Arcimboldo [1. Auflage] 9781783100026, 1783100028, 9781783101610, 178310161X

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Arcimboldo

Page 4 : Self-portrait on Paper (Man of Letters), 1587. Pen and ink on paper, 44.2 x 31.8 cm. Palazzo Rosso, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, Genoa. Author : Liana De Girolami Cheney Layout : Baseline Co. Ltd 61A-63A Vo Van Tan Street 4th Floor District 3, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam © Parkstone Press International, New York, USA © Confidential Concepts, worldwide, USA Image-Bar www.image-bar.com

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Beyond perception and signification (lexical or cultural) there develops a whole world of value: before one of ArcimboldoÊs Composed Heads, I am led to not only say of it: I read, guess, discover, and understand, but also: I like, I donÊt like. Uneasiness, fear, laughter, desire all enter the game. · Roland Barthes

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Biography 1527

Giuseppe Arcimboldo was born to a noble family in Milan. His father, the painter Biagio Arcimboldo, was friends with Bernardino Luini, a student of Leonardo da Vinci.

1549

The artistÊs name appeared in the annals of the works of the Cathedral of Milan for the first time, where, with his father, he created drawings for the CathedralÊs stained glass windows.

1551

Arcimboldo painted five insignias for the King of Bohemia, and future Emperor, Ferdinand I.

1555

The documents of the annals of the works of the Cathedral of Milan made mention of ArcimboldoÊs great talent in the execution of the organ doors for the Cathedral.

1558

He sketched Old and New Testament scenes for the tapestries of Death of the Virgin, now found in the Como Cathedral.

1562

Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia, requested ArcimboldoÊs artistic talent at the Habsburg Imperial Court.

1563-1566

He painted the first series of the Four Seasons for Ferdinand I.

1565

ArcimboldoÊs name appeared in the archives of the Habsburg court, cited as court painter. 5

1566

Arcimboldo painted The Jurist and began the Four Elements series.

1568

He began to collaborate with Giovanni Battista Fonteo, humanist and poet, on thematic and emblematic commissions.

1570

In Prague, Arcimboldo prepared the staging and decorations for a tournament celebrating the wedding of Elisabeth, daughter of Maximilian II, and Charles IX, King of France.

1571

In Vienna, with the help of the poet scholar Fonteo and the artist-philosopher Jacopo Strada, Arcimboldo decorated the apartments for the wedding celebrations of Archduke Charles of Austria and Maria Anna of Bavaria.

1577

He painted another cycle of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements.

1585

Arcimboldo gifted Rudolf II with a portfolio containing a series of 150 drawings.

1586

He designed the decor for the new residence of Baron Grünbuchel, Rudolf IIÊs Minister of Cabinet.

1591

Arcimboldo sent Rudolf II a portrait of the Emperor under the guise of Vertumnus.

1593

11 July, Giuseppe Arcimboldo died in Milan. He is buried in the Church of San Pietro della Vigna. 7

S

on of the artist Biagio Arcimboldo and Chiara Parisi, Giuseppe Arcimboldo was born in Milan in 1527.

Of noble descent, ArcimboldoÊs family originated from the south of Germany, with some family members relocating to Lombardy during the Middle Ages. Numerous variations of the spelling of the family name can be found: Acimboldi, Arisnbodle, Arcsimbaldo, Arzimbaldo, or Arczimboldo; the ÂboldoÊ or ÂbaldoÊ suffix is a mediaeval Germanic derivative. Likewise, Arcimboldo signed his first name in several different ways: Giuseppe, Josephus, Joseph, or Josepho are some of the examples that can be found.

Red-flanked Duiker and Mountain Coati Biblioteca Universitaria, Bologna

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In his work La noblità di Milano (1619), Paulo Morigi charted the history of ArcimboldoÊs family and confirmed his nobility, despite very uncertain sources, by tracing his roots back to the time of Charlemagne, when a nobleman named Sigfrid Arcimboldo served in the court of the Emperor. Out of sixteen Arcimboldo children, three were knighted and one amongst them settled in Lombardy. This is how the Italian branch of the family came to be founded. To support his claims, Morigi declared that his narrative came „directly from Giuseppe Arcimboldo, a trustworthy gentleman with a respectable lifestyle‰.

Red Deer Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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Also in La noblità di Milano, Morigi continued to develop the history of the Arcimboldo family, although limiting this to the Italian branch residing in Milan. He stated that the widower Guido Antonio Arcimboldo, GiuseppeÊs great-great-grandfather, was elected Archbishop of Milan in 1489, succeeding his deceased brother, Giovanni Arcimboldo. Between 1550 and 1555, Giovanni Angelo Arcimboldo, illegitimate son of Guido Antonio, reigned as Archbishop of Milan. He advised Giuseppe and steered him through the politics of the artists, humanists, and writers of the Milanese Court.

Chamois and Ibex Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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In Milan, Arcimboldo received training from his father in the arts, and also from artists of the Lombard School, such as Giuseppe Meda (active in Milan from 1551 to 1559) and Bernardino Campi (1522-1591), a distinguished painter from Cremona. A certain artistic and scientific fascination for Leonardo da Vinci has been perceived in ArcimboldoÊs art. In fact, GiuseppeÊs father, Biagio, had the good fortune to be friends with Bernardino Luini, a student of Leonardo da VinciÊs, who, after da VinciÊs death,

Composition with Animals Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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inherited several of his masterÊs workbooks and sketches. Biagio Arcimboldo certainly studied these and, years later, taught da VinciÊs artistic and scientific style to his son Giuseppe. The Italian artists Biagio, Meda, and Campi were in contact with German artists, either working on commissions for the Milan Cathedral or creating tapestries for the Medici family. According to the Milan Cathedral archives, Arcimboldo was established as a

Composition with Animals (detail) Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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master in 1549, working with his father in the painting and creation of sketches for the stained glass windows, organ doors, and canopy of the CathedralÊs altar. The most important stained glass windows, located within the apse, depict the Tales of the Life of Saint Catherine of Alexandria. The Christian legend deals with the martyrdom of Catherine, who refused to renounce her Christian faith for pagan gods. The decoration of these scenes was relatively elaborate, based on a combination

Nature Study Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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of classic themes (amphorae, garlands, and cherubs) and Christian symbols (thrones, scallop shells, and ceremonial ornaments). The architectural and ornamental concepts reflected the illusion of art and a mannerist taste. These forms also demonstrated Leonardo da VinciÊs influence on Arcimboldo, gained through the art of Milanese artist Gaudenzio Ferrari (1471-1546), who also worked on the CathedralÊs stained glass windows. A document

Nature Study Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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from the archives of the Milan Cathedral, dated 1556, mentions that ArcimboldoÊs sketches for the Cathedral project were transposed onto glass by Corrado de Mochis, a master glazier from Cologne. During this period, Arcimboldo painted five emblematic insignias (today, lost) for Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, later Ferdinand I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. After the death of his father in 1551, Arcimboldo continued to work in Lombardy until 1558, after which

Nature Study Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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time he undertook travels to Como and Monza. He created sketches of Old and New Testament themes for tapestries for the Como Cathedral. Flemish artists Johannes and Ludwig Karcher (active from 1517-1561), employed by the Gobelins Tapestry Manufactory, created a tapestry from these sketches. The names of the weavers appear on a scroll on the tapestry. Arcimboldo created eight scenes, sumptuously embellished with borders festooned with flowers, fruit,

Nature Study Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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scrolls, and classical-style grotesques (grotteschi), such as can be seen in Death of the Virgin. In a private garden, in which the architecture echoes the styles of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Virgin rests in a casket surrounded by the mourning apostles, whilst the Santa Maria della Grazie Church can be seen in the background. Likewise, Arcimboldo created sketches for tapestries (today, lost) for the Monza Cathedral. Between 1556 and 1558, he also developed a series of frescos of

Study of a Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) and Flowers Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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The Jesse Tree, inspired by a passage from the prophet Isaiah. In the centre of the painting stands an enormous tree trunk; a cross containing the image of the crucified Christ. An old man rests by the tree roots, and the treeÊs extended branches hold the figures of the kings of Judea, ChristÊs ancestors. Arcimboldo continued to instil in his works a combination of classical and Christian themes, staying true to the illusionism of the 16th century. Because of certain stylistic similarities in the drawings of his figures

Bird Gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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and garlands or grotesques to those of the frescos created by Raphael for the Papal Apartments, the Vatican Loggia, as well as the Loggia of Psyche, and with the general School of the Roman Renaissance, some scholars maintain that Arcimboldo must have travelled to Rome during this period to immerse himself in the knowledge of the allÊantica (ancient) style. However, ArcimboldoÊs familiarity with this type of fantastical ornamentation was not uniquely the result of

