Shiqmim I, Parts i and ii: Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982-1984). Part i: Text, Part ii: Figures and Plates 9781407388472, 9781407388489, 9780860544609, 9781407346304

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Chapter 1: THE ENVIRON MENTAL SETTING OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV
Chapter 2: EARLY HOLOCENE PALAEOENVIRON MENTS OF ISRAEL
Chapter 3: THE GEOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY OF SHIQMIM
Chapter 4: SETTLE MENT PATTERNS ALONG THE NAHAL BEERSHEVA - LO WER NAHAL BESOR: MODELS OF SUBSISTENCE IN THE NORTHERN NEGEV
Chapter 5: THE LATE NEOLITHIC IN THE LOWER NAHAL BESOR - THE 1929 MACDONALD EXCAVATIONS AND SURVEY
Chapter 6: EXCAVATIONS IN THE SHIQ MI M VILLAGE
Chapter 7: SHIQMIM: PASTORALIS M AND OTHER ASPECTS OF ANIMAL MANAGEMENT IN THE CHALCOLITHIC OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV
Chapter 8: PHYTOLITH STUDIES AT SHIQMIM
Chapter 9: CHALCOLITHIC PLANT HUSBANDRY AND ANCIENT VEGETATION AT SHIQMIM
Chapter 10: THE CHIPPED STONE INDUSTRY AT SHIQMIM: TYPOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 1: THE POTENTIALS OF LITHIC ANALYSIS IN THE CHALCOLITHIC OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV
Chapter 12: THE POTTERY FROM THE SHIQMIM VILLAGE: TYPOLOGICAL AND SPATIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 13: EXCAVATIONS IN SHIQMIM CEMETERY 3: FINAL REPORT ON THE 1982 EXCAVATIONS
Chapter 14: CHALCOLITHIC METAL AND METAL WORKING FROM SHIQMIM
Chapter 15: THEORY AND PRACTICE IN HOUSEHOLD ARCHAEOLOGY: A CASE STUDY FROM THE CHALCOLITHIC VILLAGE AT SHIQMIM
Appendic I: CHAPTER 16: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF POTTERY FROM SHIQMIM: A PRELIMINARY REPORT

Citation preview

Shiqmim I Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982 -1984) edited by

Thomas Evan Levy Part (i) - Text

with contributions by David Alon, Caroline Grigson, Paul Goldberg, Augustin Holl, Mordechai Kislev, Thomas Levy, Nadine Menahem, Peter Northover, Ann Roshwalb, Arlene Rosen, Steven Rosen and Sariel Shalev

BAR International Series 356 (i) 1987

B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S356 (i), 1987: 'Shiqmim I', Part i

©

Thomas Evan Levy, 1987

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388472 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388489 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544609 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346304 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544609 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ontents PR EFACE AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS E nv ironment CH APTER 1 : TH E EN V IRONMENAL SE TT ING O FT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND PA UL GO LDBERG

1

CH APTER 2 : EA RLY HO LOCENE PA LEOENV IRONMENTS O F IS RAEL . PA UL GO LDBERG A ND AR LENE RO SEN

2 3

CH APTER 3 : TH E GE OLOGY A ND ST RAT IGRAPHY O F SH I QM IM . PA UL GO LDBERG

3 5

S ett lement P atterns CH APTER 4 : SE TTLEMENT PATTERNS AL ONG T HE NA HAL BE ERSHEVA -LOWER NA HAL BE SOR : MO DELS O F SU BS ISTENCE I NT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND DA V ID AL ON

4 5

L ate N eo l ith ic S tud ies CH APTER 5 : TH E LA TE NE OL ITH IC I NT HE LOWER NA HAL BE SOR -TH E 1 929 MA CDONALD EX CAVAT IONS A ND SU RVEY . AN N RO SHWALB

1 39

S h iqm im V i l lage E xcavat ions CH APTER 6 : EX CAVAT IONS I NT HE SH I QM IM VI L LAGE . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND DA V ID AL ON

1 53

A rchaeozoo logy CH APTER 7 :S H IQM IM : PA STORAL ISM A ND OT HER AS PECTS O F AN IMAL MA NAGEMENT I NT HE CH ALCOL ITH IC O FT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV . CA ROL INE GR IGSON

2 19

A rchaeobotany CH APTER 8 : PH YTOL ITH ST UD IES A T SH I QM IM . AR LENE RO SEN

2 43

CH APTER 9 : CH ALCOL ITH IC PL ANT HU SBANDRY A ND AN C IENT VE GETAT ION A T SH I QM IM . MO RDECHA I KI S LEV

2 51

L ithic and Cera mic Studies

CH APTER 1 0 : TH E CH IPPED ST ONE IN DUSTRY A TS H IQM IM : TY POLOG ICAL CO NS IDERAT IONS . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND ST EVEN A.RO SEN

281

CH APTER 1 : TH E PO TENT IALS O F LI TH IC AN ALYS IS I NT HE CH ALCOL ITH IC O FT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV . ST EVEN A.RO SEN

295

CH APTER 12 : TH E CE RAM IC IN DUSTRY A TS H IQM IM : TY POLOG ICAL A ND SP AT IAL CO NS IDERAT IONS . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND NA D INE M E NAHEM

3 13

Shiq mi m Ce metery Excavations

CH APTER 13: EX CAVAT IONS I N SH I QM IM CEMETERY SE ASON . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND DA V ID AL ON

3 :

FI NAL RE PORT O NT HE

1 982 333

Metallurgy

CH APTER 1 4 : CH ALCOL ITH IC M E TAL A ND M E TALWORK ING F ROM S H IQM IM . SAR IEL SH ALEV A ND PE TER J.NO RTHOVER

357

I ntrasite Spatial Analysis

CH APTER 15: TH EORY A ND PR ACT ICE I N HO USEHOLD AR CHAEOLOGY : A CA SE ST UDY F ROM T HE CH ALCOL ITH IC VI LLAGE A T SH I QM IM . TH OMAS E.LE VY A ND AU GUST IN HO LL

373

Appendix I

CH APTER 1 6 : PE TROGRAPH IC ANALYS IS O F PO TTERY F ROM S H igmHA : A PR EL IM INARY RE PORT . YU VAL GOREN A ND IS AAC GI LEAD

1

4 11

LI S TO F TA BLES T ab le 1 . 1

D is tr ibu t ion o f S o i l Un i ts i n I s rae l .

1 4

T ab le 1 . 2a

V ege tat ion o f t he Nor thern Negev F oo th i l l Z one .

1 7

T ab le 1 . 2b

V ege tat ion o f t he Negev C oas ta l P la in .

1 8

T ab le 3 . 1a

D ry s ed imen t s a mp les c o l lec ted f rom S h iqm im

4 0

T ab le 3 . 1b The c ommen ts o n d ry s ed iment s a mp les c o l lec ted f rom S h iqm im , 1 982 .

4 1

T ab le 4 . 1

8 3

R esu lt s o f s t ra t if ied r andom s a mp le s urvey .

T ab le 4 . 2 T ab le o f L ate Neo l i th ic , Cha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Is i tes i n t he s tudy a rea .

8 4

T ab le 4 . 3 The r equ iremen ts f or s ys temat ic s urface c o l lec t ion o f L a te Neo l i th ic , Cha lco l ith ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Is i tes .

8 8

T ab le 4 . 4 P resence -absence t ab le o f C ha lco l i th ic c eram ic c o l lec t ions : Naha l B eersheva a nd l ower Naha l B esor .

8 9

T ab le 4 . 5 1 931 .

9 4

C ensus o f B edou in p opu lat ion f or t he B eersheva S ub -D is tr ic t ,

T ab le 4 . 6 E nv ironmen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l c harac ter is t ics o f L ate Neo l i th ic s i tes i n t he s tudy a rea .

9 8

T ab le 4 . 7 E nv ironmenta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l c harac ter is t ics o f Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he s tudy a rea .

9 9

T ab le 4 . 8 E nv ironmen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l c harac ter is t ics o f Cha lco l ith ic f ind s po ts i n t he s tudy a rea .

1 03

T ab le 4 . 9 E nv ironmen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l c harac ter is t ics o f E ar ly B ronze Is i tes i n s tudy a rea .

1 05

T ab le 4 . 10 Quan t i t ies o f n i trogen , p o tass ium a nd p hosphorus r e moved b y wheat c rops a t Ro thamps tead u nder d ifferen t c ond i t ions o f management , 1 966 -67 .

1 06

T ab le 4 . 11 Mean wheat y ie lds u nder f a l low ing ( 1934 -64 ) c ompared w ith y ie lds u nder c on t inuous c ropp ing a t Ro thamps ted .

1 07

T ab le 4 . 12 C ompar ison o f t he e ffec t o f f a l low ing a nd c ont inuous c u l t iva t ion o n c ompos i t ion o f w eed f lora a t Ro tha mps tead .

1 08

T ab le 4 . 13 Man/days p er h ec tare e xpended u nder s hor t f a l low c erea l c u l t ivat ion .

1 09

1 1

T ab le 4 . 14

T ypo logy o f p r im i t ive i r r igat ion s y tems .

10

T ab le 4 . 15 T o ta l s o lub le s a l ts ( % ) o f t he c o l lec t ing b as ins o f t he Negar in a bove t he 1 20 cm d ep th a t Avdat e xper imenta l f arm .

11

T ab le 4 . 16 Runoff f rom Negar in a f ter a 1 2 mm r a infa l l ( = 1 20 m 3/ ha ) o n 6 Dece mber , 1 961 , a t Avdat e xper imen ta l f arm .

12

T ab le 4 . 17 s howers .

13

Runoff ( i n mm ) f rom Avda t p lo ts o n t wo d ays w i th l i ght

T ab le 4 . 18 Ra infa l l a nd s harav c ond it ions i n t he n or thern Negev s ummary o f me teoro log ica l a nd wheat d a ta .

14

T ab le 4 . 19 B i l inear r egress ion o f whea t y ie ld ( kg/1000 m 2 )a nd o f g ra in we igh t ( mg ) o n a nnua l r a infa l l a nd o n t he n umber o f h o t , d ry ( " Sharav " ) d ays d ur ing t he g row ing s eason i n t he n or thern Negev , I s rae l .

15

T ab le 4 .20 Average r a infa l l ( 1931-1960 ) f or s t a t ions l oca ted a long t he Naha l B eersheva -l ower Naha l B esor s tudy a rea .

16

T ab le 4 .21 1 966 -67 .

17

T o ta l a nnua l r unoff ( mm ) f rom Avda t p lo ts , 1 962 -63 t o

T ab le 4 .22 S ubs is tence s t ra tegy o f Nor thern Negev B edou in ( Abu Gwe ' id t r ibe ) , c a . 1 960 A .D .

18

T ab le 4 .23 S ubs is tence s t ra tegy o f Negev p easan t g roup ( Abu Gwe ' id t r ibe ) , c a . 1 960 A .D .

1 20

T ab le 4 .24 L ate Neo l i th ic p opu lat ion a nd c u l t iva t ion a rea e s t imates f or t he Naha l B eersheva -l ower Naha l B esor s tudy a rea .

1 21

T ab le 4 .25 P opu la t ion a nd c u l t iva t ion a rea e s t ima tes f or " permanen t " Cha lco l ith ic v i l lage s i tes i n t he Naha l B eersheva -l ower Naha l B esor s tudy a rea .

1 22

T ab le 4 .26 P ercentage o f d ifferent s o i l a s soc ia t ions i n t o ta l s tudy a rea a nd i nd iv idua l Cha lco l ith ic s i te c a tchmen ts .

1 25

T ab le 4 .27

1 28

M icroca tchment d a ta f rom S h iqm im .

T ab le 5 . 1 Ware c harac ter is t ics o f L ate Neo l i th ic s herds f rom t he Macdona ld e xcava t ions .

1 44

T ab le 5 .2

F requency o f d ecora t ion t ype b y v esse l f orm .

1 44

T ab le 5 .3

V es se l mean measuremen ts .

1 45

T ab le 5 .4

S ummary o f S i te D l ocus -phase a t tr ibu t ions .

1 46

i v

T ab le 6 . 1

L is t o f e xcava t ion l o c i .

1 82

T ab le 6 .2

L is t o f b a ske ts .

1 92

T ab le 6 . 3

L is t o f wa l ls .

2 09

T ab le 6 .4

R ad iocarbon d e term ina t ions f rom C ha lco l i th ic s i te s .

2 12

T ab le 7 . 1 T he n umbers o f v er tebra te r ema ins i den t if ied i n t he 1 982 a nd 1 983 e xcava t ions i n S h iqm im v i l lage .

2 34

T ab le 7 .2 N egev .

T he n umber o f p ig b one s i n C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t he n or thern 2 35

T ab le 8 . 1

S amp le p rovenances .

2 47

T ab le 8 .2

Ab so lu te p hy to l i th c oun t s .

2 47

T ab le 8 . 3

P ercen tage s o f t o ta l i den t if iab le g lumes .

2 48

T ab le 9 . 1

C erea ls , p u lse s a nd f ru i t s f rom S h iqm im .

2 66

T ab le 9 .2

W i ld p lan t s f rom S h iqm im .

2 68

T ab le 9 .3 C u l t iva ted f ru i t p lan t s f rom S .W . A s ia a nd t he s ou thern B a lkans ( ca . 5 , 000 -3 , 200 B .C .E . )

2 72

T ab le 9 .4 d i s t ichon .

2 74

D imens ions ( i n mm ) a nd i ndex v a lues o f H ordeum

T ab le 1 0 .1

S h iqm im l i th ic a r tefac t f requenc ies b y A rea , 1 983 .

2 91

T ab le 1 .1a

T oo ls a ccord ing t o t e chno log ica l c lass .

3 05

T ab le 1 .1b

T oo l f requenc ie s a ccord ing t o t e chno logy b y p ercen t .

3 05

T ab le 1 .2

S e lec ted t oo l f requenc ies b y p ercen t .

3 06

T ab le 1 .3

D eb i tage f requenc ie s f rom s e lec ted s i te s .

3 06

T ab le 1.4

H is togram o f a rrowhead p ercen tages .

3 08

T ab le 1 2 .1 p hase .

P ercen tage d is tr ibu t ion o f p o t tery t ype s b y b u i ld ing 3 26

T ab le 1 2 .2a M in imum n umber o f p o t tery v e s se ls f ound i n B P I , S h iqm im v i l lage .

3 27

T ab le 1 2 .2b P ercen tage d is tr ibu t ion o f v e s se l f orm s a ccord ing t o a rea , S h iqm im v i l lage , B P I .

3 27

v

T ab le 1 2 .3a M in imu m n u mber o f p o t tery v esse ls f ound i n BP I , S h iqm im v i l lage .

3 28

T ab le 1 2 .3b P ercen tage d is tr ibut ion o f v esse l f orms a ccord ing t o a rea , S h iqm im , B P I .

3 28

T ab le 1 3 .1

3 49

C is t d i mens ions , S h iqm im C eme tery 3 .

T ab le 1 3 .2 A r tefac t i nc lus ions f ound i ns ide c i s ts , S h iqm im C eme tery 3 .

3 49

T ab le 1 3 .3

The f inds f rom C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

3 50

T ab le 1 4 .1

L oca t ion a nd s i ze o f aw l p o in ts f rom S h iqm im .

3 67

T ab le 1 4 .2

L oca t ion a nd s i ze o f c opper b lade t oo ls .

3 67

T ab le 1 4 .3

Me ta l lurg ica l a na lyses o f me ta l f inds f rom S h iqm im .

3 68

T ab le 1 5 .1 Quan t i ty a nd w e igh t o f s herds f or t he e n t ire s i te ( 1982 -1984 e xcava t ions ) .

3 91

T ab le 1 5 .2 S herd d ens i t ies a nd f ragmentat ion i nd ic ies ( FI ) f or t he e n t ire s i te .

3 94

T ab le 1 5 .3

3 95

Room s i ze a nd d is tr ibu t ion .

T ab le 1 5 .4a A rchaeo log ica l c on text o f s herds i n Room 6 o f t he Room 6 h ouse c omp lex , A rea D .

3 97

T ab le 1 5 .4b A rchaeo log ica l c on tex t o f s herds i n t he c our tyard o f t he Room 6 h ouse c omp lex , A rea D .

3 98

T ab le 1 5 .4c A rchaeo log ica l c ontex t o f s herds i n t he t o ta l c omp lex o f t he Room 6 h ouse c omp lex , A rea D .

3 99

T ab le 1 5 .5

A rchaeo log ica l c on text o f s herds i n Room 1 , A rea D .

4 01

T ab le 1 5 .6

L iv ing f loor i nven tory o f Room 6 , A rea D .

4 03

LI S TO F FI GURES F ig . 1 . 1

Nor thern Negev D eser t , I s rae l : Geomorpho log ica l Map .

4 20

F ig . 1 . 2 The Naha l B esor a nd o ther ma jor c a tch ment a reas i n P a les t ine .

4 21

F ig . 1 . 3

E vo lu t ion o f Wes tern Negev a nd C oas ta l P la in .

4 22

F ig . 1 . 4

Geo log ica l c ross -sec t ion t hrough t he Nor thern Negev .

4 23

v i

F ig . 1 . 5

Ma jor Nor thern Negev s o i l a ssoc ia t ions .

4 24

F ig . 1 . 6

V ege ta t ion d is tr ic ts i n s tudy a rea .

4 25

F ig . 1 . 7

Nor thern Negev mean a nnua l r a infa l l 1 931-60 .

4 26

F ig . 1 . 8

Nor thern Negev : a nnua l r a infa l l 1 944 -5 , ( r a iny y ear ) .

4 27

F ig . 1 . 9

Nor thern Negev : a nnua l r a infa l l 1 946 -47 , ( dry y ear ) .

4 28

F ig . 1 . 10

Da i ly mean r e la t ive h um id i ty ( annua l a verage ) , i n p ercent .

4 29

F ig . 1 . 11

Annua l e vapora t ion f rom a n o pen water s urface -cm .

4 30

F ig . 1 . 12

Mean a nnua l n u mber o f d ays w i th s harav c ond i t ions .

4 31

F ig . 1 . 13

P lant -geograph ica l t e rr i tor ies o f I s rae l a nd a d jacen t a reas .

4 32

F ig . 2 . 1 I s rae l .

G raph ic s ummary o f Ho locene c l ima t ic d a ta p er ta in ing t o 4 34

F ig . 3 . 1 Genera l ized c ompos i te s t ra t igraph ic a nd t opograph ic p rof i le t hrough S h iq m im a nd Naha l B eersheva .

4 35

F ig . 3 .2 T r iangu lar d iagram s how ing s and , s i l t , a nd c lay c ompos it ion o f v ar ious s a mp les f rom S h iqm im .

4 36

F ig . 3 .3

P rof i le o f w es t f ace i n S quare G /4 .

4 37

F ig . 4 . 1

The n or thern Negev d eser t s tudy a rea .

4 45

F ig . 4 .2

B S -16 & 1 7 .

4 46

F ig . 4 .3

B S -22 , 2 3 , 2 5 a nd BE 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , & 2 8 .

4 47

F ig . 4 .4

BE -29 .

4 48

F ig . 4 .5

BE -32 & 3 3 .

4 49

F ig . 4 .6

BE -34 & 3 5 .

4 50

F ig . 4 .7

BE -37 & 3 8 .

4 51

F ig . 4 .8

BE -42 & 4 3 .

4 52

F ig . 4 . 9

BE -41 & 4 4 .

4 53

F ig . 4 . 10

BE -45 & 4 6 .

4 54

F ig . 4 . 11

BE -47 .

4 56

v i i

F ig . 4 . 12

BE -49 .

4 57

F ig . 4 . 13

BE -51 , 5 2 & 5 3 .

4 58

F ig . 4 . 14

BE -54 .

4 59

F ig . 4 . 15

BE -55 .

4 60

F ig . 4 . 16

B S -1 , 6 5 & 6 6 .

4 61

F ig . 4 . 17

B S -69 , 7 2 & 7 4 .

4 62

F ig . 4 . 18

' En B esor ( BE -111) .

4 63

F ig . 4 . 19 Anc ient t e rrace s ys tem a ssoc iated w ith Cha lco l i th ic s i tes a long t he Naha l B eersheva , n ear M izad A luf ; 1 8 =S h iqm im .

4 64

F ig . 4 .20

Naha l B eersheva : s ec t ion C -C ' .

4 65

F ig . 4 .21

S ubd iv is ions o f t he c ropp ing s eason i n as em i -ar id c l ima te .

4 67

F ig . 4 .22 p hase .

Ma m sh i t l a rge s ca le d ivers ion s ys tem : e ar ly a nd l a ter

F ig . 4 .23

B S -18 t e rrace s ys tem 1 .

4 68 4 69

F ig . 4 .24 Max imum r a infa l l i n tens it ies a t Avadat a nd M igda , n or thern Negev ( 1964/5 ) .

4 70

F ig . 4 .25 I s rae l .

4 71

Max imum r a infa l l i n tens i ty f or Avda t a nd t he r es t o f

F ig . 4 .26 The r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he y ie ld o f wheat a nd a nnua l r a infa l l a t d ifferen t l eve ls o f s harav d ays .

4 72

F ig . 4 .27

Nomograph o f r a infa l l -runoff a t Avdat , n or thern Negev .

4 73

F ig . 4 .28

B edou in t r iba l a reas , c a . 1 944 .

4 74

F ig . 4 .29 H is togra m s i lus tra t ing t he r e lat ionsh ip b e tween p reh is tor ic s i tes ( y a x is ) a nd d ifferen t e nv ironmen ta l a nd c u ltura l v ar iab les ( x a x is ) .

4 75

F ig . 4 .30

4 77

R eg iona l s i te c atchmen t a na lys is : Naha l B esor ; s hee t A .

F ig . 4 .31 R eg iona l s i te c atchment a na lys is : Naha l B eersheva -l ower Naha l B esor ; s hee t B .

4 79

F ig . 4 .32

R eg iona l s i te c a tchmen t a na lys is : Naha l B eersheva ; s hee t C .

4 81

F ig . 4 .33

S h iqm im ( BS -18 ) : M icroca tchmen t s ys tems .

4 82

v i i i

F ig . 4 .34

S e lec ted a r tefac ts c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 85

F ig . 4 . 35

S e lec ted a r tefac ts c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 87

F ig . 4 . 36

S e lec ted a r tefac ts c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 89

F ig . 4 . 37

Cha lco l ith ic t e rr i tor ies b ased o n Th iessen p o lygons .

4 90

F ig . 5 . 1

P o t tery f orm s f rom t he Macdona ld E xcavat ions .

4 93

F ig . 5 . 2

P o t tery f orms f rom t he Macdona ld E xcavat ions .

4 95

F ig . 6 . 1

G enera l t opograp ic map o f S h iqm im .

4 96

F ig . 6 . 2

Genera l p lan o f e xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage .

4 97

F ig . 6 . 3

S chema t ic p lan o f S h iqm im v i l lage e xcava t ions .

4 99

F ig . 6 . 4

S ec t ion d raw ing o f C /6 d eep p robe .

5 00

F ig . 6 . 5

P lan o f A rea A , S h iqm im .

5 01

F ig . 6 . 6

P lan o f A rea B , S h iqm im .

5 03

F ig . 6 . 7

P lan o f A rea C , S h iqm im .

5 05

F ig . 6 . 8

P lan o f A rea D , S h iqm im .

5 07

F ig . 6 . 9

P lan o f A rea E , S h iqm im .

5 09

F ig . 6 . 10 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im V i l lage .

5 11

F ig . 6 . 11 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im V i l lage .

5 13

F ig . 6 . 12 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im v i l lage .

5 15

F ig . 7 . 1

F auna l r e ma ins a nd b one a r tefac ts .

5 35

F ig . 7 .2 E as t .

Dep ic t ions o f s heep f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he M idd le

F ig . 7 . 3

Horncores o f s heep ( Ov is a r ies ) f rom s ou thern I s rae l .

5 38

F ig . 7 . 4

Horncores o f g oats ( Capra h i rcus ) f rom I s rae l .

5 39

5 37

F ig . 7 .5 Age -re la ted k i l l -off p a t terns o f s heep/goats i n t he Ker manshah a rchaeo log ica l s equence .

5 40

F ig . 7 . 6

5 41

K i l l -off p a t terns o f s heep a nd g oats , B ir e s -Safad i .

i x

F ig . 7 .7 h ead .

G i la t .

Mode l o f a woman c arry ing a Cha lco l i th ic c hurn o n h er

F ig . 7 .8

F igur ines o f s heep f rom t he Cha lco l i th ic o f I s rae l .

5 43

F ig . 7 .9

L aden a n ima l f igur ines .

5 45

5 42

F ig . 7 . 10 The d is tr ibu t ion o f s i tes w i th p igs a nd s i tes w i thou t p igs i n t he n or thern Negev .

5 46

F ig . 9 . 1 S i tes i n S .W . A s ia a nd S .B a lkans where c u l t iva ted f ood p lants a re r ecorded .

5 49

F ig . 9 .2 Re lat ive i mpor tance o f c erea l , p u lse a nd f ru i t s pec ies i n s even s ub -reg ions ( S .W . A s ia a nd S .B a lkans ) .

5 50

F ig . 1 0 .0

H ierarch ica l f ramework f or l i th ic a na lys is .

5 64

F ig . 1 0 .1

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -s i ck le a nd b acked b lades .

5 67

F ig . 1 0 .2

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b lades .

5 69

F ig . 1 0 .3

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -d en t icu lates a nd b orers .

5 71

F ig . 1 0 .4

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -n o tches .

5 73

F ig . 1 0 .5

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -t abu lar s c rapers .

5 75

F ig . 1 0 .6

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -t abu lar s craper .

5 77

F ig . 1 0 .7

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -s c raper .

5 79

F ig . 1 0 .8

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -s c rapers .

5 81

F ig . 1 0 .9

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -s c rapers .

5 83

F ig . 1 0 .10

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -p erfora tors .

5 85

F ig . 1 0 .11

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -p erfora tors .

5 87

F ig . 1 0 .12

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -p erfora tors .

5 89

F ig . 1 0 .13

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 91

F ig . 1 0 .14

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 93

F ig . 1 0 .15

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 95

F ig . 1 0 .16

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 97

F ig . 1 0 .17

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 99

F ig . 1 0 .18

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

6 01

F ig . 1 0 .19

S h iqm im d eb i tage -c ores .

6 03

F ig . 1 0 .20

S h iqm im d eb i tage -c ores .

6 05

F ig . 1 0 .21

S h iqm im d eb i tage -c ores .

6 07

F ig . 1 0 .22

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -c ore a nd m isce l laneous .

6 09

F ig . 1 1 .1 Hypo the t ica l r econs truc t ion o f s t ages o f s i ck le manufac ture .

6 10

F ig . 1 1 .2

Map o f n orthern Negev .

6 11

F ig . 1 2 .1

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : Gaza a nd B yzan t ine wares .

6 13

F ig . 1 2 .2

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : s ma l l b ow ls .

6 15

F ig . 1 2 .3

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : l a rge b ow ls .

6 17

F ig . 1 2 .4

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as ins .

6 19

F ig . 1 2 .5

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as ins .

6 21

F ig . 1 2 .6

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as in .

6 23

F ig . 1 2 .7

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 25

F ig . 1 2 .8

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 27

F ig . 1 2 .9

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i thos .

6 29

F ig . 1 2 .10

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 31

F ig . 1 2 .11

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : h o lemou th v esse ls .

6 33

F ig . 1 2 .12

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : h o lemou th v esse ls .

6 35

F ig . 1 2 .13

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : j ars .

6 37

F ig . 1 2 .14

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : f enes tra ted v esse l .

6 39

F ig . 1 2 .15

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c losed v esse l f orm s .

6 41

F ig . 1 2 .16

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c hurns .

6 43

F ig . 1 2 .17

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c hurn .

6 45

F ig . 1 2 .18

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : l ugs .

6 47

x i

F ig . 1 2 .19 s herds .

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b ases a nd d ecora ted b ody

F ig . 1 2 .20 v i l lage .

P o t tery v esse l d is tr ibu t ion f or BP Ii n t he S h iqm im

F ig . 1 2 .21 v i l lage .

P o t tery v esse l d is tr ibu t ion f or BP I i n t he S h iqm im

6 49

6 50

6 51

F ig . 1 2 .22 P o t tery r ecord ing s hee t u sed f or S h iqm im v i l lage e xcava t ion .

6 52

F ig . 1 3 .0

P lan o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

6 53

F ig . 1 3 .1 3 3 .

P lan a nd p erspec t ive v iew o f G rave C irc les 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2 a nd 6 55

F ig . 1 3 .2 P oss ib le r econs truc t ion o f G rave 2 4 a nd s ec t ions o f g raves 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2 a nd 3 3 .

6 56

F ig . 1 3 .3

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 57

F ig . 1 3 .4

P lan o f G rave 3 6 ,

6 58

F ig . 1 3 .5

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 3 9 a nd 4 5 .

6 59

F ig . 1 3 .6

P er spec t ive v iew o f G rave 2 3 a nd C is ts 3 9 a nd 3 5 .

6 60

F ig . 1 3 .7

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 3 7 a nd 4 0 .

6 61

F ig . 1 3 .8

P lans a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 4 7 a nd 4 2 .

6 62

F ig . 1 3 .9

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing s C is ts 4 6 a nd 4 3 .

6 63

F ig . 1 3 .10

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing o f C is t 3 5 .

6 64

F ig . 1 3 .11 2 7 .

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is t 4 8 a nd G raves 2 6 a nd

F ig . 1 3 .12

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 66

F ig . 1 3 .13

S ec t ion o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , a nd 4 1 .

6 67

F ig . 1 3 .14

S e lec ted o rnamen ts f rom t he S h iqm im c eme tery .

6 69

F ig . 1 3 .15

S e lec t ion o f b ow ls f rom S h iqm im c eme tery .

6 71

F ig . 1 3 .16

S e lec t ion o f s ma l l p o t tery v es se ls , S h iqm im c eme tery .

6 73

F ig . 1 3 .17

Tub -shaped o s suary f ound i n G rave 2 3 .

6 75

6 65

x i i

F ig . 1 3 .18

House -shaped o ssuary f ound i n G rave 2 3 .

6 77

F ig . 1 4 .1

D is tr ibu t ion o f c opper r e la ted a r tefac ts f ound a t S h iq m im .

6 84

F ig . 1 5 .1

F low c har t mode l o f h uman a c t iv i ty s equenc ing .

6 90

F ig . 1 5 .2

L ocat ion map o f r ooms s tud ied i n a na lys is .

6 91

F ig . 1 5 .3

D is tr ibu t ion o f s herd q uant i t ies b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 92

F ig . 1 5 .4

S herd w e igh ts b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 93

F ig . 1 5 .5

S herd d ens it ies p er s quare me ter b y a rea a nd s t ra t igraphy .

6 94

F ig . 1 5 .6

S herd f ragmen tat ion i nd ic ies b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 95

F ig . 1 5 .7 S herd d ens i t ies a nd f ragmen tat ion i nd ic ies f or Room 6 c our tyard u n i t a nd Room 1 .

6 96

F ig . 1 5 .8

P lan o f Room 6 a c t iv i ty a reas .

6 97

F ig . 1 5 .9

S pher ica l h ammers tones , f lake c ores .

6 99

F ig . 1 5 .10

S pher ica l p ound ing t oo l .

7 01

F ig . 1 5 .11

P ound ing t oo l , o vo id h ammers tone .

7 03

F ig . 1 5 .12

Chopper , f l ake c ore/chopp ing t oo l .

7 05

F ig . 1 5 .13

Axe , s ma l l f l ake c ore .

7 07

F ig . 1 5 .14

T abu lar s c rapers , b lade le t .

7 09

F ig . 1 5 .15

S tone r ing .

7 11

F ig . 1 5 .16

P erfora ted s t ones .

7 13

F ig . 1 5 .17

S tone b ow l f ragmen t , s p ind le whor ls , f l ake , s he l l .

7 15

F ig . 1 5 .18

Room 6 a r tefac ts .

7 17

F ig . 1 5 .19

P o t tery v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 19

F ig . 1 5 .20

P o t tery v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 21

F ig . 1 5 .21

P o t tery s herds a nd v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 23

LI ST O F PL ATES P late 0 .0

S h iqm im e xped i t ion t eams , 1 983 & 1 984 .

4 19

Plate l.la Aerial view (west) of the Shiqmim site.

433

Plate 1.lb Aerial view (east) of Shiqmim.

433

Plate 3.1 Nahal Beersheva viewed from the south bank looking north to the site of Shiqmim.

438

Plate 3.2 Closer view of the terrace south of the site.

439

Plate 3.3 Detail of Chalcolithic gravels showing inclusions of pottery framents.

439

Plate 3.4 Photograph of Square G/4 Trench show in Fig. 3.3.

440

Plate 3.5 South bank of the N. Beersheva as seen from Shiqmim.

441

Plate 3.6 Gully developed in Byzantine fluvial silts.

441

Piate 3. 7 Elliptical crystals of gypsum.

442

Plate 3.8 Alternating laminae of calcareous silty clay and coarser quartz silt.

442

Plate 3.9 Chaotic mixture of quartz silt and finer calcareous silty clay.

443

Plate 3.10 Well-sorted sediment.

443

Plate 3.11 Mudbrick material.

444

Plate 6.la Overview of Shiqmim village excavations and expedition camp, 1984.

517

Plate 6.lb Area, Square C/3 illustrating Building Phases I & II (view north).

517

Plate 6.2 Aerial view (northwest) of 1983 excavation in Shiqmim village.

518

Plate 6.3 Aerial view (west) of 1983 excavations in Shiqmim village.

519

Plate 6.4 Deep probe in Square C/6.

520

Plate 6.5a Overview (south) of Room 3, Area A.

521

Plate 6.5b Detail of broken pottery vessel found W18 of Room 2 (BP II), Area A.

in situ

on floor 2 near

Plate 6.6a View north of alley in Area A (Squares D/20 & C/3).

xiv

521 522

P late 6 .6b P late 6 .7

D e ta i l ( v iew n or th ) o f p av ing f ound i n a l leyway , A rea B . V iew t o t he s outheas t o f Room 2 ( BP I ) f loor 2 , A rea A .

5 22 5 23

P late 6 .8a

Overv iew ( s outhwes t ) o f Room 1 4 , A rea A .

5 24

P late 6 .8b

Nor theas t c orner o f Room 1 4 , A rea A .

5 24

P late 6 .9a

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f A rea A e xcava t ions , 1 984 .

5 25

P late 6 .9b

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f A rea B e xcava t ions .

5 25

P late 6 . 10a

Overv iew ( s ou thwes t ) o f A rea B , 1 983 e xcava t ions .

5 26

P la te 6 . 10b

D e ta i l o f Room 1 , S quares A /15 a nd A /16 , A rea B .

5 26

P late 6 . 11a A rea B .

Overv iew ( nor th ) o f p o t tery c ache f ound i n S quare B /18 ,

P late 6 . 11b

C lose -up o f p o t tery c ache , A rea B .

5 27

P late 6 . 12a

S urface c l ean ing i n A rea C , 1 983 e xcava t ion .

5 28

P late 6 . 12b

D e ta i l ( s ou theas t ) o f Room 5 , A rea C .

5 28

P late 6 . 13a A rea C .

Overv iew ( s ou th ) o f Room 4 ( BP I ) a nd c our tyard ,

P late 6 . 13b

D e ta i l o f t r iangu lar s haped Room 7 .

5 29

P late 6 . 14a

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f Room 1 3 ( BP I ) , A rea D .

5 30

P late 6 . 14b

D e ta i l ( nor thwes t ) o f i n s i tu p o t tery .

5 30

P late 6 . 15a A rea D .

S outheas t c orner o f Room 6 c our tyard w ith s ma l l r oom ,

P late 6 . 15b

C oncen trat ion o f a n ima l b ones ( bos ) a nd f l int a r tefac ts .

5 31

P late 6 . 16a

E as tern p or t ion o f Room 1 3 , A rea D .

5 32

P late 6 . 16b

The c orner o f t wo mudbr ick wa l ls f ound i n A rea E .

5 32

P late 6 . 17a A rea E .

Three f l exed b ur ia ls f ound i n ap i t i n S quare S /12 ,

P late 6 . 17b A rea E .

Overv iew o f t he t hree b ur ia ls f ound i n S quare S /12 ,

P late 6 . 18

5 27

5 29

5 31

5 33

5 33 Upper v i l lage e xcava t ion .

5 34

XV

P la te 8 . 1

P hy to l i th f rom b ar ley g lume .

5 47

P la te 8 . 2

P hy to l i th f rom whea t g lume .

5 47

P la te 8 . 3

P hy to l i th f rom c u lm o f c erea l .

5 48

P la te 9 . 1

Macrobo tan ica l r ema ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 53

P la te 9 . 2

Macrobo tan ica l r ema ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 55

P la te 9 . 3

Macrobo tan ica l r ema in s f rom S h iqm im .

5 57

P la te 9 . 4

Macrobo tan ica l r ema in s f rom S h iqm im .

5 59

P la te 9 . 5

Macrobo tan ica l r ema ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 61

P la te 9 . 6

Macrobo tan ica l r ema ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 63

P la te 1 3 .1a

A er ia l v iew ( s ou th ) o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

6 78

P la te 1 3 .1b

Overv iew o f G rave C irc le 2 4 , C eme tery 3 .

6 78

P la te 1 3 .2a

D e ta i l o f t abu lar s c raper f ound o n f l oor o f C i s t 3 5 .

6 79

P la te 1 3 .2b

O rnamen t s f ound i n G rave C irc le 2 4 .

6 79

P la te 1 3 .3a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 5 .

6 80

P la te 1 3 .3b

D e ta i l o f V shaped b ow l f ound o n f l oor o f C i s t 3 5 .

6 80

P la te 1 3 .4a

Overv iew o f C i s t 4 7 .

6 81

P la te 1 3 .4b

D e ta i l o f c hurn f ragmen t f ound o n f l oor o f C is t 4 7 .

6 81

P la te 1 3 .5a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 4 .

6 82

P la te 1 3 .5b

D e ta i l o f C is t 3 4 .

6 82

P la te 1 3 .6

D e ta i l o f G rave C irc le 1 , S h iqm im C eme tery 1 .

6 83

P la te 1 4 .1

O re , c ruc ib le a nd s l ag f rom S h iqm im .

6 85

P la te 1 4 .2

nd S afad i . Sme l t ing a nd r ef in ing s l ag s f rom S h iqm im a

6 86

P la te 1 4 .3

S e lec ted m e ta l a r tefac t s f rom S h iqm im .

6 87

P la te 1 4 .4

S e lec ted m e ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

6 88

P la te 1 4 .5

S e lec ted m e ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

6 89

x v i

P la te 1 5 .1 wa l l .

P o t tery s herds embedded i n t he ma tr ix o f a wa t t le -and d aub

P la te 1 5 .2

D e ta i l o f mudbr icks .

7 24

P la te 1 5 .3

Overv iew o f Room 6 a nd c our tyard , A rea D .

7 25

P la te 1 5 .4

Overv iew o f Room 6 o ccupa t ion f loor .

7 25

P la te 1 5 .5

D e ta i l o f Room 6 .

7 26

P la te 1 5 .6

D e ta i l o f Room 6 :s ou thwe s t p or t ion o f r oom .

7 26

P la te 1 5 .7 f loor .

D e ta i l ( v iew s ou th ) o f c en tra l p or t ion o f Room 6 l i v ing

P la te 1 5 .8

D e ta i l Room 6 ( v iew n or th ) s how ing i n s i tu c opper aw l .

P la te 1 5 .9

G r ind ing t oo ls made o f b each -rock .

7 24

7 27

7 28

P la te 1 5 .10 Sma l l r oom l oca ted i n s ou theas t c orner o f c our tyard a s soc ia ted w i th Room 6 .

7 29

P la te 1 5 .11

Overv iew o f Room 1 , A rea B ( v iew n or th ) .

7 30

P la te 1 5 .12

D e ta i l o f l a rge c eram ic p i tho s .

7 30

P la te 1 6 .1

P e trograph ic s a mp le s f rom S h iqm im .

x v i i

7 31

PR EFACE T he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod p recede s t he r i se o f t he f i rs t u rban c en tre s wh ich emerged i n P a le s t ine d ur ing t he E ar ly B ronze Age . C onsequen t ly , t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod i s o f k ey i mpor tance f or s tudy ing many o f t he p roce s se s wh ich l ed t o t he emergence o f r anked s oc ie t ie s i n t he L evan t . I t was a ga ins t t h i s b ackground t ha t t he P ha se I ( 1982 -1984 ) i nves t iga t ions a t S h iqm im t ook p lace . T o t ack le t h is p rob lem , a n a n thropo log ica l a pproach was u sed i n c on s truc t ing t he p ro jec t r e search d e s ign . T he c hap ters wh ich f o l low r ef lec t t h i s o r ien ta t ion . S h iqm im i s o ne o f t he l a rge s t C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage s e t t lemen ts i n I s rae l . L oca ted 1 8 km w e s t o f t he c i ty o f B eer sheva a long t he n or th b ank o f t he Naha l ( Arab ic = Wad i ) B eer sheva , t he s i te i s s i tua ted a long t he s em i -ar id a nd a r id d eser t i n terface o f t he n or thern N egev . A s s uch , S h iqm im p rov ides a n i dea l l o ca le f or i nve s t iga t ing c u l ture c hange i n a marg ina l e nv ironmen ta l z one . T o p lace t he s i te i n i t s r eg iona l p hy s iograph ic c on tex t , C hap ter 1d escr ibe s t he e nv ironmen ta l s e t t ing o f t he n or thern N egev t oday . Th is i s f o l lowed b y a s u mmary o f t he e ar ly Ho locene p a leoenv ironmen t s o f I s rae l b y P au l Go ldberg a nd A r lene Ro sen ( Chap ter 2 ) , a nd t hen a s i te s pec if ic s tudy o f t he g eo logy a nd s t ra t igraphy o f S h iqm im b y Go ldberg ( Chap ter 3 ) . T he i mpor tance o f S h iqm im a s as ub -reg iona l C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage c en tre c ame t o l i gh t f o l low ing a s y s tema t ic r eg iona l s urvey o f t he 10 km l ong Naha l B eer sheva a nd l ower Naha l B esor b y D av id A lon a nd my se lf . T he r e su l t s a nd a na ly s is o f t h is s urvey ( wh ich f ocused o n L a te N eo l i th ic , C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age s i te s ) a re p resen ted i n C hap ter 4 . T he L a te N eo l i th ic ma ter ia l c o l lec ted i n t he l a te ' 2 0 s b y E ann Macdona ld d ur ing h i s s urvey a long t he l ower Naha l B e sor ( Wad i G aza ) a re d iscus sed b y Ann Ro shwa lb i n C hap ter 5 . T he r e su l ts o f t he 1 982 -1984 e xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage a re p resen ted i n C hap ter 6 . T hese e xcava t ions s how t ha t S h iqm im h as a r emarkab ly r egu lar a rch i tec tura l l ayou t a nd i s o f k ey i mpor tance i n u nder s tand ing t he l oca l e vo lu t ion o f u rban ism i n t he n or thern N egev r eg ion . I n a n e ffor t t o r econs truc t t he n a ture o f a n ima l managemen t p rac t ices a t S h iqm im a nd t he ir i mpac t o n C ha lco l i th ic e conomy i n g enera l , i n Chap ter 7 , C aro l ine G r ig son t ake s as yn the t ic a pproach t o t he e xam ina t ion o f t he a n ima l b one s f ound a t S h iqm im . A s im i lar b road p er spec t ive h as b een t aken b y Mordecha i K is lev i n h is a na lys is o f t he macro -bo tan ica l r e ma in s r e tr ieved a t S h iqm im ( Chap ter 9 ) . K is lev ' s c omprehens ive s tudy a nd i den t if ica t ion o f t he l o ca l w eed s pec ie s f ound i n t he C ha lco l i th ic d epo s i ts a t S h iqm im a dd i mpor tan t p a leoenv ironmen ta l d a ta f or r econs truc t ing t he l oca l e nv ironmen t a t S h iqm im d ur ing t he 5 th -4 th m i l lenn ium . A r lene Ro sen ' s s tudy ( Chap ter 8 ) o f d ome s t ic p lan t p hy to l i ths f ound a t t he s i te c on tr ibu te t o t he r econs truc t ion o f t he a gro techno logy u sed a t S h iqm im d ur ing t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . A t e chno log ica l a na lys is o f t he c h ipped s t one i ndus try b y L evy a nd S teven Ro sen ( Chap ter 1 0 ) a dds i mpor tan t o b serva t ions o n t he was te f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t he f l in t t oo ls a t S h iqm im . I n C hap ter 1 , Ro sen p laces t he

x v i i i

S h iqm im a s semb lage i n i t s r eg iona l c on tex t b y e xam in ing t he p o ten t ia ls o f l i th ic a na lys is i n t he C ha lco l i th ic o f t he n or thern N egev . I n Chap ter 1 2 , L evy a nd Nad ine Menahem p resen t ad escr ip t ive t ypo logy o f t he S h iqm im c eram ic i ndus try a nd a n i n tra s i te s pa t ia l a na ly s is o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f p o t tery v e sse ls t hroughou t t he s i te . The se s tud ie s c on tr ibu te t oward t he i den t if ica t ion a nd u nders tand ing o f t he d ome s t ic c eram ic i ndus try a t S h iqm im . T h is work i s s upp lemen ted b y a p e trograph ic a na ly s i s c arr ied o u t o n a s a mp le o f C ha lco l i th ic s herds f rom S h iqm im b y Yuva l Goren a nd I s aac G i lead p resen ted i n Append ix I . T o d a te , S h iqm im c on ta ins t he o n ly k nown C ha lco l i th ic c e me tery i n t he n or thern N egev d eser t . I n C hap ter 1 3 , L evy a nd A lon , g ive a f ina l r epor t o f t he 1 982 e xcava t ions wh ich t ook p lace o n t he h i l l top C eme tery 3 a t S h iqm im . A d i scus s ion i s p resen ted c oncern ing t he e thnograph ic d a ta r e la ted t o s econdary b ur ia l . T h is r a ises a n umber o f q ues t ions r egard ing p rev ious mode l s wh ich l i nked t he p rac t ice o f s econdary b ur ia l d ur ing t he Cha lco l i th ic w i th a n a s sumed n omad ic s oc ie ty r e s iden t a t t he Naha l B eer sheva s i tes . A l though a t temp t s h ave b een made t o i nves t iga te c er ta in a spec t s o f C ha lco l i th ic me ta l lurgy , S ar ie l S ha lev a nd P e ter Nor thover ( Chap ter 1 4 ) p re sen t t he f i rs t c omb ined a na lys is o f a l l t he k nown a spec ts o f me ta lwork ing ( i .e . , o re s , c ruc ib les , s l ags , a nd f in ished t oo ls ) f rom o ne Cha lco l i th ic s i te w i th c on tex tua l d a ta . T he ir s tudy i s o f k ey i mpor tance f or d ef in ing t he n a ture o f d ome s t ic a nd " e l i te " me ta l p roduc t ion i n t he N egev d ur ing t he f orma t ive C ha lco l i th ic p er iod . S h iqm im I i s c onc luded w i th a c ase s tudy i n h ouseho ld a rchaeo logy b y L evy a nd Augus t in Ho 1 1 ( Chap ter 1 5 ) . U s ing d a ta f rom t wo w e l l p re served h ou se c omp lexes f ound a t S h iqm im , t he a u thors a t temp t t o r econs truc t t he r ange o f d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s wh ich t ook p lace w i th in t he d ome s t ic s phere . I n a dd i t ion , q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f p o t tery s herds i ss hown t o b e o f g rea t u se i n r econs truc t ing t he n a ture o f s i te f orma t ion p roce s ses wh ich t ook p lace a t S h iqm im . J une , 1 987

T homas E . L evy

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AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS The P hase I i nves t iga t ions a t S h iqm im w ere s ponsored b y t he I s rae l Depar t men t o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Museums a nd t he Negev Museum , B eersheva a nd a ff i l ia ted w i th t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l Research . I am p ar t icu lar ly g ra tefu l t o t he Nat iona l Geograph ic S oc ie ty f or t he ir g enerous s uppor t . W i thout t he h e lp o f t he S oc ie ty , t he f i e ldwork a t S h iqm im wou ld n o t h ave b een p o ss ib le . I n a dd i t ion , t he Ang lo Israe l A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty k ind ly p rov ided a n umber o f t rave l g ran ts t o v ar ious p ro jec t p ersonne l . The p ub l icat ion o f t h is v o lu me r epresen ts o f c u lture c hange d ur ing t he 5 th -4 th m i l lenn ia I s rae l . I wou ld l i ke t o e x tend my g ra t itude p rofess iona l c o l leagues , f am i ly , a nd f r iends e ndeavour .

at eam e ffor t i n t he e xp lora t ion i n t he n or thern Negev d e ser t o f t o t he h undreds o f v o lunteers , who h ave p ar t ic ipa ted i n t h is

There a re a n umber o f i nd iv idua ls a nd i ns t i tu t ions t hat Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank i n p ar t icu lar f or t he ir h e lp a nd a ss is tance . F rom t he b eg inn ing o f my r e search i n I s rae l a s a" g reen " g radua te s tudent i n 1 976 , Dav id A lon , h as b een a c entra l f igure i n a l l o f my a rchaeo log ica l f i e ld a c t iv it ies . Dav id 's e xper ience , i nqu is it ive m ind , a nd f r iendsh ip h ave b een o f g rea t i mpor tance t o t h is p ro jec t . A t t he I s rae l Depar tmen t o f An t iqu ites a nd Museums t he f o l low ing i nd iv idua ls h ave h e lped i n t he p ro jec t o rgan iza t ion a nd i n t he p rocess ing o f mater ia l f rom S h iqm im : Avraham E i tan , D irec tor ; Rudo lf C ohen , Ch ief A rchaeo log is t o f t he Negev Reg ion ; Avener K l igman , Adm in is tra t ive D irec tor ; S ara B en A r ieh , E xcava t ions O rgan izer ; Aya la S ussman , P ub l ica t ions D irec tor ; Ru th P e led , D irec tor o f L oca l Museums ; Ronn i R e ich , D irec tor S c ien t if ic A rch ives ; B en ja m in S ass , Ed i tor , Hadasho t A rcheo log iyo t ; O rna Hess , P ub l ic i ty ; J oe Z ias , Cura tor ; S i la S ag iv a nd C lara Am i t , p ho tographers ; I s rae l Wa tk in a nd Andre i O ikonov , S urveyors ; N ira Kopo lov a nd T eddy Mazzo la , A r t ifac t I l lus tra tors ; Moshe Hannuka , A rch iv is t ; E l la A l tmark , Chem is t ; T am i B ar Noy a nd F r ida R isk in , P o t tery Res tora t ion ; E phra im Koch i , Adm ins trat ion ; Ahmed Abas , E qu ipment S torage ; Z ahava L evy , S ecre tary ; a nd Yanko la Ma jar , D r iver . S pec ia l t hanks a re d ue t o M ichae l F e is t , Ch ief S urveyor o f t he D epar tmen t f or s uperv is ing a l l a spec ts o f t he mapp ing a nd c ar tograph ic work a t S h iqm im . I a pprec ia te t he h e lp g iven b y t he E co le B ib l ique , J erusa lem a nd i n p ar t icu lar E t ienne Node t f or l end ing o ur p ro jec t a w ide r ange o f e qu ipmen t . A t t he Negev Museum , I wou ld l i ke t o t hank my c o l leagues Y ehuda Guvr in , Y eshoyahu T idona , B en jam in A s ian a nd Noa T a l f or t he ir h e lp . Thanks a re a l so d ue t o t he Mayor o f B eersheva , Moshe Z i lberman , f or h is s uppor t . The P hase Ie xped i t ion b enef i ted a g reat d ea l f rom t he s uppor t g iven b y t hose a rchaeo log is ts who s erved a s r eferees f or t he p ro jec t . T hese i nc lude : O fer B ar Yosef , I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Hebrew Un ivers ity o f J erusa lem ; G raeme B arker , B r i t ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy , Rome ; Ke i th B ran igan , D epar t men t o f P reh is tory a nd A rchaeo logy , Un ives i ty o f S heff ie ld ; W i l l iam G . D ever , Depar tmen t o f O r ienta l S tud ies , Un ivers ity o f A r izona ; a nd M ichae l B . S ch iffer , D epar tment o f An thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o f A r izona . I am v ery g ra tefu l t o a l l o f t hese s cho lars .

XX

F ie ld c ond i t ions a t S h iqm im w ere n ever e asy a nd b ecause o f t h is I am p ra t icu lar ly i ndeb ted t o t he c ore s t aff who p ar t ic ipa ted o n t he e xped it ion ( P la te 0 . 0 ) . These i nd iv idua ls i nc lude Thomas L udov ise , P ho tographer a nd C a mp Manager ; Nad ine Menahem , T irza Mun ta t , a nd Chr is t ine P ar is , A rea A F ie ld S uperv isors ; C la ire P eachey a nd A r lene Rosen , A rea B F ie ld S uperv isors ; N ick S lope , A rea C F ie ld S uperv isor ; Deborah Gamm i l , S teven Kangas , a nd S teven Thompson , A rea D F ie ld S uperv isors ; Yuva l Goren a nd P eter F ab ian , A rea E F ie ld S uperv isors ; E i leen McAndrew , L abora tory S uperv isor ; Chr is Gosden , C eme tery 3 S uperv isor ; A i lsa Ma inman , Upper V i l lage S uperv isor ; S hu la Hayosh , D eborah Hersh man , a nd T a l i Krenk in , C ooks ; a nd S a lem T our i a nd I brah im a l -Assam , D r ivers . The p repara t ion o f t h is v o lume t ook p lace wh i le I s erved a s t he A ss is tan t D irec tor o f t he W .F . A lbr igh t I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo log ica l R esearch ( AIAR ) i n J erusa lem ( 1985 -1987 ) . Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank t he A lbr ight D irec tor , S eymour G i t in , a nd t he t rus tees o f t he I ns t i tu te , f or p rov id ing me w i th t he o ppor tun i ty o f work ing a t A IAR d ur ing t h is p er iod . I am g ra tefu l t o t he A IAR V ice -Pres ident , J oy Unger le ider Mayerson a nd t he Doro t F ounda t ion , f or t he ir s uppor t d ur ing t h is p er iod . I wou ld a l so l i ke t o t hank t he p as t p res iden t o f ASOR , P h i l ip J . K ing f or h is s uppor t wh i le t h is work was i n p rogress . The A IAR s t aff h e lped c reate a mos t c heerfu l a nd c ord ia l work ing e nv iron men t a t t he A lbr igh t . These i nd iv idua ls i nc lude : Omar J abr in , C ook ; Mun ira S a id , I ns t i tute S ecre tary ; S a id F re i j , Ma in tenance ; Abu Ahmed a nd F a iz Kha laf , Gardeners ; Hanna C a ine , L ibrar ian ; Wa l id Mfarreh , Mohammed Mfarreh , Abdu l lah Dauod Mfarreh , a nd Mahmud Mfarreh - K i tchen S taff ; S oph ie Qawa j i a nd L ab iba S a leh , C lean ing ; a nd S a lameh S a leh , G rounds A ss is tan t . Th is v o lume was w r it ten a nd p r in ted a t t he A lbr ight I ns t i tu te u s ing Hew le t t P ackard ( HP ) C ompu ter e qu ipment k ind ly g iven t o A IAR b y t he HP M inneso ta o ff ice . Th is e qu ipment i nc ludes a n HP 1 50 c omputer , HP P or tab le P lus c ompu ter , M icrosof t Wordproces s ing p rogram , a nd a L aser je t p r inter . I wou ld l i ke t o t hank t he A IAR c omputer a dv isor , A lden A rndt , f or s how ing me t he r opes o f t he HP s ys tem a nd J ohn A rndt , P au l F lesher , a nd Dan ie l B . S anford f or h e lp ing s o lve a w ide r ange o f c ompu ter r e la ted p rob lems wh ich a rose d ur ing t he p roduc t ion o f t h is b ook . S taff members f rom t he HP Rama l lah o ff ice , i n p ar t icu lar Hamzeh Na j jar , a l so p rov ided k ind a ss is tance . S ome o f t he p re -pub l icat ion c os ts o f t h is v o lume w ere k ind ly me t b y Kenne th L ipper a nd t he L ipper F ounda t ion , t he B 'na i B r i th Women 's L odge ( London ) , a nd t he L eo B aeck L ondon L odge . I wou ld l i ke t o e spec ia l ly t hank P e ter S ummerf ie ld f or a l l h is e ffor ts i n f ind ing s uppor t f or t h is p ro jec t . Ih ave b enef i t ted w ide ly f rom d iscuss ions w i th c o l leagues c oncern ing t he p ro toh is tor ic a rchaeo logy o f I s rae l . I t i s d iff icu l t t o t hank t hem a l l , h owever , t he f o l low ing i nd iv idua ls w ere o f k ey i mpor tance : Ruth Am iran , J ean P erro t , C la ire E ps te in , Ram Gophna , P ierre d e M irosched j i , F ranco is Va l la , C a ther ine P e l ler in , I s aac G i lead , Yuva l Goren , Avraham Gopher , E itan T chernov , I s rae l Hershkov itz , Dan Gaz i t , B aruch B rand l , T amar Noy , O mi t E lan , Dav id E lan , Am iha i Mazar , B en ja m in Mazar , Amnon B en T or , N ige l Gorr ing - Morr is , L awrence S tager , Doug las E sse , J ack Hanbury -Ten ison , E l io t

x x i

B raun , M ir ia m T ad mor , U ss ishk in , Z e 'ev Herzog , Emmanue l Marx , A ref Avraha m Ronen , E l iezer

O ra Yogev , I t zak B e i t A r ieh , Z e 'ev Meshe l , Dav id Ya 'akov B aumgar ten , I r is E ldar , I mmanue l Noy - Me ir , Abu Rab ia , I mmanue l E isenberg , Dan Kaufman , O ren , Uz i Avner , a nd G len Goodfr iend .

Iam g ra tefu l t o t he I s rae l Defense F orces ( I .D .F . ) a nd i n p ar t icu lar C o l . Mo t t i Rosenberg f or t he ir h e lp wh i le we w ere i n t he f i e ld . The s p ir i t o f c ooperat ion a nd i n teres t s hown b y t he o ff icers a nd s o ld iers o f t he I .D .F . i n t he S h iqm im p ro jec t , h igh l igh t t he f unc t ion o f t he I s rae l i a rmy a s ap eop le 's a rmy . T o a l l o f t hem , as pec ia l t hanks . I am g ratefu l t o t he f o l low ing s cho lars f or a na lyz ing d a ta f rom S h iqm im a nd c on tr ibut ing t o t h is r e search p ro jec t . These i nd iv idua ls i nc lude : B aruch A rensburg ( Phys ica l An thropo logy ) , I s rae l C arm i a nd Aaron Kaufman ( I so topes ) , S ar ie l S ha lev a nd P e ter Nor thover (Me ta l lurgy ) , Yuva l Goren a nd I s aac G i lead ( Pe trography ) a nd Ann Roshwa lb ( Neo l i th ic ) . I owe a s pec ia l d eb t o f g ra t i tude t o my c o l leagues who h ave a c t ive ly p ar t ic ipa ted o n t h is p ro jec t f rom i t s i ncep t ion a nd c on tr ibuted t he ir t ime a nd e nergy t o h e lp s ee t h is v o lume c ome t o l i ght . These i nd iv idua ls i nc lude Dav id A lon ( Excavat ions ) , C aro l ine G r igson ( Archaeozoo logy ) , P au l Go ldberg ( Geo logy ) , Augus t in Ho 1 1 ( Househo lds ) , Mordecha i K is lev ( Archaeobo tany ) , Nad ine Menahem ( Excavat ions a nd P o t tery ) , A r lene Rosen ( Phy to l i ths ) a nd S teven Rosen ( L ith ics ) . The ir f r iendsh ip a nd s uppor t a re g reat ly a pprec ia ted . F ina l ly , I wou ld l i ke t o t hank t he mos t i mpor tant c harac ter t o f ea ture i n t hese a cknow ledgemen ts , my w ife , A l ina . Through t he g ood t imes a nd t he b ad , A l ina h as b een b y my s ide . I n a dd it ion t o h er c r i t ica l m ind , b eau ty a nd p roof r ead ing t a len ts , s he i s a marve l lous c ook . F or a l l o f t hese a t tr ibu tes a nd h er h e lp , It hank h er . L as t b ut n o t l eas t , Is hou ld t hank S andy , o ur B oxer , f or h er c ompan ionsh ip t hroughou t t he w r it ing a nd e d i t ing o f t h is b ook .

Chapter 1 THE ENVIRON MENTAL SETTING OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV

b y

Thomas E van L evy Ne lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy Hebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f Re l ig ion J erusa lem a nd P au l Go ldberg I ns t i tute o f A rchaeo logy , Hebrew Un ivers ity J erusa lem

IN TRODUCT ION I n t h is c hap ter w e a t temp t t o o ut l ine t he more i mpor tant p resent d ay e nv iron men ta l a spec ts o bservab le i n t he Nor thern Negev D eser t o f I s rae l . Th is w i l l s erve a s af ounda t ion o n wh ich t he l a ter p a leoenv ironmen ta l a nd p reh is t o r ic s e t t lemen t p a t tern d ata w i l l b e d iscussed .

GE OMORPHOLOG ICAL ZO NES I NT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV The e n t ire Nor thern Negev i s made u p o f t hree morpho log ica l ly d is t inc t z ones ( F ig . 1 . 1) : t he Gaza o r Negev c oas ta l p la in , t he f oo t h i l l z one , a nd t he n or thern Negev u p land . O f t hese , o n ly t he f i rs t t wo a re c ons idered h ere . I t i s d iff icu lt t o e s t ima te t he e xac t a rea wh ich t he n or thern Negev e ncompasses . However , t he ma in d ra inage ,b as in s ys tem f or t he a rea , Naha l B esor ( F ig . 1 . 2 ) , c overs a n a rea o f 3 , 390 km' ( A t las o f I s rae l , 1 970 , I V/1) a nd c an s erve a s a r easonab le a pprox ima t ion o f t he n or thern Negev a rea .

1 .T he N egev C oas ta l P la in The Negev c oas ta l p la in i s ac on t inuat ion o f t he S ina i c oas ta lp la in t o t he s ou thwes t a nd e x tends f rom Rafah i n t he s ou th t o Naha l S h iqma i n t he n or th . Th is p ort ion o f t he c oas ta l p la in i s b lanke ted b y a ccu mu lat ions o f Quaternary s ands i n t he s outh , a nd b y l oess i n t he n or th . The Negev c oas ta l p la in i s d om inated b y t he l ower Naha l B esor ( t ha t s t ream s egmen t d owns tream f rom t he j unc t ion w ith Naha l B eer S heva ) wh ich d ebouches i n to t he Med iterranean S ea a pprox ima te ly 6 km s ou th o f Gaza ( F ig . 1 . 1) . P r ior t o 1 948 , t he l oca l Negev b edou in t r ibes d iv ided t he l ower B esor d ra inage i n to t hree d is t inc t ive s ec t ions : t he Wad i S h inn iq , t he Wad i S ha l la la

1

S h iqm im I

a nd Wad i Gaza ( F ig . 1 . 1) wh ich r ef lec t t he n a tura l g eomorpho log ica l c harac ter o f t he s ub t le c hanges w ith in t h is l a rge d ra inage s ys tem . I t i sd iff icu l t t o d ef ine t he p rec ise b oundar ies o f t he Negev c oas ta l p la in . I t i s s epara ted f rom t he S hefe la , o r r o l l ing h i l l r eg ion t o t he n or th a nd t he p iedmont o f t he C en tra l Negev H igh lands b y s urface e xposures o f E ocene M iocene mar ine r ocks wh ich f orm a n a bras ion p latform w ith l a ter Neogene d epos i ts . B ased o n t h is o bserva t ion , N ir ( 1975 ) s ugges ts t ha t t he e as tern l im i t o f t he Negev l i t tora l p asses t hrough T e l l Q eshe t , T e l l Nag i la , S hova l , E she l h aNas i a nd T e l l S haruhen ( Te l l e l F a 'ra , s outh ) . The e as tern l im i t o f t he N egev l i t tora l a nd b eg inn ing o f t he p iedmon t z one o ccurs a t a n a l t i tude o f 2 00 -250 me ter s . Th is c ontras ts w i th t he P leshe t c oas ta l p la in t o t he n or th wh ich i sb e tween 1 00 1 60 m , t he S haron P la in a t 5 0 -70 m , a nd t he Nahar iya p la in wh ich i s a t 4 5 m e l eva t ion . P icard ( 1951 , P icard a nd S a lomon ica 1 936 ) d is t ingu ished a s im i lar d iv is ion b e tween t he Negev l i t tora l a nd t he f oo th i l l z one a t a pprox ima te ly t he 1 50 m c ontour a t B eer Z e 'e l im a long t he Naha l B esor ( F ig . 1 . 1) . I n t he s outhern p or t ion o f t he Negev c oas ta l p la in i t i s p o s s ib le t o d is t ingu ish t he " Besor P la in " a s al andscape u n i t ( N ir 1 975 ) . A s s een i n F igure 1 . 1 , t he n or thern p or t ion o f t he B esor p la in i s c harac ter ized b y t he Ruhama b ad lands . The s ou thern p or t ion o f t he B esor p la in wh ich i s c harac ter is t ica l ly f l a t i sc u t b y t he Wad i S ha l la la p or t ion o f t he l ower B esor . The r e la t ive y outh o f t he Negev c oas ta l wad is i se xemp l if ied b y t he Naha ls B esor a nd B eer S heva , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he a rea o f S h iqm im ( s ee Chap ter 3 ; G i lead 1 981 ; Gardner 1 977 ; P r ice -W i l l iams 1 975 ) . I n t he N . B eer S heva , L a te P le is tocene f luv ia l s i l ts c onta in ing E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic i ndus tr ies ( ca . 1 3 ,000 B .P . ) a t t he s umm it h ave b een e roded d own t o t he p resent c hanne l l eve l a nd l a ter f i l led w i th Cha lco l ith ic f luv ia l s i l ts .

2 . T he N or thern N egev F oo th i l l s The t r ans it ion f rom t he Negev c oas ta l p la in i n to t he Negev f oo th i l ls i s marked b y a f a l l l i ne wh ich i s r epresen ted b y P l iocene b each c ong lomera te f ound a t B e 'er Z e 'e l im i n t he Naha l B esor , B eer P a t ish i n t he Naha l P a t ish a nd T e l l e sh -Shar ia i n t he Naha l Garar . A ccord ing t o P icard ( 1958) t he P l iocene o u tcrops f ound i n t he Wad i S h inn iq s egmen t mark t he b eg inn ing o f ag enera l i nc is ion o f t he wad is i n to t he E ocene -O l igocene . Th is c an b e s een i n F igure 1 . 1 wh ich s hows t he N . B eer S heva , N . S ekher , a nd t he u pper N . B esor b ranch ing o ut o ft he ma in l ower B esor d ra inage . L a te P le is tocene d epo s its i nd icate t hat t he f oo th i l l wad is a re o lder t han t he o nes o n t he c oas ta l p la in . Th is i s mo s t c l ear ly d emons tra ted b y t he y ou thfu l n ess o f t he s i l ts i n t he T e l l e l F ara a rea (Mous ter ian t hrough E p ipa laeo l i th ic : P r ice -W i l l ia m s 1 976 ; G i lead 1 981 ; G i lead a nd G r igson 1 985 ) a nd t he B yzan t ine s and d unes i n t he Ha lutza a rea . I n a dd i t ion , ar ecent e l ec tr ic r e s is t iv i ty s urvey i n t he Gevu lo t a rea ( F ig . 1 . 1) r evea led a n a nc ient B esor c hanne l a pprox ima te ly 1 km wes t o f t he p resen t o ne ( Wachs a nd A rad 1 978 ) . The o lder d a te o f t he

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f oo th i l l wad is i s mos t c l ear ly d emons trated i n l ong itud ina l a nd t ransverse wad i c ross -sec t ions ( P icard , 1 951) . The ma in d ra inage c hanne ls o f t he N . A ro 'er , N . B e 'er S heva , N . B eqa , u pper N . B esor ( W . Kha lasa ) a nd N . S hamra ( W . Ruhe iba ) a l l r un t hrough v ery w ide t rough -shaped v a l leys wh ich a re b anked b y g rave l t e rraces i n to wh ich meander ing l oops h ave b een i nc ised . The d eve lopmen t o f t he P le is tocene c oas ta l p la in i sa ssoc ia ted w ith u pward movemen t d ur ing t he Upper P l iocene wh ich i n i t ia ted a r i se a nd e n largemen t o f t he P l iocene c oas ta l p la in . Dur ing t h is p er iod , r ivers e n tered t he r eg ion l y ing b eh ind t he Upper P l iocene s ea w i th i t s t i l ted p enep la in u p t o a n e l evat ion o f 3 10 m ( near Neva t im ; f ig . 1 . 1) . Here t hey h ave c ut t hem se lves d eep ly i n to s of t E ocene c ha lks a nd b roadened t he ir p rof i le c reat ing t he c harac ter is t ic t rough s haped v a l leys o f t he r eg ion ( P la te 1 . 1) . Dur ing t he B asa l P le is tocene , t he r ivers o f t he f oo th i l ls d ischarged i n to t he P le is tocene c oas ta l p la in a nd b u i lt u p e normous g rave l f ans wh ich e x tend a lmos t t o t he c oas t ( F ig . 1 . 3 , S tage c ) . These g rave ls a nd t he o ver ly ing L a te P le is tocene s i l ts w ere i nc ised i n L a te P le is t ocene/Ho locene t imes o n ly a f ter wh ich d id t he ma jor f lood p la ins d eve lop i n t he ma in wad is . Th is i sp ar t icu lar ly e v ident i n t he S h iqm im a rea .

3 .C on t iguous N egev R eg ions The ma jor d ra inages o f t he B esor c a tchmen t b as in h ave t he ir o r ig in i n a reas i mmed ia te ly o u ts ide t he s tudy a rea . These i nc lude t he C en tra l N egev H igh lands , t he Nor thern Negev Up land , a nd t he s outhern p ar t o f t he J udean D eser t . On ly t he l a t ter t wo a re d iscussed b e low . D e ta i led d iscuss ions o f t he o ther a reas c an b e f ound i n N ir ( 1975 ) . The s t eep g rad ien ts i n t he Nor thern N egev Up lands c ontras t w ith t ho se f ound i n t he c oas ta l p la in a nd f oo th i l l z ones . On t he c oas ta l p la in t here i s a r i se o f 1 50 m o ver a d is tance o f 3 5 km . I n t he f oo th i l l z one t he r i se i n e l evat ion i s a bout 2 50 m o ver t he s a me d is tance . However , i n t he u p land z one t here i s ac hange o f o ver 3 00 m o ver 1 8 km ( F ig . 1 . 1) . The n or thern Negev u p lands a re c harac ter ized b y h ard C re taceous l ime s t one i n c on tras t t o t he f oo th i l l z one where s of ter E ocene c ha lks c rop o u t o n t he s urface ( F ig . 1 . 4 ) . An t ic l in ica l r idges a re c apped b y Upper S enon ian f l in t , M idd le C re taceous h ard l imes tones a nd d o lom i tes .

SO ILS I NT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV I n s tudy ing t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , s o i ls c an b e v iewed a s o ne o f s evera l i ndependen t v ar iab les wh ich c an a ffec t t he s uccess o r f a i lure o f p reh is tor ic s oc ie t ies i n a dap t ing t o ag iven e nv ironmen t . Thus , ak now ledge o f t he p resen t n ature o f s o i ls i n ar eg ion w i l l a id i n t he r econs truc t ion o f t he e conom ic s ubs is tence b ase o f p as t s oc ie t ies . We make t he t ac it a ssump t ion t ha t p resen t -day s o i l d is tr ibu t ions a nd t ypes h ave n o t c hanged s i gn if icant ly s ince t he Cha lco l ith ic P er iod .

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The s o i ls r eferred t o i n t h is work c ompr ise s o i l a s soc ia t ions d ef ined a nd u sed b y t he I s rae l M in is try o f Agr icu lture ( Dan e t a l 1 962 , Dan a nd Yaa lon 1 964 ) . T ab le 1 . 1 l i s ts i n d ecreas ing f requency s o i l u n i ts a nd t he a ssoc ia t ions i n wh ich t hey o ccur . The c ap i ta l l e t ters wh ich f o l low e ach s o i l d escr ip t ion o u t l i ned b e low s e rve a s k eys t o t he s o i l d is tr ibu t ion maps u sed i n t h is s tudy ( s ee F igure 1 . 5 ) . 1 .B rown L i thoso ls a nd L oess ia l A r id B rown S o i l s (M ) These a re r e s tr ic ted t o t he h i l ly a reas n or th o f t he B eer S heva b as in . The t opograph ic u n i ts wh ich make u p t h is a ssoc ia t ion c ons is t mos t ly o f s t eep , r ocky a nd e roded s l opes . B rown L i thoso ls a re f ound i n s ma l l d epress ions among r ocks , a nd L oess ia l A r id B rown s o i ls o n p lateaux , f la t h i l ltops , f oo t s lope s a nd i n t e rraces among l a rge v a l leys . W i th in t h is a s soc ia t ion , c o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l s o i ls a re s i tuated i n n arrow v a l leys a nd y oung a l luv ia l l oess ia l s o i ls i n d epres s ions . The u nder ly ing r ocks a re u sua l ly l imes tone , c ha lk , mar l o r c ong lomera te , mos t o f wh ich a re c overed b y ah ard l ime c rus t , l oca l ly c a l led n ar i ( Dan e t a l 1 976 , Dan 1 977 ) . Th is a ssoc ia t ion i s c harac ter is t ic o f moun ta inous r eg ions s uch a s t ha t a round L ahav ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . Annua l p rec ip i tat ion i n r eg ions w i th B rown L itho so ls a nd L oess ia l A r id B rown s o i ls r anges b e tween 2 00 t o 3 00 mm , a l though d rough t i s q u i te f requen t . W i th in t he s tudy a rea t h is a s soc iat ion i s f ound i n i s o la ted c oncen trat ions a bou t 5 . 5 km e as t o f Nevat im i n t he mounta ins n or th o f T e l l Ma lha ta a nd T e l l A rad . S evera l p ocke ts a re l oca ted l e ss t han 2 00 m n or th o f N . B eer S heva i n t he v ic in i ty o f T e l l Masos ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . These a re d ry a reas w i th s t eppe v ege ta t ion o f A r tem is ia h erba -a lba ( Dan in e t a l 1 975 ) . T oday t he s t eep s l opes a nd s ma l ler v a l leys a re u sed p r imar i ly f or g raz ing . The modera te s l opes a nd l a rger v a l leys wh ich h ave t h ick s o i ls a re u sed b y B edou in f or g row ing ma in ly wheat a nd b ar ley .

2 .L oess ia l A r id B rown S o i l s ( N ) Th is a ssoc ia t ion i s t yp ica l o f t he n or thwe s tern Negev a nd o ccurs i n s ma l l a reas i n t he n or theas tern p ar t o f t he Nor thern N egev u sua l ly o n l eve l t o u ndu l a t ing g en t ly s l op ing p la teaux a nd o n d issec ted p la teaux l andscapes w i th h i l ly t opography . W i th in t he s tudy a rea ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) t h is a s soc ia t ion e x tends o ver a w ide a rea f rom t he N . B esor t o a s f ar n or th a s t he s and d une b e l t o n t he Negev c oas t l ine . On t he l e f t b ank o f t he N . B esor , i t e xtends f rom t he c oas t l ine s ou thward t o w i th in 5 km o f T e l l e l F ara . I n t he f oo th i l l z one t o t he e as t , t he L oess ia l A r id B rown S o i ls a s soc iat ion ( N ) i s f ound 2 km n or th o f T e l l Ma lha ta a nd e x tends e as tward a s f ar a s T e l l A rad . I n t he l a t ter , t he h omogene ity o f t he a ssoc iat ion i s b roken b y s ma l l p ocke ts o f B rown L i thoso ls a nd L oess ia l A r id B rown S o i l A ssoc iat ion (M ) . W i th in t h is a s soc ia t ion , L oess ia l A r id B rown S o i ls c over t he more modera te s l opes wh i le o n s t eep , e roded s l ope s i n t he w es tern p or t ion o f t he r eg ion , Quar tz ic P samm ic R es idua l A r id B rown S o i ls , G rumuso l ic Dark B rown S o i ls a nd C layey R egoso ls a re f ound ( Dan e t a l 1 976 ; B ru ins 1 976 ; B ru ins a nd Yaa lon 1 981) . Younger l o ess ia l s o i ls a re s i tuated o n f l ood p la ins a nd i n

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Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

d epress ions . The a s soc iat ion i s f ound i n a reas where t he a nnua l r a infa l l r anges f rom 2 50 t o 3 50 mm . Th is p ar t icu lar s o i l a ssoc iat ion h as b een c u l t iva ted a nd worked f or many c en tur ies a nd t here a re f ew r e mnants o f t he n a tura l v ege ta t ion l e f t ( Naveh a nd Dan 1 971 ; Dan e t a l 1 976 ) . The c u l t iva ted a reas a re c harac ter ized b y s ege ta l v ege ta t ion a s soc ia t ions w i th L eopo ld is e burnea - L o l ium mu l t if lorum i n t he c oas ta l p la in a nd A ch i l lee tum s an to l inea i n t he e as tern f oo th i l l r eg ion . The ma in c rops g rown o n t h is a s soc ia t ion i n t he p as t w ere whea t a nd b ar ley . T oday whea t , b ar ley a nd s orghum a re g rown w i th d ry -farm ing me thods a l t hough i n s t ress y ears t hese c rop s r ece ive s upp lemen tary i r r iga t ion ( Lomas 1 972 ) .

3 .L oess ia l S erozems ( R) Th is a s soc iat ion i s t yp ica l o f t he f oo th i l l z one e spec ia l ly i n t he B eer S heva p la in ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . Sma l l p ocke ts o f t he L oess ia l S erozem ( R ) a s soc iat ion b eg in t o a ppear i n t he v ic in i ty o f S h iqm im a nd Mezad A luf ( S i tes 1 8 , 2 1 , F ig . 1 . 5 ) o n b o th s ides o f t he N . B eer S heva . T hese s o i ls a l so e x tend e as tward a long t he N . B eer S heva f rom t he v ic in i ty o f B eer L ea ( S ite 9 , F ig . 1 . 5 ) a nd d om ina te t he d ra inage a rea t o 3 km e as t o f T e l l Ma lha ta where t he L oess ia l A r id B rown s o i ls ( N ) b eg in . L oess ia l S erozem s ( R ) a re s o mewha t s a l ine a nd a re t yp ica l o f modera te s l opes a nd p la teaux . C oarse t ex tured -S toney S erozems a nd s o me B rown L i thoso ls c harac ter ize t he s t eep s l opes i n t he a s soc ia t ion . The S toney S erozem s a re a l so f ound o n p la teaux , p la ins a nd t e rraces e spec ia l ly i n t he v ic in i ty o f T e l l Ma lha ta ( S i te 9 8 , F ig . 1 . 5 ) . Annua l r a infa l l a s soc ia ted w i th t hese s o i ls r anges f rom 1 50 t o 2 50 mm . I n c u l t ivated a reas t he v ege tat ion i s mos t ly o f t he A ch i l lee tum s an to l ineae a ssoc ia t ion whereas i n n on -cu l t ivated r eg ions t he Hammad ion s copar iae a s soc ia t ion d om ina tes . The l a rge n umber o f B yzan t ine r u ins a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese s o i ls i s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t hese s o i ls h ave b een c u l t iva ted f or a l ong p er iod ( Levy 1 981) . Dan e t a l ( 1976 ) s t a te t ha t whea t a nd b ar ley h ave b een c u l t ivated h ere f or a c ons iderab le p er iod o f t ime a l though y ie lds w ere p oor a nd o n ly a bout o ne c rop i n t hree o r f our was s uccessfu l . R ecent ly , s o me o rchards h ave b een e s tab l ished b y B edou in i n d epre ss ions ( usua l ly b eh ind e ar th d am s ) where t he mo is ture r eg ime i sb e t ter ; i r r iga ted o rchards h ave a l so b een i n troduced r ecen t ly .

4 .B rown L i thoso ls a nd L oess ia l S erozems ( S ) The B rown L itho so ls a nd L oes s ia l S erozem a ssoc ia t ion ( S ) t yp if ies mos t o f t he h i l ly a nd moun ta inous d eser t s t eppe r eg ions o f t he Nor thern a nd C en tra l Negev . I n t he s tudy a rea , t h is a s soc ia t ion b eg ins t o a ppear b e tween t he j unc t ion o f N . S ekher a nd N . B esor ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) where i te xtends e as tward t oward Abu Ma tar ( S ite 1 , F ig . 1 . 5 ) a nd i sa s soc ia ted w i th t he c ha lk h i l ls i n t hat a rea . E as tward a long N . B eer S heva , t hese s o i ls o ccur o n ly i n s ma l l p ocke ts a long t opograph ic h ighs .

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Th is a ssoc ia t ion i s c omposed o f s ha l low B rown L i thoso ls , n umerous r ock o utcrops , a nd R endz in ic D eser t L i thoso ls wh ich c harac ter ize s t eep s l opes . B rown L i thoso ls a re a l so f ound o n s ma l l p la teaux . L oess ia l S erozem s a re s i tua ted o n l a rge p la teaux , b road v a l leys a nd t e rraces . The n arrow v a l leys a re c overed w i th L oess ia l A l luv ia l s o i ls , S toney D eser t A l luv ium , a nd C o l luv ia l A l luv ia l l oess . The p aren t ma ter ia l c ons is ts mo s t ly o f c ha lk , Nan, c her t , l ime s tone a nd d o lom ite . A eo l ian o r r edepos i ted l oess o f ten c over p la teaux a reas a nd s ma l ler v a l leys , r e spec t ive ly . The c l ima te i s a r id w i th a nnua l r a infa l l a verag ing b e tween 8 0 a nd 2 00 mm . S teppe v ege ta t ion o f A r tem is ia h erba -a lba i s c harac ter is t ic o f t h is s o i l a s soc ia t ion a nd mos t o f t he a rea s uppor ts o n ly p oor p as ture , t hough i n s o me o f t he v a l leys w inter c rops a re g rown b y t he B edou in ( Dan e t a l 1 976 ) . Dur ing t he Naba tean , Roman a nd B yzan t ine p er iods , s oph is t ica ted me thods o f wa ter c o l lec t ion a nd wa ter -spread ing w ere u sed t o c u l t iva te t hese s o i ls ( Evenar i e t a l 1 971 ; Kadar 1 957 ; Mayerson 1 961) .

