Recent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology, Parts i and ii 9781407389998, 9781407390000, 9780860545439, 9781407347035

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part I. Mesoamerica
Part II. Intermediate Area
Part III. South America

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Recent Studies in Pre­ Columbian Archaeology

edited by

Nicholas J. Saunders and Olivier de Montrnollin

Part i

BAR International Series 421 (i)

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S421 (I), 1988: 'Recent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology' Part I © The Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389998 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390000 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545439 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347035 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545439 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS Volume i Part I. Chatoyer: Mirrors.

Page

Mesoamerica. Anthropological Reflections on Archaeological

1

Nicholas J. Saunders. Lacam-Tun: An Archaeological Site in the Lacandon Jungle, Chiapas, Mexico.

41

Sonia E. Rivero Torres.

63

Settlement Scale and Theory in Maya Archaeology. Olivier de Montmollin. Territoriality and Maya Political Organization: State Perspective.

An Early

105

Rien Ploeg. Caches as Burials; Burials as Caches: The Meaning of Ritual Deposits among the Classic Period Lowland Maya.

117

Marshall J. Becker. A Case for the Practice of Human Sacrifice Among the Classic Lowland Maya.

143

W.B.M. Welsh. Las excavaciones en Zaculeu (1946-1950): una aproximaci6n al analisis de la relaci6n entre arqueologia y politica en America Latina.

167

Daniel Schavelzon. Iconographic Symbols in Aztec Elite Sculptures.

191

Elizabeth Baquedano. The Newly-Discovered Tepotzotlan Codex: Gordon Brotherston and Ana Gallegos. iii

A First Account.

205

P art I I.

I ntermediate A rea.

S tone J aguars i n I sthmian H ouseholds.

2 29

U rsula J ones.

T he C eramics o f T obago a nd B arbados: i n P rogress.

AR eport o n S tudies

2 45

M ary H ill H arris.

T he S patial C orrespondence o f S elected B one P roperties a nd I nferred A ctivity A reas i n a n E arly F ormative D welling S tructure ( S 2 0) a t R eal A lto, E cuador.

2 75

P eter S tahl a nd J ames A . Z eidler.

V olume i i

P art I II.

S outh A merica.

A n A rchaeological R econnaissance i n t he P rovince o f P alpa, D epartment o f I ca, P eru.

2 99

D avid M . B rowne a nd J ose P ablo B araybar.

" The M aster o r M other o f F ishes": A n I nterpretation o f N asca P ottery F igurines a nd t heir S ymbolism .

3 27

A lexandra M organ.

T he N azca L ines, W ater a nd M ountains: S tudy.

A n E thnoarchaeological

3 63

J ohan R einhard.

S patial L ogic a nd t he I nvestigation o f C ontrol i n M iddle H orizon P eru.

4 15

R . M ichael C zwarno.

I nca P lanning N orth o f C uzco b etween A nta a nd M achu P icchu a nd a long t he U rubamba V alley. A nn K endall.

i v

4 57

T he M anufacture o f t he I nca A ryballus.

4 89

S arah L unt.

A n A ppraisal o f t he M ollo C ulture o f B olivia.

5 13

W illiam l ain M ackay.

P addle a nd A nvil P otters o f t he N orth C oast o f P eru.

5 45

G eorge B ankes.

P re-Columbian C ollections i n B irmingham C ity M useum .

5 65

J ane P eirson J ones a nd P hilip W atson.

M ore M acro t han M icro : t he P araguayan T upi.

A nthropological L inguistics a mong

5 91

J ay K ettle-Williams.

C amelids, C aravans, a nd C omplex S ocieties i n t he S outhC entral A ndes. T om D .

D illehay a nd L autaro N C iñez A .

V

6 03

C hatoyer

A NTHROPOLOGICAL R EFLECTIONS O N A RCHAEOLOGICAL M IRRORS N icholas J .

S aunders

" Looking i nto m irrors w ould c ause H e j aguars t o e at o ne's h eart & s oul" ( S. H ugh-Jones, 1 979: 9 0).

A BSTRACT I n t his p aper a rchaeological m irrors a re c onsidered i n t heir w ider c ontext a nd i n t erms o f e thnographically w ell d ocumented n otions c onc erning ' reflected-image s pirit d omains'. I t i s a rgued t hat t he v ariability o f m irrors i n t erms o f r eflectivity i s a n i ndication o f t he i mportance o f g enerative m etaphysical n otions c oncerning r eflected i mages, t he s tatus o f t he i ndividual w ho w ields t he m irror a nd t he ' situation ' o f i ts u se. I n t erms o f t he t heory o f ' situational c orrespondence' t he s haman's o r r uler's u se o f m irrors t o a ccess t he s pirit w orld i s s een a s a nalogous t o t he j aguar's h unting/ 'controlling' a ctivities w hich a re f acilitated b y i ts m irrored e yes. T he n otion t hat m irrors w ere a ) m etaphors f or j aguar e yes a nd b ) s ignifiers o f e lite s tatus i s t hen t ested a gainst t hree c ultures f or w hich t here i s a rchaeological a nd/or i conographic e vidence f or t he u se o f m irrors.

I ntroduction E thnographic m irrors a re e mbedded i n a m atrix o f s ocial, r eligious, r itual a nd e conomic a ctivities. A rchaeological m irrors s hould b e a ssessed w ithin s imilar p arameters a nd n ot s imply a s o bjects p roduced b y m ore o r l ess s ophisticated t echnologies. A rchaeological m irrors n eed t o b e v iewed a s a n i ntegral p art o f aw ider c omplex w hich c entres a round n otions o f r eflections, ' doubles', s pirit-familiars a nd p arallel d omains. I n b oth c ases t he p art m irrors p layed i n t he r einforcement o f w orld v iew , a s c onceived a nd m anipulated b y p urposeful h uman a gents, i s a p otentially v aluable w ay o f a scertaining t heir d istinctive n ature a nd w hy s o m uch e ffort a nd e xpertise w as i nvested i n t heir m anufacture a nd d istribution. M irrors r eflect t he p hysical w orld b y r endering i mages o f i t w hich a ppear r eal y et r emain e phemeral. T hey r ely o n t he p hysical w orld i n o rder t o w ork y et t he i mage t hey p roduce i s a r eversal o f r eality w here r ight b ecomes l eft a nd l eft, r ight. T he r eflected i mage c reates t he i mpression o f ' another p lace' a nd, b y p roducing a n i mage o f ' self'

1

w hich c an o nly b e s ubstantiated b y r eference t o o thers, l inks i ndividual t o c ollective i dentity. A bove a ll m irrors g enerate a ' double' o r d oppelganger, t hereby c reating t wo w here t here w as o nly o ne. T his p aper a ddresses s everal p roblems w hich, i n t he a uthor's v iew , s urround t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological m irrors, o r r ather, t he a ssumptions u pon w hich i nterpretations a re o ften m ade. A rtefacts l ike ' facts' c an n ever s peak f or t hemselves . T he i nterpretation o f m irrors i s a p rime e xample o f t he p roblematic c oncept o f o bjectivity a s s uch e fforts a re g enerated a nd g uided b y a ssumptions w hich t hemselves e manate f rom a nd m ay b e f irmly l ocked i nto t he w orldv iew o f t he i nterpreter, w here e xpectations a re b ased u pon p revious e xperience. T o d ate m any i nterpretations o f a rchaeological ( artefactual) m irrors h ave b een g enerated b y w hat G adamer ( 1975: 2 35) c alls t he ' forestructure o f k nowledge' o f t he i nterpreter r ather t han, a s i n t his s tudy, t he s o-called e mic n otions o f A merindian s ocieties. M ost o f t he a vailable i nformation o n a rchaeological m irrors c oncerns t heir p hysical a ttributes, i .e. i dentifying t he g eological s ource o f t he c onstituent m aterials, a scertaining t he m ethod o f p roduction, c reating m odels t o e xplain t heir m ovement t hrough a nd a cross t he s ocial a nd p hysical l andscapes a nd r ecording t heir a rchaeol ogical c ontext. S uch l egitimate c oncerns h owever a re n ot d esigned t o t ell u s h ow a nd w hy m irrors w ere u sed. A n o veremphasis o n t echnology c an c reate a p aradigmatic s traightjacket, c onstantly g enerating e ver m ore r efined d escriptive a nalyses w hilst m asking o ther p otentially v aluable i nsights i nto t he p ossible f unction o f m irrors a nd t he w ider n otions s urrounding r eflected i mages. O ne p otential s ource o f c onfusion i s t he n ature o f d ifferent t ypes o f r eflections a nd t he v arious m ediums u pon w hich t hey o ccur . S ome o bjects, n atural o r a rtefactual ( e.g. w ater a nd h ighly p olished m irrors), s hine a nd p roduce a r eflection w hich i s a m ore o r l ess r ecognizable i mage o f t hat w hich i s b efore i t ( Fig. 1 ); o ther o bjects s hine b ut o nly r ender a d istorted i mage ( e.g. ' poorly ' p roduced a nd c omposite m irrors) a nd s till o thers s hine b ut p roduce n o r eflected i mages ( e.g. r ock c rystals a nd w orked s hells). T he c apacity t o s hine i s c ommon t o a ll, t he a bility t o r ender r eflected i mages i s n ot . A rtefactual m irrors t herefore a re n ot t he o nly o bjects w hich p ossess r eflective c apacities. W ater, s hells, n aturally o ccurring g eological m aterials, e .g. r ock c rystal, h aematite, m agnetite , o bsidian, m ercury a nd t he e yes o f c ertain a nimals m ay a ll s hine; a nd s ome c an b e w orked t o p roduce r ecognizable r eflections. I n m any e thnographic A merindian s ocieties o f C entral a nd S outh A merica t he a rtefactual m irror's r eflections a re p art o f aw ider c oncept w hich m ay i nclude s hadows, m ultiple r epeated i magery, s plit i magery, a natropic i magery, ' doubles', a lter e gos a nd d oppelganger s pirit w orlds . T his m ay b e e xtended t o i nclude n otions c oncerning d uality, d yadic r elations hips, b inafy o pposition a nd t he s ocial s tructure a nd r itual f unction o f m oieties. T he o rigin o f t his w ider c omplex o f b eliefs m ay h ave o ccurred b efore a rtefactual m irrors w ere p roduced. I ndeed n aturally o ccurring r eflective a gents h ave a lways b een a vailable f or i ncorporation i nto s upernatural a nd c ultural l andscapes. T he a rrival o f m irror-making

2

t echnology ( c. 1 250 B C i n M esoamerica a nd c . 1 500 B C i n S outh A merica) m ay b e s een a s a n e xtension o f t he r itual m anipulation o f t he r eflected i mage, h itherto o nly ' available' d irectly f rom ' nature'. B ecause r eflections a re s een i n s tanding o r m oving w ater ( e.g. p onds, l akes, r ivers a nd t he o cean) a s w ell a s i n g ourds o r b owls t hey m ay b e a ssociated w ith d rinking . A s a ll h umans m ust d rink t o l ive t he o pportunity t o a ssociate l ife-giving w ater w ith e ver p resent r eflect ions w as a lways a vailable . T he g eneric r elationship b etween r eflections i n w ater a nd t hose i n m irrors m ay e nable t he m irror t o b e u sed t o r epresent a ) t he l ife-giving e ssence o f w ater, b ) t he r ains w hich r egenerate t hese b odies o f w ater a nd c ) n otions s urrounding c oncepts o f f ertility. F or h umans a nd a nimals w ater s ources h ave a lways b een m eeting p laces. T he f act t hat p redation m ay h ave o ccurred m ore e asily a nd m ore f requently a t s uch l ocations, p rovides a nother a ssociation, t hat b etween w ater, r eflections a nd t he c ontinuance a nd/or p rotection o f l ife. T he l iterature o n a rchaeological ( artefactual) m irrors i n t he N ew W orld r eflects t he c onfusion w hich s urrounds t he i nterpretation o f s uch o bjects. A rtefactual m irrors a re p resented a s e ither b eing ' magical s crying d evices', u sed ' merely' f or v anity o r p erhaps a s f ire-starters. I n f act e very s ociety h as t he o ption o f u sing n atural a nd a rtefactual m irrors a s v anity d evices q uite a part f rom a ny m etaphysical q ualities w hich m ay h ave b een a ttributed t o t hem. T he f ollowing o bservations c an b e m ade a bout m irrors f rom a rchaeol ogical c ontexts; a ) a ccording t o t he l evel o f s ophistication i n i ts m anufacture ( i.e . t he m irror's a bility t o c ast t rue r eflections), t he u ser w as c onfronted w ith t he s ame i mage-producing p roperties o f m irrors a s w e k now t hem, b ) w hen m irrors w ere c omposite t hey p roduced d istorted a nd b roken i mages, c ) i n a ll c ases t he o bjects w ere a ble t o s hine a nd d ) t his v ariability ( whether d eliberate o r n ot) m ay b e i ndicative o f s ocial a nd m etaphysical r elationships g enerated b y w orld v iews d ifferent f rom o ur o wn. I n o rder t o a ssess t he s ignificance o f s uch a rtefactual m irrors t he a rchaeologist h as t o a ttempt t o u nderstand t he p rehistoric w orld v iew i n o rder t o c onsider w hat a ssumptions m ay h ave u nderlain t he s ignificance a ttached t o t heir u se.

S ocial I mplications T he p roduction o f a rtefactual m irrors c reated t he o pportunity f or t he d evelopment o f a h ierarchy o f r eflected i mages . T he t ype o f r eflective d evice u sed m ay h ave d epended o n a ) t he s tatus o f t he u ser a nd b ) t he s ituation o f i ts u se. I t i s p ossible t hat t he m astery o f l apidary t echniques e mployed t o m ake t he m irror m ay h ave s ignified a c onceptual c hange i n o r a n e laboration o f t he n otion o f r eflected i mages l inked e xplicitly o r i mplicitly t o t he s tatus o f t hose w ho p ossessed t hem , t he s ocio-cultural l evel o f t he s ociety t o w hich t hese i ndividuals b elonged a nd t he c ontext o f t heir u se. B oth t he m etaphysical g enerative n otion a nd t he a rtefactual m irrors w hich g ave p hysical e xpression t o i t c an b e c onsidered a rtefacts ( i.e. m an-thought o r m an-made) b ut o nly t he l atter i s r ecoverable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he a rchaeological c ontext o f a rtefactual m irrors s hould b e i ndicative o f t he s tatus o f t hose w ho o wned o r u sed t hem , b oth i n t erms

3

o f t he e xpense i ncurred i n o btaining t he m aterials a nd w orking t hem ( with e conomic a nd s ocial i mplications), a nd t he s ystemic f unction o f m irrors w ithin t he s ociety c oncerned ( with s ocio-religious a nd p olitico-religious i mplications). T he u tility a nd s ignificance o f a rtefactual m irrors w as p resumably d ependant o n t he i deological n ecessities o f t hose w ho u sed t hem a nd w ere t ied i ndissolubly t o t he c ontext o f t heir u se. S ubsequent t o i ts p roduction h owever, t he a rtefactual m irror w as a vailable a s a m etonym f or t he b elief j ust a s a f ace r eflected i n i t c ould s tand f or t he w hole b ody. A ccording t o t he c ulture c oncerned t he m irror-image m ay h ave s erved a s a m etaphor o f t hat w hich i t r eflects. M etaphors b y t heir n ature a re t hings w hich s tand f or s omething e lse. W hilst w e c annot b e s ure t hat p articular A merindian s ocieties r ecognised a nd u sed m etaphor i n t he s ame w ay i n w hich w e d o ( e.g. K aplan n .d.: 5 ) i t i s p lain t hat f or m any C entral a nd S outh A merican A merindians t he r eflected i mage s tands f or t he s oul o r e ssence o f t he p erson w ho l ooks i nto t he m irror w hich p roduces i t ( e.g. R eichel-Dolmatoff 1 975: 1 10 , K arsten 1 968: 1 04). R ecognizable r eflections a re n ot ' real ' a nd c annot b e t ouched, d ecorated o r o therwise a ltered t he o nly w ay o f a ltering t he r eflected i mage i s t o a lter t he o bject w hich i s b efore i t . -

T he t ranslation o f a m etaphysical b elief i nto a p hysical o bject l inks t he m irror a nd i ts m aterial f orm w ith a w ider c oncept s urrounding n otions o f r eflected i mages a nd p arallel s pirit w orlds . A s a rtefacts, m irrors m ay h ave b een p roduced t o e laborate a nd o r r einforce a p ree xisting i dea o r s et o f p re-existing i deas. T he d ecision t o m anufacture a m irror i s a p roduct o f, a nd m ay h ave i mportant i mplicat ions f or, m any a spects o f t he s ociety w hich p roduces i t; e conomic c onsiderations, m ining, t rade, t echnological e xpertise, t he d ivision o f l abour, a n i mplied h ierarchy o f u se , t he p ossible e laboration o f t he r itual c ontext i n w hich t he m irror i s u sed a nd i ts s ystemic f unction i n t he m etaphorical r einforcement o f i deological a ctivity f or t he c ultural c oncerned. A rtefactual

m irrors b oth s hine a nd p roduce r eflected i mages,

b ut

w hat t he u ser o f t he m irror m akes o f t hese q ualities i s s ituation-bound a nd c ulture-specific. C onfronted w ith ar eflected a nd r eversed i mage t he u ser m ay p erceive ' another p lace' o r ' another w orld'. A ccording t o t he p redisposition o f t he u ser t his i mage m ay f urther c reate o r r einforce a lready e xisting n otions o f a p arallel w orld, a nother e xistence o r a nother d omain w here t hings a re e ither r eversed, o r a t l east n ot a s t hey a re ' here' i n t he p hysical w orld. I t s hould n ot b e t aken f or g ranted t hat a ll c ultures w ill i nterpret t he m irror's i mage i n t he s ame w ay, e ven t hough a ll a re c onfronted w ith t he s ame p hysical p roperties o f t he m irror. L ike a ll o bjects o f m aterial c ulture a rtefactual m irrors f unction o n a n umber o f l evels. T hey a re g enerated b y c ultural i deas a nd b eliefs b efore t heir p roduction; t heir s ignificance e xists i n t he m ind o f t he p roducer b oth b efore a nd d uring t heir m anufacture; t hey p ossess a s ystemic e xistence, i nteracting a nd p erhaps r einforcing a nd/or c hanging w ith b eliefs, r ituals a nd c eremony a s w ielded b y t he p urposef ul h uman a gents o f t heir u se, w ho m ay n ot b e t he s ame a s t hose w ho

4

m anufactured t hem . T hey p ossess a s econd s ystematic e xistence i n t erms o f t he c ontext o f t heir d eposition i n a nd r ecovery f rom t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord. A gainst t his b ackground i t i s c onceivable t hat ' technically p erfect' m irrors w ere t he e xception r ather t han t he e nd t o w hich a ll m irror m akers a spired. F or e xample w hilst b oth w orked s hell a nd p olished i ron o re m irrors s hine, t he l atter h as t he c apacity t o r ender r eflected i mages a s w ell. O bjects m ade o f b oth m aterials w ere w orn a s p ectorals d uring F ormative t imes i n M esoamerica, a pparently b y i ndividuals o f p re-eminent s ocial s tatus ( see b elow). W ithin t his c omplex w eb o r m etaphorical a nd m etonymical m eanings, a m irror's ' performance', i n t erms o f r eflective c apacity, m ay h ave b een l ess s ignificant t han t he s ituation w hich g enerated b eliefs c oncerning s hining i mages a nd r eflected i mages, a nd t hus c reated a venues f or t heir m anipulation . F or t hose a rtefactual m irrors w hich w ere, i n o ur t erms , w ell p roduced, t here c an b e n o g uarantee t hat t he d egree o f t echnical p erfection ( in t erms o f c asting a ccurate r eflections) w as a chieved e ither f or t he s ame r easons f or w hich w e d esire i t, o r, i f i t d id p roduce a ccurate r eflections, t hat t he s ame i nterpretation w as p ut o n t hat r eflection a s i t i s i n o ur s ociety. I f i t w as l ess t han p erfect w e m ay s uggest t hat e ither ' perfection ' w as n ot n ecessary, t hat t he p roducers c ould n ot p roduce t echnically p erfect r eflective s urfaces, t hat, f or s ome c ultural r eason t hey w ere p revented f rom p roducing t echnically p erfect m irrors o r t hat t he q uality o f t he m irror's c apacity t o s hine, m ore o r l ess i ntensely , w as p aramount. T he w ide r ange o f r eflective c apacities o f a rchaeological m irrors s hould n ot b e e xplained b y a ccusations o f a s ociety's t echnological i mpoverishment v ariation i tself m ay b e a s ignificant i ndicator o f t he r eal n ature a nd u se o f m irrors. -

W hilst m irrors f rom e thnographic s ituations h ave c ontexts t hat i nclude t he i ndigenous n otions o f t he r ole r eflected i mages p layed i n t he c onstruction a nd r einforcement o f w orld-view, t hose m irrors f rom a rchaeological c ontexts a re o ften v iewed o nly a s d iscrete a nd i ndividual i tems. I nterpreted i n t erms o f s elective w estern r ather t han h olistic i ndigenous a ssumptions a rtefactual m irrors a re o ften o nly r egarded a s e xamples o f A merindian d isarticulated f rom t heir c ontext.

t echnology

a nd

a re

t hus

A rchaeological m irrors l ike e thnographic m irrors p resumably a lso r elied f or t heir s ignificance a nd u se o n u nderlying a ssumptions o f h ow t he u niverse w as c reated, h ow i t o perates a nd h ow i t w ill c ontinue t o o perate. A ll m irrors s hine a nd/or p roduce r eflections w hich c an b e ' seen' b ut i t i s h ow t hese i mages w ere p erceived t hat i s t he i mportant f actor. P erception, u nlike t he p hysical a ct o f ' seeing' i s c ulturally d etermined. T he h uman e ye i s t he v isual o rgan w hich c ollects a nd f ocusses l ight b ut t he i mage i t p roduces i s i nverted i t i s t he b rain w hich c orrects t his i nversion a nd s o m akes s ense o f t he r etinal i mage. I n d ealing w ith p erception w e a re a ttempting t o a ssess c ognition w hich i n i ts t urn i s r elated t o o ntology. -

M irrors s hould b e e valuated i n t erms o f t he g enerative m etap hysical b eliefs c reated b y h uman s ocieties t o m ake s ense o f a nd b ring o rder t o t heir s ocial a nd p hysical e nvironments. T hey s hould b e r elated t o a w orld-view w hich i s o ften r evealed b y t he n ature a nd c ontent o f t he i conography a ssociated w ith a p articular c ulture.

5

R ather t han m aterial o bjects a rchaeological m irrors s hould b e i nterpreted a s o ne a spect o f t he w ider n otion o f r eflected i mages a nd d oppelganger s pirit w orlds f or w hich w e p ossess d etailed e thnographic e vidence. T hey s hould b e s een a s o bjects w hich a llow f or t he r itual m anipulation o f s hining a nd/or r eflected i mages b y p urposeful h uman a gents, w ho m ay b e s hamans, p riests o r p riest-rulers. I n p articular s ituations o f u se m irrors s hould b e s een a s a n i ntegral p art o f n otions o f p arallel s pirit w orlds, w ithin w hich c ertain i ndividuals, i n a v ariety o f g uises, p rey o n a nd c ontrol t he s ouls o f o thers. A s w e k now f rom e thnography s uch b eings a re o ften n aturalistically r endered, c omposite o r a nthropomorphised a nimals. I n W estern o ntology h umans a re o ften, t hough n ot a lways, d istinct f rom a nimals; o ther c ultures, p ossessing d ifferent o ntologies a nd ' world-views', m ay, f or e xample, c lassify o ther h umans a s ' animals ' e ither a ll t he t ime o r i n p articular s ituations w here h uman a ction i s d escribed b y t he u se o f a nimal m etaphors ( e.g. T apper 1 988: 5 1). S ome w orld-views m ay r egard a ll l iving t hings a s p ossessors o f ' souls '. A s U cko ( 1988: x i) s ays, " Ecological, p sychological, c ultural a nd u tilitarian c onsiderations a re a ll i nvolved i n p eopls's a ttitudes t o a nd t reatment o f, o ther s pecies." E thno-classificatory p rocedures, o r F olk t axa, l ie a t t he h eart o f t his n otion, a nd a re l ocked f irmly i nto a p articular w orld-view w hich g enerates t hem , e stablishes t hem i n m yth a nd a llows f or t heir c onstant r e-generation t hrough r itual ( Saunders n .d.b.). S uch c lassificatory p rocedures m ay a ppear a rbitrary t o u s b ut s erve a h euristic c ulture-specific f unction i n r elating h umans t o t heir e nvironment i n t erms o f u se, m emory a nd t he n ature o f h uman/non-human r elationships i n a n u nderstandable a nd e mically l ogical f ashion. T he a nimal w orld m ay b e p erceived a s a m etaphorical h uman s ociety ( Martin 1 977: p assim), a nd t his i n t urn m ay p roduce a h ighly d istinctive c hoice o f a nimals a s m etaphors f or b oth s ocial a ction a nd r eligious b elief. I t m ust b e e mphasised, h owever, t hat w hich a nimals a re c hosen t o r epresent c ertain v alues f or a s ociety v ia r itual m arking a nd w hich a spect o f t he a nimal's a ppearance a nd b ehaviour i s a ppropriate t o r epresent v alues a nd i deas i n a ny p articular c ontext o r s ituation a re g enerated b y a p articular c ulture's v iew o f i tself a nd i ts p lace w ithin t he ' natural' a nd ' created' l andscapes. T he i dentification o f s hamans w ith p articular a nimals i s a n i ntegral p art o f t he n otion o f a ' double' o r a nimal s pirit-familiar t hroughout C entral a nd S outh A merica. S hamans o ften p ossess a n a ltere go w hich i s b elieved t o i nhabit t he p arallel s pirit d omain a nd, o n o ccasion, t hese a re r eferred t o a s w ere-animals, e .g. w ere-wolf, w erej aguar. T he c oncept o f ' were' i s i ntimately a ssociated w ith t he s hadowy s pirit w orld w here c ertain a nimals e mbody a nd r eflect t he s oul e ssence o f t he s haman , t hereby e ither a ffecting i ndividual i dentity o r r epresenting t he i ndividual's n ature a t t he s pirit l evel. T he c oncept o f ' were' i tself c orresponds n ot t o h uman o r ' here' i n t he p hysical w orld, b ut t o ' there' i n t he p arallel s pirit w orld w hich i s c onceived a s a m irror i mage, a nd w hich m ay, a ccording t o c ircumstance, b e r egarded a s a n i nversion o f t he p hysical w orld. R eichel-Dolmatoff's a ccount o f t he t ransformation o f a s haman i nto a j aguar ( 1975: 1 10) s tates e xplicitly t hat i n h is j aguar g uise t he s haman's b ody i s r eversed, h is b ack f aces d ownwards a nd h is b elly i s t urned u pwards.

6

I n C hiapas, M exico, P itt-Rivers ( 1970) h as s hown t hat t he n agual o r a nimal s pirit-familiar i s a ttributed b y p ublic o pinion a nd i n a ccordance w ith t he a ctions a nd r eputation o f t he i ndividual ( 1970: 1 89) a nd t hat t he r elations b etween o bserved n atural e ntities a re t he m odel f or r epresenting s ocial r elationships ( 1970: 1 87). I n o ther w ords t hose w ho p ossess t he t iger ( sic; j aguar, P . o nca) a s t heir n agual a re a s p redatory/aggressive i n t heir s ocial b ehaviour a s t hat a nimal i s i n i ts n atural e nvironment. A n i ndividual's i dentity i s c onferred b y t he c onsensus o pinion o f o thers a nd r epresented a t t he s pirit l evel b y a p articular a nimal i n t he f orm o f a d ouble o r s pirit f amiliar.

T he D oppelganger S pirit W orld I n C entral a nd S outh A merica t here i s aw idespread b elief i n a p arallel o r r eflected s pirit-world. T his b elief i s a n i ntegral p art o f t he w ay i n w hich m any A merindians c onceive t he ' natural ' a nd s ocial w orlds t hrough w hich t hey m ove a nd b etween w hich t hey r ecognise m ore o r l ess p ermeable b oundaries. A mongst t he T ukano o f C olombia t he i dea o f t he ' double' o r ' mirror i mage' i s f undamental t o m any o f t he c oncepts w hich s tructure t heir c osmological v iew ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 975: 1 92). F or t he T ukano a t hin s hell ( gahsiru) f orms a n i nvisible w all s eparating t he p hysical a nd s pirit w orlds a nd c an o nly b e b reached i n t rance, i nduced b y v ih6 s nuff o r y aié ( 1975: 1 92), p owerful h allucinogenic p erception.

a gents

w hich a lter s tates o f

c onsciousness

a nd

t hus

S uch b eliefs a re b uttressed b y m yth a s t he T ukano c reator P amurim ahse o riginally p lanned t o p opulate t he w orld w ith p eople c alled v eari-mahsa b ut t hese, u pon p roving t roublesome, w ere b anished t o t he h ills a nd p ools o f t he r egion w here t hey r epresent a n o mnipresent d anger t o m an b ecause t hey a re h is ' mirror-images' ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 975: 8 4). T he w orld w hich t hese m irror-image b eings i nhabit i s o rganised a s a r eflection o f T ukano s ociety a nd i s c ontrolled b y t he ' Master o f G ame A nimals', h imself r egarded a s t he ' double' o f t he s haman. I t i s t he s haman w ho u ndertakes p enetrative j ourneys a cross t he b oundaries s eparating t he t wo d omains. T he c oncept o f a p arallel o r d oppelganger s pirit-world p ossesses m any e laborations a nd p ermutations. T he s hadow a p erson c asts o n t he g round i s a ssociated w ith t he r eflection o ne s ees w hen s tanding a t t he w ater's e dge o r l ooking i nto a m irror. E veryone p ossesses a s hadow j ust a s t hey p ossess a r eflection a nd s oul-essence . W ater a nd m irrors a re ' windows' i nto t he s pirit-world a nd t he i mages t hey r eveal a re c onsidered ' real ' s pirit-beings i nhabiting a p arallel u niverse. T hese s pirit-beings, i mbued w ith a l ife o f t heir o wn, m ay a lso u se m irrors t o ' see'. F or t he T ukano t he i nhabitants o f t his s ubterranean w orld, c alled d itá m ahs , w atch t he a pproach o f s trangers i nto t heir d omain b y u sing a m irror w hich w ill d arken i f t hose a proaching a re e ating a nd w ill t urn r ed i f a m enstruating w oman c omes n ear. I n o ne c ase, r elated b y R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1975: 1 92), a m an l ooking i nto t he w ater s ees t he r eflection o f a j aguar.

7

B eliefs c oncerning t he s ignificance o f r eflections a nd w ater i n t erms o f c osmological s tructure a re n ot c onfined t o s ocieties o f t he A mazon b asin. F or e xample t hey a re a lso f ound a mongst t he Q uechua s peaking i nhabitants o f t he A ndean v illage o f M isminay. I n Q uechua t he n ame f or t he M ilky W ay i s ' Mayu ' ( river) a nd, a ccording t o U rton ( 1981: 5 6) t he i nhabitants o f M isminay b elieve t hat t he V ilcanota ( Urubamba r iver .. . is l ike a m irror r eflecting t he M ayu, t he R iver i n t he s ky." "

S hamans a nd J aguars S hamans a re o ften t he o nly p eople w ho o ccupy r oles o f p re-eminent s ocial s tatus i n s o-called e galitarian A merindian s ocieties . T heir a ccess t o a nd c ontrol o f t he a mbivalent b ut a ll p owerful s pirit-world i s t he b asis u pon w hich t heir a uthority i s f ounded. S hamanic i dentification i s o ften w ith t he j aguar w hich , i n i ndigenous p erception a s w ell a s i n b iological f act, i s t he l argest, m ost s uccessful a nd m ost w idely d istributed p redator. W hat t he j aguar i s t o t he j ungle t he s haman i s t o h uman s ociety w here j aguars h unt l esser a nimals, s hamans h unt ' t he s ouls o f l esser h umans. J aguars a re ' Masters o f A nimals' a s s hamans a re ' Masters o f P eople'. C onsequently i n a w orld-view w here a nimals a re b elieved t o p ossess s ouls o f t heir o wn, a nd t he a nimal k ingdom i s c onceived o f a s am irror-image o f h uman s ociety ( ReichelD olmatoff 1 985: 1 21), m any c onnections c an b e m ade b etween t hese t wo ' beings ' w hich a re t he s alient r epresentatives o f t heir r espective f olk t axa. T he j aguar r epresents t he s oul-essence o f t he s haman a nd , a s h is a lter e go, i nhabits t he m irror-image s pirit w orld. -

W here a ppropriate h umans m ay s elect, f ilter a nd t ransmute a spects o f t he a ppearance a nd b ehaviour o f t he j aguar ( P. o nca) t o p roduce a g raphic i mage s ignifying a nalogous h uman s tatus a nd a ction. S hamans, i n s ituations o f ' behavioural c orrespondence', m ay b ecome ' like j aguars'. B ehavioural c orrespondence i s p art o f t he w ider c oncept o f ' situational c orrespondence' ( Saunders n .d.b.) w here s ocial a ction i n p articular c ircumstances i s a nalogous t o t he g enetically a nd/or e xperientially d etermined b ehaviour o f t he f eline i n t erms o f p redation a nd k illing a nd t hus ( in h uman t erms) ' control ' o r ' success' o ver o ther a nimals. T hat t he j aguar i s p erceived i n t hese t erms i s e vident n ot j ust f rom A mazonian e thnographies o f h unter-gatherer s ocieties b ut a lso f rom e thnohistorical d ata d ealing w ith a gricultural M exican I ndian s ocieties. I n i ncantations u ttered t o p rotect t he m aize f ields t here a re r eferences t o t he w izard j aguar a nd t he N ahualli-jaguar ( Nahualocelotl) w ho, a s m aster o f a nimals, h as c ome t o c hase aay t hose c reatures w hich d amage t he c rops ( Ruiz d e A larcon 1 984: 1 08). B y v irtue o f c ontrolling h uman s ocieties t he s haman ' is l ike' t he j aguar w hich ' controls' t he a nimal k ingdom . T o s ay t hat t he s haman ' is' o r ' is l ike' t he j aguar t herefore i s as tatement w hich r elies f or i ts m eaning a nd e fficacy o n t he d egree o f i ts e mbeddedness i n b elief, r itual a ction a nd s ocial c ontext. H owever j aguars o nly h unt a nd k ill a ccording t o t heir g enetically a nd/or e xperimentally d etermined b ehaviour p atterns i t i s h umans w ho r edefine t hese a ctions a s ' control o ver' l esser p rey s pecies a s t hey i nterpret t he a nimal w orld b y r eference t o t he s ocial w orld o f h uman b eings i n o ther w ords t hey i mpart t he n otion o f p re-meditated h uman m otivation t o t he i nhabitants o f w hat i s e tically c alled t he n atural w orld a round t hem . C ertain -

-

8

a nimals t herefore b ecome p urposeful a gents. S hamans i n S outh A merica a re a cknowledged a s p ossessing a m onopoly o f s pirit-derived p ower. T his p ower i s c onfirmed b y i nitiation, m anifested i n t he s haman's k nowledge o f t he g roup's m yths, s acred t raditions a nd r itual e tiquette a nd f urthered b y t he p ossession a nd u se o f ' tool k its'. S uch e quipment m ay i nclude d ifferent v arieties o f h allucinogens, j aguar p elts, n ecklaces o f j aguar c laws a nd t eeth, r ock c rystals ( which s hine) a nd m irrors ( which s hine a nd r eflect). R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1975: 1 4) r elates h ow t he T unebo o f C olombia e ngaged i n a r itual w here, a fter t aking t he d rug ' yopa ' t hey d ivined t he f uture b y u sing m irrors t o w atch t he t rail o f m ucous c oming f rom t heir n oses. S imilarly d uring t he 1 7th c entury, t he s hamans o f t he C olombian M uisca h ad t ool-kits c ontaining t he d rug ' yopa ' a nd a s tick i nset w ith a m irror ( 1975: 1 3). T hus t here i s a n a ssociation b etween p erception a ltering h allucinogens, m irrors a nd t he r itual c ontext o f t heir u se. K arsten ( 1968: 1 04) r eports t hat s hamans o f t he L engua I ndians o f t he C haco d ecorated t hemselves w ith m irrors w hich t hey s ay e nables t hem t o s ee t he s hadow o f t he s pirit p assing o ut f rom , o r e ntering i nto, t he p erson t hey a re c uring. S imilarly f or t he C atlo o f C olombia m irrors w ere w orn a round t he s haman 's n eck a nd u sed i n t he c uring o f s nakebite ( Hernandez d e A lba 1 948: 3 25). A mong t he T ukano l arge m irrors a re o ften t he p ayment w hich n ovices g ive t o t he s haman i n r eturn f or h is g uidance a nd t raining s ervices ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 975: 1 92). T he i mportance o f m irrors i n t hese s ituations i s t hat t hey a re a ) a n i ntegral p art o f aw hole s ystem o f b elief a nd a ction, b ) l inked t o t he s tatus o f t he u ser a nd c ) a ssociated w ith h is d oppelganger j aguar g uise.

E yes a nd M irrors V ision i s o ne o f t he m ost i nformative a nd h ence m ost v aluable o f a ll h uman s enses. A merindians b elieve t hat t he n atural o penings o f t he b ody, a nd e yes i n p articular , a re e specially v ulnerable t o m align i nfluences a nd h ave t o b e r itually p rotected. F or e xample a mongst t he C haco I ndians o f S outh A merica t he w hole e ye i s s urrounded b y a p ainted r ed l ine a nd o n o ccasion t he e yebrows a re r emoved a nd r eplaced w ith r ed a nd b lack l ines o r t attoo m arks ( Karsten 1 968: 5 ). I n t he T reatise o f R uiz d e A larcon ( 1984: 1 69) t here a re i ncantations w hich d eal s pecifically w ith t he m align s pirits w hich c ause e ye d isease a nd w hich r efer t o t he e yes a s ' the e nchanted m irror .. . ( which p osseses a n) e nchanted s urface .. . ". T he s ame a uthor m akes e xplicit t hat t he A ztec N ahuatl w ord f or m irror ( tezcatl), i s u sed a s am etaphor f or t he e yes a s w ell a s a d ivinatory d evice ( 1984: 2 35). E vidence s upporting t he i dea t hat t he e ye a nd i ts p ower o f v ision i s a n i ntegral p art o f A merindian n otions o f s hadows a nd r eflections a nd t heir s upernatural a spect i s i llustrated b y R oth ( 1915: 2 99) f or t he W arrau w here, w hen o ne p erson l ooks a t a nother t he f ormer d raws t he l atter's s hadow t owards h im . T he s ame a uthor a lso r eports t hat i n t he f uneral r ites o f t he I sland C aribs w eights a re p laced o n t he e yes o f t he d eceased s o t hat h e c annot s ee h is p arents a nd m ake t hem i ll ( 1915: 2 99).

9

D espite t he w ealth o f b eliefs s urrounding t he c omplex o f m irrors/ r eflections/eyes/shadows, t heir c onnections w ith d oppelganger s piritw orlds a nd t he o ften s tated a ssociations b etween t he s haman a nd t he j aguar, v ery l ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o r ecognising t hese c oncepts a s f orming i nterlocking a spects o f aw ider n otion, o r a pplying t hem t o t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological m irrors.

T he F eline E ye J aguars, l ike a ll f elines, h ave d istinctive e yes, t he q ualities o f w hich h elp m ake i t a s uperb n octurnal a s w ell a s d iurnal h unter, a nd t hus a p owerful c ompetitor o f m an. F eline e yes a re e xceptionally l arge i n r elation t o t heir h ead s ize a nd, c oincidentally, r esemble h uman b abies i n t his r espect ( Beadle 1 977: 4 0). E yes a re t he c at's p rimary s ensory o rgan a nd a re u nusual i n a n umber o f w ays. T he f eline e ye p ossesses a l arge c ornea w hich a llows a w ide f ield o f v ision a nd m aximises t he a mount o f l ight e ntering t he e ye. U nable t o c hange t he s hape o f i ts l ens i n o rder t o f ocus i t c ompensates b y n arrowing i ts l ight-sensitive p upils v irtually t o s lits. H ungry c ats ' p upils m ay d ilate f our o r f ive t imes w hen t hey s ee f ood. U nlike h umans, f elines c lean t he s urface o f t he e ye n ot s o m uch b y b linking b ut b y u sing a t hird e yelid c alled t he n ictitating m embrane, w hich i tself i s c omposed o f w hitish s kin a nd t herefore s hines b y r eflecting l ight. L ike a ll f elines j aguars p ossess a n i mage i ntensifying d evice b ehind t he r etina, a t t he r ear o f t he e ye ( Fig. 2 ). T his l ightr eflecting l ayer o f t riangular c ells ( partly z inc a nd p artly p rotein), i s c alled t he t apetum l ucidum a nd a cts l ike a m irror r eflecting l ight b ack t o t he r etinal c ells. I ts f unction i s t o g ather e ve y s crap o f l ight t o a id t he c at i n i ts n octurnal h unting a ctivities. T he c omb ination o f a l arge c ornea a nd t he t apetum l ucidum e nables t he c at t o p roduce i mages o n t he r etina f ive t imes b righter t han t hat p roduced b y t he h uman e ye ( Beadle 1 977: 4 3). T his o pthalmic f act h as l ed t o h uman o bservers c rediting t he c at c orrectly w ith e xcellent n ight v ision , w hen c ompared w ith h uman v ision, b ut i ncorrectly w ith t he a bility t o s ee i n t otal d arkness. ' Darkness' i tself i s a r elative t erm a nd i s a ffected b y t he p resence/absence o f c elestial b odies, a tmospheric c onditions a nd t he s tate o f t he h uman e ye a t t he t ime o f o bservation . I t a lso r elates t o t he c onceptual p red isposition o f t he o bserver i n t erms o f l ight/dark, s afe/unsafe a nd p ossible b oundaries b etween ' civilized s pace ', i .e. t he v illage a nd ' uncivilized s pace', i .e . t he j ungle, w hich i tself i s a p lace o f r elative d arkness a nd s hadow e ven i n d aytime. T he f act t hat t he s upreme j ungle p redator p ossessed e yes w hich p roduced s hiny r eflections ( Fig. 3 ) w hich w ere s imilar t o t hose p roduced o n a rtefactual m irrors m ay h ave c reated a n a nalogy b etween t he t wo. I f w e a ssume t hat A merindians d id n ot u nderstand t he d istinctive a nd a daptive s tructure o f t he f eline e ye w e m ay c onclude t hat c rediting t he f eline w ith n ight v ision o ccurred b y v irtue o f t he f act t hat f elines a re e fficient n octurnal p redators a nd s o ' must' h ave b een a ble t o s ee i n t he d ark. O f t he j aguar ( Nahuatl: o celoti) i n A ztec t imes

1 0

S ahag i in ( 1963, B ook 1 1: 2 ) s ays " by n ight i t w atches; i t s eeks o ut w hat i t h unts, w hat i t e ats. V ery g ood, c lear i s i ts v ision. I n t ruth, i t s ees v ery w ell; i t c an s ee f ar. E ven i f i t i s v ery d ark, e ven i f i t i s m isty, i t s ees". T he c ontext i n w hich A merindians o bserved t he j aguar 's s hining e yes w ere p resumably r estricted t o s ituat ions o f t hat a nimals n octurnal h unting a ctivities; t he c ontext d uring w hich m irrors w ere s een r elated t o n octurnal s hamanic r ituals i n w hich t he s haman i n h is j aguar g uise w as p redating t he s ouls o f o ther h umans. T he m ottled a ppearance o f t he j aguar, e nabling i t t o b lend i n w ith t he d appled e nvironment o f t he f orest p roduced b y t he p lay o f s unlight a nd s hadow, m ay a lso l ink t his c arnivore w ith t he s hadowy r eal w orld o f t he j ungle a nd c reated w orld o f t he A merindian m ind. T he f act t hat j aguars l ive b y a nd o ften h unt i n w ater m ay a lso b e s ignificant i n t erms o f t he r elationship b etween m irrors, w ater a nd r eflections ( Saunders n .d.b.). T he

f act t hat a ll c ats e yes g low i n t he d ark m ay h ave l ed t o

t he

A merindian n otion t hat t he j aguar's m irrored e yes ' carry' t he i mage o f l ight, f ire a nd t he S un. A n i ndication t hat s uch c orrespondences w ere n ot l ost o n A merindians i s s hown b y L evi-Strauss ( 1969: 6 7) i n r elating a m yth a bout t he o rigin o f f ire a mongst t he K ayapó-Gorotire o f B rasil. H ere t he j aguar w as o nce t he m aster a nd o wner o f f ire, b ut m an s tole i t a nd e ver a fter " only t he r eflection o f f ire c ould b e s een i ts e yes."

i n

T he c oincidence b etween t he s tructure a nd f unctioning o f t he j aguar's e yes, A merindian n otions c oncerning m irror-image s pirit w orlds, t he p re-eminence o f t he j aguar i n m yth a nd s hamanic i dentificat ion a nd t he m anipulation o f m irrors b y s hamans d raws a c omplex s eries o f c onnections b etween t he s haman a nd t he j aguar. M irrored f eline e yes a re o ne o f t he n on-artefactual n atural e lements w hich p roduce s hining i mages. T his a ssociation o f s hining e yes, m an 's m ost d angerous a nd e fficient c ompetitor a nd t he a scription t o a nimals o f h uman-like p urposeful a ctions r eveals a f urther c orrespondence b etween f elines a nd c ertain h umans. T he p ossibility t hat m irrors a nd j aguar e yes a re s een a s a nalogous c an b e t aken a s tep f urther. M irrors a re i mplements w hich e nable t o s haman t o p erceive t he n ature o f t he ' other' p arallel s pirit w orld. O ne m ight i nterpret t his a s s hamans ' seeing ' w ith j aguar, i .e. m irror, e yes. I n t erms o f ' situational c orrespondence' a s j aguars s ee w ith t heir n aturally m irrored e yes s o s hamans s ee w ith t he a id o f m irrors. -

T he l ink b etween s hamans, m irror e yes a nd ' jaguar-vision ' h owever m ore s pecific. A mongst t he K ogi o f n orthern C olombia t here

i s i s

am yth i n w hich t he c ulture h ero K ashindukua p ut o n a j aguar m ask, w as t ransformed i nto a j aguar a nd w as a ble t o p erceive t hings i n t he w ay a j aguar s ees t hem ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 975: 5 5). E ven m ore s ignificant i s t he f act t hat t he T ukano h ave t he p ractice o f s queezing t he j uice f rom u nidentified h erbs i nto t heir e yes w hich p roduces a s trong d ilation o f t he p upils t he p erson i s n ow s aid t o p ossess ' jaguar e yes ' a nd c an s ee i n t he d ark ( 1975: 2 00). -

B oth t he j aguar a nd t he s haman a re n octurnally a ctive b eings t he s haman h unting h is h uman p rey ( i.e. s ouls) a s t he j aguar h unts i ts p rey -

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( i.e. a nimals). B oth n eed e xcellent v ision f or t heir a ctivities, t he j aguar t o s ee ( and p erhaps, t o p erceive) a nd t he s haman t o p erceive . T he s haman's a bility t o p erceive i n t rance-like v ision, h is m astery o f v ision-producing t echniques a nd t he c ognitive s tructures s urrounding t he s ignificance o f v isions h as b een r ecently i nvestigated b y N oll ( 1985). H uman h unters t oo, w hether e ngaged i n p redating h umans o r a nimals, o ften s queeze p epper i nto t heir e yes i n o rder t o g et a k eener s ight ( Karsten 1 968: 5 ). W ilbert ( 1987: 1 62-171 p assim) r eports i n d etail o n t he r ole o f t obacco w hich, w hen a pplied t o t he e yes o f, f or e xample, t he C ariña a nd B arama C aribs, e nables t he S haman t o ' see' t he s pirit-world. I nterestingly R eichel-Dolmatoff a dds t hat T ukano h unters, w hen l ost i n t he f orest, a re s aid t o u se t he u nidentified p lant r eferred t o a bove i n o rder t o o rient t hemselves t o f ind t heir w ay b ack h ome ( 1975: 2 00). H e a lso g ives e vidence o f t he r elationship b etween e yes a nd j aguars w hen h e r elates t hat a j aguar d evours a p erson b y f irst e ating t he e yes a nd s om times n othing e lse ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 971: 2 12). N otions p urporting t o e xplain t he r eflective c apacities o f f eline e yes a re n ot r estricted t o t he A merindians o f C entral a nd S outh A merica. M edieval E uropean w itch-hunters, w ho p erceived c ats a s t he D evil's f amiliars, b elieved t hat t he s hine f rom t he c at's e yes e manated f rom t he f ires o f h ell ( Beadle, 1 977: 4 1). I t i s i nteresting t o c ompare t his w ith t he s tatement o f S ahag6n ( 1963: 1 ) w ho, i n r elating A ztec b eliefs c oncerning t he j aguar s ays t hat i t i s .. . o f w ide f ace w ith e yes l ike l ive c oals." E ach c ulture a pplies i ts o wn g loss t o "

o pthalmic f acts, t he F rench g oing s o f ar a s t o c oin a v erb s pecifically t o d escribe t his p henomenon c hatoyer ' to s hine l ike a c at's e yes'. -

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A rchaeological M irrors a nd E lites E thnographic d ata i ndicates t hat t he u se o f m irrors w as r estricted t o s hamans a s i ndividuals w ho p ossessed u nique a nd d irect a ccess t o t he p ower a nd w isdom o f a ncestors i nhabiting t he r eflected s pirit r ealm . E nveloped i n aw eb o f m etaphysical b elief a nd o perationalised t hrough r itual, m irrors e nabled s hamans t o p erceive a t otal v iew o f t he c osmos a nd t o m ake s ense o f, a nd t hus e xercise a d egree o f ' control' o ver s uch e vents a s l ife, d eath, i llness, m eteorological p henomena a nd c rop a nd a nimal f ertility. M aster o f m yth a nd a ncestral w isdom , ' seer' o f e vents p ast a nd f uture, t he s haman w as m ore t han a s pecialist i n e soteric k nowledge. T he r ituals w hich h e a rticulated r enewed, s anctified a nd r evitalised t he g roup 's s ocial s tructure a nd g ave i t i ts c ohesive p olitical i dentity a nd v iability ( Dole 1 973). I t c an b e a rgued t hat a s a n i ntegral p art o f t he c osmological s tructure a nd o ntological p rocess, m irrors w ere a t a p remium d uring p eriods w hen c ivilization w as d eveloping. P re-Columbian c ivilization, e merging f rom , a nd e nabled b y, p revious d evelopments i n a griculture a nd i ts s ocio-political c oncomitants, r equired t ried a nd t ested p aths t o t he e xercise o f p olitical a uthority. W hilst s ociety w as c hanging a nd t echnology w as b ecoming m ore s ophisticated, t he a ppeals t o a nd v alidat ion o f s acred p ower r emained i n m any i mportant r espects s hamanistic . T his m ight b e e specially t rue i f t he r ate o f c ultural d evelopment w as s o r apid t hat n o n ew r eligious f orms h ad h ad t ime t o d evelop. I n t his s cenario n ew t echnological e xpertise, e .g . i n j adeworking a nd s tone

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s culpture, w ould r eflect s hamanistic t hemes i n p ermanent m ediums. A s C oe ( 1981: 1 66) s ays o f t he O lmec .. . the r ise o f s tratified s ociety a nd t he e volution o f t he v isibly e xpressed M esoamerican p antheon h appened a t a n e xtraordinarily f ast r ate a nd w ent h and-in-hand." I n t his s ituation t he t echnological a spects o f m irror p roduction b ecame m ore s ophisticated b ut t he n ature o f t heir s ignificance m ay h ave r emained u nchanged. "

T he p roduction o f g reater n umbers o f m ore t echnologically s ophisticated m irrors w as a f unction o f t he g reater s ize o f a nd c raft s pecialization w ithin s uch c omplex s ocieties. I f, a s i t i s c ontended, m irrors w ere s ymbols o f r itual p ower a nd r ulership a nd s erved t o r einforce i deological a ctivity, t hen t heir i ncreased f requency i n a rchaeological c ivilizations w as e qually a s d ependant o n t hat e lite's n eed t o e xpress i ts p ower, a uthority a nd l egitimacy t o g reater n umbers o f p eople a s i t w as t o f orge a nd m aintain r eciprocal r elations w ith o ther e lites. T his l atter w as a f unction o f e lite s tatus a nd s erved t o r einforce i t b ut d id n ot o f i tself g enerate n otions s urrounding t he i mportance o f r eflected i mages. A gainst t his b ackground w e m ight e xpect t o f ind a rchaeological ( artefactual) m irrors a ssociated n ot o nly w ith p ersons o f p re-eminent s ocial s tatus b ut a lso w ith j aguar s ymbolism . T he e thnographic e vidence w hich a ssociates m irrors w ith s hamans a nd t he l atter w ith t he a bility t o t ransform t hemselves i nto w ere-animals w hich i nhabit t he r eflected s pirit d omain s hould b e a pparent i n t he i conography a nd/or b urial e vidence o f t hose c ultures w ho u tilised a rtefactual m irrors. H owever w ithin s uch c omplex s ocieties w e m ight a lso e xpect t o f ind a w hole n ew w eb o f a ssociations c onnected n ot j ust w ith t he u se o f m irrors b ut t heir p roduction a nd d istribution a s w ell. T echnological s tudies o f a rchaeological m irrors ( e.g. P iresF erreira 1 975, 1 976, H eizer a nd G ullberg 1 980) r epresent b y f ar t he l argest c orpus o f i nformation w e h ave o n t hese o bjects. B y t heir n ature s uch s tudies a ddress a s pecific s et o f c oncerns w hich d oes n ot i nclude w ider a nthropological c onsiderations. S uch o bjects, a s F lannery ( 1968: 1 07) h as n oted f or t he O lmec, m ay h ave b een a f orm o f i mperishable w ealth a nd h ave s erved t o f orge a nd m aintain r eciprocal o bligations b etween t he e lites o f n eighbouring p eoples. T his a uthor c ontends t hat w e c an s upplement t his v iew b y r elating d ata w hich p ertain t o t he c ontrol o f t he m eans o f p roduction a nd d istribution t o e thnographically g enerated i deas c oncerning t he n ature o f a p rehistoric w orld v iew w hich e nabled m irrors t o f unction a s s ymbols o f a nd ' tools' f or t he m anipulation o f s acred p ower. O utlined a bove a re s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f a rtefactual m irrors, p roblems o f i nterpretation a nd A merindian n otions o f t he s ignificance a nd c omplexity o f s hining a nd r eflected i mages i mportant t o a n a ssessment o f t he s ignificance a nd r ole o f m irrors i n m any A merindian c ultures. T hese i deas a re n ow b riefly a pplied t o t hree a rchaeologically d ocumented c ases f or t he a ppearance o f a rtefactual m irrors i n M esoamerica b etween c . 1 250 B C a nd 9 00 A D, t o a scertain w hether o r n ot t hey f ind a ny s upport f rom p rimary a rchaeological d ata.

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1 .

T he O lmec

D ata o riginating f rom t he w ork o f F lannery a nd h is c o-workers i n t he O axaca v alley s ystem a re p ertinent t o a ssessing c onnections b etween m irrors a nd e lite s tatus. T he p resence o f a rtef a ctual m irrors i n c ertain c ontexts i s s aid t o d enote h igh s tatus f or t hose c ontexts, e .g. S tructure 1 6, A rea A , ah igh s tatus r esidence d uring t he S an J ose p hase ( 1150-850 B C) a t S an J ose M ogote i n t he E tla v alley. A ccording t o F lannery a nd M arcus ( 1976: 5 5) A rea A y ielded m ore t han 5 00 f ragments o f m agnetite a nd r elated i ron o res a s w ell a s t he b ulk o f m agnetite m irrors i n a ddition i t y ielded a ll t he m irror-working a reas s o f ar f ound a t t he s ite. T he i mplication, a ccording t o t he a uthors, i s t hat t his s tructure w as t he r esidence o f t he m ost i mportant f amily o ccupying t his m irror-making b arrio a t t he t ime ( 1976: 5 5). -

M arcus ( 1976: 3 56/7) s tates t hat t he O lmec c entre o f S an L orenzo r eceived s ome o f i ts m agnetite m irrors f rom O axaca a nd e specially f rom S an J ose M ogote. S ignificantly f or t his a uthor's a rgument b oth a reas a lso s hared p ottery w ith c arved r epresentations o f t he f ire-serpent a nd w ere-jaguar. Ar elationship b etween t he t wo a reas i s t herefore i mplied b y t he p resence o f t wo d istinctively O lmec t raits, m irrors a nd i conographic m otifs w hich d epict e lements o f w ere-animals w hich, e ven i n a p artial o r d isarticulated f orm , p ropagated O lmec i deology. I t i s s ignificant t hat t hese m irrors a ppear d uring t he O lmec p eriod ( 1250 4 00 B C), a t ime w hich s aw a n e xplosion o f s tone s culpture, j adework a nd m ural p ainting w hose i conographic c ontent w as h eavily i mbued w ith f eline ( jaguar) s ymbolism w hich, b y v irtue o f i ts q uantity, q uality, a ppearance o n a v ariety o f m ediums a nd g eographical d istribution p resumably s erved t o e ffect w hat c an b e c alled t he m etaphorical r einforcement o f i deological a ctivity. -

E vidence f or t he r elationship b etween i ron o re m irrors a nd t heir u se b y e lites a lso c omes f rom t he w ork o f G rove a nd h is c o-workers a t C halcatzingo, M orelos ( Grove 1 987). B urial 4 0 a t C halcatzingo y ielded, i n a ddition t o j ade j ewellery, a n i ron o re m irror w hich a ccording t o G rove s upported t he b urial 's i nterpretation a s t hat o f a h igh r anking i ndividual ( 1987: 3 1). T his m irror h ad t wo h oles d rilled i nto i t, p resumably f or s uspension t o b e w orn a s a p ectoral. As econd f ragment o f a p olished m irror o f i lmenite w as f ound w ith t his b urial, n ear t o t he e ye s ockets o f t he s kull ( 1987: 2 90) a nd i s i nterpreted a s p ossibly b eing p art o f am osaic w hich i ncluded s ome 9 0 p ieces o f t urquoise s quares, a lso f ound a round t he s kull. E vidence f rom K aminaljuyu ( below) m ay s uggest t hat t his w as o riginally p art o f a n e laborate m irror d evice. B urial 4 0 i s u nique a s i t i s t he o nly M iddle F ormative p eriod i nterment w hich a llows f or a d irect a ssociation o f b urial w ith a m irror. I n t erms o f ah ierarchy o f r eflected i mages, v is-a-vis t he s tatus o f t hose w ho o wned a nd u sed m irrors a nd t he m aterials f rom w hich t hey w ere m ade, i t m ay b e p ertinent t hat G rove's i nvestigations a t C halcatzingo y ielded s ome 1 3 i ron o re m irrors a nd f ragments a nd s ome 1 3 w orked a nd s ix u nworked s hell f ragments ( 1987: 2 90). T he n ature o f C halcatzingo a nd i ts r elationships w ith t he m etropolitan O lmec c entres m ay h ave b een s uch t hat t he i ndividuals w ho c ontrolled C halcatzingo h ad a ccess t o f ewer a nd l ess w ell m ade i ron o re m irrors t han t heir n eighbours i n t he O lmec h eartland, d espite b eing g eographically n earer

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t o t heir g eological s ource, a nd h ad t o m ake d o w ith a l arger n umber o f p olished a nd s hiny s hell o rnaments. F unctionally h owever t hey m ay h ave b een t he s ame. T here i s a lso e vidence f rom O axaca w hich r einforces t he s uggestion t hat t he n otion o f r eflections w as n ot r estricted t o a rtefactual m irrors o f i ron o res. P ires-Ferreira ( 1976: 3 12) e xamines t he e vidence f or t he u se o f s hells a s o rnamental d ecoration, a nd s pecifically i dentifies t he p earl o yster ( Pictada s p.) a nd s piny o yster ( Spondylus s p.). H owever t he e thnographic i nterpretation o ffered o riginates f rom l ong d istance t rade i n c owrie s hells i n N ew G uinea a nd t heir u se i n b uilding u p b ridewealth a nd d owries. T he s ignificant e thnographic u se o f m irrors a nd t heir s ymbolism f rom t he N ew W orld i s n ot r eferred t o. P ires-Ferreira f urther s tates t hat u nmodified s pondylus s hells w ere t raded i ntact i nto t he O axaca v alley s ystem w here t hey w ere d rilled a nd w orked u p i nto p endants ( 1976: 3 12). T he a nalogy b etween s hiny s hell p endants a nd s hiny i ron o re m irrors w hich a re w orn/wielded b y t he e lite i s s upported b y t he s ame a uthor ( 1976: 3 15), w ho n otes t hat t he s hiny p earl o yster b ecame m ore i mportant i n t erms o f o rnament p roduction d uring t he S an J ose p hase ( 1150-850 B C) a t S an J ose M ogote e xactly t he s ame t ime a s i ron o re m irror p roduction w as a t i ts p eak. T hus t here i s s ome i ndication t hat a c onceptual l ink m ay h ave e xisted b etween s hining m irrors a nd s hells a nd t heir r itual u se b y e lites. T he a ssociation o f i ron o re m irrors, s hells a nd j aguar i magery i s a lso e xplicit. A t S an J ose M ogote i n H ouse 9 w as f ound a n e laborately w orked P acific s hell o rnament w ith a n O lmec p aw-wing m otif a nd i n H ousehold c luster C 3 w as a f ragment o f a m other o f p earl m irror h older f or a m agnetite m irror ( 1976: 3 16). -

I t i s i mportant t o s tate t hat a rchaeological m irrors a re n ot c onfined t o M esoamerica b ut a re a lo k nown f rom a v ariety o f c ontexts i n L ower C entral a nd S outh A merica . I n a ddition a n i ndication t hat a c omplex o f b eliefs s urrounding m irrors, w ater, s hells a nd f ertility e xisted i n p rehistoric t imes i n t his r egion i s a lso f ound. T he u se a nd s ignificance o f s ea s hells a s o rnaments w hich s hine w ith r eflected l ight a s w ell a s o riginating f rom t he o cean ( the l argest w ater s ource) m ay p rove i mportant e specially i n t he l ight o f R einhard 's r ecent w ork ( 1987, a nd t his v olume) c oncerning t he a ssociations o f m ountains, w ater a nd s ea s hell o fferings i n s outhern P eru, B olivia a nd n orthern C hile. H ere s ea s hells w ere c onsidered i mportant o fferings t o w ater s ources f or r ain ( 1987: 3 0) a s t hey w ere r egarded a s ". . . hijas d e l a m ar q ue e s m adre d e l as a guas." ( Murra 1 975: 2 57). O f t he m onumental s tone s culpture, a t w hich t he M exican O lmec c ivilization e xcelled, C ire wlow ( 1974: 1 02) r eports t hat i t i s n ot t he n aturalistically d epicted f eline w hich p redominates b ut t ransformat ional b eings w hich c ombine v arious e lements o f h umans a nd f elines " The p resence o f c ats i n t he s culpture i s g enerally i n t erms o f t he m ystical a ttributes o f t he j aguar-as-cult-object, a nd n ot s imply a s a n a nimal." ( 1974: 1 03). O nly 1 3 o ut o f 5 2 m onuments w hich c ontained f eline s ymbolism w ere o f n aturalistically r endered f elines ( 1974: 1 73, T able 1 4). S ome o f t hese c omposite b eings h ave b een c alled ' werej aguars' b y F urst ( 1968) a r easonable i nterpretation t hat i s a lso s upported b y o ther s maller e xamples o f O lmec a rt w hich p ortray f eline -

-

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s ymbolism , a nd a n i ndication t hat O lmec a rt i s d ominated b y c reatures w hich, i n e thnographic t erms, w ould b e c lassified a s i nhabitants o f t he r eflected s pirit d omain. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he O lmec e lite a t s uch c entres a s L a V enta a nd S an L orenzo i dentified t hemselves w ith a m ythical j aguar a ncestor. S uch a v iew f inds s ome s upport i n t he d amaged b ut n evertheless s pectacular M onument 3 f rom P otrero N uevo ( San L orenzo) i n w hich a l arge j aguar-like b eing i s p ortrayed a pparently c opulating w ith a h uman w oman ( Coe a nd D iehl 1 980 , v ol. 1 : 3 69, F ig. 4 97). M ore r evealing i s M onument 1 a t T enochtitlan ( San L orenzo) w here t he c opulation t heme i s r epeated b ut, a s t he s culpture i s m ore c omplete, a p ossible m irror p endant c an b e s een s uspended o n t he c hest o f t he s uperior f igure. P ossible m irror p endants a re a lso f ound o n o ther s tone s culptures f rom O lmec s ites a nd a re w ell d ocumented. M onuments 3 4 a t S an L orenzo ( Coe a nd D iehl 1 980: 3 42, F ig. 4 66) a nd 2 3 a t L a V enta ( Drucker, H eizer a nd S quier 1 959: 2 03 , F ig. 5 8) a ppear t o b e w earing m irrors s uspended o n t he c hest. A s mall b asalt f igure, a lso f ound a t L a V enta ( 1959: 2 12, F ig. 6 3) h as a c ircular c oncavity o n i ts c hest a nd a j ade f igurine f rom t he s ame s ite h as a s hining i ron o re m irror w orn a s a p ectoral ( Drucker 1 952: P l. 4 6). C onnecting t he t heme o f ' mirrors a s p ectorals' t o ' mirrors a s m etaphors f or j aguar e yes' i s t he e vidence o f M onument 5 2 a t S an L orenzo ( Coe a nd D iehl 1 980: 3 61-363, F ig. 4 94). T his c rouching w erej aguar s culpture p ossesses a r ectangular p ectoral w ith c rossed b ands s uspended o n i ts c hest i n t he s ame p lace w here, i n t he p reviously m entioned m onuments, s o-called m irror p endants a re l ocated ( Fig . 4 ). A s imilar c rossed b and p ectoral i s f ound o n t he s o-called ' Flying O lmec' j ade o bject o f u nknown p rovenience ( Grove 1 984: F ig. 3 3), o n a j ade c elt, a lso o f u nknown p rovenience, i llustrated b y J oralemon ( 1971: F ig. 3 6) a nd o n t he c entral f igure o f t he m ural f rom 0 xtot1t1án , i llustrated b y J oralemon ( 1971: F ig. 1 50). T his m ay s uggest a n a ssociation ( of u nspecified n ature) b etween t he t wo i dentically p laced p endant m otifs, o ne d ecorated w ith c rossed b ands, t he o ther n ot. M ore d irect a ssociations b etween c rossed b and p ectorals a nd j aguar e yes a re a lso f ound. O n M onument 3 0 a t S an L orenzo i s a l ow r elief r endering o f w hat C oe a nd D iehl c all a n O lmec d eity w ith a w ere-jaguar m outh w here .. . the e ye i s a r aised, s quared d isk w ith c rossed b ands." ( 1980: 3 38 , F ig. 4 61) ( Fig. 5 ). S imilar j aguar-like c reatures w ith c rossed b and e ye d iscs a re f ound o n M onument 4 a t C halcatzingo ( Grove 1 984 : F ig. 3 0), a nd o n t he m ural f rom O xtotitl n ( Grove 1 970 , f rontispeice). M onument 1 f rom L aguna d e l os C erros p ossesses n ot o nly "

t he w ere-jaguar m outh b ut a lso o ne e ye r eplaced b y a c rossed b and d isc ( Joralemon 1 971: F ig. 1 25) a s d oes a m ask o f u nknown p rovenience ( Joralemon 1 971: F ig. 1 53). I nterestingly o n a nother j ade c elt o f u nknown p rovenience ( Joralemon 1 971: F ig . 3 3) i s a d epiction o f a n e laborately a ttired O lmec p ersonage w ho h as t he c rossed b and d isc p laced i n t he e ye p osition ( Fig. 6 ). T he c omplexity o f O lmec i conography i s s uch t hat t he o ccurrence o f t he c rossed b and d isc m ay n ot b e r egarded a s u ndoubtedly o r i nvariably a m etaphor f or e ither m irrors o r j aguar e yes. T he v ariable a nd b y

1 6

d efinition u nknown s ituation s urrounding a p articular o bject's m anufacture, r epresentational s tatus a nd u se p recludes a ny s uch b road i nterpretation. H owever t here d oes a ppear t o b e a rchaeological a nd i conographic e vidence w hich s uggests t hat i n s ome c ircumstances m irrors w ere w orn a s p ectorals, t hat o n o ccasion t hey w ere s ubstituted b y c rossed b and d iscs a nd t hat t he l atter a ppear t o r eplace e yes o n r epresentations o f n aturalistic f elines, w ere-jaguars a nd e laborately g arbed e lite i ndividuals. I t m ay b e l egitimately a rgued t hat p ectorals w ith c rossed b ands a re n ot m irrors b ut s uch a v iew d oes n ot f ind s upport f rom C oe a nd D iehl, w ho, i n t heir i nterpretation o f M onument 3 4 f rom S an L orenzo s tate t hat, d espite t he p endant's c entral d ecoration " this p robably r epresented a c oncave m irror." ( Coe a nd D iehl 1 980: 3 43). P rima f acie a rchaeological a nd i conographic d ata d o n ot d eny t he p ossibility t hat a ll o f t he a bove ( in a ssociation w ith f eline/jaguar i magery) w ere g enerically r elated a nd a s s uch w ere s ignifiers o f e lite s tatus a nd s ymbols o f p ower i n a s hamanistic t radition. B ecause o f t he a bove t he s uggestion m ade b y F urst ( 1968) a nd e laborated b y C oe ( 1972) t hat t he s haman/jaguar c omplex o f t he e galitarian e thnographic s ocieties o f S outh A merica w as p aralleled b y a r uler/dynasty/jaguar c omplex i n t he c hiefdoms o f O lmec s ociety a ppears t o b e r easonably w ell s upported. T here i s a lso a greement w ith C arlson ( 1981: 1 24) t hat s uch o bjects w ere c reated p rimarily f or t heir s ymbolic v alue r ather t han a ny u tilitarian a spects o f t heir r eflective c apacities. T he r itual m anipulation o f m irrors m ay h ave b een a n i ntegral p art o f n otions w hich a llowed f or t he a ccess t o a nd c ontrol o f t he s pirit r ealm ( perhaps i nhabited b y m ythical j aguar a ncestors) a nd, t hrough t his, t o n atural p henomena w hich b oth d irectly a nd i ndirectly a ffected h uman p opulations. T he u se o f m irrors m ay h ave b een f irmly l ocked i nto a s ystem w hich p rovided t he O lmec e lite w ith d e f acto p olitical c ontrol o ver t heir s ociety i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s s imilar a bilities e nabled t he s hamans o f e thnographic s ocieties. H owever i t i s n ot s urprising t hat F urst's v iew t hat " the j aguar d oes n ot d erive a ny u nique m ythic q uality f rom i ts a nimal c haracteristics." ( 1968: 1 48) i s n ot s upported b y t he a rguments a dumbrated a bove.

2 .

K aminaljuyu

D ata f rom t he e xcavations a t K aminaljuyu i n G uatemala ( Kidder, J ennings a nd S hook, 1 946) a lso h ave a b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological ( artef a ctual) m irrors. T he r emains o f s ome 3 5 s tone d iscs, b etween 7 .5 a nd 2 5cm i n d iameter, w hich h ad o riginally b een c overed w ith m osaics o f p olygonal p lates o f p yrite ( Fig. 7 ) w ere r ecovered i n t he e xcavated t ombs f rom t his s ite ( belonging t o t he E speranza c ulture, c . 4 00 A D). T hese p arallel s imilar e xamples f rom S an L orenzo ( Coe a nd D iehl 1 980: 2 44) i n b oth c onstruction a nd b y v irtue o f t he f act t hey w ere d rilled p resumably f or s uspension a s p ectorals . K idder e t a l r eport t hat t he l arger e xamples f rom K aminaljuyu s eem t o h ave b een a ttached t o t he b reast o f t he c orpse a t t he t ime o f i ts i nterment ( 1946: 1 26). W hilst t he a uthors a dmit t hat s uch o bjects h ave b een t raditionally i nterpreted a s m irrors t heir r eason f or o bjecting t o t his e xplanation i s t hat " The m any s mall p lates o f t he m osaic, n o m atter h ow a ccurately f itted, w ould h ave f ormed a p oor r eflecting s urface, y ielding a m uch

1 7

b roken-up i mage." ( Kidder e t a l 1 946: 1 30). H owever t he n otion o f r eflected i mages a nd s hiny q ualities m ay h ave b een e qually i f n ot m ore i mportant t han t he a bility o f t he m irror t o y ield t rue r eflections. S uch p yrite m osaic m irrors, w orn a s p endants s uspended o n t he c hest, w ould h ave y ielded a d ramatic s hiny i mage. A s K idder, J ennings a nd S hook t hemselves s ay .. . these b rilliantly s hining d iscs s eem t o h ave f ormed p art o f t he c eremonial c ostume .. . T hey m ust a lso h ave b een v ery c ostly, f or t he l abour i nvolved i n t heir m anufacture w as o bviously e normous, t o s ay n othing o f t he p resumably h igh v alue o f t he m aterial w hich w ent i nto t heir i ncrusted f aces." ( 1946: 1 30/1). H ere t here "

a ppears t o b e p rima f acie e vidence f or t he r itual m anipulation b y a n e lite o f m irrors w hich, w hilst e xpensively a nd l aboriously p roduced, c ould n ot r ender a n a ccurate r eflection a nd w ere t herefore p rimarily i ntended t o s hine. A s K idder e t a l h ave s hown t here i s a c lear a ssociation o f j ade w ith t hese m irrors w hereby a lmost e very m irror m ay h ave h ad m osaic d esigns o f j ade p laced e ither o n t op o f o r i nset i nto t he p yrite s urface ( 1946: 1 27). M any m irrors p ossessed a r aised c entral d isc o r o verlays o f j ade m osaic ( 1946: 1 30). T his e vidence s uggests t hat t he c ultural a nd r itual i mportance o f s uch m aterials a s j ade a nd p yrite, l inked t o t he l atters a bility t o s hine, w as f ar m ore i mportant t han h ad b een s upposed. A s t he a uthors s ay, p yrite w as u sed a longside j ade i n m osaics o ther t han t hose a ssociated w ith m irrors a nd t hey r eport f rom C aso ( 1938) t hat i n aP eriod I V o ffertory c ache i n M onte A lbán i n O axaca, c ame a w ell p reserved m osaic o f p yrite , j ade a nd b lack s tone r epresenting a h uman f ace ( Kidder e t a l 1 946: 1 33). A s w ith t he O lmec m aterial t here i s a p ossible a ssociation b etween a rtefactual m irrors a ssociated w ith e lite i ndividuals a nd j aguar s ymbolism a t K aminaljuyu. I n m ost t ombs w ere t he r emains o f o ne o r m ore s ets o f j aguar j aw b ones. T he a uthors r eport t hat a lmost e very p air o f j aguar j aw b ones w ere e ither s tained y ellow o r a ccompanied b y y ellow l umps, t he d ecomposed r emains o f i ron p yrites e xposed t o a n o xidising e nvironment. D espite t he f act t hat t he s kull o f a j aguar i s c omposed o f s olid h eavy b one o nly t he j aw s ection w as f ound, i nferring t hat t his p articular s ection h ad b een c ut a way f rom t he s kull a nd i nterred w ith t he i ndividual ( Kidder e t a l 1 946: 1 55). T he p hysical p ower o f t his f eline r esides i n i ts c laws a nd f angs b ut i ts s hining e yes m ay b e i nterpreted a s am etaphysical e xpression o f a ll-seeing p ower w hich r einforced t he l egitimacy o f t he r uling e lite. S ignificantly K idder e t a l r eport t hat " ...there w ere r ecovered i n r elatively g ood c ondition t wo c arefully w orked s ub-hemispherical p ieces o f p yrite i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he j aws i n B -IT. I f w e a re c orrect i n b elieving t hat t he j aws w ere s et i n m asks o r h eaddresses, t he l ikelihood i s s trong t hat t he p yrite o bjects s erved a s e yes." ( 1946: 1 34). T he d iscovery o f m irrors i n e lite c ontexts i s n ot n ew b ut i ts p ossible a ssociations w ith t he n aturally m irrored r eflective e yes o f t he i conographically p ersistent a nd, p resumably, m ythically i mportant j aguar i s a n A merindian r ather t han a w estern w ay o f a ssessing t heir i mportance. K idder e t a l r eport t hat a s mall j ade j aguar h ead f rom S an J ose, d epartment o f E scuintla , G uatemala, h ad i nset e yes m ade o f p yrite ( 1946: 1 34). T hey a lso r eport t hat i n t he m useum o f t he U niversity o f

1 8

P ennsylvania t here i s a h alf-sphere o f p yrite, o riginally o ne o f a p air, w hich w as f ound i n t he o rbits o f ah uman s kull ( 1946: 1 34) a nd f rom t he T eotihuacan m useum c ome s tone h uman f aces w ith e yes o f p yrite w hilst o thers h ave e yes o f s hell w ith p upils o f p yrite ( 1946: 1 34). I n t he B ritish M useum ( Museum o f M ankind) t he f amous d ecorated h uman s kull, a llegedly r epresenting T ezcatlipoca, t he A ztec L ord o f t he S moking M irror ( Saunders n .d.c.), p ossesses s hining e yes o f m agnetite.

3 .

P alenque

F urther e vidence o f t he r itual s ignificance o f a rchaeological m irrors c omes f rom a d etailed a nalysis o f C lassic M aya i conography. A s S chele a nd M iller ( 1983) h ave s hown a nd a s C arlson ( 1981) h as c ommented u pon, t he u se o f t he m irror i n d enoting e lite s tatus f or t hose w ho o wned a nd/or u sed t hem i s f ound a mongst C lassic p eriod M aya r ulers e specially a t P alenque, C hiapas, M exico. T he C lassic M aya G od K , i nterpreted b y C oe ( 1987: 1 66) a s aM aya p rototype o f t he A ztec T ezcatlipoca, i s i n M aya t erms a d eity c losely a ssociated w ith L ate C lassic M aya r ulership, r oyal n ame p hrases a nd b lood-letting r ites ( Schele a nd M iller 1 983: 9 ). A mongst t he A ztecs T ezcatlipoca, w ho h imself h as a j aguar g uise ( Saunders n .d.c.), i s t he p atron d eity o f M exica r ulers. A ccording t o S chele a nd M iller ( 1983: 9 ) C oe a rrived a t h is i nterpretation b y r ecognizing g rapheme T 617a ( Fig. 8 ) o n t he f orehead o f G od K a s am irror p enetrated b y a s moking c igar. T hough S chele a nd M iller's a rgument i s c omplex i t i s c lear t hat t hey b elieve t hat i n t he w estern a nd c entral M aya a rea t he w ord f or m irror w as ' nen ' b ut t he p rototype M ayan r oot f rom w hich i t d erived w as ' lem ', m eaning s omething b right, g leaming a nd r eflective ( Schele a nd M iller 1 983: 1 4). N en i s a lso f ound i n Y ucatec p hrases w hich d enote e ither r ulers o r p ersons o f p re-eminent s ocial s tatus a s ' the r eflection o f t he w orld' ( 1983: 1 4). T he a ssociation o f m irrors ( i.e. t he T 617a m irror g rapheme), r ulers a nd j aguar s ymbolism i s a lso m ade c lear. T his g rapheme a ppears p rominently i n h ead m otifs w hich d ecorated t he b elts o f C lassic M aya r ulers; i ts c onstituent p arts i nclude r eflection s igns, a s ign w hich m ay v ariably a ppear a s p op ( mat) o r am irror, a nd s ignificantly, t he T 1000e h ead w hich i s " the h ead v ariant o f t he d ay s ign a nd t itle a hau, a j aguar h ead o r h ead o f t he J aguar G od o f t he U nderworld" ( Schele a nd M iller 1 983: 1 6). L ounsbury ( pers. c omm. q uoted i n S chele a nd M iller 1 983: 1 7) i nterprets t his T 1000e h ead o r j aguar h ead a s a t itle s ymbol w hich w ith t he a ddition o f t he j aguar h ead m ay b e r ead a s B alam P op, J aguar T hrone o r J aguar L ord. W hen t he m irror g rapheme r eplaces t he m at s ign t he n ame/title m ay b e r ead a s A hau N en o r L ord o f t he M irror. F urther e vidence a ssociating j aguar s ymbolism w ith G od K ( already w ell d ocumented) c omes f rom t he r epresentation o f t he l atter o n t he e astern d oor j amb o f t he T emple o f t he C ross a t P alenque, w here t he d eity a ppears s moking a c igar a nd w earing a j aguar s kin o ver h is s houlders a nd b ack ( Thompson 1 976 , F ig. 1 ). F urther s upport i s f ound i n t he i conography o f t he c eremonial c ensers, o ften f ound i n c aves a nd p opular a t P alenque, w hich d epict t he J aguar G od o f t he U nderworld ( Coe

1 9

1 987, F ig. 8 8), c omplete w ith j aguar e ars a nd j ag g ar m ask h eaddress. A d etailed s tudy o f t hese c ensers ( Goldstein 1 977) r eveals t hat ". . . a l arge h ead o r f ull f igure r epresentation o f t he J aguar G od o f t he U nderworld .. .„ i s a c ommon t heme o n t he l ower t iers o f s uch o bjects. T hus a n a ssociation i s f ound i n t hese t hree a rchaeological c ultures o f r eflections, m irrors, j aguar s ymbolism , r ulership a nd a ccession t o o ffice. I n t wo i nstances, i .e. t he O lmec a nd K aminaljuyu, t here i s a s uggestion t hat m irrors m ay h ave s erved a s m etaphors f or j aguar e yes. J ust a s i n s ome e galitarian A mazonian s ocieties, w here m irrors w ere o wned a nd m anipulated b y s hamans t o p erceive a nd c ontrol t he s pirit w orld t hey b ecome m etonymical s igns i n C lassic M aya i conography, s tanding f or t he c oncept o f d ivine r ulership. T he l evel, s ophistication a nd c omplexity o f M aya i conography n otwithstanding t he n otion o f s ituational c orrespondence m ay e xplain s uch e lements a s j aguars s ee w ith t heir n aturally r eflective e yes t o h unt, k ill a nd -

' control' t heir p rey, s o O lmec, K aminaljuyu a nd C lassic M aya r ulers s ee a nd c ontrol p eople w ith t heir m irrors. A nother a nd i ntriguing a spect o f t he n ature a nd s ignificance o f a rtefactual m irrors, s hiny m aterials a nd n otions o f r eflected s pirit w orlds r elates t o t he u se o f m ercury. K idder e t a l ( 1946: 1 44/5) r eport t hat f rom t omb B -I a t K aminaljuyu c ame a g ourd w hich c ontained a bout 2 5cc o f m ercury a nd t hat o ther f inds h ave c ome f rom C opan, H onduras, w here i s w as a ssociated w ith s hells, p earls a nd j ade, a nd a t a n u nidentified s ite r eported b y G ann ( 1925: 2 79), w here i t w as a ssociated a gain w ith s hell a nd j ade i n ac ontext i nterpreted a s b eing t he f oundation f or a s tela ( Kidder -e t a l, 1 946 : 1 44). M ore r ecently P endergast ( 1982) h as r eported f inding 1 31.9g o f m ercury a t t he M aya s ite o f L amanai i n B elize. A gain t his d iscovery w as a ssociated w ith s hell, p earl a nd j ade ( 1982: 5 33). B oth K idder e t a l a nd P endergast p roduced.

b elieve t hat m ercury

w as

c ollected

r ather

t han

K idder e t a l s tate t hat m ercury's ". . . peculiar a nd s triking p roperties m ust h ave r endered i t m ysterious a nd a wesome t o t he I ndians ." ( Kidder m ercury h ad

e t a l 1 946: 1 44). P endergast s imilarly s tates a r itual i mportance, e specially b y v irtue o f

t hat i ts

r eflectivity ( 1982: 5 34). O n t he b asis o f t hese r are f inds i t i s s uggested t hat t here i s a n a ssociation b etween t he s ignificance o f s hiny o bjects i n g eneral a nd, i n t his i nstance, s hell, p earl a nd m ercury i n p articular. M ercury m ay p erhaps b e v iewed a s a f orm o f l iquid m irror w hose s hiny q ualities w ere e nhanced b y i ts f luid f orm a nd, a ssociated w ith s hells, m ay h ave b een l inked t o w ater a nd c oncepts o f f ertility.

C onclusion

" the m irror i s s aid t o h elp t he s haman t o ' see t he w orld' ( that i s t o c oncentrate), o r t o ' place t he s pirits,' o r t o r eflect t he n eeds o f m ankind..." ( Eliade 1 972:

2 0

1 54)

T he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological m irrors i s a p rime e xample o f t he p roblematic c oncept o f o bjectivity. T his i nterpretation s eeks t o c omplement d ata f rom t echnological s tudies o f a rchaeological m irrors b y u tilising a n A merindian r ather t han a W estern ' context ' f or t heir u nderstanding. I t h as b een a rgued t hat t he s ignificance o f m irrors a s p hysical o bjects i s g enerated b y ac omplex o f m etaphysical b eliefs w hich a re o perationalised t hrough r itual a nd w ithin a p articular s et o f c ircumstances. T his v iew , w hich s tresses t he n on-utilitarian a spects o f m irrors, i s a lso p roblematical f or i t i s a t ruism t hat c ultures o ther t han o ur o wn m ay n ot r ecognise o r u se t he s ame d efinitions o f u tility ( or f or t hat m atter, o f m etaphor) t hat w e d o. T he e xistence a nd e fficacy o f s uch d efinitions a nd d ivisions i s d ependant o n u nderl ying a ssumptions g enerated b y a nd l inked i ndissolubly t o, t he n ature, s tructure a nd f unctioning o f a p articular s ociety a nd i ts w orld v iew . O bjects w hich a t o ne l evel s erve a s trictly f unctional p urpose m ay o n a nother l evel h ave p ossessed a s ignificant r itual a spect. W hilst s uch c ultural e ndeavours a s, f or e xample, s tone s culpture, j adework a nd m ural p ainting r epresent a g raphic e xpression o f a nd p hysical c ommitment t o t he p ropagation o f i deology, m irrors a re m ore e lusive; t hey a re u nable t o s tand a lone a nd r equire a nd e mic c ontext i f t he i nterpreter i s t o a ssess t heir s ignificance. T he q uestion b e a sked, w hat i s r itually i mportant a bout m irrors a nd w hy?

s hould

I n t his p aper i t i s a rgued t hat m irrors a re p art o f a w ider c oncept o f c osmogonic a nd c osmological n otions s urrounding t he s ignificance o f r eflections, p arallel s pirit w orlds a nd d oppelgangers a nd t hat s uch n otions t emporally p receded t he a ppearance o f a rtefactual m irrors. A s p art o f t his w ider c omplex o f b eliefs m irrors w ere t ools w hich e nhanced t he s haman's v isionary p owers t hereby g iving h im a ccess t o t he s pirit w orld. F urther e nhancement w as e ffected b y h is i dentification w ith t he m ost p owerful a nd m ost s uccessful ' natural' p redator, t he j aguar ( P. o nca). W earing j aguar p elts, n ecklaces a nd b racelets o f j aguar f angs a nd c laws t he s haman ' was l ike' t he j aguar i n t he r ealm o f t he s ocial. C oncepts o f f ertility, t he s upernatural c ontrol o f r ain, g round-water, m ist a nd t heir r e-generative c apacities a re a ll a ssociated w ith t he j aguar a s a lter e go o f t he s haman. T he l atter's u se o f m irrors t o p erceive s pirit e ssence w as a nalogus t o t he b iological f act t hat t he j aguar's p redatory s uccess d epended i n p art o n h is n octurnal v ision a ided b y h is n aturally m irrored e yes. M irrors m ay b e c onsidered a s m etaphors f or j aguar e yes a s b oth e nable t heir o wners t o s ee a nd p erceive i n t he w orld o f d arkness t he n atural t heatre o f o perations f or b oth. -

T he s haman 's k nowledge o f a nd a ccess t o t he s pirit r ealm g ave h im w hat c ould b e t ermed a v irtual m onopoly o f p olitical p ower i n t he s ocial w orld o f h uman b eings. P olitical p ower r esided i n t he c onsensus o pinion o f t he g roup t hat t he s haman h ad m astered t echniques o f s pirit c ontrol a s r evealed i n t rance a nd t he e nds t o w hich t rance w as p ut. T he r itual m anipulation o f t he r eflected a nd s hiny i mages a nd t he m irrors w hich p roduced t hem f urther a llied t he s haman w ith t he j aguar. I n l ater c ivilizations s uch n otions w ere e xtended a nd e laborated i n c ontexts o f e nhanced s ocio-political a nd t echnological c omplexity a nd, a s C hang ( 1983: 1 01) s ays o f t he u se o f b ronzes i n S hang a nd C hou r ituals, t heir v ery p ossession w as ' essential t o e nsure t he r uler's

2 1

a ccess t o a ncestral w isdom '. M irrors w ere s ymbols o f r itual u pon w hich i dentity a nd l egitimacy d epended, t hey w ere t herefore s ymbols o f r ule. W hat h as b een c alled a ' pan-Mesoamerican m irror-cult t radition ' o f r oyal l ineage a nd p ower i s r einterpreted a s b ut a p art o f a ' panA merindian r eflected i mage t radition ' d eeply r ooted i n t he s hamanic t raditions o f s o-called e galitarian A merindian s ocieties. T he r ulers o f O lmec S an L orenzo a nd L a V enta , C lassic M aya P alenque a nd K aminaljuyu, l ike s hamans a mongst e thnographic s ocieties, w ere i n p art, m ediators b etween t he p hysical a nd s upernatural w orlds. T heir p ossess ion a nd u se o f m irrors w as a s ymbolic s tatement o f a ccess t o a nd c ontrol o ver t he a ll p owrful f orces o f n ature, a nd w as i ndissolubly l inked t o s ocial, p olitical a nd r eligious s tructures w hich p ropagated t heir i deology, a nd t o t he m etaphysical f ramework w ithin w hich t hey o perated. I n c onclusion i t i s a rgued t hat t here i s ac omplex c onceptual l ink b etween m irrors, e yes ( vision), w ater, r eflections, m etaphors, t he a ll p owerful i f a mbivalent d oppelganger s pirit w orld, c ertain r eal a nimals , w ere-animals a nd a s pectrum o f s hifting s ocial s ituations. I f m irrors a re p art o f a l arger w hole t hen c oncentrating o n t heir p hysical p roperties a lone c an n ever p rovide m ore t han a b aseline f or t heir i nter pr etation.

A cknowledgements T he a uthor w ould l ike t o t hank P eter U cko, B rian M olyneaux, T om D illehay a nd O livier d e M ontmollin a ll o f w hom e ither r ead o r h eard p revious m anifestations o f t his p aper t heir c omments a nd c riticisms h ave b een i nvaluable. T he a uthor o f c ourse t akes f ull r esponsibility f or t his f inal v ersion. -

-

2 2

N OTES

1 .

I n t he s tructure a nd f unctioning o f A merindian r itual d ifferent g roupà, c lans o r m oieties p ossess d ifferent r oles a nd r esponsibilities, p ossessing a nd p resenting t he c orrect o bjects a nd r egalia i f t he r itual i s t o p rove e fficacious. S uch r ituals m ay i nvolve t he r egeneration o f s ocial s tructures a cross g enerations w hich d efine i ndividual a nd c ollective i dentity. I n o rder t hat f ace o r b ody p aint a nd/or d ress i s w orn c orrectly, t he w earer e ither h as t o a pply i t h imself w ith t he a id o f am irror o r h as t o e nroll t he s ervices o f o thers. B oth m ethods a llow t he u ser t o p resent h imself a s o thers e xpect t o s ee h im . A s C rocker ( 1977: p assim) h as s hown f or t he E astern B ororo o f B razil, i ndividual i dentity ( in a n ame-giving, s oul-giving c eremony) r equires t he c ollaborative e fforts o f t he m other's c lan a nd a c lan i n t he o pposite m oiety .. . in a m anner i nverted a nd r eversed f rom t hat o f t he b iological u nion w hich p roduced t he p hysical c reature." ( 1977: 1 32). T he r egalia f or s uch r itual o ccasions ( e.g. h eaddresses, b racelets, l abrets a nd f ace/body [ somatic] p aintings) a re c onsidered t he c lan 's w ealth a nd s acred p roperty. B ororo m en a nd w omen d ecorate t hemselves e veryday a nd t hese o rnaments, t o u se C rockers o wn w ords ". . . provide a p aralinguistic m eans f or e very B ororo t o s how f orth h is m embership i n a s ocial s pecies.. . ( 1977: 1 35). "

"

W hen r epresenting t heir o wn s oul-essence o r a roe t otem ". . . o ne o r m ore a ctors a re p ainted w ith e xtremely c omplex d esigns t hat m ay r equire h alf a d ay t o c omplete." ( 1977: 1 35). T he p rocess i s f urther e laborated b y t he f act t hat m embers o f o ne c lan i nvite m embers o f c lans i n o ther m oieties t o r epresent t heir a roe t otems a nd t o p aint a nd o rnament t hem ( i.e. t he f irst c lan). I n t his w ay ' others' a re u sed a s ' mirrors ' f or t heir s acred a nd v ital i dentity. I n g eneral t erms t he n ature a nd s ignificance o f r eflected i mages a nd i ts c onnections w ith i dentity a nd s ocial s tructure i s r evealed t o b e c omplex, c ulture s pecific a nd s ituation-bound.

2 .

U rton r eports t hat a t M isminay t he c entral s tructural c orrelation b etween t he o rganization o f t errestial a nd c elestial s pace c entres a round " a k ind o f ' mirror i mage,' b etween t he f our q uarters o f t he e arth a nd t he f our q uarters o f t he s ky." ( Urton 1 981: 6 2/3). W ater ( and t hus f ertility) i s a lso i mportant i n t hese c ons iderations a s t errestial w ater e nters t he c elestial r iver o f t he M ilky W ay i n t he n orth, f lows s outhwards, r eturns t o e arth i n t he f orm o f r ain w here i t c ollects i n M isminay's r eservoirs a nd t hence i s r e-circulated n orthwards a gain ( 1981: 6 4).

2 3

3 .

C onnections b etween j aguar s ymbolism , c rop f ertility/protection, b lood a nd m irrors i s a lso s een i n a nnual c eremonies w hich p etition f or r ain i n t he M exican s tate o f G uerrero d uring M ay ( Saunders 1 984). I n A catlán y oung m en d ress i n j aguar s uits ( trajes) a nd h elmets ( cascos) a nd f ight t o s pill b lood f or t he ' jaguar d eity ' w ho r eciprocates b y s ending r ain. I n t he n earby v illage o f Z itlala ( Saunders n .d.a.) a d ifferent s tructure i s e vident b ut m en s till d raw b lood d ressed i n h uge l eather h elmets w ith s hining m irror e yes. O f t he g reat v ariety o f M exican m asks o nly t hose o f t he j aguar ( tigre) p ossess m irrored e yes ( Fig. A ).

4 .

I n c ats t he r eflecting t apetum l ies b ehind t he r etinal e pithelium a nd m uch o f t he l ight t hat i s n ot c aught i n t he i nitial p ass t hrough t he p hotoreceptors i f r eflected b ack b y t he t apetum , t hus p assing t hrough t he p hotoreceptors o nce a gain. " The c at t apetal r egion r eceives t he p art o f t he v isual w orld l ying o n o r b elow t he h orizon ." ( Rodieck 1 988: 2 06).

5 .

I n S outh A merica m irrors a re w idespread b oth t emporally a nd s patially. T hey f irst a ppear d uring t he I nitial P eriod ( 1800 9 00 B C), w here e xamples o f j et m irrors h ave b een f ound, e .g., a t H uaca d e L os R eyes a nd G ramalote o n t he P eruvian c oast ( Fung P ineda 1 987: 9 0) a nd i n t he A ndes a t S hillacoto a nd K otosh ( Burger 1 984: 2 03/4). D uring t he s ucceeding E arly H orizon ( 900 2 00 B C) t he c ult s ite o f C havin d e H uántar u tilised a nthracite m irrors a nd B urger ( op. c it. 1 99, 2 02-204, F igs. 4 04-407) r ecovered 4 6 f ragments o f s uch o bjects d uring h is e xcavations. G iven t he u biquity o f f eline s ymbolism a t t his s ite i n t erms o f n aturalistically r endered, c omposite a nd a nthropomorphised b eings, a s imilar e xplanation o f t heir u se a s p roffered f or t he O lmec m ay b e p ossible. G round a nd p olished m irrors a re a lso f ound a t o ther E arly H orizon s ites, e .g. a t C upisnique o n t he n orth P eruvian c oast ( Larco H oyle 1 946: 1 53). A t l ater t imes i n t he A ndes p olished c opper a nd b ronze m irrors w ere a f eature o f t he I nca p eriod ( e.g. B ennett 1 946: 1 46, R owe 1 946: 2 48, B ingham 1 979: 1 10, F ig. 1 37). -

-

M irrors a re a lso f ound i n L ower C entral A merica . A t t he b urial g round o f S itio C onte o n t he R io G rande d e C od e i n P anama , ah igh s tatus b urial w as f ound a nd i ncluded m irrors ( Lothrop 1 948: 1 47). T he m ost d ramatic w as a c ast g old m irror f rame i n t he f orm o f a b at g od w hich o riginally h ad a p yrite m irror s et i n i ts c hest ( Kroeber 1 949: 4 66, F ig. 1 29).

6 .

T hat s uch c ensers w ere p robably u sed t o b urn c opal a s an offering t o t he g ods, t he s moke i tself b eing a m essenger a nd l inked o t he s moking a ctivities o f G od K ( Robicsek 1 978: 6 0), a lso h as a p arallel f rom e thnography w hich l inks c opal, m irrors, s moking a nd s hamanistic p ractices. A mongst t he E ncabellado, a w estern T ukanoan t ribe, S teward ( 1948a: 7 43) r eports t hat .. . early s ources m ention m irrors m ade o f c opal m elted a nd p oured i nto a s hallow d ish.. . . T he s ame a uthor ( Steward 1 948b: 3 7) a lso r eports t hat s hamans o f "

"

2 4

t he S aliva t ribe f rom n orthern S outh A merica c ured a nd p urified p atients " with s moke f rom a c igar c ontaining c opal". T he s moking a ctivities o f C lassic N aya G od K a nd h is j aguar a ssociations a lso f ind a n e thnographic p arallel; W ilbert ( 1987: 1 94) r eports t hat a mongst t he C ariban-speaking t ribes o f G uiana " tiger t obacco" i s s moked i n t he b elief t hat i t e ndows t he u ser w ith t he p ower o f t he j aguar.

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P ires-Ferreira , J .W . 1 976. S hell a nd I ron-Ore M irror E xchange i n F ormative M esoamerica, w ith C omments o n O ther C ommodities. I n: K .V. F lannery E d., T he E arly M esoamerican V illage , pp. 3 11-328, A cademic P ress , L ondon . P itt-Rivers, J . 1 970 . S piritual P ower i n C entral A merica : T he N aguals o f C hiapas. I n : W itchcraft C onfessions a nd A ccusations E d., M . D ouglas, T avistock P ublications, L ondon, pp. 1 83-206. P yne, N .M . 1 976. T he F ire-Serpent a nd W ere-Jaguar i n F ormative O axaca: A C ontingency T able A nalysis. I n: K .V. F lannery E d., T he E arly M esoamerican V illage, pp. 2 72-282, A cademic P ress, L ondon .

R abinowitz, A .

1 987.

R eichel-Dolmatoff, G . P ress.

J aguar. 1 971.

R eichel-Dolmatoff, G . 1 975. U niversity P ress.

C ollins, L ondon. A mazonian C osmos.

U niversity o f C hicago

T he S haman a nd t he J aguar.

T emple

T apir A voidance i n t he C olombian N orthwest R eichel-Dolmatoff, C . 1 985. Ed.) A nimal M yths a nd M etaphors i n S outh A mazon. I n : C . U rton ( tah P ress, p p. 1 07-144. S alt L ake C ity. A merica , U niversity o f U R einhard, J . 1 987. T he N azca L ines : AN ew P erspective o n t heir O rigin a nd M eaning. 3 rd E d. E ditorial L os P inos, L ima. R obicsek , F . 1 978. T he S moking G ods: T obacco i n M aya A rt, H istory a nd R eligion. U niversity o f O klahoma P ress, N orman. R odieck, R .W . 1 988 . T he P rimate R etina . I n: C omparative P rimate B iology V ol. 4 , N eurosciences. E ds. H .D. S teklis a nd J . E rwin, A lan L iss I nc. N ew Y ork, pp. 2 03-278. R oth , W .E . 1 915. A n I nquiry i nto t he A nimism a nd F olklore o f t he G uiana I ndians. T hirtieth A nnual R eport o f t he B ureau o f A merican E thnology, S mithsonian I nstitution. p p. 1 03-386, W ashington.

2 9

R owe, H .J.

1 946.

I nca C ulture a t t he t ime o f t he S panish C onquest.

I n: H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians V ol. 2 , pp. 1 83-330. S mithsonian I nstitution B ureau o f A merican E thnology B ulletin 1 43, W ashington.

S ahagC in , B . d e. 1 963. F lorentine C odex : G eneral H istory o f t he T hings o f N ew S pain . B ook 1 1, E arthly T hings. T ransi. & E d. A .J.O. A nderson a nd C .E . D ibble T he S chool o f A merican R esearch a nd T he U niversity o f U tah, M onographs o f T he S chool o f A merican R esearch, S anta F e, N ew M exico, N o. 1 4, P art X II; 1 963. S aunders, N .J . 1 984. J aguars, R ain a nd B lood : R eligious S ymbolism i n A catlán, G uerrero, M exico. C ambridge A nthropology V ol. 9 , n o. 1 , p p. 7 7-81. S aunders, N .J. n .d.a .

U npublished F ield N otes:

Z itlala R ain F estival.

S aunders, N .J. n .d.b. ' Situational C orrespondence' a nd t he n ature o f M an/Animal R elationships. U npub. M ss. S aunders, N .J. n .d.c. T ezcatlipoca : D eity. U npub. M ss.

J aguar M etaphors o f a n A ztec

S chele, L . a nd M iller, J .H . 1 983. T he M irror , T he R abbit, a nd T he B undle. S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology N o. 2 5, D umbarton O aks, W ashington. S oustelle, J . N orman.

1 985.

T he O lmecs.

U niversity o f O klahoma P ress.

S teward, J .H . 1 948a. W estern T ucanoan t ribes. I n: H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians V ol. 3 , pp. 7 37 7 47. B ureau o f A merican E thnology, S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington. -

S teward, J .H . 1 948b. T he C ircum-Caribbean t ribes: A n I ntroduction. I n: H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians V ol. 4 , pp. 1 4 2. B ureau o f A merican E thnology, S mithsonian I nstitution W ashington. -

T apper, R . 1 988. A nimality, h umanity, m orality, s ociety. I n : T . I ngold ( Ed), W hat i s a n A nimal? O ne W orld A rchaeology, U nwin H yman, L ondon, pp. 4 7 6 2. -

U cko, P .J. 1 988. F oreward. I n: T . I ngold ( Ed), W hat i s a n A nimal? O ne W orld A rchaeology, U nwin H yman , L ondon, i x x ii. -

U rton, G . 1 981. A t t he C rossroads o f t he E arth a nd t he S ky . U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin .

3 0

W ilbert, J . 1 987. T obacco a nd S hamanism i n S outh A merica . U niversity P ress. N ew H aven.

3 1

Y ale

F ig.

1 .

A nthracite m irror f rom P eru; l ate C havin ( Tembladera o r C upisnique?). H eight 7 8mm , m ax. d iameter 1 65mm . T he c eramic f igurine i s n ot a ssociated w ith t he m irror a nd p ossibly b elongs t o t he C horrera c ulture o f E cuador. R eproduced b y p ermission: C olecci6n S ergio L arrain G arcia M oreno, M useo C hileno d e A rte P recolombino, S antiago, C hile. ( The a uthor w ould a lso l ike t o t hank J ose B erenguer R . C urador, f or h is h elp w ith i nformation c oncerning t his p iece).

C o rn ea P up i l

O p t ic n e r ve T a petum l u c idum R e t i na

L e ns T h i r d e y e l id

F ig.

2 .

T he f eline e ye i n c ross-section, s howing t he t apetum l ucidum. D rawing b y P auline A nne S tringfellow.

3 3

F ig.

3 .

T he j aguar's m irrored e yes.

3 4

P hoto:

L eonard L ee R ue I II.

F ig.

4 .

S an L orenzo M onument 5 2, s howing r ectangular p ectoral w ith c rossed b ands. D rawing P AS, a fter C oe & D iehl 1 980, F ig. 4 94.

3 5

F ig. 5 .

S an L orenzo M onument 3 0, s howing t he c rossed b and d isc i n t he e ye p osition.

F ig. 6 .

D rawing P AS, a fter C oe & D iehl 1 980.

F ig. 4 61.

E laborately a ttired O lmec p ersonage o n a c elt o f u nknown p rovenance s howing c rossed b and d isc i n e ye p osition. D rawing P AS, a fter J oralemon 1 971, F ig. 3 3.

3 6

A .

B .

[ ' ig.

7 .

P yrite e ncrusted p laques f rom K aminaljuyu. A ) o riginally c overed w ith a m osaic o f p olygonal p yrite s egments; D iam . 2 0cm. B ) c ompound p laque o f p yrite s egments w ith s hell ( ? ) a nd j ade o rnamentation. D iam . 2 5cm . D rawing P AS, a fter K idder, J ennings a nd S hook ( 1946: F ig. 4 3).

3 7

F ig. 8 .

F ig. A .

T he T 617a g rapheme. ( 1983: F ig . 3 a).

D rawing P AS,

a fter S chele a nd M iller

' Tigre' ( jaguar) m ask w ith m irror e yes f rom G uerrero. I n c ollection o f D . C ordry, C uernavaca, M exico. P hoto: a uthor.

3 9

L ACAN-TUN A n a rchaeological s ite i n t he L acandon j ungle, C hiapas, M exico S onia E . R ivero T orres

A BSTRACT T he p aper p resents r esults o f r ecent i nvestigations a t t he M aya s ite o f L acam-tin , l ocated o n a n i sland i n L ake M iramar i n t he L acandon j ungle o f C hiapas , M exico. T he c olonial a nd r epublican h istorical b ackground o f t his a rea i s r eviewed, a s a re p revious a nthropological a nd a rchaeological i nvestigations. L acam-t( in 's c eremonial c entre h as f ive p lazas a nd s everal a ssociated s tone s culptures. T hree b urials w ere r ecovered i n a t est-pitting p rogram, a nd t heir c ontents a re p rovisionally d ated t o a L ate C lassic t hrough P ostclassic p eriod. F urther w ork i s p lanned i n t his a rea o f g reat i mportance t o p rehispanic a nd C olonial M aya d evelopment.

I ntroduction T his

p aper

d eals w ith L acam-t i ' in s ite

a nd

r ecent

i nvestigation

t here. T his s ite i s l ocated o n t he m ain i sland i n L ake M iramar, w hich i s t he b iggest b ody o f w ater i n t he a rea a nd l ies i n t he s outhern p art o f t he L acandon j ungle ( Map 1 ). T his a rea h as b een i nhabited b y t he M aya s ince p rehispanic t imes, a s i t h as b een d ocumented b y 1 6th a nd 1 7th c entury c hronicles ( Remesal, 1 932 a nd X imenez, 1 929-31). A lthough t here h ave b een e thnographic a nd g eographic s tudies o f t he L acandon j ungle ( Tozzer, 1 907; B aer a nd M errifield, 1 981; S oustelle, 1 936; V illa R ojas, 1 985), t his s ite a nd t he n eighbouring a rea h ave b een l argely i gnored b y a rchaeologists. T he a rchaeological d ata o f t he s ite i s m inimal i n r elation t o i ts i mportance a s a n e xample o f t he d evelopment o f c ities i n i slands, w hich s eems t o b e a c ommon p henomenon b y P ostclassic t imes i n t he M aya a rea ( Pet-ha , T ziscao, T epancuapan , 0 cotal G rande, L acanjá, T ayasal, T opoxte a nd Y axha).

G eographical S etting T he M iramar l ake i s b ordered b y t he S an Q uintin v alley, l a C olmena, e l M ono B lanco a nd C aribe m ountain r anges a nd a s mall b ranch o f t he B lue r iver, w hich i n t urn g oes d own i nto t he J atate r iver.

4 1

T he M iramar l ake i s b etween t he p arallels 1 60 2 0 ' 1 60 2 5 ' a nd t he m eridians 9 10 1 0 ' 9 10 2 5 ', w ith a n a ltitude o f 3 00-400m . I t i s s urrounded b y d ifferent c ommunal s ettlements i nhabited b y s everal M aya g roups. T he m ajority a re C hols, T zotzils, T zeltals a nd T ojolabals. -

-

T he w eather i s h ot a nd v ariably h umid; i t i s d efined b y t he p recipitation f actor w hich g oes f rom 2 ,000 3 ,500mm p er y ear. T he h ighest r ate o f p recipitation i s f rom M ay t o D ecember, w ith o nly t hree m onths o f d ry s eason, f rom J anuary t o A pril. T he s oils c over a l imes tone s ubstratum . -

T he M iramar l ake h as a d iameter o f a pproximately 2 5km, i n w hich t here a re 1 0 l arge i slands o f v arying s izes a nd f our s mall o nes, w hich a re a lways g rowing b y t he c onstant a ggregation o f m aterial c aused b y s ubsurface c urrents t hat a lso d eposit s ome m inerals a nd s alt. I n t he b iggest i sland o ne c an f ind d ense v egetation ( Fig. 1 ).

H istorical B ackground A t t he b eginning o f t he 1 6th c entury a n I ndian g roup l ived o n t he l argest i sland o f t he L acam-t i ' in l ake, t oday c alled M iramar. T he n ame L acam-tf tn w as g iven t o t he t erritory w hich t hey o ccupied. T he S panish c onquerors h ispanicized t his w ord t o L acandon a nd i ts i nhabitants t he L acandones. T he m eaning o f L acam-tun i s a " Big S tone" o r " Big R ock" ( Scholes & R oys, 1 968: 4 1). T he f irst S panish e ntry i nto L acandon t erritory w as d irected b y A lonso d e D avila a nd A lonso d e L ujan i n 1 529-30, w ho c ame t o t he M iramar l ake. A t t hat t ime, t he m ain i sland w as i nhabited b y t he L acandones ( Vos, 1 980: 5 5). T he S panish m ilitary c ampaign t ook p ossession o f t his i sland, c alling i t " El P eñol" ( big r ock), a nd t hey c ontinued t o B oca d el C erro, w hich i s l ocated i n t he u pper p art o f t he U sumacinta r iver, t hat t oday i s c alled S anta M argarita. S ome S panish s ettlements i n t he v icinity o f t he L acandon j ungle i n t he m unicipalities o f C omitan a nd O cosingo w ere c onstantly a ttacked b y t he L acandons a ccording t o d ocuments f rom t he 1 6th c entury ( Vos, o p . c it.: 1 10) T he s econd m ilitary c ampaign w as o rganized b y L ic. P edro R amirez d e Q uinones i n 1 559 f rom C omitan . T he S panish , b uilt a b rigantine t o c ross t he M iramar l ake, w hich s pread p anic a mong t he I ndians w ho f led w ithout f ighting, h iding i n t he j ungle ( Scholes : &R oys, o p.cit.: 4 1). T he t hird e ntry w as c ommanded b y J uan M orales V illa V icencio i n 1 586, a ppointed c aptain b y h is M ajesty f or t he p acification o f t he P eñol d e l os L acandones. T he I ndians b urned t heir h omes a nd f led i nto t he j ungle. T he S paniards d estroyed c ompletely t he I ndian m aize p lots, b urned t he h omes, c ut t he c acao t rees a nd k illed t he f ew L acandons w ho h ad t he m isfortune t o b e c aptured. A fter t he e ntrance ( incursion), t his P eñol o r L acam-tun w as a bandoned a nd t he s urvivors s ettled o n a s avanna 1 2 l eagues ( 36 m iles) f rom L ake M iramar. T his n ew l and w as p rotected b y n atural b arriers : t he T zendales r iver o n t he n orthern s ide, t he L acantC in r iver o n t he e ast a nd s outh s ide a nd t he C aribe r ange o n t he w est s ide. T here t hey

4 2

b uilt a

n ew t own c alled S ac-Bahl n o r " white t iger"

( Vos,

o p.

c it.:

1 25). T he l ast e ntry w as i n 1 695-96 b y t he t roops o f t he p resident o f t he G uatemala A udiencia, c ommanded b y J acinto B arrios L eal. T hey w ent t hrough t he P erlas r iver v alley a nd c rossed a s avanna n ear t he M iramar l ake; a t t hat t ime t he r egion w as c ompletely d epopulated. T hey c ontinued u ntil t hey r eached a nother l arger s avanna, w here t hey f ound t he S ac-Bahl n t own i nhabited b y t he e migrated L acandons a nd f ounded t he t own o f N uestra S eñora d e l os D olores d e l os L acandones ( Our L ady o f t he P ains o f t he L acandons); t his s ettlement w as a bandoned a fter o ne h undred y ears o f o ccupation b ecause i ts s upport p robably w as t oo e xpensive f or t he C rown, d ue t o i ts b eing t oo f ar a way f rom a ny i mportant t own a nd f or l ack o f r outes o f c ommunication. D uring t he 1 8th c entury s ome a ttempts w ere m ade s cattered L acandons a nd t o s ettle t hem i n a p lace w here p riests w ould s uccessful.

b e

a ble

t o

C hristianize

t hem,

b ut

t o j oin t he t he C atholic t his

w as

n ot

I t w as n ot u ntil t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury t hat t he B ulnes b rothers e xplored t he L acandon j ungle i n o rder t o e xploit i ts g reat r ichness o f m ahogany a nd c edar t rees, a nd J ose A ntonio B ulnes r ediscovered t he l ake o f t he L acandones a nd c alled i t M iramar i n r ememberance t o t he M iramar B ay i n S pain, h is h omeland ( Blom , 1 957). S ince t hen, t he t raffic o f f lora, f auna a nd a rchaeological o bjects h as e normously i ncreased. T he h istorical o r a rchaeological L acandon I ndians c an o nly b e i dentified w ith t he I ndians o f L acam-tun a nd S ac-Bahlán . T he j ungle t oday, c alled " selva L acandona", w as p opulated a t t he c onquest t ime b y s uch d ifferent a nd i ndependent M aya g roups a s t he T zeltals, C hols, P ochultecas, T opiltepeques a nd A cales. I t i s am yth t hat t he I ndians w ho l ived t oday i n L acanj , N ajá a nd M etzaboc ( and t wo I ndian g roups f rom t he J atate r iver, c lose t o t he j unction w ith P erlas r iver) a re t he d irect d escendants o f t he h istorical L acandons w ho i nhabited L ake L acam-t( tn i n t he 1 6th c entury a nd t he S ac-Bahlán s avanna i n t he 1 7th c entury, s peaking C horti o r C hol ( Thompson, 1 938). T he e thnographic L acandons s peak a M aya-Yucatec l anguage, a nd t hey a re p robably d escendants o f a s mall g roup o f Y ucatec I ndians w ho l eft t he Y ucatan P eninsula b etween t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies, c rossing C ampeche, p art o f t he P eten, a nd i ntermarrying w ith l ocal g roups o n t he w ay, u ntil t hey a rrived i n t he L acandon j ungle, w here t hey f ormed s mall h amlets ( caribales). T he S paniards a nd I ndians k ept o n c alling t his g roup L acandones o r C aribes b ecause t hey c ontinued l iving i n i solation i n t he s ame a reas w here t he h istorical L acandons l ived a nd a way f rom t he S panish C rown ( Vos, o p.cit.: 2 26).

A nthropological a nd A rchaeological B ackground I n t he n ineteen t hirties, t he F rench a nthropologist, J acques S oustelle a nd h is w ife r emained i n t he a rea f or a y ear, d oing r esearch o n t he L acandon I ndians a nd v isiting M iramar l ake ( Soustelle, 1 936). I n 1 937, D avid A mram o f P ennsylvania U niversity e ntered i n t he L acandon

4 3

j ungle a nd e xplored t he l ake. H is r esearch w as p ublished i n 1 937 a nd 1 947. I n 1 946, G ertrude D uby s ailed o n t he l ake, a ccompanied b y c hicleros ( men w ho c ollect s ap f rom t he c hicle t ree), t aking p hotog raphs a nd s pending s ome t ime w ith t he L acandons o f t he r egion ( Duby 1 946). T he f irst f ormal e xpedition i n t he L acandon j ungle t ook p lace i n 1 950 , a nd i t w as d irected b y F rans B lom o f t he V iking F oundation. H e f ollowed t he s ame r oute t aken b y t he S panish c onquerors i n t he 1 6th c entury. H is b ase c amp w as l ocated i n S an Q uintin. H e e xplored t he w hole l ake, l anding o n t he i slands. O n t he p rincipal i sland, E l P eñol ( Lacam-tun), h e f ound t erraces, w alls a nd s tone f oundations, c onfirming t he o ccupation o f t he i sland s ince p rehispanic t imes. H e a lso e xplored s everal c aves, f inding c aches, o ssuaries w ith s kulls, h uman b ones a nd p ottery, a nd v isiting t he A zufre s tream w hich i s p robably a n u nderg round o utlet o f t he L ake M iramar ( Blom , 1 957). A t t his t ime, E l P eñol h ad a ncient c onstructions o f r etention w alls, t erraces, m ounds, e tc. A ccording t o a ccounts o f A lonso d e Dav ila a nd A lonso L ujan ( 1529-30) a nd L ic. Q uinones, t hese c onstruct ions w ere f oundations m ade o f s tone, w ith w attle a nd d aub a nd r oofs t hatched w ith p alm t ree l eaves. F ollowing t his d escription, i t s eems t hat E l P ef lol's c eremonial c entre w as m uch s maller t han t hose C lassic M aya c entres f ound a t T ikal, Y axchilan o r B onampak. O n t he l imestone c liffs a round t he l ake s hores, t here a re c aves a nd r ock-shelters; i n t hese c aves ( many o f w hich h ave n ot y et b een e xplored) s econdary b urials w ere f ound ( Blom , 1 954), a s w ell a s s herds a nd f ragments o f l arge b asins a nd r ock p aintings. I n 1 970, G uillermo S tein v isited t he " monkey c ave". T his c ave i s l ocated o n t he w est s hore o f t he M iramar l ake, a nd t he n ame r efers t o a s eated f igure i n l ow r elief o n t he e xternal w all o f t he c ave, i n a s tyle a pparently b elonging t o t he P ostclassic ( Stein, 1 970). A nother r ecent f ind w as m ade b y t he G erman H ans S chn iit i n 1 978 , w ho i n h is t rip t o t he i sland o f t he M iramar l ake f ound t wo f ragments o f s tone s culptures o n t he l argest i sland, L acam-t( in ( Sch i nit, 1 979). T hese w ere t orsos o f n aked m en w ith t he a rms c rossed o ver t he b reast. T hey c an b e d ated a pproximately t o t he L ate C lassic p eriod, b ecause o f t heir s imilarity t o t he s culptures w ith c rossed a rms f ound o n t he P acific c oast ( Navarrete, 1 967) a nd i n t he U pper G rijalva T ributaries o f C hiapas ( Rivero, 1 977). T hese s culptures w ere l eft o n t he i sland. A nother s culpture b roken i n t hree f ragments w as g iven t o D uby-Blom f or t he C entro d e E studios C ientificos d e N abolo i n , i n S an C ristobal d e l as C asas, C hiapas.

L acam-t( in I sland T his i sland h as a s urface o f a pproximately 5 ,500-7,200m 2 , w hich w as t otally c overed b y p rehispanic c onstructions. T he s ite f alls i nto t he " ceremonial c entre" c ategory o n t he b asis o f t he s patial d istribut ion o f t he s tructures a nd t heir f ormal c haracteristics. T hese a rchitectural s paces ( closed a nd p robably r eligious a nd p olitical.

4 4

o pened)

h ad

s pecial

f unctions ,

T he s ite h as f ive p lazas, f our a re s imilar i n s ize w ith t he e xception o f o ne t hat i s s maller. T hey a re l ocated i n d ifferent l evels ( Fig. 2 ). T he m ost d amaged p laza ( by l ooting) i s l ocated i n t he w est s ide o f t he i sland ( Fig . 2 , P laza D ). I t i s o n t he s outhern e xtreme o f t his p laza w here o ne f inds t he e asiest a ccess t o t he i sland b ecause i t i s t he l owest a rea, w ith t he s lope r eaching t he l evel o f t he l ake. T his p laza i s b ordered b y t wo l ateral r ectangular s tructures a nd o ther p latforms w hich c ontinue u ntil t he h ighest p yramid i n t he w est e xtreme o f t he i sland, t aking a dvantage o f an atural e levation. T wo h eadless s culptures w ere f ound i n t his p laza h aving t heir a rms c rossed o ver t he b reast a nd w earing o nly l oincloths ( Fig. 3 ). T he l ocal p eople w ho h ave k nown t he a rea f or m any y ears s ay t hat s ome t ime a go t he c hicleros ( men w ho c ollect s ap f rom t he c hicle t rees) d ecapitated t he s culptures a nd t ook t he h eads l eaving o nly t he b odies. P laza B h as a p yramid o f m edium s ize ( 7m), o ne a ltar i n t he c entre o f t he p laza.

t wo l ateral m ounds

a nd

P laza A i s l ocated i n ah igher l evel t han P laza B ( im). I t h as a s mall p yramid f ollowed b y t wo r ectangular p latforms. I n t he c entre o f t he p laza t here i s a n a ltar w hich h as b een a lso l ooted. P lazas A a nd B a re d ivided b y a w all h aving a w idth o f a pproximately 6 0cm . H ere w e f ound a nother f ragment o f a s culpture, a lso o f am an w ith c rossed a rms o ver t he b reast w ith a l oincloth . T he h ead i s a lso m issing . O n b oth s ides o f P lazas D a nd C t here a re s mall o pen s paces w here w e f ound s ome r ectangular f oundations. W e d id n ot f ind r emains o f b all g ame c ourts. E ach p laza i s w ell d efined b y w alls a nd b y d ifferent l evels, w hich b egin f rom t he h ighest l evel ( west a nd e ast s ides) d ecreasing t owards t he c entre. T hese d ifferent l evels a re i ntegrated b y p latforms o f d ifferent s izes a nd h eights. T he c onstruction s ystem s eems t o h ave b een q uite s olid s ince i t i s s till p ossible t o s ee t he m onolithic c olumns a nd l intels. T he m ajority o f t he s tones w ere w orked t o f it t ogether a ccording t o a p redetermined p attern. I n o ne o f t he l ooted p yramids w e c ould s ee t hat t he i nternal f ill w as c omposed m ainly o f s tones h aving d ifferent s izes a nd s ome s herds. I n g eneral, s herds a re n ot v isible o n t he s urface d ue t o t he d ense v egetation c over. T here a re t wo p rincipal p yramids, o ne i n t he e xtreme w est ( Plaza E ) a nd t he o ther i n t he c entre o f t he P laza B ; t wo s econdary p yramids a nd s everal p latforms o f s maller s izes a nd h eights e xtend o ver t he o ther p lazas. T he r ectangular p latforms t hat l imit s ome p lazas a re v ery l ong ( Fig. 2 ). W e f ound i n t he s urface s urvey o n L acam-t( in i sland t wo f ragments o f w orked s tone i n l ow r elief. O ne r epresents s ome f eathers a nd t he o ther c ircles. B oth f ragments a re v ery e roded. I t i s h ighly p ossible t hat m ore w orked s tones a nd s culptures e xist, b ut t hey w ere n ot v isible d ue t o t he d ense v egetation c over. W e t ook p hotographs o f t he w orked s tones, a nd t hey w ere l eft w here w e f ound t hem .

4 5

T he f irst b urial w as f ound i n p it n o. 2 . A t t he d epth o f 5 0cm , w e f ound a r ectangular t omb c ut i nto t he r ock . T he t omb w as c overed b y s ix l imestone s labs. T he s keleton w as a n a dult m ale i n a d orsal p osition ( decubit-dorsal), w ho p ossessed a c ranial d eformation ( oblique-tabular). T he p hysical a nthropologist w ho a nalyzed t he r emains ( del O lmo, 1 986) c oncluded t hat t his i ndividual h ad E spondilod iscitis ( Rickewaert, 1 973: 2 43, c ited b y d el O lmo), w hich c ould b e a t ype o f t uberculosis o r P ott d isease, s ince t he s keleton h as p athological a lteration i n t he c ervical c olumn a nd a lso o n t he e xternal e xtreme o f b oth f irst r ibs. A nother p ossible d iagnosis ( del O lmo, o p.cit.) c ould b e E spondilitis s ifilitica w hich h as s imilar c haracteristics t o t hose o f P ott d isease a nd a ffects m ainly t he c ervical c olumn, b ut t here w ere n o t races o f s iphilis o r o ther t ions i n t he r est o f t he s keleton . T he c alculated s tature s keleton w as o f 1 .58m , b ased o n t he r ight h umerus. T he s keleton w as a ccompanied b y a n o ffering o f v essels p laced a t t he i ndividual 's f eet. S herds a nd f ound ( Figs. 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 b).

a lterao f t he

t wo p olycrome m olluscs w ere

T wo o ther b urials w ere f ound i n t est p it n o. 3 . T he f irst w as f ound a t a d epth o f 5 0cm ( Fig. 8 ). I t w as t he s keleton o f a y oung w oman i n d orsal p osition ( decubit d orsal) w ith a n orthwest-southeast o rientation, v ery f ragmented w ith a n a pproximate h eight o f 1 .58cm . T he s kull p resented c ranial d eformation ( erect t abular). T he r est o f t he s keleton d id n ot s how a ny a lterations. T he b urial d id n ot p ossess i ts o wn t omb, b ut i t h ad a s mall z oomorphic v essel a nd a g reen s tone a s o fferings. C eramic, l ithics, m olluscs, c harcoal a nd b ones w ere f ound. T he o ther b urial w as f ound a t a d epth o f 8 9cm . T he s keleton w as i ncomplete, o nly t he m iddle p art o f t he b ody, t he f emur, v ertebraes , l eft u lna a nd r adius. O ther p arts o f t he b ody w ere n ear t he e ast w all a nd t he l egs i n t he s outh w all ( Fig. 9 ). T he c ultural r emains f ound i n t he s tratigraphic t est p its i n L acam-tin a re s till b eing a nalyzed, b ut o n t he b asis o f t he c eramics f ound i n t omb n o. 1 ( test p it n o. 2 ) a nd b urial n o. 1 ( test p it n o. 3 ) a s o fferings, w e c an s ay t hat t he s ite w as o ccupied d uring t he L ate C lassic a nd P ostclassic p eriods. W e h ad l ittle t ime t o v isit t he o ther ' i slands a nd t he a reas s urrounding M iramar l ake. W ith t he e xception o f t he t wo o ther i slands i n f ront o f L acam-tun, w hich h ave a rchaeological r emains, t he r est o f t he i slands l ack c ultural r emains a nd s tructures. A nother i nteresting a spect o f M iramar l ake i s t hat t here a re c aves i n t he c liffs w hich h ave o ssuaries. I n o ne o f t he c liffs l ocated o n t he n orthwest s ide, t here i s a s culpture i n l ow r elief, l ocally k nown a s t he " monkey c ave" ( Fig. 7 a). T his i s n ot p roperly a c ave, b ut r ather a c ove i n t he c liff, a nd t he f igure i s n ot a m onkey ( Stein , 1 970), b ut a s eated w oman ( ? ) w ith t he a rms b eside h er t highs . I t i s c lear t hat o n t he l akeshore o f M iramar, t he r emains o f a ncient p opulation c an b e f ound, r anging f rom c aves t o f ormal s ettlem ents a nd m ounds w hich c ould h ave f ormed s ome t ype o f h abitational o r

4 6

c eremonial c entres. I t s eems t hat t his a rea h as b een p opulated s ince t he e arly C olonial p eriod o r b efore, s ince w e f ound s ome p rehispanic r ock p aintings ( Fig . 1 0). W e w ill c ontinue w orking i n t he L acam-tC in i sland a nd o n t he o ther t wo i slands i n f ront o f i t, d oing m ore s tratigraphic t est p its i n o rder t o d etermine t he r elative c hronology a s w ell a s t he c eramic t ypes t hat w ere u sed. W e a lso w ill c omplete a t opographic m ap o f t he s ettlement. T his s ite i s o f c onsiderable i mportance b ecause i t w as, a long w ith S ac-Bah T hn, t he l ast i ndependent I ndian t own i n C hiapas a fter t he S panish c onquest. T his s ettlement a lso c an g ive u s k ey i nformation f rom t he C lassic t o P ostclassic p eriods w hich i s a bsent a t Y axchilan ( Garcia M oll, p ersonal c ommunication). T his s tudy i s al ongterm p roject, s ince a fter s tudying t he L acamt i ' in s ite a nd t he a djacent i sland, w e w ill c over t he s urrounding a rea , t hat i s t he M iramar l ake a rea , i n o rder t o r ecover i nformation a bout t he s patial d istribution o f p rehispanic s ettlement, t he p eople w ho l ived t here, t heir m aterial c ulture a nd t heir s ystem f or e xploiting t he n atural e nvironment . A ll t his d ata w ill h elp u s t o u nderstand t he a rchaeological o r h istorical L acandon I ndians. I n a ddition, w e w ill a ttempt t o e stablish a r elative c hronology f or e ach i dentified s ite i n o rder t o d efine t heir m ain o ccupations a nd t o d etermine t heir p rocesses o f d evelopment a nd a bandonment. T he r esult o f t his r esearch w ill m ake p ossible c omparative s tudies w ith t he r est o f t he M aya a rea, w hich w ill h elp t o e xplain t he c ultural d evelopment o f t he a rchaeological L acandons a nd t heir r elationship w ith o ther p rehispanic M aya I ndians f rom t he H ighland a nd L owland M aya a reas.

4 7

B IBLIOGRAPHY A mram , D avid, 1 937. E astern C hiapas. p p. 1 9-36. N ew Y ork.

G eographical R eview, n o. X XVII,

A mram , D avid, 1 947. T he L acandon, L ast o f t he M aya. V ol. C I, n o. 1 -3.

M exico A ntiguo

B aer, P . &W .R. M errifield, 1 981. L os L acandones d e M exico . D os E studios. I nstituto N acional I ndigenista , C olección 1 5. SEP , M exico, D .F . B lom , F ranz, 1 954. " Ossuaries, C remation a nd S econdary B urials a mong t he M aya o f C hiapas, M exico". J ournal S oc. A mericanistes, P aris. T . X LIII, N .S. pp. 1 23-35. B lom , F ranz, 1 957. L a S elva L acandona . A ndanzas A rqueol6gicas E dit. C ultura, T .G.S.A. M ex . V ol. 1 , pp. 4 13-442, V ol. I I, p p . 2 07-225.

D el O lmo C aizada, J osé L uis, 1 986. I nfor r ne s obre e i e studio d el m aterial o seo p rocedente d el p royecto " Patrón d e A sentamiento P rehisp nico e n e i a rea d e l a Laguna d e M iramar, M po. O cosingo, C hiapas. M anuscript, c opy i n t he D ept. o f P hysical A nthropology , M NA, I NAH. D uby, G ertrude,

1 946.

L acandones.

F lama ,

A f lo I , n o.

2 , M exico, D .F .

N avarrete, C arlos, 1 967. " Notas d e A rqueoiogia C hiapaneca , e scultura d el o riente d e C hiapas". R evista I CACH , n o. 1 8. I nst. d e C iencias y A rtes, T uxtla G utierrez, C his. M ex.

R emesal, A . d e, 1 932. H istoria g eneral d e l as I ndias O ccidentales y p articular d e l a g obernación d e C hiapas y G uatemala. V ol. 2 , G uatemala. R ivero, T orres S . I n P ress. L os C imientos, S ettlement P attern A nalysis. P apers o f t he N ew W orld A rchaeological F oundation, P rovo, U tah. U SA .

S choles, F rance & R alph R oys, 1 968. T he M aya C hontal I ndians o f A calan-Tlxchel. U niversity o f O klahoma P ress. N orman . U SA.

4 8

S chmit, H . 1 979. S tein S kulpturen v om L ago M iramar, C hiapas, M ex. M exicon. A ktuelle I nformation u nd S tudien z u M esoamerika, V ol. n o. 4 . S oustelle, J . 1 936. M éxique , T erre I ndienne. G rasset, P aris.

1 ,

E diciones B ernard

S tein, G uillermo, 1 970. E in F elsrelief a m L ago M iramar, C hiapas, M exico. M exicon, v ol. 1 , n o. 4 . H amburg , B erlin.

T hompson, J .E .S. 1 938. S ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c entury r eports o n t he C hol m aya. A merican A nthropologist 9 : 5 84-603. T ozzer, A .M . 1 982. M aya y L acandones. U n e studio c omparativo . I nstituto N acional I ndigenista, C olecci6n 1 3 M exico.

V illa, R ojas, 1 985 . E studios E tnol6gicos . L os M ayas. C ap. I X , X , X I, p p. 2 43-354 . U niversidad N acional A utónoma d e M exico, U NAM. M exico. V os, J an d e, 1 980. L a P az d e D io y d el R ey. L a c onquista d e l a S elva L acandona, 1 525-1821, C olecc. C eiba, n o. 1 0, F ONAPAS. C hiapas, M ex.

X imenez, F . 1 929-31. H istoria d e l a P rovincia d e S an V icente d e C hiapas y G uatemala d e l a O rden d e P redicadores. 3V ol. G uatemala.

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L AS E XCAVACIONES E N Z ACULEU ( 1946-1950): U NA A PROXIMACION A L A NALISIS D E L A R ELACION E NTRE A RQUEOLOGIA Y P OLITICA E N A MERICA L ATINA D aniel S chávelzon

A BSTRACT B etween 1 946 a nd 1 950, U nited F ruit C ompany, a b anana e nterprise, u ndertook a n i mpressive a rchaeological w ork i n G uatemala. T his C ompany, b eing t he r ichest l andowner i n t he c ountry a s w ell a s t he o wner o f s everal o ther e nterprises a nd i mportant c apitals, h ad a n a ntagonistic r elationship w ith t he G uatemalan g overnment a nd p eople. F or t he - e xcavations, a g roup o f q ualified s cholars w ere g athered, w ho p erformed a n e xcellent w ork f rom t he t echnical p oint o f v iew . B ut t he p roject w as p olitically i nspired a nd m anipulated t o i mprove t he C ompany's i mage a nd t o h ide o ther o f i ts a ctivities a imed a t w eakening t he d emocratic g overnment. T he p erformance o f t he g roup o f a rchaeologists i s r eviewed, a s t hey s eemingly c arried o ut f ield w ork w ithout t aking i nto c onsideration t he w ider s ituation i n w hich t hey w ere b eing i nvolved. I n a ddition, t he t otal ( and i ncorrect) r econstruction o f a rchaeological b uildings w as e mphasized, i nstead o f p ursuing m ore i mportant a cademical o bjectives. T his p aper t ries t o c larify t he r easons w hy m ore t han o nce, t he r elationship b etween U .S. a nd L atin A merican a rchaeologists h as b een s o c onflictive.

E ntre 1 946 y 1 950 u n g rupo d e a rqueólogos n orteamericanos d e p rimer n ivel a cadémico, d e l arge t rayectoria e n e i c ampo d e l a a rqueoiogia c entroamericana , y r elacionados c on v arias d e l as i nstituciones ms i mportantes d e l os E stados U nidos, f ormaron p arte d e l a e xcavaci6n a g ran e scala q ue s e l ievó a c abo e n l as r uinas d e Z aculeu, G uatemala. L a o rganización, e i f inanciamiento, l as p ublicaciones y l a d irecci6n e stuvieron a c argo -de l a e mpresa b ananeraf errocarriiera-naviera U nited F ruit C o. E ste t rabajo e s a i ' in h oy e n d ta u no d e l os ms p olémicos r ealizados e n l os p aises c entroamericanos d urante l a p osguerra , y p ermite v er c uai e s e i m eoiio d e l a f recuente f aita d e e ntendimiento e ntre l os i nvestigadores d e E stados U nidos y l os d e A merica L atina. D esde l a c reación m isma d el p royecto h asta e i p apei j ugado p or l a U nited F ruit a ntes, d urante y d espués d e l os t rabajos, e i t ipo d e e xcavaci6n y r estauración r eaiizadas, l a r eiación d e l os a rque6logos c on l a e mpresa, c on e i g obierno y c on e i p ueblo, t odo e i t rabajo e stuvo e mpapado d e c uestiones p oll t icas, e conómicas e i deol6gicas q ue f ueron m ucho ms a llg d e l a a rqueologla m isma, y q ue i legaron a d eterminar l a c aiidad d e l a l abor r eaiizada. Y s i b ien m e a delanto, e s r n uy p robable q ue l os c ientificos i nvolucrados e n e i t ema j amás s e d ieran c uenta d e l o q ue s ignificaba r ealmente e se t rabajo, y q ue c on l a c erteza d e q ue e staban h aciendo c iencia p ura, a rqueoiogla d e

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a lta c alidad c ientifica, s e h ayan c onsiderado a l m argen d e l a r ealidad e xplosiva d el m omento. Q ui t hs p or e xtrapolación, c omo u n c aso e xtremo d e c omplejidad e n l a i nterrelación e ntre p oiltica y a rqueologia, e s q ue e ste c aso e s b ueno p ara a nalizar c omo e xperiencia, y a prender p ara e i f uturo.

G uatemala e ntre 1 944 y 1 950 L os t rabajos a rqueol6gicos d e Z aculeu s e r ealizaron d urante l os a f los m ás c omplejos d e l a h istoria g uatemaiteca e n l o q ue v a d el s iglo: l a e poca d e l a r evoiución . S in e ntrar a a nalizar e specificamente e se t ema, e s i nteresante t ener u na i dea m inima s obre l a r ealidad d el p als e n e se m omento. E n 1 945 h abia e n t otal 3 .487.444 h abitantes, d e l os c uales e i 5 5% e ran i ndigenas, c on ms d e 1 .5 m iliones d e h abiantes d e l enguas a ut6ctonas. E n a lgunos d epartamentos, c omo T otonicapan, e i 9 6% d e l a p oblaci6n h ablaba l enguas i ndlgenas y s olo u na m inoria e i e spaf lol ( Strebel y D ittel 1 947). E n 1 950, p ara u sar d atos e stadisticos c iertos ( Shattuck 1 938, T eiler y B endt 1 977), e i 3 3% d e l a p oblaci6n p adecia d e a iguna f orma d e p aludismo, q ue c ausaba e i 1 8% d e l as m uertes. E l 8 9% d el t otal d e l os f aliecidos h abia c arecido d e t odo t ipo d e a tenci6n mdica, y p ara ms d el 8 2% n o h abia c ertificado l egal d e d efunci6n. L a r elación mdicop aciente e n e i c ampo e ra d e 1 med ico p or c ada 3 2.437 h abitantes. E l a nalfabetismo e ra a ltisimo, s iendo e i 6 5,36% d el t otal a nalfabetos a bsolutos, y e n d epartamentos i ndlgenas c omo S oiol , l iegaban a l 8 8,44%. D e l os i nscriptos e n p rimer g rado, s olo l iegaban a t ercero e i 4 % ( Toriello 1 955, G alich 1 956). L a f alta d e m edicamentos h izo q ue e n 1 950 e i 3 8 .7% d e l os f allecimientos h ayan s ido p roducidos p or e nfermedades i nfecciosas m uy fciles d e e vitar ( Molina A bril 1 971). L os s alarios o scilaban a ntes d e l a r evolucjOn e n 5 c entavos d e d Olar p or d ia e n e i c ampo, s ubiendo l entamente e n l as z onas m arginales a 1 0 c entavos. A p artir d e 1 944 l a r evolución o bligO a q ue l as e mpresas i mportantes p agaren s ueldos ms a ltos, i leg ndose a p agar e n 1 950, 1 .40 d Olares d iarios. R ecordemos q ue e n l as f incas c afetaieras t rabajaban 4 25.000 p ersonas. E l i ngreso p er c apita d el p als f ue d e 7 0 d Olares a nuales p ara e i i ndigena y d e 2 46 p ara e i b lanco ( DirecciOn G eneral d e E stadlsticas 1 940 , T ax 1 953, C onsejo N acional d e P lanificaciOn 1 950 y 1 964), m anteni ndose u n p romedio d e ms d e 2 d 6iares d iarios p ara f inales d e l a r evoluci6n, e n 1 953 y 1 954. L a p ropiedad d e l a t ierra s ufria l as m ismas d esigualdades: e l 7 6% d e l as f incas d el p als t enian m enos d e 5h ect reas y s Olo r epresentaban e i 1 0% d el t erritorlo; e n c ambio e i 2 ,2% d e l os p ropietarios e ran d ueños d el 7 0,6% d e l a t ierra n acional. E xistian 1 61.500 f incas d e m enos d e 2h ectáreas. D e a lil q ue l a g ran m ayorla d e l os d ueños d e l a t ierra n o o btenian d e e lla n i l o m inimo n ecesario p ara l a s ubsistencia. L a d ensidad d el p als l iegaba a l os 7 0 h abitantes p or k ilOmetro c uadrado ( Gaiich 1 956, M elville 1 971). L a s ituaciOn d e i nestabilidad p olitica t ambién p uede v erse a t ray s d e d atos e stadisticos: d esde q ue s e f irmO l a R ep( iblica e n 1 847 h asta l a c aida d el g obierno d emocr tico d e A rbenz e n 1 954, h ubo 2 2 p residentes y 6 j untas m ilitares; s olo 2 p residentes i legaron a

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e ntregar e i m ando l ibre r nente, y 1 1 d e e lios s e a uto-reeligieron; u no s e a utonombr6 p residente v italicio. S olo h ubo d os e lecciones l impias: l as d e l a R evoluci6n . E n e sos a ños h ubo 1 0 g uerras c on p aises v ecinos, 3 r evoluciones, 1 0 a izamientos a rmados, 3 g olpes d e e stado, 1 i nvasión e xtranjera y 1 00 c onatos r evolucionarios a bortados, 5 0 d e e llos e ntre 1 944 y 1 954. E so s in c ontar 2 t erre r notos y 1 1 i ntervenciones e xtranjeras ( Galich 1 956, A titlán 1 954, A r valo 1 954). L os d erechos s indicales y s ociales m inimos s e l ograron p or p rimera v ez t ras l a R evolución d e 1 944, e s d ecir d erecho a l a s indicalización, s eguro s ocial, s ueldo m inimo, d erecho d e h uelga, v acaciones, d omingo o biigatorio, a tenc16n mdica e i ndemnizaci6n p or d espido, e ntre o tros. P ero f ueron d erogados e n 1 954. H asta 1 944 e xistia e i D ecreto 1 474 d e p restación o bligatoria yg ratuita d e s ervicios p ersonales a l e stado una f orma s olapada d e e sclavitud-, y e i D ecreto 2 795 d e i mpunidad l egal a q uien m atara a c ualquier p ersona q ue p enetrara a u na f inca o e xpiotaci6n r ural a jena . E n 1 955 h abia e n e i p als 3 28 k il6metros d e p avimento y 1 156 k ilómetros d e f errocarril d e u na s ola v ia a ngosta. E l 5 7% d el p roducto b ruto n acional e ra r esultado d e l a a gricultura; d e l as e xportaciones, e i 8 3,2% i ba h acia l os E stados U nidos. E l c afe e ra e nviado e n u n 8 5,2% a d icho p als, y e ste e ra e i p rimer p roducto e xportado. O tros d atos q ue m uestran l a s ituación s ocial e xistente a ntes d e l a R evoiuci6n y q ue f ueron c ambiando l entamente c on e sta, e s q ue l a e ducaci6n p rimaria y s ecundaria e staba b ajo r egimen m ilitar; e xistia e i r eclutamiento f orzoso e n h aciendas y l os i ndigenas d ebian p restar c omo m inimo u n m es d e t rabajo g ratuito y o biigatorio a l e stado p ara l a c onstrucción d e c aminos. N o e xistia e i d omingo l ibre n i n inguna r egiamentación d e h orarios o c ondiciones d e t rabajo. E conómicamente e i m ercado i nterno c asi n o e xistia d ado e i b ajo p oder a dquisitivo . E l p roducto p er c apita e n 1 943 e ra d e 5 5,57 d ólares y e i c onsumo m enor a Cm, i legando e se a ño a 4 7,95 d 61ares. C uatro c ompañias i nternacionales c ontrolaban l a p roducci6n b ananera, e i f errocarril, l os t eiefonos y t elegrafos, l os s eguros y l as r adios, y l as c uatro e ran n orte-americanas. Yd os d e e lias e ran s ubsidiarias d e l a U nited F ruit C ompany, q ue c ontrolaba l a E lectric B ond a nd S hare y l a I nternational R ailways o f C entral A merica ( Kepner y S oothill 1 957). E n r esumen, e ste e ra e i p als e n e i c ual l a U nited F ruit o rganizó u n g ran t rabajo a rqueológico, h echo p or a rque6iogos d e E stados U nidos y c on g ran d ifusión i nternacionai.