Bird Gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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an assimilation of Ancient Roman and Renaissance artistic influences; it was also part of the tradition of Northern Italy. He could have, in effect, admired the examples in religious works by Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), such as his San Zeno Altarpiece in Verona, his Camera degli Sposi (Bridal Chamber) at Mantua, or in the numerous altarpieces created by Venetian painter Carlo Crivelli (c. 1435-1495), the decor by Francesco Colonna for his Hypnerotomachia Poliphili

Bird Gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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(PoliphiloÊs Strife of Love in a Dream), and, moreover, in the pictorial illustrations of Leonardo da Vinci in the Sala delle Asse (1495-1498) in the Castello Sforzesco in Milan. Satisfied by the emblems Arcimboldo created in 1551, Ferdinand of Bohemia invited him several times to take up an artistÊs post at the Imperial Court of Prague. In 1562, Arcimboldo finally accepted: he travelled first to Vienna, and then settled in Prague as portraitist and

Bird Gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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copyist for the Emperor, replacing the „old‰ Jacob Seisenegger. In lÊHistoria dellÊantichità di Milano of 1592, Morigi recounts to us another interpretation of this very important patronage for Arcimboldo at the court of Ferdinand I and his successors, Maximilian II and Rudolf II. According to him, Arcimboldo „was appreciated and well-treated, received with great bounty, the Emperor offered him a good salary suitable to his merit and showed him his affection in numerous other ways‰. The Study for a Self-portrait by Arcimboldo,

Wild Boar Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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dated 1575 (Narodni Galerie, Prague) perfectly reflects the courtier character as analysed by Morigi; it is of a refined and cultured gentleman, an artistprince or an artist-philosopher of the Renaissance, such

as

depicted

respectively

by

Baldassare

Castiglione in The Courtier (1535) and Giovanni della Casa in his Galateo (1558). The grey-scale drawing shows a portrait of the artistÊs head, wearing a painterÊs beret and the traditional ruff. He has an oval faceshape, with a trimmed beard, an intense gaze,

The Admiral Private collection

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an aquiline nose, and thin lips; revealing his gentle nature. His half-open mouth and expression of concentration create a powerful connection and a positive dialogue with the model, Arcimboldo, and the audience. ArcimboldoÊs personality and his cultured manners were, in fact, completely made for the Imperial Court. Another self-portrait taken from his Study for a Selfportrait is The Man of Letters of 1587 (Palazzo Rosso, Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, Genoa). The drawing

The Admiral (detail 1) Private collection

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was created on white paper with pen and brush, ink and blue wash with some traces of pencil. Arcimboldo depicted himself as a nobleman, in contrast with his previous study representing himself as an artist. In this drawing, he recreated the image of a humanist, dressed in a sophisticated manner, in the fashion of the time, wearing elegant attire and a thick ruff, framing a well-taken-care-of bearded face. This image was a portrait bust.

The Admiral (detail 2) Private collection

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ArcimboldoÊs Self-portrait of 1570, oil on panel, was listed in an inventory of the Prague collection as „a tall man sporting a long black beard‰. Unfortunately, the storage place of this painting is unknown to us. A subsequent portrait, metaphorical in composition, and less natural than his previous works, was the drawing Allegory of Death from the 1590s (collection of works on paper, Jean-Luc Baroni Ltd.). The personification of death was created in the following way: a private garden (hortus conclusus), containing a face in the

Autumn Oil on canvas, 76.8 x 56.7 cm Private collection, Berlin

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guise of a mediaeval tower. The hortus conclusus followed the circular form of a ruff of a courtier. An open mouth and tongue are represented by a door and a staircase respectively, eyes are symbolised by windows, and the head or crown was designed as a castle with crenellated walls. A man climbing a ladder enters through the window at the left of the tower, whilst we see that another man closes the shutters of the window to the right of the tower. It is possible that this allusion to death was not only in reference to

Fire Oil on canvas, 75 x 66 cm Private collection, Switzerland

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ArcimboldoÊs own sickness, but also in reference to his departure from the Royal Habsburg Court. He could also have been alluding to the death of a member of the Royal Family, as, in the painting, the crowned head may have been a symbol of sovereignty. Upon his arrival in Vienna in 1562 under the patronage of Ferdinand I, Arcimboldo painted several portraits of the Imperial Family (now lost or displaced), and, in 1563, he created the first of the Four Seasons series. Austrian archives offer up a glowing description

Fire (detail) Oil on canvas, 75 x 66 cm Private collection, Switzerland

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of ArcimboldoÊs commissions during the years of his service to the Imperial Habsburg Court, under Ferdinand I (1503-1564, reign: 1556-1564), Maximilian II (1527-1576, reign: 1564-1576), and Rudolf II (1552-1612, reign: 1576-1612). In 1565, Maximilian II, son of Ferdinand I, conferred upon Arcimboldo the title of Hof-Conterfetter (Court Portrait Painter). He painted several portraits and paintings during this period. In 1565, the archives

The Jurist Oil on canvas, 70 x 54 cm Private collection, Milan

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mentioned a salary of twenty florins. Arcimboldo continued to receive special payments from the Imperial Court in 1566, 1570, 1574, and 1575. Suffering from homesickness, he returned to Italy in 1566. Under the reign of Rudolf II, son of Maximilian II, he received confirmation of his title of the nobility in 1580. In 1582, he travelled to Germany to acquire antiques and rare animals. His commissions also increased from 1581 to 1586, and his monthly salary reached the amount of

The Jurist (detail 1) Oil on canvas, 70 x 54 cm Private collection, Milan

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fifty florins. Later during these years he returned to his native Milan, but continued to produce works of art for the Imperial Court. In 1592, Rudolf II named him as Palatine. Arcimboldo put all of his ingenuity into the creation of the Four Seasons. The multiple versions of the series, accompanied by those of the Four Elements, occupied a large part of his artistic endeavours during the time of his residence at the Imperial Court.

The Jurist (detail 2) Oil on canvas, 70 x 54 cm Private collection, Milan

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Arcimboldo repeated these two themes many times through the years of 1563, 1569, 1573, and 15751577. In these creations, the series of the Four Seasons was linked with that of the Four Elements. Not all of the paintings from this series were fully finished, they were either not all reunited, or some have simply not survived. The disappearance of certain paintings within the series (or sometimes the misplacement of an entire series) complicates our understanding of ArcimboldoÊs merits. These series were admired and praised by

The Four Seasons in One Head Oil on panel, 60.4 x 44.7 cm Private collection, New York

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artists, theorists, and writers at the end of the 16th century. These included Giovanni Paolo Lornazzo in Idea del tempio della pittura (Milan, 1590), Gregorio Comanini in Il Figino, ovvero del fine della pittura (Mantua, 1591), and Paolo Morigi in Historia dellÊantichità di Milano (Venice, 1592). Under the new royal patronage, the painter and organiser of festivities put his artistic training and talent to use in the creation of sketches for tapestries and

The Four Seasons in One Head (detail) Oil on panel, 60.4 x 44.7 cm Private collection, New York

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stained glass windows, as well as investing his energy into painting frescos depicting personifications of nature and allegorical portraits. The inventiveness and magnificence of the illustrations, the ornamentation of these allegories and personifications of nature, the elements, and individuals, reveal his talent for integrating classical fantasy and the capricci of the Renaissance, into which he also mixed his own wit. Moving away from a patronage dedicated to the construction of a religious edifice in Milan, to one of a

Study of a Lizard, a Chameleon, and a Salamander 1553 Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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secular court in Vienna and Prague, prompted him to create a style which, although mannerist in its beginnings, was devoid of moral implications and religious declarations. Documents from 1568-1571, discovered by Thomas Dacosta Kaufmann in the National Library of Vienna, largely explain the commissions of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements, as well as the symbolism of these incredible series. KaufmannÊs brilliant essay on the Allegories of Arcimboldo clearly demonstrates the

Study of a Figure in a Niche c. 1560-1567 Pen and brown ink, brush with pale brown and purple wash 35.1 x 26.3 cm The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

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importance of the patronage of the artist and clarifies the meaning of his imagery. Kaufmann contradicts the erroneous interpretations developed in the 16th century by ArcimboldoÊs contemporaries, such as the one suggested by Lomazzo, that the Four Elements were inspired by Âpaintings of the tavernsÊ, ComanniÊs view of these paintings as scherzi (jokes), and the suggestion by Morigi that they be called bizzarie (oddities). These fantastical or capricious ideas of ArcimboldoÊs works were continued in the 17th century with P.A. Orlandi

