m o f d eposit f ormed f rom m inor a sh f alls w ith s lopewash, a nd c ontaining Y otoco a nd t hen S onso s herds. T hese l evels s eem t o r epresent a p eriod o f r e lat ive s tability w ith s oils o f f airly a dvanced d evelopment . T he t op o f t his s tratum w as a s table l and s urface w hich m ight e quate w ith a b reak i n a sh d eposit ion a nd e rosion. T he u ppermost 4 0 c m c onsist o f m ateria ls d eposited d uring a t ime o f s evere s lopewash w ith m inor a sh f alls. A s i n o ur o ther p rofiles, a sh d eposit ion w as v irtually c ontinuous, b ut d uring t he t ime o f a rchaeo logical o ccupation t here w as n o m assive a sh f all o f t he k ind t hat m ay h ave m ade p arts o f n orthern E cuador u ninhabitable d uring t he c enturies a fter 5 00 B .C. ( Lathrap e t a l. 1 984). A t E l T opacio, w here r adiocarbon d ates o f 7 20 + 1 00 B . rgeta-14809) a nd 1 60 + 1 00 B .C. ( Beta-9858) s pan s ome 5 0 c i r o f lama o ccupat ion, t here w ag- e vidence o f a lmost c ont inuous a sh f all, b ut n ever s evere e nough t o c ause a bandonment o f t he lama s ett lement ( Cardale d e S chrimpff e t a l. 1 985:36). T he s uggest ion b y L athrap e t a l. ( 1984) t hat t he e nt ire r egion f rom s outh o f Q uito t o t he l ower riuca V alley s uffered a p eriod o f t raumat ic v olcanic a ctivity b etween 6 00 B .C. a nd A .D. 1 i s n ot s upported i n o ur s urvey a rea. N ot a ll t he a sh-derived s oils a re f ree-draining. I n t he d rier, s emi-arid p arts o f t he r egion w e h ave b een a ble t o r ecognize e pisodes o f d uripan f ormat ion o f t he k ind d escribed b y E lberson a nd N ieuwenhuis ( 1975). S ilica f rom t he w eathered a sh i s c arried d ownwards, c ementing t he A 2 h orizon o f t he s oil u nderneath a nd f orming a h ard, i mpermeable s tratum . I n t hese c ondit ions p ercolat ion i s m inimal, a nd i n r ecent t imes s heetwash h as s coured a way a ll s oils a bove t he d uripan, c ausing p roblems o f g u llying a nd e rosion. T hese a reas w ere c u lt ivated d uring t he P rehispanic p eriod b ut a re n owadays u sed o nly f or p asture. I t i s t he r elat ive p roport ions o f a lterite, v olcanic a sh a nd m ixed/weathered s lope s ediments t hat d etermine t he s oil c over i n t he s ubmontane z one o f C alima ( Fölster a nd v on C hristen 1 977:251). S oil c haracterist ics a re a lso a ffected b y h um idity, s lope, e rosional h istory, d rainage a nd o ther f actors, a nd i n c onsequence t he d istribution o f p resent s oil t ypes f orms a c omp lex m osaic p attern, w ith c onsiderable m icrovariability ( see A revalo e t a l. 1 983 f or a p relim inary m ap). T wo r epresentative s oil p rofiles, o ne f rom t he h um id-subhumid s lopes a nd t he o ther f rom a d ry a rea, a re g iven i n A ppendix 1 . T he A rchaeological E vidence f or H illslope C u lt ivat ion H illslopes a ccount f or m ost o f t he c u lt ivable l and i n C a lima, a nd t heir c ontribut ion t o P rehispanic s ubsistence m ust h ave f ar o utweighed t hat o f t he s mall p atches o f w et land. A gricultural t erracing i s a bsent a nd i rrigat ion u nnecessary; i nstead, t he m ost c ommon v est iges a re w hat w e h ave c alled " f ield l ines" - s traight o r s light ly s inuous d itches r unning d irect ly d ownslope o n t he e nds a nd s ides o f r idges. T he l ength o f t he d itches i s d etermined b y t opography. S ome l ines a re n o m ore t han 2 0 o r 3 0 m l ong; o thers r un w ell o ver 2 00 m . T he 4 52

d istance b etween t he c hanne ls i s a lso v ar iable. I n e xcept iona l c ases i t m ay b e a s l itt le a s 3 o r 4m ; m ore o ften i t f a lls i n t he 1 0-30 m r ange, b ut d istances o f 1 00 m o r m ore a re n ot u nusual. P a limpsests o ccur, b ut n ot f requent ly, a nd t he o vera ll i mpression i s o f at ota lly o rganized a nd r ather s table a gricu ltura l l andscape, w ith f ie ld p lots d e lim ited b y d itches. T he e xcavated l ines c onsist o f w ide, s hallow d itches, r ounded o r V -shaped a t t he b ase, a nd w ith g ent ly s loping s ides ( Fig. 4 ). T h is p rof ile m ay o we m ore t o e rosion, e spec ia lly i n f riable a shy s oils, t han t o t he i ntent ions o f P rehispanic f armers. T he o r igina l p rof ile w as p robably n arrower, s teeper-s ided, a nd d eeper t han t he p resent d rawings s uggest . M easuring f rom t he b ase o f t he m odern r oot c ap i n t he f lat a rea b etween t he l ines, d istances f rom t he g round s urface t o t he d itch b ottom i n o ur s amp le r ange f rom 4 0 c m t o o ver 1 m . T hree o f t hese f ie ld l ines h ave b een d ated. A t L a A lsac ia a d itch w as c ut a cross a n a bandoned Y otoco h ouse p latform a nd t he l ine m ust t herefore b elong w ithin t he l ater p art o f t he Y otoco p eriod o r t he s ubsequent S onso p hase ( Bray e t a l. 1 981:15). A t E l B illar ( La S u iza) u neroded S onso s herds w ere -T ound a t t he b ottom o f a d itch i n t he p rimary f i ll ( Bray e t a l. 1 983). F inally, e xcavat ion o f ad itch a djacent t o a s mall h ouse TT atform a t C eildn ( F ig. 6 ) p roduced a f ew n ondescript s herds f rom t he b ase o f t he f i ll, o ne o f w hich g ave a t hermolum inescence ( TL) d ate o f A .D. 1 440 + 7 0 ( A lpha-1740). C harcoa l f rom a g u lly a long t he b ack w all o f t h e -l ouse p latform g ave a C -14 d ate o f A .D. 1 520 + 1 20 ( Beta-11805), p lacing b oth t he h ouse s ite a nd t he d itch f irm ly w i thin t he S onso p er iod. I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t hree d itches m akes o n ly a v ery s mall s amp le. W e h ave d emonstrated t hat s ome d itches b elong t o t he S onso p eriod b ut w e c annot r u le o ut t he p ossibility t hat o thers w ere c onstructed b y t he Y otoco p eople. T he e xist ing s oils o f t he h i llslopes h ave s uffered a t l east f our c enturies o f a ttrit ion a nd m od if icat ion s ince t he C onquest . Ab etter i mpression o f a borigina l c ondit ions c an b e g ained f rom p a laeosols ( o ld l and s urfaces) s ea led b y d atable c onstruct ion f ill. S oils o f t9s k ind w ere d iscovered b eneath t he f i lls o f P latforms 1 a nd 4 a t t he H acienda E l D orado ( for l ocalit ies s ee F ig. 7 ). T hese f i lls a re o f S onso a ge. A na lyses s howed t hat t he b uried s oils a re a nthropic, h ad b een t horough ly m ixed, a nd w ere c lear ly c u lt ivat ion s urfaces. S ome s trata s uggested f airly i ntensive c u lt ivat ion, t hough o ur t renches w ere t oo s ma ll t o g ive a ny i nformat ion a bout t he n ature o f t he f ie lds. T hese s oils w ere f ert ile, t hough v ery a cid, w ith h igh e xchange c apacity, h igh s um o f b ases, a verage s aturat ion o f b ases, a nd o rganic c arbon a t n ormal a gricu ltura l l evels. A vailable p hosphorus, o n t he o ther h and, w as l ow , a nd a ny i ntensive u se o f t hese s oils w ou ld h ave r equ ired f ert ilizer. F ull d escript ions a re p ublished e lsewhere ( Bray e t a l. 1 985:13-18; B otero 1 985). T he f unct ion o f t he f ie ld l ines r emains a n e nigma. T hey w ere u ndoubtedly c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith a griculture a nd s eem t o d e lim it z ones o f c u lt ivat ion. I n s ome c ases, d ownslope s oil m ovement h as l ed t o t he f ormat ion o f h orizonta l c ross b anks o r " negat ive l ynchets" a t t he u pper b oundary o f i ndividual p lots. W here a g roup o f v ert ica l

4 53

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s trip f ields s hare t he s ame c ross b ank (s ) i t i s l ike ly t hat a ll c omponents w ere i n u se a t t he s ame t ime a nd c onst itute a s ingle " p ropert y" . S everal o f t hese c an b e s een i n B ray e t a l. ( 1981:Fig. 2 0), a nd t he L oma L arga a nd B illar g roups a re o f f Ei s t ype ( Bray e t a l. 1 981:Fig. 2 3; 1 983: F ig. 7 ). T hese f eatures a re n either " raised f ie lds" n or " r idged f ie lds". I n r are c ases, w hen t he d itches a re o n ly a f ew m etres a part , t hey r esemble c lassical c ame llones, a nd e nough e arth m ay h ave b een r emoved f rom t he d itches s ignificant ly t o r aise t he h eight o f t he p lots b etween t hem. T he t wo e xcavated e xamp les o f t his k ind ( Ce ilän a nd L oma L arga) w ere i n a reas o f g ent le s lope a nd h eavy g leyed s oils, w here w ater logging i s a p roblem. N orma lly h owever, t he d istance b etween t he d itches i s s o g reat t hat t his a rgument d oes n ot a pp ly a nd t he p lant ing s urface i s e ssent ia lly a n u nmod if ied p iece o f h i lls lope. T hree