5 .S andy R egoso ls a nd A r id B rown S o i l s ( T ) Th is a s soc ia t ion i st yp ica l o f t he s ou thernmo s t p or t ion o f t he N egev c oas ta l p la in ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) a l though i t e x tends i n land t o t he u pper N . B esor where i t i s f ound i n a l luv ia l v a l leys a nd among t he r ecen t d unes o f t he n or thern N egev f oo th i l ls . I t o ccurs o n l ow , modera te ly s l op ing h i l ls a nd p la ins w i th b road d epres s ions , t yp ica l ly o n s ha l low ( 0 .5 t o 1 . 5m ) y oung s andy d epos i t s wh ich b lanke t t he e nt ire l andscape . I n t he s tudy a rea , P samm ic a nd o ther A r id B rown S o i ls c an b e f ound b eneath t he s and . Where d epress ions e x is t , t he s and i s t h icker a nd c overs s i l ty l oess ic d epos i ts wh ich r epresen t t he b u lk o f t he p aren t ma ter ia l . The r a infa l l a ssoc ia ted w i th t he " T " s o i ls r anges b e tween 1 50 t o 2 50 mm p er y ear A r tem is ia mono sperma - L o l ium mu l t if lorum , t he c ommon v ege ta t ion a s soc iat ion , i s f ound i n t he a rea n or th o f Z e 'e l im ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . I n t he c oas ta l p la in , B edou in h ave g rown a lmonds a nd o ther f ru i t t r ees , wa terme lon , a nd b ar ley u nder d ry f arm ing c ond i t ions .

6 .S and Dunes ( V ) These d epos i ts a re f ound a long t he c oas t where t he W . Gaza emp t ies i n to t he Med iterranean a nd a l so i n land ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . The l a rges t g roup o f i n land d unes , t he Ha lu tza a nd S hunra d unes , l oca ted a bout 4 km s ou th o f t he N . B esor/N . B eer S heva c onf luence d isp lay b o th c rescen t ic a nd l ong i tud ina l f orm s . Annua l r a infa l l f or t hese d une a reas v ar ies f rom 1 00 t o 1 50 mm ; v ege ta t ion i s c harac ter ized b y t he A r tem is ia monosperma a s soc iat ion . I n g enera l , t hey a re n o t s u i tab le f or a gr icu lture a l though w ith modern a gro techn ica l me thods t hey c an b e made p roduc t ive ( Na t iona l A cademy o f S c ience 1 974 ; S chech ter 1 977) .

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Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

7 .R egoso ls (W ) R egoso ls a re p oor ly d eve loped s o i ls o f l oose ma ter ia ls , a nd a re d is tr ibuted a long t he t e rrace e scarpmen ts o f t he b ad lands n ear t he l ower N . B esor a nd N . B eer S heva ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . I n t he s tudy a rea t hey e x tend f rom T e l J emma e as tward t o t he v ic in i ty o f Neva t im . A long t h is s t re tch wh ich f o l lows t he ma jor d ra inages , s ma l l p ocke ts o f S andy R egoso ls a nd A r id B rown S o i ls ( T ) a nd L oes s ia l S erozem s ( R ) o ccur a s e ros iona l r e mnan ts a ssoc ia ted w i th b ad land t e rra in . The R egoso l a s soc iat ion i sc omposed o f v ar ious s o i l t ypes . Young a l luv ia l s o i ls a re f ound i n l ower t e rraces a nd a long g u l ly b o t toms ; t he p aren t ma ter ia l i s mo s t ly l oess , s and , Hamra a nd c lay . Annua l r a infa l l a s soc iated w ith t hese s o i ls v ar ies f rom c a . 3 50 mm a long t he c oas ta l p la in t o c a . 1 50 mm i n t he B eer S heva b as in t o t he e as t . V ege tat ion i s a l so q u i te v ar iab le a l though i n t he b ad lands t here i s a mosa ic o f m icro -assoc ia t ions c ons is t ing o f dwarf s hrubs a nd a nnua ls wh ich r e spond t o d ifferences i n t he t ype o f s o i l s ubs tra te ( Dan e t a l 1 976 ) . I n t he d r ier B eer S heva Va l ley t here i s a d om inance o f A nabas is a r t icu la ta , S a l so la t e tranda , H e l ian themum s t ipu la tum o r H . S ess i l if lorum .

VE GETAT ION F our p hy togeograph ica l r eg ions mee t i n t he n or thern Negev a nd J udean D eser t . These a re t he Med i terranean , I rano -Turan ian , S aharo -Arab ian , a nd S udan ian r eg ions . O f t hese , t he I rano -Turan ian v ege ta t ion t yp if ies t he s tudy a rea where v ar ious v ege ta t ion mosa ics o ccur . Th is r eg ion c orresponds t o v ege t a t ion d is tr ic ts 5 ( Nor thern Negev f oo th i l l z one ) a nd 6 ( coas ta l p la in ) o f Dan in ( 1983 ) ( F ig . 1 . 6 ) . The f o l low ing d escr ip t ion h igh l igh ts t he v ege tat iona l e l emen ts o f t hese t wo n e ighbour ing z ones .

1 .N or thern N egev F oo th i l l s I n tens ive g raz ing b y B edou in l i ves tock a nd t he c ut t ing o f l i gn if ied p lan ts f or f i rewood h ave d es troyed a g rea t d ea l o f t he n a tura l v ege tat ion i n t he f oo th i l ls . Dur ing t he w inter s eason , many a reas a re d om inated b y A sphode lus m icrocarpus wh ich i s o f l i t t le v a lue s ince i t i s n e i ther p a la tab le n or l i gn if ied ( Dan in 1 983 :46 ) . Thus , t h is p lan t i sa n i nd ica tor o f p ro longed o vergraz ing . I n g enera l , t he ma in p lan t a s soc ia t ion i s r e la ted d irec t ly t o t he t ype o f t he u nder ly ing s ubs tra te wh ich h ere i nc ludes h ard E ocene c ha lk h i l ls , l oess ia l s o i ls , a nd s andy s o i ls ( s ee T ab le 1 . 2a ) . The s em i -shrub v ege tat ion f ound o n t he h ard c ha lk h i l ls c hanges f rom t he r e lat ive ly w e t n or thern a rea where N oaea mucrona ta a nd A r tem is ia h erba -a lba a re d om inan t ; i n t he d r ier a reas t o t he s ou th Z ygophy l ium d umosum d om inates . The mo is t m icrohab itats o f t he n or t hern s l opes o f t hese h i l ls o ccas iona l ly s uppor t a Med i terranean B a tha v ege ta t ion wh ich i s d om ina ted b y l ow dwarf e vergreen s hrubs s uch a s S a lv ia a nd T hymus .

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L ong term c u lt iva t ion o n t he e x tens ive l oess ia l d epo s i ts i n t he f oo th i l l z one h as c l eared mos t o f t he o r ig ina l v ege ta t ion . I n t he B eer S heva a nd A rad p la ins , t he s o i ls a re c u l t iva ted f or w in ter c erea ls a nd c onsequent ly many w i ld p lants o ccur . However , many o f t he w i ld p lan ts o ccur i n n on -cu lt ivated l oess ia l s o i ls ( Dan in 1 983 ) . S ome a re o b l igatory weeds s uch a s A ch i l lea s an to l ina a nd Hyoscyamus r e t icu la tus wh ich d isappear w ith in a f ew y ears a f ter c u lt iva t i on c eases . However , A . s an to l ina i sf ound i n s ma l l wad is a nd i n f ine -gra ined s o i ls i n t he s em i -s teppe b athas . Dan in ( 1983 ) p o ints o u t t ha t t he v ege tat ion o f t he c u lt iva ted l oe ss a reas c onta ins a h igher i nc idence o f Med i terranean c omponen ts t han u ncu l t iva ted a reas . S andy loess ia l s o i ls l oca ted o n t he w es tern marg in o f t he f oo th i l l z one p rov ide more d ense a reas o f p as ture l and . Approx ima te ly 1 5 km s ou thwes t o f B eer S heva n ear N . S ekher ( F ig . 1 . 6 ) , w indb lown s ands f rom t he Ha lu tza d unes a re m ixed w i th t he l i thoso ls d eve loped o n h ard c ha lk . These s andy l i thoso ls h ave a h igher c apac i ty f or wa ter i nf i l tra t ion a nd c on ta in a more f avourab le water r eg ime t han t he s i l ty l i thoso ls ( Dan in 1 983 ) . C onsequen t ly , i n t h is a rea , s hrubs a re l a rger , t he ir d ens i ty h igher a nd a ssoc ia ted s pec ies a re p sammo p hy tes ; t r ees , h owever , a re v ery r are . O ccas iona l ly , Z iz iphus s p ina -chr is t i o f S udan ian o r ig in a nd A cac ia r add iana a re f ound i n wad is . Goren a nd G i lead ( 1986 ) h ave r epor ted a n umber o f " pas tora l " c amps d a t ing f rom t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod i n t h is a rea .

2 . T he N egev C oas ta l P la in Mos t o f t he Negev c oas ta l p la in h as b een c u l t iva ted f or c en tur ies wh ich makes i t a lmos t i mpo ss ib le t o r econs truc t t he n a tura l v ege tat ion o f t h is z one ( Dan in 1 983 ) . Natura l v ege tat ion i s r e s tr ic ted t o t he b ad land a reas a long t he l ower N . B esor a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies . L ike t he f oo th i l l z one , af ew t r ees o f A cac ia r add iana a nd Z iz iphus s p ina -chr is t i g row i n t hese a reas . The more h um id c ond i t ions f ound o n t he Negev c oas ta l p la in , t he a bundance o f w in ter w eeds , a nd t hese r e mnant t r ees h ave l e ad Dan in ( 1983 ) t o s ugges t t hat t he l andscape was d om ina ted b y s avanna l ike v ege ta t ion c ons is t ing o f a nnua l g rasses a nd s cat tered t r ees . The s em i -shrub N oaea mucrona ta i s f ound a t u nd is turbed s i tes a nd may i nd icate t ha t i ta l so g rew o n l oess ia l s o i ls b efore e xtens ive c u l t iva t ion o ccurred . The v ege ta t ion o f t he c oas ta l p la in i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he f oo th i l l z one , h owever , a w ider r ange o f w eeds g row o n t he c oas ta l p la in . T he p r inc ipa l d ifferences . in v ege tat ion b e tween t hese t wo a reas i so u t l ined i n T ab le 1 . 2b . I n a reas where t he s and c ontent i ncreases , s uch a s o n t he c oas ta l p la in , t he v ege tat ion i s c harac ter ized a s d ense a nd d om inated b y A r tem is ia mono sperma a nd o ther p sa mmophy tes . The s t ems o f A . monosperma a re u sed f or f ue l a nd b u i ld ing b y l oca l r e s iden ts t o t h is d ay . A . monosperma r e sprou ts a nd g erm i na tes r ap id ly a nd d ense s t ands s t i l l o ccur d esp i te h uman p ressure s ( Dan in 1 983) .

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Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

CL IMATE O FT HE NO RTHERN NE GEV I n g enera l , I s rae l b e longs t o t he Med i terranean c l ima t ic z one c harac ter ized b y h o t , d ry s ummers a nd c oo l , w e t w in ters . The Negev , h owever , d iffers f rom t he r e s t o f I s rae l a nd c an b e s ub -d iv ided i n to t wo c l ima t ic s ub -reg ions : t he s em i -ar id n or thern Negev wh ich i nc ludes a pprox imate ly h a lf o f t he Nor thern Negev , a nd t he r e s t o f t he Negev wh ich i s at ru ly a r id d eser t . A ccord ing t o Thorn thwa i te 's ( 1948 ) mo is ture i ndex wh ich t akes i n to c ons idera t ion r a infa l l , p o ten t ia l e vapo tran -sp ira t ion , a nd wa ter a va i lab i l i ty t o p lan ts , t he who le o f t he Negev i s c harac ter ized b y an egat ive i ndex , r epresen ta t ive o f s em i -ar id t o a r id c l ima tes . U s ing Koppen a nd Ge iger 's c l ass if ica t ion ( A t las o f I s rae l , 1 970 : I V/3 ) , mos t o f t he Nor thern Negev i sc l ass if ied a s B Shs , o r ah o t s t eppe c l imate w ith w inter r a infa l l ; mo s t o f t he s ou thern Negev , o n t he o ther h and , f a l ls i n to t he BWHs c ategory c orrespond ing t o ah o t d eser t w i th w in ter r a infa l l . The l a t ter me thod wh ich t akes i n to a ccount r a infa l l , mean a nnua l t emperature , mean t empera ture o f t he warmes t a nd c o ldes t months , h um id i ty a nd n a ture o f t he d ry s eason , s eems a b e t ter i nd ica tor o f t he s em i -ar id n a ture o f t he n or thern Negev c oas ta l p la in a nd t he f oo th i l l z one d iscussed a bove .

1 .T empera ture T emperatures v ary a cro ss t he s tudy a rea b ecause o f g eograph ica l l oca t ion , d ifferences i n a l t i tude , e xposure t o mar ine i nf luence a nd d om inan t w ind d irec t ions . On t he a verage a nnua l t empera tures r ange b e tween 1 9 °2 1 °C . Under n orma l c ond it ions , t he c o ldes t mon th o f t he y ear i s J anuary when t empera tures i n t he Negev c oas ta l p la in a verage 1 2 °14"C a nd i n t he n or thern Negev f oo th i l ls f rom 1 0 °12 °C ( Orn i a nd E fra t 1 976 ) . S ea t empera tures wh ich r each t he ir l owes t v a lues l a te i n t he y ear h ave l i t t le i nf luence o n i n land a i r t empera tures a t t h is t ime ( A t las o f I s rae l 1 970 : I V/1) . I n t he c o lder months t he l and i s c oo ler t han t he s ea a nd t he ma in r egu la t ing f ac tor i s t he d rop o f t emperature w i th a l t i tude . T he h o t tes t mon th o f t he y ear i s Augus t when t he e n t ire a rea e xper iences a verage t empera tures r ang ing b e tween 2 6 °28 °C . The c on t inen ta l ity o f t he Negev c l ima te i s b es t i lus tra ted b y t he d iurna l s pan o f t empera tures i n B eer S heva d ur ing May a nd J une wh ich r each 1 5 °1 6 °C . On s ummer d ays , t empera tures i ncrease f rom t he c oas t i n land . Dur ing Augus t t he t empera tures o n t he Negev c oas t a verage b e tween 2 6 °28 °C ; i n B eer S heva , 3 3 .7 °C ; f ur ther e as t a t O ron , 3 5 .1 °C ; a nd E i la t 4 0 °C a nd o ver ( Orn i a nd E fr a t 1 976 ) .

2 .P rec ip i ta t ion L ike mos t Med i terranean c oun tr ie s I s rae l r ece ives r a in o n ly i n w in ter ; s ummers a re l ong , v ery d ry a nd h o t . Ra infa l l o ccurs p r inc ipa l ly a s ar e su l t o f t he p assage o f b arome tr ic l ows e spec ia l ly t hose c en tered o ver t he i s land o f C yprus . Dur ing t he s ummer t he a rea i s c harac ter ized b y r e lat ive ly l ow p ressure a ssoc ia ted w i th t he I nd ian Monsoon a l though n o t e nough mo is ture i s p resent t o r e su lt i n p rec ip i ta t ion .

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F igure 1 . 7 , a map o f t he mean a nnua l r a infa l l i l lus trates t he n or th t o s ou th v ar ia t ion o ver t he s tudy a rea . The ma jor i ty o f t he a rea r ece ives l e ss t han 1 00 mm a nnua l ly i n c on tras t t o c er ta in a reas i n t he n or thern p ar ts o f t he c oun try wh ich r ece ive o ver 1 000 mm . Th is s t rong g rad ien t i s e xp la ined b y t he g rea ter d is tance o f t he s ou thern a reas f rom t he c enter o f t he w in ter d epress ions . A s t he Negev i s r e la t ive ly f ar f rom t he C yprus d epress ion , i t r ece ives l i t t le p rec ip ita t ion . O ccas iona l ly , h owever , t he d epress ions move f ur ther s ou th wh ich r esu l ts i n g rea ter r a infa l l . The r a infa l l i n a l l a reas o f t he Negev i s e x treme ly v ar iab le . F or e xamp le , i n 1 944/45 B eersheva r ece ived b e tween 2 00 a nd 3 00 mm o f r a infa l l ( F ig . 1 . 8 ) wh i le t wo y ears l a ter , 1 946/47 , i t r ece ived l e ss t han 1 00 mm ( f ig . 1 . 9 ) . S im i lar ly , S h iv ta , s o me 4 0 km s ou thwes t o f B eer s heva r ece ived 2 4 .8 mm i n 1 962/63 a nd 1 45 mm i n t he f o l low ing w e t y ear ( Evenar i e t a l 1 971 : 3 1) . L oca l f ac tors , s uch a s d is tance f rom t he s ea a l so i nf luence t he amoun t o f p rec ip i ta t ion . Gaza , f or e xamp le , r ece ives a bout 4 00 mm a y ear wh i le i n t he f oo th i l l z one o n ly 2 00 t o 3 00 mm f a l l a nnua l ly ; A rad i n t he e as ternmos t p ar t o f t he s tudy a rea r ece ived o n ly 1 44 mm o f a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion d ur ing 1 y ears o f me teoro log ica l r ecord k eep ing ( I srae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice 1 967 ) . 3 . Hum id i ty Re la t ive h um id i ty d ecreases f rom t he Med i terranean c oas t i n land ( Orn i a nd E fr a t 1 976 ; F ig . 1 . 10 ) . On t he c oas ta l p la in a t N ir im , 7 . 5 km s ou thwes t o f N . B esor , t he a verage r e la t ive h um id i ty i s o n ly s l igh t ly l e ss t han t ha t a t T e l Av iv ( 70 t o 8 0% ) . F ur ther i n land i n t he B eer S heva r eg ion , t he a nnua l a verage i s5 8% wh i le a t O ron t o t he s outh i ti so n ly 4 8% .

4 .E vapora t ion Observa t ions o n t he e vapora t ion o f wa ter f rom o pen wa ter s urface w ere c arr ied o u t u s ing t he U .S . Wea ther B ureau C lass A e vaporat ion p an ( A t las o f I s rae l 1 970 : I V/3 ) . W i th in t he s tudy a rea ( F ig . 1 . 11) , t he a nnua l e vapora t ion v ar ies f rom 1 30 cm a long t he c oas t t o 1 70 cm i n t he v ic in i ty o f T e l A rad ; f or t he l a t ter wh ich r ece ives 2 00 mm o f r a in , t h is i s 8 . 5 t imes g rea ter t han t he amoun t o f a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion . S trong e vapora t ion i s n o t o n ly r e spons ib le f or d ry ing t he s o i l b u t a l so i ncreas ing t he c oncen tra t ion o f s a l ts i n t he u pper s o i l h or izons ( Goud ie a nd W i lk inson 1 977 ) .

5 .D ew D ewfa l l p rov ides a n a dd i t iona l amount o f mo is ture f or c rop s e ven d ur ing t he h ot d ry s eason . F or e xamp le , t he a rea o f Khan Yun is , s ou th o f Gaza n ear t he c oas t , h as a bou t 2 50 d ew n igh ts a y ear wh ich i s r e spons ib le f or i t b e ing a ma jor c en ter f or g row ing s ummer c rops s uch a s wa terme lons ( Ashbe l 1 973 ) . I n land t o t he e as t t he n umber o f n ights w ith d ewfa l l d ecreases s o mewha t : a t t he j unc t ion b e tween N . B esor a nd N . B eer S heva t h is a verages 1 60 n igh ts ; a t Hazer im t he a verage i s 1 20 t o 1 60 n ights . E as t o f A rad t he n umber o f d ew

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Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmenta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

n igh ts i ncreases t o 1 60 -200 , p r imar i ly a s ar e su l t o f g rea ter e l eva t ion . On t he c oas t d ew i s mos t a bundan t d ur ing t he mon ths o f May a nd J une ( Orn i a nd E fr a t 1 976 ) .

6 .H ea t Waves A k hams in ( Hebrew = s harav ) h eat wave o ccurs when a l ow p ressure s ys tem a rr ives f rom t he wes t b r ing ing e as ter ly , d ry w inds f rom t he A rab ian d eser ts ; t empera tures c an r i se u p t o 4 5 °C a nd h um id i ty f a l ls t o 1 0% ( Ashbe l 1 973 ) . The p hys io log ica l e ffec ts o n man , a n ima l a nd p lant c an b e e x treme ( Evenar i e t a l 1 971) . These c ond i t ions t end t o o ccur a t t he s pr ing a nd a utumn s easons . The n umber o f s harav d ays v ar ies a t d ifferen t l oca l i t ies w i th in t he s tudy a rea a nd i si lus tra ted i n F igure 1 . 12 .

FA UNA

1 .W i ld l if e The g eograph ic l ocat ion o f I s rae l a t t he c rossroads b e tween A fr ica a nd A s ia i s r e spons ib le f or t he o ccurrence o f t hree z oo -geograph ic r eg ions : t he Med i terranean r eg ion , t he I rano -Turan ian r eg ion , a nd t he S aharo -Arab ian r eg ion . I n t he Negev , t here i s o ne o u ts tand ing d emarca t ion b e tween a n ima l d is tr ibu t ions wh ich S hko ln ik ( 1971) r efers t o a s t he " Ramon L ine . " The Ramon L ine r uns n ear t he n or thern r idge o f t he h uge e ros ion c rater Makhtesh Ramon , c on t inues n or thward t o t he Hazera a n t ic l ine a nd f ina l ly a rr ives i n t he Z ohar a rea n ear t he D ead S ea . S hko ln ik h as s hown t ha t n or th w es t o f t h is l i ne s em i -ar id a n ima ls w i th Med i terranean a ff in i t ies o ccur whereas t o t he s ou theas t d eser t a n ima ls a re mos t c ommon . He s ugges t s t hat t he Ramon L ine i s ma in ly a f unc t ion o f t he c l ima t ic g rad ient wh ich r uns NW/SE i n I s rae l ; h owever , l oca l f ac tors s uch a s t opography a nd s o i l c ond i t ions a l so a ffec t a n ima l d is tr ibu t ions . The f auna o f t he n or thern Negev f a l ls n or thwes t o f t h is L ine . I n c ontras t t o t he more a r id a reas t o t he s ou theas t , t he b io tope i n t he s tudy a rea i s t he c l ass ic h ab i tat o f many i nver tebra tes s uch a s b ee t les , f i sh ta i ls , s o l ifuges , c en t ipedes , s corp ions a nd s p iders . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f r ep t i les , e spec ia l ly s nakes a nd l i zards i s h igh n or thwes t o f t he Ramon L ine a nd l ower t o t he s outheas t ( A t las o f I s rae l 1 970 ; V II/1) . The s andy a reas i n t he w es tern p or t ion o f t he Negev c oas ta l p la in h ave b een i nvaded b y many d eser t a n ima ls a nd p lan ts , i nc lud ing t he E th iop ian h edgehog ( Paraechnus a e th iop icus) , t he b rown -necked r aven ( Corvus c orax r uf icu l l is) , C l ifford 's s nake ( Spa lerosoph is c l ifford i) , f r inged toed l i zard ( Acan thodac ty lus b osk ianus) a nd t he E gyp t ian l eopard l izard ( A . p arda l is) Rum inan ts s uch a s t he g aze l le ( Gaze l la d orcas) a re f ound i n t he n or thern N egev a nd a re h igh ly a dap ted t o t he d eser t e nv ironmen t (Mende lsohn 1 975 ) . T hey c an b e s een i n t he e ar ly morn ing i n s ummer o n l ow h i l l tops a d jacen t t o

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N . B eer S heva . Dur ing t he i n it ia l a rchaeo log ica l s urvey o f t he a rea ( Levy 1 981) g aze l le were e ncountered w i th in 2 km o f t he c hanne l wh ich p robab ly s e rves a s t he ir p r imary h ab ita t . Mos t o f t he y ear , s urface water i n t he wad is i s a bsen t b u t s o me r epor ts ( C loudes ly -Thompson a nd Ghorb ia l 1 965 ; C ar l is le a nd Ghorb ia l 1 968 ) s ugges t t ha t g aze l le c an e x is t w i thout s t and ing wa ter , s urv iv ing o n mo is ture o b ta ined f rom s hrubs , e spec ia l ly A cac ia t o r t i l is ( Dekeyser 1 955 ) . S pec ies s uch a s w i ld g oat o r i bex ( Capra i b ex n ub iana) a re n o l onger f ound i n t he r esearch a rea . The h ab ita ts wh ich c harac ter ize t hese a n ima ls s uch a s c l iff f aces a nd h igh g round a re more c ommon i n t he C en tra l Negev H igh lands . C arn ivores were a l so o b served i n t he r e search a rea . These i nc lude w i ldca t ( Fe l is o cera ta) , h yaena (Hyaena s t r ia ta) , t he d eser t f ox ( Vu lpes r upe l i) , a nd t he c araca l l ynx ( Fe l is c araca l ) ( Shko ln ik 1 971) . O s tr ich ( S tru th io c ame lus) e ggshe l ls w ere p er iod ica l ly f ound i n t he s tudy a rea . A ccord ing t o Marks ( 1976c ) o s tr ich was c ommon i n t he c en tra l N egev u n t i l s o me t ime a f ter Wor ld War I . Dur ing t he b eg inn ing o f t h is c entury t hese b irds w ere h un ted a nd s o ld i n l oca l marke ts . The r e ma ins o f o s tr ich e gg s he l ls a re a l so k nown f rom t he k urkar s ands tone r idges a long t he c oas ta l p la in wh ich i s more Med i terranean i n c harac ter ( Tchernov 1 976 ) . The h ab i ta t o f t he o s tr ich was mos t ly o pen g round i nc lud ing l oess ia l p la ins .

2 )

Domes t ica ted D eser t A n ima l s

a ) C ame l -I n as tudy o f n or th A rab ian B edou in s oc ie t ies Swee t ( 1978 ) h as s hown t he i mpor tance o f t he c ame l a s as t ra teg ic r e source f or s oc ie t ies l i v ing i n a r id l ands . C a me ls a re e conom ica l ly v a luab le a s t ranspor t a n i ma ls a nd a s a s ource o f mea t . I n a dd i t ion , f e ma les p rov ide u p t o 1 0 l i tres o f m i lk p er d ay wh ich c an b e d runk o r made i n to c heese . Three k g o f h igh -qua l i ty woo l c an b e s heared a nnua l ly f or w eav ing b lanke ts o r o ther i t ems . The c ame l i s d ifferent f rom mo s t o ther a n ima ls i n t he d egree o f d ehydrat ion i t c an w i ths tand . These l a rge a n ima ls c an l o se 2 7% o f t he ir b ody wa ter w ithout d a mage , a nd a t t he s a me t ime , c an k eep t he v o lume a nd wa ter c on ten t o f t he ir b lood a t ar e lat ive ly c ons tant l eve l . When wa ter i s a va i lab le , i t c an r ep len ish t he v o lume l o s t w i th in a f ew m inu tes ( Evenar i e t a l 1 971) . The c ame l h as a s pec ia l ized k idney mechan ism wh ich s aves water b y c oncen trat ing u r ine . I t a l so h as t he a b i l i ty t o e xcre te d ry f eces . b ) Donkey - The d onkey i s a b le t o s urv ive o n t h is t le a nd s t raw wh ich e nab les i t t o p ene trate e ven t he mo s t a r id a reas o f t he Negev . I t c an t o lerate d ehydrat ion o f u p t o 3 0% o f i t s b ody w e igh t , a nd a l though i t l o ses a t r emendous amoun t o f water , t he d onkey 's b lood v o lume r e ma in s a lmos t c ons tan t . B y e vaporat ing s weat , i t c an r egu la te i t s b ody t emperature o ver a w ide r ange o f amb ient c ond i t ions , 3t o 4t imes t ha t o f t he c ame l . Thus , t he d onkey 's a b i l i ty t o d r ink 2 5% o f i t s own b ody w e igh t i n af ew m inute s ' t ime i s q u i te s i gn if icant f or i t s a dap ta t ion t o t he a r id d esert e nv iron men t .

1 2

Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

c ) S heep - The l oca l Negev b reed o f s heep , t he f a t ta i led Awass i s heep , i s f ound t hroughou t t he d eser ts o f t he M idd le E as t . E venar i e t a l ( 1971) s ugges t t ha t t he Awass i s heep i s p robab ly a n o ffshoo t o f t he s t eppe s heep ( Ov i s v igne i) o r ig inat ing i n t he d eser ts a nd s em i -deser ts b order ing I s rae l . The Awas s i s heep h as t he a b i l ity o f d r ink ing o nce a d ay a nd g raz ing a n a rea o f u p t o 1 5 t o 2 0 km away f rom t he wa ter s ource . S heep a re a b le t o move wh i le t hey g raze wh ich c on tras ts w ith c a t t le t ha t h ave t o s t and s t i l l wh i le g raz ing . The f a t t a i l o f t he Awas s i s heep h e lps t he a n ima l a dap t t o t he s easona l f luc tuat ions o f t he d eser t e nv ironmen t . Dur ing t he w inter a nd e ar ly s pr ing mon ths , i t b u i lds u p f ood r e serves i n i t s t a i l f or t he c om ing s ummer mon ths . The ma le c an s t ore u p t o 1 0 k g o f f a t a nd f e ma le u p t o 5k g i n t he ir t a i ls . The f at c oncen tra tes i n o ne p ar t icu lar a rea o f t he a n ima l 's b ody i n s tead o f b e ing d is tr ibu ted e ven ly b enea th t he s k in . Th is a l lows t he Awas s i s heep t o d is s ipate h ea t f rom a l l o ver t he b ody a nd p reven ts i nsu la t ion wh ich i sc ommon w ith a n i ma ls who l i ve i n t emperate a nd A r t ic c ond i t ions . Awass i s heep a re a l so a b le t o t o lerate d ehydra t ion a nd r e lat ive ly g rea t c hanges i n b lood v o lume . L ike t he d onkey , t hese s heep c an r ep len ish l o s t wa ter w i th in s econds e ven a f ter l o s ing 5 t o 9l i tres o f wa ter i n ap er iod o f f ive d ays . d ) G oa t - The b lack -ha ired , b lue -eyed g oa t ( Caprus h i reus mambr ica?) , s o me t i mes k nown a s t he B edou in g oat , a bounds i n a reas where n o o ther d omes t i c r um inan t , e xcep t t he c ame l , c an s urv ive . I n t he S ina i d eser t , t he B edou in wa ter t hem o n ly o nce e very 2 t o 4d ays , e ven d ur ing t he s ummer ( Shko ln ik e t a l 1 975 ) . L ike o ther d omes t icated d eser t a n i ma ls , t he B edou in g oat h as t he a b i l ity t o r ep len ish b ody wa ter l o ss b y d r ink ing wa ter e xceed ing 4 0% o f i t s b ody w e igh t i n o n ly a f ew m inu tes . S hko ln ik e t a l ( 1975 ) a l so o bserved t ha t t h is g oat c an ma inta in h igh m i lk p roduc t ion e ven d ur ing p er iods o f wa ter s hor tage .

SUMMARY The Naha l B eer S heva - L ower Naha l B esor d ra inage f lows t hrough t wo d is t inc t p hys iograph ic r eg ions wh ich i nc lude t he N egev c oas ta l p la in a nd t he i n land f oo th i l l z one . A s w i l l b e s een i n s ubsequen t c hap ters , v ar ia t ions i n t he p hys ica l r e l ief , s o i l t ypes , c l ima te a nd o ther v ar iab les p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n s hap ing t he c u l tura l d eve lopmen t o f p ro to -h is tor ic s oc ie t ies i n t he n or thern Negev . L ong term h is tor ic c u l t iva t ion , o vergraz ing a nd t he c u t t ing o f l i gn if ied p lan ts f or f i rewood h ave g rea t ly a l tered t he v ege tat ion c over a nd s o me o f t he d eser t l andscape u n i ts i n t he r eg ion . I n t he f o l low ing d iscuss ions a nd s tud ies o f t he n or thern Negev p a laeoenv ironmen ts ( Chap ters 2 a nd 3 ) , a n a t temp t i s made t o f i l ter o ut t he e ffec ts o f p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic l and u se i n t he r eg ion a nd t o r econs truc t t he Cha lco l i th ic l andscape .

1 3

S h iqm im I T ab le 1 . 1

MAIN OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOIL UNITS

IN

THE I SRAEL SOIL ASSOCIATIONS AND CLOSEST EQUIVALENT TO AMERICAN AND FAO SOIL CLASSIFICATIONS

Soil Association

American

FAO

in which it

Classification

Soil Units

Rhodoxeralfs

Luvisols

Red Mediterranean s oils

Rhodoxeralfs

Luvisols

Brown Hamra Soils

Haploxeralfs

Luvisols

Basaltic Brown

Haploxeralfs &

Mediterranean Soils

Haploxerolls

Luvisols

Rhodoxeralfs

Luvisols

Soil Unit

occurs

*

Hamra soils Basaltic a nd tuffic

Husmas Soils

KE H J W

Residual & Cummulic Dark Brown Soils

KH E W

Residual Quartzic-

Luvisols &

Xerochrepts

Cambisols

Haploxeralfs,

Luvisols,

Xerochrepts &

Cambisols,

Chromoxererts

Vertisols

T N

Haploxeralfs

Xerosols

N M T

Haploxeralfs &

Xerosols

Grumusolic Dark Brown Soils

Haploxeralfs &

KB N W

psammic arid Brown Soils Loessial Arid Brown

Xerochrepts

Soils Alluvial Brown Soils

Haplagids &

P L

Xerosols

Camborthids Stony Arid Brown Soils

Palexeralfs,

P N M

Xerosols

Haploxeralfs & X erochrepts Loessial Serozemes

RS

Haplargids

Yermosols

Stony S erozemes

RS P

Paleorthids,

Yermosols

Calciorthids Haplargids & Paleargids Haplagids,some

Residual Quartzicpsammic S erozems

1 4

Calciorthids

Yermosols

Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmenta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev T ab le 1 . 1

( continued )

Soil Unit

Soil Association

American

FAO

in which it

Classification

Soil Units

Xerochrepts,

Cambisols,

occurs

Calcareous Serozems

LW

R eg Soils

X Y

Calciorthids &

Xerosols

Gypsiorhids

Yermsols

&

Gypsiorthids,

Solonchaks

some Camborthids Grumusols

H D G F B A K W

Terra Rossas

A

Xererts

Vertisols

X erochrepts,

Luvisols

Haploxerolls,

Gambisols

&

some Agrixerolls & Rhodoxeralfs Brown Rendzina

B A D

Haploxerolls

Rendzinas

Pale Rendzinas

CB A D

Xerorthents &

Lithosols &

Haploxerolls

Rendzinas

Haploxerolls,

Rendzinas,

X erochrepts,

Cambisols

Pararendzina

J K E

Xerorthents

&

&

Lithosols

X eropsamments Basaltic Protogrumusols

DH

Xerochrepts

&

Cambisols

Haploxerolls

Phaeozems

Basaltic Lithosols

FD

X erothents

Lithosols

Brown Lithosols

MS P

Torriorthents,

Lithosols

&

s ome Haploxerolls Rendzinic Desert Lithosols

S W M L

Torriorthents,

Lithosols

some Haploxerolls Calcareous Desert Lithosols X

Torriorthents

R egosols

Xerothents,

W F

Lithosols

s ome Regosols

Torriorthents Colluvial-alluvial

soils

AB D C F

Xerofluvents,

Fluvisols,

some HaploxerollsPhaeozems & & Xerochrepts Alluvial Soils

H K E

1 5

Xerofluvents,

Fluvisols

Haploxerolls

Phaeozems,

& Xerochrepts

Cambisols

S h iq m im I T ab le 1 . 1

( continued )

Soil Unit

Soil Association

American

FAO

i n which it

Classification

Soil U nits

Torrifluvents &

F luvisols

o ccurs *

Coarse Desert

YX S

Torripsamments

Alluvium Sandy Soils

V Y

Quartzipsamm-

Areno-

ents & Torri-

s oils

psamments L oess a nd D esert

ZS M N R

Colluvial-Alluvial

Torrifluvents &

F luvisol

X erofluvents

Alluvial Soils

Torrifluvents

MS

F luvisol

l oess

& X erofluvents

H ighly Calcareous Loamy

Torrifluvents

F luvisols

Saprists

Histosols

Haplaquents

G leysols

A lluvial S oils Peat & Organo-mineral Soils G ley & Hydromorphic

G L H

S oils

& Haplaquepts

Hydromorphic Grey

Calciorthids &

X erosols,

Calcareous Soils

Haplaquepts

G leysols

Nazaz

Albaqualfs

Plannosols

Salorthids

Salonchaks

( Pseudogley )

S oils Solonchaks

Source =

Q L P

: Dan et a l 1 976:19-20 Arranged a ccording t o d ecreasing f requency of occurrence within s oil a ssociation.

1 6

Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

T ab le 1 . 2a

V egetat ion o f t he Northern N egev F ooth i l l Z one +

P lan t A ssoc ia t ion BEDROCK N oae tum mucrona tae

S ubs tra te

l imes tone a nd h ard c ha lk

P rec ip i ta t ion ( mm )

1 50 -2 50

A r tem is ia h erba -a lba T hyme laea h i rsu ta

,

1 00 -2 00

E ch inops p o lyceras A lkanna s t r igosa

I

1 50 -2 00

Hammade tum s copor iae l ep idosum Z ygophy l lum d umosum R eaumur ia n egevens is R eaumar ie tum n egevens is

H

1 00 - 1 50

I

1 00

Cha lk o u tcrops

1 00 - 1 50

SANDY LOESSIAL SUBSTRATE N oae tum mucrona tae S andy s i lty s o i l a renar ium a t t he marg in Ha luza d une f i e lds A r tem is ie tum h erbae a lbae a renar ium

1 50 -2 00

1 00 - 1 50

1 00

A nabase tum a r t icu la tae A renar ium P i turan thos t o r tuosus

S ands tone o u tcrops

1 50 -2 50

LOESSIAL SOILS A nabase tum s yr iacae

L oess s o i ls

1 50 -2 00

Hammada tum s copar ia Hammada s copar ia Z ygophy l lum d umosum A ch i l lee tum s an to l inae ( weeds ) K och ia i nd ica -Sa l so la i n erm is +Number o f s pec ies = 5 81 ;

u

1 00 - 1 50

S tony l o ess

1 00 - 1 50

Cu l t iva ted l o ess

1 50 -2 50

Was te s i tes o f u rban a reas A rea = 2 025 s q .km . S ource : Dan in 1 983 :45 -46

1 7

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 . 2b

V egetat ion o f t he N egev C oasta l P la in +

S ubs tra te

P rec ip i tat ion ( mm )

N oae tum mucrona tae

Hard c ha lk s l opes

1 50 -2 50

P i turan thos t o r tuosus

S ands tone s l opes

1 50 -2 50

L oess p la ins

1 50 -2 50

P lan t A ssoc ia t ion BEDROCK

LOESSIAL PLAINS W inter w eeds f ound i n g ra in f i e lds E rucar ia b oveana D ip lo tax is e ruco ides L o l ium r i g idum Amm i majus S ummer weeds f ound i n i r r iga ted f ie lds : A s ter s ubu la tus

I t

C onyza b onar iens is

I

P or tu laca o l eracea

I

Amaran thus a lbus

I

A . r e trof lexus

I

A . h ybr idus

I

S o lanum e l eagn ifo l ium

I

A r tem is ia monosperma

S andy l oess p la ins

H e l ian theme tum s ess i l if l orae +Number o f s pec ies = 3 35 ;

I

a rea = 1 200 s q .km .

1 8

S ource : Dan in 1 983

Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

BI BL IOGRAPHY

A shbe l , D . 1 973 C l ima te a nd 9 4 -111 .

G eography .

I s rae l P ocke t L ibrary , J erusa lem : Ke ter ,

A t las o f I s rae l . 1 970 A t las o f I s rae l . S urvey o f I s rae l , M in is try o f L abour , J erusa lem . Ams terdam : E lsev ier P ub l ish ing C ompany . B ru ins , H . 1 976 T he O r ig in , N a ture a nd S tra t igraphy o f P a leoso l s i n t h e L oess ia l D epos i ts o f t h e N or thwes tern N egev . J erusa lem : Hebrew Un ivers i ty . B ru ins , H . a nd Yaa lon , D . H . 1 981 S tra t igraphy o f t he Ne t ivo t s ec t ion i n t he d eser t l oess o f t he Negev ( I srae l ) . A c ta G eo l . A cad . S c i . Hungar 2 2 (1-4 ) : 1 61-169 . C ar l is le , D . B . a nd Ghorb ia l , L . I . 1 968 F ood a nd wa ter r equ iremen ts o f Mamma l ia 3 2 :570 -577 .

Dorcas g aze l le i n t he

C louds ley -Thompson , J .L . a nd Ghorb ia l , L . I . 1 965 Wa ter e conomy o f t he Dorcas g aze l le .

Na ture

S udan .

2 07 : 1 313 .

Dan , J 1 977 The d is tr ibu t ion a nd o r ig in o f Nan ia nd o ther l ime c rus ts i n I s rae l . I s rae l J ourna l o f E ar th S c iences 2 4 : 6 8 -83 . Dan , J . , Koyumd j isky , H . a nd Yaa lon , D . H . 1 962 P r inc ip les o f a p roposed c lass if icat ion f or t he s o i ls o f I s rae l . T ransac t ion o f t h e I n terna t iona l S o i l C onf erence , N ew Z ea land , 4 10 -42 1 . Dan , J .a nd Yaa lon , D . H . 1 964 The a pp l ica t ion o f t he c a tena c oncep t i n s tud ies o f p edogenes is i n Med i terranean a nd d eser t f r inge a reas . T ransac t ions o f t h e E igh th I n terna t iona l C ongress o f S o i l S c ience , B uchares t 5 :7 51-758 . Dan , J . , Yaa lon , D . H . , Koyumd j isky , H . a nd Raz , Z . 1 976 T he S o i l s o f I s rae l ( w ith Map 1 : 500 ,000 ) , P amph le t No . 1 59 . B e t Dagan : The Vo lcan i C en ter . Dan in , A . 1 983 D eser t V ege ta t ion o f I s rae l a nd S ina i .

J erusa lem : C ana .

Dan in , A . , O rshan , G . a nd Z ohary , M . 1 975 The v ege ta t ion o f t he Nor thern Negev a nd t he J udean Deser t o f I s rae l . I s rae l J ourna l o f B o tany 2 4 :118 -172 .

1 9

S h iqm im I

D ekeyser , A . N 1 955 L es Mamm if zeres d e l ' Af r ique N o ire F ranca is . F ranca is d 'Afr ique No ire . E venar i , M . , S hanan , L . a nd T admor , N . 1 971 T he N egev : T he C ha l lenge Unv ivers ity P ress .

o f a D eser t .

Dakar : I ns t i tu t

C ambr idge :

Harvard

Gardner , R . A . M . 1 977 E v idence c oncern ing t he e x is tence o f l oess d epos i ts a t T e l l F ara , n or thern Negev , I s rae l . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 4 : 377 -387 . G i lead , I . 1 980 A m idd le P a leo l i th ic o pen a i r s i te n ear T e l l F ara , wes tern Negev . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 0 :52 -62 . Goren , Y . a nd G i lead , I . 1 986 Quaternary e nvr ionmen t a nd man Negev . M i tekufa t Haeven 1 9 : 6 6 -79 .

a t Naha l

S ekher ,

n or thern

G i lead , I .a nd G r igson , C . 1 984 F ar 'ah I - A M idd le P a laeo l i th ic o pen -a ir s i te i n t he n or thern Negev , I s rae l . P roceed ing s o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 5 0 :71-97 . Goud ie , A . a nd W i lk inson , J . 1 977 T he Warm D eser t P ress .

E nv ironmen t .

L ondon :

C ambr idge

I s rae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice . 1 967 C l ima to log ica l s t andard n orma l s o f r a infa l l , (Me teoro log ica l No tes ) . No . 2 1 . Kedar , V . 1 957 Anc ien t a gr icu l ture a t S h iv ta i n t he Negev . J ourna l 7 : 178 -189 .

Un iver s i ty

1 931-1960 . S er ies A

I s rae l Exp lora t ion

L evy , T . E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence i n t h e N or thern N egev D eser t , I s rae l . P h .D . t hes is . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lms I n terna t iona l . L omas , J . 1 972 E conom ic s i gn if icance o f d ry land f arm ing i n t he a r id n or thern Negev o f I s rae l . A gr icu l tura l Me teoro logy 1 0 :383 -392 . Marks , A . 1 976 E in Aqev : A L a te L evan t ine Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te i n t he Naha l Agev . I n Marks , A . ( ed ) , P reh is tory a nd P a leoenv ironmen ts i n t h e C en tra l N egev , I s rae l . v o l 1 . Da l las : SMU P ress , 2 27 -291 .

2 0

Chap ter 1 : The E nv ironmen ta l S e t t ing o f t he Nor thern Negev

Mayerson , P . 1 961 T he A nc ien t Agr icu l tura l R eg ime o f N essana a nd t h e C en tra l N egev . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem . Mende lssohn , H . 1 975 Adap ta t ion o f a n ima ls t o l i fe i n d eser ts . I n S ympos ium I s rae l F rance , E co log ica l R esearch o n D eve lopmen t o f A r id Z ones (M ed i terranean D eser ts) w i th W in ter P rec ip i ta t ion . Agr icu l tura l R esearch O rgan izat ion , The Vo lcan i C enter , D iv is ion o f S c ien t if ic P ub l icat ions , S pec ia l P ub l ica t ion 3 9 , 1 81-191 . Na t iona l Academy o f S c iences . 1 974 More W a ter f or A r id L ands . S c iences .

Wash ing ton : Nat iona l Academy o f

Naveh , Z . a nd Dan , J . 1 971 T he h uman d egrada t ion o f Med i terranean l andscapes i n I s rae l . P aper p resented a t t he I n terna t iona l S ympos iu m o n Med iterranean E co sys tems , Va ld iv ia , Ch i le . N ir , D . 1 975 G e/omorpho log ie D 'I srae l . r v I mo ires e t Documen ts . Vo l . 1 6 . P ar is : C en tre Na t iona l d e l a R echerche S c ien t if ique . O rn i , E . a nd E fr a t , E . 1 976 G eography o f I s rae l . P ub l ica t ions .

J erusa lem :

I s rae l

P rogram

P icard , L . 1 951 G eomorpho logy o f I s rae l , P ar t I , T he N egev . S urvey o f I s rae l .

f or

S c ien t if ic

J erusa lem : Geo log ica l

P icard , L . a nd S o lomon ica , P . 1 936 On t he g eo logy o f t he Gaza -Beersheva d is tr ic t . P a les t ine O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 1 6 :180 -223 .

J ourna l o f t h e

P r ice -W i l l iam s , D . 1 975 The e nv ironmen ta l b ackground o f p reh is tor ic s i tes i n t he F ara r eg ion o f t he w es tern Negev . B u l le t in o f t h e I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon 1 2 : 1 25 -143 . 1 976 The B r i t ish w es tern Negev e xped i t ion . S chechter , J . 1 977 D eser t if ica t ion p rocesses a nd I n terd i sc ip l inary S c ience R ev iews 2 : 36 -54 .

Q ues t

t he

3 1 : 3 2 -34 .

s earch

f or

s o lu t ions .

S hko ln ik , A . 1 971 Adap ta t ion o f An ima ls t o D esert C ond i t ions . I n E venar i , M . , S hannan , L . , T admor , N . ( eds ) , T he N egev : T he C ha l lenge o f t h e D eser t . C ambr idge : Harvard Un ivers i ty P ress , 3 01-323 .

2 1

S h iqm im I

S hko ln ik , A . , B orut , A . , Choshn iak , I .a nd Ma l tz , A . 1 975 Wa ter e conomy a nd d r ink ing r eg ime o f t he B edou in g oa t . I n S ympos ium I s rae l -France , E co log ica l R esearch o n D eve lopmen t o f A r id Z ones (M ed i terranean D eser ts) w i th W in ter P rec ip i ta t ion . Agr icu ltura l Research O rgan iza t ion , The Vo lcan i C en ter , D iv is ion o f S c ien t if ic P ub l ica t ions . S pec ia l p ub l ica t ion 3 9 , 7 9 -90 . Swee t , L . E . 1 978 C ame l p as tora l ism i n n or th A rab ia a nd t he m in i ma l c amp ing u n i t . I n Vayda , A . ( ed ) , E nv ironmen t a nd C u l tura l B ehav ior . Aus t in a nd L ondon : Un ivers i ty o f T exas P ress , 1 57 -178 . T chernov , E . 1 976 S ome L ate Quaternary f auna l r e ma ins f rom t he Avda t -Aqgev a rea . I n Marks , A .E . ( ed ) , P reh is tory a nd P a leoenv ironmen ts i n t h e C en tra l N egev , I s rae l . v o l . 1 . Da l las : SMU P ress , 6 9 -73 . Thorn thwa i te , C . W . 1 948 An a pproach t oward G eograph ica l R ev iew 3 8 :55 -94 .

a r a t iona l

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Wachs , D . a nd A rad , A . 1 978 T rac ing a n o ld r iver c hanne l o f t he Naha l B esor u s ing t he E ar th Res is t iv i ty me thod . I s rae l J ourna l o f E ar th S c iences 2 7 :136 -137 .

2 2

Chapter 2 EARLY HOLOCENE PALAEOENVIRON MENTS OF I SRAEL

b y P au l Go ldberg I ns t i tute o f A rchaeo logy , Hebrew Un ivers ity J erusa lem a nd A r lene M . Rosen W .F . A lbr igh t I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo log ica l Research J erusa lem

I N TRODUCT ION I n ap rev ious s ec t ion ( Chap ter 1 ) t he t ypes a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f p resen t d ay e nv ironmen ts o f t he Nor thern Negev w ere d iscussed . However , i n o rder t o more f u l ly u nders tand Cha lco l i th ic a dap ta t ion a nd i t s p lace i n t he e vo lu t ionary s equence o f h u man c u l ture , w e mus t a l so i nc lude a d iscuss ion o f t he p a laeoenv ironmen ts t hat b o th p receded a nd w ere c ontemporaneous w i th t h is p er iod . I n t h is c hap ter w e a t temp t t o s ummar ize s uch i nformat ion , t hough s can ty a s i t may b e , f or t he g eograph ica l r eg ions o f I s rae l . P a leoenv ironmen ta l e v idence c omes f rom a v ar ie ty o f s ources i nc lud ing b o tany ( pa lyno logy ) , g eo morpho logy , s tud ies o f d eep -sea c ores , a nd l acus tr ine d epos i ts . Wh i le t he emphas is i s p laced o n t he I s rae l i c on tex t , a ux i l l iary d ata f rom s urround ing a reas w i l l b e b r ief ly ment ioned where a ppropr iate .

DE EP -SEA CO RES Dur ing t he p as t t wo d ecades , c ons iderab le p a laeoeco log ica l i nforma t ion h as a ccu mu la ted f rom t he s tudy o f d eep -sea c ores i n t he E as tern Med i terra n ean . These s tud ies h ave b een c oncerned n o t o n ly w ith t he h ydrograph ic c ond i t ions a round t he c ore ( a s i n terpre ted f rom s t ab le o xygen a nd c arbon i s o topes , a nd p lank ton ic a nd b en thon ic m icrofo ss i ls ) b u t a l so w ith t he e nv iron men ts o f t he a l loc thonous mater ia ls w i th in t he c ores ( po l len , d e tr itus ) . L uz ( 1982 ) h as r ecen t ly s ummar ized a nd i n terpre ted t he r ecord f or t he p as t 2 0 ,000 y ears , c oncen tra t ing o n t he g lac ia l max imum a t a bou t 1 8 ,000 B .P . ( no t d iscussed h ere ) a nd t he E ar ly Ho locene . Ana lyses f rom many c ores s how o xygen i s o top ic r a t ios t hat h ave n o tab ly l ow v a lues i n s ed iments d epos i ted a bout 9 ,000 t o 7 , 000 B .P . Th is t ime i n terva l c o inc ides w ith t he a ccumu lat ion o f ad ark s aprope le t ic l ayer t ha t r e su l ts f rom a s t ab i l ized wa ter c o lu mn d ue t o t he i nput o f f resh -water a t t he s urface . A c ore s how ing a r ap id s ed imen ta t ion r a te , t aken f rom o ff t he c oas t o f I s rae l ( GA 3 2 ) s ugges ts t wo e p isodes o f f resh

2 3

S h iqm im I

water d i lu t ion , o ne a t 7 , 000 -9 ,000 B .P . a nd t he s econd , af ew t housand y ears l a ter , p erhaps 5 , 000 B .P . Unfor tuna te ly , a s L uz ( 1982 : 4 6 -47 ) p o in ts o ut , " The mar ine r ecord c on ta ins v ery l i t t le d e ta i led i nformat ion a bou t t he L a te Ho locene . I t s eem s , h owever , t hat t he t ime o f i ncreased h um id i ty o f t he E ar ly Ho locene was f o l lowed b y c l ima t ic c ond i t ions v gh ich were more a r id t han a t p resen t . " The l a t ter i s s ugges ted b y h igh "0 v a lues o f t he p lank ton ic f oram in ifera i n t he u pper p ar t o f t he s a me c ore . Resu lts f rom c ores i n t he R ed S ea a nd Gu lf o f Aqaba a re n o t a s c l ear a s t hose f rom t he Med i terranean d ue t o p oorer f auna l p reservat ion a nd c e men t a t ion . Never the less , t here a re s o me i nd ica t ions o f c l imat ic c hange . Dur ing t he Ho locene b o th p lank ton ic f oram in ifera a nd c occo l i ths b ecome a bundan t . A s w e l l , o xygen i s o top ic v a lues o f p teropods a nd b en th ic f oram in ifera a re l i gh ter t han t hose d ur ing t he g lac ia l max imum . I n c ore C 6118 K f rom t he R ed S ea a nd i n c ores f rom t he Gu lf o f Aqaba , o xygen i s o tope v a lues a re marked ly l ow a t a bou t 8 , 000 B .P . L uz ( 1982 :49 ) c au t ious ly c orre lates t h is p henomenon w i th t ha t d iscussed a bove f or t he Med i terranean a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he R ed S ea b as in r ece ived g rea ter r a infa l l t han a t p resent . I n ar e la ted s tudy , Magar itz a nd Kaufman ( 1973 ) a t temp ted t o e s tab l ish s a l in i ty c hangejs i n E as tern Med i terranean s eawa ter b y measur ing t he o xygen i s o top ic a nd "C a ges o f s a mp les o f t he mo l lusc G lyc imer is v i o lacescens fNm d ifferen t l oca l i t ies a long t he I s rae l i c oas t . The ir r e su l ts s how " t ha t t he - "0 r e ma ined a pprox ima te ly a t t he p resen t v a lue f or t he p as t n2 , 800 y r , a nd t ha t b e tween 2 , 800 a nd 4 , 900 y r BP t here was a c hange i n 1 ö 0 o f t he E as tern Med iterranean wa ter f rom + 0 .2 t o + 0 .1 % ( S MOW ) " (Magar i tz a nd Kaufman 1 973 : 4 63 ) . Ru l ing o u t c hanges i n t empera ture a s b e ing i nsuff ic ien t t o e xp la in t hese r e su l ts , t hey s ugges t as h if t t o g rea ter a r id i ty a t a bou t 5 , 000 y ear s a go ; t hey d o n o t e xc lude , h owever , t he p os s ib i l i ty o f c hanges i n w ind d irec t ion , o r t ec ton ic f ac tors , s uch a s t he r i se o f t he S ic i l ian s t ra i t b e tween t he e as tern a nd wes tern Med i terranean b as ins .

GE OMORPH IC F EATURES 1 .L ake b as ins The mos t p rom inen t l acus tr ine f ea ture i n I s rae l i s t he D ead S ea wh ich h as b een e x tens ive ly s tud ied b y Neev a nd c o l leagues ( Neev a nd Emery 1 967 ; Neev a nd Ha l l 1 977 ) . I n t he f ormer work , e v idence f or c l imat ic c hange was i nferred f rom t he i n ter tongu i2g o f r ock s a l t a nd d e tr i ta l s ed iment , whereas c hrono logy was p rov ided b y "C d a tes o n d is sem ina ted o rgan ic c arbon w i th in t he s ed iment . The ir i n terpre ta t ions a re a s f o l lows : 1 0 ,000 -6 , 500 B .P . , L isan type s ed i men ts

= We t

6 , 500 -5 , 500 B .P . , S a l t t ongues

=D ry

5 , 500 -4 , 300 B .P . , L isan type s ed imen ts

= We t

2 4

Chap ter 2 :E ar ly Ho locene P a laeoenv ironmen ts o f I s rae l

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Tab le 4 .3

TIME REQUIREMENTS OF LATE NEOLITHIC, S ITES

FOR S YSTEMATIC SURFACE

COLLECTION

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE

( 10% AREA SAMPLE)

FROM THE NAHAL BEERSHEVA

LOWER NAHAL BESOR STUDY AREA

Crew s ize

Time

r equired to make

collection

( years)

1

8

2

4

3

2.6

4

2

5

1 .6

8 8

I -

Chapter 4 : S ett le ment P atterns i n t he Northern Negev I

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NAHAL BEERSHEVA

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Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Northern Negev 7 : 3

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Negev

S h iqm im I Tab le 4 . 5

CENSUS OF BEDOUIN POPULATION FOR THE B EERSHEVA S UB-DISTRICT,

1 931

Tribal Confederation a nd

Sub-Tribe

Totals

TARABIN Jarawin Abu Ghalyun

9 73

Abu S 'ilik

5 59

Abu Yahya

7 51

Hasarat I bn Sabbah

4 87

Ghawali Abu S itteh

6 66

5 ,

Abu Husin

8 38

Abu Shalhub

2 56

Abu Khatleh

1 96

Abu Bakra

1 00

A bu

' Amra

4 94

e z Zrei (i

2 356

e l

' Umur

3 66

A bu S-hiban

2 299

e n

1 404

Aaba'at

Najamat es Sani

Whidat

1 052

e s Soufi

8 77

Abu

' Adra

6 88

A bu Susin

6 02

e l

8 97

Q isar

Turabin

TARABIN S UB-TOTAL

4 68

:

1 6,329

9 4

C hap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Northern Negev Tab le 4 .5

( continued )

T ribal C onfederation a nd

Sub-Tribe

T otals

E L AZAZMA Zaraba

4 29

S awakhneh

1 145

Sarahin

7 95

S bihat

2 26

S ubhiyin

1 594

' Usiyat

6 84

Farahin

5 00

Mas'udiyin

9 26

Mni a t

3 76

Muhammadiyin

1 986

EL A ZAZMA S UB-TOTAL

8 661

AT-TAYAHA E n Natush Bani

1 080

' Uqba

1 44

Bdinat

3 19

B ili

2 99

Janabib

2 21

Hukuk e l Huzaiyil

6 51

1

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1 80

1

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5 56

1

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2 33

' Abdun

9 5

S h iqm im I Tab le 4 .5 ( continued )

T ribal C onfederation T otals

a nd Sub-Tribe

Ramadin Masamra

2 75

S h'ur

3 08

Rawashdeh

2 23

A sh Shalaliyin

7 74

Zullam A bu Rbil a

1 029

A bu Jri / id

6 37

Abu Quinat

7 04

' Alamat Abu L ibbeh

7 13

Abu Shunnar

7 45

Abu Jqim

3 66

' Urur

2 90

Qalazin Tayaha

1 64

Qatatweh

6 03

Qdirat Abu Rqaiyiq

8 58

t .

e s Sani

6 70

Abu Kaf

6 51

el

A 'sam

1 500

AT-TAYAHA SUB-TOTAL

1 4193

EL-HANAJRA Abu M iddin

1 419

Sumeiri

7 72

Ed Dawahra

4 61

Nsirat

1 104

EL-HANAJRA S UB-TOTAL

3 756

9 6

Table 4.5

Chapter 4: SetOemcnt· Patte·rns in the Northern Negev ( con tinued)

Tribal Confederation . ·and 'SUb..;.Tribe.

'T0tals

AL 'JBARAT Abu Jabir

402

Iritmat Aby-1 :;. Udus

546

Hasanat Ibn Sabbah

226

Ed Diqs

606

El Walaydeh

135

Er Rawaweh

113

Sa'adnat en Nuwiri

134

Sawarkeh Ibn Rafi

464

Sa'adna Abu Jriban

206

'Amarin Ibn 'Ajlan

622

Qalazin Thawabteh

304

Masharfeh

391

Whidat Jbarat

283

.. AL JBAEAT SUB -:-'l'OTAL

4432

ES SA'IDIYIN Hamaita wa-Sawiyat

158

Ramamneh

136

Rawaida wa-Nkuz

158

Mazakir

l,87

639 TOTAL BEOOUIN P0PULATI0N . IN . BEERSHEVA . SUB...;.DISTRICT So urce

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1 978:206

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Dennell

4 ) • 3

1 st crop after

0

5 0

fallow;

a )

N . 4

T ab le 4 . 10

QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN,

c \ I

L C ) N

Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P at terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

UNDER CONTINUOUS CROPPING

H 0 a

u p, 4

i n N

m

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N

L c )

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ea

0 . H

0 1.

0

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•

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e . • l 0 0 1 H

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Dennell 1 978:209

L I 1

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a )

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Average yields

W > 0

Average yields

Year after Fallow

••

1 -3 l e W

. :

e c r )

••

S h iqm im I COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF FALLOWING AND

T ab le 4 . 12

CONTINUOUS CULTIVATION ON COMPOSITION OF WEED F LORA AT ROTHAMPSTEAD Percentage of 1 925 Population 1 927

Species

Continuous

1 927 crop

f or two years

Fallow f or two years

Veronica buxbaumii

2 86

6 4

Myosostis arvensis

2 61

1 7

Galium aparine

1 96

Sonchus

1 67

1 9

Capsella bursa-pastoris

1 40

9 7

A lopecurus

1 37

4

Veronica arvensis

1 27

2 1

Avenaria s erpyllifolia

1 14

9 2

Matricaria i ndora

1 09

3 4

Galium tricorne

109

9

Cavcalis

1 07

1 5

Papauer rhoeas

8 5

4 6

Medicago lupulina

80

Veronica hederifolia

5 3

4 1

Alchemilla a rvensis

4 4

3 2

S enecio vulgaris

3 6

Atriplex patula

3 4

1 2

Legousia hybida

3 3

38*

Stellaria media

28

1 1

Aethusa cynapium

1 9

8

Polygonum c onvolvulus

1 8

2

Bartsia odonites

1 6

3 2*

L inaria minor

1 6

2 7*

Euphorbia exigua

1 3

1 0

a rvensis

a grestis

a rvensis

8

7

7

Polgonum aviculare

8

4

S candix pecten

5

3

*

I ndicates

Source

:

s pecies not r educed i n weed nunbers by f allowing

D ennell

1 978:210

1 08

Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

C O y e

8

Man/days/ha

l 0 0 1 C • 1

L r )

4 -)

a )

a )

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P

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4 )

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C D

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0

0 e 4 , e U ). 0

0 C \ 1

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P

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r d N 4

a )

e n s z e

T ab le 4 . 13

Paris Basin

0 ( N I

1 09

1 978:211

•

4

S h iq m im I

Tab le 4 .14

I .

TYPOLOGY OF PRIMITIVE

I RRIGATION SYSTEMS

Permanent F low Surface Sources

A .

Large Permanent Rivers 1 .

Basin i rrigation, r elies o n

2

a nnual

Canal irrigation M esopotamia Oates

e .g.

t he Nile River,

a nd Adams

1 958;

1 976).

I ndus Valley China

B .

Small R ivers

C .

Springs Nayband,

( Steward 1 955 )

a nd Streams

I ran

Beth Shan Valley,

I I.

I srael

( Tsori

1 958 )

Ground Water A .

Qanat

( Chain of wells,

I ranian plateau

f oggara,

karez)

( Spooner 1 974)

Sahara Aravah Valley,

B .

Wells,

I srael

:

( Evenari et a l

etc.

S ources which r equire

After

which

- perhaps the most c ommon of a ll:

( Jacobsen

M esoamerica

Egypt,

f looding of basin soils.

Spooner 1 974:47

10

l ifting methods

1 971)

Oates a nd

--

Table 4.15

1.02 1.02 1.02

250.0

62.5

31.2

(After Evenari et al 1971:222)

1.02

1961

1000.0

(sq. m.)

Size of Plot

.56

.65

.30

0.25

1962

Year

--

120 CM DEPTH AT AVDAT EXPERIMENTAL FARM

.41

.59

.11

0.12

1965

.12

.13

.10

0.08

1967

TOTAL SOLUBLE SALTS ·(PERCENT) OF THE COLLECTING BASINS OF ·THE NEGARIN ABOVE THE

�


1

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0

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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C al

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Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

BI BL IOGRAPHY

Adams , R . Mc . 1 972 Demography a nd t he " Urban Revo lut ion " i n L ow land Mesopo ta m ia . I n P opu la t ion G row th : A n thropo log ica l I mp l ica t ions , p p . 6 0 6 3 ( Ed . B . S pooner ) . C ambr idge : MIT P ress . A lon , D . 1 961 E ar ly s e t t lemen ts a long t he Naha l Garar a nd Naha l P a t ish . M 'Befn im 1 : 87 -96 ( Hebrew ) . A lon , D . a nd L evy , T .E . 1 980 P re l im inary n o te o n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f Cha lco l i th ic s i tes o n t he Wad i B eersheva a nd L ower Wad i B esor d ra inage s ys tem . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 0 :140 -147 . Am iran , R . a nd A rnon , C . 1 979 E xcava t ions a t s ma l l T e l Ma lha ta a nd S i te 1 24 i n B iq 'a t Uvda . T he I s rae l Museum N ews 1 5 :21-23 . Am iran , R . , B eck , P . a nd Z evu lun , U . 1 970 A nc ien t P o t tery o f t h e Ho ly L and . New J ersey : Ru tgers Un ivers i ty P res s . Am iran , R . 1 978 E ar ly A rad . T he C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd E ar ly B ronze C i ty . J erusa le m : The I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . Am iran , R . , A rnon , C . , A lon , D . , Goe ther t , R . , a nd L ouppen , P . 1 980 The e ar ly C anaan ite c i ty o f A rad -t he r e su l ts o f f our teen s easons o f e xcava t ion . Q admon io t 1 3 :2 -19 . Ammerman , J . , C ava l l i -Sforsa , L .L . , a nd Wagener , D .K . 1 973 T oward t he e s t ima t ion o f p opu la t ion g row th i n O ld Wor ld p reh is tory . I n D emograph ic A n thropo logy , p p . 2 7 -61 ( Ed E .B .W . Zubrow ) . A lbuquerque : Un iver is ty o f New Mex ico P ress . A rnon , I . 1 972 C rop P roduc t ion i n D ry R eg ions , V o l . I : B ackground a nd P r inc ip les . L ondon : L eonard H i l l . A t las o f I s rae l 1 970 A t las o f I s rae l . S urvey o f I s rae l , M in is try o f L abour , J erusa lem . Ams terda m : E lsev ier P ub l ish ing C ompany . B ar th , F . 1 964

Nomads o f S ou th P ers ia . O s lo .

B ar Yosef , 0 . 1 977 The Neo l i th ic c u l tures i n E re tz I s rae l .

1 29

Q admon io t 1 0 :38 -59 .

S h iqm im I

1 986 The wa l ls o f J er icho : a n a l terna t ive i n terpre tat ion . A n thropo logy 2 7 :157 -162 .

C urren t

Bar Yosef , 0 . a nd P h i l l ip s , J .L . 1 977 P reh is tor ic I nves t iga t ions i n G ebe l Maghara , Nor thern S ina i . Q edem 7 J erusa lem : I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Hebrew Un ivers ity . B a tes , D .G . 1 971 The r o le o f t he s t ate i n p easan t -nomad mu tua l ism . Q uar ter ly 4 4 :109 -131 .

A n thropo log ica l

1 973 Nomads a nd f armers : as tudy o f t he Yorok o f s ou theas tern Turkey . Un ivers i ty o f M ich igan , Museum o f A n thropo logy , A n thropo log ica l P apers 5 2 . B en Dor , I . 1 936 P o t tery o f t he M idd le a nd L a te Neo l i th ic P er iods . A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 3 :77 -84 .

A nna l s o f

B lan ton , R .E . 1 972 P reh ispan ic s e t t lemen t p a t terns o f t he I x tapa lapa p en insu la r eg ion , Mex ico . O ccas iona l P apers i n A n thropo logy N o . 6 .P ennsy l van ia S ta te U n ivers i ty . B oserup , E . 1 965 T he C ond i t ions o f Agr icu l tura l G row th . Unw in L td . B ryan , K . 1 929

F loodwa ter f arm ing .

L ondon : George A l len a nd

G eograph ica l R ev iew 1 9 :444 -56 .

B ur ian , F . a nd F r ied man , E . 1 979 A t ypo logy o f a rrowheads a nd s i ck le b lades a nd i t s c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions . M i tekufa t Ha 'even 1 6 :6 -16 . B utzer , K .W . 1 971 E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy . C ompany .

Ch icago : A ld ine P ub l ish ing

C aro thers , J .a nd McDona ld , W .A . 1 979 S ize a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f t he p opu la t ion i n L a te B ronze Age Messen ia : s o me s t a t is t ica l a pproaches . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 6 : 433 -454 . Ch inoy , J . J . 1 947 C orre la t ion b e tween y ie ld o f whea t a nd t empera ture d ur ing r ippen ing o f g ra in . Na ture 1 59 :422 -44 . Ch isho lm , M .D . 1 962 R ura l S e t t lemen t a nd L and U se : A n E ssay i n L oca t ion . L ondon :

1 30

Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P at terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

Hu tch inson . C larke , D .L . 1 978 A na ly t ica l A rchaeo logy .

L ondon : Me thuen .

C lawson , M . e t a l 1 971 The Agr icu l tura l P o ten t ia l o f t h e M idd le E as t . Amer ican E lsev ier .

New York :

C ocheme , J .a nd F ranqu in , P . 1 967 A s t udy o f t h e a groc l ima to logy o f t h e s em i -ar id a rea s ou th o f t h e S ahara i n W es t A f r ica , p p . v i i a nd 3 25 . Rome : T echn ica l R epor t FAO . C ohen , R . 1 972

The Z e 'e l im s i te .

Hadasho t A rkheo log iyo t 6 1-62 :42 . ( Hebrew ) .

C onk l in , H .C . 1 961 The s tudy o f s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion . C urren t A n thropo logy 2 : 27 -61 . C owg i l l , G . 1 977 The t roub le w ith s i gn if icance t e s ts a nd wha t we c an d o a bou t i t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 2 :350 -68 . d e C on tenson , H . 1 956 L a c eram ique Cha lco l i th ique d e B eersheba : e tude t ypo log ique . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 6 : 163 -179 , 2 26 -238 . C rowfoo t P ayne , J . 1 978 A h oard o f f l int k n ives f rom t he N egev . I n R . Moorey a nd P . P arr ( eds ) , A rchaeo logy i n t h e L evan t : E ssay s f or Ka th leen K enyon . Warm ins ter : A ns a nd P h i l ips L td . P p . 1 9 -21 . D enne l l , R .W . 1 978 E ar ly F arm ing i n S ou th B u lgar ia f rom t h e V I t o II M i l lenn ia B .C . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , I n terna t iona l S upp lemen tary S er ies 4 5 . D enne l l , R .W . a nd Web ley , D . 1 975 P reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t a nd l and u se i n s ou thern B u lgar ia . I n P a laeoeconomy , p p . 9 7 -110 ( ed E .S . H iggs ) . C ambr idge : The Un ivers i ty P ress . Do than , M . 1 957 1 959a 1 959

E xcava t ions a t Meser , 1 956 . E xcavat ions a t Meser , 1 957 .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 7 : 217 -28 . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 9 : 13 -29 .

E xcava t ions a t Horva t B e ter ( Beersheba ) . A t iqo t I :1-12 .

E vans -Pr itchard , E .E .

1 31

S h iqm im I

1 949

T he S anus i o f C yrena ica . L ondon : Oxford Un ivers i ty P res s .

E venar i , M . , S hanan , L . a nd T admor , N . 1 971 T he N egev - T he C ha l lenge o f aD eser t . Un ivers ity P ress .

C a mbr idge : Harvard

F lannery , K .V . 1 969 O r ig ins a nd e co log ica l e ffec ts o f e ar ly d omes t icat ion i n I ran a nd t he Near E as t . I n T he D omes t ica t ion a nd Exp lo i ta t ion o f P lan ts a nd A n ima l s , p p . 7 3 -100 ( Eds P . J . Ucko a nd G .W . D imb leby ) . L ondon : Duckwor th . 1 976

T he E ar ly Mesoamer ican V i l lage .

New York : A cadem ic P re ss .

Gopher , A . 1 985 F l in t t o o l i ndus tr ies o f t h e N eo l i th ic p er iod i n I s rae l ( m s ) . P h .D . t hes is , Hebrew Un ivers i ty o f J erusa lem . Gophna , R . 1 974 The S e t t lemen t o f t he C oas ta l P la in o f E re tz Israe l Dur ing t he E ar ly B ronze Age . P h .D . t hes is . T e l Av iv : Un ivers i ty o f T e l Av iv . ( Hebrew ) . 1 976

E xcava t ions a t ' En B esor .

A t iqo t 1 : 1 9 .

G reen , E .L . 1 973 L oca t ion a na lys is o f p reh is tor ic Maya s i tes i n B r i t ish Honduras . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 :279 -93 . G rem l iza , F .G .L . 1 962 E co logy o f E ndem ic D iseases i n t h e D ez I r r iga t ion P i lo t A rea . York : D eve lopmen t a nd R esources C orpora t ion . Hanbury -Ten ison , J . 1 986 Hege l i n p reh is tory . Harper , W .M . 1 979 S ta t is t ics .

New

A n t iqu i ty LX :108 -114 .

P lymou th : Macdona ld a nd E vans .

He lbaek , H . 1 969 P lan t c o l lec t ing , d ry -farm ing a nd i r r igat ion a gr icu l ture i n p reh is tor ic D eh L uran . I n P reh is tory a nd Human E co logy o f t h e D eh L uran P la in , p p . 3 83 -426 ( eds F . Ho le , K . F lannery a nd J .N ee ly ) . M ich igan : Memo irs o f t he Museum o f Anthropo logy I . H e lms , S .W . 1 975

J awa E xcava t ions 1 973 .

L evan t 7 : 20 -38 .

1 976

J awa E xcavat ions 1 974 .

L evan t 8 : 1-35 .

1 977

J awa E xcava t ions 1 975 .

L evan t 9 : 21-35 .

1 32

Chap ter 4 :S e t t lement P a t terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

1 976

J awa E xcava t ions 1 974 .

L evan t 8 : 1-35 .

1 977

J awa E xcava t ions 1 975 .

L evan t 9 : 21-35 .

1 981 l t d .

J awa -L os t C i ty o f t h e B lack D eser t .

L ondon : Me thuen a nd C o .

I s rae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice 1 967 C l i ma to log ica l s t andard n orma ls o f r a infa l l , 1 931-1960 . (M e teoro log ica l N o tes 2 1) .

S er ies A

J arman , M .R . , V ita -F inz i , C . a nd H iggs , E .S . 1 972 S i te c a tchmen t a na lys is i n a rchaeo logy . I n Man , S e t t lemen t a nd U rban ism , p p . 6 1-66 ( Eds P . J . Ucko , R . T r ingham a nd G .W . D imb leby ) . L ondon : Duckwor th . J ohnson , G .A . 1 973 L oca l E xchange a nd E ar ly S ta te D eve lopment i n S ou thwes tern I ran . A n thropo log ica l P apers , Museum o f A n thropo logy , U n ivers i ty o f M ich igan 5 1 . J udge , W .J . , E bert , J . I . a nd H itchcock , R .K . 1 975 S amp l ing i n r eg iona l a rchaeo log ica l s urvey . I n S amp l ing i n A rchaeo logy , p p . 8 2 -123 ( ed J .W . Mue l ler ) . Tucson : Un ivers i ty o f A r izona P ress . Kemp insk i , A . 1 976 T e l Masso s . Kenyon , K . 1 957 1 985

R evue B ib l ique 8 3 : 6 7 -70 .

D igg ing u p J er icho . L ondon : B enn . A rchaeo logy i n t h e H o ly L and .

5 th E d i t ion .

L ondon : E rnes t B enn .

Kra mer , C . 1 982 V i l lage E thnoarchaeo logy -R ura l I ran i n A rchaeo log ica l P erspec t ive . New York : A cadem ic P ress . L app , P .W . 1 968 B ab e dh -Dhra . T omb A76 a nd E ar ly B ronze Ii n P a les t ine . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch . 1 89 :12 -41 . 1 970 P a les t ine i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age . I n N ear E as tern A rchae logy i n t h e 2 0 th C en tury -E ssays i n Honour o f N e l son G lueck . New York : Doub leday . L ees , S .H . a nd B a tes , D .G . 1 974 The o r ig ins o f s pec ia l ized n omad ic p as tora l ism : A s ys tem ic mode l . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 9 :187 -93 .

1 33

S h iqm im I

1 983 The emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism i n t he s ou thern L evan t . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 :15 -36 . 1 986 A rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he s tudy o f P a les t ine : The Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 9 :82 -108 . L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 985 S h iqm im : A Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage a nd mor tuary c en tre i n t he n or thern Negev . P a l4or ien t 1/1 :71-83 . L is i ts ina , G .N . 1 969 The e ar l ies t i r r iga t ion i n Turkmen ia . A n t iqu i ty XLIII :279 -88 . L omas , J . 1 971 Me teroro log ica l f ac tors f avour ing a nd l im i t ing e conom ic p roduc t ion o f w hea t . Geneva : p rov is iona l r epor t s ubm i t ted t o t he c omm iss ion o f a gr icu l tura l me teoro logy . 1 972 E conom ic s i gn if icance o f d ry land f arm ing i n t he a r id n or thern Negev o f I s rae l . Agr icu l tura l Me tero logy 1 0 :383 -92 . L omas , J .a nd S hashoua , Y . 1 973 The e ffec t o f r a infa l l o n wheat y ie lds i n a n a r id r eg ion . I n P receed ings o f t h e Uppsa la S ympo s ium , E co logy a nd C onserva t ion , p p . 5 315 38 . New York : UNESCO . 1 974 The d ependence o f whea t y ie lds a nd g ra in we ight i n as em i -ar id r eg ion o n r a infa l l a nd o n t he n umber o f h o t , d ry d ays . I s rae l J ourna l o f Agr icu l tura l R esearch 2 3 :113 -21 . L omas , J . , Z eme l , Z . a nd S hashoua , Y . 1 976 Ra infa l l p robab i l it ies i n I s rae l a s ab as is f or a gr icu ltura l p lann ing a nd a c t iv i ty . I s rae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice N o . 1 176 . Macdona ld , E . , S tarkey , J .L . , a nd L ankes ter -Hard ing , G . 1 932 B e th P e le t I . P reh is tor ic F ara . L ondon : B r it ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n E gyp t . Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . , a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -32 . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t itu te . Ma l Iowan , M .E .L . 1 933 E xcava t ions a t T e l l A rpach iyah .

I raq 2 : 1-78 .

Marcus , J . 1 976 The s i ze o f t he Mesoamer ican v i l lage . I n T he E ar ly Mesoamer ican V i l lage , p p . 7 9 -90 ( ed K .V . F lannery ) . New York : Academ ic P res s .

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Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P at terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

Marcus , J . 1 976 The s i ze o f t he Mesoamer ican v i l lage . I n T he E ar ly Mesoamer ican V i l lage , p p . 7 9 -90 ( ed K .V . F lannery ) . New York : Academ ic P res s . Marx , E . 1 967

B edou in o f t h e N egev .

Manches ter : The Un ivers ity P ress .

Mayerson , P . 1 959 Anc ien t a gr icu l tura l r e ma ins i n t he c en tra l Negev : The T e le i lat e l Anab . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 1 53 :19 -31 . M i l ler , R . 1 980 Wa ter u se i n S yr ia a nd P a les t ine f rom t he Neo l i th ic t o t he B ronze Age . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 :331-41 . M i l ls , E . 1 932 C ensus o f P a les t ine , 1 931 . P opu la t ion o f v i l lages , t owns a nd a dm in is tra t ive a reas . J erusa lem : The G reek C onvent a nd Go ldberg P resses . Mue l ler , J .W . ( ed ) 1 975 S amp l ing i n A rchaeo logy . Tucson : Un ivers i ty o f A r izona P ress . Mus i l , A . 1 927 A rab ia D eser ta : AT opograph ica l I t inerary . G eograph ica l S oc ie ty . Na t iona l A cademy o f S c iences 1 974 More W a ter f or A r id L ands . S c iences . N eave , H .R . 1 979 S ta t is t ics T ab les .

New York : Amer ican

Wash ing ton : Na t iona l A cademy o f

L ondon : George A l len a nd Unw in .

N ie , N .H . e t a l 1 975 SPSS - S ta t is t ica l P ackage f or t h e S oc ia l S c iences . McGraw -H i l l B ook C ompany . O a tes , J . 1 969

Choga Mam i , 1 967 -68 .

New York :

I raq 3 1 :115 -32 .

O a tes , D . a nd Oates , J . 1 976 E ar ly i r r iga t ion a gr icu lture i n Mesopo tam ia . I n P rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rchaeo logy , P resen ted t o G rahame C lark , p p . 1 09 -135 ( eds G . S ievek ing , I .H . L ongwor th , a nd K .E . W i lson ) . L ondon : Duckwor th . P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 17 -40 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 .

1 35

S h iqm im I

R edman , C .L . 1 978 T he R ise o f C iv i l iza t ion -F rom E ar ly F armers t o U rban S oc ie ty i n t h e A nc ien t N ear E as t . S an F ranc isco : W .H . F reeman . R ed man , C . a nd Watson , P . J . 1 970 S ys tema t ic , i n tens ive s urface c o l lec t ion . 2 5 :279 -91 . Rober ts , N . 1 977 Water c onserva t ion i n a nc ien t A rab ia . f or A rab ian S tud ies 7 : 134 -46 .

Amer ican A n t iqu i ty

P roceed ings o f t h e S em inar

S emp le , E .C . 1 932 T he G eography o f t h e Med i terranean R eg ion : i t s r e la t ion t o A nc ien t H is tory . L ondon : C ons tab le . S hanan , L . , E venar i , M . a nd T admor , N .H . 1 967 Ra infa l l p a t terns i n t he c en tra l N egev d eser t . J ourna l 1 7 :167 -84 .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion

S herra t t , A . 1 980 Wa ter , s o i l a nd s easona l i ty i n e ar ly c erea l c u l t iva t ion . A rchaeo logy 1 :313 -330 .

W or ld

1 981 P lough a nd p as tora l ism : a spec ts o f t he s econdary p roduc ts r evo lu t ion . I n P a t terns o f t h e P as t : S tud ies i n Honour o f Dav id C larke , p p . 2 61-305 ( Eds I . Hodder , G . I s aac a nd N . Hammond ) . C ambr idge : The Un ivers i ty P ress . 1 983 The s econdary e xp lo i tat ion o f a n ima ls i n t he O ld Wor ld . A rchaeo logy 1 5 :90 -104 .