Death of the Virgin (based on a sketch by Arcimboldo) 1561-1562 Tapestry, 423 x 470 cm Como Cathedral, Como

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and Luigi Lanzi, and up until the 20th century with Benno Geiger. KaufmannÊs discovery of Latin texts and poems dedicated to Emperor Maximilian II by Giovanni Battista Fonteo (Joannes Baptista Fonteius Primio) explained the meaning of ArcimboldoÊs representation of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements. They were, effectively, created to celebrate the Imperial Habsburg Court and its sovereigns. The allegorical personifications were suggested to be like grilli, intellectual concepts

Death of the Virgin

(based on a sketch by Arcimboldo) (detail 1) 1561-1562 Tapestry, 423 x 470 cm Como Cathedral, Como

66

intended to magnify the benevolent power of the Habsburg Emperor, and made allusion to the harmonious nature of his reign. Kaufmann challenged the traditional interpretation of the Four Seasons and Four Elements series, according to which it seemed that they were in-jokes, humorous curiosities, or mockeries against the Imperial Habsburg Court. The disagreement amongst scholars mainly revolved around the multiple interpretations of the 16th-century Italian word: grilli.

Death of the Virgin (based on a sketch by Arcimboldo) (detail 2) 1561-1562 Tapestry, 423 x 470 cm Como Cathedral, Como

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For some, grilli meant jokes or word games, for others, it signified intellectual concepts. This last interpretation is in agreement with the mannerist style and its propensity to compose imagery integrating a complex and ambiguous symbolism, as was the intention of the humanist and artist intelligenzia. The manuscripts discovered by Kaufmann convey a radically different interpretation, where the objective of the imagery was to act as an intellectual concept,

The Librarian 1562 Oil on canvas, 97 x 71 cm Skokloster Castle, Skokloster

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combining personification and the celebration of nature (in seasons and elements). Furthermore, the documents clarify ArcimboldoÊs position at court, where he was not only a court painter, but also an inventor of musical arrangements, games, tournaments, performances, and costumes for parades and various festivities. These activities bestowed upon him a persona similar to that of Leonardo da Vinci within his artistic role with the Duke of Milan and Giorgio Vasari, impresario to the Duke of Florence.

The Librarian (detail) 1562 Oil on canvas, 97 x 71 cm Skokloster Castle, Skokloster

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During the course of his career at the Imperial Court, Arcimboldo painted several versions of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements. His royal patrons offered some of these paintings as special gifts to other rulers, or to members of their own family. We cannot know with certainty which of these versions was gifted, or to whom. Others were kept by the Habsburg family in their homes, and they were sometimes even placed in their bedchambers. Even though knowledge relating to

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Barbara or Eleanor?) c. 1562-1565 Oil on wood, 32.5 x 25 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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the patronage of these commissioned series by the Habsburg Court is well-established, there is still an ongoing debate concerning the dates, their actual location, the pairing of images, and the meaning of the series. The Four Seasons or the Four Elements, designed as busts in profile, were created to hang from one another, or to be opposite each other. This symmetrical pairing established a dialogue between them. The interaction also translates in the way in which these images look at

Archduchess Johanna c. 1562-1565 Oil on wood, 34 x 26 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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or react to each other: surprise, laughter, astonishment, deception. The pairing is also linked to the personification of ages of the individuals: a childish expression for Air, while Spring contrasts this with a juvenile appearance. Smiling and anxiety for Summer and Fire. The wellbeing of Earth whilst Autumn reveals the age of adulthood. The struggle of age is incarnated by Winter and Water. Arcimboldo also introduced a sexual element into this series, making reference

Archduchess Anna, Daughter of Emperor Maximilian II 1563 Oil on wood, 42 x 34 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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to humanity: Summer being represented by a young woman, Spring by a young man, Autumn by a mature man, and Winter by an old man. Arcimboldo was very familiar with the traditions of Antiquity and the Renaissance, associating the elements with anthropomorphic symbolism. Seznec observed that „since Antiquity, a system of agreement in which the planets and the signs of the zodiac served as a base for the classification of the elements, the seasons,

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I 1563 Oil on wood, 44 x 34 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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moods or temperaments‰ was established. In this cosmic system, a Renaissance figure was viewed as being a compendium of the world, but at the same time, dependant on universal cosmic forces (theological, geographical, mineral, and medical). In other terms, the individual was a microcosm in a macrocosm, as illustrated in SeznecÊs cosmic schema. In addition to the cosmic connection of the elements, the philosophies of Antiquity explained still further that the natural articulation of each of these elements was

Spring 1563 Oil on wood, 66 x 50 cm Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid

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born out of a combination of two natural elementary principals: water is derived from the principals of cold and dampness, air from heat and dampness, fire from heat and dryness, and earth from cold and dryness. This method of identification was elaborated upon and worked into a series which started with the first element, like water, and finished with the last element, earth, after being passed through the intermediate states of air and fire.

Spring (detail 1) 1563 Oil on wood, 66 x 50 cm Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid

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The alternating seasons punctuated the rhythm of life and the stages of evolution (birth, growth, maturity, and decline); the cycles were thus linked with the states of human life or with different ages of life (childhood, adolescence, maturity, and old age). The result of the celestial connection is that the natural elements of air, fire, earth, and water were associated with the planets and with the signs of the Zodiac.

Spring (detail 2) 1563 Oil on wood, 66 x 50 cm Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid

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Although Arcimboldo did not have any intentions to associate the Four Elements with the signs of the Zodiac, the cosmic implication showed itself in their portrayal as well as in the Four Seasons. Thus, it must be held that the Neo-Platonist philosophy of the Renaissance was upheld in the mannerist vision of macrocosm and microcosm, and permeated the personification of the natural phenomena as created by Arcimboldo.

Summer 1563 Oil on panel, 67 x 50.8 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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The portraits of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements are made up out of four parts: an expressive face in profile, a head topped with a crown, a large collar, and a torso covered in spherical motifs. These parts of the composition are references to imperial symbolism: images of a ruler, crown, honorary chain and sceptre. Each season possessed its own natural element, for example: for Spring an iris or a flower, for Summer, an artichoke or a vegetable,

Summer (detail 1) 1563 Oil on panel, 67 x 50.8 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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for Autumn a rose or a flower, and for Winter a lemon or a fruit. In the case of the elements: for Air a bird, for Fire an incendiary element, for Earth a hunting animal, and for Water a fish. Concerning the sequence of the Four Seasons and the experience of the Four Elements, the individual perceived them via the senses (according to AristotleÊs classification: taste, touch, smell, sight, and sound). By portraying the Four Seasons and the Four Elements, Arcimboldo perfectly understood the meaning

Summer (detail 2) 1563 Oil on panel, 67 x 50.8 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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and the potential for the identification of objects and their properties by the senses. In these paintings he revealed the sensations of taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound. Of the first version of the Four Seasons (1562-1563), the season of Autumn was lost but the three other seasons have survived. Spring can be found in the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid, and Summer and Winter are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Winter 1563 Oil on panel, 66.6 x 50.5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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The inscriptions on the backs of the paintings show that from even the initial time of their design, Arcimboldo planned to pair the Four Seasons with the Four Elements. The series of the elements which accompanied the paintings of the seasons are as follows: Air and Spring, Summer and Fire, Earth and Autumn, and Winter and Water. The

season

of

Spring

(1563),

which

was

commissioned by Ferdinand I of Habsburg, was presumably a gift intended for Philip II, King of Spain,

Winter (detail) 1563 Oil on panel, 66.6 x 50.5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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which would explain why it can be found today in Madrid. On the back of the painting we can read an incomplete notation: La Primavera va accompagnata con lÊAria ch... una testa di uccelli („Spring is accompanied by Air, which... a head of a bird‰), indicating the relationship between Air and Spring. The painting is also signed „Giuseppe Arcimboldo F‰. Flowers adorning the head (caput) create a crown of soft colours ranging from pink to white. The selection of

Peasant Woman Going to the Market 1563 Pen, brush, and brown ink with blue and grey washes on heavy paper, 25.1 x 18.1 cm Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid

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flowers and colours is not accidental; for example, the corolla with six petals raised upwards is an allusion to the imperial crown, whilst the pink tulip forming an ear is in reference to a recent present of a flower brought back from Constantinople by a Habsburg diplomat. The lilies, roses, columbines (in the form of earrings), and the irises (on the torso) are alluding to the month of May, the beginning of the flower season. The collar, in Spring, is composed of jasmine, star jasmine,