L a U nited F ruit C ompany e n G uatemala S i b ien s obre e i t ema d e l a i nstaiación y f uncionamiento d e l a e mpresa e xiste y a u na l arga b ibliografia, l a c uestión s igue s iendo p olemica. Y e n g eneral l a f alta d e a cuerdo n o p asa p or p osturas h istóricas d iferentes s ino p or l a d efensa o a taque a l t ipo d e e mpresa y d e p olitica e conómica q ue r epresenta, y a l a p osibilidad o n o d e q ue l as g randes i ndustrias d e E stados U nidos p articipen d e l as p oliticas d e l os p aises e n l os c uales t rabajan. E n E stados U nidos m ismo e sto h a i do c ambiando c on l os d iferentes g obiernos d e e ste s iglo, a umentando o r etrayendo e i b eneplecito c on q ue s e v elan e stos s ucesos. E n l os d iversos p alses d el c ontinente, l os g obiernos d e t urno h icieron l o s uyo, s iendo c om ( in a l as d ictaduras m ilitares e i a poyo i ncondicional a l

1 69

c apital t rasnacional, y a l as d emocracias e i e nfrentamiento a l E n e i m edio h a h abido d e t odo.

m ismo.

P ero l a U nited F ruit n o e ra u na e mpresa c ualquiera. F ormada e n 1 899 p or l a u nion d e v arias g randes e mpresas b ananeras e n o peración , h acia 1 910 y a c ontrolaba e i 8 0% d el t otal d e l a p roducción d el f ruto e n C entro A merica: H onduras, G uatemala, C uba , N icaragua, J amaica, E i S alvador yo tros p aises e staban d entro d e s u a rea d e e xpiotación. Y p or l o g eneral e n e sos m ismos p aises, e i b anano r epresentaba a v eces e i 5 07 . d e s us i ngresos t otales. L a U nited F ruit t enla a s u v ez e mpresas s ubsidiarias e n d istintos g rados. P ara G uatemala l a r n ás i mportante e ra l a I nternational R ailways o f C entral A merica ( IRCA), q ue e ra p ropietaria d e l a t otalidad d e l os f errocarriles d el p als. E i p oder d e a mbas s e c onsoiidó c onjuntamente, y a q ue l a U nited F ruit i ngresó a l p als c omo e mpresa d e t ransportes m ariti r nos, L a G ran F lota B ianca , c ontrolando l a e xportación d el f ruto a E stados U nidos, f avoreciendo a a lgunos p roductores yn o t ransportando s us m ercaderlas a o tros. E n 1 901 e i d ictador E strada C abrera o torg6 e i m onopoiio d el t ransporte m aritimo y e n 1 904 s e e stabieci6 e i m onopoiio d el t ren q ue f avoreci6 a l a G uatemala R ailways, f undada p or M inor C . K eith, p ropietario d e l a U nited F ruit. M ás t arde c ambiaria d e n ombre a I RCA ( May y P laza 1 958, K epner y S oothill 1 957, M cCann 1 979). E strada C abrera f avoreció a l a e mpresa e ntregándole l a c oncesión d el t elegrafo, l a e xplotaci6n d el ( i nico p uerto n acionai, d e v arios m iles d e h ectáreas d e t erren s, y e ntre o tras c osas, l a t otal y d efinitiva e xensión a duanera e i mpositiva . E sto i nciula l os t ramos d el f errocarril y a c onstruidos p or e i e stado y s u e quipamiento, a c ambio d e q ue, e n e i a f lo 2 000, l a e mpresa v endiera a l e stado a l p recio q ue e sta c reyera o portuno. P ara e sta é poca y a s e h abia i niciado l a p lantaci6n d el b anano, a unque e staba a n ombre d e t erceros. P aralelamente, e n l a v ecina H onduras s e h abla e stablecido u na n ueva e mpresa b ananera c reada p or S amuel Z emurray y c on e i a poyo d e l a U nited F ruit, q ue s e 1 1am6 C uyamel C ompany. E ntre 1 911 y 1 913 s e e stableci6 u na s onada b atalia e ntre e stas d os e mpresas p or c onquistar n uevos t erritorios e n o tros p aises, p ese a q ue e i 6 0% d el c apital i nicial d e Z emurray p ertenecla a l a U nited F ruit. L os e nfrentamientos s e a centuaron c uando e n l a r evolución d e D avila l as e mpresas a poyaron s ectores p oliticos d iferentes, l o c ual 1 1ev6 c asi a u na d eclaración f ormal d e g uerra e ntre a mbos p aises. E i p apel d e l as e mpresas e n e sto y a h a s ido e studiado e xtensamente ( Atitian 1 954, T orielio 1 955). S in e ntrar e n m uchos d etailes, Z emurray i ogró a dquirir l as a cciones m ayoritarias d e l a U nited e n 1 929 y e n 1 932 f ue n ombrado d irector d e l a f usion d e a mbos c ongiomerados, b ajo e i n ombre d e U nited F ruit. S i e n 1 913 s e h ablan e xportado d e G uatemala 3 .444.036 r acimos d e b anano, e n 1 932 y a s e e xportaban 9 .248 .000 ( Kepner y S oothiil 1 957). P ero s i e i i mpuesto p agado p or e i c afe a l p als e ra d el 8 ,5% e n 1 928 l a U nited s olo p agaba e i 1 ,97% . E sto s ignificaba q ue e i c afe p agaba a l e stado e i 1 3% d el t otal r ecaudado, m ientras q ue e i b anano s olo a portaba e i 0 ,25%. -

-

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D urante e stos a ños, e i c ontrol e i nfiuencia d e l a U nited F ruit s obre l os g obiernos, a t raves d e I RCA, l a e mpresa e iectrica, l os t elégrafos, e i t ransporte d el c orreo y l a e xportación-importación t errestre y m aritima, f ue e norme. C uando e i g obierno d e C arlos H errera

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p ropuso c onstruir u na l inea d e f errocarril e statal h acia E l S alvador, s u g obierno s e d errumb6 p recipitadamente. E l n uevo g eneral a l m ando t omó e ntre s us p rimeras r esoluciones l a d ecisión d e c omprar p or c asi 1 .5 m illones d e d óiares p arte d e l as m ismas t ierras q ue l e h abian s ido d onadas a l a U nited; y c o r no f avor a l a e mpresa, e l e stado r enunció a l d erecho d e i nspecci6n a dministrativa ! T ambién s e d ecidió p agar a l a I RCA 7 500 d óiares p or c ada k il6metro d e r iel q ue c onstruyera. E sto p ese a q ue o riginalmente l a d onaci6n d el f errocarril e xistente s e h abia h echo a c ondici6n d e q ue l a e mpresa t erminara d e c onstruir l os t ramos h acia l os p uertos d e a mbos o céanos. A lgo s imilar s ucedi6 c uando e l d ictador O rellana d onó t ierras e n l a z ona d e I zabal y o torgó l a e xplotación d e g ran p arte d e l as m árgenes d el r io M otagua, p or 2 5 a ños ( más t arde s e a mpliaria e i t érmino). E n 1 931 l a U nited, y e n e special l a T ropical R adio a nd T elegraph, j ugaron u n p apel e special e n l a a ceptación d el d ictador U bico ye n s u r evoluci6n, t e r na q ue f ue d enunciado y c omprobado e n s u m omento ( Arévalo 1 954). D urante e ste g obierno, s e f undó e n G uatemala l a t ristemente c élebre F alange E spañola f ranquista, y a ctualmente a in s e r ecuerda q ue f ue U bico q uien r eiteradamente a cus6 a l p residente R oosevelt d e " comunista" ( Galich 1 955 ) . E s m ucho l o q ue s e p odria h ablar r especto a l p apel j ugado p or e sta e mpresa y s us s ubsidiarias e n e l p als. S egura i nente d ebe h aber q uienes h an e xagerado y q uienes h an t ratado d e s uavizar l os p robiemas. P ero n o h ay d uda q ue p ara u n g uatemalteco l a U nited F ruit e ra l a c orporización d e m uy b uena p arte d e l os m ales . que l o a quejaban. E s d ificil s aber q ue p orcentaje d e c ulpa t enla l a e mpresa y q ue p arte l e c orrespondia a l os g obiernos c orruptos q ue a ceptaron e l j uego; p ero l o q ue q uiero d estacar a qul e s l a i magen q ue e l p ueblo t enia d e e sta e mpresa. E s p osible q ue p ara l a m ayoria d e l a p oblaci6n l a e mpresa f uera e i ( i nico c ontacto q ue t enla c on e i m undo o ccidental, ms a llá d e s us f ronteras r egionales, s obre t odo l as m iles d e f amilias i ndigenas q ue m uchas v eces n i s iquiera h abiaban e spaf lol, y q ue v ivian m arginadas d e l a e ducación y e l c ontacto s ocial e xterior. D entro d e l os t errenos d e l a b ananera t ranscurria l a v ida d e g eneraciones c ompletas. E s c ierto q ue e ra u na f uente d e t rabajo a unque l as c ondiciones d e e xplotaci6n e ran a bsolutas yq ue e n u n m omento d ado s e c onstruy6 u n h ospital e n Q uirigu , p ero t ambién e s c ierto q ue e i s ervicio e ra p ago, y q ue a unque e i c osto n o e ra a lto, c on j ornaies q ue r aramente l legaban a l os 3 0 d 61ares m ensuales c ualquier c ifra p or b aja q ue f uera r esultaba a itisima. E l h ospital p or l o t anto e ra u n l ujo i naccesible. -

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L os a ños d e l a R evolución g uatemalteca E l a f lo 1 944 f ue c rucial p ara e i p als: u na s erie c ontinua d e m ovimientos s ociales, p oliticos y e conómicos p rodujeron l a c aida d el d ictador U bico y s u r egimen d e g obierno p or e i t error. Y s i b ien h ubo u n i ntento d e c olocar a P once V aldéz e n s u l ugar, e l m ovimiento d e g randes m asas d e p obiación o bligó a l lamar a e lecciones d emocr ticas. F ue l a p rimera v ez e n l a h istoria d el p als e n q ue s e p udieron p resentar c andidatos s in c ensuras n i p rohibiciones. J uan A révalo f ue e legido i n asivamente c omo p residente. E sto f ue v isto c on b enepi cito p or e i g obierno d e R oosevelt, e n l a é poca d e l a i lamada p oiltica d e l a " buena v ecindad" d e l os E stados U nidos.

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A révalo i nició u na l arga s erie d e r ef o rmas: a boii6 a l egislación d e s ervicios p ersonales o bligatorios, c reó e i p rimer C od;go d e T rabajo, i nstaló e i B anco d e G uatemala , d 16 l a a utonomla m unicipal y l a C onstitución d e 1 944. S e c re6 e i M inisterio d e E conomla, T rabajo y P revision S ocial, l as G uarderias I nfantiles, l as E scueias T ipo F ederales, e i I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologla e H istoria, e i I nstituto I ndigenista , ye i M useo d e A ntigua. T ambi n s e r ef o rmó l e U niversidad c on l a n ueva L ey O rg nica . P odemos a gregar a e sto l a c reaci6n d el C entro E ditorial, l a c oiecci6n d e l ibros 2 0 d e O ctubre, e i L ibro d e G uatemala, l a R evista d e G uatemala , l os C i sicos d el I stmo y e l C ertamen P ermanente d e A rtes y C iencias. E n l a a rqueologia, a ntropologia e i ndigenismo h ubo u n n otable c recimiento d e p ubiicaciones, e studios y t rabajos d e c ampo c on i nvestigadores d e t odo e l m undo. L a r evista A ntropologla e H istoria e s u n b uen m uestreo s istem tico d el t rabajo q ue s e 1 1ev6 a delante e n e sos a ños. E stos c ambios o peraron u na p rofunda t ransformaci6n e n e i r n ercado i nterno y e n l as p osibilidades d e a cceso a c ultura , s alud p ( ibiica e i ngresos. S i e i U ltimo b alance n acional a ntes d e l a R evolución 1 943 d ib c omo i ngreso p er c apita 5 5 d ólares, e i d e 1 953 d aba y a p ara t odo e l p als 1 63 d ólares. G uatemala e staba c ambiando, y e sto p rovocaba p rofundas p erturbaciones e n t odos l os n iveles. -

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E i s ucesor d e A rêvalo, t ambi n e legido p opularmente, f ue A rbenz, q uien a sumió l a p residencia a l os 3 6 a f los d e e dad, t ras u na b rillante t rayectoria a cad mica e n l a c ultura. E i p royecto d e A rbenz f ue i ndudablemente r evolucionario, a unque s iempre e stuvo c laro q ue c omo e l m ismo d ijo e n e i f amoso d iscurso d el S tadium e n 1 951, s u i ntención e ra " transformar aG uatemala d e u n p als a trasado, d e e conomia s emifeudal, e n u na n ación c apitalista" ( Gobierno d e G uatemala, 1 951). S u o bra max ima f ue l a R ef o rma A graria, l a c ual s i b ien l esionaba l os i ntereses d e l os g randes t erratenientes, o torgó t errenos a ms d e 1 00 .000 i ndigenas e n s 610 d os a f los. E sto s ignificó q ue m edlo m illón d e p ersonas c omo m inimo p asaron a l a a utosuficiencia a limentaria, sin t ener q ue d epender e xciusivamente d el t rabajo e n l as p lantaciones. L a U nited F ruit s e v ió p rofundamente a fectada c on t odos e stos c ambios: c asi 1 50 .000 h ect reas d e t ierras q ue n unca h abian s ido c ultivadas, q ue l a e mpresa t enla p or d onac16n d esde h acla m edio s iglo, f ueron n acionalizadas p revio p ago e n 1 953. Y s i b ien s e p agó p or a lgo q ue a ntes s e h abla o bsequiado, e sto s e s um6 i guaimente a l m aiestar d e l a e mpresa p or l as h ueigas, l os s indicatos y l a o biigación d e p agar u n s ueldo m inimo, v acaciones y s eguro s ocial. E n e i i nterin, u na i nvestigación d el F ondo M onetario I nternacional d emostr6 q ue l a e mpresa h abla e stafado a l f isco, t anto e n G uatemala c omo e n E stados U nidos d onde s e p romov16 l a i nvestigación a l o l argo d e m uchos a f los ( Adler, S chlesinger y O lson 1 951). E n 1 946 h abian o cultado e l 5 0% d e s us e xportaciones, l o q ue r epresentaba 1 0.5 m illones d e d ólares ; e n 1 947 s e o cuitaron 1 9 m illones y e n 1 948 f ueron 2 1. E n 1 950 l a g anancia n eta h abia l legado a l os 5 0 m illones d e d ólares. N o h ace f aita d ecir e i e scándalo q ue e sto s ignific6, y n uevamente, e i t ipo d e i magen q ue l a e mpresa p royectaba. -

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A r vaio e mple6 u n m ecanismo d iferente a l d e l a n acionalización d e t ierras p ara r omper c on l os m onopoiios: s e i nici6 l a c arretera a l A tlántico, p aralela a l a v ia d el t ren, ( mica f orma h asta e se m omento d e

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s alir a l e xterior; s e i nició l a c onstrucción d el p uerto d e S anto T omas, y a q ue l os d os C i nicos e xistentes i ncluyendo l a p ropiedad d e l a t ierra d e t oda l a z ona e ran d e l a U nited F ruit, y s e e r npezó l a c onstrucci6n d e l a H idroel ctrica M arinal . -

L a U nited F ruit e n Q uiriguá ( 1910-1913) L a r eiaci6n d e l a U nited F ruit c on l a a rqueologia f ue e strecha d esde p rincipios d e s iglo, p rincipalmente c on l os a rqueóiogos y l as i nstituciones d e E stados U nidos q ue t rabajaron e n e i p ats. C oncretamente, e i p rimer a cercamiento s e p rodujo c uando l a e mpresa f inanci6 l os t rabajos d e r estauración y e xploraci6n d e Q uiriguá , q ue s e r ealizaron e ntre 1 910 y 1 913 b ajo l a d irecci6n d e E dgar L ee H ewett ( 1911/1912/1913). J unto a e l t rabajaron E arl M orris y S ylvanus M orley, q uienes d edicarian g ran p arte d e s u v ida a l a a rqueologia m aya; p ara H ewett e n c ambio e ste f ue u no d e s us p ocos t rabajos f uera d e E stados U nidos. E n l o q ue a l as e xcavaciones s e r efiere, f ueron t rabajos m uy b ien r ealizados, c on t odos l os a vances d e l a a rqueologia d e e se e ntonces, y c on u n m arcado i nterês e n l a p reservación d el s itio. I nciuso s e h izo l a r estauraci6n p arcial d el E dificio 1 y s e e xperimentó p or p rimera v ez c on m oldes d e h ule p ara s acar c opias d e e stelas y m onumentos. T odos l os t rabajos f ueron f inanciados p or l a U nited F ruit, q uien f ac11it6 e i t ransporte y a lojamiento e n l as i nstalaciones b ananeras d el l ugar. T ambi n d onaron a l e stado l os t errenos e n q ue s e e ncontraban l as r uinas, l os q ue a s u v ez l e h abian s ido d onados p or E strada C abrera a p rincipios d e s iglo. H ewett e scribia e n 1 912 a si: e s u n p lacer s aber q ue l a p reservación f utura d e Q uirigua e sta g arantizada; e i s eñor M inor C . K eith d e l a U nited F ruit C ompany h a t or nado a s u c uidado l os t errenos, y h a p uesto u n c uidador. E sta, c reo y o, e s l a p rimera r uina a rqueoi6gica d e l a A mer ica C entral e n s er p rotegida". D e t odas m aneras, H ewett n unca p err nitió q ue l a e mpresa f igurara c omo o rganizadora d e l as a ctividades a cadêmicas, s ino s u p ropia i nstitución . P oco a ntes h abia p asado a v isitar l as r uinas P hilander K nox, S ecretario d e E stado n ortear nericano, e n v iaje h acia H onduras. E sta v isita e s m uy s ignificativa, y a q ue K nox i ba a f irmar u n c onvenio e n T egucigalpa p ara l a U nited F ruit, d e e xensiones i mpositivas y r egalias d iversas, q ue o torgaba e i d ictador B onilla c or no a gradecimiento p or l a c oiaboraci6n d e l a e mpresa e n e i d errocamiento d el p residente Dav ila . A l a ño s iguiente, l as c ontroversias e ntre l a U nited F ruit y l a C uyar nei, u na d e c ada l ado d e l as f ronteras, p rodujo l a d eciaraci6n d e g uerra e ntre a r nbos p aises. A lit n ació l a i nstalación d e l a U nited e n T ela, d onde i niciarian s us t rabajos a rque6logos c or no D orothy P openoe, C oncepcion T urnbull y l a h ija d e Z emurray, D oris S tone ( Scháveizon 1 986). A qui e s d onde e ntra u n p ersonaje d e g ran i r nportancia a rqueologia m aya: S amuel Z emurray. C asi n o h ay r eferencias a h istoria d e l a a rqueologia m esoamericana , p ero s u p apel i mportante d e l o q ue s e p odria s ospechar. L iegado c on e i

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p ara l a e i e n l a f ue m ás s iglo a

M obile, A labama, d esde e l c ercano o riente, i nició s u r elación c on l a i ndustria d el b anano e n N ew O rleans, a l t ener l a i maginativa i dea d e c omprarle a l a U nited F ruit l os r acimos q ue s e a rrojaban a l r io p or s u m al e stado, p ara v enderios a p recios m inimos. E n p ocos a ños f und6 l a Z emurray y l uego l a C uyamel C ompany, c on u n 6 0% d e c apital d e l a U nited F ruit. C on u na v ision m uy c ompetitiva y d e g ran a gresividad, s e t ransform6 e n p ocos a f los e n e i R ey d el B anano, d ueño d e p lantaciones e n s eis p aises. E n 1 929 p as6 a s er d irector y p rincipal a ccionista d e l a U nited F ruit q ue l o h abia a yudado a c recer. E n 1 924 Z emurray h izo l a d onación d e d inero q ue p osibiiitó l a c reación d el M iddle A merican R esearch I nstitute, e n T ulane U niversity, b ajo l a d irección i nicial d e W illiam G ates; e l p apel d e e ste i nstituto e n l a a rqueologia m aya e s d e i ndiscutible i mportancia. Z emurray t ambién h izo n umerosas d onaciones d e d inero, a v eces p or m ontos m uy a ltos, p ara a rqueologia, y f acilit6 e l u so d e e quipo, t ecnologia y t ransporte e n e i a rea m aya.

L as e xcavaciones e n Z aculeu ( 1946-1950) E n p ieno a uge r evolucionario n acional, l a c ultura f ue u no d e l os a spectos . m ás f avorecidos p or e i rgimen d e A r valo, q uien n o d ejó d e l ado l a a rqueologia. I nicialmente s e p ensó e n l a a rqueologia c omo u na f orma d e r escate d el p atrimonio c ultural d el p ueblo, c apaz d e f omentar l os i deales d el n acionalismo ye i v alor d e l a c ultura i ndigena t radicional. E n e se c ontexto, l a U nited F ruit d ecidió i mpulsar u n g ran p royecto d e a rqueologia, c uyo o bjetivo c entral c onsistia e n r econstruir u n g rupo i mportante d e e dificf os q ue f ueran a ccesibles a l t urismo, c erca d e a lguna g ran c iudad. E sto p ermitiria a l a v ez m ejorar l a i magen d e l a e mpresa t an c riticada e n e se m omento p or o ponerse a l os a umentos d e s alarios ya l n uevo C odigo d e T rabajo q ue o biigaba a m ayores p restaciones s ociales y p ublicitar t odo e i t ema e n E stados U nidos. T ambi n s e p ensó q ue l a e xcavación d ebia h acerse c on t odo e i r igor c ientifico d e l a a rqueologia d e l a e poca ( Dimick 1 947a). -

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S e c omenzó c on l a e iección d e sitio. S e f orm6 u n p rimer g rupo d e a rqueólogos b ajo l a d irección d e J ohn D imick d espuês e l m ismo d irigió e i p royecto q uien r ecorrió v arios l ugares d e l as T ierras A ltas. N unca q uedó c laro p or q ue f ue s eieccionada e sta z ona; t odos l os l ugares v isitados p resentaban p roblemas . A C hutixtiox l o d escalificaron s implemente p orque n o e ra d e fcil a cceso a l t urismo i nternacional. T ambi n q uedaba c laro q ue e i r equisito i ndispensable -

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e ra q ue e i s itio t uviera " arquitectura l o . s uficientemente b ien c onservada c omo p ara p ermitir s u m inuciosa r econstrucción" ( Woodbury y T rik 1 953: 1 ). E s d ecir q ue n o s e b uscaba u n s itio c on b uen p otencial a rqueológico, 0 Uf l l ugar q ue p or s us c aracteristicas p udiera r esolver a iguna h ip6tesis p lanteada a p riori. S implemente, d ebia s er u n l ugar g rande, i mponente y a ccesible, aH uehuetenango.

ye i s itio f ue Z aculeu,

Q ue c lase d e s itio e ra Z aculeu e n e se p ublicaciones h echas p or l a U nited F ruit, a bandonado, v irgen, n unca o casi nunca c urioso, y a q ue Z aculeu e ra c asualmente -

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p r6ximo

e ntonces? S i l eemos l as d an u na i magen d e l ugar e xplorado. E sto e s m uy u no d e l os l ugares m ás

v isitados ye studiados d e l as T ierras A ltas. U na a ntologla d e l o q ue s e s abla p uede v erse e n e i l ibro d e A ntonio V iilacorta ( 1930), y c abe d estacar q ue y a h abia v arios p lanos d ibujados p or J orge A costa ( 1930) y

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p or B ertha D utton y H ilda H obbs ( 1938). E n 1 927 u na m isi6n d e l a S ecretaria d e G obierno h abia p rocedido a l impiar e i s itio y a h acer u na r estauración p arcial, y a unque d esde e i p arémetro d e l a a rqueoiogia d e 1 946 p odia j uzgarse e sta r estauración c omo p oco c ientifica, f ue u n t rabajo b ueno, m et6dico, c on u n s olo e rror c omprobable: l a r estauraci6n d el d ado d e l a E structura 1 . F ue f inanciado p or e i e stado e n u n p rimer i ntento p or c omenzar a p roteger e i p atrimonio c ultural p rehispénico. N o s e h abia r econstruido, s ino s impiemente c onsolidado l os e stucos y r ecoiocado p iedras, y l os s ectores q ue n o s e p udieron i ntervenir q uedaron c ubiertos c on t ierra, c omo u na f orma d e p rotecci6n. E ste t rabajo s olo f ue c itado p or l os a rque6logos p osteriores u na o d os v eces, y s iempre c riticando e i e rror a l q ue n os r ef e rimos ms a rriba. E i e quipo d e t rabajo e stuvo f ormado p or e specialistas d e p rimera c ategoria: J ohn D imick, A .V. K idder c omo c onsultor d e l a e mpresa, S tanley B oggs ( hasta m ayo d e 1 947), A ubrey S . T rik c omo a rquitecto r estaurador yD aniel M urcia c omo s uperintendente. E ste u ltimo h abia t rabajado a ntes e n E l S alvador c on B oggs. L uego s o i ntegraron E dwin S hook c omo a sesor y G ustav S tromsvik c omo a rque6iogo. N athaiie W oodbury r eaiiz6 l a i nvestigaci6n h istórica. Y s i b ien p ara B oggs y D imick é ste e ra s u p rimer t rabajo e n l a r egi6n, t odos e ran d e l o m ejor q ue s e p odia r eunir e n A merica C entral e n e se m omento. T odos t enian e xperiencia, e n e special T rik yS tromsvik, q ue h abian h echo u na a certada l abor d e r estauraci6n e n C opan. L a p arte a ntropoi6gica e stuvo a c argo d e T . D ale S tewart. L as p rimeras p ublicaciones f ueron e stableciendo l os o bjetivos c on m ás c laridad, a p artir d el c omienzo d e l os t rabajos e n f ebrero d e 1 946. S e p ianteaba p or e jemplo q ue l os t res o bjetivos e ran: 1 ) r ecobrar o bjetos p ara h acer l a h istoria d e l os a ntiguos h abitantes, 2 ) p reservar yh acer a ccesibies l os h allazgos y l os e dificios, y 3 ) r econstruir l os e dificios p ara q ue p udieran s er v isitados. E l t rabajo q ue s e e mprendi6 a p artir d e a lli e stuvo d irigido h acia l a r econstrucci6n. Y s i b ien e n l a é poca e ra c om C in e n M exico r ehacer e dificios p rehisp ( micos, m uchas v eces y endo m ás a lle d e l as e videncias d escubiertas, e i c aso d e Z aculeu f ue r n ás l ejos a c m: s e l ogr6 r ehacer c ompletos, c on s us p lataformas, e scaleras, m uros y h asta p arte d e l os t echos, v arios e dificios. F ue l a p rimera y ( mica v ez e n A merica e n q ue s e h izo u n r ecubrimiento t otal d e c al, p ara d ar l a s ensaci6n d e q ue e staban i ntactos. N o h ace f alta d ecir q ue n o s e d ejaron e videncias q ue p ermitieran r econocer q ué p artes e ran o riginales s uponiendo q ue q uedara a lguna a l a v ista y c uéles e ran t otalmente n uevas ( Dimick 1 948, W oodbury 1 948). -

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E ste a specto, e i i n ás n egativo y c riticado á speramente e n e se m omento ( Schevelzon 1 984b) f ue l o q ue c onsumió l os e sfuerzos y d ineros d el p royecto; y a unque l a e xcavaci6n a rqueológica f ue m uy b ien h echa , y t écnicamente i mpecable, e i t ema d e r ehacer t otalmente l os e dificios s e t ransform6 e n e l p unto c entral d e l os t rabajos, g uió l a b c isqueda d e t umbas y d efini6 d ónde e xcavar y d e q ué m anera, p uesto q ue t odo q uedaria l uego e nterrado b ajo t oneladas d e c emento m oderno. D e a uf q ue e n l os c inco a f los q ue s iguieron, s e f ueron r ecubriendo l as p lataformas yp isos d e c ada p iremide y e structura , e i ncluso, c omo e n e i c aso d e l a E structura 1 , d esarmando l o q ue s e h abia r estaurado e n 1 927. A l p arecer l a c ostumbre m exicana d e r ehacer d ejando l a p iedra a l a v ista n o e ra s uficiente: e sto y a e ra D isneyland e n t odo s u e splendor!

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E ntre l os o bjetivos d e l a e mpresa e staba s in d uda e i d e l a a utopublicidad e n t anto q ue e ra p articipe d e l os n uevos a ires c ulturales q ue s e v ivian e n e i p als. P ara d ichos f ines p romocionales s e r ecurri6 a l M iddle A merican I nformation B ureau , u na o rganización p reexistente c uyo o bjetivo e ra d ifundir e n e i m undo l as o bras p ositivas d e l a U nited F ruit. E sta o ficina p ublico f olietos, b oletines, e mitió p rogramas d e r adio y o rganizó c onferencias s obre Z aculeu y l as e xcavaciones. L o q ue f ue r ealmente l amentable, y q ue p or c ierto n o a yud6 m ucho a m ejorar l a i magen d e l a e mpresa e n G uatemala , e s q ue l a p ublicidad e staba d irigida a l c iudadano m edio d e l os E stados U nidos, e n i dioma i nglés, y d ejando v er u n c onocimiento p obrisimo d el m undo c entroamericano. L a e mpresa a s u v ez, m ostró u na v ision a pologética e i dealizada d e l a a rqueoiogla, y u n p anorama d e c uento d e h adas d el p als. E l p rimer f olieto d e l a s erie d ecia : L a c ompañia, f inanciando e scuelas a gricolas, r ef o restando y d esarrollando g ranjas e xperimentales, j uega u n p apel c apital p ara m ejorar l os s istemas a gricolas ya simismo l as c ondiciones e conómicas d el p ueblo d e l a A merica C entral. T ambiên s ostiene t rabajos a rqueol6gicos d e c ampo e i nvestigación p ara a yudar a d escubrir y r estaurar p ara e sos p ueblos, s u g ran h erencia c ultural ( Dimick 1 947: 1 ). -

N o h ace f alta d ecir q ue e i v erdadero p ueblo d e G uatemala y d e t oda A merica C entral q ue t rabajaba e n p êsimas c ondiciones e n l as f incas b ananeras, t enia u na v isión c ompletamente d istinta d e e sas s upuestas m ejoras e n s u c alidad d e v ida. E n o tro f olleto a nterior, i mpreso p ara a nunciar l a f irma d el c onvenio c on e i g obierno, s e d escribia aH uehuetenango c omo " a f airy c ity o f D isney—like c olor a nd c leanliness"! Y e n l a c ar tula p osterior, s e h ablaba d el p ionero n orteamericano S tevens ( sic, p or S tephens). L os p ublicistas e vidente r nente n o e staban d emasiado b ien i nformados d el t ema q ue p retendian m anejar ( Dimick 1 946: 4 ). -

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A l os i ndigenas n o l es i ba m ucho m ejor : u na p ublicaci6n m ostraba au n a ntropólogo f isico u n a cademico d e g ran p restigio m idiendo un c ampesino f rente a u na p irâmide. E l t exto d e l a i iustración d ecia: -

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l a c alma d el t rabajador i ndio q ue e ste s iendo m edido (. .) e s u n t ributo a s u i ngenuidad. S obrepuso s u t emor a l os s iniestros i nstrumentos m edicos h aciendo d el p rocedimiento u n j uego: e sperando d os c igarrillos p or l a m ayor a itura, o tro p or l a m ejor d entadura , ya si s iguiendo ( Dimick 1 947: 1 4). • . .

E sto e s r ecalcar u na v ision e tnocentrista y e n f ondo x n uy r acista , d el a ntropólogo i nteligente e nganando e n a ras d e l a c iencia a l t onto i ndigena.

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A l r evisar s omeramente e i d esarrollo d e l as r econstrucciones, s e e ntiende m ejor l o s ucedido. C omencemos p or l a E structura 1 , l a d e m ayor t amaf lo, q ue y a h abia s ido r estaurada p arcialmente e n 1 927. E n e se t rabajo a nterior s e h abian r ehecho v arias t errazes d el b asamento, a unque e ste h abia q uedado p or l a m itad. A hora s e p rocedió a r ehacer t odas l as t errazas e scalonadas, l as e scaleras y p arte d e l os m uros s uperiores h asta i legar au n m etro d e a ltura. S e c ompietaron l os n ( icleos q ue f altaban a c ausa d e l a d estrucción o p or l as n uevas e xploraciones, y l uego s e c o1oc6 u na c ubierta d e c al e n t oda s u s uperficie, p ara q ue q uedara t al c omo s upuestamente h abia s ido e n s us o rigenes. U nicamente s e r espet6 l a a ltura d e l os m uros d el t emplo n o p asaron d el n ivel m áximo d escubierto.

q ue

P ero a l a ño s iguiente e sto y a n o r esu1t6 s uficiente: h abia q ue r econstruir ms. S e p rocedi6 a r etirar l a a lfarda d e l a e scalera s uperior p ara d escubrir u na d e ê poca a nterior, q ue f ue r ehecha u nificando e i e stuco c on e i d e l a ê poca d e l a c onstruci6n e xterior, t ransform ndola a si e n a igo q ue e n r ealidad j amás h abia e xistido c on e sa f orma. E l t emplo s uperior t ambi n s e c omplet6: s e s ubieron l os m uros y c olumnas y p or e ncima d e e llos s e c olocó u n t echo p iano c on d os c ornisas. S i b ien h abia c iertos d atos p arciales s obre e i t emplo, e i t rabajo f ue ms f ruto d e l a f antasia q ue d e l a e videncia a rqueol6gica. L o p eor n o f ue e so; c on e i a puro n o s óio c ometieron e rrores i rreversib les, s ino q ue i legaron a d ejar d e l ado l a e xploración a rqueológica. S eg( in r eza e i i nforme, " la e xcavaci6n c ompleta d e l as v arias e tapas s uperpuestas n o f ue p osible, d ebido a l as l imitaciones i mpuestas p or e i p rograma d e p reservaci6n y r estauraci6n" ( Woodbury y T rik 1 953: 2 5). S obre l a a lfarda s uperior e scribieron q ue " la i nformaci6n c ompleta r especto a e ste v olumen n o p udo s er d escubierta, p ero l as i lustraciones d e l a e structura r estaurada m uestran e l p osible a rreglo o riginal" ( Woodbury y T rik 1 953: 3 0). E s d ecir q ue p rocedieron a r ehacerla s in e videncias, p lanteando q ue s u p robable f orma e ra l a q ue e llos m ismos h abian e legido a rbitrariamente. L a o tra e structura i r nportante e n t amaf lo y p or l a i ntervención q ue s e l e p ractic6 f ue l a 4 , f ormada p or u n t emplo e levado y d os e dificios c on p 6rticos a s us l ados. E l b asamento y e i t emplo s uperior d el c entro t ambiên f ueron r econstruidos m ediante e i m ismo p rocedimiento, i ncluyendo l a f achada c ompleta h echa e n b ase a u nos p ocos f ragmentos o riginales; s e r ehizo t ambi n e i l ado n ärte, m ientras q ue e l l ado s ur q ued6 t al c omo s e l o e ncontr6. D em s e sta d ecir q ue t ambiên f ue e stucado a n uevo. H ace f alta a clarar q ue n o h abia n ing( in d ado c ompleto, n i u n a ngulo d e b asamento, n i s e c onocia l a a ltura c ompleta d el t echo. C 6mo s e l legó a l a f orma d e l os d ados d el a ltar d el a la f orte? D e d 6nde s alieron t antas c osas q ue n i e n l os p ropios p ianos o f otos d e l as e xcavaciones a parecen? L a r espuesta e s s encilia: s i h abia u n d ado e n l a c iudad q ue s e h abia c onservado ms o m enos e n b uen e stado, e so q ueria d ecir q ue t odos l os d em s d ebian p or f uerza s er i guaies. N o i mportó q ue e llos m ismos d escubrieran q ue l os d os ( i nicos r estos d e f achadas q ue s e h aliaron m ostraban a l as c laras q ue e ran m uy d iferentes e ntre s i. E n u n f olleto s e l ee q ue " cuando l a f orma g eneral d e u n e lemento e s c onocida, p ero s us d etalles e xactos n o p ueden s er d eterminados, d ebe u tilizarse d atos c omparativos" ( Dimick 1 946a: 9 ). C abe p reguntarse e ntonces p or q ue e i J uego d e P elota f ue r ecubierto c on v igas d e h ierro

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q ue s ostienen u na c apa d e h ormigón a rmado. Ya si s e r ehicieron l as E structuras 6 , 1 3 y 1 7, a l i gual q ue l os a ltares. P or s uerte q ued6 p or l o m enos u n p equeño m useo c on i nstalaciones p ara a lbergar u n g uardia y a lgunas o tras f acilidades. U n t rabajo q ue p udo h aber s ido u n m odelo d e i nterdisciplina e ntre a rqueologfa y r estauración a rquitectónica s e t ransform6, p or a rte d e l as p rioridades p ublicitarias, e n u na f antasia s in n ing( in a sidero c ientifico ( Sc Mvelzon 1 981b, 1 982, 1 984a y 1 984b). E n 1 950 e i t rabajo s e d io p or f inalizado. L a s ituación e n e i p als h abia i do c ambiando y l as b uenas r elaciones e ntre g obierno y e mpresa b ananera s e h ablan e sfumado. L a U nited F ruit n o a ceptaba l as c ondiciones d e t rabajo e xigidas p or e i g obierno, n o v ela c on a grado l a prdida d el m onopolio d el t ransporte, d el c orreo y d e l a e lectricidad, e ntre m uchas o trs c osas. Y a s e h abia h echo p i ' iblico e l e scándalo q ue h abia e stailado e n E stados U nidos p or l as e stafas a l f isco y a l os p ropios a ccionistas d e l a e mpresa. L o ms i nteresante e s q ue, a l m argen d e t odo e sto, l os a rqueólogos t erminaron l os t rabajos d e l aboratorio c omo s iempre e xcelentes d esde e i p unto d e v ista tcnico yp ublicaron u n v oluminoso l ibro, e n d os t omos, c on e i p ie d e i mprenta d e l a U nited F ruit C ompany, d edicado a S amuel Z emurray. -

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E n e sos m ismo a ños s e h icieron o tros t rabajos a rqueológicos e n G uatemala, q ue s on £ t tiles c omo c omparación. U no d e e lios f ue l a e xcavaci6n d e Z acualpa h echa p or R obert W auchope e n 1 947. E ste t rabajo f ue p roducto d el e ntusiasmo d&dicho a rque6logo, q uien h abia e stado t rabajando e n e i s itio e n 1 935 p ara l a C arnegie I nstitution, y d onde e stableció l a p rimera s ecuencia c erâmica d e l a z ona f orte d e l as T ierras A ltas. W auchope d irigia e n e se e ntonces e i M iddle A merican R esearch I nstitute, q ue c omo d ijimos h abia s ido f undado p or S amuel Z emurray, y a q uien r ecurri6 p ara e i f inanciamiento d e e sta n ueva e xcavación. Z emurray 1 948a y 1 948b).

( micamente l e f acilitó 5 000

d ólares

( Wauchope

W auchope, u n a rque6logo d e g ran p restiglo, e stableció u na b ase t e6rica p revia a d iferencia d e l o q ue s e h izo e n Z aculeu c on h ipótesis b ien m editadas y p lanteadas. T ambi n s abia q ue e n Z acualpa h abia a rquitectura m onumental s usceptible d e r estaurar. S e h izo u na e xcavación r educida p ero m inuciosa, s e o btuvo u n b uen c audal d e -

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i nformaci6n, s e i ogró m ejorar l a c ronologia c erámica y e ntender m ejor e i s itio . F ue u na i nvestigación a t al p unto p rovechosa, q ue a l r etomar e i e studio d e l a c er mica m uchos a ños m ás t arde e ntre 1 967 y 1 968 s e s egulan o bteniendo d atos v aliosos p ara l a h istoria r egional ( Wauchope 1 975). S e h icieron v arias p ublicaciones d e b uena c alidad y p resentaci6n . C omo a poyos e conómicos e xtras s e o btuvo u na b eca d e l a F undación F ord, y d e l a U nited F ruit e i t ransporte, e quipo y t raslado d e u n v ehiculo d esde E stados U nidos h asta G uatemala. T odo e i t rabajo, t anto e n s u p rimera p arte c omo e n l a s egunda , s e h izo e n u n a mbiente d e c ordiales r elaciones c on l os a rqueólogos g uatemaltecos. H abla o bjetivos a rqueológicos, n o p oll t ico-económicos, y l os r esultados f ueron l os e sperados, s in s ensacionalismos n i r econstrucciones d esmedidas. -

O tro c aso q ue p odria e studiarse c on m ayor d etenimiento e s e i l as e xcavaciones d e K aminaljuy i ' . i, h echas p or l a C arnegie I nstitution

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e sos r n ismos a f los . E sa e xploración p rodujo v aliosa i nformación, y t rabajando e n c onjunto c on e i I nstituto d e A ntropologia e H istoria s e l ogró s alvar y p roteger e i s ector c entral d el c onjunto ( Sch velzon y R ivera 1 985 y 1 987), a unque d esafortunadamente e i r esto d e e ste g ran a sentamiento f ue s iendo d estruido p or e i c recimiento u rbano d escontrolado. E sto m uestra l a v ariedad d e p osiciones q ue l os a rqueólogos n orteamericanos y s us i nstituciones h an i do a sumiendo e n l os p aises d el c ontinente, c on r esultados t an d istintos e n c ada c aso.

E i f inal d e l a h istoria S i b ien l a e xcavación a rqueo16g1ca e n Z aculeu f inaiizó e n 1 950, l as p ublicaciones s e c ontinuaron h asta q ue e n 1 954 s a116 e i g ran v olumen y a c itado T he r uins o f Z aculeu , d e W oodbury y T rik, c uyo p ie e ditorial e ra d e l a U nited F ruit C ompany. P aralelamente a e sta h istoria a cad mica, l a e mpresa y e l g obierno d e A rbenz s e h abian d eciarado l a g uerra f rontal. E n e sos c uatro a f los l a e mpresa s e v io i nvolucrada e n 2 8 i ntentos r evolucionarios d e d errocar a l g obierno ( Arêvalo 1 954, G aiich 1 956, C ardoza y A ragon 1 965), y e n u na c a r npaña i nternacional d estinada a d esprestigiar a l p residente A rbenz, p ersiguiéndoio p or s u s upuesta p ostura c omunista, a unque y a s e h a v isto q ue s u p royecto e ra p rofundamente c apitalista a unque s i, i ndependiente. E l m anejo d e g ran p arte d e e ste o peración e stuvo a c argo d e S pruille B raden, e mbajador q ue p oco a ntes h abia s ido e xpulsado d e A rgentina p or s u m acartismo. B raden h abia actuado c omo S ecretarlo A djunto d el D epartamento d e E stado, p ara p asar l uego a J efe d e R elaciones P ( iblicas d e l a U nited F ruit. F ue s ucedido p or e l e mbajador P eurifoy, q uien h abia p articipado e n e l g olpe d e e stado o currido e n G recia y q ue c uiminó c on l a i mposición d e u na d ictadura m ilitar e n e se p als. E n e l S enado d e E stados U nidos, c olaboró e n e sta c ampaña H enry C abot L odge, a ccionista d e l a U nited F ruit, q uien e n 1 954 h abia a ctuado c omo p residente d el C onsejo d e S eguridad d e l as N aciones U nidas, i mpidiendo q ue l os d em s p aises a yudaran a b loquear l a i nvasion q ue, d esde H onduras, p rovocaria l a c aida d e A rbenz. E n e l G olfo d e F onseca , d os a corazados c on 2 500 m arines a poyaron d icha i nvasi6n. L as t ropas i nvasoras e staban b ajo e l i n ando d e C astillo A rmas, q uien l ogró r eunir m uchos m iilones d e d 61ares y e quipo, e n b uena p arte d onados p or l a e mpresa ( Kepner y S oothill 1 957, A titl n 1 954). L os i nvasores p enetraron a t ray s d e t ierras q ue l a e mpresa p oseia e n M orales c asualmente a ll1 h abia t riunfado l a p rimera g ran h ueiga y e i e mbajador P eurifoy t ransportó a C astillo A rmas e n s u a vión a G uatemala, t ras s u t riunfo. S e p odrA c omprender e ntonces c uâi f ue e i s entimiento p opular c uando l a c iudad d e G uatemala f ue b ombardeada p or a viones d e l a F uerza Area d e l os E stados U nidos, y c uando e l p als f ue i nvadido p or t ropas m ercenarias q ue v estian e i u niforme n orteamericano. P ero e ra e l n uevo g obierno R epublicano y e n e l D eparta inento d e E stado e staba J ohn F . D ulles, a poderado d e l a U nited F ruit y q uien, c omo a bogado, h abia r edactado y f irmado l os c ontratos d e 1 930 y 1 936. N o c asualmente e i p rimer a cto d el n uevo g obierno d ictatorial d e G uatemala f ue d evolver l as t ierras a l a e mpresa y f irmar u na l arga s erie d e p rebendas y n uevas e xensiones f iscales. E l p rimer c ampo d e c oncentraci6n q ue i nstaió l a n ueva d ictadura g uatemalteca s e u bicó e n u na fI nca d e l a e mpresa, e n T iquisate. P ocos d ias m ás t arde s e f irmaban v arios c ontratos p etroleros c on e mpresas e xtranjeras e n E l -

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y s e a utorizaba l a i nstalación d e c uatro b ases m ilitares d e

l os

E stados U nidos e n l a c apital, e n C hiquimula , P uerto B arrios y P uerto S an J osé. C omo d ato a uxiliar q ue p ermite e ntender c ómo p udo o currir t odo e sto, d ebemos t ener p resente q ue e l d irectorlo d e l a U nited F ruit C ompany r eunia, s olo a n ivel d e s us d irectores, a e mpresas c omo e i F irst N ational C ity B ank, A tlas C opco, C hrysler, A merican T elephone a nd T elegraph, U nion C arbide, G eneral F oods y e i H anover B ank. E s d ecir, l o m és s electo d el m undo d e l as f inanzas y l a e conomia m undial.

C onclusiones C on l a c aida d e A rbenz, m uchos d e l os h ombres d e l a p olitica y l a c ultura g uatemalteca q ue p asaron a l e xilio e scribieron o c itaron l os t rabajos a rqueolOgicos, s in s er n ecesariamente e specialistas e n e i t ema. P or e jemplo M anuel G alich e n s u o bra P or q ue l ucha G uatemala ( 1956: 1 4), u n c l sico d e A merica L atina s obre e sta c uestiOn, e ncontramos l o s iguiente: A fortunadamente p ara l a j usticia , c ontra l as c adenas y anquis d e n oticias, c ontra e i c hillido d e l os l adinos l adrones p or h erencia y c ontra l as p astorales d e u n t onsurado t raidor, q ue d esgraciadamente t amblén e s g uatemalteco, s e l evanta e i a cervo c ientifico d e n orteamericanos d e o jos l impios y d e e uropeos d e a ustera y g enerosa c iencia, s abios u nos y o tros y n o t écnicos d el s aqueo, q ue o frecen l a e videncia i ncontestable d e l a e xistencia, a ntes e n l a l ibertad y h oy e n l a o presiOn, d e u n m undo e spiritual i nspirado e n l as m âs a ltas v irtudes h umanas y d e u n o rden s ocial f undado e n l a c omunidad y e n l a j usticia.

M és a delante i nsiste a cerca d e l os " sabios y a mateurs f ranceses, i ngleses, a lemanes, s uizos, n orteamericanos , c entro-americanos , q ue h an c onsumido g ran p arte d e s u v ida p ara d esenterrar a quel h ierático m ensaje" ( Galich 1 956: 1 5) y c ita a r englOn s eguido a S ylvanus M orley, R afael G irard y R obert W auchope. Yn o a l a U nited F ruit, c ontra q uien e sta e scrito e i l ibro. L uis C ardoza yA ragOn, u no d e l os m és p restigiosos e scritores g uatemaltecos, e xiliado t ambién, e n s u l ibro G uatemala : l as l ineas d e s u m ano ( 1965), q ue f ue r eeditado m uchas v eces, d escribe c rudamente l os t rasfondos d e l a d estrucciOn d el g obierno d emocrético d e e sta f orma: L os a rqueOlogos s e s umergen e n l a p rehistoria o e n l a h istoria, e xploran l as e ntrañas d e l a t ierra p ara e ncontrar u na v asija, u n h ueso, u n v estigio m ilenario, y n o y en n ada d el m undo d e l os m ercados, d e l os p ueblos, d e l os s ufrimientos q ue p adecen l os i ndios v ivos. N o s olo l os a rqueOlogos, t ambién l os p oetas, p intores, m Osicos, n ovelistas, s e e ncandiian c on e l " exotismo" d e d onde h an n acido y s e c iegan p ara t oda a preciaciOn o bjetiva. (. .) C asi s in e xcepciones, e ntre l os a rque6logos,

1 80

e scritores , i nvestigadores h istóricos, a rtistas, t raductores d e l os l ibros a borigenes, n o h ay e n G uatemala s ino d os o t res q ue a t al v ocación h ayan u nido, e n l os U ltimos den a f los, u na c onsecuente c onducta p olitica ( 1965: 1 14).

E stos p árrafos p onen e n e videncia q ue e i p robiema n o e ra t odos l os a rque6iogos e xtranjeros, c omo a v eces s e p iensa, s ino l o q ue a lgunos d e e llos r epresentaban.

c ontra c ontra

L os t rabajos d e Z aculeu n unca f ueron o lvidados. C ómo h abia s ido p osible q ue a rqueólogos y a ntrop6iogos p robadamente c ompetentes, d e g anado p restigio i nternacional, h ubieran p articipado d e e sa g igantesca f arsa m ontada p or u na e mpresa d e l as c aracteristicas d e l a U nited F ruit? C ómo h abia s ido p osible q ue s e e stablecieran o bjetivos p rioritarios e n l a r econstrucci6n m onumental p or e ncima d e l os a cad micos. C ómo s e d ejaron u tilizar l os i nvestigadores p ara t ratar d e m ejorar u na i magen i mposible d e c ambiar s ólo a t ray s d e a ctos c ulturales e n l os c uales e i p ueblo n o h abia t enido l a ms m inima p articipaci6n? C omo s iempre e i a legato p osterior f ue e i d e l a a cientificidad d e l a c iencia. O tros a ( in i nsisten e n q ue, c omo e xtranjeros, n o p ueden n i d eben e ntrometerse e n l a p olitica i nterior d e o tro p als. P ero, a caso n o s e e ntrometia a mpliamente l a e mpresa q ue l os c ontrataba? Yl o q ue e n e stos c asos n o s e l lega a e ntender, e s q ue, a unque n o f ueran c oncientes d e e llo, a l h acer e sa a rqueologia e n Z aculeu e staban a valando p oliticas d esgraciadas p ara G uatemala. s olo s abiendo v er yp rever c osas d e e ste t ipo, e s q ue l as b arreras d e l a n acionalidad d ejarán d e s er u n o bstáculo p ara l os a rque6logos d e t odo e i c ontinente.

1 81

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1 947b.

D imick, J ohn, P alacio,

1 948. " Zaculeu, a h ighland M aya r estoration s tudy", E l v ol. L V , pp. 2 01, 2 09.

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D imick, J ohn, 1 955. " La e dad d e Z aculeu p uede s er e l d oble d e l a q ue c onvencionalmente s e l e s upone", A ntropologia e H istoria, v ol. V II, n o. 1 , G uatemala. D irecci6n G eneral d e E stadistica , 1 942. p oblación ( 7-4-1940), G uatemala.

Q uinto c enso g eneral d e

G alich, M anuel, 1 956. P or q u6 l ucha G uatemala; A r valo y A rbenz, d os h ombres c ontra u n i mperio, E lmer E ditor, B uenos A ires. G eiger, T heodore, 1 953. E l c omunismo c ontra e l p rogreso e n G uatemala, N ational P lanning A ssociation ( Spanish v ersion), G uatemala. G obierno d e G uatemala, 1 951. M ensaje Q uincenal, D irección G eneral d e E stadistica, n o. 1 9 ( 31 d e j ulio), G uatemala.

H ewett, E dgar L ee, 1 911. " Two s easons' w ork i n G uatemala", B ulletin o f t he A rchaeological I nstitute o f A merica, v ol. I I, n o . 3 , pp. 1 171 34. H ewett, E dgar L ee, 1 912. " The t hird s eason 's w ork i n G uatemala", B ulletin o f t he A rcheological I nstitute o f A merica, v ol. I II, p p. 1 63-171. H ewett, E dgar L ee, 1 913. " The e xcavation o f Q ulrigu4 b y t he S chool o f A merican A rchaeology", X VIII I nternational C ongress o f A i nericanists, pp. 2 41-248, L ondon. H ewett, E dgar L ee, 1 916. " Latest w ork o f t he S chool o f A merican A rchaeology a t Q uirigua", H olmes A nniversary V olume, pp. 1 57-162, W ashington. H ewett, E dgar L ee, 1 936. A ncient l ife i n M exico a nd C entral A merica, B obbs-Merril C o., I ndianapolis. H omeran, M ary, 1 949. C hurch a nd S tate i n G uatemala, C olumbia U niversity P ress, N ew Y ork.

1 83

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1 951.

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K epner, C h.D. a nd J .H . S oothill, 1 957. E l i mperio d el b anano: l as c ompaf lias b ananeras c ontra l a s oberanla d e l as n aciones d el C aribe, T riángulo, B uenos A ires.

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S tacy y G alo P laza, 1 958. T he U nited F ruit C o. U nited S tates P erformance A broad, W ashington.

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i n L atin A merica ,

t he t ragedy o f U nited

M elville, T homas y M arjorie, 1 971. G uatemala : o wnership, F ree P ress, N ew Y ork.

t he p olitics o f l and

M olina A bril, R ene, 1 971. E studio d e l a m ortalidad i nfantil e n G uatemala, E dici6n d el A utor, G uatemala.

N oval, J oaquin, 1 965. " Situación e conómica a ctual d e l os i ndigenas d e G uatemala", C uadernos d e A ntropobogla n o. 6 , pp. 7 -23, G uatemala.

0 .I.T ., 1 953. P oblaciones i ndIgenas : c ondiciones d e v ida y t rabajo d e l os p ueblos a utóctonos d e l os p alses d ependientes, G inebra. O rellana, R ene, 1 978. G uatemala : m igración d e p oblación 1 950-1973, I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones E conómicas y S ociales, U niversidad d e S an C arlos, G uatemala.

S hattuck, G eorge C h ., 1 938. Am edical s urvey o f t he R epublic o f G uatemala, C arnegie I nstitution, W ashington. S chávelzon, D aniel, 1 979. " El s aqueo a rqueol6gico d e G uatemala", A ntropobogia e H istoria, n o. 2 2, pp. 5 7-61, I NAH, M exico . S chevelzon, D aniel, 1 981a. " Algunas s upervivencias d e c ultos p rehispánicos e n G uatemala" P royecciones d e A merica L atina, p p. 1 03-126, M exico. S cheveizon, D aniel,

1 981b.

n o.

" Historia s ocial d e l a r estauración

a rquitect6nica e n M exico", V ivienda , M exico.

1 84

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n o.

5 ,

p p .

4 34-477,

1 ,

1

I

S chavelzon, D aniel, 1 982. L a r estauracion d e l a p iramide d e C holula D ocumentos d e A rquitectura N acional y A mericana, n o. 1 3, p p. 9 61 04, R esistencia. S chávelzon, D aniel, 1 984a. " Conservación y r estauración e n e l s ubdesarrollo", T rama n o. 3 3, p p. 2 4-28, Q uito. S chávelzon, D aniel, 1 984b. L a c onservación d el p atrimonio c ultural e n A mer ica L atina : r estauración d e m onumentos p rehispánicos e n M esoam rica, 1 750-1980, P h.D. D issertation, U NAM , M exico. S ch velzon, D aniel, 1 986. " Dorothy H . P openoe y l a a rqueologia d e C entroam rica", e n p rensa e n C uadernos d e A rquitectura M esoamericana , M exico. S chávelzon D aniel y V ictor R ivera, 1 985. " Proyecto d e r estauración e n l a c iudad d e G uatemala", D ocumentos d e A rquitectura N acional y A mericana, n o. 1 9, pp. 8 1-89, R esistencia. S chávelzon D aniel y V ictor R ivera, 1 987. " La d estrucci6n d e K aminaljuy( i", e n p rensa e n M esoam&rica.

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L a b atalla d e G uatemala, C uadernos

T orres R ivas, E delberto, 1 981. " Guatemala: m edio s iglo d e h istoria p olitica. U n e nsayo d e i nterpretaci6n s ociológica", A merica L atina: h istoria d e m edio s iglo, S iglo X XI, M exico, v ol. 2 , p p. 1 39-173.

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1 899-1950.

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1 85

W auchope, R obert, 1 948a. E xcavations a t Z acualpa, M iddle A merican R esearch I nstitute, N ew O rleans. W auchope, R obert, v ol. L V, p p.

1 948b. 1 6-18.

" Tulane e xpedition t o G uatemala", E l P alacio,

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" Progress a t Z aculeu, G uatemala", A merican n o. 2 , p p. 1 21-122.

W oodbury, R ichard y A ubrey T rik, U nited F ruit C o., R ichmond.

1 953.

1 86

T he r uins o f Z aculeu, 2 v ols,

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I CONOGRAPHIC S YMBOLS I N A ZTEC E LITE S CULPTURES E lizabeth B aquedano

A BSTRACT A ztec d eath m otifs i n e lite s culptures a re n ot p lentiful. T hey s eem t o b e r estricted m ainly t o c rossed-bones, s kulls, s evered h eads , a nd d ismembered l imbs. D espite t heir s carcity, t hey w ere m anipulated b y t he S tate a nd p riests i n s uch a w ay t hat a ny g iven s ymbol s erved a w ide r ange o f p urposes, a mong t hem , p olitical, e conomic a nd r eligious. O f s pecial i mportance a re t he d epictions o f s kulls a nd b ones ( Fig. 1 ). T hey a ppear i n a ll m ediums: s culpture, a rchitecture, p ainting, c eramics, m anuscripts ( codices), t extiles e tc. S kulls a nd b ones a re f ound d epicted i n c olossal a s w ell a s i n s mall d imensions. T he i ntention a nd t he m eaning o f t heir m anufacture m ust h ave v aried a ccording t o t he l evel o f " literacy" o f t he i ndividual. T he S panish c hronicles o f t he 1 6th c entury d escribed n ot o nly c eremonies o f t he a ncient M exicans b ut a lso t he w ay i n w hich t he r ulers d ressed f or s pecial o ccasions e .g. p ublic p erformances, i naugurations a nd s o f orth. E ach a ct r equired a d ifferent k ind o f c lothing o n b ehalf o f t he r ulers a nd e ven t he d ecorations a nd t he m otifs w ere r ecorded. A s w ill b e c larified i n t he f ollowing p ages, s kulls a nd b ones ( among o ther b odily c omponents) w ere o f p rimordial i mportance f or r ulers a nd w ell a s f or d eity i mpersonators.

p riests

T he f ocus o f t his p aper w ill b e o n t hree i mportant a spects s eem t o h ave h ad s pecial a ssociations a nd m eanings f or t he A ztecs: 1 .

B ones a nd s kulls i n m ythology a nd r eligion

2 .

B ones a nd s kulls i n p olitics

3 .

B ones a nd s kulls i n t he e conomy

a s

t hat

A lthough i t i s d ifficult t o m ake a s harp d ivision o f a ny o f t hese c ategories, t hey s eem t o t he a uthor t he b est w ay t o i llustrate t hat s kulls a nd b ones w ere a d ynamic c onstituent i n A ztec s ociety. A f ourth c ategory c ould a lso b e a dded t o t he l ist, t he a rtistic o ne. T his f orm h as a n i mportant r ole i n t he s tudy o f i conography. I n t he f irst p lace f or t he s emantic m eaning o f t he o bject, a nd s econdly, f or t he m etaphoric m eaning .

B ones i n m ythology B ones p layed a n i mportant r ole i n m ythology e specially i n c reation m yths. O ne o f t he b est d ocumented o f a ll p re-Hispanic M esoamerican m yths i s t hat o f t he c reation a nd d estruction o f a s uccession o f w orld

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p eriods o r a ges a nd t he c reation o f m ankind. T he a nonymous t ext o f t he L eyenda d e l os S oles, w ritten d own i n 1 558, d escribes t he d ifferent a ges o r s oles ( suns) a nd t he c reation o f m ankind. H aving c reated t he l ast s un i t r emained t o c reate m ankind a gain.

S e c onsultaron l os d ioses y d ijeron: Q ui n h abitar , p ues q ue s e e stanc6 e i c ielo y s e p ar6 e i S eñor d e l a t ierra? . qui n h abitar , o h d ioses? S e o cuparon e n e i n egocio C itlaliicue , C itlallatonac, A pantecuhtli, T epanquizqui, T iallamanqui, H uictioilinqui, Q uetzalcóhuatl y T itlacahuan. L uego f ué Q uetzalcóhuati a l i nfierno ( mictian e ntre l os m uertos); s e i legó a M ictianteuctil y aM ictiancihuatl y d ijo: " He v enido p or l os h uesos p reciosos q ue tu g uardas." Y d ijo a qu i: "Quê h arks t i, Q uetzaicóhuatl?" O tra v ez d ijo é ste: " Tratan l os d ioses d e h acer c on e llos q uien h abite s obre l a t ierra." D e n uevo d ijo M ictlanteuctlj: " Sea e n b uena h ora . T oca m i c aracol y t ráele c uatro v eces a l d erredor d e m i a siento d e p iedras p reciosas." P ero s u c aracol n o t iene a gujeros d e m ano. L lamó a l os g usanos, q ue l e h icieran a gujeros, e i nmediatamente e ntraron a u f l as a bejas g rande y l as m ontesas, q ue l o t ocaron; y l o o yó M ictianteuctli. O tra v ez d ice M ictlanteuctlj: " Esta b ien, t ómalos." Y d ijo M ictlanteuctij a s us m ensajeros l os m ictecas: " Id a d ecirle, d ioses, q ue a d e v enir a d ejarlos." P ero Q uetzalcóhuatl d ijo h acia a cá : " No, m e l os l levo p ara s iempre." Y d ijo a s u n ahual: " Anda a d ecirles q ue v endré a d ejarlos." Y é ste v ino a d ecir a g ritos: " Vendre a d ejarlos." S ubió p ronto, l uego q ue c ogió l os h uesos p reciosos : e staban j untos d e u n l ado l os h uesos d e v arón y t ambiên j untos d e o tro l ado l os h uesos d e m ujer. A si q ue l os t o r nó, Q uetzalcóhuati h izo d e e llos u n ho, q ue s e t rajo. O tra m ensajeros:

v ez

l es d ijo " !Dioses!

M ictlanteuctli a s us D e v eras s e l levó

Q uetzalcóhuatl l os h uesos p reciosos. ! Dioses! I d a h aced u n h oyo." F ueron a h acerlo; y p or e so s e c ay6 e n e i h oyo, s e g olpeó y l e e spantaron l as c odornices; c ayó m uerto y e sparció p or e l s uelo l os h uesos p reciosos, q ue l uego m ordieron y r oyeron l as c odornices . A p oco r esucit6 Q uetzalcóhuati, l loró y d ijo a s u n ahual: " Como s era e sto, n ahual i n fo?" E l c ual d ijo: ! Como h a d e s er! Q ue s e e cho a p erder e l n egocio; p uesto q ue l lovi6." L uego l os j untó, l os r ecogi6 e h izo u n ho, q ue i nmediatamente l levó a T amoanchan . D espués q ue l os h izo h legar, l os m olió h a i lamada Q uilachthi: e s e s C ihuacóhuatl, q ue a c ontinuación l os e cho e n u n l ebrillo p recioso . S obre e l s e s angr6 Q uetzalcóhuatl s u m iembro; y e n s eguida h icieron

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p enitencia t odos l os d ioses q ue s e h an m encionado: A pantteuctli, H uictlolinqui, T epanquizqui, T lallamanac, T zontemoc, y e i s exto d e e llos, Q uetzalcóhuatl. L uego d ijeron: " Han n acido l os v asallos d e l os d ioses." P or c uanto h icieron p enitencia s obre n osotros. ( Leyenda d e l os S oles,

1 975,

P P.

1 20-121)

I n a nother t ext , H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us P inturas ( Anon. 1 979), H uitzilopochtli, t he t ribal g od o f t he A ztecs, w as b orn w ithout f lesh, o nly w ith b ones, a nd h e r emained t hat w ay f or s ix h undred y ears. ( "El H uitzilopochtli, h ermano m enor, y d ios d e l os d e M exico, n ació s in c am e, s ino c on l os h uesos, y d e e sta m anera e stuvo s eiscientos a ños." p . 2 4). H uman l egend s ays b ones o f a T zitzimime

b ones w ere a lso n ecessary f or t he c reation o f p lants, o ne t hat t he g od o f w ind ( Quetzalcoatl) g athered a nd b uried t he g oddess c alled M ayahuel, w ho i n t urn h ad b een e aten b y t he g oddesses . F rom t hese b ones, a p lant c alled m etl ( agave),

t he p eople w ere a ble t o m ake w ine ( pulque) f or t he p leasures ( Krickeberg 1 985, pp. 2 7-28). B ones a nd s kulls h ave t hus h ad a v ery i mportant p lace a merican t hought a s a s ource f or r egeneration a nd l ife .

o f

i n

m en

M eso-

S kulls i n r eligion a nd p olitics T he A ztecs w ere g reat b elievers i n f ate, w hich i n t urn w as p redetermined w ithin t ime. T he A ztec s olar c alendar c onsisted o f 3 65 d ays g rouped i nto 1 8 m onths o f 2 0 d ays e ach, a t t he e nd o f w hich c ame a n e xtra f ive a nd e specially u nlucky d ays, w hile t he r itual c alendar, o r t onalpohualli, c onsisted o f 2 60 d ays. T his " count o f d ays" w as f ormed b y j oining 2 0 d ays ( day-signs) w ith t he n umbers 1 -13 . T he d ay n ames h ad a m eaning, a nd a g lyphic r epresentation. T he e ntire p rocess o f n umbered d ay s igns p rovided t he b asis f or t he t onalpohualli. F or r itual p urposes t he 2 60 d ays w ere d ivided i nto 2 0 g roups o f 1 3, e ach o f t hese b eginning w ith t he n umber o ne. T he d ay-names w ere: a lligator, w ind, h ouse, l izard, s nake, d eath, d eer, r abbit, w ater, d og, m onkey, g rass, r eed, j aguar, e agle, v ulture, m ovement, f lint-knife, r ain a nd f lower. T he r itual c alendar w as i ndependent o f t he S olar C alendar a nd w as u sed m ainly t o d ivine t he f ate o f i ndividuals, t o f oresee t he f ortunes o f t he e mpire, a nd t o d etermine p ropitious d ays f or t he c elebration o f m ajor e vents ( Berdan: 1 982, pp. 1 46-7). T he d ays t hemselves w ere c onsidered g ood, b ad o r i ndifferent, a nd l ikewise t he n umbers o f t he d ays . I n a ddition, e ach o f t he 2 0 d ay-signs w ere d edicated t o a g od o r g oddess. T here w ere a lso a ssociated a nimals, c olours, a y ear s ign a nd t he c ardinal p oints. T hese d ay-signs w ere o f s pecial i mportance a t b irth a nd t he d egree o f v itality o f t he n ew b orn w as v ery c losely r elated t o t he n ame g iven t o t he c hild. T he s trongest w as t hat o f t hose b orn u nder t he s ign o f t he p owerful g od T ezcatlipoca ( One-Death). N obody b orn u nder t his d ay-sign c ould b e w illed t o d eath , s ince t his w ould b ackfire o n t he i ndividual w ho w ished h im t o d ie ( Sahagun , B ook 4 , p . 3 4). I t i s t herefore i nteresting t hat d eath w as a ssociated w ith s trength, a nd p aradoxically w as a s v ital a s l ife.

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T he d ay-sign O ne-Death w as a g ood o ne, e specially f or r ulers a nd l eading m en ( Sahagun , B ook 7 , p . 3 7). R ulers w ere a ssociated w ith d eath, p robably b ecause t he h ieroglyph s tood f or f ame a nd g lory a s w ill b e s een l ater. O ne-Death ( Ce-Miquiztil) i n s culpture, i s u sually r epresented b y a s kull w ith a k nife i nserted i n t he m outh a nd a s moking m irror i n t he h ead, s ymbols a ssociated t o n ature a nd p ower o f T ezcatlipoca. D epictions o f D eath-dates a re f airly c ommon i n s culptures r epresenting y ear b undles ( xiuhmolpillis), a nd o nly a fter t he R eed s ign i t s eems t o b e o ne o f t he m ost i mportant d ates i n A ztec s culptures. S ahagun s ays t hat " The L ords g reatly v enerated t he O ne-Death d ay-sign. I n t ruth, t he m aster o f t he e arth , ( Book 4 , p . 3 4). T his r eference t o t he e arth a ssociated w ith d eath i conography i s o bviously a n i mportant o ne a s r ulers s eem t o b e c onnected w ith b oth e arth a nd d eath. O n t he o ther h and, e arth a nd f ertility a re i ndissolubly l inked. Y ear b undles a re s tone c ylinders d epicting a b undle o f f ifty-two s ticks t ied-up b y t wisted r opes a t t he e nds, w hich a ccording t o R amirez ( 1844-1846, v ol. 2 , p p. 1 06-124) s ymbolize t he x iuh x nolpilli o r t he i ndigenous c ycle o f 5 2 y ears. T he A ztecs b elieved t hat w hen t he c ycle o r " century" w as c omplete, " the y ears w ere t ied u p". S ince t his e vent o ccurred i n t he y ear 2 -Reed ( Ome A cati), i t i s c ommon t o f ind t his d ate-sign c arved a t t he c entre o f t he y ear-bundle o f t ied s ticks ( Fig. 2 ). T here i s a f urther r elationship b etween 2 -Reed ( Ome-Acati) a nd T ezcatlipoca, a s S ahagun s ays t hat i n t he s econd h ouse, n amed o me a cati, t here w as a g reat f estival; f or t hey s aid t hat t his w as T ezcatlipoca 's s ign ( Book 2 , p . 3 8). Iw ould s uggest t hat t here i s a c onnection b etween s kull i conography, r ulers, T ezcatlipoca, x iuhmolpillis a nd t he t ying o f t he y ears. S kull a ltars f unctioned a s r itual t ombs t o c ontain t he s tone b undles ( xiuhmolpillis) w hich w ere t he s ymbolic s culptures o f t he c ycle w hich h ad e nded o r " died" i n t he y ear 2 -Reed. A s C aso d emonstrated, ( 1967, p p. 1 29-140) t he t ying o f t he b undle o f r eeds i s s ymbolic o f t he d eath o r t ermination o f a n A ztec c entury a nd t hese w ere b uried i n t he s kull a ltars d ecorated w ith t he s kull-and-crossed b ones m otif o f t he s kirts o f t he e arth-death g oddesses. A ccording t o D ibble ( 1940, p . 12) t he s kull r epresents a n i deographic e xpression o f d eath, a nd i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he s kulls t hat d ecorate b oth, t he e nds o f s tone c ylinders a s w ell a s t he c entre o f s ome o f t hem , r efer t o t he d eath o f t he c entury o f 5 2 y ears. S everal s cholars s uch a s R amirez ( 1845, p p. 1 07-115), P asztory ( 1983, p . 1 65), a nd o thers h ave s uggested t hat t he y ear b undles w ere c arved d uring t he r eign o f M otecuhzoma I I ( 1502-20). I f t he b undles w ere s culpted d uring t he r eign o f M otecuhzoma I I, t he s kull a ltars p robably d ate f rom a round t he s ame t ime o r e arlier. O ne c annot i gnore t he i mportance o f b oth, t he c ontainers ( skull a ltars) a s w ell a s t he c ontents ( year b undles) f or r easons t hat w ill b ecome e vident.

I conographic m otifs o f s kull a ltars a nd t heir p ossible s ignificance S kull a ltars a re a rchitectural p latforms c arved o n a ll s ides w ith s kulls a lternating w ith c rossed-bone r eliefs. L eopoldo B atres f ound t hree s uch s kull a ltars i n 1 900, ( Fig. 3 ) w hen h e w as e xcavating a t L as

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E scalerillas S treet ( in w hat i s n ow G uatemala s treet i n M exico C ity). D uring t he T emplo M ayor e xcavations ( 1978-82) a nother s kull a ltar w as f ound o n t he n orth o f t he G reat T emple, p ossessing o nly t hree s culpted s ides w ith s kulls a nd n o c rossed-bone r eliefs. A lthough s kull a ltars a re n ot A ztec i nnovations, t hey s eem t o h ave b een f airly c ommon i n A ztec t erritory e .g . C alixtiahuaca, T iatelolco, e tc. T here a re a lso m any 1 6th c entury d escriptions o f t he d ifferent r eal t zompantlis l ocated n ext t o t emples, w here t he h eads o f s acrificial v ictims w ere d isplayed. T he S panish s ources, e specially S ahagun a nd D uran, e mphasize t he f act t hat s ome o f t he h eads w ere o f t hose w ho h ad i mpersonated a g od o r g oddess, e .g. T ezcatlipoca. T he i mpersonator o f T ezcatlipoca s ays D uran w as a m an w ho h ad r epresented t he g od f or o ne y ear, a nd w as c lothed, a dorned, a nd h onoured a s t he d eity h imself. H igh r everence w as p aid t o h im , e tc. ( Duran, p . 1 06). P omar, i n h is R elacion d e T ezcoco m entions t hat n o o ne e ver c hosen t o i mpersonate T ezcatlipoca h ad e ver f led ( avoiding b eing s acrificed), o n t he c ontrary, h e p referred t o d ie " ganando f ama e terna, p orque e sto t enian p or g loria y f in v enturoso" ( Pomar 1 975, p . 2 1). S ahagun ( 1953, B ook 2 , p .9) m entions t hat d uring t he f ifth m onth, ( Toxcati), t he A ncient M exicans c elebrated a f east i n h onour o f t he g od n amed T itlacauan, a nd u nder a nother n ame, T ezcatlipoca. T his o ne t hey h eld t o b e t he g od o f g ods, a nd h is w as t he m ost i mportant o f a ll f easts. " On t he d ay t hat h e w as t o d ie, t hey t hrew h im u pon t he s acrificial s tone; t hey t ore o ut h is h eart; t hey b rought d own t he b ody, c arrying i t i n t heir h ands; b elow, t hey c ut t he h ead o ff a nd r an t hrough i t [ the c rosspiece o f t he s kull r ack] w hich i s c alled t zompantli. I t i s m y i ntention t o d emonstrate w ith t he a bove e xamples t hat t he h ead o f t he s acrificial v ictims w as u sed b y t he p riests a nd r ulers a s a s ymbol o f c ourage, f ame a nd g lory a nd b y e xtension, t he s culpted s kulls. T hey w ere a lso r eminders o f i ndividuals w ho h ad g iven t heir l ives f or a g od. T he f lesh o f t he h ead d ecayed b ut t he s kull r emained o n t he t zompantli. I t i s m y c ontention t hat s culpted s kull a ltars w ere m ade t o r epresent s uch c oncepts a s f ame, g lory a nd f ear t o t he e nemy v iewers. O n t he o ther h and, t zompantlis w ere a lso u sed a s s ymbols o f d efeat, c apture a nd h umiliation a nd a s o fferings t o t he g ods e .g. w hen t he S paniards w ere t aken a s c aptives, t heir h eads w ere o ffered t o t he s un g od. " And w hen t hey h ave b een s lain, a s s acrifices, w hen t hey s trung e ach o f t he S paniards' h eads o n t he s kull r acks. T hey a lso s trung u p t he h orses' h eads. T hey p laced t hem u nderneath, a nd t he S paniards' h eads w ere a bove. A s t hey w ere s trung u p t hey w ere f acing t he s un", ( Sahagun, B ook 1 2, p . 1 04).

F unerary m onuments o f t he c entury A ccording t o C aso ( 1967: 1 35) s kull a ltars a re f unerary m onuments o f t he e nd o f t he c entury. C aso s ays t hat t he r ope w hich s urrounds t he s kull a ltar, b oth i n t he u pper a nd l ower s ections f raming t he c rossedb ones a nd s kulls, r epresent s ymbolically t he d eath c entury. C aso a lso a dds t hat t he c hroniclers o f t he 1 6th c entury r ecorded t hat t he s unH uitzilopochtli, w as b orn i n a y ear 2 -Reed a nd t hat i t d ied 5 2 y ears l ater i n a nother 2 -Reed y ear. T he d ay o f t he b irth o ccurred o n a d ay 1 -Flint a nd t he d ay o f t he s un's d eath w as o n t he d ay 1 -Death, a nd t he f act t hat t he g od's f east w as c elebrated o n a 2 -Reed d ate d uring t he P anquetzaliztli c eremony s ignifies t he d uration o f t he c entury a nd t hat t he s kull a ltars a re t herefore f unerary m onuments o f t he c entury. T his

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i s e xplained i n t he y ear b undle t hat c arries a 2 -Reed d ate a t t he c entre a nd 1 -Flint a nd 1 -Death a t t he s ides, a nd w hich w as f ound w ithin t he s tone s kull-altar a t L as E scalerillas S treet. C aso a lso o bserves t he r elationship t hat e xists b etween t he c entury t hat w as " buried" i n t he m onth T ititi, d edicated t o t he o ld g oddess o f t he e arth, w hose s kirts w ere d ecorated w ith s kull a nd c rossed-bones s imilar t o t hose o f t he e arth-death g oddesses. T he d ates 1 -Flint a nd 1 -Death a re d ates t hat C aso h as d emonstrated a re c onnected w ith t he s un a nd p ossibly r epresent t he b irth a nd d eath d ays o f t he p atron g od H uitzilopochtli. A ccording t o C aso t he s kull a ltars a re i n s hort f unerary m onuments t o t he s un.

B ones a nd s kulls i n t he A ztec e conomy S keletonization i n A ztec a rt i s f airly c ommon, i ndeed d eath i magery i s a v ery c ommon f eature i n M esoamerica, b ut i t i s d uring t he P ostclassic p eriod, w ith t he e mergence o f t he M ixteca-Puebla s tylistic t radition t hat s keletal d epictions a ppear t o h ave c ome i nto i ts o wn a s am ajor a spect o f i conography. O ne g roup o f A ztec d eath s culptures w ere a ddressed t o t he p easant p opulation w ith t he i ntention o f o btaining a gricultural s upplies a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he i dea b ehind t his w as t hat o f d eath a nd r egeneration. A ccording t o J ill F urst ( 1982: 2 07-220) a mong t he M ixtecs s keletal f igures w ere t he a ntithesis o f d eath g ods. I ndeed t hey w ere d eities w ith g enerative a nd l ife s ustaining f unctions. S he o bserves t hat i n C odez V ienna o r V indobonensis t here a re e xamples o f s keletonized c ouples c arrying o ut r ituals. S he s uggests t hat t he f leshless j aw i s n ot a n a ttribute o f d eath d eities, b ut r ather i s a n i nsignia o f l ife g enerating g oddesses . F urthermore, s he n otes t hat a s keletal g oddess i s a ssociated w ith m aize a nd i ts p roper g rowth ( op. c it. p . 2 19). S keletonizatio r i, t hen , s ymbolizes n ot d eath, b ut l ife g iving a nd l ife s ustaining q ualities. I t i s i nteresting t hat i n M ixquic, a n i mportant a gricultural t own ( Fig. 4 ), a n A ztec s culpture ( Figs. 5 a a nd 5 b) w as f ound d epicting o n o ne s ide o f t he p iece a l arge t asseled h eaddress s culpted o n a s kull. T he b ody w hich o ccupies t he c entre o f t he s culpture i s r epresented b y t he r ib c age t hen a s kirt a nd t he l egs. T he r ear p art o f t he s culpture h as a gain, a h eaddress p roper t o f ertility d eities a nd a f ace r ather t han a s kull. T he s culpture h as r emains o f b lue, w hite a nd r ed p aint. A ccording t o 1 6th c entury r ecords, M ixquic w as o ne o f t he m ost i mportant c entres o f m aize c ultivation. I f w e a ccept F urst's v iews t hat s keletal f igures d o n ot s ymbolize d eath b ut l ife-giving a nd lif es ustaining q ualities, t he M ixquic p iece b elongs i n t his g roup. T he S tate p robably u sed t his k ind o f r epresentation f or t he p easant p opulation i n p ursuit o f m aintaining t he a gricultural s upplies. T he e arth ( death) c ontained r egenerative f orces t hat l inked i t t o a gricultural p roduction, p lant g rowth a nd f ertility i n g eneral.

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C onclusions T he A ztec e lite s eemed t o h ave u sed a v ariety o f s ymbols w ith t he i ntention o f c ontrolling t he i nterlocking s pheres o f r eligion, p olitics a nd a griculture. A t a p olitical l evel t hey i ncorporated n ew t erritory t hrough c onquest, w arfare a nd i mperial s ubjugation a nd t he a bundance o f s kulls f ound t hroughout t he e mpire s uggests a s ymbol o f p ower a nd v ictory a s w ell a s a g ood w ay o f c ontrolling f actionalism . D eath s culpture w as m ade f or p olitical r easons a nd f or m aintaining t hrough S tate s ponsored t error t he s ubjugated p opulation 's s ubmissive a nd r esponsive c ompliance t o t he t ribute d emands o f t heir A ztec c onquerors. A t a r eligious l evel s kulls a nd b ones r epresented d eath o r t ermination s uch a s t he S kull A ltars w ith b uried y ear b undles, b ut t hey a lso r epresented r egeneration, e .g. a n ew c entury. B ones o n t he o ther h and s eemed t o h ave b een t he u ltimate s ource f rom w hich n ew l ife w as g enerated, b oth i n m ythology a s w ell a s t he i dea e xpressed i n t he s ymbolism o f s kulls ( death) a nd b ones ( regeneration). A t a n e conomic l evel t he S tate u sed t he m essage " something h as t o d ie i n o rder t o l ive" o r a gain, " death a nd r egeneration". B oth t he p olitical a nd e conomic a spects o f t he i conography a nd i ts s ymbolism w ere p art o f a n A ztec i mperialist s ystem , b ased o n t he a ssumption t ht t he s tate w as a c ommercial o rganization, t hat f lourished t o m eet t he s piritual a nd m aterial n eeds o f H uitzilopochtli.

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

A non ., 1 975 . C odice C himalpopoca , A nales d e C uauhtitlan y L eyenda d e l os S oles ( Trad. P rimo F . V elazquez) M exico: U niversidad N acional A utonoma d e M exico. A non., 1 979. T eogonia e H istoria d e l os M exicanos: T res O pusculos d el S iglo X VI ( Ed. A ngel M . G aribay). M exico : P orrua.

B aquedano, E lizabeth, 1 984. P ublications L td.

A ztec S culpture .

L ondon:

B ritish M useum

B atres, L eopoldo, 1 902. E xploraciones A rqueologicas e n l a C able d e l as E scalerillas. M exico: J . A guilar V era . B erdan, F rances F . 1 982. S ociety. N ew Y ork:

T he A ztecs o f C entral M exico: H olt, R inehart a nd W inston.

C aso, A lfonso, 1 940. E l E ntierro d el S igbo. E studios A ntropobogicos 4 : 6 5-76.

A n I mperial

R evista M exicana d e

C aso, A lfonso, 1 967. L os C alen c iarios P rehispanicos. U niversidad N acional A utonoma d e M exico .

M exico:

D ibble, C harles, 1 940. E l A ntiguo S istema d e E scritura e n M exico. R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropologicos 1 05-128. D uran, F ray D iego, 1 971. B ook o f t he G ods a nd R ites a nd T he A ncient C alendar. ( Trans. a nd e d. b y F ernando H orcasitas a nd D oris H ayden) N orman: U niversity o f O klahoma P ress.

F urst, J ill, 1 982. S keletonization i n M ixtec A rt i n AR e-Evaluation i n T he A rt a nd I conography o f L ate-Post-Classic C entral M exico. ( Ed. b y E lizabeth H . B oone) W ashington , D .C ., D umbarton O aks.

K rickeberg, W alter, 1 985. M itos y L eyendas d e l os A ztecas , I ncas, M ayas y M uiscas. M exico: F ondo d e C ultura E conomica.

M atos, M octezuma E duardo, 1 982. E l T empbo M ayor: E xcavationes y E studios. M exico: I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria.

1 98

N icholson, H .B., w ith E loise Q uinones K eber, 1 983. A rt o f A ztec M exico , T reasures o f T enochtitlan. W ashington , D .C.: N ational G allery o f A rt.

P asztory,

E sther,

1 983.

A ztec A rt .

N ew Y ork:

H arry N . A brams.

P omar, J uan B autista d e, 1 941. R elacion d e T etzcoco i n N ueva C oleccion d e D ocumentos p ara l a H istoria d e M exico ( ed. b y J . G arcia I cazbalceta) 3 , 1 -64. M exico: S alvador C havez H ayhoe.

R amirez, J ose F . 1 844-1846. D escripcion d e c uatro l apidas m onumentales c onservadas e n e i M useo N acionai d e M exico, s eguida d e u n e nsayo s obre s u i nterpretacion, i n W illiam H . P rescott, H istoria d e l a C onquista d e M exico... ( transi. b y J oaquin N avarro) 2 , 1 06-124. M exico: C umplido E d.

S ahagun, F ray B ernardino d e, 1 981. T he F lorentine C odex : AG eneral H istory o f t he T hings o f N ew S pain , B ook 2 . T he C eremonies ( transi. b y C harles E . D ibble a nd A rthur J .0. A nderson). S anta F e a nd S alt L ake C ity: S chool o f A merican R esearch a nd t he C ity U niversity o f U tah. S ahagun,

F ray B ernardino d e,

1 957.

B ook 4 , T he S oothsayers.

S ahagun ,

F ray B ernardino d e,

1 953.

B ook 7 , T he S un, M oon, a nd S tars, a nd t he B inding o f t he Y ears.

S ahagun ,

F ray B ernardino d e,

1 975.

B ook 1 2, T he C onquest o f M exico.

1 99

F ig.

1 .

S kull-Altar F ragment. M ayor. M exico C ity.

B asalt, T enochtitlan.

2 01

M useo d e T emplo

2 02

F ig.

3 .

F ig.

4 .

S kull-Altar. B asalt, l ength 1 .70m. T enochtitlan. N acional d e A ntropologia. M exico C ity.

M useo

M ixquic, a n i mportant a gricultural t own i n A ztec M exico. M exico C ity.

2 03

F ig.

5 .

a .

M ixquic D eath/Fertility G oddess. M exico C ity.

b .

P rofile o f M ixquic D eath/Fertility G oddess.

2 04

B asalt,

h eight 1 .62m .

T HE N EWLY-DISCOVERED T EPOTZOTLAN C ODEX:

AF IRST A CCOUNT

G ordon B rotherston a nd A na G allegos

A BSTRACT A M exican c odex o n n ative p aper h as r ecently b een f ound i n t he U lster M useum , B elfast, a nd h as n ow b een p ronounced a uthentic. O n i nspection i t p roves t o r esemble c losely a d ocument p reserved i n t he A rchivo G eneral d e l a N ación, M exico. B oth d ocuments s pecify t he s ame p lace n ames, a nd t he s ame t ypes a nd q uantities o f t ribute; a nd t hey b oth m ention a c ertain M aldonado o f C hiconautla . R eference t o t his o ther d ocument, a nd t o t he f ile t o w hich i t b elongs i n t he A rchivo, r eveals t he p rovenance o f t he U lster d ocument t o b e t hree t owns i n t he j urisdiction o f T epotzotlan, E stado d e M exico: S an M ateo X oloc, S antiago C uauhtlapan, a nd S an F rancisco T epoxaco. T hese s ources a lso i dentify i t a s e vidence p rovided b y t hese t owns i n ac ase b rought b y t hem i n t he m id 1 550s a gainst t he g obernador o f T epotzotlan D on L uis d e M anuel, a s w ell a s a j udge a ppointed b y t he R eal A udiencia, F rancisco M aldonado o f C hiconautla, a n i ndio p rincipal a nd a d escendant o f N ezahualcoyotl. I t i s a v ery f inely e xecuted t ext w hich d raws i ngeniously o n t he n ative s cript t radition, a nd w hich a lerts u s t o t he g reat f ormal p ossibilities o f e xpression w ithin t he M esoamerican g enre o f t ribute l iterature.

I ntroduction I n 1 986, a 1 6th c entury M exican c odex, o n n ative p aper, w as u nearthed i n t he U lster M useum , B elfast. T he f irst s uch d ocument t o h ave t urned u p i n I reland, i t h as a n a ccession d ate o f 1 911, h aving b een p art o f a nother B elfast c ollection s ince 1 857. O n

t he m ain f ace,

t he t ext i s d ivided i nto t en v ertical

c olumns;

t hese a re t hen d ivided h orizontally i nto a n arrow u pper r egister, w hich r ecords t en p lace-signs, o ne p er c olumn, a nd a b road l ower r egister, w hich r ecords i tems t ypically r endered a s t ribute i n 1 6th c entury M exico. T he s cript a nd s igns e mployed a re e ntirely n ative a nd u nglossed t hroughout, a nd t here i s ac ertain s emantic u se o f c olour. T he n umerical s igns f lag f or 2 0, f eather f or 4 00 u se a s ophisticated s ystem o f p roportional a bsence o r i ncompletion. -

-

O n t he r everse t here i s a n a lphabetic n ote, w hich l ies i n t he s ame h orizontal r egister a s t he p lace-signs a nd r eads, q uite u nmistakably: c hiconautla/maldonado j uez. T wo f urther n otes, i n a n u ntidier h and, l ie a t r ight a ngles. O ne d emands t hat a c opy o f t he t ext b e m ade a nd s ent t o t he R eal A udiencia; t he o ther r efers t o t he ' agravios' c ommitted b y M aldonado.

2 05

T he M useum h as n ow s atisfied i tself t hat t he d ocument i s g enuine. T he f ollowing a ccount a ssigns t o i t a n e xact p rovenance a nd d ate a nd o ffers a r eading o f t he t ext i n n ative s cript t hat i s f ound o n i ts m ain f ace.

T he m atching m anuscript i n M exico F ortunate c ircumstances m ake p ossible a s ure r eading o f t he n ewlyd iscovered c odex . F or a t win v ersion o f t he d ocument h as s urvived i n t he A rchivo G eneral d e l a N ación i n M exico C ity. P oorly p ublished i n 1 933, t his o ther t ext i s l isted a s f ollows i n G lass 's C ensus o f M esoa merican m anuscripts ( 1975): 3 22: T EPOTZOTLAN: L os n aturales d e l os p ueblos d e C uautlalpan, T epujaco yX oloc d e l a j urisdicción d e T epotzotlan, M ex ., c ontra s u g obernador p or m alos t ratamientos y p ago d e t ributos. 1 552.

T he R amo 2 719, e xp

a nd f ile d etails, n ot g iven b y G lass, 8 , f . 2 0.

a re:

T ierras,

v ol.

O n E uropean r ather t han n ative p aper a nd s et i n a m ore E uropean f ormat, t his A rchivo t ext n onetheless s o c losely r esembles t he U lster o ne i n s tructure a nd d etail a s t o l eave n o d oubt a bout t heir c ommon o rigin. I t g losses t he p lace n ames i n a lphabetic s cript a nd n otes i n S panish c ertain o f M aldonado's a gravios; i ndeed i t c ould w ell h ave b een t he c opy r equested b y t he R eal A udiencia i n t he n ote o n t he r everse o f t he U lster t ext. T he m ost s ignificant p arallels b etween t he t wo t exts a re t hat e ach c ombines a s tructure o f t en d ivisions w ith p lace-names, i t b eing t he c ase t hat t he f irst a nd t he f ifth p lace n ames, t he o nly o nes t o h ave s urvived i n t he M exico t ext, a re i dentical w ith t heir c ounterparts i n t he U lster t ext: t he c anine h ead o f X olo(c), a nd t he t ree a nd r iver o f C uautla(a)pan. T hen , i n e ach t ext t he t ype a nd q uantity o f t ribute s pecified i s i dentical, e xcept f or o ne o r t wo a dditions i n t he M exico t ext. T hird, e ach m akes e xplicit r eference t o t he a gravios c ommitted b y F rancisco M aldonado o f C hiconautla. F rom t he t races t hat r emain, i t i s c lear t hat t he u se o f c olour i s a lso s imilar. T he r elationship b etween t he t wo t exts m ay i n f act b e r eadily c ompared w ith t hat b etween o ther s uch p airs, o n n ative a nd E uropean p aper r espectively, w hich h ave s urvived f rom t ribute c ases i n C halco, T iaxinican, a nd o ther t owns i n 1 6th c entury N ew S pain ( Glass 1 975: 4 2; 3 53-4). F rom n ow o n t hese t wo t exts w ill b e r eferred t o r espectively T epotzotlan C odex 1 ( Ulster) a nd T epotzotlan C odex 2 ( Mexico; G lass 1 975: 3 22). T he A rchivo f ile t o w hich T epotzotlan 2 b elongs, s ome 2 4 f olios i n l ength, s erves t o e xplain t he d ata g iven i n n ative s cript i n b oth c odices. A lphabetical p ages i n N ahuatl a nd S panish t ell u s e xactly w ho M aldonado w as, b y w hom h e w as a ccused, w hen, a nd o f w hat. F rom t his f ile, t he m ain d ocuments o f w hich d ate f rom 1 555-7 r ather t han t he ' 1552' c ited i n t he C ensus, i t i s c lear t hat t he T epotzotlan C odices p rovided e vidence i n a c ase t hat f eatured t hree p arties, a ll o f t hem

2 06

I ndian. T hey a re, f irst, t he g obernador D on L uis a nd t he a lcaldes o f T epotzotlan , w hich i s l ocated t hen a s n ow 2 7 m iles n orth o f M exico C ity a nd f amed f or i ts J esuit c hurch; s econd, a g roup o f t hree t owns i n T epotzotlan 's t ribute d istrict n amed S an M ateo X oloc, S antiago C uauhtlapan, a nd S an F rancisco T epoxaco, a ll o f w hich s till e xist t oday, a ll w ithin a f ew m iles w est a nd s outh o f T epotzotlan; a nd, t hird, F rancisco M aldonado, a n a ristocrat f rom t he t own o f C hiconautla, w hich l ies e ast o f T epotzotlan a cross t he f ormer l ake o f X altocan ( Fig. 1 ). E arly i n t he 1 550s, t he t hree s ujetos ( tributaries) o f T epotzotlan n amed a bove, a long w ith t heir b arrios ( wards), d isputed t he d emands m ade o f t hem b y t heir c abecera T epotzotlan. C rown t ribute d ue f rom t his c abecera h ad f irst b een a ssessed i n 1 546, w hen i t e scheated, w hile t he g obernador a nd o ther I ndian o fficials h ad h ad t heir p owers a nd S panish t itles r atified b y t he 1 550s; l egislation o f 1 549 g enerally a bolished t he d aily c omida a nd l ow-paid l abour t ribute ( Gonzalez d e C osslo 1 952: 4 13-5; M iranda 1 952: 3 36). A n a rbitrator o r j udge w as c alled i n f rom o utside t he d istrict, a n I ndian a ristocrat f rom C hiautla k nown a s D on L orenzo d el A guila, w ho i mmediately f ound h imself v etoed b y t he - t hree s ujetos. F rancisco M aldonado o f C hiconautla w as t hen c hosen i n h is s tead a nd b egan h is i nvestigation. H is b ehaviour s oon c aused f urther u pset h owever. A ccording t o t he t hree s ujetos h e s pent h is w hole t ime b eing r egaled b y t he g obernador a nd p rincipales o f T epotzotlan a nd n ot l istening t o t heir s ide o f t he s tory a t a ll. I n a ddition h e m ade h eavy t ributary d emands o f h is o wn, i n k ind, m oney, a nd l abour a nd t hreatened v iolence s hould t hese d emands n ot b e m et. B elieving t hat t his p erformance o f M aldonado's c onstituted a n a gravio i n t he t echnical s ense, t hat i s, t hat h e e xceeded t he p owers e ntrusted t o h im a s a n o fficial, X oloc, C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco m ade a c ommon c omplaint a gainst h im. T his w as d uly h eard b y t he R eal A udiencia, a nd j udged o n e vidence w hich l ater c ame t o c onstitute t he T epotzotlan f ile i n t he A rchivo G eneral. N o d oubt i tself o nce p art o f t hat e vidence ( Fig. 2 ), T epotzotlan 1 n ames t he t hree t owns, a long w ith t heir b arrios, m aking t en p lace n ames i n a ll, o ne a t t he h ead o f e ach c olumn o f t ext. I t t hen l ists t he i tems e xtorted b y M aldonado, i n t wo c ategories. A bove s tands t he d aily c omida o r s upplies, o nce a n ative a ristocratic p erquisite, w hich h ere c onsists o f t he m aize, t urkeys, c acao, c hiles, f irewood, t ortillas, e ggs a nd s alt. B elow a re f ound f urther i tems, p ottery, w ickerwork, f emale a nd m ale l abour e tc. ( columns 2 , 6a nd 1 0), a s w ell a s c loth a nd p esos ( columns 1 , 5a nd 9 ). I n T epotzotlan 2 m ost o f t his i nformation 1 s r epeated a nd g lossed a lphabetically; w ith t he d ifference t hat w hile t he b arrio n ames a re o mitted a nd l ess e mphasis i s g iven t o t he p laces w hich a uthored t he o riginal d ocument, m ore i s m ade o f M aldanado's m isdeeds. T he l ower r ight-hand c orner a dds a v ignette o f h im o n h is j udge's c hair, a ccompanied b y G overnor D on L uis a nd t he a lcaldes o f T epotzotlan, a nd s hows h im t hreatening t he w rath o f t he ' snake, l ion a nd t iger'. B ehind t hem i s t he p lace-sign T epotzotlan, t he p lace o f t he h unchback ( Nahuatl: t epotzotl. F igs. 4 , 5 a nd 6 ).

2 07

P oints o f h istorical r eference H istorically, t he c ase h olds c onsiderable i nterest. I t p inpoints t he d ifficulties r aised b y t he m id-century a ttempts o f t he S panish C rown d efinitively t o i ncorporate i nto i tself t ribute a nd l egal u nders tandings w hich l ong a ntedated C ortes ( Gibson 1 964: 1 94-9). I n n earby o tlazpan, t hese m oves b y t he C rown p rompted a m agnificent c odex n ot d issimilar i n l ogic a nd s tyle t o t hat o f T epotzotlan , w hich d ates f rom 1 549-50 ( Leander 1 967); a nd l ater t he s ame i nter-Indian c onflict s urfaced a gain i n t he w ell-known O suna C odex o f 1 565, w hose T epanec s ection i ncludes t he p lace-sign T epotzotlan ( f. 3 4v). C onverted i nto a f unctionary o f t he C rown a s a S panish ' gobernador', D on L uis d e M anuel o f T epotzotlan s temmed f rom a l ocal l ine o f t iatoani o r r ulers. O ne v ersion o f h is a ncestry i s g iven i n t he A nnals o f C uauhtitlan ( ff. 1 4-6), w here i t i s s tated t o h ave b een b oth f ar s horter t han a nd d ependent o n t hat o f C uauhtitlan's o wn d ynasty. T he r uler Q uinatzin w ho b egan t he T epotzotlan l ine o nly i n 1 460, i s s aid t o h ave d escended f rom k ings o f C uauhtitlan w hose o wn o rigins a re t raced b ack t hrough M exquital T ula t o t he 7 th c entury C hichimec s ettlements o f t he h ighland v alley; m oreover, i n t his s ource D on L uis's c laims p ass t hrough a f emale d escendant a nd w ere l egitimated o nly w hen s he m arried h is f ather i n 1 536. A l ess d etailed b ut g rander p erspective i s p rovided b y t he T echialoyan o r V illage L and B ook o f T epotzotlan i tself. T here Q uinatzin i s l inked r ather w ith X olotl, t he C hichimec l eader w ho e ntered t he h ighland v alley i n a bout t he 1 2th c entury a nd o f w hom n o m ention i s m ade i n t he C uauhtitlan A nnals. D espite t he e nmity a nd c ultural d ifferences t hat l ater d ivided t hem , t he t raditions o f b oth T epanec A zcapotzalco a nd A colhua T excoco h onoured a c ommon f ounding f ather i n X olotl, a f act s ometimes o verl ooked i n M exican h istoriography. A n A colhua v iew o f T epotzotlan, f rom t he d ays o f X olotl t o t he g reat T epanec d efeat o f 1 428 a t t he h ands o f N ezahualcoyotl a nd t he A ztec I tzcoatl, i s a vailable i n t he X olotl M aps o f T excoco ( Maps 2 bis, 5 , 7 ; D ibble 1 980: 4 4, 8 1, 9 4), a nd i n t he h istories o f N ezahualcoyotl's d escendant I xtlilxochitl. B ut l ittle o f t he T epanec s ide o f t he s tory s urvives, a part f rom t he T echialoyan B ooks t hat w ere t ypically p roduced b y t owns f ormerly i n t he T epanec d omain, n ot l east t he c apital A zcapotzalco, a nd t he l oyal a lly i n d efeat, T epotzotlan ( Robertson 1 960, 1 975; M onnich 1 987). T hen, w hen t he S paniards i nvaded, T epotzotlan w ith i ts O tomi w arriors r esisted v aliantly a t f irst, a ccording t o t he T laxcala L ienzo; i t s oon f ound i tself s heltering t hem , h owever, a fter t heir e xpulsion f rom T enochtitlan i n 1 520, a nd i n t urn b ecame t he a rena o f t he f irst C hristian m issions ( Chimalpahin, 3 a . R elación, y ear 1 520; M otolinia 1 971: 1 16; M endieta 1 870, c h. 3 3). T his e arly i nvolvement i n t he m achinery o f S panish c olonial c ontrol n o d oubt c ontributed t o t he s parse s olidarity s hown b y D on L uis w ith t he t owns a nd t he p eople i n h is t ribute j urisdiction. T he T epotzotlan c ase a lso n eatly i llustrates h ow t he R eal A udiencia w ould t urn t o n ative j udges i n a wkward s ituations, a p olicy n oted b y Z avala ( 1982: 3 76-7) w ith s pecific r eference t o a n e arlier c ommission g iven t o M aldonado, i n T enango i n 1 551. F rom t his o ther e vidence i t i s c lear t hat t he A udiencia e xpected M aldonado t o r ecover h is e xpenses d irectly f rom t he p arty h e f ound g uilty , a c ustom w hich n o

2 08

d oubt h elped t he v erdict t o g o h is w ay w hen h e w as t aken o n b y C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco.

X oloc,

F urther, a ll t his t hrows l ight o n t he s ort o f c areer o pen i n p rinciple t o s omeone o f M aldonado's s tatus, a ristocrat t hat h e w as f rom C hiconautla. B orn i n 1 511 a nd l ater n amed a fter a c aptain o f C ortes w ho w as a lso a f ounder m ember o f t he f irst R eal A udiencia, F rancisco M aldonado w as a d irect d escendant o f N ezahualcoyotl o f T excoco, a s w as h is s ister A na, t he w ife o f C hiconautla's c acique. A ccording t o t he P roceso i nquisitorial o f 1 539 ( Garcia G ranados 1 953, 1 11: 1 18), h e p layed a k ey r ole i n t he a rrest a nd e xecution o f t he h apless A huaxpictzatzin o r D on C arlos C hichimecatecutli, h is u ncle, w ho a ctually h eld t he t hrone o f T excoco b riefly b efore b eing b urned a live b y t he H oly I nquisition i n t he m ain s quare o f M exico T enochtitlan ( Chiautla A nnals, y ear 1 540; C himalpahin, 7 a R elación, y ears 1 531, 1 539). W ith o ther p rincipales h e w as p resent a t t he t ribute s ettlement o f 1 544 ( Archivo G eneral d e I ndias, L ibro d e t asaciones; V ollmer, p ersonal c ommunication); a nd i n 1 553, a ccording t o a f ile n ow i n t he A yer C ollection ( Ms 1 121, f f. 3 23v-324v ; G erhard, p ersonal c ommunicat ion), t he R eal A udiencia g ranted h im p rivate l and i n T ullan, o ne o f t he f our c ommunal b arrios o f C hiconautla, f ollowing t he e viction o f a S paniard f ound g uilty o f d amaging t he t ule o r l akeside r ushes w hich g rew t here a nd a fter w hich t he b arrio w as n amed. A s i t a ppears o n t he r everse o f T epotzotlan 1 , F rancisco M aldonado's n ame c omes a fter t hat o f t he t own h e b elonged t o, C hiconautla, s o t hat e ffectively m ore i mportance a ttaches t o i t t han t o h im . T his r aises t he q uestion o f C hiconautla 's o wn r ole i n 1 6th c entury N ew S pain, i n m atters l ike t he T epotzotlan a ffair. L ike C hiautla, t he h ome o f M aldonado's p redecessor D on L orenzo, C hiconautla, s o i nsignificant t oday, e njoyed c onsiderable d iplomatic a nd p olitical p restige i n t he c enturies w hich p receded C ortes's a rrival, a nd f or s ome d ecades a fterwards. I ts n ame d erives f rom t hat m ost a ncient o f r itual n umbers, n ine ( chiconaui). T hanks t o i ts s trategic p osition o n t he e ast b ank o f t he s traits b etween l akes X altocan a nd T excoco, a cross f rom E catepec, C hiconautla w as i ntimately i nvolved i n t he e conomies o f T eotihuacan a nd o f M exquital T ula ( Tolstoy 1 974). L ater i t h eaded t he l ist o f X altocan's p ossessions i n t he 1 3th c entury, i n t he L atin l etter s ent b y t hat t own t o P hilip I I; a nd i t b ecame e ven m ore o f a p olitical f ocus i n t he e nsuing s truggles b etween t he T epanec a nd t he A colhua. I n X olotl M ap 6 i t i s c elebrated a s n orthern p illar o f t he A colhua s ystem ( the s outhern o ne, o n t he s traits b etween l akes T excoco a nd C halco, w as X ochimilco), a nd i n t he Q uinatzin M ap i ts r uler a ppears i n t he p alace o f T excoco, i n N ezahualcoyotl's g olden y ear 1 431; N ezahualcoyotl a lso b uilt a p alace i n C hiconautla i n t he b arrio C ihuatecpan, f or t he l ocal A colhua l ine f rom w hich M aldonado d escended ( Vaillant 1 965: p 1. 4 2a). B y t he t ime C ortes a rrived, C hiconautla 's r uler w as e njoying t he r emarkable p rivilege o f c hamber i n M octezuma's p alace, s omething o therwise g ranted o nly t o t he g reat d ynastic t own o f C oihuacan a nd t o t he l eaders o f t he T riple A lliance o f T excoco, T enochtitlan a nd T iacopan ( Mendoza p . 6 9). A s a t ribute c abecera a nd t he h ead o f a l abour r epartimiento ( Gibson 1 964: 2 28), C hiconautla r etained s ome p restige w ell i nto t he 1 6th c entury; a nd i t w as h ere t hat M aldonado's u ncle A huaxpictzatzin c hose t o r evive t he m emories o f t he T riple A lliance w hich t he V iceroyalty

2 09

f ound s o t hreatening ( Garcia G ranados 1 953, i : 3 4-7; L iss 1 975: 8 8). L ater t he t own d eclined h owever, w ith t he d rying o ut o f t he l akes, c hanging p atterns o f c ommunication, a nd a bove a ll t he e nd o f i nters tate r ivalry w ithin t he h ighland v alley. O n t he o ther s ide, o pposed t o b oth t he g overnor o f T epotzotlan a nd M aldonado o f C hiconautla a like, s tood t he p eople a nd n ative o fficials o f X oloc, C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco, t he s ource o f m ost o f t he d ocuments i n t he A rchivo f ile. I n N ahuatl a nd S panish t hey p ut t heir a rguments w ith g reat f eeling a nd e loquence, g oing s o f ar a s t o r equest ' un e spañol d e c onfianza ' w ho w ould a t l east l isten t o t hem ; a nd i n t his t he c ase m ay b e s een t o r eflect c onflict m ore o f c lass t han o f r ace. T hese p eople a lso a uthored t he t exts i n n ative s cript p ertinent t o t he d ispute, T epotzotlan 1a nd 2 , a s w ell a s t he e arlier C uauhtlapan T epoxaco C odex w hich l ike T epotzotlan 1 i s o n n ative p aper ( vol. 2 719, e xp. 8 , f . 1 8). H ow t hey c hose t o r epresent t hemselves i n t hese t exts, p articularly i n T epotzotlan 1 w ith i ts i nitial r ow o f t en b eautifully e xecuted p lace s igns, p oses s ome i ntriguing p roblems o f d ecipherment, a s w ell a s r aising i mportant q uestions a bout h istorical p erspective a nd s cript t radition, E uropean a nd i ndigenous ( Fig. 3 ). -

X oloc, C uauhtlapan, a nd T epoxaco G lossed ' Xolo' i n T epotzotlan 2 , t he s ign X oloc c onsists o f t he c anine h ead o f X olotl, w ith i ts c haracteristic s quared e ars a nd r uff. B earer o f t he n ight-sun i n r itual ( e.g. B orgia p . 6 6), h istorically X olotl w as t he C hichimec l eader w ho i nvaded t he V alley o f M exico f rom t he n orth, a fter t he f all o f M exquital T ula ( Xolotl M aps 1 a nd 2 ; T echialoyan B ooks o f A zcapotzalco a nd T epotzotlan). N orthernmost a nd a t t he s tart o f t he r ow o f t he t en s igns, i n T epotzotlan 1 X olotl s urmounts a h ill. T his i s t he s teep-sided h ill k nown i n S panish a s L a C olumna w hich l ies t o t he n ortheast o f S an M ateo X oloc a nd w hich a lso s erves t o i dentify T epotzotlan a s t he p lace o f t he ' hunch-back ' h ill; i t i s n otable f or i ts r itually p ainted c ave ( Neri 1 987: 4 0). X olotl 's n ame h onours o ther h ills i n t his p art o f M exico, f or e xample S an L ucas X oloc o n t he n orth s hore o f L ake X altocan, a nd r ecalls t he i mportance o f t he l ook-outs u sed a t t hat s tage o f t he C hichimec s tory; i n t he c ontext h owever t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t his s ign r efers t o S an M ateo X oloc i n t he j urisdiction o f T epotzotlan. L iterally ' wood-river' i n N ahuatl, C uauhtlapan i s r endered b y j ust t hose t wo e lements ( the s pelling c ommoner t oday, C uauhtlalpan, i s c learly a c orruption). T he s ign i s g lossed ' quautlapa' i n T epotzotlan 2 , w hich a dds t he r edundant p honeme ' -pan ', a f lag. G iven i ts p roximity t o M exico C ity, t he l and a round t he t own r emains r emarkably w ooded e ven t oday; i n p re-Cortesian t imes i t w as n oted f or t he r are a nimals s heltered b y i ts t rees ( Florentine C odex, B ook 1 1, c h . 1 ). T he r iver i n q uestion i s s ometimes n amed a fter T epotzotlan, s ometimes a fter i ts d epth a s ' Rio H ondo', a nd i s o ne o f t he t wo m ain w atercourses w hich f low t owards t he c abecera f rom t he w est. T hough t he r eservoir o f L a C oncepcion , j ust u pstream , h as r obbed m uch o f i ts f ormer g lory, i t s till r emains a m ajor c rossing p oint o n t he m ain r oad t hat e nters t he t own f rom t he n ortheast. A ccording t o t he C uauhtitlan A nnals, w hich i gnoring X oloc p resents a l onger v ersion o f C hichimec h istory, C uauhtlapan e njoyed c onsiderable i mportance a s a r oyal s eat i n i ts o wn

2 10

r ight, l ong b efore t he r ise o f t he d ynasty o f T epotzotlan, t raditiona lly a r ival o f t he f ar m ore e minent C uauhtitlan . I n t hese A nnals ( ff . 8 -9), t he r ulers o f C uauhtitlan i tself a re s aid t o h ave h ad a p alace i n t he q uarter o f C uauhtlapan k nown a s T ianquizcolco, ' old m arket', a s e arly a s t he 1 0th c entury A D. F or i ts p art T epotzotlan a cknowledged s ome o f t his p ast p rivilege i nsofar a s i ts T echialoyan ( p. 2 ) s hows X olotl's d escendant Q uinatzin a ccompanied b y a c haracter ' Cuahutlalpa '. H ere, i n t he c ase a gainst T epotzotlan 's p rincipales a nd M aldonado, C uauhtlapan a ppears t o h ave h ad a l eading r ole, d espite t he i nitial p osition a ccorded t o X oloc; a nd t he A rchivo f ile g ives m ore i nformation a bout C uauhtlapan a nd i ts b arrios t han a bout t he o ther t wo t owns. T he n ame o f t he t hird t own T epoxaco ( now u sually T epojaco) d erives f rom a r emarkable t ype o f v olcanic r ock f ound i n t he h ill o n w hich t he t own s tands a nd m eans ' place o f t he s ponge s tone'. H ighly p orous, t hese s tones a re s till u sed f or s crubbing a nd c leaning. I n t he t ext, t his p orosity i s i ndicated b y d ots s et i nto t he s tone o r ' teti' s ign, w hile a s moke-plume p oints t o v olcanic o rigin ( the s ign h as n ow b een o bliterated f rom T epotzotlan 2 ). L ying o n t he C uauhtitlan r iver, t he o ther d rainage s ystems t hat f lows n ortheast t o T epotzotlan, T epoxaco a lso p ossesses al owland r iverine d istrict; t he s trikingly r egular p attern o f t he f ields f ound t here a ppears i n ac odex p roduced b y t he t own i n c onnection w ith a nother l awcase i n 1 591 ( AGN, R amo T ierras, v ol. 1 530, e xp. 3 ). A s t he s outhernmost o f t he l ands a ttributed t o T epotzotlan i n i ts T echialoyan b ook ( p. 3 ), T epoxaco h ad s trong l inks w ith C uauhtitlan a nd e ven T iacopan ( Gerhard 1 972: 1 27-8). I n t he M endoza C odex a ccount o f t he A ztec t ribute e mpire, f rom w hich T epanec T epotzotlan i s a bsent, T epoxaco a ppears u nder C uauhtitlan ( p. 6 9), a lbeit a s a c ollection c entre i n i ts o wn r ight, c haracteristic s ponge-stone s ign.

i dentified

b y

i ts

A s t he b and o f t hree t hat f ought M aldonado, X oloc, C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco r epresent t he n orth, w est, a nd s outh o f T epotzotlan 's r iverine t ribute d istrict a nd t he b ulk o f t he e conomic r esource s pecified i n T epotzotlan 1 a nd 2 ( cf. M ont far 1 897). M aize a nd t urkeys s till a bound t here, w hile t he m aize-goddess i s h onoured i n a n a ncient s tatue s ited n ear X oloc ( Neri 1 987: 3 6-8); a t ype o f l ocal c hile i s s till g rown a nd w oods s till p rovide f uel i f n ot b oar. S imilar w ickerwork i tems a re l isted b y T epoxaco i n M endoza ( p. 2 6), a nd p otters d raw o n t he s ame s eams o f c lay a s t hose a lluded t o i n t he c odex o f t he A lfareros o f C uauhtitlan ( 1564). D espite b eing p laced i n d ifferent j ursidictions u nder S panish r ule, t he t hree j oined t ogether o n o ther o ccasions, a s t he A rchivo t estifies, i n o rder t o d efend w hat w as c learly p erceived a s a c ommon i nterest. T he p articular b ond b etween C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco i s e vident f rom t heir j oint a ccount o f m aize a nd o ther t ribute s ubsequently i ncluded i n T epotzotlan 1 a nd 2 ( nativep aper c odex, f . 1 8); a nd i t d ates b ack t o a t l east 1 395 w hen t hey b oth ' accompanied ' C uauhtitlan 's f our-barrio s ystem , b eing a ccorded i n t his e xactly t he s ame s tatus a s C oyotepec a nd T epotzotlan i tself ( Cuauhtitlan A nnals f . 2 9). W hile i n t heir d ay T epotzotlan a nd t he S panish c olonial a uthorities t ended t o r educe t hem a ll t o m ere ' estancias', i n t heir o wn a nd o thers' v iew t hey h ad a d istinguished h istory, a nd r ights o f t heir o wn, a nd i ndeed i ntegral s ets o f b arrios, t he d epiction o f w hich i n i tself s peaks f or t he c ommon f ront t hey p resented l egally.

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T he s ets o f b arrios I n T epotzotlan 1 , X oloc, C uauhtlapan a nd T epoxaco d istinguished i n t he r ow o f t en t oponyms b y t heir r elative s ize p osition w ithin t he f rame t hat s urrounds e ach; t hey a lso s tand a t h ead o f t he c olumns w hich s pecify t he m ost c ostly t ribute u nit,

a re a nd t he t he

p eso. I n a ll o ther r espects h owever c are h as b een t aken t o a lign t hem w ith t heir b arrios a nd t o i ntegrate a ll t en e lements i nto w hat a mounts t o a s tatement o f c ommunal i dentity. T ogether w ith i ts b arrios, X oloc t akes u p f our o f t he t en s igns, a s d oes C uauhtlapan, l eaving t he f inal t wo f or T epoxaco. I n t he A rchivo, N ahuatl n ames a re s upplied f or t hese b arrios, b ut o nly i n t he c ase o f C uauhtlapan, w here t hey a ppear a s C uauhtonco, T ianquizcolco, T epeololco, a nd C alacoayan . A s a s et o f f our t hese n ames c an b e r elated b oth t o t he f our s igns i n t he t ext a nd t o t he f our b arrios p ossessed b y t he t own t oday. F irst c omes C uauhtonco, p lace o f t he s mall w ood o r t ree, h ere a s ynonym o f S antiago C uauhtlapan i tself. A s w e s aw e arlier, T ianquizcolco w as o nce t he s ite o f a p alace a nd f rom a rchaeological e vidence i s m ost l ikely t o c orrespond t o C uauhtlapan 's o ther c entral b arrio, n ow k nown a s S an J ose. T he m arket-place o r t ianquiz d enoting t his p lace i s u nmistakable i n t he t ext, i n t he s econd o f C uauhtlapan 's f our c olumns w hich l ike t he f irst i s s hown t o b e r esponsible f or a dditional t ribute i tems. C alacoayan, ' entrance ', e xactly m atches t he f ourth s ign, i n w hich f eet e nter a h ouse ( cal-), a nd m ay b e i dentified w ith L a L uz, t he b arrio t hrough w hich C uauhtlapan h as b een e ntered s ince a t l east t he 1 6th c entury. T his l eaves T epeololco, h ill o r p lace t hat i s r ounded; b y a p rocess o f e limination t his m ust c orrespond t o t he t hird s ign, w hich s hows a r iver b end; s uch a b end e xists i n t he r emaining b arrio, L a C oncepcion i n S panish a nd T itini i n O tomi, t hough i t i s t rue t his l eaves o ther e lements i n t he s ign u naccounted f or. T he b arrio n ames p rovided f or C uauhtlapan i n t he A rchivo f ile a re l acking i n t he c ase o f X oloc a nd T epoxaco, w hich c omplicates t he t ask o f d ecipherment. L ike C uauhtlapan, h owever , X oloc w ith i ts s et o f f our s igns t oday p reserves a m atching s et o f f our b arrios; i ndeed, i n t he c hurchyard t hese b arrios a re r ecorded i n as et o f f our s hrines w hose r elative p ositions c orrespond t o t he a ctual p ositions o f t he b arrios i n q uestion; a nd f rom a ll t his i t i s c lear t hat, a s a t C uauhtlapan, t he t itular b arrio o f S an M ateo i s c omplemented b y a nother c entral c ounterp art ( Guadalupe), j ust a s t hese t wo i n t urn a re c omplemented b y a p air o f l esser b arrios ( San J ose, R ef u gio), b oth o f t hem r iverine. O n t his b asis, G uadalupe, w hich r eaches e ast a nd n orth t owards T epotzotlan, m ay t entatively b e a ssociated w ith t he ' Miccacalco' o f T epotzotlan w hich t he a nnals o f C uauhtitlan ( f. 8 ) s ay p receded T ianquizcolco a s a p alace f or i ts k ings; l ike i ts c ounterpart i n C uauhtlapan, M iccacalco o ccupies s econd p osition i n t he s equence o f f our b arrios, a p attern w hich i ncidentally i s f urther r epeated w ith C ihuatecpan, t he r oyal s econd o f C hiconautla's f our b arrios ( Paso y T roncoso 1 905: 1 68). A t a ny e vent, t he s ign s hows a m ummy ( micca-) i n ah ouse ( -calco). T he f ourth s ign m ay c orrespond t o a n a rea i n o r n ear R efugio s till r ecalled a s ' Momortla(n)', t ranslated b y M olina a s ' adoratorio'. F ormed f rom a n o pen s quare o f p laited b ranches t ogether w ith t he p lace e lement ' -tlan ' ( tooth), t his s ign i s s ynonymous w ith t he a doratorios f ound i n

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B orbonicus ( e.g. p . 1 8), a nd w ith t hat w hich f rames t he t alking h ead o f H uitzilopochtli i n B oturini ( p. 1 ); C astillo t ranscribes t his l atter, i n aN ahuatl m anuscript t hat h appens t o b e l inked w ith T epotzotlan, a s ' momoz-' ( Paso y T roncoso 1 908: 6 4). A s f or t he r emaining s ign , i t p arallels t hat f or T epoxaco p lus t he e lement f or w ater ( a-tl) o r r iver ( -apan), s uggesting t he r eading A tepoxaco, o r T epoxacapan, t hough t his c an b e n o m ore t han a h ypothetical r econstruction. F inally, t he t wo s igns f or T epoxaco, w ith w hich t he r ow i n T epotzotlan 1c loses. T oday t his t own i s c onsidered t o h ave o nly o ne b arrio, a lthough a cknowledgement i s m ade o f t he t wo t ypes o f t errain f ound t here: t he h ill ( whence t he v olcanic r ock o f s ign n ine), a nd t he e xtensive r iverside f lats w ith t heir g eometrically d ivided f ields. I n T epoxaco's C odex ( AGN, R amo T ierras, v ol. 1 530, e xp. 3 , f . 1 3), t hese f ields a re g lossed ' milpa d e l a c omunidad', w hich f its p erfectly w ith s ign t en: a f ield o r m ilpa s urmounted b y a s nake, c oa-tl, w hich m ay d enote c ommunity, a s i t d oes f or e xample i n t he 0 tlazpan C odex ( p. 5 ). A lso o f i nterest h ere i s p age 3 o f T epotzotlan 's T echialoyan B ook, a rranged a ccording t o t he t wo w atercourses w hich f low t o t he t own f rom t he w estern m ountains a nd w hich p ass t o e ither s ide o f t he i ntermediary t own S an J er6nimo ( cf. A GN, R amo M ercedes, v ol. 1 7, f . 8 ); t here, n ext t o T epoxaco o n t he l ower r iver, w e f ind ' Coahuacan ', a nother p ossible r eading o f t he t enth s ign i nsofar a s i t i s n ot i dentical w ith t he c abecera C uahuacan t hat l ies f urther w est ( Mendoza p . 3 2). O nce a ffirmed i n t heir p hysical g eography o f m ountains, w oods a nd r ivers, T epotzotlan's t en p lace s igns i nvite f urther i nspection. T hey d isplay, f or e xample, f ormal f eatures r eminiscent o f T enochtitlan 's m ajor t ribute t ext, t he M endoza C odex, w here t he g rouping o f t owns c ollectively b y d istrict a nd b y r egion i s u nderpinned b y l ayout, s ymbolic l ogic, a nd c iphers ( Brotherston 1 982). O f t he t en s igns h ere, o nly t he f irst a nd t he l ast c ombine f auna w ith l andscape ( dog a nd h ill, s nake a nd f ield); t hose w ith o dd n umbers c onvey n atural p henomena a s t hose w ith e ven n umbers d o m an-made p henomena; a c ommon c ipher g overns t he s ets o f s oil d ots i n s igns 3 , 7a nd 9 ; a nd s o o n. A nd i t i s j ust t his o rder o f r epresentation w hich s urvives l east i n t he t ransition t o T epotzotlan 2w ith i ts m ore E uropean f ormat a nd p riorities. B ut a ll t his i s t he s ubject o f a nother e nquiry, a t p resent i n p reparation.

S ummary T he p rovenance o f t he c odex d iscovered i n U lster m ay c onfidently b e s tated t o b e T epotzotlan, E stado d e M exico. L ike t he T echialoyan f ragment f rom T epotzotlan t hat i s n ow i n M anchester, i t m ay h ave c ome t o t he U nited K ingdom b y w ay o f t he B oturini c ollection, b ut f or t he m oment t hat c an o nly b e s peculation. S temming a s i t d oes f rom t he M aldanado c ase o f t he 1 550s, a nd i n t he c ontext o f t he A rchivo f ile, i t i ncreases o ur u nderstanding o f p olitical a nd l egal p rocesses i n N ew S pain, p articularly i n t he n eglected T epanec d omain t o w hich T epotzotlan b elonged. I t i s a n u nusually w ell-written t ext a nd m akes f ull u se o f t he r esources o f n ative s cript a nd p age f ormat. I n e stablishing i ts o wn c ommunal s olidarity a nd i n l aying i ts c harge a gainst M aldonado , t he r ow o f t en s igns t hemselves c arry a n otable i deological w eight, a nd p oint t o f ormal p ossibilities w ithin t he g enre o f M esoamerican t ribute l iterature w hich r emain t o b e e xplored.

2 13

A cknowledgements T hanks a re d ue t o t he R esearch E ndowment F und o f E ssex U niversity w hich m ade p ossible r esearch i n v arious l ibraries i n E urope a nd M exico, a s w ell a s t he f ield w ork i n t he T epotzotlan a rea, s o c rucial f or a p roper r eading o f t he p lace s igns; a nd t o G unter V ollmer a nd t he I beroamerikanisches I nstitut f or h elping t o f und l ibrary r esearch i n B erlin. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he s taff o f t he U lster M useum , t hrough w hom T epotzotlan C odex 1 w as b rought o ver t o L ondon f or f irst-hand i nspection; E lizabeth C armichael a nd C aroline K arsiake o f t he M useum o f M ankind; M argo G lantz a nd D aniel D uitzin, o f t he M exican E mbassy i n L ondon; N estor D usch, o f t he I nstituto N acional d e G eograf í a , M exico, w ho p rovided l arge s cale p hotographs o f t he r egion; L eonor O rtiz a nd t he s taff o f t he A rchivo G eneral d e l a N aci6n; t he s taff o f t he F onds M exicains, B ibliotèque N ationale, P aris; J uan I gnacio G uti er rez F uente a nd t he s taff o f t he I nstituto d e C ooperación I beroamericana, M adrid; P eter G erhard; D oris H eyden; C armen A guilera; J ose J uan d e L una a nd G uadencio N eri V argas o f T epotzotlan ; L ucila d e I gastua, E duardo H ernandez, a nd t he p eople w ho s howed u s X oloc, C uauhtlalpan, a nd T epojacd; a nd A lfonso J . N f if lez-Gallegos.

2 14

B IBLIOGRAPHY N ative s ources

N umbers i n p arentheses r efer t o t he 1 975 c ensuses b y G lass ( native s cript 1 -434), R obertson ( Techialoyan 7 00-748), a nd G ibson a nd G lass ( alphabetic 1 001-1188). A GN = A rchivo G eneral d e l a N ación M exico.

A zcapotzalco T echialoyan ( 715, G arcia G ranados). B orbonicus ( 32). B orgia ( 33). B oturini ( 34). C ristóbal d el C astillo, H istoria d e l os m exicanos ( 1021). C halco, R ecus p resent s... ( 42). C hiautla A nnals ( 84, C odex e n c ruz). C himalpahin, R elaciones ( 1027). C uauhtitlan A nnals ( 1033). C uauhtitlan, C ódice d e l os A lfareros d e ( 99). C uauhtlapa T epoxaco C odex ( AGN R amo T ierras v ol. 2 719 e xp. 8 ). F lorentine ( 274, S ahag( in). M endoza ( 196). O suna ( 243). 0 tlazpan ( 193, M ariano J imenez). Q uinatzin M ap ( 265). T epotzotlan 1 ( Ulster M useum , B elfast). T epotzotlan 2 ( 322). T epotzotlan T echialoyan ( 7187 14-722). T epoxaco C odex ( AGN R amo T ierras v ol. 1 530 e xp. 3 ). T latelolco A nnals ( 344). T iatelolco M ap ( 280 , S anta C ruz). T laxcala L ienzo ( 350). T iaxinican, T laylotlacan, e tc., T ributes o f ( 353-4). X altocan L etter ( 1075, N azareo). X olotl M aps ( 412). -

S econdary w orks

A guilera, C armen a nd M iguel L e6n-Portilla , 1 986, M exico y s us c ontornos h acia 1 550, M exico.

B arlow, 3 :

R obert, 8 3.

1 949.

' The T echialoyan C odices:

( eds.).

M apa d e

C odice P ', T lalocan

B rotherston, G ordon, 1 982. ' Astronomical N orms i n M esoamerican T imeR eckoning', i n A . A veni ( ed.), A rcheoastronomy i n t he N ew W orld, L ondon a nd N ew Y ork.

C havez O rozco, L uis , v ols.

1 951.

C oh n, Mario,

1 966.

I ndice d e d ocumentos. . Ramo d e T ierras, M exico.

C oh n, M ario,

1 967.

I ndice d el R amo d e M ercedes , M exico, 2 v ols.

D ibble,

C harles,

1 980 ( ed.).

I ndice d el R amo d e I ndios, M exico 1 951,

C odice X olotl, M exico.

2 15

2

G arcia G ranados, R arael, 1 953. D iccionario b iográfico d e h istoria a ntigua d e Mjico, M exico, 3 v ols. G erhard, P eter, 1 972. AG uide t o t he h istorical G eography o f N ew S pain, L ondon a nd N ew Y ork. G ibson, C harles,

1 964.

A ztecs u nder S panish R ule,

S tanford.

G ibson, C harles a nd J ohn B . G lass, 1 975. ' A C ensus o f M iddle A merican P rose M anuscripts i n t he N ative H istorical T radition', H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, A ustin, 1 5: 3 22-400. G lass, J ohn B . 1 975. ' A C ensus o f N ative M iddle A merican P ictorial M anuscripts', H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, A ustin , 1 4: 8 1-250. G onz lez d e C ossio, F rancisco, 1 952, ( ed.). d e p ueblos d e l a N ueva E spaña, M exico.

E l l ibro d e l as t asaciones

H arvey, H erbert R . a nd B arbara J . W illiams, 1 986. ' Decipherment a nd s ome i mplications o f A ztec N umerical G lyphs', i n M . C loss ( ed.), N ative A merican M athematics, A ustin, 2 37-60.

I xtlilxochitl, F ernando d e A lva, v ols.

L eander, B irgitta, L iss, P eggy K .

1 967.

1 975.

1 9

.

O bras h istoricas, M exico,

2

E l C 6dice d e O tlaxpan, M exico.

M exico u nder S panish R ule,

C hicago.

M endieta , F r. G erónimo d e, 1 870. H istoria e clesiastica i ndiana ( ed. J . G arcia I cazbalceta), M exico. M iranda, J ose,

1 952.

E l t ributo i ndigena e n l a N ueva E spaña , M exico.

M olina, F r. A lonso d e, 1 977. V ocabulario e n l engua c astellana y m exicana ( 1571), M exico. Mnnich, A nneliese, 1 985. ' Zwei T echialoyan-Fragmente', ( Berlin) 1 0: 2 21-235.

I ndiana

M ont i ifar, A lonso d e, 1 897. D escripci6n d el A rzobispado d e M exico h echa e n 1 570 ( ed. L . G arcia P imentel), M exico. M otolonia,

1 971.

M emoriales.

M exico.

2 16

N eri V argas, G audencio, M exico.

1 987.

T epotzotlan.

M onografia m unicipal,

P aso y T roncoso, F rancisco d el 1 905, ( ed.). ' Relacion d e C hiconauhtla y s u p artido', P apeles d e N ueva E spaf la 6 : 1 67-177. P aso y T roncoso, F rancisco d el 1 908, ( ed.). F ragmento d e l a o bra g eneral s obre H istoria d e l os m exicanos e scrita e n n auatl p or C ristobal d el C astillo, F lorence.

R obertson, D onald, 1 960. ' The T echialoyan C odex o f T epotzotlan ', B ulletin o f t he J ohn R ylands L ibrary ( Manchester) 4 3: 1 09-130. R obertson, D onald, 1 975. ' Techialoyan M anuscripts a nd P aintings, w ith aC atalog ', H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, A ustin, 1 4 : 2 538 0.

T olstoy, P aul, 1 974. ' Utilitarian A rtifacts o f C entral M exico', H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, A ustin, 1 0: 2 70-92.

V aillant, G eorge C .

1 965.

Z avala, S ilvio, 1 982 . E spaña , M exico.

T he A ztecs o f M exico, H armondsworth.

L ibros d e A sientos d e l a g obernación d e l a N ueva

2 17

oOtlazpan 0 C oyotepec

X o1oc

T epotzotlan C uauhtlapan

0

X010

OXaltoca r i

0

0

0

\ T epoxaco

T eotihuacan C hiconautla

C uahuacan

oC hiautla QT excoco

A zcapotzalcO

T iacopan

oT iatelolco 0

T enochtitlan

0

o

C o1hua

-

X ochimj i co

M ap

1 .

a )

T epotzotlan a nd t he h ighland l akes

2 19

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M ateo

I ,

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R efugio S ah j o C oncepcion L a L uz oC UAUHTLAPAN S antiago /San J ose

T EPDXACO 0

S an F rancisco

b )

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2 20

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T epotzotlan 1 . N ative p aper, 1 09 x 4 1cm T epotzotlan 2 . E uropean p aper, 6 9 x6 5cm

T epotzotlan c odices 1 a nd 2

X ol. C ua. T ep.: p lace n ames ( see F ig. 3 ) a b C: t ribute ( see F ig. 4 ) T .M .L.: T epotzotlan, M aldonado, D on L uis w ith a lcaldes ( see F ig. 5 a nd 6 )

2 21

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T ribute

a ) d aily c omida ( 1-10): 2b ushels o f m aize; 3 t urkeys; 2 0 x 2 0 c acao b eans ( 20 = a f lag, p antli); 5 x 2 0 c hiles; 4 l oads o f f irewood; b asket o f h en e ggs; b asket o f t ortillas; s alt c ake. I n T epotzotlan 2 , 1 -8, t here a re 2 n ot 4 l oads o f f irewood; a nd i n 9 -10, 2 00 n ot 1 00 c hiles. b ) a dditional i tems 9 2, 6 , 1 0): 2 0 p ots; 2 0m b owls; 2 0 b ushels o f m aize; 2 0 t urkeys; 2 0 b askets; 2 0 m ats; 2 b oars; 1 0 ( half 2 0) w omen f or d omestic s ervice ( = g rinding s tone, m etate); 4 00 m en ( 400 = a f eather, t zontli) u nderpaid a s c arriers ( tameme) a t r ate o f 4x 2 0 c acaos. I n 1 0 t here a re o nly 1 0 b ushels o f m aize, 1 b oar, a nd 2 00 t amemes. C ) p esos ( 1, 5 , 9 ): 1 0 p esos + 3 c loth b ags; 2 0 + 1 5 p esos + 6 t omines, + 1 0 c loth b ags ( illustrated); 1 8 p esos + 5 c loth b ags. I n T epotzotlan 2 , t he c loth b ags ( which p ossibly d enote a n e xchange r ate o f 1 0: 3 3) a re a bsent; a nd i nstead o f 2 0 p esos w e s ee ' los d oscientos p esos d el r epartimiento q ue r ecogio F rancisco M aldonado j uez'.

2 23

C h i c o n a u t l a .

a

T e p o t z o t l a n a n d C h i c o n a u t l a

0

I D 10

C

0 N

1 . 4

L !

z

C O

2 24

1 -

0 •

=

c a 4 4

M ap 6 .

C hiconautla a nd M aldonado

a ) i nscription o n r everse o f T epotzotlan 1 b ) M aldonado s eated, s howing t he w rath o f ' snake, l ion, a nd t iger', T epotzotlan 2 .

2 25

00 0

F ig.

1 .

T he T epotzotlan C odex. B elfast.

B y c ourtesy o f t he U lster M useum,

2 26

U

4I

I d

2 27

S TONE J AGUARS I N I STHMIAN H OUSEHOLDS U rsula J ones

A BSTRACT T his p aper d iscusses t he d ecorated m etate o f p rehispanic C entral A merica, a nd s pecifically t he u se o f t he j aguar m otif.

L ower

T he j aguar i s t he m ost p owerful a nimal i n t he t ropical f orest r egion o f C entral A merica, a nd i n t he i conography o f p rehistoric i sthmian s ocieties t he j aguar m otif a ppears a bundantly i n c eramic, g old a nd s tone a rtefacts . I t i s p articularly p rominently u sed i n t he d ecoration o f m etates, t he g rinding s tones f or p rocessing c orn a nd o ther f oodstuffs. I n L ower C entral A merica p eople f ashioned s ome o f t heir m etates i n a h ighly i ndividual a nd s ophisticated w ay, b oth i n f orm a nd d ecoration, f or a p eriod o f a t l east 1 500 y ears p rior t o t he S panish a rrival. C arved f rom s ingle b locks o f v olcanic r ock t hey v ary i n s ize f rom l ess t han 2 0cm t o o ver i m i n l ength. S ome h ave s imple l ow-relief d ecorat ions o nly, o thers a ppear w ith f antastically c arved p anels h anging b elow t he g rinding p latform o r w ith a tlantean f igures s upporting t he g rinding t op. D uring t he l ast f ive o r s ix c enturies b efore t he S panish a rrival, e ffigy m etates b ecame p opular, w ith t he j aguar a ppearing a s t he m ost f requently r epresented a nimal. I t i s a rgued h ere t hat t he j aguar m otif, a s u sed b y i sthmian s ocieties i n t he d ecoration o f t heir m etates, w as n ot n ecessarily b ound u p w ith i ntricate c osmological b eliefs a s s eemed t he c ase i n M esoamerica a nd C entral A ndean S outh A merica; b ut t hat, b y u sing t he m otif o f t he m ost p owerful c reature a round h im , m an i n L ower C entral A merica s imply e xpressed h is c lose l ink w ith h is e nvironment a nd p erhaps h is d esire t o a cquire t he p otential q ualities o f t he j aguar f or h imself.

I ntroduction I n g eographical t erms L ower C entral A merica ( in t he f ollowing t ext r eferred t o a s L CA) i s t he i sthmus r egion l inking M iddle A merica w ith S outh A merica ; i t i ncludes e astern H onduras, t he s outheast c orner o f E l S alvador, a nd a ll o f N icaragua, C osta R ica a nd P anama ( Fig. 1 ). I t s hould b e a dded t hat t he a forementioned d elineation i s s omewhat a rbitrarily b ased o n c ultural c onsiderations. L CA

i s

a

c omparatively

s mall

2 29

t ropical

a rea,

b ut

w ith

a n

e nvironment f ull o f v ariety. A n a lmost c ontinuous c hain o f v olcanoes f orms t he b ackbone o f t he r egion; s ome p eaks r each a ltitudes o f o ver 3 000m . O n t he P acific s ide a d ry n arrow p lain r uns a long t he c oast , a nd t he C aribbean s ide i s d ominated b y aw ide, l ow a nd h umid a tlantic w atershed. T he l ine o f v olcanoes, w hich b orders t he P acific e dge o f C entral A merica f rom t he M exico-Guatemalan f rontier i nto C osta R ica a nd w estern P anama, i s o nly o nce i nterrupted b y ag ranitic i ntrusion i n s outhwestern C osta R ica , f orming t he C ordillera d e T alamanca. A part f rom t his g ranitic a rea , t he m ost c ommon r ocks i n t he i sthmian r egion a re o f a ndesitic a nd b asaltic t ypes ( Stevens 1 964: 2 68). T hese r ocks a re f ine-grained a nd h ave a p redominance o f d ark-coloured m inerals w hich a re p articularly r ich f or p lant n utrition. P recolumbian m an i n L CA w as t hus f avoured n ot o nly w ith n aturally f ertile v olcanic s oils , b ut a lso w ith t he b est r aw m aterial f or t he p roduction o f h is g rinding t ools. I n c ultural t erms L CA f orms t he n orthwestern p art o f w hat G ordon W illey ( 1971: 2 55) h as d escribed a s t he ' Intermediate A rea', t he r egion b etween t he t wo h igh c ultures o f M esoamerica a nd C entral A ndean S outh A merica. C ultural t raditions o f t hese t wo a reas i nfluenced t he e volution i n t he i sthmian r egion t o v arying d egrees a t d ifferent t imes, b ut e vidence i ndicates t hat, b esides t hese, i mportant i ndigenous d evelopments t ook p lace p roducing a n e ssentially L CA c ultura ( Lange a nd S tone, 1 984). A mongst t he r ich a nd v aried m aterial c ulture s tone s culpture t akes a p re-eminent p lace. T he r egion 's r ichly v aried e nvironment i s r eflected i n t he d iversity o f c ultural p atterns w ithin L CA . D ifferent z ones w ith d istinct c ultural t raditions c an b e i dentified. F or m y o wn p urposes I a m s ubdividing t he r egion i nto s ix c ultural s ubareas ( Fig. 2 ): N orthern Z one ( NZ) G reater N icoya ( GN) C entral C ost R ica ( CCR) G reater C hiriqui ( CGh) C entral P anama ( CPA) E astern P anama ( EPA)

T he m etate O ne o f t he s pecific c ultural f eatures w hich d efines L CA i s t he c arved a nd d ecorated m etate. I t a ppears i n t he a rchaeological r ecord i n a ll t he s ubareas, w ith t he e xception o f E astern P anama . M etate i s t he n ame p opularly u sed f or t he s tone g rinding s lab o n w hich c orn a nd o ther s tuffs a re g round w ith a h and-held s tone c alled a m ano. T he t erm m etate i s o f M exican N ahua o rigin, b ut i t i s u sed t o d escribe g rinding s tones o f P recolumbian A merica g enerally. M etates a nd m anos a re s ubsistence-related t ools a nd, a s s uch, a re i ndicators o f a griculture. T hey h ave f ormed p art o f t he s tandard h ousehold e quipment i n t he A mericas f or t housands o f y ears. T hey a re g enerally c arved f rom v olcanic r ock. T he a ndesitic a nd b asaltic t ypes, a s r eferred t o e arlier, a re i deal f or g rinding p urposes, e specially a s t hey a re o n t he w hole o f av esicular n ature. T he t wo m ost c ommon m etate f orms a re, o n t he o ne h and, t hose

2 30

w ith

r ectangular r imless c urved-plate g rinding t ops a nd, o n t he o ther, t he r immed o r c oncave m etates w hich a ppear i n r ectangular, o val o r c ircular f orm . T he f ormer t ype i s u sually t hree-legged a nd a ssociated w ith t he M exican m ethod o f m aize g rinding: t hey s oak t heir c orn f irst a nd t hen g rind i t w hile s till w et b y r olling i t o n t he m etate w ith a l ong c ylindrical o r t apering m ano, a nd f orming i t i nto t ortillas ( Fig. 3 ). T he o ther t ype i s u sed f or g rinding d ry c orn i nto f lour, t he t raditional m ethod o utside M esoamerica. T his l atter t ype a ppears i n a g reat v ariety o f s hape a nd s ize w hich m eans t hat t he p urpose o f t hese m etates w as n ot u niform, b ut t hat t hey w ere p robably u sed f or g rinding -

a ll k inds o f s tuffs a part f rom c orn: n uts, s eeds a nd b eans, a nd a lso f or c rushing a nd m ashing t ubers, f ruits a nd b erries a nd f or g rinding a nd p ulverizing p igments, m edicines t obacco e tc. I t herefore c all t his t ype ' multi-purpose m etate' i n c ontrast t o t he M esoamerican t ype w hich i s u sed e xclusively f or c orn g rinding a nd w hich I c all ' special p urpose r n etate'. I n L CA a nd a pparently o nly t here p eople i n p rehispanic t imes c arved s ome o f t heir m etates i n ah ighly i ndividual a nd s ophisticated m anner, b oth i n f orm a nd d ecoration. T hese d ecorated m etates r emained a n e xclusive f eature o f L CA f or o ver 1 500 y ears p rior t o t he S panish a rrival a nd r ank a mong t he m ost e xtraordinary e xamples o f s tone s culpture i n p rehispanic A merica. C arved f rom s ingle p ieces o f v olcanic r ock w ithout m etal t ools, b ut w ith o nly s tone, w ooden a nd p erhaps b one t ools t hey d isplay n ot o nly t ruly r emarkable a nd r efined c raftsmanship, b ut a lso a h ighly i maginative a rtistic s ense. -

-

-

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T he m ajority o f d ecorated m etates s how t races o f w ear f rom g rinding, a nd w e c an a ssume t herefore t hat t hey w ere u sed r egularly i n t he P recolumbian h ousehold. T here a re r elatively f ew w ithout w ear m arks, o r w ith s light e vidence o f w ear o nly. I n a t otal o f 2 12 d ecorated m etates w hich I e xamined, I f ound a m ere 5 % w ith l ittle o r n o t race o f w ear. T he v ery h ighly o rnate m etates f all i nto t his c ategory a s w ell a s s ome o versize o nes w ith p latforms t oo t hin a nd f ragile f or d aily u sage. T his e vidence i nfers a n on-utilitarian s pecial f unction f or s uch m etates. I t i s t hought t hat t hese w ere u sed i n c eremonial o r r itual c ontexts. S ome m etates h ave j ust s imple g eometric l owa nd h igh-relief d ecorations, w hereas o thers a ppear a s z oomorphic e ffigies o r w ith h uman o r a nimal f igures s upporting t he g rinding t op. T he m ost e laborate o nes a re t hose w ith f antastically c arved-out p anels h anging b elow t he g rinding p latforms.

