Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria, Parts i and ii: The ancient linear earthworks of Benin and Ishan. Part i: Fieldwork and background information, Part ii: Ceramic and other specialist studies 9781407391113, 9781407391120, 9780860542759, 9781407337036

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Monograph Series
Title Page
Table of Contents
LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
PREFACE
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION
Chapter II: FIELDWORK
COLONIAL INTELLIGENCE REPORT MAPS OF THE BENIN KINGDOM
Cover Page
Title Page
Table of Contents
LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
VOLUME II
Chapter III: CERAMIC STUDIES
Chapter IV: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Chapter V: BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES

Citation preview

Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria The ancient linear earthworks of Benin and Ishan

P.

J.

Darling Part i

Fieldwork and background in£ormation

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 11

BAR International Series 215 (i) 1984

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. S215 (I), 1984: 'Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria' Part I

©

P.J.Darling, 1984.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407391113 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391120 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860542759 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407337036 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542759 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

T his m y w ife L isa, a nd

s tudy

i s

d edicated

w ho h as h elped t o M elissa

i n

t o

s o m any w ays,

a nd J onathan.

CAMBRIDGE M)NOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY General Editor John Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Dept. Archaeology, Downing Street Cambridge CB2 3DZ, England Manuscripts should be submitted to Dr. Alexander in the first instance. Titles already published: 1.

'The Niger Delta: Aspects of its Prehistoric Economy and Culture' by Nwanna Nzewunwa. BAR-S75.

2.

'Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali' by Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh. BAR-S89.

3.

'Of f-Site Archaeology and Human Adaptation in Eastern Africa: An Analysis of Regional Artefact De�sity in the Amboseli, Southern Kenya' by Robert Foley. BARS-897.

4.

'Later Pleistocene Cultural Adaptations in Sudanese Nubia' by Yousif Mukhtar el Amin. BAR-SllL�.

5.

'Settlement Patterns in the Iron Age of Zululand: An Ecolog ical Interpretation' by Martin Hall. BAR-S119. Price £10.00 post free.

6.

'The Neolithic Period in the Sudan, c. 6000 - 2500 B.C.' by Abbas S. Mohamired-Ali. BAR-Sl39.

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'History and Ethnoarchaeology in Eastern Nigeria: A Study of Igbo-Igala relations with special reference to the Anambra Valley' by Philip Adigwe Oguagha and Alex Ikechukwu Okpoko. BAR-Sl95.

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'Meroitic Settlement in the Central Sudan: An Analysis of Sites in the Nile Valley and the Western Butana' by Khidir Abdelkarim Ahtµed. BAR­ S197.

9.

'Economy and Technology in the Late Stone Age Charles Cable. BAR-S201.

of Southern Natal' by

10. 'Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today' ed. M. Hall, G. Avery, D.M. Avery, M.L. Wilson and A.J.B. Humphreys. BAR-S207.

A rchaeology a nd History i n S outhern N igeria: t he a ncient

l inear e arthworks o f B enin a nd I shan.

P . J .

P art P art

D ARLING.

i F ieldwork a nd b ackground

i nformation.

i i C eramic a nd o ther s pecialist

1

s tudies.

C ONTENTS P art S ection P reface

P age 6

R esearch m ethods

a nd b ackground

i nformation

T he E arthworks l ocal d ensities

- d etermining

t heir

e xtent

I . a nd

I .A.

9

G eology V egetation a nd S oils

I .B.1. I .B.2.

1 5 2 5

O ral T raditions a nd t he I ya C ommunity L and B oundary M aps

I .C.1. I .C.2.

3 4 4 7

L inguistics F ootnotes o n C hapter 1

I .C.3.

5 9 7 2

F ieldwork S urveying a nd I nterpreting

t he

I ya

I ya S urveys O khuo ( Uhumwode) E khor

( Egbede)

I I.A .

8 1

I I.B. I I.B.1.

9 4 9 6

I I.B.2.

1 01

O hovbe

( Iyek'Ikpoba)

I I.B.3.

1 07

I dogbo

( Iyekeware)

I I.B.4.

1 19

I du ( Iyek'Orhiomo) - w aterside s ettlements O khunmwun ( Iyek'Uselu)

1 1.8.5. I I.B.6.

1 25 1 30

U do ( Iyek'Ovia) E kpoma ( Ishan)

I I.B.7. I I.B.8.

1 43 1 68

S mall-Scale E arthworks T he O verall P attern

I I.B.9. I I.C.

1 80 1 88

F ootnotes o n C hapter 2 G azeteer a nd m aps o f B enin K ingdom

2 08 2 19f

P ART i i C eramic S tudies P ottery s herds - c ollection a nd c lassification

I II.A .

2 20

I II.B.1. I II.B.2.

2 23 2 29

p rocedures S herd C lassification - d ecoration v ariables S herd C lassification - f orm v ariables C omputer A nalysis D istribution o f c ontexts

o f P ottery S herds

S herd V ariables - g eochronological

I II.C.

2 52

I II.D.

2 62

S ummary a nd C onclusions

I V.

3 00

F ootnotes o n C hapter 3 B ibliography

V .

3 10 3 18

A PPENDICES

3 35

A n ew o utline o f E arly E do H istory E arthworks G eology,

A . E .

V egetation a nd S oils

M aps o f C ommunity B oundaries O ral T raditions R eport

o n T obacco-pipes

b y D .

C alvocoressi

P ottery A nalysis T ables

2

3 36 3 38

G .

4 01

M . O .

4 20 4 34

P .

4 98

Q .

5 09

L IST O F M APS A ND F IGURES P art I P age G eology a nd Hydro-geology o f B endel S tate C ross-profiles s howing G eology a nd Hydro-geology o f

B endel

1 6 1 7

S tate. O dighi

i n I yek'Orhiomwon.

2 2

D istribution o f s ettlements c laiming O giso p eriod o rigins. S ome o f t he m ain c laims o f o rigin f rom B enin .. a nd t he i ya.

4 4 4 6

A hor: d isused o ghodo. O ra, I yowa: d isused o ghodo.

5 5 5 6

O ka n 'Aru O via:

5 7

O ghodo a nd

d isused o ghodo.

s hrine g roves

i n t he B enin a rea.

( Suggested m ovements o f E do

5 8

l anguages).

C lassification o f E do l anguages. A pproximate z ones o f v egetation a nd W illiamson's E do

6 5 l anguage

6 6 6 7

d ivisions. I ya d istribution a nd E lugbe's E do

l anguage d ivisions.

6 8

A rea o f E do-speaking p eoples ( after E lugbe). L inguistic t rees o f E do l anguages a nd d ialects.

6 9 7 0

E do l inguistic n etworks. C onnah's B enin C ity W alls m ap

7 1 8 3

p rofiles. M easured c ross-profiles O ka

t erritory,

( reduced) w ith h ypothetical

o f O ka a nd U gbeku i ya.

b oundaries

a nd

i ya p rofiles.

U te i ya. U te i ya c onstruction s equence.

8 4 8 6 8 9 9 0

( Later d eepening o f I kokhan i ya).

9 1

A pproximate z onation o f i ya.

9 6

O khuo

( Uhumwode)

- h ill-top h amlets.

l andscapes. O khuo O il-Palm P lantation

( map).

E khor

( Egbede)

o n t he m ove.

E khor

i ya

- v illages

Heavily d issected

9 7 9 8

( map).

1 01 1 02

O hovbe

( Iyek'Ikpoba)

O hovbe

i ya s ystem ( map).

- t he

s tructures o f g rowth.

1 07 1 08

O hovbe i ya c ross-profiles. O hovbe p opulation g rowth - t hree

s cenarios.

1 09 1 10

F low d iagram o f O hovbe i ya c onstruction.

1 11

S ome m easurements

1 12

a nd c alculations

o n t he O hovbe i ya s ystem.

I dogbo ( Iyeware) - t he r ise o f a p etty c hiefdom . I dogbo p rimary i ya ( map).

1 19 1 20

( do.

1 21

w ith e astern a dditions.

m ap).

( do. w ith w estern a dditions. m ap). I du ( Iyek'Orhiomwon) - w aterside s ettlements.

1 22 1 25

I du i ya a nd c ross-profiles. O khunmwun ( Iyek'Uselu) - a p owerful p etty c hiefdom d efeated.

1 26 1 30

O khunmwun i ya

( map).

1 31

O khunmwun i ya - m easured c ross-profiles. O khunmwun e arthwork f eatures. U do ( Iyek'Ovia). U do C ity r ampart S elected T he O bas:

a nd

1 43 1 44

( map).

e xtracts

B enin r ulers

o f

t he B enin a rea f rom a ncient m aps.

t heir m others

p atterns

o f

1 32f 1 34

v illages.

s uccession i n B enin.

3

1 45f 1 55 1 56

E kpoma ( Ishan).

1 68

E kpoma i yala

1 69

( map).

D istribution o f s ome s herd v ariables i n t he 3 3kV l ine, E kpoma. S tages i n t he c ulture s equence a long t he 3 3kV l ine, E kpoma. H ome t owns c laimed f or f ounders o f w ards/villages a t E kpoma

1 70 1 71 1 72

a nd U romi. S mall-scale e arthworks - B enin K ingdom a nd E mpire.

1 80

B enin's

C 16th m ilitary e xpansion . D isused c anal: B enin c anoe-port. S mall r everse-banked e nclosures. I gala h ill-forts.

1 81 S mall-scale e arthworks.

1 82 1 89f

A reas o f i ya e nclosures d etermined b y w eight o f d rafting f ilm.

2 00f

C umulative t otals o f m aximum p opulation w ithin i ya s ystem e nclosures. M ap t o s how l ocation a nd s ize o f p rimary i ya a nd

2 05 2 06

d irections o f g rowth. B enin K ingdom p opulation 1 939. C olonial I ntelligence R eport M aps o f

2 07 t he B enin K ingdom

a nd G azeteer

2 19f P art I I

P ottery s herd c ollections

i n a nd a round t he a rea o f

t he

2 22

E do-speaking p eoples a nd i ya d istribution . ( Neck a nd s topper o f f lasked p ot).

2 34

P ottery f orm p rofiles: 1 -17 a nd 1 8 - u nclassified. P ottery s herds f rom I si i kpessa. P ots f ound i n a w aterpath ( N.I.F.O.R.).

2 39f 2 41 2 42

P ots c ollected i n N orthern E do a nd I gbirra b y J ohn P icton, 1 971. P ottery f rom O khunmwun ' original s ites.

2 43f 2 45

P ottery f rom O khunmwun r ecent s ite a nd f rom U seri R adii o f p otsherd r ims a nd n ecks.

2 46 2 47

% v alues o f P reliminary P reliminary C orrelation

2 48 2 49 2 50 2 51

s herd v ariables i n f abric c ategories c ategories u sed i n s herd c lassification. e xamination o f n odular c arved r oulettes ( CR3 o f p ottery s herd f orms a nd d ecorations.

2 2)

A xis v alues f or o ccupation l ayer s herds e xcavated i n B enin C ity . B enin K ingdom A xis 1 v alues a pplied t o C onnah's s herds i n B enin C ity. P rovenance o f s herd v ariables o n B enin K ingdom s ites.

2 58

C hronology o f s ite p rovenances i n t he B enin K ingdom . R elation o f s herd v ariables t o i ya a long t he 1 32kV l ine.

2 59 2 60

P aired p ottery s herd s ites

2 61

i n t he B enin K ingdom .

2 56 2 57

D istribution o f o ne u nusual p ot t ype i n N igeria. R elative c hronology o f s herd v ariables: B enin , E tsako.

2 63 2 81f

G eographical d istribution o f

2 83f

s herd v ariables.

C hronological s tages o btained b y a nalysis o f B endel S tate p ottery s herd c ollections.

4

2 98f

A PPENDIX P age 3 38f 3 60

E l T ransect s urveys o f i ya. E la T ransect s urveys o f O ld O yo.

3 61 3 62f

E lb E 2

I soko a nd I gbo i ya. I ya i n I si a nd E gbede,

E 3 E 4

I ya i n I yeware, B enin K ingdom. I ya i n I yek'Uselu, B enin K ingdom.

3 74f 3 80f 3 94f

E 5

I shan I yala.

G 1-15

G eology

M 1-14

M aps

o f

( 01-11

O ral

t raditions

B enin K ingdom .

4 20f

C ommunity B oundaries

T obacco-pipes P ottery a nalysis

4 34f) 4 98f 5 09f

t ables

L IST O F P LATES P art A

I

I ya entrance n ear U deni

4 5

S taple f or b arricade a t e ntrance S acrifice a t c ross-roads

4 5

I guohan i ya a ddition U nuame - f ood b owls

4 5 9 4

( X)

1 68

a nd w aterpots

U nuame - i nverted ( shrine?) b owl L edged b owls f rom O gba s tream s hrine s ite S lave

f etters

f ound

1 69 1 87-188

i n I badan ft

E xecution g roup - w ar c aptive E khor

i ya - E 2/X c ordon s anitaire

a fter 2 17

E khor

i ya - E 2 w estern a ddition

a fter 2 17

E khor

i ya - E 2/D1 c ordon s anitaire

a fter 2 17

he m ain s urvey p roblem - t hick u ndergrowth Ha T S h r in e s i t e a t U h um u d um u , E k p om a Hb

a fter 2 17 a fter 2 17

P art N

V ariations

O

S tippling

P Q

i n c oarse a nd

f ine

I I

s tring r ouletting

I gala a nd I gbo s herds P ot c onaining g lass b eads

R S

E uropean t rade g in b ottles C ross-cultural c omparisons

T

T obacco p ipes

U

T obacco p ipes

2 29 2 30

r oulettes

a fter 2 36 f rom I dogbo: o f

p ottery

s hrine a rtefacts

36 a fter 2 36 a fter 2 2 79 5 07 5 08

( continued)

5

P REFACE F or o ver h alf-a-millennium t he t ropical r ain f orests o f s outhern N igeria h ave b rooded s ilently o ver t he r emains o f t he l ongest a nd m ost m assive e arth c onstructions y et k nown f rom t he p re-mechanical e ra ( McWhirter:

1 980;

1 29).

F our

t o f ive

t imes

l onger t han

t he G reat W all

o f C hina a nd w ith o ver a h undred t imes a s m uch m aterial m oved a s t he G reat P yramid o f C heops, t hese e arthworks c over a bout s ix-and-a-half t housand s quare k ilometres ( two-and-a-half t housand s quare m iles) o f r ain f orest w ith a c omplicated n etwork o f e nclosures. T heir e stimated t otal l ength i s i n e xcess o f s ixteen t housand k ilometres ( ten t housand m iles) a nd, w ith a n a verage d itch b ottom t o b ank t op h eight o f n early t hree m etres g iving a m ean b ank c ross-section o f t wo-and-a-quarter s quare m etres, t heir t otal v olume i s v ery p robably i n e xcess o f t hirty s even m illion c ubic m etres l ion m an-hours o f w ork.

a bly,

i nvolving o ver o ne h undred a nd f ifty

m il-

T he m en o nce e ngaged i n t his g argantuan t ask w ere, m ost p robt he a ncestors o f t he p resent-day B ini a nd E san ( Ishan) s peakers

s till l iving i n t he a rea. T he B ini k now t hese e arthworks a s i ya w ord w hich c an b e a pplied t o a ny v alley o r h ole i n t he g round;

-a i n

I shan t hey a re t ermed i yala a nd, d own i n t he D elta s wamplands, t he f ew s hort l engths t hat e xist a re k nown a s e wala. F or t he s ake o f a ccuracy a nd c onvenience t hese l ocal n ames w ill b e u sed e xtensively i n t his s tudy. T hey a ll r efer t o l inear e arthworks w hich o nce e nclosed p red ominantly r ural s ettlements a nd w ere c onstructed s o t hat t he s poil d ug f rom t he d itch w as d umped o n t he i nside t o f orm a b ank w ith i ts s teeper a nd m ost i mpressive s lope f acing o utwards. T his d efinition i s c onsidered t o h old f or t hose i ya h aving m ore t han o ne b ank o r d itch i n t heir c ross-profile b ut, d espite s imilar c onstruction t echniques, n ot f or t he c ity w alls a round U do a nd B enin C ity o r f or c ertain, s mall, r everse-banked e nclosures

( below;

I I.B.7.,

I I.B.9.).

B enin i s b est r emembered a s a p owerful a nd i mpressive e mpire, t he h eart o f w hich w as B enin C ity. H ere r uled t he O ba, r egarded

a t b y

h is s ubjects a s d ivine k ing o f b oth l and a nd s ea, w hose m agnificent 1 6th c entury c ourt a rt i ncluded b eautifully c arved i vory t usks a nd ' bronzes c onsidered b y m any t o b e s uperior t o t hose p roduced i n E urope d uring t he s ame p eriod. I ts t raditional p assed d own b y w ord o f m outh o ver t he g enerations, b ack o ver a t housand y ears ( below; I .C.I., I II.E.).

d ynastic h istory, c laims t o s tretch O n i ts d ark s ide,

a s B ritish m ilitary f orces e ncroached o n t he K ingdom a nd a dvanced t owards t he C ity i n 1 897, t he B inis l ast d esperate a ttempts t o p ropit iate t heir o ffended d eities w ith h uman s acrifices e arned t heir d est royed ( Bacon: B enin,

c apital t he u ncomfortable e pithet o f t he C ity o f B lood' 1 897). T oday o il w ealth h as b rought m odern p rosperity t o a nd t he e xpanding C ity n ow t hrobs w ith a s m uch v itality a s i t

e ver d id i n t he p ast w hen, i t s eems, t he A hire - E do, t he C ity o f L ove ( Egharevba:

p raise n ame w as E do n 'Evbo 1 968; 1 6).

T o m eet t he n eeds o f t he m odern c ity, v ast t racts o f l and a re b eing c leared f or f ood, f irewood a nd c ommercial p lantations. U nder t he o nslaught g iving u p i ts t hem

t o

o f c hain-saw a nd b ulldozer t he r ain f orest h as b een s ilent p rotection o f t he a ncient e arthworks, e xposing

e rosion a nd e ven t otal o bliteration b y t hose u sing t he

c layey s ub-soil o f t he b anks f or h ouse-building. f easibility s tudy i n e arly 1 973, i t w as o bvious

6

r ed,

F ollowing a r apid t hat t here w as a n

u rgent

n eed t o r ecord a s m uch a s p ossible a bout

t hese e arthworks

a nd

t heir r elationship t o b oth t he p ast B enin K ingdom a nd i ts c ounterpart, t he m ore f ragmentary I shan K ingdoms. I n 1 974 , with t he i nvaluable s upport o f S .O. O gbemudia a nd D r. E . E yo, t his l ed t o t he s etting u p o f a f ive y ear p roject, f inanced b y t he S tate B oard o f E ducation ( Benin C ity), t he M ilitary G overnor's O ffice ( then i n B enin) a nd t he F ederal D epartment o f A ntiquities ( Lagos). G uinness ( Nigeria) L td., B enin B ity a nd B ight E ngineering L td. a lso m ade s ubstantial f inancial c ontributions w hich w ere m uch a ppreciated a nd P . R oese h elped w ith t he c osts o f r adio-carbon d ating. B .I.C.C., t he M arianist B rothers a t E kpoma, a nd I nnocent O nwunghia a nd B enedict I sibor ( who d eserve s pecial m ention f or t heir h acking a way a t m any h undreds o f m iles o f t hick b ush a nd a cting a s i nterpreters),

a ll h elped g reatly.

P articular m ention s hould a lso b e m ade o f t hose a t t he C entre o f W est A frican S tudies, U niversity o f B irmingham - M arian J ohnson, C olin F light a nd P eter M itchell - w ho h ave m ade m any h elpful s uggestions, a s w ell a s A lan R yder, D an a nd P aula B en-Amos. T here w ere a lso a l arge n umber o f B enin a nd I shan c hiefs w ho s pent m uch t ime d iscussing t heir h istories w ith m e, a nd I c annot t hank t hem e nough f or t heir p atience a nd h elp. S pecial a nalyses c arried o ut b y S teve D aniels a t v ery l ow c ost a re o f

g reat i mportance t o t his s urvey,

h elp.

a nd I a m v ery g rateful

f or

h is

D avid C alvocoressi h as a lso c arried o ut a u seful r eport o n t he

t obacco-pipes. R esearch

r evealed t hat,

a part f rom C onnah's

s urvey o f a bout

1 50

k ms. i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he C ity, v ery l ittle h ad b een r ecorded a bout t hese e arthworks a nd n othing a pproaching t heir f ull e xtent h ad b een r eported b efore. T he f irst t ask o f t his p roject, t herefore, w as t o c oncentrate o n a f ull t opographical s urvey. T his p roceeded o n t wo f ronts: t hrough t he v ery t hick,

t he c ooler m ornings w ere s pent h acking t horny u ndergrowth a long t he e arthworks

( below; I I.A.), a nd t he h ot a fternoons w ere s pent t ravelling d own r oads, t racks a nd f ootpaths r ecording t he v isible i ntersections o f e very e arthwork w ith t he r oute c hosen ( below ; I .A.). T he e venings w ere s pent e ither p lotting o ut b oth t ypes o f t he d ay's s urvey w ork, o r i nterviewing t he e dion ( elders) a nd c hiefs o f v arious v illages. P rog ress

w as

s o r apid i n t he f irst f ew m onths o f

s urvey

t hat

c omplete

m apping o f a ll t he e arthworks s eemed q uite f easible w ithin t he y ears f or w hich a w ritten p romise o f a llocated f unds h ad

f ive b een

r eceived. T he d windling o f f inancial s upport f ollowing t he u pheavals o f t he 1 975 c oup c aused s erious c ut-backs i n t he g round s urvey w ork a fter o nly a bout 1 ,300 k ms. h ad b een s urveyed. G round s urvey c ontinued a t a v ery

r educed s cale o n a s hoe-string b udget,

p roject s hifted t o c heaper e xpedients, 3 00 c ross-profiles, t he c ollection o f

a nd t he e mphasis o f

t he

s uch a s t he m easurement o f o ver s urface a nd e xposed s ub-surface

s herds f rom o ver 4 00 s ites, t he i nterviewing o f b oth v illage c hiefs a nd a cademics, t he g athering o f l ongitudinal p rofiles m ade b y e ngineers a long n ew r outes, a nd t he c ollection o f c arbon s amples f rom b ulldozered s ections o f t he e arthworks. T his c hange o f e mphasis a lso m arked a n a lteration i n t he p rimary o bjectives o f t his p roject f rom s traight-forward s urveying a nd r ecording o f a n o therwise u nknown s et o f d ata, t o a ssessing a nd i nterpreting t he v arious t ypes o f d ata t hat 7

h ad b een g athered. I nitial

s uspicions

w ere

t hat a n etwork o f

l arge

c ellular

e nclo-

s ures, a s f ound i n C onnah's B enin C ity W alls s urvey, h aving a n a verage e arthwork d ensity o f 11 2 k / ms. o f i ya p er s q. k m., w ould b e f ound a ll o ver t he 1 0-13,000 s q. k ms. o f t he B enin a nd I shan K ingdoms, s o g iving a c learer i dea o f B enin i nfluence a nd c olonization i n t he p ast. I nstead o f a n etwork o f a rea

t o

d ense h ad

t he e ast

l arge,

c ellular e nclosures,

a nd n orth-east o f B enin w as

c omplex o f n umerous e vidently e xpanded

s mall e nclosures,

t heir

f ound

a v ery e xtensive t o b e c overed b y a

t he s ettlements o f

w hich

t erritories w ith a ccretionary i ya

l oops

u ntil t he o nly l and u nenclosed b etween s ettlements c onsisted o f n arrow c orridors o f n o-man's-land. I n s ome c ases e ven t hese c ordons s anit aires w ere v iolated: ( and

t he

s tronger s ettlements h ad

t erritory t hat

t erritory

o f

s uperimposed t heir i ya

t he i ya e nclosed) a cross

a djacent w eaker s ettlements.

t he

I n t his

i ya a nd o ver t he d ense

c omplex,

w hich w ill b e d esignated t he ' core a rea ( II.C.c.), i ya d ensities w ere o f t he o rder o f 7 kms. p er s q. km. - m ore t han f our t imes t hose a round B enin.

T o

t he

' core' a rea,

s outh,

s outh-west,

d ensities

f ell

t o

w est

t he

a nd n orth-east

11 2/ 2 k ms.

p er

s q.

( Ishan) km.

o f

t his

l evel o rigi-

n ally e xpected. F urther w est, s outh-west a nd s outh d ensities w ere v ery l ow i ndeed - m any o f t he i ya b eing i ncomplete a nd d iscontinuous. F inally, n o

I yek'Ovia i n t he f ar w est a nd

r ural e arthworks a t a ll.

m eal f ashion, B enin f irmly c luster, o f

s outhern I shan a ppeared

t o h ave

T he d ata a ccumulated s lowly i n a p iece-

u ntil a b road, z onal p attern b egan t o e merge, p lacing o n t he p eriphery o f a l arge, h igh-density e arthwork

t he ' core' a rea

( below;

e nd o f

I I.A.).

T he b asic q uestions

t he a pproximate e xtent a nd r egional d ensities w ere answered,

b ut a

w hole n ew s eries o f q uestions w ere r aised. B enin

i s o ne o f

t he b est

r esearched a reas o f W est

A frica;

a nd

o nly a d ecade o r s o p reviously e xperts i n t he f ields o f e thnography, h istory, a rt h istory a nd a rchaeology h ad c ollected a nd a nalysed f airly e xtensive d ata. I n a ll t hese s tudies, t hough, v ery l ittle h ad b een d iscovered r elating t o t he f irst m illenium A .D. o r e arlier. A lso B enin l ay a t t he c entre o f a ll m eaningful a ctivity; t he C ity w as s een a s

t he h ub a round w hich a ll e vents r evolved,

v enient

n iche

p eriphery. e arthworks

i n w hich t o p lace a m ajor

C learly w ere

t he

s ome o f d irect

i ya

p attern i nto e xplain

I shan s ettlements

Y et

t o

o r

t hat m ost

t heir s urrounding

8

i ya.

o f

t he t he f rom

t he o verall

f irst m illenium A .D.

c lose r elationship o f m any p resent-day

k ind w as n eeded.

c on-

c olonization

t o a utomatically s lot t he

n o

p atterning w ith B enin o n

p roduct o f o rders

t he u nknown g ap o f t he

t here w as

t he o riginal p ostulates

B enin C ity h ad t o b e d iscarded. e asily

a nd

d id n ot B ini

a nd

M ore d ata o f a d ifferent

C hapter I I NTRODUCTION I .A .

T HE E ARTHWORKS:- d etermining t heir e xtent a nd l ocal d ensities

a round

W riting s ometime a fter 1 520 A .D. o f h is v isits t o B enin i n 1 510 A .D., D uarte P acheco P ereira w as t he f irst o f s everal

v isitors t o n ote t he m assive e arthworks s urrounding B enin C ity ( Roth: 1 903; 1 57-191. C onnah: 1 975; 9 9-101. R oese: 1 981; 1 72-4). I n 1 778 L andolphe

r ecorded t hat

t he c orpses o f p oor m en w ere

t hrown

o utside

t he v illage i nto t he ' ditches t o b e d evoured b y v ultures ( in R oth: 1 903; 4 2. B elow; 7 1); a nd t his i s t he s ole r eference t o t he i nnumera ble v illage e arthworks o f E xpedition i n 1 897. L ater

t he B enin a rea b efore t he B ritish

P unitive

C aptain B acon r ecorded a n i nexplicable ' ravine' n ear

t he

l arge v illage o f A duaho 1 2-15 m iles f rom B enin; a nd h e c onsidered t hat l arge t rees g rowing i n t he c urious ' ravine' i ndicated t hat i t w as o f g reat a ge ( Bacon: 1 897; 6 2). O ther s ightings w ere n oted t hree m iles s outh o f B enin, b etween B enin a nd U gbineh t o t he s outh-west l arge n umber o n t he E kiti r oad t o t he n orth ( Roth: 1 903; 1 90). I n p resence

t he

1 920's T albot c ollected

o f

e arthworks

a

i ndicated

t he

i n b oth B enin a nd I shan a reas a s w ell a s

t he

p resence o f m any ' walled' s ettlements V ol I , 1 54. V ol I II, 8 85). E gharevba c ollected B ini o ral

t raditions w hich

a nd

b etween B enin a nd A gbor

t raditions

( 1926;

f rom t he 1 930 s o nwards

a nd n oted t hat e very l arge t own o r v illage i n t he B enin K ingdom h ad b uilt i ya; b ut h is m ain t exts r ecord n o s pecific e xamples o ther t han t he r eputed t hree w alls o f B enin C ity ( Egharevba: 1 968; 1 1, 1 4, 8 3). T raditions c ollected f or G overnment I ntelligence R eports i n t he s ame p eriod o nly n ote a s mall i ya O ba E sigie i s s upposed t o h ave b uilt i nside B enin C ity ( Macrae-Simpson: 1 936; 3 2 p ara. 9 0). B radbury's

e xtensive

c ollections o f B enin

v illage

t raditions

d uring t he 1 950's a nd 1 960's m ention s ightings a t o nly B enin, U do, E kae, I du, I guohan, U vbigie ( in I gieduma) a nd U zalla ( Bradbury: n .d. B S11,35,44,221,393,492,550-1,613. M 510). I n t he e arly 1 960 s C onnah's a rchaeological f ieldwork r evealed a n e xtensive n etwork o f i ya n ear B enin; a nd h e n oted R ees's r eport o f i ya a t N .I.F.O.R., a s w ell a s o ther 1 03,

u nspecified

O ver t heir

s ightings o n t he B enin-Asaba r oad

( Connah:

1 975;

2 37-242). m uch

o f

t he w orld l arge n umbers o f

c ourses h ave b een d iscovered b y m agnified

e arthwork

s ites

a nd

s tereoscopic e xamina-

t ion o f a erial p hotographs. I n s outhern N igeria p lotting o f l inear e arthworks f rom a erial p hotographs h as b een d one m ost s uccessfully i n s avannah l ocations s uch a s O ld O yo a nd O wo. E ven s o, l ong s ections o f l ow

e roded e arthworks

c ould n ot b e d iscerned f rom t he p hotographs

9

o f

O ld O yo

( Darling a nd S oper:

h ave o bscured t he t he f orest z one,

f orthcoming),

a nd

t horn t hickets a ppear t o

t hird o uter w all o f O wo ( Darling: 1 975; 1 66). 1 I n s ightings a re a ll b ut i mpossible t o l ocate w ith a ny

c ertainty. L loyd w as a ble t o d iscern a p ossible c ourse o f t he 9 -12 m etre h igh S ungbo's E redo a round I jebu-Ode u sing k nown r oadside s ighti ngs ( Lloyd: 1 959; 1 5. D arling: 1 975; 1 65); a nd t he 1 5-18 m etre h igh C ity W all o f B enin w ith p art o f i ts 6 -9 m etre h igh n orthern ' addition' w ere p lotted o n t he 1 :50,000 F ederal S urveys M ap ( F.S. M aps 2 98 N W , m ade

f rom 1 :40,000 C anadian A erial P hotos).

Y et o n t hese s ame

m aps

m uch o f t he 5 -9 m etre U do C ity W all, p art o f t he 4 -8 m etre h igh n orthern a ddition t o t he E kpoma T own W all a nd a s hort s ection o f t he 4 -7 m etre h igh E gbaen I ya w ere r epresented a s f ootpaths ( F.S. M aps 2 85NW, 2 98NW) a nd t here w as n o i ndication t hat a ny o f t he t housands o f k ilometres o f i ya e lsewhere e ven e xisted, e ven t hough t hey r anged i n h eight f rom o ne t o o ver n ine m etres a nd h ad a n a verage h eight o f a bout t hree m etres. E xamination o f b oth 1 :10,000 a nd 1 :40,000 a erial p hotog raphs a t t he e xact s ites o f k nown e arthwork c ourses y ielded l ittle i nformation w ithin t he m ain f orest z one. I n t he s outhern a reas n ear S apele, c urious e liptical o utlines o n t he a erial p hotographs p roved t o b e o dighi, n atural d epressions w ith s easonal l akes ( below ; I .B.I.iv.). I n t he f orest-savannah m osaic z one o f I shan,

t hough,

a n umber o f

f actors c ombined t o m ake f or g reater s uccess. C limatic c onditions a nd h igher p opulation d ensities h ad t hinned o r c leared f or f armland m uch o f t he v egetation, a nd s pecial 1 :12,500 a nd 1 :10,000 p hotographic s urveys o f U romi t ownship p rovided b etter r esolution t han t he 1 :40,000 a erial p hotographs f or t he r est o f t he a rea. 2 G round c hecks c onfirmed t he m ain p lottings m ade f rom t hese p hotographs, b ut i t w as c lear t hat m any d etails, s uch a s j unctions, n o-man's-lands, d isappearing i yala a nd

o ther e nigmatic f eatures w ould r equire a f uller g round s urvey

i f

t he r esults w ere t o b e a nything m ore t han a r ather u ncertain r epresent ation o f t he i yala. L ater p lottings a ttempted f rom 1 :40,000 m aps e ncountered m any s imilar p roblems, p articularly i n a reas w here t he i yala t ake m any r ight-angled b ends. N evertheless, w ere m ade b etween k nown g round s ightings i n t he a reas, o ghodo,

t entative p lottings E kpoma a nd I rrua

a nd s ome a ttempt m ade t o d etermine t he d istribution p attern o f p onds ( below; I .C.2.). O n t he 1 :100,000 m ap, i yala w ith

c ourses

c onfirmed

b y g round s ightings h ave b een d epicted w ith

b ank a nd d itch l ines: t hose w ithout g round c onfirmation d epicted a s d ashed l ines. O ne o f

t he m ost

s olid

h ave

b een

s uccessful m eans o f o btaining i ya s ightings o ver

a ny s ustained d istance w as t o e xamine t he n atural g round l ongitudinal p rofiles s urveyed a long t he i ntended r outes o f n ew r oads a nd p owerl ines. 3 t races,

T hese h ad b een s urveyed w ith t heodolites s o p roviding i deal c onditions f or c omplete

a long c leared a nd a ccurate,

a lmost r andom t ransects o f i ya d istribution a nd t heir r elationship w ith t he t opography. R oute m aps a ccompanied a ll o f t hese p rofiles, s ome h ad h orizontal a nd v ertical c o-ordinates o r - i n t he c ases o f

t he

B enin-Asaba a nd B enin-Okene T ransmission L ine p rofiles - t here w ere a nnotated 5 0 m etre w ide t ransect m aps. T here w ere, h owever, t wo m ain l imitations i n t he s urveys w hich c aused t hese n atural g round p rofiles t o f all s hort o f t heir f ull a rchaeological p otential. I n t he f irst p lace,

t he p rofiles w ere s urveyed f or c onstruction c ompanies i nteres-

t ed i n t he m ost e conomically v iable r oute a nd n ot i n a n a rchaeological s urvey o f i ya. T he f act t hat s o m any e arthworks a re r ecorded i s a n o bjective

t estimony t o i ya s ize a nd f requency.

1 0

S econdly,

p olitical

d ictates

o ften r equired r apid e stimates

f or

t ender,

a nd d ifferent

s ec-

t ions o f t he m ajor r oute p rofiles w ere s ometimes s urveyed s imult aneously b y a n umber o f d ifferent s urveyors w ith v arying p erceptions a nd l evels o f c onscientiousness; a nd t he r esults o f s uch s urveying d ifferenc r a re r eadily o bserved i n t he 1 32 k V l ine s urvey f rom B enin t o O kene. M ost

o f

t hese p rofiles a re d estroyed w ith o ther r ecords

a fter

a bout f ive y ears; s o t hose o btained h ad t o b e s ought e ither w hilst i n a ctive u se o r f rom v ery m uddled s torage c onditions i n s ite o ffices a t B enin, W arn , I kpe ( Abraka r oad), E ko-Abetu ( Lagos r oad), U go-neki ( on A saba r oad f or I si), E yaen, E hor ( both o n A uchi r oad), L okoja, I fe a nd L agos ( appendix; E 1 - E 1 7). T he n atural p rofile a nd i ts s ections' a ssociated b ase-levels w ere r apidly t raced, a nd n otes m ade o f t he r outes, c o-ordinates a nd a nnotated t ransects. L ater t hese t racings w ere r educed f rom t heir o riginal s cale o f 1 :2,000/200 o r 5 00 ( horizont al/vertical r atio) t o c 1:25,000/2,500, a nd t he i ya t hen p lotted o nto t he p rofile r oute f or c omparison w ith o ther s ightings o r t he s ame a rea.

s uch

t o t he c ross-checking p rovided b y

s urveys

I n

a ddition

a g

t ransects a nd o ther p rofiles r unning a pproximately

a ncillary

i n

d ata

p arallel

n earby, t he g round c hecks p rovided s ome m eans o f j udging t he e fficacy o f t he p rofiles a nd o f i nterpretation. O n t he B enin-Abraka r oad o ne o r t wo i ya w ere n ot d epicted o n t he p rofile, a nd t wo a parently s mall, i ndepen i s ystems o n t he p rofile w ere i n f act t he m eanderings o f a n i ya f rom o ne l arge s ystem. A long t he B enin-Okene 1 32 k V T ransmission ITEe p rofile a bout 8 4 i ya w ere d iscerned, b ut l ater g round c hecks, m ade d uring t he c ollection o f p ottery s herds,

r aised t he t otal

t o o ver

1 25 - m ost o f t he e xtra b eing i n t he p oorly s urveyed I rrua-Agbede s ection o f s avannah-forest m osaic. A gainst t his i t i s w orth n oting t hat e ven j ust a fter t he B enin-Auchi r oad h ad b een c ompleted o nly 1 4 o f t he v ery l argest i ya w ere v isible f rom v ehicles, a nd t hat w ithin a y ear i t w as n ecessary t o t ravel o n t op o f a h igh l orry t o s ee o ver t he b ulldozered d ebris a nd t hick a wolowa w eed ( Eupatoria o derata) o n t he r oad v erges t o f ind m ost o f t hese 1 4; y et t he p rofile a long t his r oad d epicts

a m inimum o f a bout

1 10 i ya.

S urveys w ith p rismatic c ompass,

a bney-level a nd s teel-tape w ere

m ade f irst t o p rovide a bsolute f rameworks f or t he r elative m easurem ents ( by p acing) o f t he s ample i ya s urveys ( below; I I.A., A ppendix E ). I n o ne c ase t his t echnique w as e mployed t o m easure s everal k ilom eters

o f

s ightings

o f h igh i ya d ensity c ountry i n E gbede

a nd

I si

( below ; I I.B.2.). T he d irection f aced b y e ach i ya w as n oted, a nd i ts c ross-profile a bout 3 0 m etres e ach s ide o f t he t rack m easured i n s tep f ashion, w ith a 6 1 c ms. ( 2 f oot) l ong b uilder's s pirit-level a nd r ule p roviding t he r espective h orizontal a nd v ertical c o-o rdinates. T his m eans o f m easuring c ross-profiles w as a dopted t hroughout f or m easuring i ya s urveyed a nd a bout 4 00 o ther p rofiles, a s i t w as q uick ( 3-10 m inutes), d id n ot r equire e xpensive o r h eavy e quipment, a nd p roved t o b e a ccurate e nough f or t he p urposes t o w hich i t w as p ut ( below; I I.A.). 6 A s f ar a s t he s ightings w ere c oncerned, t hese c ross-profiles e nabled d iagnosis o f i ya t ypes - i ncluding s ome d ifficult d istinctions b etween t rue a nd f alse b anks, w hich c ould n ot b e d iscerned b y e ye, i n b ifossate

a nd m ultivallate i ya - a nd p rovided s ome q uantitative

f rom w hich a r0 »ative c hronological ( below; I I.C.c.).'

1 1

a nalysis

c ould

b e

d ata

a ttempted

B y c ar,

f ar

v an

t he l argest n umber o f

i ndependent

s ightings w ere m ade b y

o r m otor-cycle a long t racks o r s andy r oads,

w ith

o dometer

r eadings t o t he n earest t enth o f a k ilometre b eing t aken a t e very f eature c learly d epicted o n t he F ederal S urvey m aps a nd a t e very i ya. H ere t he u sual p ractice w as t o n ote t he d irection t he m ain i ya b ank/ ditch f ace w as p ointing,

i ts e stimated h eight a nd t ypology-. -- I n t his

w ay i t w as p ossible t o p lot o ver 1 00 i ya a long a bout 2 5 k ilometres o f t rack i n t he I si a rea i n o ne a fternoon, s o p roviding a lmost t he o nly e vidence o f n umerous, s mall, i ndependent s ettlements w hich a ppear o nce t o h ave o ccupied t his r egion ( below; I I.B.2.). O n v arious a fternoons t he

d istance c overed w as r educed a nd c ross-profile m easurements

w ere

m ade o f t he s ightings; a nd t he e xperience g ained f rom t hese m easurem ents m oderated e arly e stimates o f t he h eights o f s ome o f t he l arger i ya. I n a reas i naccessible b y c ar, s uch a s s tream v alley s lopes, a b icycle w as u sed a long f ootpaths m aking a c ontinuous m easured t ransect u sing c o-ordinates d erived f rom a n o rienteering c ompass a nd c yclom eter. I n f orest r eserves t aungya l ands 8 a nd o ther a bandoned f armland w here f ootpaths w ere o vergrown o r a bsent, s ightings w ere m ade o n f oot u sing o rienteering c ompass a nd p acing a s f or t he o ther g round s urveys ( below ;

I I.A.).

I t

w as

r ealized t hat

t he t echniques

u sing

c ars,

b icycles a nd p acing w ould o nly g ive a pproximate p lottings, b ut t heir w idespread s urvey c overage i ncluding a reas w here i ya p roved t o b e t otally a bsent, e nabled a f ar m ore c omprehensive p attern o f t he e xtent a nd r egional d istribution o f i ya t o e merge t han c ould h ave b een a chieved b y m ore c onventional s urveying t echniques. E ven

t hough s urvey t ransects a long t racks a nd f ootpaths f acili-

t ated f ast a nd d efinite a ffirmation o f a rea,

i ya s ightings o ver a w idespread

t here w as n o c ertainty o f c omplete c overage.

O riginally,

p er-

h aps, t he w ell-worn f ootpaths w ould h ave j oined o nly s ettlements e nclosed b y i ya; b ut a bout f ive c enturies o f i ncreased p opulation m obility u nder t he B enin K ingdom 9 a nd t he r ecent r ibbon d evelopment o f s ettlements m oving t heir s ites t o b e a longside t he t racks m ade i n t his c entury h as r esulted i n m any i ya b eing p artially d estroyed a nd o bscured a long t hese r outes - p articularly s ince t he i ya b anks p rovide e asily a ccessible,

r ed,

c layey s ub-soil

( ulakpa)

s uitable f or h ouse-

b uilding b locks. B esides t owns a nd v illages, t he m ajor o bstacles t o n oting a ll i ya p assed w ere t he s unken n ature o f m a im t racks a nd f ootp aths o n s loping g round, a nd t he t hick u ndergrowth w hich m ade d ist inction b etween b orrow-pits a nd s hallow i ya a n e xtremely t edious p rocess e ven w hen c arrying o ut t ransects t hrough t he ' bush o n f oot. O utside o f f orest r eserves, t hough, t he r egular b urning o f u ndergrowth u nder r ubber

( Hevea b raziliensis) p lantations,

( which a re f ound

o ver

m uch o f B enin, U rhobo a nd K wale D ivisions), t he l arge f ields c leared f or u pland r ice ( Oryza g laberrima s pp.) i n I shan a nd d ry-season f arml and

c learance

m eant

t hat p robably a lmost a ll o f

t he

i ya

b etween

s ettlements w ere r ecorded. T he p roduce

r esult o f c ombining a ll t he d ifferent

s urvey t echniques

a c oherent i ya d istribution p attern w as v iewed a t

t o

t wo l evels.

O n t he m acro-level, t he a pproximate g eographical e xtent o f t he i ya w as c ompared w ith t he k nown a reas o f t he p ast B enin K ingdom a nd p resent e thno-linguistic e ntities.

O n t he m icro-level,

t he a pparent d ifferen-

c es i n r egional d ensities w ere e xamined b oth i n a s traightforward c omparison w ith l ocal s oils a nd t opography a s w ell a s i n i nterpreted s izes o f i nitial e nclosures a nd t heir l ater p atterns o f g rowth. A t t his l evel o f e xamination t he v ariations o f s urvey r eliability a nd t he

1 2

n ature

o f

t he e vidence t hey p resented h ad t o b e

t aken s eriously

i nto

a ccount. T he

o verall

e xtent o f

t he i ya p roved

t o

b e

l arge,

s lightly

c urved c luster, o ver 1 00 k ilometres l ong a nd a bout 6 ,500 s quare k ilom etres i n e xtent, w ith i ts n orth-east/south-west l ong a xis b eing c entred w ell n orth-east o f B enin. T he O rhiomo, J amieson, E thiope a nd O sse r ivers, a s w ell a s s avannah a nd s wampland a reas, a ll a ppear t o h ave a cted a n atural b oundaries a long c ertain s ections o f t he t otal e xtent p arameters. T hese c reate a b road e lliptical s hape w ith a l arge n orth-eastern e xtension a lon2 t he z one o f t he n orthern I shan p lateau a nd f orest-savannah e cotone. I1 T he m ost s ignificant p oints t o n ote a bout t his d istribution w ere t he t otal a bsence o f r ural i ya i n t he w estern p art o f t he B enin K ingdom ( Iyek'Ovia) a nd s outhern I shan, t he p ositioning o f B enin C ity o n t he s outh-western p eriphery o f

a nd t he

t otal c luster. O utside

t his m ain d istribution v ery f ew e arthworks o f a c ompar-

a ble n ature w ere n oted i n t he E do-speaking a reas. T o t he w est o f t he r iver O via ( Osse) t he o nly c omplete i ya d iscovered w as t he m assive c ity w all a round U do ( below ; I I.B.7.); o ther e arthworks n oted w ere t he r ight-angled c ompound w all o f t he o ld p alace s ite a t U sen, a nd a t iny, 2 0 m etre l ong i ya s egment ' fortifying I koha. T o t he n orth o f t he c luster

A gbede

( Bradbury:

n d.

c laims E TS24),

t o h ave h ad a t own w all o f C 19th

c onstruction

b ut i ts p osition i s v ery c lose t o t he f ormer

s ite a nd i yala o f E wu ( Bradbury: 1 957; 6 4). U nexpectedly, i n t he d elta s wamplands o f t he I soko c lans, a bout 1 20 k ilometres s outh-east o f B enin, e wa1a 12 w ere d iscovered n ear O leh, I rri a nd E mevor. T hese e wala w ere a pparently q uite i solated, b eing a t l east 8 0 k ilometres f rom

t he n earest k nown e arthworks e li rhere

a ppeared s tructed

( below;

I I.B.5.).

N one

t o b e c omplete e nclosures, b ut s eemed t o h ave b een c onl ike c ross-dykes i n s hort l engths a cross p aths ( as a t I koha)

o r, a s i n o ne c ase s ituated 2 k ilometres n orth-east o f O leh, e nds t o t erminate i n s wamps. O utside

t he E do-speaking a reas,

e arthworks i n s outhern

f or b oth

N igeria

h ave b een r ecorded i n t he Y oruba, I gala a nd I gbo c ultural a reas. T he Y oruba a nd I gala e arthworks a re e xamined i n m ore d etail l ater ( below; I I.C.a.),

b ut

a v ery b rief c onsideration h ere o f t heir

d istribution

a nd c hronology w ill p rovide a u seful c omparison w ith t he i ya c luster o f t he E do. W estwards, t he l inear e arthworks a nd/or w alls s urrounding t owns a nd k ingdoms o f t he Y oruba a re g enerally t hought t o b elong t o a C 16th t o C 19th c onstruction p eriod; a nd e ven t hough c omplex a ccretiona ry p atterns g rew a round t he s trongest o f t hese s ettlements, t here d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave d eveloped a ny w idespread r ural n etwork l ike t he E do i ya. S imilarly t he s mall e nclosures o f t he I gala h ill-forts a re w idely-spaced a nd b elieved t o b e o f C 16th-C18th c onstruction ( Boston: 1 960; 5 2-8. S helton: 1 971; 2 0-22). 14 N o d ating h as b een s uggested f or t he f ieldlike e nclosures n ear O pi, b ut s imilar d oublew alled b oundaries f urther s outh a t I gbo-Ukwu a re c learly m uch l ater t han t he f amous C 9 th b urial n earby ( Shaw : 1 978; 1 18). I n t he d ensely p opulated a rea o f O rlu o ther l inear e arthworks a ppear t o r eflect t he b oundaries o f p ast f amily c ompounds. W est o f t he N iger r iver t here a re o nly t hree c onfirmed s ightings o f i ya i n t he p resent I gbo a reas. T wo o f t hese w ere b uilt t his c entury t o k eep g oats o ff t he f armlands 1 5 a nd a t U buluku a w estward-facing i ya r uns f or a f ew h undred m etres w est o f U buluku a nd m ay b e c onnected w ith B ini i nfluence i n t his

1 3

a rea

i n t he C 17th-C18th ( Egharevba: 1 968; 3 2. O kpuno: n .d.; 9 ). 1 6 T hese v ariations i n t he p atterns o f l inear e arthwork f eatures a nd t heir n ature o f c onstruction a re r eflections o f t he d ifferent c ultures w hich p roduced t hem. I t i s, h owever, t he u nprecedented s cale a nd c ontinuity o f t he i ya/iyala n etwork w hich m akes i t o f s pecial i nterest. I t a ppears t o b e t he m ost c omplete a nd r epresentative e xpression o f e arly s ettlement p atterns o f a ny w hole c ultural e ntity i n s outhern N igeria t he d istinctive f eature b y w hich t he e arly B ini/Esan c ulture c an b e r ecognized. F urthermore, t his n etwork s eems t o h ave b een c onstructed e arlier t han a ll t he o ther e arthworks o f s outhern N igeria, a nd s upp lies v ery s ubstantial m aterial e vidence r elating t o s ocio-political d evelopment i n t he f orest z one d uring a p eriod a bout w hich, h itherto, v ery l ittle h as b een d iscovered.

1 4

I .B.

1 .

G EOLOGY

T he u nderlying r ocks o f B endel S tate r ange f rom a P re-Cambrian B asement C omplex i n t he n orth, t hrough a r ange o f C retaceous a nd E ocene s ediments t o t he r ecent a lluvium a nd d eltaic d eposits o f t he s outh ( below; 1 6, s equence, t hough,

1 7, f ig. G l, G 2). 1 / I n d escribing t his g eological t here w ill b e n o a ttempt t o d uplicate c omprehensive

g eological r eports a lready e xtant ( Appendix; G ); i nstead t here w ill b e a b rief c onsideration o f s ome o f t he w ays i n w hich t he B enin a nd I shan p eoples h ave b een i nfluenced b y c ertain c onstraints a nd o pportunities i nherent i n t he g eology. S ome o f t hese i nfluences, s uch a s t he a vaila bility o f c ertain r aw m aterials, r elate d irectly t o t he l ithology; m ost h ave b een f elt i ndirectly t hrough t he t opography, s oils, d rainage a nd a vailability o f w ater. C ertain p ractices a rise i n r esponse t o t hese i nfluences a nd, i n t ime, m ay b ecome s o f irmly e stablished i n t he t raditional c ulture t hat t hey p ersist, e ven l ong a fter m ovement t o a n ew g eographical r egion w here s uch i nfluences m ay b e a lmost e ntirely a bsent. O ther p atterns o f h uman a ctivity, s uch a s t he l ong-forgotten t rade i n g round s tone-axe h eads, h ave a lso e xtended g eological i nflue nces w ell o utside t heir a rea o f o ccurrence; s o i t w ill b e t o r eview b riefly a ll s uch r egions i n B endel S tate. T he B asement C omplex:

( xiii i n f ig.

n ecessary

G l)

T his c overs a ll Akoko-Ede a nd p arts o f n orthern E tsako a nd D ivisions.

I t

c onsists

o f a n a ncient g neiss c omplex,

o ld

O wan

g ranite

p lutonics a nd m etasomatics i n a n i ntricately c omplicated s tructure. T he w ide r ange o f m etamorphic a nd i gneous r ocks - i ncluding q uartzite, q uartz-schist, m ica-schist, m arble, f elspathized g neiss, m igmatite, g abbro, d iorite a nd c oarse p orphyritic a nd p orphroblastic g ranite o nce f acilitated t he m anufacture o f l ocalized m icroliths ( Obayemi: 1 977;

P ers.Comm.),

a s

w ell

a s g round s tone a xes

( ughavan),

s tone

r ubbers ( grinders) a nd g rindstones - s ome o f w hich h ave b een c arried f ar s outh i nto t he s toneless B enin f orests ( Connah: 1 975; 1 12). T hese s tone t ools p robably c ame f rom t he s avannah z one i n A koko-Edo, n orthern E tsako o r n orthern O wan o ver t he l ast 2 -3,000 y ears t hough p ossibly s ome w ere t raded f rom n ear O wo f urther w est

o r i n

s o, t he

f orest z one. P erhaps

s ome

o f

t he m ovement s outh c an b e t raced t o

a

s teady

e migration f rom t he N orthern E do a reas o ver t he c enturies. T he r ugged t opography o f t he B asement C omplex, w ith i ts l arge a reas o f b are r ock, s teep s lopes a nd s hallow , l ithic s oils, h as r esulted i n m ost o f t his a rea b eing b oth i naccessible a nd u ncultivable. B etween t he g ranite h ills a nd q uartzite r idges a re n arrow s trips o f l evel, c ultivable l and, w hich i s c omposed l argely o f w eathered m aterial c ontaining l ocalized,

p erched a quifers e asily e xploited b y o pen,

s hallow w ells.

' 8

T he s iting o f t hese w eathered s oils m ay h ave o ffered s ome o ther a dvant ages t o s ome o f t he e arly s ettlers o f t he B endel S tate a rea. E stim ates o f m odern y am y ields p lace t his a s t he s econd m ost p roductive a rea i n B endel S tate. 19 H ere n umerous r ock s helters a nd c aves, s ome p ossibly w ith d eposits a s d eep a s t hose a t I wo E leru ( Allsworth-Jones: 1 976; P ers.Comm. S haw : 1 978; 4 5-50), p rovided b asic s helter w ithin t he o verall p rotective i solation o f t he g ranite h ills t o t he t ops o f w hich t hey c ould h ave f led d uring t imes o f t rouble ( Bradbury: 1 957; 1 13). S ignificantly, t he e arliest v ariables i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology a nalysis o f p ottery s herds i n B endel S tate ( below ; I II.D)

1 5

Geo logy & H ydro-geo logy

G 1

o f

B ende l

S ta te

N

i A l luv ium i H o locene D e l ta ic P l a in -- -

5 0

. ,

l ine o f c ross—section

i i

S omb re i ro - Wa r r i D e l ta ic P l a in

i v

C oa s ta lP l a in S and s

V

U ppe rB ende -Amek i

v i

L owe rB ende -Amek i

d epth o f w ater—table i n f eet

v i i

d epressions

i x

o ften w ith s easonal l akes ( odighi)

v i

U . BA . l ow land s

I mo S ha le s T ran s i t iona l

x ,x i F uga rS and s tone . B a sa lS and s tone x i

C r e taceous O u t l ie r

x i i

B a semen tC omp lex 1 6

G 2 G 2 C ROSS-SECTION S HOWING G EOLOGY A ND H YDRO-GEOLOGY O F B ENDEL S TATE ( N) ( refers t o m ap:above,

G 1).

I vue

A R .Omerri A gbede

R .Orle R .Edion W ater t able x ,xi & x ii

L ower B ende A meki

I mo s hales

B asement C omplex

F ugar s andstone

I rrua

I vue

R .Orhiomo E hor

L

IS H A N

— Up p e r

PL A T E A U -Ekpoma s pring

W ater t able — Be n d e

R .Okhuo

R .Ikpoba

Co a s t a l

Am e k i

Pl a i n

1 7

Sa n d s

U pper B et ide A meki

o ccurred c lose

t o g ranite o utcrops,

a nd a w idespread p ractice o f e arly

c ultivators w as t o t ake a dvantage o f t he m ost n oticeable b enefits o f s urface r un-off f rom l arge a reas o f b are r ock ( Sutton: 1 975; P ers. C omm.).

T he e xcavation o f a r ock s helter w ith f airly s hallow d eposits

j ust n orth o f t his a rea p roduced m icroliths a nd r adio-carbon d ates i n t he e arly p art o f t he f irst m illennium A .D . ( Obayemi: 1 977; P ers. C omm.); a nd o ne c annot d iscount t he p ossibility o f t he d iscovery o f a nother

I wo

E leru t ype r ock s helter w ith d eposits d ating b ack

a bout

1 2,000 y ears. I t i s s uspected, t herefore, t hat t he a ttractions o f t his a rea h ave m aintained n ear-capacity p opulation d ensities o ver m uch o f t he l ast m illennium, w ith t he l imitations o f l arge a reas o f n onc ultivable t errain e xacerbating t he e ffects o f n atural p opulation g rowth

o ver

t he c enturies - p erhaps e ven

s eries o f c rises,

w hich l ed

T he S andy P lateaux: T hese U pper

( ix,

r ocks

c reating

a n

i ntermittent

t o r epeated e migrations.

x ,

x i a nd x ii

i n f ig.

C l)

a re o f U pper S enonian t o M aestrichtian a ge i n

C retaceous,

a nd 7 0% o r m ore o f

t he

t hem c onsist o f c ontinental

o r

m arine s andstones; t he r emainder a re i nterbedded c lays a nd/or s hales. T hey r est u nconformably o n t he P re-Cambrian B asement C omplex - t his u nconformity p roducing p erennial s prings i n r avines 2 -6kms. f rom t he s ettlements a t A uchi, J attu, ( Fugar), O gbono a nd I riukwu.

I gbienakpe, I yuroko, U giedu, O fuga T he o verall p attern f ormed b y t he b eds

i s o f a c haracteristically s tepped t opography w ith a s eries o f s teep, n orth-facing s carps b etween w hich a re l arger a reas o f g entle s lope d ipping s outh-south-east. T hese l ast h ave a n u nbroken l ateritic c rust, w hich f orms i nto h ard l ateritic p avements d evoid o f v egetation o n m any f lat-topped h ills - p erhaps c aused b y p ast s ettlement o n t hese b are a reas. N ear A uchi a nd J attu, u nconsolidated s ands a nd s oft e arth l ateritic s oils g ive r ise t o i rregular h ills b earing n o r elationship t o t he u nderlying g eology. F reeth's p etrological a nalysis o f g round s tone-axes s ubmitted b y C onnah f rom B enin i ndicated t hat m any c ould h ave c ome f rom r ocks f ound i n t his s andy p lateaux a rea ( Connah: 1 964). C aves i n t he v icinity o f O fuga ( Fugar) m ay p rovide s uitable s ites f uture i nvestigation o f e arly i nhabitation. I t

s eems

l ikely

t hat

t he

i ron-ore

a t

U nguyami

f or

( 6° 1 7'50"N

6° 1 8'30"E) c omes f rom f erruginous i ndurations i n t he S andy P lateaux, t hough t he s ettlement i s r ight o n t he b order o f t he B asement C omplex a nd

S andy P lateaux a nd n o s pecific g eological s trata a re m entioned b y

B radbury ( 1957;

h ere

8 1).

T hough f arming t oday d oes n ot p roduce q uite s uch h igh y ields a s t he s mall s trips c ultivated i n t he A koko-Edo h ills o r o n t he

I shan p lateau, t he e asy a vailability o f l and o n t hese s andy p lateaux h as r esulted i n m ost o f t he p opulation o f O wan a nd E tsako ( who a void s ettling i n t he E wekoro d epression) l iving i n t his a rea, s o c reating q uite

h igh o verall d ensities.

O ne h as

t o b e v ery w ary o f o verstres-

s ing t he l ink b etween g eology, s oil-fertility a nd y am y ields, s ince c limate a nd a gricultural t echnology ( Moss: 1 981; 4 ) - t o n ame j ust t wo v ariables - c an c ompletely o verride t his s imple, r ather d eterministic a ssumption. D uring t he N upe a nd Y oruba i ncursions o f t he l ast c en( Bradbury:

1 957;

i bid); t hough e vidence f rom p ottery s herd c ollections ( below; s uggests t hat i n e arlier t imes r iverside a nd h ill-top l ocations

t ury,

m any c ommunities

I B2) w ere

a voided a nd l evel,

l ived i n h ill-top s ettlements

i ntermediate s ites f avoured f or s ettlement.

1 8

T he E wekoro D epression:

I mo S hales

( viii

i n f ig.

G l)

T hese L ower T ertiary s hales a nd c lays h ave e ncouraged a n s ive n etwork o f m ore s usceptible r esulted i n t he r ounding c ountry

e xten-

s urface d rainage a nd t heir s ofter m aterials h ave b een t o e rosion t han t he a djacent s andier a reas. T his h as a verage l and-level b eing 6 0-70 m etres b elow t he s uri n t he b road, f lat-bottomed E wekoro d epression w hich,

a s a g eomorphological f eature, c an b e t raced f rom t he Mpublique d e B enin ( once D ahomey) t hrough W estern N igeria t o t he r iver N iger. H eavy c lay s oils a nd s ubsoils e nsure t hat d uring t he r ainy s eason t he g round c an b e v ery d amp, e ven f looded, a nd t his s eems t o b e o ne o f t he m ain r easons w hy t his c lay b elt i s a lmost e ntirely a voided b y s ettlem ent t oday a nd h as b een i n t he p ast ( below ; I B2). O ther r easons m ay h ave b een t hat t he l ighter, w armer s ands e lsewhere w ere p referred t o t he t ant

( cold?), f actor

h eavy c lays, ( below;

B ende Ameki:

( v,

v i a nd v ii i n f ig.

T hese c ontinental ..a

o r p erhaps r iverain d iseases w ere a n i mpor-

3 1f).

v ariable

s ands,

G l)

c lays a nd l ignites c onsist o f

s equence o f c ross-bedded f ine

t o

c oarse

s andstone, g rey s iltstones, g rey a nd b lack m udstones, y ellow a nd p ink c lays, l ignitic s hales a nd l ignites, a s w ell a s p ebble b eds. A ll a re u nderlain b y a n a lternation o f

T he t he

f lat-lying

s andstones

a nd

c lays

w ith l ignites". ( Appendix; G 17).

L ower B ende A meki b eds r un a long t he n orth-facing s carp s lope o f I shan p lateau, a nd i t i s l argely i n t his z one t hat i s f ound t he

m osaic o f

t he s avannah-forest e cotone.

M oss h as a rgued t hat

t he l ocal

c onfiguration o f t he f orest/savannah b oundary i s i nfluenced m ore b y e daphic t han b road c limatic f actors ( 1978; 8 ) a nd i n t he a rea u nder c onsideration t here a re a brupt c hanges f rom t he f orested, r ed f errall itic s oils o n t he B ende A meki b eds t o t he s crub a nd s avannah o n t he g rey s oils o f t he I mo s hales. F urthermore, o n s mall o utliers w here L ower B ende A meki r est u pon I mo s hales, m any o f t he f orested i slands o f r ed s oil a ppeared t o b e e nclosed b y t he n orthernmost o ccurrence o f t he i ya - h ere k nown i n t he l ocal E san d ialect a s i yala. N ear t he b ottom o f t he I shan p lateau s carp a re n umerous p owerful s prings, s ome o ccurring a t t he p ermanent r egional w ater-table a nd o thers, s uch a s t he

E kpoma s pring,

c oming f rom p erched a quifers.

s treams o ccur o n t he h igh,

l evel s urface o f

t he

S ince n o

s urface

t ilted I shan p lateau,

t hese p ermanent s prings h ave c onstituted a v ery i mportant s ource w ater s upply t o t he h igh d ensities o f p opulation i n a reas e nclosed

o f b y

i yala, w hich h ave o ccupied t he n orthern e dge o f t he p lateau o ver t he l ast f ew c enturies. H ere t he s andy s oils a re e asily c leared a nd c ultivated, r elatively w eed-free a nd a pparently p roduce t he h ighest y am y ields i n B endel S tate ( ponds)

a re

u sed

t o

( above;

1 7,

a nd f n19).

O pen p its o r o ghodo

s tore r ainfall t o a ssist w ith w ater s upply

o ver

m ost o f t he p lateau, a s a re s easonal l akes: t he l ast t wo o f t hese a re c onsidered i n s ome d etail b elow ( I.B.1.iv, I .C.3.). T he s outhern p art o f t he I shan p lateau i s d issected b y r ivers a nd s treams a nd p resents a s teeply

u ndulating l andscape,

w hich a ppears

t o h ave b een a voided

b y

t he i ya ( iyala) b uilders. F urther e ast, s ettlers o n i nterfluves w ithin U pper B ende A meki l owlands h ave t ended t o r ely f or t heir w ater s upply o n s treams c ommonly a bout 2 kms. a way f rom s ettlement s ites,

1 9

r ather t han o n w ells. L ocal t raditions f orbid t he d igging o f w ells: h ow t his m ay h ave a risen i s u ncertain, b ut i t m ay r eflect t he u nstable n ature o f

t he c layey r eddish-brown s ands

C oastal P lain S ands:

( iv o n f ig.

( Ezewu:

1 973;

6 ).

G l)

T hese U pper T ertiary c ontinental s ands a lternating w ith b ands o f c lay a re, i n t otal, a t l east 1 50 m etres t hick a nd l ie u nconformably o n t he o lder s trata. B oth t he s urface a nd t he u nderlying w ater-table a re q uasi-horizontal d ipping s outhwards a t a l ow a ngle o ften l ess t han 10 . L enticular b anding w ithin t he s trata r esults i n s ome v ery l ocalized p erched a quifers: t hose i n t he B enin C ity a rea r ange f rom l ying n ear t he s urface t o o ver 6 0 m etres u nderground. A long v alley s ides, t he e xposure o f s ome p laces:

c lay b ands g ives r ise t o s prings a nd s urface s treams i n n ear I kokhan i n I yekikpoba s uch a s tream d isappears i nto

s andy s trata a fter a f ew h undred m etres, s o e ncouraging l ocal b eliefs i n t he O guoro d eity t hought t o d well w ithin i t ( Appendix; 0 4). A s t he s ands

a nd

t he c lays h ave e xerted d ifferent i nfluences

d ifferent h uman r esponses

t hat

a nd

p roduced

t hey w ill b e c onsidered s eparately.

B oreholes t hrough t he C oastal P lain S ands ( box-file) t he s urface s trata a nd a bout 6 0-100% o f a ll o ther

i ndicate s trata a re

2 0

s ands. T his h as g iven r ise t o a l andscape o f d eeply i ncised r iver a nd s tream v alleys w ith e xtensive l evel i nterfluves ( Udo: 1 970; 3 8). S ome o f t he l arger r iver v alleys h ave o ver t he c enturies a cted a s m ajor c ultural b oundaries, t hough - a s w ill b e s een - c lays a nd l ateritic s trata e xposed b y t hese s teep-sided v alleys h ave b een e xploited i n v arious w ays b y t he a djacent p opulations. T hese l ive a lmost e ntirely o n t he I shan,

l evel i nterfluves w here, a s w ith t he U pper B ende A meki i n t he s andier s trata m ay h ave p roduced ( warmer?), l ighter s oils

m ore a menable t han t he v alley s oils t o c learance a nd c ultivation b y e arly s ettlers ( I.B.2.). W hatever t he r eason, t he C oastal P lain S ands i nterfluves h ave b een e xtensively s ettled a nd e nclosed w ith i ya t hese b eing i n c ontinuum w ith t he a djacent I shan i yala o n t he U pper B ende A meki b eds. T he h eavy r ainfall o f t his a rea, t ogether w ith t he l evel t opography a nd t he a renaceous n ature o f t he s urface s trata,

h as

r esulted i n c onsiderable w eathering o f t he t op 1 0-30 m etres, w ith h eavy l eaching o f t he c lay a nd i ron f ractions l eaving a n e ven s andier, i mpoverished t op-soil ( below ; 3 7) a nd f orming f erruginized s ands a nd l ateritic n odules i n t he l ower h orizons o r e xposed a s l ateritic c uirasses i n t he v alley s ides. w ere s eem

P ossibly t hese l ateritic

o nce e xploited f or s melting: n o r ecords o f t o h ave b een e ncountered i n t he B enin a rea,

c ollection

i ndurations

s melting l ocal o res t hough d eliberate

o f n odules w as o bserved d uring f ieldwork i n t he O via r iver

v alley. T he h eavy l eaching h as a lso c aused c rustal s ubsidence a nd t he f ormation o f s hallow, s easonal l akes k nown a s o dighi. T hese o dighi o f

t he B enin/Ishan a rea d o n ot a ppear

t o h ave

b een

d escribed o r s atisfactorily e xplained b efore. 21 T hey c onsist o f s hall ow , c ircular o r e liptical, e nclosed d epressions o n t he l evel i nterf luved, a nd r ange i n w idth f rom 1 00 m etres t o o ver 2 kms. T hese m agnit udes s eem t o r ule o ut a nything b ut a n atural o rigin. I n t he r ainy s eason t hey o ften b ecome s aturated f orming s wamps o r e ven o pen w ater w hich m ay b e r etained t hrough m uch o f t he d ry s eason. A s t hey d ry o ut,

w ater-holes u p t o a m etre d eep a re d ug p rogressively n earer

c entre o f t he d epression b y t hose l iving n earby, l ong t rek f rom t he c entral i nterfluve a reas t o

2 0

t he

i n p reference t o t he t he n earest s tream .

T here

d oes

n ot

a s y et a ppear t o b e a ny u nanimity

i n

t he

p hysical

e xplanations o f s uch c rustal s ubsidence p rocesses w hich w ould a t t he s ame t ime a ccount f or t he f ormation o f t he w ater h olding c apacity o f t he o dighi. B oreholes d rilled a t I guobazuwa, U go, O bayantor a nd E hor i ndicate a ppreciable f erruginization o f s ands j ust b elow t he t op-soil, b ut w ere n ot a ccompanied b y p erched a quifers ( Appendix; G 8). I s usp ect t hat, d espite t he p arallel o f w ater-logged i ron-pans i n t he s andy p odzols o f t emperate f orests a nd h eaths ( Gourou: 1 966; 2 4), t he p resence s hallow, t he

o f i ron a lone w ould b e i nsufficient t o c ause t he e xtensive, s easonal l akes f ound o n s o m any o dighi. M y i mpression f rom

t op-soil

a nd

t he s poil h eaps o f

t he w ater-holes w as

t hat a n

p reciable c lay f raction w as p resent i n t he s oil; a nd t his m ay b een c oncentrated b y l ateral m ovement a nd s edimentation i n t he l ows. T he

o bvious a vailability o f w ater f rom t hese o dighi

a ph ave h ol-

i n t he

w et

s eason, f ollowed b y t he d ry s eason d igging o f w ater-holes i n t he d epressions, m ay h ave b een o ne o f t he m ore i mportant f actors i n t he e arlier c olonization o f t he c entral i nterfluves; f or t he d igging o f w ells ( uhae), w ell-cisterns a nd p onds ( oghodo) w as p robably n ot p ract ised u ntil t he a dvent o f i ron t ools. A lthough i t s eems m ost u nlikely t hat m any ' Late S tone A ge c ultural p ractices h ave p ersisted t oday, s ome p resent-day a ttitudes t o, a nd p ractices c onnected

u ntil w ith,

t he o dighi d o p rovide s ome g limpses o f v arious s tages i n t he p ast. I n I yekorhiomwon a t E vbueka a nd I guemokhus, b oth 7 kms. f rom t he n earest s tream

( below;

w ater s upply:

2 1,

2 2),

t he i nhabitants d epend o n o dighi f or

t he w omen a nd c hildren a t I guemokhua w alk

2 kms.

t heir e ach

w ay t o o ne o r o ther o f t wo e quidistant o dighi. I n I yeware, E gun i s s ited w ithin 2 00 m etres o f t he o dighi i t u ses f or w ater, a nd M elzian r ecords o ther o dighi i n I yeware a t O bajere a nd I yanamo a s w ell a s A rinya

( not y et l ocated)

( 1937;

1 34).

I t i s t empting t o s ee a l ine o f

d evelopment f rom w ater-holes d ug i n o dighi t o t he w ells, w ell-cisterns a nd p onds o f l ater t imes; t hough t he l ater i deas c ould j ust a s e asily h ave b een c opied f rom e lsewhere o r i nvented i ndependently. T he p rimary i ya a t O hovbe e ncloses l and i n w hich t here i s a n i ncipient o dighi where w ells r each w ater a t 3 -5 m etres; a nd p ossibly t he p erman ency o f s ettlements b ecame m ore f irmly e stablished o nce s uccessful w ells b egan t o e xploit T he

O hovbe

l ocalized p erched a quifers.

c ommunity b oundry m ap a lso d epicts

a nother

o dighi

w ithin i ts l ater e astern i ya a dditions a nd h ere i s a s hrine k ept b y t he o hen o dighi ( priest o f t he l ake). ( Appendix; M 12). A n o hen o dighi i s a lso s hown f or o ne o f t he O ka i dumwun ( wards) i n I yeware. ( Appendix; M 6,-1). T hirty k ilometres t o t he n orth-east, n ear U do i n I yekovia,

i s

t he o dighi n 'Udo,

w hich a ppears n ot

s o m uch a

c rustal

d epression a s a n u pper s tream v alley w ith i mpeded d rainage a nd h aving a n u nusual l ow b og-type v egetation, r eputedly a f avourite h aunt o f t he f orest b uffalo ( Syncerus n anus). T raditions c laim t hat A ruanran, g ia nt

l eader o f U do a nd u nsuccessful c laimant

e arly C 16th,

d rowned h imself h ere

a fter

t o

t he B enin t hrone i n t he

b eing d efeated;

s o t he w ater

o f t he ' permanently c ool' o dighi i s n ever u sed f or d rinking a nd t he w hole l ocality i s v enerated. 22 E nchanted l akes h ave a n a lmost u niversal m ythology a nd s o, p erhaps, t he n umerous s pectacular o dighi i n I yekorhiomwon a lso g ave r ise t o b eliefs i nvolving t he t ransmogrific ation o f p ast h eroes ( ihen: b elow; I .C.2.), w ith i ndependent o dighi d eities b eing p recursors t o t he m ore w idespread a doption o f t he s imil arly w ater-based c ult o f O lokun.

2 1

t o B enin

A vbiugu

e

Okogbo •

I guohan

xo dighi

tEvbueka o dighi x o dighi

EI Ti z uwa x o dighi .

I guemokhua ; O khirima o dighi

O DIGHI I N I YEKORHIOMWON

2 2

I n

s hifting

a ttention a way f rom t he s ands

t o

t he c lays

i n

t he

C oastal P lain S ands s trata, o ne f inds t hat c lay w as e xploited i n v arious w ays i n t he q uest f or d rinking w ater. W ell-worn p aths d own t o t he

s treams 23

f rom,

a ttest

t o t he l ong-standing p ractice o f f etching

a nd w ashing c lothes

i n,

t he v alley b ottoms;

w ater

a nd a t s ome t ime

t he

c onnection b etween c lay s trata a nd t he o ccurrence o f s prings a nd s treams m ay h ave b een n oted. B y t he C 13th i n B enin C ity, d eep w ellc isterns w ere b aulks, u sing

b eing d ug, t heir s ides p robably l ined w ith t imber e ither t he c lay a lready p resent i n t he s oil o r s ome

b rought i n a s a n e xtra l ining t o h elp s eal t he s ides ( Connah: 1 975; 6 3f). T hese m ay h ave d eveloped i n t wo w ays. O ne w ay w as t owards t he c ollection o f s urface w ater f rom r oofs i n b ell-shaped c isterns ( cf. o kpa: M elzian: 1 937); t hough t his d evelopment a ppears t o h ave b een a v ery r ecent p henomenon f ollowing t he i ntroduction o f c orrugated i ron s heeting a t t he t urn o f t he C 19th/C2Oth ( Willett i n C onnah: 1 975; 9 1 0). T he o ther w as t he u se o f i kolo ( clay) i n o ghodo, a p ond c ons tructed b y c ommunal ( below ; I .C.2.). A

l abour f or

N orthern E do c ustom,

t he u se o f

t he w hole w ard o r

a pparently a bsent

i n t he

v illage

S outhern

E do

a reas, i s t he e ating o f w hite, k aolinitic c lays b y p regnant w omen. T he p ractice p robably o riginated w ith t he d iscovery t hat k aolin e ff ectively c ombated m orning s ickness i n t he e arly s tages o f p regnancy, a nd p ossibly a cquired l ater t he m ore p owerful - b ut l argely e rroneous - b elief t ice w as

t hat i t w as v ery n utritious ( Appendix; e xported w ith s laves t o t he N ew W orld,

G 11). S ince t he p raci t i s c learly o f s ome

a ntiquity ( Vermeer: 1 978; P ers.Comm.). C onsiderable q uantities o f t he c lay a re q uarried w here t he I kpoba s tream e xposes t he l ower s trata o f C oastal P lains S ands a t U zalla ( c17kms. n orth-east o f B enin) a nd a t I kopba

( immediately

e ast

o f

B enin C ity),

a s w ell

a s

n ear

J attu

( c150kms. n orth-east o f B enin) i n e xposed l ower s trata o f t he F ugar S andstones. I t a ppears t o b e d istinguished f rom o rhue, a nother w hite c lay f ound a t t he r iver s ide ( Melzian: ' chalk u sed i n s acrifices a nd b urials. T he

e xtensive

t hat m uch o f

l eaching o f

1 937;

1 47),

t he C oastal P lains

w hich i s

S ands

t he B ini

h as

m eant

t he c lay f raction i n t he s oil h as m igrated d own t o

l ower

h orizons. E do h ouse b uilders h ave c apatalized o n t his b y d igging d eep b orrow-pits; t hese n ormally l ie b ehind t he h ouses b uilt f rom t hem a nd a re u sed f or d omestic r ubbish. I n m any a reas, e specially B enin C ity, t he s poil f rom t he i ya b anks h as p rovided a n e asier s ource o f t his c layey s oil,

k nown a s u lakpa

( Melzian;

1 937;

2 05);

t hough h ouse b uil-

d ers i n I yeware h ave i n t he p ast c learly p referred t o d eeper s ources i n t he b ottom o f t he i ya d itches ( below; A lthough

s ome

e xploit 1 1.8.4.).

e arly p ots m ay h ave b een m ade f rom c layey

( ulakpa) s imilar t o t hose u sed f or b uilding, i t s eems p robable m ost l ocal s upplies o f c lay u sed b y p otters a nd b lacksmiths t uyares) w ere k nown a s o bwe a nd c ame f rom t he s trata e xposed

e ven

s oils t hat ( for

i n v alley

s ides ( Melzian: 1 937; 1 33); t hough m ost r ecent s upplies f or t he i mm ediate B enin a rea w ere i mported f rom t he ° via r iver v ia E ki'Adolor m arket ( Thomas: 1 910b B radbury: 1 957; 2 6. W illett a nd C onnah: 1 969; 1 34).

2 3

T he

S ombreiro-Warri D eltaic P lain

( iii

i n f ig.

G l)

T he g radual t ransition f rom t he r ed s oils o f t he C oastal P lains t o t he o range a nd y ellow s oils o f t he S ombreiro-Warri D eltaic

S ands P lain

i s

c learly d epicted i n t he c olour o f

t he

l ocal

h ousing.

T he

c onstruction t echniques a lso c hange f rom t he f ree-standing m ud-blocks o f t he N orthern E do t o t he m ud-and-wattle b uildings s o c haracteristic o f t he S outhern E do. T hough t his l ast c hange i s t raditionally a ttrib uted t o h istorical e vents i n B enin C ity ( P. B en-Amos: 1 980; 2 0), i t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he l imited c ohesiveness o f t he s andier D eltaic P lain s oils w as m ore i mportant i n l imiting t he s pread o f m udb lock

c onstruction

t han a ny h istorical

f actor.

O ver

t he

c enturies

U rhobo a nd I soko f armers h ave m anaged n ot o nly t o s upport s ome o f t he h ighest p opulation d ensities i n B endel S tate o n s andy D eltaic s oils w ith t he p oorest y am y ields i n t he S tate, b ut h ave a lso c atered f or t he g rowing d emand f or p alm-oil i n t he C 19th/20th a nd s tarch f rom c assava C omm.).

( usi) i n t he e arly h alf o f t he C 2Oth ( Foster: 1 972; P ers. E ven t aking i nto a ccount t he w idespread a ccessibility o f t he

w ater-table g eology,

t o s hallow s urface w ells,

w ith i ts

p oor y ielding

s oils,

i t

i s c lear

b ears

t hat

t he u nderlying

l ittle o r n o r elationship

t o t he d ensity o f p opulation. A gain, d espite t he n umerous c reeks a nd r ivers i n t he a rea, t he U rhobo a nd I soko a re p rimarily f armers a nd d o n ot

u se

c anoes

t o n early t he

s ame e xtent a s

t he I tsekiri

a nd

I jaw.

T hese a nomalies, s imilar t o t hose e xisting i n t he v ery h igh p opulation d ensities o n t he p oor, s andy s oils f ar f rom w ater o n t he U di p lateau i n I gboland t he

( Grossman:

h istorical

a nd

1 976;

P ers.Comm.),

b uilders a nd l ater B enin K ingdom t o T he H olocene D eltaic P lain: M uch i n

o f

t his

r elation t o

c reeks

a nd

d raw s pecial a ttention t o

c ultural e ffects c reated,

( ii

i n f ig.

a rea i s d ominated b y

t he g round

m angrove

s urface.

p ossibly,

t he n orth ( below;

b y t he

i ya

I I.C.d.).

G l) t he l evel o f

t he

T he m ultiplicity

s wamplands h ave r endered m uch o f

w ater-table

o f t his

f reshwater l and

i n-

a ccessible a nd u nsuitable f or a griculture. T he i nhabitants h ave c onc entrated, t herefore, o n f ishing, c anoe-making, t he d istillation o f l ocal

g in a nd - i n c enturies p ast - o n m iddleman a ctivities i nvolving

s laves a nd o ther c ommerce f rom t he i nterior. I n r ecent t imes, p ast d ependence o f t he e conomy o n t he h interland h as b een m ore

t he t han

t otally

o il-

r eversed b y

t he d iscovery o f o ne o f

t he w orld's

l argest

f ields i n t his a rea a nd j ust o ffshore; a nd f or t he h alf-century o r s o t ht t his o il e xists, i t i s l ikely t o h ave m ore e ffect o n t he w ay o f l ife

o n t he i nhabitants o f B endel S tate

o ther g eological

( and N igeria)

i nfluences w hich h ave b een c onsidered.

2 4

t han a ny o f t he

I .B. 2 .

V EGETATION A ND S OILS - s ome B ini a nd I shan p erception s urfaces

" The

s oil

a t

s ome

d istance f rom t he

r iver

i s

e xtra-

o rdinarily f ertile; a nd w hatever i s p lanted o r s own t here g rows v ery w ell a nd y ields a r ich c rop. B ut c lose t o t he r iver t he l and i s n ot g ood, f or a lthough w hat i s s own c omes u p, y et t he c lose p roximity o f t he m oisture t he r iver k ills i t". ( Nyendael i n R oth: 1 903; N yendael's

f rom 1 47).

r eport h ere i s p roba hy s econd-hand a nd c ontains a n i nter-

p retation o f d ubious d erivation, y et i t d oes s eem t o r eflect o ne o f t he m ost f undamental p atterns o f B ini a nd I shan l and-use - t he p ref erence f or s ettling a nd f arming t he u pper i nterfluves w hilst a voiding t he r iver v alleys ( Bradbury: 1 957; 1 8. U do: 1 970; 4 0). 25 T his a lso a ppears t o h ave b een a s trong p attern i n t he p ast, b eing g raphically i llustrated b y t he l ocation o f i ya e nclosures a nd p ottery s herds d iscovered a long t he 1 32kV T ransmission L ine t ransect ( below; 1 20, 1 29,

2 79f).

C onsidered i n i solation,

t he s herd e vidence

i s n ot a lto-

g ether c onvincing; f or t here a re o ne o r t wo n otable e xceptions 2 05, 2 45), 2 6 a nd a lso t here i s n o m eans o f k nowing h ow m uch s oil

c reep m ay h ave r emoved o r b uried a ny s herds d eposited

( below; l ateral

o n

t hese

s lopes. C onsidered i n c onjunction w ith t he i ya, h owever, t he k nown d istribution o f s herds b ears s uch a n o bvious c orrelation t o t he a reas e nclosed b y t he e arthworks o f t he u pper i nterfluves),

( which s trongly f avour t he n ear-level t hat t he o bjections j ust r aised d o n ot

l and s eem

t o h ave b een a ll t hat s ignificant. A ccordingly, a ttention w ill b e f ocussed o n a ttempts t o e xplain t his p attern r ather t han t o d escribe e xplicitly t he w idespread e vidence f or i t. S ince a lmost a ll t he i ya a re i n t he r ain-forest z one, i t s eems r easonable t o c oncentrate a ttempted e xplanations o f t his p attern o f s ettlement a nd l and-use o n s ome i nfluences o f t he d ifferent f orest e cosystems. T he c hief f actors r esponsible f or t he d ifferences b etween t hese n atural e cosystems a ppear t o b e v ariations i n t he c omposition o f t he v egetation a nd s oil t ypes ( Moss: 1 969; 1 95); b ut i n a ssessing t he i mpact

o f

t hese d ifferences o n h uman a ctivity a nd c hoice

o ver

p ast

c enturies, a ll a pproaches a lso d epend t o s ome e xtent o n a ccurately r econstructing p ast a ttitudes o r ' perception s urfaces o f t he f c irest i ndigenes

t o t heir d ifferent e nvironments

( Chisholm :

1 975;

1 60).

2 /

O ne a pproach c an b e i llustrated b y C hisholm's a rgument i nvolving d e S chlippe's s tudy o f t he s hifting c ultivation o f t he A zande o n t he n orthern m argins o f t he C ongo b asin: " ...the s oil

A zande

c atena,

a lways c hose a v ery f ertile s trip o f i mmediately a bove

t he g allery f orest

t he w hich

m arches a long t he v alley f loor. H ere t hey f ound a r ich s andy l oam c overed w ith a t ransition f orest w hich c ould e asily b e c leared a nd w here t hey c ould c reate t heir i ntensively c ultivated g ardens.

F urther a field,

o n

t he

p oorer s ections o f t he c atena, t emporary c learances w ould b e m ade f or t he m uch m ore e xtensive c ultivation o f m illet a nd o ther c rops. T his p osition h ad t he f urther a dvantage o f p roviding e asy a ccess t o t he s tream b elow f or w ater. S uch a l ocation w as i nvariably c hosen i n p reference t o a ny o ther p oint o n t he c atena, e ven t hough t he c hoice w as o vertly

m ade

o n o racular a uthority.

2 5

T he w isdom o f

t he

o racle

l ay

i n

i ts

r ecognition

o f

s ound

p rinciples, c hoosing s ites w hich m inimized i nvolved i n w inning a l ivelihood". ( Chisholm:

e conomic

t he

e fforts

1 968;

1 06-107)

S imilar e conomic o ptimization o f e cological h abitats i s n ot s o e asy t o d iscern i n t he l ands c hosen b y t he B ini a nd I shan i ya/iyala c ons tructors. T he s ites g enerally l ie f ar f rom s ources o f w ater s upply, a nd n ecessitate l aborious d escents a nd a scents f or w omen a nd c hildren c ollecting w ater. S oil c atena r eports f rom t he B enin a rea ( Appendix; G 9-G12) d o n ot s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he s oils o f t he u pper i nterf luves a re a ny m ore f ertile t han t hose o f t he v alley s lopes a nd b ott oms, w hich h ave b een s uccessfully c ultivated b y U rhobo v illagers o ver t he l ast f ew c enturies. H owever, v alley s lopes d o e xpose s trata - s ands, c lays a nd l ateritic c uirasses - a nd t hese s lightly m ore u nreliable f ertility t han t he t he l evel O ther p ossible c onstraints o f t he p hysical e nvironment d ifficulties

o f

b uilding

o n s lopes a nd

s wampy

a v ariety o f m ight h ave a i nterfluves. i nclude t he

f lood-plains;

d espite s evere g ullying, m uch o f t he e astern p art o f B enin C ity b uilt o n t he I kpoba v alley s lopes, a nd t he v ery l ocalized n ature

b ut, i s o f

s wampy f lood-plains f ails t o e xplain t he w idespread a bsence o f s ettlem ent a long t he l ower i nterfluves. F rom t he a vailable e vidence i t s eems

m ost

l ikely t hat a ny i nfluence

t he s oil m ay h ave h ad

s ettlement l ocation l ay m ore i n i ts c olour t han i n i ts " The t ypical E do v illager...loves t he w hich h is s oil s upplies. I ncidentally ,

o n

B ini

f ertility:

g orgeous c olour r ed i s p revalent

i n t he s oil o f h is d omain, a nd s o h is l ove f or d esire t o s atisfy t his l ove a nd s ocial n eeds...,

i t, t he u rge h im

t o k eep c ertain a reas c lear o f s hrubs. B etween v ast a reas o f g reen l and, t herefore, t he t ypical E do v illager s andw iches c lean g eometrical p atches o f r ed s oil w hich a re r egularly s wept a nd k ept a ttractive". S ignificantly, w hich 6 4.);

t he E do b elieve t hat

( Ogie:

1 974 ;

r ed i s a ' threatening

1 7)

c olour,

o ne

h as t he p ower t o d rive a way e vil s pirits ( P. B en-Amos; 1 980; b ut a ny i nter-relationship b etween t his c ultural b elief a nd t he

s oils i s i nsufficiently e xplored t o k now w hether t he b elief o riginated i ndependently o r d erived f rom B ini a nd I shan i dentification w ith t he s oils t hey m ost u sed a nd v alued ( cf. u lakpa - t he r ed s oil u sed f or b uilding: a bove; 2 3). C hisholm's a rgument

( above;

2 5-26)

c an b e m isleading i n t hat i t

m ay g ive t he i mpression t hat s oil f ertility w as f actor i n t he c hoice o f l ands b y t he A zande.

t he d ominant e conomic I n f act t he A zande

a voided t he m ore f ertile s oils b ecause t he t hick, t ussocky ' elepha n g rass' w hich g rew o n t hem c ould n ot b e c leared b y t heir s mall h oes;'' a nd i t w ould s eem t hat e ase o f c learance b y c ommunity l abour o ver e xtensive

a reas h as o ften b een p referred

t o l and-intensive t echniques

b y t hose p ractising s hifting a griculture i n A frica

( Morgan :

1 969;

2 49

c iting i nter a lia d e S chlippe: 1 956). I t i s q uite l ikely t hat e ase o f c learance w as a lso a n i mportant f actor i n t he l ocation o f e arly s ettlements a nd f armlands i n t he B enin a nd I shan a reas, w here t he f orest u ndergrowth c an b e p articularly t hick. h is l ife d escribes i t l ike t his:

2 6

B oisragon f leeing f or

..if o ne

t ries

t o i magine a t hick w ood

l ittle t rees a ll i ntermingle t remendous d ense u ndergrowth o f a nd

v arious

o ther e vil-doing

i n w hich b ig

t heir b ranches, w ith a a ll s orts, w ith b rambles

t horns,

a ll w oven t ogether

a m aze s o t hick t hat n either m an n or b east t hrough i t, o ne c omes s omewhere n ear t he i dea". S ixty f ive y ears

l ater,

i n l ess

a nd

d ramatic

i n

c an p ress ( 1897; 9 4)

c ircumstances,

t he

r eport

C onnah's s urvey t hrough t he ' thickly o vergrown...dense b ush' s ome o f B oisragon's c omplaints: . ..in

t he

t angle o f n o I n

a reas

i mmediately a round

s econdary g rowth h as

t he

c ity

t aken o ver,

a

o f

e choed

d ense

f requently

o f

g reat h eight, b ut u sually o f u niform i mpenetrability... g eneral.. . the c ity w all i s h eavily o vergrown a nd t he

d itch u sually f illed w ith a t horny

U nfortunately,

n either o f

t angle". ( Connah 1 975;

t he a bove d escriptions,

n or

1 01)

t hose g iven b y

W elsh ( c1588), D apper ( 1668), N yendael ( 1702) o r A dams ( 1823 i n R oth: 1 903) make a ny d istinction b etween t he t hickness o f u ndergrowth o n l ower

v alley

s lopes

a nd

t hat

o n t he

u pper

i nterfluves.

T he

B ini

t hemselves d ifferentiate b etween t horny b ush ( okankan) a nd t hick b ush ( ezi) ( Jungwirth: 1 958; 1 97. S ee P late H b elow; 2 18-219). T he d iff erences

o f

f orest u ndergrowth t hickness m ost

f requently o bserved

b y

e cologists a re t hose r esulting f rom t he e ver-changing m osaic o f p lant s uccession w ithin t he f orest - t he t hick, s econdary g rowth o f t he B enin

f orests

b eing c haracterized b y

M usanga c ecropioides e mphasize

t he

s uggested

f irst

t hat

( Jones: f ew s tages

c learance

t he p resence o f

1 955. o f

1 966).

t his

t he

s hort-lived

C learance h as

s uccession,

t ended

a nd J ones h as

f or f arms b y h igher d ensities o f

t o

e ven

p opulation

m ore t han t wo c enturies a go i n t he U do a rea m ay h ave g iven r ise t o m ore p arkland c onditions u nder w hich t ermite m ounds w ere f ormed ( ibid. b elow;

I I.B.7.)

p erhaps,

i s

i mportant

M ore p ertinent

t he r ecent i nfluences

d eterminants

o f

t he

a wareness o n t he

t o

t he p roblem u nder

t hat

f orest

e daphic

c onsideration,

f actors - o nce d enied a s

v egetation

f lorisitic c omposition o f

- a re

o ften

c rucial

t he r ain-forest

( even

g iving r ise t o s crub i n s ome p laces); a nd i t i s t he s oil, n ot c leara nce a nd b urning, w hich i s n ow c onsidered t o b e p rimarily r esponsible f or

t he

d etailed

( Richards: o f

t he

1 952;

s oils,

t he u pper c entrated,

c onfiguration

2 21-226.

M oss:

p articularly

o f

t he

1 976.

f orest/savannah

1 978).

t heir e ffect

b oundary

T he p hysical p roperties

o n d rainage a nd a eration

s oil h orizons w here m ost t ree a nd s hrub r oots a ppear t o b e m ore i mportant d eterminants o f

o f

a re c onf loristic

c omposition t hen t heir c hemical p roperties ( including t hose r elating t o ' fertility'). L ooking a t t he r esults o f s oil c atenas t aken i n t he B enin a rea i s m uch

( Appendix;

G 9-G12),

t he

s and

h igher o n t he u pper i nterfluves

f raction o f

t he

t op h orizons

t han d own i n t he v alleys;

a nd

S kelding ( Pers.Comm.: 1 981) h as s uggested t hat, b ecause t he s andier s oils o n t he u pper i nterfluves w ould p robably b e l ighter, ( warmer?) a nd a ble t o h old l ess m oisture t han t he m ore c layey t op-soils d own i n t he v alleys, t he f orest v egetation w ould t end t o b e l ess d ense, e asier t o

c lear a nd

l ess

s usceptible

t o

s ubsequent w eed

i nfestation.

c ulture w here d ecision-making i s c ontrolled b y t he m ales, t hese v enience f actors a ffecting m ainly m ale f arming a ctivities m ust c onstituted

s trong

a rguments

f or

s ite

2 7

l ocation.

I n

a

c onh ave

N eat e cological e xplanations f or t he d irect a nd s oils s ufficient.

o n

i mpact o f v egetation

t he c hoices c onnected w ith l and-use a re p robably i nT he d istribution o f r otational b ush-fallow t echniques -

o f w hich t he B enin a nd I shan p eoples e mploy a f orest f orm b ased m ainly o n y ams ( Dioscorea s pp.) a nd t he o il-palm ( Elaeis g uineensis) 2 9 - i s c learly n ot d etermined b y e cological f actors, a nd a ny c orrelation w ith p opulation d istribution, p olitical o rganization o r l and-use z onation a round t he l arger s ettlement n uclei o r m arkets i s f ar f rom s atisf actory ( Morgan: 1 969; 2 50-256. c f. G leave a nd W hite: 1 969; 2 74, M oss: 1 969; 1 93-233, v ariations b ut,

3 85-406). T hese f actors m ay b e r esponsible f or l ocal i n g eneral, r otational b ush-fallow t echniques c harac-

t erize m uch o f t he n on-Bantu a reas s outh o f t he S ahara, w hilst s hifti ng a gricultural t echniques a ppear t o h ave b een t he m ain m echanism b y w hich t he B antu-speaking p eoples d ispersed o ver a bout a t hird o f t he A frican c ontinent. p ractice, t herefore, f ar,

T he m ost f undamental d eterminant o f a gricultural w ould s eem t o b e c ultural a nd n ot e cological. S o

B enin a nd I shan f orest v egetat Un h as b een c onsidered m ainly f rom

a E uropean e cological p erspective: Jv i t i s c learly v ery i mportant t o n ow e xamine t he c ultural p erspectives o f t he B ini a nd I shan p eoples l iving i n t he f orest

t oday.

A lthough t here a re t hree d istinct c omponents i n t he r otational b ush-fallow s ystems o f l and-use - f armlands, f allow a nd w ild f orest ( rarely i f e ver c leared) - P . B en-Amos p refers a L evi-Strauss t ype o f i nterpretation w hich p laces a m ajor d ichotomy b etween B ini c oncepts o f ' home a nd ' bush', ' wild a nd c ivilized, n ature a nd c ulture' - a d ichot omy i n w hich t he i ya s eem t o h ave o nce p layed a n i mportant p art ( P. B en-Amos: 1 976; 2 44. B elow; 7 1). H owever, b oth e lements a re i ncorpor ated i n t he a nnual c ycle o f c eremonies i n B enin C ity. O riginally b ased o n t he a gricultural c ycle, t he c eremonies b egin i n M arch w ith t he I khurhe f estival ( concerned w ith b rushing t he f arm a nd p urifying t he g round), w hich a mongst o ther t hings i nvolves t he u se o f g iant l and s nails ( Achatina s pp.) o nly f ound i n t he w ild b ush ( P. B en-Amos: 1 980; 7 5). L ater i n t he r ainy s eason t he E ghute f estival i s d irected a t t he f ertility o f c rops a nd b irths i n t he n ation, a nd o ne o f t he k ey e lements i s a h erb f rom a n a rea o f u nusual w ild v egetation a t t he O dighi n 'Udo ( above; v al r einforces t he

2 1. B elow ; 7 3). T hen t he i mportant I gue f estim ystical p owers o f t he O ba a gainst e vil w ith a

' medicine c ompounded o f a ll p roducts o f n ature - r oots, f rom

' a

t he m ost p otent l ife-giving a nd p rotective l eaves, s eeds e tc.', w hich a re g athered

v ery s ecret a nd s acred p atch o f b ush'

a ssociated

w ith

t he

e xtinct O giso d ynasty ( Bradbury:n.d. B enin K ingship R ituals; 1 2). A t t he e nd o f g -u e c hildren d rive o ut t he e vil s pirits f rom t he t own w ith f ire, t hen f rom t he f orest n ear t he e dge o f t own t hey c ollect E b'Ewere - t he l ucky o r b lessing l eaves, t he l eaves o f j oy - a nd b ring t hem I nto t he t own t o t heir p arents, m ent o f m uch d ancing

( ibid.

w ho w ave t hem a round

E gharevba:

1 946;

8 7).

t o

t he a ccompani-

F inally, w ith A gue,

t he N ew Y am F estival: " ...the

c ycle

h arvested

h as c ome f ull c ircle.

d uring t he y ear m ay b e

A ll t hat h as

c onsumed,

e vil

b een f orces

h ave r epeatedly b een d riven f rom t he l and, a nd t he o ba i s s trengthened a nd r itually f ortified f or t he c oming y ear". ( P. B en-Amos: 1 980; 9 3) T he o fficiators a t O suan,

w ho

t he s ubsidiary A gue O sa c eremony a re c hiefs O sa a nd

h ave c lose a ssociations w ith t he O sun d eity,

2 8

3 1

a

p ower

t hat

i nheres

i n l eaves a nd h erbs c ollected i n t he f orest

( P.

B en-

Amos: 1 980; 5 1, 9 3). F rom t his b rief s election o f t he a nnual c erem onies a t B enin, i t c an b e s een t hat t he a nnual a gricultural a ctivit ies d erive m uch o f t heir s piritual a uthorization f rom t he f orest; a nd t his i s i n a ddition t o t he p hysical d ependence o f t raditional c ulture a nd h ousing o n f orest p roducts ( below ; 2 9-30). U nder

t he

d efinition o f a r otational b ush f allow

a gri-

s ystem

t he

t ime i n f allow e xceeds t he t ime t hat t he l and i s c ultivated' a nd t he a im i s t o c reate ' a r egular s ystem o f f allows w hich a re n ever p erm itted t o r eturn t o w oodland o r f orest' ( Morgan : 1 969; 2 51). T he B ini t erms ' og-ugbo n 'ukpo' ( last y ear's f arm) a nd o g-ugbo n 'ekpia ( last y ear b ut o ne's f arm) d o i ndeed e xpress f allow ( ogo, a n o vergrown f arm c learing) a s a n e xtension o f f armland ( ugbo) a nd n ot f orest ( oha) a lthough s hrubs s uch a s E nantia a ffinis ( known a s e rhebavogo - " fire i s f laming o n a n o ld f arm") c an g row s o l arge t hat t heir y ellow w ood i s u sed f or b uilding ( Melzian . 1 937). V ery p robably, t herefore, m uch o f t he a rea w ithin t he i ya/iyala e nclosures o n t he u pper i nterfluves u sed t o b e t aken u p w ith t he o vergrown f allow o f ' old f arms', w hich m ust h ave b een r egarded i n a v ery d ifferent l ight f rom t he u nenclosed f orest ' bush' o f t he v alleys. D uring t he p eriod o f i ya c onstruction s eparate

d eities

v ironments S ince t hen,

m ay h ave b een i dentified w ith t hese

d ifferent

e n-

a nd t heir a ssociated a ctivities ( cf. O gie: 1 974; 4 2). t he i mportance o f i ron t ools t o c raftsmen i n t he v illages,

f armers o n c ultivated a nd f allow l ands, h unters i n t he f orest a nd w arriors i ntrud eg o nto o ther p eoples' l ands, h as l ed t o O gun ( god o f i ron a nd w ar) b ecoming t he d ominant p atron d eity f or a ll t hose e ngaged i n t hese a ctivities; a nd p erhaps t he B ini a ttribution o f t he n ame E fae t o O gun w hen h e i s h unting i s o ne r elic o f a n e arlier s tage o f t he B enin c osmology ( Melzian: 1 937. E gharevba: 1 946; 4 4. P . B enA mos: 1 980; 4 9-50). T he t raditional E do h ad a n a mbivalent r espect f or t he f orest ' bush'. A t n ight, w ithout t he b acking o f a n e bo ( strong ' medicine' m an) i nvoking t he p owers o f O sun, e ven t he b ravest o f h unters r es pected t he w ild f orest a nd f ew d ared r isk t he s trange a nd t errifying e xperiences' o f v enturing w here t hey t hought t he e vil a za ( witches) w ere

o perating i n t he t rees

t ops,

o r n ear u prooted t rees

- d welling

p laces o f i kpata ( evil s pirits): a nd t hey b elieved t hat e ven t he r elatively h armless e seku ( dwarf-like b eings) f ound i n t he t hick b ush c ould k ill i f t hey r an b etweens o ne's l egs ( Melzian: 1 937. O gie: 1 974; 3 2. P . B en-Amos: 1 980;52). H ere, t oo, i t w as s aid, r oamed t he r estl ess s pirits o f t hose w ho h ad n ot b een s ettled d own b y p roper b urial c eremonies Y et

( below ;

7 2).

i n t he d ay-time,

t he f orest a nd i ts p roducts

w ere

h ighly

r espected f or t heir i nvaluable c ontribution t o e veryday l ife. T he d etailed f orestry l ists i ncorporated i nto M elzian's d ictionary p rovide a f airly c omprehensive p icture o f j ust h ow v ital t he f orest w as t o t he l ife a nd

c ulture o f

l eprosy, t ongue', a m ild

g onorrhoea, l oose t eeth, f evers, a bscesses, g anglions, ' black w omen b efore a nd a fter c hildbirth, a nd p urgatives ( including o ne f or c hildren). T here w ere p otions p repared f rom f orest

t he B ini.

T here w ere m edicinal p reparations

p roducts

t o p ut p eople a sleep,

c harms

t o m ake y ams g row,

f or

a nd p oisons

f or o rdeals a nd t o p ut o n a rrow t ips. D ifferent t imbers w ere u sed f or n early e very a spect o f h ouse-building, a nd t here w ere a v ariety o f w oods f or m aking t ools,

n ative

h arps,

2 9

c anoes,

p addles,

t obacco-pipe

s tems, t raps, p latters a nd f or c ollection a s f irewood. B urnt w ood d erivatives i ncluded c harcoajj e p otash, s alt, a nd a shes f or ' native s oap a nd ' native b utter . JJ O ther r aw m aterials i ncluded g um f or c andles a nd a dhesives, b eeswax f or b ronze-casting, s ponges f or p olishi ng h ouse w alls; s edge a nd b ark f or m ats, b ags a nd w ar-caps; r ope, b owstrings, t oilet p aper s ubstitutes, d ance r attles, g uttering, s tuff ing f or p illows, b lack a nd r ed d yes, b lack r ubber, a nd g ourds c ontainers. T here w ere s pecial t rees u sed f or c hewing s ticks; m any f ruits, s eeds, o f d ifferent s oups. e dible f ungi, H unters w ere

f or a nd

r oots a nd l eaves w ere g athered f or t he p reparation T here w ere o ther f oodstuffs, s uch a s w ild b eans,

p alm-wine, s nails a nd h oney f rom w ild b ees a dept i n s etting e ga ( line-traps) a nd s nares,

s urrounding a nd d riving a nimals

i n a n a rea o f t he

f orest:

( onwo). o r i n

t hey c aught

b ush-pigs ( esi), g iant-pouched r ats ( ofioto) a nd g rass-cutters ( large r odents). S ometimes t hey w aited c lose t o t he i z-eni/is-okhae t rees ( Allanblackia f loribunda), b ecause t heir l ong c ucumber-like f ruit w ere a n a ttraction t o t he n octurnal p orcupine. P art o f t heir s uccess i n c atching

g ame

c an

b e g auged f rom a d escription

o bserved i n C l5th m arket ..roastd

b aboons

p laces a nd

p arrots,.. . dried l izards,

m onkeys, f ruit,

O regb'eni

e lephant e lephant

v illage,

what

c ould

b e

h unters

b ats a nd

l arge

r ats,

p alm-wine..."

( Talbot: F rom

o f

i n t he B enin a rea:

1 926;

V ol.

s et o ut t o k ill

I II, 9 21). b oth

t he

f orest

( Loxodanta a fricana c yclotis) a nd t he l arger s avannah ( L. a fricana). U sing a rrows ( and l ater h arpoons f ired f rom

D ane g uns) t ipped w ith p oison ( from S trophanthus s armentosus), t heir e ffectiveness c an b e a ssessed i n s ome d egree b y t he l arge-scale e xports o f i vory f rom B enin, a s w ell a s b y t he m agnificent c arved i vory t usks f ound o n t he a ncestral a ltars a t t he B enin p alace i n 1 897 ( below ;

2 1,

T he t heir

R oth: a pparent

f ear

p hysical l ead t o

1 903;

1 25).

c ontradiction o f B ini a ttitudes

o f i ts s upernatural f orces o n t he

o ne

t o

t he

h and,

f orest a nd

-

t heir

d ependence o n i t f or t heir e veryday n eeds o n t he o ther - c an c ontradictory i nterpretations o f t he n on-clearance o f s ome

f orest a reas. I t i s d ifficult t o k now w hether t he v alleys w ere a voided b ecause t hey w ere b elieved t o b e i nhabited b y s pirit b eings a s w ere s hrine s ites, o dighi o r i roko t rees ( Chlorophora e xcelsa), 3 4 o r i f t here w as a d eliberate c onservation o f t he n atural r esources t hat w ere a n i ntegral p art o f t heir l ife s tyle. P ast i nterpretations h ave t ended t o e nvisage a s cenario v ery s imilar t o t hat i n t he e arly p art o f t his c entury w ith i ts f airly l ow p opulation d ensities, w hich t he n ucleated v illages a nd t heir f arm/fallow l ands f ormed c laves s urrounded b y t he f orest, e ver t hreatening t o e ncroach b elieved t o t raditions, d icative o f ( Egharevba:

i n e na nd

b e p eopled w ith e vil s pirits. C ertainly i n t he o ral t he r eturn o f f orest b ush ( and e lephants!) i s o ften i nt imes w hen t here w as s ocio-political w aste a nd d ecay 1 950;

4 2-3.

J ungwirth:

1 968;

1 32.

J ohnson:

1 981).

E lse-

w here Ih ave s uggested t hat t his m ay n ot b e a n a ccurate r eflection o f c onditions d uring t he c onstruction o f t he i ya/iyala, b ut t hat l ocalized p opulation d ensities m ay h ave b een m uch h igher i n t he p ast; a nd t his m ight h ave t ended t o f avour p ractices i n w hich t here w as a g reater s tress o n t he c onservation o f t he u seful f orest e nvironment a t t he m argins o f t he r otational b ush f allow s ystems ( Darling: 1 981b).

3 0

T he

e conomic o ptimization o f

f arm/fallow a nd

f orest

r esources

m ay h elp t o e xplain t heir c omplementary r oles b ut, e ven i f t he v arious r eligious r estraints a re i nvoked, i t d oes n ot s eem t o p rovide a n a dequate e xplanation f or t he p rimary a voidance o f v alleys b y B ini a nd I shan f arms a nd s ettlements; a nd i t i s s uspected t hat t hey w ere s econdary f actors,

t he m ain l ocation o f w hich w as d etermined b y a m ore

c ompelling e nvironmental c onstraint - d isease. t ions p rovide t he i deal h abitat f or t he

M oist y aws

s oil c ondis pirochaete

( Traponema p ertenue) c arried b y t he e ye g nat ( Hippoletes p allipes); a nd t he s wampy f lood-plains p rovide a w ide r ange o f s uitable h abitats f or t he A edes, C ulex a nd A nopheles s pecies o f m osquito, w hich b etween t hem a re t he m ain v ectors f or Y ellow f ever, D engue f ever, M alaria, f ilariasis a nd e lephantiasis ( Moss: 1 969; 2 30-233). R adiological e xamination o f s keletons e xcavated f rom t he C 13th m ass b urial o f a t l east f orty y oung w omen i n a w ell-cistern ( ihan?) a t B enin p roduced: ..a c onspicuous l ack o f b one p athology... T here w ere n o e xamples o f h ealed f ractures, o steomyelitis, t ropical u lcer o steomas, a rthritis, m ycetoma, d efects, e tc.; a ll n ot u ncommon i n t his

y aws, c ongenital t ropical a rea".

( Arigbede i n C onnah: H owever,

1 975;

2 17-218).

t wo d istal f emoral l esions w ith l ocalized c ortical t hickening

w ere t hought t o h ave r esulted f rom s ickle-cell a naemia; t his i s k nown t o p rovide s ome m easure o f p rotection a gainst f alciparum m alaria, w ith w hich i t h as a c losely r elated g eographical d istribution ( Shaw : 1 975; 1 1). M alaria i s s till o ne o f t he m ost w idespread a nd l ethal d iseases i n t he w orld, a nd i s t ransmitted b y a bout 6 0 o f a round 2 40 s pecies w orldwide o f t he A nopheles g enus o f m osquito ( Okereke: 1 976; 2 ). T he p rincipal v ector, A nopheles g ambiae, i s a n u nderstorey s pecies ( Ayensu:

1 980;

1 30-131),

w hich m ay h ave f ound f ew b reeding g rounds i n

t he v irgin f orest a nd p erhaps o nly s pread f rom t he d amper v alleys t o t he d rier i nterfluves w hen s edentary a gricultural s ettlers c reated n umerous n ew p otential m osquito b reeding g rounds i n t he f orest ( Shaw : i bid).

I f

t he r eservoirs o f m alarial i nfection w e c oncentrated i n

t he v alleys b efore t he a dvent o f s uch a griculture, t hen v alleys s ettlers m ortality r ates ( particularly o f i nfants)

t he e arly c ould h ave

b een m uch h igher t han t hose s iting t heir h ouses w ell a way f rom t he s treams a nd c ollecting w ater i n t he d aytime - f or A . g ambiae b ites a lmost e ntirely d uring t he h ours o f d arkness ( Ayensu: 1 980; 1 30-131). A rguments u sing p ossible p ast d isease p atterns v ery

d ifficult

t o s ustain.

i n t he f orest a re

I n t he c ase o f m alaria j ust

c ited,

t he

s ame l ogic w ould a rgue a gainst a ny p ersistence o f s patial p attern; f or t he n umerous n ew m osquito b reeding s ites c reated a round s ettlements n ow c oncentrated o n t he i nterfluves w ould l ead t o a h igher i ncidence o f b iting a nd r ising m ortality r ates, s o e ncouraging a r everse f low o f s ettlement b ack i nto t he u ninhabited v alleys. A nother p oint i s t hat t he d istribution o f t he m ain d iseases a nd t heir v ectors i n f orest a reas

i s

d etermined

m ore b y c omplex

e cological

i nterrelationships

i nvolving t he l evel o f f orest h abitat ( floor, u nderstorey, c anopy), t he s eason, t ime o f d ay a nd t he e ffect o f m an's a ctivities t han b y a ny s imple

p attern f ollowing t he d istribution o f s tream v alleys a nd d rier

i nterfluves. A g ood e xample o f t he c omplexity o f p athogen t ransmiss ion i s p rovided b y t he y ellow f ever v irus, a z oonose w hich i nvolves m en, m onkeys a nd t hree d ifferent v ectors i n i ts s pread f rom t he f orest c anopy

t o

u rban a reas.

3 6

T he k nown s pectrum o f f orest p athogens

3 1

i s

v ast,

a nd

t he b rief e xamples

j ust n oted o nly s erve

t o

i llustrate

a

s mall f raction o f t heir c omplexity i n t he e xtraordinarily s table f orest e cotone ( Elton: 1 972; 1 48-149. R ichards: 1 952; 3 35-345). C learly n o s ingle f actor i s g oing t o e xplain t he N orthern E do f orest s ettlement p atterns w ithin t he t erms o f r eference o f a t ropical f orest e nvironment. I f, h owever, t he l inguistic a nd p ottery s herd e vidence a re p ermitted t o w iden t hese t erms o f r eference t o i nclude t he s avann ah ( I.C.3.,

I II),

t hen t here a re s ome i nteresting p ossibilities.

T he n ew b asis o f a ssumption, t herefore, i s t hat t he p resent N orthern E do f orest d wellers ( the B ini a nd I shan) a re d escended m ainly f rom a n i nflux, o r s eries o f i nfluxes, o f s avannah d wellers a bout 1 000 t o 1 500 y ears a go, a nd t hat t hey b rought t heir o wn s ettlement p attern c ustoms a nd p rejudices w ith t hem. S avannah d iseases a re m uch m ore g eographically l ocalized t han t hose i n t he f orest, p articularly d uring t he d ry s eason. N ot o nly a re t he r iver a nd s tream s ides t he m ain h aunts f lies

o f m osquitoes ( including t hose a lready m entioned) a nd b lack( Simulium s pp.) c arrying t he b acterium c ausing O nchocerciasis

( river b lindness), b ut i n t he g allery f orests f ringing t he w aterc ourses l urk t he f orest-dwelling t setse f ly, G lossina p alpalis. T his b ites

t hose f etching w ater,

p rotozoa s leeping

s o s preading t he

h uman

t rypanosamiases

T rypanosoma g ambiense ( sleeping s ickness). S ometimes t he s ickness e pidemics w hich r esulted f rom s ettlements m oving

i nto m ore r iverain a reas h ave b een d isastrous, k illing m ost o f p opulation a nd f orcing t he r est t o f lee ( Shaw : 1 975). D uring r ainy s eason, t he m ost s ignificant f actors i n c ontrolling t setse t o m ake h abitation p ossible i n t he s avannah a ppear t o h ave b een d ensity o f p opulation i n r elation t o s tream f requency a nd t he u se w ells o f p onds r ather t han r ivers a nd s treams. I n t he s avannah n orthern N igeria, q uired a ppear t o s treams a re f ew, a re n umerous

t he t he f ly t he o f o f

f or e xample, t he m inimum p opulation d ensities r er ange f rom 5 p er k m2 ( 12 p er s quare m ile) w here

t o o ver 2 7 p er k m2 ( 70 p er s quare m ile) w here

( Church:

1 968;

s treams

1 64).

A s s ettlers m oved s outh i nto t he t setse-infested f orests, n ot o nly m ay t hey h ave c ontinued t heir s avannah-derived p references f or s ettling a long i nterfluves b ut a lso, f or a t ime, m ay h ave r epeated t he s avannah p ractices w hich h ad r educed t he i ncidence o f s leeping s ickn ess. O ne o f t hese p ractices m ay h ave b een t he c onstruction o f w ells, w ell-cisterns a nd o ghodo p onds t o a void v isiting r ivers a nd s treams a s m uch a s p ossible. T he e vidence f rom t he i ya a nd s herd d istribution a rgues t hat a nother p ractice m ay h ave b een t o m aintain h igh l ocalized d ensities o f p opulation ( below; 1 32f, 2 66-268. D arling: 1 981b. 1 981c). A t f irst, i t i s s uggested, t he s avannah c olonizers k ept t heir p rimary s ettlements c lustered t ightly t ogether a long t he i nterfluves: l ater e ach v illage e ntity o ccupied l arger l and a reas a s t hey m oved o ut f rom t he c entral c ore, b ut s atellite s ettlements w ithin a ccretionary i ya

l oops

m aintained t he h igh d ensities.