Peasant Woman Going to the Market (detail) 1563 Pen, brush, and brown ink with blue and grey washes on heavy paper, 25.1 x 18.1 cm Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid

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and daisies. A large orange rose defines the chin, lilies of the valley create the teeth, and button roses form the lips. The varying shades of green on the robe symbolise the fertility of spring. The plants include a head of lettuce (the torso), violet leaves, nettles, parsley, clover, sage, and wild strawberries. The corolla of the dark iris contrasts with the bright green of the lettuce. The versions in Berlin (1572), Paris (1573), and Munich (undated) are similar in their design, only the size and

Study of a Goat’s Deformed Hoof 1563 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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the colour schema vary slightly. The Parisian version has a decorative border reinforcing the character of the season, creating the illusion of a mise en abyme, a painting within a painting. Another season, Summer (in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) likewise signed „Giuseppe Arcimboldo F‰ in the ruff of the colour, which forms a woven pattern. The date of 1563 appears, following the curve of the shoulder. The crown is made up of a cluster of fruit, including apricots, peaches, pears, cherries,

Maximilian II, his Wife Maria, and their Three Children c. 1563 Oil on canvas, 240 x 188 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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strawberries, and plums. The profile of the face is designed with apples for cheeks, cherries for the lips, white grapes for the teeth, and pears for the chin. The ears are created out of ears of corn and the nose is a large cucumber. The neck is formed from straw and a wheat or corn sheaf. The torso is that of a woman, from between her breasts an artichoke emerges. The versions in Berlin (1572 or that of the private collection in the United States), Paris (1573), and Munich

Maximilian II, his Wife Maria, and their Three Children (detail 1) c. 1563 Oil on canvas, 240 x 188 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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(undated) vary slightly in the selection of fruit for the crown. The Munich version represents a male torso, in which the shoulders are formed by bales of hay interwoven with sheaves of corn, and the portrait of Summer is flanked by columns. The Parisian version contains a splendid ornamental border. The Berlin version of Summer is of a similar composition to the 1563-1568 version, but the tonality of the head ornamentation is less green.

Maximilian II, his Wife Maria, and their Three Children (detail 2) c. 1563 Oil on canvas, 240 x 188 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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Autumn is more difficult to locate. The first version of 1563 is today presumed lost, that of 1572 appears in a private collection in Berlin, and the version of 1573 can be found in Paris. The head is comprised of fruit and vegetables; a large pumpkin takes the place of a crown, and a variety of red, purple, and white grapes form the hair. An apple is the cheek, a peach the nose, and large mushrooms form the ear from which is suspended a fig (akin to a pearl pendant), the mouth is made from a brown chestnut, and a pomegranate is the chin.

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Helen or Barbara?) c. 1563 Oil on wood, 44 x 34 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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Different types of pears and roots form the neck and the torso (made from planks of wood from a broken wine barrel) is held together by branches. A strange garland of bay leaves, in the shape of a bird, covers the torso. Vibrant autumnal colours intensify the personification of AutumnÊs jovial and humorous expression. Autumn is often associated with the god of wine, Bacchus, due to the cluster of grapes and mushrooms that he wears on his head. Only two versions of Autumn have survived; the Parisian version of 1573, comprising a floral border,

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Margaret?) c. 1563 Oil on wood, 44 x 34 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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and the Berlin version of 1572, of a larger size, painted in more vibrant colours, displaying some modifications on the torso and two rows of branches which keep the boards of the barrel together. The season of Winter is signed in the lower right corner „Giuseppe Arcimboldo F.‰. On the back, the date „1563‰ and a title of „Hjems‰ can be found. The character in the portrait is different. He is not made up of an abundance of flowers, fruit, or plants, but from one

Saint Catherine Talks to the Emperor about the True Faith Based on a sketch by Arcimboldo dated 1551 made into a stained glass window, 1566 Stained glass, 116 x 67 cm Milan Cathedral, Milan

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single plant; a withered tree trunk in the form of a man. The head is not configured like those of the other seasons, out of flowers, fruit, and plants. Instead, Winter is symbolised by a tree trunk taking the form of a head, crowned with interlaced leaves and branches; one branch, bearing two lemons, emerging from his chest. The series of the Berlin, Paris, and Munich versions bear slight variations in the treatment of wood for the

Saint Catherine Talks to the Emperor about the True Faith (detail) Based on a sketch by Arcimboldo dated 1551 made into a stained glass window, 1566 Stained glass, 116 x 67 cm Milan Cathedral, Milan

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composition of the crown and the collar, and the lemon and orange emerging from the upper bust change in texture. Furthermore, the Parisian version is encased in a decorative border, whilst the Munich version is bordered by columns. The Munich portrait has a more textured appearance, and the layout of the wood is complex, containing more withered branches. In the whole series, the straw coat varies in its texture and in its lettering, sometimes containing an „M‰ (for Maximilian II), when the „M‰ is inserted upside down.

Air c. 1566 Oil on canvas, 74.4 x 56.6 cm Private collection, Basel

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The initial ÂAÊ (for Arcimboldo) is visible in the Berlin and Viennese versions, whilst in the Parisian version he had chosen to depict the royal insignia. In 1569, after the death of Ferdinand I, Arcimboldo created a second series of the Four Seasons for his new patron, Maximilian II (today all lost, except for the reworked series of 1573 which is located in the Louvre). This series accompanied the Four Elements as well as a descriptive poem by Giovanni Battista Fonteo (1542-1587). This work incorporates the

Air (detail 1) c. 1566 Oil on canvas, 74.4 x 56.6 cm Private collection, Basel

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concept by Horace, Ut picture poesis („in painting as in poetry‰). The title of the poem and a note from the second version of the series confirms the tradition of artists and poets of the Imperial Court, of presenting a gift to the Emperor for the New Year. The discovery of the manuscript of a poem by Fonteo revealed itself to be important as it offers us a clavis interpretandi (interpretive key) for the meaning of ArcimboldoÊs series in the context of the Habsburg patronage. The scholar Fonteo is known for being

Air (detail 2) c. 1566 Oil on canvas, 74.4 x 56.6 cm Private collection, Basel

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well-versed in Latin history and for his treatise on Latin. His dithyrambic poetic style, inspired by Neo-Latin Renaissance literature and Neo-Platonist philosophy, completes ArcimboldoÊs complex imagery and his mannerist concepts. For both the poet and the artist, the aim was to reveal the glorious power of the Habsburg Imperial Court to the whole world. To give glory to their patron, the Emperor, was an indirect way of revealing the bravery and the virtuousness of the artists. In pursuit

Water 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 50.5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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of this endeavour, the poet and the artist looked to past antiquity and to recent events as inspiration for elements for the creation of their mythical utopias. ArcimboldoÊs imagery should therefore be analysed with the context of the 16th-century cultures of the Imperial Courts of Vienna and Prague under Maximilian II and Rudolf II in mind. He was a great inspiration for the humanists at court, Fonteo in particular. As court painter and decorator, Arcimboldo revealed his desire to

Water (detail 1) 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 50.5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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honour the Royal Court which supported him. During his residence at the Imperial Court, Fonteo inspired and collaborated with Arcimboldo on the symbolism of the paintings. Their friendship and their partnership contributed to the creation of numerous festivals, including the celebration of the marriage of Archduke Charles of Styria and Maria Anna of Bavaria in Vienna, 1571. The two artists enjoyed dreaming up and creating costumes, ornaments, and decorations for imperial festivities.