T he j aguar m otif i n t he d ecoration o f L CA m etates T he j aguar ( Felis o nca c entralis) o ccurs i n L CA, a s d oes t he o celot ( Felis p ardalis a equatorialis) a nd t he p uma ( Felis c oncolor). A s t hey a re d istinguished p rimarily b y t heir c olouring, i t i s n ot r eally p ossible t o i dentify o ne f rom t he o ther i n t he m ainly g rey s tone s culpture o f L CA. S ince t he j aguar i s p opularly r ecognized a s a p ower s ymbol i n t ropical C entral A merica , Iw ill u se t he ' jaguar' i n t his p aper w hen r eferring t o t he f eline m otif i n t he d ecoration o f m etates.

2 31

T he e arliest a ppearance o f t he j aguar i n C CR i s o n t he s o-called ' flying-panel' m etates w hich b elong t o t he p eriod A D 1 -500 ( Fig. 4 ). U nfortunately n one o f t hese e laborately c arved o bjects h ave b een r ecovered f rom c ontrolled e xcavations, e xcept a f ragment, i .e. a b roken p late b elonging t o s uch a ' flying-panel' m etate, w hich w as r ecovered f rom a c ache o r b urial b eneath a h abitation f loor a t t he S evero L edesma s ite i n A tlantic W atershed C R ( Snarskis 1 984: 1 55) a ssociated w ith m aterial w ith r adiocarbon d ates b etween 5 0 B C a nd A D 3 50 . I t i s t hought t hat t hese m etates, w ith s uch h ighly c omplex c arved i magery, w ere p robably u sed f or s pecial o ccasions o nly; o n t he w hole t hey s how v ery s light s igns o f w ear, a nd t he n umber k nown o f t his t ype i s c omparatively s mall. I n t he f ive o r s ix c enturies p rior t o t he S panish a rrival, t he c ircular p edestal m etate a ppears t o b e t he s uccessor t o t he e laborately c arved ' flying-panel' m etate o f e arlier t imes i n C CR. T hese s pecimens a re b eautifully p roportioned a nd a re o ften d ecorated a round t he r im w ith j aguar h eads ( Fig. 5 ). A p articularly f ine e xample o f t his k ind ( Aguilar 1 972: 1 22) w as f ound a t G uayabo d e T urrialba i n t he e arly p art o f t his c entury; i t h as i ntricately c arved m iniature j aguars h anging f rom t he e dge o f t he p latform ( Fig. 6 ). A s pecimen i n w ood ( a c onsiderable r arity i n t ropical r egions), s imilar t o t hese c ircular p edestal m etates, w as r ecovered f rom a c ache a t R etes, C artago, f or w hich a C 14 d ate o f A D 9 60 w as o btained ( Stone 1 972: 1 81). F rom a bout t he 4 th c entury A .D. o nwards, r ight u p t o t he S panish a rrival, m etates a ppeared o ften a s e ffigies, c arved i n t he s hape o f r ealistic o r s tylized a nimals, b irds, a lligators, c oyotes a nd j aguars. I n G N s uch z oomorphic e ffigy m etates w ere m anufactured b etween a bout A D 3 00 7 00 i n t he s hape o f r imless c urved-plate t ripods w ith a n a nimal h ead a t o ne e nd, o ften i n h ighly s tylized f rom ( Fig. 8 ). -

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I n C CR a nd G Ch e ffigy m etates a ppeared s omewhat l ater, a fter A D 9 00, b ut f rom t hen o nwards i n g reat a bundance. I n t hese c ultural s ubareas t he j aguar s eems t o b e t he m ost f requently r epresented a nimal. A t t he s ite o f L as M ercedes i n t he A tlantic l owlands o f C R, h undreds o f m etates w ere f ound i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury b y M inor C . K eith , w ho w as i nvolved w ith t he b uilding o f t he O ld L ine r ailway. H e e xcavated a nd c ollected t here b ut, u nfortunately, w ithout r ecording a ny e xcavation d etails. K eith 's v ast c ollection o f s ome 1 6000 C R a rtefacts w as b rought t o t he U SA, b ut f inally s adly s plit u p i nto v arious m useum c ollections. F ortunately t he s tone w ork h ad b een m eticulously c atalogued e arlier b y J . A lden M ason ( 1945) f or t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory. T he L as M ercedes m etates a ppear i n v arious s izes a nd s hapes: j aguar e ffigies, d ouble-headed r ectangular m etates a nd c ircular o nes s upported b y j aguars ( Fig. 9 ). A mongst t he e ffigy m etates t he j aguar e ffigies a mount t o o ver 7 0%.

P roblems o f i nterpretation I t i s t empting t o s peculate w ith p ossible m ythological a nd c osmological m eanings o f t he j aguar m otif a s u sed b y p rehispanic i sthmian s ocieties. T he j aguar a ppears n ot o nly w ith m etates , b ut a lso w ith c eramic a nd g old a rtefacts. A c omplex s ystem o f b eliefs u ndoubtedly o nce u nderlay t he L CA i conography, b ut t hat s ystem i s n o

2 32

l onger w ith u s. N either d o w e h ave a ny d ocumentary e vidence f rom t he p re-Conquest p eriod. C ompared t o M esoamerica, w e h ave p recious l ittle e thnohistoric d ocumentation o f t he m yths a nd r ituals i n p rehispanic L CA. F urthermore, t he m ajority o f t he p easant s ociety o f t oday h as l ittle i n c om m on w ith t he i ndigenous p ast. T he p resent d ay p ure I ndian p opulation a mounts t o l ess t han 7 % i n L CA o verall. S ince t he j aguar m otif i s s o u biquitous i n t he p rehistoric i sthmian s ocieties w e c an a ssume t hat i t m erely d ecorative m eaning.

i conography o f h ad m ore t han

R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1972: 5 1ff.) b elieves t hat i t i s n ot s uitable t o s peak o f ' feline c ults' o r o f t he j aguar a s a ' divine' p ersonificat ion i n t he I ntermediate A rea. R eferring t o C olombia h e s ays t hat " the j aguar m otif p resents f ar m ore s imple f undamental c haracteristics t han i n t he t wo h igh c ulture a reas t o t he n orth a nd s outh w here t he j aguar m otif u nderwent a m uch m ore c omplex d evelopment". E dmund L each b elieves ( 1954: 1 03-105) t hat " the d esigns o f p rimitive p eoples a re s eldom a bstract i n a ny g enuine s ense". I t i s t rue t hat, i n L CA , t here a re n o c lear i ndications o f t he k inds o r l evels o f c omplexity t hat c haracterize t he d eveloped s tates o f e ither M exico o r P eru. E vidence s hows t hat m ost o f L CA n ever e volved b eyond a l ow o r i ntermediate c hiefdom s tage ( Lange a nd S tone 1 984: 8 ). I t i s a f act, h owever, t hat m an 's b asic r eaction t o e xperience i s t he s ame w hatever t he s ocial l evel; i t i s o nly w hen h uman r eaction m anifests a nd e xpresses i tself i n i deas t hat i nfinite v ariations o ccur. T he j aguar i s t he l argest f eline i n t he A merican c ontinent ( its l ength f rom n ose t o t ail v aries b etween 1 20 1 90cm) a nd i t o ccurs t hroughout t he t ropical f orest r egion, w here i t i s t he m ost p owerful a nimal. T he j aguar 's a ppetite i s c atholic f rom p eccary, d eer, m onkey t o t urtles a nd e ven c ayman a nd f ish. R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1971: 2 12) w rites t hat t he D esana o f E astern C olombia , f or e xample, e mphasizes t hat " the j aguar i s a n a nimal t hat l ives i n a n umber o f d ifferent e nvironments; i t l ives i n t he d ensest p arts o f t he j ungle, c limbs t rees, s wims i n t he w ater, a nd r oams a bout b y d ay a nd n ight. I t i s t hen a n a nimal t hat p articipates i n v arious d imensions, a ir, l and, a nd w ater, a nd b elongs t o l ight a s w ell a s t o d arkness" o r, i n t he w ords o f H elms ( 1977: 5 6) t he j aguar r epresents " an a nomalous c reature w hich ' crosses' u niversal s egments b y l iving i n d ifferent e nvironments". -

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F or t he h istoric B ribri o f s outhern C R t he j aguar w as a " hunter, k iller, w arrior, c lansman, u ncle, b rother-in-law ; a s ymbol o f p ower a nd t he e quivalent t o t he e agles a bove a nd t he c rocodiles i n t he w ater" ( Bozzoli 1 975: 1 80). T he T ukano t ribes i n t he A mazon ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 972: 6 2) t alk o f h allucinogenic d rugs d erived f rom c ertain p lants a s ' jaguar's s perm ' o r ' jaguar s eed '. W hen a bsorbed t hey i mpregnate t he u ser w ith t he ' essence' o f t he j aguar, i ts v ital e nergy a nd f ertilizing p ower. T he T ukano a lso b elieve t hat t he j aguar's t hunderous r oar a nnounces t he f ertilizing r ains, a nd i ts b right c olour r epresents f or t hem t he c olour o f t he g rowth.

E ast,

-

t he r ising s un,

-

t he s eminal c olour o f

2 33

c reation

a nd

L inares ( 1976: 8 ) h as n oted t hat p rehistoric P anamanian a rtefacts d epict m ost o ften a nimals t hat a re d angerous t o m an; d angerous a nimals a re w orthy a dversaries, i ncorporating q ualities t hat w arriors s hould p ossess ( Snarskis 1 985: 2 7). J aguar e ffigies a nd t he c ombination o f j aguars a nd t rophyheads i n m etates s eem t o e xpress t his c oncept. F or i sthmian m an t he j aguar t hus b ecame a s ymbol f or p ower, a m etaphor f or c hieftainship a nd w arriorship a nd a lso o f f ertility. -

R eferring t o t he h ighly o rnate m etates S narskis ( 1981: 4 4) h as s uggested t hat t hese m ay h ave r epresented ' badges o f o ffice ' b elonging t o t ribal c hiefs w ho c ontrolled p roduction, d istribution a nd p rocessing o f v ital c rops. I n h is o pinion t he a pparent p opulation e xpansion i n L CA a round t he t ime o f C hrist w as " the r esult o f a d ynamic f eedback r elationship b etween i mproved m aize a griculture, n ew c ommunities a nd g rowing c ompetition f or a rable l and, c reating a n i ncreasing n eed t o o btain l and a nd i nsure i ts t enure, t o r itualize c yclical a gricultural p rocedures a nd t o a dminister t he r edistribution o f f ood a nd o ther a rticles". C onsequently r itual c orn g rinding o r r itual p rocessing o f o ther f oods c ould h ave b een a n i mportant a spect i n c eremonies r elating t o a gricultural c ycles. S ome o f t he m ore e laborately c arved m etates s uch a 5 t he e arly ' flying-panel' m etate i n A tlantic W atershed C osta R ica , a nd t he f ine c ircular p edestal o nes o f l ater t imes, w ere p erhaps t he ' property' o f s uch c hiefs o r, a lternatively, t he ' public p roperty ' o f s pecific t ribes o r c ommunities w ho u sed t hem i n s uch c eremonies. T he r elatively l imited n umber o f h ighly d ecorated m etates w ould s upport s uch a n i nterpretation. I t i s r i ot i nconceivable t hat s ome o f t he m ore s olid p edestal m etates a nd s ome o f t he t abular m etates m ay h ave s erved t he d ual p urpose o f g rinding i mplement a nd s eat o r ' throne' o f t ribal c hiefs ( Fig. 1 0). I n t he a bsence o f r elevant d ocumentary e vidence f urther s peculation w ould s eem i nappropriate. B ut w hat a bout t he v ast q uantity o f j aguar e ffigy m etates o f t he L ate P eriod? I w ould l ike t o a rgue t hat t hese m etates r eflect p rincipally m an's c lose r elationship w ith h is e nvironment a nd h is d esire t o i dentify w ith t he p owerful q ualities o f c reatures i n t he w orld o f n ature a round h im . B y l inking h imself w ith t he m ost p owerful c reature o f t he w ild a nd d angerous w orld o utside, h e m akes t hat ' outside' w orld h is o wn. T he j aguar e ffigy m etate a nd t he u se o f t he j aguar m otif i n t he d ecoration o f m etates m ay h ave b een a d irect a ttempt t o c lose t he g ap b etween ' here a nd t here '. B y c arving h is f oodprocessing t ool t he v ital u tensil f or h is e xistence i nto t he s hape o f t he m ost p owerful a nimal a round h im , m an l inked h imself w ith t he j aguar's a ttributes a nd c ounted o n a bsorbing t he p otential q ualities o f t he f eline f or h imself. I n o ther w ords, p erhaps w e s hould l ook u pon t he j aguar m otif i n t he d ecoration o f i sthmian m etates a s r epresenting b oth a u seful a nd p otent s tatus s ymbol. -

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2 34

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A guilar, C .H . J ose.

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1 572.

G uayabo d e T urrialba.

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V enice.

B ozzoli d e W ille, M .E . 1 975. B irth a nd D eath i n t he B elief S ystem o f t he B ribri I ndians o f C osta R ica. U npub. P h .D. d iss., D ept. o f A nthropology, U niversity o f G eorgia, A thens.

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H elms, M .W . 1 977. I guanas a nd C rocodilians i n T ropical A merican M ythology a nd I conography w ith S pecial R eference t o P anama. J ournal o f L atin A merican L ore 3 : 1 , L os A ngeles.

L ange, F .W . a nd S tone, D .Z., e ds. 1 984. T he A rchaeology o f L ower C entral A merica . U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress, A lbuquerque. L each , E .R. 1 954. AT robriand M edusa? A nthropological S ociety, L ondon.

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1 03-105.

R oyal

L inares, O .F . 1 976. A nimals t hat w ere b ad t o e at w ere g ood t o c ompete w ith: A n A nalysis o f t he C onte s tyle f rom a ncient P anama. I n P . Y oung a nd J . H owe, e ds., R itual a nd S ymbol i n N ative C entral A merica. U niversity o f O regon A nthropological P apers 9 .

M ason , J .A . 1 945. C osta R ican S tonework: T he M inor C . K eith C ollection. A nthropological P apers o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory 3 9. N ew Y ork.

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R eichel-Dolmatoff, C . 1 972. T he F eline M otif i n P rehistoric S an A gustin S culpture. I n E .P . B enson, e d., T he C ult o f t he F eline. D umbarton O aks R esearch L ibrary a nd C ollections, W ashington, D .C.

2 35

S narskis, M .J. 1 981. T he A rchaeology o f C osta R ica, a nd C atalogue. P re-Columbian A rt o f C osta R ica. N ew Y ork. S narskis, M .J. 1 982. L a C eramica P recolombina e n C osta R ica . J osh, C osta R ica.

I n

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S narskis, M .J. 1 984. P rehistoric M icrosettlement P atterns i n t he C entral H ighlands A tlantic W atershed o f C osta R ica. I n F .W . L ange, e d., R ecent D evelopments i n I sthmian A rchaeology . B .A.R . I nternational S eries 2 12, O xford. -

S narskis, M .J. 1 985. S ymbolism o f G old i n C osta R ica a nd i ts A rchaeol ogical P erspective. I n J . J ones e d., T he A rt o f P re-Columbian G old: T he J an M itchell C ollection. M etropolitain M useum o f A rt , N ew Y ork . W eidenfeld a nd N icolson, L ondon . S tevens, R .L. 1 964. T he S oils o f M iddle A merica a nd T heir R elation t o I ndian P eoples a nd C ultures. I n R . W auchope e d., H andbook o f t he M iddle A merican I ndians. V ol. 1 . U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin . S tone, D . 1 972. M ass.

P re-Columbian M an F inds C entral A merica.

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1 977.

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C ambridge, M ass.

W illey, G .R . 1 971. A n I ntroduction t o A merican A rchaeology 2 : A merica. P rentice H all I nc., E nglewood C liffs.

2 36

S outh

80 0

CARII BEAN 1 0

PACIFIC OCEAN

F ig.

1 .

O rientation M ap.

2 37

SEA

' 1 2 C D

8 0 C I V A ' I V S

H H

0

z

z

S V J f 1 N O H

0

/ S

5

S

/

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/

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F ig . 4 .

3 .

' Modo d i f are i l p ane';

( from B enzoni 1 572:

I :

5 7).

F lying-panel m etate, l ength : 8 2cm, M useo N acional d e C osta R ica 7 3.981; r eportedly f rom L a U nion d e G C iapiles ( from S tone 1 977: 1 73).

2 39

F ig.

5 .

C ircular p edestal m etate, d iameter: 4 4cm , Vlkerkunde r i-museu n i W ien, 6 1519; r eportedly f rom s outhwestern s lope o f I razi V olcano ( photograph a uthor).

F ig.

6 .

C ircular p edestal m etate, d iameter: 7 5cm, M useo N acional d e C osta R ica 1 08; r eportedly f rom G uayabó d e T urrialba ( from S narskis 1 981: p 1. 5 3).

2 40

F ig.

F ig.

7 .

8 .

W ooden t able f rom R etes, C artago, d iameter: 4 8.5cm , M useo N acional d e C osts R ica 1 2.606 ( from S tone 1 972: 1 81).

E ffigy t ripod m etate, l ength: 8 2cm , C ollection S ra. M .E. J imen ez d c R oy ( from F errero 1 977: 2 78).

2 41

2 42

F ig.

1 0.

H uman f igure w ith v essel s itting o n a j aguar e ffigy m etate; p ottery f igurine f rom D iquis C R ( after S narskis 1 982: 1 26).

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T HE C ERAMICS O F T OBAGO A ND B ARBADOS AR eport o n S tudies i n P rogress M ary H ill H arris

A BSTRACT S tudies a re i n p rogress o n p re-Columbian c eramics i n t he c ollection o f t he C ambridge U niversity M useum o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology f rom t he s ites o f M t. I rvine a nd L over's R etreat o n t he i sland o f T obago, a nd o n t he s herds e xcavated i n 1 987 a t C hancery L ane, B arbados, b y t he B arbados A rchaeological S urvey. T he m aterial i s e xamined a nd c ontrasted w ith r egard i n p articular t o t he q uestions o f t he d ate o f f irst s ettlement, t he s trength a nd n ature o f B arrancoid i nfluence, t he p resence o r a bsence o f aC arib o ccupation, a nd w hether o r n ot t he i slands w ere i nhabited a t t he t ime o f E uropean s ettlement. T obago, c lose t o t he O rinoco d elta f rom w hich p ottery-making p eople a re b elieved t o h ave s pread, h as s trong e vidence f or a n E arly S aladoid ( pre-A.D. 3 50) o ccupation ; s uch e vidence i s p resent b ut v ery r are i n B arbados. B oth i slands h ave B arrancoid-influenced " insular S aladoid" s herds b ut t he p resence o f p robable B arrancoid t rade s herds i n T obago i mplies a c lose r elationship w ith m ainland B arrancoid p eoples. S uazoid p ottery h as s ometimes b een c laimed t o b e t he p ottery o f t he C aribs, b ut t he g radual d evelopment a fter 6 50 A .D. o f S uazoid c haracteristics i s a t v ariance w ith t he h istoric t radition o f aC arib t akeover o f L esser A ntillean i slands j ust b efore C olumbus. A w heel-made s herd f rom B arbados s hows d istinct c ontinuity o f f orm w ith l ate-prehistoric f orms, p ossibly i mplying t he c o-presence o f i ndigenous I ndians w ith E uropean s ettlers.

A lthough T obago a nd B arbados b oth f orm p art o f t he s ame i sland c hain, t he L esser A ntilles, t heir p ositions i n t he c hain c ontrast s harply ( Fig. 1 ). T obago i s t he f irst o f t he i slands a m igrant w ould r each a fter l eaving T rinidad, w hich i s v irtually a p art o f t he S outh A merican l and m ass. T he p revailing w ind b lows f rom T obago t o t he s outhwest a nd w ould h ave b een n o h elp t o m igrants, b ut c urrents a pproach t he i sland f rom t he G uiana c oast, a nd t here i s a c anoe i n t he m useum a t M t. I rvine, T obago, w hich d rifted t here f rom o ne o f t he G uianas. B arbados, o n t he o ther h and, i s t he m ost r emoved o f t he A ntilles: i t i s s aid t o b e t he o nly o ne o f t he L esser A ntilles w hich i s n ot v isible f rom a nother i sland o n ac lear d ay, a nd b oth w inds a nd c urrents w ork a gainst i ts b eing f ound a ccidentally. T he d ifferent p ositions o f t he i slands m ight b e e xpected t o b e r eflected b y d ifferences i n t heir a rchaeological r ecords, o f w hich c eramics f orm a m ajor p art.

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T he c eramics o f T obago a nd B arbados c an b e r ecognised a s p arts o f t he s ame p an-Antillean d evelopment, w hich s tarts w ith t he S aladoid a nd B arrancoid w ares o riginating o n t he O rinoco . I t c ontinues t hrough t he s impler f orms o f a p eriod o f l ocal d evelopment t o a l ater p eriod o f t he w idespread u se o f r ough-surfaced S uazoid w ares. T his p aper i s b ased o n s tudies i n p rogress o f t he C ambridge U niversity M useum o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology c ollection o f m aterial f rom T obago c ollected a nd e xcavated b y G eoffrey B ushnell i n 1 955, a nd o f m aterial e xcavated t his y ear a t C hancery L ane, B arbados, b y t he B arbados A rchaeological S urvey t eam l ed b y P eter D rewett. T he B arbados A rchaeological S urvey i s a j oint p roject o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U niversity C ollege, L ondon, a nd t he B arbados M useum . C ertain q uestions a re c ommon t o a ll t he i slands, a nd s ome a re p articularly i nteresting i n t he c ases o f B arbados a nd T obago. T he o bvious f irst q uestion i s w hen, a nd f rom w here, t he i slands w ere f irst p opulated. S econdly, i t w ill b e s een t hat a s c eramic-making p eoples w ere a rriving i n t he A ntilles, t he e arliest S aladoid p ottery w as b eing r eplaced, o r i nfluenced, b y t he B arrancoid s tyle. T he n ature o f t he B arrancoid s pread m igration, c onquest, t rade i s a p roblem w hich h as n ot y e€ f ully b een s olved. T he c oarser s cratched a nd/or f ingermarked w ares o f t he l ater S uazoid s eries, j ust b efore t he C onquest, p resent a t hird p roblem . T hey h ave b een c laimed b y s ome a rchaeologists t o b e t he p ottery o f t he C arib m arauders w ho w ere i n t he p rocess o f t aking o ver t he L esser A ntilles w hen C olumbus a rrived. T here i s n o h istorical e vidence f or t he p resence o f C aribs a t t he t ime o f t he C onquest e ither i n B arbados o r i n T obago, t hough t here w ere C aribs ( possibly l ater m igrants, a nd p ossibly b y t hen i ntermingled w ith t he e arlier i nhabitants) o n T obago i n t he 1 8th c entury ( Museum o f T obago H istory P ublication n o. 4 : 2 ). F inally, t here i s t he q uestion o f w hether o r n ot t he i slands w ere p opulated a t t he t ime o f t he f irst E uropean s ettlements a lways a p lace w here h istoric a ccounts a re o pen t o s uspicion. B oth i slands w ere o nly s ighted o r v isited, r ather t han s ettled, i n t he e arly c ontact p eriod. K eymis, w riting i n 1 596, s ays T obago w as u ninhabited b ecause t he C aribs w ere " evill n eighbours u nto i t", t hough h is n ative p ilot h ad " sometime l ived t here" ( Museum o f T obago H istory P ublication 5 : 3 ). I n B arbados, A rawak I ndians a re r eported t o h ave b een p resent o n av isit b y S paniards b efore 1 518, b ut g one b y t he t ime o f P ortuguese v isits i n 1 536 ( Barton 1 953 : 3 4-38). P arenthetically, t he n on-Carib p rehistoric I ndians i n t he W indwards a re c ommonly r eferred t o a s A rawaks, b oth i n t he s ources a nd b y p resent-day i nhabitants, b ut a ccording t o R ouse a nd B odmert ( Rouse : p ersonal c ommunication) t heir c orrect d esignation s hould b e I gneri. T here i s d isagreement a mong t he s ources o ver w hether o r n ot t here w ere a f ew r emaining I ndian f amilies o n t he i sland w hen t he B ritish a rrived i n t he 1 620s. -

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T he f irst s ettlers a rrived i n a t l east s ome o f t he C aribbean i slands b efore t hey h ad l earned t o m ake p ottery. I n T rinidad a t O rtoire a nd B anwari T race a nd i n T obago a t M ilford, t here a re r emains o f p receramic c ultures. C arbon d ates f or B anwari T race r ange f rom 6 500-6000 B .C. f or t he b eginning o f o ccupation, u p t o a bout 1 000 B .C . ( P. 0 'B. H arris, a s q uoted i n R ouse, A llaire a nd B oomert i n p ress). N o d ates a re y et a vailable f or M ilford b ut i ts e xcavator, A rie B oomert , h as e stimated i t a t 1 000 B .C. ( Boomert 1 985). P receramic s ites h ave b een f ound i n A ntigua, S t. K itts a nd M artinique ( Rouse, A llaire a nd

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B oomert o p. c it.), t hough n ot i n B arbados. I n t he G reater s tone-age p eople s urvived u ntil o r e ven a fter t he C onquest.

A ntilles

I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat t he f irst m igrants t o t he i slands w ith c eramics, m anioc a griculture a nd a s ettled w ay o f l ife c ame f rom t he O rinoco. T he t wo e arliest s tyles r epresented i n t heir p ottery w ere t he S aladoid s eries a nd t he B arrancoid s eries, n amed a fter t he t ype s ites o f S aladero a nd L os B arrancos o n t he O rinoco. S aladoid p ottery ( the e arlier) i s t hin , h ard w are w ith f ine s and t emper, f inely p olished o r s lipped. B y f ar t he m ost c ommon f orm i s a b owl w ith a c oncavoc onvex o r f lat f langed r im , a nd d ecoration i s u sually p ainted, o ften ( and d iagnostically) w hite-on-red, o r i ncised w ith f ine l ines. B etween a bout 2 000 B .C. a nd t he t ime o f C hrist, S aladoid p ottery s pread f rom t he m iddle O rinoco d own t o t he d elta a nd i nto T rinidad. A s i t m oved d own t he O rinoco c ertain c haracteristics d ied o ut a nd o thers i ncreased i n i mportance, i n p articular, o nce t he c oastal a rea h ad b een r eached, t he u se o f f ine-line i ncision s uch a s Z oned I ncised C ross-hatch ( Pl. I ), w hich i s o ne o f t he m ost i mportant c eramic m arkers f or t his e arly p eriod. I t i s p resent i n t he e arly-Saladoid C edros p eriod o n T rinidad, d ated a t a round t he t ime o f C hrist. B ushnell 's T obago c ollection i ncludes a bout h alf-a-dozen s herds, f rom G oldsborough o n t he e ast c oast a nd t he l ower l ayers a t M t. I rvine. B oomert ( 1985) a lso m entions i t i n h is 1 985 e xcavations f rom S andy P oint a nd G olden G rove. A n u ndated s pecimen i s p resent i n t he c ollections a t t he B arbados M useum a nd a s ingle e xample w as f ound i n t he 1 987 C hancery L ane e xcavations. I t m ay b e p ossible t o g et a t hermoluminescence d ate f or t his s herd i n d ue c ourse; i t c ame f rom t he c ontext w here t he e arliest p ottery w as f ound. O n t he m iddle O rinoco, S aladoid w as r eplaced b efore 1 000 B .C. b y B arrancoid, w hich f ollowed t he s ame r oute t o a rrive i n T rinidad a bout 3 50 A .D. B arrancoid p ottery i s t hicker t han S aladoid, c oarsert empered, o ften g inger i n c olour, a nd p olished. B owls a re s till t he m ost c ommon f orm , b ut t hey n ow h ave f langed r ims w hich a re o ften t hick a nd h eavy o r, s ometimes, t riangular i n c ross s ection. T here a re m odelled e ffigy b owls a nd n on-round s hapes. T here i s s till s ome p aint, n ow m onochrome r ed, b ut t he p rimary t ype o f d ecoration i s g rooving. A m otif f eaturing a l ine e nding i n a p unctate d ot a t e ither e nd i s t ypical. I n t he i slands b eyond T rinidad, p ure S aladoid p ottery i s s oon r eplaced b y aB arrancoid-influenced t ype, a nd m ost o f t he e arly ( pre6 50 A .D.) s herds f ound i n t he W indwards a re o f t his t ype. I t c ombines r ed p ainting w ith g rooves, m odelled a dornos, f lange r ims, e ffigy v essels, a nd p ainted f ields s eparated b y i ncisions. A fter a bout 6 50 A .D., S aladoid/Barrancoid p ottery b egins t o d ie o ut. T he s tyles w hich r eplace i t a re m uch m ore l ocalized, t hough t hey s how a s imilar t endency t owards i ncreased t hickness, s implification o f d ecoration, i nturned o r s houldered f orms r ather t han f laring o r f langed o nes, a nd a n i ncreased u se o f h igh r ing b ases. M any o f t hese s ame f orms p ersist i n t he S uazoid s eries, w hich a ppears a round 1 100 A .D. d uring t he l atest p hase o f t he p re-contact p ottery s equence. S uazoid p ottery i s r ough-surfaced a nd h as b een c alled " crude", t hough i n B arbados i ts f abric, a s s een t hrough a m icroscope, h as v ery e venly s orted t emper a nd m ay b e s uperior t o i ts a rtistic m erits. D ecorative t echniques o ther t han m odelling o f a dornos a re l imited t o f ingermarking

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a nd s cratching, a nd t ripod f eet a ppear. H ow d o T obago a nd B arbados f it i nto t his s equence? T obago a ppears t o b e t he m ore s traightforward, a s i s t o b e e xpected f rom i ts p osition n earest t o t he m ainland j umping-off p lace o f t he O rinoco d elta. A fter s pending t wo w eeks s urveying t he i sland, D r. B ushnell u ndertook t hree e xcavations ( Bushnell, u npublished m s.). T wo o f t hese w ere a t d ifferent p arts o f M t. I rvine, o n t he s outhwest c oast ( the C oombe S ite a nd t he R oad S ite) ( Fig. 2 ). T he t hird w as a t L overs R etreat, a p romontory n ear t he t own o f P lymouth ( Fig. 2 ). I t h as p roved t o b e a S uazoid s ite. A nalysis o f t he L overs R etreat m aterial i s v irtually c omplete, b ut a nalysis o f t he l argest a nd s eemingly e arliest s ite, M t. I rvine C oombe, i s s till i n i ts p reliminary s tages. T he l argest p roportion o f s herds f rom t his s ite a ppear t o b e o f am odified S aladoid t ype ( p1. I I). E arly S aladoid m arkers s uch a s t he Z oned I ncised C rossh atched s herds a lready m entioned, a nd a s mall n umber o f t hin w hite-onr ed s herds ( p1. I II) a ppear, a s d o s herds o f B arrancoid t hick, u npainted g rooved w are. S ome v ery t ypical B arrancoid s herds c ame f rom A m os V ale a nd G oldsborough ( pls. I V, V ): s ome o f t hese a ccording t o R ouse ( personal c ommunication t o B ushnell) a re a lmost c ertainly i mported. T he p ost-650 A .D. p eriod o f l ocal d evelopment i n T obago i s r epresented b y t he G olden G rove c omplex, n amed a fter a n i nland s ite j ust s outh o f M t. I rvine. T he G olden G rove c omplex i s a n o ffshoot o f t he A rauquinoid s eries, w hich a lso s pread f rom t he O rinoco v alley t o t he c oast. A lthough o n t he m ainland, A rauquinoid i s e asily d istinguished b y i ts f requent u se o f s ponge-spicule t emper, o n T obago i t, l ike t he w ares o f o ther p eriods, i s s and-tempered. A f ine a nd a c oarse w are c an b e d istinguished. F ine d ecorated w are v essel f orms a re s hallow b owls o r d ishes, o ften o val, o ften w ith h igh r ing b ases a nd/or r im l ugs; a nd j ars w ith i nflected p rofiles. D ecoration i s b y i ncision a nd m odelling, w ith a f requent m otif o f a lternating v ertical a nd h orizontal i ncised l ines o n b owl r ims, a nd a m otif o f i ncised p arallel w avy l ines o n j ar w alls. T he c oarse w are o ccurs i n o llas a nd b uckpots o r c anaris, a nd t he s cratching w hich i s c haracteristic o f t he l ater S uazoid s eries m akes i ts f irst a ppearance ( Boomert 1 985). N ot m uch w are o f t his p eriod h as s o f ar b een i dentified i n B ushnell's c ollection, t hough a b owl ( Pl. V I) f rom t he M t. I rvine R oad s ite, n ow r econstructed, h as a r ing b ase, a s omewhat o val f orm , a nd t wo t ab l ugs. O ne o r t wo s mall s herds w ith t he w avy-line d ecoration a re a lso p resent i n B ushnell's c ollection, a s a re r ims w ith a lternating h orizontal a nd v ertical g rooves. A s mall a mount o f s cratched, o r s cored, w are i s p resent a t M t. I rvine b ut t he v ast m ajority o f B ushnell's " Plymouth S cored" t ype w as f ound a t L overs R etreat. L overs R etreat a nd t he n eighbouring t own o f P lymouth h ave g iven a n ame t o t he P lymouth c omplex o f T obago, b elonging t o t he S uazoid s eries. L ike t he G olden G rove c omplex i t c an b e d ivided i nto a f ine w are a nd a c oarser w are. T he c oarser w are i s f requently s cored a nd f orms o ccurring a re o llas, v arious b owls i ncluding r iml ugged t ypes, i nturned b owls a nd t ecomates. F ingertip n otching o ccurs. P late V II s hows s cored w are s herds f rom L overs R etreat, i ncluding ag riddle f oot, w ith s coring j ust v isible a long t he s ides. T his i s t he o nly f ooted g riddle k nown f rom T obago a nd i s t he m ost s outherly

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i ncidence o f t he f orm . M ost p rehistoric m anioc g riddles a re f lat, a nd f ooted g riddles a re l imited t o t he L esser A ntilles a nd a ppear o nly a fter 6 50 A .D. O ccurring a longside t he s cored w are i s a s econd, m uch t hinner f ine t ype w hich i t s eems r easonable t o i nterpret a s c eremonial ( pis. V III, I X). F orms a re p rimarily b owls, o ften w ith w avy e dges a nd/or r im l ugs, a nd c azuelas, t hat i s, c arinated b owls o n ah igh r ing b ase. T hey a re a lmost a lways d ecorated w ith t hin i ncised h oops d epending f rom t he r im . T he f ine w are i s u sually a p olished g inger c olour, 5 -7mm t hick, b ut t here i s a lso a t hinner v ersion w hich i s m uch r edder, w ith a v ery f ine s andy t emper i ncluding m any b lack p articles. T his i s t he o nly c lear, e asily v isible t emper d ifference b etween w ares w hich h as e merged i n t he c ourse o f m icroscopic a nalysis o f a ll t he s herds f rom L overs R etreat. F or s ome r eason v irtually a ll t he h igh r ing b ases f ound s eem t o b e m ade o f t he s andy r ed w are. B ushnell's e xcavation a t L overs R etreat w as i n t wo 4 -foot s quare p its, u sing 6 -inch a rbitrary s tratigraphic l ayers. I n p it i , c oral w as r eached a t 9 " a nd t he l ayers h ave b een l umped t ogether, b ut i n p it i i, a f ew c hanges c an b e n oted b etween t he 6 -12" l ayer a nd t he 0 -6" l ayer. I n p articular, t he s andy r ed w are g oes d own f rom 1 8% o f s herds i n t he l ower l ayer t o 9 % i n t he u pper l ayer; t otal f ine w ares, i ncluding t he s andy r ed, d ecrease f rom 4 0% t o 2 0%. S cored w ares i ncrease f rom 3 2% i n t he l ower l ayer t o 4 9% i n t he u pper. T he p roportions o f c oarse-ware f orms s uch a s c anaris , o llas a nd t ecomates i ncrease r adically a s y ou g o u p w hile t he p roportion o f c azuelas a nd w avy-edged v essels d ecreases s lightly. I t t hus a ppears t hat c oarse w ares i ncrease a t t he e xpense o f f ine w ares t hrough t he t imespan o f t he o ccupation, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o k now h ow t o i nterpret t his. I n B arbados ( Fig. 3 ) s herds o f t he e arly, C edros p hase o f S aladoid a re r are. T he r are z oned i ncised c ross-hatch s herds h ave a lready b een m entioned. W hite-on-red p ainting, a nother e arly m arker, i s p resent o n a s ingle u nprovenanced s herd i n t he H arrison 's C ave c ollection. S everal p ieces w ere f ound i n t he l ower l evels o f B ullen 's 1 966 e xcavat ions a t C hancery L ane, a nd m ore d uring 1 986 i n a s eries o f r escue e xcavations c arried o ut b y a P eace C orps a rchaeologist, S tephen H ackenberger, a t t he S hell O il D epot, B randons P lantations L td. a nd G oddards S upermarket s ites. A t hermoluminescence d ate i s i n p rocess o f b eing o btained f or o ne o f t hese s herds ( Hackenberger, 1 986). I n o ur B arbados A rchaeological S urvey e xcavations a t C hancery L ane i n 1 987 t here w ere n ine b arely p ossible e xamples o f w hite-on-red i n T rench I II o ut o f a t otal o f 3 255 s herds. F or s ome r eason t hey w ere a ll i n t he u pper l ayers, w hich i s u nexpected. F our t renches w ere o pened d uring t he 1 987 C hancery L ane e xcavat ions a nd o f t hese T rench I II h ad t he c learest s tratigraphy a nd t he l argest n umber o f s herds. T he t op 3 0 o r m ore c m c onsisted o f w indb lown s and w hich w as d ug i n 1 0cm s pits, u ntil a d arker, c ompacted, s loping l ayer w as r eached. T his l ayer c ould h ave b een e ither a n o ccupation l ayer o r a n a ncient d une s urface. T he p ottery c hanged r adically w hen t his c ompacted l ayer w as r eached, w ith a h igher p roportion o f d ecorated s herds a nd a m uch h igher p roportion o f t hin w ares ( under 5 mm) a nd r ed-slipped w ares. P its a nd p ost h oles w ere a lso f ound b ut d id n ot c ontain s ignificant a mounts o f p ottery.

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T rench I V w as s terile, a nd T renches I a nd I I c ontained p rimarily p ottery o f t he p ost-Saladoid/Barrancoid p eriod o f l ocal d evelopment a nd S uazoid w ares, t hough t his i mpression m ay i n p art b e d ue t o t he f act t hat a f ew b ags o f s herds f rom t he e arlier c ontexts r emained u nexamined t hrough l ack o f t ime. A nalysis o f t he u pper l ayers h as b een c ompleted. A mong t he t hin w ares, a nother p ossible m arker f or e arly S aladoid i s f ine-line i ncision, a nd i n p articular a t ype c alled b y B ullen " Interior I ncised" ( Fig. 4 ). S herds a re t hin, w ith a d esign o f p arallel s traight a nd c urved l ines o n t he i nterior b eneath a n i nternally t hickened r im . A n umber o f t hese w ere f ound i n o ur 1 985-86 f ield s urvey. E ight o f t his s pecific " Interior I ncised" t ype a nd 3 0 o ther f ine-line i ncised s herds w ere f ound i n t he 1 987 e xcavations i n T rench I II. O f t hese, s ix I nterior I ncised a nd 2 0 o ther f ine-lined i ncised w ere f ound i n t he c ompacted l ayer, a nd a n a dditional o ne a nd t wo r espectively i n t he s and l ess t han 1 0cm a bove t he l ayer. I n t he u pper l ayers a nd b urials o f T rench I n either f ine-line-incised n or I nterior I ncised a ppeared, a nd i n t he l ayers s o f ar a nalysed i n T rench I I, f ine-line-incised a ppears t wice i n t he 8 0-90cm l ayer o f l oose s and a nd t hree t imes a t 1 00-110cm . T here i s o nly o ne e xample o f I nterior I ncised, i n a l ower, d arker s and l ayer a t 1 00-105cm . I t i s w orth g oing i nto d etail a bout t he I nterior I ncised b ecause i t h as b een c laimed t hat b ecause o f i ts i nternally t hickened r im i t d ates t o 6 50 A .D. o r l ater ( see B oomert 1 987). O ur e xcavations s eem r ather t o p lace i t f irmly i n t he S aladoid p hase. W hether i t i s a n e arly S aladoid m arker c annot b e d etermined w ith c ertainty a t t hi s tage, b ut f uture a bsolute d ates m ay g ive u s a c lue. T he m ajority o f S aladoid s herds f rom B arbados a re o f t he M odified S aladoid t ype. B oth i n t he B arbados M useum c ollections a nd i n o ur s urvey a nd e xcavations t here w ere a n umber o f s herds o f t his p eriod, w ith t he p olished s urfaces, u se o f r ed p aint a nd g rooves, f langed r ims a nd l ow r ing b ases c haracteristic o f t he p eriod. A t C hancery L ane t here w as a p reponderance o f t hickened t riangular f langes o ver f laring o nes, b ut t he s ignificance o f t his i s n ot y et c ertain. S herds w hich c an b e d esignated a s c lassic B arrancoid a re p robably a bsent i n B arbados. N o e xtremely h eavy f langes h ave b een f ound a nd t here i s l ittle o f t he r aised m odelling o utlined b y i ncision w hich i s c haracteristic o f t he p eriod. I t a ppears f rom t he v ery m uch l arger n umber o f l ater w ares i n t he m useum a nd f ound b y u s b oth i n s urvey a nd i n e xcavation, t hat t he p opulation o f B arbados w as g reater a fter 6 50 A .D. t han i t w as b efore. T his p eriod a fter 6 50 p resents a p roblem i n B arbados. B ullen, w ho c arried o ut t he o nly m ajor s cientific e xcavations p rior t o t he c urrent p roject ( Bullen a nd B ullen 1 966), a nd w hose o pinions h ave b een w idely a ccepted, b elieved t hat a p eriod o f C aliviny p ottery w as f ollowed b y o ne o f c oarse, c rude S uazoid p ottery, p robably m ade b y t he C aribs . D iagnostic o f C aliviny w are i s a n e asily r ecognized p olychrome ( Fig. 5 ). T he p lain w are i s o ften c overed w ith a c reamy, s oapy-feeling c oating w hich u nfortunately e rodes a way v ery r eadily, m aking i t d ifficult t o i dentify. F orms o f C aliviny p ottery i nclude o pen b owls, s ometimes o n p edestal b ases, w ith p lain r ims o r r im l ugs o f t riangular, r ectangular o r h orned t ype; o val a nd b oat-shaped b owls; i nturned b owls

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o r c azuelas a nd e figy b owls ( Fig. 6 ). S uazoid p ottery i s r oughs urfaced a nd t ypically d ecorated e ither b y s cratching o r b y f ingertip o r f ingernail m arking . I t h as t he f orms j ust d escribed f or C aliviny ( except f or p edestal b ases) w ith t he a ddition o f l arge, h eavy c oncavew alled p ots a nd t ripod f orms ( Fig. 7 ). T he l egs v ary f rom p lain c ylindrical t o e laborate s houldered l egs ( the t erm " shoulder" i s u sually u sed b ut i t w ould s eem m ore l ogical t o c all t hem " kneed"). D ecorated b owls o ften h ave u pward-facing a dornos i n t he f orm o f a nimal o r h uman h eads ( p1. X ). S ince m any C aliviny f orms a re i dentical t o S uazoid o nes, i t b ecomes d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween u ndecorated s herds o f t he t wo w ards. M icroscopic a nalysis t o d istinguish C alivinoid f rom S uazoid i s s o f ar i nconclusive, t hough m any o f t he s herds w ith S uazoid d ecoration s uch a s f ingermarks s eem t o h ave a m uch m ore u niform , e venly s orted t emper ( Drewett 1 987: 5 1-52). B ullen 's 1 966 e xcavations d o s eem t o s how a n e arlier d istribution f or C aliviny s herds t han f or S uazoid s herds, b ut h is c riteria f or s orting t he p lain w ares a re n ot c lear. A p ossibility i s t hat C aliviny a nd S uazoid a re d ifferent t ypes o f w are m ade b y t he s ame p otters. O ne s trong p iece o f e vidence f ound b y u s w hich s upports t his t heory i s a s herd w hich i s b oth s cratched a nd p ainted i n t he C aliviny P olychrome s tyle. I n t he 1 987 e xcavations, w ares w ith t he c haracteristic c ream s lip a nd C aliviny P olychrome b oth o ccur a t t heir h ighest f requency i n t he l ower l evels o f t he l oose s and o f T rench I II, d ropping o ff c onsiderably b oth i n t he c ompacted e arly l ay& r a nd i n t he t op 1 0cm o f s and. E ven a t t heir h ighest f requency, r ecognisable C aliviny s herds m ake u p n o m ore t han 1 5% o f t he t otal. T he S uazoid c haracteristic o f f ingermarking c learly o verlies C aliviny P olychrome, a ppearing o nly i n t he t op 2 0cm o f s and, b ut t he o ther d iagnostic S uazoid c haracteristic, s cratching, h as a m uch w ider d istribution. S cratched w are c ould b e d ivided i nto s everal s ub-types: t he u sual f airly t hick, r ough s cratched w are ( like t hat o f T obago); aw are w hich w as s cratched b ut w ith a c ream s lip a pplied o ver t he s cratches, w hich o ne s uspects m ay h ave b een m ade t o h elp t he s lip a dhere; a nd a t hinner, d ark b rown w are w hich i s q uite s mooth u nderneath t he s cratching. U nfortunately t his l ast w as n ot r ecognized a s a s eparate t ype i n t ime f or i t t o b e s orted s eparately. S cratched a nd s lipped-and-scratched s herds a re n ot p resent i n t he t op 1 0cm o f T rench I II ( though a f ingermarked s herd i s); t hey a re p resent i n l ow f requencies f rom 1 0cm d own t hrough t he c ompacted l ayer, t hough i n t his t hey a re r are. T heir d istribution a mong t he l oose s and l ayers d oes n ot g ive a ny c lear p attern o f c hanging p opularity. I n b etween

T renches I a nd I I t here i s n ot n early s o c lear a d istinction l ayers a s i n T rench I II, a nd i t i s d ifficult t o d raw

c onclusions f rom t he p ottery d istribution.

t he

I n T rench I , c ream-slipped w are a ppears f requently ( up t o 2 8% o f t otal) i n a ll t he l ayers a nd c ontexts, i ncluding t he b urials.

C aliviny P olychrome a ppears c ertainly o nly i n C ontext 2 ( the l owest), t he f ill o f n atural h ollows i n t he c oral b edrock. S cratching a ppears i n a ll t he c ontexts b elow 2 0cm e xcept b urials 2 a nd 4 a nd f ingermarking a ppears o nce i n t he l owest l evel o f C ontext 1 ( 30-40cm) a nd o nce e ach i n b urials 1 a nd 2 .

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I n T rench I I, p ottery b egins t o a ppear i n q uantity a t ad epth o f 8 0cm i n t he l oose s and o f C ontext 1 . A s econd, l ower c ontext w as d istinguished s tarting b etween 9 0 a nd 1 00cm a nd c ontinuing d own t o 1 60cm . C ream-slipped w are a lso a ppears t hrough a ll t he l ayers. I ts d istribution v aries i rregularly b ut i ts h ighest f requency, a nd a lmost a ll t he C aliviny P olychrome s herds, a ppear b etween 8 0 a nd 1 00cm . T he h ighest f requency o f s cratched s herds i s j ust a bove t his, a t 7 0-80cm , a nd f ingermarking a ppears o nly b etween 8 0 a nd 9 0cm . A p articular d ecorated t ype o f r ough-surfaced, e venly-tempered p ottery i s B arbados I ncised R im ( Fig. 8 ). T he c ross-hatching h ere i s m ore w idely s paced t han t he e arly z oned i ncised c ross-hatch, i ts p lacing i s d ifferent, a nd t he s urface i s r ough r ather t han p olished. I ts p aste a nd c arinated s hape p lace i t i n t he S uazoid s eries , t hough B ullen ( Bullen a nd B ullen, 1 972: 1 42) b elieved i t t o d ate t o t he t erminal S aladoid. N umbers a ppearing i n T rench I II a re s mall ( only f ive a nd o ne a typical o ne) f our o f t he f ive d efinite o nes a ppear i n t he s and l ayers, w hich s eems t o s upport a l ate p osition. T rench I h as e xamples i n e ach o f t he l ayers b elow 1 0cm ( though n ot t he b urials) a nd i n T rench I I, s imilarly, t hey a re s cattered t hroughout t he l ayers b etween 8 0cm a nd t he b edrock. -

A c omparison o f t he c eramic s equences o f T obago a nd B arbados s hows t hem t o b e r ecognizably p arts o f t he s ame p rocess. T hough t he e arly S aladoid p resence o n T obago, n earer t o t he c entre o f t hings, i s s tronger, a s mall n umber o f z oned i ncised c ross-hatch a nd w hite-on-red s herds o n B arbados s eem t o s how t hat a w ave o f v ery e arly S aladoid m igrants d id r each t his o utlying i sland. I t i s t o b e h oped t hat a bsolute d ates w ill m ake i t c lear e xactly h ow e arly i t h appened. F urther s tudy w ill b e n ecessary t o m ake p lain t he d etailed v ariations b etween t he m odified S aladoid o f t he t wo i slands. I n T obago, w are o f a p ure B arrancoid t ype d oes o ccur, t hough i t i s am inor e lement i n D r. B ushnell's c ollection; B arrancoid s eems t o a ppear i n B arbados o nly m ixed w ith S aladoid. I t i s h ard t o k now h ow t o i nterpret t his. A g uess m ight b e t hat i n T obago, t rade w ith m ainland B arrancoid p eoples c oexisted w ith a n i ndigenous c hange i n p ottery s tyles u nder B arrancoid i nfluence, w hile i n B arbados t he m ajor w ave o f e arly s ettlement w as b y p eople w hose p ottery h ad a lready u ndergone t his B arrancoid m odification . T he d isappearance o f S aladoid/Barrancoid p ottery a round 6 50 A .D. h as b een i nterpreted b y B oomert ( Boomert 1 987) a s t he c ollapse o f aB arrancoid t rade n etwork. T he f act t hat i n m ost i slands t here a re a f ew c arryovers o f S aladoid/Barrancoid t raits i nto t he n ext p eriod l eads t o t he b elief t hat t here w as n o r eplacement o f o ne p eople b y a nother a s t here w ould b e i n m igration o r c onquest. D uring t he p ost-Saladoid p eriod o f l ocal d evelopment, t he p ottery o f T obago a nd B arbados s hows b oth s imilarities o f f orm a nd d ifferences o f s urface a nd d ecoration. I n T obago t here i s a n i ncreasing d ichotomy b etween u tilitarian a nd f ine w ares, b ut i n B arbados t his d oes n ot s eem t o b e t he c ase. I n b oth i slands s cratched w are s eems t o h ave b een p resent d uring t his p eriod i n l imited q uantities, g rowing i n i mportance d uring t he f inal S uazoid p hase. I n f act, m anifestations o f t he S uazoid p hase a re q uite d ifferent i n t he t wo i slands. I n T obago t he f ine w are i s a d istinct c ategory r epresenting a bout 1 /3 o f S uazoid s herds; i t i s v ery

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d ifferent f rom t he c oarse w are i n f orms, s urface, t hickness a nd d ecoration. O ver h alf t he c oarse w are i s s cratched a nd f ingermarking i s r elatively r are . I n B arbados f ine w are c annot b e d istinguished. T he o nly d ecorative t echnique u nique t o t he l atest l ayers, f ingerm arking, a ppears o n r ough p ottery. B arbados I ncised R im , w hose p lacing o f i ncised d ecoration o n t he s houlder o f a c arinated v essel r eminds o ne o f t he h ooped c azuelas o f L overs R etreat, c annot b e d esignated a s a S uazoid f ine w are f or i t s eems t o a ppear, r arely, t hrough a ll t he p ostS aladoid p eriod a nd p ossibly e ven i n t he S aladoid. S cratching i s a m uch l ess c ommon f orm o f s urface t reatment f or c oarse w ares i n B arbados t han i n T obago, w hile f ingernail a nd f ingertip m arking a re m ore f requent i n B arbados. U pward-facing a nimal- o r h uman-head a dornos a re p resent i n b oth p laces, a s a re t ripod l egs, t hough t hese a ppear t o b e m uch m ore c ommon i n B arbados. I n T obago t hey a re u sually o f a s imple t riangular f orm , t hough t here i s o ne s houldered l eg i n B ushnell 's c ollection. T he q uestion o f w hether S uazoid p ottery c an b e e quated w ith a C arib p resence i s av exed o ne. C olumbus' m en r eported t hat C arib m en o n t he i slands s poke a d ifferent l anguage f rom t heir w ives. T his w as t aken b y t he S panish, a nd b y m any h istorians a nd a rchaeologists s ince, t o m ean t hat C arib i nvaders h ad k illed a nd e aten t he A rawak m en a nd t aken t heir w omen f or w ives. S ince i t i s a ssumed t hat t he w omen m ade t he p ottery, t his c ould p rovide a n e xplanation o f t he m ixture o f t ypes f ound i n t he l ater c eramics, t he f iner w ares b eing m ade b y A rawak w omen a nd t he c oarser b y C arib w omen. T here a re a n umber o f a rguments a gainst t his. F irst, t he s ingle r eference s o f ar f ound b y t he a uthor t o am odern A rawak p otter w as t o a m ale ( Olsen 1 973). S econd, S uazoid c haracteristics s eem i n b oth B arbados a nd T obago t o h ave d eveloped f rom g radual b eginnings i n t he l atter h alf o f t he f irst m illennium , r ather t han a ppearing s uddenly; a nd i n B arbados t he d istinction b etween S uazoid a nd C alivinoid c eramics i s n ot c lear e nough t o j ustify p ostulating t he a rrival o f a d ifferent p eople. T hird, e ven t he p eriod o f f lorescence o f S uazoid c eramics b egins a bout 4 00 y ears b efore t he C onquest, a nd t he C aribs a re s upposed t o h ave b egun t heir i nvasions j ust b efore t he t ime o f C olumbus. I t t herefore s eems u nlikely t hat S uazoid p ottery c an b e a ttributed t o t he C aribs. T he o rigins o f f ingermarking, t he s ingle " Suazoid" c haracteristics w hich d oes a ppear s uddenly i n t he l atest l ayers i n B arbados, r emain a n i ntriguing p uzzle. T here i s a n i nteresting c lue t o t he q uestion o f w hether o r n ot B arbados w as p opulated a t t he t ime o f t he C onquest. P late X I i s t he r im o f a l arge p rehistoric c auldron f rom M axwell, B arbados; i ts r im p rofile a nd g rooved d ecoration a re c ommon i n e xamples b oth i n t he B arbados M useum a nd i n o ur s urvey c ollection a nd e xcavations. T he w heelmade s herd s hown i n P late X II, f rom t he 1 0-20cm l ayer o f l oose s and i n T rench I II , i s s o s imilar t hat i t m ust i mply c ontact b etween a boriginal I ndians a nd E uropeans w ho s tayed l ong e nough t o m ake p ottery.

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A cknowledgements I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o t he B artle F rere F und, t he B ritish A cademy, t he S muts M emorial F und a nd t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries f or f inancial s upport f or t he B arbados e xcavations, a nd t o t he C ambridge U niversity M useum o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology f or s upport i n t he T obago r esearch t hrough i ts C rowther-Beynon f und. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o P .L . D rewett, G . O wen, D .W .J. B ly a nd t he C ambridge M useum o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology f or p hotographs a nd t o L . D rewett f or d rawings.

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

B arton,

G .T .

1 953.

T he P rehistory o f B arbados,

B arbados.

B oo r nert, A . 1 985. P reliminary R eport o n t he 1 985 T obago A rchaeological P roject. ( Mimeographed). B oo r nert, A . 1 987. ' Notes o n B arbados P rehistory', J ournal o f t he B arbados M useum a nd H istorical S ociety, X XXVIII, n o. 1 . B ullen, R .P. a nd B ullen, A .K . 1 968. ' Barbados A rchaeology, 1 966 1 . P roceedings o f t he S econd I nternational C ongress f or t he S tudy o f t he P re-Columbian C ultures o f t he L esser A ntilles, B arbados 1 967. B arbados M useum , B ridgetown, B arbados. B ullen, R .P. a nd B ullen, A .K . 1 972. A rchaeological I nvestigations o n S t. V incent a nd t he G renadines, W illiam L . B ryant F oundation, A merican S tudies R eport 8 , O rlando, F lorida. B ushnell, G .H.S.

U ntitled r eport o n 1 955 e xcavations i n T obago, i n s.

D rewett, P .L. 1 987. ' Archaeological S urvey o f B arbados. F irst I nterim R eport.' J ournal o f t he B arbados M useum a nd H istorical S ociety, X XXVIII, n o. 1 ; 4 4-80.

H ackenberger, S . 1 986 . A rchaeological I nvestigations a t F our A merindian S ites , B arbados, W est I ndies ( Mimeographed).

M useum o f T obago H istory, P ublication n o. 4 , F rom A rchaeology t o H istory ( an I ntroduction t o T obago's P ast). M useum o f T obago H istory, P ublication n o . T obago.

O lsen, F .

1 973.

5 , T he E arliest R eports a bout

O n t he T rail o f t he A rawaks.

N orman, O klahoma.

R ouse, B .I., A llaire, L ., a nd B oomert, A . ( in p ress), ' Eastern V enezuela , G uianas a nd t he W est I ndies', i n M eighan, C .W . a nd T aylor, R .E., e ds., C hronologies i n N ew W orld A rchaeology ( second e dition), A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork/San F rancisco.

2 55

0

I S

4

Co

I N4

1 Sa ladero

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L os Barrancos

( on Orinoco d e lta )

2 T r inidad 3 T obago

4 Barbados

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T he C aribbean

2 57

2 58

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Heywood

S

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0

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H i I I cr est

xwe l I Chancery

F ig.

3 .

B arbados

2 59

L ane

0

F ig.

4 .

5 s Cm

I nterior I ncised s herd ( Barbados M useum)

0

F ig.

5 .

C aliviny P olychrome p edestal v essel, ( Barbados M useum)

2 60

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G reenland, B arbados

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C aliviny P olychrome e ffigy v essel, G reenland, B arbados ( Barbados M useum)

2 61

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F ooted e ffigy b owl ( Barbados M useum

2 62

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0 1

B arbados I ncised R im s herd, H illcrest ,

-0

2 63

Z oned I ncised C ross-hatched s herds,

2 64

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2 65

2 66

l .

P L.

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B arrancoid r im,

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A m os V ale, T obago ( 15cm w ide)

( ?peccary),

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G oldsborough, T obago ( 11cm

2 68

o q o ' P

BO N @ U T A I

2 69

t J I D L T I

O J

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P 1. V III

C azuela s herds, L overs R etreat, T obago ( max. w idths 5 6mm , 6 0mm , 6 7mm)

2 70

2 71

o q j ' t o J s . x O A o '

P l. X

H uman h ead a dornos, B arbados ( Harrison's C ave c ollection)

2 72

P l.

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P l.

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X II

R im s herd o f w heelmade v essel,

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C hancery L ane,

B arbados

THE S PATIAL C ORRESPONDENCE O F S ELECTED B ONE P ROPERTIES A ND I NFERRED A CTIVITY A REAS I N A N E ARLY F ORMATIVE D WELLING S TRUCTURE ( S 2 0) A T R EAL A LTO, E CUADOR P eter W . S tahl a nd J ames A . Z eidler

A BSTRACT A n e thnoarchaeologically d erived o bservation, t hat f ood p rocessing a reas i n d omestic d welling s tructures e xhibit d ifferential a ccumulat ions o f d ebris, i s e xa m ined. T he s tudy c orrelates s patial c oncentrations o f s elected b one p roperties w ith p roposed a ctivity a reas i n a n E arly F ormative D welling S tructure ( 5 2 0) a t R eal A lto, E cuador. B one c oncentrations w ithin a f ood p rocessing a rea a re c ontrasted w ith t hose i n a n a rea o f p roposed t raffic.

I n t his s tudy, w e e xamine t he s patial d istribution o f c ertain b one p roperties a ssociated w ith a v ertebrate a rchaeofaunal s ample f rom a n E arly F ormative d welling s tructure e xcavated a t t he R eal A lto s ite i n s outh c oastal E cuador. T he s tudy h as a t hreefold p urpose: 1 ) t o a ssess c ertain a spects o f t he f ormation p rocesses r esponsible f or f loor d eposition; 2 ) t o a ssess a n i nferred r esidential p attern p roposed f or t he E arly F ormative d welling s tructure i n t his a rea o f t he w orld; a nd 3 ) t o e xamine t he h ypothesis t hat f loor s pace w ithin d omestic f ood p rocessing a reas h as a h igher p ropensity f or i ncorporating h ousehold d ebris. I t i s r ecognized t hat t he p recise d elineation o f b oth n atural a nd c ultural f ormation p rocesses i nvolved i n a rchaeological d eposition i s a p rerequisite f or a ny i nferential a rguments r egarding a ctivity a reas a nd t he u tilization o f s pace ( Schiffer 1 976; 1 983; 1 987). T his i s o f p articular i mportance w hen c onsidering h ouse f loor a ssemblages a nd t he o rganization o f d omestic s pace w ithin w ell-bounded s tructures ( Schiffer 1 985; S eymour a nd S chiffer 1 987). H ouse f loor f aunal a ssemblages a re c onsidered t o b e e xtremely s ensitive i ndicators o f s uch f ormation p rocesses w hich s erve t o i ndependently t est f indings b ased o n n on-osseous a rtefact a ssemblages. T he p aper b egins w ith a b rief i ntroduction t o t he s ite o f R eal A lto a nd a d escription o f a n e xcavated E arly F ormative h ouse f eature ( Structure 2 0). A n i nferred r esidential p atterning f or S 2 0, b ased u pon e thnoarchaeological o bservations a nd a s tudy o f a rtefact d ispersion i n a ssociation w ith f ixed f eatures, i s s ummarized. T his i s f ollowed b y a s patial e xamination o f c ertain b one p roperties, i ncluding n umbers, w eights, s izes a nd d ensities. A b rief s ummary a nd d iscussion c onclude t he p aper.

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S tructure 2 0 a t R eal A lto T he e xtensive R eal A lto s ite i s l ocated s ome 3 km i nland f rom t he s outhwestern c oast o f E cuador, o n al ow r idge a djacent t o t he R io V erde d rainage ( Fig. 1 ). A rchaeological s tudies a t t his s ite h ave d ocumented a s hift f rom e galitarian t o h ierarchical s ociety w ithin t he a pproximately 2 000 y ear s pan ( ca . 3 500 t o 1 500 B C) o f t he E arly F ormative V aldivia C ulture. C overing a r oughly 1 2.4 h ectare a rea, R eal A lto i s o ne o f t he e arliest e xamples o f a l arge n ucleated v illage w ith e laborate c eremonialism a nd e ffective a griculture i n t he N ew W orld. I t i s d ominated b y t wo r oughly e lliptical r idges o f d eep a rchaeological m idden, r unning i n aN NW/SSE d irection. J oined a t e ither e nd b y s maller r idges, a l inearly d epressed " plaza" a rea , f ree o f m idden, i s d emarcated. T wo c entrally o pposing c eremonial m ounds e xtend i nto t he p laza a rea, t hereby c reating a n orthern a nd a s outhern s ector. I t i s a s pecific d omestic d welling f eature ( S 2 0), o ne o f a n umber o f c ontinuous a nd o verlapping s tructures s een a s s urf i cial h umps o r r ises o n t he p arallel r idges, w hich c oncerns u s h ere. T he r eader i nterested i n o ther a spects o f R eal A lto i s d irected t o a l arge b ody o f r elevant l iterature ( e.g. L athrap e t a l. 1 975; 1 977; B yrd 1 976; M arcos e t a l. 1 976; M arcos 1 978; D amp 1 979; P earsall 1 979; Z eidler 1 984). A s eries o f r esidential z ones e xisting o n t op o f t he r idges w ere e xplored t hrough i nitial t ransect s ampling b y t hree l ong t renches c omposed o f a s eries o f 2b y 3 m u nits. U nit s urfaces w ere s hovels craped i n o rder t o d etect s urficial e vidence o f c ultural f eatures . T hese w ere t hen m apped i n p lan a nd e xcavated f rom t he s urrounding m idden m atrix w hich w as i n t urn e xcavated i n a rbitrary 1 0cm l evels . T his e xcavation t echnique, a long w ith e xtensive l ateral s hovels craping, e xposed a b ewildering a rray o f d eep, s uper-imposed r emnant w all t renches w hose a ssociated f loors h ad l ong s ince e roded a way. F ortunately, t wo s uch s tructures h ad w ell-preserved f loors ; o ne o f w hich ( S 2 0) w ill b e e xamined i n t his s tudy. 5

2 0 w as f irst e ncountered i n t he i nitial t renching o f t he

n orth

r idge a nd w as b isected b y t wo e xploratory u nits ( C15 a nd C 16) w hich d estroyed a l arge p ortion o f t he c entral f loor. L ateral s hovels craping a nd s weeping e xposed a w all t rench e ncircling a n 8 b y 6 .5m o val f eature w ith a s ingle d oorway i n s outhwesterly o rientation I ntrusive f eatures w ere e xcavated t o e xpose t he o riginally 3 9.14m f loor a rea . F loor d eposits v aried i n t hickness f rom 1 5cm i n t he e astern h alf t o 1 8-20cm i n t he w estern h alf o f t he s tructure. T hey u nderlay aV aldivia P hase 4 /5 a nd l ater p roto-Machalilla o ccupation, a nd o verlay a V aldivia P hase 1 a nd 2 m idden a rea. S tructure 2 0 c eramic a ssociations i ndicate a c lose c orrespondence w ith o ne o f t he c entral m ounds w hich y ielded d ates o f 4 265 ± 7 5 ( ISGS 4 39) a nd 4 110 ± 7 5 ( ISGS 4 46), o r a pproximately 4 200 b p a nd a V aldivia P hase 3 a ssociation ( Hill 1 975; M arcos 1 978). A c ontemporaneous s tructure ( S 1 ) i s c onsidered t ypical o f k nown P hase 3 -6 h ouses, a nd h as b een d escribed a s f ollows: I t w as a w all-trench h ouse w hose f loor w as a s hallow s aucer-shaped p it e xcavated a bout 2 1 c entimeters i nto t he s terile s oil. T he h ouse w as l arge a nd e lliptical, m easuring t welve b y e ight m eters. I ts w alls, t ypical o f V aldivia h ouses,

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w ere m ade o f m assive, c losely s paced, v ertical l ogs p laced i n a c ontinuous e lliptical t rench a nd c overed w ith a t hick c oating o f m ud. T wo p airs o f i nterior h ouse p osts s upported a h igh g abled t hatched r oof ( Lathrap e t a l. 1 977: 8 ).

S 2 0 d iffered f rom S 1 n ot o nly i n i ts s maller s ize, b ut a lso i n i ts e xtremely f riable, u niformly g ray a nd p owdery s oil. D ue t o t hese s oil c onditions a d ifferent e xcavation s trategy w as e mployed t han t hat u sed i n S i, w here t he f loor d eposits w ere r emoved i n i m b y i m g rid u nits e xcavated i n 5 cm a rbitrary l evels a fter a ll i nternal f eatures h ad b een i dentified a nd e xcavated. I n S i, a rtefacts w ere t hus r emoved i n i m b y i m b y 5 cm p rovenience u nits w ith n o o ther l ocational d ata. I n S 2 0, h owever, t he s oil c onditions n ecessitated c areful b rushing o f t he e ntire f loor f eature w ith p edestalling a nd p iece-plotting o f a ll c ultural r emains. Mps w ere d rawn a fter e ach 5 cm l evel, a nd a rtefacts w ere c ollected i n i m p rovenience u nits. P iece p lots w ere c onverted t o p oint d ata u sing a s onic d igitizer t o p roduce c omputer p lots o f f our a rbitrary l evels w ith 2 4 d istinct a rtefact c ategories: 1 ) C eramics ( Undifferentiated P ottery, C oqueros, T etrapod B owl F ragments, F igurines, B eads); 2 ) S hell ( Unmodified, S poons, T angas, R im F ragments); 3 ) L ithics ( Undifferentiated, M anos, M etates, M ortars, P estles, S crapers, B lades, G round S tone S aws, S hell R eamers, F igurines); 4 ) B one ( Undifferentiated M andibles, H uman P halangial, C ranial, a nd F emoral F ragments).

D omestic P roxemics o f S tructure 2 0 I n a l arger s tudy, Z eidler ( 1984) e xamined a rtefact d ispersion a nd t he p lacement o f f ixed f eatures w ithin S 2 0, t hrough t he a pplication o f s patial a nalytical t echniques. A p rimary g oal o f t he s tudy w as t o r econstruct " domestic p roxemics," o r t he o rganization a nd u tilization o f a ctivity s pace w ithin t he h ousehold. E thnoarchaeological r esearch w as u ndertaken i n o rder t o e xplore t he c ultural f ormation p rocesses r esponsible f or t he d eposition o f m aterials i n a rchaeological h ouse f loors. A s uitable e thnographic h ouse f loor, w hich s atisfied c ertain b oundary c onditions ( 1. a l arge e lliptical d welling s tructure w ith a d irt f loor, 2 . a n e xtended f amily h ousehold c omposition , 3 . a n a ctive p ottery t radition, a nd 4 . m inimal a cculturation t o w estern s ociety) w as l ocated i n a n o val A chuar l ea d omestic s tructure i n M orona-Santiago P rovince o f S outheastern E cuador ( Zeidler 1 983; 1 984: 3 07-375). T his s tudy p rovided e xpectations f or a rchaeological v isibility o f s pace u tilization a nd g enerated t estable h ypotheses i n o rder t o s trengthen t he n ature o f i nferential r econstructions. F our r esearch t opics w ere e xamined, i ncluding: t he s exual o rganization a nd u tilization o f s ocial s pace w ithin t he A chuar h ousehold; t he d elineation o f a ctivity a reas; t he d ifferential f low o f m aterial c ultural i tems t hroughout t he h ousehold; a nd s ystems o f r efuse d isposal a nd t he n ature o f h ouse f loor d eposition. T he A chuar-derived e thnoarchaeological o bservations w ere a pplied t o t he i nterpretation o f a ctivity a reas a nd t he n ature o f f loor d eposition i n 5 2 0 . S pecifically, a q uadrat c ount s tatistical a nalysis w as c arried o ut o n f our b asic " residue" c ategories ( Undifferentiated

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P ottery, S hell, S tone, a nd B one) h aving r elatively h igh d ensities. T he r emaining 2 0 c ategories, p lus t he s patial d ispersion o f c arbonized w ood, w ere u sed i n a q ualitative c ontextual a nalysis. A c ontextual e valuation o f t he d ispersion o f s pecific a rtefact t ypes, a nd c omparisons w ith t he c ontemporaneous S 1 , r esulted i n a p roposed r econstruction o f h ousehold s pace i n S 2 0 ( Fig. 2 ). A f emalea ssociated a rea i n t he v icinity o f a c entral h earth f eature i s p roposed. T his s hallow , c ircular h earth a ppears i n L evel 4 o f t he s outh-central p ortion o f t he f loor a nd i s b isected b y U nits C 15 a nd C 16. S lightly b asin-shaped i n c ross-section, t he h earth m easures 6 5cm E /W a nd c ontains a sh a nd c harcoal f lecks. As econd p ossible f emale a rea i n t he l eft r ear o f t he h ouse w as p roposed o n t he b asis o f f igurine c oncentrations, a nimal m andibles, c harcoal, a nd g round s tone m anos. A t entative m ale-oriented a rea m ay b e l ocated t o t he r ight o f t he h ouse e ntryway, b ased o n e vidence o f s hell t ool m anufacture. A n e xtension o f t his a rea m ay b e f ound i n t he r ight r ear s ection o f t he d welling, w here r elatively h igh d ensities o f u nmodified s hell r emains o ccur ( especially o f t he g astropod C erithidea v alida). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t hese g ender d esignations a re s omewhat t entative, e specially w ith r egard t o t he " male-related" a rea. T hey a re b ased o n c ertain s uppositions r egarding g ender a rrangements a nd t ask d ifferentiation ( Spector 1 983; C onkey a nd S pector 1 984) i n s ocieties t hroughout t he t ropical l owlands o f S outh A merica , a nd t he c orrespondi ng g ender-specific t ools a nd a rtefacts f ound a mong t hem . T he c ase f or f emale-related a reas i s b ased o n t he r ecurrent a ssociation ( Schiffer 1 987: 2 0) o f a s eries o f a r t fefact c ategories t ogether w ith f ixed f eatures, m any ( but n ot a ll) o f w hich i ndicate f ood p rocessing a nd m eal p reparation t asks. T he c ase f or m ale-related a reas i s m ade l argely b y d efault ( i.e. a s " non-female" a reas), a lthough c ertain r ecurrent a rtefact a ssociations e xist h ere a s w ell. I n t he c ase o f R eal A lto, t he s exual d ivision o f h ousehold s pace d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a s r igidly p roscribed a s i n t he e thnographic A chuar c ase. R ather, m uch o verlap b etween t he s exes n o d oubt e xisted i n t he u se o f s pace w ithin t hese d wellings. A ny s egregation d iscernable a rchaeologically a t R eal A lto w as p robably d ue m ore t o q uestions o f t ask c ompatibility a nd p roxemic c onvenience t han t o r igidly d esignated " gender s pace", a s i n t he A chuar c ase ( see Z eidler 1 984 f or a m ore d etailed t reatment o f t his i ssue). I n g eneral, b oth P hase 3 s tructures a t R eal A lto i ndicate c oncentric s patial p atterning, c onsisting o f a c entral f emale f ood p rocessing a rea s urrounded b y a ( male?) s hell p rocessing s ector . F urthermore, i n b oth h ouses t here a ppears t o b e a s uggestion t hat a sh d eposits a round h earths a re o ften ' hot s pots ' i n t he d eposition o f c ultural m aterial. T his i s c learly s een i n as patial e xamination o f S 1 f aunal r emains ( Stahl a nd Z eidler 1 987) a nd w as a lso p reviously s uggested i n P ozorski's ( 1979: 1 46) s patial a nalysis o f b one d istribut ions w ithin r esidential s tructures a t t he M iddle H orizon s ite o f G alindo, i n t he M oche V alley, P eru. T he a nalysis o f r esidue c ategories i n S 2 0 w as l ess o bvious i n t his r egard; h owever, t he r ight h alf o f t he s tructure e xperienced m ore b urning a ctivity w hich i n t urn p roduced a shier s oil c onditions. T hus, i ndividual a rtefact c ategories m ay h ave h ad ah igher p ropensity t o b e i ncorporated i nto t he f loor d eposits o f t his a rea. S pecifically, w e e xamine t his f inal p oint i n t he r emainder o f t he p aper. T he s patial a nalysis o f t he 5 2 0 b ones m ay p rove t o b e a s ensitive i ndicator i n t his r egard.

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T he S patial D istribution o f B one P roperties i n S2 0 I n t he A chuar l ea s tudied b y Z eidler, t he a ccumulation o f h ouse f loor d eposits s panning a t hree y ear p eriod o f o ccupation w as m uch t hicker i n t he f emale e kent a rea. T his w as m ost p ronounced i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f h earth f eatures, w here m aterial r esidue a ppears t o h ave b een t rampled i nto a shy f loor s ubstrates. T his I s d ue t o t he i ncorporation o f f ood d ebris i nto t he s oft m atrix d uring t he f requent a ctivity o f f ood p reparation a nd o n-the -spot c onsumption. C onversely, t he m ale t ankamash a rea w as r elatively f ree o f a ccumulated f loor d eposits a fter t hree y ears o f u se. T he r elatively r apid a ccumulation o f m aterial r esidues i n a nd a round t he a shy s ubstrates o f t he f emale e kent w as a lso o bserved i n a n a bandoned l ea c lose t o t he s tudy s ite ( Zeidler 1 984: 3 61-370). W e s uggest t hat t his i s a lso o bservable i n a s patial e xamination o f a rchaeofaunal r emains f ound i n a ssociation w ith S 1a t R eal A lto ( Stahl a nd Z eidler 1 987). I n t he r emainder o f t his s tudy, w e w ill e xamine i n g reater d etail t he d ifferential d istribution o f s pecific b one p roperties i n t he p roposed p rincipal f ood p rocessing a rea o f S 2 0. I nitial s ite t renching r esulted i n t he u nfortunate d estruction o f t he c entral f loor a rea o f S 2 0 . W e h ave, t herefore, d ecided t o e xamine t he o verall d istribution o f t he a ssociated a rchaeofaunal r emains i n t erms o f 2b y 3 m u nits ( Fig. 2 1 . O f t he s even u nits w ithin t he f loor a rea , U nit 1 5 w as n ot a vailable f or a nalysis. T herefore, t his s tudy c onsists o f t he 7 300 v ertebrate a rchaeofaunal r emains f rom U nits 1 6, 1 7, 1 6N, 1 5N, 1 6S a nd 1 5S. A s w ith o ther f aunal a ssemblages f rom t his a rea o f s outhwestern c oastal E cuador, t he r ange o f i dentifiable s pecies i s s omewhat r estricted. M ammal r emains ( N = 4 230) a re d ominated b y s mall, n on-identifiable f ragments ( N = 3 638). T he m ajority o f i dentifiable m ammal r emains a re t ypically c omparable t o t he W hitet ailed D eer O docoileous v irginianus ( N = 4 09). E lements f rom a ll a reas o f t he s keleton a re r epresented. A s maller a mount ( N = 1 74) o f b ones c ould o nly b e i dentified t o b ody p art. T hese c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f v ertebral a nd c ranial f ragments, w hich c ould h ave o riginated f rom t he s keleton o f a l arger c ervid. I dentifiable r emains a lso i nclude a l arge f eline ( cf. F elis c oncolor o r o nca) m axilla a nd h uman H omo s apiens f oot a nd h and b ones ( N = 8 ). F ish r emains ( N = 3 063) a re a lso d ominated b y u nidentifiable f ragments ( N = 1 359). T ypically, r emains o f t he m arine c atfish ( Siluriformes c f. A riidae) a re m ost c ommon. T hese i nclude o rnamented c ranial p lates ( N = 7 80) a nd s pine f ragments ( N = 1 04). T he m ajority o f u nidentified v ertebrae ( N = 5 71) a lso p robably o riginate f rom a s imilar f ish. T he o ssified v ertebral c entrae o f c artilagenous f ish ( N = 9 4), S ea B ass v ertebrae ( N = 3 ), J ack a nd P ompano c ranial b ones ( N = 4 ), P erciform s upra-occipital e lements ( N = 1 27), a nd o tolith f ragments ( N = 2 1) c omplete t he c omplement o f f ish r emains. A f ew b ird ( N = 4 ) a nd r eptile ( N = 3 ) r emains a re a lso i dentified. O n t he b asis o f t he p reviously d escribed e thnoarchaeological o bservations, a nd o ur s patial s tudy o f t he c ontemporaneous S 1 f aunal a ssociations, w e b elieve t hat f ood p rocessing a reas w ithin d welling s tructures a re " hot s pots" f or t he a ccumulation o f m aterial r emains. A nother s uch a rea, w e s uggest, i ncludes w all t renches a nd f loor s pace

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d irectly a djacent t o h ouse w alls. T hese l atter a reas a re n ot i ncluded i n t his s tudy d ue t o t he s trategy o f e xcavation ; h owever, t his a ppears t o b e d ocumented i n S 1 ( Stahl a nd Z eidler 1 987). T he g reater a ccumulation o f d ebris i n f ood p rocessing a reas c an b e s een a s t he r esult o f n umerous p ossible d epositional f actors. P rincipal a mong t hese i s t he a ccumulation o f h eavy a sh d eposits i n a nd a round h earths . T he r elatively s oft s ubstrate w ithin t hese a reas f acilitates t he i ncorporation o f d iscarded i tems a ssociated w ith f ood p reparation . F urthermore, d ifficulties a ssociated w ith s weeping t hese a shy s ubstrates l ead t o t he g reater a ccumulations o f m aterial r esidues. F ood p rocessing a reas l ie o utside z ones o f c ontinuous f oot t raffic a nd, t herefore, a re n ot s ubject t o c ommunition b rought a bout b y c onstant t rampling. T raffic z ones a re m eticulously s wept, w ith d iscarded i tems o ften p ushed i nto l ess a ccessible a reas l ike w all p eripheries a nd f ixed f eatures s uch a s h earths. T he i ncorporation o f m aterial r esidues i nto a sh m atrices m ay a lso i nhibit t he r ole o f d omestic s cavengers i n t he r edistribution a nd/or d estruction o f b one r emains. T he s patial d istribution o f c ertain p hysical p roperties i n t he S 2 0 b one s ample a re e xamined b elow a s a rchaeologically v isible a spects a ssociated w ith d ifferential f loor a ccumulation i n f ood p rocessing a reas. A s e arlier s tated, t he p rincipal z one o f f ood p reparation i n S 2 0 i s a ssociated w ith a h earth f eature l ocated j ust t o t he r ight o f c entre i nside t he d oorway. I n g eneral, t he r ight h alf o f S2 0 f rom t he h earth f eature t o t he r ear o f t he f loor a rea h ad a shier s oil c onditions a long w ith a m uch h igher d ensity o f c harred f ragments p er s quare m etre ( see P earsall 1 979: 1 13; Z eidler 1 984: M ap 1 16). I n s upport o f o ur s uggestions c oncerning t he g reater a ccumulation o f f loor d eposits i n f ood p rocessing a reas, t he m ajority o f f aunal r efuse i s l ocated i n t he c entral a nd r ight h alf o f t he s tructure. I n p articular, w ell o ver h alf ( 57.4%) o f t he t otal n umber o f e lements a re f ound i n o nly t wo u nits; U nits 1 6 ( N = 1 767, 2 4 .2%) a nd 1 6S ( N = 2 423, 3 3.2%). T his i s p redictably c orroborated b y w eight d istributions. U nit 1 6 c ontains 1 751.75 g ms ( 31.5%), a nd U nit 1 6S c ontains 1 511.5 g ms ( 27.2%) b y w eight o f t he t otal b one r emains. C learly, t hese s imple s tatistical m anipulat ions s uggest t hat a g reater a mount o f b one i s l ocated i n t he p rincipal f ood p reparation a rea. H owever, a d etailed a nalysis o f a ssociated p hysical p roperties r eveals a m ore s ensitive i ndication o f d ifferential b one a ccumulation . A n e xamination o f t he s ize o f S 2 0-related b one r emains ( Fig. 3 ) r eveals e xtensive b reakage. T hese c umulative o gives a re e ntirely c onsistent w ith t he r esults f or S 1 . T he m ajority o f b ones a re u nder 2 5mm i n m aximum d imension; i ncluding, 9 1.4% o f t he f ish a nd 8 2% o f t he m ammal b ones, r espectively. B efore w e i nterpret t he s patial s ignificance o f t hese s tatistics, w e m ust f irst e xamine t he n atural a nd c ultural a gents w hich c an c ontribute t o b one b reakage. C hief a mongst t hese a re t he c ombined e ffects o f f luctuating t emperature a nd h umidity. T hese c an d estroy b one ( Behrensmeyer 1 975 : 4 79; M iller 1 975: 2 18 ; J ohnson 1 983: 5 9) a nd c ontribute t o v ertical d isplacement ( Cahen a nd M oeyersons 1 977; M oeyersons 1 978 : 1 18-119). T his g eneral a rea o f E cuador r eceives t he f ull b runt o f t he c yclical E l N if lo p henomenon , w hich d isrupts t he p revailing d ry c onditions i n s pectacular f ashion. T he g enesis o f t he h omogenously g ray a nd p owdery m idden s oils t ypically f ound o n l ocal a rchaeological s ites h as b een a ttributed t o t he c umulative e ffect o f c yclical w et/dry p eriods ( Marcos 1 978: 1 0 ;

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P earsall 1 979: 6 6 ; Z eidler 1 984: 5 3), a lthough t he e ntire s ite o f R eal A lto w as n ot u niformly a ffected i n t his m anner. M ore r ecent e xcavations i n t he c entral p ortion o f t he s ite t o t he n ortheast o f t he c eremonial p recinct h ave r evealed w ell-defined s tratigraphy a nd m arkedly c ompact s oil c onditions ( Zeidler 1 985). A lthough t hese a mbient c onditions c ould h ave c ontributed t o t he o verall b reakage o f b one i n S 2 0, w e s uspect t hat t his m ost l ikely w ould h ave p roceeded u niformly o n a f eature-wide b asis. P ost-depositional t rampling a nd s ite r e-use c ould c ertainly h ave c ontributed t o b reakage. D espite t he f act t hat t he S 2 0 l iving f loor w as v aryingly f ound u nder a pproximately 3 5 t o 7 5cm o f o verburden, e vidence s uggests t hat a bandoned h ouses w ere u sed a s d umping a reas. A s e arlier s tated, e very e ffort w as t aken t o r emove i ntrusive f eatures p rior t o e xcavation o f t he f loor. N evertheless, i t r emains i mportant t o c onsider t hese a nd o ther p otential p ost-depositional f actors w hen a ssessing t he r esults. F ood p rocessing i tself c ould h ave c ontributed t o b one f ragmentat ion , a nd f or t his w e h ave v ery l ittle d ata. I f p ots w ere u sed i n c ooking o r b oiling m eat, t hen a r ange o f m inimum a nd m aximum s izes o f 6 0-260mm c an b e s uggested o n t he b asis o f a ssociated v essel o rifice d iameter ( Zeidler 1 984: 4 07-433). B inford ( 1978: 3 96) h as s uggested t hat m arrow c racking p roduces a h igh p roportion o f c hips a nd f ragments u nder 2 cm , w hich c ould c ertainly a pply t o t he S 2 0 f aunal r emains. T rampling i n l oose s ubstrates c an l ead t o s ize-dependent s orting. F or e xample, i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hose i tems b elow 2 5mm i n s ize m ay b e t rampled i nto d eposits a s p rimary r efuse ( Gifford 1 980: 1 02). C haracteristically, s mall a nd d ense b ones m ay a lso b e s ubject t o d ifferential b urial i n t rampling z ones ( Yellen 1 977: 3 23; B ehrensmeyer a nd B oaz 1 980: 8 7). L arge a nd f lat o bjects m ay r emain c loser t o t he s urface, d epending u pon t he s ubstrate ( Stockton 1 973: 1 16; B arton a nd B ergmann 1 982: 2 46), a nd u nburied e lements a re p rone t o f urther r emoval, p articularly i n r egularly s wept a reas. S cavengers l ike t he d omesticated d og c ould c ertainly h ave c ontributed t o t he d estruction o r r emoval o f b one m aterial ( Kent 1 981). At otal o f f our c onglomerations o f b one e lements w ith a n o uter p olished a nd " dissolved a ppearance" w ere l ocated i n t he S 2 0 f loor d eposits. W e s uggest t hat t hese m ay c ons titute e xamples o f d igested o r r egurgitated b one a ttributable t o c arnivores, e specially t he d omesticated d og w hich i s k nown i n E arly F ormative c ontexts. S tudies h ave s hown t hat a s m uch a s 7 0% o f b one f ragments f ound i n c arnivore d efecation a reas a re u nder 3 0mm i n s ize ( Binford 1 981: 5 8). A lthough n o d irect c arnivore d amage w as o bserved i n t he S 2 0 f auna, s ome p atterns i n b one s urvivorship m ay b e s uggestive o f d og-related a ctivity. T hese m ay i nclude d ifferential s urvivorship o f t he a cetabulum, g lenoid f ossa, a nd p roximal r adius, a nd t he d estruction o f s uch p arts a s t he p roximal t ibia a nd h umerus. T he s patial d istribution o f b one s ize c lasses c learly d emonstrates t heir d ifferential s urvivorship i n d ifferent a reas o f t he h ouse. A s mall p ercentage ( 14%; N = 1 013) o f t he e ntire b one s ample i s a bove 2 5mm i n m aximum d imension. T he m ajority o f t hese r emains a re f ound i n U nit 1 6 ( Fish: N= 1 46; 5 6.15% ; M ammal: N= 2 42; 3 2.1%) a nd t he r ight h alf o f S2 0, i n U nits 1 6S ( Fish: N= 6 3; 2 4.2%; M ammal: N = 2 12; 2 8 .15%) a nd 1 5S ( Fish: N= 2 3; 8 .8%; M ammal: N= 7 8; 1 0 .35%). T hat o ver 7 0% o f t he r elatively l arger r emains w ere f ound i n t hese t hree

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u nits, p rincipally U nit 1 6, c ontrasts w ith t he u nits i n t he l eft h alf o f S2 0. T hese w ere d istributed a s f ollows: U nit 1 7 ( Fish : N = 6 ; 2 .3%; M ammal: N= 4 8; 6 .4%); U nit 1 6N ( Fish: N= 8 ; 3 .1%; M ammal: N = 6 2; 8 .2%); a nd U nit 1 5N ( Fish: N= 1 4 ; 5 .4%; M ammal: N = 11; 1 4.7%). T he r elatively h igher s urvivorship o f l arge m ammal r emains i n t he t op l eft u nit ( 15N) m ay b e a ssociated w ith a n a uxiliary f ood p rocessing a rea ( Fig. 2 ), i nferred o n t he b asis o f f igurine, m andible , m ano, a nd c harcoal c oncentrations. A s imilar r ear a uxiliary h earth w as s uggested f or t he c ontemporaneous S 1 d welling s tructure ( Stahl a nd Z eidler 1 987). A n e xamination o f b one s ize c lasses b roken d own b y u nit ( Fig. 3 , b ottom) c learly i ndicates t he c onsistently h igher s urvivorship o f s maller e lements i n t he l eft p ortion o f 5 2 0, w here t raffic w as p robably g reatest. T he s urvivorship o f i tems b elow 2 5mm i n s ize i s f ar g reater i n t hese u nits ( 17, F ish: 9 6.35% ; M ammal: 8 4%; 1 6N, F ish : 9 8.6%; M ammal: 8 8.7%; 1 5N, F ish : 9 3.75% ; M ammal: 8 2.4%). T hese f igures s tand i n g reatest c ontrast t o U nit 1 6 , i n w hich t he p ercentage o f s urviving m ammal a nd f ish e lements b elow 2 5mm d rops t o 7 3 .87 . , a nd 8 1.3% r espectively. A l ess c onvincing p attern a lso s uggests t hat e lements i n U nits 1 6S ( Fish : 9 3.9%; M ammal: 8 4.6%) a nd 1 5S ( Fish : 7 9.4%; M ammal: 8 8.7%) i ndicate a s lightly h igher s urvivorship o f l arge i tems, e specially l arger f ish e lements. S o f ar, w e h ave d ocumented a c oncentration o f b one m aterial b y n umber a nd w eight i n t he p rincipal f ood p reparation a rea o f S2 0. T his c orresponds w ith s urvivorship o f t he m ajority o f l arger i tems i n t his a rea, c ontrasted w ith a h igh s urvivorship o f s mall i tems o utside o f t his a rea. I n p articular, U nit 1 6 a nd, t o a l esser d egree, U nit 1 6S a ppear t o h ave t he h ighest p roportion o f t hese b one p roperties. T his d ifferential p attern o f s urvivorship i s c learly d emonstrated i n a s patial a nalysis o f e lement d ensities. I t a ppears t hat b one e lements l ocated o utside U nit 1 6 a nd 1 6S s urvive i n ad ensity-dependent f ashion . O n a s tructure-wide b asis, e lements f or w hich w e h ave r eliable d ensity m easurements d o n ot s urvive o n a w holly d ensity-dependent b asis. T his i s i llustrated i n F igure 4 , w hich c ompares t he o bserved f requency o f C ervid b one e lements w ith t heir e xpected f requency. T he l atter i s c omputed b y m ultiplying t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividual O docoileous v irginianus ( MNI = 1 1, b ased u pon d istal l eft t ibia) b y t he n umber o f t hat e lement p er i ndividual a nimal b y t heir r elative d ensities. D ensity f igures a re s upplied i n L yman 's ( 1984) V olume D ensity v alues f or t he c ervid s keleton . W here a n umber o f s can s ite v alues w ere e mployed, t hese w ere a veraged. T he r esulting C hi S quare a nalysis s hows a s tatistically s ignificant d ifference b etween t he t wo g raphs a t t he . 01 l evel o f s ignificance. An umber o f d iscrepancies a re i mmediately a pparent. A n u nderabundance o f t he p roximal m etapodium , n aviculo-cuboid, a nd d istal u lna h as a lso b een o bserved i n S 1 . I n p articular, i t m ight b e s uggested t hat t he p roximal m etapodium w as s electively r emoved f or u se e lsewhere, e specially a s t his r elatively d ense e lement i s n ot r avaged b y d ogs ( Binford 1 981: 7 4). T his m ust r emain u nsubstantiated, h owever, a s n o i nformation e xists f or w hy i t m ay h ave b een s electively r emoved i n t his c ontext. T he d istal r adius a nd u lna a re a lso u nder-represented a nd t his c ould b e e xplained b y c arnivore a ctivity ( Binford 1 981: 7 3). H owever, t his w ould n ot e xplain t he d iscrepencies b etween a n o verabundance o f t he p roximal

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r adius a nd a n u nderabundance o f t he p roximal u lna. I t i s a lso i nteresting t o n ote t he d ifferential s urvivorship o f a n umber o f t he r elatively l ight d ensity e lements a t t he b ottom o f t he g raph . A n a nalysis o f t heir s patial d istribution w ithin S 2 0 s hows t heir d ifferential s urvivorship i n t he p rincipal f ood p rocessing a rea. A s et o f e xpected f igures w ere c omputed f or i ndividual u nits b y m ultiplying t he p ercentage o f a n e lement i n t he o verall s ample w ith t he s um o f t he o bserved n umber o f e lements f or t hat u nit. A c omparison o f o bserved a nd e xpected v alues f or i ndividual u nits i ndicates a s tatistically s ignificant d ifference a t t he . 01 c onfidence i nterval i n U nits 1 6 a nd 1 6S ( Figs. 5 a nd 6 ). T his i s p articularly n oticeable i n t erms o f s ome r elatively l ight d ensity e lements, e specially f rom t he h ind q uarters. T hese a re t o b e c ontrasted w ith a ll t he o ther u nits i n w hich e lements a ppear t o s urvive m ore o r l ess i n r elation t o t heir e xpected d ensities ( Figs. 7 t o 1 0). T his i s m ost a pparent f or U nits 1 7, 1 6N, a nd 1 5N, w hich i ncorporate a n h ypothesized z one o f t raffic.

S ummary a nd D iscussion A n a nalysis o f t he s patial d istribution o f c ertain b one p roperties w ithin S 2 0 s uggests t hat t wo d istinct a reas c an b e b roadly d elimited. T his i s b ased u pon t he a ssumption t hat o sseous r emains l ocated o n d omestic d welling f loors r eact t o d iffering d eposition e nvironments i n d istinguishable w ays . O n t he o ne h and, t he g reatest c oncentration o f b one b y n umber a nd w eight i s l ocated t o t he c entre-right o f t he s tructure a nd d istributed t oward t he a djoining w all s pace. T his a rea h as b een i dentified a s t he p rincipal f ood p rocessing a rea o f S 2 0, o n t he b asis o f n on-osseous a rtefact d ispersion a nd t he p lacement o f f ixed f eatures. W e e xpected t hat f loor f ormation i n t his a rea w ould e xhibit d ifferentially r apid a ccumulation d ue t o a h igher p ropensity f or a rtefacts a nd h ousehold d ebris t o b e i ncorporated i nto a ssociated f loor d eposits. T he e xpectation w as b ased u pon e thnoarchaeological o bservat ions w hich s uggested t hat t he s oft m atrix o f a shy s ubstrates a nd d ifficulties i n k eeping t hese a reas s wept c lean w ere m ajor f actors c ontributing t o a b uild-up o f m aterials. W e a lso o bserved t hat a d isproportionate a mount o f l arge b one r emains i n S2 0 w ere f ound i n t his e xact s ame a rea. F inally, s urvivorship o f b one r emains i n t he f ood p rocessing a rea w as n ot d ensity-dependent. W e s uggest t hat b oth t hese f actors a re r elated t o t he l ocation o f t he f ood p rocessing a rea a way f rom c onstant f oot t raffic, w hich l eads t o a rtefact c ommunition a nd s orting. I n c ontrast t o t he f ood p rocessing a rea , a z one o f f requent f oot t raffic w hich i s r egularly s wept h as r emains i ncorporated i nto f loor m atrices w hich a re p redictably s maller a nd d enser. I n S 2 0 s uch a z one w as o utlined a round t he l eft-hand p erimeter w here t he l east a mount o f h one b y n umber a nd w eight w ere l ocated. I n t hese u nits, t he b one f ragments w ere p redictably s maller a nd t heir s urvival w as s ignificantly d ensity-dependent. T he p lacement o f t hese t wo b roadly d efined a reas c onforms f airly w ell w ith a s uggested r esidential p attern i nferred f rom a d istribut ional s tudy o f n on-osseous r emains ( Zeidler 1 984). F urthermore, i n a r elated s tudy w e c onducted o n t he c ontemporaneous S 1 d eposits a t R eal A lto ( Stahl a nd Z eidler 1 987), t he p lacement o f t hese t wo a reas w as f ound t o b e c omparable. I n S 1 , t he f ood p rocessing a rea w as l ocated

2 83

t o t he c entre-left a nd c ontinued u p t o t he a djoining w all s pace. T he m ore d etailed a nalysis o f S 1f urther s uggested t hat w all a reas m ay a lso b e s ensitive t o t he d ifferential a ccumulation o f h ousehold d ebris. A t raffic a rea, e ncircling t he c entral f ood p rocessing a rea t o t he r ight c ould a lso b e d efined. T he s patial a rrangement o f e ither s tructure a ppears t o b e am irror i mage o f t he o ther. T he f actors e xplaining t his a re d ifficult t o a ssess. H owever, i t i s i ntriguing t o n ote t hat t heir r espective s tructural c ardinal o rientations a re a lso m irror i mages ( Zeidler 1 984: 2 25, F ig. 3 8).

A cknowledgements A nalysis o f t he f aunal r emains w as c arried o ut a t t he M useum o f V ertebrate Z oology, U niversity o f C alifornia a t B erkeley, w ith f unding f rom t he S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada. T he a uthors g ratefully a cknowledge t his k ind s upport o f D r. J .L . P atton. F unding f or e xcavations a t R eal A lto w as p rovided b y t he N ational S cience F oundation , G rant 7 5-02954, a warded t o P rof. D .W . L athrap. E thnoarchaeological r esearch w as g enerously f unded b y t he S ummer R esearch F und o f t he D epartment o f A nthropology o f t he U niversity o f I llinois.

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PU lna DU lna D Rad . C .V er t . PF e rn . PR ad 0H um . G leno id P a te l la PT ib oF e rn . A ce tabu lum . PH um . A t la s A x i s

I-

F ig . 1 0.

C ervid B one S urvivorship i n U nit 1 5N

2 98

Recent Studies in Pre­ Columbian Archaeology

edited by

Nicholas J. Saunders and Olivier de Montrnollin

Part ii

BAR International Series 421 (ii)

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S421 (II), 1988: 'Recent Studies in Pre-Columb ian Archaeology' Part II © The Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389998 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390000 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545439 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347035 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545439 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

V olume i i P age

P art I II.

S outh A merica .

A n A rchaeological R econnaissance i n t he P rovince o f P alpa , D epartment o f I ca, P eru.

2 99

D avid M . B rowne a nd J ose P ablo B araybar.

" The M aster o r M other o f F ishes": A n I nterpretation o f N asca P ottery F igurines a nd t heir S ymbolism .

3 27

A lexandra M organ.

T he N azca L ines, W ater a nd M ountains:

A n E thnoarchaeological

3 63

S tudy. J ohan R einhard.

S patial L ogic a nd t he I nvestigation o f C ontrol i n M iddle H orizon P eru.

4 15

R . M ichael C zwarno .

I nca P lanning N orth o f C uzco b etween A nta a nd M achu P icchu a nd a long t he U rubamba V alley.

4 57

A nn K endall.

T he M anufacture o f t he I nca A ryballus .

4 89

S arah L unt.

A n A ppraisal o f t he M ollo C ulture o f B olivia.

5 13

W illiam l ain M ackay.

P addle a nd A nvil P otters o f t he N orth C oast o f P eru. G eorge B ankes.

5 45

P re-Columbian C ollections i n B irmingham C ity M useum.

5 65

J ane P eirson J ones a nd P hilip W atson.

M ore M acro t han M icro: t he P araguayan T upi.

A nthropological L inguistics a mong

5 91

J ay K ettle-Williams.

C amelids, C aravans, a nd C omplex S ocieties i n t he S outhC entral A ndes. T om D .

D illehay a nd L autaro N ( iñez A .

6 03

A N A RCHAEOLOGICAL R ECONNAISSANCE I N T HE P ROVINCE O F P ALPA , D EPARTMENT O F I CA , P ERU D avid M . B rowne a nd J ose P ablo B araybar

A BSTRACT A n a rchaeological r econnaissance w as c onducted i n t he P rovince o f P alpa, D epartment o f I ca, P eru, i n F ebruary, 1 987. W ork w as c oncentrated i n t he l ower r eaches o f t he R io P alpa v alley b ut b rief s orties w ere m ade i nto t he v alleys o f t he R io G rande a nd R io V izcas. S ites o f t wo p rincipal c hronological d ivisions, l ate E arly H orizon! E arly I ntermediate a nd L ate I ntermediate, w ere s tudied. T his p aper d escribes a nd d iscusses s ites o f p robable d omestic a nd r itual f unction o f b oth p eriods a nd t entatively e xplores t he r elationship b etween t hem . T he t ypical s ettlement o f t he e arlier p eriod a ppears t o b e a s mall, a gglutinated v illage w ith a ssociated r itual a rea ( campo b arrido), s et c lose t o t he m argin o f c ultivable l and. T here a re i ndications o f l ong-term c ontinuity o f o ccupation o f t hese s ites a nd, b y i mplication, o f t he e conomic, s ocial a nd r eligious p atterns a ssociated w ith t hem . I n t he l ater p eriod, t he p opulation o f t he v alleys r eached i ts m aximum a nd t opographic z ones h igher t han a nd d istinct f rom t hose o ccupied e arlier w ere i n u se f or s ettlement. L arge a gglutinated v illages o r s mall t owns a re t he p rincipal s ettlement t ype, e xhibiting e vidence o f i nternal d ivisions a ccording t o f actors s uch a s f unction a nd s tatus. T he p robable c ontinuing c onstruction o f c ampos b arridos o n a g rander s cale s uggests a c ontinuity o r r eintroduction o f r itual b ehaviour s imilar t o t hat o f t he e arlier p eriod.

T he R io P alpa r ises n orth-east o f L lauta i n t he s ierra o f w estern A yacucho ( Fig. 1 ). T hroughout i ts s outh-westerly c ourse, i t r uns i n a v ery n arrow v alley f lanked b y t he s teep s purs a nd b luffs o f r ugged m ountain r idges w hich b ecome i ncreasingly a rid t owards t he c oast. T he v alley b egins t o b roaden s outh-west o f C hichi T ara a nd i n t he v icinity o f m odern P alpa, 4 00km s outh o f L ima , i t c oalesces w ith t he l ower r eaches o f t he v alley o f t he R io V izcas f orming a r are, w ider f ertile p lain f or a f ew k ilometres ( Fig. 2 ). B oth r ivers, i n s eparate c hannels, d ebouch t heir m arkedly s easonal w aters i nto t he R io G rande n ear L lipata a nd t he c ombined f low r uns t hrough a n i ncreasingly n arrow v alley f lanked b y u tterly a rid m ountains a nd p ampas, f inally p assing t hrough a s hort g orge b efore e merging a t t he c onfluence w ith t he R io I ngenio n ear C hanguillo.

2 99

P revious w ork i n t he l ower r eaches o f t he P alpa a nd a djacent v alleys ( e.g. M ejia X esspe 1 958; S trong 1 957) h ad i ndicated t heir p otential f or s tudy a s i mportant l ocal c entres o f t he P aracas, N asca a nd l ater c ultures, a nd a s c hannels o f c ommunication a nd m ovement b etween t he s ierra a nd c oast. A s e arlier w ork h ad b een o n a v ery l imited s cale a nd l ittle p ublished i nformation w as a vailable c oncerning t he s ettlements a nd o ther s ites i n t he v alleys, a nd b ecause t hey a re w ell-defined a nd s uitably r estricted g eographical u nits, t hey w ere c hosen a s t he s tarting p oint f or a l ong-term s tudy o f s everal p roblems i n t he c ulture h istory o f t he I ca-Nazca r egion. T his p aper r eports s ome o f t he r esults o f t he f irst s eason 's w ork i n F ebruary 1 987. I t m ust b e e mphasised t hat t his w as a r econnaissance w ith s trictly l imited a ims: t he l ocation a nd g eneral d escription o f s ites i n t heir t opographical c ontext; t he a ssessment b y s urface i nspection o f t he l ikely f unction a nd c hronology o f s ites; a nd t he d evelopment o f h ypotheses r egarding o bserved a rchaeological p atterns a nd o f a ppropriate f ield m ethodologies f or f uture m ore e xtensive w ork. T wenty d ays w ere s pent i n t he f ield. M ost o f t he w ork w as c arried o ut i n t he v alley o f t he R io P alpa. F igure 3 i ndicates t he l ocation o f t he s ites e xamined i n t he m ain s urvey a rea . T hey a re d esignated b y t heir p ottery m arking c ode. T his a nd t he g rid r eference o f a s ite a ccurate t o l OOm i s g iven i n b rackets a fter t he f irst r eference t o a s ite i n t he t ext. Ab rief s ortie w as a lso m ade u p t he R io G rande v alley b etween L as M ercedes a nd P aras ( Fig. 2 ), a nd f urther n orth i n t he R io P alpa v alley a s f ar a s H uamanilla. A ll s ites a re l ocated o n t he f ollowing 1 :50,000 m aps: P ALPA , E dition 1 -TPC, S eries J 731, S heet 1 841, S ANTA C RUZ , E dition 1 -TPC, J 731, 1 841 1 1. I t w ill b e a ppreciated t hat l ack o f t ime p recluded d etailed p lanning o f s ites , at ask r eserved f or n ext s eason, a nd, t herefore, e stimates o f s ite s izes a re v ery a pproximate a lthough t hey a re r easonably r eliable i n r elative o rders o f m agnitude. I n t he f ollowing g eneral a nalysis o f t heir c haracteristics, t he s ites v isited d uring t he s urvey w ill b e d escribed a nd d iscussed i n t wo c hronological d ivisions. T he f irst c omprises t hose l ocalities w ith E arly H orizon ( Paracoid a nd o ther F ormative a ffinities) a nd/or E arly I ntermediate ( Nasca) c eramic c omponents w ith n o s ignificant l ater c omponents. T he s econd i ncludes s ites w hose p rincipal c omponent i s L ate I ntermediate ( Ica). A t s ome o f t he l atter p laces, m aterial m ay h ave b een p resent b ut i t w as e ither i n

s ome e arlier i nsignificant

q uantities o r o f a r esidual c haracter u nlikely t o r elate t o a ny o f t he v isible s tructures. A nalysis o f t he c eramics a ssociated w ith i ndividual s ites i s s till a t a n e arly s tage a nd d etailed c omment i s r estricted t o a f ew c ases i n t he e arlier c hronological d ivision. W ithin t he c hronological d ivisions i t i s p ossible t o s ub-divide s ites o n t he b asis o f o bserved s urface f eatures i nto f our c ategories r epresenting t heir p robable p redominant f unction. T he r ecognised g roupings a re d omestic, n on-domestic, a c ombination o f t he f ormer t wo, a nd o thers s uch a s e xtractive.

3 00

S ites o f t he E arlier D ivision O ver s ixty p er c ent o f s ites o f t he f irst c hronological d ivision y ielded p ottery o f b oth p eriods w ithin t he d ivision s uggesting c onsiderable m ulti-functional c ontinuity i n t he e xploitation o f t he v alleys i n t his t ime r ange, a p oint t hat i s d iscussed l ater. T here a re o nly t hree l ocations v isited a t w hich E arly H orizon o r F ormative c eramics o nly w ere r ecorded. N o s ites o f a d omestic n ature w ere n oted b ut C antera 2 ( see b elow), a m ixed c ategory s ite w ith a N asca c omponent a lso, m ay l argely b elong t o t his p eriod. C antera 1 ( Cl:18L V J 8 54988) i s a n e xcellent e xample o f an on-domestic, p robably c eremonial, s ite. T here a re s ome s tone-revetted p latforms i n t he f airly s teep s lope o verl ooking t he s ite b ut t he n ature o f t heir a ssociation, i f a ny, i s u nclear. T he p rincipal f eature o f t he s ite i s a c ampo b arrido s et o n a w ide n atural t errace i n a s teep h illslope o verlooking t he P alpa v alleyb ottom . A c ampo b arrido i s a n a rea t hat i s r elatively s tone-free I n c omparison t o t he s urrounding g round, t he s tones b eing p resumed t o h ave b een d eliberately r emoved t o c reate a d efined s pace f or s ome p urpose, g enerally h eld t o b e r itual/ceremonial. T hey a re a r ecurrent f eature o f t he S outh C oast a rchaeological r egion i n am ultiplicity o f s hapes a nd s izes i n av ariety o f t opographic s ettings. T hey h ave g enerated a n e xtensive l iterature w hich i t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his r eport t o r eview. S uffice i t t o s ay t hat t he P alpa v alley p ossesses a v ariety o f t hem, a pparently a ssignable t o s everal p eriods, a nd t he r egion i n f uture s easons o ffers a n e xcellent o pportunity t o s tudy t he d evelopment o f t he f orm i n s pace a nd t ime a nd t o e lucidate t he n ature o f i ts a rticulation w ith o ther f oci o f h uman a ctivity. C antera 1 i s t he e arliest e xample s o f ar l ocated, s uggesting a l ocal o rigin o f t he p ractices a ssociated w ith i t i n l ate E arly H orizon t imes. T he c ampo t akes t he f orm o f a s ubrectangular ' plaza' a pproximately 2 8.5m b y 2 7.0m. T he s outh-west c orner i s d efined b y a d ouble-faced w all 6 m l ong b y 0 .7m w ide a nd 0 .4m h igh . T he w all f aces a re c onstructed o f a ngular b oulders a nd s ome w aterworn c obbles; t he i ntervening f ill i s p ebbles, s mall c obbles a nd s andy e arth. T he s outh-west t ermination o f t he w all i s f ormed b y a l arge s lab p laced o n e dge t ransverse t o t he w all's a xis. T he w est s ide o f t he ' plaza ' i s d efined b y a s erpentine w all o f a s ingle l ine o f a ngular a nd s ome w aterworn b oulderâ, s et a long t he e dge o f t he n atural t errace. T he n orth s ide d escribes a r oughly s emicircular a rc, t he e ssential d istinction b eing b etween t he s tonier ' exterior' a nd t he m uch l ess s tony ' interior'. T here a re a lso a s mall n umber o f b oulders a long t he e dge. O n t he e ast s ide t here i s a m uch c learer, s traight l ine d ifference b etween t he t wo s urfaces. T here a ppears t o h ave b een a l imited a mount o f d isturbance b y h uaqueros b ut t his d oes n ot i nvalidate t he b asic o bservations c oncerning t he a ssociated c ultural m aterial. T he p ottery e xamined w as w ell e mbedded i nto t he s urface. T here m ust b e c onsiderable d oubt a s t o w hether o r n ot t his i s t he r esult o f h uman a gency. T ony M orrison h as p ointed o ut ( in c onference d iscussion) t hat t he i nfrequent b ut o ften t orrential r ain t hat a ffects t he v alley c ould c reate t his a ppearance o f h aving b een t rampled. W here g roups o f s everal s herds o ccurred, t hey f ormed p art o f t he s ame v essel, s uggesting i n s itu b reakage; t he r epetition o f t his c haracteristic i mplies s ome d egree o f i ntention . A mong t he s herds o bserved o n t he s urface o f t he ' plaza ' w ere s trip h andles f rom g lobular-bodied, s hort-necked j ars w hich w ould h ave b een s et o n t he u pper t hird o f t he v essel i n a n o blique v ertical p osition l ike e ars. T hey a re c omparable t o e xamples i llustrated f or O cucaje p hase 8

3 01

( Pessia, 1 968). A l arge b atan ( quern) l ies o n t he s urface o f ' plaza' c lose t o t he s outh-west w all, a p ossible r itual a ttribute.

t he

T wo l ocations, w here o nly l ate E arly H orizon p ottery h as b een i dentified w ith c ertainty, a ppear t o b elong o r b e c onnected t o t he f ourth c ategory o f s ites. M ollaque G rande I ( MGI:18L V J 8 44976) i s s ituated a t a bout 6 00m a .s.l. o n t he e nd o f t he p romontory w ith s teep f alls o n a ll s ides e xcept t he e ast w here i t i s c onnected b y a n arrow s addle t o ah igher r idge. T he n orth-east p art o f t he s ite i s a s mall k noll, s lightly m ore e levated t han t he s outh-west p art w hose s urface d escends f airly g ently i n as eries o f l ow n atural t erraces c orrespondi ng t o d ifferential e rosion o f t he b edrock. T he e nd t errace i s c ontinued a round t he n orth-west a nd s outh-west s ides a t a l ower e levation. T he t otal a rea o f a pparent h uman a ctivity i s a bout 0 .3ha. V arious f eatures a re v isible. I n t he s outh-west p art a re t wo l ines o f r ound-mouthed s torage p its. L ittle e lse o f a c learly d omestic c haracter c an b e d iscerned. Aw all c onsisting o f a s ingle c ourse o f a ngular-cobbles, 1 1.25m l ong b y 0 .6m t o 0 .7m w ide r uns a long t he e ast e dge o f t he u pper k noll s eparating i t f rom t he s addle. W hether o r n ot t his w all w as o riginally s tronger a nd p ossibly f ormed s ome d efence o r s helter c annot n ow b e e asily d etermined. T owards t he u pper e nd o f t he s outh-west p art o f t he s ite i s a s hort l ength o f d ouble-faced w all o f u ncertain p urpose. G enerally, t he s ituation i s u nsuitable f or p ermanent h abitation, p articularly a s i t i s d evoid o f e asy a ccess t o w ater. E vidence f or t he p ossible p rimary f unction o f t he s ite i s p rovided b y a s eries o f s and-filled, s ub-rectangular a nd r oughly c ircular p its a nd b roader, s hallower h ollows o r t erracettes o n t he t erraces o f t he s outh-west s ector o f t he s ite. O ther h ollows o f m ore a mbiguous o rigin a lso o ccur o n t he u pper k noll. S mall p iles o f s tones l ie a djacent t o t he h ollows. A lso s cattered a round s ome h ollows i s a l itter o f r ound p ebbles a nd c obblestones, n ot n ative t o t he s ite, w hich p ossibly f unctioned a s h ammers. R elevant t o t he i nterpretation o f t he s ite i s t he p resence o f m odern c opper m ining a dits i n t he c liffs a long t he s outh e dge o f t he u pper k noll. A lthough m ore d etailed e xamination i s r equired, i t i s t entatively p roposed t hat w e a re d ealing h ere w ith a n e arly s ite o f m ineral e xtraction. N ear t he l ower e nd o f t he s ite i s a l arge b atan w hich m ay h ave b een u sed i n p ost-extractive p rocesses. B esides a l itter o f p otsherds, t he s ite h ad a s urface s catter o f o bsidian f lakes w ith a n a pparent c oncentration o n t he t errace i n t he c entre o f t he l ower a rea. S everal d istinctive t ypes o f p ottery w ere n oted. T he f irst i s a b owl w ith d iverging, s lightly c onvex w alls a nd a l ip o f r ounded s ection. I nternally, t he b owl h ad d ecoration i n p anels c onsisting o f s tamped c ircles w ith a c entral d ot, d isposed i n h orizontal a nd v ertical r ows. T he p anels a re d efined b y s harply i ncised p arallel l ines. T he v essel i s s lipped r ed i nternally . A nother t ype i s a n u pright-sided b owl s lipped r ed i nternally a nd e xternally a nd d ecorated w ith a l ine o f s tamped c ircles w ith a c entral d ot a rranged h orizontally o n t he i nternal s urface b elow t he r ounded l ip. S tylistically t hese v essels c an b e c orrelated w ith t he U pper F ormative o f A yacucho a nd w ith e xamples o f p hase 8 o f O cucaje t radition. A mong o ther v essels r epresented w ere f ragments o f a p late d ecorated i nternally w ith s harply i ncised l inear a nd g eometric d esigns i n a r ed, p re-firing, s lipped z one. T he u ndecorated a reas a re s lipped i n a d arker r ed a pproaching v iolet. A lso p resent a re t wisted h andles s imilar t o t hose f ound o n o llas o f O cucaje p hase 1 0 ( Pezzia, 1 968).

3 02

Generally speaking, the pottery from the site has close parallels that of the latest phase of -the Ocucaje tradition.

with

Exploration of the crest of the high ridge above the Late Intermediate site of Cantera 7 (see below) revealed no structures besides an apacheta (a small ritual cairn) of apparently recent date but scattered on the surface alongside a path that forms part of routeways to small mining adits in veins of reddish oxides in the mountain sides are fragments of early pottery. These ceramics bear several close similarities to those recovered at Mollaque Grande I. One type is a bowl form with diverging, relatively straight sides and a lip of bevelled section internally. The inside of the vessel is decorated with a row of stamped circles with a centre dot below the lip and the same motif closer to its bottom. The associated slip is of very dark, fairly thick red pigment with the consistency of a crust in some cases. Another form recovered has an inward-sloping neck and lip of rounded section similar to those on large, globular-bodied pitchers belonging to the latest phases of Ocucaje tradition. Also present are strip handles of the 'ear' type associated with short-necked ollas of Ocucaje phase 8. The presence of this pottery in this unlikely position requires some explanation as there is no evidence for settlement or any other obvious cultural activity on the ridge. The authors whilst at the site were struck by the superficial similarity in colour of the slip used on the ceramics and the mineral.veins in the mountainside. Detailed sampling will be required to investigate this possible linkage but as a general hypothesis for future testing it is proposed that the presence of these distinctive wares here is in some way linked to extractive activity, perhaps to provide the raw material deemed essential in the production of some types of pottery. Among sites of the first chronological division containing both Early Horizon related pottery and Nasca sherds or Nasca sherds alone, there are very few with solely domestic features. Therefore, sites of the mixed category are included in this discussion of similarities and differences between sites. In the main sample area in the Palpa valley, nearly every site is located on some topographical feature of the dissected terrace forming the north-west skirt of Cerro Mollaque immediately above the valley floor. The altitude is between 475m and 600m generally. The possibly domestic or part-domestic sites occur in both ·elevated and unelevated locations. The latter group are found on the bottoms and lower side slopes of small quebradas, towards their mouths. The former occupy hill- or spur-tops and their associated slopes. The site of La Estaqueria, beyond the main survey area can be regarded as belonging partly to both categories. For practical reasons no sampling was conducted in the valley agricultural land north of modern Palpa, but it seems likely that among the primary factors determining the location of settlement was the need to maximise the available land, leading to settlement on the arid margin. It is premature to speculate on the nature of the social system of resource control, management and distribution as no satisfactory data has yet been accumulated regarding such things as ancient water supply.

303

U nfortunately, m any o f t he s ites e xamined h ave s uffered v arying d egrees o f l ooting m aking i t v ery d ifficult s uperficially t o d efine t heir t rue n ature a nd e xtent. H owever, i t i s p ossible t o a ssert t hat t he s mall, a gglutinated v illage w as a b asic s ettlement t ype. T he c haracteristics a nd p roblems o f i ndividual s ites o f a d omestic o r p artly d omestic n ature a re d escribed b riefly b elow. C antera 2 ( C2:18L V J 8 55999) a t 5 75m a .s .l. i s s et o n a n atural t errace i n ah illsiope o verlooking t he m ain v alley. I ts e stimated o verall a rea i s a bout 0 .3ha. I mmediately n orth o f a c ampo b arrido i n t he s outh p art o f t he s ite ( see b elow) i s a c omplex o f r ectangular a nd s ub-rectangular s tructures d efined b y l ow, r ubble w alls. A t l east o ne h as e vidence o f i nternal s ub-division. T o t he n orth o f t hese b uildings a t t he r ear e dge o f t he t errace a nd a t t he f oot o f t he h ilislope r ising a bove i s a l ong p latform p arallel t o t he c ontour, 1 6.5m b y 4 .3m . A mong t he s tones o f i ts r ubble r etaining w all i s a b atan r eused a s c onstruction m aterial. A t a s lightly l ower l evel t o t he w est a re a s eries o f c onjoined p latforms. T o t he s outh o f t he c ampo a re t he v ague r emains o f a f ew o ther s tructures. C antera 2 , a lthough b adly m utilated i n p arts, i s o ne o f t he b est p reserved s ites o f t his e ra a nd t he p ottery f rom i t i ndicates a w ell-represented e arly c omponent. I t i s a lso i mportant b ecause o f t he c lose j uxtaposition o f p robable d omestic a nd n on-domestic e lements. A mong t he p ottery c ollected a re s ome s herds w ith a ffinities t o t he H acha s tyle o f t he A cari v alley c onsisting o f b ody s herds o n w hich t here a re r oughly a pplied h orizontal s trips o f c lay i n w hich i rregular, r ounded p erforations h ave b een m ade, a pparently u sing a n i nstrument w ith a c ircular s ection a nd b lunt e nd . O n t he l ong p latform w ere m any f ragments o f q uartz, p ossibly i ntended f or c eramic t empering. C antera 5 ( C5:18L V J 8 53996) i s s ituated o n t he t op a nd s lopes o f a s mall h ill o verlooking t he m outh o f t he ' quebrada C antera ' a nd t he m ain v alley, b etween 5 25m a nd 5 50m a .s.l. T he b adly l ooted a nd e roded r emains c over a bout 1 .4ha, a pparently r epresenting a f air-sized a gglutinated h illside v illage d ifferent i n c haracter t o C antera 2 , t hough s haring a b asic s tructural e lement, t he p latform . T he s ite i s a c omplex o f s tone-revetted, r ubble-filled p latforms o ccupying t he s lopes. T he r etaining w alls a re o f r oughly-coursed, s ub-angular c obbles, a lmost c ertainly o btained f rom t he i mmediate v icinity. S ome p latforms o n t he u pper s lopes a re r evetted w ith s ub-angular b oulders. M any o f t he p latforms s how e vidence o f i nternal s ubdivision w ith n arrower w alls a t r ight a ngles t o t he m ain r evetment. T he g eneral s hape o f t he p latforms i s s ubrectangular. T here a re h ints o f f unctional d ifferentiation a mong t he p latforms i n t he f orm o f a f ew n oticeably l arger e xamples b ut m uch m ore d etailed s tudy i s r equired b efore a ny p attern c an b e d iscerned. T here a re i ndications t hat b urials h ave b een l ooted f rom t he s ite b ut u ndoubtedly i ts m ain a spect i s d omestic. B esides c eramics, b atanes a nd o bsidian f lakes w ere n oted. O n t he u ppermost t errace o verlooking t he q uebrada, b elow a k noll, a re r emains b elonging t o a nother g eneral c lass o f r uined s tructure f ound i n t he v alley i n b oth m ain c hronological d ivisions t hough b y n o m eans a s c ommonly a s t he p latform : t he s tructure w ith f ree-built w alls. H ere t he b uildings c onsist o f t wo s mall c onjoined, s ubrectangular c ompartments d efined b y b oulder w alling a nd, c lose b y, a s mall c ircular o r s ubrectangular s tructure c onstructed b y t he s ame t echnique. O f c ourse, i t i s i mpossible t o d ate t hem w ithout e xcavation a nd e ven t hat

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m ight n ot p rove r ewarding, b ut i t i s c onvenient t o r efer t o t hem h ere a s e xamples o f t heir c lass. I t i s p ossible t hat t he l atter s tructures b elong t o am ore e xtensive c omplex, a s a bout 5 0m t o t he e ast, o n a t errace i n t he n orth s ide o f ak noll o verlooking t he h ead o f a s mall q uebrada, i s a s ubrectangular s tructure d efined b y l arge, s ubangular b oulders. N ear t o t his i s a nother b uilding w ith a t l east t hree r ectangular c ompartments d efined b y r ough s tone w alling. B etween t ie t wo i dentifiable b uildings a re t he p robable r emains o f o thers a nd f urther u p t he s lope a re p robable t races o f r etaining w alls f or p latforms. C antera 8 ( C8:18L V J 8 53993) s hows s everal s imilarities t o C antera 2 . T he s ite l ies a t 5 50m a .s.l. o n t he r elatively l evel s urface o f a n atural t errace i n ar idge w hich a scends f rom n orth-west t o s outh-east. T he s lopes o f t he r idge s houlder r ise a bove t he s ite t o t he e ast, w hilst o n t he o ther s ides t here a re s teep f alls. T he m ost n otable s tructural c omponent i n t his p oorly p reserved c omplex c overing a bout 0 .2ha i s l ocated a t t he e astern e dge o f t he s ite a t t he f oot o f a s lope. I t i s a l ong r ectangular p latform c omparable t o t he o ne a t C antera 2 . B elow i s a n a djoining r ectangular a rea d efined b y l ow r ubble w alls o f m edium s ized c obbles. T here a re f urther t races o f r ectangular a reas t o t he n orth-west. N orth o f t he l ong p latform a re o ther s ubrectangular o nes. A gain t here i s t he o ccurrence o f a f rees tanding s tructure, i n t his c ase a s ubrectangular a rea 2 .1m b y 1 .8m d efined b y l arge b oulders. T he c ontrast i n c haracter b etween t his b uilding, i f i t i s s uch, a nd o ther e lements o n t he s ite i ndicates a c hronological d ifference b etween t hem . I n t he s outh p art o f t he s ite i s a r elatively s tone-free a rea w hich m ay b e a c ampo b arrido, r einforcing t he s imilarity t o C antera 2 . N ot m uch p ottery w as n oted o n s ite, b ut w here i t w as f ound i t o ccurred i n c oncentrations. S ome s herds a ppeared t o b elong t o t he l ater p arts o f t he N asca s eriation. B elow C antera 8 o n a t errace i n t he s lopes o f t he s houlder o f t he s ame r idge w hich f orms a s mall, f lat-topped s pur o verlooking t he m ain v alley i s t he s ite d esignated C antera 9 ( C9:18L V J 8 52994). T he t wo s eem s uperficially t o b e o f a s imilar n ature, q uite p robably e lements o f t he s ame s ettlement ( see b elow). T he m ain s tructural e lements a re c ontour c onforming p latforms o f s mall s tones a nd e arth f ill w ith r etaining w alls o f a ngular, s ubangular a nd r ounded c obbles a nd s mall b oulders. I n s ome e xamples t he b ase c ourse i s o f s tones o f r elatively u niform s ize, p erhaps i ndicating a t iny d egree o f a rchitectural p retension . T he s ites d istinguished i n t he f ield a s C asablanca 1 ( CB1:118L V J 8 46985), C asablanca 2 ( CB2:18L V J 8 44984) a nd C asablanca 3 ( CB3:18L V J 8 44983) a re a lmost c ertainly p art o f a s ingle m ulti-functional c omplex, u nfortunately n ow s everely l ooted. T he s ite o ccupies t he t op a nd s ides o f ab road p romontory w ith p rojecting s purs a nd c overs o ver 2 ha. T he d omestic e lement c onsists o f t iers o f p latforms v isible a t C B1 a nd C B3. T he t ypes o f f ill u sed i nclude t otora ( reeds) a nd t here i s e vidence o f s ize d istinctions. Ab road r ange o f c eramics w as n oted f rom P aracoid t hrough M iddle H orizon i ndicating c onsiderable c ontinuity o f u tilisation o f t he s ite, w hich m akes i t i mpossible o n s urface i ndications t o b e v ery s pecific a bout t he f orm a nd e xtent o f t he s ettlement a t a ny p articular p hase.

t o

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A nother s mall, p oorly d efined s ettlement t hat m ay b elong i n t his c hronological d ivision i s f ound o n t he s lopes o f a s mall s pur f urther s outh-west, C asablanca 6 ( CB6:18L V J 8 43981). B etween t he l atter t wo i s o ne o f t he p ossible n on-elevated s ites, C asablanca 5 ( CB5:18L V J 8 43982). T he r emains a re f ound o n al ow e minence b etween t wo s mall q uebrada b eds, a nd c over n early i ha . A lthough t he a rea i s h eavily p itted w ith h uaquero h oles, i t d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a c emetery. H owever, t he s tructures e ncountered a re u nusual. T here a re s everal s mall s ubrectangular b uildings w ith w alls o f l arge s tone b locks e mbedded v ertically i n t he g round. T he s tructures e xamined m easured 2 .5m b y 2 .5m o r 3 m b y 2 m . A b atan w as f ound a mong t he b uildings. S outh o f t he m ain s urvey a rea, a t L a E staqueria ( E:18L V J 7 65916, g eneral), i s a c omplex m ultifunctional s ite s haring s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f t hose t o t he n orth b ut a lso e xhibiting f urther v ariety i n i ts s tructural c omponents. T he s ite e xtends o ver t he s lopes a nd c rests o f ac onnected s eries o f s mall h ills b etween t he c onfluence o f t he R io P alpa a nd R io G rande, a t 3 00m t o 3 25m a .s.l. T he t otal a rea c overed i s a bout l Oha. T he s ite h as b een d amaged s everely b y h uaqueros a nd t here a re s igns o f c ontinuing l ooting. I t a ppears t o r epresent a s izeable s ettlement, c onsiderably l arger t han t hose d iscovered s o f ar f urther n orth. I t i s c lear t hat t he m uch g reater a mount o f p otential a gricultural l and a vailable a t t he l ower r eaches o f t he R io P alpa w as c apable o f s upporting a f ar l arger p opulation. S ome o f t his a t l east l ived o n t he v alley f loor j udging f rom c eramic s catters e ncountered i n a gricultural o perations n ear J u ranga. P latform s tructures s imilar t o t hese f ound e lsewhere a re f ound i n a gglutinated c omplexes a t s everal p oints a round t he s lopes o f t he h ills. T wo m ain t ypes o f f ill w ere o bserved, o ne a c ombination o f e arth a nd s tone, t he o ther c ombining r afts o f t otora b undles a nd e arth a nd r ubble s imilar t o t hat f ound a t t he N asca c eremonial s ite a t C ahuachi. T he r etaining w alls a re g enerally o f u ncoursed o r p oorly c oursed r ounded ( water-worn) a nd s uba ngular l ocal r ubble. O ne p latform h as a r evetment c onsisting o f s paced i ndividual l arge b oulders s et o n e nd w ith s maller b oulders a nd c obbles i n b etween . T here a re d iscernible s ize d istinctions b etween p latforms s uggesting d ifferentiation i n s uch t hings a s f unction a nd s tatus. O ne c omplex i n t he s outh-west p art o f t he s ite i s d elimited f rom t he a rea i n f ront b y an oticeably m ore s ubstantial r etaining w all. O ther t ypes o f s tructure o n t he s ite i nclude a r ectangular a rea o n f lat g round a t t he f oot o f a s lope d efined b y l ines o f c obbles a nd, o n o ne o f t he u pper s lopes, a d ouble-faced w all a scending t he h illside a cross t he c ontour, a n u nusual o ccurrence i n a ny p art o f t he s urvey a rea. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he l atter s tructure i s u nrelated t o t he m ain o ccupation p hases o f t he s ite. M any p arts o f t he s ite h ave b een u sed a t s ome p eriod f or b urial, a lthough n o e vidence w as n oted f or a ny p ost-Nasca a ctivity. I n s ome c ases t he b urials a re d emonstrably l ater t han t he d omestic s tructures i ndicating a bandoment o f p art o f t he s ite, b ut, o f c ourse, n ot n ecessarily i mplying a ny c ompelling r eason f or t his. S everal e xamples o f b urials o f b arbacoa t ype w ere n oted a nd a reas a re l ittered w ith p oles a nd c anes f rom t omb r oofs d iscarded b y l ooters. I n o ne o f a t ier o f h igh-fronted p latforms a cross a s teep g ully h uaqueros h ave e mptied a r oughly v ertical-sided s haft, t he o pening o f w hich i s n ow o void, 0 .9m b y 0 .9m . T he u pper 0 .76m o f t he s ide o f t he s haft i s f ormed b y t he

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stratified scree and other fills of the platform while the lower 10.5m is cut into rock. This shaft presumably housed another form of burial. Amongst the huagueros' debris are textile fragments, charred and uncharred maize, and shell (Chanque) indicating some maritime connections. The pottery is of considerable interest but only selected pieces can be referred to here. First there is a type of jar with the neck in the form of a face. The oval vertical eyes and the pendant line mouth are modelled from the clay of the vessel whilst the elongated oval nose is an applique strip. Two Z-twist handles are present, each attached to the neck and body. The main body has a horizontal elliptic profile. This piece has parallels in phase 10 of the Ocucaje tradition. Another type of vessel assignable to this phase is a convex-sided bowl with a lip of rounded section. The upper part of the vessel wall is thickened. On the interior of the bowl is decoration such as a horizontal band of wavy lines with vertical parallel lines falling from it. These are in the form of blunt, superficial incisions made with an object like a comb. One example of this type has externally a slight band of reddish paint below the lip, applied. before firing. Another version of the decoration is a series of bands of varying length of parallel vertical and horizontal lines. Another important sherd comes from the upper body of a jar. On it, in vertical position, is an applied strip with five transverse, parallel grooves 9mm long by 3mm wide and 2mm deep. This piece is relatable to material from the site of Hacha (PV 74-6) in the Acari valley (Riddell 1987), in particular to a type df jar with a short neck and rounded lip which has applied horizontal strips with grooves made probably with the side of the index finger, slipped in red and polished internally and externally. Finally, it is worth mentioning a convex-sided bowl with a lip of pointed section which has decoration of vertical, parallel bands of red paint on a white slip on the outer face of the vessel. This type corresponds to that called Cahuachi red and white by Strong (1957:18) and should relate to the latest Paracas phases, the form surviving into the early phases of Nasca. Other sites where ceramics of this chronological division occur are more difficult to define and it may be that the visible remains relate to later periods. BVl, BV2, PN5, MGII and MG4 (see Fig. 3 and below) fall into this category. Buena Vista 1 (BVl:181 VJ 840976) is the same site as 'Mollaque' mentioned by Mejia Xesspe (1958) who excavated here and found so-called pre-Paracas tombs, and identical to 'Cerro Mollaque' visited by the University of T�kyo Expedition in 1958 which (Andes : 233-234) described it as a cemetery but also noted Florescent (presumably Nasca) and Urbanist (lea) pottery. The site covers the broad triangular mouth of a small quebrada. On the north side of the arroyo which bisects the site are the remains of a structure partly excavated by Toribio Xesspe which presumably belongs to this division. The function of the building is unclear. Its north side consists of a double-faced wall about 14m long in a series of slightly different alignments. The outer face is in a mixed style of masonry with stretches of large angular blocks placed on end and on edge, and lengths of smaller sub-rectangular blocks set in rough courses. Where a cross-section is visible, the wall is just over 0.7m wide and 0.4m high, the filling of earth and small stones being 0.38m wide. The east and west sides of the structure run at oblique angles to the north side. On the west side near the north-west corner are the 307

r emains o f m ud p laster. T he n ature o f t he s outh s ide i s u nknown. W ithin t he s tructure, a p it d ug b y t he e xcavator s hows a f ill s tratification a t l east 1 .7m d eep. T here a re t races o f p latforms o n t he s ide s lopes o f t he q uebrada n orth o f t he b uilding. O ne s herd o f M iddle H orizon p ottery w as f ound h ere. W e h ave a lready i n p assing r emarked o n t he c lose j uxtaposition a t s ome s ites o f d omestic a nd n on-domestic a spects a nd t he f ollowing d iscussion e xplores f urther s ome f eatures o f t he l atter c lass w hich c an b e s ubdivided i nto b urial a reas, c ampos b arridos, a nd p ossibly m onumental s tructures. T he t hree c emeteries e xamined i n t he R io G rande v alley w ere a ll s everely d amaged a nd f ew d etails c ould b e a scertained o ther t han t he p robable p resence o f s tone-walled t ombs w hose d ating i s a mbiguous a s b urials o f t he I ca p eriod a re a lso p resent. T he b urial g round d esignated L a I sla ( LI:18L V I ( 7 99020) c overs a bout 1 8ha o f g ently u ndulating s lopes o n t he e ast s ide o f t he v alley. T he c emeteries o f G ramadal G rande 1 ( GG1:18L V K 8 17064) a nd G ramadal G rande 2 ( GG2:18L ' 1 K 8 18071) a re b oth s et a mong t he s and a nd b oulders o f a n o ut-wash c one a t t he v alley's e ast m argin. O nly t he l atter y ielded p ottery w ith P aracas a ffinities. N o n earby s ettlements w ere n oted. T he p resence o f b urials i n s ome f orm o f a ssociation w ith p latform d omestic s ites h as b een n oted a t C antera 5 , L a E staqueria, a nd C asablanca 1 . A t t he l atter s ite c irulcar, s tone-lined t ombs w ith c ane r oofs a re s et i n p latforms. I n s ome c ases t here i s c lear e vidence t hat b urial i s a s econdary u se o f ap articular p art o f t he s ite, b ut o nly e xcavation w ill c larify t he n ature o f t he a rticulation a nd d egree o f a ssociation b etween t he s pace a ssigned t o t he l iving a nd t hat t o t he d ead. C asablanca 2 ( see b elow) i s a s everely l ooted c emetery w ith a l arge n umber o f t ombs, m ainly o f t he b arbacoa t ype. A b rief d escription o f a l arge e xample e mptied b y h uaqueros w ill i ndicate t heir C onstruction . T he t omb a ppears t o b e m ade u p o f t wo s uperimposed c hambers. I t i s p ossible t o i nterpret t hese a s t wo s eparate s tructures b ut t he c oncentricity o f t he t wo c ertainly i mplies k nowledge o f t he l ower c hamber b y b uilders o f t he u pper. T he u pper c hamber i s r ectangular, a bout 4 m b y 3 m a nd l ined b y w alls o f r oughly c oursed c obbles a nd b oulders w hich a lso i ncorporate s ome a dobes o f i ndeterminate f orm . S ome m ud m ortar i s u sed a nd s mall s tones f or c hinking. T here i s n o s pecial f oundation. F or a bout 1 .2m b elow t he w all i s f ound a c ompact f ill o f p ebbles a nd s andy s oil s ufficiently w ell-consolidated t o s upport t he o verlying s tructure. T his f ill c overs a nother r ectangular s tructure a bout 1 .7m x 2 m w ith w alls c onstructed i n t he s ame t echnique a s t he u pper c hamber b ut u sing m ore a ngular a nd s uba ngular s tones. T he w all i s r endered i n m ud a nd w as p robably p ainted r ed. T he s ettings f or t wo r oof b eams s et e ast-west a re f ound 0 .3m b elow t he h ead o f t he w all. A n o ver-enthusiastic a ssistant r emoved a p iece o f w hat a ppeared t o b e N asca P roliferous p ottery f rom t he i nterstices o f t he m asonry o f t he l ower c hamber w all b ut, u nfortunately, d iscarded i t b efore i t c ould b e e xamined m ore c losely. T he c emetery a ppears t o b e o f E arly I ntermediate d ate e ntirely a nd m ay s pan m ost o f t he p eriod. B esides p ottery d iscarded b y l ooters, r oof p oles a nd c anes a re s cattered o n t he s urface a nd, a lso, t races o f

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c opper w ere d etected. T here a re s everal f orms o f c ampo b arrido t hat m ay b e t entatively a ssigned t o t he f irst c hronological d ivision. S ome a re f ound i n c lose a ssociation w ith o ther t ypes o f s ite w hilst o thers s eem m ore i solated f rom s ettlement o r o ther a ctivity. A t C antera 2 a s mall c ampo i s l ocated t owards t he s outhern e xtremity o f a n a pparently d omestic s ite. T his c ontrasts w ith t he a pparent r elative i solation o f t he c ampo b arrido a t C antera 1 . H owever, a nother v iew o f t he s ituation i n t his p art o f t he v alley c ould s ee C antera 1 , C antera 2 a nd C antera 5 a s p art o f a s ingle s omewhat d ispersed s ettlement w ith t he p laza a t C antera 1 a s a c eremonial f ocus. M uch m ore d etailed a nalysis o f t he s ites m ust b e m ade b efore u seful e valuations o f s everal p ossible h ypotheses c an b e m ade. T he C antera 2 c ampo i s q uadrangular, a bout 1 3.8m b y 1 3.8m . T he w est s ide i s d efined b y a l ine o f s paced b oulders a nd t he n orth s ide b y a l ine o f s mall s tones. I t i s i mmediately a djacent t o ab uilding c omplex. T he i ndicat ions a re t hat C antera 1 a nd 2 c ould b e c ontemporary, b elonging t o t he v ery l ate E arly H orizon. W e m ay h ypothesise t hat a t t his t ime s mall v illages a long t he v alley h ad a w ell-developed r itual l ife, a n i mportant e lement o f w hich w as m aintaining o n r elevant o ccasions a s wept, c lear a rea i n o r v ery c lose t o t heir d wellings. F urther s tudy i n t he P alpa v alley p romises t o m ake a n i mportant c ontribution t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f t his w idespread t rait. I t m ay e ven s hed l ight o n i ts v ery e arliest m anifestations. T here a re p robable t races o f aq uadrangular c ampo e ast o f t he c emetery o f C asablanca 2 . T he d irect a ssociation o f t he t wo c annot, o f c ourse, b e d emonstrated a nd t he a rea m ay b e r elated t o a n e arlier o r l ater s ettlement, b ut t he p ossibility o f t hem f unctioning i n f unerary r itual c annot b e i gnored. I n t he s outh p art o f C antera 8 i s a r elatively s tone-free a rea w hich m ay h ave b een a c ampo. M ore d efinitely, a s mall c ampo o f t rapezoid p lan l ies o n t he s lope b elow C antera 8 a nd e xtends o nto t he t errace o f C antera 9 , i ts l ong a xis i n a n orth-west t o s outh-east d irection. L ooking u p a t o r d own a t i t, t he c ampo a ppears t o l ink t he t wo s ites. I t i s d ifficult t o d eny s ome f orm o f i ntimate a ssociation. T his a lso m ay b e ac ase w here f ield d escription r equirements m ay h ave s eparated a rtificially t wo c losely l inked p arts o f t he s ame s omewhat d ispersed s ettlement. T he p henomenon o f ar itual l inking p ath b etween t wo c ommunities o r p arts o f ac ommunity n eed t o b e l ooked f or c arefully e lsewhere. T here a re h ints o f s uch i n t he l ater p eriod. S ome d istance f rom C asablanca 1 , f urther u p t he h illslope, i s a t rapezoid c ampo w ith a n arrower l inear g eoglyph r oughly p arallel t o i t n earby. T he s ides a s i s c ustomary i n t hese l arge e xamples a re d efined b y s tone p iles d erived f rom t heir c onstruction. O ther l inear g eoglyphs a re d etectable i n t he v icinity. I n t his c ase, t he p roximity t o t he n earest s ettlement i s l ess a nd i t i s m ore d ifficult t o b e s ure t hat t hey a re c ontemporary. A n a s y et u nique c ombination o f f eatures o ccurs a t t he s ite d esignated C asablanca 4 ( CB4:18L V J 8 44982) w hich l ies i mmediately e ast

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o f a nd o verlooking t he u nusual s ite o f C asablanca 5 ( see a bove). A c ampo b arrido o f t rapezoidal p lan i s s ituated o n a n atural t errace i n a w est f acing h illslope. T he c ampo i s d efined b y l inear p iles o f a ngular a nd s ubangular s tones g athered f rom t he s urface o f t he t errace. P otsherds w ere o bserved e mbedded i n t he s urface o f t he c ampo b ut o f a n u ndiagnostic n ature a nd, a s i n t he c ase o f e very s ite t hat s eemed l argely u ndisturbed, n o s amples w ere r emoved b efore a d etailed s ampling s trategy h as b een d eveloped b ased o n t he e xperience g ained i n t he 1 987 s eason. A djacent, t o t he n orth, i s a q uadrangular s pace d elimited i n t he s ame w ay a s t he c ampo. H owever, t he i nterior o f t he q uadrangle i s s ubdivided b y l ines o f s tones i nto s omewhat i rregularly s haped c ompartments. P otsherds a re f ound e mbedded i n t he s urface o f t he q uadrangle o f P aracas a nd N asca a ffinities. M ost i nteresting o f a ll w ere s everal c oncentrations o f s tone-working d ebris w ith e nough m aterial s urviving t o a llow r econstruction o f t he o riginal c ore a nd t he p rocedures f ollowed i n t he i ndustry. S ome I ca p ottery w as f ound i mmediately b eyond t he e dge o f t he s ite. I n a n a pparently m ore i solated p osition i s t he c ampo b arrido d esignatcd P ueblo N uevo 6 ( PN6:18L V J 8 47987). I t c omprises a s ubrectangular a rea a bout 3 0m b y 5 0m d efined b y s mall a ccumulations o f s tones i n l ines o n e ach s ide a nd b y t he n oticeably l ower d ensity o f s tones w ithin t hese l ines. T he s outh-west c orner i s m arked b y a s etting o f l arger s tones. T his l atter f eature p arallels a s imilar i nterest i n g iving e xtra d efinition t o t he s outh-west c orner n oted a t C antera 1 , a lthough t he f orm i t t akes d iffers i n s tyle. T he i nterior o f t he c ampo a ppears t o b e d ivided i nto t wo l evels, t he h igher p art t o t he e ast s tanding b etween 0 .4m a nd 0 .5m h igher t han t he w estern p art w hich o verlooks t he m ain v alley. T he s ite o ccupies a r elatively l evel h illtop a pparently u nused i n a ny o ther p eriod. P aracoid a nd N asca s herds w ere n oted o n t he s urface b ut n o l ater m aterial. H owever, a round t he n orth a nd e ast s lopes o f t he h ill a re t iers o f p latforms ( PN5, s ee b elow) w hich a re p robably o f L ate I ntermediate d ate. I t i s s uggested t hat e ven i f n ot u sed i n t he l ater p eriod, t he c ampo r etained i ts s acred a ssociations a nd c ontinued t o b e r espected. I t s hould b e n oted t hat s ome N asca s herds w ere o bserved a t P N5 b ut i t i s u ncertain w hether o r n ot t hey r eflect s ome d omestic a ctivity o r a re s imply s trays f rom t he c ampo s ite. M ention, h owever, m ust b e m ade o f t he o ccurrence o f a nthropomorphic p etroglyphs o f p robably t he e arlier t ime d ivision e tched o n f luvial e rratic b oulders i n t he b ottom o f a s mall q uebrada a t t he n orthern s ide o f t he h ill ( PN4:18L V J 87988; ' Cangana d e l a V iuda'). P erhaps t he c ampo a nd t he p etroglyphs s hould b e s een a s p art o f a m ulti-aspect r itual c omplex. S everal l arge p latforms o f i ndeterminate d ate a re b uilt i n t he b oulder-strewn b ottom o f t he q uebrada c lose t o t he p etroglyphs. I n a m ore i solated p osition o n h ills t o t he e ast o f t he C antera 1 , 2 , 5 c omplex i s a c ampo b arrido d esignated C antera 4 ( C4:18L V J 8 55997). D escribed f rom n orth t o s outh, i t r uns d own t he s lope o f o ne h ill, a cross a n i ntervening s addle, u p a nother s lope a nd o nto t he c rest o f a r idge a t a n o rientation o f 2 370 m agnetic. H avin r un a long t he c rest f or a f ew m etres, i t c hanges a lignment t o 2 O4 . T he l atter, l onger s ection a long t he c rest s tops j ust s hort o f s teep c liffs a t t he s outh e dge o f t he r idge. I n i ts g eneral a spect, i t a ppears a s t wo r ectangles o f u nequal l ength c onjoined a t a n o blique a ngle. L ack o f t ime p revented v ery d etailed m easurement i n t his s eason, b ut t he

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o verall l ength i s e stimated a t 1 80m a nd t he a verage w idth o f t he c leared a rea i s a bout 4 .4m . M any p otsherds w ere o bserved o n t he c leared s urface, a pparently i n g roups a long i ts l ine. I n s everal o f t he g roups a t l east, t he s herds a ppeared t o b e f rom a s ingle v essel. O ne g roup o f s herds f rom t he s addle s eemed t o b elong t o t he l ater p hases o f t he N asca s eriation. T his s ite, w hich i s i n e xcellent c ondition, w ill r epay v ery d etailed s tudy. O n t he h illtop a bove C antera 4 , t o t he n orth o f t he l atter, a re s ome r elatively s tone-free a reas w hich m ay b e t he r esult o f h uman a ction. N ear t he n orth-east e dge o f t he h ill i s a r ectangular a rea d efined o n t hree s ides b y d iscontinuous l ines o f s tone a nd o n t he s outh b y t he p robable r emains o f a r ubble w all. A c urving l ine o f s tone b ranches f rom i ts s outh-west e nd f or a s hort d istance. S ome N asca p ottery a nd a b atan w ere n oted. T he f unction o f t he s ite i s u nclear b ut a ppears t o h ave b een d omestic. T he s ite i s d esignated C antera 3 b ( C3b:18L V J 8 55998). M ollaque G rande 3 ( MG3:18L V J 8 42979) w hich w as v isited o nly v ery b riefly m ay b e t he o nly e xample f ound t o d ate o f m onumental c onstruct ion, a lbeit o n a r elatively s mall s cale. T he s ite o ccupies a s mall e minence b etween t he l ower r eaches o f t wo s mall q uebradas a nd c overs b etween 0 .2ha a nd 0 .3ha. T he n atural s lopes o f t he r ise h ave b een m odified i nto a n a rticulated s eries o f f ive p latforms. T he b road p rincipal p latform o ccupies t he u ppermost s urface a nd u pon i t i s a c urious s ubquadrangular s tructure w ith a s ubcircular i nterior d isproportionately s mall c ompared t o t he t hickness o f t he w alls d efining i t. T hese a re b etween i m a nd 1 .5m w ide a nd c omposed o f a ngular s tones. A bove t he p rincipal p latform t o i ts e ast a re t wo t iers o f l ong p latforms n ow s omewhat i ll-defined. B elow t he m ain p latform t o i ts s outh a re t wo t iers o f s horter p latforms p arallel t o t he s lope w ith s tone r etaining w alls. N asca p hase 1 p ottery w as r ecovered f rom t he s urface, c onsisting o f b ody s herds w ith t hree f ields o f c olour, d ark b rown, b right b rown a nd b lack, s eparated b y t wo s harply i ncised h orizontal l ines.