W or ld

Sm i th , P .E . a nd Cuy ler Young , T . 1 972 The e vo lu t ion o f e ar ly a gr icu l ture a nd c u l ture i n G rea ter Mesopo ta m ia : at r ia l mode l . I n P opu la t ion G row th : A n thropo log ica l I mp l ica t ions , p p . 1 59 ( cd B . S pooner ) . C ambr idge : MIT P ress . S pooner , B . 1 974 I r r igat ion a nd s oc ie ty : t he I ran ian p lateau . I n I r r iga t ion 's I mpac t o n S oc ie ty ( eds T .E . Down ing a nd M . G ibson ) A n thropo log ica l P aper s o f t he U n ivers i ty o f A r izona 2 5 :43 -57 . S tager , L .E . 1 985 The f i rs tfru i ts o f c iv i l iza t ion . I n J .N . Tubb ( cd ) P a les t ine i n t h e B ronze a nd I ron A ges -P apers i n Honour o f O lga T ufne l l , p p . 1 72 -188 . L ondon : I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy .

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Chap ter 4 :S e t t lemen t P a t terns i n t he Nor thern Negev

i n p ress The p er iod iza t ion o f P a les t ine f rom Neo l i th ic t hrough E ar ly B ronze T imes . I n R . E hr ich , C hrono log ies i n O ld W or ld A rchaeo logy . Ch icago : Un ivers i ty o f Ch icago P ress . Thunen , J .H . v on 1 966 V on T hunen ' s I so la ted S ta te . Oxford : P ergamon P ress ( Or ig ina l ly p ub l ished a s D er I so l ier te S taa t , 1 826 ) . T ob ler , A .J . 1 950

Excava t ions a t T epe G awra I . P h i lade lph ia .

T sor i , N . 1 958 Neo l i th ic a nd Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he v a l ley o f B e th S han . P a les t ine Exp lora t ion Q ua ter ly . p p . 4 4 -51 . Van Dobben , W .H . a nd Har tman , T .A . 1 963 R eport o n t he t r ia ls i n t he f undamen ta l c erea l r esearch c a tegory . V ers lagen T ienjarenp lan G raanoderz 1 0 :112 -127 . V i ta -F inz i , C . 1 969 T he Med i terranean V a l leys . C ambr idge : The Un ivers i ty P ress . V ita -F inz i , C . a nd H iggs , E .S . 1 970 P reh is tor ic e conomy i n t he Moun t C arme l a rea o f P a les t ine : s i te c a tchmen t a na lys is . P roceed ing s o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 3 6 :1-37 . Wa l len , C .C . 1 966 A r id z one me teoro logy . I n A r id L ands : AG eograph ica l Appra isa l , p p . 3 1-50 ( ed E .S . Ha l l ) , UNESCO . We ins te in , J .M . 1 984 Rad iocarbon d a t ing i n t he s ou thern L evan t . R ad iocarbon 2 6 :297 3 66 . Wha l lon , R . J r . 1 969 E ar ly B ronze a ge d eve lopment i n t he Keban r eservo ir , e as t -cen tra l Turkey . C urren t A n thropo logy 1 0 :128 -33 . W r igh t , G .E . 1 937 T he P o t tery o f P a les t ine f rom t h e E ar l ies t T imes t o t h e E nd o f t h e E ar ly B ronze Age . New Haven : Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch . 1 958 The p rob lem o f t he t r ans i t ion b e tween t he Cha lco l ith ic a nd B ronze a ges . E re tz I s rae l V :37 -45 . Z arky , A . 1 976 S tat is t ica l a na lys is o f s i te c atchmen t a t O co s , Guatema la . I n T he E ar ly Mesoamer ican V i l lage , p p . 17 -30 ( ed K .V . F lannery ) . New York :

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A cadem ic P ress . Z ipf , G .K . 1 949 Human B ehav iour a nd t h e P r inc ip le o f L eas t E ffor t . Harvard Un ivers i ty P ress .

C ambr idge :

Z ohary , D . 1 969 The p rogen i tors o f whea t a nd b ar ley i n r e la t ion t o d omes t icat ion a nd a gr icu ltura l d ispersa l i n t he O ld Wor ld . I n T he Domes t ica t ion a nd Exp lo i ta t ion o f P lan ts a nd A n ima l s , p p . 4 7 -66 , e ds P . J . Ucko a nd G .W . D imb leby . L ondon : Duckwor th . Z ohary , D . a nd S p iege l -Roy , P . 1 975 B eg inn ings o f f ru it g row ing i n t he O ld Wor ld .

S c ience 1 87 :319 -27 .

Zubrow , E .B .W . 1 971 C arry ing c apac i ty a nd d ynam ic e qu i l ibr ium i n t he p reh is tor ic S ou thwes t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 :127 -38 .

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Chap ter 5 THE LATE NEOLITHIC I N THE LO WER NA HAL BESOR THE 1 929 MACDONALD EXCAVATIONS AND SURVEY'

b y

Ann Roshwa lb W .F . A lbr igh t I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo log ica l R esearch J erusa lem

I N TRODUCT ION The L a te Neo l i th ic ( L .N . ) p er iod i n t he Wad i Ghazzeh ( l ower Naha l B esor ) h as b een a n e lus ive p er iod . Un t i l r ecen t ly , n o s ing le s t rat if ied s i te h ad b een f ound o r e xcava ted` ; i n s tead e v idence s i gn ify ing a L ate Neo l ith ic p resence h ad b een f ound o n ly i n s urface s urveys (Macdona ld , u npub l ished ; Roshwa lb 1 981 ; A lon a nd L evy 1 980 ; L evy 1 981 ; a nd Chap ter 4 , T ab le 4 . 1) , a nd i n t he e xcava t ions o f Cha lco l i th ic s i tes b y Macdona ld a nd P erro t a long t he l ower Naha l B esor i n t he v ic in ity o f T e l l F ara ( Sou th ) (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 ; P erro t 1 962 ; Roshwa lb 1 981) . A lon a n L evy ( Chap ter 4 ; L evy 1 983 ) r epor t e l even L ate Neo l i th ic s i tes i n t he ir s urvey" . The Macdona ld e xcava t ions r evea led L .N . mater ia l f rom s i x s i tes . O f t hese , t he f inds a re s o s porad ic a t t wo o f t he s i tes ( S i tes 0 a nd H ) t hat a L a te Neo l i th ic p resence c anno t b e s ugges ted ( s ee b e low ) . L a te Neo l i th ic f inds a re a l so s can t a t t wo o ther s i tes ( S i tes A a nd B ) , l eav ing o n ly t wo s i tes ( D a nd M ) w ith mater ia l t ha t c an b e a t tr ibu ted s ecure ly t o t he L .N . A r tefac ts f rom Macdona ld 's u npub l ished s urvey p reserved a t t he I ns t i tute o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon , r evea led L .N . mater ia l f rom f ive a dd i t iona l s i tes . The L .N . p er iod i n t he l ower Naha l B esor i s p r imar i ly d ef inab le o n t he b as is o f s porad ic f inds t hat c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t h is p er iod o n t he b as is o f p ara l le ls r ather t han o n h ard s t ra t igraph ic d a ta .

CH ARACTER IST ICS O FT HE L .N . PE R IOD I NT HE LOWER NA HAL BE SOR 4 The L .N . p er iod i n t he l ower Naha l B esor c an b e i dent if ied p r imar i ly b y t he p resence o f ad is t inc t ive c eram ic w are . Th is ware h as b een d es igna ted t he H ebrew t e rm " kash " ( " s traw " ) ware b y A lon ( 1961 ; L evy 1 981) . A lthough t he ware i s c harac ter ized , a s i t s n ame i mp l ies , b y t he d is t inc t ive p resence o f l a rge amoun ts o f c haff , t he ma jor i nc lus ions a re n on -p las t ic i ngred ien ts o f l ime a nd/or q uar tz g ra ins , v ary ing i n s i ze f rom s i l t t o c oarse s and . Chaff , i . e . c hopped s t raw , d oes n o t a ppear i n e very s herd . C as ts made o f t he i mpress ions

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o f t he o rgan ic mater ia l i n t hese s herds w ere e xam ined a nd i den t if ied a s emmer b y R . Hubbard . The ware f i res r ed (Munse l l 2 . 5YR ) o r r edd ish b rown (Munse l l 5YR 5 /4 ) , u sua l ly w ith a t h ick g rey c ore . The s herds a re o f ten o f s of t t o a verage h ardness a nd a re c rumb ly ( Tab le 5 . 1) . The v esse ls a re c rude , c o i l -made a nd w i th h igh ly u neven i nner a nd o u ter wa l ls . The l eve l o f workmansh ip i s much c ruder t han t ha t e xh ib i ted b y t he s ubsequen t Cha lco l i th ic p o t tery . D iagno s t ic f orm s a re b ow ls , h o lemouths w i th t h ick wa l ls , a nd k nobs a nd p u l led h and les' . E igh teen p ercen t o f t he s herds a re d ecora ted , t he mos t f requen t mode b e ing i mpress ions ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) °. B ow ls h ave s imp le r ounded r im s wh ich may c urve i nwards . S ome p ro f i les a re p reserved , e xtend ing t o r ounded b ases ( F ig . 5 . 1 : 4 ) . The r im may b e p la in , i nc ised , o r i mpressed ( F ig . 5 . 1 : 1 ,6 -8 ) . Ho lemou th v esse ls h ave r ounded r im s . R im s may b e p la in o r i mpressed ( F ig . 5 . 1 : 9 , 10 ) . There i s o ne r econs truc tab le h o lemou th w i th i mpre ssed a nd i nc ised d es igns (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p la te XXXVII I : 4 where i ti si ncorrec t ly a t tr ibu ted t o S i te A , b e ing f rom S i te D ; T ab le 5 . 3 ) . Hand les a re e i ther p u l led o r k nob f orm . The p u l led h and le i s u sua l ly u neven , w i th a t h icken ing i n t he m idd le ( F ig . 5 . 2 : 1 3 ) . The a verage l eng th o f p u l led h and les i s 9 . 2 mm . The a verage t h icken ing r a t io i s 1 . 4 . The . po le i s mos t o f ten o vo id ( l eng th :w id th r a t io o f t he h o le i n t he h and le i s 1 . 26 )' . The k nob h and le may b e e i ther s pher ica l ( F ig . 5 . 2 : 4 ) o r e longa ted ( F ig . 5 . 2 : 5 ) . The j o in ing o f t he h and les t o t he v e sse l b ody was b ad ly d one , a s v ery o f ten t here i s n o b ody s herd p reserved a t tached t o t he h and le wh ich may i nd ica te t he t echno log ica l l ack o f s k i l l w i th wh ich t he h and le was a t tached t o t he b ody o f t he v esse l . There a re o n ly t wo b ody s herds t ha t s how a ny s econdary t r ea tmen t . One i s o f t he a bove d escr ibed ware , o f v ery u neven t h icknes s , w i th a h o le p ushed t hrough . The s econd i s o f a n e n t ire ly d ifferen t t ype . The ware i s wh i te , w i th l ime t emper a nd i s h eav i ly i nc ised ( F ig . 5 . 2 : 8 ) . T he ware a nd p a t tern o f i nc is ion a re s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he C oas ta l N eo l i th ic ( Ana t i e t a l 1 973 : p l .xx ) . D isks a re made o n b ody s herds . A l though made o n s herds o f t he c harac ter is t ic c haff ware , i ti si mpo ss ib le t o d e term ine when t hese s herds w ere r ecyc led , i . e . c on temporar i ly o r s ubsequent ly i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . The d isks may b e p erforated o r u nperfora ted a nd h ave g round o r u nf in ished e dges . The l i th ic a s semb lage i sl e ss o bv ious a nd h omogeneous t han t he c eram ic . I t i s p r i mar i ly i den t if ied o n t he b as is o f s porad ic f inds o f t yp ica l L .N . s i ck le b lade s egments (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p l .XVI I : t op r ow , 7 th a nd 1 3 th f rom l e f t a nd t op r i gh t ; i b id p l . XX : 3 8 ; Bw ian a nd F r iedman 1 979 : 1 0 -13 ; Ro sen 1 982 : 1 39 ) . The s i ck le b lade s egmen ts ° a re s ca t tered among f ive s i tes . They a re c harac ter ized b y b ifac ia l r e touch a nd c oarse d en t icu la t ion ( 1 .5 -3 t e e th p er cm ) . One a rrowhead may b e long t o t he L .N . (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p l . XX :14 ) .

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C hap ter 5 : The L a te Neo l i th ic i n t he Naha l B esor

The r e lat ive q uan t i ty o f c eram ic ma ter ia l f orces a s earch f or o ther l i th ic f orm s t ha t m igh t b e a t tr ibu tab le t o t he L .N . p er iod . A l though t he p rev ious ly d iscussed f orm s a re s ecure ly a t tr ibu tab le t o t he L .N . o n t he b as is o f p ara l le ls f rom s t ra t if ied s i tes s uch a s S ha 'ar HaGo lan ( S teke l is 1 973 : p la te 2 1) a nd J er icho ( Crowfoo t P ayne 1 983 : F igs 3 35 -337 ) , t he ma jor f ac tor wh ich p romp ts t he i nc lus ion o f t he f o l low ing f orms i n t h is p er iod i s t he i mpress ion t ha t t hey d o n o t f i t i n to t he Cha lco l i th ic t oo l k i t i n r e spec t t o f orm o r workmansh ip a s w e l l a s t he ir p rovenance i n t he Macdona ld e xcava t ions . I wou ld l i ke t o s ugge s t t he i nc lus ion o f f our c ar inated s c rapers o n v ery t h ick f l akes ( S ite M s econd f loor ) . The t h ickness a t t he m idd le o f t hese s c rapers i s f rom t wo t o s i x t imes t he t h ickness a t t he t i p a nd t wo t o t hree t imes t he t h ickness a t t he b ase (a s o pposed t o e nd s c rapers o n f lakes i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod , where d is ta l a nd mes ia l t h icknes ses a re a lmos t e qua l ) . The t i p i sl ocated a t t he d is ta l e x trem i ty i n t hree c ases a nd a t t he p rox ima l e x trem ity i n t he f our th . The t i p r e touch i s l ame l lar , f orm ing a s t eep c onvex e dge . L a tera l r e touch i s marg ina l , worked o ver p rev ious s t eep r e touch t ha t mee ts i n ac entra l d or sa l r idge o r a t t he s ma l l amount o f c or tex r ema in ing a t t he " hump " . The b u t ts a re p la in o r l i near . The a verage d i mens ions a re 5 4 .7 + 1 .3 x 3 4 .8 + 9 . 7 x 2 8 .7 + 2 . 7 mm , t he t i p a ng le , 7 2 ° + 2° . Three s i descrapers , a l so f rom S i te M s econd f loor , may a l so f orm p ar t o f t he L .N . t oo l k i t . The f i rs t i s c onvex ly b acked b y s t eep i r regu lar r e touch o n a t h ick c or t ica l f l ake , w i th a s t ra igh t work e dge a nd d is ta l a nd mes ia l r e touch o ver a s urface f rom wh ich c or tex h ad p rev ious ly b een r e moved . The b u t t i s p la in , w i th a p ronounced b u lb o f p ercuss ion . I t s d i mens ions a re 16 x 7 2 x2 9 mm . The s econd h as a c onvex b ifac ia l ly r e touched work e dge w i th a c or t ica l ly b acked e dge o ppos i te . I t i s 6 6 .5 x 5 2 x2 0 mm . The t h ird i s l imes tone , c oarse ly r e touched t o f orm a c onvex s c raper . I t i s 9 9 x1 01 x 2 8 mm , t he t i p a ng le 6 5 °. I t i s t he o n ly f l aked s t one t oo l n o t made o n f l in t o r c her t i n t he e nt ire Macdona ld c o l lec t ion . A lso p ar t o f t he t oo l k i t a re t wo t ypes o f c ore t oo ls t hat d o n o t f i t a ny o f t he u sua l c a tegor ies . They a re o g iva l o r r ound i n s hape . Og iva l o r r ound c ore t oo ls a re b ifac ia l t oo ls d ef ined b y t he ir morpho logy , e . g . t he w id th o f t he t i p i s much n arrower t han t he w id th a t t he m idd le a nd t he t i p i s s t rong ly c onvex i f n o t o g iva l i n s hape . S i te D p resents t he b es t c and ida te f or a L .N . c ore t oo l (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p l .X II ; f i rs t r ow , s econd f rom r i gh t ) , al a rge o g iva l t oo l w i th a g round t i p f rom l eve l 3 ' 7 " -4 ' w ith p ara l le ls f rom N izzan im ( Ye iv in a nd O la m i 1 979 : F ig . 5 15 :4 ) . I t may a l so b e p os s ib le t o i nc lude t he c rude ly made c ore t oo ls w i th g ros s work ings o f l a rge d eep f l akes wh ich a re o f ten a lmos t s ca lar w i th l i t t le r egu lar i ty a nd s eem t o " chew u p " t he t oo l . A l though t h is p ar t icu lar t ype o f r e touch o ccurs o n ly i n t he l ower l eve ls a nd p i ts o f S i tes D a nd M ( i b id : p l .XII :11) , i ti sn o t r e s tr ic ted t o o ne p ar t icu lar c ore t oo l t ype b u t was u t i l ized a cross t he e nt ire c ore t oo l r ange ( axe , a dze , c h ise l ) . One s urface s i te , S i te L , c on ta ined t wo P o t tery Neo l i th ic s i ck le b lade s egmen ts . Mos t o f t he ma ter ia l f rom t h is s i te i s d eb i tage mater ia l c ons is t ing o f f l ake a nd b lade b lanks a nd d ebr is . The workmansh ip o f t he b lanks i s r ough ; e dges o f b lades a re i r regu lar , a s a re p rev ious r e mova l s cars o n t he d orsa l s urfaces . F luted e dges o f c ores w ere n o t p repared b efore t he r e mova l o f b lades , a s s hown b y t he s purs o n t he p rox i ma l d orsa l s urfaces o f t he b lade s . T h is t echno logy c on tras ts s harp ly w ith t he t e chn ica l a b i l ity s hown i n t he

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e xcava ted Cha lco l i th ic s i tes o f a l l t ypes i n t he B esor ( Ro shwa lb 1 981) a l though i t may f i t i n w i th t he f ew b lade b lanks a nd c ores f rom B ir e s -Safad i .

SI TES A ND ST RAT IGRAPHY I NT HE LOWER NA HAL BE SOR The a bove d escr ibed L .N . ma ter ia l c omes p r imar i ly f rom S i tes D a nd M a nd s urface s i tes P . Q , 8 , 1 0 a nd p os s ib ly 1 , w i th s porad ic f inds o ccurr ing i n S i tes B , A , 0 a nd H . S i te D p resen ts t he ma jor s t ra t igraph ic e v idence f or t he p er iod . The p a t tern o f t he f inds a nd a c arefu l e xam ina t ion o f t he t op p lan a nd s ec t ion (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p l .II ) s t rong ly s ugges t at wo (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : 4 ) o r t hree ( Roshwa lb 1 981 . 17 ) p hase s i te . Macdona ld e xcava ted t he 9 ' 6 " d epos i t i n l eve ls u sua l ly 6 " d eep. The l ower l eve ls , 9 ' 3 '7 " , a re d es igna ted a s D 1 a nd t he u pper l eve ls , 3 ' 6 " -t op , a s D2 . P i ts a re a ssoc iated w i th e ach o f t he t wo l eve ls . However , e xam ina t ion o f t he f inds , t op p lan a nd s ec t ion i n l i gh t o f P erro t 's 1 961 e xcava t ion a t G isemen t 3( Perro t 1 962 a nd p ersona l o b serva t ion ) s ugges t t he p oss ib i l i ty o f t hree p hases - a l owes t l eve l o f p i ts c overed b y a m ixed i n termed ia te l eve l ( 5 '1" 9 ' ) c overed b y a l a ter l eve l ( 4 '6 " -Top ) o f s em i s ub terranean dwe l l ings . Unfor tuna te ly , i t i s i mpo ss ib le t o d e term ine i f t he m ix ing i s r ea l o r d ue t o Macdona ld 's e xcava t ion t echn iques . The VhN . d oes s eem , h owever , t o b e r e s tr ic ted t o t he p i ts b e low t he Cha lco l i th ic l eve l"' ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . B ased o n f inds f rom t he Macdona ld e xcavat ions p reserved i n t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon , p i ts 8 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 3 0 a nd 3 7 may b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he L .N . o n t he b as is o f t he ir c on ten ts . P i ts 2 5 , 2 7 , 3 0 -42 a re a t tr ibu ted t o t he l ower p hase , D 1 , b y Macdona ld e t a l ( 1932 : p l . II ) a nd f a l l g enera l ly w i th in t he l owes t l eve ls d ef ined b y t he f inds . P i ts 8 a nd 1 5 a re d ef ined a s b e ing L .N . o n t he b as is o f t he p o t tery a l though a s s igned t o D2 b y Macdona ld a nd c ou ld b e a noma lous . Mos t o f t he L .N . ma ter ia l c omes f rom t he p i ts . I n t he P erro t e xcava t ions , ma ter ia l i den t if iab le a s L .N . a l so was f ound p r imar i ly i n p i ts , a l though n ever i n as ea led c on tex t ( Roshwa lb 1 981) . I t h as b een s ugges ted (Moore 1 973 a nd L evy 1 981) t ha t t hese a re p i t dwe l l ings . G i lead ( pers . c omm . ) , i n h is e xcava t ions a t S i te P a nd a t T e l Qa t if N eo l i th ic , h as f ound p i ts b ut n o a rch i tec ture . E ps te in ( 1984 ) a l so f ound n o a rch i tec ture a t T e l Qat if . P i t dwe l l ings a re c ons idered t o b e t yp ica l o f t h is p er iod ( Bar Yo sef 1 982 : 7 7 ; Gophna 1 982 : 7 4 ) . S i te M p rov ides s o me s t ra t igraph ic e v idence f or t he L .N . T he L .N . ma ter ia l , a l though c om ing ma in ly f rom t he l owes t l eve ls ( 13 ' a nd l ower o f t he s econd f loor ) , i s a ga in m ixed w i th Cha lco l ith ic e l emen ts . The c ar ina ted s c rapers a nd s i ck les c i ted a bove c p rne f rom t h is f loor . They w ere a l so f ound i n P i ts 1a nd 2 a nd o n t he s urf a ce l .

F o l low ing t he p a t tern a t S i tes D a nd M , t he L .N . p o t tery f rom S i te B c ome s e xc lus ive ly f rom p i ts , a l though t he L .N . s i ck les c ome f rom L eve l A . S ing le f l int f inds a re k nown f rom S i tes 0 a nd H ( one s i ck le b lade s egmen t f rom e ach s i te ) . The S i te 0 s egment was c l ear ly r eused i n t he Cha lco l ith ic

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Chap ter 5 : The L a te Neo l i th ic i n t he Naha l B esor

p er iod . Reuse o f e ar l ier f l in t t oo ls o f a ppropr ia te s i ze t o f i t i n a h af t i n Cha lco l ith ic c on text was a l so f ound a t S i te B where a P PNB a rrowhead was r ecyc led a s a s i ck le s egmen t ( Roshwa lb 1 981 : 9 7 ) . The s egmen t f rom H i s p robab ly i n trus ive . A l though o ne l ocus f rom S i te A i n t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy ma ter ia ls i s marked " Neo l i th ic Hear th E as t " (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 : p l .VIII ) , t he L .N . i s n o t i den t if iab le i n t he S i te A ma ter ia l . Ra ther , t he s herds f rom t h is l ocus a re h eav i ly l imes tone t empered a s i s t yp ica l o f t he Cha lco l i th ic , a l though t hey a re p oss ib ly s o mewha t c ruder t han t he u sua l S i te A wares . No l i th ic ma ter ia l was p reserved f rom t h is l o cus . S i te L s eems t o b e e xc lus ive ly L .N . b u t i s k nown f rom t he s urface o n ly . A lso b ased o n s urface f inds , S i tes 8 a nd 1 0 a re L .N . , S i te 1 i s p o ss ib ly L .N . a nd S i te Q i s m ixed L .N . -Cha lco l i th ic -EB I . S i te P . a s s urveyed b y Macdona ld ( 1932 ) was f ound t o c on ta in L a te Neo l i th ic , Cha lco l i th ic a nd EB I a r tefac ts . The s urvey c arr ied o ut b y A lon a nd L evy ( Tab le 4 . 1) r evea led o n ly L a te Neo l i th ic mater ia l . Recent t e s t e xcava t ions b y G i lead a nd A lon ( i n p res s ) a t a s i te 3 00 m wes t o f S i te P r evea led o n ly L a te Neo l i th ic ma ter ia l t hus c onf irm ing t he s urvey o b serva t ions .

SUMMARY When t he L ate Neo l i th ic was f i rs t o bserved i n t he Wad i Ghazzeh ( l ower Naha l B esor ) , i t was a ssumed t o b e a n i s o la ted p henomenon , d ue t o t he l ack o f c omparat ive d a ta . P ara l le ls w ere n o ted w i th T e l Qat if ( Eps te in 1 984 ) , a nd t he Herz l iyya s and d unes . Curren t s urvey r e search a nd e xcava t ions h ave g rea t ly e x tended t he k nown o ccurrence o f t he L .N . a s k nown f rom t he Wad i Ghazzeh a nd a s d ef ined o n t he b as is o f t he p o t tery d escr ibed a bove . The work o f O ren a nd G i lead i n t he Nor th S ina i ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981) , a nd G i lead a nd A lon ( in p ress ) i n t he B esor h ave e x tended t he p ic ture o f t h is c u l ture i n n or thern S ina i c oas ta l p la in a nd w es tern Negev .

1 43

S h iqm im I

T ab le 5 . 1 E xcavat ions .

Ware

Charac ter is t ics

o f

L .N .

S herds

f rom

t he

Nu mber

P ercen tage

6 8 1 0 5 8

1 00 1 5 8 5

6 8 5 7 1

1 00 8 4 1 6

6 8 2 0 3 6 6 6

1 00 2 9 5 3 9 9

Macdona ld

WA RE CO LOR T o ta l r ed ( 2 .5YR a nd 1 0R) b rown ( 5YR a nd 7 . 5YR)

DA RK GR EY CO RE T o ta l p resen t a bsen t

HA RDNESS T o ta l s of t a verage a bove a verage v ery h ard

T ab le 5 . 2 ( a)

F requency o f D ecorat ion T ype b y V esse l F orm .

UN DECORATED

TO TAL

TO TAL B ow l s Ho lemou th B ase P u l led h and le Knob h and le B ody S herd D isk

6 8 ( 100% )

5 6 ( 82% )

2 0 1 5 5 1 3 7 6 2

1 5 9 5 1 3 7 5 2

1 44

DE CORATED

1 2 ( 18% ) 5 6

1

Ch ap ter 5 : Th e La te Ne o l i th ic i n t he Na ha l Be sor

Ta b le 5 .2 ( b)

TO TAL DE CORATED SH ERDS

B ow l s Ho lemou th B ody S herd TO TAL

Ta b le 5 . 3

I M PRESSED

5 6 1

IN C ISED

4 5

I MPRESSED A ND IN C ISED

1 1 1

1 2

9

2

1

Ve s se l Me an Me asurements .

D iame ter ( cm) NUMBER B ow l s Ho lemou ths B ases f la t r ound s t ump

1 8 1 3 4 3 2 1

ME AN

RA NGE

2 5 .5 2 4 .5 6 . 2 5 . 5

1 .0 -33 .0 1 6 .0 -44 .0 4 . 0 -8 .0 4 . 0 -7 .0

8 . 0

W a l l T h ickness ( cm) NUMBER B ow l s Ho lemou ths

1 8 1 3

1 45

ME AN

RA NGE

1 . 3 1 . 4

0 . 5 -2 .3 0 . 7 -2 .7

S h iqm im I

T ab le 5 . 4 ( a)

S ummary o f S i te D L ocus -Phase A t tr ibut ions .

MA CDONALD L ocus

l ' 7" -2 ' 2 ' 1" -2 '6"

CE RAM IC % LA TE NE OL ITH IC

% CH ALCOL ITH IC

PH A SE AS S IGNMENT

3

9 7

6

1 00 9 4

C ha lco l i th ic t ype f o s s i ls Cha lco l i th ic C ha lco l i th ic t ype f o s s i ls C ha lco l i th ic t ype f o s s i ls

2 ' 7" -3 ' 3 ' 1" -3 '6" 3 ' 7" -4 ' 4 ' 1" -4 '6" 4 ' 7" -5 ' 5 ' 1" -5 '6" 5 ' 7" -6 ' 6 ' 1" -6 '6" 6 ' 7" -7 ' 7 ' 1" -7 '6" 7 ' 7" -8 ' 8 ' 1" -8 '6" 8 ' 7" -9 ' P i ts 1 -5 P i t 6 P i t 8 P i t 1 3 P i t 1 5 P i t 1 6 P i t 1 7 P i t 1 8 P i t 1 9 P i t 2 1 P i t 2 3 P i t 2 6 P i t 3 0 P i t 3 7 P i t 4 2

FL AKED ST ONE

1 00 1 00 7 5 1 00

2 5 1 00 4 3 n one 4 0 5 0 3 3 6 7 4 0 6 7

5 7 6 0 5 0 6 7 3 3 6 0 3 3 1 00 1 00

1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 m ixed 1 00 m ixed

1 00

1 00 1 00 1 00

C ha lco l i th ic C ha lco l i th ic ( ? ) C ha lco l ith ic L a te N eo l i th ic C ha lco l ith ic C ha lco l ith ic ( ? ) ( ? ) ( ? ) C ha lco l i th ic ( ? ) C ha lco l ith ic C ha lco l ith ic n o f l in t C ha lco l ith ic Cha lco l i th ic ( ? ) C ha lco l i th ic C ha lco l i th ic n o f l in t n o f l in t n o f l in t n o f l in t n o f l in t n o f l in t C ha lco l ith ic o ne f ragmen t

( ? ) i nd ica tes t ha t af i rm a t tr ibu t ion t o C ha lco l i th ic o r L a te N eo l i th ic c anno t b e made .

1 46

Chap ter 5 : The L a te Neo l i th ic i n t he Naha l B esor

T ab le 5 .4 ( b)

MA CDONALD Locus

0 " -1 '6" 2 ' 1" -2 '6" 2 ' 7" -3 ' 3 ' 1" -3 '6" 3 ' 7" -4 ' 4 ' 1" -4 '6" 4 ' 7" -5 ' 5 ' 1" -5 '6" 5 ' 7" -6 ' 6 ' 1" -6 '6" 6 ' 7" -7 ' 7 ' 1" -7 '6" 7 ' 7" -8 ' 8 ' 1" -8 '6" 8 ' 7" -9 ' P i ts 1 -5 P i t 6 P i t 8 P i t 1 3 P i t 1 5 P i t 1 6 P i t 1 7 P i t 1 8 P i t 1 9 P i t 2 1 P i t 2 3 P i t 2 6 P i t 3 0 P i t 3 7 P i t 4 2

PH ASE AT TR IBUT ION MA CDONALD

FI NAL

D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D l D I D I D l D I D I D I D l D I D I D I D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D2 D I D I D I

p r imar i ly Cha lco l ith ic Cha lco l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic m ixed Cha lco l i th ic L a te Neo l i th ic m ixed L a te Neo l i th ic m ixed m ixed m ixed m ixed m ixed m ixed Cha lco l ith ic Cha lco l i th ic L a te Neo l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic L a te Neo l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic Cha lco l i th ic L ate Neo l i th ic m ixed L a te Neo l i th ic m ixed m ixed L a te Neo l i th ic L ate Neo l i th ic o r m ixed L a te Neo l i th ic

S h iqm im I

NOTES 1 . Th is c hap ter i s b ased o n t he Macdona ld e xcava t ions o f 1 929 - 1 930 p ub l ished i n Macdona ld , E . e t a l B e th P e le t I 1 932 . R esearch o n t h is ma ter ia l was c onduc ted f or a d oc tora l d isser ta t ion e n t i t led P ro toh is tory i n t h e Wad i G hazzeh : A T ypo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l S tudy B ased o n t h e Macdona ld Excava t ions a t t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers ity o f L ondon . Iw ish t o t hank t he C en tra l Research F und , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon ; t he Gordon Ch i lde Memor ia l F und , I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy ; t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch a nd t he A lbr igh t I ns t itu te o f A rchaeo log ica l R e search , J erusa lem f or mak ing t h is r e search p oss ib le . 2 . T e l Qa t if , l oca ted s ou th o f Gaza i n t he Negev c oas ta l p la in , p rov ides a n e xamp le o f s uch a s i te (M in tz 1 979 a nd E ps te in 1 984 ) a s d oes a r ecen t ly e xcavated s i te i n t he l ower Naha l B esor ( G i lead a nd A lon , i n p ress ) . 3 . S i tes i den t if ied b y A lon a nd L evy ( F ig . 4 . 1) a s b e ing Neo l i th ic c an c orre la ted w i th t he Macdona ld s i tes a s f o l lows : MA CDONALD

AL ON A ND LE VY

A B M D 0 P 1 0

BE -41 BE -43 BE -44 BE -51 BE -52 BE -54 B S -23

b e

( 1980)

A lon a nd L evy f ound S i te 8 a t t he l and f ace t b e tween t he j unc t ions o f Wad is B eer S heba a nd B esor . They c ou ld n o t f ind S i te 1 a nd made n o men t ion o f S i te Q . 4 . Th is s ec t ion i s b ased o n t he e xam inat ion o f t he a r tefac ts e xcava ted o r c o l lec ted b y Macdona ld c urren t ly p reserved i n t he Wad i Ghazzeh c o l lec t ion o f t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon , t he B r i t ish Museum a nd t he A sh mo lean Museum , a s w e l l a s t he Gars tang J er icho L eve l I X mater ia l i n t he A r t ifac t C o l lec t ion o f t he W .F . A lbr igh t I ns t i tute o f A rchaeo log ica l R esearch . Thanks a re d ue t o Mr . P . P arr , Mr . G . S ievek ing , Mrs . J . P ayne a nd D r . S .G i t in , r e spec t ive ly . 5 . " Knob " h and les a re u sua l ly f ormed b y a t tach ing a r ounded l u mp o f c lay t o t he v esse l a t o ne p o in t , whereas " pu l led " h and les a re f ormed b y a t tach ing a c o i l a t t wo p o in ts . The L .N . p u l led h and les a re u sua l ly i r regu lar ly a nd u neven ly f ormed c o i ls a s o pposed t o t he Cha lco l i th ic h and les , wh ich h ave c ons is ten t d iame ters a nd more o f ten r egu lar c ross -sec t ions . I t was f ound t hat t here i s a s i gn if icant d ifference i n t he t h icken ing r a t io ( t he r at io o f t he w id th o f t he h and le a t i t s p o int o f a t tachment t o t he v esse l t o i t s w id th a t t he c ro ss -sec t ion a t t he m idd le o f t he h and le ) b e tween t he L .N . a nd t he C ha lco l ith ic -i . e . , i n t he L .N . i ti sc lose t o 1 ;i n t he C ha lco l i th ic , c lo se t o 2 .

1 48

Chap ter 5 : The L a te Neo l i th ic i n t he Naha l B esor

6 . A l though t he t o ta l a ssemb lage i s d ifferen t , t he a r tefac ts c an b e p laced g enera l ly w i th in t he L a te Neo l ith ic . However , t here i s ar e semb lance i n t he p o t tery t o t hat o f J er icho i n t he l ower s ec t ion o f L eve l I X a nd i n t he P o t tery N eo l i th ic i n t he u se o f c haff i n t he ware a nd t he me thods o f manufac ture ( persona l o bservat ion ; B en -Dor 1 936 : 7 7 ; F ranken 1 974 : 1 83 -186 ) a s w e l l a s t hrough p ara l le ls t o af ew P o t tery Neo l i th ic A f orms ( Ho l land a nd Kenyon 1 982 : F igures 4 : 3 , 6 : 7 , 1 3 :6 ) . C loser p ara l le ls a re f ound a t t he L a te Neo l i th ic s i te n ear T e l Qat if , where ware a nd me thods o f manufac ture a re d up l ica ted ( Eps te in 1 984 : 2 12 ; G i lead a nd A lon , i n p ress ) . An i s o lated p ara l le l i sf ound i n t he Herz l iya s and d unes ( Prausn i tz 1 970 ) . 7 ." Ovo id " i s d e term ined b y t he r a t io o f t he l eng th o f t he h o le f ormed b y t he a t tachmen t o f t he c o i l t o t he v esse l t o t he w id th o f t he h o le -i . e . , i f t he r a t io i s 1 : 1 , i t i s c i rcu lar , a s i n t he Cha lco l i th ic ; i f t he r a t io i s n o t e qua l t o 1 , i t i s o vo id . 8 .E xcavat ions a t T e l Qa t if (M intz 1 979 : 1 03 ; E ps te in 1 984 : F ig . 4 : 1 4 ) s ugges t t he i nc lus ion o f a s i ck le s egment made o n a w ide b lade b lank w i th b it runca t ion , s em i -abrup t b ack ing ( i nverse o r d irec t ) a nd e i ther f ine d en t icu la t ion o r d en t icu la t ion a s ar e su l t o f u se a s p ar t o f t h is t oo l k i t . The se s i ck le s egmen ts a re v ir tua l ly u nd is t ingu ishab le f rom t ho se o f t he Cha lco l i th ic f ac ies r epresented a t s i tes A , B , M a nd D . I f t he u se o f i nverse b ack ing a nd/or t runca t ion i st aken a s ac r i ter ion , t hese s i ck les c an b e f ound i n s ma l l q uan t it ies a t e ach o f t hese f our s i tes , u sua l ly o n t he s urface , a l though i n S i te D t hey o ccur l oc i ( e .g . , 7 ' 7 " -8 ' ; P i t 1 9 ) a t tr ibutab le t o t he L ate Neo l i th ic ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . I f t h is t oo l t ype d oes p rove t o b e t yp ica l o f t he L a te Neo l i th ic f ac ies r epresented i n t he l ower Naha l B esor , i t w i l l p rov ide s uppor t f or c on t inu i ty b e tween t he L a te N eo l ith ic a nd Cha lco l i th ic p er iods i n t he n or thern Negev , a s w e l l a s f or c urren t t endenc ies t o p lace t h is p er iod t e rm ino log ica l ly l a ter t han t he L a te N eo l i th ic , i . e . L a te Neo l i th ic/Ear ly Cha lco l ith ic ( We ins te in 1 984 : 3 05 ; L evy 1 986 : 8 6 ) a nd E ar ly Cha lco l i th ic ( Gophna 1 982 :77 ) . 9 . The u n it o f e xcavat ion r e ta ined h ere .

u sed

b y Macdona ld ,

f ee t a nd

i nches , h as b een

1 0 . However , i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t A lon i n r e -excava t ing t h is s i te , f ound n o e v idence f or v er t ica l s t ra t igraphy o f t he L a te Neo l i th ic a nd Cha lco l i th ic . I ns tead , h e p o s its h or izon ta l s t rat igraphy ( A lon 1 977 a nd p ers . c omm . ) . 1 . Gophna ( 1982a ; Gophna a nd Gaz i t 1 985 ) , i n h is 1 982 r e -excava t ion o f t h is s i te , ment ions n o e v idence o f t he L a te Neo l i th ic . However , i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he s i te i sl a rge a nd Gophna made a s ma l l s ound ing o n ly .

1 49

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY

A lon , D . 1 961 F ourth M i l len ia B .C . P a t t ish . M i 'B ifn im 2 4 : 8 7 -96 . A lon , D . 1 977 Naha l B esor -S i te D .

S e t t lemen ts ( Hebrew )

i n

Naha l

Gerar

Hadasho t A rkheo log iyo t 6 1-62 : 4 2 .

a nd

Naha l

( Hebrew )

A lon , D . a nd L evy , T .E . 1 980 P re l im inary No te o n t he D is tr ibu t ion o f Cha lco l ith ic S i tes o n t he Wad i B eer S heba -L ower Wad i B esor D ra inage B as in . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 0 : 1 40 -147 . Ana t i , E . , Avn i me lech M . , Haas ,N . a nd Meyerhof , E . 1 973 Hazorea I . B resc ia : E d iz ione d e l C entro . B ar Yosef , 0 . 1 982 E re tz I s rae l i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iod : The C eram ic Neo l i th ic . I n Y . E pha l ( ed ) T he H is tory o f E re tz I s rae l V o l . 1 , p p . 7 3 -76 . J eru sa lem : Ke ter . ( Hebrew ) . B en -Dor , I . 1 936 P o t tery o f t he M idd le a nd L a te Neo l i th ic P er iod . A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 3 : 7 7 -84 .

A nna l s o f

B ur ian , F . a nd F r iedman , E . 1 979 A t ypo logy o f a rrowheads a nd s i ck le b lade s a nd i t s c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ion . M i tekufa t Ha 'even 1 6 : 1 16 . C rowfoo t P ayne , J . 1 983 Append ix C . The f l int i ndus tr ies o f J er icho . I n K .M . Kenyon a nd T .A . Ho l land ( eds ) Excava t ions a t J er icho V . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem . E ps te in , C . 1 984 A P o t tery Neo l i th ic S i te Near T e l Qa t if . 3 4 : 2 09 -219 . F ranken , H .J . 1 974 I n S earch P ub l ish ing C o .

o f t h e

J er icho

P o t ters .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l .

Am s terdam :

Nor th -Ho l land

G i lead , I .a nd A lon , D . i n p res s . E xcava t ions o f p ro toh is tor ic s i tes i n Naha l B esor a nd t he Qat if ian o f t he n or thern Negev a nd S ina i . Gophna , R . 1 982a Naha l B esor .

Excava t ions a nd S urveys i n I s rae l 1 :7 6 -77 .

1 50

Chap ter 5 : The L a te Neo l i th ic i n t he Naha l B esor

1 982b E re tz I s rae l i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iod : t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . I n Y . E pha l ( cd ) T he H is tory o f E re tz I s rae l V o l . 1 , p p . 7 6 -94 . J erusa lem : Ke ter . Gophna , R . a nd Gaz i t ,D . 1 985 A Cha lco l i th ic F l in t I mp lemen t f rom Naha l B esor , S i te M . 1 7 : 1 82 -186 . Kenyon , K .M . a nd Ho l land , T .A . ( eds ) 1 982 Excava t ions a t J er icho , A rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem . 1 983 Excava t ions a t J er icho , A rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem .

A t iqo t

V o l .

4 .

L ondon :

B r i t ish

S choo l

o f

V o l .

5 .

L ondon :

B r i t ish

S choo l

o f

L evy , T .E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence i n t h e N or thern N egev D eser t , I s rae l . P h .D . t hes is . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lm s . 1 983 The Emergence o f S pec ia l ized P as tora l ism i n t he S ou thern L evan t . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 :15 -36 . 1 986 A rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he s tudy o f P a les t ine : t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 9 : 8 2 -108 . Macdona ld , E . e t a l 1 932 B e th P e le t I : P reh is tor ic F ara .

L ondon : B ernard Quar i tch .

M in tz , E . 1 979 F l in t t oo ls f rom t he Neo l i th ic s i te n ear T e l Qa t if . Haeven 1 6 : 1 02 -108 . Moore , A .M .T . 1 973 The L a te Neo l i th ic i n P a les t ine .

L evan t 5 :3 6 -68 .

O ren . E . a nd G i lead , I . 1 981 Cha lco l i th ic S i tes i n Nor theas tern S ina i . P erro t , J . 1 962 Chron ique a rcheo log ique , Naha l B esor . 3 91 . P rausn itz , M . 1 970 A Neo l i th ic h o lemou th j ar .

M i tekufa t

T e l A v iv 8 :2 5 -44 .

R evue B ib l ique .

6 9 : 3 88 -

A t iqo t 6 :7 6 -77 . ( Hebrew ) .

Roshwa lb , A . 1 981 P ro toh is tory i n t he Wad i Ghazzeh : A Typo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l S tudy B ased o n t he Macdona ld E xcava t ions . Unpub l ished d oc tora l d isser tat ion , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon .

1 51

S h iqm im I

Rosen , S .A . 1 982 F l in t s i ck le b lades o f t he l a te p ro toh is tor ic a nd e ar ly h i s tor ic p er iods i n I s rae l . T e l A v iv 9 : 1 39 -145 . S teke l is , M . 1 973 T he Y armuk ian C u l ture o f t h e N eo l i th ic P er iod . P ress . We ins te in , J . 1 984 Rad iocarbon d a t ing i n t he s ou thern L evant . 3 66 .

J erusa lem : Magnes

R ad iocarbon 2 6 : 2 97 -

Y e iv in , E . a nd O lam i , Y . 1 979 N izzan im -A Neo l ith ic S i te i n Naha l E v tah : E xcavat ions o f 1 968 1 970 . T e l A v iv 6 :9 9 -135 .

1 52

Chap ter 6

EXCAVATIONS I N THE SHIQ MI M V ILLAGE

b y

Thomas E . L evy Ne lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy Hebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f Re l ig ion J erusa lem a nd Dav id A lon I s rae l D epar tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Museums J erusa lem

IN TRODUCT ION S h iq m im i s l oca ted a pprox ima te ly 1 8 km w es t o f t he c i ty o f B eer S heva ( F ig . 4 . 1) a long t he n or th b ank o f t he Wad i ( Hebrew = Naha l ) B eer S heva . I t i s s i tua ted 1 km w es t o f a Turk ish ( l a te O t toman p er iod , c a . 1 850 - 1 917 A .D . ) t r ad ing p os t w i th t wo d eep we l ls . Dur ing t he O t toman o ccupa t ion , an umber o f s ycamore t r ees were p lan ted a round t hese we l ls . The A rab ic word f or s ycamore i s G io 'ma ise , t hus t he l oca l B edou in c a l led t h is t rad ing p os t a nd wa ter ing s t at ion B e 'er G i 'oma ise ( We l l o f t he S yca more ) . When we d ec ided t o e xcava te t he e x tens ive Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage s i te s i tua ted d own s t ream f rom B e 'er G io 'ma ise , t he Hebrew p lura l f or s ycamore , S h iqm im , was s e lec ted a s t he n ame f or t he s i te . The o n ly l oca le w i th a p roper h is tor ica l n a me i n t he v ic in i ty o f S h iqm im i s as ma l l O t toman " for t " k nown a s Qasr Rash id B ec . Qasr Rash id B ec ( ca . 6x 1 4 m ) was a c tua l ly p ar t o f an e twork o f s ma l l m i l itary o u tpos ts wh ich t he O t toman a u thor i t ies h ad e s tab l ished i n t he n or thwes tern Negev t o h e lp s ubdue t he l oca l B edou in t r ibes . Af ter 1 948 , t he b u i ld ing was f lat tened d ur ing t arge t p rac t ice a nd t he s i te r enamed Mezad A luf . The l a t ter n a me c an b e f ound o n a lmos t a ny l a rge s ca le map o f I s rae l . The S h iqm im s i te was f i rs t d iscovered b y A lon d ur ing h is s urvey o f Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he n or thern Negev f oo th i l ls i n t he e ar ly ' 50s . However , t he f u l l s i gn if icance o f t h is s e t t lemen t f or a mu l t id isc ip l inary i nves t iga t ion o n ly b ecame a pparen t d ur ing a s urvey b y t he a uthors wh ich c ommenced i n 1 977 ( A lon a nd L evy 1 980 ) . Th is work was c arr ied o ut u nder t he a usp ices o f t he I s rae l D epar tment o f Ant iqu i t ies . I n 1 982 , al a rge s ca le mu l t id isc ip l inary r e search p ro jec t was i n it ia ted a nd s ponsored b y t he I s rae l D epar tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Museum s a nd t he Negev Museum , B eersheva . Th is p ro jec t was

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f unded b y g enerous g ran t s f rom t he Na t iona l G eograph ic a ff i l ia ted w i th t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R e search .

S oc ie ty

a nd

S h iqm im was s e lec ted f or i nve s t iga t ion f or a n umber o f r ea son s wh ich r e la te t o t he n a ture o f t he s i te a nd t he a n thropo log ica l o r ien ta t ion o f t he e xped i t ion s t aff . T he r eason s f or s e lec t ing S h iqm im a s ar e search s i te c an b e o u t l ined a s f o l lows : 1 ) t he s urvey ( Chap ter 4 ) r evea led c l ear e v idence f or a t wo t i er s e t t lemen t h ierarchy w i th f our C ha lco l i th ic s i te c en ter s a nd t he ir s a te l l i te s i tes a long t he Naha l B eer sheva -L ower Naha l B e sor ( Levy 1 981 ; L evy a nd A lon 1 983 ) . S h iqm im a nd i t s s a te l l i te s w ere t he o n ly c lus ter o f v i l lage s i tes n o t p rev ious ly i nves t iga ted o r d is turbed b y modern f arm ing a nd m i l i tary a c t iv i t ie s . T hus , t he p r is t ine n a ture o f S h iqm im p rov ided a n i dea l o u tdoor l abora tory f or c onduc t ing a mu l t id isc ip l inary a rchaeo log ica l r e search p ro jec t u s ing t he me thods o f e xcava t ion , r ecord ing a nd a na ly s is o f t he ' 8 0 s ; 2 ) T he p o ten t ia l o f S h iqm im a s as i te wor thy o f al ong t e rm r e search p ro jec t w as i nd ica ted b y t he a bundance o f C ha lco l i th ic w a l l f ragmen ts c l ear ly v i s ib le o n t he s i te s urface a nd t he t h ick c oncen tra t ion o f C ha lco l i th ic a r tefac tua l ma ter ia l wh ich c ou ld b e mapped o ver a n a rea o f c a . 9 . 5 h ec tare s ; 3 ) I n a n thropo log ica l t e rm s , a ma jor r e search a im o f t he S h iqm im p ro jec t w as t he i nve s t iga t ion o f s o me o f t he p roces se s t ha t may h ave l ed t o t he emergence o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i n s ou thern P a le s t ine . T he S h iqm im s i te h as p roved t o b e a n e xe l len t l o ca le f or t h is k ind o f s tudy b ecause i n t e rm s o f t he Naha l B eersheva p a t tern o f C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t ( Levy 1 981) , S h iqm im r ank s a s o ne o f t he l a rge s t s e t t lemen t s i n at wo t i er s e t t lemen t h ierarchy . A ccord ing t o R enfrew ( 1973 ) , t he emergence o f s e t t lemen t c en ter s i n t he e vo lu t ion o f s oc ie t ies i s a c l ear i nd ica t ion o f t he e x is tence o f c h iefdom s . C h iefdom s p lay a n i mpor tan t r o le i n p reh i s tory . C arne iro ( 1981) h as s ugge s ted t ha t t he o n ly r ou te t o t he e vo lu t ion o f s t a te s oc ie t ies i st hrough c h iefdom s a nd t ha t i t wou ld b e v i r tua l ly i mpos s ib le f or a g roup o f a u tonomous v i l lage s t o a ggrega te a nd o rgan ize t hem se lves i n to a s t a te w i thou t g o ing t hrough a n i n termed ia te s t age w i th t he e s sen t ia l f ea tures o f ac h iefdom . I tw as w i th in t h is a n thropo log ica l f ramework t ha t S h iqm im was s e lec ted a s a n e xamp le o f aN egev C ha lco l i th ic s i te c en ter w i th t he p o ten t ia l o f p rov id ing a t e s t c ase f or e xam in ing t he p roce s se s t ha t l ed t o t he emergence o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i n t h is r eg ion . I n r ecen t y ear s , t he C ha lco l i th ic ( ca . 4 500 - 3 200 B .C . ) p er iod h as b een t he s ub jec t o f c ons iderab le d eba te c oncern ing t he o r ig ins o f m e ta l lurgy ( Ty leco te 1 979 ) , t he emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism ( Levy 1 983 ) , t he d eve lopmen t o f c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion a nd f orma l ized t r ade ( Ro sen 1 983 ) , t emp le p rec in ts ( Kemp insk i 1 972 ; U s s ishk in 1 980 ) a nd o ther a spec t s o f c u l ture c hange i n t he p er iod wh ich p recede s t he e s tab l ishmen t o f t he f i r s t E ar ly B ronze A ge u rban c en ter i n P a le s t ine ( c f . E s se 1 986 ; L evy 1 986 ) . However , r e la t ive ly f ew r e search p ro jec t s h ave b een d e s igned s pec if ica l ly t o e xam ine t hese k inds o f q ues t ions a t o ne r e search l o ca le . I n 1 979 , w e made p re l im inary s ound ing s a t S h iqm im t o i nves t iga te t he n a ture ( i f a ny ) o f t he a rch i tec tura l r ema ins a t t he s i te . T he d iscovery o f w e l l p reserved b u i ld ings d ur ing t h i s p i lo t s ea son i nd ica ted t he n eed f or a l ong t e rm i nve s t iga t ion a t S h iqm im . I n 1 982 , t he mu l t id i sc ip l inary e xped i t ion w as i n i t ia ted t o s tudy t hese a nd o ther p rob lem s a t t he S h iqm im v i l lage a nd a d jacen t mor tuary c omp lex . L oca ted a long t he s em i a r id/ar id n or thern N egev d eser t i n terface , t he S h iqm im v i l lage -mor tuary

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c omp lex h as p rov ided a n e xce l lent l oca le f or i nves t iga t ing p rob lems i n a marg ina l e nvr ionmen ta l z one ( P la te 6 . 1a ) .

a l l

o f

t hese

GE NERAL SI TE ST RAT IGRAPHY The S h iqm im s i te c ons is ts o f t wo ma in c omponents : a n u pper a nd l ower v i l lage ( P la te 6 . 1a ; F ig . 6 . 1) . The l ower v i l lage , wh ich c on ta ins t he b u lk o f t he a rch i tec tura l e v idence a t t he s i te , e x tends a long a t e rrace c a . 2m a bove t he p resen t Naha l B eersheva wad i c hanne l . The u pper v i l lage c ons is ts o f 1 0 l o ess ia l h i l locks t o t he n or th o f t he l ower v i l lage . B o th t he l ower v i l lage a nd t he l oess ia l h i l locks o f t he u pper v i l lage a re c overed w i th Cha lco l i th ic c eram ic a nd f l int d ebr is . A d e ta i led d iscuss ion o f t he s i te s t ra t igraphy i s p resented b y Go ldberg i n Chap ter 3 . B y t he c lo se o f t he 1 984 s eason a n e x tens ive e xposure c over ing 2 100 m h was e xcava ted i n t he l ower v i l lage a nd a 3 2 mh s ondage was o pened i n t he u pper v i l lage . Thus , a n a rea c ompr is ing a pprox ima te ly 2 . 2% o f t he v i l lage h as b een e xcava ted t o d a te a t S h iqm im ( P lates 6 . 2 , 6 . 3 ) . T es t e xcavat ions i n t he l ower v i l lage h ave s hown c l ear e v idence o f a t l e as t f ive ma in a rch i tec tura l b u i ld ing a nd o ccupa t ion p hases a t t he s i te . Dur ing t he P hase I e xcava t ions , t wo d eep p robes w ere e xcava ted i n t he l ower v i l lage t o c lar ify t he s t ra t igraphy o f t he s i te . B o th o f t hese d eep p robes , G/4 a nd C /6 , p rov ide i mpor tan t s e t t lement a nd g eo log ica l i nformat ion c oncern ing t he h i s tory o f o ccupa t ion a t t he s i te ( F ig . 3 . 3 ) . I n t he G/4 p robe ( 1 x3m ) , a t o ta l o f 2 3 a rchaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ica l s ed imen t l ayers w ere f ound wh ich e x tended t o al ayer o f wad i g rave ls c a . 2 . 10 m b e low t he s i te s urface . A t t he b o t tom o f t h is p robe was a l ayer ( ca . 5 0 cm ) o f wad i g rave ls . An e xam inat ion o f t he wad i s ec t ion o f t he t e rrace o n wh ich t he l ower v i l lage i s s i tua ted ( F ig . 3 . 3 ; P late 3 . 2 ) s howed t ha t t hese g rave ls d a te t o t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod a nd e x tend f or a l a tera l d is tance o f a t l e as t 5 0 m u nder t he s i te . These o bservat ions i nd icate t hat d ur ing t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he Cha lco l i th ic o ccupa t ion a t S h iqm im t he wad i was q u i te a c t ive . I t was o n ly a f ter t here was ab u i ld u p o f c a . 1m o f s i l ty s ed imen ts a bove t hese g rave ls o n t he v a l ley f loor t ha t t he ma in b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies t ook p lace a t t he s i te . Geo log ica l e v idence f rom t h is p robe i sd iscussed i n d e ta i l b y Go ldberg i n Chap ter 3 .

D eep P robe C/6 : I mp l ica t ions f or t h e H is tory o f S e t t lemen t a t S h iqm im T he P rob lem A d eep p robe was o pened i n t he s ou theas t q uadrant o f S quare C /6 t o e xam ine t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he t e rrace o n wh ich t he l ower v i l lage i s l ocated a nd t he o lder ( Upper P a leo l i th ic ) l oess ia l h i l locks wh ich c harac ter ize t he u pper v i l lage . The a im o f t h is p robe was t o f ind t he i n terface b e tween t hese t wo f eatures ( F igs . 6 . 2 , 6 . 4 ; P la te 6 . 4 ) . The e as tern p rof i le o f t h is p robe i s i lus tra ted i n F igure 6 . 4 . The f o l low ing l oc i d escr ip t ions f rom p robe C /6 h e lp c l ar ify t he h is tory o f s e t t lemen t a t S h iqm im . The p robe i n s quare C /6 was t he d eepes t ( over 4 . 1 m ) e xcava t ion c arr ied o ut a t S h iqm im . Throughou t t h is l ong s equence Cha lco l ith ic a r tef a c tua l ma ter ia l was f ound . The f o l low ing d iscuss ion o u t l ines t he s t ra t igraph ic s equence a nd l oc i r ecorded i n S quare C /6 b y Menahem a nd s t aff g eo log is t , P au l Go ldberg :

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L . 0 2121 BPI S urface mater ia l c ons is t ing o f s i l ty a nd s andy s ed imen ts p r imar i ly o f aw indb lown n a ture . Numerous Cha lco l i th ic p o t tery s herd s a nd l i th ic d ebr is was f ound h ere . L . 0 2122 BPIb T op s o i l , s i l ty a nd s andy s ed imen ts a bove wha t s eem s t o b e p ar t o f as urface o f o ccupa t ion c harac ter ized b y ad ense l ense o f a sh a nd a r tefac ts f ound l ay ing f la t ( po t tery a nd f l in t ) o n i t . Th is o ccupa t ion l ayer s eem s t o b e r e lated t o B u i ld ing P hase I b a nd h as t he s a me e l eva t ion a s t he f loor i n Room 1 4 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ; P la te 6 . 8a ) . L . 0 2123/1 BPII F i l l , i n terf ingered w i th v ery t h in l ayers o f s i l ts a nd a sh : s i x d ifferen t l ayers h ave b een i dent if ied w i th t he b o t tom l ayer c ons is t ing o f a b rown ish -red s o i l made o f b urn t s ed imen ts . L . 0 2123/a BPII S urface w i th b urn t r ed ma ter ia l . L . 0 2123/2 BPII F i l l , s im i lar t o L . 0 2123 i dent if ied . S ix e ros ion l ayers o b served h ere .

w i th

a n

a dd it iona l

s i x

l ayers

L . 0 2123/b BPII O ccupat ion s urface . L . 0 2123/3 BPII F i l l d epos i t . C on ta ins more b urn t a r tefac ts ( burn t p o t tery , l enses o f a sh ) a bove s urface o f o ccupa t ion L . 0 2126 . Three c l ear s ed imen t l ayers f ound h ere . I n s ummar iz ing L . 0 2123 , t hree o ccupa t ion s urfaces w ere o bserved s epara ted b y +t we lve o bserved e ros ion l ayers . L . 0 2126 BPII O ccupa t ion s urface . Th is was t he mos t c l ear ly d ef ined o ccupa t ion s urface f rom t h is p hase . I ti sc harac ter ized b y f l in ts a nd p o ttery i n ar edd ish -brown b urnt l ayer . L . 0 2127 BPIII F i l l f ound a bove f loor 0 2128 . Th is f i l l i s c omposed o f l i gh t g rey a sh m ixed w ith s i l t , c harcoa l a nd c arbona tes . L . 0 2128 BPIII F loor : c harac ter ized b y p o t tery a nd a mor tar f ound i n s i tu ( i n t he e as t s ec t ion ) . S ome s t ones , f l ints a nd l a rge a n ima l b one f ragmen t s ( e .g . , a c ow j aw ) f ound i n s i tu . The s ed imen t ma tr ix i s made o f a sh w i th many wh i te c a lc ium p ar t ic les . L . 0 2129 BPIII Hear th : o n t he w es tern s i de o f t he p robe , ah ear th was f ound made o f a ngu lar b urn t s ands tone f ragmen ts . I n t he n or thern p or t ion o f t he h ear th a c i rcu lar ( 20 cm d iame ter ) f ea ture c overed w i th wh i te p las ter was f ound ( pos s ib ly a s t and ) . The wh i te p las ter s l opes s l igh t ly d own a nd a round t he i ns ta l la t ion where i t r eaches f loor L . 0 2128 . The b o t tom o f t he h ear th i s e nc irc led b y at h in l i ne ( ca . 1 cm ) o f d ark , d ense a sh . The h ear th measures 1 . 30 x . 8 0 m i n s i ze . A f ew b urnt a n ima l b ones w ere f ound i n s i tu n ear i t . L . 0 2130 BPIV ? F i l l : t h ick l ayer o f h ardpacked mudbr ick ma ter ia l , s l op ing t oward t he s ou th w i th a f ew a r tefac ts i n t he ma tr ix . The f i l l h as b een p ar t ia l ly c ut b y b e l l -shaped p i t 0 2133 .

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L . 0 2131 BPIV ? F i l l : c ons is t ing o f s evera l v ar iega ted l ayers o f d ense a sh a nd s i l t c u t b y t he b e l l -shaped p i t . L . 0 2132 BPV ? F i l l a nd S truc ture : h ardpacked mudbr ick d ecay f i l l m ixed w i th s i l t a nd s o me c l ay a nd l ime s tone i nc lus ions . The s ma l l n ature o f t he p robe ( F ig . 6 . 4 ; P la te 6 . 4 ) makes i t d iff icu l t t o i n terpre t t he a rchaeo log ica l f ea ture p resen t , h owever , i ts eems t o b e a mas s ive mudbr ick s t ruc ture . Th is f eature i s made u p o f t wo e l emen ts -a n i nner s t ruc ture made o f l imes tone c overed b y a n o u ter s t ruc ture made o f mudbr ick ma ter ia l c onserved t o a h e igh t o f a pprox imate ly 8 5 cm . The g enera l s hape s eemed t o b e c on ica l . A t t he b o t tom o f t h is f eature s evera l l a rge f l a t l imes tone b locks h ad b een p laced . L . 0 2134 BP? F i l l : t he s ed imen t ma tr ix was made u p o f mudbr ick d ebr is w i th many c ross -bedd ing l i nes i nd ica t ing c o l luv ia l d epos i t ion . A n umber o f l a rge p i ts w ere d ug i n to t h is f i l l . These p i ts w ere l ayered w i th d ifferen t l enses o f d ense l i gh t g rey a sh a nd c on ta in n u merous p ieces o f b urn t p o t tery a nd a n ima l b ones . L . 0 2135 V irg in s o i l? Th is f i l l d epos i t c on ta ined a l a rge l ens o f v ery p ink s andy ma ter ia l w i th n o a r tefac ts . Th is may i n f ac t r epresen t t he s t er i le s o i l l ayer o f A rea A ( e levat ion = 1 69 .91 m ) .

The e xcava t ion o f t he C /6 p robe ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) h as s hown e v idence o f f our ma in p hases o f o ccupa t ion : BPIb : c harac ter ized b y as urface o f o ccupa t ion ( bo t tom o f L . 0 2122 ) a t t he s a me e l eva t ion o f t he n earby f loor i n Room 1 4 ( e leva t ion = 1 73 .30 ) . BPII : c harac ter ized b y a n o ccupa t ion s urface ( L . 0 2126 ) w i th f l in ts , s t ones , b urn t a r tefac ts a nd c overed b y what s eems t o b e t he d es truc t ion l ayer o f B P I ( L . 0 2124 , 0 2125 ) . BPIII : c harac ter ized b y a f loor ( 172 .50 m ) w i th a mor tar , h ear th , s t ones , p o t tery a nd b urnt b ones . The b e l l -shaped p i t ( L . 0 2133 ) was d ug f rom t h is o ccupa t ion l ayer . BPIV : c harac ter ized b y t he r e ma ins o f a mas s ive mudbr ick a nd s t one f ea ture ( L . 0 2132 ) a nd s o me p i ts ( par t o f L . 0 2134 ) d ug i n to wha t s eem s t o b e a c u l tura l ly s t er i le s ed imen t .

These d epos i ts ( F ig . 6 . 4 ; P late 6 . 4 ) h ave b een i n terpre ted b y Go ldberg , f rom b o t tom t o t op , a s f o l lows : a ) The b asa l 1m c ons is ted o f f ine ly l am ina ted , s of t , c ross -bedded s i l ts wh ich d isp layed f au l t ing o r s l ump ing . The o r ig in o f t hese d isp lacemen ts i sn o t c l ear d ue mos t ly t o t he l im i ted s i ze o f t he e xpo sure , b u t i t wou ld n o t b e u nreasonab le t o s ugges t s o me k ind o f s l ump ing a s soc ia ted w i th u ndercu t t ing o f an earby f luv ia l c hanne l .

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b ) Over ly ing t h is i s 1 . 0 -1 . 5 m o f mass ive t an s ands s eem t o r epresen t ac u l tura l d epos i t o f mud d aub o r p erhaps L atera l ly , t hey i n terf inger w ith c oarse ly b edded t an s i l ts , b rown c u l tura l d epos i ts . T he l a t ter c on t inue u pward a nd c ons truc t ion .

a nd s i l ts wh ich a n embank men t . g rey a shes a nd c over t he mud

c ) Th is ma ter ia l , i n t urn i s o ver la in b y b rown c layey s i l ts t ha t p robab ly r epresen t d ecayed mud b r ick s ince i mpress ions o f s t raw c an b e c l ear ly s een . R es t ing o n t h is ma ter ia l i s a n o ccupat ion f loor c on ta in ing a mortar a nd s how ing a b e l l -shaped p i t , 1 30 x 5 0 cm , d ug i n to t he u nder ly ing s ed imen ts . d )The t op me ter o f t he s ec t ion c ons is ts o f f ine ly b edded , s of t , p owdery s i l ts i nterf ingered w i th f ine b eds o f l i gh t a nd d ark g rey a sh , a nd s t r ingers o f wh i te c ha lky g ranu les . The t op 3 0 cm i s l i gh ter t an i n c o lor a nd c on ta ins n o tab ly l e ss c u l tura l ma ter ia l . Th is , p lus t he f ac t t ha t t hese s ed imen t s p ara l le l t he s urface s l ope o f 6° t oward t he Naha l B eersheva , s ugges t t ha t t hese t opmos t s ed i men ts a re e s sen t ia l ly c o l luv ia l ly r eworked a n throp ic s ed imen t w i th r unoff b e ing r e spons ib le f or t he f ine b edd ing . A n umber o f s ed iment s a mp les w ere c o l lec ted f rom t h is s quare w ith t he a im o f b e t ter c harac ter iz ing t he l i tho log ies o f t he d ifferen t s ed imen t t ypes a nd t he e nv ironmen ts o f d epo s i t ion . A lso , o ther s a mp les o f mudbr ick , mor tar , " f loor b u i ldup " a nd h ear th mater ia l w ere c o l lec ted f rom o ther a reas i n t he s i te . A p o ten t ia l ly i mpor tant o bservat ion made b y Go ldberg c oncerns t he e xcavat ion o f S quare B /7 f rom t he n or thwes tern p ar t o f t he e xcava t ion ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) . Here , a t a pprox ima te ly 2 5 cm b e low t he s i te s urface ( da tu m e leva t ion : 1 73 .85 m ) a nd a bou t 2 . 5 m n or th o f t he + 4 m d eep p robe i n C /6 , w ere e xpo sed what a ppear t o b e r e mnan ts o f L a te P le is tocene f luv ia l s i l ts a nd s ands wh ich c harac ter ize t he l o ess ia l h i l locks o f t he Upper V i l lage . S uch a n o ccurrence wou ld i nd ica te a v ery s t eep d rop i n t he c on tac t b e tween t he P le is tocene s ed i men ts a nd t he Cha lco l i th ic o nes e xposed i n S quare C /6 a nd wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he f i rs t C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lers i n t he l ower v i l lage a rea o ccup ied a p os i t ion n ex t t o av er t ica l b ank i n t he Naha l B eersheva . Accord ing t o F lannery ( 1976 :3 ) p robes s uch a s t hose c arr ied o ut i n C /6 a nd G/4 ( P la tes 3 . 4 , 6 . 4 ) a t S h iqm im a re b es t r eferred t o a s " t e lephone b oo ths " e ach a pprox ima te ly 1 . 5 b y 1 . 5 m , a nd c arr ied me ter a f ter me ter d own t o s t er i le s o i l . A s F lannery p o in ts o u t , " i ts d ark d own i ns ide a t e lephone b oo th , b u t i f y ou p oke a round s o me t imes y ou c an f ee l wh ich way t he c u l tura l s t rata a re r unn ing . . . " However , a" t e lephone b oo th " s uch a s C /6 i s i mpor tan t i n t hat i t p rov ides a " worm 's e ye " v iew o f t he d eve lopmen t o f t he s i te . S uch a s ound ing c an o n ly b e r egarded a s ah in t o f h ow t he s e t t lement e vo lved a nd i t i s a ga ins t t h is s cep t ic ism t hat t he e ar ly o ccupa t ion a t t he s i te h as b een i n terpre ted . A l l o f t he c u l tura l ma ter ia l e xcava ted i n b o th t he C /6 a nd G/4 p robes i s Cha lco l i th ic a nd t yp ica l o f t he Naha l B eersheva c u l ture . Th is i sr e markab le c ons ider ing o ver 4 m o f s ed imen t w ere e xcavated i n C /6 a nd n o N eo l ith ic o r E ar ly B ronze Age ma ter ia l c ame t o l i gh t . F or f uture s t rat igraph ic work , i t i s o f g rea t i mpor tance t ha t w e move b eyond t he t e lephone b oo th a nd i nto a more r epresen ta t ive l a rge s ca le t r ench e xcava t ion . Th is t r ench s hou ld b e e xcavated

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a cross t he l ower v i l lage ( ca . 4m x4 0 m ) a nd d own t o s t er i le s o i l t o c lar ify t he d eve lopmen ta l h is tory o f t he s i te a nd i t s r e lat ion t o t he c hang ing r eg i me o f t he Naha l B eersheva d ra inage c hanne l . T ab le 6 . 1 c orre la tes a l l o f t he l oc i e xcava ted i n t he l ower v i l lage a ccord ing t o b u i ld ing p hase ( BP ) , s quare , a nd t ype o f l oc i . T ab le 6 . 2 l i s ts a l l o f t he b aske t n umbers b y l oc i f rom t he e xcava t ion . The l a t ter i nformat ion s hou ld b e o f v a lue t o t hose r e searchers who wan t t o c heck t he p rec ise l oca t ion a ny f ind p ub l ished i n t h is v o lume .

UP PER VI L LAGE PR OBE A p robe ( 5 x 5 m ) i n t he u pper v i l lage h as p roved t o b e o f g reat i mpor tance i n t he r econs truc t ion o f t he e ar ly p rocess o f s e t t lemen t a t S h iqm im ( P late 6 . 18 ) . Th is t e s t e xcava t ion was c arr ied o ut o n o ne o f t he l oes s ia l h i l l t ops i n t he u pper v i l lage u nder t he s uperv is ion o f Ms . A i lsa Ma inman ( F ig . 6 . 1) . C ompared w i th t he l ower v i l lage , t he c u l tura l d ebr is l ayers i n t he u pper v i l lage a re r e la t ive ly s ha l low . The t e s t e xcava t ion d emons tra ted t ha t v irg in l o ess ia l s o i l was l e ss t han 8 0 cm b e low t he u pper v i l lage s i te s urface . There was l i t t le e v idence o f s t one f ounda t ion wa l ls i n t h is p or t ion o f t he s i te . I ns tead , t he o ccupa t ion s urfaces w ere c harac ter ized b y s ma l l p i ts a nd h o l lows s im i lar t o Cha lco l i th ic s i tes f rom t he Naha l B esor (Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 ) a nd t he Naha l Gerar ( G i lead 1 986 ) . Two r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ions w ere o b ta ined f rom c harcoa l f ound i n ah ear th i n t he u pper v i l lage . These t wo l ong l ived s a mp les a re f rom t amar isk c harcoa l a nd c ome f rom t he n or theas t c orner o f t he t e s t e xcava t ion f rom t wo d ebr is l ayers s epara ted b y c a . 1 0 cm o f f i l l . These d a tes w ere f i rs t p ub l ished i n 1 985 ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . The s a mp le f rom t he u pper l ayer ( L . 4 12 , B aske t 1 064 ) y ie lded a n u nca l ibra ted d a te ( RT 649 -D ) o f 6 , 150 + 1 80 B .P . The l ower s a mp le ( RT 649 -B ) y ie lded a d a te o f 5 , 750 + 1 80 . A s s een i n T ab le 6 . 4 , t hese a re t he o ldes t r e l iab le r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ions f or a ny Cha lco l i th ic s i te i n t he B eersheva v a l ley . These t wo d a tes a re p rob lema t ic i n t ha t t he d a te f rom t he u pper l eve l ( L . 4 12 ) i s o lder t han t he d a te f rom t he l ower l eve l ( L . 4 15 ) . These l oc i may h ave b een m ixed i n a n t iqu i ty . However , t he f ac t t hat t hese d a tes a re c a . 5 00 - 9 00 r ad iocarbon y ears o lder t han t he d a tes f rom t he l a s t b u i ld ing p hase i n t he l ower v i l lage a nd h ave r easonab ly s ma l l s t andard d ev iat ions ( + 1 80 ) may b e a n i nd ica t ion t hat t he u pper v i l lage was a bandoned when t he ma jor b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies o ccurred i n t he l ower v i l lage . I n t e rm s o f t he e ar ly s e t t lemen t a t t he s i te , i t s eems t ha t t he e ar ly Cha lco l ith ic o ccupan ts o f t he s i te o ccup ied n o t o n ly t he b ase o f t he " c l iff " a rea o bserved i n S quare C /6 ( P la te 6 . 4 ) , b u t a l so t he l oess ia l h i l l t ops away f rom t he t hen a c t ive Naha l B eersheva d ra inage c hanne l . I t was o n ly a f ter a b u i ld -up o f s i l ty s o i ls c overed t he Naha l B eersheva v a l ley b o t tom t hat t he e x tens ive b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies wh ich c harac ter ize BP Ia nd B P I t ook p lace .

EX CAVAT IONS I NT HE LOWER VI L LAGE

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I n troduc t ion The s ha l low n a ture o f t he u pper b u i ld ing p hases i n t he l ower v i l lage h as p rov ided a n i dea l o ppor tun i ty f or i nves t iga t ing t he l ayout o f t he S h iq m im v i l lage . P hase I ( 1982 -1984 ) o f t he S h iqm im e xped i t ion was p r i mar i ly d evo ted t o t he i nves t iga t ion o f t hese u pper b u i ld ing p hases ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . T o d a te , p or t ions o f e igh teen s epara te b u i ld ings h ave b een r ecovered l e ss t han 4 0 cm b e low t he s i te s urface ( F ig . 6 . 2 ) . A l l o f t hese s t rutures a re r ec tangu lar o r s quare i n s hape a nd s im i lar t o t he u pper p hase b u i ld ings f ound a t o ther Naha l B eersheva v i l lage s i tes s uch a s B ir e s -Safad i ( Perro t 1 984 ) a nd Horvat B e ter ( Do than 1 959 ) . The S h iqm im b u i ld ings c an b e d iv ided i nto t wo ma in s i zes : s ma l l a nd l a rge . The s ma l l b u i ld ings a re c a . 2 . 5 x 5 . 5 m a nd t he l a rger b u i ld ing s a re c a . 5 . 5 x 1 0 m . A t t h is p o in t i n t he i nves t igat ion i t s ee m s t ha t t he s ma l ler b u i ld ings were g enera l ly u sed f or d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies . Th is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he f ac t t ha t g r ind ing e qu ipment ( mor tars a nd g r ind ing s t ones ) , h ear ths , d omes t ic r efuse a nd s p ind le whor ls w ere f ound o n t he f loors o f t hese r ooms ( F ig . 1 5 .8 ; P late 1 5 .4 ) . T o d a te , t hree l a rge b u i ld ings h ave b een d iscovered i n t he l ower v i l lage . I ti sd iff icu l t t o g enera l ize a bou t t he f unc t ion o f t hese l a rge s t ruc tures b ecause o n ly t wo h ave b een f u l ly e xcavated ( Room s No . 1a nd 4 ) . However , t he l a rge b u i ld ing s l ack t he n umerous d omes t ic a r t ifac ts t ha t a re f ound i n r e la t ive a bundance i n t he s ma l l r oom s . Room 1 ( Area A ; F ig . 6 . 5 ) i s o ne o f t he l a rge s i ze b u i ld ings wh ich was c omp le te ly e xcava ted . L ike mos t b u i ld ings a t S h iq m im , t h is r oom c on ta ined t wo d ifferen t o ccupat ion f loor s made o f h ard p acked l oess ia l s o i l . The u pper f loor ( wh ich p rov ided r ad iocarbon d e term inat ion RT 554 A ) c on ta ined a v ery l a rge g r ind ing s tone w e igh ing o ver 3 0 k g a nd s o me d omes t ic r efuse i nc lud ing s evera l p o t tery v esse ls a nd f in ished f l in t t oo ls . The l ower f loor o f t hs s t ruc ture was o f an on -domes t ic c harac ter . H ere t he r e ma ins o f ac ruc ib le f urnace , s l ags a nd a c omp le te c opper s cep tre s im i lar t o t hose f ound i n t he Naha l M ish mar h oard ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) were d iscovered ( s ee S ha lev a nd Nor thover , t h is v o lume , f or a d iscus s ion o f t he me ta l lurgy a t S h iqm im ) . Dur ing t he 1 984 s eason t he l a rges t b u i ld ing t o b e d iscovered was e xcava ted i n A rea D ( F ig . 6 . 8 ) . Th is b u i ld ing ( No . 1 3 ) i s l oca ted c a . 7 . 5 m n or th o f t he Room 6 c our tyard u n i t d iscussed i n Chap ter 1 5 b y L evy a nd Ho l l . L ike t he ma jor i ty o f t he b u i ld ing s f ound a t S h iqm im t h is i s o f t he b roadroom t ype w i th t he e n trance f ac ing t he s ou theas t . The b u i ld ing measures c a . 4x 1 .5 m a nd c on ta ins t wo h ard p acked l o ess ia l f loors w ith v ery l i t t le e v idence o f d omes t ic a r tefac ts . Two s em i -c ircu lar i ns ta l la t ions were f ound a long t he s ou thern wa l l o f t he b u i ld ing a nd t o t he r i ght o f t he d oorway . The f unc t ion o f t hese i ns ta l la t ions s hou ld b ecome more c l ear when s o i l d epo s its c o l lec ted f rom t hese i ns ta l la t ions a re a na lyzed . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese b u i ld ing s t ruc tures , an u mber o f o ther a rch i tec tura l f ea tures h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm im . These i nc lude : 1 )a n a l leyway a verag ing 2m w id th i n A rea A wh ich e x tends f or o ver 2 0 m i n l eng th ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) , 2 ) t hree a nd p o ss ib ly f our a dd i t iona l c our tyard a reas wh ich a re e ach a ssoc ia ted w i th t he l a rge b u i ld ings f ound a t t he s i te , 3 ) s ma l l ( ca . 2x 2m ) s quare i ns ta l lat ions l ocated i ns ide t he c our tyards a nd n ear t he l a rge r ooms . One o f t hese

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i ns ta l la t ions c an b e s een i n F ig . 6 . 8 i s a pprox imate ly 1 . 5 m s outhwes t o f t he l a rge b u i ld ing ( Room 1 3) . O ther a rch i tec tura l f ea tures i nc lude s t one a nd mudbr ick b u i l t b enches s uch a s t he o ne l oca ted a long t he n or th wa l l o f Room 6 ( F ig . 1 5 .8 ) , p assage -ways , p ar t ion wa l ls a nd o ther f eatures . The f o l low ing r eport p rov ides d e ta i led d a ta a nd d escr ip t ions c oncern ing t he e xcavat ion a nd a rch i tec ture d iscovered i n t he d ifferen t e xavat ion a reas i n t he l ower v i l lage .

SUMMARY O F EX CAVAT IONS I N AR EA A A rea A was f i rs t i nves t iga ted b y A lon i n 1 979 ( 1980 ) when a s ma l l t e s t e xcava t ion i nc lud ing s ix s quares was o pened ( Squares D/4 , E /4 , E /2 , C /1 , D /1 , E ll) . The mu l t id is ip l inary p ro jec t a t S h iqm im , i n it iated i n 1 982 , c oncen tra ted e xcava t ion i n t h is s a me a rea b ecause o f t he r i ch a rch itec tura l r e ma ins wh ich c ame t o l i gh t . The 1 982 e xcava t ion i n A rea A was s uperv ised b y Ms . T irza Munta t . Dur ing t hat s eason , at o ta l o f s i x n ew s quares ( Squares C /2 , D /2 , E /2 , C /1 , D /1 , E /l) w ere o pened . Dur ing t he f o l low ing s easons , e xcava t ions i n A rea A w ere d irec ted b y Ms . Nad ine Menahem . I n 1 983 a n a dd i t iona l s i x s quares were e xcavated a nd i n t he f ina l 1 984 s eason , a t o ta l o f s even n ew s quares w ere o pened ( B/6 , B /5 , B /4 , B /3 , C /4 , C /5 , & C /6 ) . T o d a te , at o ta l o f t wen ty -f ive 5 x 5 m s quares h ave b een o pened i n A rea A mak ing i t t he mos t e x tens ive ly e xp lored p ort ion o f t he v i l lage . O bjec t ives The i n i t ia l g oa l i n b eg inn ing e xcava t ions i n A rea A was t o t e s t whe ther t he Cha lco l ith ic a r tef a c tua l r e ma ins f ound o n t he s i te s urface a t S h iqm im w ere i ndeed i nd ica t ive o f r i ch s ubsurface a rch i tec tura l f ea tures . The p resence o f e x tens ive a rch itec tura l r e ma ins was e s tab l ished i n t he 1 979 a nd 1 982 s easons . The s ubsequent e xcavat ion s easons w ere g eared t oward e xp lor ing t he r ange o f a rch i tec tura l f ea tures a t t he s i te a nd t he s pa t ia l l ayou t o f t he v i l lage . I n 1 984 , as er ies o f s quares ( C/3 -C /6 ) w ere e xcavateded n or thward t o t ry a nd c onnec t t he o ccupa t ion i n t he l ower v i l lage w i th t he Cha lco l i th ic s ed imen ts f ound c over ing t he l oes s ia l h i l locks o f t he Upper V i l lage . P rob lems a nd Me thods o f Excava t ion Dur ing t he 1 979 , 1 982 a nd 1 983 s easons , t he g enera l e xcava t ion p rocedure was t o s crape t he s i te s urface a nd s i eve t he d epos i ts t hrough a 2 mm s c reen . The r i ch s urface d epo s i ts f ound a t S h iqm im s ugges ted t ha t t h is wou ld b e v a luab le . However , d ur ing o ur l a s t s eason s urface s i ev ing was a bandoned a nd o n ly f loors o r a r tefac t b ear ing d epo s i ts w ere s i eved . Th is me thod was d eemed more e conom ic a nd d id n o t h arm t he s c ien t if ic g oa ls o f t he e xped i t ion . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he D eep P robe i n C /6 d escr ibed a bove , t he e xcavators u sua l ly l e f t a 5 0 cm w ide b a lk b e tween t he 5 x 5 m e xcava t ion u n its ( P late 6 . 9a ) . A s t he e xcavat ion p rogressed , t hese b a lks were d rawn a nd s o me o f t hem r e moved . An e ffor t was made t o p ee l away e ach l ayer i n t he b a lk a ccord ing t o i t s a ppropr ia te l ocus n umber .