I n t his

w ay

t he

f orest

a reas, w ith t heir a ssociated t setse f lies a nd s leeping s ickness, w ere r elegated f irst t o t he i ncreasingly n arrow s trips o f n o-man's-lands a nd t hen m ainly t o t he r iver v alleys - s o a rtificially r epeating t he s avannah s ituation a nd e ncouraging t he p ersistence o f s avannah c ulture s ettlement p atterns i n t he f orest. T his r aises a q uery a gainst S haw's s urmise t hat ' clearings m ade f or a griculture w ere p robably n ot e xtens ive e nough t o l essen t he i ncidence o f t rypanosomiases i n t he f orest ( ibid), w hich m ay h ave b een b ased o n e vidence f rom l ater s ettlement p atterns.

F or i n m ore r ecent c enturies f ollowing B enin's t erritorial

3 2

e xpansion a nd c olonization o f n ew l ands,

p opulation d ensities

s eem t o

h ave b een m uch l ower, r esulting i n n ucleated s ettlements b eing s urr ounded b y v ast a reas o f u ninhabited f orest ' bush'. T his b ecame n otorious

f or i ts i nfestation o f

t setse f lies

( udia),

w hich t he B ini

b elieved w ere p roduced b y t he i roko t ree ( cf. a bove; 3 0 a nd f n.34) - a t ree w ith v ery h ard w ood f ound m ainly i n u ncleared h igh f orest; a nd B ini f armers g enerally p refer t o l ive i n t he c leared a reas a round l arger s ettlements, c omplaining t hat t he f lies b ite t oo m uch i n a nd n ear t he u ncleared f orests - a n o bservation t hat I w ould e ndorse f rom m y s urveying e xperience. I n r eviewing a ll t hese s uggestions i t s eems t hat n o o ne e nvironm ental f actor i s d ominant. O ne m ight a ttempt t o i dentify s ome o f t he p rimary c ausal a gents a nd d istinguish t hem f rom s econdary o r d erivat ive f actors, b ut t his c ould f ail t o a ppreciate t he w hole c ultural ' package', w ith i ts v aried r esponses t o d ifferent p erceptions o f t he e nvironment. F or e xample, t he B ini a nd I shan p eoples r egarded m ost d iseases a s b eing t he p unishment o f o ffended a nd u nappeased s pirit d eities o r t he e vil w ork o f a za ( witches) ( Talbot: 1 926; V ol. I I, 4 83. P . B en-Amos: 1 980; 5 2); s o t o e xplain t heir s ettlement p atterns s olely i n t erms o f p athogen t ransmission a s u nderstood b y m odern s cience w ould b e u nrealistic - t he l andscape h as t o b e p erceived a s t hey s aw i t, w ith t raditional b eliefs p roviding a l ink ( often e rroneous, b ut o f p aramount i mportance) b etween t he r eal c ausal a gents a nd t he f orms o f b ehaviour u ltimately d erived f rom t hem . S imilarly , e ase o f c learance a nd w eeding a long t he l ightly u ndergrowthed i nterfluves 3 / c ould b e c onsidered a p rimary f actor, a nd B ini a nd I shan l ove o f t heir r ed s oils a s econdary, d erivative f actor. T oday, t he B ini a nd I shan n ucleated f arming s ettlements a re c oncentrated o n t he r ed s oils a long t he u pper i nterfluves, w hilst o ther c ultures o ccupy d ifferent n iches a nd h abitats i n t he f orest e cosystem w here t hey o verlap i n t he s ame r egion: t he s mall U rhobo c amps e xploit t he o il-palm a long r iver a nd s tream v alleys; 38 a nd t he I tsekiri ( with t heir Y oruba-related l ang uage) a nd I jaw f isherman d ominate t he s wamplands a nd ' watersides'. T he i nfluence o f

t he v arious c onstituents o f

t he l andscape a re,

t here-

f ore, o nly i mportant i f t hey f orm p art o f a ny p articular c ulture's p erception o f t hat l andscape. A ttention w ill a ccordingly b e n ow f ocussed

o n

t hree

o ther w ays

a ffect i nterpretation o f b oundaries a nd l anguage.

I shan

c ultures

t he i ya - i n t heir o ral t raditions,

i n w hich t he B ini a nd

c ommunity

3 3

I .C.

1 .

O RAL T RADITIONS A ND T HE I YA

N o

a ccount o f

t he i ya c an b e c omplete w ithout

t he o pinions

a nd

o ral r ecords o f t he p eople n ow l iving i n t he a rea i n w hich t hey w ere b uilt. D irect r eferences t o t he i ya a re e xtraordinarily s canty; a nd t his, f or s o c ommon a p henomenon a rgues f or i ya c onstruction o n t he f ringes o f, o r b eyond t he s cope o f, h uman m emory. B ut, a lthough t he c ontradictory r ationalizations a bout i ya w ithin t he o ral d ata u nderl ine t he n eed f or e xtreme c aution, t here a re a n umber o f r easons w hy t hese

t raditions

c annot b e l ightly d ismissed

o ut-of-hand.

O n

t he

n egative s ide, a s w ill b e s hown, ( below; 3 5f) t he w idespread a cceptance o f o nly t hose t raditions t hat t he B enin O bas O guola, E wuare o r O zolua b uilt t he i ya h as c aused t heir e ntrenchment i n t he c onvent ional w isdom; s o t hey n eed t o b e e xamined b oth i n t he l ight o f o ther o ral r eferences a nd a gainst t he o bjective d ating a nd s urvey e vidence o f t he i ya. O n a m ore p ositive s ide t his c omparison o f o ral a nd o bjective d ata n eed n ot m irror H enige's a lmost t otal d estruction o f o ral r eliability ( Henige: 1 974). F or H enige w as e xamining t he r ecords r esulting f rom t he e ver-changing p ersonalities a nd t ransient a ll egiances o f t he p olitical s cene, w hereas t he d ata h ere u nder c ons ideration a re d irectly l inked t o f airly s table s ettlement c ontinuity o ver t he c enturies. I n p articular t he i ya s eem t o h ave s trong l inks w ith m ore i ndirect o ral e vidence, a nd c ommunity b oundaries.

1 1-12) l ected

s uch a s e arliest

s ettlement

c laims

A lthough P unch r ecords a s acrificial p it c alled a n i ya ( 1892; t he e arliest d irect t raditions a bout t he t rue i ya w ere c olb y R oupell's o fficers i n 1 897. T hey r ecorded t hat t he m ain

C ity ' wall w as b uilt b y O guola, a nd t hat B enin a lso b uilt t he w all b etween t he C ity a nd t he r ebellious U gbineh p eople, w hose v illage w as l ater c aptured a nd b urnt b y B enin ( Read a nd D alton: 1 899; 5 . R oth: 1 903;

1 90-191). T he w idespread p ersistence o f

t he O guola C ity w all

t raditions

t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury n eeds t o b e e mphasized i n v iew o f s ubsequent c hanges. I n 1 937 T horburn n oted t hat i t w as " ...Oguola ( c1280) w ho i ntroduced b rass w ork". D uring t he s ame d efined i ya a s " (1)

d itch;

a d itch. s aid t o b e

I n

h is

b uilt

t he g reat

y ear M elzian p ublished h is

t he

C ity

B ini

w all

i n t he

a nd

d ictionary

w hich

t erm i ncludes n atural c avities s imilar t o

( 2) t he b ig d itch ( and w all) r ound B enin C ity b uilt b y t he O ba O guola ( Egh. H ist. p p. 7 , 8 )". ( 1937; 1 06).

l ist o f a ddenda O guola i s n oted a s

" the n ame o f t he

w ho b uilt t he w all a nd d itch o f B enin C ity". ( 1937; x viii). B radbury r efers t o E gharevba's S hort H istory w hen c iting t he

O ba

A lso O guola

C ity w all t radition i n 1 957 ( Bradbury: 1 957; 2 0). I n t he s ame c olon ial p eriod, O guola A venue w as c onstructed j ust s outh o f a nd p arallel t o t he m ain C ity w all ( A-Z M ap o f B enin C ity. M inistry o f L ands a nd H ousing. G rid R ef. G 5). 1 960's C onnah e ncountered s uch a d ominant a nd O ba E wuare C ity w all ' traditions' t hat, o n 3 4

S urvey D ivision, Y et i n t he e arly d etailed c orpus o f r econsideration, h e

r e-interpreted

h is

e arlier v iews o n

t he C ity w all

s equence

( Connah:

1 975; 1 06 a nd 1 978; P ers.Comm.), a nd t his i n t urn h as a ffected s ubs equent h istorical r econstruction ( Ryder: 1 969; 1 1. I gbafe: 1 974; 9 ). B y t he 1 970 s t here w ere v ery f ew i ndividuals m aintaining t he O guola C ity w all t raditions ( Appendix; 0 5 U gbeku, U gbor). S uch a r apid c hange

i n

t he

t raditions

c alls

f or

i nvestigation;

a nd,

w ithin

t he

l imitations i mposed b y i naccessibility o f t he e arliest w orks o f E ghar evba, i t i s i nstructive t o e xamine h ow t he s cholarly l abours o f t his o ne m an m ay h ave b een I n

i nstrumental

1 903 R oth h ad

..The

i n a chieving

t ranslated N yendael's

r uin o f

t his

t own a nd

t he

t his m etamorphosis.

1 702 r eport

s urrounding

o ccasioned b y t he K ing c ausing t wo k ings o f ( ?Rios d e A ros) t o b e k illed,... A fter t his t he K ing f ound a lso a t hird m an b eing

u niversally

b el)ved,

t hat

w as

s tood

l ike

l and,

E gharevba q uoted

" ...The

r uin

o ccasioned

o f

b y

t his t he

p assage,

t own a nd

w as

i n h is w ay,

t imely w arned

o f

w ho t hat a ct he 1 4).

t he p arallel e xtracts b eing:

t he

s urrounding

t he K ing E wuare c ausing

t wo k ings

s treet ( Rio d e A ro) t o b e k illed... A fter t he K ing f ound a lso a t hird m an t hat s tood

l and

w as

o f

t he

t his b arbarity, i n h is w ay, w ho

b eing u niversally b eloved, w as t imely w arned o f p rince's i ntention, a nd a ccordingly t ook t o f light

t hat a c-

c ompanied t own..."

t he 1 12)

b y

3 9

t he s treet b arbarity,

p rince's i ntention, a nd a ccordingly t ook t o f light, c ompanied b y t hree-fourths o f t he i nhabitants o f t own,..," ( Roth: 1 903; I n 1 946

t his:

t hree-fourths o f t he i nhabitants o f ( Egharevba: 1 946; B enin L aw a nd C ustom;

I n 1 950 E gharevba w rote: " According t he

t o r esearch,

h eart

w hen

o f

t he

t he c ity w as

t he c ity w as

t hird o r

t he d eepest m oat

d ug b y O ba E wuare

a bout

i n 1 460

e ntirely d epopulated a s a r esult o f h is

i nhuman m ourning l aws... H e f uriously h ad t wo o f t he g reat c hiefs o pposed t o h im i n t his l aw k illed. H e s ought t o k ill a t hird, O za, t he w orst o f t hem w ho w as t he m ost p opular a nd u niversally b eloved. B ut t he c hief k nowing h is l ife t o b e i n d anger, t ook f light a ccompanied t hree-quarters o f t he i nhabitants o f t he C ity". ( Egharevba: I t w ill

b e

p assage

n oted

t hat,

c ontains

q uoted

t ext,

d one.

E gharevba's

f urther

b y

t he

w ithout

1 950;

S ome

S tories o f A ncient B enin;

b esides m inor d eliberate

t ook t his

t rasposing N yendael's

I n

t he

E gharevba's

1 953 e dition o f h is

1 946

i nto

t his h ad

1 946 m isquotation a

1 702 m aterial b ack o ver

h alf c enturies a nd i ncorporating i t i n ' traditions o stensibly r elating

c laimed

t extual e rrors,

2 3)

i nsertion o f E wuare's n ame

a ny c orresponding i ndication t hat

1 950 s tatement

b y

a

b een s tage

t wo-and-a-

a s a b arely d isguised p araphrase t o e vents i n ' about 1 460' . 40

S hort H istory E gharevba's m ain

o nly t hat E wuare b uried c harms a t

t he g ates

o f

t he C ity,

t ext a nd

h is r ole a s c onstructor w as p laced i n a n a ppendix p resumably w ritten l ater t han h is m ain t ext ( Egharevba: 1 953; 1 5 a nd a ppendix).

3 5

T hereafter, m ain t ext

t he

( e.g.

a cceptance ' tradition' a ssociated r etain i ts I shan

E wuare C ity w all ' traditions E gharevba:

1 968;

1 4,

9 0).

w ere i nserted

i n

t he

W idespread a nd u ncritical

o f E gharevba's p rinted w ord h as r esulted i n e xtensive o ral f eedback o f E wuare's r ole a s C ity w all c onstructor a nd t he r ationalization o f a d epopulated C ity b uilding a w all t o o wn f leeing p opulation: O kojie e ven t races t he o rigin o f

t o t his ' event'

( 1960;

3 0-35).

I n a ttempting

t o e xplain

w hy

E gharevba s hould h ave a dopted t his p atently a bsurd r ationalization p rogressively e xpanding t he r ole o f O ba E wuare a s C ity w all c ons tructor w hen h is e arlier h istories h ad p laced O ba O guola i n t his r ole - I , t oo, m ade a m istake. I a ssumed t hat E gharevba h ad o btained h is i nformation f rom s ome a nonymous t raditional s ource, w orkers - M elzian, B radbury, C onnah, R yder, P . a nd D . -w ould

a nd t hat B en-Amos,

l ater I gbafe

h ave n oted i ts o ccurrence i n a ny e arlier E uropean s ource.

n oted, t herefore, t he s trong r esurgence o f E wuare a s a c ulture-hero, t he r ecent a ttempts t o i ntroduce n ew t raditions o f B enin's d ynastic o rigin ( below; 1 53), t he i mportant c atalystic r ole t hat d reams m ight h ave i n i nspiring n ew ' traditions' ( Emokpae: 1 976; P ers.Comm .), a nd t he p ossible i nclusion o f c ontem wary l ateral r umour i nto B enin's r eputedly c onservative t raditions. ' I e ven s uggested t hat E gharevba h ad m ade a n h onest b ut m isguided a ttempt t o f use E uropean h istorical r ecords w ith o ral t raditions. A ll t his I n ow r etract. T he a nswer l ies i n V olume I o f T albot's w ork; E gharevba's ' research' t urns o ut t o b e a n i ncomplete u se o f a p assage f rom T albot ( 1926; V ol. I , 1 54-155); f or i n t his p assage T albot n otes t raditional c laims c oncerning c ons truction o f t he C ity w all w hich i nvolve n ot o nly O ba E wuare b ut a lso O ba E sigie. T he i solated r ecording o f t his m inority t radition c onc erning O ba E sigie i ndicates t he c ontemporaneous e xistence o f a t l east t hree s treams o f t radition f or t he C ity w all. T o a ccommodate t hese n ew E wuare t raditions w ithout

t oo o bviously

c ontradicting t he e xtant O guola C ity w all t raditions h e h ad p reviously c ollected, E gharevba r elegated O guola's f unction t o t wo o uter ' City' w alls ( Egharevba: 1 950; 2 2), w hich i n C onnah's l ater s urvey h ave n o d emonstrable u nity a s c laimed ( Connah: 1 975; 1 01-102). I n a ny c ase t he d igging o f a n o uter i ya b efore a n i nner i ya w ould h ave b een a t otally a bnormal o rder o f c onstruction c ompared w ith i ya s urveyed e verywhere e lse. E gharevba a lso r einforced B enin's c laim t o s eniority - a nd s o c entral p olitical l egality - w ith h is a ssertion t hat " By t he o rder o f O ba O guola,

a ll

t he i mportant

t owns

a nd

v illages i n B enin c opied t he e xample a nd d ug s imilar m oats a nd d itches r ound t heir v illages a s r amparts a gainst e nemies". ( Egharevba: 1 950 ; 2 2). T albot

h ad

s ponsible

e arlier r ecorded t his c oncept o f j ust o ne O ba f or a ll

t he i ya e verywhere e lse,

b eing

t hough i n h is n otes

r e( pos-

s ibly i n e rror?) O zolua w as t he O ba ( Talbot: 1 926; V ol. I II, 8 85). E ven E gharevba h as a dmitted t hat t he i ya w ould h ave b een c onstructed o ver a m uch l onger p eriod t han j ust o ne r eign a nd m aintained t hat d igging c ontinued i n s ome v illages u ntil O ba E hengbuda's r eign i n t he l ate C 16th ( Egharevba: 1 975; P ers.Comm.). W hether t his w as s o o r n ot, t here i s l ittle g round f or c onfidence i n t he u nanimity o f B enin v illagers i n c ases ( Appendix; p robably

r ural

i n a ffirming t hat O ba O guola m ade t heir i ya - p articularly w here t he v illage i tself c laims a l ater f oundation d ate 0 5 U rhoho 3 ,

0 7 E gbaen).

I n r eality t hese a ffirmations a re

l ittle m ore t han r epetitions o f

3 6

t he t ype-cast

r ole

a ssigned

t o

O guola

( cf.

t he v ariety o f i nteresting

O guola i n t he A ppendix;

e g.

0 1 U gha,

0 4 O rio I , 0 5 O kabere, O ka n 'Aru O via, U roho, 0 6 I wu, E gbaen, A zalama). W hen

e xplanations

0 2 E khor,

I rokhin,

I dogbo,

c oncerning

0 3 E vbuorhuan,

U gbeku,

I kpe,

A zagba,

n ot a ttempting d irectly t o r ationalize t he i ya p henomenon,

E gharevba's

t raditions a ffect i nterpretation o f

t he e arthworks i n

t wo

w ays. F irst, h is l ist o f s ettlements c laiming t o h ave b een f ounded i n t he e arliest p eriod ( Egharevba: 1 968; 3 ) g ives s ome g rounds f or o ptim ism i n t he h istorical v alue o f t he t raditions; f or a s ignificantly h igh p roportion o f t hese ' Ogiso p eriod s ettlements h ad t heir c laimed o riginal v illage s ites s et w ithin w hat a re e vidently t he e arliest i ya, w hereas m any o ther s ettlements l ay o utside. H owever, t he o verall d istribution p attern o f t he i ya i s n ot c o-extensive w ith t he d istribut ion

o f

t hese

c laimed e arly s ettlements i n t he

p resent

d ay

B enin

K ingdom a rea ( map: b elow; 4 5. R oese: 1 981; 1 68); a nd t here i s i ncreas ing d iscordancy i f a ttempts a re m ade t o r econcile t he d istribution p atterns o f s ettlements w ith B enin d ynastic f oundation c laims a nd t he i ya p atterns ( below ; 4 6). P robably, t herefore, t his i ndicates t hat t he i ya r epresent a s ettlement d istribution o f a p re-dynastic E do-Esan c ulture c overing a n a rea w hich w as g eographically s imilar b ut o verl apped b y m uch o f S econdly,

t he l ater B enin a nd I shan K ingdoms. E gharevba's

a pparent a ssumptions u nderlying

' rebel-

l ion' a nd c onquest o f l arge s ettlements a djacent t o B enin n eed t o b e r e-examined. T he l arge i ya s ystems o n t he p eriphery o f t he i ya c luster n orth a nd s outh o f B enin ( and o thers i n I shan a nd e lsewhere) l eave l ittle d oubt t hat t hey w ere o nce p owerful s ettlements; a nd t heir o ral t raditions r ecount f ierce c onflict b efore c onquest b y B enin ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 2-25). E ven t he I shan t own U romi ' rebelled'. I n d ealing w ith t hese a ccounts, E gharevba a ttempts t o r concile t he c onc eptual d ilemma i nherent i n B enin's c laim t o p olitical a nd d ivine l egitimacy o ver t he w hole s phere o f t he k ingdon a b i nitio. B enin's m ilitary c onquests o utside t his s phere a re r ecorded a s s uch; w hereas t hese

c onflicts

w ith

l arge s ettlements i nside t he k ingdom

a re

r e-

p resented a s ' rebellions' a gainst B enin's l egitimate a uthority. C ons ideration o f o ther a ccounts s uggests t hat i nitial c onquest i s p robably a m ore a ccurate e xplanation; t hough t his p resents c hronol igical

p roblems,

a s m ost o f

t he m ajor ' rebellions' a re h eld t o h ave

o ccurred d uring O ba O zolua's r eign s ome t ime a fter B enin's r ise t o w idespread p ower u nder E wuare. I f, h owever, E wuare O gidigan ( the G reat) a nd O zolua n 'Ibaromi ( the C onqueror) a re a ssumed t o h old l argely t ype-cast r oles r espectively p ersonifying a spects o f B enin's s piritual a nd m ilitary a scendancy, t hen t his a nd m any a ssociated p roblems b egin t o m ake s ense ( below; 3 8, 4 1). B efore d eveloping t his a rgument, t hough, i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider t raditions o ther t han t hose r ecorded b y E gharevba. A s

m ost o f

r elationship

o f

t hese o ther s ources o f t radition c losely c oncern t he t he O ba t o h is c ouncil o f

t op c hiefs i n

B enin

t hey c an b e r elated i n t erms o f s pecific e vents a t t he t wo e arthworks s urrounding B enin C ity i n t he c oronation j ourney E daiken

( crown p rince).

( Daily T imes P ublication: ..escorted t he

I ya A kpan

I n t he r ecent ' coronation o f O ba E rediauwa' J anuary 1 979)

t he E daiken w as

b y t he U selu p eople.. . up t o t he f irst w here

C ity, l argest o f t he

t here

3 7

w as a

' change

o f

m oat,

g uards'.

T here,

t he

c hiefs

a nd p eople o f U selu b ade

g oodbye

t o

t heir r uler a nd h anded h im o ver t o t he c hiefs a nd p eople o f a nother s ection o f G reat B enin, t he O redu p eople. O redu c hiefs t hen l ed t he E daiken i nto t he a ncient c ity. H is t raditional r oute p assed t hrough I guisi a nd E ko O hae..." ( bachelor's c amp). B radbury n otes

t hat

U nuogua t o U sama a nd

t he c eremonial t hence

" There O giamwen t ries o rnament O giamwen.

a round T his

d efeated. T he U zama

W ith

r espect

f irst

i nvasion

o f

j ourney t hen m oves

t he i ya

t o s top

( City w all)

t he O ba.

a t

f rom E ko O ha

O giamwen c uts

t he O ba s n eck a nd E dogun i s t he s even d ays i n w hich

a t

I sekhere. t he

e tc. c hase O giamwen i s

O giamwen t hen a ssigns t erritory t o t he O ba. d o n ot c ross t he i ya t o E do w ith t he O ba". ( Bradbury: n .d. - 2 3/4/58; B S 1 0).

t o

c oncerns

t o

t he i ya,

t wo m ajor o bservations c an b e

m ade.

t he c eremonial r e-enactment o f O ba E wedo's

C hief O giamwen's

t erritory.

4 2

T he

s econd

T he

s uccessful

c oncerns

t he

U zama. E wedo's e ntry i nto B enin C ity p oses a p roblem . T he t raditional k ing-lists o f B enin a ll p lace O ba E wedo's r eign b efore t hat o f h is s econd s on, O ba O guola; a nd O guola, a s w e h ave j ust s een, i s t he o ral t raditions s trongest c andidate f or t he r ole o f C ity w all c onstructor. T his t raditional v iew i s e ven e ndorsed b y a r ecent h older o f t he h ereditary O giamwen t itle: " When A ramiyan 43 a rrived t here w ere n o i ya. O guola w as t he o ne w ho s tarted t hem b ecause o f t he w ar t hat w as c oming. T here i s a s aying ' Rhi o xwae r e n 'ogh-Oguola'. H e a sked t hem t o b ring b askets. H e w as a lways a sking t hem t o w ork q uickly, l ike a n o ga. H e w as n ot v ery k polo. S ince t hen 3 3-34 O bas h ave r eigned. A t t hat t ime O bas l asted f or 1 4 d ays, s ome f or o nly 7 ". ( Bradbury: n .d.; B S 3 93). 44 T here s hould,

t herefore,

h ave b een n o C ity w all,

n o e arthwork ( iya) t o

d emarcate t he p oint w here O ba E wedo e ntered O giamwen's t erritory. Y et t he a ccession r itual c learly i ndicates t hat t he b oundary o f O giamwen's l and ( with I sekhere's?) w as c oincident w ith t he ' later' C ity w all. T he e xtremely c onservative n ature o f t his c eremonial r itual w ith i ts m ock b attle i s p robably a m ore r eliable s ource o f t raditional h istory t han t he o ral t raditions w hich, o ver t he c enturies, m ay h ave s ought t o l egitimize

t he

r uling

d ynasty b y a ssigning t he r ole

o f

c onstructor ( and a ll t he c laims t o C ity t erriroty t hat t o a n e arly m ember o f t hat d ynasty - O ba O guola. S o, d efence

o f O giamwen's f ormer l and a t

i ntroduction

o f

t he C ity w all i mplies

t he I fe-based d ynasty i nto t he p resent

C ity

w all

t his i mplies) t he c eremonial t hat

t he

C ity a rea

m ay

h ave p ostdated t he c onstruction o f a n i ya d emarcating t hat a rea. T his r emains t rue w hether t he o ral t radition a ccounts o f E wedo's a ccession a re i nterpreted a s t he s uccessful c ulmination o f a s eries o f Y oruba f orays ( Macrae-Simpson: 2 48),

o r s imply a l ocal T he

1 936;

P 10),

o r a c oup d 'etat

t ransfer o f p ower

s econd o bservation,

( Egharevba:

w hich c oncerns

3 8

( Obayemi: 1 968;

t he U zama,

1 976;

9 -10). a ppears

t o

e ndorse

t his

i mplication.

T here a re

c hiefs a cting a s k ingmakers 2 14).

O f

t hese,

i t

i s

a nd

s even U zama t itles h eld b y B enin

t he O ba's

c laimed

t hat

c ouncillors

( Melzian:

t he E daiken w as

1 937;

o nly c reated

i n

O ba E wuare's r eign, o rally d ated t o t he m id-C15th, a nd t hat t he O loton c ame w ith O ranmiyan f rom I fe ( Egharevba: 1 960; 4 , 1 4-15), s o a ttention n eed o nly b e p aid

t o t he

o ther

f ive - t he O liha,

E dohen,

a nd E holo N -ere. S imilar t itle n ames a re f ound a part a s O nitsha o n t he r iver N iger i n t he e ast E de-Oshogbo p hase

o f

a rea

t o t he w est,

a nd

n ames w ere

a t

f n.

k ingmakers

B enin t here

o f

9 ).

a ffecting b oth i s

a

T here

t he

' elders

1 973; 1 1). c ontrolled

b y

m ain

w all a nd i nside

C ity

o ther

n o d ispute,

t o w hether

w ho

s ent

t hough,

t he n ext

i n c onstructing

s ettlements

w ith B enin ( Bradbury: 1 973; t o c omment o n t he o ther, w est,

b ut w e

c an n ote

C ity

a rea,

a s

t hat

1 968;

t he I ya'Akpan,

4 )

b y

a nd

" are

( Bradbury:

- t he

I ya A kpan

R oese: 1 981; 1 70). I t t he U zama s ettlements

v ery p robably i n a lliance

s outhern p art

o f

t his i ya

a nd

5 5. b elow; 4 8). W e a re n ot i n a p osition h ypothetical s ettlements t o t he s outh a nd t he e ntry o f

t he n ew d ynasty

i nto

t he B enin

r e-enacted a nnually a nd a t e very c oronation

a ccompanied

1 973;

t hat t he s ettlements l ocated o utside t he

l arge e nclosure

e nclosed b y t he

E do t itle

t he U zama w ere

f or O ranmiyan"

3 5. P . B en-Amos: 1 980; 6 . t o s uggest, t herefore, t hat

t he t he

( Bradbury:

t hat

( Egharevba: t o I fe

T here i s a lso u nanimous a greement t hese p re-dynastic c hiefs a re a ll

( Bradbury: 1 957; s eems r easonable w ere i nvolved

i s

" pre-Oranmiyan

t he Y oruba a nd

s ome d ispute a s

t he p re-dynasitc p eriod

i dentified w ith

w as

f ar t he

c reated b y O ba E weka I o r a lready e xisted

1 1-12 i nc.

w ith

E ro,

p ossibly r eflecting

p olitical d evelopment

o f B enin";

E zomo,

i n c hiefdoms a s t o A beokuta a nd

a s harp b reak b etween t he O ba a nd

d ramatically s eparated b y t he m ain C ity w all

( above;

c eremony,

t he

3 8).

U zama T his

r ation a ppears t o h ave p ersisted, f or i t i s c laimed t hat O ba ( early-C16th?) d ug a s mall e arthwork i n B enin C ity t o f ulfill

-

s epaE sigie t radi-

t ional r equirements i n h is c reation o f a b reakaway U zama n 'Ibiye d uring a q uarrel w ith t he t rue u zama ( Macrae-Simpson: 1 936; 3 2 p ara. 9 0). I n a ddition, t he c reation o f n ew c hieftaincy o rders a nd t he r ise t o

p ower o f

t he O shodin a nd U wangue

( below;

I I.B.9)

p atible

w ith

p eriod.

W e a re

a ppear

t he

t o m ake

t he

c onstruction o f

l eft,

t hen,

( chiefs)

d uring

s ocio-political t he

w ith o nly

t he

I ya'Akpan i n t he t he

t imeless

C 15th-C16th

s cene q uite

i ncom-

p ost-dynastic

p erspectives

o f

t he

p re-dynastic e ra: " Edogun H is

( war

c hief) w as

b oundaries

B etween

h is

w ere

h ere t he

b efore i ya,

p art a nd O liha's p lace

was b ush. E ach p erson l ived i n h is t ime, i ndependently". ( Bradbury: O nce

a gain,

o ne

c laims r egarding ( Egharevba: 1 968; s ecret

o f

A s t he

a nother i n t he

r eceives

B S 4 4. t he

t here

o wn s etlement a t

C ontents

t hat

i n b rackets m ine).

s trong i mpression t hat

t he p resent

t he

d ynastic

e xpressed

i n i ts e xtensive

b e

e xpected,

t o

t heir m ain C ity w all a re m ore i n

t he d iscordant

t he a nd

i ya,

d id

d ynasty.

B ini a ccounts

m arket.

( Uzama v illage)

w ould t han

f rom I fe.

O ba's

O ba O guola's c onstruction o f e ven t he I ya'Akpan 1 1, 8 3) h ave b een s eriously u ndermined, a nd t hat t he

B enin's e arly s trength,

n ot o riginate w ith

o f

n .d.;

t he O ba c ame

U gbague,

r ecorded

t raditions

o f

t he

h armony

a ttitudes w ith

o ften c onflicting c hronological

a lready e xamined.

E gharevba c laims

3 9

o ne

c laims

t hat O ba E wuare

..made

p owerful c harms a nd h ad

t hem b uried a t

e ach

o f

t he n ine g ateways t o t he C ity, t o n ullify a ny e vil c harms w hich m ight b e b rought b y p eople o f o ther c ountries t o i njure h is B radbury

s ubjects".

r ecords

a nother E wuare t radition i nvolving

p oisoned a rrows a t I lobi, " At

t hat

( 1960;

t ime

a v illage a bout 3 5kms.

1 4-15).

t hose

w ho

m ade

t o t he e ast i n I si:

t here w as o nly o ne w ay t hrough t he

i ya.

T he

i ya w as n ot a s i t i s n ow b ut v ery s teep a nd h igh. --- E wuare ET b rought I lobi t o B enin a nd h e h ad m ade t he i ya t o h old w ater t hen.

a s a d efence a gainst e nemies. I lobi b rought t heir w eapons,

t hem. T hey t ested i t o n t he i ya. n uts i nside i t t hey b roke o ff..." ( n.d.;

B S 3 5.

T here w ere n o o bi ( poison)

g uns w ith

W hen t hey p laced p alm

C ontents o f b rackets m ine).

T he p assage g oes o n t o d escribe h ow O ba E zoti l ater s lips o n t he i ya, t ouches t he p oison, a nd t hen d ies: t his v ariant o n E gharevba's a cc ount o f E zoti's d eath ( 1968; 1 9) f ear o f c rossing i ya i n t he p ast. " In

o ld

t imes O ba n ever

r eflects

t ravelled.

s omething o f

t he

H e n ever p asses

g enuine

a da

( iya e ntrance/crossroads). I n ever u sed t o c ross i ya o r a da b ecause o f t he e bo ( charm/medicine o f h armful s piritual p otency). N ow w e a ll t ravel". ( Bradbury: n .d. 1 5/11/57; B S 5 50/1. C ontents o f b rackets m ine. c f. i llustrations A , B , C b elow ; 4 4-45). T his A mos

l ast p assage i s e asier t o u nderstand i n t he l ight o f P aula B enc omments o n t he O rhu f estival w hich, i t i s c laimed, w as i ntro-

d uced

b y

O ba E sigie ' to c ommemorate a f east p repared b y

Q ueen I dia b efore h e l eft f or t he U do w ar', A .D. ( below; 1 64). " The h igh m other o f

h is

p ossibly i n

m other

a bout

1 517

p oint o f O rhu i s t he p reparation b y t he o ba's a f east o f p ounded y am a nd s oup w ithout o il,

w hich i s t aken b y t he p alace g roup I rho-Ema a nd p laced a t a ll n ine g ates t o t he c ity a s a n o ffering t o k eep a way e vil f orces. T hese g ates a re c onsidered t o b e c rossroads, a nd a ll c rossroads a re v iewed b y t he E do a s t he m eeting p oint o f t he s pirit w orld a nd t he w orld o f e very d ay l ife, a nd s o a re t he f ocus o f o fferings m ade t o p otentially h armful s pirits". ( P. B en-Amos: 1 980; 7 8, 8 2). P erhaps l ethal

O ba

A kenzua

I I w as r eferring i ndirectly t o

s piritual r eprisals w hen h e m aintained

w as u ncrossable: " Town

t hat

B radbury's f ull n otes o n t his

W alls.

T he

O ba d oes n ot

t his

b elief

t opic r un :

t hink t he w alls

a t

6 -7

m iles o n t he t he E kenwan a nd S iluko r oads c ould g o r ound B enin C ity. M aybe i n c onnection w ith s ome o ther v illage. A s f ar a s i s k nown t here w as n o f ence a round t he t op o f t he w alls. T here w as n o n eed f or a f ence. T he d itch w as s o d eep t hat a nyone t rying t o c ross i t w ould b e k illed b efore h e c ould g et u p t he w alls. F ences r eported b y t ravellers

j ust

n ear t he g ates

4 0

- n arrow

i n

t he C ity w all d itch

s trips

a cross

d itch, u se

e ach w ith i ts k eepers.

t he w alls f or d efence o f

T urning h undreds

o f

o ur

r ural

a ttention

N one r emain.

N o n eed t o

t he t own s ince t he I dah W ar". ( n.d. - 2 9/1/57; B S 1 1).

a way f rom t he C ity w all

i ya e lsewhere,

a nd

w e f ind a w hole r ange o f

B y f ar t he m ost w idespread o f t hese a re w hat I t erm t raditions. F or e xample, a t U vbigie w ard i n I gieduma, n orth-east o f B enin i n U humwode, B radbury j otted d own : " Uvbigie.

S ome

o f

t he ' Oguola' a bout 4 0kms.

B enin. A d itch d ug W as a p rotection

t he A ttah o f I dah".

t he

t he

F ounded d uring t he t ime o f O ba U werire b y I wu a

s ervant o f t he O ba f rom O bge q uarter, b y O guola, s urrounds t he q uarter. a gainst

o nto

t raditions.

( n.d.;

m ain c haracteristics o f

t his

t radition

M 5 10).

a re

s hared

b y

n umerous s ettlements t houghout t he B enin K ingdom : t he s ettlement c laims d erivation f rom B enin C ity, a nd t he d itch w as d ug b y O ba O guola ( orally d ated t o s ometime b etween t he l ate-C13th a nd l ate-C14th) f or p urposes o f d efence a gainst e xternal f orces h ostile t o t he B enin r egime - ( here a gainst a t hreat w hich d id n ot m anifest i tself u ntil t he e ar1y-C16th!). 45 C learly, w hat t hese v illage t raditions r elating t o O ba O guola a re r eally d oing i s t o i dentify w ith t he p ower a nd p restige o f B enin, t o a ccept B enin's u ltimate c laim t o t heir t erritory ( Bradbury: 1 973; 1 32-5), a nd e xpress t heir c omplete p olitical a llgeia nce b y i ncorporating B enin t radition i nto t he v ery f oundations o f t heir o wn l ocal h istory. I ncredible a s i t m ay s eem , a ll t his m ay o nly h ave h appened i n t he l ast t hree o r f our d ecades f ollowing t he p ublicat ion o f E gharevba's w orks ( above; 3 5-36) w ith t heir s tatus a s ' official T he

h istory. n ext

l argest c orpus o f r ural i ya

t raditions

i nvolve

O ba

O zolua. " All

t he o ld B ini a nd E sa c ities u nder t he d omination

o f

B enin w ere s urrounded b y w alls a nd t renches -a c ustom i ntroduced, i t i s s tated, b y t he O bba O zolua a t t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c entury".

( Talbot:

1 926;

V ol.

I II,

8 85).

A lthough T albot's d ate a grees m ore w ith t he t raditional d ating o f O guola,

t here a re o ther a ccounts,

O khumwun i n 1 974, 1 981a. A t U zalla,

a s a t E vbonikhuo,

O logbo,

w hich O zolua i s c laimed t o h ave b uilt t he i ya ( Darling: E gharevba: 1 977; P ers.Comm. J ungwirth: b elow ; I I.B.6).

a bout

1 5kms.

n orth-east o f B enin i n I yekikpoba,

B radbury

n oted: " Ixuerhiehe w as t he n ame o f t he O nogie ( Chief) r eigning i n t he t ime o f O giso...0zolua ( an O ba) c onquered I xuerhiehe. I nfts.

d o n ot k now w hether I x.

w as

t he n ame o r

t itle b ut

d o n ot h old i t i mpossible t hat h e c ould h ave l ived t o s erve 2 0 O bas. O zolua w as g oing t o g ive h is d aughter t o I x. b ut t he l atter d id n ot t rust h im s o b uilt a d itch a round t he t own. O zolua s ent h is d aughter w ith a n e scort a nd t hey b ridged t he d itch. W hen O zolua c ame t o f ight I x. h e

w as

O ba

U tekon a nd

a bout

t o c ut

t he l atter d own w hen h e

d isappeared

i nto t he g round... I ya: t he i nner d itch w hich g oes a ll r ound t he t own d ug b y I xuerhiehe - t he o uter o ne - a f ew

4 1

d ozen y ards a way - b y O zolua. T he i nner o ne i s c alled i ya n 'odin - b uilt a s d efence a gainst O zolua". ( Bradbury: n .d. - 8 /3/58; B S 2 21. C ontents i n b rackets m ine). A part f rom t he o bvious a nachronistic

d etail,

w hich B radbury s kilfully

d raws o ut s o t hat n o f urther c omment i s n eeded, t he m ain c haracteri stic w orth n oting i s t he c laim t he t he i ya n 'odin w as b uilt, n ot a gainst t he t hreat o f e nemies o utside t he B enin K ingdom , s uch a s A kpanigiakon o f U do ( Egharevba: 1 968; 1 1), b ut a s a d efence a gainst B enin i tself. T here i s, p erhaps, a n e cho o f t he O guola/Akpanigiakon t radition i n t he r efusal o f t he l ocal O nogie t o m arry t he O ba's d aughter, t hereby s tarting a w ar: t his c ould, a lternatively, b e n o m ore t han a n arrative c onvention s erving t o e nhance t he h eroic s tature o f t he r esisting c hief. T he d isappearance o f t his d efeated h ero i nto a n atural f eature i s a s tandard s tory-telling d evice t o d enote t he t ransmogrification o f h ero-deities ( ihen), p articularly d uring t he r eigns o f O bas E wuare a nd O zolua ( below ; 4 9-51). I t w ould s eem 6 t hat 4 i n t his U zalla a ccount, a nd a f ew o thers ( e.g. D arling: 1 974), t he i ya h ave b ecome i ncorporated i nto t raditions r elating t o t he e nd t he p re-dynastic p eriod a nd t he t rauma o f c onquest b y B enin ( cf. B en-Amos: 1 978). T he h istoricity o f

t he i ya w ithin s uch t ransition p eriod

o f D .

t radi-

t ions i s, h owever, r ather d oubtful. A t U zalla, t he i ya n 'odin, r ep uted t o h ave b een b uilt a gainst O ba O zolua, i s n ot t he i nnermost i ya - i t i s a l ater a ddition; a nd t he i ya O zolua i s s upposed t o h ave b uilt, s hows e very s ign o f b eing m erely a nother i ya a ddition f rom a d ifferent s ettlement.

A lso,

f rom t he e vidence o f m any i ya

s urveyed

e lsewhere, i t w ould s eem t hat o ften i ya w ere d ug d eepest, n ot w here t heir f lanks w ere e xposed t o a ny e xternal t hreat f rom B enin, U do o r I dah, b ut w herever t heir i ya a pproached t he i ya o f n eighbouring s ett lements. T he o verall p a ttern o f i ya s ystems a ppears t o d epict t he e xpanding t erritorial b oundaries o f l ocal,

i ndependent

c hiefdoms o ver

m any c enturies ( cf. C onnah: 1 967; m ap c omment), n ot a s udden d efensive c ommitment c aused, b uilt o r o rdered b y B enin. O ne m ust s uspect, t herefore, t hat t he i ya a nd t heir n umerous a dditions d ate f rom c ondit ions o f p re-dynastic a utonomy, s o t heir i nclusion i n t he t raditions r elating t o t he v ery e nd o f t hat p eriod c an, c ontain o nly a t iny f raction o f A a re

n umber

c onsidered

o f ' Ozolua

' Ozolua', a t b est,

t he t ruth.

t raditions r elating t o t he O khunmwun

i n s ome d etail

i n c onjunction w ith t he

s urvey o f

i ya t hat

i ya ( below ; I I. B . 6 ). T he m ost i mportant p oints t hat e merge a re t hat t his i ya a ppears t o h ave b een c onstructed b y a n a malgamation o f l ocal c hiefs a ntedating B enin c onquest, a nd t hat d uring t his p re-dynastic p eriod t he e arthworks m ay, p erhaps, h ave d emarcated e xogamous u nits, p ermitting w omen t o c ross b ut n ot m en o f f ighting a ge. S o g limpses

f ar o f

t he

i ya

t raditions

h ave

p rovided

o nly

t antalizing

t he p re-dynastic p eriod d uring w hich t hey a ppear t o

h ave

b een c onstructed. 47 O ne's u nderstanding i s n ot m uch f urthered b y s uch m ythological u tterances a s: " One

m an c alled U wagboe c rossed

t he r iver.

W hen h e

h ad

c rossed h e s queezed o ut h is e buluku ( loin c loth) a nd t he p lace c hange t o i ya". ( Bradbury: n .d. - 1 7/3/61; B S 6 13. C ontents i n b rackets m ine).

4 2

O ne c annot b e s ure w hether t he i ya i s h ere a r iver v alley,

a g ully o r

t he v ery d eep e arthworks w hich h ave b een s urveyed a t I du ( below; B . 5

I I.

T here i s, h owever, j ust o ne r eference c oncerning s ettlements i n t he B enin K ingdom , w hich m ay c ome s omewhere n ear t he a ctual t ruth. I t c oncerns t he E kae a nd U gbor i ya o nly a bout 5 kms. s outh o f B enin C ity: " Ereghezi

m ade a d itch a round E kae i ncluding E tete,

E ria

a lso i nside i t...

na

R eason w hy E reghezi

d itch w as t hat O gle U gbor, a nd o kakua, t o t ake a nything h e l iked. g Fe W eil

E vbo

m ade

a

u sed t o c ome h ere s aid i t w ould b e

b etter f or t hem t o h ave b oundary. T hey p romised d ays t o e ach o ther t o m ake b oundary. O n v ery d ay,

s even E re-

g hezi p ut d own u kpabo o ghodin ( bowl o f u ghodin) h e s truck i t a nd s aid u ntil h e f inished m aking a d itch r ound w here h e w anted h is l and t o r each, O gi'Ugbor s hould b e a sleep. A ll p eople f ollowing O gi'Ugbor w hen t hey e at s hould e xc rete i t. N ext d ay E reghezi g ot h old o f t ools a nd b egan t o m ake t he d itch. O gi'Ugbor w oke u p. w ake h im .

H e s truck h is h oe w ith a m atchet a nd H e a sked h is s ervants w hy t hey d id n ot

T hey s aid t hey u sed p estles,

e tc.

t o t ry t o

w ake h im. H e c ut a n i ximwin, e ntered t he d itch a nd s tretc hed h is h ands f orward a p ole a nd p lanted a t ree. W hen w e c lear t he r oad w e c lear i t u p t o t he d itch. U gbo p eople c lear i t u p t o t he i ximwin. A hoeze, a s ervant o f O gi'Ugb or, s aid i f h e h ad b een p resent w hen E reghezi w as d igging t he d itch h e w ould n ot h ave l et h im d ig i t n ear h is t own. H e g ot t ools a nd s tarted t o d ig a d itch. A t ree f ell 9 g h im a nd h e d ied". T hese

( Bradbury:

t raditions a lso e xplain t hat b oth O sa

n .d.;

B S 4 92). '

( the s upreme

d eity)

a nd

E reghezi f ell f rom t he s ky; t hough E reghezi, i t i s c laimed, w as n ot s trong, b eing s oft a nd w eak, w riggly l ike a s nake, a nd w as o nly m ade i nto a m an a fter b eing d ried u p a t E kae. T his o bviously m ythological b ackground m ay s carcely c ommend i tself a s a n i deal r eference s ource o f a ny h istorical v alue; y et t his v ery n ature b inds i t c losely t o t he c orpus o f O giso t raditions p ertaining t o t he p re-dynastic p eriod - t he O gle I so ( hence O giso) a lso b eing L ords o r K ings o f ne s ky ( Bradbury: 1 957; 1 9. R yder: 1 969; 4 . D . B en-Amos: 1 975; 1 7). T he t otal l ack o f r eference t o B enin i n t hese E kae t raditions, a s w ell a s • t he s cene o f p owerful, l ocal c hiefs c ompeting, b y f air m eans o r f oul, t o c ontrol a s m uch t erritory a s t hey c ould, a ppear t o p rovide a r ealistic i nterp retation o f w hat h as b een d iscovered b y t he i ya s urveys s ubsequent t o t he c ollection o f t hese t raditions. T he u se o f i khimwin t rees f or m arking b oundaries m ay r epresent a c ontamination b y l ater t raditions ( below; 4 8): e ven s o, b y r eferring t o w hat a ppears t o b e t he c orrect p eriod o f i ya c onstruction, t his t radition i s u nique a midst a p lethora o f

o ther

i ya t raditions,

m ost o f w hich

-w hatever

o ther

v aluable

s ocial f unctions t hey m ay p erform a s a c harter t o a s ettlement's e xistence a nd p olitical a llegiances - a re h istorically a nachronistic a nd o ften t otally m isleading. I t i s t rue t hat s ome o ther f orms o f t radition,

s uch

a s

t he C ommunity B oundary M aps

i n t he n ext

s ection,

a ppear t o b e m ore a menable t o r ealistic h istorical i nterpretation. N evertheless, w hen a s w idespread a p henomenon a s t he i ya p rove t o h ave t raditions i n w hich t he d egree o f h ist2gical u nreliability s eems t o i ncrease w ith t he l evel o f u nanimity, jv t hen o ne c an b ut w onder h ow

4 3

m any

o f

t he

h istory w ould p hysical c all

c onventionally a ccepted e difices c rumble

i f

s crutiny a nd

f or

c aution i s

t hey,

t oo,

c hecking a s

c ould i s

o f

B enin

b e e xposed

p ossible w ith

b y n o m eans m isplaced

t o t he

( in F age:

t raditional

t he s ame i ya.

1 970;

c h.

c lose

R yder's 5 ).

U henC )

I o h

J I P V P

>

Uwani, ( ) Ty

e

I yow

(

khun • O 4 ,

4 14

1 >

O mi arg b

0 O gheghe

U ni lame

4 ) E gor 0 0 U se

OIgo

4 ) g be 1i i 0 0 gba 0 1

0

• u g a

O rogho

0

0

d e gan

0 e . do g

l i ae O gua

0 Amangba

•

E D Ikpako

O kha

U gho t on

U tesi 0 0Uroho

U gbokhirima

0 4 ) O rogho

D ISTRIBUTION O F S ETTLEMENTS C LAIMING O GISO P ERIOD O RIGINS ( noting o nly t hose r ecorded b y E gharevba:1968;3) Umoghumwun

0

4 1 s ettlements o r t heir c laimed o riginal s ites w ithin p rimary i va 0

s ettlements a ssociated w ith iya w hich m ay n ot b e p rimary

0 s ettlement a pparently o utside i ze . c onstruction a rea

® settlement

A

2 === J

d efinitely o utside a reas o f la c onstruction

I YA ENTRANCE

- UDENI

( deserted

s ite):

t his

5

i s

t he

T hese e ntrances

p laces o f •

T he

s pecial

s ame e ntrance

( uriya:

s piritual

f rom o utside,

S acrifice a t c rossroads

5 3.

a da:

k r t i

B enin C ity

a bove;

4 0)

i n

w ere

s ignificance.

p art o f a f ormer n ight b arricade •

b elow;

A5

f ootpath a long

w hich Oba Ovonramwen f led a fter t he B ritish c aptured 1 897.

O=

s howing a n l ocal

i ron s taple

i nformants

( also c alled a da:

a bove;

s aid. 4 0).

i n a t ree -

S OME O F T HE MAIN C LAIMS O F O RIGIN F ROM B ENIN . .. & T HE I YA.

R eferences:

B radbury:1957;65-67,87-88,101,112,129-131. G overnment I ntelligence R eports i n b ox-file).

( some n otes

M any o f t hese f oundation c laims i nvolve m igrations f rom B enin C ity o r i ts k ingdom; s ome o f t hese m ay w ell b e t rue, b ut o thers m ay r eflect p ast p olitical a llegiances, t he q uest f or p restige, o r p olitical c ircumspection w hen B enin w as a t i ts m ost p owerful.

. . .

T he a pproximate m aximum e xtent o f t he b y t he d otted l ine.

0 .B enin C ity

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

S O

1 00 k m

\ \ « .

4 6

/ ./

i ya c luster i s d epicted

I .

C .

2 .

C OMMUNITY L AND B OUNDARY MAPS

A

f orm o f

t raditional d ata t hat

s eems

t o h ave b een r ather

n eg-

l ected i s t he a ppreciable n umber o f c ommunity l and b oundary m aps c laiming t erritory c lose t o B enin C ity, w here t he p ressures a nd h istor ical

c omplexities

h ave p robably b een m ost a cute.

D uring t he

h alf

m illennium s ince t he i ya d emarcated l arge c ommunity b oundaries, v arious O bas h ave b een g ranted n ew p lots o f l and, p articularly t o t he n on-indigenous C ity w ards w ho h ave d emanded t heir o wn f arms. T his f ragmentation o f t he p revious, l arge c ommunity l and b locs w as c arried o ut b y t he A vbiogbe w ho s urveyed t he n ew l and, d emarcated i t w ith t he O ba's i khimwin t rees ( Newbouldia l aevis), w hich i t w as n ot p ermissable ( Bradbury: t o c ut d own, a nd a cted a s a rbitrators o ver a ll d isputes 1 973;

1 32-3).

S ometimes,

a s a t U seni a nd E vbonikho,

e arly i ndigenous

s ettlements h ad b een d evastated, a nd t he t erritory s o c leared w as l ater o ccupied b y t hese n ewcomers ( Appendix; 0 5. D arling: 1 974; 1 33). T he t he

p henomenal i ncrease i n t he r ate o f p opulation

l ast

s ources

d ecade o r s o h as p ut o f

g rowth

i ncreasing p ressures o n t he

t he p en -urban z one a s

p rivate,

c ommunity a nd

l and

o ver r e-

g overnment

i nteres i p ush f or o wnership a nd c ontrol. S urveyors, o ften o f I gbo laimed c ommunity b oundo rigin, J h ave b een e mployed t o m ap o ut t he c w hich b esiege b oth t he a ries f or e ndless c ases o f l and l itigation, s ecular c ourts a nd t he O ba's p alace; 52 a nd s imilar m aps h ave b een p roduced b y m any s ettlements w ithin a s ix-mile r adius o f B enin t o m eet t he p lanning s tipulations d emanded b y t he B enin D evelopment A uthority i n t he e arly n ineteen s eventies. I n

t he i nterests o f o bjectivity t hese m aps h ave b een

a s f ar a s p ossible a s t hey w ere f ound,

P lanning

p resented

t hough s ome c hanges w ere n eces-

s ary t o p roduce a s tandard s cale a nd k ey. I n t hemselves t he m aps a re o ften s ubjective i n t hat t hey e mphasize t hose a spects w hich a re f elt n eglect a ny t o s upport t he v illagers o ften e xaggerated c laims a nd v aries, a nd d isadvantageous f eatures. T heir s tandard o f p roduction d etail. T hus a ll h ave a d ifferent e mphasis o n c hoice o f s cale a nd s ome c aution a nother.

s ome

m ust

b e

e xercised w hen c omparing

a ny

o ne

m ap

w ith

I n m ost c ases, t he p erimeter h as b een p resented c omplete a nd d egree o f c omparison i s p ossible w ith t he l ocal i ya s ystems

a lready

s urveyed.

I t

i s

p robably m ost

p rofitable

t o

e nvisage

t he

p erimeter a s a c omposite o f s table a nd f lexible e lements p roviding a n a pproximate o utline o f t he l ong-standing t erritorial b loc r ather t han a n e xact d elineation. 53 W ith t his d egree o f p ermitted f lexibility i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he O khunmwun a nd O hovbe i ya s ystems ( below; I I.B.3., I I.B.6.) h ave a v ery h igh p ositive c orrelation w ith t heir c laimed b oundary m aps ( Appendix; M l, M 12). I n d etail t he m ost s table e lement o f t he O khunmwun p erimeter a ppears t o b e t he n orthern e dge o f t he E gbaen i ya: t o e ast a nd w est t he b oundary h as u ndergone a n a xial s hift f rom i ts i ya t o r oads c onstructed i n t his c entury ,

a nd a s imilar

s hift t o a f ootpath h as o ccurred a long t he n orthern b oundary. A t O hovbe t he n orthern a nd e astern p erimeter f ollow t he f ormer i ya n 'uwu ( boundary i ya) f or m uch o f i ts l ength; a nd t here i s a f lexible i nterf ace o n t he w estern s ector i n a n o-man's-land o verlap c laim w ith p art o f O regbeni ( Appendix; M 13). T here i s n o s ubstantive e vidence t o d ispute o f t he

t he c laims o f O khunmwun a nd O hovbe t o b eing d irect d escendants o riginal i ya c onstructors; t hough O vbiogie, t he t wo O hovbe

4 7

i dumwun ( wards) a nd t he p atterns o f i ya a nd p ottery s herd d istribution ( below ; I I D ) s uggest t hat, w hether b iTit s imultaneously a s a t O khunmw un, o r o ver a p eriod o f t ime a s a t O hovbe, n o s ingle s ettlement w as i nvolved i n t he t otal c onstruction o f t hese p articular i ya s ystems. V ery p ossibly t his c oncept o f m ulti-community i ya c onstruction i s e pitomized b y t he i ndependent t erritorial b locs— Tor E vb'Ohire, I zevbihen ( Appendix; M 7), a nd O ka n 'Aru O via ( Appendix; M 6) w hich o ccur w ithin t he a pproximate o verall f ramework o f t he O ka i ya. H ere a t l east n ine s ettlements a ppear t o h ave b een u nited i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he s ingle O ka i ya ( below ; I I.A.). T he l ater r ecession t o a utonomy h as r esulted i n c onfused c laims o f e quality o f p eer s tatus w hich b ecloud a ny d etermination o f s eniority o r p ossible l ineage g rouping

( Appendix;

0 5).

P ossibly o ne o f t he t wo m ain p eriods o f O ka

i ya c onstruction c ould b e t raced t o t he ' rebellion a gainst B enin t he l ate C 15th u nder O giemabo o f O ka ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 3); i f s o,

i n i t

s uggests t hat s imilar c onditions o f i nternecine h ostility e ncouraged t he u nity o f t he U zama ( kingmakers) v illages i n t heir c onstruction o f t he m ain o uter ' wall' o f B enin k nown a s I ya n 'Akpan ( above; 3 7. B radb ury: 1 973; 5 5. D aily T imes P ublication: O ko a nd O riokpa c ommunity l ands ( Appendix ;

J anuary 1 979). S imilarly M 10, M 11) m ay h ave b een

s ettlements r esponsible f or c onstruction o f j ust o ne s ector o f t heir i ya a s a t A gbede i n m ore r ecent t imes ( Bradbury: 1 957; 1 03). S ince l ater s ettlements m ay h ave a dopted i ya f or p art o f t heir b oundary, t his m ulti-community c onstruction o f i ya c onsiderably c omplicates a ny a nalysis w hich c ites f ragmentation o f t erritory a s a c riterion t o d istinguish t he m ore r ecent i mmigrant v illages g ranted l and b y B enin ( Bradbury: 1 957; 3 4. M arshall: J uly 1 938; F ile W P. 1 6880/A). Y et t hese m aps c ontain t wo s ettlements w hich c learly e xemplify s ettlements o f t he p ost i ya c onstruction p hase. I gu'Osa o ccupies t he f ormer n o-man's l and b etween E gbaen a nd O khunmwun i ya s ystems ( Append ix; M 2); a nd p robably o riginated a s a f arm s ettlement o f t he s laves o f O sa, a B enin c hief ( Igbafe: 1 974; 1 2. E gharevba: 1 973 B ini T itles; 2 7) w ho r equested p ermission t o f arm o n O khunmwun's l and, f or O khunmwun's b oundary m ap ( Appendix; M 1) f ails t o a ccord a ny p eer s tatus t o t his v illage. O gbesan e lders c laim t o h ave b een g ranted a l arge p lot o f l and b y t he O ba s ome t ime n ear t he b eginning o f t he C 19th ( Appendix; 0 4), a nd t heir v illage b oundary b isects t he c omplete O hovbe i ya s ystem a long t he w ell-trodden, t ree-lined f ootpath f rom B enin t o A gbor ( Appendix; M 12). O ther e vidence o f t he O ba's i ntervent ion i ncludes t he O gba s hrine ( Appendix; M 11) a nd t he v ery r ecent b oundary d emarcation b etween E gu'Iyoba a nd E vb'Ogido ( Appendix; M 5). S everal b e

s een

m aps d epict t he l ocation o f s hrines,

s ome o f w hich c an

t o p ersist e ven l ong a fter a c hange i n t he l ocation

o f

t he

s ettlement w hich c reated t hem ( e.g. A ppendix; M 4, M 7, M 12). M ost o f t he s hrines r ecorded a re t hose f or t he w hole v illage c ommunity - t he n umerous h ousehold s hrines t o O gun a nd O lokun b eing n oticeably a bsent f rom t hese m aps. O ne o f t he c ommonest c ommunity s hrines d epicted i s t he a vwotor, g round

a ruotor o r o hen o tor, w hich i s d edicated t o ' purify' t he

( otor/utor):

t his c onsists m ainly o f a n i nyato o r

u to,

a nd

i himwin t ree ( Newbouldia l aevis), w hich e very n ew B ini s ettlement w as o bliged t o p lant b efor b uilding c onstruction, f arming o r t he e xercise o f c onjugal r ights. 54 I n c lose a ssociation a nd s haring t he s ame o dionwere a s p riest w ere t he e dion s hrines ( ogwedion o r a ruedion), u sually f ound i n m ost v illages s omewhere r ound t he b ack o f t he e dion

4 8

v illage

c ouncil

b uilding;

t hough t hey a re a lso p resent

i n

i dumwun

( wards), a nd h ouseholds ( Bradbury: 1 957; 5 6). H ere c ontinuity o f t he l iving e dion ( elders) i s m aintained w ith t he a ncestral e dion ( spirits) ( Bradbury: 1 973; 1 30, 1 41, 1 70-181, 2 32-244), w ho a re c onceived a s b eing t he o riginal a nd s ubsequent o ccupiers o f t he v illage l and. T he p resence a rgument

o f t hese s hrines i s c onsidered q uite c learly a s a n e xplicit t o c laims o f l ong-standing t erritorial o wnership i n o ne f orm

o r a nother, a nd o riginally m ay h ave b een c onceptualized a s t he c ore g a ncestral t erritory o f w hich t he p eriphery w as d emarcated b y i ya. -" Y et t he B ini v iew o f t heir e dion i n e rinbhin ( the w orld o f t he d ead, t he s pirit w orld) a nd t heir a ssociation w ith t erritory a t a ll l evels o f h ousehold, w ard a nd v illage l evel p rovided l egitimacy t o i dumwun ( ward) a utonomy ( Bradbury: 1 973; 1 76), a nd s o c ontained t he s eeds o f l atent t erritorial f ragmentation, a p rocess m ade p ractically p ossible b y t he r apidly c hanging p ersonalities i n g erontocratic l eadership a t b oth i dumwun a nd v illage T he

l evels.

s hrines f or O via,

A ke,

O gba a nd O khuaihe

( Ohware,

O khware,

O khuahe) o n t hese m aps ( Appendix; M 7, 9 , 1 1, 1 2) a re t o h ere-deities ( ihen) r eputed t o h ave l ived a t t he t ime o f O ba E wuare o r O ba O zolua, a nd

m ay p ossibly r epresent

l eaders f rom t he v arious a reas

w hich

r e-

s isted B enin a t t he t ime o f i ts e arly e xpansion i n t he m id-late C 15th, a c ontention f urther s upported b y t he f act t hat t hese c ults w ere n ot p ermitted t o e nter B enin C ity ( Bradbury: 1 957; 5 6. 1 976. D . B en-Amos: 1 978, 1 980; P ers.Comm. A bove;

E gharevba: 4 2. B elow ;

1 974, 3 54).

O riginally t hese c ults w ere w orshipped l ocally, w ith O via b eing c ent red a t U sen a nd t hen U nuame, O khuaihe f amed a t E vbiekoi a nd I khuen, O gba r estricted t o t he u gbor a rea, O lokun a nd t he E kpo c ults b ased i n 77et'Orhiomwon a nd A ke b eing a ssociated w ith I lobi i n I si ( Appendix ; E 4 2. P . a nd D . B en-Amos: 1 980; P ers.Comm.); b ut t he g eneral f reedom o f p opulation m ovement w ithin t he B enin K ingdom a nd p ossibly s ome o f t he i nfluences a ttributed t o O bas E wuare a nd E sigie h ave r esulted i n a m uch m ore w idespread d istribution t oday ( Bradbury: 1 957; 5 7. c f. A ppendix; 0 4 E vbomudu). T he p eriod o f a nnual w orship i n t hese c ults c an b e s een a s a c ohesive e vent i n t he s ocial s tructure o f t he v illage i n t hat i t s erves t o e nhance i ts f ame a nd s olidarity, e xpresses t he d ichotomy b etween t he s exes, a nd r einforces t he a uthority o f t he e lders ( Bradbury: i bid). D uring t his t ime, m ask w earers ( erinmwi) a re c onsidered t o b e r epresentatives o f t he s pirit w orld, a nd t he c ult c eremonies a im t o " ...purify

a nd p rotect

t he v illage f rom e vil f orces

b ring d isease".

( P.

I n t hese c eremonies a nd

t hroughout

B en-Amos: t he y ear,

1 980;

t hat 5 6-7).

t he s mell o f o me -

f ronds o f u di, t he o il-palm ( Elaeis g uineensis) - i s o ne o f t he m ain m eans e mployed t o r epel e vil s pirits; a nd p erhaps t his b elief o nce s ymbolized t he d istinction b etween v illage l ands c ultivated w ith y ams a nd

t he o il-palm,

a nd

t he u ncultivated,

w ild l ands o f

t he

f orest,

b elieved t o b e i nhabited b y m alevolent s pirits b ringing d isease a nd e ven d eath ( P. B en-Amos: 1 980; 5 6-7). D emarcating t his b oundary b etween t he c ultivated a nd t he w ild, t he ' home a nd t he ' bush', a gbon a nd e rinbhin - t he w orld o f p hysical r eality a nd t he w orld o f ' psychic a nd s piritual p owers' w ere a lmost c ertainly t he v illage i ya ( Bradbury: 1 973; 2 50. A sudo: 1 974; i v. P . B en-Amos: 1 976; 2 43-244, 2 48).

4 9

o f

C onfirming t his s tructualist s uggestion i s t he e arliest r ecord t he r ural i ya m ade o ver t wo c enturies a go b y L andolphe ( 1778 i n

R oth: 1 903; 4 2). H e o bserved t hat v illages i nto t he i ya (-d itches') f or t o ' poor m en'. i n t he s aying 1 937; 2 10), s o d ied c hildless.

t he c orpses, t he v ultures

t hrown o utside t he t o d evour, b elonged

T he B ini w ord f or p overty, u se, i s f requently e mployed " us-omo g his-o" ( may y ou n ever l ack c hildren) ( Melzian: t he ' poor m en w ere p robably s laves a nd o thers w ho h ad A b arren w oman s tood a ccursed, a nd i t w as a c alamity

f or a m an t o d ie w ithout c hildren w ho c ould p erform t he c eremonies t o p ropitiate t he a ncestral g hosts, t o ' settle d own' h is o wn s pirit ( Bradbury: 1 975; 2 31-238). O ne o f t he m ain f unctions p erformed f or " those d ead p eople w ho h ad n o c hildren, o r w hose c hildren a re s till t oo y oung" a t t he a nnual u gie ( festival) c alled o rhu i n B enin C ity ( Melzian: 1 937; 1 47) w as t o g ive t hem f ood a t t he n ine e ntrances i n t he m ain C ity w all ( above; 4 0). h aunted b y u nincorporated s pirits c orpses

( orivbin

N o t own o r v illage w anted i ts l ands t hat w ere n ot r esting i n p eace: t he

- h ence e rinbhin)

o f

t hese u nfortunates,

l ike

t he

d ead b abies a nd y oung c hildren f ound t hrown i n t he C ity a nd r ural v illage i ya i n m ore r ecent y ears, w ere c ast o utside t he t own o r v ill age b oundary ( uwu) i nto t he ' ditches', w here t hey w ere c ondemned t o j oin t he w orld o f d isembodied s pirits ( erinbhin) f orever w andering i n t he r estless l imbo o f t he d ark, w ild f orest ( Bradbury: 1 973; 2 45, 2 48). 56 T he

u nhappy

s pirits o f d efeated

r esistance h eroes

a nd

t ragic

h eroines ( ihen) w ould h ave b een c ondemned t o w ander e ternally i n t his w ild l imbo t oo, b ut m any a verted s uch a f ate, i t i s b elieved, b y b ecoming s treams, c eremonial

m etamorphosed i nto n atural l ocal f eatures s uch a s r ivers, o dighi, t rees a nd h ills, w hich h ave s ince b ecome t he f oci o f w orship f or

t he v illage c ults.

H owever,

t here a re

m any

u nresolved a etiological p roblems i n t he i dentical n omenclature o f t hese h eroes o r h eroines a nd t he n atural f eatures i nto w hich t hey b ecome t ransmogrified. C onsideration o f k nown e xamples o f a ctual a nd p otential h ero-deities ( ihen) d epicts t hem a t v arious s tages o f t ransition. E ruvbi o f U tekon, I kpoba a nd O via ( all w omen) a s w ell a s A ke a nd E vbomisi,

O khuaihe ( men) s uccessfully t urn i nto r ivers t he c hief ' doctor' o f U wan

..also

t ried h ard

a nd

s treams.

t o b ecome a r iver o r c reek a t U go l ike

O khuaihe a nd A ke b ut h e n ever s ucceeded". ( Egharevba:

1 976;

O thers a lso e xhibited a c onspicuous l ack o f s uccess. I khuerhierhe o f U zalla j ust d isappears i nto t he g round ( above; 4 1); E gbaen o f I wu i s o nly a ble t o a void t he i gnominy o f h aving h is h ead t aken a s a t rophy t o b e c ast i n b ronze a t B enin b y t he t imely e xpedient o f t urning i nto a w hite ' tiger' ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 5. B radbury: 1 973; 2 56 f n.l. P . B en-Amos: 1 980; 1 9. A ppendix; 0 7 I wu); I si o f U tekon m erely m akes a h ole i n t he g round - i n f act a d isused o ghodo ( Darling: 1 976; 1 67. b elow: 5 1f); A ruanran d rowns h imself i n O dighi n 'Udo ( above; 2 1); a nd t he p owerful O wegie o r O ria i n I yekikpoba d isappears i nto t he I kpoba r iver ( Appendi7F ,— C 74 - O rio). A ll t hese l ast h eroes w ere m en d eemed t o h ave h ad e xceptional p hysical o r s piritual p rowess, a ccording t o t hose w ho s erve t hem a s h ero-deities t oday, b ut n one h ave g iven t heir n ame t o

t he n atural

f eature m ost c losely a ssociated w ith t heir d emise.

5 0

Y et

m any

o dighi

( seasonal l akes) a nd r ivers h ave

n ames

a ppa-

r ently i ndepen 4nt o f a ny h ero-deity, a nd t he m aps s how o dighi w ith p riests, t rees J° a nd s hrines s acred t o t he s pirit i mbued i n t he n atu ral f eature i tself ( Appendix; M 7/39, 4 1, 4 2. M 12 O he O dighia, O he j uju). P ossibly t he m ost n otable f eatures r eceived s pecific n ames f rom t he e arliest t imes, s uggesting t hat t he n ames o f s uccessful h erod eities o r h eroines a re e uhemeristic a doptions o f t he n ames o f f eat ures s enior t o t hem, r ather t han t he f eature b eing n amed a fter t he h eroes o r h eroines. S omething s ignificant d oes a ppear t o b e a ffecting t he t raditions a t t his p oint. h is/her E wuare:

W here

t he h ero o r h eroine h as b estowed

n ame o n t he f eature, t he t raditions u sually r elate w here t his h as n ot o ccurred, t hey n ormally r elate

t o t o

O ba O ba

O zolua. T his d istinction c an b e

i nterpreted i n d ifferent w ays.

P erhaps

t he d egree o f u nanimity i n t he a ssociation o f O ba E wuare O gidigan ( the G reat), w ith t raditional s tories h aving a m ystical o r s piritual c ont ent, a nd o f O ba O solua n 'Ibaromi ( the C onqueror), w ith t ales o f b attle

a nd

p ersonal

c ombat,

s hould s ound w arning b ells

a fter

t he

e xperience o f t he i ya t raditions ( above; I d ). T hese O bas c ould b e n o m ore t han t ype-cast f igures e ngulfed i n e vents o f a q uasi-historical o r l egendary n ature r elating t o t otally d ifferent p eriods. P erhaps, t hough, t he s lightly m ore m ythological n ature o f t he E wuare t raditions d oes i ndeed i ndicate t hat t hey c ome f rom a n e arlier p eriod, s o j ustif ying t ion.

E gharevba's r elatively s traightforward h istorical i nterpretaT he f act t hat t hese c ult t raditions c an b e t raced t o s pecific

g eographical s ources, f orm p art o f a c onservative c eremonial a nd h ave e ven p rovided m aterial e vidence o f t heir C l6th e xistence ( D. B en - A mos: P ers.Comm.), )9 g ive t he t raditional a ccounts o f C l5th-C16th B enin c onquest a n e lement o f h istorical c redence w hich c ould n ot b e a ccorded t o t raditions r elating t o t he m uch e arlier i ya. W hatever t he c orrect i nterpretation, i t i s c lear t hat t hese l ocal h ero-deities a nd t heir a ssociated c ults, o ccupying t he t ransitional z one b etween m yth a nd r eality, c onstitute a n i mportant p art o f t he h istorical r ecord a nd d o n ot d eserve ( 1974;

t o b e d ismissed o ut o f h and,

a s w as d one b y O ibo-ozo A sudo

2 1-2).

T here a re s ome s uperficial s imilarities b etween s hrine c onstructed t o t he i hen ( below ; 5 8) a nd d isused o ghodo ( ponds),

g roves o ne o f

w hich a ppears o n t he o ld I zevbihen v illage m ap ( Appendix; M 7, 3 4) a s a n ' agbodo p it'. V ery f ew r eferences h ave b een p ublished a bout t hese o ghodo b ut, s ince m any w ere c onstructed w ithin l iving m emory a nd i nvolved a n o rganized e arthmoving e ffort b y t he w hole c ommunity, t heir o bvious r elevance t o t he p ast c onstruction o f i ya/iyala c learly d em ands

s ome d etailed a ttention.

o ghodo

T he r egular m aintenance u ntil c omparatively r ecent t imes o f i n I shan p ermits c ollection o f m ore d etail a bout t echniques a nd

o rganization t han i n t he B enin a rea. g ather t o o r o ther ( elders) s ome o f s treams. d ivided

T he w hole v illage o r w ard w ould

c onstruct t heir o ghodo ( or c arry o ut d eepening, r e-surfacing m aintenance e very t wo t o t hree y ears). T he e dion a ge-grade w ould a dminister ( sometimes w hilst w eaving e xtra b askets), t he w omen c ooked a nd o thers c ollected e kolo ( clay) f rom t he T he i ghele a nd e vbonughele a ge-grades o f w orking m en w ere i nto t hree c ompetitive g roups ( z-otu), k nown a s O kiode,

O berhuan a nd O binuan, w hich w ere b ased o n t hose f or w ar o rganization ( Melzian: 1 937; 2 31. B radbury: 1 957; 7 0). W ithin e ach g roup t he

5 1

i ghele ( grown m en) d ug w ith u kwae ( hoes) 6° a nd f illed r ound b askets. T he b asket-loads w ere p assed u p a nd o ut a long a l ine o f e vbonughele ( young m en), w ho d umped t he e arth o n t he m argins. T he e mpty b askets w ere t hen r eturned t o t he i ghele b y p re-adolescent c hildren. O nce t he p ond h ad b een d ug, a p ot c ontaining c harms b elieved t o e nsure s uccess w as p laced b eneath t he b ase. C lay, c arried f rom l ow-lying a reas s ometimes f rom s ites 6 kms. a way a nd 2 50 m etres l ower, w as u sed t o l ine t he b ottom a nd l ower s ides. T hick s ticks w ith a D -shaped c rosss ection, k nown a s u kwen, w ere t hen e mployed t o b eat th s urface h ard b efore i t w as s moothed a nd s ealed w ith u kura p ads. I nformants c laimed t hat t he w orkers d ug w ithout m uch b reak f rom s unrise a t a bout 6 .30 a .m. u ntil a bout 5 p .m . e very d ay f or a bout s ix d ays t o t wo w eeks i n o rder t o c onstruct a t ypical, c ircular I shan p ond ( below ; I I.B.8.) a bout

6 -7

m etres d eep f rom b ank t op t o p it b ottom a nd

1 0-15

m etres

a cross. N ow t hat p iped w ater i s w idely a ccessible, i t i s n ot l onger p ossible t o o bserve o ghodo c onstruction, b ut I s uspect t hat t he l ength o f w orking d ay h as b een s lightly e xaggerated. A ll b ut o ne o f t he c icular o ghodo I n oted w ere o n t he I shan p lateau:

t he e xception,

n ear

t he p resent s ite o f O khunmwun ( below; I I.B.6.) m ay h ave r esulted f rom t he l arge, e arly C l8th i nflux o f I shan w ar c aptives i nto t he a reas a round B enin ( Ryder: 1 969; 1 63, 1 68-9. A ppendix; 0 7 E gbaen). T he t he t he

l arger I shan o ghodo b ecome

l ess c ircular a nd r esemble

m ore

r ounded r ectangular p onds n oted a t U buluku a nd o ther l ocations o n d ensely p opulated p lateau a reas o f t he I gbo-speaking I ka a nd

A niocha D ivisions. T hey p rovide s ome r ecognizable t ransition t o t he r ectangular h orseshoe-shaped f eatures w ith b ottoms s loping d own f rom t he o pen e nd, w hich a re f ound i n t he B enin a rea ( below ; 5 5-57). L ongitudinal a nd c ross-profile m easurements m ade a t A hor, O ra ( Iyowa) a nd

O ka

n 'Aru

O via,

i ndicated

t hat

t he h ole d ug a t

t he

d eep

a nd

e xceeded i n v olume t he b anks i mmediately s urrounding i t. V ery p roba bly, t herefore, d umping b ecame i ncreasingly r estricted t o t he s hallow e nd b anks a s t he i nclined b ottom w as m ade p rogressively d eeper a nd i t b ecame i ncreasingly d ifficult t o d ump f rom t he d eep e nd. T his b ackw ards t hen s ideways m ovement o f d umped e arth, v ery d ifferent f rom t he v ertical d umping t echniques e mployed i n c onstructing t he c ircular I shan o ghodo ( Appendix; 0 9 I leh-Ekpoma), m ay p rovide t he b est i nsight i nto t he c onstruction o f t he l inear i ya a nd i yala. E ye w itness a ccounts f rom I yowa a nd O rio i n t he B enin a rea c laim t hat p onds c ons tructed e arlier i n t his c gntury w ere d ug w ith w ooden, p addle-shaped s pades k nown a s u vbevbe, 62 a nd t hat t he l eaf s tems o f t he c oconut p alm,

t he s ides w ere b eaten s mooth w ith c oco n ucifera. W hen t he p ond

s ilted u p a nd b ecame s hallow ( wewerhe), a d eep r ound c avity ( uye) w as m ade a t t he b ottom o f t he p ond t o m ake i t h old m ore w ater ( Melzian: 1 937; 2 14, 2 20). V ery p robably t he p ractice o f a llowing d ucks a nd w allowing p igs i nto o ghodo I o bserved i n I shan h ad a lso b een p ermitted i n t he B enin a rea, f or t he r ainy s eason p ondwater a t I yowa u sed n ot t o b e c onsidered f it t o d rink a nd w as u sed o nly f or b athing a nd m aking m ud b ricks. P erhaps t he r ed, c layey s ub-soil ( ulakpa) f rom t he I dumw ine o ghodo a t I yowa h ad

i tself b een m ade i nto b ricks,

f or t here w ere

v irtually n o b anks. A s imilar s hallow p it w ith n o b anks b eing u sed a t t he s mall v illage o f O bajere ' Happyland i n i n 1 9Z5. w ater, ° 'f or

w as s till I yekikpoba

Y et o nce t hey m ust h ave b een u sed t o s upply d rinking i n t he l ate C 18th L andolphe h ad n oted t hat i n B enin C ity

t he n egroes o nly d rink b ad w ater w hich t hey s coop o f p its".

( in R oth:

5 2

1 903;

o ut 1 49).

T his

u se

o f

o ghodo f or d rinking w ater s eems

t o h ave

b een

a n

i mportant f actor e ncouraging s ettlement c oncentration i n a reas, s uch a s t he n orthern I shan p lateau, w hich w ere f ar f rom s treams a nd o dighi a nd u nsuitable f or w ell-digging. I n I shan, m ost o ghodo w ere o bserved c lose t o t oday's s ettlements, o r w here t he p resence o f c oconut p alms i ndicated r ecently d eserted s ites; a nd t he p onds w ere n otorious f or t heir i nfestations o f i tohia, t he g uinea w orm ( Dracunculus m ediensis), w hich a fflicted m any o f t hose w orking a t h arvest-time ( Okojie: 1 960; 9 7.

W addy:

1 956;

3 13-30).

6 4

A ll t he p onds f ound i n t he B enin K ingdom l ay i n o r n ear t he w estern p eripheral a rea o f t he o verall i ya d istribution a nd s eem t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith l arge s ettlements i n t he p ast. 65 M elzian n oted t hree o ghodo i n B enin C ity, o ne o f t hem b eing o ghodo-egun i n O gbe q uarter ( 1937; 1 63). T raditions t race o ghodo o rigins t o a n i hent ype f igure, A gbodo, i n B enin C ity d uring O ba U dagbedo's r eign, w hich m ay h ave o ccurred i n t he C 14th o r C 15th ( Egharevba: 1 968; 1 2). O ther a ccounts r ecall t he s tory o f O gidogbo, O ba O zolua's e ldest s on, w ho w as c rippled w hilst a ttempting t o p ole-vault o ver t his s ame p ond a c entury o r s o l ater ( Egharevba: 1 968; 1 2, 2 5); a nd s ince s ome B ini t oday v iew o ghodo a s b eing g igantic m edicine p ots, t he m oral o f t he s tory c learly i nvolves s ome v ery b ad s piritual f orces a t w ork ( P. B enA mos:

1 980;

P ers.Comm.).

T he d emise o f o ghodo u se

i n t he B enin a rea

d oes n ot s eem t o h ave p roceeded e venly. S ome c ommunities, l ike B enin a nd O ld I zevbihen, c an s till i dentify t heir d isused o ghodo o n t he g round; s ome - s uch a s O ra ( near O luku j unction) a nd O ka n 'Aru O via h ave n o e xplanation f or t hese f eatures; o thers, s uch a s E gun a nd U tekon ( Appendix; 0 5. D arling: 1 976; 1 67) c laim t he s ites a s l ongv enerated s hrine g roves t o h ero d eities o r, i n o ne c ase a t A hor i n I yekikpoba, a s a m ass b urial g rave f or s oldiers o f t he I dah a rmy, w hich w as v anquished i n t he e arly C 16th ( Bradbury: d ix ;

1 973;

3 6.

A ppen-

0 4). T he

p hysical d issimilarities b etween t he B enin a nd I shan o ghodo

s uggests t hat t he p ractice m ay o nly h ave d eveloped s ometime a fter t hey h ad b ecome s eparate c ultural e ntities a bout a t housand y ears a go ( below; I .C.3). T he t erm ' oghodo' i s a lso s hared b y t he Y oruba ( Melz ian : 1 973; 1 63), b ut n o o bservations a ppear t o h ave b een m ade 2 f t he p hysical f orm o f o ghodo i n e astern Y orubaland ( Forde: 1 951), " a nd p onds s een a t O ld O yo ( in n orthwest Y orubaland) a nd e lsewhere d id n ot p ossess t he d istinctive c haracteristics o f e ither t he B enin o r t he I shan o ghodo ( Darling a nd S oper: f orthcoming. B ox-file p hotos). A t p resent, t herefore, i t w ould b e p remature t o c omment o n w hether t he o ghodo a re a s hared E do/Yoruba f eature, l et a lone s peculate w hether t hey h ave b een d erived f rom o ne c ulture o r t he o ther ( cf. t he i ya: b elow;

I I.C.a). R eturning

t o

t he c ommunity b oundary

m aps,

o ther

d etails

o f

i nterest i nclude a n u r'iya ( most g ate, a da: a bove; 4 0), t rees c ons idered i mportant b y t he v illagers t hemselves ( Appendix; M 9, 1 2, 1 5. A bove; 4 8) f ootpaths.

t he n ames o f h ouseholders ( Appendix; M 7/1-25) a nd o ld O f t he l atter, t hose d epicted a ppear m ainly t o h ave b een

w ell-worn, t ree-lined, l ong-distance f ootpaths r adiating f rom B enin C ity t o v arious t rading c entres ( Boisragon: 1 897; 9 4. I gbafe: 1 967; 3 5. D arling: 1 976; 1 68). I nter-community r outes, e phemeral f arm p aths a nd o kuegbomoto p aths - " known o nly t o i nhabitants o f a v illage a s

a

m eans o f e scape i n t imes o f w ar"

5 3

( Melzian:

1 937;

1 42)

- a re

h ardly

s hown

a t

a ll.

I n a n a rea w here c artography h as

t ended

t o

c oncentrate o n a erial p hotography a nd n eglect t horough f ieldwork , s uch d etails m ay p rovide s ome u nique i nsights i nto h ow t he p resent p opulat ion v iews i ts o wn e nvironment. I n

s ummarizing

r econsider

t he v alue o f

B radbury's

i nsistence

t hese m aps, t hat

i t m ight b e

i n m ost a reas

o f

w ell t he

t o

B enin

K ingdom i n t he p ast t here w ere n o b oundaries b etween c ommunities ( 1957; 4 4, 6 8, 1 06), a nd t hat t here w as c onsiderable m ovement o f p opulation t hroughout t he K ingdom ( 1973; 5 1) w ith v illages a iming t o e ncourage, n ot e xclude, n ew s ettlers o n t heir l and ( 1973; 1 82), s o t hat n umerous n ew s ettlements, e ven t hose o f s lave o rigin, s oon b ecame i ndistinguishable f rom t hose w hich h ad l ong p receeded t hem ( 1957; 4 5. 1 973;

1 80-1).

T his p rocess o f h eterogenous p opulation o rigins a t

a ll

l evels o f w ard a nd v illage o rganization w as t o p roduce a n u nusual p attern o f n on l ineage-based s ettlements ( Forde i n B radbury : 1 973; f oreword); a nd t he m ost w idespread, h omogenous l inguistic b loc o f t he E do-speaking p eoples ( below; 6 0). A lso, i f M arshall i s c orrect, m ost o f t he n ew s ettlers w ere a ttracted t o t he r elative s afety o f t he a rea e ast o f b enin ( Marshall: J uly 1 938; F ile W P. 1 6880/A), a n a rea w here i ya a nd c hieftaincy f ragmentation a re m ost a pparent ( Darling : 1 977; 1 46-7). N early a ll t hese p rocess a re t otally a t v ariance w ith w hat w ould b e e xpected i f i ya w ere b eing c onstructed; a nd i t w ould s eem t hat, n ot o nly w ere n o i ya b eing b uilt u nder t he B enin r egime, b ut m any o f t he s ocio-political d evelopments a nd p opulation f lux w ere a ctively e rasing a nd d istorting t he e arlier, i ya- b ased p atterns o f s ettlements a nd

t heir l ands.

m ost

I n v iew o f a ll t his, o ne m ight b e j ustified i n e xpecting t o f ind b oundary p erimeters a nd o ther t erritorial d etails t o b e l ittle

m ore

t han r ecent a ttempts

t o d efine i n p hysical

t erms a n i ll-defined,

a bstract c oncept o f l ittle h istorical v alidity. O ne m ight a lso s usp ect t hat t he i ncorporation o f i ya i nto s ome c ommunity b oundries n eed b e n o m ore t han a c oincidental e mployment o f m uch l ater s ettlements u sing t he m ost c onvenient f eatures i n t he v icinity - i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s s ome E nglish p arish b oundaries a ppear t o h ave u sed R oman r oads. Y et, e ven a s B onny ( 1972) h as d emonstrated t hat s ome l ocal W essex b oundaries w ere b ased o n l inear e arthworks a ntedating t he R oman r oads, s o t he e vidence c onsidered f or s uch s ettlements a s O hovbe a nd O khunm wun i n t hese m aps, c laims U gbor,

a s w ell a s

t he c lose c orrelation b etween b oundary

a nd c omplete i ya s ystems ( e.g. A ppendix; 0 5 A vbiakagba, 0 6 0 7 I wu) - n ot j ust s ingle s tretches o f i ya - s uggests t hat a

c onsiderably m ore o ptimistic v iewpoint c an b e

t aken.

N ot

o nly i s

i t

p ossible t o d istinguish s ome o f t he m ore r ecent s ettlements f rom t hose w hich a re o lder, b ut i t a ppears t hat t he m any c enturies o f c hange u nder t he B enin K ingdom h as b een a s y et u nable c ompletely t o e liminate f rom m any o f t he c laimed p re-dynastic s ettlements ( Egharevba: 1 968; 3 ) t he t ruly t raditional m emories o f t heir f ormer l ands - l ands w hich t hey s o l abouriously d emarcated i n i ya o ver h alf-a-millennium a go ( below ;

I I.C.b).

5 4

A hOr:

d is used o ghodo 2 ,

k A t (

t u

5 5

O ra,

I yowa:

d is used o ghodo.

8

o

t 2

1

5 6

Oka n 'Aru'Ovia:

d is-ueed o ghodo. •

1 / 1 /7 ,1-

0

I t (I

I I

I I

I

I I

5 7

/ /

Oghodo a nd s hrine

g roves i n t he B enin a rea.

b ees A

.

1 :300

A

( to U tekon

m uo t t 1 1 1 1 1 i

, o t t io

1

1 s hrine p linth t o I se

/ m um a

H

"

1 it o E ruvbi

s tream

t o U hie I t o I koro

t o O bazuwa

t o B enin- — S apele r oad.

/ " s s • I

—

-1

Egun v illage

/ /Circular d is used o ghodo a t L i O khunmwun ( left) a nd n ear a n Ovia s hrine n orth o f Ohovbe I . P ossibly b uilt b y I shan s laves. , Ogba s hrine g roves a t Ogiokwe ( left) a nd s outh of O ko.

I .

C .

3 .

L INGUISTICS

. ..for h istorians a nd p rehistorians... t he s ignificance o f G reenberg's c lassification i s n o l ess o bvious. T he h ist orical i mplications a re i mmediate. A g enetic c lassificat ion o f A frican l anguages h istory".

i s a n o utline p lan o f A frican ( Flight: 1 981; 5 2).

F light's c ategorical s tatements e ndorsing t he h istorical w orth o f G reenberg's l inguistic a nalysis g o h and i n h and w ith h is s trong c ondemnation o f t he s erious m isinterpretations p erpetrated b y G uthrie; a nd t his d ual a pproach a ppears t o h ave p roduced a n a cceptable r esolut ion ( Gibson : 1 981; P ers.Comm.) o f t he b asic i ssues i n t he c ontroversy o ver B antu e xpansion, d uring 1 980).

w hich h as w orried a rchaeologists a nd h istorians

t he c ourse o f t he l ast f ew d ecades. ( Vansina: 1 979; 2 87-333. A s imilar d ual a pproach, t herefore, w ill b e a dopted t o t he

d iverse i nterpretations a fflicting E do l inguistics a nd t o i dentify t he v alid h istorical c omponents, n oting i n p articular t hose w hich a ppear t o r elate

t o

t he i ya d istribution.

G reenberg's

b asic

p remises a re t hat

r elated

l anguages

c ontain

t he s urviving f orms o f a s ingle p roto-language v ariously m odified o ver t ime, a nd t hat a pplication o f t he r ight r ules c an d iscover a v alid g enetic r elationship a nd t race i t b ack t o t his c ommon o rigin. T he m ost b asic o f t hese r ules i s t hat l anguages h ave t o b e c lassified o n l inguistic e vidence a lone a nd o ther d ata, s uch a s t he c laims o f o ral h istory, a re i rrelevant. T he o ther r ules i nvolve a m ass c omparison o f m orphemes

- l exical i tems a nd

" grammatical e lements

l ike

i nflections

o r a ffixes" ( Flight: 1 981; 4 6) - i n w hich t he o nly s ignificant c omp arisons a re o f s imilar f orms w ith s imilar m eanings a nd w eighting i s g iven t o a n a pproximately d etermined ' fundamental v ocabulary ( assumed t o b e mainly g enetic) r ather t han a ' cultural' v ocabulary ( more l ikely t o h ave s uffered f rom b orrowing). I n t he c ontext o f E do l inguistic i nterpretation, w ill

b e

s ome o f

e xamined

t he w ays i n w hich t hese r ules h ave b een b roken

f irst

s o a s

t o c lear t he g round f or t he

c ases

i n

s olely

o n

which t he r ules h ave b een f ollowed. T he

m ost

b asic r ule,

t hat

o f c lassifying l anguages

t heir l inguistic e vidence, w ould a ppear t o h ave b een b roken b y O gieir iaxi, ( 1973, a , b , c ), w ho s uggests r edesignation o f t he ' Edo g roup o f l anguages' a s

t he ' Ohosu-Niger l anguage g roup'...

..based

o n t he h istorical

i nhabitants

o f

O husu...and t he B enin C ity,..."

f act

t hat

t he m ajority o f

t he g eographical a rea b etween

t he

t he

r iver

r iver N iger c laim c ommon a ncestry f rom ( Ogieiriaixi: 1 973c; 1 -2).

A part f rom b reaking t he m ost f undamental a nd o bvious l inguistic r ule, t he h istorical u nreliability o f s uch c laims h ad b een n oted b y R yder s ome y ears p reviously: " Many

o f

t he

t raditions d oubtless h ave a b asis

i n

f act,

b ecause t he e stablishment o f s ettlements a ppears t o h ave b een o ne o f t he m eans a dopted b y B enin f or c onsolidating i ts h old c ertainly

u pon a l arge t erritory. B ut m any a re e qually t he p roduct o f a h ankering a fter p restige, o r

5 9

s imply

t he

c anons o f

a doption o f

t he m ost

l ikely

t raditional h istoiography".

s tory

g iven

( Ryder:

t he

1 969;

3 ).

T he r ule o f m ass-comparisons c ould n ot b e o bserved b y e ither W escott o r O gieiriaixi b ecause t hey h ave c oncentrated t heir a ttention o n t he B enin K ingdom ( consisting o f o nly 2 5% o f a ll E do s peakers), e nvisaging i t a s t he ..historical a nd c ultural r eference p oint f or t his a rea o ver t he c enturies..." w hich m ade i t " ...a l inguistic r udder f or t he E do g roup o f l anguages". ( Ogieiriaxi:

1 973c;

1 -2 c iting W escott:

1 956,

1 960, 3 ,

T his

p oint d oes d eserve s ome c onsideration ,

f or i t

1 9621 965).

s eems v ery l ikely

t hat l inguistic w ave m ovements, a kin t o t he p resent-day ' great v owel c hange i n t he U .S.A., e manated f rom B enin : d oubtless, t oo, t he f reedom o f m ovement w ithin t he K ingdom ( Bradbury: 1 952; 2 0-30) w as r esponsible f or e ncouraging t he e xchange o f l oan-words a nd f or c reati ng t he l argest s ingle h omogenous l inguistic b loc i n t he E do g roup o f l anguages. O ne c annot b ut a gree t hat t he n ature a nd e xtent o f b orrowi ng m ay p rovide f ascinating h istorical i nsights ( Ehret: 1 981; 1 -29), b ut - a part f rom a ffecting t he r elative s trengths o f l inguistic i nterr elationships ( Daniels: 1 980b; 1 2) - i t d oes n othing t o f urther t he d iscovery o f t he m ost v alid g enetic r elationship b etween l anguages. P ossibly t here s ocio-linguist, s ociety d uring

i s h ere a p oint o f d eparture i n t he a pproach o f t he i ntent m ainly o n e xploring l ateral a ssociations i n o ne p eriod o f t ime, a nd t hat o f t he p re-historian,

w hose u ltimate q uest m ust b e t he u nravelling o f a g enetically l anguage l audable

t ree c overing a c onsiderable s pan o f t ime. a ttempts t o c reate a n e xtensive o rthography

l anguage

- ( which

p resumably i ncludes

t he ' cultural'

d erived

O gieiriaixi's o f t he B ini v ocabulary)

-

h ave b een a pplauded b y N evadomsky ( Mrs. N evadomsky : 1 977; P ers.Comm.) a nd, i ndeed, c an b e q uite l egitimate f rom a s ocio-linguistic p oint o f v iew. H owever, s ince h is a ssiduous c ompilation o f E do p honology i s c omprehensive a nd n ot j ust c onfined t o a ' fundamental' v ocabulary, ( deliberately s electing t hose e lements m ost l ikely t o h ave s urvived t ransmission d own t he g enerations), t here i s a d anger t hat a ny a ttempts t o a chieve s ome o f h is h istorical o bjectives b y u sing d ata w ould b reak y et a nother o f G reenberg's r ules. O gieiriaixi

i s n ot a lone.

B radbury, U do,

t his

F ox a nd e ven W illiam-

s on h ave m ooted s uggestions w hich d o n ot m erely v iolate r ules b ut c hallenge h is f undamental p remises ( Bradbury:

G reenberg's 1 957; 1 12.

U do: 1 970; 1 10. F ox: 1 977; 3 7. W illiamson: 1 977; P ers.Comm .). T he m ain c ontroversial i ssue i s w hether t he w idely d ivergent E do a nd Y oruba d ialects f ound i n t he A koko E do a nd A koko Y oruba h ills a re t he r esult o f g enetic f ission o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime ( as G reenberg's r ules a nd p remises w ould i mply), o r w hether r efugee g roups f leeing t o t hese h ills o ver t he c enturies h ave p rqduced l inguistic d iversity o n a c ommon E do ( or Y oruba) s ub-stratum. ' T his r efugee i dea i s f irmly r ooted i n t he o ral t raditions o f l ineage g roups c laiming o rigins f rom B enin, N upe o r Y oruba k ingdoms; a nd i t i s t hese c laims w hich h ave l ed A kintoye

t o d escribe

t his a rea a s a ' hodge-podge o f p eoples' a nd

U do

t o c all i t a ' cultural m elting p ot' ( Akintoye: 1 969. U do: 1 970; 1 10). I n a m uch w ider c ontext D alby ( in F ox: 1 977) h as p ointed o ut t hat t he

m ajor

b elt o f

l inguistic

f ragmentation i n A frica a ppears

6 0

t o

h ave

r esulted f rom l anguage o verlap r ather t han d ispersion: h e a lso n oted t hat f ragmentation o ccurred i n h illy o r m ountainous a reas ( such a s t he A koko h ills), w here t here i s a n i ncreased i solation o f p eople d espite t heir s patial p roximity ( Fox : 1 977; 3 7). U nderlying m any o f t hese s uggestions i s t he n otion t hat t he w ide d ifference b etween t he A koko d ialects a nd t he a djacent c ultural e ntities f rom w hich t hey a re s upp osed t o h ave d erived h as b een c aused b y d ifferent c ombinations o f l inguistic f usion o ver t ime. I n o ther w ords, t he c oncept o f M ischsprachen, o r m ixed l anguages, h as b een e mployed. A t f irst s ight t his c oncept m ay n ot s eem t oo e xtraordinary t o t hose w ith a s mattering o f P idgin E nglish o r S wahili, b ut t o G reenberg i t w as a m onstrosity' a nd t o F light i t c learly d oes n ot f it a ny m odel w ith a n e volutionary, l inguistic h ierarchy, w hich n ecessitates f ission a nd n ot f usion o f l anguages ( Flight: 1 981; 4 5, 4 9, 5 1, 5 5-6, 6 1). T here

a re

v arious o bservations w hich c onsiderably

w eaken

t he

s uggestions o f l inguistic f usion - o r M ischsprachen - i n t he A koko-Edo c ontext. I n t he f irst p lace d efinite e vidence o f r efugee o rigins s eems t o b e l imited t o t he s cattered I neme b lacksmiths, w hose l ing uistic a ffinity t o B ini a nd l ack o f t erritorial o wnership i n t he A koko a nd E tsako a reas a re c onsistent w ith t heir t raditional c laims o f b eing C 18th r efugees f rom O badan i n t he B enin K ingdom ( Bradbury: 1 957; 1 24). A s n one o f t he o ther A koko g roups h old s uch g ood r efugee c red entials, o ne m ust s uspect t hat t he A koko t raditions t ively r ecent a llegiances r ather t han u ltimate o rigins.

r eflect r elaI ndeed, t he

e ffect o f p olitical a llegiances i s h ighlighted w ithin t he s econd p oint I w ish t o r aise. T his i s t hat O ke's s tudy o f t he N orth-Eastern Y oruba d istricts

a nd

t he B enin K ingdom r evealed t hat

t he B ini/Yoruba l anguage

o verlap r esulted i n b ilingual s peakers b ut n ot i n l inguistic f usion ( Oko: 1 972). H is d istinction b etween l anguages w as d etermined b y w hether o ver 5 0% o f t he p opulation s poke a c ertain l anguage f or o ver 5 0% o f t he t ime, n ot b y w hether a c ertain p ercentage o f t he g rammar o r l anguage w ere s poken. T his d istinction w as e asily u pset b y r apid e phemeral s hifts i n p olitical a llegiances, a s B radbury a nd O bahiagbon d iscovered o n o ne o f t heir v isits t o U sen ( inside t he N orth-Western e dge o f t he B enin K ingdom a rea), w hen t he w hole c ouncil o f c hiefs a nd e lders i nsisted o n s peaking i n Y oruba a nd r efused t o u nderstand B ini! ( Obahiagbon: 1 975; P ers.Comm). b8 W ithout d etailing t he m any, o ften c omplex i nter-actions w ith s ocial a nd p olitical c ultures t o w hich i diolects, d ialects a nd l anguages a re s ubject ( Goodenough: 1 971), i t i s w orth n oting t hat s uch a s hift i n l ong-term p olitical o r s ocial a llegiances m ay l ead t o t he p ermanent a doption o f o ne l anguage a t t he e xpense o f a nother; a nd t oday s ome o f t he s mall A koko-Edo l inguistic e ntities a re b ecoming e xtinct a s t he m ore p restigious Y oruba i s a dopted ( Elugbe: 1 971; 3 5-8). T his l ast p oint w ill b e p icked u p a gain when e xamining t he B ini/Urhobo a nd O ra, E tsako/Akoko-Edo d ichotomies ( below ; 6 5), b ut f or t he m oment i t i s e nough t o r ealize t hat t he c ase a gainst G reenberg's r ules a nd p remises i n t he E do-speaking a reas s eems t o r est l argely o n a n A koko h ills r efugee h ypothesis w ith v ery s haky h istorical f oundations a nd o n a ssumptions o f l inguistic f usion w hich h ave b een c ontradicted b y o bservations i n t he f ield. U nless m ore c ogent e vidence c an b e p roduced, t here s eems l ittle r eason w hy t his c ase s hould n ot b e d ismissed, s o t hat u ndistracted a ttention m ay b e p aid

t o

t hose

' fundamental

a nalyses

p roducing a g enetic

t ree

b ased

s olely

o n

l inguistic d ata.

B oth W illiamson a nd E lugbe h ave c ollected a nd a nalysed a

6 1

f airly

c omprehensive

r ange o f s uch ' fundamental

E do l inguistic d ata.

W il-

l iamson's n umerous S wadesh 2 0-word l ists w ere c ollected f rom i nf ormants i n t heir h ome v illages a nd o n t he U niversity o f I badan c ampus - t hese l ast c ollections b eing, p erhaps, p articularly s usceptible t o c riticism s ince t he U niversity w orkers o r s tudents o nly s poke t heir d ialect d uring r are h ome v isits. O ther p ossible o bjections l ie i n t he a bsence o f g rammatical e lements o r t he b revity o f t he w ord-lists. T hese p ermit o nly v ery s imple l exico-statistical a nalysis, a bout w hich e ven G reenberg h as e xpressed s trong r eservations

( Flight:

1 981;

5 0).

H owever, n ot o nly h ave S ankoff a nd D obson r ecently e ndorsed l exicos tatistical p rocedures ( Sankoff: 1 972, 1 973a, b . D obson: 1 973; 5 6), b ut F light h as a rgued t hat t he v ery w eakness o f t he d ata w ill n ot p roduce a c oherent p attern o n a nalysis u nless a s trong a nd v alid h ierarchical r elationship i s p resent ( Flight: 1 981; r esults o f W illiamson's l exico-statistical a nalysis,

5 0). T he m ain s hown b elow ( 66-

6 7), d epicts f our m ain g roups o f E do s peakers: t he N orthern E do, C entral E do, S outhern E do a nd D elta E do. S ince n o i ndication o f t he h ierarchical i nter-relationship o f t hese g roups w as g iven, t he b asic d ata w as r eassessed b y D aniels u sing t he t echnique w hich h e c alls R amal a nalysis ( Daniels: 1 980a; 2 5-31). 6 9 T he r esulting t wo t rees, b ased o n c oarse a nd f ine l inguistic d ifferences, a re i n b road a greem ent,

s o

i t

h as b een p ossible

t o p roduce a s implified

s ingle

t ree

( below; 7 0). H ere i t w ill b e s een t hat t he m ajor l inguistic d ivide c omes b etween t he N orthern a nd C entral E do, w ith a nother i mportant d ivide s eparating t he C entral a nd S outhern E do. P roto-Edo i s, t heref ore, a ssumed t o h ave b een l ocated s omewhere n orth o f t he p resent C entral E do ( below; 6 7 t hickest l ine). I n

c lose c ollaboration w ith W illiamson,

E lugbe m ade

e xtensive

c ollections o f E do 2 00-word l ists. O nce a gain t he d ata w as c ollected b oth f rom t he v illages w here t he l anguage w as s poken a nd f rom w orkers o n t he U niversity o f I badan c ampus ( Elugbe: 1 973). T he b asic r esults o f t he s ubsequent s tatistical a nalysis a re s ummarized i n t he s implif ied t able,

d iagram a nd t ree

( below ;

6 6,

6 8-69).

I t w ill b e s een t hat

t he C entral E do c ategory h as b een r e-named ' North C entral' a nd e xpanded t o i nclude t hree o f t he W illiamson's ' Northern E do' s ubg roups; a lso s undry m inor r e-groupings h ave b rought E lugbe's t otal o f E do ' languages' t o 2 2 a s c ompared w ith W illiamson's 1 7. R ecent w ork o n S outhern E do h as s ince i ndicated t hat m any U rhobo ' dialects' c ould b e b etter c lassified a s d istinct l anguages; a nd c learly t he c lassific ation o f E do i s s till a n o ngoing p rocess. T he m ost o bvious d iff erence b etween t he a nalyses o f W illiamson's a nd E lugbe's d ata i s t hat E lugbe p laces t he m ajor l inguistic d ichotomy b etween h is ' Northern' a nd S outhern E do, s o l ocating P roto-Edo a t t he B ini/Urhobo, r ainf orest/swamp-forest b oundary - o ver 1 30 k ilometres s outh o f t he l ocat ion o f P roto-Edo d etermined f rom W illiamson's d ata.

A t f irst

s ight

s uch a f undamental d ifference m ay s eem i rreconcilable w ith F light's a ssertion t hat t hose o beying G reenberg's r ules s hould c ome u p w ith r oughly t he s ame a nswers ( Flight: 1 981; 5 1). W ithout f uller d etails o f t he s tatistical p rocedures u nderlying E lugbe's a nalysis i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o f ully s olve t his d ilemma; b ut a f ew o bservations a nd a n a ttempted, r econciliatory i nterpretation o f t he o verall r esults m ay g o s ome w ay t owards p roviding a s atisfactory e xplanation. T he f ault m ay l ie i n t he s tatistical u nreliability c aused b y t he b revity ( 20 w ords) o f e ach o f t he w ord-lists i n W illiamson's d ata; a fter

a ll,

s he h erself o nly u sed

t he d ata t o c reate a n

6 2

a pproximate,

i nitial

c lassification,

n ot a g enetic t ree.

O n t he o ther

h and

i t

c ould b e a rgued t hat E lugbe's m uch l onger ( 200 w ords) w ord-lists p robably c ontain a s ignificantly l ower r atio o f ' fundamental v ocabul ary t o l oan w ords. 7u T his r atio w ould h ave b een a ffected b y t he v arying p ast. D elta

r egional r ates o f w ord r eplacement a t d ifferent

t imes

i n

t he

W e c an s ensibly g uess t hat t he A koko-Edo h ills a nd t he S outhern s wamplands w ere r elatively i solated f rom t he i nnovations o f m ost

o ther

E do

s peakers

a nd r eceived m any l oan-words

f rom

t he

n on-Edo

s peakers a round t hem ; w e c an a lso s uspect t hat o ver t he l ast 5 00 y ears t he B enin K ingdom w as a m ajor s ource o f l inguistic i nnovation , p roduci ng t he l argest a nd m ost h omogenous E do l inguistic b loc. S ince, h owever,

t here i s n o s izeable h istorical c orpus o f E do l inguistic d ata

( Hair: 1 967; 2 47-267), w e c annot h ope t o k now w hat a ll t he v arious r ates o f c hange i n t he o ld E do d ialects a nd l anguages r eally w ere; s o D aniels' a nalysis o f W illiamson's d ata h as h ad t o a ssume a u niform r ate o f c hange i n a ll l ocations o n t he g enetic t ree a nd, p resumably, E lugbe's a nalysis c ontains a s imilar a ssumption. T his m eans t hat b ecause o ne c annot d etermine p recisely t he p ast d ifferences i n t he r ate o f w ord r eplacement a t a ny s pecific l ocation o n t he E do l inguist ic t ree, t he e xact w hereabouts o f t he P roto-Edo r oot o f t hat t ree c annot b e f irmly e stablished ( Dobson: 1 973; 5 7. D aniels: 1 980a; i n b ox-file). S o,

i f

W illiamson's a nd E lugbe's r esults a re m ore h appily

r e-

p resented a s o pen n etworks ( below ; 7 1) t hen i t c an b e s een t hat t here i s l ittle o verall c onflict i n t he b asic p atterning o f E do l inguistic r elationships f ound b y t he t wo a nalyses, a nd t hat a s mall s hift i n t he p osition a nd d irection o f d evelopment c omplete h armony. U sing s patial t ime.

i n P roto-Edo c ould b ring a lmost

t hese c lassifications w e c an a ttempt

t o

r econstruct

t he

d istribution o f t he v arious E do l inguistic g roups b ack o ver T he E do l anguages b elong t o t he K wa g roup o f t he N iger-Congo

l anguage

f amily,

a nd

t heir r elationship t o a n umber

o f

l anguages,

i ncluding I gbo a nd Y oruba, i s c onsidered t o h ave b een d erived f rom a c ommon p roto-language l ocated s omewhere n ear t he N iger-Benue c onf luence s ome 3 -6,000 y ears a go ( Armstrong: 1 964; 1 2-13. O bayemi: 1 976; 2 01). / 1 T he s plit i nto P roto-Yoruba, P roto-Edo a nd P roto-Igbo w as p robably d ue t o e asterly a nd w esterly m igrations a long t he s avann ah z one, w ith t he s outhern f orests a nd f orest-swamplands b eing p enet rated a t l east 2 -3,000 y ears a go b y t he a ncestors o f t oday's S outhern E do - t he e vidence f or t his l ast s tatement d epending o n E lugbe's e stimate o f t he t ime s eparation b etween N orthern a nd S outhern E do, a s w ell a s h is l ater d iscovery t hat m any U rhobo ' dialects' w ere b etter c lassified a s

s eparate l anguages ( Williamson:

1 977;

P ers.Comm.).

T he

l inguistic h eterogeneity o f b oth t he U rhobo/Isoko l anguages a nd t hose i n t he A koko-Edo h ills a re b est e xplained b y l inguistic f ission i n r elatively s tatic a nd i solated p opulations o ver a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime. T he i solation o f t he D elta E do, p robably c aused b y v ery e arly m igrations o f E do-speaking p eoples i nto t he D elta b eing f ollowed b y l ater t erritorial e xpansion o f t he I jaw-speaking p eoples, p rovides a n a dequate e xplanation f or t he D elta E do/Southwest E do l inguistic d ichotomy: a s imilar e xplanation c an b e a dvanced f or t he b etween t he N orth-Central a nd N orth-Western E do. T he h owever,

n ormal d o n ot

a ssumptions o f g eographical s tasis o f s eem t o b e a pplicable

6 3

d ichotomy

p opulations,

t o t he m ajor d ichotomy

b etween

t he

N orthern

E lugbe's

a nd S outhern E do.

a nalysis

i s

c orrect,

I f

t he

a nd a lso

p ositioning o f i f

c onditions

P roto-Edo

o f

s tasis

i n h ave

e xisted f or s everal t housand y ears, t hen t his b oundary s hould r epres ent a f ormer n uclear a rea o f a ll E do-speaking p eoples; y et I a m aware o f n o a rchaeological, s upport t his c ontention. f or

t his m ajor

m ost e xtent T his b y t o

o f

c ultural o r h istorical e vidence T here i s, t hough, a p ossible

l inguistic t he

b oundary a lso c oincides w ith

o verall d istribution o f

i ya c luster l ies

a lmost

f ar

a s

t o n ame

t hese

t wo

t he

s outhern-

i ya c luster.

e ntirely w ithin t he

t hose s peaking B ini a nd E san ( Ishan) s uspect t hat t he e arliest i ya ( Bini)

a c ommon P roto-Edo/Esan c ulture.

t he

w hich would e xplanation;

a reas o ccupied

t oday, a nd i t s eems r easonable o r i yala ( Ishan) d erived f rom

I ndeed D alby's

s eparate l anguages

l anguage m ap g oes

a s E do-Esan

t oday

s o

t hough

E lugbe e stimated t hat t he p olarization o f B ini a nd I shan t ook p lace a bout 5 00-800 y ears a go - h is l ower e stimate c oinciding w ith o ral t radition c laims o f a m ass r efugee m ovement f rom B enin t o I shan in O ba E wuare's

r eign,

t empted

t o d efer e ntirely

w hole b eing

o rally d ated

l inguistic c aused b y

W ithout

W illiamson s uggested

t he m id-C15th.

h istorical,

O ne m ight,

t radition c laims a nd

a ffinity o f t hose i n B enin, t he m ajority o f s ettlements

s ufficient

t hough, i t r eplacement

t o

t o o ral

c onsidered

l inguistic

E lugbe's e stimate

1 000 y ears w ould b e

b e t he

I shan, O ra a nd E tsako a s b eing d erived f rom B enin. d ata

f or

i s c learly d ifficult t o b e s ure o f e xcept b y a nalogies f rom o ther p arts

t hat

p erhaps,

i nterpret

W est

A frica,

t he r ate o f o f t he w orld;

t o b e o n t he

l ow

a b etter a pproximation

w ord b ut

s ide

a nd

( Williamson:

1 975; P ers.Comm.). C ertainly a s cenario o f I shan, O ra a nd E tsako a ll o riginating f rom B enin, w hich E lugbe's l ower e stimate w ould p ermit, i s n ot

a

h appy o ne w hen i t

l inguistic

d ichotomy

a ppear

t o

h ave

( Above;

8 .

B elow;

A

o r

c omes

t he

a nte-dated

s imilar

t o e xplaining e ither

i ya a nd t he

t he

B ini/Urhobo

i yala - t he v ast m ajority o f which

r ise

o f B enin

b y

s everal

c enturies

I I.B.3.).

b ut m ore

r ealistic h ypothesis

e nvisages

t he i ya

c on-

c entration a s t he n uclear a rea o f a d ense p opulation c luster, f rom w hich l inguistic i nnovation a nd e ven s hort-distance m igratory c oloniz ation m ay h ave e manated o ver d oes

n ot

a nd,

p rovide

a

t hough h elping

t he c enturies.

s atisfactory

t o s how w hy

t ion b etween B enin a nd m uch o f t o

e xplain w hy

t here

i s

l ess

m otive

t here i s

I shan,

Y et f or

t his

s econd s cenario

i ya

c onstruction

/ 2

o ver 5 5% l inguistic c orrela-

O ra a nd E tsako,

i t

t han 2 5% c orrelation w ith

s till

t he

f ails

a djacent

U rhobo. A h appier h ypothesis, m ate,

b egins

y ears

a go

b y

e ncouraged

s uggesting

t he E do

b y W illiamson's

t hat b y b etween o ne a nd

h ad o ccupied

t hey d o t oday a nd t hat s tasis o f e stablished d uring t his p eriod.

r oughly

t he

s ame

b asic

l ated

t hat

t here w as a f airly h omogenous p attern o f

t he

w hole

t he

r elics

o f w hich

e sti-

t housand

t erritory

p opulation h ad m ore o r U nder s uch c onditions

o ver

a rea,

1 000 y ear t hree l ess i t i s

a s

b ecome p ostu-

l inguistic f ission

t oday a re

f ound

i n

t he

U rhobo/Isoko f orest-swamplands a nd t he A koko-Edo h ills. I n v ery s imp lified t erms w e c ould i magine t he e mergence o f f ive m ajor l anguages, A ,

B ,

C ,

b ecame o ther t ion

D a nd E .

r elatively t hree

t o

O f

i solated

t hese A a nd E ,

l anguage g roups,

B ,

C a nd D ,

t he m ain v egetation z ones - t he

r ain-forest

( C)

a nd

t he

t he A koko-Edo a nd D elta E do,

f rom t he m ainstream o f E do

f orest

s avannah i n

s wamplands

6 4

s peakers.

p robably b ore t o

t he

t he n orth ( B), s outh

T he

s ome c orrela( D)

t he

- t hough

t his

i s

m erely a p assing s uggestion a nd n ot

a rgument.

I t a ppears,

h owever,

e ssential

t o

t he

t otal

t o h ave b een o ne o f M urphy's u nder-

l ying a ssumptions w hen h e s uggested

t hat

t he c lose l inguistic a ffinity

o f t hose l iving e ither s ide o f t he f orest/savannah e cotone t oday a rose b ecause o f a l arge i nflux, o r s eries o f i nfluxes, o f s avannah d wellers i nto t he f orest s ometime b etween c 100 a nd 1 200 A .D. ( Murphy: 1 972; 1 50). n orth

O bayemi h as f ound e vidence o f v ery e xtensive i ron-smelting j ust o f t he p resent E do-speaking a reas. T his h as b een d ated t o t he

p eriod 8 50-1350 A .D., a nd l ater r esearch m ay p rovide a c onnection b etween t his a nd a s outhward m igration o f s avannah E do s peakers ( B) i ntruding o nto t he t erritory o f f orest E do s peakers ( C) ( Obayemi: 1 977; P ers.Comm.). T he e ntry i nto a n a lien e nvironment m ay w ell h ave p rovided

t he

m otive f or i ya c onstruction ( below;

I V);

a nd

a s

B 's

n orthern l anguage t ype m oved s outh, i ts s trength a nd p restigious a ssociations m ay h ave b een s ufficient t o a bsorb m ost o f t hose s peaking t he f orest l anguage ( C) ( Vansina: 1 980. E lugbe: 1 971; 3 5-8. c f. a bove; wards

6 1), 73 w hilst o thers m ay h ave b een d isplaced a nd s hunted s outht o b e a bsorbed b y D . S o t he l eading e dge o f B 's c olonization

w ould b ecome m arked b y a p rogressively s tronger l inguistic d ichotomy ( B/D r ather t han B /C/D) a s B e xpanded s outhwards, a s w ell a s b y t he i ya w hich B o riginally b uilt a gainst t hose f rom C a nd/or D . 74 I s uspect t hat a bout 5 00 y ears a go,

a fter m oving a bout

1 00kms.

i nto t he f orest, t here w as a l oss o f s outhward m omentum i n t his m igrat ory c olonization; f or s ome l inguistic d ata a nd o ral t raditions i ndic ate c olonial e xpansion w estwards i nto I yek'Ovia a nd n orth-east i nto S outhern I shan ( below ; I I.B.7, I I.B.8). B y t hen, t hough, r ural i ya w ere n o l onger c onstructed - t he d emise o f t he p ractice p ossibly b eing a ssociated w ith t he i ntroduction o f a c entralized m ilitary a uthority a nd t he u se o f i khimwin t rees ( Newbouldia l aevis) - t he Y oruba a koko t o d emarcate l and b oundaries. T he r ise o f B enin w as t o e ncourage f reedom o f p opulation m ovement, s o h omogenizing t he n orthern ( B) d ialects w ithin i ts e xpanding K ingdom.