S ites o f t he L ater D ivision I t i s v ery c lear f rom e xamination o f a erial p hotographs a nd f rom p ersonal l ong-distance o bservation t hat t here are m any m ore s ettlements o f t he L ate I ntermediate p eriod i n t he v alleys , o f R io G rande a nd R io P alpa t han t he s urvery h ad t ime t o v isit. i t i s, t herefore, p remature t o d iscuss t heir g eneral d istribution a nd d evelopment. I n t his r eport, w e w ill c onfine o urselves t o h ighlighting c ertain o f t he c haracteristics o f t hose s ites e xamined, p ointing u p r ecurrent o r d ivergent t hemes w here a ppropriate. Ad escription o f t he m ain o bserved f eatures o f i ndividual s ites i s t he m ost c onvenient w ay t o a chieve t his . B ecause o f t he i mmense s cale o f s ome s ites, d etailed m easured s urvey w as n ot c onsidered p racticable d uring a r econnaissance, a nd n otes m ade a re o f n ecessity s omewhat i mpressionistic. S everal o f t he s ites e ncountered a re o f a s cale a ppropriate t o a l arge v illage o r s mall t own . T hey c omprise c omplexes o f a gglutinated s tructures i n v arious m icro-topographies. S ome s how e vidence o f i nternal n uclei i n t he f orm o f d istinctive b uildings o r o pen a reas a nd

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s how v ariation i n t he f orm a nd s cale o f t heir c onstituent s tructures i mplying d ifferentiation i n m atters s uch a s f unction a nd s tatus, a lthough i t i s t oo e arly t o b e s pecific c oncerning t he n ature o f t his. I n t he m ain s ample a rea i t i s n oticeable t hat h igher a reas, m ore r emote f rom t he v alley a gricultural l ands, a re t he s ites o f s ettlements w here t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence f or s ubstantial o ccupation i n e arlier p eriods. T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat t his w as t he p eriod o f m aximum p opulation i n t he v alleys. S imilar t ypes o f l ocation t o e arlier p eriods w ere a lso u sed b ut t here a ppears t o b e s ome d egree o f a voidance o r r espect f or e arlier s ites, t hough p erhaps t his i mpression w ill b e a ltered a fter m ore i ntensive w ork. T hree s ites i n t he R io G rande v alley w ere e xamined, P inchango ( Pin:18L V J 8 00965), S anta R osa ( SR:18L V J 8 02985) a nd C hillo ( CH:18L V J 7 60888). T he c omponents o f t he P inchango c omplex c over a v ariety o f t opographic s ituations b etween 3 75m a nd 5 25m a .s.l. o n t he e ast s ide o f t he v alley. T he r emains a re e stimated v ery a pproximately t o s tretch o ver 2 5ha. I t i s o nly p ossible t o d escribe t he s ite i n i ts o verall f orm a s n o d ata a re a s y et a vailable c oncerning t he i nternal d evelopment o f t he s ettlement. T he s ite g ives t he i mpression o f h aving g rown o rganically r ather t han i n a p lanned f ashion f or t he m ost p art, b ut a gain t his v iew m ay n eed c orrection a fter d etailed a nalysis. T he l ower p arts o ccupy s lopes a t t he h eads o f t he q uebradas o f L as M ercedes a nd S an J acinto. O ther p arts o ccupy t he a scending b ases a nd s ide s lopes o f s mall s ubsidiary q uebradas. T he u ppermost p art c overs t he r elatively l evel s urface o f a p romontory t he a pproach t o w hich i s f rom t he w est b y an arrow c anyon a nd s mall s teep r avine. O n t he s lopes a nd p art o f t he f loor o f ab ranch o f t he q uebrada o f L as M ercedes ( known t o l ocal a rchaeologists a s ' Pinchango B ajo') i s a c omplex o f a gglutinated r ectangular a nd s ubrectangular p latforms. W ithin t he c luster a b uilding c onsisting o f ac ourtyard s urrounded b y s mall r ectangular r ooms c an b e d istinguished c learly. I t i s a f unctionally d istinct f ocus o f t his p art o f t he s ettlement. O n t he s teep s ided s lopes o f an arrow r avine l eading f rom n ear t he h ead o f t he q uebrads o f L as M ercedes, p articularly t he u pper s lopes o n t he w est , t here a re w ell p reserved t iers o f p latforms w ith h igh s tone r etaining w alls p arallel t o t he s lope. I n s ome c ases t he o riginal m ud p lastering o f t he w all f ace i s p reserved. S ome o f t he r etaining w alls a re c omposed o f r oughly c oursed s ubrectangular s tones o f v arious s izes w hilst o thers a re m ore r egularly c oursed w ith s tones o f a pproximately t he s ame s ize. T iers o f p latforms a lso o ccupy t he s teeply a scending b ottom o f t he r avine p arallel t o i ts s lope b ut t ransverse t o t hat o f i ts s ides. A t t he f oot o f t he r avine a re s ubstantial m idden d eposits c ontaining c eramics, t extiles a nd m uch v egetable m atter. A n i ntervalley c anal i s b eing d ug t hrough t he u pper p art o f t his s ector o f t he s ite a nd h as r evealed i n p laces s everal b ottle-shaped p its , p robably f or s torage. T he u pper p art o f t he s ite i s p rotected o n t he n orth b y l ines o f w alls b uilt o f l arge a ngular b oulders a t t he h ead o f t he r avine a pproaching i t. T he s ettlement o n t he m esa t op c onsists o f c lusters o f a gglutinated s tructures. T he i ndividual e lements a re o f v arious s hapes a nd s izes d efined b y f ree-standing d rystone w alling. G enerally, t he s tructures a re r ectilinear o r p olygonal i n p lan, b ut t here a re c ases w here c urvilinear e lements h ave b een b uilt t o t ake t he b est a dvantage

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o f l ocal t opography. S hort n arrow a lleys c onnect v arious e lements w ithin c lusters. I n s everal b uildings t here a re a ssociated b atanes. T here i s s ome v ariety i n t he m ethod o f w all c onstruction. M ost c ommonly, w alls a re b uilt o f v ery r oughly c oursed a ngular s tones o f c obble o r b oulder s ize. I n a f ew c ases t here a re s paced o rthostatic e lements w ith i ntervening s tretches o f r oughly c oursed r ubble. S ome w alls a re am ixture o f l arge a ngular b locks a nd r ounded, w aterworn c obbles, a nd i n a f ew c ases t he l atter p redominate. T here a re a lso s ome w alls c omposed e ntirely o f r ectangular s labs g iving t he a ppearance o f r ough a shlar. T he i mpression i s t hat w all s tyle i s v ery m uch a f unction o f s uch t hings a s l ocal a vailability o f s tone a nd, p robably, i ndividual p reference a nd a bility. E xcept a t t he m ost b asic l evel, a s ite s tyle c annot b e s aid t o b e p resent. T his o bservation s eems t o a pply t o o ther s ites t oo, w here t here i s q uite a l ot o f v ariation i n m inor c onstructional d etails w ithin a s ingle c omplex. I n a t l east o ne s tructure t he d oor i s b uilt w ith t wo v ertical s labs a s j ambs t erminati ng t he w alling o n e ither s ide. B etween c lusters a re a f ew r elatively o pen a reas a nd t owards t he n orth e nd o f t he s ite, a s hort ' street ' a ppears t o d ivide t wo s ectors. T he e ast e dge o f t he s ite i s d efined i n p art t owards t he p recipitous e dge o f t he m esa b y a d ouble f aced w all, t he f aces c onsisting o f l arge a ngular s labs p laced o n e nd o r o n e dge w ith l arge a ngular b oulders f illing t he g ap b etween t he f aces . O n t he s lopes r ising a bove t he m esa s urface o n t he s outh-west, t he p latform t ype o f s ubstructure i s u sed. S everal p its w ere n oted w hich h ad p robably o riginally b een u sed f or s torage a nd s ubsequently f or b urial. N o e vidence f or w ater s upply o r w ater s torage w as o btained h ere o r a t o ther s ites d uring t he r econnaissance w hich i s am ajor p roblem f or r esolution i n t he c oming s eason. T he d ifficulties i n t his r espect a t t he u pper p art o f P inchango w ould r ender i t a p oor r efuge a gainst a ny g roup c apable o f m ounting a s ustained s eige. S anta R osa i s a n e xtensive c omplex o f a pproximately 1 8.5ha o ccupying t he b ase, s ides a nd h ead s lopes o f a q uebrada b etween 3 50m .s.l. f urther n orth i n t he v alley. I ts s tone-walled a nd 6 25m a s tructures a re s imilar i n t ype t o t hose f ound i n t he l ower p arts o f P inchango a nd t he s ite e xhibits c omparable i ntrasite m orphological v ariation. I n s ome b uildings t here i s e vidence f or t he u se o f a dobes n ot d etected i n o ther s ites o f t he p eriod i n t he s urvey a rea. T his o bservation r equires f urther c onfirmation i n t he f ield. T he s ite o f C hillo c ontains t he s ame t ypes o f b uildings a s P inchango a nd S anta R osa, p articularly t he s tone-retained p latforms. I t c overs a bout l Oha a nd l ies b etween 2 75m a nd 3 50m a .s.l. o n t he s lopes a nd t erraces o f t hree s mall h ills t hat o verlook t he c onfluence o f t he R ios P alpa , V izcas a nd G rande. S everal m ajor s ettlements w ere e xamined i n t he m ain s urvey a rea. B uena V ista 4 ( BV4:18L V J 8 44969) i s e stimated t o c over b etween 3 ha a nd 5 ha a t 6 50m t o 7 00m a .s.l. T he s tructures o ccupy t he g ently r ising s urface o f a m eseta a nd c ontinue u pwards o n t he i ncreasingly s teep, n orth w est f acing m ountain s lopes t hat o verlook t he m eseta. S mall d ry r avines t hat d issect t he s lopes a nd u pper p arts o f t he m eseta a re a lso o ccupied b y s tructures b uilt a cross t heir c ourses. T he s ite i s b ounded o n t he n orth b y a s heer d rop.

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T he m ain s tructural e lements o f t he s ite a re s eries o f c onjoined s tone-revetted p latforms i n t iers p arallel t o s lopes o r b uilt a cross a nd d escending s mall r avines. T he r etaining w alls a re g enerally o f s mall a ngular s tones. S ome f ree-standing w all e lements s urvive i n p laces. I t w as o nly p ossible t o m ake a v ery b rief t rip t o t he s ite b ut d uring i t s ome d etails o f t wo r ectangular b uildings n ear t he n orth e dge o f t he s ite w ere r ecorded a s t hey d iffered i n s tyle t o o thers o n t he s ite. T he n orth s ide o f t he m ore e asterly s tructure i s f ormed b y t he u pper e dge o f t he c liffs o f t he q uebrada. O n t he o ther t hree s ides, d efining a n a rea o f a bout 1 5.6m e ast t o w est b y 7 .8m i s a l ow f rees tanding, d ouble-faced w all o f l arge a ngular s tones p laced o n e dge, c ontaining a f ill o f f airly l arge s tones. T he w all b etween a bout 0 .6m a nd 0 .75m w ide h as c ollapsed p artly. T he o ther s tructure i s o f s imilar b uild, m easuring i nternally a bout 1 3.8m e ast t o w est b y 9 .5m . T he s outh s ide i s m issing o r n ever e xisted. O n t he s urfaces a djacent t o b oth s tructures, s loping d own t o a s mall r avine, i s a s eries o f p latforms a veraging a bout 1 .7m w ide. T he c lear d ifference i n b uild b etween t he r ectangular s tructures a nd o thers o n t he s ite s uggests a mong o ther p ossibilities a s pecial f unction o r a d ifferent d ate. A s a t o ther s imilar s ites o f t his p eriod, b atanes a re f ound o ften i n s itu i n w hat a ppears t o b e t heir f inal p osition b efore a bandonment. L ooking n orth f rom B V4, t here a ppear t o b e t wo a pparently d efensive w alls c rossing a s pur a t t he e nd o f ar idge a t 6 00m a .s.l. ( BV5:18L V J 8 43974). T he s ite w as n ot v isited b ut e xamination o f r elevant a erial p hotographs s t iggests t hat t he w alls, r eminiscent o f t hose a t P inchango, a re o ne e lement o f a l arge s ite o f B uena V ista 4 t ype. E ast o f t he e arlier c omplex o f s ites a t C antera i s t he L ate I ntermediate s ite o f C antera 7 ( C7:18L V J 8 56994). I t c overs a t l east 2 ha a nd l ies b etween 5 50m a nd 6 75m a .s.l. M ost o f t he s tructures a re s et o n t he s teep s lopes o f t he s houlder o f ar idge b etween t wo v ery s teep-sided q uebradas. T he l ower s lopes o f t he s ite i n t he t riangle o f l and f ormed a bove t he c onfluence o f t he q uebrada a re b isected b y a r ock s pine o n t he m ain a xis o f t he r idge. P arts o f t he s ite a re s till v ery w ell p reserved d espite t he a ttentions o f h uaqueros a nd n atural e rosion. T here i s a c onsiderable c ontinuity i n t he d istribution o f s tructures o ver t he v arious m icrot opographic z ones o f t he s ite, b ut i t i s c onvenient f or d escriptive p urposes t o s ubdivide t he s ite a ccording t o t he l atter. T he l ong a xis o f t he r idge a nd s pine i s a pproximately e ast t o w est ( ascending f rom t he w est). O n t he s teep s houlder o f t he r idge a re a s eries o f p latforms a t d ifferent a ltitudes. T he f orm o f s ome o f t hese i s a s f ollows. O ne e xample h as a c urving-fronted r etaining w all c onforming t o t he t ransverse t rend o f t he s lope. T he r evetment i s c omposed o f a ngular l ocal s tone a nd i s 1 0 .4m l ong. I t r etains a f ill o f s and a nd r ubble 3 .5m w ide. A t ad istance o f 3 .5m f rom i ts n orth e nd, t he s urface o f t he p latform i s s ubdivided b y a l ine o f a ngular s tones. A bout 2 0m b elow i s a nother l ong p latform , 2 .6m w ide, i ts s urface s ubdivided b y l ines o f s tones, t he d ifferent c ompartments b eing a t s lightly d ifferent l evels. N owhere o n t he s ite w as u nequivocal e vidence f or t he s uperstructure o f t he p latforms o btained, t hough i t i s e nvisaged t hat

3 14

p ole a nd c ane s tructures n ot u nlike t hose b uilt b y t he m odern c ampesino, f ormed a s ignificant e lement. S ubdivision o f t he p latform s urface m ay r eflect m ultiple u nits i n t he s uperstructure. B elow t he l ast p latform d escribed a re m any p latforms i n t iers, o f v arious s hapes a nd s izes a dapting t o t he s lope. T he i mportance o f t opography i n d ictating f orm a s w ell a s s ocial f actors m ust b e b orne i n m ind, b ut d ifferentiating t he r elative i mportance o f t hese i n i ndividual c ases m ust a wait m ore d etailed s urvey. U sually t he r etaining w alls a re b uilt o f r oughly c oursed a ngular s tones f rom s mall t o l arge c obble s ize. I n o ne c ase, t he b ase c ourse i s o f l arge r ectilinear a nd s ubrectilinear b oulders o n w hich r oughly c oursed a ngular s tones a re p erched. S mall a ngular r ubble a nd e arth f ills t he c hinks. I n a ll e xamples n oted, t he p latform w as m ade m ostly o f r ubble, b ut a f ew i nstances o f b ackwards s carping o f t he n atural s lope w ere s uspected a lso. I n t he l ower p art o f t he s ite, s outh o f t he s pine, i s a d ense a gglutination o f t iers o f c onjoined p latforms i n a s omewhat c urvilinear a rrangement t o a ccommodate t he t opography. N oticeably a rticulated w ith t he m ain b ody o f p latforms a re s ome l ong, n arrow o nes w hich a ppear t o p rovide a ccess t o t he o thers. S everal v arieties o f c onstruction w ere n oted a mong t he r etaining w alls: 1 )

i i)

i ii)

i v)

w alls w ith a b ase c ourse o f l arge s ubangular b oulders p laced o n e dge w ith c ourses o f s mall s tones a bove; w alls w ith c ourses o f a ngular c obbles;

r elatively

u niform ,

w alls w ith a m ixture o f s izes o f s tones w ith c oursing p attern ; a nd w alls w hich u se s paced s mall o rthostats s maller s tones b etween.

w ith

m edium-sized,

n o

d efinite

c ourses

o f

T he w estern s ide o f t his p latform c omplex i s d efined b y a m assive r etaining w all o f r ubble r unning f rom t he f oot o f t he s pine t o t he e dge o f t he s outhern q uebrada. A t t he e dge o f t he s ite t o t he n orth o f t he s pine a re t wo p articularly l arge c onjoined p latforms. T heir r elative s ize s uggests a s pecial f unction o r s tatus. T wo d istinctive, b ut d ifferent b uildings o ccupy t he e quivalent p osition o n t he s ite B V4. T he w estern p latform m easures 1 8.6m ( east t o w est) b y 1 1.2m. I ts w est ( lower) r etaining w all i s 0 .8m h igh a nd b etween i m a nd 1 .2m w ide. I t i s c omposed m ainly o f v ery r oughly c oursed a ngular a nd s ubangular l arge c obbles a nd b oulders; s ome v ery l arge b oulders a re u sed a s f oundations i n p laces. T he n orth s ide i s d efined b y ab road r ubble b ank . T he r ubble w ould a ppear t o d erive f rom e mptying t he f ill o f t he p latform , r esulting i n t he e xposure o f a h eight o f 0 .4m o f t he i nner f ace o f t he w est r etaining w all a nd a h eight o f 0 .6m o f t he i nner f ace o f t he w all o n t he s outh h olding b ack t alus f rom t he s lopes o f t he s pine. T he r emoval o f t he f ill h as e xposed a v ery i rregular b edrock s urface w ithin t he r etaining w alls a nd a lso l ines o f s tones w hich s eem t o b e t he r emains o f i nternal s ubdivisions o f t he f illing. T he r ear w all o f t he p latform f orms t he f ront r etaining w all o f t he h igher p latform t o t he e ast. T his h as a s ubtrapezoidal p lan, i Sm ( east t o w est) b y 1 4.7m . I ts f ront

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w all i s e xposed t o a h eight o f 1 .3m a nd c onstructed o f c losely s tacked b ut r arely c oursed l arge c obbles a nd s mall b oulders. S ome w aterworn b oulders a re a lso i ncorporated. A n i nclined o rthostat 0 .93m h igh b y 0 .65m w ide p rojects a bove t he w all f rom b ehind i ts r ear f ace. T he p resence o f t his f eature m ay s uggest a r itual f unction f or t he p latform . O n t he s urface o f t he p latform i s a l arge b atan w ith m ano. A ssociated w ith t hese, b ut o f d oubtful a ntiquity, i s a s pread o f c rushed q uartz. E ast o f t he l atter p latform a re m ore t iers o f s maller p latforms. I n c ommon w ith o ther s ites o f t his c lass, v ery l arge a mounts o f p otsherds a re v isible o n t he s urface. A v ery s mall c omponent o f s herds f rom t he e arlier d ivision w as n oted b ut t he o verwhelming n umber o f p ieces h ad I ca a ffinities. O ther t han t he u biquitous b atanes a nd s ome m anos, t he o nly m aterials o bserved w ere o bsidian f lakes a nd a s hell p endant. T o t he s outh-west o f C antera 7 i s t he v ery e xtensive ( estimated a t a bout l Oha) s ite d esignated P ueblo N uevo 3 ( PN3:18L V J 8 51988). I t o ccupies a s eries o f s purs, n atural t erraces a nd s lopes o f v ariable s teepness, p art o f t he d issected l ower r idges o f t he C erro M ollaque b etween 5 00m a nd 6 00m a .s.l. T he s ite s tretches a lmost h alf a k ilometre f rom t he v alley m argin i nto t he f oothills o f C erro M ollaque. T he c haracteristic s tructural t ype a s a t o ther s imilar a gglutinated s ettlements i s t he s tone w all-retained p latform d isposed i n l aterally c onjoined r ows a nd t iers. T he p lans a re g enerally r ectangular, s ubrectangular o r q uadrangular i n av ariety o f s izes. T he p latforms a re c onstructed w ith a f ill o f l ocally a vailable s tone r ubble a nd t he r etaining w alls o f r oughly c oursed a ngular s tones. B esides p latforms, t here a re a lso s ome q uadrangular b uildings w ith f rees tanding w alls p reserved i n t he u pper p art o f t he s ite. T here a re c lear d ifferences i n t he d ensity o f s tructures w ithin t he s ite a s a w hole, a nd i t i s p ossible t o i dentify m aintained o pen a reas b etween z ones o f a gglutinated b uildings. O n t he n orthernmost s pur o f t he s ite o verlooking t he m ain v alley, al arge n umber o f u nifacial b asalt c hoppers w ere n oted o n t he o pen a rea o f t he s ummit, i ndicating a s pecial, t hough a s y et u nidentified, a ctivity a rea. O n t he s lopes o f t he s pur a re p latforms w ith r etaining w alls o f w aterworn c obbles a nd b oulders o n w hich a re f ound b atanes w ith c rushed g ranite a ssociated, a f urther s uggestion t hat t his q uarter o f t he s ite m ight h ave b een g iven o ver i n p art t o i ndustrial a ctivities. B esides t he u sual v ast q uantities o f I ca p ottery, o bsidian f lakes w ere a lso r ecorded. T wo s ites w hich s how s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f t hose d escribed a bove b ut a re n ot c ertainly e ntirely o f t he s ame p eriod a re M ollaque G rande I I ( MGII:18L V J 8 43977) a nd B uena V ista 2 ( BV2:18L V J 8 39974). M ollaque G rande I I c overs a n a rea o f a bout 0 .3ha o ccupying t he s urface a nd e specially t he u pper s lopes o f a s pur b elow t he p romontory o f M ollaque G rande I a t a n a ltitude o f 5 50m t o 5 75m a .s.l. T here i s a s eries o f s tone-revetted p latforms a round t he u pper s lopes, p artly o bscured b y e rosion . O n t he u pper s urface o f t he s pur i s a s hort l ength o f f ree-standing w all o f r oughly c oursed a ngular b oulders. T his r ecalls, t hough o f d ifferent s tyle, t he w all n oted a t M ollaque G rande I . I n t he e astern p art o f t he s ite i s a r ow o f s tone-lined s torage p its. T he l inings c onsist o f s mall a ngular c obbles f itted t ightly t ogether a nd g radually c orbelled u pwards. T he d imensions o f

3 16

t wo e xamples o f o void p lan a re 1 .1m b y 1 .11m b y 0 .8m d eep a nd 1 .2m b y 0 .74m b y 0 .9m d eep. T his r ow a lso r ecalls f eatures n oted a t M ollaque G rande I . T he p ottery n oted f rom t he s ite b elongs t o b oth c hronological d ivisions. T he t wo m ain s ectors o f B uena V ista 2 c over a bout i ha a round 4 75m a .s.l. P art o f t he s ite i s s et i n d eposits o n t he f loor o f a q uebrada, b ordered o n t he n orth b y t he s teep s lopes o f t he v alley s ides a nd o n t he s outh b y aw ell-incised s tream c hannel. T he d eposits s lope g ently u p f rom w est t o e ast . T he o ther p art o f t he s ite l ies o n t he s lopes a nd t erraces o n t he s outh s ide o f t he m outh o f t he q uebrada i n a m ore e levated p osition. O n t he q uebrada f loor i s a s eries o f c onjoined p latforms. M any a re l arge a nd o f s ubrectangular p lan b ut s maller o nes i n a r ange o f s izes a re a rticulated w ith t hem . T he f ill o f t he p latforms i s l ocal r ubble a nd m ost o f t he r etaining w alls a re b uilt o f r ounded s tones f rom t he q uebrada d eposits. T here a re t races i n m any c ases o f i nternal s ubdivision o f t he p latforms. T here a re a lso t he r emains o f a p erimeter w all o f r ubble a bout i m w ide r unning p arallel t o t he s ide o f t he d ry s tream w hich m ay h ave b een i ntended a s a f lood d efence. A t a l ocation d esignated P ueblo N uevo 7 ( PN7:18L V J 8 48984) a t t he s ide o f a t orrent b ed i n t he b ottom o f aq uebrada i s aw all a bout i m w ide a nd 6 0m l ong b uilt o f a ngular a nd s ubangular b oulders. I t i s s et b etween t he e dge o f t he t orrent b ed a nd t he f oot o f t he q uebrada s ide a llowing p assage b etween t hem . T his w all a lso s eems l ikely t o h ave b een a d efence a gainst f lash f loods. T he s outhern p art o f B uena V ista 2 i s a n a gglutinated c omplex o f s tone-retained p latforms u sually r ectangular o r s ubrectangular i n p lan. T he s uperficial a ppearance o f t his a rea i s m uch m ore a kin t o t hat o f t he d efinitely L ate I ntermediate s ettlements t han t hat o f t he s tructures i n t he q uebrada f loor a nd I ca p ottery o nly w as n oted. O ne u nusual s tructure w as o bserved h ere, a s mall, c ircular s tone-revetted p latform . A t t he u pper e dge o f t he s ite i s a p articularly w ell m arked s et o f l ong s ubdivided p latforms i n w hich a ngular b oulders h ave b een u sed f or t he r etaining w alls. A n a nomalous s ite, a pparently o f L ate I ntermediate d ate i s f ound o n t he n orth- a nd e ast-facing s lopes o f a p romontory t o t he s outh o f t he q uebrada o f ' Cangana d e l a V iuda '. I t i s d esignated P ueblo N uevo 5 ( PN5:18L V J 8 47987). O n t he t op o f t he s ame p romontory i s t he c ampo b arrido, P N6. O n t he n orth s lope o f t he h ill i s a t ier o f s even p latforms c onstructed i n t he s ame f ashion a s t hose a t P ueblo N uevo 3 . T he p latforms a verage a bout 8 0m l ong b y 5 m w ide. T he p oor s tate o f p reservation h as m ade i t d ifficult t o i dentify s ubdivisions u nequivocably. O nly t he t hree u ppermost p latforms e xtend a round t he e ast s ide. T hey r etain t he s ame w idth, b ut t he r evetment w alls b ecome m uch n arrower, a bout i m , a nd r ise a bout 0 .5m a bove t he s urface o f t he p latform a nd m ay o riginally h ave r isen h igher. T he d ifference i n e levation b etween t he p latforms r eaches a bout 1 .5m . T he p latforms o n t he e ast s eem t o b e f unctionally d ifferent t o t hose o n t he n orth . I t i s p ossible t hat t hey s erved a d efensive p urpose. T hey a ppear t o c ontinue a round p art o f t he s outh s ide o f t he h ill.

3 17

T wo s ites o verlooking t he l ower r eaches o f t he R io V izcas w ere v isited. C erro C arapo 1 ( CC1:18L V J 8 23941) l ies a t a n a ltitude o f a bout 5 25m a .s.l. a nd c overs a n a rea o f 1 50m n orth t o s outh b y 5 0m . N arrow , l ong p latforms o ccupy m ost o f t he w est s ide o f a l ow n atural k noll w hich r ises a bove t he g eneral s urface o f t he m eseta o f C erro C arapo. T he e ast s ide i s f ormed b y t he s heer c liffs o f t he e dge o f t he V izcas v alley. O n t he p latforms a re s mall e nclosures o f q uadrangular p lan b uilt w ith w alls o f am ixture o f l ocally a vailable s tone a nd w aterworn c obbles t hat m ay h ave b een b rought u p f rom t he v alley b elow . C ircular-mouthed p its, p robably f or s torage w ere n oted a lso. A bout 4 00m t o t he n orth-east I s a s imilar s ite, C erro C arapo 2 ( CC2:18L V J 8 26943) c overing 2 00m n orth t o s outh b y 7 5m a pproximately. T he s mall q uadrangular a nd r ectangular b uildings o n t he h ilislope p latforms a re b uilt o f s tone f rom t he l ocal l imestone o utcrop . C ircular p its a re a gain p resent. L ittle s atisfactory e vidence f or b urial c ustoms i n t his p eriod w as c ollected. W here p robably i nterments w ere i dentified i t w as r arely p ossible t o b e s ure o f t he n ature o f t heir a ssociati on wi th ot h er f eatures, a lthough i n s ome c ases t hey w ere c learly s econdary, f or e xample a t P ueblo N uevo 5 . A t P inchango s torage p its w ere r eused f or b urial. A t S anta R osa t here w as e vidence f or b urials i n m iddens a nd u nder t he f loors o f b uildings. C emeteries a re s uspected a t L a I sla a nd G ramadal G rande, w ith p ossibly s tone-walled t ombs. T he r emains o f a f ew l ooted t ombs w ere n oted i n t he s outh p art o f B uena V ista 2 . S everal l arge c a i npos b arridos c an b e o bserved i n c lose p roximity t o L ate I ntermediate s ettlements a nd t here i s ap rima f acie c ase f or c onsidering t hem b roadly c ontemporary, a n a ssignment r einforced i n p art b y t he w ork o f C larkson ( 1985). L ack o f t ime p revented m uch i n t he w ay o f d etailed o bservation o f t hese f eatures. S everal l ong t rapezoids a nd o ther l ines c an b e o bserved o n t he m eseta i n f ront o f B uena V ista 4 . A l ong, b road q uadrangle w ith n arrow l ines p arallel t o i t l ies i n f ront o f C erro C arapo 1 . S lightly m ore d etailed o bservations w ere m ade o f a c ampo d esignated P ueblo N uevo 2 ( PN2:18L V J 8 51991). T his t rapezoid i s s ituated o n s loping g round i n t he c entre o f aq uebrada b etween a bout 5 10m a nd 5 40m a .s.l. I t i s e stimated t o b e a t l east 2 00m l ong. I ts b roader e nd t o t he n orth-west i s d ownslope a nd c overed i n p art b y t he m odern p ueblo. I t m ay b e a bout 4 0m w ide. T he n arrower e nd i s a bout 2 0m w ide. T he s ides a re d efined b y l inear p iles o f s tones. A ttached t o t he n orth-east s ide o f t he c ampo t owards i ts s outh-east e nd i s a q uandrangular s tructure m easuring 9 m b y 9 m b uilt i n t he s ame f ashion a s t he s ides o f t he t rapezoid. H owever, t he i nterior o f t he s tructure d oes n ot e xhibit t he s ame r elative f reedom o f s tones a s t he s urface o f t he t rapezoid. H orkheimer ( 1947) h as n oted r ectangular s tructures i n r elation t o t rapezoids o n C erro U tua, n orth-west o f m odern P alpa. A c omplex o f o ther l ines i s o bservable i n t he v icinity o f t he f eature. P ottery o bserved o n t he s urface d id n ot a ppear t o b e d iagnostic. T he s ite i s c lose t o t he l arge s ettlement o f P ueblo N uevo 3 . S tudy o f a erial p hotographs h as i ndicated m any m ore e xamples o f t his c lass o f s ite a nd s hown t he g reat p otential t hat t he P alpa a nd n eighbouring v alleys p ossess f or s tudying i t i n r elation t o t he s ettlement p atterns o f d ifferent p eriods. W e a re s ure t hat t he c lues t o

t he a nswers t o m any p roblems c oncerning t he s o-called

3 18

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V ery l ittle e vidence f or t he M iddle H orizon o ccupation o f t he v alley w as o bserved. O nly t wo s herds o f t his p eriod w ere r ecognised. O ne w as f ound a t C asablanca 1 , a s ite o f t he e arlier c hronological d ivision a nd t he o ther a t B uena V ista 1 , a m ulti-component l ocation. F urther w ork i s r equired t o e stablish w hether o r n ot t his a pparent a bsence o f m aterial r eflects s ample b ias, b ut p rima f ad e i t s eems t hat t here w as a r elocation o f s ettlement a t t he e nd o f t he E arly I ntermediate p eriod. I t i s p ossible t hat t he m ovement t o t he p laces e xploited f or s ettlement i n t he L ate I ntermediate p eriod o ccurred a t t his t ime a nd t hat t he e vidence f or t his i s o bscured b y l ater d evelopment. H owever , i t i s a lso p ossible t hat m ore d rastic a lteration i n t he d emography o f t he v alley o ccurred a t t he e nd o f t he E arly I ntermediate f or w hich w e h ave, a s y et, n o s atisfactory e vidence. T he p roblem o f t he n ature o f, o r l ack o r, M iddle H orizon s ettlement w ill b e o ne o f t he p rincipal q uestions t o b e i nvestigated d uring t he f ollowing f ield s eason. I t i s c lear f rom t he p reliminary r esults o f t he r econnaissance r eported i n t his p aper t hat t he v alleys o f t he R io P alpa a nd R io G rande p ossess t he p otential a rchaeologically t o i ncrease s ignificantly o ur u nderstanding o f p rehistoric c ultural d evelopment a nd c hange i n t he S outh C oast r egion o f P eru. T he n ext s eason o f f ieldwork w ill c oncentrate o n c ompleting t he i nventory o f s ites f or t he P alpa v alley, d etailed s urveying o f s elected s ites o f d ifferent p eriods, a nd a m ore t horough i nvestigation i nto t he h ypotheses p resented h ere c oncerning c hanges i n s ettlement p attern a nd c ontinuity o f r itual b ehaviour.

3 19

A cknowledgements T he w ork w as c arried o ut u nder t he a uspices o f t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura i n a ccordance w ith R esoluci6n S uprema N o. 1 35-86-ED ( 05 A go. 1 986). T he e xpedition w ould l ike t o a cknowledge t he a ssistance a fforded b y t he D irector o f t he I nstitute a nd h is s taff. P articular t hanks a re d ue t o S r. J ose C astro S ilva ( Director, I NC , I ca) a nd S r. M iguel P azos R ivera ( Archaeologist, I NC, L ima). I n P alpa, t he a lcalde, D on J ulio J imenez a nd o ther m embers o f M unicipality r endered v aluable a id.

t he

T he w ork w as m ade p ossible, i n p art, b y ag rant f rom t he B ritish A cademy. S imon S . B rowne P hotography ( Mr. S .S. B rowne a nd M r. S .J. B rowne) p rovided p hotographic m aterials. T he R oyal C ommissioners o n A ncient M onuments i n W ales a nd t heir S ecretary, M r. P eter S mith, k indly a llowed B rowne l eave o f a bsence t o w ork i n P eru . S upport i n v arious w ays w as r eceived f rom D r. H elaine S ilverman, D r. A .H .A. H ogg, S ta . P atricia V ictorio a nd M r. P aul L . M artinez ( British E mbassy, L ima). M r. C harles G reen i s r esponsible f or t he i llustrations i n t he p aper, M r. D . L eighton r ead a d raft, a nd M rs. P . A rnold k indly u ndertook t he b urden o f t yping t he o riginal m anuscript. D uring t he f ieldwork , S r. P edro G iurfa F uentes ( Ica) A dolfo E scriba G amboa ( Palpa) w ere i nvaluable c ompanions.

a nd

S r.

V ery s pecial t hanks a re r eserved f or S r. O scar T ijero R ios ( Juaranga, P alpa) f or h is h ospitality a nd p ractical h elp i n m any w ays. W ithout h is c onstant a ttention t o t he n eeds o f t he e xpedition, i t w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible t o c arry o ut t he w ork d escribed a bove.

3 20

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A ndes 1 958 . A ndes. T he R eport o f t he U niversity o f T okyo S cientific E xpedition t o t he A ndes i n 1 958. T okyo.

B rowne, D avid M . 1 987. I nforme T emporada 1 987 P rospección A rqueo16gica e n l os V alles d e P alpa y R io G rande. P rov. d e P alpa , D pto. d e I ca. P resented t o t he I .N.C.

C larkson, P ersis B . 1 985. T he A rchaeology o f t he N azca P ampas, P eru E nvironmental a nd C ultural P arameters. M S.

H orkheimer, H ans. 1 947. L as p iazoletas, r ayas, y f iguras p reh ispánicas e n l as p ampas y c restas d e l a h oya d el r io G rande. R evista d e U niversidad N acional d e T rujillo, 2 ( poca 1 ) :4 5-63.

M ejia X esspe, T oribio. 1 958 . A lgunos r estos a rqueológicos d el p eriodo p re-Paracas e n e i v aile d e I ca . M esa R edonda d e H istoria d el P er( i A ntiguo. L ima .

P ezzia, A lejandro. 1 968.

I ca y e i P er( i P recolombino, I ca.

R iddell, F rancis. 1 987. R eporte s obre e i T rabajo d e C ampo d e A rqueoiogia e n L os V ailes d e A cari y Y auca, A requipa, P eru. P resented t o t he I .N.C.

S trong, W illiam D uncan. 1 957. P aracas, N azca , a nd T iahuanacoid C ultural R elationships i n S outh C oastal P eru. A merican A ntiquity, v ol. X XII, n o. 4 , p art 2 .

3 21

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3 25

" THE M ASTER O R M OTHER O F F ISHES": A N I NTERPRETATION O F N ASCA P Or l 'ERY F IGURINES A ND T HEIR S YMBOLISM A lexandra M organ

A BSTRACT H uman p ottery f igurines i n t he t ypical N asca s tyle f irst a ppear a t t he e nd o f p hase 3 o f t he N asca c ultural s equence, f ollowing a b reak o f s everal c enturies, w hen n o f igurines w ere p roduced o n t he S outh C oast. D uring p hases 4 a nd 5 t he f igurines a re s mall, s tanding f emales a nd m ales. A t t he e nd o f N asca 5 , l arger s itting f emales a nd a f ew l arge s tanding m ales m ake t heir a ppearance. B oth g roups r each t heir p eak i n n umbers a nd q uality d uring p hases 6 a nd 7 . W hilst t he s itting f emales s urvive d uring p hase 8 , s tanding f igurines a ll b ut d isappear; t hey a re r eplaced b y l arge, e xtremely s tylised, s telae-like f igures. N asca f igurines r epresent h uman b eings, w ithout m ythical, e thnic o r s tatus-related a ttributes, s uch a s m ay o ccur i n o ther c ultures. H owever, w hilst t he m ales a re a lways d ressed, t he f emales a re n aked a nd m ostly d ecorated w ith s ome f orm o f b ody p aint. A c areful a nalysis o f t he m otifs f eaturing i n t his b ody p aint a nd o f t heir o ccurrence a nd a ssociation i n N asca i conography, s uggests t hat t hey c onstitute t he s ymbolic l anguage o f a s pecific s et o f m agicor eligious b eliefs, c losely l inked w ith m arine f ertility. T he f igurines m ay h ave f unctioned a s v otive o fferings t o am arine d eity, t entatively i dentified a s t he " Mother o f F ishes" / " Master o f F ishes".

I ntroduction T his i nvestigation i nto t he m eaning o f N asca p ottery f igurines i s p art o f a l arger s tudy o f P eruvian P recolumbian h uman p ottery f igurines i n g eneral, i .e. s elf-contained r epresentations, w hich a re n ot v essels o r p art o f v essels. A part f rom t he t ask o f e stablishing a m eaningful t ypology, t he i nquiry i nto t he f unction o f t he f igurines i s o ne o f t he m ain o bjects o f t he s tudy . U nfortunately o nly a n i nsignificant p roportion o f t he c a. 2 500 s pecimens e xamined i n v arious c ollections o r o btained f rom p ublications h ave a d ocumented p rovenance o r a c ontext p roviding f unctional c lues. C onsequently t he p roblem h as t o b e a pproached m ainly t hrough e thnog raphic c omparative m aterial, p rimarily r elating t o t he C entral A ndean

3 27

T he a rea. p ossible f unctions a re t hen e xamined i n t he l ight o f a ny a vailable d ata r egarding t he p rovenance ( burial, c eremonial o r d omestic f loors o r r efuse), f eatures o f t he f igurine i tself ( iconography, m anufacture, s ize, e vidence o f h andling) e tc T his a pproach h as r evealed ag reat v ariety o f f igurine f unctions, n ot o nly f rom c ulture t o c ulture, b ut a lso w ithin t he s ame c ulture. T he c haracteristic p olychrome c eramics o f t he N asca c ulture f ound o n t he S outh C oast o f P eru, f rom t he V alley o f C af lete i n N orth t o t he v alley o f A cari a nd p robably b eyond i n t he S outh: h eartland l ies i n t he C hincha , P isco , I ca a nd N asca v alleys.

a re t he i ts

C hronologically t he N asca c ulture s pans t he w hole o f t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod i n t he a rea, f rom a bout 4 00 B C t o 5 50 A D . I t w as s ubdivided i nto n ine p hases b y L awrence D awson, a c hronological f ramew ork s till g enerally a ccepted t oday. 1 T he N asca c ulture s ucceeds t he P aracas/Ocucaje c ulture o f t he E arly H orizon a nd m erges i nto t he M iddle H orizon i n i ts l ast p hase.

T he N asca f igurines T his s tudy i s b ased o n 1 54 N asca f igurines , i ncluding 2 4 f igurine f ragments, f rom a n umber o f m useums a nd p rivate c ollections i n P eru, t he U nited S tates a nd E urope, a s w ell a s f rom t he p ublished l iterature. O nly a bout 1 7% o f t he f igurines h ave a k nown c ontext: t hree s peciments c ome f rom a m ultiple b urial a t C havif la i n t he L omas V alley, s outh o f N asca ( Lothrop a nd M ahler 1 957), o ne f igurine a nd t wo f ragments c ome f rom C erro d el O ro a t C añete ( Kroeber 1 937), t hough o nly t wo o f t hese f rom a n e xcavated b urial; r oughly 2 0 f ragments w ere f ound i n a m idden a nd t emple f ill a t H uaca d el L oro , T unga V alley ( Strong 1 957 a nd C olumbia U niversity S outh P eruvian R esearch P roject, F ield C atalogue) a nd o ne i ncomplete s pecimen w as a s urface f ind f rom C ahuachi, N asca V alley ( H. S ilvermann, p ersonal c ommunication). W here p rovenances a re g iven, t hey a re p redominantly f or s ites i n t he N asca d rainage, h ardly a ny f or t he e qually i mportant I ca V alley o r t he o utlying a reas o f t he S outh C oast: t his p robably r eflects t he s implifications o f d ealers o r m useum c urators, r ather t han t he r eal c ircumstances. N evertheless, u ntil m ore f igurines h ave b een f ound i n a n u ndisturbed c ontext, t his f act h as t o b e b orne i n m ind. T he f igurines c an b e d ated t o p hases 4 t o 8o f t he N asca c ulture ( i.e. r oughly 5 0 t o 5 50 A D), w ith o nly o ne f igurine p robably b elonging t o l ate N asca 3 . A s mall n umber o f f igurines m ay t echnically b elong t o N asca 1 ( ca. 3 50 B C), o wing t o t he p resence o f f ired s lip-painting, b ut s tylistically t hey c learly s till b elong t o t he E arly H orizon. E qually, a f ew f igurines m ight b e c ontemporary w ith N asca 9 /MH1 ( ca. 6 00 A D), b ut s tylistically t hey b elong t o t he M iddle H orizon. T ypologically,

t he N asca f igurines f all i nto t wo m ain g roups:

2

T he f irst, w ith w hich w e a re n ot m ainly c oncerned i n t his p aper, n umbers 2 8 o ften v ery l arge 3 " stel e"-like f igures, s tanding o n a r ounded o r f lat b ase ( p1. I II, 3 , 4 ). O nly t he f ace a nd h airstyle i s r epresented i n a ny d etail, w hilst l imbs a nd g enitals a re a bsent o r

3 28

s ketchily i ndicated. S uch d ecor a s m ay a ppear o n t he s telae e ither i ndicates s tylised h ands o r c lothing: t he s ymbolic b ody p aint w hich w e s hall a nalyze i n t his s tudy i s n early t otally a bsent. T he " stelae" d ate t o L ate N asca, m ainly t o N asca 8 a nd m ay h ave b een u sed a s g rave-markers ( Parsons 1 962: 1 47). T his w as c ertainly t he c ase f or a n umber o f p laster s telae r ecovered a t H acienda C ollungo, N asca p rovince. I n e ach t omb, a p laster f igure w as p laced a l ittle a bove t he a ctual i nterment, f acing N orth, a nd s ubsequently c overed b y a t hin l ayer o f s and ( A. P ezzia, p ersonal c ommunication). G rave-markers ( "sef las" o r " miras"), g enerally m ade o f w ood o r b amboo, a re w ell d ocumented o n t he S outh C oast ( Schmidt 1 929: 4 26-443; N eudecker 1 979: 7 2, 7 6, 9 9, 1 06, 1 20, 1 26; S ilverman 1 985: 1 5). T he l arge s ize o f m ost o f t he f igures, t heir w eight a nd s hape, w ould a lso m ake t hem v ery s uitable f or " planting" i n t he s and. B ut i t i s a dmittedly s trange t hat t here i s n o r ecorded e xample o f s uch u se f or t he c eramic s telae. T he s econd g roup i s m ore s pecifically m ade u p o f f igurines. I n m arked c ontrast w ith o ther P eruvian c ultures w hich h ave y ielded l arge n umbers o f m ass-produced s pecimens ( e.g. M oche o r C hancay) t he N asca f igurines a re h and-made, m ostly s olid, c arefully m odelled a nd o ften b eautifully s lipped a nd p ainted. 8 0% r epresent f emales, o ften o bese, w ith p rominent b ellies a nd b ut o cks, e ither f airly s mall a nd s tanding o r ( mostly) l arger a nd s itting. 2 0% a re m ales, s mall g r l arge, a lways s tanding. N ote t hat t he s mall s tanding f igures ( p1. I ) s pan p hases 4 t o 7 , w ih v ery f ew o ccurring i n p hase 8 ; t he l arger, s itting f emales ( p1. I I) o nly a ppear d uring p hases 6 t o 8 , w ith o nly o ne s pecimen b elonging t o N asca 5 ; t he l arge s tanding m ales ( p1. I II, 1 , 2 ) b elong t o N asca 6 /7. I t h as b een s uggested ( Lothrop a nd M ahler 1 957: 2 4; S trong 1 957: 4 0) t hat t he f emale f igurines r epresent p regnant w omen, b ut m any o f t hem h ave a c learly m odelled w aistline. T he r ounded s houlders a nd u pper b ack , t he h uge b uttocks a nd h ips r ather s uggest o besity, p erhaps c onforming t o a c anon o f f emale b eauty. B oth m ales a nd f emales a re n aturalistically r endered. U nlike t he h umans r epresented o n N asca e ffigy j ars , w earing a g reat v ariety o f c lothing a nd e laborate h eaddresses, t he f igurines a re b asic i n t heir a pparel. T he m ales a lways w ear a p lain, s hort l oin c loth ; t heir c hest i s u sually b are, m ostly o nly a dorned w ith a l arge s hell p endant h anging f rom a s tring t ied a round t heir n eck. O ccasionally t hey h ave a h eaddress, m ore o ften a s ling o r a t ump-line w ound a round t heir h ead. T he f emales a re a lways c ompletely n aked s omething w hich r arely o ccurs o n e ffigy j ars b ut t hey o ften h ave m arkings o n t heir l ower a bdomen, b uttocks a nd t highs. A ccording t o E isleb ( 1977: 1 04) t hese a re t attoos, w ell d ocumented i n P recolumbian P eru. -

-

N either s ex s hows a ny a ttributes l eading u s t o i dentify t hem e ither a s m ythical b eings o r e ven s imply, a s c an b e t he c ase i n o ther c ultures, a s d istinct p ersonages. Q uite c learly t hey a re m eant t o d epict m en a nd w omen , t hough t he n udity o f t he f emales a nd t heir o besity, g radually i ncreasing b etween p hases 5 a nd 7 , s ets t hem a part f rom f emale r epresentations o n v essels.

3 29

L yon h as s uggested t hat t wo p articularly l arge a nd f ine N asca f emale f igurines, w ith t heir e laborate s ymbolic b ody-paint, m ay r epresent " female s upernaturals" ( 1978: 1 05-106 a nd F igs. 1 2 a nd 1 3). A p oint i n f avour o f t his t heory i s t hat b oth f igurines s how a n u nusual c raneal b ilobation, 8 w hich h as b een i dentified a s ad ivine a ttribute, e .g. i n t he C himu a nd C hancay c ultures ( Weiss a nd R ojas 1 967/1968). B ut t his a ttribute i s s hared b y o ne o ther l arge f igurine ( Lavalle a nd L ang, e ds. 1 978: 6 9) w hich h as n o b ody-paint. L yon 's i nterpretation r aises f urther q uestions. A s N asca f igurines a re r elatively r are i n t he c ollections, L yon m ay n ot h ave b een a ware t hat b ody p aint o f " mythical b eings" o r r elated s ymbolic m arkings o ccurs o n o ver 6 0% o f N asca f emale f igurines o f t his g roup. I f t his b ody p aint i s a n " iconographic c onvention u sed t o i ndicate s upernatural s tatus" ( Lyon 1 978: 9 6), w hat w ould b e t he m eaning o f t he r emaining 4 0% o f f emale f igurines , n ot a n i nconsiderable p roportion, w hich a re s imilar i n e very r espect , e xcept f or t he b ody p aint? A nother p roblem , a s f ar a s L yon 's i nterpretation i s c oncerned, i s t hat t he N asca f emales s eem t o h ave b een " paired o ff" w ith t otally " human" m ales, a s e videnced b y an umber o f m ale f igurines i n t he s ame s tyle, s haring m any o f t he s ame a ttributes a s t he f emales. T his i s b y n o m eans c ommon a mongst P eruvian f igurines, e xcept f or a C hancay r elated g roup, f rom t he H uacho/Huaura a rea, w here " couples" o ften a ppear t ogether. T he i mportance o f t he N asca c ouple i s a lso i llustrated o n an umber o f d ouble-spot v essels f eaturing a f igurine c ouple, a m ale a nd a f emale, a ppliqued t o t he f ront ( see p 1. V , 8 ; a lso A rt I nstitute o f C hicago n o. 5 5.21.33; M illa B atres 1 975: F ig . 1 05; S chlesier 1 959: F ig. 2 40; e tc.). O ne m ight o bject t hat o nly o ne o f t he f emales o n t hese v essels s hows a ny b ody p aint, a nd o nly a s imple s tar a t t hat, s o t hat t he v essels m ay r epresent r eal h umans a s o pposed t o s upernaturals. B ut w e s hall s ee t hat a ll N asca b ody p aint m otifs b elong t o a n i nterrelated s et o f s ymbols, o ccurring i n d ifferent c ombinations, n ot o nly o n f igurines, b ut a lso o n e ffigy j ars. T he c hoice o f o ne o r t he o ther o f t hese m otifs s eems t o b e a q uestion o f a rtistic l icence a nd p erhaps o f s ize, n ot o f s ymbolic c ontent. T his p oint c an b e c hecked b y c omparing a s et o f s mall s tanding f emales ( Pl. 1 ,5,6; L othrop a nd M ahler 1 957: p 1. V III, a ,b,c; I X , a ,d): w hilst o ne s pecimen ( Lothrop a nd M ahler 1 957: I X ,d) s hows a n e laborate m ythical b eing o n i ts p ubis a nd b uttocks, t he o thers, i dentical i n s hape a nd s ize, f eature d ifferent c ombinations c rosses.

o f

n ets,

" surrounded f aces", t rophy

h eads,

s tars

a nd

S o I s uggest t hat, r ather t han r epresenting a ctual s upernaturals, t he f igurines m ay p icture h umans, f unctioning i n a r itual c ontext r elated t o a s pecific c ult o r d eity.

3 30

T he f unction o f t he f igurines B efore I t ry t o c larify t he m agico-religious b eliefs i n w hich f igurines m ay h ave p layed a r ole, l et u s b riefly e xamine s ome o f f unctions t hat h ave b een s uggested f or f igurines i n g eneral: a )

T oys: t his u se, o ften a lluded t o e specially i n t he e arlier l iterature, i s u nlikely i n t he c ase o f t he o bese N asca f emales, w ith t heir e laborate s ymbolic m arkings, l inked w ith e xplicit r endering o f t he g enitals. A lso n ote t hat a ll f ive e xcavated f igurines w ere a ssociated w ith a dult b urials ( Lothrop a nd M ahler 1 957:

b )

t he t he

4 -5; R roeber 1 937:

2 55,

2 57-8).

C uring o r r elated m agical p ractices: w hat a ppears t o b e a " mesa d e c urandero" o f t he N asca c ulture h as a ctually b een f ound, c ontaining, a mongst o ther r itual o bjects, a h uman s tone f igurine a nd a w ooden h ead ( Sawyer 1 962). A rchaeological e vidence p ointing t o t he u se o f f igurines i n " curanderismo" c ould b e: 1 ) l arge n umbers o f f igurine f ragments , r ecovered f rom m iddens; 2 ) m ass-produced ( e.g. m ould-made) o r r oughly m ade s pecimens o ne-off u se ( Reichel-Dolmatoff 1 961: 2 32 a nd n ote 4 ); 3 )

f igurines w ith s igns o f § pecific w ear,

4 ) s igns

o f

s pecific

" modifications"

f or

d ue t o r epeated u se; o r

m utilations

o f

t he

f igurines. T he f igurines f ound i n t he m idden a nd a rchitectural f ill a t H uaca d el L oro ( Strong 1 957: 4 0) c ould f it p oint 1 , b ut s ince l ate N asca c eramics a re g enerally o f a l esser q uality i t i s n ot c lear w hether t hey w ould a lso f it p oint 2 . T here i s n o s pecific e vidence f or p oints 4 a nd 5 . I t i s n oteworthy t hat t he n umerous e arly c olonial d escriptions o f " mesas" i n d ifferent a reas, w hich o ften l ist s tone o r m etal f igurines, e specially o f a nimals a mongst t he r itual o bjects, n ever m ention c eramic o nes. T his m ay b e d ue t o t he f act t hat m any o f t hese d ocuments r elate t o t he S ierra, w here p ottery f igurines a re g enerally r are: h owever, t he N asca m esa d escribed a bove a lso l acks p ottery f igurines. C )

G rave g oods: a t f irst I a ssumed t hat f igurines h ad b een r etrieved f rom b urials. m ainly f rom p lunder t he

t he m ajority o f N asca T his a ssumption s temmed

w hat i s k nown o f t he l ocal h uaqueros, c emeteries i n p reference t o t he r arer

w ho t end c eremonial

t o o r

h ab i tational s ites. H owever, i t n ow a ppears t hat,

o ut o f c a.

2 75 N asca g ravelots, o nly

t he t hree m entioned a bove c ontained f igurines ( P . C armichael p ersonal c ommunication). I ndeed, c onsidering t he q uantity o f N asca p ottery r ecovered, t he p ercentage o f f igurines i s m inimal: t he M useo R egional d e I ca, t he m ost i mportant S outh C oast c ollection , o nly h ad e ight f igurines, f our o f t hem s telae. T he s ame c an b e s aid o f l ocal p rivate c ollections.

3 31

d )

S acred o bjects , f or u se i n a c eremonial o r d omestic c ontext : t emple i mages, v otive f igures, h ousehold o r a gricultural a mulets.

i .e. g ods,

T he f irst a nd l ast o f t hese o ptions c an p robably b e d iscarded o n t he g rounds o f s ize: a part f rom t he s telae, w hich c annot s tand u naided, t he f igurines a ppear t oo s mall t o s erve a s t emple i dols a nd m ostly t oo l arge t o b e c arried a round a s c harms. O nly o ne v ery s mall f igurine ( AMN I ! 4 1.0.7346) h as p erforations a t s houlder l evel, a llowing i t t o b e w orn a s a p endant. V otive f igures, c onnected w ith a s pecific c ult, a re u sually v ery s imilar a nd f ound i n f airly l arge n umbers. O ne s uch e xample i n P recolumbian P eru w ould b e t he s o-called " Goddess o f P achacamac", a L ate H orizon C entral C oast t ype w hich i s a mply r epresented b oth i n t he m aterial f rom t hat s ite a nd i n c ollections i n g eneral. A mongst

t he

N asca

f igurines

an umber

o f

t he

s mall

s tanding

f emales, ( see a bove) d o a t l east f ulfill t he c ondition o f s imilarity. I ndeed m any o f t he f emale f igurines s hare s o m any p hysical a ttributes , a bove a ll t he a typical o besity a nd t he i nterrelated s ymbolic m arkings, t hat i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t hey f unctioned a s d evotional o bjects o r o fferings w ithin a m agico-religious c ontext. A s f or t he m ales, w e h ave s uggested t hat t hey r epresented t he f emales " partners". T he k ey t o t his s uggested i nterpretation o f t he f igurines a s v otive o r s acrificial o fferings l ies i n t he i nterrelated s ymbols, t he s et o f " kennings" ( Rowe 1 967: 7 8-79) w ith w hich s o m any o f t he f emales a re d ecorated. T he c oncept o f a " fertility c ult" i s t oo o ften a dvanced a s t he e asy a nswer i n a rchaeological i nterpretations. H owever a s tep b y s tep a nalysis o f t he s ymbols d epicted o n t he f emale f igurines, a nd o f t he w ay t hey a re c ombined i n N asca i conography a s aw hole, s eems t o r eveal m agico-religious b eliefs w hose m ain c omponent i s t hat o f a m arine o rientated f ertility.

T he s ymbolism o f t he f igurine m arkings

1 .

" Mythical b eings" ( p1 . I Vg) f igure o n 2 7 N asca f emales d uring t he p hases 4t o 7 , e ither a lone ( 13 s pecimens) o r i n c onjunction w ith o ther m arkings. a .

M ost o f t he m ore c omplex m arkings o n N asca 4 f igurines a re u nfortunately i n ab ad s tate o f p reservation, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat i n t his p hase t hey r epresented a nimals n aturalistically, s uch a s a f ish ( p1. I V,gl), p ainted o n t he l ower a bdomen o f a s mall s tanding f igurine, a lready s tressing a l ink b etween t he f emale b ody, o r m ore s pecifically f emale s exuality, a nd m arine l ife.

3 32

b .

T he o nly s itting N asca 5 f emale ( Pl. 1 1,1,2) h as a " serpentine b eing" ( p1. I V ,g2) t attooed o n h er l ower a bdomen a s w ell a s t rophy h eads o n t he u pper a rms, a nd " surrounded f aces" o n t he b uttocks. T he s erpentine b eing, w hose i conographic o rigins a re r ooted i n t he E arly H orizon, h as v ariously b een i nterpreted a s a c entipede ( "escolopendra m itol6gica") i n i ts n aturalistic f orm ( Yacovleff 1 932: 1 04), o r a s t he m ythological " Zackenschlange" ( Seler 1 923: 2 07; E isleb 1 977: 6 1-68) o r a s a " format" s uperimposed o n o ther m ythical b eings ( Farkass W olfe 1 981: 1 7), i n i ts m ore e laborate m anifestations.

T he m arine c onnection o f t his m otif i s s uggested b y: -

-

-

Y acovieff ( 1932: 1 16), f or w hom t he s erpentine b eing w ith i ts " serrated b and" i s d irectly d erived f rom a f ish-shaped m onster ( "monstruo i ctioformo"), w hich h e i dentifies w ith t he k iller-whale. S eler, w ho l inks t he s erpentine b eing ( "Zackenschlange") w ith v arious a spects o f a t rophy-head c arrying s ea-monster, n otably t he " masked m ythical b eing" i n k iller-whale a spect ( 1923: 1 97-198 a nd F ig. 4 6d; f or v arious r enderings o f t he " Zackenschlange" s ee F igs. 5 8-69). A s erpentine b eing t attooed o n t he u pper a rms o f a f isherman ( Blasco a nd R amos 1 980 : p 1. I , u pper r ight).

T he f ertility c onnection i s s uggested b y: -

-

-

S erpentine b eings t attooed o n t he l egs o f t wo w omen i n p rocess o f g iving b irth ( p1. V ,2,3b). N ote t hat h ere s erpentine b eings a re a ssociated b oth w ith t rophy h eads w ith " surrounded f aces" ( see b elow).

t he t he a nd

A s erpentine b eing f orming t he p enis-shaped s pout o f aN asca p accha ( Carrion C achot 1 955: p 1. X IXa). S erpentine b eings t attooed o n t he u pper a rms o f a " warrior" ( or s haman?) h olding a t rophy h ead ( Sawyer 1 968: 4 11), t he f ertility a spect l ying i n t he t rophy h ead s ymbolism ( see b elow).

S erpents i n am ore n aturalitic f orm s ometimes a ppear w ith b ody p aint m otifs s uch a s s tars a nd f lowers ( Schlesier 1 959 : F igs. 4 1, 4 9), a nd o n o ne o f t he d ouble-spouted j ars, w ith a ppliqued h uman c ouple a nd k iller-whale d ecor ( Milla B atres 1 975 : F ig. 1 05). S chlesier ( 1959: 3 6-42) s ees a l ink b etween t he s erpent, r ainfall a nd s oil f ertility.

3 33

C .

A nother " mythical b ei ng ' !a ppears t o b e d erived f rom a l obster ( Pl. I Vg,3). T he l ink w ith f ertility i s e vident o n a n e ffigy j ar, w here a v egetation G od, c arrying m aize, p eppers a nd b eans, h as a l obster h anging f rom h is m outh ( Eisleb 1 977: F ig . 2 10 ; s ee a lso F igs. 1 a nd 3 1). I n am arine f ertility c ontext, t he l obster a ppears i n a f low o f m arine f auna, i ssuing f rom t he m outh o f a m arine d eity ( Gayton a nd K roeber 1 927: p 1. 2 0A).

d .

B ut t he m ost e laborate b ody-paint e ither r epresents o r i s c onnected w ith t he " killer-whale". T he s tylistic d evelopment o f t his m otif h as b een t raced b y Y acovleff ( 1932: p assim , i n p articular p is. 2 , 3 , 6 , 9 , 1 1) a nd s et i nto t he S outh C oast c ultural s equence b y S awyer ( 1961: 2 96-298). L yon ( 1978: 1 26, n ote 5 7) c onvincingly a rgues t hat N asca i conography d oes n ot a ctually d epict t he k illerw hale ( Orca G ladiator L ac.), b ut a " combination o f a ttributes o f v arious d enizens o f t he s ea".

T he k iller-whale ( the n ame a pplies h ere t o t he N asca m otif), a ppears o nly o nce i n i ts i conographically w ell d efined f orm, o n t he b uttocks o f a n o bese f emale ( p1. I Vg, 8 b). P ossible c onnections w ith h uman a nd m arine f ertility a re s uggested b y:

-

T he o bvious r esemblance b etween t he s mell o f m enstrual b lood a nd t hat o f f ish. T his m ay f ind a n i conographic e xpression i n t he " bloody m outh" a ttribute o f t he k iller-whale ( Farkass W olfe 1 981: 1 8). I ndirectly i t c ould a lso b e l inked w ith t he " vagina d entata" t heme, b ased o n t he p resence o f t eeth , c apable o f b iting, i n t he f emale v agina, a nd a pplied b y L yon ( 1978: 1 06) t o t he t attoo o n t he p ubis o f t he s ame ( p1. I Vg, 8 a).

-

f igure

A nother, m ore e xplicit c onnection b etween t he k iller-whale a nd t he h uman c ouple o ccurs o n a ll t he a lready m entioned d ouble-spout v essels f eaturing a n a ppliqued " couple" ( see a bove p . ‚ a lso p 1. V , 8 ) a t t he f ront o f t he v essels, t he o ther s ides d epicting t he k iller-whale. S chlesier ( 1959: 8 9) s uggests t hat t he f igurines a ctually s tand i n t he o pen j aws o f t he m onster; b ut t his i nterpretation d oes n ot f it i n w ith t he o ther e lements, o ccurring o n a ll t hese v essels, e .g. a r oof-like s tructure a bove t he c ouple, t wo o r t hree r ounded p rotuberances o n e ach s ide, a nd s tepped o r c hess-board m otifs ( suggesting t extiles?) a bove a nd b elow t he c ouple. C ould t he c ouples b e s tanding u nder a c anopy, i n t he d oorway o f ah ut? W hatever t he c orrect e xplanation o f t his f eature, t hese r epresentations, o f w hich I h ave f ound n o f ewer t han f our s pecimens, a nd w hich s o e xplicitly l ink t he h uman c ouple w ith t he k iller-whale, a ppear t o m e v ery s ignificant a s r egards t he f unction o f f igurines. V arious i nterpretations c ome t o m ind: t he k iller-whale m ay b e t he p rotector o f t he c ouple i n i ts h ome o r a lternately t he c ouple m ay b e s acrificed t o t he m onster t o p ropitiate i t?

3 34

A n umber o f N asca " ivory" f igurines, d epicting m en a nd w omen, w ere a ll f ound t o h ave b een c arved f rom k iller-whale ( "Orca") t eeth ( Carmichael, p ersonal c ommunication).

-

e .

T he t hematic c onnections a re a lso c lear i n t he c ase o f a nother m ythical b eing, c losely c onnected w ith t he k iller-whale. I t i s d epicted i n t he p ubic a rea o f t he o bese f emale ( p1. I Vg, 8 a) w ho f eatures t he k iller-whale o n h er b uttocks, o ccurs a s a n a ppendage o n t he k iller-whale i tself ( p1. I Vg , 8 b) a nd o n t he b uttocks o f t he o ther, p ractically i dentical, f emale ( p1. I Vg, 9 b). S eler i dentifies t hg a s t he " Jagged s taff d emon" o r " Zackenstabdamon" ( 1923 : 2 61) ,1 ? a n i conographic c oncept d escribing " a n umber o f h uman o r a nthropomorphic b eings .. c haracterised b y a ...jagged s taff" ( Seler 1 923: 2 67). T he m any g uises i n w hich t his m ythical b eing a ppears, o ften m akes i ts i dentification d ifficult. S everal o f t he o ther f igurine t attooes ( p1. I Vg, 9 a, 1 0, ha, b ) p robably d epict t he s ame b eing ( compare t he l arge e yes a nd v olute a ppendages w ith S eler 1 923: F igs. 2 28, 2 32, a nd w ith t he e ye a rea o f F ig. 2 36). I t s hares m any t raits w ith t he k iller-whale i tself, s o t hat Y acovieff ( 1932: 1 36) b elieves t hat t his " demonlo d e b aston d entado" i s a ctually g enetically d erived f rom t he k iller-whale. W hat a re t he s ymbolic c onnotations o f t his p articular m ythical b eing, w ithin t he f igurine i conography?

-

-

T he m arine l ink i s o bvious, s ince t he " jagged s taff d emon" a ppears a s a n a ppendage o f t he k iller-whale i tself; i t a lso f igures o n t he s ame f igurine a s t he k iller-whale. I n f act t he t wo m otifs a ppear t o b e i nterchangeable: e .g. o ne " Zackenstabdamon" r epresentation ( Eisleb 1 977: 1 16 a nd F ig. 2 20) i s c alled " Master o f F ishes", i .e. k iller-whale, b y F arkass W olfe ( 1981: 7 1 a nd F ig. 1 51). T he f ertility l ink i s i llustrated b y t he f act t hat t attooes c over t he p ubic a reas a nd t he b uttocks o f f igurines; -

-

t he t he

b y t he a ssociation w ith t rophy h eads, a lways a ppearing b elow t he d emon 's h ead i n t he s hape o f s emi-circles, w ith t he e yes a nd t he m outh i ndicated b y d ots; otif o n : b y t he p resence o f t he m a v essel F ig. 5 0);

f eaturing a c opulating c ouple

( Lapiner

1 976:

a v essel d epicting a m arine f ertility g oddess ( Gayton a nd K roeber 1 927: 3 7 a nd p 1. 2 0B); a v essel s howing a f emale h olding f ruit ( p1. V ,

3 35

6 );

al arge n umber o f v essels r epresenting f emales ( e.g. P l. V , 7 ; S eler 1 923: F igs. 2 09, 2 11, 2 22; E isleb 1 977: F ig. 2 00 a nd m any m ore), t hough t his c onnection c ould s uggest o ther i nterpretations a s w ell.

T he m ythical b eings t attooed o n t wo o ther f igurines ( p1 . I Vg , 4 a, b a nd 5 ) c ould b e v ariants w ithin t he s ame t hematic g roup, i .e . k iller-whale-cum-jagged s taff d emon. T here i s s ome r esemblance w ith p 1. I Vg, 9 a a nd p articularly w ith a nother k iller-whale d epiction ( Yacovieff 1 932: p 1. 9 m): s ame " bib bed" h ead, s ame e yes a nd n ostrils, s ame t rophy h ead a ppendages, b ut d ifferences i n t he m outh-mask a ppendages. f )

Y et a nother m ythical b eing i s p ainted o n a f igurine ( p1. I I, 3 ) d ated N asca 6 b y D awson ( personal c ommunication). I t b ears a s trong r esemblance t o j agged s taff d emon r epresentations s uch a s a re s hown e .g. i n S eler ( 1923: F ig. 2 23) o r B lasco a nd R amos ( 1980 : F ig. L XIX5). B ut i t a lso s trongly r esembles a nother e nigmatic m onster t he o ne f eatured i n t he p ubic a rea o f t he e ffigy j ar o n p 1. V , 1 a nd w ho, i n t urn, a lso f igures o n v essels t ogether w ith t he k iller-whale ( e.g. S chlesier 1 959: F ig . 2 43 a , b ; B ushnell a nd D igby 1 955: p 1. 6 3B). N ote a lso t he a nalogy b etween t his e nigmatic m onster a nd t he f ace o f t he j agged s taff d emon c um k iller-whale d epicted i n Y acovieff ( 1932: F ig. i lK). -

-

g )

S ome o ther m ythical b eings t attooed o n t he f igurines h ave n ot b een i dentified ( p1. I Vg , 6 , 1 2 a , b , 1 3). T he l atter, p ainted o n t he b uttocks o f o ne o f t he C haviña f igurines ( Lothrop a nd M ahler 1 957: p 1. I Ve a nd X a) i s " garbled" a nd s uggests t hat t he s ymbolic c ontent o f t hese m otifs w as n o l onger u nderstood a t t he v ery e nd o f N asca 7 . P late I Vg, 1 2b h as s ome r esemblance w ith t he s ymmetrical f lower-like m otif p ainted o n t he l egs o f t he f igurine f rom t he H amburg M useum ( p1. I I, 3 ) b ut i s n ot i n k eeping w ith t he s tyle o f t he f igurine o n w hich i t a ppears ( Lapiner 1 967: 1 9, F ig . 3 8): t he e longated h ead a nd s tiffness o f p osture c lerly d ate t his s pecimen l ater t han t he H amburg s pecimen, i .e. t o t he v ery e nd o f N asca 7 . I n f act, t he b ody-paint l ooks " restored".

2 .

T he " net" m otif ( p1. I Vd) f eatures i n 1 5 ( possibly 1 6) f igurines d ating f rom N asca 5 t o 7 , e ither a lone o r a ssociated w ith s tars, c rosses, s urrounded f aces, a nd t rophy h eads. I t i s c learly d erived, e specially i n i t c ircular f orm , f rom e arlier r enderings o f f ishermen 's n ets ( e.g. E isleb 1 977: F igs. 3 5, 3 6, 3 7). T he n et m otif, a s o pposed t o t he d epiction o f r eal f ishermen's n ets, i s r elatively r are o n v essels a nd, t o m y k nowledge, o nly o ccurs a s " tattoos" o n v essels f eaturing f emales ( see e xamples b elow). T he c onnotation o f m arine f ertility i s i nherent i n t he i tself, b ut i t i s f urther e mphasised: -

A s a t attoo o n a c opulating f emale: i s a lso a ssociated w ith t he J agged 1 976: F ig. 5 01);

3 36

t heme

o n t he s ame v essel i t s taff d emon ( Lapiner

-

-

-

3 .

T attooed o n w omen 's a rms, i n a ssociation w ith t rophy h eads ( p1 . V , 5 ; " Precolumbian c eramics", p . 7 3) o r s tars ( p1. V , 7 ). I n t he l atter t here i s a lso a n a ssociation w ith t he J agged s taff d emon i n am arine a spect, w ith p lankton f lowing o ut o f i ts k iller-whale ( "bloody m outh")-like j aws. A s f ace-paint o n a f emale g iving b irth ( p1. V , t his m ay b e p urely d ecorative.

2 ),

t hough

A s t he h eaddress o f am arine d eity ( Lapiner 1 976 : F ig. 5 15) a nd o f a f isherman d evoured b y ak iller-whale ( Seler 1 923: F ig . 3 34), t hough t his i s l ess s ignificant, a s f ishermen a re o ften d epicted w ith n ets o n t heir h eads.

" Trophy h eads" ( p1. I Vf, 1 , 2 , 3 ) o ccur o n s even f igurines ( Nasca t o l ate 7 ), e ither a lone o r a ssociated w ith t he o ther m otifs. T hree t ypes o f t rophy h eads a re r epresented: 4/ 5

T ype 1 i s d escribed b y S eler ( 1923: 2 6) a s a n " eye a nd a h air h ank, t he u ltimate s tylization o f a t rophy h ead". I t i s a r ecurrent m otif o n N asca 5 v essels, w here i t a ppears a lone ( Eisleb 1 977: F ig. 1 46; B lasco a nd R amos 1 98): L am .LI, 5 a, b ) o r i n a ssociation w ith " surrounded f aces" ( p1. V , 4 ; G ayton a nd K roeber 1 927: F ig. 1 2D). O n f igurines t his t ype d oes n ot a ppear b eyond p hase 5 , b ut i t i s r endered o n v essels a s l ate a s N asca 8 ( Schlesier 1 959 : F igs. 2 4 a nd 2 35 ; E isleb 1 977: F ig . 2 54). T ype 2 f irst o ccurs o n t he t highs o f a l ate N asca 5 f igurine a nd o ccurs i n v arious f orms t ill l ate N asca 7 . O n v essels a n e arly f orm ( Nasca 4 ) m ay b e s een i n P roulx ( 1970: p 1. 3 1 A ), a l ate o ne ( Nasca 8 ) i n E isleb ( 1977: F ig. 2 56). T ype 3 a ppears t o b e r are t han t ypes 1 a nd 2 , w ith a s horter l ife, o nly c overing p hase 5 a nd p robably p art o f 6 ( Roark 1 965 : F ig . 5 3; S chlesier 1 959: F ig. 2 1; D ella S anta 1 962: R amos 1 980: L am . X LVIII 4 a).

P l.

2 8;

B lasco

a nd

T he m agico-religious s ignificance o f t he t rophy h ead h as n ot y et b een f ully a nalysed. I t a ppears t o h ave p layed a r ole i n w hat m ay h ave b een s hamanistic r ituals, p erhaps l inked w ith t he u se o f h allucinogens, w ithin t he N asca c ulture ( Avendano a nd C oelho 1 972/73; W assén 1 976). B ut t his f unction d oes n ot e xplain t he i ntrinsic m eaning o f t he t rophy h ead t o t he p articipants i n s uch r ites. P roulx ( 1971: 2 1) s pecifically d enies t hat " the h ead m ay h ave h ad ( any f unction) f or f ertility o f t he c rops", o n t he g rounds t hat t rophy h eads a re n ever a ssociated w ith s pecific m ythical b eings a ssociated w ith p lants. C armichael, a t p resent w orking o n N asca g ravelots, p refers t o c all t hem " ritual" r ather t han " trophy" h eads, a s t he l atter n ame s uggest t hat t hey w ere " mere s ouvenirs f rom s uccessful r aids, a nd t hey w ere c ertainly f ar m ore i mportant t han t hat.. . . C armichael's i mpression i s t hat " there i s o verw helming e vidence f or a r itual h ead f ertility c onnection, a nd "

-

3 37

t hat t he h eads w ere a n i ntegral p art o f a f ertility c ult" ( personal c ommunication). T he l ink b etween t he t rophy h ead a nd f ertility i s e xplained i n t hat " the h ead, a s t he m ost i mportant p art o f t he h uman b ody, m ay h ave b een c onsidered a v aluable o ffering t o a g od... S acrifice p robably i nsured t he f ertility a nd c ontinuance o f t he w orld" ( "Museums o f t he A ndes": 6 5). O n t he f igurines a nd s ome v essels t he t rophy h eads a re l inked w ith f ertility. T hey a pper i n t he p ubic a rea a nd/or t he b uttocks o f a n umber o f f igurines ( e.g. p 1. I , 4 ; Pl. I I, 1 ) a nd a re a lso a ssociated w ith a c opulating f emale ( Schlesier 1 959: F ig. 2 35) a nd aw oman g iving b irth ( p1. V , 2 ). B ut t he t rophy h ead m ay a lso h ave p layed a w ider r ole a s ac harm, b ecause w e f requently f ind i t t attooed o n a reas o f t he f emale b ody n ot s pecifically r elated t o t he p rocreative f unctions, s uch a s t he a rms, h ands, l egs, e ven t he c hin ( e.g. p 1. V , 1 , 2 , 5 , 9 ; " Precolumbian c eramics" p . 7 3). T he m arine r elated s ymbolism o f t he t rophy h ead i s e xpressed i n i ts c lose l inks w ith t he k iller-whale, e ither a s a n a ppendage o f t he t n Onster ( e.g. i n t he m outh a rea, s ee Y acovleff 1 932: F ig . 9 a, b , c , g , h ) o r r epresented i ndependently b ut w ithin t he k illerw hale m otif ( e.g. h eld i n t he h ands, s ee Y acovleff 1 932: 3 g , 1 , o r c lose t o t he m onster, s ee S eler 1 923: F ig. 2 35). I ndeed S awyer ( 1961: 2 96) s ees " the k iller-whale a s a n i mportant s ymbol o f t he t rophy h ead c ult". O ther m arine l inks e xist w ith t he n et m otif, b oth o n f igurines a nd o n e ffigy j ars ( pis. I , 6a nd V , 5 ), o r w ith f ish, a s o n o ne v essel, w here a s olitary f ish s wims a mongst a m ultitude o f t rophy h eads ( Della S anta 1 962: p 1. 3 2).

4 .

T he " surrounded f ace ( p1. Ne, 1 , 2 ) o ccurs o n t hree f igurines ( Nasca 5 a nd 6 ), a ssociated w ith n ets , t rophy h eads a nd/or t he s erpentine m ythical b eing. R oark ( 1965: 2 6) c lassifies t he " surrounded f ace" a mongst w hat h e c alls " bizarre i nnovations", a ppearing s uddenly d uring p hase 5 a nd r arely s urviving i nto N asca 6 . O n t he f igurines,

t he s urrounded f aces a ppear i n t wo f orms:

T ype 1 : a f ace, w ith e yes a nd m outh i ndicated b y d ashes, s urrounded b y w hat I b elieve t o b e f our e xcessively s tylised " limbs", b ecause o f t he s imilarity w ith t he u sual N asca r endering o f f inger a nd t wo n ails. B etween e ach l imb i s a h ank o f h air s uch a s f emale f igurines h ave h anging o ver t heir s houlders o n t heir s houlders o n t heir c hest, a nd s ometimes d own t he b ack. I s uggest t hat t his t ype i s a " shorthand" r epresentation o f t he f emale. I t i s w orth n oting t hat , o n v essels a s w ell a s o n t he f igurines, t he " limbs" m ost f requently h ave t hree f ingers o f t oes, t hough t wo a nd f our a lso o ccur. S everal N asca 4 f igurines o nly h ave t hree f ingers, t hough l ater s pecimens a lways h ave f our, f ive a nd v ery o ccasionally s ix. O n e ffigy

3 38

j ars t hree f ingers c an o ccur a t l east u ntil N asca 6 ( Eisleb 1 977: F ig. 1 99). A n umber o f c ultures ( Paracas, I ca-Chincha, V ic C is, C hancay T ricolor) c onsistently r epresent h ands w ith t hree f ingers o nly, s o t his f eature m ay w ell h ave a s pecial s ignificance, s uch a s a b ird a ttribute. A lternatively i t m ay r epresent a y oung i ndividual: a n e ffigy j ar s hows a w oman c arrying t wo c hildren, b oth w ith t hree-fingered h ands ( Anton 1 972 : F ig. 6 4). T ype 2 : a f ace a s a bove, s urrounded b y f our a lternating w ith h anks o f h air.

s imilar

f aces,

I t i s n ot c lear, w hether w e a re a lways d ealing w ith l iving f aces o r p ossibly w ith t rophy h eads. O n e ffigy j ars, t he m otif o ccurs i n m ore c omplex f orms: O n a t l east t hree e ffigy j ars, t he c entral f aces h ave a m ythical a spect a nd a re c learly s urrounded b y t rophy h eads ( p1. V , 2 i n t he p ubic a rea; p 1. V , 3 d o n t he b uttocks; L apiner 1 976: F ig. 5 09, s ides). O n o ther e ffigy j ars, t he " mythical" c entral f ace c an b e s urrounded b y p lants ( p1. V , 1 , s ides; p 1. V , 3 a: p ubis, k nees, u pper a rms, 3 c: s ides; L apiner 1 976: F ig. 5 09, p ubis). I t i s d ifficult t o i dentify t he p lants w ith c ertainty: o n t he k nees a nd u pper a rms o f p 1. V . 3 a w e m ay h ave c apsicum , w hich c an b e s hown e ither w ith a p ointed o r a r ounded t ip ( see E isleb 1 977: F igs. 1 01 a nd 1 02), t hough i t i s o dd f or b oth s hapes t o o ccur o n t he s ame v essel. A lso i dentifiable i s J iquima ( Pachyrrizus t uberosus), w hich h as a n e dible r oot-tuber a nd p oiso us f ruit ( Blasco a nd R amos 1 980: 6 1-62 a nd F ig. L XIII, l b). N ote t hat i t i s t he p oisonous f ruit w hich s urrounds t he f aces h ere ( p1. V , 3 a, p ubis; L apiner 1 976 : F ig. 5 09, p ubis). O ne l ast a spect o f t his m otif i n i ts s impler f orm ( i.e. a s s een o n t he f igurines) w orth m entioning i s i ts d ivision i nto f our s ymmetrical q uarters, b asically c orresponding t o t he c ardinal p oints. T his v ery i mportant a nd p ersistent c osmic c oncept, r uns l ike a " Leitmotiv" t hrough p recolu i nbian m ythology. Ac urious, v ery l ate e volution o f t he s urrounded f aces o n aN asca 9 v essel ( Eisleb 1 977: F ig. 2 82, m ore c learly d rawn i n S eler 1 923: F ig. 4 27) c ould t hrow s ome l ight o n t he t hought-process l eading t o t his " kenning", t he m eaning o f w hich i s n ow l ost t o u s. T he f ertility c onnotation o f t he s urrounded f ace i s o bvious: -

I n i ts h uman f orm : t he s ymbol a ppears o n v essels r epresenting c hildbirth, t he s exual a ct a nd o n f emale e ffigy j ars g enerally ( p1. V , 1 -4; S chlesier 1 959: F igs. 2 30, 2 35).

3 39

-

-

O f p articular i nterest i s t he c lose l ink w ith t he t rophy h ead, s hown o n s ome o f t he e ffigy j ars a nd o n o ther v essels, w here t he t wo m otifs e ven a ppear t ogether, w ithout a ny o ther s ymbols ( p1. V , 4 ; G ayton a nd K roeber 1 927: F ig. 1 2D; S eler 1 923: F ig. 1 78 : S chlesier 1 959: F ig. 2 35). I n i ts a gricultural a spect: a s s een a bove.

t he f ace s urrounded b y p lants,

T he m arine c onnection, h owever, a ppears t o b e m issing. T here i s aN asca 5 p accha ( Carrion C achot 1 955: P l. X IX, c ), d ecorated w ith s urrounded f aces ( encircled b y l imbs, n ot p lants!), b ut t he l ink h ere i s w ith f resh w ater, n ot w ith t he s ea.

5 .

T he s tar ( p1. I Va) a ppears o n 2 1 f igurines ( Nasca 4 /5 t o N asca 8 ), i ncluding t wo f ragments f rom H uaca d el L oro, e ither o n i ts o wn o r a ssociated t o a ny o f t he o ther m arkings. I t i s a n i mportant m otif a lso o n v essels t hroughout t he N asca c ulture, f rom p hases 2 t o 9 ( for s ome i nteresting e xamples s ee M illa B atres 1 975: L am . X III; P roulx 1 970 : p 1. 1 4E ; S chlesier 1 959: F ig. 1 37; K roeber a nd S trong 1 924: p 1. 2 8p; E isleb 1 977: F ig. 2 82). T he d oodle-like r andomness o f t he s tar r enderings i s d eceptive: o n t he f igurines a s w ell a s o n p ots, i t n early a lways c onforms t o a s trict p attern o f e ight r ays, a c haracteristic a lready n oted b y P roulx ( 1968: 1 17, A ppendix 5 ). V arious i nterpretations a re p ossible, o ther e ight r ays m ay h ave b een a n a rtistic c onvention: -

-

t han

t hat

t he

O ne s pecific s tar m ay b e r epresented; b ut a ccording t o m any c hroniclers w riting a bout t he N orth a nd C entral c oasts, t he t endency w as t o w orship c onstellations, s uch a s e .g. t he " Cabrillas", i .e. C astor a nd P ollux. T he e ight-rayed s tar m ay b e ad epiction o f t he S an P edro c actus ( Trichocerus p achanoi), w hich p layed a n i mportant p art i n s hamanistic r ituals ( Sharon 1 972; S haron a nd D onnan 1 977). T his e longated c actus h as s ix t o g ht l ongitudinal r ibs ( Britton a nd R ose 1 919: 1 34-135), a nd i n c rosss ection l ooks v ery m uch l ike a s tar. A n umber o f N asca 4 e ffigy j ars ( Tello 1 959: 2 91-294, F igs. 8 4-87 a nd L am . X XXI) f eature a S an P edro c actus o n e ach s houlder o f a p ersonage. T he c acti t hemselves a re a dorned w ith s tars, i n t hree c ases e ight-ray s tars, i n t wo s ix-ray s tars. ( It w ould b e i nteresting t o k now , w hether t he d rawings a re a bsolutely a ccurate.) T he e ffigy j ars m ay e ither d epict h umans, p erhaps s hamans, o r s upernaturals, e ngaged i n a r itual a ct. F amiliar m otifs, s uch a s t rophy h eads, t he s erpentine b eing, t he l obster, a re a lso s hown o n t hese v essels.

3 40

O bviously, t he s tar b eing a v ery s imple m otif, i t o ccurs i n m any d ecorative c ombinations. S pecific l inks w ith f ertility a re i llustrated o n e ffigy j ars s howing w omen g iving b irth ( e.g. p 1. V , 2 ) o r w hose f ertility a spect i s o bvious ( p1. V , 1 ; L apiner 1 976: 5 09). T he m arine l ink i s i ndicated o n aN asca 6 v essel ( Tello 1 959: L am. L XXXIX): a p ersonage, w earing a f ishing n et o n h is h ead, i s d ressed i n a l ong c loak, d ecorated w ith l arge e ight-ray s tars a nd w ith a b order o f k iller-whales i n a bbreviated f orm . A s imilar a ssociation o f s tar, n et a nd " bloody m outh" a lso o ccurs o n p 1. V , 7 .

6 .

T he c ross ( p1. I Vb) a ppears o n 1 1 f igurines ( Nasca 4 t o 8 ),13 i ncluding o ne f ragment f rom H uaca d el L oro, a lone o r a ssociated w ith s ome o f t he o ther m arkings ( see T able 1 ), b ut n ot w ith t rophy h eads o r m ythical b eings. O n v essels, t he c ross c an a ppear a lone o r a s a f iller ( e.g. E isleb 1 977: F igs. 1 0, 1 12, 1 48); I k now o f o nly o ne N asca 6 e ffigy v essel r epresenting a w oman, w ith b oth c rosses a nd n ets t attooed o n h er a rms ( Museo N acional d e A ntroppologia y A rqueologia , L ima n o. 3 2/344). O n t he w hole, t he c ross d oes n ot s eem t o p lay a n i mportant p art w ithin t he s pecific s et o f " kennings" w hich w e a re t rying t o d ecipher h ere. H owever n o e lement o f N asca i conography i s e ntirely d evoid o f s ymbolic c ontent a nd i ndeed t he c ross a ppears, w ith s tars a nd m odified s urrounded f aces, o n t he v ery c urious N asca 9 v essel m entioned e arlier ( Eisleb 1 977: F ig. 2 82). I t w ould b e i nteresting t o k now o f t he e xistence o f e arlier N asca v essels, w here t he c ross a ppears i n o ther c ontexts, m ore c learly r elated t o t he s ymbols a nalyzed h ere.

7 .

T he " flower" ( p1. I Vc) o nly f eatures o n f ive f igurines ( Nasca 6 t o 8 ), t ogether w ith s tars, c rosses a nd m ythical b eings, b ut t he m arkings o n t he f igurines a re t oo s ketchy t o b e c ompared t o m ore n aturalistic r enderings o f f lowers o n e arlier v essels. T he m ore c omposite s ymmetrical " flower" v isible o n t he k nees o f t he H amburg f igurine ( p1. I I, 3 a nd I Vc, b ottom) m ay a ctually b e a s tylisation o f am ythical b eing ( Gayton a nd K roeber 1 927: F ig. 1 0). A ll t he o ther f lower-like m arkings o ccur o n l ate N asca 7 a nd N asca 8 f igurines a nd m ay s imply s how a l ack o f u nderstanding o f t he e arlier s ymbolic m arkings.

3 41

C onclusion T his d etailed a nalysis o f t he m otifs d ecorating t he f emale f igurines a nd o f t he v arious c ombinations i n w hich t hey a ppear o n N asca c eramics s uggests t hat t he m otifs w ere i ndeed t he s ymbols o f m agicor eligious c oncepts i n w hich f ertility p layed a n i mportant p art. U ntil t he e nd o f N asca 5 , t hese c oncepts m ay w ell h ave h ad a n a gricultural c onnotation , i llustrated b y s ome o f t he v essels, w here t he s urrounded f aces a re a ctually e ncircled b y f ruit ( e.g. p 1 . V , 1 a nd 3 ). T he g radual d isappearance o f t he s urrounded f aces a nd t he i ntroduction o f t he n et a nd o f t he k iller-whale a s i mportant m otifs, m ay s ignify a s hift o f r eligious b eliefs t owards s pecifically m arine f ertility. A s a lready m entioned, i t i s n ot c lear w hat r ole t he f igurines c an h ave p layed i n r elation t o t hese m agico-religious c oncepts. W e n ote t hat t here i s a c lear b reak i n f igurine p roduction o n t he S outh C oast, b etween t he e nd o f t he E arly H orizon a nd p hase 4 o f t he N asca l ture ( ca. 4 50 B C t o 5 0 A D), i .e. a t ime s pan o f a bout f our c enturies. T he f irst f igurines t hat a re t hen p roduced ( Nasca 4 ) a re a lthough o ften q uite w ell m ade r ather s imple r epresentations o f t he h uman f igure, a lways s mall a nd s tanding. I t i s o nly t owards t he e nd o f N asca 5 , b ut e specially d uring p hases 6 a nd 7 , t hat w e s ee t he a ppearance o f t he r eally i mportant o bese s itting f emales a nd l arge s tanding m ales, w hilst t he s mall s tanding f igurines b ecame i n c ontrast w ith t he N asca 4 s pecimens v ery l ife-like. W ith N asca 8 , t he s ymbolic s ignificance o f t he f igurines i s g radually l ost: t he f igurines b ecome s tiff, t he f emales a re n o l onger o bese a nd t he o nly m arkings t hat s till o ccur a re t he s tar, t he c ross a nd t he f lower. S o t he N asca f igurine t radition f ollows a c lear c urve, n ot d uplicated b y t he c eramics i n g eneral, p ossibly r elated t o t he r ise a nd f all o f a p articular c ult. -

-

-

-

I f, a s w e h ave s uggested, t he f igurines p layed a v otive o r s acrificial r ole ( the l atter s uggested b y t he d ouble-spouted v essels a dorned w ith a f igurine c ouple a nd d ecorated w ith t he k iller-whale), c an w e i dentify a d eity w hich e mbodies t he m agico-religious b eliefs s ymbolised b y t he b ody-markings? L yon ( 1978: 1 26, n ote 5 7) i dentifies t he m any f aceted m arine m onster, k nown t o u s a s t he k iller-whale, w ith a n i mportant f igure o f t he e arly P eruvian p antheon, t he " Master" o r " Mistress o f F ishes" o r " Father/Mother o f F ishes". T his d eity a ppears i n v arious l egends a nd i n v arious g uises a long t he w hole P eruvian l ittoral, o ften " overlaid" b y l ater g ods o f h ighland o rigin ( see e .g. R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco 1 973: 1 7). T he d uality e xpressed i n t he t wo f orms o f t he n ame n ot o nly c onforms t o a d eep-rooted p recolumbian t hought-pattern , b ut i s a lso r eflected i n m ale a nd f emale r epresentations o f t his m arine d eity i n N asca i conography. -

A n e ffigy j ar s hows t he " Mother o f F ishes" w ith a m ultitude o f m arine c reatures f lowing o ut o f h er m outh ; i n h er h ands s he h olds p lants. T he b ack o f t he v essel i s d ecorated w ith t he " jagged s taff d emon" ( Gayton a nd K roeber 1 927: p 1. 2 0 A ,B).

3 42

-

-

T he " Mother o f F ishes" m ay a lso b e r epresented b y e ffigy j ars s howing f emales w hose a rms a re c overed w ith f ish s cales ( Anton 1 972: F ig. 6 4; S awyer 1 975: 1 02, F ig. 1 39). T he " Master o f F ishes" i s s hown o n a v essel w ith a f low o f m arine c reatures i ssuing f rom h is m outh a nd a t rophy h ead i n h is h and; t he f ishtail a t t he b ack s hows h im t o b e a n a nthropomorphic m arine m onster ( Gayton a nd K roeber 1 927: P l. 1 5 A , B ). O n a nother v essel, f ishermen, h olding f ish i n t heir h ands, d isport t hemselves i n t he f low o f w ater s purting f rom t he m outh o f t he " Master o f F ishes"; h e w ears an et o n h is h ead ( Lapiner 1 976: F ig. 5 15).

B ut t he m ost c ommon r epresentation o f t he d eity m ust b e s een, a s L yon h as s uggested, i n t he s o-called k iller-whale m otif, w hich a ppears t o f unction a s a" kenning" f or t he m ore e xplicit c oncept o f t he m arine g od o r g oddess; t he n ature o f i ts s ymbolic l inks w ith t he " jagged s taff d emon", a nd o f t he w ider r eligious b eliefs t hese l inks i mply, r emain a s y et o bscure. S umming u p, I s uggest t entatively, t hat t he f igurines f ormed p art o f t he c ult o f am arine d eity a s p ropitiatory o fferings. T he p owers a nd b lessings o f t he d eity, t hus i nvoked, s eem t o h ave b een m anyf aceted: -

-

-

-

t o p romote t he f ertility o f t he h uman c ouple, t o i ncrease t he r iches o f t he s ea , t o p rotect ( or b e m erciful t o) t he f ishermen, l astly, t o p rotect t he f ish f rom m arine p redators.

3 43

1 5

N OTES

1 .

D awson 's u npublished s eriation i s k nown f rom a n o utline g iven b y J ohn R owe ( 1956: 1 46-147; 1 960b) a nd b y a n umber o f s tudies b ased o n i t a nd c ompleted u nder h is a nd R owe's g uidance ( Roark 1 965; P roulx 1 968 a nd 1 970; F arkass W olfe 1 981). U nfortunately t hese s tudies o nly c over t he e arlier p hases ( 1 t o 5 ) o f t he N asca s equence. N asca 8 , m ainly r epresented b y t he m aterial e xcavated b y S trong ( 1957) a t H uaca d el L oro, i s e asily i dentifiable b ecaue o f a m arked d ecline i n t he q uality o f b oth d ecor a nd c eramic t echnology. A ttributions t o p hases 6 a nd 7 c an b e a ttempted b y r eference t o t he p receding a nd s ucceeding p hase.

2 .

A t hird r elated g roup, w hich I r ecorded b ut d id n ot i nclude i n t his s tudy, c onsists o f c a. 1 2 p ottery w histles r epresenting h umans.

3 .

T he h eight o f t he " stelae" r anges f rom 2 1.0 t o 7 5.5 c m , a verage o f 3 0.0cm .

4 .

F or p ublished s pecimens o f t his g roup s ee: L ilien 1 956: f , 1 , m : S awyer 1 975: F ig. 1 54; P arsons 1 962: 1 47.

5 .

T he s mall s tanding f igurines, m ale a nd f emale, r ange f rom 3 .3cm t o

w ith

a n

p 1 .

X ,

1 7.9cm , w ith a n a verage s ize o f a bout 7 .5cm . A g roup o f l arger s tanding m ales a nd a s ingle l arge s tanding f emale, s tylistically m ore c losely r elated t o s ome o f t he s itting f emales, r ange b etween 1 7.0cm a nd 3 7.8cm , w ith a n a verage s ize o f c a. 2 4cm . T he h eight o f t he s itting f emales r anges f rom 1 .7cm t o 2 5.6cm . I t i s m easured f rom t he t op o f t he h ead t o t he p lane o n w hich t he f igurine i s s itting. H owever t he " sitting" m easurements c annot g ive a n a ccurate i mpression o f t he o verall l ength o f t he f igurine, a s t hey d epend o n t he a ngle a t w hich t he f igurine l eans b ackwards, a s w ell a s o n t he a ngle a t w hich t he h ead i s t ilted. T he l ength f rom h ead t o t oe g ives a n e qually i nadequate i mpression, a s i t d epends o n t he a ngle f ormed b etween t he b ody a nd t he l egs. I t w ould b e m eaningless t o c alculate a n a verage s ize ; h owever t he m ajority o f s itting f emales a re c onsiderably l arger t han t he s tanding o nes. 6 .

S mall s tanding p ublications: n o. 9 3; B ird L apiner 1 976: b ; p 1. V III, a

7 .

L arge s itting f emales a ppear i n t he f ollowing p ublications: M illa B atres 1 975: F ig. 8 8; L arco H oyle 1 966 : F ig. 1 31; " Peru ... J ahrtausende": n o. 6 .33; L avalle a nd L ang 1 978: 6 8; L apiner 1 967: F ig. 3 8; L apiner 1 976: F igs. 4 78, 4 79, 4 81; K auf f mann-Doig 1 978: 3 87, F ig. 7 ; L othrop a nd M ahler 1 957: P l. V Ie; p 1. X a . T he t hree m ost f amous N asca f igurines a ppear i n a n umber o f p ublications:

f igurines, S pielbauer 1 962: F ig F ig. 4 87c, b , c ; P l.

f emale o r m ale, a ppear i n t he f ollowing 1 972; D isseihoff 1 970: 1 17; A nton 1 957: 5 1D; " Art o f A ncient P eru": n o. 4 2; d ; L othrop a nd M ahler 1 957: p 1 . I V, a , I X, a , b , c , d .

3 44

a )

M useum f ir V1kerkunde, B erlin n o. V A 5 0926, s ee S eler F ig. 2 08; S chmidt 1 929: 2 99; S chlesier 1 959 : F ig. E isieb 1 977: F ig. 2 03; L yon 1 978: p 1. X XXI, F ig. 1 2.

1 923: 2 34;

b )

M useo R egional d e I ca n o. D A-1051 ( formerly n o. 1 406), L ilien 1 956: p 1. X , a -c; L yon 1 978: P l. X XXII, F ig. " Peru.. . Jahrtausende": n o. 6 .38.

c )

M useo N acional d e A ntropologia y A rqueologia , L ima n o. 3 5/6609 s ee L ilien 1 956: p 1. X , d ; L avalle a nd L ang 1 978: 6 9; W eiss 1 962: p 1. I II, a .

s ee 1 3;

8 .

T his t ype o f c ranial d eformation, r esulting i n a d epression a cross t he c rown o f t he h ead ( "retro-bregmatic g roove") a nd m arked l ateral l obes, i s r are i n N asca s keletal m aterial ( Weiss 1 962: L am. V D; N eudecker 1 979: 1 63 a nd n ote 2 20).

9 .

F or i nstance , t here i s a g roup o f M oche s pecimens, a ll f rom t he s ame s ite, w hich a ll h ave a l arge b roken h ole i n t he m iddle o f t he b ack; a lso s ome C himu f igurines w ith a l arge n umber o f s mall h oles, m ade b efore f iring.

1 0 .

A lthough i n t his p assage t he a uthor u ses t he n ame " Zackendi non", t he c ontext s hows t hat h e m eans t he " Zackenstabdamon".

1 1.

U nfortunately I h ad n o a ccess t o t he a rticle b y E ugenio Y acovleff, d ealing s pecifically w ith t his p lant, e ntitled " La j iquima, r aiz c omestible e xtinguida e n e l P erC t". ( Revista d el M useo N acional 1 933, 1 1(1): 5 1-66).

1 2 .

A ccording t o S haron 's i nformant, t he C urandero G álvaez, t he m ost f requently u sed t ype o f S an P edro c actus h as s even r ibs. T he v ery r are f our-ribbed v ariety ( not m entioned b y B ritton a nd R ose) i s c onsidered p articularly e ffective ( Sharon 1 972: 1 20).

1 3 .

I t i s t he o nly m arking w hich a lso a ppears o n t he s telae a s f or i nstance o n p 1. I II, 2 .

1 4 .

T his c alculation i s b ased o n M enzel's ( 1977) c hronological t able: I m entioned e arlier t hat E arly H orizon s tyle f igurines m ay s till h ave b een m anufactured d uring N asca 1 a nd t hat o ne f igurine i n t his s ample m ay d ate t o N asca 3 .

1 5.

C obo s pecifically r efers t o t he d amage i nflicted b y m arine p redators t o s maller f ish u seful t o m an ( Yacovieff 1 932: 1 24).

3 45

( Nasca),

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E diciones N agel,

-

L avalle, J osé A ntonio d e a nd W erner L ang ( eds.), 1 978. A rte P recolombino, M useo d e A ntropologia y A rqueologia, L ima . S equnda P arte: E scultura y D iseño. C ollecci6n A rte y T esoros d el P erC t. B anco d e C rédito d el P eru. L ima. L ilien, R ose M uriel, 1 956. A S tudy o f C entral A ndean C eramic F igurines. P h.D. C olumbia U niversity. U niversity M icrofilms n o. 1 9, 2 47. A nn A rbor, M ichigan. L o i nmel, A ndreas ( ed.), 1 977. A ltamerikanische K unst M exico-Peru. K atalog z ur A usstellung d es S taatlichen M useums f ur V olkerkunde, M ünchen . 3 rd e dition. S taatliches M useum f ur V olkerkunde, M unich. L othrop, S .K. a nd J oy M ahler, 1 957. L ate N asca B urials a t C haviña, P eru. P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, H arvard U niversity, v ol. L , n o. 2 , C ambridge. L yon, P atricia J ean , N awpa P acha 1 6:

1 978 . F emale S upernaturals i n A ncient P eru. 9 5-140. I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies, B erkeley.

3 47

M enzel, D orothy, 1 977. T he A rchaeology o f A ncient P eru a nd t he W ork o f M ax U hie. R .H. L owie M useum o f A nthropology , U niversity o f C alifornia, B erkeley. M illa B atres, C arlos, ( Ed.), 1 975. G ula p ara m useos d e a rqueologia p eruana. E ditorial M illa B atres, L ima. " Museums o f t he A ndes". Y ork, 1 981.

N ewsweek/Great M useums o f t he W orld.

N ew

N eudecker, A ngelika, 1 979. A rchäologische F orschungen I m N azca-Gebiet. D as T al d es R io S anta C ruz i n p raespanischer Z eit a us d er S icht d er F orschungen d es P rofessor D r. U belohde-Doerings i m J ahre 1 932. M uncher B eitrage z ur A merikanistik B and 3 . K laus R enner V erlag. H ohenschaftlarn.

P arsons, L ee A .

1 962.

P eruvian M ortuary A rt :

C ollection a t M ilwaukee.

T he M alcolm C . W hyte

A rchaeology 1 5(2):

1 46-151.

N ew Y ork.

" Peru D urch D ie J ahrtausende": K unst u nd K ultur i m L ande d er I nkas. N ieder sterreichische L andesausstellung 1 983. K atalog d es N o a ndesmuseums, N .F. n o. 1 33. V ienna. " Precolumbian c eramics o f t he C entral A ndes f rom t he c ollection o f D r. J .F. d a C osta, R otterdam . M useum V oor L and- e n V olkenkunde, R otterdam 1 968. P roulx, D onald A llen, 1 968. L ocal D ifferences a nd T ime D ifferences i n N asca P ottery. U niversity o f C alifornia P ublications i n A nthropology, v ol. 5 . B erkeley a nd L os A ngeles. P roulx, D onald A llen, 1 970. N asca g ravelots i n t he U hie c ollection f rom t he I ca V alley, P eru. R esearch R eport n o. 5 , D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f M assachusetts. A mherst. P roulx, D onald A llen, 1 971. H eadhunting i n A ncient P eru. 2 4(1): 1 6-21. N ew Y ork .

A rchaeology

R eichel-Dolmatoff, G erardo, 1 961. A nthropomorphic F igurines f rom C olombia, T heir M agic a nd A rt. I n E ssays i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology b y S amuel K . L othrop a nd o thers, p p. 2 29-241. H arvard U niversity P ress, C ambridge. R oark, R ichard P aul, 1 965. F rom M onumental t o P roliferous i n N asca P ottery. ñ awpa P acha 3 : 1 -92. I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies, B erkeley.

3 48

R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco , M aria , 1 973. U rpayhuachac y e i " Simbolo d el M ar". A rqueologia P UC , B oletin d el S eminario d e A rqueologia 1 4 : 1 3-22 . I nstituto R iva A guero , P ontificia U niversidad C at6lica d el P eru , L ima . R owe , J ohn H . 1 956 . A rchaeological E xplorations i n S outhern P eru , 1 954-1955. P reliminary R eport o f t he F ourth U niversity o f C alifornia A rchaeological E xpedition t o P eru . A merican A ntiquity 2 2(2): 1 31-151. S alt L ake C ity. R owe, J ohn H . 1 960 . N uevos d atos r elativos a l a c ronologia d el e stilo N asca . I n A ntiquo P eru , E spacio y T iempo, p p . 2 9-45 . L ibreria E ditorial J uan M ejia B aca , L ima . R owe , J ohn H . 1 967. F orm a nd M eaning i n C havin A rt . I n J .H . R owe a nd D . M enzel ( Eds.), P eruvian A rchaeology , S elected R eadings, p p . 7 21 03 . P eek P ublications , P alo A lto, C alifornia .

S awyer , A lan R . 1 961. P aracas a nd N azca I conography. I n E ssays i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology , b y S .K . L othrop a nd o thers, p p . 2 69-298 . H arvard U niversity P ress , C ambridge. S awyer, A lan R . 1 962 . AG roup o f E arly N azca S culptures i n t he W hyte C ollection . A rchaeology 1 5(2): 1 52-159 . S awyer, A lan , R . 1 968 . M astercraftsmen o f A ncient P eru . R . G uggenheim F oundation , N ew Y ork .

T he S olomon

S awyer, A lan , R . 1 975. A ncient A ndean A rts i n t he C ollections o f t he K rannert A rt M useum . K rannert A rt M useum , U niversity o f I llinois , U rbana-Champaign . S chlesier , K arl H . 1 959 . S tilgeschichtliche E inordnung d er N azcaV asenmalereien ; B eitrag z ur G eschichte d er H och-kulturen d es v orkolumbischen P eru . A nnali-Latera-nensi , P ublicazione d el P ontificio M useo M issionarlo E tnologico , X XIII: 9 -236 . C ittá d el V aticano . S chmidt, M ax , 1 929 . B erlin .

K unst u nd K ultur v on P eru .

P ropyl e-Verlag,

S eler, E duard , 1 923 . D ie b untbemalten G efässe v on N asca i m s udlichen P eru u nd d ie H auptelements i hrer V erzierung . G esammelte A bhandlungen z ur A merikanischen S prach- u nd A ltertumskunde , B and I V , p p . 1 68-338 . B ehrend & C o ., B erlin . S haron , D ouglas G . 1 972 . T he S an P edro C actus i n P eruvian F olk H ealing . I n P eter T . F urst ( Ed .), F lesh o f t he G ods, p p . 14-135 . G eorge A llen a nd U nwin L td ., L ondon . S haron , D ouglas G . a nd C hristopher B . D onnan , 1 977. T he M agic C actus. E thnoarchaeological C ontinuity i n P eru . A rchaeology 3 0(6): 3 743 81.

3 49

S pielbauer , J udith , 1 972 . N azca F igurines f rom t he M alcolm W hyte C ollection . A rchaeology v ol . 2 5 , n o. 1 , p p . 2 0-25 . S trong , W illiam D uncan , 1 957 . P aracas , N azca a nd T iahuanacoid C ultural R elationships i n S outh C oastal P eru . M emoirs o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology 1 3 . S alt L ake C ity.

T ello, J ulio C . 1 959 . P aracas . P rimera P arte . P ublicaci6n d el P royecto 8 b d el P rograma 1 941-42 d e T he I nstitute o f A ndean R esearch d e N ew Y ork . E i npresa G ráfica T . S cheuch S .A ., L ima.

W ass n , S . H enry , 1 976 . T he T obacco f rom N iño K orin : I dentification o f N icotine i n aB olivian A rchaeological C ollection . G oteborgs E tnografiska M useum A rstryck , p p. 4 5-48 , G othenburg . W eiss , P edro, 1 962 . T ipologfa d e l as D eformaclones C ef licas d e l os A ntiguos P eruanos , s eg C in l a O steologia C ultural . R evista d el M useo N acional X XXI : 1 5-21. L ima . W eiss , P edro a nd P edro R ojas P once , 1 967-1968 . E studio d e l as l mágenes c on c abezas b ilobadas d e l a c eramica C him C i yC hancay . R evista d el M useo N acional X XXV : 2 95-311. L ima .

Y acovleff, E ugenio , 1 932 . L a d eidad p rimitiva d e l os N asca . d el M useo N acional 1 (2): 1 01-160 , L ima .

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T HE N AZCA L INES, W ATER A ND M OUNT INS: A N E THNOARCHAEOLOGICAL S TUDY J ohan R einhard T he l imit o f m an 's k nowledge i n a ny s ubject p ossesses a h igh i nterest, w hich i s p erhaps i ncreased b y i ts c lose n eighborhood t o t he r ealms o f i magination. C harles D arwin A BSTRACT T he l ines a nd f igures c onstructed o n t he d esert s urface ( geoglyphs) n ear N azca a re a nalyzed i n t erms o f w ater/mountain/ f ertility c oncepts f ound w idely t hroughout t he A ndes. E thnographic a nd h istorical d ata a re p resented t o d emonstrate t hat m ountain w orship w as i mportant a t N azca f rom a ncient t o r ecent t imes. C omparative d ata r elating t o g eoglyphs i n o ther a reas i s a lso u sed i n t he d evelopment o f at heory t o e xplain t he l ines a nd f igures a s p art o f r eligious p ractices d esigned p rimarily t o i nsure t he p rovision o f w ater f or t he p eople a nd t heir c rops.

I ntroduction F ew a rchaeological s ites i n t he w orld h ave a ttracted a s m uch a ttention a s t he l arge f igures a nd l ines d rawn I n t he d esert's s urface n ear N azca. 2 T hese g eoglyphs h ave p uzzled l aymen a nd a rchaeologists a like. S ome o f t he f igures a re o nly v isible i n t heir e ntirety f rom t he a ir a nd a long w ith t he m aze o f l ines m any e xtending f or s everal k ilometers h ave l ed t o am ultitude o f t heories, s everal o f w hich h ave e ntered i nto t he r ealm o f t he b izarre. N one o f t he t heories, h owever, h as s ucceeded i n p roviding a c onvincing e xplanation a s t o t he m eaning o f t his e nigmatic c omplex. -

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T his a rticle w ill n ot p resent a p hysical d escription o f t he g eoglyphs n or w ill l t e xamine t heories w hich h ave b een p resented p reviously, b eyond m aking b rief c omments a bout t he o ne m ost w idely a ccepted i n s cientific c ircles ( cf. R einhard 1 986; M orrison 1 978). T he f ocus o f t his p aper i s i nstead o n t he p resentation o f a t heory b ased o n h istorical a nd e thnographic d ata r elating t o w ater/mountain/fertility c oncepts f ound t hroughout t he A ndes. A rchaeological d ata f rom N azca w ill b e r e-examined u tilizing t his m aterial. T he q uestions a s t o w ho m ade t he g eoglyphs, a nd w hen, h ave b een i n b road t erms a nswered b y a rchaeologists. B ased o n a s tudy o f p ottery f ound a t t he g eoglyphs a nd a f ew C 14 d ates o f w ood s amples, i t i s b elieved t hat p eople l iving i n t he r egion o f N azca c onstructed t hem

3 63

s ometime b etween 3 00 B .C . a nd a bout 8 00 A .D . ( cf. I sbell 1 980: 1 90 ; M orrison 1 978: 6 1) w ith s ome l ines a pparently b eing c onstructed u p u ntil t he I nca c onquest o f c a. 1 475 A .D . ( Clarkson n .d.). B ased p rincipally o n t he w ork o f M aria R eiche ( 1968), t he l ines h ave g enerally b een i nterpreted a s b eing u sed a s a ids i n m aking a stronomical o bservations ( cf. I sbell 1 980 : 1 95-6; W aisbard 1 980). S everal a rguments h ave b een p resented t o d isprove t his t heory, h owever . O ne c riticism i s t hat i t i s d ifficult t o e xplain w ith t his t heory t he d ifferent l engths a nd w idths o f l ines, m any b eing e ither l onger o r s horter t han n ecessary ( Petersen 1 980 : 2 3). I n a ddition , a l arge p ercentage o f t he l ines d o n ot p oint i n t he a reas w here t he s un , m oon a nd p lanets a re l ocated, i .e. w here m ost s ignificant a stronomical a ctivity t akes p lace ( Aveni 1 982: 1 3-14). W ithout k nowing t he a pproximate d ate t hat p articular l ines w ere c onstructed, i t i s d ifficult t o f ind c orrelations w ith s tars o r c onstellations o f s tars s ince t hey s hift t heir p ositions t hrough t ime ( Morrison 1 978: 5 6). C omputer s tudies h ave f ailed t o f ind a ny s tatistically s ignificant c orrelations f or a ny p eriod d uring t he p ast f ew m illennia , e xcept f or p ossibly a s mall n umber o f t he l ines ( Hawkins 1 973; A veni 1 986). T he p lant a nd a nimal f igures a re e specially p roblematical t o e xplain u tilizing t his t heory. F urthermore, a c omplex a stronomical o bservation s ystem u tilizing g round l ines d oes n ot a ccord w ell w ith o ur k nowledge o f a ncient p eoples i n S outh A merica. T he I ncas p rovide t he b est c ase f or w hich w e h ave i nformation ( albeit m uch l ater i n t ime), a nd f ew o f t he l ines o f t heir c eque ( conceptualized l ine) s ystem a t C uzco h ad a stronomical s ignificance ( cf. Z uidema 1 982). T he g eneral o pinion n ow a mong s pecialists i s t hat o nly a f ew o f t he l ines a t N azca m ight h ave p layed a r ole i n m aking a stronomical o bservations ( cf. P etersen 1 980 : 2 8; M orrison 1 978: 6 4; A veni 1 986). R ecently a t heory h as b een p resented t hat t he g eoglyphs w ere p art o f aw ater c ult ( Petersen 1 980: 2 8-30). T his c onclusion w as r eached b ased o n t he i mportance o f w ater a t N azca a nd t hat w ater c ults w ere w idespread i n t he A ndes ( cf. S oldi 1 980). H owever, l ittle s olid e vidence w as p rovided a s t o h ow t he d ifferent f igures a nd l ines w ere a ctually r elated t o t his c ult. S everal s cholars h ave d emonstrated t he d ifficult e cological s ituation t hat e xisted, a nd s till e xists, a t N azca ( e.g. R ossel 1 977: 4 8, 1 73; P etersen 1 980: 3 0). I ndeed, t he a stronomical t heory a rose p recisely b ecause i t w as f elt t hat t he p eople n eeded s uch i nformation t o f oretell t he t imes t o b egin p lanting ( cf. K osok 1 965: 5 8). T he w ater s ituation w as c ritical b ecause t he N azca R iver d oes n ot h ave w ater f or s ome m onths o f t he y ear a nd m ay r emain c ompletely d ry f or s everal y ears ( Mejia 1 940: 5 59; R ossel 1 977: 1 73). T he r ivers w ere d ependent u pon r ainfall i n t he m ountains t o t he e ast ( see F igure 2 ). I f t here w as i nsufficient r ainfall, n ot o nly t he r ivers w ould r emain d ry t hroughout t he y ear, b ut t he u nderground w ater c urrents w ould d ry u p a s w ell ( Rossel 1 977: 1 73). I n o rder t o m ake m aximum u se o f t hese c urrents a nd o btain w ater e ven w hen t he r ivers w ere d ry, a u nique a nd e xtensive s ystem o f u nderground f iltration c anals w as b uilt. T he c anals w ere g enerally l ocated a long t he s ide o f t he r iver b eds ( Rossel 1 977: 1 68). B y m eans o f i rrigation a nd a stute u se o f w ater s ources, t he N azca p eople w ere a ble t o p ractice i ntensive a griculture a nd d evelop a h igh s tandard o f c raftsmanship i n c eramics a nd t extiles i n a

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p oor d esert a rea. T heir p osition w as a lways a p recarious o ne, h owever, b eing d ependent o n t he a nnual r ains i n t he m ountains. T he r ole o f m ountain w orship i n t he r eligious-economic b eliefs o f A ndean p eoples w as ( and s till i s) e xtremely i mportant a nd m ust h ave b een s o i n a ncient N azca a s w ell.

M ountains, W ater a nd F ertility T he r eason f or c ombining t he w ords m ountain/water/fertility i n t his w ay i s b ecause t hey w ere, a nd s till a re, c losely l inked i n t radit ional A ndean b eliefs. T his c an b est b e d emonstrated b y b riefly d escribing c oncepts r elating t o m ountain w orship. M ountains w ere w orshipped f or s everal r easons, m any o f w hich s till p ertain t o t he p resent d ay. P eople o ften p erceived t hemselves a s d escendents o f m ountain g ods ( Robles 1 978: 2 28; P aredes 1 976: 4 4). T here w as a w idespread b elief t hat t he s ouls o f t he d ead w ent t o r eside i n s acred m ountains ( cf. V alderrama a nd E scalante 1 980; A rguedas 1 956: 2 27; N uñez d el P rado 1 970: 1 11), a nd t his m ay e xplain w hy m ummies w ere u sed a s i ntermediaries t o t he m ountain g ods ( Tello a nd M iranda 1 923: 5 26; c f. A rguedas 1 956: 2 06). M ountain d eities w ere s een a s t he p rotectors o f m an ( Roel 1 966: 2 6; C asaverde 1 970: 1 41), b ut t hey w ould p unish m an a s w ell ( Favre 1 966: 1 30; F uenzalida 1 980: 1 62; B . I sbell 1 978: 5 9). T hey p articularly h ad t o b e w orshipped a t t he t ime t hat c onstruct ion w orks, s uch a s i rrigation c anals a nd r oads, w ere b uilt n ear t hem ( Favre 1 966: 1 31). R itual s pecialists d ealt w ith t hese g ods w hen i mportant o fferings w ere m ade a nd w hen c uring i llnesses ( Arguedas 1 956: 1 99, 2 26-7). D uring I nca t imes, p riests w ho s erved k ey m ountain s hrines w ere c onsidered a mong t he p rivileged o f t he I nca w ho p ersonally s upported t hem ( Guam n P oma 1 956: 2 01). M ountains w ere a mong t he m ost i mportant a nd n umerous o f t he s acred p laces w orshipped i n t he I nca e mpire a nd t his p ractice c learly p redates t he I ncas ( see G uamán P oma 1 956; A lbornoz i n D uviols 1 984). W hole c olonies w ere s ent b y t he I ncas t o s upport i mportant m ountain s hrines ( Duviols 1 984: 1 98). T he m ost p owerful o nes w ere u sually t he h ighest m ountains i n t he a rea, b ut v irtually a ll t he m ountains a nd h ills w ere b elieved t o h ave t heir o wn d eities r esiding t here ( cf. M artinez 1 976; U rton 1 981: 4 8; B arthel 1 959). E ven t oday t he e specially p owerful m ountain g ods a re b elieved e qual t o a s upreme d eity ( Marzal 1 971: 2 50) o r t o a ct a s h is m ost i mportant i ntermediaries ( Arquedas 1 956: 1 95; C asaverde 1 970: 1 43; c f. K essel 1 980 : 2 81). T hey a lso s erved a s l ords o f a ll w ildlife ( Flores 1 975: 1 7; M illones 1 975: 5 2) a nd e specially a s g uardians o f l ivestock ( Casaverde 1 970: 1 41; G ow 1 974: 6 7). B ut o f a ll t he r easons t hey w ere w orshipped, t he m ost p rominent o ne w as w ith r egard t o t heir c ontrol o f e conomic p roduction, e specially t he f ertility o f c rops a nd a nimals. T hroughout t he A ndes m ountain d eities a re p erceived a s t he c ontrollers o f m eteorological p henomena ( rain, h ail, f rost, c louds, l ightning, e tc.) ( Mishkin 1 946: 4 64; T schopik 1 946: 5 59) ( cf. F igure 3 ). A s c ontrollers o f w ater, t hey w ere c losely a ssociated w ith l akes a nd, w hat w as p erceived a s t he u ltimate s ource o f w ater, t he o cean ( Cobo 1 964: 1 61; E arls a nd S ilverblatt 1 978: 3 04). F or t his r eason s ea w ater a nd s ea s hells p layed a n i mportant r ole i n w orship t o m ountains f or r ain t hroughout t he A ndes ( Martinez 1 976: 3 01-2; c f.

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M urra 1 975: 2 57; R einhard 1 985b). B y c ontrolling m eteorological p henomena, n ot o nly t he f ertility o f c rops , b ut a lso t he f ertility o f l ivestock w as d ependent u pon t he m ountain d eities ( Roel 1 966: 2 6 ; U rbano 1 976: 1 41). W ith t hese r easons f or m ountain w orship i n m ind , i t i s e asy t o u nderstand w hy t he m ountain g ods w ere s o i mportant i n a ncient t imes a nd c ontinue t o b e s o i n m any a reas o f t he A ndes t oday ( cf. M ariscotti 1 978a: 2 01; M artinez 1 976; K essel 1 980: 2 76-7; F avre 1 966). A lthough t he m ountains n ear N azca a re n ot t he h igh s now p eaks o f t he c entral A ndes, t he b asic b eliefs a s t o d eities c ontrolling m eteorol ogical p henomena a ppear t o h ave b een v ery s imilar. S ome o f t hese b eliefs w ere h eld b y p eople l iving i n N azca i n r ecent t imes a nd f igure i n t heir l egends a s w ell. A rguedas ( 1956: 1 99) d escribed a s eance i n N azca w here a r itual s pecialist i nvoked v arious m ountain d eities o f t he s urrounding a rea w hile c uring a n i llness. T he m ost i mportant o f t hese w as C o. B lanco, a m ountain t o t he e ast o f N azca ( see F igures 2 a nd 4 ). R ossel ( 1977: 3 9 f tn. 1 ) s tated t hat t here a re t wo m ountains c alled C o. B lanco, o ne o f t hese b eing t he m ountain t hat o verlooks N azca t o t he e ast a nd a nother b eing o ne o f t he h ighest m ountains i n t he c ordillera f urther e ast w hich g ives o rigin t o t he m ain r ivers a round N azca . A ccording t o R ossel b oth o f t hese m ountains a lso h ave t he n ame I llak ata, a lthough c urrently t he m ountains a re t erminologically d istinguished. H e d escribes a l egend a bout t hem w hich w e w ill b riefly e xamine h ere, a s i t h as a b earing o n an umber o f p oints t o b e d ealt w ith l ater. I lla-kata w as l ord o f t he h eights ( see F igure 2 ). T unga , l ord o f t he c oast, b ecame h is f riend a nd b rought h im g ifts o f g old, p recious s tones, c otton c loaks a nd c eramics. H e d eceived t he w ife o f I lla-kata i nto b elieving h e w as s ent b y t he g od o f t he o cean, w ho f ertilized t he l ands a nd p roduced a nimals. H e c onvinced h er s he c ould l eave b ehind t he u npleasantness o f t he t hunder, c old n ights a nd d ense c louds. W hile I lla-kata s lept, t hey r an o ff t owards t he s ea. I lla-kata a woke t o f ind h er g one a nd c alled h er w ith a r oar o f t hunder. S he h eard , r ealized s he w ould b e o vertaken, a nd b egged T unga t o l et h er s tay a nd d ie w here s he w as. T unga, h owever, c overed h er w ith m aize f lour f rom h is v alleys i n o rder t o d isguise h er. A fter t he h eat o f t he s un i n t he m orning c aused I lla-kata t o s top i n h is q uest, T unga p lanned t o r eturn t o h er. L ater I lla-kata c ame b ut d id n ot r ecognize h is w ife a nd s o r eturned t o h is m ountains w here i n a nger h e c aused g reat e arthquakes t o d estroy t he l ower h ills. H is w ife r emained b uried u nder t he r ocks a nd, a ccording t o R ossel, s ince t hat t ime t his m ountain h as a lso b een c alled I lla-kata ( Cerro B ianco). T unga w as a lso t urned i nto a m ountain j ust a s h e w as a bout t o r each t he s ea. O ther l egends a ssociate C o. B lanco w ith w ater. I n o ne o f t hese C o. B lanco i s s aid t o h ave e rupted a nd s pewed w ater f rom i ts s ummit, i .e. b ecame a " volcano o f w ater" ( Urton 1 982: 1 0). A nother l egend t ells o f t he p eople e nduring a l ong d rought . T hey w ent t o C o . B lanco, w hich w as t heir p rincipal p lace o f w orship a nd t he p lace w here t hey s poke t o t he g ods. V iracocha d escended f rom t he s ky a nd h eard t he w eeping o f t he p eople. T ears c ame f rom h is e yes, r an d own C o. B lanco a nd p enetrated t he e arth, t hereby b eing t he o rigin o f t he u nderground a queducts ( Urton 1 982: 1 1).

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W hile a t N azca w e w ere t old a s tory t hat w ithin r ecent t imes a m an h appened t o f ind a c ave l eading i nto C o . B lanco. H e r eached a v ast c hamber w ith aw aterfall a nd l ake. S everal o utlets l ed t o t he s ubt erranean c anals. T he b elief t hat C o . B lanco i s t he s ource o f s ubterranean w ater n eatly s upplements t he f act o f s urface w ater h aving I lla-kata f or i ts s ource. I t i s c ommonly b elieved i n t he A ndes t hat l ower m ountains a nd l akes a re t he w ives o f h igher m ountains w hich f ertilize t hem . W ithout g oing i nto a ny g reat d etail, t here a re a f ew e lements o f t hese m yths w hich s hould b e p ointed o ut: 1 . T hey c learly d emonstrate t hat t he p eople o f N azca s hared b eliefs a bout t he i mportance o f m ountain d eities i n p roviding w ater a nd c ontrolling m eteorological p henomena. 2 . T here i s a b elief i n t he o cean a s a f ertility s ource, b oth f or t he l and a nd f or a nimals. 3 . M ountains n ear a nd d istant, h igh a nd l ow i n e levation, w ere i mportant i n t he b eliefs o f t he N azca p eople. 4 . T he m ountain T unga w as a ssociated w ith t he c oast a nd f ertility o f f ields a nd l ower C o. B lanco a " white" m ountain o f s and w ith s ubterranean w ater, t he h igh m ountains a nd t he l ord o f m eteorol ogical p henomena. B oth T unga a nd C o. B lanco a re l ocated n ear N azca ( see F igures 2 a nd 4 ). -

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T he o nly r eferences w e h ave s een m ade s pecifically t o t he h uacas ( sacred p laces o r o bjects) o f t he N azca p eople a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest w ere t hose b y A lbornoz a nd A costa w riting i n t he l ate 1 500s a nd S everino's a ccount o f 1 623 . A lbornoz o nly m entioned o ne h uaca f or t h N azca p eople am ountain c alled S añoc A ncauilca ( Duviols 1 984: 2 13). -

A costa ( 1962: 2 24) w as t old t hat t he p rincipal h uaca o f t he a ncient N azcans w as a m ountain o f s and t hat s tood o ut a midst t he s tone m ountains n ear N azca . T his c ould o nly h ave b een C o. B lanco. S ince A costa w as s peaking o f a ncient N azcans w hen h e w as t here i n t he l ate 1 500 's, w e c an a ssume t his m ountain w as w orshipped a t l east a f ew c enturies e arlier p robably t he o ldest d irect e vidence o f r eligious b eliefs a t N azca t hat e xists. -

I n a n u npublished d ocument o f 1 623 i n t he A rchbishop 's A rchives o f L ima ( Idolatry S ection, F ile I V), t he p riest V icente S everino w rote d own t he t estimonies o f p eople a t N azca c oncerning t raditional r eligious p ractices. O ne m an s tated t hat t here w as n o s hrine i n t he v illage b ecause t he p eople w ent t o w orship o n am ountain o f s and c alled M oich , o n t he m ountain U racancana a nd a t t he s prings. T heir i dols w ere m ade o f s tone a nd w ere b urned b y t he C atholic p riests. C rosses w ere p laced a t a ll t he s ites w here t hese i dols h ad b een w orshipped. T he o nly m ountain o f s and n ear N azca i s C erro B lanco. G iven t he i nformat ion p resented a bove, i t w ould s eem t o b e n o c oincidence t hat m ountains a nd s prings w ere l isted t ogether a nd t hat t hey w ere t he m ost i mportant p laces o f w orship o f t he N azca p eople. W e w ere a lso t old t hat C erro B lanco w as b elieved t o h ave b een t he w ife o f a s nowcapped m ountain t o t he e ast n amed C arhuarazo. I ts s ummit i s v isible o n c lear d ays f rom m ountains s uch a s I lla-kata. C erro B lanco i s s aid t o h ave c ome d own f rom t he h ighlands t o v isit t he c oast, b ut s he f ailed t o r eturn s oon e nough t o h er h usband. T he s un c ame o ut a nd b urned h er i nto s tone a nd s and, a nd s he h as r emained n ear N azca t o

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t he p resent d ay. I n t his m yth w e s ee a l inkage o f a b arren h ill n ear g eoglyphs i n t he d esert w ith a m ajor s now p eak o f t he h ighlands, a nd s uch m ountains a re s till b elieved t o b e t he p rincipal d eities c ontroll ing w eather a nd f ertility. T here i s o nly o ne s now m ountain w hich f its t he d escription w e w ere g iven a nd t hat i s C arhuarazo ( Qarwarasu) w hich i s a bout 1 40 k ms e ast b y n ortheast f rom N azca. T his i s t he m ountain n oted i n 1 586 a s b eing t he m ost w idely w orshipped d eity i n t he p rovince o f S oras ( Jimen ez d e l a E spada 1 965: 2 22). T oday S oras i s i n t he e astern p art o f t he p rovince o f L ucanas ( Department o f A yacucho) w hich b orders N azca . I f, a s a ppears l ikely, t he c urrent d ay m yth i s b ased u pon a n a ncient o ne, w e h ave a c ase o f t he p rincipal d eity o f t he N azca p eople b eing a ssociated w ith, a nd s ubordinate t o, o ne o f t he m ost i mportant d eities i n t he r egion o f A yacucho i n p rehispanic t imes. C arhuarazo i s o ne o f t he h ighest a nd m ost s acred o f t he m ountains s ituated i n t he h earth o f w hat w as o nce t he h eart o f t he H uari E mpire w hich h ad c lose t ies w ith N azca i n t he l atter h alf o f t he f irst m illennium A .D. I t i s s till t he m ost p owerful t raditional d eity w orshipped i n P uquio n ot f ar t o t he e ast o f N azca a nd, a long w ith o ther m ountain d eities, i s a n nu a lly invo ke d to s end r ain ( Arguedas 1 956).

r uins o ther s till

D ue t o t he c onstantly s hifting s and, o ne w ould n ot e xpect t o f ind o n C o. B lanco. H owever, w e d id s ee r ecent o fferings o f, a mong t hings, c otton p lants a nd r iver s tones. R iver s tones w ere, a nd a re, o ften u sed t o i nvoke a n i ncrease i n t he w ater s upply, a nd

t he c otton p lants w ere l ikely p laced a long w ith t he s tones a s o fferings t o g aig w ater f or t he d rought-stricken c otton f ields o f t he N azca V alley. C o. B lanco a lso p rovides e xcellent v iews t owards o ther s acred m ountains s uch a s T unga. O n t he s ummit o f I lla-kata w e o bserved r emains o f s tructures w hich c learly s erved a c eremonial p urpose ( see F igures 5 a nd 6 ). I ndeed, s everal r itual s tone m ounds ( apachetas) a ppeared t o b e o f r ecent o rigin, w hile t ypically I nca s tonework w as a lso p resent. T he a rchaeol ogical e vidence t hus s upports t he l egend a s t o I lla-kata 's r itual i mportance. T here a re l ines o f s ight f rom I lla-kata's s ummit t o s now p eaks, s uch a s C oropuna, b elieved t o b e p owerful d eities i n s outhern P eru ( cf. R einhard 1 986). W e o bserved s everal p rehispanic r itual s tructures o n a nd n ear t he s ummit o f T unga ( see F igures 2 a nd 7 ). S eashells, c ommon o fferings f or w ater, w ere s cattered a midst s ome o f t he r uins. A pachetas h ave a lso b een f ound o n t he s ummits o f m ountains t o t he e ast o f N azca , i ncluding o n C o. F raile w hich r ises a bove t he m ain c onc entration o f l ines a nd f igures o n t he P ampa d e S an J ose. W e f ound a r ecently m ade s tructure a nd o fferings o n i ts s ummit. G erald H awkins ( 1973: 1 07) f ound t he r emains o f s everal v essels c learly u sed i n r ituals o n t he s ummit o f a l arge h ill b ordering t he e ast s ide o f t he P ampa d e S an J ose. -

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A ccording t o A lbornoz, m ountain w orship a lso e xisted a t o ther p laces a long t he c oast. A d ocument o f 1 620 A .D. d escribes w orship o f m ountains a nd w ater s ources a t P isco , t o t he n orth o f N azca ( Rostworowskj 1 977: 2 65-6). O ne o f t he " mountains" w as a h ill n ear

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P isco a nd t he o ther a h igh m ountain i n t he A ndes t o t he e ast ( Maria R ostworowski, p ersonal c ommunication). T he c hronicler A lbornoz w rote t hat e specially i mportant t o t he I ncas w ere t he h igh m ountains a nd v olcanoes t hat " looked t o t he o cean," i .e., w hich h ad n o o ther m ountains b locking t he v iew i n t hat d irection ( Duviols 1 984: 1 98). I t i s c lear t hat w orship o f w ater s ources a nd m ountains w as w idespread a long t he c oast i n I nca t imes a nd p rior t o t he I ncas a s w ell. T he a ssociation o f h igh m ountains w ith c oastal h ills a nd d eities o f t he l owlands h as b een p ointed o ut i n t he e arly S panish w ritings o f s uch a uthors a s A vila ( 1975) a nd t he A gustinos ( 1918). L ittle e thnographic r esearch a ppears t o h ave b een p ublished w ith r egard t o c urrent-day r ituals f or w ater a t N azca. F ortunately, U rton ( 1982: 1 1) p rovides s ome i nformation i n t his r egard. D uring p eriods o f d rought, a m an i s s ent a t n ight t o t he c oast w ith a w ater j ug. A fter c ollecting f oamy w ater f rom a p lace w here t he w aves a re c rashing o nto t he r ocks, h e r eturns t o a n u nspecified h ill a bove N azca a nd s prinkles t he w ater o n t he s ummit. I t i s b elieved t hat i t w ill r ain i n t he m ountains w ithin t wo w eeks o f t his o ffering. T he u se o f s ea w ater i n r ituals t o o btain r ain i s c ommon t hrougho ut t he A ndes ( Martinez 1 976: 3 01; S oldi 1 980 : 2 5). T hus i t f requently f igures i n o fferings m ade t o t he m ountain g ods ( cf. R einhard a nd S anhueza 1 982; R einhard 1 985b). I nterestingly, t he n ame V iracocha h as b een t ranslated a s m eaning " foam o f t he s ea" ( Cieza 1 977: 2 0). V iracocha's r elationship w ith w ater c ults h as b een a mply d emonstrated ( cf. C arri6n 1 955), a nd h e a lso i s f ound c losely a ssociated w ith m ountain d eities ( Paredes 1 976: 3 5; c f. R einhard 1 984). K eeping t his i nformation i n m ind, t he l egend w ritten d own b y a S panish m agistrate i n 1 586 b ecomes m ore i ntelligible. I t n oted t hat, b efore t he I ncas r uled, t here c ame V iracochas, a nd p aths w ere b uilt t o t hem ( Mejia 1 940: 5 69). A lthough t he n ame V iracocha m ay n ot h ave b een t he o ne u sed i n t his a rea i n a ncient t imes, i ts u nderlying m eaning c ould w ell h ave b een t he s ame. V iracocha w as t he n ame u sed f or t he c reator d eity w hen h e w as w orshipped a s t he g od o f w ater ( Zuidema 1 978: 1 34). A lthough e thnographic d ata f rom N azca i s r elatively l imited, w e d o k now f rom t he r eports o f s everal a nthropologists t hat m ountain d eities a re s till i mportant f or f ertility i n a reas t o t he e ast o f N azca. T his i ncludes P uquio, w hich i s c a. 9 0 k ms f rom N azca a nd a t own w ith w hich i t h as h ad c lose c ontacts f or a t l east s everal h undred y ears ( Arguedas 1 956) ( cf. F igure 2 ). I ndeed, P uquio p rovides s ome o f t he b est i nformation w e h ave o n c urrent-day c eremonies f or w ater a nd m ountain w orship. I n t his t own t here i s am yth a bout c ulture h eroes w ho w ere a ble t o f ollow t he v eins o f w ater i nto t he c enters o f t he s acred m ountains. E ach A ugust r itual s pecialists c limb o ne o f t he m ountains n ear P uquio t o m ake o fferings f or w ater ( Arguedas 1 956: 2 03). T he p eople s hare m any o f t he b eliefs r eferred t o p reviously a bout m ountains. T hey b elieve t he m ost i mportant l ocal d eities r eside i n t hem , t hat t hey a re r esponsible f or t he f ertility o f l ivestock i n a ddition t o f ields a nd t hat t he s pirits o f t he d ead g o t o a m ountain ( Coropuna) t o r eside ( Arguedas 1 956). G iven t he i mportance o f t he r ains i n t he m ountains a nd o ther s ources o f w ater f or t he a griculture o f t he N azca p eople a nd t he b eliefs t hat d ate a t l east t o I nca t imes,

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i t s eems h ighly p robable t hat w orship o f w ater s ources, i ncluding m ountains ( both n earby a nd f urther i nto t he A ndes) p layed a p rominent r ole i n t heir b eliefs a t t he t ime t he g eoglyphs w ere c onstructed.