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One o f t he ma jor p rob lem s i n A rea A c oncerned t he s ma l l s econdary d ra inage l ocated t o t he w es t a nd n or thwes t o f t he a rea ( F ig . 6 . 1) . Th is d ra inage h as c hanged c ourse d ur ing t he h is tor ica l p er iods a nd c onsequen t ly i t h as e roded away a p or t ion o f t he Cha lco l i th ic a rch i tec tura l r e ma ins i n A reas A a nd B ( F igs . 6 . 5 , 6 . 6 ) . Th is f ac t h as made i te x treme ly d iff icu l t t o i n terpre t t he f unc t ion o f many o f t he a rch i tec tura l f ea tures d iscovered i n t h is p or t ion o f t he s i te . A rch i tec tura l R ema ins The f o l low ing r ooms w ere d iscovered i n A rea A : Nos . 1 ,2 , 3 , 1 4 a nd 1 5 ( F igs . 6 . 2 , 6 . 5 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese s t ruc tures , a n a l leyway was f ound s t re tch ing f or o ver 2 0 m b e tween wa l ls W 12 a nd W 19 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ; P la tes 6 . 5b , 6 . 7 ) . Room No . 2 was b u i l t o ff o f t h is a l leyway . E v idence f or a c obb le p avemen t wh ich h igh l igh ts t he f unc t ion o f t h is f ea ture was f ound i n S quare D /20 a nd i s i l lus tra ted i n P la te 6 . 6b . P has ing BPIa c orresponds t o t he r e ma ins o f t he l a s t o ccupat ion a t t he s i te . I t c ons is ts o f wa l l s tubs wh ich a re c l ear ly v i s ib le o n t he s i te s urface ( Wa l ls 1 08 , 8 6 , 1 51) a nd a l l o f t he b ou lders r e s t ing o n t he s urface . BPIb i s e ar l ier t han BPla a nd i n termed iate t he l a t ter p hase a nd BPII . Th is p hase was f ound o n ly i n t he n or thern p or t ion o f A rea A a nd i s r epresented b y Room No . 1 4 , Room No . 1 4a ( P la tes 6 . 8a , 6 . 8b ) , Wa l l 8 8 a nd a l i ne o f c obb les r e la ted t o i t a t t he b o t tom o f L . 0 2122 i n t he C /6 D eep P robe ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) . Room 1 a l so d ates t o t h is p hase . BPIb i s r eferred t o a s a n i n termed ia te p hase b ecause i t i s c l ear ly e ar l ier t han BPIa b ut may b e l a ter a nd/or c on temporary t o BPII . I t i sp os s ib le t ha t d ur ing t he l a ter o ccupat ion o f BPII t he n ew c ons truc t ions f rom B PIb w ere a dded t o t he e x is t ing B PI I s e t t lemen t . BPII i s t he ma in b u i ld ing p hase i n A rea A . Room No . 2 a nd 3 , t he ma jor ity o f wa l ls ( Tab le 6 . 3 ) a s w e l l a s t he a l leyway d a te t o t h is p hase . BPIII a nd BPIV h ave o n ly b een e xposed i n t he D eep P robe . BP II I i s c harac ter ized b y a n o ccupat ion l ayer a nd a b e l l -shaped p i t d ug f rom t h is s urface ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) . B P I V c on ta ins t he r e ma ins o f a mass ive c on ica l ( ? ) mudbr ick s t ruc ture .

M icroarchaeo logy a nd R oom F unc t ion T o a id i n t he i den t if ica t ion o f a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o ut i n r ooms a nd v ar ious s urfaces i n t he v i l lage , A r lene Rosen emp loyed g eoarchaeo log ica l t echn iques t o e xam ine s ed imen ts f ound o n t he f loor o f t h is a nd o ther r ooms a t S h iq m im . A s Ro sen ( 1986 : 9 7 ) p o ints o ut , t he s ed iments were f i rs t d r ied , w e ighed a nd t hen w e t -s ieved t hrough a s e t o f f our t o s i x n es ted s i eves . A f ter w e t -s iev ing t he s a mp les w ere a ga in d r ied a nd t hen e xam ined t hrough a b inocu lar s t ereoscop ic m icroscope . A r t ifac t p ercen tages were t hen v isua l ly

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e s t ima ted w i th t he a id o f p ercen tage c har ts . I n t he s tudy p resen ted h ere , o n ly t he r e su lts f rom Rosen 's ( 1986 ) s tudy o f s a mp les c o l lec ted f rom A rea A i n 1 982 a re d iscussed .

PR IMARY AR CH ITECTURAL FE ATURES R oom 1 The f i rs t s t ruc ture t o b e e xcavated a t S h iqm im was Room 1 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) d ur ing a r escue c ampa ign c arr ied o u t i n 1 979 b y A lon . B ecause t he 1 979 e xcava t ion was p r i mar i ly a s a lvage o pera t ion , t he me thod o f d igg ing was n o t a s j ud ic ious a s t he f o l low ing 1 982 -84 s easons . However , t he 1 979 p ro jec t was i ns tru menta l i n d emons trat ing t he r i ch a nd w idespread n a ture o f t he a rch i tec tura l r e ma ins a t S h iqm im . I f n o t f or A lon 's i n i t ia l e xcava t ion , i t i s d oub tfu l whe ther t he P hase I e xcava t ions a t S h iqm i m wou ld h ave e ver t aken p lace . Room 1 b e longs t o B P Ia nd i s o ne o f t he l a rger a nd mos t i n tere s t ing b u i ld ings a t S h iqm im i n t e rms o f a c t iv ity a reas . The d i mens ions o f t h is s t ruc ture a re c a . 4 . 5 x9 . 5 m . I t i ncorpora tes wa l ls W26 , W25 a nd W28 . No s ou thern wa l l was f ound wh ich c ou ld b e a scr ibed t o BP I . Thus , i t i sp os s ib le t ha t d ur ing BP I ,t he l a s t o ccupa t ion a t t he s i te , t he b u i ld ing was o pen a t t he s ou thern e nd . A s men t ioned a bove , t h is r oom h ad t o f loors wh ich a re a scr ibed t o B P I . P erhaps t he mo s t i n teres t ing f ac t a bout Room 1 i s t he e v idence f or me ta lwork ing f ound t here . On f loor 2 o f t h is BP Is t ruc ture , t he r e ma ins o f a c ruc ib le o ven w ere f ound i n t he c en tre o f t he r oom . The b ase o f t h is c ruc ib le f urnace ( d ia me ter = c a . 5 0 cm , F ig . 6 . 5 ) s ugges ts t hat i t was s im i lar t o t he o ne d escr ibed b y P erro t ( 1955 ) a nd T y leco te e t a l ( 1976 ) f or Abu Matar n ear B eersheva . The l oca t ion o f t he Room 1 c ruc ib le i sr epresen ted o n t he p lan o f A rea A ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) a s as em i -c irc le . I n Chap ter 1 5 , S ha lev a nd Nor thover p resen t a n a na lys is o f as im i lar c ruc ib le d iscovered i n A rea D . An i mpress ive c opper s t andard s im i lar i n f orm t o t hose d iscovered i n t he Naha l M ishmar h oard ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) was f ound a t t he b ase o f Wa l l W28 a pprox imate ly 1 me tre n or theas t o f t he c ruc ib le . However , a na lys is o f t he s l ags f ound a t S h iqm im a nd o f t h is s t andard i nd ica te t ha t p res t ige i t ems o f t h is s or t w ere i mpor ted , r a ther t han p roduced l oca l ly . M icroarchaeo log ica l a na lyses b y Ro sen ( 1986 ) o f s a mp les c o l lec ted n ear t he c ruc ib le a nd f rom a s ma l l p i t wh ich was a ssoc iated s ou th o f i ta dd f ur ther e v idence f or me ta l work ing a t S h iqm im . B o th o f t hese s a mp les ( S82 -11 a nd S 82 -12 ) r epresen t a reas o f s pec ia l a c t iv i t ies . The s a mp le t aken n ear t he c ruc ib le ( s amp le S 82 -11) c on ta ined h igh p ercen tages o f c harcoa l a nd f l int . E ven more d is t inc t ive i s a h igh p ercentage o f s l ag w i th b i ts o f w ea thered c opper , p rov id ing s t rong e v idence f or c opper s me l t ing a t t h is l oca t ion i n t he r oom ( Rosen 1 986 :112 -113 ) . The o ther l o ca ted c a . 2 . 2 m c on ta ins a f a ir ly i n s a mp le S 82 -14

s a mp le ( S82 -12 ) r epresents s ed imen ts t aken f rom a c i rcu lar p i t s outh o f t he c ruc ib le . A ccord ing t o Rosen ( i b id ) t h is s a mp le h igh p ercen tage o f t he s a me g ypsu m/carbona te s ubs tance a s f rom Room 3 . There a l so a re c las ts o f f i red r ed s ed imen t

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a dher ing t o c las ts o f t he wh i t ish s ubs tance , a ga in t en ta t ive ly s ugges t ing r e ma ins f rom t he s me l t ing p rocess . Rosen q uerr ies why t here s hou ld b e ah igh p ercen tage o f b one i n t he g rea ter t han 2 . 00 mm f rac t ion f rom t h is s a mp le . Th is may b e e xp la ined b y o ur s ugges t ion t ha t t he c i rcu lar f eature f rom wh ich t h is s a mp le c ame was i n f ac t a r efuse p i t u sed f or d u mp ing was te f rom me ta lwork ing a nd o ther a c t iv it ies c arr ied o ut i n t he b u i ld ing .

R oom 2 Room 2 ( Square C /3 , P la te 6 . 7 ) i s ar ec tangu lar r oom wh ich measures 4 x7 . 8 m a nd c ons is ts o f wa l ls W17 , W 18 , W4 , a nd W62 . Th is b u i ld ing was u sed i n b o th BP I a nd BP I . Th is o bserva t ion was made o n t he b as is o f t he s ou thern p or t ion o f Room 2 wh ich c l ear ly s hows e v idence o f h av ing b een f ounded i n B P I . The n or thern p or t ion o f t he s t ruc ture s hows a dd i t ions t ha t w ere made i n BP I . W i th in Room 2 , t wo o ccupa t ion f loors c ou ld b e c l ear ly r e la ted t o wa l ls W 18 a nd W62 . The u pper p or t ion o f t hese wa l ls w ere made o f t wo r ows o f c obb les w i th a mudbr ick r es idue s e t i nbe tween t hem . The w id th o f t hese wa l ls i s7 0 cm a t t he l eve l o f t he f oundat ions a nd 5 0 cm a t t he u pper c ourse l eve l . The e ar l ies t o ccupa t ion f loor ( L . 185 ) i n Room 2 was e s tab l ished a pprox ima te ly 1 6 cm b e low f loor 1 a t t he b ase o f t he f ounda t ion wa l ls ( P la te 6 . 7 ) . Th is f loor was made o f h ardpacked e ar th a nd s howed e v idence o f e x tens ive b urn ing . A s t one mor tar was f ound i n s i tu o n t h is f loor w i th n umerous s herds l ay ing f la t . The h e igh t o f t h is f loor measured 1 72 .23 m . T he f i l l a bove f loor 2 ( L . 181) c ons is ted o f ah ardpacked g reasy e ar th w i th l enses o f d ark a sh w i th many c arbona tes . Th is f i l l p robab ly r e la tes t o a" des truc t ion " l ayer f rom t he e ar l ies t o ccupa t ion o f t he r oom . S i tua ted o n t op o f t h is f i l l ( L . 181) was f loor 1 ( L . 180 ) wh ich was c harac ter ized b y a h ardpacked e ar th s urface w i th n umerous a n ima l b one s f ound i n s i tu w ith many f la t l y ing s herds f ound n ear t he s ou thern f ace o f W62 . The e l evat ion o f t h is f loor measured 1 72 .38 m . Ou ts ide o f Room 2 , o n t he e as tern s ide o f W18 a h ear th ( L . 179 ) was e xcavated t hat was c ontemporary w i th f loor 1 . The e ar th was o va l s hape a nd made u p o f n umerous b urn t b eachrock f ragmen ts . Two c omp le te V -shaped b ow ls w ere f ound n ear t he h ear th . The s t ra t igraphy i n Room 2 ( P late 6 . 16 ) r ef lec ts t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween B u i ld ing P hase I a nd B u i ld ing P hase I a t S h iqm im . Wa l l W75 was b u i lt u pon t he l a tes t d es truc t ion l ayer o f Room 2 a nd t he l i ne o f t he i nner f ace o f W 18 was u sed p ar t ia l ly a s a f ounda t ion f or W75 ( BP I ) . Th is o b serva t ion i nd ica tes t hat t here was a r e la t ive ly s hor t p er iod o f t ime wh ich s epara ted t he l a tes t d es truc t ion o f Room 2 i n B P I a nd t he c ons truc t ion o f f ea tures d ur ing BP I .

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R oom 3 Room 3 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ; P la te 6 . 5a ) i s l oca ted i mmed ia te ly s outh o f t he l a rger Room 1 . The d i mens ions o f Room 3 = 3 . 5 x6 . 5 m . I t i ncorpora tes wa l ls W7 ( eas t s ide o f r oom ) , W 10 , W21 a nd W42 . Th is BP I b u i ld ing h as p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n u nders tand ing t he s t ra t igraph ic r e la t ionsh ip b etween BPI I a nd BP I . A s s een i n t he p lan o f A rea A ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) , t he t op o f t he f ounda t ion wa l ls o f Room 3 a re a pprox ima te ly 5 cm b e low t he b ase o f t he B P I f ounda t ion wa l ls o f Room 1 . The f ac t t ha t n o s ou thern wa l l was f ound f or Room 1 may i nd ica te t ha t d ur ing BP I ,t he n or thern wa l l ( W42 ) o f Room 3 was i n ten t iona l ly r e moved a nd Room 1 was s imp ly a dded o n t o t he e x is t ing B PII b u i ld ing p lan i n A rea A . I n 1 982 , Ro sen ( i b id : 12 ) t ook m icroarchaeo log ica l s a mp les f rom f loor 2 o f Room 3 ( Samp les S 82 -8 , S 82 -9 a nd S 82 -14 ) . E ach o f t hese s a mp les p roved t o b e d is t inc t ive a nd i nd ica t ive o f an umber o f a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u t i n t h is r oom . A ccord ing t o Rosen ( i b id ) , t he h igh c harcoa l , b one a nd f l int c onten t f ound i n S 82 -9 i mp ly g enera l d omes t ic a c t iv it ies . S amp le S 82 -8 h as a l ow p ercen tage o f c harcoa l , b one a nd f l in t , b ut a h igh p ercen tage o f l a rge a nd s ma l l s herds wh ich may i nd ica te a c onsump t ion o r s t orage a rea i n t he r oom . The l a s t s a mp le ( S82 1 4 ) h as v ir tua l ly n o t r ace o f d omes t ic r e ma ins , b u t c ons is ted p r imar i ly o f a wh i t ish , p las ter l ike ma ter ia l c omposed o f g ypsum c rys ta ls c emented b y c arbonates . Rosen o ffers s evera l i n terpre ta t ions o f t h is s a mp le , t he mos t p laus ib le b e ing t hat t h is a s mater ia l i s r epresen tat ive o f a p repared f loor s urface . A s w i l l b e s een i n o ur d iscus s ion o f Room s 4a nd 5 i n A rea C ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) , t he we l l d ef ined p las tered f loors f ound t here , i f a na lyzed u s ing m icroarchaeo log ica l t echn iques , wou ld p robab ly y ie ld t he s a me r esu lts a s S 82 1 4 . Thus , t he p ioneer ing a pp l ica t ion o f m icroarchaeo log ica l t echn iques b y Rosen a t S h iqm im h ave b een o f g reat h e lp i n a na lyz ing a c t iv ity a reas w i th in i nd iv idua l r oom s .

R oom 1 4 Da ted t o BP Ib , Room 1 4 i s l im i ted i n t he s ou th b y W98 , i n t he e as t b y W 133 a nd t he n or th b y W 122 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ; P la tes 6 . 8a , 6 . 8b ) . The wes tern wa l l s eems t o h ave b een e roded b y t he s h if t i n t he s econdary d ra inage wh ich f low s n ext t o t h is p or t ion o f t he s i te . I n t he w es tern p or t ion o f S quare C /6 a nd j o ined w ith W 133 , a n a dd it iona l mudbr ick wa l l was f ound wh ich may r epresen t a nd e ffor t t o e x tend t he s i ze o f Room 1 4 . The r oom i s o r iented s l igh t ly NE/S W a nd i s l oca ted v ery c lose t o t he t op o f t he s l ope . Th is i s t he s a me o r ien ta t ion a s Rooms 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 a nd 1 3 l ocated i n d ifferen t p ar ts o f t he v i l lage . The n or thern wa l l ( W122 ) o f Room 1 4 i s v ery we l l c onserved e xcep t f or t he p ar t i n S q . A/6 wh ich i sd ipp ing t oward t he wes t . I t i s o r ien ted ENE/ WSW a nd i s6 . 60 m i n l eng th a nd 0 . 66 m i n w id th . Th is wa l l c ons is ts o f t wo r ows o f s t ones a nd i sb u i lt o f t wo c ourses : t he l ower i s l i nked w i th a nd make a c orner w i th mudbr ick wa l l W 133 . The w es tern wa l l o f Room 1 4 ( W 133 ) i s a mudbr ick c ons truc t ion made o f t wo r ows o f l oaf -shaped b r icks ( ca . 2 0 x2 2 cm ) o r iented S SE/NN W ( P late 6 . 8b ) . S ome o f t he f ounda t ion s t ones o f t h is wa l l c ou ld b e

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s een u nder t he mudbr icks . The s outhern wa l l ( W98 ) i s o r ien ted ENE/WSW a nd i s made o f t wo r ows o f c obb les a nd o ne c ourse w ith a n i ns ide f i l l c ons is t ing o f p ebb les ( l eng th = 4 . 30 m , w id th = 0 . 66 m ) . Wa l l 8 8 a buts i to n t he s outh . The f loor i ns ide Room 1 4 c on ta ins n umerous mudbr icks . Th is f l oor was p ar t ia l ly b urn t a nd was c overed b y what s eem s t o b e ad es truc t ion l ayer ( L . 0 2050 c ons is t ing o f ap a tchy o range -grey b urn t f i l l ) . Very f ew i n -s i tu a r tefac ts w ere f ound o n t he f loor o f t h is r oom . Outs ide o f Room 1 4 a nd e as t o f W88 a nd s ou th o f W 153 a c on temporary o ccupa t ion s urface was f ound w i th n umerous f l in t , p o t tery a nd a n ima l b ones i n s i tu ( L . 0 2053 ) .

R oom 1 5 a nd A ssoc ia ted C our tyard Room 1 5 i s as ma l l a ux i l iary r oom a t tached t o Room 1 . The d i mens ions o f t h is s t ruc ture a re c a . 1 . 8 x2 . 0 m . Room 1 5 h as a s ma l l e n trance o r p as sage way l oca ted a long i t s s ou thern wa l l o pen ing o n t o al a rge c our tyard a s soc ia ted w i th Room 1 ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) . The l ack o f f inds f rom t h is r oom p rec lude a ny f unc t iona l d ef in i t ion o f t h is s t ruc ture . The c our tyard a ssoc ia ted w i th Room 1 e xtends i n to A rea C a nd i s p ar t ia l ly d iscussed b e low . A s ed imen t s a mp le ( S82 -13 ) was c o l lec ted f rom t he A rea A c our tyard . Un l ike t he s a mp les f rom Room 1 , t he c our tyard s a mp le s howed n o s i gns o f s l ag o r g ypsum/carbona te s ed iment . A ccord ing t o Rosen ( 1986 : 13 ) , t h is s a mp le was n o t much d ifferen t f rom o ther s a mp le s a nd a pparent ly r e lated t o g enera l ized d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies . The u n ique f eature o f t h is s a mp le i s t he p la tey s t ruc ture , s ugges t ing a n u nroofed r oom , p erhaps a c our tyard , i n wh ich r a inwater p oo led i n w in ter , l eav ing l am inated s i l ts .

A l leyway i n A rea A A w e l l d ef ined a l leyway ( F ig . 6 . 5 ; P la te 6 . 6a , 6 . 6b ) d a ted t o B P I was f ound i n A rea A e x tend ing i n an or thwes t/southeas t d irec t ion f or c a . 2 2 m . The w idth o f t he a l ley v ar ies a long i t s r ou te f rom 2 . 0 t o 2 . 5 m . The f ounda t ion wa l ls wh ich mark t he r ou te o f t he A rea A a l leyway a re : W 12 a nd W44 o n t he w es t a nd W4 a nd W 19 o n t he e as t . Wa l l 4o f Room 2 marks t he n or theas tern wa l l o f t he a l ley . An u ndef ined s t ruc ture b e tween W 19 a nd W 11 was e s tab l ished i n t he s ou th . A w e l l d ef ined p assageway was b u i l t i n t he s outhern p ort ion o f t he a l leyway t o f ac i l itate e as t/wes t movemen t i n to t he a l ley . Two b ench l ike f eatures w ere f ound a long W12 a ssoc ia ted w ith t h is p assageway ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) . Ro sen 's ( 1986 : 1 06 -112 ) m icroarchaeo logy s tudy o f d epos i ts f rom t he s urface o f t he a l leyway ( S82 -7 ) a re i n teres t ing b ecause t here a re o n ly s l ight t races o f c harcoa l , b one a nd f l in t . The s herd p ercen tage s h ave b i moda l p eaks i n b o th t he g rea ter t han 2 . 00 mm a nd 0 . 50 t o 1 . 00 mm f rac t ions , i nd icat ing s epara te p opu lat ions . A ccord ing t o Rosen ( i b id ) , t he h igh p ercen tage ( 10% ) o f s herds i n t he 0 . 50 t o 1 . 00 mm f rac t ion a re a n i nd ica tor o f g reater t r amp l ing a nd s uppor t o ur i n terpre ta t ion o f a n a l leyway . I n f ac t , t he 1 982 s a mp les c o l lec ted b y Ro sen w ere a na lyzed b efore t he 1 983 -1984 e xcava t ions when i t s t i l l was n o t c l ear t hat t h is f eature was i n f ac t a n a l leyway .

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SUMMARY O F EX CAVAT IONS I N AR EA B O bjec t ives A rea B ( F ig . 6 . 6 ; P late 6 . 10a ) was f i rs t e xcava ted i n 1 983 u nder t he d irec t ion o f D r . A r lene Rosen . I n 1 984 Ms . C la ire P eachey d irec ted t he e xcava t ions i n t h is a rea . S even a nd o ne h a lf s quares were o pened t ha t y ear . B y t he e nd o f t he 1 984 s eason a t o ta l o f f i f teen a dd i t iona l s quares w ere e xcava ted u nder t he d irec t ion o f Ms . C la ire P eachey . The o b jec t ives o f t he A rea B e xcava t ion w ere t he f o l low ing : a ) t o o pen u p more a rea a round S quare B /18 ( P late 6 . 11) where a u n ique p o t tery c ache h ad b een f ound i n 1 983 r e s t ing a bove a f loor i n ag ap i n W85 ; b ) t o make a rch itec tura l c onnec t ions b e tween a d jacen t A reas A a nd B . A t t he c lose o f t he 1 983 s eason , n o c omp le te o r e ven s em i -comp le te s t ruc tures c ou ld b e f ound i n A rea B , o n ly a n umber o f u nre lated wa l ls o f d ifferent c ons truc t ion t echn iques . These c ou ld n o t b e e as i ly p hased a nd were t oo f ar away f rom f ea tures i n A rea A t o b e c orre la ted w i th t hem . A t temp ts t o make c onnec t ions b e tween A reas A a nd B i n 1 983 w ere n o t s uccessfu l a s S quare B /19 , B /20 a nd C /20 w ere a l l emp ty o f f ea tures , a pparent ly e roded away a s t hey s i t i n at opograph ic l ow s l op ing d own t o t he s ubs id iary wad i t o t he w es t . I t was h oped t ha t b y o pen ing u p A rea B , i t wou ld b e p oss ib le t o f ind t he e x tens ion o f t he l ong a l ley a nd a ny r oom s b u i l t o ff i tt o t he w est ; c ) t o c lar ify t he f unc t ion a nd c ons truc t ion o f Room 1 d iscovered i n 1 983 . Th is r oom i sd escr ibed i n d e ta i l i n C hap ter 1 5 b y L evy a nd Ho 1 1 i n t he ir d iscuss ion o f t he h ouseho ld u n i t a t S h iqm im .

P rob lems a nd Me thods o f Excava t ion A rea B ( F igs . 6 . 1 , 6 . 2 ) i s l oca ted o n t he s ou thwes ternmos t e dge o f t he v i l lage , s i tua ted o n a s l ight t opograph ic h igh , b ounded o n t he s ou th a nd s ou theas t b y t he Naha l B eersheva a nd o n t he w es t b y t he s ma l ler s econdary d ra inage . A t p resen t , t hese d ra inages a re r e la t ive ly f ar f rom A rea B ( F ig . 6 . 1) , h owever , d ur ing t he p as t t hey may h ave f l owed much c loser . A c l ear s l ope d e l inea tes t he e dge o f t he a rch i tec tura l r e ma ins b efore t he g round l eve ls o ff a ga in a s a t e rrace made u p o f l a ter wad i d epo s i ts . Th is s l ope e dge c an b e c l ear ly s een i n t he a er ia l p ho tograph i lus tra ted i n P late 6 . 2 . The s quares o pened o n t he e dge o f A rea B , n ear t h is s l ope , a re e i ther d evo id o f f eatures o r a re f i l led w i th a f i l l o f c obb le c o l lap se , u ndoub ted ly t he d es truc t ion o f Cha lco l i th ic s t ruc tures ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . S quares F /18 , D /17 , D /16 , C /16 a nd p robab ly A /15 a nd B /15 c l ear ly s how t h is c o l lapse . Th is i s a l so t he c ase o n t he n or th n or theas t e dge where a t opograph ic l ow i nd ica tes t ha t water d ra inage i n to t he s ma l l wad i was a long t h is p ath . The e ro s ion i s s een p r imar i ly i n s quares B /19 , B /20 a nd C /20 a nd i n B /19 a nd A /19 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . Ano ther p rob lem c oncerns t he o ccupa t ion f ea tures i n A rea B wh ich a re v ery c lose t o t he s urface a nd c overed w i th a v ery t h in l ayer o f t opso i l . The t h ick l ayer o f mudbr ick f i l l f ound i n a reas t o t he e as t d oes n o t e x is t h ere . Th is was h igh l igh ted i n 1 983 when a c ache o f p o t tery ( Square B /18 ; P la te 6 . 11a ) was f ound l e ss t han 1 5 cm b e low t he s urface . F ew o f t he wa l ls h ave more t han o ne s t one c ourse p reserved a nd f ewer h ave a ny mudbr ick s upers truc ture p reserved . Undoub ted ly , many o f t he l a ter o ccupa t ion f ea tures

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h ave b een e roded away o r " r eworked " b eyond r ecogn it ion ( i .e , t he BPI s urface L . 0 2215 ) .

Major B u i ld ing P hases a nd F ea tures F ragmen tary t hough much o f t he a rch i tec ture i s i n A rea B , many c oheren t s turc tures h ave b een e xposed a nd a l l o f t he wa l l f ragmen ts d iscovered i n 1 983 h ave b een r e la ted t o ma jor a rch i tec tura l f ea tures a f ter t he 1 984 s eason . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he e as ternmo s t wa l ls ( W96 , W 125 , W126 a nd W149 ) , a l l o f t he wa l ls i n A rea B ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) a re a l igned NE/S W o r NW/SE , t hus f i t t ing i n w i th t he a l ignment o f wa l ls o ver t he e n t ire s i te a nd a dd ing t o t he e v idence t hat S h iqm i m was a w e l l -p lanned Cha lco l ith ic v i l lage . Three r oom s a re c l ear , wh i le t wo o r c our tyard ( F/19 ) w i l l r equ ire f ur ther

( Nos . 1 0 , 1 , a nd 1 2 ) a nd o ne l a rge c our tyard ( B/18 -C/18 ) more c our tyards ( U/17 -A/18 a nd C /17? ) a nd a no ther r oom a re c onv inc ing . C lear d ef in it ion o f t he l a t ter p oss ib i l it ies e xcava t ion .

B ased o n t he r egu lar wa l l a l ignment a nd r e la t ion t o A rea A , most o f t hese s t ruc tures a re a ss igned t o B P I a nd t he ma jor i ty o f t he a rch i tec ture i n t he v i l lage . However , t here a re many e xamp les o f l a ter a dd it ions o f f ea tures t o p re -ex is t ing s t ruc tures w i th t he l a ter a dd i t ions k eep ing t he s a me NE/S W o r NW/SE a l ign ment . Whe ther o r n o t t hese a dd it ions c an b e c ons idered BP I i sn o t c l ear . Wa l l W 121 a nd t he n or th e nd o f W85 s eem t o b e l a ter a dd i t ions ( based o n r e la t ive h igh ts , F ig . 6 . 6 ) , a s d o t he j o in ing o f W97 t o W136 , Room 1 2 t o W 135 , a nd t he r e -use o f W 148 t o f orm Room 1 w ith W53 a nd W61 . Of t hese f ea tures , o n ly W97 i sc ons idered t o b e f rom B PI . A ccord ing t o t hese o bserva t ions , t wo p oss ib l it ies mus t b e c ons idered : a ) n o t much t ime e lapsed b e tween t he b u i ld ing o f t he o r ig ina l s t ruc ture a nd t he l a ter a dd it ion , b o th h av ing o ccured d ur ing t he s a me b u i ld ing p hase . These l a ter a dd i t ions may b e r epa irs o r a dd i t iona l s uppor t wa l ls o r c lo s ing wa l ls f or ap rev ious ly o pened p assageway ; b ) t he t ime d ifference may h ave b een g rea ter b e tween t he t wo b u i ld ing p hases , b u t an umber o f BPII s t ruc tures s t i l l e x is ted a t t he b eg inn ing o f B PI a nd s o w ere r eused a nd a dded o n t o i n BP I . Th is a rgument i s s t reng thened b y t he f ac t t ha t t he s ed i men t a ccumu la t ion i s v ery s l igh t i n A rea B ( s ee f or e xamp le W97 , Room 1 a nd Room 1 2 ; F ig . 6 . 6 ) . I n a t l eas t o ne a dd i t ion i t s eem s t ha t t he e n t ire r oom was d ug i n to t he g round t o make i t l eve l w i th t he e ar l ier s t ruc ture . I n Room 1 2 , t he o uter r ow o f e ach wa l l ( W109 , W110 a nd W 111) i ss i gn if ican t ly h igher t han t he i nner r ow a nd t he i nner r ow i s l eve l w i th t he l owes t r oom s urface , i t se lf l eve l w i th t he a d jacen t c our tyard s urface ( L . 0 2245 ) . The s ed imen ts o n t he o u ts ide o f t he r oom wa l ls a re h omogeneous a l l a round a nd i t a ppears t ha t t he wa l l s t ones a re b anked u p a ga ins t t he s ed imen ts . Ano ther p o in t t o b e c ons idered i n r egard t o p has ing i s t ha t c er ta in s t ruc tures may h ave b een a bandoned o r u nused f or a p er iod o f t ime , wh i le a d jacent b u i ld ings a nd t he r e s t o f t he v i l lage w ere s t i l l b e ing o ccup ied . These s t ruc tures c ou ld h ave t hen b een b rought b ack i n to u se a t s o me p o int d ur ing t he s a me b u i ld ing p hase .

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Abso lu te e l eva t ions c anno t b e u sed t o d e term ine p has ing b ecause n o t o n ly i s t he e n t ire s i te l oca ted o n al a rge a rea o f v ary ing s l opes ( F ig . 6 . 1) , b u t e ven w i th in e ach a rea s l opes a nd wa l ls may h ave s ubs ided w i th t ime . Wa l ls W70 , W135 , W136 , a nd W85 a re t he b es t e xamp les o f t h is . They a re a l l o n d ifferent l eve ls y e t a re t he f our c on temporary wa l ls o f t he c ouryard ( Square C /18 , F ig . 6 . 6 ) . On ly i n c ases where t he B PI f ea tures o ver l ie t he B PII , c an t h is p has ing b e d ef in i t ive . The b es t e xamp le o f t h is i n A rea B was f ound i n S quare D/19 where B P I W96 was l a ter , b ase o n i t s a noma lous a l ignment . Th is r a ises a no ther q ues t ion , a s t o why t h is a noma lous wa l l wou ld h ave b een b u i l t where t he NE/SW -NW/SE s t ruc tures were p resumab ly s t i l l i n e x is tence . I n t he wes ternmos t s quares i n A rea B ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) , e spec ia l ly i n U/16 , A/16 , B /16 a nd A /17 , an u mber o f mudbr ick wa l ls a nd f ea tures h ave b een f ound a t d ep th ; t hese mos t l i ke ly b e long t o a n e ar ly p hase o f c ons truc t ion ( pre BPII ) . The b ase o f a t l eas t o ne o f t hese wa l ls ( W148 ) i st hree mudbr ick c ourses b e low t he e xposed B P II f loor l eve l a nd b e low t he b ases o f a ssoc ia ted wa l ls . The b ur ied mudbr ick s upers truc tures s hou ld b e c arefu l ly t raced t o s ee i f t hey a l so c onform t o t he r egu lar v i l lage a l ignmen t ( a s t hey d o s o f ar , s ee d iscuss ion i n A rea E b e low ) ; t h is may i nd ica te t ha t t he e ar l ier ( pre -BP I ) o ccupa t ion o f S h iqm im was a l so b ased o n a n o rgan ized v i l lage p lan . Th is h ypo thes is r e ma ins t o b e t e s ted . A g reat d ea l o f mudbr ick c ons truc t ion i s w e l l -preserved a t S h iqm im . Three t ypes o f mudbr ick a re p resen t i n A rea B : 1 ) av ery s i l ty b r ick w i th a l i gh t b rown c o lor a nd n o s t raw i nc lus ions a nd f ound o n ly i n c o l lapse ( W96 , F ig . 6 . 6 ) ; 2 ) ab r igh t o range mudbr ick , c l ay -r ich , f ound i n s i tu W 135 , W 136 a nd W85 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) w i th n umerous s t raw a nd s herd i nc lus ions ; a nd 3 ) al i gh t b rown c lay -r ich b r ick w i thou t s t raw i nc lus ions . P erhaps t hese d ifferent b r ick c ompos i t ions r ef lec t c hang ing c ond it ions i n t he wad i ( t hus c hang ing t he a va i lab i l ity o f t he r aw c lay/s i l t ma ter ia l ) d ur ing d ifferent p er iods . E spec ia l ly i n teres t ing i s t ha t t he t hree t ypes o f b r icks men t ioned c orrespond t o wa l ls i n B PI , BP II a nd B PIII ( ? ) r e spec t ive ly .

Major A rch i tec tura l F ea tures R oom 1 0 Room made u p o f c los ing wa l l 4 . 1 x6 . 6 m . t o h ave b een

1 0 ( BP I ) i s l ocated i n t he n or thern p or t ion o f A rea B a nd i s wa l ls W 112 , W89 a nd W70 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . Unfor tuna te ly , n o w es tern was f ound f or t h is s t ruc ture . The r ooms d i mens ions measure c a . A s a l luded t o a bove , Room 1 0 a nd t he ma jor i ty o f A rea B s eem s e x tens ive ly d es troyed , p robab ly b y e ros ion .

R oom 1 1 Th is r oom ( F ig .6 .6 ; P la te 6 . 10b ) i sd iscussed i n d e ta i l i n Chap ter 1 5 .

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R oom 1 2 L ike t he s ma l l r oom a s soc ia ted w i th t he c our tyard i n A rea A , Room 1 2 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) i s av ery s ma l l B P I s t ruc ture ( ca . 2 . 5 x 2 . 9 m ) s i tua ted i n c lose a s soc ia t ion w i th a c our tyard . Room 1 2 i s made u p o f wa l ls W 109 , W110 , W 111 a nd W 135 . I t i s s t range , h owever , t ha t t he e n trance t o t h is r oo m i s t hrough W 111 , wh ich i so u ts ide o f t he c our tyard . Th is r oom i st hough t t o b e long t o B P I b ecause t he a verage t op e l evat ion o f i t s wa l ls ( ca . 1 72 .28 ) a re e qua l t o t he b ase o f W96 , ac l ear e xamp le o f a BP Iwa l l .

R oom 1 7 Room 1 7 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) i s p oor ly p reserved w i th o n ly t hree wa l l f ragmen t s p reserved f rom B P I . These wa l ls i nc lude W124 , W 130 a nd W121 . W121 may h ave b een t he s ou thern wa l l o f t h is r oom . Two s urface l eve ls were e xposed w i th in t h is s t ruc ture : ac ompac t r edd ish f i l l i n t he s ou thern p ar t a nd a l ower c ompac t g rey f i l l t o t he n or th . The u pper r ed f i l l h as a n u mber o f c o l lapsed s t ones o n i ta nd i sl eve l w i th t he b ase o f W121 . Th is u pper s urface mus t h ave b een e roded t o t he n or th where t he c ompac t g rey s urface was d irect ly b e low t he l ooser mudbr ick f i l l ( L . 0 2934 ) . W 121 s eem s t o b e a l a ter a rch itec tura l f ea ture i n t h is a rea a nd n o t b u i l t a t t he s a me t ime a s W 130 a nd W124 . A s W 124 c on t inues s ou thward b eyond W 121 , t he l a t ter may b e al a ter d iv id ing o r s uppor t wa l l i n a l a rger e ar l ier r oom . On t he wes t s ide o f W124 a p ebb le s urface ( L . 0 2935 ) was f ound wh ich may b e ap aved wa lkway b e tween W 124 a nd W 128 .

R oom 1 8 Room 1 8 i s l oca ted i n t he e x treme e as tern p or t ion o f A rea B ( Square F /19 ; F ig . 6 . 6 ) . Th is r oom c ons is ts o f t hree wa l ls f ormed b y W 125 , W126 , a nd W 149 . W 125 a nd W 149 a ppear t o c on t inue e as tward i n to a n u nexcava ted a rea . A t t he i n tersec t ion o f W 126 a nd W 149 a v ery l a rge b ou lder w i th a f lat , s moo th s urface , was f ound e nc irc led b y s o me s ma l ler b ou lders . Th is may b e ap os t s uppor t o f s o me k ind . Th is r oom d oes n o t a l ign w i th t he o ther b u i ld ings f ound o n t he s i te , n or d oes i ts eem t oo h ave a ny r e lat ionsh ip w i th B P Iwa l l W96 ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) i n t he a d jacen t S quare E1 8 a nd E 19 . B ased p r imar i ly o n t he l ack o f a l ignment w i th o ther B P I wa l ls , Room 1 8 mus t b e a ss igned t o BP I . An a dd i t iona l f ac tor p o in t ing t o aB P Id a te i s t he l a rge q uan t ity o f r ock t u mb le wh ich s eems t o b e a s soc ia ted w ith o ther B P Iwa l ls i n A rea A .

C our tyard ( Square C/18) A l l o f S quare C /18 a nd p ar ts o f C /19 , B /18 a nd D /18 c ompr ise a l a rge c our tyard a rea ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) e nc losed b y wa l ls W70 , W 135 , W 136 a nd W85 . These f our wa l ls , t he a ssoc iated s urface ( L . 0 2245 ) , a nd t he h ear th f eature ( L . 0 2246 ) c an b e a ss igned t o B P I . An a sh p i t ( L . 0 2244 ) was f ound a ssoc iated w i th a n u pper B P Is urface ( L . 0 2245 ) f ound d ur ing t he r e mova l o f a mudbr ick f i l l . Th is s urface was n o t c l ear ly d ef ined a l l o ver t he s quare , b ut s ca t tered f la t -

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l y ing s herds i nd ica ted i t s p re sence i n mo s t a reas . T he s urface c on t inued a l l t he w ay u p t o w a l l W76 ; t h i s w as t he n or theas tern mo s t e x ten t t ha t c ou ld b e t r aced a t t h i s s t age o f t he e xcava t ion . T hus , t he a rea a round W76 may h ave b een t he e n tranceway i n to t he c our tyard . T he a brup t e nd ing o f W 135 j us t b efore i t s m ee t ing p o in t w i th W70 i s a no ther f ac tor s uppor t ing t h is i n terpre ta t ion . The f unc t ion o f t he t wo p ara l le l l i ne s o f mudbr ick ( L . 0 2247 ; F ig . 6 . 6 ) i s n o t c l ear . T hey may h ave b een p ar t o f a n e ar l ier s t ruc ture , o r p ar t o f aw a l l r unn ing p ara l le l t o W70 a nd n o t f u l ly e xcava ted . I f t h is i st he c ase , i t may b e t he n or thern w a l l o f t he c our tyard r a ther t han W70 . One l i ne o f t he mudbr icks a ppear s t o c on t inue i n to S quare D /19 , t hus i t may b e a s soc ia ted w i th W96 , aB P If ea ture . S ome b r ick o u t l ine s c ou ld b e s een j us t s ou th o f W70 . I tw a s n o t c l ear i f t he se w ere c o l lap sed b r icks ( a p ar t o f s urface L . 0 2245 ) , o r p ar t o f a n u nexpo sed f ea ture b e low . A t p re sen t , t hey a re i n terpre ted a s p ar t o f t he s urface . T he w a l ls wh ich f orm t he c our tyard a re a l l a t d ifferen t l eve l s w i th W 135 a nd 1 36 s l op ing r a ther s t eep ly . T he c onnec t ions b e tween W85 , W 136 a nd W 135 a re c l ear , h owever : W 135 a nd W 136 mee t i n t he s ou thwe s t c orner o f S quare D /18 , a nd W85 a nd W 136 m ee t i n t he B /17 -C/17 b au lk a rea . T he d i s t inc t ive o range mudbr ick w as f ound i n ap robe i n t he n or theas t c orner o f B /17 . Wa l l W70 h ad t he l e a s t c l ear c onnec t ion o f t he c our tyard w a l ls , b u t i ti s p ara l le l t o W 136 a nd t he g ap s i n t he c onnec t ions w i th W85 t o t he w e s t a nd W 135 t o t he e as t a ppear t o b e t he e n trances i n to t he c our tyard .

SUMMARY O F EX CAVAT IONS I N AR EA C T he e xcava t ions i n A rea C w ere s uperv ised b y Mr . N ico la s S lope . I n 1 984 , h e was a s s is ted b y Mes sr s . G regory Wynco l l a nd J . P . D es se l . A s s een i n F ig . 6 . 7 , A rea C c ompr ises s i x teen a nd o ne h a lf s quare s , n ine o f wh ich ( L/5 , M/5 , N /5 , L /4 , M/4 , N /4 , H /3 , J /3 , K/3 ) w ere o pened i n 1 983 a nd t he r ema inder ( J /5 , H /4 , J /4 , K/4 , G /3 , G /2 , H /2 a nd J /2 ) w ere e xcava ted i n 1 984 . L ike a l l o f t he s quare s a t S h iqm im , e ach o ne i s 5x 5m w i th t he e xcep t ion o f J /2 wh ich w as o n ly h a lf e xcava ted .

A ims a nd O bjec t ives T he ma jor a im o f t he e xcava t ions i n A rea C w ere t o make a l a rge h or izon ta l e xpo sure wh ich f ocused o n e xpo s ing t he r i ch a rch i tec tura l r ema ins f ound v ery c lo se t o t he s i te s urface ( P la te 6 . 12a ) . W i th t h is a rch i tec tura l d a ta , i t i s h oped t ha t i n s igh t s c an b e made i n to t he n a ture o f t he C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture o f t he i nhab i tan t s o f S h iqm im . W i th t he se b road a im s i n m ind , A rea C w as e xcava ted u s ing t he s t ra t igrapy d ef ined i n A rea A a s ab enchmark .

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Excava t ion S tra tegy The s t andard me thod o f P a les t in ian a rchaeo log ica l t echn ique ( i .e . Dever a nd L ance 1 978 ) o f s quare , b a lk , l oc i , a nd b aske t was emp loyed t o wh ich a f ew r ef inemen ts f rom B r i t ish a rchaeo log ica l me thod w ere a dded t o mee t t he d emands o f as ha l low a nd l a rge o pen -a ir v i l lage s i te . B as ica l ly , t h is mean t d o ing w i thout b a lks wherever p oss ib le a nd c oncen tra t ing o n h or izon ta l r ather t han v er t ica l e xcavat ion .

A rch i tec ture The p r imary a rch i tec tura l f ea tures f ound i n A rea C ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) i nc lude : Room 4 , Room 5 , Room 7 , Room 8 a nd t wo p ara l le l wa l ls wh ich may r epresen t t he l im its o f a n a l leyway r unn ing t hrough t he m idd le o f t h is p or t ion o f t he v i l lage e xcava t ion ( s ee F ig . 6 . 2 ) . The f o l low ing d iscuss ion d escr ibes t hese a rch i tec tura l f ea tures wh ich h ave t he ir f ound ing d a te i n B P I . R oom 4 Room 4 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ; P la te 6 . 13a ) i s a l a rge B P I r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing wh ich measures c a . 5 . 4 x 1 0 .6 m i n s i ze . The wa l ls wh ich make u p t h is b u i ld ing i nc lude : W72 , W91 , W66 a nd W 100 . Unfor tuna te ly , a s n o d oor s ocke t s t ones w ere f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is s t ruc ture i t i s i mposs ib le t o d ef ine t h is b u i ld ing a s b e ing o f t he b road r oom t ype . T here i s a p oss ib l i l i ty t ha t a n e n trance e x is ted a long t he e as tern s ide o f t he b u i ld ing . Th is h ypo thes is w i l l b e d iscus sed b e low . Room 4 c on ta ined a h omogeneous mud b r ick f i l l ( L . 1 910 ) t ha t was c arefu l ly r e moved r evea l ing t he f i rs t p las tered f loor t o b e d iscovered a t S h iqm im ( L . 1 911) . A n umber o f a r tefac ts w ere f ound i n s i tu o n t h is f loor . S ome o f t hese i nc luded a b roken c eram ic c hurn , a s ma l l c opper a xe ( P la te 1 4 .4 :2 ) a nd a v ery l a rge g r ind ing s t one ( P la te 6 . 13a ) . We s hou ld n o te h ere t ha t d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he e xcava t ion , t o c on tro l t he s t rat igraphy o f t he e xcava t ion , a5 0 cm b a lk was l e f t r unn ing a cross t he w id th o f t he r oom wh ich i ncorpora ted t he l o ca t ion o f g r ind ing s t one . The d iscovery o f W91 p ara l le l t o W68 s ugges ted a n u mber o f s o lut ions c oncern ing t he a rch i tec ture o f Room 4 . A s s een i n F ig . 6 . 7 , W68 j o ins W66 ( t he s ou thern wa l l o f Room 4 ) f orm ing a " T " j unc t ion r ather t han a c orner . Th is i s h igh l igh ted b y t he f ac t t ha t W91 c on ta ins a s quare c orner f or med b y t he i nc lus ion o f aw e l l d ressed s quare s t one . I n a dd i t ion , t he n or thern wa l l o f Room 4 ( W72 ) r uns p as t t he b i sec t ing l i ne o f W68 , f orm ing a no ther " T " j unc t ion r a ther t han a c orner . However , i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t W68 s t op s a brup t ly a pprox ima te ly 1 . 5 m s hor t o f W72 . These f ac ts s ugges t s evera l p os s ib i l i t ies i n t e rms o f t he h is tory o f t h is b u i ld ing . F irs t ly , t ha t W91 was t he o r ig ina l c los ing wa l l o f Room 4 ( perhaps e ar ly i n t he BP I s equence ) wh ich a t al a ter o ccupa t iona l s t age o f t he r oom was " r obbed o ut " t o f orm a n ew e nd wa l l ( W68 ) e ffec t ive ly s hor ten ing t he l eng th o f t h is r oom . S econd ly , t he a brup t e nd ing o f t h is mod ify ing wa l l s ugges ts t ha t i n t he l a ter o cupat iona l s t age ( l a te BP I o r p o ss ib ly B P I ) o f Room 4 , t he e ntrance was p os i t ioned a t t he e as tern

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e nd o f t he b u i ld ing . L ike t he mudbr ick " bench " f ound a long t he n or th wa l l o f Room 6 ( F ig . 1 5 .8 ) i n A rea D , t here i s e v idence f or a mudbr ick b ench a long W72 , t he n or thern wa l l o f Room 4 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) . T o d e term ine t he o ccupa t iona l h is tory o f Room 4 , ap robe 1 . 5 x 3 m was d ug i n t he e as tern p or t ion o f t he r oom . A f ter r e mova l o f t he p las tered s urface ( L . 1 911) a nd a mudbr ick f i l l ( L . 1 914 ) , ac obb led p ack ing ( L . 1 915 ) f or t he mudbr ick f i l l was f ound 1 0cm b e low t he p las tered f loor . Th is c obb le p ack ing s eem s t o h ave b een b u i l t o n t op o f a no ther f loor s urface ( i nd ica ted b y a sh a nd l a rge amounts o f o ccupa t iona l d ebr is ) wh ich may h ave b een t he p r i mary f loor s urface o f t he r oom . F ur ther e xcava t ion i n t he p robe r evea led a n a sh " des truc t ion l ayer " ( L . 1 916 ) r unn ing u nder t he b u i ld ing a nd a h ear th ( L . 1 917 ) w i th n o c onnec t ion t o Room 4 . T aken t oge ther , t hese f ac ts i nd icate t ha t Room 4 h ad t wo d ef in ite o ccupat iona l p hases . The p r imary f loor f ound i n t he e xcava t ion o f t he p robe b e long ing t o t he e ar l ier o ccupat ion ( BP I ) a nd t he p las tered mud b r ick f loor ( packed o n t op o f t he c obb le l ayer ) b e long ing t o t he l a ter o ccupa t ion ( end o f B P I o r BP I ) . Th is l a ter o ccupa t ion s eems t o h ave b een marked b y mod if icat ions o f Room 4 s uch a s t he c ons truc t ion o f a" bench " o n t he n or thern w a l l , a c hange i n t he e n trance o f t he b u i ld ing t o t he e as tern s ide o f t he s t ruc ture a nd a m inor s hor ten ing o f t he r oom ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) . The g enera l l ack o f o ccupa t iona l d ebr is f ound o n t he l a ter p las tered f l oor a s o pposed t o t he l a rge q uan t i ty f ound o n t he p r i mary f loor s urface p o in ts t o s evera l p oss ib i l i t ies : ac hange i n t he f unc t ion o f t he b u i ld ing f rom a g enera l h ab i ta t ion a rea t o a more p ub l ic a rea o r a r e mova l o f r efuse a nd a r tefacts when t he r oom was a bandoned . F ur ther e xcava t ion o f t he p r imary f l oor s urface d iscovered i n t he p robe s hou ld c lar ify t h is p rob lem ( P late 6 . 13a ) .

R oom 7 ( a t tached t o R oom 4 ) Room 7 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ; P la te 6 . 13b ) i s at r iangu lar s haped r oom a t tached t o t he w es tern wa l l ( W100 ) o f Room 4 . L ike t he f i l l i n t he a d jacen t Room 4 , t he ma in f i l l i n Room 7 ( L . 0 2377 ) c ons is ted o f ar eworked mudbr ick f i l l wh ich i s c haracter is t ic o f B P I a t S h iqm im . Th is f i l l c overed a h ard -packed mud f loor ( L . 0 2378 ) i n Room 7 . A w e l l p reserved h o lemou th j ar w i th a l i d made o u t o f al a rge c era m ic -sherd was f ound embedded i n to t he c en ter o f t h is f loor ( P la te 6 . 13b ) . T o c lar ify t he c on tex t o f t h is j ar , ap robe was made a long t he s outh s i de o f t h is v esse l . Th is e xcavat ion r evea led t ha t ap i t h ad b een c arefu l ly d ug i n to t he f loor o f Room 7 s o t hat t he h o lemou th j ar c ou ld b e p laced i ns ide . The s o i l f ound i ns ide t he j ar c ons is ted o f f ine w indb lown s i l ts s ugges t ing t ha t t he v esse l was u sed f or s t or ing water a nd n o t o rgan ic ma ter ia l . The e n trance t o t h is s ma l l r oom s eem s t o h ave b een t hrough a g ap i n W 100 wh ich i ss hared b e tween Room 7 a nd Room 4 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) .

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R oom 5 L oca ted e as t o f Room 4 i n S quares L /5 a nd M/5 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ; P la te 6 . 12b ) , Roo m 5 i s a med ium s i ze b u i ld ing wh ich measures c a . 4 . 5 x8 . 0 m a nd was f i rs t c ons truc ted i n B P I . I t i s made u p o f wa l ls W50 , W80 , W90 a nd W 154 . A l though t h is b u i ld ing was e xcava ted i n 1 983 a nd 1 984 , t he wa l l s ys tem i ss t i l l n o t f u l ly u nders tood . I n 1 984 , t he e xcava t ion o f t h is r oom was s uperv ised b y Mr . J .P . D esse l . Wha t a ppear s c l ear i st hat i n t he l a s t u se p hase ( BP I ) ac obb le wa l l was c ons truc ted a long t he e n t ire i n ter ior o f t he e ar l ier l a rger wa l l s . Th is s ing le r ow mu l t i -coursed c obb le wa l l s ys tem was p acked w i th mudbr ick ma ter ia l a nd i s c ontemporaneous w i th a d is t inc t s urface ( L . 1 442 ) . A l though v ery f ew a r tefac ts w ere f ound o n t h is s urface , h a lf o f ab eau t ifu l ly i nc ised b asa l t b ow l was f ound h ere ( F ig . 6 . 10 :5 ) . L ike Room 4 , i t s ee m s t ha t t h is n arrow c obb led wa l l w i th mudbr ick f i l l r epresents a no ther e xamp le o f n arrow ing t he s i ze o f ar oom i n A rea C . The f our ma in wa l ls o f t h is b u i ld ing ( W154 , W90 , W80 , a nd W50 ) w ere f ounded o n e i ther mudbr ick f i l l o r d irec t ly o n r e -used p ar ts o f a n e ar l ier wa l l s ys tem wh ich may d a te t o BP I I ( s ee W 154 , F ig . 6 . 7 ) . On ly t he l a s t u se p hase h as b een s i gn if ican t ly u ncovered i n Room 5 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) . P atches o f f ug i t ive c ha lk p las ter ( l ike Room 4 ) w ere f ound b ut ma in ly t he s urface i s r epresen ted b y al ayer o f a sh ( l oose a nd t h in w i th f ew i nc lus ions ) . L ike t he r e s t o f t he s i te , t he a ccu mu la t ion a bove t h is s urface was mudbr ick f i l l a nd s t one t u mb le , p robab ly r epresen ta t ive o f t he d ebr i s f rom t he b u i ld ing 's s upers truc ture . A p oss ib le d oorway was f ound o n t he n or thern s ide o f t he b u i ld ing ( W90 ) , where a " t hresho ld s t one " ( s ign if ican t ly l onger a nd f la ter t han t he o ther wa l l s t ones ) a nd a d r i l led s ocke t s t one f ound n ear i ta long t he s ou th s ide o f W90 . Thus , Room 5 may b e c ons idered a s b e long ing t o t he b roadroom t ype o f b u i ld ing . A s men t ioned a bove , v ery l i t t le was f ound o n t he u pper f loor o f t h is r oom . The w es tern e nd o f t h is r oom ( approx ima te ly 2 . 5 m e as t o f W50 ) h as n o r ea l e v idence o f s urface ( L . 1 442 ) . The s t r ik ing s im i lar i t ies i n b u i ld ing t echn ique b e tween Rooms 5 a nd 4 s hou ld b e n o ted . I n b o th o f t hese b u i ld ings t he s a me t echn iques o f wa l l c ons truc t ion a nd s urface p reparat ion were u sed a s w e l l a s t he p rocess o f r oom s i ze r educ t ion . R oom 8 Room 8 ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) i sa n a nnex t o Room 4 a nd i s s i tua ted i n S quare s G/3 a nd H/3 , t o t he n or thwes t o f Room 4 . Room 8 i s as ma l l s t ruc ture made u p o f W 140 , W 138 , W79 a nd W33 . I t measures 3 . 5 x4 . 5m a nd may h ave s e rved a s a k ind o f s t ore r oom a s soc ia ted w i th t he l a rger Room 4 . A p las tered s urface was f ound a t t he s a me e l eva t ion a s t he p las tered s urface i n Room 4 , h owever , t he s urface i n Room 8 was much more d is turbed . The e n trance t o t h is r oom was f rom t he n or thwes t c orner o f Room 4 .

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R oom 9 A s ma l l c a . 2x2m r oom wh ich w e h ave l abe l led Room 9 was f ound n ear t he j unc t ion o f Room 4 a nd Room 8 i n S quare H/3 . S im i lar s ma l l r ooms a s soc ia ted w ith l a rge b u i ld ings h ave b een f ound i n A rea A ( Room 1 ) a nd i n t he c ourtyard c omp lex a ssoc iated w i th Room 6 i n A rea D ( F ig . 6 . 8 ) . The l ack o f a r tefac ts f ound i n t h is s ma l l r oom p rec lude a ny d ef in it ion o f t he f unc t ion o f t h is s t ruc ture .

P oss ib le A l leyway S quare J /5 was o pened t o t he n or th o f t he ma in e xcavat ion a rea i n A rea Cp r imar i ly t o c lar ify t he n a ture o f t he l a rge o pen a rea d iscovered i n S quares H/4 a nd J /4 . Two w e l l made r obus t wa l ls ( W120 a nd W 131) w ere f ound i n S quare J /5 r unn ing p ara l le l i n an or thwes t/sou theas t d irec ton wh ich may mark t he p resence o f a n a l leyway e x tend ing n or th f rom A rea C ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) . Th is f eature h as t he s a me o r ienta t ion a s t he e x tens ive a l leyway f ound i n A rea A a nd t he t he p oss ib le a l leyway f ound i n A rea E . The d is tance s epara t ing t hese wa l ls i s c a . 1 . 5 m . When c l ean ing t he n or theas tern s ide o f W 120 a s ma l l c o l lec t ion o f c opper a r tefac ts w ere f ound . Th is i nc luded a f ine ly made c opper c h isse l ( Baske t No . 0 9205 , F ig . 1 4 .3 :2 ) a nd a c opper a xe ( Baske t No . 0 9206 , F ig . 1 4 .3 :1) . These o b jec ts w ere e xam ined f or t he ir me ta l lurg ica l s i gn if icance a nd t he r e su lts a re d iscussed i n Chap ter 1 4 . The f ac t t ha t t hese o b jec ts s eem t o h ave b een h idden a t t he b ase o f a wa l l i n t he " a l leyway " a nd n o t d iscarded i n to a r efuse c on tex t , may b e a n i nd ica t ion o f t he ir v a lue t o t he i nhab i tan ts o f S h iqm im .

SUMMARY O F EX CAVAT IONS I N AR EA D I n A rea D,l i ke t he r e s t o f t he l ower v i l lage , t wo ma in b u i ld ing p hases w ere i dent if ied . The e xcava t ions i n t h is a rea were d irec ted b y Ms . D eborah Gamm i l i n 1 983 a nd Messrs S tephen Thompson a nd S tephen Kangas i n 1 984 .

A rch i tec ture o f B u i ld ing P hase I L ike t he o ther e xcava t ion a reas a t S h iqm im , B u i ld ing P hase I ( BP I ) r efers t o t he r e ma ins o f s t ruc tures a nd s urfaces wh ich a ppear s t ra t igraph ica l ly h igher t han B P II . T yp ica l ly , B P I r e ma ins w ere n o t f ound i n i s o la t ion , b u t r a ther a bove o r a round r e ma ins o f e ar l ier c ons truc t ions ( e .g . , Wa l l 17 i n S quare R/9 ) s ugges t ing t ha t t he B P I r e ma ins may r epresen t r epa ir o r r ebu i ld ing o f B PII s t ruc tures . The r e ma ins o f BPI a re n o t e x tens ive a nd t he ir a s soc ia t ions w i th f loor s urfaces a re d iff icu l t t o d ef ine i n A rea D . Many o f t he B P I r e ma ins may h ave b een d es troyed f rom n a tura l e ros ion p rocesses . I n t he f ound a cross i den t if ied a s B PII Room

n or thern s ec tor o f A rea D ( F ig . 6 . 8 ) , W 116 a nd a s soc ia ted r ubb le t he n or thern h a lf o f s quares P /12 , Q /12 , a nd R /13 h ave b een b e long ing t o BP I , o ccurr ing a bove , a nd s eparated f rom W 119 o r 1 3 . I n s quare R /12 , s ou th o f W 115 , a ppears a no ther s t one

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i ns ta l la t ion f orm ing a s em i -c irc le o ff o f W 115 a nd i ncorpora t ing t hree g r ind ing s t ones i n i t s c ons truc t ion . The e xac t n a ture o f t h is f ea ture i s u nc lear a nd i t s d e l inea t ion was n o t p ersued . I t a ppears t o e xtend i n to A rea E . T o t he s ou th , a t h in , t wo -row , p oor ly d ef ined wa l l ing a ppears i n S quare Q /10 b e tween t wo wa l ls ( W132 a nd W 127 ) o f B PII ( F ig . 6 . 8 ) . I t s f unc t ion may h ave b een a s a p ar t it ion wa l l f or a l a ter s t ruc ture u t i l iz ing wa l ls 1 32 a nd 1 27 . I n s quare s Q /9 a nd R/9 , a no ther s ec t ion o f wa l l f rom B PI a ppears t o h ave b een b u i lt o ver W 113 o f B PII a nd f o l lows t he s a me NE/SW o r ien ta t ion .

AR CH ITECTURE O F BU ILD ING PH ASE I

R oom 6 a nd A ssoc ia ted C our tyard A d e ta i led s tudy o f t h is r oom i sp resen ted i n Chap ter 1 5 .

R oom 1 3 O r ien ted a long t he NW/SE , S quares P /11 , P /12 , Q /11 , R/12 a nd R /13 i ncorpora te t he wa l ls ( W114 , W 115 , W 119 a nd W 150 ) o f Room 1 3 , t he l a rges t b u i ld ing d iscovered t o d ate a t S h iqm im ( F ig . 6 . 8 ; P la te 6 . 14a ) . Room 1 3 i s a b roadroom measur ing c a . 4 . 10 x 1 .50 m . An e n trance way was l oca ted m idway a long t he s ou thern wa l l ( W 115 ) o f t h is b u i ld ing a nd i s r em in iscen t o f t he l a rge b road r oom f ound i n t he t emp le c omp lex a t E in Ged i ( U ss ishk in 1 980 ) . The r oom was o ccup ied r epea ted ly w i th a t l eas t t wo d is t inc t f loor s urfaces . A n umber o f b ow ls w ere f ound s mashed o n t h is f loor . P late 6 . 14b i lus tra te s t h is i n s i tu p henomenon f ound o n t he u pper f loor a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is b u i ld ing . E ach o f t hese f loors was a ssoc ia ted w i th a p i t a nd a s em i -c ircu lar s t one i ns ta l lat ion b u i lt i n t he r oom a long t he s ou thern wa l l i n t he e as tern p or t ion o f t he b u i ld ing ( P la te 6 . 16a ) . A ssoc iated w i th t he l a tes t f loor i sa n i ns ta l la t ion ( L . 0 2892 ) wh ich s eems t o b e as ma l l b e l l -shaped p i t . The e as tern e nd o f Room 1 3 i s mos t p rob lema t ic s t rat igraph ica l ly c ompared w i th t he r e s t o f t h is s t ruc ture l oca ted i n s quares Q/12 a nd P /12 . I n t hese t wo s quares t he l a ter , g rey s o i l s urface a ppeared d is t inc t b e low t he mudbr ick f i l l l ayer , wh i le i n t he e as tern p or t ion o f Room 1 3 ( square R /12 ) , t he c on t inua t ion o f t he g rey s urface was l e ss e as i ly d ef ined p oss ib ly d ue t o i t l ower e l eva t ion . A s ar e su lt , ma ter ia l was washed a nd e roded f rom t he h igher e l eva t ions a nd c o l lec ted i n t h is a rea . Th is a nd t he p resence o f i ns ta l lat ions a nd p i ts wh ich i nd ica te c u l tura l " d is turbance " , may a ccount f or t he more m ixed s o i l l ayers i n t h is s ec t ion .

SUMMARY O F EX CAVAT IONS I N AR EA E A rea E i s l oca ted i n t he e x treme e as tern p or t ion o f t he ma in l ower v i l lage e xcava t ion a rea ( F ig . 6 . 9 ) . The 1 984 s eason r epresen ted t he f i r st t ime e xcava t ions were c arr ied o u t i n t h is p or t ion o f t he v i l lage . E xcava t ions i n A rea E w ere s uperv ised b y Messrs . Yuva l Goren a nd P e ter F ab ian . Dur ing t he

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1 984 s eason , t hree ma in b u i ld ing p hases w ere f ound i n A rea E . i lus tra tes t he ma in f ea tures f ound i n t h is e xcava t ion a rea .

F igure 6 . 9

B u i ld ing P hase I Th is p hase was f ound ma in ly o n t he s urface o r a t a d ep th o f a pprox imate ly 1 0 -2 0 cm b e low i t . P hase I c on ta ins s ca t ters o f wad i c obb les w ith l a rge q uan t i t ies o f a r tefac ts . The a rch i tec tura l a nd o ther r e ma ins a s soc ia ted w i th t h is p hase w ere d a maged e x tens ive ly b y e ros ion a nd i n mos t c ases i t was v ery d iff icu l t t o d ef ine .

B u i ld ing P hase I A mas s ive wa l l ( W101) w ith a l i v ing -f loor ( L . 0 2740 ) a re a t tr ibuted t o t h is p hase ( F ig . 6 . 9 ) . Two t h in p ara l le l wa l ls ( W103 a nd W 144 ) were f ound w i th e v idence f or a l a rge n umber o f a c t iv i t ies t ha t o ccured b e tween t hem . These i nc lude t he p resence o f a sh -p i ts , a b ur ia l i nc lud ing t hree i nd iv idua ls ( P la te 6 . 17a ) , ac opper p rocess ing i n s ta l lat ion a nd f l int k napp ing a c t iv it ies . The s pace b e tween t hese wa l ls may h ave f unc t ioned a s ak ind o f c ourtyard a rea . Th is i n terpre tat ion i s b ased o n t he f o l low ing e v idence : t he t h ickness o f wa l ls W 103 a nd W 144 a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a l a rge o pen s pace , 2 ) t he c harac ter o f t he a c t iv i t ies o u t l ined a bove , a nd 3 ) t he a ppearance o f b ur ia ls i n al a rge a sh -p i t . The f ea tures o f t h is p hase w ere b u i lt o n t he r e ma ins o f P hase I I , a f ter t hey w ere l eve l led a nd t he who le s pace was f i l led . F inds o f P hase I I were f ound i n s i tu o n W 142 a nd W 143 , a nd wa l ls W 103 a nd W 101 w ere b u i l t p ar t ia l ly o n t he f ormer . B P I c an b e c onnec ted t o t he ma in f ea tures o f A rea D , i nc lud ing Room 1 6 .

B u i ld ing P hase II Two mud b r ick wa l ls w ere f ound b ased o n s t one f oundat ions ( W 142 a nd W 143 ) wh ich c ou ld b e d ef in i te ly a scr ibed t o B P I I ( P la te 6 . 16b ) . These wa l ls w ere p robab ly a p ar t o f al a rge b u i ld ing wh ich was n o t c omp le te ly e xcava ted d ur ing t ne 1 984 s eason . On b o th s ides o f t hese wa l ls many a sh p i ts w ere f ound . I n o ne c ase , a n a sh p i t c on ta ined a s t one i ns ta l la t ion t ha t was p robab ly u sed a s a n o ven i ns ide t h is b u i ld ing . The l i v ing -f loor c onta ined a l a rge amoun t o f p o t tery , b ones a nd f l in t . A lso f ound was a " v io l in shaped " f igur ine ( F ig . 6 . 12 :4 ) wh ich c an a l so b e c onnec ted t o B u i ld ing P hase I I .

I n tra -V i l lage B ur ia l s Three b ur ia ls ( L . 0 2831) w ere f ound i n S quare S /12 o f A rea E ( P late 6 . 17a ,b ) . These a re t he f i rs t b ur ia ls t o h ave b een f ound i ns ide t he S h iqm im v i l lage ( and o uts ide o f t he c eme tery ) t o d a te . The b ur ia l i s o f t hree i nd iv idua ls , t wo a du l ts a nd o ne j uven i le t ha t w ere a l l p laced i n an or th -sou th o r ien ta t ion w i th t he f aces t oward t he w es t i n a s em i -f lexed p os i t ion . The b ur ia l was made i ns ide a n a sh p i t t ha t h as b een a t tr ibuted t o B u i ld ing P hase I

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( wh ich i s t he BP a s soc iated w i th Room 1 6 i n t he a d jacen t A rea D ) wh ich g ives a" t erm inum p os t q uem " t o t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t h is l ocus . The f ac t t ha t t hese i nd iv idua ls w ere n o t b ur ied i n t he f orma l S h iqm im c eme tery g rounds l oca ted o n t he c ha lk h i l ls t o t he n or th o f t he v i l lage s ugges ts t hat t hey d id n o t d ie u nder " norma l c i rcum s tances " . T he c ause o f d ea th i sn o t c l ear . However , t he f ac t t ha t t hree b od ies o f d ifferen t a ges w ere p laced t oge ther a s p r imary b ur ia ls may i nd ica te t ha t t hese i nd iv idua ls d id n o t d ie o f n a tura l c auses . The more " norma l " me thod o f Cha lco l i th ic b ur ia l i n P a le s t ine c an b e d escr ibed a s s econdary b ur ia l w i th s o me t ype o f b ur ia l o ffer ing ( c f . L evy a nd A lon 1 982 , 1 985 ; P erro t a nd L a idray 1 980 ) . A t S h iqm im , v ir tua l ly e very b ur ia l i n t he c eme tery c omp lex h as b een f ound w i th a t l eas t o ne c eram ic V -Shaped b ow l ( s ee Chap ter 1 3 , t h is v o lume ) . The t hree b ur ia ls i n A rea E h ad n o a r tefac ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t hem . Mos t o f t he f inds ( c eram ic s herds , f l int a nd c harcoa l ) f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith t he A rea E b ur ia ls b e longed t o t he a sh -p i t wh ich s eem s t o h ave s erved a s at rash r ecep tac le b efore i t was u t i l ized a s a g rave . P a leonu tr i t ion a nd p a leodemograph ic s tud ies ( c f . Chapman e t a l 1 981) s hou ld h e lp d ef ine t he c ause o f d ea th o f t hese i nd iv idua ls .

A rch i tec ture The o n ly s i gn if ican t a rch i tec tura l r e ma ins o f B P I were f ound i n S quare S /9 ( F ig . 6 . 9 ) . Two p ara l le l wa l ls ( W101 a nd W 102 ) were f ound h ere . The e xcava t ion c oncen tra ted o n t he a rea b e tween t hese wa l ls where i n s i tu f inds were l oca ted a t ad ep th o f a pprox ima te ly 5 0 cm b e low t he s urface . I n g enera l , S quares S /8 , S /9 a nd S /10 r epresen t t he t wo ma in b u i ld ing p hase t ha t were f ound i n A rea E ( F ig . 6 . 9 ) . Wa l l 1 01 s eems t o b e p ara l le l t o W65 i n A rea D , a nd t oge ther t hey f orm a l a rge , o pen s pace wh ich c ou ld h ave s e rved a s a n o pen c ourtyard ( F ig . 6 . 2 ) . The s pace b e tween W65 a nd W54 i n A rea D c ou ld b e s o me s or t o f a n a l ley s im i lar t o t he o ne f ound i n A rea A a nd t hese wa l ls mark t he b orders o f i t . Therefore , W 102 s eem s t o b e a n i nner i ns ta l lat ion i ns ide t h is l a rger f ea ture l i ke wa l ls W81 a nd W82 i n A rea D . The l a ter c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s s he l ters f rom t he wes tern w inds when o pen f i res w ere i n u se . The l ayer o f a sh t ha t was f ound b e tween Wa l ls 1 01 a nd 1 02 ( L . 0 2740 ) s uppor ts t h is s ugges t ion a nd i n t h is c ase , t he a t tr ibu t ion o f t h is a rea t o ac our tyard s eem s more p laus ib le . T races o f d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies w ere f ound i n L . 0 2740 , t he o n ly l oca le i n wh ich a " l iv ing f loor " was f ound i n t h is f ea ture . P o t tery , i nc lud ing V -Shaped b ow ls , l a rge b ow ls a nd a s ma l l j ar w ere f ound i n s i tu h ere a s w e l l a s as t one p endan t . A l l o f t h is i sa t tr ibu ted t o B u i ld ing P hase I .

C opper I ndus tr ia l I ns ta l la t ion Wa l l 1 44 may b e t he e as tern b order o f t he o pen c our tyard o f P hase I wh ich i s p ara l le l t o W 103 i n S quare S /11 . A ssoc ia ted w i th t h is c our tyard a rea i s a c opper work ing i ns ta l la t ion ( ca . 1 . 8 m i n d iame ter ; L . 0 2843 ; F ig . 6 . 9 ) wh ich i lus trates a no ther a c t iv i ty t ha t was c arr ied o ut i n t h is o pen a rea . A l though n o c ruc ib le r e ma ins w ere f ound i n t h is l o cus i t c on ta ined t he s ame

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t ype o f a sh a nd c opper s l ags a s t he me ta l work ing i ns ta l la t ion i n A rea A , Room 1 .I n Chap ter 1 4 , S ha lev a nd Nor thover p resent a d e ta i led d iscus s ion o f t he Cha lco l i th ic me ta l i ndus try a t S h iqm im .

SP EC IAL FI NDS A s e lec t ion o f s pec ia l f inds f rom t he v i l lage e xcava t ion i s p ub l ished i n F igures 6 . 10 -6 . 12 .

SUMMARY A s d emons tra ted i n t he d iscuss ion a bove , S h iqm im e xh ib its a n umber o f a rch i tec tura l f ea tures wh ich i nd icate t ha t t he s e t t lemen t was p lanned . I ts eem s c l ear t ha t t he B P I v i l lage p lan was c onsc ious ly l a id o ut i n a n or thwes t s ou theas t o r ien ta t ion . Dur ing t he l a ter BP I p er iod , s ma l l a dd it ions a nd s ubs trac t ions s eem t o h ave b een made o n t he e x is t ing BP I p lan . A s t he 1 982 1 984 e xcava t ions c oncentra ted o n t he u pper b u i ld ing p hases a t t he s i te , i t i s i mpo ss ib le ( a t p resent ) t o c lar ify t he d eve lopmenta l p roces ses i n t he h is tory o f s e t t lement a t S h iqm im . F u ture e xcava t ions s hou ld i nc lude a l a rge t r ench e xcava t ion t o e xam ine t he r e la t ion b e tween t he u pper b u i ld ing p hases a t t he s i te a nd t he l ower . However , w i th t he e v idence a t h and , o ne s ees a n umber o f a rch i tec tura l f eatures a t S h iqm im wh ich a re c harac ter is t ic o f t he e ar ly u rban a rch i tec ture f ound a t t he E ar ly B ronze u rban s i te o f T e l A rad ( Am iran 1 978 ) . I n t he r e ma inder o f t h is s ummary , w e w i l l t ake a d iachron ic v iew o f t he S h iqm im v i l lage a rch i tec ture i n r e la t ion t o o ther s i tes i n P a les t ine t o s how t he l o ca l c harac ter o f t h is Cha lco l i th ic/Ear ly B ronze Age d eve lopmen t . These o bservat ions w i l l b e o f g rea t i mpor tance f or f u ture s tud ies c oncern ing c u lture c hange d ur ing t he 4 th a nd 3 rd m i l lenn ium i n P a les t ine . I n g enera l , Cha lco l i th ic a rch i tec ture i n P a les t ine c an b e d iv ided i n to " we l l -bu i l t " a nd " l igh t ly c ons truc ted " s t ruc tures . I n t he c a tegory o f w e l l -bu i l t s t ruc tures a re b road , l ong , s quare a nd a ps ida l r oom s a s we l l a s t he u nderground r ooms f ound a t s i tes i n t he v ic in i ty o f B eersheva ( cf . P erro t 1 984 ) . There may b e a c orre la t ion b e tween we l l -bu i l t s t ruc tures a nd s i te p ermanence a nd l i gh t ly b u i l t s t ruc tures w i th t emporary s i te o ccupa t ion . However , t he q ues t ion o f s i te s easona l i ty f or t h is r eg ion i s ac omp lex o ne a nd w i l l n o t b e s tud ied i n d e ta i l h ere . F or t he s tudy p resented h ere , w e l l -bu i l t s t ruc tures w i l l b e a ssu med t o r epresent p ermanen t o ccupa t ion a nd l i gh t ly b u i lt s t ruc tures w i l l b e i n terpre ted a s r epresen t ing s easona l o ccupa t ion s i tes .

W e l l -Bu i l t S truc tures A t S h iq m im , o ut o f t he 1 8 s t ruc tures e xcava ted t hus f ar , 7 2% a re r ec t i l inear i n s hape . Hanbury -Ten ison ( 1986 : 1 68 ) h as u sed t he t e rm s mono a nd p o ly -ce l lu lar t o d escr ibe v ar ia t ions i n t he c ons truc t ion o f r ec t i l inear b u i ld ings . T hese a re u sefu l t e rms a nd w i l l b e u t i l ized h ere . I n g enera l , t he b u i ld ings a t S h iqm im may b e d escr ibed a s mono -ce l lu lar i n morpho logy . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he Room 6 d omes t ic h ouse a nd c our tyard u n i t ( F ig . 6 . 8 ) wh ich c an b e

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S h iqm im I

d escr ibed a s p o ly -ce l lu lar , a l l o f t he s t ruc tures a t S h iqm im a re mono -ce lu lar . Th is i s n o t t he c ase a t Ghassu l L eve l I V (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : F ig . 1 2 ) , where t he ma jor ity o f t he h ouses e xcava ted c an b e d escr ibed a s p o ly -ce l lu lar b u i l t a long t he h ouse/cour tyard mode l d escr ibed f rom Room 6 a t S h iqm im . I n a c omprehens ive s tudy o f d omes t ic a rch i tec ture i n 4 th m i l lenn ium P a les t ine , P ora th ( 1985 : 1 4 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t p ermanen t d omes t ic b u i ld ings w i th c l ear s t ruc tura l p lans c ons is t o f a " l arge , r ec tangu lar o r t rapezo ida l e nc lo sure , c ons is t ing o f as pac ious c our tyard a nd a r oom o r r ooms a t t he s i tes . The r ooms a re a lways b road r oom s " . The S h iqm im d a ta s ugges t t ha t i ti sd angerous t o u se t he t e rm " a lways " b ecause t here a re u sua l ly e xcep t ions t o e very r u le . A t S h iqm im o n ly 4 ( o r 3 1% ) o f t he 1 3 r ec t i l inear r oom s c ou ld d ef in i te ly b e i den t if ied a s b e ing o f t he b road r oom t ype . Rec t i l inear b road b u i ld ings h ave b een e xcava ted i n t he u pper l eve ls a t Horva t B e ter ( Do than 1 959a :5 , F ig . 3 ) a nd B ir e s -Safad i ( Perro t 1 984 : F ig . 6 ) a long t he Naha l B eersheva ; a t F asa 'e l i n t he J ordan Va l ley ( Porath 1 985 : F ig . 2 ) ; a t T e le i lat Ghassu l (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : F ig . 1 2 ; Hennessy 1 969 : 4 , 1 982 : 5 5 ) ; i n t he Go lan He ights ( Eps te in 1 977 ) ; a t Meser ( 1957 : F ig . 2 ) ; a t S ahab i n e as tern P a le s t ine ( I brah im 1 975 : 7 7 ) ; a nd a t S ina i S i te R48 ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981 : 2 9 ) . L ong b u i ld ings , i . e . , w i th a n e n trance l oca ted a t t he w id th o f t he s t ruc ture , h ave b een f ound i n L eve l I Va a t Abu Matar ( Perro t 1 957 : 8 ) ; a t S afad i ( Perro t 1 984 : 8 7 ; E ldar a nd B aumgar ten 1 985 : 1 39 ) a nd S h iqm im ( F ig . 6 . 2 , Room 4 ) . Thus , wh i le t he t r ad i t ion o f b road b u i ld ing s was f i rm ly e s tab l ished i n t he Cha lco l i th ic i t wou ld b e m is lead ing t o c la im t ha t a l l o f t he r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings w ere o f t he b road t ype . P erro t 's ( 1984 :91) s ugges t ion t hat t he t r ad i t ion o f r e tangu lar h ouses was e s tab l ished i n P a les t ine f rom a s e ar ly a s t he Wad i Rabah p hase a dds a no ther d i mens ion t o t he l oca l e vo lut ion o f c u l tura l g roups i n t h is r eg ion . I n c on juc t ion w i th t he Naha l B eersheva - l ower Naha l B e sor s urvey r e su l ts ( Chap ter 4 ) , t he P hase I e xcava t ions a t S h iqm im h ave d emons tra ted t he e x is tence o f ap lanned Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage c en ter . A lthough s eden tary v i l lage l i fe was e s tab l ished i n t he N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd p erhaps a s e ar ly a s t he Na tuf ian ( ca . 9 ,000 B .C . ) , i t was d ur ing t he Cha lco l ith ic t hat t he f i rs t l a rge , a dvanced f arm ing -v i l lages f i rs t emerge i n P a les t ine . B ased o n t he e xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage , t he a s sump t ion made h ere i s t ha t S h iqm im was a p ermanen t v i l lage d ur ing t he B P II o ccupa t ion . I n many r e spec ts , t he d eve lopment o f Cha lco l ith ic h ouses w i th c our tyards marks t he b eg inn ing o f a v i l lage p a t tern s im i lar i n l ayou t t o t he t r ad i t iona l , modern v i l lages o f t he M idd le E as t ( Kra mer 1 982 ) . Th is i s h igh l igh ted i n t he P hase I e xcava t ions a t S h iqm im , T e le i la t Ghassu l (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ; Koeppe l e t a l 1 940 ; H ennes sy 1 969 ) , T e l l Abu Ma tar ( Perro t 1 955 ) , B ir e s -Safad i ( Perro t 1 984 ) , Horva t B e ter ( Do than 1 959 ) , T e l T eo ( E isenberg i n p res s ) , a nd o ther s i tes . W i thou t t he e xcava t ion o f al a rge s ca le p robe t o i nves t iga te t he e ar ly l eve ls a t S h iqm im , i t i s d iff icu l t t o p o s i t t he r easons f or t he g row th o f t h is p lanned v i l lage c ommun ity . However , t he s e t t lement p a t tern a nd p a leobo tan ica l d ata p rov ide a b ackground a ga ins t wh ich a mode l o f a gr icu ltura l i n tens if ica t ion c an b e s ugges ted t o h e lp e xp la in t h is p rocess . R enfrew a nd o thers ( cf . G i lman 1 981 ; R enfrew 1 982 ; R enfrew a nd S hennan 1 982 ) h ave s hown a gr icu ltura l i n tens if ica t ion t o b e a n i mpor tan t e xp lana tory

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Chap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

t oo l f or e xp lan ing t he emergence o f r anked s oc ie t ies . I n t he s tudy p resen ted h ere , c hap ters 4 , 8a nd 9 p rov ide d e ta i led d iscus s ions c oncern ing t he n a ture , g row th a nd e vo lu t ion o f a gro techno logy d ur ing t he L a te N eo l i th ic - E ar ly B ronze Age i n s ou thern P a le s t ine . T he se d a ta i nd ica te t ha t t he r e la t ive ly l a rge p opu la t ion a t S h iqm im ( Tab le 4 . 25 ) d epended o n a gr icu l ture p rac t iced i n t he Naha l B eersheva v a l ley b o t tom where s ea sona l f l oodwa ters c ou ld b e e xp lo i ted t o s upp lemen t c rop g row th . T o i n sure f ood s upp l ies f or t h is p opu la t ion , t he g row th o f t he p lanned v i l lage i n B P I may r ef lec t t he emergence o f ad ec is ion mak ing e l i te r e spons ib le f or t he o rgan iza t ion o f s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s i n t h is s em i -ar id e nv ironmen t .