Water (detail 2) 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 50.5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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In 1572, Arcimboldo repeated the theme of the Four Seasons (today in a private collection in Berlin). Still intact, the image of the portrait of the Four Seasons differs slightly to the other series. Effectively, in this version of the series, the anthropomorphic theme is treated with a darker background, and the headÊs ornamentation is exaggerated and more meticulous. One year later, in 1573, Arcimboldo depicted a similar version of the Four Seasons and the Four Elements. An impressive floral border corresponding to the season,

Fire 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 51 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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and creating the illusion of a frame, permits a rapid identification of this fourth version. Some scholars claim that Arcimboldo added the garland of the frame later, perhaps when he reworked the 1569 series, in order to differentiate this group of paintings from previous series of works. Probably between 1575 and 1577, he painted two other series of the Four Seasons (only three seasons are preserved in the Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen,

Fire (detail 1) 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 51 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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Munich). The Munich series was painted on wood panels, whilst all the other series were painted on canvas. The Munich version shows greater colour contrasts than earlier versions and, in certain areas, colour has also been applied less firmly. These portraits are bigger and richer in copious ornamentation which matches with each separate season. Two pillars, creating an illusion of a painting within a painting, frame the anthropomorphic image. By request of Maximilian II, Arcimboldo painted other versions to be gifted to the

Fire (detail 2) 1566 Oil on wood, 66.5 x 51 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

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Prince-Elector of Saxony. Although the themes are similar, these versions should not be considered copies, but rather as „variations on a theme‰. The series of Four Elements is harder to reconstruct as several panels are dispersed across numerous museums and others are in private collections. However, Arcimboldo clearly had the intention to pair this series with the Four Seasons. His scientific interest and the EmperorÊs taste for collections of rarities of all kinds are

The Jurist 1566 Oil on canvas, 64 x 51 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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reflected in the paintings of the Four Elements (Air, Fire, Earth, and Water). In his poem, Fonteo announced that „the Elements have rejoined the Seasons by adopting human form as heads to worship the demigod of Austrian glory‰. Arcimboldo explains with a number of details how the Four Seasons are linked with the Four Elements, and how the treatises of the cosmology of Antiquity and the Renaissance equally

The Jurist (detail) 1566 Oil on canvas, 64 x 51 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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symbolise this analogy. We can find, for example, that Summer is hot and dry, as is Fire, Winter is cold and damp like Water, Spring and Air are both warm and damp, and Autumn and Earth are cold and dry. In like manner, Fonteo created his poem as a dialogue between the Four Elements and the Four Seasons, just as Arcimboldo worked to give a symmetrical appearance to his works, for example by making Air complement Spring.

Earth c. 1570 Oil on wood, 70.2 x 48.7 cm Private collection, Vienna

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The season of Spring is accompanied by the element of Air, the association of this season with that of the element is a result of the natural links with the beginning of spring: the beginning of knowledge, the rebirth of new flowers, plants, and vegetation, birdsÊ ability to fly without being hindered by atmospheric conditions. The 1566-1576 version is today in a private collection in Basel. Arcimboldo depicted the idea of air as an encyclopaedia of ornithological imagery. The head is

Earth (detail 1) c. 1570 Oil on wood, 70.2 x 48.7 cm Private collection, Vienna

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made up of an extremely dense flock of birds which gives the impression of a head of hair. We can easily identify a raven, a warbler, owls, and, in particular, a large peacock on the torso; a symbol of the dynasty, as well as an eagle; the symbol of the Empire. Small birds of prey and parrots create a crown, a turkey forms the nose, pheasant and rooster feathers create the mouth and beard, the open beak of a duck forms the eyes, and a goose, swan, parrot, and owl form the neck or

Earth (detail 2) c. 1570 Oil on wood, 70.2 x 48.7 cm Private collection, Vienna

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the collar of Air. In this personification, the flying animals evoke the centre of space and wind; a majestic kingdom. Arcimboldo paired the element of Fire with the season of Summer, joining the two Mercurial appearances. He also endeavoured to contrast the volatile nature by depicting Summer as a woman, and Fire in the guise of a soldier. Fire belongs to the first series, dating from 1566 (in the Kunsthistorisches

The Cook c. 1570 Oil on wood, 52.5 x 41 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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Museum, Vienna, signed in the lower right corner of the barrel „Josephus Arcimboldus Menesis, F.‰). The date and inscription „1566 Ignis‰ appears on the back of the painting. A second version can be found in a private collection in Switzerland. The character of Fire is comprised of items producing flames, and objects of light; flashes of torches and cannons, and objects which are used to create fire, such as candles, flint, and rockets. Several different types of fire can be found

The Cook (detail) c. 1570 Oil on wood, 52.5 x 41 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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within this painting. The crown contains an enormous wood fire, the face is made up of two pieces of metal for the nose and the ears, a small candle for the eye, pieces of paper for the cheeks, an oil lamp for the chin, a bundle of wicks for the moustache, and a roll of candle wicks for the furrowed brow. A large candle serving to illuminate the wood fire forms the neck and links the face to the collar which is adorned with a chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece, a powerful military order.

The Cook c. 1570 Oil on wood, 52.5 x 41 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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On the day of his marriage, 10th January 1430, Philip of Burgundy gifted the golden chain to the Habsburg family, becoming in this manner a member of the Royal Family. The symbol of the Golden Fleece is thus equally associated with the Habsburgs. The most impressive part of Fire is the torso. It is comprised of various martial symbols, such as canons and rifles, as well as medallions covered with a double eagle; the symbol of the Holy Roman Empire of the

The Cook (detail) c. 1570 Oil on wood, 52.5 x 41 cm Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

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German Nation. By introducing these different elements, Arcimboldo clearly made the allusion to the superior military power of the Habsburgs in the face of the Great Turkish War. Earth (1570, today in a private collection in Vienna) is an oil painting on panel. This characterisation is paired with the season of Autumn. In Il Figino (1591), Comanini described the painting of Earth: The forehead contains a multitude of animals: an Indian gazelle, a mountain goat, a deer, a leopard, a dog, a stag, a stag beetle, a doe, and a large

Self-portrait c. 1571-1576 Pen and blue wash on paper, 23.1 x 15.7 cm Narodni Galerie, Prague

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animal. An ibex, a mountain goat from Tyrol, forms the neck along with a rhinoceros, a mule, an ape, a bear, and a wild boar. Above the forehead one can perceive a camel, a lion, and a horse. It is interesting to note that all the woodland animals have arranged their arms to encircle the forehead in such a manner as to form a royal crown. The area towards the back of the cheek is comprised of an elephant, making the ear somewhat large to be that of human character. An ape under the elephant makes up the lower jaw.

Study of a Featherless Three-Footed Chick 1571 Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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For the area in front of the cheek, a wolf was used; its large mouth open to capture a mouse. Its open mouth is the eye, and the mouse is the pupil of the eye. The mouseÊs tail and paw form a moustache just above the upper lip. On the forehead, seated amongst the other animals, a fox with a coiled tail forms the eyebrow. On the wolfÊs shoulder is a hare, which takes the place of the nose, and a catÊs head is the upper lip. In the place of the chin is a tiger, supported by the elephantÊs trunk. The trunk is curled, and forms the lower lip of the mouth of the

Study of a Helmeted Curassow (Pauxi pauxi) 1571 Watercolour and gouache Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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character. A lizard is noticeable leaving the open mouth. A sleeping ox and faun form the shape of the curve of the neck. The description makes one think of the dream of a hunter. It contains several elements of fauna. The sheepskin and the lion skin are also ArcimboldoÊs way of making reference to the Habsburg family, and, indirectly, to the Golden Fleece as illustrated in Fire. Arcimboldo also brings to mind the claim that the Habsburgs were descended from Hercules, the demigod, following the example of Roman Emperor Augustus who claimed to be a descendant of Venus.

Study of an Indian Mongoose 1572 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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Water, the kingdom of the seas, corresponds to the season of Winter. In his work Trattato dellÊarte pittura (1585), Lomazzo remarks that „all the fish and oysters (are) so well designed that one could believe that the painting is filled with water‰. The painting of 1566 bears the note „Water‰ on the reverse (today it is found in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). This last painting is comprised of a crown made of coral and various aquatic species, including whales, a walrus, a sea horse and a starfish. The face of the profile in the picture is made up of an assortment of a multitude of

Summer 1572 Oil on canvas, 92.2 x 71.1 cm Denver Art Museum, Denver

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different fish, for example: lumpfish, puffer fish, oysters, toads, shrimp, and a net. These aquatic vertebrates are covered in scales and fins. A huge pearl is suspended from a large conch shell, forming the ear. A hermit-crab makes up the eyebrows. A ray is used as the cheek, and a sharkÊs open mouth, full of sharp teeth, is the open mouth and the teeth of the image. The collar is an eel coiled upon itself. An impressive ring of pearls around the neck in the painting is in contrast with the hideous, large crab on the torso, covered in turtles, lobsters, octopuses, frogs, large mussels, and other shellfish.