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l ines • 1 . D rainage. S ome o f t he d itches a re o n h eavy s oils d er ived f rom a lterite w here m ott ling i ndicates a p erched w ater t able j ust b e low t he s urface, w ith s easonal w ater logging. O n t he o ther h and, d it ches a re j ust a s f requent o n w e ll-drained v olcanic s o ils, w here t hey t erminate i n t he a sh s tratum w e ll a bove t he c lay ( Fig. 4 ). O ur s urvey s hows t hat l inear d itches o ccur e verywhere, o n a ll t ypes o f s o il a nd a ll k inds o f s lopes, f rom o nly a f ew d egrees t o o ver 5 0 °. I t m ay b e, a s E idt ( 1983b; 1 984) s uggests, t hat t here i s a s tat ist ical c orre lat ion b etween d epth a nd s pacing o f d itches a nd n atura l f actors s uch a s a ngle o f s lope a nd d istance o f t he i mpermeable c lay b elow g round s urface. I f s o, t his r e lat ionship s t ill e ludes u s . 2 . P revent ion o f m ass m ovement a nd l and s lips. B otero ( 1983) h as c ommented t hat t he v ol T aT i c a sh s oils a re v ery s table a nd r esistant t o s uperficia l w ater e rosion, t hough v u lnerable t o m ass m ovement a nd s lump ing. T he a sh l ayer i s v ery p ermeable a nd h as g reat c apac ity f or w ater r etent ion, b ut i t r ests u nconformably o n i mpermeable c lay. A fter h eavy t ropical r ains t he s upersaturated a sh s lips o ff t he s urface o f t he c lay i n ac atastrophic s lump . T he p resence o f d itches, B otero a rgues, i s d esigned t o p revent t he w ater logging o f t he a sh l ayer, a nd t hus t o r educe t he r isk o f m ass m ovement . E ffect iveness f s h ard t o g auge. L and s l ips d o o ccur i n f ormer d itched a reas b ut i t i s o ften d ifficult t o s ay w hether t he d amage h appened w hen t he d itches w ere s t ill o perat iona l o r a fter t heir s ilt ing a nd a bandonment . 3 . P roperty B oundaries. I t i s c onceivable t hat t he f ie ld l ines a re nahing m ore t han a nc ient p roperty b oundaries i n w hich t he d itches s eparate o ne c u lt ivat ion p lot o r p ersonal h o lding f rom a nother. T he r ayas o f e ar ly s eventeenth c entury E cuador ( Caillavet 1 983) s eem t o c onsist o f s trip f ie lds s eparated b y s ome k ind o f v isible b oundary, a nd s omething s imilar c an b e s een a mong t he p resent d ay G uambiano I ndians, t radit iona l c u lt ivators w ho l ive n ear t he t own o f S ilvia, i n t he d epartment o f C auca. T heir p roperty l ines r un d irect ly d ownslope a nd t heir p otato f ie lds w ere i n f ormer t imes d elimited b y d itches " as d eep a s a m an 's s houlder" ( Maria C rist ina M oreno a nd L inda C heetham, p ers. c omm .). U nt il r ecent ly, t oo, t he G uambianos u sed m ounded c ult ivat ion s trips s eparated b y d rainage c ana ls. T he w ord r aya a lso o ccurs i n e arly d ocuments f rom G uambia a nd e lsewhere i n t he D epartment

4 56

o f C auca c omm .).

w ith r eference

t o

h i llslope

c u lt ivat ion

( David E arle,

p ers.

C omparisons f or t he C alima F ield L ines P arallel d ownslope d itches a re c haracterist ic o f p re-European a gricu lture t hroughout t he C olombian c offee b e lt . B ruhns ( 1981) n otes t hat i n t he Q u indio a nd i n R isara lda ( the Q u imbaya a rchaeo logica l r egion) t hese f ie lds c over l arge t racts o f a shy s oil i n t he t ierra t emp lada, a nd s eem t o b e a ssoc iated w ith v illages o f t he M idd le C auca p hase, A .D. 8 00-1200. I n c ontrast t o o ur C a lima d itches, t hose o f t he Q u indio d elimit s trips a bout 1 m w ide, w hich m ay r easonably b e c a lled " r idged f ie lds". B ruhns s uggests t hey w ere m ain ly f or r oot c rops , t hough t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his. F urther s outh, S a lgado ( 198y) h as t ested a g roup o f d itches a t L a L lanada i n t he m unicipio o f B o livar a t a n a lt itude o f 1 ,500 m . T hese d itches a re g enerally 3 - 6 m a part b ut i n s ome i nstances a re s eparated b y a d istance o f 1 3 - 1 5 m . T heir a ge i s u ncertain b ut p robably f a lls w ithin t he m illennium b efore t he C onquest . S a lgado ( 1982:61) s uggests t hat t he c hanne ls w ere u sed f or c arrying a way s urface w ater, a nd h e a rgues f or a s em i-intensive f arm ing s ystem s ince t here i s n o s ign o f ad ark s oil r esu lt ing f rom t he m anuring t hat w ou ld h ave b een n ecessary t o m aintain f ert ility. H e b elieves, t oo, t hat t he d egree o f e rosion i s l ess t han w ou ld b e p redicted f or i ntensive c ult ivat ion. V ert ical f ie ld l ines h ave a lso b een r ecorded i n t he C olombian M ac izo. T he l andscape o f t he S an A gustin a rea ( Reiche l-Dolmatoff 1 972:Fig.9) l ooks v ery l ike o urs, a nd a f ew s imilar l ines c an b e o bserved a round S an A ndres d e P isimbalg i n t he T ierradentro r egion. T hese f eatures o ccur a lso a t s evera l l ocalit ies i n t he V a lley o f L a P lata, r ough ly m idway b etween S an A gustin a nd T ierradentro a t a lt itudes b etween 6 00 a nd 2 ,000 m ( Lu isa F ernanda H errera, p ers. c omm .). M ore r ecent ly , v ert ical d itches h ave b een d iscovered i n a d ifferent k ind o f e nvironment , t he z one o f m aize c u lt ivat ion a t 2 ,450-3,000 m i n n orthern E cuador ( Preston 1 984; K napp a nd P restoh, t his v ol.). T hese d itches o ccur i n z ones w ith r ainfa ll a gricu lture, c lay s oils, a nd s lopes b etween 1 0 p ercent a nd 4 0 p ercent . T he E cuadorian s oils a re d escribed a s r esistant t o e rosion, w ith s ubsurface m ott ling a t s ome l ocalit ies. T he a djacent v illage s ites b e long t o t he l ate P rehispanic p er iod, t hough G ondard ( 1985) s uggests t hat m ost o f t he d itches m ay b e s ealed b y l ayers o f v o lcanic a sh d eposited s poradically b etween 1 500 B .C. a nd A .D. 3 00 - 4 00. G ondard b e lieves i t w as t he m ost r ecent o f t hese f alls w hich s ea led t he d itches, i n w hich c ase t hese f eatures p robably b elong t o t he e arly c enturies A .D. K napp a nd P reston 's p aper ( this v ol.) b rings o ut t he s imilarity i n f orm ( and i n p resumed f unct ion) b etween t he C o lombian a nd E cuador ian l ines. T hese c lose s im ilarit ies, p lus t he c onnect ions h inted a t i n t he d ocumentary e vidence, s uggest t hat t here i s a d ist inct N orth A ndean t radit ion o f r ainfa ll f arming o n h i llslopes ( w ith f ield d itches r ather t han i rrigat ion t erraces) w hich i s d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he C entra l A ndes. 4 57

W ETLAND F ARMING I N T HE V ALLEY O F E L D ORADO T he v a lley o f E l D orado i s a t 1 ,500 m a bove s ea l evel, d rained b y t he Q uebrada A guamona w hich e ventually f lows i nto t he R io D agua. T he n eck o f t he v a lley i s l itt le m ore t han 2 0 m w ide, a nd i s t herefore v ulnerable t o b lockage b y l andslips. T he v alley b ottom i s c overed w ith a p alimpsest o f d itches a nd f ie lds o f v arious a ges ( Fig. 7 ) a nd i s s urrounded b y h ills w ith P rehispanic h ouse t erraces, c emeteries a nd f ield l ines. T he b ottomland i s c att le p asture t oday. O ur i nformants r ecalled o n ly o ne a ttempt t o g row m aize o n t he v a lley f loor, a nd t his w as a f ailure. M odern D rainage S ystems C ondit ions i n t he v alley b ottom o scillate a ccording t o t he s easons, w ith s tanding w ater i n t he w et m onths ( April-May a nd O ctober-November) a nd d ry c ondit ions a t o ther t imes. T he d rainage p roblems h ave t wo m ain c auses: ( a) t he h igh w ater t able, w hich e ven i n t he d ry s eason m ay b e w ithin 5 0-80 c m o f t he s urface, a nd ( b ) a t hick l ayer o f i mpermeable c lay, d eposited i n t he b ed o f af ormer l ake w hich u nderlies t he s oils o f t he v alley b ottom a nd i mpedes i nterna l d rainage. T he v a lley f loor i tself i s a lmost f lat , w ith a f a ll o f o nly f ive p ercent f rom t he h ead o f t he h ighest m odern d itch t o t he Q uebrada. T he p resent d ay d itches g ive s ome i dea o f h ow P rehispanic f armers c oped w ith t hese s ame p roblems. T he a ct ive d itches o f t oday a re d esigned t o d eal w ith s ubsurface w ater r ather t han s urface r unoff . E ven i n t he u nusually d ry s ummer o f 1 982, a fter a t l east t wo m onths w ithout r ain, w ater w as s t ill f low ing i nto t he v alley a nd f eeding a s eries o f s ma ll b ut p ermanent b ogs a t t he b reak o f s lope w here t he h ills m eet t he v alley s ediments. I t w as t hese l ocalit ies t hat p rovided o ur t wo 5 m p ollen c ores. Ad endrit ic s ystem o f s ma ll f eeder c hannels c arries w ater f rom t hese v alley-edge b ogs i nto t he l arger d itches ( themselves o ften r e-cut a ncient o nes), a nd t hese i n t urn c onnect w ith t he Q uebrada A guamona. I n 1 982, w ater w as s t ill f low ing f ast e nough t o b e h eard i n t he p art ly-silted f eeder d itches o n ly 5 0 m i n f rom t he v alley e dge. T he m ajor d itches a re n arrow a nd d eep, c ut w ell i nto t he c lay s o a s t o r each t he w ater t able, i n p laces s ome /1 .5 m b elow t he s urface i n t he d riest m onths. I n s uch l ocalit ies, e nough w ater f lows l atera lly f rom t he c lay b anks o f t he d itches t o c ause s ilt t urbulence. T hese d itches a lso h ave s chools o f s mall f ish u p t o 1 0 c m l ong. T he m ain p urpose o f t he c ontemporary d itch s ystem i s t herefore t o i mprove t he f low o f g roundwater t hrough t he v alley a nd k eep t he w ater t able a s l ow a s p ossible. D itches a nd R aised F ie lds o f t he Y otoco P eriod M ost o f o ur e xcavat ions w ere c lose t o t he v alley e dge i n l ands b elonging t o t he H acienda E l D orado ( Fig. 7 ). I n t his a rea i mpressively l arge p latforms r ise i n a s eries o f s teps o n t he s lopes o verlooking t he f arm land o f t he v alley f loor. T he m ajor e poch o f p latform c onstruct ion w as t he S onso p eriod b ut t here i s e vidence f or Y otoco o ccupat ion s ealed b eneath t he S onso c onstruction f ill.