1 81

S h iqm im

Tab le 6 .1 L oc i De scr ip t ion s

S qu e

L ocus

Type o fL ocu s

Upper V i l lage 4 00 4 01 4 02 4 03 4 04 4 05 4 06 4 07 4 08 4 09 4 10 4 11 4 12 4 13 4 14 4 15 4 16 4 17 4 18 4 19 4 20 4 21 4 22 4 23 4 24 4 26

S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage S ondage

S ur fa ce s crape Top s o i l Top s o i l Top s o i l A shy f i l l A shy f i l l A shy f i l l Occupa t ion s ur face A shy l ayer H ear th H ea r th A shy f i l l F i l l A shy f i l l F i l l F i l l I n s ta l la t ion F loor/sur face M ixed f i l l s A shy f i l l De s truc t ion l ayer Mudbr ick f i l l C O C en tra l s ec t ion c l earance A rea a round h u man r e ma in s A shy f i l l P la s tered p i t/s i lo

T es t p i t T e s t p i t

S ha l low p i t MB/a shy b u i l t-up o ff l oor

Tu t Tu t T e s t T ea t T e s t T e s t T e s t T e s t T e s t T e s t

p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t p i t

F loor S ha l low p i t S ha l low p i t S ha l low p i t S ha l low p i t Hear th/f ire p i t F loo r S ha l low p i t S ha l low p i t V irg in s o i l

D/20 D/20 D/20 D/20 D/20 D/20 D/20 C /20 C /20 C /20 C /20 B /20

S ur faue s crape F i l l P i t F i l l C o l lap se F i l l F i l l S ur fa ce s crape F i l l F i l l I n s ta l la t ion S ur face s crape

Upper V i l lage T e s t P i t 4 26 4 27 4 28 4 28 4 29 4 30 4 31 4 32 4 33 4 34 4 36 4 36 4 40

A rea A 1 060 1 061 1 062 1 063 1 064 1 065 1 056 1 076 1 077 1 078 1 080 101

I I I I I I I l I -

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C hap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .1 L oc i Descr ip t ions , c ont inued

L ocus

1 102 1 103 1 104 1 105 1 106 1 126 1 127 1 128 1 129 1 130 1 151 1 152 1 153 1 154 1 155 1 156 1 176 1 177 1 178 1 179 1 180 1 181 1 182 1 183 1 184 1 185 1 751 1 752 1 753 1 754 1 755 1 756 1 759 1 951 1 952 1 953 1 954 1 955 2 026 2 027 2 028 2 029 2 030 2 031 2 032 2 033 2 076 2 077 0 2000 0 2001 0 2002 0 2003 0 2004 0 2005 0 2016 0 2017 0 2031 0 2032 0 2033 0 2034 0 2046

BP

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ? ? ? ? ? ? I ? I I I I o r I I? I I a I b I I a

S quare

B/20 B/20 B /20 B /20 B /20 B /1 B/1 B /1 B /1 B /1 B /2 B /2 B /2 B /2 B/2 B /2 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 C /3 E 3/D3 E 3/D3 E 3/D3 E 3/D3 E 3/D3 E 3/D3 E 4/D4 B /19 B /19 B /19 B /19 B /19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 E /20 E /20 B /3 B /3 B /3 B 2/B3 B3 B /3 B /4 B /4 B /5 B /5 B /5 B /5 B /6

1 83

Type o f L ocus

Top s o i l MB f i l l O ccupa t ion s ur face MB f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape MB f i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l Top s o i l F i l l F i l l Hear th F loor F i l l F i l l F i l l F loor F loor A sh p i t F loor A sh p i t F loor F loor F loor S ur face s crape Top s o i l A shy f i l l Top s o i l H ear th S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l N iche Pav ing S ur face s crape Top s o i l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l F i l l Occupa t ion s ur face A shy f i l l S ur face s crape A shy f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l A shy f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape

S h iqm im I

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ipt ions , c ont inued

L ocus

0 2047 0 2048 0 2049 0 2050 0 2051 0 2052 0 2053 0 2091 0 2092 0 2093 0 2106 0 2121 0 2122 0 2123 0 2124 0 2125 0 2126 0 2127 0 2128 0 2129 0 2130 0 2131 0 2132 0 2133 0 2134 0 2135 0 2136 0 2137 0 2138 0 2139 0 2140 0 2141 0 2142 0 2143 0 2151 0 2152 0 2153 0 2154 0 2155 0 2156

BP

I a I I a I b I b I I a I a I b I b I a I b I I I I I I I I I I V? I V? I V? I I? ? ? I a I a I a I I I I I a I I I I (W146 )

S quare

Type o f L ocus

B /6 B /6 B/6 C /6 B /6 B/6 B/7 B/7 B /7 C /7 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /6 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /5 C /4 C /4 C /4 C /4 C /4 C /4

Top s o i l MB f i l l A shy f i l l MB f i l l A shy f i l l MB f i l l O ccupa t ion s ur face Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape S ur face s crape Top s o i l A shy f i l l F i l l A shy f i l l O ccupa t ion s ur face A shy f i l l F loor H ear th Hardpacked MB f i l l A shy f i l l MB d ecay B e l l-shape p i t F i l l F i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l Top s o i l Top s o i l P it MB f i l l A shy f i l l O ccupa t ion s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l A shy f i l l MB f i l l A shy f i l l MB f i l l = wa l l c o l lapse

U/17 U/17 U/17 A/17 A/17 A/17 A/17 A/17 A/17 A/17 B /17 B /17 B /17 B /17 B /17 B /17 U/16

S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face O ccupa t ion s ur face Par t ion wa l l (W74 ) Wa l l W41 S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face O ccupa t ion s ur face MB a nd A shy f i l l S tone i ns ta l la t ion S ur face s crape

A rea B 1 226 1 227 1 228 1 251 1 252 1 253 1 254 1 255 1 256 1 257 1 276 1 277 1 278 1 279 1 280 1 281 1 301

I -

I I I I I I I I I -

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Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ip t ions , c ont inued

L ocus

BP

1 302 1 303 1 304 1 305 1 326 1 327 1 328 1 329 1 330 1 331 1 351 1 352 1 353 1 354 1 355 1 356 1 976 1 977 1 978 1 979 2 001 2 002 2 003 2 004 2 005 2 006 2 007 2 008 2 151 2 152 2 153 2 154 0 2166 0 2181 0 2182 0 2183 0 2184 0 2185 0 2186 0 2187 0 2188 0 2189

I I I I? I I I I -

0 2190 0 2196 0 2197 0 2198 0 2199

I I I

0 2200 0 2201

I I s ur face I I 1 0 I I I I I ?

0 2202 0 2203 0 2211 0 2212 0 2213 0 2214 0 2215 0 2216 0 2217

I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

S quare

U/16 U/16 U/16 U/16 A/16 A/16 A/16 A/16 A/16 A/16 B/16 B/16 B /16 B /16 B/16 B /16 A/15 A/15 A/15 A/15 B /18 B/18 B/18 B /18 B/18 B /18 B /18 B/18 B/15 B /15 B /15 B /15 U/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 A/18 s ur face A/18 C /19 C /19 C /19 C /19

Type o f L ocus

Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face MB wa l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face Occupa t ion s ur face Wa l l W53 S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face Wa l l W60 Wa l l W61 S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face O ccupa t ion s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face Wa l l W70 Wa l l W85 F loor S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face Top s o i l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face MB f i l l a bove s ur face MB f i l l a bove s ur face H ear th C ircu lar s tone i n sta l la t ion Co mpact o ccupa t ion Occupa t ion s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l a bove s ur face MB f i l l a bove s ur face

C /19 C /19

MB a nd a shy f i l l MB a nd a shy f i l l a bove

C /19 C /19

MB f i l l b e low s ur face O ccupa t ion s urface , Roo m

D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19 D/19

S ur face s crape Top s o i l Wa l l c o l lapse (W96 ) MB f i l l a bove s ur face S ur face o f o ccupa t ion MB f i l l a bove s ur face S tone i n s ta l la t ion

1 85

S h iq m im I

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ip t ions , c ont inued

L ocus

0 2289 0 2290 0 2291 0 2292 0 2301 0 2302 0 2303 0 2304 0 2331 0 2332 0 2333 0 2334 0 2345 0 2901 0 2902 0 2916 0 2917 0 2918 0 2931 0 2932 0 2933 0 2934 0 2936

BP

I I I I w /a shy f i l l -

I I I I I

S quare

Type o fL ocus

C /17 C /17 C /17 C /17 D/17 D/17 D/17

A shy f i l l a bove s ur face MB s uper structure o f W136 Concen tra t ion o f p ebb les O ccupa t ion s urface S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB a nd c obb le c o l lapse

D/17 C /16 C /16 C /16 C /16 D/16 F /18 F /18 F /19 F /19 F /19 A/19 A/19 A/19 A/19 A/19

S ur face o fo ccupa t ion S ur face s crape Top s o i l A shy f i l l a bove s ur face S tone i n sta l la t ion S ur face s crape S ur face s crape Top s o i l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l S urface s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l a bove s ur face MB f i l l a bove s ur face P ebb le s urface

L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 L /5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 M/5 N/5 N/5 N/5 L /4 L /4

S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face P it Wa l l c o l lapse (W49 , W78 ) F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l F i l l F i l l Top s o i l Top s o i l F i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W80 ) Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l F i l l F i l l F i l l b e low s ur face MB f i l l wa l l c o l lapse F i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l

A rea C 1 401 1 402 1 403 1 404 1 405 1 406 1 407 1 408 1 409 1 410 1 411 1 412 1 413 1 414 1 426 1 427 1 428 1 429 1 430 1 431 1 432 1 433 1 434 1 435 1 436 1 437 1 438 1 439 1 440 1 451 1 452 1 453 1 476 1 477

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ? I I -

1 86

Chap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ipt ions , c on t inued

L ocus

1 478 1 479 1 480 1 501 1 502 1 503 1 504 1 505 1 506 1 507 1 508 1 526 1 527 1 528 1 551 1 552 1 553 1 554 1 555 1 876 1 877 1 878 1 879 1 880 1 881 1 882 1 883 1 884 1 885 1 901 1 902 1 903 1 904 1 905 1 906 1 907 1 909 1 910 1 912 1 913 1 914 1 915 1 916 1 917 1 926 1 927 1 928 1 929 1 930 2 176 2 177 0 2376 0 2377 0 2378 0 2379 0 2380 0 2381 0 2382 0 2391 0 2392 0 2421

BP

I I I I I ? ? -

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -

S quare

L /4 L /4 L /4 M/4 M/4 M/4 M/4 M/4 M/4 M/4 M/4 N/4 N/4 N/4 L 5/ M5 L 5/ M5 L 4/ M4 L 5/ M5 M5/ M4 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 H/3 J /3 . 1 /3 . 1/ 3 . 1/ 3 . 1 /3 . 1 /3 J /3 J /3 . 1 /3 . 1 /3 . 1 /3 . 1 /3 . 1/ 3 . 1 /3 J /3 K/3 K/3 K/3 K/3 K/3 G/3 G/3 H/2 H/2 H/2 H/2 H/2 H/2 H/2 J /2 J /2 H/4

1 87

Type o f L ocus

F i l l a bove s ur face Wa l l c o l lapse Top s o i l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face C lean ing p robe P it P i t S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face S ur face s crape F i l l F i l l d irec t ly a bove f l oor F i l l d irec t ly a bove f l oor F i l l F i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l a bove s ur face O ccupa t ion s ur face Hear th S ur face s crape F i l l F i l l d irect ly a bove f l oor MB f i l l MB f i l l F loor Cobb led s ur face MB f i l l S tone i ns ta l la t ion Top s o i l Top s o i l F i l l a bove s ur face F i l l Wa l l c o l lapse S ur face s crape Top s o i l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l Wa l l c l ean ing A shy a nd MB f i l l Ho le mou th j ar a nd c ontents P la stered i n s ta l la t ion S ur face s crape Top s o i l S ur face s crape

S h iqm im I

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ipt ions , c ont inued

L ocus

0 2422 0 2423 0 2436 0 2437 0 2438 0 2451 0 2452 0 2453

BP

I

I

S quare

Type o f L ocus

H/4 H/4 J /4 J /4 J /4 K/4 K/4 K/4

Top s o i l MB a nd a shy f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l

K/4 G/2 G/2 G/2 G/2 J /5 J /5 J /5

MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l Top s o i l a nd MB f i l l F i l l F i l l

S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l a nd c obb les Wa l l c o l lapse (W55) Wa l l c o l lapse (W63 ) Hear th Occupa t ion s ur face MB a shy ma ter ia l o n 1 608 S ur face s crape

0 2454 0 2856 0 2857 0 2858 0 2859 0 2946 0 2947 0 2948

I I I

1 576 1 577 1 578 1 601 1 602 1 603 1 604 1 605 1 606 1 607 1 608 1 609 1 626

I I I I I I I -

P /7 P /7 P /7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 Q/ 7 R/7

1 627 1 628 1 629 1 630 1 631 1 632

I I I I I

R/7 R/7 R/7 R/7 R/7 R/7

Top s o i l MB f i l l F i l l Cobb le t u mb le F loor Wa l l c o l lapse (W54 )

1 633 1 634 1 635 1 651 1 652 1 653 1 654 1 676

I ? ?? I I I -

R/7 R/7 R/7 P /6 P /6 P /6 P /6 Q/6

Wa l l c o l lapse (W55) Rock c a irn Wa l l c o l lapse (W82) S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W47 ) S ur face s crape

1 677 1 678 1 679 1 680 1 681 1 682 1 683 1 684 1 685 1 686 1 687 1 688 1 701 1 702 1 703

I I I I I I I H I I I I

Q/6 Q/6 Q/ 6 Q/6 Q/6 Q/6 Q/6 Q/6 Q/6 Q/ 6 Q/6 Q/6 R/6 R/6 R/6

Top s o i l MB f i l l a nd c obb les S tone i nsta l la t ion MB f i l l a bove s ur face 1 681 Occupa t ion s ur face Wa l l c o l lapse (W56 ) Wa l l c o l lapse (W57 ) MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W64 ) Wa l l c o l lapse (W67 ) O ccupa t ion s ur face Occupa t ion s ur face S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l

I I

A rea D

1 88

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .1 L oc i Descr ip t ions , c ont inued

L ocus

1 704 1 705 1 726 1 727 1 728 1 729 1 730 1 731 1 732 1 733 1 734 1 735 1 736 1 737 1 738 1 739 1 801 1 802 1 803 1 804 1 805 2 051 2 052 2 053 2 101 2 102 2 103 2 104 2 105 2 106 2 107 2 108 2 126 2 127 2 128 2 129 0 2541 0 2542 0 2543 0 2544 0 2545 0 2556 0 2557 0 2558 0 2559 0 2560 0 2561 0 2562 0 2571 0 2572 0 2573 0 2586 0 2587 0 2588 0 2601 0 2602 0 2603 0 2604 0 2605 0 2606 0 2607

BP

I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -

S quare

Type o f L ocus

R/6 R/6 R/6 P 6/Q6 P6/Q6 Q6/R6 R/7 R/7 Q6/R6 Q7/R6

F i l l F i l l w ith p ebb les S ur face s crape S ur face s crape MB f i l l S ur face s crape S ur face s crape MB f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape

Q7 /Q 6 R/7 Q7/R7 Q7/R7 Q7 /Q 6 Q6 /Q 7 P /5 P /5 P /5 P /5 P /5 N/5 N/5 N/5 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 R/8 R/8 R/8 R/8 P /8 P /8 P /8 P /8 P /8 P /9 P /9 P /9 P /9 P /9 P /9 P /9 P /10 P /10 P /10 P /11 P /11 P /11

MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W65) S ur face s crape MB f i l l Occupa t ion s ur face Wa l l c o l lapse S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l w ith c obb les Wa l l c o l lapse (W58 ) S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse O ccupa t ion s ur face ( ? ) Wa l l c o l lapse (W63 ) F i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W81) S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l MB f i l l S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W95 ) F loor F loor Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l

Q/ 9 Q/ 9 Q/ 9 Q9/P9 Q9/Q10

S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l MB f i l l a bove f l oor F i l l F loor Top s o i l

Q /9 Q /9

1 89

S h iq m im I

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ipt ions , c ont inued

L ocus

0 2608 0 2616 0 2617 0 2618 0 2619 0 2620 0 2621 0 2622 0 2631 0 2632 0 2871 0 2872 0 2873 0 2874 0 2886 0 2887 0 2888 0 2889 0 2890 0 2891 0 2892 0 2893 0 2894 0 2895 0 2896 0 2897 0 2898 0 2899 0 2900

BP

S quare

Type o f L ocus

Q9 Q/10 Q/10 Q/10 Q/10 Q/10 Q/10 Q/10 Q/11 Q/11 P /12 P /12 P /12 P /12 Q/12 Q/12 Q/12 R/12 R/13 R/12 R/12 R/13

B ench Top s o i l MB f i l l A shy f i l l MB a nd a shy f i l l Wa l l c o l lapse (W127 ) P la s tered c i rc le Occupa t ion s ur face Top s o i l MB f i l l Top s o i l F i l l MB a nd a shy f i l l F loor Top s o i l MB c o l lapse F loor Top s o i l Tabun r e ma ins I nsta l la t ion P i t MB a nd a shy f i l l

I

R/13 R/13 R/13 R/12 R/12 R/12 R/12

MB f i l l MB f i l l MB f i l l A shy f i l l I nsta l la t ion P it Occupa t ion s ur face ( ? )

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

S /8 S /8 S /8 S /9 S /9 S /9 S /9 S /9 S /9 S /9 S /10 S /10 5 /10 S /10 S /9 S /9 S /11 S /11 S /11 Sal S /11 S /11 S /11 S /11 S /11 T /9 T/9 T /9 T /9

S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l S ur face s crape MB f i l l Wa l l W101 Wa l l W102 F loor MB f i l l I ns ta l la t ion S ur face s crape MB f i l l F loor MB a nd a shy f i l l Wa l l W142 I ns ta l la t ion S ur face s crape Top s o i l MB f i l l F loor O ccupa t ion s ur face F loor Wa l l W143 S tone i nsta l la t ion Wa l l W103 S ur face s crape Top s o i l I ns ta l la t ion Wa l l W92

I I I I I I I I I I I I ? I I I I I I -

A rea E 0 2721 0 2722 0 2723 0 2736 0 2737 0 2738 0 2739 0 2740 0 2741 0 2742 0 2751 0 2752 0 2753 0 2754 0 2755 0 2756 0 2766 0 2767 0 2768 0 2769 0 2770 0 2771 0 2772 0 2773 0 2774 0 2781 0 2782 0 2783 0 2784

1 90

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .1

L oc i Descr ip t ions , c ont inued

L ocus

BP

0 2796 0 2797 0 2799 0 2811 0 2812 0 2813 0 2826 0 2827 0 2828 0 2829 0 2830 0 2831 0 2832 0 2841 0 2842 0 2843

I I II I I I I I I I I I I -I II I I I I II H I

0 2844 0 2845

I I

S quare

T /10 T /10 T/10 T /11 T /11 T/11 S /12 S /12 S /12 S /12 S /12 5 /12 S /12 T /12 T/12 T /12 i nsta l la t ion T/12 T/12

1 91

Type o f L ocus

S ur face s crape Mixed MB f i l l Wa l l W102 S ur face s crape F loor w /so me f i l l ma ter ia l Wa l l ? ??? S ur face s crape MB f i l l m ixed ? ??? MB f i l l F loor Bur ia l A shy f i l l S ur face s crape MB f i l l Copper ( i ndustr ia l ) MB f i l l Wa l l

S h iqm im I

T ab le 6 .2 Upper V i l lage P robe L oc i B aske ts 4 00

1 001 , 1 002 , 1 003 , 1 004 , 1 005 , 1 006 , 1 007 , 1 008 , 1 009 , 1 010 , 1 011 , 1 012 , 1 013 , 1 014 , 1 015 , 1 016 , 1 017 , 1 018 , 1 019 , 1 020 , 1 021 , 1 022 , 1 023 , 1 024 , 1 025

4 01

1 026 , 1 027

4 02

1 028 , 1 029 , 1 030 , 1 034 , 1 036

4 03

1 031 , 1 035 , 1 037

4 04

1 032 , 1 033 , 1 039 , 1 041

4 05

1 038 , 1 040 , 1 045

4 06

1 042

4 07

1 043 , 1 044 , 1 047 , 1 049

4 08

1 046 , 1 050 , 1 051 , 1 053 , 1 054 , 1 055 , 1 056 , 1 057 , 1 058

4 09

1 052 , 1 059

4 10

1 060 , 1 063 , 1 069 , 1 072

4 11

1 061 , 1 062 , 1 068 , 1 074 , 1 075 , 1 078 , 1 082 , 1 089 , 1 091 , 1 095

4 12

1 064

4 13

1 065

4 14

1 066

4 15

1 067 , 1 070 , 1 073 , 1 081

4 16

1 071

4 17

1 076 , 1 087 , 1 111

4 18

1 077

4 19

1 079 , 1 080

4 20

1 083 , 1 088

4 21

1 084 , 1 093

4 22

1 085

4 23

1 086 , 1 094

4 24

1 090

4 25

1 096 , 1 098

4 26

1 097

4 27

1 099 , 1 101 , 1 102 , 1 103 , 1 104 , 1 106 , 1 115 , 1 118

4 28

1 105 , 1 108 , 1 110 , 1 114 , 1 117 , 1 120 , 1 121

4 29

1 107

4 30

1 109

4 31

1 112

4 32

1 113

4 33

1 116

4 34

1 119

4 35

1 122

4 36

1 123

1 92

Chap ter 6 : E xcavat ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd Basket Numbers L oc i

B aske ts

8 2-1

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 5

8 2-2

2 6

8 2-3

2 7 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 1

8 2-4

3 2

8 2-6

3 3 , 3 4

8 2-7

3 5

8 2-8

3 8

8 2-9

3 6

8 2-10

3 7 , 3 9

8 2-11

4 1

8 2-12

4 0

8 2-13

4 2 , 4 4

8 2-14

4 3

8 2-16

4 5

8 2-15

2 01 , 2 02 , 2 03 , 2 04 , 2 05 , 2 06 , 2 07 , 2 08 , 2 09 , 2 10 , 2 11 , 2 12 , 2 13 , 2 14 , 2 15 , 2 16 , 2 17 , 2 18 , 2 19 , 2 20 , 2 21 , 2 23 , 2 24 , 2 25

5 2

2 26

5 3

2 27 , 2 28 , 2 29 , 2 30

5 4

2 32

5 5

2 34 , 2 35

5 6

2 33 , 2 37

5 7

2 36

5 9

2 38 , 2 39

6 0

2 40 , 2 42

6 1

2 41

6 2

2 43 , 2 44

6 3

2 47

6 4

2 45 , 2 46

1 01

4 01 , 4 02 , 4 03 , 4 04 , 4 05 , 4 06 , 4 07 , 4 08 , 4 09 , 4 10 , 4 11 , 4 12 , 4 13 , 4 14 , 4 15 , 4 16 , 4 17 , 4 18 , 4 19 , 4 20 , 4 21 , 4 22 , 4 23 , 4 24 , 4 25

1 02

4 26

1 03

4 27 , 4 28 , 4 29 , 4 30 , 4 31

1 05

4 33

1 06

4 32

1 07

4 34

1 08

4 35

1 09

4 37

1 10

4 36 , 4 39

1 93

S h iq m im I

Tab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd Basket Nu mbers , c ont inued L oc i

B askets

1 11

4 38

1 12

4 40

1 51

6 01 , 6 02 , 6 03 , 6 04 , 6 05 , 6 06 , 6 07 , 6 08 , 6 09 , 6 10 , 6 11 , 6 12 , 6 13 , 6 14 , 6 15 , 6 16 , 6 17 , 6 18 , 6 19 , 6 20 , 6 21 , 6 22 , 6 23 , 6 24 , 6 25

1 52

6 26

1 53

6 27 , 6 28 , 6 29 , 6 30 , 6 31 , 6 32 , 6 34 , 6 37 , 6 44 , 6 51

1 54

6 33 , 6 35 , 6 36 , 6 38

1 55

6 39 , 6 40 , 6 42

1 56

6 41 , 6 46

1 57

6 45 , 6 47

1 58

6 43 , 6 49

1 59

6 48

1 60

6 50

1 61

6 52

1 62

6 54

1 63

6 57

1 64

6 55

1 65

6 53 , 6 56

1 66

6 62

1 67

6 61

1 68

6 58

1 69

6 60 , 6 63 , 6 65 , 6 66 , 6 67

1 70

6 68

1 71

6 69 , 6 64

1 72

6 70 , 6 71

2 01

8 01 , 8 02 , 8 03 , 8 04 , 8 05 , 8 06 , 8 07 , 8 08 , 8 09 , 8 10 , 8 11 , 8 12 , 8 13 , 8 14 , 8 15 , 8 16 , 8 17 , 8 18 , 8 19 , 8 20 , 8 21 , 8 22 , 8 23 , 8 24 , 8 25

2 02

8 26 , 8 32 , 8 33 , 8 34 , 8 35

2 03

8 27 , 8 28 , 8 29 , 8 30 , 8 31 , 8 36 , 8 37 , 8 39 , 8 42

2 04

8 38

2 05

8 40 , 8 46 , 8 48

2 06

8 44

2 07

8 41 , 8 47 , 8 50

2 08

8 43 , 8 45

2 09

8 49

2 10

8 51

2 11

8 53

2 12

8 52 , 8 55

1 94

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

2 13

8 56 , 8 57

2 15

8 54 , 8 58 , 8 59 , 8 60

2 16

8 61

G/4-651

2 001

G/4-652

2 002

G/4-653

2 003

G/4-654

2 004

G/4-655

2 005

G/4-656

2 006

G/4-657

2 007

G/4-658

2 008

G/4-659

2 009

G/4-660

2 010

G/4-661

2 011

G/4-662

2 012

G/4-663

2 013

G/4-664

2 014

G/4-665

2 015

G/4-666

2 016

6 75

2 250

6 76

2 251

6 77

2 252

6 78

2 253 , 2 254

1 001

2 026 , 2 027

1 002

2 029

1 003

2 028

1 050

3 000 , 3 001 , 3 002

1 051

3 003 , 3 004 , 3 005 , 3 006 , 3 007 , 3 008 , 3 010 , 3 011 , 3 012 , 3 013 , 3 014 , 3 015 , 3 016 , 3 022

1 052

3 009

1 053

3 017 , 3 018 , 3 019 , 3 020 , 3 021 , 3 023 , 3 026 , 3 029 , 3 031

1 054

3 028

1 055

3 024

1 056

3 025 , 3 027

1 076

3 101 , 3 102 , 3 126

1 077

3 103 , 3 104 , 3 105 , 3 106 , 3 107 , 3 108 , 3 109 , 3 110 , 3 111 , 3 112 , 3 114 , 3 119 , 3 122 , 3 124 , 3 127

1 078

3 113 , 3 115 , 3 116 , 3 120 , 3 125

1 079

3 117 , 3 118 , 3 121 , 3 123

1 95

S h iqm im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd B aske t Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

1 080

3 128

1 101

3 201 , 3 202

1 102

3 203 , 3 204 , 3 205 , 3 206 , 3 207 , 3 208 , 3 209 , 3 210 , 3 211

1 103

3 212 , 3 213 , 3 214 , 3 215 , 3 216 , 3 217 , 3 218 , 3 219 ,

1 104

3 220 , 3 222

1 105

3 221 , 3 224

1 106

3 223 , 3 225

1 126

3 301 , 3 302 , 3 303 , 3 315 , 3 316

1 127

3 304 , 3 305 , 3 306 , 3 307 , 3 308 , 3 309 , 3 310 , 3 311 , 3 312 , 3 313 , 3 318 , 3 322

1 128

3 314 , 3 320

1 129

3 317 , 3 319 , 3 321 , 3 326

1 130

3 323 , 3 324 , 3 325

1 151

3 401 , 3 402 , 3 406 , 3 413 , 3 414

1 152

3 403 , 3 404 , 3 405 , 3 407 , 3 411 , 3 415

1 153

3 408 , 3 409 , 3 412 , 3 417

1 154

3 410 , 3 418

1 155

3 416

1 176

3 501 , 3 504 , 3 507 , 3 509 , 3 516 , 3 519 , 3 521 , 3 522 , 3 524

1 177

3 505 , 3 510 , 3 511 , 3 512 , 3 517 , 3 525

1 178

3 513 , 3 535 , 3 542

1 179

3 534 , 3 536 , 3 537 , 3 539 , 3 541

1 180

3 514 , 3 515 , 3 518 , 3 520 , 3 529

1 181

3 502 , 3 503 , 3 506 , 3 526 , 3 531 , 3 533

1 182

3 527 , 3 530

1 183

3 528 , 3 540

1 184

3 532

1 185

3 508 , 3 538

1 751

5 801 , 5 804 , 5 806 , 5 812 , 5 816 , 5 818 , 5 821 , 5 823 , 5 825

1 752

5 802 , 5 805 , 5 807 , 5 815

1 753

5 808 , 5 814

1 754

5 809 , 5 810 , 5 813 , 5 819 , 5 824

1 755

5 811 , 5 826 , 5 827 , 5 831 , 5 830

1 756

5 820

1 757

5 817

1 759

5 828 , 5 829

1 951

6 501 , 6 502 , 6 503 , 6 504

1 952

6 505 , 6 506 , 6 507 , 6 508

1 953

6 509 , 6 519

1 96

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd Basket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B askets

1 954

6 510 , 6 511 , 6 512 , 6 513 , 6 514 , 6 516 , 6 517 , 6 518

2 026

6 651 , 6 652 , 6 653 , 6 654

2 027

6 655 , 6 656

2 028

6 657

2 029

6 658 , 6 659 , 6 660 , 6 664

2 030

6 661 , 6 663

2 031

6 662

2 076

6 701 , 6 702 , 6 703 , 6 704

2 077

6 705 , 6 706 , 6 707

0 2000

0 6000

0 2001

0 6001 , 0 6002 , 0 6003 , 0 6004 , 0 6005 , 0 6006 , 0 6009 , 0 6011

0 2002

0 6007 , 0 6013 , 0 6012 , 0 6014 , 0 6018

0 2003

0 6008 , 0 6015 , 0 6016

0 2004

0 6019

0 2005

0 6020 , 0 6021

0 2016

0 6051

0 2017

0 6052 , 0 6053 , 0 6054 , 0 6055 , 0 6056 , 0 6057 , 0 6058 , 0 6069 , 0 6060 , 0 6063

0 2031

0 69101

0 2032

0 6102 , 0 6103 , 0 6104 , 0 6105 , 0 6106 , 0 6114 , 0 6119

0 2033

0 6107 , 0 6108 , 0 6109 , 0 6110 , 0 6111 , 0 6112 , 0 6115 , 0 6117 , 0 6120

0 2034

0 6113 , 0 6116 , 0 6121 , 0 6122 , 0 6123

0 2046

0 6151 , 0 6156

0 2047

0 6152 , 0 6153 , 0 6155 , 0 6164 , 0 6169

0 2048

0 6154 , 0 6157 , 0 6159 , 0 6161 , 0 6166 , 0 6167 , 0 6172

0 2049

0 6158 , 0 6173

0 2050

0 6160 , 0 6162 , 0 6163 , 0 6165 , 0 6168 , 0 6170 , 0 6171 , 0 6174 , 0 6175 , 0 6177 , 0 6178 , 0 6179 , 0 6180 , 0 6181

0 2051

0 6176

0 2091

0 6202

0 2092

0 6203 , 0 6204

0 2093

0 6205 , 0 6206

0 2106

0 6251

0 2121

0 6301

0 2122

0 6302 , 0 6303 , 0 6304 , 0 6305

0 2123

0 6307

0 2124

0 6308

0 2125

0 6309 , 0 6310

0 2126

0 6311 , 0 6312

1 97

S h iq m im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea A : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2127

0 6313

0 2128

0 6314 , 0 6315 , 0 6316 , 0 6317 , 0 6330

0 2129

-

0 2130

0 6318

0 2131

0 6319 , 0 6320

0 2132

0 6321 , 0 6323 , 0 6324 , 0 6325 , 0 6326

0 2133

0 6322

0 2134

0 6327 , 0 6328

0 2135

0 6329

0 2136

0 6351

0 2137

0 6352 , 0 6354

0 2138

0 6353 , 0 6356

0 2139

0 6355 , 0 6357 , 0 6358

0 2140

0 6359 , 0 6362 , 0 6365

0 2141

0 6360 , 0 6361 , 0 6363 , 0 6364 , 0 6366 , 0 6369

0 2142

0 6367

0 2143

0 6368

0 2151

0 6401

0 2152

0 6402 , 0 6403 , 0 6404 , 0 6409 , 0 6413

0 2153

0 6405 , 0 6407

0 2154

0 6406 , 0 6408 , 0 6410

0 2155

0 6419 , 0 6420 , 0 6426 , 0 6427

0 2156

0 6429 , 0 6430

T ab le 6 .2 A rea B : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers L oc i

B aske ts

1 226

3 701 , 3 702 , 3 703

1 227

3 704 , 3 705 , 3 706 , 3 707 , 3 708 , 3 709 , 3 710 , 3 711 , 3 712 , 3 713 , 3 714 , 3 715

1 228

3 716 , 3 717 , 3 718 , 3 719 , 3 720 , 3 721 , 3 722 , 3 723 , 3 724

1 251

3 801 , 3 802

1 252

3 803 , 3 804 , 3 805 , 3 806 , 3 807 , 3 808 , 3 809 , 3 810 , 3 811 , 3 812 , 3 813 , 3 814 , 3 815 , 3 816

1 263

3 817 , 3 818 , 3 819 , 3 820 , 3 821 , 3 822 , 3 823 , 3 824

1 254

3 825 , 3 826 , 3 827 , 3 828 , 3 829 , 3 830 , 3 831 , 3 832 , 3 833 , 3 834 , 3 835 , 3 836 , 3 837 , 3 838 , 3 839

1 255

3 840

1 276

3 901 , 3 902

1 277

3 903 , 3 904 , 3 905 , 3 906 , 3 907 , 3 908 , 3 909 , 3 910 , 3 911

1 98

Chap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

T ab le 6 . 2 A rea B : L oc i a nd B asket N umbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

1 278

3 912 , 3 913 , 3 914 , 3 916 , 3 916 , 3 917 , 3 918 , 3 919 , 3 920 , 3 921

1 279

3 922 , 3 923

1 280

3 924 , 3 925 , 3 926 , 3 927 , 3 928

1 301

4 001 , 4 002 , 4 003 , 4 004

1 302

4 005 , 4 006 , 4 007 , 4 008 , 4 009 , 4 010 , 4 011 , 4 012 , 4 013 , 4 014 , 4 015

1 303

4 016 , 4 017 , 4 018 , 4 019 , 4 020

1 304

4 021 , 4 022 , 4 023 , 4 024 , 4 025 , 4 026 , 4 027 , 4 028 , 4 029 , 4 030 , 4 031

1 326

4 101 , 4 102

1 327

4 103 , 4 104 , 4 105 , 4 106 , 4 107 , 4 108 , 4 109 , 4 110 , 4 111 , 4 112 , 4 113 , 4 133 , 4 136

1 328

4 114 , 4 115 , 4 116 , 4 117 , 4 118 , 4 119 , 4 120 , 4 121 , 4 122 , 4 123 , 4 124 , 4 125 , 4 126 , 4 127 , 4 128 , 4 134 , 4 137

1 329

4 129 , 4 132 , 4 135 , 4 138 , 4 139 , 4 140 , 4 141

1 330

4 130 , 4 131 , 4 142 , 4 143 , 4 144 , 4 145 , 4 146 , 4 147 , 4 148 , 4 149

1 351

4 201 , 4 202

1 352

4 203 , 4 204 , 4 205 , 4 206 , 4 207 , 4 208 , 4 209 , 4 210 , 4 211 , 4 212

1 363

4 213 , 4 214 , 4 215 , 4 216 , 4 217 , 4 218 , 4 219 , 4 220 , 4 221 , 4 222

1 354

4 223 , 4 224 , 4 225 , 4 226 , 4 227 , 4 228 , 4 229

1 976

6 551 , 6 552

1 977

6 553 , 6 554 , 6 555

1 978

6 666 , 6 557 , 6 668 , 6 569 , 6 560

1 979

6 661 , 6 662 , 6 563 , 6 564 , 6 665 , 6 666

2 001

6 601 , 6 602 , 6 603 , 6 604

2 002

6 606 , 6 606 , 6 607 , 6 608 , 6 609 , 6 610 , 6 623 , 6 626

2 003

6 611 , 6 612 , 6 613 , 6 614 , 6 615 , 6 616 , 6 617 , 6 619 , 6 620 , 6 621 , 6 622 , 6 624 , 6 625 , 6 627 , 6 628 , 6 629 , 6 630 , 6 631 , 6 632 , 6 633 , 6 634

2 004

6 660

2 005

6 618 , 6 651

2 008

6 635 , 6 636 , 6 637 , 6 638 , 6 639 , 6 640 , 6 641 , 6 642 , 6 643 , 6 644 , 6 645 , 6 646 , 6 647 , 6 648 , 6 649 , 0 957 , 0 9153 , 0 9154 , 0 9155 , 0 9157

2 009

0 9151

2 010

0 9152 , 0 9156 , 0 9158 , 0 95159

2 151

6 776

2 152

6 778 , 6 779 , 6 780

2 153

6 777 , 6 781

2 154

6 782

0 2166

0 6451

0 2181

0 6501

0 2182

0 6502 , 0 6503 , 0 6504 , 0 6505 , 0 6506 , 0 6507 , 0 6508 , 0 6509 , 0 6510 , 0 6511 , 0 6512 , 0 6513

0 2183

0 6514 , 0 6517 , 0 6525

1 99

S h iqm im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea B : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2184

0 6515 , 0 6516 , 0 6523

0 2185

0 6518 , 0 6524

0 2186

0 6519 , 0 6520 , 0 6521

0 2187

0 6522

0 2196

0 6551 , 0 6552

0 2197

0 6553 , 0 6554 , 0 6555 , 0 6556 , 0 6557 , 0 6558 , 0 6559 , 0 6560 , 0 6561 , 0 6562 , 0 6563 , 0 6564 , 0 6565

0 2198

0 6566

0 2199

0 6567 , 0 6568 , 0 6569 , 0 6574

0 2200

0 6570

0 2201

0 6571 , 0 6572 , 0 6573

0 2202

0 6575

0 2203

0 6576 , 0 6577

0 2211

0 6601

0 2212

0 6602 , 0 6603 , 0 6604 , 0 6605 , 0 6606 , 0 6607 , 0 6608

0 2213

0 6608 , 0 6609

0 2214

0 6610 , 0 6611 , 0 6612 , 0 6613 , 0 6617 , 0 6618

0 2215

0 6614

0 2216

0 6615 , 0 6616

0 2226

0 6651

0 2227

0 6652 , 0 6653 , 0 6654 , 0 6655

0 2228

0 6656 , 0 6657 , 0 6658

0 2241

0 6701 , 0 6702 , 0 6703

0 2242

0 6704 , 0 6705 , 0 6706 , 0 6707 , 0 6708 , 0 6709 , 0 6710 , 0 6711 , 0 6712 , 0 6713 , 0 6714 , 0 6715 , 0 6716 , 0 6717 , 0 6732

0 2243

0 6718 , 0 6719 , 0 6720 , 0 6721 , 0 6722 , 0 6723 , 0 6724 , 0 6725 , 0 6726 , 0 6729 , 0 6730 , 0 6731

0 2244

0 6727 , 0 6728 , 0 6733

0 2245

0 6734

0 2256

0 6751 , 0 6752

0 2257

0 6753 , 0 6754 , 0 6755 , 0 6756 , 0 6757 , 0 6758 , 0 6759 , 0 6760 , 0 6761

0 2258

0 6762

0 2259

0 6763

0 2260

0 6764 , 0 6765 , 0 6766 , 0 6768

0 2261

0 6767 , 0 6769 , 0 6772 , 0 6774

0 2262

0 6770 , 0 6775 , 0 6776

0 2263

0 6771 , 0 6773

0 2271

0 6801

0 2272

0 6802 , 0 6803 , 0 6804

2 00

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

T ab le 6 .2 A rea B : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2273

0 6805 , 0 6810 , 0 6812 , 0 6813

0 2274

0 6806 , 0 6807 , 0 6808 , 0 6809 , 0 6811

0 2286

0 6851

0 2287

0 6852 , 0 6853 , 0 6854 , 0 6855 , 0 6856 , 0 6857 , 0 6858 , 0 6869 , 0 6860 , 0 6861

0 2288

0 6862 , 0 6863 , 0 6871

0 2289

0 6864 , 0 6865 , 0 6866 , 0 6867 , 0 6869

0 2290

0 6868

0 2291

0 6870

0 2301

0 6901 , 0 6902 , 0 6903

0 2302

0 6904 , 0 6905 , 0 6906 , 0 6907 , 0 6908 , 0 6909 , 0 6910 , 0 6911 ,06912 , 0 6913 , 0 6914 , 0 6915 , 0 6924

0 2303

0 6916 , 0 6917 , 0 6918 , 0 6919 , 0 6920 , 0 6921 , 0 6922 , 0 6923 , 0 6925

0 2331

0 7001

0 2332

0 7002 , 0 7003 , 0 7004 , 0 7005 , 0 7006 , 0 7007 , 0 7008 , 0 7009 , 0 7010 , 0 7011 , 0 7012

0 2333

0 7013

0 2345

0 7051

0 2901

0 9001

0 2902

0 9002 , 0 9003 , 0 9004 , 0 9005 , 0 9006

0 2916

0 9051

0 2917

0 9052 , 0 9053 , 0 9054

0 2918

0 9055 , 0 9056 , 0 9057 , 0 9058

0 2931

0 9101

0 2932

0 9102 , 0 9103 , 0 9104

0 2933

0 9105 , 0 9106 , 0 9107 , 0 9108

0 2934

0 9109 , 0 9110 , 0 9111 , 0 9113

0 2935

0 9112

T ab le 6 .2 A rea C : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers L oc i

B aske ts

1 401

4 401 , 4 402 , 4 403

1 402

4 404 , 4 405 , 4 406 , 4 407 , 4 408 , 4 409 , 4 410 , 4 411

1 403

4 412 , 4 413

1 404

4 414 , 4 415 , 4 427 , 4 429

1 405

4 418 , 4 420 , 4 421

1 406

4 422 , 4 423 , 4 424 , 4 425 , 4 426 , 4 428

1 407

4 416 , 4 417 , 4 419

1 408

4 430 , 4 433 , 4 440

2 01

S h iq m im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea C : L oc i a nd B aske t Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

1 409

4 431

1 410

4 432 , 4 434 , 4 436

1 411

4 436

1 412

4 437 , 4 439

1 413

4 442

1 414

4 444 , 4 446

1 426

4 501 , 4 502 , 4 503

1 427

4 504 , 4 505 , 4 506 , 4 507 , 4 508 , 4 509 , 4 510

1 428

4 511 , 4 512 , 4 613 , 4 514 , 4 515 , 4 516 , 4 617 , 4 518

1 429

4 519 , 4 520 , 4 521 , 4 522

1 430

4 523 , 4 524 , 4 525

1 431

4 526

1 432

4 527

1 433

4 528 , 4 530 , 4 532 , 4 535

1 434

4 531

1 435

4 533 , 4 534 , 4 536

1 436

4 529 , 4 537 , 4 541 , 4 542 , 4 543 , 4 544 , 4 546 , 4 547 , 4 548 , 4 549

1 437

4 538

1 438

4 539 , 4 540

1 439

4 545 , 4 550

1 440

4 548

1 451

4 601 , 4 602 , 4 603

1 452

4 604 , 4 605 , 4 606 , 4 607 , 4 608

1 453

4 609 , 4 610 , 4 611 , 4 612 , 4 613 , 4 614

1 476

4 701 , 4 702 , 4 703

1 477

4 704 , 4 705 , 4 706 , 4 707 , 4 708 , 4 709 , 4 710 , 4 711 , 4 712 , 4 713

1 478

4 714 , 4 715 , 4 716 , 4 717 , 4 718 , 4 719

1 479

4 720 , 4 721

1 480

4 722 , 4 723

1 501

4 801 , 4 802

1 502

4 803 , 4 804 , 4 805 , 4 806 , 4 807 , 4 808

1 503

4 809 , 4 810 , 4 811 , 4 812 , 4 813 , 4 814 , 4 815 , 4 816 , 4 817

1 504

4 818 , 4 819 , 4 820

1 505

4 821 , 4 822 , 4 823

1 506

4 824

1 507

4 825a

1 508

4 825b

1 527

4 903 , 4 904 , 4 905 , 4 906 , 4 907 , 4 908

2 02

Chap ter 6 : Excavat ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .2 A rea C : L oc i a nd Basket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

1 528

4 909 , 4 910 , 4 911 , 4 912

1 551

5 001

1 552

5 002 , 5 005 , 5 006 , 5 010 , 5 012 , 5 014 , 5 016

1 553

5 003 , 5 004 , 5 007

1 554

5 009 , 5 015

1 555

5 008 , 5 011 , 5 013

1 876

6 301

1 877

6 302 , 6 303

1 878

6 304 , 6 305

1 879

6 306

1 880

6 307 , 6 316 , 6 318

1 881

6 308 , 6 313

1 882

6 309 , 6 310 , 6 311 , 6 312 , 6 314 , 6 315 , 6 317 , 6 319 , 6 323 , 6 330 , 6 331

1 883

6 320 , 6 321 , 6 324

1 884

6 322 , 6 325 , 6 328

1 885

6 326 , 6 329

1 901

6 351

1 902

6 352

1 903

6 353 , 6 354 , 6 355 , 6 356

1 904

6 357 , 6 358

1 905

6 359 , 6 360 , 6 362

1 906

6 361

1 907

6 363

1 908

6 364 , 6 367

1 909

6 365

1 910

6 366 , 6 381 , 6 382

1 912

6 372

1 913

6 373

1 914

6 374 , 6 375 , 6 376

1 915

6 377 , 6 378

1 916

6 379 , 6 380

1 926

6 401

1 927

6 402

1 928

6 403 , 6 404 , 6 405

1 929

6 406 , 6 407 , 6 408 , 6 409 , 6 411

1 930

6 410

2 176

6 801

2 177

6 802 , 6 803 , 6 804 , 6 805 , 6 806 , 6 807 , 6 808

2 03

S h iq m im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea C : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2376

0 7151

0 2377

0 7152 , 0 7154 , 0 7157

0 2378

0 7153 , 0 7158 , 0 7159 , 0 7160 , 0 7161 , 0 7162 , 0 7165 , 0 7166 , 0 7167

0 2379

0 7155 , 0 7156

0 2380

0 7163 , 0 7164

0 2381

0 7168

0 2382

-

0 2391

0 7201

0 2392

0 7202

0 2421

0 7301

0 2422

0 7302 , 0 7303 , 0 7304 , 0 7307

0 2423

0 7305 , 0 7306

0 2436

0 7351

0 2437

0 7352

0 2438

0 7353 , 0 7354 , 0 7355 , 0 7356

0 2451

0 7401

0 2452

0 7402 , 0 7403

0 2453

0 7404 , 0 7405 , 0 7406 , 0 7407

0 2454

0 7408 , 0 7409 , 0 7410 , 0 7411

0 2856

0 8751 , 0 8752 , 0 8753

0 2857

0 8754

0 2858

0 8755 , 0 8756 , 0 8757 , 0 8758 , 0 8759 , 0 8760

0 2859

0 8761 , 0 8762 , 0 8763 , 0 8764

0 2946

0 9201 , 0 9202 , 0 9203 , 0 9204 , 0 9205 , 0 9206

0 2947

0 9207

0 2948

0 9208 , 0 9209

T ab le 6 .2 A rea D : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers L oc i 1 576

B aske ts 5 101 , 5 102 , 5 103 , 5 111 , 5 115

1 577

5 104 , 5 105 , 5 106 , 5 107 , 5 108 , 5 109 , 5 110 , 5 112 , 5 116 , 5 117

1 578

5 113 , 5 118 , 5 119

1 601

5 201 , 5 202 , 5 203

1 602

5 204 , 5 205 , 5 206 , 5 207 , 5 208 , 5 209 , 5 210 , 5 211

1 603

5 212 , 5 213 , 5 214 , 5 215 , 5 216 , 5 217 , 5 218

1 604

5 219 , 5 220 , 5 221 , 5 222 , 5 223 , 5 224 , 5 225

C hap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

T ab le 6 . 2 A rea D : L oc i a nd B aske t N umbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

1 607

5 227

1 626

5 301 , 5 302 , 5 303

1 627

5 304 , 5 305 , 5 306 , 5 307 , 5 308 , 5 309 , 5 310 , 5 311 , 5 313 , 5 316

1 628

5 312 , 5 314 , 5 317 , 6 319 , 5 321 , 5 322 , 5 323 , 5 324 , 5 325 , 5 326 , 5 327

1 629

5 318 , 5 320

1 630

5 330

1 631

5 329

1 633

5 328

1 651

5 401 , 5 402 , 5 403

1 652

5 404 , 5 405 , 5 406 , 5 407 , 5 408 , 5 409 , 5 410 , 5 411 , 5 412 , 5 413 , 5 414

1 653

5 415 , 5 416 , 5 417 , 5 418 , 5 419

1 676

5 501 , 5 502 , 5 503

1 677

5 504 , 5 505 , 5 506 , 5 507 , 5 508 , 5 509 , 5 510 , 5 511 , 5 512 , 5 513

1 678

5 514 , 5 515 , 5 516 , 5 517 , 5 518 , 5 519 , 5 520 , 5 528

1 680

5 521 , 5 522 , 5 523 , 5 524 , 5 525 , 5 527

1 681

5 532

1 684

5 526 , 5 529

1 687

5 531

1 688

5 530

1 701

5 601 , 5 602 , 5 603

1 702

5 604 , 5 605 , 5 606 , 5 607 , 5 608 , 5 609 , 5 610 , 5 611

1 703

5 612 , 5 613 , 5 614 , 5 615 , 5 616 , 5 617

1 726

5 701

1 727

5 702

1 728

5 703 , 5 704 , 5 705 , 5 706 , 5 711

1 729

5 707

1 730

5 708

1 731

5 709 , 5 713

1 732

5 712 , 5 710

1 733

5 714 , 5 716

1 734

5 715 , 5 717

1 736

5 718 , 5 721

1 737

5 719 , 5 720 , 5 722 , 5 723 , 5 724 , 5 725

1 801

5 901

1 802

5 902 , 5 903 , 5 904 , 5 905

1 803

5 906 , 5 907 , 5 908

1 804

5 909

2 051

6 676

2 05

S h iqm im I

T ab le 6 .2 A rea D : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

2 052

6 677 , 6 678 , 6 679 , 6 680 , 6 683 , 6 685 , 6 686

2 053

6 681 , 6 682 , 6 684 , 6 687 , 6 688 , 6 689 , 6 690 , 6 691 , 6 692

2 101

6 726 , 6 732 , 6 748

2 102

6 727 , 6 730 , 6 733 , 6 736 , 6 739 , 6 749 , 6 750

2 103

6 728 , 6 729 , 6 731 , 6 734 , 6 735 , 6 737 , 6 738 , 6 743 , 6 744 , 6 746

2 104

6 740 , 6 741 , 6 742

2 106

6 746

2 107

6 747

2 108

6 753

2 126

6 751 , 6 760 , 6 769

2 127

6 752 , 6 754 , 6 761 , 6 762 , 6 770 , 6 771 , 6 772

2 128

6 755 , 6 756 , 6 757 , 6 758 , 6 759 , 6 763 , 6 764 , 6 765 , 6 766 , 6 768

0 2541

0 7701

0 2542

0 7702 , 0 7703 , 0 7704

0 2543

0 7705 , 0 7706

0 2544

0 7707 , 0 7709

0 2545

0 7708 , 0 7710 , 0 7711 , 0 7712 , 0 7713 , 0 7714

0 2556

0 7751 , 0 7752

0 2557

0 7753 , 0 7754

0 2558

0 7755 , 0 7756 , 0 7757 , 0 7758 , 0 7759

0 2559

0 7760 , 0 7765 , 0 7766

0 2560

0 7761

0 2561

0 7762

0 2662

0 7763 , 0 7764

0 2571

0 7801

0 2572

0 7802 , 0 7803 , 0 7804

0 2573

0 7805 , 0 7806 , 0 7807 , 0 7808 , 0 7809 , 0 7810 , 0 7811 , 0 7812

0 2586

0 7851 , 0 7852

0 2587

0 7853 , 0 7855 , 0 7857

0 2588

0 7854 , 0 7856

0 2601

0 7901

0 2602

0 7902 , 0 7903

0 2603

7909 , 0 7910 , 0 7911 , 0 7916 , 0 7917 , 0 7939 0 7904 , 0 7905 , 0 7906 , 0 7907 , 0 7908 , 0

0 2604

7929 , 0 7930 , 0 7931 , 0 7912 , 0 7918 , 0 7920 , 0 7921 , 0 7922 , 0 7923 , 0 7924 , 0 7925 , 0 7926 , 0 7928 , 0 0 7933 , 0 7234 , 0 7935 , 0 7936 , 0 7937 , 0 7938 , 0 7940 , 0 7941

0 2605

0 7913 , 0 7914 , 0 7915

0 2606

0 7919 , 0 7942 , 0 7943 , 0 7944 , 0 7945 , 0 7946 , 0 7947 , 0 7948 , 0 7949 , 0 7950 , 0 9301 , 0 9302 , 0 9303 , 9314 , 0 9315 , 0 9316 , 9309 , 0 9310 , 0 9311 , 0 9312 , 0 9313 , 0 0 9304 , 0 9305 , 0 9306 , 0 9307 , 0 9308 , 0 0 9317

2 06

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

T ab le 6 .2 A rea D : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2607

0 7927

0 2616

0 7951

0 2617

0 7952 , 0 7953 , 0 7954 , 0 7955

0 2618

0 7956

0 2619

0 7958

0 2620

0 7959

0 2622

0 7957

0 2631

0 8001

0 2632

0 8002 , 0 8003

0 2871

0 8901 , 0 8905

0 2872

0 8902 , 0 8903 , 0 8904 , 0 8906 , 0 8907

0 2873

0 8908 , 0 8909 , 0 8910 , 0 8911

0 2874

0 8912

0 2886

0 8951 , 0 8952 , 0 8957 , 0 8962 , 0 8963

0 2887

0 8953 , 0 8954 , 0 8956 , 0 8958 , 0 8959 , 0 8964 , 0 8965 , 0 8966 , 0 8967 , 0 8968 , 0 8971 , 0 8972 , 0 8973 , 0 8974 , 0 8975 , 0 8976 , 0 8977 , 0 8979 , 0 8980 , 0 8983 , 0 8986 , 0 8987

0 2888

0 8995 , 0 8999 , 0 9000 , 0 9251 , 0 9252

0 2889

0 8960 , 0 8961 , 0 8969 , 0 8970

0 2892

0 8988 , 0 8989

0 2893

0 8978 , 0 8981

0 2894

0 8982

0 2895

0 8984

0 2896

0 8985

0 2897

0 8990 , 0 8991

0 2898

0 8993

0 2899

0 8992

0 2900

0 8994 , 0 8996 , 0 8997

T ab le 6 .2 A rea E : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers L oc i

B aske ts

0 2812

0 8602 , 0 8603 , 0 8604 , 0 8605 , 0 8606 , 0 8607 , 0 8608 , 0 8609 , 0 8610 , 0 8611

0 2826

0 8651

0 2827

0 8652 , 0 8653 , 0 8654

0 2828

0 8655 , 0 8658 , 0 8659 , 0 8661

0 2829

0 8656 , 0 8657 , 0 8660 , 0 8662 , 0 8664 , 0 8667 , 0 8669

0 2830

0 8663 , 0 8665 , 0 8666 , 0 8668 , 0 8670 , 0 8671 , 0 8672 , 0 8673 , 0 8674 , 0 8675 , 0 8677

0 2831

0 8676 , 0 8678 , 0 8678 , 0 8680 , 0 8681

0 2832

0 8679

2 07

S h iqm im I

T ab le 6 . 2 A rea E : L oc i a nd B asket Numbers , c ont inued L oc i

B aske ts

0 2841

0 8701

0 2842

0 8702 , 0 8703 , 0 8704 , 0 8705 , 0 8706 , 0 8707 , 0 8708 , 0 8709 , 0 8710 , 0 8711 , 0 8712 , 0 8713 , 0 8714 , 0 8717

0 2843

0 8716 , 0 8716 , 0 8721

0 2844

0 8718 , 0 8719 , 0 8720

2 08

Chap ter 6 : E xcava t ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .3 Wa l l Pha s ing

Wa l l Nu mber

S quare

A rea

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

b r )t o

00 0 0 0

9

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1

2 09

BP

D/2 D/2 C /2 C /2

I H I I

C /1 DR E /2 E /2 E /2 E /2 D/1 C /1 C /1 C /1 C /2 C /2 C /2 C /2 DR E /1 E /2 D/3

I I I I H I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

D/3 D3/4 E 4/D5 E /5 E 3/4 E /5 F /3 G/3 G/3

I I I I I I I I I I

D/4 G/4

I I I I I I I I V I V

A/17 E 3/D3 D/20 C /20 D/20 B /1 P /6 L /4 L /5 M/4 N/5 N/5 A/16 R/7 R/7

I I

Q/ 6 Q/ 6 P /5 D/20 B /16 B /16

I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I H I I I

Shiq mi m I

Tab le 6 .3 Wa l l Phas ing , c ont inued

Wa l l Nu mber

A rea

S quare

BP

6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9

A D D D C D C C B A C A B A A A C C

C /3 Q/ 7 Q/ 6 R/7 K/3 Q/6 K/3 H/3 B/18 D/19 H3/J3 D/19 A/17 C /3 D/19 B /2 L /5 H/3

I I I I I I I ? I I H I I I I I I ? I

8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 1 00 1 01 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 1 10 1 11 1 12 1 13 1 14 1 15 1 16 1 17

C D D B A B A A A B C C E D D D B B A D C E E E C c C C A B B B B D D D D D

M/5 R/8 R/7 B/18 C /3 B /18 C /5 B /3 B /5 C /9 L /5 K/3 S /9 P /8 Q/ 8 Q/ 8 D/19 C /17 B /6 Q H/2 S /9 T/9 S /11 J /4 H/2 H/2 G/2 B3/B2 D/18 D/18 D/18 C /19 Q/ 9 P /11 P /11 P /12 R/9

I I I ? I I I ? I I I I I I I I I I ? I ? I ? I I I I I I I ? I I ? I? I H I I I I I ?

1 18 1 19

D D

Q/ 9 P /12

I I

1 20 1 21 1 22

C B A

J /4 A/18 B6/A6

I I I

2 10

Chap ter 6 : E xcavat ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .3 Wa l l Pha s ing , c ont inued

Wa l l Nu mber

A rea

S quare

BP

1 23 1 24 1 25 1 26

B B B B

U/18 A/19 F /19 F /19

I I ? ?

1 27 1 28 1 29 1 30 1 31 1 32 1 33 1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 41 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 52 1 53 1 54 1 55 1 56

D B B B C D A A B B B

Q/ 9 A19/18 D/17 B 19/A19 J /5 Q/10 B/7 E 3/D3 C /18 C /17 7 18 G/3

I I I ? I I I ? I I I I I

H/3 G/3 S 10/11 S /Tll T /12

H I I I I I I

C /4 C4/B5 A/16 F /19 R12/13 B6/7 B7/C6 C /6

I I ? ? I I I I ? ? I

c c c

H is

C E E E

c

G /2

A A B B D A A A C C A

G/2 D/3

2 11

I

?

S h iq m im I

Tab le 6 .4 Rad iocarbon De te m ina t ions f r o m Cha lco l ith ic S i tes .

LATE NEOL ITHIC/EARLY CHALCOL ITHIC

S i te

Ma ter ia l

l iC d a te BP ( BC )

CRD-1 d a te

L ab n o .

R ef .

Gha ssu l :Area A I I , 2 01 .9 P it A

Wood

6 550 ± 1 60 ( 4600 )

5 620-5265

SUA-732

We ins te in 1 984 :333

Gha ssu l :Area A I I , 2 01 .12A

Wood

6 370 ± 1 05 ( 4420 )

5 415-5200

SUA-734

We inste in 1 984 :333

Gha ssu l :Area A I , P .107 .33 z4

Wood

6 430 ± 1 80 ( 4480 )

5 540-5195

SUA-736

We ins te in 1 984 :333

Ghassu l :Area EX , P .2 .3a

Wood

6 300 ± 1 10 ( 4350 )

5 350-5085

SUA-738/1

We inste in 1 984 :333

Gha ssu l :Area EX , P .3 .3B .3C

Wood

6 070 ± 1 30 ( 4120 )

5 235-4880

SUA-739

We inste in 1 984 :333

T e l T sa f , l ower o f 2p re-Gha ssu l p hases

Wood

6 980 ± 1 80 ( 5030 )

6 125-5485

RT-?

Gophna 1 979

B ir e s-Sa fad i l ower p ha se , L .309

Wood

6 420 ± 3 50 ( 3470 )

4 570-3850

M-864A

P erro t 1 968 c o 1 .437

B ir e s-Sa fad i m idd le p ha se , L .318

Wood

6 270 ± 3 00 ( 3320 )

4 435-3770

M-864B

1 968 c o 1 .437

B ir e s-Sa fad i u pper p ha se , L .325

Wood

5 120 ± 3 50 ( 3170 )

4 405-3535

M-864C

1 968 c o 1 .437

Horva t B eter S tr . I I

Char .

7 420 ± 5 20 ( 5470 )

C -919

L ibby 1 954 :734

Horva t B eter S tr . I I , P it 5 0

Char .

6 280 ± 1 50 ( 3330 )

4 385-3880

W-245

Dothan 1 956

J ebe l Que isa L ayer B ,hear th

Char .

5 720 ± 1 49 ( 3770 )

4 740-4425

SMU-804

Henry 1 982 :439

N . H ever Cave o f Horror g rave

Carred ma t

5 460 ± 1 25 ( 3510 )

4 430-4115

1 -616

Aharon i 1 962 :189-90

N . Mish mar C ave 1 , treasure

Reed ma t ( i nner p ar t)

5 390 ± 1 50 ( 3440 )

4 425-3920

BM-140

Bar Adon 1 980 :86-7

N . Mish mar Cave 1 , treasure

R eed ma t ( outer e dge )

4 880 ± 2 50 ( 2930 )

3 885-3490

W-1341

Bar Adon 1 980 :86-7

N . Mish mar Cave 1

Wood

4 760 ± 1 20 ( 2810 )

3 670-3476

1 -353

Ba r Adon 1 980 :86-7

N . Mish mar Cave 2 , b ur ia l

C lo th

4 726 ± 2 30 ( 2775 )

3 690-3350

1 -1819

Bar Adon 1 980 :86-7

Ra s m Harbush

Charred wood

5 270 ± 1 40 ( 3320 )

4 380-3880

RT 525

Eps te in 1 979 :226

CHALCOL ITHIC

2 12

-

Chap ter 6 : E xcavat ions i n t he S h iq m im V i l lage

Tab le 6 .4 , c ont inued

CHALCOLITHIC 1 4 —C d a te BP ( BC )

CRD-1 d a te

L ab n o .

R ef .

Charred wood

5 500 ± 1 10 ( 3550 )

4 445-4320

RT 390A

L ee 1 973 :329-330

S h iq m im L ow . V i l lage , F l . 1

Char .

5 250 ± 1 40 ( 3300 )

4 355-3870

RT 554A

L evy 1 981 :150

S h iq m im L ow . V i l lage , F l . 2

Char .

5 050 ± 4 90 ( 3100 )

4 426-3355

RT 554B

L evy 1 981 :150

S h iq m im Up . V i l . L .412

Char .

6 150 ± 1 80 ( 4200 )

5 425-4580

RT 649D

L evy & A lon 1 985 :74

S h iq m im Up . V i i . L .415

Char .

5 750 ± 1 80 ( 3800 )

5 080-4150

RT 649B

L evy & A lon 1 985 :74

Horva t B e ter

Char .

5 180 ± 7 0 ( 3230 )

4 330-3690

PTA-4212a

S . Rosen , P er s . C o mm .

Horva t B e ter

Char .

5 100 ± 1 30 ( 3150 )

4 125-3665

PTA-4312b

S .

S i te

Ma ter ia l

Gha ssu l L eve l I I

Rosen , P er s . C o mm . T e l Q ir i

Char .

3 740 ± 2 30 ( 1790 )

No te : C a l ibra t ions b ased o n K le in e t a l 1 982 .

2 13

2 425-1885

P -2572

R 1 978 :226

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY

Aharon i , Y . 1 962 E xped it ion B . 1 86 -199 .

The C ave o f Horror .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 1 2 :

A lon , D . a nd L evy , T .E . 1 980 P re l im inary n o te o n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f Cha lco l ith ic s i tes o n t he Wad i B eersheva a nd L ower Wad i B esor d ra inage s ys tem . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 0 : 1 40 -147 . Am iran , R . 1 978 E ar ly A rad . T he C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd E ar ly B ronze C i ty . J erusa lem : The I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . B ar Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure .

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

C arne iro , R .L . 1 981 The c h iefdom : p recursor o f t he s t a te . I n G .D . J ones a nd R .R . Kau tz ( eds ) , T he T rans i t ion t o S ta tehood i n t h e N ew W or ld . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . P p . 3 7 -79 . Chapman , R . , K innes , I . , a nd Randsborg , K . ( eds ) 1 981 T he A rchaeo logy o f D ea th . L ondon : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . D ever , W .G . a nd L ance , D .H . 1 978 A Manua l o f F ie ld Excava t ion . Handbook f or F ie ld A rchaeo log is ts . C inc inna t i : Hebrew Un ion C o l lege -J ew ish I ns t i tu te o f R e l ig ion . Do than , M . 1 956 Rad ioac t ive e xam ina t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f rom I s rae l . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 6 : 12 -114 . 1 957

E xcava t ions a t Meser , 1 956 .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 7 :2 17 -28 .

1 959

E xcava t ions a t Horva t B e ter ( Beersheba ) .

A t iqo t 2 : 1 42 .

E isenberg , I . i n p ress . Cu l tura l i nnovat ions a t T e l T eo : c on tras t ing t he Cha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze I o ccupa t ions . I n P . d e M irosched j i ( ed ) T he U rban isa t ion o f P a les t ine i n t h e E ar ly B ronze Age - R esu l ts a nd P erspec t ives o f C urren t R esearch . P ar is : A s soc ia t ion P a leor ient . E ldar , I .a nd B aumgar ten , Y . 1 985 Neve Noy -a Cha lco l ith ic s i te o f t he B eer -sheba c u l ture . A rchaeo log is t 4 8 : 1 34 -139 .

2 14

B ib l ica l

Chap ter 6 :E xcava t ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

E ps te in , C . 1 977 The Cha lco l i th ic c u l ture o f t he Go lan . 5 7 -62 . 1 979 2 27 .

Go lan , Cha lco l i th ic s i tes , 1 978 .

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 0 :

I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l 2 9 : 2 25 -

E s se , D .L . i n p res s . A mode l f or t he d eve lopmen t a nd c o l lapse o f E ar ly B ronze c iv i l iza t ion . I n P . d e M irosched j i ( ed ) , T he U rban iza t ion o f P a les t ine i n t h e E ar ly B ronze Age - R esu l ts a nd P erspec t ives o f C urren t R esearch . P ar is : A ssoc iat ion P a leor ient . F lannery , K .V . 1 976 T he E ar ly Mesoamer ican V i l lage .

New York : Academ ic P res s .

G i lead , I . 1 986

BASOR S upp lemen t No . 2 4 : 7 5 -87 .

G erar 1 00 : t he Cha lco l ith ic s i te .

G i lman , A . The d eve lopment o f s oc ia l s t ra t if icat ion i n B ronze Age E urope . A n thropo logy 2 2 : 1 8 .

C urren t

Gophna , R . 1 979 T e l T saf -a Cha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t o n t he b anks o f t he J ordan . Q admon io t 1 2 : 5 4 -56 . ( Hebrew ) . Hanbury -Ten ison , J .W . 1 986 T he L a te C ha lco l i th ic t o E ar ly B ronze I T rans i t ion i n P a les t ine a nd T rans j ordan . Oxford : BAR I nterna t iona l S er ies 3 11 . H enry , D .O . 1 982 The p reh is tory o f s ou thern J ordan a nd r e la t ionsh ips w i th t he L evant . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 9 : 417 -444 . H ennes sy , J .B . 1 969 P re l im inary r epor t o n af i rs t s eason o f e xcava t ions a t T e le i lat Ghassu l . L evan t 1 :1 24 . I brah im , M .M . 1 975 Th ird s eason o f a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion a t S ahab , 1 975 ( pre l im inary r epor t ) . A nnua l o f t h e D epar tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ies o f J ordan 2 0 : 6 9 -82 . K le in , J . , L erman , J .C . , Damon , P .E . a nd Ra lph , E .K . 1 982 C a l ibra t ion o f r ad iocarbon d a tes : t ab les b ased o n t he c onsensus d ata o f t he Workshop o n C a l ibra t ing t he Rad iocarbon T ime S ca le . R ad iocarbon 2 4 : 1 03 -150 .

2 15

S h iqm im I

Koeppe l , R . e t . a l . 1 940 T e le i la t G hassu l , I .

Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t itu te .

Kra mer , C . 1 982 V i l lage E thnoarchaeo logy -R ura l I ran i n A rchaeo log ica l P erspec t ive . New York : Academ ic P ress . L ee , R . 1 973 Cha lco l ith ic Ghassu l : New A spec ts a nd Mas ter Typo logy . t hes is . J erusa lem : Hebrew Un ivers i ty .

P h .D .

L evy , T .E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence i n t h e N or thern N egev D eser t , I s rae l . P h .D . t hes is . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lms . 1 983 The emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism i n t he s ou thern L evan t . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 : 1 5 -36 . 1 986 A rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he h is tory o f Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 9 : 8 3 -108 .

P a les t ine

- t he

L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 982 The Cha lco l i th ic mor tuary s i te n ear Mezad A luf , n or thern Negev d eser t : ap re l im inary s tudy . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 48 : 3 7 -59 . 1 983 Cha lco l ith ic s e t t lemen t p a t terns C urren t A n thropo logy 2 4 : 1 05 -107 .

i n

t he

n or thern

N egev

d eser t .

1 985a S h iqm im : a Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage a nd mor tuary c entre n or thern Negev . P a ljor ien t 1/1 : 7 1-83 .

i n t he

1 985b The Cha lco l ith ic mor tuary s i te n ear Mezad A luf , n or thern Negev d eser t : t h ird p re l im inary r epor t , 1 982 s eason . BASOR S upp lemen t No . 2 3 : 1 21-135 . L ibby , W .F . 1 954

Ch icago r ad iocarbon d a tes V .

S c ience 3 123 : 7 33 -742 .

Macdona ld , E . , S tarkey , J .L . , a nd L ankes ter -Hard ing , G . 1 932 B e th P e le t I . P reh is tor ic F ara . L ondon : A rchaeo logy i n E gyp t . O ren , E . a nd G i lead , I . 1 981 Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n n or theas tern S ina i . P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Matar , Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -41 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 . 1 957

S choo l

o f

T e l A v iv 8 :2 5 -44 .

n ear

L es f ou i l les d 'Abou Matar p res d e B eersheba .

2 16

B r i t ish

B eersheba .

S yr ia 3 4 : 1 38 .

I s rae l

Chap ter 6 :E xcavat ions i n t he S h iqm im V i l lage

1 968 L a p reh is to ire P a les t in iene . I n S upp lemen t a u D ic t ionna ire d e l a B ib le 8 :2 86 -446 . P ar is : L e touzey a nd Ane . 1 984 S truc tures d 'hab i ta t , mode d e v ie e t e nv ironmen t . L es v i l lages s ou terra ins d es p as teurs d e B eersheva d ans l e s ud d ' Is iie l , a u I Ve m i l lena ire a vant P ere c hre t ienne . P a leor ien t 1 0/1 : 7 5 -96 . P erro t , J .a nd L ad iray , D . 1 980 T ombes a O ssua ires d e l a R eg ion Cd t i re P a les t in ienne a u M i l lein a ire A van t L ' re C hrA ienne . P ar is : A ssoc ia t ion P a lgor ient . P ora th , Y . 1 985

A Cha lco l i th ic b u i ld ing a t F asa 'e l .

I V e

A t iqo t 1 7 : 1 19 .

Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -32 . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tu te . R 1 961

R ad iocarbon 3 : 1 22 .

R enfrew , C . 1 973 Monumen ts , mob i l iza t ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion i n Neo l ith ic Wessex . I n C . R enfrew ( ed ) T he Exp lana t ion o f C u l ture C hange , p p . 5 39 -558 . L ondon : G era ld Duckwor th a nd C o . L td . S oc io -econom ic c hange i n r anked s oc ie t ies . I n C . R enfrew a nd S . S hennan ( eds ) R ank ing , R esource a nd Exchange , p p . 1 8 . C ambr idge : The Un ivers i ty P ress . R enfrew , C . a nd S hennan , S .( eds ) 1 982 R ank ing , R esource a nd Exchange . P ress .

C ambr idge : The

Un ivers i ty

Ro sen , S .A . 1 983 T abu lar s c raper t r ade : a mode l o f ma ter ia l c u ltura l d isper s ion . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 49 : 7 9 -86 . Ro sen , A .M . 1 986 C i t ies o f C lay - T he G eoarchaeo logy o f T e l l s . o f Ch icago P ress . T y leco te , R .F . 1 979 A H is tory o f Me ta l s .

Ch icago : Un ivers i ty

L ondon : The Me ta ls S oc ie ty .

T y leco te , R .F . , Ro thenberg , B . a nd L upu , A . 1 976 The e xam ina t ion o f me ta l lurg ica l mater ia l f rom Abu I s rae l . B u l le t in o f t h e H is tor ica l Me ta l lurg ica l G roup , p p . 3 2 -34 . U ss ishk in , D . 1 980 The Ghassu l ian s hr ine a t E n -Ged i .

2 17

T e l A v iv 7 : 1 44 .

Ma tar ,

S h iqm im I

We ins te in , J .M . 1 984 Rad iocarbon d a t ing i n t he s ou thern L evan t . 3 66 .

2 18

R ad iocarbon 2 6 : 2 97 -

Chapter 7 SHIQ MI M : PASTORALIS M

AND OTHER ASPECTS OF

ANI MAL MANAGE MENT I N THE CHALCOLITHIC OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV

b y

C aro l ine G r igson Odon to log ica l Museu m Roya l C o l lege o f S urgeons 3 5 -43 L inco ln 's I nn F ie lds L ondon WC2A 3 PN

IN TRODUCT ION I n a t temp t ing t o r econs truc t t he p a t tern o f a n ima l managemen t a t S h iqm im a nd a t o ther Cha lco l ith ic s i tes i n t he n or thern N egev i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t he p rob lem s i n t he c on text o f g enera l d i scus s ions a bou t c hanges i n l and u se , a gr icu l ture , s e t t lemen t p a t terns a nd t he u se o f a n ima ls i n t he M idd le E as t a s a who le . I t i s a l so h e lpfu l t o t ry t o f ormu late h ypo theses i n t he l i ght n o t o n ly o f wha t i s k nown a bou t t he Cha lco l i th ic , b u t a l so wha t i s k nown a nd s urm ized a bou t t he p reced ing P o t tery Neo l i th ic p er iod . The P o t tery Neo l i th ic b egan i n t he M idd le E as t a t a round 6 , 000 B .C .E . ( a l l d ates i n t h is p aper a re i n u nca l ibra ted r ad io -carbon y ears B .C .E . ) . I n t he L evan t i t was s ucceeded b y t he C ha lco l i th ic a t a round t he b eg inn ing o f t he f our th m i l lenn ium B .C .E . , b u t i n t he r e s t o f t he M idd le E as t t he Cha lco l i th ic i sc ons idered t o h ave b egun a bout a m i l lenn ium e ar l ier . V ery l i t t le work h as b een d one o n t he c on tras t , i f a ny , b e tween t he a n ima l h usbandry o f t he P o t tery Neo l i th ic a nd o f t he Cha lco l i th ic , a l though S i mon Dav is 's ( 1984 ) a na lys is o f t he d emography o f s heep a nd g oa t r e ma ins i n I ran i s ab eg inn ing . There i s l i t t le h ard e v idence f or t he t ype o f l and -use s ys tem a nd a n ima l managemen t i n t he C eram ic Neo l i th ic i n t he M idd le E as t , b ut c urren t t h ink ing ( Sherra t t 1 981 ; L evy 1 983 ; Moore 1 973 ) s ugges ts t ha t i t may h ave i nvo lved f ixed p lo t , h oe c u l t iva t ion , t he u se o f a n ima ls f or mea t a nd s k ins , t he u t i l izaton o f h uman ( r a ther t han a n ima l ) musc le p ower f or c u l t iva t ion a nd t r anspor t , a nd s e t t lemen t i n p laces t ha t w ere d amp e nough t o s uppor t y ear -round o ccupa t ion , c rop -ra is ing a nd a n i ma l k eep ing w i thou t r ecourse t o e x tens ive i r r igat ion o r t ranshumance . L evy ( 1983 ) h as p os tu lated t ha t t he C ha lco l i th ic s aw t he emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism , wh ich h e d ef ines a s t he i n tens ive a nd w e l l -s truc tured e xp lo i tat ion o f s econdary p roduc ts o f d ome s t ic h erd a n ima ls s uch a s s heep a nd

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g oa t s ( t ha t i so f p roduc t s t ha t c an b e t aken f rom t he a n ima l wh i le i ti s a l ive , m i lk , woo l a nd h a ir ) . C oncomm i tan t w i th t h is was t he d eve lopmen t o f c eram ic v e s se l s f or t he man ipu la t ion o f l i qu ids ( Sherra t t 1 981) , s ma l l - o r e ven l a rge sca le i r r iga t ion , t he d eve lopmen t o f p lough a gr icu l ture , t he u se o f c a t t le a nd p erhaps d onkeys f or t r ac t ion a nd t r anspor t , t he s easona l u t i l iza t ion o f u ncu l t iva ted l and f or g raz ing mob i le h erd s o f s heep a nd g oa t s , t he d eve lopmen t o f s heep b reeds w i th woo l r a ther t han h a ir , t he d eve lopmen t o f b reeds o f s heep , g oa t s a nd c a t t le c apab le o f s ub s i s t ing o n s em i -ar id l and , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f at echno logy f or s p inn ing a nd w eav ing s heep ' s woo l . I t i s t hough t t ha t p lough a gr icu l ture was d eve loped i n Me sopo tam ia , b u t d id n o t a rr ive i n t he L evan t u n t i l t he E ar ly B ronze Age . I t i s f or t h i s p ackage o f i nnova t ion s t ha t S herra t t ( 1981) c o ined t he p hrase , " Secondary P roduc t s R evo lu t ion " . The c oncep t o f as econdary p roduc t s r evo lu t ion h as b een s t rong ly c r i t ic ised b y C hapman ( 1983 ) who p o in t s o u t t ha t t he i nnova t ions a re d i sper sed o ver a t l e as t t wo m i l lenn ia i n b o th t he M idd le E a s t a nd E urope . A s S herra t t h im se lf a dm i t ted e ach o f h is e ar l ie s t r ecord s c on s t i tu te s o n ly a t e rm inus a n te q uem , a nd i n 1 983 h e t ook s o me o f t he f i r s t i n s tance s o f i nnova t ion f ur ther b ack i n t ime , r eferr ing t o t hem a s " a mo sa ic o f i nd iv idua l i nnova t ion s . " J oan O a te s ( 1980 ) h a s p o in ted o u t t ha t t he w ide spread o ccurrence o f h oe s c o inc ides w i th t he d eve lopment o f p lough c u l t iva t ion i n n or thern Me sopo tam ia , a nd s he s ugge s t s t ha t t he p reponderance o f c a t t le b one s o n s i te s o f t he f i f th m i l lenn ium o n t he a l luv ia l p la in , i n c on j uc t ion w i th d eve loped i r r iga t ion , i nd ica te s o x -drawn p lough ing , wh ich may h ave o r ig ina ted i n t he S amarran ( ca . 5 , 000 B .C .E . ) . S herra t t ( 1983 ) b e l ieve s t ha t t h is may b e ap ure ly l o ca l p henomenon . A s e r ious c r i t ic i sm i s t ha t t r an shumance i s n o t a n i nnova t ion o f t he f our th m i l lenn ium , t here i s e v idence t ha t i n s ome a reas i t g oe s b ack t o t he b eg inn ing o f d omes t ica t ion ( G i lber t 1 983 ) a nd p robab ly b eyond . We n eed t o d iscover whe ther t he se i nnova t ion s c an b e r ecogn ized i n t he f our th m i l lenn ium C ha lco l i th ic o f t he s ou thern L evan t ; o f c our se i t wou ld b e h igh ly d e s irab le t o make c ompar isons w i th s i te s o f t he p reced ing f i f th m i l lenn ium , b u t s o f ar t here i st oo l i t t le ma ter ia l t o make t h i s p o s s ib le . I n a t temp t ing t o r econ s truc t t he u ses made o f a n ima ls a t p ar t icu lar p reh is tor ic s i te s o ne n eed s t o l ook a t v ar ious c l as se s o f e v idence . T he p r ime s ource o f i nforma t ion i s o f c our se t he f auna l a s semb lage i t se lf , t he s pec ies r epre sen ted , t he ir w i ld o r d ome s t ic s t a tus a nd t he ir r e la t ive n umber s . Where s a mp le s a re l a rge e nough i t i s i mpor tan t t o e s tab l ish t he d emograph ic p arame ter s ( k i l l -off p a t tern s ) t o s ee a t wha t a ge a n ima ls o f e ach s ex w ere s e lec ted f or s l augh ter , a nd whe ther c a s tra t ion w as p rac t ised . I n v ery a r id a reas a n ima l p roduc ts s uch a s l e a ther , woo l , h a ir a nd h orn may s urv ive , o r o ccas iona l ly f ibres may l e ave t he ir i mpre s s ion s o n p o t tery . A l though t he f unc t ion s o f many t oo ls h ave y e t t o b e e s tab l ished c er ta in c l a sse s a re l i ke ly t o b e r e la ted t o t he k i l l ing a nd u t i l iza t ion o f a n ima ls . Thu s , t he p re sence o f a rrowhead s i s r e la ted t o h un t ing , c er ta in t ype s o f f l in t s c raper s t o p roce s s ing a n ima l s k ins , s p ind le whor ls t o s p inn ing woo l ( and f l ax ) , l oom s , l oom w e igh t s a nd s hu t t le s t o w eav ing woo l ( and f l ax ) , a nd o f c our se v ar ious t ype s o f p o t tery t o t he man ipu la t ion o f l i qu ids , e spec ia l ly m i lk , a nd t he manufac ture o f y oghur t , b u t ter , a nd c hee se . L as t , b u t n o t l e as t , a n ima l f igur ines a nd p ic ture s may i lus tra te t he u se o f a n ima l s f or t r ac t ion a nd t r an spor t .