Summer (detail) 1572 Oil on canvas, 92.2 x 71.1 cm Denver Art Museum, Denver

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Water is one of the first aquariums. The atmosphere in this cold dwelling place; wet and aquatic, is rendered through the silvery colouring, interspersed with shades of red (coral, lobster, and shrimp), yellow (eel, turtle shell, and crabÊs shell), and white (the conch shell and pearls). The allusion to the Royal Court of Maximilian II is present through the metaphorical representation of the coat of arms, symbolised by the giant crab in the middle of the torso and by the crown made of branches of coral and fish bones. This encyclopaedic collection of

Autumn 1572 Oil on canvas, 92.71 x 71.76 cm Private collection, United States

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aquatic animals conveys the symbolism of the universal reign of the Habsburg family, of their expansion of territories (embodied by the Earth element) and of their naval power in the Mediterranean. Arcimboldo continued to explore the natural world and that of the imagination. These artistic images were the fruit of the ingenious spirit of an artist who was being inspired by the natural world and drawing from sources of literature and the visual realm. Nevertheless, he dared to defy the universal laws of nature (the season, the elements, and moods) before he reinvented

Autumn (detail) 1572 Oil on canvas, 92.71 x 71.76 cm Private collection, United States

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them in art (with originality, imagination, idealisation, and embellishment). As a mannerist painter of the 16th century, he was confronted with the crisis in the Church; conflicts between the Reformation and the CounterReformation in the Christian world and in governments; the hostility of the European states against the Habsburgs, and the Habsburgs fighting the Ottoman Empire. So, Arcimboldo escaped by using his genius to create a world of „art for art‰ where all the elements in nature coexisted in peace, in the air just as in the water, in the fire just as in the earth; where the four seasons supplied

Winter 1572 Oil on canvas, 76.8 x 56.7 cm Private collection, Berlin

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the riches of life, even in winter when nature is resting. Arcimboldo invented an artistic utopia, a kaleidoscope kingdom of colours and shapes where only imagination reigned. His world was not limited to only natural phenomena. He also created other kinds of portraits as we can see with The Librarian (1562), The Jurist (1566), Vertumnus (1590), and Flora I, II, and III (1591-1592, Flora I is now in a private collection in Paris, whilst II and III are located in private collections in New York). These images do not resemble the figures which were created as part of the Four Seasons or Four Elements series, but they are more

Autumn 1573 Oil on canvas, 77 x 63 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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like animation projects, where the inanimate and the living coexist. With The Librarian or The Library, Arcimboldo created a personification of a scholar. The characterÊs composition is made up of books. The head of hair is an open book, whilst the head, the cheeks, the nose, the mouth, and the neck are all formed from several kinds of books, small and large, open and closed. Optical lenses form the eyes. The torso is made up from a pile of stacked books. The arms are made out of large books with red and beige covers. The booksÊ bindings are reminiscent of the Italian design and decor

Autumn (detail 1) 1573 Oil on canvas, 77 x 63 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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of the 16th century. In the right-hand section of the background, an old red door contrasts with the theatrically elaborate curtain which partly rests on the left shoulder of the scholar, thus serving him as ceremonial clothing and draping the right side of the scholar. The fringes of the book create his fingers. The painting seems to be a personification of a literary man, perhaps Wolfgang Lazius (1514-1565), historian, doctor, and cartographer for the Imperial Court. In his writings, Lomazzo mentioned the portrait of the man made of books, whilst in Il Mondo Illusorio (c. 1587),

Autumn (detail 2) 1573 Oil on canvas, 77 x 63 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Porzio claimed that it was actually a satire of mediaeval philosophy, revealing the humour of the Imperial Habsburg Court. Other versions of this painting exist; one in Linköping, Stifts Och-Landesbibliothek, and two others in private Swedish collections. The Librarian, following examples of characters in the Four Seasons and the Four Elements, is an amalgamation of humanist ideas in the form of books, an allegory of apprenticeship, with two previous paintings: the two versions of Rudolf II under the guise of Vertumnus, and the tree versions of Flora and The Jurist, representing all of the characters which have existed.

Spring 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.5 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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The Jurist (1566, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm) has an inscription on the back „Giuseppe Arcimboldo F. 1566‰. Scholars have also questioned whether another version, part of a private collection in Milan, was actually the work of Arcimboldo. The Jurist offers a three-quarter bust, elegantly dressed in a brown woollen coat trimmed with fox fur. A scholar of the law holds two books. According to the art critic Lomazzo, the painting depicted Johannes Ulrich Zasius, a renowned jurist, counsellor, and vicechancellor of the court of Maximilian II. Meanwhile,

Spring (detail 1) 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.5 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Comanini, another art critic, claimed that, to him, it seemed that the portrait was of „a certain scholar whose face had been devoured by the French disease, to the point that in reality, nothing remained of him other than a few hairs on his chin. He created his face entirely out of meat and fried fish, and it turned out to be such a success that whoever saw it immediately recognised the true face of the scholar.‰ The face of the jurist was created out of different types of fish and poultry, with, for example, a plucked chicken for the nose and eyebrows, two types of fish for

Spring (detail 2) 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.5 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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the mouth and chin, and the body of a chicken for the forehead and cheeks. The claws and eyes of the bird resemble more those of an eagle than poultry; the eagle being the royal symbol of the Habsburgs. Although ComaniniÊs narrative attributing the portraitÊs face to the effects of the „French disease‰, or „French pox‰, is interesting, it is difficult to imagine that Arcimboldo could have created such a portrait of the vicechancellor of the Imperial Habsburg Court. It is equally possible that the face alludes to the Italian saying: ne carne, ne pesce („neither fish, nor meat‰), representing

Winter 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.6 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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the judgeÊs impartiality in legal matters; a judge may not opt for one cause or another in the name of impartiality. The faceÊs countenance could have been in reference to the ambiguity of the jurist faced with religious affairs, equally underlining the religious indifference of Maximilian II. The inscriptions on the books are difficult to read. On the first tome, the letters „lserbia‰ can be read, whilst the second book bears an undecipherable title, starting with „The‰. The writing on the first book would not only be alluding to the war with the Turks, but also

Winter (detail 1) 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.6 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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to the exodus of the Serbian people to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The torso in the portrait is formed from a lawyerÊs satchel, containing several pages. Here, the writing is illegible. Although forming a minority, historians such as Geiger claim that The Jurist is a satirical portrait of the Church reformer John Calvin. GeigerÊs claim is based on a particular tradition consisting of depicting religious figures in a satirical manner, as illustrated by the satirical prints of Pope Tobias Stimmer, or, perhaps, in ArcimboldoÊs ironic painting of John Calvin in The Jurist.

Winter (detail 2) 1573 Oil on canvas, 76 x 63.6 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris

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In 1578, Arcimboldo revisited biblical themes and created two pendant portraits with the subject of an unusual representation of Adam and Eve: Eve and the Apple, With Counterpart. The portrait profiles are those of two individuals whose identities still remain unknown: the female portrait is a personification of Eve, and the male portrait is that of Adam. The womanÊs face is formed from the figures of small children engaged in various erotic games. Two putti cling to a strand of pearls adorning her hair, whilst another putto holds a large pearl in the form of an earring. A thick necklace

The Sommelier (La Cantina) 1574 Oil on canvas, 87.5 x 66.6 cm Private collection, London

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of pearls decorates her throat. Her décolletage exposes the upper part of her bosom, embellished with a golden chain which ended by a rose. Her black attire is adorned with white lace. The sleeves are decorated with three red ribbons, tied in the manner of „love knots‰. Obvious is a thick black ribbon tied around her left wrist, and it should be observed that she is firmly holding either an apple or a pear, whilst making an unusual gesture with her little finger. Her lips being half-open, we may guess that the woman is engaged in conversation with her companion.

The Sommelier (La Cantina) (detail) 1574 Oil on canvas, 87.5 x 66.6 cm Private collection, London

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The portrait of Adam depicts a man casually-dressed, which contrasts with EveÊs attire. His head and his face are also made out of children engaged in erotic acts. His throat is formed from the stretched-out bodies of two figures. He holds a book open with a book-mark. The inscriptions possibly say Sapi... casa („Rest... home‰). The interesting element in this painting is the scroll which he clutches in his right hand. Although the upper text is difficult to decipher, in observing the pendants it can be deduced that a conversation is taking place between the two figures. However, in regard to their gestures,

Two Portraits of Rudolf II with the Crown of the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire 1575 Pen and black ink on paper, 16.8 x 16.5 cm (left) and 15.8 x 15.7 cm (right) Narodni Galerie, Prague

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their conversation is not the most pleasant. The woman confronts the man with an apple of discord and a wedding ring, whilst the man brandishes a marriage contract. For all that, they both have sex in mind, as evidenced by the erotic nudes who make up their faces and heads. In the The School of Prague (1988), Kaufmann mentioned other works by Arcimboldo associated with the seasons, such as Janus, Vertumnus, Flora, and Bacchus. Traditionally, Vertumnus is associated with Summer, Flora with Spring, Bacchus with Autumn,

Aplomado Falcon 1575 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

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and Janus with Winter. The personifications of Janus and Bacchus, mentioned in the Austrian archives, are presently lost, whilst the painting illustrating the Four Seasons in One Head is located in a private collection in New York. Some years later at court, Arcimboldo revisited the theme of the personification of the Seasons and the Elements. However, he attached the concepts of allegory or metaphor to particular individuals, such as Emperor Rudolf II in the guise of Vertumnus or the portrait of a noblewoman under the guise of Flora.