4 58

T here a re t wo k inds o f P rehispanic f ie lds o n t he v alley f loor: ( a) r ectangu lar a reas d elimited b y w ide d itches m arked b y r ushes a nd g reener v egetat ion, a nd ( b) a s eries o f a lmost o bliterated r aised f ie lds ( came llones o r e ras) e xtending o ver m ost o f t he v alley b ottom. T hese e ras a re a rranged i n g roups o riented i n d ifferent d irections, n ot i n t he c lassical c heckerboard p attern, b ut r ather s o t hat t he c hanne ls b etween t hem a re a t r ight a ngles t o m ajor c ana ls. F our r idges a nd t hree d itched p latforms w ere s ect ioned, a nd t he s trata b elow t he c ultural l evel w ere a ugered i n o rder t o s tudy t he h istory o f s edimentat ion a nd t o c orre late t his w ith t he i nformat ion f rom o ur p ollen c ores. T he s ame b asic s trat ificat ion w as f ound e verywhere i n t his c orner o f t he v alley ( Figs. 9 a nd 1 0). F or p resent p urposes o ur s tory b egins w hen t he v alley w as b locked, p robably b y a l andslip, c onverting t he f orested v alley f loor i nto a l ake. T his e pisode i s r epresented b y S tratum 4 i n F igures 9 a nd 1 0, a g rey l acustrine c lay. T he l ake e ventually d ried o ut i nto a s wamp o n w hich a s oil d eveloped ( Stratum 3 ). A t t his p oint , s omet ime i n t he Y otoco p eriod, t he v alley f loor b ecame a vailable f or c u lt ivat ion a nd t he f irst d rainage w orks w ere c onstructed. S tratum 2 h as a ll t he c haracterist ics o f a f ormer c ultivat ion s oil. S tratum 1 i s p ost-Hispanic, w ith a c oncentrat ion o f c harcoal a t t he b ase o f t he r oot l ayer m arking t he r e-clearance o f t he v alley f or p asture i n t he t went ieth c entury. D etailed s oil d escript ions o f t hese f our s trata a re g iven i n A ppendix 2 . T he D itches T he P rehispanic d itches ( Fig. 1 0) a re t he f unctional a na logues o f t he m odern o nes, r eaching t o t he d ry s eason w ater t able a nd d esigned p rimarily t o d eal w ith s ubsurface w ater. L ike t heir p resent d ay e qu ivalents, t hey m ust h ave c ontained w ater t hroughout t he y ear a nd r equ ired p eriodic c leaning t o r emove v egetat ion a nd s ilt. R e-cutt ing o f d itches o ccurred i n t he p ast a s i t d oes t oday. T he m ateria l c leaned o ut f rom t he d itches w as n ot e nough t o s ignificant ly r aise t he p lant ing s urface, b ut w ould h ave p rovided a m u lch r ich i n o rganic m atter, p hosphorus, p otassium a nd a mmonium n itrate ( Puleston 1 977). D arch ( 1983:81) c omments t hat t he p eriodfc m ucking a nd f looding o f t he s oils m inera lizes o rganic p hosphorus i nto t he a vailable f orm, a nd t hat t he h ighest r ates o f n itrificat ion o ccur w hen a h igh c arbon-nitrogen m ulch o f p lant m ateria l i s a dded t o t he f looded s oil. A s imilar s tudy o f r aised f ie lds i n t he E cuadorian h igh lands d emonstrated t hat a vailable p hosphorus d eclines r apidly w ith r epeated c u ltivat ion b ut t hat r ejuvenat ion w ith d itch m anure c an m ore t han d ouble t he m aize a nd p otato y ie lds ( Knapp a nd D enevan 1 985; K napp 1 984). M easurements o f s oil p hosphate f ract ions a nd t ota l p hosphate f rom t wo o f o ur s ites a re g iven i n A ppendix 3 . A ll t he d iagnost ic s herds f rom t hese d itches b elong t o p eriod a nd t his a ge i s c onfirmed b y as eries o f r adiocarbon D itch 4 ( Fig. 1 0): A .D. 1 00 + 3 20 ( Beta-9758), A .D. 7 90 9760) a nd A .D. 1 020 + 8 0 ( Bela-9759). T he s amp les w ere a nd t he d ates d o n ot Eke o ut i n t heir r ight s trat igraphic a ll t hese m easurements f all w ithin t he Y otoco t imespan.

4 59

t he Y otoco d ates f rom + 6 0 ( Beta V ery s mall o rder, b ut

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•

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0 . , 0 " C I 0 : $ 5 . 0 C : 2 1

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0 Clay loa m. Yotoco cultivation soil (era) 0 Pre-era land surface. Dried-out swa mp 0 Grey clay. Lake 0 Clay with organic. Transition,forest to 0 Dark organic. Forest 0 Organic with sand

F igure 9 .

P o l len & p hyto l ith c o lu mn • So i l s a mp le

swa mp

• Sherd s e ‘ Charcoa l

S ect ions t hrough c ame llones, E l D orado. t hese t renches s ee F igure 7 .

4 61

F or l ocat ion o f

D itch 3

Wa ter t ab le

L acustr ine a nd swa mp c lays

• Sherd

So i l , s o me v ege ta t ion a nd c harcoa l I mproved d ra inage

( 2 ) B ro wn s o i l , u nd iagnost ic s he rds

0 Grey bro wn clayey. Yotoco cultivation 0 Land surface, dried-out swa mp 0 Grey lacustrine clay

L acustr ine c lay

F orest s o i ls , t ree t runks

D itch 4

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Water t ab le

A

F igure 1 0.

D itch s ections, s ee F igure 7 .

E l D orado.

4 62

F or l ocation o f t hese t renches

T he R aised F ields T hese f ollow t he u sual p attern o f l ong, p arallel r idges s eparated b y s hallow c hanne ls. W idth v aries b ut i s n ever v ery g reat . T he e ra e xcavated i n 1 981 w as j ust o ver 4 m w ide ( Fig. 8 ); t he o thers, i n -t F e a rea m apped i n F igure 7 , a re n arrower, a bout 2 m a cross, w ith a w ave length, c rest t o c rest , o f 3 t o 4m ( F ig. 9 ). T he r ise f rom t he d itch b ottom t o t he t op o f t he f ormer c ult ivat ion s oil ( Stratum 2 ) i s b etween 2 0 a nd 4 0 c m, t hough m ay o nce h ave b een g reater. T he d itches a re s ha llow, r eaching o n ly t o t he s urface o f t he c lay ( Stratum 4 ) o r s topping s hort o f t his - a l ogical d ec ision i f t he a im w as t o c ollect m ateria l f or a w ell a ereated a nd f ree-draining f ie ld. B ecause o f b unch g rass a nd c att le d amage i t w as i mpossible t o c alculate t he f a ll o f t he d itches, b ut i t w as c learly n ot s teep. F or s oil d escript ion s ee A ppendix 2 . T he s oil r emoved f rom t he d itches w as p iled o ver t he o ld g round s urface ( Stratum 3 ) t o p roduce t he f amiliar s eries o f r idges. M ott ling, i ndicat ive o f a lternate w aterlogging a nd d rying o ut, e xtends t o w ithin a f ew c ent imetres o f t he p resent d ay s urface, b ut t he g reater d epth o f t he s oil o n t he r idge m eans t hat t he p lant ing s urface d ries o ut s ooner a nd r emains d ry l onger t han t he u nmodified v a lley f loor. T he d itches d o n ot r each t he p resent d ay d ry s eason w ater t able t hough t here i s e vidence t hat t his m ay h ave b een h igher d uring t he Y otoco p eriod ( see b elow ). H ow m uch h igher i s s t ill u ncertain, a nd i t i s t herefore d ifficult t o c alcu late t he r o le o f t he d itches i n c ontrolling g round w ater l evels, r ather t han s imp ly a iding s urface r unoff. I f t he d itches w ere a llowed t o s ilt u p a fter s erving t heir p urposes a s q uarries f or t he f ie ld r idges, t hey c ould h ave f unct ioned a s h umidity t raps d uring t he d ry s eason a s t hey d o t oday. T his r aises t he p ossiblity o f d ifferent c rops, o r d ifferent c ropping s chedu les, o n r idges a nd i n d itches. S o f ar, t his p roposit ion r emains u ntested. T he c u lt ivat ion s oil o f t he r aised f ields c ontains Y otoco s herds, a nd a C -14 d ate o f A .D. 7 80 + 5 0 ( Beta-9755) w as o btained f rom a c oncentration o f c harcoal, a ppi i.e nt ly i n s itu, a t t he b ase o f t his s tratum i n E ra 3 ( Fig. 9 ). T he f act t hat t he d itched a reas a nd t he c amellones a re o f t ie s ame, Y otoco, a rchaeological p eriod r aises t he q uest ion o f t he r e lationship b etween t hem. O n t he g round i t i s n ot c lear w hether t he d itches c ut t hrough e xist ing r idges o r w hether t he c amellones c ont inue a cross s ilted a nd a bandoned d itches. A t o ne l ocality, D itch 4 ( Fig. 1 0), e xcavation p roved t hat t wo c onsecut ive Y otoco d itches w ere s ea led b y a Y otoco r aised f ie ld. W ithout f urther i nvest igat ions w e c annot s ay w hether t his r e lat ionship h olds g ood f or a ll p arts o f t he v alley. A nother p rob lem i s t o r econstruct t he c rop c omp lexes g rown o n t hese a ncient f ields. I ndigenous c rops i n C a lima t oday a re m aize, b eans, s quashes, s weet m anioc, a rracacha ( Arracacia x anthorrhiza), s weet p otato, p ineapple, c hili p eppers, a vocado, a nd a w ide v ariety o f f ruits. A ccording t o l ocal i nformants, A ndean p otatos a nd c otton c an b e g rown b ut d o b etter a t o ther a lt itudes. C oca t oo i s a l ikely P rehispanic c ult igen t hough i t i s n ot g rown t oday, a nd m afafa ( Xanthosoma s pp.) i s a lso w e ll s u ited t o m oist c ondit ions. M ost o f t hese c rops p roduce l itt le o r n o i dent ifiable p ollen, a nd o nly m aize a nd s quashes g ive i dent ifiable p hytoliths. 4 63