( Bradbury:

1 952;

2 9-30).

A s t his t hird h ypothesis a ppears t o o ffer t he m ost s atisfactory e xplanation f or m ost o f t he v arious d ivisions i n t he E do l anguage c lassification, i ts v arious s tages h ave b een i llustrated b elow a nd b egin t o l ay b are w hat F light h as c laimed t hey s hould - a n o utline p lan o f E do h istory.

7 5

P ROTO K WA ? P ROTO- P HOTOY ORUBA E DO ? s i ,. . . .

S avannah -- . F orest • P HOTOI JAW ?

1 000

2 - 3 000 ?

4 000 - 1 0,000 ?

A

A

P HOTO N ORTHERN

5 00

?

y ears B .P.

P HOTO-

Y ORUBA

A

N ORTHERN E DO N ORTHERN E DOIJ - -- -- - -, - --- , N OR T H CE NtRAL E DO r oto E DO P ROTO s han S OUTHERN p roto . Udoi) I GBO G BO .E DO ' ? (I , @Benin I B ini . u . n

U rhogö

S OUTHERN E DO

I JAW ?

_ ,

0

* . .-. . . ,# I JAW

TSEKIRIJ p roto- I U elta . ‘ 1 2 1 1 2 2 2/

I TSEK IRI * I JAW

S wamplands

I soko Y j

D elta

I JAW

, D ispersal o f L .S .A . h unter-gatherers ?

I nflux o f ira-

I nflux o f s hifting a gricultur

b uilding s edentary

a lists ?

f armers ?

6 5

B enin e xpansion p ossible m igra -' le ,t ory w ave f ront \

C LASSIFICATION OF E DO L ANGUAGES B radbury

W illiamson

1 950's-60's

l ate

E lugbe/Williamson 1 974

1 960's I .A.4.3.

Group

1

a )

D elta E do

i )

E do Group

S outhern Edo D elta E do

E pie

E pie

Engenni

E ngenni

D egema

D egema

S outhern

Group

Group

S outhern E do

Okpe

U rhobo

U rhobo

J erhe

( Urhobo)

2

( Atisa)

i i)

( Egene)

S outhwestern E do

Evhro

( Soho) ( Effurun)

I soko

I soko Erohwa

( Isoko d ialect

C entral

Group 3

Group

C entral E do

? )

E ruwa

b )

( Erohwa,

Arokwa)

N orthern Edo N orth-Central Edo

E do ( Bini) U romi Ekpoma

I shan

B ini

B ini

I shan

E san

Ora

Emai-Iuleha-Ora 1

( Ishan)

I yekhee

E tsaka

Ghotuo U neme-Eturu

U neme

N orthern

Group

Group

N orthern E do i ) i i)

I kpeshi

O soso

i ii) i v)

U gbosi S amorika v )

4 N-Ibie-Okpela-Ate

N -Ibie-Okpela-Atte a )

I kpeshi

b )

S asaru

c )

E nwan

I kpeshi S asaru-Enwan-Igwe O soso

O soso N orthern c luster

i i)

a )

M akeke-Unumo-Ojirami

b )

O ja

c )

L ankpese-Ibilo-Ugbosi

d )

S amorika

N orthwes

yn Edo

Okpamheri

( with a o r c ?)

S outhern C luster

U hami-Iyayu

Akuku Okpe-Idesa-Oloma-Akuku

b ) Okpe c ) O tuo v i)

W estern c luster a )

U kpe

b )

E penmen

1

I ncluding I vhimion

2

E tsako,

3

W illiamson's N orthern C luster

4

U kpe,

A fenmai,

Ekpenmen,

( Atte)

E astern C luster

a ) O tuo

( Otwa)

U neme

Kukuruku

( Epenmi)

i ncluding I vhiadaobi

E penmi

6 6

U kue-Ehueun 4

App rox ima te Z ones o f V ege ta t ion & W i l l iamson 's E do L anguage D iv is ions.

L 2

Z 4

6 7

L 3

l ya D is t r ibu t ion & E lugbe 's E do L anguage D iv is ions . l gb irra

E x ten t o f i y a l y a c o re a rea •

B en in C i ty S ta te B ounda ry

E S a i l

E doLanguages

l j aw N on-Edo E do D iv is ions :

O k p e

Ma in D i v ide --

U r h o b o

Ma jo rD i v ides

- M ino r D i v ides

E v h r o [ p i e "1

\ Ij ' a w

-

E n g e n n i D e g em a 1 0 k m

S ince t his m ap w as d rawn f urther e vidence h as c ome

t o l ight w hich

s uggests t hat t here w as s ome e xtension o f i ya c onstruction i nto I yek'Orhiomwon ( ) Con m ap) a nd t hat t he v core' a rea e xtended r ight a long t he s avannah/forest e cotone t o t he n orth—east ( y on map) ( below ;II.B.5 a nd

6 8

AREA O F E DO-SPEAKING P EOPLES ( after E lugbe)

K abba A do-Ekiti

Okene

‘ , .

9

1 E kpemi(E J r .ninmi)

r .

)4 ,5 Akure.

Owo.

6

/8 . 1

.A uchi

2 I shue 3 S huan 4 I fina

( Ishua) ( Shosan) ( If ra)

5 I pesi

( I l uesi)

6I dogun

. Uzebba

7 I doani 8 I yayu? I dosale? ( merely I o n o riginal)

U biaja

.2

1 .

B ENIN

\ %

i

Og ashi-Uku Ow •e kie

‘ i

j s Onitsha

A rokwa ! q twale- ; . Ughotor • . U ghelli W arr' •

A boh 3

A rokwa

J oinkrama r , \ZA .ra Agud I Na •

c X

l ama '

A hoada

Ogolokiama Y enagoa

;

oKala-Degema A bonnema

B rass \ -.

0

2 0

S cale:

4 o

6 0

8 0

1 00 k m

c 1 :2,000,000.

- -- B endel S tate B oundary A rea o f E do-speaking p eoples

6 9

L INGUISTIC T REES O F E DO L ANGUAGES A ND D IALECTS

W ILLIAMSON

K .

R amalAnalysis b y S .G.H.Daniels i n B ox—file.

P roto — Edo

( I D

C I M U t 1 C D 5 g l ,

t r i c l H . m

t 1 1 0 0 1 : 1 C D Z Z H .

0 ) 1 P t e C O I P . ) Z

E LUGBE B .O.

F rom

0 m 5 c p

C ) C # Z 0

t l i c i C p X ' o

A C omparative E do P honology 1 973 P h.D. t hesis, I badan.

T ype o f a nalysis a pparently u nspecified. T he r esults h ave c learly b een s implified

P roto E do Proto

Sout h

Edo

t o N orth E do

Prot( )

De lt a

Edo

P rot

1 7 4Z 'g

e ott 2 a M

. 0

C Dö 5 0

.e

. C .Edo

S. W. Edo

g. ' g. P O O c e o

e 4

4-

• M

m

7 0

0 e +

P roto N .T .Edo

5

z5

• C D

E DO L INGUISTIC N ETWORKS

*

( W .

N .I b i e .A t te ,Okpe la

S .C lu s te r e g

S amorika

C luster)

O ja

O so so I k pe sh i

U gboshi, I billo e tc O jirami, M akeke e tc O tuo

E nwan , S a sa ru

E t sako P roto —E do?

U neme

A

O ra E san E p ie A k e

D eg ema

E ngenn i B in i

l s oko

U rhobo

W i l l iamson

E rohwa

U ku e I y ekhee

E hu en U ham i

G ho tuo

O kpamhe r i

A oma E san B in i

O kpe

P roto —E do?

U rhobo

E vr ho

E lugbe

I s oko D eg ema

E ruwa

E g ene

E p ie

7 1

N OTES 1

I t i s n ot c ertain w hether t he t hird w all i s c oncentric l ike t wo i nner o nes, o r j ust a n a ccretionary l oop o n t he O wo w alls.

2

T he f ollowing 1 :40,000 C anadian A ero-Surveys 1 965 p hotographs w ere e xamined: S TD S heet 2 85. L ine 7 ( CN.29. 4 5-61); L ine 8 ( CN.29. 2 0-28,

C N.28.

2 17-225);

L ine 9 ( CN.28.

9 8-112);

t he

L ine 1 0

( CN.28.

6 6-82); L ine 1 1 ( CN.25. 1 4-28.); L ine ha ( CN. 3 5. 6 6-71); ( CN.35. 4 5-53); L ine 1 2a ( CN.26. 1 27-136); L ine 1 3 ( CN.34. L ine 1 4 ( CN.37. 1 3-28); L ine 1 5 ( CN.43. 1 83-198).

L ine 1 2 1 2-27);

T he U romi s urveys w ere: H untings S urveys L td. D .O.S. C ontract 8 8 N igeria, U romi. S ortie N o. 8 4/NG/21; P rint N os. 0 01-010, 0 230 36,

0 47-085,

1 07-153.

S cale:

U romi/Ubiaja 1 :10,000 D .O.S.

1 :12,500. P .L.Misc.

P hotographs b y F airey S urveys,

3 158 N E,NW,SE,SW .

1 6/2/66

C ontract 9 0.

O ther N igerian T owns S urveys o n l arge-scales e xamined w ere: S apele - 1 :6,000 M inistry o f L ands a nd H ousing. A gbor - 1 :10,000 D .O.S. P .L.Misc. 3 161 N W, S E.

a nd

1 :5,000 3 165 C .Agbor. I sselle-Uke - c 1:9,500 F ederal S urveys D ept., U rhonigbe - 1 :5,000. T he a t

L agos

1 957.

1 965 C anadian A ero-Surveys 1 :40,000 p hotographs c an b e t he m ain o ffice o f

I t

i s n ot

t he D .O.S.

i n T olworth,

c ertain w hether B lock B o f

S urrey,

t he 1 :25,000

v iewed

E ngland.

a erial

s urvey

c ommissioned i n t he e arly 1 970 s h as b een p hotographed, w hether a ny p hotographs a re y et a vailable f or i nspection a t F ederal S urveys O ffice i n L agos. 3

T he

n atural

b efore p lace.

g round

p rofile i s m easured a long

a

c leared

n or t he

t race

a ny b ulldozing o r o ther d isturbance o f t he g round t akes D umez a nd E dok-Eter-Mandilas, m aking n ew r oads, r equired

d etermination o f

t he q uantities o f e arth t o b e m oved

f rom c uttings

a nd o f t he b est s ub-soil s ites f rom w hich t o o btain e arth f or e mbankments a nd s urfacing o f s andy a reas. N .E.P.A . a nd B .I.C.C., s etting u p h igh v oltage t ransmission l ines, w ere m ore i nterested i n p ylon s iting a nd m inimum g round c learance a t m aximum w ire s ag. T he s urveys w ere m eant t o s how a ny s ignificant t opographical f eature ( including v egetation f or t he p ower-lines); b ut i n p ractice t ended t o i gnore s mall f eatures l ess t han 5 0cms. h igh/deep. I n o ne c ase, t he s urveys b y M othercat/Nigercat o n t he U hi-Ehor-Uhiere r oad w ere m ade f rom r eadings e very 2 5 m etres, r endering t hem u seless f or t he i ya s urvey. 4

H ere

i t

d ifferent I rrua t o

i s

k nown t hat

t hree

d ifferent

s urveyors

u sing

t hus

t hree

b ase l evels m easured t he t hree s ections B enin-Irrua, U kpilla, U kpilla t o O kene. T he B enin-Irrua s ection

r ecords o ver 9 0% o f t he i ya p resent, w hereas t he I rrua-Ukpilla s ection r ecords l ess t han 2 % o f t he i ya - l ater p lotted b y m e. O n t he E dok-Eter-Mandilas L td r oad p rofile t he d eath o f a n e nnumerator c lerk c aused s ignificant c hanges i n t he p resentation o f

t he s urvey.

7 2

5

T he B enin-Asaba a nd B enin-Auchi r outes h ave b oth r oad a nd l ine p rofiles c lose t o o ne a nother m uch o f t he w ay.

6

T he

n ecessity

f or

s peed a nd e conomy o f

p ower-

t he s urvey c annot b e o ver-

s tressed i n v iew o f t he t otal l ength o f t hese i ya. C ross-checks w ith t heodolite m easurements r evealed l ittle s ignificant e rror, a nd a f ar m ore d etailed p rofile s hape w as o btained u sing t he s pirit-level/ruler t echnique. 7

M y i nterpretation o f i n I I.A.

8

T aungya f arms:

p rofile

t ypologies a nd

f orest r eserve

j unctions

i s

l and w hich i s g iven o ver

s et

t o

o ut

f arm-

l and c learance b y l ocal p eople o n t he u nderstanding t hat i t w ill b e p lanted w ith y oung t imber s aplings b efore a bandonment. I t s eems p robable t hat t he w ord b ecame i ncorporated i n f orestry l anguage f rom B urma, w here i t d escribes r otational b ush f allow ( Gourou: 1 966; 3 1). 9

T he m ain t hrust o f R .E. B radbury's P h.D. t hesis w as t he w ay i n w hich t he l ocal v illage o rganization h ad b een a ffected b y t his i ncreased p opulation m obility. ( Bradbury: 1 952). B acon g ives a v ery g raphic d escription o f t hese f ootpaths

1 0

T he

i ntroduction

t his c entury o f

( 1897;

t he a ggressive

4 7). ' Awolowa

( Eupatoria o derata) h as r esulted i n r oadside v erges, f armland a nd e ven r ubber p lantations b ecoming o verrun,

w eed'

d eserted a nd m ade

i ya s ightings v ery d ifficult. F orestry R eserves a re d ifficult a longside t he m ain t racks a nd f ootpaths a s t hey a llow e nough l ight t o p ermit t hick u ndergrowth t o d evelop: u nder t he w ell-developed f orest c anopy. 1 1

S ee

M ap

o f

t otal i ya e xtent

i n r elation t o

t his

i s

m uch

t hinner

t he B enin K ingdom

a d

e thno-linguistic a reas ( below; 6 8, I II.D). T he e xpression ' extens ion i nto I shan i s h ere u sed o nly i n a d escriptive s ense a nd i s n ot m eant t o i mply l ater g rowth i nto t he a rea. 1 2

E wala i s

1 3

O nly

t he I soko w ord f or i ya o r f or n atural c reek .

a f ew h undred m etres o f

t he e astern s ide E mevor

e wala

w ere

f ound, t hough i t w as r eputed t hat a s imilar s tretch o n t he w estern s ide m ay o nce h ave c reated a c omplete e nclosure. 1 4

I n 1 978 t hese e nclosures w ere e xcavated b y A nozie, w ith c entral o ccupation m ound b eing d ated f rom t he C 16th t o C 18th.

t he

1 5

O ne o f t hese i s s aid t o h ave b een b uilt i n t he s ame y ear t hat t he f irst a eroplane f lew o ver ( c1946).

1 6

I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he t rench c laimed t o h ave b een d ug b y C hima's p eople a t O nicha-Ukwu ( Okpuno: n .d.,17, 1 9) i s i n f act a f eature o f n atural e rosion. T he c orpus o f t raditions c laiming t hat m any p eople m igrated f rom B enin u nder t he l eadership o f C hima c annot b e s ubstantiated, ( Ijoma: 1 975).

1 7

( below;

1 6,

p articularly s ince C hima i s a n I gbo n ame

1 7). 7 3

1 8

O zanne

( 1969)

s uggests

d etermined b y C omplex r ocks.

t hat

t he

s iting o f e arly I fe w as p artially

t he d ifferential w eathering o f s imilar B asement T he m ain b edrock, h ornblende g neiss, r ots t o a

h eavy, s ticky c lay, w hich r emains m oist i n t he d ry s eason, s o p resumably w as e nvisaged a s b eing m ore f avourable t o a griculture. O utcrops o f q uartzite a nd q uartz-mica s chist d ecay t o d rier g ravels o n w hich w ere s ited t he s cattered c luster o f a bout t hirteen h amlets o f e arly I fe. 1 9

T hough t his m ay i ndicate r elatively f ertile s oils, t hese f igures d o n ot t ake i nto a ccount d ifferences i n c ultivation p ractice ( below;

I .B.2.).

2 0

S ome o f

t hese a re d epicted i n A ppendix G 8.

2 1

A ccording t o T homas,

t he b aixas o f G uyana,

t he b owal o f A ustralia

a nd s imilar f eatures i n B uganda, w hich a re a ll c ommonly o nly 3 -30 m etres a cross a nd 3 -4 m etres d eep ( and t hus m uch s maller t han t he o dighi), h ave b een f ormed b y t he " ...settling o r f oundering o f t he c rust

d ue t o s olutional r emoval a nd e luviation o f

f rom b elow". c rusts c alled

f ine

m aterial

( 1974; 7 9). G ourou ( 1966; 2 5) n otes " lateritic ' bowal i n G uinea, k hoai i n W est B engal.. . the s labs

o f l aterite a re i mpermeable a nd c ollect p ools o f w ater a fter r ain. T he c rust i s o ften b roken b y a n etwork o f f issures, w hich r esult f rom t he s ubsidence o f t he g round i mmediately u nderneath". M aignien

e nvisages

t his s ubsidence a s b eing p art o f

t he

l arger

l ateral a nd c hemical m ovement w ithin t he p allid z one l eading t o t he f ormation o f c orniched, l ateritic c uirasses a t t he e xposed e dges o f t he i nterfluves ( in T homas: 1 974; 6 2-3). T hese m echanisms, i nvolving t he m ovement o f w ater d own t hrough t he s oil a nd t hen s ideways o ut i nto t he v alleys, w ould s eem t o e xplain t he d ifferential m ovements a nd s ettling o f l aterite c rusts, a nd w hy m ore p ronounced c ambering a nd c ollapse f eatures o ccur u nder c onditions o f h eavier r ainfall t o t he s outh. T hey a lso a ppear t o e xplain w hy t he l argest o dighi a re f ound i n t he m uch s andier s trata o f I yekorhiomwon a nd t end t o r un w ell i n f rom, b ut r oughly p arallel t o, t he m ain r iver v alleys. Y et t hey d o n ot p rovide a ny e xplanation

a t

a ll f or

t he s easonal r etention

o f

w ater,

s ince

t heir m echanisms r ely o n t he m ovement o f w ater. L eLong's h ypothesis o f u pward i ron m igration b y i onic d iffusion d uring t he d rying

o ut

o f

t he

" ...mechanism f or b asal s urface o f a ppear u nable t o

r egolith i n t he d ry s eason

p rovides

b oth

a

t he d evelopment o f c losed d epressions i n t he w eathering f rom w hich s olutes i ncluding i ron e scape b y a lternative m eans..." a s w ell a s

a ccounting f or t he " ...removal o f i ron f rom a t hick p allid z one a nd i ts c oncentration w ithin 2 m etres o f t he s urface". ( Thomas: 1 974; 6 5). H owever, t his i s p robably a t t oo d eep a l evel t o e xplain t he o dighi. 2 2

A s imilar s tory i s a ttached t he A tughe o f I go w ho, i t i s c laimed, t urned i nto a n o dighi a fter d efeat b y B enin ( Bradbury : n .d.; B S 3 95).

2 3

W omen

f requently

p lace a n e bo

l eading t o r ivers, c hildren ( Melzian:

( idol) k nown a s o mo i ho

o n

p aths

s treams o r o dighi t o p ray f or i ncrease o f 1 937. A ppendix; 0 5) - p erhaps a nother l ink

7 4

w ith O lokun, 2 4

I n 1 892 v apour: " By

g od o f

f eruility a nd

w ealth.

P unch e xpressed a E uropean a ttitude

d awn w e a re a wake

l ooking o ut

f or

t he

t o s wamp f irst

a nd

s igns

r iver

o f

h igh g round. A ll w e c an s ee i s a t hick c urtain o f A frican s moke. L ike s omebody's p ort i t i s t hick a nd i t i s w et b ut i t i s n ot s weet, a nd a s i t i s c omposed m ostly o f m alaria w e a re n ot s orry t o w rap o urselves i n o ur r ugs a nd w ait t ill t he s un h as d ried i t u p". ( 1892; 2 ). T he s upposed l ethal n ature o f r iver m oisture i n N yendael's a ccount m ay

s tem f rom s imilar E uropean b eliefs r ather

t han b eing

d erived

f rom i ndigenous e xplanations. 2 5

G rossman

n otes s imilar d istribution p atterns a mongst

t he I gbo

o f

t he U di P lateau, b ut t he p olitical a nd e conomic e xplanations t hat h e a dvances d o n ot s eem t o b e a pplicable t o t he B ini a nd I shan s ituation 2 6

( 1977;

P ers.Comm.).

S everal h undred p ottery s herds w ere e xposed c lose b anks n ear O gba s tream . M ost w ere s uspected t hat t his w as a s hrine s ite.

2 7 2 8

' Elephant

g rass

( Pennisetum p urpureum)

S haw:

1 972;

2 4-27

t he b ivallate

d istribution ( Shaw:

1 978;

A pproaching

1 970;

a nd

z ones,

i t

g rows b est o n m oist 7 6)

a nd

i s

1 968.

d eserted

Y am c ultivation i n W est A frica s eems

b een a n a ncient p ractice, y ears. I a m p erplexed,

3 0

t o

b owls,

C hisholm i s r eferring t o t he w ork b y G ould a nd W hite:

s oils n ear s treams ( Stanfield: ( Johnson: 1 982; P ers.Comm.). 2 9

l edged

r ich s ites

t o

h ave

p ossibly g oing b ack s everal t housand h owever, b y S haw's l ater m ap o f y am

p articularly w ith r espect

t o

t he

E do

a reas

6 6-67). t he

B enin

' bush'

a fter

e xtensive

o rienteering

e xperience e lsewhere, I f ound i t l ess i mpenetrable t han B oisragon a nd C onnah d id. T hough t he f orests w ere d ifficult, t he t horn t hickets a t O wo, w et s word g rass ( Imperator c ylindrica) a t O ld O yo a nd t he f orest-savannah e cotone n ear O zalla w ere m uch h arder t o p enetrate a nd m ore d estructive o f c lothing. I f m y p erspective c ould b e s o d ifferent, p robably b e m ore s o. 3 1

T hese

c hiefs

a re

t hen t hat o f

t he g uardians o f

t he l ocal

p opulation

t he r oyal g ods U wen

r eputed t o h ave b een a p owerful O sun e bo a nd h is w ife

w ould

a nd

( cf.

O ra, b elow ;

1 89). 3 2

..0gun O sanobua

a lso a ppears i n t he o ral l iterature a s a j unior s on o f ( the h igh g od) s ent o ut i nto t he w orld w ith h is c utlass

t o m ake f arms a nd t o m ake w ar". ( P.Ben-Amos: 1 980; 5 1). Y oruba h ave t he s ame n ame f or a d eity w ith t he s ame q ualities. 3 3

T he

' Native s oap', e vb-akhuen, u sed u degwogho ( Swartzia f istuloides) o r u ria s eeds, w hich l ather w ell; a m ixture o f e m-ukhue ( burnt p alm-nut a shes) a nd u de ( oil f rom f ried p alm k ernels) w as e mployed

7 5

m ore i n r ecent y ears.

' Native b utter',

e vbarien,

w as m ade

f rom

t he w ood a shes o f i giedudo ( Diospyros p iscatorius) a nd g rain f rom i kp-ogi ( the f ruit o f t he c reeper o gi, C itrullus v ulgaris) ( Melzian : 1 937). 3 4

T he

u loko t ree

( iroko)

i s b elieved

t o w ithstand u ghavan ( polished

s tone a xes - t hought t o b e t hrown b y O gi'Uwu, g od o f t hunderstorms) b ecause i t i s o f i mportance t o w itches. c ut f or t he O ba. 3 5

d eath, i n I t i s o nly

C onnah s uggests t hat t he f orests h ave b een f armed f or a t l east 2 3 000 y ears i n t he B enin a rea. T his m ay h ave b een m ainly s hifting a griculture, a nd s edentary a gricultural s ettlements d o n ot a ppear t o h ave f ormed u ntil t he p eriod o f i ya c onstruction a bout 5 00-1500 y ears a go.

3 6

Y ellow f ever i s e ndemic, t hough r elatively h armless, t o A frican m onkeys i n t he f orest c anopy; i t i s c ycled b etween t hem b y t he m osquito A edes a fricanus, w hich i tself b reeds i n t ree-holes a t a m uch l ower l evel. W hen t he m onkeys d escend t o t he f orest f loor f or s uch n efarious p urposes a s r aiding b anana p lantations, t hey m ay b e b itten b y a nother m osquito, A . s impsonii, w hich a lso f eeds o n m an i n r ural a reas. c ountry s preads t he v irus, d isease

3 7

f rom m an t o m an ( Ayensu:

1 980;

1 30-131).

T he l ighter u ndergrowth a nd s andier t opsoils w ould h ave b een m ore a kin t o s avannah c onditions, a nd p erhaps m ore s uitable f or s avannah c rops ( cf. v alley b ottoms.

3 8

M ovement o f p eople b etween t own a nd a nd i n t he t owns A . a egypti s preads t he

R oth:

1 903;

1 47),

t han t he d amper s oils o f t he

W ithin t heir o wn l ands i t i s c laimed t hat U rhobo v illages w ere f ormerly n ot b uilt o n t he r iver b anks b ut o n h igher l and, w hich w as b elieved t o b e t he b est f arm-land ( Bradbury: n .d.; U RH 1 4, 2 3).

T hese

c laims

d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een c hecked b y

p ottery

c ollections o r s oil t ests b ut, i f t rue, i t i s r ecognized t hat t hey w ould q ualify s ome o f t he s tatements a nd c onclusions a bove. E ven s o, U rhobo p references w ould a ppear t o h ave r esulted i n f arming p ractices o pposite t o t hose i n t he A mazonian s elvas, w here t he d ifferent e nvironments o f t he v arzea ( fertile f lood-plains) t erra f irme ( impoverished, l eached s oils o f t he i nterfluves) t hought

t o

h ave d etermined t he l evel o f s ocial

t hose l iving o n t hem ( Ayensu: 4 01). 3 9

R oth's

t ranslation

i s

1 980;

1 52-156.

f ar f rom p erfect b ut i t

o rganization B arry :

i s

1 980;

q uoted

b ecause i t i s E gharevba's m ost l ikely s ource. A t ranslation c an b e f ound i n B osman's ' History i n A frica'. ( M . J ohnson: 1 982 P ers.Comm.). 4 0

N yendael's a ccount w ith r eference t o t he r eign

o f

E wuare, w hich o n h is o wn d ating i s i mpossible f or N yendael m akes i t c lear t hat h e i s d escribing c ontemporary e vents. I f

i t s hould p rove t hat t he t raditional a nd

7 6

o f 3 98-

h ere b etter

B radbury's c omment o n w hat E gharevba h as d one r uns: " In h is p amphlet T he C ity o f B enin', ( pp.10-11) E gharevba q uotes

a nd a re

c ontemporary

a ccounts d o r efer t o t he s ame s eries o f e vents E gharevba's c hronology w ould b e s erously u pset a t t his p oint". ( 1973; 2 9). 4 1

T raditions g enerations,

a re e nvisaged a s w hereas r umours

p assing ' vertically d own s pread l aterally w ithin t he

t he s ame

g eneration. 4 2

T he m ock w ar, ( Iron), a gainst t he s even U zama i s a lso a nnually i n t he U gie E rha O ba - f estival t o t he O ba's l ate ( P.

B en-Amos:

1 980;

s taged f ather

8 5).

4 3

O ramiyan i s, a ccording t o t he o ral t raditions, p resent d ynasty o f O bas a nd c ame f rom I fe.

4 4

' Rhi o xwae r e n 'ogh-Oguola'

m eans

' Come

t he f ounder o f

( literally

' take')

t he

a nd

b ring t he ( cooking) b asket t hat b elongs t o O guola'. ' Oga' - a b ig m an w ho l ords i t o ver o thers ( also Y oruba). ' kpolo' - b ig, s trong. ( Translation b y P . B en-Amos). 4 5

I n t he Z aria r egion o f n orthern N igeria,

Q ueen

A mina i s

t ype-cast

i n a v ery s imilar r ole a s u biquitous c onstructor o f v illage a nd t own w alls. ( Sutton: 1 976; P ers.Comm.). S he i s a lso c redited w ith s ome w alls i n T ogoland ( M. J ohnson : 1 982; P ers.Comm.). 4 6

T hese E vbonikhuo t raditions a re u nusual i n t hat a p re-dynastic s ettlement a s w ell a s

t he i ya r elate

t o m uch l ater c oncepts,

t o s uch

a s t he u se o f c rippled ( uke) a s p orters a t t he i ya e ntrances t o g uard a p ast h arem ( erie), w hich c learly i mitate a p ast p ractice a t 4 7

t he O ba's p alace i n B enin C ity ( Melzian:

I t

2 00).

h as b een s uggested t hat o ral t raditions r arely p enetrate

i nto t ime f or m ore t han a bout a ll i ndications t o d ate a re j ust 4 8

1 937;

o ver 5 00 y ears a go

o kakua

i s

c harm'

t hat

1 937; 4 9

( cf.

5 0

A

1 39).

p arallel

( below;

I I.C.b).

p robably a w arring c hief.

o ghodin i s a

' holding

c an d elay a ction o r m ake s omeone g o a sleep i ximwin ( ikhimwin)

c omments b elow; c an

b ack

f ive c enturies f rom t he p resent, a nd t hat t he l ast i ya w ere c onstructed

i s t he

u p

( Melzian:

t ree N ewbouldia l aevis.

I I.B.7).

b e d rawn b etween

t he

v ery

p opular,

m ediaeval

E nglish a ttribution o f t he d evil o r C aesar a s b uilders o f n umerous e arthwork f eatures f rom a f orgotten, b y-gone e ra, a nd t he r oles o f O guola, i ya. 5 1

M any

E wuare

I gbo

w orkers a nd,

m en

a nd O zolua a s c onstructors o f

t he B ini

w ork i n ' bush' a reas a voided

b y

o ther

a nd

E san

e ducated

c oming f rom a t ribe u ninvolved i n E do l and d isputes,

t heir w ork i s m ore a cceptable t o b oth p arties a nd t he

j udiciary.

5 2

M uch o f t he O ba's p resent d ay s tatus, p ower a nd w ealth s tem f rom h is a rbitration o f d isputes o ver t raditional v illage l ands.

5 3

T he t he

s ame c oncept o n a l arger s cale h as b een e mployed t o b oundaries o f t he B enin K ingdom ( Bradbury:

7 7

1 973;

d escribe

4 6-50).

5 4

' ohen

m eans

a s b eing ( Melzian:

p riest.

T he i himwin t ree i s c onsidered b y t he

p ropogated b y c uttings r ather 5 5

T here

a re

s ome

t han b e s eeds.

s imilarities h ere i n

t he

s piritual

e xercised b y c hurches w ithin E nglish p arish b oundaries, w hich w ere a lso d emarcated w ith l inear e arthworks. 5 6

o f

f rightening d irection a t

t he

O ba's p alace i n B enin C ity, w here t he h eadless c orpses s acrificial v ictims w ere t hrown i nto d eep p its, k nown a s i ya

o f o r

T his

i han

5 8

s uzerainty s ome

p ractice c ontinued i n a nother,

( Landolphe:

M elzian : 5 7

B ini

a n e verlasting t ree ' since t he b eginning o f t he w orld' 1 937; 9 6, 1 05, 2 11) o wing t o t he w ay i t h as b een

1 937:

1 778 i n

1 937;

8 6.

R oth:

C onnah :

1 903; 1 975;

3 4,

4 23. 4 9,

P unch: 6 6,

1 892;

1 1.

2 49).

M elzian n otes t hat " Ebomisi" i s t he " name o f a B ini d eity ( an i hen) w ho t ransformed h imself i nto a h ill a fter O xwahe h ad b ecome a r iver" ( 1937; 4 7). T he

u khurh-oho

t ree

b ranches

f orm t he m ost

e ssential

p art

o f

a ncestral s hrines e specially i hen a nd i nyaton, b ecause t hese b ranches a re b elieved t o e nsure c ommunication w ith t he s pirits o f t he d ead. ( Melzian: 1 937; 2 13). 5 9

P ottery ( below ;

6 0

6 1

s herds

f rom t he I si i kpessa d ated b y

t hermoluminescence

I II.B.2.).

I n B ini, a d istinction i s m ade b etween t he f arm h oe ( egwe) a nd b roader h oe ( aho) u sed f or c ollecting m ud ( Melzian : 1 937 ; 5 ). I h ave b een u nable

t o i dentify t his

f ibre,

b ut

a

i t m ight b e s imilar

t o i takhue, m ade f rom p lantain b ark a nd u sed a s a s ponge f or ' rubbing' ( dolo) w alls a nd f loors o f h ouses a fter b eing d ipped i n m ud a nd w ater 6 2

( Melzian :

1 02).

o r o mwemwe, a lso u sed f or h ouse-building. P ossibly t hey w ere m ade f rom a bokpo ( Diospyros c rassiflora), w hich i s u sed f or p addles t oday ( Melzian:

6 3

1 937;

I n

1 897

1 937;

2 ,

1 52).

B oisragon n oted t hat

" the w ater s upply o f

t he

v illages

c onsisted o f r esevoirs o f r ain w ater, m ade o ut o f s mooth h ardb eaten c lay", a nd t hat " water i s o btained b y t he B ini p eople b y d igging s mall p ools...". 6 4

T hese s ites, ( below ;

6 5

9 5,

1 39).

t hough, m ay h ave b een o ccupied

f or s everal c enturies

I I.B.8.).

T he p eripheral a reas w ere p robably c olonized l ater b y t he i ya b uilders t han t he c ore a reas ( below ; I I.C.c). A lso i t i s s uspected l ages a nd ( below;

6 6

( 1897;

t hat l arge s ettlements d eveloped l ater t han s mall v ilh amlets. T he k nown d istribution o f o ghodo i s s hown

I I.B.9.).

S uch f eatures a s p onds t end t o h ave b een n eglected b y e thnographers a nd a rchaeologists i n t his a rea, p ossibly b ecause m ost a ttention h as b een c oncentrated o n m ore e xotic c ustoms, b eliefs a nd t heir a ssociated m aterial c ulture.

7 8

6 7

O r

B ini

i mposed

o ver

e arlier l inguistic

d iverse r efugee g roups m oving s outh f rom 1 976; P ers.Comm.). 6 8

d ivisions n ear

c aused

L okojo

b y

( Elugbe:

T hose a ttempting t o d istinguish d ialects f rom l anguages o n t he b asis o f m utual i ntelligibility f ace s imilar p roblems. D uring t he p eriod o f I soko p ressure f or p olitical a utonomy f rom t he a djacent U rhobo s peakers i t w as c laimed t hat t heir l anguages w ere u nintelligible t o o ne a nother, a lthough b efore a nd s ince t hat t ime I soko a nd U rhobo p eoples h ave m anaged t o c onverse w ithout t oo m any p roblems

6 9

T he

( Ogie:

1 974;

3 ).

a ppendix b ox f ile c ontains

b oth t his a rticle a nd t he c omputer

p rint-out o f d ata a nd t rees f rom t he a nalyses. T he d ata i s t hat c ollected a nd p artially p rocessed b y W illiamson, t o i ndicate c oarse a nd 7 0

f ine d ifferences b etween w ords.

S ince

t he p rocesses o f l inguistic c hange a re s tochastic,

o nly

a

p robability - n o g uarantee - t hat s horter

l ists w ill b e m ore ' fundamental

t here i s

S wadesh

w ord-

t han l onger o nes.

7 1

O ther l anguages i n t he K wa g roup i nclude E we, K aduna, I doma a nd L ower N iger ( Hoffman: 1 974;

7 2

I ncreasing

E bira, 2 -3).

p opulation p ressure u nder c onditions o f

A kan,

N iger -

s tasis

w ould

e xplain o nly t he o utermost i ya n 'uwu ( boundary i ya) w hen o nly a n arrow c ordon s anitaire s eparated t he o pposing i ya o f a djacent s ettlements. b uilt a round 7 3

I t d oes n ot e xplain w hy p rimary i ya s hould h ave b een t he w ell-spaced e arly s ettlements.

A lternatively, a nd

I soko

p erhaps,

t he a ncestors o f

( D) o nce o ccupied m uch o f

t he p resent-day

t he f orest,

w ith

a

U rhobo s light

l inguistic d ichotomy d eveloping a t t he s avannah/forest b oundary; a nd, i f C w ere t hen p ushed s teadily s outh i nto t he f orest s wamplands b y t he i ya-building, s avannah m igrants ( B), i t m ight h elp e xplain t he p resent-day h igh d ensities o f t he U rhobo - n early 5 0% o f a ll E do s peakers a re S outhern E do - a nd t he f ailure t o e xploit t heir r iverain e nvironment. O nce a gain, t his s uggestion w ith i ts

r ather d eterminist a ssumptions - i s n ot e ssential t o

t he

b asic a rgument. 7 4

T he a ssumption h ere i s t hat B a nd C , C a nd D w ould h ave m aintained s ome l inguistic a ffinity b ecause t hey w ere a djacent t o e ach o ther. I n f act, B , C a nd D n eed o nly b e a s pectrum o f m any d ialects i n w hich B i s i ncomprehensible t o D , t hough u nderstood b y C . C t hen, c ould j ust r epresent t hose d ialects w hich b ecame a bsorbed b y B 's m ove s outh.

7 5

T hese i llustrations h ave t aken i nto a ccount t he p ast I gbo e xpans ion i nto t he a rea t o t he e ast. S ome o f t he e thnographic d ata f rom t his p oints t o a n E do s ub-stratum i n t he c ulture - s o I p laced t he m ovement s ometime b etween 2 -3000 B .P. a nd 1 000

h ave B .P.

( Igbo m ovement o ver t he N iger m ay h ave a ntedated i ya c onstruction, a s t here a re n o c omplete i ya i n t he I gbo-speaking a reas).

7 9

A ll

o ther

s uggested m ovements h ave

b een d epicted a s

s eries o f m igratory w ave-fronts, t hough d ifferent m echanisms c ausing l anguage m igration ( e.g. b elow; 111. 1 ). ) .

8 0

t here w ere m ovement

a

c omplex

p robably m any a part f rom

C hapter I I F IELDWORK I I. A .

S URVEYING A ND I NTERPRETING T HE I YA

S urveying: W hen C onnah s et o ut t o s urvey t he ' Benin C ity W alls h e w as n ot e xpecting a c omplicated a nd e xtensive n etwork o f e arthwork e nclosures, m erely t hree c oncentric ' walls'; f or t his p urpose h e u sed p rismatic c ompasses m easuring t o t he n earest h alf-a-degree, c hains, e ight-foot l ong s urveying p oles a nd d umpy l evels. T his c onventional e quipment w as e xtraordinarily c umbersome i n t he r ain-forest. T he f inal m ap r epresented a b reakthrough a nd i ndeed t hrew n ew l ight o n t he B enin C ity W alls';

b ut,

i n t he a bsence o f p roper t riangulation,

t he a ccumu-

l ated e rror a long t he r adial r oads o n w hich t he m ap w as b ased r esulted i n s evere d istortion ( Connah: 1 975; 1 03). A lso, i n t he p rocesses o f r ealignment, s cale-reduction a nd o ther n ecessary a djustments, m uch o f t he d etail a chieved b y t he h igh l evel o f i nstrumental a ccuracy i n t he f ield was

l ost.

A t C onnah's s peed o f o f

s urvey,

l inear e arthwork t hat I i ntended

t he e stimated 1 2-16,000 k ilometres t o s urvey w ould h ave t aken

a bout

4 00 d ry s easons, a nd t he e xpense p er y ear w ould h ave b een w ell b eyond t he r ate o f f unding p romised. S imilar c onsiderations e lsewhere h ave e ither l ed t o t he a voidance o f a ny f ield s urvey o r t he e mployment o f f ree l abour f rom t he l ocal p rison ( Mabogunje a nd O mer-Cooper: 1 971; 3 8. P osnansky: 1 980; 5 6). S ome s urveyors i n t he D irectorate o f O verseas S urvey ( Tolworth, S urrey, E ngland) r ecommended t he u nconvent ional ' rope a nd w histle' t echnique, i n w hich u nsighted b earings a re t aken o n a w histle b last a t t he e nd o f a s et l ength o f r ope: a ppar ently s uch a t echnique i s s urprisingly a ccurate o ver q uite l arge d istances o f t hick ' bush'. H owever, i n t he l ight o f m y s urveying e xperience o ver d ifferent t errains t hroughout t he B ritish I sles, I k new t hat a n i nstrumental t raverse w ith c oordinates d erived f rom a S ilva o rienteering c ompass a nd p acing c ould b e m uch f aster a nd m ore d etailed. A s ample s urvey o n t he B ishop's D yke i n t he N ew F orest, E ngland, h ad d emonstrated t hat e ven w hen m esuring s ubstantial l engths t o

o nly

t he n earest 5 0 t he f inal p lotting w as v ery c lose t o

O rdnance

S urvey r esults a nd a lso p rovided m ore d etail. W ith t he n umerous, s horter s urvey l engths a long t he B enin i ya a nd I shan i yala, m easurem ent a t t en d egree i ntervals w ere a s m uch a s c ould b e m atched b y s ubsequent p lotting o n a r ealistic s cale.

C ross-profiles w ere m easure

w ith a 2 f oot l ong b uilder's s pirit-level a nd y ard r ule i n a s tep-like p rocess which, t hough b eing m ore a pproximate t han u sing a d umpy-level, p rovided m ore d etail o f e ach s lope a nd w as t aking a bout 3 -5 m inutes f or e ach p rofile.

c onsiderably f aster T he s urvey t echniques

p roved t o b e a bout f ifty t imes f aster t han t hose e mployed b y C onnah, a nd h ad t he p romised f inance b een f orthcoming, t he f irst f ew m onths s urvey r ate i ndicated t hat t he t otal m apping o f a ll t he i ya c ould h ave 8 1

b een c ompleted w ell w ithin t he S uch

c riticism

f ive y ear s chedule.

o f p resumed i naccuracy n eeds t o b e a nswered

a t

t wo l evels. F irst, t he m ost i mportant t ask w as t o e stablish t he o verall p attern o f a n a rchaeological f eature o n a n a lmost u npreced ented s cale, n ot t o p recisely l ocate a n e xcavation s ite. S econdly, b y i ncorporating t riangulation p rinciples a nd m aking u se o f m any n ew d evelopments s ince C onnah's s urvey, i t w as h oped t o p roduce r esults w ith a h igh l evel o f a ccuracy. T he p roduction o f 1 :50,000 N igerian F ederal S urvey m aps b ased o n 1 :40,000 C anadian a ero-survey p hotographs p rovided a f airly a ccurate b ase, w hich C onnah n ever h ad; t hough c ert ain ' tracks d epicted o n t hese m aps p roved t o b e i ya o r e lse e ntirely i maginary, a nd m any o utlying s ettlements w ere w rongly n amed - p resuma bly n ever v isited b y t he s urveyors. W ithin t he b ase e stablished b y t hese m aps a n etwork ( the c losest a pproximation t o t riangulation p ossible) o f t ransects a long r oads a nd t racks w as m ade: t hese w ere m easured u sing 1 00 m etre s teel t apes a nd p rismatic c ompasses, a nd a ll p oints w here t he i ya w ere i ntersected w ere n oted ( Appendix; E l). O nce t his i ya n etwork w ith i ts i ya c rossing p oints h ad b een p lotted a t a 1 :10,000 s cale a nd r educed t o f it a b ase-map e xpanded f rom 1 :50,000 t o 1 :25,000, i t w as t hen p ossible t o f it t he o rienteering c ompass/pacing t raverses.

T hese w ere

i nitially p lotted o n g raph p aper a t

t he

r ela-

t ive s cale o f l cm . t o a h undred p aces ( approximately 1 :10,000) b y r eversing t he n ormal b earing p rocedures o n a n o rienteering c ompass. T he p aced s ections b etween t he m easured i ntersections w ere t hen e xpanded o r c ontracted o n a p lan v ariograph t o t he r equired s cale t o f it t he r elevant p oints o n t he m easured n etwork. P rior t o p lotting o n p aper,

a ccumulated e rror c an b e a ccurately d etermined a long

c omplete

e nclosures b y s umming t h9 s ine v alues o f t he 1 0 a ngle s ets, b ut t he u se o f a p lan v ariograph e ffectively r educed a ccumulated e rror t o a m inimum ; a nd w ith i t a ccurate s cale r eductions c ould b e made w ithout a ny s ignificant

l oss o f d etail.

I nterpretation: N early 1 500 k ilometres o f l inear e arthwork w ere s urveyed b etween 1 973 a nd 1 977, m ost o f w hich w ere d one b etween N ovember 1 973 a nd A pril 1 974 w hen d ifficulties o f f unding b egan t o s low p rogress. a ppear i n t hree m ain f ormats: m aps a nd c ross-profiles, s criptions

( mainly i n A ppendix;

E ),

T he r esults c ourse d e-

a nd d iscussions i ntegrating

i ya w ith o ther f orms o f d ata ( mainly b elow ; I I. B ). E ach o f T UT I nats i s s ubject t o v arying d egrees o f i nterpretation b efore

t he

t hese b eing

s et d own o n p aper; t he m aps a nd c ross-profiles c onstitute t he m ost o bjective d ata-base, t he c ourse d escriptions a re l ess o bjective a nd t he d iscussions h ighly s usceptible t o s ubjective i nfluences. T hese b iases I w ill a ttempt t o r eveal i n d iscussing t he i ya a nd p rofiles o f t wo d ifferent i ya s ystems. T he f irst o f t hese c oncerns O ka a nd t he s outh-eastern p art o f C onnah's ' Benin C ity W alls'. H ere

a

g roup o f p ottery-making s ettlements,

t heir

n ames

a ll

p refixed b y ' Oka-', a re s urrounded b y a l arge i ya e nclosure, i n w hich t he b ank ( B) i nvariably r uns i nside t he d itch ( D) t o c reate a u nivall ate ( BD) p rofile. T his n otational l ettering h as b een a dopted t o h elp d escribe o ther i ya i n t his t hesis, a nd i s o rdered s o t hat t he ' inside' i s o n t he l eft a nd t he ' outside' o n t he r ight. 3 S mall l etters d isting uish t hose b anks a nd d itches ( b/d) w here t he b ank-top g enerally l ies b elow t he e ye-level o f a n o bserver i n t he d itch b ottom ( i.e. 8 2

l ess

t han

C onnah's B enin C ity W alls M ap r educed

r rom

S haw:1978:171.

I nset

b ased

( above)

Connah's

o n

o riginal map,

s hows t he

p rofiles t o

b e

c onsidered. 0

a

Hypothetical ( Compare

1 1 • .•

3k ,

p rofiles:

t hese w ith t he

t he

e xpected m ental

a ctual

i mage

m easured p rofiles

o f

t hose

b elow;

i n t he

i nset

8 4).

KEY : B = B ank

.1 3

D . D itch = f ormer g round— l evel

8 3

c .

1-2m etres).

a s m easurements

A ll

i ya w idths a nd h eights

f rom t he b ank t op

t he g round.

w herever r elative

p ossible w ithin t his d escriptive f ramework, t heir t o o ne a nother a nd t he l andscape ( see f ootnotes 3 a nd4 )

c ribe

4

a s mall d egree o f o ften d esirable t o

m uch o f

t he

a re e xpressed

i rrespective

s lope o f

p ermitted w hich w as

D espite

( or d epths)

t o d itch b ottom,

o f

t he

i nclusion o f o bjective m easurements values s till

f lexibility i n s ubjective i nterpretation, r etain. F or e xample, I i ntend t o d es-

t he / 2 - 2 m 1 etre h igh,

1 0 m etre w ide,

s tretches

o f

t he

n orth-eastern a nd n orth-western O ka i ya a s h aving a b d p rofile ( desp ite t he f act t hat s ome s ections, p articularly t hose i mmediately e ither

s ide o f o ld

f ootpaths,

r ise o ver

1

m etre),

b ecause t here

i s

l ittle d oubt i n m y m ind t hat t hese s tretches a re u nified i n s haring a p articular p hase o r t echnique o f c onstruction, a nd t his u nity w ould o nly b e c onfused b y s trict a pplication o f o bjective h eights. T hese s tretches

o f

b d

i ya a re q uite d istinct

g reater

d epths a nd

O ka

w hich c an u nequivocally b e

i ya,

O ther

s teeper

p roblems

f rom t he

s lopes a long

s udden c hanges

t o m uch

t he s outhern s ection

d escribed a s

o f

t he

B D.

o f d efinition b ecome a pparent

i n

t he

n orthern

s ection o f t he O ka i ya where i t j oins C onnah's ' Benin C ity W alls t wo p laces - t he eXa -J E l ocation o f w hich h ad t o b e d etermined b y s urveying t he i ya b etween t hem a nd n orth t o t he n earest t rack. r esurvey p rovides t he o nly d irect c omparison b etween C onnah's a nd m ine,

a nd

i llustrates

s ome o f

t he d ifferences

i n r e-

T his s urvey

i n o ur a pproach a nd

i nterpretation. I n

C onnah's

m ap o f

t he ' Benin C ity W alls' a ll e arthwork

h ave b een d epicted w ith t hick b lack l ines, d itches w ith t hin b lack l ines, w hite s trips b etween b lack l ines. o n t he

i nset

( above;

8 2)

a ll

b anks

t he u nbanked e dges

o f

a nd a ll t he d itches a s t he e nclosed S o, i f t he f our p rofiles i ndicated

a re c onsidered,

t he m ental

i mage o f what

i s

r epresented s hould b e v ery a pproximately a s s hown b eneath t he m ap. C ompare t hese w ith t he m easured p rofiles a t i , i i, i ii a nd i v ( below):

6

K EY: I maZ

I m50

B/D » . l arge B ank/D itch b /d

North-west i

s mall . . f ormer

a

l evel

_

t l

a m77 x 1 0m5a

N orth w i v)

7 m43 x 8 m70

8 4

b ank/ditch g round-

T he

m assive s ize d ifferential b etween p rofiles i s p robably

m ost s triking l argest b anks

f eature: t he v olume o f e arth m oved t o c reate i s m ore t han t en t imes t hat o f t he s mallest a long

t he t he a ny

g iven l ength. V ery p robably t he d ifferences i n t he p roportion o f t ime a nd m anpower s pent i n c onstruction w ere e ven g reater; a nd c learly t his s ize f actor i s o f c onsiderable i mportance i n d istinguishing d ifferent p hases o r t echniques o f c onstruction, a s w ell a s f or i nterp reting t he v arious m otives t hat m ay h ave u nderlain i t ( below ; I V). C onnah u ses t he e normous s ize d ifference b etween t he p rofiles o f t he m ain B enin C ity W all a nd t hose o f t he o utlying e arthworks a s h is m ain a rgument f or d istinguishing a d efensive r ampart f rom l inear e arth b oundaries s eparating a gricultural t erritories; s o i t i s p erhaps s urp rising t hat, a fter t aking c onsiderable t ime a nd t rouble t o m easure t he c ross-profiles, h e s hould h ave u niformly e xaggerated h is f irst m apping o f b ank a nd d itch w idths s o m uch a s t o e xclude a ll d ifferences i n i ya s ize, e ven i n i mproved l ater r epresentations ( Connah: 1 967; 5 93-609. 1 975; 1 02-103. S haw: 1 978; 1 71). F rom a b rief t alk w ith o ne o f C onnah's s urveyors I u nderstand t hat m any i ya w ere v ery l arge a t o ne e nd b ut t ailed-off i n s ize a t t he o ther, s o i ndicating t heir p robable d irection o f c onstruction ( Bassey: 1 975; P ers.Comm.). F rom c ross-profile i i a bove a nd f rom a nother t aken o n t he n orthern s ection o f t he i nner E gor i ya, i t c an b e d emonstrated t hat a t l east s ome o f t he o utlying i ya a chieved h eights o f 9 -10 m etres, w hicp i s n ot f ar s hort o f t he 1 2-14 m etres o f t oday's m ain C ity W all: u C onnah's a rgument, t herefore, m ay n eed t o b e e xtended t o i mply t hat s ome d efens ive r amparts w ere c onstructed i n t he o utlying ' walls' h e s urveyed. H owever, h is t ext, h is m ap a nd t he f ew p rofiles h e p ublished d o n ot p rovide a ny i ndication o f t he i ya t ailing-off o r o f d efensive r amparti ng a nd, a lthough I h ave m ade s ome a ttempt t o 7r emedy t he k nown d efects ( 1:100,000 m ap i n t hesis, C WAS, B irmingham),' i t i s p robably t rue t o s ay t hat t his l ack o f s ize d efini 9io n r emains a m ajor h andicap i n i nterpretation o f C onnah's s urvey. T he

s traightening o f

t he n orthern s ection o f

o mission o f g aps a nd m ajor f ootpaths,

t he i ya c ourse,

t he

t he

t he f ailure t o d epict a l ateral

o verlap o f i ya a t i i a nd t he m issing o f t he l ow b d i ya j unction a t i ii w ere o ther l imitations o bserved i n t his p articular s tretch o f C onnah's s urvey. 9 B y t hemselves, e ach o f t hese m inor e rrors d oes n ot c ons titute t oo s erious a n i mpediment t o a n o verall i nterpretation, b ut t heir c ombined e ffect c an h ave d one l ittle t o c larify m atters. T he m ost s erious d ifference s eems t o b e t hat C onnah d epicts p rofile i v a s B DBDB, a pparently o n t he a ssumption t hat e very r idge i s a b ank a nd e very l inear d epression a d itch; w hereas I h ave i nterpolated t he n atural g round-level t o i nterpret t he m iddle ' bank' a s a s trip o f u naltered g round b etween t wo o pposing i ya, t hus: N orth B DDB S outh. I deally, t herefore, t he d efinition o f a ll b anks a nd d itches s hould b e d etermined g eneral b y e ye

b y w hether o r n ot t hey a re c onsistently a bove o r b elow t he

l ie o f i n t he

t he

l and;

f ield.

a nd i t i s u sually q uite p ossible t o d o

d oes t he u neveness o f t he s urrounding l and p reclude t he i nterpretation o f p rofiles e ven a fter m easurement. O nce t heir i t i s

t his

O nly i n a v ery f ew c ases o f l ow m ultivallate i ya

t he i ya h ave h ad

s atisfctory

t heir b anks a nd d itches p roperly

d efined,

r elative h eights d epicted a nd t heir c ourses a ccurately p lotted, t hen p ossible

t o c onsider t he o verall c onfiguration o f

I n a ll b ut a v ery f ew c aes i t i s p ossible t o i nterpret b eing o n t he i nside o f t he d itch s urrounding t he

8 5

t he

i ya.

t he b ank a s l and o f a ny

K eY:

y =

O ka t erritory a nd b oundaries

s uspected b oundary l ine

- •= s uspected l ater d eepening

O ka h ouses & f arm l ands

I

hunting l and & w ild 9b ush '

O ka l and 7

N M LE kae

Il and \ . . // -N ] E kae l and

N ML

\ - 7-1 E kae O ka l and 4 1 1

l and

\

7N -

I hinmwirin Avbiama l and Y l and

B enin

( ?)

l and

e

B enin ( Oka n ')Evb 'Orhan

P rofiles o f t he s outhern s ection o f t he O ka

o

i s -a :

( it i s t hought t hat t hese h ave b een d eepened a fter o riginally b eing s imilar t o p rofile i ii a bove:84 ) . E ast

W est

S outh

North

l u nt . 7

N orth

6 m60

South

8 6

l and

b v f

O ka I

( ?)

l and

O ka I

l and

s ettlement m ents. b elow)

o r,

a s i n t he c ase o f O ka,

a ny g roup o f r elated

s ettle-

A n a rea t otally e nclosed b y a b ank i nside i ts d itch ( fig. a ; w ill b e c alled a ' primary i ya. I n t he e xample u nder c O i T-

s ideration, s ettlements

t herefore, o nly t he e nclosure c ontaining t he O ka g roup o f i s d efinitely a p rimary i ya: t he s tatus o f t he e nclosures

c ontaining U gbeku a nd I hinmwirin i s u ncertain. A t

t his p oint

i t

i s

i nstructive t o n ote

1 0

t he e vidence

f rom

c om-

m unity b oundary m aps ( below ; I .C. 2 ) a nd o ral t raditions ( below ; I .C. 1 ). I n g eneral t erms B radbury h as a lready n oted t hat t he w ard o r v illage u sed t o b e t he s mallest l and-holding u nit i n t he B enin K ingdom ( 1957; 3 1). T oday, t he a vailable m aps o f O ka w ard o r v illage C o inm unity b oundaries ( Appendix; M 6/7) i ndicate t hat t he d ifferent O ka c ommunities

h ave

t heir

o wn i ndependent

t erritories w ithin

t he

i ya

e nclosure. T he o ral t raditions, t hough, c laim t hat O ka u sed t o b e o ne t own, w hich r esisted B enin u nder t he l eadership o f O giemabo. 1 1 T his n eed n ot m ean a s ingle u rban c oncentration, a nd s eems m ore l ikely t o r efer e nough

t o t he s trength o f p olitical a ssociation b etween s ettlements i n O ka's c ase t o r esult i n t he c onstruction o f o ne l arge i ya

e nclosure r ather t han m any s maller u nits. W here v illage t raditions, c laimed o riginal s ites a nd/or c ommunity b oundaries a nd t he i ya a re i n a pproximate a ccordance, t hen t he i ya e nclosure h as b een n amed a fter t he s ettlement m ost l ikely t o h ave c onstructed t he i ya. B y r epute U gbeku a nd I hinmwirin a re a lso v ery o ld s ettlements ( Egharevba: 1 968, 3 ), s o i t w ould s eem t hat t he i ya b eing c onsidered h ere d emarcated t he l and b oundaries b etween O ka, U gbeku a nd I hinmwirin c ommunities. A b rief r econstruction o f

t he h istorical

s equence o f

t he O ka i ya

w ill n ow b e a ttempted, i ts b oundries b eing c onsidered w ith r eference t o t he m ap a nd p rofiles d epicted o n t he n ext p age. A w ould s eem t o r epresent t he i nitial d emarcation o f O ka t erritory Wr th a s imple b d i ya

s eparating O ka

( agricultural?)

l and i nside f rom t he

w ild

' bush'

o utside a nd, b y i nference f rom l ater p ractices ( above; 5 0), t he d itch I tself b elonged t o t his ' outside'. W here t he t erritories o f a djacent c ommunities a pproach c losely t o o ne a nother, a s a t B , t here s eems t o h ave

b een

a

w ide a rea o f n o-man's

l and,

i n w hich h unting

b y

b oth

c ommunities p robably c ontinued t o t ake p lace ( Bradbury: 1 957; 3 4). A t s ome s tage t he s outhern a nd w estern O ka c ommunities w ould a ppear t o h ave d eepened t heir i ya ( C, p rofiles v , v i, v ii, v iii, i x, x a bove; 8 6 c f. p rofile i ii a bove; 8 -4 ): p ossibly t his w as a p relude t o c laiming t he w ide a reas o f n o-man's-land o utside, f or t here i s a l ow b ank o n ya t o t he w est ( D), c reating a ettlement's i O ka s ide o f a nother s ossible l ater u nderlining d enotes -5 ( the ( west-east) p rofile ), i n w hich t he b oundary l ine o c reate b d eepening o f t he d itch - h ere t T he d bd i ya a t E ( profile i ) ottom. p resumeably r an a long t he d itch b kpoma a rea ( below ; I I. — B . 8 ); i t n t he E i s s imilr t o e arly i yala i s h aving b een a s hared b oundry s eems q uite r easonable t o i nterpret i t a oundary b etween A vbiama a nd a b i nitio, w ith t he b ank b eing t he b t he B Db

I khinmwirin c ommunity O pposite

l ands.

t he O ka i ya a v ery d ifferent a nd

s pectacular

b oundary

d evelopment h as t aken p lace, w hich c annot b e r eadily a ppreciated f rom t he c onfusing m ultiplicity o f b anks a nd d itches s hown i n t his s ection o f t he ' Benin C ity W alls' m ap. T here t he l ength o f b ank l ying a long t he

I khinmwirin/Ugbeku s ide o f

t he i ya a ppears a rbitrary a nd m eaning-

l ess: i n r eality i t c an b e s een a s a m assive r ampart d irectly o pposi ng O ka l and ( and o verlapping i t s lightly a t e ach e nd). T he s ize o f

8 7

t he i ya i ndicates t hat a c onsiderable l abour f orce w as

i nvolved i n i ts

c onstruction; a nd t he f act t hat i t e xtends a long p art o f t he l ength o f t wo s eparate i ya e nclosures c ould i ndicate t hat t here w as s ome a llia nce o f I hinmwirin a nd U gbeku a gainst O ka o r, m ore l ikely, t hat t his r ampart r epresents o ne s tage i n B enin's e arly e xpansion. A t F ( prof ile

i v)

t he b oundary l ine p resumably l ay a long t he n arrow

s trip

o f

u ntouched n o-man's-land ( sometimes c alled c ordon s anitaire) b etween t he o pposing i ya: a s imilar B DDB p rofile o ccurs i n t he s outhern p art o f t his s tretch c lose t o i ts o ther j unction w ith t he O ka i ya a t G . B etween t hese t wo s tretches o f B DDB i ya t he c ordon s anitaire s uddeniy d isappears a nd t he b oundary l ine c ontinues a long t he v ery d eep d itch o f a b ivallate ( BDB/Bdb) i ya, H , i n w hich t he O ka b ank i s o ften m uch s maller t han t he o pposing ( Benin?) i ya - a n i ndication, p erhaps, t he r elative s izes o f t he a vailable w orking/fighting f orces a t

o f t he

t ime o f c onstruction a nd a f oreshadowing o f O ka's u ltimate d efeat. F or t he s econd e xa Rle, t he a rea s urveyed a round U te i n I yek'Ikp oba h as b een c hosen. " N o a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o d escribe c omp rehensively e very i ya t here, a nd a l ook a t t he i ncredible c omplexity a nd d ensity o n t he m ap b elow ( 89) e xplains w hy. S ome o f t hese i ya a re d escribed e lsewhere ( e.g. O hovbe: b elow ; I I.B.3.), b ut t his s ection w ill c oncentrate o n f eatures w hich i llustrate s pecific p oints o f i nterpretation. T he i s

t hat,

f eature m ost a pparent u nlike

f rom a g eneral p atterning o f t he

t he c oncentric e arthworks a round m any Y oruba

i ya u rban

a reas ( below; 1 91-192), t he a dditional i ya e nclosures t ake t he f orm o f a ccretionary l oops a nd b ulges b etween t he p rimary i a a nd t he f inal a reas o f n o-man's-land o r c ordon s anitaire. T his m eans t hat u sually n o m ore t han a c ommon-sense i nterpretation o f t he i ya c onfiguration a nd j unctions i s n eeded t o i dentify t he m ain c onstruction s equence. T he o verlapping o f a ccretionary i ya l oops i n t he U te i ya s implifies s equence d etermination: i f t he e nclosures a re l ettered, t hen f low d iagrams c an b e c onstructed t o i llustrate t he r elative p ositions o f t he s equence o f e nclosure c onstruction ( below; 9 0). P rimary i ya 9 s econdary, t ertiary e t a l. a ccretionary i ya l oops n o-man's-land/ c ordon s anitaire/shared b oundary i ya, a ll c reating a c omplete i ya s ystems l eader),

( presumably u nder t he c ontrol o f o ne s ettlement o r o ne s ummarizes t he m ain s equence a t U te e a ppears t o b e a lmost

u niversally t rue w ith i ya s urveyed e lsewhere. T his, p lus t he f act t hat i nverted r ight-angled b ends a re f airly c ommon w hereas t rue e verted r ight-angled b ends a re e xtremely r are, w eights a ll i nterpretat ion o f d ifficult j unctions h eavily i n f avour o f a dditions r ather t han i nternal s ubdivisions. U sually t he i s l ater d eepening

f actor

t hat m ost c omplicates

f inding

e xternal

j unction i nterpretation

d eepening o f i ya. T he d etermination o f w hether o r h as t aken p lace i s n ot a lways e asy, b ut o ften t here

c lues

t o i ts o ccurrence.

m etre

d eep i ya n ear I guohan n orth o f U te i llustrates o ne

A p hotograph o f

n ot a re

t he f airly s pectacular 8 -9 j unction

i n

w hich d eepening h as c omplicated t he i nterpretation. T he m ost d efinite e vidence f or t his d eepening l ies j ust a h undred m etres f urther e ast: h ere t he c orner o f t he o riginal i ya, w ith i ts d istinctive 2 -3 m etre h igh B D-db p rofile h as b een c ut-off b y t he l ater 8 -9 m etre h igh B D i ya ( below ;

9 t op).

8 8

UTE I YA

l hovbo r

1k m .

Ugbowo

j k

U zama v i l lages —

I kpoba S t ream

l h imw i r in U gbeku

-

8 9

-

„

U TE I YA C ONSTRUCTION S EQUENCE

0

1

2

3

4

5k m

? i ndicates i ncomplete s urvey a nd t herefore d oubts a bout t he c orrect c onstruction s equence.

9 0

I GUOHAN L AND

7 -9 m etres ( deepened) 0

2 -3 m etres h igh ( original)

3 00 m etres

T he c ontinuation o f s imilar 7 -9 m etre h eights e ither s ide o f t his B D i ya c ompletes a s trong t opographical a rgument t hat t he w hole s outhern s ection o f t he I kokhan i ya w as d eepened, c onverting t he o riginal B D-db ( or e ven b d-db?) i ya p rofile t o B D-db. I n t he p hotograph ( below ; 9 39 4) t he B D i ya ( X) w ith b ananas g rowing a long t he d itch b ottom j oins t his d eepened B5 -db i ya, c utting t hrough t he o uter db s o t hat t he d itch b ottoms j oin a t t he s ame d epth. I n v iew o f t his, a nd o bserving n o s ignificant c hange o f p rofile o r d epth i n t he B D-db i ya e ither s ide o f t he j unc-tion w ith X , i t i s a ssumed t hat t he d eepening a long t he s ov hern, x.

B D-db,

L4

I kokhan

i ya w as a ntecedent t o t he c onstruction

o f

I n m ost o ther e xamples a ny d eepening a ppears t o h ave b een c ont emporaneous w ith, o r l ater t han t he c onstruction o f a ccretionary i ya e nclosures. A round I dumwun'Owina ( 'wood-carvers q uarters') t here a ppears t o h ave b een a 1 2/ 1 m etre d eep ( primary?) i ya - t he n orthern, e astern a nd s outhern s ections o f w hich b ecame d eepened w hen t he w hole s ection w as a bsorbed b y t he U te i ya s ystem ( above; 9 0)). I n t he n orth o f t he U te i ncorporated d eepening:

s ystem i t i s u ncertain w hether t he d eep i ya t here w ere w ithin t he o riginal c onstruction o r r epresent l ater i n e ither c ase

t he m ost r elevant p oint i n

i nterpretation

s eems t o b e t hat t hese d eep i ya r eflect U te s a ttitude t o i ts n orthern n eighbour, t he p owerful p etty c hiefdom o f O rb o( Appendix; 0 4. O rb ). A t O hovbe, t he a rgument f or t hree l ater p hases o f d eepening r ests p artly o n j unction a nalyses a nd p artly o n a n a ssessment o f t he l ocat ion o f d eep p rofiles i n r elation t o t he t otal c onfiguration o f t he i ya s ystem :

a gain,

t he m ost

r elevant p urpose o f s uch a n i nterpreta-

t ion i s n ot s o m uch a n a ccurate r econstruction o f t he s equence p er s e, b ut t he p rovision o f b asic d ata f rom w hich s ome c omment c an b e m ade i n r espect o f t he p robable s ocio-political m otives u nderlying t he d iff erent p hases o f s eparate e nclosure c onstruction a nd u nified p erimeter d eepening ( below ; 1 13). T he ( usually

s uperimposition s mall)

o f o ne i ya

( usually d eep)

i s a nother t opographical f eature

a cross

w hich

a nother

f acilitated

a ttempts t o d etermine i ya s equences a nd i nterpret t he m otives a nd m ental c onstructs o f t hose o riginally d igging t he i ya. N o c lear e xamples o f t hese w ere e ncountered i n t he U te a rea s urvey, b ut i ns tances f rom e lsewhere a re d escribed l ater. T he s uperimposition o ver t he l ow c ompound b ank i n K p roved t o b e p articularly u seful i n s orting o ut t he s equence o f t he p arallel K /J E kpoma i yala; a nd t hose a t O luku a nd E khor o pen u p m any a venues o f

s peculation ( below ;

A ppendix;

E 5 E kpoma).

E 2 E khor,

E 4 O khunmwun ,

M oving a way f rom t he b asic m icro-analysis o f

1 02,

1 31,

1 69.

t he i ya t o c onsider

t he w ider i ssues o f m acro-analysis, s ome v ery d ifferent p roblems a rise. T he f irst p roblem c oncerns t he c hoice o f i nterpretative p roced ure. T he s uperficial s imilarities b etween t he i ya n etwork a nd a L oschian

l andscape

o r

T hiesson

9 1

p olygons

w ould

s eem

t o

i nvite

c omparison w ith t he v arious n ormative t heories o f s patial a nalysis d eveloped b y g eographers i n t he l ast f ew d ecades ( Haggett: 1 967; 1 19. H odder: 1 972; 2 24). V ery p robably s uch c oncepts a s C hristaller's c entral-place t heory , W ilson's e ntropy m aximazation , n earest n eighbour t echniques, g ravity m odels, n etwork a nalyses a nd d istance d ecay f unct ions c ould b e u sefully e mployed i n f uture i nterpretations o f t he i ya ( Christaller: 1 933 & 1 966. W ilson: 1 970. H odder a nd U kwu: 1 969. C hisholm : 1 962). H owever, t here w ere t wo s erious p roblems i mpeding a ny s erious s tudy a long t hese l ines. T he f irst w as t he l ack o f s uff icient n umerical d ata w ith w hich t o c arry o ut a ny s tatistical a nalysis o f p ast p rocesses c ausing t he s patial p atterns o f t he i ya. T he i ya t hemselves d o p rovide a s ubstantial c orpus o f e mpirical d ata h elpful t o t heir o wn i nterpretation ( Darling: 1 981b. B elow ; I I. C .), b ut t his i s n ot a ltogether s atisfactory b ecause, a part f rom t he d angers o f c ircularity i n a rgument, C hisholm o bserves t hat: " In

r ecent d ecades,

g eographers h ave b ecome i ncreasingly

w ary o f i nferring p rocess f rom s tructure a nd h ave s ought m ore d irect e vidence o n t he n ature o f t he p rocesses". ( 1975; 1 20). S econdly, i f t here w as t o b e a ny e xamination o f t he m ulti-directional s ystems o f c ausation u nderlying c omprehensive s patial a nalysis, i t w as i mportant t o e stablish a h istorical f ramework f or t he i ya. O f c ourse e vents a re n ot a dequately e xplained m erely b y p utting t hem i n c hronol ogical o rder ( ibid; 1 20-121) b ut, w ithout s uch a f ramework f or t he i ya, t here w as a r eal d anger o f m uddling s tructures a nd p rocesses f rom o ne p eriod w ith t hose f rom a c ompletely d ifferent p eriod. I n v iew o f t hese t wo p roblems, a nd w ith r espect t o t he n ature o f t he a vailable d ata, i t w as d ecided t o c oncentrate m ore o n i nterpreting a b asic h istorical s equence t han i n f ormulating a c omprehensive s eries o f s patial a nalyses. O ther p roblems f acing m acro-interpretation i nclude t he d iff iculties o f i nter-system c omparisons, t he p itfalls o f l ocal s urveys a nd t he s ynthesis o f d ata f rom d ifferent d isciplines. T he c ommon-sense a rguments e mployed i n t he i nterpretation o f i ntra-system i ya ( above; 8 2-91) c an s ometimes b e e mployed i n d eterm ining t he r elative s equences o f a djacent s ystems b ut m ore o ften i t c annot: f or e xample, t he I khimwirin i ya e nclosure w as p robably b uilt l ater t han U gbeku's a nd p erhaps t he O ka i ya w as l ater s till ( above; 8 6), b ut t he t opographical e vidence g ives n o h int f or i nterpreting t he r elative o rderings o f t he O regbeni, O hovbe a nd U te i ya s ystems t o o ne a nother ( above; 8 9). T he a nalysis o f i ya s lopes, r adiocarbon d ating, c omparative i ya t ypologies, e nclosures s ize, p ottery s herds a nd l ing uistics a re j ust s ome o f t he o ther w ays i n w hich i nterpretation h as b een t ackled. M any

o f

t he

m ain a rguments i n t his t hesis

t his

r est

p roblem

o n

o f

u nevenly

d istributed s ample s urveys r epresenting p robably l ess t han 1 0% o f t he t otal i ya. T he m apping o f i ya i n m uch o f t he i ntervening a reas ( above; I .A.) m itigates s ome o f t he s ampling p roblems, a nd t he r egional v ariety d iscovered i n t he s ample s urveys c hecks g rossly o vers implified g eneralizations. N onetheless, m ost o f t he i deas f or o vera ll i nterpretation h ave o riginated f rom i nductive a nalyses o f t he i ya s urveys, a nd i t i s i nevitable t hat s ome o f m y i nterpretations w ill

9 2

h ave b een p rejudiced b y m y m ental p rojection o f t he u nique p atterns o f e ach l ocalized i ya s urvey o ver m uch w ider a reas w hen i nterpolating c oherent p atterns. T his i mbalance c an b e p artly r edressed b y c reating a lternative p opulation s cenarios w ith w hich t o d eductively ( Darling: 1 981b). O ne t ion

i s

t est

l ocal

s urveys

w ay o f o vercoming s ome o f t he p roblems o f m acro-interpretat o a ttempt t o c reate t he m ost m eaningful s ynthesis

f rom a w ide v ariety o f d isciplines.

A n i nter-disciplinary

o f

d ata

a pproach,

h owever, i ntroduces i ts o wn s et o f p roblems, c hief a mongst w hich i s t hat t here i s n o g uarantee o f t he i nter-dependence o f c ulture v aria bles ( below; 1 77, 1 95, I II.D.). T his m eant t hat e ven a fter t he t ask o f e stablishing a pproximate c hronologies f or e ach o f t he m ain t hreads o f e vidence t here w ere s till p roblems i n c orrelating a nd i nterweaving t he t hreads i nto t he f abric o f r eliable h istory. T he a ttempts t o d o t his u tilized a n a pproximate s cale o f r eliability t o e stablish p riorit ies i n i nterpretation. N ear t he t op o f t he s cale w ere h istorically d ocumented e ye-witness a ccounts a nd s trata w ith a bsolute d ating: o cc upying t he m iddle s ection o f t he s cale w ere t he r elative d atings f rom e xcavations, i ya s equences, c omputer o rdered s herd d ata, m etal a rtef acts

a nd

l inguistics:

a t

t he l ower e nd o f

t he s cale w ere

p resent

e thnographic p ractices, f ollowed b y o ral t raditions. F or e xample, i f o ral t raditions o r p resent c ustoms w ere c ontradicted b y t he i ya p att erns t hen p recedence w as g iven t o t he i ya a nd t he t raditions a nd p ractices w ere c onsidered t o h ave c hanged o ver t ime ( Darling: 1 981c). T his n eed n ot b e s een a s d iminishing t he r ole o f c ontemporary p ractice a nd t raditions; f or, c ompared w ith s tructural e vidence f rom t he p ast, t hey

p rovide i nvaluable e vidence o f t he p robable p rocesses o f d ynamic

c hange - s imilar i n m any r espects, p erhaps, t o t hose w hich i nitially g ave r ise t o p ast s tructures s uch a s t he i ya a round p ast c ommunities.

o f

M ost o f t he o ther o dds a nd e nds c onnected w ith m y i nterpretation t he i ya h ave b een c overed e lsewhere; b ut o ne n ote o f c aution r e-

m ains t o b e s ounded. T he t erms ' primary', ' secondary', ' tertiary a nd ' no-man's-land' h ave b een a pplied t o i ya m apped a long r oads, t racks, f ootpaths, n ew r oad p rofiles a nd t ransects a long p ower-lines ( above; I .A .). D espite t he s ame l ogical b asis u nderlying t his i nterpretative t erminology, i ncomplete k nowledge o f t heir c ourses m eans t hat t hey c annot a lways b e r eliably e quated w ith s urveyed i ya, a nd s erious m isconceptions t oo f ar.

c an b e p erpetrated i f

9 3

t heir

i nterpretation i s

p ressed

P late D .

I guohan i ya a ddition ( X), t hree f igures t op A bove; 9 1 r efers. m

l eft,

h ere a bout 8 m etres h igh ( note

c entre a nd b ottom r ight

f or s cale).

I I.

B .

I YA S URVEYS T he

c hoice o f

c onsiderations. s omewhere n ear

s ites

t o b e

s urveyed w ere a ffected b y a n umber

o f

A t f irst i t w as e xpected t hat B enin C ity w ould l ie t he c entre o f t he i ya c luster, w ith t he e arthworks

r elating d irectly i nitially p roposed

t o t he B enin K ingdom a nd i ts E mpire; a nd i t w as t o i nvestigate p ast f rontier g arrisons h aving

o kakuo ( war c aptains), r egional h eadquarters, B enin w aterside v illages a nd o ther s ettlements ( such a s U do a nd U ghoton) w ith a n i mportant p lace i n B enin's o ral o r d ocumentary h istory. p attern o f p eriphery,

H owever,

a s

w hich w ould r epresentatively s ample t he d ifferent z ones. i n s trategy p roved t o b e f ortunate; f or r adiocarbon O bayemi's

t he

z onal

t he i ya c luster b egan t o e merge w ith B enin C ity o n t he t here w as c learly a n eed t o a dopt d ifferent a pproaches

e xcavations

j ust n orth o f

T his c hange d ates f rom

t he E do-speaking a reas

w ere

t o

r eveal t hat t raditional ' old s ites w ere o n a verage s everal c enturies l ater t han s ites s elected b y o ther c riteria - a n o bservation t hat a lso s eems

t o

K ingdom

b e a pplicable

( below;

t o s herd c ollections

f rom s ites

i n t he

B enin

I II).

T wo m ain t actics w ere e mployed

t o

f ollow t his n ew s trategy;

o ne

a ttempted t o s ample-survey i solated i ya s ystems i n t he d ifferent z ones b ut, a s t his u sually f ailed t o s how i nter-systems r elationships, t he s econd t actic - b lock-surveys o f w hole a reas - p roved t o b e m ore s atisfactory. T he m ost c omplete b lock s urvey i nvolved b oth ' core' a nd ' periphery'

o f

t he c luster n orth,

s outh a nd e ast o f C onnah's

' Benin

C ity W alls', f rom w hich t he O ka, U te, O hovbe, I dogbo a nd O khunmwun i ya s ystems h ave b een s elected f or d iscussion i n t his t hesis ( above; I I. A ., b elow; O khuo-Ekhor

I II. B . 3 /4/6). O ther b lock s urveys p lanned w ere t he i nterfluve i n t he ' core' a rea a nd t he O zalla-Ekpoma-Uromi

s avannah-forest s hortages

h it

e cotone t he l ast

i n I shan:

i nterpretation p articularly d ifficult A ccessibility,

f inancial

t he

( below;

B radbury's

s uitable

s econd w ork-base a t E kpoma w ere

a ssociation

w ith E khor a nd

s ocio-political

B .

d evelopment?),

9 5

a nd

2 ,

I I.

B .

t he O khuo

t he

p etrol

r endering

f ull

8 .). o il-palm

p rovision

o f

a

t he m ain p ractical c onsidera-

t ions a ffecting t he l ocation o f i ya s urveys. r epresenting t he d ifferent z ones a nd a rranged ( and

I I.

f ortuitous c learance o f

e state,

s ize

c ut b acks

t wo s urveys p articularly h ard,

A s election o f t hese, i n a pproximate o rder o f

w ill n ow b e

e xamined.

. 4 1 1C

. . .

= . • P 4 . , •

C ) t i › , . $

C i J

0 9

W F I • i 1 N . ,

• •

A P R O X I M A T E Z O N A T I O N O F I Y A

. „ 4 _ , 0 a a j2 9 > w > 1 0 . )

— —

a,

4 : 2

r e

▪c o .c o > ,

d

• N

C .

. c 0

0

•

9 6

•

. 1

0 2 • 1 0 • e l r . ). . .,

P .4 0

• . ,1 1 1 1

• •

0

> > 0 2 k

0 . 0 t o

0 2

0 3 0

4 ) • . . . -

•

•

, . . ,

.4 ,

( 0 > 4 c . - i . 0 •, . . , 0 • H Q ) C . ) 44 • t z

• 0 0 . w Od i, w

. 2 . 0 z z 0

•

0 —•

-3 9 -1

B.

1 .

OKHUO

2

3

4

( uHumw oDE ) - HILL T OP H AMLETS

e .

; YV 72 0

1

5k m

H EAVILY D ISSECTED L ANDSCAPES AROUND O KHUO A S I NDICATED B Y S TREAM D RAINAGE N ETWORKS.

9 7

O khuo o i l p a lm p l an ta t ion

o

9 8

I I.

B .

1 . T he

O KHUO ( Uhumwode)

- h ill

t op h amlets

c learance o f a l arge o il-palm e state a t O khuo e nabled a v ery

r apid a nd i nexpensive s urvey t o b e u ndertaken i n t his a rea o f s teeply u ndulating t errain. A s a t N .I.F.O.R. ( Roese: 1 977), t he g rid p attern o f t he t racks p rovided a n a ccurate f ramework o n w hich t he e arthworks c ould b e p lotted. S ome o f t hese i ya w ere s urveyed o n f oot, p articularly w here t he t hick u ndergrowth o f d eliberately p lanted c reepers o bscured t he g round. O ther i ya c ourses c ould b e p lotted f rom s uitable v antage p oints u sing b inoculars. E ven t hough s hortage o f t ime p revented a c omplete s urvey, t he n umber o f i ya e nclosures b rought t o l ight w as l andscape. T he

s urprising i n v iew o f

t he h eavily d issected n ature o f

m ost c omplete i ya s ystem a ppears

t he

t o h ave o riginated o n

t he

u ppermost s lopes o f a s mall h ill i n t he a rea o ccupied b y t oday's f ield 1 0a. F rom t he o verall i ya p attern i t i s a ssumed t hat o nly t he i ncomp lete s outh-western s tretch h as b een u naffected b y l ater d eepening a nd i s a r emnant o f a1 2/ 1m.

h igh i ya e nclosing a bout 1 5 h a.

I f

t his a nd

o ther a ssumptions c oncerning p opulation a re a pproximately c orrect ( Darling: 1 981. B elow; 1 14f., I I.C.d), t hen t he m inimum w orkforce r equired t o b uild t his i ya i n o ne y ear c ould h ave c ome f rom a t otal p opulation

o f

a bout

1 1 a nd

t he a rea e nclosed w ould h ave

s upported

a

m aximum o f a bout 1 5 i n t he l ong t erm . P erhaps, t herefore, t his w as j ust o ne l arge f amily c ompound, o r e lse a s mall h amlet o f t wo t o t hree r elated f amilies. I f s o, t hen t he s mall s ize a nd c ohesive s tructure o f t hese s ocial u nits w ould h ave p rovided l ittle h indrance t o s hortd istance m igration - o ne o f t he m ore p robable e xplanations f or i nitial i ya c onstruction i n t he a rea ( below ; I V). A nother i ncidental p oint, w hich m ay h ave b een a s ignificant f actor i n t he d iffusion o f t he i yab uilding c ulture a t t his s tage, i s t hat t his a nd n umerous o ther s uch s mall 1 78).

u nits w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave b een e xogamous

T he w est,

s econdary i ya e nclosed a f urther 1 1 h a.

t he i ya b eing m ainly 1 -1 2-m .

t o

( below ;

t he

h igh b ut r ising t o c 4 m .

1 38,

s outh

a nd

n ext

t o

w hat o nce m ay h ave b een a n i mposing e ntrance g ap. T o s outh t he t ertiary i ya e ncompasses a nother 2 8 h a. a nd s eems t o h ave m arked a s ignificant c hange i n t he p roceedings; f or t he w hole p erimeter i ncluding p arts o f t he p rimary a nd s econdary l ye _ - w as d ug o r d eepened t o c 3 -5m. a long n early 3 kms. t o c reate a c omplete e nclosure o f s ome 5 4 E a. A s t his a rea c ould h ave s upported o nly a bout 5 4 p eople i n t he t erm a nd t he d igging o f l ong a b ase p opulation o f r equired i ya o riginated a s a t ertiary T Eer a s a d efensive d eepened

s uch a d eep i ya i n o ne y ear w ould a bout 1 12, 1 6 i t i s p ossible t hat 1 -2m. h igh a ccretionary l oop a nd g esture. B oth t his d eepening a nd

h ave t his w as t he

t race o f a w ater-path b etween a g ap i n t he w estern s ide o f d istinct a way ( fields 8 /9) m ay i ndicate nd a s t he t ertiary i ya a tream 2 00m . w ithin t he t hat s ettlement d eveloped a nd p ersisted a lmost e ntirely f irst

t hree e nclosures. S uch

l ater

d eepening

d oes n ot a ppear

t o

h ave

c haracterized

s ubsequent e nclosures, m ost o f w hich p robably d emarcated a gricultural b oundaries ( Connah: 1 967; 5 9J-609). A 2 -3m. h igh i ya e ncloses a f urther 3 3 h a. t o t he s outh, 1 / a nd t here a re o ther u nsurveyed a ddit ions t o t he w est. F rom t he k nown o bservations i t i s e stimated t hat a bout 1 20 h a. o f f armland w ere e nclosed a ltogether. T hereafter

9 9

f urther e xpansion t o c urtailed:

t he

t he n orth,

w est a nd e ast w ould h ave b een s everely

v ery s teep l ower v alley s lopes,

s wampland

a nd

t he

o ccurrence o f o range/yellow s oils ( above; I .B.2.) a ll a cting a s n atural b arriers b etween t his i ya s ystem a nd t hose b uilt b y o ther h ill-top h amlets i n t he a rea. A ny e xpansion s outhward w ould a ppear t o h ave

b een

p revented b y a n arrow s trip o f

n o-man's-land

( field

1 4)

b etween t he s outhernmost i ya o f t he s ettlement f ormerly i n f ield 1 0/10a a nd t he n orthernmost i ya o f t he s ettlement p robably o nce b ased j ust s outh o f f ield 1 8a. W hether t hese i ya a dditions a re t aken t o r epresent t he e ffects o f n atural p opulation g rowth o ver m any c ent uries, o r a re a ssumed t o h ave r esulted f rom t he r apid e xploitation o f l and b y s izeable n umbers o f m igrants p ractising s hifting a griculture, o f s ome c ombination o f b oth s edentary a nd s hifting p opulations, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he e nclosure o f a lmost a ll a cceptable m arginal l and w ould h ave u ltimately r esulted i n c onditions o f i ncreasing s tress. S uch s tress c ould h ave a ffected t he f orest e cozone, s oilf ertility, a gricultural s ystems, p opulation m ovement a nd s ociop olitical o rganization : A llan's c oncept o f a c ritical d ensity o f p opulation ( 1965; 3 3, 6 2, 2 28), C arneiro's i deas o f s ocial a nd e nvironmental c ircumscription ( 1970; 7 33-8), G ourou's i nterpretation o f t he d evelopment a nd d emise o f t he M aya E mpire i n C entral A merica ( 1966;

1 2-16,

4 9-51,

9 8-118),

a nd H assan's a nalysis

o f

t he c ritical

c arrying c apacity o f l and ( 1981; 1 64-175) m ay a ll p rove t o b e r elevant i n e xplaining w hy t his a rea s eems t o h ave b een d eserted f or m any c enturies. F or, d espite e xtensive e xamination o f t he c leared g round, b ulldozered t racks a nd t he 1 32kV p ylon s ites, v ery f ew d iagnostic s herds, b orrow-pits, r uins o r o ther s igns o f h abitation f or t he l ast f ew c enturies w ere d iscovered. 1 4 6 T here w ere n o o ral t raditions t o m e w hich c ould h ave r elated t o s ettlements c apable o f o nce

t old c on-

s tructing t he i ya, e ven t hough O badan v illage l aid r itorial c laims t o t he w estern p art o f t he e state. 1 9

t er-

S imilar s mall e nclosures,

a lso d eserted t oday,

f orceful

c an b e f ound o n

t he s purs a nd l ocal h ill-tops o f o ther d issected l andscapes a long t he O khuo, O rhiomo a nd I kpoba r iver v alleys ( above; 9 7). P erhaps t his w idespread d esertion o f t his p articular l andscape t ype w as a r esult o f r apidly d eclining s oil-fertility u nder c onditions o f i ncreasing p opul ation p ressure; p ossibly i t w as c aused b y t he m ovement o f s mall s ettlements s eeking p rotection i n l arger s ettlements d uring t imes o f t rouble: m ore p robably t he t rue e xplanations w ould b e m ulti-causal a nd c omplex ( Hassan: 1 981; 1 62-3, 1 70-5). W hatever t he r easons, t he d esertion o f s uch a v ast a rea o f m arginal l and m ust u ntimately h ave h ad

s evere

r epercussions r anging f rom t he i ncreased p olarization

t he B ini a nd E san p eoples t o m ents t o t he s outh a nd w est.

t he e xacerbation o f a ny m igratory

1 00

o f

m ove-

I I.

B .

2 .

EKHOR

(E GBEDE ) - V ILLAGES O N 1 HE M OVE

d ir

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F or t hose i nterested i n f urther d etails o r d yeline p rints o f m aps c ontact D r.

P .J.Darling,

D epartment o f H istory , B ayero U niversity , P .M.B. 3 011, KANO, N IGERIA o r 4 6A O phir R oad, B OURNEMOUTH B H8 8 LT, D orset, E NGLAND.

Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria The ancient linear earthworks of Benin and Ishan

P.

J.

Darling

Part ii

Ceramic and other specialist · studieS

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 11

BAR International Series 215 (ii) 1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, .Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B. Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. S215 (II), 1984: 'Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria' Part II

©

P.J.Darling, 1984.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407391113 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391120 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860542759 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407337036 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542759 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

C ONTENTS P art S ection P reface R esearch m ethods T he E arthworks l ocal d ensities

P age 6

a nd b ackground i nformation - d etermining t heir e xtent

I . I .A .

9

G eology V egetation a nd S oils O ral T raditions a nd t he I ya C ommunity L and B oundary M aps

I .B.1. I .B.2. I .C.1. I .C.2.

1 5 2 5 3 4 4 7

L inguistics F ootnotes o n C hapter 1 F ieldwork S urveying a nd I nterpreting t he I ya

I .C.3.

5 9 7 2

I I.A .

8 1

I ya S urveys b E i T t io ( Uhumwode)

I I.B. I I.B.1.

9 4 9 6

E khor ( Egbede) O hovbe ( Iyek'Ikpoba) I dogbo ( Iyekeware)

I I.B.2. I I.B.3. I I.B.4.

1 01 1 07 1 19

I du ( Iyek'Orhiomo) - w aterside s ettlements O khunmwun ( Iyek'Uselu) U do ( Iyek'Ovia) E kpoma ( Ishan)

I I.B.5. I I.B.6. I I.B.7. I I.B.8.

1 25 1 30 1 43 1 68

S mall-Scale E arthworks T he O verall P attern

I I.B.9.. I I.C.

1 80 1 88

a nd

F ootnotes o n C hapter 2 G azeteer a nd m aps o f B enin K ingdom

2 08 2 19f

P ART i i C eramic S tudies P ottery s herds - c ollection a nd c lassification p rocedures

I II.A .

2 20

S herd C lassification - d ecoration v ariables S herd C lassification - f orm v ariables

I II.B.1. I II.B.2.

2 23 2 29

C omputer A nalysis

I II.C.

2 52

I II.D.

2 62

D istribution o f c ontexts

o f P ottery S herds

S herd V ariables - g eochronological

S ummary a nd C onclusions F ootnotes o n C hapter 3 B ibliography

I V.

3 00

V .

3 10 3 18

A PPENDICES

3 35

A n ew o utline o f E arly E do H istory E arthworks G eology, Vegetation a nd S oils

A . E . G .

3 36 3 38 4 01

Maps o f C ommunity B oundaries O ral T raditions

M . O .

4 20 4 34

P .

4 98

Q .

5 09

R eport o n T obacco-pipes b y D . P ottery A nalysis T ables

C alvocoressi

L IST O F M APS A ND F IGURES P art I P age G eology a nd H ydro-geology o f B endel S tate C ross-profiles s howing G eology a nd Hydro-geology o f B endel S tate. O dighi i n I yek'Orhiomwon.

1 6 1 7 2 2

D istribution o f s ettlements c laiming O giso p eriod o rigins. S ome o f t he m ain c laims o f o rigin f rom B enin a nd t he i ya.

4 4 4 6

A hor: d isused o ghodo. O ra, I yowa: d isused o ghodo.

5 5 5 6

O ka n 'Aru O via: d isused o ghodo. O ghodo a nd s hrine g roves i n t he B enin a rea. ( Suggested m ovements o f E do l anguages). C lassification o f E do l anguages. A pproximate z ones o f v egetation a nd W illiamson's E do l anguage d ivisions.

5 7 5 8 6 5 6 6 6 7

I ya d istribution a nd E lugbe's E do l anguage d ivisions.

6 8

A rea o f E do-speaking p eoples ( after E lugbe). L inguistic t rees o f E do l anguages a nd d ialects. E do l inguistic n etworks. C onnah's B enin C ity W alls m ap ( reduced) w ith h ypothetical

6 9 7 0 7 1 8 3

p rofiles. M easured c ross-profiles O ka t erritory,

o f O ka a nd U gbeku i ya.

b oundaries a nd i ya p rofiles.

U te i ya. U te i ya c onstruction s equence. ( Later d eepening o f I kokhan i ya). A pproximate z onation o f i ya. O khuo ( Uhumwode) - h ill-top h amlets.

8 4 8 6 8 9 9 0 9 1

H eavily d issected

9 6 9 7

l andscapes. O khuo O il-Palm P lantation ( map).

9 8

E khor ( Egbede) - v illages o n t he m ove. E khor i ya ( map). O hovbe ( Iyek'Ikpoba) - t he s tructures o f g rowth.

1 01 1 02 1 07

O hovbe i ya s ystem ( map). O hovbe i ya c ross-profiles. O hovbe p opulation g rowth - t hree s cenar ios.

1 08 1 09 1 10

F low d iagram o f O hovbe i ya c onstruction. S ome m easurements a nd c alculations o n t he O hovbe i ya s ystem .

1 11 1 12

I dogbo ( Iyeware) - t he r ise o f a p etty c hiefdom . I dogbo p rimary i ya ( map).

1 19 1 20

( do. w ith e astern a dditions. m ap). ( do. w ith w estern a dditions. m ap). I du ( Iyek'Orhiomwon) - w aterside s ettlements.

1 21 1 22 1 25

I du i ya a nd c ross-profiles. O khunmwun ( Iyek'Uselu) - a p owerful p etty c hiefdom d efeated.

1 26 1 30

O khunmwun i ya

( map).

1 31

O khunmwun i ya - m easured c ross-profiles. O khunmwun e arthwork f eatures. U do ( Iyek'Ovia). U do C ity r ampart

( map).

S elected e xtracts o f t he B enin a rea f rom a ncient m aps. B enin r ulers a nd t heir m others v illages. T he O bas:

p atterns o f

s uccession i n B enin .

1 32f 1 34 1 43 1 44 1 45f 1 55 1 56

E kpoma ( Ishan).

1 68

E kpoma i yala ( map). D istribution o f s ome s herd v ariables i n t he 3 3kV l ine, E kpoma. S tages i n t he c ulture s equence a long t he 3 3kV l ine, E kpoma. Home t owns c laimed f or f ounders o f w ards/villages a t E kpoma

1 69 1 70 1 71 1 72

a nd U romi. S mall-scale e arthworks - B enin K ingdom a nd Empire.

1 80

C l6th m ilitary e xpansion . D isused c anal: B enin c anoe-port. S mall r everse-banked e nclosures. I gala h ill-forts.

B enin's

S mall-scale e arthworks.

A reas o f i ya e nclosures d etermined b y w eight o f d rafting f ilm.

1 81 1 82 1 89f 2 00f

C umulative t otals o f m aximum p opulation w ithin i ya s ystem e nclosures. Map t o s how l ocation a nd s ize o f p rimary i ya a nd d irections o f g rowth.

2 05

B enin K ingdom p opulation 1 939. C olonial I ntelligence R eport M aps o f a nd G azeteer

2 07

2 06

t he B enin K ingdom 2 19f

P art I I P ottery s herd c ollections

i n a nd a round t he a rea o f

t he

E do-speaking p eoples a nd i ya d istribution . ( Neck a nd s topper o f f lasked p ot). P ottery f orm p rofiles:

2 22 2 34

1 -17 a nd 1 8 - u nclassified.

2 39f

P ottery s herds f rom I st i kpessa. P ots f ound i n a w aterpath ( N.I.F.O.R.). P ots c ollected i n N orthern E do a nd I gbirra b y J ohn P icton, 1 971.

2 41 2 42 2 43f

P ottery f rom O khunmwun ' original

s ites.

2 45

P ottery f rom O khunmwun r ecent s ite a nd f rom U seri R adii o f p otsherd r ims a nd n ecks.

2 46 2 47

% v alues o f P reliminary P reliminary C orrelation

2 48 2 49 2 50 2 51

s herd v ariables i n f abric c ategories c ategories u sed i n s herd c lassification. e xamination o f n odular c arved r oulettes ( CR3 2 2) o f p ottery s herd f orms a nd d ecorations.

A xis v alues f or o ccupation l ayer s herds e xcavated i n B enin C ity . B enin K ingdom A xis 1 v alues a pplied t o C onnah's s herds i n B enin C ity. P rovenance o f s herd v ariables o n B enin K ingdom s ites.

2 56 2 57 2 58

C hronology o f s ite p rovenances i n t he B enin K ingdom . R elation o f s herd v ariables t o i ya a long t he 1 32kV l ine. P aired p ottery s herd s ites i n t he B enin K ingdom . D istribution o f o ne u nusual p ot t ype i n N igeria. R elative c hronology o f s herd v ariables: B enin , E tsako.

2 59 2 60 2 61 2 63 2 81f

G eographical d istribution o f s herd v ariables. C hronological s tages o btained b y a nalysis o f B endel S tate

2 83f 2 98f

p ottery s herd c ollections.

A PPENDIX P age 3 38f 3 60

E l T ransect s urveys o f i ya. E la T ransect s urveys o f O ld O yo. E lb E 2

I soko a nd I gbo i ya. I ya i n I si a nd E gbede,

E 3 E 4

I ya i n I yeware, B enin K ingdom . I ya i n I yek -U selu, B enin K ingdom .

3 74f 3 80f

E 5 G 1-15

I shan I yala. G eology

3 94f

B enin K ingdom .

M 1-14 M aps o f C ommunity B oundaries ( 01-11 O ral t raditions T obacco-pipes P ottery a nalysis

3 61 3 62f

4 20f 4 34f) 4 98f 5 09f

t ables

L IST O F P LATES P art I A

I ya e ntrance n ear U deni

4 5

B C D I J

S taple f or b arricade a t e ntrance S acrifice a t c ross-roads I guohan i ya a ddition ( X) U nuame - f ood b owls a nd w aterpots U nuame - i nverted ( shrine?) b owl

4 5 4 5 9 4 1 68 1 69

K

L edged b owls

L M E F

S lave f etters f ound i n I badan E xecution g roup - w ar c aptive E khor i ya - E 2/X c ordon s anitaire E khor i ya - E 2 w estern a ddition

a fter 2 17 a fter 2 17

G

E khor i ya - E 2/D1 c ordon s anitaire

a fter 2 17

f rom O gba s tream s hrine s ite

H a T he m ain s urvey p roblem - t hick u ndergrowth H b S hrine s ite a t U humudumu , E kpoma

1 87-188

a fter 2 17 a fter 2 17

P art I I N O P

V ariations i n c oarse a nd f ine s tring r ouletting S tippling r oulettes I gala a nd I gbo s herds

Q R

P ot c onaining g lass b eads f rom I dogbo: E uropean t rade g in b ottles

S T

C ross-cultural c omparisons o f p ottery T obacco p ipes

2 79 5 07

U

T obacco p ipes

5 08

( continued)

2 29 2 30 a fter 2 36

s hrine a rtefacts a fter 2 36 a fter 2 36

V OLUME C hapter I II I II.

A .

I I

C eramic S tudies

S herd c ollection a nd c lassification p rocedures

S ince

t he

t opographical s urvey o f

t he i ya c ould n ot b y

i tself

d ispel t he u ncertainties a ttached t o t he i nterpretation o f E do t radit ions a nd l inguistics, i t b ecame c lear t hat a nother f orm o f o bjective e vidence w as n eeded. W ith t he a id o f S .G.H. D aniels, w ho h ad a nalysed t he s herds e xcavated i n B enin C ity ( Connah : 1 975; 1 83-209), t he p oss ibility o f o btaining c hronological a nd c ultural d ata t hrough t he c ollection a nd a nalysis o f s urface p ottery s herds w as i nvestigated. S tringent r equirements ' w ere l aid d own b y D aniels f or t he c oll ection a nd c ategorization o f a rtefacts i n o rder t o m inimize e rror a nd t o i ncrease t he e fficiency o f r esearch d esign ( Daniels: 1 975). A ll k nown i nstances w here t hese a nd o ther p rocedural r equirements h ave n ot b een m et a re n oted i n t he t ext. A nother l ection ; i n

s ource o f b ias b ecame a pparent o ver t he p eriod o f

f or,

i n 1 975,

c ol-

t he i nitial p roblem o f l ocating e xposed s herds

a reas g enerally c overed b y h eavy f orest u ndergrowth h ad

t ended

t o

r estrict s earching t o w ithin p rimary i ya, e specially t o ' original' v illage s ites ( as c laimed b y t he e lders) a nd m odern s ettlement m idd ens. L ater, i n 1 976, t he s earch w idened t o i nclude c leared f arms, d itches a nd n ewly b ulldozered r oads o r t racks f rom t he c entral a reas o f p rimary i ya , b ut l ittle a ttempt w as m ade t o c ollect o utside t he i ya o r

o n

a n

e ntirely r andom b asis

a nd

t he

c olle lions

r emained

g eo-

g raphically a nd c hronologically u nrepresentative. T his

s ituation w as

l argely r ectified i n 1 977 b y t he

s ystematic

c ollection o f a ll e xposed s herds f rom a bout 1 60 k ilometres o f n ewly b ulldozered t rack a nd p ylon s poil h eaps a long t he B .I.C.C. B enin-Okene 1 32kV T ransmission L ine, a s w ell a s f rom a bout 1 0 k ilometres o f b ulld ozered t rack a long t he 3 3kV I rrua-Irruekpen C ountrywide T ransmission L ine. T he 8 0 k ilometre B enin t o I rrua s ection o f t he 1 32kV l ine f ollowed t he a pproximate l ong a xis o f t he t otal i ya d istribution, c rossing t he m ajor z ones o f i ya s ize d ifferentials i n t he B ini a nd I shan c ultural a reas u nder t he r ain f orest; a nd a f urther 8 0 k ilom etres c rossed m uch o f t he E tsako c ulture i n t he s avannah. T he 3 3kV l ine c ollections w ent r ight a cross t he c entre o f t he s urveyed E kpoma K ingdom i yala . T hese o verall r oute d etermined b y p ractical e ngineering

r equirements

f or

a p ower-line' a nd

n ot

b y

s ubjective

e tt ino-archaeological c onsiderations. O ne c ould e xpect, t herefore, t hat a s ystematic c ollection o f a ll s herds e xposed a long s uch r outes w ould p rovide a r easonably r epresentative a nd o bjective s ample. T he p osed

c ollection,

f ew p roblems,

t ransportation a nd s torage o f s herds o ther t han t he f act

2 20

t hat

i n 1 975-6

t he d ictates o f

s ample

s ize

o verrode t he i deal

r equirement o f

i dentical

a r eas

for

e ac

h

l -

c o

l ection s ite. 6 I n 1 977 t he l ack o f m otorized t ransport a nd a p erma nent b ase c amp m arkedly a ffected c ollection a nd s torage p rocedures. I nitial

c ollections

i n b icycle p anniers

r esulted i n s herd

b reakage.

T hereafter c ollections w ere m ade o n f oot u sing a r ucksack: h alved t he e xtent o f d aily c overage b ut l ed t o f ewer b reakages p ossibly

t his a nd

t o m ore c areful c ollection.

A ltogether

a bout

a rea ( below; 2 22), s itated s equential

4 00 s herd c ollections w ere m ade o ver

a

w ide

b ut l imited c onditions o f s pace a nd t ime n ecess orting a nd c lassification p rocedures. A t ype

s eries s ample, w hich a pplied t o m ost B enin K ingdom s herds a s w ell a s t o m any f urther a field, w as p rovided b y t he t imely p ublication o f C onnah's p ottery t ypology f rom t he B enin C ity e xcavations ( Connah: 1 975; 15-137). T his m ade a g ood b asis f or t he c ategorization o f m ost d ecorative

t ypes,

t hough s erious p roblems w ere e ncountered w hen

a t-

t empting t o u se t he f orm t ypology. O ne r eason f or t hese d ifficulties was t he g reater d egree o f s herd f ragmentation i n t he b ulldozered, o r f armland c ollections c ompared w ith t hose c arefully e xcavated b y C onn ah : t he o ther m ain r eason w as t hat C onnah's v ery b road t ypological d ivisions w ere d esigned f or a s imple a nalysis a nd n ot f or a q uantita tive a nalysis ( Connah : 1 975; 1 15. 1 978; P ers.Comm . D aniels: 1 977; P ers.Comm.). T his m eant t hat, i n a ddition t o p rocesses d irectly r elated t o t he m easurement a nd c ategorization o f t he s herds, r ecording p rocesses h ad t o b e i ncluded t o p erm ii s orting o f t he t otal c ollection i nto f orm c ategories a t a l ater d ate. T he

n ormal s equence o f s orting a nd c lassifying f or e ach s ection

was a s f ollows. T he u ndecorated, n on-rim ( UDNR) s herds w ere f irst 7 -s eparated f rom t he d iagnostic s herd -S : 8- b o oth l ots o f s herds w ere t hen weighed a nd c ounted w ith t he t otal c hecked t o s ee i f i t t allied w ith t he f ield n otes. A ll t he U DNR s herds w ere t hen m easured f or t hickness b efore b eing b roken t o a scertain f abric a nd c olour a nd t hen d isc arded. 9 T he d iagnostic s herds w ere l abelled a nd a rranged w ith l ike r ims, l edges, c ordons a nd d ecorated s herds b eing g rouped t ogether f or p hotographing. 10 E ach s herd w as t hen n umbered o n t he r esultant p rint, a nd a r ecord m ade o f i ts t hickness a nd d ecoration , a s w ell a s i ts r adius a nd c ross-profile

( if a r im,

l edge o r c ordon).

A ssessment o f c olour a nd f abric a t

t he f ractured s urface,

r ather

t han t he e xternal w eathered s urface, w as a p rocedure a dopted l ater t han a ll t he o thers; c onsequently t he m ost s ystematic a pplication o f i t w as o n t he l ast-collected s herds f rom I shan a nd E tsako s ites. T he e xtension o f t his p rocedure t o s ites i n t he B enin K ingdom w as u ndert aken a nd t he l arge s ample o f B enin K ingdom s herds s o r e-examined g . nd r e-classified a cted a s a q uality c ontrol o n e arlier c lassification . S ubsequent

c lassification i n E ngland h ad,

s olely o n d ata f rom t he p hotographs,

t herefore,

t o

1 1

r ely

c ross-profile s ketches a nd o ther

f ield n otes. T he o bjectivity o f t he f orm c lassification u sed c ould b e q uestioned i n t he l ight o f t wo p ractices. T he f irst i s t hat, i n a ddition t o r adius, d ecoration a nd f abric, t he s ite n umber w as n oted w ith

e ach

c ross-profile 1 2

a nd t his c ould h ave c aused a n

e lement

o f

c orrelated b ias. A gainst t his, t here w as l ittle c hance o f s ite d et ails b eing n oticed d uring t he s orting p rocesses - a ttention b eing t aken u p w ith t he c ross-profiles. T he s econd o bjection m ight b e t hat t he

c lassification

w as p rejudiced b y m y s tudy o f p ots u sed

221

t oday

i n

B enin,

U rhobo,

I soko,

I shan,

E tsako,

A koko-Edo,

I dah a nd O kene,

w ell a s b y t he t ypological c lassifications a lready m ade a t a nd I fe ( Willett a nd C onnah: 1 969. C onnah: 1 975; 1 15-137. 6 2-4, 7 1-3. a ppreciation m ust s urely

1 3

a s

B enin , O wo D ark : 1 973;

E yo: 1 974a . W illett: 1 979; P ers.Comm .). A gainst t his o f t he t otal f orm a nd f unction o f p resent-day p ottery e nhance c lassification b y p roviding r ealism a nd a g ood

i dea o f o ne e nd o f t he c hronological s equence, r ather t han i ntroducing a ny s erious e lement o f b ias. I n r espect o f t he f orm t ypologies a lready e stablished i t i s a dmitted t hat m any t ypes w ere b ased d irectly o n , o r w ere c ombinations o r s ubdivisions o f, C onnah's f orms: t his was s omewhat i nevitable a nd h ighly d esirable. H owever, t he s orting p roc esses d escribed a bove s till d etermined t he p arameters o f e ach t ype a s w ell a s

e stablishing t he b asis

f or m any n ew f orm t ypes.

Okene 0 u ta

YO R U B A

•

IG B I R A

ET S A K

Owo

I dah

IG A L A

• Aguleri t

BE N I N U do m • •• •I

t

•

e

• /I S H A N

I• 0

•

B enin C ity '

• •

a s

. Ubuluk 7 .

KI N G 1 5 0 1 4 "

IGBO

•

I GBO

a 2 a pproximate

I TSEKIRI UR H O B O

l imits o f i ya d istribution

, -

Ug * / • •Eme o r helli \ ISOKO _

« O

B endel

M»

S tate B oundary Main a rea of Edos peaking p eoples

j

I J A W

V

67 J

A

W 0

2 0

P ottery S herd C ollections i n a nd a round t he a rea o f p eoples a nd l ya D istribution.

2 22

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00 k m.

t he E do-speaking

I II.

B .

t ained

1 .

S HERD C LASSIFICATION - D ecoration V ariables

F ollowing p reliminary s orting, t he f inal c lassification c ont wenty-one d ecoration v ariables, w ith a f urther s even b eing

w ithheld f or t he p ost-analysis s tage. F or t he s ake o f c onvenience t he d ifferent d ecoration t echniques a nd t heir p osition o n t he v essel a re h ere c onsidered u nder f ive b road g roupings - p laited s tring r oulettes, t wig s tippling, v arious k inds o f a nd c arved w ooden r oulettes.

t ooled a nd f inger w ork,

c oloration,

P laited S tring R oulettes:

f ibres

T his v ery w idespread r ouletting t echnique c onsists o f p laited b eing r olled a round t he p ot: 14 i n s ome c ases t he d ecoration

c overs t he u sually i t

w hole p ot, i ncluding t he o uter a nd i nner r im , i s c onfined t o t he m iddle a nd u pper b ody o wing

t hough t o t he

p resence o f o ther d ecorations. A s n o e xamples o f t wisted r ather t han p laited r oulette w ere i dentified ( Soper : 1 977; P ers.Comm . 1 979; 9 -12),

nis

g roup w as c ategorized i nto d egrees

o f c oarseness

f or t he

analysis a nd t he l ess s ystematic o bservations o f p laiting t echnique r eserved f or t he p ost-analysis w ork. T he w ide g eographical c overage r evealed a c ontinuum f rom t he c oarse s tring r oulettes ( CSR 1 ) m ade f rom t he l eaf-fibres o f t he o il-palms ( Elaeis g uineensis) ( Willett a nd C onnah : 1 969; 1 37. C onnah : 1 975; 1 21) t hrough a r ange o f i ntermediate s tring r oulettes ( ISR 2 ) 16 t o t he f ine s tring r oulettes ( FSR 3 ) p oss ibly m ade f rom g rass. A part f rom t hese s ize d ifferentials, w hich p robably r eflect t he u se o f d ifferent r aw m aterials, t here w as a v ery c oarse c riss-cross p attern ( SR c riscros) a pparently c aused b y a p ecul iar p laiting t echnique a s w ell a s w ide-spaced ( SR w ide-spd) p atterns i n t he f iner r oul Ates w hich m ay h ave b een s piralled a round s ome o f f lexible c ore. 1

k ind

T wig S tippling: R estricted

a lmost

e ntirely t o w ithin t he B enin K ingdom 1 8

t his

g roup o f t wig s tipplings w ere u sually a pplied t o t he b ase a nd l ower b ody o f t he v essel. T he d istinct, s quare p unctate i mpressions ( SQP 4 ) a ppear t o h ave b een m ade b y s ome t ool s haped w ith a s quare o r r ectangu lar e nd a nd s o, i n t erms o f b oth r aw m aterial a nd a pplication, t here i s o nly a s light d ifference b etween t his d ecoration , o mb-jabbing ( CMB 9 ) a nd s ome f orms o f T ooled R ustication ( TRS 1 2). 1 7 T he r ounder, d eeper i mpressions o f p unctate s tippling ( PCT 5 ) o ccurs e ither b roadc ast o r i n b ands o ver t he b ase a nd l ower b ody, a s w ell a s i nside t he r im o f W ide F lared P ots ( WFP 2 3): t his c ategory i s b ased o n C onnah's d ecoration 4 ( Connah: 1 975; 1 21 a nd p late 2 4). T here w ere p roblems, t hough, i n u sing t he r est o f C pnnah's s tippling c ategories. T he i llustrations o f h is d ecoration 7 , S tippling R oulette ( Miscellaneous), a ppeared t o o verlap w ith t hose o f b oth h is d ecoration t ypes 5 , S tipp ling R oulette ( Cluster P unctate) 20 a nd t ype 6 , ( Circles). 21 I n t he p reliminary c lassification ,

S tippling R oulette t herefore , a ll r ings

a nd c ircular i mpressions w ere a ssigned t o o ne c ategory a nd a ll d ot c lusters t o a nother. I n t he f inal c lassification t hese w ere c ombined a s C ircles/Cluster P unctate ( CLP 6 ) b ecause t heir i nfrequent a ppearA ll u nclassified t wig ances w ere a lmost e ntirely o n t he s ame s ites. 22 s tippling w as p erhaps w orth e xtremely

p laced i n aM iscellaneous c ategory ( MSC 7 ). I t i s n oting t hat a ll t hese s tipplings c ateesries w ere

d ifficult t o

r ecognise o n

2 23

w eathered

s herds,

a nd i t

i s

s uspected

t hat

t he o dd o ccurrence o f

s tippling o n i solated s herds

i n

t he I shan a nd E tsako s herds a re c ases o f m istaken i dentity , a h angover f rom t he B enin K ingdom a nalysis, r ather t han a ctual i nter-cultural b orrowing. T ooled a nd F inger W ork:

g roup. o r

C ategorization d ifficulties b ecame t heir m ost a cute w ithin t his T he s herds w ere o ften v ery w eathered a nd t he t ools, m aterials

t echniques u sed t o a chieve c ertain e ffects

l argely

u nknown.

T wo

p arallel l ines, w hether w avy , c ross-hatched o r s traight w ere d esign ated T wo P rong C ombing ( 2PC 8 ): t hree o r m ore s uch l ines w ere c lass ified a s C ombing ( CMB 9 ). B oth d ecorations w ere f ound m ainly o n t he u pper b ody, l edges a nd i nside p ot r ims. T he d istinction b etween c omb j abbing a nd o ther c ombing p atterns w as l eft f or p ost-analysis w ork. Z 4 C omb-Grooving ( CGR 1 0) p roved t o b e a n u nsatisfactory c ategory: i t i ncluded l ight, g rit-drag m arks o n t he r im o f ' modern s herds, v ery f ine r ims,

b ut d efinite c orrugated g rooving o n m uch o lder-looking s herd a nd h eavier g rooving i mpinging o n c ategories C MB 9 a nd G RV 1 6.

2 5

E ncrustation ( ENC 1 1) w as t hat p art o f C onnah's d ecoration t ype 1 1 w hich c onsisted o f t he a pplication o f a dditional m aterial, u sually i n t he f orm o f

r ings,

r ims o f v essels

r ibbons

( Connah :

o r p ellets,

1 975;

1 32.

o n t he u pper b ody, E yo:

1 976).

l edges

a nd

T ooled R ustication

( TRS 1 2) w as a nother p artial a doption o f C onnah's d ecoration t ype 1 1 a nd i ts t erminology : i t c onsisted m ainly o f s hort v ertical s lashes a nd j abs o n l edges a nd r ims, s o m ight h ave o ccasionally b een c onfused w ith s ome f orms o f C ombing/Comb-jabbing ( CMB 9 ) o r I ncision ( INC 1 4). F inger

w ork ( FNG 1 3) w as

i nterpreted a s b eing a ny k ind o f f inger-nail

o r f inger i mpressions, p inching, ' pie-crust' l edges a nd t wisting - a ll b eing f orms o f f inger m oulding w hich i nterrupted t he e ven, h orizontal f low a round t he v essel. I n r etrospect, t here m ay w ell h ave b een a t endency t o p lace s ome s herds w ith o dd b umps o r s hapes i nto e ither E NC 1 1 o r F NG 1 3. I ncision ( INC 1 4) c onsisted o f n arrow l ines m ade p roba bly

w ith a b lade o r s harp p oint.