S traight L ines E thnographic i nformation e xists c oncerning t he u se o f s traight l ines ( or " paths") i n a reas o f t he A ndes s outheast o f N azca. O f c ourse r easons f or t he c urrent d ay u se o f l ines n eed n ot h ave b een t he s ame a s t hose f or t he c onstruction o f t he l ines a t N azca o ver a m illennium a go. H owever, t hey a re a t l east i n a ccord w ith o ur u nders tanding o f t raditional A ndean b eliefs a nd c ustoms a nd w ith t he h istorical, a rchaeological a nd e thnographic e vidence a vailable a t N azca. T hey t hus c annot b e i gnored i n a ny i nterpretation o f t he N azca l ines. I n B olivia a nd i n n orthern C hile l ong s traight l ines f requently l ead t o h illtops ( Morrison 1 978: 1 53 ; R yn 1 981: 1 9; R einhard a nd S anhueza 1 982). A t C hucuyo i n n orthern C hile a s traight l ine e xtends c a. 2 .5 k ms t o t he t op o f ah ill. U ntil o nly a f ew y ears a go w orship w as m ade f rom t his p oint t o t he s urrounding m ountains f or r ain ( see R einhard 1 984). S outhwest o f L a P az i s av illage l ocated a t 3 ,963m ( 13 ,000 ') w here a s traight l ine i s s till u sed d uring a n i mportant f estival . O n t he n ight o f S eptember 1 3th v illagers a nd m usicians a scend t o t he t op o f a h ill ( 4,250/13,940') a long t he l ine f or o ver a k ilometer. D ancing, a s aw ay o f w orshipping t he m ountain g ods, c ontinues d uring t he n ight a t a c hapel o f r ecent c onstruction w hich i s a t t he e nd o f t he l ine . I n t he m orning t he v illagers a nd m usicians d escend t o t he v illage, t hen c limb t he h ill a gain i n t he a fternoon . T hey r eturn t o t he v illage a fter p erforming r ituals a t t he c hapel ( see F igure 8 ). A f ew d ays l ater f amilies a scend t he l ine t o a n o pen a rea o n t he h illtop w here t hey h ave s mall s ymbolic f ields m ade o f s tones. T hey i mitate t he p lanting o f c rops u sing m iniature p lows a nd m ake o fferings f or t he s uccess o f c rops i n t he c oming y ear. A s w ith m any A ndean f estivals, a n umber o f C hristian e lements a re i ncorporated i nto w hat w as o riginally a p rehispanic c eremony . T he d ate o f t he f estival a ccords w ith t he C atholic d ay o f t he E xaltation o f t he C ross. H owever, v illagers i nformed u s t hat t he r eason f or t he c eremony w as t o w orship t he s urrounding m ountains t o o btain r ain f or g ood c rops, a nd n o p riest t ook p art i n t he c eremonies a t t he c hurch. T his w as a lso v erified b y n uns w ho h ave w orked i n t he v illage f or s everal y ears. T he r ite o f p lowing s ymbolic f ields o n t he h illtop w as a n a dditional a spect o f t he c eremony o rientated t o t his e nd. T he s traight l ine i s s aid t o p redate t he C hristian s tructures o n t he h illtop a nd a p rehispanic f unerary t ower ( chuilpa) l ocated a long t he l ine o n t he h illslope t ends t o c onfirm t he a ncient u se o f t he l ine a nd h ill f or t raditional r eligious p ractices. L ike

t he

c ommunity

o f I rpa C hico

n ot

f ar

d istant ,

v illagers

c onsider t he h igh s nowcapped m ountains, e specially I llimani ( visible f rom t he h ill), t o b e t he m ost p owerful t raditional d eities ( cf. C arter a nd M amani 1 982). W e w ere t old t hat s ome e laborately d ressed d ancers

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r epresented t he m ajor m ountain g ods. L ower m ountains n ear t he v illage a re a lso i mportant a nd v illagers b elieve t heir s ouls w ill g o t o r eside i n t hem . D ogs a re s till s acrificed t o a ccompany t he d ead, a r ite t hat d ates b ack t o p rehispanic t imes. A ccording t o t he n uns, l ightning k ills t wo o r t hree p eople a y ear f rom t he a rea a round t he v illage a nd i njures a s m any m ore. T hroughout t he A ndes l ightning i s a ssociated w ith t he p ower o f t he m ountain g ods. A lthough o nly a l imited a mount o f i nformation c ould b e g athered d uring t he s hort p eriod w e w ere i n t his v illage a t t he t ime o f t he c eremony, i t w as s ufficient t o c learly e stablish t hat s everal a spects o f t he b eliefs a nd c ustoms o f t he v illagers h ave a ncient r oots a nd t hat u se o f a s traight l ine f or m ountain w orship c an b e c onsidered o ne o f t hem . S ome 2 50 k ms f urther s outh a nother s traight l ine i s s till b eing u sed b y t he v illagers o f S abaya. A lthough r ituals w ere n ot p erformed w hile w e w ere i n t he a rea , e xcellent i nformation c ould b e o btained f rom v illagers a s t o i ts u se. L ater t he u npublished t hesis o f G illes R iviere ( 1982) w as o btained w hich c ontained a d etailed a nalysis o f w orship a ssociated w ith t he l ine a nd a s tructural a nalysis o f t he w ay i t i s c arried o ut. T his a rea i s r ich i n m aterial r elating t o m ountain w orship a nd u se o f s traight l ines a nd o nly a v ery b rief s ummary c an b e p resented h ere. T he p ublications r eferred t o b elow s hould b e c onsulted f or a b etter u nderstanding o f t he c omplexity o f f actors i nvolved i n t raditional A ndean r eligious b eliefs a nd c ustoms. T he s traight l ine o f S abaya l eads o ut o f t he v illage t o r each t he s ummit o f am ountain, P umiri, c a. 5 k ms a way a nd o ver 1 ,000m h igher. A ccording t o v illagers, t he l ine i s n o l onger a s s traight a s i t o nce w as , a lthough i t i s s till k ept c leared i n i ts f inal s ection t o t he s ummit. P umiri i s t he m arka q ollu ( "village m ountain") o f S abaya a nd i s a ssociated i n l egends w ith t he r egrowth o f S abaya a fter i t h ad n early b een d estroyed ( Riviere 1 982). B ut t he m ost p owerful m ountain o f t he r egion, t he p rogenitor o f t he p eople o f t he C arangas p rovince, i s T ata S abaya ( 5,385m/17,663 ') t o t he w est ( Paredes 1 976: 3 6, 4 4). B eing s omewhat d istant f rom t he v illage, a s pecial p lace o f w orship, T ata S abaya's " house," w as b uilt o n t he o utskirts o f S abaya a nd i s w ithin v iew o f t he m ountain. O ne o f t he m ost i mportant c eremonies o f t he v illage t akes p lace i n J anuary. A t t he b eginning o f t he n ew y ear v illage l eaders ( four h ilakatas a nd f our a lcaldes) t ake o ver t heir p ositions i n f ront o f T ata S abaya's " house". A ccording t o o ne i nformant, t he h ilakatas t hen g o t o a n a ltar o n t he s lopes o f T ata S abaya t o m ake o fferings o n b ehalf o f t he c ommunity. T his a ltar i s a t 4 ,171m/13,680 ' a nd a lso i s u sed f requently t hroughout t he y ear b y i ndividuals t o m ake o fferings t o T ata S abaya a nd o ther m ountains o f t he r egion f or l ivestock f ertility, s uccess i n b usiness, e tc. S ome p eople s till c limb t o T ata S abaya 's s ummit t o m ake t heir o fferings a nd t hese h ave i ncluded t he u se o f s eawater t o h elp " call t he c louds" f or r ain. D ue t o a n e ruption ( which r eportedly t ook p lace a bout 1 600 A .D.) n o p rehispanic r uins w ere s een o n t he s ummit, b ut a n a ltar, s everal s mall n iches f or o fferings, a nd m iniature c orrals, f ields a nd h ouses ( for T ata S abaya's h elp w ith t hem) m ade o f r ows o f s tones c an s till b e s een. E ven s choolboys f rom S abaya h ave r eached t he s ummit t o i nvoke t he m ountain 's a ssistance w ith t heir s tudies.

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T he a ltar a t 4 ,171m h as n iches o pen t o t he e ast w here o fferings a re m ade b efore s unrise t o T ata S abaya a nd o ne o f h is w ives , P hisa, a s mall m ountain ( 4,782m) n earby t o t he n ortheast. S ome o fferings, s uch a s l lama f at, w ool a nd l lama f oetus, a re b urned i n f ront o f t he n iches, w hile l ibations o f a lcoholic b everages a re m ade i n t hem. T he l lama s acrifice i s p erformed i n t he c leared a rea i n f ront o f t he n iches a nd b lood o ffered t o t he s urrounding m ountain g ods. T he l lama i s c ooked a nd e aten o utside t his a rea a nd i ts b ones b urned s eparately. N ot l ong a fter t he c eremony, a bout t he o nly v isible r emains a t t he a ltar i tself a re t he b ottles, m ostly b roken, w hich c ontained t he l iquids. O nce t he c eremony h as b een c ompleted a t T ata S abaya, a rrangements a re m ade i n t he v illage o f S abaya t o a scend t he s traight l ine t o P umiri. T he r emains o f T ata S abaya's " son" ( a h istorical p ersonage a bout w hom m uch m ythology h as d eveloped; s ee G isbert 1 980, R einhard a nd S anhueza 1 982, a nd R iviere 1 982) a re b rought f rom a c hapel a t V italina t o S abaya a nd p laced i n T ata S abaya 's " house" w here a s acrifice i s m ade. T he t raditional v illage l eaders l ater f ollow t he s traight l ine t o P umiri's s ummit a ccompanied b y t heir w ives . T he p rincipal l eader ( cacique; a lso r eferred t o i n t his c ontext a s T ata S abaya) l eads t he c eremony w hich s hould b e c ompleted b efore s unrise. A ccording t o o ne i nformant, a n o ffering ( a s heep o r c hicken) i s m ade t o t he L ord t o o btain h is b lessing f or t he r itual. T hen t he p rincipal o fferings b egin i n f ront o f a c hapel c alled P usi S uyu. T he p articipants d ance a round t he w orship a rea a nd a m esa ( arrangement o f r itual o bjects) i s m ade c ontaining t raditional A ndean o fferings s uch a s p owders o f d ifferent c olours r epresenting m etals, b ottles w ith d ifferent l iquids, s eashells, e tc. ( cf. R einhard a nd S anhueza 1 982). C otton i s p laced o n t he m esa t o h elp a ttract r ain. A l lama i s a lso s acrificed t o t he s urrounding m ountains f or c rop a nd l ivestock f ertility a nd i ts b lood d ispersed i n t he c ardinal d irections. A s R iviere ( 1982: 3 23) n oted, T ata S abaya w ants p eople t o c limb h igh t o m ake s acrifices t o h im , a nd, i f t his i sn 't d one, h erds w ill d ie a nd l and w on't p roduce. A t t he s ame t ime a r equest i s m ade f or t he s olidarity o f t he f our s ocial g roupings ( ayllus) o f t he c ommunity ( Riviere 1 982: 1 70). O ne i nformant s aid t hat t he m esa i tems w ere t hen t hrown a way w ith n o o ne l ooking, a nd a ll p articipants s tanding u p t o y ell. ( Another i nformant s tated s ome i tems w ere b urned a nd b uried.) F ollowing t his i s t he c ooking a nd e ating o f t he s acrificed a nimals. T he p articipants d o n ot r eturn t o t he v illage b y t he s traight l ine, b ut r ather b y ar idge t hat d rops d own t o t he v illage. T here a re w orship p laces a long t his r oute, e ach o f w hich i s a lso a ssociated w ith r ituals t hat t ake p lace a t o ther t imes o f t he y ear ( see F igure 9 ). A lthough t erminologically a ssociated w ith C hristian r ites, w orship a t t hese p laces c orresponds w ith i mportant m oments i n t he a gricultural c ycle, m aking a k ind o f m aterialization o f t ime i n s pace ( Riviere 1 982: 1 77). E ach p lace h as a f unction , s uch a s t he p roducing o f r ains , t hunder, w ind, e tc. N o s pecial a yllu i s i n c harge o f t hese p laces, r ather r esponsibilities c hange e ach y ear. R iviere ( 1982: 1 79, 1 91) n oted h ow a ll t he m ounds a ssociated w ith m ountain d eities f ace e ast , a nd t hat e ast i s g enerally a ssociated w ith f ertility r ites a nd t raditional d eities. T here i s a nother u se o f t he s traight l ine f or a C atholic f estival ( Virgin o f C andalaria) i n e arly F ebruary. I n t his c ase m en

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( mayordomos) w ho a re i n c harge o f C atholic r ites b ring t he c ross f rom P usi S uya's c hapel o n t he s ummit d own t o t he v illage w here i t r emains i n t he c hurch t wo w eeks b efore b eing r eturned ( Riviere 1 982: 1 70). C onsiderable m ythology h as a risen a round t he a pparition o f t he V irgin o n P umiri's s ummit a fter t he d estruction o f S abaya f ollowing t he d eath o f T ata S abaya 's s on . A s R iviere ( 1982) a nd G isbert ( 1980) h ave s hown, t here h as b een a n a ctive a ttempt t o s ubstitute C hristian b eliefs a nd r ituals f or t raditional o nes a nd t hat t hese h ave b een o nly p artially s uccessful, a s c an b e s een i n t he t wo d istinct c eremonies o f J anuary a nd F ebruary. W e w ere t old t hat t he s traight l ine i s v ery o ld a nd r elated t o t he t raditional r ites, n ot t he C atholic o nes. I t w as s aid t o b e s traight b ecause t his a dds t o i ts r eligious p ower. T he d eity l ooks d irectly d own t he l ine t o S abaya a nd f ocuses i ts a ttention, a nd b ounty, u pon i t. T hose w ho p articipate i n t he m aintenance o f t he l ine g ain m erit b y d oing s o. W e f ound t hat o ur p lan o f t he p rincipal a rea o f w orship o n P umiri's s ummit d id n ot a ccord w ell w ith t hat o f R iviere's ( 1982: 1 64), b ut t his m ay b e d ue t o h is b eing m ore c oncerned w ith c oncepts t han w ith s pecific p hysical d etails. H e w as l ess i nterested i n t he r easons w hy t he r ituals t ake p lace t han w ith d emonstrating t he w ays i n w hich t hese r ites a nd a ssociated s tructures t ie i n w ith A ndean c ategories o f t hought. T he s traight l ine, f or e xample, d ivides S abaya i nto t wo m oieties o r s ayas, e aoh o f w hich i n t urn i s d ivided i nto t wo a yllus ( see F igure 9 ). P usi S uya m eans " 4 d ivisions" a nd b oth t he a rea a t T ata S abaya's " house" a nd t he m esa o n P umiri's s ummit a re d ivided i nto f our p arts. T hus a m icrocosm o f t he f our f undamental d ivisions o f t he c ommunity i s f ormed t here. V isible e vidence ( aside f rom m odern s tructures) o n t he s ummit c onsists m ainly o f l ow w alls t o m ark o ff t he w orship a rea, s tone b enches t o s it o n, f lat s tones t o e at o ff, a nd a s tone m ound, r epresenting t he m ountain d eity . A t t his m ound a re b ottles w hich h eld t he l iquids o ffered. O ff t o t he s ide i s a p ile o f s tones a nd a shes w here s acrificed a nimals a re c ooked. O ther m ounds e xist o utside t his m ain w orship a rea . L ittle r emains t o b e s een o f t he v ariety o f o fferings a nd t he c omplexity o f t he c eremony, w hich c ould o nly b riefly b e s ummarized h ere. T he u se o f s tone m ounds t o r epresent t he m ountain g ods a lso e xisted a t n earby C hipaya, w here o ne o f i ts i nhabitants, J ustino M amani, s tated t hat t hose r adiating p ut i n s traight l ines r epresented m ountain d eities. V eronica C ereceda ( personal c ommunication) w as a ble t o i dentify m any o f t he p articular h ills o r m ountains r epresented b y t hese m ounds . A t S abaya s mall c ones r epresent t he m ountain d eities a t m esas ( Riviere 1 982: 1 85). N ot f ar f rom S abaya a cross t he b order i n C hile s traight l ines h ave a lso b een u sed u ntil r ecent t imes, e .g. a t C ariquima. T ata S abaya i s l inked i n m ythology w ith t he m ountains C ariquima a nd T ata J achura w ith w hom h e i s a lleged t o h ave b attled ( Reinhard a nd S anhueza 1 982). W e w ill s ee l ater t he i mportance o f T ata J achura a nd o f i ts p ossible l inkage w ith t he p rehispanic g eoglyphs o n C erro U nitas ( see F igures 1 , 1 2 a nd 1 9). T he d istance t o C erro U nitas f rom T ata S abaya i s n ot g reat ( ca . 1 50 k ms) a nd b oth o f t hese a re s ituated n ear t rade r outes w hich c onnected t he h ighlands w ith t he c oastal d esert i n p rehispanic t imes

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( Nuñez 1 976). W e h ave h ere a r are c ase w here a t l east s ome e vidence e xists t o r elate t he c urrent d ay u se o f s traight l ines w ith f igures a nd l ines c onstructed o ver a m illennium a go. T oday c rosses a nd c hapels a re o ften f ound a t t he e nds o f l ines l eading t o h illtops, b ut i t i s w ell k nown t hat t he e arly p riests b uilt C hristian s ites o n t hose a lready h eld s acred i n t raditional r eligion i n a n a ttempt t o d estroy i t ( see A rriaga 1 920). I n n orthern C hile a nd a djacent a reas o f B olivia c hapels o n h illtops c an a lso b e r epositories f or i tems u sed i n m ountain w orship ( Reinhard a nd S anhueza 1 982: 3 3; c f. G isbert 1 980: 2 3). I n s ome a reas t he b eliefs r elating t o t hese s ites h ave n ot c hanged a nd t he c rosses a re t hought t o r epresent t he t raditional m ountain d eities b elieved t o r eside t here ( Conlin 1 974 : 1 47; B . I sbell 1 978: 6 0). O f c ourse, e ven s mall h ills c an b e p erceived a s i nhabited b y d eities i mportant f or c ontrolling m eteorol ogical p henomena a nd f ertility.) T he u se o f h illtops t o m ake o fferings t o m ore i mportant d istant m ountains h as b een r eported i n I nca t imes a s w ell ( Hernández 1 923: 6 2; A vila 1 975). L ooking b ack a t t he i nformation p resented a bove, i t s eems p ossible t o d raw a n umber o f p arallels b etween c urrent d ay a nd p rehispanic u se o f l ines: T he m ounds a long o r a t e nds o f l ines, t he r elative a bsence o f l ong l asting r itual i tems, t he p resence o f b roken v essels a nd p lates ( presumably u sed a t N azca t o h old o fferings), t he k eeping o f l ines r igidly s traight, a nd t he u se o f o bjects t o p rovoke r ain ( seashells a t N azca p ossibly f ulfilled t his r ole). D ifferences, o f c ourse , r emain. F or e xample, f igures a re n ot d rawn o n t he e arth, b ut t hen a gain f igures o f c lay a re m ade a nd u sed i n m ountain/fertility r ites t oday . T he u se o f n umerous g round l ines i n a c oncentrated a rea d oes n ot c urrently t ake p lace, h owever ( see F igures 1 0 a nd 1 1). L ines t hus f ar s tudied a nd t hat a re c urrently i n u se h ave n ot b een f ound t o h ave r oles i n m aking a stronomical o bservations ( cf. M orrison 1 978 : 1 81), b ut s uch u se s till r emains t o b e s ubstantiated f or N azca a s w ell. P articularly i nteresti ng w as R iviere's ( 1982) d emonstration o f h ow a l ine i s u sed a s p art o f a c oherent s ystem i n a ccord w ith A ndean d ualistic t hought c ategories. U nfortunately, d eciphering t he m aze o f l ines a t N azca f rom t his p erspective, w ithout a ccess t o i nformation a bout t he s ocial g roups a t t he t ime t hey w ere m ade, w ill p rove a f ormidable, i f n ot i mpossible , t ask. I n t he c ase o f t he s ystem o f s acred l ines t he I ncas u tilized a t C uzco, s acred p laces w ere l ocated a long t hem , a s ubstantial n umber o f w hich i nvolved w ater s ources a nd h illtops ( Cobo 1 964: 1 69-86 ; c f. G ow 1 974: 5 6-7). I ndeed, i n s ome c ases d irect c orrelation o f l ines w ith w ater s ources h ave b een f ound a t N azca, e .g. a t C antalloc w here t hey a ppear t o i ntersect c anals ( see L ancho n .d.). N ot f ar d istant, a t P aracas, a f ew a ppear t o h ave h ad a s imilar p urpose ( Craig a nd P suty 1 968: 9 7-8). T here, e ach l ine r adiating f rom a m ound w as f ound t o u ltimately i ntersect o ne o f t he i rrigation c anals a t p oints w here t hey m ake c hanges i n d irection . R ather t han b eing a ssociated w ith s urveying p urposes, A s t he a uthors s uggest, i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t hese l ines p layed a r ole i n aw ater r itual b y c onnecting a c entral p lace o f w orship ( the m ound) w ith c ritical p laces o f t he i rrigation s ystem , s imilar t o t he p ractice a t C uzco w here s ome l ines l ed t o i rrigation c anals.

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K inship g roups w ere a ssigned t o p erform w orship a long s pecific l ines a t C uzco ( Cobo 1 964: 1 69). B olivian l ines t oday m ay s till b elong t o i ndividual f amilies o r t o e ntire v illages ( Morrison 1 978: 1 77). T his c ould e xplain w hy t here a re s o m any l ines o n t he p lateau n ear N azca a nd w hy s ome c ross o ver o thers. T hrough t ime d ifferent g roups c ould h ave d esired t o m ake t heir o wn l ines, i ncluding m aking o fferings a t s lightly d ifferent p oints. A veni ( 1986) h as a lso d emonstrated t hat m any l ines w ere u sed t o c onnect l ine c entres, a nd t hus c rossed o ver o ther l ines i n t he p rocess. H e f eels t he l ines w ere u sed a s p aths a nd t he c entres w ere p laces w here o fferings w ere m ade. I n B olivia t hose w ho f ollowed t he s traight l ines w ere t hought t o b e p ardoned f or t heir s ins ( Paredes 1 976: 2 03). T hat t he l ines w ere k ept s traight w as o bviously d ue t o t heir r oles a s d elimiting s acred s pace. T his w ould h elp e xplain w hy s ome o f t he " lines" a re r elatively s hort a nd/or w ide, i .e. t hey c ould h ave s erved i n t hese c ases n ot a s a ctual " paths," b ut r ather a s t he s acred s pace i n w hich w orship w as p erformed ( cf. M orrison 1 978: 1 89). H owever, i t m ust b e s tressed t hat t he m ajority o f l ines a t N azca a ppear t o b e s acred p aths l eading t o p laces o f w orship a nd n ot i n t hemselves p ointing a t a nything o n e ither t he c elestial o r g eographical h orizon. N onetheless, t he p ossibility o f a f ew o f t he " lines" s erving a s s ymbolic " connectors" f or r itual u se a rose d uring o ur r esearch i n n orthern C hile. O n t he s ummit o f o ne m ountain, J atamalla , a c leared r ectangle ( lO i n x3 m) w as f ound w hich h ad s mall w hite s tones s cattered d own t he c entre o f i t. T his r ectangle w as d irected a t t he s ummit o f a h igher m ountain, T ata J achura, w hich i s s till b elieved t o b e t he h usband o f J atamalla . T hese a re t he o nly t wo m ountains, a mong s everal i n t he a rea, w hich a re i nvoked i n ac urrent-day c eremony f or r ain a nd b oth h ave r uins o n t heir s ummits ( Reinhard a nd S anhueza 1 982). T he w hite s tones h ad t o h ave b een b rought f rom t he r iver b elow . G iven t his a nd f urther e vidence t o b e p resented b elow, i t c an b e c oncluded t hat t he r ectangle s erved a s ar itual c onnector o r l ink b etween t he t wo m ountains a nd p layed a r ole i n aw ater c ult. F urther w est f rom J atamalla o n t he c oast S outh o f I quique w e o bserved t wo l ines s everal h undred m etres l ong l eading a way f rom a l arge m ound o f c onsiderable a ntiquity. O ne l ine l ed t o t he o cean i n t he d irection t he s un s et a nd a nother l ed t owards t he h ighest m ountain v isible f rom t his p oint. L ittle r esearch h as b een d one i n t he a rea d ue t o i ts p roximity t o a n A ir F orce b ase, b ut w e k now t hat h uman s acrifices d ating t o I nca t imes w ere f ound o n a s imilar c oastal m ountain n ot f ar t o t he n orth. I t s eems t hat h ere t oo w e h ave a c ase o f l ines s erving a s s ymbolic l inks, p ossibly c ombining w ith s olar o bservations. T his i dea o f s ymbolic l inks h as a lso b een p ointed o ut b y M orrison ( 1978: 7 3), w ho p resented a d rawing o f a s ite t hat s hares f eatures w ith t he o ne o n J atamalla. H e l ocated t he r ectangle o n ah ill n ear I ca t o t he n orth o f N azca a s p art o f an umber o f N azca-like l ines. F ar m ore s triking s imilarities w ith t he N azca l ines a nd f igures a re f ound o n ah ill a bout 7 0 k ms t o t he s outhwest o f T ata J achura a nd J atamalla . T his h ill, C o. U nitas, h as n arrow s traight l ines a nd w ide " paths" ( actually c leared r ectangles s everal m etres a cross) l eading t o

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t he s ummit r idge w here g enerally t hey e nd a t m ounds w here o fferings w ere m ade. A s a t N azca, s ome l arge l ines p ass o ver o nes p reviously m ade a nd e nd a t s lightly d ifferent p oints. T here i s a lso a l arge f eline f igure, a b ird, a nd w ithout d oubt o ne o f t he b est p reserved a nd m ost d etailed a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs y et d iscovered ( see l ensen 1 971: 1 90; a lso F igure 1 2). T he C o. U nitas c omplex, o ther f eatures i t s hares w ith N azca , a nd i ts a ssociation w ith a m ountain/fertility w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail b elow .

c ult

Ah ill s imilar i n s ize t o C o. U nitas a nd w ith r uins o n i ts s ummit i s f ound s outh o f S an P edro d e A tacama. T his h ill, C o. M ullay , i s a lso i solated i n t he d esert a long a n a ncient l lama c aravan r oute. W e f ound t hat i t i s s till i nvoked t oday ( along w ith s everal o ther m ountains) i n a c eremony f or w ater b y p eople i n S ocaire a nd C amar b esides b eing v iewed a s a p rotector o f c aravans ( see F igure 1 3). A nother i solated m ountain t o t he w est o f M ullay, C o. Q uimal , i s a lso i nvoked, a nd t his w as d one b ecause i t " called t he w ater f rom t he o cean". T his s hould b e c ompared w ith A lbornoz' c omment n oted e arlier t hat m ountains " looking t o t he s ea" w ere o f s pecial i mportance a nd w ith t he f act t hat m ountains i n g eneral w ere p erceived a s w ater s ources. I t w ould s eem h ighly l ikely t hat C o. U nitas a lso w as i mportant i n t his r egard a nd t hat t he f igures a nd l ines w ere p art o f t his c omplex . O fferings t o w ater s ources n eed n ot n ecessarily h ave b een m ade f rom h ills. W e f ind t hat o fferings a re s till m ade t o t he m ost i mportant w ater s ources ( principally m ountains) f rom l ow-lying a reas a s w ell. F or e xample, t hey a re m ade i n a c entral p laza i n t he v illage o f C hiapa ( northern C hile) ( see R einhard a nd S anhueza 1 982) a nd f rom t he b eginning o f a n i rrigation c anal s ystem n ear S ocaire ( northern C hile) ( Barthel 1 959). I n T alabre ( northern C hile) w e w ere t old o f o fferings b eing m ade o n t he p lateau a bove t he v illage. T he c ommon e lement a ppears t o b e t hat, i f n ot m ade a t t he w ater s ources t hemselves, t he o fferings s hould b e m ade i n a n o pen p lace w ithin v iew o f t he m ost i mportant s ources o r a t p laces e specially a ssocia ed w ith t hem , s uch a s a t c ritical j unctions o f r ivers o r w ater o utlets. T he p lacing o f o fferings i n o pen p laces m ay e xplain w hy t he ' ray c entres ' o f N azca a re u sually l ocated o n l ocally p rominent h ills o r m ounds ( Urton 1 982: 3 7) ( see F igure 1 4). A t t he f oot o f o ne s uch c entre a n a ncient w ater j ug w as f ound d eliberately b uried , a nd w as c learly u sed f or r itual p urposes ( Cane 1 978 : 5 70). O fferings t o d eities c ontrolling w eather w ere m ade a t h igh p laces b oth i n t he I nca p eriod ( Cobo 1 964:

1 61) a nd t he p resent d ay ( Mishkin 1 946:

4 64).

T he r elationship o f t he l ines w ith w ater s ources i s m ade e ven m ore o f ap ossibility w hen w e f ind t hat s ea s hells a re f ound f requently i n t he m ounds n ear t he l ines ( Reiche 1 968: 5 0) a nd a pparently o ften a t t he e nds o f " lines" a s w ell ( cf. M orrison 1 978: 3 7-8). S ea s hells w ere i mportant o fferings t o w ater s ources f or r ain ( Rowe 1 946: 3 07) d ue t o t heir b eing c onsidered " daughters" o f t he s ea ( Murra 1 975 : 2 57 ) Ar ecent s tudy d emonstrated t hat t he o rientations o f t he t riangles a nd t rapezoids a re s tatistically c orrelated w ith t he f low o f w ater ( Aveni 1 986: 3 8). I t w as a lso s hown t hat a ll o f t he l ines o n t he P ampa d e S an J ose c onnect t o l ine o r r ay c entres w hich i n t urn a re

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g enerally s ituated r elative t o t he w ater f low . T he c onclusion o f t his d etailed s tudy w as t hat, t aken a s aw hole, t he l ines w ere m ost l ikely a ssociated w ith " a r itual s cheme i nvolving w ater, i rrigation a nd p lanting" ( Aveni 1 986 : 3 9). T hat m ajor t emples w eren 't b uilt a t t he l ines i s n o i ndication t hat o fferings w eren't m ade t here. I n a ncient t imes ( and i n r ecent t imes a s w ell) i mportant c eremonies f or w ater w ere c arried o ut a t s imple m ounds. I n a ny e vent, s ea s hells, p otsherds a nd o ccasionally r emains o f a nimals h ave b een f ound i n t he m ounds ( Rossel 1 977: 2 21), a nd c learly s ome o f t he m ounds a t l east h ad r itual s ignificance. E lsew here i n t he A ndes s mall m ounds h ave b een u sed i n c eremonies t o r epresent m ountains ( Mariscotti 1 978a : 2 66) a s h ave l arge s tones ( Barthel 1 959). T he f act t hat m ore a rtefacts h aven 't b een f ound c ould b e e xplained b y t he o fferings c onsisting o f s acred l iquids ( as t hey a re t oday) a nd o ther p erishable i tems, b esides t he f act t hat s ome s ites h ave b een p illaged. I t s hould b e a dded t hat p laces m ay b ecome s acred f or r easons n ot o bvious t o a l ater o bserver, e .g. b ecause a n u nusual s tone w as f ound o r av ision o ccurred t o s omeone t here. A lthough m any p laces w ere s elected b ased o n t heir l ocations r elative t o f ertility s ources i n t he r egion, t here m ay w ell b e p laces c hosen f or r easons w hich w e w ill n ever b e a ble t o e xplain. M ountains w ere s ometimes u sed i n m aking a stronomical o bservations b y t he I ncas ( Zuidema 1 982). I ndeed, p rominent f eatures o f t he l ands cape w ere c ommonly u sed t hroughout t he A mericas i n e stablishing a s olar c alendar ( Aveni 1 981: 4 1) ( see F igure 1 5). U rton ( 1981: 5 4) f ound t hat i n c entral P eru l andmarks ( mainly s acred m ountains) p rovide p oints o f o rientation f rom w hich l ines o f s ight c an b e e xtended i nto t he n ight s ky. B ecause e very p oint i n t he s ky i s i n m otion i n t he s outhern h emisphere , t he v illager c an o nly e xtend l ines u pward f rom f ixed p oints o n e arth. T his d oes n ot m ean t hey h ave t o b e i n p erfect a lignment, r ather t he m ountains s erve a s a ids. H owever, g iven t he d ata a vailable, i t w ould s eem t hat f ew l ines a t N azca w ould h ave b een u seful f or s uch o bservations, b eing e ither u nnecessary o r i nadequate f or t hem . U rton ( 1982: 2 ) p rovides a n e xample t aken f rom N azca i tself t o s how h ow m ountains a nd s olar o bservations c an c ombine. A t t he t ime o f t he D ecember s olstice t he s un r ises b ehind C o. B lanco, s ignalling t he b eginning o f t he r ainy s eason i n t he m ountains t o t he e ast o f N azca. W e h ave a lready s een C o. B lanco's a ssociation w ith w ater i n l egends, a nd t his c ombining o f am ountain, a r ainy s eason, a nd a n i mportant c elestial e vent m ust h ave p layed a p owerful r ole i n i ndigenous b eliefs. C learly, n o u se o f l ines w as n ecessary i n m aking t he o bservation. I nterestingly, i n s ome a reas o f t he A ndes c elestial b odies b ecome i mportant o nly w hen t hey a re i n a ssociation w ith s acred m ountains o n t he h orizon, f orming w hat m ight b e c alled a " sacred g eographical a stronomy" ( cf. G ow a nd C ondori 1 982:

7 ).

W ith r egard t o t he u se o f l ines i n a ncestor w orship, f ew o f t he l ines h ave b een f ound t o b e d irectly r elated t o b urial s ites. A ncestor w orship m ay w ell h ave p layed a r ole i n am ountain/fertility c ult, b ut b ased o n o ur k nowledge o f p ast a nd p resent-day p ractices i t w as p robably o nly o f s econdary s ignificance d uring t he w orship o f d eities c ontrolling m eteorological p henomena w hich p robably t ook p lace a t t he l ines.

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S pirals a nd Z igzags S traight l ines p resent a p articular p roblem b ecause o f t he l arge n umber o f p ossible i nterpretations, b oth f unctional a nd s ymbolic, t hat c an b e o ffered f or t hem . M ost a rchaeologists a gree, h owever, t hat t he s pirals a nd z igzags p layed a s trictly s ymbolic r ole ( see F igure 1 6). W e k now t hat s pirals w ere c ommon m otifs t hroughout S outh A merica. L arrain ( 1976: 3 54) n oted t hat i n a ncient P eru s hells w ith a s piral f orm w ere f requently u sed i n c ults r elating t o o btaining w ater. H e f eels t hat t he s piral m otif o f g eoglyphs r elated t o aw ater c ult. W e h ave a lready s een t hat s hells w ere c ommonly f ound i n m ounds a t t he N azca g eoglyphs a nd w ere i mportant o fferings f or w ater i n a ncient t imes. T he s piral c onch s hell w as a c ommon i nstrument i n c eremonies t o c all t he m ountain g ods ( Roel 1 966: 3 0) o r c all c louds ( Carrion 1 955: 8 0) f or r ain. T he z igzag a nd o scillating m otifs h ave p articularly p uzzled r esearchers, b ut a s imple e xplanation r elating t o f ertility a rose w hile r eading K osok ( 1965: 1 07). H e i ncludes a p hotograph a nd d rawing o f t he p re-hispanic o scillating c anal s ystem t hat w as f ound i n n orthern c oastal P eru. I n t hat c ase i ts f unction w as u nmistakable. B ennett ( 1949: p late 1 3) n oted t his a s aC himu i rrigation p attern a t C han C han. R ossel ( 1977: 2 15) n otes " undulating" f urrows s till b eing u sed i n t he f ields o f N azca. I n h er l engthy s tudy o f t he w ater c ult i n a ncient P eru, C arrion ( 1955: 5 9) d escribes " pacchas" a s b eing c anals i n a z igzag o r o scillating p attern . T hese a re f ound e ither i n s tones o r a s s pouts o n c ontainers f or l iquids ( Carrion 1 955: 6 5) a nd w ere c ommon t hroughout a ncient P eru, i ncluding N azca ( Carrion 1 955: 8 3). P etroglyph z igzag m arkings h ave b een w idely i nterpreted a s p art o f a w ater c ult, b eing t hought t o r epresent e ither r ivers o r l ightning ( cf. M ostny a nd N iemeyer 1 983: 1 28). T aken t ogether i t w ould s eem a r easonable h ypothesis t hat s ymbolic z igzag a nd o scillating f orms, s uch a s f ound a t N azca, a lso p layed r oles i n a w ater c ult.

A nimal a nd P lant F igures I t i s o bvious t hat t he p recise m eanings o f g eoglyphs a t N azca w ill n ever b e c ompletely k nown, a nd t his e specially h olds t rue f or f igures s uch a s t hose r epresenting p lants a nd a nimals. S ymbols c an v ary i n m eaning t hrough t ime a nd d epending u pon t he c ontexts i n w hich t hey o ccur. H owever, s ome u nderlying c oncepts m ay h ave r emained r elatively s table. T his i s i ndicated b y s ome a rtistic r epresentations h aving b een o nly s lightly m odified s ince t hey f irst a ppeared o ver t wo m illennia a go, b y b asic c oncepts h aving b een s hared t hroughout t he A ndes a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest, a nd b y t hese c oncepts h aving p ersisted, d espite c onsiderable C hristian p roselytism , t o t he p resent d ay. I n a ddition, i t i s d ifficult t o m ake s ense o f a ny i conography w ithout r ecourse t o a t heory b ased o n e thnographic, h istorical a nd e cological d ata . T his i s e ssential f or a ny a nalysis . A s n oted a t t he b eginning o f t his p aper, w e a re i nterested i n e xamining t he N azca g eoglyphs f rom t he p erspective o f aw ater/mountain/fertility c ult, a nd t his i s w hat w e w ill b e l imiting o urselves t o i n t he f ollowing b rief o verview .

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A nthropomorphic g eoglyphs a re n ot c ommon a nd h ave p roven e specially d ifficult f or a rchaeologists t o e xplain. T he m ost i mpressive o f t hese f igures i s n ot a t N azca b ut r ather a t C erro U nitas i n n orthern C hile. I t i s aw ell m ade g eoglyph , m easures 9 0m i n l ength a nd w as f ormed o n t he s ide o f ah ill i n t he c oastal i nland d esert ( see F igure 1 2). I t s hares s ome f eatures w ith t he p rincipal a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs a t N azca , s uch a s t he s quare, f rontal h ead w ith r ectangularly-shaped e yes a nd m outh, t he l ines c rossed a t t he h ead, a nd t he b asic c omposition o f t he b ody a nd l egs w ith a c entral " belt" ( cf. F igure 1 7). N umerous e lements o f C havin i conography h ave b een f ound a t P aracas n ear N azca, a nd t he P aracas t extiles i n p articular i ndicate s trong C havin i nfluence ( Sawyer 1 972: 9 2, 9 6; c f. K auf f mann 1 980: 1 99; R owe 1 971: 1 18). O ne o f t hese t extiles ( dated t o a pproximately 2 00 B .C.) h as a f igure o f a " Staff G od" ( an a nthropomorphic d eity w ith s taffs h eld i n b oth h ands) ( see F igure 1 8) w hich i s r emarkably s imilar t o t he g eoglyph a t C o. U nitas a nd t he p etroglyph i n t he g orge n earby; o nly t he a ctual s taffs a re n ot d epicted. T he a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs c an b e i nterpreted a s r epresenting t he a nthropomorphized f eline f igure w hich i s p ortrayed s imilarly a t b oth C havin a nd P ara 9 as-Nazca ( see K auf f mann 1 980: 3 25, 3 89-92; c f. P ezzia 1 968: 1 70-75). T he r ole o f a f eline w ith b ird e lements, c alled t he c coa , w as ( and i n s ome a reas s till i s) i mportant t hroughout t he A ndes w ith r egard t o f ertility. T his " flying f eline" i s b elieved t o h ave t hrown l ightning ( a f ertilizing a gent a nd s ource o f s upernatural p ower) f rom i ts e yes, u rinated r ain, s pit h ail a nd r oared c ausing t hunder. I t w as s ymbolically a ssociated w ith t he d eity t hat c ontrolled m eteorological p henomena a nd p rotected c rops a nd w as s ubordinate t o h im ( Mariscotti 1 978a : 2 03). D emarest ( 1981: 5 0) b elieves i t t o b e t he m anifestation o f a n a ncient a nd w idespread s ky g od w ho c ontrolled t he w eather. A mong t he c ontemporary Q uechua t he c coa i s s een a s o ne o f t he m ountain g od's s ervants a nd i s c onsidered t he m ost a ctive a nd f eared o f t he s pirits. I t i s c losely i nvolved i n t he d aily l ife o f t he Q uechua p eople, d ue t o u sing l ightning a nd h ail, a nd i t i s a lso a s ponsor o f s orcerers ( Mishkin 1 946: 4 63-4). T his c oncept o f a f lying f eline a ssociated w ith m eterological p henomena a nd r itual s pecialists i s n ot j ust l imited t o t he A ndes, i t i s w idely h eld i n t ropical S outh A merica a nd M esoamerica a s w ell ( cf. C oe 1 972: 3 ; R eichel-Dolmatoff 1 972: 5 8). T he f eline i n i ts n atural s tate, i .e. t he p uma , i s c onsidered a s ymbol f or t he W eather G od a mong t he A ymara p eople. E lsewhere p umas a re v iewed a s a ssistants o m ountain d eities ( cf. G ow a nd C ondori 1 982: 4 8 ; M ishkin 1 946: 4 63). A " Staff G od" f igure f rom a v ase f ound a t P acheco n ear N azca i s s imilar i n d esign t o t he C o. U nitas g eoglyph, t he p etroglyph, t he a nthropomorphic g eoglyph a t N azca, a nd t he P aracas t extile f igure. T he P acheco S taff G od i s l ater i n t ime ( ca . 7 00 A .D.), s howing c learly t he T iahuanaco-Huari i nfluence a t N azca. H owever, i t p rovides a g reater d etail o f e lements, m ost o f w hich a re s hared w ith r epresentations o f s imilar f igures d ating b ack t o C havin. T hese e lements e nable u s t o b etter i nterpret t he f unction o f t he d eity. T hey i nclude t he f eline f acial c haracteristics, t he l ines ( or r ays) a t t he h ead ( which f requently e nd i n f eline, b ird-of-prey o r s erpent h eads), t he p rominent b elt a nd s taffs ( often w ith t he s ame m otifs a s t he h ead r ays), t he b asic s tance w ith s imilar h ead c haracteristics a nd a rm, l eg a nd f eet p ositions ( cf. R einhard 1 986).

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T he a ncient o rigin o f t his f igure, i ts d uration t hrough t ime, a nd i ts w ide-spread a ppearance i n t he a rchaeological r ecord s hould b e s ufficient t o d emonstrate t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a n i conographic s tyle u sed t o p resent c oncepts u nderlying a t ype o f d eity o f g reat i mportance i n A ndean b eliefs ( cf. R einhard 1 985a). W hen w e e xamine t he i conographic e vidence a s aw hole, i t b ecomes c lear w e a re d ealing w ith at ype o f d eity t hat i s a ssociated w ith a tmospheric p henomena a nd t hus w ith f ertility c f. D emarest 1 981: 5 7, 6 7; R owe 1 967: 8 6 ; V alc rcel 1 958: 5 65-68). T he i nterpretation o f t he a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs i s, t herefore, t hat t hey p ortray a d eity w hich c ontrolled m eteorological p henomena. A s w e h ave s een, a t t he l ocal l evel t his d eity i s f requently b elieved t o r eside I n t he m ountains. T his i nterpretation o bviously f its w ell w ith w hat w e k now o f t he e cological s ituation i n t hese d esert a reas a nd o f h e i mportant r ole t hat m ountain d eities p lay w ith r egard t o f ertility. 1 P erhaps t he c losest d irect e vidence w e h ave o f a l ink b etween a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs a nd m ountains i s p rovided b y t he c ase o f C o. U nitas a nd T ata J achura ( see F igure 1 9). T he m ountain T ata J achura I s s till a p owerful d eity o ver a l arge a rea a nd i s w orshipped a nnually f or w ater ( Reinhard a nd S anhueza 1 982). W e f ound i mpressive r uins o n i ts s ummit w hich d ated t o t he I nca p eriod a nd i ndicate t hat i t w as o ne o f t he m ost i mportant r itual s ites i n t he r egion f or w hich w e h ave a rchaeological e vidence. E xtensive p re-Inca r uins e xist n ear a v illage w here w orship o f T ata J achura s till t akes p lace. L egends s peak o f a n a nnual s acrifice o f c hildren t o T ata J achura t o i nsure a s table w ater s upply t he o nly d eity t o r eceive t his i mportant o ffering. I t s eems h ighly p robable t hat T ata J achura w as w orshipped a s a f ertility d eity l ong b efore t he I ncas c ame t o t he a rea. -

A n a nthropomorphic p etroglyph, n early i dentical t o t he C o. U nitas g eoglyph, i s f ound i n t he g orge l eading f rom t he f oot o f T ata J achura. I ndeed, a s n oted e arlier, s tones f rom a n u pper b ranch o f t his r iver w ere u sed t o m ark a " line" o n t he s ummit o f J atamalla w hich p ointed t owards T ata J achura, c onsidered J atamalla's h usband. M ost a nthropologists h ave i nterpreted p etroglyphs o f l lamas, s nakes, b irds, z igzags, e tc. a s r elating t o a f ertility c ult, a nd t here a re n umerous o f t hese a long w ith a nthropomorphic f igures i n t he g orge. T he r iver f lows t owards C o. U nitas b efore i t d isappears I nto t he s and o f t he d esert p lain, b ut i n t he p ast i t p assed n ear C o. U nitas. T o t he s outh a nd s outhwest o f C o. U nitas o ne c an s ee f rom t he a ir t he r emains o f e xtensive a ncient i rrigated f ields. T hese f ields w ere d ependent u pon t he w ater c oming f rom t he m ountains t o t he e ast. S acred m ountains, l ike T ata J achura , w ere w idely p erceived a s p rotectors o f h erds ( Martinez 1 976 : 2 78) a nd a n a dditional f actor c ould h ave b een T ata J achura 's ( and C o. U nitas ') l ocation o n al lama c aravan r oute ( cf. N uf lez 1 976). I t w ould s eem a r easonable h ypothesis t hat T ata J achura, t he m ost p rominent m ountain i n v iew f rom C o. U nitas, w as c onsidered t he p lace w here a d eity r esided w hich c ontrolled m eteorological p henomena a nd f ertility. T he a nthropomorphic g eoglyph a t C o. U nitas f ound a ssociated w ith a n aturalized f eline f igure c an b e i nterpreted a s r epresenting t his k ind o f d eity. -

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B ird f igures a re f airly n umerous a t N azca ( see F igure 2 0), a nd t he r elationship o f b irds w ith m ountain d eities a nd w ater/fertility c ults i s w idespread i n t he A ndes ( cf. A rguedas 1 956: 1 99; M ariscotti 1 978a : 1 32, 1 98). F or e xample, o ne b ird f igure h as b een i dentified a s a c ondor, b elieved i n m any a reas t o b e t he m anifestation o f t he m ountain g ods ( Cayon 1 971: 1 43; K essel 1 980 : 2 80). ( Indeed, i n s ome a reas o f t he A ndes m ountain d eities a re b elieved t o t ake h uman f orm , b ut f ly w ith w ings; c f. M orote 1 956: 2 95. T his, o f c ourse, l eads o ne t o r ecall t he w inged a nthropomorphic b eings c ommon i n N azca i conography.) 1 1 H ummingbirds h ave b een i nterpreted a s m essengers o f m ountain g ods o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru ( Benson 1 972: 5 2) a nd s till f igure a s i ntermediaries b etween h umans a nd c ondor " supernaturals" i n m yths a t L ake T iticaca ( Buechler a nd B uechler 1 971: 9 7) ( see F igure 2 1). A t P uquio n ear N azca t hey a re b elieved t o a ssist i n t he w orship o f m ountain g ods f or r ain ( Arguedas 1 956: 2 07). W ater b irds h ave a n o bvious r elationship w ith f ertility. I n n orthern C hile f lamingo f eathers a re p art o f t he o fferings t o t he m ountain d eities f or r ain ( Barthel 1 959: 3 0). U rton ( 1982: 7 -8) n otes t hat t oday a t N azca t he s ighting o f ah eron, p elican o r c ondor i s t aken a s a s ign t hat t here w ill b e r ain i n t he m ountains. T he c ondor i s s aid t o b e t he o nly b ird f rom t he m ountains u sed f or p redictions o f r ain , t he o thers b eing f rom t he c oast. T he g eoglyph o f a s pider c an a lso b e i nterpreted a s a ssociated w ith a w ater c ult. I n c urrent b eliefs i n P eru i ts p resence i s t aken a s a s ign o f r ain ( Cayon 1 971: 1 37-8). A ccording t o R ossel ( 1977: 2 11), t he t arantula i s p erceived a s a s ymbol o f f ertility i n s outhern P eru. O ne g eoglyph a t N azca h as b een i nterpreted a s a d og o r a f ox ( Morrison 1 978: 7 8). T he f ox i s p erceived i n m any a reas a s t he " dog" o f t he m ountain d eities ( Casaverde 1 970: 1 43; c f. T schopik 1 951: 1 99 f tn . 6 ). I n a l egend d ating b ack a t l east t o I nca t imes, t he f ox s erved a s am essenger o f t he m ountain g ods ( Carrion 1 955: 1 30; c f. C ayon 1 971: 1 59). I n a nother l egend f irst p ublished i n 1 608 t he f ox w as t he p rincipal h elper o f am ountain d eity i n t he c onstruction o f a n i rrigation s ystem i n t he h ills e ast o f L ima ( Avila 1 975). I t w as e specially i mportant a long t he c oast ( Sawyer 1 972: 9 7), a nd a n i dol o f i t w as w orshipped a t t he i mportant c eremonial , c entre o f P achacamac ( Duviols 1 984: 2 14). T he A gustinos ( 1918: 3 8) n oted t he f ox b eing w orshipped s o t hat i t w ould n ot e at t he m aize c rop. D uring d roughts t he I ncas a re k nown t o h ave t ied d ogs o ut i n t he o pen a nd l eft t hem t o c ry f or h unger u ntil t he W eather G od t ook p ity o n t hem a nd s ent r ain ( Rowe 1 946: 2 12). N ot f ar f rom N azca i t i s b elieved t hat d ogs a ccompany t he s pirits o f t he d ead t o t he m ountain C oropuna ( Valderrama a nd E scalante 1 980 : 2 58). T he m onkey i s o ne o f t he b est k nown f igures a t N azca. A s M orrison ( 1978: 7 7) p oints o ut, i t i s n ot s trange t o f ind t hat m onkeys w ere k nown e ven i n t he d esert c oastal r egion, a s t rade b etween t he c oast a nd t he A mazon f orest w as e xtensive i n a ncient t imes. M onkeys a nd l izards w ere p rominently p ortrayed o n t he l arge s tone " paccha" a t S ayhuite i n t he c entral P eruvian h ighlands, w hich w as g enerally b een i nterpreted a s

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a c entral e lement i n aw ater c ult ( Kauf f mann 1 980: 6 88). T he m onkey a nd t he l izard ( also a t N azca) h ave b een i nterpreted b y C arrion ( 1955: 6 1) e ither a s p rotectors o f t he w ater o r a s s ymbols o f i t, d ue t o t heir a ssociation w ith p laces w here w ater i s a vailable. I n B olivia, w hen t here a re m any l izards a bout, i t m eans i t w ill r ain ( Paredes 1 976: 1 23). O ne o f t he g eoglyphs a t N azca a ppears t o r epresent a f ish, a nd g enerally h as b een i dentified a s t he o rca o r k iller w hale ( Morrison 1 978: 7 9). K auf f mann ( 1980 : 3 92) p rovides t he i nteresting t heory t hat t his i s a s tylistic t ransformation o f t he N azca f eline d eity. I n a ny e vent, i t c an e asily b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f a f ertility/water c ult, a s c an t hose g eoglyphs o f f ish. S ome f igures a t N azca h ave b een i nterpreted a s p lants, s uch a s f lowers ( Reiche 1 968: 4 1), a lgae a nd t rees ( Rossel 1 977: 2 14-17). A ll o f t hese, i n t his d esert c limate, c an b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f f ertility. F lowers a re u sed i n a c eremony w hich i s a nnually h eld t o i nvoke m ountain d eities f or r ain a t P uqulo t o t he e ast o f N azca ( Arguedas 1 956: 2 07). R ossel ( 1977: 2 14-15) n otes t hat a lgae w as u sed a s f ertilizer n ear N azca, a nd t he t ree ( which h e i dentifies a s t he h uarango) w as u tilized i n t he c onstruction o f t he f iltration c anals. S ome f igures , s uch a s t he s pider, d og a nd m onkey, h ave t heir s exual p arts e xtended a nd t his h as b een i nterpreted a s i ndicating t hat t hey h ad r oles i n a f ertility c ult ( Hawkins 1 973: 1 47; C ane 1 978 : 5 63: c f. R eiche 1 975: 1 37). E ven t he p uzzling d epiction o f h ands w ith f our f ingers c an b e i nterpreted w ithin t his c ontext. I n I nca t imes i t w as w idely b elieved t hat t hose b orn d eformed, e .g. w ith l ess o r m ore f ingers t han n ormal, w ere c hildren o f l ightning a nd t hunder ( Mariscotti 1 978b: 3 65-7) a nd m ountain g ods. A nimals b orn d eformed w ere v iewed i n t he s ame w ay a nd c onsidered s acred ( cf. L a B arre 1 948: 1 65). T he d rawing o f a m onkey w ith f our f ingers c ould h ave b een d one d eliberately a s p art o f a w ater/ f ertility c ult a nd n ot d ue t o a natomical i naccuracy, a s s ome a uthors h ave s uggested ( see M cIntyre 1 975: 7 23).

C onclusion A s w e h ave s een, t he v ast m ajority o f f igures a nd l ines f ound a t N azca c an b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f a w ater/fertility c ult. O f c ourse, t he g eoglyphs c an b e i nterpreted i n m any o ther w ays ( cf. W aisbard 1 980; P ezzia 1 979; M orrison 1 978). T he d ata p resented h ere h as b een d eliberately s elective i n o rder t o d emonstrate t hat a s ubstantial b ody o f m aterial e xists w hich e nables a t heory t o b e d eveloped r elating a w ater/mountain/fertility c ult w ith g eoglyphs. T his t heory a llows d iverse d ata t o b e e xplained i n a l ogically c onsistent m anner a nd i n a ccord w ith t raditional A ndean b eliefs a nd p ractices. I t i s b y n o m eans f inal i n e very d etail, a nd i t i s h oped t hat t his a rticle w ill s timulate r esearch w hich w ill e xpand u pon o r, i f i t s o d evelops, c hange t he t heory p resented h ere. O ne p oint a t l east a ppears t o b e c lear: A ny i nterpretation o f t he g eoglyphs m ust t ake i nto c onsideration t he e cological s ituation a nd t he s acred g eography o f t he r egion.

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T he b elief t hat d eities r esiding i n m ountains c ontrolled m eteorol ogical p henomena h as a s ound e cological b asis, s ince r ivers o riginate f rom m ountains a nd r ain, s now, c louds, e tc. n ormally h ave t hem a s t heir p laces o f o rigin ( see F igure 3 ). T his h elps e xplain w hy t his b elief i s f ound t hroughout t he A ndes, b eing n oted i n t he o ldest l egends a nd k nown t o h ave b een o f w idespread i mportance a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest. S everal s cholars ( e.g. K auf f mann 1 980; W . I sbell 1 978; R owe 1 967; C arri6n 1 955) h ave s tressed t he g reat a ntiquity o f s ome b asic r eligious c oncepts, a nd c learly m ountain w orship f or f ertility m ust b e c onsidered o ne o f t hese. T his c onclusion i s a lso i n a greement w ith w hat w e k now o f b eliefs a nd l egends a t N azca a nd t he d ifficult e cological s ituation t hat c onfronted t he a ncient N azcans. S ufficient r ainfall i n t he m ountains t o t he e ast w as c ritical t o t he m ainstay o f t he N azcan e conomy a griculture. M ountains w ere w idely p erceived a s -

b eing i nhabited b y d eities w ho c ontrolled m eteorological p henomena a nd f ertility. C eremonies r elating t o t he w orship o f t hese d eities m ust h ave b een o f p rime i mportance t o t he p eople.

t o

T he m ajority o f t he l ines w ould l ikely h ave s erved a s s acred p aths t he p laces w here r ituals f or w ater w ere p erformed, h ence t he l ines

w ould n ot h ave b een p ointing a t a nything o n t he h orizon. O n t he o ther h and, s ome l ines, e specially t he l arge t riangles a nd r ectangles, m ay h ave s erved a s s ymbolic c onnectors w ith w ater s ources a nd b een s acred a reas i n w hich f ertility r ites w ere c arried o ut. T he v arious f igures w ould h ave b een f ormed t o i nvoke w ater/fertility. I ndeed, t his i s p recisely t he w ay t hat g eoglyphs a re i nterpreted b y t he t raditional i nhabitants o f n orthern C hile t oday ( Kessel 1 976: 2 34). T hat t he f igures c an b e s een b est o nly f rom t he a ir i s e xplained a s b eing d ue t o t he a bility o f t he m ountain d eities t o o versee t he a rea, s uch a s b y a ppearing a s b irds o r i n t he f orm o f t he f lying f eline. T he e vidence p resented h ere d oes n ot l end i tself w ell t o s tatistical a nalysis. H owever, a lthough t he n umber o f e xamples i s l imited, i t c an b e p ointed o ut t hat i n a ll t he c ases o f c urrent d ay u se o f s traight l ines f or w hich w e h ave t he d etails s uch l ines w ere u sed i n c onnection w ith a w ater/mountain c ult. T he e thnohistoric s ources m entioning t he m ost i mportant d eities a t N azca a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest s tate t hey w ere m ountains. P ast a nd p resent d ay m yths a bout m ountains i n t he N azca r egion r elate t hem t o aw ater c ult. T he r ecognizable p lants a nd a nimals d epicted i n t he g eoglyphs c an b e s hown t o h ave b een, a t l east i n p art, a ssociated w ith w ater i n A ndean b eliefs. N o e cological f acts, s tatistical s tudies o f t he o rientations o f t he l ines, h istorical a ccounts i n c olonial t imes, o r a rchaeological f indings h ave c ome t o l ight t o c onvincingly d emonstrate a ny o ther t heory a s b eing s uperior t o t he w ater/mountain/fertility o ne. I t w ould s eem t hat t he p ossibility o f a ll t he a bove s tatements b eing t rue w ould b e r emote u nless t his t heory w as i n g eneral t erms c orrect. T hat b eing s aid, i t s hould n onetheless b e s tressed t hat i n t he c ase o f p henomena s o c omplex a nd l ittle k nown a s t he g eoglyphs a t N azca, w e w ill d oubtless n ever b e a ble t o c ompletely u nderstand t heir m eanings. T hey c ould h ave s erved f unctions o f w hich w e a re t otally u naware a nd m ay w ell h ave s erved m ultiple e nds. F or e xample, s ome f igures c ould h ave b een t otems a nd s ome l ines u sed i n m aking a stronomical o bservations ( as a n umber o f a uthors s uggest), w hile s till p laying r oles i n a f ertility c ult. I t w ould b e o ver-simplifying a

3 83

c omplex s ubject a pproach.

t o b elieve e verything c an b e e xplained w ith

a ny

o ne

O bviously, m uch r esearch r emains t o b e d one w ith r egard t o t he a rchaeology a nd e thnography o f t he r egion, c oupled w ith i nvestigations o f t he p hysical e nvironment. A c areful s tudy o f t he d irections, n umerical s equences, a nd i nterrelationships o f t he l ines a nd f igures m ay r eveal p atterns e xplainable w ithin t raditional A ndean b eliefs ( cf. U rton 1 982; Z uidema 1 982). I t m ight b e a dded, h owever, t hat p ositions a nd n umbers, e ven w hen c learly c ulturally s ignificant, m ay n ot b e s ufficient i n t hemselves t o e xplain t he r easons f or r itual s ites. F or e xample, a ny c eremonial s ite w ould t end t o h ave o rientations o f a s acred n ature, b ut t he p urpose f or i ts c onstruction m ay w ell n ot b e d ue t o t his f act. Am ore h olistic a pproach i s n ecessary i f w e a re e ver g oing t o b e a ble t o d ecipher s uch a c omplex p roblem a s t hat p osed b y t he N azca l ines. O ne o f t he r easons t hat t hese g iant d esert g eoglyphs h ave c aptured o ur a ttention i s p recisely b ecause t here a re n o s imple a nswers. T his d oes n ot m ean, h owever, t hat w e c annot c ome c loser t o a s olution, a s l ong a s w e u tilize a t heory t hat i s c onsistent, b rings t ogether t he a vailable f acts i nto a m eaningful w hole, a nd r emains i n a ccord w ith w hat w e k now o f t raditional A ndean b eliefs a nd c ustoms. I n t his w ay w e c an n ot o nly c ome c loser t o u nderstanding t he d esert g eoglyphs b ut w ill a lso h ave b roadened o ur p erspectives r egarding a ncient m an i n t he p rocess.

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N OTES

1 .

T his p ublication i s a r evised a nd s hortened v ersion o f o ne e ntitled T he N azca L ines: A N ew P erspective o n t heir O rigin a nd M eaning, L ima : E ditorial L os P if los, 1 986 ( 2nd r ev. e d.).

2 .

T he s tudy o f m ountain w orship a nd h igh A ndean r uins w as s upported i n 1 983 b y ag rant ( No. 2 571-82) f rom t he N ational G eographic S ociety a nd i n 1 984-85 b y a g rant f rom t he J oint C ommittee o n L atin A merican S tudies o f t he S ocial S cience R esearch C ouncil a nd A merican C ouncil o f L earned S ocieties w ith f unds p rovided b y t he N ational E ndowment f or t he H umanities, t he F ord F oundation a nd t he A ndrew W . M ellon F oundation. A dditional f inancial a id w as r eceived f rom t he A merican P hilosophical S ociety a nd t he A merican A lpine C lub f or p art o f 1 983 a nd f rom t he E xplorers C lub f or p art o f 1 982. Iw ould l ike t o e xpress m y s incere g ratitude t o t hese o rganizations f or t heir a ssistance. O ther i nstitutions w hich a ssisted r esearch r elating t o t he g eoglyphs i nclude: T he C orporaci6n p ara e l D esarrollo d e l a C iencia , S antiago; t he C orporaci6n N acional F orestal, S antiago; t he I nstituto P rofesional, I quique; t he M useo A rqueológico, N azca ; E NTUR, P eru; E xplorandes; a nd t he M useo d e A rte P recolombino, S antiago. A t N azca , A ero C ondor a nd A ero M ontecarlo f acilitated m y w ork b y p roviding o verflights o f t he l ines. J oseph a nd S haron R ichardson g enerously p rovided a ssistance w hich e nabled m e t o c onduct r esearch r elating t o c urrent d ay u se o f l ines. G ary U rton a nd A nthony A veni k indly g ave m e a ccess t o u npublished r eports r elating t o t heir w ork a t N azca. C onstance A yala, J oanna B urkhardt a nd H ernan A mat p rovided v aluable h elp w ith t he m anuscript a nd o btaining p ublications u tilized i n t he a nalysis. I w ould a lso l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o t he f ollowing p eople f or a id g iven m e d uring m y r esearch o n g eoglyphs i n C hile, B olivia a nd a t N azca : C arlos A ldunate, P eter B aumann, R obert B latherwick, R alph C ane, L uclo C oique, E duardo l ensen, J osuê L ancho, G abriel M artinez, O ctavio M orales, T ony M orrison, M iguel P azos, M aria R ostworowski, M ike R odman, J ulio S anhueza, W olfgang S chuler, O svaldo S ilva, H elaine S ilverman, B etty, W oodsend, A driana V on H agen a nd T om Z uidema. L ouis G lauser d eserves a s pecial n ote o f t hanks f or a ssisting m e i n m y r esearch a nd m aking p ossible t rips t o I lla-kata a nd T unga.

3 .

" Ilia" i n Q uechua r efers t o a s acred h ill o r s tone ( closely t ied t o f ertility) a nd " kata" t o c loudiness. I t s eems l ikely t hat I lla-kata r eferred s trictly t o t he h igher m ountain t o t he e ast, j ust a s i t d oes t oday. T he S panish n ame B lanco w as a pparently g iven a s a s ubstitute f or t he o riginal Q uechua n ame S af loc A ncauilca, a s w ill b e n oted b elow .

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4 .

T he n ame i s i n Q uechua w ith " anca" m eaning " eagle" a nd " vilca" r eferring t o a " sacred p lace o r o bject". A nca o ccurs a s a n ame f or o ther s acred m ountains, e .g. n ear C uzco ( Duviols 1 984: 2 05). M ountain d eities a re s till c ommonly b elieved t o t ake t he f orms o f e agles a nd t his i s a lso t he c ase n ear N azca ( Arguedas 1 956: 1 99). S añoc r efers t o c lay, e specially i n r elation w ith p ottery, a nd a g roup o f p otters h ad t his n ame i n C uzco a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest ( Murra 1 956). G iven c lay d eposits a t t he f oot o f C o. B lanco a nd t he s and u sed i n p ottery ( along w ith A costa 's c omment b elow), i t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat S añoc A ncauilca w as C o. B lanco's n ame. M oich ( see b elow) i f w ritten c orrectly, i s n ot a Q uechua w ord a nd t hus m ight h ave b een t he n ame f or C erro B lanco i n t he l ocal d ialect. U racancana i s aQ uechua t erm , " ura" m eaning " low" a nd " cancana" m eaning a " spit" o r " grill" ( for r oasting). A nyone w ho h as b een o n a l ow m ountain a t N azca o n a s unny d ay c an e asily a ppreciate h ow t his n ame c ould h ave a risen.

5 .

I t m ight b e a dded t hat m ountain d eities w ere o ften w orshipped b y w eavers, e .g. i n n orthern P eru ( Agustinos 1 918: 3 0) a nd n ear C uzco ( Gow a nd C ondori 1 982: 5 3). E xceptional t extiles, m any w ith d esigns s imilar t o s ome o f t he g eoglyphs, h ave b een f ound i n g raves a t N azca. B y c ontrolling t he w ater s upply, t he m ountain d eities o bviously w ould b e d irectly i nvolved i n t he s uccess o f t he c otton c rops, a s t he o fferings o n C o. B lanco s uggest.

6 .

A ccording t o W aisbard ( 1980), t he s now-capped s ummit o f C oropuna i s v isible o n e specially c lear d ays f rom t he p lateau w ith t he m ain c oncentration o f g eoglyphs n ear N azca. T his m ountain i s f ar t o t he s outheast, b ut i s s till w orshipped b y p eople l iving n ot f ar f rom N azca i n P uquio ( Arguedas 1 956). I t w as c onsidered o ne o f t he m ost p owerful d eities o f t he I nca e mpire ( Cieza 1 977: 1 07; c f. G ua i nan P oma 1 956: 1 94). I t m ight b e a dded t hat m ountains c an b e i nvoked t o s end c louds s o t hat i t w ill r ain o n o ther m ountains ( cf. B arthel 1 959), a nd m ajor p eaks s uch a s C oropuna m ay w ell h ave b een i nvoked a t N azca f or t his r eason ( see F igure 1 ).

7 .

F or a 1 986.

8 .

T he g eoglyph o f a f eline a t C o. U nitas m ay h ave f igured i n t his c ontext, i .e. t o " protect" h erds w hile a t t he s ame t ime e ating t he l ivestock o f p astoralists w ho d ispleased t he m ountain g ods. A vila ( 1975: 6 3-4) n oted h ow p uma s kins w ere w orn b y o wners o f l lamas d uring a s pecial d ance f or a m ountain d eity i n o rder t o p revent t heir h erds f rom b eing a ttacked.

f urther a nalysis o f t his f igure, s ee

3 86

R einhard

1 985a

a nd

9 .

O ne w ell-known a nthropomorphic g eoglyph a t N azca i s t hat o f t he s o-called " owl-man". S ome s cholars i nterpret t his a s a f orm o f t he O culate B eing ( Ralph C ane, p ersonal c ommunication). B ased o n as tudy o f t he f orms i t t akes a nd a ssociated c haracteristics ( e.g. p elage m arkings, w ings) ( cf. D wyer a nd D wyer 1 975), t he O culate B eing c an b e i nterpreted i n t he s ame m anner a s t he S taff G od, i .e. a s a ssociated w ith w eather a nd t he f ertility o f c rops. T he " owlm an" g eoglyph h as s triking s imilarities w ith t he a nthropomorphic o wl n oted f or r oughly t he s ame p eriod i n t he n orthern P eruvian c oast ( cf. B enson 1 972: 5 3). B ased o n a s tudy o f i ts a ppearance i n v arious c ontexts , B enson ( 1972: 3 2) n oted i t a s b eing a n i mportant s ervant o f t he m ountain g od. I t m ight b e a dded h ere t hat b irds a re w idely a ssociated w ith m ountain g ods, w hich i n t urn a re b elieved t o b e m ost a ctive a t n ight ( cf. A vila 1 975; M artinez 1 976).

1 0.

A f igure t hat c ommonly a ppears o n N azca c eramics a pparently h as b een d epicted i n ag eoglyph. T his i s t he " whiskered" f eline d eity t hat m any b elieve t o r epresent a n o tter. O f i nterest t o u s h ere i s t he r elative u niformity o f i nterpretations a s t o t his f igure 's r ole. V alcarcel ( 1958: 5 78) a ssociates i t w ith a gricultural p roduction, S awyer ( 1972: 1 10) n otes i t a s a g uardian o f a griculture, R ossel ( 1977: 1 85) b elieves i t r elates t o w ater a nd M ariscotti ( 1978a : l am . 7 ) c alls i t a " god o f r ains".

1 1.

H uman f igures d ressed i n b ird c ostumes a lso a re d epicted o n a ncient t extiles i n t he N azca r egion ( cf. D wyer 1 979: 1 20). B ird f eathers s till f orm p art o f d ancers ' c ostumes i n t he h ighlands. O ne o f t he b est k nown g roups u sing b ird f eathers i s c alled c hoquela. T his g roup d ances d uring c eremonies i n w hich t he m ountain g ods a re i nvoked f or f ertility ( see R einhard 1 985a).

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H orkheimer , H ans , 1 947. " Las p lazoletas, r ayas y f iguras p rehisp nicas e n l as p ampas y c restas d e l a H oya d el R io G rande," i n : R evista d e l a U niversidad N acionai d e T rujillo ( êpoca I I), n o . 1 : 4 5-63 .

3 90

l ensen, F ., E duardo , 1 971. " Exploraci6n y r econocimientos a &reos p ara l a a rqueologla e n l a z ona f orte d e C hile," i n : R evista G eográfica d e C hile , n o . 2 : 1 89-192, S antiago . I sbell , B illie J . 1 978 . T o D efend O urselves : E cology a nd R itual i n a n A ndean V illage , A ustin : U niversity o f T exas P ress . I sbell , W illiam , 1 978. " Cosmological O rder E xpressed i n P rehistoric C eremonial C enters ," i n : A ctes d u 4 2nd C ongrés I nternational d es A méricainistes ( 1976), v ol . 4 : 2 69-297 , P aris. I sbell, W illiam , 1 980 . " The P rehistoric G round D rawing o f P eru ," i n : P re-Columbian A rchaeology , W illey , G . a nd S abloff , J . ( eds .), p p. 1 89-196 . S an F rancisco : W .H . F reeman & C o .

J imenez d e l a E spada , M arcos , ( ed .), 1 965 . R elaciones G eogr f1cas d e I ndiasPeru , M adrid : E diciones A tlaas , v ol . 1 .

K auf f mann , F ederico , 1 980 . M anual d e A rqueologfa P eruana , L ima : I beria , S .A . ( 7th e dition). K essel, J uan v an , 1 976 . " La p ictograf í a r upestre c omo i magen v otiva ," i n : H omenaje a l D r . G ustavo l e P aige , p p . 2 27-244 , A ntofagasta . K essel , J uan v an , 1 980 . H olocausto a l P rogreso : L os A ymarás d e T arapacá , A msterdam : C entre f or L atin A merican R esearch a nd D ocumentation . E irbus, F ederico , 1 976 . E nigmas , M isterios y S ecretos d e A merica , B uenos A ires : E ditorial L a B arca G ráfica . K osok , P aul , 1 965 . L ife , L and a nd W ater i n A ncient P eru , B rooklyn : L ong I sland U niversity P ress .

L a B arre, W eston , 1 948 . T he A ymara I ndians o f t he L ake T iticaca P lateau , B olivia , W ashington , D .C .: A merican A nthropological A ssociation M emoir N o . 6 8 . L ancho , J osué , n .d . " Zona A rqueologica d e C ant lloc ," m imeographed, M useo d e A rqueologia , N azca . L arrain , H oracio , 1 975. " El P lano d e l a q uebrada d e T arapacá d e A ntonio O 'Brian . S u v alor g eográfico y s ocio-antropol6gico ," i n : N orte G rande , V ol. 1 ( 3-4): 3 29-362, S antiago .

3 91

M ariscotti, A na M aria, 1 978a. S upplement 8 , B erlin.

P achamama S anta T ierra , i n:

I ndiana,

M ariscotti , A na M aria, 1 978b. " Los C uri y e i R ayo," i n: A ctes d u X LII C ongrés I nternational d es A méricainistes ( 1976), v ol. 4 : 3 65-376, P aris. M artinez, G abriel, 1 976. " El s iste r na d e l os U ywiris e n I sluga," i n : H omena j e a l D r. G ustavo L e P aige, pp. 2 55-327, A ntofagasta. M arzal, M anuel, 1 971. E l M undo R eligioso d e U rcos, C uzco: d e P astoral A ndina.

I nstituto

M cIntyre, L oren, 1 975. " Mystery o f t he A ncient N asca L ines," i n: N ational G eographic, v ol. 1 47(5): 7 16-28 , W ashington, D .C. M ejia, T oriblo, 1 940 . " Acueductos y c a i ninos a ntiguos d e l a H oya d el R io G rande d e N azca," i n : A ctas y T rabajos C ientificos d el 2 70 C ongreso I nternacional d e A mericanistas ( 1939), v ol. 1 : 5 59-569, L ima. M etraux, A lfred, 1 934. " Contribution a u F olklore A ndin," i n : J ournal d e l a S ociete d es A méricainistes, v ol. 2 6: 6 7-103, P aris. M illones, L uis, 1 975. " Economia y r itual e n l os C ondesuyos d e A requipa: p astores y t ejedores d el s iglo X IX," i n : A llpanchis, v ol. 8 : 4 5-66, C uzco. M ishkin, B ernard, 1 946. " The C ontemporary Q uechua," i n: H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, v ol. 2 : 4 41-70, W ashington, D .C .: S mithsonian I nstitution . M orote, E fra , 1 956. 2 88-306, L ima.

" Espiritus d e M ontes," i n L etras, n os. 5 6-57:

M orrison, T ony, 1 978. P athways t o t he G ods : T he M ystery o f t he N azca L ines, L ima: A ndean A ir M ail a nd P eruvian T imes. M ostny, G rete a nd N iemeyer, H ans, 1 983. A rte R upestre C hileno, S antiago: D epto d e E xtension C ultural d el M inisterio d e E ducaci6n. M urra , J ohn, 1 956. T he E conomic O rganization o f t he I nca S tate, C hicago: U niv. o f C hicago, P h.D. t hesis. M urra, J ohn, 1 975. a ndino, L ima:

F ormaciones e conómicas y p oliticas d el m undo I nstituto d e E studios P eruanos.

N uñez d el P rado, J uan, 1 970 . " El M undo S obrenatural d e l os Q uechuas d el S ur d el P eru a t ravés d e l a C omunidad d e Q otobamba," i n: A ll anchis, v ol. 2 : 5 7-119, C uzco.

3 92

N uñez , L autaro, 1 976 . " Geoglifos y t ráfico d e c aravanas e n e i d esierto c hileno," i n : H omenaje a l D r . G ustavo L e P aige, p p . 1 47-201, A ntofagasta .

P aredes , M . R igoberto , 1 976 . M itos , S upersticiones y S upervivencias P opulares d e B olivia , L a P az : B iblioteca d el S esquicentenario d e l a R epublica ( 5th e dition). P etersen , G eorg , 1 980 . E voluci6n y D esaparici6n d e l as A ltas C ulturas P aracas-Cahuah i . ( Nasca), L ima : U niv . N acional F ederico V illarreal . P ezzia , A lejandro , 1 968 . O jeda S .A .

I ca y e i P er t ' i P recolombino , v ol . 1 , I ca :

P ezzia , A lejandro , 1 979. " El r ayado d escomunal n asquense ," I ca : I nstituto d e l a C ultura ( mimeographed). P once , C arlos , 1 969 . T unupa y E kako , L a P az : C iencias d e B olivia .

R auh , W erner, 1 979 . " Peru 1 -2 ( separata ), L ima .

-

A cademia N acional d e

P als d e l os C ontrastes".

B oletin d e L ima ,

R eiche , M aria , 1 968 . G eheimnis d er W iste M ystery o n t he D esert S ecreto d e l a P ampa , S tuttgart : e d . M . R eiche . -

R eiche, M aria , 1 975 . e dition).

P eruvian G round D rawings , M unich :

-

K unstraum ( 2nd

R eichel-Dolmatoff , G erardo , 1 972 . " The F eline M otif i n P rehistoric S an A gustin S culpture ," i n : B enson , p p . 5 1-68 . R einhard, J ohan , 1 984 . " An E thnoarchaeological S tudy o f H igh A ndean R uins : AP reliminary R eport," s ubmitted t o t he N ational G eographic S ociety , W ashington , D .C . R einhard , J ohan , 1 985a . " Chavin a nd T iahuanaco : AN ew L ook a t T wo A ndean C eremonial C enters ," i n : N ational G eographic R esearch , V ol. 1 (3): 3 95-422 , W ashington , D .C . R einhard , J ohan, 1 985b. " Sacred M ountains : A n E thno-Archaeological S tudy o f H igh A ndean R uins ," i n : M ountain R esearch a nd D evelopment , v ol . 5 (4): 2 99-317, B oulder . R einhard, J ohan , 1 986 . T he N azca L ines : AN ew P erspective o n t heir O rigin a nd M eaning , L ima : L os P inos . S econd E dition .

3 93

R einhard, J ohan a nd S anhueza , J ulio, 1 982. " Expedici6n A rqueo16gica a l A ltiplano d e T arapaca y s us C umbres," i n : R evista d e l a C orporación p apa e l D esarollo d e l a C iencia, v ol. 2 ( 2): 1 7-42, S antiago. R iviere, G illes,

1 982.

S abaya :

S tructures S ocio-Economiques e t

R epresentations S ymboliques d ans l e C arangas-Bolivie , P aris : E cole d es H autes E tudes, P h .D. t hesis . R obles, R o i c in, 1 978. " La R eligion C ristiana e n e l P roceso d e C olonizaci6n d el M undo A ndino," i n: E tnohistoria y A ntropologia A ndina, pp. 2 25-235, L ima. R oel, J osafath, 1 966. " Creencias y p rácticas r eligiosas e n l a p rovincia d e C humbivilcas," i n : H istoria y C uitura, p p. 2 5-32, L ima. R ossel, A lberto, U niverso.

1 977.

A rqueoiogia S ur d el P er1 , L ima:

E ditorial

R ostoworowski, M aria , 1 977. E tnia y s ociedad: C osta p eruana p rehispánica, L ima : I nstituto d e E studios P eruanos. R owe, J ohn, 1 946. " Inca C ulture a t t he T ime o f t he S panish C onquest," i n : H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, v ol. 2 : 1 83-330 , W ashington, D .C.: S mithsonian I nstitution. R owe, J ohn, 1 967. " Form a nd M eaning i n C havin A rt," i n: P eruvian A rchaeology: S elected R eadings, R owe, J . a nd M enzel, D . ( eds.), p p. 7 2-103, P alo A lto: P eek P ublications. R owe, J ohn, 1 971. " The I nfluence o f C havin A rt o n L ater S tyles, i n : B enson, p p. 1 01-124. R owe, A nn ; B enson, E lizabeth; S chaffer, A nne, 1 979. T he J unius B ird P re-Columbian T extile C onference, W ashington D .C.: T he T extile M useum a nd D umbarton O aks. R yn, Z dzislaw, 1 981. L os A ndes y l a M edicina , L a P az: D ocumentación A ntropológica.

S awyer, A lan, 1 15.

1 972.

" The F eline i n P aracas A rt," i n :

C entro d e

B enson , p p.

9 2-

S oldi, A na M aria , 1 980. " El a gua e n e i p ensamiento a ndino," i n: B oletin d e L ima, n o. 6 : 2 1-27, L ima.

T ello, J .C. a nd M iranda, P . 1 923. " Wallallo: C eremonias g entilicias r ealizadas e n l a r egion c isandina d el P eru C entral ( Distrito A rqueolOgico d e C asta)," i n : I nca, v ol. 1 (2): 4 75-549, L ima.

3 94

T schopik, H arry, 1 940 . " The A ymara ," i n : H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians , v ol. 2 : 5 01-73 , W ashington , D .C .: S mithsonian I nstitution . T schopik, H arry, 1 951. " The A ymara o f C hucuito , P eru , I : M agic ," i n : A nthropological P apers o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory , v ol. 4 4 , p art , 2 , N ew Y ork .

U rbano , H enrique , 1 976 . A lipanchis , n o . 9 :

" Lenguaje y g esto r itual e n e i S ur A ndino ," i n 1 21-150 , C uzco.

U rton , G ary, 1 981. A t t he C rossroads o f t he E arth a nd S ky . C osmology , A ustin : U niv . o f T exas P ress . U rton , G ary, 1 982 .

A n A ndean

" Report o f F ieldwork i n N azca , P eru ," m s .

V alcárcel, L uis , 1 958 . " Simbolos M ágico-religiosos e n l a C ultura A ndina ," i n : M iscelanea P aul R ivet O ctogenario, v ol . I I : 5 635 81, M adrid : U niv . N acional A ut6noma d e M exico. V alderrama , R icardo a nd E scalante , C armen , 1 980 . " Apu Q orpuna : V isi6n d el M undo d e l os M uertos e n l a C omunidad d e A wkimarka ," i n : D ebates e n A ntropologia , n o . 5 : 2 33-264 , L ima .

W aisbard , S imone, 1 980 . J anes.

L as P istas d e N azca , B arcelona :

P laza y

Z uidema , R .T . 1 971. " Meaning i n N azca A rt : I conographic R elationships B etween I nca, H uari- a nd N azca C ultures i n S outhern P eru ," i n : A rstryck , pp. 3 5-54 , G oteborg . Z uidema , R .T . 1 978. " Shafttombs a nd t he I nca E mpire ," i n : J ournal o f t he S teward A nthropological S ociety , v ol . 9 ( nos. 1 -2): 1 33-179 , U rbana . Z uidema , R .T . 1 982 . " The S idereal L unar C alendar o f t he I ncas ," i n : A rchaeoastronomy i n t he N ew W orld , A veni, A . ( ed .), p p . 5 9-107, L ondon : C ambridge U niversity P ress .

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T he N azca r egion a nd i ts g eographical c ontext. R ivers s urround t he a rid p lateau w ith t he m ain c oncentration o f f igures. S acred m ountains s till n oted i n m yths a re l ocated t o t he s outhwest, s outheast a nd e ast o f t he p lateau. H eight i n m etres

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E ast-west p rofile o f t he c entral A ndes w hich s hows t he c limatic c onditions i n r elation t o m ountain s ystems d uring t he S outh A merican s ummer m onths. H ere o ne c an s ee t he e cological b asis f or t he b elief t hat m ountain d eities " control" w eather a nd s ources o f w ater a long t he c ontinental d ivide. A dapted f rom R auh 1 979.

T hese " lines" a t C antalloc a re l ocated a t t he f oot o f C erro B lanco, v isible i n w hite o n t he h orizon. T his m ountain w as n oted i n t he 1 500 's a s t he p rincipal s acred p lace o f t he a ncient N azcans. S everal l egends a ssociated i t w ith a w ater c ult a nd w ith h igher m ountains t o t he e ast, C arhuarzo a nd I lla-kata ( see F ig. 2 ). P hoto a uthor.

3 09

F ig.

5 .

P art o f a c eremonial s tructure d ating t o p re-hispanic t imes o n t he s ummit o f I lla-kata, t he s acred m ountain t o t he e ast o f N azca. M ounds o f s tone w here m ore r ecent o fferings w ere m ade a re a lso f ound a t t he s ite. B ased o n I lla-kata 's p osition r elative t o w ater s ources, o n l ocal l egend a nd o n s imilar s ites o n o ther m ountains, i t i s l ikely t hat w orship w as p erformed o n t he m ountain i n p re-hispanic t imes m ainly t o o btain w ater. P hoto a uthor.

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n ot V isible

R uins o n t he s ummit o f I lla-kata ( 4,327m/14,193'). N o. 1 i s o n t he h ighest p oint o f t he s ummit. F ine s tonework o f p robable I nca o rigin i s f ound i n t he w all d ividing N os. 2 a nd 3 a nd i n t he n orthern a nd e astern w alls o f N o. 4 . N o. 3 i s a bout 2 .5m l ower t han N o. 1 a nd N o. 4 i s c a. 1 .5m l ower t han N o. 3 , w hich h as s teps l eading o ut o f i t. N os. 5 a nd 6 h ave l ow w alls a nd a re a bout 2 5m l ower i n a ltitude f rom N o. 1 . N os. 7 a nd 8 h ave, i n p art, w ell b uilt w alls c a. i m h igh, a nd p resumably w ere u tilized a s r esidences b y t hose p erforming c eremonies a t t he h ighest s tructures.

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R uins l ocated a t v arious p oints a long t he s ummit r idge o f t he s acred m ountain C erro T unga. T unga f igures i n am yth a ssociating i t w ith f ertility a nd t he s acred m ountains C erro B lanco a nd I lla-kata. T he r uins w ere l ikely f or r itual u se. N o. 1 i s a t t he h ighest p oint o f t he s ummit ( 1,791m/5,874') a nd i s a h ole d ug d uring t he c onstruction o f t he a djacent T V a ntenna. A f ew u ndecorated p otsherds a nd t he n earby s tructures o f 2 a nd 3 i ndicate t hat a r uin m ay h ave o nce e xisted h ere. N o. 2 i s a s imple l ow w alled s tructure, w hile N o. 3 i s a n o val s tructure m ade b y a r ow o f s tones. N os. 4 -7 h ave l ow w alls ( ca. 2 0-30cm) a nd h ave b een e xcavated b y t reasure h unters. S mall p ieces o f w ood a nd s eashells ( common o fferings f or w ater) w ere o bserved n ear t hem . P otsherds ( identified b y H elaine S ilverman a s d ating t o t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod, i .e. a bout 1 ,000-1,475 A .D.) w ere f ound s cattered b etween N os. 4 a nd 5 a nd w ithin a l Om r adius ( unassociated w ith s tructures) b etween N os. 5 a nd 6 a t 1 ,741m j ust t o t he w est a nd b elow s ummit 1 ,776m. N o. 3 i s a t 1 ,785m . N o. 4 ( 1,731m) a nd N o. 5 ( 1,711m) a re i n a s addle b etween t he s ummits a t 1 ,791m a nd 1 ,776m. N os. 6 a nd 7 a re a t 1 ,741m o n a s addle t o t he e ast o f t he l ower s ummit. ( All a ltitudes w ere t aken w ith a n a ltimeter a djusted t o t he h eight o f T unga a s l isted o n t he 1 :100,000 m ap o f t he I nstituto G eografico N acional.)

4 01

F ig. 8 .

V illagers a nd m usicians i n B olivia a re s een h ere r eturning f rom c eremonies t hey p erformed a t t he e nd o f a s traight l ine. T hey h ad f ollowed i t t o t he t op o f t he h ill f rom w hich t hey w orshipped t he s urrounding m ountain g ods t o s end r ain t o i ncrease t he f ertility o f t heir f ields. P hoto: a uthor.

4 02

P um ir i

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S abaya £

F ig. 9 .

W orship p laces a long r idge

T he s traight l ine a t S abaya d ivides t he v illage i nto t wo m oieties ( sayas). T he l ine i s u sed t o a scend t o P umiri's s ummit t o p erform c eremonies, b ut p articipants r eturn d own t he c rest o f a r idge w hich h as s everal p laces o f w orship s ituated a long i t. T he p laces a re a ssociated w ith s easonal r ites. A dapted f rom R iviere ( 1982).

4 03

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A g eneral o verview o f am ain c omplex o f l ines o n P ampa d e S an J ose n ear N azca. I t s eems l ikely t hat m ost o f t he l ines d id n ot p oint a t a nything o n t he g eographical o r c elestial h orizon, b ut r ather l ed t o p laces w here r ituals w ere p erformed t o o btain w ater a nd f ertility o f c rops. A dapted f rom R eiche 1 968.

4 04

F ig.

1 1.

Ad ifferent p erspective o f t he l ines s ketched i n F ig. 1 0. H ere o ne c an s ee t he w ay t he " lines' h ave b een c onstructed o n a rid l and n ot u sed f or a griculture w hich i s f ound o n t he p lateau a bove t he R io I ngenio. P hoto: S .A.N.

4 05

F ig.

1 2.

A nthropomorphic f igure f ound o n C o. U nitas i n n orthern C hile. T his i s o ne o f t he w orld's l argest a nthropomorphic g eoglyphs, s ome 9 0m t all, a nd o ne o f t he b est c onstructed. T his f igure h as b een i nterpreted a s a d eity w hich c ontrolled w eather. P hoto: a uthor.

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S ightlines t o s acred m ountains f rom t he v illage o f S ocaire. T hese m ountains a re s till w orshipped a nnually f or w ater a t t he b eginning o f t he c leaning o f t he i rrigation c anals. A dapated f rom M ariscotti ( 1978).

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N umerous " ray c enters" h ave b een f ound n ear N azca . R ather t han p oint t owards a nything o n t he h orizon, t he l ines m ore l ikely l ed t o p laces w here o fferings w ere m ade t o t he g ods f or w ater/fertility. P hoto: S .A .N.

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A t heoretical r epresentation o f t he w ay m ountains c an b e u tilized i n f orming a s olar c alendar. T he s ummer a nd w inter s olstices a re a t t he e nds o f t he c ycle. S till t oday a t N azca s imilar o bservations a re m ade t o d etermine t he s tart o f t he r ainy s eason i n t he m ountains t o t he e ast. O bviously n o l ines w re n ecessary f or s uch o bservations. A dapted f rom K irbus ( 1976).

4 09

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T he " lines" w ere m ade b y r emoving t he o xidised s urface r ocks l eaving t he l ighter c oloured s andy s urface f ree. T his s piral e nded i n a s tone m ound. O ften i tems o f p robable r itual s ignificance, s uch a s s eashells a nd f inely d ecorated p ottery p ieces, w ere f ound i n s uch m ounds. S pirals a re g enerally i nterpreted a s b eing a ssociated w ith w ater c ults. P hoto: a uthor.

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Fig. 17.

Anthropomorphic geoglyph found north of Nazca. It has some features which it shares with Figs. 12 and 18 and can be interpreted as representing a deity associated with a fertility cult. Its height has been estimated at 20m. Photo: author.

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figure on a Paracas textile dated to ea. 200 BC at Nacional de Antropologia y Arqueologia, Lima. to our interpretation, this would represent a cult deity. 411

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Some of the better known figures at Nazca. Ethnographic evidence exists which enables all of these figures to be interpreted in terms of a fertility cult. Adapted from Reiche (1968).

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S PATIAL L OGIC A ND T HE I NVESTIGATION O F C ONTROL I N M IDDLE H ORIZON P ERU R . M ichael C zwarno

A BSTRACT T his p aper s tarts w ith t he p roposition t hat t he s patial p atterning o f e lite a rchitecture c an b e f ormally a nd o bjectively w ritten i n a s ymbolic n otation w hich r elates t he b oundaries a nd o pen s paces o bservable i n s urviving f loorplans. I t i s t hen a rgued t hat t he s ymbolic n otation p resents a f ormat w hereby t he s patial p atterning o f f loorplans c an b e u sed t o d etermine t he a mount o f " foreign" c ontrol e xerted o n o ne c ulture b y a nother b y t he a ppearance o f r esident " foreign" e lites, a s o bservable t hrough c hanges i n f loorplans. T his a rgument a ssumes t hat t he s patial p atterning o f e lite a rchitecture w as b ound u p i n s ome m anner w ith t he e mic d efinition o f e lites ( and w as c onservative), a nd t hat t he m embers o f a n e lite w ould h ave t ransported t heir o wn c riteria f or s patial p atterning i nto t he n ewly-controlled a reas. A p reliminary a nalysis o f P eruvian M iddle H orizon ( ca . A .D . 5 00 t o 1 000) a rchitecture i s t hen p resented t o d emonstrate t he o peration o f t he t heory, a nd t o m ake s ome s uggestions c oncerning t he l ack o f e vidence f or " foreign" c ontrol i n s everal m ajor M iddle H orizon c entres.

I ntroduction T raditionally w ithin P eruvian a rchaeology, s patial s tudies h ave b een r estricted t o t hose c oncerned s trictly w ith t he p lacement o f a rtefacts o n a n e ssentially t wo-dimensional l andscape ( Donnan a nd M ackey 1 978 ; L umbreras 1 960 , 1 969 , 1 974; M cCown 1 945; W illey 1 953 a nd o thers). S uch s ocial a spects o f s pace a s h ave b een a ddressed h ave c oncentrated o n p olitical O rganisation a s d erived f rom t he p lacement o f p opulation c entres ( Day 1 982; H ardoy 1 968; P arsons 1 968; P once S angines 1 969, 1 972; R owe 1 963 a nd o thers) a nd t he s tudy o f h ierarchic d ynamics w ithin p opulation c entres a nd p olitical g roups ( Isbell 1 977, 1 978, 1 983 , 1 985, 1 987; J . T opic 1 982). A dditional a spects h ave i ncluded t he d eduction o f p olitical a ffiliations, s ocial s tructures a nd i ntergroup i nteractions b ased o n t he s patial p atternings o f p articular t raits ( Czwarno 1 983, 1 985; M cEwan 1 979; S chreiber 1 978, 1 987; T opic a nd T opic 1 982, 1 983 a nd o thers). T he p revalent o rientation t owards s pace i s w ell s ummarised b y I sbell:

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t he m odern o r p rehistoric c ity i s a s tructural c oncept e xisting i n r eality o nly a s a p artial s ociety, a lbeit u sually a d ominant o ne. I t e xists i n a n e conomic, p olitical, a nd r eligio-intellectual s ymbiosis w ith r ural p roducer c ommunities w hich p rovide t he b asic e nergy e ssential t o t he o peration o f t he c ity. T o u nderstand a ny s ynchronic o r d iachronic p rocess u pon w hich t he c ity i s f ounded, w e m ust u nderstand t he s tructural r elationship b etween t he u rban c enter a nd i ts r ural p roducer c ommunities a s w ell a s t he i nternal s tructure o f t he c ity i tself [ however, t his s tructure i s p erceived a s] t he d egree a nd k inds o f p rofessional s pecialization w ithin t he c ity, u rban f acilities f or t he r edistribution o f p roduce a nd i ndustrial p roducts, a nd s ystems f or i mporting r aw m aterials f or c onversion i nto m anufactured g oods ( 1977: 1 ; q .v. W olf 1 955: 4 52-455). . . .

. . .

T his o rientation o perates o n t he a ssumption t hat s pace a nd s patial p atterning a re e ssentially n on-cultural d imensions. B ut o ther a spects o f s pace b esides t hose m entioned b y I sbell p layed a p art i n t he d evelopment o f p opulation c entres. S ome o f t hose a spects m ay p rove f ruitful b ases f or a rchaeological s tudy, e specially w here i t m ay b e p ossible t o d erive a t l east p art o f t he e mic d escription o f t he w ay t he w orld s hould b e a rranged s patially ( the c osmography) o f t he g roup w hose m aterial c ulture i s u nder s tudy. S uch a n a pproach r equires t hat w e m odify t he p aradigm w hich h as p revailed u ntil n ow t o r ecognise t hat t here i s a n a spect o f s ocial c ontent i n s patial p atterning, a nd a s patial c ontent i n s ocial p atterning. Ar ecent d evelopment i n t he f ormulation o f s o-called s pace g rammars ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984) o ffers o ne s uch d irection f or r esearch: o ne w hich s uggests t hat a r elationship b etween s pace a nd c ulture e xists w hich c an b e r ecovered, e ven f or p ast c ultures; a nd w hich g oes b eyond t he l imitations b riefly s ummarised a bove. T he c onstruction o f g rammars w hich d eal w ith m aterial o bjects i s n ot n ew ( Stiney a nd G ips 1 978; A lexander e t a l. 1 977; P iaget 1 956). H owever, t he f ormal d efinition o f s yntactic c oncepts i nto s ome a rchaeologically u seful f orm h as p reviously b een e lusive ( Bourdieu 1 973, 1 977; C larke 1 977; H odder 1 978; L evi-Strauss 1 963; R enfrew 1 977; U cko e t. a l. 1 972). T he r ecent a ttempt t o f ormulate a s trict g rammar b oth d escribing a nd d efining t he a pparent e mic s ocial c oncept o f s pace a ppears t o o vercome t his l imitation ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984). C urrent t rends i n s patial a nalysis d emonstrate t he u tility o f r ecognising t his a spect o f e mic b ehaviour. A r ecent a nalysis o f a rchitecture i n t he M oraduchayoq s ection o f W ari r ecognises t he s ocial c ontent o f s pace i n t he a nalysis o f f unction ( Brewster-Wray 1 983: 1 26ff). H owever, t he s tudy w as r estricted t o a n e lementary u se o f t he c oncept o f a b eady-ring ( see b elow) t o t est t he a pplicability o f u sing a ccess c ontrol ( permeability) t o d efine e lite a dministrative s tructures. T his p aper g oes o ne s tep f urther, a nd i nvestigates t he f easibility o f c onsidering s patial p atterning a s a n e ssentially c ultural a ttribute w hich p reserves t he n ormative b ehaviour a ssociated w ith t he w ay a ny p articular t raditional s ociety v iewed s pace

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a nd i ts s ubdivision i nto a rchitectural a rtefacts. T he s patial O rganisation o f s everal m ajor P eruvian c entres i s a nalysed t o d etermine w hether t he r ise o f " urban" c entres d uring t he M iddle H orizon r epresents t he d issemination o f a n ew c oncept t hrough t he s pread o f c ontrol f rom a s ingle s ource ( as s uggested b y I sbell [ 1977] ‚ M enzel [ 1964, 1 968, 1 9771 ‚ S chreiber [ 1978, 1 9871 a nd o thers) o r w hether u rbanisation c aught o n a s p art o f a n e volutionary t rend o f i ncreasing c omplexity w hich s tarted w ith t he a ppearance o f p opulation c entres w ith p ublic a rchitecture i n t he P receramic. F or t he p urposes o f t his d iscussion I s hall d efine a n u rban c entre a s h aving t he a ppearance o f c ontrolled g rowth a nd d evelopment a nd r egulated i nterrelation b etween p ublic a nd p rivate s pace a nd b etween d ifferent p ublic s paces. A ccess t o d efinable s paces w ithin t he b oundary i s r estricted t o a l imited n umber o f o ptions. S ome s ections o f a n u rban c entre m ay e xhibit a n a pparent r andom a gglomeration o f s tructures, i n r esponse t o t opographic f eatures, o r a s t he r esult o f s ubsequent e xpansion . H owever, a c ompletely a gglomerative p opulation c entre w ith a r andom a rrangement o f c onnecting b uilding g roups, s uch a s t he V ir( i V alley s ite , V -39 d oes n ot f it t he d efinition o f a n u rban c entre . C ajamarquilla, t hough n ot a s r egularly p lanned a s s ome e xamples, d oes c onform t o t his d efinition. T he e xample w hich b est f its t his d efinition i s P ikillaqta. T he p resence o f u rban c entres w here t he i nterrelation b etween p ublic a nd e lite p rivate s pace a ppears t o f ollow a d ifferent s yntax f rom s ome o ther u rban c entre r epresents d ifferent c onceptualisations o f s patial c ategories. T hus, t he a ppearance o f d ifferently c onstituted u rban c entres i n ar egion m ay r esult f rom t he d iffusion o f c oncepts f rom a s ingle e xternal s ource. H owever, w here t his d iffusion i s n ot r elated t o c ontrol i mposed b y t hat s ource, i t i s l ikely t hat t he c oncept w ill b e s ubverted t o c onform t o l ocal c oncepts o f s pace. A lternatively w here d ifferent u rban c entres c onform t o t he s ame s yntactic d escriptions, a s trong a rgument c an b e m ade f or t he i mposition o f a n e xternal s ystem o f s patial c onceptualisation f rom a s ingle s ource. E vidence f or " foreign" c ontrol w ould b e f urther s trengthened w here n on-elite p rivate s pace i s f orced t o c onform t o a n ew a nd e xotic s et o f s patial r ules e xhibiting d ifferent f unctional c ontraints. F or e xample, a c hange f rom r ound t o r ectilinear n on-elite d wellings m ay o r m ay n ot b e i ndicative o f o vert f oreign c ontrol, s ince a s hift t o m ore o rderly s ite p lanning m ay h ave r equired s uch a s hift i n t he l ocal c onceptualisation o f s patial r ules. H owever, a c hange i n t he i nternal s ubdivision o f n on-elite d wellings m ay i ndeed i ndicate a f oreign c osmography. T hus, a s ensitive i ndicator o f t he s pread o f a s tate o r e mpire m ay b e t he a ppearance o f a d ifferent c osmography w hen n ewly e stablished u rban c entres i n a r egion a re c ompared w ith t heir l ocal a ntecedents. T here a re s everal f actors w hich a re a ssumed t o a ffect s patial p atterning a nd w hich a re b asic t o t his a nalysis. I n t he f irst p lace a ccess t o e lite s pace i s a ssumed t o b e a n e mic i dentifier o f s tatus. I t i s a lso a ssumed t hat s patial p atterning i s r esistent t o c hange. F inally, s ince a n e lite i s d efined i n p art b y t he s patial p atterning o f

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i ts s tructures a nd t ends t o r etain t hose p atterns, i t i s a ssumed t hat a n e lite w ill i mpose i ts s patial p atterns o n c ontrolled a reas a nd s ubject e lites ( see M orris a nd T hompson 1 985). I t h as b een a rgued e lsewhere ( Brewster-Wray 1 983; I sbell 1 977, 1 985, 1 987; I sbell a nd S chreiber 1 978; M enzel 1 964; S chreiber 1 978 , 1 987) t hat t he r ise o f u rban c entres i n P eru w as a ssociated w ith t he d evelopment o f a s trong s tate c entred a t W ari i n t he A yacucho B asin o f t he s outh c entral h ighlands ( map 1 ) c a. A D 6 00, a nd w ith i ts s ubsequent r apid e xtension n orth , s outh a nd w est ( map 2 a, c f. m ap 2 b). Ag eneral d iscussion o f t he p roblems i nherent i n t he W arf h ypothesis a s c urrently f ormulated i s p resented e lsewhere ( Czwarno n .d.a). H ere I f ocus o n a s ubset o f t he h ypothesis w hich d eals w ith t he d evelopment a nd m anifestation o f u rbanisation. B riefly, i t h as b een a rgued t hat t here w as a c entralised p olitical a uthority [ the W ari e mpire] c overing a n umber o f e cological z ones a nd t hat ". . . W ari a nd i ts i nfluence a re a ssociated w ith t he e arly a ppearance o f s ome c riteria o f u rbanism i n s o m any A ndean a reas" ( Isbell 1 977: 4 ; s ee a lso L umbreras 1 960 , 1 969:* 2 36; M enzel 1 964: 6 6; R owe 1 963: 1 4; S chaedel 1 951: 2 34, 1 966, 1 972; W illey 1 953: 4 124 13). I n t he a bove i nstances, b oth u rbanism a nd s tate a re d efined b y t he p resence o f n on-agricultural s pecialists a nd c entralised a uthority ( Isbell 1 977: 1 1). I sbell 's c onceptualisation o f a n u rban c entre d iffers f rom t hat u sed h ere i n t hat i t t akes n o a ccount o f s patial c oncepts b eyond t he r ecognition o f e nclaves o f s pecialists a nd n onl ocal g roups w ithin t he " city". T he d efinition o f a n u rban c entre, a s u sed b y I sbell a nd o thers, c an b e s ummarised a s: a n a rea o f d ense p opulation, w hich i s g reater t han t he p otential o f t he c arrying c apacity o f t he i mmediate a rea ; w here t he s ite s hows e vidence f or p ublic/administrative a nd p ublic/religio-cultural s tructures, a nd e nclaves o f g roups o f d ifferent s ocial s tatus ( which c an b e d efined i n p art b y r ecourse t o c eramic d ata). A n a dditional s et o f c riteria h ave b een a dded t o t he a bove d efinit ion. T hese c oncern t he o rderly a rrangement o f p ublic a rchitecture ( Brewster-Wray 1 983; I sbell 1 985; M cEwan 1 978; S anders 1 973). P lanned M iddle H orizon s ites w hich h ave a r igid o verall g rid a rrangement o f p ublic a rchitecture ( Cajamarquilla) a re a ssumed t o h ave b een c onstructed u nder t he d irect c ontrol o f W ari s upervisors. T he u se o f a r egular g rid i n l aying o ut a s ite i s a ssumed t o d erive f rom W arf, o r f rom T iwanaku ( Browman 1 978 , 1 984 ; S anders 1 973). S chreiber ( 1978, 1 987) e xpands I sbell's c riteria f or t he d efinition o f u rbanisation b y a ssuming t hat c entralisation o f p olitical a uthority w ill i mpose a s tandardised m easurement s ystem , a t l east f or t he c onstruction o f p ublic a rchitecture. A lthough S chreiber i dentifies a s tandard m easurement s ystem a t J inca z noqo, t here a re p roblems b ecause t he s ystem i s n ot p recise a nd m ay e ven b e a n a rtefact o f t he s tatistics u sed ( Scheps 1 982). S he e xtends t he p lanning c riteria i n am ore u seful d irection, h owever, b y s pecifying t hat t he p resence o f l ong, n arrow " corridors" a rranged s erially a round s quare r ooms, e specially t hose c orridors a nd b ounded r ooms w ith r aised b enches o r l ow c ross-walls a t a ccess p oints, a re d efinitive o f W ari a rchitecture ( 1978: 7 , 4 1-47).

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F urthermore, b ased o n h er e xcavations a t J incamoqo, w hich s how s trong e vidence t hat t he p lanned W an -like s ection w as b uilt a s a s ingle u nit, S chreiber c oncludes t hat W ari p lanning f ollowed a s et p attern o f i ncorporating s ectors a nd r oom b locks w ith p atterns o f s erial c orridor/galleries e nclosing a c entral r oom/patio ( Schreiber 1 978: 7 0; s ee a lso F ig . 1 , b elow). T his n on-random a rrangement s uggests a n u nderlying s et o f c osmographic p rinciples. T he s ame b uilding s equence w as d iscovered i n t he M oraduchayoq s ection o f W an ( Brewster-Wray 1 983). T hus, a p oint o f c ongruence c an b e e stablished b etween t he d efinition o f u rbanisation u sed h ere, a nd o ther a nalyses o f p lanned M iddle H orizon a rchitecture. T hat p oint o f c ontact i s i n t he d efinition o f b ounded s pace i mplicit i n a nd i llustrated b y B rewsterW ray ( 1983), S chreiber ( 1978, 1 987) a nd o thers a nd s ubsumed i n M iddle H orizon i nvestigations g enerally. T hus, s erial c orridors a nd r aised d oorways m ay b e i ndicative o f t he s patial c oncepts o perative w ithin t he W ari c ore. T his a rchitectural p attern m ay b e a s ensitive i ndicator f or t he s tudy o f t he s pread o f W ari c ontrol. S tructural s imilarities b etween u rban c entres i n a n i nformal a nalysis m ay b e a rtefacts o f p erspective a nd t echnique. T here a re, a fter a ll, o nly a l imited n umber o f p atterns w hich c an b e a pplied t o t he c onstruction o f b uildings. W ithin t his s et o f v iable p atterns, t he f unctions o f p articular c lasses o f p ublic a rchitecture m ay h ave a f urther s et o f e mic r estrictions i mposed b y e arlier l ocal p atterns o f c onceptualisation. T hat i s, a ncestral p atterns o f s patial a rrangement m ay l ead t o s imilar, t hough m ore e laborate, p atterns t hroughout t he a rea w here t hose a ncestral p atterns d eveloped. H owever, t hose s imilarities m ay l ose t heir i mportance w hen a f ormal s yntactic a nalysis u ncovers t he d eeper s tructures i n s pecific s ubregions o f t hat a rea ( Fraser 1 968). T hese d eeper s tructures a re t he i diosyncratic m odificat ions t o t he c ommon r ules w hich r epresent t he " randomisation" o f t he s impler a ncestral p atterns a s i ndividual g roups d evelop t heir u nique i nterpretations, a nd u ltimately t heir u nique c osmographies. I t i s p ossible, t herefore, t hat g roups w ith a c ommon h eritage a t s ome p oint i n t heir r espective p asts m ay h ave d eveloped s imilar a pproaches t o p articular f unctions i n a rchitectural s tructures. H owever, s uch s imilarities a s d o a rise m ay b e l ess i nteresting t han t he s ometimes s ubtle d ifferences, m asked b y t hose s uperficial s imilarities, w hich d erive f rom t he s pecific i nterpretations o f c ommon c osmographic r ules o f s patial p atterning a pplied b y i ndividual g roups w ithin a r egion . A n e xamination o f h ow a c ommon a ncestral c ulture m ay i nfluence s ubsequent d evelopment, a nd t he m anner i n w hich l ocal i nterpretations d iverge f rom e ach o ther t hrough t ime i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper. R ather I s hall c oncentrate o n s yntactically d escribing t he a rchitectural c haracteristics o f s everal s ites i n o rder t o d erive t he i ntrinsic s tructures o f t he v arious u rban a nd p re-urban c entres. T his a llows m e t o d iscover w hether t he s ites r eflect a s ingle o r d isparate c osmographies. T he f ormer w ould b e a s trong i ndication t hat t he u rban c omplexes h ad a risen a s a r esult o f t he e xpansion o f a s ingle p olity i nto a n e mpire. T he l atter w ould s uggest t he l ocal e volution o f u rbanisation , a lbeit w ith s ome e xternal i nfluence. P rior t o f ormally d efining t he s tructure o f M iddle H orizon a rchitecture i n a s yntactic s ense, a d iscussion o f m ethodology i s i n o rder.

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T he S ocial L ogic o f S pace T here i s a c onsiderable b ody o f l iterature d ealing w ith t he f orm a nd f unction o f a rtefacts ( Dunnell 1 978; G ifford 1 960 ; H ill a nd E vans 1 972; W hallon 1 972; W hallon a nd B rown 1 982), i ncluding r ecent w ork o n t he a pplication o f s hape g rammars t o c eramic a nalysis ( Boast a nd C hippindale n .d.; S ackett 1 977; W ashburn 1 977, 1 978). U ntil r elatively r ecently, h owever, i t h as n ot b een c ommon a rchaeological p ractise t o c ombine t hese r elated m ethods i nto a t echnique f or t he a nalysis o f f unction a nd m eaning i n a rchitectural r emains, e xcept i n a r udimentary w ay. T his i s d espite t he f act t hat a b asic p remise f or t he a nalysis o f t he s ocial l ogic o f s pace h as b een a n a rchaeological p recept f or s ome t ime: t hat t he s ize a nd p lacements o f b uildings h as s ome i nformation t o i mpart c oncerning s ocial s tructure. W e a lready a ccept t hat t he w ay i n w hich s pace i s o rganised w ithin b uildings a nd s ites r elates t o t he m anner i n w hich s ocial r elations w ere o rdered w ithin a s ociety ( Browman 1 976; C larke 1 977; J . T opic 1 982 a nd o thers). M y a nalysis c arries t hat c oncept a s tep f urther b y a ssuming t hat t he a rrangement o f s tructures w ithin a c arrier s pace o f p opulation a ggregation r elates n ot o nly t o s uch f actors a s s tatus a nd u se, b ut a lso t o s ocial c onventions r egarding t he a ppropriate u se o f s pace. T he e xistence o f s uch c onventions a re c ommon t o a ny p articular c ulture o r s ociety. A lthough o nly a f inite n umber o f v iable c onventions m ay b e a llowable, a ny c ulture m ay a rticulate a nd e xpress t hose c onventions i n a u nique m anner. T hus ". . . t hrough t he o rdering o f s pace t he m an-made p hysical e nvironment i s a lready a s ocial b ehaviour" ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 7 ). F urthermore, t his s ocial b ehaviour m ay h ave t he f orce o f a " cultural i mperative" a nd m ay b e c learly v isible t o t he e xtent t hat i t a llows t he r econstruction o f t he c osmography w hich i t r ecords f or e ach g roup . B y c omparing i ntra-site s patial a rrangements, t hen, i t m ay b e p ossible t o d etermine w hether t he s ocial b ehaviours t hey r epresent a re s imilar b etween s ites, a nd t o w hat d egree. I f t his i s p ossible, a nd I a rgue t hat i t i s , t hen i t i s s o b ecause: S patial o rder i s o ne o f t he m ost s triking m eans b y w hich w e r ecognise t he e xistence o f t he c ultural d ifferences b etween o ne s ocial f ormation a nd a nother, t hat i s, d ifferences i n t he w ays i n w hich m embers o f t hose s ocieties l ive o ut a nd r eproduce t heir s ocial e xistence .. . I n e ither c ase, s patial o rder a ppears a s p art o f a c ulture, b ecause i t s hows i tself t o b e b ased o n g eneric p rinciples o f s ome k ind. T hroughout t he s ocial g rouping, a s imilar f amily o f c haracteristic s patial t hemes i s r eproduced, a nd t hrough t his r epetition w e r ecognise e thnicity i n s pace. B ut h owever p ervasive, t he l ink b etween s ociety a nd s pace c annot b e l imited t o q uestions o f c ulture a nd l ifestyle. O ther e vidence s uggests t hat s pace i s b ound u p e ven m ore d eeply w ith t he w ays i n w hich s ocial f ormations a cquire a nd c hange t heir v ery f orm . T he m ost f ar-reaching c hanges i n t he e volution o f s ocieties h ave u sually e ither i nvolved

4 20

o r l ed t o p rofound s hifts i n s patial f orm , a nd i n t he r elation o f s ociety t o i ts s patial m ilieu ; t hese s hifts a ppear t o b e n ot s o m uch a b y-product o f t he s ocial c hanges, b ut a n i ntrinsic p art o f t hem ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 2 7, i talics i n t he o riginal). O ne a spect w hich m ay b e m ost u seful f or t he a nalysis o f s patial p atterning i s t he c omparison o f p ermeability: t he d egree t o w hich s patial a ccess i s c ontrolled a nd o rdered i nto a nd w ithin a s ite. S pace i s ( and p resumably w as) c ontrolled w ithin a s ite i n o rder o t r estrict a ccess b etween e lite a nd n on-elite p laces. S pace m ay a lso h ave b een a rranged t o r estrict t he a ccess o f n on-local m embers o f t he s ociety, a s w ell a s f oreigners, t o b oth e lite a nd n on-elite a reas. I t i s e xpected t hat t he a mount o f c ontrol e xerted o n i nhabitants a nd n on-inhabitants w ill r ise p roportionately t o t he s ize a nd c omplexity o f t he s ite i n a m anner c onsistent w ith t he s pecific c osmography e mbedded w ithin t he s ocial s tructure o f t he s ociety. T hus, t he c learest e xample o f a ny s ociety's c osmography s hould b e v isible i n t he l argest a nd m ost c omplex s ites a ssociated w ith t hat s ociety. S till, p articular a spects o f t he o perative s patial l ogic s hould b e v isible w herever a c lear d ifferentiation i n s ocial s tatus w as e stablished a t a ny s ite, b ut w ill b e i n i ts " pure" f orm o nly w here o ther s tructures d o n ot i mpose s pecial ( and/or s patial) c onstraints o n t he f orm . T herefore, i n ac omplex s ociety, t he d egree o f p ermeability m ay r eflect t he s ocial d istance b etween e lites a nd t he c ommons a s w ell a s s uch f actors a s t he a mount o f c ontrol a ssumed o ver v arious s ocial s ubs ystems b y t he e lite. T he d egree o f p ermeability c an b e d etermined b y u sing a f ormula t hat d ifferentiates b etween " deep" f orms ( where o ne p attern l eads t o e xactly o ne o ther p attern i n au nilinear m anner) a nd " shallow" f orms ( where e very s tructure g ives a ccess t o a ll t he o ther s tructures w ithin t he p attern i n a d endritic m anner) ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 1 5). P ermeability i s m ost r estricted i n t he f ormer c ase a nd m ost c omplex s ites c an b e e xpected t o d emonstrate a d egree o f p ermeability b etween t hese t wo e xtremes. A dditionally, p ermeability c an b e e xpected t o d iffer i n a nd b etween d ifferent s ections o f a c omplex s ite. I n t erms o f t his a nalysis, e xact e xamination o f p ermeability i s i nappropriate d ue t o t he c onstraints o f t he d ata. P ublic s pace w ithin a n u rban c entre c an b e d ivided i nto t hat s egment w hich i s s ymmetric ( see b elow) i n i ts r elations ( spaces d evoted t o c ongregation a nd a ccess) a nd t hat w hich i s a symmetric ( religioa dministrative s tructures). S imilar r elations s hould b e s een i n e lite h abitation u nits a s w ell, e specially w here s ome p ublic s pace i s i ncorporated i nto t hem . A gain, t he c learest d ifferentiation s hould b e p ossible i n u rban c entres. T hese d ifferences m ay r eflect t he o peration o f t wo f undamentally d iscrete f orms o f s ocial s olidarity. T he f irst f orm o f s ocial s olidarity r eflects t he d ivision o f l abour a nd s tatus w ithin t he s ocial s tructure ( organic c ohesion), a nd t he a ttendant r estriction o f a ccess i nto a nd w ithin e lite s tructures. S econdly, c ontrol o f a ccess m ay a lso r eflect t hat c oercion e xisted ( mechanical s olidarity) t o e nsure t hat e lite s tructures w ere n ot g enerally o pen t o a ll m embers o f s ociety ( Durkheim 1 964 ; H illier a nd H anson 1 984).

4 21

I n t heory i t s hould b e p ossible t o r econstruct t he s patio-cultural c onstraints a nd i mperatives t hat w ere o perative i n a s ociety t hrough t he a nalysis o f p reserved a rchitecture. T here a re s everal a ssumptions w hich m ust b e m ade. E ssentially t hese a ssumptions c onsist o f t he r ecognition t hat s patial r ules g ive " . . . r ise t o n ew l evels o f o rder i n t he s ystem b ecause t here i s a r andom b ackground p rocess" ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 3 5, i talics i n t he o riginal). T his r andom p rocess a rises b ecause t he s ystem i s n ot s pecific t o a p articular s pace-time r elationship, b ut i s d istributed t hroughout i t. W here a p articular u rban c entre w as c onstructed a s as ingle e vent, n ot i ncorporating a ny p re-existing s tructures, a s h as b een p ostulated f or t wo o f t he c ases c onsidered ( Pikillaqta a nd W iraqochapampa) r andom e ffects m ay h ave b een c ontrolled t o s uch a n e xtent t hat t hey m ay b e a lmost i mperceptible. O nce t he l ogic b ehind a p articular c osmography h as b een d erived, i t s hould b e p ossible t o c ompare i t w ith o ther c osmographies u ncovered b y t he s ame m ethod t o d etermine t heir d egree o f r elatedness. S patial l ogic s ystems a rising f rom a c ommon c ultural b ackground w ill h ave p erceptible s imilarities w hich w ill i ncrease w ith c ultural p roximity. I e xpect t hat t he A ndean c ulture a rea w ill e xhibit a c ommon b asic c osmography ( cf. B astien 1 973, 1 978; B .J . I sbell 1 978 ; a nd o thers, a nd c ompare w ith A rriaga 1 621 ( 1968)). B ut s pecific g roups w ill i nterpret t he r ules o f t hat c osmography i n d ifferent m anners. A t t he s ame t ime , I r ecognise t hat f unction m ay r estrict m orphology. A dditionally, r evolutionary c hanges m ay i ntroduce r adical d iscontinuities w ithin a n e volutionary c osmographic s equence. W here t hese c hanges a re i ntroduced b y d iffusion r ather t han t he i mposition o f e xternal c ontrol, I w ould e xpect s ome l ocal i nterpretations o f t he r ules t o b e v isible. B earing t hese p ossible r estrictions i n m ind, i t s hould b e p ossible t o d iscriminate b etween t hose s patial p atterns w hich a ppear t o a rise f rom a p articular g roup 's s patial l ogic, a nd t hose w hich d eveloped i n s ome o ther s ystem o f s patial l ogic. T hat i s, i t s hould b e p ossible t o d ifferentiate b etween u rban c entres w hich a rose t o f ill s ome l ocal n eed, a nd t hose w hich w ere i mposed t o f ill s ome o ther g roup 's n eed. T he r est o f t his s ection w ill c onsider t he r ules o f a s patial g rammar t o p rovide a c ommon r eferent. T his g rammar w ill t hen b e a pplied t o t he s ites i n q uestion i n o rder t o d etermine w hether t he r ise o f A ndean u rbanisation a ppears t o b e r elated d irectly t o t he t erritorial e xpansion o f a s pecific g roup.

T he R ules o f aS patial G rammar I t h as b een s uggested t hat a f ormal m athematical a pproach t o t he d efinition o f s patial r elations i s i nappropriate i n t his c ontext b ecause t he l ogical s ystem i ntrinsic t o m athematics i s t oo r efined t o a llow t he g lobal v iew r equired b y t he d ata a nd t he e xplanation r equired ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 4 8). R ather, s pace g rammars a ppear t o b e d erived m ore a ppropriately t hrough t he u se o f m orphic l anguage ( Piaget 1 956), w hich h as b een d efined a s " Any s et o f a rtificial e ntities w hich u se s yntax" ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 4 8). T hat i s, a s tructure t hat u ses a s et o f r ules w hich d efine t he c ombinatorial f requencies a nd s tructures o f t he u nderlying l ogic. S ome m athematical c oncepts a re u seful, t herefore, e specially t hose a ssociated w ith s et t heory. T hus, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat:

4 22

s pace O rganisation a nd s ocial e ncounter p atterns a re m orphic l anguages, t he c onstruction o f a s ocial t heory o f s pace o rganisation b ecomes a q uestion o f u nderstanding t he r elations b etween t he p rinciples o f p attern g eneration i n b oth . T his d oes n ot m ean t hat a rchitectural a nd u rban f orms a re n ot u sed t o r epresent p articular m eani ngs, b ut i t d oes a rgue t hat s uch r epresentation i s s econdary ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 5 0). I t a ppears t here a re r elatively f ew w ays i n w hich h uman c ultures c an a dapt s pace f or t heir s pecific n eeds, a nd t hat t he o ptions a vailable f or t he u se o f s pace d ecrease a s a s ite b ecomes i ncreasingly c omplex. T herefore, i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t he p ossibility t hat a s patial g rammar d erived i n o ne r egion s hould a llow t he d iscovery o f s patial r ules i n a nother r egion. Ia ssume t hat t he g rammar d erived b y H illier a nd H anson ( 1984) a nd t ested b y t hem i n an umber o f r egions, f orms a l egitimate p aradigm f or t he i nvestigation o f s patial c omplexity i n a ncient P eru. M y a daptation o f a n e ssentially a rchitectural p aradigm i s a llowable s ince: M an m anipulates m orphological l aws t o h is o wn e nds, b ut h e d oes n ot c reate t hose l aws [ Rather] h uman s patial o rganisation , w hether i n t he f orm o f s ettlements o r b uildings, i s t he e stablishment o f p atterns o f r elationships c omposed e ssentially o f b oundaries a nd p ermeabilities o f v arious k inds; a nd t hat a lthough t here a re i nfinitely m any d ifferent c omplexes o f s patial r elations p ossible i n t he r eal w orld, t here a re n ot i nfinitely m any u nderlying s ets o f o rganising p rinciples f or t hese p atterns. T here i s o n t he c ontrary a f inite f amily o f g enerators o f c omplexity i n h uman s pace O rganisation , a nd i t i s w ithin t he c onstraints i mposed b y t his f amily o f g enerators t hat s patial c omplexity i s m anipulated a nd a dapted f or s ocial p urposes ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 5 4-55). . . .

F urthermore, s uch a p aradigm d oes n ot r equire t he i ntroduction o f " palaeopsychology" s ince t he m otivation o f i ndividuals i s i mmaterial. I t i s a ssumed, i nstead, t hat i ndividuals w ill a rrange t hemselves r andomly o n t he l andscape , g iven a c hoice. P atterns d erive f rom h ow m uch i ndividuals a re r equired t o r elate t heir s patial a ctivities t o t hose o f o ther i ndividuals t hrough t he c onstraints o f t he p articular s ystem i n w hich t hey r eside ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 5 5). T his r andom b asis f or h uman s patial p atterning m akes i t p ossible t o r epresent t he b asic r ules o f s patial c ombination a nd r elations i n a c oncise s ymbolic l anguage w hich a llows t he r igorous, u nambiguous d efinition a nd a nalysis o f p attern. S ince p atterns c an b e r epresented i n s ymbolic n otation t he i nvestigation o f s imilarities a nd d ifferences i n c osmographic r ules w ithin a nd b etween s ocial g roups a nd " cultures" i s f easible. T he c onsists

s ystem o f t ransformations i n c ultural-spatial i nteractions o f a r elatively s mall s et o f m orphic s tructures. T hese

4 23

s tructures i nclude t he c oncepts o f t he d oublet, t he b eady-ring , s ymmetry, a symmetry, d istribution, n ondistribution , c onjunction a nd d isjunction . T he s tructures a re s imultaneously a bstract a nd c oncrete, a nd c an c oexist. c omplex c ases s eem t o b e u sing c ompounds o f t he s impler r elations a pplied s imultaneously n ot o nly c an r eal-life s patial a rrangements b e u nderstood a s t he p roducts o f g enerative r ules, a cting a s r estrictions o n a n o therwise r andom p rocess, b ut a lso t hat t hese r ules m ight t hemselves b e w ell o rdered, i n t he s ense o f b eing t hemselves t he p roduct o f a ny u nderlying c ombinatorial s ystem g overning t he p ossibilities o f f orming r ules. I f i t i s p ossible t o i solate a nd r epresent s ymbolically a s mall n umber o f e lementary c oncepts, s uch t hat s equences o f t hese s ymbols f irst e ncapsulate t he r elational c oncepts n ecessary t o p roduce p atterns b y r estricting a r andom p rocess, a nd s econd c apture t he s tructure o f m ore c omplex c ombinations, t hen r ules f or f orming s equences o f s ymbols w ill o ffer a w ay o f w riting d own a f ormal d escriptive t heory o f s patial a rrangements ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 6 5-66). . . .

T he s imple r elations c an b e d efined a s f ollows. I n i ts m ost e lementary f orm , a b eady-ring c onsists o f ac losed s tructure b ounded o n t hree s ides a nd o pen o n t he f ourth ( the b ead; s ee F ig. 2 a) a nd a n o pen s pace d ef T hed b y t he b oundaries o f a djacent b eads, w hich i s c ontinguous w ith t he o pen s ide o f a t l east o ne b ead. At rue b eady-ring i s c omposed o f s uch d oublets. S ymmetry i s p resent i n a b eady-ring i n a s m uch a s t he r estriction o n r andom p lacement r equires o nly t hat t wo a djacent n eighbours j oin o n a c losed b oundary i n s uch a m anner t hat t he r elationship b etween t he t wo s tructures i s e qual i n e ither d irection . W here a l arger p attern i s c omposed o f a s eries o f s ymmetric r elationships, i t c an b e d escribed a s b eing d istributed. A n a symmetric r elationship i s o ne w here t he r elationship b etween t wo c losed s tructures i s u nequal. I n F igure 2 b, t he s tructure l abelled A c ontains t hat l abelled B , a nd t herefore t he r elation b etween A a nd B i s n ot e qual t o t he r elation b etween B a nd A . T his r elationship i s a lso d efined a s b eing " transitive" b ecause i t i s n on-interchangeable , a nd e ach o f t he s tructures r elates d ifferently t o s ome t hird s tructure . A dditionally, i n t his i nstance, t he r elation i s n ondistributed , t hough a symmetric r elations m ay, i n s ome c ases, b e d istributed. F inally, c onjunction o ccurs w here a n umber o f s tructures c ombine t o f orm a s ingle l arger s tructure. B y d efinition d isjunction o ccurs w here o bjects a re i ndependent o f e ach o ther. S yntactically, t hese c oncepts c an b e e xpressed i n a f ormal , a bstract m anner, a s f ollows. T he c arrier s pace ( the l andscape w hich h olds t he s tructure o r g roup o f s tructures) i s b y d efinition , r epresented a s Y . T he o bject o r o bjects c ontained w ithin t he c arrier s pace ( the b uildings a nd b uilding c omplexes) a re r epresented b y o , w here o c an r epresent a s ingle b uilding , g roup o f b uildings , o r a ll t he b uildings i n a s ite. T he r elation b etween Y a nd o c an b e r epresented

4 24

u sing r ound b rackets . T hus, f or e xample, t he r elation o f a f inite, c ontinuous o bject t o i ts c arrier s pace c an b e w ritten a s Y o ( ) . D isjunct s tructures c an b e r epresented b y Y o ()() ' a nd c onjunct s tructures b y Y o ( ) () . This " nesting" o f s tructures c an b e c arried t o s ufficient c omplexity a nd d epth t o a dequately r epresent a n e ntire c ity t hrough i ts u nique a rrangement o f c onjunct a nd d isjunct o bjects ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 5 5ff). R elationships

b etwen a rchitectural u nits, a nd b etween

s tructures

a nd b oundaries, c an b e f urther c larified b y t he i ntroduction o f a f ew m ore c onventions. S uch e nhancements a llow t he c onstruction o f u nique d escriptive s tatements w hich a lso s erve a s a nalytical t ools f or t he c omparison o f s pecific e xamples o f l ocal c osmographic i nterpretations . T he f irst c onvention c onveys t he i mplication o f e quality b etween c ontained o bjects a nd o bjects t o t he r ight o f t he s ymbol. T he e quality s ymbol, < > ‚t hus i ndicates t hat a ll s tructures c ontained w ithin t he a ngle b rackets a re e qual, a nd h ave e qual r elations w ith a ny e xternal o bjects a djacent t o t hem . F or e xample, t he s tatement Y 0 (< ( ) ( ) > 0 () )i ndicates t he p resence o f t wo c ontained, e qual s tructures, w hich r elate t o t he t hird o bject e qually. A s w ith r ound b rackets, a ngle b rackets c an b e n ested. A s horthand f orm c an b e i ntroduced, a nd t he p receding s tatement c an a lso b e w ritten a s Y 0 ({ } 0 () ) ' i f t he s et o f a ll o bjects r epresented b y < ( )( )> a re s o d esignated. S ets d esignated b y c urly b rackets , t hen, a re s ubject t o s pecific d efinition i n a ny p articular c ontext. C urly b rackets n eed n ot b e r estricted t o e quality s ets, s ince, b eing s ubject t o s pecific d efinition, t hey c an b e d efined i n t he m ost a ppropriate m anner f or a ny p articular a nalysis . T his s pecifically d efinable r elational s ymbol h as b een c alled t he " estate s yntax" ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984: 7 0). B oundaries c an b e d efined i n r elation t o t he c arrier s pace, s uch t hat e very b oundary, I , c ontains a c arried s pace, Y , s uch t hat I 0 Y . T hus a c arrier s pace i s a lways d efined t o s ome b oundary, t hough t he b arrier m ay b e i maginary. S egments o f a c arrier s pace t hen , c an b e d esignated a s y ', r epresenting a f inite d iscontinuity i n t erms o f t he l arger s ystem , s uch t hat t he c arrier s egment, y ', i s b ounded, a lthough t he d iscontinuity i s n ot a bsolute, s ince s ome m eans o f e gress m ust b e a llowed. B y c onvention n on-bounded s egments o f t he c arrier s pace a re d esignated p articular

a s yt o s ignify a c onversion o f I b y I , e ven t hough t he s egment i s n ot b ounded. T he s yntactic s tatement d escribing

F igure 3 c an b e w ritten, t hen a s 1 0 ( (I 0 [ y') yl), o r a s 1 0 ( (I 0 ) y ) : t hat i s, t he o pen c ell y i s c ontiguous w ith t he g lobal e xpression I 0 y ' a nd a lso w ith y '. T hus, s quare b rackets, [ ] ' r epresent c ontiguous n eighbours.

m ay

F urthermore, b oundaries c an b e n ested s uch t hat o uter b oundaries c ontain o ne o r m ore i nner b oundaries. C onsider F igure 2 b o nce

m ore. T his f igure c ontains b oundaries f or b oth t he i nner a nd o uter s tructures a nd t herefore h as t wo c ontained s paces. T hus, a m ore f ormally c orrect s tatement o f t he r elationship b etween t he t wo s tructures w ould b e w ritten a s Y 0 ( < lo (X y ' ) >0 y ' ) ' ' m eaning t hat I t he o uter b oundary c ontains I t he i nner b oundary ( which c ontains y ' o n i ts o wn) a nd y ' i s b etween I a nd I " ( Hillier a nd H anson 1 984 : 7 4). T hus i t c an b e d emonstrated t hat e ach s pace, y ', h as a d iscrete i dentity, e xcept a t t he e ntrance.

4 25

T he c ontained i nner s paces, t he y 's, c an b e c onsidered t o c ontiguous s uch t hat e ach c ontained i nner y ' i s r elated t o a n o uter i n t he f ollowing m anner: Y 0 ( zX 0 ( (X 0 y ' )( X s pace c an b e w ritten a s

0

y '

) >o

y ' ) '

f or e xample.

T he

b e y '

d istributed

Y 0 ( 0 ( I

0

y ' 5 ), w here t he

s erial c orridor r ooms a re n umbered o ne t hrough f our a nd t he c entral r oom/patio i s n umbered a s f ive . A lternatively, s ince s erial c orridors a nd c entral r ooms/patios f orm a c ommon u nity i n a dministrative s tructures a t W an ( Brewster-Wray 1 983; I sbell 1 977; S chreiber 1 978) a nd s ome o ther p resumably W ari d ominated s ites, t his e ntire s tructure c an b e w ritten a s e ither Y 0 ( I ( o { }I o r a s a n e state s tructure, { }' w here i t o ccurs i n i ts u nmodified f orm . M inor m odifications d o o ccur, b ut d o n ot a ppear t o r epresent a m ajor d eparture f rom t he s patial s tructure. M odifications i nclude r oom p artitions i n o ne o r m ore o f t he c orridor/room s tructures, s light d eformation o f t he r ectilinear a rrangement i n l ater s erial c orridor/patio u nits ( as t hey w ere f itted i nto f ree s pace i n e xisting s tructures) a nd/or t he r oofing o f t he p atio t o f orm a n i nterior r oom . T herefore, i f t he e state s tructure d efined a bove i s i ndigenous t o t he W ari a rea ( and o nly t o t hat a rea), a nd w as a r equired f eature o f a dministrative/elite c ompounds, a nd i f W ari e stablished s uch c ompounds i n o ther a reas u nder i ts d irect a dministration a nd/or c ontrol, t hen i t s tands t o r eason t hat t he e state s tructure w ill p rovide a s ensitive i ndicator f or t he p resence o f W ari c ontrol. I t w ill a lso u ltimately

4 26

s erve a s a n i ndicator f or s ome f orm o f W ari p olitical a uthority o utside t he A yacucho B asin. T his i s b ased o n t he f ollowing p rinciples. I f t he e state s tructure w as i ndigenous t o W an , t hen i t c an b e a ssumed t o h ave b een i diosyncratic i n t hat i t w as t he r esult o f a l ocal i nterpretation o f u nderlying c osmographic p rinciples. S econdly, i f a n i diosyncratic s patial a rrangement a ppears i n a reas w here o ther i diosyncratic i nterpretations w ere p resent b ut d isappear w ith t he n ew f orm , t hen i t s eems t hat t he g roup b earing t he n ewly i ntroduced f orm h as t he p ower t o s upplant t he l ocal c osmography. I f a dminstrative/elite c ompounds o utside t he A yacucho B asin e xhibit a d ifferent c osmography, t his s uggests t hat t he s ites l acked a r esident W ari a dministrative p resence . T his l ater a rgument i s b ased o n t he p remise t hat c omplex s ocieties i n t he A ndean a rea p redated t he M iddle H orizon, a nd t hat t he r ise i n u rbanism ( as d efined h ere) w as t riggered b y s ome o ther m echanism t han t he p olitical e xpansion o f a ny p articular g roup. T hus, t he a bsence o f W ari s tructures i n am ajor s ite s uggests t hat p olitical a utonomy c ontinued a mong t he p articular g roup w ith n on-Wari u rban c entres. B ecause i t i s u nique, t he e state s tructure f orms a s ensitive c riterion f or t he p resence/absence o f W ari p olitical c ontrol. I n o rder t o d emonstrate t hat t he r ectilinear s erial c orridor/patio s tructure w as n ot c ommon t o t he A ndean a rea p rior t o t he M iddle H orizon, s everal s ites d ating f rom t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod h ave b een s tudied. T hese a re M arcahuamachuco ( McCown 1 945; T hatcher 1 972 , 1 972-74, 1 977; T opic a nd T opic 1 982), V -59, V -144, V -145, V -150, V -201, V -202, V -203 ( Willey 1 953). T he M iddle H orizon s ites c onsidered a re C ajamarquilla, ( Schaedel 1 966), P ilkillaqta ( Browman 1 984; H arth T erre 1 959; M cEwan 1 978 ; S anders 1 973); W iraqochapampa ( McCown 1 945; T hatcher 1 972; T opic a nd T opic 1 982), a nd t he M oraduchayoq s ection o f W an ( Benavides 1 985; B rewster-Wray 1 983 ; I sbell 1 977; S chreiber 1 978). A vailable s ite m aps i mposed c onstraints o n t he a nalysis. I n a ll i nstances b ut M arcahuamachuco, m aps w ere b ased o n s mall-scale s urveying a nd/or a erial p hotographs. H owever, a ll s ite m aps, ( except W iraqochapampa) w ere s upplemented b y m y f ieldnotes ( taken i n 1 982 o r i n 1 985-1986). I n a ll i nstances, c omplete w all c learing h as n ot b een d one a t t he v arious s ites , a nd i n s ome i nstances t he s tructures w ere g reater t han o ne s torey i n h eight. T herefore a c omprehensive s tudy o f p ermeability i s n ot p ossible w ithin a nd b etween s tructures a t t his t ime. R ather, m y s tudy h as b een r estricted t o t he g ross s tructure p atterns w hich a re c urrently v isible. I t i s h oped t hat m ore d etailed d ata w ill b e g athered i n t he f uture t o a llow a r efinement o f t his a nalysis. T he m ain f ocus w ill b e t he s patial a rrangement o f t he l arge c omplex c ompounds i n t he v arious s ites. B oundary w alls a nd t hrough s treets w ill o nly b e u sed a s a m eans o f d efining s ite a nd c ompound b oundaries. A lthough g rid a rrangements o f s treets m ay a lso b e a u niquely W ari f eature, t his a spect o f s patial s tructuring w ill o nly b e d ealt w ith c ursorily. T his i s p artly b ecause W ari i s e ssentially a b uried s ite a nd c onsequently d ata o n t he s treet a rrangement t here a re n ot c urrently a vailable i n s ufficient q uantity.

4 27

S ite D escriptions F ull v erbal d escriptions o f t he v arious s ites a re n ot i ncluded h ere, s ince t hey a re a dequately c overed e lsewhere ( see r eferences a bove). R ather, d ue t o s pace c onstraints , s yntactic d escriptions o f s elected s ite s egments a re g iven . W here i t i s e ncountered i n t he p ure f orm , t he W ari e state s tructure, d efined a bove, w ill b e r epresented b y (

W iraqochapampa W iraqochapampa i s l ocated i n t he C ondebamba B asin, D epartment o f L a L ibertad. T he s ite i s r easonably l arge ( ca. 2 5ha), a pproximately s quare, g ridded, a nd f airly c omplex i n t erms o f t he i nternal a rrangement o f s pace. A n orth-south s treet b isects t he s ite i nto t wo u nequal r ectangles ( Fig. 4 ). A lthough a f ull s yntactic d escription h as b een w ritten f or t he s ite, i t h as n ot b een r eproduced h ere b ecause o f i ts c omplexity. I nstead, t he s ignificant a nd r epeating s tructural u nits w ill b e p resented i n f ully d escriptive s yntactic s tatements. T he s ame p resentation w ill b e a pplied t o a ll t he s ites c onsidered h ere. T o i llustrate t he c omplexity o f d escriptive s tatements f or c omplex s uch a s t his, t he s yntax f or t he w estern s ection i s p resented.

s ites

T he w estern s ide o f t he s tructure c ontains t wo l arge e nclosed a reas, w ith a p ossible p oint o f a ccess i n t he c omplex s tructures i n t he s outh-eastern a nd n orth-eastern c orners o f t he t wo a reas. T he s outhe astern c omplex c an b e d escribed a s: ( X o ( X oX ) oX X oX o< XX> o X ). w hile t he n orth-eastern c omplex i n t he s econd g roup c an b e w ritten a s : ( Xo ( X o X< T hese

t wo

m> o XX o X o ( X o XX) oX).

s tructures

s implicity. T hus, d escribed a s:

t he

s hall b e c oded r espectively a s S1 w estern

s egment

o f

a nd

W iraqochapampa

S2 c an

f or b e

( X o XS1 o X o X32 o X o < XXXX> A lthough t he e state s yntax t ypical o f W ari s ites d oes n ot a ppear i n ar epeating f ormat, a s imilar s tructure d oes o ccur ( compare F ig. 4 w ith F ig. 1 ). T he r epeating s tructure ( Fig. 5 ) c onsists o f t wo v ariants, t he r ectangular r oom w ith c orridors o n a t l east o ne o f t he s hort s ides ( Fig. 5 a), a nd t he r ectangular s tructure w ith c orridor r ooms a long a ll f our s ides ( Fig. 5 b). T he f ormer c an b e w ritten a s: C X 0 < XX>). T he l atter i s: ( X o< XX>o< XX> ). T he

W ari

e state

s tructure

o ccurs o nce,

i n

t he

f orm

o f

a

s mall,

s ubsidiary s tructure w hich m ay b e a v ariant o f t hat s hown i n F igure 5 b.

4 28

T he s ize a nd p lacement o f t he m ore c omplex o ccurrences o f t his s tructural u nit s uggest t hat i t h as s ome s ignificance. A lthough a ccess w ithin t he s tructure i s n ot c ontrolled t o a ny m arked d egree, a ccess t o t his p articular t ype o f u nit i s r estricted. I n i ts g eneral f orm , t his s tructure c an b e w ritten a s: ( X 0

m 0x ) .

T he l argest a nd m ost c omplex p attern f ollowing t his s patial a rrangement i s w ritten a s: ( X o ( X o( X oX ) oX ) o( X oX XX) o ( X ox xxxx) o ( X o( X o ( X oX ) ( X oX ) oX XX). N ot o nly d o I t hink t his s tructure i s s ignificant, I f eel t here i s s ome s ignificance i n t he f act t hat t he l argest p eripheral b ounded s pace w ithin e ach u nit h as r ounded i nterior c orners. T his a rrangement r eflects a s patial l ogic r adically d ifferent f rom t hat a pplied a t W an ( see a lso J . T opic 1 985).