O n t he b asis o f h is p hosphate f ractionat ion f igures, E idt ( 1983b, 1 984) s uggests m aize a nd y uca f or t he h i lls lope p lots, a nd E arle S m ith ( pers. c omm .) h as i dent ified m aize, t wo v ariet ies o f c ommon b ean, a nd f ragments o f s ome o ther l egume a mong t he c arbonized p lant m ateria l f rom Y otoco h ouse p latforms. T here i s a lso a Y otoco v esse l m odelled i n t he s hape o f a n a rracacha t uber. P ollen f rom o ur w et land f ie lds h as y et t o b e a nalysed, b ut P iperno ( 1985) h as e xtracted m aize p hytoliths f rom t he p rehispanic c u lt ivat ion s oil ( Stratum 2 ) a t D itch 2 a nd E ra 3 . U nlike p ollen g rains, p hytoliths a re n ot u sually c arr ied l ong d istances b y w ind, a nd t he u biqu itous p resence o f m aize p hytoliths i ndicates t hat t his w as a m ajor c rop o n t he d rained f ie lds, t hough o ther s pecies c annot b e r uled o ut . T he Y otoco-Sonso T ransit ion T he d ividing l ine b etween t he Y otoco a nd S onso p eriods, w ith t heir v ery d ifferent p ottery s tyles, i s f ixed b y m u lt ip le r adiocarbon d ates a t a round A .D. 1 200. N one o f t he c ame llones h as y et p roduced S onso p ottery a nd, o n p resent e vidence, t hese f ie lds w ere a bandoned b efore t he s tart o f t he S onso p eriod . T he p ollen d iagrams ( Figs. 2 a nd 3 ) s how t hat A .D. 1 200 c o inc ides w ith a c older a nd d rier e pisode ( our Z one 5 B ) w hich h as b een r ecognized a ll o ver C olombia, f rom t he L aguna d e H errera a t 2 ,550 m t o t he M agdalena v a lley a t o nly 2 0 m a bove s ea l evel ( W ijmstra 1 967). T he s ame p henomenon h as r ecent ly b een i dent ified i n t he l ower S an J orge b asin a nd t here, t oo, i t c o incides w ith t he a bandonment o f t he d rained f ie lds ( P lazas a nd F a lchett i 1 986). O ne g enera l c haracterist ic o f t his d ry i nter lude i s al ower ing o f t he w ater t able, a nd a t E l D orado t his m ay h ave r endered t he c ame llones u nworkable. O ur d iagrams s how o ther e vidence f or a c hanged w ater r egime i n E l D orado a t j ust t his t ime. B otriococus a nd o ther a quat ic a lgae s udden ly b ecome a bundant d uring t he Y otoco p eriod ( an i ndicat ion o f o pen w ater ) a nd t hen d isappear, n ever t o r eturn, w ith t he o nset o f t he d ry p er iod a round A .D. 1 200. F rom t his t ime o nward, t he m ain f ocus o f a gricultural a ct ivity s eems t o h ave b een t he h i llslopes a nd t he v a lley e dge. I t i s p recisely h ere, j ust a t t he b ase o f t he h i llslope, t hat w e h ave t he o n ly d rainage w orks s o f ar d atable t o t he S onso p eriod. D rainage D itches o f t he S onso P eriod ( E l D orado D itch 1 ) T his g roup o f d itches l ies o n t he v ery e dge o f t he b ottom land, d irect ly a cross t he v a lley f rom t he s ites d iscussed a bove ( F ig. 1). H abitat ion d ebris, S onso w ith s ome Y otoco, i s p resent a ll o ver t he a djacent s lopes t o t he e ast a nd s outh o f t he d itches a nd i n t he 1 984 e xcavat ion t rench. T he m argin o f t he c lay s tratum, r epresent ing t he m aximum e xtent o f f ormer l ake f looding, c uts a cross t he w estern e nd o f t his t rench. T he d itches d efine a r ough ly q uadrangu lar a rea w ith a n e x it c hanne l l eading i nto a m ajor p resent d ay c ana l ( itse lf p robably a r e-cut a ncient d itch). T he f ie ld s urfaces b etween t he a ncient d itches a re l evel, w ith n o e vidence o f m ounding. C ame llones a re v isible o n t he v alley f loor t o t he w est o f t he m odern d itch, b ut a re a bsent f rom t he e astern s ide.

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( forest - l ake a nd s wamp - h uman o ccupat ion s oils), b ut i s a lso i nf luenced b y e pisodes o f s lopewash f rom t he a djacent h i llsides. T he t ypica l h i llslope s trat igraphy ( a lterite - a sh - o ccupat ion s oils) b egins a t t he e astern e nd o f t he 1 984 t rench . T he p hosphate a na lyses b y R obert E idt a re g iven i n A ppendix 3 , a nd t he p hytolith d ata a re s ummarised f rom a m ore e xtensive r eport b y D olores P iperno ( 1985). S trata 1 0-6 h ave a c omp lex m icrostrat ificat ion b ut a re d ominated b y Q uaternary f orest s oils i nterspersed w ith a shes a nd s lopewash . P hytolith s pectra i ndicate a n u ndisturbed h umid t ropica l f orest i n t he l ower p art o f S tratum 7 , w ith a c hange t o m ore s wampy c ond it ions n ear t he t op. S tratum 5 i s p redom inant ly v olcanic a sh, p orous, h igh i n p hosphorus b ut r e lat ive ly l ow i n o rganic m atter. T he a dm ixture o f s ilts a nd s and i ndicates c ont inuous d eposit ion r ather t han a s ingle t raumat ic e vent . T here i s a C -14 d ate o f 2 1,800 + 2 80 B .C. ( Beta-9756) f rom S tratum 6 , a t t he l ower i nterface o f f E e a sh , a nd a nother o f 2 3,350 + 5 00 B .C. ( Beta-9757) f rom t he u pper s urface o f t he a sh . T hese c o Fe late r easonably w e ll w ith t he d ate f or t he p enultimate a sh f alls r ecognized b y F ö lster a nd v on C hristen ( 1977). S tratum 4 /2 i s a s t icky s i lty c lay C h orizon, p H 5 .1, f ormed u nder c ondit ions o f p oor d rainage. S trat igraphically i t c orresponds w ith t he l ake a nd s wamp c lay i n t he i nterior o f t he v alley a t t he e ra s ites. P iperno s uggests a p alm-swamp f ormat ion, w ith n o m aize a nd n o s igns o f h uman i ntervent ion. A rchaeological m ater ia ls a re a lmost a bsent a nd t he r are s herds h ave p robably w orked d own f rom a bove. S tratum 4 /1 i s t he A h orizon o f a s oil f ormed i n r e lat ive ly s table c ondit ions w ith s ome i mprovement o f d rainage. I t i s a s i lty c lay l oam a nd c ontains Y otoco s herds. M aize p hytoliths a re p resent a bove 8 2 c m. P iperno c omments t hat p hytoliths ( of v arious s pec ies) w ith c arbon o cclusions d ouble i n n umber, a s c ompared w ith t he o ver lying s tratum . T hese p hytoliths a re t he r esu lt o f t he b urning o f p lants, a p rocess w hereby s i licified c e lls s urvive i ntense t emperatures b ut a re l eft w ith a r esidual c oat ing o f c arbon. I t i s h igh ly u n like ly t hat t he b urning o f v egetat ion w ou ld h ave o ccurred i n t he v a lley b ottom, a nd I s uggest t hat t he p resence o f m aize a nd e vidence f or b urned v egetat ion i n 4 /1 i ndicates t hat h i ll s ides w ere c leared, b urned a nd p lanted i n m aize b efore t he v alley b ottom w as c onverted i nto f ie lds. ( Piperno 1 985) S tratum 3 i s al and s urface o f t he Y otoco p eriod c omposed l argely o f s lopewash f rom t he v alley s ide, s ince t here i s n o s ign o f a n atura l, i n s itu, s oil d evelopment . H igh p hosphorus s uggests h uman a ctivity ( I I FU— i s e vidence f or Y otoco o ccupat ion w ithin 5 0 m o f t he e xcavation ), a nd t he s oil s tructure s uggests c ompact ion b y h uman a gency . C ross-shaped p hytoliths w ere f ewer i n n umber a nd t oo s mall t o i dent ify a s m aize. L eve ls o f a quat ic s i lica w ere h igh, i ndicat ing p oor d rainage. F rom t his l and s urface a d itch w as c ut , e xtending d own t o t he p resent d ay d ry s eason w ater t able a nd c utt ing t hrough t he c layey s oil t o t he t op o f t he p orous a sh i n S tratum 5 . 4 67

S tratum 2 h as t he c hemistry a nd t exture o f a c u ltivat ion s oil, h igh i n o rganic m atter a nd l ow i n p hosphorous. L arge n umbers o f m aize p hytoliths s uggest t hat t his w as t he m ajor c rop. N o s quash p hytoliths w ere f ound - n ot s urprisingly, s ince s quash i s ap lant t hat n eeds w e ll d rained c ondit ions. T he h igh q uant ity o f a quat ic s i lica s hows w hy d itching w as n ecessary . T he c u lt ivat ion s oil a nd t he d itch f i ll c ontain a bundant S onso r ubbish, w ith a f ew r e-deposited Y otoco s herds, a nd t here i s aC -14 d ate o f A .D. 1 464 + 6 5 ( Beta-4906) f rom a p iece o f c harred w ood j ust a bove t he d itch b ottj m ( Bray e t a l. 1 983). W hatever t he p recise d ate o f c onstruct ion, t he d itch w as o pen - a nd f unctioning - d uring t he l ate S onso p eriod. P resumably t he l itt le g roup o f d itched f ie lds w as a ssoc iated w ith t he n earby h ouse s ites, w hose i nhabitants w ere c u lt ivat ing l ands b oth i n t he v a lley a nd o n t he s lopes. S tratum 1 i s t he r ecent s oil f ormed a fter t he d itches w ere a bandoned a t t he t ime o f t he S panish C onquest . T he c harcoa l a t t he b ase o f t he r oot l ayer i s f ound t hroughout C a lima ( cf . F ig. 5 ) a nd d erives f rom t went ieth c entury c learance f or p asture. T he p hytolith s pectrum c ontains a s ignificant p ercentage o f a quat ic s i lica b ut i s d ominated b y g rasses ( though n ot m aize), c orroborat ing t he e vidence f rom Z one 5 C i n t he L usitania OT len c ore ( F ig. 2 ).