O n m any b ody s herds

t hese

l ines

w ere a pproximately p arallel i n a v ertical o r d iagonal d irection , w hilst o n l edged b owls c ross-hatching w as f requent. T oday t he d ecorat ion

i s

c onfined

a lmost e xclusively t o t he b ody,

r aised

l ugs

a nd

b osses o f s hrine p ots, w here i t a ppears a s r adial l ines. 26 C hannell ing ( CHN 1 5) w as a bandoned a s a c ategory o wing t o t he i ncreasing d ifficulty o f a dequately d efining i t u nder s equential s orting p roced ures: a ll t entative e ntries w ere p laced i n G RV 1 6. T his m eant t hat G rooving ( GRV 1 6) w as a f airly b road c ategory v arying f rom e xtremely d eep, U -shaped g rooves a round t he u pper b ody/rim o f t he v essel, t o t hin g rooves n early s imilar t o I NC 1 4, t o m uch s hallower, w avy c orr ugations d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom s ome C GR 1 0 e xamples. I deally, m any o f t he c lassification p roblems f acing s ome c ategories o f t his w hole g roup w ould h ave b een m uch l ess s evere u nder c onditions o f s imultaneous s orting, w here s pecific d ecoration t ypes r epresentative o f

t he w hole r ange c ould h ave b een e stablished w ith d efined p arameters

a b i nitio. C oloration:

w as

R ed S lip ( RSP 1 7), p robably c omposed o f p alm-oil a nd r ed e arth, f ound m ainly o n t obacco-pipe f ragments h aving m any o f t he s ame

f eatures n oted b y C onnah i n h is d ecoration 1 2 ( Painting). 2 7 S lip' ( WSP 1 8) o ccurred e ven l ess f requently t han t he r are R ed

2 24

W hite S lip,

a nd w as f ound w ith 1 1 g rooved d elimitations o n p ot b odies a nd o ver b ands a long l edges. B lack-burnished W are ( BLB 1 9) c orresponds t o C onnah's I lorin b lack-burnished w are a nd c learly v ery r ecent ( Conn ah :

1 975;

1 33.

O ther c haracteristics 1 ).

C arved W ooden R oulettes: D avid a nd V idal

( 1977) h ave s uggested t hat

t he c arving o f

s mall,

w ooden r oulettes t o m e t his d ecoration w as d one o nly b y i ron b lades o r i ron p yro-gravure. T he v ery d eliberate p rocesses o f t ool p repa ration f or t hese c arved r oulettes a re l ikely t o r eflect a nachronistic a nd c ultural d ifferences m ore a ccurately t han s tring r oulett e w hich a re l iable t o v ariations a rising c auses. p attern

o r s tippling f rom n atural

C arved R oulette 1 ( CR1 2 0) c onsisted o f a s imple g rid r ectangular i mpressions m ade f rom r oulettes o f 11 2 / 2cms.

o f

c ircumference a nd v arying i n w idth f rom 1 c ms a long l edges t o o ver 5 cms. o n b ody s herds. T he r oulette w as n ormally c arved w ith f our g rooves a long i ts l ength a nd t hen t he u ngrooved s ections w ere n icked a round a t r egular i ntervals: a v ery c onvincing r oulette w as p roduced b y S oper u sing t his t echnique ( cross-section : s ide: s pecimen i n b ox f ile).

S ince t his

t ype o f r oulette w as f ound i n

t he

s ame s ort o f e nvironment a s O wo o nly 8 0kms. t o t he w est, i t q ueries E yo's d efinition o f a s imilar p attern a s ' stamped d ecoration , r ectangu lar d esign' 4 f). 32 A t

( Eyo:

f irst

1 976;

5 5,

f igure 9 o ,

s ight C arved R oulette 2 ( CR2

a nd p ossibly 5 0,

2 1)

f igure

g ave a s ort o f b asket-

w ork i mpression a pparently i ntermediate t o C R1 2 0 a nd C R3 2 2. L ater e xamination, h owever, r evealed i t t o b e a v ery r are v ariant o f C R3 2 2, a s

t he v ertical i mpressions w ere c aused b y s mooth n atural

i n a n icked t wig r ather t han b y d eliberate g rooving, b ined w ith C R3 2 2 j ust b efore a nalysis. C arved

R oulette 3 ( CR3 2 2) was

v ariations

a nd i t w as

a c ollection o f v arious

c om-

n odular

p atterns c aused b y t he s ame b asic t echnique o f t aking b road a nd f airly s hallow n icks o ut o f r oulettes o f a bout 2 cms. c ircumference a nd b etween 1 .2 a nd 7 cms. w ide. I t w as a pplied t o t he u pper b ody, b elow a nd a bove l edges, a s w ell a s i n n arrow b ands i nside r ims. O ne o f C onnah's u nidentified r oulettes, h is d ecoration 1 3, i s p robably a f orm o f t his n odular c arved r oulette a nd n ot a t wisted p alm f ibre ( Connah: 1 975; 1 32 a nd p late 3 5; 1 978; P ers.Comm .). 33 T he e xtraordinary g eog raphical d istribution a nd c hronological r ange o f t his p articular d ecoration m erit s pecial a ttention a nd, i n r etrospect, i t i s c ons idered t hat t his c ategory s hould h ave b een d ivided i nto ' squared' a nd ' diagonal' c ategories t o m aximize c hronological d ifferences i n t he a nalysis T he r oulette

( below;

3 10a).

w ide r ange o f g eometric d esigns, 4

( CR4 2 3),

w hich

c onstitute

a re o nly c arved b y m en t oday.

T heir

c arved d esigns

r ange f rom t he q uite s imple t o t he f airly c omplicated, a nd t his i s r e'qected i n t he c ircumferences w hich a re f rom 1 .3 t o 3 .8cms. N o n arrow b ands o f t his d ecoration w ere o bserved, m ost b eing 3 t o 6 .8cms. w ide. T he r oulettes a re a pplied b y w omen t o t he u pper b ody o f t he v essel a nd, m ore r arely, t o l edges a nd r ims. T he f ull t ypological r ange a s w ell a s t he a pplication t echniques o f t his d ecoration h ave a lready b een d escribed b y W illett,

C onnah a nd D ark ( Connah:

2 25

1 975;

1 32

a nd p late 2 9. a nd p late 7 29).

W illett a nd C onnah: A pparently a r ecent

1 969; 1 36-137. t ype i n B enin ,

D ark: 1 973; 1 79-81 b ut w ith a c urious

g eographical d istribution, t his r ange o f g eometric r oulettes m erits a s m uch a ttention a s t he n odular r oulettes ( below ; 2 67-268).

P late N ( overleaf,p.227) V ariations

i n c oarse a nd f ine

N 1-5 C SR 1

s tring r ouletting N 6-10 F SR 3

N 2 C ould b e a t wisted

r ather t han a p laited

s tring r oulette

N 10 V ery f ine F SR 3 .

P late 0 ( overleaf,p.228)

S tippling r oulettes.

0 3 C LP 6 ( Cluster a nd/or c ircle p unctate) 0 4-6 M SC 7 ( Miscellaneous)

2 26

0 1-2 P CT 5 ( Punctate)

I II.

B .

2 .

I n

S HERD C LASSIFICATION - F orm V ariables t he

p ast

E do p ottery u sed

t o c ater f or

a

w ide

r ange

o f

f unctions, a nd e ach f unction w as e xpressed i n a s pecific f orm . E ven t oday s omething o f t he r ange a nd i nterrelationship o f f orm a nd f unct ion i s a pparent i n t he N orthern E do a nd O kene p ottery, w hich h as s ome p ots f or w ater c ollection a nd o thers f or s torage a nd c ooling, s ome p ots f or h olding p alm-wine a nd o thers f or g uinea-corn b eer, s ome f or g eneral c ooking p urposes a nd o thers s pecifically f or c ooking y ams a nd c assava, y et a nother f or c ooking s tews; l amps, o rnamental f east d ishes, m edicine p ots a nd s pecial p ots f or t he b ride i n m arriage c eremonies h ave a lso b een r ecorded ( below ; 2 43-244). B efore t his p resent e ra o f e namel b owls, p lastic c ontainers, c ast-iron g alvanized b uckets, o il d rums a nd g lass b ottles, t he c omplete was c onsiderably w ider. ( Connah : 1 975; 1 15-121. R oese:

p ots, r ange 1 978;

P ers.Comm. D .Ben-Amos: 1 980; P ers.Comm .: o nce t here w ere a lso p ots t o h aul w ater o ut o f w ells a nd c isterns, g rain s torage p ots, a w hole r ange o f d ifferent s hrine p ots, c hildren's t oy p ots, p erforated p ots f or d rying m eat a nd f ish, p ots f or w ashing h ands, o pen d ishes, v ats a nd i ndigenous c lay t obacco-pipes, a s w ell a s c rucibles t uyares

d ye a nd

f or i ron a nd b ronze s melting.

E ven s o,

o n s ome s ites

t here w as

a p reponderance o f o nly o ne o r

t wo p ottery f orms. C eremonial p ottery o f a lmost o nly o ne p articular f orm t ype w as o bserved a t a n I shan s hrine ( photograph a bove; 2 22a), a nd o ther l imited s elections o f s hrine p ottery p redominated a t O gba S tream , t he I si ' ikpessa a nd C onnah's B MS s ites; w hereas U nuame, t hought t o h ave b een a B ini w ar-camp f or s everal m onths, c ontains o nly t wo m ain t ypes o f u tilitarian p ottery d esigned f or c ooking, e ating a nd c ollecting w ater ( above; 1 64-165, 1 68-169). T here m ay n ever h ave b een a s trong d istinction b etween u tilitarian a nd s hrine o r c eremonial w are i n t he p ast: t he E do e nvisaged a c ontinuity o f t he b asic f unctions o f e ating a nd d rinking, w ith t heir a ssociated p ottery f orms, f rom p hysic al r eality i nto t he s pirit w orld o f t heir a ncestral d eities. T here t ended, t herefore, t o b e a t imeless q uality a bout t he b asic c onception o f m any o verall v essel f orms b ecause t hey r elate t o f unctione w hich h ave c hanged l ittle o ver T he

t he c enturies

r econstruction o f

a rd p ractice f or

( Connah:

1 975;

1 96-7).

3 4

t he t otal v essel f orm h as b ecome a s tand-

t hose a ttempting t he t ricky t ask o f i nterpreting

t he

s pecific f unctions o f d ifferent s trata o n e ach e xcavated s ite ( Shaw : 1 980; 5 9-60): t hus m any o f C onnah's p ottery f orms a ppear t o d epend o n r econstruction o f t he o verall v essel s hape f or t heir c lassification ( e.g. C onnah: 1 975; 1 24-5). 35 T here w ere t wo b asic o bjections t o a dopting s uch a c lassification a pproach i n t his p roject. F irstly , t he e mphasis

i n a nalysis

i n t his p roject w as m ore o n c hronological t han o n

f unctional d ifferences, w hereas t he t otal f orm s hape t ends t o b e t he e xpression o f a p articular f unction w ithin a c ultural g roup a nd d oes n ot c hange m uch w ith t ime. S econdly, t he d egree o f s herd f ragmentat ion,

l imited

d ozered

s election

s urface

o r

b ull-

s herds p laced s evere p ractical r estrictions o n a ny c onsistent

r econstruction o f I n

a nd m ixed p rovenances o f

t otal p ot

f orms.

D aniels' a nalysis o f C onnah's B enin C ity s herds

i t w as

f ound

t hat t he b est c hronological i ndicators w ere t hose f orms ( or d ecorat ions) w hich r egistered t he g reatest v ariation i n p ercentage o ccurr ence ( Connah :

1 975;

1 95).

T he a pproach t o f orm c ategorization f or

2 29

t his p roject,

t herefore,

p roceeded p artly o n t he a ssumption t hat

f orm

m inutiae - s uch a s t he t ype, a ngle a nd l ength o f r im o r l edge, a s w ell a s t he t he l ocations a nd o ccurrence o f v arious d ecoration m otifs o n t he v essel - w ere s ubject t o e phemeral f ashions a nd w ould t herefore p resent t he g reatest v ariation i n p ercentage o ccurrence o ver t ime. F or p urposes o f c omparison , t hough, C onnah's c ategorization w as n ot d iscarded;

i nstead

h is

b roader c ategories w ere s ubdivided

a nd

h is

i ndistinguishable c ategories c ombined, b oth o n t he b asis o f v ariations i n t hese m inutiae. S uch a c lassification p rocedure w as i deally s uited t o t he c ategorization o f s mall s herds, b ut i t m eant t hat l arger s herds w ith b oth r im a nd b ody c ordon w ould h ave b een c ategorized t wice o r m ore. A lso i t i s s uspected t hat t he m ore a nachronistic m inutiae w ould h ave a ffected a w ide r ange o f p ottery f orms a t t he s ame t ime, s o t hat o ne

c ategory

d ifferent v essels

o f

f orms

f orm m inutiea m ay w ell i nclude w hat w ould h ad i t b een p ossible t o c ompletely

( Cross-profiles o f

b e

m any

r econstruct

f orm m inutiae a re s hown b elow ;

t he

2 39-240).

T here w as n o d eliberate g rouping o f t he c lassified f orms i nto a nd b owls s ince s herd s ize g enerally p recluded t he m easuring o f

p ots

h eight/width

r atios.

H owever,

a s

t hey m ay h ave b een a n

u nderlying

f unctional d ivision - w ith p ots b eing m ainly u sed f or w ater, d rinking a nd c ooking, a nd b owls f or e ating - a v ery a pproximate t erminology h as b een e mployed h ere i n w hich n ecks, e verted r ims a nd c ordons a re a ss umed t o b elong t o p ots, w hilst l edges a nd i nverted r ims a re a ssumed t o b e p arts o f b owls. A ltogether s ome 4 8 f orm c ategories, a s w ell g in-bottles a nd t obacco-pipes, w ere p resented f or a nalysis. N ecks a nd u nclassified m aterial w ere w ithheld u ntil t he p ost-analysis d escription o f t he c lassified f orms n ow f ollows.

m id

s tage.

A

S ingle c ordons ( PIA 1 ) a nd b ifid c ordons ( PIB 2 ) e ncircle t o u pper b ody o f b oth t hin-walled, n ear-spherical w aterpots

t he a nd

s ome o f t he m uch t hicker s hrine p ots f ound i n t he I si ' ikpessa'. U sually t he c ordons a re c ontinuous a nd g o h orizontally a round t he p ot, b ut e xamples o f i ntermittent s ingle c ordons a nd w avy l ine b ifid c ord ons h ave b een r ecorded ( Connah: 1 975; 1 15. B ox-file p hotographs. b elow ; 2 41). T his c ategory w as d istinguished f rom t he s houlder l edges b y t he a bsence o f a ny s harp s houlder c urvature o n t he b ody p art o f t he s herd. C omplete o r p artial s ingle s houlder l edges ( BIA 3 ) a nd b ifid s houlder l edges ( BIB 4 ) h ad a d istinct s houlder c urvature, b ut t he a bsence o f r ims p revented t heir v arious l edged b owl c ategories ( LBP

f urther 1 5).

c lassification

i nto

t he

T he e verted p ot r im t ypes ( PEB 5 , P ER 6 , P ES 7 , P ET 8 a nd P SL 9 ) a re a ll s ubdivisions o f C onnah's F orm 1 , t he n ecked w aterpot, w hich c onstituted b etween a q uarter a nd a h alf o f a ll u tilitarian p ottery P EB 5 h ad a n e verted, f orms t hroughout t he c hronological s equence. 3 6 b ifid l ip, P ER 6 a r ounded l ip a nd P ES 7 a s quared l ip. P ET 8 was d istinguished

b y

b eing v ery t hick a t

t he b ody e nd a nd t apering t o

a

f airly t hin e verted r im . P SL 9 h ad m ore a v ertical t han a n e v ”ted r im , a nd t here w as a s light h orizontal l edge/cordon n ear t he l ip.' R olled

l ip p ots

( RLP

1 0)

a ppeared t o h ave a v ertical

r im

w ith

t he l ip s moothed a nd r olled o utwards. O n s ome s ites i t wgs d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t his f orm a nd v ariants o f S QE 2 4. ° S moothed, v ertical r ims w ith a n oticeable b ulge b ut w ithout

2 30

t he o utward

r olling

w ere

c lassified R LP 1 0V.

F ound i n m any o f

t he s ame c ontexts a s

t he

R LP 1 0 p ots w ere t he S CR 1 1 b owls. T he s herds r ecovered o f t his t ype w ere n ot c urved b ut a lmost s traight, s lanting u pwards a nd i nwards: o n t he o utside w as a s light h orizontal r im . S CR 1 1 w as d ecorated w ith t he g rid p attern c arved r oulettes ( CR1 2 0); w hereas S CR 1 1B, f ound i n v ery d ifferent c ontexts, t ended t o b e m ore v ertical a nd w as d ecorated w ith s tick s lashes/jabs ( TRS 1 2) a long t he l edge t op.

t he

S ome c onsiderable d egree o f s kill m ust h ave b een n eeded t o m ake c orkscrew l edged b owls ( CKW 1 2), f or n o o ther ' pie-crusting o f

l edged t ion.

b owls ( LBP 1 5P) e ver a chieved q uite t he s ame l evel o f p erfecP ossibly i t w as o nly e ver m ade b y o ne p ot W, f or t he n umbers

w ere l imited a nd H andles

t he d istribution v ery l ocalized.

( HAN 1 3) w ere v ery r arely f ound o n v essels.

S ome o ccur

o n s ome B ini s hrine v essels t oday, a nd f urther n orth t hey o ccur o n a kpa ( lamps) a nd E nye n awere ( ornamental p ots f or m arriage c erem oni9A). O ne o f t he b est e xamples f rom a n ' excavated' s ite w as f rom U do. 4u T he

f lat-ledged

b owls

( FLB 1 4)

b ore m any s imilarities

t o

s ome

S CR 1 1 a nd L BP b owls: t hey w ere d istinguished, t hough, b y t he h oriz ontal l edge w hich l ed s traight i nto t he i nverted r im, s o p resenting a f lat t op I NC 1 4.

t o

t he b owl.

T his f lat

t op w as

o ften d ecorated w ith F SR 3 o r

I n a ddition t o t he d istinct C KW 1 2 a nd F LB 1 4 f orms, t here w as a w ide v ariety o f l edged b owls ( LBP 1 5, L BG 1 6, L BF 1 7, L BL 1 8, D LB 2 2 a nd U PW 2 9, w ith p artial l edges b eing f ound o n s ome s pecimens o f C MB 2 5, U 3OP a nd U 34Z). T he b owl i s u sed f or g eneral p urposes t oday ( Connah: 1 975; 1 17), s o p ossibly t he v arieties o f t his f orm r elated r ather more t o f unctional t han t o c hronological d iversity. P lain l edged b owls ( LBP 1 5) w ere d efined a s t hose l edged b owls w hich h ad s ingle , i nverted a nd u ndecorated r ims. L BP 1 5A a nd L BP 1 5C w ere t he o riginal ' plain' t ypes s elected, b ut s hould h ave b een a bsorbed t otally i nto t he l ater c ategories L BP 1 5M a nd 1 5N : t hat t his d id n ot h appen was d ue t o t he v icissitudes w hich a ffected c ontinuity o f t his a nalysis.

L BP

4 1 »

1 5B h ad a d istinctively r ucked r im a nd w as o ne o f

t he

m ore f requent f oyws t o b e d ecorated w ith c ircles/cluster p unctate s tippling ( CLP 6 ).' " L BP 1 5G s tarted a s a c ategory w ith w ide o verlapp ing r ims, b ased o n a s herd f ound i n t he B enin C ity ' Wall', b ut e nded more a s a m iscellaneous l edged b owl c ategory i n w hich t he d ecorations o f i ncision ( INC 1 4), t wo-prong c omb ( 2PC 8 ) a nd c ombing ( CMB 9 ) were t he m ost e vident. L BP 1 5H w as a p articularly t hick f orm o f l edged b owl, o nly m arginally d istinct f rom t he t hick r ims o f M 27 H b y t he p resence o f a n oticeable l edge. L BP 1 5M w as a l ater c ategory f or a ll p lain b owls i n w hich t he l edge f ollowed t he l ine o f t he o uter b ody u pwards a nd o utwards; w hereas L BP 1 5N c atered f or a ll p lain b owls i n w hich t he l ine o f

t he l edge d iverged f rom t he o uter b ody.

A ll

l edged

b owls w ith p ie-crust l edges w ere d efined a s L BP 1 5P ; t hough, w ith h indsight, i t m ight h ave b een b etter i f b oth C KW 1 2 a nd L BP 1 5P h ad b een

c lassified o n o ther f orm c riteria,

t echniques L BG

w ith c orkscrew a nd p ie-crust

p ut

s eparately u nder d ecoration c ategories.

1 6

l edged

t heir o uter r ims.

b owls w ere a ll l ightly g rooved

( CGR

S ome e xamples w ith cerser c orrugations

c ontinuum w ith m any s pecimens o f C MB 2 5.

2 31

1 0)

a long

p rovide

a

T he b ifid, l edged b owls ( LBF 1 7 a nd L BL 1 8) p roved t o b e s atisf actory c hronological c ategories a nd w ere d ifferentiated b y t he l ength o f t he b ifid r im f rom t he l edge - L BL 1 8 b eing l onger t han L BF 1 7. T he d istinction b etween t he d ifferent

t ypes o f g rooving o n b owls

w ithout l edges i s b est a ppreciated i n p rofile. b owl ( CGB 1 9) c orresponds t o C onnah's f orm 4 . f airly

s harply a nd h as

e xternal g rooves

T he c oarse g rooved T he b ody c urves i n

a round t he u pper b ody

u p

t o

t he r im. T he g rooves o f t he c oarse g rooved b owl w ere o ften d eeply a nd c rudely c ut. T he u pper p art o f t he b ody, i ncluding t he g roove i nters tices a nd t he r im , w as f requently c overed w ith c oarse o r f ine s tring r ouletting, w hereas t he b ase w as s ometimes d ecorated w ith p unctate s tippling r oulettes. T oday t his b owl i s u sed f or g eneral p urposes, b ut t his

t he o ccurrence o f v ast n umbers o f a v ery c rudely m ade v ariant o f f orm f ound a t U nuame m ay i ndicate t hat t hey w ere o nce t he m ain

b owls u sed b y t he B enin a rmy f or c ooking a nd e ating ( Connah: 1 975; 1 16. A bove; 1 64-165). T he i ntermediate g rooved b owl ( IGB 2 0) h as r ound c orrugations r ather t han s quare-cut g rooves: t hey w ere d ecor ated

i n t he s ame w ay a s C GB 1 9 e xcept

m ore f requent. f inger g rooves, ( form 2 )

( Ibid;

t hat s tick j abs

( TRS 1 2)

w ere

T he f ine g rooved b owl ( FGB 2 0) h ad b road, w ave-like s imilar t o t hose f ound o n C onnah's n eckless w aterpot 1 24).

T he d ouble-ledged b owls ( DLB 2 2) c orrespond t o C onnah's h eavily o rnamented b owls ( form 1 4). M ost o f t he s amples f ound c ame f rom t he o ld s ite o f I kpe i n a ssociation w ith c lay t obacco-pipes. B etween a nd/or o n t he l edges w as a h eavy a pplication o f t wo o r m ore l ayers o f r ibbon a nd o ther o rnamentation ( ENC 1 1 a nd T RS 1 2) - t he d ecorations b eing t he d istinctive c riteria f or D LB 2 2 c lassification , r ather t han t he

n umber

o f l edges.

M ost o f

t he b owls h ad b ifid

r ims

d ecorated w ith m iscellaneous s tippling r oulette ( MSC 7 ) 1 19, 1 29 f igure 3 2/6, 1 30 f igure 3 3/1 & 2 ). C onnah's

f orm 1 0,

t he f lared r im b owl

( Ibid;

a nd

w ere

( Connah :

1 975;

1 20,

1 28 f igure

3 1/5-8), w as u sed a s t he b asis f or W FP 2 3, t he w ide f lared p ot. T his h as a s mall b ody a nd a t hick, w ide f lared r im . T hese p ots a ppear t o h ave b een o nly f ound i n r elatively u rban c ontexts ( above; 1 49. B elow; 2 94),

a nd m ay h ave b een p artially b uried i nside h ouses.

f ound i n t his s urvey w ere d ecorated w ith c omb-jabbing a long t he i nside o f t he f lared r im . S quared,

e verted p ots

( SQE 2 4)

c onsisted o f

t hick,

r ims s ets h orizontally o utwards o n a v ertical n eck, r ight-angled b end. O n t he f lat u pper s urface o f t his v ariations w ithin t his c ategory,

.

j ab)

p oorly f ired

o ften w ith a i nner r im , m any

w ere l ightly g rooved w ith f ine b ut d efinite c orrugations. m inor

T he s amples

( CMB 9

T here w ere

s ome o f w hich i ndicated

s ome

f orm o f r elationship t o R LP 1 0, M SC 2 7H a nd a f ew f orms o f M SC 2 7. T his f orm m erits p articular a ttention, a s p ots d iscovered b y R oese a nd D .Ben-Amos w ere i n c ontexts w hich a gree w ith a ll o ther d ata s uggesting t hat z one

t his w as ( below ;

o ne o f

t he e arliest

f orms

o f p ottery i n t he E do

f orest

2 41-242).

C omb-scraped

b owls

( CMB 2 5) w ere v ery d istinctive

w ith

t heir

v ery n eat, r ounded g rooving o ver m uch o f t he u pper b ody u p t o a ' retrousse" r im. M ost o f t hese b owls w ere s trongly i nverted, t hough a f ew w ere n early v ertical. c arved r oulette ( CR3 2 2)

T he m ore r ecent f orm o f d iagonal, n odular o ften d ecorated t he b owl i mmediately b elow 2 32

t he

g rooved s ection .

T here w as n early a c omplete c ontinuum

L BG 1 6 a nd l edged e xamples o f t his f orm : d istinguished b y t he f act t hat i ts g rooves l edge , unlike L BG 1 6. P erforated f orms,

v essels

b etween

C MB 2 5 w as o ften o nly e xtended w ell b elow t he

( PFT 2 6) p robably b elonged

t o a v ariety

w ith t hose p erforated t hrough th b ody b eing u sed a s

o f

s uspended

c ontainers f or d rying m eat a nd f ish: p erforations t hrough t he l edges o f b owls m ay p ossibly h ave a ided s uspension . I n o ne c ase a h ole w ent r ight t hrough b oth n eck a nd s topper o f a f lasked p ot i n a n i ngenious a rrangement t o p revent s pillage o f d rinking w ater w hilst j ourneying t o, o r w orkizi o n, t he v illage f armlands ( Connah: 1 975; 1 16, 1 24 f igure 2 7/7-10).

l a r t f

h ole f or s tick

T he c ategory o f ' Miscellaneous r ims ( MSC 2 7) a imed t o r ecover a ny f ragments o f C onnah's nparently e arliest f orm ( Connah : 1 975; 1 17, 1 26 f igure 2 9/5-14,

1 96). q°

A ll

f airly t hick r im s herds w ith

l ittle

o bvious r im d efinition w ere g rouped i nto t his c ategory - p articularly i f t he f abric w as o f p oor q uality. T hick f lat b ases w ere a lso i nc luded. V ery t hick e xamples, b ased o n a s herd t ype e xposed i n t he m ain C ity W all, w ere c ategorized a s M 27H, t hough s ome e xamples c learly f ormed a c ontinuum w ith S QE 2 4. O ther, u sually s lightly t hinner v ariants w ith p eculiar r im f eatures, w ere c ategorized a s M SV 2 8. T here was

r elatively l ittle d ecoration o n a ll

t hese M SC/MSV s herds.

T he u pturned, w avy l edged b owl ( UPW 2 9) was a v ery d istinctive v ariant o f t he o ther l edged b owls ( LBP/LBG/LBF/LFL) a nd i s e xemplified t oday b y P icton's o rnamental d ish f or f easts ( below ; 3 15, B M 2 33). L edge c orners o f a t hicker, m ore r ectangular s ort w ere a dded l ater t o t his c ategory: t his w as p robably a m istake a s i t u nnecessarily b roade ned t he c hronological r epresentation o f a n o therwise r ecent v essel. 47 M ost o f t he ' unidentified' ( U) c ategories b elonged a t o ne s tage o f t he a nalysis t o a n u nclassified r emainder. L ater t hese w ere c lass ified u sing f orm m inutiae,

s ome o f

t hese b eing d erived f rom C onnah's

m inor f orms. U 30 A w as a s mall n umber o f f lat, b evelled r ims o n o pen b owls s imilar t o C onnah's f lat-ledged b owl ( his f orm 1 7) ( Connah: 1 975; 1 20, 1 30 f igure 3 3/6). U 30 P w ere a v ariety o f o pen p latter t ype v essels.

U 31 B w ere r im s herd f ragments w ith t hin,

f lat

l ips.

U 32 C were b ifid-topped r ims, s ome b eing v ery c urious i n c ross-section a nd f airly s imilar t o M SV 2 8. U 33 D w ere i nverted r ims w ith r ounded l ips b ut n o d ecoration . U 34 E w ere i nverted r ims ( with r ounded, s quared o r b ifid l ips) d ecorated w ith C GR 1 0 o r G RV 1 6. U 34 Z w as c omposed o f o nly t hree d istinctive s herds. U 35 F f ragments w ere g rooved

u nder

t he r im a nd c orresponded b oth t o C onnah's g rooved

c ordon b owl ( his f orm 1 5) a nd h is f langed ( Connah: 1 975; 1 19-120, 1 30 f igure 3 3/15,

a nd

r im b owl ( his f orm 2 1) 1 31 f igure 34 /1 ) . U W 3 6

w ere d istinguished b y a s ingle b and o f f inger o r t ooled r ustication s imilar t o C onnah's f orm 1 1 ( Connah: 1 975; 1 19, 1 29 f igure 3 2/2 & 3 ). A ll o ther s herds w ere u nclassified f or t he a nalysis. S mooth a nd r ucked n ecks h ad b een s orted o ut, b ut i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t hey w ere n ot r ecorded i n t he e arly f ield n otes i t w as d eemed w ise n ot t o i nclude t hem a s a c ategory. I t i s q uite p robable t hat m ost o f t he u nclassified' s herds c ould h ave b een a ssigned t o s ome c ategory o r

2 33

T obacco-pipes

f ound b y A nozie i n t he D elta

( after s ketches b y C alvocoressi)

c oncave b ase T obacco-pipes e xcavated F rom

b ases

f rom I kpe

f lat b ase

i n B enin C ity b y P rofessor G .E.Connah:

' The Archaeology o f B dnin'

N umbers

c f.

p age

1 62.

1 -5 w ere d iscovered b y w orkers d igging f or s and b y t he

I kpoba

r iver. C onnah c onsidered t hat t hey s eemed t o h ave a l ess s ophisticated t ypology t hat t hose e xcavated i n C l8th t o C 2Oth c ontexts i n B enin C ity. I t i s p ossible t hey w ere m ade b etween 1 650 a nd

1 700 A .D.

FI G . 4 9 . I nd igenous s mok ing -p ipe s . 1 -5 . a re f r om t h e I kpoba R ive r . 7 .f r om a ` p lan ta t ion ' i n B en in C i ty . 8 .f r om s uperf ic ia l d epo s i ts i nC u t t ing X IV o n t he B en in Museum s i te . 1 5 . f r om mode rn d epo s i ts o ft he c i ty d i tch s i l t ing o n t h e Ogba Road s i te . 1 4 . f r om t he l owe rp ar t o ft h e d epo s i t s i nC u t t ing I Vo nt h eC le rks 'Q uar te rs s i te .T he r ema inde rf r om t h em idd le a nd l a te p ha se s o fC u t t ing s Ia nd I lo ft h es ame s i te a nd t h em idd le a nd l a te p hases a nd s uperf ic ia l d epo s i ts o fC u t t ing I I o ft ha ts i te . T he s pecialist r eport

( below;498-508)

c ontains p hotographs,

d iagrams a nd a nalysis o f numerous n ew d iscoveries o f Edo t obacco-pipes.

2 34

a nother

g iven

s uf ucient

t ime a nd

p atience,

b ut

D aniels

a dvised

a gainst d oing t his. V arious a ncillary a rtefacts w ere a lso c ollected. F indings o f i ron-slag, l ateritic i ron-stone a nd b urnt c lay w ere r ecorded b ut, b eing o f i nfrequent a nd o ften i solated o ccurrence, w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he a nalysis. S ome l ight a nd d ark b lue e llipsodial g lass b eads ( below; 2 38a), s imilar t o t hose f ound b y C onnah i n f airly r ecent c ont exts ( 1975; 1 70), w ere f ound i nside a p ot e xposed i n t he r uins o f a h ouse f oundation n ear I dogbo. A nother b ead w as f ound i n a n i solated c ontext a long t he 1 32kV l ine i n s outhern I shan : i t w as o f a t ype n ot p reviously

e ncountered,

a nd

s haped

f rom

s ome

k ind

o f

p olished,

r eddish-brown s tone w hich a waits p etrological a nalysis ( Fage: 1 982; P ers.Comm.). S pecial a ttention w as p aid t o i mported, o r i mportd erived, a rtefacts a s m ost w ere g ood c hronological i ndicators w ith a f airly r eliable t erminus p ost q uem. T rade g in-bottles, w ith t heir c haracteristic s quare s hape a nd d ark g reen g lass, w ere t he m ost p rol ific ( below ; 2 38); a nd f uller d etails o f t he m akes a re g iven i n s ection ( below; 2 78). G roups o f t obacco-pipe f ragments, a s w ell a s a n umber o f i solated p ieces, w ere d iscovered; o ne w as o f E uropean w hite c lay, a nd t he r est w ere o f i ndigenous c lay. F abric a nd c olour: M ineralogical

e xamination

w as

n ot

p ossible s o t he

f abric

a nd

c olour o f a ll p lain ( UDNR) a nd m ost d iagnostic s herds w as a ssessed w ith t he n aked e ye u sing t he f racture p rocess a lready d escribed ( above; 2 21). S ince t he s herds w ith m ica i nclusions w ere v ery c ommon o nly i n t he a rea o f t he B asement C omplex t o t he n orth, t hey w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he a nalysis, b ut t heir o ccurrence i n u nusual c ontexts w as n oted. T hree d istinctive f abrics - s andy w hite t emper ( W. T emp) a nd m etallic g rey ( Met.G) - w ere i ncluded b ecause t here d id a ppear t o b e a d efinite c hronological r elationship w ith c ertain f orm a nd d ecoration v ariables ( above; 1 70, 1 74-175. b elow ; 2 48, 2 69, 2 77). A s m ight b e e xpected, s herds w ith a n oticeably s andy t exture w ere m ore c ommon i n a reas w ith a h igh p roportion o f s and i n t heir g eological s trata, s uch a s t he F ugar s andstones ( above; 1 8); b ut t here w as a lso a c lose a ssociation w ith v ariables - M SC 2 7, R LP 1 0, P LA 1 , C R1 2 0, S QR 2 4 a nd P ER 6 - s uspected o f b eing e arly. T he w hite, p resumably f elspathic g rit f ound i n m any s herds p robably r esulted f rom t he d eliberate a ddit ion o f t emper, a lthough s ome m ight h ave o ccurred n aturally i n p otting c lays c ollected i n a reas o f g ranite d ecomposition. M etallic g rey i nteriors c haracterised c ertain, e xceedingly d ifficult t o f racture.

u sually t hin s herds, w hich p roved P ots w ith t his f abric w ere d eco-

r ated m ainly w ith t he p laited s tring r oulettes, s ome o f w hich s eem t o h ave s kidded s lightly o n a pplication , a s w ell a s w ith n odular c arved r oulette

( CR3 2 2)

a nd,

t o a l esser e xtent,

w ith m ost o ther

t ions. A f airly w ide r ange o f f orm v ariables p articularly i nverted-rim b owls a nd i ndigenous c lay

d ecora-

w as r epresented, t obacco-pipes: n o

f orms s uspected o f b elonging t o t he e arly p eriod w ere r epresented a nd i t h ad a h igh p ercentage o ccurrence i n a r ecently d eserted s ite i n E kroma ( above; 1 74). A ll t his a grees w ith C onnah's d escription o f a " buff-surfaced g rey f abric .. a lien t o B enin" i n s ome s herds d ecor ated w ith r ed s lip, f or r ed s lip d ecorated, i nter a lia " an i nturnedr im b owl" a nd i ndigenous c lay t obacco-pipes ( Connah: 1 975; 1 32 D ec. 1 2, 1 79 i ii).

2 35

A part ware a ny

f rom t he h ard,

( BLB 1 9),

t here w as

p articular w are.

p roduce i ng,

f abric

N onetheless,

s herd

c olours w ere

j ust

n oted

a nd

a ssociation o f i n t he h ope

r ecognizable c olour v ariations

P late P ( facing) P 1 -8

g rey

n o o bvious

t hat

e ven a fter

a nalysed - b ut w ithout

a ny

b lack-burnished

f abric c olour w ith l ocal

f iring

c lays m ight a nd w eather-

s uccess.

I gala a nd I gbo s herds.

f rom Okpe-Igala,

U mu E kete,

A guleri

( above;

1 90)

d ating

p robably t o t he C l6th o r C l7th. P 9 -15

f rom h ill 2 79):

t op n ear m ile 9 j unction n orth o f E nugu

t here a re

s ome

s imilarities b etween t hese

t hose f rom I gbo U kwu d ated a w ider d istribution o f

t o

( cf.

b elow;

s herds a nd

t he C 9th A .D., w hich c ould

' Nri'

i mply

c ulture t han t hat p ostulated

s o f ar. T he d istinctive d ifferences f rom g eographically a djacent

i n d ecoration o f

a reas

i llustrate

t he

t hese

s herds

e ffects

o f

c ulture a nd t ime. P late Q ( overleaf)

Q3

P ot c ontaining g lass b eads

s hrine a rtefacts. a da ( ceremonial s word),

P late R ( overleaf)

f rom I dogbo

Q4 f lintlock, Q 5 m anillas,

E uropean t rade g in b ottles

236

( above;

2 35.

( above;235): Q 6

i ronstaff

b elow;

2 78).

\

COL

P OT1EHY F ORM P ROFILES: P lA 1

S ingle . B ody C ordon

W " " I P 1B 2

B ifid B ody .C ordon

t1 4 4 B lA 3

S ingle S houlder L edge

B 1B 4

B ifid S houlder L edge

i k P EB 5

P ER 6

P ot,

3 e-r-

E verted B ifid

eN

P ES 7

)

P ot, E verted S quared %

P ET 8

3

N

P SL 9

P ot,

RLP 1 0

R olled L ip

41 IP

C orkscrew L edged B owl

H AN 1 3

H andle

F LB 1 4

F lat L edged B owl

L BP 1 5A

L edged B owl,

*4 V 1 * Oa s i rd i p

L BP 1 5B

L BP 1 5C

L BP 1 5G

-> L BP 1 5H

1 1

S traight L ip

tI ' i (T

YY t ' 14

-

l ilr

1 r1 r7 '

L BP 1 5N T

9

RLP 1 0V R olled L ip V ariant

i ,

I '

L BP 1 5P

P ie—crust

S traight,

w ith C R1

L BG 1 6

L edged B owl,

S CR -I 1B S traight,

w ith T RS

L BF 1 7

L edged,

S CR 1 1

P lain

L BP 1 5M

, J P

10

"

r 9t r

4 1r

P ot, E verted T hick Il bk

C KW 1 2

.

P ot, E verted R ound

g l ,

1 -17

G rooved

B ifid,

S hort

F or a ll t he r im, c ordon a nd l edge s herd p rofiles d epicted a bove, t he v essel e xterior i s a ssumed t o b e o n t he l eft. * D ecoration, o r s ome o ther f eature n ot a ppreciated i n p rofile, p rovides o ne o f t he d istinctions u sed i n c ategorization.

2 39

P OTTERY F ORM P ROFILES: L BL 1 8 L edged,

B ifid,

1 8-Unclassified

L ong

U 30 A

U nidentified

C GB 1 9 C oarse G rooved B owl

U 30 P

P latter

I GB 2 0 I ntermediate G r.

U 31 B

B owl

I F GB 2 1 F ine G rooved B owl

U 32 C

D LB 2 2 D ouble-Ledged B owl

U 33 D

r

i r

ee W FP 2 3 W ide F lared

P ot

U 34 E *

0 00

1 34 Z

S QE 2 4 S quared E verted

C MB 2 5 C omb S craped

U 3 5

P FT 2 6 P erforated

UW 3 6

2 " 4

)4

f 4

11

1 4

4 1

1 1111 1 11

1

: 11

S mooth N ecks ( 0)

M SC 2 7 M iscellaneous

) M 27 H

M iscellaneous, T hick

M SV 2 8 M iscellaneous V ariant

r1 *

R ucked N ecks ( a)

) ,

C ompletely U nclassified

( e )

U PW 2 9 U pturned W avy L edge

F or a ll t he r im s herd p rofiles d epicted a bove, t he v essel e xterior i s a ssumed t o b e o n t he l eft. W w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he c omputer a nalysis. * D ecoration , o r s ome o ther f eature n ot a ppreciated i n p rofile , p rovides o ne o f t he d istinctions u sed i n c ategorization .

2 40

P OTTERY S HERDS F ROM I SI I N IPESSA

C ollected 8 0 y ears a go f rom I zighiri i kpessa w hich h as t he s ame o ne a s I lobi — o n a t ributary o f t he A ke r iver.

U kpu A ke 0 01 7 7

0

c m

C ollected i n 1 976 f rom E kae i kpessa.

U kpo ( cup o f c halk) 0 02 7 7

0

1 /6/77

5cm

O rhoue F rom E kae i kpessa.

0 31 ( not t o s cale)

F rom I lobi i kpessa.

f ine s tring r oulette

b ) a nd c ) d ated t o 1 500 + 8 0 a .d. t herm— o luminescence.

( not t o s cale) F rom I lobi i kpessa.

( not t o s cale)

F rom I lobi i kpessa. T he r elationship d epicted f or t hese t wo v essels i s h ypothetical.

2 41

P OTS F OUND I N A W ATERPATH ( After R oese:1981;195,195) T hese m ini—pots w ere c ollected n ear t he O khuo r iver a bout 2 5 k ilometers n orth o f B enin C ity ( see * m ap b elow f or e xact l ocation i n N .I.F.O.R .). I t i s s uspected t hat t hey w ere u sed i n s hrines.

5 cm

5cm

,. . . . . . . 1 0

OKHUO 2 0

1 0 '

•

0 "4 1 °0 2 30 9' I>

8

OKUNEUVBE‘ ° 1 3

2 2 r • Dc)

MWENR 3 4

r K 9 W E

3 5

3 8 1

c 7 3 1

mi d, 1 1

1 4

2

5

2 4 1

1 5

3

4

3 2 5

1

I S IUWA 2 8

2 7 1 1

1 8

1 1

1 km -\

2 42

W A N

P ots c ollected b y J ohn P icton 1 .

i .

Enye

w ith

n awere,

i i.

Enyeobi

2 .

C ooking p ot

3 .

L arge w ater s torage p ot,

4 .

N o d etails a t B .M.

5 .

B ig

n on

i n awere .

O rnamental p ots

l ids u sed i n m arriage c eremonies

water

f or C assava.

s torage

p ot

O kene m arket. O ja .

f ired

a t

l ow

t emperatures

t o

mike

i t

p orous : e vaporation t hen k eeps t he water c ool . S ince t he v essel i s n ot v ery s trong i t i s n ormally k ept i n o ne p lace i ndoDrs t o a void b reakage . 6 .

E nyugeli w ater p ot.

7 .

N o d etails a t B .M .

8 .

A ge.

9 .

P ot

W ine p ot. f or

Guinea

c orn

B eer

( pot

n ormally

r eturned

t o

v endor).

O kene m arket. 1 0.

E nye Yam b oiling p ot.

1 1.

A bosomi - p ots w ith l ids

1 2.

A bobegele.

1 3.

O gogo. p ots

f or s tews.

small p ot u sed e ither a s a l id f or l arge water s torage

o r a s a p ot

f or c ooking m edicine.

1 4.

B M 2 30.

1 5.

A kpa

1 6.

E nyishoko.

1 7.

O rnamental d ish f or f easts.

l amp.

All t hese p ots were e xamined i n t he E thnography B ritish Museum .

2 43

s torerooms

o f

t he

P OTS C OLLECTED I N N ORTHERN E DO A ND I GBIRA B Y J OHN P ICTON ,

1 971.

1

1 2

3

BM 2 28

1 3 BM 2 30

4 1 4 BM 2 3 4: ): 1

3

1 5 BM 2 3 1

1

2

f ire—blackened

1 6

BM 2 32

1 7 9 BM 2 33 BM 2 09

0 1 1 17 1 17 . 1 f l.

-cement r epair 2 44

0

1 0 c m

O khunmyun p ottery ( mainly f rom c laimed o riginal s ite)

,

• a

C m,

2 45

r ecently d eserted

P ottery f rom U seni

-

-

2 46

R adii o f P otsherd R ims a nd N ecks Average F orm

N umber

R adius

S .D.

o f S herds

R adii a nd S tandard D eviation .1 0

5 8 .8 9 .6 7 .8 1 1.0

2 .3 ± 2 .3 2 .7 3 .1

9 5 1 18 3 9 1 6

P SL 9 R LP 1 0 S CR 1 1

8 .6 1 0.1 1 0.9

± 2 .7 ± 2 .6 3 .2

4 3 2 4 1 7

S CR 1 1B C KW 1 2 H AN 1 3

8 .9 7 .9 1 5.0

± 2 .9 ± 2 .2

F LB L BP L BP L BP

1 4 1 5A 1 5B 1 5C

1 0.3 8 .0 1 2.3 1 1.0

± ± ± ±

L BP 1 5G L BP 151 1 L BP 1 5M

1 4.9 1 2.7 1 0.5

± 2 .9 ± 1 .9 3 .0

1 3 1 4 1 9

L BP L BP L BG L BF L BL C GB

9 .4 1 2.8 1 0.2 1 1.2 1 1.5 1 3.9

± 2 .6 3 .5 ± 3 .3 ± 4.2 ± 2 .0 ± 5 .0

5 5 5 5 4 3 3 1 3 3 6

I GB 2 0 F GB 2 1

1 1.5 1 1.4

± 3 .0 ± 3 .1

2 3 1 1

D LB W FP S QE C MB

2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

1 1.9 1 3.8 1 1.3 1 1.8

± ± ± ±

1 3 6 4 2 2 7

M SC 2 7 m 27 H

1 0.1 1 3.1

± 3 .2 3 .2

U PW 2 9 U 30 A u 30 P

1 2.2 1 0.8 5 .9

± 2 .9 ± 1 .5 1 .8

I . J 31 B U 32 C U 33 D

8 .5 1 0.6 9 .0

± 2 .6 ± 2 .6 2 .9

1 4 1 9 3 0

U 34 E U 34 Z U 35 F

1 0. 8 .5 1 1.1

± 2 .6 + 2 .8

1 7 2 8

UW

1 2.0

+ 2 .7

1 2

6 .7 8 .0

+ 2 .0

1 8 *

1 5N 1 5P 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

3 6

N ecks: S mooth R ucked

U nclassified: 1 0.0

I

5 6 7 8

2 .9 3 .1 2 .2 1 .9

2 .4 3 .3 3 .4 2 .8

I

P EB P ER P ES P ET

e i l ls

•

9 9 1 1 0 8 1 6 8

•

•

6 6 6 5

2 * + 3 .8

1

•

•

1 50 *

R im a nd n eck s herd r adii w ere m easured b y m atching t hem a gainst c oncentric r adii d rawn o n c ard. M any s herds, t hough, w ere t oo s mall f or a ny a ccurate m easurement. * T hese c ategories w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he c omputer a nalysis. .2 47

P ercentage V alues o f S herd V ariables

V ariab le

w ithin

F abric C ategories

S andy

W hite T emper

I shan E tsako T otal

I shan E tsako T otal

I shan E tsako T otal

0 .7 9 .7 1.9 0 .7? 0 .7 7 9 .7 3 .7 0 .7 2 .2 _ 1 4.9

5 .5 1 4.9 1 6 .5 _ 5 .5 1 .8 0 .7 0 .7 2 .2 1 7 .4

5 .3 3 1.6 1.8 _ 1 .3 3 .9 1 .3 _ 9 .2

3 .0 1 .5 4 .5 0 .7 0 .7 1 .5 _ 1 .5 1 .8 0 .7 2 .8 _ _ 1 .5 0 .7 4 .5

3 .9 1 .3 3 .9 2 .6 , 9 .2 _ _ _ 2 .6 1 .3 2 .6 _ 1 .3 _ 6 .6

3 .8 1 .1 3 .8 2 .2 1 .6 3 .8 _ _ 2 .2 1 .6 0 .5 2 .7 0 .5 1 .1 0 .5 6 .0

1 09

7 6

1 85

C SR I SR F SR P CT M SC 2 PC C MB C GR E NC T RS I NC G RV C R 1 C R2 C R3

1 2 3 5 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 6 2 0 2 1 2 3

5 .6 _ _ 5 .6 5 .6? 1.1 _

' 1. 2 • 4.2 _ 4 .2 _ 4 .2 _

4 .8 2 .4 _ 2 .4 2 .4 2 .4? 7 .1 _

P IA P IB B IA B IB P EB P ER Pe R LP S CR H AN F LB L BP L BP L BP L BG L BF L BL S QE C MB M SC U PW U 30 U 31 U 32 U 33

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 0 1 1 3 1 4 1 5A 1 5B 1 5D 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 4 2 5 2 7 2 9 A B C D

2 2 .2 1.1 _ 5 .6 5 .6 1 2.5 _ 2 2 .2 _ 5 .6 -

_ 4 .2 _ 2 9.2 _ 4 .2 4 .2 _ 2 9 .2 _ -

II

7 .1 _ 1 9.0 2 .4 2 .4 2 .4 . 7 2 .1 _ 2 6 .2 _ 2 .4 -

0 .7

3 . 0

0 . 6 -

5 .2 2 .6 2 .0 0 .7 1 .3 6 .2 2 .0 4 .2 0 .3 0 .7 3 .0 0 .3 1 .6 0 .3 0 .3 1 .6 1 .3 0 .7 1 ,6 0 .3

1 8

2 4

4 2

1 35

1 69

3 04

T otal N o, N otes:

9 .0 3 .0 3 .0 0 .7 3 .0 5 .2 2 .2 _ 1 .5 3 .7 3 .7 0 .7 0 .7 3 .7 0 .7 007 -

2 .4 1 .6 3 .0 5 .9 5 9 .8 3 8 .2 0 .3? _ 0 .3? 1 .8 4 .6 1 .6 0 .6 0 .3 0 .3 1 .2 1 .6 1 .2? 0 .7? 1 .2 0 .7 7 .7 1 0 .8 2 .4 2 .4 1 .2 0 .6 7 .1 1 .8 1 .6 0 .6 2 .4 0 .6 1 .8 0 .6 -

M etallic G rey

2 4.0 1 4.8 _ _ 0 .5 4 .9 1 .6 0 .5 0 .3 1 .6 1 4.2

1 )

T he p ercentages a re o nly f or v ariables o n i ndividual s herds w ith a d istinctive f abric d iagnosis. T his i s t he o nly d irect r elating o f f abric t o v ariables; i n t he m ain a nalyses i t h as o nly b een d one i ndirectly a s t otals w ithin t he c ollection.

2 )

T he t otals s hown h ere a re o nly f or I shan a nd E tsako. T here w as n o s ystematic f abric a nalysis o f d iagnostic s herds w ithin t he B enin K ingdom , ( there b eing o nly a r ather r apid a nalysis o f U DNR s herds), a lthough C onnah n oted P lA 1 b eing s andy i n C l3th c ontexts a nd a t obacco-pipe w ith m etallic g rey f abric w as c ollected a t O ka . O n t he h ypothesis t hat S andy , W hite T emper a nd M etallic G rey f abrics r elate r espectively t o a n a pproximate e arly , m iddle, l ate s equence, t he u nderlining o f a ll t otals o ver 5 % p icks o ut l ikely c hronological v ariables.

3 )

2 48

P reliwinary C ategories u sed

I l

( cont.

+ 0

+ P ainting

S ite n ame/no

R ed-slip

+ C oordinates

W hite

C ulture

B lack-burnished

S ub-culture

* U nidentified . R oulettes * 1

I ya

S econdary

I ya

V alley S lope s herds

T otal w eight N o. D ec/Rim W t.

D ec/Rim

N o.

D ec

* W

* A v.

t hickness

* A v.

t hickness U DNR

" I t

A vu

"

S heet

t hickness a ll

s herds

* X

" b ody + T obacco-pipe

I I

G in-bottles

N umber o f R ims

"

s O ther

D ecorated R ims U ndecorated

S tring R oulettes V ery c oarse

D ec

P erforated

s herds

U DNR

V

3

N o-man's-land

T otal N o.

+ U

* 0

O ther I ya

N o.

S heet

S heet l ( cont.)

S heet I

P rimary

i n S herd C lassification

* N o.

C oarse

B lack G rey

"

o f C ordons

B rown

E verted

F CSR

Y ellow

S traight

CFSR

R ed

I n

F ine

W hite

V ery F ine

R ounded

M etallic

C lose-set

S quared

W hite

g rey

t emper

* G ritty

W ide-spaced

B ifid

L oose

D ouble B ifid

T ight

* S mooth N ecks

* G ood c ondition

R ucked N ecks

* F air c ondition

C riss-cross T wo d irection W avy l ine

* P oor c ondition

+ B ody c ordons

A verage w eight

S ingle B ifid

S tippling R oulette P unctate

* 0 -5mm

C luster P unctate

* 5 -10mm

C ircles

* o ver

M iscellaneous

S andy

* O ther c omments

l cm A bbreviations u sed:

• S houlder c /1

+ C arved R oulettes 9

3

S ingle

N ou

N umber

B ifid

D ec.

D ecorated

U pturned

W t.

W eight

U DNR

U n-decorated,

F CSR

F ine c oarse

s tring

C FSR

r oulette C oarse f ine

s tring

c il

r oulette C ordon/ledge

A

4 * 5 -10 + C ombing C ross-hatched T riangular W avy-line I ncision G rooving

n on-rim

1 K EY t o

4

C hannelling E ncrustation + R ustication * M otifs 2 49

s ymbols u sed

•

N ot u sed

•

D ivided

i n f inal

0 •

C ombined i n f inal c lassification U sed f or i ron s lag

i n f inal

c lassification c lassification

P reliminary E xamination o f N odular C arved R oulettes ( CR3 2 2) K EY :

N odule S hape

M ain A lignment/Pattern S D D c W

S quared G rid D iagonal D iagonal, c ontinuous W ickerwork t ype

3 l t

6

B enin K ingdom S ites: I wu O mi 2 I kpe 7 4-5

1 2

D c

3 / 4

0

8

R ounded s quare C ircle R ounded e lipse L enticular e lipse D iamond e lipse S quared d iamond R ounded r ectangle R ectangle

3 /4 3 /4/5

D /S

1 / 6

D& D /S?

5 /6 1 2 /7 1 /7

I shan S ites: 3 3kV :

P 51 P 55 P 63 P 63-4 P 67 P 85 P 85-6 P 92 P 101 P 108

1 32kV : 2 50-1x 2 51-2x 2 53-4x 2 54-5x 2 64 2 67-8x 2 76-7x 2 77-8x 2 78-9xC 2 82-3x 2 83-4x 2 95-6x 2 97-8x O ther: E goro A mede A luda

1/ 3/5

D c

1 /5? 1 /5

D c D c D c 1 /5 1 /6 1 1

D / S D /S

1 /2 & 1 /7 1 /7 1 /7

D c

7 1 /7 6 7 /8

D

1 /7 1

E tsako S ites: 1 32kV : 3 01-2x 3 03-4x 3 10-11x 3 50-1x 3 62-3x 3 75-6x 3 78-9x 4 02-3x 4 15-6x 4 27-8x 4 55-6x 4 56-7x 4 57-8x 4 59-60x

1 /2 1 /2 & 5 /6/7 ? 1 /2/7 1 /2 1 /5 4 /5 & 5 /6 3 /4 1 /2/6

D c

5 /6/7 3 4 2 7 7 1 '8 2 50

& S

7 /8

1 /7 7 ?

& W

C orrelation o f P ottery S herd F orms a nd D ecorations D ecorations H

e ee C . )

P IA P 1B B lA B 1B E B P ER P ES P ET P SL R LP S CR S CR C KW H AN F LB L PB L PB L BP L BP L BP L BP L BP L BP L BG L BF L BL C GB I GB F GB D LB W FP S QE C MB P FT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 1B 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5A 1 5B 1 5C 1 5G 1 5H 1 5M 1 5N 1 5P 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

M SC M SC M SV U PW U 30 U 30 U 32 U 33 U 34 U 35 U 30 U W T P1

2 7 2 7H 2 8 2 9 A B C D E F P 3 6

T otals

H

8 1

3

1 2

1

5

C I )

t r 1

t ` -

(2 4

5 3

1 2

2 1 3

" . 1 1

2

2

1

1

1 ? 4 1

2 2

4 1

1 3

C \ I

4 1 1 1 1

1

1

1 1

1 7 1 2

3 2 3 2 1

3 1 1 2

a i r ,

z

C \ I

C . )

C . )

6 1 7 3

1 1

3

1 ?

1

1 1

t r 1

2

1 1

1 31 1

1 1 1

2 2

1

3

1 1 2 1

3 2 1 3

1 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 71 9 3 2

2

1 1

1

1 2 8

1 1 3 4 1 0

. °

1

3 1

1

1 3

1 1

3

4

6 4 1 3 8 1

1

1 2

1 8 726 1 1 5 1 1

1 1 1

5

6

2

1 2 1 4

2 1

1

1 4 1 6

9 1 8 2

2 1

3 9 2 1 9 1

1

1

2 9 3 1 8

1

2 9 1

1

4 1

8

2 8

1 4

1

3

1 1 ?

2

1 2 4

4 2

1

1 1

2

6 1

1

2 1

1

1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 7

1

1 1

1 4

1 6 1 3 0 3 3 4

1

1

4 2

2 2 12 2 8

1

1

3 0 1 5 2 4 1 6 4 6 5 0 4 0 4 7 8 5 7 0 8 2 9

2 51

1 7 4 3 1 0

I II.

C .

C OMPUTER A NALYSIS O F P OTTERY S HERDS

T he h ighly s pecialized n ature o f a rchaeological c omputer p rog ramming m eant t hat t he c hoice o f a nalysis m ust l ie m ore w ith t he a dvice g iven b y a n e xperienced a rchaeological p rogrammer t han w ith a ny v iews o f t he f ield w orker. F rom a nalyses a t B enin C ity, I wo A leru, K ebbi v alley a nd A fikpo, a s w ell a s b y r eputation, i t was c lear t hat S .G.H. D aniels k ind o ffer t o p rogram a n a nalysis r elevant t o t he r equirements o f t his p roject c ould h ave c ome Uom n o b etter s ource. S .G.H. D aniels' s elected f rom h is p rograms, a ll s pecifically d es igned t o m eet d ifferent a rchaeological r equirements, t he ' Lentifgx A nalysis' - a n e quivalent B asic p rogram f rom h is A RCHON p ackage. ' O ther m ajor t ypes o f a nalysis w ere c onsidered u nsuitable; n on-Linear M ulti-Dimensional S caling g uaranteed n o u nique s olution, w hereas t he L entifer A nalysis d id: a lso i t w ould h ave b een v ery t ime-consuming a nd e xpensive, p articularly w ith t he l arge a nd c umbersome m atrix t hat w ould h ave b een r equired w ith t he l arge n umber o f a ssemblages i n t his p roject. A F actor o r P rincipal C omponents A nalysis a ssumes t hat t he r elationship o f o bserved v ariables w ith t he f actor ( eg. t ime) c an b e e xpressed i n a s traight l ine, a nd c ould n ever h ave c oped w ith s herd v ariables w hich i ncreased a nd t hen d ecreased o ver t ime; w hereas t he L entifer A nalysis c ould d o t his. I n

t he

L entifer

a nalysis

f or t his p roject

t he

p rosented a s a m atrix o f a ssemblages a gainst t heir a nd ( in s ome a nalyses o nly) f abric/colour v ariables.

r aw

d ata

w as

f orm , d ecoration T he p roportions

o f t hese v ariables w ithin e ach a ssemblage w ere t hen d etermined a nd t he t ransformed d ata m atrix u sed f or a ll s ubsequent c alculations. O ne o f t he a ims o f m inimizing e xplains

t he a nalysis w as t o m aximize b etween-group v ariance w hilst t he w ithin-group v ariance b y u se o f t he m ean. D aniels

t he p rocess

s imply:

" The b asis o f t he m ethod i s t he a ssumption t hat e very a rtifact w as m ade a t a p articular t ime, a nd t hat i t i s t herefore v alid t o s peak o f a n ' average d ate' f or a ny g roup o f a rtifacts. A verage d ates a re p ostulated f or e ach u nit, f rom w hich a n a verage d ate f or e ach c ategory i s c alculated. T he c ategory a verages a re t hen u sed t o r ec alculate t he u nit a verage d ates. T he p rocess i s r epeated u ntil t he t wo s ets o f a verage d ats c onverge o n a u nique s olution".

( 1975;

1 4).

B etween e ach i teration t he r esulting v alues w ere n ormalized ( 'pegged' a nd ' stretched') a nd c onvergence w as c onsidered t o h ave b een a chieved w hen s uccessive v alues f or u nits o r v ariables d iffer b y l ess t han a s pecified f igure. 51 T he o utput o f e ach a nalysis c onsisted o f t hree a xes, e ach o rthogonal t o o ne a nother, a s a t hree-dimensional r ep resentation m ore a ccurately r eflects t he c omplexities o f t he f unct ional, c ultural, c hronological a nd i diosyncratic v ariations i nherent i n t he s herd a nalysis. T hese a xes f or c ategory v ariables a nd u nit a ssemblages w ere o nly s eparated b y o ne i teration , a nd b oth w ere l isted i n t he f inal o utput.

E ach a xis p roduced a n o rdering o f

t he d ata:

t he

f irst a xis r eflected t he m ost i mportant d ifferences w ithin t he p roport ioned d ata, t he s econd a xis d ealt w ith t he n ext m ost i mportant, w hilst t he t hird a xis p roduced a y et l esser o rder o f d ifferences. T hese a xis o rderings w ere t ermed t he ' culture s equence c hronologies', t hough

t here

w as

n o

g uarantee

2 52

t hat

t he

o rderings

r eflected

c hronological

c hange;

c ulture

a lso i mportant f actors

were

s ince d ifferences o f

f unction o r

a ble t o a ffect

t he

g eographical c ulture

s e-

q uence. I t w as t herefore n ecessary t o e stablish c hronological ' prejud ices b y r eference t o r elated c ircumstantial d ata b efore s election o f t he a xis g iving a c ulture s equence m ost i n a ccord w ith t rue c hronology ( below ; 2 56-261). T he ' time-track' o r ' culture t ime d epicted b y t his s elected a xis m ay o r m ay n ot b e o n t he s ame a bsolute s cale a s t rue t ime ,

b ut p roceeds

i n a pproximately t he s ame d irection .

D aniels p roduced

t hree r eports o n t his

p roject.

S election a nd c omparison o f t he b est c hronological a xes. I n a n i deal a nalysis, w here t here i s a p reponderance o f u nmixed a ssemblages, t he m ain c ulture s equence c hronology w ould b e i ndicated b y a s hallow p arabolic c urve.

H owever,

t he w ide g eographical s pread

o f t hese c ollections, t heir s mall a verage s ize a nd t he d ifferences o f s uch s ites a s U nuame a nd O gba S tream ( above; meant t hat p roportions

f unctional 1 64, 1 88)

f actors o ther t han c hronology i nfluenced t he d iffering o f v ariables i n t he d ifferent a ssemblages; a nd o ther

p rocedures h ad t o b e a dopted t o d etermine t he b est t ime-track f rom t he c hronologies. T he m ost p roductive o f t hese w as t he s election f rom e ach c ulture c hronological

a rea o f t he a xis a pparently m ost r epresentative o f v ariation. S ince t here s eems t o h ave b een s ome g eo-

g raphical m ovement o f o ne c ulture o ver t ime i n t his p articular s ituat ion, t his c ompounded t he p roblems o f d istinguishing c hanges a rising f rom d ifferences i n l ocation/regional c ultural a rea a nd t hose a rising f rom c hronological c hange w ithin a c ulture. T o a l arge e xtent, t heref ore, t he ' best c hronological a xis' c ould o nly b e t he o ne w hich e xhib ited t he m ost f avourable r atio o f g raphical v ariation . T he

d etermination

c hronological v ariation

o f c riteria t o s elect

t his

a xis

t o

w as

g eo-

f airly

s imple. S ome o bvious c hronological d ifferences b etween e arly a nd l ate s ites a long t he 3 3kV l ine a t E kpoma h ave a lready b een d escribed ( above ; 1 74-175). O ther a pproaches u sed s ite p rovenance a nd/or g eog raphical l ocation a s b road d eterminants o f c hronology: r ecent m idd ens, s ites d eserted w ithin l iving m emory, r andom c ollections, s urf ace/sub-surface s herds a nd t heir l ocation i n r espect o f t he i ya a ll p rovided a r ough i dea o f t he o verall c hronology a nd w ere i nstrumental i n e liminating t he m ost u nsuitable a xes ( below; 2 56-261). F orm , d ecor ation t eria.

a nd A t

c hoice was

f abric v ariables c onstituted t he o ther m ain s et o f c rit he m ore r ecent e nd o f t he c hronological s pectrum t he n ot d ifficult:

p resent p ottery,

E uropean i mports,

C onnah's

c arved r ouletting a nd a ny v ariables p articularly a ssociated w ith t hem c ould b e p icked o ut w ithout t oo m uch t rouble. A t t he e arly e nd o f t he s pectrum

C onnah's

f orm 6 ( cf.

M SC 2 7)

i n c onjunction

w ith

r elated

s hrine p ots c ollected b y D . B en-Amos a nd R oese ( above; 2 41-242) a nd s herd v ariables f ound a lmost e ntirely i n s ites c onsidered o n o ther c riteria t o b e e arly, l ogical ' prejudices'. I n

p rovided s lightly l ess

t he B enin K ingdom c ulture a rea,

s atisfactory

A xis 1 e merged a s

c hrono-

t he

b est

i ndicator o f c hronological v ariation i n t he w hole a nalysis, t hough s ome c aution w as n eeded w hen a pplying t he r esults t o c ollections f rom t he 1 49).

e dge o f

t heir c ulture a rea

( eg.

I n t he I shan c ulture a rea,

t he W FP 2 3 p ots a t U do: A xis 2 w as

2 53

t he b est

a bove;

c hronological

i ndicator: I shan A xis 1 c oncentrated o n t he m ajor d ifference b etween c oarse a nd f ine s tring r ouletting a nd s o p roduced a l ess s atisfactory c hronological a nalysis w as

s pread t han A xis 2 . I nterpretation o f t he E tsako p roblematic b ecause n o c ollections h ad b een m ade f rom

k nown r ecent s ites, a nd t he f ull r ange o f c hronological v ariables m ay n ot h ave b een p resent t o s tretch o ut t he r ecent e nd o f t he s equence a dequately. H owever, A xis 3 o f t he G eneral a nalysis s howed a c lose c orrelation w ith I shan A xis 2 a nd p rovided s ome b asis f or a n o verall E tsako c hronology,

w ith t he a dded a dvantage t hat

t here w as l ess

t o w orry a bout t he c hronological l inking o f A xes f rom t he c ulture a reas o f I shan a nd E tsako.

t ures

n eed

d ifferent

T he i ncompatibility o f t he B enin K ingdom ( B.K.) a nd I shan c uli n t he G eneral a nalysis r equired t hat B .K . A xis 1 a nd I shan A xis

2 s omehow b e r elated t o o ne a nother; a nd t his w as a chieved b y i ncludi ng a ssemblages c ommon t o a djacent c ultural a reas i n e ach s eparate a nalysis:

t hese

w ere t ermed t he ' marginals

a s

t hey l ay

a long

t he

b order z one o f t he p resent-day c ulture a reas. I n t his way s ome i nterl inking w as p ossible b etween B enin , I shan a nd E tsako a xes. S ince t he v alues a long c oncentrated

t he a xes p roduced b y t he L entifer a nalysis t ended t o t owards t he c entre a nd d ispersed a t t he p eripheries,

b e a

m ore e ven d istribution w as a chieved b y t aking t he s quare-roots o f t hese v alues b efore a gain c omparing a nd i nterlinking t he s elected a xes

( below ; T hree

5 15). a pproaches

w ere a dopted i n t he d ivision o f

l inked a xes i nto s tages o f c ulture-time. t he

a xis a t

t hese

T he f irst a pproach

i nterd ivided

a pproximately r egular i ntervals b y s electing g aps b etween

t he m ajor g roupings: t he s econd m easured e qually-spaced i ntervals a long t he c ulture s equence: t he t hird p laced e qual n umbers o f a ss emblages i nto e ach s tage. A ll a pproaches p roduced v ery s imilar r esults, d espite t heir r elative m erits a nd d rawbacks, s o t here w as n o r eason f or p referring a ny o ne t o t he o thers. 52 S ince t he r elationship o f c ulture-time t o c hronological t ime i s n ot c onstant, o wing t o v ariat ions i n t he r ate o f c ultural c hange o ver t ime, t he r esulting s tages o nly p rovide a v ery a pproximate t rue c hronology. T he r ecent e nd o f t he a ssemblages a re a ssumed t o b e p redominantly C l9th o r C 2Oth; t he d ouble-ledged b owls a nd t obacco-pipes a t I kpe m ay i ndicate t he l ateC l7th/early-C18th; r adiocarbon d ates f or I du a nd O hovbe i ya a s w ell a s t hose f rom B enin p rovide s ome b asis f or C l3th-C15th d ates i n t he m iddle o f

t he s equence; w hilst

t he e arly c lustering i n n orthern E tsako

m ay p rove t o b e l inked t o t he C 9th-C14th o ccurrence o f l arge-scale i ron-smelting i n t he K abba-Okene a rea j ust t o t he n orth o f E tsako ( Obayemi:

1 977;

P ers.Comm .).

V ery t entative d ates h ave b een a ssigned

t o t he r elevent s tages: t hese a re f ar f rom b eing s acrosanct - e spec ially f or a ny i ndividual c ollection - b ut t hey p rovide a n o verall i mpression o f w hat p robably h appened. o n d istribution m aps

m ent,

T he s tages h ave b een

l ocating a ll s herd a ssemblages

( below ;

d epicted 2 98-299).

T he m ost o bvious i nterpretation o f t he s trong s outhward m ovea pparent f rom e ven a c ursory g lance a t t he e arly s tages o f t hese

m aps, i s t hat t here w as a m igratory i nflux o f s avannah p eoples i nto t he f orest. H owever, b efore t his t heme c an b e d eveloped, o ther e xplan ations, w hich a ttempt t o d eny t he v alidity o f t he a nalysis o r t o e xplain i t a s a p attern o f c ultural d iffusion, n eed t o b e d iscounted. T he m ost s erious c hallenge t o t he v alidity o f t he t otal a nalysis l ies i n t he a pparent a bsence o f r ecent a ssemblages i n t he E tsako c ulture

2 54

a rea. I n p art t his m ay s tem f rom t he f ailure t o c ollect k nown m odern a ssemblages f rom p resent-day m iddens a nd f or t he a nalysis t o r ely s olely o n s herds c ollected a long t he 1 32kV l ine, w hich t ends t o a void p resent s ettlement. I t i s a lso s uspected t hat t he l arge a rea c overed b y t oday's E tsako c ulture h ad a c omplex a nd t urbulent h istory, w hich h as c ontiibuted m uch t o t he w eakness o f t he E tsako c hronological s equence. J T he v alidity o f t he t otal a nalysis l ies m ainly i n i ts i nternal c onsistency : t he e arliest a ssemblages o f t he s eparate B enin K ingdon a nd E tsako a nalyses b oth l ie t o t he n orth o f t heir c ulture a reas i n h armony w ith t he o verall p attern. I n a ddition , i ts e arliest v ariables - C R1 2 0, S CR 1 1 a nd p ossibly R LP 1 0 -w ere d iscovered a lmost

e ntirely w here e xceptionally h eavy b ulldozing o r g ullying

h ad

e xposed d eep, s ub-surface p rovenances. T o d iscount t he i dea o f a s outhward c ultural d iffusion , q uite d istinct f rom a ny m igration , i s n ot s o s imple: i t i nvolves b oth a m ore d etailed s crutiny o f t he g eog raphical a nd c hronological o ccurrence o f s herd v ariables ( section I IID: b elow) a nd a n o verview i ncluding c orrobatory e vidence f rom l inguistics

a nd

t he i ya

( section I V:

2 55

b elow).

A xis v alues f or o ccupation

l ayer s herds e xcavated i n B enin C ity

C QI S 2, C QII L 2 , C QIII L 1/2.

C QI L 4A , C QII L 3A , C Q III L 4.

C Q I F 5A ,7 , C QII L 7 , C QIII L 8.

C QI L 9, C QIII L 14.

( Modern)

( C19th)

( Early C l8th)

( Late C l5th)

0.2390 0 .8030 0 .1527

0.1908

0 .0602

0 .2299 *

0 .4094 0 .0650

0 .0626 0 .0476

0.3742 * 0.0850 *

S econd R eport ( September 1 979) B enin K ingdom A xis 1 A xis 2 A xis 3 G eneral A nalysis A xis 1 A xis 2 A xis 3

0 .4121 1 .5718 0 .1233

0 .2857 0 .0061

0 .0486 0 .0452

0 .4427

0 .3795 @ 0 .2516 * 0 .2789 @

A xis 1 A xis 2

3 .8713 0.4440

0 .6417 0.0537

0 .0038 0.0556

0.4451 * 0.0211 @

A xis 3

0 .4503

0 .0620

0 .0695

0.2221 @

0 .7478

T hird R eport ( November 1 979) B enin K ingdom

C onnahls B enin C ity e xcavations w ere t he m ost o bvious s ource o f d ata w ith w hich t o t est t he c hronological v alidity o f t he v arious B enin K ingdom a xes f rom D aniels' S econd a nd T hird R eports. I n t hese e xcavations, t hose f rom t he C lerk's Q uarters s ite p roduced t he m ost s atisfactory s tratified s equence. O f t hese s trata o nly t he f our o ccupation l ayers w ere l ikely t o h ave s herds w hich w ere m ore o r l ess c ontemporaneous - t he r est c onsisted o f p its, w alls a nd w all-debris o f u nknown p rovenance. A ll t he s herds f or e ach o ccupation l ayer f rom t he t hree e xcavation p its ( CQI, C QII, C QIII) w ere t hen t otalled a nd e ach s herd v ariable e xpressed a s a p roportion o f t hat t otal. T hese p roportions w ere t hen m ultiplied b y t he v alues f or t he r elevent s herd v alues f rom t he d ifferent a xes o f t he r eports b eing e xamined, a nd t he r esults t otalled f or e ach a xis. S ince t he s econd a nd t hird a xes c ould n ot b e n oramlized, o nly t heir r elative o rderings a re c onsidred t o b e i mportant. T hose a xes w hich h ave a n o rdering c onsistent w ith t he s tratigraphic d ata a re m arked w ith a n a sterisk ( *), w hereas t hose w hich a re c hronologically i nconsistent a re m arked w ith ( @). T he f irst a xis o f t he T hird R eport c ontained t he m ost c ollections, i ncluding m arginal s ites a lso a nalysed f or I shan ,

s o i t w as c hosen a s t he m ost

s uitable. T his c hosen a xis h as a lso b een a pplied t o a ll o f C onnah's e xcavated s tata (belo w; 257), b ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat c ombination o f v ariable v alues w as r equired t o a chieve p arity o f C onnah's a nd m y v ariable c ategories: t his m ay h ave r educed t he v alue o f t he a nalysis .

2 56

P OTTERY S HERDS:

B enin K ingdom A xis 1 v alues a pplied e xcavated i n B enin C ity. 1

t o C onnah's

e herds

B enin Museum S ite B MS B MS B MS B MS B MS E MS

I I I I I I I I I II

S P 1 S P 1 P 4 S

0 .0312 0.1560 0 .3412 0 .2037 0.4913 0.3687

B MS B MS

i ii I II

P 1 P 2

0.4461

B MS B MS

B MSVIII P 1 B MS V III I X B MS P 1 I X B MS B MS X 1 B MS X P 1/2 B MS X P B MS X P 2

o.4685

B MS B MS B MS

IV IV v

S P 1 s

0.2237 0.3526 0 .0816

B MS B MS

V V I

P 1 S

0.3021 0.4162

P 1

V I V II

B MS B MS

X I X I

P 1

B MSXIII

0.2621 -0 .4455 0 .1828

B MS

-0 .4053 0 .8126 0.2038 -0 .2861 0.4 122 o.5259 -0 .3851 0.1843 0.3479 0 .8105

X IV

S

0 .0208

B MS X IV B MS X V B MS X V B MS X V B MS XVI B MS X VI B MS XVI B MSXVII B MSXVII B MSXV1 11

P 1 S P 1 P 2 S P 1 P2 S P 1 S

0.3013 0.2609 0.1734

B MS X IX

P 1

-0.2204

0 .1486

0.4565 -0.4630 0.2533 0.1227 -0.3533 0 .6978

( S =S urface,

P =Pit)

CQ C Q

2 .5188

C lerk's Q uarters S ite C Q I C Q I C Q • C Q • C Q C Q C Q • C Q • C Q C Q I C Q I C Q I C Q I

S i S2

F l 0 .1381 L 5 1 .8153 F 11 0.4538 F 10 0 .4047

C Q CQ CQ C Q

• F547 -0.1552 • L lo 0.4763 • L 8 0.4520 • F 23 -0.0916

C Q CQ CQ

L 9 0.4346 F 12 0.3638

•

I L 1 CQ I C Q I I L 2

3 .2171

5 .5569 L 3 0.0952 L 4 0 .0597 L 4A 0 .4703 L 4B 0 .9035 F 7 0.0272 F 4 0 .5481 F8/9 0 .1747

I F 15*

0.3732

W D

0 .7185 S 2 .3032

H S

C Q I I L 3 0 .1509 WD I L CQ I 3A 0 .8055 H I 1 , 3B 0 .3194 g CQ I 0.2815 W CQ I I F2 CQ I I F3* -0.1805 W . 0.0580 w CQ I I F4

W D W D

C Q C Q CQ C Q CQ CQ CQ C Q

P H D G

H S W D

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CQ I I C Q I I C Q I I C Q I I

7 P H

L 7 F7

W = Wall,

0 .0956 H S 0.0750 P

L 13*-0.3845 S F 13 -0.1379 P L 9 0.4647 s

C Q CQ CQ

L io*-0.3805 SP

L 14*-0.3192 S FAO -0-5173 P

C Q CQ CQ

F2B -0.4387 P F20 -0.1435 P

CQ CQ C Q

P=P it,

DG =Decomposed G ranite i mported f rom t he N orth, H=H umus - u nderlined i f a n o ccupation l ayer, H S =Humus w ith s and, P H =P ost-hole. )

C Q

IV F 1

0 .6079

C ity W all, C ity Wall,

C Q IV S 1-5 0 .1658

Ogba Reservation

M odern

2 .4367

H umus V 0 .3969 , H umus V I -0.1788 F ormer S urface S oil

L 58

C Q C Q C Q C Q

L 8 0.1871 S L 12 0.4358 S

W D = Walling D ebris,

L 3 L 3A L 4

C Q C Q C Q C Q C Q CQ C Q

(* denotes incomplete nomenclature. S = Sand,

L 1/2

CQ CQ CQ C Q

H S 1 .0023 WD 0 .8643 WD 0 .6338

0 .8644 s -

F2 L 6 L 7 F4 F5 F 6 F7 L 8

0 .4320 VD 0 .3405 WD 0 .7089 WD 0.0775 0 .1019 -0.0611 0.0612 0 .0159

F3 L 9 F 9 L 10 L 11

-0.1001 -0.2646 -0.0755 0 .2472 -0.1668

F 10 L 12 L 13 L 14 L 15 F 13 L 16 F 11*

0.2217 PH -0.5552 -o.6854 -o.45o6 H S 0.5278 0.5688 0.2338 -0.2648

C Q IV S 610 Primary S ilt Primary S ilt V M ain Wall V I V I

0 .2972 -0.3165 -0.2443 -0.1867 -0.2186

Usama S ite Surface

0.2376

P it

1

P it

4

P it

2

P it

6

0.1098 0.1578

1

S .G.H.Daniels N ovember

0.2355 -0 .3135

1 979 p p21-22,

257

G .E.Connah

P it

5

P it

3

1 975.

-0.1967 0.4519

P rovenance o f S herd V ariab les o n B enin K ingdom S ites I .

D ecorations % d istribution b y n o.

V ariable C SR I SR F SR S QP P CT C LP

1 2

o f s herds

% d istribution b y n o.

D ug/BD

R andom

S elect

R ecent

. D ug/BD

R andom

5 3.0

5 7.4

0 .3

' 1 8.9 1 .2 0 .6 0 .2 4 .6

3 7.6 0 .5

8 5 2 5

1 00 1 4

2 .6

3 5

6 4

0 .2 3 .1

1 0

-

7 9 7 9 7 1

o f s ites

S elect 1 00

1 00 1 1

3

1 .0 3 .4

4

0 .3

5

7 .4

3 .1 8 .4

6

5 .9

9 .1

1 0 .6

1 2.5 0 .1

1 4.1

1 1.1

2 PC 8

4 .4 2 .4 5 .1

6 0 2 5 5 5 2 0

7

3 .0

1 .6

0 .6 2 .6

1 .7

9

5 5

5 6

0 .1 1 .1 0 .5 8 .5 2 .8

0 .1 1 .0 0 .7 2 .0

6 4 7 3 6

5 9

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 6

1 .2 0 .7 0 .2

-

1 4

4 7

0 .5

5 0 3 0

6 4 4 3 7 9

4 1 5 3 4 7

1 1 1 1 1

1 4

1 2 2 4 2 4

5 6 1 1

5 --

2 9

7 7

1 00 --

2 0

1 5

1 7

M SC 7 C MB C GR E NC T RS F NG I NC G RV R SP B LB C R3

1 .4 3 .6 0 .1

0 .8 2 .3 1 .2 2 .1 2 .2 0 .4 0 .4

1 .9 0 .2 -

1 7

4 .5 0 .1

1 9 2 2

0 .2 0 .1

0 .2

0 .6

C RA 2 3

0 .1

1 .5

1 0.1

1 0 .6 0 .2 1 7 .0

* Total N o. 9 34

8 83

9 94

4 23

-

5 2 0 2 0

4 5

5 5 5

7

3 5 2 3 6 5 3 7 1 7 7

R ecent

1 2

3 5

1 3 8 9 6 7 2 2

3 1

9

I I. F orms % d istribution b y n o. V ariable

D ug/BD

R andom

P IA 1

2 .4

3 .0

P IB B LA B IB P EB P ER P ES P ET P SL R LP S CR H AN F LB L BP L BG L BF L BL C GB I GB F GB D LB

2

6 .2

1 0.6

4

-

W FP S QE C MB P FT M SC M SV

3 5 6 7 8

9

1 .6

8 .7 3 .4 1.1 7 .1 2 .4

3 .0 1 .5 3 .0 3 .0 7 .5 1 .5 1 .5

1 0 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

3 .2

2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

5 .6

1 1.5

7 .9

9 .0

-

3 .4 -

9 .5

6 .0

-

U PW 2 9

U 30 * Total N o.

-

1 .6 0 .8 0 .8 7 .1

1 .5 1 .5 1 4.9

1 .6 -

3 .0 3 .0

4 .8 6 .3

9 .0 3 .0

-

3 .4

o f s herds

%d istribution b y n o. o f s ites

S elect

R ecent

D ug/BD

R andom

S elect

5 .3 1 4.8 5 .8 7 .7 1 .0 0 .5 1 .5 1 5.5

3 .6 1 2 .5 1 .8 7 .1 1 .8 8 .9 7 e1 1 .8 1 6.1 1 .8 3 .6 1 0 .7 5 .4 5 .4 1 .8

1 5 2 0

1 3

1 2

2 2

2 7 1 3

7 6

4 5

2 5 1 0 2 5 3 0 1 5 1 5 1 0 5 5 4 0 1 0 5 2 0

7 1 3 7

1 2 -

2 2 -

4 7 1 2

3 4 1 2

1 8

-

5 3 '

3 4 2

1 .9

1 0.6 2 .4 3 .9 3 .4 1 .5 2 .4 4 .3 4 .8

5

-

2 0

7 1 3 -

7 7 3 3 -

7

1 3 2 7 1 3 1 3

-

-

1 0

0 .5 0 .5

3 0

4 0

3 .4

1 00 3 .6

3 5

4 . .5

-

-

-

7

6

1 8 -

4 7 2 4 4 1 2 4 1 2 2 4 2 9 1 2

-

6 7 2 2 4 5 -

3 4 2 2

1

-

-

1 3 1 3

6 6 2 4

1

-

1 3

-

_

-

3 .6

-

4 .5

0 .5 2 .9

-

7 .9

2 0

1 3

3 6

1 26

6 7

2 07

5 6

2 0

1 5

1 7

2 58

R ecent

6

2 2 -

2 2 --

9

C hronology o f S ite P rovenances i n t he B enin K ingdom

B ulldozered & d ug s ites

R andom s urface

C laimed o riginal

s ites

s ites

P resent m iddens

LA T E • •

• • • • • •

• • •

• • •

EA R L Y

2 59

•

R elation o f S herd V ariables t o I ya a long t he 1 32 k V l ine, K ey:

1 ,

P rimary I ya;

2 ,

S econdary I ya;

3 , O ther I ya; N ML , N o-man's l and % o ccurrence o f s herds

N umbers o f s herds V ariable C SR I SR F SR S QP P CT C LP

1 2

3

4

5 6 m sc 7 2 PC 8 C MB 9 C GR 1 0 E NC T RS F NG I NC

1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

1

2

3 81 1 4

1 39

1 3 1

1 74

5 6

1

-

-

N ML

S lope

1

2

2 3 1 1 1 1

2 9 2

5 1 6 4 3 5

1 9 2 3 1 6

_ 2 1

1 00 6 8

6

5 6

7

1 0

4 2 8 2

1 7

5 5 5 5

6 3

-

2 -

2

-

-

6 5 9 3 9 l o 1 0 8 1 9

1 3

1 2

5 3

G RV 1 6 C R3 2 2

2 6 2 8

4

C 1 14 2 3

1 5

P lA 1 P IB 2 B IA 3

1 2

1 7 1 3

P EB P ER P ES P ET P SL R LP C KW

5 6 7 1 0V 1 2

5

L BP L BP L BP L BP

1 6

6 9

3 3 -

5 1

-

9 2 4

5 9

5 8 8 2

-

2 5 1 8 1 0 2 8

7 5 5 6 6 7 5 3

1

N ML

_ S lope

2 3 3

3 5 3 0

3 9 1 6

2 0

1 1 8

-

_ 1 5 _ 1 2 1 7

3 3 3

1 3

4 0 4 2

2 5 1 6

1 3 2 9

1 -

3 3

10

6 3

2

1

+MO

.M •

2

6

_

-

6 5

2 2 1 0

5

-

1 -

6 0

_ 4

1

B enin K ingdom

8 8

-

1 2

9 l o

_

1 00

3 _ _

6

_

3 3 _

_

5

_

_

_ 9 3

_

5 3 5 9 5 5

3 1

1 3

3

1 8

1 4

2 7

_

6

6 3 6 7 8 7

2 5 _ 1 3

1 3 _ _

_

-

-

-

_ -

_ -

-

-

-

1 -

1

_

. .

1 5A 1 5B 1 5H 1 5M

2 1 -

2 1 -

_ 4

_ 1 -

--

L BP 1 5N L BP 1 5P L BG 1 6 L BL 1 8 C GB 1 9 I GB 2 0 D LB 2 2

1 0

1 2 _ _ -

1

_ -

• I M

OM .

«'.

1

2 4 -

_

-

-

1 00

-

-

-

S QE 2 4 C MB 2 5

2 3 2

2 -

_

-

2 -

s 5

7

7

P FT M SC M SC M SV U 30 U 31 1 32 U 33

1 1 6

_ 1 2 2 2 1 -

1 1 2 -

4 -

8

6 0 3 3

_ 1 7

_ 4 4 0

4 _

4 7

2 7

5 0

3

1

2 1 4 2 -

1 00 1 00 6 7

4 3 3

3 3

_ _ -

_ _ 1

_ _ 1

2 6 2 7 2 7H 2 8 A B

D u 35 E

u w

2 1 3

4 1 2 4

4

3 2

7 3

9 03

3 28

_

2 77

_

6 0

6 6 2 60

3

2 5

2 2 -

8

1 3 1 0

-

2 1 2

9

_

2 6

2 1 -

3

4

_ 1 0

3 9

5

1 _

-

4

1 8

9

-

9

l o o 3 3

_

5 0

5 0

1 00 5 0

-

5 0 -

8 3

6 7

-

3

1 00 9 6 5

0

5

0

_ .

1 00 1 00 1 7 _ -

3

_

_ .

6 7

4

. 1. »

3 3

1 7 1 3 -

-

1 00

_

1 3 1 7 -

l oo 5 0 3 8

_ 5 0 3 8

-

5 5%

2 0%

1 7%

1 2

4 %

1 7

_

1 2

4 %

P aired p ottery s herd s ites i n t he B enin K ingdom: o ne c omparison o f a xis v alues t o d etermine t he b est c hronological f it S ite

R 2G1

R 2G2

R 2G3

R 3B1

R 3B2

R 3B3

Ekae 1 Ekae 2

0 .9034

0 .068 4

.119e

0 .30434

.0152 1

.1245t

1 .07 1

1 .291 1

.089 1

1 .1581 1

.13134

0 .2399 1

Ugbor 1 Ugbor 2

0 .914e 1 .5151

.3 1 4 .33

.2344 0 .349 1

.06554 2 .9811 1

.1097 1 1.57964

.26254 1 .6900 1

O ka i nside i ya O ka n iAru O via

0 .6314 1 .008 !

.4654 .065 1

0 .069 1 .1674

.21244 0 .2654 1

.3312t .0902 1

.2755, .2437 1

Azagba 1 Azagba 2

0 .708e

0 .19 t

0 .0294

0 .53944

0 .47161

.33004

1 .375 1

4 .291 1

0 .415 1

3 .0667 i

I wu o ld I wu n ew

0 .818 ( 0 .3994

.461t 0 .387 1

0 .324 1 0 .004.

.1631t 0 .2870 1

.1514t 0 .4730 1

.2163e 0 .3766 1

N IFOR 1

.7264 0 .804 1

.002 1 .1824

0 .004 1 .2424

.99684 0 .1146 1

0 .7838 1 0 .21944

0 .7175 1 .2898i

0 .903 1

.351t

.245 1

.014 t

.0472e

.2498t

0 .9

0 .288 1

.2074

0 .6058 !

0 .2511 1

.2290 1

0 .79 I .3814 0 .6084 0 .014 1

.2794 .019 1

.11724 0 .1152 1

.12774 0 .00611

.219 1 00743 ,

0 .9

.20 1 0 . 6 8 5 0 . 6 0 9

.18

0 .16 .484 1 1

0 0 .3 .0 11 95 1 0

.319 017 . 4

0 .6524 1 .231 1

0 .0174 1 .917 1

0 .08 1 0 .0034

0 022404 1 .5327 1

.0068 1 .60604

-01 345t 0 .5592 1

1 00%

5 0%

90%

Uwan C lub N . N .

o f A , o f A .

s ub. s ur.

O mi 1 O mi 2 O khunmwun

1 O khunmwun 2

Ute o ld Ute n ew C onsistency % N otes:

4

6 0%

90%

6 0%

1.2456

1 .5139 1

he p refixes R 2 a nd R 3 r efer t o t he s econd a nd t hird r eports 1 ) T p roduced b y S .G .H .Daniels i n S eptember a nd N ovember 1 979. l, G 2, a nd G 3 a re t he a xes o btained i n t he g eneral a nalysis 2 a) G o n a ll E tsako, I shan a nd B enin K ingdom s herds, a s s hown o n p p 1 03-118 i n t he s econd r eport. l, B 2 a nd B 3 a re t he a xes o btained i n t he B enin K ingdom p lus b ) B m arginals ( just i nside I shan t o t he n orth) a nalysis a s s hown o n p p 1 8-28 i n t he t hird r eport. 3 )

E t l a i e cl sa p l 2 r ig

e sn t X c l os ure c at c:nt

= -r ed lyshe l Ne cto l : 1 172

s ites w ith a n o bvious a ge d isparity ( e.g.

=mw

2in

p resent m idden h eaps/

s ites d eserted w ithin l iving m emory/ r andom c ollections f rom s ubsurface p rovenances e xposed i n r oad a nd w ater-pipe d itches). I n e ach c ase t he s ite t hought t o b e o lder h as b een p laced a bove t hat c onsidered t o b e m ore r ecent. 4 )

T he a rrows h ave b een d rawn f rom t he h ighest t o t he l owest a xis v alue f or e ach p air o f s ites. T he g reatest n umber o f a rrows g oing i n a ny o ne d irection p rovides a n a pproximate a ssessment o f c hronological c onsistency - h ere 1 00% i s t otally c onsistent a nd 5 0% t otally i nconsistent.

C onclusion: A xis 1 o f t he T hird R eport: A xis 2 o f t he S econd R eport , f airly c onsistent.

2 61

c hronologically c onsistent. a nd A xis 3 o f t he T hird R eport:

I II.

D D ISTRIBUTION O F S HERD V ARIABLES: c ontexts F ew a spects o f

g eographical a nd c hronological

t he s urvey p roved s o w orthwhfile a s

t he

e xamina-

t ion o f t he s patial d istribution o f s herd c ategory v ariables. C learly t he w idespread g eographical c overage o f t his s urvey l ent i tself t o t his s ort o f a nalysis, p articularly s ince t he c ontinuous c ollections a long t he 1 32kV a nd 3 3kV l ines e nsured a f air d egree o f r epresenta tiveness f or s tatistical p urposes - c ertainly t hey w ere m ore s uitable t han t he w idely s cattered a nd o ften ' non-random e xcavation s ites w hich h itherto h ave c haracterized s o m uch o f a rchaeological i nvestigat ion i n N igeria. I t w as h oped t hat b y p lotting e ach l ocation o ccurr ence o f a v ariable o n m aps a nd c ross-profile t ransects o f d ifferent s cales, a o btained.

w ide r ange o f p otentially v aluable i nformation c ould b e O n t he m acro-scale i t w as e nvisaged t hat t he g eographical

d istribution o f s herd v ariables c ould b e c ompared w ith t he a reas o f p resent-day l inguistic a nd e thnographic c ulture, a s i t w ould s eem t hat t hese c ulture a reas m ay h ave p ersisted u nchanged f or s everal c enturies ( Hair: 1 967; 2 47-267. B radbury : 1 973; 5 ). F rom t hese c omparisons a nd f rom

t he r esults o f

t he c ulture s equence c hronology i t

w as

e xpectge

t hat t he s ource a nd f low o f ' loaned' v ariables c ould b e r ecognized. O n t he m icro-scale, t here w ere h opes o f e xamining t he i nter-relations hips o f s herd v ariables a nd t he i ya. H owever, a s et o f p roblems i ntruded s is.

T his

a nd c hallenged t he r ationale o f s herd c ollection a nd s et o f p roblems

E ven i n i ts

i s

l ocal n omenclature,

' Idia's p ots',

t hing o f i ts e nigma f or i t i s i n f act o nly o ne p ot, i ts b roken n eck e merging f rom t he e arth a nd l eaves p artially

b uried,

a naly-

e xemplified b y ' Idia's p ots'. e xpresses

s ome-

t he t wo p arts i n w hich i t

o f i s

a nd i ts b roken s tate h aving b een l ong f orgotten b y

t he l ocal e lders. T he t raditions, r ecall t hat t his p ot w as p laced b y I dia, O ba E sigie's m other, o n t he m idden w here t he B enin a rmy e ncamped i n a bout 1 517 b efore l aunching i ts s uccessful i nvasion o f U do a cross t heh O via r iver ( above; 2 04-209): e very y ear s ince t hen, t he U nuame e lders c laim,

o fferings

t o I dia h ave b een p laced i n t hese ' pots'.

T he

p hysical c haracteristics o f t his p ot a re v ery d istinctive: a w ide f lared r im i s j oined b y a c uriously e longated a nd r inged n eck t o a r oundish b ody w ith w avy l ine a nd o verhanging c ordons ( above ; 3 28). T hese d istinctive c haracteristics a re a lso f ound o n s imilar p ots t aken f rom t he O ba's p alace i n 1 897 ( Roth : 1 903; 7 5 f igure 7 9), w hich a re k nown a s t he ' Nupe' p ots i n t he B ritish M useum ( Picton: 1 978; P ers. C omm.). T he c onnection o f t hese p ots w hith t he o riginal ' pot' i n t he m yths o f t he O via c ult ( Bradbury: 1 973; 1 87-188) 53 c ould a llow i nt eresting s peculation; b ut t heir c o-existence s hould c ome a s n o s urp rise, s ince b oth p erform s imilar, t hough r ather s pecial, c eremonial f unctions w ithin t he s ame c ultural a rea - t he B enin K ingdom . W hat i s m ost d isconcerting i s t hat t hree, p ossibly f our, o ther p ots, m ore n early i dentical t o ' Idia's p ots' i n f orm a nd f eature t han t he B enin p ots, h ave b een r ecorded i n E kiti, I fe a nd A buja locations u p t o 3 50 k ilometres a way f rom B enin,

a nd

i n a reas

o r l anguage ( Nigerian T rade J ournal: R oss: 1 970; 1 12 f igure 6 28. G arlake:

t otally u nrelated b y c ulture

1 969; 1 67. C ardew: 1 977; 8 3 f igure 1 3G).

1 952;

1 96.

H owever m uch o ne a ttempts t o e xplain s uch a r emarkable d istribut ion, p erhaps b y c omparing p ast B enin a nd N upe c ommercial o r m ilitary s pheres o f i nterest, t he f act r emains t hat a c omplete p ot t ype d ecorative m otifs a nd a ll - h as b ecome

2 62

t otally t ranscultural; a nd

t his

D ISTRIBUTION O F O NE UNUSUAL P OT T YPE I N N IGERIA

Ap o t f r om A bu ja D i s tr i c t T h i s e l egan t p o t w a s 1 8 i n . h i gh . I ti so fc o n s id e rab l e a g e a nd o fa s h ap e n ow s e ld om m ad e ( Cardew .M:Nigerian T raditional P ottery: N igeria 3 9:1952;196)

a s e

‚ a .

• • • •••

Wr

C eremonial W ater -pot f or • \ I L

O banifon, E kiti. N igerian *

T rade J ournal N o.4,

I *

U nuame

f Idia's . 4 / , J

•Abuja

•

1 969 V ol.17 N igeria M agazine

4 /.

1

•

p 167.

N I •I fe

G

E

R

'

I

A

• I fon

• Unuame ' Benin C ity

/

. 401

* 4 00 .

(

•o100 200 300 am me m e mm im i

G lobular v essel o f b uff p ottery. R oth 1 903 p 75,

f igure 7 9.

B enin C ity

0

10

en

2 63

k m

P ot,

U numme o ld B idden.

w ould

s eeem t o a ugur i ll

a bles, i s n ot

o r c ombination o f v ariables, i n p ottery s herds. ' Idia's p ots' a n i solated c ase: t he n odular c arved r oulettes ( CR3 2 2: a bove;

f or e xpectations

o f a ny u nique c ulture v ari-

2 95) a re e ven m ore w idespread, b eing f ound i n t he ' Nok I fe, E do, i gala a nd B ornu c ultures o f N igeria, a nd a s f ar a field a s U ganda i n E ast A frica ( Fagg. A .: 1 972; 7 7-78. W illett: 1 979; P ers.Comm . C onnah: 1 978; P ers.Comm. S oper: 1 971; 6 5 f igure 7 f, 6 6 f igures 8 a-8e, 6 7 f igures 9 a-9c a nd 9 f). A t obacco-pipe f ragment f rom U kpilla p roved t o b e r emarkably s imilar t o o thers p reviously o nly f ound a t Kagara H ill, o ver 4 50 k ms. f urther t o t he n orth ( below ; 3 72. C alvocoressi: b elow ; 3 73-385). S uch e xamples r einforce t he a rgument t hat t he c onstituents o f a ll c ultures a re i ndependent v ariables w ith d ifferent p atterns a nd r ates o f i nnovation, m igration, l ateral d iffusion a nd o bsolescence ( Trigger: 1 968; 8 -13. S haw : 1 978; 8 9-95). Y et t o p ress t his a rgument t o s uggest t otal i ndependence i n t he p rocesses o f d ifferentiation w ould b e t oo s implistic. W ithout g oing s o f ar a s t o r evive t he o ld n otion o f ' tribal c ulture a rea ( with t heir m any f allacious a ssumpt ions - T rigger : 1 968; 7 ), i t i s n evertheless p ossible t o f ind m ore t han j ust a c oincidental r elationship b etween s ome E do s herd-variable d istributions a nd p resent-day s ocio-political o r l inguistic b locs. T he c oexistence o f t hese t wo o pposing c oncepts - independent ' polythetic' d ifferentiation a nd c ultural c onformity - h as r esulted o ver t ime i n a c omplexity o f v ariable d istributions. B y f urther c onsidering ' Idia's p ots', a nd t hen t he d istribution o f a ll s herd v ariables,

t he n ature o f

t hese c omplexities c an b e b etter a ppreciated.

T he h igh s tandard o f w orkmanship o n ' Idia's p ots' c ontrasts s harply w ith t he s herds f rom t he m idden o n w hich i t h ad b een p laced. T hese

a ppear t o b e d erived f rom r apidly c onstructed a nd c rudely

f in-

i shed v essels p roduced i n v ast q uantities ( above; 2 08). T his c ontrast h ighlights t he f unctional d istinction b etween a v ery s pecial p ot u sed f or r eligious c eremony 56 a nd u tilitarian w are, m ass-produced p robably t o m eet t he i mmediate n eeds o f t he C l6th B enin a rmy. Y et t he h ighly e clectic s pecificity o f f orm a nd d ecoration v ariables o n t he s pecial p ot

i s d emonstrably t ranscultural,

w hereas

t he m ass-produced

u tili-

t arian v essels a re d ecorated w ith v arious f orms o f t wig s tippling r oulettes ( PCT5, C LP 6 a nd M SC 7 ) - a lmost e xclusive t o B enin K ingdom w are. I n t his c ase, t herefore, t he v essel w ith e xotic, a lien o rigins i s c learly i diosyncratic; i t i s v astly o utnumbered b y u tilitarian v essels w ith a s trong l ocal i dentity. I n t urn t he d istinctive B enin w are i tself m igrated i nto a lien c ontexts, s uch a s O wo ( Eyo : 1 976; f orms 1 ,4,7,8,10), m ovements. T hree

i n t he w ake o f o ther B enin m ilitary a nd

c ommon-sense a ssumptions

p retations.

T he f irst

i s

t hat

l ie b ehind b oth o f

c ommercial

t hese

t he p roportion o f l ocal w are,

i nteri n t erms

o f s herds o r s ites, w ill g enerally f ar o utweigh t hat o f a lien w are. S econdly, d espite t he s haring o f s ome v ariables b y a n umber o f d iff erent c ultures, i t i s s till p ossible t o i dentify t he w are o f a p artic ular t ics o f

c ulture b y t he

j udicious

o r c ombination o f

s election o f d istinctive

c haracteristics.

5 7

T hirdly,

c haracteris-

a h igh u nanimity

c hoice o perates w ithin m any s ocio-political o r l inguistic b locs,

t hat

o ver

a

d istinct

a rea a t

a ny o ne p eriod i n t ime

t here

m ay

s o b e

w holesale a cceptance o f s ome s herd v ariable i nnovations, d iffusions o r m igrations, a nd t otal r ejection o f o thers. T he v alidity o f t he l ast t wo a ssumptions d epends l argely o n t he v alidity a nd s trength o f t he c ultural e ntity.

I f o ne e nvisages

t he p rocesses

2 64

o f c ultural

c hange

a s

b eing a nalagous t o i ntersecting r ipples o n a p ond, t hen t he w eak c ultures a nd ' hollow c ategories ( Hair : 1 967; 2 47-267) 58 w ill b e l ittle m ore t han n ominal p oints a long t hese c ontinua o f c hange; w hereas s trong c ultures w ill b e p artially o r c ompletely o bstructing s ome r ipples, r einf gcing o thers, a nd s etting u p t heir o wn w aves o f c ultural i nnovation. O ver t ime, t he c hanges i n s trength, s ize, m ovement a nd c omposition o f t he r elative c ultures, a s w ell a s t he n ature o f i ntercultural b orrowing, w ill i nevitably c omplicate t his a nalogy: 60 e ven s o, i t h elps t o e xplain m any o f t he d istribution patterns o f s herd v ariables i n E do-speaking a reas ( maps: b elow ; 2 832 97).

T hese

w ill

n ow b e c onsidered,

s tarting w ith t he

d ecoration

v ariables. P laited s tring r oulettes h ave a v ery e xtensive d istribution o ver much o f A frica a nd a re w idespread i n N igeria; t hey a re t he m ost universal s et o f s herd v ariables f ound i n t he a rea o ccupied b y t he N orthern E do.

T he o ccurrence r atios o f f ine a nd c oarse s tring r oulet-

t ing r eported b y E yo a nd C onnah h ad a lready i ndicated t hat t he f iner s tring r oulettes ( ISR 2 a nd F SR 3 ) w ere t he m ost n umerous i n t he s avannah C ross') f irmed

a t O wo,

w hereas c oarse s t ing r ouletting

( CSR 1 a nd

' Criss-

p redominated a t B enin C ity; a nd t his b asic p attern i s c oni n c onsiderably m ore d etail o n t he v arious d istribution m aps.

T he b asic maps d epict t he s ites a t w hich e ach v ariable o ccurred i n t he E do-speaking a rea: a lthough t hese p resent a f airly c lear p icture o f c oarse s tring r oulette d istribution w ithin t he d istribution o f f ine s tring r oulettes a ppears

B enin K ingdom , m ore c onfused.

t he S o

f urther maps h ave b een d rawn i n w hich s herds a nd s ites a re a ggregated o n a r egional b asis a nd t heir r espective p ercentage f requencies d isplayed. 62 T hese m ake t he w hole p icture m uch c learer. B oth t he p ercentage o cccurrence o f s ites a nd t he f requency o ccurrence o f s herds has a s harp k ink a round t he B enin/Ishan b oundary, w ith t he f iner s tring r oulettes h aving h igh p ercentages i n I shan a nd E tsako a nd c onsiderably

s maller p ercentages i n t he B enin

K ingdom .

W ithin

t he

B enin K ingdom i tself, t he s ite o ccurrence a nd s herd f requency o f t hese f iner s tring r oulettes d ecreases f rom n orth t o s outh. T hese c omparat ive f requencies a rgue s trongly f or a n orthern d erivation o f s tring r oulettes, w hether b y m igration o r d iffusion . T he

t he f iner

d isparity b etween t he f airly w idespread s ite o ccurrence

o f

t he f iner s tring r oulettes a nd t heir r elatively t iny s herd f requencies p robably n eeds i nterpreting i n t wo m ain w ays. F irst, t he c omputer analysis p lacing o f F SR 3 v ery e arly i n t he c hronological s equence s uggests a w idespread i nflux f rom t he n orth i n e arly t imes; a nd t here w ould b e m any a dverse f actors a gainst r ecovery o f l arge n umbers o f e arly s herds i n t his p roject. 63 S econdly, i n b oth t his a nalysis a nd i n C onnah's e xcavations, t here w ould s eem t o h ave b een s everal l ater o ccasions w hen n orthern p ottery t ypes m ade t heir p resence f elt.

I t i s

p ossible t hat f urther s crutiny a nd a nalysis o f w ide-spread f ine s tring r oulettes w ould p rodice s ome m eans o f d istinguishing e arly a nd m iddle p eriod F SR 3 : u ntil t hen , a nd i n t he l ight o f t he t otal a nalysis, i t has b een a ssumed t hat m ost,

b ut n ot

a ll,

o f

t he f iner r oulettes a re o f

e arly n orthern o rigin . T he

c oarse s tring

r oulettes

p resent a d ifferent

s eries o f

d is-

t ribution p roblems. A lthough C SR 1 i s p resent o n m ost o f t he s ites which o n o ther e vidence a ppear t o b e e arly, b oth t he e arly v essel f orms ( SQE 2 4/MSC 2 7 ' ) a nd t he c ulture s equence c hronology o f t he 2 65

c omputer

a nalysis s uggest

t hat

i t o ccurred l ater

t han t he b ulk o f

t he

f iner s tring r oulettes. T he c hange f rom t he f iner s tring r oulettes ( possibly m ade f rom s avannah g rasses) t o t he c oarse s tring r oulettes ( made f rom o il-palm l eaf f ibres) m ay h ave m erely b een t he a doption o f a n ew r aw m ateril f rom a d ifferent e nvironment: t he a rgument f or s uch l ocal i nnovation i s f urther s trengthened b y t he p ossibility t hat t he e arliest c oarse s tring r oulettes w ere e ven p laited d ifferently ( crissc ross). T he a bsence o f c oarse s tring r ouletting i n E tsako ( North E do), U rhobo a nd I soko ( Southern E do) a nd I gbo a reas t o t he e ast, b ut i ts w idespread p resence a mongst t he Y oruba t o t he w est, m ight b e i ndicative o f w estern d erivation. W hatever i ts o rigin, C SR 1 was t o b ecome t he m ost w idely u sed d ecoration v ariable t hroughout t he B enin K ingdom . T o t he e ast i t m ay h ave s pread u p t o t he N iger f ollowing B enin g 2nquests o f I gbo-speaking p eoples, b g% a pparently n ever w ent b eyond. A part f rom a f ew ' urban c entres, c oarse s tring t ing m ade l ittle h eadway i n i ts s pread n orth f rom t he K ingdom .

r ouletS outh-

w ards, a ll i ndications t o d ate a re t hat t here w as n o p pread o f a ny k ind o f p laited s tring r ouletting i nto U rhobo o r I soko.' °T he f ull s ignificance o f t his l ies i n t he f act t hat n ot o nly i s t he B ini/ U rhobo

b oundary

t he

m ajor l inguistic d ivide

S outhern E do ( above; I .C.3.), o f t he t otal i ya d istribution . T he s tippling r oulettes

b ut

i t

( PCT 5 ,

b etween

a lso m arks

C LP 6 ,

N orthern

a nd

t he s outhern b oundary

M SC 7 )

a re a bsent

f rom

w hat s eem t o b e t he e arliest c ollections, b ut a ppear a s a l ater i nnov ation a lmost e ntirely w ithin t he B enin K ingdom . M SC 7 s eems t o h ave b een h ave

t he e arliest, m ost p ersistent a nd w idespread. o ccupied a m iddle p eriod a nd i s l ess w idespread.

P CT 5 s eems t o C LP 6 a ppears

l ate i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology a nd i s r estricted t o a s lightly s maller a rea a round B enin. Y et f rom t his e vidence i t c annot b e d ogmatically a sserted t hat t he d iffusion o f t hese v ariables was a g radual s pread o ver t ime: i t i s s uspected, r ather, t hat t he s pread w as r apid w ithin t he s phere o f B enin i nfluence, w hich i tself m ay h ave b een w aning - p articularly w ith t he a pparent d esertion o f e arly t lements i n U humwode a nd t he B enin/Ishan b orderlands.

s et-

S ome o f t he d ecoration v ariables - C MB 9 , E NC 1 1, T RS 1 2, F NG 1 3, I NC 1 4 a nd G RV 1 6 - w ere v ery w idespread a nd f ailed t o c onform a t a ll t o t he p resent E do c ultural a reas: t hey a lso a ppeared t o b e p ersistent t hroyghout t he c hronological s equence. F rom t heir o ccurr ence e lsewhere ° ' i t i s s uggested t hat t hey d iffused t hroughout t he r egion i n v ery e arly t imes, p ossibly l ong b efore t he f ormation o f t oday's

c ultural

g roupings.

O ther v ariables o f

t he

c ombing

g roup

c oincide m ore w ith t oday's c ultural a reas: c omb-jabbing w as f ound m ainly i n E tsako, c omb-grooving ( CGR 1 0) i n I shan, t wo-prong ( 2PC 8 ) a nd w avy-line c ombing i n t he B enin K ingdom . T he . very r are o ccurrence o f a ll t ypes o f p ainting i n t he E do a reas w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat t hey a re n ot i ndigenous. R ed s lip ( RSP 1 7) a nd w hite s lip ( WSP 1 8) a ppear q uite f requently f urther n orth i n t oday's p ottery: p ossibly t he r ed b owls a nd t obacco-pipes d ecor a ted w ith r ed-slip a ccompanied t raders f rom t he n orth, w hilst t he d istribution I soko a reas, v essels d own

o f

w hite-slip a t I dah t oday,

a s w ell a s

in U rhobo

m ay b e i ndicative o f e xtensive t ransport t he N iger. B lack-burnished w are ( BLB 1 9)

h ave e manated f rom I lorin,

a nd

o f p ottery i s k nown t o

r eaching t he E do a reas p robably o nly d uring

t he C 2Oth.

2 66

T he t ypes

s patial a nd c hronological d istributions

o f

o f

t he t hree

c arved w ooden r oulette w ere q uite d ifferent.

C R1

m ajor 2 0

w as

f ound a lmost e ntirely o n s mall l ocalized s ites c lose t o g ranite o utc rops i n t he n orth E tsako s avannah z one: t wo v ery w eathered s herds i n m id a nd s outhern E tsako c ould i ndicate t he s outhward s pread o f t his d ecoration . I n t he c ulture s equence c hronology i t a ppears a s t he e arliest v ariable f or a ll E do p ot-sherds; a nd t his a grees w ith o bserv ations o f s iting p references f or m any e arly s ettlements e lsewhere i n t he d rier s avannah: i t w ould s eem t hat t he r apid r un-off o f r ainfall f rom b are g ranite r esults i n l ocalized c oncentrations o f g roundwater c onserved i n a djacent s cree a nd w eathered r ock d etritus, s o p roducing i deal c onditions f or s uccessful c rop c ultivation i n t he i mmediate a rea ( Sutton: 1 975; P ers.Comm . A bove; 1 8). T he p otential d ifference o f o pinion b ecome

o ver h ow t his

( and s imilar?)

d ecorations w ere

a pplied

c ould

s ignificant f or g eographical a nd c hronological i nterpretation.

S pecimens o f C R1 2 0 c ollected i n n orthern E tsako w ere i dentified b y S oper a s c arved r oulettes, a nd a ppear t o b e q uite u nlike p hotographs o f g rid-stamping ( Linares d e S apir: 1 971; 3 7, p late X ). W here D aniels, w as o f t he o pinion t hat t hey w ere l ess l ike t he c omb-stamping h e h ad o bserved o n e arly I wo E leru s herds a nd m ore l ike a f orm o f c arved r ouletting w hich a ppeared i n t he B ornu a rea i n t he m iddle t o l ate p art

o f

t he f irst m illennium A .D.

( 1980;

P ers.Comm .).

H owever,

i f C onnah's p hotographs o f B ornu s herds a re c ompared w ith t he C R1 2 0 p hotographs, t hen C R1 2 0 s eems t o b e l ess s imilar t o t he c arved r oul ettes s hown ( types 1 0 a nd 1 1) t han t o t he d epiction o f c omb-stamping ( type 1 ), w hich a ppears i n m uch e arlier c ontexts r anging f rom a t l east c . 5 50 B .C. t o C . 1 000 A .D. ( Connah: 1 971; 5 5-60. 1 981: 5 8-59, 8 1, 1 18-121). A t O x ao, o nly a bout 1 00kms. t o t he e ast o f t he C R1 2 0 s ites i n n orthern E Tsako, c omb-stamped w are a ntedated a ll B enin t ype w are ( Akeredolu: 1 975; P ers.Comm . E yo: 1 976). S o, i f o n l ater e xamination c omparing d irectly t he a ctual s herds c oncerned, C R1 2 0, C onnah's t ype 1 a nd E yo's c omb-stamping p rove t o b e a t a ll r elated o r i mitative, t hen t he C R1 2 0 s ites i n n orthern E tsako c ould d ate b ack m ore t han o ne m illennium.

must

S ince n orthern E tsako a nd B ornu a re a bout 1 000kms. a part, t here b e c onsiderable w ariness i n a ccepting a ny c onnection b etween

s imilar s herd v ariables, p articularly w here - a s w ith C R1 2 0 a bove t he s imilarities s till h ave t o b e a ccurately a ssessed. Y et w hat i s known o f t he o ccurrence o f n odular c arved r oulette, C R3 2 2, w ould s eem t o a rgue f or s ome k ind o f c ommon e xperience o r c ausal c onnection. N odular ( or ' raised d ot') r oulettes a re " the m ost f requently r ecurring m otif o f t he I ron A ge p ottery i n t he N ok v alley" w here, i n o ccupat ional d ebris o n s ite A F/70/1 a t S amun D ukiya, i t p rovides t he e arliest r ecorded d ate f or a ny c arved w ooden r ouletting - 2 10 ± 9 5 B .C., t hough t here a re n ow s uspicions r eworked d eposits ( Fagg. A .: 1 972; 7 7-78. 8 1).

I n

B ornu,

t hat t he e xcavation w as o f 1 981; P ers.Comm . S haw : 1 978;

t he m ore s atisfactory d ating o f

d emonstrates

t hat n odular c arved r oulettes

o ther

o f

f orms

c arved r oulettes

t he D aima

( type 1 6),

( types 1 0 a nd

1 1),

s equence

t ogether m ake

a

w ith s udden

a ppearance i n a bout t he C 9th-ClOth A .D.; a nd t his m ay b e l inked t o t he m ovement o f t he K anuri i nto t he a rea ( Connah: 1 980). D avid a nd V idal ( 1977) h ave p ostulated t hat c arved r oulettes d epend o n i ron b lades o r i ron p yro-gravure f or t heir c onstruction, s o m ay h ave a ccompanied e arly i ron-working m igants

( 1977).