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A s t he a na lys i s o f a n ima l b one s a t S h iqm im i sn o t y e t c omp le te a nd a s more s ea sons o f e xcava t ion a re p lanned i tn o t p o s s ib le t o g ive a ny d e ta i led r e su l ts a t t h is t ime . However , s o me i mpor tan t i nforma t ion h as a l ready b een g a ined f rom many o f t hese p o ten t ia l s ources a nd , t hough f ew o f t he C ha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he s ou thern L evan t h ave b een p ub l ished i n d e ta i l , much i nforma t ion c an b e g a ined f rom v iew ing t he p re l im inary r e su l ts f rom S h iqm im i n aw ider c on tex t . TH E AN IMALS PR ESENT T ab le 7 . 1 s how s t he n umber s o f v er tebra te r e ma ins i den t if ied f rom t he 1 982 a nd 1 983 e xcava t ions a t S h iqm im . 1 .W i ld A n ima l s a nd B irds . T he r e la t ive ly l ow n umber s o f b ones o f w i ld mamma ls a nd b ird s s how t ha t a l though h un t ing a nd p robab ly t r app ing w ere c arr ied o u t o ccas iona l ly t hey w ere o f l i t t le i mpor tance i n t he e conomy . An o b jec t c arved f rom i vory was f ound i n t he 1 984 e xcava t ions ( F ig . 1 5 .8 : 4 ) . I t i s n o t y e t k nown whe ther t h is w as made o f h ippopo tamus o r e l ephan t i vory , b u t i t i s k nown t ha t h ippo tamuses w ere p re sen t o n t he c oas ta l p la in f ur ther n or th u n t i l t he I ron Age s o t hey p robab ly l i ved o n t he N egev c oas ta l p la in a s w e l l . T he l i on i s r epre sen ted b y as i ng le t oo th ( F ig . 7 . 1 : A ) wh ich may w e l l h ave b een l e f t i n s ide a s k in . I t i s k nown t ha t l i ons w ere p re sen t i n t he M idd le E as t i n A s syr ian t ime s a nd s urv ived u n t i l a t l e as t t he n ine teen th c en tury C .E . i n I r aq ( Bodenhe imer 1 960 ) ; i ti sn o t k nown when t hey b ecame e x t inc t i n t he L evan t . T he g aze l le r ema in s a t S h iqm im c anno t b e i den t if ied t o s pec ies , b u t d orca s g aze l le s ( Gaze I la d orcas ) a re q u i te c ommon i n t he a rea t oday a nd may h ave b een a n u i sance a s c rop -robber s i n t he p as t .

2 .F i sh . S ome t i ny s c rap s o f f i sh b one w ere f ound wh ich c ou ld n o t b e i den t if ied t o s pec ie s , s o i ti s n o t k nown whe ther t hey w ere mar ine o r f reshwa ter . A l though f i sh c ou ld h ave b een b rough t i n land f rom t he c oa s t , c a tf i sh b one s a t aC ha lco l i th ic s i te i n t he l ower Naha l B e sor ( Ro shwa lb 1 981) a nd t he p resence o f f i sh ing e qu ipmen t ( bone g orge s ) a t T e le i la t Gha s su l ( Lee 1 976 ) n ear t he n or thern s hore o f t he D ead S ea , s ugges t t ha t i n land f i sh ing d id p lay a r o le i n a t l e as t s o me Cha lco l i th ic s i te s .

3 .D omes t ic A n ima l s . R ema in s o f d ome s t ic a n ima l s c ons t i tu te a bou t 9 5% o f t he a n ima l r e ma ins i den t if ied s o f ar a t S h iqm im . O f t he se a bou t 1 0% a re o f c a t t le a nd 9 0% o f s heep a nd g oa t s . A l though t he p ropor t ion o f c a t t le i s q u i te l ow i t mus t b e r e membered t ha t t he b ody w e igh t o f a n o x i s v ery r ough ly 1 0 t imes t ha t o f as heep o r g oa t , s o t ha t when e a ten t hey wou ld h ave p rov ided o ver h a lf o f t he mea t c on sumed .

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The d is t inc t ion b e tween s heep a nd g oat b ones i sn o tor ious ly d iff icu l t , s o f ar o n ly 2 3 s heep a nd 1 6 g oa t b ones h ave b een d is t ingu ished ; u nt i l more h ave b een i den t if ied i t w i l l n o t b e c er ta in t ha t t h is d ifference i s s i gn if ican t , t hough i t i s q u ite n ear t he modern f igure o f 7 5% s heep i n t he m ixed f locks owned b y t he B edou in i n t he Negev ( Levy 1 983 ) . The d omes t ic s t a tus o f c a t t le , s heep a nd g oa ts i s q u i te c er ta in b ecause t he ir r e ma ins a re c ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han t hose o f t he ir w i ld f orbears , a nd i n a dd i t ion i ti sv ery u n l ike ly t hat w i ld s heep o r g oats wou ld h ave b een p resen t i n t h is p ar t o f t he Negev i n t he Cha lco l i th ic . The t o ta l a bsence o f p ig b ones a t S h iqm im i s v ery s i gn if icant a nd w i l l b e d iscussed b e low . The a bsence o f e qu id b ones may b e d ue t o s ma l l s a mp le s i ze , b ecause when t hey a re f ound o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes t hey a re u sua l ly p resen t o n ly i n v ery s ma l l n u mbers . A f ew d og b ones w ere f ound a t S h iqm im . I t i s n o t k nown whe ther d og s were u sed f or h un t ing , o r e ven f or h erd ing i n t he Cha lco l i th ic ; t hey may w e l l h ave b een g uard d ogs o r " camp f o l lowers " , l i ke t he p ar iah d ogs t hat h ang a round v i l lages a nd s ma l l t owns i n many p ar ts o f Afr ica a nd A s ia t oday .

TH E BR EEDS O F DOMEST IC AN IMALS The p resen t s heep o f t he Negev , a nd o f much o f t he r es t o f t he M idd le E as t , a re o f t he f at ta i led Awass i b reed , woo l ly a n ima ls w e l l a dap ted t o l i fe i n as em i a r id e nv ironmen t . The ma les h ave l a rge c o i led h orns a nd t he f ema les a re h orn les s . H i lzhe imer ( 1941) d escr ibed t hree b reeds o f s heep f rom Mesopo tam ian i l lus tra t ions : 1 ) h a iry , t he ma les w i th h or izonta l , c orkscrew h orns , t he f e ma les h orn less ( F ig . 7 . 2 : B ) ; 2 ) woo l ly , ma les w i th n orma l c o i led h orns , f e ma les h orn les s ; a nd 3 ) woo l ly w i th med ium leng th , f a t t a i ls , ma les w i th n orma l c o i led h orns ( F ig . 7 . 2 : E ) , u ncer ta in whe ther f e ma les h orned o r n o t ; p robab ly t hey w ere n o t ( F ig . 7 . 2 : C & D ) . He a l so men t ioned a f our th b reed w ith l ong , f a t t a i ls . W i ld s heep a nd t he e ar l ies t d omes t ic s heep w ere n o t s o woo l ly ; t hey a re k nown a s h a ired s heep b ecause t hey h ad l ong h a ir f ibre s c over ing a s hor ter u ndercoat o f woo l f ibres ; t he h orns o f t he r am s w ere t h ick , l ong a nd c o i led ; t hose o f t he ewes more s l ender a nd , b ecause t hey were s hor ter , c urved r a ther t han c o i led . I n p reh is tor ic o s teo log ica l ma ter ia l t he o n ly c r i ter ia f or b reed d ifferences i n s heep a re d ifferences i n t he s hape o f t he h orns , h orn lessness i n e wes i n s o me b reeds a nd , t hough a rguab ly n o t a t rue b reed c harac ter is t ic , d ifferences i n s i ze . Ducos ( 1968 ) i n h is d e ta i led s tudy o f t he o r ig in o f d omes t ic a n ima ls i n P a les t ine s howed t he p resence o f t wo t ypes o f s heep i n t he Cha lco l i th ic . A t B ir e s -Safad i ( near B eersheva ) t he ma les h ad l ong , c o i led h orns o f t he n orma l c urvature ( F ig . 7 . 3 : A ) , a nd t he f ema les w ere p robab ly s o me t imes h orn less , b ut o therw ise h ad n arrow , s l igh t ly c urved s c im i tar h orns ( F ig . 7 . 3 : B ) ; a t Meser 1 2 km e as t o f Haderah i n t he Med i terranean z one , h e f ound a s heep h orncore w i th a c orkscrew s p ira l ( c f . F ig . 7 . 3 : C ) . I t wou ld b e t emp t ing t o e quate t he c orkscrew h orncore w i th h a iry s heep

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a nd t he c o i led h orncore f rom B ir e s -Safad i w i th woo l ly s heep , b u t s ubsequen t s tudy o f e ar ly d ep ic t ions o f s heep ( F ig . 7 . 2 ) i n t he M idd le E as t ( Zeuner 1 963 ; Ryder 1 983 ) s hows t ha t t here w ere s o many t ypes , w i th v ary ing c omb ina t ions o f h orn f orm , c oa t t ype , e ar s hape , t a i l s hape a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f a mane , t ha t a s imp le c orre la t ion b e tween h orn s hape a nd c oa t t ype may b e u ntenab le . Ducos d escr ibed t he Cha lco l i th ic s heep a s s ma l l a nd n a med t hem O v is a r ies a ngress i i n h onour o f S h imon Angress who w ro te o ne o f t he f i rs t r epor ts o n b ones f rom Cha lco l ith ic s i tes i n B eersheva ( Angress 1 959 ) , b u t who was k i l led i n a n a cc iden t b efore i t was p ub l ished . T he u se o f s uch a t r inom ia l i s h owever , t axonom ica l ly i nva l id , t hough t he s heep w ere c er ta in ly s ma l l . S o f ar n o c omp le te h orncores h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm im , b u t i n s i ze t he o ther r e ma ins a re c lose t o t hose a t t he B eersheva s i tes i nc lud ing B ir e s -Safad i . Two t ypes o f g oa t c an b e d is t ingu ished i n e ar ly s i tes i n t he M idd le E as t . W i ld g oats a nd e ar ly p reh is tor ic d omes t ic g oa ts h ad s c im i tar h orns s weep ing a lmos t d irec t ly b ackwards w i th a s l igh t o u tward c urve ( F ig . 7 . 4 : A & B ) . L a ter o n t h is o u tward c urva ture b ecame much more marked s o t ha t t he h orns w ere t w is ted . Z euner ( 1963 ) s ugges ted t ha t t h is f i rs t o ccurred i n t he B ronze Age . I n t he f i f th m i l lenn iu m a t A r joune i n n or thern S yr ia t he g oats a re l a rge w i th s c im i tar h orns ( Gr igson , f or thcom ing a ) , b ut a t B ir e s -Safad i i n t he Cha lco l i th ic t he g oats w ere v ery s ma l l w ith t w is ted h orns ( F ig . 7 . 4 : C ,D ,E ) , s how ing t hat t he t w is t ing o ccurred w e l l b efore t he B ronze Age . No c omp le te g oa t h orncores h ave y e t b een f ound a t S h iqm im , b u t t he b ones t ha t a re p resent a re c er ta in ly o f s ma l l s i ze . Ducos ( 1968 ) i den t if ied t he c a t t le o f t he Cha lco l i th ic a s B os t aurus b rachyceros o n a ccoun t o f t he ir s ma l l s i ze , s hor t h orncores a nd g enera l r e semb lance t o t he s ma l l c a t t le o f B ronze Age E urope . A l though t he u se o f a s ub -spec if ic t r inom ia l i s t axonom ica l ly i nva l id ( s o i s t he more c ommon ly u sed b inom ia l , B os b rachyceros ) t hese c at t le a re d ifferent f rom t he l a rger , l onger -horned , d omes t ic c a t t le o f p rev ious p er iods . T he c a t t le a t S h iqm im s eem t o b e o f as im i lar s ma l l s i ze a s t ho se f rom o ther Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he Negev .

TA PHONOMY A lthough t he p at terns o f e l emen t r epresen ta t ion a nd b reakage o f t he S h iq m im b ones h ave n o t y e t b een e s tab l ished , i t i s a l ready c l ear t ha t t he d omes t ic u ngu late b ones h ave s uffered a g reat d ea l o f d es truc t ion , p robab ly b y t r amp l ing a nd d og -gnaw ing , b efore b ecom ing i ncorpora ted i n to t he d epos i ts . V irtua l ly a l l marrow b ones h ave b een b roken t o e x trac t marrow a nd t h is s t rong ly s ugges ts t ha t t he meat , a nd a l l t he o ther e d ib le p ar ts , o f a l l t he s heep , g oats a nd c at t le w ere c onsu med . The r e ma ins o f l i ons a nd c a ts a t S h iqm im a re a l l e i ther f oo t b ones o r t ee th , wh ich s ugges ts t hat t hey may h ave b een b rough t t o t he s i te a t tached t o s k ins , t he o ther p ar ts o f t he c arcas ses h av ing b een a bandoned e l sewhere , p os s ib ly a t k i l l s i tes , t hough t he p oss ib i l ity o f t he i mpor ta t ion o f a n i ma l s k ins f rom f ur ther a f ie ld s hou ld n ot b e i gnored .

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DE MOGRAPH IC PA TTERNS The p ioneer ing work o f S ebas t ian P ayne ( 1973 ) s ugges ts h ow i mpor tan t t he a ge ing a nd s ex ing o f s heep a nd g oa t r e ma ins c an b e i n t ry ing t o e s tab l ish t he u ses made o f t hese a n ima ls i n t he p as t . G r igson ( 1979 , 1 982 ) a nd L egge ( 1981) h ave d one t he s a me f or c a t t le i n t he E ng l ish Neo l i th ic . The mo s t v i ta l p ar t o f t he s t ra tegy i n t he k eep ing o f s heep a nd g oa ts i s o f c ourse t he ma in tenance o f t he b reed ing s t ock , o r " herd s ecur i ty " a s R edd ing ( 1984 ) h as t e rmed i t . P rov ided t hat t he h erd i ss ecure i tc an b e managed f or v ar ious e nds . I f f or meat a lone i ti s l i ke ly t ha t mos t a n ima ls wou ld b e k i l led a s t hey a pproached t he ir a du lt w e igh t , i n s heep a nd g oats t h is i s u sua l ly s a id t o b e a t a bout t wo y ear s o f a ge , a nd a f ew a n ima ls wou ld b e k ep t u nt i l a du l t f or b reed ing p urposes . A f ar more e ff ic ien t u se c an b e made o f d omes t ic a n ima ls i f p ro te in c an b e e xtrac ted f rom t hem i n l i fe . Thus v ar ious p as tora l p eop les make u se o f t he b lood o f l i v ing c a t t le , b u t t he u se o f t he m i lk o f s heep , g oa ts a nd c a t t le i sf ar more w idespread . A s t ra tegy t o max im ize m i lk p roduc t ion wou ld i nvo lve t he ma intenance o f f ema les u n t i l j us t t oo o ld f or b reed ing a nd l ac ta t ion a nd mos t ma les wou ld b e k i l led when y oung ( for mea t ) , w i th j us t af ew r a ms b e ing k ep t f or b reed ing . The y oung ma les wou ld s t i l l h ave b een e aten , a s i ndeed wou ld t he e lder ly r a ms when t hey f ina l ly d ied , o r w ere k i l led , s o t h is s t ra tegy i s more c orrec t ly , am i lk a nd meat s t ra tegy . I t mus t n o t b e f orgo t ten t ha t t he woo l a nd h a ir o f d ead a n ima ls c an b e u t i l ized , b u t i f f ibres a re r equ ired o n al a rge s ca le t hey mus t b e r epea ted ly p lucked , o r c u t , f rom t he l i v ing a n ima ls . I n o rder t o max im ize woo l p roduc t ion i t wou ld b e n ecessary t o k eep a n ima ls o f b o th s exes i n to o ld a ge , w i th mo s t o f t he ma les p robab ly b e ing k ep t d oc i le b y c as tra t ion . S herra t t 's ( 1981) c onten t ion t ha t t here was a c hange f ro m a n e conomy b ased o n meat f o l low ing u ngu la te d omes t icat ion t o o ne b ased o n t he u se o f s econdary p roduc ts a s we l l a s mea t , g a ins s o me c redence f rom t he a ge ing p at terns o f s heep a nd g oats i n t he D eh L uran P la in i n I ran ( Ho le e t a l 1 969 ) a nd i n t he Kermanshar Va l ley ( Dav is 1 984 ) . I n t he D eh L uran P la in s i tes , t he a ge ing p rof i le s hows a n i ncreas ing d ependence o n o ld a n ima ls f rom t he e ighth/seven th m i l lenn iu m B us Mordeh p hase a t A l i Ko sh t o t he s i x th m i l lenn ium p hases (Mohammed J af f ar a t A l i Kosh a nd S abz a t T epe S abz ) . Hesse ( 1978 ) h as s hown t hat t he a ge ing c urve a t Gan j Dareh ( Kermanshar Va l ley , n in th/e igh th m i l lenn ium ) i s c lo se t o t hat a t t he B us Mordeh p hase ; t he s heep -goa t a ge ing c urves f rom t wo s i x th m i l lenn iu m s i tes , T epe Tu la i a nd Chaga -Sef id ( Whee ler P ieres Ferre ira 1 975 -1977 ) , a re c lose t o t hose i n t he Mohammed J afar a nd S abz p hases . I n t he Kermanshar Va l ley Dav is ( 1984 ) h as c ontras ted t he a ge p rof i les o f s heep a nd g oa ts o f l a ter p er iods w i th t ha t a t Gan j Dareh ( F ig . 7 . 5 ) . H e f ound t ha t t he p rof i le o f t he C eram ic Neo l i th ic ( s ix m i l lenn ium ) a t S arab a nd S iahb id r e semb led t ha t a t Gan jDareh , b u t i n t he Cha lco l ith ic ( f if th m i l lenn ium ) l eve ls a t S iahb id a nd C hoga Maran t here was a h igher p ropor t ion o f o lder a n ima ls ; t h is w as e ven more marked i n t he E ar ly B ronze a nd I ron Age o f Choga Maran a nd J ammeh S uran .

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Chap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he Cha lco l ith ic

S herra tt ( 1981) p os tu lated t ha t i n t he M idd le E as t t he s econdary p roduc t s r evo lu t ion t ook p lace s hor t ly b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird m i l lenn iu m , b u t b o th o f t he s e ts o f r esu l ts s u mmar ized a bove s ugges t t ha t t he k eep ing o f o lder a n ima ls p robab ly h appened we l l b efore t he t h ird m i l lenn ium , a nd t ho se f rom t he D eh L uran P la in s ugges t a g radua l c hange o f emphas is , r ather t han a ny th ing s udden e nough t o b e d escr ibed a s a" r evo lut ion " . C lear ly t he s tudy o f t he e conomy o f t he f our th m i l lenn ium s i tes o f t he n or thern Negev s hou ld s hed l i gh t o n t he p rob lem s o f t he a dven t o f t he u se o f s econdary p roduc ts , p ar t icu lar ly i f t hey c an b e c on tras ted w ith t hose o f t he P o t tery N eo l ith ic . However i n t he s ou thern L evan t t he P o t tery Neo l i th ic s i tes w i th f auna a re t oo f ew a nd h ave t oo s ma l l s a mp le s f or t h is t o b e d one l oca l ly . A t S h iq m im t he n umbers o f a geab le b ones s o f ar s tud ied a re t oo s ma l l f or a ge ing , t hough h opefu l ly t hat w i l l b e p os s ib le o n t he ma ter ia l a s a who le when e xcava t ion i s c omp le ted . However t he f auna l ma ter ia l f rom B ir e s -Safad i i s b o th c op ious a nd w e l l -preserved a nd t he e nt ire s a mp le h as r ecent ly b een r e -ana lyzed ( Gr igson f or thcom ing b ) . I t h as b een p oss ib le t o p roduce a ge ing a nd s ex ing d ata f or t he s heep a nd g oa ts s epara te ly ( F ig . 7 . 6 ) . Ana lys is o f t hese s howed t hat wh i ls t a t l e as t h a lf o f t he ma les o f b o th s pec ies w ere k i l led i n t he ir f i rs t y ear , many more f e ma le g oa ts t han f e ma le s heep w ere k i l led b efore r each ing 2 . 5 y ears , s ugges t ing t hat g oa ts were k ep t p r imar i ly f or mea t a nd s heep f or m i lk a nd woo l , t hat i s , a t l e as t s o me s econdary p roduc ts w ere b e ing u t i l ized . PA THOLOGY I t i s p oss ib le t ha t b roaden ing o f t he a r t icu la t ion o f f oo t b ones , f i rs t n o ted b y Ryder ( 1959 ) , may b e r e la ted t o t he ir u se a s d raugh t a n ima ls . One o x me tapod ia l f rom S h iqm im h as a b roadened d is ta l e nd ( F ig . 7 . 1 : B ) wh ich c ou ld b e t aken t o i nd ica te d raugh t , b u t more w i l l h ave t o b e f ound b efore t h is c an d ef in i te ly b e e s tab l ished . S ome o f t he t ee th o f s heep a nd g oa ts h ave s wo l len , r idged r oo ts wh ich a re t hough t t o b e c aused a s ar eac t ion t o p er iodon ta l i nfec t ion . S uch i nfec t ions may i nd ica te t he o ver -use o f i nfec ted p as ture , o r c rowded c ond it ions , o r b o th . Sm i th a nd Horw i tz ( 1984 ) h ave s ugges ted t ha t i n b o th s heep a nd g oa ts t here was a r educ t ion i n t he r e lat ive t h ickness o f t he c ort ica l wa l l o f t he s haf t o f t he me tacarpa l , b e tween t he P re -po t tery Neo l ith ic B , t he Cha lco l ith ic ( a t T e le i la t Ghassu l ) a nd o n i n to t he B ronze Age . I n s heep ( of wh ich t hey h ad n o P PNB ma ter ia l ) t he r educ t ion was s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t o n ly b e tween t he Cha lco l i th ic a nd M idd le B ronze Age . I n g oats t here was n o r educ t ion i n t h ickness b etween t he P PNB a nd t he Cha lco l i th ic , b u t g oa ts o f t hose t wo p er iods t oge ther h ad t h icker wa l led me tacarpa ls t han t hose o f t he B ronze Age . Sm i th a nd Horw i tz s ugges t t ha t t h is t h inn ing o f t he s haf t wa l l was c aused b y o s teoporo s is d ue t o c a lc ium d ef ic iency c aused b y p ro longed l ac tat ion . Th is t hey a rgue c ou ld b e r e lated t o f e ma le s heep a nd g oa ts h av ing b een m i lked i n t he B ronze Age , b ut n o t i n t he C ha lco l i th ic o r p receed ing p er iods . However t hey d o n o t d is t ingu ish b e tween ma le a nd f e ma le me tapod ia ls , s o s uch a t h inn ing c ou ld e qua l ly h ave b een d ue t o p oor g enera l ized n u tr i t ion , p erhaps r e la ted t o t he d eve lopment o f u rban c ond i t ions i n t he B ronze Age . A s me tacarpa ls c an e as i ly b e s exed o n t he b as is o f t he ir s i ze a nd

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s hape i t wou ld b e i n teres t ing i f t he ir work w ere t o b e e xtended t o s exed ma ter ia l f rom t he Cha lco l ith ic s i tes o f t he n or thern Negev , i nc lud ing S h iqm im .

SU RV IV ING AN IMAL PR ODUCTS B one i s t he a n ima l p roduc t t hat s urv ives mos t u sua l ly o n a rchaeo log ica l s i te s a nd i t was much u sed i n p reh is tory a s a r aw ma ter ia l f or t he manufac ture o f c er ta in t oo ls . Ungu la te me tapod ia ls a nd t he d is ta l e nds o f t i b iae s eem t o b e p referred , p robab ly b ecause t hey a re s o d ense . Aw ls made o f s heep a nd g oa t me tapod ia ls a re v ery c ommon a t t he C ave o f t he T reasure l oca ted i n Naha l M ish mar a nd a t T e le i lat Ghassu l ; t he l a t ter s i te h ad f i sh g orges , aw ls ( F ig . 7 . 1 : C ) , b one s hu t t les ( F ig . 7 . 1 : D ) a nd b one n eed les (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ; L ee 1 976 , B ar Adon 1 980 ) . L arge b one g ouges ( i n terpre ted a s p ick -axes ) , aw ls , an eed le a nd a s hu t t le w ere f ound a t Abu Ma tar , B eersheva ( Perro t 1 955 ) . The o n ly b one a r tefac ts i dent if ied s o f ar a t S h iq m im a re aw ls ( F ig . 6 . 11 : 7 ) , as hu t t le ( F ig . 6 . 11 : 6 ) a nd t he h and le o f ac opper aw l ( F ig . 1 5 .18 : 1 ) . F igur ines a nd o ther o b jec ts c arved f rom i vory a re amongs t t he mo s t n o tab le a nd b eau t ifu l f inds f rom B ir e s -Safad i , wh ich a l so c on ta ined t r aces o f a n i vory workshop w i th a n u nworked e l ephan t t usk (Me l laar t 1 966 ) . Mos t a re made o f e l ephant , b u t s o me o f h ippo i vory ( Perro t 1 959 a nd 1 964 ) . A s a l ready ment ioned h ippos may h ave l i ved o n t he c oas ta l p la in i n t he Cha lco l i th ic . There i s n o e v idence o f e l ephan ts l i v ing i n t he s outhern L evan t , b u t a ccord ing t o P erro t ( 1957 , 1 959 ) a nd Me l laart ( 1966 ) t here i s t ex tua l e v idence f or t he ir s urv iva l i n n or thern S yr ia , a nd o f c ourse e l ephan t i vory c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined f rom n or th A fr ica . Ob jec ts made o f b o th h ippopo tamus a nd e l ephan t i vory were amongs t t he t r easure f ound a t Naha l M ishmar ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) . A s ma l l , b lade -shaped i vory o b jec t was f ound a t S h iqm im , b ut i s i s n o t y e t k nown whe ther i t was f rom h ippopo tamus o r e l ephant ( F ig . 1 5 .18 : 4 ) . Horn s urv ives o n ly i n v ery a r id c ond i t ions , b u t U ss ishk in ( 1980 ) men t ions t he d iscovery o f h orns i n t he E in Ged i s hr ine ( near t he Dead S ea ) , i den t if ied b y E i tan T chernov , a s i bex . L ea ther , woo l a nd h a ir a re o n ly p reserved o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n wa ter logged o r e x treme ly a r id c ond i t ions . The o n ly Cha lco l i th ic s i te i n t he M idd le E as t i n wh ich s uch o rgan ic ma ter ia ls s urv ive i s Naha l M ishmar i n t he J udean d eser t ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) . The a n ima l p roduc ts a re i n t he f orm o f l e a ther ( cowh ide s anda ls ) , a nd o ne f ragmen t o f c lo th ing made o f s heep l eather , p os s ib ly f rom a h a iry s heep , s ewn t oge ther w i th l i nen t hread , a nd e igh t f ragmen ts o f woven woo l len f abr ics . There w ere a l so t h ir ty -seven woven l i nen f ragmen ts . One o f t he p rob lem s w i th e qua t ing t he p resence o f s p inn ing a nd w eav ing e qu ipmen t w i th t he manufac ture o f woo l len f abr ics i s t hat , a s f l ax was c u l t ivated , f abr ics w ere a l so p roduced f rom l i nen , a nd t he e qu ipment u sed s eems t o b e l arge ly i dent ica l . T hus , t he p resence o f woven l i nen a s w e l l a s woo l a t Naha l M ish mar i ss i gn if ican t i n t he c on tex t o f a n ima l u sage . A l though t he u se o f ma ts a s f loor c over ings c an b e i nd ica ted b y i mpress ions o n t he b ases o f p o ts (Me l laar t 1 966 ) , s uch ma ts w ere p robab ly woven f rom s t raw o r r ushes ( U ss ishk in 1 980 ) .

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AR TEFACTS 1 . Hun t ing . Me l laar t ( 1966 ) a nd B ur ian a nd F r iedman ( 1979 ) h ave d rawn t he c on tras t b etween t he r ar i ty o f a rrowheads i n t he Cha lco l i th ic o f t he L evan t a nd t he ir f requency i n P o t tery Neo l ith ic s i tes , r e la t ing i tt o t he o ccurrence o f more e conom ic d ependence o n h un t ing i n t he Neo l i th ic . A s e xpec ted t here a re n o a rrowheads a t S h iqm im ( Levy a nd Rosen , t h is v o lume ; S . Rosen , t h is v o lume ) . However t here i s a c tua l ly n o o s teo log ica l e v idence f or more h un t ing i n P o t tery Neo l i th ic - f i f th m i l lenn ium s i tes , s uch a s A r joune i n S yr ia ( Gr igson f or thcom ing a ) , a l so h ave v ery l ow n umbers o f w i ld a n ima ls . An ima ls , whe ther w i ld o r d omes t ic h ave t o b e k i l led s omehow . I t may s imp ly b e t ha t a rrows a nd s pears w ere u sed t o k i l l b o th w i ld a nd d omes t ic a n ima ls i n t he Neo l i th ic a nd t ha t a d ifferen t me thod f or s l augh ter ing d omes t ic a n ima ls was d ev ised i n t he f our th m i l lenn ium .

2 .L ea ther w ork ing One c harac ter is t ic i mp lement o f Cha lco l ith ic s i tes i n t he L evan t i s t he f an s haped t abu lar s c raper a nd S h iq m im i s n o e xcep t ion ( s ee Chap ters 1 0 a nd 1) . I t s eem s l i ke ly t ha t t hey w ere u sed f or s k inn ing a n ima ls a nd f or c l ean ing t he s k ins . F l int aw ls a re c ommon a t S h iqm im a s o n o ther Cha lco l ith ic s i tes a nd a c opper aw l moun ted i n a h and le made o f a s heep o r g oa t me tapod ia l was a l so f ound a t S h iqm im ( F ig . 1 5 .18 : 1 ) . Aw ls were p robab ly u sed t o make h o les i n l ea ther ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) , b u t a s as im i lar aw l was f ound i n t he i vory workshop a t B ir e s S afad i (Me l laar t 1 966 ) t hey p resumab ly h ad a r ange o f a dd it iona l u ses , i nc lud ing t he manufac ture o f b eads . 3 .S p inn ing a nd w eav ing There a re p rob lems w i th t he i den t i ty o f t he more o r l e ss s pher ica l d isco ida l p ierced o b jec ts made o f s t one o r p o t tery t hat o ccur o n many a rchaeo log ica l s i tes ; t hey c an b e i den t if ied a s d igg ing -s t ick w e ights , l oom we igh ts , o r s p ind le whor ls a nd t he d ifferences b e tween t hem a re n o t a lways c l ear c u t . However b o th s p ind le whor ls a nd l oom w e igh ts a re c ommon ly i dent if ied o n b o th P o t tery Neo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i tes (Me l laar t 1 966 a nd 1 975 ; P erro t 1 955 ) . A d igg ing -s t ick w e igh t h as b een t en ta t ive ly i den t if ied i n Room 6 a t S h iqm im ( Chap ter 1 5 ) a nd s o , more d ef in i te ly , h ave t wo l oom w e igh ts ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . A h or izon ta l l oom was f ound a t Naha l M ishmar a s w e l l a s p ierced b one w eav ing s hu t t les ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) . S im i lar s hut t les w ere p resent a t o ther Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i nc lud ing Abu Matar ( Perro t 1 955 ) a nd T e le i la t Ghassu l ( F ig . 7 . 1 : D ; Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ; Hennessy 1 969 ) ; a nd o ne was f ound amongs t t he a n ima l b ones a t S h iq m im ( F ig . 6 . 11 :6 ) . The p rob lem w i th s p inn ing a nd w eav ing e qu ipment , a s a l ready men t ioned , i s t ha t l i nen f abr ics c an b e manufac tured w i th much t he s a me e qu ipment a s woo l len f abr ics .

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4 .F ish ing F i sh ing e qu ipmen t h a s b een men t ioned a l ready a nd i nc lude s ah ook a nd t he b one o b jec t s f ound a t T e le i la t Ghas su l i n terpre ted b y L ee ( 1976 ) a s g orge s , t ha t i s o b jec ts i n tended t o b e s wa l lowed b y f i sh t o e nsure t he ir c ap ture . 5 .P o t tery S urpr is ing ly l i t t le a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he f unc t ions o f p o t tery d e sp i te i t s c u l tura l i mpor tance . R enfrew ( 1972 ) h as a t tr ibu ted t he w ide spread o ccurrence o f B ronze Age p o t tery i n t he Med i terranean r eg ion , a pparen t ly d e s igned f or t he man ipu la t ion o f l i qu ids , t o t he u se o f w ine , b u t S herra t t ( 1981) h a s s ugges ted t ha t s uch p o t s o ver a w ider g eograph ic a rea m igh t b e a t tr ibu tab le i n s tead t o t he man ipu la t ion o f m i lk . Two t ype s o f v es se l wh ich a ppear t o b e i n tended f or l i qu ids p re -da te t he B ronze Age . T he se a re t he Ghas su l ian c hurn s a nd t he c orne t s t ha t c harac ter ize t he C ha lco l i th ic o f t he s ou thern L evan t a nd a re a lmo s t i nvar iab ly p re sen t o n s i te s o f t ha t p er iod . T here s eem s l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he Ghas su l ian c hurn ( F ig . 7 . 7 ) w as u sed f or mak ing b u t ter o r o ther m i lk -re la ted p roduc t s . V e s se ls o f v ery s im i lar f orm a re u sed i n t he M idd le E a s t t oday , s ome e ven b e ing made f rom s t a in le s s s t ee l ( H i l lman , p ers . c omm . ) . However , s k in s ( Arab ic -S a 'an ) a re a l so u sed f or c hurn ing b u t ter ; t he n a tura l o r if ice s a nd t he h o les f or t he l e g s a re t i ed , y oghur t ( made f rom m i lk o f s heep o r g oa ts o r c a t t le , o r am ix ture ) i sp oured i n t hrough t he n eck , wh ich i s t i ed a nd t he s k in i s t hen r ocked f or s evera l h our s , e i ther o n t he g round ( per s . o b sv . ) , f rom a t en t , o r s uspended f rom a s pec ia l f rame ( Perro t 1 955 ; D av is 1 984 ; Kor sch ing 1 980 ) u n t i l t he b u t ter c oagu la te s . I n f ac t t he f orm o f t he Ghas su l ian c hurn i sv ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f a n i nf la ted s k in a nd i t may w e l l b e as kuamorph o f a n i t em u sed f or t he s a me p urpo se i n e ar l ier t ime s ( Kap lan 1 954 a nd 1 965 ) . N ever the les s t he f ac t t ha t t hese l a rge a nd c omp l ica ted v es se ls w ere d eve loped a nd c on s truc ted , a nd may e ven h ave h ad s ome c u l t ic s i gn if icance ( A lon 1 976 ) , a t te s t s t o t he i mpor tance o f m i lk p roce s s ing i n t he C ha lco l i th ic . C orne ts ( F ig . 7 . 8 : A ) , wh ich s eem t o b e c on t inued i n u se t o t he l a ter C ha lco l i th ic ( Me l laar t 1 966 , G i lead p er s . c omm . ) , mus t a l so h ave b een u sed f or l i qu ids a nd t hey a l so s eem t o b e s kuamorph ic , c lo se ly r e semb l ing c a t t le h orns . T h is s ugges ts a r e la t ionsh ip t o m i lk , e ven t hough o ther l i qu ids , s uch a s o l ive o i l , may a l ready h ave b een manufac tured a nd u sed . C a t t le h orns may o f c ourse h ave b een u sed f or t he s a me p urposes i n t he e ar l ier C ha lco l i th ic a nd e ven i n t he p o t tery N eo l i th ic . C lear ly , t he c eram ic s equence s f rom H ennes sy ' s e xcava t ions a t T e le i la t Ghas su l , when f u l ly p ub l ished , w i l l b e o f g rea t i n teres t f or i nves t iga t ing t h is p rob lem ( Hennes sy 1 969 a nd 1 982 ) , b u t i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t n o c orne t s h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm im .

DE P ICT IONS O F AN IMALS 1 .

M i lk ing

T he e ar l ie s t d ep ic t ion o f c a t t le b e ing m i lked c ome s f rom Me sopo tam ia i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium , o n t he E ar ly Dynas t ic I I r e l ief f rom t he t emp le o f N in

2 28

Chap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he Cha lco l i th ic

Hursang a t A l -Uba id , a l though a c y l inder s ea l w ith c a lves a nd s t orage v esse ls f rom Uruk s ugges ts t hat m i lk ing was a l ready p rac t ised i n t he l a te f our th m i l lenn ium ( Sherra t t 1 981) . Goa ts a re s hown b e ing m i lked o n E ar ly Dynas t ic c y l inder s ea ls ( Sherra t t 1 981) a nd s heep were a l so m i lked a t t h is t ime . 2 .S heep b reeds The f i rs t k nown d ep ic t ion o f a woo l ly s heep i s f rom t he c eram ic Neo l i th ic ( s ix th m i l lenn ium B .C .E . ) o f S arab i n t he Kermanshar Va l ley d escr ibed b y B ököny i ( 1977 ) f rom t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut b y B ra idwood ( F ig . 7 . 2 : A ) . Th is i s i n d irec t c onfron ta t ion t o Dav is 's ( 1984 ) c on ten t ion ( based o n h is s tudy f rom L ev ine 's e xcava t ions a t t he s a me s i te ) t hat s heep w ere f i rs t e xp lo ited f or t he ir woo l i n t he s ucceed ing Cha lco l ith ic . B o th woo l ly a nd h a iry s heep a re d ep ic ted i n Mesopo tam ian i lus trat ions f rom t he l a te f our th m i l lenn iu m a nd s o a re b o th t h in a nd f a t ta i led s heep ( Sherra t t 1 981) . One o f t he p a in ted c lay s t a tue t tes a t t he s upposed Cha lco l i th ic t emp le a t G i la t , 1 5 km n or th o f S h iqm im , i s o f ar am ( F ig . 7 . 8 : A ) . I t h as n orma l c o i led h orns , a woo l f r inge b e low t he n eck , b u t n o o ther i nd icat ion o f woo l l ines s ( A lon 1 976 , p l s . XXX IV & XXXVI ) . I t s eems t o h ave a f at t a i l , b ut t h is i s u ncer ta in b ecause p ar t o f t he t a i l was b roken p r ior t o e xcava t ion ( A lon 1 977 ) . An u nbaked e ar th f igur ine o f ar a m was f ound a t Abu Ma tar n ear B eersheva ( P la te 7 . 8 : B ) . I t s h ead i si nd icated o n ly b y n orma l c o i led h orns , b u t more s i gn if icant ly , i ta ppears t o h ave a f at t a i l ( Perro t 1 955 , P late 2 2D ) . 3 .G oa t b reeds T he f amous c opper s t andard -heads f rom Naha l M ishmar ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) a re a dorned w i th c apr ine h eads . S ome a re d ef in i te ly i bex , h av ing h orns d irec ted u pwards a nd b ackwards i n ag en t le c urve , w ith n umerous h or izonta l r idges o n t he f ron t . The h orns o f t he o thers a re s moo th a nd a re d irec ted u pwards a t t he b ase ( t hus r u l ing o ut s heep ) , b ut t hereaf ter a re s p ira l , t hat i s t hey a re o f s p ira l -horned g oa ts , whose p resence i n t he Cha lco l ith ic h as b een a t tes ted a t S afad i ( Ducos 1 968 ) . 4 .C a t t le b reeds I n t he Cha lco l i th ic s anc tuary a t E in Ged i t here was a v ery d amaged f igur ine o f a b u l l , o r p o ss ib ly a n o x o r c ow ( F ig . 7 . 9 : A ) ; i t h as a mass ive a ppearance a nd s t ou t , t hough p robab ly n o t v ery l ong , h orns ( Us s ishk in 1 980 ) . 5 .T rac t ion The e ar l ies t c a t t le ) c omes f rom a nd f rom S usa A f ound ( Wr igh t e t a l

e v idence f or b o th p loughs a nd c ar ts ( presumab ly p u l led b y U ruk p ic tograms o f t he l a te f our th m i l lenn iu m ( Sherra t t 1 981) c on tex ts ( four th m i l lenn iu m ) where p lough marks h ave b een 1 980 ) .

6 .T ranspor t C ha lco l i th ic s i tes o f t he L evan t c on ta in s o me f igur ines wh ich s how a n ima ls b e ing u sed f or t r anspor t . One i s f rom C ave 1 a t G iv 'a tay im . I t was d escr ibed b y

2 29

S h iqm im I

t he e xcava tor a s ad onkey c arry ing b aske ts ( Kap lan 1 969 ) , b ut i ti ss o c rude , a nd s o r e s tored , t hat i tc ou ld e qua l ly b e as heep o r a n o x c arry ing p o t tery v esse ls . A more c onv inc ing f igur ine i s at e rraco t ta f rom a Cha lco l i th ic t omb n ear T e l l A zor ( F ig . 7 . 9 : B ) , wh ich , t hough v ery s im i lar i n g enera l f orm t o t hat f rom G iv 'a tay im i s c omp le te . I t h as more u ps tand ing e ars , g iv ing i t a more d onkey l ike a ppearance , a nd t he f orm o f t he t wo j ars t hat i t i s c arry ing a re c l ear ly mode l led . I t s eem s t o b e long t o t he v ery l a te Cha lco l i th ic ( Drucks & T safer is 1 970 ) . The r am f rom G i la t ( F ig . 7 . 8 : A ) h as a l ready b een ment ioned ; p erched o n i t s b ack a re t hree c orne ts i n ar ow ( A lon 1 976 ) wh ich wh i le i nd ica t ing t ha t a n ima ls m igh t c arry h eavy o b jec ts i n n o way s ugges ts a p rac t ica l mode o f d o ing s o . I n h er r ev iew o f d ep ic t ions o f l aden a n ima ls i n t he Cha lco l i th ic , E ps te in ( 1985 ) h as i lus trated a b roken p o t tery f igur ine o f a n u n iden t if ied a n ima l ( po ss ib ly a s heep o r g oa t ) f rom t he 1 960 e xcava t ions a t T e le i lat Ghassu l , c arry ing t wo b roken , v esse ls o n i t s b ack . The f igur ine o f t he b u l l f rom E in Ged i ( F ig . 7 . 9 : A ) c arr ies t wo Ghassu l ian c hurns ( U ss ishk in 1 980 ) . Thus t here i s a r t is t ic e v idence f or t he u se o f a n ima ls i n t r anspor t ing l oads i n t he Cha lco l i th ic . The u se o f c a t t le ( and p o ss ib ly d onkeys ) i s n o t a t a l l u nexpec ted , b ut t hese f igur ines r a ise t he p oss ib i l i ty t hat s heep t oo c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or t r anspor t . There i s a s y e t n o e v idence f or t he u se o f e i ther c ar ts o r p loughs i n t he Cha lco l i th ic o f t he L evan t . 7 .W i ld a n ima l s The i vor ies a t B ir e s -Safad i i nc luded a c arv ing o f what a ppears t o b e t he h ead o f ah ippopo tamus ( Perro t 1 959 ) . SE TTLEMENT PA TTERNS The p resence o f Neo l i th ic a nd Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he n or thern N egev i n t he l ower B esor a rea h as b een k nown s i nce Macdona ld 's ( 1932 ) p ub l icat ion o f h i s e xcava t ions i n t he r eg ion o f T e l l e l - F ar 'ah ( S ) . S ince t hen many more Cha lco l ith ic s i tes h ave h ave b een d iscovered , mos t o f t hem b y Dav id A lon ( Chap ter 4 ) , a nd J ean P erro t a nd h is c o l leagues h ave e xcava ted s evera l o f t he more s pec tacu lar s i tes i n t he r eg ion o f B eersheva . L evy ( 1981 a nd 1 983 ) h as s hown t ha t i n t he l ower Naha l B esor - Naha l B eersheva wad i s ys tem wh i le L a te Neo l i th ic s e t t lemen t was c onf ined t o t he c oas t a nd t o a reas n ear s pr ings n o t f ar f rom t he c oas t ( i .e . t he l ower Naha l B esor ) , C ha lco l ith ic s e t t lemen t s pread u p t he Naha l B eer sheva a s f ar a s B eer sheva i t se lf , a nd f ur ther e as t ( Levy a nd A lon 1 983 ) . S i tes o n t he n or th S ina i c oas ta l p la in h ave b een s urveyed b y O ren a nd G i lead ( 1981) a nd i nc lude many s ma l l Cha lco l i th ic c amp s i tes ( w i th e v idence o f a gr icu l tura l a c t iv i ty ) a s w e l l a s al a rger L a te Neo l i th ic a nd a l a rger Cha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t a t Qa t if , af ew k i lome ters s outhwes t o f t he mou th o f t he Naha l B esor ( Eps te in 1 985 ) . Goren a nd G i lead ( 1986 ) h ave r ecen t ly f ound s evera l s ma l l Cha lco l ith ic c amp s i tes a long t he Naha l S ekher , wh ich l ack Cha lco l i th ic c hurns .

2 30

Chap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he Cha lco l i th ic

Th is i s n o t t he p lace f or a d e ta i led d iscuss ion o f t he d is tr ibut ion , c on ten ts a nd t he f unc t ion o f t hese s i tes , b u t t ho se f rom wh ich a n ima l r e ma ins h ave b een p ub l ished d o s how s o me v ery i n teres t ing v ar iat ions i n f auna l c ompos i t ion , s o me h ave s i gn if icant n umbers o f p igs a nd o thers l a ck p igs a l toge ther ( Tab le 7 . 2 a nd F ig .7 .10 ) . There s eem s t o b e ac orre lat ion b e tween modern r a infa l l a nd p ig n umber s . Wh i le S h iqm im a nd t he s i tes a round B eersheva ( Horvat B e ter , B ir e s -S afad i a nd T e l l Abu Ma tar ) h ave r a infa l l o f 2 00 mm o r l e ss a nd n o p igs , t he s i tes b e tween S h iqm im a nd t he c oas t h ave p igs a nd t here t he r a infa l l v ar ies f rom a bou t 2 50 -3 00 mm ; t h is i ss t i l l l ow f or p ig k eep ing , b u t t here i ss o me e v idence t o s ugges t t hat t he r eg ion was w e t ter d ur ing t he f our th m i l lenn ium . The B eersheva b as in i s a n e co tona l a rea i n wh ich Turano -Iran ian s t eppe g ives way t o Med i terranean v ege ta ton i n t he n or th a nd t o S aharo -Arab ian d eser t t o t he s outh a nd w es t ( Chap ter 1 ;Z ohary 1 962 a nd 1 973 ; P r ice -W i l l ia ms 1 975 ) , s o e ven t oday s ma l l c hanges i n a nnua l r a infa l l p roduce w ide l a t i tud ina l s h if ts i n i s ohye ts t hat c an b e d ras t ic f or a gr icu l ture ( Shech ter 1 977 ) . I t i s k nown t ha t i n Nor th A fr ica i n t he f i f th a nd f our th m i l lenn ia c ond i t ions w ere r a ther mo is ter t han t oday ( Butzer 1 964 a nd 1 978 ; Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 984 ) . The s ou thern L evan t i s s o c lo se t o E gyp t t ha t i t c ou ld s carce ly h ave b een u naffec ted . Go ldberg a nd B ar Yosef ( 1982 ) c ons ider t ha t mo is t c ond i t ions p reva i led i n t he f i f th , f our th a nd e ar ly t h ird m i l lenn ia t ha t t e rm inated a brup t ly l a ter i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium ( s ee Chap ter 2 f or a n o verv iew o f t he e ar ly Ho locene p a leoenv ironmen ts i n I s rae l ) . C atf ish b ones f rom a Cha lco l i th ic s i te i n t he Naha l B esor may s ugges t w e t ter c ond i t ions l oca l ly ( Roshwa lb 1 981) . The i s ohye t s eparat ing p oss ib le f rom i mposs ib le a reas f or d omes t ic p igs mus t h ave l a in b e tween t he p resent 2 50 mm a t G i la t a nd Wad i Gaza S i te D ( a t b o th o f wh ich p igs w ere p resen t ) a nd t he 2 00 mm l im i t a t B eersheva ( where p igs w ere a bsen t ; F ig . 7 . 10 ) . I t s eem s p robab le t ha t t he l im it f or p igs was 3 50 -4 00 mm ( t he p resen t l oca l l im i t o f wood land -Z ohary 1 962 ; A tk inson & B eau mon t 1 971) . I f w e a s sume t ha t t he a nc ien t 3 50 mm l i ne l ay a long t he p resent 2 50 mm l i ne ( s ee Chap ter 2 ) , t he p rev ious 3 00 mm l i ne wou ld h ave b een j us t t o t he n or th o f B eersheva a nd S h iqm im . A l though e s t ima tes f or t he l im i ts o f d ry f arm ing i n t he M idd le E as t v ary c ons iderab ly ( Gr igson f or thcom ing c ) , L omas ( 1972 ) h as s hown t hat t he l im i t i n t he Negev t oday i s 3 00 mm . Thus d ry f arm ing wou ld h ave b een f eas ib le a t Wad i Gaza D , a nd G i lat , b u t p erhap s s o me t imes h azardous a t S h iqm im a nd B eersheva . Th is l ends w e igh t t o L evy 's ( 1983 ) t hes is t hat Cha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t a long t he Naha l B eersheva m ight h ave b een made p oss ib le b y t he i n troduc t ion o f f loodwa ter i r r iga t ion me thods . F o l low ing t he s a me l i ne o f a rgumen t o ne c an c on jec ture t ha t t he p rev ious 2 00 mm l i ne mus t h ave b een w e l l t o t he s outh o f B eersheva , p oss ib ly o n t he p resen t 1 00 mm l i ne , s o me 4 0 km t o t he s ou th . Th is i s much l e s s f ar s ou th t han t he max imum o f 1 00 - 2 50 km e s t ima ted b y B utzer ( 1964 ) f or t he s outher ly e xtens ion o f i s ohye ts i n n or th Afr ica . I f t he s a me max imum h ad a l so b een r eached i n t he s outhern L evan t t he f igures p roduced a bove wou ld s ugges t t ha t b y t he Cha lco l i th ic t he i s ohye ts w ere a l ready r e treat ing t owards t he n or th a nd t hat t he p eak o f t he mo is t p hase h ad p as sed . P erhaps t he w e l l -known i ncrease i n a r id ity w i th in t he t h ird m i l lenn ium ( Har lan 1 982 ; Go ldberg a nd B ar -Yosef 1 982 ) h ad a l ready b egun

2 31

S h iqm im I

i n t he f our th m i l lenn ium , a t l e as t i n t he Negev ; t ha t t h is m igh t b e t rue o f n or thern I s rae l a s w e l l i s s ugges ted b y Horow i tz 's ( 1978 ) p o l len d iagram s f or t he Hu la B as in a nd t he Ha ifa r eg ion . The p at tern o f s e t t lemen ts w i th a nd w i thou t p ig s c l ear ly h as e nv ironmen ta l a nd a gr icu l tura l s i gn if icance , b u t i t may a l so s hed l i gh t o n t he h ypo the s is o f t he n omad ic e l ement o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism ( Levy 1 983 ) . L evy s ugges ted t ha t t here was a t ranshuman t e l emen t i n s heep a nd g oa t h erd ing i n t he n or thern Negev , s o t ha t t he a n ima ls wou ld h ave b een d r iven away f rom t he c rop s g row ing i n t he Naha l B eersheva t o a reas w i th b e t ter g raz ing , p os s ib ly t hose i n t he l ower B esor , t hus i mp ly ing t ha t t he B esor s i tes were t emporary . However , Goren a nd G i lead ( 1986 ) h ave s ugge s ted t ha t t he t emporary s i tes u sed b y t he h erders f rom t he Naha l B eersheva w ere t hose o n wa ter -re ta in ing s ands t ha t t hey h ave r ecent ly f ound a long t he Naha l S ekher . The s eden tary n ature o f t he B esor s i tes ( o r a t l eas t Wad i Gaza S i te D ) a nd o f G i la t i s s hown b y t he p resence o f p igs . A l though t hey c an b e d r iven f or s hor t d is tances p igs a re n o t ac omponent o f n omad ic p as tora l ism ( Harr is 1 974 ; G r ig son f or thcom ing c ) . Thus i t c an b e p o s tu lated , o n o ne h and , t ha t t here w ere t wo d is t inc t f orm s o f a n i ma l h usbandry i n t he Cha lco l i th ic o f t he n or thern Negev , 1 ) a more o r l e ss s eden tary r a is ing o f p ig s , s heep , g oats a nd c at t le o n t he i n land s i tes , a bove t he p resent 2 50 mm i s ohye t , a nd 2 ) a more mob i le h erd ing c omponen t o f s heep , g oats a nd c a tt le b ased b o th o n t he Naha l B eersheva w i th t emporary s easona l e ncampmen ts a long t he Naha l S ekher . S uch a d icho tomy o f p easan ts/farmers a nd h erders/nomad ic p as tora l is ts i n t he t rans i t ion t owards u rban s oc ie ty i n s ou thern P a les t ine h as a l ready b een p o s tu la ted b y Kemp insky ( 1983 ) a nd h inted a t b y P erro t ( 1968) . On t he o ther h and , i ti sq u i te p oss ib le t hat s o me o f t he " s edentary " f armers t ook t he ir s heep a nd g oa ts e l sewhere t o g raze , p erhaps a long t he c oas ta l p la in , a nd t here i sn o r eason t o b e l ieve t hat t he ir u t i l iza t ion o f s econdary p roduc t s was i n a ny way l e ss d eve loped t han t ha t o f p eop le who l acked p igs . I n e i ther c ase " par t ia l t r anshumance " wou ld b e ab e t ter t e rm t han " spec ia l ized p as tora l ism " . A s G i lber t ( 1983 ) h as p o in ted o u t , " nomad ic p as tora l ism i so ne e x treme o f a s er ies o f e conom ic a l terna t ives i n p as tora l , a gr icu l tura l o r s e rv ice f unct ions wh ich a re m ixed i n v ary ing d egrees " . A l though a g rada t ion o f t ypes o f a n i ma l h usbandry i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een c harac ter is t ic o f marg ina l a reas l i ke t he n or thern Negev , t here i s a s y e t n o r eason t o t h ink t ha t t he e x treme o f c omp le te ly n omad ic p as tora l ism wou ld h ave b een a ppropr ia te t o a n ima l h usbandry i n t he Cha lco l i th ic o f t he B eersheva b as in . De ta i led a na lys is o f t he a n ima l a nd p lan t r e ma ins r ecen t ly d iscovered Cha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he a rea s hou ld t hese d ifferences b e tween s i tes w ith p igs a nd t hose d icho tomy i n t he managemen t o f d omes t ic a n ima ls , o r d iffer o n ly i n a n e nv ironmen ta l ly -de term ined p resence o r

2 32

f rom S h iq m im a nd o ther e nab le u s t o s ee whe ther w i thou t i nd ica te a r ea l whe ther t he t wo s ys tem s a bsence o f p ig s .

C hap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he C ha lco l i th ic

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS Iam mo s t g ra tefu l t o D r . I s aac G i lead , D r . T om L evy a nd D r . P au l G o ldberg f or much i n tere s t ing d iscus s ion o n t he C ha lco l i th ic o f t he n or thern N egev . My work o n t he C ha lco l i th ic f auna o f t he n or thern N egev h as b een p ar t ia l ly f inanced b y t he Roya l S oc ie ty , t he Ang lo Israe l A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty a nd t he Na t iona l G eograph ic S oc ie ty . It hank D r . Gordon H i l lman f or i nforma t ion o n c hurn ing a nd D r . Andrew S herra t t , who se i deas f orm t he b a s i s f or much o f t h i s a r t ic le , f or s end ing me t wo o f h is a r t ic les i n a dvance o f p ub l ica t ion .

2 33

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Chapter 7: Animal Management in the Chalcolithic Table 7-2: The percentages of pig bones in Chalcolithic sites in the northern Negev.

Site

no. dom. artiodactyl bones

% pig modern bones rainfall mm/year

references

291

17.9%

ca.250

Levy (1981)

61

36.0%

ca.250

Ducos (1968); Perrot (1968)

Shiqmim

515

o

ca.180

Table 7.1 and (Levy 1981)

Horvat Beter

173

o

200

Angress (1959)

Tell Abu-Matar

245

200

Josien (1955)

Bir es-Safadi

514

o o

200

Ducos (1968)

Gilat Wadi Gaza D

235

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY A lon , D . 1 976 Two c u l t v esse ls f rom G i la t .

A t iqo t 1 :116 -118 .

A lon , D . 1 977 A Cha lco l i th ic t emp le a t G i la t .

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 0 :63 -65 .

Angress , S . 1 959 Mamma l r e ma ins f rom Horva t B e ter ( Beersheba ) . A tk inson , K . a nd B eaumon t , P . 1 971 The f ores ts o f J ordan .

E conom ic B o tany

B ar -Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure . I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

A t iqo t 2 : 53 -71 .

2 5 :305 -311 .

T he F inds f rom Naha l M ishmar .

B odenhe imer , F .S . 1 960 A n ima l a nd Man i n B ib le L ands .

L e iden : B r i l l .

B ököny i , S . 1 977 A n ima l R ema ins f rom t h e K ermanshar V a l ley , I ran . A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , I nterna t iona l S er ies 3 4 .

Oxford : B r i t ish

B ur ian , F . a nd F r iedman , E . 1 979 A t ypo logy o f a rrowheads a nd s i ck le b lades a nd i t s i mp l icat ions . M i tekufa t Ha 'even 1 6 : 6 16 . B u tzer , K . 1 964 E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy .

J erusa lem :

c hrono log ica l

L ondon : Me thuen .

1 978 The l a te p reh is tor ic e nv ironmen ta l h is tory o f t he Near E as t . I n W .C . B r ice ( ed ) , T he E nv ironmen ta l H is tory o f t h e N ear a nd M idd le E as t S ince t h e L as t I ce Age . New York : Academ ic P ress , p p . 5 -1 2 . Chapman , J .C . 1 983 The " s econdary p roduc ts r evo lu t ion " a nd t he l im i tat ions Neo l i th ic . B u l le t in o f t h e I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy 1 9 :107 -122 .

o f

t he

Dav is , S . 1 984 The a dven t o f m i lk a nd woo l p roduc t ion i n wes tern I ran : s o me s pecu lat ions . I n J . C lut ton -Brock a nd C . G r igson ( eds ) , A n ima l s a nd A rchaeo logy ; 3 . E ar ly H erders a nd t h e ir F locks . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , I nternat iona l S er ies 2 02 , p p . 2 65 -278 . D rucks , A . a nd T safer is , V . 1 970 T e l A zor . R evue B ib l ique 7 7 :578 .

2 36

Chap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he Cha lco l i th ic

Ducos , P . 1 968 L 'Or ig ine d es A n imaux D omes t iques e n P a les t ine . B ordeaux : P ub l ica t ions d e l ' Ins t i tut d e P reh is to ire d e l 'Un ivers i te d e B ordeaux 6 . E ps te in , C . 1 984 A P o t tery Neo l ith ic s i te n ear T e l Qa t if . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 4 :209 -219 . 1 985 L aden a n ima l f igur ines f rom t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod i n P a les t ine . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 58 :53 -62 . G i lber t , A .S . 1 983 On t he o r ig ins o f s pec ia l ized n omad ic p as tora l ism i n wes tern I ran . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 :105 -119 . Go ldberg , P . a nd B ar Yosef , 0 . 1 982 E nv ironmen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or c l imat ic c hange i n t he s ou thern L evan t a nd a d jacent a reas . I n J .L . B in t l iff a nd W . Van Z e ist ( eds ) , P a laeoc l ima tes , P a laeoenv ironmen ts a nd Human C ommun i t ies i n t h e E as tern Med i terranean i n L a ter P reh is tory . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l Repor ts , I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 33 , p p . 3 99 -4 14 . Goren , Y . a nd G i lead , I . 1 986 Qua ternary e nv ironmen t a nd man a t Naha l S ekher , Nor thern Negev . M i tekufa t Ha 'even 1 9 :66 -79 . G r igson , C . 1 979 S ex ing Neo l i th ic d omes t ic c a t t le s ku l ls a nd h orncores . I n M . Kubas iew icz ( ed ) , A rchaeozoo logy 1 . S zczec in : A cademy o f Agr icu l ture , p p . 3 65 -3 74 . 1 982 S ex ing Neo l i th ic c a t t le s ku l ls a nd h orncores . I n B . W i lson , C . G r igson a nd S . P ayne ( eds ) , Age ing a nd S ex ing A n ima l B ones f rom A rchaeo log ica l S i tes . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , B r i t ish S er ies 1 09 , p p . 2 4 -35 . ( for thcom ing a ) The a n ima l h usbandry o f A r joune . I n P . P arr ( ed ) , A rjoune , aP o t tery N eo l i th ic S i te b es ide t h e O ron tes . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , I n terna t iona l S er ies . ( for thcom ing b ) D ifferent h erd ing s t rateg ies f or s heep a nd g oa ts i n t he Cha lco l ith ic o f B eersheva . A rchaeozoo log ia . ( for thcom ing c ) Cu l ture , e co logy a nd m i l lenn ium b . c . i n t he M idd le E as t .

p igs

f rom

t he

f i f th

t o t he

t h ird

( for thcom ing d ) The a n ima l b ones f rom S h iqm im , Nor thern Negev . Har lan , J .R . 1 982 The g arden o f t he L ord : a p laus ib le r econs truc t ion o f n atura l r esources o f s outhern J ordan i n E ar ly B ronze Age . P a le/o r ien t 8 : 71-78 .

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Harr is , M . 1 974 C ows , P igs , Wars a nd W i tches . Hennessy , J .B . 1 969 P re l im inary r epor t Ghassou l . L evan t . 1 : 1-22 .

o n

New York : Random House .

a f i rs t

s eason

o f

e xcavat ions

a t

T e le i la t

1 982 T e le i lat Ghassu l : i t s p lace i n t he a rchaeo logy o f J ordan . I n A . Had id i , ( ed ) , S tud ies i n t h e H is tory a nd A rchaeo logy o f J ordan . Amman : D epar tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies , p p . 5 5 -58 . Hesse , B . 1 978 E v idence f or Husbandry f rom t h e E ar ly N eo l i th ic S i te o f G anj Dareh i n w es tern I ran . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lm s . He inr ich , E . 1 936 K le infund a us d en a rcha ischen T empe l sch ich ten i n U ruk . A usgrabungen d er D eu tschen F orschung sme inshaf t i n U ruk -Warka 1 . L e ipz ig : Harrassow i tz . H i lzhe imer , M . 1 941 A n ima l R ema ins f rom T e l l A smar . O r ien ta l I ns t i tu te o f t he Un ivers i ty o f Ch icago , S tud ies i n Anc ien t O r ien ta l C iv i l iza t ion 2 0 . Ho le , F . , F lannery , K . a nd Nee ly , J . 1 969 P reh is tory a nd Human E co logy o f t h e D eh L uran P la in . Museum o f An thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o f M ich igan 1 . Horow itz , A . 1 978 Human s e t t lemen t p a t terns i n I s rae l .

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Exped i t ion 2 0 :55 -58

J os ien , T . 1 955 L a f aune c ha lco l i th ique d es g i sements p a les t in iens d e B ir e s -Safad i e t B ir a bou Matar . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 246 -256 . Kap lan , J . 1 954 Two Cha lco l i th ic v esse ls f rom P a les t ine . 8 6 :97 -100 . 1 965 S k in b o t t les a nd p o t tery i m i tat ions . 1 44 -152 .

P a les t ine Exp lora t ion Q uar ter ly

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1 969 ' E in e l J arba . Cha lco l ith ic r e ma ins i n t he P la in o f E sdrae lon . o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 1 94 :2 -39 .

B u l le t in

Kemp insky , A . 1 983 E ar ly B ronze Age u rban izat ion o f P a les t ine : s o me t op ics i n ad eba te . I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l 3 3 :235 -241 . Korsch ing , F . 1 980 B edu inen i m N egev .

Ma inz -am -Rhe in : P h i l l ip v on Z abern .

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Chap ter 7 : An ima l Management i n t he Cha lco l i th ic

L ee , J .R . 1 976 Tu le i la t e l -Ghassu l . I n M . Av i -Yonah ( cd ) , E nc lyc loped ia o f A rchaeo log ica l Excava t ions i n t h e Ho ly L and . Oxford : Un ivers ity P ress , p p . 1 205 -1213 . L egge , A .J . 1 981 A spec ts o f c a t t le h usbandry . I n R . Mercer ( cd ) , F arm ing P rac t ices i n B r i t ish P reh is tory . E d inburgh : Un ivers i ty P ress , p p . 1 69 -181 . L evy , T .E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence i n t h e N or thern N egev D eser t , I s rae l . Ann A rbor : Un ivers ity M icrof i lms . 1 983 The emergence o f s pec ia l ized W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 :15 -36 .

p as tora l ism i n

t he s ou thern

L evan t .

L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 983 Cha lco l i th ic s e t t lement p at terns i n t he n or thern Negev d eser t . A n thropo logy 2 4 : 1 05 -107 .

C urren t

1 985 S h iqm im : a Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage a nd mor tuary c en tre i n t he n or thern Negev . P aa or ien t . 1 :71-83 . L evy , T .E . , a nd Rosen , S .A . t h is v o lume . The c ons idera t ions .

c h ipped

s t one

i ndus try

a t

S h iq m im :

t ypo log ica l

L omas , J . 1 972 E conom ic s i gn if icance o f d ry l and f arm ing i n t he a r id n or thern Negev Deser t . Agr icu l tura l Me tero logy 1 0 :383 -392 . Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , S .a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l , I . Rome : P on t if ica l I ns t i tu te . Macdona ld , E . e t a l 1 932 B e th P e le t I . P reh is tor ic A rchaeo logy i n E gyp t .

F ara .

L ondon :

The

B r i t ish

S choo l

o f

Me l laar t , J . 1 966 T he C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Ages i n t h e N ear E as t a nd A na to l ia . B e iru t : Khayats . 1 975 T he N eo l i th ic o f t h e N ear E as t .

L ondon : Thames a nd Hudson .

Moore , A .M .T . 1 973 The L ate Neo l i th ic i n P a les t ine .

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5 : 36 -68 .

Oates , J . 1 980 L and u se a nd p opu la t ion i n p reh is tor ic Mesopo tam ia . I n B arre le t , M . T . ( cd ) , L 'Archeo log ie d e l ' I raq d u D ebu t d e l ' Epoque Ngo l i th ique a 3 33 a van t N o tre E re . C o l loque I n terna t iona l d u CNRS , p p . 3 03 -314 .

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S h iqm im I

O ren , E .D . a nd G i lead , I . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic s i tes i n n or thea s tern S ina i .

T e l A v iv 8 : 25 -43 .

P ayne , S . 1 973 K i l l -off p a t terns i n s heep a nd g oa ts : t he mand ib le s f rom A svan Ka le . A na to l ian S tud ies 2 3 :281-303 . P erro t , J . 1 955 T he e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar , n ear B eer sheba . J ourna l 5 : 17 -40 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 . 1 957

L es f ou i l le s d 'Abou Ma tar p res d e B eer sheba .

I s rae l E xp lora t ion

S yr ia 3 4 : 1 38 .

1 959 S ta tue t te s e n i vo ire e t a u tre s o b jec t s e n i vo ire e t e n o s p rovenan t d e s g i semen t s p reh is tor iques d e l a r eg ion d e B eer sheba . S yr ia 3 6 : 8 19 . 1 962

Naha l B e sor .

R evue B ib l ique 6 9 : 3 88 -391 .

1 964 L e s i vo ire s d e l a 7e c ampagne d e f ou i l le ' aS afad i , p ie s d e B eer sheba . E re tz I s rae l 7 : 92 -93 . 1 968 P re /h is t o ire p a les t in ienne . 2 85 -446 .

S upp lgmen t a u D ic t iona ire d e l a B ib le 7 : c o l .

P r ice -W i l l iam s , D . 1 975 T he e v ironmen ta l b ackground o f p reh is tor ic s i te s i n t he F ara r eg ion o f t he w e s tern N egev . B u l le t in o f t h e I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy 1 2 :125 -143 . R edd ing , R .W . 1 984 T heore t ica l d e term inan t s o f ah erder ' s d ec is ion mode l ing v ar ia t ion i n t he s heep/goa t r a t io . I n C lu t ton -Brock , J .a nd C . G r ig son ( eds ) , A n ima l s a nd A rchaeo logy : 3 . E ar ly H erder s a nd t h e ir F locks . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 02 , p p . 2 23 -241 . R enfrew , C . 1 972 T he Emergence o f C iv i l iza t ion .

L ondon : Me thuen .

Ro sen , S . t h is v o lume . T he p o ten t ia l s o f l i th ic a na lys is i n t he C ha lco l i th ic o f t he Nor thern N egev . Ro shwa lb , A .F . 1 981 P ro toh is tory i n t he Wad i Ghazzeh . Unpub l ished P hD t hes i s , Un iver s i ty o f L ondon . Ryder , M .L . 1 959 T he a n ima l r ema ins f ound a t K irks ta l l Abbey . R ev iew 7 : 1-5 . 1 983 S heep a nd Man .

L ondon : Duckwor th .

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A gr icu l tura l H is tory

Chap ter 7 : An ima l Managemen t i n t he Cha lco l i th ic

S hech ter , J . 1 977 Deser t if ica t ion p rocesses a nd I n terd isc ip l inary S c ience R ev iew 2 : 36 -54 .

t he

s earch

f or

a

s o lu t ion .

S herra t t , A .G . 1 981 P lough a nd p as tora l ism : a spec ts o f t he s econdary p roduc ts r evo lu t ion . I n I . Hodder , G . I s sac , a nd N . Hammond ( eds ) , P a t terns o f t h e P as t : S tud ies i n Honour o f Dav id C larke . C ambr idge : t he Un ivers i ty P ress , p p . 2 61-305 . 1 983 The s econdary e xp lo i ta t ion A rchaeo logy 1 5 :90 -103 .

o f

a n ima ls

i n

t he

O ld

Wor ld .

W or ld

Sm i th , P . a nd Horw itz , L .K . 1 984 Rad iograph ic e v idence f or c hang ing p a t terns o f a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion i n t he s ou thern L evan t . J ourna l o f A rchao log ica l S c ience 1 :467 -475 . U ss ishk in , D . 1 980 The Ghas su l ian s hr ine a t E in -Ged i .

T e l A v iv 7 : 1-44 .

Wendorf , F . a nd S ch i ld , R . 1 984 C onc lus ions . I n R . S ch i ld a nd A .E . C lose ( eds ) , C a t t le K eepers o f t h e E as tern S ahara : t h e N eo l i th ic o f B ir K ise iba . Da l las : S outhern Me thod is t Un ivers i ty , p p . 4 04 -428 . Whee ler -P ires -Ferre ira , J . 1 975 -77 T epe Tu la ' i : f auna l r e ma ins f rom a n e ar ly c amps i te i n Khuz is tan , I ran . P a lgor ien t 3 : 275 -280 .

W r igh t , H . , M i l ler , N . a nd R edd ing , R . 1 980 T ime a nd p rocess i n a n U ruk r ura l c en tre . I n M .T . B arre le t ( ed ) , L 'Archeo log ie d e l ' I raq d u D ebu t d e l ' Epoche N eo l i th ique a van t N o tre E re . P ar is : C o l loques I n terna t ion d u CNRS 5 80 , p p . 2 65 -2 82 . Z euner , F .E . 1 963 A H is tory o f D omes t ica ted A n ima l s . Z ohary , M . 1 962 P lan t L if e o f P a les t ine . 1 973

L ondon : Hu tch inson .

New York : Rona ld P ress .

G eobo tan ica l F ounda t ions o f t h e M idd le E as t .

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S tu t tgar t : Gus tav F ischer .

Chapter 8 PHYTOLITH STUDIES AT SHIQ MI M

b y

A r lene Ro sen W .F . A lbr igh t I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo log ica l Research J erusa lem I N TRODUCT ION P hy to l i th a na lys is i sn ow b ecom ing a s t andard r esearch t oo l i n New Wor ld a rchaeo logy ( Rovner 1 983 ) . However , i ti ss t i l l i n i t s i nfancy i n t he Near E as t where o n ly a h andfu l o f s tud ies h ave b een c onduc ted a t a rchaeo log ica l s i tes ( He lbaek 1 960 ; F o lk a nd Hoops 1 982 ; Mu lho l land e t a l 1 982 ) . A l though much b as ic r e search i s n eeded b efore a l l p hy to l i ths c an b e i den t if ied , i t e ven n ow h as g reat p o ten t ia l f or d e term in ing wh ich p lants were i mpor tant i n t he e conomy o f a nc ien t s e t t lemen ts . Th is i s e spec ia l ly t rue o f p reh is tor ic s i tes where macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins a re s o me t imes d iff icu l t t o r ecover . The s i te o f S h iqm im h as p rov ided a n e xce l len t o ppor tun ity f or d emon s t ra t ing t he u t i l i ty o f p hy to l i th s tud ies . F irs t , i t c on ta ins a bundan t p hy to l i ths f rom v ar ious t ypes o f p lan ts . S econd , t he p hy to l i ths a re l a rger a nd more c omp lex t han t hose c ommon ly f ound i n n on -archaeo log ica l c on texts , a nd t hus t hey w ere more e as i ly i den t if iab le . Th ird , s ince t here w ere a l so c harred s eeds a t t he s i te , a na lyses o f t hese r e ma ins p rov ide a c heck o n t he p ropor t ions o f c erea ls a s e s t ima ted f rom t he p hy to l i ths a lone ( s ee K is lev , t h is v o lu me ) . TH E NA TURE O F PH YTOL ITHS P hy to l i ths a re b od ies o f o pa l ine s i l ica a verag ing f rom 1 0 t o 1 00 m icrons i n s i ze wh ich f orm i n t he c e l l wa l ls o f p lant s t ems , r oo ts , l e aves , a nd i nf lorences . They a re mos t a bundan t i n g rasses , r eeds , a nd s edges ( monoco ty ledons ) . P hy to l i ths f orm a s p lants a bsorb s i l ica i n s o lu t ion w ith wa ter f rom t he s o i l . Dur ing t he p roces s o f e vapo transp ira t ion , t he o pa l s i l ica p rec ip i tates w i th in t he e p iderma l c e l l wa l ls , t ak ing t he s hape o f t he c e l ls . L ater , when t he p lan t d ies a nd t he o rgan ic ma t ter d is in tegrates , t he s i l ica b od ies a re d epos i ted i n t he s ed iment where t hey may r e ma in f or t housands o f y ears . Thus t hey a re c om mon ly f ound i n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd f urn ish e v idence f or a nc ien t p lan t u se . I n a nt iqu ity , g rasses a nd o ther monoco ty ledons w ere among t he mos t u sefu l p lan ts , a nd w ere c ommon ly c o l lec ted a nd b rought b ack t o t he s i te . Thus , p hy to l i ths f rom s t raw a nd s eed g lumes a re a bundan t i n m idden d epos i ts , a nd p hyto l i ths f rom r eeds o r c ane u sed i n b askets , n ets , f loor ma ts , a nd r oof ing ma ter ia l s hou ld b e f ound o n h ouse f loors a nd c our tyards . A more d e ta i led d escr ip t ion o f p hy to l i ths a nd t he ir u ses c an b e f ound i n P earsa l l ( 1982 ) , a nd Rovner ( 1983 ) .

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S h iqm im I

SAMPL ING A t S h iqm im , s amp les w ere c o l lec ted f rom s evera l a shy s urface s a nd m id d en s . Mo s t w ere t aken f rom a rch i tec tura l p hase I o r I , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f S 82 -6 wh ich c ame f rom t he s t ra t igraph ic t e s t p i t a t a n e l eva t ion o f 5 3 cm b e low t he s urface . F loor s f rom d ifferen t c on tex t s w ere s a mp led i n o rder t o c ompare s im i lar i t ies a nd d ifferences i n p lan t r ema in s wh ich may r e la te t o r oom f unc t ion . T hese i nc lude r e s idences , c our tyards , a nd p a thways . T he p roven ience s a re s ummar ized i n T ab le 8 . 1 . RE SULTS T he r e su l t s o f t he P hy to l i th c oun t s a re p resen ted i n T ab le s 8 . 2 a nd 8 . 3 . T he p hy to l i ths f rom S h iqm im a re d ifferen t f rom t ho se c ommon ly f ound i n s t epp ic g ras ses . Whereas t he more t yp ica l p hy to l i ths u sua l ly c ome f rom i nd iv idua l c e l ls o f t he e p iderma l t i s sue , t he o ne s a t S h iqm im a re mu l t ice l led s ec t ions o f s i l ica r ep laced e p iderma l t i s sue . T herefore , r a ther t han s i ng le s i l ic if ied s hor t c e l l s , t he se p hy to l i th s i nc lude s ec t ions o f l i nked s hor t c e l l s , l ong c e l l s , a nd m icro h a irs . Thu s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o i den t ify t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l b y c ompar ison w i th t he e p iderma l t i s sue o f modern r eference s amp le s . T he p hy to l i ths wh ich a re mos t e as i ly i den t if ied a re t ho se f rom t he g lume s o f whea t ( T r i t icum s p . ) , a nd b ar ley ( Ho rdeum s p . ) . One o f t he mo s t d i s t inc t ive f ea tures i s t he c onf igura t ion o f t he w aves o f l ong c e l l w a l ls . I n b ar ley t hey a re s quared o r p o in ted w i th r egu lar amp l i tude ( s ee P la te 8 . 1) , a nd i n whea t t hey a re r ounded w i th e rra t ic amp l i tude ( s ee P la te 8 . 2 ) ( Ro sen 1 983 ) . A t S h iqm im , b o th o f t he se t ype s o f c erea l s w ere r epre sen ted . T he r e la t ive p ropor t ions o f t he t wo c rop s w ere e s t ima ted b y c ompar ing amoun t s o f whea t a nd b ar ley g lumes a s p ercen tage s o f t he t o ta l i den t if iab le g lume c oun t ( s ee T ab le 8 . 3 ) . F rom t h is , i t w a s e v iden t t ha t i n a l l c ase s b ar ley w as d om inan t t o v ary ing d egree s . T h is i s s uppor ted b y t he a na ly se s o f t he macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins wh ich a l so d e term ined t ha t b ar ley w as p redom inan t ( K i s lev , C hap ter 9 , t h is v o lume ) . T hese r e su l t s c on tras t w i th p hy to l i th a na lyses f rom t he c on temporary C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f Horva t B e ter ( Ro sen 1 983 ) . A t t ha t s i te , t he ma jor i ty o f g lume p hy to l i ths w ere f rom whea t ( 77 .6% ) , a nd o n ly ( 22 .4% ) c ame f rom b ar ley . A l though o n ly o ne macrobo tan ica l s a mp le wa s a na lyzedfrom Horva t B e ter , Z e i tcheck ( 1959 ) men t ion s t he d om inance o f whea t o ver b ar ley a s d e term ined f rom macrobo tan ica l r ema ins . A s c an b e s een f rom T ab le 8 . 2 , al a rge p ropor t ion o f t he p hy to l i th s c ame f rom t he c u lm s o r s t raw o f whea t a nd b ar ley ( s ee P la te 8 . 3 ) , a s w e l l a s o ther a s y e t u n iden t if ied monoco ty ledon s . A s ma l l p or t ion a re a t ype c ommon ly f ound i n woody h erbaceous p lan t s ( Rovner 1 971 : 3 50 ) . T he p hy to l i th s f rom t he n on c erea l monoco t s may h ave c ome f rom ma t s , b aske t s , o r t ha tched r oof s b u t more r e search i sn eeded i n o rder t o i den t if iy t he g enera f rom wh ich t he se c ame . One s ugge s t ive r e su l t w as t ha t i n t he c our tyard s a mp le ( S83 -8 ) t here was a v ery h igh p ercen tage o f s t raw ( cu lm s ) . S t raw w a s u sed f or v ar ious p urpo se s b y p re indu s tr ia l p eop le , s uch a s f odder a nd b r ick -mak ing . T he a u thor h as o b served t ha t i n M idd le E as tern v i l lage s , i ti so f ten f ound i n c our tyards e i ther

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C hap ter 8 :P hy to l i th S tud ie s a t S h iqm im

p i led i n h eap s f or l a ter u se i n mudbr icks , o r s ca t tered o ver t he c our tyard s urface . I t i s p os s ib le t hen , t ha t ah igh p ropor t ion o f p hy to l i ths f rom s t raw may , i n t urn , b e i nd ica t ive o f ac our tyard a s o ppo sed t o o ther t ype s o f s urface s s uch a s h ouse f loors . DI S CUSS ION T he o ccurrence a t S h iqm im o f t he a typ ica l p hy to l i ths wh ich c on s t i tute g roup s o f s i l ic if ied e p iderma l c e l l s may b e i nd ica t ive o f ad is t inc t ive f arm ing e nv ironmen t . I n ap rev ious p aper , t he a u thor s ugges ted t ha t t hese p hy to l i th s f orm a s ar esu l t o f e xces s ive amoun ts o f s i l ic ic a c id i n t he s o i l w a ter ( M i l ler 1 980 ) . T h is c ond i t ion o ccur s when d ra inage i s p oor , a nd w a ter s t ands i n a f i e ld f or a l ong p er iod o f t ime . I n t h is s i tua t ion , s i l ica f rom t he s ed imen t i s d rawn i n to s o lu t ion b y h ydro lys is ( B irk land 1 974 :62 ) , ac hem ica l p roces s wh ich a cce lera tes i n warm c l ima te s . T he p lan t s g row ing i n t h is med ium a b sorb t he s i l ica r i ch wa ter , a nd t he s i l ic ic a c id l a ter p rec ip i ta te s i n t he c e l l wa l l s b ecom ing o pa l p hy to l i ths . W i th h igher amoun t s o f s i l ica , t he p lan ts f orm p hy to l i th s i n c e l ls wh ich wou ld n o t n orma l ly b e s i l ic if ied . W i th c u l t iva ted p lan t s , t h is c ond i t ion m igh t o ccur when t he c rop s a re g rown i n s wampy l o ca t ions , o r w i th i r r iga t ion . I n warm a r id e nv ironmen t s t h is p henomenon s hou ld b e more p ronounced . T he a bove mode l i s a s y e t u n te s ted , b u t i t s e rves t o s ugge s t t ha t s imp le b as in i r r iga t ion f arm ing m igh t h ave b een p rac t i sed a t S h iqm im . Ano ther r e su l t o f t h is s tudy w as t he o ccurrence o f b o th whea t a nd b ar ley a t S h iqm im . F rom t h is a nd o ther p a leoe thnobo tan ica l r e search , i ta ppear s a s i f a nc ien t a gr icu l tura l is ts c u l t iva ted b o th c erea ls a t t he s a me t ime , a nd p robab ly w i th in t he s a me f i e lds . Z e i tcheck ( 1959 ) n o ted t h i s , a nd s ugges ted t ha t c rop s w ere c u l t iva ted i n s im i lar p ropor t ions t o t ho se f ound i n n a ture . I f , i n f ac t , t he c rop p ropor t ions w ere d e term ined n a tura l ly , t hen t he r e la t ive p ercen tage s o f whea t a nd b ar ley s hou ld b e i nd ica t ive o f t he t ype o f g row ing c ond i t ion s i n t he a nc ien t f i e lds . T h i s i s d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t whea t a nd b ar ley h ave d ifferen t e daph ic a nd e nv ironmen ta l r equ iremen t s . T he se ma jor d ifferences a re i n d rough t a nd s a l t t o lerance . W i th r a infa l l a gr icu l ture whea t g enera l ly r equ ire s 3 00 mm o f r a infa l l p er y ear , whereas b ar ley n eeds o n ly 2 00 mm p er y ear , a nd h as a h igher t o lerance f or s a l ine s o i l a nd d rough t ( Arnon 1 972 ) . T hus i t i s l i ke ly t ha t h igher r a t io s o f whea t i nd ica te g row ing c ond i t ions wh ich w ere mo is ter t o v ary ing d egree s , a nd c onver se ly , g rea ter amoun t s o f b ar ley s hou ld i nd ica te d r ier a nd/or more s a l ine c ond i t ions .