Spring 1575-1577 Oil on wood, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

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In his Milanese workshop, Arcimboldo depicted Flora whilst also painting the portrait of Rudolf II in Vertumnus. In 1589, he sent first his painting Flora to Prague, and then a year later, he sent Vertumnus to the Emperor. In 1896, Flora was sold to a private account for twelve francs; Vertumnus today can be found in Sweden (Skokloster Castle, Skokloster). The portrait of Rudolf II in Vertumnus is the last painting which Arcimboldo created for the Imperial Habsburg Court. Comanini, a close friend to Arcimboldo who owned a version of the Four Seasons,

Spring (detail) 1575-1577 Oil on wood, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

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wrote a magnificent poem inspired by this painting. The long poem glorifies Rudolf II as a benevolent sovereign, paralleling the fertility of Vertumnus with the achievements of the Emperor. In this portrait, Arcimboldo did not only portray Rudolf II in the form of the Etruscan god of transformation and vegetation: Vertumnus, but he also captured the psychology of the Emperor. Rudolf II was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, King of Bohemia, and King of Hungary. A later portrait by Antonio Rasio in the style of Arcimboldo, which can be seen at the Pinacothèque de

Summer 1575-1577 Oil on canvas, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

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Museo Civico, Brescia, represents Vertumnus, the Etruscan god, with a figure lounging in an enclosed garden, surrounded by a classical parapet on which an owl is perched, observing the spectator. In the distance, an alpine countryside, which is a little fuzzy, contrasts with the vitality of the foreground which is occupied by a tapestry of fruit. The creation of the body from exotic fruit and vegetables is a lively fantasy of trompe lÊoeil (optical illusion). Three versions of the nymph Flora (1591) exist. One is housed within a private collection in Paris, and the two others belong to a private collection in New York.

Summer (detail 1) 1575-1577 Oil on canvas, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

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Out of the latter two, Flora dellÊArcimboldo is inscribed in the upper part of one painting, painted in Milan in 1588. A second version was finished two years later. Lomazzo described the painting in Idea, remarking that it was painted around 1589. Inspired by the paradigm of BotticelliÊs Flora in Spring (1475), Arcimboldo reversed the image of the face of BotticelliÊs Flora in his own painting. The gaze of ArcimboldoÊs Flora, devised out of flowers, appears to follow the viewer from left to right. As in his previous personifications of Spring, he created a crown out of an infinite variety of flowers, and he transformed the hair

Summer (detail 2) 1575-1577 Oil on canvas, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

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into a floral garland. The figure is enhanced by the white collar of woven flowers which adorns the dress of green leaves and outlines FloraÊs décolletage, which is created from rose petals and white daisies. The white flowers in this illusionist masterpiece offer us a vibrant celebration of springtime. By comparing the different versions of Flora, from the private collection in Paris with the others from the New York private collections, we can see the following distinctions: in the Parisian Flora, the brushstrokes of the flowers in the crown are of smaller size, the face is less round, her smile reveals her teeth, the depth of the

Winter 1575-1577 Oil on wood, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

208

neckline is not as pronounced, and a splendid open yellow lily emerges from her chest; its colour corresponding to that of the yellow lily which forms her aquiline nose. On the green mantle which covers FloraÊs shoulders and constitutes her finery, in one version it is missing the small white flowers dotting the texture. In another version, the decorative border surrounding the white collar is made of roses, daisies, and jasmine. The Parisian Flora skilfully camouflages the precise features of the portrait of a woman, and her general expression is also less bold than that of the Flora of the New York collection.

Winter (detail 1) 1575-1577 Oil on wood, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

210

The image of Flora is an allusion to the goddess and messenger of spring, as she was the offspring of Chloris („greenery or freshness‰), goddess of vegetation, and of Zephyrus, god of the west wind. As a result, she created fresh fruit and the flowers of the earth. All the flowers depicted in the painting are universal symbols of life, of regeneration, and of fertility; in particular the yellow lily. The numerous star-shaped petals in the painting are ArcimboldoÊs referencing the association of flowers with psychotropic properties. They embody the zest for life, cosmic influences, in particular that of rebirth (the transition between winter and spring) and of

Winter (detail 2) 1575-1577 Oil on wood, 84 x 57 cm Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich

212

the triumph of life over death. The colour-association of the painted flowers signifies vitality and passion with red, fertility with yellow and green, devotion with blue and purple, and finally knowledge and prosperity when all these colours are combined. A third version of Flora, dating from 1589-1590 (in a private collection in New York, formerly the Wildenstein and New York Company collection), represents an unknown woman in a traditional Italian portrait pose of the 16th century. A portrait bust, FloraÊs tresses are decorated with flowers, and the garland of

Nature Study 1577 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

214

215

her open collar reveals her bare right breast, an erotic allusion evoking GiorgioneÊs Laura (1506). This erotic reference is linked, by the Hermetic symbolism of nature, to the fertile season of spring. This reference to nature is reprised with a fruitful artistic imagination, inspired in ArcimboldoÊs painting by the poetic richness of PétrarqueÊs sonnets of Laura, and by OvidÊs passage on Apollo and Daphne in his Metamorphoses. According to Kaufmann, „the treatment of the painting, the forms of the flowers and the leaves, and their pale colouring are all very similar to the first version of Flora‰.

Ring-necked Pheasant 1577 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

216

217

The splendid painting of Flora III, in revealing its character and, showing the development of nature in a symbolic manner, also contains a confusing detail: an ant climbing towards the flower bud which forms FloraÊs nipple. In one of the first Greek bestiaries, Physiologus (2nd century CE), the anonymous author details the importance of the ant which, like the bee, is a symbol of diligence, of endurance, and of foresight, as one observes the patient nature of the insect which reaps its food harvest before the onslaught of winter. Arcimboldo extended the art of illusionism to other types of imagery, such as the reversible portraits of

Nature Study 1578 Watercolour Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

218

219

thematic scenes, with The Cook, or The Chef, and upside down, The Meat Platter (1570, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm), and The Gardener, with an upside-down image of The Vegetable Bowl (1590, Museo Civico Ala Ponzone, Cremona). Arcimboldo depicted visual puns, reminiscent of the upside-down world (il mondo alla rovescia) of Hieronymus Bosch and of Peter Bruegel the Elder. The Cook is a portrait of a hideous man. His face is comprised of different types of cooked meats: chicken, rabbit, pork. A silver platter serves as his hat, with the edge reflecting other types of meat, accentuating his

Eve and the Apple, with Counterpart (left side) 1578 Oil on canvas, 43 x 35.5 cm Private collection, Basel

220

role as a chef in this way. A slice of lemon and a sprig of oak form a plume; an allusion to the image of the fool at carnival (Mardi Gras), or „Feast of Fools‰. This celebration makes a mockery of morality, laws, and codes for the sake of violence and rituals associated with physical and sexual excesses. It is the triumph of the pleasure of the flesh, including food. Perhaps, subtly, Arcimboldo wanted to create an allusion to one of the seven deadly sins: gluttony? When the painting is inversed, a different image appears: two hands lift the cover of a silver platter, full of succulent roast meats.

Eve and the Apple, with Counterpart (right side) 1578 Oil on canvas, 43 x 35.5 cm Private collection, Basel

222

This image may be in reference to the sense of taste, the slice of lemon, referring to the sense of smell, strengthening this allusion. In the other reversible painting, The Gardener or The Vegetable Bowl, another type of meaning is revealed to us. In one position of the painting, we see a variety of beautiful vegetables on a platter; onions, carrots, mushrooms, courgettes, spinach, turnips, and other types of green vegetables. In the other position of the painting, we see an allegorical portrait of a vegetable gardener. Some scholars view this image as a reference

Red Hartebeest and Blackbuck 1584 Biblioteca Universitaria, Bologna

224

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to Priapus, the Greek protector of livestock and gardens (fruit, plants, and vegetables), or to the fertility god. The reasons given are to do with a phallic imagery, prompted by the arrangement and the shapes of the vegetables in the paintingÊs composition. In these types of images, Arcimboldo concentrated on the reversible meaning of the objects, adding an ambiguity to his art, as well as a sense of mystery. The objective of the Habsburg Emperors was to create a glorious empire, to populate the most distinguished humanist, scientific, and dignitary court of the time.