S UMMARY T he e vidence f rom C a lima h e lps t o f i ll a g ap i n t he a rchaeo logical r ecord. T he g reat l ow land c omp lexes o f r aised f ie lds, c overing h undreds o f t housands o f h ectares i n t he S an J orge B asin, a re w ell k nown a nd i ntensively s tudied ( Parsons a nd B owen 1 966 ; P lazas a nd F alchett i 1 981 a nd t his v ol.; E idt 1 984), a nd s imilar f ie lds h ave b een o bserved i n t he d rainage o f t he R io S inü ( K . R obertson, C entro I nteramericano d e F otointerpretaciön, p ers. c omm .). A lso a t s ea l eve l, b ut t his t ime i n t he P acif ic l ow lands, w hat a ppear t o b e c ame llones a re v isible o n a ir p hotographs o f t he R io S an J uan r egion, i n t he C hocö ( C lemenc ia P lazas a nd A na M aria F a lchett i, p ers. c omm.). A t t he o ther e nd o f t he a ltitude r ange, B roadbent ( 1968) h as i nvest igated c ame llones i n t he S abana d e B ogota a t 2 ,600m . T his s ame t endency, t o s tudy e ither v ery h igh o r v ery l ow s ites, p revails a lso i n E cuador ( Knapp a nd R yder 1 983; K napp 1 984), V enezuela ( Zucchi ' a nd D enevan 1 979), a nd e lsewhere i n t he A ndes ( Denevan 1 980, 1 982; E rickson, t his v ol.; B roadbent , t his v ol.). M iddle a lt itudes h ave b een l argely n eglected. O ur o wn r esearches s uggest t hat w et land a daptat ions a re a s f requent a t m id-a lt itudes a s a nywhere e lse, a nd t hat d rained f ie lds w ill t urn u p w herever c ondit ions r equ ire t hem. I n o ur r egion, c ame llones a rranged i n t he t ypica l c hequerboard p attern w ere r ecorded a s l ong a go a s 1 962 o n t he f loodp lain o f t he R io C a lima ( by t he C ambridge C a lima V a lley E xpedit ion), a nd w e h ave r ecent ly f ound d itched p latforms i n a l itt le v alley a t t he V ereda S anta R osa, n ear R estrepo. D rained f ie lds a re r eported f rom n ear P avas, i n t he C ordillera e ast o f o ur s urvey a rea, a nd t hey a lso s how u p o n o ld a ir p hotographs o f t he C auca v a lley t aken b efore t he w idespread i ntroduction o f s ugar c ane, c otton a nd s orghum . M ost o f t hese w et land c omp lexes a re f airly s mall ( the b ottom land i n t he V a lley o f E l D orado o ccup ies s ome 2 8,900 h a ) a nd, w ithout f urther r esearch, i t s hou ld n ot b e a ssumed t hat t hey a re a ll o f t he s ame a ge. 4 68

I n t his p aper w e h ave t ried t o s how t hat a l andscape i s n ot a s tatic t hing, a nd w e h ave a lso p ut t he d rained f ields i nto t heir w ider c ontext a s a t echnical d evice f or e xploiting j ust o ne n iche ( wet lands) i n a c omplex, m an - m ade l andscape. I n C alima t he w et land n iche i s a r e lat ively m inor o ne, a nd i n t his a rea t he q uest ion o f " hydraulic s oc iet ies" i s i rrelevant . A cknow ledgments. T his s tudy f orms p art o f t he r esearch c arried o ut b y t he P royecto C a lima i n c ollaborat ion w ith t he I nst ituto C o lombiano d e A ntropologia. T he i nvestigat ion w as f inanced b y g rants f rom t he S tan ley T homas J ohnson F oundat ion ( Bern), t he V ereinigung P ro C a lima ( Basel), t he B rit ish A cademy, t he S ociety o f A nt iquaries o f L ondon, L ondon U niversity C entral R esearch F und, a nd t he F undaciö n d e I nvest igaciones A rqueo ld gicas N acionales o f t he B anco d e l a R epüblica. I n C alima w e a re g rateful t o t he m any l andowners w ho a llowed u s a ccess t o t heir f arms, e spec ia lly t o S r. N ader C alero ( Hacienda E l D orado), D r. R afael P osada ( Hacienda C eilän) a nd S r. B yron L opez ( former o wner o f t he H acienda L a S uiza, w hich s erved a s o ur b ase i n t he V alley o f E l D orado). F or h elp w ith i dentificat ions, a nalyses, d iscussions o r a dvice, w e t hank t he f ollowing c olleagues: C hanta l C aillavet , D avid E ar le, R obert E idt , A na M aria F alchett i, P ierre G ondard, L u isa F ernanda H errera, D olores P iperno, C lemencia P lazas, D avid P reston, K . R obertson, H ector S algado, E arle S mith, R ichard S mith, T homas v an d er H ammen, a nd t he m embers o f t he C ongress s ymposium. T he I nst ituto V allecaucano d e I hvest igaciones C ientificas o ffered m uch p ract ical h elp, i nclud ing t he l oan o f a w ater p ump a nd o ther e qu ipment . A ll s ites w ere s urveyed a nd m apped b y L inda C heetham. Am ajor s hare o f t he c redit i s o wed t o t he m any p eople w ho w orked a longside u s d uring f ive s easons o f f ie ldwork; w ithout t heir e nthusiast ic s upport , t he r esearch c ould n ever h ave b een c ompleted.

R EFERENCES C ITED A re valo A ., H ernando. H ildebrando B uendia, a nd J ose H ugo D iaz A . 1 983. E studio g enera l y s emidetallado d e s uelos d el s ector C alima-BuUT— T r ig i oartamento d el V a lle d el C auca T .— C entro I nteramericano d e F otointerpretaciön, I nternal R eport , U nida4 d e S uelos y A gricu ltura, B ogota. B arrero-Lozano, D ario 1 979. G eology o f t he C entral

W estern C ordillera, W est o f B uga a nd N acional d e-Taest giEiones B ogota.

R o ldanilTU ; TO-l ombia . G eolögico-Mineras,

mi lT u t o

B otero, P edro 1 983. A P re-Spanish T echnique f or t he P revention o f S oils. P ro C alima 3 :40. B asel. 1 985.

o f M ass M ovement

C haracterizat ion a nd G eneral H istory o f t he F ormat ion o f t he S oils o f t he V a lley o f E l D orado. P ro C alima 4 :27-36. B asel.

B ray, W arwick, L eonor H errera, a nd M arianne S chrimpff 1 981. P ro C a lima: A rchäeologisches-ethnologisches P rojekt i m w est lichen K olumbien, S üdamerika. P ro C alima 2 :1-22. B asel. 1 983.

R eport o n t he 1 981 F ield S eason i n C alima. B asel. 4 69

P ro C a lima 3 :2-31.

1 985.

R eport o n t he 1 982 F ield S eason i n C alima. B asel.

P ro C alima 4 :2-26.

B roadbent, S ylvia M . 1 968. A P rehistoric F ield S ystem i n C hibcha T erritory. K awpa P acha 6 :135-147. B ruhns, K aren O lsen 1 981. P rehispanic R idged F ields F ie ld A rchaeology 8 :1-8.

o f

C entral

C olombia.

J ournal

o f

C aillavet , C hantal 1 983. T oponomia h istörica, a rqueologia y f ormas p rehispänicas d e a gricultura e n l a r egiön d e O tavalo-Ecuador. B o letin d el I nstituto F rances d e E studios A ndinos 1 2(3-4):1-21. C ardale d e S chrimpff, M arianne, L eonor H errera, a nd W arwick B ray 1 985. I ntroducciön a l a c ultura Hama ( Invest igaciones a rqueolögicas e n s ifT is d el f ormat ivo t ardio e n e l a lto R io C alima, C ord iTT era O cc i7J f ita l, C o lombia ). 7 f 6F r i le- T inT 1-7 F undaciön d e I nvestigaciones A rqueolögicas N aciona les, B anco d e l a R epublica, B ogota. D arch, J anice P . 1 983. T he S oils o f P ulltrouser S wamp: C lassificat ion a nd C haracterist ics. I n P u lltrouser S wamp: A ncient M aya H abitat , A griculture a nd S ett lement i n N o FFEFF-g g l-T 1J7-e UTia b y B .L. T urner I a FT-P eter D . H aFF ison , p. 5 2-90. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ust in. D enevan, W illiam M . 1 970. A boriginal D rained F ield C ultivat ion i n t he A mericas. S cience 1 69: 6 47-654. 1 982.

H ydraulic A griculture i n t he A merican T ropics: F orms, M easures, a nd R ecent R esearch. I n M aya S ubsistence: S tudies i n M emory o f D ennis E . P uleston, e dited b y K ent F lannery, p p. T1-2O3. A cad eTTE -F ress , N ew Y ork.

E idt , R obert 1 983a. P hysiographic B ackground o f t he C a lima C o lombia. P ro C alima 3 :31-34. B ase l.

R egion,

W est-Centra l

1 983b.