T heir s uggestion i n r espect o f

t he

e arliest i ron-working m igrants i s f ar f rom p roven ; a nd i ts v alue m ay l ie m ore i n i ts e mphasis o f t he p ossibilities o f l ater ' , Iron A ge' 2 67

m igrations

b y n on B antu-speaking p eoples

( cf.

P hillipson :

1 980;

3 46).

T he e xtraordinarily w idespread d istribution o f n odular r oulettes w ithi n N igeria ( Ross: 1 970) a nd e astwards a t l east a s f ar a s U ganda ( Soper: 1 971 a s a bove; 3 30) w ould s eem t o a rgue m ore s trongly f or m igratory a ctivity t han t he s low p rocesses o f d iffusion. I t i s s ugg ested t hat s uch a m ovement o ccurred s outhwards i nto t he E do-speaking a reas. O bayemi's e xcavation o f s ites w ith e vidence o f e xtensive i rons melting i n t he K abba/Okene a rea j ust n orth o f E tsako y ielded C 9thC 14th d ates ( 1977; P ers.Comm.); a nd p erhaps i t w as d uring t his p eriod t hat l arge-scale s outhward m igrations t ook p lace, w ith t he e arly i yab uilding c olonizers o f t he f orest s timulating d emand f or i ron t ools u sed

i n c learance a nd d igging.

T he n odular c arved r oulettes

b ecame

o ne o f t he m ost d ominant d ecoration m otifs i n t he E tsako s avannah a nd t he n orthern I shan f orests; t hey s eem t o h ave b een p 2t o nly t he e arl iest d ecoration v ariable w ithin t he B enin f orests, " b ut a lso t he o ne w ith t he h ighest p roportion o f s herds f ound w ithin p rimary i ya ( above; 2 60). F urther q ualification i s p rovided b y t he 3 3kV l ine d istribution o f s herds i n t he E kpoma i yala ( above ; I I.B.8), w hich s uggest t hat C R3 2 2 w as a bsent f rom t he e arliest p hase o f i yala s truction a long t he s avannah-forest e cotone o f n orthern I shan .

c onP os-

s ibly i t a ccompanied t he e arliest p hases o f l ater e xpansion d eeper i nto t he B enin f orests, b ut t he i nitial i mpetus o f s outhward c olonizat ion c annot b e d irectly l inked w ith t he a rrival o f n odular r oulettes. A lso, f rom s light c hanges i n t he p atterns c arved, i t s eems l ikely t hat n odular r ouletted w are o ccasionally f ound i ts w ay s outh i nto B enin f orest 2 50.

s ettlements c f.

F SR 3 :

l ong a fter t he e arly m igrations

a bove;

T he o ther g roup o f c arved o f

p atterns

( above ;

1 77-178,

2 65).

- h erring-bone,

r oulettes, c hevron

C R4

2 3,

a nd q uite

h ave a w hole r ange c omplicated

m otifs

( above; 2 25) w hich h ave b een s eparated i n a nalyses e lsewhere ( Willett: 1 978; P ers.Comm . C onnah: 1 980 ; 5 8-59), b ut h ave h ere b een t reated a s a s ingle p ackage b ecause m ost n ormally o ccur t ogether i n t he s ame l ate c ontexts. I n t he B enin C ity e xcavations C onnah f irst r ecords t hese d ecorations i n a l ate-C15th c ontext a nd t hey s eem t o h ave b ecome m uch m ore c ommon a bout a c entury l ater ( Connah : 1 975; 1 32, 1 98). t oday, ( Ross:

T he d ecorations a re s till p ractised i n t he B enin K ingdom a rea a s w ell a s b y t he G wari n ear A buja a nd e lsewhere i n N igeria 1 970). T his r ange o f c arved r oulettes d oes n ot s eem t o h ave

e ver b een e mployed i n E tsako, I shan, U rhobo o r I gbo a reas, s o i ts o ccurrence i n a pparently p re-C15th c ontexts a t I fe ( Willett: 1 978; P ers.Comm.) l ends s ome c redence t o t he p ossibility t hat C R4 2 3 w as i ntroduced f rom e astern Y oruba a reas a bout 5 00 y ears a go - a nd t his c oincides w ith t he p eriod d uring w hich I h ave s uggested a Y orubao rientated p olity a t U do m ay h ave e xerted i ts i nfluence o ver B enin ( above ; I I.B.7).

1 ) i s

T he d istribution o f p ots w ith s ingle, s light b ody c ordons f airly s imilar t o t hat o f f ine s tring r ouletting ( FSR 3 ).

m ain

c oncentrations

l ie i n I shan a nd E tsako,

( P1A T he

w ith a f ar f rom n eglig-

i ble s catter b eing f ound a lmost e ntirely w ithin t he n orthern h alf o f t l -e B enin K ingdom a rea ( below ; 2 89). T oday, s uch c ordons i n N igeria a re f ound p redominantly i n I shan , E tsako, E kiti ( N.E. Y oruba) a nd N upe a reas, w ith a f ew i n t he P lateau a nd B ornu a reas b ut n one i n t he B enin K ingdom a rea ( Ross:

1 970).

A r eview o f

t he e xcavated c ontexts o f

t his

r are v ariable i n B enin C ity i ndicates t hat i t o ccurred m ainly , Än e arly t imes ( Connah : 1 975; 2 8, 2 9, 4 2, 5 5, 6 9, 7 8, 8 2, 8 3, 9 0); " a nd i t

2 68

a ppears

a s

o ne o f

t he e arliest B enin K ingdom a rea v ariables

i n

t he

c hronological a nalysis o f t his p roject ( below ; 2 81). S imilarly D . B en-Amos f ound s uch c ordons o n s herds f rom t he I si i kpessa w hich, h e b elieved, c ontained p ottery a lmost e ntirely f rom b efore t he C l5th c onquest b y B enin. ( 1980; P ers.Comm. a bove; 2 41). T he i kpessa s herds a re c ollected f rom s treams i nto w hich t hey w ere t hrown a l ong t ime a go: t hey c ontain c omplete p ots c ombining t he f eatures o f t hese s light c ordons ( P1A 1 ), C onnah's v ery e arly f orm 6 , a s w ell a s s quared e verted r ims ( SQA 2 4) a nd F SR 3 - t he l ast t wo b eing a lso v ery e arly v ariables i n t he a nalysis f or t his p roject. T he p ercentage f requenc ies o f s herds a nd s ites o f P 1A 1 a s w ell a s t he p resent d istribution o f s light b ody c ordons m ake i t q uite c lear t hat t hey o riginated s omew here n orth o f B enin ; b ut w hether t hey d iffused s outh b y t he m arriage m ovements o f w omen p otters, o r a ccompanied a m ajor s outhward m igration o f p opulation, o r w ere s imply i mported i n t oto a s t rading v essels ( perhaps c ontaining r ather u nlikely t hat o f

o ccurrence

s ome o ther c ommodity) i s u ncertain . t he i kpessa s herds w ere i mported, y et

a nd u nusually s andy f abric o f c ordoned p ots

I t s eems t he r arity f ound

a t

B enin C ity i n t he C l3th-C15th w ould s eem t o a rgue f or t rade i mports o f c omplete v essels, a nd t his c ontention i s f urther s trengthened b y t he s trong p ossibility o f l ong-distance m ovement o f I dia's p ot ( above; 2 62-264). B ifid c ordons ( P1B 2 ) a nd b ifid s houlder l edges ( B1B 4 ) a re b oth much l ater t han t he s ingle c ordon i n t he c hronological a nalysis, a nd t his m ay e xplain w hy t hey d o n ot a ppear t o b e a ssociated w ith t he s trong s outhward s pread e xperienced b y P 1A 1 o f e arlier t imes. I ns tead t heir d istribution l ies w ithin t he m ain a rea o f c ordoned p ots t oday, a nd i n t his p roject w ere f ound a lmost e ntirely w ithin E tsako a nd n orthern I shan. T he d istribution o f i ncomplete s houlder l edges ( BlA 3 ) i ndicates s omething o f t he B enin/Ishan d ichotomy o f l ater t imes, a nd m ore o r l ess a grees w ith t he d istribution p atterns o f m ost o ther l edged b owls. T he e verted p ot

r im v ariants P EB 5 ,

P ER 6 ,

P ES

7 ,

P ET 8 ,

P SL 9 ,

R LP 1 0 a nd, p ossibly, R LP 1 0V a nd S QE 2 4 b elong m ainly t o t he n ecked waterpots a pparently o nce u sed e xtensively i n B enin, I shan a nd E tsako. T he r olled l ip p ots ( RLP 1 0) a ppear e arliest i n t he a nalysis a nd w ere c oncentrated i n n orthern E tsako, t hough a s catter w as ( 3 s ites), B enin ( 1 s ite) a nd e ven U rhobo ( 1 s ite). e verted r im ( SQE 2 4) h as a s light a ppears o n m any o f t he s ame s ites,

f ound i n I shan T he s quared

t ypological c ontinuum w ith R LP 1 0, a nd i s s lightly l ater t han R 1P 1 0

i n t he a nalysis: p ossibly, t herefore, S QE 2 4 e volved f rom R LP 1 0. I n i ts d istribution, t hough, S QE 2 4 i s c onsiderably m ore w idespread, c overing m any I shan s ites a nd m ost o f t he n orthern p art o f t he B enin K ingdom ,

w here i t o ccurs a s o ne o f

t he e arliest v ariables

f ound a lmost

e xclusively w ithin t he p rimary i ya ( above; 2 60). S QE 2 4 s herds w ere g enerally i n v ery p oor c ondition, 7° a re n ot r ecorded f rom C l3th-C2Oth c ontexts i n B enin C ity, p re-C15th o rigin a nd

y et a re f ound i n t he I si i kpessa o f e stimated o n o ne o f R oese's m ini-pots f rom a n i ncised

waterpath a t U wan ( above; 2 41-242); a nd a ll t his d ata t ends t o c onfirm t l -e e arly o ccurrence i n t he a nalysis o f S QE 2 4 i n t he n orthern B enin K ingdom a rea. P EB 5 a nd P ER 6 a re w idespread a nd a ppear t o h ave b een p ersistent t hroughout t he c hronological s equence, w ith P EB 5 b eing, p erhaps, m arginally m ore f requent d uring l ater t imes i n t he B enin K ingdom a rea. 9 a nd RLP 1 0V,

A ll t he o ther e verted p ot r im t ypes, P ES 7 , P ET 8 , P SL e xhibit v arying d egrees o f a s patial d ichotomy b etween 2 69

B enin a nd I shan .

P ES 7 i s

t he m ost w idespread,

t hough

r are i n U hum-

w ode a nd a bsent i n s outhern I shan ; P SL 9 a nd R LP 1 0V a re t otally a bsent f rom t hese i ntermediate a reas, a nd P ET 8 i s f ound e xclusively i n t he B enin K ingdom . I n t he l ight o f t he t otal s equence p roduced b y t he p ottery a nalysis, t he d istribution p atterns o f t hese e verted p ot r ims w ould f ollowed b y

s eem t o f it t hree m ain s tages o f i ) n orthern o rigin , i i) a r apid s pread s outhwards b efore i ii) i ncreasing

p olarization o f B enin a nd I shan . I f b owls,

t his g eneral s cheme i s a pplied t o t he d istribution o f t hen

t he a pproximate c hronological s equence

a gain

l edged

c oincides

w ith t hese t hree m ain s tages. O ne o f t he v ery e arliest f orm v ariables o f t he t otal a nalysis, S CR 1 1, w as f ound a lmost e xclusively i n n ort hern E tsako - t he v ery s imilar S CR 1 1B b eing r are b ut r ather m ore w idespread. T he s lightly l ater f orms, C KW 1 2 a nd F LB 1 4, m ay h ave e volved f rom t he e arlier S CR 1 1 t ypology, a nd a re c oncentrated i n t he I shan

f orest/savannah e cotone f urther s outh.

O wing t o

t he r arity o f

F LB 1 4 n o c omplete e xplanation c an b e a dvanced f or i ts o ccurrence a s a c omplete b ut i solated p ot 1 m etre b elow t he g round s urface e xposed b y t he 1 977 d rainage d itch f rom B enin t o O gba s tream, t hough i t m ight h ave c ontained c harms a nd h ave b een d eliberately b uried u nder h ouse f oundations. I f t he p ie-crusting o f l edged b owls ( LBP 1 5P) i s c ons idered a s b eing a l ater d erivative o f C KW 1 4,

t hen a m ore c ontinuous

s outhward s pread i s d epicted. H owever, e ven w ith t he l arge n umbers o f i ncomplete s houlder l edges ( BlA 3 ), t he d istribution e vidence o f a c hronological c ontinuum f rom t he e arly l edged b owl t ypes ( SCR 1 1, S CR 1 1B, C KW 1 2, F LB 1 4) t o t he p ie-crust l edges ( LBP 1 5P) a nd o ther l ater l edged b owls i s s lightly t enuous, s ince t he a reas o f U humwode a nd s outhern I shan a ppear t o b e i nadequately r epresented. T he g rooved l edged b owls, L BG 1 6, s eem t o h ave o riginated i n t he m iddle t o l ate p eriods a nd s pread t o b oth n orth a nd s outh; t he s ame m ay a lso b e t rue o f L BP 1 4A/C/M/N. 71 A ll o ther l edged b owls a lso a ppear t o b e r elat ively r ecent, w ith L BP 1 5B/15G/15H b eing f ound i n t he B enin K ingdom a rea,

w hilst

t he m ost

r ecent l edged b owls - t hose w ith b ifid r ims

( LBF

1 7 a nd L BL 1 8) - a ppear o n t he s outh-west p eriphery o f i ya d istribut ion a nd i n t he m ost r ecent c ontexts o f U humudumu ( above; 1 74).

( IGB

T he c ourse g rooved b owl ( CGB 1 9), t he i ntermediate g rooved b owl 2 0) a nd t he f ine g rooved b owl ( FGB 2 1) a re q uite c learly B enin

K ingdom v ariables,

w ith C GB 1 9 b eing s lightly e arlier t han t he t ypolo-

g ically s imilar L GB 2 0, a nd b oth b eing m uch e arlier t han t he r ecent F GB 2 1 ( Connah : 1 975; 1 16, 1 95, 1 96. N eckless s torage p ot). A s C GB 1 9 a nd I GB 2 0 s eem t o h ave b een t he m ain t ypes o f f ood b owl f or t he B enin a rmy o f t he e arly C l6th, t heir d istribution i n I shan a nd O wo ( Ekiti) w ould a ppear t o a gree w ith o ral t radition a ccounts o f B enin m ilitary a nd c ommercial c ontrol o f t hese a reas i n t he p ast. ( Eyo: 1 975; P ers. C omm. O kojie: 1 960; 2 1. E gharevba: 1 968; 1 3, 2 5). T he h eavily o rnamented, o ften d ouble-ledged b owl, D LB 2 2, h as a n e xtraordinarily s parse b ut w idely s cattered d istribution, w ith m ost s herds b eing o bserved a t B enin C ity, I kpe a nd n ear I guosa i n I yekorht -mwon. A c asual g lance a t C onnah's e xcavation r esults, a s d epicted b y b oth C onnh a nd D aniels ( Connah: 1 975; 4 2, 5 5, 6 9, i mpression t hat D LB 2 2 ( Connah's F orm 1 4) i s f ound m iddle

a nd l ate p eriods o f

1 96), g ives t hroughout

t he w ell-stratified C lerk's Q uarters

a nd i n t he t otal p ottery a nalysis. T his i s m isleading. s herds e xcavated f rom 1 0 d ifferent s trata o r f eatures 2 70

t he t he

s ites

2 4 o ut o f 2 5 i n t he l ate

p eriod

o f

t he C lerk's Q uarters

s ites

c ame f rom m ud w alls o r

w alling

d ebris, w hereas 2 8 o ut o f 3 3 s herds f rom 6 s trata o r f eatures i n t he m iddle p eriod o f t he s ame s ites c ame f rom o ccupation o r r efuse l ayers r ich i n h umus. 72 T he s herds o ccurring i n b orrow-pit e arth u sed t o b uild m ud w alls w ould o bviously a ntedate t he c onstruction o f t he w all, m any p robably c oming f rom a m uch e arlier p eriod s ince t hey w ill h ave b een

d ug

f rom l ower s trata;

w hereas

s herds

i n s trata o f

o ccuptional

r efuse a re m ore l ikely t o b e c ontemporaneous w ith t hose s trata. I n m ost e xcavation c ontexts, p its a re e xpected t o c ontain m ore r ecent m aterial t han t he s trata i nto w hich t hey h ave b een d ug: i n g eneral t his i s p robably t rue o f t he B enin p its, t hough a f ew a ppear t o h ave b een i nfilled w ith w alling d ebris a nd o ther m aterial a ntecedent t o t he s trata p enetrated ( cf. a bove; 2 57). D espite t he c hronological d iff erences t o b e e xpected f rom p its, w alls/walling d ebris, o utwash s ands a nd r efuse m iddens, C onnah l umped a ll t hese f undamentally d ifferent p rovenances t ogether i n h is e arly/middle/late g rouping o f t he C lerks' Q uarters

s ites.

T his g rouping w as u sed b oth t o d etermine t he S tandard

S equence P lan u nderlying D aniels s tatistical a nalysis o f B enin p ottery a nd i n t he a ctual a nalysis o f i ndividual s ites. A t t he

C ity t ime

t here w ere g ood r easons f or t his. C onnah c onsidered t hat t he g rouping o f s herds i nto l arge c ollections, r ather t han s plitting t hem i n t heir i ndividual s trata, p roduced a m ore r epresentative p icture l ess s uscept ible t o s tatistical e rror ( Connah: 1 975; 1 15. 1 978; P ers. C omm). F rom t he p urely p ractical p oint o f v iew , t he r eduction o f t he n umber o f s trata u nder c onsideration f rom 1 21 t o 3 0 m ade t he l engthy a nd t edious c alculations a f easible p roposition o n a h and c alculator - n o c omputer b eing a vailable ( Daniels: 1 977; P ers.Comm). H owever, i n t he c ase o f D LB 2 2 i n p articular - a nd o f a ll t he o ther v ariables t o a g reater o r l esser e xtent - C onnah's g rouping p rocedures f or b oth c ategories a nd s ites w as t o p erpetuate g eneralizations t hroughout t he s tatistical a nalysis, w hich t hus f ailed t o a chieve i ts f ull p otential o f c hronological f ocus. F or, i f t he u nreliable p it a nd w all/wall d ebris p rovenances o f t he B enin C ity s ites a re i gnored, a ll b ut o ne o f t he D LB 2 2 s herds w ere f ound i n t he o ccupation r efuse l ayers o f t he m iddle' p eriod w hich c ontained E uropean i mports c overing r oughly t he p eriod f rom 1 650-1750 A .D. ( Connah : 1 975; 4 2 L 5A/7, 5 5 L 7, 6 9 L 8, 7 27 3). T he o ther m ajor s ite o f D LB 2 2 s herds w as a t I kpe, w hich l ay a t t he m ain c anoe-ferry c rossing f rom B enin t o I yekorhiomwon u ntil t he 1 974 r oad b ridge. O n i ts c laimed o ld s ite m any h eavily o rnamented b owls ( DLB 2 2) w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith i ndigenous c lay t obaccop ipes

o f

a t ypology a pparently i ntermediate b etween t he I kpoba

p ipes

o f p ossibly m id-C17th m anufacture a nd t hose e xcavated i n B enin C ity i n C l8th t o C l9th c ontexts ( Darling: 1 981a; 4 7). T he o ccurrence o f D LB 2 2,

t herefore,

w ould

a ppear

t o b e l argely r estricted t o

t he

l ate

C l7th/early C l8th; a nd s uch a s udden r ise a nd d emise o f a c omplete p ottery t ype p articularly o ne w ith s uch a w ide ( albeit i rregular) d istribution, W ide c ontexts

s eems

t o h ave b een m ost u nusual i n B enin c ontexts.

f lared p ots,

a t B enin,

O wo,

W FP 2 3,

h ave o nly b een r ecorded f rom

U do a nd,

i t i s c laimed,

I fe

( above;

1 3

u rban 2 12.

C onnah : 1 975; 1 18, E yo: 1 976. W illett: 1 978; P ers.Comm). A t B enin C ity C onnah n otes t hat t hey w ere s unk i nto h ouse f loors, p ossibly t o a ct a s m edicine p ots. A t U do t hey w ere f ound a t t he c laimed o ld s ite o f I gun w ard - t he b ronze-casters' s ection. T heir p ast o ccurrence a t O wo m ight

b e e xplained b y B enin c ommercial a nd m ilitary c ontrol

271

t here

i n

t he

p ast

( as

f or C GB 1 9):

s uch a r eason c annot b e

a dvanced

f or

t heir c laimed o ccurrence a t I fe. M ention F EB 5 e t s eq.

h as

a lready b een m ade o f S QE 2 4 w ith t he

( above ;

3 46).

S QE 2 4's

a ppearance a s

e verted

p ots

t he e arliest f orm

v ariable i n t he I shan a nd B enin K ingdom a nalyses ( much e arlier t han M SC 2 7 w hich i s a nalagous t o C onnah's e arliest v ariable - h is f orm 6 ), i ts a bsence i n e ven t he e arliest B enin C ity e xcavations, i ts a ppeara nce i n t he I si i kpessa a nd f rom a s ubsurface s ite a t U wan , a s w ell a s i ts e xceptionally c lose c orrespondence t o t he p rimary i ya e nclosures, a ll s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he e arliest k nown p hase o f p ottery u sers i n t he B enin K ingdom w ere i n s mall r ural s ettlements a ntedating t he g rowth o f B eeln - n ot v ice v ersa a s t he o ral t raditions w ould h ave o ne t o b elieve. " p rimary i ya i s,

T he e arly o ccurrence o f S QE 2 4 i n t he B enin a nd I shan h owever, o nly h alf t he s tory ; f or i t a ppears w ith a

m uch l ater a verage ' date 75 t o S QE o utside

i n t he E tsako a nalysis a nd s herds

s imilar

2 4 h ave b een o bserved i n g cent o r p resent d ay c ontexts w ell t he B enin a nd I shan i ya. " W ithout r ecourse t o t he t otal

d ata , o ne c ould q uite r easonably s uggest t hat S QE 2 4 o riginated i n t he p rimary i ya s ettlements o f a n e arly B enin/ I shan p opulation c luster, s pread o ut t o p eripheral a reas w here i t p ersisted u ntil t oday a nd w as i tself r eplaced b y f urther i nnovations i n t he c luster c entre. " T here a re t wo m ain o bjections t o s uch a n i nterpretation . F irst, S QE 2 4 w as f ound o n t he v ery e arliest E tsako s ites, a nd i ts a nalysis ' date o nly a verages o ut l ater t han t hose i n B enin a nd I shan b ecause i t p ersisted i n E tsako u ntil m ore r ecent t imes. S econdly, i n t he t otal a nalysis, c ross-cultural c omparisions i ndicate t hat t he e arly b ase o f t he s avann ah E tsako c ollections

i s m uch e arlier t han t hose f or B enin a nd

I shan

i n t he f orest. I n t he l ight o f t hese o bjections t he m ost r easonable i nterpretation w ould s eem t o b e t hat S QE 2 4 c ame i nto t he f orest f rom t he s avannah z one i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s F SR 3 a nd P 1A 1 . T here i s o ne i mportant d ifference t hough. W hereas t here i s a s trong e lement o f u ncertainty a bout e xactly h ow F SR 3 a nd P 1A 1 s pread t o t he s outh , t he c lose c orrelation o f S QE 2 4 t o t he p rimary i ya w ould s eem t o i dentify t he e arliest i ya c onstructors a s a lso b eing s ome o f t he e arliest k nown p ottery a rgued r ather

u sers

i n

t he B enin a nd I shan f orests.

7 b i

I f,

a s

h as

b een

( above; 1 92-193), t he e arliest i ya r eflect d ynamic m igration t han s tatic t erritorial d efence, t hen t he p ottery s herds w ere

n ot m erely d iffused o r t raded m igrants f rom t he s avannah. C MB

2 5

w as

s outhwards

f ound m ainly i n I shan,

b ut

w ith a

a ccompanied

s light

e arly

s catter

i n

E tsako a nd t he B enin K ingdom . T he I shan c ulture s equence p rovides s ome r ather w eak c onfirmation f or s uspicions t hat c omb-scraped v essels w ere c losely r elated t o L BG 1 6 a nd o f r elatively r ecent o ccurrence; b ut s upport w as a bsent i n t he c ulture s equences o f B enin a nd E tsako. T his a nomaly m ight b e p artially e xplained i n t he B enin K ingdom b y a b ag d isaster a t t owers 1 55 a nd 1 56 w here e arly a nd f airly l ate s herd t ypes m ay h ave b ecome m ixed. T he E tsako a nomaly i s m ore d ifficult t o b ut

i t

c ould a lso r eflect t he s uspected w eakness o f t he E tsako a nalysis d raw o ut t he r ecent e nd o f t he c ulture s equence, ( above; 2 55).

e xplain :

p resumably t he s mall s ample s ize i s a gain a f actor,

t o

P erforated v essels, b ut

P FT 2 6,

t otal n umbers w ere t oo s mall

w ere f ound i n a ll t he m ain c ultures

t o m ake a ny c omment o n d istribution.

272

M SC

2 7

s herds w ere c ollected f rom a w ide v ariety o f

s ites

i n

E tsako, I shan a nd B enin. T his c ategory, w ith i ts t hick f lattish r ims a nd p oor f abric, w ould i nclude C onnah's f orm 6 ( upon w hich i t w as o riginally b ased) a nd h is f orm 2 0. O nly o ne d efinite e xample o f C onnah's f orm 2 0 ( baggy p ot) h as b een r ecovered f rom o utside B enin C ity , t hat b eing a v ery s mall p ot c ollected b y R oese a t N .I.F.O.R. I n B enin C ity C onnah f ound t he b aggy p ots o n o nly t hree s ites: B MS I II P it 2 ( 1 p ot), B MS V III P it 1 ( 1 s herd) a nd t he m ain b ody o f t he C ity W all ( 1 p ot a nd 2 2 s herds) ( Connah: 1 975; 2 8,90, 1 21,130 f ig. 3 3: 1 41 6). C onnah's f lat-rimmed, h eavy b owl ( his f orm 6 ), h owever, w as t he m ost n umerous f orm c ategory i n t he B enin C ity e xcavations. H ere o ver 9 4% ( 99% o n B MS f ound i n j ust

s ites) o f t his f orm's s herds ( 6668 o ut o f 7 083) w ere s even p its i n a n a rea a pproximately 2 0 x 5 0 m etres

a mongst t he B MS s ites; a nd f ragments o f p otsherd p avement w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hese s herds i n t wo o f t he p its ( Ibid: 1 2, 3 2-33). S ome o f t he f orm 6 p ots h ad ' chalk a dhering t o t heir b ases a nd t wo h ad f lat b ases. I n 1 976 a s imilar f lat-based p ot w as o bserved o n a s hrine t o t he O gba d eity a t O giokwe; a nd i n 1 977 D . B en-Amos r ecorded m any o f C onnah's f orm 6 r ound-based p ots o n s hrines t o t he A ke d eity i n I si. T hese I si p ots h ad b een r ecovered f rom s tream b ed s ites ( known a s i kpessa) w here l ong a go t hey h ad b een t hrown i nto t he s tream , p resumably a s c ontainers o f o fferings t o t he s tream d eity a t t hat t ime. I t

i s,

t herefore,

n o l arge s tep t o s uggest

t hat

t he m ain o ccur-

r ence o f C onah's f orm 6 p ots a nd t he a ssociated f ragments o f p otsherd p avement m ay c onstitute t he r emains o f a l arge s hrine i n c entral B enin . T he m ultitude o f s mall p ots a nd t he p resence o f B ini ' chalk' ( above; 2 3, 2 42) a re c haracteristic f eatures o f m any p resent d ay s hrines; c ontexts.

a nd a ll f orm 6 p ots o bserved i n u se t oday h ave b een i n s hrine C onnah n ever f ound t he o riginal s tructure b ut

i t

p robably

b ore m any s imilarities t o t he o ne e xcavated a t L afogido a t I fe, w here a p otsherd p avement a nd s ome t erracotta h eads w ere f ound i n s itu ( Eyo: 1 974; 9 9-109). C onnah's B MS e xcavation s ites d ug o nly a s mall s ample o f

t he

t otal a rea i n w hich t he l argest n umbers

o f

h is

f lat-rimmed,

h eavy b owls ( his f orm 6 ) w ere c oncentrated; y et 6 735 s uch s herds w ere r ecovered a nd p robably r epresent w ell i n e xcess o f a t housand p ots ( bearing i n m ind t he s mall p ot s ize a nd t hickness). P robably t he o riginal s hrine w ould h ave h ad s everal t housand p ots o n i t - i ndeed a s hrine o f

s ome c onsequence!

C onnah's o f t his p rocess

e xcavation f indings

i ndicate a s ystematic

d estruction

s hrine a nd i ts a ssociated p otsherd p avement r ather t han a o f g radual d isintegration. S ince t he B ini b elieve t hat d ire

c onsequences a ttend t hose w ho d estroy s hrines, t he t otal v iolation o f t his i mportant s hrine w ould h ave e n n o l ight u ndertaking a nd p roba bly a ccompanied t raumatic e vents. T he m ost b latant c ase o f s hrine d estruction, a ccording t o B enin o ral h istory, w as w hen O ba E wuare b urnt d own s hrines b elonging t o t oday's h ero-deities a nd l ater s uff ered s uch t errible p ain a nd g rotesque s welling ( considered b y t he B ini a s b eing t he p unishment o f t he o ffended d eities) t hat h e d ied a t E si a nd t he B ini r efused t o b ury h im a t B enin ( above; 1 58-160). T alb ot: 1 926; V ol.II 9 6, 4 83. E gharevba : 1 974; 1 0). T here c ould w ell b e s ome c onnection b etween E wuare's r eputed a ctivities, t he d estruction o f t his m ajor s hrine a nd t he t otal b an o n t he w orship o f h ero-deities i n B enin C ity s till a ctive i n r ecent t imes ( Bradbury: 1 957; 5 6). T oday

t hese d eities a re r emembered a s r esistance h eroes i n t he

2 73

f ight

a gainst B enin e xpansion a nd a re b elieved t o h ave b een t ransmogrified i nto n atural f eatures s uch a s s treams o r l akes ( above; 2 1). T oday t heir

a ssociated c ults h ave a r egional d istribution;

b ut

t he

w ide-

s pread e arly d istribution o f M SC 2 7 i n t he B enin a nd I shan c ulture s equences, a s w ell a s t he r ecent f inds o f i ts f orm i n s hrine c ontexts a t O giokwe ( Ogba c ult: a ppendix; 0 23), t he I si i kpessa ( Ake c ult) a nd p robably B enin C ity ( unknown p ast c ult, p erhaps n ow f orbidden) s uggest t hat t here m ay o nce h ave b een a c ommon b ase t o m any o f t oday's r eg ional h ero-deities. W hatever t he n ature o f t he e arly c ult(s), B enin c onquest s eems t o h ave b een a w atershed i n b oth r eligious p ractices a nd t he m aking o f s hrine p ottery. A t t he I si i kpess, t he U -turn i n r itual p ottery m ovements e nvisaged b y D . B en-Amos w ould i mply t hat t he o riginal c ult p ots w ere n o l onger m ade a fter B enin c onquest; a nd a t B enin C ity t he p ercentage i ncidence o f s uch p ots d rops d ramatically t o n egligable f igures a fter B enin's r ise t o p ower. 80 T his v iew t hough, i s n ot e ntirely e ndorsed b y t he B enin K ingdom c ulture s equence f or M SC 2 7. 8 1 T he r adical c hange i n p ottery f abric m ight a lso b e r elated t o f undamental c hanges i n c ultural o rientation . A ll t he e arly p ot t ypes - P 1A 1 , R LP 1 0, S QE 2 4 a nd M SC 2 7 ( including C onnah's f orms 6 a nd 2 0) h ave

n otably

p oor o r s andy f abrics,

w hereas t he m ajority

o f

l ater

B enin p ottery f abrics a re d escribed b y C onnah a s b eing ' buff ( to b lack), g ritty a nd f air/good ( Connah: 1 975; 1 15-121). P ossibly, a s w ith t he O wan E do f urther n orth, s upplies o f p otting c lay o r f irewood b ecame e xhausted a nd t he B enin p otting v illage-groups, s uch a s O ka a nd U se ( Dark: 1 973; 6 2), h ad t o o btain t heir s upplies f rom a n ew s ource o n t he O via r iver s ome 1 5-30 k ilometres a way ( Willett a nd C onnah: 1 969; 1 34. U do: 1 970; 1 13). H owever, Q uarcoo a nd J ohnson d emonstrate t hat p otters c an b e v ery c onservative: u ntil t heir r ecent d ispersion, t he S hai p otters i n G hana c ontinued l abouriously t o u se h illtop l ocat ions f ar f rom e ither t heir r aw m aterials o r t heir m arkets ( 1968; 4 79 7). N icklin e xpands t his t heme o f c ultural a nd p olitical f orces b eing

o ften m ore i mportant t han e ither m arket f orces o r t he

l ocation

o f a ' suitable' r aw m aterial - i n o ne c ase i nvolving t he Yanomamo o f V enezuela, p ottery-making w as t he k ey e lement i n a djusting a n a rtifi cial 4 50).

t rade t o m eet t he c hanging n eeds o f u nstable a lliances ( 1979; I n B enin t he e vidence t hat t he r adical c hange o f f abric a nd

l ocation o f r aw m aterial s upplies w as p olitically a nd/or c ulturally c aused ( rather t han m erely r esulting f rom p hysical s hortages) l ies n ot s o m uch i n a nalogy, a s i n t he f act t hat f iring t echniques, v essel t hickness a nd p ossibly e ven t he b asic m ode o f c onstruction s eem t o h ave u ndergone a t ransformation. T he p ottery b ecame b etter f ired, t hinner a nd t he e arly f orms o f p ossible t humb-pot c onstruction were a bondoned, s o a llowing c oil-pots t o c ontinue u nrivalled. T he

a bsolute

a nd

r elative d ating o f C onnah's f orms 6

a nd

2 0

( having p oor f abric) a ppear t o b e a lmost i n h armony, a lthough d iffic ult t o e stablish p recisely. T he c ulture s equence h istogram f or f orm 2 0 i s m isleading s ince t here i s a d iscrepancy b etween t he s ite o ccurr ences

d epicted

i n

t his h istogram a nd

C onnah's

e xcavation

r eport

t ables; a lso t he C ity W all p ottery s ample a ppears t o h ave b een s tatist ically a nomalous ( Connah: 1 975; 2 8, 9 0 , ( 94), 1 95iii, 1 97). A ll t hat

c an

b e

r eally d educed a bout

t he d ating o f

f orm 2 0

i s

t hat

i t

o ccurred s ometime b efore t he m ain C ity W all w as b uilt i n p robably t he m id-C15th, a nd d oes n ot s eem t o a ppear i n a ny l ater c ontexts ( ibid; 8 8,

1 82).

A s

n oted a bove

( 230 f n 3 6, 2 74

2 73),

t he f orm 6

h istogram

r esults d ecline,

w ould b est b e i nterpreted a s w hereas

r epresenting a m oderately

r apid

m ore c areful s crutiny f avours a n i nterpretation

o f

t otal c essation o f v essel c onstruction. I n B MS P it I w ere f ound f ragments o f p otsherd p avement a nd 2 056 f orm 6 s herds, a nd c harcoal a bove t hese w as d ated 1 315 ± 1 05 A .D. ( ibid; 2 2, 1 82). P otsherd p avements a t I fe a re n ow ' dated w ith c onsiderable a ssurance t o b etween t he s tart o f t he t welfth a nd t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c enturies' ( Garlake: 1 977; 9 2. c f. S haw : 1 978; 1 63 f igure 1 18), s o t he B enin d ate a ccords w ith t his g eneral p eriod, a lthough i t i s u nexpectedly e arly f or a d ate s upposedly l ater t han t he d estruction o f t he p avement. T his q uery i s r einforced b y t he d ates f or t he C QII F 20/21 m ass-burial c ontext i n w hich t en f orm 6 s herds w ere f ound: t hey r ange f rom 1 ? . 20 1 05 A .D., 1 250 ± 1 05 ( Connah : 1 975; 6 2,63,182).

A .D., 1 320 ± 9 0 A .D. t o 1 380 ± T he e vidence h ere i s e quivocal.

1 00 A .D. E ither i t

c an b e t aken t o r epresent t he s ame g eneral p eriod o f p otsherd p avement u se a s i n I fe - s o c hallenging t he e arliness o f t he B MS X IV d ate, o r i t c ould b e r ead a s i mplying t he d umping o f d estroyed s hrine d ebris i n a v ery s hort p eriod a t t he t urn o f t he C l2th a nd C l3th - s o s upporting t he B MS X IV d ate. T he l atter a lternative, h owever, i s d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he d ate o f 1 420 ± 9 0 A .D. f or t he 5 7 f orm 6 s herds i n C Q I II L 14 ( ibid; 7 5, 1 82). C onnah c hanged t he c lassification o f t his s tratum f rom ' rubbish p it f ill' t o ' a d eposit o f o ccupation m aterial' ( ibid; 7 4), w hich w ould i mply t hat t hese s herds w ere a lmost c ertainly d iscarded a nd a dded t o t his h orizon s oon a fter a ctive u se. Y et a s hrine s upposedly d estroyed b efore 1 315 A .D. i s c learly u nlikely t o b e s till i n a ctive u se i n 1 420 A .D.; s o a d ating p aradox e xists. o ne o ut o f t hree r adiocarbon d ates l ie o utside t he r ange o f

S ince t heir

s tandard d eviation , o ne w ould e xpect t hat a bout t wo o f t he s ix B enin d ates m ainly c oncerned w ith f orm 6 m ight b e w rong. A s t hree o f t he B enin d ates o ccur l ater t han t he s upposed p ost-destruction d ate o f 1 315 A .D. B MS X IV

a t B MS X IV, i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t hey a re r ight a nd t he d ate w rong t han t he r everse - p articularly w hen c onsidered

a gainst w hat i s k nown o f t he g eneral p eriod o f p avement u se a nd t he c ulture s equence h istogram f or f orm 6 ( ibid; 1 96). W ithout r epeating well-worn d iscussions o n t he p aradoxes a nd d isappointments i nherent i n a bsolute d ating ( e.g. S haw : 1 978; 1 18. P ilcher a nd B aillie : 1 978; 2 172 22), t he o verall i mpression g iven b y t he B enin r adiocarbon d ates f or f orm 6 c ontexts i s t hat t hese s hrine p ots s eem t o h ave b een i n u se d uring t he t hirteenth, f ourteenth a nd e arly f ifteenth c enturies - t he p eriod r eputed t o h ave b een i nfluenced b y I fe a nd j ust b efore B enin's r ise t o p ower. A lthough

W illett

( 1971) s eems

t o t hink t hat

t he

f ragments

o f

p otsherd p avement d o i n f act b espeak I fe i nfluence i n B enin d uring t his p eriod, C onnah p oints t o t he f ar w ider c ontexts o f t his p henomen on a nd s uggests t hat t he B enin a nd I fe p avements c ould h ave d erived f rom a c ommon a ncestry w hich h ad i ts o rigins i n t he s udanic z one ( above ; 1 60-161). T his l atter v iew a ccords b etter w ith t he k nown w idespread d istribution o f M SC 2 7

( below ;

2 80,

2 85);

a nd

s omething o f

t he h istory o f t his f orm m ay b e g leaned f rom t he s herds a nd p ots c ollected a t t he I si i kpessa. S ome o f t hese a re M SC 2 7 i dentical t o C onnah's f orm 6 , o thers h ave S QE 2 4 o r M SC 2 7H r ims a nd m any a lso h ave P lA b ody c ordons ( above; 2 41). I n t he g eneral B enin K ingdom c ollect ions, M SC 2 7 i s n ot q uite s o c losely a ssociated w ith t he p rimary i ya a s S QE 2 4 a nd a ppears l ater i n t he B enin K ingdom c ulture s equence ( above ; 2 60. b elow ; 5 09); s o t he i nter-linking o f t hese e arly v aria bles i n t he I si

i kpessa s herds a nd p ots m ay i ndicate t hat

2 75

t here w as a

c ontinuity o f 2 4 2 7,

R LP 1 1

I f

f orm s equence d eveloping f rom R LP

1 1 i n t he n orth

a ccompanying t he e arliest i ya-building m igrants t hus:

t his

4 119 1

c ulture

USQE 2 4

s equence i s

2 7H

B ini r oyalty a nd F rom C onnah's

>MSC

a nything l ike c orrect,

f airly i mportant i mplications - f irst e arly p ottery u sers i n t he f orest z one,

t o S QE

t o M SC 2 7H t o

M SC

2 7l i g

t hen t here a re

t wo

f or t he o verall c hronology a nd s econd f or t he s iting

o f o f

t heir p alaces.

t he a vailable e vidence a lready r eviewed i t w ould s eem t hat f orm

6 ( part o f M SC 2 7 i n t he

f orm

d evelopment

s uggested

a bove) c ame t o a n a brupt e nd i n B enin C ity i n p ossibly t he m id-C15th, a nd a ppears o nly i n t erminus a nte q uem d ating c ontexts f rom t he C l3th t o e arly C l5th. B eing t he e arliest f orm e xcavated i n B enin C ity, n either t he C ity c ulture s equence h istogram n or t he d ates o pen-ended i nto e arlier t imes i ndicate h ow e arly h is f orm 6 m ight b e. S hrine p ottery i s u sually m ore c onservative i n f orm t han m ost u tilitarian w are, s o p ossibly s ome o f t he M SC 2 7 a nd M SC 2 7H t ypes c ould d ate b ack t o a round t he b eginning o f t he s econd m illennium A .D. I f s o, t hen S QE 2 4 m ay h ave b een a w idespread f orm i n t he l ast h alf o f t he f irst m ilennium A .D., w ith R LP 1 1 b eing, p erhaps, a f ew c enturies e arlier. U ntil e ither a v ery e arly B enin o r I shan f orest p ottery c ollection o r ' core

z one p rimary i ya i s r eliably.dated,

t entative a nd g eneralized f orest p ottery c hronology. T he

n ot m uch m ore

e stimates c an b e h azarded f or

o nly s herd w hich m ight

a ntedate C onnah's f orm 6

t han t he

s uch e arly

s herds

i n

B enin was r ecovered f rom a d rainage c ut t hrough t he e astern s ection o f t he m ain B enin C ity w all: i t w as a s ingle M SC 2 7 s herd, b ut o pens u p t he p ossibility t hat o ther s herds e arly i n t he s uggested f orm s equence ( above) w ould b e f ound o n t he h igh g round c loser t o I kpoba s tream t han C onnah's e xcavations. A fter a ll, C onnah's c hoice o f s ite w as g uided m ainly b y p alace t raditions w ithin t he c onstraints o f a vailable l and; i t s eems t hat h e n either f ound n or s eriously l ooked f or t he e arliest s ettlement a rea i n B enin C ity. I f t he o riginal s ite o f B enin l ay f urther t o t he e ast, a s b oth G oodwin's i nvestigations a nd o ral t radit ion w ould s uggest ( Goodwin : 1 957; 6 5-75. P . B en-Amos: 1 980; 1 3), t hen i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat t he B enin e guae l ies o utside t his s uspected a rea o f e arliest s ettlement. I n Y orubaland t he a fin ( palaces) g enera lly l ie a t t he c entre o f t he a rea t hey c ontrol, w hereas t hroughout t he B enin K ingdom t he e guae o f m any e nigie ( local h ereditary r ulers o wing a llegiance t o B enin) t end t o b e p laced o n t he e dges o f a reas o f o riginal

s ettlement,

s ometimes

e ven o utside t he p rimary

e vidence e ndorses B radbury's b elief t hat s uperimposition o n t he o nce i ndependent E do

( Bradbury:

1 973;

5 2-53).

i ya.

S uch

t he B enin p olity w as a l ater s ettlements o f t he i ndigenous

B enin o ral t raditions

s tate t hat w hen

E wedo f irst b uilt t he r oyal p alace o n t he p resent s ite h e a lso ' introd uced v arious g ods i nto B enin , e specially t he f amous o ne c alled Okpann ihinrin' ( Egharevba: 1 968; 1 0). O ne o r t wo c enturies l ater, i t i s c laimed, c ame O ba E wuare's t raumatic c onquest ( above; 3 6, 6 4, 1 76). T he a pparent c orrelation b etween C onnah's e xcavation d estroyed

s hrine a nd

g uarantee o f

i t

t he e arly o ral d ata i s o bvious,

n ecessarily b eing t rue. 2 76

b ut

t hat

1 59, o f a i s

n o

I t

must

c oncerns

b e e mphasized t hat m uch o f

C onnah's f orm 6 a nd

t he

f oregoing

t he I si i kpessa s herds;

d iscussion

i ts a pplication

o n m ore w idespread s cale t o M SC 2 7 i s v ery t entative. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he c onservative n ature o f s ome r eligious c ults p res erved t he c onstruction t echniques o f o ld c ult p ots e lsewhere; e qually t he c ult p ots c ould t hemselves h a nb een c ontinuations o f a m uch o lder L ate S tone A ge f orest c ulture. " M ore s erious, though, w ere t he p roblems o f ' grouping o r ' splitting' t he r ather h eterogenous, f ragm entary r im s herds o f M SC 2 7. T wo d ifferent c ategories w ere e xtracted f rom t he o riginal g rouping o f M SC 2 7 s herds, t hese b eing M SV 2 8 ( found m ainly i n r ecent c ontexts o n I shan a nd E tsako s ites) a nd M SC 2 7H ( its v ery t hick r ims, p erhaps t oo s imilar t o L BP 1 5H, o ccurring a s i solated s herds w ithin a v ery f ew B enin K ingdom c ollections). T he M SC 2 7 r esidue p roved t o b e g eographically w idespread a nd c hronologically d iffuse; s o a lthough t his c ategory w as c reated t o c atch C onnah's f orm 6 a nd r elated c ategories, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he p oor n ature o f t he f abric h as c ompounded c lassification p roblems a nd a p roportion o f t otally unrelated f orms m ay b e i ncluded i n t he M SC 2 7 c ategory. Another e xplanation, w hich c ould b e v ery s imply t ested b y r andom s ondages

i n t he f ield,

i s

t hat t he p oor f abric a nd w ide v ariety o f M SC

2 7 d oes i ndeed d ate b ack t o a l ong p eriod o f L ate S tone A ge c ulture i n b oth f orest a nd s avannah. D uring t his p eriod o f 2 -3,000 y ears o r m ore, i t i s e nvisaged t hat s mall s cattered s ettlements - c onstantly s hifting a s t he l ocal s oils b ecame e xhausted o r w eed i nfestation I ncreased - l eft b ehind a w idespread s catter o f s herds s uch, p ossibly, a s t hose f ound i n m any o f t he s oil-pits d ug b y J ones ( above; 1 79, 3 52). L ater s ettlements f arming m uch t he s ame l and w ere p robably m ore n ucleated ( those w ithin i ya b eing s edentary v illages e mploying r otat ional b ush f allow a griculture: a bove; 3 8), s o t hat l ater s herd c onc entrations w ould d ominate t he l ight b ackground s catter o f t he e arlier M SC 2 7 w ith w hich i t w as p robably i nextricably m ixed b y h oeing. M SC 2 7 w ould a ppear, t herefore, i n c ollections o f w idely d isparate c hronol ogy, w hilst b eing i tself e arly c ollection o f i ts o wn . Am isjudgement f ailed c lose

t oo w idely s pread

i n c lassification ( above;

t o a ppear a s a r ecent c ategory i n t he t ypological s imilarities

t o c onstitute a

2 34) m eant a nalysis,

v iable

t hat U PW 2 9 d espite

i ts

t o L BL 1 8 a nd i ts c ontinued p roduction

t oday . S ome

o f t he ' U' c ategories r escued f rom t he u nclassified

s herds

p roved t o b e v iable; t hough U 34 E w as u nsatisfactory. U 3 0A ( cf. C onnah's f orm 1 7) w as a m iddle t o l ate p eriod v ariable c oncentrated i n s econdary p latters,

i ya e nclosures a nd n o-man's l ands. U 3 0B a nd t he s mall U 3 0P, w ere f ound i n B enin a nd I shan - U 3 0P a ppearing o nly

i n r ecent c ontexts. U 3 2C a nd U 3 3D w ere f ound m ainly a long t he s avannah/forest e cotone, w ith U 3 3D o ccurring i n r ecent t imes. T he t hree U 3 4Z s herds a ll c ame f rom r ecent c ontexts w ithin t he B enin K ingdom, a s d id U 3 5F ( cf. C onnah's f orms 1 5 a nd 2 1, t he l atter a ppearing i n m iddle t o l ate c ontexts i n t he B enin e xcavations). U W 3 6 ( cf. C onnah's f orm 1 1) w as a m iddle t o l ate p eriod v ariable i n B enin ( including e xcavations) a nd I shan . S ome

c omments o n t obacco-pipe c hronology h ave a lready b een

t ured ( Darling: c autious

1 981a ;

4 7):

v en-

C alvocoressi h as m ade a m ore t horough a nd

a ppraisal o f t he e vidence

( appendix;

2 77

P ).

E uropean t rade g in-bottles

( above;

3 19)

a re s till v ery c ommon i n

t he N iger D elta a reas, 8i m any b eing o btained b y b oys d iving i n r iver a t S akpoba ( where a ' hulk m ust h ave o nce b een m oored) o thers, A ll

f urther

t h ue

n amed

i nland,

b eing k ept a s c urios o r p laced o n

s eem t o h ave b een o f C l8th/19th

D utch

o r

t he a nd

s hrines. E nglish

o rigin, a nd t he p resence o f s mall f ragments o f g in-bottle g lass i n s herd c ollections p rovides o ne o f t he m ore s atisfactory t ermini p ost q uos f or s ite a bandonment.

s tood

B efore e mbarking o n t he 1 32kV s herd c ollections i t w as undert hat O bayemi's r esearch i n t he K aaba/Okene .area w ould s hortly b e

p ublished, s o p roviding p ottery c ontexts w ith a bsolute d ating a t e ither e nd o f t he l ine ( Connah's a t B enin b eing t he o ther). T his h as n ot y et b een t he c ase; c onsequently, t he c onsiderations o f e ach s herd v ariable a s s eparate g eographical a nd c hronological e ntities h ave b een m ore l engthy, t edious a nd s ubject t o l ater r atification o r d enial t han h ad t he c ase b een o therwise. N evertheless, e ven t hough f uture e xcavat ions i n t he E do-speaking a reas w ill u ndoubtedly q ualify a nd c larify m uch o f t he a bove a nalysis, t hese c onsiderations i llustrate t he c omp lexity o f m ovement, a daptation, p ersistence o r d isappearance o f t he d ifferent v ariables i n t he d ifferent c ultural a reas. T hey s erve t o c omplement t he s implified p icture p resented b y t he o verall a nalysis ( below ; I V), a nd e mphasize t he n eed f or a m ore r igorous s tudy o f t he s ocial m echanisms b y w hich p ottery v ariables a re

( and w ere?) s pread i n

B enin a nd I shan .

P late S ( facing) C ross-cultural c omparisons o f p ottery S 1-4

B enin K ingdom p ots: 1 -3 a re d ecorated w ith C R423 o n t he s houlder, t he l ower b ody o f S 1 h aving a v ariant o f C R3 2 2, t hose o f S 2 a nd S 3 h aving C SR1. S 4 i s a s hrine p ot w ith l ugs a nd h andles a nd d ecorated b y i ncisions.

S 5 i s f rom I lushi m arket o n t he r iver N iger. ( Igbo-speaking)

S 6 a re f rom U buluku,

i s I ka

S 7 i s f rom a h ill-top n ear m ile 9 j unction, E nugu ( cf. a bove; 2 37) S 8 a re D iogun w are f rom O yo I le ( Old O yo): a C llth r adiocarbon d ate h as r ecently b een o btained f rom s trata c ontaining s uch w are ( Calvocoressi: P ers. C omm.)

2 78

C HRONOLOGY O F S HERD V ARIABLES I N T HE B ENIN K INGDOM ANALYSIS N

0

0

r -

a

t O 0

3

9 a . a

0

t o J

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v

M

c

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•

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2

t n -

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: 2

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N

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=

=

S n

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a

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2

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4

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A

2 81

r — I r I

C 1

I

i c f ) i , E — ,c 4 0

.

E l

B M

C Y

C r l

r ) •

r 4 g r i

i l

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l

t r rI

r -

C l . g4. )

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c y

L . r1

c y

C e1 C \ 1

4

. C D

r

C l C l

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1 .

2

a ) a l 3

r 4

C Y " C \ 1

— / .4 I 4

I a

I

4 R z 1

g r i

0 U .

a

a

2 82

j

C l

G eographical D istribution o f C ategory V ariables. P laited S tring R oulettes: - -

F SR

T SR 2

-

,

•

•

•

•O wo -,

- -. /. a rts -

1

• . . •.

\ \ \

I l b 4. 1 • • •• L , ,

I N' .

• ••

•

• •

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•

• •

• •

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1 1 ‘be

•. e ••

•

• ••

••

\—•-b

‘ .

••

• • • . •

B e ni n j o ila Ot •

\ _ - -COP I l lb

•

• •

•• •

•

•

•

z e /

t

C riss-cross

/ /

/

f

I l

I

W ide s a ced

. .\

A bsent

. . .

,_ . . . . .„ , 1

-. . r: . " . , •— i

‘

\

‘ ,

\ .

a

,

U RHOBO n

a /

1 2 83

I SOKO ,

R egional D istribution o f S herd V ariables: %

S tring R oulettes.

o ccurrence o f s ites w ith s herd v ariable.

C SR 1

3

F SR

I SR 2

5

8 5%

7 0%

8 6%

4

9 2%

2 3>

1

6 4% --

, -1

, 5 % 9 2%

1 01 0

3 8% 7-1

. . )

8 0

'

_ 5 21 7

6% j2 1 4% _ -

,

8 6

,

6 % ‘. .

' . -1

B enin

1 00%

0% ‘.

g % 0

1 4%

2 3%

2 4%

4 6%

7 1%

44

2 1%

‘/6 3 %

7e

le

3e c

0

c a9%

0 19%

0 0%

0 %

0 %

, ‘

,

% f requency o f d ifferent s izes o f p laited s tring r ouletting . I SR 2

F SR

3

5 3% 6 %

O w°

C )3 4%

6 2%

E t a ko

3 1 %

.1 , % \

5 4% 1

9 1% \

,

e t

. 5e 0

-- 6 2%

I shan

3 7%

B enin

° 9 6%

2 %

4 :3%

0

c

1 0

‘3 5% .,

°3 %

1 9%0

1%

9 7%. )

3 0%

7

5 %

e o 06 %

8 1%

3%

4 6%

9 %

, 97 0

4 6%

2 / . 9

02%

1 % 0 %

. / * o nly o ne s ite

, /

I

2 84

. :

G eographical D istribution o f S herd V ariables ( continued). S ite o ccurrence o f s tippling r oulettes: S QP 4

C LP 6

P CT 5

( Square p unctate

( Stippli p unctate

C D

1

( Cluster/ c ircles p unctate

:, )

E T

•

I SHAN

\

. '

8

\ \

B ENIN

i t _

:6 4 • • • , %• S , •• , •• • • •• •

B enin • • K INGDOM

•

•

URHOBO

4 .. . '\

•

_. . ‘ • i 1 % \. ,

/ /

I SOKÖ

S ite o ccurrence.

M SC 7

• • • • * " • • • %• * A p, 44 1, - •• • 44* . • • e • • • •

•

•

, '-

/

,

‘

% o f r egional s ites.

F requency o f s herds. A ll s tippl r oulette , "

A ll s tipp r oulette

( Misc p unctat

t_ . . " . .-

•

.

4 0

4 %

,,

_

1 . " . o—

:S o8 • t• • ••

2 9 %

7e

6

. . •

94%

1 • • . t •

9

.

9 2%

0 1

6 6

%

1 5' ,,

8 6

1 93 4 284*

69%

C )

6 2

1 0

3 2 c )1 0

1 0

/ / 1

I 2 85

' , ,0 4

G eographical D istribution o f S herd V ariables ( continued). S ite o ccurrence o f C ombing:

( Twop ron c omb)

,

C MB 9

2 PC 8

C GR 1 0

( Combing) ZJ

( Comb g roovin

CZ:3

•

\ \

• 4

\ • l b • •• • t *6 • • •

• •

• •

•

•

•

•

e/

-7

• •

•

B enin g,

•• •

., . .

. --

. .

• •• •

• •

•

t '

• /60 / 1 t

/* d i 1

1

S ite o ccurre ue O f v arieties o f c ombing a pplication: C MB j ab

C MB w av

Jine

C MB N •concen. *cross- . 4t riang

N

S -z )

C Z:3

• -, ,

\ .. .

%

\ .

\ ..

w e • •

•

, , !L i b ?

/ / 1

• •

2 86

. / , ,

S ite o ccurrence o f I NC 1 1,

T RS 1 2 ,

E NG 1 3,

( Encrusta tion)

( Tooled r usticat' ir3

' :: : )

G RV 1 6.

E NG 1 3

T RS 1 2

I NC 1 1

I NC 1 4,

F inger)

• . . .-i

• •

I• II. B enin

• 0 •

\ \ \

•. •

•

••

• ••

•

, \. . ,

ID g e

• •• • ,

• •

• •

• •

\ .

• •

•• • •

••

•

•

, /

• I

I mpressions: I NC 1 4

/

• S tick

G RV 1 6

( Incisio01

( Grooved

*F inger- a il C Z ZI

C ;z)

* -- .

. . .

•

S t

I

•

*

\ .

• i e •

•

I P

SI. •• • • 0 • g

4

%

•

. ..

. 6

-‘ 4 ^-•

‘

I

5 15

‘ ..

•• d i •

• •

•

•

. . • / • t

, . I

2 87

,. / , , .

W SP 1 8

R SP 1 7 ( Red s lip -

B LB 1 9

( White s lip)

( Black b urnishe

) ' z : 3

. %

I I \ \

•

1 \ \

\

• \

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

/

•

/ 0

/

/

C arved r oulettes: C R1 2 0

. . . -

\ . . . . . .„

C RA 2 3

C R3 2 2

• . . . . _

- . . . --

,-

‘4 1 01-

1

\ .

• .

r. . • --

•

\

‘

‘ .

•

‘ .. 4

•

• •

•

•

•

4. •

0

•

•

/ /

, ,

/ 1

• :

•

• •

•• •

. •

i

2 88

•

• P lAl

P 1B2

( Single b ody c ordon

B lA3

( Bifid b ody c ordon

Z :p

-

s houlder l edge)

, . . --

. - --

( • 0 4 1 e

B enin yl r ,C ity.

•

•

1

\

% , 1 / 4. .

I T

..

•

f '

1

4

B 1B4

\

•

e l%

.1" • • • •

••

••

•

, ,

I l i

.

i

1/ /

S herd o ccurrence

( Bifid s houlder l edge)

•° • : •

" I _ l l

.

1

'

•

•

-

\ •

t 1

\ \ \

00

.

e

, ,

l u r e. .

% s ite o ccurrence

P lAl

P lAl

C Z:3

.- .

. _ i

( \ .. .

\ .

0

•

‘ ..

0

0 0

0

, , I

4

2 89

C D

>2 0%

, ' /

P ots w ith e verted r ims: P EB 5 ( Bifid

PER

P ES 7 ( Squared

6

( Round)

-

\ . .

.

' •

•t 0.

•

•

i s;

•

, . r , .

1 10

...

( Rolled l ip)

4 :

/

\ . •

• •

Z )

__. r

• - — i

•

/

. 0)

R LP 1 0

( Straigh / S-z ) l ip— l edge)

C Z:3

.

i. t o r t

P SL 9

0/ •

.

0

•

•

. .- , . .-\. . . ._ ••

4

•

P ET 8 ( Thick)

•

•

• •

1 110

\ ..

• ••

•

I \

• •

•

\ \ \

•

\ ..

•

• • •

0 • •

•

. / / / 1

..

, r

2 90

1

/

/ .

B IT 1 0V ( Rolled l ip

S CR 1 1B

S CR 1 1 ( Straigh w ith

, : :: , )

v ariant

( with

C Z:j

t oolad s tick i mpress— i ons)

C R1 2 0)

. , \

1•

I

I

1

1

\ \

% \ 1

1 \ \

\

•

\ \

\ •

•

•

•

•

e# „ _ , ‘ F LB 1 4

H AN 1 3

C KW 1 2

Handles C Z : 3(

( Cork— s crew l edge

( Flat l edged b owl)

Cz)

_ . ., . .

i

‘

\ i •

• • •

I

i ll e

•

C :Z I

‘ r.. •• -• ‘

\ • .

,

, 2 91

.

L edged b owls;

_ L BP 1 5B

L BP 1 5A

L BP 1 5C

' S 1

t \ \ \

% \..

• •••

• • •

•

r , r. 1f

••

L BP 1 5M

L BP 1 5H

.

-

‘ .. •

r . .• • •• t

\

‘

• •

_ , / .,

,

e

L BP 1 5G

•

\ \

•

\ .

• •

• •

•'

•

, i ' .1 r7 r1 9 ZZ. • . L 2 92

y

t , o

, ,

L edged b owls

c ontinued): L BG 1 6

L BP 1 5P

L BP 1 5N

ç

c

NN

N

, -AN. 1

1

\ \ \

0

• • f if•

• •

\

1 \ \

• • •

•

f o

•

•

•

•

• e

I

c

,

y

•

•

•

* . .. .

: I .

‚ .

4. i :

Y

;

(

I

//

1

\

\

. •

C ompletely u nc L BF 1 7 (r

•

/

e

II

l

s sified

L BL 1 8

C Z:3

C ‹ ) U kpil F ound i n m ost c ollectio s

,.

-„ _ . \i" 1

A uchi E T

__

, _ -- „ , ,iI l r .

r: . , -1

\

E kp O

M

1 \

•

' SHAN \I .

\

.

..

•

• B enin

• • •

• •

1

. . , j r 4

2 93

l i h r .N s , .

F GB 2 1

I GB 2 0

C GB 1 9

( In ter-

( Coarse g rooved b owl)

s --\

m g r ed oo iv ae td e

( Fine g rooved b owl)

' ‘ )

b owl) •

•

. ." . . .. . ‘ -

%

1 1

\

1

%

\

I

\

1

\

•

S

•

\ \

\ \

• #

• e

•

• •

l

•

•

l e

•

•

•

•

•

• •

00

•

• •

•

•

• •

.

, ., , ' . < t .,

f

(

•

, / , ,

e‘

f

_ D LB 2 2

-

l edged b owl)

W FP 2 3 f lared p ot)

` )

S QE 2 4 C

( Squared e verted p ots)

J I

czz

• .

i \ ...

•

--

_ - i \ \ . .

•

. 9 •

•

•

i \ \ ..

# 1 • •

•. ,

• •

•

. / / -,

.

N I1/ , , 1

.‘ e •

2 94

%I a s i %

, .

M SC 2 7

C MB 2 5

P FT 2 6

s craped b owls)

o rated v essels

' c : 3

e llaneou

i %

\ \

•

.

•

•

•

•

, .

t i

M SC 2 7H ( Very t hick)

;

I

•

Ii f7

/

,

-

MSV 2 8 ( Thin)

Z 1

-,.

UPW 2 9 ( Upturned w avy l edged)

. . .

-..-

\I ---

. , c, . .

N — —

1

i

‘ .

x \ •

6 •

•

• • •

•

•

/

x

ri

,

/ ,

2 95

-

-

,

.

I nitially u nclassified: U 30A

U 3OP

U 31B

' : : p

I Z I J

;I

'

\ . . . .. . •

' '

•/ 1 1 ,-

%. • " -

.

‘

I

\

1

%

\ \ \

•

•

\ x

• •

I \ , . • •

•

• • •

• • •

•

I / 1 I .

I

1

. •

1

‚

U 32C

» . .

Y . / J lemm w

44 '

w

U 33D

.

\

•

,

/ i i

U 34E

\ ‘

I -

. • g

-

1

.

\

r o e"— t

, .

•

,

, r/ . ,

,, / ( / . . 2 96

, , , ,

_ u 3 4 z

u 3 5F

. .__,

u w 3 6

. -

%. . - ' '

.,

‘

I \ \

•

•

1

I

27 1

. . . ,-

\. . .

•/ ` . . ' « .

1 \ \

\

•

‘

•

. . . .

\

&

• •

• •

•

•

•

•

• •

, , ,e rI t I, ,_ I ., ,• . ,

f r a i l.

,

.

T P1 C Z:3

•

(

t i

G in B ( Gin b ottles

•

T P2

( Tobacco SsZ ) p ipes 1

,.

. . _

( Tobacco p ipes 2

Cz zi

— . . .

1 \ ...

t ‘

\ \

‘ ..

•

• • •

•

•

?

•

• •

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/ / L

/

2 97

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U ) C 0 ( , ) a ) 5

U

2 a ) . c C l )

e a ) 4 6

0 .

2 98

•

> ,

c o

C *

299

C hapter I V S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS

i n

F ollowing h is e xcavations a nd f ieldwork i n a nd a round B enin C ity t he e arly 1 960 s, C onnah f ramed w hat h e c onsidered t o b e t he m ost

i mportant q uestions

f or

f uture r esearch:

" Possibly t he m ost p ressing p roblems c oncern t he o rigins o f s ettlement a t B enin a nd t he d evelopment o f t he c ity; c onc ern , t hat i s t o s ay, t he e vents o f t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd

m illennium A .D.

a nd p erhaps e arlier.

A s h as b een

s uggested a bove ( p. 2 49) t hese p roblems m ight b e t ackled b y a ttempting t o d etermine t he s equence o f t he ' outer c ity w alls .. A s a n a rchaeological r esearch p roject i n B enin , t he p resent w riter w ould g ive t his f irst p riority a t t he m oment .. A m ore d evious w ay o f g aining i nformation a bout e arly B enin w ould b e t o s ection a s m any p ieces o f a vailable g round i n t he c entre o f t he c ity a s p ossible." ( 1975; 2 52). T he

n ew

m uch

t o d ispel

l ight' s hed b y C onnah's ' Benin C ity W alls' s urvey h ad t he p revious m isconceptions o f

t hree c oncentric

d one ' city

w alls'; s o i t w as, p erhaps, i ronic t hat s urveys o f o ther ' outer w alls', o r e arthworks, s hould h ave b een c arried o ut b etween C onnah's f inal w ritten o pinion i n c 1 971 a nd e ventual p ublication i n l ate 1 975. C onnah's r ecommendations w ere n ot k nown w hen t his s urvey b egan o n t he t otal e xtend a nd r egional d ensities o f t he e arthworks; a nd b y t he t ime h is b ook w as a vailable, i t w as c lear t hat t he w hole d irection a nd f ramework

o f B enin a rchaeological

e nquiry h ad s hifted.

W hen

C onnah

w rote, h e e xpected t hat c loser s tudy o f t he ' outer w alls' w ould a id r econstruction o f t he ' overall s equence o f u rban g rowth' -a m ajor s tep i n p roviding e vidence f or t he o rigins o f t he c ity, t he e arliest s ettlements

o f w hich h e c learly

t he p resent c ity i n t he m iddle o f f luve ( 1975; 2 49, 2 52).

t hought w ould l ie n ear t he c entre

o f

t he O gba s tream/Ikpoba s tream i nter-

, . B y 1 975 i t w as b ecoming c lear t hat t ne o uter w alls' w ere n ot j ust Y oruba-like s tructures o f ' urban g rowth', b ut w ere a s mall p eriph eral p art o f a m uch m ore e xtensive p attern o f r ural e arthwork e nclos ures ( Iya) a nd t he p re-occupation w ith t he g rowth o f B enin C ity was n ot o nly r e-orientated t o r eflect m ore i nterest i n t he w ider p rocesses o f i ndigenous s tate f ormation ( Shaw : 1 978; 1 70) b ut a lso t he t erms o f r eference w ere e xpanded t o c over t he p ossible d emographic, c ultural a nd s ocio-political d evelopments o f o f

p aying s cant

a ttention t o

t he f irst m illennium A .D.

t he h interland d ominated b y B enin

I nstead C ity,

a ttention w as n ow f ocussed o n t hese r ural a reas w hich m ay w ell h ave g iven b irth t o t hat C ity. F rom t his p erspective C onnah's p roposals f or c loser s crutiny o f t he c entral a reas o f t oday's C ity a ppeared i nappropriate; f or e arly E do s ettlements e lsewhere w ere m ainly s ited n ear t he e dges o f t he m ore e xtensive i nterfluves, o nly e xpanding l ater i nto

t he i nteriors.

I n t he c ase o f B enin's e arliest s ettlements, 3 00

i t

i s

s uggested t hat

f uture a rchaological

e nquiry w ould b e b etter

d irec-

t ed t o h igh g round c loser t o I kpoba s tream . B efore p eople

B enin

e xisted,

i n t he t ime b efore t he i ya w ere

w ere l iving i n t he f orests n ow b elonging t o B enin

b uilt,

a nd

I shan .

E ven t oday, w hen a g iant f orest t ree i s b lown d own a nd u prooted d uring o ne o f t he f requent t hunderstorms, s herds a re l ikely t o b e e xposed. P erhaps t here w as o nce a l ink b etween t hese e xposures a nd t he p ractice o f c arefully c ollecting ' thunder-stones ( ughavan) - p olished s tone a xes -a nd p lacing t hem o n s hrines, r ecords o f a ny d irect a ssociation o f

a lthough t here a re a s y et n o s herds w ith u ghavan i n t he B enin

a nd I shan f orests. I n t he r ock s helter a t I wo E leru, i n t he f orest s ome 1 25 kms. t o t he n orth-west o f B enin , p olished s tone a xes m ade t heir a ppearance i n a bout 4 000 B .C. b ut d id n ot b ecome a ssociated w ith p ottery s herds ( decorated w ith c omb-stamping) u ntil a bout a t housand y ears l ater ( Shaw: 1 978; 4 7, 4 9). O ver 2 50 kms. t o t he e ast o f B enin, a t t he E zi-Ukwu-Ukpa r ock s helter n ear A fikpo, H artle f ound p ottery a nd s tone t ools ( no m icroliths) t hroughout a n o ccupation l asting f rom 3 000 B .C. t o t he f irst c entury A .D.; w hereas C hikwendu - w orking i n t he s ame a rea w ith ' Late S tone A ge' m aterial f rom t he U gwuagu r ock s helter* - n oted a n a ceramic h orizon a t t he b ottom o verlain b y c rude p ottery ( Afikpo r ed w are), w hich i n t urn w as c overed b y l ayers c ont aining b etter m ade p ottery ( 1977). A bout 2 00 k ms. n orth o f B enin , O bayemi d iscovered s ites w ith m icroliths, o thers w ith a xe f actories, a nd o f N o b ut

t erminal

' Late S tone A ge' s ites w ith p ottery a nd s tone a xes - o ne

t he l atter s ites b eing d ated t o t he C 2nd A .D. s uch e xcavations h ave b een u ndertaken i n t he c aves

i n

( 1977; P ers.Comm.). E do-speaking a reas,

t he s avannah z one n ear O soso a nd O fuga

h ave

d eposits

which m ay well r epay f uture i nvestigation . I n t he E do-speaking a reas t he r ocks f rom w hich t he s tone t ools w ere a pparently d erived o nly o ccur i n t he s avannah z one; s o t heir o ccurrence i n t he a lmost s tonel ess B enin a nd I shan f orests c ation . A lthough t he i ya s urvey,

i s

a s trong i ndication o f

t hese v ery e arly t imes v arious

e arly

c ommuni-

a ntedate t he p eriod c overed

i nferences c an b e d rawn f rom t he n ew c orpus

b y o f

d ata. T he m ost i mportant o f t hese p robably c ome f rom t he l inguistic a nalyses ( above ; I .C.3.), w hich h ave b een i nterpreted t o s uggest t hat, a gainst a b ackground o f g enerally s table l inguistic b locs o ver t he l ast f ew t housand y ears, t here a ppear t o h ave b een s outhward m ovements o f E do-speakers i nto t he f orests a nd s wamplands. T he e arliest o f t hese, c omprising t oday's S outhern a nd D elta E do, s eems t o h ave t aken p lace 2 -3,000 y ears a go o r m ore. T he n ature o f t hese e arly m ovements i s u ncertain b ut, i n a ddition t o s ocio-linguistic f indings e lsewhere, i t m ay b e i nstructive t o n ote t hat S outhern E do w as s till e xpanding i n r ecent t imes b ecause I jaw m en c ould m arry U rhobo w omen , w hereas U rhobo m en w ere n ot p ermitted t o m arry I jaw w omen. T his l ong p eriod o f o ccupation o f t he f orest b y m any E do-speaking p eoples m ay b e r esponsi ble f or t he h igh l evel o f e xpertise i n t heir k nowledge a nd u se o f f orest p roducts

( above;

I .B.2.).

A griculture,

b ased o n y ams

( Dios-

c orea s pp.) a nd o il-palms ( Elaeis,guineensis), s eems t o h ave c oe xisted w ith h unter-gatherer a ctivities o ver t he l ast f ew t housand

*

C hikwendu's

e xcavation u ncovered w aisted s tone a xes,

s crapers a nd l unates.

3 01

a dzes,

p oints,

y ears

i n t he

f orest

( Shaw :

1 972,

1 980 b ):

i t

i s m ost

l ikely

t hat

p opulation d ensities w ere l ow, w ith s hifting a griculture b eing p ract ised w ithin e ach s ettlement t erritory, s o a ccounting f or t he w ides pread s catter o f s herds i n t he f orest. D uring t his p eriod a lso, i t i s s uspected, h ouses w ere o f m ud-and-wattle c onstruction -n ot m ud b locks - w hilst s ettlements a voided t he E wekoro d epression a nd o ther r iver v alleys, c hoosing i nstead s ites o n t he u pper i nterfluves c lose t o s treams ( above: I .B.1.,I.B.2.). G erontocratic l eadership s truct ures w ere p robably d eveloping a long p olitico-religious l ines, b ut o ther

h ierarchical

v illage

s izes

i nstitutions m ay h ave o nly b ecome

p ronounced

a s

i ncreased d uring I ron-using t imes.

T he a dvent o f i ron i nto t he f orest m ay h ave b een u ndramatic. S uggestions t hat i ron-tools w ere i n f airly w idespread u se t hroughout t he f orest b y t he f irst c entury A .D., s peculations t hat t hese t ools e nabled w ell-digging a nd t he m ore e fficient c learance o f u ndergrowth f or f arming, a nd b eliefs t hat t hese i mprovements m ay s omehow h ave r esulted i n a g radual i ncrease i n t he r ate o f p opulation g rowth a re, a s f ar a s I a m a ware, n ot y et s ubstantiated b y d ated e xcavations. T he n umerous e xcavations a t I fe h ave o nly r esulted i n o ne i solated d ate o f 6 00 A .D. ( BM-265), w ith m ost e arly s ettlement b eing d ated a fter 8 00 A .D..

J ust

n orth o f

t he E do-speaking a reas,

O bayemi o btained r adio-

c arbon d ates f or ' Iron A ge s ites s panning t he p eriod 8 40-1340 w ith v ery e xtensive s melting a pparently t aking p lace i n t he

A .D., C l4th

( 1977; P ers.Comm .). T o t he e ast, C hikwendu u ncovered a n a bandoned h abitation s ite a pparently o ccupied f rom 6 00-1500 A .D. ( 1977). J ust s outh

o f

o btained 1 976;

t he s o

P ers.

E do-speaking a reas,

f ar a ppear t o C omm.

T hese

i n t he

N iger

D elta,

a ll

i ndicate C 9th t o C l6th s ettlement

N zewunwa :

1 978,

1 979.

S utton :

1 982;

r emarkably c onsistent C 7th t o C 9th d ates

d ates

( Anozie:

3 01). f or

t he e arliest

o bserved ' Iron A ge' s ettlements a round t he a reas o ccupied b y t oday's E do-speaking p eoples c alls f or s ome c omment. M ost p robably t he p henom enon g ists m its.

r elates t o t he s ite-orientated a pproach a dopted b y a rchaeolot o m eet b ureaucratic r equirements f or f unds a nd e xcavation p erT his p ractice d iscriminates a gainst r andomly l ocated s ites

w hich m ight d iscover e vidence o f s hifting c ultivation s ettlement ( but w ould p robably i nvolve c onsiderable l abour a nd e xpense), a nd h eavily f avours s ites o ccupied o ver a l ong p eriod, f or n ot o nly a ccumulation o f d ebris m ore l ikely t o b e s een i n t he f ield, a re g reater h opes f or a s tratified s equence o f a rtefacts. w ords, t he e xcavations t o d ate m ay n ot h ave u ncovered t he ' Iron-Age'sites a pparently s edentary p robably, s hellfish

i n t heir a rea o f

d ramatic

t ransition

f orest,

b ut m erely t he

f rom s hifting

( and

i s b ut

t heir t here

I n o ther e arliest

r esults

o f

s cattered?)

a n t o

( and n ucleated?) s ettlement p atterns - t hese l ast, m ost b eing b ased o n r otational b ush f allow a griculture ( and c ollections i n t he D elta). I f t his r apid t ransition w as

a ffecting t he s ettlements o f n eighbouring p eoples i t i s n ot u nreasona ble t o s uspect t hat i t a lso a ffected t he s ettlement p atterns o f t he E do-speaking e xternal

p eoples

e vidence

t hemselves a t

j ust

t he s ame t ime :

c ited w ould a gree

w ith

i n t his c ase i nternal

t he

a rguments

s uggesting t hat i t w as a t t his s tage o f d evelopment, a t a bout t his p eriod o f t ime, t hat t he f irst r ural i ya a re m ost l ikely t o h ave b een d ug i n t he B enin a nd I shan f orests ( above : I I.B.3.). T hese e arthworks s and

s quare

o ccur i n a c rescent

k ilometres

i n

e xtent, 3 02

a bout

s ixand-a-half

b ounded m ore

o r

l ess

t houb y

t he

s avannah/forest t he O via n oted i n

e cotone t o

t he n orth,

t he O rhiomwon r iver t o t he e ast,

r iver t o t he w est a nd t he E thiope r iver t o t he s outh. A s t he i ntroduction, t he a lmost c ontinuous n etwork o f r ural

c ommunity e arth b oundaries t hey c reated i s e stimated t o h ave a l ength i n e xcess o f s ixteen t housand k ilometres a nd i nvolved a t o ne

h undred

a nd

f ifty m illion m an h ours o f w ork o ver

a

t otal l east

p eriod

o f

s everal c enturies. T o i s

f ind o ut q uite w hy

t he c onstructors w ent

n ot a s traightforward t ask .

t o s o m uch

T he v arious t raditions

t rouble

r ecorded

a t

B enin h ave c laimed t hat O ba O guola, O ba E wuare o r O ba E sigie w as t he c onstructor o f t he m ain c ity w all, a nd t hat O ba O guloa o r O ba O zolua was r esponsible f or a ll t he r ural i ya ( above: I .C.1. D arling: 1 981c): w hat f ew I shan t raditions e xist a bout t heir i yala a ppear t o b e m ore r ealistic h aving

- p erhaps

t o

e xplain

b ecause

t hey d o n ot h ave

e ven p re-dynastic p henomena

B enin's i n

h andicap

d ynastic

o f

t erms.

F ollowing t he d emise o f o ral t raditions a s a s ource o f r eliable h ist ory, s trong a rguments h ave b een f orwarded f or t he u se o f c ontemporary e thnographic m aterial i n t he i nterpretation o f h istorical a nd a rchaeol ogical d ata ( Bradbury: 1 964. H odder I .: 1 980; 3 6-37). T he e thnog raphical a pproaches a dopted i n p arts o f t his t hesis ( e.g. a bove: I .C.2.) w ould e ndorse t he v alue o f e thnographic d ata i n i nterp retation, b ut o nly i f c onsidered s electively. S ifting t hrough t he c onflicting c laims o f c ommunity b oundary m aps n ear B enin, i t i s p oss ible t o p ick o ut o ne p ast r ole o f t he i ya i n t heir d emarcation o f a gricultural t erritories ( above: I .C.2.); b ut, f or e xample, r ecent b eliefs t hat i ya a ct a s b oundaries b etween t he r eal w orld a nd t he s pirit w orld c annot b e i ndiscriminately e xtrapolated t o e xplain t he m otives underlying o riginal i ya c onstruction. S imilarly, t he t raditional e xplanation o f t he i ya a s d efensive r amparts a gainst e xternal i nvaders, t he r eputed a bsence o f b oundaries b etween v illages i n t he p ast, a nd h istorical a rguments b ased o n s upposedly l ow p opulat ion d ensities s everal c enturies a go, a re a ll e xamples o f c ontemporary e thnographic d ata w hich a ppear t o b e i n d irect c onflict w ith a rchaeol ogical e vidence ( Darling: 1 981c). C onnah

i nterpreted

t he

c ellular c omplex o f

t he

' Benin

C ity

Walls a s l inear e arth b oundaries b etween d iscrete a gricultural s ett lements, w ith o nly t he m ain c ity w all b eing d efensive ( 1975; 1 03). I n v iew o f t he e xtraordinary d epth o f m any r ural i ya/iyala a nd n arrow o r w ide c ordons s anitaires t hat r espectively c haracterize

t he t he

c ore' o f ' periphery' o f t his i solated i ya c luster, t his i nterpretat ion r equires c onsiderable q ualification. O ne w ay o f d oing t his i s t o e xamine

t he v arious a spects o f

t erritoriality f rom

t he

s ocio-biolo-

g ists' v iewpoint. T o w hat e xtent s ocio-biologists a re j ustified i n a pplying e thological ( animal b ehaviour) f indings t o t he h uman p syche i s s till a c ontroversial i ssue, b ut s ome o f t he a nalogies a re o f i nterest a nd p ossible r elevance t o t he p atterns d iscovered i n t he i ya/iyala

c luster.

T hey

n ote t hat

' territory'

( the a rea

d efended)

o ften d iffers f rom ' range' ( the a rea r egularly c overed), a nd t hat t he b asic d esire ( instinct?) t o h ave a nd t o h old t erritory i s v ery w ides pread t hough i t i s e xpressed t hrough l earned b ehaviour ( culture?) i n a n a mazing v ariety o f w ays. T aken a s tage f urther, t erritoriality i s b elieved t o m eet b asic p sychological n eeds, s uch a s s ecurity, s timulat ion a nd i dentity. F or e xample, t he c ohesiveness o f s ome s ocial g roups a ppears t o b e m aintained b y a rtificial c lustering w hich

3 03

s trongly s timulates t his d esire o f t erritorial d efence; y et t he t errit orial ' heartland p rovides a z one o f s ecurity, a nd t here a re s trict r ules

o f

' social d istance' w hich s erve

1 977). I t c ould b e a rgued t hat a pplicable t o t he i nner ' core' o f w here

t he

t o e mphasize i dentity

( Ardrey:

t hese o bservations a re p articularly t he i ya c luster Z one A ( above; 9 6),

s mall p rimary i ya e nclosures a re g enerally o nly

s eparated

f rom o ne a nother b y n arrow c ordons s anitaires: t his t ype o f s ettlem ent c lustering w as, p erhaps, a d eliberate p ractice, p art o f a n ' amity-enmity' c omplex w hereby j ostling o f o ne a nother c ould b e a chieved. I f s o, t hen i t i s m ore t empting t o e nvisage t his p ractice a s a ccompanying a r apid i ntroduction o f r otational b ush f allow a gric ulture w ith i ts a ssociated s edentary s ettlements, t han a s o ccurring t hrough a g radual t ransition f rom m ore s cattered s ettlements b ased o n s hifting a griculture t o r otational b ush f allow t echniques a s p opulat ion d ensities " The W est

s lowly i ncreased.

G leave a nd W hite h ave o bserved

t hat:

m ajor f eature o f t he d istribution o f p opulation i n A frica i s t he t endency t owards c oncentration i nto

d iscontinuous ' islands' s eparated b y a reas o f m uch l ower d ensities. .. T here a re, t herefore, m arked p opulation g radients i n W est A frica." ( 1969; 2 74). W ithout t ure'

n ecessarily a ccepting i deas b ecause

c onditions, p opulation t heir

p ast

i t

t hat

t his

i s n ot d eemed t o h ave

d istribution i s

a djusted

t o

' imma-

e nvironmental

i t i s n evertheless i mportant t o n ote t hat, i n g eneral, d ensities i n W est A frica a ppear t o b e i nfluenced m ore b y h istory a nd c ultural

i nheritance

t han

b y

e nvironmental

c onstraints. C oncerning t he i nner ' core' o f t he i ya c luster ( Zone A ), t herefore, t here i s a c ase f or s uggesting t hat h igh p opulation d eniit ies a nd t he a ssociated p ractice o f r otational b ush f allowing w ere p art

o f

t he s ame c ultural p ackage;

a nd i f o ne i nterpretation o f

t he

l inguistic a nd p ottery s herd a nalyses i s c orrect, t his w as a n i ntrod uction f rom t he s avannah a reas f urther n orth. D uring t he e xtension o f t his p ractice a s a m igratory w ave f ront, t he i ndividual s ettlements w ere r esponding t o t he i ncreased l ocalized c oncentrations o f p opulat ion w ith f airly r apid s ocio-political d evelopment - v arious s tages o f w hich h ave b een s uggested b y t he s elected s urveys ( above: I I.B.1-9); a nd t his a ppears t o h ave a ffected t he n ature o f t he c ordons s anit aires. I nitially t hese w ere v ery n arrow, w ith t he i ya u sually s howi ng s igns o f

l ater d eepening w here t hey a pproach p articularly c lose t o

t heir n eighbours: t his i s n ot c onsidered t o i mply i nternecine w arfare a s i t c ould q uite e asily b e o ne e xpression o f ' displacement a ctivity', w hich s ome s ocio-biologists s uggest a cts t o c hannel a ggressive f eeli ngs i nto h armless p ursuits. W ith t he m uch l arger i ya e nclosures o n t he m ain p eriphery, t he c ordons s anitaires b ecome m uch w ider, t he o pposing i ya b eing o ften 1 00-400 m etres a part; a nd t his a grees w ith e thological o bservations i n w hich ' social d istance' i ncreases a nd c onflict

i s

u sually

a voided b y

l arger

i ndividuals

o r

s ocieties.

A nother p loy t o r educe c onflict m ay h ave b een t he ' blood t ies' o r a greements ' not t o s ee o ne a nother's b lood' m ade b etween I shan c lans ( above;

I I.B.8).

W ith t he p assage o f

t ime,

h owever,

c onflict m ay h ave

b ecome e ndemic i n t he s truggle f or p ower. T he l arger a lliances o n t he p eripheries r aided a djacent a reas a nd o ne a nother f or s laves, a nd t heir s trength m ay h ave b een f urther a ugmented b y t he i mmigration o f m inorities s eeking r efuge ( above; I I.B.6, I I.B.8).

3 04

S haw b oth

h as

e quated t he Y oruba a nd E do e arthworks b y s uggesting

m ay h ave b een d efensive r esponses

t o e ither i nternal

t hat

p opulation

p ressure o r t he e xternal t hreat o f s lave-raiding b y t he n orthern s tates o f M ali o r S onghai a fter a bout 1 100 A .D. ( Shaw : 1 978; 1 57-158). A lthough a p roper s urvey o f t he t rue n ature a nd e xtent o f m ost Y oruba e arthworks h as n ot y et b een u ndertaken , a ll i ndications t o d ate a re t hat t hey w ere c onstructed a s i solated, u rban d efence s tructures, q uite d ifferent f rom a nd i n a p eriod l ater t han , t he e arliest i ya : i t s till r emains t o b e e xplained w hy t he E do s hould h ave r esorted t o s urrounding t heir s ettlements w ith e arthworks w hilst t he Y oruba, a s f ar a s i s k nown , d id n ot. O ne g uess i nvolves O bayemi's c laim t hat t he a rea n ow o ccupied b y t he n orth-eastern Y oruba a nd n orthern E do w as o nce a n uclear a rea f or l anguage a nd o ther c ultural p ractices ( 1976). I f s o , t he e xpansion o f - i n t his c ase - h igh p opulation d ensity/rotat ional b ush f allowing p ractices m ay h ave l ost t heir i mpetus a s t hey s pread w estwards a cross t he Y oruba s avannah a nd t hence d iffused s outhw ards i nto t he f orest, w hereas t he s outhward s pread i nto t he E do f orests w as m ore d irect. T he m echanisms o f t his s pread s outh a re h ere e nvisaged a s b eing m ore a kin t o m igratory w ave f ronts t han t o t he p rocesses

o f d iffusion ( Hassan :

1 981.

T rigger:

1 968),

w ith t he r esult

t hat t here w as a m igratory i nflux o f s avannah E do s peakers i nto t he f orest. L ike t he I gala a nd B ukusu p eoples o f l ater c enturies ( above; I I.C.), t hey r esponded t o e ntering a n a lien e nvironment i nhabited b y t hose w ith d ifferent c ultural p ractices b y c onstructing e arthworks. I n t he c enturies t hereafter, i t i s s urmised t hat t he i ya w ere d ug o stensibly f or a v ariety o f d ifferent m otives; b ut u nderlying a ll t hese m ay h ave b een a b asic c ultural i dentification w ith i ya c onstruct ion , w hich i tself b ecame i ncreasingly p rotected f rom s ubsequent c hange b y

t he i nertia o f

l ong-entrenched c ustom .

A nother p ersistent c ustom , w hich m ay a lso h ave o riginated w ith s avannah p eoples o ver a m uch l onger p eriod, w as t he a voidance o f s tream v alley b ottoms a nd s lopes b y s ettlements o f t he N orthern S outhern E do. T here d o n ot a ppear t o b e a ny c onvincing r easons

a nd f or

p referring i nterfluves i n t he f orest e nvironment, w hereas c ertain d iseases a re i dentified w ith r iver v alleys i n t he s avannah a nd p roba bly l ed t o s ettlements a voiding t he r iver v alleys a nd c oncentrating o n t he i nterfluves ( above; I .B.2.). T hese E do s ettlement p atterns a ppear t o h ave p ersevered o ver a t l east t wo t o t hree m illennia; a nd i n r ecent t imes t his h as p ermitted t he e xploitation o f t he r iver v alleys a nd s lopes b y n umerous s mall c amps c omposed o f p eoples f rom v ery d ifferent I tsekiri

c ultural

b ackgrounds:-

( Yoruba d ialect),

U rhobo a nd I soko

I jaw a nd K wale

( Southern

( Igbo-speaking).

N o

E do), s yste-

m atic p ottery o bservations h ave b een m ade i n t hese c amps, b ut s uch f ew a s w ere m ade i ndicated t hat p ots w ere p urchased f rom t he l ocal B ini m arkets - n ot i mported f rom t he d ifferent c ultural a reas, n or m ade b y t hose i n t he c amp. I f f urther r esearch e ver d emonstrates t hat t his i nadequate s ample i s a t a ll r epresentative, t hen f uture a rchaeologists w orking i n t hese a reas w ould b e h ard p ut t o i nterpret t he t rue c ult ural c omplexity

f rom m aterial d ata a lone!

I n t he l ight o f t his o bservation , i t s eems p robable t hat p ast s ettlement p atterns o f c ultural m inorities w ould n ot h ave t heir i mmediate p resence f elt b y c hanges i n t he p ottery t ypology.

m any m ade A s

t heir n umbers g rew, t hough, i t i s p robable t hat s ome o f t he m inority c ulture ' guests w ould b egin t o m ake a nd c irculate t heir o wn w are a mongst t hemselves; a nd o ver t ime, d epending l argely o n t he s trength

305

o f

t aboos

r egulating c ultural

i nter-marriage,

t here m ay h ave b een s ome

i ntroduction o f m inority c ulture t raits i nto t he ' host c ulture . T he p atterns o f p ottery a nd l inguistic d iffusion a re g overned l argely b y t he m ovement o f w omen a nd, p robably t o a l esser e xtent, b y t he s pread o f i nnovative i deas a mongst w omen. I n c ontrast t o t his, t he s ociop olitical i mplications o f i ya c onstruction s uggest t hat t hey m ay e xpress m ale-dominated i deas a bout e arly E do s ocieties; f or, e ven t hough o ral t raditions c ontain n umerous s tories a bout y ounger b rothers o n t he m ove, i t w ould s eem t hat m en w ere r estricted t o t heir t erritory w hilst t he w omen m oved ( above; 1 38). T herefore, t he ' marriage' o f t he ' male' a nd ' female' c ounterparts o f e arly E do c ulture i n t he d iagrams d epicting s tages i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology o f a ll t he E do s herd

c ollections

a pproximately m atched w ith t he o verall

s equence

o f

i ya c onstruction ( below ; 2 98-299) w ould a ppear t o s trengthen t he c ase f or t he l arge-scale o ccurrence o f ' dynamic', s hort-distance m igratory c olonizations

d eeper

i nto t he B enin f orests a nd a long

t he

n orthern

p art o f t he I shan p lateau, r ather t han j ust t he p atterns o f d iffusion a nd s tochastic g rowth w ithin a t otally ' static' p opulation c luster. B efore t o

b e

c ulture i nsofar

t his a rgument c an b e e xpanded,

a pplied

t o a ny i nterpretation o f

s ome q ualifications n eed

t he s tages

i n

t he

o verall

s equence. T hese a re s implifications o f t he c omputer a nalysis a s t he m ost c hronologically r epresentative o f t hree a xes h as

b een s elected f rom e ach c ulture, a nd t hough t he c hosen a xes h ave b een r elated t o e ach o ther b y s ites c ommon t o e ach c ulture's a xis, t here i s n o g uarantee t hat t he r elative s peeds o f c ultural c hange a re o n i dent ical s cales. T he r esults, t herefore, c an o nly b e a pproximations o f t he b asic

t rends,

a nd s ignificance s hould n ot b e a ttached

t o i solated

s ites. A nother i mportant c onsideration i s t hat ' average d ates' h ave b een c alculated f or e ach s ite. T his m eans t hat o ne c annot t ake t he d iagrams a t f ace v alue t o i mply t hat s avannah p eoples e ntered a nd e xpanded f rom t he i ya c luster ' core' t o i ts ' periphery' i n v irtually e mpty f orests: i t w ould b e m ore a ccurate t o n ote t hat, a gainst a n a s y et u nidentified c ommon b ackground s catter o f v ery e arly s herds, t he m ajority o f s herds c ollected o n t he i ya c luster ' periphery' h ave a l ater ' average d ate' t han t hose i n t he c ore o f t he c luster, w hich i n t urn h ave l ater ' average d ates' t han t hose i n t he s avannah. A gainst t his p icture o f s hort-distance m igratory c olonization t he a rguments f or ' statis' i n p opulation c an b e s ubstantial. A ssuming n o o ther c onstraints, t he i nevitable r esults o f r andom g rowth p rocess es i n a s tatic p opulation c luster w ould b e i ncreasing c ongestion o f t he ' core' w ith l ower d ensities a pparent o n t he s lowly e xpanding ' periphery'. T he t ightly p acked s mall s ettlements i n t he s ecure c ore' o f t he c luster a nd t he g reater a vailability o f s pace/greater e xternal

t hreats

e ncouraging p olitical a lliances o n t he p eriphery a re

a ttractive a pplications o f t his a rgument. B y i tself, h owever, i t d oes n ot c onvincingly a ccount f or t he d is equilibrium o f p opulation d istrib ution i n t he f irst p lace, n or f or t he a pparently s udden a rrival o f s edentary s ettlements e mploying r otational b ush f allowing i n p rimary i ya t oo c losely p acked t ogether t o p ermit m uch s ubsequent g rowth, n or f or t he s trong s outhward m ovement s hown b y t he s ite ' average d ates' i n t he p ottery a nalysis, n or f or t he a pparent s trength ( and t ions?) o f t he p etty c hiefdoms o n t he p eriphery. W ith t hat t here w as p robably a n i ncreasing d egree o f t he s avannah i mmigrants a nd t he i ndigenous f orest a nd M akar's

o bservations

i ntegration b etween d wellers, U kpabi's

o f E zza a nd T iv m igrations 3 06

h igh p opulat he p roviso

r espectively ,

a nd

Hassan's m odel o f m igratory w ave f ronts

( 1981) w ould a ppear

t o p rovide

a m ore s atisfactory e xplanation f or t he p re-dynastic p atterns o f s ettlement i n t he i ya-building a reas. O f i ya

t he t ime p ost-dating

p rovide l ittle e vidence.

t he e mergence o f

t he B enin d ynasty

I t i s p ossible t hat b y t hen

s truction w as a lready a d eclining p ractice: m ost a vailable a lready b een e nclosed i n t he ' core z one b y a bout 1 300 A .D.

i ya

E do

t he c on-

l and h ad ( above;

I I.C.b.), a nd t here w ere m any i ncomplete a nd d iscontinuous i ya i n t he p eripheral - z ones. A lternatively, w hat m ay h ave h appened i s t hat t he Y oruba p ractice o f d emarcating b oundaries w ith a koko t rees ( Newbould ia l aevis, t he B ini i khimwin b ecame e stablished a s t he O ba o f B enin t ightened h is c ontrol u sing h is a vbiogbe ( surveyors) a nd o notueyevbo ( territorial r epresentatives). T he c hange f rom i ya d emarcating i ndep endent v illage t erritories t o b oundary s ystems manipulated b y t he c entral B enin p olity w as n ot

f lexible e nough t o b e t he o nly s ign o f t he

l oss o f i ndependence. O ver t he c enturies o f i ya c onstruction, t he i ncreasing s ize o f t he e arthwork e nclosures s uggests t hat t here w ould h ave b een s ignificant a rchical W right:

d evelopments

t owards

l arger, m ore c omplex,

h ier-

s ocio-political a nd c ommercial i nstitutions ( Carneiro: 1 970. 1 974). B enin's w idespread i mpact i s d eemed t o h ave r esulted

i n t he d evolution o f m any v illage c hieftaincy s tructures a nd t heir r eo rientation t o f it a B enin-centred c ulture ( Bradbury: 1 952). I n

t he

c ourse

o f

t he i ya s urvey,

s everal

n atural

s mall-scale e arthworks a nd o ther a rtefacts w ere n oted. T he o f o ghodo ( ponds) s uggests t hat t hey w ere m ainly d ug t owards

f eatures, l ocation t he e nd

o f t he i ya c onstruction p eriod, e nabling d ense c olonization o f a reas f ar f rom s treams, s uch a s t he I shan p lateau. O dighi ( seasonal l akes) a re s till u sed a s a s ource o f w ater, b ut i t i s t heir r eligious a ssoc iations w ith p redynastic h ero-deities w hich i s e specially i nteresting - p articularly s ince o ne o f t hen , L ake O kuwu, l ies h idden b ehind t he s eventh d oor o f t he h arem i n t he O ba's p alace ( Akenzua : 1 965). B enin's p osition a s a p owerful r eligious c entre b y t he C l3th a ppears t o b e c onfirmed b y t he d iscovery o f f lat-based p ots i n a s hrine g rove e arthwork a t O giokwe ( south-west o f B enin) a nd a s s herds a t i kpessa s hrine s ites

i n I si;

f or t hese a re i dentical

t o

t he t housands o f p ots

f ound b y C onnah o n m ainly t he B MS s ites ( Benin C ity) i n a ssociation w ith f ragments o f p otsherd p avement, s uggesting t hat t here w as a v ery i mportant s hrine a t B enin d uring t he C l3th t o e arly C l5th p eriod ( above ; 2 75). W ith t he e xcavation o f C l2th t o C l5th p otsherd p avem ents u sed a round a ltars a t I fe, i t h as b een c laimed t hat B enin w as s ubjected t o I fe i nfluence d uring t his t ime. I n v iew o f t he s trong s outhward m ovements f rom s avannah a reas t o B enin e stimated t o h ave b een i n p rogress f rom t he C 9th t o C l3th, a s w ell a s t he w idespread d istribution o f p otsherd p avements, C onnah's s uggestion o f a c ommon s udanic o rigin f or b oth B enin a nd I fe p avements w ould s eem t o m ake t he m ost s ense. N evertheless, t he i ncorporation o f Y oruba-oritntated e lements i nto t he c onservative k ingship r ituals i s o ne o f t he m ore c onvincing a rguments t hat ' Ife' i nfluence w as n ot m erely a r ecent, v oluntaristic s witch i n p olitical a llegiance ( Bradbury ; 1 973; 8 ): t he c ase f or a n I fe d ynastic ' field' a s e arly a s t he C 7th-ClOth O run O ba A do d ates ( where t he h eads o f t he O bas o f B enin w ere b uried a ccording t o r ecent c laims) a re c onsiderably l ess s ubstantial - p articularly i n t he l ight o f t he s cale o f s ocio-political d evelopment o f i ya c onstruct ors i n t he f orest d uring t his s ame p eriod ( Willett: 1 968). F orwardi ng n ew a rguments b ased o n s ome o bservations m ade a t U do a nd a t t he

3 07

c laimed s ite o f a n e arly-C16th B ini w ar-camp a t U nuame,

i t i s s ugges-

t ed t hat U do m ay h ave b een t he m ain i ntermediary f or t he i ntroduction o f I fe-orientated p olitical c ulture t o B enin C ity i n a bout t he m idC l5th ( above : I I.B.7.). f ul r eligious c entre, m ilitary c onquest;

I f B enin h ad a lready e volved a s a v ery p owert hen i t w ould h ave b een a p rime t arget f or

a nd t his

i s w hat m ay h ave h appened.

A c anoe-port c omplex i n t he I kpoba r iver f lood-plain i mmediately e ast

o f

B enin C ity s eems

t o i ndicate t hat m ilitary f orays d eep

i nto

t he N iger D elta a nd f ar a long t he c oastal l agoons e nabled B enin t o b egin i ts e xtension o f c ommercial p ower o ver e xtensive c oastland a reas m ost p robably d uring t he C l6th t o e arly-C18th ( Darling : 1 981a). R everse-banked e nclosures a long t he w aterside r outes t o B enin m ay h ave b een u sed i n a n i nternal t rade f or s laves, u pon w hich m uch o f t he C ity a nd E mpire e conomy w as b ased. F rom a nalysis o f t he g eographical a nd c hronological c ontexts o f t he p ottery s herd v ariables i t w as p ossible t o d iscern s ome l ater d istributions a pparently s pecific t o t he B enin K ingdom - p articularly o f d ouble-ledged b owls ( DLB 2 2), t er p unctate s tippling ( CLP 6 ) a nd c arved r ouletting,

c ircles/clusa lthough t his

l ast m ay h ave s pread f rom t he w est. I n c arrying o ut t his a nalysis o ne o r t wo m inor q ualifications a nd o bservations h ave b een m ade o n C onnah's e xcavation d ata, t he m ost i mportant o f w hich m ay b e t he q uery r aised a gainst h is r ather i ndiscriminate g rouping o f s trata f rom t he C Q s ites i nto p eriods f or t he s tatistical a nalysis ( above; 2 70-271). T he f indings o f t rade g in-bottles a nd i ndigenous c lay t obacco-pipes w ere t he m ost o bvious i ndications o f E uropean c ontact. C alvocoressi's s pecialist r eport o n t hese t obacco-pipes i s i n t he a ppendix ( P) a nd a mongst h is f indings a re t he o bservations o f o dd p ipes s imilar t o o thers f ound i n t he D elta 2 00 k ms. t o t he s outh a nd i n t he m iddle o f N igeria a bout 4 00 k ms. f urther n orth. T rade a nd o ther c ontacts o ver s uch l ong d istances i n t he C l7th-C19th p eriod d oes n ot a ppear q uite s o i mprobable w hen c onsidered a gainst t he e nigma o f I dia's p ot ( above ; 2 62-264); f or t his a ppears i n a lmost i dentical f orms a nd m otifs a t B enin, c iated

U nuame, I fon, I fe a nd A buja, a nd m ay p rove t o b e r elics a ssow ith a w idespread a doption o f t he ' queen m other i nstitution'

( lye i n B ini,

I ya i n Hausa)

i n a bout

t he e arly C l6th.

F uture R esearch

a

T wo m ajor l acunae a re a pparent i n t his s urvey. F irst, t here w as l ack o f t horough f ieldwork i nvestigation o utside t he B enin , I shan

a nd E tsako d ivisions o f B endel S tate: s econd, t ions a nd a bsolute d ating o f t he e arliest i ya s ettlements.

C oncerning t he f irst i t

t here w ere n o e xcavao r t heir a ssociated

i s s uggested t hat

e thno-archaeo-

l ogical r esearch o n t he p ast a nd p resent p ottery t ypologies i n a ll a reas ( including c amps) o f B endel S tate, a s w ell a s t he Y oruba-speaki ng a reas t o t he i mmediate w est, w ould p rovide a c omprehensive c orpus o f u seful c omparative m aterial, w hich a fter a nalysis m ight m ore a ccurately d efine t he q uestions

t hat o ught

t o b e a sked.

R egarding

t he

s econd, m any o f t he p roblems e ncountered w hen a ttempting t o i nterpret t he s urvey r esults m ight b est b e t ackled b y s electing t hree ( small?) i ya

s ystems

- o ne i n t he

s avannah/forest

e cotone,

o ne

i n

t he

U humwode a rea, a nd o ne i n t he s outh-west p eriphery - c ompletely v eying t he i ya/iyala, o btaining a bsolute d ates f or t he i nnermost

I si/ s ura nd

o utermost e arthworks, m aking s urface c ollections o f a ll e xposed s herds w ithin t he e nclosures, a nd o nly t hen s electing e xcavation s ites w ithin e ach

i ya/iyala

s ystem

w hich

a ppear

3 08

t o

r epresent

t he

d ifferent

c hronological p eriods. T his p icture o f t he m icro-patterns

s hould p rovide a m uch m ore t horough a nd d ating o f s ettlement d evelopment

t han w as p ossible w ithin t he l imitations F inally,

w hat

I

w rote

i n

1 980

i mposed o n t his w ould

s till

s urvey. a ppear

t o

a pplicable: " This l ittle a nalysis h as a ttempted t o d raw m ainly o n n ew d ata o btained b y o nly o ne p erson's f ield s urvey. O nly a bout s ixteen h undred k ilometres o f i ya h ave b een s urveyed a nd t he c hallenge o f a f urther f ifteen t housand r emains. O nly

a bout

f our h undred p ottery c ollections

w ere m ade i n

B endel S tate b ut o nly t he a reas o f B enin a nd n orthern I shan a re a nything l ike a dequately r epresented a nd t here i s n ot e ven

e nough d ata t o c alculate t he t rue w orth o f

t he

I soko

a nd U rhobo c ollections. Y et e nough h as b een a chieved t o s uggest w ith s ome c onfidence t hat t he r oots o f t he t raditional c ity o f B enin s tretch b ackwards o ver t ime i n m ore t han o ne d irection, a bsorbing t he c ultural s trengths o f t he a utochthonous f orest d wellers u sing g rounds t onea xes, t he i ron t echnology a nd r ural s ettlement p atterns o f t he i ya c onstructors f rom t he e xpertise o f t hose f rom t he w est."

n orth,

a nd

t he

u rban

( Darling: f orthcoming; T he O rigin a nd G rowth o f B enin - a n e thno-archaeological v iewpoint i n S ada P .O. ( ed) B enin a t raditional A frican c ity.

P ostscript:

T here

i s

H eineman.

a p ossibility

t hat

f unds

w ill s oon b e f orthcoming. q ualify s ome o f t he m ain

f or m ore

d ating o f b e c hosen

t he i ya t o h elp

t his s tudy,

a nd t he r esults w ill b e p ublished i n N yame A kuma.

3 09

T he i deas

r adiocarbon

s amples w ill f orwarded i n

N OTES 1 .

S ome

o f

t he

e xposed

r equirements w ere:

s herd w ithin s ite a reas

l abelling

o f

c ollection b ags

c lassification

o f

t he

c lassified,

s ites

b eing

s herds

a )

t he

i nside a nd

t o b e

c arried

b y

c ollection

o f i dentical o ut;

o ut

t he u se o f

o f

s ize; c )

e very

b )

d ouble

s orting

i n t otal

a nd

i gnorance o f

r andom n umbers o r

b y a

s orter/classifier o ther t han t he c ollector; d ) i f s orting s equential r ather t han s imultaneous, t he t ypology t o e stablished

o n

t he

b asis

o f

a T ype S eries

S ample w ith

c riteria

d efined i n w riting a t a n e arly s tage; e ) a q uality c ontrol l ater r eclassification a nd c omparison o f— a r andom s ample. M odern c ollections a nalysis.

3 .

T he c ost a nd t ime n eeded i n t he r andom t est e xcavations w as b eyond m y r esources a nd w ould h ave r equired a n e xcavation p ermit.

4 .

T he

1 32kV l ine

5 .

T he B .I.C.C. o f

m ajor

s hrines i solated

a s k nown c hronological

a lso c rosses S ands

t o

t he m ajor g eological

t he B asement

c riteria f or

r oute

c oncentrations

S herd

a ny

f rom

t he

s election i ncluded

o f p resent

h ousing

t he b y-passing

( including

m ajor

i n u se), a nd t he a voidance o f s teep l ateral s lopes h ill-tops; s o t he m ost r ecent s herd t ypes w ould

d ensity

d ozered

a reas

i n

C omplex.

u nder-represented, a s w ould v ery e arly s herds c aves o r u nder d eep d eposits. 6 .

i ndicators

b y

2 .

C oastal P lains

a ct

i s b e

t rack

v aried

f rom n o

s herds

f rom r ock s helters,

o ver 2 k ilometres o f

i n t he E wekoro d epression o f

o r b e

S outhern

b ull-

E tsako

t o

s omething i n e xcess o f 1 00 s herds p er s quare m etre o ver a s izeable a rea a t U nuame i n t he B enin K ingdom . Q uite w hat i s a n o ptimum

s ample

s maller

t he s ample s ize

s ize d epends o n

a nalytical

t he l ower

i ts

r equirements.

T he

s tatistical meaningfulness

b ut, i f h ighly l ocalized, t he g reater i ts f unctional a nd/or c ultural s pecificity.

l ikely c hronological, L arger s amples a re

s tatistically m ore m eaningful b ut, i n t erms o f s herds c ollected a nd a nalysed a nd t he d ata o btained, y ield p rogressively l ower m arginal r eturns; f urthermore, t here i s a n i ncreased d anger o f l osing t he e lements o f s pecificity n oted a bove. I n t his p roject a ttempts h undred 7 .

T hese

w ere m ade d iagnostic

i ncluded

c ordon s herd 8 .

A ll

t he

9 .

T his

T he

o ne

p hotography a nd

t he

s ketching o f

r im,

l edge

a nd

t o

s ome e xtent

d iagnostic

i nsofar

a s

t he

c olour p ercentages o f U DNR s herds w ere i ncluded i n t he T he t erm h as b een u sed h ere a nd e lsewhere t o r efer t o

s herds w ith d istinctive f orm o r d ecoration f eatures. d iscarding w as u navoidable

a nd w eight 1 0.

t en a nd

c ross-profiles.

s herds w ere

f abric a nd a nalysis. a ll

t o k eep c ollections b etween a bout s herds.

d uring

c omplete

s et

t he o f

i n t he i nterests

f requent m oves

t hese p hotographs

t he a uthor. 3 10

o f

s aving

s pace

o f 1 977. i s

a vailable

o n r equest

t o

1 1.

A ll

t he

i ndigenous,

c lay

t obacco p ipes w ere

d onated

t o

t he

D epartment o f A rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f I badan . D . C alvocoressi, k indly u ndertook t o m ake a t ypological c lassification : t his c an b e f ound a s a s pecialist r eport t ogether w ith s ome p hotographs a nd d iagrams b elow ( Appendix B 1 1 4). A s a t t hat t ime t he B enin N ational M useum w as n ot r eady t o r eceive s uch m aterial a rtefacts, t he s herds w ere p laced i n t he c ustody o f M .A . O nwuejeogwu. T he b ulk o f t he p ottery s herds w ere p laced i n t he E thnography D epartment, U niversity o f B enin. 1 2.

F inal

1 3.

T his

c ross-profile t ype s eries

s hown b elow;

( 239-240).

i ncludes J ohn P icton's A koko-Edo a nd O kene p ots

t he E thnography 2 44 )•

D epartment o f

t he B ritish M useum

i n s tore ( below ;

2 43-

1 4.

T he t echnique i s f ully d escribed b y W illett a nd C onnah 1 969 D ark 1 973.

1 5.

F ollowing t he e xample o f C onnah:

1 6.

T he

f ield-note

c lassifications

1 975; o f

1 21 a nd E yo: C FSR

a t

a nd

1 974a.

( coarse

f ine

s tring

r oulette) a nd F CSR ( fine c oarse s tring r oulette) w ere c ombined m ake I SR 2 .

t o

1 7.

A lso o bserved b y C onnah 1 975 p late 2 2 a nd a p ossible r oulette r econstruction b y D e M eulemeester: 1 975; 2 10, f igure 1 , T ype 5 .

1 8.

T he

g eographical

d istribution o f a ll f orms a nd

d ecorations

i s

s hown b elow I IID. 1 9. 2 0.

T he

v arious

t ypes

o f

s tippling a re s hown a bove ( 228).

I bid p late 2 5 l eft a nd p late 2 7 l eft a re d ifficult a s

t here a re n umerous

t o d istinguish

i ntermediate v ariations.

2 1.

I bid p late 2 6 t op l eft a nd p late 2 7 b ottom r ight d o n ot s eem h ave a ny s trong c laim t o d istinction.

2 2.

T he s mall n umber o f s herds i n e ach s eparate c ategory a nd t he d ifficulty o f d istinguishing b etween t hem o n t he m ore w eathered s herds a lso a rgued f or c ombination i n t his c ase.

2 3.

C onnah:

2 4.

T hese p atterns i ncluded c oncentric,

1 975;

1 32 e ncountered

t o

t he s ame p roblem . w avy-line,

c ross-hatched a nd

t riangular. 2 5.

' Modern

s herds

i ncluded t hose f rom p resent m iddens:

t he o lder-

l ooking s herds w ere m ainly S QE 2 4 f orms. 2 6.

C onnah's

d efinition

p late 3 1 ( 1975) d escribed a bove. 2 7.

o f

i ncision a ppears

i ncludes

t he T RS

1 2

t o b e b roader, a nd

2 PC

8

a s

h is

c ategories

C onnah: 1 975; 1 32 n otes t oothed s tamping a nd s hallow g rooves d el imiting t he p ainted a reas o n l arge w aterpot b odies, l edged b owls 311

a nd

s ome w ith

i nturned

r ims.

o ccurred o n t obacco-pipes,

T hese d ecoration t echniques

a ppendix;

c orresponds w ith E yo's h aematite 2 8.

T he

g eographical

o utside 2 9.

P .

T his

p igment w are

d istribution o f

t his

a lso

c ategory p robably

( 1976;

d ecoration

f ig. w as

6 9B). e ntirely

t he B enin K ingdom.

A lthough t his i s c learly n ot a n i ndigenous p ottery a ppearance i n t he s equence a cts a s a v ery g ood

t ype, i ts l ate c hronological

i ndicator. 3 0.

P yro-gravure

i s

t he

u se

o f h ot

i ron

r oulettes. N o d efinite e vidence o f t he E do s herds. 3 1.

I t

i s

s uspected

s avannah f actors 3 2.

T he

t hat

t he c hoice o f

e nvironments

w as

t o

b urn

t hrough f ound i n

r aw m aterials

m ore i mportant

i n t he s ize d ifferentials

n orthern E tsako

h oles

s uch a p ractice w as

o f

s ites w ith C R1

i n

t han

f orest

o ther

a nd

c ultural

s tring r ouletting. 2 0 a re i n t he

s avannah

i n t he

B asement C omplex a rea, s o i s O wo. I t s eems u nlikely t hat s uch s imilar a reas i n s uch c lose p roximity w ould h ave b oth r ouletting a nd g rid-stamping 3 3.

3 4.

T he

f aint

f ibre

r oulettes

d o n ot

b e

t oo.

f ibrous

t o p roduce

C onnah's m ost

m arks o f

s imilar e ffects.

d iscerned

v ery

F igure

2 7

t hose

o f

N o.

r econstruct

t he o verall

a pparent

p ots

i n t he B enin C ity e xcavations

p resence

w hat

5 ,

6 a nd

o f m any c entral

F orm 6 i s.

e lsewhere

c ooking/

-

p ersist

( Connah:

s hrines.

T his

T herefore

o f

1 975;

n ecked 1 96)

C ertainly

t he

i s

w hereas

a pparent

n ot

w ere

wateri s

B MS i f

m is-

i s

m uch

t he n ecked w aterpot

i ncrease i n w aterpot

t he d ecrease i n f requency o f I f

a re

s ite

t hat

e ncountered

p ots

t he F orm 6 p ots

t he

s hrine p ottery,

t ype o f p ottery

i n t he B enin K ingdom ,

t ime.

f rom

s herds

s hape.

q uency m ay r eflect o ver

c an

o f C onnah's s ites w ere w ithin t he e xtent o f t he a nd m ay t herefore h ave b een u nduly i nfluenced b y

t o r ecord v ast q uantities

w idespread.

1 0)

t he

i ncrease i n p ercentage o ccurrence o f

l eading. M ost f ormer p alace, t he

4 ,

t hese

6 F orm 2 w ould b e i mpossible t o d istinguish

T he

a ppears

o n

f ibres - t wigs

F orm 4 d epicted o n F igure 2 8 u nless

l arge e nough t o 3 6.

l eaf

p rolific p ottery f orms - mainly w aterpots,

e ating b owls a nd s hrine p ots ( Forms 1 , t hroughout t he c hronological s equence. 3 5.

o ccasionally

n ecessity h ave t o b e

i s f re-

t he F orm 6 s hrine

r emoved

f rom

C onnah's

p ercentages a nd t he p ercentage o f o ther f orms a djusted, t hen t he n ecked w aterpots h ave a f airly c onsistent p ercentage o ver t ime. 3 7.