P ikillaqta P ikillaqta ( Fig . 6 ) i s a t l east 7 0ha i n e xtent, p ossibly l arger ( McEwan 1 978 , 1 985). T here a re d iffering d egrees o f p reservation i n d ifferent a reas o f t he s ite. M ost o f t he s ite i s u nexcavated a nd r emaining w all s tubs v isible a bove t he g round s urface h ave b een u sed t o r econstruct t he s ite p lan. T he p lan u sed i s t hat d rawn b y B rowman ( 1984 ; a fter S anders 1 973), a nd h as b een c riticized a s b eing i nexact ( McEwan 1 978). H owever, a ssuming t hat t he i nterior b oundaries r epresent c orridor r ooms, i t i s a pparent t hat t he W ari e state s tructure m ay n ot h ave b een c ommon. T he s ite h as t wo s ections, o ne o n t he w estern s ide o f t he b isecting r oad, a nd a m uch l arger e astern s ection. M ost o f t he w estern s ection i s a l arge p laza f acing a l ow s taircase i nto t he m ain ( eastern) p art. T his w estern s ection i s m uch m ore p ermeable t han t he e astern s ection, h aving a t l east t wo e ntries, a m ajor e gress t o t he s outh-east, a nd a s maller e ntry t o t he n orth-west. T he s econdary e gress a lso a ppears t o s erve t wo s quare c omplexes i n t he n orth-western e nd o f t he w estern s ection. T he e astern s ection o f P ikillaqta i s v ery c omplex, w ith a n umber o f c ross-streets a nd p lazas, a s w ell a s l arge s quare c ompounds w ith , i n m any i nstances, m ultiple c oncentric c orridor r ooms. I t i s n ot p ossible a t t his t ime t o d etermine w hether t he s yntax o f t hese s quare c omplexes f ollows t he W ari e state s tructure c losely, s ince w all f oundations a re b uried. W all p reservation i n t he a pparently e lite s ection o f t he s ite i s g enerally g ood, a nd i n s ome a reas, e ven t he u nbonded c rosswalls h ave b een p reserved t o ah eight o f s everal m eters. I t s eems p ossible, t hen, t hat t he e state s tructure h ere m ay d iffer f rom t hat h ypothesised f or a ll W ari p ublic e lite/administrative s tructures, t hough a d efinite s tatement i n t his r egard m ust a wait e xcavation o f s ignificant p ortions o f t his s ection o f t he s ite. T here a re s everal r epeating s tructures a t t his s ite. n oticeably, t hey a re s quare s tructures w ith p eripheral c orridor

4 29

M ost r ooms

w ith u nclear s ubdivisions, a nd s quare s tructures w ith c oncentric p eripheral c orridor r ooms. T he c learest e xamples o f t he f ormer ( where n o a pparent p ermanent i nterior s ubdivision o f c orridor r ooms o ccurred) a re: ( X

0

I ).

C lear e xamples o f t he l atter a re: ( I

0

( I

0

I )).

A n umber o f o ther s patial p atterns a re v isible a t t his s ite, n one o f w hich c onform t o p atterns f ound a t W an , i ncluding s ome r ather c omplex s ubdivisions: I

0

( I

0

< XX> < 11> 0 X X)).

A l ess c omplex r epeating p attern i s a l ong, n arrow s tructure w ith s ingle c orridor r oom e ither o n o ne l ong s ide o r o n o ne s hort s ide: ( I

0

a

I ).

F inally, s everal s tructures c ontain c orridors a nd b ounded s tructures n ot a ttached t o t he b ounding w alls o f t he l arger s tructure: ( I

0

< XX>

0

X X).

T here i s a nother u nique s tructural c omplex a t P ikillaqta , w hich h as b een i nterpreted v ariously a s s torage ( Sanders 1 973) o r n on-elite h abitation ( McEwan 1 978). S ince t his s ection , a t t he n orth-eastern e nd o f t he s ite, h as p oints o f a ccess t o t he s ite 's u nbounded e xterior a nd l ess d irect a ccess t o t he s ite p roper, t he l atter i nterpretation s eems m ore v alid. T ime c onstraints p recluded m y m apping t his s ection d uring t he 1 985-86 v isit. T he r econstruction o f t he s yntax i s b ased o n f ield n otes, a nd i s, t herefore, n ot e xact. B ut t he i nexactness c oncerns t he n umber o f i nternal s tructures r ather t han t he p lacement o f u nits a nd a ccess p oints. T his s ection c an b e d efined a s:

(( X

oX )

0

( I

0

X )

0

( I

0

X )

)i n

w here nr efers t o t he n umber o f r ooms, a nd m r efers t o t he e nclosed a reas o f s imilar s tructure.

n umber

o f

C ajamarquil l a C ajamarquilla ( Fig . 7 ) i s a l arge r easonably w ell p reserved s ite a f ew m iles i nland o n t he R imac R iver. C onstructions h ave a dobe b ricks o f v arious s hapes a nd t apia/ram i ned a dobe. T he l atter t echnique i s t he m ost c ommon n ow v isible. D oorways a ppear t o h ave b een i nset i n t he r ammed a dobe w alls w ithout l intels. A ccording t o S hady S olis ( personal c ommunication), t he s ite p robably w as b uilt a nd o ccupied d uring M iddle H orizon e poch 1 A ( ca. A D 6 00-650). B y e poch l B ( ca. A D 6 50-700), t he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een a bandoned a nd t he f ocus s eems t o h ave s hifted t o P achacamac, a bout 4 0 m iles f urther s outh.

4 30

M y s ite p lan i s d rawn f rom a n a ir p hoto p ublished i n A gurto C alva ( 1984), a nd i s, t herefore, n ot e xact. B ut a n e normous a mount o f d etail i s r ecoverable. O bservations h ave b een s upplemented b y d ata c ollecting d uring a d ay s pent a t t he s ite i n 1 985-86. A s w ith t he o ther s ites a f ull p ermeability s tudy i s n ot f easible. H owever, f ield o bservations a nd s tudy o f t he m ap i ndicate t hat t he m ost p revalent f eature o f t he s ite i s a b isected r ectilinear s tructure, d escribable a s : ( X o X X). T his c ontrasts w ith t he W ari e state s tructure d efined a bove. A nother c ommon f eature, e specially i n w hat a ppear t o b e t he e lite a reas, i s a r oughly s quare s tructure d ivided i nto f our r oughly e qual s maller s quares, w hich c an b e w ritten a s:

( X

0

oy ).

T he l argest a nd b est p reserved s tructure, o n t he e astern s ide o f t he s ite, a ppears t o h ave b een b ounded o n o nly t hree s ides. T his s tructure i s c urrently b eing r econstructed b y t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura. A lthough t he s ite a ppears t o b e h ighly p ermeable i n t he f ollowing d escription, t hat m ay b e a n a rtefact o f t he d ata q uality, a t l east i n p art. T his a pparent p ermeability m ay r elate m ore t o t he l ack o f c larify i n t he a ir p hotograph t han t o a ny a bsence o f c ontaining w alls. T he l arge e astern c ompound w as t he c learest o n t he a ir p hoto, a nd i s l ess s ubject t o t he w arning g iven a bove. I ts s ymbolic n otation i s: ( X o (X o (X o ( x o x o y) o (x o x o y) (x o yy) (X o < XXXX> ) (x o x o y) ( X o (X o (X o X)) ( X o) (x o x o y) ( x o x o x o y) ( x o x o y o x o (y o X X) oy) xy o xy o xy o x y 0 x y). I n s um , b ased o n m y l imited r econnaisance o f t he s ite, C ajamarquilla d oes n ot d isplay t he W ari e state s yntax a t a ll, a lthough c orridor r ooms a long t he i nterior p eriphery o f l arger s tructures d o o ccur f rom t ime t o t ime.

V ir i ' i S ite V -39 V -39 ( Fig. 8 ) i s r epresentative o f g eneral s yntax o f t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod s patial g rammar i n t he V ir( i V alley. I t s erves a s a r easonable c omparative d atum t o c onsider w hether s ome o f t he f eatures f ound i n M iddle H orizon s ites h ave A ndean a ntecedents. T his a nd a ll t he o ther V ir( t s ites a re d rawn f rom W illey 's s tudy o f s ettlement p atterns i n t hat v alley ( 1953). T he s ite c an b e d escribed a s: ( X

0

( XX

0

X

0

X )

0

( X

0

X )

0 Xxxx).

I t w ill b e n oticed t hat t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod V irC i s ites a re f ar m ore o pen t han M iddle H orizon s ites. T hey t end n ot t o b e b ounded i n t he s ame w ay; s tructural u nits a re s cattered a nd n ot u sually

4 31

c ontained w ithin a n o uter b oundary w all. W hile b oundary w alls a re n ot u ncommon , t hey a ppear t o e ncircle p yramids. S mall b ounded r ectangular s tructures a re c ommon. C onsider a lso t he g roup o f V iri s ites i n F igure 9 . T hese a ll f ollow e ssentially t he s ame c osmographic n orms .

C erro d el C astillo o este, M arcahuamachuco M arcahuamachuco i s q uite d ifferent i n l ayout f orm t he o ther s ites c onsidered h ere. T he s ite i s e xtremely l arge, c omprising f our d istinct a reas. T he l argest s ection i s e nclosed b y ad ouble w all a t l east t hree s toreys h igh ( McCown 1 945; T opic a nd T opic 1 982) a nd o ccupies t he f lat s ummit o f C erro M arcahuamachuco, s ome f our k m n orth-west o f H uamachuco , i n t he C ondebamba B asin, n orth h ighlands. T his a nalysis c onsiders t he s tructures o n t hat p ortion o f C erro M arcahuamachuco k nown a s C erro d el C astillo o este t hat a re a ssociated w ith a n i rregular c urvilinear p laza ( Fig. 1 0). T his s ection o f t he s ite, l ocated i n t he l argest s ection , d ates t o t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod. F or c larity, s ince t here a re a n umber o f a ccess p oints i n t his s ite s egment, t he u ncompressed g rammar h as b een e mployed h ere. S tarting a t t he u pper n orth-western e nd o f t he s ite, t he a rchitectural r elations c an b e e xpressed a s: ( ((Xoy')y"

)((Xoy')y"

)(Xoy').

T he a rea a djacent t o, a nd i ncluding, t he c urvilinear i nterrelations:

p laza

h as

t he

> (Xo [ (Xoy')(Xoy')] ( Xoy')((Xo y ')y")(( ( Xoy')y"

)y"

)y s )(( 10 y ')(Xo(Xoy')y"sw)

( (Xoy')y"(Xoy ')y").

T he s outhern-most p ortion o f t he s tructure c an b e w ritten a s : ( (Xoy')y ' T) t I ((Xoy')y")(Xoy')](Xoy')(Xoy'){(Xoy') ( Xoy') ( Xo ( (Xoy')(Xoy')(xoy')) ( Xoy') ( Xoy ) (Xoy ) (Xoy ) (( Aoy )y ) (Xoy ) .

I

I (

T he e astern p ortion o f t he g roup, w ith t he c urviliner c ompound i s: ( Xo(Xoy')(Xoy')(Xoy'))((Xoy')y" E l l I (Xoy')[(Xoy')(Xoy')]

I

( Xo y ')(Xoy')(Xoy')(((xoy')y"w y s)) T he e astern-most p ortion o f t he g roup c an b e e xpressed a s: ( Xo((Xoy')y")(xo(xoy')y")(xoy')(xo[(xoy')(xoy')(xoy')l) [ (Xoy')(Xoy')(Xoy')((Xoy')y"ss j ) I ( Xo(Xoy')[ ( (Xoy') ( Xoy ) y ) I [ (Xoy ) (Xoy ) Iy .

I

W hile t his a rchitectural g roup i s m ore o pen t han s ome o f t he l ater s tructures c onsidered, i t d oes s how e vidence o f a ccess c ontrol.

4 32

M oraduchayoq s ection o f W an F igure 1 1 s hows a s ection o f t he e xcavated p ortion o f t he M oraduchayoq s ection o f W an ( Brewster-Wray 1 983). W ari i tself i s o ver 7 00ha i n e xtent, t hough t he v arious s ections o f t he s ite m ay n ot h ave b een i nhabited c ontemporaneously. T aking i nto a ccount t he p lacement o f o ther a djacent s tructures, i t c an b e s een q uite c learly t hat e ven i rregular r ooms t ake o n t he W ari e state s tructure a s d efined a bove. F ollowing t he c onvention a dopted, t hen, t his s ite s egment c an b e w ritten a s: Xo { }

{ }

{ }

{ }

{ } { }

( X o xxx ) o( X o ( XXX)).

T he i ncompletely p reserved r oom g roups h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n t his s yntactic s tatement, s ince i t i s n ot p ossible t o d etermine t he r elationships. T he m ajor d ivergence f rom t he c lassic W ari s tructure i s e xplainable a s a p laza-room-patio s ection o n t he n orth-eastern c orner. A ccess t o s uch g roups i s h eavily c ontrolled.

D iscussion E ven t he b rief a nalysis p resented h ere p rovides s ome i nteresting d ata c oncerning t he i nterrelation b etween s pace a nd c ulture. M any o f t he a nalyses p rovide c onfirmation f or w hat i s p robably i ntuitively o bvious t o A ndean a rchaeologists. E xisting d ata a lready i ndicate t hat r ectilinear s tructures, t he u se o f b oundary w alls, c orridor r ooms, a nd b enches l ining i nterior w alls a re u nique n either t o W ari n or t o t he M iddle H orizon. T he d ifference b etween t his f ormal a pproach a nd a l ess f ormal, i ntuitive a pproach i s o ne o f f ocus. A n i nformal e xamination o f s patial p atterning m ay l ead t o a n o veremphasis o n s uperficial s imilarities b etween c omplex s ites. B y f ormally s tating s patial a rticulations, h owever, i t a ppears p ossible t o u ncover t he p atterns c reated b y l ocal i nterpretations o f h ow s pace a nd b uildings s hould b e s tructured a nd a rranged. I n a ddition, t he e xplicit f ormulation o f s patial r elations p rovides i nformation o n h ow s uperficial s imilarities d iffer f rom t ime t o t ime a nd p lace t o p lace i n t erms o f d eeper u nderlying s patial c oncepts. M oreover, o nce a rticulated, t hese d ifferences c an b e u sed i n a s emiq uantitative m anner t o d etermine t he p resence o f n on-local c oncepts i n s patial p atterning. W here s uch n on-local p atterning i s e vident, t he d egree o f c ongruence b etween t he d iscovered p attern a t o ne s ite, w ith s imilar t o e qual p atterns a t o ther s ites c an b e u sed t o d etermine t he i ncursion o f s tates a nd/or e mpires i nto t he a rea. I t a ppears t hat t he W ari g roup c ombined c orridor r ooms a nd b ounded s pace i n a p articular m anner w hich s eems t o b e u nique t o t hat c ulture. S pecifically, e lite W ari s tructures a ppear t o h ave b een c omposed o f a rticulated u nits c omprised o f f our s erially a rranged c orridor r ooms ( which m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een f urther s ubdivided) s urrounding a l arge, a pproximately s quare, i nner r oom o r p atio. A ccess w ithin a nd b etween t hese u nits a ppears t o h ave b een r estricted. T his r estriction d ecreased w ith p enetration i nto a s tructure. T his i s t o b e e xpected, e specially i f t he e lite s tructures a lso s erved a s p laces f or t he s torage a nd/or d istribution o f s umptuary g oods. T hus, a lthough t he

4 33

a rrangement c ontrolled a ccess t o i nner u nits, a nd i s f ound i n n on-Wan e lite s tructures e leswhere, t he s pecific c ultural-spatial p attern f or s uch i ntra-structure a ccess c ontrol a ppears t o b e i diosyncratic. T here a re, t hen, t wo a pparent v ariables w hich r elate t o t he s tructure o f a n e lite a rchitectural u nit. O ne r elates t o c ulture-specific c oncepts o f h ow u nits s hould a rticulate i n t heir p atterning, w hile t he o ther r elates t o t he s tructure's s tatus a nd f unction. T hus, t he a rchitectural u nits w ith g reatest a ccess c ontrol a re a ssociated w ith e lite o ccupations a nd/or h abitations. B ased o n t his a nalysis a n umber o f f actors s eem e vident. T he d egree o f o penness w ithin a n e lite s tructure r elates t o w hat c onstituted a n a cceptable e mic p attern o f a ccess c ontrol i n c onjunction w ith t he n umber o f p eople w ho w ould h ave h ad " legitimate" a ccess t o a s tructure. A ccess c ontrol v aried w ithin a s tructure, t o r eflect e mically r ecognised d egrees o f " eliteness". S ites s uch a s t he p yramid a t C havin d e H uantar ( ca. 9 00-200 B C) e xhibit t his f eature i n v arying d egrees, b ut s o d o s ome o f t he s tructures i n t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod s ites i n t he V irC i V alley ( Willey 1 953), w hich m ay h ave h ad s ome e lite f unction. I n t he s ites c onsidered h ere, a n umber o f t rends b ecome v isible w hen s patial p atterns a re c onsidered f ormally. N one o f t he e xtraA yacucho s ites d emonstrate t he a ppearance o f t he f ull W ari e state s tructure ( Fig. 1 a nd F ig. 1 0) i n a ny f requency. T his m ay b e a n a rtefact o f t he d ata , b ut n ot t o a ny s ignificant d egree. T hus, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f P ikillaqta, t he s ites c onsidered h ere d id n ot c ontain t he s tructural t ype i dentified a s aW ari e lite a dministrative f unction, a nd w ere n ot a ssociated w ith W ari c ontrolled a dministration . T he i nterpretation o f W ari a bsence r ests o n t he a ssumption t hat a n e lite w ill i mpose i ts o wn s patial p atterning o n s ubject a reas r ather t han a dopting t hose i ndigenous t o t he c ontrolled a reas. T his i s a ssumed b ecause e lite c osmography i s a s tatus m arker, a nd t he c onquering g roup 's c osmography w ill a ssume a M orris a nd T hompson 1 985 f or I nca e xamples).

s uperior

s tatus

( see

A lthough t he e state s tructure o ccurs a t P ikillaqta , i t i s n ot t he m ost c ommon f eature a t t hat s ite. R ather, t he m ost c ommon f eature i s t he t riply n ested s tructure, d escribable a s ( I o ( X o ( X oy ' )y ' ) y ' ) . I c annot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat t hese s tructures d o c onsist o f c oncentric s erial c orridor r ooms i n t he W ari m anner. A t a ny r ate, P ikillaqta i s ac onfusing s ite. N ot o nly w as t he b uilding n ever c ompleted, i t w as a pparently n ever o ccupied. F urthermore, u nlike o ther u rban c entres f rom t he s ame a nd p receding p eriods ( except W iraqochapampa) i t c ontained n o r ecognisable n on-elite h abitation a reas e xcept f or a p ossible a rea i n t he n orth-eastern e nd o f t he l arger s ection o f t he s ite. P ikillaqta , i n f act, a ppears s imilar t o H u nuco P ampa ( Morris a nd T hompson 1 985) i n a s m uch a s i t s eems i ntended t o r egularly h ouse a s mall r esident p opulation o f c ommoners, b ut h ad r oom f or a l arge e lite p opulation f ar e xceeding t he s ize o f t he n on-elite p opulation. T his i s s o u nless t he s tructures b uilt o n a n e lite m odel w ere f or t he u se o f b oth n on-elites ( who m ay h ave b een. " civil s ervants") a nd e lites. I f s o, s uch a p ermanent o ccupation p attern w ould b e u nique i n t he A ndes ( compare w ith M orris a nd T hompson 's a nalysis o f H u nuco P ampa).

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[ 1985 ]

I t h as b een s uggested t hat P ikillaqta w as e ssentially a b order f ortification ( Sanders 1 973), t hough w ithout i ndependent v erification o f t he e xistence o f am ilitary e mpire, t his i s h ard t o j ustify. N ote t hat m y s tudy h as n ot u ncovered a ny e vidence o f o vert W ari c ontrol w hich j ustifies a n e xpansionist m ilitary-conquest b ased e mpire m odel. P ikillaqta m ay h ave b een i ntended a s a n e lite a dministrative c entre, b ut n ot n ecessarily u nder t he d irect c ontrol o f a r esident W ari e lite. T he l ack o f c ommoner h abitations s uggests s uch a f unction i s u nlikely. G iven t he a mount o f a pparent i nteraction b etween T iwanaku a nd W an , i t a ppears t hat P ikillaqta w as i ntended t o b e s ome s ort o f l arge a nd i mpressive w ay-station b etween t hose t wo s ites, p ossibly i ntended t o a ccommodate a n i mpermanent p opulation a nd a s maller p ermanent m aintenance p opulation . C onditions c hanged b etween t he c ommencement o f c onstruction a nd a bondonment, i ts o riginal f unction w as n ever f ulfilled a nd t he s ite w as a bandoned i ncomplete. F urther w ork i s o bviously r equired b efore a s olid e xplanation c an b e d eveloped f or P ikillaqta. I c an n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat P ikillaqta m ay h ave b een t he s outhern b order o f a n e xpanded W ari s tate, t hough t he e xistence o f a p an-Andean W ari e mpire s eems u nlikely o n t he s trength o f t he d ata d erived f rom t his s tudy . T hus, i f P ikillaqta w as a b order s ite, i t f ulfilled t hat f unction f or a s maller e mpire t han h as b een p ostulated h itherto. W iraqochapampa i s a s e nigmatic a s P ikillaqta . T his s ite i s a pproximately c ontemporary w ith P ikillaqta, w as n ever i nhabited, a nd a lso w as i ncomplete a t i ts a bandonment. T o i ncrease t he c omplications, W iraqochapampa i s a pproximately o ne k ilometer a way f rom a v ery l arge p re-urban c omplex w hich c ontinued t o b e t he a pparent c entre o f a r elatively s mall i nteraction s phere i nto t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod ( until a bout A D 1 200). T he W ari e state s tructure i s e ntirely a bsent h ere. U nlike P ikillaqta , e xtant m aps f or W iraqochapampa a re m uch m ore d etailed, s o t hat t he a bsence o f s erial c orridor r ooms i n t he W an m anner i s p robably n ot a n a rtefact o f r esearch . C orridor r ooms d o o ccur a t t he s ite, b ut t heir a rrangements a nd a rticulations w ith o ther s ubstructures a re c ompletely d ifferent f orm t hose a t W ari a nd P ikillaqta , s uggesting a n on-Wari c osmography. T he m ost c ommon s tructure a t t his s ite i s ar ectangular o r a lmost s quare r oom w ith o ne o r t wo c orridors o n t he s hort s ides. I n t hose i nstances w here a r oom i s b ounded b y f our s erial c orridors, t he c orridors o n t he l ong s ides a re t he f ull l ength o f t he l ong e xterior w alls. T hese s tructures a re r are. F urthermore, t he a pparently m ost i mportant s tructures w ithin t he s ite a re d istinctly d ifferent f orm t he W ari p attern. T he r ooms a re b ounded o n t hree s ides b y c oncentric c orridor r ooms a rranged i n a " U" s hape. T hese a re n ot c onnected t o a l arger r oom o n t he f ourth w all, w hich h as r ounded i nterior c orners. F or W iraqochapampa t he m ost o bvious W ari s imilarity i s a lso p ossibly s uperficial, s ince t he g reatest c onvergence i s t he f act t hat W iraqochapampa i s g ridded a nd h as a n e xterior b oundary. A s w ith P ikillaqta, t here i s a n a bsence o f n on-elite s tructures w ithin t he e xterior b oundary w all a nd n o n on-elite s tructures a ppear t o h ave b een c lustered a round t he e xterior o f t he s ite. I t h as b een s uggested ( Isbell 1 985; M cEwan 1 978; M enzel 1 964; S chreiber 1 978 a nd o thers) t hat t his s ite r epresents t he n orthern b oundary f ortification o f t he W an

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e mpire. H owever, s uch a n i nterpretation s eems u ntenable, e specially s ince t he p resence o f " curtain w alls" i s n ot a pparently u niquely i ndicative o f a f ortified s ite i n P eru. R ather, b oundary w alls a ppear t o h ave b een u sed t o c ontrol a ccess t o s ites i n a n on-military s ense w ith a s m uch f requency a s t o p rovide d efensible l ocations. F urtherm ore, t he p roximity o f t his s ite t o w hat m ay h ave b een a n i mportant o racle a t M arcahuamachuco s uggests t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een i ntended a s a n e nclave f or f oreign v isitors t o t he o racle. T hat i t w as n ever c ompleted m ay b e d ue t o a r eduction i n t he f requency o f e lite m ovement, t he p atterns o f r esidence a ssociated w ith s uch m ovements, o r t he i mportance o f t he s outhern C ondebamba B asin. F urthermore, t here a re s imilarities b etween t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod p ortion o f M arcahuamachuco c onsidered h ere, a nd W iraqochapampa. I n p articular I r efer t o t he r ectangular p laza s tructure s outh-east o f a nd a djoining t he c urvilinear p laza i n t he C erro d el C astillo c omplex, a nd s everal o f t he m ulti-galleried p laza s tructures i n W iraqochapampa. I f t he d ating o f t he C erro d el C astillo c omplex c an b e s ecurely a scribed t o t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod ( McCown 1 945), t hen i t w ould a ppear t hat a t l east s ome o f t he s patial n orms o f t he e lite f rom M arcahuamachuco w ere i ncorporated i nto W iraqochapampa. T his d oes n ot t hrow l ight o n t he e nigmatic p lacement a nd f orm o f t he l atter s ite, b ut d oes s uggest t hat t he e lite f rom M arcahuamachuco w as s till i n p ower i n t he H uamachuco a rea i n M iddle H orizon 2 B ( ca. A D 7 00-750). T he d ifferences b etween t he a rchitecture o f t he t wo s ites m ay t hus r elate t o t he e volution o f i ndigenous c osmographic n orms r ather t han t o t he i ncursion o f n ew n ormative b ehaviour f rom t he W ari a rea. C imarquilla h as a lso b een p ostulated a s a W ari a dministrative c entre ( Isbell 1 985; M enzel 1 965) a lthough a nother i nterpretation s uggests t hat C ajamarquilla w as e stablished t o c ontrol t rade a nd e xchange b etween t he s ierra a nd t he c entral c oast ( Shady S olis 1 982 a nd p ersonal c ommunication). I ts p lacement i s s uch t hat i t e ffectively c ontrols w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a m ajor r oute b etween t he c oast a nd h ighlands. S tructures a t C ajamarquilla a re d istinctly u n-Wan . T he W ari e state s tructure a ppears t o b e t otally a bsent. T he a rrangement o f e lite s tructures s uggests t hat a l ocal p attern m ay h ave b een u sed i n t heir p lanning . A lso, C ajamarquilla c ontains l arge a reas o f n on-elite s tructures w hich a ppear t o f ollow l ocal s patial r ules e ntirely, t hough t his c an b e e xpected e ven w here f oreign c ontrol i s e xerted o n t he p lanning o f e lite s tructures. A nother d ifference b etween C ajamarquilla , W iraqochapampa a nd P ikillaqta i s t hat, d espite t he f act t hat a ll t hree s ites d ate t o a s ingle p eriod ( epoch 1 A i n t he c ase o f C ajamarquilla , e poch l B f or W iraqochapampa D. T opic 1 9851 , a nd e poch 2 A/B i n t he c ase o f P ikillaqta), o nly C ajamarquilla a ppears t o h ave b een c ompleted a nd i nhabited p rior t o a bandonment. P art o f t his d ifference m ay b e e xplainable i n t erms o f t he b uilding m aterials u sed. C ajamarquilla i s c onstructed o f a dobe, w hile t he o ther t wo s ites w ere c onstructed o f f ieldstone. M ore p robably, h owever, t he e xplanation m ay r eside i n s ite f unction . C ajamarquilla a ppears t o h ave b een a n i mportant l ocal ( as o pposed t o f oreign-controlled) a dminstrative c entre. I f C ajamarquilla w as e stablished t o c ontrol i nteraction b etween t he h ighlands a nd t he c oast ( by a c entral-coastal p olity), i t i s p ossible t hat t he s ite w as u sed f rom t he c ommencement o f c onstruction. C ertainly t he l ack o f

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s tructures w hich c onform t o t he W ari p attern s uggests t hat C ajamarquilla w as c onstructed a nd u sed i n r esponse t o w hat m ay h ave b een p urely l ocal r equirements a nd h ypotheses r elating t o aW ari e mpire a ppear u ntenable. T his l eaves u s w ith t he p roblem o f b ounded r ectangular a nd/or g ridded s ites. S ites o f t his t ype a ppear i n t heir m ost c omplex a rrangements w ith t he M iddle H orizon. I s t his a n i ndex o f W an c ontrol? P robably n ot, s ince t he d evelopment o f u rban c entres d uring t he M iddle H orizon m ay h ave b een a n e xpansion o f a lready d eveloped r ectilinear p lanned e lite s tructures. I n o ther w ords, a p lanned u rban c omplex m ay h ave b een t reated a s i f i t w as a f orm o f e lite c omplex. T herefore, t he r ules a lready a pplied t o s patial a rrangement w ithin a n e lite c omplex w ere a pplied t o t he a rrangement o f u rban c entres. I n s uch a c ase, u rban c omplexes m ay h ave b een a s c ulturally i diosyncratic a s e lite c ompounds a ppear t o h ave b een. I f t hat a ssumption i s c orrect, t hen i t s hould b e o bservable i n t he w ays i n w hich i ndividual u rban c omplexes w ere a rranged. T he d ifferences o bservable i n t he f ormal s yntactic d escriptions o f t he v arious u rban c entres a rguably r eflect l ocal i nterpretations c oncerning t he w ays e lite c omplexes " should b e a rranged". T hey d o n ot n ecessarily r eflect t he i mposition o f n on-local r ules o f s patial a rrangement. T his i nterpretation a ppears t o s uggest t hat s patial p atterning i s a s ensitive i ndex f or t he i nvestigation o f W ari c ontrol o utside t he A yacucho B asin. I t s eems j ustifiable, t hen, t o c onsider t he W an e state s tructure a s i ndicative o f s ome f orm o f W ari c ontrol, a nd t he a bsence o f t hat s tructure a s s uggestive t hat W ari c ontrol w as e ither a bsent o r o f s ome o ther f orm t han h as b een p ostulated . W hich o f t hese t wo l atter e ventualities p rovides t he m ost s uitable e xplanation f or o ther s ites d epends o n t he d egree t o w hich l ocal c osmographies a dopted W ari p atterns. C omplete a bsence o f a ny W an -derived p atterns i ndicates t hat t he l ocal e lite d id n ot p erceive t he W ari e lite a s s uperordinate, w hile t he a doption a nd/or m odification o f a spects o f t he W an c osmography s uggests t he l ocal e lite c onsidered i tself s ubordinate t o a n on-resident W ari e lite. E xpressions o f t he f ull W ari e state s tructure s uggest t he p resence o f ar esident W ari e lite . T he e xtent o f W an c ontrol i n s uch a c ase m ay b e d etermined b y t he p roportion o f W an e lite t o l ocal-elite s tructures. T he a bsence o f t he W ari e state s tructure i n t he u rban c omplexes i nvestigated h ere s uggests t hat t he W ari e mpire, i f i t e xisted, m ay h ave b een m uch s maller t han p ostulated, a nd t hat f urther s tudy i s r equired t o p lot t he d istribution o f t hat d efinitive s tructure i n o rder t o d erive t he p robable e xtent o f W ari c ontrol.

C onclusions A n e xamination o f t he s patial s yntax o f an umber o f s ites f rom t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod a nd M iddle H orizon i ndicates t hat t he H illier a nd H anson s patial g rammar h as s ome u tility i n t he s tudy o f a ncient c omplex s ocieties. I n f act, t his m ethod m ay p rovide a m eans o f a nalysing t he s pread o f p olitical c ontrol, w here t hat s pread i s a ccompanied b y t he i ntroduction o f n ew o r m odified b uilding t ypes o r s tructural c lasses. T his i s o f p articular u tility i n c ases s uch a s t he

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A ndes, w here t he s tudy o f s ocial c omplexity a nd t he d evelopment o f s tates i s r estricted b ecause o vert i ndications o f e xternal c ontrol a re r are, o r e xisting i ndices ( such a s c eramic d istributions) a re p roblematic. O verall a f ormal e xamination o f t he r ules o f s patial g rammar a s a pplied i n t he c onstruction o f t hree M iddle H orizon s ites s uggests t hat t he e vidence f or a W ari e mpire i s l ess s trong t han h as p reviously b een a ssumed. R ather, i t a ppears t hat a t l east o ne o f t he u rban c entres ( Cajamarquilla) w as p rimarily a l ocal d evelopment. T he o ther t wo c ases a re s omewhat m ore a mbiguous. O ne o f t hese, W iraqochapampa, d oes n ot i ndicate W ari p olitical c ontrol e ither. R ather, a m ore e soteric f unction a ppears p robable. T hat l eaves P ikillaqta a s t he o dd m an o ut. T here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a p articular l ogic t o t he p lacement o f t his s ite a part f rom t he c ontrol o f a ccess t o T iwanaku a long t he h ighland r oute. T his m ay i ndicate t hat i t l ay o n t he s outhern e dge o f a s hortl ived p olity b ased o n W an . T he q uestion o f W ari p olitical c ontrol s eems t o b oil d own t o t he f ollowing c onsiderations. I f W ari e xerted c ontrol o ver a n umber o f r egions, a nd i f W ari a dministration w as c arried o ut i n u rban a nd/or e lite c omplexes u nder d irect W ari c ontrol, w hat f orms o f s patial p atterning w ould h ave b een r epresented i n a dministrative s tructures? I f W ari e lite s tructures w ere n ot c onstructed i n s ubject a reas w ith r esident W ari a dministrators, w hy n ot? I f l ocal p atterns w ere u sed i n c onstructing e lite a dministrative s tructures, w hat e vidence w ould e xist o f o vert W ari c ontrol? F inally, s ince t he W ari e lite/administrative s tructure d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een t ransported i nto a n umber o f a reas w ith u rban c omplexes, d oes t his m ean t hat W ari c ontrol i s n ow o nly v isible t hrough t he a ppearance o f p lanned s ites? A ssuming t he c onservative n ature o f n ormative b ehaviour w ith e mic s ignificance, I w ould e xpect a W ari e lite t o c arry t hose n ormative a spects w hich s ignify i ts s tatus w ith i t t o a s ubject a rea. S ince e lite a rchitectural f orms a ppear t o s ignify s tatus, o ne a ssumes t he c onquering e lite s ent t o a dminister t he s ubject a rea w ould t ransport t hose f orms w ith w hich i t i s f amiliar t o t hat a rea. O ne a lso e xpects t he r emaining c onquered e lite t o a dopt t he e mically s ignificant e lite a rchitectural f orms. T his i s o bservable d uring t he L ate H orizon ( Czwarno n .d.b) w ith t he I nca. T hus, t he a bsence o f t he W ari e state s tructure a nd t he c ontinuance o f l ocal s patial p atterns s uggests t hat W ari d id n ot c ontrol e ither C ajamarquilla o r W iraqochapampa . U ntil s uch t ime a s w e c an c ome t o g rips w ith t he m eaning o f s tylistic v ariability a nd c hange, c eramic d istribution s tudies w ill n ot p rovide a c lear a nswer t o t he t hird q uestion I p ose, e ither ( for a m ore d etailed e xplanation o f t his s tance s ee C zwarno n .d.b, n .d.c). T his b rings u s t o t he t hird q uestion . S ince b ounded s ites a re n either n ew t o t he M iddle H orizon n or u nique t o W ari p rior t o t he M iddle H orizon , i t i s m oot w hether t his p articular f eature c an b e u sed a s as ensitive i ndicator o f W ari c ontrol. T hat l eaves g ridded s ites. A lthough g ridded s ites a ppear i n t he M iddle H orizon , t heir a ppearance a lone p er s e i s n ot s ufficient p roof f or t he p ostulation o f a W an e mpire. I s uggest t hat a g roup b uilding a n ew c entre w ill i ncorporate a ll i ts s ignificant c osmographic p rinciples i nto t hat c entre. T hus, a r egularly g ridded W ari u rban c entre w ould h ave i ncluded t he W ari e state

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s tructure i n a s p ure a f orm a s t he t opography a llows. F urthermore, t he m ajority o f e lite c ompounds w ould h ave f ollowed t he e state f ormat, s ince a ccess t o t he a ttributes o f s tatus c onfirms s tatus i n t raditional s ocieties. O bviously, f urther w ork i s r equired t o f ully a nalyse t he M iddle H orizon i n o rder t o g ain a n i mproved u nderstanding o f t he p olitical a rrangement o f t he v arious g roups i n P eru a t t hat t ime. T his a nalysis s uggests t hat aW ari e mpire s eems a n u ntenable e xplanation f or t he p olitical a rrangement o f t he M iddle H orizon. W e m ust r ethink t he c oncepts o f s tate a nd e mpire w e u se, s ince t he c ultural g roups w ith w hich w e m ust d eal d o n ot a ppear t o f it c omfortably i nto t he a ccepted d efinitions o f s ocial s tructure d erived f rom o ther a reas ( Czwarno n .d.a ; D illehay p ersonal c ommunication ; M urra 1 972). T his i s, o f c ourse, a p reliminary i nvestigation w hich h as s erved m ore t o i nvestigate t he f easibility o f a pplying t his m ethod t o q uestions i n P eruvian a rchaeology . B ased o n t he r esults o btained w ith p artial d ata, i t a ppears t hat t he m ethod i s e minently s uitable. I t i s h oped t o i ncreased d ata r eliability i n t he n ear f uture i n o rder t o e xtend t his a nalysis , b oth t o c onsider a dditional s ites a nd t o r econsider t he s ites u sed h ere w ith m ore r eliable s ite p lans. I t i s a lso h oped t o i ncorporate a dditional d etail f rom e xisting a nd n ew e xcavations, i n o rder t o f urther r efine t he s patial p atterning r ecoverable f rom P eruvian u rban c omplexes. T here a re u ndoubtedly e rrors i n t his a nalysis t hat s tem f rom t he u nreliability o f t he d ata u sed, b ut t hat u nreliability d oes n ot s eem t o b e s o s evere a s t o n egate t his a nalysis c ompletely . i t i s h oped t o h ave i mproved d ata w hich a ddresses t hose d eficiencies i n t he n ear f uture. I nterestingly, t he g rowing d issatisfaction w ith t he W ari e mpire m odel a mong s ome A ndeanists s eems t o b e j ustitified, e ven b y t hese p reliminary r esults.

A cknowledgements F unding f or t he w ork d iscussed i n t his p aper c omes f rom a S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada D octoral F ellowship. I w ould l ike t o t hank R . B oast a nd V . P insky f or t heir m any c omments a nd s uggestions d uring t he d evelopment o f t he i deas e xpressed h ere, a nd C . E ve a nd P . H olt f or t heir c ontinual s upport.

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C zwarno, R .M . 1 983. C eramic I ndications o f C ultural I nteraction : E vidence f rom N orthern P eru. U npublished M .A . t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology , T rent U niversity, P eterborough, O ntario. C zwarno, R .M . 1 985. T race E lements a nd I nteraction : T hree C ases f rom N orthern P eru . I n S tatus, S tructure a nd S tratification : C urrent A rchaeological R econstructions , e dited b y M . T hompson, M .T . G arcia a nd F .J . K ense. T he A rchaeological A ssociation o f t he U niversity o f C algary, U niversity o f C algary P ress, C algary. p p. 6 7-85. C zwarno, R .M . n .d.a T he d evelopment o f s ocial c omplexity: D arwinian m odel. ( in p rogress).

an on-neo

C zwarno, R .M . n .d.b A R e-analysis o f t he P eruvian M iddle H orizon: S patial P atterning a nd C eramic E vidence. U npublished P h .D. d issertation, D epartment o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f C ambridge ( in p rogress). C zwarno, R .M . n .d.c I nca c ontrol: t he e vidence f rom s patial p atterning. P aper p resented a t t he 7 th A nnual N ortheast A ndean C onference, U niversity o f T rent, P eterborough, O ntario. O ctober 1 6-18, 1 987.

D ay, K .C. 1 982. C iudadelas: t heir f orm a nd f unction. I n C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M .E. M oseley a nd K .C. D ay. S chool o f A merican R esearch, A dvanced S eminar S eries, U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress, A lbuquerque. p p. 3 33-349. D onnan, C .B. a nd M ackey, C .J. 1 978. A ncient B urial P atterns o f t he M oche V alley, P eru. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin . D unnell, R .C. 1 978. S tyle a nd f unction : A merican A ntiquity 4 3: 1 92-202.

a f undamental d ichotomy.

D urkheim , E . 1 964. T he D ivision o f L abour i n S ociety . G . S impson . T he F ree P ress, N ew Y ork.

F raser , D . 1 968. N ew Y ork .

T ranslated b y

V illage P lanning i n t he P rimitive W orld.

B raziller,

G ifford, J .C. 1 960 . T he t ype-variety m ethod o f c eramic c lassification a s a n i ndicator o f c ultural p henomena. A merican A ntiquity 2 5: 3 41-347.

4 41

H ardoy, J . 1 968. N ew Y ork .

U rban P lanning i n P re-Columbian A merica .

B raziller,

H arth T erre, E . 1 959. P iki L lacta, c iudad d e p ositos y b astimentos. R evista d el M useo e I nstituto A rqueológico 9 (18): 4 1-56. U niversidad N acional d e C uzco, C uzco. H ill, J .N . a nd E vans, R .R.

1 972.

Am odel f or c lassification a nd

t ypology. I n M odels i n A rchaeology, M ethuen, L ondon. p p. 2 31-273.

e dited b y D .L.

C larke.

H illier, B . a nd H anson, J . 1 984. T he S ocial L ogic o f S pace . C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge. H odder, I . 1 978. L ondon .

I sbell, B .J.

T he S patial O rganisation o f C ulture.

1 978.

T o D efend O urselves:

D uckworth,

E cology a nd R itual i n a n

A ndean V illage. L atin A merican M onographs, N o. 4 7, I nstitute o f L atin A merican S tudies, T he U niversity o f T exas, A usti n . I sbell, W .H. 1 977. T he R ural F oundation f or U rbanism . I llinois P ress, U rbana. I sbell, W .H.

1 978.

E nvironmental p erturbations a nd t he o rigin o f t he

A ndean s tate. I n S ocial A rchaeology: D ating , e dited b y C .L. R edman e t. a l. p p. 3 03-313. I sbell, W .H .

1 983.

U niversity o f

B eyond S ubsistence a nd A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork .

S hared i deology a nd p arallel p olitical d evelopment :

H uari a nd T iwanaku. I n I nvestigations o f t he A ndean P ast, e dited b y D .H . S andweiss. C ornell L atin A merican S tudies P rogram , I thaca. p p. 1 86-208. I sbell, W .H . 1 985. E l o rigen d el e stado e n e i v alie d e A yacucho. R evista A ndina 3 (1): 5 7-106. I sbell, W .H . 1 987. S tate o rigin i n t he A yacucho V alley, c entral h ighlands, P eru . I n T he O rigins a nd D evelopment o f t he A ndean S tate, e dited b y J . H aas, S . P ozorski a nd R . P ozorski. N ew D irections i n A rchaeology s eries, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge. p p. 8 3-90 . I sbell, W .H. a nd S chreiber, K .J . A ntiquity 4 3: 3 72-389.

1 978.

W as H uari a s tate?

L evi-Strauss, C Y ork .

1 963.

S tructural A nthropology.

L evi-Strauss , C L ondon.

1 966.

T he S avage M ind.

4 42

A merican

B asic B ooks, N ew

W eidenfeld a nd N icholson,

L umbreras, L .G. 1 960 . A rqueologfa 1 (1):

L a c ultura d e W ari , A yacucho. 1 30-227.

E tnologla y

L umbreras, L .G. 1 969 . D e L os P ueblos , L as C ulturas y L os A rtes D el A ntiguo P eru. F rancisco M oncloa, E ditores, L ima. L umbreras, L .G. 1 974 . T he P eoples a nd C ultures o f A ncient P eru , t ranslated b y B . M eggers. S mithsonian P ress, W ashington , D .C.

M cCown, T .D. 1 945. P re-Incaic H uamachuco, S urvey a nd E xcavations i n t he R egion o f H uamachuco a nd C ajabamba . U niversity o f C alifornia P ublications i n A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology 3 9(4) ( Berkeley). M cEwan , G .F. 1 979. P rinciples o f W ari S ettlement P lanning. U npublished M .A . t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology , U niversity o f T exas a t A ustin. M cEwan, G .F . 1 985. T he M iddle H orizon i n t he v alley o f C uzco , P eru : I mpact o f t he W ari O ccupation o f P ikillacta i n t he L ucre B asin ( Andes). P hD d issertation, D epartment o f A nthropology, U niversity o f T exas ( Austin). M enzel D .A. 1 964. 4 : 7 7-144.

S tyle a nd t ime i n t he M iddle H orizon .

f awpa P acha

M enzel, D .A . 1 968. N ew d ata o n t he H uari e mpire i n M iddle H orizon E poch 2 A. N awpa P acha 6 : 4 7-114. M enzel, D .A. 1 977. T he A rchaeology o f A ncient P eru a nd t he W ork o f M ax U hle. R .H. L owie M useum o f A nthropology , B erkeley. M orris, C . a nd T hompson, D .E . 1 985. H u nuco P ampa : i ts H interland. T hames a nd H udson , L ondon.

A n I nca C ity a nd

M urra , J .V. 1 972. E l " control v ertical" d e u n m áximo d e p isos e cológicos e n l a e conomia d e l as s ociedades a ndinas. I n R evista d e L a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uánuco e n 1 562 p or I nigo O rtiz Z uf liga e dited b y L .G . L umbreras. L a U niversidad V aldizan , H u nuco. p p. 4 29-476.

P arsons, J .R.

1 968.

A n e stimate o f s ize a nd p opulation f or M iddle

H orizon T iahuanaco, B olivia.

A merican A ntiquity 3 3(2):

P iaget, J . 1 956. T he C hild's C oncept o f S pace. P aul, L ondon.

2 43-245.

R outledge a nd K egan

P once S angines, C . 1 969. L a c iudad T iwanaku. A rte y A rquelogla 1 : 5 -32. U niversidad M ayor d e S an A ndr es , L a P az.

4 43

P once S angines, C . 1 972. T iwanaku : E spacio , T iempo y C ultura . A cademia N acional d e C iencias d e B olivia , L a P az.

R enfrew, C .

1 977.

S pace, t ime a nd p olity.

I n T he E volution o f S ocial

S ystems, e dited b y J . F riedman a nd M .J . R owlands. L ondon . p p. 8 9-112. R owe, J .H . 1 -27.

1 963.

U rban s ettlements i n a ncient P eru.

D uckworth,

R awpa P acha 1 :

S ackett, J .R. 1 977. T he m eaning o f s tyle i n a rchaeology: m odel. A merican A ntiquity 4 2: 3 69-380.

ag eneral

S anders, W .T . 1 973. P ikillacta i n A ndean C ulture H istory . O ccasional P apers i n A nthropology. T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, U niversity P ark . S chaedel, R .P . 1 951. M ajor c eremonial a nd p opulation c enters i n n orthern P eru . I n C ivilizations o f A ncient A merica, e dited b y S ol T ax. S elected P apers o f t he X XIX I nternational C ongress o f A i nericanists, U niversity o f C hicago P ress, C hicago. p p. 2 32-243. S chaedel, R .P. 1 966. I ncipient u rbanism a nd s ecularization i n T iahuanacoid P eru. A merican A ntiquity 3 1(3): 3 38-344 . S chaedel, R .P. 1 972. T he c ity a nd t he o rigin o f t he s tate i n A merica. A ctes y M emorias : C ongreso I nternacional d e A mericanistas 3 9(2): 1 5-33. S cheps, S .

1 982.

S tatistical B light.

A merican A ntiquity 4 7:

8 36-851.

S chreiber, K .J. 1 978. P lanned A rchitecture o f M iddle H orizon P eru : I mplications f or S ocial a nd P olitical O rganization. U npublished P h.D . t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork, B inghamton. S chreiber, K .J. 1 987. F rom s tate t o e mpire: t he e xpansion o f W an o utside t he A yacucho B asin . I n T he O rigins a nd D evelopment o f t he A ndean S tate , e dited b y J . H aas, S . P ozorski a nd R . P ozorski. N ew D irections i n A rchaeology s eries, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge. p p. 9 1-96. S hady S olis, R . 1 982. L a c ultura N ieveria y l a i nteracción s ocial e n e l m undo a ndino e n l a ê poca H uari. A rqueológicas 1 9: 5 -108. S hady S olis, R . a nd R osas, H . 1 977. E l H orizonte m edio e n C hota: p restigio d e l a c ultura C ajamarca y s u r elación c on e l ' Imperio H uari'. A rqueológicas 1 6. S tiney G . a nd G ips, J . 1 978. A lgorithmic A esthetics . C alifornia P ress, B erkeley.

4 44

U niversity o f

T hatcher, J . 1 972. C ontinuity a nd c hange i n t he c eramics o f H uamachuco, n orth h ighlands, P eru . P h.D . d issertation , U niversity o f P ennsylvania , U niversity M icrofilms I nternational, A nn A rbor. T hatcher, J . 1 972-74. E arly I ntermediate P eriod a nd M iddle H orizon l B c eramic a ssemblages o f H uamachuco, n orth h ighlands, P eru. N awpa P acha 1 0 a nd 1 2: 1 09-127. T hatcher, J . 1 977. AM iddle H orizon l B c ache f rom H uamachuco, n orth h ighlands, P eru . N awpa P acha 1 5: 1 01-110 . T opic, J.R . 1 982. L ower-class s ocial a nd e conomic o rganization a t C han C han. I n C han C han: A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M .E. M oseley a nd K .C . D ay. U niversity o f N ew M exico, S chool o f A merican R esearch A dvanced S eminar S eries, A lbuquerque. p p. 1 451 76. T opic, J .R. 1 985. H uari a nd H uamachuco. P aper p resented a t t he H uari R oundtable, D umbarton O aks, M ay 1 6-19, 1 985. T opic, J .R. a nd T opic , T .L. 1 982. H uamachuco A rchaeological P roject: P reliminary R eport o n t he F irst F ield S eason, J uly A ugust 1 981. T rent U niversity, P eterborough, O ntario . -

T opic, J .R . a nd T opic, T .L. 1 983. C oast-highland r elations i n n orthern P eru: s ome o bservations o n r outes, n etworks a nd i nteraction. I n C ivilization i n t he A ncient A mericas, e dited b y R .M . L eventhal a nd A .L . K olata. U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress a nd t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, A lburqueque a nd C ambridge, M ASS. p p. 2 37-259. T opic, T .L . 1 982. T he E arly I ntermediate P eriod a nd i ts l egacy . I n C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M .E. M oseley a nd K .C. D ay. U niversity o f N ew M exico, S chool o f A merican R esearch A dvanced S eminar S eries, A lburquerque. p p. 2 55-284.

U cko, P .J ., T ringham , R . a nd D imbleby, G .W . U rbanism . D uckworth, L ondon.

1 972.

M an ,

S ettlement a nd

W ashburn, D .K . 1 977. A s ymmetrical a nalysis o f U pper G ila c eramic d esign. P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, V olume 6 8. P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology, C ambridge, M ASS. W ashburn, D .K . 1 978. A s ymmetrical c lassification o f p ueblo c eramic d esign. I n D iscovering P ast B ehaviour: E xperiments i n t he A rchaeology o f t he A merican S outhwest, e dited b y P . G rebinger. G ordon a nd B reach, N ew Y ork. W hallon, R . 1 972. A ntiquity 3 7:

An ew a pproach t o p ottery t ypology. 1 3-33.

4 45

A merican

W hallon, R . a nd B rown, J . ( eds) 1 982. E ssays o n A rchaeological T ypology. U niversity o f I llinois P ress, E vanston. W illey, G .R. 1 953. P rehistoric S ettlement P atterns i n t he V iru V alley, P eru . B ureau o f A merican E thnology, B ulletin 1 55, S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington , D .C . W olf, E .R. 1 955. T ypes o f L atin A merican p easantry. A nthropologist 5 7(3): 4 52-471.

4 46

A merican

0

1 00

2 00

300

4 00

5 00

k m

M ap 1 .

M ap o f t he s ites c onsidered h ere.

4 47

0

1 00

2 00

300

4 00

5 00

k m

M ap 2 a.

T he i nitial s pread o f W ari c eramics, a nd t he p urported e xtent o f t he e arly e mpire.

4 48

0

1 00

2 00

3 00

4 00

5 00

k m

M ap 2 b.

T he e ventual s pread o f t he p urported W ari e mpire.

4 49

F ig.

1 .

D rawn f rom S chreiber ( 1978), s howing t he u sual m ethod o f b onding o f w hat i s h ere d efined a s t he W ari e state s tructure.

h 1 b F ig.

2 .

A s ymmetrical r elationship b etween f igures a a nd b e xists, b ut t he r elationship b etween s egments A a nd B o f f igure b i s a symmetrical.

4 50

r H F ig. 3 .

W all/space r elations.

L .

0

F ig. 4 .

5 0

W iraqochapampa ( after M cCown 1 945).

4 51

0

g a l

L 4

1 0

H

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0 C o SE =

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F ig. 6 .

P ikillaqta ( after B rowman 1 984).

4 53

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.

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F ig. 8 .

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W illey's V ir i i s ite V -39 ( after W illey 1 953).

W illey's V iri s ites V -144, ( After W illey 1 953: 7 6).

4 55

V -145, V -150,

V -201,

V -202, V -203

0

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200

M F ig.

1 0.

C erro d el C astillo, a s egment o f t he w estern p ortion o f t his p art o f t he s ite ( after T opic a nd T opic).

I

Lil C' I

F ]

T J

0 5 t hm

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T he e xcavated 1 983).

p ortion o f M oraduchayoq ( after B rewster-Wray

4 56

I NCA P LANNING N ORTH O F C UZCO B ETWEEN A NTA A ND M AC I { E J P ICCHU A ND A LONG T HE U RUBAMBA V ALLEY * (Note A ) A nn K endall

A BSTRACT T he i nvestigation o f I nca a rchitecture a nd p lanning i n b oth t he U rubamba V alley a nd t he m ountainous h interland b etween t he p lain o f A nta a nd M achu P icchu , p rovides s ome i nsights i nto t he s tages o f d evelopment o f t he r egion a s w ell a s i nto t he f unction o f s ome k ey s ites i ncluding M achu P icchu a nd C usichaca . T hree p rincipal r oads a re e xamined w ith t heir a ssociated I nca s ites. T hrough i dentifying t he v arious t ypes o f s ites a long t he r oads, i t i s p ossible t o s how t hat e ach s ystem w as p lanned f or a s pecific f unction. S econdary r oad s ystems w ithin t he a rea a re a lso i nvestigated i n o rder t o a rrive a t a b etter u nderstanding o f r egional I nca p lanning. S ome o bservations a re p ut f orward o n t he I nca a nd p re-Inca s ettlement p atterns i n t he r egion.

I ntroduction T he V ilcanota-Urubamba v alley d rainage s ystem i n t he D epartment o f C uzco, P rovince o f U rubamba, b etween 0 11antaytambo 2 ,800m a ltitude a nd M achu P icchu 2 ,100m a ltitude, d rains a m ountainous h interland i ncluding S alcantay a nd t he s outhern C ordillera V ilcabamba. S everal s maller r iver v alley s ystems i ncluding t he S ilique, C usichaca , A obamba , P atacancha a nd P iri d rain f rom c . 4 ,500m a ltitude a nd c ontain a v ariety o f e cological n iches f rom h erding u plands t o t he m aize-growing b ottom l ands. T he I nca E mpire d epended o n m aize f or i ts s taple c rop, v ast q uantities o f w hich w as c onsumed o n c eremonial o ccasions. A d etailed a ssessment o f t he o verall p lanning a nd c ommunications s ystem o f t his r egion h as l ong b een o verdue a nd c an p rovide a f ramework f or f urther a nalytical s tudies. A n e valuation o f t he r ole o f t he t wo u nusual s ites, P atallacta a nd M achu P icchu , i s a lso d iscussed w ithin t he l imitations o f t he o verall s tages o f d evelopment p ut f orward f or t he a rea. O n t he b asis o f t he a uthor's s tudy o f I nca a rchitecture ( 1985), p hases o f a rchitecture a re r ecognisable i n t he d etails o f t he I nca p lanning a nd a rchitecture, w hich c an s ometimes b e r elated t hrough t he u se o f t he e thnohistorical s ources t o t he r eigns o f t he I nca r ulers. H owever, w ithout c lear c ut r eferences i t h as b een d ifficult t o r elate s uch p hases t o ap articular r eign o r d ate w ithin t he s hort t ime p eriod o f t he I nca e mpire. A part f rom t he I nca P achacutec's i nterest i n 0 11antaytambo ( and t hat o f h is g reat , g reat g randson M anco I nca)

4 57

s uch d ata w as n ot a vailable f or t his a rea w hen w ork w as b egun . H owever, r ecent p ublications ( Glave a nd R emy 1 984 a nd R owe 1 987) s how t hat s ome i nferences c an b e d rawn f rom d ocuments o n l and t enure r ecently b rought t o l ight. I n t he l imited r eferences i n t he c hronicles w e a re t old t he v alley o f T ampu ( 011antaytambo) w as t aken b y t he I nca P achacutec " for h is o wn" ( Sarmiento X XXIII) w here h e w as r esponsible f or d estroying t he t own a nd l ater e rected s ome m agnificent b uildings ( Sarmiento X XXV; X L). P achacutec f ollowed u p t he C hanca w ar a nd w ent t o V itcos, V ilcabamba ( Morua I : 1 9). C hupellusca ( Choquellusca) i s o ne o f t he f ew p laces m entioned i n t he v alley o f T ampu u sually i n c onnection w ith I nca U rco, P achacutec's h alf b rother a nd r ival h eir t o t he I nca l eadership a t t he t ime o f t he w ar w ith t he C hancas ( Sarmiento X XXIII). T here i s a p ossible r eference m ade t o M achu P icchu t hat a nother o f V iracocha I nca 's S ons w as n amed V icchu T upac b ecause h e s ubdued t he t own o f V icchu ( Sarmiento X XXIII). H owever, n o p re-Inca r emains h ave b een i dentified o n t he s ite o f M achu P icchu. T opa I nca U panque i s a lso m entioned i n t he c ontext o f t his a rea i n c onnection w ith h is f irst e xpedition t o c onquer t he v alley o f A maybamba t o P ilcosuni ( Murua I : 2 1) t hough R ostworoswski ( 1963) s hows t he s ite o f H uamanmarka t o h ave b een a p roperty o f P achacutec. S hortly a fter T opa I nca 's c oronation t he j ungle w ars s tarted i n e arnest a nd h e o rdered h is b rother t o s tay i n P aucartambo a nd V itcos. -

-

A lthough a rchival s ources n ow p rovide a b asis f or s ome f urther i nvestigation o f l and o wnership i n t he I nca p eriod ( Glave a nd R emy 1 984) t his s ubject r equires f urther r esearch ( 14a a nd 1 6a). T he o nly o ther I nca m entioned i n t he c hronicles a s b eing o f p articular i nterest i n t he a rea o f s tudy i s M anco I nca w hen h e w ithdrew t o 0 11antaytambo i n 1 536. H is s ubsequent w ithdrawal i nto t he V ilcabamba p rovince o n t he r oute v ia P anticalla P ass, A maybamba a nd t he C hoquechaca b ridge a t C haullay i s w ell d ocumented ( Murua : I ; R odrigues d e F igueroa , T iti C usi Y upanqui e tc.).

M ethod I t i s t aken h ere t hat c lassical I nca a rchitecture s tarts w ith t he L ate H orizon c . A D 1 438 , t hat i s, t he I mperial I nca p eriod s tarted w ith t he r eign o f P achacutec. C 14 d ating i s n ot a s atisfactory t ool f or d istinctions w ithin t he I nca p eriod. I t i s h oped t o s how h ow a c ase c an b e m ade f or a d evelopment o f t he a rea i n s everal p hases w hich c ould a ll b e w ithin t he l ong r eign o f P achacutec; I nca Y upanque c . A D 1 4381 471. T he e valuation o f a rchitectural c riteria f or t he I nca p eriod i s b ased o n p revious p apers o n p re-Inca a nd I nca p eriods o f a rchitecture b y t he a uthor, r espectively 1 976a a nd 1 976b. T he p resent a rticle i s b ased o n f ieldwork c arried o ut b y t he a uthor w ith ( since 1 977) t he b ack-up o f t he C usichaca P roject a nd P roject m embers s uch a s D avid D rew , w ho s upervised e xplorations i n t he a djacent a reas o f V ilcabamba , A purimac a nd L ucumayo. T he f ieldwork h as i ncluded m aking m easured p lans o f a lmost a ll t he I nca s ites m entioned , e xcept M achu P icchu a nd t he C edrobamba s ites w hich w ere i nvestigated r espectively b y H iram B ingham 1 913 a nd 1 922 a t t he b eginning o f t he c entury a nd P aul F ejos i n

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1 944,

( see m ap).

A b rief d escription i s g iven b elow o f e ach r oad s ystem a nd t he s ites a ssociated w ith i t. T hese w ill b e t reated i n t he f ollowing o rder: -

1 .

T he n orth s ide r oad o f t he 0 11antaytambo t o T orontoy.

U rubamba

v alley,

f rom

2 .

T he s outh c onfluence C usichaca .

3 .

T he " Inca r oad" b etween H uarocondo ( Anta) a nd M achu P icchu.

4 .

C uzco-Vilcabamba m ountain r oute v ia S alcantay.

5 .

S ome s econdary r outes i n t he a rea b etween t he A purimac d rainage s ystems.

s ide r oad o f t he U rubamba v alley, o f t he r iver A nta t o M achu P icchu v ia

b elow

f rom S ilque

U rubamba

t he a nd

a nd

D escription 1 .

T he N orth S ide o f t he U rubamba ( Vilcanota) V alley

T he U rubamba v alley 0 11antaytambo c an b e c onsidered i n s ections:

t wo

m ain

a .

B etween 0 11antaytambo a nd S alapunco w here i t i s w ide a nd f ertile, l andscaped w ith f ine t errace s ystems o f t he I nca p eriod. H ere i t i s c ut b y q uebrada s treams f rom s maller v alleys w hich f eed t he s tone-lined c anals b ringing w ater t o t he t erraces. T he I nca s ites, m any o f w hich b ecame t he s eats o f t he n ew h aciendas a fter t he S panish c onquest, a re o f m odest s ize .

b .

F rom S alapunco w here t he v alley n arrows i nto t he " Cañon d e T orontoy", t here a re i ntermittent w ider s tretches a nd a lluvial f ans w here t he I ncas b uilt f urther t errace s ystems i rrigated b y s tone-built c anals.

T he a rea o f t he m ost v ariable a rchitecture a nd p lanning l ies b etween 0 11antaytambo a nd S alapunco. T he p re-Inca o ccupation s ites o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod ( c. A D 9 50-1438) a re c haracterized b y a p redominance o f c ircular a nd o val s tructures, s mall t erraces w ith c anal s ystems s ited a bove t he v alley f loor a nd a p ottery s tyle w hich i s K ilike-related ( Kendall 1 976a). S urface r emains a re l ocated a t R umira a nd s everal s ites a re c oncentrated b etween T anccac a nd P iscaycucho o n o r a bove t he v alley s ides a nd o n r idges . I n s ome c ases a f ew r ectangular o r r ectangular-compartmentalized s tructures a re l ocated w ithin o r a djacent t o p re-Inca s ites. S ome o f t hese l atter r ectangular s tructures c an b e c ompared w ith I nca s tructures, p ossibly o f t he ' transition' p eriod ( incipient t o t he c lassical s tyle) a rchitecture i n t he C uzco a nd L ucre B asins, o thers m ay i ndicate s ome c hronological d ifferences b ut a lso t he u se b uilders.

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o f I nca n ot o nly o f l ocal

B eyond S alapunco t here a re s everal s maller p re-Inca s ites i n a l ess w ell-preserved c ondition w here n o e arly ' transition ' a rchitecture h as y et b een i dentified. N one o f t he f oregoing s ites l ie d irectly b eside t he m ain I nca r oad. T he I nca s ites a nd l ands i nvestigated b eside o r n ear t he I nca r oad b etween 0 11antaytambo a nd M achu P icchu a re a t o r n ear:R umira , Y achahuasi, H uayracpunco, P in , M arcay P iri a t T anccac, M achu H acienda, C uf lucayoc a nd A lf a tayoc K ontaymocco a t C hilca, T iaparo , C abracancha , S alacrimen a nd P laya ( in P iscaycucho), C hoquellusca/ S alapunco, C añabamba, H uayrapunco, P incha U nuyoc, C orihuayrachina , T orontoy a nd L iamacancha . M ost o f t he s ites a re r egularly s paced a long t he I nca r oad e xcept f or Y achahuasi n ear R umira a nd M arcay P iri a t T anccac; a nd s ome s ites a t P iscaycucho, w hich a re l ocated a bove t he r oad. T he c lassical I nca s ites c lose t o t he r oad a re o f t wo p lan t ypes : a g rouped p lan u sually w ith u p t o t hree m odest s ized r ectangular b uildings a rranged a round a c ourt o r c ourts, e .g. U nura a t R umira , H uayracpunco, P in , M achu H acienda a nd a s ite a t T iaparo, C abracancha a nd S alacrimen, a nd t he l ineal p lan , a r ow o r r ectangular b uildings a long a t errace, l ike P laya a nd S alapunco. P laya a nd S alapunco a re e xceptional i n t heir s trategic l ocations a nd p lanning. B oth m ust h ave f unctioned p rimarily a s a ccess/control p oints: P laya f or a r iver c rossing a nd S alapunco f or a ccess d own t he v alley a nd a nother p ossible r iver c rossing t o C arpamayoc. P laya c onsists o f f our r ectangular b uildings o n at errace a t t he r iverside o pposite R ocabamba. S alapunco i s a p restigious I nca s ite l ocated w here t he v alley n arrows s harply. I t i s n amed f or i ts m onumental d oorways a nd t erraces ( Pardo 1 957). E ach o f t he t wo d oorways g ives a ccess t hrough t he u pper t errace b y m eans o f a s ubterranean r oom a nd s tairs. I n t he s econd s ection o f t he v alley, t he C anyon o f T orontoy, a ll t he I nca s ites a re u ndoubtedly e xamples o f s tandard c lassical a rchitecture b uilt i n t he E mpire p eriod . T hese s ites a re s paced r egularly b eside t he r oad a t i ntervals o f a pproximately o ne o r t wo k ilometers. T his r egular s pacing o f t he s mall s ites a nd t errace s ystems i s e vidence o f s ystematic p lanning t hat m ade f ull u se o f t he a gricultural p otential o f t he l and . B oth t ypes o f p lan a re f ound h ere w hile t he t wo l argest s ites, C añabamba a nd T orontoy, a re m ixed, c ontaining z ones o f b oth ' grouped' a nd ' lineal' a rrangements. C añabamba, t o w hich a c anal d escends f rom a bove S alapunco , c onsists o f e leven s tructures a nd i s l ocated a bove 1 5ha o f f lat a gricultural l and ( Pl. 1 ). T he s ite c onsists o f a r ow o f e ight b uildings a nd a nother t hree b uildings s et a t r ight a ngles t o t he b asic l inear p lan , c reating p atio s paces b etween t he b uildings. V estiges o f o ther p eriods a bove t he s ite i nclude a p re-Inca s ite, p robably o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod. T hree s mall s ites o f t he ' grouped ' p lan a re l ocated b eside r oad b etween C añabamba a nd C orihuayrachina. T he f ull e xtent o f l atter s ite i s u nknown d ue t o t he c onstruction o f t he r ailway.

4 60

t he t he I ts

i mportance a s a c ontrol p oint d own-valley a nd a cross t he b ridge t o t he l ands o f Q uente a nd t he C usichaca s ites i s c learly s hown b y t he f ine t erracing a nd c onstruction o f t he r oad's t wo b ranches, a s tairway a nd t he b ridge p latforms. A s mall I nca s ite c ould b e e xpected o n R etamal b ut n one h as b een i dentified a lthough t here i s m aterial f rom a P re-Inca s ite r evealed b y t he r ailway c utting. H owever, i t i s p ossible t hat t his t erraced a rea w as c ultivated b y t he i nhabitants o f C orihuayrachina o r T orontoy. I n T orontoy, t hree k ilometers b elow C orihuayrachina , t here i s a nother g ood e xtension o f t erraced a gricultural l and. M ore i mportant a nd p restigious t han C añabamba a nd t he p revious s ites, t he I nca b uildi ngs o f R accy P ata , T orontoy a re d ivided i n t hree w ell-defined p rincipal z ones. I n t wo o f t hese z ones, t hey a re a rranged a round p atios, a nd i n t he t hird g roup t hey a re a rranged i n r ows o n d ifferent t errace l evels. E ach z one w as d edicated t o a d ifferent f unction a nd i ncluded f acilities s uggesting p restigious a ccommodation f or a t ravelling I nca ( Pl. 2 ) o r a r esident m ember o f t he e lite, a lso p ossibly a t emple a nd h ousing f or t wo o r e ven t hree d istinctive s ocial g roups. T here i s a g reater v ariation a nd c omplexity i n t he o rganisation o f o pen s paces a nd i n t he d etailing o f b uildings h ere w hich s uggests t his s ite w as b uilt a fter t hose a lready d escribed e ither l ate i n t he r eign o f P achacutec I nca o r d uring t hat o f h is s uccessor, T opa I nca. B elow T orontoy, t he m ontana j ungle g rowth o bscures t he n arrow v alley s ide w here o nly r are g limpses o f t errace s ystems c an b e s een . H owever a n I nca s ite c alled L iamacancha w as r ecently r ediscovered o n t erraces a bove k m 9 6 o n t he r ailway l ine ( first r ecorded b y B ingham a s L eanmanchu). T here m ay h ave b een a b ridge p oint a cross t he U rubamba r iver n ear ( below) T orontoy b ut t his h as y et t o b e con f i rme d .Sa F rom t he i nformation o utlined a bove i t i s p ossible t o s how t hat f irst e ction o f t he n orth s ide o f t he v alley w as o ccupied c ont inuous ly 1a a nd c ontained a v ariety o f s ites a nd d ifferent s ettlement p atterns. T hose r eferred t o c an b e d efined a s l ate p reI nca , t ransition o r e arly/initial I nca o ccupation, f ollowed b y a r eo rganisation i n t he L ate H orizon r eign o f P achacutec I nca w hen a n ew, d irect r oad s ystem w as b uilt w ith a n ew d evelopment o f r egularly s paced s ites a nd a ssociated t errace s chemes. S alpunco w as b uilt a s a c ontrol p oint a nd t o m ark a p olitical b oundary a nd p erha s a lso a s a m onument t o c ommemorate e arlier e vent i nvolving I nca U rco. t he

Y achahuasi, o n t he v alley s ide a bove R umira , c onsists o f a r ow o f f ive v ery l ong t wo-storeyed r ectangular s tructures. T hese s tructures e xhibit s ome f eatures t hat l ie o utside t he e xpected r ange o f c lassical a rchitecture i n t h r eign o f P achacutec a nd m ay d ate f rom a l ater r eign o r e ven f rom 1 536. S alapunco m arks t he d ivision b etween t he f irst a nd s econd s ections o f t he v alley. T he s ites a nd r oad s ystem b elow S alapunco, i ncluding C orihuayrachina , a dhere t o a s imilar b ut p erhaps m ore m odest a nd m ore u niform p attern. T orontoy i s s ingled o ut b y i ts s ophisticated a rchitecture a nd p lanning a nd L lamacancha e choes t hose t raits t ypical o f s ites l ike C hachaba i nba n ear M achu P ichu. W hile t he f ormer s ites m ay h ave b een b uilt a s p art o f , o r, a s a n e arly e xtension o f t he r oad

4 61

s ystem i n t he f irst s ection, T orontoy a nd L iamacancha p robably b elong t o a l ater p hase o f d evelopment r elated t o M achu P icchu a nd t he C edrobamba s ites. I n a ssessing t his r oad a s aw hole i t m ust b e e mphasized t hat i t r uns t hrough a p rime m aize p roducing a rea w hich w as v ital t o t he I nca e conomy. E very p art o f t he v alley b elow 0 11antaytambo, a s w ell a s a bove, t o w hich w ater c ould b e b rought, w as t erraced a nd i rrigated a nd s ites w ere e ither s mall o r w ere b uilt o ff t he p rime a gricultural l and. H owever i mportant l ocal m aize p roduction , t he r oad s ystem m ust b e s een i n t he c ontext o f i ts g eographical p osition b oth a t t he c entre o f t he v ertical s ystem o f t he s ix m ajor a gro-ecological z ones o f t he C entral A ndes ( Gade 1 975) a nd w ith a n etwork e xtending t o a djacent v alleys f or e xample P atacancha t o L ares a nd O ccobamba, P iri t o A maybamba/Lucumayo. T he m ain r oad s ystem a nd t he v ertical s ystem t hrough w hich i t e xtended h ad l inks t o t he j ungle a nd o ther s ystems. I t w as t herefore t he m ain a rtery f or t he c ivic p opulation i n a v ital f ood-producing a rea t hat f unctioned a t t he h eart o f t he a gro-ecological s ystem b etween C uzco a nd t he j ungle. -

2 .

T he S outh S ide o f t he U ruba i nba ( Vilcanota) V alley

A lthough t his s ide o f t he v alley d oes n ot l end i tself t o d ivision i nto t wo s uch c lear-cut s ections a s t hose o f t he n orth s ide, i t c an b e d ivided i nto t wo s eparate k inds o f a rea : n arrow s tretches o f t he v alley f loor b etween t he q uebradas, a nd s mall s ide v alleys a t S ilque a nd C usichaca . B eyond Q uente a t k m 9 1, a s i n t he c ase o f t he n orthern s ide, t he v alley s lopes a nd b anks a re o ften o vergrown w ith j ungle. C oncentrations o f l ate p re-Inca o ccupations f rom t he M iddle H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate p eriods a ssociated w ith a gricultural s ystems, a re l ocated o n v alley s ides a nd r idges a t C achiccata , a nd P aron, a s w ell a s o verlooking t he S ilque, H uallancy a nd C usichaca v alleys. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he E arly H orizon o ccupation a t S ilque a nd i n t he C usichaca V alley. T he m ain I nca s ites s till v isible t his s ide o f t he v alley a re P atahuasi, C hoccana , ( PA-2) a nd ( PA-3) C hoquequilca, P incolina, C hoquetecarpo a nd I ntihustana a t C achiccata a lto, T emporal ( Silque v alley), M isccay, H uilica R accay, P atallacta a nd P ulpituyoc, M achu a nd H uayna Q uente, L lorohuachana , P acamayo, C hachabamba a nd C hoquesuysuy. T here a re s everal g roups o f I nca r uins, l ocated a t c lose i ntervals, b etween t he c onfluence o f t he A nta r iver w ith t he U rubamba a nd C hoqueguilca o pposite 0 11antayta i nbo. S tylistically t hese r epresent t wo p hases: t he s impler s tandard c lassical s tyle p ertains t o t hat o f t he r eign o f P achacutec I nca a nd a m ore c omplex p hase w ith a p redominance o f t wo-storey d b uildings, c ould c orrespond t o t he p eriod o f M anco I nca i n 1 536. A t P atahuasi b oth p hases a re p robably r epresented. T he f irst C hoccana g roup ( PA-2) a nd C hoquequilca b elong t o t he l atter p hase.

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N ear t he f amous q uarry o f C achiccata i s C hoquetecarpo, a n I nca t ambo, w hich a ppears t o b e a ssociated w ith a n I nca r oad ( to C hancachuco), a s d o t he t wo s tructures a t P incolina. B elow P aron, d ue p erhaps t o g eographical f actors a ffecting t he e xtent o f l and f or a griculture, s oil q uality a nd a vailability o f w ater, t he r esidential g roups a long t he r iverside r oad a re s maller a nd l ess f requent t han t hose o f t he n orth s ide. T his i s l ittle e vidence o f c lassical I nca a rchitecture a t S ilque. H owever, t he r iver i s c analized, t here a re t erraces a nd c anals a nd e vidence o f a n I nca o ccupation f ollowing o n f rom t hat o f a l ate p re-Inca s ettlement a t T emporal. W hile t he e xtent o f t he I nca o ccupation b eside t he r oad c annot b e a ssessed, s ome s tones o f p ossible I nca w orkmanship a re l ocated i n w alls n ear t he B ethlehemite c entre.

T he l atter w as f ounded w ith a s mall v illage a t S ilque a t

t he

e nd o f t he 1 7th c entury. B elow

t he

S ilque c onfluence, t he U rubamba v alley

r ises

s teeply

f rom t he r iver. T here a re n o e xtant a rchitectural r emains o f t he I nca p eriod, a lthough s tretches o f t he r oad a re w ide a nd w ell-preserved a nd t here i s p ottery e vidence o f a n I nca o ccupation o n A nta R ara. A t R ocabamba, o pposite P laya, t he r oad i s p articularly w ell-preserved a nd p asses t hrough Y ahuar H uaccac ( P1. 3 ) a nd ( via t erraces) t hrough C arpamayoc t o M isccay, w here t here a re a rchitectural r emains r espectively o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod a bove t he r oad a nd o f t he L ate H orizon a ssociated w ith t he r oad. M isccay, l ocated a t t he s ide o f t he r oad a bove t he H uallancay g orge, i s a r esidential g roup o f e ight c lassical I nca b uildings. B eside i t t he I nca r oad d ivides, w ith t he l eft b ranch l eading t o H uilla R accay a nd t he C usichaca v alley. T he r ight b ranch c ontinues a long t he U rubamba v alley t o c ross t he C usichaca r iver t o P atallacta ( see P l. 4 ). H uillca

R accay ( Chuncuchua) a nd P atallacta a re t he t wo

p rincipal

s ites o f t he I nca c om 1ex o f C usichaca u nder s tudy b y t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject ( Kendall 1 974, 1 979, 1 982, 1 984). F or t he p resent p urpose i t i s s ufficient h ere t o s ummarise a s f ollows: P atallacta c onsists o f 1 15 b uildings i n f our d istinct r esidential s ectors o ffering a ccommodation f or s ocial g roups o f v aried s tatus a nd s tructure; t he p romontory s ite o f l uillca R accay c ontains 3 4 b uildings i n t he C huncuchua f ort, a rranged i n f ive d iffering g roups o f d istinctive p lanning. T his f ort c ontrolled a ccess i n a nd o ut o f t he C usichaca v alley. A f urther s mall s ite, Q uishuarpata, i s l ocated h igher u p a way f rom t he m ain r oad, a s a re t he m ajority o f p re-Inca s ites s uch a s 0 11eriayoc T rancapata, 0 11eriayoc L eoniyoc a nd p re-Inca Q uishuarpata ( Kendall 1 976a). T he r emains o f c oncentrated l ate p reI nca s ettlement i n t he r egion i nclude a gricultural s ystems w ith t erracing a nd i mpressive c anals. T he m ain I nca r emains o f t his a rea , w hich a re o f a h omogeneous c lassical s tyle g rouped i n r ecurring r egular l ayouts w ith s imple s traight f orward d etailing, a re t ogether w ith t he t erraces a nd c anals, c onsidered a n i mportant a gricultural d evelopment s cheme o f t he r eign o f P achacutec c . 1 450 ( Kendall 1 974/85). P ulpituyoc, t he s mall c eremonial c entre a djacent t o P atallacta, w ith i i s tructures i n s pecialized g roups o f t he o pen ' a nd ' closed ' t ypes a round a r ock, w as p robably a lso c onstructed a s p art o f t he o riginal c omplex. H uayna Q uente, a nother s mall c eremonial c omplex o f 1 1 b uildings w ith s pecialized a rrangements,

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i s l ocated f urther a long t he v alley o n ah illside a t t he f ar e nd o f t he m ajor t errace s ystems. I t i s r eached v ia a n i mpressive s ide r oad o ff t he m ain r oad. T his s ite h as a c irculatory a ccess p attern a nd s ome p restigious f eatures i ncluding a f ine r ecessed m asonry d oorway a nd c avern . T he d etails o f t he p lanning a nd a rchitecture a re m ore v aried a nd c omplex a nd l ess s ymmetrical, t han t hose a t t he o ther C usichaca s ites a nd i t i s t herefore c lassified i n a l atter p hase o f I nca a rchitecture. T he I nca r oad w hich c ontinues b elow H uayna Q uente, i s w ellc onstructed b ut l ittle m ore t han a m etre i n w idth. I t c rosses t wo p romonotories o verlooking t he r iver a nd p asses a f ew c learly a ssociated c ontrol p oints b efore e ntering C hachabamba. T he l atter s ite c omprises s even m ain b uildings, o ther o pen s paces, a nd 1 4 f ountain b aths. T he a rrangements o f t he ' open ' a nd ' closed' t ypes o f b uildings i ndicate s pecialised f unctions, p robably r eligious f acilities a nd a ccommodation a ssociated w ith t he t erraces a nd t he I nca r oad. T his s ite a nd i ts n eighbour C hoquesuysuy, t he n ext s ite o n t he r oad, c ontain t he r elatively s ophisticated p lanning a nd a rchitectural d etailing o f a l ater p hase o f c lassical I nca a rchitectural s tyle. C hoquesuysuy i s b uilt a t t he t wo s ides o f aq uebrada a t k m 1 07 a nd c onsists o f s ix c omplex h ouse g roups w ith 1 8 b uildings, s even f ountain b aths, t erraced a nd a t t he t op b eside t he r oad, o utstanding f acades a nd w alls. F rom i ts u ppermost c ontrol-like s tructures a nd t he s outhern g roup w ith a n u nusual w all f acade, t he r oad r ises t owards I ntipunco a l ookout w hich i s v isible a nd M achu P icchu . R oads a lso l ink t his s ite w ith P huyu P ata M arca a nd H uiany H uayna. -

-

T he s ite o f C hoquesuysuy i s d istinctive a nd w hile i t p restigious f eatures, i t a lso a ppears t o h ave f unctioned a s a p robably i n r elation t o M achu P i cc hu .5

c ontains con tro l ,

T he g reatest c oncentration o f I nca o ccupation a ssociated w ith t his r oad s ystem a s aw hole w as i n t he C usichaca v alley, c oncentrations a t P atahuasi a nd p ossibly S ilque. T he

w ith s maller r egular s mall

g roups o f t he o riginal p hase r elated t o t he r oad b etween t he r iver A nta a nd C achiccata a re b est c ompared t o t he s mall r egular s ites l ocated b etween S alapunco a nd C orihuayrachina o n t he n orth b ank r oad. P re-Inca o ccupation, m uch i n e vidence a bove t he r oad s ystem , i s c oncentrated a t C usichaca, C achiccata a nd S ilque, i n t hat o rder o f i mportance. T here i s l ittle p re-Inca o ccupation b elow H uayna Q uente, e xcept f or t he c ircular s tructures f ound a t t he s mall s ites o f M asocucho a nd P acamayo. O nly a l ater p hase o f c lassical I nca a rchitecture ( at l east p ost-dating t he f irst p hase a s d escribed) i s r ecognized i n t he o ccupation b etween P acamayo a nd M achu P icchu. I n r elation t o t his r oad s ystem i t s hould b e n oted t hat i ts b ranch , t he s ubsidiary C usichaca v alley r oad, w hich c rossed r outes 3 a nd 4 l inking t he v alley w ith t he A purimac, M achu P icchu a nd V ilcabamba , m ust b e c onsidered i n r elation t o t his U rubamba r oad s ystem . T he c onfirmed b ridge p oints g ear P laya a nd S alap unco at C orihuayrachina a nd n ear C hachabamba a a re a lso f undamental i n i nterpreting t he f unction a nd u se o f t his s ystem . T he s ections w hich s erved 0 11antaytambo, C usichaca a nd M achu P icchu m ust h ave h ad

4 64

c onsiderable i mportance. S ince t he p lans o f C usichaca a nd M achu P icchu a re v ery d ifferent, t he f unction o f e ach s ite m ust a lso b e t aken i nto c onsideration f or a b etter u nderstanding o f t he u se o f t he r oad ( see D iscussion). T he e vidence o f t he a rchitecture i ndicates t he o riginal I nca r oad w as b uilt i n t wo p hases o r s tages. T he f irst a s f ar a s C usichaca, p ossibly l inking w ith L imatambo a nd t he A purimac; t he s econd, a n e xtension f rom a nd i ncluding H uayna Q uente t o C hoquesuysuy a nd M achu P icchu, m ust h ave b een p art o f an ew d evelopment q uite d ifferent i n c haracter f rom t he f irst. W hile H uayna Q uente h as s ome c haracteristics s uch a s t he f ine r oad o f a pproach a nd t he c irculatory a ccess p attern s uggesting a s mall p ilgrimage c entre, C hachabamba a nd C hoquesuysuy l ie d irectly a t t he s ide o f t he r oad a nd t he l atter s ite i s i n a p osition t o c ontrol a p restigious a pproach t o M achu P icchu.

3 .

T he

' Inca R oad' b etween H uarocondo a nd M achu P icchu 6

T he m ost d irect r oute t o M achu P icchu f rom C uzco i s v ia t he p lain o f A nta, a cross t he m ountains e ast o f S alcantay. F rom H uarocondo t his w ell-built r oad o f m odest d imensions c rosses t he m ountains a nd v alleys o f S ambor, Q uencomayo, S ilque A lto, Q uesca, C usichaca ( mid-valley), H uayruru a nd t hen d ivides t he l eft b ranch c rossing t he H uayrurupata P ass a nd f ollowing t he Y ana inayo t o c ross t he A obamba a nd S anta T eresa v alleys i n t he d irection o f V ilcabamba ; a nd t he r ight b ranch c ontinuing o ver t he H uarmiwañuska P ass t hrough C edrobamba t o M achu P icchu. T he r oute i s a d ifficult o ne w hich t raverses s parsely p opulated p asture z ones. -

T he t wo m ain s ections c an b e d istinguished o n i ts r oute t o M achu P icchu. I n t he f irst, b etween H uarocondo a nd t he P aucarcancha f ort g uarding t he e ntrance t o t he C usichaca v alley, o nly l ookouts a nd r oad s tops o f t he t ambo t ype l ine t he r oad. I n t he Q uesca v alley t he t wo s mall r esidential s ites o f t he t ambo t ype, I nca R accay a nd I ncasamana c onsist o f 7a nd 5 s tructures r espectively l ocated a round t wo c ourts. A t hird t ambo m ay h ave b een b uilt a t t he s ide o f t he Q uencomayo r iver. T hese t a inbos a re l ocated a t i ntervals o f a h alf d ay t o a d ay 's w alk. T here w as o nly d ispersed l ate p re-Inca s ettlement a t t he t op o f t he S ilque v alley a nd i n t he Qesca v alley, w hile l arge s ites a re k nown b ordering t he A nta v alley a nd a t S ayllac a nd M anzanayoc o pposite P aucarcancha a t 3 ,200m a ltitudes. T he r emains o f P aucarcancha ( Pl. 6 ) c onsist o f 1 5 b uildings a rranged i n t hree m ain g roupings o f d ifferent f unctions. S ection 1 , a t t he n orthern m ost f ront s ide, c onsists o f s mall t o m edium-sized s tructures l ocated a round t he p erimeter w all, f acing t he C usichaca v alley. S ection 2 c onsists o f a l arge p laza w hich h as d irect a ccess f rom t he w est s ide a nd i s s urrounded b y f our l arge b uildings. S ection 3 , a bove a nd s outh o f t he f ormer s ections, c ontains s mall t o m ediums ized s tructures a round t wo c ourts. T he c rossing p oint o f t he I nca r oad a cross t he C usichaca r iver i s b elow P aucarcancha a t t he p oint o f c onfluence o f t he t wo r ivers. T he r oad d escends 2 km d own v alley, p asses l uayllabamba w here t here i s a nother f ort ( Angles: 1 972, p . 3 38) a nd i n t he s econd s ection e xists

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v ia t he L lulluchayoc q uebrada t o t he p ass. F rom t he p ass t he r ight b ranch p roceeds a long t he m ountainous r idge t o M achu P icchu 8 . T he t ype a nd d istribution o f s ettlement c hanges o n t his f inal s tretch . T here a re n o k nown p re-Inca s ites f rom t he p ass a nd t hose o f t he I nca p eriod a re q uite e laborate i n p lan. R unco R accay i s a s mall t ambo i n w hich t hree m ain s tructures a re b uilt i n a c ircular e nclosure a round a c entral c ircular c ourt. F ollowing o n f rom h ere l ocated a t a n i nterval o f ah alf d ay's j ourney i s S ayac M arca ( 18 b uildings) a nd a t i ntervals o f a n h our o r t wo P huyu P ata M arca ( 8 m ain b uildings a nd 3 c averns), a nd f inally b efore M achu P icchu i s r eached, t he t wo s ites o f H uinay H uayna ( 20 b uildings) a nd I nti P ata ( 18 b uildings). A ll t hese s ites h ave a ssociated s mall t errace s ystems, f ountain b aths a nd c anals ( see F ejos 1 944). L ookouts a re a n i mportant f eature o f t his r oad a t S ambor, P aucarcancha, l uarmiwañuska, P huyu P ata M arca a nd H uay 'ractambo ( Machu P icchu), a s w ell a s a r egularly s paced s eries o f r oadside p latform l ookouts, e .g. a t P ocpoc a nd e specially b etween P huyu P ata M arca a nd M achu P icchu. M achu P icchu i tself,

l ocated 8 00m a bove a nd c ircumvented o n

t hree

s ides b y t he U rubamba r iver, c omprises s ome 1 43 b uildings ( excluding c orner s paces), o f w hich o nly 8 0 m ay h ave b een u sed f or r esidential p urposes. T he m ajority o f t he o ther 6 3 a re ' open' t ype s tructures w ith s pecial f eatures s uggesting a c eremonial f unction . F our o f t he f ive p rincipal g roups o f s tructures w ere c learly s pecialised i n e ither r eligious o r o ther r itual f unctions. T he p lan c an b e d ivided i nto t wo s ections o f s ix r emarkably d ifferent t ypes o f g roups t hat h oused s ocial u nits o f v arying t ypes a nd p restige. F inely c onstructed f ountain b aths l ine t he m ain s tairway o f t he s ite a nd t he m ountain s ide i s l andscaped w ith n arrow t erraces. T his f amous s ite ( Pl. 7 ) i s a n o utstanding e xample o f c lassical I nca a rchitecture i n am ature p hase a t t he h eight o f i ts e quilibrium b etween u niformity a nd i nventiveness , c lassical s ymmetry a nd e lastic a ssymmetry. F inally, b eyond M achu P icchu a nd o verlooking t he j ungled s lopes o f t he t wisting U rubamba, t he T emple o f t he M oon i s l ocated o n a d escent f rom H uayna P icchu ( Kendall 1 969). T he s ite c omprises t wo c arved a nd b uilt r ock c averns, e ach a ssociated w ith a b uilding d ivided b y a n o rnamental f acade. S ome d etails h ere, i ncluding t he f ine c utting a nd n arrow r ecessed d etailing t o s ome n iches ( Pl. 8 ) a nd t he a ssymmetrical f luidity o f t he p lan, s urpass t hose o f M achu P icchu . I n s ummary, t wo m ountainous r oad s ections o f t his r oad s ystem h ave s harply c ontrasting t emporal a nd f unctional t raits. T he c omplexity a nd v ariety o f t he p lanning a nd t he h ouse g roups i n t he C edrobamba s ites i s i n c ontrast w ith t he s imple t ambo t ype o f t he f irst s ection o f r oad. T wo p oints c an b e m ade:a )

o n t he a pproach t o M achu P icchu t he s ettlement p attern c hanges r adically t o ac oncentration o f s mall, c omplex , w ell-built ' villages' o r ' hamlets ' c onverging o n t he c entre;

b )

t he p lanning a nd a rchitecture o f t he s ites c orresponds t o a c lassical I nca p hase p ost-dating t hat r epresented b y t he m ain C isichaca s ites a nd o ther s ites o f t he r eign o f P achacutec

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I nca i n t he v icinities o f 0 11antaytambo, P isac a nd C uzco. T he c loser o ne i s t o M achu P icchu, t he m ore i ntensive i s t he c oncentration o n v ariety o f f orm a nd o f f acilities; t here a re a lso a ssociated t erracing s ystems. H owever, w hen o ne l ooks c losely a t t he l iving a ccommodation i n t he ' villages', t hey a re r eally n o l arger t han h amlets w ith a g reater v ariety o f f acilities t han n ormally e ncountered i n s uch s mall s ites. O nly S ayac M arca h as a n e xtra s ector o f 3b uildings w hich m ay h ave f unctioned a s a t ambo d irectly r elated t o t he r oad s ystem . I ntl P ata i s t he m ost r egular a nd r estricted o f t hese s ites. T he v ariety o f p lanning s olutions i n r elation t o t he t opography u sed a t t hese s ites ( with t he e xception o f I nti P ata), i ncluding t he T emple o f t he M oon , s ometimes s urpasses t he e lasticity a nd i nventiven ess o f M achu P icchu.

4 .

T he C uzco

-

V ilcabamba M ountain R oute v ia S alcantay

T his r oute l eaves t he p lain o f A nta n ear Z urite a nd r uns a cross t he h igh m ountain C ordillera V ilcabamba w est t owards t he p rovince o f t he s ame n ame, k eeping t o t he h igh g round a nd t raversing a n umber o f p asses i n t he r egion o f S alcantay: t he C ruzccasa , A coccasa, I ncachiriasca a nd T oqto p asses a nd c ontinuing t o t he Y ana r na P ass a bove t he S anta T eresa a nd S acsara v alleys i nto t he V ilcabamba p rovince. T his i s a w ide, w ell b uilt r oad w ith f ew s ites l ocated a long i ts l ength . I nca R accay, n ear t he C ruzccasa p ass, c onsists o f t wo r ectangular s tructures f acing t owards t he T oqto p ass, t he A purimac a nd S alcantay. O ther l ookouts a nd a t ambo s ite a re t o b e e xpected a long t his r oute b ut n o o ccupation s ites e xcept C hoquetira h ave b een c onfirmed a nd t he r oute i s n ot w ell-settled. E vidently i t s erved a s a m ajor, s ervices a rtery f or m aximum s peed a nd e fficiency o f c ommunication w ith t he a rea n orth w est o f C uzco a nd p rovided d irect a nd q uick a ccess t o m any s mall r iver v alley s ystems s tarting f rom t he s nowline, f or i nstance, Q uencomayo, C usichaca, A obambo , S alcantay, S anto T eresa a ll f lowing i nto t he U rubamba r iver.

5 .

S ome S econdary R outes b etween t he U rubamba a nd A purimac D rainages

T he C usichaca-Pampaccahuana r iver v alley a nd i ts t ributory t he Q uesca , a re c onnected v ia s everal p asses i n t he v icinity o f M ount S alcantay w ith t he v alleys o f t he L echeria, C olpa a nd B lanco r ivers w hich f low i nto t he C olorado a nd s ubsequently i nto t he A purimac r iver. T he I nca o ccupation d iminishes w ith i ncreasing a ltitude b ut s ettlements o f t he l ate p re-Inca p eriod a re c oncentrated a round 3 ,000 3 ,300m a ltitude, f requently i n m id-valley ( Kendall 1 982). -

F rom H uilica R accay a nd P atallacta ( 2,500m a ltitude) a n I nca r oad a scends t he t erraces b eside t he c analised r iver o f t he C usichaca v alley, p assing T unas r nocco, a s ite o f s ix s tructures a rranged a round t hree c ourts ( Kendal 1 974). F urther o n t erraces a re l ocated a t U rpay o n a b lu L o verlooking t he H atunchaca b ridge p oint. O n p assing l uny L ia bar nba a iJ t s b adly p reserved a gricultural s ystems, t he r oad i s l ost u nder l andslides b ut r eappears a t t he l eft s ide o f t he v alley a t

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P aucarcancha j ust b eyond t he p re-Inca s ettlement o f S ayllac a nd M anzanayoc. F rom h ere t he r oad, w hich i s n ot c learly d efined b y m asonry, r ose a bove t he t ree-line i n t he d irection o f S alcantay. P ossible f oundations o f I nca r emains 6 probably a t a i nbo) c an b e s een a t t he l ower l eft s ide o f P ampaccahuana. A bove t his t he o riginal r oad i s p artially p reserved w here i t a pproaches t he c analized p lain o f H atunpampa. A bove H atunpampa a t 4 ,300m a ltitude i s S isaypampa , d ivides i n t hree d irections ( divisions n ot v isible):-

t he

r oad

1 )

H eading n orth w est t o t he P alcay p ass a nd s o t o t he v alley, t he I nca r emains o f P alcay ( Bingham 1 913) a nd b ranches o f t he r oad s ystem ( C.A .P . I nternal R eport , 1 978).

A obamba f urther K endall

2 )

T he C ruzccasa P ass, a lthough t he m ain a ccess w as p robably v ia t he Q uesca v alley a nd t he A coccasa P ass ( C.A.P . I nternal R eports, K endall 1 977, D rew 1 981) w hich l inks w ith t he C olpa a nd L echeria v alleys.

3 )

T o t he s outh-west p asses o f t he m ain C uzco-Vilcabamba r oad o f I ncachiriaska a nd T oqto, w hich l ead o n t o t he R io B lanco a nd a long t he S alcantay/Santa T eresa v alley a nd s ites i ncluding C hoquequirao a nd v ia Y anama t o V ilcabamba ( C.A .P . I nternal R eports, B eauclerk 1 979 a nd D rew 1 980).

S mall o bservation/control s ites w ith s ome a ssociated a ccommodation a re l ocated o n r idges a nd a t h eads o f v alleys a t o ver 4 ,000m a ltitude. t hese o ften c onsist o f o nly a p air o f s tructures. T wo o f t hese s ites, S ora a nd V iscachaccasa , a re k nown a bove t he C usichaca v alley o n e ither s ide o f t he Q uesca, a nd o thers a re k nown a bove L echeria a nd t he C olpa/Blanco r ivers. T he I nca r uin o f P alcay a t L lactapampa l ocated i n a m id A obamba v alley c onfluence p osition a t 3 ,340m a ltitude, i s c omparable t o P aucarcancha. P alcay w ith i ts a ssociated t errace s ystem , c ould, l ike P aucarcancha, h ave s atisfied m ilitary a nd e conomic o bjectives. T he r emains a re i n t wo s ections: o ne c onsisting o f 1 1 b uildings a rranged i n f our e nclosures o rganised o n a g rid p attern o f a s ingle c rossroad o n a n e ast-west a xis; t he s econd s mall g roup c onsists o f t wo s tructures a ssociated w ith a l arge r ock a nd t erraces ( plan i n B ingham 1 913, p . 5 57). B elow t his s ite t wo w ell-built r oads l ead r espectively t o t he U rubamba v alley a t I ntihuatana a nd t he S anta T eresa v alley. B oth t he A obamba a nd S anta T eresa v alleys a re c rossed b y l aternal r oads l eading t o t he V ilcabamba h eartland. A s imilar s ettlement p atter t o t hat o f t he C usichaca v alley e xisted i n t he d irection o f L imatambo a nd t he C olorado/Apurimac v alleys. T he I nca o ccupation w as c oncentrated i n t he l ower r egions a t L imatambo, M arcahuasi a nd E strella, t hinning o ut i n t he u pper r egions, w hile t hat o f t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod w as c oncentrated s lightly h igher u p. T he c lassical I nca a rchitectural s tyle, w ithout e laborat .on, p redominates i n t he I nca s ites o n b oth s ides o f S a lcantay m ountain.

1 , 68

T he o verall p icture i s o f p lanning f or c areful s urveillance a nd f or a n e fficient a nd e xtensive c ommunciations n etwork, b acked u p b y s mall s cale a gricultural s ystems t hat e nsured s elf-sufficiency. H owever , i t m ust b e a dded t hat a l ess l assical s tyle o f a rchitecture m ay b e s een i n s ome o bservation p osts, a nd o ccasionnaly i n s ome a pparently p reI ncaic o ccupation s ites. P articularly i n t his ' secondary r oads' c ategory t he I nca p robably i ntegrated l ocal t raditional r outes I nto t heir r oads.

D iscussions a nd S ome C onclusions T o s um u p t he f oregoing, i t c an b e s aid t hat t hree o r f our m ain t ypes o f r oad s ystems a re a pparent i n t he a rea u nder d iscussion. H owever, t hese a re i nevitably i nterwoven a nd s ome o f t he s ections h ave i nter-related f unctions. T he r oads w hich w ere w ell-built, c onstructed o f s tone a t l east i n p art, a re l isted b elow w ith s ummary c omments o n t heir f unction: 1 .

T he m ajor c ivic a nd e conomic r oute i dentified a t t he n orth s ide o f t he U rubamba ( Vilcanota) v alley w ith b ranches v ia p asses t o a djacent j ungle r egions.

2 .

T he s econdary m ajor e conomic r oute p rovided f or l ocal c ommunications f acilitating t he d istribution o f l ocal p roduce a nd c onnected w ith a l ocal a gricultural a dministrative c entre i dentified a t t he s outh s ide o f t he U rubamba ( Vilcanota) v alley. I t a lso e xtended i nto t he C usichaca v alley a nd s erved a s a n a rtery t o s econdary s ystems. T his r oad w hich c ontinued t o M achu P icchu, m ay h ave f unctioned i n i ts l atter, l ater s ection a s ap restigious a pproach t o t hat s ite.

-

-

3 .

T he H uarocondo t o M achu P icchu m ountain r oute b ranches p rovided a d irect r oute t o M achu P icchu .

w ith

l ocal

4 .

T he d irect r oad v ia S alcantay t o V ilcabamba b uilt p rimarily f or e fficient s tate c ommunications a nd a s p art o f a m ilitary s trategy.

5 .

( The c ombination o f t ypes 2 a nd 3 w hich m ay b e s een i n s mall v alley s ystems w ith d ifferent e mphase f or e xample i n t he C usichaca a nd A obamba v alleys a nd m any s uch v alleys i n t he V ilcabamba a rea). -

T he m ain r oads d escribed h ad q uite d ifferent r oles t o p lay i n t he I nca o rganisation o f t he r egion. T hey w ere b uilt i n s ection i n s ome c ases, i n a t l east t wo p hases a nd i n s ome c ases t hree p hases. I n t he f irst r oad t he f irst s tage i s n ow t he l east w ell-defined; t he s ites a re n ot h omogeneous b ut a ppear t o h ave b een b uilt a ccording t o c urrent n eeds, s tarting f rom t he l ast p hase o f t he e arly I nca ( pre-Empire) p eriod. D uring t his t ransitional p eriod, b efore t he c lassical I nca a rchitectural s tyle w as f ully f ormulated a nd t he I nca i nfluence w as d ominant, s ome C uzco i nfluence m ay h ave r eached t o P iscaycucho a nd p ossibly C hoquellusca. D uring P achacutec's r egin, a fter A D 1 438 , t he a rea w as d eveloped a t l east a s f ar a s C usichaca a nd C orihuayrachina i n t he f ull c lassical I nca s tyle o f t he f irst p hase o f t he L ate H orizon

4 69

I mperial s tyle. S imilarly t he s econd r oad m ust h ave b een b uilt a s a s C usichaca i n t he f irst p hase o f t he L ate H orizon. P achacutec's i nitial p olicy a lmost c ertainly w ould h ave b een c onsolidate a ll t ho 1 r egions n ear C uzco t hat h ad a c oncentration

f ar

t o o f

n on-Inca p opulations a s w ell a s s ecuring h is f rontiers, p articularly a long t he A purimac v alley, a gainst a nother C hanca a ttack. T he U rubamba v alley w ith i ts l inks t o t he A purimac d rainage a nd t he h igh n on-Inca p opulations s ettled o n t he s ides o f t he v alleys, w ould h ave m ade t he a rea a p riority f or t his t ype o f m ilitary c onsolidation. S alapunco a nd H uilica R accay w ould h ave b een s trategically p laced t o c ontrol a nd o versee t he a rea , i ncluding t he C usichaca c onnection w ith t he A purimac , b acked u p b y t hree h igh l ookout s ites a t S alapunco, S ora a nd V iscachaccasa. T he m onumental r emains a t S alapunco a ppear t o h ave f ulfilled t he a dditional f unction o f a p olitical b oundary m ark b etween t he o ld a rea o f i nfluence a nd t he n ew E mpire. I n a ddition t o i ts s trategic i mportance, t he U rubamba v alley w as a p rime m aize p roducing a rea. T he r equirements o f a n ew a rmy, a g rowing a dministrative c lass a nd a r uler w ith a l arge e xtended f amily t o s upport, m ade t his v alley a n a gricultural a rea o f m ajor e conomic i mportance f or t he I nca a nd C uzco, a nd c onsequently t he p re-Inca c anals a nd l and s ystems w ere r e-organised i nto e fficient w ell-irrigated I nca t erraces. O n t he f ace o f i t, a t C usichaca a l arge s cale a gricultural d evelopment p rovided a b ase f rom w hich t he a rea c ould b e f urther d eveloped l ater i ts s urplus c ould b e d istributed e ither t o o ther e nterprises s uch a s M achu P icchu o r t o C uzco o r t he r egional c apital . T he U rubamba v alley a nd r egion a s aw hole m ust h ave b een a dministered f rom 0 11antaytambo a nd w orked l argely b y t he n on-Inca p ulations, i ncluding t he A yarmaca a nd g roups o f v anacona a nd m itima. S everal I nca r ulers w ere t o h ave p ersonal i nterests i n l ands i n t he r egion. -

C usichaca, ( Huilica R accay a nd P atallacta), s ituated a t t he c onfluence o f t wo s mall r iver v alleys, h as a ccess t o a w ide r ange o f e cological z ones a nd t he a dvantage o f m any s pring a nd l ake w ater s ources. T he e ntire l ower a rea w as r eplanned b y t he I nca f or e fficient a gricultural p roduction. T he e xisting p opulation w as p robably r ehoused a nd n ew g roups w ere m oved i nto t he a rea. H ere t he b arrack-like c ompounds o f t he L arge P laza i n P atallacta m ay h ave h oused e ither m ita w orkers w ho c arried o ut a v ariety o f d uties, o r t emporary m igratory a griculturalists f rom h igher i n t he v alley w ho c ame t o p ay t heir w ork t ax. H owever, t he h igher s lopes a nd t ablelands w ith p re-Inca t erracing s ystems, p articularly o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c onfluence a rea, c ould h ave r emained i n t he h ands o f t he n on-Inca l ocal c ommunities. I t i s i nteresting t o c onsider t hat t he C usichaca c omplex , 3 0km u p v alley f rom M achu P icchu , b uilt r elatively e arly i n P achacutec 's r eign , w ould h ave p rovided t wo e ssential p re-requisites f or t he b uilding o f M achu P icchu : s ecurity o f t he a djacent r egion w ith i ts i ntensive p reI nca o ccupation a nd a s ecure s upply o f f ood. I nca s ettlement e xtended u p t he C usichaca v alley, t he t wo m ain s ites h ei a t m id-valley j unction p oints o n t he m ountain r oad s ystem . T hese to s ires , P aucarcancha a nd H uayllabamba, a nd a t hird, l un nocco, are a ll b uii .t o n t errace s ystems w ithin e leven k ilometers : h

m a . r

C usichara

c omplex.

4 70

H owever,

i t

w as

t he

n on-Inca

p opulations t hat g enerally e stablished t heir s ettlements i n t he s lightly h igher r egions o f t his a rea. T heir s ettlement p attern i n t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod i s n ot c oncentrated i n t he m aize g rowing z one b ut e xtends i nto t he r oot a nd p otato g rowing z one o ver 3 ,000m ( Farrington 1 979). T his c hange o f s ettlement p attern b etween t he L ate I ntermediate P eriod a nd t he I nca P eriod i s r eferred t o i n t he e thnohistorical s ources a nd i s a n a spect o f t he h istory o f t he a rea b eing i nvestigated b y t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject ( Kendall 1 979); i t i s c ertainly a m arked f eature o f t his r egion. I n t he p re-Inca s ettlement p attern, t he s traddling o f t wo m ajor e cological z ones i n o rder t o b enefit f rom t he r ange o f a gricultural p roduce ( Farrington 1 979) w ould a lso h ave b een a d efensive s trategy, w ith s ites l ocated o n r idges i n s trong d efensive p ositions a djacent t o e ssential w ater s ources f rom w hich c anals d istributed w ater. D uring t he I nca p eriod, t he s ize o f s ite i n t his r egion c an b e s aid t o h ave v aried l argely a ccording t o a ltitude t he m ain c oncentration o f p opulation b eing l ocated b etween 2 ,500 2 ,800m i n t he m aize z one; h owever, d istribution o f t hese m ain c oncentrations ( the m ajor s ites) i s b etween 2 ,100 a nd 2 ,800m a t i ntervals o f a bout 3 0 k ilometers a long t he U rubamba v alley. T he m idv alley p opulations o f t he s ide v alleys w ere c oncentrated a round j unction p oints a nd a rable l and. T he s mallest s ites a bove t he t ree l ine p rovided r esting p laces a nd o bservation p osts n ear t he p asses. -

-

I n s ummary, t he m ain v alley r oads w ould h ave h ad t o f acilitate t he m ovement o f m ilitary a nd c ivilian p opulation a nd t he r edistribution o f g oods, c rops a nd m aterials t o C uzco. T hese r oads s eem t o h ave b een s uccessful i n p roviding f or s upervising t raffic, t hrough w hat w as a w ell-populated r egion l inking c oncentrated v ertical a gro-ecological s ystems ( in t he s ide v alleys) a nd t he C uzco h ighlands t o t he j ungle. W hereas t he n orth b ank v alley r oad a lso p rovided d irect a ccess t o r outes t hrough t he P atacancha v alley t o A mparaes a nd O ccobamba a nd v ia t he P anticalla ( now c alled M alaga) p ass t o C hoquechaca a nd o ther n etworks, t he s outh b ank r oad m ay o riginally h ave b een l ess u sed. E xcept i n i ts f irst s ection i t h ad f ew d efined s tops u ntil i t r eached C usichaca a nd M achu P icchu w ere b ridge p oints p rovided c onnections w ith t he n orth b ank r oad. T he f unction o f t he s ection o f r oad b etween C orihuayrachina/Quente a nd M achu P icchu w ill b e d iscussed i n r elation t o M achu P icchu . T he S alcantay m ountain r oad, m ay h ave b een b uilt i nitially a s a d irect a nd e fficient c onnection f or f acilitating s tate c ommunications b etween C uzco , a nd t he V ilcabamba h eartland, w ith b ranches r eaching t he A purimac a nd U rubamba v alleys a t s everal p oints. T he r oad f rom H uarocondo w hich c rosses t he m id C usichaca V alley, i n i ts f irst s ection c ould b e c lose i n d ate t o t he f irst s ections o f t he U rubamba v alley r oads. O therwise t he e ntire r oad s ystem c ould h ave b een p lanned a s ap roject i ncluding M achu P icchu. T here i s l ittle d iagnostic e vidence i n t he c lassical a rchitecture o f t he t ambos b etween H uaroco do a nd P aucarcancha a lthough i t i s q uite c lear t hat f rom t he C u ichaca \ 'i lley n orthwards t he a rchitecture o f t he o ccupation s ites p ost -t h ites t ne n iin c omplex a t C usichaca . W hichever w as t he c ase, t he b uil d-' _ -i g o f M achu P icchu i n d irection c ommunication w ith C uzco m ust b e i rto c trat ion w hen e val u ating t he f unction o f t he s ite.

I

1

1 7 I . A .

M achu P icchu m ust b e l ooked a t i n t he c ontext o f i ts p osition, t he w ay i n w hich s ections o f r oad i mmediately a djacent f unctioned a nd t he n ature o f t he C edrobamba s ites. T he c itadel, s ituated i n au nique a nd c ommanding o sition o verlooking t he U rubamba , i s a lso i n a g eographical c ul-de-sac' b etween t he i mportant a gricultural a nd s trategic z ones a nd o ff t he d irect r oute f rom 0 11antaytambo v ia t he P anticalla p ass t o V ilcabamba. T he c hoice o f s ite f or t his i mpressive c omplex w as n ot g overned b y p ractical c onsiderations, e xcept f or d efense/observation ; n or w as t he r ock o utcrop o n w hich i t w as b uilt s uitable f or a griculture w ithout i ntensive t erracing. T he C edrobamba r idge b etween t he A obamba a nd U rubamba v alleys a nd i ts f orested s lopes w ould n ot h ave b een a n i mmediate s ecurity p roblem t o P achacutec, e xcept t hat i t w as v irtually u npopulated a nd c ould h ave h arboured r ebels. S trategic o utposts o f a s elf-supporting t ype w ould c ertainly h ave b een n ecessary f urther a field, i n t he h eart o f t he V ilcabamba r egion a nd a long t he A purimac v alley , ar egion w hich w as d eveloped f urther a t a l ater t ime, p articularly i n t he e arly p ost-Inca p eriod ( 1537-1571). T he e vidence o f a dditional l ocal r oad s ystems a nd o f t he s ettlement p attern i n o ther s maller v alleys b etween t he A purimac a nd U rubamba d rainages, c onfirms a gain t hat P achacutec's m ilitary s trategy w as b acked u p b y h is e conomic p lanning , a s trategy w hich e nsured t he s uccess o f h is l ater e nterprises a nd t hose o f h is s uccessors i n o ther p arts o f t he E mpire. A k ey t o t he s uccessful m ilitary o ccupation o f t he a rea u nder s tudy w as t he d egree o f s elf-sufficiency i n a griculture p rovided b y t he t errace s ystems a ssociated w ith t he s ites. P alcay, s et o n t he b ranch o f t he m ountainous r oute t o i nner V ilcabamba , w as b uilt f or s ecurity p urposes a nd a s a s elf-sufficient p ost. T his e xplanation o f i ts f unction, c ombined w ith i ts r epetitive p lan , w ould p lace i t a nd t he a ssociated n etwork o f c a r oads a t a d ate b etween t he b uilding o f C usichaca a nd M achu P icchu . T he l ocation o f s uch s ites i n s trategic p ositions w ith i ntegrated t erraced a gricultural s ystems a t c onfluences o f r ivers a nd o n r idges o verlooking t he r oads a nd a djacent s ites, w as e ssential t o t he s ecurity o f C uzco i tself, s ince i n t he a djacent V ilcabamba r egion t here i s e vidence o f a s trong p re-Inca p opulation. T here h ad b een a p eriod o f Q uechua a nd C hanca c onflicts a long t he A purimac v alley. P re-Inca s ites w ith c ircular b uildings o verlook t he A purimac f rom s trategic p ositions o n b oth s ides , j ust a s t he I nca s ites d o. T he s ites a long t he A purimac b ecame i mportant a gain i n t he p eriod 1 539-1571 f ollowing t he S panish C onquest ( when t he V ilcabamba h eartland e xperienced a nother w ave o f b uilding a ctivity). I n t his p eriod t he f eatures o f t he I nca a rchitecture a nd p lanning w ere n o l onger s trictly c ompatible w ith t he s tandardized f orms o f t he E mpire p eriod ( Savoy 1 970: K endall 1 979). T his t ype o f p ost-classical I nca a rchitecture i s n ot f ound i n t he C edrobamba. T he m ain s ites m entioned i n t he a ccounts o f M anco I nca 's r ebellion a re 0 11antaytambo, ( Huamanmarca), L ucma, R osaspata , P uquiura , C hoquepalta , V itcos a nd A cobamba t he l ast s ix b eing i n t he V ilcabamba p rovince. D uring t his p eriod t he C edrobamba m ay h ave r eturned t o a l ow p opulation, b ecoming a b uffer z one b etween t he S panish-held t erritories a nd t he V ilcabamba h eartland. -

4 72

F rom t his p erspective o f t he I nca c ommunications s ystem d evelopment o f t he a rea, w e c an c onsider s ome o ther a spects o f s ites w hich m ay l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t heir f unction.

a nd k ey

T he r igidity a nd l imited r ange o f t he c lasical a rchitecture a nd p lanning a t t he w ell-known e arly s ites o f P achacutec 's r eign, i ncluding m uch o f C uzco, P isac a nd C usichaca, i s i n c ontrast t o t he e laborate p lanning o f t he C edrobamba s ites a nd M achu P icchu. T his l eads t o t he c onclusion t hat t hese l atter s ites, a s t heir d istance f rom C uzco m ight a lso s uggest, w ere u ilt e ither l ate i n P achacutec 's r eign o r e arly i n T opa I nca's r eign. 1 T here a re t wo p oints w hich m ay b e s ignificant i n r elation t o t he d ate o f c onstruction o f t hese s ites, w hen a dded t o S armiento's a nd M urua 's e thnohistorical a ccounts: P achucutec I nca 's n eed f or a s ecure p lace f or l eisure a nd c eremonial a ctivities; a nd T opa I nca w ho w as f amous f or e xtending I nca a ctivity i n t he j ungle a reas a djacent t o C uzco ( Murua 1 613: 1 .21,24) w as a lso r eportedly a k een h unter w ho b uilt h unting l odges ( Cobo 1 653, I V .13: 1 4). T he n atural s ecurity w ith m agnificent v iews a nd t he a ttractive h unting g rounds o f t he C edrobamba, a s w ell a s t he h ot s prings f or t hermal b aths a t A guas C alientes m ay h ave l ed t o t he c hoice o f t his a rea f or m ore p ersonal i nterests a fter s ome i nitial d evelopment h ad a lready b een c arried o ut a t C usichaca. A ccording t o t he e thnohistorical s ources t here a re p recedents i n I nca b uilding f or t hree t ypes o f s ites w hich c ould b e r elevant t o t he b uilding o f M achu P icchu. T hese i nclude t he r uling I nca 's p ractice o f ( a)

b uilding c ountry p alaces a nd d eveloping e states f or p anaca ( family d escendants) ( Rowe 1 967) t hese a spects b e c ombined i n o ne s ite; -

h is m ay

( b)

t aking a s pecial i nterest i n c ertain m onumental p rojects, e specially m ilitary a nd r eligious m onuments i n w hich t hese t wo f unctions m ay b e c ombined; a nd

( c)

b uilding h unting l odges a nd r etreats t o p rovide o pportunities f or w ithdrawal f rom t he p ressures o f p ublic l ife ( Cieza 1 554 X C1 ).

P isac, b uilt b y P achacutec I nca , w as a p recedent f or a c eremonial c entre r egularly v isited b y h im f or s ocial a nd c eremonial c elebrations ( Sarmiento 1 572: X XXIV). T he m ain f eatures o f t he P isac c omplex a re a t erraced c itadel w ith t he m ost p restigious c omplex o f b uildings o utside C uzco, b uilt o n as addle i n t he f inest r ectangular s tone m asonry. O ther c omplexes o f b uildingts a re a rranged a round t he c entral s addle ap restigious r esidential s ector s erving a s q uarters f or a l arge s ocial u nit ( as o pposed t o a f amily o ne), a v illage , a f ort, a nd s econdary g roups, i ncluding s torehouses a nd o bservation/control p osts l inked b y a m aze o f r oads a nd t unnels. T hese f unctions a re m et a t M achu P icchu i n a m ore c ompact a nd e lastic p lan i n w hich c eremonial a nd r esidential g roups o f v arying d egrees o f p restige a re j uxtaposed a round a c entral a rea d ominated, a s a t P isac, b y t he I ntihuatana g roup. T here i s p robably a c ritical d ifference b etween t he t wo c itadels: P isac w as b uilt i n a n a rea o f d ense p re-Inca p opulation ( the C uyo) w ith c ontrolled a ccess n ot o nly a t a ll e ntrance p oints b ut b etween s ectors t hroughout t he s ite. H owever, M achu P icchu, i solated i n a f orested -

4 73

hinterland with well-guarded roads of approach, allowed for more freedom of movement internally. Its adjacent sites were built to house a carefully chosen population (which would pose no threat) brought into the immediate region. Pisac was destroyed by Pachacutec after an attempted assassination on him by ty Cuyos (Sarmiento 1572: XXXIII: Murua 1613 1: 17). He or his son could have built Machu Picchu as a new ceremonial centre to replace Pisac and the role it had played. Having abandoned Pisac, Pachacutec's first action was to build a palace for himself at Yucay and then to direct his attention to Ollantaytambo (Sarmiento 1572: XXXIII XL), Huamanmarca (Rostworowski 1963) and Quentemarca (Rowe Certainly the architecture and planning of Machu Picchu is 1987). 14a consistent with it being a ceremonial centre for exclusive use of the ruling Inca, the Inca elite class and their servants. It provided a richly entertaining variety of facilities for ritual needs and calendrical observations could be made here in an environment offering privacy and security. The closely connected satellite sites may have been, in some cases, contemporary with Machu Picchu, i.e. Sayac Marca and Choquesuysuy are essential for its security, while others like Inti Pata would have made the area more self-sufficient and contributed towards the support of the Inca's panaca and servants.

5

However, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about the order in which the sites in the immediate vicinity of Machu Picchu were built since there is no clear evidence of chronological variations in the architecture. In Machu Picchu itself, there is evidence of at least two phases of building and modifications to some house groups (e.g. small terrace structures are converted from open-fronted buildings to Difference in planning closed buildings suitable for dwellings). solutions are due to the topography and functional requirements. The so-called Temple of the Moon on Huayna Picchu is a crowning achievement in which characteristic Inca symmetrical repetition is not maintained. This, combined with its other outstanding features (such as the narrow shallow carved recessing around niches and a wide rectangular niche), suggest it could have been one of the last sites to be built in the area. Other sites which can be more easily evaluated from their relationship to either Cusichaca or Machu Picchu, are Paucarcancha, Huayna Quente and Torontoy, all of which have features that fall within the range of Machu Picchu sites. Torontoy, a key post on the Urubamba, was planned more in line with the Machu Picchu complex, which also perhaps explains its prestigious features. Huayna Quente, the features of which are most compatible with those of Huayna Picchu's temple, could have been built like that site after the completion of the first phase of construction at Machu Picchu. This small ceremonial centre would have added more prestige to Patallacta and its well organised population, and served as another adornment on the approach to Machu Picchu. Finally, the ceremonial nature of Machu Picchu should also be vie�ed in relation to the area as a whole. The number of ceremonial complexes on the Urubamba raute to Machu Picchu suggests an approach to a place of pilgri�age wic� rescricted, carefully controlled access. CerLa�1 prspa�ations of a ritual nature, such as confession and

c leansing, m ay h ave b een n ecessary b efore t he f inal a scent t o t he c itadel. I n a nother v iew t he p rominent p osition o f t he s ite m ay a lso h ave b een i ntended t o d raw a ttention t o t he I nca c onquest o f V ilcabamba a nd a djacent j ungle a reas, i n w hich c ase M achu P icchu c ould a lso s ymbolise I nca d omination. T he t opography o f t he g eneral a rea i s n ot c onducive t o l arge s cale a dministrative a nd r eligious c entres c ombined i n a s ingle p rovincial c apital o r o ther t ype o f c entre, a nd i n t his a rea t hese f unctions w ere e vidently m aintained q uite s eparately a t P atallacta a nd M achu P icchu. T he d iscussion o f t he f unction o f M achu P icchu a nd o f P atallacta a t C usichaca i s n ow h elped b y a rchival d ata w hich h as r ecently c ome t o l ight a nd w hich s uggests b oth s ites f ormed p art o f t he P achacutec I nca 's p rivate e state o f Q uentemarca ( Rowe 1 987). S ubsequent t o t he e thnohistorical r eference t o t he l ocation o f " Pichu" a bove t he b ridge o f C haullay ( Relaci6n d e D iego R odriques 1 910) a nd t he i dentification o f " Quinte M arca" a nd o ther l an a long t he U rubamba R iver i n a rchival s ources ( Glaves a nd R emy 1 984), u a a s p roperties b elonging t o t he I nca Y upanque ( i.e. P achacutec I nca, R owe 1 987), i t i s p robable t hat t he a rea o f H acienda Q uente ( from P atallacta t o M achu P icchu/River C usichaca t o R iver A obamba) c omprised a m ajor p art o f t he p rivate e state o f P achucutec I nca . T he H acienda Q uente, u ntil t he r ecent A grarian R eform, c omprised t he l ands b etween t he t wo r ivers o f C usichaca a nd A obamba a t t he s outh s ide o f t he U ruba i nba R iver. W ithin t he p roperty a rea w ere a lso l oç ted t he C edrobamba s ites a nd t he " Inc a T rail". I f w e a ccept t hat a 11 1 a o f t his h acienda c omprised t he l atest p ersonal e state o f P achucutec I nca, w hich o ffered h im f acilities f or l eisure, p rivate f amily c eremonials a nd t he s upport o f h is l arge e xtended f amily a nd p erhaps f or e ntertaining h ere a nd i n C uzco, t hen w e h ave a f ine e xample o f t he v ariety o f t he p rivate r esources a nd f acilities e njoyed b y t he f irst I nca E mperor. T his p articular a rea , w hich w ould h ave b een e specially d eveloped t o p rovide f or P achacutec's p rivate n eeds a nd f or t hose o f h is h eirs, w as s uitably r ich a nd v aried i n i ts r esources t o p rovide f or s elfs ufficiency, i ncorporating a w ide r ange o f e cological n iches ( montaf la , q ueswa, s anu a nd p una). T he r esidential s ites o f P atallacta a nd t he C edrobamba w ere i deal f or Y anacona a nd s ervants w ith h igh c lass d uties m anaging a nd w orking o n t he e states a nd s erving t he I nca . M achu P icchu w as a lmost c ertainly b uilt d uring t he l atter y ears o f P achacutec's l ife, a s a n e litist l eisure a nd c eremonial c entre ( where s tudies o f t he s un 's m ovements a nd c alendrical o bservations c ould b e m ade). I t r emained ap lace o f e xceptional b eauty a s a c eremonial c entre f or h is d escendants w here t hey c ould c ontinue t heir s un w orship a nd o bservation o f t he c alendar.

05

A cknowledgements I s hould l ike t o a cknowledge t he p articipation o f F idel R amos o f t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura i n t he H uarocondo w alk a nd t he L imatambo a rea r econnaissance; o f J ose G onzales C . a nd E dward M acDonnell i n 1 978; a nd o ther f ield a ssistance f rom t hose w orking w ith t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject s ince 1 977, e specially D avid D rew . F or f unding I w ould l ike t o t hank t he s ponsors o f t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject; p articularly r elevant t o t his w ork w as t he s upport o f t he R oyal G eographical S ociety, L ondon, B ritish C aledonian A irways a nd T he L everhulme T rust. Is hould a lso l ike t o t hank t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura , P eru, f or i ts s upport a nd c o-operation ; a nd t he A rchivo D epartamental, C uzco, f or a llowing m e a ccess t o d ocuments o n t he a rea.

4 76

N OTES

* A

T he a rticle w as f irst w ritten i n 1 980 a nd t he c ontents p resented a t t he C ongreso d e l a C ultura y e l H ombre A ndino i n H uancayo, P eru. L ettered n otes a nd t he f inal t wo p aragraphs h ave b een a dded d ue t o a r ecent p ublication b y D r. J ohn H . R owe " Machupijchu a l uz d e l os d ocumentos d e s iglo X VI."

1 .

T he f ull l ength n iche o n a n e xterior w all f acing t he e ntrance t o t he s econd e nclosure a t T orontoy, i s s imilar t o t hat g uarding t he s tairway a ccess t o t he I ngapirca e nclosure i n E cuador: o therwise i t i s r are. I n t he s ame b uilding t he p rojecting s labs o f t he g able w indow ( often r eferred t o a s ' Balcony S tones') a re f ound a t s everal s ites i n t he v icinity o f M achu P icchu a nd a t s ites l ike H uayna Q uente a nd P aucarcancha .

l a.

2 .

S ome e vidence o f E arly H orizon a nd M iddle H orizon o ccupation a lso b een f ound i n t he a rea.

h as

I nca U rco w as P achacutec I nca 's h alf b rother a nd r ival h eir t o t he I nca l eadership a t t he t ime o f t he I nca w ar w ith t he C hancas ( Sarmiento 1 572: X XXIII), a nd t o w hom w ere a ttributed c onquests b etween M aras a nd C hoquellusca ( Murua 1 613: 1 .19).

3 .

1 536 w as t he y ear M anco I nca a nd h is f ollowers o ccupied 0 11antaytambo a nd b uilt d efences ( Titu C uxi Y apanqui a nd o thers).

4 .

T hese w ere ' discovered ' b y H iram B ingham i n 1 911. A lthough n o d escription w as p ublished b y h im , M acCurdy ( 1923) p ublished a p lan o f P atallacta .

5 .

T he I nca u sed a s eries o f d oorways a ssociated w ith p riests' f acilities t o c ontrol a ccess t o i mportant c eremonial c entres, i n s tages e .g. o n t he I sland o f T iticaca ( Cobo 1 653: I V 1 3.18.81). -

5 a .

C onfirmed b y M argaret M acLean i n 1 987 ( personal c ommunication).

6 .

C urently t he s ection f rom H uayllabamba t o M achu P icchu i s k nown t o t ourists a s t he " Inca T rail".

7 .

H uata ( Rowe

i s a n e xample o f a p re-Inca f ort i n t he m id A nta v alley 1 944 ; K endal 1 976a), w hich f igures i n t he p ost-conquest

a ccounts o f I nca c onquests ( Sarmiento 1 572 x xxv). 8 .

T he r oad a nd t he I nca s ites a long t his r idge w ere f irst ' discovered ' b y B ingham ( 1916) a nd d escribed b y F ejos ( 1944).

9 .

R ecent a rticles b y t he a uthor a nd D rew r espectively o n t he s ettlement p attern o f t he C usichaca/Pampaccahuana v alley a nd t he S anta T eresa v alley o utline s ome e xamples o f s mall s ites o f t he I nca p eriod w hich a re n ot b uilt i n t he c lassical s tyle. ( Proceedings o f t he 4 4th I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, M anchester 1 982, p ublished b y B .A .R.).

4 77

1 0 .

W e a re n ot c oncerned h ere w ith t he f inal p hase o f f irst P ost-Inca p hase o f I nca p lanning a nd a rchitecture w hich c an b e d istinguished i n a n umber o f s ites n ear 0 11antaytambo, m ost o f w hich c ould c orrespond t o M anco I nca's b rief m ilitary o ccupation i n 1 536.

1 1.

T he A yarmaca o ccupied t his a rea a nd r emained i ndependent I ncas a t l east u ntil l ate i n t he r eign o f V iracocha I nca, u ntil t hat o f P achacutec ( Sarmiento 1 572: I X X XIII, X XXV ; M urua 1 613: 1 :15, 1 7, p . 4 3). -

1 2.

o f t he i f n ot X XXIII,

Y anacona an ew c lass o f p ersonal s ervants c reated b y t he I nca . M itima I nca c olonists I ncas b y p rivilege o r n on-Inca p opulations. -

-

-

1 3 .

T his o bservation s tands e ven i f t he w est b ank r oad i s t o e xtend d own r iver.

c onsidered

1 4.

T his d ate i s a lso s upported b y ac omparison o f t he s ite w ith H uamanmarca i n t he L ucumayo v alley . T he s ites s hare s imilarities i n p lan a nd H uamanmarca w as s upposed t o h ave b een b uilt i n t he r eign o f P achacutec a nd w as u sed b y T opa I nca t o e xtend c onquests l ate i n t he r eign ( Murua 1 613: 1 :21. R ostworowski, 1 963).

1 4a.

S ubsequent t o p resenting t his p aper i n 1 980 , J ohn H . R owe p ublished " Machupijchu a l uz d e l os d ocumentos d el S iglo X VI" i n K untur, L ima.

1 5 .

W hether o r n ot t he r uling I nca h ad a d irect i nterest i n t he b uilding o f M achu P icchu , t he s ite 's a rchitecture f its c hronologically i nto t he l ate P achacutec I nca's r eign ( post C usichaca) o r e arly T opa I nca 's r eign ( pre C hincero).

1 6a. P apers o f t he C onvent o f t he A gustinians w ere f ound b y G laves R emy i n t he A rchivo D epartmental d e C usco.

a nd

1 7a. H owever, i f t he e state w as m ore l imited i n s ize i t m ay h ave b egun a t M achu a nd H uayna Q uente, e xcluding P atallacta a nd i ts a ssociated t errace s ystems a long t he C usichaca r iver, w hich e vidently p art o f a n e arlier d evelopment. E ven i n t his c ase

w ere m ost

o f t he f ollowing c omments s tand w ith t he r eservation t hat a ccess t o t he u pper e cological z ones m ay h ave b een m ore r estricted o r b y a rrangement.

4 78

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A ngles, V ictor. 1 972. M achupijchu E nigmactica C iudad I nka I ndustrial G raf i ca e ssay, L ima , P eru. -

B ingham , H iram . 1 913. I n t he W onderland o f P eru : N ational G eographic M agazine, A pril 1 913. B ingham , H iram . 1 916. F urther E xplorations i n t he L and o f t he I ncas N ational G eographic M agazine N o. 2 7. B ingham ,

H iram .

1 922.

I nca L and

: H oughton M iff l i n & Co., U .S.A .

B ingham, H iram . 1 930 . M achu P icchu , AC itadel o f t he I ncas : M emoirs o f t he N ational G eographic S ociety , Y ale U niversity, N ew H aven, U .S.A .

C ieza d e L eon, P edro. I ncas

1 550 .

C ronica d el P eru : E l S eñorio d e L os

C ieza d e L eon, P edro. 1 554. T he I ncas o f P edro C ieza d e L eon e dition b y V on H agen ; U niversity o f O klahoma N orman.

1 959

-

C obo , P . B ernabe. 1 890-1894. H istoria d el N uevo M undo : S ociedad d e B ibliofilos; a ndaluces S evilla 1 890 ( 1953) 1 894, e n 4 v olumenes. V olumes I II a nd I V w ere r eproduced w ith n otes b y P ardo G alimberti, C uzco 1 956. -

F arrington, I .S. 1 979. T he V ertical E conomy o f t he C usichaca V alley ( Depto , C usco , P eru) a nd i ts P rehistoric I mplications : X LIII C ongreso I nt. d e A mericanistas, V ancouver, C anada. F ejos, P aul. 1 944 . A rchaeological E xplorations i n t he C ordillera V ilcabamba : V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology, N o. 3 , N ew Y ork .

G lave, L .M . &R emy, M .T. 1 984. E structura A graria y V ida R urel e n u na R egion A ndina 0 11antaytambo e ntre l os S iglos X VI y X IX A rchivos d e H istoria , A ndina . -

G ade,

D .W . 1 975. P lants , M an a nd L and i n t he V ilcanota V alley o f P eru B iogeographica, V ol. V I. D r. W . J unk , B .V . P ublishers.

4 79

K endall, A nn. 1 969. T he T emple o f t he M oon , M achu P icchu : P eruvian T imes, O ctober 1 4, 1 969, L ima. K endall, A nn . 1 974. I nca A rchitecture a nd P lanning a t t he I nca S ites i n t he C usichaca A rea : B aessler A rchiv. S erie 1 1, X II B erlin. K endall, A nn . 1 974 a nd 1 985. A spects o f I nca A rchitecture : P h.D. T hesis, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f L ondon , U .K., p ublished a s n o. 2 42, B .A .R . O xford. K endall, A nn. 1 976a . P reliminary R eport o n C eramic D ata a nd t he P reI nca A rchitectural R emains o f t he U rubamba V alley, C uzco B aessler A rchiv. N .F. B and X XIV : 4 1-159, B erlin. K endall, A nn. 1 976b. D escripcion e I nventario d e l as F ormas A rquitect6nicas I nca : R evista d el M useo N acional L ima T omo X LII. -

K endall, A nn. 1 978 . I nterpretaci6n d e l a F unction d e l a A rquitectura I nca: u n M etodo p ara A nalizar l os R estos A rquitectónicos : E l H ombre y l a C ultura A ndina , T omo 1 7 5-88 1 11 C ongreso P eruano. E ditor R amiro M atos, L ima. K endall, A nn . 1 979. T he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject ( Peru) T he E arly S tages. B ulletin N o. 1 6, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon U niversity y 1 980 B oletin d e L ima. K endall, A nn . 1 983. M iddle S tages o f t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject, B ulletin N o. 1 9, I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon U niversity. K endall, A nn . 1 984. A rchaeological I nvestigations o f t he L ate H orizon a nd L ate I ntermediate p eriods i n t he C usichaca V alley. N o. 2 105 , B .A .R. O xford.

M acurdy, G . 1 923. H uman S keletal R emains i n t he P eruvian H ighlands J ournal o f P hysical A nthropology, U .S.A. M orua/Murua F ray M artin d e, 1 962-1964. H istoria G eneral d el P eru. O rigen y D escendencia d e l os I ncas ( 1613) I ntroduccion y n otas p or M anuel B allesteros G aibrois. D e l a B iblioteca A merican V etus, T omos I y I I, M adrid.

P ardo, L uis A . 1 957. l istorla y A rqueologfa d el C usco C olegio M ilitar L eoncio P rado, L a P erla , C allao.

:

I mprenta

R owe, J ohn H owland. 1 944. A n I ntroduction t o t he A rchaeology o f C uzco : P aper o f t he P eabody M useum o f A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology, H arvard U niversity, V ol. X XVII, N o. 2 , C ambridge.

4 80

R owe, J ohn l owland. N awpa P acha 5 ,

1 967. W hat K ind o f S ettlement w as I nca C uzco? I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies, B erkeley, C alifornia .

R owe, J ohn H owland. 1 987. M achupijchu a l uz d e l os D ocumentos d el S iglo X VI e n K untur n o. 4 , 1 2-20 , L ima. R ostworowski, D iez d e C anseco, M aria . 1 963. D os M anuscritos i neditos c on d atos s obre M anco I I, t ierras p ersonales d e l os I ncas y M itimaes: N ueva c oronica U niversidad N acional M ayor d e S an M arcos, N o. 1 , PP. 2 23-239, L ima.

S armiento d e G amboa . H orreo. N o. 1 0 . S avoy, G ene. 1 970 . H ale, L ondon.

1 572. H istoria d e l os I ncas : 1 942. E mece-Editores, B uenos A ires.

C oleccion

V ilcaban iba , L ast C ity o f t he I ncas : R obert

U npublished R eports o f t he C usichaca A rchaeological P roject B eauclerk, J ohn. 1 979. R econnaissance o f t he U pper C usichaca V alley A ccess. R eport s ubmitted t o t he C usichaca A rchaeology P roject. -

D rew , D avid a nd K endall, A nn . 1 980 & 1 981. R econnaissance! E xploration R eports f or t he C usichaca A rchaeological R eport a nd t he R oyal G eographical S ociety, L ondon , 1 980.

K endall, A nn . 1 977. R econnaissance : C usichaca/Salcantay E xpedition R eport f or t he C .A.P. a nd t he R oyal G eographical S ociety. K endall, A nn. 1 978. R econnaissance : C usichaca V alley E xpedition 1 978 S hort r eport f or t he C .A.P. a nd t he R oyal G eographical S ociety. K endall, A nn . 1 979. R econnaissance: C usichaca/Apurimac/Vilcabamba e xpedition . S hort r eport f or t he C .A.P. a nd t he R oyal G eographical S ociety a nd E verest F oundation. K endall, A nn . 1 980 , 1 981, 1 982, 1 983, 1 984 . S hort R econnaissance R eports f or t he C .A .P., T he R oyal G eographical S ociety a nd t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura, P eru.

4 81

M ap I nca o ccupation b etween t he A nta a nd S anta T eresa v alleys , D istrict o f 0 11antaytambo ( east o f C usichaca R iver) a nd M achu P icchu ( west o f C usichaca R iver). -

K ey t o n umbered s ites

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1. 1 2. 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5. 1 6 . 1 7. 1 8 . 1 9. 2 0 . 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4 . 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8 . 2 9. 3 0 . 3 1. 3 2. 3 3 . 3 4 .

R umira ; P iscaycucho ; ( Playa e tcetera); C hoquellusca a nd S alapunco ; C añabamba ; P inchay U nuyoc ; C orihuayrachina ; O chopata ; L lamacancha ; R ocabamba ; M esccay ; H uilica R accay ; P atallacta a nd P ulpituyoc; M achu Q uente a nd H uayna Q uente; C hachabamba ; C hoquesuysuy ; M achu P ichu ; H uayllambamba ; T unasmocco ; P aucarcancha ; P ampaccahuana ; I ncasamana ; I nca R accay ; P ocpoc ; R uncu R accay; S ayac M arca ; P huyu P ata M arca ; I nti P ata ; H uayna P icchu ; P alcay/Liactapampa ; I nca R accay i n C ruzccasa ; H uillca R accay i n L echeria ; P ampa L echeria ; H uamanmarca ; C olpacata ;

4 82

3 5 . 3 6 . 3 7 . 3 8 . 3 9 . 4 0 . 4 1 . 4 2 . 4 3 . 4 4 . 4 5 . 4 6 . 4 7. 4 8 . 4 9 . 5 0 . 5 1. 5 2. 5 3. 5 4. 5 5. 5 6. 5 7. 5 8. 5 9. 6 0. 6 1. 6 2. 6 3 . 6 4 . 6 5. 6 6. 6 7. 6 8 .

M arcahuasi; T ilca ; C hoquechurco ; I ntihuatana ; i l uinay H uayna ; M achu H acienda ; M arcay P in ; ( Mirador i n S ambor/Anta ); Y achahuasi; C hilca ; H uata ( Inca a nd p re-Inca); P achar ; C hoquequilla ; T ocarhuay ( mirador); Q uishuarpata ; T iapara ; C achiccata ( Choquetecarpo a nd P incolina); C hoquequilca ; C hoccana ( PA-3 a nd P A-2); P atahuasi/Nawpa I glesia ; P antaccasa ; V iscachaccasa ; L iacta P ata ; P in ; I glesiapata , P ef las ; I nca R accay i n T astayoc ; H uayracpunco ; P umamarca ; M arcacocha ; P lateriayoc; U ñuyoc ; T arawasi ; I nca R accay i n C hancachuco ; C hoquechaca .

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3 .

T he I nca r oad a t H uaccac.

V iew o f t he c onfluence o f t he C usichaca a nd U rubamba r ivers w ith H uilica R accay ( bottom), C usichaca ( centre w ith P atallacta a nd P ulpituyoc) a nd C orihuayrachina ( beyond t op l eft, o ther s ide o f U rubamba r iver).

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P l.

5 .

H uayna Q uente: a symmetrical l ocation o f d oorway t o t he t riangular e nclosure.

4 86

4 87

P l.

P l. 8 .

7 .

M achu P icchu.

H uayna P icchu: i nside t he u pper c avern o f t he s o—called " Temple o f t he M oon".

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T HE M ANUFACTURE O F T HE I NCA A RYBALLUS S arah L unt

A BSTRACT D uring t he L ate H orizon P eriod i n t he P eruvian A ndes, m any t ypes o f p ottery w ere i n u se. O ne o f t hese , " classical" o r " Cuzco" I nca p ottery, h as b een f ound t hroughout t he h ighlands a nd o n t he c oast. C oncerning i ts o rigins , R owe p roposed t hat a r e-organisation o f p otters t ook p lace a t t he b eginnings o f t he I nca P eriod, f orming l arge w orks hops ( probably i n t he C uzco o r a djacent v alleys). T hese w ere g eared t o t he m ass-production o f s tandardised, h igh-quality w ares, i ntended f or u se i n C uzco a nd f or e xport t hroughout t he e mpire. R owe's d escript ions o f t hese w ares h ave p rovided t he s tandard b y w hich t he C uzco i mports a re d istinguished f rom l ocal c opies i n p rovincial a ssemblages. T here h ave b een a n umber o f r ecent d iscussions o f t he e conomic O rganisation o f t he I nca e mpire, a nd o f t he r ole p layed b y i ts p ottery; p olitical a nd c ultural m eanings h ave b een a scribed t o t he d egrees o f s imilarity t o t he p rototypes s hown b y l ocal p roducts. B y c oncentrating o n o ne o f t he C uzco I nca w ares, t he a ryballus, i t c an b e s een t hat s everal o f i ts c haracteristics a re t he b y-products o f t he m anufacturing p rocess. T his e mphasises t he i mportance o f u nders tanding h ow a p ot w as m ade b efore t he s ignificance o f a ny o f i ts a ttributes i s c onsidered. I f t he m anufacturing p rocess i s f ollowed r ight t hrough, w e c an r elate t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials a nd t he f abric p reparation t o o ther a spects o f m anufacture, t o d ecorative d esigns, t o p yrotechnology, t o t ransport o f t he f inished w are, a nd t o a h ypothetical c ustomer's r equirements. T he m anufacturing m ethod s uggests t hat R owe's p roposed m ode o f p roduction i s c orrect. B ut t he l ack o f e xcavated c ontexts f or t he a ryballus i n t he h ighlands m eans t hat w e c annot i dentify t he c onsumers a rchaeologically. H owever, r ecent e vidence s uggests t rade t o a w ide s ection o f t he p opulation b efore t he f ormal I nca o ccupation o f t heir a rea a nd, a lso, s uggests a c ontemporary p roliferation o f p ottery i ndustries o f m any k inds t o s upply n ew m arkets.