S oil P hosphate A nalysis a t a P rehistoric S ett lement ( E l B illar) i n t he M unicipio o f R estrepo, V a lle d el C auca, C olombia. P ro C a lima 3 :35-39. B asel.

1 984.

A dvances i n A bandoned S ett lement A nalysis: A pp lication t o P rehistori 7Anthrosols i n C olombia, S outh A merica. T he C enter f or L at in A merica, U niversity o f W isconsin, M ilwaukee.

E lbersen, G .W.W., a nd E . N iewenhuis 1 975. A lgun ,as o bservaciones s obre s uelos e cos c on i nfluencia v olcanica y l a o currencia d e e rosion a celerado. R evista C IAF:31-40 ( Bogota).

4 70

F EDECAFE(Federaciön N acional d e C afeteros d e C olombia) 1 972. E studio d e Z onificaciön y U so P otencia l d el S uelo e n l a Z ona C afetera d el D epartamentd— al V alle d i 7 1- 51 FET . —F EDECAFE, B ogotg . F ölster, H ., a nd H . v on C hristen 1 977. T he I nfluence o f Q uaternary U plift o n t he A ltitude Z onat ion o f M ountain S oils o n D iabase a nd V olcanic A sh i n H umid P arts o f t he C olombian A ndes. C atena 3 :233-263. G ondard, P ierre 1 985. I nventario

y

o rganizaciön

d el

e spacio

e n

l os

A ndes

s ept ent r ionaf es d el E cuador: P ii gäjes d e l os s glos X V y X VI. P aper p resente r— a t t he 4 5th I nternaTTUha l C ongrei% o f

A mericanists,

B ogota.

H errera, L eonor, M arianne C ardale d e S chrimpff, a nd W arw ic I B ray 1 982-3. E l h ombre y s u m edio-ambiente e n C alima ( A ltos r io C alima r (o G rande, C ordillera O ccidenta l). R evista C olombiana d e A ntropologia 1 4:381-424. K napp, G regory 1 984. S oil, S lope a nd W ater i n t he E quatoria l A ndes: A S tudy o f P rehistoric —T UHTT 17-5 1 1 -7 1- —Thptat ion . P hD . D isseTiii ion, D epartment o f G eography, U niversity o f W isconsin, M adison. U niversity M icrofilm, A nn A rbor. K napp, G regory, a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 985. T he U se o f W et lands i n t he P rehistoric E conomy o f t he N orthern E cuadorian H ighlands. I n P rehistoric I ntensive A griculture i n t he T ropics, e dited b y I .S. F arrington, p p. 1 85-207. B riti sh A rchaeological R eports, I nternat iona l S eries 2 32, O xford. K napp, G regory, a nd R oy R yder 1 983. A spects o f t he O rigin, M orphology, a nd F unct ion o f R idged F ie lds i n t he Q uito A ltiplano, E cuador. I n D rained F ie ld A griculture i n C entra l a nd S outh A merica, e dited b y J .P, D arch, p p. 2 01-220. B r if-M - A rchaeological R eport , I nternational S eries 1 89, O xford. L athrap, D onald W ., J ohn S . I saacson, a nd C olin M cEwan 1 984. O n t he T rail o f t he F inest M eta llurgy o f t he A ncient N ew W orld : H ow O ld i s t he C lassic Q uimbaya S tyle? B u llet in o f t he F ield M useum o f N atura l H istory 5 5(10):11-19. M onsa lve, J ose G regorio 1 985. A nalysis o f aP ollen C ore F rom t he H acienda L usitania, V alley o f E l D orado. P ro C alima 4 :40-44. N elson, W .F. 1 957. C ontribut ion t o t he G eology o f t he C entral a nd W estern C ordillera o f C olombia i n t he S ector B etween I bague a nd C ali. L eidse G eologische M ededelingen 2 2:1-75. P arsons, J ames 1 968. A ntioqueno C olonizat ion i n W estern C olombia. U niversity o f C a lifornia P ress, B erkeley. 4 71

2 nd

e dit ion.

P arsons, J ames, a nd W illiam A . B owen 1 966. A nc ient R idged F ields o f t he S an J orge F loodplain, T he G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343.

C olombia.

P iperno, D olores R . 1 985. P hytolith R ecords f rom P rehistoric A gricultura l F ields i n t he C alima R egion, C olombia. P ro C alima 4 :37-40. B asel. P lazas, 1 981.

1 986.

C lemencia, a nd A na M aria F a lchett i d e S . a4nz A sentamientos p rehispänicos e n e l B ajo R io F undaciö n d e I nvestigaciones T i r quiT rög icas B ogota. L a c u ltura d el o ro y e l a gua: U n p royecto d e B oletin C ultura l y B ibliogräfico 2 3(6):57-72. A ngel A rango, B ogotä.

S an

J orge.

N a c ioT a7Jg ,

r econstrucciö n. B iblioteca L uis

P reston, D avid 1 984. F ie ld R idges i n N orthern H ighland E cuador. U niversity L eeds S chool o f G eography W orking P aper 3 80, L eeds. P uleston, D ennis 1 977. E xperiments i n P rehistoric R aised F ie ld A griculture: F rom t he P ast . J ournal o f B elizean A ffairs 5 :36-43.

o f

L earning

R eichel-Dolmatoff, G erardo 1 972. S an A gustin: A C ulture o f C olombia. P raeger, N ew Y ork. S algado L opez, H ector 1 982. I nvest igaciones a rqueolögicas e n e l n oroccidente D epartamento d el V alle d el C auca. F undaciön I nvest igaciones A rqueo7öT T Eas f iC iona lTi7—B o gotg . 1 986.

d el d e

I nvest igaciones a rqueolö gicas e n e l c urso m edio d el r io C alima, C ordillera O ccidenta l, C olombia. B oletin d e A rqueoloig ia 1 (2):3-15. F undaciön d e I n vT iliT JE iones A rqueo logicas N acionales, B ogota '.

U .S.D.A . ( United S tates D epartment o f A griculture) 1 975. S oil T axonomy: A B asic S ystem o f S oil C lassificat ion F or M aking a nd I nt erprTinU S o il S urveys. A gricu lture H andb-57 N o. 4 36. U .S.D.A., W ashington, D .C. W ijmstra, T .A . 1 967. A P ollen D iagram f rom M agdalena V alley. 3 9:261-267.

t he U pper H olocene L eidse G eologische

o f t he L ower M ededelingen

Z ucchi, A lberta, a nd W illiam M . D enevan 1 979. C ampos e levados e h istoria c u ltura l p rehispänico d e l os a nos o ccidenta les d e V enezue la . U niversidad C atölica A ndFt sB ello, C aracas.

4 72

A PPENDIX 1 .

D escript ions o f S oils f rom H illside L ocalit ies i n t he C alima R egion.

I n t h is A ppendix w e g ive d escriptions o f t wo s oil p rofiles f rom t he h illslopes o f C alima. T he f irst p rofile ( PV-4) i s a t yp ica l s amp le f rom t he h umid/sub-humid p arts o f t he r egion; t he s econd ( Rancho A legre) c omes f rom t he d ry s ub-zone. 1 . D escript ion o f a t ypica l s oil f rom t he d enuded h ills i n t he h um id a nd s ubhumid z ones o f t he t ierra t UT r I T IT äda ( f rom A reiin et a rt-1 983). S oils d erived f rom f resh v olcanic a shes: T YPIC D YSTRANDEPTS. D eep a nd w e ll d rained s oils; t extures m edium t o f ine; r e lief g ent le t o m oderate ly s teep w ith s lopes ( 7-12-25-55%). S oil P rof ile N umber : A ir P hotograph:

P V-4 0 10 V uelo C -1848 ( Inst ituto G eogräfico A gustin C odazz i) C onjunto P uentet ierra T ypic D ystrandept ( Thapto O x isol?) 1S eptember 1 983 2 k m S E o f t he c aser io o f P uentet ierra, o n t he B uga-Buenaventura r oad 1 495 m a bove s ea l evel D enuded h i ll ( Eh ) S trongly u ndu lat ing w ith s lope o f 2 5% C onvex, s urrounded b y h i lls L ight s heet e rosion, f requent m ass m ovements H erbaceous s crub ( escobo/ferns) E xtensive c att le g razing V olcanic a shes w ith s ubstrate o f s trongly w eathered d iabases W ell d rained, r apid s urface d rainage, m oderate i nternal d rain4 ige G reat , t he n atura l f orest v egetat ion c omp lete ly r emoved T he d epth o f t he w eathered d iabase m ant le i s v ariable, a nd m ay b e e ither m ore o r l ess s uperficia l t han i n t he t ype p rof ile. A na lysis p erformed s o f ar p rovides n o c onfirmat ion f or c lassif icat ion o f t his m ateria l w ithin t he O xisols. L imitat ions o n u se f or a gricu lture: m oderate l eve l o f f ert ility, h igh s uscept ibility t o m ass m ovements, s trong s lopes.

S oil N ame: T axonomic C lassificat ion: D ate o f D escript ion: L ocality:

A lt itude: P hysiographic P osit ion: R e lief: F orm o f S lope: E rosion: N atural V egetat ion: U se: P arent M ateria l: N atural D rainage: H uman I nf luence: O bservat ions:

0 0 -3 0 c m A

V ery d ark b rown ( 10YR 2 /2); l oam ; w ell d eve loped f ine a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; f riable, n ot s t icky a nd n ot p last ic; a bundant f ine r oots; m icroorganisms a verage; 4 73

l imit w e ll m arked a nd l evel; p H 5 .6; s light r eaction t o N aF. 3 0 -4 1 c m B A

Y ellow ish b rown ( 10YR 5 /8) w ith 2 0% t ongues o f v ery d ark b rown ( 10YR 2 /2); s ilty l oam ; w e ll d eve loped m edium s ubangu lar b locks; f riable, s light ly s t icky a nd s light ly p last ic; m acroorganisms a nd f ine r oots a verage; l imit w e ll m arked a nd l evel; p H 5 .9; s trong r eaction t o N aF.

4 1 -8 5 c m B w

S trong b rown ( 7 .5YR 5 /8); s ilty l oam ; m oderate f ine a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; f riable, s light ly s t icky a nd s light ly p last ic ; a f ew f ine r oots; s ome c rotovinas; l imit g radua l a nd l evel; p H 5 .8; v ery s trong r eaction t o N aF .