The Gardener (reversible) c. 1590 Oil on wood, 36 x 24 cm Museo Civico Ala Ponzone, Cremona

226

227

When Rudolf II undertook the reign of the Habsburg Empire in 1575, his intention was to create a second Golden Age during his reign (the reign of Charles IV was the first). He became one of the most important patrons of the arts and of European science of the end of the 16th century. Rudolf II invited humanist scientists to court, as well as the famous mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who first served as assistant to Brahe, and then succeeded him in 1601. Artists were also encouraged, for example Bartholomeus Spranger (1546-1611) and Hans Von Aachen (1552-1615).

The Gardener (reversible) c. 1590 Oil on wood, 36 x 24 cm Museo Civico Ala Ponzone, Cremona

228

229

Rudolf II equally supported the work of alchemists such as John Dee (1527-1608/1609) and Edward Kelley (1555-1597). An avid collector of art and rare objects, he owned cabinets overflowing with art collections and the most extraordinary curiosities; the Kunstkammer and Wunderkammer. Arcimboldo succumbed to the charm of such a wonderful patron and his art reflected the magic of the Imperial Court. Unfortunately, a large part of this collection was dispersed by the French, the Spanish, and in particular the Swedish, who appropriated a large part of it during the Thirty YearsÊ War (1618-1648).

The Gardener (reversible) (detail) c. 1590 Oil on wood, 36 x 24 cm Museo Civico Ala Ponzone, Cremona

230

Continuing the tradition of the 16th century, of composing drawings and sketches in the forms of exercises or studies for commissions, Arcimboldo created various drawings at the beginning of the 1560s, including thematic scenes in ink or sepia with a blue or grey wash, such as Peasant Woman Going to the Market (1563). Later, he created collections of festive and symbolic themes, such as the Viennese folios (1571) and the Florentine folios (1585), which he gifted to Rudolf II;

Reversible Head with Basket of Fruit c. 1590 Oil on wood, 55.9 x 41.6 cm French & Company, New York

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one hundred and fifty drawings collected together in a red leather portfolio, with a dedication in Latin which translates to: To the indomitable Emperor, his eternal and beloved Sovereign and Majesty Rudolf II. From Giuseppe Arcimboldo of Milan, of multiple and varied ideas conceived by his own hand for the provision of tournaments. In the year of grace, 1585. This collection contained several drawings and sketches

which

Arcimboldo

created

for

royal

celebrations, pageantry, festivals, and processions. The majority of these drawings were created in pencil and

Reversible Head with Basket of Fruit c. 1590 Oil on wood, 55.9 x 41.6 cm French & Company, New York

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blue wash, with subjects ranging from animals such as elephants and dragons, to objects such as carriages and sleds. Other drawings depicted theatrical costumes, worn by members of court who assisted in the parades, accompanied by inscriptions to explain their functions. For the liberal arts, for example, he designed a robe for Geometry, inscribed above: „Geometry under the auspices of Archimedes the Sicilian and Archita the Calabrian. Grey robe,‰ a robe for Astrology, notated: „Astrology under the auspices of Ptolemy the Alexandrian and Julius Hyginus the Roman. White robe edged in red with golden stars.‰ The majority

Vertumnus c. 1590 Oil on wood, 70.5 x 57.5 cm Skokloster Castle, Skokloster

236

237

of the designs, which are in Vienna and in Florence, were studies in preparation for the celebrations of the marriage of Archduke Charles of Styria and Maria Anna of Bavaria. Fonteo gave a poetic account of it, including a long description of the festival, of the procession, and of the ceremony. With his help, Arcimboldo designed the show, glorifying the patronage of the Emperor. Other types of drawings were devoted to thematic subjects, such as the thirteen drawings of 1585 describing the art of silk cultivation and its transformation (today in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). The collection was created from pencil and blue ink, and brush and blue wash.

Vertumnus (detail 1) c. 1590 Oil on wood, 70.5 x 57.5 cm Skokloster Castle, Skokloster

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Each drawing contained a meticulous description of the transformation of the silk fibres. Outside of the realm of paintings, drawings, costumes, ceremonies, and productions, Arcimboldo created hydraulic machines, invented a new method of music notation using colours, and developed a series of Kunstkammer and Wunderkammer (rooms of art and marvels), earning him the nickname of „the Leonardo of the Habsburgs‰. These rooms were a type of primitive museum, bringing together collections of objects,

Vertumnus (detail 2) c. 1590 Oil on wood, 70.5 x 57.5 cm Skokloster Castle, Skokloster

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including astrolabes, telescopes, astronomical clocks, stuffed animals, shells, and exotic objects which came from the New World (including stuffed parrots) and the Ancient World, such as Egyptian mummies. Furthermore, there were also collections of precious and semi-precious objects, made out of crystal, ivory, coral, and bronze. Maximilian II, and particularly his son Rudolf II, were avid collectors of these fascinating objects. Arcimboldo died on the 11th July 1593 in his hometown. His tomb is in the Church of San Pietro della

Flora c. 1591 Oil on wood, 72.8 x 56.3 cm Private collection, Paris

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243

Vigna. In the Magistro della Sanità, Milan, the death certificate states that he died at the age of sixty-six, from kidney stones and a urinary tract obstruction „with no suspicion of the plague‰. During his funeral, the famous poet Cesare Bezozzo delivered this epitaph: To the painter Giuseppe Arcimboldo, a most illustrious man The most brilliant, Count Palatine, Who was always highly regarded by the Emperors Ferdinand, Maximilian II, and Rudolf II Cesare Bezozzo, close friend to this great man. L.S

Flora (detail 1) c. 1591 Oil on wood, 72.8 x 56.3 cm Private collection, Paris

244

Although partially forgetting the 17th through the 19th centuries, ArcimboldoÊs artistic heritage was reinvented by Symbolist painters such as Odilon Redon and Arnold Böckland, as well as Surrealist artists such as Salvador Dalí, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, and René Magritte. Today, ArcimboldoÊs imagery continues to defy viewersÊ imaginations by deploying the total wealth of his artistic creativity and charm.

Flora (detail 2) c. 1591 Oil on wood, 72.8 x 56.3 cm Private collection, Paris

246

Index A 39, 41, 43

The Admiral

119, 121, 123

Air

197

Aplomado Falcon Archduchess Anna, Daughter of Emperor Maximilian II

79

Archduchess Johanna

77

Autumn

45, 167, 169, 173, 175, 177

B Bird Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I

248

29, 31, 33, 35 81

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Barbara or Eleanor?)

75

Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Helen or Barbara?) Bust of a Daughter of Ferdinand I (Archduchess Margaret?)

111 113

C Chamois and Ibex Composition with Animals The Cook

13 15, 17 147, 149, 151, 153

249

D Death of the Virgin

65, 67, 69

E Earth Eve and the Apple, with Counterpart

141, 143, 145 221, 223

F Fire Flora The Four Seasons in One Head

250

47, 49, 131, 133, 135 243, 245, 247 57, 59

G The Gardener

227, 229, 231

J The Jurist

51, 53, 55, 137, 139

L The Librarian

71, 73

M Maximilian II, his Wife Maria, and their Three Children

105, 107, 109

251

N Nature Study

19, 21, 23, 25, 215, 219

P Peasant Woman Going to the Market

99, 101

R Red Deer Red-flanked Duiker and Mountain Coati Red Hartebeest and Blackbuck

252

11 9 225

Reversible Head with Basket of Fruit Ring-necked Pheasant

233, 235 217

S Saint Catherine Talks to the Emperor about the True Faith Self-portrait Self-portrait on Paper (Man of Letters) The Sommelier (La Cantina) Spring

115, 117 155 4 191, 193 83, 85, 87, 179, 181, 183, 199, 201

253

Study of a Featherless Three-Footed Chick Study of a Figure in a Niche Study of a GoatÊs Deformed Hoof

157 63 103

Study of a Helmeted Curassow (Pauxi pauxi)

159

Study of a Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) and Flowers

27

Study of a Lizard, a Chameleon, and a Salamander Study of an Indian Mongoose Summer

61 161 89, 91, 93, 163, 165, 203, 205, 207

254

T Two Portraits of Rudolf II with the Crown of the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire

195

V Vertumnus

237, 239, 241

W Water Wild Boar Winter

125, 127, 129 37 95, 97, 171, 185, 187, 189, 209, 211, 213

255