I ntroduction T he I nca E mpire d ates f rom t he m id-C14 A .D. t o 1 532, t he y ear o f t he S panish c onquest . T he p eriod o f t he E mpire i s r oughly e quivalent t o t he " Late H orizon P eriod" ( see R owe 1 962, a nd R owe a nd M enzel 1 967, 2 -3). A t i ts g reatest e xtent, t he E mpire s tretched f rom E cuador i n t he n orth t o S antiago i n C hile i n t he s outh a nd i ncluded m uch o f t he w est

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c oast, t he h igh A ndes, e ast ( Fig. 1 ).

a nd a s mall p art o f t he t ropical l owlands i n t he

I n t he e arly 1 940s, t he H arvard U niversity E xpedition t o S outhern P eru e mbarked o n a p rogramme o f r econnaissance a nd t est e xcavations. O ne o f t he a ims w as t o p lace t he I nca E mpire w ithin a n a rchaeological c ontext s o t hat i ts o rigins i n t he C uzco a rea c ould b e i nvestigated. T he p ottery, w hich w as c ollected f rom t he s urface o f s ites i n t he C uzco v alley a nd t o t he s outh , a nd f rom t hree t est e xcavations a djacent t o, a nd i n, t he c ity o f C uzco ( Figs. 1 , 2 ), w as c lassified b y J ohn R owe ( 1944). T he c lassification w as b ased p rincipally o n t he s tyle o f t he p ainted d ecoration . V essel s hapes a nd f abrics w ere d escribed f or e ach s tyle. E ight s tyles w ere i dentified: o f t hese, s even w ere s imilar t o o ne a nother, s haring d ecorative m otifs, a nd a lso v essel f orms a nd t he a ppearance o f t he f abrics. R owe s uggested t hat m ost o f t his p ottery w as m ass-produced ( ibid., 4 8): t he n umber o f d ecoration e lements w as s mall, a nd t heir c ombinations a nd t heir p ositions o n t he p ots w ere r epetitive v ariations o n a l imited n umber o f t hemes; t here w ere f ew v essel s hapes, a nd e ach s hape w as s tandardised. T he p revalence o f t he p ottery i n C uzco, a nd i ts a ssocation w ith I nca s tructures , i dentified i t a s a p roduct o f t he E mpire. O f t he r emaining d ecorated p ottery , s ome w as g rouped t ogether a s t he e ighth s tyle , " Canchón" o r " Kilike". R owe ( ibid.) a nd D wyer ( 1971) c onsidered t hat t he K illke S eries w as d irectly a ncestral t o C uzco I nca p ottery . T he e vidence w as b ased o n a rchaeological p osition a nd a ssociation: t he a pparent d istributional s imilarity b etween C uzco I nca a nd K ilike p ottery; a nd c ertain e volutionary t endencies i n s hapes a nd i n d ecorative e lements i n t he K ilike S eries. T hese t endencies w ere s een a s d eriving f rom a r eservoir o f g eometric d esigns a nd v essel s hapes c urrent i n t he C uzco a rea b efore t he M iddle H orizon P eriod, w hich c ould b e t raced t hrough K ilike i nto t he I mperial c eramic r epertoire. C oncerning t he w ay i n w hich K ilike m ight e volve i nto C uzco I nca , D wyer s uggested a r eorganisation o f a rtisans b y t he I ncas, a nd a d eliberate s election f rom t he l ocal K ilike r epertoire, t o p roduce a l imited r ange o f s tandardised, h igh q uality w ares f or h ome c onsumption a nd e xport. T hus, t he l atest p roduct o f a l ong a nd s table c eramic t radition c ould b e t ransformed r apidly , a nd w ithout i ntermediate s tages, i nto t he f actory w ares o f t he C uzco I nca S eries. B y d escribing p ottery f rom t he I nca c apital, R owe p rovided a b asis f or c omparison w ith p ottery f rom a h uge a rea . C ollections o f m aterial h ad b een m ade o ver m any y ears, a nd ' Cuzco I nca' h ad b een i dentified , u sually i n r ather c avalier w ays, b y c omparisons w ith a n orm w hose c haracteristics h ad n ot b een d escribed m ethodically. I t n ow b ecame p ossible, i n t heory a t a ny r ate, t o d istinguish ' Cuzco I nca ' f rom p ottery w hich w as s imilar o nly . T hese l atter w ares c ould t hen b e i dentified a s t he l atest p roducts o f r egional t raditions, d istinct f rom t he p restigious I mperial w ares f rom w hich t hey b orrowed s uperficial d etails. i t w as a ssumed t hat b oth t he K ilike a nd t he C uzco I nca S eries w ere

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m anufactured i n t he C uzco a rea, a nd t herefore, t hat C uzco I nca w ares f ound i n p rovincial a ssemblages w ere i mports . M uch r ecent w ork h as f ocused o n t he e conomics o f t he I nca E mpire ( Earle a nd d 'Altroy 1 982; L aLone 1 982; M urra 1 982). T here i s ac onsensus o f o pinion t hat n o f ree t rade e xisted, a t l east i n t he c ore a rea , a nd t hat C uzco I nca w ares w ere d istributed a long " politically i mportant l ines" ( Morris 1 978 , 3 23; a nd s ee B awden a nd C onrad 1 982, 4 5, 9 5, 9 6), a s a d eliberate s trategy t o i mpress, t o s ignal t he I mperial p resence, t o c onfer o r c onfirm p restige. E vidence f rom t he p rovinces s uggests t hat C uzco I nca p ottery w as i ndeed c onsidered p restigious. A t I ca o n t he c oast ( Menzel 1 976) a nd i n P uno o n t he s outhern A ltiplano ( Julien 1 978; 1 981; F ig. 2 ), t he w ares w ere f ound i n h igh s tatus b urials . " Prestige" c an b e i nferred, t oo, f rom t he s trong i nfluence w hich t he s hapes a nd d ecorative s tyle e xerted o n r egional p otting t raditions. I n f act, t here a re a s urprisingly s mall n umber o f i mports p er s ite, a nd u sually t hey c omprise t he s ame t hree s hapes: t he a ryballus ( Fig . 3 ), t he p late ( Figs, 4 , 5 ), a nd t he p edestal-based c ooking-pot ( Fig. 6 ). K auffmanD oig ( 1978, 7 25), K roeber a nd S trong ( 1924, 1 2), a nd M eyers ( 1975, 1 7), r efer t o t he m obility o f t he s tyle r ather t han o f t he p ots t hemselves. J ulien ( 1981, 1 30ff), K aufmann-Doig ( 1978), M eyers ( 1975), T hompson ( 1973) a nd T schopik ( 1950), a mongst m any o thers, g ive s ome w eight t o t he d istinction b etween I nca ' imports' a nd t he I nca ' style' i n a ssessing t he r elationship b etween a p rovince a nd t he E mpire. F or e xample, i n t he b urials a t I ca, M enzel ( ibid.) i nterpreted t he p resence / a bsence o f C uzco I nca w ares , a nd t he e xtent o f t heir s tylistic i nfluence o n t he r egional p ottery , i n t erms o f t he c omplex, h ierarchical s ocial s ystem i mposed b y t he I ncas.

T he s ample a nd i ts u se T he m ost f amous s hape i n t he C uzco I nca S eries i s t he a ryballus ( Fig . 3 ). N umerous e xamples h ave b een f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f f ive I nca s ites i n t he C usichaca v alley 9 0km n orth o f C uzco ( Fig. 7 ). T he s ample i ncludes 2 5,000 s herds f rom C usichaca , o f w hich 5 0 w ere t hin-sectioned, a nd s amples f rom e xcavations i n 0 11antaytambo ( Fig. 2 ) a nd f rom s urface c ollections m ade i n C uzco a nd o n s ites t o t he s outh ( see L unt 1 988, f orthcoming, f or d escriptions o f t he l ocalities). A ll t he s amples c onform i n s hape a nd d ecorative s tyle t o R owe's " Cuzco I nca P olychrome" ( ibid.). W e c an c haracterise t he a ryballus i n s ome d etail a nd o bserve i ts s patial a nd c hronological b ehaviour i n t he C usichaca d eposits ( see " Description" b elow). A rmed w ith t his i nformation, w e c an c onsider t he p lace o f m anufacture, t he n umber o f w orkshops, a nd t he s cale o f p roduction. W e c an d iscuss t he r elationship b etween t he f abric, t he s hape o f t he p ots, t he m anufacturing t echniques, a nd t he t ransportation a nd f unctional r equirements. T he g oals o f p roduction c an b e i nferred f rom t he a ppearance o f t he w are. T he C usichaca c ontexts p rovide s ome c lues a bout t he c onsumers, a nd t he r elative t ime-scale a llows u s t o t ie i n t he c eramic e vidence w ith e vents a t t he b eginning o f t he I nca p eriod. F inally, w e s hall l ook b riefly a t t he r elationship b etween K ilike a nd C uzco I nca p ottery . ( For t he d etails o f t he a nalytical

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p rocedures, t he e xperimental a nd e thnographic w ork, a nd d escriptions o f t he a rchaeological c ontexts, s ee L unt 1 988, f orthcoming).

D escription ( a) F abric ( Pis.

1a nd 2 )

T he f abric u sed t o m ake t he C uzco I nca a ryballi h as t he c haracteristics:

f ollowing

-

a )

t he c lay m atrix: t he c olour v aries p er s ample f rom p ale p inkb uff t o d ark r ose-pink ; u noxidised c ores a nd i nterior s urfaces o ccur, a nd t he s urfaces b eneath p aint o r s lip a re o ften u noxidised. T he f abric a nisotropic i n i sotropic).

b )

i s h ard, w ith a r ough f racture, t hin-section. ( Paints a nd s lips

t he n on-plastics: m ineral i nclusions a re c ommon, a b imodal s ize d istribution:

a nd a re

a nd t here i s

1 )

a b ack-ground s catter o f q uartz g rains, f eldspars, b iotite m ica , c lay p ellets, a nd a ccessory m ineral g rains. A ll o f t hese a re v ery t iny, a nd e venly d istributed, a lthough m ica i s c oncentrated o n s ome s urfaces ( see b elow).

i i)

a q uantity o f a ndesite f ragments, a ll a ngular, b etween 0 .75 a nd 1 .00mm a long t he l ongest a xis; t hey a re e venly d istributed a nd t here i s s ome p referred o rientation o f l anceolate f ragments p arallel t o t he s urfaces.

H odges ( 1964), P eacock ( 1977), a nd S hepard ( 1976) u se t he f ollowing c riteria t o i dentify t emper i .e. n on-plastic m aterial a dded b y t he p otter: -

a )

p oor s orting. A t empered f abric w ill h ave a c ategory o f m ineral i nclusions i n a d istinct s ize r ange: i n p articular, a l arge c omponent ( the t emper) i n a m atrix o f s maller m inerals.

b )

e xotic p etrology . A t empered f abric m ay h ave a c ategory m ineral i nclusions d ifferent i n t ype f rom t he r emainder.

c )

u nusual s hape a nd c ondition o f i nclusions. A t empered m ay c ontain s ome m inerals o r r ock f ragments w ith s harp a nd i n a f resh c ondition .

o f

f abric e dges,

T hese c haracteristics a pply t o t he a ndesite i nclusions. E xperimental w ork , a nd s amples c ollected f rom m odern A ndean p otters , s howed t hat a r iver c lay w hich w as s ieved, w ashed, a nd t hen t empered w ith f reshly-crushed f ragments o f a ndesite r ock , m atched t he a rchaeol ogical f abric, s uggesting t hat i t d erived f rom t he s ame p rocedures.

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( b)

M anufacture ( Fig.

3 )

T he a ryballi w ere b uilt b y c oiling r opes o f c lay i n s pirals. E xperiments s how, h owever, t hat e ven s mall e xamples d o n ot h old t heir s hape i f m ade i n o ne c ontinuous p rocess ( compare L each 1 976, 7 5) a nd t hat s harp c hanges i n a ngle o f p rofile a re h ard t o m ake w ith a c ontinuous c oiling m ethod. H owever, i f t he p ots a re m ade p iecemeal, a nd a ll t he s ections a llowed t o d ry o ut b efore a ssembly, t hen i t b ecomes r elatively e asy t o a chieve p ots o f t he s ame s ize a s t he a rchaeological e xamples . T o a chieve t he c orrect, s harp a ngle b etween n eck a nd s houlder, t he n eck/rim s egment h as t o b e a ttached o n t he i nside o f t he s houlder s egment. T he m ajor j oin i n t he u pper b ody i s t he l ast a nd h as t o b e m ade e dge t o e dge a nd f illeted ( archaeological b reakages o ccur a bove o r b elow t he f illet, a nd n ot a t t he j oin i tself). T he b utt-welded h andles o n t he l ower b ody s pan a nother m ajor j oin.

( c)

D ecoration ( Fig .

3 ,

a nd a lso F igs.

4 ,

5 )

T he c olours a re p urples a nd r eds, b lack a nd w hite, d epending o n t he r elative p roportions o f i ron a nd m anganese, o r t he e ffective a bsence o f b oth, i n t he p igment. C olour w as f urther c ontrolled b y p article s ize o f t he p igment, t he o verlay o f o ne p igment u pon a nother, a nd b y p olishing. T he p igment w as a pplied w ith f ine b rush s trokes. T he d esigns a re g eometric, b uilt u p f rom s mall i ndividual m otifs . L ittle o riginality w as r equired t o p roduce s uch s tandardised r epetitive d esigns, b ut t he o verall e ffect i s v ery r ich : a s mooth , g lossy s urface p attern, r esembling s ome A ndean t extile d esigns. S ome s urfaces t winkle w ith b iotite m ica . T his i s s ufficiently c ommon a nd s triking e nough t o h ave s uggested t o s ome r esearchers t hat m ica w as a dded f or d eliberate a esthetic e ffect. I n t he r are c ases w here m ica i s c onfined t o a s lip, i ts p resence i s p robably t he r esult o f p reparing t he s lips b y f loating t hem f rom a n aturally m icaceous c lay , t hus e nhancing t he m ica c ontent i n t he s kim . I n a ll o ther c ases, i t c an b e s een t hat t he m icaceous t winkle r esults f rom t he p olishing o f t he p ot's s urface, a nd t he c onsequent f lattening o f t he m ica g rains s o t hat t hey p resent t heir s hiny s urfaces t o t he e ye.

( d)

S tandardisation

T hroughout t he s ample t he f abrics a re i dentical i n h and s pecimen ( bar t he c olour: s ee a bove), a nd t he t hin-sections s how a n i dentical a ndesite l ithology a nd o verall t exture. T he e vidence s uggests t hat t he o riginal p ots w ere a ll o f a s imilar s ize a nd n ear-identical s hape ( there a re n o m iniature p ots i n t he s ample). T here i s a l imited r epertoire o f d ecorative m otifs a nd t heir s cale a nd a rrangement o n t he p ots i s v ery s imilar t hroughout t he s ample.

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( e)

F unction

T he a ryballus c an b e c arried o n t he b ack s ecured b y a r ope, a nd t he h andles/lug a re a rranged f or t his ( see i llustration i n K aufmannD oig 1 978, 7 26). T he n arrow n eck i mplies l iquid c ontents; t he p ointed b ase a nd s hallow b asal f lare a re s uitable f or b edding t he p ot i nto u neven f loors a nd k eeping c ontents c ool . I f t hen t ipped f orward t o p our, t he s well o f t he l ower b ody a cts a s a s ump f or c ontaminants . I mbedded b ases h ave b een f ound i n t he c orners o f b uildings i n C usichaca. N one o f t he s amples h ave a ny s urface s mudging o r c ontain b urnt r esidues.

( f)

A rchaeological a ssociations i n C usichaca ( Fig. 7 )

D espite c onsiderable i nter-site a rchitectural v ariation o n t he I nca s ites o f Q i a nd Q 2-1 ( Kendall 1 985), t he a ryballi d isplay n o c ov ariation, e ither i n r elative q uantity o r i n a ssociation w ith o ther s hapes o r w ares. T here i s s ome v ariation i n t he r elative q uantities o f a ryballi p er s ite. O n t he e ast b ank o f t he C usichaca, t he I nca s ites w ere b uilt o n l and w hich h ad n ot b een o ccupied i n t he i mmediately p receding p eriod, a nd p re- o r n on-Inca s ettlement i n t his a rea i s s parse . T he I nca s ites h ere h ave a h igh r elative p roportion o f C uzco I nca t o o ther w ares ( c. 7 5%) a nd t he a ryballi c omprise c . 2 0% o f t he C uzco I nca s ample. I n c ontrast, n on-Inca s ettlement p roliferates i n t he u plands t o t he w est o f t he r iver, a nd Q 2-1 w as b uilt o ver a p reI nca s ettlement. T he t wo I nca s ites i n t his a rea, Q 2-1 a nd Q 4-1, b oth h ave l ow r elative q uantities o f C uzco I nca p ottery: o n Q 2-1, t he r emainder c omprises t ypes f ound i n e arlier l evels, i ncluding K illke w ares; a nd o n Q 4-1, m ost o f t he w ares a re u tilitarian o r r ough c opies o f t he C uzco I nca s hapes.

( g)

C hronological p ositions ( Fig. 8 )

T he s tratigraphy o n Q 2-1 s hows t hat C uzco I nca w ares, i ncluding a ryballi, w ere p resent i n o ccupation d eposits b eneath t he I nca b uildings. T he l atest p re-Inca b uildings a nd t erraces a re a ssociated w ith a p ottery a ssemblage w hich c omprises ( a) a n umber o f t ypes p resent i n e arlier l evels , i ncluding K ilike w ares, ( b) C uzco I nca p ottery, ( c) c oarser w ares m ade i n t he a ryballus s hape, ( d) a n ew r ange o f u tilitarian p ots, a nd ( e) a v ariety o f n ew, n on-Inca d ecorated w ares. T his a ssemblage c ontinues v irtually u nchanged t hrough t he o verlying I nca d eposts.

D iscussion ( a) P laces o f m anufacture A ndesite b edrock i s a bsent i n C usichaca , a lthough o ccasional w eathered n odules o ccur i n t he m oraines. G regory ( 1916) i dentified L ate T ertiary i gneous f ormations c ontaining a ndesites i n t he C uzco a rea a nd a ndesite o utcrops i n t he C uzco a nd L ucre b asins , a nd s poradically f urther s outh. R umicolca, 3 5km s outh o f C uzco ( Fig. 2 ),

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i s o ne o f t he l argest o utcrops a nd w as q uarried f rom a t l east t he p eriod ( Proetzen 1 983).

I nca

F or t he a ndesite t emper , i t l ooks p robable t hat a b edrock s ource w as u sed, n ot a n a ndesite-rich s and o r f ield n odules, b ecause t he t emper f ragments a re v ery f resh, p etrologically u niform , a nd t here i s n o o ther a dded c omponent. T herefore, i t i s u nlikely t hat t he C uzcoI nca a ryballi w ere m ade i n t he C usichaca v alley a nd q uite p ossible t hat t hey w ere m ade i n t he C uzco v alley, t he L ucre b asin , a nd/or i n t he a rea o f R aqchi o r T inta t o t he s outh ( Fig. 2 ). O ral t radition i dentifies S an S ebastian i n C uzco a s t he s ite o f a n I nca p ottery ( Rowe 1 963, 2 43). H ard e vidence i n f avour o f a C uzco o rigin i ncludes t he e xistence t here o f a s uitable s tylistic p recursor, K ilike ( Figs. 9 , 1 0, 1 1), a nd t he d ominance o f C uzco I nca p ottery i n L ate H orizon P eriod a ssemblages i n t he v alley. T he o verall u niformity o f f abric, s hape, a nd d ecoration t hroughout t he s ample s uggests t hat t he a ryballi w ere m ade i n o ne l ocality, a nd p robably i n a s mall n umber o f w orkshops.

( b)

S cale o f p roduction a nd d istribution

W e h ave e mpirical e vidence f or a v ery l arge t otal o utput o f a ryballi, a nd i f f ew p otteries w ere i nvolved, t hen o bviously t hey w ere m ass-producing. T he p iecemeal a ssembly m ode i s s uitable t o a p roduction-line, s uch a s c an b e s een n owadays i n R aqchi i n n onm echanised, m ass-producing p otteries. W e s hould n ote t hat f abric u niformity i s c arefully c ontrolled i n R aqchi, t o e nsure t hat t he s egments b ond t ogether w ell.

a s

I f t he a ryballi w ere m ade i n o ne l ocality, t hen d istributing f ar a s E cuador i n t he n orth a nd C hile t o t he s outh w ould

t hem h ave

i nvolved a j ourney o f s everal h undred m iles o n a h uman o r a nimal's b ack, o ver r ough t errain . S hepard ( 1976) r efers t o a ndesite a s m aking as trong b ond w ith c lay, w hich w ould h elp t o c ounteract t he s tructural w eakness o f t hese l arge, t hin-walled p ots .

( c)

T he p roduct

T he e xperimental m anufacture o f t he a ryballi s howed t hat a n umber o f t he f ormal f eatures a rose n aturally f rom t he m anufacturing m ethod. P arts o f t he p rofile, p articularly t hat o f t he b ase w ith i ts s hallow f lare a nd c haracteristic i nflection a bove t he p oint, d erive f rom t he n ecessity o f s upporting t he p oint, a nd f rom a dding i ncreasingly l onger, w etter ( and t herefore h eavier) c oils t o a t humb-pot b ase a s t he s hape g rows. T he w alls a utomatically f lop o utwards o ver t he s upport u nder t heir o wn i ncreasing w eight. O ther i nclude : i )

f eatures

w hich

d erived

f rom

t he

m anufacturing

ad ownward d roop i n t he v ertical s trap h andles: b e c ounteracted i f t he h andles a re n ot p lugged.

4 95

m ethods

t his c annot

i i)

t he d iagonal d irection o f t he p olishing f acets. B oth v ertical a nd h orizontal s trokes t end t o p ush c oils a part.

i ii)

t he p osition o f t he h andles, w hich s pan t he m ajor j oin i n t he l ower b ody, t hus s trengthening i t. K aufmann-Doig ( 1978 , 5 40 a nd 7 26) i llustrates t he w ay t hese p ots w ere p robably c arried o n t he b ack a nd s hows t hat t he r ope w ould h ave r un a cross t he b ody d iagonally. E ven w ith a f ully-fired p ot, i f i t i s c oil-built t he h orizontal p lane w ill a lways b e t he w eakest, a nd t his m ethod o f a rranging t he r ope w ould k eep t he p ot u nder c ompression.

i v)

t he c omparative t hinness o f t he w alls. T hin-walled s egments d ry o ut r apidly, w hich s peeds t he w ork a long . T he p ot i s u nlikely t o c ollapse u nder i ts o wn w eight d uring a ssembly, p rovided t hat t he s egments h ave d ried o ut t horoughly . T here a re t he a dded a dvantages o f s aving o n c lay a nd p roducing a l ighter p ot.

O f c ourse, t hese c haracteristics a re s till o f v alue f or i dentifyi ng a C uzco I nca p roduct, b ut i s p ossible t hat p rovincial c opies v aried i n t heir c loseness t o t he p rototype b ecause o f t he l ocal p otting t echnology.

( d)

G oals o f p roduction

W e s hould n ow l ook b eginning w ith t he f abrics.

a t

t he

s tandardisation

o f

t he

p roduct,

T he r esults o f c lay s urveys i n t he s outh c entral A ndes s how t hat w hereas r iverine a nd l acustrine c lays a re u biquitous, t hey d o n ot o ccur i n l arge d eposits , a nd t hey v ary c onsiderably i n t exture a nd c ontent w ithin s hort d istances . A n A ndean p ottery p roducing a l arge q uantity o f w ares o ver a p eriod o f t ime w ould n eed t o e xploit s everal s ources, a s i n R aqchi n ow . T he a ryballis' c lay m atrices v ary i n c olour, a nd t here i s s ome v ariation i n t he l ithology o f t he s mall n on-plastic c omponents, w hich s uggest t hat a n umber o f c lay d eposits w ere b eing t apped. I t i s c lear t hat a s mooth s urface t exture w as i mportant i n o rder t o d isplay t he p ainted d ecoration, a d egree o f t extural u niformity w as n ecessary i n o rder t o e nsure e ven d rying-out o f t he s egments, a nd a n a ngular n on-plastic c omponent w ould c reate a s trong f abric a ble t o w ithstand t he m echanical s tresses o f t ransport a nd u se. A n i ntensive c lay s urvey i n t he C usichaca v alley a nd r andom c lay c ollections i n t he C uzco a rea s how , h owever, t hat m any c lays n aturally f ulfill t hese d emands o r c an b e m ade s uitable w ith l ittle e ffort. T hus, t he l abour-intensive s tandardisation o f t he a ryballi f abric r equires a nother e xplanation . I t hink t hat w e s hould r egard i t a s t he I nca p otters' f irst s tep t owards p roducing u niform w ares. S tandardisation f acilitates m ass-production , b ut i n t he p resent c ase, I t hink t hat t he s tandardisation i tself m ay h ave b een t he g oal, t he

4 96

i ntention b eing t o p roduce a h igh q uality i tem w hich w ould b e i nstantly r ecognisable t hroughout t he E mpire . T his f its w ell t he t raditional v iew o f t he r ole o f t he p ottery i n t he I mperial S cheme.

( e)

C onsumers

T he C usichaca e vidence s hows u s t hat , d uring t he I nca o ccupation, t he a ryballi w ere n ot r estricted i n t heir d istribution w ithin e ach s ite, a nd t heir c ontexts d o n ot s uggest t hat t hey w ere h eld i n a ny s pecial r egard. H owever, t here w as s ome r estriction i n q uantity t o t he f ortress s ite ( Q2-1) a nd t o t he u pland a gricultural s ite ( Q4-1), c ompared w ith t he q uantities i n u se i n t he t own ( Q1) a nd i n t he t wo r eligious s ites ( Q1E a nd Q 1O). W ith o nly t he C usichaca e vidence t o h and, i t i s n ot p ossible t o i dentify w hat i s c ausing t his v ariation, b ut i t m ay r eflect v ariations i n t he p roportion o f i ndigeneous i nhabitants t o i mmigrants, a nd/or t he r ole o f t he s ites i n t he I nca e xploitation o f t he v alley.

( f)

T rade

O n e ach C usichaca s ite t here i s a p roportion o f n on-Inca p ottery, p redominately K ilike w ares . T he g reatest q uantity o ccurs o n t he f ortress s ite, w hich o verlies a p re-Inca s ettlement. I t m ight b e p ossible t o d ismiss t his a s r esidual m aterial, o r a s t he c areful h usbandry o f p ots b rought t o t he s ite b efore t he I nca o ccupation, b ut t his d oes n ot e xplain t he o ccurrence o f t he w are o n t he n ew s ites. F urthermore, t he f reshness o f t he s herds a nd t he q uantity s uggest t hat i t w as s till i n a ctive p roduction d uring t he I nca p eriod. O n p etrological g rounds, i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat e ither K ilike, o r a ny o f t he o ther n on-Inca f ine w ares , w ere m ade i n t he v alley, s o c learly t here w as a q uantity o f p ottery, o ther t han C uzco t ransit. F or t he K illke p ottery, i t i s t empting

I nca w ares, t o i magine

c ontinuation o f a p re-Inca m arketing s ystem c o-existing w ith s ystem w hich d istributed t he C uzco I nca w ares.

( g)

t he

i n t he n ew

C hronological p osition

T he I nca-period a ssemblage w as p resent i n o ccupation d eposits o n Q 2-1 b efore t he b uilding o f t he I nca f ortress. R ecent e vidence s uggests t hat n ot a ll a reas i ncorporated i nto t he E mpire d isplayed t he u nmistakable a rchitectural s igns o f I nca-ness ( e.g . E arle a nd d 'Altroy 1 982; F ranch 1 968, 2 4; M orris 1 972, 7 8 a nd 8 2). I t i s p ossible t hat t he I nca b uilding p rogramme i n t he v alley w as a l ate m anifestation o f a p re-existing r elationship. B ut t he e thnohistorical r ecord s uggests t hat C usichaca w as b eyond t he I mperial f rontiers i n t he p eriod i mmediately b efore t he I nca b uilding p rogramme c ommenced ( Kendall 1 985, 3 44ff). T his m eans t hat C uzco I nca p ottery w as d istributed a cross t he f rontiers a nd t hat i ts p resence i s n ot n ecessarily a n i ndication o f t he p resence o f t he E mpire. T here

i s

n o e vidence f rom C uzco w hich s uggests t hat

4 97

C uzco

I nca

p ottery p re-dated t he I nca b uildings t here. M ost o f t hese a re g enerally a scribed t o t he r eign o f I nca P achacuti, u nder w hom t he I ncas e mbarked o n t heir e xpansionist p hase. T herefore, t his " pre-Inca" a ssemblage i n C usichaca m ust d ate f rom a fter t he b eginning o f t he I mperial I nca p eriod i n t he C uzco r egion. T he C usichaca a ssemblage c ontains a f ar g reater n umber o f w ares, a nd a g reater o verall q uantity o f p ottery t han i n e arlier l evels. T his s uggests t hat w e m ay b e l ooking a t a p henomenon s imilar t o t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he R oman o ccupation o f B ritain: a s timulation o f t he p otting i ndustries t o s upply n ew m arkets a nd n ew c ategories o f c onsumers, b oth w ithin t he I mperial j urisdiction a nd b eyond .

( h)

R elationship t o K illke w ares

T he K illke f abrics d o n ot r esemble t hat o f t he a ryballi ( compare p ls. 1 a nd 2 w ith p ls. 3 a nd 4 ). T he p ots w ere c oil-built, a ll i n o ne g o. T he a ryballus s hape h as n o p redecessor i n t he K illke r epertoire . T he p igments a re t hin a nd w atery ( Fig . 9 ), i n con trast t o t he t hick p aint u sed o n t he a ryballus. T he d ecorative m otifs a re v ery s imilar, b ut t here i s a g reater r ange i n K illke, i ncluding s ome c urvilinear d esigns ( Fig. 1 0, l ower d rawing). T he s cale o f t he K illke d esigns t ends t o b e l arger ( Fig. 1 1, u pper d rawing); a reas a re o ften l eft u nslipped a nd u npainted. R owe h as r eferred t o K ilike 's " characteristic c arelessness o f e xecution" ( 1944, 4 9). T he p etrology o f t he K illke f abrics s uggests t hat t he p ottery w as n ot a ll m ade i n o ne p lace ( pis. 3 a nd 4 ), a lthough t he s hape a nd s tyle s imilarities i ndicate r elated i ndustries. W e h ave i nsufficient i nformation a bout " Cuzco K illke" t o s ee i f t he p etrology o f t he f abrics i s c onsistent w ith a C uzco o rigin; a nd i t w ould b e i nteresting t o t race t he t echnology o f t he C uzco K illke w ares t hrough a p re-Inca s equence a nd t o i dentify t he l atest p re-Inca e xamples. T he m ost c ommon K illke f abric i n C usichaca a nd i n 0 11antaytambo, 2 0km n earer C uzco, c ontains t rachy-syenite ( p1. 4 ). S o-called K illke f rom t he L ucre b asin c ontains s ome a ndesite ( p1. 3 ). T he C usichaca e vidence s hows t hat a t l east s ome o f t he K illke i ndustries c ontinued i n p roduction d uring t he I nca p eriod, b ut w e d o n ot k now i f t hese w ere C uzco w orkshops o r w ere s ituated e lsewhere.

A cknowledgements T his p aper i s b ased o n a p art o f m y d octoral t hesis ( Lunt 1 988, f orthcoming). M y t hanks a re d ue t o A nn K endall, t he d irector o f t he C usichaca e xcavations, t o W arwick B ray, m y s upervisor, t o R ob I xer f or w ork o n t he t hin-sections a nd f or t aking t he p hotographs , a nd t o A ndrew N icholson f or h is e xperimental m anufacture o f t he a ryballi.

4 98

B IBLIOGRAPHY

B awden , G . a nd C onrad, G .W . 1 982. P ress, C ambridge, M ass.).

T he A ndean H eritage ( Peabody M useum

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E arle, T .K. a nd f inance i n E arle T .K . P ress, N ew

d 'Altroy, T .N . 1 982. S torage f acilities a nd s tate t he U pper M antaro V alley, P eru , i n E ricson, J .E. a nd ( eds.) C ontexts f or P rehistoric E xchange ( Academic Y ork), 2 65-291.

F ranch , J .A . 1 968. E xcavaciones e n C hinchero ( Cuzco): i nforme p reliminar, V erhandlungen d es X XXVIII I nternationalen A mericanistaskongresses S tuttgart-Munchen, v ol. 1 , 4 21-428 .

G regory, H . 1 916. A g eologic r econnaissance o f t he C uzco V alley, A merican J ournal o f S cience ( 4th s eries) 4 21, 1 -100 .

H odges, H .

1 964.

A rtefacts ( John B aker, L ondon).

J ulien, C .J. 1 978. I nca a dministration i n t he T iticaca B asin a s r eflected a t t he p rovincial c apital o f H atunqolla ( Ph.D . d issertation, D ept. o f A nthropology, U C B erkeley). J ulien, C .J . 1 981. Al ate b urial f rom C erro A zoguini, P uno, N awpa P acha 1 9, 1 29-154.

K auf f mann-Doig, F . 1 978. M anual d e A rqueologia P eruana ( Iberia , E diciones P eisa , L ima). K endall, A . 1 985. S eries 2 42.

A spects o f I nca A rchitecture B AR I nternational

K roeber, A .L ., a nd S trong, W .D . 1 924. T he ! J hle c ollections f rom C hincha , U niversity o f C alifornia P ublications i n A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology, v ol. 2 1, n o. 1 , pp. 1 -54.

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L a L one, D .E . 1 982. T he I nca e mpire a s an on-market e conomy: s upply o n c ommand v ersus s upply a nd d emand, i n E ricson , J .E . a nd E arle T .K . ( eds.) C ontexts f or P rehistoric E xchange ( Academic P ress, N ew Y ork), 2 92-316. L each, B . L unt,

1 976.

AP otter's B ook ( Faber, L ondon).

S . 1 988. I nca a nd p re-Inca p ottery f rom C usichaca , P eru. I nternational S eries, f orthcoming.

M enzel, D . 1 976. B erkeley).

B AR

P ottery S tyle a nd S ociety i n A ncient P eru ( UC P ress,

M eyers, A . 1 975. A lgunos p roblemas e n l a c lasificación d el e stilo I nc ico, P umapunku 8 , 7 -25. M orris, C . 1 972. S tate s ettlements i n T awantinsuyu: a s trategy o f c ompulsory u rbanism , i n L eone, M .P . ( ed.) C ontemporary A rchaeology: AG uide t o T heory a nd C ontributions ( Southern I llinois U niversity P ress, C arbondale), 3 93-401. M orris, C . 1 978. T he a rchaeological s tudy o f A ndean e xchange s ystems, i n R edman, C .L . e t a l. ( eds.) S ocial A rchaeology: B eyond S ubsistence a nd Datina ( Academic P ress, N ew Y ork), 3 15-328. M urra, J . 1 982. T he M it'a o bligations o f e thnic g roups t o t he I nka s tate, i n C ollier, G .A . e t a l. ( eds.) T he I nca a nd A ztec S tates 1 400-1800 ( Academic P ress, N ew Y ork), 2 37-262.

P eacock, D .P.S. 1 977. C eramics i n R oman a nd m edieval a rchaeology, i n P eacock , D .P .S. ( ed.) P ottery a nd E arly C ommerce ( Academic P ress, L ondon), 2 1-34. P roetzen, J .-P . 1 983. 2 1, 1 83-214.

I nca q uarrying a nd s tone-cutting, N awpa P acha

R owe, J .H . 1 944. A n i ntroduction t o t he a rchaeology o f C uzco , P apers o f t he P eabody M useum V ol. 2 8(2). R owe, J .H . 1 962. S tages a nd p eriods i n a rchaeological i nterpretation , S outhwestern J ournal o f A nthropology 1 8 , 4 0-54 . R owe, J .H . 1 963. I nca c ulture a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest, i n S teward, J .H. ( ed.) H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians, 1 83-330. R owe, J .H . a nd M enzel, D . 1 967. I ntroduction t o P eruvian A rchaeology: S elected R eadings ( Peak P ublications, P alo A lto).

5 00

S hepard, A .O. 1 976. C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist ( Carnegie I nstitution , W ashington).

T hompson, D .E . 1 973. A rchaeological e xplorations i n t he e astern A ndes o f n orthern P eru , A tti d el X L C ongresso I nternazionale d egli A i nericanisti, v ol. 1 , 3 63-369. T schopik , H . 1 950. A n A ndean c eramic t radition i n h istorical p erspective, A merican A ntiquity 3 , 1 96-218.

5 01

F ig.

1 .

S outh A merica ( 1 = f rontier o f P eru; 2 = L ima ; 3= I ca; 4 = C uzco; 5 = P uno; T he s haded a rea s hows t he I nca E mpire a t i ts g reatest e xtent).

5 03

5 04

--------

0

Fig. 3.

5

10

15

Aryballus: Ware 13, Cuzco Inca Polychrome. Scale in cm. Section shows the major construction joints.

The

�

�

0

-

5

-

Miliill 10

-

Fig. 4.

Plate: Ware 13, Cuzco Inca Polychrome. Scale in cm. black to grey; 2 = purple to red; 3 = white).

505

(1 =

1 0

F ig . 5 .

P late : W are 1 3 , C uzco I nca P olychrome . c oded a s i n F ig . 4 .

0

F ig. 6 .

5

S cale i n c m .

C olours

1 0

C ooking-pot : W are 4 , C uzco I nca u tilitarian w are . S cale i n c m . T he s ection s hows t he m ajor c onstruction j oints .

5 06

F ig.

7 .

S ites i n t he l ower C usichaca d rainage a rea ( 1 = Q 10 [ Inca]; 2 Q 1E [ Inca]; 3 = Q 1 [ Inca]; 4 = Q 2-1 [ Inca a nd p re-Inca]; 5 = Q 22 [ non-Inca]; 6 = Q 3 [ non-Inca]; 7 = Q 4-1 [ Inca]; 8 = Q 4-2 [ non-Inca]; 9 = Q 5 [ non-Inca]; 1 0 = R io U rubamba; 1 1 = R io C usichaca). =

w ar.* p h...

1 14

1

1 2

' 3

‚ 5

2 1

2 3

2 4

26

27

28

2 9

3 1

39

40

45

50

54

55

57

58

88

69

7 1

73

7 4

S 1

I S

• 0O

EH

8

C l P

.

N

w . .

A

F ig. 8 .

C hronological d istribution o f w ares o n s ite Q 2-1 ( spits F , G , a nd I = p re-Inca l ayers, s pits J , K , L , M = l evelling d eposits b eneath I nca b uildings; N t o s urface = I nca o ccupation d eposits; W ares 1 3, 2 6, 2 7, 2 9 = C uzco I nca P olychromes; W are 4 5 = K illke; W are 4 = C uzco I nca u tilitarian).

5 07

0

5

1 0

F ig. 9 .

J ar 4 .

=

W are 4 5, K ilike.

S cale i n c m .

-

0

F ig.

1 0.

W are 4 5, K illke.

S cale i n c m .

5 08

- -

-

C olours c oded a s i n F ig.

— 5

C olours c oded a s i n F ig. 4 .

0

F ig . 1 1.

W are 4 5 , K ilike .

S cale i n c m .

5 09

-

5

C olours c oded a s i n F ig. 4 .

P l.

1 .

W are 1 3, C uzco I nca A ryballus: P hotomicrograph o f t hin-section i n p lane-polarised l ight. T he f abric c ontains a ndesite t emper, i n am atrix w hich c ontains s mall q uartz a nd f eldspar g rains a nd l aths o f b iotite m ica ( Photograph: R ob I xer).

P l.

2 .

W are 1 3 ( Fabric 1 2), C uzco I nca A ryballus: P hotomicrograph o f t hin-section i n p lane-polarised l ight. T he c lasts o f p yroxene a ndesite t emper a re f resh, a nd h ave e mbayments ( Photograph : R ob I xer). 5 10

P l.

3 .

W are 4 5 ( Fabric 4 7), K ilike F ine W are j ar ( Lucre V alley): P hotomicrograph o f t hin-section u nder c rossed p olars. T here i s a l arge a ndesite c last t o t he r ight o f c entre; t he r emaining c lasts a re a rkose, a nd t here a re g rains o f q uartz a nd f eldspar ( Photograph : R ob I xer).

P l.

4 .

W are 4 5, K ilike F ine W are J ar ( Cusichaca V alley): P hotomicrograph o f t hin-section u nder c rossed p olars. T he f abric i s t empered w ith c lasts o f t rachy-syenite ( Photograph: R ob I xer). 5 11

A N A PPRAISAL O F T HE M OLLO C ULTURE O F B OLIVIA W illiam l ain M ackay

A BSTRACT T his p aper i s b ased o n a b rief f ield s urvey c arried o ut i n a s mall a rea o f n orth-eastern h ighland B olivia , i n t he c anton o f A ucapata i n A ugust 1 984. I t a ttempts t o d raw t ogether s ome o f t he m aterial p ublished i n S panish a nd F rench w hich i s n ot a vailable i n E nglish w ith t he a im o f p resenting a s ystematic o verview o f t he M ollo c ulture. T he i nfluence o f t he g eographical l ocation , c limate, f lora, a nd f auna a nd c ontext i s d iscussed, a nd s ome o f i t's i mplications o n t he d evelopment o f t he c ulture a re c onsidered. T he M ollo c ulture s pans a l ong p eriod; f rom t he M iddle H orizon ( Period V III) w hen T iahuanaco i nfluence i s e vident i n t he p ottery, t o t he L ate H orizon ( Period V ) w here c ontacts w ith t he I ncas a re o bvious, a gain a s e videnced c eramics ( Ravines, 1 982: 2 03 & 2 20).

b y

t he

L inguistically, t his a rea i s p articularly i nteresting. B efore t he c onquest o f t his r egion b y t he I ncas, t he A ymara w ere o rganized i nto a s eries o f i ndependent p olities, w hich a lso r epresent d ifferent d ialect g roups. T hese s tates o r p olities c an b e l ocated w ith s ome a ccuracy a s c an t he a reas w here t he I ncas b rought i n t he m itma o r m itmaq. T o t his d ay, t he h ighland a reas b ordering t he e astern s ide o f L ake T iticaca i s c haracterized b y t hese l inguistic p ockets. T he p aper t hen p roceeds t o d eal w ith t he a rchaeological b ackground. T he b ulk o f t he e vidence i s a rchitectural ( from s ites l ike I skanwaya a nd K han ) a nd i ts a ssociated c eramic a nd l ithic h istorical e vidence.

m aterial.

T he p aper

t hen

c oncludes

w ith

s ome

I ntroduction T he a rea o f A yata a nd t he p rovince o f M uñecas a re b oth v ery r ich f rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew . N evertheless, t he n ucleus o f d evelopment o f t he M ollo c ulture r emains l ittle s tudied. T his a rea i s c entered ( Fig. 1 ).

a round t he p rovince o f M uñecas,

i n t he d epartment o f

L a

P az

A ccording t o L umbreras ( 1974: 5 5), i n t he a ltiplano o f B olivia a nd P eru, i n t he a rea o f L ake T iticaca , w ith t he d ecline o f t he T iahuanaco C ulture a w hole s eries o f p re-Columbian p olities a rose, s ome c ompeting w ith e ach a nother. Y et t hese w ere s trongly l inked b y a r egional c ulture w ith l ocal v ariations, c onsisting c hiefly o f a s eries o f p olitical a nd e thnic u nits w hich c ontinued u ntil t heir i ncorporation i nto t he I nca e mpire.

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H owever, L umbreras q uite r ightly p oints o ut t hat w hen r eference i s m ade t o t he a ltiplano k ingdoms a nd t heir a rea o f j urisdiction , i t m ust b e b orne i n m ind t hat t hese k ingdoms w ere n ot n ecessarily a lle ncompassing, c ontrolling i n a n o rganized f ashion v ast t racts o f l and b ut, r ather, d ominion o f a reas w as g enerally i n t erms o f e cological n iches o r ' vertical c ontrol o f e cological l evels' a s s uggested b y J ohn M urra ( 1972). T he t opographical, c limatic a nd e cological d ifferences b etween t he a ltiplano a nd t he y ungas a re q uite c onsiderable a s i ndicated i n E ilhelm L am er's ( 1984: 3 1) s tudies o n t he e coclimate o f t he C allawaya r egion , n orth o f A yata. T here i s a n a ppreciable c limate d ifference b etween U lla U lla ( 4500 m ts) o n t he a ltiplano a nd C harazani w hich i s l ocated i n a v alley a t a pproximately 3 ,300m a bove s ea l evel. T his i s a utomatically r eflected i n ad ifference o f s ubsistence p atterns f or t he d ifferent a reas m entioned. U lla U lla i s e ssentially a l lama a nd a lpaca h erding a rea , w hereas C harazani t ends m ore t o a gricultural p ractices a nd, t o a l imited e xtent, t o a nimal h usbandry p articularly c attle, p igs, h orses a nd m ules, a ll a nimals i ntroduced t o t he a rea i n p ost-Conquest t imes, t he e mphasis b eing o n g rowing m aize a nd p otatoes. T he a rea m ay b e s een i n g eneral t erms a s b eing d ivided b etween t he p una o r a ltiplano a nd t he v alleys t hat b isect t he p una w hich e xtend i n a n e asterly d irection . T he c limate v aries a ccordingly f rom s emi-humid t o s emi-arid. T he r ainy s eason i s u sually f rom N ovember t o A pril, a lthough e arly r ainfalls c an b e e xpected f rom A ugust t o O ctober. F rom M ay t o J uly t here i s n ext t o n o r ain. T he d rainage z one o f t he R iver C harazani t ends t o b e t he d riest r egion ; l ikewise i n t he c ase o f t he r ivers L lika a nd C opani, w here m any o f t he M ollo s ites a re l ocated. T he v alley h eads f orm e cological i slands, w here e ven i n t he d ry s eason m ists c an b e e xpected, a pparently c aused b y t emperature i nversions o ccurring i n t he e ast a nd s ubsequently b eing b lown u p t he v alleys b y s trong w inds . T he a rea o ccupied b y w hat i s c urrently k nown a s t he M ollo C ulture c omprises a w ide s pectrum o f z ones, f rom f rost-free a reas t o t he l imit o f t he f orested z one t o a r egion w here t he d aily t emperatures f luctuate f rom w ell a bove z ero d egrees c entigrade t o w ell b elow , d uring a t l east 3 00 d ays o f t he y ear. T his t hermal c hange o ccurs a t 3 ,200m a bove s ea l evel. T he a ltitude w here a griculture b ecomes i mpossible c oincides w ith t he p oint w here f rost i nhibits v egetational g rowth f or a t l east s ix m onths o f t he y ear. T his p oint g enerally l ies b etween 4 ,100 a nd 4 ,300m a bove s ea l evel. T he g eneral g radient o f t emperatures b etween 3 ,000 a nd 4 ,500m i n t he C harazani r egion i s a bout 0 .6 0 C p er l OOm . V ariations o ccur f rom o ne s ide o f t he v alley t o t he o ther, N NW s lopes r eceiving m aximum n umber o f h ours o f s unshine p er d ay, a nd t he S SW-facing s lopes b enefitting l east.

a nd

T he l and u se a nd v egetation v ary i n d irect p roportion t o h eight d epend o n t hermal v ariables. A griculture l ikewise d epends o n

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v ariables s uch a s t he g eobotany a nd p rimarily, t he g eomorphology o f t he r egion .

Z ones

1 .

B y a nd l arge t he M ollo C ulture s ites a re l ocated i n t he l ower e cological r egion , t hat i s t o s ay b etween 1 ,200 a nd 2 ,200m a bove s ea l evel. T he a rea i s k nown l ocally a s t he b ajio. C itrus t rees, c oca a nd s ugar-cane c an a ll b e g rown i n t his r egion. T he i ndigenous v egetation i n t he a rea c onsists m ainly o f s mall t rees s uch a s t he a lgarrobo ( Prosopis), t he t hornbush , c actus a nd l eguminosae, b romeliads a nd a gavaceae. T he s oil i s a rid b ut w ith i rrigation c an p rove t o b e e xtremely f ertile. T oday l imited c ultivation i s c arried o ut, h owever, q uantity o f c anals, c hannels a nd t erracing, a ll i ndicate a f airly h igh p opulation d ensity i n t imes p ast. T he p opulation i n t his a rea t oday i s n egligible ( due t o m igration t o t he c ities). M ist a nd d ew t end t o f orm a t a n a ltitude o f 2 ,000m , y et n otwithstanding t his f actor t here a re f ew w ater s ources t o b e t apped f or a gricultural p urposes. B oth t he c limate a nd t he s oil a re d ry a nd d irect w ater s ources f or t he s ites a re f ew a nd f ar b etween, d espite t he f act t hat r ivers f low e astwards o nly s ome 2 00 t o 4 00m b elow m any o f t he a rchaeological s ites.

2 .

T he i ntermediate e cological l evel l ies i n b etween 2 ,200 a nd 3 ,700m a bove s ea l evel. T his i s a lso k nown a s t he t emperate z one a nd i s c urrently t he a rea o f h ighest p opulation d ensity. H ere, a griculture c an b e c arried o ut o n a g reater s cale; m aize b eing c ultivated a s t he c rop o f p rime i mportance, f ollowed b y w heat. N either o f t hem c an b e g rown a bove t he 3 ,600m l evel. C limatic c onditions a re t emperate w ith a bundant r ain a s a r ule, f rom N ovember t hrough t o A pril; w inters a re i nvariably d ry. H ere t he m ountain f orest e dge e nds a t a pproximately 2 ,700m , t his a lso b eing t he l imit o f t he m ists, w hich i n t he c ase o f t he L lika V alley c ome f rom t he d irection o f C onsata, t o t he e ast.

3 .

T he u pper e cological z one o r l evel k nown a s t he Z ona f ria s tarts a t 3 ,700 a nd e xtends t o 5 ,300 i -r n a bove s ea l evel. T his z one i s n ormally r elatively d amp , d ue t o t he f act t hat i t i s s upplied w ith w ater f rom t he f requent r ainfalls a nd m elt-waters f rom t he a ltiplano ( Fig . 2 ).

T he i nhabitants o f t his a rea t end t o b e h erders. T he n atural v egetation i s t he p aja b rava ( Stipa i chu s .p.p.) a nd c hilika ( Senecio p ampas). V irtually t he o nly p lants t hat c an b e c ultivated i n t his a rea w ithout r isk a re t ubers, n amely o ca ( Oxalis t uberosa) a nd o f c ourse t he p otato ( Solanum a ndigenum a nd i t's n umerous v arieties). P otatoes c an b e g rown a nd c ultivated u p t o 4 ,100 o r 4 ,300m a bove s ea l evel.

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A nimal h usbandry b ecomes i mpossible b eyond t he 4 ,800m l imit. H owever, c huño, d ehydrated p otato c an o nly b e m anufactured a t 3 ,900m a nd a bove, d ue t o t he f act t hat d aily e xtremes o f t emperature v ary s o m uch f rom 0°C f or a t l east 3 40 d ays i n t he y ear. H owever i n t erms o f t he M ollo C ulture, t his z one s hows l ittle e vidence o f o ccupation . E ven t oday t he n orthern a rea o f t he P rovince o f M uf lecas r emains l argely u ninhabited. T he l ower a nd i ntermediate r egions a re t he o nes t hat p rovide m ost e vidence o f p rehispanic o ccupation o f au nified n ature. F ollowing t he R iver L lika d ownstream a s i t c uts i ts w ay t hrough t he C ordillera R eal, t he v alley g ets d eeper a nd d eeper a s i t p rogresses e astwards. A dded t o t he L lika a re t he c onfluences o f t he K oansani a nd K allinsani v alleys w hich t end t o d ivide i nto n orth a nd s outh-facing s lopes; l ikewise t he d istribution o f h abitation s ites. T he L lika b ecomes t he f rontier o r b oundary b etween t oday's p rovinces o f M uñecas a nd L arecaja . A s S anginês ( 1957: 3 8) i ndicates; " Este h echo i nfluye d ecisivamente p ara q ue l a r egion p ertenezca a l s istema h idrog t hfico a mazOnico y n o a l i nterior a ltip T hnico". T his s tatement m ay b e o f i mportance w hen c onsidering t he n ature o f t he M ollo c ulture a nd i ts a ffiliations.

A rchaeological E vidence S ites,

S ettlement a nd A rchitecture

T he p rovince k nown a s L arecaja u nder t he I ncas, b orders w ith A mbana t o t he n orth, a nd t o t he n orth e ast w ith t he C allawayas . L arecaja i s f ormed b y a s eries o f s tepped v alleys w hich s pread o ut r adially f rom t he p una r egion ( approximately 4 ,500m) t o t he d ry y ungas r egion ( approximately 1 ,500m a bove s ea l evel) w hich m erge w ith t he v alleys o f t he C opani a nd L lika r ivers, b oth o f w hich f low w estward t o m eet i n t he d eep v alley o f t he L ika-Consata. I f a n e cological c rosss ection i s d rawn f or t he a rea i n a n e ast-west d irection, t he o verview i s o ne o f c ontrast b etween t he l ower d ry a rid r egions a nd t he m ore h umid h igher z ones w hich n owadays a re t he m ost h eavily p opulated. A s T hierry S aignes ( 1978: 1 160-61) h as p ointed o ut, t he v alleys f ormed a f lexible b order b etween t he h igher j ungle z one ( 100-500m) a nd i ts i nhabitants a nd t hose o f t he A ymara p olities o f t he T iticaca b asin , t hat i s 3 ,800 t o 4 ,500m a bove s ea l evel. T he v ast m ajority o f s ites w ith f eatures t o b e a ssociated w ith w hat i s t ermed t he M ollo C ulture a re t o b e f ound i n t he a rea k nown a s t he y ungas o r t he v alleys b etween t he 3 ,800 a nd 1 ,500m l evels. T he c ulture w as d efined b y C arlos P once S angin s a fter c arrying o ut e xcavations a t an umber o f s ites i n t he v icinity o f t he H acienda M ollo, n amely a t P iñiko ( Piniqo), P ukachhutuyoq; A jirial-pata ; J awaq,ollani; K atiqo; M uchha-cruz; K umani; M olin-wasi-kata; U chuchajra ; M arko-pata P 'illqisani a nd J ut'araya. T he f irst t wo s ites a re l ocated i n t he l ower e cological r egion a s d efined e arlier; t he r emaining s ites a re t o b e f ound h igher i n t he l ower e cological z one. I t i s n ote-worthy t hat t he m ain h abitation s ite f or t he a rea w as i n f act l ocated i n t he l ower e cological r egion; f or P iñiko i s s ituated 2 50m a bove t he R iver

5 16

P aqchani a t p attern a nd t erraces.

a bout 1 ,800m a bove s ea l evel. P iñiko n ucleus b uilt i n c lose f ormation a nd

h as a h abitation o ften l ocated o n

T he s tructures a re r ectangular, w ith s tone f oundations a nd a dobe w alls . T wenty t hree u nderground g raves, g enerally c ists, w ere e xcavated a nd t he f oundations f or e ight h ouses c leared. T he t erraces h ad a ssociated w ith t hem a n e xtensive h ydraulic s ystem f or i rrigation. T he n earby s ite o f P uka-cchutuyoq i s m uch s maller a nd c omprised s even t ombs . T he s ites i n t he i ntermediate e cological z one a re i nvariably b urial s ites, w ith c ists b eing t he o utstanding f orm o f b urial. T urning t o t he l ower e cological z one i n t he n ext v alley a long a nd p arallel t o t he C opani, t hat i s t o s ay i n t he L lika V alley, i s t he w ell-known s ite o f I skanwaya w hich i s l ocated o n t he s outh-facing s lope a pproximately 1 50m a bove t he R iver L lika b etween t he 1 ,722 a nd 1 ,622m c ontour l evels ( p1. I & F ig . 3 ). T he a rea t hat i t c overs i s a pproximately 1 3 h ectares i ntersected b y t he s hallow v alleys o f s ix s easonal s treams. A rea ' A ' o f I skanwaya i s t he b est p reserved, c ontaining t he h abitational n ucleus, a nd i s l ocated b etween V alley n o. 1 o r C hirisi a nd n o. 4 a nd t he b ed o f t he N aranjani ( p1. I I). T he s ite i s r egarded a s b eing a c itadel b y m ost a uthorities a nd i s b uilt o n a s eries o f t erraces ( p1. I II) w hich w ere n ecessary t o e nable t he c onstruction o f t he m ain r esidential a rea i n a n o rganized f ashion . T he n eed f or t erraces i s m ade c lear b y t he f act t hat t he g radient o f t he s lopes v aries b etween 2 5% a nd 5 0% . T he m ethods a nd m aterials o f c onstruction a re s imilar t o t hose t o b e f ound i n p resent d ay A ucapata , 4 km t o t he w est a nd a bove I skanwaya . T he w alls a re b uilt w ith s lates w hich a re s plit a long t heir n atural c leavages a nd t hen l aid h orizontally t o b e b ound w ith m ud. T his t echnique i s i n c ommon u se t hroughout t he A ndes, n otably s o i n t he n orthern P eru i n t he P rovince o f A mazonas a t s ites l ike K uelap, L eimebamba a nd o ther s ites i n t he U tcubamba V alley. H owever, c lose i nspection o f t he e vidence w ould t end t o i ndicate t hat t he s imilarities m ay i n s ome c ases b e s uperficial. aid o ut i n a n o rganized f ashion, t o a n I skanwaya i s w ell p lanned, l e stablished p attern . L ayout i s s tandardized. E ach h ouse i s c omprised b y a s mallish d oorway, g enerally o f t wo r ooms i nterconnected T he m ain e ntrance t o e ach h ouse i s t rapezoidal i n s hape ( p1. I V). o verlooking a p latform o f s imilar u sually r ectangular i n s hape, re c hambers b elow t he h ouses. I t i s b uildings. I n s ome c ases t here a or s torage o r f or b uroial ( Fig. 4 ). u nclear w hether t hese w ere u sed f N ordenskiold ( 1957: 8 3) s tates: I nhumar l os m uertos e n l a c asa e s c ostumbre m uy d ifundida e n S uram rica, y l a p ractican l os a raona , c hiriguano y o tras t ribus.

A n o utstanding f eature i n t hese h abitations w hich i s u nique t o I skanwaya i s t he s mall t riangular s lab t hat t ies t ogether t he c orner

5 17

a ngles o f t he w alls, p roviding a h igh s helf. S mall n iches a re t o b e f ound o n e ither s ide o f t he d oor, a bove i t , a nd s et i nto t he f lanking w alls. T he w alls w ere c overed w ith m ud s tucco u p t o 2 cm t hick, a nd t he l ower p arts w ere p ainted r ed. O ne m ay v isualize w hat i t l ooked l ike b y c omparing t he w all d ecorations a t t he c oastal I nca s ite o f T ambo C olorado, n ear P isco, I ca, a nd t he t races o f d ecorations a t I skanwaya . R oofing w as p robably c arried o ut u sing t ree t runks f or t he f ramework a nd t hen c overed w ith t hatch . T he w ood u sed i n t he r oofing w as m ost p robably b rought f rom t he j ungle z ones. T he g able e nds t end t o i ndicate t hat r oofs w ith a d ouble w atershed w ere u sed. T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat t he s ite r epresents a m ajor s ettlement f or t he a rea , a nd a c entre f or e conomic a dministration . T his i s r eflected b y t he f act t hat t he p opulation d ensity m ust h ave b een q uite h igh . T he p opulation h as b een c alculated t o h ave b een a round t he 3 ,500 m ark. A nother s ite, l ocated f urther u p t he s ame v alley i s t hat o f K han o r K arl, w hich o verlooks t he c onfluence o f t he L lika a nd L ocumayo r ivers. T he s ite i s a pproximately 3 km w est o f I skanwaya, a t r oughly t he s ame c ontour l evel, p robably a round 1 ,800m a bove s ea l evel. I t t herefore, i s a lso l ocated i n t he l ower e cological z one, w hich i s a n a rid r egion. D espite t his, e ven t oday, a s i s t he c ase f or t he v illagers o f A ucapata, p lots o f l and a re h eld b elow b oth I skanwaya a nd K han . S pecialized c rops b eing g rown t here, s uch a s c oca , s ugar c ane, m aize a nd f ruits. T he H owever,

a rea h as n ot , t o m y k nowledge, b een a dequately s urveyed. t he t erracing a nd n umber o f s tructures o bserved s uggested a

s ite e qual i n t he a rea o f i ts d istribution t o I skanwaya, i f n ot i ndeed l arger. M any o f t he f eatures t o b e f ound a t I skanwaya a re s imilar , a lthough t he h abitation n ucleus, i n t he c ase o f K han , i s c oncentrated o n a l ong p romontory. E ntrance t o t he m ain p recinct i s m ade v ia a s tepped, i nset , t rapezoidal d oorway t o as eries o f e nclosed a reas o r c hambers, w hich a re r ectangular i n s hape a nd h ave w alls b uilt i n t he s ame m ud a nd s late p irca s tyle f ound a t I skanwaya, a lthough s ome o f t he b uildings a re m ore s ubstantial t han t hose a t I skanwaya. O utside w hat w ould s eem t o b e t he d efensive p recinct o n t he p romontory, a nd t o t he w est , t here s eems t o b e a n atural p latform w here t he o utlines o f s ome h ouses c an b e t raced. T he c learing o f b ushes a nd t all g rasses w ould p robably r eveal m ore s tructures. S urrounding t he s ite a re s ubstantial t erraces w hich c ontinue o utside t he m ain a rea o f t he s ite a nd u p t he v alley o f t he L ocumayo f or a t l east 5 00m . N ot f ar f rom t hem a re a s eries o f c ircular s tructures, p ossibly f ootings f or h ouses. T hey m ay b e o f m ore r ecent c onstructions. T hey w ould , h owever, s eem t o p arallel a n i nteresting p henomenon t o b e n oted a t K ue l .ap , C hachapoyas, i n n orthern P er , w here a s eries o f c ircular s tructures w ith r egularly d ecreasing d iameters a re t o b e f ound . A lso a t K han , m ainly o n t he s lopes t o t he e ast a nd t he n orth o f t he m ain h abitation s ite a nd u sually a bove t he t erraces, a re t he b urial

5 18

a reas, w hich a re d ifferent f rom t hose t o b e f ound a t I skanwaya t o ( p1. V ).

d ate

O ther h abitation/defensive s ites a re t o b e f ound i n t he s ame e cological a rea, s uch a s: C hunkawasiyoq, P ukara, C haraj-Pakaje, M amakoru , P allayunga , J achapampa , P ukanwaya, P ukarilla a nd P alla P alla . P ukanwaya i s l ocated a t a h eight o f a pproximately 2 ,800m a bove A ucapata. T he s ite i s i nteresting b ecause i t i s l ocated h igh i n t he i ntermediate e cological z one a nd i n t he m idst o f a f orested r egion . P ukarilla c onsists o f a s eries o f t erraces w hich f ollow t he c ontour l evels o f t he h ills. L ocated a t a h eight o f 1 ,770m , i t i s s ituated i n t he l ower e cological z one a nd i s w ell s uited f or t he c ultivation o f s pecial c rops. P once S angin s s tates t hat f or e ach h ectare t hat t he s ite c overs t he m aize y ield w as i n t he r egion o f 9 ,500kg . T he s ite c overs s ix h ectares. T heoretically, 5 7 m etrical t ons w ould b e a vailable, a nd w ith e ach i ndividual c onsuming 0 .6kg d aily, o r 2 16kg p er p erson a nnually, P ukarilla c ould s upport a t l east 2 60 p eople ( 1980: 4 8). T hese s tatistics m ay s eem m isleading i n s ome w ays, y et t hey d o h elp u s t o v isualize a nd e mphasize t he i mportance o f a griculture a nd t he a ssociated s upport s ystems, s uch a s t erracing a nd w ater d istribution s ystems. P alla-palla o r C horo i s am ajor s ite e ast o f I skanwaya, n ear C onsata , a nd i s l ocated a t 1 350m a bove s ea l evel, j ust w ithin t he l ower e cological z one. T he s ite i tself i s l ocated o n ah illtop o verlooking t he c onfluence o f t he L lika a nd P alla-Palla r ivers w hich e ventually b ecome t he C onsata R iver. T he a rea i s s ubtropical a nd h umid, m aking t he c ultivation o f c rops l ike y uca, c offee, s ugar-cane, c oca a nd c itrus f ruits p ossible. C onsata i s a lso k nown f or t he q uantity o f i ts a lluvial g old. G old i s a lso e xtracted a t v arious l ocations a bove K han . A ccording t o H uidobro B ellido ( 1984: 1 47), P alla-Palla i s e ssentially a n ecropolis; t he h abitational s tructures v isible t oday c annot b e r elated t o t he t ombs o n t he b asis o f s tratigraphical e vidence. T here a re t erraces i n t he a rea w hich a re i n a p oor s tate o f p reservation . T hese, a long w ith t he t ombs, w ould t end t o i ndicate t hat t here m ust b e a s ettlement s ite a s y et u nlocated. H aving c onsidered t hese s ites, f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t heir l ocational r equirements, c onstructional m ethods, a gricultural p ractices, a nd i n s ome c ases d efensive n ature, a p icture o f u nity c an b e d etected. H owever, w hen i t c omes t o c onsidering b urial p ractices a nd t he v ariety o f t omb c onstruction m ethods, t he p erception o f a n o verall s tructural u nity s eems t o b reak d own. T he r easons f or d iversity a re u nclear. P erhaps t here w as a s tratified s ocial s tructure, b urial p atterns v arying a ccordingly. H abitation a nd h ouse l ayout a lso v ary c onsiderably a t s ome s ites. N o a dequate c omparative s tudy h as b een c arried o ut t aking i nto a ccount t omb t ypes, c eramics a nd t omb c ontents f or t he d ifferent s ites. T his w ould b e l ikely t o t hrow l ight o n t he s ocial s tratification i n t he a rea . C ertainly, i n i mmediately p re-Conquest a nd p ost-Conquest t imes t here i s s trong e vidence f or s ocial s tratification.

5 19

T ombs a nd b urials M any o f t he t omb t ypes h ave m uch i n c ommon w ith t he a ltiplano t raditions w hich , a re q uite v aried. I n 1 957 P errin P ardo, i n a n a rticle o n " Las t umbas s ubterr neas d e W akuyo", d efined t wo m ajor t ypes o f t ombs: t hose a bove g round a nd, s econdly, t hose w hich a re t o b e f ound u nderground, b oth o f t hem h aving t heir r espective s ubdivisions. F or t he M ollo a rea t he d ivisions a gain a re t wo: a )

c hambered t ombs, w hich c an b e s ubdivided i nto: c hamber, s ingle m onumental c hamber, d ouble a nd c hambered m onumental a nd g rand b urials;

b )

c ists,

s ingle t riple

b oth t hose o f o ne f loor o nly a nd t hose o f t wo.

P once S anginês' i nitial e xcavations a t P iñiko r eveal d c ist-graves o f o ne f loor o nly r arely c overing a n a rea o f m ore t han i m T hese c ist g raves t ook t he s hape o f p entagons o r h exagons a nd w ere b uilt w ith s labs o f s late. A t P if liko t he b urials w ere s ingle i nhumations. T he p ottery a ssociated w ith t he b urials w as o f t he s tyle k nown a s M ollo. A t P i i iiko t he 2 3 u nderground t ombs w ere e xecuted a ccording t o a s tandard p attern. M ost o f t he b urials i n t he v icinity o f t he H acienda M ollo w ere c ist b urials, s ave a n e xample a t A jirial-pata , w hich w as c apped b y ac orbelled d ome. .

B urials a t I skanwaya a re c ist b urials. H owever, t he s hape o f t he c ist h as v aried, a nd t ends t o b e c ircular a s i n t he c ases o f t ombs 3 , 5 , a nd 7 i n a rea " A". T he t ombs a re l ocated w ithin t he h abitation n ucleus. T he c onstruction m ethod i s t he s ame: s labs o f s late a re u sed. T omb 1 0 i n b uilding 2 6A i s d ifferent a nd i s p entagonal, w hile o ther t ombs a re c ircular w ith w alls o f t hin r ectangular s labs o f s late. T he b urials w ere g enerally f or s mall c hildren. T he p ottery t o b e f ound a ssociated w ith t he t ombs s uggests a u niformity o f t radition . T he p icture a t K han , h owever, i s q uite d ifferent. T he t ombs t here a re a ccording t o H uidobro B ellido 's c lassification : s imple, s ingle, d ouble a nd t riple m onumental c hambers, a nd w hat h e t erms m ausoleos. T he t ombs a t K hari b ear a s trong r esemblance t o t he t ombs r eferred t o b y N ordenskiold a t Q uiaca i n s outh-eastern P eru. T he s tonework a nd c oursing i s i n w hat c ould b e t ermed s tandard M ollo s tyle, w ith s ized s labs o f s late b ound w ith m ud m ortar. T he t ombs a re r ectangular a nd i dentical t o t hose f ound a t P alla-Palla, w here t he t omb d eposits a re m uch t he s ame a s t hose f ound a t K han , a lthough t he t ombs t hemselves a re s maller ( approximately 7 5 x6 0 x 6 0cm). T he s ingle c hamber t ombs a re u sually g rouped o n t op o f t erraces o r r etention w alls. B uilt i n p irca a nd m ud b inder, t hey v ary o nly i n t hat s labs a re u sed f or r oofing a nd t he t ombs t hemselves a re l arger. T he d ouble o r t riple c hamber t ype o f t omb i s t o b e f ound a t C hunkawasiyoq, t he n ecropolis o f K han , s howing c ertain p arallels w ith t he b urial c hambers a t H uari, A yacucho, P eru. T he

o verview

o f

b urial p atterns s uggests t hat

5 20

t here

i s

t o

a

c ertain e xtent a u nified t radition o f c ist b urial, t here a re, h owever, n otable e xceptions, p articularly a t K han ( Chunkawasiyoq) a nd a t P allaP alla .

T he c eramic t radition T he M ollo c eramic t radition o verlaps w ith T iahuanaco V ( 1000 A .D.) a t t he e arlier e nd o f t he s cale, a nd w ith t he I nca t raditions t owards t he l atter e nd. H owever, s andwiched b etween t hese t wo h orizons, e merges a h ighly d istinctive s tyle k nown a s M ollo, w hich c an b e s ubdivided i nto t wo g roups: a )

M ollo p ainted .

b )

M ollo p lain w are.

M ollo w are i s c haracterized b y t he f requent u se o f r ed, b lack, w hite , o range a nd s ienna s lips , w hich a re u sed f or d ecorative p urposes . T he w heel w as n ot u sed. T he p ottery d oes n ot p ossess t he t extural q uality o f T iahuanaco c eramics. I n m ost c ases a r ed s lip h as b een p oured o ver t he w hole v essel, t he d esign t hen b eing a pplied i n b lack, w ith w hite h ighlighting a dded s ubsequently. G eometric d esigns a re b y f ar t he c ommonest: r homboids, s quares, s trings o f s quares w ith h atching, t riangles, s tepped o r s errated d esigns. T he p otter s eems t o h ave b een f ree t o e xecute h is c raft, a nd e xpress h imself w ith a d egree o f f lexibility u nlike t he T iahuanaco p otter w ho h ad t o s tick t o c ertain s hapes a nd d esigns. T he m ajority o f p ottery s hapes a re d istinctive, r anging f rom a nthropomorphic f orms t o aw ide r ange o f e ssentially f unctional a nd u tilitarian w ares. O utstanding c haracteristics a re f lat b ases a nd, s traight a nd a ngle-sided c ontainers. I n s ome c ases, t wo f lower-pot ( or s quat k ero s haped) c ontainers, o ne c onsiderably l arger t han t he o ther o ne, a re l inked b y a b ridge. S hapes a re o ften c ylindrical, a nd r ims a re r arely m oulded. I n s ome c ases a b and o f h igh r elief w ork

t he h as

b een a dded, p articularly i n t he c ase o f k eros o f t he s tandard t ype. G lobular b owls a nd j ugs a re l ikewise p revalent f orms ( Figs. 5 & 6 ). O n t he b asis o f h is e xcavations a t t he t ombs a t P if liko, a nd c omparing t his w ith o ther s ites , i n 1 957 P once S anginés e stablished t hat t here w ere t en b asic p ainted t ypes a nd a t l east t hree f orms t hat w ere c ommonly b urnished ( Sanginés 1 957: 6 6-69). S urface c ollections a t K hari a nd I skanwaya h ave p rovided a n umber o f s lipped e xamples e xhibiting m any M ollo p ottery f eatures, e xcluding o ne f ragment, f rom K hari h as m ore a ffinities w ith t he L ate C ajamarca s tyle o f n orthern P er i, b oth f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he f abric a nd a lso s urface p ainting o n i t ( Fig. 7 b). A rellano ( 1975) h as c arried o ut s ome w ork o n t he c omposition o f t he c lays e mployed , t he f rits, a nd t he b inding a gents e mployed. T he f rits a nd b inding a gents u sed i n t he m atrices o f t he c lays u sed a re d istinctive a nd c ontain e lements t hat a re o nly l ikely t o a ppear i n t he

5 21

v alleys w here t he c ulture d eveloped.

T he f rits e mployed a re:

a )

p articles o f f oliated s late o f v arying s izes;

b )

am ix o f s late a nd q uartzitic s and;

c )

ac omposition o f r ounded o r a ngular p articles o f q uartz.

A ll i n a ll t he c lays a nd f rits u sed a re d istinctive. S amples w ere t aken f rom t he s ites o f K han , P ukanwaya , M amakoru, I skanwaya a nd M ollo. A reilano f eels t hat t he f act t hat t he p ottery c lays c ontain s uch a h igh p roportion o f s late, s hould b e r elated t o t he f act t hat s late o ut-crops a re c ommonplace i n t he z one. M ollo p ottery i s r emarkably u niform i n i ts m anufacture a nd t he f iring t echniques u nlike W ankarani o r C hiripa p ottery.

u sed,

T he f iring o f t he p ottery v aries l ittle a nd w as, b y a nd l arge, c arried o ut i n a n o xidizing a tmosphere, t he c lay t urning a r eddish c olour. I mperfect f iring i n s ome c ases h as p roduced b anding w hich , i n c ross-section, a ppears a s ar ange o f t ones b etween o range a nd g rey. I n s ome c ases a r educing a tmosphere w as u sed, t urning t he c lay a c harcoal b lack . P ottery w ith t his t ype o f f iring i s g enerally a ssociated w ith u tility w are. N evertheless, t he o verall v iew t hat M ollo p ottery p resents i s o ne o f a u nified t radition . T his u niformity i s c onsidered t o b e a n i mportant p oint f or u nderstanding t he c ulture a s aw hole. " El c at hcter d e l a u niformidad e n e l u so d el a ntipl stico p uede m ostrar l a f aita d e c omunicaci6n c ultural c on o tras z onas o p or e i c ontrario l a h omogeneidad e n e i d esaroilo d e l a c ultura . E jemplo c aracteristico ' La C uitura M ollo" ' ( Arellano 1 975).

T he m etallurgical e vidence T he m etallurgical e vidence i s n ot s o c lear c ut: i n f act b ronze, c opper, g old a nd s ilver o bjects h ave s trong p arallels e lsewhere , p articularly i n t he c ase o f t upus o r t opos ( long p ins f or s ecuring g arments). O nly a d etailed s tudy o f m etals u sed, i ncluding t race a nalysis, w ill g ive a n i dea o f t he e xtent o f i nter-regional t rade, a nd t o w hat e xtent t here w as a b ronze i ndustry i n t he M ollo a rea. A t horough s tudy o f t he t upus w ould p rovide m any a nswers. E ven t oday i n t he C harasani r egion t he u se o f t he t upu i s c ontinued. T upus i ndicate t he m arriage s tatus o f aw oman . I n a ddition t o t upus, p ins, r attles, t umis , t weezers a nd e arrings w ere e ither m anufactured o r t raded i n . A t I skanwaya t here i s e vidence o f t he u se o f m etallurgical i nstallations. M oulds w ere f ound f or " T" s haped a xes . T his i s a n i nteresting f act, s ince s ilver, c opper a nd t in w ere u sually o btained f rom t he a ltiplano. G old w as t he o nly m etal t o b e o btained i n t he a rea, w hich i s a r ich a uriferous z one. A s urface f ind w as m ade a t K hari o f a n o bject w hich w as p robably u sed f or

5 22

g rinding g old. T his f ind p arallels e xamples o f s mall g rinders f rom t he c oast o f t he A ndean a rea ( Fig . 8 ). T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat t he M ollo c ulture h ad r eached a l evel o f c onsiderable s ophistication t echnologically a nd t hat t hey h ad d eveloped a c ertain d egree o f s elfs ufficiency.

L ithic a rt S toneworking , s culpture a nd l ithic a rt a re p oorly r epresented; u sually f inds a re l imited t o m ortars a nd p estles o f v arious t ypes, a nd b oleadoras. W ith r egard t o s culpture i n t he r ound, l ittle c omment c an b e m ade, a part f rom t he f act t hat t here i s o ne e xceptional e xample o f a n a nthropomorphic f igure, w hich w as d iscovered a t K hari b y S r. J uan M olina o f A ucapata, w ho h ad i t t ransferred t o t he p laza a t A ucapata, w here i t i s k nown a ffectionately a s " Manolito". T his f igure b ears s trongest r esemblance t o f igures f rom A ija a nd R ecuay i n n orth c entral P eru . A v ariety o f t echniques w ere u sed i n i ts m anufacture: p ercussion, p erforation , p olishing a nd i ncision . I t i s u nique i n t hat i t i s a n e xcellent e xample o f s culpture i n t he r ound. M ost o f t he s tonework, h owever, w as e ssentially o f a p ractical a nd f unctional n ature . L ittle c an b e s aid a bout r eligious b eliefs a s r epresented g enerally, s ince t here i s n o s ubstantial b ody o f e vidence p ointing i n t his d irection .

H ydraulic s ystems, a griculture a nd l and u se I n a ssociation w ith M ollo p ottery, t here a re a gricultural t erraces a nd a w ell p lanned s ystem o f i rrigation c hannels, b uilt w ith s mall s labs o f s late. T he M ollo c ulture, t hroughout i ts d evelopment, m ade g reat p rogress i n t he f ield o f i rrigation a nd h ydraulic e ngineering. T here i s e vidence o f t erracing, w ater r eservoirs, c onduits a nd v arious t ypes o f c hannels. I skanwaya i s ag ood e xample o f a s ite w here d rinking w ater w as o btained f rom a c entral w ater r eservoir. T he w ater w as d istributed b y a s eries o f " V" s ection c hannels f rom w hich s maller f eeder c hannels s plit o ff t o t he v arious g roups o f b uildings. ( In a rea " A" t here i s a c entral w ater s ource , t he b asin b eing c ircular i n s hape, a nd f ormed b y as quare s tones, n ext t o s tructures 2 5A , 2 6A a nd 1 7A). S ince I skanwaya i s l ocated w ithin t he l ower e cological r egion, t he a rea i s e xtremely a rid a nd d ry, p articularly a t t he 1 ,700m m ark. E ffluents a nd w aste w ater w ere c arried o ut o f t he u rban a reas b y m eans o f a s eries o f c hannels. T he w ater s ystem w as w ell p lanned f rom i ts e arliest s tages, t hat i s, f rom t he w ater c atchment a rea , t hereafter b eing d iverted f or m aximum a dvantage a nd e ven c ontrolled a t t he s tage w here e xcess w ater h ad t o b e d isposed o f. T he t erraces a re e ndowed w ith a w ell e stablished s ystem o f i rrigation, P iñiko b eing a g ood e xample. P once S angin s f eels t hat a gricultural i rrigation w as t he k ey t o t he w hole d evelopment o f t he M ollo c ulture, a llowing f or a s table p opulation . T he l abour i nvolved i n t he c onstruction o f t he t erraces m ust h ave b een c onsiderable, a nd t he a gricultural o utput m ust h ave m atched t his, a s w e h ave s een f rom

5 23

t he s tatistics p rovided f or P ukarilla . A t K hari t he s ystem i s s imilar, w ith c hannels p roceeding i n a n orth-south d irection , f eeding t he t erraces w hich w ere a ligned a pproximately o n a n e ast-west a xis, a nd a lso f lowing d own t o t he u rban s ection. C hannel t ypes a t m ost M ollo s ites a re e ither: a )

" V" s haped i n s ection, o r,

b )

a n i nverted t rapezoid i n s ection.

T heir f unctions m ay h ave b een: 1 )

d rinking w ater s upply,

2 )

i rrigation, a nd/or

3 )

d rainage.

W ater e cological

a nd/or

c ontrol w as o f c onsiderable i mportance, i n v iew o f t he a nd t opographical c onditions. Al arge a mount o f k nowledge,

f oresight a nd e xperience w as i nvolved. E verything h ad t o c onsidered: t he a ngle o f t he s lopes, t he f ertility o f t he s oil, w ater s upply t hroughout t he s easons, r otation o f t he c rops, a nd d egree o f p ermeability o f t he s oil a nd b edrock.

b e t he t he

T he t echnical k nowledge a ssociated m ust h ave b een c onsiderable, t o t he e xtent t hat n ew a gricultural i mplements m ay h ave b een d evised t o r eplace t raditional o nes. P once i ndicates a d ecline i n t he u se o f t he h oe a nd a p rogressive t rend t owards t he u se o f t he f oot-plough o r c hakitajlla . T his m ay h ave b een b ecause t he s oil t o b e w orked w as d ifferent f rom t hat o f o ther a reas. O rganization a nd c o-operation m ust h ave b een i mportant a t a ll l evels o f s ociety, t o u ndertake s ome o f t he e ngineering f eats, p articularly t he c onstruction o f t he a gricultural t erraces, o r a ndenes, w hich v aried i n d imensions a nd c onstruction d epending o n t he t errain, t he i rrigation m ethod, a nd t he c rop r equirements.

C hronology A r elative c hronology f or t he M ollo c ulture w as e stablished l argely o n t he b asis o f a n a nalysis o f t he c eramic t radition , b y P once S angin s i n 1 957, w ith M ollo f ollowing c hronologically f rom h is T iwanaku e xpansivo r egional, a nd e nding a round 1 450 A .D . w ith t he I ncas. A fter t he e xcavation o f I skanwaya, h e p ut f orward n ew d ates , b etween 1 200 A .d. a nd 1 485 A .D ., a pproximately w hen t he I nca i nvasion i s r eckoned t o h ave o ccurred. D evelopment t herefore, t ook p lace o ver a m aximum o f t hree c enturies ( fig. 9 ). H e c onjectures t hat, a fter t he d ecline o f T iahuanaco, t he a ltiplano l ost i mportance f rom t he g eopolitical p oint o f v iew a nd e migration t o t he v alleys t ook p lace . T he a dvent o f a griculture w ith i rrigation w ould h ave a llowed f or a r apid d evelopment, s ettlement a nd l evel o f u rbanism t o b e s een a t I skanwaya a nd K han . A bsolute d ating h as b een p rovided b y t wo r adioc arbon d ates, w hich a re:

5 24

F RB 7 0

1 220 ± 7 0 A .D.;

F RB 7 0

1 150 ± 7 0 A .D.

H uidobro B ellido s ees t his i n t erms o f d ates a pproximately 1 050 A .D. t o 1 416 A .D. O bsidian h ydration h as p rovided a s ample d ate o f 1 425 A .D. N one o f t hese d ates r eflect a m ajor c ontradiction o f o r d isparity w ith a rchaeological o r h istorical e vidence ( Bellido, 1 983: 1 1). W hile t he d ates s uggested f or t he M ollo c ulture a re g enerally a ccepted, t he q uestion o f t he c ulture's c ontact a nd r elation t o o ther a reas i n i ts l ater p hases a re h otly d isputed. L umbreras, f ollowing S angin s ' o riginal f ramework, s uggests t hat t he n ormal s ubdivision o f t he M ollo c ulture s hould b e i nto t hree d istinct p eriods, t hat i s t o s ay, a p eriod o f c ontacts a nd r elations hips w ith T iahuanaco, a n a utonomous p eriod, a nd a n I nca p hase. H e r egarded M ollo a s b eing s tylistically w ithin t he t ricolour t radition, a nd t he m ost T iahuanacoid i n c haracter. H owever h e a dded a w arning n ote t hat s tratification a nd d ifferentiation b etween p eriods i s e ither u nclear o r n on-existent. I n f act h e g oes o n t o s uggest: 0 1 " Si b ien p ueden h aber d os o ms f ases d e M ollo, t ambi n e s p osible q ue s e t rata d e u na c o1on1zac16n d e u na s ola é poca, q ue b ien p udiera s er I nka e n e l t iempo. R especto a e sta c uesti6n d e l a c olonizaci6n , e s m enester f ijar l a a tenci6n e n e i h echo d e q ue e i e nclave e s t odo e i v alle, y n o s olo a lgunos s egmentos, c omo s e d educe d el rgimen d e a rchiplélagos q ue d escriben l os d ocumentos" ( Lumbreras 1 974 : 7 0).

A rellano ( 1978) h as p roposed a t hree s tage e volutionary d evelopm ent o f t he M ollo c ulture, s tarting w ith a f ormative p hase, f ollowed b y a n u rban p hase a nd e nding w ith a c olonizing p eriod. M eanwhile H uidobro B ellido ( 1980) h as h is o wn s cheme, i .e.: M ollo i nicial, i ntermedio a nd t ardio, h e s eems t o p refer A rellano's f ormativo , u rbano a nd c olonizador i ntensivo, a lthough h e w ould r ather s plit t he u rban p hase i nto u rban l ocal a nd u rbano e xpansivo. L umbreras v iews t he M ollo c ulture a s b eing a c ulture o f w ide r anging i nfluence, q uite t he o pposite o f R ydén 's h ypotheses ( 1959), w hich r egards M ollo a s a d evelopment o f, " poor l ocally m ade i mitations w ith l ocally a ccentuated f eatures o f t he p ottery t ypes i n t he f ocal a rea. T he r eason f or t he i nferiority o f t he M ollo w are w ould n o d oubt h ave t o b e s ought i n d ifferent l iving c onditions. N otwithstanding i ts g eographical p osition n ear t he T iahuanaco f ocal a rea, t he M uñecas a rea m ust b e r egarded a s a n i solated b ackwards r egion w ith s trictly l imited l iving c onditions, o wing t o t he c limate a nd a ltitude a bove s ea l evel. -

-

T o t he M uñecas a rea , t he c ulture i mpulses f rom t he T iahuanaco a rea f ound t heir w ay o nly w ith d ifficulty, w hile h aving s mall c hances f or d evelopment" ( Ryden 1 959: 1 13).

5 25

I n c ontrast t o t hese v iews, A rellano a nd H uidobro B ellido s ee t he d evelopment o f M ollo , i n i ts f ormative p eriod, a s b eing l inked i n w ith t he T iahuanaco c ulture a s e arly a s P eriod I II i n t he a reas o f L arecaja a nd M uñecas, t he s ystem o f m itmas a pparently b eing i n u se a t t his t ime. I n t he p hases I V a nd V , T iahuanaco b ecame d ecentralized, a nd a utonomous d evelopment t ook p lace i n L arecaja a nd M uf lecas. A p rocess o f a cclimatization a nd r econditioning t ook p lace w ith a s eries o f e xperiments, m ainly i n t he f ields o f a rchitecture a nd a griculture. S ites s uch a s P iñiko, M uccha-cruz a nd M ojón a ll p resent e xamples o f S anginês' T iwanaku e xpansivo. I ndeed, M uccha-cruz h as e vidence o f p reT iwanaku e xpansivo , c orroborating t he v iews s tated a bove. U rbanism w as a ffected a s M ollo b ecame a utonomous a nd T iahuanaco d isintegrated. K han , P alla-Yunga a nd I skanwaya a re a ll p roducts o f t his p eriod. A t I skanwaya, w all c onstruction m ethods v aried s ufficiently f or a c hronological d ifferentiation t o b e m ade. G rowth w as p robably d ue t o t he f act t hat a w orking k nowledge o f h ydraulic e ngineering w as w ell e stablished. C onsequently M ollo w as a ble t o b uild u p t rade l inks t o d ispose o f s urplus i tems i n e xchange f or c ommodities. T he a rrival o f t he I ncas b rought a n e nd t o t heir i ndependence, a lthough t he r elationship o f t he t wo p eoples m ay h ave b een p ositive, a s i n t he c ase o f t he L upaca k ingdom a nd t he t reaties m ade b y t hem w ith P achac i ' ttec. P adre B ernabe C obo ( p. 1 91) s tates; " Quedaron e n e sta j ornada p uestos e n o bediencia d el I nca t odos l os p ueblos y n aciónes d el c ontorno d e l a g ran l aguna d e T iticaca , q ue d e u na p arte l a c if len l as p rovincias d e l os L upacas y P acasas, y d e l a o tra l as d e P aucarcolla , A sangaro y O masuyo A lgunos d e l os p ueblos r eferidos s e d efendieron v alientemente y t uvieron m uchos r eencuentros c on e l I nca a ntes d e s ujet rsele."

B ernabe C obo r efers t o t he e xploits o f H uayna C apac, p articular r eference i n h is c hronicle t o t he e xpedition t o p resent d ay E cuador. T he c aptains s ent w ere t he b ravest:

a nd m akes P asto, i n

" Mollo-Cavana, L upaca d e n aci6n , n atural d el p ueblo d e H ilavi, M ollo P ucara , n atural d e H atun c olla , y o tros d os l a p rovincia d e C ondesuyo, q ue s e d ecian A pu C avacacavana y A pu c umti m ullu." -

-

P edro S armiento d e G a x nboas '

-

-

a ccount i s s imilar:

" For t his s ervice h e s elected t wo c aptains o f t he C ollao, o ne n amed M ollo-Cavana, t he o ther M olloP ucara , a nd t wo o thers o f C ontisuyo n amed A pu C antar C avana a nd C unti-Mollo , u nder w hose c ommand h e p laced m any m en o f t heir n ations i f

5 26

T hese p assages a re i nteresting b ut d o n ot c larify c onnections, t here w ere a ny, b etween t he L upaca a nd t he M ollo a reas.

i f

R ecords r eferring t o t he r eports g iven b y t he A ymarh I ndians a t t he t ime o f t he I nca c onquest s uggest t hat t he T iticaca B asin w as o ccupied b y f our m ajor t ribal g roupings, w hich w ere r arely u nited a nd w hose d ialects d iffered c onsiderably. T he C olla w ere t o b e f ound i n t he T araco a rea , t he L upaca i n P uno a nd J uli, t he P acasa i n t he T iahuanaco a rea , a nd t he 0 masuyo i n t he A chacache a nd M ollo a reas. T he I ncas b rought i n p eoples f rom o ther a reas ( e.g . C hachapoyas, H uancas) ( Fig . 1 0). T he a rchaeological r ecord p oints i n f avour o f t hese a ccounts: i n f act, g eopolitical a nd a dministrative d ivisions t oday s till r eflect t he a ncient c leavage z ones. L upaca t owns m ay h ave b een r eorganized u nder t he I ncas, b ut t he L upaca p rovince p rovides r ich s ources, a nd e vidence, o f p re-Inca u rbanism . B efore t he I nca c onquest, o ne o f t he Q aris b ecame f amous f or f ounding a s eries o f t owns a long t he s outhwest s hore o f L ake T iticaca , i n t he h eart o f L upaca t erritory. T he n ames I llave, Z epita , P omata a nd C hucuito a re r ecorded b y C ieza d e L eon a s b eing t he n ames o f t owns t he Q ari f ounded. T he L upaca a re t herefore a ll c entred r ound t he w est c oast o f L ake T iticaca , a nd a re a ltiplano d wellers. D iez d e S an M iguel ( 1567) h as l eft s ome i mportant d ocumentation, i ncluding a l ist o f t he l abour o bligations o f t he L upaca p rovince u nder t he I ncas. W eaving w as o ne o f t he m ain i ndustries, a nd p erhaps n ot s urprisingly, s ince t he L upaca w ere w ell k nown a s h erders o f l arge f locks o f l lamas a nd a lpacas. T hey a re a lso o n r ecord a s h aving b een m akers o f c opper a xes ( at A cora). T he l ist o f a ctivities a nd p rofessions i s a lmost t otally d ivorced f rom t hat o f t he a ctivities o f y ungas d wellers a nd t he i nhabitants o f a djacent a reas, i .e. t he M ollo c ulture. W hile f or t he e arlier p hases o f t he M ollo c ulture B ennett 's ( 1948) c oncept o f a rea c o-tradition

( "extension t hrough s pace a nd p ersistence t hrough t ime" [R ouse 1 954 : 2 21 ] ) , is v alid, p articularly f or T iahuanaco , i n t hat t he m echanisms f or c omparing t he c ulture h istory o f t wo o r m ore r egions c an b e s tudied i n o rder t o h ighlight s imilarities a nd d ifferences i n t heir m anner o f c ulture c hange; i t w ould s eem t hat a n a nswer w ould s till h ave t o b e s ought, t o e xplain t he c auses o f t he d ifferences b etween t he M ollo a nd t he L upaca . I n B olivia , a s i n P eru t he d iffusion o f c ulture s eems t o h ave t aken p lace p rimarily b y t he e xtension o f c ertain c ulture t raits f rom o ne l ocalized g roup t o a nother, b e i t p olitically o r e conomically, t hrough t rade o r c onquest, o r b y s ome o ther m eans. S edentary a griculture m ay h ave b een a m ajor l imiting f actor. A rticles o f t rade m etalwork , f or e xample, m ay h ave s pread e lements o f o ther c ultures, r ather t han t he i deas o r c ustoms u pheld a nd f ollowed b y t hem ( such a s r eligious b eliefs). T here i s l ittle i n M ollo c ulture t hat c an b e r elated d irectly t o T iahuanaco r eligious b eliefs. T he a rea c ot radition h as i ts o wn h istory a nd p ersistent t raditions. A s B ennett h as i ndicated: " Culture c hanges t hroughout t he P eruvian a rea a re r oughly u niform i n t ime a nd d irection" ( in R ouse, 1 954 : 2 22). S een i n t his l ight, M ollo m ay h ave c ontributed i ndirectly t o c ultures a nd t raditions l ike C huraj6n, A llita A mayá a nd C hiribaya . N evertheless t he o verriding f actor a nd v iew w ould s eem t o s uggest M ollo w as a n i ndependent d evelopment, a s p reviously n oted w hen d ealing w ith

5 27

t he d ifferent a spects o f t heir m aterial c ulture. T he g eographical l ocation i nvites t he d evelopment o f a n a utochthonous c ulture w ithin t he c onfines o f c ertain e cological z ones. T he p revailing s ituation w ould s eem t o b e o ne w here t he M ollo c ulture s ettled t he l ower s lopes o f t he y ungas a nd, i n M urra's ( 1972) t erms, c ontrolled e conomically, i f n ot p olitically, v arious e cological z ones, e xcluding t he a ltiplano w hich w as d ominated b y o ther c ultural g roupings l ike t he L upaca, w ho w ere e ssentially h erdsmen. T he a rchaeological e vidence i s s till m ore c learly c ut. I n t he a ltiplano w ith t he d ecline o f T iahuanaco , an umber o f i ndependent a nd r ival k ingdoms e merged, c ulturally l inked i n s ome a spects b ut w ith m ajor l ocal v ariations. I t i s, h owever, u nlikely t hat a ny o f t he h ighl and k ingdoms h ad a s trong f oothold p olitically o r e conomically i n t he M ollo a rea . A rchaeologically i t i s n ot a ttested, o r a t l east n ot i mmediately r ecognizable; i n f act a rchitecutral a nd c eramic t raditions a re t otally a utochthonous t o t he M uf lecas-Larecaja r egion. T he d evelopment o f t echniques a nd s tyles f ollowed a n e stablished p attern f rom t he t ime o f t he d ecline o f T iahuanaco o nwards. B urial p ractices a re v aried, a nd d o, t o a n e xtent, t ie i n w ith s ome o f t he a ltiplano t raditions; i rrigation a nd a griculture i ndicate l ocal c ontrol o ver a v ariety o f e cological z ones, a nd a t t he s ame t ime a u nity o f p urpose a nd t rdition i n t he a rea. O nly m etallurgy b etrays o utside I nfluences, w hich c an o nly b e d emonstrated b y t race a nalyses o f c ertain e lement I n t he m etals a nd a lloys u sed. M ollo s ites a re c onveniently l ocated e ither j ust a bove r iver b eds, o r a t a pproximately 2 ,700m a bove s ea l evel , a nd l inked b y a r easonable c ommunication s ystem . T he M ollo c ulture w as t herefore i n f ull c ontrol o f a v ariety o f e cological z ones, w ithout h aving t o c ompete w ith o ther k ingdoms t o s urvive. I skanwaya r eflects a h igh d egree o f c ohesive o rganization n ot t o b e f ound e lsewhere, l east o f a ll a mongst t he L upacas . M ollo, i t w ould s eem , w ould h ave b een a l arge i ndependent c ultural g rouping w hich w as, a t t he s ame t ime o ne o f t he m ost a dvanced t echnologically. S urprisingly, I skanwaya , P alla-Yunga, J achapampa , K han , P if liko, e tc. a re n ot m entioned i n G arcia D iez d e S an M iguel's L upaca " islands". L ikewise, w hy i s M ollo p ottery n ot f ound o n t he P acific c oast, o r e ven a t C hucuito? T o p ut i t s imply t he L upaca w ere p astoralists, a nd t he M ollo a griculturalists. T raditions w ere d ifferent. O nly w ith t he I nca c onquest o f t he L upaca a nd t he M ollo d id t he s cene c hange. A s H uidobro B ellido s tates: " Los M ollo y l os L upaca s on d os s istemas c ompletamente d iferentes, u no d el o tro, t anto e n e l t iempo, c omo e n e i e spacio." ( Bellido 1 983: 1 2)

T hus i n t erms o f W endell B ennett's c oncept o f a rea c o-tradition , t here s eems t o b e n o m ajor l ink b etween t raditions i n t he l ater p hases : r egional v ariations a re c lear c ut.

5 28

A cknowledgements I w ish t o t hank P rofessor D .J. G ifford f or h is h elp, s upport a nd e ncouragement, t he e xpedition m embers, t he v illagers o f A ucapata a nd U lla U lla, D r. J uan Z ozaya, M adrid a nd f inally M r. E ric M ackay a nd M r. R ana G hosh—Roy f or h elping m e w ith t he w ord p rocessing a nd M iss C atherine M ackay f or h er p art i n p roof r eading.

5 29

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A rellano L opez, J orge. 1 975. L a c iudedela p rehispánica d e I skanwaya. C entro d e I nvestigaciones A rqueológicas. N o. 6 . L a P az. A rellano L opez, J orge, 1 975. L a c er mica d e l as t u i nbas d e I skanwaya . C entro d e I nvestigaciones A rqueol6gicas. N o. 8 . L a P az.

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C entro d e

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C anteria , J uan F . 1 969. " La c olección d e c er mica M ollo d el M useo d e P rehistoria d e V alencia." R evista e spaf lola d e a ntropologia a mericana . I V: 6 5-92. C obo, B ernabé, 1 956. N otas y C orrespondencia . G alimberti, e ds. i ii., C uzco.

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1 800.

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K ing, A rden R . 1 948-49. " Tripod P ottery i n t he C entral A ndean A rea." A merican A ntiquity 1 6: 1 03-15, ( Reprint 1 967).

L aner, E ilhelm , 1 984. " Acerca d e l a e coclimatologia d e l a r egion C allawaya," i n E spaclo y T iempo e n e l M undo C allahuaya . I nstituto d e E studios B olivianos. U niversidad d e S an A ndres . L a P az: 9 3 4 .

5 30

L umbreras, L uis G . 1 974 . " Los r einos p ost T iwanaku e n e i A rea a ltip T hnica" R evista d el M useo N acionai X L : 5 5-85.

M acBain, H erath, 1 963. " Descubrimientos a rqueoi6gicos. T he B andelier A rqueologycai C ollection f rom P elechuco a nd C harazani, B olivia." ( trans. J . C havez) i n C ultura C aliawaya E . O blitas. L a P az. M urra , J ohn V . 1 973. E l " Control V ertical" d e u n m áximo d e p isos a rqueoiógicos e n l a e conomla d e l as s ociedades A ndinas. U niversidad l ermilio V aldizán, H uánuco, P eru. M urra , J ohn V . 1 982. " The M ita O bligations o f E thnic G roups t o t he I ndian S tate." I n T he I nca a nd A ztec S tates. C ollier ( ed.). N ew Y ork:

2 37-60.

O blitas P . E nrique, 1 978.

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1 963).

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P errin P ando, A lberto, 1 957. " Las t umbas s ubterráneas d e W akuyo." A rqueoiogia B oliviana. C . P once S anginés. L a P az: 1 73-205.

I n

P once S anginés, C . 1 957. " La c er mica d e M oilo." A rqueologia B oliviana. ( Primera M esa R edonda) B iblioteca P aceña. L a P az. P once S angin s, C . 1 980. E ditorial J uventud.

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S aignes, T hierry. 1 978. " De l a f iliation a l a r esidence: l es e thnles d ans l es v allées d e L arecaja." A nnales 33e A nnêe ( 5-6): 1 1601 181.

5 31

W assén, S . H enry, 1 978. " Instrumentos y p lantas d e u n c urandero I ndio e n u na t umba d e l a z ona C allawaya," i n C ultura C allawaya. E . O blitas ( ed.) L a P az: 5 23-556. W ebster, S teven S . 1 971. " A Q uechua C ommunity o f M ultiple E cological Z ones." R evista d el M useo N acional X XXVII L ima : 1 74-83.

V allee, L ionel, 1 971. L a e cologla s ubjetiva c omo e lemento e sencial d e l a v erticalidad. R evista d el M useo N acional X XXVI L ima: 1 677 3.

5 32

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5 34

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5 38

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5 39

S urface f ind f rom

CH I P IONOLO WC / AL

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P ADDLE A ND A NVIL P OTTERS O F T HE N ORTH C OAST O F P ERU G eorge B ankes

A BSTRACT T his p aper f irst e xamines t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom f ieldw ork a nd M useum c ollections f or t he p rehispanic u se o f t he p addle a nd a nvil t echnique f or m aking p ottery o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru f rom T rujillo t o T umbes . I t s hows h ow t he t echnique s pread f rom i ts i nception i n t he P iura a rea i n t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod s outh t o t he M oche v alley b y L ate I ntermediate t imes. T hen i t l ooks a t t he m odern p addle a nd a nvil p otters o f M orrope, S imbilá a nd C hulucanas u sing e vidence f rom f ieldwork c arried o ut b y t he a uthor i n 1 984 a nd a lso f rom o ther i nvestigators. I t s hows h ow t he m odern u tility w ares o f M orrope a nd S imbila a re p roduced o n a k in b asis, o riginating a t l east i n t he 1 9th c entury a nd v ery l ikely d ating b ack t o p rehispanic t imes. S ome v essel f orms a ppear t o h ave p rehispanic a ntecedents. T he p rincipal m arket f or t his p ottery i s t he m anufacture a nd s torage o f c hicha. C hulucanas h as a s mall g roup o f a rtistic p otters w hose t echniques i nclude n egative p ainting, d erived i n p art f rom s tudying t he t echnology o f V icus c eramics.

T he t echnology o f p addle a nd a nvil p ottery o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru , h ere d efined a s t he a rea b etween T rujillo i n t he s outh a nd T umbes i n t he n orth, w as d efinitely d eveloped i n p rehispanic t imes. T his t echnique i nvolves b uilding u p t he c hamber o f a v essel b y b eating o n t he o utside w ith a w ooden p addle w hile h olding a r ound o r o val a nvil s tone i nside t o d eaden t he b lows. P addle a nd a nvil c eramics a re s till b eing m ade i n t he D epartments o f P iura a nd L ambayeque, n otably a t S imbilá , C hulucanas a nd M orrope. L anning ( Lanning 1 963) i n h is s urvey o f t he P iura a nd C hira C oast d efined a s tyle o f p ottery t hat h e t ermed S echura , d ating r oughly f rom t he e nd o f C upisnique t o t he e nd o f M oche I II i n t erms o f t he V iruC hicama s equence. L anning i dentified f ive p hases w ithin t his S echura s tyle a nd t ermed t hem A , B , C , D a nd E . O ne o f t he b asic w ares h e r ecognised w ithin t he s equence i s a ' Granular W are ' ( 1963: 1 65) w hich g ot i ts n ame f rom i ts g ranular a nd p orous c ross-section e ven t hough i t w as s mooth-surfaced, p redominantly r ed p ottery, s oft a nd f airly t hick. I n p hases C t o E o f t his w are t he p addle a nd a nvil t echnique w as u sed. A lso h e d efines t wo o ther w ares o f t he S echura s tyle F ine R ed W are a nd C oarse W are w hich w ere l imited t o P hases D a nd E . H e n otes t hat i n b oth w ares ' jars w ere m ade e xclusively w ith t he p addle a nd a nvil t echnique' ( 1963: 1 67). H e o bserves t hat a nvil i dentations c ould b e s een o n t he i nside o f j ar c hambers. -

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L anning d oes n ot p ut e xact d ates o n t he b eginning o f p addle a nd a nvil t echnology i n t he D epartment o f P iura b ut h e d oes s uggest t hat i t m ay h ave s tarted a bout t he t ime o f G allinazo o r M oche I . T his w ould p lace i t i n t he f irst h alf o f t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod, a bout 2 00 B C t o 1 00 A D. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he u se o f p addle a nd a nvil i n V icus p ottery. G erásimo S osa, a m odern a rtistic p ottery o f C hulucanas w ho w orks w ith p addle a nd a nvil, h as s tudied V icus c eramics t o d etermine t he p rocesses o f m anufacture a nd d ecoration . I n h is b ook o n c eramic t echnology ( Sosa 1 984: 3 0) h e n otes t hat a lthough m ost V icus p ots s eem t o h ave b een m ade b y h and-modelling t he l arge v essels s how t races o f p addle w orking. E ven t hough h e d oes n ot d efine t hese l arge v essels w ithin t he V icus s equence, w hich w ould p robably b e v ery d ifficult t o d o, i t i s q uite l ikely t hat t hey f all w ithin t he f irst h alf o f t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod. T he t echnique o f p addle s tamping, w hich j ust i nvolves p atting t he s till d amp c lay c hamber w ith a w ooden p addle t hat h as i ncised d esigns c ut i nto i t, i s s uggesting b y L anning ( 1963: 1 0-11) t o h ave d eveloped a fter p addle a nd a nvil h ad b een g oing f or s ome t ime. H e s uggests t hat t he p ress-moulding t echnique m ay h ave d iffused t o t he P iura a rea f rom M oche-Chicama. S osa s uggests V icus p otters m ay h ave u sed m oulds ( 1963: 3 0). T he p otters m ay h ave u sed t his n ew t echnique a nd s imply t ransferred d esigns t o t heir p addles. L anning i ndicates t hat p addle s tamping m ay h ave d eveloped a bout M oche I V t imes, a bout A D 5 00 t o 6 00 . I n t he L ambayeque a rea e vidence i s e merging f rom B atan G rande f or t he u se o f p aleteada ( paddle o r s tamp-decorated u tility w ares) b efore A D 9 00 a ccording t o I zumi S himada a nd h is t eam ( Shimada: 1 986: 1 21 3). A nalysis o f p aleteada c eramics b y K ate M . C leland f rom o ccupation l evels a nd f ill o f a 5 m d eep t rench a t H uaca d el P ueblo, B atan G rande , e xcavated b y S himada i n 1 983 h as s hown t hat t his t echnique w as i n u se f rom t he M iddle t o t he L ate H orizon . I t c ould h ave b een i ntroduced a s e arly a s A D 7 50-800 j ust a fter t he M oche V p olity c ollapsed. I n t he B runing M useum , L ambayeque, t here i s aw ooden p addle s tamp ( p1 . 1 ) w ith a s croll d esign o n o ne s ide a nd a d iamond o ne o n t he o ther. T his h as n o p rovenance a nd i t i s d ifficult t o d ate . A lso i n t he s ame m useum i s as mall p ottery s tamp w ith a g eometric d esign ( p1. 2 ) w hich a gain l acks p rovenance. I t i s l ikely t hat b oth a re p rehispanic. A n e xperiment w ith t his p ottery s tamp i n 1 978 b y aM orrope p otter p roduced g ood r esults ( James V reeland, p ersonal c ommunication). I n t he T rujillo a rea p addle s tamping f irst a ppears o n M iddle C himu c eramics a bout A D 1 100 a ccording t o D onnan a nd M ackey ( Donnan a nd M ackey 1 978: 2 89). T he M iddle C himu P eriod w as a t ime w hen C han C han f lourished a nd d eveloped a s t he C himu c apital. T here w ould h ave b een c ontact w ith t he L ambayeque a rea a nd h ence t he i ntroduction o f p addle s tamping. S o f ar n o p addles o r s tamps l ike t hose i n t he B runing M useum h ave b een f ound i n t he T rujillo a rea.l T he a vailable a rchaeological e vidence s uggests t hat t he e arliest p addle a nd a nvil p ottery o n t he n orth c oast w as m ade i n t he P iura a rea i n t he f irst h ald o f t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod. P addle-stamping d eveloped l ater i n t he E arly I ntermediate i n t hat a rea, i n t he M iddle

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H orizon i n L ambayeque a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he P eriod i n M oche/Chica i na .

L ate

I ntermediate

I n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 0th c entury t he t radition o f p addle a nd a nvil p ottery s urvives i n t he D epartments o f L ambayeque a nd P iura . I n L ambayeque t he p rincipal c entre i s M orrope, a t own o f a bout 4 ,000 p eople l ocated s ome 3 1km n orth o f C hiclayo. H ere t he a rchaeological r ecord f rom t he S panish C onquest ( 1532-40) t o t he 2 0th c entury i s n ot w ell k nown e nough t o t race t he l ength o f t ime d uring w hich p addle a nd a nvil p ottery h as b een i n p roduction. M orrope e xisted a s a s ettlement i n e arly C olonial t imes s ince i t h as a n ow d isused C olonial c hurch b uilt i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 6th c entury ( James V reeland, p ersonal c ommunication) w ith a r oof s upported b y Y -shaped p osts j ust l ike t hose o n M oche h ouse p ots. I t i s l ikely t hat t he M orropanos o f t he 1 6th c entury w ould h ave n eeded p ots f or c ooking a nd m aking c hicha a nd m ost l ikely w ould h ave u sed t he s ame t echnology a s i n t he 1 980s. I n 1 984 o ne M orrope f amily, t he I noñan, c ould t race i ts p ottery m aking a ctivities b ack t hrough f ive g enerations w hich w ould t ake i t b ack w ell i nto t he 1 9th c entury ( Jose P roceso I nof lan , p ersonal c ommunication). I n 1 984 t here w ere a t l east t en a rtesans m aking p ottery i n M orrope a nd a nother t en i n t he s urrounding c ountry ( Bankes 1 985: 2 70). B y 1 987 a bout 1 00 p otters w ere a ctive i n t he M orrope a rea ( James V reeland, p ersonal c ommunication). F or S imbilá, a s ettlement o f a bout 3 ,000 p eople a bout 7 km s outhw est o f P iura , t here i s a l ack o f a ny s ignificant a rchaeological e vidence. L upe C amino r ecords ( Camino 1 982: 2 0) t hat u nder S imbilá t here i s a n a ncient d eposit o f f ine d ark c lay w ith k ilns o f e arlier p eople a s w ell a s o llas a nd j ars. H owever t he p otters w hom s he i nterviewed i n S imbila i n 1 980-81 o nly h ad a h azy i dea o f t heir h istory. T hey r eferred t o o ld d ocuments t hat d ated f rom a bout 1 880 o r p ossibly a bout 1 898 w hen s mall p arcels o f l and w ere c eded t o t heir g randfathers t o m ake u p f or l and l ost t o t he r ailway l ine ( now d efunct). R aymondi ( Raymondi 1 901) r elates h ow o n h is j ourney f rom P iura t o C atacaos h e p assed s ome s cattered d wellings t hat b elonged t o ' olleros ' w ho m ade u tility p ottery f or a l iving . T he P eruvian n ational c ensus h eld i n 1 876 ( Peru: 1 878) e numerates 6 2 p otters w orking i n t he d istrict o f C atacaos t hat e ncompasses S imbil . A ccording t o o ne o ld p otter ( Sr Y amanuque, p ersonal c ommunication) t here w ere s ome 9 0 p otters w orking a t S imbilá i n 1 927 w hen h e l eft f or C hulucanas. I n t he 1 980s t his f igure h ad c ome d own t o a bout 6 0 ( Camino 1 982: 2 1; B ankes 1 985 : 2 74). O ne p ossible e xplanation f or t his n umber i s a n e conomic o ne , n amely t hat t he s urrounding a rea a nd t he m arket w ithin t he P iura D epartment c an o nly s ustain t his n umber o f p otters. A lso a n umber o f S imbilá a rtesans h ave w orked e lsewhere ( Camino 1 982: 9 5-6). T he p addle a nd a nvil p otters w ho m ake u tility w ares i n S imbil , M orrope a nd C hulucanas a ll w ork o n ak in b asis. T his u sually i nvolves m embers o f t he s ame n uclear o r e xtended f amily u sing a w orkshop w hich i s a n i ntegral p art o f t heir h ome. G enerally m en m ake t he p ots s o t hat a f ather w ill w ork w ith h is s on(s) o r b rothers w ill b e i n t he s ame w orkshop. I n 1 984 i n o ne w orkshop i n t he c ountry n ear M orrope a f ather w orked w ith h is t hree s ons i n a s ort o f p roduction l ine. O ne s on w ould t read t he c lay w hile a nother d id t he i nitial s haping o f t inajaz c hambers b y h and. T hen a t hird s on b uilt u p t he t inaja c hambers b y b eating o n t he o utside w ith a w ooden p addle w hile h olding t he a nvil

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s tone i nside t o d eaden t he b lows. F inally t he f ather w ould p ut t he n ecks o nto t he t inalas c oiling a nd s moothing ( p1. 3 ). T he a ctual m anufacture o f v essels i s g enerally d one b y m en b ut M orrope h as o ne f ull t ime f emale p otter. S he m akes o nly t he s maller f orms l ike j ugs a nd f lower p ots w hich r equire l ess p hysical s trenght t han t he l arger f orms t hat h er b rother m akes i n a n a djoining w orkshop ( p1. 4 ). A lso w ith t hese s maller v essels t hey c an b e f inished q uickly a nd t heir m anufacture c an b e i nterpreted e asily f or d omestic r easons a nd t hen r esumed. C hildren l earn f rom p arents a nd o lder s iblings, s tarting b y m aking m iniature v ersions o f f ull s ize v essels o r s mall f igures l ike b irds. M iniature p ots f ound i n p rehispanic g raves m ay h ave b een m ade b y c hildren. I n S imbi T h w omen a pply a w ash c alled l ustre a lmagre ( a r ed i ron o xide p owder m ixed w ith w ater) t o f inished v essels b efore f iring . W omen a lso h elp l oad o pen p it k ilns b y c arrying v essels t o t he p ackers w ho a re i nvariably m en. I n C hulucanas t he p roduction o f f ine d ecorated w ares b y t he S añoc C amayoc g roup i s a lso o n ak in b asis. I ts m ost t alented m ember, G e t hsimo S osa, w as i nitially t aught t he t echnique o f p addle a nd a nvil w orking b y h is f ather w ho h ad e migrated f rom S imbilá. G erásimo s tarted b y m aking u tility v essels l ike c hicha o llas b ut d id n ot f ind t his v ery s atisfying. H e s tudied t he t echniques u sed t o m ake V icus c eramics w hich w ere p roduced i n t he C hulucanas a rea i n t he E arly I ntermediate P eriod. A long w ith h is c ousin F lavio a nd h is b rother-in -law S egundo M oncada h e e xperimented i n t he p roduction o f n egative p ainted w ares a ssisted b y a n A merican n un, G loria J oyce , i n t he l ate 1 970s ( Gloria J oyce, p ersonal c ommunication). A s a r esult o f t his w ork G erásimo, F lavio a nd S egundo f ormed S añoc C amayoc a nd n ow p roduce f ine n egative p ainted a nd b lackware v essels. G er simo 's w ork i s a rtistically f ar s uperior t o t hat o f h is c ousin a nd b rother-in-law a nd r ates w ith t he f inest q uality c eramics p roduced i n p rehispanic P eru. U nlike h is p rehispanic f orbears G erásimo a nd h is g roup s ign t heir p ieces . W ithin t heir w ork c ertain t hemes c an b e o bserved s uch a s t he c hichera m ade b y G er simo ( Pl. 5 ) a nd t he s eated l ady ( p1. 6 ) p roduced b y F lavio . A lthough t hese p ieces a re h and-modelled a nd a re i ndividual t hey n evert heless r epresent v ariation o n a t heme. I n p rehispanic f ancy p ottery , s uch a s M oche, t hemes i n r elief a nd p ainted w ares h ave b een o bserved ( Donnan : 1 976). T his k in-based o rganization o f t he p roduction o f m odern p addle a nd a nvil p ottery o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru i s a p attern w hich v ery l ikely p ertained i n p rehispanic t imes e specially s ince t he r equired s kills a re h anded d own f rom o ne g eneration t o a nother w ithin f amilies. A lso p roduction i s s pecialized b etween u tility w ares, n ow i n t he g reat m ajority, a nd f ine d ecorated c eramics. A gain t his i s a p attern w hich c ould w ell h ave a pplied i n a ntiquity. A lthough t he b asic t echnology a nd t ool k it u sed i n M orrope, S imbi T h a nd C hulucanas f or m aking u tility a nd p addle a nd a nvil w ares i s s imilar t here a re s ignificant v ariations b etween M orrope a nd t he o ther t wo c entres. T he M orope t echnology w as f irst s eriously s tudied b y C ollier i n 1 956 ( Collier 1 967). I n 1 985 m easurements o f t emperatures a chieved i n p re-firing d rying a nd a ctual p it k il f irings i n M orrope w ere m ade b y V reeland a nd o thers ( Vreeland 1 985; p ersonal c ommunication a nd n .d.). S imbilá h as b een t he s ubject o f a d etailed i nvestigation b y C amino ( 1982) a nd a s horter o ne b y L itto ( Litto 1 976). T he m ost

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c omplete a nd t horough e xposition o f t he w hole p rocess o f p addle a nd a nvil t echnology p lus m ore r efined t echniques i s t hat b y G er simo S osa ( op. c it). S osa 's w ork h as t he a dvantage t hat h e w as w ell t aught b y h is f ather a nd h e i s v ery m uch a p ractitioner e xperienced i n b oth t he m aking o f u tility a nd d ecorated w ares. T he m ethods h e d escribes r ange f rom t he s election a nd p rocessing o f p rimary m aterials t o d ecoration a nd f iring a nd r elate p articularly t o C hulucanas a nd S imbila s ince t he C hulucanas p otters o riginally c ame f rom S imbilá . I n a ll t hree c entres t he r aw m aterials f or m anufacture a nd p rocess ing h ave t o b e b rought i n f rom o utside. C lay c an b e e xcavated a nd m ay b e c arried i n s acks s trapped o n t o ad onkey, a s i n t he c ase o f t he l ady p otter i n M orrope, o r m ay b e d ug a nd b rought b y l orry a s w ith t he p otters' a ssociation o f S imbil . S and i s p lentifully a vailable f or m ixing a s t emper. M orrope a rtesans u se g oat d ung a s f uel f or p ref iring d rying a nd a ccording t o V reeland ( personal c ommunication , 1 985) t his " chamuzcado" r eaches a t emperature o f o ver 5 50 0C . F or f iring i n M orrope a lgarroba i s m ainly u sed a nd i n A pril 1 985 t emperatures i n e xcess o f 1 100 0 C w ere m easured i n at raditional p it k iln b y s cientists f rom t he I nstituto d e I nvestigacion T ecnologia, I ndustrial y d e N ormas T ecnicas a nd t he S ociedad d e I nvestigacion d e l a C iencia, C ultura y A rte N ortef lo ( Vreeland, 1 985, n .d.). I n a ddition z apote a nd b ichayo a re u sed a s f uel i n M orrope. I n S imbila a nd C hulucanas z apote i s t he f iring f uel b ut t here h ave b een p roblems i n o btaining i t. I t d oes n ot s eem t o p roduce a s h igh a t emperature a s a lgarrobo 9 50 0C a ccording t o C amino b ut i ts t emperature c urve i s m ore e ven t han t hat o f a lgarroba ( Lupe C amino, p ersonal c ommunication, 1 984). T his m ore e ven t emperature c urve w ould s eem t o p lace l ess s train o n t he k iln l oad. A n e xperiment c onducted a t t he C entro d e I nvestigaci6n y P romoción d el C a n ipesinado i n P iura u sing a M orrope a nd a S imbilá f lower p ot s howed t hat t he S imbila o ne l asted l onger t han t he M orrope o ne w hich c racked. T his m ay h ave r esulted f rom t he u se o f d ifferent f uels d uring f iring. -

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A part f rom t he f emale p otter w ho p addles h er s maller v essels s itting o n a s ack o n t he f loor, a ll t he M orrope p otters m ake t he a ctual c hamber, i ncluding t he p addle a nd a nvil w ork , s tanding u p. T he m ain m ethod u sed i n M orrope t o m ake a l arge w ide-mouthed j ar o r t inaja i s a s f ollows. A fter a f lat c ake o f c lay o r ' torta ' h as b een m ade i t i s p laced o n a n u pended m ould, i n t he s hape o f a j ar b ut w ith t hicker w alls, a nd b eaten b y h and i nto a n i nitial s hape . A fter a b atch o f t hese h as b een m ade t hey a re a gain p laced o ver t he m ould a nd b eaten w ith a f lat p addle o r ' palmeta ' w hile w alking a nticlockwise r ound t he w orkpiece. T he v essel c hamber i s t hen t aken o ff t he m ould, w hich i s r emoved. T he n ext s tage i s t o p lace t he c hamber b ottom d own o n t op o f a j ar f illed w ith s and a nd b eat w ith a w ooden p addle o n t he o utside w hile h olding t he a nvil s tone i nside t o d eaden t he b lows . W hile h e i s r aising t he w alls o f t he c hamber l ike t his t he p otter w alks a nticlockw ise r ound h is p iece . I n S imbila n o m oulds a re u sed f or s haping c hambers. M ost a rtesans w ork k neeling o n t he f loor n ot o nly t o d o t he i nitial s haping b ut a lso t o m ake t he f ull c hamber. T he a ctual p addling i s d one b y r esting t he v essel a gainst t he t high a nd l ifting i t r ound a s e ach s ection i s f inished. S ome S imbila a rtesans d o t he f inal p art o f t he p addling s tanding u p a nd w alk r ound a nticlockwise l ike t hose o f M orrope. C amino r ecords o ne ( op. c it .) w ho w orks s eated o n a b ench . N ecks a re p ut o n

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b y c oiling a nd s moothing. S tamping i s d one i n b oth M orrope a nd S imbilá w ith c lay s tamps o f v arious d esigns t hat a re u sually g eometric o r f loral. C amino d id t ry t o f ind o ut f rom t he S imbila a rtesans i f t here w as a ny s ymbolism i n t he a ctual d esigns o n t heir s tamps b ut n one o f t he p otters s aw t hem a s o ther t han d ecoration. T he f emale p otter i n M orrope t old t he a uthor t hat s he w ould m ake s tamps t o w hatever d esign a c lient w anted. H er s tamps w ere q uite d istinctive a nd i n s ome w ays s erved a s a k ind o f s ignature ( p1. 7 ). T he s ame m ight h ave a pplied i n a ntiquity a lthough t he d esigns o n t he t wo B runing m useum s tamps a nd t hose o n p ottery s eem f airly s tandardized. A lmost a ll o f t he M orrope a nd S imbila p otters h ave a s mallholding ( termed a c hacra i n M orrope a nd a p arcela i n S imbil ) f or g rowing s ubsistence c rops l ike m aize. T he n eed f or t his l and b ecomes p articularly a pparent w hen t here a re d amp p eriods w hen i t i s i mpossible t o m ake p ottery a s i n t he m onths o f M arch a nd A pril 1 983 w hen t here w as h eavy r ain a nd f looding . A fter t his t he M orropanos i n p articular t urned t o a griculture t o s urvive s ince i t w as t oo d amp f or p ottery p roduction. T he a rtistic p otters o r c eramistas o f t he S af loc C an iayoc g roup i n C hulucanas w ork a t t heir c raft f ull t ime a s m uch a s p ossible a lthough t hey t oo c an b e i nfluenced b y t he w eather. G erásimo S osa m ade a c hichera p ot f or t he M anchester M useum i n A pril-May 1 986 b ut t he f irst o ne c racked s ince t he w eather w as b ad o n t he d ay o f f iring ( Carolyn H eath, p eronal c ommunication , J une 1 987). T he s econd t urned o ut a lright ( Pl. 5 ). T he w eather m ust h ave i nfluenced f iring i n a ntiquity e specially i n p eriods o f h eavy r ain d ue t o i ncursions o f E l N iño. T he u tility w ares m ade i n M orrope, S imbilA a nd C hulucanas w ere o riginally m ainly i ntended f or d omestic n eeds, p articularly c hicha m anufacture, w ater s torage a nd c ooking. W ith t he i ncrease i n c ompetition f rom m etal a nd p lastic t here i s s till a s ubstantial d emand f rom d omestic u sers ( Bankes 1 985) b ut w ider o utlets w ithin P eru a nd a broad h ave b een o pened u p . S ome M orrope p otters n ow h ave a m arket i n J apan t hrough a J apanese m ulti-national c ompany. T his i llustrates h ow t hey h ave h ad t o a dapt t o a c hange i n m arket c onditions . A lso f our y oung M orrope p otters h ave t aken u p w heel-throwing t o p roduce w ares f or t he u rban m arket. I n g eneral t he S imbilá p otters a re m ore c onservative i n t heir t echnology a nd m arketing p rocedures t han t heir M orrope c ounterparts. H owever s ome S imbila f orms, e specially t he c hicha o lla ( Pl. 8 ) a nd t he c antarilla ( Pl. 9 ) s how s imilarities a t p rehispanic s hapes . T he c hicha o lla i s p ossibly d erived f rom t he w ide-mouthed e ggs haped j ars w ith t hickened r ims t hat w ere t he m ost p opular s hape o f t he V alle P lain P ottery T ype ( Strong a nd E vans 1 952: 2 67-8) f ound i n t he V iru V alley. t he c antarilla w ould s eem t o b e d erived f rom M oche a nd C himu s ingle s pout a nd h andle b ottles ( Pl. 1 0). A s y et n ot e nough i s k nown a bout t he a rchaeology o f t he P iura a rea t o f ind d irect l inks w ith t he p rehispanic c eramics t here a lthough i t m ust b e r emembered t hat t he V icus s tyle i ncluded s ome ' Moche' e lements a nd s ome C himu i nfluence w ould h ave f iltered n orth f rom L ambayeque. I n s pite o f t he d efinite e vidence f or p rehispanic p addle a nd a nvil t echnology o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru t here i s s till a d istinct g ap b etween t he S panish C onquest a nd t he 1 9th c entury. M artinez d e

5 50

C ompañon ( Martinez d e C ompañon y B ujanda: 1 936) h as i llustrated c hicha m aking o n t he n orth c oast i n t he 1 8th c entury i n w hich l arge j ars a nd o llas a re s hown. C hicha s eems t o h ave b een a s taple d rink, a t l east i n t he c ountryside, o n t he n orth c oast r ight u p t o a nd i ncluding t he p resent d ay. T herefore i t s eems l ikely t hat t he p addle a nd a nvil p ots u sed t o m ake, s tore a nd s erve i t c ontinued t o b e m ade a nd t hat t he p resent i ndustry i n M orrope , S imbila a nd C hulucanas h as d escended f rom o ne i n p rehispanic t imes w ith a s ubstantial p art o f t he c urrent t echnology b eing d erived f rom t hese e arlier d evelopments. T he g rowth o f as mall g roup o f a rtistic p otters i n C hulucanas s ince t he l ate 1 970s i nto a ' school' o f f ancy w are r epresents a r evival d erived i n p art f rom V icus. T hus t he w ork o f G er simo a nd h is c o-workers c ould b e s een i n t he w ider c ontext o f p rehispanic P eruvian p ottery w here l ater s tyles w ere i nfluenced b y e arlier o nes. T herefore o n t he o ne h and t here i s t he s pecialized p roduction o f u tility w ares i n M orope, S imbilá a nd C hulucanas w hile o n t he o ther S af loc C amayoc i s j ust m aking t he f ancy p ottery. T his i s i n k eeping w ith t he g reat c eramic t raditions l ike M oche a nd N asca o f t he P eruvian c oast.

A cknowledgements I a m g rateful t o D r. W alter A lva f or g ranting p ermission t o r eproduce t he w ooden p addle s tamp a nd p ottery s tamp f rom t he M useo B runing, L ambayeque. M y r esearch i n P eru w as m ade p ossible b y a L everhulme R esearch F ellowship a nd a g rant f rom M anchester U niversity. M y f ieldwork i n n orth P eru w as c arried o ut u nder C redencial n umber 0 34-84-DCIRBM g ranted b y t he I nstituto N acional d e C ultura t hrough t he g ood o ffices o f D r. C arlos G uzman L abron G uevara. Iw ish t o e xpress m y t hanks t o t he p otters o f M orrope, S imbi T h a nd C hulucanas, e specially G er simo S osa. F inally Ia m m ost g rateful t o L upe C amino, J ames V reeland, C arolyn H eath, L uis C haparro F rias a nd G loria J oyce f or t heir h elp a nd e ncouragement.

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

B ankes, G eorge, 1 985. T he m anufacture a nd c irculation o f p addle a nd a nvil p ottery o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru. W orld A rchaeology, 1 7: 2 , 2 69-277.

C amino, L upe, 1 982. L os q ue v encieron a l t iempo. I nvestigaci6n y P romoci6n d el C ampesinado .

P iura:

C entro d e

C ollier, D onald, 1 967. P ottery s tamping a nd M olding o n t he N orth C oast o f P eru . P eruvian A rchaeology: S elected R eadings ( ed. J ohn H owland R owe a nd D orothy M enzel) P alo A lto: P eek P ublications: 2 64-9.

D onnan, C hristopher B . 1 976. M oche A rt a nd I conography. L os A ngeles: U niversity o f C alifornia, L os A ngeles L atin A merican C entre. D onnan, C hristopher B . a nd M ackey, C arol J . 1 978. A ncient B urial P atterns o f t he M oche V alley, P eru. A ustin a nd L ondon : U niversity o f T exas P ress.

L anning, E dward P . 1 963. AC eramic S equence f or t he P iura a nd C hira C oast, N orth P eru. B erkeley a nd L os A ngeles: U niversity o f C alifornia P ress. L itto, G ertrude, 1 976. S outh A merican F olk P ottery. W atson-Guptill P ublications.

N ew Y ork :

M artinez d e C ompañon y B ujanda, B althazar J aime, 1 936 ( 1779-1790). T rujillo d el P eru a f ines d el s iglo X VIII. D ibujos y a cuarelas q ue m ando h acer e l O bispo M artinez d e C ompañon. E d yp rologo d e J esus D ominguez B ordona. M adrid: P atrimonio d e l a R ep ( iblica, B iblioteca d e P alacio.

P eru .

1 878.

C enso G eneral d e l a R epublica d el P eru .

L ima :

V ol. 5 .

R aymondi, A ntonio, 1 901. V iaje d e P iura a C atacaos. B oletin d e l a S ociedad C eográfica d e L ima , L ima: T omo N o. 1 1, I tinerario d e l os V iajes d e R aymondi e n e l P eru : 1 54.

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S himada, I zumi a nd S himada, M elody ( eds.), 1 986. W illay: N ewsletter o f t he A ndean A nthropological R esearch G roup. 2 3/24 , F all/Winter 1 986, C ambridge, M assachusetts, D epartment o f A nthropology, P eabody M useum , H arvard U niversity. S osa , G er simo.

1 984.

E l B arro N os U ni6.

P iura : C entro d e

I nvestigaci6n y P romoción d el C ampesinado. S trong , W illiam D uncan a nd E vans, C lifford J r. 1 952. C ultural S tratigraphy i n t he V iru V alley , N orthern P eru. N ew Y ork , C olumbia S tudies i n A rchaeology a nd E thnology, I V, C olumbia U niversity P ress .

V reeland, J ames M ., S ICAN, U NI, I J TM a nd I TINTEC, 1 985 n .d. E stado F Isico , T hcnico y T ermo—Nuclear d e l as T echnologlas A rtesanales d e h acer c erámica " paleteada" e n M orrope, e n b ase d e T écnicas T radicionales. C hiclayo.

5 53

P l.

1 .

W ooden p addle s tamp w ith a s croll d esign o n t he r everse s ide. L ength: 2 4cm . W idth: 8 cm . D ate: P robably p rehispanic. B runing M useum n o. 6 180. R eproduced b y C ourtesy o f t he M useo A rqueol gico, B runing, L ambayeque.

P l. 2 .

P ottery s tamp w ith a g eometric c ross-hatch d esign. L ength: 1 1.5cm. W idth: 5 cm ( max.). D ate: P robably p rehispanic. B runing M useum n o. 1 08. R eproduced b y C ourtesy o f t he M useo A rqueol6gico, B runing, L a inbayeque.

5 55

5 56

P l. 4 .

M orrope's o nly f ull t ime l ady p otter, L ucinda S antisteban d ecorating t he n eck o f o ne o f h er j ugs ( made b y p addle a nd a nvil a nd c oiling) w ith a s mall m ussel s hell.

5 57

M orrope,

1 984.

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5 58

0 ) C o

P l. 6 .

F igure v essel o f ak neeling w oman w ith g eometric n egative p ainted d ecoration o n h er b ody. M ade b y F lavio S osa o f C hulucanas i n 1 984. H eight: 1 7.5cm . M anchester M useum n o. 0 .9726/32.-

5 59

P 1. 7 .

S et o f p ottery s tamps m ade a nd u sed b y L ucinda S antisteban o f M orrope. P hotographed i n A ugust 1 984.

5 60

P l. 8 . 0 11a f or b oiling c hicha o f 1 .5 l atas ( about 6 g allons) m ade i n • T 17m bila i n 1 984. H eight: 4 0cm . W idth: 3 1cm . M anchester M useum n o. 0 .9726/22.

5 61

P l. 9 .

F lask o r c antarilla m ade i n S imbilA i n 1 984. U sed f or k eeping w ater c ool. H eight: 2 0cm. W idth: 1 1cm. M anchester M useum n o. 0 .972 6 /26 .

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P l. 1 0. L eft: M oche I V s ingle s pout a nd h andle b ottle f rom n ear t he H uaca d el S ol. H eight: 2 3.5cm. M anchester M useum n o. 0 .9707/24. R ight: L ate C himu s ingle s pout a nd s trap h andle b ottle. H eight: 1 7cm . M anchester M useum n o. 0 .3932.

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P RE-COLUMBIAN C OLLECTIONS I N B IRMINGHAM C ITY M USEUM J ane P eirson J ones a nd P hilip W atson

A BSTRACT T he P re-Columbian c ollection i n B irmingham C ity M useum , a lthough q uite e xtensive a nd o f m ajor i mportance, i s n ot p articularly w ell k nown t o t he s cholarly w orld. T his a rticle t herefore c oncentrates o n g iving a g eneral d escription o f t he c ollection s o t hat r esearchers c an q uickly g ain a n i dea o f i ts c ontent, b oth i ts s trengths a nd w eaknesses, a nd a ssess i ts v alue f or t heir p articular r esearch p roject. T he f irst p art o f t he p aper o utlines t he h istory o f t he d evelopment o f t he c ollection p roviding d etails o f w hen m ajor p ieces w ere a cquired a nd f rom w hom . I n a ddition a ll p rovenanced p ieces h ave b een m entioned a lthough m uch o f t he c ollection i s u nprovenanced. T here i s a n a ppendix o f d onors w hich g ives a q uick g uide t o t he t ype a nd q uantity o f m aterial a cquired f rom t hem . T he s econd p art o f t he p aper s ummarizes t he c ontents o f t he c ollection b y a rea a nd t ype o f o bject w ith t ables i ndicating t he c ultural b reakdown o f c eramic v essels. M ore d etailed d escriptions a re g iven o f t he C olombian g oidwork, P eruvian c eramics, w ooden k eros a nd t extiles.

T he C entral a nd S outh A merican c ollections i n B irmingham C ity M useum h ave r eceived r elatively l ittle p ublicity w ith a r esultant n eglect f rom t he s cholarly w orld. U ntil 1 951 t here w as n o D epartment o f A rchaeology a t B irmingham M useum a nd P re-Columbian m aterial w as l argely i n t he c are o f t he A pplied A rt s ection . I n t he m id 1 950 's h owever, f ollowing t he f ormation o f t he A rchaeology D epartment, a g allery w as d evoted t o t he d isplay o f t his m aterial w hich w as e xhibited u ntil t he m id 1 960 's ( Oswald, N .D . a nd 1 958). I n t he f ollowing t wo d ecades t here w as n o p ermanent e xhibition o f A merican m aterial t hough o ccasional s mall d isplays a nd t emporary e xhibitions w ere m ounted ( Peirson J ones, 1 979). I n t he e arly m onths o f 1 987 n ew p ermanent d isplays w ere p repared a nd, a lthough t he a rea a nd r esources a vailable d id n ot p ermit a f ull d idactic e xhibition, t he c hoicer p ieces f rom t he c ollections a re a t l east a gain o n p ublic v iew . T he g rowth o f t he P re-Columbian c ollections i n B irmingham d ivides i tself i nto s everal d istinct p hases . A lthough A merican m aterial w as a cquired i n 1 885, t he y ear t he M useum w as f ounded, f urther a cquisition w as s low a nd c onsisted o f s mall g roups o f o bjects d onated b y p rivate c ollectors. B y 1 950 t he c ollections c omprised a m aximum t wo h undred p ieces. I n 1 951 h owever t hey w ere s ubstantially i ncreased b y t hree m ajor a cquisitions t otalling o ver t welve h undred i tems. T hese c reated t he c ore o f a s ignificant c ollection a nd t here f ollowed a p eriod o f

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s elective p urchasing m ainly d uring t he 1 950s a nd e arly 1 960s, w ith f ew a cquisitions b y g ift, a dding a f urther t wo h undred o r s o p ieces t o t he c ollections. A f urther i mportant a ddition c ame i n 1 982 w ith t he t ransfer o f n early e ight h undred i tems f rom t he W ellcome c ollection. T hese ' surplus o bjects' w ere p resented t o B irmingham b y t he W ellcome T rustees i n a ccordance w ith a C ourt O rder o f M r. J ustice F oster d ated 2 1st M arch 1 977. A s w ith m any P re-Columbian c ollections t he m ajority o f t he p ieces l ack r eliable p rovenances, o r i ndeed a ny p rovenance a t a ll o ther t han w hat c an b e d educed f rom t ypological a nd s tylistic c onsiderations. T hus t he c ollectors a nd s ubsequently t he d onors a re o ften a n i mportant m eans o f d etermining f rom w here s uch p ieces m ay h ave c ome. T herefore i t i s p roposed t o o utline t he d evelopment o f t he B irmingham c ollections i n g reater d etail a nd a n i ndex o f d onors i s a ppended. T he e arliest a cquisitions o f A merican m aterial a t B irmingham w ere i n 1 881, f our y ears b efore t he p resent M useum w as f ounded t hough t here h ad p reviously b een a s mall a rt g allery a ttached t o t he l ibrary. T he f irst o f t hese w as a g rave g roup i ncluding a d ish, t ripod b owl, o bsidian k nife, b one a rrowhead a nd o ther i tems p resented b y M r. L . L eslie i n F ebruary 1 881. T he r ecords n ote t hat t hese w ere " from a n o ld t omb i n t he v illage o f M asaya , N icaragua". A g roup o f f ourteen C himu s tyle v essels w as p urchased, a lso i n 1 881, f rom C aptain A .C . C ole w ho i s s aid t o h ave c ollected t he m aterial h imself. O f t hese " the b lack s pecimens ( the m ajority) w ere d ug u p i n t he n eighbourhood o f C hiclayo, N . P eru" w hilst " the r ed s pecimens w ere f rom a nother b urying p lace c lose t o t he o ld t own o f S anta, s ome d istance s outh o f C hiclayo". A nother e arly p urchase, i n M arch 1 884, c omprised a g roup o f n ine, p redominently M oche t yle v essels f rom C .E . L ister. T hese w ere s upposedly " found i n at omb o f t he I ncas" a nd e arly l abels n ote t hat s ome a t l east w ere f rom t he C hicama v alley. I t i s t empting t o s peculate w hether t hese m ay h ave c ome f rom t he 1 878 i llicit e xcavations a t t he H uaca d el S ol m entioned b y B ankes ( 1984, p . 1 9) a nd r epresented i n t he W ellcome c ollections, t hough i t i s i mpossible t o p rove. N o b iographical i nformation i s a vailable f or a ny o f t hese e arly d onors . T he n ext s ignificant a ddition w as s ome t hree d ecades l ater w hen i n 1 912 M iss A . A rcher p resented e ighteen P eruvian v essels, m ainly u nprovenanced. H er f amily s ubsequently p resented a nother f ourteen p ieces i n 1 915. M ost o f t hese w ere " from a g rave a t P iura , n ear P aita, n orthern P eru" a nd o ne p reserves a n o riginal s tick-on l abel r eading " M . T emple's e state, P IURA , n orthern P eru 1 890". E lsewhere i t i s r ecorded t hat " they w ere d ug o ut b y M r. L eon o n t he e states n amed H udplas a nd Y apatera b elonging t o h is b rother". M r. T emplar w as t he m anager o f t he P ierra e stablishment o f M essrs. D uncan F ox a nd C ompany o f L iverpool. A gain n othing i s k nown o f t he A rcher f amily h istory. T he f irst N azca v essels i n t he c ollections, a g roup o f f ifteen, w ere p resented b y C harles H . W agner i n 1 923. T hey w ere " dug u p o ut o f g raves a t N asca , S . P eru". O ur f iles p reserve a b usiness c ard s uggesting t hat M r . W agner w as a r epresentative o f G . W elsch a nd C o., L ima b ut b eyond t hat n othing i s k nown o f h im . A f ew s pecimens o f P eruvian p ottery w ere p resented b y D r. J .R. R atcliffe d uring t he y ears 1 924-1926 . R atcliffe c ame t o B irmingham a s p athologist a t t he G eneral H ospital. H e c arried o ut r esearch i n t he f ield o f r adiography a nd w as t he f irst p erson i n B irmingham t o p ossess a p iece o f r adium . H e w as o ne o f t he f irst

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p eople i n t he c ountry t o o wn a r adio t ransmitter, w as a m ember o f t he R oyal A rchaeological S ociety a nd a t o ne t ime b egan w ork o n a c atalogue o f t he c ollections i n B irmingham U niversity A nthropological M useum. I n t he y ears b etween 1 927 a nd 1 950 t here w as a l imited b ut s teady f low o f d onations o f i ndividual i tems o r s mall g roups o f w hich o nly a f ew o f t he b etter d ocumented n eed b e m entioned h ere. A t ripod w ith i ncised d ecoration a nd f eet i n t he f orm o f g rotesque h eads c ontaining r attle p ellets w as p resented b y F .J.L . H ickinbotham J .P . i n 1 937. F rom C osta R ica i t w as f ound b y t he d onor i n 1 902 w hen h e e xcavated i t " from a s mall g roup o f t ombs b etween S an J ose a nd A lajuela", p robably o f L ate P re-classic d ate, t ogether w ith s tone a xes a nd a g old f igurine. T he w hereabouts o f t hese a ssociated p ieces i s u nknown t o u s. I n 1 939 t he F riends o f t he M useum d onated a M oche v essel f rom C han C han n ear T rujillo w hich h ad b een p resented t o t he f ootball t eam o f H .M .S. C radock b y a ' South A merican I ndian c hief ' i n J anuary 1 929. L eonard C ameron T homas o f t he P ublic W orks D epartment , B ritish H onduras, p resented a b urnished v essel w ith b rown n egative p ainted d ecoration i n 1 946. I t h ad b een d iscovered t ogether w ith b ones a nd o ther p ottery f ragments i n a t hirty t o f orty f eet h igh m ound c omposed o f r ough l imes tone a nd f lint r ocks. T he m ound , w hich l ay j ust t o t he n orth o f M askall o n t he B elize t o C orozal r oad, w as a pparently b eing d ismantled f or u se i n r epairing t he r oad. I n 1 948 w e r eceived f rom M r. C .A.C. B raine a c ollection o f s outhern M exican a ntiquities c omprising a Z apotec f unerary u rn, s ix o ther v essels, t wenty-four f igurines a nd f ragments, b eads, s pindle w horls, c elts, a rrowheads a nd a s tone w eight. T hese w ere m ostly f ound d uring e xcavation o f a pproach w ork t o a t unnel o n t he M exican s outhern r ailway, p robably i n t he C hiapa d e C orzo r egion . A t hermoluminescence t est d ated t he u rn a t 2 76-816 A .D. T he c ollections w ere i ncreased s ome s ixfold i n 1 951 t hrough t he a cquisition o f t wo m ajor p urchases a nd o ne g ift. T he f irst o f t hese w as t he p urchase o f p art o f t he c ollection o f M exican a ntiquities f ormed b y J oseph P yke; s ome o f h is c ollection w as a lso a cquired b y t he B ritish M useum . P yke s erved i n t he d iplomatic s ervice b etween 1 907 a nd 1 945 a nd w as C onsul-General i n M exico d uring 1 934 t o 1 937. I t i s a ssumed t hat h e f ormed m ost o f h is c ollection a t t hat t ime a nd a lthough h e m ay h ave t ravelled w idely t hroughout M exico t he p resence o f f orgeries s uggests t hat h e p urchased a t l east p arts o f h is c ollection f rom l ocal d ealers. O n t he o ther h and a n ote a ccompanying o ne o f t he v essels i ndicates t hat t he f inds f rom A huizotla ( sic! p resumably A huixotla n ear A zcapotzalco) w ere e xcavated a nd s ome a re s pecifically n oted a s b eing f rom t he p yramid t here. T he m ajority o f B irmingham 's P yke c ollection c omprise f inds f rom A huixotla a lthough i t d oes c ontain p ieces f rom m ost p arts o f M exico, o ften w ith o nly v ery g eneral i ndications o f p rovenance. T he c ultures r epresented a re m ainly T eotihuacan o r A ztec t hough t here a re s ome M ixtec a nd Z apotec a nd a f ew T arascan p ieces. T he c ollection c ontains s lightly l ess t han o ne t housand i ndividual i tems o f w hich o ver h alf a re t erracotta f igurines o r f igurine f ragments. T here a re n early t wo h undred v essels, o ne h undred s tone i mplements ( many o bsidian), f ifty s tone a rtefacts ( mainly j adeite o r a gate p endants a nd b eads) a nd a n a ssortment o f m iscellaneous i tems s uch a s s pindle w horls, p ottery w histles, b one a rtefacts a nd a c opper a xe h ead. A lthough s pace d oes n ot p ermit a d etailed d escription o f

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i ndividual p ieces, t here a re s everal f ine v essels i n t he c ollection, a mongst w hich a re t hree Z apotec f unerary u rns, o ne o f w hich ( A . .352 '51) h as b een t hermoluminiscence d ated t o A .D. 1 16-916, a p ainted T arascan t ripod b owl a nd s herds o f m ost o f a l arge r ed p olished b owl ( restored d iameter 5 0cm) d ecorated w ith a s nake d esign i n r ed, b rown a nd w hite. T he i mportant c ollection o f f igurines c ontains e xamples o f m ost p eriods a nd s tyles; m any a re n otable f or p reserving t races o f r ed, y ellow, w hite, b lack o r b lue p aint. T he s econd o f t he 1 951 p urchases w as a c ollection o f 1 12 L ate P eriod p ottery v essels f rom P anama f rom M rs. J .J . W atson o f L eamington S pa. T hese w ere " from t he P anama c anal a rea f ound i n t he g raves o f t he I ndian t ribes" a nd w ere d ug u p b y M r. W atson a round 1 900-1910. T his g roup r epresents t he o nly P anamanian m aterial i n t he B irmingham c ollections a nd c omprises 2 4 B iscuit w are t ripods, 1 7 r ounded j ars w ith a nimal o r p lain l oop h andles, 2 5 j ars a nd b owls w ithout h andles, 1 3 e xamples o f n egative p ainted a nd A lligator w ars a nd 3 3 m iscellaneous v essels a nd m iniatures. . . .