8 5 -1 37 c m + 2 Bo

Y ellow ish r ed ( 5YR 5 /8); s ilty c lay; m oderate t hick a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; f riable, s t icky a nd p last ic ; a f ew f ine r oots; s ome v ery t hin a nd d iscont inuous c lay s kins; p H 5 .6 ; s light r eaction t o N aF.

P hysical a nd c hemical a na lyses: S ee T able 1 I nterpretat ion o f c hemica l a na lyses: S ee T able 2

2 . G eneralized d escript ion o f t he s oils o f t he d enuded h ills i n z ones o f d ry, t emperate-warm c limate.

R ancho A legre U dic P aleustalf 1 ,500 i na bove s ea l evel M idd le p art o f ac o lluvio erosiona l s lope 1 2-25% M oderate s heet e rosion, s evere g ully ing C ordoncillo ( Piper a ugust ifolium ), c hilco, c aucho ( F icus s p .), n at ive g rasses E xtensive c att le g razing W ell d rained C onsiderable D iabase f ragments ( ca. 4 0%) a re f ound t hroughout t he p rofile; s ome s ect ions h ave f ine g ravel, c oarse g ravel a nd s tones. F ragments o f b aked c lay i n t he f irst h orizon. L imitat ions f or a gricu lture: t hin s oils, s loping t errain, p oor

S oil N ame: T axonomic C lassif icat ion: A ltitude: P hysiographic P osition: S lope: E rosion: N atura l V egetat ion:

U se: N atura l D rainage: H uman I nf luence: O bservations:

4 74

d rainage a nd l ow a vailability o f w ater ; d ry c limate; g reat s uscept ibility t o e rosion.

0 0 -1 0 c m A

C olour w hen w et i s av ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 3 /2); f ine s andy l oam ; w ell d eveloped f ine a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; f riable, n ot p last ic a nd n ot s t icky ; a bundant r oots a nd m acroorganisms; l im it w ell m arked a nd l evel; p H 6 .0.

1 0 -1 8 c m B t1

C olour w hen w et i s av ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 3 /2) w ith b lack c lay s kins ( 10YR 3 /1); c lay l oam ; w ell d eveloped f ine a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; c onsistency v ery h ard w hen d ry, v ery f irm w hen w et ; s light ly p last ic a nd s light ly s t icky ; a bundant f ine r oots; a bundant m acroorganism a ctivity; l imit w ell m arked a nd l evel; p H 6 .0.

1 8 -3 8 c m B t2

C o lour w hen w et i s av ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 3 /2) w ith b lack c lay s kins ( 10YR 2 /1); c lay l oam ; w ell d eveloped m edium p risms; c onsistency v ery h ard w hen d ry, v ery f irm w hen w et ; s light ly p last ic a nd s light ly s t icky ; f ew f ine r oots; l imit u ndu lating a nd g radual; p H 6 .0.

3 8 -5 5 c m + 2 8t3

C olour w hen w et i s v ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 3 /2) w ith b lack c lay s k ins ( 10YR 2 /1); c lay l oam ; m oderate ly d eveloped f ine a nd m edium s ubangu lar b locks; c onsistency h ard w hen d ry, f irm w hen w et ; n ot p last ic, n ot s t icky; p H 6 .5.

T ABLE 1 .

P hysical

a nd C hemical A nalyses o f S oil

D epth ( cm ) % S and 0 0-11 1 1-30 3 0-41 4 1-69 6 9-85 8 5-114 1 14-137+

%Silt

5 4 5 4 6 6 6 2 6 0 3 0 1 8

P V-4.

G ranulometry %C lay

3 6 2 6 2 8 3 0 3 0 2 2 1 6

p H

T exture*

1 0 2 0 6 8 1 0 4 8 6 6

( Sandy l oam) ( Sandy c lay l oam ) ( Sandy l oam ) ( Sandy l oam ) ( Sandy l oam ) ( Clay ) ( Clay)

5 .6 5 .6 5 .9 5 .9 5 .7 5 .7 5 .6

*T he t extures i n p arentheses i ndicate f locculation o f t he a sh i n t he a ttempt t o d isperse i t . F or t his r eason t he t extures g iven b y t he l aboratory a nalysis a re n ot ' real'.

E xchange C apacity m e/100g C CC 4 8.9 4 2.9 4 0.5 4 1.7 3 4.0 1 5.7 1 0.7

B T

C a

M g

1 2.8 8 .7 8 .6 5 .3 2 .7 3 .0 2 .5

6 .8 5 .4 4 .5 3 .0 1 .1 0 .8 1 .4

5 .0 2 .9 3 .9 1 .9 1 .3 2 .0 0 .8

N a 0 .8 0 .2 0 .05 0 .1 0 .05 0 .05 0 .05

0 .2 0 .2 0 .2 0 .3 0 .3 0 .2 0 .3

S aturat ions % S T

S Ca

S Mg

S K

2 6.2 2 0.3 2 1.3 1 2.7 8 .0 1 9.1 2 3.4

1 3.9 1 2.6 1 1.6 7 .2 3 .3 5 .1 1 3.1

1 0.3 6 .8 9 .7 4 .6 3 .9 1 2.8 7 .5

1 .7 0 .5 0 .2 0 .3 0 .2 0 .4 0 .5

O rganic M aterial % C

Pm

6 .38 4 .17 2 .00 1 .00 0 .71 0 .41 0 .28

1 1 1 0 .5 0 .5 2 2

4 76

T ABLE 2 .

S ummary I nterpretat ion o f t he A nalyses o f S oil P V-4.

D epth ( cm ) R eact ion ( pH):

C at ion E xchange C apacity:

A sh 0 -30

A sh 4 1-85

D iabase 8 5-137+

S light ly a c id

S light ly a cid

S light ly a cid

S light ly a cid

V ery h igh

V ery h igh

V ery h igh

A verage

A verage

L ow

L ow

S um o f B ases:

H igh

S aturation o f B ases:

L ow

O rganic C arbon:

A sh 3 0-41

L ow

V ery h igh

P hosphorus ( Bray I)P205: L ow

V ery l ow

L ow

A verage

L ow

V ery l ow

L ow

L ow

L ow

C a S aturat ions:

A verage

A verage

L ow

L ow

M g S aturat ions:

A verage

A verage

L ow

L ow

K S aturat ions:

A verage

V ery l ow

F ert ility:

M oderate

4 77

V ery l ow

V ery l ow V ery l ow

A PPENDIX 2 .

S oil D escript ions o f t he U pper S trata i n E ras 2 a nd 3 .

P rofiles o f t he e xcavat ions a re i llustrated i n F igure 9 , a nd p hysical a nd c hemical a na lyses o f t hese s oils a re g iven i n T ables 3 a nd 4 . T he d escript ions o f S trata 1 , 2 , a nd 4 a re f rom E ra 2 b ut a t t h is l ocality S tratum 3 ( the o ld l and s urface) w as p oor ly r epresented. T h is S tratum w as t herefore s amp led i n E ra 3 . S tratum 1 A l

R ecent s oil; v ery d ark b rown ( 10YR 2 /2) i n t he u pper p art ; v ery d ark g reyish b rown ( 10YR 3 /2) i n t he l ower p art , w hich i s a lso m ore b locky a nd c ontains a bundant i ron o xide s tains; l oam t o s andy c lay l oam ; o n t he r idge i s m ott led t o w ithin 8 c m o f t he s urface; c ontains Y otoco s herds a nd c harcoa l; f ormed b y s lopewash a nd s uperficial t ransport b y w ater f rom t he h i llsides.

S tratum 2 A pbl

I n t he e ras i s t he f i ll o btained f rom t he d itches i n o rder t o r aise t he p lant ing s urface; v ery d ark g rey ( 10YR 3 /1) m ixed w ith y e llow ish g rey ( 2.5Y 5 /1); c lay l oam; f air p orosity, t hough m uch c ompacted b y c att le t ramp ling; c ontains i ron c oncret ions; w hite m ateria l ( presumably a sh ) h as i nfiltrated i nto c racks; c ontains Y otoco s herds a nd c harcoal; i s a n a nthropogenic s oil.

S tratum 3 A pb2

O riginal l and s urface f ormed o n t op o f ad ried-out s wamp ; v ery d ark g rey ( 5Y 3 /1) w ith m any s ma ll, y ellower, i ron c oncret ions; c lay l oam ; m assive/compact ; n o s tructure a nd n o p orosity; l itt le r oot p enetrat ion; m oderate t o l ow o rganic c ontent ; c onsiderable b iological c hurning; f luvio-lacustrine m ateria ls f orming t he f irst a gricultura l s oil.

S tratum 4 2 Cg

L acustrine c lay; b lue g rey ( 5BG 6 /1); c ontains t hin s trata o f i ntercalated s wamp s oils, c onsist ing o f s i lty c lay l oam o f d ark g rey c o lour ( 5YR 4 /1); a brupt l imit w ith u nder lying f orest s oils.

4 78

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5 00

p ensar e n p equer los c aserios i ndependientes. L os t dmu los f unerar ios f ueron c onstruidos h acia l os e xtremos d e l as p lataformas d e v ivienda. E l m ater ia l c erämico r ecogido e n e l c a i io C arete, a t odo l o l argo d e l t rayecto C ienaga F lor ida-San M arcos, p ertenece a l a t radiciö n M odelada-Pintada f echada e n l os s iglos II y V II D .C. ( 270 + 1 40 D .C .; 6 80 + 1 20 D .C.) ( BETA 2 601 y 2 602). E l p atrön d e v iviendd—a l o l argo d el -C auce d e l os c al ros p arece p erdurar e n e sta z ona a e a ve s d el t iempo. L a u bicaciö n d e a lgunos t ümu los f unerarios, s eguramente p ertenec ientes a v iviendas a bandonadas, e n a / T eas d e c ame llones y l a s u p e r p o s ic iö n d e d ist intos s istemas d e c ana les a rt if icia les i ndican u n l argo p eriod° d e r eacondicionamiento.