S h iqm im h as a s i gn if ican t p ropor t ion o f wheat , b u t b ar ley i st he d om inan t c erea l . T h is c on tra s t s s i gn if ican t ly w i th p hy to l i th r e su l ts f rom Horva t B e ter . S ince b o th s i tes a re c on temporary , t hese d ifferences a re p robab ly g eograph ica l . A l though t he t wo s i tes a re l o ca ted o n ly 1 5 km a par t o n t he w ad i B eer S heva , t he p re sen t d ay 2 00 mm i s ohye t p as se s d irec t ly t hrough t he s i te o f Horva t B e ter . S h iqm im , o n t he o ther h and , l i es i n t he 1 50 mm i s ohye t z one . One c anno t e xpec t t ha t t he r a infa l l amoun t s w ere t he s ame i n t he C ha lco l i th ic a s t ho se o f

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t oday , b u t i t i s p o s s ib le t ha t t he i s ohye t p a t terns w ere s im i lar . T hu s , o ne p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f or t he d ifferen t c rop r a t io s a t t he t wo s i tes c ou ld b e t he v ary ing r a infa l l amoun t s . I f f l oodwa ter f arm ing w as p rac t ised i ns tead o f r a infa l l a gr icu l ture ( s ee L evy a nd A lon , C hap ter 4 , t h i s v o lume ) , t hen t he d ifference c ou ld b e ar e su l t o f s evera l f ac tor s . F irs t , t he c a tchmen t i s l a rger , a nd t he f loodp la in w ider a t Horva t B e ter . T hus t here m igh t h ave b een more w a ter t r apped i n b ack swamps o n t he f l oodp la in . S econd , s ha l low w e l ls i n t he a rea o f Horva t B e ter t oday s ugges t t ha t t here i s ah igher a qu ifer t han a t S h iqm im . W i th a p o s s ib ly mo is ter c l ima te i n t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod ( Go ldberg a nd Ro sen , t h is v o lume ) , ah igher w a ter t ab le c ou ld h ave b een t apped b y t he p lan t r oo t s . F ina l ly , e ven w i th t he p o s s ib le u se o f b as in i r r i -ga t ion , g rea ter r a infa l l a t Horva t B e ter may h ave a l lowed a h igher s ucce s s r a te f or whea t .

SUMMARY F rom t he a na lys is o f p hy to l i th s a t S h iqm im , i t i s p o ss ib le t o s ugges t t he f o l low ing t en ta t ive c onc lu s ion s : 1 ) l a rge amoun ts o f p hy to l i ths f rom s t raw may b e i nd ica t ive o f c our tyards . 2 ) t he mu l t i -ce l led p hy to l i ths wh ich d om ina ted t he a s semb lage s a t S h iqm im s ugge s t t ha t s imp le b as in i r r iga t ion f arm ing m igh t h ave b een p rac t iced . 3 ) t he d om inance o f b ar ley o ver whea t i nd ica tes t ha t i n s p i te o f p o s s ib le i r r iga t ion , f arm ing c ond i t ions a t S h iqm im may h ave b een d r ier o r more S a l ine t han t ho se a t Horva t B e ter . P hy to l i th r e search i s s t i l l i n i t s i nfancy a nd r equ ires a g rea t d ea l o f a dd i t iona l work o n f orma t ion p roce s se s a nd c la s s if ica t ion . However , t he i n ten t o f t h is s tudy was t o d emon s tra te s ome o f t he w ays i n wh ich p hy to l i th r e search may b e o f u se i n N ear E as tern a rchaeo logy , e ven i n i t s e ar ly p ha ses o f d eve lopmen t .

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T ab le 8 . 1

T ab le 8 . 2

S amp le P roven iences S amp le

A rea

S quare

C on tex t

S 82 -5

A

D2

r e s idence f l oor

S 82 -6

A

G4

m idden

S 83 -4

A

D 20

s t ree t

S 83 -5

A

C 3

r e s idence f l oor

S 83 -8

D

Q7

c our tyard

S 83 -9

D

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s ma l l r oom w i th c ow b one s a nd f l in t f l ake s ; n o p hy to l i ths

S 83 -10

B

A l6

r e s idence f l oor ; n o p hy to l i ths

A bso lute p hyto l ith c ounts w i th p ercen tages o f t o ta l

S amp le

B ar ley G lumes Whea t G lumes No . % No . %

Unknown G lume s T o ta l No . % G lumes

S 82 -5

5 3

( 29 .5% )

4 0

( 13 .2% )

2 1

( 5 .5% )

14

( 30 .0% )

S 82 -6

6 1

( 17 .3% )

4 2

( 1 1 .9% )

3 2

( 9 .1 % )

1 35

( 38 .2% )

S 83 -4

6 5

( 30 .4% )

2 5

( 1 1 .7% )

1 2

( 5 .2% )

1 02

( 47 .7% )

S 83 -5

6 5

( 29 .5% )

2 9

( 13 .2% )

3 0

( 13 .6% )

1 24

( 56 .4% )

S 83 -8

3 4

( 14 .5% )

2 5

( 10 .7% )

1 6

( 6 .8% )

7 5

( 32 .1 % )

S amp le

L eaf s hea ths

C u lm ( s tem )

O ther monoco t s

Woody T o ta l p lan t s p hy to l i th s

S 82 -5

1 ( 2 .9% )

1 09 ( 28 .7% )

1 03 ( 27 .1% )

4 3 ( 1 1 .3% )

3 80

S 82 -6

1 ( 3 .1 % )

6 6 ( 18 .7% )

1 06 ( 30 .0% )

3 5 (9 . 9% )

3 53

S 83 -4

1 7 ( 8 .0% )

5 0 ( 23 .4% )

4 3 ( 20 .1 % )

n o d a ta

2 14

S 83 -5

1 5 ( 6 .8% )

5 7 ( 25 .9% )

2 3 ( 10 .5% )

n o d a ta

2 20

S 83 -6

1 2 ( 5 .1 % )

8 1 ( 34 .6% )

5 0 ( 2 1 .4% )

1 6 (6 . 8% )

2 34

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S h iqm im I

T ab le 8 . 3

P ercen tages o f t o ta l i den t if iab le g lumes T o ta l n umber i den t if iab le

S amp le

g lume s

B ar ley %

Whea t %

S 82 -5

9 3

5 7 .0%

4 3 .0%

S 82 -6

1 03

5 9 .2%

4 0 .8%

S 83 -4

9 0

7 2 .2%

2 7 .8%

S 83 -5

9 4

6 9 .1 %

3 0 .9%

S 83 -8

5 9

5 7 .6%

4 2 .4%

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Chap ter 8 :P hy to l i th S tud ies a t S h iqm im

BI BL IOGRAPHY A rnon , I . 1 972 C rop P roduc t ion i n D ry R eg ions I .

L ondon : L eonard H i l l .

B irke land , P . 1 974 P edo logy , W ea ther ing , a nd G eomorpho log.i c a l R esearch . F o lk , R .L , a nd Hoops , G .K . 1 982 An e ar ly I ron Age l ayer o f g las s made f rom p lan ts a t T e l Y in 'am , I s rae l . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 9 :4 55 -466 . He lbaek , H . 1 960 C erea ls a nd weedgrasses i n P hase A . Append ix I i n R .J . B ra idwood a nd L .S . B ra idwood ( eds ) , Excava t ions i n t h e P la in o f A n t ioch I . Ch icago : Un ivers i ty o f Ch icago P ress .

M i l ler , A . 1 980 P hy to l i ths a s i nd ica tors o f f arm in t echn iques . P aper p resen ted a t t he 4 5th mee t ing o f t he S oc ie ty f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy , P h i lade l p h ia . Mu lho l land , A .C . , Rapp , G . J r . , a nd G ifford , J .A . 1 982 P hy to l i ths . I n G . Rapp , J r . a nd J .A . G ifford ( eds ) , T roy : T he A rchaeo log ica l G eo logy . P r ince ton : P r ince ton Un ivers i ty P ress . P p . 17 1 37 . P earsa l , D . M . 1 982 P hy to l i th a na lys is : a pp l ica t ions o f a n ew p a leobo tan ica l t echn ique in a rchaeo logy . Amer ican A n thropo log is t . 8 4 :862 -871 . Rosen , A . 1 983 P hy to l i ths a nd marg ina l a gr icu l ture i n t he Cha lco l i th ic o f S ou t hern I s rae l . P aper p resen ted a t t he 4 8 th mee t ing o f t he S oc ie ty f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy , P i t tsburgh . Rovner , I . 1 971 P o ten t ia l f or o pa l p hy to l i ths f or u se i n s t ruc t ion . Q uar ternary R esearch . 1 ( 3 ) : 3 43 -359 .

p a leoeco log ica l

r econ -

Rovner , I . 1 983 P lant o pa l p hy to l i th a na lys is : ma jor a dvances i n A rchaeobo tan ica l r esearch . I n S ch iffer , M . , ( ed ) , Advances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 6 . New York : A cadem ic . Z e itchek , D . V . 1 959 R ema ins o f c u l t iva ted p lan ts P re l im inary No tes . ' A t iqo t . 2 : 48 -52 .

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f rom

Horvat

B e ter

( Beersheva ) .

Chapter 9 CHALCOLITHIC PLANT HUSBANDRY AND ANCIENT VEGETATION AT SHIQ MI M

b y

Mordecha i E . K is lev D epar tment o f L ife S c iences B ar I l an Un ivers i ty Rama t -Gan 5 2100 , I s rae l

I N TRODUCT ION P lan t h usbandry a nd t he e conom ic d i mens ions o f d omes t ic f i e ld c rops o f t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod i s a lmo s t at e rra i n cogn i ta i n s outhwes tern A s ia a nd t he s ou thern p ar t o f t he B a lkans . The t e rm " Cha lco l i th ic p er iod " i s u sed h ere i n i t s b roades t s ense a nd i nc ludes t he e poch b e tween 5 , 000 a nd 3 , 200 B .C .E . i n u nca l ibrated 1 4 C y ears . Wh i le i n t he Near E as t t h is p er iod i s ab r idge b e tween t he e nd o f t he C era m ic Neo l ith ic a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he E ar ly B ronze Age , i n o ther r eg ions i t b e longs more f requen t ly t o t he Neo l ith ic p er iod . I n t h is p aper , t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod i n t he n or thern Negev i s u sed a s ac ase s tudy t o d iscus s t hese p rob le ms . I n g enera l t e rm s , t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod i nc ludes t he l a ter S hu laver i c u lture i n T ranscaucas ia ; t he Khaz ineh , Meh meh a nd B ayat c u ltura l p hases i n Khuz is tan ; t he l a ter Ha laf , Hassuna a nd S a marra c u l tures , a s w e l l a s t he Uba id c u l ture i n Mesopo ta m ia ; t he l a te F a iyum Neo l i th ic , t he B adar ian c u l ture i n t he s ou th a s w e l l a s Mer i mde a nd Maad i c u ltures i n t he d e lta r eg ion i n E gyp t ; a nd t he S esk lo p er iod a nd e ar l ier p hases o f t he L a te Neo l i th ic i n Thassa ly (Me l laar t 1 975 ) . I n t h is p er iod , f urther t o t he n or th i n t he B a lkan p en insu la , a s w e l l a s i n t empera te E urope a long t he Danube a nd t he Rh ine r ivers , o ne f inds a gr icu l ture i n i t s e ar l ies t p hases o f d eve lopmen t . B ecause o f i n teres t i n t h is p rofound c hange i n h u man s oc ie ty , t hese r eg ions a re r e lat ive ly we l l s tud ied ( cf . B ake ls 1 978 ; Har tyäny i a nd Noväk i 1 975 ; Körber G rohne 1 981 ; a nd Renfrew 1 979 ) . I n c on tras t , n o d e ta i led a rchaeobo tan ica l work h as y e t b een p ub l ished o n ac ontemporaneous s i te i n I s rae l . The mater ia l s tud ied h ere c omes f rom t he 1 982 e xcavat ions a t t he S h iqm im Cha lco l ith ic v i l lage , d irec ted b y D . A lon a nd T .E . L evy o n b eha lf o f t he I s rae l D epar tment o f Ant iqu i t ies a nd Museu m s a nd t he Negev Museum , B eer sheva ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . M iss Mar i jke v an d er V een ( Depar tment o f A rchaeo logy , Durha m Un ivers ity , E ng land ) c arr ied o ut t he f lo ta t ion s epara t ion p rocedure a nd a l so b egan t o s or t o ut s eeds , f ru i ts , e tc . , f rom c harcoa l a nd o ther i r re levan t mater ia l . A t t h is s t age , t he p lan t mater ia l was

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t r ansferred t o t he p resen t a u thor . T he me thodo logy o f s a mp l ing i s d e scr ibed b e low f rom v an d er V een ' s u npub l ished p re l im inary r epor t o f 1 982 : G enera l ly , as a mp le w as c o l lec ted f rom e very l ocus , b e i t s urface , f loor , h ear th , p i t o r a ny o ther a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t . E ach s amp le w as t hree b ucke ts ( ca 2 7 l i tre s ) o f s ed imen t i n v o lume . T he p lan t r e ma ins w ere e x trac ted u s ing a m e thod o f s imp le wa ter f l o ta t ion : c a 1 /3 o f ab ucke t o f s ed imen t w as m ixed w i th wa ter ; a f ter t hrough s t irr ing t he w a ter w as p oured i n to a s i eve w i th a 5 00 m icron mesh . I n t h is w ay , n o t o n ly t he c harcoa l , s eeds , g ra in s , e tc . t ha t w ere f loa t ing o n t he s urface , b u t a l so t he r ema ins t ha t w ere i n s u spens ion , w ere r e tr ieved i n t he s i eve . T he p rocedure was r epea ted s evera l t imes u n t i l n o more ma ter ia l c ame o u t . T he e n t ire s a mp le w a s d one i n t h is w ay . T he p lan t r ema ins w ere t hen a l lowed t o d ry i n t he s i eve , i n t he s hade , b efore b e ing w rapped i n t i s sue a nd p o ly thene b ag s . A t o ta l o f 4 9 s a mp les h as b een c o l lec ted : 2 2 s a mp le s f rom t he " Lower V i l lage " ( BP I ( bu i ld ing p ha se I )t he y ounges t p hase , i sd a ted t o 3 300 + 1 40 B .C .E . ) , 1 3 f rom t he d eep t r ench i n t he L ower V i l lage , 1 f rom t he " Upper V i l lage " e xcava t ion ( P la te 6 : 18a ; t he o lde s t d a te i s4 200 + 1 80 B .C .E . ) a nd 3 f rom t he c eme tery . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he s a mp les f rom t he c e me tery , a l l s a mp le s c on ta ined p lan t r ema in s . T he q uan t i t ies o f i den t if iab le f ragmen ts , h owever , v ar ied c ons iderab ly f rom l o cus t o l o cu s , w i th s ma l ler q uan t i t ie s t urn ing u p i n t he l ower v i l lage a nd more i n t he d eep t r ench a nd i n t he u pper v i l lage . Mo s t o f t he p lan t ma ter ia l c ons is t s o f c harcoa l f ragmen t s , r ecen t r oo t s , t w ig s , s eeds , e tc . T he c harred r ema ins i nd ica te t ha t t hey e xper ienced a s t rong c onf lagra t ion . T hey a re c orroded , s om t ime s s pongy o r p uffed . T he p oor s t a te o f p re serva t ion c on tr ibu te s t o t he r e la t ive ly h igh p ercen tage o f u n iden t if ied s pec imens o f w i ld p lan t s ( Tab le 9 . 2 ) .

ED IBLE PL ANTS R emnan ts o f e d ib le p lan ts i n t he Upper V i l lage p robe ( P la te 6 . 18 ) a re a pprox ima te ly t en t ime s more a bundan t t han t ho se i n t he L ower V i l lage . N ever the les s , t he r a t io s b e tween t he v ar ious c rop r ema ins a re t he s a me ( i n b o th a reas ) . Two -rowed , h u l led b ar ley i st he ma in c rop a nd , i n g enera l , c ons t i tu te s a bou t 4 /5 o f t he f inds a t e ach l o cus ( a s w e l l a s o f t he t o ta l s pec imen s ) p re sen ted i n T ab le 9 . 1 . T he r e la t ive i mpor tance o f t he c rop s a t S h iqm im i s : 1 . t wo -rowed , h u l led b ar ley ( Hordeum d i s t ichon ) , 8 3% ; 2 . emmer ( T r i t icum d icoccon ) , 1% ; 3 . whea t ( T . p arv icoccum ) , 2 . 3% ; 4 . l en t i l ( Lens c u l inar i s ) , 2 . 2% ; a nd a l l t he r e s t , 1 . 2% .

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Chap ter 9 : Cha lco l i th ic P lan t Husbandry a nd Anc ient Vege ta t ion

BA RLEY Two -rowed , h u l led b ar ley i s e s sen t ia l ly t he s o le b ar ley t ype f ound h ere . S ix -rowed b ar ley ( Hordeum v u lgare ) i sa lmos t n u l , a nd t wo -rowed , n aked b ar ley ( H . d is t ichon v ar . n udum ) c ompr ises l e ss t han 4% o f t he t o ta l b ar ley . I t s hou ld b e men t ioned t hat many o f t he g ra ins a re p uffed o r c orroded , s o me t i mes h av ing a s pongy s t ruc ture . Th is c omp l ica tes t he i dent if ica t ion o f t he t ype , a s t he o n ly c r i ter ion wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o d is t ingu ish b etween h u l led a nd n aked t ypes i st he s i ze a nd s hape o f t he g ra in . The g ra ins , wh ich b e long t o e ar ly l ayers o f t he s i te , measure o n t he a verage 5 . 2 x2 . 7 x2 . 0 mm ( Locus 6 62 ) a nd 5 . 6 x 2 . 9 x 2 . 2 mm ( Locus 6 64 ) ( Tab le 9 . 4 ) . The a u thor c ou ld n o t f ind r epor ts o n t he a verage d i mens ions o f b ar ley f rom t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod . Therefore , r e su lts f rom E ar ly B ronze l ayers a re g iven h ere . These i nc lude : Korucu tepe , 5 . 9 x2 . 9 x2 . 0 mm a nd f rom T epec ik , 6 . 6 x3 . 1 x2 . 4 mm ( Ze is t a nd B akker Heeres 1 975 ) . The g ra ins f rom S h iqm im a re t herefore c ons iderab ly s hor ter t han t he Turk ish b ar ley . However , i t s eems t hat b ecause t he b read th o f t he g ra in i s a s wou ld b e e xpec ted , t he S h iq m im f inds a re n o t " t a i l g ra ins " t ha t f e l l t hrough t he s i eve w i th t he w eeds ( H i l lman 1 984 ) . P os s ib ly , t hey b e long t o s t ra ins t ha t a re a dap ted t o s em i -deser t c ond i t ions . Rach is n odes a re p resent i n a lmo s t a l l t he s i te l oc i . Mos t r ach is f ragmen ts i nc lude o ne n ode , s o me t imes b ear ing a s t er i le s ide s p ike le t ; i nfrequen t ly t here a re t wo t o t hree n odes . The ir t o ta l n umber i s a bou t t w ice t ha t o f t he g ra ins , t hough t he r a t io v ar ies b e tween 7 : 1 a nd 1 : 3 i n t he v ar ious l oc i . I ti ss ugges ted t ha t t hese d ifferences a re a cc iden ta l . However , t he a u thor i s aware t ha t t h is e xp lanat ion i sn o t e n t ire ly s a t isfac tory . The a verage b readth o f 1 00 r ach is n odes , measured a long t he d isar t icu la t ion s car i s 1 . 38 + 0 . 03 mm ( Locus 6 55 ) a nd 1 . 24 + 0 . 04 mm ( Locus 6 61) . ( Dev ia t ions o f t he a verage ( ± ) . i n t hese a nd t he f o l low ing c ases r epresent t he 9 5% c onf idence i n terva ls o f t he mean ( 1 .96 x s t andard d ev ia t ionf iN ) . Cu lm n odes a re a l so p resen t i n mos t l oc i a nd a re a ss igned t o b ar ley p r imar i ly b ecause a lmos t a l l o f t he c erea l r e mnan ts a re o f t ha t s pec ies a nd a l so b ecasue o f t he ir g enera l c erea l a ppearance ( Tab le 9 . 1 ; P late 9 . 6 :5 ; t he m icrograph was t aken f rom L ocus 4 02 ( No . 1 5 ) n o t i nc luded i n t he t ab les ) . However , i t i s p os s ib le t ha t s o me n odes may h ave o r ig inated f rom o ther c erea ls . Never the less , n o a t temp t was made t o d is t ingu ish b e tween n odes f rom b ar ley a nd f rom h u l led o r n aked wheats . The a verage d ia me ter o f 1 00 c u lm n odes i s 1 . 56 + 0 . 06 mm ( Locus 6 61) . Cu lm b ases , wh ich i nc lude t he l owermos t d ense c u lm n odes a nd e xh ib i t b ases o f a dvent ive r oo ts , a re p resent i n c ons iderab le q uan t i t ies ( Tab le 9 . 1 ; P l . 9 . 6 :6 ) . A s w i th t he u pper c u lm n odes , t he c u lm b ases a re a l so a ss igned t o b ar ley . The r a t io o f t he f inds o f c u lm b ases , c u lm n odes , r ach is n odes a nd g ra ins i s a bou t 1 : 3 :21 :12 , r e spec t ive ly . Th is i s more o r l e ss t he r a t io f ound i n t he l i v ing p lant . S ince e ach p lan t h as o n ly o ne c u lm b ase , wh ich i sp erhaps t he o rgan mos t r e s is tan t t o f i re , t he m in imu m n umber o f b ar ley p lants f ound i n t he 1 982 s a mp le i s a bout 1 00 . The meagre s a mp le o f 1 00 b ar ley p lants emphas izes t he s parse c harac ter o f t he a rchaeobo tan ica l r e mnants . On t he

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o ther h and , c arefu l a na lys is c oncern ing r ura l l i fe a t t he s i te .

may

c on tr ibu te

t o

i mpor tan t

c onc lu s ions

I t i s c onc luded t ha t , a t l e as t i n s o me o f t he l oc i , who le p lan t s w ere s t ored , a me thod p rac t iced b y N egev B edou in e ven t oday ( per sona l o bserva t ion ) . The i n terpre ta t ion t ha t s epara te o rgan s o f as pec ie s f ound i n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te c an r e su l t f rom who le p lan t s b e ing " t hre shed " b y t he a c t ion o f f i re wa s s ugge s ted p rev ious ly i n a p aper o n a s i te i n t he N e ther lands ( Buurman 1 979 ) . Ano ther e xp lana t ion i s t ha t t he b ar ley was a t as t age a f ter t hre sh ing when t urned i n to c harcoa l .

EMMER Th i s h u l led whea t , wh ich w as c ommon i n a nc ien t t imes , i s f ound e verywhere a t S h iqm im , t hough i n s ma l l q uan t i t ie s . However , i n af ew l o c i t he n umber o f r e mnan t s e qua ls t ho se o f b ar ley . Therefore , i tc an n o t b e c onc luded t ha t emmer a ppear s o n ly a s a n a dm ix ture i n b ar ley f i e lds . The s a me s i tua t ion a l so a pp l ie s f or n aked whea t a nd l en t i l ( Tab le 9 . 3 ) . G enera l ly , a s p ike le t r e mnan t i s c ompo sed o f a r ach is n ode a nd t wo t h ick b ase s o f t he g lume s , f orm ing a f ork l ike s t ruc ture . However , mo s t s pec imens w ere f ound a s s epera te g lume b ases a nd a s s igned i n T ab le 9 . 1 a s 1 /2 f ork .

WH EAT T he s ma l l g ra ins ( abou t 5 mm ) a nd t he s hor t i n ternode s a re c harac ter is t ic o f T r i t icum p arv icoccum , wh ich p reva i led i n t he a nc ien t N ear E as t a nd Med i terranean r eg ion ( K is lev 1 980 ) . T he r ach is f ragmen t s a re c ompo sed o f o ne t o t hree , g enera l ly t wo n odes , s o me o f t hem a re s i gn if ican t ly n arrower t han t he o thers . LE NT IL T h is s pec ie s i st he mo s t c ommon p u lse i n t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod i n S .W . A s ia a nd t he s ou thern B a lkan s ( Tab le 9 . 3 ) . On ly i n L ocus 6 64 was a r e la t ive ly l a rge n umber o f s eeds f ound i n c ompar ison t o o ther c rop r emnan t s . Mo s t s pec imens w ere f ound a s who le s eeds w i thou t t he t e s ta ; s epera te c o ty ledons a re c a lcu la ted i n T ab le 9 . 1 a s h a lf s eed . T he a verage measuremen t s o f 2 2 l en t i l s eeds a re 3 . 39 x 2 . 22 mm ( Locus 6 64 ) .

ME THODOLOGY O FI D ENT IF ICAT ION O F PL ANT RE MNANTS The i den t if ica t ion o f p lan t r emnan t s a nd t he ir i mp l ica t ion s f or u nders tand ing a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te i s b ased o n s evera l me thodo log ica l a nd p rac t ica l p r inc ip le s : 1 . When t he l ayers a re n o t o lder t han N eo l i th ic i n d a te , i ti sa s sumed t ha t f inds o f aw i ld s pec ie s b e long t o t he modern f l ora . No e x t inc t w i ld p lan t s pec ie s h as y e t b een r ecorded f rom a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te i n I s rae l . N ever the le s s , i f t he

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s i te i s more a nc ien t o r i f i t i s l o ca ted n ear t he b order o f as econd c oun try , f l ora s o f t he n e ighbour ing c oun t ire s mu s t a l so b e c ons idered . Therefore , F lora P a lae s t ina ( Zohary 1 966 , 1 972 ; F e inbrun -Do than 1 978 , 1 986 ) , New Ana ly t ica l F lora o f I s rae l ( Zohary 1 976 ) a nd D an in e t a l ( 1985 , f or t he S ina i P en insu la ) h ave a l l b een c onsu l ted f or t h i s work . On t he o ther h and , i ti sn o t p rac t ica l t o r e ly o n af loru la o f t oo s ma l l ar eg ion , l i ke t he N egev f or e xamp le , b ecau se p lan t m igra t ion o n as ma l l s ca le may h ave s o me t imes o ccurred . 2 . A c omp le te c onform i ty b e tween a nc ien t a nd modern p lan t s o f t he s a me s pec ie s r are ly o ccurs b ecause o f s evera l r ea son s : a ) T here a re n a tura l morpho log ica l v ar ia t ions i n p lan t o rgans o r ig ina t ing i n d ifferen t p opu la t ion s o w ing t o e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions a nd g ene t ic v ar ia t ion s , t h is i n a dd i t ion t o t he v ar ia t ions among t he s eed s o r f ru i ts o f as i ng le p lan t . b ) I t i sd iff icu l t t o o b ta in modern s amp le s a r i s ing i n t he s a me e co log ica l n iche a s a n a rchaeo log ica l f ind , s o me t imes b ecau se s uch a h ab i ta t , e . g . a nc ien t f i e ld s w orked b y t r ad i t iona l me thods , n o l onger e x is t . c ) I n ma ter ia l c harred b y f i re , t he s urface o f p lan t r emnan ts i s o f ten p ar t ly d e s troyed a nd t he ir d i mens ions may b e c hanged b y u p t o 2 0% . 3 . When t he s a mp le f rom a modern r eference c o l lec t ion a gree s w i th t he a rchaeobo tan ica l ma ter ia l , c ompar ison s w i th o ne o r t wo a dd i t iona l s a mp le s f rom d ifferen t l oca l i t ie s s hou ld b e c arr ied o u t . T h is p rocedure s hou ld r educe t he c hance o f i ncorrec t i den t if ica t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l f ind . A lso , w i th t he a dd i t iona l s amp le s , ab e t ter r epre sen ta t ion o f t he v ar iab i l i ty o f t he s pec ie s i s a ch ieved , wh ich may r e su l t i n ah igher l eve l o f c ompa tab i l i ty b e tween t he modern a nd a nc ien t s amp le s . 4 . When i den t if ica t ion o f ap lan t s pec ie s i s s ugges ted , a l l r e la ted s pec ies t ha t g row i n t he c oun try s hou ld a l so b e c ompared i n o rder t o e xc lude t hem . 5 . When a f ew o r o n ly o ne s eed ( o r f ru i t ) i sf ound , s pec ia l c are mus t b e t aken a s t he r ange o f v ar ia t ion i n morpho log ica l c harac ters i s af ea ture b y wh ich p lan t r emnan ts a re i den t if ied . T h is i s n o t t he c a se when f ew s pec imens a re a va i lab le . F or e xamp le , t he mo s t s l ender s eeds o f E rucar ia h i sp an ica may b e s im i lar t o t he mo s t p lump s eeds o f E . b oveana , wh ich c an l e ad t o m is iden t if ica t ion o f s ma l ler s a mp les . 6 . When a p lan t i s i den t if ied , a l l s im i lar r emnan t s a re c on s idered t o b e long t o t he s a me s pec ies , e ven i f t he se a re p ar t ly d e s troyed a nd u nsu i tab le f or i den t if ica t ion p rupo se s t hem se lve s . T here i s n o r eason t o a ssume w i thou t a dd i t iona l e v idence t ha t as econd r e la ted s pec ie s h ad e x i s ted i n t he s i te a nd a l l i t s r emnan t s d ecompo sed . T h is a s sump t ion i s u sefu l a l so when 9 0% o f t he r emnan ts b e long t o o ne s pec ie s . I t s hou ld b e k ep t i n m ind t ha t t h is i s o ne o f t he w eak l i nk s i n t he p rocedure o f p roce s s ing a rchaeobo tan ica l ma ter ia l . F or e xamp le , c u lm n odes a nd c u lm b ases f ound a t S h iqm im a re w ide e nough t o b e morpho log ica l ly i den t if ied a s b e long ing t o e i ther b ar ley o r whea t . B u t b ecause t he b ar ley r emnan t s a re a bou t 1 0 t ime s more a bundan t t han whea t , t he n ode s a nd b ase s a re a l l a t tr ibu ted t o b ar ley . I f t hey w ere a s s igned a s b ar ley o r whea t i t wou ld m ean t ha t t he ir c hance s o f b e long ing t o whea t e qua ls t hat o f b ar ley .

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7 . When t wo o r more r e la ted s pec ie s a re i den t if ied , p ar t ly d e s troyed r emnan t s mu s t b e c hecked c arefu l ly . I f b ad ly p re served r e mnan t s a re f ound , t hey s hou ld b e p re sen ted a s s pec imens f rom e i ther o f t he t wo s pec ie s . 8 . S ome t ime s , when morpho log ica l c harac ter s a re n o t r e l iab le , t he r eg iona l d i s tr ibu t ion w i th in t he c oun try h e lp s w i th t he i den t if ica t ion . F or e xamp le : n u t le ts o f T eucr ium p o l ium a re morpho log ica l ly s im i lar t o T . l e ucoc ladum . B u t s ince t he l a t ter g rows o n ly i n t he S . N egev a nd A rava v a l ley i n I s rae l , t he r emnan ts f rom S h iqm im w ere i den t if ied a s T . p o l ium . 9 .A s t here a re s evera l , d ire t a nd i nd irec t ways o f i den t if ica t ion , i ti su sefu l t o p o in t o u t t he me thodo logy u sed f or e ach s pec ies , e spec ia l ly when p re serva t ion c ond i t ions a re n o t g ood o r when t he s pec ie s i sn o t c ommon i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . When a s pec ies i sc ommon a nd i t s me thod o f i den t if ica t ion b ecome s r ou t ine , t he b as is o f i den t if ica t ion b ecome s s uperf luous . 1 0 . S ome t imes , when t he n a tura l c o lour o f f resh s eeds i s b lack , i ti sd iff icu l t t o d is t ingu i sh b e tween modern a nd a nc ien t s eeds . One p rac t ica l w ay t o o vercome t h is p rob lem i s t o s c rape o ff t he s eed w a l l a nd e xam ine t he embryo , wh ich i s l i gh t c o loured when f re sh . However , when o n ly a f ew s eed s a re f ound , o ne s hou ld p repare t he d ocumen ta t ion b efore d amag ing t he s pec imen . A t S h iqm im , A izoon h i span icum , S pergu lar ia f a l lax a nd mo s t s e eds o f C henopod ium mura le w ere f ound t o b e modern . On t he o ther h and , R eseda d ecur s iva a nd G yp soph i la p i lo sa a re a nc ien t . 1 . Nu t le ts b e long ing t o member s o f t he B orag inaceae t end t o b e l i gh t c o loured o r wh i te e ven a f ter c harr ing . T herefore , o ne mus t b e c arefu l n o t t o e xc lude t hem f rom t he r e levan t a rchaeobo tan ica l ma ter ia l . 1 2 . I ts hou ld b e k ep t i n m ind t ha t i n t he p roce s s ing b y f l o ta t ion , as i eve w i th a me sh o f 0 . 5 mm was u sed . T h is means t ha t s eed s , t ha t h ave a l l t hree o r a t l e a s t t wo d i men s ions s ma l ler t han 0 . 5 mm may b e a b sen t o r a t l e as t i nadequa te ly r epresen ted . 1 3 . G enera l ly , t he n umber o f i den t if ied w i ld s pec ie s i n ap ar t icu lar e xcava t ion d oe s n o t e xceed o ne o r t wo d ozen . T herefore , i t i s p rac t ica l t o i lu s tra te t he s pec imens b y d raw ing s , p ho tographs o r S EM m icrographs , a t l e a s t t ho se wh ich a re n ew o r r are i n t he a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . 1 4 . T he a c tua l i den t if ied p lan t ma ter ia l , a s w e l l a s i t s d ocumen ta t ion p ho tograph s , e tc . s hou ld b e s t ored i n s uch a way a s t o f ac i l i ta te e asy a cces s f or f u ture v er if ica t ion a nd c ompara t ive a rch iva l i nves t iga t ions . 1 5 . When d raw ing c onc lu s ions , i t w as k ep t i n m ind t ha t i n s p i te o f t he g rea t c au t ion t aken d ur ing e ach s t age o f work , t here w as a p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t s ome o f t he i den t if ica t ions m igh t b e i ncorrec t . B e s ides , t he c l ima t ic g row th c ond i t ion s o f s o me o f t he p lan t r emnan t s , t ho se wh ich w ere n o t i den t if ied a s w e l l a s t ho se i den t if ied o n ly t o t he g enus l eve l , a re u nknown . T here i s a lway s ap o s s ib l i ty t ha t t he c onc lus ions r egard ing a nc ien t e co logy i n t he a rea m igh t a l so b e i n e rror .

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SOME REMARKS O NT HE WI LD PL ANTS G ypsoph i la p i losa , h a iry s oap wor t ( Caryophy l laceae ) . The n atura l c o lour o f t he s eeds i s b lack . Therefore , i n o rder t o c heck t hat t he s eed i s c harred , i t was p ar t ly d es troyed a f ter a S EM m icrograph was made ( P late 9 . 1 :1) . T he s pec ies i s r ecorded f rom N imrud , N . I raq , f rom a d epos i t d a ted t o 2 00 B .C .E . ( He lbaek 1 966 ) . M inuar t ia h ybr ida , f ine l eaved s andwor t ( Caryophy l laceae ) . The s eed , 0 . 8 x0 . 6 x0 . 5 mm i s o ne o f t he s ma l les t s eeds i den t if ied a t S h iqm im ( P late 9 . 1 :2 -3 ) . The s pec ies h as n o t b een r ecorded i n t he c ontemporary Negev ( Zohary 1 966 ) , b u t i tg rows i n s andy s o i l u nder r udera l c ond i t ions i n t he n or thern S ina i ( Dan in e t a l 1 985 ) . Th is s pec ies i s a n ew a dd i t ion t o t he a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . C henopod ium mura le , n e t t le leaved g oosewor t ( Chenopod iaceae ) . The f resh s eeds a re b lack a nd f requen t ly o ccur among c harred r e ma ins . Therefore i t was n ecessary t o c heck whe ther t hey a re a l so c harred w i th in ( P la te 9 . 1 : 4 ) . Th is p lant was r ecorded f rom Roman Naha l Yat t ir , s ou thern I s rae l ( K is lev 1 986 ) . A e l len ia a u tran i ( = A . h i erochun t ica ) ( Chenopod iaceae ) . The n a me o f t h is s pec ies h as b een c hanged i n r ecen t l i tera ture t o Ha lo thamnus h i erochun t ica , e . g . , G reuter e t a l ( 1984 ) . The s t em b ase i s b roken d own a f ter f ru i t r ipen ing a nd t he p lan t s preads i t s f ru i ts b y t u mb l ing . T oday i t i s o ne o f t he mo s t c ommon w eeds o n t he l oess s o i ls ( Zohary 1 966 ) . The s pec ies e xh ib i ts a s pec ia l h e terocarpy ; t here a re d ispersa l u n i ts w ith a t h icker p er ianth a nd y e l low embryo wh ich a re a dap ted t o r e tarded g erm inat ion , i n a dd i t ion t o u n its w i th a t h inner p er ian th a nd g reen embryo wh ich g erm ina te r ead i ly a nd l oose t he ir v iab i l i ty i n t wo y ears ( Negb i a nd T amar i 1 963 ; Werker a nd Many 1 974 ) . I t s p referred h ab i tats a re d eep ly p loughed f i e lds a nd d is turbed p laces s uch a s r oads ides , e tc . , w i th s a l ine s eedbed ( Sh imsh i 1 971) . Mos t o f t he r e mnan ts f ound a t S h iqm im b e long t o t he t ype w ith t h icker p er ian th , 2 . 6 -3 .0 x 2 . 3 -2 .8 x 1 . 2 -1 .8 mm ( P late 9 . 1 :5 ,6 ) , b u t q uan t i ta t ive s tud ies were n o t made b ecause mos t d ispersa l u n i ts w ere b roken i n to p ieces . A lso a f ew p lanosp ira l embryos w ere f ound ; t hey were + f la t , a bout 1 . 1-1 .5 mm i n d iame ter ( P la te 9 . 2 :1) , a nd t hey a re n ew i n t he a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . S a lso la i n erm is a nd S . v o lkens i i ( Chenopod iaceae ) . B o th s pec ies b e long t o s ec t ion N i trar ia wh ich , i n I s rae l , i nc ludes f our members . The r epresentat ives o f t h is s ec t ion g row ing i n I s rae l h ave t he s ma l les t s eeds among S a l so la s pec ies . The t wo s pec ies a re t he o n ly members o f t he s ec t ion wh ich g row t oday i n t he n or thern Negev a nd a djacen t r eg ions . S eed a nd f ru it wa l ls a re membraneous a nd d isappear e as i ly b y b urn ing . Th is e xp la ins why o n ly t he c o i led embryos , 1 . 0 -1 .2 mm i n d iame ter , w ere f ound . The c o i ls o f t he embryo a re a rranged c ompac t ly . Wh i le t he embryo o f S . i n erm is i s t h in a nd f l at , w i th + p ara l le l c o ty ledons ( P la te 9 . 2 :2 ) , t ha t o f S . v o lkens i i i s c och leate a nd f orm s a h o l low c one . B o th a re n ew i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . The l a s t t hree s pec ies a re s ummer a nnua ls wh ich a re s pread b y t he w ind . I t i s s ugges ted t hat t he ir d ispersa l u n i ts a rr ived a t t he s i te n o t a s t rue w eeds b u t b y t he a id o f t he w ind a nd a ccumu lated i n a l leys o r i n s t ree t c orners a t S h iq m im .

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A don i s d en ta ta , y e l low p heasan t ' s e ye ( Ranuncu laceae ) . T he c re s t a nd w r ink le s o f a chene s a re g enera l ly l e s s p rom inen t i n c harred s pec imens t han i n f re sh o ne s ; t he c harred d isper sa l u n i t i s s o me t imes a lmos t s moo th . A lthough morpho log ica l ly i t was d iff icu l t t o a s s ign t he a chenes t o ac er ta in s pec ie s , t he d is tr ibu t ion a reas h e lped i n t he i den t if ica t ion . T he s pec ie s i s r ecorded f rom N imrud 1 3 th C . A .D . -2 00 B .C . ( He lbaek 1 966 ) a nd f rom N eo l i th ic C ape Andreas -Kas tro s , n or theas tern C yprus ( Ze i s t 1 981) . S i symbr ium i r io , L ondon r ocke t ( Cruc iferae ) . A f ragmen t o f f ru i t w a s f ound c on ta in ing t wo s eeds . Two s eed s s im i lar t o t ho se a t S h iqm im w ere i den t if ied a t N imrud , d a ted t o 2 00 B .C . ( He lbaek 1 966 ) . C arr ich tera a nnua , c re s s r ocke t ( Cruc iferae ) . f ound a t Naha l H emar ( K is lev , f or thcom ing ) .

S eeds a nd f ru i t s w ere a l so

R eboud ia p inna ta , f ea thery r eboud ia ( Cruc iferae ) . V ery f ew c omp le te f ru i ts w ere f ound s o t hey w ere n o t r ecorded i n T ab le 9 . 2 ( P la te 9 . 2 :3 ) . T he s eeds measure 0 . 8 -1 .1 x 0 . 7 -1 .0 x 0 . 5 -0 .8 mm . T he s pec ies i s r ecorded f rom Roman Naha l Y a t t ir ( K is lev 1 986 ) . An i mpor tan t p a s ture p lan t , t he s eed l ing s a re e d ib le ( Dan in 1 983 ) . E rucar ia h i span ica/boveana , p ink mu s tard ( Cruc iferae ) . T he s eeds a re h e terogenous i n d i mens ions ; o ne s eed m easured 0 . 8 x0 . 8 x0 . 4 mm a nd a no ther 0 . 7 x0 . 6 x0 . 6 mm . F ru i t a nd s eeds o f E . b oveana w ere a l so f ound a t Naha l Y a t t ir ( K is lev 1 986 ) . S eed l ing s o f E . b oveana a re e d ib le ( Dan in 1 983 ) . R eseda d ecur s iva , A rab ian m ignone t te ( Resedaceae ) . T he s eeds , 0 . 7 x 0 . 6 -0 .7 x 0 . 4 -0 .5 mm , a re t he s ma l le s t f ound a t S h iqm im . A l though R . d ecur s iva i ss t r ic t ly a d eser t s pec ie s , t here a re i n termed ia te f orm s b e tween i ta nd R . a lba f ound i n t he a d jacen t r eg ion s n or th o f t he N egev ( Zohary 1 966 ) . A s i t i s d iff icu l t t o d is t ingu ish b e tween s eeds o f R . d ecur s iva a nd t he i n termed ia te f orm s , o ne c anno t c onc lude h ere a ny th ing a bou t t he c l ima te p reva len t i n C ha lco l i th ic S h iqm im . T he s pec ie s i sn ew i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . A s traga lus t r ibu lo ides , c a l trop m i lk -ve tch ( Pap i l ionaceae ) . T he p od i nc lude s af ew s ma l l s eeds wh ich l i e i n t wo r ows . T erm ina l s eeds d iffer i n s hape f rom t he i n termed ia te o ne s , 1 . 0 -1 .3 x 0 . 8 -1 .1 x 0 . 6 -0 .7 mm ( P la te 9 . 3 : 1 3 ) . T h is i s an ew r ecord f or t he a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . H ippocrep i s u n i s i l iquo sa , c ommon h orse shoe v e tch ( Pap i l ionaceae ) . Wh i le i t i s p os s ib le t o d is t ingu ish c omp le te s eeds o f t h is s pec ies f rom H . b i con tor ta , i ti sd iff icu l t t o s epara te i tf rom H . mu l t i s i l iquo sa b ecause b o th h ave c i rcu lar o r s ubc ircu lar s eeds . T oday , o n ly H . u n i s i l iquo sa g rows i n t he n or thern o r w e s tern N egev ( Zohary 1 972 ) . We , t herefore , i den t if ied t he s eed s a s s uch ( P la te 9 . 2 : 5 -6 ) . T he w id th o f t he s eeds i s 0 . 3 -0 .6 mm . Th is f ind i s n ew i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . T r igone l la a rab ica ( Pap i l ionaceae ) . One o f t he mo s t c ommon d e ser t s pec ie i n t he N egev a nd a f a ir ly g ood p as ture p lan t ( Zohary 1 972 ) . T h is i st he mo s t a bundan t w i ld s pec ies a t S h iqm im , c ompr is ing a bou t h a lf o f t he s pec imens f ound ( Tab le 9 . 2 ) . C harred s eeds a re 1 . 2 -1 .5 x 1 . 0 -1 .2 x 0 . 5 -0 .8 mm i n

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d i mens ion ( P la te 9 . 3 : 4 ) . I t i s r epor ted f rom B yzan t ine N itsana , i n t he Negev ( Er lanson a nd W i t trock 1 962 ) a nd Roman Naha l Yat t ir ( K is lev 1 986 ) . Ma lva a egyp t ia a nd M . p arv if lora - p a lma ted a nd s ma l l -f lowered ma l low (Ma lvaceae ) . F ru i t , ad ry s ch izocarp ; mer icarps many , i ndeh iscent , 1 seeded . Mer icarps a re r ead i ly i den t if ied b y t he c harac ter is t ic p at terns o n d orsa l a nd l a tera l f aces ( P la te 9 . 4 : 1 2 ) . When c harred , t he f ru i t wa l l i s g enera l ly l o s t . However , s eeds o f M . p arv if lora ( 1 .1-1 .3 x 1 . 1-1 .2 x 0 . 6 -0 .9 mm ) a re d i s t ingu ished b y t he ir d orsa l f ace wh ich i s a lmos t t w ice a s w ide a s t hose o f o ther s pec ies . M . a egyp t ia was i dent if ied o n ly b y mer icarps wh ich r e ta ined t he ir f ru i t wa l l a nd c harac ter is t ic wa l l p a t tern ( s eed - 1 . 3 x1 . 2 x0 . 7 mm ) . M . p arv if lora i s g rown t oday i n E gyp t . Three c rops o f l eaves may b e c u t a nd c ooked a s ap o t h erb . The p lan t b ears r e semb lance t o p urs lane a nd t o s p inach i n t a s te , a nd i t i s h igh ly muc i lag inous ( Foaden a nd F le tcher 1 910 ) . I t b ears b o th f resh l eaves a nd f u l l g rown f ru i ts s imu ltaneous ly . Therefore , c harred , ma ture s eeds , wh ich a re n o t e a ten , may b e e v idence o f c onsump t ion o f t he l e aves . T hyme laea h i rsu ta , h a iry t hyme laea ( Thyme laeaceae ) . Nu t le t measures 0 . 9 x0 . 5 x0 . 5 mm ( P la te 9 . 4 : 3 ) . One o f t he mos t c ommon s hrubs i n t he d eser t o f I s rae l . I t i su sed b y B edou ins f or mak ing r opes ( Zohary 1 972 ) . I t i s f ound i n a reas r ece iv ing 7 0 t o 1 50 mm o f r a infa l l , a nd p ar t icu lar ly d om ina tes l oes s ia l wad is where t he f lood water i sd is tr ibuted o ver much o f t he w idth o f t he wad i ( Dan in 1 983 ) . I ti sa l so r epor ted f rom Roman Naha l Ya t t ir ( K is lev 1 986 ) . Ap ium g raveo lens , w i ld c e lery ( Umbe l l iferae ) . The p a ir o f mer icarp s w ere f ound u nsepara ted . The mer icarps , 1 . 0 mm i n l eng th , a lmo s t l o s t t he ir membraneous r ib s p robab ly d ue t o c harr ing ( P la te 9 . 4 : 5 ) . I t i s g rown i n b rooks , d i tches , e tc . , i n mos t p ar ts o f t he c ountry . The l eaves a nd r oo ts a re e d ib le ( Zohary 1 972 ) . I t i s f ound t oday i n t he n e ighbourhood o f S h iqm im ( Dan in , p ers . c omm . ) . A . g raveo lens r e mnan ts c an b e u sed a s a n i nd ica tor o f f re sh water i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he a rchaeo log ica l s i te . The s pec ies i s w idespread i n t empera te a nd t rop ica l r eg ions a nd i s f ound i n many a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n E urope ( e .g . J ensen 1 985 ) . H e l io trop ium e uropaeum , E uropean h e l io trope ( Borag inaceae ) . The c harred n u t le ts , 1 . 2 x 0 . 8 -1 .0 x 0 . 7 -0 .9 mm i n d i mens ion , a gree i n s hape a nd s urface p at tern w ith modern e xamp les , b ut a re c ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han t he modern o nes ( 1 .8 -1 .9 x 1 . 3 -1 .4 x 1 . 2 mm ; P late 9 . 4 : 6 ) . They c l ear ly d iffer f rom H . h i rsu t iss imum b y t he a bsence o f av en tra l k ee l . The s pec ies i s r ecorded f or N eo l ith ic Hac i lar , Ana to l ia ( He lbaek 1 970 ) . A rneb ia d ecumbens ( Borag inaceae ) . The a verage d i mens ions o f t he n u t le ts a re 1 . 7 -2 .3 x 1 . 2 -1 .4 x 1 . 0 -1 .2 mm ( P la te 9 . 5 : 1 ) . S ome s pec i mens w ere f ound c harred b ut , more f requen t ly , g rey o r wh i te . He lbaek n o ted t h is p henomenon a nd r e marked t ha t " on b urn ing t hey u sua l ly d o n o t t urn b lack , b u t t he o rgan ic ma t ter i sc onsumed a nd l e aves t he h eavy s eed c ase ( of c a lc ium c arbona te a nd s i l ica ) w i th a wh i t ish m inera l c harac ter ; v ery o f ten t he s eed i s f ound i ns ide , t urned b lack i n t he n orma l way " ( He lbaek 1 970 ) . Anc ien t wh i te s eeds o f o ther g enera o f t he f am i ly a re a l so k nown , i nc lud ing A lkanna , A nchusa ( Hansen a nd R enfrew 1 978 ) , B ug losso ides ( = L i thospermum ) , a nd H e l io trop ium

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( He lbaek 1 970 ) . The s pec ies was r epor ted f rom Neo l ith ic A swad a nd Ghora ife ( Ze is t a nd B akker Heeres 1 985 ) . A juga i v a , musky b ug le ( Lab ia tae ) . The n u t le ts measure 2 . 2 x0 . 9 mm ( P late 9 . 5 : 2 ) . They d iffer f rom t hose o f A . c h ia b y t he ir a lveo la te s urface . The ir c horo type i s Med iterranean ( Fe inbrun -Do than 1 978 ) . New t o a rchaeobo tan ica l l i terature . T eucr ium p o l ium , moun ta in g ermander ( Lab iatae ) . The n ut le ts measure 1 . 4 -1 .6 x 0 . 9 -1 .0 x 0 . 7 -1 .1 mm ( P la te 9 . 5 : 3 ) . The s pec ies i s v ery v ar iab le , i n b o th n ut le t s hape a nd s i ze . The r e la ted s pec ies T . l e ucoc ladum d oes n o t e x tend n or thward t o t he n or thern Negev ( Fe inbrun -Do than 1 975 ) . N ew t o a rchaeobo tan ica l l i terature . A sphode lus t e nu ifo l ius , n arrow l e aved a sphode l ( L i l iaceae ) . S eeds measure 1 . 7 -2 .0 x 1 . 1-1 .4 x 0 . 9 -1 .2 mm . The modern s eeds , t hough r a ther s im i lar , a re c harac ter is t ica l ly s ma l ler t han t ho se o f A . f i s tu losus . N ew t o a rchaeobo tan ica l l i terature . B rachypod ium d is tachyon , p urp le f a lse -brome ( Gram ineae ) . G ra ins a re s im i lar t o t hose o f s evera l B romus s pec ies , b u t more s l ender , 5 . 0 x1 . 2 x1 . 2 mm ( P late 9 . 5 : 5 ) . The s pec ies was a l so f ound a t Naha l Ya t t ir ( K is lev 1 986 ) . The i l lus tra ted g ra in a nd f lore t ( P late 9 . 5 : 6 ) w ere t aken f rom L ocus 4 02 ( No s . 1 3 a nd 1 5 ) n o t i nc luded i n T ab le 9 . 2 . Hordeum g laucum ( = H . mur inum sp . g laucum ) ( Gram ineae ) . T he g ra in , 2 . 7-2 .9 x 0 . 9 -1 .0 x 0 . 8 mm i s w edge shaped a nd c ompara t ive ly t h inner t han H . mar inum ( P late 9 . 6 : 4 ) . A vena w ies t i i ( Gram ineae ) . G ra ins 2 . 9 -3 .4 x 1 . 0 x0 . 8 -0 .9 mm . The g ra in h a irs c harac ter is t ic o f t he g enus s o me t imes s urv ive c harr ing . The s pec ies i s r ead i ly d is t ingu ished f rom o ther l oca l members o f t he g enus b y i t s s ma l l g ra ins ( P la te 9 . 6 : 1 ) . New i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i tera ture . P ha lar is m inor , l e sser c anary g rass ( Gram ineae ) . The g ra in 1 . 5 -1 .7 x 0 . 8 1 . 1 x0 . 5 -0 .8 mm i s +a s l ong a s t ha t o f P h . p aradoxa , b u t w ider ( P la te 9 . 6 : 2 ) . A w eed . I t was a l so f ound i n N i tzana , s ou thern I s rae l ( Er lanson a nd W i t trock 1 962 ) . C u tand ia m emph i t ica , memph is g ras s a nd C . d icho toma ( Gram ineae ) . 2 . 4 x0 . 7 x0 . 5 mm a nd 1 . 6 -1 .7 x 0 . 3 -0 .4 x 0 . 3 -0 .4 mm r e spec t ive ly . B o th s pec ie s a re p sammophy tes . The g ra in o f t he f ormer i s t yp ica l ly w ider a nd l onger t han t ha t o f t he l a t ter ( P late 9 . 6 : 3 ) . B o th a re n ew i n a rchaeobo tan ica l l i terature .

WE EDS A ND T HE CL IMATE O F CH ALCOL ITH IC SH I QM IM S h iqm im i s l ocated o n t he n or thern b ank o f t he Naha l B eersheva , c a 1 6 km w es t s ou thwes t o f B eersheva , s ou thern I s rae l , a t 1 80 m a bove s ea l eve l i n t he f oo th i l l z one ( s ee Chap ter 1 ) . The r eg ion i s b u i lt o f many s ma l l , r ound c ha lky h i l ls , c overed w i th l o ess s o i l , 0 -20 cm d eep . B e tween t he h i l ls a nd

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e spec ia l ly n ear t he wad i b ed t he s o i l i s much d eeper . T he mean a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion t oday i s a bou t 1 80 mm ( s ee Chap ter 2 f or a n o verv iew o f t he Ho locene p a leoc l ima te ) . T he n or thern N egev i s a r eg ion where f lora i s v ery s ens i t ive t o p rec ip i ta t ion r eg imes . Whereas n ear S h iqm im , s em i -de ser t v ege ta t ion c harac ter ize s t he r eg ion , o n ly c a . 1 0 km n or thward , Med i terranean f l ora b eg in s t o c over t he g round , a nd c a . 1 0 km s ou thward a S aharo -Arab ian c l ima te p reva i ls . T he d ifference s b e tween t he a verage a nnua l amoun t s o f r a in i n t he se r eg ions a re a pprox ima te ly 1 00 mm t o t he n or th a nd s o me 5 0 mm t o t he s ou th ( I srae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice 1 967 ) . O f t he 4 0 s pec ie s l i s ted i n T ab le 9 . 2 , s o me c an b e c ons idered a s c l ima t ic markers b ecause t he ir d is tr ibu t ion i s r e s tr ic ted t o e i ther d e ser t o r Med i terranean c ond i t ion s . T he se i nc lude A e l len ia a u tran i , S a l so la i n erm i s , S . v o lkens i i , C en taurea p a l lescens , a nd C u tand ia d icho toma wh ich f avour d e ser t t e rra in a nd d o n o t e x tend n or thward b eyond t he N egev . On t he o ther h and , M inuar t ia h ybr ida , A juga i v a , T eucr ium p o l ium , H ordeum s pon taneum , A vena s t er i l i s , a nd L o l ium t emu len tum n eed a dd i t iona l wa ter i n s em i -de ser t a reas a nd t herefore t end t o g row e i ther i n w ad i b eds o r i n o ther l ow p laces where r unoff w a ter c o l lec ts . G enera l ly , a t e ach l o cus a ny o f t he f ive a bove -men t ioned d eser t s pec ie s d oe s n o t a ppear a lone ( Tab le 9 . 2 ) . T he p resence o f a l l o f t hem ( Ae l len ia a u tran i i s t he mo s t a bundan t ) i n mo s t p hase s o f C ha lco l i th ic S h iqm im ( excep t B P I ) m eans t ha t t he a verage a nnua l r a infa l l c ou ld n o t h ave e xceeded 2 00 -250 mm ( Dan in 1 983 : F ig . 1 21 a nd p er s . c omm . ) . C onsequen t ly , t he c l ima te d ur ing t h i s p er iod w as n o t s i gn if ican t ly d ifferen t f rom t ha t o f t oday . Moreover , t he p re sence o f r emnan t s o f t he Med i terranean w eed s pec ies a nd t ho se o f T hyme laea h i r su ta s ugge4 t ha t f i e ld c rop s w ere g rown i n a n e co log ica l n iche w i th a dd i t iona l r unoff w a ter ( a mode l f or C ha lco l i th ic r unoff f arm ing i s p re sen ted i n C hap ter 4 ) .

TH E VE GETAL V ER SUS AN IMAL DI ET I n o rder t o b e t ter u nder s tand t he C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age p er iods , a nd i n p ar t icu lar t o e va lua te t he i mpor tance o f t he d ie tary c on sump t ion o f mea t a s w e l l a s m i lk a nd m i lk p roduc t s ( i .e . , t he " s econdary p roduc t s r evo lu t ion " , S herra t t 1 981) i n t he d i ifferen t r eg ions o f t he O ld Wor ld , i ti sf i rs t n eces sary t o e s t ima te t he r e la t ive a bundance o f a n ima ls e xp lo i ted f or h uman c onsump t ion . S imp le q uan t i ta t ive c ompar i son o f a n ima l a nd v ege tab le a rchaeo log ica l r emnan t s , e . g . i n t e rm s o f c a lor ie s , p ercen tage a nd q ua l i ty o f p ro te ins , e tc . , d oe s n o t t e l l u s much b ecau se i t s eem s t ha t t he ir c hances f or p reserva t ion a re n o t e qua l . F or e xamp le , i ti sd iff icu l t t o e va lua te t he r o le o f f i e ld c rop s i n t he d ie t o f t he c ommun i ty o f S h iqm im i n r e la t ion t o o ther f ood r e sources s uch a s m ea t a nd d a iry p roduc t s . A t oo l i sp resen ted h ere f or r ough e s t ima t ion o f t he f rac t ion o f a n ima ls c onsumed b y t he i nhab i tan t s o f as i te , b y s tudy ing t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he ma in v ege ta l f oods . When o n ly c erea ls a re c onsumed b y as oc ie ty , o ne mus t a s sume

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S h iqm im I

t ha t q uan t i t ies o f t he e s sen t ia l am ino a c id l y s ine , a s w e l l a s t hreon ine , v a l ine a nd i s o leuc ine a re i nsuff ic ien t . T herefore , c onsump t ion o f p ro te in s f rom a n ima ls mus t b e p o s tu la ted t o p rov ide t he m is s ing n u tr ien t s . A l so , when o n ly s ma l l q uan t i t ie s o f p u lse r emnan ts a re f ound , o ne may c onc lude t ha t t he c on sump t ion o f a n ima l f oods i s more p rom inan t t han when much p u l se s a re f ound . However , i n t abu la t ing s uch i nforma t ion , s ome d iff icu l t ies s hou ld b e o u t l ined : 1 . There a re a f ew s ource s o f a rchaeobo tan ica l d a ta wh ich i nc ludes c harred o r d e s icca ted r e mnan t s a s w e l l a s g ra in i mpres s ions i n s herds . G enera l ly , t he w e igh t o f t he s can ty e v idence f rom s herds i s , o f c our se , s ma l ler t han t ha t f rom f ood r e ma ins . 2 . R epor ted q uan t i ta t ive d a ta a s w e l l a s t he mere m en t ion o f t he p re sence o f p ar t icu lar c rop s a re g iven e qua l w e igh t i n T ab le 9 . 3 . 3 . On ly when d e ta i led amoun t s o f t he c rop r emnan t s a re f ound c an a d ec i s ion b e made a s t o whe ther a p ar t icu lar c u l t iva ted p lan t w as g rown s epara te ly o r whe ther i tg rew a s a n a dm ix ture i n t he f i e ld . T h is p henomenon i sw e l l k nown i n t r ad i t iona l a gr icu l ture . I n t he l a t ter c ase , e . g . t he s i x -rowed b ar ley f rom S h iqm im ( Tab le 9 . 1) , t he ir p re sence s hou ld b e d isregarded when l i s t ing s pec ie s c onsumed a s s t ap le f ood . 4 . On t he o ther h and , when o n ly a p lan t n ame i s g iven i n ar epor t , w i thou t f ur ther d e ta i ls , i ti s i mpo s s ib le t o d ec ide whe ther i tr epre sen t s a ma in c rop o r a n o ccas iona l f ind . 5 .S ome t imes o n ly o ne n ame o f ac u l t iva ted p lan t i sm en t ioned . I ts eem s t ha t a more d e ta i led r epor t o n s i te s s uch a s E r idu , Kü l tepe , R asm Harbu sh , T e l Ma so s , B ene B erak , e tc . w i l l p re sen t h igher n umber s . I n o ther c ases a n o b scure n ame i sg iven , i . e . v e tch , a s p ar t o f t he p lan t l i s t ( e .g . , Me l laar t 1 975 : 2 03 ) . A n umber o f c u l t iva ted a nd w i ld s pec ie s o f V ic ia a nd r e la ted g enera may h ave t h is c ommon n ame . O ccas iona l ly , t he i nve s t iga tor c hange s t he i den t if ica t ion s a nd c orrec t t hem i n l a ter p ub l ica t ions , e . g . t he b ar ley t ype o f S a l iago s a nd S e sk lo ( Renfrew 1 966 ; 1 968 ; 1 979 ) . G enera l ly , i n t he se c a se s t he l a s t i den t if ica t ion s hou ld b e t abu la ted . 6 . S ome o f t he a va i lab le d a ta may b e o ver seen , e . g . , t hree a dd i t iona l s i te s f rom E gyp t a re n o t i nc luded i n T ab le 9 . 3 : Mo s tagedda ( Brun ton 1 937 : 5 8 -60 , 9 1) , A rman t a nd Ma 'ad i ( Täckho lm a nd T äckho lm 1 941 : 2 42ff , 2 88 ) . I n e ach s i te b ar ley a nd emmer , a nd i n Mo s tagedda a l so s ycamore f ru i t s w ere f ound . T ab le 9 . 3 c omp i les t he a rchaeobo tan ica l i nforma t ion o n s i te s i n s ou thwes tern A s ia a nd t he s ou thern B a lkans , f rom I r an a nd T ranscaucasus t o G reece , f rom t h e Cha lco l i th ic p er iod i n i t s w ide mean ing ( 5 ,000 -3 ,200 B .C .E . i n u nca l ibra ted 14 C y ears . Two -rowed a nd s i x -rowed h u l led b ar ley a re i nc luded i n t he s a me c o lumn b ecause i t s eem s t ha t t he a gr icu l tura l t r ea tmen t a s w e l l a s f ood p roces s ing a nd t a s te a re e s sen t ia l ly t he s a me . A lso emmer , e inkorn a nd s pe l t a re t r ea ted a s o ne c rop f or t he s ame r easons , a nd p ar t icu lar ly a s t hey c ou ld h ave b een g rown t oge ther a s o ne c rop i n af i e ld ( Knorzer 1 979 ) .

2 62

Chap ter 9 : Cha lco l i th ic P lan t Husbandry a nd Anc ien t Vege ta t ion

F igure 9 . 1 a nd T ab le 9 . 3 r evea l t ha t t he i nforma t ion a va i lab le d oes n o t f u l ly r epresen t t he a rea , e ven when t he S yr ian , A rab ian a nd L ibyan d eser ts a re e xc luded . S yr ia , L ebanon a nd mos t p ar ts o f Turkey a re n o t r ecorded , i n c on tras t t o e igh t s i tes f rom I s rae l . However , f rom t h ir ty two s i tes where a rchaeobo tan ica l i nforma t ion i s a va i lab le , i t i s c l ear t ha t h u l led b ar ley ( twen ty -s ix s i tes ) a nd emmer ( twen ty -one s i tes ) a s w e l l a s l en t i l ( twe lve s i tes ) a nd p erhaps n aked whea t ( t en s i tes ) a re t he ma in c rops i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . The r e s t a re r eg iona l ( o l ive a nd p erhaps a l so n aked wheat ) o r o ccas iona l . I t s hou ld b e men t ioned h ere t ha t t he meagre e v idence o f mos t s pec ies o f p u lses : c h ickpea , c h ick l ing v e tch , b i t ter v e tch a nd h orsebean , a s w e l l a s n aked b ar ley means t ha t more work i s n eeded a t s i tes f rom t h is p er iod . F lax r e mnants a re n o t i nc luded i n T ab le 9 . 3 b ecause i t s ma in u se i s n o t f ood . A l so , v ege tab le r e ma ins s uch a s o n ion a nd g ar l ic ( Za itchek 1 961 ; 1 980 ) w ere n o t c a lcu la ted b ecause t he ir c hances f or p reservat ion a re v ery p oor . The a verage n umber o f e d ib le f i e ld c rop s pec ies i s v ery s ma l l , o n ly t hree p er s i te . The mos t c ommon v ege ta l p ar t o f t he d ie t c ons is ts o f t wo c erea ls : h u l led t wo -rowed b ar ley a nd h u l led whea t - emmer , a s we l l a s o ne p u lse - l en t i l . A s im i lar p ic ture i s s een i n t he c on temporaneous t h ir ty -four s i tes o f t he B andkeram ic c u l ture o f Wes t Germany , where h u l led whea t ( emmer a nd e inkorn ) , b ar ley a nd p ea ( l ess l en t i l ) a re mo s t i mpor tant ( Körber -Grohne 1 981 : F ig . 2 1) . Apparen t ly , t he s a me t ype o f a gr icu l ture was p rac t iced i n s im i lar c u l tures i n Yugos lav ia , B u lgar ia , Hungary a nd Ho l land ( Bake Is 1 978 ; Har tyäny i a nd Noväk i 1 975 ; R enfrew 1 979 ) . The n arrow v ar ie ty o f f i e ld c rops i n t he Cha lco l i th ic wor ld ( ca 5 , 000 -3 ,200 B .C .E . ) may b e c ompared t o t he v ery s ma l l n umber o f r um inan ts c ommon ly r a ised f or mea t p roduc t ion i n a nc ien t a nd i n modern t imes -c a t t le , s heep a nd g oats , a s w e l l a s p igs . There a re d ifferences i n c rop t ypes b e tween t he r eg ions a nd s ubreg ions o f t he a gr icu l turea l wor ld o f t he e ar ly 4 th a nd 5 th m i l lenn ia B .C .E . E inkorn a nd p ea wh ich a re r egu lar ly f ound i n c en tra l E urope a re r are i n o ur r eg ion ( F ig . 9 . 1) . The f i rs t i s f ound o n ly i n G reece a nd Georg ia a nd t he s econd i n G reece a nd Ana to l ia . The t wo s pec ies ( a s w e l l a s s pe l t whea t i n l a ter t imes ) h ave a n or thern d is tr ibu t ion . F ru i ts a re mos t f requen t i n I s rae l a nd J ordan ( 38% o r 1 0 o u t o f 2 6 r ecords ) , l e ss f requen t i n s ou thern Me sopo tam ia a nd G reece ( ca . 1 0 ) a nd a b sen t i n t he r e ma inder o f t he s ubreg ions . Th is means t ha t t he mass ive s pread o f h or t icu l ture o f o l ive , d a te , f ig , e tc . h ad n o t y e t b egun . P u lses a re mos t i mpor tan t i n s ou theas tern Anato l ia ( 46% o r 6o u t o f 1 3 r ecords ) a nd G reece ( 28% o r 5o u t o f 1 8 r ecords ) , b u t l e ss i mpor tant i n t he o ther r eg ions (

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C hap ter 9 :C ha lco l i th ic P lan t Hu sbandry a nd Anc ien t V ege ta t ion

R EFERENCES t o T ABLE 9 .3

1 .

H ole a nd F lannery,

2 .

H elbaek,

1 969,

3 .

H elbaek,

1 960a.

4 .

Z ohary a nd S piegel-Roy,

5 -7.

M ellaart,

8 .

R usishvili,

9 .

M ellaart,

1 975,

1 0.

H elbaek,

1 960b.

1 1.

M allowan a nd R ose,

1 2.

B akhteyev a nd Y anushevich,

1 3.

Z eist,

1 4-15.

Z eist a nd B akker Heeres,

1 6.

E pstein,

1 7.

G ophna a nd K islev,

1 8.

L ee,

1 9.

Z aitschek,

2 0.

L iphschitz a nd W aisel,

2 1.

Z aitschek,

2 2.

N egbi,

2 3.

S hiqmim,

2 4.

Z aitschek,

2 5.

B runton a nd C aton-Thompson,

2 6.

C aton-Thompson,

2 7.

W erth,

2 8.

R enfrew,

2 9.

H ansen a nd R enfrew,

3 0.

H opf,

3 1.

R enfrew ,

1 966;

3 2.

R enfrew,

1 979.

p .

1 975,

1 967,

1 92.

P .

3 91.

p .

1 984,

1 975.

2 03. p p.

p .

2 3-30.

2 03.

1 935,

p p.

1 4-15.

1 980.

1 980. 1 975.

1 978, n ote 2 .

1 973, p .303; 1 961;

1 979. Z ohary a nd S piegel-Roy,

1 975;

K islev u npublished.

1 980. 1 983.

1 959.

1 955. t his v olume. 1 954,

n ote 2 0. 1 928;

1 934.

1 939. 1 968;

1 979. 1 978.

1 961. 1 979.

2 73

T äckholm a nd T äckholm,

1 941.

S h iq m im I

T ABLE 9 .4 D imensions

( in m m) a nd

L L OCUS

6 55

i ndex v alues o f H ordeum d istichon

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6 .7

3 .5

2 .9

2 33

2 74

1 13

Chap ter 9 : Cha lco l ith ic P lan t Husbandry a nd Anc ient Vege ta t ion

BI BL IOGRAPHY

B ake ls , C .C . 1 978 F our L inearbankeram ik S e t t lemen ts a nd t he ir E nv ironmen t : A P a leoeco log ica l S tudy o f S i t tard , S te in , E ls loo a nd H ienhe im . L e iden : Un ivers ity P ress . B akh teyev , F .K . a nd Yanushev ich , Z .V . 1 980 D iscover ies o f c u l t iva ted p lan t s i n t he e ar ly f arm ing s e t t lemen ts o f Yarym -Tepe I a nd Yarym -Tepe I i n n or thern I raq . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 7 : 1 67 -178 . B run ton , G . 1 937 Mos tagedda a nd t h e T as ian C u l ture . E xped i t ion t o M idd le E gyp t .

L ondon : B r it ish Museum

B run ton , G . a nd C a ton -Thompson , G . 1 928 T he B adar ian C iv i l iza t ion a nd P redynas t ic R ema ins n ear B adar i , Ch . X IX . L ondon : B r it ish S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n E gyp t . P p . 6 2 -63 . B uurman , J . 1 979 C erea ls i n c i rc les - c rop p rocess ing a c t iv it ies i n B ronze Age B ovenkarspe l ( t he Ne ther lands ) . A rchaeo -Phys ika 8 :2 1-37 . C a ton -Thomp son , G . a nd Gardner , E .G . 1 934 T he D eser t F ayum , Vo l . I , Ch . X . I ns t i tu te . P p . 4 6 -49 .

L ondon : Roya l An thropo log ica l

Dan in , A . 1 983 D eser t V ege ta t ion o f I s rae l a nd S ina i . House .

J erusa lem : C ana P ub l ish ing

D an in , A . , O rshan , G . a nd Z ohary , M . 1 975 The v ege tat ion o f t he n or thern Negev a nd t he J udean Deser t o f I s rae l . I s rae l J ourna l o f B o tany 2 4 : 18 -172 . D an in , A . , S hm ida , A . , a nd L is ton , A . 1 985 C ontr ibu t ion t o t he f lora o f S ina i , I I . Check l is t o f t he s pec ies c o l lec ted a nd r ecorded b y t he J erusa lem t eam , 1 967 -1982 . W i l ldenow ia 1 5 : 2 55 -322 . E p s te in , C . 1 978 A n ew a spec t o f Cha lco l i th ic c u lture . S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 29 : 2 7 -45 . E r lanson , C .O . a nd W it trock , G .L . 1 962 B o tan ica l s pec imens . I n H .D . C o lt ( ed ) L ondon : C o l t A rchaeo log ica l I ns t i tu te . P p . 2 58 .

2 75

B u l le t in o f t he Amer ican

Excava t ions a t N essana .

S h iqm im I

F e inbrun -Do than , N . 1 978 -1986 F lora P a laes t ina , P ar ts 3 -4 . S c iences a nd Human i t ies . F oaden , G .P . a nd F le tcher , F . 1 910 T ex t -Book o f E gyp t ian Depar t men t . Gophna , R . a nd K is lev , M . 1 979 T e l S af ( 1977 -1978 ) .

J erusa lem : The I s rae l A cademy o f

A gr icu l ture .

C a iro :

Nat iona l

P r in t ing

R evue B ib l ique 8 6 : 12 -114 .

G reuter , W . , B urde t , H .M . a nd L ong , G . 1 984 Med -Check l is t , V o l . I . Geneve : C onserva to ire e t J ard in B o tan iques d e l a V i l le d e Geneve . Hansen , J .a nd Renfrew , J .M . 1 978 P a laeo l i th ic -Neo l i th ic s eed r e ma ins a t F ranch th i c ave , G reece . Na ture 2 71 : 3 49 -352 . Har tyany i , B .P . a nd Noväk i , G . 1 975 S a men - u nd F ruch tfunde i n Ungarn v on d er Neus te inze i t b i s z um 1 8 . J ahrhunder t . Agrär tbr time t i S zem le 1 7 , S upp lement . He lbaek , H . 1 960a E co log ica l e ffec ts o f i r r iga t ion i n a nc ien t Mesopo tam ia . 1 86 -196 . 1 960b Anc ien t c rops i n t he S hahrzoor v a l ley i n I raq i Kurd is tan . 1 6 : 7 9 -81 .

I raq 2 2 :

S umer

1 966 The p lan t r e ma ins f rom N imrud . I n M .E .L . Ma l Iowan N imrud a nd i t s R ema ins , I . L ondon : C o l l ins . P p . 6 13 -620 .

( ed )

1 969 P lan t c o l lec t ing , d ry -farm ing a nd i r r iga t ion a gr icu lture i n p reh is tor ic D eh L uran . Append ix I i n F . Ho le , K .V . F lannery a nd J .A . Nee ly ( eds ) P reh is tory a nd Human E co logy o f t h e D eh L uran P la in . Memo irs o f t he Museum o f An thropo logy , Un ivers ity o f M ich igan 1 : 3 83 -426 . 1 970 The p lan t h usbandry o f Hac i lar . I n J . Me l laar t ( ed ) Excava t ions a t Hac i lar I . E d inburgh : Un ivers i ty P ress . P p . 1 89 -244 . H i l l man , G . 1 984 I nterpre tat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l p lan t r e ma ins : t he a pp l ica t ion o f e thnograph ic mode ls f rom Turkey . I n W . v an Z e is t a nd W .A . C aspar ie ( eds ) , P lan ts a nd A nc ien t Man . Ro t terdam a nd B os ton : B a lkema . P p . 1 41 . Ho le , F . a nd F lannery , K .V . 1 967 The p reh is tory o f s ou thwes tern I ran : A p re l im inary P roceed ings o f t h e P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 3 3 : 1 47 -206 .

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Hopf , M . 1 961

P f lanzenfunde a us L erna/Argo l is .

I s rae l A t las 1 963 A t las ( Hebrew ) .

o f

I s rae l

( 1 s t

c d ) .

d er Züch ter 3 1 : 2 39 -247 .

J erusa lem :

Makh leke t

Ha Med ido t .

I s rae l Me teoro log ica l S erv ice 1 967 C l ima to log ica l s t andard n orma ls o f r a infa l l , 1 931-1960 . (M e teoro log ica l N o tes) 2 1 .

S er ies A

J ensen , H .A . 1 985 C a ta logue o f l a te - a nd p os t -g lac ia l macrofoss i ls o f S permatophy ta f rom D enmark , S ch lesw ig , S can ia , Ha l land , a nd B lek inge d ated 1 3 ,000 B .P . t o 1 536 A .D . Danmarks G eo log iske U ndersoge l se , S er . A6 : 1 -95 . K is lev , M .E . 1 980 T r i t icum p arv icoccum s p . n ov . , t he o ldes t n aked whea t . J ourna l o f B o tany 2 8 : 9 5 -107 . 1 986 A b ar ley s t ore o f t he B ar -Kochba r ebe ls ( Roman p er iod ) . J ourna l o f B o tany 3 5 : 1 83 -196 .

I s rae l

I s rae l

F or thcom ing . D es iccated p lan t r e ma ins f rom Naha l Hemar : a n i n ter im r epor t . A t iqo t . Knörzer , K .H . 1 979 Über d en Wande l d er a ngebauten Körnerfrüch te u nd i hrer Unkrau tvege tat ion a uf e iner n iederrhe in ischen L össf läche s e it d em F rühneo l i th ikum . A rchaeo -Phys ika 8 : 1 47 -163 . Korber -Grohne , U . 1 981 P f lanz l iche Abdrücke i n e i senze i t l icher Keram ik -Sp iege lb i ld d ama l iger Nu tzpf lanzen? F undber ich te a us B aden -W i ir t temberg 6 : 1 65 2 11 . L ee , R . 1 973 Cha lco l i th ic Ghassu l : New A spec ts a nd Mas ter Typo logy . Thes is . J erusa lem : The Hebrew Un ivers ity . L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 985 S h iqm im : a Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage n or thern Negev . P a lior ien t 1 : 7 1-83 .

a nd

mor tuary

c entre

P h .D .

i n

t he

L iphsch i tz , N . a nd Wa ise l , Y . 1 983 Ana lys is o f b o tan ica l ma ter ia l . I n V . F r i tz a nd A . Kemp insky ( eds ) , E rgebn isse d er A usgrabungen a uf d er H irbe t e l -M . ;all ( T e l Masos) , 1 972 -1975 . W iesbaden : O t to Harrassow i tz . P p . 2 08 -213 . Ma l Iowan , M .E .L . a nd Ro se , J .C . 1 933 E xcava t ions a t T e l l A rpach iyah .