I n s ome o f

t he a pparently m ore r ecent p ots

t his

l edge/cordon

i s a

l ong way d own f rom t he r im. 3 8. 3 9.

I t

i s

I f

s o,

s uspected t hat

S QE 2 4 e volved f rom S CR 1 1.

i t w ould h ave b een t he i deal c hronological

p osition s traddling I shan a nd B ini 3 12

c ountry

i s

o f

i ndicator.

I ts

s ome i nterest.

4 0.

Handles

a lso o ccur o n E nyeobi n on i n awere,

c hief d iscovered d igging a c istern. 4 1.

T he L BP

1 5M a nd

t his

s herd a bout

1 5N c ategories w ere

1 ).

A n U do

11 2 m / etres u nderground

w hilst

j ust

( 243-244,

b eing

f ormed w hen i t w as

l earned t hat v oltage f luctuations a t A hmadu B ello U niversity, Z aria, h ad h alted c omputer p rogramming. T he a nalysis w as t emporarily a bandoned, a nd t he i ncomplete c lassification o verl ooked o n l ater r esumption. w ere i nvolved i n t his e rror. 4 2.

C LP

4 3.

A gain,

4 4.

6 p roved

t o b e a f airly

i n r etrospect,

4 5.

C onnah

n otes

( 1975;

A s

1 20-1)

f orm

t he v essel

n o o ther d efinite c ould n ot

S imilar b owls,

f rom L BP

c ategory ( below;

i t m ay h ave b een b etter t o

s urvey i t 4 4.

r ecent

s trictly a ccording s eparately.

t he o utside o f

O nly 1 4 s herds

w ith

t hat

t he

1 5A a nd

C

2 80).

t o h ave c lassified

d ecoration

e ntered

t he p erforations w ere m ade

f rom

a fter d ecoration h ad b een a pplied.

e xamples

o f

t hes

f lasks w ere

f ound

i n

t his

b e u sed a s a f orm c ategory.

s ome w ith S QE r ims,

w ere

f ound i n t he I si

i kpessa

( below; 2 41). T his w ould c onfirm t heir s uspected u se i n s hrine c ontexts, a s w ell a s t heir e arly o ccurrence. 4 5.

T he

t wo

c ategories

w ere

c ombined

b ecause

t hey

a ppeared

r epresent a s imilar f orm v ariable: a lso t he n umbers o f s eparate c ategory w ere l ow. I n r etrospect, s plitting r ather g rouping w ould h ave b een p referable i n t his 4 8.

S ome

2 00 o r s o s herds

r emained.

D aniels

t o e ach t han

c ase. c onsidered

t hat

t here

o ught t o b e a p roportion o f s herds u nclassified, o therwise t here w as a n i ncreasing d anger o f f orcing s herds i nto c ategories t o w hich 4 9.

t hey d id n ot

P ublications a nd

a nalyses

-

1 976;

2 65-268;

o n a rchaeological

P ers.Comm. 5 0.

o f D aniels

C hikwendu:

r eports

b elong.

C onnah :

1 978;

o ccur i n C onnah:

1 975;

1 83-209

t hough h is w ork u nderlies

r esearch e lsewhere

( Shaw,

S utton:

m any 1 975;

P ers.Comm.).

D aniels m oved f rom A hmadu B ello University, Z aria, u sing a C DC C YBER 7 2 c omputer r unning u nder M OS,

w here h e w as t o E ngland,

w here h e u sed a T RS-80 m icro-computer w ith 1 6K R OM a nd 4 8K T he p rograms h ave s ince b een r eformulated i nto m achine c ode. 5 1.

F uller ( 1976;

5 2.

d escriptions 2 65-268),

o f

T he f irst a pproach h as b etween p hases o f r apid a nd

t he a nalysis

a nd D aniels:

a re

( 1979 b ;

g iven

1 49-151),

C hikwendu:

( 1980;

2 5-31).

t he m erit o f a ttempting t o d istinguish c ultural c hange ( spread o ut a long a xis?)

s tability ( grouped?),

b ut

l ays

i tself

o pen t o

s ubjective m anipulation i n t he c hoice o f g ap. e xactness o f t he s econd a pproach o vercomes t his e xpense o f

i mposing a rtificial d ivision ,

t he

c hronology

t rue

i n

R AM.

n or

t he p ast 313

t he c harge

o f

T he o bjective p roblem a t t he

w hich m ay m irror n either

p hases

o f

t he

r eal

c ulture

s equence.

T he

t hird

a pproach w ould

t end t o e xaggerate t he e ffect

o f t hose a ssemblages m ost a menable t o c ollection ( usually t he m ore r ecent), w hilst n eglecting t hose n umerically l ess w ellr epresented o wing t o t heir d eeper o r m ixed s tratigraphical p rovenance o r, p erhaps, b ecause o f l ower p opulation ( usually t hose f rom t he e arly p eriods). 5 3.

T here i s i ndicate

a p ossibility t hat C R1 2 0/SRC 1 1 a nd R LP t he p resence o f a t l est t wo, e arly

g eographically

s eparate,

w ithin t he E tsako c ulture

d ensities

1 0 s herds c ultures, a rea.

T he

t raditions s uggest t hat t his a rea w as l ater s ubject t o r epeated i nfluxes o f r efugee f rom t he a reas a round, a s w ell a s b eing c onquered b y B enin , I dah, I lorin a nd N upe. I t w ould b e e rroneous t o p lace t oo m uch b lame o n t he d isparity o f s ample s ize ( Etsako 4 1, B enin K ingdom 1 17); w hat m ay b e m uch m ore s ignificant i s t hat i f, a s s uspected, t he E tsako s herds r eflect a w ider t ime-span t han t hose i n t he B enin K ingdom , t hen t he u niform s caling o f t heir r espective b est c hronological a xes g ives a f alse p icture. A m ore a ccurate p resentation o f t he r esults m ight, p erhaps, b e a chieved b y s ubjectively a djusting t he r elative s calings o f d ifferent a nalyses. 5 4.

t he

L oaned i s h ere u sed i n a c omprehensive s ense, b eing e ither t he a doption o f c ategory v ariables b y a djacent c ultures, t he i mportation o f w hole p ots, o r t he m ovement o f t he i dea a ccompanying a ctual m igration o f p eople.

5 5.

I t

i s

s aid t hat O via w as

a v ery b eautiful g irl

f rom

U hen,

w ho

t ook a p ot, a d og a nd a p arrot - a ll t reated w ith m edicine - w hen s he b ecame a w ife o f t he k ing o f O yo ( Yoruba). H er f ather t old h er

t hat

i f h er h usband

t he p ot a nd c ome h ome; f ell d own i nto t he p ot h er

f ather a t U hen.

t reated h er b adly s he s hould p ass

t hrough

a nd i n d ue c ourse t his h appened, a nd O via a nd b ecame t he O via r iver f lowing d own t o O ba E sigie,

i t

i s c laimed, m oved

t he c entre

o f t he c ult f rom U hen t o U nuame; a nd t he r eference t o s nails ( which a re f orest-dwelling) a t O yo m ay b e o ne i ndication t hat t he O via m yths a re B ini a daptins f rom a Y oruba c ult. P ossibly, t herefore, s ources.

I dia's p ot w as

a lso d irectly i ncorporated

f rom Y oruba

5 6.

P unch n otes t hat s imilar p ots i n B enin w ere u sed i n r itual f easts a nd t hen l aid o n t he a lter ( in R oth : 1 903; 7 5): t he E kiti p ot i s d escribed a s b eing a c eremonial p ot f or O banifon ( Oba n 'Ifon?).

5 7.

A r ough p arallel m ight b e d rawn h ere w ith G reenberg's d istinction b etween ' fundamental a nd ' cultural' v ocabulary ( above; I .C.3).

5 8.

A ' hollow c ategory' e xists o nly i n t he m ind o f t he c ategorizer o r a g roup o f p eople b elieving t hemselves t o b e d ifferent i n c ulture f rom a n i dentical g roup.

5 9. 6 0.

c f.

' morphogenesis' a nd

P olitical g roupings

o ften

' homeostasis'

( Hodder:

o verridge b iological,

1 980;

3 4).

l inguistic

c ultural g roupings ( Shaw: 1 978; 9 0). I n t he B enin a rea, t he m ovement o f w omen i n m arriage a nd t rading a ctivities c onstitutes

t he m ain m echanism o f 3 14

d iffusion a nd

b orrowing;

a nd i t i s t hat f or

a ll 6 1.

6 2.

t he

O wo:

p otters

a re w omen.

1 006 f ine,

5 06 c oarse,

1 645fine, 7 112 C onnah: 1 975).

c oarse o ut

T hese w ode

r egions w ere: ( towers

o ut o f 1 747 r ouletted s herds. o f 8 757 s tring r oulettes

1 32kV s outh ( towers 0 -110),

1 10-180),

I yek'Uselu,

I yek'Ovia,

B enin :

( Eyo:

1 976.

1 32kV n orth/UhumI yek'Orhiomo,

l ye-

w are, I yek'Ikpoba a nd I si; s outh I shan ( towers 1 80-249), n orth I shan ( towers 2 50-285), 3 3kV l ine; s outh E tsako ( towers 2 86-311), m id-Etsako ( towers 3 30-400), n orth E tsako ( towers 4 00-462). % s ite o ccurrence = ( no. o f s ites w ith v ariable i /no, o f s ites i n r egion) x 1 00. % s herd f requency = ( total n o. o f v ariable i s herds i n r egion/total n umber o f a ll s tring r oulettes i n r egion) x 1 00. ( below; 3 39-340). 6 3.

E arly s herds a re u sually b uried d eeper a nd s o l ess a ccessible t o s urface c ollection . A lso e arly s ettlement d ensities m ay h ave b een l ower,

6 4.

r esulting i n f ar f ewer p ots o verall.

C oarse s tring r ouletting w as f ound a t U buluku i n A niocha D ivision, b ut w as a bsent o n a h ill-top s ite n ear E nugu, a t I gbo U kwu ( Shaw : 1 981; P ers.Comm .), i n I gala h illforts a t A nambra a nd a t A fikpo

6 5.

p erhaps

' Urban

( Chikwendu:

1 976).

h ere d enotes a d eserted,

n ucleated s ettlement

m uch l arger t han t he n ormal v illage: t ruly

6 6.

' urban'

c ould n ot b e r ealistically

A skari:

1 969;

S tring

r ouletting i s a bsent

a pparently

o ther d efinitions o f w hat a pplied

( cf.

i s

K rapf-

9 -38). i n t he U rhobo a nd I soko c ollections,

i n R oss' d epiction o f U rhobo p ottery ( 1970), i n D elta e xcavations ( Anozie: 1 976; 8 9-99) a nd i n o bservations m ade b y P latt ( 1980; P ers.Comm .). A c heck m ade o n R oss' p ottery c ollection i n J os m useum i n 1 983, h owever, i ndicated t he p resence o f o ne U rhobo p ot w ith 6 7.

s tring r ouletting.

I ncision,

i mpression a nd a pplied d ecoration,

w avy

h orizontal

o r

l ines,

a s w ell a s p arallel,

c ross-hatching a nd m ultiple r ows

r ings h ave b een r ecorded f rom t he s outhern N iger d elta l ate p art o f t he f irst m illenium A .D. ( Anozie: 1 976; 9 5). 6 8.

t he

S ince D aniel's a nalysis u tilizes ' average d ates', t he e phemeral o ccurrence o f C R3 2 2 i n t he B enin f orests w ould b e m ajor f actor i n m aking i t a ppear s o e arly i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology. T he p ersistence o f o ther d ecoration v ariables i n t he f orest, a s s tring r ouletting, m eans t hey h ave l ater a verage d ates t hough

6 9.

o f

i n

s uch e ven

t hey m ay h ave a ppeared i n t he B enin f orests b efore C R3

B MS V III ( 1?),

X I ( 1?),

X VII

( 1);

C Q I I L 14

( 8),

F 14

( 2),

2 2. F 21

b elow 3 4 7" ( 82) d ates c alibrated t o 1 250 ± 1 05 A .D . a nd 1 380 ± 1 05 A .D.; C Q I II F 4 ( 1), L 8 ( 1), C ity W all V P S ( 1), m ain w all b ody ( 9) d ated t o 1 315 ± 1 05 A .D.; U sama P 5 ( 2) d ated t o 1 430 1 05 A .D. 7 0.

( Numbers o f

s herds

i n b rackets).

P icton c ollected w aterpots i n n orthern E tsako w hich r etained t his s quared e verted r im.

T heir f abric w as d eliberately u nderfired

315

t o

i ncrease p orosity a nd P oor f abric

i s

n ot,

e vaporation t o k eep t herefore,

t he

s tored w ater

c ool.

n ecessarily a n i ndicator o f g reat

a ge. 7 1.

T hese

c ategories

a re

g rouped

t ogether

i ncompletely s orted d uring c lassification 7 2.

I bid: 6 (8)W,

4 2; C QI L 3(1)WD, L 4(6)W; L 7(2)H,

L 6(2)WD,

7 3.

F 4(2)W,

F 6(2)W;

F =feature,

W=wall,

o ccupation D etails o f

o r t he

E gharevba:

L 4A(1)H; L 8(3) :

b ecause ( above;

t hey

w ere

3 01).

L 5A/7(3)H: 5 5;CQII L 3(1)WD, F 36 9; C QiII L 3(1)WD, F 2(1)WD,

L 8(23)H,

W D=wall d ebris,

L 9(1)S, P =pit,

F 9(1)P. S =sand,

L =layer, H =humus

i n

r efuse l ayer; n umbers o f s herds i n -b rackets. f eatures w ere o btained f rom p ages 3 6-75.

1 968;

3 5-6

t ells

t he

s tory

o f

O ba

A henkpaye's

u npopular r eign i n t he l ate C l7th. H e r uled s o b adly t hat h e was t ricked i nto b anishment f rom I kpe t o b ecome a p riest t o t he g oddess I guosa,

7 4.

w as

a c ult

I t

i s

p ot

n ot

c ertain

e xcavations e arliest 7 5.

T his

i s

7 6.

A t O re

7 7.

A n

7 8.

I n

t hat

S QE 2 4

w as

i n t he p alace a rea w ere

P erhaps D LB 2 2

f all o f A henkpaye?

a bsent

f rom

p robably o utside

B enin,

a s

t he a rea

o f

s ettlement. a c ulture

s equence d ate,

( 100 k ms W NW o f B enin)

a nalogy

s ome

h is h ome t own i n I yekorhiomwon. a ssociated w ith t he r ise a nd

a c hronological

&A koko E do

f eatures

s oil

p its

o ver

t ime

s outh o f U do

( eg.

d ate.

( 120 k ms N NE o f B enin).

c ould b e d rawn b etween t his p rocess

l inguistic J ones

n ot

a nd

t he s pread o f

i n t he I gbo a reas).

t here w ere h orizons

c ontaining

c harcoal b ut n o s herds b elow h orizons c ontaining b oth c harcoal a nd s herds ( above; 1 50). T his m ay i ndicate t he a ctivities o f e arly

o f

m ore

s edentary, p ottery-using p eoples p ractising r otational f allow t echniques b ut, p ending m ore d etailed e vidence

s hifting

a griculturalists

b ush f rom

e xcavated c ontexts, 7 9.

T his

b elief

i s

c ompensation

t his

b efore

t he

c onclusion r emains

o ften e xaggerated

p ayments

f rom

a rrival

s peculative.

t oday i n o rder

r oad

t o o btain

c onstructors

a nd

t he c ombined

C Q

h igh

p roperty

d evelopers. 8 0.

I f

t he

o ccupation/refuse

l ayers

o f

s ites

a re

t aken a s t he m ost l ikely s trata t o h ave c ontemporaneous p ottery, t hen 2 9% o f t he e arly p eriod ( c. 1 420 A .D.) s herds w ere f orm 6 , b ut o nly 1 .1% o f t he m iddle p eriod ( early C l8th), 1 .1% o f t he l ate p eriod ( C19th) a nd 0 .5% o f t he m odern s herds w ere f orm 6 ( cf. 8 1.

C onnah:

S ince w ould

1 96).

h ero-deity c ults w ere p ermitted o utside t he C ity, h ave b een l ess r eason f or t he r apid d isappearance o f

a ssociated 8 2.

1 975;

p ottery.

L ate S tone A ge

( L.S.A.)

o ccupation o f

b y b oth A lison a nd C onnah u se

o f

t he

t here t heir

t erm L .S.A.

( above; d oes

n ot

316

t he

1 50).

f orest h as C onnah:

b een

1 975;

a rgued

1 09).

i mply a t echno-epochal

T he

a pproach

i s

n ecessarily

- v ery i ron 8 3.

s tone

t ools

s uitable f or d igging c lay - m ay w ell h ave c o-existed

a ccepted

( cf.

C onnah:

1 981;

4 -11),

a s

w ith

t ools.

G in-bottles w ere s tacked n early a m etre h igh i n s hrines o bserved o n a c reek-side a f ew k ilometers w est o f P atani i n t he N iger D elta.

8 4.

P .G.

a nd M .

E vans o bserved

v .Marken & c o.

w ith b ases

t he f ollowing b ottles

a t S akpoba:

t hus:

V . Hoytema & C o.: A . M iller B r & C o: W . Haskamp & C : A frican: O ne

a s hrine

n ear I guemokhua ( appendix;

K iderlen :

V . Hoytema & C o.

0 2 8)

a nd B oll

I o bserved:

a nd D unlop,

R otterdam

H olland. C ommenting o f

B enin

o n t he b ottles

( above;

2 38b),

o btained

f rom A deobagie v illage

H opkins w rote

" Pinnock ( James)

s outh d .1905.

I ndependent t rader o n N iger a nd O il R ivers g enerally l ate 1 860 s. 1 879 t aken o ver b y W . A frican C o. ( Goldie) b ut t he n ame r emained i ndependent.

P innock

L td.

w as

M iller B ros. 1 906. I t hink i t L td. b efore t he l ate 1 890's. W .A. d ate

b y t he A frican A ssoc.

f irms a t a round t hat t ime ( & c 1900 s). y our b ottles t o c 1900." ( Hopkins/Flight:

H owever, 1 860s

b ought

a nd

K arpinski

n otes

a pparently

r egistered a s

a l imited

t hat P innock a nd C o.

u sing

&

i s m ost u nlikely t hat t he f irm w as T he w ave o f i ncorporation a ffected

t he

t erm

c ompany ( 1980;

3 17

2 0,

Y ou c ould p robably 1 976; P ers.Comm.) w as

' Ltd. 2 8n17).

t rading i n t he w ithout

h aving

C HAPTER V B IBLIOGRAPHY A braham R .C.

1 958

D ictionary o f M odern Y oruba.

A dams J .

1 823

L ondon P ress. R emarks o n t he c ountry e xtending f rom C ape

A hazuem J .O.

1 978

A iyedun D .K .

1 979

A jayi J .

a nd S mith R .

A kenzua E . A kinola G .A.

A kinsemoyin K .

a nd

U niversity o f

P almas t o t he R iver C ongo. L ondon. T he B enin K ingdom : A C onsideration o f t he E conomic R esource B ase i n t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies. M .A . t hesis. C .W.A.S., B irmingham . P ottery i n I gbaja D istrict: a n e thno-archaeol ogical s tudy. M .Sc. t hesis. I badan. 1 971 Y oruba W arfare i n t he N ineteenth C entury.

1 960

I badan . C ambridge. B enin 1 897 - A B ini's V iew.

1 965

T he O ba's P alace i n B enin .

1 976

T he O rigins o f t he E weka D ynasty o f B enin: a s tudy i n t he u se a nd a buse o f o ral t raditions. S eminar p aper. D epartment o f H istory , I badan .

V aughan-Richards A . L td. J ersey.

A kintoye S .A.

1 969

A kpede O .K .

1 975

N igeria 6 5. N igeria 8 7;244-251

1 977 B uildingLagos.

P engrail

Y oruba D istricts a nd t he B enin K ingdom . J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria V ol. 4 N o. 4 E ffect o f p H a nd I onic E nvironment o n A bsorption o f P hosphorous i n t he S oil. t hesis. B enin .

A lagoa E .J. A llan W .

1 972 1 965

A llison P .A .

1 962

A nozie F .N.

1 976

B .Sc.

AH istory o f t he N iger D elta. I badan. T he A frican Husbandman. O liver & B oyd. E dinburgh. L ondon. H istorical I nferences t o b e d rawn f rom t he e ffects o f h uman s ettlement o n t he v egetation o f A frica. J ournal o f A frican H istory I II,

1 978

2 ; 2 41-249. E xcavation a t U mundu. P reliminary R eport. D epartment o f H istory, N sukka. R eport o f o bservations a t U gwuele, U turu.

A rdrey R .

1 977

N yame A kuma 1 2; 3 3. T he T erritorial I mperative.

A rmstrong G .

1 955

P eoples o f t he N iger-Benue C onfluence. E thno-

F ontana/Collins.

g raphic S urvey o f A frica. W estern A frica. P art X . L ondon I nternational A frican I nstit ute. A sudo J .O.

1 964 1 974

( Forde e d).

T he S tudy o f W est A frican L anguages. I badan. T he G ods W ho F ailed - a s tudy o f t he T radit ional R eligion o f t he E do P eople o f S outhW estern N igeria. M .A . t hesis. C .W.A .S.

A tkinson R .J.C.

1 957

B irmingham . W orms a nd W eathering.

A vwokuruaye J .M.

1 976

A nalysis o f B endel S tate E dible C lays f or 3 18

A ntiquity 3 1;

2 19-229.

I ron,

Awe S .H.A .

1 977

C alcium,

S odium,

P otassium

a nd

A luminium . B .Sc. t hesis. D epartment o f C hemistry, B enin. T he O rigin o f t he O wo K ingdom . P aper r ead a t t he 2 2nd A nnual C ongress o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria, B enin C ity.

Ayensu E .S. B acon . R .H.

1 980 1 897

J ungles. J onathan C ape L td. B enin, C ity o f B lood. A rnold.

B arker C . B arry I .

1 980 1 980

T he O ba o f B enin. M acdonald a nd J ane's. T ropical f orest c ultures o f t he A mazon b asin i n S herratt A . ( ed) T he C ambridge E ncyclopedia o f A rchaeology ; 3 98-402. C ambridge.

B en-Amos D .

1 975

S weet W ords - S torytelling e vents i n B enin. I nstitute f or t he S tudy o f Human I ssues,

B en-Amos P .

1 978 1 973 1 976

P hiladelphia. A ke C ult a nd C ulture. U npublished d raft. S ymbolism i n O lokun M ud A rt. A frican A rts 6 N o. 4 ; 2 8-31, 9 5. M en a nd Animals i n B enin A rt. M an ( N.S.) 1 1;

1 980

2 43-252. T he A rt o f B enin.

T hames a nd Hudson.

B endel N ewspapers C orporation 1 977 H idden T reasures o f A ncient B enin. B ennet R .E. C .1965 N igerian S tudies. B indloss 1 898. 1 968 I n t he N iger C ountry. F rank C ass. B irdsell J .B.

1 968

S ome p redictions f or t he P leistocene b ased o n e quilibrium s ystems a mong r ecent h unterg atherers i n L ee & D evore ( eds) M an t he Hunter; 2 21-228. N ew Y ork .

B irmingham D .

1 970

H istorians a nd W est A frica i n F age J .D. A frica D iscovers H er P ast. O xford.

( ed)

B oisragon A .

1 897

T he B enin M assacre.

B onny D .

1 972

E arly B oundaries i n W essex i n F owler P .J. A rchaeology a nd t he L andscape; 1 68-186.

B oston J .S.

1 960

B radbury R .E.

n .d.

n .d.

M ethuen. ( ed)

J ohn B aker ( Publishers) L td. N otes o n C ontact b etween t he I gala a nd t he I bo. J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria 2 N o. 1 ; 5 2-58. U npublished F ield N otes. Hesslop M emorial R oom, U niversity o f B irmingham L ibrary. ( Dates o f c ollection i nserted a fter n .d . i n t ext). B enin K ingship R ituals. w ith f ilm .

U npublished M .S.

1 952

T he B enin V illage.

1 957

T he B enin K ingdom a nd t he E do-speaking P eoples o f S outh-western N igeria. L ondon

P h.D.

t hesis.

L ondon.

1 959

I nternational A frican I nstitute. C hronological p roblems i n t he s tudy o f B enin H istory. J ournal o f t he H istorical-Society

1 960 1 961

E hi: t hree s tories f rom B enin. O du 8 ; 4 0-48. E zomo's i kegobo a nd t he B enin c ult o f t he

1 964

h and. Man L XI, 1 65; 1 29-138. T he H istorical u ses o f c omparative e thnography w ith s pecial r eference t o B enin a nd t he Y oruba

o f N igeria.

V ol.

I N o.

4 ;

2 63-287.

i n V ansina J ., M auny R . a nd T homas L ( eds) T he H istorian i n T ropical A frica. L ondon :

3 19

O xford f or t he I nternational A frican I nstitute. 1 965

1 966

F ather a nd s enior s on i n E do m ortuary r itual i n F ortes M . a nd D ieterlan ( eds) A frican S ystems o f T hought. L ondon : O xford f or t he I nternational A frican I nstitute. F athers, e lders a nd g hosts i n E do r eligion i n B anton M . ( ed) A nthropological A pproaches t o t he S tudy o f R eligion. A ssociation o f S ocial A nthropologists M onograph 3 . L ondon : T avistock.

1 967

T he K ingdom o f B enin i n F orde D . a nd K aberry P . ( eds) W est A frican K ingdoms i n t he N ineteenth C entury. L ondon : O xford f or I nternational A frican I nstitute.

1 968

t he

C ontinuities a nd d iscontinuities i n p rec olonial a nd c olonial B enin p olitics ( 18971 951) i n L ewis I .M. ( ed) H istory a nd S ocial A nthropology. A ssociation o f S ocial A nthropologists M onograph 7 . L ondon : T avistock.

B radbury R .E.

1 973

B enin S tudies ( Morton-Williams P . I nternational A frican I nstitute.

B raunholtz H .J.

1 936

A rchaeology i n t he G old C oast. N otes a nd N ews; 4 69-474.

B rown P .

1 955

T he I gbirra i n F orde D . N iger-Benue C onfluence. o f A frica,

e ditor). O xford.

Antiquity X ,

( ed) P eoples o f t he E thnographic S urvey

W estern A frica X ,

L ondon I nterna-

t ional A frican I nstitute. H istoria o f N igeria. A lan a nd Unwin .

B urns A .

1 936

C alvocoressi D .

1 975

E uropean T rade P ipes i n G hana. W est A frican J ournal o f A rchaeology 5 ; 1 95-200.

1 977

Y agha W are: A n e xperiment i n d ating a rchaeol ogical m aterial b y o ral t radition. W est A frican J ournal o f A rchaeology 7 ; 1 79-186. T obacco p ipes c ollected b y P . D arling b etween B enin a nd U kpilla. B endel S tate, N igeria i n D arling P .J. A ncient L inear E arthworks i n

1 982

B enin a nd I shan, C ardew M .

1 952 1 970

C arneiro R .L.

S outhern N igeria.

P h.D.

t hesis. C .W.A.S. B irmingham. ( appendix;P). T raditional P ottery. N igeria 3 9; 1 96. P ottery T echniques N igerian P ottery.

i n N igeria i n R oss S .L.

1 970a A T heory o f t he o rigin o f 1 69; 7 73-738. 1 970b W hy p eople f ormed s tates. 9 30-931.

C arter G .F.

( 1963)

t he S tate. S cience

S cience

1 70;

A rchaeological M aize i n W est A frica: A D iscussion o f S tanton a nd W illett. M an

u r v ,

C hikwendu V .E.

1 977

9 5; 8 5-86. A fikpo E xcavations M ay-June 1 975. T he U gwuagu R ock S helter ( Site 1 ) a nd T he A bandoned Habitation S ite ( Site 2 ). t hesis. C .W.A.S. B irmingham .

1 979

P h.D.

T he O ccurrence o f W aisted S tone A dzes/Axes E astern N igeria. N yame A kuma 1 4; 4 4-4 8.

3 20

i n

C hisholm M .

1 962

R ural S ettlement a nd L and U se:

1 975

l ocation . H utchinson . L ondon . H uman G eography - E volution o r R evolution?

a n e ssay i n

C hristaller W .

P enguin . 1 933 a nd 1 966. C entral P laces i n S outhern G ermany. T ranslated b y C .W.Baskin. P rentice-Hall.

C hurch R .J.H.

1 968

C lapperton H .

C loete S .

W est A frica - a s tudy o f t he e nvironment a nd

m an's u se o f i t. L ongmans. 1 829 a nd 1 966. J ournal o f a S econd E xpedition i nto t he I nterior o f A frica f rom t he B ight o f B enin t o S occatto. F rank C ass a nd C o. L td. 1 955 T he A frican G iant - t he s tory o f a j ourney. H oughton M iff i n C ompany, B oston.

C ole S . C oles J .

1 967 1 972

T he N eolithic R evolution . B ritish M useum . F ield A rchaeology i n B ritain. U niversities P ress.

C onnah G .E.

1 963

A rchaeological r esearch i n B enin C ity 1 9611 964. J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f

1 964 1 967

1 968

C onnah G .E.

1 969

N igeria 2 ; 4 65-477. P olished s tone a xes i n B enin .

L agos.

N ew l ight o n t he B enin C ity w alls. J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria 3 ; 5 93-609 w ith s eparate m ap. R adiocarbon d ates f or B enin C ity a nd f urther d ates f or D aima , N .E. N igeria. J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria 4 ; 3 13-320. T he C oming o f I ron : N ok a nd D aima. I fe. B enin. i n S haw T . ( ed) L ectures o n N igerian p rehistory a nd a rchaeology.

I badan .

1 971

R ecent C ontributions t o B ornu C hronology. W est A frican J ournal o f A rchaeology I ; 5 5-60.

1 975 1 978

T he A rchaeology o f B enin. O xford. R ecent e thnographic a nd a rchaeological f ield-

1 981

w ork i n B orno. N yame A kuma 1 3; 1 4-22. T hree T housand Y ears i n A frica - m an a nd h is e nvironment i n t he L ake C had r egion o f N igeria C .U.P. 1 981. H ouses i n B enin. N igeria 4 2; N igeria's A rt. N igeria 6 6.

C ordwell J . D aerden D .

1 960

1 32-139.

Daniels S .G.H.

1 969

T he E arly S tone A ge. T he M iddle a nd L ate S tone A ge i n S haw T . ( ed) L ectures o n N igerian P re-history a nd A rchaeology. I badan.

1 975

S tatistical M ethods i n A rchaeology. a t A .B.U. Z aria, ( in b ox-file).

S eminar

1 979

B enin E arthworks P roject, 2 nd R eport S eptember 1 979, 3 rd R eport N ovember 1 979 ( in b ox-file). 1 980a R amal A nalysis o f E do 2 0-word l ists ( in B ox-

f ile). 1 980b A lgorithms

f rom A qua a nd A rchon.

A rchaeology 2 2;

S cience a nd

2 5-31.

Dapper O .

1 668

N aukeurige B eschrijvinge d er A frikaensche G ewesten . A msterdam 1 668.

Dark P .J.C.

1 962

T he A rt o f B enin - A n I ntroduction t o I ts D iscovery a nd C ollection . C hicago N atural

1 966

H istory M useum . T he S tudy o f E thno-Aesthetics: A rts.

P roceedings o f 3 21

T he V isual

t he 1 966 A nnual S pring

M eeting o f 1 973 D arling P .J.

1 974

t he A merican E thnological S ociety;

1 31-148. A n I ntroduction t o B enin A rt a nd T echnology. C larendon P ress, O xford.

1 975

T he E arthworks o f B enin. X XXIX , N o. 3 ; 1 28-137. T he E arthworks o f B enin :

1 976

P rofiles. N igerian F ield X L, N o. 4 ; 1 59-168. N otes o n t he E arthworks o f t he B enin E mpire.

1 977

1 979

N igerian F ield S ome C ross-

W est A frican J ournal o f A rchaeology 6 ; 1 43-149. T he B enin E arthworks - s ome l ines o f e nquiry. O utline p aper f or 2 2nd A nnual C ongress o f t he H istorical S ociety o f N igeria, B enin C ity. F ieldwork S urveys i n t he B enin a nd I shan K ing-

d oms. N yame A kuma 1 5; 3 5-39. 1 981a T he A ncient C anoe P ort o f B enin. F ield 4 6 p art 1 /2; 4 0-51.

N igerian

1 981b A C hange o f T erritory : a ttempts t o t race m ore t han a t housand y ears o f p opulation m ovements b y t he B enin a nd I shan p eoples i n s outhern N igeria i n F yfe C . a nd M cMaster d . ( eds) A frican H istorical D emography V ol.

I I.

C entre o f A frican S tudies, U niversity o f E dinburgh. 1 981c A S ting i n t he T ail - t he d ifferent p erspectives o f e ye, e ar a nd h and i n t he B enin K ingdom a rea. P aper p resented i n a bsentia f or s eminar o n V isual A rt a s 1 982

S ocial C ommentary i n A frica, S OAS. A ncient L inear E arthworks i n B enin a nd I shan, S outhern N igeria P h.D. t hesis. C .W.A .S. B irmingham . ( Also a vailable a t t he U niversity o f B enin , N igeria a nd t he University o f P ennsylvania, U .S.A.). F orthcoming - T he o rigin o f B enin:

D arling P .J.

a n e thno

a rchaeological v iewpoint i n B enin: a s tudy o f a t raditional A frican C ity. S ada a nd M akinwa D arling P .J.

D arling P .J.

D avid N .

( eds.).

F orthcoming - G azeteer o f w alled, s tockaded a nd m oated s ettlements i n N igeria. D epartm ent o f H istory, B ayero U niversity, K ano, N igeria. a nd S oper R . T he W alls a nd G ates o f O ld O yo. F orthcoming - ( West A frican J ournal o f A rchaeology 1 0?).

a nd H ennig H .

1 972 T he E thnography o f P ottery: a F ulani C ase s een i n A rchaeological P erspective. A M cCaleb M odule i n A nthropology f rom t he s eries A ddison-Wesley M odular P ublications. 2 1; 1 -29.

D avid N .

a nd V idal P .

1 977

T he N ana-Mode v illage s ite

P refecture d e B ouar,

M odule

( Sous-

C entral A frican R epublic)

a nd t he p rehistory o f t he U bangian s peaking p eoples. U npublished M .S. U niversity o f I badan.

3 22

D avidson B .

1 964

T he A frican P ast - c hronicles f rom a ntiquity

1 973

t o m odern t imes. L ongmans, G reen a nd C o. A frican K ingdoms. T ime-Life.

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T he A niocha P eople o f M id-Western N igeria. U npublished M S. M aterials a nd C ases o n B enin L and L aw. M idwest N ewspapers C orporation, B enin C ity. E do C ulture ( Modern E ssays). D epartment o f A frican L anguages, U niversity o f L agos. C ontext a s a G rammatical C ategory i n E do. L inguistic S eries,

M onograph 2 ,

L agos U niver-

1 973

s ity. N asalization i n E do. L inguistic S eries, M onograph 3 . U niversity o f L agos. E do P honology. L inguistic S eries: M onograph

1 953

4 . U niversity o f L agos. T he O rigin o f t he Y orubas.

O ku D .O.

1 972

T ribes, L anguage a nd N ative L aws a nd C ustoms. A biodun P rinting W orks. P .O. B ox 3 53, S haki. L anguage c hoice i n t he Y oruba-Edo B order A rea.

O kereke T .A.

1 976

O kojie C .G.

1 960

1 973

O jo S .

P art I .

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O du N S 7 . A rthropods a nd D isease i n A frica. P aper r ead a t N igerian F ield S ociety m eeting, B enin C ity. I shan N ative L aws a nd C ustoms. J ohn O kwessa & C o., Y aba, L agos.

3 29

O khuereigbe M .I.

1 975

D etermination o f C ation E xchange C apacity C omponent i n s ome A cid S oils i n S outhern N igeria. B .Sc. t hesis. D epartment o f

C hemistry, B enin . n .d.(early 1 970's?) A S hort H istory o f E ze-Chima,

O kpuno L .N.

I dumuje, O di A ni C lans a nd A kwukwu-Igbo, U kala, I llah t own i n A saba D ivision . M idwest N ewspapers C orporation , B enin C ity. W est A frica b efore t he E uropeans.

O liver W .A. O luyede P .A.

1 971

J udicial S ettlement o f B oundary D isputes W estern N igeria. O du N S 6 ; 5 4-70.

i n

O mbu J .A .

1 971

T he B enin K ingdom s ince 1 550: A n e numerative B ibliography w ith a N ote o n A rchival M aterial i n N igeria R elating t o t he B enin K ingdom b y

O nwuejeogwu M .A.

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O nwuejoegwu M .A .

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P .A.Igbafe. l badan. A B rief S urvey o f A n A nambra C ivilization i n t he I gbo C ulture A rea a bout A .D. 8 50-1937. M S. A n O utline A ccount o f t he D awn o f I gbo C ivili zation i n t he I gbo C ulture A rea. O dinani T he j ournal o f t he O dinani M useum, N ri, E ast C entral S tate, N igeria. I , N o.l.

a nd B .O. 1 976 T he S earch f or t he M issing L ink i n D ating a nd I nterpreting t he I gbo-Ukwu F inds. A n o ccasional p ublication o f O dinani M useum ,

1 976

3 . N ri. I nstitute o f A frican S tudies P roject, U niversity o f I badan . T he P lace o f I tseiri i n R elation t o Y oruba. R esearch N otes f rom t he D epartment o f L ing uistics a nd N igerian L anguages 1 -2; 1 -67. E motan a nd t he K ings o f B enin. L ongmans.

O moregie S .B.

1 972

O tite O .

1 974

S uccession i n T wo U rhobo K ingdoms. 9 ; 8 0-94.

O zanne P .

1 969

A n ew a rchaeological s urvey o f I fe. N S 1 ; 2 8-45.

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1 970 c 1520

P ilcher J .L .

1 980

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I nto R esearch. C areer 6 , N o. 3 ; 2 0. E smeraldo d e s itu o rbis e d A .E. d a S ilva D ias, L isbon ( 1905). L ondon ( 1937).

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a nd B aillie M .G. 1 978 I mplications o f a E uropean r adioc arbon c alibration. A ntiquity 5 2, N o. 2 06;

P innock J . P ole L .M.

1 897 1 974

1 975

2 17-222. B enin: t he s urrounding c ountry,

i nhabitants,

c ustoms a nd t rade. L iverpool. A ccount o f a n I ron-smelting o peration a t L awra, U pper R egion. G hana J ournal o f S cience 1 4, ( 2); 1 27-136. I ron-working A pparatus a nd T echniques:

U pper

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1 980 1 976

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1 892

P ublications, I nc., N ew Y ork. ( first e d 1 900). A V isit t o t he K ing o f B enin m ade i n 1 889 . U npublished M S

3 30

( copy i n b ox-file).

D over

Q uarcoo A .K. R ead C .H.

a nd J ohnson M .

1 968

S hai P ots.

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N eue

f ologe, B and X VI; 4 7-88. a nd D alton O .M . 1 899 A ntiquities f rom t he C ity o f B enin a nd f rom o ther p arts o f W est A frica i n t he B ritish M useum. L ondon. B efore C ivilization.

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1 975

R ichards P .W. R oese P .M .

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T he T ropical R ain F orest. C ambridge. R eport t o t he F ederal M useum/Lagos a bout t he W alls i n M idwest S tate. R ef. T F 5 89.

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D ie W all - u nd B rabenanlagen d es a lten B enin R eiches ( in V orbereitung/Ubersee M useum , B remen).

R oese P .M.,

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E rdwalle u nd G raben i m e hemaligen K onigreich v on B enin. A nthropos 7 6; 1 66-209. a nd F iedman ( eds) 1 978 T he E volution o f S ocial S ystems. D uckworth. N igerian P ottery.

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G reat B enin I ts C ustoms, K ing a nd S on . H alifax.

A rt a nd H orrors. F . R eissued i n 1 968 b y

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A frica D iscovers H er P ast; 3 2-38. O xford. A C ritical A ppraisal o f t he 1 963 N igerian C ensus w ith s pecial r eference t o t he M idW estern S tate. L agos N otes a nd R ecords I II, N o. 1 .

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1 970

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9 3-113. P arallels b etween G enetics a nd L exicos tatistics i n D yen I . ( ed) L exicostatistics i n g enetic L inguistics; 6 3-74. T he H ague/

1 964

P aris. I ron-smelting i n t he H ill V illage o f S ukar, N orth-Eastern N igeria. M an L XIV, 2 15; 1 74-178.

1 956

S hifting C ultivation i n A frica:

1 969

S ystem o f A griculture. L ondon . F ort S ites o f E ast B ukusa, K enya.

1 961

1 05-14. E xcavations a t D awu. G hana.

S haw T .

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M athematical D evelopments i n L exicostatistic T T heory. C urrent T rends i n L inguistics X I;

t he Z ande A zania I V;

U niversity C ollege o f

T homas N elson .

1 964 1 969

A rchaeology a nd N igeria. I badan. A rchaeology i n N igeria. A ntiquity X LIII; 1 87-199, F rontispiece a nd P lates X XV-XXIX.

1 972

O rigin o f A frican P lant D omesticates. M S. W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, N ew Y ork. ( Published i n 1 976).

1 975

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331

i n

S haw T .

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1 977

a nd A rchaeology. I badan . Q uestions i n t he Holocene D emography o f W est

1 978

A frica i n F yfe C . a nd M cMaster ( eds) A frican H istorical D emography ( Vol. I .). E dinburgh. N igeria I ts A rchaeology a nd E arly H istory.

T hames a nd H udson. 1 978/9 H olocene A daptions i n W est A frica: T he L ate S tone A ge. E arly M an N ews 3 /4; 5 1-81.

S haw T .

1 980

A ttribution o f f unction : a nother t ale. A ntiquity L IV ; 5 9-60.

1 980

A gricultural O rigins i n A frica i n S herratt A . ( ed) T he C ambridge E ncyclopaedia o f A rchaeo-

1 981 1 981 S haw T .

a nd V andeburg J .

c autionary

l ogy; 1 79-184. M an's U se o f E nergy. H istory T oday. T he N ok S culptures o f N igeria. S cientific A merican 2 44, N o.2. 1 969 A B ibliography o f N igerian A rchaeology. I badan.

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1 971

T he I gbo-Igala B orderland - R eligion a nd S ocial C ontrol i n I ndigenous A frican C oloni alism. S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork P ress. A lbany.

S idahome J .E.

1 967

S tories o f t he B enin E mpire.

S mith C .T.

1 967

H istorical G eography : C urrent T rends a nd P rospects i n C horley R .J. a nd Haggett P . ( eds)

S mith R .S.

1 969

O xford/Ibadan.

F rontiers i n G eographical T eaching.

M ethuen. K ingdoms o f t he Y oruba.

M ethuen.

1 970

T he C anoe i n W est A frican H istory. o f A frican H istory X I, 4 ; 5 15-533.

S oper R .

1 971

I ron A ge A rchaeological S ites i n t he C hobi S ector o f M urchison F alls N ational P ark , U ganda. A zania V I.

S tanfield D .P.

1 970

G rasses. T he F lora o f N igeria e d S tanfield D .P. a nd L owe J . I badan.

S tanton W .R .

S uess H .E.

a nd W illett F . 1 963 A rchaeological E vidence f or C hanges i n M aize T ypes i n W est A frica: A n E xperiment 1 970

1 978 S utton

J .

1 981

i n T echnique. M an L XIII 1 50 ; 1 17-123. B ristlecone P ine D ates i n C alendar Y ears i n R enfrew c . B efore C ivilization, T he R adioc arbon R evolution a nd P rehistoric E urope. J onathan C ape. L a J olla M easurements o f R adiocarbon i n T reeR ing D ated W ood. R adiocarbon 2 0, N o. 1 ; 1 -18. P opulation E stimates f rom S elected A frican I ron A ge S ites

T albot P .A.

J ournal

1 926

i n F yfe C .

a nd M cMaster D .

( eds) A frican H istorical D emography V ol.II; 6 07-654. T he P eoples o f S outhern N igeria. A S ketch o f t heir H istory, E thnology, a nd L anguages, w ith a n a ccount o f t he 1 921 c ensus. ( 3 v ols).

T homas N .W.

O xford. 1 910a D ecorative A rt A mong t he E do-Speaking P eoples o f N igeria: D ecoration o f B uildings. M an X , 3 7; 6 5-66. 1 910b P ottery-Making o f

3 32

t he E do-Speaking P eoples,

S outhern N igeria.

M an X ,

5 3:

9 7-98.

1 910c A nthropological R eport o f t he E do-speaking p eoples o f N igeria. L ondon. T homas M .F.

1 974

T ropical G eomorphology - A S tudy o f W eatheri ng a nd L andform D evelopment i n W arm C limates. M acMillan. L ondon.

Thorburn J .W.A . T ong R . T ownsend H .

1 937 1 958 1 843

T he C ity o f B enin. N igeria 1 0. F igures i n E bony. C assel & C o. L td. J ournal o f R esearch V isit t o B adagry a nd A beokuta. U npublished C MS C A1/0215 ( End & 3 rd

Trigger B .G.

1 968

T rupin J .E.

1 971

J anuary). B eyond H istory: T he M ethods o f P rehistory. H olt, R inehart a nd W inston . W est A frica. A B ackground B ook f rom A ncient K ingdoms t o M odern T imes. P arents M agazine P ress. N ew Y ork. 1 971. G eographical R egions o f N igeria. H einemann. L ondon/Nairobi/Ibadan.

U do R .K .

1 970

U kpabi S .C.

1 965

N sukka B efore t he E stablishment o f B ritish A dministration i n S ircar: 1 965; 2 6-36.

1 977

T raditions o f M igration a nd S ettlement i n I gboland: T he E zza E xample. P aper a t t he 2 2nd A nnual C ongress o f N igeria, B enin C ity.

Vansina J .

( 1979)/1980

t he H istorical o f

B antu i n t he C rystal B all.

H istory

i n A frica 7 . T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f T ropical M edicine a nd H ygiene 5 0; 3 13-336.

W addy B .B.

1 956

W elton M .R.

1 969

Whallon R .

1 968

W illett F .

1 960

A rchaeology ; 2 23-244. A merican A ntiquity. I nvestigations a t O ld O yo 1 956-57: a n i nterim r eport. J ournal o f t he H istorical S ociety o f

1 960

N igeria 2 ; 5 9-77. I fe a nd i ts A rchaeoloty. H istory 1 (2); 2 31-248.

1 962

F .

1 6. I nvestigations o f l ate p rehistoric s ocial o rganization i n N ew Y ork S tate i n B inford a nd B inford ( eds) N ew P erspectives i n

J ournal o f A frican

T he M icrolithic I ndustry f rom O ld O yo, W estern N igeria. A ctes I Ve C ongr. P anafr. P rehist. ( eds M ortelmans G . a nd N enquin J ) 3 ; 2 61-271.

1 962

T ervuren . T he I ntroduction o f M aize i nto W est A frica. A frica, J ournal o f t he I nternational A frican

1 968

I nstitute X XXII, N o. 1 . N ew L ight o n t he I fe-Benin r elationship. A frican F orum 3 ( 4), 4 (1): 2 8-34.

1 970

W illett

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1 971

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U se

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334

A PPENDICES A .

A N ew O utline o f E arly E do H istory

E .

E arthworks

G .

G eology,

M .

Maps

O .

O ral T raditions

P .

S pecalist

Q .

A dditional p ottery a nalysis

o f

V egetation a nd S oils C ommunity B oundaries

r eport

o n t obacco-pipes

P hotographs, m aps,

d etailed d escriptions L entifer, r oulettes

a re

a vailable

u pon r equest

C alvocoressi

t ables

o uts - i ncluding Daniels - s herds,

University o f B irmingham,

b y D .

o f

e arthworks,

c omputer p rint

R amal a nd R egression a nalyses b y S .G.H. a nd G overnment I ntelligence R eports n otes a t

t he C entre f or W est

U .K.

335

A frican

S tudies,

A PPENDIX A A N ew o utline o f e arly E do h istory - a t entative r econstruction A pproximate

S ettlement p atterns,

i ya,

h istory

A rtefacts

d ate 2 000

B .C.

H unter g atherers,

r ock s helters,

t emporary h ousing, o f 1 000 B .C. 0

9 00

t erritory p er b and.

A .D.

S tone r ubbers, g round s tone-

S ome

a xes

( ughavan)

s hifting a griculture p ossible.

C omb-stamping?

E ntry o f

W ooden h oes?

e arly E do

a griculturalists

7 50 A .D.

l arge a reas

s hifting

i nto

t he f orest

F irst u se o f

( proto-Southern E do).

i ron-tools.

E ntry o f p roto-Bini/Esan s peakers

RLP

i nto

i n s avannah.

t he

f orest,

c onstruction o f

1 0 ,

S CR

1 1

e arliest i ya/iyala a nd g rowth o f n oyau-like p opulation c luster ( cf. A rdrey), w ith e xpansion e ast

M SC 2 7,

a long s avannah/forest

F LB 1 4 i n f orest

e cotone a nd

S QE

2 4

s outh b eginning p olarization o f 1 000 A .D.

B ini

a nd E san s peakers.

M ud-and-

w attle h ouse c onstruction. D evelopment

o f

l ocal c ults,

f irst

s tage o f I si i kpessa p ots, e arly s edentarty s ettlement n ear I kpoba 1 200 A .D.

s tream a t B enin. P opulation d ensities

i ncreasing

i n o uter c ore o f i ya c luster,and s hort-distance m igrations

i nto

i ya

p eriphery. B enin p robably e merging a s a m ajor r eligious c entre: p ots herd p avement a t t housands o f p ots c eremonies

( ?),

1 300

A .D.

s hrine w ith m any o n i t f rom a nnual

m ass-burial.

N orthern c ontacts

I ncreasing u se o f i ron-tools

s till

P lAl,

O hovhe i ya s ystem n early c omplete

Extensive

s o e arly B enin p rimary e nclosure

i ron-smelting

m ost p robably b uilt

b efore

I ncreasing i nternecine

t his.

c onflict

b etween l arge p etty c hiefdoms o n p eriphery. R apid s hort-distance

i n s avannah a reas. P CT

5 , M SC7

m igrations. 1 450

A .D.

F SR 3

s trong.

P ossible c onquest ( Oba E wuare),

o f

o rientated p olicy(?), m ent

o f

B enin b y U do

i ntroduction o f I fe-

s tate s tructure b y c onquest

a nd a lliances,

g rowth o f

B enin C ity

( built i n m ud-block s tyle?), i mp osition o f Y oruba-type b oundaries, d ecline o f i ya-building. c anoe-port T n3 s outhern " ' slavee nclosures, e conomic b oom?

3 36

C LP 6 ?

e stablishC R4

2 3

1 475 A .D.

V isit b y e arly P ortuguese t raders. F urther B enin e pansion

( Oba O zolua)

w ith c onquest o f I dogbo, O khunmwun a nd o ther p etty c hiefdoms h aving v ery 1 516-17 A .D.

l arge p rimary

o f U do

( Oba E sigie),

E do c ulture, 1 525 A .D.

i ya e nclosures.

B ini w ar-camp a t U nuame a nd c onquest r e-assertion o f

g rowth o f b ronze-casting,

s pread o f q ueen-mother i nstitution, I dia's p ot? S tart o f c oastal e xpansion w estwards a nd c onstruction o f m uch l arger ' slave-enclosures o n U ghoton a nd I koro

1 550 A .D.

r outes.

B enin a m ajor e xtre-

p ot

f or c otton c loth,

a nd

s laves.

p epper,

i vory

M ilitary e xpansion o ver

a nd a nd w ater. 1 600 A .D.

P eriod o f c risis a nd r enewal ( P. B enA mos: 1 980). P ossible r esurgence o f p etty c hiefdoms

( and

i ya b uilding?)

p articularly i n I shan a nd I yek'Orhiom1 650 A .D.

w on.

t obacco-pipes

1 700 A .D.

b y E nglish l ater. L oss o f c oastal c ontrol b y B enin. ( End

T rade g in-bottles

1 897 A .D. 1 960

A .D.

D utch

o f

t rading a t

f irst,

j oined

c anoe-port?)

I ndigenous c lay s tart

b eing m ade

P unitive e xpedition a nd B ritish E mpire i nfluence.

I lorin b lack-

I ndependence.

b urnished w are

3 37

A PPENDIX E : 1 .

G eneral

l a. l b. 2 .

T ransects t hrough O ld O yo. I soko e wala a nd e arthwork a t U buluku. E vbu'Orhuan, E khor

3 .

I ya i n E kae,

4 .

R OUTES

I yeware: U roho,

a nd

Omi,

O bah,

E vbuomoma/Obe,

U gbor,

O hoghobi,

O logbo

O khunmwun,

I siukhukhu,

I shan i yala: E XAMINED

c ross-profiles

E vbonikho,

I ya i n I yek'Uselu: U wan,

5 .

t ransects

E arthworks

Emah,

I wu,

E gbaen,

U ghoton ,

U tekon,

I koro,

I te,

I yowa,

U nuame

E kpoma

F OR E ARTHWORKS

I N A ND A ROUND B ENDEL

a m i

s .

S TATE,

N IGERIA

f

L OKII A

1

t c ‘r ar 6

\ wo t f k•

A d t00 140 M

F u4 44

v z6-1

i ti t -V s iV

IIU 0 1 1 1

v/Ai10. 1 8 4 . 0

S a ffu

/

I t i0A 0 1 ,

m ise rs / 0204 0 W c o ma . . L e sa g oa

R G i r01

:

S tate B oundary

e ll

.1 .

5 , •

• %• !

Routes e xamined

0

_ 100 k m.

‚‚

\

339

/

o,

1

TAN (

z

•

0410 1

L ONGITUDINAL

E l

3 40

E 1

V

0

—Route o f B .I.C.C. //// 1 32 k V T ransmission L ine p rofile.

, 90

// F inal r oute o f n ew D umez B enin-Auchi r oad.

2,7 , 3

3,1

F F i

s t r oute v eyed f or f l; W D umez r oad

2; , ,* I

\

2±,

/

/

17

"N

I 2o

/

r t

Ck'

h or N atural l onP 7itudinal p rofile r oute Ehor t o E kpcma: E dok-EterM andilas L td S cale: 0

3 41

1

2

n ew r oad.

1 :100,000

3

4

5 km

E MS

2 5

E guaholo7 j ‘2 , " ' --

,x

I/

2 0

\

I zikhiri

/ 15

E kae Uwemuwe

I lobi

.

I guogbe . , . d

\ . 1 0 a s

e, e Ig u o i , . _ .loni s , \ J , , e

i i --' ‘ 1 ,4

m w" i m

I guiye

.

4'

.

„

7 Iguolonebue . 1

e 7

F .

I ssua

_--X , 1 1 . - ' E bue`

e , , , ,

5 , • % . . 4 , . et

4 i t

, 4 4 .

I t I

„1

/

t' w

I

,

b i r

"

/e /

0

E bue 0 .,h ia n

1

2

3

5k m .

N atural l ongitudinal p rofile Ugoneki t o U gieghudu. 0

g oneki

3 42

r oute

( Edok-Eter-Mandilas L td. N ew r oad U goneki-Eeuaholor-Ehor-Ekpoma).

E dok—Eter-Mandilas L td. U goneki t o U gieghudu n ew r oad p rofiles:

1

2

1

0

7 8

56

3l i

2

9

1 0 1 1

3

1 2

4

5 1 0 3

V ertical e xaggeration o f l ongitudinal p rofiles a nd i nsets:

5

1 0

1 m93

4 m12

1 1 1 m89

8 2 m54

3 1 174

4m91

1 4

3 m47

1 2

3 m06

3 m90

2 5

l m57

1 7

1 5 1 6

3 m30

1 3

9

4

3

1 0:1

2 m51

2 V

1 3

1 m81

1 8

2 m60

2 m53

1 9 2 0 2 1

2 2

2 3 2 4 2 5

i na m m i r

6

1 4

1 m78

1 m03

4 m47

4 m76

1 m96

1 0km

1 8

1 7

1 5

1 m40

9 1

2 0

1 9

9

8

7

2 m38

4 m07

2 5

2 3

1 m71

2 m20 3 43

0 m93

2 m08

2 m94

E dok-Eter-Mandilas L td. U gpneki t o Ug 2 6

2 7 2 8

2 9

ghudu n ew r oad p rofiles

( cont.):

3

3 0 3 1 3 2

3 4

3 6

3 7

3 5 1 0

1 2

1 1

1 3 2 8

2 7

2 6

1 m78

2 m08

2 m76

1 m85

1 5km

3

2 9

v lm 9 l

3 1 1 m30

1 4

4 m12

3 3

3 2 1 m48

2 m67

27

3 5 3 7

4 m80

4 0

4 1

3 9

6

1 5

3 8

1 8

1 7

1 9

2 0km

4 2

4 1

3 9 1 m10

2 m38

4 0

4 3

1 m20

3 44

1 m50

2 m13

E dok-Eter-Mandilas L td.

U goneki t o U gieghudu n ew r oad p rofiles 4 8

.2 0

2 2

2 1

( cont.):

4 9

m 2 5 k

2 4

2 3

4 8

• 44 4 m91

1 m30

4 9

4 6 4 5

5 0

2 5

5 0 ii

2 6

5 1 5 2

5 3

5 4

2 8

2 7

5 2 2 m43

1 m27

m 0k

2 9

5 3

5 4

1 m62

2 m06

5 7

3 3 5 6

15 5

3 45

3 4 5 7

CD CD

C 0 r 4

C C=

C 7 . 1 11 1 1 1

C I

CD

• H f a,

C I C U ] C . ) . 0

2

z z

z

•

C . ) CD

•r 4

0 . ) • r t

• c o

0

0 C C \ I

C

r 4

f rom b ulldozered

I shan K ingdoms

S avannah

>4 1 . )

C . )

a la a lon

4 i

4 -, C .

B enin-Okene.

o f s herds

( 1 2

= e i

e _ C

C . )

. 2 0

• r t F 4

7 '

B enin K ingdom

1 32kV l ine

s ubsurface

s herds

=

• r i C . ) P : 1

' 1

3 46

CD

S ample l ength o f B enin-Okene 1 32 :kV-t ransmission l ine p rofile, i nsets a nd t ransects a cross F S m ap s heet 2 98 NE n orth-west q uarter. N .E.P.A. P roject M C 3 584L. c f.

a lterations,

M otor C olumbus, a dditional

C onsulting E ngineers,

i ya a nd s herds

C H 5 401,

B aden.

i n p rofile a t e nd o f P art I I.

3

5

4

V ertical e xaggeration 4 :1

1

2 m

.

s' -7 -

1 m50 ,

4 m25

32

-f h i ck

n , i d


i D

U 2 Z

i p .• m i

2 a !

E •" ,. . , o a l s z 9 i r e C . ). .-1

0

0

2

a )

c

C O 1 1 4 .2

U

a )

0 U ) U )

0 9

0

a )

8 0

+2

a . )

C . )

U 2

eC S

+2

> C L )

; . 4 C . )

CH I

o

C 2

r . 0 2

=

'0

e +2

p

> a )

D C L )

+2

0 3 4

I C O

; , a ) -i D

a )

c onstruction

•r I

W

. 1 1

a ) re

+2

>

C I ) 0 . 11

C D 0

2 .

( 1 ) , ,

a ) 4 2 r n c d , . e 0 4 2 C 1 ) L C 0 " Z • f 1 >

2 i i t E1

-P

e

; . 4 , 4

2 .

3 3kV

l i ne

3 51

E kpo ma

P rofile, s howing l ocation o f s herd c ollections.

3 3kV l i ne E kpoma

r-

L c \

3 52

S teel t ape a nd p rismatic c ompass

' triangulation'

T ape a nd c ompass s urvey o f E vbu'Orhuan.

0

1 k m

3 53

s urveys a round B enin.

S ample o f E khor a rea t ape a nd c ompass s urvey ,

2 a

2 b

a

b

1 4

7 a .

8 a % , 8 c 9 a

1 0a

4 P

8b

-

7b

'

9b

h or n 'Idumw 'Olu

/2' 1 N10b 1 1a 4 l lb ee

r uins o f E khor n 'Igu'Okhuen d eserted i n 1 9 2 •1 9

5 a

2 m90

6b 3 54

6b

5 1

1 3

C ross p rofiles f rom s ample o f s urvey n ear E khor

( continuedl .

( profile 9 m issed) 1 5a

1 5b 2 m7 ( 1 )

2 m52

1 6a

6 b

1 7a 1 7b

6 m12

k ink - ( caused b y l ater d eevening?) 1 9

1 . 0a

( Profiles 2 0-22 a t e nd o f P art I ). P art o f r esults f rom P rincipal C omponents A nalysis o f h eights o f i ya a gainst t heir w idths.

1 0b 5 m

1 m4Ös'

R

L

Y

s ame

i ya?

p rimary i ya?

j i la 1 m35

1 3b

r 1

24 Zi r I

1

A

T his a nalysis w as n ot u sed a s l ater d eepening o f i ya s eemed t o o ver-complicate t he r esults.

3 55

S elected c ross-profiles f rom l yek 'Uselu a nd I yek'Ikpoba c ompared w ith t hose m easured a long p art o f a t ape a nd c ompass s urvey ( Nos. U T O N 3

1 1 - 1 5). UZALA U TEH •

E GBAEN

1

o riginal \ i

1

› ---

6 m45

o riginal

i ya d eepene

) 1 m55

3

U tekon B D-db i ya

1 3

1 m68

8 m10

7 m60

0 m75

111

5

( dug b y b oth v illages?)

O ria/Ute B DB i ya

3 m

6 m55

I hovbor B D-db(db)

i ya

3 m23 1 0 a ddition

3 56

C ross-profiles i n l yeware

2

3 m 1 m65

[ 19

[ 3

2 0

2 1 5

L f

1 m45

l m / i3

1 m68

3 m66 2 2

0 m68

0 m55

2 m85

2 5

2 m50

2 m28

7 m80 2 7

0 m60

O ther p rofiles: O ka i ya

a bove;

I dogbo i ya U roho i ya E vbonikho i ya O logbo i ya U gbenu U gbenu ' forte

a bove; I I.B.4. b elow; 3 58 b elow ; 3 58 1 981a; 4 6 i bid 1 975, 1 63

K EY: N umbers r efer t o m ap b elow ; H eights f rom d itch b ottom t o b ank t op g iven i n m etres. D ates r efer t o m y a rticles.

3 57

3 58.

M ap o f

' triangulation'

s urvey w ith t ape a nd c ompass/ c ross-profiles: K EY:

P rofiles o f B enin C ity ' walls'

i ya s urveyed

B ENIN

i n

r oute o f t ape a nd c ompass t raverse

C ITY

7—

c ross-profile

C onnah:1975;104

1 9 2 0 EVBUOMO 2 1

3 m95

3 2

4 m27

4 m5 i

N

3 n t2C--/

3 58

1

F REQUENCY D ISTRIBUTIONS O F

M E A S U R E D C R O S S P R O F I L E S

M ain C ity W all

i s

1 11 L i a l l1 6 ,1 1 16 _ _AL a i

•

C onnah 's

' walls'

I yekeware s outh o f B enin

I yek 'Uselu n orth o f B enin

I yek 'Ikpoba e ast o f B enin

I si/Egbede

MI R

I yek 'Orhiomo

1 1

•. m in

( far e ast)

m

L kL

a•

U do,

( S.E .)

I yek 'Ovia ( west)

I shan w ell n orth-east o f B enin I soko f ar s outh o f B enin

3 0

2 5 2 0 A ll E do E arthworks S cales:

l eft, n umber o f e arthworks b elow , h eight i n m etres

3 :

I gbo

( Ika a nd A niocha D ivisions, I gala

1 0

a l l

1

2

3

4

5

I I

6

B endel S tate)

( Anambra S tate)

I I

Y oruba

M

7

8

3 59

9

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 3

( Owo, I jebu) 1 4 1 5 m etres

l e,

L i 1

' 11. 11

111

c • ,. • n ew' t . )

(O W i n cr , . . , , Ir . :

n n

SSt,

L

( 1

' ' '

L i

7

r i 1 , . z : , 4

,1. ,

1

4° e l // r em

4 1

\-k

. . . . „

• ,i

. -e i .

1r .

),

L,

/1 ,

,_ ,

,

‘ \ ^ • t e

_

,

nevy—

. ‘,

•

A T O LD OW

, , ,

1 i,, T Ir ;r . n-i // . " 'r V, " / J, . ` 1 ‘k i

. .4.. 4. s t, . ,

L j

• ,oe sr e , ,

-

"

\

• 1,• •

91 4 /

r . • . . Z Z\ I • • • .‘

7 .

D I• . 1 • • • •

-4 ;

11

/ 1

/

11

s l n ,a

t •

a -

•• •

3

Y

• . `

1 11 1/ 1

" "••• •

I\

I l I / I

I

I f )111 1 1

I

/ A

I • c .

/j ‘ ; ‚1 / 1 1 1 c d 11/ / /gi 11 1

\ ‘ ,

• \ \ .7

V 1 •

/ / //

" t wo.

1

Ib

4 0

• ‘ 4, 1 .eac . 1

el ,•1 1

1 / 11

11

1

1

\‘‘ I

Li

(

T".

9 5 ,

` c -

2

6

3 60

^ r n

r .= :=

.

E wala i n I soko

2 m40 1 1 k m n orth-east

b

o f O leh.

2 m25

E mevor

0

' 1 " : 4 e 7 N orth o f O leh

1 00m

E arthwork f eatures i n I gbo-speaking a reas O wa A lero:

m ade t o k eep c ows

o ut o f O wa f armlands

7 50 m etres w est o f

i n t he

U buluku f acing B enin.

y ear o f t he f irst a eroplane ( c.1946). 0

C

l km.

G ates f enced.

1 m13

2 m70

O tolokpo I gbo e arthworks: A niocha,

B endel

a bove S tate,

l eft f rom I ka,

B endel S tate,

a bove r ight f rom

b elow l eft f rom n ear N sukka. M any i nter-community b oundaries

a rtificial

p ond

s urrounded b y a d ouble w all.

i n I b oland w ere k nown a s A jaE ni e lephant w alls) a nd b uilt d uring a p eriod o f i nter-tribal w arfare

( J.C.Ene:Pers.Comm.)

B oundary n ear A mandagba,

O rlu.

d isused o pencast i ron o re m ine. 0

1 m23

5 0m F ield b oundaries

b oundary Nguru 1 :150

T erracing a t A mo-ozalla, 5 0m

a

W iln/ utip' """

s teep v alley / r ho / r i / , „ ,

3 61

b oundaries a t I gbo U kwu

2 m18

n orth-east o f O pi.

0

P resent d ay

(6/5/ 76) U mukase

( near N sukka

A chala,

N sukka

( 6/5/76)

I YA I N I SI A ND E GBEDE

E vbu'Orhuan : J ust o ver 1 2 k ilometres n orth-east o f E khor n 'Idumwolu, a nd o n t he e ast s ide o f t he s ame i nterfluve w here i t w idens o ut, i s t he e xceptionally d eep i ya s ystem o f E vbu'Orhuan. O ne o f t he c rossp rofiles w as 9 .5 m etres d eep - t he d eepest i ya r ecorded o utside t he C ity W all o f B enin - a nd t he 6 -8 m etre d epths o f t he o ther c rossp rofiles a t t he t rack i ntersections s uggested t hat t he i ya w as p roba bly c onsistently d eep a ll r ound. I n v iew o f t hese u nusual d epths, a o ne-day s urvey w as o rganized. T he i ya s urveyed p roved t o b econsistently d eep a round a c ont inuous c ourse, 1 .9 ( north-south) b y 1 .4 ( east-west) k ilometres, w ith t he d eepest s ections b eing i n t he w est, n orth a nd s outh. T hirtynine f ootpaths c rossed t he i ya, o f w hich 2 1 h ad s ignificantly a ltered t he b ank o r d itch a nd 2 3 w ere d isused. W ithin

t he s urveyed c ourse s ix o ther i ya w ere

d iscovered.

A t

j unction 1 , t he o pen i nternal c ontinuation o f t he 4 -5 m etre d eep i ya, B , w as f ollowed b y o ne w orker t o t he e astern t rack i ntersection w here i t

w as

o nly 2 m etres d eep.

T wo f urther 2

m etre d eep

i ya

o n

t he

n orth-south t rack, A l a nd A ll, i ndicated t hat t he p rimary i ya a bout 6 50 m etres s quare a djacent t o t he m iddle o f t he w estern s ection s urv eyed; a nd t his c oincides w ith t he c laimed s ite o f t he o riginal v ill age. T he t wo m ost i nteresting s ightings l ay i n t he s outh-east c orn er. H ere t wo, 2 m etre d eep i ya c ontinually f orm c losed, i nverted, r ight-angled b ends; a nd t hey a ppear t o h ave b een p art o f a r ectilinear c ompound s ome 3 50 m etres a cross. T he p resence o f l ow b anks f lanking a n i mportant f ootpath e ntrance w as r eminiscent o f t he g uarded g ateways s urveyed a t O ld O yo a nd w as t he o nly s uch e xample e ncountered w ithin t he B enin K ingdom. o f s ome i mportance.

I f t his w as a c ompound,

I n r econstructing t his d ata,

i t

i s

l ikely t o h ave b een

i t w ould s eem t hat

t his

c ompound -

v ery p robably t he e guae ( palace) o f a p owerful c hief - w as b uilt o n t he o utside o f t he p rimary i ya A , b ut b efore t he c onstruction o f t he n orth-eastern a nd s outhern a dditions, C a nd D . T he f act t hat t he 2

m etre d eep c ompound i ya, P C, w as d eepened t o 7 m etres i n i ts e astern s ection a fter b eing j oined b y t he 5 m etre d eep a ddition, C a nd D , m ay m ean t hat p erimeter d eepening a ccompanied e ach a ddition; s o t hat t he e xceptional d epth o f t he w estern s ection m ay h ave r esulted f rom t hree o r f our c onsecutive d eepenings. I t s eems v ery l ikely t hat t his w as o nly t he b eginning o f t he c omplete s equence, f or t hough n o a dditions w ere d iscovered j oining t he o utside o f t he s urveyed i ya, t here w ere

t rack/iya i ntersections i n t he v icinity w hich s uggested t hat t he E vbu'Orhuan i ya s ystem e xtended t o t he u pper s lopes o f t he O hunwan r iver t o t he e ast, 4 50 m etres t o t he w est, a nd p ossibly u p t o 3 k ilometres n orth a nd s outh. T he

o ral

t raditions

r ecall

t hat

t his w as O ba

O rhuan's

v illage

a nd p ower-base i n h is s eccession s truggle a gainst t he I yase O wina f or s everal m onths i n t he e arly C l7th ( appendix; 0 4 ). T here i s ap ossib ility t hat t he s outh-east c ompound, P C, w as O rhuan's e guae, a nd t hat

3 62

E2

0$ ,‘

•

Ae k t

; N e e • 90

U den i E vbu '• r huan

•k0

a l b!

J ibb>

' L eu'l h ' ›

'\* ft,

s c‚4 ",. .).

‘

l c iAnsi

el e t i .e s #• •— u — a t

e

' e ft

n

• , .

f , o k h t . 4 11 ,

t o , , , . . . .

. . . . . „ . , , „ , „ . . „ . e x • • • • e

f i e

N .

1 9 4, 4

, „ , , 1 k•e;

0

. %

V

'

e

04 . . . . . , . e . . n. 'I .

, , . /

"

/

a , . . e . .

1 Ekho rI F „ ,

• N.

J e : . a r

A

rvbe‚ b so

JP

8 4,

E b t iene ' ' '" '

•

Y / ,0 * e%

E v i ,c 1:9:4 ." '

, • 1

P Son i

- •'‘ •

• , : .l eU s gonoba

q r . ?

q d . . .. ,. . .

0K I N.,

•

0 ‘‘

c , 47 . 0k h.. " `

.

1 ▪00

, -

• •

Z

etr k

l

.

I s m *. i

4

4 ' *

e. ,

, • • • A

0

_ _•oe . 9 k .'

- Ugoneki

"s fc

E. 4 1 ,e

‚Al ert

3 .“ 1 . 1

_

__

•

i f 1 4 41 4 "1 4 *

,

• • •P

O stk•••.‘ r r .

< 2 1, 9,1

—

• 330 k v

34

4 1 111 1 14 • ,, . • • • •0 1

f i e C I k 04*

Er nu .', • • ,

•u . t,u TW ,

' 4‚

t i e

4‚. 0

' 3 ,44

e iKelbe

• P e

r 4, ,a . i • to, I

I du

A vbuifi O .n

O keg l io ,

i

3 63

ere "

' MU

E2

‘ ,. • / (/

4 1 4 Q / ( 4 4

‘ 4 , e

d 4w i i m i1 4, /

' e f / r ,n y lon n Yr < 4< ' < '

tt,

r YTrrr t

r )

x' e qj

• u

e M u nt k °

e ,

1 " , e0 4 e

eeee„ ,

0

( e/

4

E kho r

a )

l ä -

N

u _

C • I

• > .

3 0

r i T inmno f b i«An i t iAmn t; ( t , -4 1

t 4 1

931 t ,

a n i

3 64

nT , nn r , rrY

r r ull

r f

t he w est-section o f

t he s urveyed i ya was

d eepened d efensively

a gainst

t he I yase's f orces a t O regbeni n ear B enin . H owever, t he t otal d earth o f t raditions a bout i ya c onstruction o r d eepening a t t his t ime o r l ater w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat b oth t he c ompound - ( with a ll i ts i mplications o f a n a lien c hieftaincy s tructure) - a nd t he n umerous a dditional i ya e nclosures a nte-dated t he O rhuan s aga b y s everal c ent uries. I t i s s uspected t hat i t w as t he l ong-established s trength o f t his v illage w hich h elped P rince O dogbo t o w in t he t hrone a nd b ecome O ba O rhuan o f B enin . E khor: I n v iew o f

t he c omplexity a nd i ncompletion o f

t his

s urvey,

t he

d escription o f t hese i ya a re m ost e asily a chieved i f s ome e lementary i nterpretation i s u sed t o d istinguish c ertain b asic e lements.

w hich

T he i s

f irst e lement t hat n eeds d istinguishing i s t he p rimary i ya, h ere d efined a s t hat w hich s urrounds t he i nnermost k nown

e nclosure w ith o utward-facing b anks. I n t his E khor b lock 9 a reas, d esignated A - J , a re i nterpreted a s b eing e nclosed b y p rimary i ya, t hough o nly t he t wo e nclosures B a nd J w ere c ompletely s urveyed. F or t he r est, varying d egrees o f i nterpolation w ere n ecessary: e nclosures A , C , D a nd E a re r elatively s traightforward, w hereas t hose a t F , G a nd H a re m uch m ore q uestionable a nd a re b ased p artly o n t he i nteri et ati7 . 3 .-n o f t he s econd e lement - t he i ya s ystem p erimeter. I n i ts m ost o bvious f orm t his t he c ordon s anitaire, a n arrow s trip o f n o-man'sl and b etween t he o utward-facing i ya o f t wo d ifferent s ystems; a nd t his i s v ery w ell d emonstrated i n t he E khor b lock b etween C a nd D , C a nd F , D a nd E , D a nd F , a nd F a nd G . I n o ther a reas w ithin t his b lock t he _ p erimeter i s n ot s o e asy t o d istinguish, a s t he c ordon s anitaire p rinciple i s s hort-cut b y t he d igging o f B DB/bDb/BDb, b ivallate i ya, b y a dding t o t he i ya o f a n o pposing s ystem ( E's s econd w estern a ddit ion) o r e ven b y a c omplete o verlap o f t he p revious b oundary i ya o f a n o pposing s ystem ( north s ide o f F : s outh o f J ). A t t imes t hese t wo e lements o f p rimary a nd p erimeter i ya a re s ynonymous as p ossibly w ith C , D a nd F - b ut i n m ost c ases t hey h ave b een s eparated b y a ccretiona ry l oops t o t he p rimary a nd s ubsequent i ya - a s w ith A , B , E a nd p ossibly G , H a nd I . U sually a u nity c an b e d istinguished i n t his s traightforward e xpansion, s o t hat t he f ull s equence f rom p rimary i ya t o p erimeter i ya c an b e t ermed t he i ya s ystem ( main t hesis; 1 07). E ach s ystem c an b e i nterpreted a s r efllecting a n a utonomous p olitical c ontinuum i n t he s ettlement(s) w hich b uilt t hem . Ekhor b lock, t hough, t he c omplexity o f t he i ya s uggests t hat

s ocioI n t he i n s ome

c ases t his c ontinuum w as b roken a t l east o nce d uring t he o verall p eriod o f i ya c onstruction. T herefore, i n t he d escription o f i ndivid ual i ya s ystems w hich f ollow, t his p rimary t o p erimeter a nalysis w ill b e

a dopted

w herever

p ossible,

a nd n ote m ade o f

a ppears t o h ave b een b roken o r r eversed. 1 :25,000 map o f t his a rea ( main t hesis; a vailable

f or

A round

r eference w hilst

w hen

t he s equence

I t i s a dvisable t o h ave t he 1 22). A ppendix ; 3 1a) o pen a nd

r eading t he f ollowing

t ext.

t he p resent a nd c laimed o riginal s ite o f E khor

n 'Idumw-

' 01u a re s ome s ightings o f o utward f acing i ya, w hich h ave b een t entat ively e ntitled p rimary i ya A l. F rom n orth-east t o s outh-west A l i s a bout 1 k ilometres ( the s ame l ong a xis m easurement a s m ost o f t he a djacent p rimary i ya), b ut t he u nknown n orth-west/south-east d imension a dmits t he p ossibility o f A l e nclosing a s lightly l arger a rea t han t he

3 65

o ther E khor a rea p rimary i ya. O n t he o ther h and, t he n on-central p osition o f t he c laimed o riginal s ite i n t he s outh-east a nd t he r emains o f a nother s ite n oted f urther n orth l end s ome c redence t o t he p ossibility t hat t he p resent v illage s ite h as o bscured s ome s hallow i nner i ya e nclosing m ore t han o ne s ettlement ( cf. E vbu'Orhuan : a ppend ix; E 3 0). T he 21 2 m / etre d eep p rofile t o t he n orth-east o f A l w as p robably t he o riginal s ize a nd d epth o f t he p rimary i ya i n t his -- i mmed iate a rea. T he s outhern s ection o f A l h as a s teeper t han n ormal s lope, w hich s uggests t hat i t w as d eepened c onsiderably l ater t han t he o riginal c onstruction ( main t hesis; 1 08), a nd a k ink i n t he 6 m etre 1 2 c entimetre p rofile 8 b a ppears t o c onfirm t his. A s hort g round s urvey o f t he 4 -6 m etre h igh a ddition, A 2, t o t he s outh-east d emonstrated t hat t here w as n o c hange o f p rimary i ya p rof ile d epth e ither s ide o f t he j unction , t hereby i ndicating t hat A 2 c onstruction p ost-dated t he p rimary i ya d eepening. T o t he n orth-east t he o nly p rofiles l arge e nough t o b e a ssociated w ith a ny d eepening a re 9 a, b p rofile

c ,

3( 1

d ( designated A 3); t hough t he a pparent b ivallate i ya o f introduces p otential c omplexities, s uch a s t he p ossible

p resence o f a s mall a utonomous s ettlement t o t he n orth/north-east o f t he p rimary i ya A l. T here i s o ne f urther a ddition t o t he n orth-east, p rofile 1 0 ( A4), a nd t his a ppears t o h ave b een t he p erimeter i ya. S o t he l ongest p ossible a xis o f t he k nown e xtent o f s ystem A i s 3 k ilom etres, w ith m ost o f i ts e xpansion b eing t o t he n orth-east. ( There i s s ome c onflict o f e vidence a bout t he d irection f aced b y c ertain p rof iles t o t he s outh-west; a nd t he l ong a xis h ere a ssumes n o f urther a dditions t o t he s outh-west o n t he b asis o f a ccepting m y p reliminary s ightings r ather t han t he r esults o f a n u nsupervised s urvey). O nly h alf a k ilometre s outh o f A l,

2 50 m etres f rom A 2,

i s

t he

t iny r ecilinear e nclosure o f B i, a m ere 3 .3 h a. l ess t han 3 00 b y 2 00 m etres, w hich h as a 2 m etre d eep p rofile. O n B l's n orthern c orner i s t he j unction w ith B 2, h ere o nly 2 -2 1 2 m / etres d eep b ut d ramatically d eepening t o 6 -8 m etres a long i ts n orthern s ector a fter i t h as b een j oined b y t he e qually d eep a ddition B 3. B 2 e ncloses a bout 1 8 h a. a nd t he i ya r emains d eep a long i ts w estern s ector, t hen d rops m etres i n t he c ordon s anitaire w ith C 2 a nd C l i n t he w est s outhern s ector.

S imilarly t he 6 m etre p lus p rofile o f

B 3,

t o o f

2 -3 t he

e stimated

t o e nclose a bout 7 0 h a., c ould b e i nterpolated a s b ecoming p art o f t he 2 m etre h igh i ya i n t he c ordon s anitaire w ith C l i n t he s outhern s ector. Q uite c learly t here i s s ome c orrespondence b etween d eepening a long t he n orthern s ectors o f B 2/B3 a nd t he s outhern s ector o f A . I n b oth 2 a nd A l t his d eepening a ppears t o b e l ater t han t he o riginal c onstruction . A f ew b orrow-pits w ere d iscerned e ither s ide o f t he i mportant f ootpath c rossing t he w estern s ector o f B 2, a nd m ight w ell h ave b elonged t o s ettlement(s) w hich d eepened B 2 a nd l ived c lose i nside t he i ya. T he f ull e ast-west e xtent o f i ya s ystem B i s u nknown, t hough a c ordon s anitaire p lotted 7 50 m etres t o t he w est m ay m ark o ne e xtremity o f a n o therwise u ndiscovered w estern a ddition, B 4.

w hich

C l s urrounds t he c laimed o riginal s ite o f E khor n 'Igu'Okhuen , w as d eserted i n 1 952: w all r uins a nd c oconut t rees w ere s till

v isible i n 1 977. T his a rea o f r ecent o ccupation w as c entrally p laced w ithin t he i ya; b ut b orrow-pits i n t he v icinity o f t he E khor n 'Ihoho s hrine, p erhaps t he s ame a s t he E khor j uju i n " the p lace o f m any h oles" ( borrow-pits?) n oted b y B radbury ( nd; E 180), were n oted c lose i nside

t he w estern s ector o f C l,

a nd

3 66

t hese m ay i ndicate e ither

t hat

t his has

s ettlement

o nce e xtended o ver a m uch l arger a rea,

b een s ettlement d rift,

o r t hat

s ettlements/compounds w ithin a I t i s b y n o m eans c ertain t hat j ust e nough u nsurveyed t o a dmit f urther e ast ( as a t E khor N iro,

o r t hat

t here w ere a n umber

o f

t here

d iscrete

c ommon b oundary p rior t o n ucleation. C l i s t he p rimary i ya, a s t here i s t he p ossibility o f a t rue p rimary i ya s ystem E ). T he n orthern , w estern a nd

s outhern s ectors o f C l h ave c onsistent 7 3 m etre d eep p rofiles a nd a re i ntegrated i n c ordon s anitaire o pposing B , D a nd F r espectively. C 2 i s C l's o nly s urveyed a ddition a nd a ppears t o h ave t hree d istinct

se ctions:- a 3 m etre d eep c ordon s anitaire w ith B 2 i n t he n orth, a 4 -5 m etre d eepened l ength f acing n orth-west j ust n orth o f F l, a nd a 1 -2 metre d eep d iscontinuity w ithin F l. T his l ast i ya f ades a way a bout 3 00 m etres s outh o f w here i t i s c rossed b y F l, t hough a p ossible t race 2 00-300 m etres s outh s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave b een o bliterated b y l ater s ettlement i n t he a rea. A s F l c learly p ostdates t he u ndeepened s ection o f C 2, a cross w hich i t i s s uperimposed, s o i t f ollows t hat i t m ust h ave b een c onstructed a fter C l; a nd t he c oncave c onfiguration o f F 1's c ordon s anitaire s upports t his c ontention. A pplying t his c onfi guration a rgument

t o t he o ther c ordon s anitaire a djacent

t o

C l,

i t

c ould b e s uggested t hat B 2 ( and t herefore B 3) p ostdates C l a nd t hat C l p ostdates D l. T he f irst s uggestion a ppears t o b e c onfirmed b y t he B i, B 2 B 3 C-rjunction ( below), t hough t he f ailure o f a n o nce i mportant, no w d isused f ootpath, w hich o nce c rossed C l, t o c ross D 1 j ust 1 0 metres a way c ould t hrow s ome l ight o n t he s econd s uggestion ( below).

c 1 :10,000

F ootpaths c rossing c ordon s anitaire h ave b een o bserved t o t urn a long t he n o-man's-land b efore c rossing t he o pposing i ya. T his m ay h ave h appened h ere, s o m aking f ootpaths m ining r elative o rdering o f i ya. T he

o ne

t ain ;

t ime r elationships

b ut

i t

a n u ncertain c riterion f or

d eter-

o f C l w ith t he t iny B i e nclosure i s u ncer-

m ight b e p ertinant

t o n ote t hat

t he

s ettlement

E khor

n 'Iyek'Iya ( Ekhor o utside/beyond t he i ya) o nce e xisted s omewhere i n E khor ( Bradbury: n d.; E 1 02.1), a s w ell a s r emarking t hat s mall s ettlements a ttached o utside i ya e lsewhere h ave r esulted f rom b oth i nternal a nd e xternal m igrants ( e.g. E nogie's h ouse a t U melu : a bove; 9 9. b elow ;

' Doctor's

c ompound a t U wan:

a ppendix;

E 71.

U humudumwun E kopma:

2 22).

D 1 e ncloses a n a rea v ery s imilar t o, a nd i mmediately s outh o f C l. S ome b orrow-pits a nd d isturbed g round w ere n oted c lose i nside t he i ya i n i ts s outh-eastern a nd n orth-western s ectors, b ut n o e vidence o f a ny r ecent s ettlement w as f ound, a nd t oday E khor n 'Igu'Okhuen c laims a ll t his l and. A long i ts n orthern a nd s outhern c ordon s anitaire o pposing C l a nd E 2, D l's p rofile i s a s ubdued 21 2/ 3 m etres; b ut o n i ts w estern s ide i t b een c onsidered

d eepens t o 4 -5 m etres, s uggesting t hat t his m ay h ave a n e xposed f lank i n t he p eriod b efore F l e xisted.

P artially o bliterated b y a r ecent r oad a nd t he p resent h ousing o f E khor N iro i s a s mall, 1 m etre d eep i ya, D lo, w hich m ay h ave b een t he o riginal

( o)

p rimary i ya d emarcating a 3 0 m etre w ide c ordon s anitaire;

3 67

i n w hich c ase b oth D l's p resent h eight a nd i ts j uxtaposed t o E l w ould b e l ater f eatures ( below).

S cale:

c .

s outh-east

c orner

1 :10 ,000

P ostdating a ll p hases o f D 1 i s t he 2 -3 m etre d eep E 5, w hich j oins n orth o f D l's s outh-east c orner; a nd t he u pper v alley s lope a rea o f D 1 a ppears D l's

j ust e ast

t o h ave b een e nclosed e ven l ater b y t he 2 m etre d eep D 2.

s outh-west

i nto D l's d itch. d esignated x a s

c orner i s

j oined b y t wo i ya,

b oth o f w hich

o pen

T he 3 -4 m etre d eep, s outhward-facing i ya h as b een i ts o wnership i s u ncertain. T he D l/X j unction i s

c haracterized b y o pen a nd l evel d itch b ases, w hich a rgue f or X b eing c onstructed b y D l; a nd t his w ould f it t he p attern o f w estward .e xpans ion a lready s tarted b y E 2 a nd p ossibly b y C 2. T he s lightly b ivallate ( bDB)

n ature

o f D l's

s outhwest c orner b etween t he t wo i ya X

a nd

H ,

h owever, w ould s eem t o p oint t o t his i ya b eing p art o f a n a utonomous e nclosure b elonging t o H ; t hough, u nlike t he D l/X j unction, H 1 o pens i nto D 1 w ith a h igher ditch b ase, w hich s uggests t hat b oth H 1 a nd t he b ivallate d eepening a re o f l ater o rigin t han e ither D 1 o r p olation o f t he u nsurveyed g ap b etween X a nd G X o pens p ossibilities

w here

i f G 1 a nd D 1 a re

l inked,

a nd

X . u p

I nterf urther

t hese a re d iscussed l ater.

P rimary i ya E l e ncloses t he c laimed o riginal s ite o f E khor N iro, r ecent t ypes o f p otsherds i n b lack e arth a s w ell a s c oconut

t rees w ere o bserved. T he a rea e nclosed b y E l i s a pproximately 7 00 m etres w ide a nd a pparently a bout 1 100 m etres l ong ( c.70 h a.) a nd i s s ited o n t he e ast s ide o f t he l evel i nterfluve i n t he i mmediate p roxim ity o f t he v alley s lops o f t he O hunwan r iver. F or m ost o f i ts s urveyed l ength i t i s a n i mpressive 5 -7 m etres d eep. D epth i s a lso a n oticeable f eature o f t he t wo, l arge, w estward a dditions E 2 a nd E 3. T he 3 t o 6m etre d eep E 2 b egins o n t he w estern s ide o f E l's n orthern s ection a nd r uns i n a n orthward-facing, d ominant ( le. d eeper) i ya i n c ordon s anitaire w ith D 1 a nd X b efore s winging s outh a nd d eepening

t o

5 7 m etres a long i ts w estern ( exposed ? ) s ide. E 2 m arks a w estward e xpansion o f o ver 2 100 m etres a nd w ould h ave a ppeared t o h ave e nclosed a n a rea a bout t wo-and-a-half t imes g reater t han i ts p rimary i ya, E l. E 3 a ppears t o h ave b een a dded t o X , t hough t here i s p ossibility t hat f urther s urvey m ight i ndicate t hat E 3 i s

a n u nlikely a t runcated

s ection o f H l. T his u nlikelihood s tems f rom t he o bserved, d isparity o f E 2 p rofile d epths i n r elation t o D 1 a nd X : e g.

c onsistent E 2 3 m50 t o

D l's 2 m24, E 2 5 m60 t o X 's 3 m40 - t his E 2 d ominance w as c onsistent aking i t u nlikely t hat X would a long t he w hole c ordon s aT iitaire, s o m n i nter-relationship b etween E 2 s uperimpose i tself o ver E 3 ( assuming a o X i s b ivallate f or a s hort a nd E 3). T he s ection o f E 3 c lose t ank c ould r epresent s ubsequent d istance, a nd t he n orth s ide o f t he b such a s J o r G ) t o l ay c laim t o d eepening b y a s ettlement t o t he w est ( a w ide a rea o f l ater n o-man's-land ( below ; i n d iscussion o n J ). E 3 h as a s imilar s tep-like c onfiguration a nd 5 -7 m etre d epths a s E 2, t hough i t d oubles b ack t o e nclose c . 7 0 h a. i n a r elatively l ong a nd n arrow w estward e xtension, a pproximately 1 500 m etres b y 5 00 m etres. N ear E 3's

s outh-western e xtremity a s mall 1

3 68

m etre a ddition

E 4

m ay m ark a nother s izeable e nclosure, t hough i t i s s uspected t hat i t m ight o nly l ink E 3 t o a n u nknown i ya s ystem , w hich c aused E 3 t o d ouble b ack. A nother T OW a ddition i s W 1 w hich i s 2m etres d eep, s outhwardf acing, a nd a pparently j oins a n e xtroverted r ight-angled b end i n E 3 t o 0 2. C loser e xamination o f t he e nigmatic j unction W l/o2 l ed t o a l inear s urvey a long a v ery l ow , 2/ 1 1 m etre d eep i ya, 7 171 i171 j oined t he s mall e nclosure J l. T his s uggests t hat, w ith t he f urther a dditions W 2 a nd W 3, E m ay h ave b een p art o f a w estern t erritorial e xpansion w hich o nce s tretched r ight a cross t he w hole i nterfluve f rom e ast t o w est. Y et t he o bvious d eepening o f t he s hort e ast s ection o f W 1 b etween 0 2 a nd E 3 w ould a ppear t o b e o ne o f t he f inal s tages i n a n o pposing e astward m ovement i n w hich t he b ivallate d eepening o f E 3 a lso o ccurr ed. P ossibly i t w as t his l ater l oss o f w estern t erritory w hich e ncouraged s ettlement E t o e nclose t he l ess f ertile O hunwan v alley s lopes w ith a 2 -3 m etre -d eep a ddition, E 5, j oining t he e astern s ide o f D l.

f it

F 1's s uperimposition a cross C 2 a nd i ts c onfiguration m oulded t o C l, D 1 a nd p ossibly H 1, a ll s uggest t hat F w as o f l ater o rigin

t han i ts

a djacent

i ya s ystems;

a nd

t his

f act m ay w ell h ave p redicated

F 's i nter-relationships w ith i ts n eighbours a nd e xplain w hy F l i s s uch a n i ya o f c ontrasts. A long i ts s outhern c ordon s anitaire w ith H 1, i t a ppears a s a s lightly b ivallate f eature ( bdb/Bdb) r arely r ising m uch a bove 1 -2 m etres: i n i ts s outh-eastern c orner o pposing D 1 i t s hrinks t o a b arely p erceptible 1 2/ 1 m etre d epth, b ut s uddenly r ises t o 3 m etres i n t he t riange o f n o-man's-land b etween C l, D 1 a nd F l a s w ell a s i n i ts c ordon s anitaire a t e qual d epths w ith C l: F l t hen p resents a m assive 5 -8 m etre d eep n orth-facing p rofile i n i ts s uperimposition o ver C 2. F 's s tatus a s a s eparate e ntity f rom G i s b ased o nly o n t he r esults o f -a - t ransect f rom D 1 ( north o f t he Fu la c ordon s anitaire) t o t he G l/G2 j unction i n a n a rea o f i ncomplete g round s urvey; a nd i n t his t ransect a n e ast/west f acing c ordon s anitaire was c rossed, i n w hich t he w estern i ya, G 2 ? , 2 m etre d eep, d ominated t he s maller e astern i ya, 1 m etres d eep, t hought m ost p robably t o b e F l b ut p ossibly b eing a n e arly w estern a ddition o f C . B orrow-pits a nd s herds w ere n oted i n v arious l ocations w ithin F 1, — w ith s ome a pparently f airly r ecent p ots herds b eing n oted a bout 5 0 m etres i nside t he e astern e dge o f t he i ya o pposite C l. I ya

s ystem G h as

o nly b een p artially s urveyed,

s o

a ny

i nter-

p olated r econstruction r ests l argely o n t he i nterpretation o f t he t wo j unctions G a ( below) a nd G b. F our d ifferent i ya m eet a t j unction G a, w hich - i n a dvance o f a ny i nterpretation - a re d esignated G lo, G l, G 2 a nd G 3

( below).

—

J unction G a G 1

Sketch

p rofiles: G 10 G 2

G i

2 2

bo rrow-pit •• •

3 69

E

1 111 611 1

01.114 W

W1

G lo

i s

a l ow,

w ide b ank r unning f or a bout 1 50 m etres

s outh-east

j unction G a b efore i t c an n o l onger b e d iscerned o n t he g round. a ppears t o h ave o nce b een a s outh-facing i ya o f d BD p rofile

o f I t w ith

b orrow-pits t o i ts n orth a nd g ap h alfway a long i ts o bservable l ength, p ossibly t he r emains o f a d eliberate, d efensive e ntrance ( above). C l r uns n orth-east f or a bout 8 0 m etres, t hen t urns a druptly n orth-west b efore s winging r ound t o r un e astwards. F or m uch o f i ts d istance C l i s 21 2 t / o 3m etres d eep, t hough f or t he 4 0 m etres n orth-east o f j unct ion G a i t a ppears t o h ave b een d eepened t o a bout 4 m etres. G 2 r uns s outh-west w ith a B Db p rofile o ver 6 m etres d eep, a nd s hares t he s ame l evel d itch b ase a s G 3 r unning w est w ith a b dBDb p rofile - t he i nner b d b eing p robably t he r emains o f a d isused f ootpath, o r p ossibly a c ontinuation o f G lo. B oth t he d itch b ase-levels a nd t he d irections f aced b y t he i ya p rofiles a t j unction G a i mply t hat C l a nd G lo ( assum ing t he l atter t o b e a n i ya) e nclosed a p rimary s ettlement a bout 2 50 m etres a cross - a s ize s imilar t o t he o ther w estern o utliers B a nd J . T hey a lso i mply t hat G 2 a nd G 3 a re l ater a dditions o f u ncertain r efjt ive o rdering, u nless G lo i s d iscounted a s a n I ya, i n w hich c ase G 2 w ould

t hen d efinitely a ntedate G 3.

T he e vidence f rom j unction G b d etermines t hat G 2 i s, i n a ny c ase, e arlier t han G 3. H ere t he 6 -7 m etre d eep G 2 f rom t he n orth-west m akes a r ight-angled b end i nto t he 7 -8 m etre d eep G X with t he s ame d itch-base l evel. O n t he i nside o f t he G X b ank, i n d irect c ontinuat ion o f t he l ine t aken b y G 2, i s a 2 3 m etre d eep i ya, G 2o. S o i t w ould s eem t hat G 2 w as o riginally a 2 3 m etre d eep i ya i n a l ine C l, G 2, G 2o a nd p robably r ound t o t he 2 m etre d eep i ya i n G /F o r C c ordon s anitaire d escribed i n F a bove: 3 69); t his w ould h ave- -i nclosej a n a rea o f a bout 6 0 h a. a nd o ver 5 00 m etres a cross. I f G lo, a nd a nother s imilar, l ow, w ide f eature t o t he s outh-east p rove n ot t o b e i ya, t hen G 2 w ould f ulfill a ll t he r equirements o f a p rimary e nclosure. T he l ater a dditions, G 3 a nd G X, a re c learly a ssociated w ith t he l ater d eepening o f t he s ection o f G 2 b etween t hem ; a nd i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t hey f orm p art o f t he s ame p hase o f c onstruction . T aking t his a rgument a s tep f urther b y t he p ossibly d angerous p ractice o f i nterpolating l ike t o l ike i ya a cross u nsurveyed t erritory , i t i s t empting t o l ink G X t o X a nd G 3 ( north) t o p rofile 4 t o F l ( north), a nd p ossibly e ven t o I f c orrect,

j oin F l t o D 1 a t D y.

t hese i nterpolations

o pen u p m any a venues o f

s pecu-

l ation , a mongst w hich o nly t he m ost o bjective p oints w ill b e n oted. S equentially t his p ostulated p hase o f d eepening a ppears t o p ostdate t he i nitial c onstruction o f C l C 2 D 1 C l a nd G 2, a s w ell a s a nted ating t he C 2 n orthern d eepening, E 3, W 1 a nd o ther w estern a dditions. I ya d epths a re a t t heir m ost e xtreme i n t he n orthern a nd w estern s ections, w hich - t aken i n c onjunction w ith t he s equential p attern b oth f or t his p hase a nd f or i ya s ystems B , C a nd E - s uggest s trong w estward a nd n orthward ( ?) e xpansion o ver a— f airii e xtensive a rea. W ithin t his r elatively u nsurveyed a rea, t hree a utonomous i ya s ystems, F , G a nd p ossibly H , c an b e d istinguished. A ll t hese s ystems h ave _ r elatively l ow, 1 -3 m etre d eep, o riginal p rofiles w hen t he s ections s ubject t o l ater d eepening a re d iscounted; s o i t i s r easonable t o s uspect t hat, l ike G 1 a nd G 2, F a nd H a lso a ntedate t his d eepening a nd a re n ot l ater a utonomous s ubdTvisio-n S w ithin i t. O ne c annot b e c ert ain w hether F , G a nd H w ere i ncluded w ithin t his d eepened o n a v oluntaristic o r a c oercive b asis; b ut t he a pparent n orthward

e nclosure w estward/

e xpansion o f b oth t his p ostulated d eepening a nd t he

3 70

o ther

westward may h ave

( W) a dditions w ould i mply t hat t he s ettlements a t C a nd/or D b een i n c ontrol. T he l imited e xtent o f t he s urvey, t he

e nigma o f t he F l/C2 s uperimposition a nd t he n on-existence o f D t oday, a ll p reclude t he p ossibility o f d efinitely p inpointing t he c entre o f p ower. P ossibly t here m ay b e a c lose c orrelation b etween t hese o nce a utonomous i ya s ystems a t B , C , D , F , G , H , ( and J ? ) a nd t he s ix i dumwun ( wards) a t

t he o ld

w hich,

i t

i s

r eputed,

w ere n ucleated u ntil r ecently

s ite o f E khor n 'Igu'Okhuen w ithin i ya s ystem C .

W ithin t he s outhern s ector e nclosed b y t he d eepened p hase G X-X i s t he c uriously e longated t erritory t entively a ssigned t o H . T here i s n o c ertain e vidence o f H 's t erritorial t entively a ssigned t o H . T here i s n o c ertain e vidence- o f H 's t erritorial i ndependence, a s t he t wo i ya j unctions 3 0 m etres a part i nside G X, a t G Xa a nd G Xb ( below), f ace t he w rong w ay f or a c ordon s anitaire b etween G a nd H . T here i s a v ery d efinite c ordon s anitaire b etween F l a nd t he- 21 2/ 3 T m etre H 1 w hich d ominates

i t;

b ut a s imilar r elationship e xists b etween G 1 a nd F l

i n

an a pparent c ontinuation o f t he s ame c ordon s anitaire, a nd t he p ossib ility c annot b e r uled o ut t hat H i s n o m ore t han a n a ddition t o G . G Xa G Xb T hese j unctions w ere i mperfectly r ecorded i n e arly f ieldwork , b e l ater t han G X .

l ike

J l, r anging i n d epth f rom 11 2/ 4 m etres, e ncloses a bout 9 h a. a nd, t he s mall e nclosure B , h as s imilar r ectilinear f eatures a t i ts

s outhern s ibly

b ut m ay

e nd - s uggestive o f a l arge c ompound b oundary.

f ive,

a dditions

j oin J l.

I n t he m iddle o f i ts

F our,

p os-

s outh-western

s ide i s t he v ery l ow W l. I n v iew o f W l's p ossible s ignificance i n i ndicating f urther e xpansion b y E khor n 'Igu -O khuen a nd p ossibly E khor N ir, i t i s a lso w orth n oting t he u nsurveyed, b ut s imilar, l ow, e nigmatic j unction o n J l's e astern s ide, w hich c ould p ossibly j oin w ith t he r ight-angled b end G Xa. W l's s outhern s ection w as s o i ndistinct a long s ome l engths t hat i t w ould n ot b e s urprising i f g round c hecks w ithin J l m issed i t i n t he t hick u ndergrowth. A s imilar, l ow , 2/ 1 1 metre d eep i ya, W 2, e ncloses a c onsiderable a rea o f l and r ight u p t o t he w est e dge o f t he l evel i nterfluve. S outhern a dditions, W 3 a nd W 4, j oin

W 2,

w ith

W 4 b eing p art o f a d eepening p rocess w hich

a bout 2 m . d eep. -- F urther l and i s W 5 i n t he n orth-west. A lso

m akes

e nclosed b y t he 2 % m etre d eep

j oining J 1 a re t he e astward-facing a dditions 0 1,

W 2 i ya,

0 2 a nd 0 3.

0 1 i s 2 -2% m etres d eep m ost o f t he w ay, w ith o nly o ne s hort s ection l ess t han a m etre d eep. I ts p rofile a nd r ight-angled j unction i nside t he n orth-west o f W 2 s uggests t hat 0 1 p ostdates W 2; b ut i ts o rdering w ith J 1 i s n ot q uite s o c lear f rom i ts j unction a t J ls n orth c orner. N ear J ls s outhern c orner i s t he 3 -5 m etre d eep 0 1; a nd t hough t here i s a n e nigmatic i nternal d iscontinuity a t t he 0 27J1 j unction ( rather s imilar t o G lo), t he s ite e vidence w as w eighted i n f avour o f 0 2 p ostd ating J l. F our h undred m etres f urther s outh, 0 2 i s q uite c learly s uperimposed o ver W l. 0 3 i s o nly 1 -2 m etres d eep a long m ost o f i ts c ourse, w hich r uns a pproximately p arallel t o a nd 1 50-300 m etres a part f rom G 3/G2/GX b efore j oining t he n orth-eastern s ide o f J l. 1 m etre d eep, j oins 0 3 f airly c lose t o i ts j unction w ith J l, a

c ourse

a bout

1 00 m etres

a way f rom G X b efore

371

j oining

t he

0 4, a bout a nd t akes d eepened

s ection

o f G 2.

F rom t his

j unction n orthwards,

G 2 a nd G 3

a re

v ery

s lightly b ivallate ( BDb), w hich s uggests t hat, r ather l ike t he b ivall ate d eepening o f t he n orthern p art o f E 3 n ear i ts j unction w ith G X , t he l and e ast o f 0 3 w as c laimed r ight u p t o t he G 3 i ya .

p art

I n s implified t erms, t he e arly w estward e xpansion i n t he w estern o f t he i nterfluve - W 1 t o W 2 t o W 3 t o W 4 a nd p ossibly t o W 5 -

a ppears t o h ave b een c ountered b y a l ater e astward e xpansion - 0 1, 0 3 t o 0 4 p lus b ivallate d eepening o f G 2/G3, t hen t he d eepening o f

0 2, t he

e ast ;7 1d o f W 1 a nd t he b ivallate d eepening o f E 3 a t i ts j unction w ith G X . I t i s u ncertain e xactly h ow J l f its i nto t his p attern. B y d efinitely a ntedating 0 2, 0 3 a nd p robably 0 1, J l m ight p ossibly h ave e nclosed

t he s ettlement w hich w as r esponsible f or t his

l ater e astward

e xpansion. H owever, t his v iew h as t o b e r econciled w ith t he m etre d epth o f W 1 a t i ts j unction w ith t he s outh-west o f J l; w hether

p art o f

2 -2 1 2 / f or

t he o riginal W 1 c onstruction p ostdating J l o r a l ater

d eepening, i t s uggests t hat J l w as a n i ntegral p art or t he e arly w estern e xpansion . T he e xact n ature o f t his t wo s tage d evelopment o f J

a nd/or a n earby s ettlement

i s

f urther c omplicated b y

t he u nsurveyed

l oose e nds t o n orth a nd s outh. F or e xample, a r ecent t rack a nd n ew r oad h ave o bliterated t he e ast s ide o f a j unction w ith t he s outh-west o f 0 3. I t i s s uspected t hat 0 3 w as s uperimposed o ver e ither W 3 o r W 4 a t t his p oint; b ut, i f n ot, i t w ould b e p ossible t o s uggest a l ate p hase i n w hich b oth e astward a nd w estward e xpansion t ook p lace - a s uggestion a bout w hich I a m n ot a ltogether h appy. T he o bliterated j unction i s

s hown b elow:

t r.4k

0 3 E khor

t raditions

r ecall

t hat

o ne

o f

t heir

w ards,

E khor

n 'Idumwun'Ogbon , w as f irst s et u p n ear t he p resent s ite o f A duhanhan a s a h unting c amp b y O vbi I si - a n I shan m an ( ?) a nd a n O vien E daiken ( servant o f t he c rown p rince f rom U selu j ust n orth o f B enin C ity); a nd, a lthough E khor N iro - s ome 4 k ms. a way - i s a lso d escribed a s b eing ' near', i t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat J l w as t his h unting c amp ( Bradbury: a t ie-in ,

n d.; E 1 01). C onsiderable c aution i s n eeded i n m aking s uch a s n early a ll B enin t raditions s tress a n e ponymous a ncestor

o riginating f rom B enin i n t heir f oundation h istories. I n t his c ase, B enin b acking w ould p rovide a c onvenient r aison d 'gtre f or t he s uperi mposed i ya o f t he e astward e xpansion b y a s ettlement c learly m uch s maller t han i ts e astern c ounterparts. I f s uch w as t he c ase , t hen o ne w ould e xpect t he e xpansion t o h ave t aken p lace a fter c onquest b y B enin , t raditionally d ated t o O ba O zolua ( late-C15th ? ) i n t his a rea. H owever, c omparative e vidence o f i ya a nd s ites w ith o ral t radition c onnections e lsewhere i n t he B enin K ingdom s uggests t hat i ya c onstruct ion h ad c eased b y t he m id-C15th/early-C16th; a nd r adio-carbon d ating o f t he f inal s tages o f i ya c onstruction i n I yek'Ikpoba a nd I yek' O rhiomwon h as p roduced d ates i n t he e arly C l4th a nd e arly C l5th. S o f urther d oubt i s t hrown o n t he p ostulated J 1/Ekhor n 'Idumwun'Ogbon t ie-in b y t he l atter's t raditions w hich, f ar f rom r eflecting a s ettlem ent o f s everal c enturies s tanding, i mply t hat i t w as f ounded r elatively r ecently. I n s eeking t o e xplain w hy J l a pparently d evelops f rom b eing a d ependent s ettlement i n e arly w estern e xpansions t o b ecoming a s eemingly a utonomous s ettlement e xpanding l ater i n t he o pposite d irection , a B enin o rientated e xplanation w ould p robably h ave

3 72

t o b e d iscounted. T he r ecords

e xistence o f

o f K d epends

o n o nly t hree

t wo o f w hich a re c ontradictory a s

i solated

t o

( the f irst f ield r ecords w ere m ade b y m yself, a nd workers); s o t here i s l ittle p oint i n d iscussing u ntil i ts

i ndependent

e xistence

A duhanhan g rew u p a s I si a nd E gbede o n i ts w ay d erived a t

t his

i s

t he c hief c ollection p oint

f rom t he h anhan o r w ooden b ases o f

r elationship w ith a ny i ya I llustrations

o f

f aced

s econd b y o ther i ts i mplications

b etter e stablished.

t o B enin C ity.

c ollection p oint.

s ightings,

t he d irection

I t d oes

n ot

I ts

n ame

i s

f or t ribute f rom s upposed

t o h ave

t he y am b askets p laced d own a ppear

t o

h ave

a ny

d irect

i n t his a rea.

t he s uggested

s tages

o f

s equential g rowth

a nd

e xpansion o f t he E khor i ya h ave b een d epicted i n t he m ain t hesis; a nd a re b ased o n t he a rguments f orwarded i n t his a ppendix d escription a nd d iscussion o f

t he i ya c ourses.

3 73

I YA I N I YEWARE A lready d escribed: E vbonikho ( 1974; 1 31-7), ( main t hesis; 9 9-106), I dogbo ( main t hesis;

O logbo ( 1981b; 1 42-149).

4 2-500,

O ka

O bah: I mmediately n orth o f t he I dogbo s ystem i s t he 8 k ms. l ong O bah i ya e nclosing c 3 48 h a. o n t he e dge o f t he l evel i nterfluve j ust s outh o f t he I kpob-j r iver. T he c onfiguration o f t he O badolobiyeyi i ya, E gbal i ya, a nd e ven t he o riginal I dogbo i ya m ay w ell i ndicate t hat t he O bah e nclosure w as c onstructed b efore a ny o f t hem , p articularly i f a d ecrease i n t aken p lace

t he a ccepted w idth o f n o-man's-lands i s a ssumed t o o ver t ime. T he O bah i ya i s m ainly a 21 2 / 4 m etre

h ave h igh

u nivallate ( BD) i ya i n i ts s outhern , e astern a nd n orthern s ections; i t i s c rossed b y t hree i mportant f ootpaths g oing d own t o t he s tream a nd h as a s wings

s harp i nward b end t o a void a s teep r e-entrant. A s t he i ya i nland a long i ts w estern l ength, t here i s a s udden c hange o f

p rofile t hesis:

t o a v ery w ide, l ow b d i ya o f a t ype o bserved a t O ka ( main 1 01, i ii), E vbuomoma/Obe 7 U Uw ; E 41) a nd A vbiakagba ( below; 0

1 2) i n I yeware, p ossibly a t E gbaen i n I yekuselu ( below ; E 65), a nd i n s ome o f t he E khor i ya p rofiles ( above; E 21, 1 2). A 4 0 m etre s tretch o f b ifossate i ya j oins t he t wo p rofile t ypes a nd w as i nterpreted i n t he f ield a s ( hence B Dbd),

a r elatively n ew d itch d ug h alf-way u p s o i t i s q uite p robable t hat m ost o f

t he t he

o ld b ank n orthern ,

e astern a nd s outh-eastern s ections w ere d eepened l ater w ithout l eaving m uch t opographical e vidence. T he 3 m etre h igh, 3 0 m etre l ong s egment o f i ya a ttached t o t he o utside o f t he 1 m etre h igh s outh-western c orner i s f urther e vidence o f a t l east t wo c onstruction p hases: b oth t his a nd t he s egment 3 00 m etres s outh o utside t he O badolobiyeye i ya c ould b e g estures l and b ehind t hem . I nspection

i ndicating m ore e xtensive c laims

a long

t he

t o

t he

n o-man's-

t rack f rom O badolobiyeyi v illage

t o

t he

p resent s ite o f O bazagbon v illage ( within t he O badolobiyeyi i ya) d iscovered p ottery s herds a nd a n o ld b orrow-pit a bout 3 00 m etres i nside t he s outh-eastern p art o f t he O bah i ya e nclosure. F urther s herds w ere n oted c loser t o t he p resent s ite o f O bazagbon, b ut s till i nside t he O bah i ya; s o p ossibly O bazagbon h as c rept o r d eliberately m oved a f ew h undred m etres i nto O badolobiyeyi t erritory t he p ast. T he t raditions s tate t hat O bazagboniye m eans m e

t o l ive',

s ometime i n T he O ba m ade

a s tatement m ade b y I yawe w hen h is b rother,

O ba O semede

( early-C19th), e stablished h im o n O bah f armland r ather t han f ollowing t he u sual p ractice o f k illing a ll f ull b rothers t o t he O ba i n o rder t o m ake t he t hrone s ecure ( Imasogie: 1 970; 1 2-13). N otes m ade o f t he O bah t raditions w ere u nfortunately l ost w hilst c rossing a s wamp, b ut c laims

w ere

p ottery O bah

m ade t o a p re-dynastic h istory.

s herds

i ya p roved

f rom a d eserted s ite t o b e s ome o f

j ust

A f ull

i nside

c ollection

o f

t he w estern p art

o f

t he e arliest i n I yeware

( main

t hesis;

3 26g). E vbuomoma/Ove: J oined 8 )

a nd

t o

l ying

t he s outh-western a ddition o f j ust

e ast o f

t he O hoghobi i ya

t he U seni

i ya ( below;

d iscontinuity

i s

0 t he

O be/Evbuomoma i ya s ystem w ith a v ery w ide, g entle p rofile s imilar t o s horter s ections f ound a t O ka, O bah e t a l. ( above). T he o verall

3 74

i l h imw i r ir i •

A .nen

2 0

. 00

•*,

E 3 •

• • «e a . . r

A vb ia ma—

d i ke,

•

A n,

• b t • -• 14" •\ •

r s' e

, -/--

•

r -

Obe /

•

E vbuomo

l e l i nnok e

d

i g e o boe , '

•

l kpe

, 0

•

O

l e i

O he n

U tes i

• ""' • • • i i •

A vo iakagba

, * mo t ion .

o e • -"X d-. '

. . , U c l u e ;Ken

o M

N evbuoss

I t

J•

(• (,h .

r yk ka ,i 9 u t . I

• A zagba

• ,

C ab rt, . a i

1 4203 5 C

l A t e

•

k ,k ro f , ) ,

r v k ., -

fIb o r ,n, e E k o eo .

°bay o . nto r

F o res ters r epor t 3rn . h igh l ye .

i nt h is a rse

Ober •o l hom ( d it ss r . t r t \

OSno i rle . OzoLo

. s

•S o koro

O logbo O l cuku ,

g bedu •

•

• 14

• Ovo dk

S

I

-

3 3 k V

„ , .

0 1 % 0 '56 . .3 4 ' ▪

W

E S

T

E R

N

3 7 5

R H O B

•.

p attern

i s

o f

a n o pen-ended r ectangle w ith t he 2 -3 m etre

h igh

i ya

d ropping t o l ess t han a m etre i n i ts s outhern e xtremities b efore p etering o ut a ltogether. I n m ore d etail t he c onfiguration c onsists o f a n u nusual s eries o f c oncave i ya s ections l inking s traight l engths o f i ya e ither s ide o f i mportant f ootpaths. M any o f t he s traight l engths a ppear t o h ave b een d eepened, p articularly t he 2 00 m etre s tretch c rossed b y a n i mportant, d isused f ootpath l eading t owards t he p resent s ite o f E gun t o a s

i t

c eases

t he e ast.

I n t his c ase t he i ya d eepening

i mmediately

i t

r ounds

t he b end

i s a f acade,

t aking i t o ut

o f

s ight

o f t he f ootpath. T he i mpression g iven h ere i s o f o riginal i nterc ommunity b oundaries h aving b een d etermined a long s ix o r s even s uch i mportant f ootpaths, w here s hort i ya s ections w ere i nitially d ug b efore b eing

j oined

C urious

l ater b y t he c oncave i ya s ections.

b ivallate

( bvb)

f eatures w ere s urveyed i n

t he

n orth-

w estern a nd s outh-eastern s ections, w ith a d isused s hrine g rove b eing l ocated a t t he j unction o f t hose s urveyed i n t he n orth-west. P ossibly t hese w ere o nce t ree-lined f ootpaths s imilar t o t hose s till e mployed i n I shan t oday, a nd/or m ay h ave b een s pecially c onstructed i nter-ward b oundaries, f or t he n orth-west e nclosure s urrounds t he o riginal s ite o f O be w hich m oved t o t he s ide o f t he f irst B enin-Sapele t armac r oad e arlier t his c entury ( appendix; 0 6 O be). U gbor T he

3 -6

m etre h igh U gbor p rimary i ya l ies

a bout

7

k ilometres

s outh-west o f B enin a nd h as f our s harp, a lmost r ight-angled, b ends e nclosing a n a pproximately r ectangular a rea o f c 1 42 h a. U gbor v ill age t oday l ies n orth o f t his e nclosure, t hough- U gbor e lders v olunt eered t he c laim t hat t he v illage o riginated i n O giso t imes ( pred ynastic) a t s ite j ust t o t he s outh, t hus w ithin t he p rimary , B D i ya e nclosure ( appendix; 0 6 U gbor). F rom n ear h ere p ottery s herds w ere c ollected f rom d isturbed a nd b umpy g round n ear a d isused b ut w ell-worn f ootpath. U gbor's t raditions c ite O ba O guola's r eign a s t he t ime w hen b oth i ts i ya a nd B enin's C ity W all w ere b uilt, t hough B radbury's c ollection o f a t radition f rom E kae, w hich i s i mmediately e ast o f U gbor, s uggests t hat t imes ( above; 4 3).