D ESOCUPACION D EL A REA I NUNDABLE L a o rganizaciön h umana ms a nt igua d etectada h asta a hora h abitö e l b ajo S an J orge d esde e l s iglo I A .C . h asta e l s iglo X I D .C., p eriod ( ) e n e l c ual a lcanzö u na a lta d ensidad d e p oblaciön y a doptö e l a rea c oma l ugar d e p ermanenc ia y d e u t ilizaciö n p roduct iva. D e e sta e poca e n a de lante t iene l ugar u na d esocupacion g radual d el a rea i nundable, q uedando e n e l s iglo X VI d e n uestra e ra r emahantes d e e sta c ultura s olo e n s it ios m äs a ltos, p rotegidos d e l as i nundac iones c oma A yapel y M onte libano e n e l c urso m edia d el r io S an J orge. D e l s iglo X IV a l s ig lo X VII h a llamos e n l a d epresiön e videnc ias d e o tro g rupo e tnico q ue s eguramente f ormaba p arte d e l os lamados M a libdes e stablec idos e n e l r io M agda lena a l a legada d e l os e spai To les ( P lazas y F a lchett i 1 981). A d iferenc ia d e l os h abitantes a nteriores q ue c ontrolaron p olit ica, s oc ial y e conom icamente e xtensas ä reas, l os ü lt imos p obladores h abitaron l os e spacios e levados d isponibles a provechando s olamente e l ä rea c ircundante. S us h ue llas s e e ncuentran a t odo l o l argo d el c an° S an M atias d esde J egua h asta S an M arcos, e n s it ios d e h abitaciön d ispersos s obre l as o rillas d e l os c ando s, i ncluyendo m eandros r ecientes s in c orrespondencia a lguna c on s istemas h idräulicos. D epositaban s us m uertos e n u rnas f unerar ias e nterradas e n e l i nterior d e l as v iviendas. L a c erämica h allada e n l os d epösitos d e b asura y e n l os e nt ierros p ertenece a l a t radiciön I nc isa-A lisada, c era /m ic a d e b uena c alidad y f ormas s obrias, s in d ist inc iön e ntre v asijas p ara u so d omest ic° y r itual. L as a ct ividades d e s ubsistenc ia s e e ncontraban e n l a p esca, l a c aza, l a a gricu ltura y l a r ecolecc iön d e a limentos v egetales. S egün G . R eiche l-Dol etoff ( 1951) l os M a libües d el b ajo M agdalena e ran c u lt ivadores d e m alz, y uca d u lce y y uca b rava. S u r egimen a gricola d ebiö e star s ujeto a l r itmo d e l as c recientes y s equ ias d e l as v ias f luvia les p ar l a a usenc ia d e o bras p ara e l c ontro l d e a guas. E ste m odo d e v ida e s s emejante a l d e l os a ctuales p obladores d e l a z ona, l a c ultura a nfibia d escrita p or F a ls B orda ( 1979) c on s u p oblamiento l inea l y r e lat ivamente d isperso s obre l os b ancos d e l as v ias f luvia les.

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S UPERVIVENCIAS E N L AS S ABANAS A l i ncursionar p or l a d epresiön i nundable d e l b ajo S an J orge e n e l s ig lo X VI, l os c onqu istadores e spai T oles l a h a llaron p räcticamente d eshabitada. P ero, e n l as c e rcanf as d e l a C ienaga d e A yapel, e ncontraron g rupos o rganizados e n p ob lados q ue h abian t ransformado s u a mbiente c ircundante. E l p rincipal e ra e l p ueblo d e A yape l " ...dispuesto e n c alles, p lazas y c asas b ien t razadas y l imp ias, g ran c opia d e h uertas c u lt ivadas m aravillosamente..." ( S imon 1 935:V:165). [ ran g rupos r e lacionados c u lturalmente c on l os a nt iguos p obladores d e l a d epresiön i nundable q u ienes s e m antuvieron e n l as s abanas m äs a ltas q ue l a r odean. A qui f ue p osible i nvest igar v ar ias p lataformas d e v ivienda y t dmu los f unerar ios q ue c onservan e l p atr A d escrito p ara l a d epresiön i nundable, a unque e n e stas t ierras l ibres d e i nundaciones n o s e r e queria l a c o nst rucc iö n d e e levaciones a rt ificia les p ara p roteger l os a sentamientos. E n l os b asureros d e l as p lataformas d e v ivienda s e r e cog iö a bundante c erämica p ertenec iente a l a t radiciön M odelada-Pintada, q ue t iene c iertos r asgos l ocales c omo l a m ayor f riabilidad d e l a p asta y a lgunas f ormas e xclusivas c omo l as c opas c on t apa y l as d e b oca e strecha ( P lazas y F a lchett i 1 981). T ambien e n e l c urso m edic d el S an J orge ( regi A a ctua l m unicipio d e M onte libano) s e h a llaron v est igios d e e se m ismo d esarro llo. E n l as p artes a ltas d e l as s uaves c olinas q ue f orman l a t opografia d e l a r egiö n, s e l ocalizan e xtensos c ementerios d e t dmu los f unerarios. E n u no d e e llos s e o btuvo l a f echa d e r adiocarbono d e 9 05 + 4 5 D .C . ( GrN 9 242) a sociada a n umerosas v asijas c erämicas q ue p erte iT ecen, a l i gual q ue e n A yapel, a l a v ariedad f riable d e l a t radiciön M odelada-Pintada. E sta c erämica sAa la a simismo e strechas r e laciones c on l os d esarro llos c u lturales t ardios a l a h oya d e l r io S ind , c oncretamente, c on e l c omp lejo B etanci , e stablec ido p er G . y A . R eiche l-Dolmatoff ( 1958). E l c omp lejo B etanci, c aracterizado p or g randes c onstrucc iones a rtificia les d e t ierra y t dmu los f unerarios, c onst ituye l a d ltima e tapa d e d esarro llo e n e l r io S i nd , q u e l os R eiche l-Dolmatoff i dent ifican c on l os g rupos q ue a il( e ncontraron l os e spano les.

R EFERENCIAS C ITADAS

E idt , R obert 1 981. S oil A nalysis o f A nthrosols f rom t he S an J orge R aised F ields o f N orthern n-l ombia, S .A . F ung i E M- 3 J- I nvest igac iones 7 T queo ld g icas N acionales, B anco d e l a R epdblica, B ogotä . ( Informe p re liminar, s in p ublicar). 1 984.

A dvances i n A bandoned S ett lement A nalysis: A pp licat ion t o P rehistor i c "- A nthrosols i n C olombia, S outh A merica. T F g C enter f or L at in A mer ica,-U niversity o f W isconsin, M ilwaukee.

F als B orda, O r lando 1 979. M ompox y L oba: H istoria V a lenc ia , B ogota.

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d oble

d e

l a

c osta,

V ol.

1 .

C ar los

P arsons, J ames 1 966. L os c ampos d e c u lt ivo p rehispänicos d el b ajo S an J orge. R evista d e l a A cademia C o lombiana d e C ienc ias E xactas, F is icas y N aturales 1 2(48):449-458. 1 977.

G eography a s E xplorat ion a nd D iscovery. A ssoc iat ion o f A merican G eographers 6 7:1-16.

1 978.

M ore o n P re-Co lombian R aised F ie lds ( Camellones) i n t he B ajo R io S an J orge a nd B ajo C auca, C o lombia. I n T he R ole o f G eographical R esearch i n L at in A merica, e dited b y W i nii i n M . D enevan, p p. 17-124. C onference o f L at in A mericanist G eographers P ublicat ion N umber 7 , M unc ie.

P arsons, J ames a nd W . A . B owen 1 966. A ncient R idged F ie lds o f t he S an J orge C o lombia. G eographical R eview 5 6:317-343.

A nna ls

R iver

o f

t he

F loodp lain,

P lazas, C lemencia y A na M aria F alchett i 1 981. A sentam ientos p rehispänicos e n e l b ajo r io S an F undac i A d e I nvest igac iones N acioi iiTUs , B anco R epdblica, B ogota.

J orge. d e l a

R eichel-Dolmatoff , G erardo 1 951. D atos h istör icos-cu ltura les s obre l as t ribus d e l a a nt igua T iF eT nac id n d e S anta M arta. B anco d g-T a R epdblica, B ogota. R eichel-Dolmatoff , G erardo y A licia 1 958. R econoc imiento a rqueoldgico d e l a h oya d el C olombiana d e A ntropo logi,a 6 :31-149. 1 974.

M om il: D os f echas d e r ad iocarbono. A ntropologia 1 7(2):185-188.

r io S i nd . R evista

R evista

C olombiana

d e

S h lemon, R oy y J ames P arsons 1 977. L ate Q uaternary C yc lic S edimentat ion, S an J orge R iver F loodplain, C o lombia. X th I nternat ional Q uaternary A ssoc iat ion ( INQUA ) C ongress, B irmingham, p . 4 19. S imön, F ray P edro 1 953. N oticias h istor ia les d e l as c onqu istas d e T ierra F irme e n l as I ndias O ccidenta les, 9vöT. E diciön d fi t gida p or M a nu e 175-i e d T OTEFJ , B ogotä .

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C HAPTER 2 6 T HE H OLISTIC B ASIS O F P REHISTORIC A NDEAN A GRICULTURE ( ABSTRACT )

R ichard T .

S mith

K nowledge a bout A ndean a griculture i n p rehistoric t imes i s d erived f rom a v ariety o f s ources. I n a ddit ion t o e xtant f ield s ystems, t here a re a rchaeological s equences a nd t he a ccounts o f t he s ixteenth c entury c ommentators. W e c an f urther a ttempt a n e valuat ion o f t hese p rehistoric f armers f rom o ur a wareness o f t he r ange o f a gronomic a dvantages t o b e d erived f rom p art icular a gricu ltural s trategies. F urther e vidence m ay, w ith c aut ion, b e d erived f rom c ontemporary i ndigenous c ommunit ies b y w ay o f c rops, a gricultural r outine, a nd e specia lly t radit ions. T aking i nto c onsiderat ion t his b road s pectrum o f d ata o n b oth p rehistoric a nd c ontemporary a gricultural a ttributes, i t i s t he o bject o f t his p aper t o s how t o w hat e xtent t his d ata c onforms t o ac oherent f ramework. T he l atter i s u nderpinned i n l arge m easure b y b io-dynamic a gricultural p rinciples a nd h elps b roaden o ur c oncept ion o f t hose i nfluences w hich s ustained p rehistoric a griculture i n t he A ndes, a nd, n o d oubt, i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld a s w ell.

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