L astly i n 1 951 am ajor g ift o f n early t wo h undred i tems w as r eceived f rom t he d istribution o f p art o f t he W ellcome c ollection ( Russell 1 987, pp. 3 0-31). T his w as a v ery m ixed l ot b ut i ncluded 2 7 C himu v essels, 2 5 N azca, 1 4 M oche, 1 4 o ther P eruvian c eramics, 3 6 P eruvian t extiles a nd a bout 7 0 m iscellaneous i tems m ainly f rom C entral A merica ( vessels, f igurines, j ades e tc.) a nd a f ew p ieces f rom E cuador. M any o f t he P eruvian v essels a re f ine e xamples o f t heir t ype a nd i nclude a t l east t wo p ieces ( A .830 '51, A .866'51) f rom t he 1 878 f ind a t t he " Inca's b urial g round n ear t he t emplo d el S ol n ear T ruxillo" d iscussed b y B ankes ( 1984, p . 1 9). A mongst t he C entral A merican m aterial s hould b e m entioned a l arge M ayan c inerary u rn d ecorated w ith s pikes a nd a pplied h uman f eatures. B uilding o n t he s ignificant c ore w hich t he 1 951 a ccessions h ad p roduced t here f ollowed a s teady s eries o f a cquisitions t hroughout t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s m ainly i n t he f orm o f s mall p urchases b oth f rom p rivate i ndividuals a nd f rom d ealers. B erkeley G alleries o f L ondon f iguring p rominently a mongst t he l atter. I t i s s ufficient h ere t o m ention o nly t he m ost s ignificant p ieces o r t hose f or w hich m ore a ccurate d etails o f p rovenance a re k nown a s a l ist o f a ll s ources f rom w hich B irmingham h as a cquired m aterial i s g iven i n t he a ppendix . I n 1 955 a M anteno s tone s eat f rom M anabi p rovince, E cuador w as p urchased f rom L ady M allett ( A .282'69); a n a ccount o f t he a dventurous e arly h istory o f t his p iece h as b een t he s ubject o f s ome d ebate. A g rave g roup f rom A ndahuassy, P eru w as p resented b y P eter L aing i n 1 958. T his c ame f rom a s ingle g rave a nd c omprised a C hancay f igurine, a w eaver's s pindle, b alls o f y arn, a b one w histle, a h uman s kull a nd a f ragment o f h arpoon . T he p urchases f rom B erkeley G alleries w ere i ntended t o f ill s pecific l acunae i n t he c ollections o r t o a dd o utstanding e xamples o f p articular g enres f or d isplay p urposes. T hus i n 1 956 t he m useum b ought a s uperb N azca t heriomorphic v ase i n t he f orm o f a n o wl f rom P alpa , R io G rande, aN azca f lask d ecorated w ith t wo h eads f rom R io B lanco a nd i n 1 957 t wo t ripod b owls f rom t he C asma v alley. T he b ulk o f B irmingham 's C olombian c ollection w as f ormed i n 1 958 w ith t he p urchase o f n ineteen v essels ( 16 Q uimbaya , 3 C hibcha), t hree f igurines a nd s ix b ronzes f rom B erkeley G alleries t ogether w ith t en

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p ieces o f g oldwork f rom t he S othebys s ale o f 1 0th M arch, 1 958 ( lots 1 55, 1 57, 1 59, 1 63 a nd 1 66). T he g oldwork w as f ormerly t he p roperty o f L ady A nna B rassey a nd w as c ollected d uring t he v oyages o f t he ' Sunbeam ' i n 1 876-1883 ( Wright 1 885). T he p ieces c omprise a f lattened d ouble s piral o rnament a nd t wo C hibcha h ammered h uman f igures w ith a rms, l egs a nd f eatures i n g old w ire. T here a re t hree c ast a nd h ammered p endants r epectively i n t he f orm o f a f rog, d og a nd l izard a nd f ive s tamped p endant o rnaments f rom c ollars; t wo o f t hese a re b ird f igures a nd t hree a re s mall h uman f igures, o ne w ith a s un-ray h ead-dress. T he m ost i mportant p iece i s a t umbaga b reast o rnament w hich h as a n u nusual c ombination o f b ird ( toucans) a nd h uman m otifs . T hey c ame f rom v arious l ocalities m ostly i n t he s tate o f A ntioquia t hough t he t wo b ird p endants a re f rom S upia i n C auca a nd t he t wo C hibcha f igures f rom F unja i n B oyaca. A cquisitions d uring t he 1 970s w ere n ot s o r egular a nd o nly t wo s ignificant a dditions w ere m ade. T he C olombian c ollections w ere e xpanded w ith s ix v essels w hich h ad b een o n l oan t o t he m useum s ince 1 958, p urchased f rom M r. C .D . A mess. T hese h ad b een d iscovered w hen t he d onor w as w orking o n a f arm n ear P asto C ity i n t he N arino d istrict o f C olombia . A c ow h ad f allen d own a h ole a nd u pon e xtricating i t i t w as f ound t hat t he h ole w as i n f act a " crypt f ull o f s keletons" s cattered a mongst w hich w ere t hirty t o f orty v essels o f w hich t he g roup p urchased b y B irmingham w as s aid t o b e r epresentative. A pparently o ther g raves h ad p eriodically b een f ound i n t he i mmediate a rea . T he c ollection o f t he B irmingham U niversity M edical S chool, f ormed d uring t he e arly 1 900s, w as r eceived i n 1 973 a nd t his c ontained a v ariety o f b oth s outh a nd c entral A merican m aterial i ncluding f ifteen M exican f igurines, t wenty-six P eruvian p ots, P eruvian c opper i mplements a nd a w ork b asket c omplete w ith c ontents f rom a g rave. As econd m ajor e xpansion o f t he c ollections c omparable t o t hat

o f

1 951, o ccurred i n 1 982 w ith t he f inal d istribution o f t he W ellcome c ollection. B irmingham r eceived o ver 7 50 p ieces o n t his o ccasion, a ll f rom P eru e xcept f or f orty-three m iscellaneous c entral A merican i tems a nd t hirty-three a rrowheads f rom B olivia . A mongst t he 8 5 v essels w ere 4 1 N azca p ieces, 1 8 M oche, 9 C himu a nd 9 C hancay t ogether w ith f igurines a nd aw ooden k ero. T here w as a l arge q uantity o f s maller a rtefacts i ncluding m any e xamples o f s tone a nd b one i mplements , b one w histles, s hell d iscs a nd f ish-hooks, s lings, w ooden b obbins a nd j ewellery. M etalwork w as p resent i n t he f orm o f 2 4 c opper t ools, m etal d iscs a nd 1 0 c olonial s ilver v essels. T he s ingle m ost s ignificant i tem h owever w as a m ummy e nclosed i n ab asket m ade f rom p laited f ibres i dentified a s a n i ndeterminable s pecies o f g rass ( family G ramineae). F rom x -ray p hotographs t he d eceased h as b een i dentified a s a v iable f oetus o f a pproximately 3 7 w eeks d evelopment. R adiocarbon a nalysis o f f ibres f rom t he b asketry h as g iven a d ate o f 4 40 ± 9 0 b p ( ad 1 510). W ellcome a massed h is c ollection l argely t hrough p urchases f rom s ale r ooms i n t he p eriod b etween 1 900 a nd t he l ate 1 930s a s ar esult o f w hich t here a re v irtually n ever a ny d etails o f p rovenance. O ccasionally e arlier c ollectors a re k nown a nd t hese a re l isted i n t he a ppendix b elow . A mongst t hese f igures w ere C lement L ocke-Smiles a nd J .F . R owlands, o ne-time V ice-Consul a t M ollendo, P eru. T he f ew p ieces w hich a re g iven p rovenances i nclude a w ooden k ero f rom C uzco, a M oche v essel f rom t he C hicama v alley, a C himu v essel f rom C han-chan a nd t wo

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M iddle H orizon c eramic k eros m arked ' Tiawanako F eb. 1 928 '. T he l atter w ere f ormerly i n t he c ollection o f M .G . P almer a nd s imilar v essels f rom h is c ollection n ow i n t he U niversity M useum , M anchester a re s aid t o c ome f rom " Taihuanaca ; A rocaguua a nd T ipon" ( C . B ankes p ers. c omm . a nd W ellcome f limsy). T here i s aL ate H orizon v essel f rom t he A ncon V alley a nd t wo M oche v essels n oted a s b eing " from t he A nkau(?) g raves". M ost o f t he c olonial s ilver i s s aid t o b e f rom T rujillo. T here h ave b een f ew o ther a ccessions i n t he 1 980s. A s mall a mount o f p ottery w as r eceived f rom t he g overnment o f B elize o n b ehalf o f t he C uello P roject i n e xchange f or s upport g iven t o t he e xcavations b y t he m useum . T his i ncludes t he s herds o f t en C hicanel b owls f rom a s ingle c ache ( Donaghey 1 976, p . 3 5 , F ig. 1 5) a nd a d ecorated v essel f rom t he b urial o f aw oman ( for t he b urials s ee H ammond 1 980 , p . 1 78b). T he m useum a lso g ave f inancial s upport t o t he C usichaca P roject i n P eru a nd r eceived a c ollection o f m odern a gricultural i mplements a nd d omestic u tensils. H owever, i n v iew o f d windling b udgets a nd i nflated p rices a t t he s ale r ooms t he f uture s eems s et t o r ely o n d onations f rom i ndividual p rivate c ollectors. I n t he f ollowing s ections o f t his a rticle i t i s i ntended t o s ummarize t he o verall c ontents o f t he B irmingham c ollections, w ith e mphasis o n t he P eruvian m aterial. T he b ulk o f t he S c. .h A merican m aterial c omes f rom P eru a nd t otals a l ittle o ver o ne t housand i tems o f w hich a pproximately o ne t hird a re p ottery v essels. T he m ajority o f t hese, a s i s t o b e e xpected, c an b e a ttributed t o t he C himu , N azca a nd M oche c ultures w ith a f ew C hancay a nd I ca p ieces a nd e ven f ewer v essels f rom o ther c ultural z ones. A n i ndication o f q uantities a re g iven i n T able 1 . T he N asca p ottery b elongs m ainly t o t he E arly N asca o r N asca-Wari p eriods a nd h as a t ypical r ange o f b ottles , b owls a nd b eakers. D esigns i nclude c ondors, w hales, f ish, h umming b irds a nd f oxes. T here a re f our e ffigy v essels t wo o f w hich d epict f armers h olding b unches o f v egetables a nd o ne a f igure w earing a p oncho w ith f ringed a rms a nd c arrying a c lub. L ess u sual i s a n E arly N asca n arrow n ecked b owl w ith g eometric d esign o f c oncentric s quares a rranged i n p anels p ainted a lternately r ed a nd b lack . F rom t he N asca-Wari p hase t here a re s everal t all b eakers w ith b ands o f f emale f aces. T here a re n o e arly M oche v essels a nd t he m ajority b elong t o D onnan 's ( 1976) p hases I II o r I V . T here i s av ariety o f p lant v essels, a nimal p ots a nd h uman e ffigy v essels; a mongst t he l atter i s a p ortrait v ase d epicting af igure w ith a h are lip. T wo p hase I V v essels w ith p ainted s cenes a re p articularly i nteresting. O ne d epicts a L ima b ean w arrior a nd t he o ther a s ea l ion h unting s cene. T he l atter h as a f igure s eated u nder a c anopy o n am ountain w atching w arriors w ith c lubs a ttack s ea l ions. T he t heriomorphic v essels i nclude f ine e xamples o f a n o wl ( phase I II) a nd a f rog ( phase 1 11/1V). T here a re t wo p hase I II d ippers a nd a n u nusual d ouble j aguar-headed t rumpet. M ost o f t he p rincipal t ypes o f C himu v essel a re r epresented e specially d ouble b ottle w histling p ots w ith g uardian h eads a nd v essels i n t he f orm o f f ruits a nd v egetables. O ther e xamples r epresent d ogs, a h obbled l lama a nd o ne p iece t akes t he f orm o f a h ouse w ith a h uman

5 70

f igure c linging t o t he r oof. T he m ore i mportant C hancay p ieces i nclude a n e ffigy v ase, t wo l arge m ale a nd f emale f igurines, s maller f igures a nd a l arge p ainted l lama. T here a re t wo I nca w ooden k eros w hich d eserve a m ention. T hese l arge c ups w ere u sed f or d rinking c hicha o r m aize b eer o n c eremonial o ccasions. O ne, f rom t he W ellcome c ollection, f ormerly i n t he c ollection o f M .G. P almer, i s v ery u nusual. I t h as a c entral b and o f i ncised g eometric c arving f lanked b y t wo w ide z ones o f d etailed s mall s cale l acquer-work . T he u pper z one d epicts a n arrative s aid t o b e " told i n t he C omentarios R eales o f G arcilaso d e l a V ega" ( Wellcome r ecord c ard). T he l ower z one h as t hree f loral m otifs w hich h ave b een i dentified b y P rofessor J .G. H awkes f ollowing V argas ( 1981) a s f ollows S tenomesson v arigatum I nca n ame M aywa , S alvia o ppositiflora I nca n ame N ucchu a nd M utisia a cuminata I nca n ame C hinchircuma . T he s econd k ero c an b e s tylistically d ated t o t he L ate I nca o r i m mediate P ost C onquest p eriod. I t h as t hree l acquered d ecorative z ones. T he u pper z one h as t wo s cenes r epeated o nce. O n o ne s ide a f emale f igure s tands f lanked b y am onkey a nd a t oucan. O n t he o ther s ide i s a p alm t ree, s pecies u nidentified ( Vargas o p. c it.). T he c entral z one c onsists o f g eometric p anels. T he l ower z one h as t wo f loral m otifs i dentified a s f ollows S alvia o ppositiflora I nca n ame N ucchu a nd Z ephiranthes t ubiflora I nca n ame C hiwanway ( J.G. H awkes p ers. c omm .) ( Vargas 1 981). T here a lso i s a t hird u ndecorated k ero w hich h as a b ird-headed h andle. T here a re j ust o ver 1 00 t extiles f rom P eru i n t he c ollection. I t i s r easonably c omprehensive a nd w hen i t w as l ast o n p ublic d isplay i t w as p ossible t o s how t he f ull r ange o f p rincipal t echniques a nd c ultural s tyles r epresented i n t he P eruvian a rchaeological s equence . G enerally

s peaking

t he

L ate

I ntermediate

p eriod

i s

b est

r epresented n umerically, c losely f ollowed b y t he E arly I ntermediate p eriod. T he E arly H orizon i s r epresented b y a f ine p aracas p iece w hilst f rom t he M iddle H orizon t here i s h alf a s hirt, a s imili-velour h at a nd a t apestry b order. T here a re s everal C himu-Inca p ieces a nd o ne t entatively i dentified a s s outh c oast I nca . T here a re s everal p ost c onquest p ieces p lus s ome e xamples o f 2 0th c entury c ostume f rom t he C uzco a rea. T here a re s everal i tems o f w eaving e quipment i ncluding a n u nfinished t apestry w hich i s s till a ttached t o a b amboo l oom b ar, a w eaving s word a nd a n eedle c ase o f b amboo c ontaining a n eedle a nd a b odkin m ade o f c actus t horn. T here a re t wo w eaver's b askets: o ne c ontains p laited h uman h air, b obbin-spindles, c otton t hread, t extile f ragments a nd a s ling . T he o ther, l arger o ne c ontains a b elt o f c otton p laid p lain w eave o ver t hree m etres l ong p lus a t iny f ragment o f r esist-dyed p lain w eave g auze a s w ell a s r aw c otton b obbins a nd t hread. V arious w eaving t echniques a re r epresented i ncluding c hecks, d ouble c loth, a nd w arp- a nd w eft-faced p atterned w eaves. T here i s a C himu p ainted c loth; an atural c ream c oloured c otton b asket w eave p ainted w ith b rown s quares c ontaining e ither t wo s potted f elines o r t wo h uman f igures w ith h eaddresses.

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T here a re 1 0 g auzes i n t he c ollection . D esigns i nclude g eometric s hapes, p elicans, p umas, a nimals a nd s crolls. M ost a re c omplete t extiles a nd s everal h ave h ad t he d esigns e mphasized b y a f loating w arp a nd w eft t echnique. T apestry c loths a re w ell r epresented. T he b est i s a n e xceptionally f ine C himu s lit a nd i nterlocked t apestry o f w ool, p robably v icuña, o n c otton w arps. T he d esign i s o f f ive s tylized m onkeys a rranged i n d iagonal r ows i n m aroon , w hite, o chre a nd b rown . A c entral s eam i ndicates t hat t his m ay b e p art o f am uch l arger s hirt. T here i s a lso h alf o f aM iddle H orizon t apestry s hirt m ade o f w ool o n c otton w arps. I t i s 1 870mm l ong a nd 4 90mm w ide a nd w as w oven a long t he l ong a xis a s o utlined b y B ird a nd S kinner ( 1974). T he d esign c onsists o f p aired e lements o f S awyer's T ype l b ( 1963) c onsisting o f s tepped s pirals p aired w ith s tylized p rofile h uman o r f eline h eads s eparated b y p lain b rown b ands. C olours i nclude s everal n atural s hades o f b rown , w hite, o chre, m aroon a nd p ink t hough m uch o f t he p ink h as b een l ost. T he t extile i s m arked b y s taining p robably f rom b ody d ecomposition b ut e ven t hough i t i s i n a b ad s tate o f r epair i t i s a f ine e xample o f W ari c raftmanship. S ome o f t he m ost d ecorative t extiles a re p rovenanced t o t he P aracas n ecropolis. T he e arliest i s a b order f rom a l arge c otton m antle w hich i s e mbroidered i n w ool s tem s titch i n p ink, y ellow , b lue a nd g reen w ith a d ark b rown b ackground. T he r epeated m otifs o f f eline a nd m onkey a re i n t he P aracas s tyle a nd i t d ates f rom t he E arly H orizon. T here i s a s imilar e xample i n t he K unstgewebermuseu x n i n Z urich ( Billeter n .d.). A nother b order i n w ool s tem s titch d epicts t he E arly N azca f eline d eity o n a g reen b ackground. T here a re t wo e xamples o f w ool l oop s titch e mbroidered b orders w ith t heir c haracteristic t hree-dimensional e ffect. O ne d epicts h umming b irds a nd t he o ther f lowers. C omplete g arments i nclude a c hild's s hirt i n b rown w ool. A n u ndyed p lain w eave c otton s hirt a nd a c otton b asket w eave s hirt e mbroidered i n p ink a nd g old t o g ive t he e ffect o f b rocading. T here a re a lso b ags, b elts a nd h eadbands p lus f ive f eather h eaddresses a s w ell a s p art o f a l arge p iece o f f eatherwork o n c otton w arp r ep f abric w hich m ay h ave b een p art o f a b urial s hirt f or a m ummy b undle. O ther P eruvian a rtefacts a re r epresented b y 2 7 b ronze i mplements, 1 64 p ieces o f " jewellery", 1 24 s tone i mplements ( arrows, s crapers , a wls), 1 04 b one a rtefacts ( flutes, w histles, h arpoons, a wls, d ouble p oints, s patulae), 1 26 s hell f ish h ooks , 1 1 c olonial s ilver v essels a nd v arious m iscellaneous p ieces. O f t he o ther S outh A merican c ountries C olombia i s t he b est r epresented w ith a t otal o f 4 9 p ieces n amely 1 1 p ieces o f g oidwork, s ix b ronzes, 2 5 p ottery v essels ( of w hich 1 5 a re Q uimbaya) a nd s even f igurines. T here a re 2 1 i tems f rom E cuador m ainly f igurines o r h eads t herefrom b ut i ncluding a M anteno s tone s eat. F inally f rom B olivia c ome a bout 8 0 s tone i mplements.

5 72

T he M exican c ollections a re o nly s lightly s maller t han t hose f rom P eru . T he c ultural d istribution o f t he t wo h undred o r s o v essels i s g iven i n T able 2 a. A pproximately h alf o f t hese a re f rom A huixotla a nd o ne t hird a re o f u nknown o r u ncertain p rovenance. O ther p rovenances a re g iven i n T able 2 b. T here a re o ver f ive h undred t erracotta f igurines o r f ragments, t he m ajority w ithout p rovenance, a t l east h alf o f w hich a re T eotihuacan. M iscellaneous c eramic i tems i nclude s pindle w horls, r attles a nd w histles a mongst o ther p ieces. A lmost h alf o f t he 4 6 s tone f igurines a nd p endants a re c arved f rom j adeite, t he r emainder i n s tones s uch a s w hite a gate, a labaster, d iorite a nd p ummice. T here a re s everal j adeite n ecklaces a nd o ver 1 00 s tone i mplements, m ostly o bsidian p rojectile p oints a nd b lades. O ther m aterials a re r epresented b y s everal b ronze c urrency a xes b ut t here a re f ew b one o r s hell a rtefacts f rom M exico. nd B elize. T he c ollections c ontain v ery l ittle f rom G uatemala a r e p r e sented A part f rom t he g rave g roup a cquired i n 1 881 N icaragua i s t a b l e l eg. o nly b y t wo c orn g rinders, a r ough s tone h ead a nd a s tone a t r i p od, C osta R ica i s e qually p oorly c overed w ith o nly 1 9 p ieces b a s k e t a nd a b oat-shaped v essel w ith s trap h andle i n t he f orm o f a o f t h e e xj adeite p endants. T he e ntire P anama c ollection c onsists -

W atson m aterial d escribed a bove. T his p aper h as a ttempted t o g ive a n o utline o f t he d evelopment a nd p rincipal c ontents o f t he P re-Columbian c ollections i n B irmingham . P rovenances h ave b een g iven w here k nown a nd a ll d onors a re l isted i n t he a ppendix. I t i s h oped t hat t his w ill e nable r esearchers t o a ssess t he r elevance o f t he B irmingham c ollections f or t heir w ork a nd t hereby e ncourage f urther i nterest i n a nd s tudy o f t hem .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

B ankes, G . 1 984. P eruvian P ottery i n t he M anchester M usuem i n K endall, A ., e d. C urrent A rchaeological P rojects i n t he C entral A ndes = B AR I nternational S eries 2 10 ( Oxford). B illeter, E . ( ed.), n .d. S ammiungs K atalog 2 . T extilien . ( Kunstgewerbemuseum , Z urich).

A ussereuropaische

B ird, J .B . a nd S kinner, M .D. 1 974. T he T echnical F eatures o f aM iddle H orizon T apestry S hirt f rom P eru. T extiles M useum J ournal, V ol . I V, n o . 1 .

D onaghey, S . e t a l., 1 976. E xcavations a t C uello, 1 976 i n N . H ammond ( ed.), A rchaeology i n N orthern B elize : C ambridge U niversity C orozal P roject 1 976 I nterim R eport ( Cambridge), 6 -59. D onnan , C .B . 1 976. M oche A rt a nd I conography. S tudies, V ol. 3 3. ( Los A ngeles).

U .C.L .A. L atin A merican

H ammond, N . 1 980. E arly M aya C eremonial a t C uello, B elize , A ntiquity L IV ( 1980), 1 76-190.

O swald, A . n .d. A ncient A merica T he A merican C ollections o f t he C ity o f B irmingham M useum a nd A rt G allery ( Birmingham). -

O swald, A . 1 958. A merican C ollections i n t he B irmingham C ity M useum P roceedings o f t he 3 2nd I nternational C ongress o f A mericanists, C openhagen 1 956, 3 31-332.

-

P eirson-Jones, J . 1 978. P ots, P lants a nd A nimals f rom P eru A n e xhibition o f P ottery r epresentations o f p lants a nimals , b irds a nd m en f rom A ncient P eru . ( Birmingham). -

R ussel, G . 1 987. T he W ellcome H istorical M edical M useum 's D ispersal o f N on-Medical M aterial, 1 936-1983 i n M useum E thnographers G roup N ewsletter N umber 2 0 ( February 1 987), 2 1-45.

S awyer, A .R. 1 963. T iahuanaco T extile D esign . J ournal, V ol. I , n o . 2 .

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T extile M useum

V argas , F .C . 1 981. P lant M otifs o n I nca C eremonial V ases f rom P eru . B otanical J ournal o f t he L innean S ociety , V ol . 8 2 , n o . 4 , p p . 3 133 25 .

W right , B ryce , 1 885 . AC atalogue R aisonne o f t he N atural H istory , E thnological S pecimens a nd C uriosities c ollected b y L ady B rassey d uring t he V oyages o f t he " Sunbeam" 1 876-1883 . E xhibited a t S ir T homas B rassey 's R ooms , S chool o f F ine A rt , H astings ( London). ( The B irmingham p ieces a re i llustrated a s F igs . 1 , 4 , 5 , 1 0 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 9 , 2 2 a nd 2 5).

5 75

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L ist o f D onors T he f ollowing l ist p resents a ll k nown s ources f rom w hich B irmingham C ity M useum h as a cquired S outh a nd C entral A merican m aterial , i ncluding e arlier c ollectors w here t hese a re k nown . I t d oes n ot i nclude a nonymously d onated i tems n or t hose f or w hich t here i s n ow n o r ecord c oncerning t he s ource . I n a ddition t he l ist r ecords w hether t he c ollection w as p urchased ( B) o r d onated ( G), t he d ate o f a cquisition a nd a b rief n ote o f t he s ize a nd c ontent o f t he c ollection . F urther d etails o f s ome d onors a re g iven i n t he t ext t hough m any o f t hem w ere p rivate c ollectors a bout w hom n o f urther i nformation i s k nown .

N AME

D ATE A ND S TATUS O F A CQUISITION

A lberti , M rs . A .F .

1 955 G

A lbrecht , M iss H eide

1 962 B

A mess , C .D .

1 970 B

6

C olombian g rave g roup

A ranow , M iss A ndrea

1 983 B .

5

P eruvian t extiles

A rcher, M iss A .

1 912, 1 5 G

B ackhouse , J .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

B arnes , D r. S tanley

1 943

B elize , G overnment o f

1 980

B erkeley G alleries

1 956-64 B

6 2

M isc. S outh a nd C entral

B irmingham U niversity M edical S chool

1 973

6 9

M isc. S outh a nd C entral

B raine , M r . C .A .C .

1 948

4 4

M isc. M exican

B rassey , L ady ( via S otheby 's)

1 958 B

1 0

C olombian g oldwork

B rookes , M rs . L .J .

1 933

B utler , W .W .

v ia B irmingham U niversity M edical S chool

C addick , A .

v ia B irmingham U niversity M edical S chool

C ole , C aptain A .C .

1 881 B

Q TY . 1 1 6

3 2

1 3 1

1

5 78

1 4

C ONTENT C osta R ica h ead P eruvian t extiles

P eruvian p ottery

M exican f igurines B elize v essel

P eruvian v essel

P eruvian v essels

C oni, M .A .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

D avis , M iss S usanna

1 983 G

D odds, W ilfred

1 986 G

E ngelbach, A nthony C .

1 931

1

M exican h ead

d 'Este , M rs. E dith F .

1 941

5

M isc. C entral A merican

F ogt, R .M .

1 969 B

1

M exican f igurine

G ladman, M iss F rances

1 965 G

1

P eruvian n ecklace

H ammond,

s ee B elize, G overnment o f

P rof. N orman

1 1 1

P eruvian v essel M isc. S outh a nd C entral

H ancock, R .

v ia 0 scott C ollege

H awkes, M rs B arbara

1 983 B

3

P eruvian q uipu a nd g auzes

H ickinbotham ,

1 937 G

1

C osta R ican v essel

H oasher, M iss M argaret

1 977 G

2

P eruvian t extiles

H ughes,

1 986 B

6

P eruvian t extiles

H utchison, M rs C .H.F.

1 957 G

7

P eruvian v essels

H yde , S ir C harles ( some a lso v ia B arnes)

1 930 G

6

M exican h eads

K emper, M iss K .

1 957 B

L aing ,

1 958 G

F .J.L .

P aul

P eter

1 2 6

P eruvian t extiles P eruvian g rave g roup

L awrence, M r. H .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

L eslie, M r. L .

1 881 G

6

N icaraguan g rave g roup

L ister,

1 884 B

9

P eruvian v essels

C .E .

L ocke S miles, C lement

v ia W ellcome 1 982

M allet, L ady

1 955 B

M artin, C .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

M artin, J .C .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

M yers, M r. W .

1 885 G

5 79

1

g roup

S tone s eat f rom E cuador

M exican s tone t ools

O hley, F .H .

1 959 C

O hly, E .

s ee B erkeley G alleries

O scott C ollege

b efore 1 976

1

P eruvian v essel

O swald ,

1 961 G

1

P eruvian v essel

F elix

5

P eruvian t extiles

P almer, M .G.

v ia W ellcome 1 951,

P arkes, H .S.

1 942 G

P izarro, G uillermo S chmidt

1 933 B

P yke, J oseph

1 951 b

9 38

R atcliffe, D r. J .R.

1 924 C

1 2

R owlands, J .F .

v ia W ellcome 1 982

S aundby, M rs R .

1 919 C

1

P eruvian v essel

S tanley, H .

1 942

1

C olombian f igure

S torey, A .T .

( or F .A .?)

2 0 3

1 982 P eruvian v essels P eruvian t extiles M exican P eruvian v essels

v ia W ellcome 1 982

T homas, L eonard C ameron

1 946

1

B elize v essel

T hompson , M r.

A .F.

1 952 B

3

C entral A merican f igurines

D r. J . E ric

1 970 G

1

M exican f igurine

T hompson ,

W agner, M r. C harles H .

1 923 C

W arwick , C ounty M useum

1 986 B

W atson, M rs J .J.

1 951 B

W ebster,

1 966 B

D r. G .W .

1 5 1 1 12 1

P eruvian p ots P eruvian f igurine P anamanian v essels C entral A merican v essel

W ellcome I nstitute

1 951 G

1 83

M isc. C entral a nd S outh

W ellcome T rustees

1 982 G

7 58

M isc. C entral a nd S outh

W elsch, G . a nd C o.

s ee W agner

5 80

P l.

1 .

W ooden K ero w ith i ncised a nd l acquered d ecoration. H orizon. H . 1 6.9cm. A .15-1982.

5 81

L ate

P l.

2 .

W ooden K ero w ith l acquered d ecoration. C onquest. H . 1 9.0cn i . A .1'58.

5 82

L ate I nca/Early P ost-

P l.

3 .

C olombian g oidwork: o rnament L . 7 .5cm. A .251'58; h uman p endants H . 2 .2cm . A .252'58; b ird-head p endants H . 3 .8cm . A .253'58; C hibcha f igures H . 1 2.0cm, 1 1.5cm . A .255'58, A .256'58; p endant f igure H . 2 .2cm. A .254.58; f rog p endant L . 3 .2cm . A .257'578; d og p endant L . 1 .5cm. A .258'58; l izard p endant L . 3 .2cm. A .259'58. 5 83

P l.

4 .

B reast o rnament w ith t oucan a nd h uman m otifs; C olombia. H . 1 7.5cm . A .260'58.

5 84

t umbaga.

P l. 5 .

T apestry b order w ith r epeated m otifs o f f eline a nd m onkey. P aracas. H . 12cm. T extile e mbroidered w ith d esign o f h uman f igures. H orizon. L . 5 6cm . 3 67'33.

5 85

E arly

I I

P l. 6 .

M ummified i nfant e nclosed i n b asketwork.

5 36

H . 3 9cm.

A .228-1982.

P 1.

7 .

X -ray o f m ummified i nfant.

5 87

P l. 8 .

S tirrup s pout v essel w ith p ainted l ima b ean w arriors. H . 2 9.0cm . 1 448'85. P olychrome b eaker.

N asca—Wari.

5 88

H .

2 1.ücm.

10 '23.

M oche I V

P l. 9 .

S trap h andle v essel i n t he f orm o f a h ouse w ith h uman f igure c linging t o r oof. L ate C himu. H . 1 4.3cm. A .148'61.

5 89

P 1.

1 0.

M anteno s tone s eat. A .282'69 .

M anabi p rovince, E cuador.

5 90

H . 7 7cm .

M ORE M ACRO T HAN M ICRO: A NTHROPOLOGICAL L INGUISTICS A MONG T HE P ARAGUAYAN T UPI J .L . K ettle-Williams

A BSTRACT A nthropological L inguistics, w hich d raws u pon a v ariety o f d isciplines, s uggests t hat m any A mazonian t ribal c ommunities f ar f rom b eing d ivorced i n a ll b ut s ubsistence p atterns m ay c onstitute a m acro T upi f amily o f g reater e xtent t han h itherto c onsidered. -

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T he p aper h ighlights t he r ole o f l inguistic r esearch a s a v aluable c orollary t o o ther i nvestigative d isciplines i n b roadening o ur a ppreciation o f A merindian M an. B y r eference t o s ocio- a nd p sychol inguistics, t he a uthor i llustrates t hat A merindian L inguistics, w ith p articular r eference t o t he L owlands, b rings c ertain c ommon t raits a mong t he t ribal c ommunities i nto s harp r elief. S uch d egrees o f c ommonality a re r eflected b y t he n ature o f t he t ongues i n q uestion a nd f urther e nhanced b y t he r espective c ulture. T he m essage o f m yth a nd t he n ature o f s tory-telling o ffer f urther e vidence t o c omplement t hat b eing b rought t o l ight b y o ther f ields o f s tudy.

O bviously t he C ity-Building c ivilisations o f P re-Columbian A merica w ould h ave m aintained e xtensive l ines o f c ommunication w hich , d yadic i n n ature a nd r adiating f rom t he h ub o f E mpire, w ould h ave s erved n ot o nly t o d isseminate t heir c ultures a nd e xtend t heir s pheres o f i nfluence b ut a lso t o e xpand t rade r outes. T he c orollary o f t his s tatement w ould b e t hat t he g reater t he d emographic c oncentration, t he m ore e xtensive s uch l ines o f c ommunication. E qually t he l owland h unter/gatherer c ommunities w ould, b y t he v ery n ature o f t heir s ubsistence p atterns , m aintain a r elatively ' extended h abitat'. T he s ubsistence p atterns o f l owland c ommunities f urther d ictate t hat d emographic c oncentrations b e o f a s maller o rder. T raditionally t he f ormer c ultures h ave b een m ore c losely a ssociated w ith t he h igher l ands o f L atin A merica w hereas t he l atter h ave o ccupied t he l owlands . B ut e ach p attern o f c ulture w ould h ave e xisted w ithin a n e xtensive n etwork o f c ommunication/association t ouching u pon t hat o f t he o ther. T his f actor, i n t urn, w ould g uarantee t hat e ach h ad e xtensive k nowledge o f t he o ther. S uch m utual k nowledge/ a wareness w ould h ave o ffered a n i nterface a nd i nteraction b etween w hat m ight a t f irst a ppear c ontradictory c ulture p atterns. T he e xtent o f e ither's d ebt t o t he o ther i s s till a m atter f or c onjecture a nd r esearch. B ut n o l onger i s t he t hesis o f s uch d ebt o pen t o d oubt.

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L anguage, t he o nly s ocial i nstitution w ithout w hich n o o ther s uch i nstitution c an f unction , i s am anifestation o f c ulture. C ul t ures i n c ontact s ire t he e xtensive p henomena o f l anguages i n c ontact. T o e xpound t he t hesis w e n ow b ring A nthropological L inguistics s harply i nto f ocus. N ative S outh A merican L inguistics i s a f ield o f s tudy r elatively i n i ts i nfancy t his d espite t he f act t hat w e h ave b een a ware o f t he e xistence o f t he A mericas f or a lmost 5 00 y ears. T he s tudy o f A nthropological L inguistics a nd i ts k indred s ciences i ntersects t raditional a cademic b oundaries a nd e xtents e ven b eyond i ts o wn b rief t o i mpinge u pon S ocial A nthropology, E thno-musicology, E thnop oetics, F olklore/Mythology, G eolinguistics e tc. A rchaeological c onsiderations a re s imilarly n ot e schewed. W e a re t alking o f h uman s ciences a nd w hat b etter e vidence o f t he h uman c ondition t han t he h uman u tterance ( I u se t he w ord ' utterance ' b oth p urposefully y et a dvisedly a s t he a ctual m anifestations o f l anguage a re t he ' utterances ' m ade b y s peakers u nder s pecific c ircumstances: a h uman-behavioural s cience). -

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L owland S outh A merica s till p rovides a l aboratory f or t he s tudy o f a w ide v ariety o f f orms o f l inguistic c ommunication w hich s till o ccur l argely n ot o nly i n a n atural w ay b ut a lso i n a t raditional c ontext. T hese f orms o f c ommunication r ange f rom t he a llophone t o m yth n arrations ( quoted s peech, m acroparallelism i .e. r epetition o f w hole b locks w ithin a n arrative c f., a m antra, w hat-saying d ialogue, c eremonial d ialogue e tc.) a nd i n s o d oing e ntail s ocial a nd c ulture c ontexts a nd t he l anguage-culture-society a ssociation. L anguage i s c ulture-bound, i t i s c ulture r epresentati e a nd f ormed b y c ulture w hich i t, i n t urn, s hapes a s omewhat W horfian h ypothesis b ut o ne t o w hich I f ully s ubscribe. T he s tudy o f s peech a nd s peech p atterns s imilarly e ncroaches u pon t he s purious a nd o ften e phemeral n ature o f t he d ivision b etween s peech a nd m usic, s poken s peech a nd s ung s peech. P erhaps t he A rabic c hant d id e merge f rom t he p ace o f ac amel's g ait. -

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S o,

l et u s a pply t he t heories t o t he p ractice:

T he G uarani I ndians o f t c entral, s outhern, A mazonian l owlands r efer t o t heir o wn k ind a s a va ( noun. ' man ') a nd t o t heir l anguage a s a va-f le'e ( ñe'e n oun. ' wor 'T ' voice'; ' language '. A va-f le'e ' the l anguage o f m en/mankind '.) I t i s a c ommon p henomenon o f a boriginal s ocieties, a s w ell a s o f s ocieties n ot s o a boriginal, t o r efer t 2 t hemselves a s h uman b eings a nd t o o thers a s o f a l ower s tatus. H owever, G uarani ( noun. ' warrior') i s a lso t he n ame o f t he p rominent l egendary f igure w ho, h aving m igrated f rom t he n orthern s hores t o s ettle i n t he s outhern A mazonian b asin, a rgued w ith h is b rother T upi. A s a r esult o f t his d ispute, T upt a nd h is f ollowers t ravelled e astwards l eaving G uarani a nd h is f ollowers i n t he s outhernmost e xtremeties o f c entral A mazonia. T he o le o f m yth t he o ral t radition p lays a p art -

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t hat c annot b e i gnored. T he G uaranies, w ho c onstituted o ne o f t he m ost i mportant e thnic g roups o f S outh A merica , w ere a p eople o f t he f orest. T hey a re k nown t o h ave n amed a nd d etermiged t he m edicinal p roperties o f a t l east o ne t housand h erbs a nd p lants. G uarani r eputedly r anks a s o nly s econd L atin a nd G reek i n n omenclature o f f lora.

5 92

t o

G uarani d istribution c overed a g reat p art o f m odern B olivia, A rgentina , P araguay a nd B razil. Y et t he t erm ' Guarani ' w ould n ot h ave b een u sed t hroughout t his e ntire a rea t o d esignate t he p eople. T here w ere i n f act m any t ribes , i ncluding t he G uasarapó, G uayana , N alicuega, N uara e tc . T he e rror o f t he S paniards a nd e ven o f l atter-day s cholars, w ho w ere o riginally m isled i nto b elieving i n t he e xistence o f n umerous t otally i ndependent t ribal s ocieties, c ould b e a ttributed t o t he n ative h abit o f d ispersal a nd s cattering i nto s mall g roups. T his w as d one p resumably f or r easons o f s afety a nd/or s ubsistence. S uch g roups w ould t hen a ssume t he n ame o f t heir h eadm n t o d etermine t heir c ommunity, e .g., C aiguas, M angolos, T apis e tc. T his f act w as u ndoubtedly a n i nstrumental f actor i n t he f ailure o f t he G uaranies a nd t heir k in t o f orge a n A mazonian e mpire. Y et t he G uarani t ongue h as m anaged t o s urvive w ith s uch n oticeable v igour t o t he p resent d ay. T he G u rani l anguage, w hich h as b een r ecorded a s l argely o nomatopoeic, i s am ember o f t he T upi-Guarani l anguage s tock: as tock w hich w e c an n ow s ee t o h ave e njoyed e xtensive d istribution t hroughout S outh A merica, a pproximately f rom f ive d egrees t o t hirty d egrees l atitude. A fter A dam ,9 w ho f irst a ttempted t he c omparative s tudy o f T upi, v ery l ittle l i guistic c lassificatory w ork h as b een c an ed o ut. M ost c lassifications h ave b een b ased m ainly u pon g eographical c riteria, w ith t he c onstraints o f g eography b eing a ssumed r ather t han p roven . B . P ottier ( 1961) b ases h is c onclusions p recariously u pon a l imited r ange o f s ound-correspondences, b ut W . H anke, M . S wadesh a nd A .D . R odrigues ( 1958) d o o ffer a m ore l inguistically o rientated a pproach. A .D . R odrigues ( 1958) a lso p roposed a c omprehensive c lassification o f t he s tock, w hich, b ased u pon t he l exico-statistical t echniques o f M . S wadesh , r evealed s even m ain l inguistic f amilies: 1 .

M odern T upi, t he l ingua g eral a mazonica .

2 .

M odern G uarani o r a ve f l e'e.

3 .

K aiwá o r C ainguâ , t he g eneric n ame f or n umerous d ialects s cattered t ribal c ommunities i n c entral S outh A merica.

4 .

C hiriguano, m ostly f ound t o t he w est o f t he C haco.

5 .

T apieté f ound i n s outh-eastern B olivia .

6 .

I zoz6 o r C hané, f ound p rincipally i n T arija ( Bolivia).

7 .

G uaray(,

a mong

f ound i n c entral n orth-eastern B olivia .

S wadesh h ad o riginally b elieved i n a m acro-Tupi f amily o f A merindian l anguages a nd s ubsequently i n am acro-Arawak c lassification. B oth c onclusions c orroborate m y o wn a ssertions t hat G uarani a nd i ts k indred t ongues h ad e xtended f ar m ore t han i s g enerally g iven c redit, p erhaps f rom t he s ite o f B uenos A ires t o F lorida ( USA), a nd t hat m acroT upi a nd m acro-Arawak c ould w ell b e , a t t he v ery l east, k indred.

5 93

T he G uarani o f t oday i s g enerally c lassed i n t hree c ategories: ( a)

A ntiguo P uro a c lassical f orm , u nadulterated b y f oreign i nfluence. I t i s r eputed t o e xist a mong t he I ndians i n e astern P araguay a nd p resumed t o e quate w ith t he p re-Conquest i ndigenous t ongue.

( b)

G uarani P uro c onsidered t o b e t he m odern d evelopment o f ( a). A n e xample o f t his d eveloped f orm , w hich s till c laims t he p urity o f b eing u naffected b y e xtraneous i nfluences, i s i ts d enary n umerical s ystem . I t i s p robable t hat t he a ncient G uaranies e mployed a q uaternary s cale o f n um ation b ased u pon t he n umbers p etei, m omoi, m bohap a nd i rund-.

( c)

J opar t he m odern f orm o f G uarani w hich h as b orrowed e xtensively f rom S panish . B ecause o f s o m any l oan w ords t his f orm h as b een c alled J opará ( noun . ' mixture '; ' stew ').

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W hen t he S paniards f irst a rrived i n t he a rea o f m odern d ay P araguay t hey e ncountered a v ariety o f t ribes, t he m ajority o f w hich w ould h ave b een o f T upi-Guarani l inguistic s tock. R elationships b etween t hese t ribal f actions w ere v aried, r anging f rom u nsteady p eace t o o pen t ribal w ar. T he S paniards a llied t hemselves w ith t hose t hey h ad n amed g uaranies. T he g uaranies, w ho s howed t hemselves t o b e e ager a llies t o t he S paniards, w ere a n e stablished t ribal c ommunity w hose s ubsistence a ctivities, i ncluding l imited a griculture, s uggest t hat t hey w ere a lready d eveloping f rom t he t raditions o f a p urely h unterg atherer s ociety, t ypical o f t he A mazon b asin , t owards a s ettled, m ore a gricultural w ay o f l ife. T his d evelopment m ay h ave b een e ncouraged b y a g rowing a ssociation w ith t he c ity-building s ocieties o f t he A ndes. T he c ommunities ' s ubsistence r esponsibilities w ould h ave b een a pportioned a ccording t o e stablish Yq c ustom : a dult m ales w ould h ave a ssumed r esponsibility f or h unting a nd o ther a ctivities b eyond t he h ome; a dult f emales, o ften w ith t he c hildren , w ould h ave t aken c harge o f a ll d omestic c hores i ncluding a griculture. T his s ex d ifferentiation h ad e xtended b eyond s ubsistence a ctivities t o i ncorporate t he l inguistic. I t i s m aintained t hat G uarani o riginally e mployed t wo w ords f or ' yes'. T he m odern G uarani w ord f or ' yes ' ( hee) w as u sed s olely b y w omen a nd y oung m ales b efore t heir i nitiation i nto t he m ale c ommunity, w hile t he m enfolk e mployed t he t erm T a . T he f ormer t erm i s t hat i nherited b y M odern G uarani ( Jopar ) s peakers, w hereas t he l atter i s r eputedly o nly e xtant a mong t he m onolingual G uarani t ribes o f P araguay! S outh C entral A mazonia. T he e xistence o f m asculine a nd f eminine s peech p atterns i s n ot a n u ncommon f eature o f t he S outh A merican l inguistic f ield, w here m ore t han v ocabulary, p erhaps e ntire l anguages , m ay b e r eserved f or t he d ifferent s ections o f a c ommunity. S uch a p henomenon c ould b e a ttributed t o t ribal w ars ( e.g., C arib e xpansion t hroughout t he C aribbean), d uring w hich o ne t ribe m ight v anquish a nother a nd i n s o d oing a dopt t he w omen a nd i mpose a n ew l anguage o n a ny m enfolk t hat r emained

a live.

I n s uch i nstances a s t he t wo w arring

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t ribes

h aving

d ifferent l anguages, i t i s n ot d ifficult t o a ppreciate a s ituation w hereby t he w omen m embers o f a t ribal c ommunity m ight e mploy a l anguage q uite d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he m enfolk. I nitiation o f t he y oung m ale i nto t he a dult m ale c ommunity w ould t hen i nvolve t he a doption o f t hings ' manly ' ( perhaps i ncluding a n ew v ocabulary a nd l anguage) a nd t he r ejection o f t he m aternal i nfluence , w hich h itherto w ould h ave b een t he m ore d ominant. T he a rrival o f t he S paniards, G uarani-Spanish a ccord a nd t he r apid d evelopment o f am estizo s ociety l ed t o t he S panish m ale a ssuming t he r ole h itherto p layed b y t he G uarani m ale a nd t o t he c ontinuance o f m ale d ominance, c onsolidating t he r ole o f w oman a s i ntrinsically d omestic. T he e mergent P araguayan n ation t hen s ettled t o t he a gricultural p attern w hich h ad a lready b een h eralded b y p re-Conquest s ubsistence p ractices a nd w hich w ould h ave b een i n a ccord w ith s ubsistence a ctivity i n c ontemporary S pain. E stablished s ocial c ustom o f p re-Conquest t imes b ecame P araguayan t radition. W omen , p rimarily r esponsible f or t hings d omestic , w ere t he m ain r epository o f G uarani. M en, m ainly r esponsible f or a reas b eyond t he h ome, w ere t he m ain r epository o f G uarani-Spanish b ilingualism , s o r eflecting t he f emale/male l anguage b ilingualism o f e arlier t imes. C onsequently S panish g ained m ore p restige i n P araguayan s ociety, i n a m ale d ominated e nvironment, a nd G uarani b ecame a ssociated w ith a ttributes o f s ocial i nferiority. S o d istinct r oles w ere e stablished f or S panish a nd G uarani. B ecause t here w as g reater G uarani r eliance i n r ural a reas, u rban a reas w ere c redited g reater k udos. L anguage s election, d etermined b y e stablished s ocial m ores, i s t herefore t raditionally b ased u pon a n umber o f v ariables w hich o ffer a w ide r ange o f p ossible p ermutations. B ut a n e xplanation i s s till r equired f or t he e ast w ith w hich S paniards o btained c o-operation f rom a l owland, i ndigenous, p redominantly h unger-gatherer s ociety r eputedly r enowned a nd f eared f or i ts w ar p otential a s f ar a s t he A ndean I nca E mpire. I t h as b een p roposed t hat t he e xplanation m ay l ie w ith t he G uayaki, t he h itherto u n-acculturalised, l argely u ncontacted t ribal c ommunity o f t he s outhern A mazonian j ungle w hose l anguage h as s till t o b e f ully c lassified. T his t heory m aintains t hat t he G uayaki, s ometimes r eferred t o a s t he A che, s poke p roto/macro-Guarani f ree o f p ost-Conquest e xtraneous i nfluence a nd t hat t hey h ad w ithdrawn f urther i nto t he j ungle a s t he S paniards h ad a dvanced. T he l esser G uarani t ribes w ould t hen h ave c onsidered t he S paniards a s p ossible a llies a gainst t he G uayaki w ho m ay h ave b een t he f ormer m asters o f t he a rea . T he p ale s kins o f t he c ontacted G uayaki, w hose m enfolk o ccasionally h ave b eards, m ight t hen c orroborate t he t raditional A merindian m ythology r egarding a w hite m aster r ace. T he c ontention t hat t he G uarani t ribes, w ho s urvived a midst a k aleidoscope o f w arfaring c ommunities, w ere a p eace-loving, g entle, a micable, s implistic p eople i s d iscredited i n f avour o f t he s urmise t hat t hey h ad r ecognised a ssociation w ith t he S paniards a s p olitically e xpedient. T he s ubsequent i ntermarriage b etween t he t wo r aces r esulted i n t he u niqueness o f P araguayan h ouseholds a nd t he r apid d evelopment o f a p redominantly m estizo s ociety. T his s ociety, a lthough i t a dopted t he S panish l anguage, w as n otable f or i ts r etention o f t he i ndigenous t ongue w hich w as p assed m ainly b y m other t o c hild, e rgo a s f eminine l anguage.

5 95

R ecent d evelopments i n A nthropological L inguistics t he c loser s tudy o f s uch l owland A merindian l anguages a s G uarani h ave t hrown i nto s harp r elief t he r ole o f d iscourse, o ral t radition a nd m yth i n o ur a ppreciation o f t he n ative s ocieties o f t he N ew W orld. -

-

5 96

N OTES 1 .

S ee W einreich 1 953 .

2 .

W horf 1 967 .

3 .

T he G uarani o rthography e mployed i n t his p aper i s t hat p roposed b y R . B lair e t a l. i n G uarani B asic C ourse , A sunciôn 1 968 . T his o rthography o ffers t he a dvantage o f b eing i n a m orphemically e xploded f orm .

4 .

T he t erms A pache ( n . s yndrome .

5 .

W e p resume t he C aribbean , K aral ( noun . ' chief '; ' master ') a nd v ( postpositional a dverb/adjective , ' mainly '; ' principal ') m ight c onstitute t he o rigin o f t he t erm ' Caribe ' ( ' cannibal '), t hereby a ttesting t o t he G uarani m igration m yth w hich m aintains t hat G uarani a nd T upi h ad l ed t heir f ollowers o n m igratory w anderings f rom w here t he ' Big C hief ' r uled . W ith t he a rrival o f t he S paniards , k arai-f le ' ( 'Mister-talk ') b ecame t he n atives ' t erm f or t he S panish l anguage .

6 .

P ojha R af ia i s w orthy o f n ote . T his m anuscript , w ritten i n M isiones ( N . A rgentina ) b y t he J esuit p riest M arcos V illodas i n 1 725, l ists h erbal r emedies f or a ll t he a ilments k nown i n t he a rea . T he m anuscript i s w ritten i n G uarani b ut i ncludes a n umber o f S panish l oan w ords .

7 .

C f ., K arakará

8 .

P endle 1 967:

9 .

A dam 1 896 . 1 924 ;

' hostile '), K raut , F rog e tc .,

C aracas ( n .

c onfirm

t his

' Sparrow-hawk ').

5 .

1 0 .

C ohen 1 950 .

S chmidt 1 926 ; L oukotka 1 935 , 1 942

1 1.

G uasch 1 956 :

1 2 .

N ot t hat h unting w as n ecessarily a p rerequisite f or c ontinued e xistence . A merindian m an , l ike m an e lsewhere , c ould s urvive a dequately a s a v egetarian . H unting m ay h ave b een p urely r itualistic .

8 2 a nd 1 961:

a nd

1 950 ;

M ason

7 70 .

5 97

B IBLIOGRAPHY A dam , L ucien . M atériaux p our s ervir al ' stabiissement d 'une g rammaire c omparée d es d ialectes d e l a f amilie T upi ( Paris 1 896).

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R eligión

B lair , R obert W ., C harles R . G raham , D elbert H . G roberg, C arlos Z . G omez a nd C arlos R . E spinola . G uarani B asic C ourse ( Asuncion 1 968). B loomfield, L eonard.

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B oas , F ranz . " The C lassification o f A merican L anguages", A merican A nthropologist , V ol. 2 2, N o. 4 ( 1920), 3 67-376 .

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ac ritical s urvey o f t heory a nd

F iebrigGertz, C . " Guarany n ames o f P araguayan p lants a nd a nimals", R evista d el J ardin B otánico ( Asunci6n 1 923). F ishman , J .A . 1 970).

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G arvin , P aul L . a nd M adeleine M athiot . " The U rbanization o f t he G uarani L anguage : aP roblem i n L anguage a nd C ulture", i n A nthony F .C . W allace ( ed .) , S elected P apers o f t he F ifth I nternational C ongress o f A nthropological a nd E thnological S ciences ( September 1 -9, 1 956) ( Philadelphia 1 956) 7 83-790 . G reenberg , J oseph H . " The G eneral C lassification o f C entral a nd S outh A merican L anguages", i n A nthony F .C . W allace (ed.), S elected P apers o f t he F ifth I nternational C ongress o f A nthropological a nd E thnological S ciences ( September 1 -9, 1 956) ( Philadelphia 1 956) 7 91-794 . G reene , J udith . ( 1972).

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AD escription o f C olloquial .

E l i dioma g uarani , 3 rd e dn . ( Asunci6n 1 956).

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H anke , W anda a nd M orris S wadesh a nd A ryon D . R odrigues . " Notas d e m ekens", M iscellanea P aul R ivet , V ol. I I ( 1958) 1 87-217 . H augen, E inar. B ilingualism i n t he A mericas : aB ibliography a nd R esearch G uide , A merican D ialect S ociety P ublication N o . 2 6 ( Alabama 1 956). H oijer, H arry ( ed .). " Language i n c ulture : p roceedings o f a c onference o n t he I nterrelations o f L anguage a nd O ther A spects o f C ulture", A merican A nthropologist , V ol . 5 6 , N o . 6( Part 2 ) ( 1954).

J espersen , J .O .H . M ankind , N ation a nd I ndividual f rom a L inguistic P oint o f V iew ( Oslo 1 925). J over P eralta , A nselmo a nd T omás O suna . D iccionario g uarani-espa i lol y e s af iol-Auaranl , 3 rd . e dn . ( Buenos A ires 1 952).

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K elly, L .G . ( ed .). D escription a nd M easurement o f B ilingualism : a n i nternational s eminar ( University o f M oncton , J une 6 -14 , 1 967), U niversity o f T oronto P ress ( 1969).

L abov , W illiam . " The s tudy o f l anguage i n i ts s ocial c ontext", i n J .A . F ishman ( ed .), A dvances i n t he S ociology o f L anguage ( The H ague 1 971) 1 52-216 . L af o ne Q uevedo , S amuel A . " Guarani K inship T erms a s I ndex o f S ocial O rganization", A merican A nthropologist , V ol . 2 1, N o . 4( 1919) 4 214 40 . L emle , M iriam . " Internal C lassification o f t he T upi-Guarani L inguistic F amily", i n D avid B endor-Samuel ( ed .), T upi S tudies I , S ummer I nstitute o f L inguistics ( Oklahoma 1 971) 1 07-129 . L oukotka , C estmir . 1 935).

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L oukotka , C estmir. " Klassifikation d er s idamerikanischen S prachen", Z eitschrift f ur E tnologie , V ol . 7 4 ( 1942) 1 -69 . L oukotka , C estmir . " Les l angues d e l a f amille T upi-guarani", U niversity o f S ao P aulo , B ulletin 1 04 o n E tnograf j a el ingua t upig uaran1 , N o . 1 6 ( 1950). L yons , J . ( ed .).

N ew H orizons i n L inguistics , P enguin ( 1970).

M ason , J ohn A . " The L anguages o f S outh A merican I ndians", i n J .H . S teward ( ed .), H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians , V ol . V I ( Washington 1 950) 2 36-243 . M atteson , E sther . H ague 1 972).

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6 00

P ei, M ario .

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P eramas , J osé M anuel . L a R ep f iblica d e P 1at6n y l os G uaranies ( Buenos A ires 1 946). F irst p ublished i n 1 791. P ottier , B ernard . " Problèmes d e d ialectologie d ans l a d omaine d u t upig uarani", O rbis , V ol . X ( 1961) 3 1-34. P ottier , B ernard . " Aspectos d el b ilingiismo p araguayo", S uplemento A ntropológico d e l a R evista d el A teneo P araguayo , V ol. I V , N o . 1 ( 1969) 1 89-193 . P ride , J .B . a nd J anet H olmes ( eds .).

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S apir , E . " Conceptual c ategories i n p rimitive l anguages" , S cience 7 4 ( 1931) 5 78 . S aussure, F erdinand d e . C ourse i n G eneral L inguistics , F ontana/Collins ( 1974). T ranslated f rom t he F rench o riginal o f 1 916 b y W ade B askin . S ebeok , T homas A . ( ed .). C urrent T rends i n L inguistics , V ol. I V : I bero-American a nd C aribbean L inguistics ( The H ague 1 968). S ebeok, T homas A . ( ed .). ( New Y ork 1 977).

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6 01

T rudgill , P eter.

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a n I ntroduction , P enguin ( 1974) .

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W einreich , U riel . L anguages i n C ontact : F indings a nd P roblems ( The H ague 1 967). F irst p ublished a s N o . 1i n t he s eries P ublications o f t he L inguistic C ircle o f N ew Y ork ( New Y ork 1 953). W horf , B .L . " Science a nd L inguistics", i n J ohn P . d e C ecco ( ed.), T he P sychology o f L anguage T hought a nd I nstruction ( New Y ork 1 967) 6 87 4 .

6 02

C AMELIDS, C ARAVANS, A ND C OMPLEX S OCIETIES I N T HE S OUTH-CENTRAL A NDES T om D . D illehay a nd L autaro N C iñez A .

A BSTRACT A m odel o f t he h istorical d evelopment o f t ranshumance, c amelid c aravan t rade, a nd a gro-pastoral s edentism i s p resented f or t he S outhC entral A ndes. T he e mergence o f c omplex s ocieties i n t he a rea d id n ot f ollow t he s ame d irection a s t he h ighly u rbanized, a gricultural s ocieties o f t he C entral A ndes. I nstead, S outh-Central A ndean s ocieties w ere c haracterized b y a m ore m obile l ifeway o f h unters a nd g atherers d eveloping i nto h erders, c aravaners, a nd a griculturalists i nvolved i n t he p roduction a nd e xchange o f s pecialized p roducts. I nter-zonal c ontact a nd e xchange w as c arried o ut t hrough r egional c aravan n etworks c onnected b y m ajor " axis" s ettlements a long t he c oast a nd i n t he h ighland " altiplano" a nd " puna" z ones. A lthough t he a rea w as n ever f ully c ontrolled b y a s ingle c entralized c ulture, i t w as p artially u nified b y t he T iawanaku s phere o f c ommercial a nd r eligious i nfluence ( A.D. 4 00-1200) a nd l ater t he I nca s tate. O therwise, r egional g roups w ere e conomically i nterdependent a nd g enerally p olitically a utonomous s mall- t o m edium-scale c hiefdoms. T he p rocesses a nd e vents l eading t o t he e mergence a nd d evlopment o f t his l ifeway a re d iscussed f or d ifferent h istorical d evelopmental p eriods.

W hen o ne l ooks p anoramically a t c ontemporary A ndean c ivilization i t s eems t o f orm a s ynopsis o f i ts o wn c omplexity. M ost o f t he m ajor c ultural s treams t hat, o ver t he c ourse o f f ifteen m illennia o r m ore, h ave f lowed t o a nd f rom t he A ndes h ave f ound t heir c ontemporary r epresentation s omewhere. T oday, a s i n t he p ast, t here i s a w ide r ange o f s ocial a nd e conomic a daptations i n d ifferent c ulture a reas a nd e nvironments. I n t his w ide a rray, o ne o f t he m ore s ignificant a nd c ontinuous p atterns i n s haping t he b asic c haracter o f A ndean c ivilization h as b een l ittle u nderstood u ntil r ecent y ears. T his p attern i s t he S outh-Central A ndean l ifeway o f a r evolving m obile h erder-caravan s ociety c entered o n c ontracting a nd e xpanding t rade c ircuits c onnected b y s upportive a gricultural c ommunities i n a c rosse cological c ontext. T he c oncern o f t his p aper i s t o p resent a g eneral m odel o f t he h istorical g enesis , d evelopment, a nd c omplexity o f t his l ifeway a nd o f i ts r ole i n t he c hange a nd c ontinuity o f p rehispanic s ocieties i n t he s tudy a rea. T he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he S outh-Central A ndes, a n a rea d efined b y B olivia, n orthern C hile, a nd n orthwest A rgentina ( Fig . 1 ), p resents a p attern o f c ulture g rowth a nd c hange q uite d istinct a nd

6 03

independent of what occurred in the classic urbanized regions of the Central Andes. The data from the south show less urban and agricultural development and less inter-group conflict. They also reveal that, with the exception of the Tiawanaku culture, there are no known cases of highly centralized, expansive polities. A distinguish­ ing trait of the south was a herder-caravan mobility particular to the historical, ecological, and cultural circumstances of the whole area. It was a movement which was something more than mere transhumance between two or more different ecological zones or a movement determined by a central town, or "nucleus" settlement. Rather, it was a revolving movement defined primarily by a commensurable relation between human populations and animal populations in specific types of culturally built human-camelid communities, such as caravan webs sprea d between permanent settlements, within the diversified Andean ecosystem. Within this system, the distribution of the benefits of caravan trade, eGOll..omic integration, and presumably political harmony was not simply redistributive but developmental; it was a case not of simply transferring-· resources from zone to zone, but rather the of �obilization of productive resources through the planned location of specialized economic activities, usually centered in permanent settle­ ments in different regions. Since so few archaeological data have been generated about the prehispanic ecological and economic relationships between human social groups and camelids in the South-Central Andes, many scholars had often taken it for granted until recent years that any cultural complexity represented by herding and caravan groups could be explained as secondary or peripheral outgrowth of expanding urban societies in Peru. What has not been adequately recognized, however, is that the latter area has a very different developmental history, and that the two areas were characterized by a complementary developmental dichotomy that, in southern Peru and in northern Bolivia and Chile, eventually became much more accentuated by strong interregional connections and influences between the Wari and Tiawanaku cultures roughly between A.D. 500 to 1200. Cultures lying farther south of Tiawanaku, in central and southern Bolivia and in north central Chile and northwest Argentina, never experienced a true pre-Inca urban lifeway nor fully developed an extensive network of large permanent settlements or an expanding centralized authoritative system like that found in Peru. There is enough archaeological evidence from the South-Central Andes to suggest that once human populations initially adapted to the area during the late Paleo-Indian Period and early Archaic Period (ea. 10,000-1800 B.C.), long-distance seasonal hunting and collecting treks began between the altiplano and the coast by highlanders. With the domestication of camelids, these long treks eventually developed into shorter and more frequent year-round caravan circuits between small, agriculturally-based settlements in the altiplano, in the transitional and marginal mountains and desert, and on the coast during the middle to late Archaic Period (ea. 1800-900 B.C.). Accompanying this demographic and economic spread was the regional development of resource specialization, of short-distance caravan routes, and of agriculturally-based support axis settlements in fertile areas of the altiplano, the desert, and the coast. Counterpart axis settlements interconnected by highland and lowland caravan routes later developed into "leading" trade circuits under the control of local seiiorios or 604

c hiefdoms. S ometime b etween A .D. 2 00 a nd 5 00, c entrifugal e conomic, r eligious, a nd s ocial f orces e manating f rom m ajor a xis s ettlements a long l eading c ircuits a nd f rom u rban a reas i n s outhern P eru b egan t o c onverge i n t he L ake T iticaca b asin, w here, a t t he t ime, t he l arge T iawanaku s ite w as a lready d eveloping a s a r egional p olitical a nd r eligious p ower s upported b y a d iverse e conomy b ased o n h erding, c aravan t rade, f ishing, a nd e specially i ntensive r oot a nd s eed a griculture. T his c onvergence c ontributed t o t he u rban g rowth a nd i mportance o f T iawanaku b y s ynchronizing e conomic t rade, p olitical p ower, a nd i nterregional r eligious a ctivity i n t he a rea. T hus, t he e mergence o f T iawanaku i s s een b oth a s a c entripetally c entralized, i n s itudeveloped s tate a uthority e xerting p olitical a nd e conomic c ontrol o ver o utlying r egional c enters a nd a s a p rimary a xis s ettlement c entrifugally c entralized b y r egional, o r d istant h interland, t rade n etworks. W e c ontend t hat t he w idespread d istribution o f s tylistic s imilarities i n s uch T iawanaku-related g oods a s c eramics, t extiles, s nuff t ablets, a nd r itual p araphernalia r epresent a n i nterregional s ocial a nd e conomic a llegiance t o a r eligious a nd c ommercial c redo a ssociated w ith t he T iawanaku s ite ( sensu B rowman 1 978, 1 981). A fter t he d emise o f t he T iawanaku c ulture a nd t he d isintegration o f t his c redo, s ocieties i n t he a rea r eturned t o a l ocal c hiefdom-level o f o rganization u ntil t he I nca a rrived, a t w hich t ime s elective p olitical i nfluence w as e xercised. I n 1 979, w e p ublished a l engthy m onograph ( NC iñez a nd D illehay 1 979) i n S panish d etailing t his i nterpretation o f t he h istorical p rocess o f e conomic a nd d emographic d evelopment a nd c hange o f S outhA ndean c ultures. T o t he e xtent t hat t he w ork a ttempted t o s ynthesize e xtant i nformation, n otwithstanding t he l arge g aps i n r egional d ata a nd t he c hronological p roblems w ith a rtefact a ssemblages a nd s ites, a nd t o p rovide a n i ntegrating r ationale f or w hat m ight h ave h appened, i t i s a h istorical m odel a nd s imply o ne i nterpretation o f o ne s trategy o f a daptation i n t he S outh-Central A ndes. W e d o n ot p retend t hat i t p resents a n e ven c overage o f p atterns n or t hat i t r epresents o ther f orms o f t rade, s ettlement, a nd s ocial a nd e conomic d evelopment i ndependent o f o r i nterdependent w ith t he h erder-caravan m odel. I n f act, o ur m odel i s l imited. I t c oncentrates a lmost e xclusively o n e conomic a nd d emographic a spects o f t he s tudy a rea, p roviding l ittle d ata o n a n i nterpretation o f p olitical a nd s ocial o rganization. T here i s ar eason f or t his. S o l ittle a rchaeological w ork h as b een d one i n i ntra- a nd i nter-site a ctivity a reas, s ettlement p atterns, a nd e lite a nd n on-elite r esidences a nd s tatus g oods, t hat w e c an o nly s peculate o n t he t ype a nd l evel o f s ocial a nd p olitical o rganization w hich e xisted i n t he r egion o ver t he m illennium . I n r eferring t o t his o rganization, a t l east f or t he T iawanaku p eriod, w e g enerally c oncur w ith B rowman's ( 1978, 1 981) i nterpretation o f t he d iachronic d evelopment o f c ultures i n t he a rea a nd w ith K olata 's ( 1983, 1 987) v iew o f t he r ise o f t he T iawanaku c ulture i n t he L ake T iticaca r egion ( see l ater d iscussions). A lthough n ew a rchaeological e vidence h as b ecome a vailable s ince o ur m odel w as p ublished, o ur i deas b asically h ave r emained t he s ame. I t i s t he p urpose o f t his p aper t o p rovide t he f irst s ynopsis i n E nglish o f t his m odel , a nd a t t he s ame t ime, t o m odify a f ew p revious n otions i n t he l ight o f r ecent f indings. D ue t o s pace l imitations, w e

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a re u nable t o p rovide t he s upporting d ata a nd r eferences f or o ur i nterpretations. T he r eader i s r eferred t o o ur e arlier p ublication f or t his i nformation. T he m odel i s d iscussed i n t erms o f d evelopments d uring c ultural h istorical p eriods. M ore a ttention i s g iven t o T iawanaku , b ecause i t r epresents t he c ulmination o f c enturies o f c ultural d evelopment i n t he e xtreme n orthern r egion o f t he S outh-Central A ndes , a nd b ecause i t p rovides f or c omparative p urposes t he m ost i nfluential c ultural l ink w ith C entral A ndean c ultures . H owever, i t s hould b e c autioned t hat a lthough T iawanaku i s t he b etter-known a rchaeological c ulture, i t c annot b e c onsidered a s t he m ost r epresentative c ulture o f t he a rea . T iawanaku i nfluence e xtended o nly o ver s elected r egions a nd o ver a f ew c enturies. O ther l esser-known c ultures w hich e xisted b efore , d uring, a nd a fter T iawanaku w ere i n t heir o wn w ay e qually i mportant c ont ributors t o t he h istorical d evelopmental p rocess o f S outh-Central A ndean s ocieties a nd c ultures. T he h istory o f t hese c ultures h as b een g enerally u ndefined b ecause o f l ittle a rchaeological e vidence o r h as b een m asked b y a n o verriding c oncern w ith t he T iawanaku c ulture. T he s cope o f t his p aper p recludes d iscussion o f t hese c ultures a nd t he a rchaeological d ata f or t hem . T he f ollowing d iscussion w ill p roceed f rom a d escription o f t he e cology a nd o f p revious t houghts o n t he a rea, t o a d efinition o f c ircuit m obility, t o b rief p resentations o f t he c ulture h istorical d evelopmental p eriods, a nd t o a c oncluding s tatement.

E cology a nd R esources T he S outh-Central A ndes a re c haracterized b y s everal m ajor p hysiog raphic a reas r anging f rom a l ittoral z one r ich i n m arine r esources a nd a d ry, b arren o asis-like d esert ( which c ollectively w ill b e r eferred t o a s t he l owlands), t o h igh-altitude g rasslands ( puna a nd a ltiplano, c ollectively t he h ighlands), a nd t o m oist t ropical f orests ( Troll 1 958) ( Fig . 1 ). F rom n orthern t o c entral C hile, t he c oastline o f t he P acific O cean ( Fig . 1 , A reas A a nd H ) a nd t he w estern c ordillera r anges o f t he A ndes e nclose a n i mmense a rea o f d esert a nd s emi-desert p lains ( Fig . 1 , A rea B ). T he w aters a long t he c ontinental s helf a nd t he a ccompanying l ittoral z one p rovide o ne o f t he r ichest a nd m ost d iverse m arine r esource a reas i n t he w orld. P erhaps t he m ost c haracteristic f eatures o f t he a djacent C hilean d eserts a re t he A ndean h ills a nd o asis-like r iver v alleys w hich d escend f rom t he m ountains a nd f low i nto t he P acific O cean. A t t he c onjunction o f t he r iver d eltas a nd l ittoral z ones o f P eru a nd n orthern C hile, s mall p receramic s edentary p opulations p racticed a n e conomy t ased p rimarily o n m arine p roducts a nd s econdarily o n t errestrial a nimals a nd d omesticated c ultigens . I n t he l arge c oastal r iver v alleys, a gricultural p ractices w ere d ependent o n i rrigation n etworks, a lthough s mall-scale c ultivation i s p ossible w ithout c anals. T he A ndean h ighlands t o t he e ast c onsists o f v arious a rid p una z ones ( Fig . 1 , A reas B , C , G , I , a nd K ) l ying a t d ifferent e levations a nd c haracterized b y d ifferent t opographic c onfigurations , s easonal

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t emperatures, p recipitation r ates, a nd f loral a nd f aunal c ommunities. S ome m ajor f eatures o f t he h igh p una, t he a ltiplano ( above c a. 4 ,000 m .a.s.l.), a re s easonably i ntense f rost p eriods a nd r ainy s easons, a nd f ew c ultivable h ectares . A s hort g rowing s eason c oupled w ith t he r estricted r ange o f a gricultural p roducts t hat c an b e g rown o n t he a ltiplano p rovides l ittle o pportunity t o p roduce a d iverse r ange o f f ood i tems. E xceptions a re i n s uch a reas a s t he L ake T iticaca r egion w here t uber a griculture c an b e c oupled w ith f ishing a nd c amelid h erding t o p roduce a h ighly m ixed a nd p roductive e conomy a nd i n t he o asis-like p una a rea o f S an P edro d e A tacama ( Fig. 1 , A rea L ) w here m ultiple l ower-elevation c rops c an b e g rown. A ccess t o r esources i n l ower e levated l ands w as a chieved t hrough t he e stablishment a nd m aintenance o f t rade r elations w ith l owlanders l iving i n t he l ower p una a reas a nd t he t ransitional o asis-valleys a nd o n t he c oast. T he e astern s lopes o f t he A ndes s upport a p áramo ( wide b arren p lain) e nvironment ( Fig. 1 , A reas, D , E , F ) w hich i s f lanked b y l owland s emi-tropical t o t ropical f orest c over. T he p recipitation i s h igher i n t his s ub-zone, b ut t he e xploitation o f r ainfall b y a griculturalists i s l imited b y t he r uggedness o f t he t opography. S mall, i solated v alleys p rovide f ew s oil r esources, a nd t erracing c ombined w ith f arming a long l imited a lluvial s treams h ardly s uffices t o s upport l arge p opulations. T he t ropical f orest p rovides a w ide a rray o f m edicinal a nd w ood p roducts w hich a re n ot a vailable i n t he h igher a nd d rier l ands t o t he w est . S tudies o f t he g eology a nd p aleo-ecology o f t he r egion s uggest t hat t he c limate a nd e nvironment o f t he a rea o ver t he p ast s everal m illennia w ere g enerally s imilar t o t hat o f t oday ( Craig 1 984), p erhaps w ith c ooler t emperatures a nd s lightly h igher r ates o f p recipitation.

P revious I nterpretations T o d ate, t here h as b een n o a ttempt t o f ormulate a b road h istorical m odel o f t he c ultural d evelopment o f S outh-Central A ndean s ocieties. H owever, a f ew a uthors h ave s ynthesized t he d ata f or p articular r egions a nd f or t ime p eriods . F or e xample, t he e mergence o f p receramic c ultures a long t he n orth c oast o f C hile ( e.g., N ( iñez 1 976) a nd t he c eramic c ultures o f n orthwest A rgentina ( Gonzalez 1 985) a re f airly w ell d efined. M ost s cholars h ave f ocused o n t he r easons f or T iawanaku 's e mergence a s a l arge s ettlement. U nfortunately, l ittle r esearch h as b een c arried o ut o n o ther p rehispanic c ultures i n t he a rea . T he S outh-Central A ndes h ave b een k nown b est t hrough t he M iddle H orizon P eriod o f P eru w hen s trong c ultural r elationships d eveloped b etween t he l esser-known c ultures o f n orthern C hile, B olivia , a nd n orthwest A rgentina a nd t he b etter k nown W ari a nd T iawanaku c ultures. T he M iddle H orizon i n A ndean p rehistory h as g enerally c ome t o b e k nown a s a W ari-Tiawanaku s phere o f i nfluence, p resumably w ith t he f ormer c ulture h aving d ominated t he c entral h ighlands a nd c ertain c oastal a reas o f P eru a nd t he l atter c ulture h aving i nfluenced p rimarily t he c ultures o f B olivia , n orthern C hile, n orthwest A rgentina a nd s outhern P eru . B oth o f t hese h igh c ultures a re c onsidered t o h ave i nterrupted t he e arlier r egional c ultures i n t heir r espective a reas o f i nfluence, b ringing a bout t heir d emise a nd i ntroducing c entralized s ocio-economic

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o rganization a nd d ifferent s ettlement f orms o f a n u rban n ature 1 972: 1 59; L umbreras 1 974: 1 39-145, 1 51-177).

( Willey

I t w as o riginally c onceived t hat t he T iawanaku c ulture f irst e xpanded t hroughout t he C entral A ndes ( Uhle 1 920; B ennett 1 934), i ntroducing a d ifferent p ottery s tyle a nd n ew s ettlement f orm o f a n u rban n ature d uring t he M iddle H orizon P eriod. H owever, s ince u rbanism h ad n ot y et d eveloped i n t he a ltiplano a reas o f B olivia a nd s outhern P eru, T iawanaku w as n ot c onsidered a s t he s ource o f t hese n ew d evelopm ents ( Lumbreras 1 974: 1 51-152). L ater, l t w as a rgued t hat t he h ighland s ite o f W an , r ather t han T iawanaku , w as t he c enter f rom w hich m ost M iddle H orizon I nfluence e manated ( Larco H oyle 1 948; B ennett 1 953). B ased o n c eramic a nalysis, t his p osition h eld t hat t he T iawanaku s tyle w as p robably s pread b y p roselytizing t o W an ( Menzel 1 958, 1 964) w here i t w as r einterpreted a nd t hen p ossibly d iffused b y f orce o f a rms ( Lumbreras 1 960, 1 974). A lthough t he p recise s ocio-economic a nd p olitical r elationships b etween t he W ari a nd T iawanaku g eographic a nd c ultural s pheres o f i nfluence a re n ot w ell u nderstood, c urrent e vidence s uggests t hat n either, m ost l ikely, h ad a ny l asting c ontrol o ver t he o ther. I t i s g enerally a ccepted, h owever, t hat t here w as c ertain t emporal a nd s patial o verlap a nd c o-existence b etween W ari a nd T iawanaku i n s ome a reas. I t h as a lso b een a ssumed t hat b oth o f t hese h igh c ultures e ventually f ollowed t he t ypical d evelopmental p ath f rom s edentarya gricultural v illages t o u rban c ulture o n t he s tate l evel. I ncorporated w ithin t his d evelopmental f ramework o f T iawanaku i s a r elationship w ith h ighly m obile, a ltiplano-based, h erder-caravan s ocieties ( Browman 1 978). B rowman 's v iews o f t he d evelopment o f c ulture i n t he a ltiplano a re w orth c onsiderable a ttention. B rowman ( 1981) h as d efined t he c oncept o f a n " altiplano m ode" o f e conomic i ntegration b ased o n e xtensive c aravan t rade n etworks s tretched a cross d ifferent e cological z ones. H e s ees t he r oots o f t his m ode l ying i n ab asic p attern o f t uber a nd s eed a griculture w ith s upplementary c amelid p astoralism d eveloped b y t he m iddle o f t he s econd m illennium B .C. B rowman, l ike o urselves, a lso r ecognizes t hat t he c ultural e volutionary r elation b etween p astoralism a nd a gricultural s edentism i n t he A ndes i s p robably v ery d ifferent f rom t hat i n t he O ld W orld, w here a nimal h usbandry i s r egarded a s h aving d eveloped t hrougho ut t he w orld i n m arginal e cological a reas i n w hich c rops c ould n ot b e g rown ( Browman 1 981: 4 08). I n t he S outh-Central A ndes, p astoralism s eems t o h ave d eveloped f irst, t hen " plant c ultivation d eveloped i n a reas m arginal t o h erding, w here f ormer h erders t urned t o g rowing p lants o r w here h erding w as i mpracticable" ( Browman 1 981: 4 08). A lthough w e a lso t hink t hat p astoralism h ad p rimacy o ver p lant c ultivation ( N( iñez a nd D illehay 1 979), w e f urther t hink t hat t he t wo e conomic m odes c o-evolved a nd t hat t he d evelopment o f i ntensive a griculture w as s purred t o a l arge e xtent b y t he n eed o f s edentary s upport s ettlements f or i ncreased c aravan m obility. T he a ltiplano m ode i s s ociallya nd e cologically-specific a nd g roup-level s pecific. T hat i s, B rowman i s p rimarily c oncerned w ith t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ocial a nd e conomic m echanisms d evised b y g roups i n t heir e fforts t o a chieve a ccess t o d iverse e conomic g oods i n a b asically u niform a nd g eographically v ast e cological z one t he -

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a ltiplano. H e s ees t he d evelopment o f i nter-group " alliance" n etworks, c raft s pecialization, p eriodic m arkets, a nd e ntrepreneurs a ll c onnected a nd s upported b y l lama c aravan n etworks, w hich i ntegrate t he a ltiplano w ith v arious e xternal e cological z ones, a s t he b asic m echanisms w hich c haracterized t he m ore c omplex a spects o f h uman s ocial a nd e conomic a daptation t o h igh a ltitude A ndean l ands. P resumably l lama c aravan t rade w as c ontrolled b y a ltiplano-based r egional c enters u ntil T iawanaku e merged d uring t he f irst f our c enturies A .D. a s t he m ajor c enter o f e conomic t rade a nd o f p olitical c ontrol o ver d istant r egions. A ccording t o B rowman, T iawanaku d eveloped t hrough c ommercialized t rade a nd r eligious p roselytizing i nto a h ighly c entralized, e xpansionist s tate t hat c ontrolled a c onsiderable p ortion o f t he S outh-Central A ndes, a nd t hat e xercised a s trong i nfluence i n s outhern P eru. B rowman 's m odel m akes g ood s ense i n e xplaining s pecific r elations b etween T iawanaku a nd W an , t rade b etween d ifferent a reas, a nd t he r ole o f t he a ltiplano e nvironment a nd e conomy i n t he u rban o peration o f T iawanaku; h owever, w e c onsider i t i napplicable t o t he w hole a rea f or s everal r easons. I t i s b iased t oward t he a ltiplano z one a nd t oward a s tate u rban s ociety. I n t reating z ones p eripheral t o a reas u nder T iawanaku i nfluence, t he a pproach i s t hat t he c oncept o f a n a lle ncompassing u rban s tate i s m ore c onducive t o a f uller u nderstanding o f d evelopments t aking p lace t hroughout m ost o f t he a rea. A lthough c ertain e xpansionist t endencies, s uch a s r eligion a nd r itual p araphernalia, m ight b e a ssociated w ith T iawanaku, t here i s n o c oncrete e vidence t o s how t hat i t w as t he t ype o f A ndean s tate w e g enerally k now . T hat i s, o ther t han i ts i conography, w hich a ppears i n v arious f orms i n v arious h interlands, t here a re, a s y et, n o o ther i ndicators o f A ndean s tatehood, s uch a s p roven s econdary c apitals o r s tatei nstitutionalized a rchitectural f orms i n r egions l ying w ell b eyond t he L ake T iticaca a rea. I n a ddition t o B rowman 's i nterpretation, t he v erticality m odel o f M urra ( 1972, 1 985), w hich o perates u nder t he a ssumption t hat a n ucleus s ettlement s ends c olonies t o d istant z ones t o d irectly e xploit l ocal r esources, h as b een e xtensively u sed t o e xplain t he s ocial a nd e conomic o rganization o f l ate p rehispanic s ocieties i n t he s tudy a rea. W hile t his m odel a ttempts t o e stablish a l inkage b etween s ettlements i n t he C entral A ndes a nd i n t he L ake T iticaca a rea w here s tate s ocieties a rose a nd w here n uclear s ites c an b e i dentified i n t he h istorical a nd a rchaeological r ecords, v erticality i s n ot c onsidered, i n o ur o pinion, t o h ave b een a m ajor o rganizational s trategy i n t he S outh-Central A ndes . A p roblem w ith t he v erticality m odel i s t hat i t h as b een u ncritically i nvoked t o a ccount f or t he p resence o f f oreign t raits i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f s ocieties. A s n oted e lsewhere ( Dillehay 1 987), a ny o ne o r a c ombination o f s everal a ctivities, s uch a s v erticality, a lliance n etworks, l ong-distance t rade, a nd c ircuit c aravans, c ould e xplain t his p resence. Im ight a dd t hat B rowman ( 1981) a lso h as d oubts a bout t he v erticality p attern. H e t hinks t hat i t w as p olitically a nd e conomically d ifficult f or a ltiplano g roups t o m aintain a rchipelago c olonies a t s everal-hundred-mile i ntervals o utside t he v ast a ltiplano r egion. S everal

s cholars

( e.g., M ujica 1 985; R ivers 1 975;

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K olata

1 985,

1 987) h ave a pplied M urra 's m odel t o t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he a rea. O ne i nterpretation i s t hat o f R ivera , w ho s trictly a pplies t he m odel t o t he e arly d evelopment o f n orthern C hilean c ultures a nd t heir r elations w ith a ltiplano g roups, e specially p rior t o a nd d uring T iawanaku t imes. H is i nterpretation i s n ot s o m uch a n e cologicals pecific m odel a s a s ocial- a nd p olitical-specific m odel o f A ndean e conomy. T hat i s, t he p articular t ype o f e cological z one o r s eries o f z ones u nder e xploitation b y a ny o ne g roup i s n ot a s i mportant a s t he e conomic n eeds a nd t ypes o f s ocio-economic a nd p olitical o rganization a nd i ntegration t hat t he g roup, o r " nucleus" p opulation ( in t his c ase T iawanaku), m ust h ave o r d evelop i n o rder t o s end a nd m aintain c olonies a cross t he h ighly v ariable A ndean l andscape. R ivera, w hose i nterpretation s uffers f rom " vertical" r eductionism , s eems t o i mply t hat e cological z onation m erely d efines t he s patial p arameters a nd o peration o f t he t ypes o f d iverse r esources a vailable t o t he n ucleus g roup a nd i ts c olonies a nd t he n umber o f d ifferent e thnic g roups w ho i nteract w ith t hem . I n r eviewing t he w ork o f K olata ( 1985, 1 987) b riefly, h e i nterprets t he S outh-Central A ndes a lmost e xclusively f rom t he v iewp oint o f t he L ake T iticaca r egion a nd o f t he T iawanaku s tate. T o K olata, T iawanaku i s t he " core" o f a n e xpansive s tate w hich i ncorporated s uch p eripheral a reas a s s outhern P eru, n orthern C hile , t he h ighlands o f B olivia , a nd n orthwest A rgentina. T iawanaku i s s een a s h aving d eveloped p rimarily f rom a s urplus-producing a gricultural e conomy c entered a round L ake T iticaca . K olata s ees l ong-distance c aravan t rade a s p laying a m ajor r ole i n t he T iawanaku e conomy b ut o nly i n t he d evelopment o f s tate i nterests i n p eripheral z ones. I n h is m odel, B rowman 's i nterpretation o f t he r ole o f t he e xchange o f c ommodities a nd i deology i n i ntegrating t he S outh-Central A ndes i s g iven l ess i mportance. I nstead, h e s ees s trong c ontrol o f o utlying r egions e xercised t hrough c olonization o f d istant l ands, t hrough t he e stablishment o f c lientage r elations w ith l ocal-level l ords, a nd t hrough t he s ubsequent c ontrol o ver d istant e cological r egions . A lthough K olata's m odel b est e xplains t he c ultural e vents o ccurring i n t he s outhern L ake T iticaca r egion d uring t he T iawanaku p eriod, i t i s t oo s patially c onfined a nd t oo a historical i n f ocus t o a ccount f or t he w hole o f t he S outh-Central A ndes. H is m odel g ives l ittle a ttention t o t he o rganization o f e xisting h interland r egional c ultures a nd h ow t hey m ight h ave c ontributed t o t he r ise o f t he s tate.

C ircuit M obility:

H erding, C aravans, A gricultural S ettlements

H erding r efers t o a n e conomic s ystem o f p roduction b ased o n a h uman c ommensurable r elationship w ith l arge g roups o f c amelids. I t i s a u nique h uman-and-animal i nteraction c entered o n a t ranshumant a ccompaniment o f t he c yclical m ovements o f c amelids f rom o ne p una t o a nother, d epending u pon t he s ea3onability o f t he a nimals ' m obile b ehaviour. ( This i s a lso c onsidered t o b e a f lexible r elationship w hereby h umans c an b reed, e xploit o r i nfluence t he d emographic s pread o f t he h erd). H igh a ltitude A ndean h erding i s g enerally c onfined t o a p articular k ind o f e nvironment, o ne t hat i s u sually a bove 3 ,600m i n e levation a nd i n r elatively o pen p una a nd a ltiplano c ountry w ith s ufficient g rasslands f or t he a nimal's f eeding a nd b reeding h abits. V iewed f rom t he e thnographic r ecord, t wo o f t he c onsequences o f a n

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A ndean h erding l ifeway a re t hat t he h uman g roups m ust b e f lexible a nd m obile a nd t hat t hey g enerally d o n ot i nvest h eavily i n p ersonal g oods, i n e laborate o r p ermanent h abitation s tructures o r i n l and p lots. B oth p articular l ane s egments a nd b oundaries a re g enerally u nimportant, w hile p ermanent a ccess t o k ey r esources, n otably w ater a nd p asturage, m ust r emain o pen a nd b e s hared. A lthough t here m ay b e f ixed a gric ultural h omesteads i n c ertain e nvironmentally f avourable a reas, s uch a s t he o ases a nd u pper r iver v alleys o f t he n orthern C hilean d esert, a nd c ertain z ones o f t he a ltiplano, t he u sual s ettlement p attern i s o ne o f t emporary t o s emi-permanent s tock c amps. B esides h erding, t here a re o ther m ajor e conomic s trategies i n t he S outh-Central A ndes, s uch a s t rade, h orticulture , a nd/or s mall- o r l arge-scale i rrigation f arming. W ithin t he h igh p una e conomy, t he f ew a rable l ands w ere w orked f or f rost-resistant t uber a nd g rain a griculture ( see T roll 1 958: 1 2; H orkheimer 1 960: 2 ; M urra 1 960, 1 965: 1 88; B rowman 1 974: 1 88 , 1 981, 1 983). I n a ddition , c aravan t rade p ermitted g roups t o e xtend t hemselves g eographically f or t he e xploitation o f d iverse e cological z ones a cross t he p una a nd h igh a ltiplano a nd d own t o t he l ower d eserts, t ropical f orests, a nd c oastal z ones . I n t he l ower d esert r iver v alleys, i rrigation f arming a nd a ccess t o m arine p roducts t hrough t rade w ith l ittoral-based g roups w ere a lso p rimary e conomic a ctivities. I t w as t he c ombination o f t hese d ifferent s trategies o f e conomic p roduction w hich e ventually a llowed S outh-Central A ndean s ocieties t o d evelop a n " agro pastoral" f ood p roduction s ystem ( Yamamoto 1 985: 5 2-55; S alzman 1 969; M urra 1 968), t o p ractice a f lexible e conomic m obility, t o s patially e xtend f rom t he h igh a ltiplano o ver t o t he e astern s lopes o f t he A ndean s elva a nd d own t o t he P acific c oast l ittoral z one, a nd t o d evelop i nto c hiefdoms s uch a s t hose f ound i n l ate p rehispanic P eru a nd B olivia. F or p urposes o f d efining t he p rehispanic e conomic a nd d emographic p attern w hich w e c onsider t o b e m ost c haracteristic o f t he a rea , w e w ill r efer t o a l ifeway o f c ircuit m obility, c entered o n f ixed p aths o f e conomic m obility b etween e cological z ones a nd a xis s ettlements. T hat i s, h erder-caravan s ocieties m oved i n f ixed s piral-like t ranshumance p aths b etween t wo o r m ore a xis s ettlements e ither a long a p una-to-puna v ector , a p una-to-coastal v ector, o r a p una-to-selva v ector ( Fig . 2 ). A k ey f actor h ere i s t hat t he d irection a nd m ovement o f c aravan g roups d epended o n t he c onstraints o f a nimal p opulations a nd o n p roduct e xchange t hrough c aravan t rade a t a xis s ettlements p ositioned a cross t he s ocial a nd n atural l andscape. C ontinuity a nd s tability w as g iven t o t he c ircuit h erder-caravan m ovement b y s ettlements a t b oth e nds o f i ts p athway. F or t his m ovement t o h ave m aintained e quilibrium , i ts p athway m ust h ave b een b alanced b y r elatively h omogeneous f ixed a xis s ettlements w hich o ffered m ultiple r esources a nd s ervices f rom t heir p articular e cological z one a nd b y f erias ( or f airs) w here g oods w ere e xchanged. T he s emi-sedentary t o s edentary a gricultural s ettlements w ithin t he h erder-caravan p atter i ; o f c ircuit m obility t hus f unctioned t o s erve: 1 )

a s " collection" a nd " drop-off" s ites w hich r eceived p roducts f rom c aravans a nd r edistributed t hem e ither o n a l ocal l evel o r o n ar egional a nd i nterregional l evel b y p assing g oods t o o ther c aravans a rriving f rom o ther d irections; a nd

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2 )

a s l ogistical s upport s tations f or m aintaining t he c aravan ( and c amelid h erds) s o t hat i t c ould p roceed a long i ts s piral p ath.

G iven t hese c onditions, s emi-sedentary t o s edentary s ettlements w ere m erely p oles o f s tability w hich d efined t he p oints o f t ermination a nd d irection o f a c ircuit c aravan m ovement. H ypothetically s peaking, t here w as p robably l ittle s ocio-political h ierarchy a mong t hese a xis s ettlements, y et t hey m ay h ave d iffered i n s ize a nd c omplexity a ccording t o t he n umber a nd " carrying l oads" o f t he c aravans r eceived a nd i n t he d ifferent h abitational s etting o f e ach s ettlement. A s d ifferent e cological z ones b ecame m ore e xtensively p opulated t hrough t ime, c aravan r outes p robably e xpanded i n s ize a nd l ength b etween l arger s ettlements a nd c lusters o f s ettlements i n i mportant h ighland a nd c oastal a reas. A c rucial a spect o f t he a xiom o f a xis s ettlements i s n ot w hat i t s ays a bout c aravan c ircuits; i t i s w hat i t s ays a bout a ll t hings o ther t han c aravan c ircuits. T his a spect i s t he i mplicit a ssumption t hat t he e conomy o f t he S outh-Central A ndes l acked a ny o ther e ffective a lternative t o a c onsistent i nter-zonal m ovement o f d ifferent p roducts b y c aravans a nd , g enerally s peaking , w as a pparently i ncapable e ither e cologically o r c ulturally o f p roducing o ne ( except f or m aritime t rade a long t he c oast). B y t he u se o f f ixed c aravan r outes, o utlying a reas w ere b rought i nto e conomic a nd s ocial s pheres o f e conomic i nteraction a nd w ithin t he r eaches o f t he m ore l argely p opulated c oastal a nd h ighl and r egions. T hese l arger r egions d id n ot d evelop i nto h ighly c entralized p olities o r u rban c entres b ut r ather b ecame " leading c ircuits" i n e conomic a nd s ocial a ffairs. I n t his s ense, t he d evelopment o f c aravans l ed t o i ncreased t rade a nd p roduction o f l ocal g oods a nd t o t he d evelopment o f p eripheral z ones. I n s ome z ones, t he g rowth o f b asic c raft o r f ood s ectors c an b e t raced i n t he m ost d irect w ay t o t he r equirements f or b uilding a nd, e specially, f or m aintaining s ubstantial t rading n etwork s ystems. F urthermore, e ach c ircuit i s s een a s h aving h ad c omplementary m obile ( i.e., t he c aravan) a nd i mmobile ( i.e ., t he s edentary s ettlem ent) s ectors o f t he s ame s ociety p articipating i n y ear-round e conomic p roduction a ctivities. E ach c ircuit w as d istinguished b y i ts o wn t erritory, a nd v ectors o f m ovement b etween a xis s ettlements a nd z ones , c aravan n etwork(s), i mmobile s ettlements, a nd e conomic s pecialization . T he m obile s ector o f e ach n etwork c onnected i t w ith o ther c ircuits . ( This i s n ot t o i mply t hat a ll s edentary s ites i n t he a rea w ere a xis s ettlements d ependent o n c aravan c ircuits, f or i t i s l ikely t hat a f ew t owns a nd v illages p articipated o nly m arginally i n a c aravan t rade n etwork, o r w ere e ngaged i n o ther t ypes o f e conomic o rganization. H owever, t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom a v ast m ajority o f t he s ites s tudied t o d ate s uggests t he p atterning d iscussed h ere.) W ithout g oing i nto d etail, a v iew o f t he g eo-political o rganizat ion o f t he a rea t hrough t ime d oes n ot r eveal a n eat s et o f h ierarchically o rganized i ndependent t erritories, s harply d emarcated f rom o ne a nother a nd e ngaged i n i nter-political r elations a cross w elld rawn f rontiers. I nitially, t he a rea w as p robably o ccupied b y m acrob ands a nd m icro-bands f usioning a nd f issioning d uring d ifferent t imes

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o f t he y ear i n h igh a nd l ow r esource z ones o f p roductivity. O nce a griculture w as e stablished a nd i ncorporated w ithin t he c ircuit, s mall l ocal-level c hiefdoms p robably d eveloped i n r egions p rior t o t he r ise o f T iawanaku. M any c hiefdoms w ere e ventually s ubjected t o t he i nfluence o f t he T iawanaku s ociety. A fter t he d emise o f T iawanaku, s imilar c hiefdoms w ere r e-established. W ith t he e xception o f t he T iawanaku P eriod, t he a rea d oes n ot r eveal a ny o verall d evelopment b y a c entralized p olitical b ody. W hat l t s uggests, p rior t o a nd a fter T iawanaku i nfluence, i s a n i nterlocking n etwork o f s imilar c aravan c ircuits , a gricultural s ettlements, a nd u noccupied z ones, a nd t rade a nd p olitical a nd e conomic t ies, m eeting a t a xis s ettlements o f v arying s ize a nd s trength a t s trategic g eographic p oints o n t he l andscape a nd t hen l aterally s preading t o c onnect w ith o utlying s econdary z ones. T hough o utlying r egions w ere p robably b order a nd o pen l ands b etween s ome z ones, f rontiers w ere p robably n ot c learly d efined l ines b ut c ommunal t ransitional z ones o f m utual c ontact, c ommunication, a nd t ransportation , t hat i s , u ntil t he I nca a rrived.

D evelopmental S cheme o f C ircuit M obility T he d evelopmental s equence h ere i s d escribed b riefly a s f ive o rders o f t emporal-cultural a mplifications w hich f ollow t he P aleoI ndian p ractice o f e xploratory h unting, s hellfish g athering a nd/or p lant c ollecting i n l ocalized e cological z ones e ither i n t he a ltiplano, p una , d esert o asis-valleys o r a long t he P acific c oastline. S ince t he s upporting d ata a nd s ites f or t hese a mplifications h ave b een p rovided i n g reater d etail i n N ( iñez a nd D illehay ( 1979), o nly a s ummary s tatem ent r egarding e ach s equential s tage w ill b e p resented h ere. R eference t o k ey s ites o r e mpirical d ata i s m ade o nly w hen e mphasis i s g iven t o a s pecific p lace o r e vent. F or t he s ake o f c onvenience, e ach p eriod d iscussed i n t erms o f h ighland a nd c oastal a ctivity.

A mplification I : E xploratory o r I nitial ( 8000-1800 B .C .) ( Fig. 3 )

M obility :

A rchaic

i s

P eriod

H ighland A ctivity

b ased

I n t erms o f t he i nitial p eopling o f t he a rea , a ltiplano- a nd p unag roups o ccupied t emporary r ock s helters a nd c aves l ocated i n

s trategic z ones w here s hort s piral h unting a nd g athering p aths w ere m anaged. T he p rimary s ustenance o f t he e arliest h ighlanders w as m ainly g uanaco m eat w ith a l esser d ependence u pon v egetal f ood a nd p ossibly f reshwater f ish a nd s hellfish. D uring t he h ighland w et s eason a nd t he c oastal s ummer s eason, t hese g roups f ollowed g uanaco r outes i n d escendi ng r iver v alleys t o t he c oast t o o btain m arine r esources e ither t hrough e xchange w ith c oastal g roups r esiding I n b ays o r i nlets o f h igh-resource p roductivity o r t hrough d irect e xploitation o f u noccupied , s econdary o r l ow-resource z ones o f p roductivity ( e.g., b eaches, r ocky s horelines). B y 5 000 t o 4 000 B .C ., h ighlanders f rom v arious p una r egions h ad b egun t o m ake r egular, l ong-distance s easonal t reks t o d esignated c oastal p opulations o r t o t heir o wn t emporary b ase c amps i n s econdary z ones a long t he c oast. I t w as d uring t his p eriod t hat a p attern o f l ong-distance t ranshumance b etween t wo o r m ore p una a nd c oastal z ones t ook r oot a nd t hat r egular p roduct e xchange p robably

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o ccurred b etween t he a llied g roups i n e ach z one. B etween 4 000 a nd 2 000 B .C., i ncipient a nimal h usbandry a nd t uber p lant p roduction l ed t o t he r ise o f s emi-sedentary t o s edentary s ettlements i n t he a ltiplano. W ith t he a dvent o f h orticulture c ame s mall c amelid c aravans ( probably u sing t rained g uanaco o r s emi-domesticated c amelids) a nd m ore p ermanent t rade c ircuits b etween a llied a xis s ettlements i n h ighland a nd c oastal z ones. B udding p opulations f rom t hese s ettlements b egan t o o ccupy m arginal p una l ands a s w ell a s f ertile r iver b ottom l ands i n t he d esert b etween t he p una a nd t he c oast.

C oastal A ctivity B y 8 000 B .C., c oastal g roups h ad e stablished i ncipient y ear-round e xploitation o f m arine r esources a long m ajor c oastal i nlets a nd r iver d eltas. H unting, p lant c ollecting, a nd s tone q uarrying i n t he i nterior r iver v alleys w ere s econdary e conomic a ctivities. P roduct e xchange w as e stablished w ith p una g roups w ho t ravelled s easonally t o t he c oast. B y 5 000 t o 4 000 B .C., e conomic c omplementarity b ased o n f ishing , s hellfish c ollecting, h unting, p lant g athering, a nd p roduct e xchange h ad d eveloped a long t he c oast. I ncreased t rade w ith h ighlanders a nd w ith o ther c oastal g roups t o t he n orth a nd s outh r esulted i n e conomic s pecialization i n l ocal m arine a nd t errestrial p roducts a nd b yp roducts. S eed a nd r oot c ultivars, m ost l ikely o btained t hrough t rade w ith h ighlanders o r p ossibly w ith m aritime g roups t o t he n orth i n P eru , a ppeared a nd i ncipient p lant p roduction a nd s edentism d eveloped i n r iver d eltas.

A mplification I I: ( Fig . 4 )

t he

T ransitional o r I nitial M obility ( 1800-900 B .C.)

H ighland A ctivity H ighland h unters a nd h erders b ecame m ore e fficient i n t heir e xploitation o f p una z ones a nd i n t heir d irect p rocurement o f l ocal m arine a nd t errestrial r esources i n z ones o f l ow-resource p roductivity a long t he c oast. ( High-resource p roductivity z ones w ere s till o ccupied b y l ocal c oastal g roups.) S mall a gro-pastoral g roups b egan t o o ccupy p ermanently t he r icher g rasslands a nd f ertile z ones o f t he h ighlands . H ighlanders i ncreased t heir t rade w ith c oastal g roups f or c ertain m arine p roducts f ound i n l ittle a bundance i n t he s econdary c oastal z ones. S mall y ear-round a gricultural s ettlements a ppeared i n t he p una , a nd l ong-distance t rade c aravans w ere f ormed b y h ighlanders. I ncreased c ontact a nd t rade a mong d ifferent a ltiplano g roups a lso o ccurred. A lthough t he a rchaeological e vidence i s c urrently l acking, i t i s l ikely t hat a s imilar p attern o f t rade a nd c ontact o ccurred b etween a ltiplano g roups a nd g roups o ccupying t he t ropical s lopes o f t he e astern A ndean m ountains. S mall g roups o f h ighlanders c ontinued t o m igrate t o t he c oast d uring t he h ighland w et s eason. T here w as a n i ncrease i n c aravan t raffic a nd e xchange o f g oods b etween c oastal g roups l iving i n t he m ore a griculturally p roductive r iver d eltas a nd l arge b ays o n t he c oast a nd t he i ncoming h ighland g roups.

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S pecialized t rade c aravans w ere f ormed b etween h ighland a nd c oastal a reas, h ighlanders i ncreased t heir r econnaissance a nd e xplorat ion o f i ntermediary a nd m arginal v alleys a nd o ases. A dditional t rade r outes w ere e stablished b etween s ettlements i n a ltiplano, p una, a nd s ub-puna z ones a nd b etween e ach o f t hese a nd c oastal z ones. S imilar k inds o f e conomic d evelopments w ere t aking p lace b etween t he h ighlands a nd z ones f arther e ast i n t he s elva a s w ell a s f arther n orth i n t he C entral A ndes. T he a ltiplano b ecame a c entral n ode w here m any o f t he h igher a ltitude a xis s ettlements w ere l ocated o r w here m any t rade c aravan r outes c onverged. I n a ddition t o h unting, p lant c ollecting, a nd c amelid p astoralism , a ltiplano a griculture o f a v ariety o f t uber a nd s eed p lants b ecame a n e conomic s upplement p rior t o t he d istribution o f t ropical c ultivars.

C oastal A ctivity C oastal g roups o ccupying t he m ore p roductive r iver m ouths a nd l ower o asis-like v alleys f ormed p ermanent a xis v illages b ased o n e conomic s pecialization a nd t rade. A g reater a mount a nd a w ider v ariety o f b oth h ighland a nd t ropical c ultivars w ere b rought i n b y c aravan t rade. D uring t he i nitial p hase o f t his p eriod, a t ripartite e conomy b ased o n m arine, a gricultural, a nd t rade e lements c haracterized t he c oast. A gricultural a xis s ettlements d eveloped i n t he d esert o ases b etween t he h ighland a nd t he c oast, r esulting i n s horter c aravan r outes b etween d istant s ettlements.

A mplification I II: A .D .) ( Fig. 5 )

P re-Tiawanaku P roductive M obility

( 900

B .C.

-

5 00

T his p eriod i s c haracterized b y an otable p opulation i ncrease a nd d emographic s pread o f s ettlements i nto t he p una a nd a long t he c oast. B y 9 00 B .C., m any r egional p opulations p rovided d iverse p roducts f rom d ifferent e cological z ones o f t he p una, t he d esert o ases, a nd t he c oast a nd p articipated i n t he c ircuit m obility o f s pecialized t rade c aravans.

H ighland A ctivity A s m ore s ettlements a ppeared i n t he p una a nd o ther z ones, c aravan r outes w ere i ncreased i n n umber a nd d ecreased i n d istance t o a ccommodate al arger c arrying l oad r esulting f rom p opulation i ncrease a nd f rom t he i ncorporation o f n ew h interlands i nto t he m ultiple c aravan c ircuits. A lso, c omplementary a xis s ettlements d eveloped a long s trategic p oints o f c aravan c ircuits s tretched a cross b oth h ighland a nd l owland z ones. D uring t he l atter p art o f t his p eriod, m ajor s ettlements i n B olivia, C hile, a nd s outhern P eru b egan t o c oncentrate t heir c aravan t rade t oward t he L ake T iticaca a rea b ecause o f i ts c entral g eographical l ocation a nd p roductive a gricultural a nd p astoral e conomies. T here w as a lso i ncreased c ontact a nd t rade w ith g roups i n s outhern P eru, i n n orthwest A rgentina , a nd o n t he e astern s lopes o f t he A ndes. D ue t o t he e xpansion o f h uman p opulations i nto m arginal e cological a reas o f t he i ntermediate d esert, c aravan r outes b ecame s horter a nd m ore

6 15

i nter-

s ite a lliances w ere e stablished.

C oastal A ctivity C oastal-highland c o-residence c ontinued i n z ones o f h igh p roductivity a long t he c oast.

A mplification I V : C onvergence a t T iawanaku ( Fig. T imes ( A.D . 5 00-1400) ( Fig. 7 )

r esource

6 ) a nd P ost-Tiawanaku

B y A .D. 2 00-500, t he u rban c haracter o f t he T iawanaku s ettlement a nd t he r egional e conomic a nd r eligious i mportance o f t he L ake T iticaca B asin w ere e stablished ( see P once 1 971, 1 972; B rowman 1 981; K olata 1 985). T he e mergence o f T iawanaku a s a c onglomerate n ode o f c onverging r egional c aravan n etworks c ontributed t oward t he d evelopment o f t he s outhern L ake T iticaca r egion i nto a l eading e conomic c enter f or l ongd istance c aravan c ircuits s erving v arious r egions t hroughout s outhern P eru, n orthern C hile, B olivia, a nd n orthwest A rgentina. T o d escribe s ome o f t he m ajor e vents a nd c ircumstances w hich l ed t o t his c onvergence a t T iawanaku, f rom t he p erspective o f t he w estern a nd s outhern h interlands, i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider b riefly t he r eciprocal r elationships b etween c aravan g rowth, e conomic s pecializat ion, a nd r eligion d uring t he i nitial p hase o f t his p eriod. P rior t o t he r ise o f T iawanaku, r egional i ntegration h ad p robably b een a chieved t hrough t he e stablishment o f s ocial a nd e conomic a lliances b etween m ajor r egions. A reas s uch a s A tacama ( Fig . 6 , 2 ) a nd A rica A zapa i n n orthern C hile ( Fig. 6 , A rica a rea) a nd H uamachaca a nd f arther s outh i n A rgentina ( Fig. 6 , 1 7) w ere c haracterized b y n umerous a nd d iverse e cological z ones, d ense h uman p opulations, a nd m ajor a xis s ettlements s erving c aravan c ircuits. M any s ettlements i n t hese r egions h ad d eveloped i nto c enters o f a gricultural p roduction , c raft s pecialization, a nd r eligious f estivals p rior t o t he r ise o f T iawanaku . O nce T iawanaku h ad d eveloped a s am ajor e conomic s ettlement a nd b egan t o a ttract m ore c aravan t rade, i t b egan t o e stablish c olonies i n u npopulated h interlands a nd a lliances w ith d istant p opulations i n o rder t o c oordinate a nd i nfluence i nterregional e conomic a nd r eligious a ffairs. W ith t he g rowth o f T iawanaku a s a c entral a xis s ettlement r eceiving a nd d istributing g oods f or c ounterpart a xis s ettlements i n t he h interlands, t here w as a n i ncreased n eed f or m ore T iawanaku-related p restigious g oods, p articularly r eligious p araphernalia, t o e nter t he c aravan t rade. B rowman ( 1981: 4 19) h as c ommented o n t he d istribution o f t hese g oods a t r egional s ites. " The p resence o f t his a ssemblage ( ritual g oods) i s t he m ost f requent m ark o f T iawanaku i nfluence i n t he a rea , b ut t he p attern o f d istribut ion i s f ar d ifferent f rom t hat o f T iawanaku r eligious a rtifacts s pread b y W ari c onquest i n P eru , w here t he b ase a ssemblage s eems t o h ave b een i mperially d ecreed. E ach s eparate c enter i n B olivia,

C hile,

a nd A rgentina e xhibits

6 16

a

u nique

a ssemblage o f T iawanaku m aterial; e ach t own a ppears t o h ave c reated a n a ssemblage a ppropriate t o l ocal r eligious p ractices b y s electing c omponents f rom i tinerant T iawanaku c aravan t raders, w ho a lso s upplied o ther m iscellaneous g oods ( see B rowman 1 978)".

T he d egree t o w hich T iawanaku-influenced r eligion a nd c ommerce s erved a s a n i ntegrative m echanism i n t he S outh-Central A ndes i s u nclear. P rior t o t he r ise o f T iawanaku, m any r itual i tems, s uch a s s nuff t ablets, p recious s tones, s culpture, a nd e ffigy c eramics, w ere f avoured t rade c ommodities. B eginning a round A .D. 4 00-500, a b asic T iawanaku a rt s tyle, w ith w idely v arying d esign m otifs, a ppeared o n t hese a nd o ther l ocal g oods a t s elected s ites t hroughout t he a rea. T he s elective p resence o f a s ingle, h eterogeneous a rt s tyle i n t he c onspicuous a bsence o f T iawanaku-related a rchitecture a nd t own-planning s uggests t hat T iawanaku i nfluence w as n ot e stablished b y m eans o f a c entralized, s tate-directed r eligious f orce. I t i s m ost l ikely t hat t his i nfluence s pread b y m eans o f a p revious r eligious o rder. T his o rder, w hich w as s hared b y s ettlements a nd p reviously n urtured t hrough t he e xchange o f r itual g oods, a pparently f ound a r eligious-commercial h ub a t T iawanaku t hrough w hich i t w as p roselytized. T hrough i ts s phere o f a ctivity a nd i nfluence T iawanaku p rovided a ccess t o n ew a nd d iverse f inished p roducts, p rimarily i n t he f orm o f r itual i deology a nd a w ider s election o f r itual p araphernalia. B y a round A .D . 6 00, r egional c aravans w ere a ttracted a nd b ound t ogether t o f orm a t heocratic b arnacle a t T iawanaku w hich e ventually m oved r eligion i nto a f ocal c enter a nd a ffirmed c ommercial a nd r eligious e xchange a nd t hus a ffirmed o utlying r egions. ( Judging f rom t he d iverse T iawanaku i conographic s tyles f ound o n g oods f rom s ites t hroughout t he a rea , t he o fficial c redo o f t his r eligious o rder m ight h ave b een f enotheistic, t he i dea t hat d ifferent d eities g uided t he r eligion. A f enotheistic t endency m ight h ave d eveloped a s o ne d eity a ssumed a c ommanding p osition f or a l imited t ime o r i n a s pecific r egion.) L ittle i s k nown a bout t he t ype a nd l evel o f p olitical o rganization i n t he r egion d uring t his p eriod. E ven l ess i s k nown o f f riction b etween d ifferent p opulations. T he p resence o f d efensive a rms a nd a s pecial d edication t o t he p roduction o f m ace-head w eapons s uggest a p reparatory s tate o f p ara-military a ctivities i n S an P edro d c A tacama. T his e vidence m ight s ignal t ension b etween u nequally d eveloped i nterm ediate o r m arginal t erritories. O n t he o ther h and, t he a bsence o f f ortresses o r d efensive w alls a t a xis s ettlements s uggests t hat l ittle o r n o i ntensive a nd w ide-spread a rmed c onflict p robably o ccurred. T o f urther u nderstand t he s ocio-economic i nfluence o f T iawanaku i n t he a rea, w e w ill r eview b riefly i ts a ctivity i n r egions t o t he w est a nd s outh.

C hilean a nd B olivian P unas a nd t he P acific C oast D uring t he a pproximate t ime s pan A .D . 5 00 t o 1 200 , T iawanaku i nfluence l ed t o i ncreased e conomic c ooperation a nd p olitical a lliances b etween t he u rban a reas o f s outhern P eru a nd t he a gro-pastoral

6 17

s ocieties i n t he L ake T iticaca r egion a nd i n p arts o f t he r est o f h ighl and B olivia a nd n orthwest A rgentina. A griculturally b ased u rban s ettlements, w ith l arge p opulations a nd e xtensive t rade n etworks i n P eru, a ttracted t rade f rom t he s outhern r egions b y p roviding c omp lementary a nd d iverse p roducts a nd s ervices. T he m echanisms o f T iawanaku i nfluence i n t hese t erritories a re n ot w ell u nderstood. T iawanaku m ight h ave e xerted i nfluence o n e xisting a xis s ettlements t o e xtend l ateral c aravan r outes t o s ettlements i n i solated o r m arginal l ands o r t o s end c olonies t o e stablish n ew s ettlem ents i n t hese l ands. F or i nstance, t here i s e vidence t o s uggest t hat a n a ltiplano c olony f rom T iawanaku w as e stablished a t t he e xisting A lto R amirez s ite ( and o ther s ites) i n t he l ower A zapa V alley i n e xtreme n orthern C hile t o e xploit d irectly r esources i n c oastal a nd i nterior d esert z ones ( e.g., R ivera 1 975; M ujica 1 985). T here i s n o d irect a rchaeological e vidence t o i ndicate t hat t his T iawanaku-related c olony p olitically c ontrolled t he A zapa V alley, h owever. R ather, i t i s l ikely t hat c olonies s uch a s A zapa a nd o thers, c o-habitated a nd e stablished e conomic r elations w ith l ocal p opulations . I n t his r egard , B rowman 's a lliance p artner o r K olata 's c lientage-patron m odels a re p robably a pplicable. W hatever t he m echanisms w ere, a p attern o f i nterregional c onvergence o f c aravan n etworks, w hich w as f orming p rior t o t he a ppearance o f T iawanaku, a pparently r eceived i ts f inal i mpetus f rom t he i ncreased t rade t hat o ccurred b etween u rban a reas i n P eru a nd c aravans i n t he S outh-Central A ndes. D iverse s ettlements l ocated a t t he e dge o f t he s outhern P eruvian p una a nd c oastal d esert a nd t he n orthern C hilean a nd B olivian p unas d eveloped i nto c onverging s eats o f l ocal p ower, e ach o f w hich c ontrolled o utlying s maller a xis s ettlements i nterconnected b y s hort-distance c aravan c ircuits, a ll c oordinated a nd i nfluenced b y T iawanaku.

T iawanaku

-

A tacama O asis

-

V alleys o f N orthwest A rgentina

T he a rchaeological e vidence s uggests t hat p rior t o a ny c onvergence w ith t he L ake T iticaca r egion S an P edro d e A tacama s erved a s a n i ntermediary a xis s ettlement p roviding c omplementary r esource e xchange b etween t he h igher p unas o f C hile, B olivia , a nd n orthwest A rgentina a nd t he l ower t ransitional d esert z ones a nd t he P acific c oastline. I n p reT iawanaku t imes, S an P edro d e A tacama h ad a chieved a h igh l evel o f i nterregional c onvergence o f c aravan t rade a nd h ad p rovided s ocioe conomic f unctions o n ar egional l evel s imilar t o t hose t hat T iawanaku w as p roviding i n t he L ake T iticaca r egion. S ometime b etween A .D. 4 00-600, T iawanaku b egan t o a ttract S an P edro-based c aravans t o T iawanaku. A s a c onverging c enter T iawanaku h ad t he o rganizational m eans a nd t he a ccess t o d iverse r aw p roducts f rom d ifferent e cological z ones t o p rovide a w ide-range o f f inished c rafts f or r egional c entres l ike S an P edro. W ith i ts g rowing r ole a s t he c entral a xis s ettlement a nd s pecialized p roducer a nd p rovider o f i deo-religious p araphernalia , T iawanaku w as g radually p atronized b y m ajor c aravan c ircuits i n t he A tacama a nd s urrounding r egions t hat c onverged o n i t.

6 18

A s a r esult o f i ncreased c ontact a nd t rade w ith T iawanaku, S an P edro e ventually b ecame i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f a nd e xchange f or s pecialized c raft g oods ( e.g., w ood p roducts, s nuff t ablets, a nd s emip recious s tones). L arge s tocks o f w ooden s nuff t ablets a nd s poons e xhibiting t he T iawanaku s tyle h ave b een f ound a t s ites i n S an P edro, s uggesting t hat t he r egion s erved a s a p oint o f p roduction a nd r edistribution o f r itual a nd o ther g oods f or s ettlements l ocated f arther w est a nd s outh, a nd e specially a s am ultiplier o f t he T iawanaku p atrimony i n s uch f ertile t erritories a s n orthwest A rgentina. I t i s n ot k nown i f T iawanaku c olonies w ere e stablished i n S an P edro.

D emise o f T iawanaku I nfluence A pproximately a round A .D. 1 000 t o 1 200, a r egional f lorescent p eriod d eveloped i n t he S outh-Central A ndes w hich w as c haracterized b y d iminished c ontact w ith T iawanaku . T hose s ites w hich h ad p reviously s erved a s i mportant r egional c enters w ithin t he T iawanaku s phere o f i nfluence n ow b ecame r egionally i ndependent a xis s ettlements. T he c aravan r outes a nd t he s ocio-economic r elationships b etween a xis s ettlements i n i ntermediate a nd m arginal l ands d id n ot c hange. I t i s o nly t hat t he T iawanaku r eligious-commercial a ffiliation c eased t o f unction. F urther, c ommunities o f t he L ake T iticaca r egion c onc entrated t heir c aravan t rade o n am ore r egional b asis b ut w ith a c ontinuation o f t rade w ith d esert a nd c oastal z ones o f s outhern P eru a nd n orthern C hile. W e o ffer n o n ew e xplanation f or t he r ise o r d emise o f T iawanaku. T he s ettlement p artially d eveloped a s a r esult o f c onverging l ocal a nd n on-local e conomic f orces a nd t he e xplanation o f " deconvergence" i s p robably r ooted i n u nderstanding b oth t he d emise o f W ari a nd t he e vents t hat t ook p lace i n t he p oorly u nderstood r egions o f B olivia ( Kolata 1 985, 1 987), s outhern P eru, a nd t he e astern s lopes o f t he C entral a nd S outh-Central A ndes. N ear t he e nd o f t his p eriod, a nd u ntil t he I nca o ccupation, t here w as a n e mergence o f a utonomous , l ocal, a nd r egional c hiefdoms. S horter, c ondensed r outes w ere f ormed ( Fig. 7 ), a nd s ome a rmed c onflict b etween l ocal c hiefs i s e videnced b y t he p resence o f f ortresses a s e conomic c ompetition e ventually g ave r ise t o c onflict o ver a ccess t o m ajor r esource z ones c aravan r outes a nd k ey a gricultural s ettlements.

A mplification V :

I nca O ccupation c a. A .D.

1 450-1525)

L ike T iawanaku , t he I ncaic p attern o f u rbanism a nd h erder-caravan m obility t ook a dvantage o f t he p re-existing a griculture s ettlements a nd c aravan n etworks t o d ominate k ey r egions o f t he S outh-Central A ndes w ithout p lacing a h eavy c oercive p ressure o n a ll l ocal p opulations. A lthough t here I s l ittle e vidence o f s trong I nca c ontrol i n t he a rea, t he I nca d id e stablish d irect c ontrol o ver p opulations o ccupying v alleys s outh o f t he A tacama p una ( e.g., L a S erana a nd f arther c entral C hile, s ee F ig. 8 ) w here a s trong d ependence o n a nd c onnection w ith t he h erder-caravan n etwork d id n ot e xist. A t t he t ime o f t he S panish a rrival, a m osaic p attern o f s mall t o l arge e thnic g roups ( Fig. 8 ), m ost o f w hich w ere o rganized o n a c hiefdom-level o f s ociety , w as u nder

6 19

d ifferential c ontrol o f t he I nca .

D iscussion a nd C onclusions C entral t o o ur r econstruction o f t he c ultural d evelopment o f t he p rehistory o f t he S outh-Central A ndes i s t he h istorical a nd d emographic r elationship b etween m obile a nd s edentary s egments o f h uman p opulat ions. I n t he C entral A ndes t he o rganizational p ath t o m ore c omplex s ocio-political a nd e conomic d evelopment w as g enerally g ained b y w elld emarcated h ierarchical d ominant-subordinate r elationships a nd a m ore c entralized a uthoritative n etwork, a nd b y am uch s tronger a gricultural e conomy. T he d evelopmental p ath i n t he S outh-Central A ndes s hows l ess c entralized s ocial a nd e conomic r elationships. T he o ne m ajor e xception w as t he T iawanaku c ulture w hich e xerted e xtensive c ommercial a nd r eligious i nfluence o ver m ost o f t he a rea . C ertainly o ther s ocieties m ust h ave a ttempted t o e xpand t heir i nfluence, f or i nstance, b y m ilitary c onquest o r b y e conomic p rowess, t o n eighbouring t erritories a nd t hus t o l ay t he f oundations f or t he p olitical a nd e conomic o rganization t ypical o f t he C entral A ndean s tates. C urrent e vidence, h owever, s hows t hat t he a rea w as n ever f ully u nified p olitically, n ot e ven d uring T iawanaku t imes . P erhaps o ne k ey f actor, c oupled w ith l imited a gricultural l and, w hich p revented t he b irth o f a c entralized s tate s ystem i n t he S outhC entral A ndes a nd p rovided f or i nterregional s ocial a nd e conomic c ohesion, w as t he m obility i nherent i n a h erder-caravan l ifeway a nd t he r elatively d ecentralized g eographic a nd c ultural r elation o f a gricultural s ettlements t o o ne a nother a nd t o m obile s ectors o f r egional p opulations. S ince a gricultural s ettlements i n t he S outhC entral A ndes a re r elatively s mall a nd m ore g eographically d ispersed i n c omparison w ith t hose i n t he C entral A ndes ( Nf lez a nd D illehay 1 979: 1 -20), t hen a ttempts t here a t c entralization w ould u nderstandably h ave i ncurred c ertain o bvious l ogistical p roblems. I ntegration, n ot c entralization, w as a chieved i n t he S outh-Central A ndes b y p articipati ng i n am ultiple, c omplementary h erder-caravan c ircuitry. W hat l inked t he c aravan t rade a nd m ade i t w ork w as g roup a ccess t o a nd p articipat ion i n ah armonious a nd c ohesive e xchange s ystem t hat d istributed d iverse g oods a nd s ervices f rom d ifferent c ological z ones a cross t he A ndean l andscape. ( To d ate, v ery l ittle o r n o a rchaeological e vidence o f w arfare h as b een f ound i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, a lthough m ention i s m ade o f c onflict i n t he e thnohistorical d ocumentation . ,) A rchaeologically s peaking , w e w ould e xpect t his p attern t o b e r epresented b y m ultiple, o r " partner", a xis s ettlements w hich c omprise p arts o f am obile s ubsistence-settlement p attern. W e w ould a lso e xpect t o f ind n umerous s ettlements e xhibiting m ixed l owland a nd h ighland m aterial t raits i ndicative o f c o-residence a nd e xchange p oints o f i nterregional g oods. S uch s ites h ave b een f ound t hroughout t he a rea ( see N ( iñez a nd D illehay 1 979). I t i s a lso l ikely t hat o ther a rrangements e xisted, b ut t hey h ave n ot y et b een d etected i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. I n t urning t o ab rief a ssessment o f o ur m odel, i t i s s omewhat i nconsistent w ith t hose o f t he v erticality, a ltiplano m ode, c onquest,

6 20

c olonization, a nd c lientage m odels, b ut i t c an b e p artially r econciled w ith t hem. W e h ave p ointed o ut t hat v erticality w as p robably i n o peration i n t he S outh-Central A ndes, b ut o nly a t s pecific t imes , i n s pecific p laces, b y s pecific s ocieties, s uch a s t hat o f T iawanaku c olonies o n t he c oast o f s outhern P eru a nd n orthern C hile. O ur b asic d eparture f rom t he v erticality m odel i s, h owever, t hat w e d o n ot s ee t he m obile s egments o f a ny g iven p opulation a s h aving b een " sent o ut" o r c ontrolled b y s edentary " nucleus" s egments o f t hat s ame p opulation. W e s ee t he r everse s ituation i n t he S outh-Central A ndes, w hereby t he s edentary ( or a xis) s ettlements o f t he p opulation w ere m aintained ( and o ften c reated) a nd c ontrolled b y t he m obile s ectors . T hese s ettlements g ave s tability t o t he e conomy b y p roviding p redictable e xtra s ources o f p roduce, j ust a s t he c olonists p rovided f or t he n ucleus z ones. I n c ontrasting t he B rowman a nd K olata m odels w ith o urs, w e n ote t hat e ach o f u s v iews t he S outh-Central A ndes f rom d ifferent d ata s ets a nd d ifferent v ariables. B rowman a nd K olata d epart f rom t he s outhern L ake T iticaca a rea , s pecifically f rom t he T iawanaku s ite, w here t heir d ata a re m ost a bundant . B oth a uthors c ontrol l ess d ata o n o utlying o r p eripheral a reas f arther s outh. S pecifically, B rowman i nterprets t he a rea p rimarily f rom a c ommerce-religious m odel, f ocusing o n l lama c aravan t rade a nd p astoralism , w hile K olata c oncentrates o n a griculture, t rade, a nd p olitical a nd e conomic a llegiance. O ur m odel, o n t he o ther h and, r elies m ainly o n d emographic a nd s ettlement p atterns c oncerning t he r elations b etween c ircuitry c aravan t rade a nd a gricultural s ettlements. Am ajor d ifference i n o ur m odel i s t hat i t i s h istorical a nd i t v iews d evelopments f rom a b roader g eographic a nd c ultural b ase, w hile B rowman a nd, e specially, K olata a re l ess h istorical-oriented a nd m ore a ltiplano-specific. M oreover,

w e h ave n ot a ttempted t o d eal w ith a ll a spects

o f

t he

d emographic p atterns . F or e xample, w e h ave n ot c onsidered a t l ength t he p ossible r esults o f s ettlement d ensities i n s ome o f t he t erritories i n q uestion a t c ertain p eriods o f t ime. R ather, w e h ave b een i nterested p rimarily i n o ne p henomenon t hat d id e xist t he g eographic e xpansion a nd d evelopment o f c aravan a nd a xis s ettlements a cross v ariable e cological z ones. Y et o bviously t he p ossibility o f t emporary r eversals, w hen c aravan d istances a nd n umbers d ecreased f or o ne r eason o r a nother, m ust b e c onsidered. W e a lso v iew t he d evelopment o f a griculture a nd v illages a s a s pur t oward i mprovement o f s ubsistence a nd, i ndeed, t rade; t hese, b y p roviding d rop-off p oints a nd f ood c rops -

a s t rade i tems. Y et, i t w ould n ot b e w ell t o c onsider t hat i nternal a gricultural d evelopment i s t he o nly s pur t o c aravan e xpansion, f or i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t rade c ontacts w ith r egional c ultures i n P eru a nd o ther a reas w ere a lso i mportant. N evertheless, w hatever t heir i mportance i n t he l ater d evelopmental s equences, e specially a fter t he g rowth o f s uch r egional a xis s ettlements a s S an P edro d e A tacama , t hey w ould h ardly h ave b een r elevant i n t he i nitial s tage o f t he h erderc aravan f ormative s equence w hen t he m omentum f or g rowth w as t he p roduct o f g roups s triving f or s elf-sufficiency b y e xploiting d iverse a nd d istant e cological z ones. I n

c onclusion ,

w e

d o n ot v iew t he p rocesses

o perating

i n

t he

S outh-Central A ndes d uring t hese n early t en m illennia i n t erms o f a n u rban a gricultural m odel, b ut r ather i n t erms o f a l ong-term s tability o f a c ommensurate r elationship w ith t he c amelids a nd a c ombined m obile-

6 21

s edentary l ifeway. O ur i nterpretation o f t he o f l inear d evelopment b y w hich p eople a dapted l imited c onditions p rovided b y c amelids , c rop r esources. W hile u ndoubtedly t here w as l ess d evelopment, t here w as a p rogression i n s ocial, h armony a nd c omplexity.

p rehistory s hows a k ind t o t he r ather n arrowly p roduction, a nd m arine u rban a nd a gricultural p olitical, a nd c ultural

I n t he s ense t hat w e b elieve t he c hanges i nvolved i n t he f ormation o f a h erder-caravan s ociety r esulted p rimarily f rom m odifications o f a nd a dditions t o a p revious s ocio-economic p attern o f a dvanced f oraging b uilt u p d uring t he P aleo-Indian a nd A rchaic p eriods, w e a gree w ith B rowman ( 1973; 1 974: 1 88) t hat a " distinctive t rait o f l lama a nd a lpaca p astoralism i s t hat i t i s i ntegrated i nto a nd g enerally m aintains t he s tructure o f t he h unting a nd g athering e cosystem i nto w hich i t I s I ntroduced." B ut w e w ould a lso i nsist o n t he e xternal f actors a s w ell ( as d oes B rowman) I n o ur c ase, t he m odification o f t he e nvironment b y e xtra-cultural f orces w hich m ight h ave p ermitted t his i nitial s ituation t o a rise. W e c annot s uggest t hat i mportant e nvironmental c hanges m ight h ave t riggered t he d evelopmental p rocess o f ah erder-caravan s ociety, f or t here i s p resently n o e vidence t o s upport i t. Y et, s ince w e a re a dvocating t he i dea t hat t he d emographic a rrangement o f i ntegrated c amelId, c aravan, a nd a gricultural p opulat ions i s a n i mportant a spect o f h uman a daptation a nd s ocio-economic d evelopment, t hen e nvironmental c hanges w hich m ight h ave a ffected, f or e xample, t he d istribution a nd a vailability o f w ater a nd p asturage h ave t o b e l eft o pen f or c onsideration i n t he f uture. -

-

6 22

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bennett, W.C. 1934. Excavations at Tiahuanaco. American Museum of Natural History Anthropological Papers. 34 (part 3): 359-494. New York. Bennett, W.C. 1953. Excavations at Wari, Ayacucho, Peru. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, No. 49. New Haven. Browman, D.L. 1973. Pastoral models among the Huanca of Peru prior to the Spanish Conquest. Relaciones Antropol6gicas. 1: 40-44. Browman, D.L. 1974. Pastoral Nomadism in the Andes. Anthropology 15: 188-196.

Current

Browman, D.L. 1978. Toward the Development of the Tiahuanaco (Tiawanaku) State. In Advances in Andean Archaeology, D. Browman, ed., pp. 327-349. Mouton, The Hague, The Netherlands. Browman, D.L. 1981. 69: 408-419.

New Light on Andean Tiawanaku.

American Scientist

Craig, A. 1984. Paleoambiente durante el preceramico nor-chileno: de imagenes Landsat. Chungara .13: 93-98. Arica, Chile. Dillehay, T. 1987. Review of Ecology and Civilization: An Inter­ disciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity. Masuda, I. Shimada, and C. Morris (eds.). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. American Antiquity 52 (3): 648-650.

uso

S.

Gonzalez, A. Rex, 1985. Cincuenta Anos de Arqueologia del Noreste Argentino (1930-1980): Apuntes de un Casi Testigo y Algo de Protagonista. American Antiquity 50 (3): 505-517. Horkheimer, H. 1960. Alimentaci6n y obtenci6n de alimentos en el Peru prehispanico. Universidad Nacional de San Marcos. Lima, Peru. Kolata, A. 1983. The South Andes. In Ancient South Americans, J. Jennings, ed., 241-284, W.R. Freeman & Company, San Francisco. Kolata, A. 1985. El papel de la Agricultura Intensiva en la Economia Politica del Estado de Tiawanaku. Dialogo Andino 4: 11-38. Universidad de Tarapaca, Arica.

623

K olata , A . 1 987. 3 6-41.

T iawanaku a nd i ts H interland.

A rchaeology 4 0 ( 1):

L arco H oyle, R . 1 948. C ronologia A rqueológica d el N orte d el P eru . H acienda C hielin, T rujillo, P eru . L umbreras, L .G . 1 960 . L a c ultura d e W an , A yacucho. E tnologla y A rQueoiogla d e l a U niversidad N acional M ayor d e S an M arcos. I : 1 30-226. L ima, P ent . L umbreras, L .G . 1 974. L os r einos p ost-Tiwanaku e n e i A rea a ltipi nica. R evista d el M useo N acional X L : 5 5-86 . L ima , P eru.

M enzel, D .

1 958.

P roblemas e n e i E studio d el H orizonte M edia d e l a

A rqueologia P eruana . 2 4-57. I ca, P eru. M enzel, D . 1 964. 4 : 7 7-144.

R evista d el M useo R egional d e I ca 9 ( 10):

S tyle a nd T ime i n t he M iddle H orizon. N awpa P acha . I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies . B erkeley.

M ujica, E . 1 985. A ltiplano-Coast R elationships i n t he S outh-Central A ndes : F rom I ndirect t o D irect C omplementarity. I n A ndean E cology a nd C ivilization , S . M asuda, I . S himada, a nd C . M orris, e ds., p p. 1 03-140 . U niversity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo. M urra, J . 1 960. R ite a nd C rop i n t he I nca s tate. I n C ulture i n H istory. S . D iamond, e d ., p p . 3 93-407. N ew Y ork . M urra , J . 1 965. H erds a nd H erders i n t he I nca S tate. I n M an , C ulture, a nd A nimals, p p . 1 85-216 . A merican A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience, W ashington, D .C . M urra, J . 1 51.

1 968 .

A n A ymara K ingdom i n 1 567.

E thnohistory 1 5 ( 2):

1 15-

M urra , J . 1 972. E l ' Control V ertical' d e u n Mximo d e P isos E cológicos e n l a E conomia d e l as S ociedades A ndinas. E n V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H u nuco ( 1567), I f ligo O rtiz d e Z ( if liga, I I, p p. 429-476. U niversidad H ermilio V aldizân , H u nuco, P eru. M urra, J . 1 985. " El A rchipielago V ertical" R evisted. I n A ndean E cology a nd C ivilization , S . M asuda, I . S himada , a nd C . M orris , e ds., p p. 3 -13. U niversity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo.

N i iñez, L . 1 976 . G eoglifos y t r fico d e c aravanas e n e i d esierto c hileno". H omenaje a l D r. G ustavo L e P aige, U niversidad d el N orte , p p . 1 48-202 . A ntofagasta , C hile .

6 24

N ( iñez, L . a nd T .D . D illehay, 1 979. M obilidad G iratoria A rmonia S ocial yD esaroilo E n L os A ndes M eridionales : P atrones D e T r fico E I nteracci6n E con6mica ( Ensayo). U niversidad D el N orte, A ntofagasta , C hile .

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T iwanaku:

e spacio,

t iempo y c uitura.

L a P az,

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A merica

R ivera , M . 1 975. U na h ipótesis s obre m ovimientos p oblacionales a ltipianicas y t ransaltipianicas e n l as c ostas d el f orte d e C hile. C hungara 5 : 7 -31. A rica.

S alzman , P . 1 969. M ultiple r esource n omadism i n I ranian B aluchistan. P aper p resented a t t he A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropol ogical A ssociation.

T roll, C . 1 931. D ie g eographische G rundlager d er A ndinen k ulteren u nd d es i nka r eiches . I bero-Amerikanisches A rchiv . T . 5 , A lemania . T roll, C . 1 958. L as c ulturas s uperiores a ndinas y e i m edio g eogrefico. R evista d el I nstituto d e G eograf I a 5 : 3 -55 . L ima, P eru.

U hie , M . 1 920 . L os P rincipios d e L as A ntiguas C ivilizaciones P eruanas. B oletin d e l a S ociedad E cuatoriana d e E studios l istóricos A mericanos . 4 : 4 48-458 . Q uito.

W illey, G . 1 972. A n I ntroduction t o A merican A rchaeology. S outh A merica . P rentice-Hall, I nc. N ew J ersey.

V ol.

I I.

Y amamoto, N . 1 985. T he E cological C omplementarity o f A gro-Pastoralism : S ome C omments . I n A ndean E cology a nd C ivilization , S . M asuda , I . S himada, a nd C . M orris, e ds., p p. 8 5-100 . U niversity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo.

6 25

C r oss

S ect ion

AR ICA

PA CI FI C

01

C C EA N

ECOLOG ICAL A

ED

ZONAT ION

N o r the rn T ransve rsa l D ese r t V o l le y D ry P una N o rma l P una P a ra rno S lopes T rop i c a l R an F o res t

B ED C D EJ E ZM F ED G Ef l

S ub t rop ica l P aromo P una ( Sa lt L akes )

H

S ou the rn T ransversa l

T ALTAL

I N i

V a l leys

( S em i-Dese r t B rush ) I J K

Moun tor rous S teppe D eser t S teppe a nd B ushes

ED

A r id

P una O ases o f A tacama S oI ar e n S ERENA

F ig.

1 .

E cological Z onation o f S outh-Central A ndes.

6 27

T ranshumance p attern o f h erder-caravan s ocieties .

)

6 28

(

Lok.

/

0

/

?t ,CQCQ

AR ICA

T ALTAL

ARCHA IC MOB IL ITY I N IT IAL EXPLORAT ION ( B000-I800 BC ) C S u lu ies SU, EN . -

F ig.

3 .

A rchaic P eriod m obility:

-

-

-

-

‚

I nitial e xploration,

6 29

.

.

( 8000-1800 B C).

‚ ‚

‚

Q , / ' 1 / of

5 3 1

1

PACI FI C OCEA N

I N :T I Q . ; .OB IL ITY U OO- 9)O SC . ) T ,k , 2 3

i t

W60BCl i c ) 6 40 B C

lupucu ( 900UC )

2 50k. . .

F ig. 4 .

I nitial m obility,

6 30

( 1800-900 B C).

La p.

mcaco

AR ICA

PACIFI C

2 8

OCEA N

T ALTA I .

2 3 2 4

1

P RODUCT IVE MOB IL ITY CLASS IC P RE-T IAVANAKU ( 9 00 B C-AU 3 00 ) • S u lu res S ERENA

F ig. 5 .

P roductive m obility:

C lassic P re-Tiawanaku,

6 31

( 900 B C-AD 3 00).

C OMPLEMENTARY MOB IL ITY , C ONVERGED T IAWANA I < L J ( AD 4001000 ) A C lass ic Ax i s o E xpans ive A x is l j R eg io na l e nc laves u ssoc ,u ted wi t h t h e d eweopm I o f t he O ozes o f A tocamo Q S u lo res 0

F ig . 6 .

C omplementary m obility :

C onverged T iawanaku ,

6 32

2 50km

( AD 4 00-1000).

./‚ ( /

‚"

/ .

'

,

‚

L ake T i l icaca

L ake ) paapd

AR ICA

J O N )

6

4

PACIF IC OC (A N

1

/

8 1 5

2 4

-

-

-

_

-

r2 3

2 2

1 6

t ,; 7 Q

R EG IONAL MOb I IT POST T IA%AN .I