I ts i ya m ay h ave b een c onstructed i n p re-dynastic

J oined t o t his p rimary i ya a f ew m etres n orth o f i ts c orner i s a 3 -4 m etre h igh, u nivallate ( BD) i ya a ddition,

s outh-west w hich r uns

w est f or a bout 2 k ilometres, c urves a round A rogba ( now a s mall h amlet p roducing, i nner a lia c harcoal) t o r un n orth f or n early 3 k ilometres b efore d ropping t o a m etre o r l ess i n h eight a nd f ading ' away a ltogether w hen a bout 2 50 m etres a way f rom B enin's U zama v illage e nclosure, t he I ya'Akpan. T he s ettlements o f A rogba, O giokwe a nd I rhirhi a re a ll l ocated w ithin t his l arge e nclosure o f c 1 500 h a., a nd a f urther s ign o f p ast u nity a mongst t hese s ettlements i s t heir c ommon w orship o f t he O gba d eity, s hrine g roves t o w hich w ere n oted a t O giokwe a nd j ust s outh o f O ko. A f urther s ettlement, I dumwihe, a lso w orshipped t he O gba d eity : d isused, o vergrown s hrine

i ts s ite w as n ot e stablished, t hough a w ith a r usty a da ( ceremonial s word) w as

d iscovered n ear v ery d isturbed g round a nd a d eep p it 11 2 / k ilometres n orth-north-west o f U gbor a nd w ithin t his l arge e nclosure. T raditions c laim t hat t he O gba d eity w as i ntroduced i n O ba E wuare's t ime ( c m idC l5th ? ); t hough t he f lat-bottomed s hrine p ot o bserved i n t he Ugiokwe s hrine w as v ery s imilar t o C onnah's f orm 6 , a p ot f orm e xcavated i n

376

C l3th

a nd

C l4th

c onstruction,

c ontexts

w ith

U gbor

i n

B enin C ity.

T he

o nce w ithin t he p rimary

s equence

o f

i ya

A rogba,

a nd

i ya

O giokwe, I rhirhi a nd I dumwihie b eing l ocated i nside t he s econdary i ya e nclosure, w ould s eem t o e ndorse U gbor's c laim o f s eniority a nd t errit orial o wnership R unning i ts

l and

s outh

p rimary s ide o f j ust

t he w hole

s outh

s outh-west

which p eters and p arallel

o f

o f

t he

c orner i s

a rea.

p rimary i ya a nd

a 2Z m etre h igh,

j oined

t o

i t

u nivallate

j ust

( BD)

e ast

o f

a ddition,

o ut a fter a f ew h undred m etres. A h undred m etres o utside t o t his i s a nother 21 2 m / etre h igh a ddition, w hich e ncloses o f

t he

p rimary

i ya b y j oining

t he

s outh-east

c orner o f

t he

i ya w ith t he e astern e nd o f t he s econdary a ddition. E ither t he m ain t rack t o t he s outh t here w ere s hrines j ust i nside a nd

o utside

t he p rimary

t his

i ya.

s outhern i ya a ddition, T he w hole

a s w ell

a s o ne

s econdary a ddition e ncloses

j ust

w ithin

c 1 11 h a.

Ohogohobi

i ts

J oining t he U gbor s outhern a ddition ( just n oted a bove) n ear t o e astern e nd i s a n orth-eastern f acing i ya a ttributed t o O hoghobi.

S tarting 4 m etres h igh o r s o, i t i s s till n early 3 m etres h igh a fter 2 k ilometres, b ut t hen d rops t o a m etre o r l ess n ear t he p resent s ite o f Obe b efore m aking a s harp s outhward b end a nd d isappearing. E xaminat ion o f t he a djacent i ya p atterns m akes i t c lear t hat t he O hoghobi i ya c reates a v ery w ide p arallel

s trip o f

n o-man's-land w ith

and t hat i t f inally d isappears c lose t o s ibly t he n o-man's-land b etween O hoghobi t oo

w ide,

f or

n orth-east

a s hort

s ide o f

1 00 m etre

t he E kae

i ya

t he E vbuomoma/Obe i ya. P osa nd E kae w as o nce c onsidered

l ength o f 11 2 m / etre h igh

a f ootpath b etween t he

t wo

i ya

f aces

s ettlements.

Ekae T he main E kae

i ya e ncloses c 4 70 h a.

T raditions r elating a ppendix ( 05 E kae). I mmediately

t o i ts

o pposite

a nd w as

c onstruction c an b e

t he e astern s ide o f

s urveyed b y C onnah.

f ound a bove

( 43)

a nd

t he U gbor p rimary

i ya

t he O hoghobi/Ekae s trip o f n o-man's-land b ecomes c ompletely e nclosed by a J-2 m etre h igh i ya j oining t he E kae i ya b ut c reating a n e xtra b ank a gainst

t his U gbor i ya

b e i nterpreted a s s hip.

( thus:

U gbor B Ddb E kae).

a s trong i ndication o f

T his m ust

s urely

a n E kae-based c laim t o

o wner-

U roho T he

3 -6 m etre h igh p rimary i ya a round U roho,

s ome 2 0 k ilometres

s outh o f B enin, i s a bout 7 k ilometres l ong a nd e ncloses a n a rea o f a bout 5 14 h a. M uch o f t his l ies i n F orestry R eserves a nd T aungya l and t oday. ( Taungya f arms - a f orestry t erm a lso f ound i n B urma - a re t emporarily

l eased o ut

t o

l ocal

f armers

f or a f ew y ears,

o n t he u nder-

s tanding t hat t he a rea o f f orestry r eserve c oncerned i s r eplanted w ith t imber t rees). T he c urvature o f t he i ya i n t he n orth-east c orner a round t he p resent s ite o f U roho, t he s ite f rom p re-dynastic t imes: s harp

i nward

s outhward s truction.

( which t he e lders m aintain w as a lso a ppendix; 0 5 U roho) a s w ell a s t he

k ink o n t he e astern l ength m ay b oth b e

t erritorial e xpansion d uring A fter

i t

c onquest

t he p hase o f

i ndications p rimary

b y B enin u nder O ba O zolua 3 77

i ya

o f c on-

( late C l5th

? )

t he

O nogie

o f U roho a ppears

t o h ave w ielded c onsiderable p ower

o ver

t he a rea s outh t o t he O rhiomo r iver ( appendix 0 19), t hough t his m ay h ave o nly f ollowed t he d isappearance o f E vbonikho a nd t he d emise o f s outhern w aterside s ettlements i n t he C l7th o r C l8th ( Darling: 1 974; 1 31-7.

1 981b;

4 2-50).

V ery p robably i t w as

t he w estern l ength

t his i ya w hich t he 1 897 B ritish P unitive E xpedition s earching f or t he r eputedly l arge s ettlement o f A duaho

f ollowed ( Uroho ? ):

o f w hen

" During t he a fternoon m arch w e h ad s truck a nd k ept n ear a v ery p eculiar r avine, w hich r an i n t he g eneral d irection o f B enin . I t w as a bout f ifteen t o t wenty f eet d eep, w ith a h igh b ank, w ith c otton-trees g rowing o n i t, w as o f c onsiderable a ge." ( Bacon : P robably j oining

t he n orth-west c orner o f

s howing i t 1 897; 6 2).

t he p rimary U roho

i ya

i s a 11 2 / 2 m etre h igh, u nivallate a ddition , w hich r ises s uddenly t o h eights o f 3 -7 m etres a long i ts n orth-facing l ength b efore j oining t he l ow i ya s urrounding U tesi. W ithin t he a rea n orth a nd w est o f t he p rimary i ya e nclosed b y t his a ddition a re t he s ettlements ( possibly o nce c alled I dumwun'Oho a nd I dumwun'Ohen : a ppendix 0 5 U roho) o f U roho 2 a nd O roho 3 . F rom t he r ight-angled n orth-west c orner o f

t he n orthern a ddition

i s a 1 -2 m etre h igh i ya w hich r uns n orth f or a f ew h undred metres b efore p etering o ut: i t i s u ncertain w hether t his i s a c ontinuation o f t he n orthern a ddition a ttempting t o e nclose e xtra l and o r p art t he o riginal c onstruction w hich w as a bandoned. A nother d iscontinuous i ya,

o f

1 -2 m etres h igh a nd f acing n orth,

i s

c rossed b y t he E vbuomoma/Oba t o U roho t rack a nd c reates a 1 00 m etre w ide n o-man's-land w ith t he s outh-east c orner o f t he E vbuomoma i ya. T he e astern e nd c eases a bruptly, w hereas t he w estern e nd m erges w ith a v ery s mall,

r everse-banked e nclosure - o ne o f

t o U rhobo c ountry, i n t he m ovement

t hree i n l ine f rom B enin

a nd w hich o nce m ay h ave b een u sed a s s taging-posts o f s laves c aptured b y t he B enin m ilitia ( above ;

I I.B.9.). S outh o f U roho, e ast o f I yanamo, a nother i ya w as o bserved n ing s outh a nd t hen e ast t o c reate a 5 -10 m etre w ide s trip o f m an's-land w ith w hat w as p robably a d iscontinuous a ddition t o E vbonikho

i ya.

A nother s outh-facing i ya,

a bout 3 m etres h igh,

r unn ot he w As

o bserved 3 0 m etres n orth o f E vbonikho's n orth-eastern c orner, b ut w ithout f urther s urvey i t i s i mpossible t o s tate w hether t his b elonged t o t he O roho i ya s ystem o r n ot. E vbonikho

w ith

T his i ya e nclosure o f s ome 5 25 h a. h as a lready b een d escribed, b orrow-pit o bservations a nd o ral t raditions a lso r ecorded ( Dar-

l ing:

1 974).

I t i s s uspected t hat v arious s hort s ections o f i ya i n t he I yan amo a nd O bayantor a reas o nce d emarcated a c onsiderably m ore e xtensive t erritory

o f n early

3 000 h a.

S imilar s hort

s ections w ere o bserved

a t E vbuomoma/Obe ( above), t hough t hese w ere l ater t ially c omplete t he e nclosure. T hese d iscontinuities

3 78

j oined t o p ara rgue f or t he

g radual c essation o f ( above ;

i ya

c onstruction a s

a

m ajor

c ultural p ractice

I I.C.).

A lthough

t he

O shodin c ontrolled m uch o f

t his

a rea

d uring

t he

p eriod o f B enin K ingdom i nfluence, a nd e ven t hough t he f unctions o f l ooking a fter t he O ba's h arem c an b e t raced i n o ther I yeware o ral t raditions, i t s eems h ighly u nlikely t hat a d efunct h arem w ould h ave e xpanded t heir t erritory a s m uch a s i s i mplied b y t he 3 000 h a. e nclos ure. I f t here i s a ny t ruth i n t he t raditions, i t w ould l ie i n t he c onquest a nd d estruction o f t he s ettlement w hich o nce b uilt t his i ya. O logbo T his w as t he f irst i ya t o b e s urveyed b y t he a uthor a s p art o f i t c rossed O zolua G rammar S chool g rounds. I t h ad a t ypical 11 2 m / etres h igh, b d p rofile m ost o f t he w ay, b ut w as a m uch d eeper B DB i n o ne s ection t o n orth-east.

t he n orth-west a nd d Bd n ext t o B D i n a s ection f acing T he s outh-easterrn e nd a ppeared t o t erminate i n t he

f resh-water

s wamplands

a djacent

t o t he O rhiomo

r iver,

w hereas

t he

s outh-west e xtremity c eased a bruptly s everal h undred m etres f rom t he s wamps. A r econstructed h istory s uggests a C l5th f oundation , p artial o r c omplete d esertion i n t he C l7th,

I tsekiri

s ettlers

i n t he e arly t o

m id-C18th f ollowed b y m ore E do s ettlers f rom B enin a nd U rhobo t o w ork i n t he C 2Oth J ohn H olt R ubber F actory, a s w ell a s t he P iedmont T imber M ill s tarted i n 1 970 a nd a n O il R ig i n 1 975 ( Darling: 1 981a).

3 79

I YA I N I YEKUSELU O khunmwun

i ya

T he r oughly s quare s hape o f t he c 1 746 h a. O khunmwun p rimary e nclosure a llows e ach s ection t o b e d escribed b y i ts c ardinal

p oint - n orth, s outh, e ast o r w est - w ith a ny s pecific p oints a long t hese s ections b eing a llocated a n umber, t hese b eing s hown o n a m ap ( below ; 3 83). T he c ross-profiles h ave b een d epicted a bove ( 132-134). N orthern S ection :

T he

i ya h ere t ends

t o k eep t o

t he c rest

o f

t he E kwehru s tream v alley s lopes, d ropping d own t o t he E kwehru h eadw aters a nd c rossing a s teep-sided r e-entrant c lose t o a s mall t ribut ary o n i ts e astern s ide; i t t hen S wings s outh t o a void a p articularly s teep r e-entrant o n i ts w estern e xtremity. W here i t r uns a long t he c rest f or m uch o f i ts c ourse t he l and o ne o ne s ide i s g ently s loping, b ut s uitable f or f arming: o n t he o ther s ide i t s lopes p rogressively m ore s teeply d own t o t he s tream . S o c lose w as t he i ya t o t his f undam ental b reak o f s lope t hat, i n s ome l ocations, t he o uter b ank h ad b een p artially o r c ompletely d estroyed b y t he b ackward e rosion o f i ncipient o r e stablished r e-entrants. O f t he 3 6 p rofiles n oted, 2 2 w ere B DDB t ypes, a nd t hree o f t hese w ere m easured. I n s ome p laces t he p rofile d egenerated i nto r ather l ow, m ulti-vallate ( bdbdbdbd e t v ar.) i ya, a nd i t w ould s eem t hat p art

b eing

t he l arge B D i ya s ection o n t he w estern s ide o f o f t he c ourse h ad b een c reated b y l ater d eepening. T hirty-five f ootpaths c rossed i n u se t oday a nd 2 2 d isused.

t his

n orthern

t his n orthern s ection ; 1 3 o f t hem O f t he o nes i n u se t oday 9 a re

c learly i mportant p aths u sed b y t he O khunmwun c amps - t hese b eing c omparatively r ecent U rhobo o r K wale ( Igbo) s ettlements b ased o n a p alm-oil e conomy n ear E kwehru s tream . T he o ther 4 p aths f ail t o b reach t he b anks o r b ridge t he d itches, s o a re p robably f airly t emp orary f arm p aths. O f t he 2 2 d isused p aths, 1 4 h ave o nly l eft f aint t races a nd w ere p resumably o f l ittle l asting i mportance. T he r emaini ng 8 p aths w ere c learly o nce o f s ome i mportance a nd w ell-used. 5o f t hese a re c oncentrated a long a n u nbroken s tretch o f B DDB i ya s lightly t o t he e ast o f c entre, a nd i t i s p robable t hat t hey w ere w ater-paths f rom t he o riginal a rea o f s ettlement ( as c laimed b y t he p resent O khunmwun t raditions). T here a re 3 o ther v ery s imilar p aths f urther w est; t hese m ay i ndicate t he s ites o f l ater i dumwun s preading w est f rom t he o riginal

s ite o f O khunmwun .

T hree j unctions o ccurred a long t his n orthern s tretch. T he e ast ernmost c ontoured t he E kwerhu h eadwater v alley t o j oin u p w ith t he I wu i ya, p arallel p art o f f urther

a nd s ome 7 0 m etres d ownhill a nother i ya w as o bserved r unning f or p art o f t he w ay : b oth o f t hese a dditions a ppeared t o b e t he o ver-all I yowa i ya ( below; 3 89). S everal h undred m etres w est a nother l ow j unction o f u ncertain p rofile ( bd/db) r an

s lightly e ast o f n orth d own a g entle s lope f or a bout 1 00 m etres t o t he e dge o f t he s teeply s loping s carp. T he p ast p urpose o f t his i s u ncert ain, b ut i t m ay h ave b een a s hared b oundary b ank ( wall?) o r, m ore l ikely, a nother r emnant o f a l ow b ifossate ( bd-db) t race s imilar t o t hose n oted

e lsewhere.

3 80

?

. Y

C . )karty an

A

ok . e •

1 , , 2 3 . a .•

4 • A l f i .9 1 k t

A ••4 1. ,

A3 r i 1S • le le ' As e _ mope

4

•

v ow °

n • ow p ‘h

4 -.0 .

E lena b ore

I•: 4 p: 1.o

•

01 1

•

' 11

i c kum • e •k t n ‚i r

' .2

•

&owe

-

• 3

do

•« i t

_ -1° 0

i S iukk t a kke .fi ' S

4 .

i

nt .

•

A -t hu . c a l asitku» ,

4 .4P

b au ti ct

-0 560 ,3 • 0 6 , ,

_

o

Ueda ' )

; d o

o

4 ‘ i ät

• Eko Abetu E i e c i d o l o r

o b. 30 . m dr•I z e w a r Io w . .

•g er tw i t t • "04 1

•C le ok o. c• -f p

%, 2 0 1 . 1 TX , 01 , 0 100

_

E v 4 ik

Uza e 7 _1•

O khunmv •un

. • U tekon

‚, Ay

A t t .

Eva .

h oe °, Egbaen

•

l kokha

44›

3 .

I ii

2. Ahor

; z

Nib "‘e • 03kes li al"

l hovbor

• e l o kpa ie U b • 4

01 .1 . 1• 4 ,•A

' P e o

U rora

em

iu ,

' . 1 . 1 Kp f t k• M 40.1

0

•

E v loo, i a ta .

( » eke k h43 ,6o

_ br egbe

••, f

' 'i d u mw i "

\b ee ,

1 300150 A .

•

3 81

1 3momo

3 82

E

OKHUNK I WUN

WA

WP 4

WP 7 /8

WP 1 4 wp 1 5

WP 1 9 WP21

WP 3 2 WP 3 3 WP 3 6 WP 3 7

s herds f ro m r ear 0 1okun mwun

• m ean t 1 m /e t°

Qoghodo

s hr ine

0 c a mp

s herds WP 99

3 83

2

1

0 f rom

r ecen t

r u ins

measured p ro f i le o r f ea ture [ be low ;1 32-4 ]

3 km

W estern S ection: a long t he n orth. t his p rofile t ype

M uch

o f

t his

s ection h as

a B DDB p rofile

a s

T here i s a p articularly l ong u nbroken s tretch o f t owards t he s outh, w here t he m ainvarIations c onsist

i n t he a lternating e mphasis i n t he c omparative h eights o f t he i nner a nd o uter b anks. T owards t he n orth t here a re s hort s tretches o f o ther p rofile t ypes: d eep u nivallate ( BD), u nivallate w ith s trong b ivallate t endencies ( BDb/BDB) a nd a v ariation o n t he u sual B DDB b ifossate p rofile w ith B D-b6U . T he m ost o bvious a nd i mportant f eature a long t his s ection i s t he c orner t emporarily r erouting t he i ya f rom a s outhward t o a n e astward d irection. I t p rovides f urther c onfirmation t hat t he i nitial s ite o f t he s ettlement c onstructing t his i ya w as t o t he n orth, a nd i t s eems t o c onfirm t he r ole o f t he l ow b ifossate ( bd-db) i ya a s d emarcation t races. T he t urning p oint i s e mphasized a s t he i ya g radually i ncreases f rom i ts u sual h eight o f a bout 3 m etres t o c ulminate i n a 5 6

m etre

h igh i nner b ank a t

e mphasized t o

a nd

t he s outh

t he c orner,

s o c onstructed a s

w ith t he m iddle

t o c ut o ut

b ank

t he e arlier

b eing

c ontinuation

( WP19).

C urious,

r ounded

b ulges w ere o bserved i n t he o uter

b anks

a nd

e ven t he c entral s trip o f t he B DDB i ya a t W P3, W P32 a nd W P37 ( below ; E 5 4). A s imilar f eature a t N .I.F.O.R. h as b een d esignated a g ateway b y R oese a nd M aliphant ( Roese: 1 977), b ut n either h ere n or e lsewhere h ave I s een a ny e vidence o f o ld f ootpaths w ith t hese f eatures; s o g ates b e

o r s hrines w hich r equire r egular a ccess c annot b e c onsidered

s atisfactory i nterpretations.

R ather I w ould s uggest

t hat

b ulges r esult f rom t he a voidance o f t he m ore m assive f orest p erhaps t he t rees w ere t oo c losely b y-passed b y t he o riginal

t o

t hese t rees: n arrow

b d-db t race d iggings, a nd t he i nner o r ( more u sually) t he o uter i ya o f t he d eeper B DDB c onstruction m ay h ave b een f orced t o d ivert r ound ( possibly u prooting s maller t rees)

t he r eal f orest g iants.

T wo v ery i mportant f ootpaths c ross t he w estern s ection, W P8/9 g oing t o t he I gu'Oshodin n 'Ebudin d irection a nd W P36 l eading t o I gu' A dolor, b oth a pparently b eing f airly r ecent s ettlements n ot m ore t han o ne o r t wo c enturies o ld. E nough h as a lready b een w ritten i n t he m ain t hesis t o s uggest t hat, a t t he t ime o f c onstruction, t he c ontemp oraneity o f i ya b uilding a nd f ootpath d evelopment m ight r epresent a c onflict o f m otives. T he a pparent d eepening o f t he e arthworks i n t he i mmediate l ocality o f t hese f ootpaths, t herefore, r equires s ome e xplan ation. F ortunately, t he f ootpath a t W P36 c rosses d iagonally o ver a s tructural

k ink i n t he B DDB i ya.

T his k ink,

a nd a nother a t W P33d,

p robably i ndicate c overgence p oints o f d ifferent w orking p arties i n t he o riginal c onstruction . C learly, t herefore, t he W P33d f ootpath t o t he C l9th ( ?) s ettlement a t I gu'Adolor p ostdates a ny c onstruction o r l ater d eepening a t t his p oint. T his i s

o riginal n ot q uite

i ya s o

c lear f or t he t wo m ain f ootpaths a ssociated w ith t he 2 00 m etre l ength o f m assive B D c onstruction a t W P7-9. O ne f ootpath s eems t o h ave b een m oderately i mportant b ut a nd l eads f ootpath

i s n ow d isused:

t he o ther i s

v ery i mportant

t o I gu'Oshodin n 'Ebudin . L ike N P16/17 a nd N 21, t his o ccurs a t t he e nd o f t he l arge ( deepened ? ) B D s ection,

l ast a nd

r aises t he t ricky q uestion a s t o w hether t he r oute p re-dates, p ost d ates o r i s,contemporaneous w ith t he d eepening o f t he i ya. O ne g uess i s t hat t hese f ootpaths o riginally w ent f rom t he w estern i dumwun i n O khunmwun t o a s mall t ributary o f t he O via r iver i n t he n orth-west a nd,

p ossibly

a fter

a p eriod o f d isuse,

3 84

t he b reach m ade a t o ne

o f

t hese c rossing-points w as r oute.

O ther

l ater u tilized

e xplanations m ight

f or

i nvolve

t he I gu'Oshodin

l ater

n 'Ebudin

' window d ressing

o f

t he i ya d uring i ntermittent c onditions o f i nternecine w arfare a nd uneasy p eaceful c o-existence ( Graham : 1 965; 3 17-334), b ut s uch e xplana tions a re p robably m ore a pplicable t o c ertain l ocations i n l yeware t han h ere, b ecause n o f urther i ya ( and p robably, t herefore, n o o ther s izeable,

o ld

s ettlements)

l ay b etween O khunmwun a nd

t he O via r iver

t o

t he w est. S outhern S ection: T he u sual B DDB p rofile e astern p art o f t he s outhern s ection. T his s kirts o f E laba

p rimary

t raditions

O khunmwun s ome o bliterated o f

a bout

o f

o f

a nd

a go.

t he i ya e ither s ide o f

t he

e ither

s ide o f

c onquest

t rack

j ust

t here

t o

s eems

i nside

a m ain f ootpath j ust

t he e ast t o

b e

t he i ya. e ast

A fter b eing

t he F or

o f

t o h ave b een d eepened

d efence a gainst E gbaen o r B enin.

o f

s ite o f O khunmwun h as

f urther e ast

t he main p rimary i ya a ppears

a s

i n t he B enin

T he p resent

b d-db i ya t race s ome 4 0 m etres

5 0-60 m etres

p ossibly

n amed a fter O ba O rhogbua's m other w ho,

c aptured a s a b aby

a bout 2 00 m etres

a l ow,

t race i ya,

i tself

w as

f ive c enturies

p art

t he s chool;

r emains

s chool,

c laim,

c haracterizes t he t he p laying f ields

t his

( BDDB),

j oined b y a n

u nsurveyed, u nivallate ( bd) a ddition , t he m ain p rofile w est c hanges t o B DbbDB f or a s hort d istance b efore t he i nner i ya d ramatically d eepens t o 5 -7 metres a

d efensive

C ommunity t hat s o

t he

t o c reate a B Dbdb/BD-db p rofile: r esponse

B oundary M ap a ncient

p ossibly

( appendix;

w as

p ass

t o

M 1

t his a gain m ay r eflect

f rom o ther f n15)

t he w est'

i ya d eepening

2 00 m etres

t he m iddle s trip o f 3 00 m etre

e xternal r aids

p eoples

t here

a pproximately

a t

t o

s ettlements.

d epicts

' an o ld

s omewhere n ear

a ssociated

f rom t he m ain L agos

t his

w ith

T he

f ootpath p oint;

t his.

r oad a t O luku

t he B DDB p rofile b ecomes v ery s ubdued

W hen

j unction, t o c reate a

s tretch o f B D.DB p rofile.

Eastern S ection: F rom i ts s outhern e nd e ast o f t he L agos r oad O luku j unction, t he i ya c ontinues w ith a n a lmost b ivallate,

B D.DB/BDB

p rofile

f or

a bout

a nother 1 00 m etres;

t hen f ollows

w idening t o a ccommodate 1 50 m etres o f B DbbDB p rofile. i ya c ontinues w ith a s uccession o f d ifferent p rofiles:

a s udden

T hereafter t he 11 / k 2 ilometres

o f 2-3 m etre h igh B DDB i ya, 6 00 m etres o f B D-bDB/BDbbDB/dBDbbDB i ya r ising t o 4 m etres i n h eight a t o ne c orner b efore d ropping t o 2 m etres, l ength t he

L agos

m etres way,

a nd

B DDB

j ust t he

p rofiles

n oted a s w ell

a s

o n t wo f or

t he

s hort

s tretches

o f

l ast 4 00 m etres

t he 6 00

b efore

m etre

c rossing

r oad a gain n ear

t he E ki'Adolor t rack.

I n t his

l ast

4 00

i nside

d itch e xceed 4 -5 metres

f or o ver h alf

t he

b ank a nd

r eaching 6 -7metres

i n o ne

l ocation.

P erhaps

t his w as

a ssociated

w ith an o ld f ootpath n ow d estroyed b y t he L agos r oad, p ossibly o ne o f B enin's i mportant t rading r outes t o t he n orth-west: i t a lso

i mply

t hat O khunmwun f elt

t hreatened b y

f orces

o ther

t han

e ven m ay t hose

a t B enin - p erhaps U do? O n t he w est s ide o f t he L agos r oad a s hort s tretch o f m ultivallate d bdbdbdbd/DBDBDB i ya was e ncountered i n t hick v egetation . T he i ya c ourse r oad f or a bout 2 00 m etres o f L agos

r oad T here

t o

t hen s wings b ack B DDB p rofile:

t o t he e ast s ide o f f inally i t r ecrosses

t he t he

j oin t he B DDB n orthern s ection a lready d escribed. w ere

o nly

3 d istinct,

d isused

f ootpaths

c rossing

t he

e astern s ection, a nd t he f act t hat t hey a re n ot a ccompanied b y a ny s ignificant d eepening c ould s uggest t hat t hey a re o f f airly r ecent o rigin.

3 85

A dditional i ya: T he 1 -3 m etre h igh w estern a ddition e nclosing a f urther c 1 218 h a. h as a u nivallate ( BD/bd) p rofile. I t p robably e manated f rom W20, t hough t his w as n ever s urveyed, a nd d ecreased t o a n egligible 2/ 1 1 m etre a s i t s wings r ound t o j oin E gbaen i ya's s outhw est c orner. I t e ncloses l and o n w hich O hogua v illage- Thaimed t o h ave d erived f rom O khunmwun)

a nd I gu'Osa a re b ased:

I gu'Osa

p resum-

a bly w as a s ettlement f ounded b y t he O sa, a n i mportant B enin c hief l iving a t I dumwigun e romwon ( brass s mith's q uarters) w ho, i t i s r eputed, u sed t o d rink t he b lood o f h uman v ictim s pecially k illed f or h im a nd t o b athe i n b lood d uring a n a nnual f estival ( Melzian: 1 937; c 170). F our j unctions w ere d iscovered a long t he s outhern s tretch o f t he O khunmwun p rimary i ya. T he w esternmost t wo ( S13 a nd S 16) b eing i n t hick v egetation , a pparently f acing w est a nd o nly a bout 1 m etre h igh: t hey r uns

r emain t o b e s urveyed. A nother a t S 18 i s 1 -2 m etres h igh p arallel t o S 19 f or 3 00-400 m etres t o t he m ain L agos r oad:

a nd n o

t race t hereafter c ould b e d iscovered. T he f ourth, S 19, w as a 3 0 m etre l ength o f B D i ya, 6m etres h igh, w hich j oined t he l arge B D i ya s ystem O P3 t o t he O khunmwun i ya.

I wu T his i ya b ears m any s imilarities t o t hat a round O khunmwun. I t h as a B D-DB/BDbbDB, 2 -4 m etre h igh p rofile a long m ost o f i ts l ength, a nd e ncloses a bout 1 360 h a. A lthough t his 1 4 k m . l ong i ya p asses t hrough s ome v ery t hick, s econdary f orest r e-growth, i ts c ourse w as a ccurately d escribed b y t he I wu e dion ( who c laim i t t o b e t heir b ound ary) b efore t he s urvey w as s tarted. A s econdary i ya, a gain w ith a b ifossate ( BDb-db) p rofile,

e ncloses c 1 66 h a.

o f s andy,

s loping l and

o n t he s outh s ide o f t he m ain e nclosure, a nd i s s o b adly e roded a t i t s w estern e nd t hat i ts c ourse c ould n o l onger b e d iscerned. J oining t hese p rimary a nd s econdary b ifossate i ya t o c reate a s mall e nclosure o f a bout 7 0 h a. w estward-facing,

a round t he c laimed o riginal s ite i s a 2m etre h igh, u nivallate ( BD) i ya. T he o ther a dditions j oining t he

I wu a nd O khunmwun i ya a ppear t o h ave b een c onstructed b y I yowa 3 89). T he

m id-C19th m arket

l or), i s e nclosure. p rimary P ottery

t own,

E ki'Adolor

( below ;

( the m arket o f O ba

s uperimposed o n t he s outh-eastern s ection o f I wu I I i s s ited o n t he o ld r oad t o L agos

A do-

t he p rimary w ithin t his

e nclosure, a nd I wu I l ies w ithin t he s econdary e nclosure. s herds w ere c ollected b oth f rom t he c laimed o riginal s ite

w ithin t his s econdary e nclosure a nd f rom a r andomly s elected s ite o n a s light r ise a long t he r ecently b ull-dozered n ew L agos r oadside w ithin t he p rimary i ya : t his l ast s ite p roved t o b e m uch e arlier c ulture s equence c hronology o f p ottery s herds.

i n

t he

L ike O khunmwun a nd U tekon, t he t raditions d epict I wu a s o ne o f t he m ore p owerful s ettlements o ffering s erious r esistance t o B enin i n t he r eign o f O ba O zolua. T he s tory g oes t hat E gbaen o f I wu s tarted t o s harpen h is f arm c utlasses f or w ar; s o B enin s ent m essengers d emanding t hat t hese c utlasses b e h anded i n t o t he O ba. I n r eply E gbaen b linded o ne m essenger a nd c ut o ut t he t ongue o f t he o ther - s o t hat t he d umb l ed t he b lind b ack t o B enin a nd t he b lind m essenger w as t hen a ble t o t ell t heir s tory o f w oe. I n t he e nsuing c onflict t he O ba h imself w as c aptured,

a nd o nly r eleased a fter p romising

3 86

t o a ward v arious t itles t o

• a • 0 •

1 1 1 : 3

•

0 5 c 0

F :1

o i

0

› . >

r t

b i-fossate)

b i- & m ulti-fossate.

0

+ 3 a l

/

0 8 a !

z/

0 . 0 • o • . • • 5 4 \ . -. ,

0

a

2 m34

3 87

8

s l . Z -9 X 0 0 4 )

v arious p eople i n B enin ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 3. J ungwirth : 1 968). F inally E gbaen w as d efeated a nd b eheaded, b ut - t he I wu p eople b elieve - h is h ead w as n ever t aken t o b enin a s aw ar t rophy ; i t t urned i nto a ' tiger ( about 5f oot l ong a nd 2 f oot h igh, u niform w hite o r p ale y ellow), w hich s till r oams t he t erritory a nd e ats t he g oats w hich a re a nnually o ffered t o i t. E gbaen T his p lace n ame m ust n ot b e c onfused w ith t he n ame o f I wu's h ero-deity j ust c ited. T he 1 3 ( ?) k ms. l ong E gbaen i ya i s am assive, 4 -8 m etre h igh, u nivallate ( BD) c onstruction e nclosing c 7 17 h a.

b etween t he n orthern i ya o f C onnah's ' Benin C ity W all' c ompl ex and t he O khunmwun i ya. A long i ts n orthern l ength i s a s harp i nward k ink, a nd a l ow w estward-facing t race i ya c ontinues f or a s hort d istance i nside, s o i ndicating t hat t he o riginal i ntention o f t he i ya c onstructors w as p robably t o e nclose t he a rea n earest I kpoba s tream , b ut t hat s trong w estward e xpansion o ccurred b efore t his p rimary o bjective w as a chieved. O wing t o l arge-scale c learance, m uch o f t he s outhern s ector o f t he i ya w as e ither o bliterated o r m erely j ust n ot d iscovered d uring t his s urvey; b ut s uch a s w as f ound r evealed t wo s hort s tretches o f b ifossate ( BDDB) i ya. F our s herd c ollections w ere m ade f rom t he s poil h eap o f a c ontinuous t rench d ug a long t he n orth-south t ransmiss ion l ine c rossing w hat i s t hought t o h ave b een t he a rea o f p rimary e nclosure . E ach c ollection w as m ade w ithin a 1 0 m etre r adius o f t he p ylons; a nd t he r esults o f t he a nalysis s how t hat t he e arliest c ollect ions i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology l ay t o t he c entre a nd n orthern a reas o f t he i ya e nclosure. E gbaen t raditions a re n ot v ery c lear a bout t heir e arly h istory o r o riginal s iting; b ut t here w ould s eem t o h ave b een a n a bandonment o f t heir o riginal s ite, p ossibly o wing t o t he a buse o f g un p ower b y o ne o nogie a c entury o f m ore a go ( Egharevba : 1 975; P ers.Comm .). T he p resent s ite l ies j ust o utsidethe s outh-west c orner o f t he i ya e nclos ure. U tekon T he p rimary U tekon i ya h as a 3 -4 m etre h igh , b ifossate ( BDd b/BDbbDB) p rofile a nd e ncloses a bout 7 80 h a . o n t he i nterfluve b etw een t he s teep v alley s ides o f t he I kpoba a nd E rerevia ( Eruvbi ? )' s treams a s w ell a s a nother o f w hich t he n ame w as n ot a scertained. A t t he i ya's c losest p oint t o I kpoba s tream t he i ya d itch i s b reached a nd t here i s aw ide, f lat-bottomed g ully b etween t he i ya a nd t he s tream a bout 5 0 m etres a way. A s e xpansion n orthwards a ppears t o h ave b een t hwarted b y t he I yowa i ya ( below ; 3 89), i t w ould s eem t hat U tekon m ay h ave t aken t he v ery u nusual s tep o f c rossing a s tream t o e nclose n ew t erritory t o t he s outh. A 2 -3 m etre h igh , u nivallate ( BD) i ya j oins t he p rimary i ya i n i ts n orth-west s ection t o t he s teep-sided h eadw aters o f E rerevia s tream n ear O ra I I c amp. A f ew h undred m etres d ownstream, j oining t he w estern s ide o f t hese s teep s lopes, i s a nother u nivallate i ya w hich j oins t o t he e astern s ide o f t he O luku i ya . T hen , f rom a nother p art o f t he O luku i ya, f urther t o t he s outh a nd w est, i s a 3 -5 m etre h igh, u nivallate i ya w ith s ome s hort b ifossate ( BDdb) s ections r eminiscent o f t he U tekon p rimary i ya; a nd t his r uns p arallel t o b oth s tream a nd p rimary i ya t o e nclose a bout 6 30 h a. I t i s p ossible t hat t his l aSt i ya i s a n a ddition t o t he O luku e nclosure ; 3 88

b ut, s ince i t s eems t hat e verywhere e lse i n t his a rea a ll u nivallate ( BD) i ya w ere c onstructed a s l ater a dditions t o t he b ifossate ( BDDB e t v ar.) i ya, i t i s p robable t hat t he b ifossate e lements o f t he p artic ular i ya i n q uestion p oint t o d erivation f rom U tekon O luku . --- A lso o ne w orker r eported a nother i ya r unning s outh-west s ection o f t he p rimary U tekon i ya b efore i ndicating t hat e arlier p ressures h ad e ven l ed t o t he

r ather t han f rom p arallel t o t he t he s tream , s o e xploitation o f

v alley s lopes n ormally a voided ( main t hesis; I .B.2). A f inal p oint t o n ote i s t hat U tekon d oes i n f act h ave s erious t erritorial ' c laims o ver t he a pproximate a rea e nclosed b y t he i ya. L ike t he o ther, l arge b ifossate p rimary e nclosures i n I yek' U selu , U tekon t raditions r ecall s erious r esistance t o B enin d uring t he r eign o f O ba O zolua ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 3. J ungwirth : 1 968. E bohon : 1 972; 4 0-41). T he h ero-deity i s I se o f U tekon , a nd h is s hrine t oday i s l ocated i n a l ong-disused a nd f orgotten o ghodo i nhabited b y w ild b ees! ( Main t hesis; 7 9. D arling: 1 975; 1 67). S herds w ere o nly c oll ected f rom o ne s mall a rea o f f armland, p ock-marked w ith b orrow-pits c lose t o t he p resent s ettlement. D espite t he p resence o f a f ew s herds d ecorated w ith t he f airly r ecent B enin t ype o f c arved r oulette, t he U tekon c ollection a ppears q uite e arly i n t he c ulture s equence c hronol ogy a nd t his m ay i ndicate l ong-term p ersistence o f s ettlement i n t he c entral a rea o f t he p rimary i ya e nclosure. I yowa I yowa o ccupies t he a rea b ounded b y t he t erritorial i ya o f O khunmwun, I wu, U tekon a nd U wan . I ts i ya s ystem w as o ne o f t he m ost u nusual s urveyed, c onsisting p artially o f i ts o wn b ifossate a nd univallate c onstructions a nd p artially o f t he i ya b uilt b y a djacent s ettlements. T he p rimary i ya m ay h ave b een t he s mall e nclosure a round I guikimwiv, w hich i s b ifossate ( BD-db) a round i ts n orth-western , n ort hern a nd e astern s ections a nd u nivallate ( bd) i n i ts s outh a nd w est ern s ections. T he c hange o f p rofile t ypology c oincides w ith t wo j unctions: t hat t o t he w est w as n oted a s a p ossible i ya d uring s urvey a nd s cheduled f or f urther i nvestigation w hen p romised f unds f ailed t o m aterialize: t hat t o t he e ast p roved t o b e b ifossate o r m ultivallate ( BD-db/BDbdbdb/BDb-bdbdb) f or t he n orthern t hird o f i ts c ourse a nd u nivallate ( BD) f or t ne s outhern t wo t hirds, t he i nner i ya b eing a lways b etween 3 a nd 6 m etres h igh. A s mall, e astward-facing, 3 -4 metre h igh, u nivallate a ddition w as n oted i n t hick u ndergrowth j ust n orth o f a n e ast-west t rack n orth o f t he p resent s ite o f I yowa . A ll t he o ther i ya i n t his s ystem w ere a lso u nivallate a nd i ncluded: 1 ) a v ery w ide l ow , b d i ya ( similar t o t hose e ncountered a t O ka, A vbiakagba a nd E vbu O moma i n I yekeware) o pposite a nd p arallel t o t he U tekon p rimary i ya, 2 ) f urther B D/bd i ya a dditions i n t he s outh-western s ection a nd 3 ) v arious b d i ya l engths c rossing t he i nterstices b etween t he i ya e nclosures o f a djacent s ettlements, p articularly O khunmwun a nd I wu i n t he n orth-west. N o s herds w ere c ollected f rom t his a rea, t hough d isused o ghodo w ere n oted a t O ra a nd o n t he d eserted s ite o f I dumwine, o ne o f t he o riginal I yowa i dumwun . D eeply i ncised f ootpaths w ere o bserved o n f airly l evel l and b etween t his s ite a nd I dum'Ogie,

a nother i dumwun .

I yowa t raditions o penly c laim t hat t heir b oundary u ses t he i ya o f a djacent s ettlements, s o t here i s l ittle p roblem i n s uggesting t hat

3 89

t he m ain I yowa s ettlements p robably p ost-dated t hose i n t he e arlier i ya e nclosures. A lso O ra v illage i s e nclosed b y a n i ya a dditional t o t hat a round I yowa, s o a greeing w ith o ral t radition a ccounts w hich s tate t hat a n E zomo i n O ba E wuare's r eign b rought i n t he p eople o f O ra f rom U zebu ( the E zomo's q uarter i n B enin C ity, p ossibly d eriving f rom I jebu ? ) t o j oin I yowa - i tself f ounded d uring t he s ame r eign a ccord ing t o s ome s ources, b ut m uch e arlier i n o ther s ources ( Partridge: 1 975. E gharevba : 1 968; 3 ). T here i s a s light p roblem w ith t he s mall, a pparently p rimary e nclosure a t I guikimwiv, b ecause t his s ettlement i s c laimed b y t he O nogie o f I yowa t o h ave b een f ounded b y a f armer f rom O ra v illage. T he c onfiguration o f t he b ifossate i ya o nly p artly a round t he I guikimwiv e nclosure i s a dmittedly e nigmatic: a lso t he s iting o f I guikimwiv i tself c ould h ave b een a p urely c oincidental l ater m ove. N evertheless, t he f act t hat I guikimwiv d oes a ppear t o l ie w ithin t he p rimary i ya e nclosure o f I yowa, y et i s a ccorded l ow c hronol ogical r anking b y t he O nogie, m ay h ighlight o ne w ay i n w hich t radit ions r esolve t he p roblem o f t he c onflict b etween t rue c hronological a ge a nd r eal p olitical p ower i nherent i n t he c oncepts u nder-lying s eniority. H ere, i t c ould w ell b e t hat t he c laims j ustifying B enin a uthority t hrough t he O nogie o f I yowa h ave b een m ade a t t he e xpense o f t he h istorical t ruth o f I yowa's p ast s ettlement c hronology. U wan

( maps a bove ;

2 42,

2 81)

T he s pare t ime a ctivities o f a n e nthusiastic b and o f a mateurs i n t he 1 972-3 d ry-season r esulted i n t he p artial s urvey a nd m apping o f a 1 -5 m etre h igh, m ainly u nivallate ( BD) i ya i n t he N .I.F.O.R. a rea; a nd i ts i nterpolated c ourse e nclosed a v ast a rea o f s ome 3 280 h a . a nd g ave r ise t o c onsiderable s peculation b y t hose i nvolved i n t he s urvey ( Maliphant, R ees, R oese e t a l: 1 977; 1 21-130). I n 1 976 a nd a gain i n 1 977 Iw as a ble t o f ollow u p c ertain a spects o f b oth t his s urvey a nd C onnah's p ublication o f R ees f indings ( Connah: 1 975; 2 37-242). I nvestigation o f t he s harp i nward k ink i n f ield 3 1 o n t he n orth-west s ector o f t he t otal i ya e nclosure c onfirmed t he p resence o f a n ' intern al', l ow , b ifossate ( bd-db) t race i ya, w hich w as f ollowed t o w here i t m erged w ith t he m ain n orth-south r oad a t N .I.F.O.R . n ear t he w ater t ower, w hereafter i t w as l ost. I t b ecame c lear t hat t his l ow , b ifoss ate i ya w as p art o f a p rimary e nclosure, t wo t o t hree s ides o f which m ust h ave b een d eepened l ater t o c reate a m uch l arger, u nivallate ( BD) i ya; t hough j ust n orth-west o f t he j unction i n f ield 3 1 t he p rofile i s B D-db, s uggesting t hat p erhaps o nly t he i nner d itch h ad b een d eepened a t t his p oint. T he c omplexity o f R ees' d ata, p lus t he p ossibility t hat h e m ay n ot h ave d ifferentiated w ell-worn f ootpaths a nd c ompound b anks f rom t he i ya, c ould i ndicate t he p resence o f t wo a djacent p rim ary i ya o n t he n orthern e dge o f t he i nterfluve, o verlooking t he s teep O khuo r iver v alley . A n u nsuccessful a ttempt b y R obert H olland a nd m yself t o c omplete t he s urvey o f t he w hole w estern s ection f rom o pposite e nds d id r esult i n H olland's d iscovery o f aw estern i ya a ddition a nd, o n m y p art, a f ailure t o c onfirm t he a ddition i ndicated b y R oese e t a lia, t hough s mall b d i ya d id l ink t he U wan a nd I guikimwiv i ya. F urther c hecking a long t racks a nd f ootpaths f ailed t o r eveal a ny o ther i ya w ithin t his v ast s econdary e nclosure, e xcept f or o ne r ectangular e nclose - C . 2 0 x 1 0 m etres - a ttached t o t he o utside o f t he p rimary i ya i n f ield 1 5, a nd a r everse-banked e nclosure t runcated b y t he n orth-south N .I.F.O.R .

3 90

r oad

( II.B.9.). P ottery s herds w ere c ollected

f rom n ear t he N .I.F.O.R.

c lub,

i n

t he g arden a nd i n a n ursery a rea, a s w ell a s f rom t he s poil h eap o f a w ater-pipe d itch a longside t he m ain n orth-south r oad i n N .I.F.O.R. T he t hree s urface c ollections f rom w ithin t he p rimary i ya e nclosure s eem l ikely t o h ave b een d erived f rom t he s ites r ecently d eserted b y O konowe a nd O kodogbo; a nd t heir m iddle t o m iddle-late p osition i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology i s n ot e ntirely u nexpected. T he s ubs urface s herds c ollected f rom t he d itch a ppeared v ery m uch e arlier i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology, p articularly t hose s herds j ust i nside t he

n orthern

p art o f

t he p rimary i ya o verlooking t he

O khuo

s tream .

T hese c ontained a h igh p roportion o f f ine s tring r ouletting ( FSR 3 ), b ody c ordons ( P1A 1 ) a nd s quared e verted r ims ( SQE 2 4), a ll o f w hich w ould s ubstantiate t he o ral t radition c laims t hat t he e arliest i nhabit ants o f t his a rea c ame f rom O ra - s ome 6 5 k ms. n orth i n t he s vaannah z one. L ater,

t he U wan t raditions

c laim,

O ba O zolua c arried o ut

s trate-

g ic r esettlement o f w ar c aptives a nd r efugees i nto t his ' open p lace' ( hence ' Uwan'); a nd c ertainly s uch a n o rganized m ass-movement o f p opulation w ould h elp e xplain t he p rodigious s ize o f t he s econdary i ya e nclosure: s ettlements a d ramatic

b y i tself, n atural g rowth f rom t he p rimary i ya e nclosure w ould h ave h ad t o r each p henomenal l evels t o a chieve s uch f ifteen-fold

e xpansion.

O mi F or m ost o f i ts c ourse t he O mi i ya i s a 3 -5 m etre h igh u nivall ate ( BD) i ya e nclosing a bout 1 50 h a . o f l evel l and 6 -10 k ms. f rom t he n earest s tream : s hallow w ells S upply w ater l ocally i n t he r ainy s eason o nly. A long t he e astern s ection o f t he i ya t he p rofile d rops t o l ess t han a m etre i n h eight a nd o ne s ection b ecame t oo i ndistinct t o f ollow i n t he u ndergrowth. I f t he t otal c ontext o f t he O mi a nd O khunmwun i ya a re e xamined, i t b ecomes v ery a pparent t hat t he c oncavity i n t he western p art o f t he O khunmwun a ddition i s c oncentric w ith t he O mi i ya; a nd t his s uggests t hat O mi s t erritory w as e xtent o f t he s urveyed p rimary i ya .

f ar g reater

t han m erely t he

P ottery s herds c ollected f rom t he s poil h eap o f a t rackside d rainage p it w ell a way f rom a ny p resent s ettlement i n t he m iddle o f t his e nclosure p roved t o b e l ater t han e xpected, t hough m uch e arlier i n t he c ulture s equence c hronology t han a nother c ollection m ade c loser t o

t he p resent

s ite o f O mi.

I n t he c ensuses c onducted e arlier i n t his c entury t he n umber o f male e dion a t O mi h as a lways b een l ess t han 1 0, a nd w as a pparently o nly t wo i n t he 1 930 s. Y et, d espite t he v ery s mall s ize o f t hose p assing on O mi t raditions, t his s ettlement s eems t o h old a p lace i n B enin t raditional h istory o ur o f a ll p roportion t o i ts p resent s ize. O mi

i tself

w addering g rown

c laims

t o h ave b een a n U mwehien v illage - f ounded

f armer's

s o p owerful a s

c amp i n ' Ogiso

t imes;

l ater i t

c laims

t o h ave h ad i ts o wn o nogie a nd t o h ave

f rom t o

a

h ave

p rovided

b oth t he m other o f O ba O zolua a nd o ne o f h is w ives, O romi, w ho b ore h im t he g iant s on A ruanran . I f t he c oncavity o f t he O khunmwun i ya r eally d oes r eflect O mi t erritorial p ower a t t his s tage, t hen t here i s p lenty o f r eason f or b elieving t hat O mi c ould h ave b een a v ery

3 91

i mportant

s ettlement,

a s

l arge o r l arger t han

O khunmwun ;

a nd

i ts

p osition b etween U do a n B enin h as s trategic i mplications. T he O mi e dion t oday s tate t hat t heir o nogie w as i nstalled a t t he t ime o f O ba O giemigue ( unknown , p ossibly h is r eal n ame a nd n ot t he t itle n ame ? ), b ut t hat t he l ine n ever c ontinued b ecause t he o nogie o nly h ad a d aught er. M ore p robably t he s witch i n t he l ocus o f B enin p ower f rom w est t o e ast, f rom t he O mi based O zolua/Aruanran f action t o t he E sigie/ O hogbua f action f rom U gieghudu o r O khunmwun ( above ; 1 55), m ay h ave l ed t o t he l oss o f O mi p ower. I n l ater t imes B enin a ppointed a n o nogie, n ot a t O mi, b ut a t O bagie; a nd t his o nogie m ay h ave d emonstrated h is p ower o ver O mi b y d eliberately b uilding h is e guae ( 'palace') r ight o n t op o f

t he O mi i ya.

I siukhukhu P arallel t o t he n orth-eastern s ection o f t he I wu i ya w as a b dbd b/bd-db i ya l ess t han m etre h igh a long m ost o f i ts s urveyed l ength. I t w as j oined t o t he n orth-east c orner o f t he I wu i ya b y a bout 5 0 m etres o f b d i ya f acing e ast. T he l ow b ifossate i ya m ight h ave o nce b een t he b oundary o f I siukhukhu v illage a f ew h undred m etres f urther n orth. E mah A

f ew

h undred m etres o f b ifossate ( BDDB)

i ya was

s urveyed

t o

t he e ast o f t he t rack j ust n orth o f E mah, w hich l ies t o t he n orth o f U wan a nd t he O khuo r iver. B etween h ere a nd t he I fo n r oad t o t he e ast t wo t rack t ransects r evealed t he p resence o f u nivallate B D/bd i ya, o ther b ifossate B DDB i ya ( photograph : b ox-file), a nd s everal b ivall ate B DB i ya : t hey a ppeared t o e nclose s izeable a reas, t hough n ot p erhaps- a s l arge a s I wu, U tekon a nd O khunmwun. R oese's s ightings a long t he B enin-Ifon r oad i ndicate m any p ast s ettlements, s ome o f w hich m ay b e r elated t o p resent-day s ettlement. T he f requency o f i ya o ccurrence a long t he I fo n r oad a ppears t o b e m arginally h igher t han f urther w est; a nd I s uspect t hat t here i s a m ore g radual t ransition f rom t he d ense p attern o f t he c entral ' core t o t he l arge s ettlements o n t he ' periphery' t han t he a brupt c hange e xhibited n ear B enin ( Main t hesis;

1 13).

F ringe s ettlements a long t he O via R iver U ghoton A n e astward-facing B D/bd, 1 -4 m etre h igh i ya s egment w as v eyed a bout 2 k ms. e ast o f U ghoton c lose t o I kpako a nd E kenwan.

s urI t

w as 3 -4 m etres h igh a long i ts c entral s ection, b efore d ropping - f irst t o 1 -2 m etres h igh f or a f ew h undred m etres e ither s ide - t hen t o l ess t han e nd, a bout

a m etre, a nd f inally p etering o ut a ltogether. A t i ts n orthern a c ontinuation i n t he d irection o f t he i ya l ine f etches u p a fter 2 00 m etres a t

t he e dge o f a s mall s carp o verlooking t he

s wamps

o f a t ributary t o t he O via - c oinciding a lmost e xactly w ith a p oint r ecognized a s t he U ghoton/Ekenwan b oundary t oday. T he o verall c urve o f

t he i ya,

t hat

a s

a s w ell a s

t he d irection f aced,

l eave o ne i n l ittle d oubt

t he i ya o nce d emarcated U ghoton l and.

T hose f amiliar w ith B enin h istory w ill a t o nce r ecognize U ghoton t he p ort m ost f requently r eported a s h aving b een u sed b y E uropeans 3 92

who v isited

t he C ity o f B enin i n t he p ast

( Ryder:

1 969).

I t s eems

t o

have b een a l arge s ettlement i n t he e arly-C16th, a nd v isitors e stimates o f i ts s ize o ver t he f ollowing c enturies a re v aried - p ossibly r eflecting t he c hanging f ortunes o f w aterside s ettlements ( Darling: 1 981b). I n 1 892 P unch n oted t hat U ghoton h ad r ecently b een s acked a nd b urnt b y B enin, a nd h ad s ince r ecovered ( MS i n b ox-file). U ghoton's waterside a ctivities s eem t o h ave b rought i t i nto c lose c ontact w ith D elta c ultures ( P. B en-Amos: 1 981) - p ossibly a rising o ut o f i ts n eed f or

c anoes m ade i n t he D elta a reas.

I koro A nother p ort o n t he O via r iver w hich, l ike U ghoton, s erves a s a n embarcation p oint f or t he d ead o n t heir j ourney t o t he s pirit w orld, i s I koro. I t w as h ere t hat p robably t he t wo s urvivors o f t he 1 897 massacre, B oisragon a nd L ocke, f ound s anctuary a nd a m eans o f e scape d ownstream ( Boisragn : 1 897. S agay: 1 970). C enturies e arlier, i t i s c laimed, O ba O hogbua h ad r eturned t o B enin f rom h is w ar-camp o n L agos I sland v ia I koro ( Egharevba: 1 968; 2 9). S uch a re t he t raditions a nd h istory o f I koro, w hich i s c omposed o f a B ini q uarter a nd a n I jaw q uarter. L ow b d i ya w ere s urveyed n ear I koro.

T wo l ow b d s alients

f rom

what a ppeared t o b e t he m ain i ya r eached d own t o t he t op o f t he v ery s teep s lopes l eading d own t o a s mall t ributary o f t he O via r iver. A s t he ' main' i ya w ent i nland s o i ts n orth-west f acing a spect b ecame m ore p ronounced; a nd i ts h eight i ncreased t o a bout 2 m etres ( BD). l arge n umbers o f v ehicles ( reputedly c arrying c offins c ontaining

T he t he

d ead o f B enin) w hich u se t he t rack t o I koro m ake d eep p otholes a nd f oul-smelling p uddles i n t he r ainy s eason ; a nd t his s urvey w as a band oned a fter t he r ains s tarted i n f avour o f m ore a ccessible s ites e lsewhere. D espite c areful s crutiny o f t he r oadside, n o o ther i ya were s ighted d uring t he s low,

s ickening j ourneys

t o t his a rea;

t hough

enquiry f rom t he l ocal p eople l ed t o t he s urvey o f a l arge, r everseb anked e nclosure n ear O bazuwa ( above; I I.B.9.), a nd a n o ghodo w as d iscovered

j ust w est o f O bazuwa .

I te L ow

b d i ya w ere n oted n ear I te b ut,

were d iscovered r iver f ringe.

o nce a gain,

n o o ther

b etween t he l arge p eripheral s ystems a nd

t his

i ya O via

Unuame N o i ya w ere f ound n ear Unuame. T he m ost s ignificant a rchaeolog ical f eatures t here a re t he p ottery s herds i n i mmense q uantities, a sh m iddens ' Esigie's

b elieved

t o

m onument'

h ave b een m ade b y a n ( a m ound)

e arly-C16th

a nd I dia's p ot - a ll t hese

B enin b eing

a rmy, d es-

c ribed a bove ( II.B.7., I II.D). T he c entral O via c ult s hrine, O via n 'Unuame, i s a lso h ere. N o i ya w ere n oted b etween U nuame a nd t he l arge s ystems o f

t he w estern i ya p eriphery f urther e ast.

3 93

I SHAN I YALA :

E KPOMA

T he i nner t own w all,

A ,

e ncloses a bout 1 63 h a.

a nd

i s d escribed

a bove ( II.B.8). A l arge i yala a ddition,

B ,

j oins

t he

t own w all,

A ,

a t

j unctions

i a nd i i. T he l ong s traight s tretches o f b oth A a nd B s uggest t hat t hese a reas m ay h ave h ad a m ore o pen s avannah v egetation t han t hat e nclosed b y l ater s outhern a dditions, w hich h avemore e rratic c ourses v ery p robably t o a void l arge f orest t rees. W ithin t he r ight-angled, n orth-west c orner s everal c ompound b anks w ere o bserved b ut, d espite e xtensive s earching, o nly n ine s herd f ragments w ere f ound. I t i s u ncertain , t herefore, t hat t hese w ere i nhabited c ompounds, b ut t heir f requent o ccurrence j ust i nside i yala e lsewhere a nd t heir c lose r esemb lance t o s imilar b anks o f o nce i nhabited O ld d ix; E la) a rgue t hat t hey w ere. T he m ain c rosses t he w estern s ide o f t he c orner a nd, a nd a djacent t o t he o utside o f t he i yala, r ectangular e nclosure. o ghodo ( above; I .C.2.);

O yo c ompounds ( appenE kpoma-Egoro f ootpath j ust s outh o f i s a s mall

t his p ath o pen-ended

T his s tructure i s u nlikely t o h ave b een a n p ossibly i t w as a g uard-house o r " strangers'

q uarters". A t t he s outhern e nd o f t he w estern s ection i s a c oncentrat ion o f d isused f ootpaths c rossing t he i yala f rom U humudumu o utside. T he s outhern s ection o f B b etween j unction i i a nd i ii i s o f p articular i nterest. I nitially i t w as t hought t o b e a t hree m etre h igh, i nternal w ard b oundary d ivision o wing t o i ts u nusual d Bd c ross-profile. F urt her s urveys a nd o bservations i ndicated t hat m ost o f t he s outhern s ection c ould b e m ore a ccurately d escribed a s b eing ( d)BD, w ith o ne s mall s tretch b eing D Bd. L ater o bservations o f a s hallow, t ent, i nternal d iich o n t he n orth a nd w est s tretches o f B

i ntermits uggested

t hat t he o riginal p rofile o f Bw as d BD/dBd a s i n i ts s outhern s ection, w ith m uch o f t he n orth a nd w est b eing o bscured b y a l ater B D, 6 -7 m etre d eepening a long t he e xternal p erimeter o f e nclosures B , C , D and p ossibly o ther i yala a dditions w as a bout 6 75 h a. I yala

t o t he e ast.

T he i nitial B

C i s a pparently a n e xtension o f B .

o bserved o utside b end w ithin t he

e nclosure

A l ow c ompound

b ank

t he i ndented s outh-west s ection a nd a r ight-angled l atter s uggest t hat t he c ourse w as d etermined

p artially b y a lready e xisting c ompounds. A s w ith B , C 's o uter ( southw est) s ection s eems t o h ave b een B D d eepened, l eaving t he o riginal 1 3m etre h igh ( d)BD i yala o n t he e astern s ide. A l arge f ield f or r ice c ultivation i n t he n orth-east c orner o f C e xposed a

c leared d isused

b anked f ootpath w ith a n o ld i khimwin t ree ( N. l aevis) s till o n i t, a nd a c omplex o f l ow c ompound b anks 1 2 / 1 m etre h igh. C o nly e ncloses a bout 7 0 h a . B etween a t E ,

i s D ,

i yala C a nd w hat a ppears

t o h ave b een a l arge

c ompound

a l ong s tretch o f i yala w ith a n a pparent u nity o f i nitial

d Bd7dBD c onstruction a s i s e videnced b y p art o f i ts e astern l ength. T he c oncavity o f m uch o f D 's c ourse i s e xplained b est b y t he p arallel c o t r se o f t he i ndependent A kahia i yala t o t he s outh, w hich a ppears t o h ave b een b uilt b efore D . T he h eights o f D 's w estern s ection s uggest t hat i t m ay h ave b een d eepened t wice - o nce w hen J w as d eepened d uring t he

c onstruction

t ighter e nclosure E kpoma a nd A kahia .

o f K , o f

a nd a gain w hen L w as added t o

t he f ormer w ide a rea o f n o-man's

3 94

c omplete l and

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a ny

S ometime a fter t he c onstruction o f B a nd m ost p robably b efore d eepening o f B , C o r D , i yala F w as b uilt. P ossible c ompound

b anks w ere o bserved n ear t he n orth-eastern a nd s outh-eastern t hough t he m ost o bvious r emains o f f ormer c ompounds w ere a djacent

t o

c orners: s urveyed

t he o utside o f F 's n orthern s ection w ithin 1 00 m etres

o f

v ery i nstinctive s avannah v egetation . T he s outh e nd b ecomes c onfused w ith a n o ver-lapping i yala w hich e nds a bruptly i n a s hrine p ath a nd t he o bliterating e ffects o f t he p resent s ettlement o f E vbuakuala . A l ow-banked f eature o bserved n ear t he e astern s ide o f A m ay i ndicate F 's f ormer r oute . B etween _ E a nd F t he i yala c onstruction s equence b ecomes c onfus ing t o i nterpret. G , o f d BD p rofile , h as a c oncave c ourse t erminat ing i n t wo d iscontinuities a fter j unctions x ii a nd x iii; i t m ay h ave b een a n e arly e astern p erimeter f or E kpoma, c oncave o n a ccount o f a n o pposing s ettlement t o t he e ast w hich h as s ince d isappeared. H a nd I , o f B D p rofile, a ppear t o h ave b een b uilt l ater t o j oin G w ith F a nd r espectively. T he w hole e astern p erimeter s eems t o h ave b een B D d eepened t o w ithin a s hort d istance o f t he c ompound b anks a t E , w hich r emain l ow. I f t his d eepening i s a ssumed t o h ave t aken p lace b efore t he c onstruction o f t he J /K i yala c omplex o utside i t, t hen i t i s c learly a chronistic w ith t he w estern s ection d eepening o f D , w hich a ppears t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he c onstruction a nd d eepening o f J /K.

T his w ould s eem t o c reate a c hronological h iatus o f

s ome m agni-

t ude b etween d ifferent s ections o f a pproximately t he s ame c onstruction p hase, w hich t hus q ueries a ny s imple s equential d evelopment o f E kpoma i yala d eepening a nd s erves t o h ighlight p rocesses u nder E kpoma j urisdiction . W ith

t he c onstruction o f

t he

d isparate

s ettlement

t he J /K i yala c omplex a m ore

c oherent

u nity o f p olitical p urpose a nd p ower b ecomes a pparent i n t he s outhe astern a nd e astern a rea. T he s ettlement o pposite G s eems t o h ave b een a bsorbed o r c onquered, a nd a l arge s ection o f t he w ide n o-man'sl and b etween A kahia a nd E kpoma b ecomes e nclosed b y t he w estern l ength o f t he J /K c omplex . T he c lose r elationship b etween t he 2 -3 m etre h igh, di a-/ UBD i yala J a nd t he 6 -8 m etre h igh, m assive B D/BDb i yala K r equires s ome e xamination . I nitially i t w as s uspected t hat J h ad b een t acked o nto t he o utside o f K a s a s hared b oundary b Etween K- a nd t he i ndependent A kahia, I rua a nä- I leh i yala s ystems o pposite, p articularly s ince n o c ontinuation o f D a nd E c ould b e a scertained i n t he t hick u ndergrowth b etween J a nd Z . H owever, j unctions i x a nd x vi s uggest t hat K w as s uperimposed o ver J , s ince t here i s a n o bservable i nner d itch f or a f ew h undred m etres w est o f j unction x vi. F urthermore, a c ompound b ank j oined t o J i n i ts n orthern s ector i s c rossed b y K . T hough

s ome

q uestions a bout

t he r elative o rdering o f d BD/dBD a nd

ID

p rofiles d o r emain, t he e vidence d oes s eem t o b e w eighted i n f avour o f d Bd/dBD a ntedating t he l arger B D c onstructions; s o K w as i n a ll p robab ility d ug

l ater

L c ompletes m an s-land. r ight-angle;

t han J w ith a c onsiderably l arger l abour f orce. t he e nclosing o f m uch o f

o f s cattered, f amily c ompounds r ather f or t he m any s harp b ends i n i ts c ourse. M , s eems

o d

t he w ide A kahia/Ekpoma

n o-

C ompound b anks w ere o bserved i nside L o n a n i nverted a nd i t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he p olitical a llegiances

d Bd p rofile,

i s

o f

t han f orest

s ome i nterest.

t o h ave b een d ug a fter F a nd J b ut 3 98

b efore

t rees m ay

a ccount

C hronologically

i t

t he m assive d eepening

o f K . a rea o ne t he f rom

P ossibly t his

i mplies

t hat E kpoma f ound t his

l argely

s avannah

t oo d ifficult t o d efend a gainst s trong p ressures f rom I leh a nd a t s tage w as f orced t o r etrench a nd c onsolidate i ts p osition w ithin f orest. T he o ral t raditions o f I leh i ndicate s avannah o rigins s lightly f urther n orth, b ut c laim t hat U da ( the f irst E nogie o f

E kpoma) g ave t hem t he l and ( appendix ; 0 10). T he m assive d eepening o f K s uggests t hat t his ' gift w as f rom b eing v oluntary, a nd n o d oubt t he t raditions o f o rigin h ave b een r ationalized t o r eflect I leh's a llegiance t o E kpoma . F urther i yala,

a pparently b elonging t o t he E kpoma s ystem ,

l ater

h ave

b een s ighted t o t he n orth-west a nd w est. T hereafter, t o n orth, w est a nd s outh, a utonomous i yala s ystems a re e ncountered w ithin t he p resent e xtent o f E kpoma j urisdiction ; w hich s uggests t hat m ost s ettlements w ere i ndependent b efore c oming u nder E kpoma c ontrol. T here i s s ome p ossibility t hat t he c laims o f a n o uter ' kingdom' w all h ave s ome j ustification, t hought i t i s e xtremely d oubtful i f t his i s a s ingle e ntity .

N OTES 1

I f i t i s a ssumed t hat t he n orthern s ection o f F l w as d eepened a t a l ater d ate t han i ts o riginal c onstruction, t hen t he f ollowing s equence i s p ossible :

a ) C onstruction o f C l

b ) C onstruction o f F l

c ) C onstruction o f C 2 s uperimposed o ver F l d ) R e-alignment o f o verall w estern e xtension d eepening, w ith l ocal d eepening a long p revious l ine o f F l ( north) t o m eet d eepening a round G e ) D eepening o f n orthern s ection o f C 2. T his s equence g oes p art w ay t owards r esolving F 's o therwise a namalous p osition i f t he o verall d eepening p ostulate- i s c orrect; a nd i t i ndicates t wo d ifferent s tages w ithin t he s ame o wnership, r ather t han t he d ouble o wnership c hange ( C t o F t hen b ack t o C /D) w hich w ould b e n eeded t o e xplain w hy C a nd n ot F h as 2

s urvived u ntil

' Ewien'?

3 99

t oday.

A PPENDIX G :

G eology, V egetation a nd S oils

G 1

M ap o f G eology a nd Hydro-Geology o f B endel S tate

G 2

C ross-section t hrough B endel S tate G eology

G 3

G eology a nd w ater-supply

G 4 G 5

G eology a nd w ater-supply i n E tsako G eology o f A gbor s heet ( Ezewu)

G 6 G 7

G eology o f O nitsha a rea ( Odili) B oreholes i n t he C oastal P lains

G 8 G 9

G round W ater L evel Measurements a round B enin C ity ( Ejodame) S oil c atena n ear E watto ( Akpede)

i n A koka-Edo

S ands

G 10

C ation E xchange C apacity ( Okhuereigbe)

G il

E dible C lays

G 12

I ron O xide C ontents ( Mordi/Eigbe)

i n B endel S tate

( Muotoh)

( Jones)

( Avwokuruaye)

a nd P article-size d istribution

G 13

T ermites

G 14

Master P lan f or w ater s upply ( Tahal W ater P lanning L td): D emography

( Harris/Lee a nd W ood)

G 15

G roundwater R esources

o f

a ll G eological a reas

4 00

( Carter)

G 1

Geo logy & H ydro-geo logy

o f

B ende l

S ta te

N 1 00km

A l luv ium H o locene D e l ta ic P l a in -- -

s o

l ine o f c ross—section d epth o f w ater—table i n f eet d epressions o ften w ith s easonal l akes ( odighi)

S omb re i ro -W a rn D e l ta ic P l a in i v

C oa s ta l P l a in S ands U ppe rB ende -Amek i

v i

L owe rB ende -Amek i

v i i

I mo S ha le s

i x

v i

U . B-A . l ow land s

T ran s i t iona l

x ,x i F uga rS ands tone , B a sa lS and s tone x i

C r e taceous O u t l ie r

x i i

B a semen tC omp lex 4 01

G 2

C ROSS-SECTION S HOWING G EOLOGY AND H YDRO-GEOLOGY O F B ENDEL S TATE ( N) ( refers t o m ap:above;

G 1).

I vue

A R .Omerri A gbede

R .Orle R .Edion W ater t able i x

v ii

B asement C omplex

F ugar s andstone

I mo s hales

L ower B ende A meki

x ,xi & x ii

I rrua

I vue

R .Orhiomo IS H A N

PL A T E A U -Ekpoma s pring

W ater t able

Up p e r

B e n dc

11

At n e k i

R .Okhuo

R .Ikpoba B enin i v L-Co a s t a l

—

W ater t able Pl a i n

4 02

i v Sa n d s

U pper B et ide A meki

' An O utline o f t he G eology o f A koko E do D ivision i n r elation t o i ts Water-Supply P otential

E .O.G . M uotoh.

G eologist.

A koka E do i s u nderlain w holly b y t he b asement c omplex. 1 ) L ow t o h igh g rate m etamorphosed s edimentary s eries. 2 ) 1 )

I ntrusive o r m etasomatic g ranite c omplex.

M etasediments

i ncluding g rystalline s chists,

g neisses,

m arble a nd

o ccasional b ands o f q uartzites, s ometimes a ssociated w ith m igmat ites. O nce c overed m ost o f t he a rea , f orming h ummocky h ills a nd u ndulating l owlands. F orm s tream a nd r iver b edrocks. S tructura lly t he g neisses s how d istinct b anding, g ated i n t he d irection o f t he s trike. 2 )

w ell f ractured a nd e lon-

G ranite C omplex - g igantic b oulders - t raversed b y j oints i n f erent d irections a nd t hickness. M edium t o c oarse g rained, p orphyritic e g. d arK r ocks e g.

d ife ven

a t I garra. A lso a ssociated a re t he f ine-grained, S .E. o f I garra, w hich a re m inor i ntrusions i n t he

m etasediments. T here a re f ew p errenial s treams a s t here i s l ittle u nderground w ater, m ost r ain b eing l ost i n r apid, s urface r un-off. W here t he r ocks a re w ell-jointed a nd f issured t here i s s ome g round-water; w here t he r ocks a re f ine-ground, f resh a nd u nfractured s urface r un-off p redominates. C oarse g rained o r p orphyritic g ranties, s chists a nd h ighly m icaceous g neisses,

i f d eeply w eathered a nd f ractured,

c an s tore

r ain-water i sn i solated p erched a quifers.

A R eport o f

t he G eology a nd H ydrology o f p art o f K ukuruku D ivision,

B enin P rovince. P5

a ) Auchi. b elow, b ) Jattu.

H .A. J ones.

G eologist.

G SN r eport 9 08

P erennial s tream , a t ributary o f t he A wle, C 380 2 m iles f rom t he t own . S pring - t he s ource o f t he U guloma, a t ributary o f

t he O gio, m iles N W.

5 00' b elow 21 m iles N E o f t own a nd a lso a s tream 2 2 00' w ells t hat w ere s unk w ere d ry.

c ) V illages 3 -6 m iles f rom A uchi o n A genibode r oad. I gbienakpe: s pring 4 55' b elow 3 m iles a way. I yuroko : s pring 6 0' b elow 1 m ile a way t o s outh-west. d )

U giedu: s pring 4 55' b elow a nd 2 m iles a way. O fuga: R iver O be 21 2 m / iles a way a nd 4 20' b elow . A lso w estern o utskirts g o t o s pring j ust s outh o f E kperi-Fugar r oad h alfway b etwen t he t wo t owns. T his s pring s upplies A zukala m iles a way o n A uchi-Agenibode r oad 2 m iles E o f E kperi.

e )

O gbona : 4m iles N W o f F ugar. Akobo - t ributary t o t he O be,

t he v illage a nd 4 00 - b elow . f ) I viukwu 7m iles E o f F ugar. d ries

u p

e arly

t ributary o f T he

i n

1

A s pring, t he s ource o f t he s upplies w ater 3 m iles N E o f S mall w ater-hole 2 m iles

M arch s o g o

a nother

t wo

m iles

s outh t o

a

t he O be.

f ailure o f w ell-diggers

t o r each a s uitable a quifer a t d epths

o f

3 0-50' & 2 00' a t J attu , i s d ue t o t he a bsence o f p ersistent i mpermea ble s trata a t s hallow d epths. T he O wan s uccession, 1 8 m iles w est o f A uchi, q uently

s hows wells

a g reater a bundance o f s hales a nd m udstones a nd i n t hat d istrict n ormally r each w ater 4 03

a t

a

c onsem oderate

d epth,

a s

f or

i nstance 2 0

a t A fuje.

T his

i s o ver 2 00' a bove t he m ain

w ater-table i n t he d istrict. P erennial s prings a re p resent w ithin t wo m iles o f t he u nconformity a nd w ell a bove t he b asement o f U sokha ( 70 0 4'N 6° 0 2'E). I n t he a bsence o f a ny i ntermediate b eds i n t he s edim entary s uccession t he b asement f loor w ould h old u p t he w ater-table u ntil i t d escended b elow t he l evel o f p ermanent s tauration w hich i s t he

m ain w ater

t able.

S prings

a re t hrown o ut

a t

t he

u nconformable

c ontact o f t he s outhern s id o f t he K ominio P lateau, s howing t hat b asement r ocks a re i mpermeable. J oints a re p robably s ealed b y c lay m aterial T he

t he t he

r eleased b y i ts o wn d ecomposition .

m ain w ater-table s eems

t o c oincide w ith

t he s ub-outcrop

o f

b asement r ocks u ntil t hese f all b elow 5 00' - t hereafter i t s lopes s outh a t c 1 0' p er m ile. P erched w ater-tables a re p ossible b ut u npred ictable. p l

T opography:

r ocks

t o

T he b asement

r ocks

t o

t he n orth a nd

t he s outh f orm c ontrasting t opographies.

t he s edimentary

T he f ormer f orm a n

u ndulating p eneplain, i nterrupted b y s cattered h ills a nd r idges. T hese u sually c onsist o f c oarse-grained o lder g ranite, w hile t he l ow g round i s o ccupied b y t he m ore w ide-spread f oliated a nd s chistose r ocks. S outh o f t he u nconformity .. t here i s a m arked c hange, o bviously g eologically c aused... t he b eds d ip g ently t o t he S SE a nd t here

t he

s urface l ateritic c rust

i s u nbroken a nd

t he g round

s lopes

g ently i n t hat d irection. A p anoramic v iew s hows t he c haracteristic s tep t opography w ith g round s urfaces a t d ifferent l evels f alling a way g radually t o t he s outh, a nd w ith s teep s carp s lopes f acing t he b asem ent a nd

r ocks t o t he n orth. T he t ops o f m any o f t he f lat-topped h ills t he p lateaux a re i n p laces d evoid o f v egetation w here t he g round

s urface

i s

a

h ard p avement o f

l aterite.

W here t he

s urface

r ocks

c omprise u nconsolidated s ands a nd s oft e arth l ateritic s oil, a s i n t he A uchi-Jattu d istrict, t his t opography g ives p lace t o o ne o f i rregular h ills b earing n o r elation t o U nconformity:

t he u nderlying g eological s tructure.'

L ight-coloured

s urface s oil w ith q uartz

r ubble

g ives

p lace t o d arker r eddish s and w ith f ragments o f p urple l aterized g rits c haracteristic o f b asal s edimentary b eds. I n t he R iver O gia,

9 m iles N E o f A uchi a c oarse g ill-sorted g rit

d ipping s outh b y e ast a t 2° r ests o n s oft, d ecayed ( 10-20' d ecomposed) c oarse-grained p orphyritic g ranite c ut b y a ppatite a nd p egmatic v eins. S edimentary R ocks: t hese h ave a 10 4 S SE d ip, c urrent b edding, a nd t he s andstones a re o ften e nriched w ith i ron-oxides o ften o n d ifferent p lanes f rom t he t rue o r t he f alse b edding. B asement R ocks: o f p art

( see r eport b y J .R.T. H azell.

o f K ukuruku d ivision'

' Notes

2 8th D ecember 1 950).

4 04

o n t he G eology

R eport o n t he G eology o f A gbor: S heet 2 99. G eologist. 6 'N - 6 '30 N 6° E - 6 ' 3 0' E . T errain - on t he e astern f lank o f

1 :100,000

t he I shan P lateau,

b y

O .

E zewu.

b oth i n t his m ap

a nd t he 1 :250,000 S hell B .P. m ap o f O nitsha s heet 1 71 t he c lay-lignite f acies h ave n ot b een s eparated f rom r ed-brown s ands a nd t he w hite f riable s andstone u nderlying, T opography: o ver 2 80m.

o wing t o s cale.

L ow u ndulating l and - t he h ighest a rea b eing o nly j ust T he O ssiomo a t A budu i s i n a n a ssymetrical v alley , w hereas

t he A simiri ( Orogodo) a t A gbor i s i n a d eep, 1 52 t o 1 09 m etres. D rainage:

W hole

e ven v alley d ropping f rom

a rea d ivided b etween B enin a nd N iger R iver

T he O ssiomo a nd U tor a re d eep, w ith b road A simiri ( Orogodo) i s w ide, b ut s hallow a nd s treams h ave y outhful p rofiles a nd a re s hallow . W ater S upply y ear,

r arely

( p6)

c hannels m eanders.

b asins.

a nd m ature. T he o ther

" Although t he t errain h as h igh r ainfall m ost o f

c an

h and w ells b e l ocated.

T his c ould

b e

t he

e xplained

e ither b y t he l ocal t radition f orbidding h and-dug w ells o r m ore s cientifically b y t he c layey r eddish-brown s ands w hose n ature m akes i t d ifficult t o h ave s table w ells. T he n atives r ely o n s treams w hich c ould b e a bout t wo k ilometres f rom t heir s ettlement. T he p osition o f t he s treams, t herefore, d etermine t he p osition o f t he v illages m ost o f w hich a re s ituated i n a reas w here p erennial s treams a re n ot a way." G eology:

T here

a re t hree d istinct

l ithofacies:

1 )

t oo

f ar

U biquitous r ed-

b rown s ands 2 ) c lay-lignite f acies 3 ) w hite f riable s andstone. T he w hite s andstone ( 3) i s c onformably o verlain b y t he c lay-lignite f acies ( 2) w hich i n t urn i s u ncomformably o verlain b y t he ( 1). T here a re l ocal u nconformities p roduced s andstones

o f v arying t hickness.

r ed-brown s ands b y f erruginised

A long t he s treams a t O bomkpa,

O ghada

a nd I gbanke, l ignite o utcrops a re d irectly o verlain b y t he r ed-brown s ands ( 1). T he c lay-lignite r elationship v aries: a t O bomkpa t here a re t hin i ntercalations o f c arbonaceous c lay w ith l ignite; a t O ghada l ignite r ests o n t he m ottled c lay. N on-fossiliferous e xcept f or t he l ignite.

T here

i s

s ome g raded b edding o f p ebble l evels i n t he

r ed-

b rown s ands ( 1). C ross-bedding h as b een n oted i n ( 1) & ( 3) e lsewhere. 1 ) R eddish-brown s ands: b rown w ith a r ed h ue ( and c ohesive w hen w et) - p oorly s orted, n on-fossiliferous a nd w ithout p rimary s edimentary s tructures.

2 )

b eds a re i nter-bedded w ith t he s ands a nd a re u p t o 2 m t hick w ith g raded b edding. I ndurated f erruginized d ark-brown s andstone b reccia w ithin o r u nder b rown s ands. C lay a nd l ignite: c lay m assive - t hickness f rom 1 2/ 5me xposed a t b anks o f s treams e tc. g rains a nd s and m ixed w ith c lay c arbonaceous a nd m ottled s edimentary s tructures o r w eathering a nd e rosion .

3 )

s ands - m assive R ound p ebble

C oarse, c olourless q uartz s ometimes. W hite, p ink,

v arieties o f c lay f ound. f ossils o bserved. R esistent

N o t o

W hite f riable s andstone: T he s andstones a re q uartzose, g enerally p oorly s orted w ith a ngular t o s ub-angular g rains. M assive a ppearance c ommon. L ocalized c ross-stratification o bserved a t I kpoba H ill, B enin C ity. c lay l amination o ccur a t i ntervals.

4 05

T hin b ands o f w hite M any q uartz g rains

m ilky

4 )

w hite o r c olourless.

G enerally a h igh p ercentage o f

c lay. T his s andstone g rades t hrough m udstone/siltstone a t t he t op t o t he o ver-lying c lay. A lluvium : N ear A budu ( NW) a nd U rhobo c amp ( SE). F loodp lain s ub-facies w ith v ery f ine s and, f lood-plain o f O ssiomo a nd M balamba.

s ilt a nd A lluvium

s hrinkage c racks ( presumably i n d ry s eason). A budu s mooth w hitish g ravel m t hick c hannels o f R iver A simiri a nd O ssiomo.

c lay o n c ontains

N ear M biri a nd

o ccupies

a bandoned

E nvironment o f d eposition : T he t hick r eddish-brown s ands, i nterbedded w ith u nconsolidated c onglomerate a nd l ack o f f ossils s uggest a f luviatile e nvironment - t he p ebbles i ndicating a h igh e nergy l evel o f d eposition - t hese p ebbles p ossibly b elonging t o a p ebbly c hannel s and f acies. T he c lay-lignite f acies w ere f ormed c ontemporaneously i n s hallow, m arine c onditions. T he c lay i nter-calation i n t he w hite f riable s andstone s uggests m arine d eposition . S tratigraphy:

T he

h ighly f ossiliferous g rey-green s andy c lays

w ith

c alcareous c oncretions a nd w hite c layey s andstones ( Reyment e t a l. 1 956) o f t he A meki f ormations a re n ot e ncountered i n f ieldwork o r l ocal b oreholes. T herefore w here d o t hese w hite f riable s andstones b elong? R eyment's d escription ( 1963 p 1 02) o f t he O gwashi-Asaba f ormation f its o nly t he c lay-lignite f acies a nd n ot t he white f riable s andstone. T he B enin f ormation ( recognized b y i ts r ed h ue a nd s ome c lay i ntercalations) s hows s tructural a nd t extual s imilarities t o t he w hite f riable s andstones. T he p resence o f i ntercalating c lay ( mudstone) a nd l ignite m ay h ave p revented r ed-iron o xide s taining ( probably a l ater e vent) t he p rotected w hite f riable s andstone. T attan's ( 1963) v iew t hat t he l ignite s eries f orms p art o f t he C oastal P lains s ands t herefore s uggest n o s tratigraphic b reak b etween P arkinson's B enin f ormation a nd t he l ignite s eries. T herefore a ll

t hese c ould b elong t o C oastal P lains

w ould ( 1907)

S ands.

B ibliography : B latt H .,

M iddleton G .,

F olk R .

1 972 1 968

M urat.

1 970

M urray R .

O rigin o f S edimentary R ocks. P rentice-Hall, I nc. N .J. P etrology o f S edimentary R ocks. I nt.

P ub.,

U niv .

T exas.

S tratigraphy a nd P alaeontology o f o f t he C retaceous a nd L ower T ert iary i n S outhern N igeria . G eology, 1 970.

A frican

R eyment R .A.

1 965

A spects o f t he G eology o f N igeria I .U.P.

S impson A .

1 955

T he G eology o f P arts o f t he N igeri an C oalfield: O nitsha, O werri a nd B enue P rovinces. G eol. S urv. N ig.

T attam C .M .

1 943

B ulletin o f 2 4.

A R eview o f N igerian S tratigraphy A nnual R eport o f G SN.

4 06

R eport o n t he G eology o f p 2

1 :100,000 s heet 3 00 ( Onitsha)

b y V .A .

C ave w ith i ndurated s andstone r oof i n v illage o f O gbunike

O dili. a round

t he r iver Nkisi v alley ( Has f riable w ell-sorted s andstone p 11-12). I n a p rocess o f d iagenisis, f erruginisation o f t he s ands g ive r ise t o f erruginous s andstone a nd l aterisation o f t he r ed e arth. p 6 l lkms t o A saba o n B enin-Asaba r oad c utting: 0 -10m R eddish-clayey s and. 1 0-12m G ravel/Pebble l evel, c oarse r iver s and, 1 2-14m S andy c lay . 1 4-15m W hite r iver s and a nd Horizontal b eds,

c ongolomerate.

r eddish b rown s and.

w ith a l evel o f c obbles a nd f erruginous s andstone.

p 17 T he s andstones ( of t he A meki f ormation) c ould b e s aid t o b e s ubmature w ith n o s econdary q uartz r ecrystalisation a nd h ave b een s ubjected

t o l ittle o r n o r e-working.

D eposited i n f luviatile m ilieu.

References: B urke K .C.,

D essauragie T .F.J.,

a nd W hiteman A .J.

O pening o f t he G ulf o f G uinea a nd G eological H istory o f t he B enue D epression a nd t he N iger D elta.

1 971

N ature P hysical S ciences 2 33: F olk L .R .

G ass 1 .G., S mith P .J. a nd W ilson R .C.L. E .K. W alton J ones H .A.,

R eyment R .A .

T ickell G .

( This

U nderstanding t he E arth. T he A tremus P ress 1 63-192.

1 971

T he G eology o f P arts o f S outhW estern N igeria. G SN B ulletin 3 1. S edimentary P etrology V ol.I. G . A llen & U nwin L td. L ond. 1 74-88

1 962

O kezie C .N.,

S impson A .

3 70K,383L,383M . H emphili's 2 5,26,35,41,42 & 4 6. L ooking B ack t hrough T ime:

H ockey R .D. 1 964

M ilner H .B.

S hort K .C.

5 3-85. P etrology o f S edimentary R ocks T he U niversity o f T exas G eology

1 968

T he L ignites o f S outh-Eastern N igeria ( A S ummary o f A vailable

O nuogu S .A .

I nformation). U npublished r eport. A spects o f t he G eology o f N igeria

1 965

a nd S trauble A .J. 1 967 1 954

F .

1 965

d etailed r eport h as

I badan U niversity P ress O utline o f G eology o f N iger D elta A .A. P .G.S. 7 61-779 T he G eology o f P arts o f O nitsha, O werri a nd B enue P rovinces. G SN B ulletin 2 4. D evelopments i n S edimentology 4 M ineralogy E lservien 2 1, 2 3-24.

s tatistical a nalyses o f s and s ize p articles

w orth n oting. T hese n otes h ave o nly r ecorded o dd s ections r elevant t o t h i . a rea o f B enin u nder s tudy, a nd a re n ot r epresentative o f t he whole.

T hey s hould n ot

t herefore b e r egarded a s a ' summary'.)

4 07

•

•

0

•• r i ` . 4 C a • " I • • 4 . 00 0 i X

0f t

•

0

1 3 : 1

•

0

I . 0

I : 1 Z ;

c 7. f • 2 1 0 0 > , H

1 00 W

W

2 00 .

= cm

t o re,

3 00

• • •

c lays e t u lia P i l s and . , f er rs uginized

4 00 -

w

5 00 f t b elow g roundl evel

,• • /•

s ands/clays

•• •• ••

l ignite w ater-table

( 290) h eight i n f eet b ov e s ea-level — _ - —a — . . f • . % 1 / • -• . i i • I ,

NI 3 . 1

W

W

W O ,

*

• •• • • •

( W`

•I guobazuwa. \

/7 U selu.,Iyaro /

t Aeniu

O gba . • •

•i gbanke

tguaholor eU goneki •

O bayantor

A gbor

U go

1 . • ••»•, 1 • • • • •

I yauumo S akpoba •

( f l

*Abraka

•S apele c oastal p lain s ands

0 B OBIA MLES I N T HE C OASTAL P LAIN

4 08

S ANDS

1 0

2 0 k ws ii

R eport o n t he

1 974 G round W ater L evel M easurement a round B enin C ity. b y

S .E. E jodame,

G eologist.

R ain U gb„1 U gb.g U gb.3 O lo.1 0 1o 0 2 O GS 1 O GS 2 O GS 3 RRII

O di.1 O di.2

1 3.10 1 1.30 1 9 .95 2 8.20 4 7.40 3 9.40 4 7.10 5 3 .69 1 58 .0 1 00.60

•

0 .8 1 2.95

•

1 .3 1 3.50 1 4.20 1 1.10 2 0.10 2 8.90 4 9.35 4 0 .50 4 7 .85 5 4.70 1 58 .0 1 01.00

•

3 .6 1 5.40 1 4.15 1 3 .20 2 1.16 2 9.70 4 9.80 4 1.55 4 8.88 5 5.80 1 57.8 1 01.60

A

6 .9 1 5.40 1 6.00 1 3.20 2 1.18 3 0.25 4 9.85 4 2.75 4 9.04 5 7 .15 1 58 .0 1 01.93

•

8 .2 1 5.40 1 6.00 1 3.20 2 1.20 3 0.50 4 9.90 4 2.70 4 9.10 5 8.03 1 58.0 1 02.00

J 1 1.9 1 5.40 1 6.00

8 .20 1 7.80 2 8.75 4 9.95 4 1.90 4 9.60 5 7 .45 1 58.0 1 12.00

J 1 2.4 1 2.00 1 1.20

6 .20 1 3.90 2 5.90 4 8.90 3 9.90 4 8.20 5 3.02 1 58.0 1 01.14

A

5 .10 1 7.50 2 5.10 4 4.60 3 6.74 4 4.25 5 1.65 1 58.0 1 01.68

8 .2 1 0.55 1 0.20

S 1 2.1

9 .30

c aved i n.

1 3.42 2 2.90 4 2.00 3 4.50 4 2.25 4 0.95 1 58.0 1 00.12

O

9 .6

9 .57

1 5.90 2 3.05 4 1.05 3 3.77 4 1.30 4 4.60 1 58.0

9 7.40

N

2 .9 1 0.50

1 7.40 2 4.67 4 2.28 3 5.10 4 2.67 4 7.70 1 58.0

9 5.91

D

0 .6 1 1.50

1 8.40 2 5.75 4 3.80 3 3.85 4 4.20 4 9.95 1 58 .0 1 03 .75

7 8.5 K ey t o t able a bove: Underlined f igures i ndicate t hat t he w ell w as d ry. Ugb.1, 2 & 3 r efer t o w ells a t U gbenu, t wo o f w hich c ollapsed. O lo.1 & 2 r efer t o w ells i n O logbo v illage, B enin-Sapele R oad. OGS 1 w as t he s chool k itchen w ell a t O zolua G rammar S chool, O logbo. OGS 2 w as t he w ell i n t he P rincipal's c ompound. OGS 3 w as t he w ell i n t he s taff c ompound; i t w as u sed e xtensively b y c .80 b oys d uring t he p eriod o f m easurement ( 1972-3). L ack o f p roper eintenance a fter 1 973 r esulted i n d isuse w ithin t wo y ears. RRII

R ubber R esearch I nstitute,

I yanamo b ore-hole.

O di.1 & 2 r efer t o w ells a t O dighi o n t he B enin-Ifon r oad. R ainfall

i n i nches,

C omparative R ainfall

w ater-table d epths i n f eet. F igures:

L ocation

O wo

V egetation

S avannah

H eight a bove m .s.l.

1 000

Y ears o f r ecording M onthly t otals

A saba P alm S ay.

8 00

6

O ndo

F orcados S wamp

9 42

2 20

2 56

1 0

2 0

4 4

2 4

4 6

3 8

0 .8 1 .3

3 .5

0 .3

0 .6

0 .7

1 .3

M

3 .7 5 .3 6 .6

0 .7 2 .2 4 .0

0 .9 2 .0 4 .4

0 .4 1 .4 4 .3 6 .2

6 .6

8 .3

6 .7

8 .7 8 .8 9 .0

8 .2 9 .4 5 .4

1 .9

3 .3

3 .6

5 .1 8 .0

6 .9 8 .2

7 .0 1 0.6 1 6.0

9 .5

1.9

2 3 .2

1 2.4

2 6.1

3 .9 7 .7 9 .1

8 .2

1 4.1

1 2.1

2 3.3

9 .6

1 6.6

2 .9 0 .7

3 .1

2 .9

0 .6

0 .6

6 .1 2 .2

6 1.9

6 2.6

7 8.5

1 50.6

6 .7 6 .1

5 .8 5 .8 5 .1

S

9 .0 5 .3

8 .5 6 .9

1.7 7 .8

9 .0 7 .3

1 .8 0 .7

0 .9 0 .1

1 .4 0 .3

5 4.3

4 7.2

6 4.0 4 09

008 1 .4

1 0.1

J J A 0 N D

B ENIN

3 00

F

7 .5

I jebu-Ode

T ropical-rain-forest

J

A M

T otal R ainfall

1 8

A uchi

G 9 E ffect o f p H a nd I onic E nvironment o n A dsorption o f P hosphorous i n t he s oil. O vigueraye K ate A kpede. B .Sc. T hesis, D epartment o f C hemistry , U niversity o f B enin , B enin C ity . J une 1 975. S oil s amples w ere c ollected f rom a f ull s lope c atena n ear E watto. T he s ites w ere a s f ollows: 7 28 7 29 7 30

7 31

U pper s lope - r ubber p lot M iddle s lope - c assava p lot M iddle t o u pper s lope - p revious e xperimental s ite f armed w ith N PK a pp lication L ower s lope n ear s tream - u ncultivated b ush E xchangeable

b ases

S ite p H

M g

C a

K

N a

7 28 7 29 7 30 7 31

0 .9 1 .0 0 .3 0 .9

0 .9 2 .4 1 .7 2 .3

. 019 . 045 . 038 . 054

. 007 . 014 . 014 . 014

4 .76 5 .06 5 .40 5 .83

M echanical a nalysis C .E.0

C

N I

4 .228

1 .02

. 101

3 .309

0 .90

. 078

3 .162 2 .941

0 .78 0 .75

. 056 . 069

% Clay 1 6.2 1 4.2 1 2.2 1 1.2

% Silt

% Sand

1 .4 1 .4 1 .4 1 .4

8 2.4 8 4.4 8 6.4 8 7.4

D etermination o f C ation E xchange C apacity C omponent i n s ome A cid S oils o f S outhern N igeria. B y M onica I zinegbe O khuereigbe, B enin C ity J une 1 975. T he m ost a ctive p ortions o f t he s oil a re i n t he c olloidal s tate, s ince c olloidal c lays a re n ot s pherical b ut l aminated w ith a h igh e xternal a nd i nternal s urface a rea. T here i s an et n egative c harge t o e ach o f t he c olloidal p articles, s o t hat t housands o f i ons o r c ations b ecome a ttached t o e ach o f t hem . T his g ives r ise t o a n i onic d ouble l ayer t he i nner l ayer b eing i n e ffect a h uge a nion ( negatively c harged) a nd t he o ther i onic l ayer b eing p ositively c harged. T he r eplacement o f t hese c ations i s k nown a s C ation E xchange a nd t he C .E.C . i s t he a mount o f c ations a ny s oil c an a bsorb a nd i s e xpressed i n m g/100g. C .E.C. a s s o m easured v aries w ith p H. T here i s s ome p H i ndependent C .E.C. f raction a rising f rom i somorphous s ubstitution w ithin t he c lay c rystal l attice, b ut m ost i s p H d ependent a nd c onsists e ither o f w eakly d issociated a cid g roups o f s oil o rganic m atter o r o f s esq uioxide c oatings o f c lay m ineral s urfaces o r p artially n eutralized c omplexes o f A 13 a nd F e 3+ i ons i n i nterlayers o f 2 :1 l ayer s ilicates. T he m ajor s ource o f p H d ependence i s i n t his l ayer s ilicate s esquoxide c omplex , t hough a w eak d ependence c an b e d iscerned i n S ilicic a cid ( SiOH) a nd i n o rganic m atter e specially t he c arbonl g roups. ( As t he e xamples c hosen w ere n ot o f p articular r elevance n o f urther n otes w ere t aken f rom t his t hesis; t hough t he p rinciples e nunciated a bove w ere c learly a pplicable a s a b asis f or u nderstanding d ifferences i n s oil f ertility a long s oil c atenas i n t he H igh F orest z one . P JD).

4 10

A nalysis o f

B endel S tate

P otassium a nd A luminium . T hese

E dible B y J .M .

C lays

f or

A vwokuruaye,

I ron,

C alcium,

c lays a re b aked a nd t hen e aten b y p regnant

c ustom i s p ractised b y U rhobos,

I jaws,

S odium,

B enin C ity J une 1 976. w omen.

T his

B inis a nd I shans.

" Apart f rom t he f act t hat i t i s b elieved t hat e dible c lays h elp i n b uilding u p o f t he b ody o f t he c hild i n t he m other's w omb, t hey a lso p revent p regnant w omen f rom v omitting. I t h as b een n oted b y p eople w ho e at c lays t hat t hey s top f requent a bsorption ." T he

c lays

c onsist o f k aolinite ( with l ow c ation

h alloysite, v ermiculite T he

c lay

D epartment

s tool a nd t his c ould b e

t o

d ue

e xchange

t o

c apacity),

m ontmorillonite ( high C EC) ( Smetitic), m ica ( high C EC), c hlorite a nd a llophane ( varied C EC). s amples

w ere s upplied b y P rofessor D onal

o f G eography,

L ouisiana S tate U niversity,

( Illite),

V ermeer U .S.A .,

o f

t he

a nd w ere

o btained f rom U zalla ( Benin E ast), I kpoba ( Ikpoba s lope B enin C ity), J attu ( Etsako) a nd O du e dible c lay f rom O kaigben v illage n ear E wohimi ( Ishan). T he

r esults

o f

t he a nalysis

f or C alcium a nd I ron

c ontent

w ere

a s

b elow : E xchangeable C a i n M g/100g o f C lay.

S ite

E xchangeable F e.

U zalla

8 .75

5 39.9

I kpoba

1 1.37

4 22.8

J attu U do ( Odu?)

6 .875 6 .875

1 37.2 1 81.8

F emales b etween t he a ges o f 1 8 t o 3 5 r equire 0 .8g C a a nd 1 8mg o f W hen p regnant T hus

t hese r equirements

t he c alcium o btained f rom t hese e dible c lays m eets

f ive-hundredth

o f

t he w oman's

t imes a s m uch i ron a s

O ther

r ise t o 1 .2g C a a nd 1 8mg o f

n otes:

r equirements,

a nd

i ron.

i ron.

o nly a bout o ne

r ound a bout

s ixteen

i s n eeded i s p rovided.

P rofessor V ermeer u ndertook t his

r esearch a s

f ollow-up

w ork t o h is s tudies o f t his c ustom a mongst c ertain s ections o f b lack p opulation i n t he United S tates. I t s eems f airly c ertain

t he t hat

t he c ustom i s o f l ong-standing a nd w as e xported w ith c aptives i n t he s lave-trade. U zalla i s b y f ar t he l argest c entre f or t his c lay, w ith n early t he whole v illage b eing e ngaged i n o ne w ay o r o ther. a re d ug f rom n ear t he s tream , a nd t he u ndercutting t his r equires h as e stimates p .

r esulted i n m any c asualties o ver t he y ears.

s uggest

t hat U zalla p roduces a bout 1 00 t ons o f

t .

411

T he c lays e xcavation P rovisional b aked

c lay

I ron O xide C ontents a nd P article-size D istribution i n t wo N igerian S oils. B y V .O .Mordi, U niversity o f B enin . S eptember 1 976 . T his s hort t hesis e xamines t he p rocesses o f l eaching a nd l aterizatien f rom t wo s ites. T he c onclusions c an b e b riefly s ummarised a s f ollows : i )Most o f t he i ron c ontent i s i n t he f orm o f i ron-oxide. i)The i ron-oxide c oexists w ith t he c lay a nd m igrates w ith i t . ii)The i ron-oxide a nd c lay f raction o f s oil i ncrease w ith d epth .

I ron O xide C ontents a nd E article-size D istribution i n t hree A cid S oils. B y E igbibhalu G race E igbe, B enin C ity J une 1 975. T he s oil s amples w ere t aken f rom s ix s eperate d epths i n t hree p its a t E .I .F .O .R ., t he l ocations o f w hich w ere a s f ollows : P it p rofile 1 , u pper s lope ( top ) n ear t ree 2 886 F ield 8 1. P rofile 2 , m iddle s lope n ear t ree 2 672 F ield 8 1. P rofile 3 , l ower s lope n ear t ree 2 03 F ield 8 1. P rofile 1 D epth C lay

S ilt

0 -6 " 6 12 24 36 48 60

1 6 .5 1 8.0 1 7 .0 2 1.0 1 9.0 2 1.5

2 .2 1 .7 1 .2 1 .2 0 .7 0 .7

P rofile 0 -6 " 6 12 24 36 48 60

2 2 2.25 1 8.5 2 2.0 2 1.0 2 5.0 2 7 .0

P rofile 0 -6 " 6 12 24 36 . / 4 8 _ 60

3 1 9.3 1 9.3 1 8.8 2 2.8 2 1.3 2 7 .3

F ine S and

C oarse V ery p H i n S and C oarse w ater

I ron P orosity C olour c ontent

8 .0 1 4 .1 1 0 .9 7 .5 9 .3 6 .5

6 6 .1 6 2.0 6 3 .7 6 1.8 6 1.7 6 1.0

7 .2 4 .2 7 .2 8 .5 9 .3 1 0 .3

5 .0 4 .9 4 .75 4 .7 4 .3 4 .35

0 .80 0 .89 0 .97 1 .04 1 .12 1 .18

3 5 .77 3 6 .33

5 YR3H a 5YR3/6 2 .5YR4/4 2 .5YR4/6 1 0R4/4 2 .5YR4/8

1 .2 2 .2 0 .7 1 .2 1 .2 0 .7

9 .2 1 2.1 1.8 1 2.5 9 .7 7 .7

5 8.8 5 8.9 5 8.4 5 6 .3 5 5.3 5 1.0

1 0 .3 8 .3 7 .1 9 .0 8 .8 1 3 .6

4 .6 4 .6 4 .3 4 .2 4 .2 4 .3

0 .59 0 .7 1 0 .8 1 0 .97 1 .02 1 .05

_ 3 3 .86 3 4 .25 3 5 .32

2 .5YR3/6 2 .5 M4/4 1 0YR4/6 1 cR4/4 1 0R3/6 1 0R4/6

2 .2 2 .2 1 .2 1 .2 0 .7 0 .7

1.6 1 3 .9 1 7.5 1 2.4 1 5.7 9 .3

5 8.6 5 9.6 5 3.6 5 5 .9 5 2.6 5 4 .3

8 .3 5 .0 8 .9 7 .7 9 .7 8 .4

4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .15 3 .7 3 .8

0 .88 0 .94 0 .97 1 .15 1 .2 1 .27

- 2 .5YR3/6 - 2 .5YR4/6 3 4 .25 2 .5YR4/4 3 7 .25 2 .5YR4/6 3 7 .5 1 0R4/6 3 7 .35 2 .5YR4/8

T he i ncreasing r atios o f c lay a nd i ron c ontent w ith d epth i ndicate t heir c o-migration ( agreeing w ith M ordi 's c onclusion s a bove); a nd t he i mproving p orosity w ith d epth h as a p ositive c orrelation w ith t he i ron a nd c lay c ontents, s uggesting t hat i ron-oxides a re i mportan t i n s oil a ggregation a nd m ore t han c ompensate f or t he o pposing e ffect o f t he c lay f raction . T here i s ap ossibility t hat f ertility i ncreases i n t he p resence o f f ree i r)n-oxides, t hough n o e xperim en ts w ere c arried o ut t o d emonstrate t his.

4 12

" Termites, T heir R ecognition a nd C ontrol." L ongman T ropical A gricultural S eries 1 9 1.

W . 2 nd.

V ictor H arris. e dition 1 971.

p 73

" Since M acrotermes g oliath, M . b ellicosus, M . n ateleneis a nd M . s ubh u lliE m, t he m ain m ound-builders i n A frica d o n ot o ccur i n t he t ropical r ain f orest, t he p resence o f m ounds u nder a c losed c anopy w ould i ndicate i ts s econdary n ature o n t he s upposition t hat m ore o pen s avannah w oodland c onditions w ould b e n ecessary f or t he m ounds t o b e b uilt. T he s pecies o f M acrotermes w hich d o n ot o ccur i n t he t ropical r ain f orests o f W est A frica a nd t he C ongo b asin a re n ot g iven t o c onstructing l arge m ounds. J ones ( 1956) c onsiders t hat t he n umerous uninhabited m ounds t o b e f ound i n f ore .sts i n S outhern N igeria w ere f ormed u nder c limatic c onditions q uite d ifferent f rom t hose n ow p revailing, w hile E ggeling ( 19k7) h as s hown h ow t he B udongo F orest i n w estern U ganda i s a ctively s preading o ver g rassl ands c ontaining M acrotermes m ounds." p 67 r emain f or

a l ong t ime a fter t he

o riginal i nhabitants h ave

g one.

p 67 M . g oliath 4 0ft d iam. 1 2ft h igh. S outh o f C ongo r ain f orest. M . s ubhvalinus s maller. 3 0ft s teeples. S outh o f S ahara t o O range R . p 69 " An e arth m ound . ... i s n ot b egun u ntil t he c ommunity i s s everal y ears o ld a nd has b uilt u p a c onsiderable p opulation u nder c onditions b elow g round n ot u nlike t hose i t w ill o ccupy w hen i t m oves u p i nto t he m ound. A s a r esult t he n ew m ound w ill r each f rom o ne-third t o o ne-half i ts f inal h eight i n t he f irst y ear . ... I t

p 54 " The p eak o f v isible t ermite a ctivity i s r eached i n t he s avannahs a nd d eciduous w oodlands w hich c over a l arge p art o f A frica, w ith t he m ounds o f M acrotermes, C ubitermes, N asutermes a nd t heir r elatives." T ermites a nd S oils. K .E.Lee a nd T .G.Wood.

p 44 T able 3

% t otal s urface a rea. M acrotermitinae 3 0 ( 4-7 m ounds/ha)

A cademic P ress

d ry w t.kg/ha

1 971.

N Y&Lon

L ocation/Observer. ' 60

2 ,400,000 Savannah,Congo M eyer

M . b ellicosus. 0 .3 ( 5 m ounds/ha) M . b ellicosus. 3 .7 ( 62 mounds/ha) Cubitermes f ungifaber 0 .4 ( 875 " " )

2 4,500 S avannah,Nigeria N ye 3 06,000 S avannah,Nigeria N ye 1 7,600 R ain f orest, C ongo M aldague 1 964

p 69 Table 5 A bundance o f s ome t ermite m ounds. M . C .

b ellicosus 2 -3/ha f ungifaber 8 75/ha

p 97 T able 1 7.

P opulations

M . b ellicosus

s everal

C . f ungifaber

7 -69

p 70

S avannah,Congo B owllon a nd K idieri Rain f orest,Congo. M aldague 1 964.

t housand

S ubterranean T ermites.

3 N umbers x 10 -

E ast C ongo

A frica

B achelier 1 963 l uscher 1 955 M aldague 1 964

N umbers i n M illions.

B rachyste ia . ..'shadowy f orest' ‚ Congo D ry s avannah T rinidad r ain F orest

1 964.

T rinidad

4 13

5 00 2 7

4 450

M aldague 1 964 S trickland 1 944 S trickland 1 944

' 55 ' 55

( Notes

f rom T ahal W ater P lanning L td.)

V I - 9 C

D emographic C haracteristics o f D ivisions a nd M ajor T owns.

1 . I garra D ivision: R ugged t opography p layed a n i mportant p art i n d efining t he d ensity o f p opulation . M ost o f t he a rea i naccessible a nd u ncultivable; s ettlements c onfined t o n arrow c ultivable s trips o f l evel l and w hich s eparate g ranite h ills. T hus, e ven a t a n e arly s tage o f d evelopment, t he p opulation w as c oncentrated i n r elatively l arge s ettlements, o ften w ith t wo s torey h ouses t o u tilize a vailable s pace t o t he m aximum . O ut o f 3 1 v illages o nly 6 h ave l ess t han 1 000 i nhabit ants. 2 0% o f t he p opulation l ive i n v illages o f 2 ,000 - 4 ,000 a nd 3 0% l ive i n v illages o f 4 -10,000. T hese v illages a re p urely r ural i n s pite

o f

s ize.

I garra i s

t he o nly p lace w ith a ny

u rban

a ctivity ,

b eing t he c apital o f t he D ivision a nd c onsisting o f a s tring o f v illages r unning a long t he o nly ( then) m etalled r oad o f t he D ivision. 2 . A fenmai D ivision: C lear p hysiographical d ividing l ine b etween S abongida-Fugar p lateau a nd t he s outhern l owlands. T he s outhern h alf o f

t he

D ivision

i s

i n t he l owlands o f

t he O wene

a nd

E dion

r ivers

( geologically I mo s hales) a lmost v oid o f h abitation . T he C retaceous s andstone p lateau i n t he c entre o f t he D ivision i s h ighly p opulated. M ore e ven s pread b ecame p ossible o n s andy p lateau . T hree-quarters ( approximately) o f t he p opulation l ive i n v illages w ith l ess t han 4 000 a nd t he r emainder a re c oncentrated i n l arger s ettlements. T he o nly s ettlement o f a ny u rban c haracter i s A uchi, t he d ivisional c apital, w hich s erves a s t he f ocus o f a ll t he r oads c onnecting t he v illages t o t he m ain r oads. 3 .

I shan D ivision:

T he

a rea

c overed b y t he D ivision

i s

a lmost

i dentical w ith t he I shan p lateau - f airly l evel l andscape b roken b y s teeply i ncised s treams. T he i nfluence o f r oads u pon s ettlement f orm a nd s ite i s m ost a pparent i n t he t his a rea; v illages o f a ll s izes f orm a l ong r ibbon o f h abitation a long t he r oads, s ome s tretching t o a l ength o f s everal m iles. T he D ivisional c apital i s U biaja, b ut U romi, w ith a p opulation o f o ver 1 0,000 i s t he l argest t own . U romi i s a n o utstanding d evelopment:

e xample , of t he i nfluence o f r oads o n s pontaneous u rban b uildings s pread o ut i n a ll d irections f rom t he c ross-

r oads t hat f orm t he c ommunication c entre o f t he t own . U biaja , t hough, h as n ot d eveloped i nto a t rade c entre b ecause t he t runk r oad c onstruct ed i n r ecent y ears d oes n ot p ass t hrough i t. 7 .

B enin D ivision:

B enin

D ivision i s

t he l argest D ivision i n M id-

W estern N igeria ( now B endel S tate) a nd c overs a bout h alf o f t he B enin P rovince. M ost o f t he a rea o f t he D ivision i s i dentical w ith t he c oastal p lain, a nd o nly i n t he n orth i s t here s ome v ariety i n t he l andscape. T his a rea i ncludes t he n orth s ection o f t he u pper c oastal p lain ,

t he O ha r iver l owlands a nd s ome g ranite o utcrops

i n t he n orth-

w est e xtremity. T he p lain i tself i s d issected b y m any s teep r ivers, w hich m ake c ommunication v ery d ifficult, a nd u ntil r ecently t here w as n o h ighway r unning f rom B enin C ity w estwards a nd c ommunications w ith L agos h ad t o t ake a d etour t o t he n orth w hich l engthened t he r oad b y o ver

1 25

m iles.

L arge p arts o f

t he D ivision a re c overed

b y

d ense

f orest, w hich i s d ifficult t o c lear. A bout 4 0% o f t he D ivision i s d esignated f orest r eserve. S ettlements a re s ited o n t he h igh l evel g round a long t he i nterfluves, t hus s ettlement i n B enin D ivision i s m ore d ispersed t han i n t he o ther D ivisions o f t he P rovince. 5 8% o f 4 14

t he

r ural p opulation s till

l ive i n m ore t han 7 00 v illages

o f

l ess

t han

1 000 i nhabitants e ach . L arger v illages h ave d eveloped o nly a long t he 2 t runk r oads l eading t o A saba a nd I shan. T he o nly l arge s ettlements a re v illages w hich h ave m ore t han 4 000 i nhabitants e ach, a nd U rhonigbe, a s mall m arket t own i n t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he D ivision, n ear t he o nly b ridge o ver t he E thiope r iver. T his p attern o f s ettlement h as f ormed a lmost a ll t he u rban f unctions o f t he D ivis ion i n B enin C ity. 8 .

B enin C ity:

B enin C ity

i s

t he o ldest

t own i n M id-Western N igeria.

I n t he C l5th i t w as t he c apital c ity o f a g reat e mpire, w hich e xtended o ver m ost o f s outhern N igeria a nd e stablished c ontacts w ith t he P ortug uese e xplorers a nd t raders. T his h istorically i mportant p osition c reated

e conomic a nd s ocial c onditions,

w hose i nfluence i s f elt e ven

t oday. S ituated i n t he c oastal p lain a nd o n t he m ain t rail f or t he N iger c rossing a t A saba, B enin w as t he f ocus o f t rade o f s ervices f or t he l arge a rea d escribed i n p ara C 7

( above).

B enin, t herefore, p rovides s ervices t o a n a rea o f p opulation l arger t han a ny o ther w ithin t he r egion , a nd i ts e conomy i s m ainly d ependent o n t hese s ervices. T he m arket a reas a nd s treets l ined w ith s hops a nd r epair w orkshops o ccupy m ost o f t he t own , a nd s tretch a long a ll r oads l eading o ut o f t own. T he s econd a spect o f B enin's e conomic l ife i s i ts a dministrative f unction a s a p rovincial c apital, g iving e mployement and d octors h ospitals

t o a l arge n umber o fficials a nd o ffice w orkers, a nd o thers w orking i n t he p olice,

e tc.

4 15

p rison s ervice,

t eachers s chool,

G eological S urvey o f N igeria R eport N o.

1 185.

T he G roundwater R esources o f W estern N igeria. G eologist. G eology:

A n

c rystalline r ocks.

e ast/west r ocks

T he

l ine a t

a bout

f orms

P re-Cambrian: a )

t he

P re-Cambrian

R ecent

s ediementary

b ut

C rystalline r ocks,

o ccurs

i n

l arge

p redictable

I geneous a nd m etamorphic.

A n a ncient g neiss c omplex : f ormer s edimentary r ocks t ransf ormed i nto f elspatized g neiss, m igmatite a nd g ranite. Rock t ypes a nd

i nclude q uartzite, q uartzites

I seyin s ofter,

a nd E ast I lesha. l ess c onspicious

c ountry - e g. m etasomatics m igmatite. m ost

m ica s chist,

gneiss

o f m arble a nd m eta-conglomerate.

f orm i mposing p rominent M ost, r ocks,

r idges

h owever, c reating

a t

I badan,

i s c omposed o f l ow f eatureless

b etween A beokuta a nd I badan.

T he o lder G ranites:

t he

q uartz-schist,

a f ew s mall o ccurrences

H ard

b )

t o

P rincipal

l ocalized a nd u sually h ighly i rregular

b odies i n c rystalline r ocks, r eservoirs i n t he s edimentary. 1 )

C arter,

7° N d ivides

f rom t he U pper C retaceous

g roundwater

J .D.

a

w hich

s uite

i nclude

o f

g ranite

g ranite,

p lutonics

a nd

d iorite

a nd

g abbro,

C oarse p orphyritic o r p orphyroblastic g ranite i mportant m ember o f

t his s uite a nd c ause t he

i s

g reat

i nselbergs o f I danre. M igmatites u nderlie l arge a reas i ntermediary a nd b asic r ocks - e g. d iorite a nd g abbro a re

o f

s ubsidary

i s

i mportance.

T he w hole P re-Cambrian s tructure

i ntricately c omplicated b ut h as a b asic n orth-south t rend. I n P re-Cambrian c ountry, t he w ater h eld i n t he weathered z one a nd e xploited b y m eans

o f

s hallow,

o pen w ells,

p rovides

t he

o nly s upply i n m any r ural d istricts. 2 )

U pper C retaceous a )

t o R ecent:

S edimentary r ocks.

C retaceous: t he b asal s trata e verywhere c onsists o f a s eries o f c ontinental a nd m arine s andstones, c lays a nd s hales o f

U pper S enonian t o M aestrichtian a ge. b ) L ower T ertiary: M arine a nd c ontinental a nd s andstones o f

t he U pper C retaceous. 1 ,500 i n t hickness. p redominantly s haly,

..In t he D elta a rea t he r ocks T hey a re d ivided i nto a I mo S hale g roup a nd a n

p redominantly s andy, B ende-Ameki g roup. c ) U pper T ertiary t o R ecent: C ontinental t he C oastal P lains

S ands

a ccumulated a t

l ie u nconformably o n t he o lder d eposits c over l arge a reas a long r ivers

l imestone,

s hales

t he P aleocene a nd E ocene c onformably o verly

i n t he D elta a nd a long

s ands l east

e xceed l ower, u pper

a nd c lays 5 00

't hick

o f t o

s trata. R ecent a lluvial t he c ourses o f t he major

t he c oast.

T he s tructure o f t he s edimentary r ocks i s a s imple m onocline w ith m inor l ocal f lexures w hich d ip s outhwards a t a l ow a ngle, o ften l ess t han 1° . L ittle e vidence o f f aulting. R egional t hickening f rom N orth t o S outh a ccompanied b y b road f acies

c hanges

a s

a rgillaceous

r ocks b ecome a bundant

t o

t he

s wampy

a nd

s outh. T opography: i )

C oastal B elt:

r ecent

d issected b y n umerous

d eposits

l agoons

4 16

- l ow-lying,

a nd c reeks.

i i)

I ntermediate B elt: S edimentary r ocks o utcrop t o m ore t han 1 000 e levation r are. N o c onspicuous r elief. T his b elt i s c rossed n ear l atitude 6° 5 5' b y t he b road, f lat-bottomed E wekoro d epression s urrounding c ountry.

w hich l ies a pproximately 2 00' b elow t he T his d epression e xtends e astwards i nto

N igeria f rom D ahomey a nd c an b e t raced, G ida a nd p lateaux

w ith b reaks,

t o S abon

t he N iger. I n t he e ast t he l ow I shan a nd A saba a fford s ome r elief a nd n orth o f A uchi t he

s edimentary

p lains

t erminate

i n a b old n orth-facing

s carp

w hich r ises s ome 5 00' a bove t he P re-Cambrian . i ii) T he N orthern B elt: i .e. t he P re-Cambrian o utcrop-elevation u sually a bove 1 000 , e xceeding 3 000' i n t he I danre h ills. L andforms a re t ypical - i ncluding b oulder-strewn h ills, i nselbergs a nd q uartzite r idges. T he l andscape t ypes a re v aried - b eing a s eries o f m ature e rosion s urfaces w ith s cattered i nselbergs. C limate:

T wo s easons

..

d ry

..

r ainy

...

T here a re n o r eliable f igures f or e vapo-transpiration r ates. G roundw ater i s a ffected b y t he t otal r ainfall a nd l ength o f t he d ry s eason ( counted a s m onths w ith l ess t han 1 " r ain) - e specially i n P reC ambrian w here g roundwater r eservoirs a re s mall. V egetation : 1 ) Mangrove a nd f reshwater s wamps f orests - e specially D elta. 2 ) High f orest w ith l eaf c anopy o f 1 00' p lus - l ittle

i n

t he

p rimary

f orest l eft. ( 1 & 2 o ver m ost o f t he s edimentary r ocks). 3 ) W ooded g rasslands o f t he G uinea S avannah. G roundwater

T he d ata i s n ot

c omprehensive e nough t o d raw

w ater-table

maps P re-Cambrian: U nderlain b y g ranite a nd m etamorphic c rystalline r ocks w hose c haracter o pposes g roundwater c irculation - n o g eneral water-table

e xists.

G roundwater

b odies

t end

t o

b e

d iscrete

a nd

i rregular b oth i n s ize a nd d istribution . W eathering a nd j ointing a re t he p re-requisites f or t he o ccurrence o f g roundwater i n c rystalline r ocks - w eathering b eing e specially i mporant i n W . N igeria, w here i n P re-Cambrian c ountry, w ater h eld i n t he w eathered z one a nd e xploited b y m eans o f s hallow , o pen w ells, p rovides t he o nly s upply i n m any r ural d istricts. T hese w eathered z ones c ontain w ater i n d iscrete a nd g enerally u nconfined b odies p erched u pon n on-weathered r ocks. S ome g roundwater o ccurs i n j oints a nd f ractures b ut i s b oth d ifficult t o a sses a nd o f a ccess. N orthern C retaceous A rea: I ncludes A iyetoro, I shaga, I jebu-Ode a nd t he c retaceous o utcrop n orth o f I fon,

A uchi a nd A genibode.

C omposed

o f s andstones ( 70%) a nd c lays w ith t hickness r anging f rom a f ew f eet t o 3 00' i n t he s outh - r eaching d own t o t he u nconformity w ith t he P reC ambrian. T he a renaceous n ature m eans g roundwater u sually r ests o n t he P re-Cambrian - b ut c an b e u nreliable ( eg: 6 0% p robability). S prings o ccur a t t he u nconformity i n r avines n ear M eko, F ugar ( see b orehole r eport 1 179), O gbona ( b-h r . 2 613) a nd A genibode ( b-h r . 2 0 4) i n p redominantly s andstone s equences w here d epths t o t he w atert able a re e xcessive. I fon h as w hite, b rown a nd g ritty c lays p resent i n a lmost T he

e qual p roportions

t o

t he a renaceous

r ocks.

F ugar a rea c omprises a n i ll-defined a rea/district 417

s ituated

i n t he h igh c ountry b etween A uchi a nd A genibode w here t he w ater-table l ies a t r elatively g reat d epths ( 350-610 ), p robably r eflecting t he h igh p ermeability o f t he s andstones. R ainfall p asses r apidly t hrough t he a renaceous s trata - n ot a rrested m uch b y t he t hin c lay b ands. E stimates o f w ater-table d epths ( from J ones H .A . A uchi R ural H ealth C entre 4 70' J attu ( Ukpilla-Fugar C ross-roads) 5 40' I bienape a nd U gieda 2 90' F ugar ( Ogbona-Ekpeni c ross-roads) I viukwe 4 10'

1 951) a re a s f ollows:

3 80'

I n t he I fon a rea t he w hite, b rown a nd g ritty c lays a re p resent i n a lmost e qual p roportions t o t he a renaceous r ocks; a nd t he c lay b eds p rovide s hallow g round-water, ( if s loping, p ressure w ater). C oastal P lains A rea :

M uch

d ensely

p opulated

c ountry.

e g .

S apele

b orehole 1 349. 1 25 . T he s and b eds, c omprising 5 0% o f a ll t he s trata, a re s aturated a t s hallow d epths a nd f unction a s e fficient a quifers. V ariable

g roundwater c onditions m et a t I befun a nd B enin C ity

-

g ood a nd p oor y ields b eing a djacent. T his i s d ue t o t he l enticular n ature o f t he C oastal P lains S ands s trata a nd t he c onsequent r apid l ateral t hinning o f a quifers. B ende A meki A rea:

e g :

A saba,

I ssele-Uku,

I vue,

U buru,...

T he B ende

A meki g roup i s c omposed o f c ontinental s ands, c lays a nd l ignites. T he s ediments a re a v ariable s equence o f c ross-bedded f ine t o c oarse s andstone, g rey s iltstones, g rey a nd b lack m ud-stones, y ellow a nd p ink c lays, l ignitic s hales a nd l ignites. P ebble b eds h ave b een p roved d uring d rilling. T he w hole a rea i s u nderlain b y a n a lternation o f f lat-lying s andstones a nd c lays w ith i gnites. A t A saba, b orehole t ests h ave s hown t hat t he s andstones, w hen s aturated, f unction a s h igh-yielding a quifers. T he p ermeability o f t he s andstones a nd, t o s ome e xtent, o f t he l ignites i s a lso i ndicated b y p owerful s prings w hich e merge f rom t hese r ocks a long t he s carps i n I shan a nd e astern A saba . ( Also n ote f our p erched a quifers a t I vue a nd n o p ermanent w ater-table r eached b y 8 05 ). I n t he A saba a rea t here i s n o i nformation o n w ater-table d epths o ver l arge p arts o f t his a rea a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s hallow g roundw ater i s p resent. I n p articular, i n t he s trip o f c ountry 2 -3miles w ide, a djoining t he N iger a nd t he I mo S hale a rea, s hallower g roundw ater c an b e e xpected. T erms u sed:

G roundwater i s d efined a s w ater i n t he z one o f p ermanent

s aturation ; s hallow n ear-surface w ater s uch a s t hat w hich o ccurs i n s oils, l aterite a nd t hin s uperficial d eposits i s n ot t aken i nto a ccount. I n c ountry u nderlain b y P re-Cambrian r ocks, d istinctions b etween g roundwater a nd s hallow s ub-surface w ater o ften c annot b e m ade. T he u pper l imit o f t he s aturated z one i s c alled t he w atert able. A quifers a re r ocks o r s tructures w hich r eadily y ield water ; a quicludes a re i mpermeable r ocks w hich w ill n ot t ransmit a ppreciable q uantities o f w ater t o w ells o r s prings. P erched a quifers l ie a bove t he p ermanent z one o f s aturation . G roundwater c onfined u nder p ressure i s t ermed c onfined o r p ressure w ater. A rtesian i s w hen t his p ressure w ater h as a h ydraulic h ead s tanding a bove t he a rtesian i s b elow t he g round l evel. 4 18

l and

s urface.

S ub-

G EOLOGY A ppendix 2 :

G roundwater a reas - S ummary o f C haracteristics

P re-Cambrian : C rystalline g neisses a nd q uartzites.

r ocks, c hiefly g ranitic w ith G enerally n ot w ater-yielding.

s ubordinate S mall t o

moderate q uantities i n w eathered z one a nd p ossibly i n j oints a nd f ractures. Y ields d ifficult t o f orecast. L arge-scale w ater s upply i nvariably d epends

o n s torage o f

N orthern C retaceous:

A beokuta

s urface w ater. f ormation

o nly). 7 0% o f s trata s andstones d iately u nderlain b y P re-Cambrian.

( in W estern

p art

o f

( also c lays) u p t o 3 00 t hick i mmeS trata w ater-yielding b ut g round-

water c onditions v ariable o wing t o p roximity o f P re-Cambrian Where

t hick,

e xpected

a t

a ble o nly Fugar: o ne

s aturated

s ections

s hallow d epths

( less

f or w estern p art

o f

t wo v ery

o ccur,

s tones, n ant.

t hin c lays.

( less

A beokuta

c an

b e

G roundwater d ata a vail-

a rea. S andstones

a t

l east 7 00' t hick w ith

S andstones p robably h ighly

Water-table a t d epth e g. 3 53 -611 . S trata n ot e ffectively t ested. Ewekoro-If o n:

s urface.

f airly g ood y ields

t han 3 00 ).

S trata u ndifferentiated.

o r

a rea

p ermeable.

N o p roducing b oreholes

a nd E wekoro

f ormations.

i n a rea.

S andstones,

l ime-

s hales a nd c lays, f rom 3 00-900' t hick. S andstones p redomiHighly p roductive g roundwater a rea. G ood y ields f rom s hallow

t han 3 00 )

d epths.

P ressure w ater w ith a rtesian h ead p resent.

I beshe I laro a nd E wekoro f ormations: l imestones y ielding

4 00-500' t hick. b ut

S hales,

m udstones,

S haly r ocks p redominant.

i ntra-shale a quifer p resent

s andstones,

S hales n ot w ater-

b elow I laro.

M eagre

b ore-

hole d ata d ifficult t o i nterpret. H igh-yielding a quifers o f E wekoroI fo n a rea i n w hich p ressure w ater m ay b e p resent e xtend b elow a rea. I mo S hale:

I mo S hale g roup.

and s iltstones, a nd

n o

s trata

p robably u p

i ntra-shale b elow s hales

Existence

S hales w ith o ne o r t o

1 000'

t hick.

a quifers k nown. p roved a t

t wo

S hales

A rtesian w ater

S abon G ida.

o f w idespread a rtesian c onditions

t hin

l imestones

n ot w ater-yielding i n

a renaceous

L ittle g roundwater

d ata.

i ndicated.

B ende A meki: B ende A meki g roup. S andstones w ith s ubordinate s ilts, c lays a nd l ignites a t l east 8 00' t hick. S andstones a pparently h ighly p ermeable a nd g ood y ields o btained a t A saba. W ater-table depth i n many d istricts, p articularly b elow I shan a nd A saba N o g roundwater d ata f or m any p arts o f C oastal P lains: S andstones, over 5 0% o f

I laro F ormation

l ies a t p lateau.

a rea.

( upper p art)

a nd C oastal P lains

S ands.

c lays a nd s hales a t l east 7 00' t hick. S andstones c omprise s trata. H ighly p roductive a rea w ith v ery g ood y ields f rom

many l ocalities

a t

C odstal A lluvium:

d epths u sually

l ess

t han 3 00 .

S emi-consolidated g ravels,

s ands,

s ilts

a nd c lays.

Moderate t o g ood s upplies o f g roundwater i ndicated b ut c hances o f s hallow s aline p ollution h igh. L ittle g roundwater i nformation. P oll uted w aters

n eed

s ealing-off d uring d rilling.

419

A PPENDIX M M aps

o f C ommunity B oundaries

M 1 O khunmwun M 2 I guosa M 3 U welu M 4 E vbuotubu/Omuemu/Okhokhugbo M 5

I hinmwin,

E khator,

M 6 O ka n-A ruovia,

E guiyoba/Evbogida b oundary

O ghe-di-vbioba/Ugbighoko

M 7 E vbuohire a nd I zevbihen v illages M 8 T ransect

a long p art

o f

( Etete?)

( on O ka l and)

o ld B enin-Sapele

r oad

M 9 E vbogisi/Etete M 10 O riokpa M il O ko M 12

O hovbe

M 13 A duwawa/Oregbeni M 14 M ain C ity W all

j unction a s

s ketched b efore d rainage s cheme

4 20

M 1 I yekuselu

1

t o Oshodin P rimary

, -.-

2

° i • , '4 _.-. : '' .• ,• . ;.

S chgol'

f oot -

/

b_ -

.

•

N

m oat . 0

6 moat 2 , _ __, -_ f ootp ath

D istrict C ouncil Ekhiadolor

9 1 0

-• •n7*/

m ost

o ath

I O

: '

8

O vhiogie v illage Ekhibi

P rimary S chool Ovbiogie Iguoshodin N ebudin

--

1 1

P rimary S chool

1 4 Odionwere h ouse

Egba P rimary S chool

f rom B enin

5

• Okhunmwun v illage

Iguosa v illag t re m oot

I dunwomwina

1 7 t o

v illage S iluku

3 0

1

r educed

f rom S cale

S ketch P lan

2 k m. &500

f t.

s hewing P erimeter

A rea S urvey

2 516

a cres.

o f Okhunmwun V illage'

V ard 1A I yekuselu D .C. 30/1/76. P lan N o S KC 1 /76 i n B enin D evelopment P lanning A uthority F ile N o 4 97.

1 2

Igun c amp Emume c amp

3

Okpia

4 5

Oba c amp Ebinu c amp

c amp

6

Uviase c amp Omoregie c amp

7

D edu

8 9

New

1 0

N igeria P olice

1 1 1 2

NEPA Transmitting L ine E CN P ower L ine

1 3

N i ' PA T ransmitting L ine

1 4 1 5

r oad

r iver

o ld f ootpath t hat t he a ncient p eople r ast t o

1 6

t he ' est. f rom Oluku v illage

1 7

i roko

l ine

L agos

t o

U tekon b oundary

c amp

Shell

f ootpath

S tation

t o

4 21

r iver E ruvbi t ree

M 2

p ortion

o f

o f C luku

t he

l and

t o

v illage

La go s

p ortion o f

t he

l and

o f

Okhunmwun

p ortion

v illage

t he

o f

l and

o f

I guosa C o

p ortion o f

unity

o f

t he

I gue-iyeya

l and v illage

t o J enin

0

1 k r n

BDPA f ile n o 4 98 P eri !neter s urvey o f

18/7/ 73 Iguosa v illage,

M 3 Egbaen v illage

c ale

u ncertain:

p robably o r

1 :50,0 0

1 :25,000

r educed

f ron

a ssumed s cale of

1 "

t o

2 00

f t. t o Zvor Uwelu ' p erimeter Egbsoire f orest

4 22

ß enin-Lagos r oad.

M 4

Evbuotubu

,

f rom

v illage

3

I ninoghede D ouble m oat

2 nd m oat

4 7

5

8 O khokhugbo Omuemu

v illage

\ :10

// L and

1 1

o f Obo

1 7 A rea

f rom

1 6

i n

Ogba water

w orks

r .

. 5 , ., ,, , , 7

,

-

, % . .

, . .

,

\

i

,

\ \

\

Ward

0

, •, ,

2 0/K

1k m

N o

F ile

2 48

Ward

„'

/

1 8

L and o f Ogida Ward 4 3/B

1

B /50/75 P lan N o

O N

4 870

1 st m oat

1 5/12/75 E vbuotubu D isputed

l and l and

1 809

a cres.

7 67.15

1 e nd o f 2 nd m oat' 2 o ld i dumwun o f E nogie 3 Okoto Erhabor f arm 4f rom E kehuan 5f rom U tagbon

6 Olua 7A jayi 8 Ediae 9 Iyawe

V.

/

C ity W all

t o B enin C ity

S uit

5

a cres.

o f E vbuotubu

j uju s hrine c amp c amp

c amp 1 0 C muemu - o ld i dumwun ( Evbuotubu) 1 1 C ity ( now A soro) G rammar S chool 1 2 E zuku

j uju

s hrines

1 3 C sun Ewuare 1 4 Ogbodu r ubber 1 6 I guedaiyi 1 8

p lantation 1 7

P laintiff' s W ard

J acob

1 5 O saigbovo

4 3/B O khokhugbo

4 23

O liha r ubber r ubber a rea

n ot

p lantation

p lantation i n

d ispute

o f Ogida

M 5

f rom

, enin

r iver

(J

a

t o

i himwir hin

Part

o f

i hinr luin a rea

B DPA I ile

. b . nin C ity t « ). 4 76.

E do College

Ekhator V illage

u naltered f rom 2 5,000 t o o ne inch.

A rea Ward 3 3/E

F ile

A49A V ol.

1 .

m oot

r j vbareke

t o

2 ' vbareke

t o

L uos r oad

i luku r o d .

moot

1 3 .D.

Ecuniyoba a nd

jhewing b oundnry d emarcation as approved Akenzua G ba

o f

Evbocida.

by Oba I I

= b ounr lary b etween

( the

ß enin).

4 24

M 6

t o B enin N

r educed

f rom

1 "

= 4 00 f t.

t A b

t o : „ 7 : 3 .knoba

O ka

n 'A'ruovia W ard

F ile

I ,.

3 3/A

6 12.

1k m

0

t h r m oat

r educed

f rom

1 "

•L ayout P lan f or p art o f ' ‘ , 7rC L 3 Oghe-di-vbioba/Ugbighoko A rea B enin A enwan 2 oad. F ound

i n F ile

4 59

f or L tete

4 25

v illage.

( ?)

= 2 00 f t.

M7 E vbuoriaria l and

Okabere

U r i-titled

l and

r ) r(A y ably 0

Ckaniro l and

1 k-m

( reduced s cale

f rom

o f

p robable

1 :6,250)

1 t o

B enin

Evbuohire

v illage / 1 0 -/ 1 . 2 5 1 1 2 6

t o

w ell

S apoba

Ugbeku land

2 9 % 1 3 o 3

O khikhan -

t ree

Evbuohire land

m oat

Evbuohin l and

Avbiama land

4 1

. ( , 50diohi

( Odighi

? )

l ake

H ouseholders o f Evbuohire: 1 Okugha Obasuyi 3 Osakhamwanta Omoregbe 4 Osarobo Igbinake

2 Cgieva I zeko 5 I demudia Igharo

6 Ekhator Igharo 7 Omonruyi Egiede 8, , 7 2bon Nanvbare 9 Akhionbare I gharo 1 0 A ragbonbu 1 1 Omoigui Igiebor 1 2 O sayande Akeobo 1 3 Egiede I dahar 1 4 A semota I danor 1 5 t wo s mall r ubber f actory

b uildings

1 6

Agharaiha C sakue

1 7 Enabulele Edokpayi

1 8 Agokhan 1 9 Asiruwa i gue 2 0 I mande 2 2 S unday Igbinake 2 3 Ovbebo S emowota - 2 5 Ehogie o f U moguehen' s Shrines and o ther f eatures: by Enogie U moguehen e lders t o

o f

U moguehen

2 9 Ogwedion

( Defendants).

o ccupy

p laintiff' s

2 8

h ouse 2 6 E dion O junake

j uju

3 0 3 1

s erved j uju

o riginal

The

I khimwen A semota

j uju & 2 7 Chware

j uju

A vwotor

D efendant' s l and

I gbinake 2 1 24 I khimwin

m ound

s erved

v illage i s

j uju

s erved

b y O dionwere

t he

b y

o f

Evbuohire

w here

o riginal

t hey l eft b oundary

b etween Evbuohire a nd I zevbihen 3 2 Adanene w here l ate Odelevbo s on o f b ; vbuohire was k illed by Ozolua 3 3 E dion j uju 34 A gbodo 35

U regbon

j uju

3 9

Odighi

o f

I zevbihen

j uju

3 6 Oviah

j uju

4 0 Akhanufi 4 2 Okhikhan

3 7 Ake

j uju

t ree

4 1

s erved

4 26

j uju

I khimwin b y

3 8

A vwotor

t ree

e lders

o f

p it

j uju

s erved b y p eople I zevbihen

t o

/ J7

7 7

/

O . = C ,

I

Evbuoriarial

M 8 B enin

/

/ . Z ! 01

(

f rom B enin

1 :2,500

s heet n o. 1 65/825 F ederal S urveys 1 967

e a r t h\

; 5 N

E vbuoriaria

4 %4 N ‘ e arth

a

e arth

1

1 t o S hpele

4 27

M 9

P lan s hewing l and

i n

d ispute

Suit

H o.

B/163/73

Chief S . 0morodion ( Plaintiff) v ersus Samuel Osabere and a nother a t Etete v illage. o B enin C ity i r oat

I du r lwuivbiotor ( not

Land

Land

d ispute)

o f

Evbi ohenvian ( not

i n

m oat

i n

d ispute)

v bogisi

2

l and 1 :& it g ate ( Uriya) b etween Ghen-Gtor

m oat L and

E - O riaria. 1 ‚ ; vbuoriaria

o f

Oriokpa

p eople

a wounity Land

( not

d ispute)

( no :

i n

i n

d is pu te)

0

1 km reduced 1 "

Suit

No

P lan N o

B /16 /7j

( No

M /G

1 Ogogovo

s hrine

2 Old ruins SN .E.P.A.

B /2 . 5 5/74 a lso r efers) 1 5/ 4 /7 5

o f Ggisi ( sub-power

s tation)

4 Ohen Otor shrine 5 Ruins of Ohen ( ) tor 6 Ake shrine ( owned b y d aughter o f C hen ( . tor)

4 28

= 4 00

f rom f t.

M 10

XTB

1 54 o f

Sg . cA/2 1 T .P.61

( Presumeably

o f Orio pa

c ommunit )

t o

0

4 29

B enin

M ll

t o

r educed 1 : 4,800

B enin

L and

f rom

Oko

o f E vboro

c ommunity

v illage Land o f

C ommunity

Evboro

moat 7

Community moat

f rom Ogba

o

v illage C ommunity O riokpa

moat Land

" And E 5 -U -i rhirhi

3 0/5/75

Community 0

1 k m

Ogba j uju s hrine w orshipped a nnually b y t he Oba o f B enin t hrough t he Ohen o f Oko v illage who s erves t he j uju. The

Ogba

p eople

j uju m ade

Oba

Lwuare

t o

give

t his

l and

t o

t he

o f Oko v illage.

( The s hrine was o bserved i n J une 1 976 w ith f resh s acrifices o n i t. I t i s l ocated i n a p it-like g rove 3 m d eep x 2 0m.)

B enin D evelopment

. ..

a l etter

' ..it

i s

o f

P lanning A uthority F ile

1 2/ 4 /7 6 t o

r eliably l earnt

Okah C ommunity A llotment

f alls

t hem

f rom

w ithin

A rea..

4 30

6 15.

s tates:

t he t he

N o

p alace

s ources

I ghiwiyisi

Plot

t hat

M 12 O regbeni A p lan l and

t o B eni

s howing

i n

l and

k

d ispute

Oh O t

i n s uit n o 1 21/51 o f B enin C ustomary C ourt G RI 1 7/12/59

anthill

/

P laintiff: I higiomusoe

A duwawa

/ :OP / P / I yr t m- O t

O yemwensere ( of Ohovbe) v ersus

a nthill l and

I ya

I gharevba A igbe ( Ohe o f A mufi)

Ogbesan /

/K 1

, / kg . 1 2 \

.r; 3

l and

1 Ekhator \

o f Ogbesan

Evbuomudu

2 A bekpa j uju B DC s chool Ohovbe

l and

N

/

Okhuahe B enelaka

Ohovbe

j uju

-

1

)'-Odion

j uju

Ovbia

j uju

o ld c emetery

Ohovbe . •

Ogbom

j uju Ko

U -

• J E ' c g

t o A saba I T rees: P =palm O h=ohue O k=okpoha O p=opolipo I k=ikhimwin K o=kolanut K p=kpokoro K g=Kp g rove U =Uwewu Ovbiobo

2

/

. 0 1;t huahe A ruogemwin) , for a ll O hovbe j igianmwen j uju . R uins o f O dion j uju " . ( Ik7 f ez 2lo i tor j uju f or Ohovbe 2 o s* hovbe I ghekpe Ogief or \ 4 11 O j uju

. \ /

l and d isputed P Ohe O he

2

,

j uju

P P I )

Odigh : i . a.. Ik ( seasonal l ake)

* 1 '

Ca m p

‘ 1

P

' 13

2.P 1 : ›

/ r janto °, t p/j 1 . 1

'

4 31

l and

\ 1N ,A muY

l and

I ghekpe

.

M 13

P lan s howing l anded p roperty o f Aduwawa V illage.

Ehor m oat

W ard 4 0B B enin C ity. A rea 4 76.55 a cres.

Evbuomodu

B enin C ity T own P lanning , A uthority F ile N o.

2 01

r educed f rom 1 " = 2 00 f t.

O hovbe

landed

m oat

p roperty o at

O regbeni l anded n roperty

Ohovbe l anded p roperty

S cale 1 :25,000 r educed f rom 1 "

= 1 00

f t.

O regbeni

1

a rea

w ithin W ard 4 0/A 3 enin C ity

t o B enin S cale 1 :25,000 r educed

o A saba

f rom 1 "

= 2 00 f t. moat B 9388 1k m

0

1 W estern B oys 2 G uinness 3 H enniger

N otes:

H igh S chool C ompound

h arp.

R educed f rom t hree d ifferent maps/plans. W estern B oys H igh S chool a nd n enniger h ave a ltered t heir n ames s ince t he p lans w ere made.

4 32

M 14

BLIA

L iscellnnPous

1 : ain

( . d ity

1 "

4 uo f t.

=

5 0

1 1

u nction.

1 00 m etres

t o I kroba s tream

% r o d

4 33

A PPENDIX 0 O ral t raditions O 1

U humwode

O 2

E gbede t raditions

t raditions

( Errua 2 , E kolobuse,

O 3 O 4

I si t raditions ( Evbu'Orhuan) I yek'Ikpoba t raditions ( Ohovbe, E vbomodu, E wedor, A hor, O bojare,

( Ekhor,

I kokhan , I guosagie, E yaen) I yeware t raditions ( Oka, I dogbo,

O 5

O bagie,

U gha)

I rokhin) O gbesan, I hovbor,

U khiri,

O regbeni, O rio/Oria,

U tezi,

U legun ,

A vbiakagba, E gbal, E gun, U wosan, U tesi, E vbuomoma, U gbeku, I hinmwirin, U melu, A vbiama, I kpe, A zagba, U roho, E kosa, O gua, O be, O bagie, U hie, O giokwe, A mangba, U gbor) I yek'Orhiomwon t raditions

O 6

N iro,

U gbugu,

( Idu,

I guohan,

U moghumwun-Zuagbor,

U go,

I guemokhua,

U gboko-

E vbu'Eka,

I guelaba, O ben, U moghumwun, A gbadi, S P 1 4775A C 32/22) I yek'Uselu t raditions ( Egor, I wu, E gbaen , O mi, O bagie,

O 7

A rah,

A rmufua,

O bazuwa,

O zogua,

I yowa, I guevemwen , E ko-Abetus, I yek'Ovia t raditions ( Udo)

O 8

A zalama,

I guosula,

U wan)

O 9

I shan t raditions ( Ileh-Ekpoma, c amp, O poji I .R.)

O 1 0

W P 1 0057 I shan 1 I ntelligence R eport o n E kpoma C lan, I shan D ivision, B enin P rovince b y H .L.M . B utcher, A .D.O. 1 932? ( notes o nly)

O 1 1

C M 2 22 I shan 9 A n I ntelligence R eport o n t he U romi V illage G roup o f t he I shan D ivision, B enin P rovince H .L.M .

B OX-FILE

I ntelligence

R eports w ish

O gbagbo,

O kene

B utcher A .D.O.

A vailable a t C .W.A.S.,

c irculation b y i nspect t hem .

O kpoji,

U niversity o f B irmingham

f rom t he B enin K ingdom n ot o f

i ntended

f or

t he a uthorities w ho k indly p ermitted

N otes o n B radbury's T hesis,

B acon,

B oisragon .

4 34

w ide m e

t o

E RRUA 2 ,

U humwode.

2 7/2/76.

I nformant:

T here a re t wo E rrua v illages; f our m iles i nside b ush.

o dion N o.

2

t he o riginal o ne - I na E rrua - i s

t wo t o

T he p rimary s chool h ere i s n amed a fter E kalderhan, b ecause h e s tayed a nd d ied h ere a fter f ounding t hat s ite. T he l and w as g ood f or f arming a nd a s tream w as

n ear.

E rrua s eniors E hor; E rrua h as

a nd t here h as b een O gi'Errua s ince l ong.

b oundaries w ith U gha,

O badan ,

U hi,

E hor

( and I kpohi

s treet

E hor), b ut n ot I gieduma. I khimwin m ark t he b oundary w ith t he o thers, t hough t here i s i ya ( heap o n E rrua s ide) b etween E rrua a nd U hi. T here i s n o r eal c ommon b oundary w ith E hor. E KOLOBUSE,

( between

E hor a nd

U hi),

E humwode.

2 7/2/76.

I nformant:

o dionwere D uring t he t ime o f w ar i n O vonramwen's t ime, t he O logbose ( general o f t he B enin a rmy) t akes r efuge h ere. T here w as n o v illage b efore t hat t ime. M y g randfather w as O vonramwen w as t here. O BAGIE,

U humwode.

a live a t

27 /2 / 76.

t hat

I nformant:

T his i s O robosa s treet i n O bagie. m iles t o t he w est 4 0 y ears a go.

t ime.

O bagie c an c onfirm t hat

o dion

W e m oved f rom i nside b ush a bout 2 W e w ere n ear t he r iver E hian. W e

c ame f rom E kolobuse i n O ba E weka I I's t ime: t he O logbose w as b ehaving i n a v ery t yrannical f ashion d uring t he t ime o f t he 2 nd w orld w ar, t reating p eople l ike s laves, h ere. U GHA , T he

U humwode. o riginal

2 7/2/76. s ite o f

s o t he O ba o rdered

I nformant:

o dionwere,

t his v illage w as a bout

r oad - t he

r iver s ide o f

E re,

t he o giso b ut a s on o f O ba E wuare,

n ot

t he p eople t o m ove o ut

i n b ed s ick.

1m ile w est o f

t he

o ld

t he r oad. m ade t his

p lace

- O gie

O sayamen b eing t he f irst b ig c hief. A t t hat t ime I hie - 4 t o 6m iles t he o ther s ide o f E rrua - w as t he c apital o f U humwode; a nd E rrua b ut n ot O badan w as a lso a v illage. I hie i s o n t he s ame l and a s U gha. O khuo i s u nder U gha. U gha

h as

b oundaries w ith:

E rrua ( river),

I hie ( to n orth,

m arked b y

i khimwin t rees)...and...no o ther p lace... U gha i s t he m ost n orth),...

s enior,

t hen I hie,

t hen E rrua ( Irhia?),

E vbirin ( to

O guola m ake t he i ya...Ogie O yemowa w as m ade t o d o t he w ork b y O guola. O khuo

w as

a c amp f rom U gha m ade b y E diae u nder O ba E weka I I a bout

y ears a go.

4 35

8 0

E KHOR,

l ate

1 974.

A duhanhan was

I nformant:

O nogie a fter c onsultation w ith e dion

f ounded 4 O ba's

p ast,

a nd E khor,

a gbe, U gonoba, U vbe a nd I rokhin u sed t o c arry f or c ollection o f t ribute f or t he O ba. E khor h as

b een s ince o giso t imes.

( UHE?) T he f irst

( very n arrow) I hemwiotor t ree i nto t he g round. a nd c reated h ouses a nd p eople f rom t he g round, O rhian

w as

t he

O kiehor,

t heir y ams

f irst o nogie a nd

E bue, t o

f ounder k nocked a

H e c leared e verything u sing h is d ivine v oice.

t here h ave b een 1 4

e nigie

p resent t ime. H e s tart d uring o giso t ime ( or b etween o giso?) a nd t he O ba o f B enin ( ogiso?) c hallenged h im . O rhian

b uilt

w here f rom

t he i ya t o

s afeguard h is

h e s tays...iya p revents w andering.

w hich

a nimals

O ba O guola b uilt

c ow,

t he o ther i ya,

t he a nd

g oats s uch

f ought O zolua f or

t hree y ears.

O rhian w as

b uilt

c ircular

t he o ne a t B enin.

t he

p lace

a nd

f owl,

a s E khor N iro

g uards E khor a nd E khor n 'Igu'Okuan i n t he m iddle,

h ave

i ya l ike

t o

E wuare

c hildren...Egun i s s uch a s

O kighi-

t hat p lace

i s

s aid

t o

t he o nly o ne t o h ave

W hen O zolua c ame h e s eems o ne m an a t E khor N iro s etting t raps; O zolua w anted a n a ntelope ( Ikpezipe), b ut w hen t he m an s ees O zolua h e b acks a way

a nd

r uns

O zolua d id n ot M eanwhile e nter

g iving a n e xcuse t hat h e h ad

t o g o a nd

f etch

a

r ope.

d efeat h im !

O rhian w as w ashing w ith d ew f rom c loud;

t he g round

a nd O rhian was

j ust

a ll

h is

p roperty

s moke w hen O zolua a rrive.

O zolua

g o o n t o U zea ( near I guabazamwen). A t O kenuhen h e s ees a l ady, h as a f ence m ade ( for p rivacy?), t hen m ates h er a nd s ent h er t o E khor ( which m eans

t he p lace

i s

t oo h ard,

i t's

a t ough p lace').

T he o riginal n ame

w as I buemwan I ghide ( meaning ' I n ow r emain, I w ill n ot f all a gain'). T he s on b orn ( of t his l ady?) t o O zolua b ecome o nogie a nd t here h ave b een 1 2 A ll n ot

e nigie t o

t he p resent

t he o ther i ya were b uilt a

He b uilt

t hem a t E bue,

a nd a ll I yekorhiomo.

U go,

U vbe,Ugoneki,

t he E dohe

t he r iver O khwaihe.

I n

t he

I te,

p ast

I n r ied

E khor w as

U gha,

t he p ast

T he i ya a lso g oes

U moghumwun

t o

T he

I rokhin,

i s i ya b ut

O ne o f t he o nogie o f T here a re a lso i ya a t

O keze,

v ery p owerful a nd b ecame a

( ie.

E khor),

O khwaihe,

E khor

t ax

n 'Igu'Okhuan,

r egion.

I t

E khorniro,

E muhun 1 a nd 2 .

i roghae c ould n ot m arry u ntil

t he t ribute

L aloke h as

i ya

E khor,

U gonoba...

c ontained E guae'onogie A duhanhan,

w as

b uilt

j uju w hich i s v ery s trong.

t here i s n o b oundary b etween E khor a nd I rokhin. E khor's s ons m akes t he p lot o f l and a t I rokhin. O khunmwun,

H e

s o h e

T he i ya b etween o nogie U wan a nd o nogie E khor

c alled I ya E dohe a nd h as d own t o

t ime.

b y O guola b efore h e b ecame O ba.

f amous w arrior o r m agician l ike o ther O bas,

i nstead.

g oes

d ay s tarting i n O zolua's

t hey b ecame i ghele s o

t o A duhanhan.

b een t he g reeting s ince O zolua's

4 36

t ime.

c ar-

E KHOR N 'IGU'OKHUEN, T he

v illage m oved

31 /5 / 76... t o

t his

I nformant:

o dionwere.

s ite i n 1 952 f rom a bout

1m ile i nside

b ush

t o t he n orth. T here w ere s ix i dumwun b efore. T he v illage n ever m ove b efore, i t g rew u p a nd m et p eople t here. T hey d id n ot k now t he O ba w hen t he p lace w as

f ounded.

O kpoke f rom B enin w as

t he f ounder.

B oth

E khor N 'Igu'Okhuen a nd E khor N 'Idumwolu s enior

c ame

f rom t his v illage.

N iro m eans

p eople o f

t he n ew r oad/open r oad.

W e

b oundaries

h ave

A duhanhan.

w ith U go

E khorniro

' open p lace',

n 'Oba a t

s o

t he r iver

w hich

t hey a re

j ust

O hunmwan a nd

w ith

W e s hare l and w ith E khor n 'Idumwolu.

T he v alley

( iya)

O ur

g oes

l and

I gu'Okhuen.

c ome n aturally u p

t o O rhuan,

E muhun

i s

..

n o...

O ba O guola m ake t hem.

a nd I te n 'Orhue i s a c amp o f

f rom h ere a lso.

A dahanhan i s

E khor

a

n '

s tranger's

v illage, h aving s tarted a s a r esting p lace w here f ood w as p rovided f or t he c arriers o f y ams ( Uhanhan i s t he n ame o f t he w ood u sed f or t he b ottom o f t he y am b askets). E muhun w as f ounded i n c 1 928-29 i n a f arm c amp ' where o ur f ather g o m ake f arm a nd s leep 4 o r 5 d ays' b ecause o f a

b ad

s mall-pox e pidemic w hich k illed m any o f

b ut n ot

O khueni m eans b ig m an, E KHOR N IRO, T his

t he o ld a nd

y oung

m en

t he c hildren. o ur f ounder,

3 1/5/76...

v illage

h ence t his v illage n ame.

I nformant:

o dionwere.

m oved h ere a bout 3 5 y ears a go

f rom a s ite w ith

c oconut

t rees n ear t he p ower l ine a t c 230 ( inside p rimary i ya, s ite v isited P JD.). T his f irst s ite w as f rom o riginal; a ll w ere b orn t here. E khor d erives i ts n ame f rom ' Ekhaghewi', a n ickname; a nd w e h ave n o c onnection w ith E khor n 'Idumwolu. T here a re b oundaries w ith E khor n 'Idumwolu ( iya n 'uwu, i nformant t han

w as

f or

t hough w hen s hown t he s ite o f

l ooking m ore

f or a k ola o r i rokhin

t he t ype o f i ya t here).

t he b oundary t he

( ikhimwin

T he s tream a cts

? )

t ree

a s a b oundary w ith

U gonoba. T he

v illages

E muhun a nd i s

n ot

o n o ur l and i nclude

r ight

o n o ur

c ooperative

d own t o l and,

w ith

t hem .

E khor

t he O rhiomo

N iro,

E khor

n 'Igu'Okhuen,

r iver s ince o riginal.

A duhanhan

b ut w e h ave n o b oundary w ith t hem s ince w e

a re

T here a re n o i dumwun f rom o ther v illages

i n

E khor N iro. W e

s enior

a llowed O ba

E khor

O guola

(uessing w ork h ere O via i s E KHO, r evba,

n 'Igu'Okhuen i n c oming

t hem t o s tay o n o ur l and; b uilt

a ll

t he w hole

t o

t he

t hey m oved i ya,

..

r oad,

a nd

w e

h ave

i n 1 952. w hen w ar

w as

c oming

..

a dmitted). B enin n ever f ought h ere, n ever s ent s laves :w e h ave s ent t ribute t o B enin f or a l ong t ime.

t he m ain j uju;

e xtracts

t o

o ne m an I yohan b ring i t h ere.

f rom ' A S hort H istory o f B enin

p ages 3 a nd 6 1. 4 37

b y C hief D r.

J .U.

E gha-

' ..villages

i n t he

f irst

p eriod...Ekho

A t t he a ge o f t welve h e ( Prince A iguabasimwin) w as v illage t o b e c ared f or,... E KHOR a s

s ent

t o

E khor

t aken f rom B radbury's F ield N otes.

E 101 E khor n 'Idumwun-Olu.

I nfts.

E nogie ( Edayi)

a nd E dion.

1 3.7.51.

I dumwun-Olu, I dunwun-Eka a nd I dumwun n 'Ogbon a re t hree f ormer q uarters w hich m ake u p t he p resent v illage. T he l ast v illage w as f ounded b y a h unter w ho w as a n O vienE daiken

f rom

U sela c alled O vbi-Isi a nd h e s aluted L a f ie

s an

w hich

t hey s ay s uggests t hat h e s aluted f rom I shan . H e l eft E guae-Edaiken w ith t he t itle o f U so a nd b uilt

c amp n ear

A duhanhan w hich h e c ould u se a s a h unting b ase f or e lephant

e t.

m ade A go-Ekho a nd E mughu c amps. a nd f ound a w ard.

- s o

O gie-ekho a sked h im t o m ove t o E kho

T he s ite o f t he f ormer I dumwun-Olu i s s till v ery p lain a nd t here a re s ome w alls s tanding . E khor N 'Iro i s n ear t o A duhanhan . I n f act t hey a re a ll l iving t ogether . E 102.

1 I dumwun v b'iore m eans m odern v illage m uch t he s ame a s I dumwun

n 'Ogbon . T he r est o f t he p eople m oved h ere b ecause d irty a nd f ull o f w eeds'. I dumwun I yekiya s omewhere i n E kho. s ettling .

I nft.

E 123 E khor N 'Idumwun'eka.

2 8.5.51.

F ounder

I nft.

I gile.

f rom E ka n ear O za i n t ime o f O zolua .

t he o ld p lace w as

c onsulted e lders b efore

O utsiders c ontinue

j oin t his q uarter. T he r eal f ounder o f E xo a nd o wner o f t he l and w as

O rhia.

t o H is

s on O lu m ade f irst o nogie. I dumwun'eka h ad O gw'edio a nd i ts o dionwere - t he s enior o dionw. i n I dumwu-Olu . E 122

A xiamwa j uju.

I ts o rigins c an b e t raced t o t he t ime o f

E wuare

b ut n othing o f o rigin k nown . A xiamwa, r iver a nd j uju c onfused. B ut f eminine d eity a t t ime o f E wuare ( refused t o m arry) t urned t o r iver. i st p riestess f rom I yekorhiomwon . E 126

O nly w eaving b y o ne o r t wo E sa w omen - o ne f rom U romi.

E 141 O xwahe c ult. 6 .8.51. O gbede n icknamed O xwahe g oes

t o S akpoba v ia I kpe.

E 172

c onsultation o f j uju

C auses o f s ickness

.

c aused b y s pirits

h earing g ossip. E 176

T he b elief

t hat

t he d isease ( elephantiasis)

o f

t he

s crotum

s pread b y a m edicine w hich i s p ossessed b y m any p eople i s o nL. I ghile e ven s ays t hat i t c an b e s pread b y p igs. E 180 C hild ( with t etnus) d ies a ged 9 . j e. o ld b orrow-pits o f o ld s ite. E 186.

M alaria.

J uju i n p lace o f m any

S ick c hildren t reated w ith u tmost g entleness.

4 38

a

i s

c ommon

h oles

E 173

1 .11.51.

h imself t o E 220

S unday h ad w ithin t he l ast f ew w eeks d ug a p it

f or

( here f or h ousebuilding).

N o b oundaries w ith I rokhin.

E 224 T here Y oruba l and. E 233

.

c ollect w ater

i s n o o via a t A duhanhan, 1 2.2.53.

o nly e gungun

C hild d ies a fter a ccidental s calding.

I ROKHIN,

E khor a rea.

I nformant:

O dionwere

.

d erived

B lamed o n a za.

f rom

( witches)

9 /1/76 ( wearing b right b lue,

f rilly p etticoat).

T here i s a n E nogie h ere, b ut h e i s n ot i n . T he f irst E nogie w as I zevbigie s on o f O via ( woman), t he p resent E nogie, I gbeniyotor, b eing t he f ifth i n l ine. T he v illage w as

f ounded i n O giso

t ime.

T he i nyato w as f irst p lanted a bout 1 m ile a way s ite, b y t he Enogie a t t he t ime o f O ba O zolua.

( 20 0 ) f rom p resent T he p resent s ite i s

q uite n ew . I rokhin h as

b oundaries w ith E bue

( river t o e ast),

E guangwe ( river

o n

w est), w ith O gaga a nd E vbu'Orhuan t o t he n orth a nd E khor t o t he s outh, t hough t here i s n o r eal d emarcated b oundary t o t he s outh. T he i ya w ere b uilt b y O ba O guola f or d efence

W ell,

..

n ot a ll

a ct a s b oundary, s ome f or s eparate w ards. e g: E wohi w ard u sed t o l ive s outh o f t his p resent s ite b ut h ave c ome t o j oin I rokhin v illage n ow. ( Ewohi d escendents s till r ecognizable, a nd o riginal E wohi w as f rom O giso t ime t oo, a nd i nyato s till t here. O zolua f ight E wohi f or t hree y ears, p rotection. O zolua ' Irokhin n 'oghi'Okwe

I ROKHIN

s ite

k nown.)

s o t hey r un t o I rokhin f or m utual

l ooked a t I rokhin a nd d eclined t o f ight, - t he p eople a re t oo m any.'

c ited a s v illage e xisting i n o giso t imes b y C hief

s aying

D r.

J .U.

E gharevba i n p age 3 o f ' A S hort H istory o f B enin'. E VBUORHUAN,

I si.

2 8/4/75.

I nformant: o dionwere & s ome e dion .

V illage f rom o giso t ime - o giso's f irst s on h ere. A kwankwan w as t he f ather o f O rhuan .

( crown

T here

o f ' Orhuan b efore,

w ere o ld v illages N ,W a nd S ( but n ot E )

p rince)

O rhuan

a nd

t here w as a llegience w ith O gaga. E vb'Orhuan h as b oundaries w ith U deni, O badan? ( iya t he b oundary ? ), E rua, O vbowe, O giabue ( W/S s tream b oundary). O ba

O guola b uild t he i ya f or r oad - m en g o w alk i n t he b ottom ..

n o

.. i t w as f or w ar, f or d efence. O giso e mploy O guola t o b uild t he i ya. P eople w ere b rought f rom o ther p laces t o b uild t he i ya. T hey u sed u wewe ( wooden s hovels), i ron h oes a nd b askets.

4 39

T his v illage w as v ery b ig b efore - b ut a ny o ther v illage. E VBUORHUAN I ,

I si.

2 6/7/76.

i t

I nformant:

d oes

n ot

c onquer o r

c ontrol

e dion .

V illage s tarted i n t ime o f O ba O rhuan - t hough t his o nogie's n ame. O rhuan m ay h ave b een b efore o giso. T he i nyato w as f urther s outh a nd w est - n ear i nside t he w estern s ection o f i ya.

m ight

t he c oconut

b e

t rees

t he

j ust

T he v illage s plit a bout 4 0 y ears a go i nto t wo w ards. ( meaning n o l azy e lephant') b eing t he s treet o n t he

I dumwun O vbieni r oad n ear t he

f ormer s ite, w hilst I dumwun U gbude m oved l and t o m ake E vbuorhuan I I.

e asily

t o

t he m ore

E vbuorhuan h as b oundaries w ith E rua, U deni, I rokhin, O kunwan s tream f rom w hich t he w omen f etch w ater. O ba O guola o r O ba E wuare b uilt

t he i ya.

E VBOURHUAN I I,

I nformant:

A n o nogie was w as

I si. f irst

2 6/7/76.

i nstalled b y

E vbokoi?,

c leared

a nd

t he

O nogie.

O ba O rhuan,

s on o f E wuare.

O dogbo

t he n ame b efore h e b ecame O ba.

T he f ormer s ite w as t he o ther s ide i n E vb'orhuan I ; s hrine t o O rhuan a re s ituated t here. W e m oved t rees

t o

t his

p resent

s ite a bout 4 0 y ears

a go.

t he

i nyato

a nd

T here w ere g igantic

i n t hat p lace - s o w e m ove.

E vb'Orhuan h as b oundaries w ithy E rua,

( Obadan i s o n E vb'Orhuan l and),

U deni, I rokhin , ( Ogaga i s o n E vbuorhuan l and), ( Idibo i s p artly o n E vbu'Orhuan a nd p artly o n I rokhin l and), a nd t here i s n o b oundary w ith U rhokuosa . I ya?

o nly n ucleus

o f v alley...

E VBUORHUAN. E xtracts f rom ' A S hort H istory o f B enin J .U. E gharevba . p p33-34.

b y

C hief

D r.

' Prince O dogbo, t he o nly s on o f E hengbuda, w as p laced o n t he t hrone o f B enin w ith t he t itle O rhuan, a fter h is f ather's ' Orhuan m onths

d eath.' r etired

t o a v illage c alled E vbohuan f or

u ntil h e w as p owerful e nough t o a ttack a nd

s everal d efeat

O gina ( the I yase r ebelling a gainst O rhuan's s uccession), w ho w as t hen b anished t o O kogo w here l ater h e d ied a nd w as d eified'. 0 HuVBE I I, T his

I yekikpoba.

v illage

3 0/5/75.

i s s enior t o

W hen t hey s tarted

I nformant:

O kao.

t he o ther v illage w here t he o nogie

t he v illage t hey b uilt

A sk t he o nogie f or a ll o ther i nformation.

4 40

t he i ya.

l ives.

O HOVBE

I ,

I yekikpoba.

7 /1 / 75.

I nformant:

O nogie

( in

h is

p alace

s hrine). O hovbe-Ovbi-Oba i s O hovbe I .

O hovbe-Okoa i s O hovbe I I.

F irst O nogie i nstalled i n O ba E resoyen's The

f ounder was E heneden i n O ba E resoyen's

Ohovbe

was

m igrated

o riginally a n o giso v illage

f rom I fe.

s on c ame h ere The u s

t ime

t o

T he p eople a re o f

Ohovbe a ll

t his

d well o n t his

a sleep.

f ounded b y O ba O giso

s ettlement w as ' Osaguaye

O hovbe m eans

O hovbe h as

c ommon b oundaries I khuen o bo

h e

Oba A kengbuda's

m eaning

' God m ake

i t

s oldiers

r ested

h ere,

a nd

i s a s leepy p lace.'

i th O gbesan,

A duwawa,

U rora,

I ghekpe,

( Ovbiobo).

o n E vb'Omodu

l and.

s on g ive d ifferent O nogie t o O gbesan.

V illages on O hovbe l and: I ghekpe c amp

w hen

a nd O ba o f B enin's

l and'.

Evb'Omodu, Urora i s

( first O nogie).

I fe o rigin,

b ecame t he n ame a fter O ba O zolua's

f ell

t ime

b e o nogie.

o riginal n ame o f c ome a nd

( son o f E hengbuda).

( old),

I kuenegbo

G odwin O migie

( Agbor r oad)/Otabor c amp

c amp

( near A mufi

b efore,

( old), r ecent).

Amufi ( set u p a t t he t ime o f O ba E wuare) i s p artly o n O hovbe l and a nd partly o n O vbiobo ( Ikhuen o bo) l and. N ear t he r iver i s O jo c amp ( Bini), c amp;

I masuen c amp,

a ll

b y

Ohovbe i s i s

o lder

t he

o lder

The

O khwaihe j uju

T he

onogie w as

j uju

O hovbe I I.

Ohovbe

g ives

i s

( Community

O GBESAN,

t o

( young).

s ite o f

t he

I roko t ree

l and

U te

n orth-west

( camp

t here).

I t

i s v ery o ld. o f O hovbe I I,

a nd

t he

o f O hovbe I I.

t he O nogie a nd w here

s outh o f ( very b ig)

t o O gbesan a s

i khimwin t rees

a re

t he v illage w as w hen

t he

t he n ew t rack b etween O hovbe I a nd c oconuts a re s till

t here.

t he O nogie.

I yekikpoba.

t hey w ere s tarving d uring

t he

g rand-

t ime.

B oundary M ap o f

a nd O sagie's

v ery b ig b efore.

f ather o f E hengbuda's

p ermission

c amp,

t han O regbeni

s ite o f O sagbuaye,

a c hild,

v illage w as

y ounger

n orth-east

t he o riginal

and

J ames O diase's

f or a ll O hovbe i s

o ld

The

c amp,

a nd A duwawa

f or a ll O hovbe i s

I humudumwu w as t here.

t han O gbesan,

t han I khuen ,

Ogie

O basuyi

r iver O he(n).

p ermitted

t o

b e

i nspected a nd

t raced b y

k ind

S ee a ppendix M 12).

1 8/2/75.

I nformant:

O dionwere

& h is

' 2nd'.

C ollected b y E .C.D. T he O nogie was

i n B enin ;

i nformants

a t H ouse n umber 9 .

Akengbuda f ounded t he v illage a nd b ecame t he f irst O nogie. was t he s one o f A kengbuda. T here h ave b een s ix E nigie s ince. Moved

t o

r each

t he m ain r oad.

4 41

O balosa

A s hare o f

l and w as g iven t o A kengbuda a s a n i nheritance.

O guola b uilt i ya f or d efence i n t imes o f w ar. 2 6/2/76

I nformant:

O riginally

n e dion,

( who r emembered w ife's v isit).

a c amp i n O guola's

t ime

( ?),

b ut p resent n ame

a fter

f ounder i n O ba E wuare's t ime ( when v illage c onstituted ? ). b oundaries w ith I khuen ( iya), O regbeni ( iya) a nd a c ommon

t he

I t h as b oundary

w ith O hovbe. I t s hould b e n oted t hat O gbesan a nd O hovbe u sed t o t hings t ogether, b ut t hat a c ommon b oundary w as m ade b etween t hem t he t ime o f O balosa. I nyato c 45ocms d iam . T he f irst O nogie w as O gie'ban I dia a t o f O balosa. O hen I gie i s O ba

t he n ame o f

t he t ime o f E resoyen a nd a

s on

t he j uju-maker.

E wuare i ntroduced t he O khwaihe j uju,

a nd s erved e very

d o a t

t hree d ays.

b ased o n t he r iver O khwaihe

T his h ero-deity c ult

i s a lso s erved

a t

E vbiekoi, I khuen , I guomo, A mufi, O hovbe, U rora , A duwawa, I kpe, A zagba , O gheghe ( Ehor r oad), I dumwowina, O kpagha ( Ehor r oad), I kuenogbo ( left o f A saba r oad) a nd I yanamo. U te h as I khokho O REGBENI,

j uju i nstead.

I yekikpoba.

2 6/2/76.

T he v illage n ame m eans F ounded c alled

s ome t ime ' Okonogbowa

B enin'.

O sifo,

I nformant:

O dionwere.

t he e lephant h unters/killers'.

b efore O ba E wuare, t his v illage was o riginally m eaning ' this h ill b rought r iches t o t he O ba o f

i n O ba E wuare's

t imel,

s eems t o b e t he f irst m an t o b e

r emembered f rom t his v illage. T he i nyato u sed t o b e n ear t he m arket b etween t he n ew r oad b arracks, ( je. c lose t o t he i ya o n t he c rest o f t he h ill).

a nd

I t

T he p re-

h as h ad b oundaries w ith O gbesan

f rom t ime i mmemorial'.

s ent i ya a cts a s a b oundary a nd j oins I kpoba r iver. b oundary b etween I kpoba, A duwawa a nd I guogban . C anoes u sed t o c ross O tete w as

E VBOMUDU,

n o

t ime,

a nd i s o n O gbesan l and.

I t

i s

b ut u sed t o c ombine w ith i t.

t radition r elating t o

I yekikpoba.

E vb'Omodu w as h ere.

T here w as a lso a

b ut t here w ere n o I tsekiri h ere.

f ounded i n A kenzua I I's

j unior t o O regbeni, T here i s

t he r iver,

t he

2 0/4/76/

t he d ate o f I nformant:

t he i ya.

O nogie.

n amed a fter o ne o f A kengbuda's s ons w ho w as m ade

O nogie

T he p resent O nogie i s 7 th i n l ine.

I n s eniority I guogban i s 1 st, t hen E vb'Omodu b efore A hor, A yen , I hovb or a nd O regbeni. U zalla, A hor, A yen, E vb'Omodu a nd I guogban h ave b een t here s ince o riginal. 4 42

B oundaries:

w ith O gie'Ohovbe ( bi-vallate i ya s hown o n g round),

E yaen,

A duwawa ( le. U te o r I guogban), U te/Iguogban , E vb'Omodu, - a ll o rigin al. I ya a ct a s b oundary w ith E yaen ( near D umez) a nd A duwawa. O khwaihe j uju b rought b y O ba E quare; E vb'Omodu w hich h as t he O khwaihe s hrine.

a nd U rora i s t he i dumwun o f O ther O khwaihe s hrines a t:

I khuen , A duwawa ( new v illage, n ew s hrine), O hovbor, I dumwowina , E vbiek oi ( senior), O regbeni, I kpe ( new s hrine, v illage f rom o riginal), I guogban , Amufi, E yaen, A yen , O keze, I dibo, U deni, O gbesan.. I khuen c ontrols

h as

E dokpa ,

I yanamo,

I guomo,

t he I kpoba O kwaihe s hrines.

( After t hat O via a nd I khokho I khuen

I guevbiobo,

j uju s erved...

n o O khwaihe s hrines a t

U zalla

( Ovia), E khor ( Ikhokho), O gaga ( Ovia), ( Ovia), E bue ( Ovia) o r I kokhan ( Ovia ? ). O riginal v illages: b or, A hor, U zalla, U rhokuosa.

f rom I si). ( Uwho), E vb'Orhuan

A hor,

U rhokuosa

( Ovia),

O badan

I guogban, E vb'Omodu, O gbesan, O hovbe, O rio, I hovA horwedor ( near A hor), E vbiekoi, A mufi, O gheghe,

O lokun s hrine i n h ouse: O ne p ot w ith 1 7cms d iameter m outh o ver 1 2cms l ong 9 cms d iameter n eck w ith 1 0 r ings. P ie-crust c ordon o n u pper b ody. W avy c ordon o n m id-body ( cf. U nuame) w ith t wo v ertical i ncis ions u nder e ach w ave, t hese h aving a w ave-length o f 8 -9 c ms. T hree h andles v ertically a cross m id-body 9 -10 c ms l ong. L ower b ody d ecorated

w ith

s econd p ot h andles. ( first p ot

h ad

f ine s tring r oulette a pplied i n 5

r ings a nd 3 D

2 6 c ms h igh a nd 2 1 c ms

s culptured

t wo

d irections.

f igurines

b etween

A t he

i n d iameter e xcluding h andles).

3 /5/76 S urvey o f O khwaihe s hrine s ite. S weeping h ad c reated a n i rreg ular b ank a ll r ound, i nto w hich c ame t wo e ntrances, a nd a n a ltar w as c lose t o e ach e ntrance. T he n orthern a ltar s hrine w as t o O khwaihe a nd h ad s tones, ' chalk', a n A da, i ron s taffs, a nd p ots. O ne o f t hese p ots h ad a 7 cms d iameter m outh, p lain 5 cms d iameter n eck c 5cms l ong, w ith c oncentric l ines c l cm a part o n t he u pper b ody w hich h ad b een i nters persed w ith c ircular i mpressions. O n t he m id-body a w ide, i nverted V e nclosed s imilar i mpressions. T he p ot h ad a n o verall b ody d iameter o f c 16-17 c ms. T he o ther p ot w as p lain b ut f or a v ery w ide, i nverted V w ith t he c ircular i mpressions o n t he o utside a bove i t. E WEDOR,

I yekikpoba.

3 0/1/76.

T he o riginal i nyato w as n orth o f

I nformant:

U hege

t he p resent o nogie's h ouse;

o f t he v illage w as a lso a bout a p ole n orth o f E wedor t hen w as f ounded i n O ba O semede's t ime.

t he

p resent

I t h as b oundaries w ith A yen, I dumugha, U gbogun ( to e ast). o lc test), A yen a nd I dumugha w ere a lready h ere w hen w e c ame. A HOR ,

I yekikpoba.

3 0/1/76.

I nformant:

T he i nyato i s c lose a nd a bout 4 0 o f n otes).

s ite.

A hor

( the

o nogie

f rom h ere.

I t w as p lanted i n o giso t imes. 4 43

t he r est

( Site i nspected;

s ee e nd

W e w ere t he f irst

t own i n

a ll I yekikpoba a nd U humwode.

T he

f irst

p eople h ere

c ame

f rom B enin.

T he e nigie a re f rom o giso t imes; t here h ave b een a bout 1 00 e nigie t he p resent t ime. T hey h ave n o a da f rom E guae, o nly O khore s tock. A hor h as b oundaries w ith U zalla, w orks w ith A hor, T he

a nd Ewedor

i s

A yen,

o n A hor

E yaen ,

I hovbor,

U gbogun.

t o

U hege

l and.

i ya a re t o m ake b oundaries - t he b oundary i s

i n t he m iddle o f

t he

i ya. T here i s n ot j ust o ne i ya b etween u s a nd U zalla. U zalla h as a h igh i ya, s o d oes I hovbor; b ut A yen h as a s mall i ya. T he c hiefs f rom B enin c ome t o d ig m oat, f rom U do, n ot I godo, n o d ug

t he i ya.

T he

U zalla m ay b e

j ust

e specially A ruanran, s on o f o giso, a g iant .. h is b rother w as E sigie. A hor p eople n ever

i ya a re a s

f or

b oundary a nd

o ld a s A hor,

f or w ar.

t hough A hor b reak k ola

f irst.

A hor f ought t he I ddah a rmy f or t hree y ears, t hen r etired t o l et I ddah a dvance t o O regbeni. N ear t he i nyato i s t he b urial g round f or a ll t he I ddah a rmy. ( Site o n i nspection p roved t o b e a v ery l arge, d ry, r ectangular p ond o f w hich p rofiles w ere l ater m ade.) T he s ite o f t he i nyato i s n orth o f t he p ond c 500m n orth a long t rack f rom A hor, t hen c 400m w est O BOJARE, I t

a long p ath.

' HAPPY-LAND',

I yekikpoba.

2 8/1/76.

I nformant:

i s o ne m ile t o I kpoba s tream f rom h ere.

p it

( oghodo w ith m ost

o f

b anks

r emoved

W e h ave b oundaries w ith E yaen, b y i khimwin a nd T he

i nyato was

? )

o dionwere.

W e h ave w ater i n t his

E khua a nd I gueioba - t hese

b eing m arked

i ya. p lanted b y O ba A dolor f rom E do o n t his v ery

s ite.

T he i ya w ere a lready t here, b ut t here w ere n o o ther v illages; t he v illages p reviously m entioned w ere h ere. I HOVBOR,

I yekikpoba.

1 8/6/76.

I nformant:

i n

a lready h ere b efore

i ts p resent

h ere

s ite.

l ong b efore t he

t ime;

t he i nyato h as

r oad c omes

t o

t his

t he O ria i ya t o t he w est,

F oundation o f v illage? b rought t he

d itches.

e eeh!...

d on t ey!

t he Akava j uju a nd f irst

a lways

b een o f

p lace. a nd

A hor

i ya h as

E vbu'Eka, 3 h ouses t o t he n orth, p acked f rom b ush, o t f e r s ettlement k nown t o h ave b een o n I hovbor l and.

E wuare a nd

t hat

t he 2 nd i ya

n orth

( Not t o b e c onfused w ith U te I kokhan t o t he s outh t he i ya w ere s urveyed). T here i s a b ig-small i ya

f or I dumwowina w hich h as t wo a nd i s t he 2 nd i ya f rom h ere.

E wuare

S ince

T here w ere p lenty o f h ouses n orth a nd s outh

T here i s i ya,n'uwu i s o n t he w ay t o U te. w est, w here m ost o f

t hat

e xcept

o nogie.

T he f irst o nogie was O sayande O gbomo, a s on o f O ba E wuare. t ime t here h ave b een m any o thers ( 'Dey p lenty-0'). I hovbor w as

b ig

i n r ainy s eason.

o nogie b rought

( ie.

o ne

a nd w ere

t he

d itch

o nly

b eyond m emory).

t he O wowo j uju. t he O via j uju.

4 44

o nly

A nother m an a fter

I hovbor

i s

t he m ost

w hich h as o nogie

s enior v illage

f rom O zolua's

i n t he a rea.

t ime,

I t

a nd I dumwowina,

w as a c amp f rom O rio. I dumwowina a nd I hovbor d id o nce. A hor i s q uite s eparate. O RIO I ,

I yekikpoba.

O zolua's

s on

( small

p alace)

B efore

t hat

U te g ave

I zemihen w as a t

t hat

t heir

l and

T he v illage w as

( C.O.

E dionseri

O RIO

c learing

I I,

t ogether

f irst o nogie a nd

h e b uilt

t his

h ouse

t he

i n t he

t ime o f E wuare

..

t ime o f O ba O hunwan

o r o giso. O ghene?

b efore

E weka a nd O hen m entioned i n d iscussions

t he i ya w ith s oldiers, O guola w as

a t N o.

f ought O zolua.

n ot

s laves,

t he s on o f O zolua,

2 O rio V illage,

a cted a s

w ho u sed

w ooden

a nd h e d ug

t he i ya

t he c ontractor

f or

t he u ndergrowth f rom t he O rio a nd I kokhan i ya.)

I yekikpoba.

F igurines

n oted

c hicken-pox a nd O RIO I I,

t hings

o nogie

a w arrior o f O rio w ho

O ramiyan,

s hovels ( "uvbevbe"). f or r ememberance.

w orkers

t he

t o O rio a t

f ounded

O guola m ade

I nformant:

O rio,

t ime.

t ime O wegie w as

O dogbo s tarted.... w ith e dion. O ba

1 9/12/74.

s eniors

a nd I kokhan w hich

i n t rackside

I yekikpoba.

A n o nogie o nogie i n

s hrine.

A kpamakpe s hrine

t o w ard

o ff

s mall-pox. 6 /1/75.

I nformant:

o nogie

( in t axi).

w as m ade i n O rio I I a s t here w as n o m ale i ssue O rio I . T his w as i n t he t ime o f O ba A dolor,

f rom t he t he f irst

s on?/onogie? b eing O semwede, t he 2 nd o nogie b eing O sakwe f ather o f t he p resent o nogie O henzua.

w ho

w as

O wegie

t he

O ba

was

a sked w hat

a n e normous m an, a n e lephant

t he c hief o f O rio.

l ooked

l ike,

O wsegie

i s

O nce w hen

r eputed

" Owegie e tebor n or i yanrio n o y i k inegbe g ie ( Look a t m e, Y et

O wegie

O wegie c hief

o f O rio,

t o h ave s aid:

e ni m a O ba."

I l ook l ike a n e lephant,

r ebelled a gainst O zolua a nd

t he B enin a rmy m oved

m y O ba.) i nto

t he

a ttack. O wegie o rdered a ll h is s laves/soldiers t o d efaecate i n t he i ya, w hich h eld o ff t he a ttack f or s ome t ime; b ut f inally O wegie w as d efeated

a nd

e scaped

m aking a h ole. I KOKHAN,

I yekikpoba.

I k i ikhan

was

O guoro

m ade

j uju t o O wegie

1 5/10/75. a t

t he s ame

j uju s hrine h ere a t

I kokhan i s w ell a s

d own t o I klpoba s tream

T here i s

s enior t o O rio,

I hovbor

? ?

t he

t o

w here

t his

I nformant: t ime a s U te.

h e

d isappeared

d ay.

o dionwere & e dion O ne m an

A bu

p uts

t he

t ime o f O ba E wuare.

I guosagie a nd O gueni

A ll a re o n I kokhan l and.

4 5

( a c amp f rom O rio)

a s

T he O ba m ake a nother k ing i n O rio, T he

w hose b oundary

( onogie?)

i s

j ust

j uju h ere m ade 2 01 h ills

o ver I kokhan.

v illage

s eniors O rio,

o ther k ing w as

( symbolic u ltimate i n n umbers P JD)

n orth o f h ere. T he j uju w orks h ere e arthwork - o f O guoro). T his

T his

b y I guosagie.

w hich

I ya O guoro

s eniors U te,

t hen c omes

t his v illage o riginally c ame f rom U selu t o h ere.

T he

o f O ba m ade o nogie o f O rio,

w hich w as

t he

I hovbor.

p eople o f s on

t o

( the v alley - n ot

t hen

m ade

T he

' senior'.

O wegie i s a m odern s tory, h e w as v ery j unior. O wegie c ould n ever m ake i ya o r j uju l ike O guoro a lthough h e w as a b ig m an. N o w oman c an e nter u nder a s tone. I dumwowina w as

t he w ater f rom t he

( See s ite

j uju

..

t here w ater c ome

j unior t o I kokhan,

h aving b een p ut

t here b y

( Inspected

s ite o f O guoro j uju n orth w est

o f v illage,

t rack

j ust

l eft

t o

t owards

a fter

I kpoba

t he i ya t hen b ear

s tream .

f rom

i nspection r eport b elow).

A bout

4 00 m etres

.

s lantwise

a long,

t he O ba. n orth a long d own

h alf-way

s lope

d own

t he

u ndergrowth t hins a nd t he s oil b ecomes a c old, c lammy c lay. A t t his p oint t he g uide b egan t o s top a nd s hout ' Oguoro! O guoro!', m ove a f ew p aces

f orward,

t hen s hout

a gain t o w arn t he

j uju t hat h e w as

c oming.

V ery c autiously h e a pproached a n i ncised g ully w hich m eandered d own a t 2 80 ° .

T he s mall

s tream.

T he

s pring

s tream i s

s pring-head

s apping h as

s aid

t o

i tself

d isappear b efore r eaching h as

t hree s mall

I kpoba

r e-entrants

w here

t aken p lace o n a s mall b ut s pectacular s cale

f ull

o f c onvolutions. A t t he b ottom o f t he s pring w ere s tones, p robably o f f erruginous s andstone, b ut n o c lose e xamination w as m ade o ut o f r esp ect P JD).

t o

t he e dion e scorting u s w ho

I GUOSAGIE

1 5/10/75.

I nformant:

T he o dionwere's g randfather w as c ame

f rom

O rio

W e h ave b oundaries w ith U te, ?

T here i s

j uju i n a ll

* 2 4 h ouses

t he

w ater.

f irst m an f or t ime.

T his

t his v illage a nd v illage b ecame

h e m uch

t oday.*

t his p lace. t hough n ot w ith I kokhan o r O rb .

W e h ave n o c lue a bout

n o

t he

I t h as 2 0-30 h ouses

T he o nogie o f O rio I c ontrols

t ouch

o dionwere.

i n O ba O vonramwen's

b igger i n t he p ast.

T he i ya

f eared e ven t o

t hem.

t his v illage,

a nd 6 v isible

r uins

e xcept

t he o gwedion.

o n i nspection.

I KOKA, r ecorded a s a n o giso p eriod v illage b y E gharevba ( p3); t hough t his t his p robably r efers t o t he p lace o f t hat n ame i n I yekovia. E YAEN

I yekikpoba.

P .J.D.

T he o riginal

s ite

T here

s everal

w ere

i s

t o

4 /5/77.

t he w est

w ards

o f

I nft.

O dionwere w ith o ne e ye.

t he p resent

( quarters)

446

s ince

s ite o n t he o ld t he

b eginning:

r oad. t hey

i ncluded I dumwun O bo, I dumwun O hen'Evian, I dumwun E guen, E guare ( Enog ie's ) , a nd I koden . E yaen h ad t he t hird m ost i mportant m arket i n B enin b efore. " During

t he

w ar t he l ate O ba O zolua - ( so

w arrior t hat c aptured m any t owns

O zolua

i n t he w hole a rea)

i s

a

- ,s o

w hen h e g o t o t his p lace h e t ries t o f ight w hen t hey w ere p erforming c eremony t o E vian . O zolua w anted t o s end h is s on h ere a s E nogie. B ut t he O dionwere ( 1st p erson), O hen'Evian ( 2nd p erson) a nd O hokhun ( 3rd p erson) s tated t hat t his w ould b e o n c ondition t hat t hey s eniored t he E nogie. O zolua's

T he E nogie i s

s on

A rugbo

b ecame

t hus 4 th." t he f irst E nogie,

a nd w as

f ollowed

b y

O reghe, O giemisi, O wen, I zevbie a nd m any o thers. T here h ave b een s ixteen E nogie's t o t he p resent d ay: t hough s ome n ever ' make c erem ony a nd b ecome c rowned, s o a re n ot c ounted. P erhas t here w ere 2 5 a ltogether. B efore O zolua, t he

E dion

E yaen ( original n ame E yaen n 'Ugbedu) w as

a nd t he O hen ( priest) - O zolua m et

E vian's m other w as O khun,

t he

E vian

r uled b y

j uju

h ere.

a nd h e c ame a nd m ade t his p lace a t t he t ime

o f s mallpox i n B enin . T here

a re I ya n 'Uwu w ith

I dokpa,

A duwawa,

U te,

O ria,

A hor,

I ghekpe a nd O hovbe. I dumwonwina i s o n E yaen l and. S ome b oundaries w ere m arked w ith I khimwin, O tua, K ola a nd U kpegun t rees, b ut m any o f t hese h ave n ow b een d estroyed b y r ecent f arming. ' Uma n 'amen a won u ma ( uke?) g hanon a me n 'akhue' ( spelling n ot g uaranteed) i s a p roverb i n E yaen w hich, l iterally t ranslated, m eans Y ou d o n ot a sk f or w ater t o d rink, b ut c ontinue t o a sk f or w ater t o b ath'. T he i mplication i s t hat s trangers a re n ot a ware o f t he d iffic ulties o f o btaining w ater i n E yaen. I n t he d ry s eason t hey a re e quidistant f rom I kpoba a nd O xwaihe s treams: t his l ast s tream i s d eemed

t o h ave b etter w ater.

I n t he r ainy s eason t here i s w ater

i n

t he s urface w ells. P hysical e xamination o f t he s ite s howed t hat w ell w ater w as a vailable a t a bout 1 0 m a t t his t ime o f y ear. O ne o f t he c laimed o riginal s ites, n ow a bout 2 00m s outh o f t he A hor t rak a nd n orth-west o f t he o ld r oad, p roved t o b e i mmediately e ast a nd o utside o f a n i ya 2 3m h igh f acing e ast. A f ew s herds w ere c ollected f rom t he s ite a nd w ere l ater p hotographed. S tories o f I n

t he B enin E mpire

p ages 4 7-61

i s

J oseph E .

t old t he s tory o f O mofoma f rom

E nyai, n ear t he c ity o f B enin'. d ard i ngredients o f s uch s tories. a nd d espair

S idahome.

a t h ome s eeks h is

O .U.P.

I badan 1 967.

t he f amous t own

o f

T he p lot i ncludes m any o f t he s tanO mofoma, c onfronted w ith d isaster

f ortune i n B enin .

O n h is w ay h e

m eets

a nd h elps a n o ld w oman w ho p roves t o h ave d eep s piritual i nsight a nd w isdom a nd g uides h im o nto h is d estined p ath. W ith a h eroic d eed a gainst a b east f rom t he s pirit w orld h e s aves t he O ba's s on a nd w ins t he b eautiful p rincess a s h is b ride, t hen r eturns h ome w ith m any s ervants a nd s laves. T he d etails i nclude s uch e veryday d etails a s f arming,

g athering f irewood a nd f etching w ater f rom t he

4 47

s tream,

a nd

a ppear t o b e s et i n a p ost-C16th c ontext w here t he p hysical p ower o f B enin a rmy m uskets a nd t he s ecurity o f t he C ity w all g ates a re i n t he o pposite d irection O KA N 'EVB'OHIRI,

( p.60)

t o

27 /1 0 /75.

t he

s pirit w orld a nd

I nformant:

I yeware.

N o.

o dionwere.

O hiri

w as

t he f ounder d uring o giso t imes

w as

n owhere n ear I dumwun'Ivbiotor,

a nd

o n t he s outh s ide o f

p its

c an b e

c reatures.

O sagiedie I dahor,

2 8,

w hich i ya

i ts

t he r oad

a nd h e c ame f rom I godomigodo b ut

n earer U gbeku p ast

i n a p lace w here

m any

t he

b orrow

s een t oday.

F rom O ka n 'Evb'Ohiri O ka E vbuogo,

t he

f ollowing v illages w ere

O ka E vbohi

( Naovi ?),

a nd O ka U seni. O ka N iro w as M oguen i n E sigie's t ime.

f ounded:

O ka E vberi,

a nd

O ka

T he O ba w as k nown a t t he t ime O ka b egin, a nd O lonza f ight a gainst t he O ba o f B enin i n a t ime l ong a go.

f or

O ka

O KA N IRO,

i n O ba O zolua's

N iro,

O ka U mughun

t ime,

T he i ya were b uilt

f ounded

O ka

O kabere,

b y O ba O guola.

I yeware

27 /1 0 /75.

I nformant

( The s ecretary h as t he h istory o n p aper, c opy i n t he O ba's p alace.) T he

v illage w as

a nd

w as

f ounded

i n o giso t imes,

t he f irst v illage - s o

v illages,

d isappeared, O KABERE,

O ka

n 'Egbede,

b eing a bsorbed

I yeware.

g oes

O zolua

m akes

c omes T he

i ya

o r a t

w ar w ith O ka, S o E vbahi

b uilt

a t

t he

t he t ime o f l ater

t o

b e

a

O ranmiyan

t o O ka

n 'Evb' t hat

O ka E vbohiamwen a nd O ka E vbowa

h ave

I nformant:

o dionwere & e dion.

t his v illage;

t o O ba a nd t akes w ife f rom h is

w as

t here i s m eant

i nto O ka N iro a nd O ka n 'Aru O via.

27 /1 0 /75.

t o O kabere.

9 .

a re t he s ame a ge - e xcept

E vbahi, s on o f E re f rom E do, c reated d ifferent p lace f rom O ka n 'Evb'Ohire. E vbahi

a nd

t hat p eople m oved

O hire. I n f act a ll t he O ka v illages O ka N iro i s t he o riginal. T hree

f rom N o.

f ighting

h arem .

i t

i s

A fter

f irst a nd s econd Oka

q uite

a

m arriage a nd

t hen

b uries h imself. t ime o f O zolua's w ar

- O lumuja

w ith

h is

p eople f rom I yekorhiomwon ( Umoghumwun) b uilt i t f or w ar a gainst O zol ua. T hey u sed h oes b etween t heir l egs a nd s hovels; t he p eople w ere m uch s tronger b efore. ( Shouted d own b y o ther e dion who m aintained t hat O guola b uilt t he i ya f or t erritorial b oundary f or d efence o f O ka. H e

f etched o thers

t o h elp h im o n d aily p ay...) O lumuja was

( war c aptain) w ho h ad a v ery f ine c utlass t o d estroy a ll T hi _s O ka w as t he b oundary b etween U mughumwun a nd E do b efore. O KA N 'ARU O VIA,

I yeware.

2 6/4/76.

W e a re a ll s ons o f O ka n 'Evbohiri; O ur f ormer s ite w as a bout a p ole t o

I nformant:

a n o kakhuo i nvaders.

o dionwere.

w e g roup t ogether i nside b efore. t he s outh, w here t here a re c oconut

4 48

a nd f ruit t rees; w e l eft t here f or O dionwere p lanted t he f irst i nyato. T he

O via

j uju h as

b rought f or a ll

i ya

c ommands

human b eing-o.' 7 v illages

b een h ere a nd

r oad a bout 2 2

s eniors

y ears

a go.

t he O gle U wanbor

j uju

t he v illage b y O ba E wuare/Ehengbuda ?

O gle O guola m akes s o when h e

a lways

t his

..

h e g ets

s omething f or m outh

t he g round o beys.

I ya n 'Uwu n earest

o f O ka i n o rder o f

S o

b etween u s

s eniority;

( UKHUN),

I yeware.

27 /1 0 /75.

' and

i t n ot

O ka n 'Evb'Ohiri,

I nformant:

O ka n 'Evogo,

O ka O moguehn,

T his v illage w as o riginally n amed a fter t he f ounder, r e-named a fter t he w ar w ith O zolua - t o O ka U seni.

N o.

U khun,

O giambor married O zolua's w ife s o O zolua c ome f ight h im .

1 0. b ut w as

T his v illage

t ry t o p revent w ar c oming t o t hem. I n a v ery d eep b orrowpit f ight t he O ba O zolua b y h imself - t he p it i s a bout 4 p oles a way. c ould

f ight O ba - s o e ach d ay f or 3 1 d ays o ne m an

s acrifice T oday t he O ka

t o

f ight

n 'Evb'Ohiri

l ikes O ka

t he O ba.

a nd U khun w ere b rothers;

t he p lace, v illages

t o

s o g oes

t o b rother

t he n orth a ll h ave

w e h ave t he s ame f ather b ut n al

i ya

( built

O ka N iro i s n 'Evb'Ohiri

Mr.

P .J.

i n O guola's

w as

a s

b efore.

s till w orshipped h ere. U khun w as h unting

t his

w ay,

f or p ermission t o b uild h ere.

T he

t he s ame f ather a nd s ame m other

a d ifferent m other. t ime)

t hey N o-

s ent

T he v illage w as v ery p owerful

j uju E jeehi w ife t o O giambor i s

O ka

c laimed o dionwere,

B en O sazuwa,

o ne

b e

&E gbal.

O ka N 'Aru O via, O kabere, O ka n 'Ewole, O ka n 'Ewowa, N iro. ( 'Ewowa d eserted 4 0 y ears a go - n ow h ere). OKA U SENI,

( juju)..

i t w as d one...

T here

i s

-

a n a dditio-

j oining O ka w hich e ncloses u s.

t he f irst s treet, t hen O kabuogo, i s t he f ourth s treet.

t hen O kabere,

M r.

D arling,

t hen O ka

P .A.

I dehen,

N o. 1 5 O bazuwa S treet, V ia 1 st E ast C ircular R oad,

N ational Museum , B enin C ity.

B enin C ity. 3 1st O ctober 1 975. D ear S ir, C hange o f N ame:

E vborhan v illage a nd N OT U seni v illage

I nformation r eached u s,

E vborhan f amily,

t hat w hen y ou s ent

t he a bove v illage o n a n o fficial d uty, t he O dionwere o f i ntentionally m isled y ou b y t elling y ou t hat t he n ame o f i s 2 .

I seni i nstead o f T he a rgument

1 973.

I t w ent

t o

t he t he

t he c orrect n ame, E vborhan. o ver t his c hange o f n ame h as b een g oing o n

t he O ba o f

B enin a nd a t

p resent

i t h as

t o

v illage v illage s ince

b een r eferred

t o t he A dministrator w ho i s n ow h andling t he m atter. V erdict h as a lways b een g iven s tating t hat t he n ame s hould r emain u nchanged. I r efer y ou t o t he M idwest G azette o f D ecember, 1 974 w hich e stablished

449

t he D evelopment C ommittee;

y ou w ill f ind

t he n ame E vborhan,

a s o ne o f

t he v illages c onstituting t he B enin C ity D evelopment C ommittee. Y ou w ill e ven f ind t he n ame O kaevborhan, o n a m ap s howing B enin Empire W all B oundaries o n t he s econd f loor o f t he N ational M useum , B enin C ity. 3 . W e s hall b e g rateful i f y ou w ould i gnore w hat t he e lder ( Odionw ere) t old y ou a nd u se t he c orrect a nd o fficial n ame - E vborhan - i n a ll y our o fficial d ocuments. T his w ill s ave y ou a nd e veryone c onc erned f rom a ny t rouble c onnected w ith t his t horny m atter o f c hange o f n ame. S igned

1 2

J . O sakue ( ?) f or E vborhan f amily P .A . I dehen f or E vborhan f amily.

1 5 O bazuwa S treet,

B enin C ity.

E vborhan p eople c ame f rom O ra,

4 /11/75.

I nformant:

w here I dia l ived,

P .A.

I dehen.

i n E sigie's t ime;

a nd

t hey l ived i n a q uarter i n O gbe, B enin C ity. T hey w ere g iven f armland o ut h ere a nd s ettled h ere . U seni w as e xisting b efore O ba E wuare. O gle U huwanbor c ommitted a dultery w ith E wuare's w ife, s o O zolua s ought r evenge. He i s r eputed t o h ave l ooked a t t he f ierce e fforts o f t his p uny v illage t o r esist a nd l ikened

t hem t o p iles o f e lephant d ung - I s'eni.

T he v illage w as

c ompletely d estroyed a nd t he p eople s cattered, o nly d aring t o r e-group w hen t hey j oined w ith E vborhan . W e l ive t ogether i n p eace a ll t hese c enturies, a nd i t i s o nly t he c oming o f t he n ew r oad a nd c ompensation i ssues w hich s eparate t he v arious f amilies. O ka o nly m oved i n E wuare's t ime a fter a dultery. E vb'Ohiri, w ith t he o thers s cattering i n O zolua's I DOGBO,

I yeware.

3 1/3/76.

I nformant:

I dogbo w as o riginally s pelt ' Edogbo

I humudumu t ime.

B .C.

t o

o nogie & o dionwere.

w hich m eans ' neighbour'.

T he v illage w as o riginally s ited n ear U khiri ( II) b efore, n ear t he i ya a nd t o t he l eft o f t he t rack . I t m oved t o t his p lace a v ery l ong t ime a go - a t

t he t ime o f E weka I I, w ho i s

t he f ather o f A kenzua I I.

T he d ouble i ya i s t he b oundary b etween I dogbo a nd U khiri, a nd a lso a cts a s b oundary w ith U tezi. T here i s a lso t he U tezi j uju " Aru'oroho' b etween O gie'Idogbo a nd U tezi, a nd t his w as m ade b y O ba O zolua. I t w as o ne o f t he 1 5 j uju ( Ehemwedu E kenesugie) o wned b y t he O ba's f ather. T he

O gie'Idogbo w as g iven a ll

t he c ountry b etwen U gbeku a nd t he O rhi-

o mo r iver . T he c oconut p alm a t O ka w as f or A legbe a t t he t ime o f h is b rother E weka I . T he p alace r oof b urnt a nd t he r oof l eaked, s o E weka a sk A legbe

f or b uilding m aterials.

T hese w ere f or t rees

l ike p alm t rees -

U di n 'Alegbe - a nd t he O gie'Umoghumwun k nows t he t ype o f c oconut p alm ( 7 A legbe. A legbe g o t o I yek'Orhiomwon t o f ind a c ow w ith a w eaverb ird's n est o n i t, a nd w hen h e c ome b ack E weka i s O ba. S o E weka g ive h im e verything f rom O ka t o t he e ast. T he U di n 'Alegbe s eniors U khiri, a nd i s n ot a b oundary b etween I kpe a nd U gbeku

4 50

I DOGBO,

I yeware.

17 /1 1 /74.

I nformant:

o nogie.

T he f irst o nogie w as E dobomhen i n E sigie's t ime. T he O gie I dogbo h olds a uthority o ver a ll o ther e nigie i n t he a rea f rom U gbeku t o t he O rhiomo r iver. L ato w as

t he f irst m an t o s tart I dogbo v illage i n O giso t ime.

T he i ya w ere b uilt f or w ar. O ba O guola s tart t he i ya ; h e b ring p eople, n ot s laves o r s oldiers, f rom B enin - m any o f t hem ; a nd t hey b uilt t he i ya u sing b askets a nd s hovels - d igging w ith t he a cutea ngled n ative h oes. I DOGBO, D r. J .U.

I yeware. E gharevba.

' ..villages

-O zolua

e xtracts f rom -A S hort H istory o f B enin' b y 1 968. p p3, 2 4, 2 5 r espectively . w hich

a lready

h ad m any s ons,

m ost

e xisted

i n

t he

f irst

o f w hom h e m ade c hiefs

t he t owns a nd v illages h e h ad c onquered,

C hief

o ver

s uch a s I dogbo..

-

' A r emarkable s tory i s t old a bout O zolua's f irst t hree s ons, O gidobo, O sawe a nd A ruanran . O ne d ay t here w as a d ispute b etween t hem a s t o w ho w as t he s trongest o f t he t hree. I t w as t herefore s uggested t hat t hey s hould p olej ump o ver t he p ond A gbodo. T wo o f t hem d id t his s ucc essfully, b ut t he e ldest, O gidogbo, f ell a nd f ractured h is l egs w hich m ade h im a c ripple f or l ife. T his m isfort une c aused h is c laim t o t he t hrone t o b e p assed o ver b ut h e w as m ade O gie-Idogbo, c hief o f I dogbo.' U KHIRI,

I yeware.

3 0/6/76.

I nformant:

O saigbovo U siere, o dionwere.

U KHIRI I (?) T he o riginal s ite, w here y ou s ee p lenty, p lenty c oconut, w as a bandoned a bout t wenty y ears a go, s ome t ime a fter 1 955. T here w ere m any I dumwun b efore, a nd t he v illage d ivide i nto t wo w hen t hey m ove. T he o riginal s ite w as U khiri-Ahamigie. T he l and;

f irst

m an t o

h e c ame a t

T he f irst

s ay i n t his

p lace w as O kakhuo

f rom E kiti

i n

Y oruba-

t he t ime o f E wuare.

o nogie,

t ime o f E weka I ).

I giehon, A dolo's

c ame a t O ba A dolo's s on w as O semede,

b ut

t ime

( some

s ay a t

t he

a nother s on c ome h ere.

T he o nogie m eet p eople h ere - p eople h ere e ven a t O ba E wuare's t ime. T hey w ere o riginal p eople ( some, s houted d own , s ay o nogie b ring p eople f rom B enin). U khiri h as b oundaries w ith I kpe a nd I dogbo. T he I dogbo b oundary i s v ery b ig i ya w ith h eap o n b oth s ides, i t i s d ouble'. T he i ya f or E vbiakagba I dogbo i s

i s n ot t he m ost

s o d eep o r w ide. s enior,

t hen U khiri,

4 51

t hen E vbiakagba,

t hen I kpe.

U KHIRI,

I yeware.

3 0/6/76.

I nformant:

a n o dion .

T his i ya i s n ot i ya n 'uwu.

( Between U khiri a nd m ain r oad).

U KHIRI,

I nformant* O nogie.

I yeware.

3 0/6/76.

U KHIRI I I(?) P eople i n U khiri b efore O giso c ome h ere. n ame b efore O giso.

U khiri w as c alled t he s ame

W hen m an f ight f inish, h e c alls w hole c ountry ' Ukhiri'. O ba E wuare m eet A hamigie w hen h e g o f ight E kiti. H e m ake h im o kakhuo, n ot o nog ie. T he n ame c hange s lightly w hen h e b ring h im h ere. O ne o kakuo h ave P JD).

n o s on ,

T here

a re

s o n o h eir,

t wo

a nd n o o kakuo t oday .

e nigie f or U khiri t oday,

( Okakno = w ar c hief

b ut t his

s ite

s eniors

t he

o ther . U KHIRI, O ba

I yeware.

E resoyen

I I ( ?)

3 1/3/76.

I nformant:

o dionwere.

m ade t he f irst o nogie - t he p resent o ld o nogie

i s

t he

5 th. T he i nyato i s c 320 1p ole a way. E resoyen p lant i t...or i t m ight h ave b een O yaru i n O ba O semede's ( Oba A dolor's ? ) t ime. U khiri

h as b oundary i ya w ith E vbiakagba,

a nd a nother i ya which

g oes

t hrough p laying f ield i s b oundary w ith I dogbo. U khiri a nd I dogbo t here ' before"; w ar s catter . U TEZI,

I yeware.

2 /1/76.

I nformant:

O ba E wuare f ounded t his v illage. W e

h ave

a lso o ther v illages w hich r iot

b oundaries w ith E gun,

O dionwere.

( Utezi I ). E gbal a nd I dogbo.

T he i ya w ith

d itches a cts a s b oundary b etween U tezi I a nd E gbal. T here b oundary w ith U legun, a s t he o nogie o f U legun i s o ver U tezi. s tarted a t t he t ime o f E wuare. T he i nyato i s a t I dum'Ikpe, U TEZI/ULEGUN,

I yeware.

O ba i s

t wo

i s n o U legun

s outh o f t his p resent s ite.

1 6/2/76.

U tezi h as b oundaries w ith E gba, ( senior) s hares

a nd

I nformant:

I dogbo,

O nogie. ( Interview i n U tezi I I).

O gua,

E gun,

U khiri, U legun

t he s ame l and.

O semede m ade E kpomwen t he f irst o nogie a t U tezi.

T he 5 th o nogie

t he p resent o ne.

O ba E wuare f ounded j uju o f w ife h ere. T he f irst i nyato w as i nside b ush,

T he v illage i s f rom O giso ( ?).

e ast o f U tezi I t oday.

4 52

U legun was

o n t he m ain

r oad b efore,

here i t s plit a l ong t ime

b ut w ant

i n O ba O semede's

i nside b ush d uring a B enin w ar - a nd

t ime.

I t

c ame b ack t o t his

r oad q uite

a go.

T he b oundary b etween U tezi

a nd I dogbo w as

t he o ld S akpoba r oad m ade i n

O ba E wuare's t ime. T he U tezi/Ukhiri b oundary i s a n i ya w ith o nly o ne d itch. O guola m ade t he i ya. T he b oundary c omes a fter U legun P rimary S chool . D o

n ot k now w here p eople c ame

UTEZI/ULEGUN,

I yeware.

f rom.

1 4/6/76.

F ree b orn ?

I nformant:

s ame O nogie.

( Interview

i n U legun e guae.) Egun o nly h as o dionwere. Oba O semede m ade T he p resent r eturned

t he f irst

s ite i s

a t

t he

o nogie a nd

t here h ave b een 5 e nigie.

t he ' former c ountry

t ime o f W orld W ar I ,

a t

f rom w hich U legun m oved,

a nd

t he t ime O ba O vonramwen

w as

d eported. T he b oundary l ine w as m ade b y O ba E wuare. he m ade t he o ld p ath - w hich a cted a s f ollowed b y c ars ) :) ULEGUN,

I yeware.

U legun

was

A pril

f ounded

1 m ile w est

o f

1 973.

i n O balosa's

( He m ade

I nformant:

t ime

t he w hole c ountry;

t he b oundary - w hich w as

( uncertain)

l ater

e dion.

a nd u sed t o b e a bout

t he p resent v illage.

T he w alls were b uilt b y O ba O guola. ULEGUN I yeware. J .U.

E gharevba, " In

e xtract

f rom ' A S hort H istory o f B enin' b y C hief D r.

1 968 p 40.

t he p ast

i t h ad b een t he c ustom t o p rovide h abitations

f or t he p rincesses o f B enin i n a t own k nown a s w here i ntending s uitors u sed t o g o a nd w ed t hem. a s

E resoyen a scended

a nd

i nstead m arried

t he t hrone h e a bolished t hem t o

t he c hiefs

a nd

t his

U legun, A s s oon c ustom

p eople o f

t he

C ity." AVBIAKAGBA, T his p lace The

I yeware.

v illage,

I nformants:

o nogie & o dionwere.

i s A vbiakagba a nd n ot E vbiakagba a s o n y our m ap.

v illage

o riginal another.

1 4/6/76.

w as

o riginally c l k ms 3 30

f rom t he p resent

s ite.

T he

inyato w as d estroyed b y f arming, s o t he s econd o nogie p lant E reghimen, t he f irst m an ( onogie/chief) t he O ba s ent t o t his h e

p lanted

t his v illage b efore ' During

t hat

t he p articular

t he f irst i nyato.

t hat

T here w as

a nother i nyato

t ime.

t ime h e t ime,

( odionwere) h e c annot

Eguavon a t E gun k nows m ore.

4 53

c annot

j ust

j ust u ndersand

u nderstand t he y ears.'

f or

A vbiakagba

h as

( iya n 'uwu),

b oundaries w ith U khiri

( iya n 'uwu c l m x 2m ),

I kpe - i ncluding I dumohen ( moat

s mall s tream a nd k ola t rees), E gun ( a s tream). w ide a nd l ooks l ow e ven t hough i t i s b ig. A vbiakagba h as I demu A VBIAKAGBA , D r.

J .U.

j uju f rom O ba E wuare's

I yeware.

E gharevba,

E xtract

U legun

f rom U khire), U tesi

t ime;

( one

T he i ya n 'uwu i s

v ery

o ne p alace p erson.

f rom ' A S hort H istory o f B enin

b y C hief

1 968 p 23.

' Among t hose w ho a ttempted t o o ffer o pposition t o h im ( Oba O zolua) w ere E GBAL,

I yeware.

...

1 6/2/76.

T he i nyato w as p lanted A dolor's

I demu o f E vbiakagba ..' I nformants:

o nogie & o dionwere.

j ust 2 p oles n orth o f h ere b y I guobadia i n

O ba

t ime.

I t h as b oundaries w ith O ka, A vbiama, O be ; ! -, l bazagbon, I dogbo, U tezi, O gua, U seni ( Oka n 'Evbogo). I ya m arks t he o oundaries - O ka i ya h as o ne d itch, I dogbo h as d ouble i ya. T her , . : h ave b een f ive e nigie t o t he p resent: E rhabor,

I gbinovia,

O giewi,

E gba a nd I dogbo h ad t heir o wn l and o rigin. O guola m akes E GUN,

1 E resoyen,

2 E vbuo w a,

S olomon I giwi. I dogbo s enior E gba.

t he i ya.

I yeware.

2 /1/76.

I nformants:

O dionwere & e lders.

E gun m eans w onderful c ountry; O ba O zolua g ave i t t hat n ame a nd t here h as b een n o c hange i n n ame s ince h e f ounded t he v illage. O zolua p ut O giomo i n c harge; a nd t he I weguae p eople w ere p ut h ere d uties i n t he p alace. T he i nyato i s a t 2 30

a nd 2 p oles

E gun h as b oundaries w ith O gua,

f rom t his h ouse

U tesi,

( No.

- t hey

h ad

1 6).

U legun a nd E vbuomoma.

I ya m ark

t he b oundaries; t hat b etween u s a nd U tesi h aving t he b ank o n t he e ast s ide. E gun h as 3 m h igh i ya a ll r ound, a bout 1 k m ( 3 kms ? ) r adius. O zolua m ake t his O ld v illages

i ya a nd

t here a re n o a dditions.

t he s ame t ime a s E gun :

E vbuomoma,

U tesi,

U legun ,

O gua.

U roho i s v ery o ld, a nd w as t he f irst v illage i n t his a rea. I dogbo i s o lder t han E gun ; i t w as t here b efore O zolua . E vbuomoma w as m ade a t t he t ime o f O zolua. U wosan i s y oung; E gun i s o lder t han U wosan . O nogie t o U wosan a t t he t ime o f O balosa .

T he O nogie o f O gua g ives U wosan i s o n E gun l and

e nclosed b y E gun i ya. E hengbuda g rew u p h ere i n E gun, I weguae

a nd w hen h e b ecame k ing h e o rdered

t o s erve O sun'Ehengbuda - t he E hengbuda j uju.

O bia j uju

t he i s

a lso s erved. T he O ken o f E gun s erves t he r iver g od, c lose t o t he s wamp a nd w ater h oles ( seasonal l ake), w ith s hrine o nce i n d is used p ond o pening a t 8 0 c lose t o t he l ake ( pond n ot r ecognized a s s uch b y

4 54

l ocal p eople). U WOSAN ,

I yeware.

1 /12/75/

T he O nogie d oes n ot

I nformant:

l ive h ere n ow,

O jo O dia,

o dionwere.

h e i s o n S apele r oad.

H is n ame i s

I gbinovia A gbontaen a nd h e i s t he 7 th o nogie. T he f irst o nogie w as s on o f O balosa; a nd s ince t hat t ime t here h ave b een s ix o thers. E gun i s o n U wosan l and; U wosan .

i t w as

U wosan h as E vbuomoma.

w ith

T he i ya was

b oundaries

b uilt a t

c reated b y p ermission o f

U tesi,

E vbiakagba,

t he t ime o f E wuare

..

n o

..

a

t he o nogie o f

U legun,

O guola.

O gua

a nd

I t a cts

a s

a b oundary a ll r ound U wosan . T he n ame Uwosan c omes f rom u wisan m eaning t his p lace i s v ery s melly'. A pparently O ba O zolua .. o r E wuare .. w hen h e r each t his p lace f ound t hat

t he

i nhabitants

h ad p rotested b y s hitting a ll o ver

t he

r oad;

h ence t he O ba's c omment a fter w hich t he v illage t ook i ts n ew I ts o ld n ame w as E donaka .. b ut w e d o n ot k now w hat t hat m eans.

n ame.

T he v illage o riginated i n O ba E wuare's t ime a nd u sed t o b e 2 00m a way a t c 250 f orm p resent s ite, t his h aving m oved t o t he t rack h ere i n 1 954. U TESI,

I yeware.

1 /12/75.

I nformants:

O ba E resoyen m ade t he f irst o nogie, T he

n ame

o f

U tesi

i s

e dion & o nogie.

a nd t here h ave b een 7 e nigie.

t oo d ifficult

t o

e xplain ...

o ne

O ba

c alled

E wuare , h e m ake w ar i n t his a rea; h e c ame h ere a nd e veryone r un f or b ush; h e m eet o nly t he o nogie a nd h is d aughter a nd n obody e lse i n t he w hole v illage. W here i s e veryone e lse? a sked E wuare. U tesi - a ll h ave r un a way - w as

t he r eply.

T he

p revious

was d ug.

f rom O giso t ime

n ame w as A woke,

T he

o riginal i nyato i s c 150

..

n amed a fter t he f ounder.

o r p ossibly O guola's

1m ile a way,

T his v illage

t ime w hen t he i ya

a nd m oved

t o

t he

w ere

p resent

s ite c 70 y ears a go w hen t he r oad w as b uilt. O bagie i s

o n U tesi

l and,

a s

i s A zagba.

T here a re b oundaries w ith E vbuomoma, U wosan, E vbiakagba ( which c ons ists o f t hree a bandoned v illages & i s n ow o n t he I kpe r oad). T here i s

n o b oundary w ith U roho i e.

U roho 3 .

O ba O guola b uild i ya. E vbiakaba - E vbuomoma - n o i ya t o s outh. T he i ya a re 2 4m h igh a nd v ery g entle i n s lope. T here i s n o b ig i ya i n t his

l and.

U roho 1 w as b efore U tesi. E buomoma a nd U wosan h ave t he s ame f ather a s U tesi, b ut U tesi w as b efore U wosan . B oth e nigie a t U tesi a nd E vbuom oma

w ere

b rothers

w ith t he s ame

4 55

f ather.

U roho

a nd

U tesi

w ork

t ogether,

s o n o b oundary b etween t hem .

T here w as a b oundary d ispute ,

b ut t hey f ound t hat t he i ya b urst o ut a t t he b ack o f t he U roho's h ouse - s o t he d ispute w as f orgotten .

O nogie

o f

A r ecent s hrine t o a ccommodate n ew p riestess w ith w ide f ame f or h eali ng i n p rocess o f c onstruction t oday. T axis l ater v isited f rom B enin . E VBUOMOMA I yeware.

2 5/11/75.

I nformant:

O nogie ( his h ouse w ith t wo o kpele s tripes).

O ba s ent h is o wn c hild h ere. O ba c alled I yensenya ( Eresoyen ? ) t he f irst o nogie c alled U wagbemhen .

a nd

E vbuomoma h as b oundaries w ith O be, U roho, U wosan , O gua a nd E kae. O guola b uild i ya. U GBEKU,

I yeware/Benin C ity. 2 1/1/76.

I nformant:

O henso o f U gbeku.

U gbeku b efore I kpe - t hough I kpe v ery o ld - o lder t han I dumwun

I vbio-

t or. D umez

f ound t wo o ld i mages l ooking l ike e agles ( birds).

M y

b rother

h as o ne, h e i s w ard s ecretary a nd l ives n ear M aria G oretti ( 74/75 ? ). T here w as a s truggle w ith t he D umez d river o f t he b ull-dozer t o g et o ne; t he D umez m anager k eep t he o ther. T he O henso t itle i s f rom t he b eginning - f rom O giso t imes - f rom B enin j e . h ere, w here I godomigodo l ater c hanged t o O giso . W e h ave b oundaries w ith B enin C ity - m arked b y t he C ity I ya - O guola m ade t hat i ya , t he E wuare s tory i s f alse. A nother i ya m arks t he b oundary w ith O ka. T he I kpoba r iver a nd a s mall i ya m ark t he b oundary w ith I himwirin. A n i ya m arks t he b oundary w ith I zevbihen, w hich h as b oundary w ith O ka . T here i s n o i ya o n t he b oundary w ith I dumwu'ivbiotor a nd E tete. T he w hole b oundary i s s urveyed t oday, t he o ld i himwin t rees h ave a ll b een u prooted i n f arming . ( Boundary m ap p roduced a nd p ermitted t o b e s ketched.

B ox F ile).

T he e rie f or t he O ba's w ives h as e xisted f rom t he t ime o f O rnmiyan a nd l asted t o O vonramwen's t ime. E vbonikho s tory n ot h eard. W hen O ranmiyan c ame - a fter a t ime h e w anted t o g o -h e m et a d aughter o f O gie'Egor, c alled E rimwide, a nd i mpregnated h er. T he p lace w here t hey h ad s exual i ntercourse i s c alled ' Nedemudia'. O ranmiyan w ent o n t o U he a nd l eft E weka I d umb, h is f ather n ot k nown. H is f ather f ound a nd s ent a g ame - m arbles w ashed a nd g iven t o d elegates. I n s uccess h e c ried o ut ' Owomika' - m y h and h as c aught i t, a nd t his w as l ater c orrupted t o E weka . U gbeku h ad b oundary t o I kpe b efore - I kpe a nd A zagba c loser t ogether I kpe c ame l ater t han U gbeku, b ut w as s till v ery e arly . B oth U gbeku a nd I kpe a re o lder t han t he o ther v illages. I dogbo

w as c reated a t t he t ime o f O zolua - p eople b eing s ent w ith t he

4 56

O gie I dogbo - t hough t here m ight h ave b een s ome p eople t here O ba O guola d ug 1 5 m oats - t hose o f B enin C ity,

E kae?,

l ya E kenensugie ( 15 i ya) i s t he s aying o f l anguage a s ' Ekesugie' m eans 1 5 t oday.

t he

I han'Oba i s a d eep b uried h ole n ear t he O ba's p alace, A dodion

- t he

U gbeku a ncient

n ear t he E wedo.

O ba's d elegates p ass o n t his r oad f or c eremonial

p ur-

p oses a t t he I gwe - y am - f estival. T hey c ollect m aterials f rom t he O henso f or t he O ba. S pecial p eople - i e. s enior s ons w ho h ave l ost t heir f athers - c lear a nd m aintain t his r oad. T he O ba p ays s ecret t ribute t o o btain t he m aterials f or t he f estival; p aid a ny t ribute t o t he O ba. Abodion

- i s

I himwirin, T ribute t o

t he m eeting p lace o f

U gbeku,

a nd U gbeku h as n ever

I dumwun'Ivbiotor,

E tete,

O suan a nd E ghiero d uring t he a nnual U gbeku f estival.

d epends

t o a l arge e xtent o n t he p alace g rouping f or s ervices

t he O ba - a nd t oday,

s erve t he Oba,

i t

i s n ot

e xcepting t he I giebedie g roup w ho a re b ound t o a c ustomary d uty.

P ottery t oday i s m ade i n O ka a nd U se, a nd i t u sed t o b e m ade i n U welu ( near S iluku r oad). T he c lay c ame f rom r ivers. I f a n O ka d aughter m arries a n U gbeku m an , t hen t he p ots a re m ade i n U gbeku. I godomigodo l ege w hilst

m oved f rom h ere t o I humudumwun n ear t he p resent E do

C ol-

e xtending.

1 6 I godomigodo r ulers l ived a t U gbeku, a nd t hey c reated e nigie a t O gie U ghelli, O gie O bor ( Abor, K wale), O gie I rrua , a nd O gie A gbassa ( Urhobo s omewhere). F rom

I humudumwun t he t hrone w ent

t o O giamwen's p alace

- a s

O giamwen

d eputized f or t he O ba. T here w as n o p alace a t U sama - t his w as o nly a ba b ecame o ld. t raining a rea, a nd t he E daiken w as s ent t here w hen t he O F rom O giamwen's p alace t he t hrone m oved t o t he p resent E guae. I HINMWIRIN

I yeware.

2 2/2/77.

I nformant:

o dionwere,

I t i s o ne m ile t o t he r iver f rom h ere. O ne c rosses t here - t he i ya was m ade a t t he t ime o f O guola. Umelu

w as

Avbiama

m ade a t

l and

N o.

3 .

t he i ya o n t he w ay

t he t ime o f O ba E sigie - t he o nogie's h ouse i s

a nd t he p eople l ive

i n

I hinmwirin.

A vbiogbe

s urveyors) make n ew b oundary l ater. T here i s a r ecent c amp o n I hinmwirin l and - E vbu'Ezehian a fter g u'Ohen . Eweka I ( ?) m ade t he f irst o nogie;

m ost f orgotten,

T he

c ontains

s hrine

t o

t he

o nogie t oday

c arved

o n

( Oba's U mo-

s ixth u p t o t oday. u rhehue

s taffs,

c halk', a nd a l arge w ooden b lock w ith c ow's h eads o n t hem. T here a re a lso f aces o n t he s taffs. T en m ounds h ave c lay b alls i nserted i n t he t op. T hree m odern b ronzes o f m odern s tandard e xecution c ontrast w ith well-made A da, E ben a nd h andbells. T here i s a lso a l arge w ooden c ow's

4 57

h ead. F rom h ere 1 40 ° f or 1 10 p aces t akes o ne t o t he e dge o f t he v illage. T hence 1 10 ° 4 0, 1 40 ° 2 0, 6 0° 1 00, 7 0o 5 0, 1 10 o 1 00 b rings o ne t o a w ell-eroded d is used f ootpath c1 2m d / eep a t 1 10 ° / 300 ° . C ontinuing a t 1 10 ° f or 4 70 p aces, 7 0° 3 0, a nd 1 500 f or 2 0 o ne e ncounters a nother d is used f ootpath o f s ome i mportance b efore, a t 3 10 0 / 120 . T hereafter e verything i s o vergrown, a nd i s o nly c leared e very t hree y ears. 1 50 0 f or 9 0 p aces b rings o ne c lose t o t he A ruogbe j uju f or t he o nogie and a d is used w ell. E verything w as t oo o vergrown t o b e a ble t o d iscern a ny r emains o f a djacent s ettlements. O n t he o utskirts o f t he n ew s ite s herds, i ncluding t hose d ecorated w ith c arved r oulette, w ere g athered f or a nalysis - i t n ot b eing p oss ible t o d iscover o thers n earer t he o ld s ite. I HINMWIRIN, D r.

J .U.

I yeware.

E gharevba.

E xtracts f rom A S hort H istory o f B enin p p 3 ,

T he l ast O giso....

w as b anished f rom t he t hrone a nd t ook

r efuge a t I himwirin , d ied v ery m iserably.' ' .. v illages •

•

..

b y C hief

3 a nd 5 r espectively.

j ust o utside B enin C ity,

i n

t he

f irst

p eriod

..:

w here

h e

I himwirin ,

•

F or s ome y ears a fter t he b anishment o f O wodo, t he l ast O giso, t here w as a n i nterregnum a nd t he f ollowing l eads o f t he p eople, E vian a nd h is s on O giamwen, a dministered t he g overnment s uccessively. A t t hat t ime t he c ountry w as k nown a s I godomigodo.' U MELU,

I yeware.

1 6/6/76.

I nformant:

O nogie.

W e p acked h ere i n O ba E sigie's t ime. W e m et t he i ya h ere, b ut o ther p eople. U melu h as b oundaries w ith E vboligan ( far a t c 150 ) w here t here o dighi k olanut

( /Udighi v illage ? ) a nd w ith I hinmwirin w here t rees m ark t he b oundary.

i khimwin

n o i s a nd

U melu h as O viamorie j uju. A VBIAMA ,

I yeware.

1 6/6/76.

I nformants:

o dionwere a nd a g ardener

f rom t he M ilitary G overnor's O ffice, B enin C ity. ' Na

f our p ikin f or O ba o f B enin - A rian I bu - a t

i ya, O ba O guola - n a f irst O ba o f t his w ar c ome. O guola d one b e O ba o f B enin .

t ime

o f

t own b efore w e g o A t t he t ime w e g o

w ar f inish, A rian I bu, h e g o w ar t he t ime w here h e c ome a nd b e c hief o f t own , h e g o w ar t ravel, t ake h ead.' O guola w as b orn i n B enin,

b ut

t ook t he t hrone f rom A rian I bu w ho

h ad

g one o ff a -warring e lsehwere. S o A rian I bu f ounded U humudumwu i n I yekorhiomwon. U humudumwu w as t he n ame o f A vbiama b efore. A vbiama m eans ' All o ne p lace' b ecause U humudumwu w as a ll s pread o ut f rom h ere t o I kpoba a t t he t ime o f A rian I bu. U humdumwu w as f irst n ear t he s ite o f E do C ollege i n B enin C ity, t hen t o I himwirin a rea ( 'lst O ba's

4 58

p ikin') - t hen U melu. T he i ya a t Umelu i s b oundary b etween A vbiama a nd I kimwirin . W e a re k olanut,

a ll o ne w ith O ka, w e d o t hings t ogether; e g. w hen t aking t he v isitor ( if s enior) w ill t ake f irst i n e ither p lace.

T he O bazagbon u wu n ear j uju c lose t o O bah ( which h as n o g round b ut o n O bazagbon l and), i nside s wamp. A vbiama

l and

i s

a nd i s m arked b y o ne k olanut a nd o ne i khimwin t ree

r eaches

E gbal i ya;

E gbal i s

f airly

o ld,

b ut

I dogbo

s eniors E gbal. O gua i s s enior ( because o f r oyal c onnection, ( a c amp b efore) t hen E gbal. A rian

I bu

c ut

t he l and f or O bazagbon a nd

a lready t here a t t hat I KPE,

I yeware.

I kpe w as

I khimwirin

t hen U tezi

- I dogbo

w as

t ime.

2 6/1/76.

t he n ame o f

' Oba p ikin'),

I nformant:

O nogie

t he f ounder.

T he i nyato i s 1' p ole 2 70

f rom p resent o nogie's h ouse.

I dumohen a nd I kpe b oth h ave O khuaihe j uju. I kpe s eniors A zagba ( strangers),

a nd c ame b efore U roho,

a nd a ll o ther v illages i n I yeware. I kpe a nd U gbeku m ake v illage i n t he s ame y ear.

b efore U khiri

B oth c ome

f rom

t he

s ky. I kpe h as b oundaries w ith A zagba, E vbiakagba a nd U khiri a nd O bagie. I khimwin t rees a ct a s b oundary w ith O bagie, a lso a n i ya a bout 1 m h igh. W e d on't k now w ho b uilt .. O guola b uilt t he i ya, a nd h e t ook a ll t he l abourers f rom n eighbouring v illages. I t i s a bout 1 0 1m ile u p m ain r oad. ( Shown o riginal s ite w here b eing b urned a nd c leared

f or f arm .

M ounds

a nd b orrow p its v ery m uch i n e vidence. N umerous p otsherds, e specially d ouble-ledged b owls, a nd i ndigenous, c lay t obacco p ipes - s imilar t o t hose f ound b y C onnah b y I kpoba s tream .) A ZAGBA ,

I yeware.

2 0/1/76.

I nformant:

A zagba h as b oundaries w ith O bagie,

O dionwere.

I dumohen,

U tesi a nd I kpe.

T he r oad

a cts a s a b oundary b etween A zagba a nd I kpe. T here a re i ya b etween A zagba a nd O bagie, a nd U tesi, a nd I dumohen ( which a lso h as i khimwin a nd O kha t rees). I n t he i ya b oundary w ith U tesi, t he n o-man's l and b elongs t o U tesi, T here w as

a nd a t ribute o f 7 y ams i s p aid b y A zagba t o U tesi.

a n o nogie b efore - t oday's

s on n ever c ome.

O ba A dolor m ade

t he f irst o nogie a nd t here h ave b een t wo u ntil t oday. I n

o riginal t his w as

o giso v illage b efore.

i n O ramiyan's

t ime v illage

( Eweka

Is

f ather);

M any o riginals r un a way t o o ther p laces,

4 59

s ome

r eturn. O guola b uild

t he i ya - h e o rders

e veryone t o d o

t hem .

O guola w as

c ontractor. O nogie o f A zagba a nd O ba d ivide t he g round: b oundary t o s top f ighting a nd p revent i t.

t he

a t erritorial

O riginal s ite c1 2k / m t o s outh ( pottery s herds c ollected); t hen m oved t o s ite 1 50m t o w est ( sherds c ollected). S o A zagba p ack e ast t o t his t rack a bout 1 5 y ears a go. W oman,

w ith d ark b lue ( indigo

f ree s pindle. U ROHO