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I raq 2 : 1 178 .

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Mann , H .H . 1 947 P u lse g ra in c rops i n t he M idd le Exper imen ta l Agr icu l ture 1 5 : 2 49 -259 . Me l laar t , J . 1 975

T he N eo l i th ic o f t h e N ear E as t .

E as t .

Emp ire

J ourna l

o f

L ondon : Thames a nd Hudson .

Negb i , M . 1 955 The b o tan ica l f inds a t T e l l Abu Ma tar , n ear B eer sheba . Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 :2 57 -258 .

I s rae l

Negb i , M . a nd T amar i , B . 1 963 Germ ina t ion o f c h lorophy l lous a nd a ch lorophy l lous s eeds o f S a l so la v o lkens i i a nd A e l len ia a u tran i . I s rae l J ourna l o f B o tany 1 2 : 1 24 1 35 . R enfrew , J .M . 1 966 A r epor t o n r ecen t f inds o f c arbon ized c erea l g ra ins a nd s eeds f rom p reh is tor ic Thessa ly . T hessa l ika 5 :2 1-36 . 1 968 The c erea l r e ma ins . I n C . R enfrew a nd J .D . E vans ( eds ) , Excava t ions a t S a l iagos n ear A n t iparos . L ondon : Thames a nd Hudson . P p . 1 39 -141 . 1 979

The f i rs t f armers i n s ou theas t E urope .

A rchaeo -Phy s ika 8 :2 43 -265 .

Rus ishv i l i , N . 1 984 The Ho locene v ege ta t ion o f t he v a l leys a nd p ied mon ts o f Kvemo Kar t l i . I n T .N . Chub in ishv i l i , e t a l ( eds ) , C he lovek O kruzhayushchaya E go S reda ( " Man a nd h i s S urround ing" ) . Tb i l is i : Me tznyereba .(Russ ian ) . P p . 1-33 . S herra t t , A . 1 981 P lough a nd p as tora l ism : a spec ts o f t he s econdary p roduc ts r evo lu t ion . I n I . Hodder , G . I s aac a nd N . Hammond ( eds ) , P a t terns o f t h e P as t : S tud ies i n Honour o f Dav id C larke . C ambr idge : The Un ivers i ty P ress . P p . 2 61-305 . S h imsh i , D . 1 971 P opu la t ion d ynam ic s o f A e l len ia h i erochun t ica ( Bornm . ) Ae l len . I s rae l J ourna l o f B o tany 2 0 : 4 4 -47 . T äckho lm , V . a nd T äckho lm , G . 1 941 F lora o f E gyp t I .C a iro : F uad IUn ivers i ty . Werker , E . a nd Many , T . 1 974 He terocarpy a nd i t s o n togeny i n A e l len ia a u tran i ( Po s t ) Z oh . L igh t - a nd e l ec tron - m icroscope s tudy . I s rae l J ourna l o f B o tany 2 3 : 1 32 1 44 .

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Wer th , E . 1 939 Emmer u nd Gers te a us d em 5 J ahr tausend v . Chr . u nd a ndere v orgesch ich t l iche Ku lturpf lanzenfunde . B er ich te d er D eu tschen B o tan ischen G ese l lschaf t 5 7 ( 9 ) . Z a i tschek , D .V . 1 954 R ema ins o f c u lt iva ted p lan ts f rom A fu la . 1 959 R ema ins o f c u l t iva ted p lan ts ( Pre l im inary n o te ) . A t iqo t 2 :4 8 -52 .

A t iqo t 1 :7 1-74 .

f rom Horva t

B e ter

( Beersheba )

1 961 R ema ins o f c u l t iva ted p lan ts f rom t he c aves o f Naha l M ish mar : p re l im inary n o te . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 1 : 7 0 -72 . 1 980 P lan t r e ma ins f rom t he C ave o f t he T reasure . I n P . B ar Adon ( ed ) , T he C ave o f t h e T reasure . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . P p . 2 23 . Z e is t , W . v an 1 980 P lan t r ema ins f rom G ir ik ihac iyan , Turkey .

A na to l ica 7 :7 5 -89 .

1 981 P lan t r e ma ins f rom C ape Andreas -Kas tros ( Cyprus ) . I n A . L e B run ( ed ) , U n s i te n&i l i th ique p ri ci ram ique e n C ypre : C ap A ndreas Kas tros . P ar is : E d i t ions A .D .P .F . Z e is t , W . v an a nd B akker Heeres , J .A .H . 1 975 P reh is tor ic a nd e ar ly h is tor ic p lan t h usbandry i n t he A lt inova P la in , s ou theas tern Turkey . I n M .N . v an L oon ( ed ) Korucu tepe I . Ams terdam -Oxford : Nor th Ho l land P ub l ish ing C o . P p . 2 22 -257 . 1 985 A rchaeobo tan ica l s tud ies i n t he L evant I . Neo l i th ic s i tes i n t he Damascus b as in : A swad , Ghora ife , Ramad . P a laeoh i s tor ia 2 4 : 1 65 -256 . Z e is t , W . v an a nd Wa terbo lk -van Roo i jen , W . 1 985 The p a laeobo tany o f T e l l B ouqras , e as tern S yr ia . 1 31-147 . Z ohary , D . a nd S p iege l -Roy , P . 1 975 B eg inn ings o f f ru i t g row ing i n t he o ld wor ld . 3 27 . Z ohary , M . 1 966 -1972 F lora P a laes t ina , P ar ts 1 2 . o f S c iences a nd Human it ies . 1 976

AN ew A na ly t ica l F lora o f I s rae l .

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S c ience 1 87 : 3 19 -

J erusa lem : The I s rae l A cademy

T e l Av iv : Am Oved . ( Hebrew ) .

Chap ter 1 0

THE CHIPPED STONE I NDUSTRY AT SHIQ M IM : TYPOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

b y T homas E . L evy N e lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy H ebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f R e l ig ion J erusa lem a nd S teven A . Ro sen A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l J erusa lem

I N TRODUCT ION The i n ten t o f t h is c hap ter i s t o p rov ide a t ypo log ica l d e scr ip t ion o f t he f l in t a s semb lage f rom t he 1 983 e xcava t ion s eason a t S h iqm im . Un l ike mo s t e ar l ier work o n C ha lco l i th ic c h ipped s t one a s semb lage s ( e .g . , Nasara l lah , N evuv i l le 1 934 , L ee 1 973 , Mahan 1 940 , P erro t 1 955 , Y e iv in 1 959 ) , t he c o l lec t ion f rom S h iqm im i nc ludes n on s tandard ized t oo ls , d eb i tage , a nd e l emen ts wh ich i n t he p a s t h ave r are ly b een s y s tema t ica l ly c o l lec ted , c las s if ied o r s tud ied . T he i ncorpora t ion o f t hese t ype s , a long w i th w as te , i n to t he a na ly s is o f t he C ha lco l i th ic f l in t i ndus try a dd s s i gn if ican t ly t o t he p er spec t ives f rom wh ich w e may v iew t h is i mpor tan t c omponen t o f C ha lco l i th ic ma ter ia l c u l ture . S ome o f t he i mp l ica t ions o f t h is e xpanded d a ta b a se a re e xp lored i n t h is c hap ter a nd C hap ter 1 . H ere w e wou ld l i ke t o p re sen t s evera l p re l im inary p o in t s c oncern ing t he a na lys is o f t he 1 983 l i th ic a s semb lage f rom S h iqm im . T he c h ipped s t one a s semb lage a t S h iqm im c an b e d iv ided r ough ly i n to t wo g roup s , was te a nd t oo ls , b o th o f wh ich c an b e f ur ther s ubd iv ided i n a h ierarch ica l s cheme who se l ower l eve ls a re i nd iv idua l t ype s o f t oo l s o r w as te , a nd u l t ima te ly , i nd iv idua l a t tr ibu tes wh ich d ef ine t ho se t ype s ( F ig . 1 0 .1) . T h is c oncep tua l f ramework i s i mpor tan t s i nce i t i s t he i n termed ia te l eve ls o f t he h ierarchy wh ich r ef lec t c u l ture a nd s oc ie ty n o t d irec t ly r e la ted t o u t i l i tar ian f unc t ion ( c f . C o l l ins 1 975 ; Ammerman a nd Andref sky 1 982 ) . I t s hou ld b e n o ted , t ha t e ven t hough t h i s h ierarch ica l s cheme i s e s sen t ia l ly b a sed o n t echno log ica l s t age s o f l i th ic r educ t ion , t o ad egree t hese s t age s c an b e mapped o n to o ther d i mens ions o f h uman s oc ia l s t ruc ture . T hus , f or e xamp le , t he s ma l l f l ake t oo ls , a l though d ef ined t e chno log ica l ly , a l so r ef lec t g enera l d ome s t ic f unc t ions , w i th t he s pec ia l ized t oo l t ypes p roduced o n b lade s , b lade le t s , o r

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l a rge p r imary f l ake s , manufac tured a ccord ing t o s pec if ic t echno log ica l c r i ter ia , a re t he p roduc t s o f c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion a nd s e rved v ery s pec if ic f unc t ions . T o t h is e nd , r ecovery t e chn ique s a t S h iqm im emphas ized t he c o l lec t ion o f a l l f l in t . C omp le te s i ev ing u s ing a 3 mm s c reen w as c arr ied o u t o n a l l s urface d epo s i t s a nd f loor s d ur ing t he 1 983 e xcava t ion a t t he s i te . S or t ing b e tween a r t ifac tua l a nd n on -ar t ifac tua l f l in t w a s c arr ied o u t i n t he l abora tory . T h is emphas i s o n t he c o l lec t ion o f a l l l i th ic ma ter ia l s a l low s f or t he c harac ter iza t ion o f t he d eb i tage a s semb lage , t he a d h oc t oo l a s semb lage , a s w e l l a s p rov id ing a p er spec t ive f or e xam ina t ion a nd c ompar ison t he c la s s ic t oo l t ype s . F ur thermore , b ased o n t h is s tudy a nd o ther s tud ie s f rom t he B eer S heva b as in i tn ow s eem s i mprec ise t o r efer t o t he S h iqm im f l in t i nds tu try u nder t he r ubr ic " Gha s su l ian " . T hus , w e w i l l r efer t o t he S h iqm im a s semb lage a s b e long ing t o t he B eer S heva C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture . DE SCR IPT IVE TY POLOGY 1 .D eb i tage a ) F lakes D eb i tage i s d iv ided i n to t he f o l low ing f ive s ub -c las se s : p la in f l ake s , p r imary f l ake s , b lades a nd b lade s egmen t s , b lade le ts a nd c ore t r imm ing e l emen ts . E ach o f t he se e xh ib i t ab u lb o f p ercus s ion e xcep t when t he b u lb h as b een b roken o ff ( Brad ley 1 975 ; T ixer e t a l 1 980 ) . P la in f l akes a re a l l f l akes n o t f i t t ing i n to o ther c a tegor ies ( Ro sen 1 983 :116 ) . P r imary f l akes a re t ho se s how ing a t l e as t 2 5% c or tex o n t he d orsa l s urface . I n t he p re l im inary s tudy p resen ted h ere , p r imary f l akes w ere c l a s s if ied t oge ther w i th p la in f l akes . T he S h iqm im f l in t i ndus try c an b e c l a ss if ied a s af l ake b ased i ndus try . B lade s a re d ef ined a ccord ing t he c r i ter ion e s tab l ished i n P a leo l i th ic f l in t t oo l s tud ie s ( e .g . , T ix ier 1 963 ) . B lade s mus t b e t w ice a s l ong a s t hey a re w ide , measur ing a long t he s t r ik ing a x is o f t he f l ake . B lade s egmen t s a re s imp ly s napped b lade s . I n t he s tudy p re sen ted h ere , t hese t wo c a tegor ies w ere c l a ss if ied t oge ther . A ccord ing t o T ix ier ( 1963 ) , b lade le t s a re n o w ider t han 1 2 mm when u nre touched a nd s how a l eng th/w id th r a t io o f g rea ter t han 2 . 0 . A s Ro sen ( 1983 :118 ) p o in ts o u t , t he b order b e tween b lade s a nd b lade le ts i n t he p ro toh is tor ic p er iod s i sa n a rb i tary o ne . C ore t r imm ing e l emen t s a re t ho se f l ake s r emoved f rom t he c ore b y a t r ansver sa l b low a cro s s t he s t r ik ing p la tform . T h is i s d one t o d ecrease t he a ng le o f t he p la tform i n r e la t ion t o t he f l ak ing s urface , t o p repare a no ther p la tform , o r t o s t ra igh ten t he p la tform . I n g enera l t hey may b e s ub -d iv ided i n to r idge b lades , c ore t ab le ts a nd o ther e l emen t s .

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b ) D ebr i s Amorphous d ebr is w as d iv ided i n to t wo c a tegor ie s : c h ip s ( sma l ler t han 5 mm i n max imum d iame ter ) a nd c hunks wh ich a re l a rger t han t h is . T he r e la t ive ly s ma l l n umber o f c h ip s ( N = 4 22 ) i n t he S h iqm im a s semb lage i nd ica tes t ha t h ea t f rac ture was n o t a n i mpor tan t p roce s s u sed i n t oo l manufac ture a t t he s i te . c ) C ores The c ores f ound a t S h iqm im c an b e d iv ided i n to f our b as ic t ype s : n odu lar f l ake c ore s , n odu lar m ixed b lade/f lake c ore s , b lade c ore s , a nd b lade le t c ore s . N odu lar f lake c ores ( N =1 , 029 ; F ig s . 1 0 .20 :2 ,3 ; 1 0 .21 :1 ,2 ,3 ; 1 0 .22 :1) Nodu lar f l ake c ores a re a d h oc c ore s u sua l ly made o n w ad i c obb le s . They s how a h igh d egree o f h inge f rac ture w i th b e tween o ne a nd t hree s t r ik ing p la tform s . G enera l ly , t hese c ore s a re s ma l ler t han 1 0 cm i n d imens ions . M ixed b lade/f lake c ores ( N =6 0 ) Nodu lar m ixed b lade/f lake c ore s a re s im i lar t o n odu lar f l ake c ore s , b u t s how s o me b lade r emova ls .

B lade c ores ( N =2 ; F ig s . 1 0 .19 :1 ,2 ,3 ; 1 0 .20 :1) L ike t he f l ake c ore s , t he b lade c ore e xamp le s f rom S h iqm im a re made o n wad i c obb les . T he l a rge q uan t i ty o f c or tex t o n t hese c ore s s how s t ha t t hey were n o t f u l ly u t i l ized . T he a verage l eng th o f t he S h iqm im e xamp le s i s 6 0 mm . L ike t he b lade le t c ore s , t hey a re s i ng le p la tform a nd p yram ida l i n s hape . The t wo e xamp les f rom S h iqm im a re i den t ica l t o t he b lade c ore s f ound i n a budance a t C ha lco l i th ic s i tes a long t he l ower Naha l B e sor ( Wad i G aza ) ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :70 -73 ; Macdona ld e t a l 1 932 ) . ( No te t ha t a l though f our b lade c ores a re i lus tra ted , o n ly t wo c ome f rom t he 1 983 c o l lec t ion ) .

B lade le t C ores ( N =2 ) A s n o ted b y Ro shwa lb ( 1981 :64 ) , b lade le t c ore s a re a lmo s t e xc lus ive ly o f t he f ine g ra ined g rey o r c arme l f l in t , wh ich when k napped p roduces a t h in t rans lucen t f l ake . T he S h iqm im b lade le t c ore s h ave a n a verage l eng th o f 2 7 mm . T hese c ore s a re s i ng le p la tform a nd p yram ida l i n f orm . On t hese s ing le p la tform c ore s , t he t h icke s t p ar t o f t he c ore c o inc ide s w i th t he s t r ik ing p la tform . A s s hown b y Ro shwa lb ( i b id ) , t he s t r ik ing p la tform i sa lmo s t a lways s moo th .

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2 . To m as 1 .C ore T oo l s ( N =9 6 ) T he t e rm c ore t oo l i s ac a tch -a l l t e rm f or a l l t ho se t oo ls v ar ious ly c a l led a xe , a dze , c h i se l , a nd p ick ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :45 ) . A s h igh l igh ted b y Roshwa lb , t here i s l i t t le c ons is tency i n t he u se o f t he se t e rm s b y a na lys ts i nvo lved i n t he s tudy o f C ha lco l i th ic f l in t t oo ls . C ore t oo ls a re c l as s if ied o n t he b a s is o f s hape . T he d iagno s t ic f ea ture s u sed i n t he s tudy o f c ore t oo ls i nc lude : s i ze , p rof i le , o u t l ine a nd c ro ss sec t ion . I n t he c l a s s if ica t ion p re sen ted h ere , c ro s s sec t ion a nd o u t l ine w ere t he p r imary e l emen t s u sed i n t oo l d ef in i t ion . A s u sed h ere , t he n ame s a xe , a dze , c h ise l , a nd p ick a re i n tended o n ly a s d e scr ip t ive t e rm s , a nd a re n o t mean t t o i mp ly f unc t ion , a l though c er ta in ly f unc t iona l d ifference s c er ta in ly e x i s t . We wou ld h ope i n t he f u ture t ha t e dgewear s tud ies w i l l b e c arr ied o u t o n t hese a nd o ther t oo ls a long t he l i ne s p ropo sed , f or e xamp le , b y Kee ley ( 1980 ) a nd T r ingham e t a l ( 1974 ) t o b e t ter e luc ida te t he f unc t ion o f t he se t oo l s . C ore t oo ls o r b ifac ia l t oo ls a re made o n t h ick f l ake s , f l in t n odu les o r c ore s b y b ifac ia l f l ak ing . A ccord ing t o e thnograph ic a ccoun t s ( Forde 1 963 ) t he se wou ld h ave n orma l ly b een h af ted i n wooden o r b one h and les a nd u sed p r imar i ly f or h oe ing , c hopp ing , o r p o s s ib ly w arfare a c t iv i t ie s . T hese t oo l s a re k nown f rom a s e ar ly a s t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i n t he L evan t ( Bar -Yosef 1 981 ; C auv in 1 968 ; C rowfoo t 1 935 ; C rowfoo t -Payne 1 983 ; N euv i l le 1 930 ; P erro t 1 968 ; S teke l is 1 950 -51 , 1 972 ) . C ore t oo ls e xh ib i t l ong i tud ina l o r t r ansver sa l f l ak ing s car s o n t he work ing e dge . On t ho se t oo ls manufac tured o n c ore s , t he o b l ique s t r ik ing p la tform o n t he c ore i su sua l ly u sed a s a work ing e dge . The f o l low ing i s ab r ief d e scr ip t ion o f t he ma in c ore t oo l t ype s f ound a t S h iqm im .

a ) A dzes

( N =3 8 ; F ig . 1 0 .13 :2 )

T he se t oo ls h ave a n a symme tr ic c ro s s sec t ion wh ich i s u sua l ly t r apezo ida l o r t r iangu lar , ar e su l t o f t he l ower l o ca t ion o f t he work ing e dge r e la t ive t o t he c ro s s sec t ion . L ee ( 1973 ) h as s ugge s ted t ha t t h is i s i nd ica t ive o f p erpend icu lar h af t ing , r ef lec t ing t he t oo ls ' f unc t ion a s a dze s a s o pposed t o a xe s . T he w ides t p ar t o f t he t oo l i s a t t he work ing e dge t i p wh ich c an b e s l igh t ly c onvex o r s t ra igh t . O ccas iona l ly t he t i p o f work ing e dge i sg round .

b ) A xes ( N =5 4 ; F ig s . 1 0 .13 :1 ; 1 0 .14 :1 ,2 ; 1 0 .15 :1 ; 1 0 .16 :1 ,3 ) Axe s a re b ifac ia l t oo ls who se c ro s s sec t ions a re g enera l ly s y me tr ic a nd b iconvex . Un l ike a dze s , work ing e dges a re s y mme tr ic w i th r e spec t t o t he c ro s s sec t ion , a nd a re o f ten ( bu t n o t a lways ) p roduced b y r emova l o f a t r ansverse f l ake ( F ig s . 1 0 .14 :2 a nd 1 0 .17 :2 ) T he l a tera l e dge s o f a xes a re c onvex a nd may d iverge t oward t he work ing e dge o f t he t oo l , l eav ing t he work ing e dge s omewha t w ider t han t he b ody o f t he t oo l . O ther s may s how c onvergen t s i des , l e av ing a w ork ing e dge s l igh t ly n arrower t han t he b ody o f t he p iece ( c f .

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Ro shwa lb 1 981 :45 ) . ( F ig . 1 0 .13 :1) .

The work ing e dges o f t hese t oo ls a re o ccas iona l ly g round

c ) C h ise l s ( N =4 , F igs . 1 0 .16 :2 , 1 0 .17 :1 ,2 ) . Neuv i l le ( 1934 ) r eferred t o c h ise ls a s o ne o f t he mos t c harac ter is t ic t oo ls o f t he Ghassu l ian f l in t i ndus try a t T e le i la t Ghassu l , a nd t oday , t hese t oo ls a re c ons idered t ype f oss i ls o f t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . The l a tera l e dges o f c h ise ls a re s ub -para l le l , a l though t hey may c onverge a t t he b ut t o f t he t oo l . The e s sen t ia l d ifference b e tween t hese t oo ls a nd a xes i s t hus t he g enera l s hape o f t he t oo l . Occas iona l ly , t he work ing e dge o f t hese t oo ls a re p o l ished p rov id ing t he c lass ic " Ghassu l ian " c h ise l .

2 .M isce l laneous T r immed P ieces ( N =4 253 ; F ig . 1 0 .22 :2 ) M isce l laneous t r immed p ieces a re f l akes o r b lades w i th m inor r e touch o r u t i l iza t ion d amage wh ich d o n o t f a l l i n to s t andard ized t oo l c a tegor ies . They a re b y f ar t he mos t n umerous t oo ls r ecovered i n t he S h iq m im e xcava t ions .

3 .C hoppers ( N =1 2 ; F ig s . 1 0 .18 :1 , 1 0 .20 :2 , 1 0 .21 :1) Chopp ing t oo ls a re r e lat ive ly c ommon i n t he B eersheva f l in t t oo l a s semb lages a nd a re f ound o n mo s t Cha lco l i th ic s i tes ( e .g . , Y e iv in 1 959 ; P erro t 1 955 ) i n t he s outhern L evan t . Choppers a re manufac tured b y s t r ik ing t wo o r more f lakes f rom t he e dge o f a wad i c obb le . They may b e b ifac ia l o r u n ifac ia l . These t oo ls a re i dent ica l i n s hape a nd me thod o f manufac ture t o t he c lass ic O ldowan t oo ls f ound i n l ower P a leo l i th ic s i tes t hroughout t he O ld Wor ld ( Bordaz 1 970 ) . A t S h iqm im , t he f ac t t hat t hese t oo ls h ave b een f ound i n h ouses h igh l igh ts t he ir d omes t ic c on tex t ( s ee L evy a nd Ho 1 1 , Chap ter 1 5 ) . B ased o n h is m icrowear a na lys is o f s im i lar t oo ls f rom E ar ly B ronze Age B ab e dh -Dhra , McConaughy ( 1979 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t c hoppers w ere u sed f or p rocess ing p lan t mater ia ls .

4 .N o tches ( N =7 18 ; F ig . 1 0 .14 :1 ,2 ,3 ) A l though r are ly r ecogn ized o r c o l lec ted i n p ro toh is tor ic e xcava t ions , n o tches a nd d en t icu lates u sua l ly c ompr ise o ne o f t he l a rges t t oo l c lass i n 3 rd a nd 4 th m i l lenn ium t oo l a ssemb lages ( Rosen 1 983 :100 ) . No tches v ary f rom s imp le n o tches t o more e labora te c oncav i t ies w i th i n terna l r e touch . R e touch r anges f rom a f ew b lows t o t he d orsa l s urface , t o i nvas ive p ressure r e touch . S ize v ar ies c ons iderab ly a nd may r ange f rom . 5 cm t o 2 cm i n l eng th . D ep th s hows a r ough ly s im i lar r ange . I n am icrowear s tudy b y McConaughy ( 1979 ) o f n o tches a nd d ent icu lates f rom B ab e dh Dhra , t he a na lyses s howed t ha t t hese were a l l -purpose t oo ls p robab ly u sed f or l i gh t s c rap ing o f h ard o b jec ts l i ke wood o r b one .

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5 .D en t icu la tes ( N =9 7 ; F ig . 1 0 .3 :2 ,4 ) . D en t icu la tes a re f l akes o r b lade s wh ich s how r epea ted n o tche s , u sua l ly i r regu lar , f orm ing r ough t e e th o n t he work ing e dge . A t S h iqm im a l l o f t he d en t icu la tes a re made o n f l ake s . T he n umber o f t e e th p er t oo l v ary f rom t wo t o s even . A ccord ing t o McConaughy ' s ( 1979 ) m icrowear s tudy t he se t oo ls w ere p robab ly u sed a s c u t t ing i mp lemen t s .

6 .B orer s ( N =1 77 ; F ig s . 1 0 .10 :1 ,2 ,3 ; 1 0 .11 :1 ,2 ,3 ; 1 0 .12 :1 ,2 ,3 ) B orer s a re u sua l ly made o n f l ake s a nd c on ta in l ong p o in t s b i la tera l d irec t b ack ing . S ome o f t he b orer s h ave b i la tera l i nver se r e touch . A lmo s t a l l o f t he t i p s o f t he se t oo l s a re l oca ted a t t he d i s ta l e nd o f t he t oo l . T hey may b e d iv ided i n to r ough ly l a rge a nd s ma l l c l as se s ; t hese a re p robab ly f unc t iona l ly d is t inc t b u t d ef in ing t he ir r e spec t ive f unc t ions i sd iff icu l t .

7 .S craper s ( N =2 55 ) . S craper s a re t oo l s made o n f l ake s o r b lade s h av ing " s craper " r e touch o n o ne o r more e dges ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :36 ) . T he S h iqm im s c rapers c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree ma jor t ype s : e nd , s ide , a nd r ound . a ) E nd S craper s ( N =4 3 ; F ig . 1 0 .9 :2 ) E nd s c raper s a re t he s econd mo s t c ommon t ype o f s craper f ound a t S h iqm im . The r e touched work ing e dge o f e nd s crapers u sua l ly c o inc ides w i th t he d is ta l e nd o f t he t oo l , h owever , t h is g roup a l so i nc ludes t ransver se s craper s . T he se t oo ls measure a pprox ima te ly 6 cm i n l eng th , 5 cm i n w id th a nd 1 . 5 cm i n t h ickne s s . L ike t he ma jor i ty o f f l in t t oo ls f ound a t S h iqm im , t he se s craper s a re made o n t he e as i ly o b ta inab le w ad i p ebb les .

b ) S ide S craper s ( N =2 00 ; F ig . 1 0/9 :3 ) . S ide s c rapers a re u sua l ly made o n t h ick p r imary f lake s , manufac tured o n wad i c obb le s . S craper r e touch i s l o ca ted o n a t l e as t o ne l a tera l e dge o f t he f l ake a nd c an b e u n i la tera l , b i la tera l o r c onverge t o mee t d is ta l ly ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :36 ) . T he r e touch i s u sua l ly d irec t a nd s o me t ime s s ca lar . T he work ing e dge i s a lways c onvex . T he v en tra l s urface i s a lmo s t a lway s u n -re touched . I t u sua l ly s hows a b u lb o f p ercus s ion a nd a l a rge c or t ica l , p la in o r l i near b u t t , i nd ica t ing p robab le h ard h ammer d e tachmen t ( Ro shwa lb i b id ) . c ) R ound S craper s ( N =1 2 ; F ig s . 1 0 .7 :1 ; 1 0 .8 :2 ; 1 0 .9 :1) . Y e iv in ( 1959 :46 ) d ef ined r ound s c raper s a s as epara te t oo l t ype b ased o n t he a na lys is o f t he f l in t i ndus try f rom Horva t B e ter . A f ter e xam in ing a more r ecen t c o l lec t ion f rom t ha t s i te ( Ro sen , i n p rep ) a nd o ther s i te s a long t he Naha l B eer S heva , r ound s c raper s c an b e s a id t o b e c harac ter is t ic o f f l in t t oo l a s semb lege s a ssoc ia ted w i th t he Naha l B eer S heva C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture . T hey

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c an b e d i s t ingu ished f rom t abu lar s c raper s b y t he f ac t t ha t t hey a re made o n wad i c obb les r a ther t han t abu lar f l in t . T hey a re s im i lar t o t abu lar s c raper s i n t ha t t he d or sa l s urface i s c overed b y c or tex , h owever , r ound s c raper s b o th a r ound p rof i le a nd r ound o u t l ine .

8 .F an S craper s ( N =8 ;F ig s . 1 0 .5 :1 ,2 ; 1 0 .6 :1 ; 1 0 .8 :1) . T abu lar s c rapers , o f ten r eferred t o i n t he l i tera ture a s f an -scraper s , a re l a rge s c raper/kn ive s , manufac tured o n f l a t c or t ica l f l akes t ha t v ary c ons iderab ly i n s i ze a nd s hape ( Ro sen 1 983b :79 ) . The c l as s ic t ypes a re o va l a nd f an shaped a nd a s soc ia ted w i th C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age a s semb lages ( Neuv i l le 1 930 , 1 934 ; L ee 1 973 ; Mahan 1 940 ; Ro sen 1 983 ; S ch ick 1 978 , McConaughy 1 979 ; C rowfoo t 1 935 , 1 937 , 1 948 ) . T abu lar s c raper s c an a l so b e r ound , e longa ted o r i r regu lar i n s hape . T echno log ica l ly , t he se s c raper s a re manufac tured f rom l a rge f l in t n odu le s w i th f l a t c or t ica l s urface s , n o t f rom t abu lar v e in f l in t . The c ore s ( no t f ound a t a ny o f t he B eersheva s i tes ) may s how p repara t ion o n b o th u pper a nd l ower s urfaces , a s w e l l a s s ome f ace t ing o n t he s t r ik ing p la tform . T he a verage d i mens ions a re a bou t 2 0 X 1 5 x1 0 cm , a nd s o me t abu lar s c raper c ore s a re a s l a rge a s 6 0 cm i n l eng th ( Ro sen 1 983 :79 ) . T he S h iqm im e xamp les g enera l ly v ary f rom 5 t o 1 5 cm i n l eng th a nd w id th . S ome p iece s s how v en tra l b u lbar t h inn ing a nd o ther s s t i l l r e ta in t he ir b u lb o f p ercus s ion . R emova l o f t he f l ake s f rom t he c ore w as a ccomp l ished u s ing t he b lock -on -b lock t echn ique , a nd i n s o me c ase s , i nd irec t p ercus s ion . S ome e xamp le s s how s t r ik ing p la tform f ace t ing . R e touch i sc l ear ly h ard h ammer , d irec t p ercu s s ion . Ro sen ( 1983 :79 ) h as p o in ted o u t t he g rea t d iff icu l ty i n mak ing a t ypo log ica l a na lys is o f t abu lar s c raper s . However , l eng th :w id th r a t io s s ugges t t he e x i s tence o f f our b as ic t ype s : t he c l as s ic f an scraper , r ound t abu lar s c raper s , o va l t abu lar s c raper s , a nd e longa te t abu lar s c raper ( Ro sen 1 983b ) . Unfor tuna te ly , t h i s t ypo logy h as n e i ther c hrono log ica l o r g eograph ica l s i gn if icance . R ecen t s tud ie s b y S ch ick ( per s c omm ) i nd ica te t ha t t he d egree a nd a ng le o f r e touch may p rov ide a u sefu l c hrono log ica l marker f or t he se t oo ls . M icrowear a na ly se s b y McConaughy ( 1979 ) i nd ica te t ha t f an scraper s w ere p robab ly u sed more f or c u t t ing a nd b u tcher ing t han s c rap ing . C hrono log ica l ly , t abu lar s c raper s s eem t o f i rs t o ccur i n t he l a te P o t tery N eo l i th ic ( Moore 1 973 ) . T hey a re mo s t c harac ter is t ic o f C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze a ge l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd d isappear w i th t he e nd o f t he E ar ly B ronze I I p er iod ( Ro sen , i n p res s ) . G eograph ica l ly , t abu lar s c raper s s eem c onf ined t o t he s ou thern L evan t , i . e . S ou th S ina i ( Koz loff 1 972/3 ; Ronen 1 970 ) , t houghou t P a le s t ine , a nd p erhap s a s f ar n or th a s n or thern S yr ia ( Te l l J uda idah C rowfoo t -Payne 1 960 ) .

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1 0 . B lade T oo l s a ) R e touched B lades ( N =1 72 ) . B lade t oo ls a re r e la t ive ly r are a t S h iqm im . R e touched b lade s s how r e touch o n o ne o r b o th l a tera l e dge s , wh ich may v ary f rom n ibb l ing t o more i nvas ive r e touch . More t han o ne t ype o f r e touch c an o ccur o n at oo l . A s Ro shwa lb ( 1981 :23 ) p o in t s o u t , when d i scon t inuous , t he r e touch i s u sua l ly l oca ted i n t he me s ia l o r p rox ima l s ec t ion o f t he e dge . T he s ec t ions o f r e touched b lades a re t r apezo ida l o r t r iangu lar . T h is c a tegory a l so i nc lude s t runca ted b lade s , s how ing a brup t r e touch o n t he s napped d is ta l o r p rox ima l e dge s o f t he p iece .

b ) S ick le b lades ( N =3 9 ; F ig . 1 0 .1 :1-5 ) . A ccord ing t o Ro shwa lb ( 1981 :28 ) t here a re t wo b as ic a t tr ibu te s wh ich d ef ine t h is c l as s o f t oo l . T he f i r s t a t tr ibu te i s t he p resence o f s i ck le g lo s s o n b o th f ace s o f o ne e dge a nd o f ten o n o ne o r b o th e x trem i t ies o f t he s egmen t a t t he i n tersec t ion o f t he work ing e dge . S econd ly , t hese p ieces a re a lmo s t a lway s r ec tangu lar , a l though s o me a re t r iangu lar ( F ig . 1 0 .1 :3 ) . The s egmen ts a re made o n b lade s w i th more -or le s s p ara l le l s t ra igh t e dges a nd t r iangu lar o r t r apezo ida l s ec t ions . T he l eng th o f s i ck le b lades i s c on tro l led b y t he u se o f t runca t ion b y r e touch o r d e l ibera te s napp ing wh ich p roduce s e nds t ha t a re p erpend icu lar o f o b l ique t o t he a x i s o f t he t oo l . T h is p roduce s ar ec tangu lar s hape s egmen t . A ccord ing t o C auv in ( 1968 ) a nd Ro shwa lb ( 1981) , s napp ing o r b reakage i s d ef ined a s ad e l ibera te me thod o f t runca t ion b y t he p resence o f s i ck le s heen o ver t he b reak , t he p re sence o f an o tch b e low t he b reak , o r t he p re sence o f an ega t ive o r p o s i t ive b u lb o f p ercus s ion o n t he b reak . Work ing e dge r e touch v ar ies f rom e dge d amage a nd n ibb l ing t o s e rra t ion . T h is s e rra t ion d iffers s i gn if ican t ly f rom t he h eavy d en t icu la t ion c harac ter is t ic o f P o t tery N eo l i th ic s i ck le s ( e .g . , S teke l i s 1 972 ; O lam i e t a l 1 977 ) .

c ) B acked B lades ( N =8 8 ; F ig . 1 0 .1 :5 -12 ; 1 0 .2 :1 ,5 -6 ) . T he se t oo l s a re i den t ica l t o s i ck le b lades e xcep t t hey l ack s i ck le g lo s s . I n f ac t , t hey may h ave b een i n tended f or u se a s s i ck les .

d ) R e touched B lade le ts ( N =1 0/2 :2 ,4 ) A l l o f t he r e touched b lade le ts a re made o n as em i trans lucen t c arme l c o lour f l in t wh ich i s c ommon a t C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t he n or thern N egev ( G i lead 1 984 ; Macdona ld 1 932 ; Ro shwa lb 1 981) . T he a verage d i mens ions o f t he se r e touched b lade le ts a re 2 0 .0 x 4 . 8 x 1 .8 cm ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :164 ) . T he r e touch wh ich c harac ter ize s t he se t oo ls i sa lways d irec t o r f ine . T he m icro e nd s c raper d ef ined b y G i lead ( 1984 ; F ig . 1 0 .2 :2 ) f or t he n or thern N egev i s made o n t h is t ype o f f l in t .

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CO NCLUS IONS The a na lys is o f t he S h iqm im f l in t t oo l a s semb lage s hows e v idence f or f ive d i s t inc t manufac tur ing t echno log ie s : l a rge f l ake ( t abu lar s craper ) , b lade t oo ls , b lade le t t oo l s , c ore t oo ls a nd a d h oc t oo ls ( compr ised o f t he r ange o f s ma l l f l ake t oo ls a nd c obb le t oo ls ) . E ach o f t he se t echno log ie s s eem s t o r ef lec t d iffer ing mode s o f manufac ture , d is tr ibu t ion a nd u se . I n C hap ter 1 , Ro sen d i scus se s t he s i gn if icance o f t he se d ifferen t t echno log ie s a nd t he ir r e la t ion t o C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture . I n c ompar ison w i th o ther s tud ies o f C ha lco l i th ic f l in t t oo l a s semb lage s , ar emarkab le f ea ture o f t he S h iqm im c o l lec t ion i st he l a rge q uan t i t iy o f s imp le f l ake t oo ls ( ad h oc t oo ls ) a nd t he ir b y -produc ts ( f lake c ore s a nd f l ake s ) . A l though t h is i su ndoub t ly a r e su l t o f t he b e t ter r ecovery t echn ique s emp loyed a t S h iqm im , i th a s ma jor i mp l ica t ions f or u nder s tand ing t he n a ture o f b o th t he l i th ic a s semb leage a nd C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture i n g enera l . T he se a d h oc t oo ls r ef lec t wha t may b e r eferred t o a s t he b as ic d ome s t ic C ha lco l i th ic t oo l k i t . T h is i s i lus tra ted b y t he a bundance o f b o th t oo ls a nd t he ir w as te p roduc ts i n v i r tua l ly e very a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t i n t he s i te . T hese l oc i i ncude : d omes t ic l i v ing f loor s ( s ee C hap ter 1 5 ) , p a thways , i n s ta l la t ions , c our tyards , b u i ld ing s o f d ifferen s i ze , a nd f i l l d epo s i ts . I n b ehav ioura l t e rm s , t he a d h oc e l emen t s r ef lec t ad ome s t ic i ndus try wh ich s hows l i t t le e v idence o f c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion . T h is i si n d is t inc t c on tras t t o t he o ther s pec ia l ized t e chno log ies l i s ted a bove . B eyond s uch g enera l iza t ions a nd c ompar isons w i th o ther a s semb lage s , e xam ina t ion o f t he l i th ic f requenc ie s f rom t he d ifferen t e xcava t ion a reas ( Tab le 1 0/1) marked d ifference s b e tween t hem . C h i -square t e s ts c ompar ing e xcava t ion a rea s a nd t o ta l w as te too ls , s how c h i -square = 8 66 ( w i th 3 d egrees o f f reedom ) , w i th a h igh ly s i gn ifcan t p robab i l i ty o f l e s s t han 0 . 001 . C ompar ison o f t he a reas b y t oo l t ypes ( exc lud ing m isce l laneous t r immed p ieces ) s how c h i square = 2 57 ( w i th 3 6 d egrees o f f reedom ) a l so w i th a h igh ly s i gn if ican t p robab i l i ty o f l e s s t han 0 . 001 . T hey emphas ize t he ma jor d ifference i n t he l i th ic a s semb lage s f ound i n A rea C c ompared t o o ther a reas . T here i s s i gn if ican t ly l e s s e v idence f or f l in t t oo l manufac ture a nd u se i n t h is p ar t o f t he s i te . A rch i tec tura l ly , A rea C may r epresen t p ub l ic f unc t ion a s o ppo sed t o t he more d ome s t ic c harac ter o f t he t he o ther a reas . T he l i th ic a r tefac t s t end t o s uppor t t h is h ypo there s i s . I n f u ture r e search , w e h ope t o a pp ly b o th me tr ic a na lyses a nd p rov ience s tud ie s t o t ack le a w ide r ange o f c u l tura l p rob lem s . The se m igh t i nc lude s uch i s sue s a s c hrono log ica l t r ends i n t oo l v ar iab i l i ty d ur ing t he 4 th m i l lenn ium a nd r eg iona l v ar ia t ion ( hopefu l ly , g iven c omparab le c o l lec t ions ) . More d e ta i led a na lys i s o f t he i n tra s i te p a t tern ing a l so s hows much p rom ise . We h ope t ha t t he d e scr ip t ions p re sen ted h ere w i l l p rov ide a b ase l i ne f or f ur ther l i th ic s tud ie s o f t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod .

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AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS The a u thors wou ld l i ke t o e x tend t he ir d eep a pprec ia t ion t o C la ire P eachey f or d o ing t he s or t ing o f t he 1 983 S h iqm im f l in t c o l lec t ion a nd T eddy Mazzo la f or t he e xce l len t d raw ing s p resen ted i n t h is c hap ter . F ig s . 1 0 .5 -10 .6 w ere d rawn b y T a l i K renk in .

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T ab le 1 0 .1 :

S h iqm im L ith ic A rt ifac t F requenc ies b y A rea , 1 983

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B

C

D

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S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY Ammerman , A .J . , a nd Andref s ky , W . J r . 1 982 R educ t ion S equences a nd t he E xchange o f Obs id ian i n Neo l i th ic C a labr ia . I n C on tex ts f or P reh is tor ic Exchange , e ds . E r icson , J .E . , a nd E ar le , T .K . New York : Academ ic P res s , p p . 1 49 -72 . B ar -Yosef , 0 . 1 981 The " Pre -Po t tery " Neo l i th ic P er iod i n t he S ou thern L evant . I n P ri . h is to ire d u L evan t , e d . C auv in , J . , a nd S an lav i l le , P . P ar is : CNRS . P p . 5 55 -69 . B rad ley , B .A . 1 975 L i th ic Reduc t ion S equences : A G lossary a nd D iscuss ion . I n L i th ic T echno logy : Mak ing a nd U s ing S tone T oo l s , e ds . Swanson , E . C h icago : Mou ton . P p . 5 14 . C auv in , J . 1 968 F ou i l les d e B yb los I V : l e s o u t i l lages N6o l i th iques d e B yb los e t d u l i t tora l L ibana is . P ar is : Ma isonneuve . C o l l ins , M .B . 1 975 L i th ic T echno logy a s a Means o f P rocessua l I nference . I n L i th ic T echno logy : Mak ing a nd U s ing S tone T oo l s , e d . Swanson , E . C h icago : Mouton . P p . 1 5 -34 . C rowfoo t , J . 1 935 No tes o n t he F l in t I mp lemen ts o f J er icho , 1 935 . o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 2 :174 -184 . 1 937 No tes o n t he F l in t I mp lemen ts o f J er icho , 1 936 . o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 4 :35 -52 . 1 948 S ome F l in t I mp lemen ts f rom A ffu la . O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 2 1 :72 -79 .

L iverpoo l A nna l s

L iverpoo l A nna l s

J ourna l o f t h e P a les t ine

C rowfoo t P ayne , J . 1 960 F l in t I mp lemen ts f rom T e l l a l J uda idah . I n Excava t ions i n t h e P la in o f A n t ioch , b y B ra idwood , R .L . , a nd B ra idwood , L . C h icago : Un ivers i ty o f Ch icago P ress . P p . 5 25 -9 . 1 983 The F l in t I mp lement s o f J er icho . a nd Ho l land , T .H . L ondon . P p . 6 22 -758 . F orde , C .D . 1 963

Hab i ta t , E conomy a nd S oc ie ty .

I n J er icho I V , b y Kenyon , K .

New York : Du t ton P aperbacks .

G i lead , I . 1 984 The M icro -endscraper : A New T oo l T ype o f P er iod . T e l A v iv 1 :3 -10 .

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t he Cha lco l i th ic

Chap ter 1 0 : The Ch ipped S tone I ndus try a t S h iqm im

Kee ley , L . 1 980 Exper imen ta l D e term ina t ion Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P res s . Koz loff , B . 1 972/73 A B r ief No te o n Ha 'are tz B u l le t in 1 5/16 :35 -49 .

o f

S tone

T oo l

U ses .

Ch icago :

t he L i th ic I ndus tr ies o f S ina i .

Museum

L ee , J .R . 1 973 C ha lco l i th ic G hassu l : N ew A spec ts a nd Mas ter T ypo logy . Unpub l ished P h .D . d isser ta t ion , Hebrew Un ivers ity , J erusa lem . L evy , T .E . a nd Ho 1 1 , A . i n p ress Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy : A C ase S tudy f rom t he Cha lco l ith ic V i l lage a t S h iqm im . I n T .E . L evy ( ed ) , S h iqm im I . Oxford : BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies . Macdona ld , E . 1 932 B e th P e le th I .

L ondon : B ernard Quar i tch .

Mahan , G .S . 1 940 The S tone I ndus try o f t he C ampa ign o f 1 936 . I n T e le i la t G hassu l I , b y Koeppe l , R . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tute . P p . 8 9 -114 . McConaughy , M . 1 979 F orma l a nd F unc t iona l A na lys is o f C h ipped S tone T oo l s f rom B ab e dh D hra . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lms . Moore , A .M .T . 1 973 The L a te Neo l i th ic i n P a les t ine . Nasra l lah , R .P .J . 1 936 L e G isemen t Ghassou l ien D e P a les t ine O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 1 6 : 2 93 -315 . Neuv i l le , R . / 1 930 No tes d e P reh is to ire O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 1 0 :193 -221 .

L evan t 5 : 36 -68 .

T e l l

P a les t in ienne .

E s -Soma .

J ourna l

J ourna l o f t h e

o f t h e

P a les t ine

1 934 Ob j e ts e n S i lex . I n T e le i la t G hassu l I , b y Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . a nd Neuv i l le , R . Rome : P ont if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t itu te . P p . 5 5 -65 . O lam i , Y . , B ur ian , F . , a nd F r iedman , E . 1 977 G iva t Ha -Parsa - A Neo l i th ic S i te i n t he C oas ta l Reg ion . I s rae l 1 3 :34 -47 . ( Hebrew ) . P erro t , J . 1 955 E xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar . 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -89 .

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E re tz

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 17 -40 ,

S h iqm im I

1 968 L a P re/h is to ire P a les t in ienne . 8 : 286 -446 .

S upp lgmen t a u D ic t iona ire d e l a B ib le

Ronen , A . 1 970 F l in t I mp lemen ts f rom S outh S ina i : P re l im inary Repor t . Exp lora t ion Q uar ter ly 1 02 :30 -41 . Rosen , S .A . 1 983 L i th ics i n t h e B ronze a nd I ron A ges i n I s rae l . d isser ta t ion , Un ivers i ty o f Ch icago , Ch icago .

P a les t ine

Unpub l ished P h .D .

1 983b T abu lar S craper T rade : A Mode l f or Ma ter ia l Cu l ture D isper s ion . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 49 :79 -86 . n .d . E ar ly B ronze Age Ch ipped S tone I ndus tr ies : A S ummary S ta temen t . P aper p resen ted a t t he I n ternat iona l C o l loq ium o n t he E ar ly B ronze Age i n t he L evan t , h e ld a t Emmaus ( La trun ) , O c tober , 1 986 . Roshwa lb , A . 1 981 P ro toh is tory i n t h e W ad i G hazzeh : A T ypo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l S tudy b ased o n t h e Macdona ld Excava t ions . Unpub l ished P h .D . d isser tat ion , Un ivers i ty o f L ondon . S ch ick , T . 1 978 F l in t I mp lements . I n E ar ly A rad , b y Am iran , R . e t a l . I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . P p . 5 8 -63 . S teke l is , M . 1 972 T he Y armuk ian C u l ture o f t h e N eo l i th ic P er iod . P ress .

J erusa lem :

J erusa lem : Magnes

S tockton , E .D . 1 971 Non -Ghas su l ian F l in t E lemen ts a t T e le i lat Ghassu l . 8 1 .

L evan t 3 : 80 -

T ix ier , J . 1 963 T ypo log ie d e l ' Ep ipa li o l i th ique d u Maghreb . Memo ire d e c entre d e r echerches a n thropo log iques , p r6h is tor iques , e t e thno log iques 2 . P ar is : A ns e t Me t ier s G raph iques . T ix ier , J . , I nz ian , M . , a nd Roche , H . 1 980 P rA is to ire d e l a P ierre T a i la e . P ar is . T r ingha m , R . , C ooper , G . , Ode l l , G . , Voy tek , B . , a nd Wh i tman , A . 1 974 E xper imen ta t ion i n t he F orma t ion o f E dge Damage : A New Approach t o L i th ic Ana lys is . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 : 171-196 . Ye iv in , E . 1 959

F l in t T oo ls f rom Horva t B e ter .

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A t iqo t 2 : 40 -44 .

Chap ter 1

THE POTENTIALS OF L ITHIC ANALYSIS I N THE CHALCOLITHIC OF THE NORTHERN NEGEV

b y

S teven A . Ro sen A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l J erusa lem

IN TRODUCT ION A l though t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod i s o f v i ta l i mpor tance t o u nder s tand ing t he d eve lopmen t o f t he s oc io -cu l tura l c omp lex i ty wh ich l ed e ven tua l ly t o t he emergence o f u rban c iv i l iza t ion i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age , mo s t a na lyse s o f t h is e vo lu t ion h ave r e l ied o n g enera l iza t ions s t emm ing f rom a rch i tec tura l r e ma in s , a nd r are , o f ten c hance , f inds o f me ta l o r r i tua l o b jec t s . W i thou t mean ing i n a ny way t o b e l i t t le s uch s tud ie s , who se i mpor tance i s u nque s t ionab le , t he v as t q uan t i t ie s o f f l in t a nd c eram ic s f ound a t a l l C ha lco l i th ic s i te s s ugge s t s t ha t c orrespond ing ly g rea t amoun t s o f i nforma t ion a re a l so a va i lab le f rom t he se c omponen t s o f ma ter ia l c u l ture . Wh i le c er ta in ly more mundane t han t he s pec tacu lar d iscover ie s r e la t ing t o t he me ta l lurg ica l a ch ievemen t s o f C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture s ( e .g . , B ar Adon 1 980 ) , t he l a rge q uan t i t ies o f c eram ic s a nd l i th ic s , u ndoub ted ly t he g enera l c au se o f t he ir mundan i ty , i mp ly p r ime p o ten t ia l s f or q uan t i ta t ive a na lyse s d es igned t o a nswer s pec if ic q ue s t ions c oncern ing s oc ia l s y s tem s . B y c omb in ing t he a na ly s i s o f t he l i th ic a s semb lage r ecovered d ur ing t he 1 983 e xcava t ion s a t S h iqm im w i th o ther N egev s i tes , s o me o f t he se p o ten t ia ls w i l l b e o u t l ined h ere . The a na ly s is o f f l in t i mp lemen t s f rom C ha lco l i th ic s i te s c an p rov ide i mpor tan t i nforma t ion wh ich i n s o me c ase s , a s f ar a s a rchaeo log ica l me thods i n c urren t u se , i s n o t o b ta inab le f rom o ther c omponen t s o f ma ter ia l c u l ture . T he p roduc t ion o f much f l in t w as te a s as ide p roduc t i n l i th ic manufac ture , a nd o ur a b i l i ty t o d ef ine s pec if ic f orm s o f t ha t was te , a l low s t he d e l inea t ion o f a c t iv i ty a nd c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion a reas , a nd , i n s o me c ase s , p erm i t s u s t o f orm h ypo theses c oncern ing d ifferen t t ype s o f t r ade ( e .g . Ro sen 1 983a , b ) . Our a b i l i ty t o e as i ly d ef ine t he f unc t ion o f s ome f l in t t oo ls a l low s t he p ar t ia l r econ s truc t ion o f s ub s is tence s ys tem s a nd o ther a spec ts o f a nc ien t e conom ie s . On a no ther l eve l , v ar iab i l i ty w i th in s pec if ic t oo l c a tegor ies , much l i ke c eram ic v ar iab i l i ty c an h e lp e luc ida te p rob lem s o f c u l ture -geograph ic a nd c hrono log ica l b oundar ie s a nd t r ans i t ions . T h i s i s p ar t icu lar ly a ppropr ia te t o t he Nor thern N egev , l o ca ted i n a n e co log ica l t r an s i t ion z one b e tween t he Med i terranean z one o f C en tra l a nd Nor thern I s rae l , a nd t he d e ser t z one o f S ina i a nd t he S ou thern N egev .

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S h iqm im I

Wh i le a na lyses o f c eram ic a nd l i th ic a s semb lage s o bv ious ly r equ ire s i gn if ican t ly d ifferen t m e thods d ue t o t he ir d ifferen t modes o f manufac ture a nd u se , t he q uan t i ta t ive a spec t r ema in s s im i lar . I t i s h oped t ha t s o me o f t he g enera l mode ls p re sen ted h ere may b e a l so u t i l ized o n c eram ic d a ta , p rov id ing c on tro ls a nd c hecks o n t he h ypo the se s g enera ted f rom t he f l in t s . ME THODOLOGY The a na ly t ic me thods u t i l ized i n a n a rchaeo log ica l s tudy d epend , t o g rea t e x ten t , o n t he p ar t icu lar g oa ls o f t he s tudy . T here i s n o t o ne s ing le me thod wh ich c overs a l l b ase s , a l though s ome me thods e spec ia l ly t hose i nvo lv ing c are t aken i n t he f i e ld , c an s i gn if ican t ly a ffec t wha t t ype s o f a na ly ses a re p o s s ib le l a ter . The g oa l s o f e ar ly s tud ies o f f l in t i mp lemen ts f rom t he C ha lco l i th ic ( e .g . , N euv i l le 1 930 , 1 934 , 1 934/35 ; C rowfoo t 1 937 , 1 948 ; L ee 1 973 ) w ere p r imar i ly c oncerned w i th d ef in ing t he d iagno s t ic c harac ter is t ic s o f p ar t icu lar a s semb lages w i th in a g enera l C ha lco l i th ic i ndus try . Mos t o f t h is work w as i mp l ic i t ly d e s igned t oward d ef in ing c hrono log ica l s t age s i n t he d eve lopmen t o f t he C ha lco l i th ic , a nd i n d ifferen t ia t ing i t f rom t he p roceed ing a nd s ucceed ing Neo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Ages . T o t hese e nd s , f i e ld r ecovery a nd l abora tory a na ly ses c oncen tra ted o n wha t o ne may t e rm t he f orma l e l emen t s o f t he t o ta l a s semb lages . T ha t i s , wh i le c ore o r c e l t t oo ls ( l ike aw l s a nd m icroborer s ) , a nd s o me b lade le t t oo l s w ere r ead i ly c o l lec ted when f ound , o ther t oo l s , s uch a s i r regu lar s c raper s , c hopper s , n o tche s , d en t icu la te s , c rude b orer s , a nd r e touched f lake s , c ompr is ing t he ma jor i ty o f s o me t oo l a s semb lages , w ere o f ten t o ta l n eg lec ted . Was te p roduc t s , i nc lud ing c ore s , p r imary f l ake s , p la in f l ake s , u nre touched b lades a nd b lad le t s , e tc . a re a l so a lmo s t a lways u nder -repre sen ted i n t hese c o l lec t ion s . I t i s t o b e s t re s sed t ha t f or mo s t o f t he g oa l s o f t he se e ar ly i nves t iga t ions , a na ly s is o f t he se e l emen t s w a s n o t p ar t icu lar ly n eces sary . However , f or t he g oa ls men t ioned a bove , more c omp le te l i th ic c o l lec t ions a re n eces sary , i nc lud ing c omp le te i nven tor ies o f was te t ypes , a nd a l l t oo l t ype s . T ha t i s , a t t he v ery f i rs t s t age o f e xcava t ion a nd/or c o l lec t ion f i e ld t echn iques mu s t i n sure t ha t t he c o l lec t ion t o b e s tud ied i s ar e la t ive ly g ood r epre sen ta t ive o f t he g enera l a s semb lage , a nd i s n o t marred b y t he c u l l ing a nd t he s e lec t ion o f o n ly t he museum p ieces . T he r econs truc t ion o f p a t tern s o f t r ade a nd c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion r equ ire s t he s tudy o f d eb i tage , a nd t he b reakdown o f t h is wa s te i n to c a tegor ie s r ef lec t ing t he v ar ious s t age s o f r educ t ion ( t oo l p repara t ion ) f rom f l in t n odu le s t o t he f in ished t oo ls ( e .g . , Ammerman a nd Andref sky 1 982 ; B rad ley 1 975 ) . F igure 1-1 p re sen t s at yp ica l r educ t ion s equence f or t he manufac ture o f f l in t s i ck le s . T here a re t wo k ey p o in t s t o b e made w i th r e spec t t o t h is f igure . F ir s t , s pec if ic a nd i den t if iab le f orm s o f f l in t w as te , o r t he t oo ls t hem se lve s , a re a s soc ia ted w i th e ach s t age o f t he r educ t ion/prepara t ion p roces s . T ha t i s , t hese s t ages a re i den t if iab le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . S econd ly , t he a b sence o f p ar t icu lar d eb i tage t ype s , l i ke c ore s o r p r imary f l ake s , i mp l ie s t ha t t he p ar t icu lar r educ t ion s t age w i th wh ich t hey a re a s soc ia ted d id n o t t ake p lace a t i n t he a rea o f t he c o l lec t ion . I f t he c o l lec t ion i sa s sumed t o b e r epresen ta t ive , t h is c an b e e x trapo la ted t o as i te . W i th r e spec t t o t he s i ck le s equence o f F igure

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1-1 , t h is mean s , f or e xamp le , t ha t i f s i ck le s a re p re sen t o n aC ha lco l i th ic s i te , b u t b lade c ores a re n o t , t hen t he s i ck le s , o r t he b lade s f or s i ck le manufac ture , were p robab ly i mpor ted . F rom t h i s i ts hou ld b e c l ear t ha t c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion , a s w e l l a s t rade , c an b e i nferred f rom t he p re sence o f c oncen tra t ions ( e i ther w i th in s i te , o r e n ta i l ing c omp le te a s semb lage s ) o f p ar t icu lar t ypes o f d eb i tage . T he a na lys is o f s ub s is tence p a t terns a nd o ther a spec t s o f e conomy d oe s n o t r equ ire t he s tudy o f d eb i tage , b u t i n s tead n ece s s i ta te s c lo se c on tro l o f t he t oo l a s semb lage . D iffer ing p ropor t ions o f s pec if ic t oo l t ypes , mo s t n o tab ly s i ck le s egmen ts a nd a rrowhead s , i mp ly r e la t ive d ifference s i n t he i mpor tance o f h un t ing a nd a gr icu l ture t o t he s ub s is tence s y s tem . On t he mo s t g enera l l eve l , i t may b e a s sumed t ha t a n a s semb lage w i th n umerous s i ck le s a nd f ew a rrowheads p robab ly r ef lec ts a n e conomy where a gr icu l ture p layed a much l a rger r o le i n t he s ub s i s tence . The c harac ter iza t ion o f c hrono log ica l p hase s a nd c u l ture -geograph ic g roup ing s i s a l so d ependen t o n u nb iased s amp les . Wh i le mo s t s ty l is t ic a na lyse s ( cf . D ee tz 1 965 ; F reeman 1 968 ; S acke t t 1 977 ) u sua l ly r e ly o n i n tra type v ar ia t ion t o e s tab l ish t r ends o r mark d ifferences b e tween a s semb lages , i f a c o l lec t ion i s marred b y t he s e lec t ion o f t he l a rge s t , o r t he p re t t ies t p ieces , t hen d ifferences wh ich may b e p re sen t o n e i ther e nd o f a n a t tr ibu te s pec trum may n o t b e d iscern ib le . I n s hor t , r e la t ive ly u nb iased c o l lec t ion me thods a re i mpera t ive f or u nders tand ing t he more d ynam ic a spec ts o f p ro toh is tor ic c u l tura l s ys tem s d iscus sed i n t h is v o lume . I n tra type c ompar ison c an b e made o n t wo l eve ls : 1 ) t he c ompar ison o f s ty l is t ica l ly d ifferen t t ypes w i th in o ne f unc t iona l c las s , o r 2 ) t he a na lys is o f c hang ing a t tr ibu tes l i ke l eng th , w id th , t h ickne s s , s hape , a ng les , e tc . , w i th in wha t i s d eemed t o b e o ne o ne s t y l is t ica l ly c on t inuous s pec trum . F or e xamp le , t he t ypo log ica l c ompar i s ion o f E ar ly B ronze A ge p r isma t ic ( Canaanean ) s i ck le s egmen t s t o C ha lco l i th ic b acked s i ck le s egmen t s ( Ro sen 1 982 ) f a l l s i n to t he f i rs t l eve l , wh i le s tud ies o f a rrowhead f orm f rom t he N eo l i th ic t hrough t he Cha lco l i th ic ( Bur ian a nd F r iedman 1 979 ; B ar Yo sef 1 981) f a l l i n to t he s econd . A l though t he t wo l eve l s g rade i n to e ach o ther , t hey p robab ly r ef lec t d ifferen t s oc io -cu l tura l p henomena . I n c onc lud ing t h is s ec t ion , i t i sn eces sary t o n o te t ha t many o f t he s i te s a nd c o l lec t ions d iscussed h ere a re n o t u nb iased s a mp le s . E xam ina t ion o f t he amoun ts o f d eb i tage r ecovered f rom t he Wad i G aza s i te s s ugge s t s t ha t i n s o me c ase s t he was te p ercen tages may b e t o ta l ly mean ing les s . D ifference s i n t ypo log ie s may a l so c onfuse i den t if ica t ions i n s ome c a se s . N ever the les s , many o f t he t r ends t o b e o u t l ined h ere s eem c l ear a nd p rom i s ing . I n s p i te o f t he se b iase s t here i s e nough d a ta o n h and t o s ugge s t an umber o f h ypo the ses wh ich c an b e more f u l ly t e s ted l a ter , when more r e l iab le d a ta a re a va i lab le . CR AFT SP EC IAL IZAT ION A ND TR ADE E xam ina t ion o f T ab le s 1-1 , 1 -2 , a nd 1 -3 s hows t ha t C ha lco l i th ic s i tes i n t he Nor thern a nd We s tern N egev c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo g enera l c a tegor ie s : 1 ) o ccupa t ion s i te s where a w ide r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s t ook p lace , a nd s pec ia l ized t echno log ies a nd t oo l t ype s f orm o n ly m ed ium t o l ow p ropor t ions o f t he l i th ic

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a s semb lage s , a nd 2 ) s ma l ler , s pec ia l ized f unc t ion s i te s , who se l i th ic a ssemb lage s s eem t o r ef lec t a more l im i ted r ange o f a c t iv i t ies , w i th g rea ter emphas i s o n s pec ia l ized a nd s oph is t ica ted t e chno log ie s . R ev iew ing f i r s t t he t wo o ccupa t ion s i te s f or wh ich d a ta i s a va i lab le , Horva t B e ter ( Ye iv in 1 959 ; Ro sen f or thcom ing ) a nd S h iqm im ( Levy a nd Ro sen , t h is v o lume ) t he a s semb lages a re t o b e c harac ter ized a s f o l lows : 1 ) med ium t o h igh p ercen tage s o f f l ake t oo ls r ef lec t ing d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ies , l i ke s c raper s ( no t t abu lar o r f an ) , c rude b orer s , n o tche s , d en t icu la te s , a nd r e touched f lake s , 2 ) med ium t o l ow p ercen tages o f s uch s pec ia l ized t oo l a s c e l t t oo ls ( axe s , a dze s , c h ise ls , g ouge s , e tc . ) , s i ck les , t abu lar s c raper s ( i nc lud ing f an scrapers ) , d r i l l s , m icroborer s , a nd o ther b lade le t t oo l s , 3 ) h igh p ercen tage s o f d eb i tage r ef lec t ing t he manufac ture o f f l ake t oo ls , i nc lud ing f l ake c ore s , a nd l ow p ercen tage s o f d eb i tage a nd w a s te r ef lec t ing t he manufac ture o f t he s pec ia l ized t oo l t ype s , l i ke b lade/b lade le t c ore s , b lade/b lade le t s , c e l t b lanks , a nd t abu lar s craper c ore s a nd b lank s . T o s o me d egree , Wad i Gaza s i te 0 a l so s eem s t o f i t t h is p a t tern , a l though t he a b sence o f d eb i tage c oun t s makes t h is d iff icu l t t o e va luate . S evera l i nference s c an b e made f rom t he a bove c harac ter iza t ion . F ir s t , i ti sc l ear t ha t f l ake t oo ls w ere manufac tured a nd u sed o n s i te . C e l t t oo ls s eem t o h ave b een i mpor ted s i nce d eb i tage r ef lec t ing t he ir manufac ture i s a lmo s t t o ta l ly l ack ing . T he s a me c an b e c onc luded w i th r e spec t t o t abu lar s craper s n o t abu lar c ores o r d eb i tage w ere r ecovered . T he r e la t ive ly l ow p ercen tage s o f b lade t oo ls ( e spec ia l ly s i ck les ) a nd b lade le t t oo l s ma tche s t he l ow p ercen tage o f d eb i tage f rom t he manufac ture o f t he se t ypes , a nd s ugge s ts t ha t t hey may h ave b een manufac tured o n -s i te . T he c oncen tra t ion o f t he b lade a nd b lade le t c ore s i n af ew l o c i a t Horva t B e ter , t he ma jor c on tras t s i n t e chno logy b e tween t he f l ake a nd b lade/b lade le t t oo ls , a nd t he v ery h igh p ercen tages o f b lade/b lade le t t oo ls a nd w as te a t s o me s pec ia l ized f unc t ion s i tes a long t he l ower Naha l B e sor ( Wad i Gaza ) i nd ica te s t hat , e ven i f t hey w ere n o t i mpor t s , t he se t oo ls a re t he p roduc t s o f s pec ia l ized c raf tsmen . I n c on tras t t o t he o ccupa t ion s i te s , s ma l l , s pec ia l f unc t ion s i tes d isp lay h igh p ercen tage s o f t oo l a nd d eb i tage t ype s r ef lec t ing s pec ia l ized t e chno log ies . T ab le 1 .1 s hows t he p ercen tages o f t he d ifferen t c a tegor ie s f rom v ar ious s i te s i n t he Wes tern a nd Nor thern N egev . Much o f t he d a ta c ome f rom t he Wad i Gaza ( Besor ) s i te s , e xcava ted i n t he l a te 1 920 ' s b y Macdona ld ( 1932 ) . Quan t i ta t ive a na lyse s w ere u nder taken more r ecen t ly b y Ro shwa lb ( 1981) . I n s p i te o f t he c l ear p rob lem s o f t oo l s e lec t ion , b ias , a nd t oo l l o s s i n t hese c o l lec t ions , t he h igh p ropor t ions p re sen ted i n Ro shwa lb ' s work a re u seab le , i f n o t p erfec t . O ther d a ta c ome f rom s urveys a nd c o l lec t ions made b y Noy ( 1970 ) , B ur ian a nd F r iedman ( 1973 , 1 975 ) a nd t he a u thor . T he mo s t s t r ik ing e xamp le o f t he s pec ia l ized f unc t ion s i tes a re t he " m icroborer s " s i te s . O f t he 2 78 t oo ls f rom Wad i Gaza S i te M ( F loor 2 ; BE -44 ; F ig . 4 . 9 ) , 1 91 a re m icroborers ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :166 ) . Macdona ld a l so c la imed t ha t t hey w ere c ommon a t S i te B ( BE -43 ; F ig . 4 . 8 ) . Noy ( 1970 ) r epor ted o ne s i te i n t he Ha lu tza Dunes w i th more t han 2 00 m icroborer s , a nd f ew o ther t oo ls . S i te 9 2 o f t he S hunra s urvey ( Bur ian a nd F r iedman 1 973 ) y ie lded 3 32 m icroborers o f at o ta l o f 3 60 t oo ls . Gor ing - Morr is ( per s . c omm . ) h as a l so n o ted

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t he p resence o f s evera l more m icroborer s i tes i n t he N izzana a rea . F ina l ly , B ur ian ( 1984 , a l so F r iedman , p er s . c omm . ) r ecen t ly r epor ted o n am icroborer s i te w i th more t han 6 000 m icroborer s , a nd v ir tua l ly n o th ing e l se . T he se s i te s c l ear ly r epre sen t v ery s pec ia l ized a c t iv i t ies - e i ther o f t he manufac ture o f b eads o r o f t he d r i l ls t hem se lves . No tab ly , e xcep t ing Gaza M , n one o f t he se s i tes c on ta ined c ache s o f b ead s , o r ab ead r aw ma ter ia l ( s ea s he l ls , s of t s t one , o s tr ich e gg s he l l s , e tc . ) . S i te M y ie lded u nf in i shed b eads o f s of t s t one a nd o s tr ich e gg s he l l ( Ro shwa lb 1 981 :170 ) . O ther s i te s d o n o t s how t he l im i ted r ange o f t oo l t ype s p resen t i n t he m icroborer s i te s , b u t a re d is t ingu ished b y r e la t ive ly h igh p ercen tage s o f p ar t icu lar s pec ia l ized t echno log ies ( e i ther a s d eb i tage o r a s t oo ls ) . G iven t he l ow p ercen tage s o r a b sence a t o ccupa t ion s i te s , t he c on tras t s a re s i gn if ican t . Wad i Gaza S i te A h as b een d e scr ibed b y Ro shwa lb ( 1981 :39 ) a s a s econdary manufac tur ing s i te f or f an scraper s . A l though t hese p iece s c ompr i se o n ly 7 % o f t he t oo l a s semb lage , t hey a re f ound i n a l l s t age s o f manufac ture , f rom u nre touched b lanks t o f u l ly p repared f an scrapers . C ore a nd p repara t ion wa s te w ere n o t r ecovered . P r imary manufac tur ing s i te s h ave b een f ound a t Har Q eren 1 5 ( Ro sen 1 983b , c ) , Quse ima ( Perro t 1 955 ) , a nd o ther s i te s i n t he w e s tern Negev , a nd i n t he S ina i ( Koz loff 1 972/3 ) . A l though t he l i th ic a ssemb lage f rom Har Q eren 1 5 ( t he o n ly o ne f or wh ich d a ta a re a va i lab le ) s hows a r ange o f t oo l a nd d eb i tage t ype s , i t a l so s hows t abu lar s c raper c ore s , wh ich a re a b sen t f rom a l l s i te s f ur ther n or th . T he d a te o f t h is s i te i su nc lear , a nd c an o n ly b e a t tr ibu ted r ough ly t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th m i l lenn ium B .C .E . Wad i Gaza S i te A a l so s eem s t o h ave b een t he f ocus o f o ther s pec ia l ized mode s o f manufac ture . Over 1 400 c ore s w ere r ecovered , v ir tua l ly a l l o f t hem b lade a nd b lade le t c ores , c on tras t ing marked ly w i th t he l a rger o ccupa t ion s i tes ( e .g . S h iqm im a nd Horva t B e ter ) . Ro shwa lb ( 1981 :58 ) n o ted t ha t v ery f ew p r imary e l emen ts w ere r ecovered , s ugge s t ing p o s s ib le o ff -s i te c ore p repara t ion . The g rea t q uan t i ty o f c ore s i mp l ies t ha t b lade a nd b lade le t t oo ls ( o r p o s s ib ly b lades a nd b lade le ts f or l a ter mod if ica t ion ) w ere b e ing manufac tured f or e xpor t , a nd n o t mere ly f or i n terna l u se . F ina l ly , S i te A s hows a n a bundance o f c e l t ( b ifac ia l c ore ) t oo ls s uch a s a xe s , a dzes , c h ise ls , e tc . O f p ar t icu lar i n teres t a re t he 6 1 ( of a t o ta l o f 4 10 c e l t t oo ls ) b lank s , o r c el l s in -prepara t ion , i nd ica t ing o n s i te manufac ture . Th is a ga in c on tras ts w i th t he o ccupa t ion s i te s . A s w i th b lade t oo ls , t he l a rge n umber o f c e l t t oo l s a l so i mp l ie s t ha t many w ere manufac tured f or u se o ff s i te . L ike S i te A , s i tes B a nd D a l so y ie lded h igh p ropor t ions o f c e l t t oo l s . B o th e xh ib i t t he p resence o f b lanks , s ugges t ing o n s i te manufac ture a nd p o ss ib le e xpor t . T hey a l so e xh ib i t o n ly l ow n umbers o f o ther t oo ls t ype s , emphas iz ing t he s pec ia l ized n a ture o f t he s i te s . A l though Ro shwa lb w as s i te E , Macdona ld c la imed t ha t h is i mpress ion w as c orrec t , t hen a re g enera l ly med ium t o l ow .

n o t a b le t o l oca te much o f t he ma ter ia l f rom n umerous s i ck les w ere p resen t a t t h is s i te . I f i tc on tras t s w i th o ther s i tes who se p ercen tage s T h is a ga in f a l ls i n to a p a t tern o f s pec ia l ized

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f unc t ion s i tes , e ach w i th h igh p ropor t ion s o f p ar t icu lar t oo l t ypes , o r d eb i tage e l emen t s . S ummar iz ing b r ief ly , t he l i th ic d a ta s eem t o r ef lec t ab ipar t i te s cheme o f o ccupa t ion s i te s v ersus s ma l l s pec ia l f unc t ion s i tes . The o ccupa t ion s i te s r ef lec t a r ange o f a c t iv i t ies , i nc lud ing s o me , b u t n o t a l l o f t he s pec ia l ized f unc t ions . T he s pec ia l ized s i tes s how a c oncen tra t ion o n more s oph is t ica ted l i th ic t echno log ie s a nd s pec if ic manufalur ing mode s . T here i s c l ear e v idence o f i mpor t a nd t rade o f s o me l i th ic t ype s . T he c oncom i tan t e vo lu t ion o f c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion a nd me ta l lurgy ( Heske l 1 983 ) h ad a ma jor e ffec t o n l i th ic i ndus tr ie s . C ompar ing Cha lco l i th ic f l in t a s semb lage s t o t ho se o f t he s ucceed ing E ar ly B ronze Age , t he mos t o bv ious d ifferences w i th r e spec t t o f unc t iona l t oo l t ype s a re t he d i sappearance o f c e l t t oo l s a nd aw l s/dr i l l s/m icroborer s ( no t t o b e c onfused w i th c ruder b orers ) . Whereas t ho se t oo l t ypes a re i mpor tan t e l emen t s o f Cha lco l i th ic f l in t i ndus tr ies , t hey a re t o ta l ly a b sen t f rom n or thern N egev E ar ly B ronze Age s i te s l i ke A rad ( Sch ick 1 978 ) , H e s i ( Ro sen 1 983c ) a nd E in B esor ( Ye iv in 1 976 ) . S ou thern a nd C en tra l N egev s i te s a l so s how a g rea t s carc i ty , i f n o t a bsence , o f t he se t oo ls ( Rosen 1 983c ) . Wh i le s oph is t ica ted me ta l lurg ica l t e chn iques w ere f i r s t i n troduced d ur ing t he C ha lco l i th ic , t he t r ade s y s tem a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c o l lec t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f c opper s eem s t o h ave u ndergone i t s g rea tes t d eve lopmen t d ur ing t he E ar ly B ronze Age ( Am iran e t a l . 1 973 ; B e i t A r ieh 1 981) . Thu s t he r ep lacemen t o f c er ta in f l in t t oo l s b y t he ir me ta l e qu iva len ts , when o ther t ype s c on t inued i n u se , s hou ld p robab ly b e s t b e e xp la ined b y r eference t o t he p ar t icu lar t oo l t ype s t hem se lves . I n p ar t icu lar , g rounds tone a xes a re n o tor ious ly t ime -con sum ing t o manufac ture d ue t o t he g r ind ing p roce ss . S ing le mo ld c opper -bronze e qu iva len ts w ere u ndoub ted ly much more e ff icen t ly manufac tured , a nd , i n e s sence , c heaper o nce a t rade n e twork wa s e s tab l i shed . C ore t oo ls w i thou t g rounds tone e dges h ave much s hor ter u se l ive s t han e i ther g rounds tone t oo ls , o r me ta l o nes . T herefore , i s n o g rea t s urpr i se t hat t he c e l t t oo ls w ere q u ick ly r ep laced . E thnograph ica l ly , as im i lar r gp id r ep lacemen t o f f l in t a xes b y me ta l o ne s h as b een a na lyzed b y S harp ( 1952 ) h. T he r ep lacemen t o f f l in t d r i l l s ( i nc lud ing aw ls a nd m icroborer s ) p robab ly r ef lec ts t he g rea ter b r i t t lene s s o f f l in t , a nd t he g rea ter l a tera l s t reng th o f me ta l d r i l ls . T ha t i s , f l in t d r i l l s b reak f ar more e a s i ly t han m e ta l o ne s , s o t ha t o nce me ta l d r i l l s w ere r ead i ly a va i lab le , i t i s l i ke ly t ha t t hey wou ld h ave r ep laced t he ir f l in t e qu iva len ts r e la t ive ly q u ick ly . T he i n troduc t ion o f me ta l r ep lacemen t s f or f l in t t oo ls u ndoub ted ly h ad o ther e ffec ts o n t he c u l ture s i nvo lved ( e .g . , S harp 1 952 ) , b ut i t i s d iff icu l t t o s pecu la te b eyond t h is . SU BS ISTENCE A ND EC ONOMY F rom a l i th ic p erspec t ive , t he t wo k ey e l emen ts i n r econs truc t ing s ubs is tence p a t terns a re t he r e la t ive p ropor t ions o f s i ck le s egmen ts a nd o f a rrowheads . E xam ina t ion o f t he p ercen tage s o f t hese t oo l t ype s f rom L a te

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Chap ter 1 : L i th ic Ana lys is i n t he Cha lco l i th ic Nor tern Negev

Neo l i th ic , Cha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age s e t t lemen ts ( Tab le 1-4 ) r evea ls b o th c hrono log ica l a nd g eograph ica l v ar iab i l i ty . The c hrono log ica l p at tern i s v ery c l ear . Whereas t he a ssemb lages f rom t yp ica l Cha lco l i th ic s i tes l i ke S h iqm im , Horva t B e ter ( Ye iv in 1 959 ; Rosen f or thcom ing ) , a nd t he Wad i Gaza s i tes ( Roshwa lb 1 981) , a s we l l a s t hose o f n or thern S ina i ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981) s how a n a lmos t t o ta l a bsence o f a rrowheads , t hose f rom t he i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t e rm ina l Neo l i th ic ( or E ar ly C ha lco l i th ic ) a l l s how med iu m t o h igh p ercen tages o f a rrowheads . S uch s i tes a s Kv ish Hanf ( Rosen 1 983c ) , S hunra s i tes 8 6 , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 2/1 , 9 3 a nd 9 4 ( Bur ian a nd F r iedman 1 973 ) a l l s how a rrowhead p ercen tages o f 1 0% o r g reater . R egard less o f whe ther t he c o l lec t ions u t i l ized a re b iased , i t i s c l ear t hat n umerous a rrowheads a re p resent i n t he l a tes t p hases o f t he Neo l ith ic ( o r e ar l ies t p hases o f t he Cha lco l i th ic , d epend ing o n o ne 's t e rm ino logy ) , a nd t ha t i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p roper , t hey a re v ir tua l ly a bsen t f rom t he l i th ic r eper to ire . Unfor tuna te ly , Kv ish Hanf a nd t he S hunra s i tes a re n o t l oca ted i n p rec ise ly t he s a me a rea a s t he B eersheva s i tes , a nd s o me o f t h is v ar iab i l ity may b e c u lture -geograph ic . On t he o ther h and , a no ther Cha lco l i th ic s i te i nves t igated b y B ur ian a nd F r iedman ( 1975 ) , n ear Naha l S ekher a nd n o t f ar f rom t he S hunra s i tes , d id n o t y ie ld a rrowheads . The S ina i Cha lco l i th ic s i tes ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981) a nd Naha l M i tnan I a l so o n ly s howed v ery l ow p ercentages o f ( t ransverse ) a rrowheads . A l though a c hrono log ica l p a t tern w ith r e spec t t o s i ck le s egment p ercen tages i s n o t p ar t icu lar ly c l ear c u t , t he g eograph ica l p a t terns a re u nm is takab le - t he f ar ther s ou th , t he f ewer s i ck le s egmen ts , i mp ly ing l e ss r e l iance o n i n tens ive a gr icu l ture . Naha l M i tnan I s hows a v ery l ow s i ck le s egmen t p ercen tage , a nd r ough ly c on temporary s i tes i n S ina i ( Ronen 1 970 ; B e i t A r ieh 1 980 ; Koz loff 1 972/73 ) s eem n o t t o h ave y ie lded s i ck le s egments a t a l l . E ven s o me o f t he n or thern S ina i s i tes ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981) s how q u i te l ow s i ck le s egmen t p ropor t ions . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t a l though c rop s c an b e h arves ted w i thou t t he u se o f s i ck les , b y p u l l ing t he p lan ts u p b y t he r oo ts , i ti s s t i l l l i ke ly t hat t he s i ck le p ropor t ions r ef lec t t he i n tens ity o f a gr icu l tura l e xp lo ita t ion , e ven i f t he ir a bsence n eed n o t i mp ly t he t o ta l a bsence o f f arm ing . C ompar ing E ar ly B ronze Age l i th ic a ssemb lages w i th t hose o f t he Cha lco l i th ic , t he s carc i ty o f a rrowheads c ont inues . I t i s o f s o me i n teres t t o n o te t hat t he d eser t s i tes , a s o pposed t o t hose o f t he E ar ly B ronze u rban c iv i l iza t ion , d o s how t he p resence o f l ow n u mbers o f m icro l ith ic l una te a rrowheads ( Rosen 1 984 ) . W i th r e spec t t o s i ck le s egmen ts , t here d o n o t s eem t o b e s i gn if ican t d ifferences i n p ropor t ions b e tween t he Cha lco l i th ic a nd t he E ar ly B ronze Ages i n g enera l . On t he o ther h and , E ar ly B ronze Age s i tes i n t he C en tra l a nd S ou thern Negev ( Rosen 1 983c ) s how l ow t o med ium p ercentages o f s i ck le s egments , s eem ing ly i nd ica t ing more i n tens ive f arm ing i n t he e ar ly B ronze Age i n t he f ar s outh . Obv ious ly t he t rans it ion f rom h un ter -gatherer t o a g enu ine ly p as tora l e conomy i n t h is r eg ion d id n o t o ccur o vern igh t . The p ic ture i s u nfor tuna te ly mudd led b y d iff icu l t ies i n c hrono log ica l c ontro l a nd a s carc i ty o f P o t tery Neo l i th ic e xcava t ions a nd c o l lec t ions wh ich c an b e c ompared t o t he

3 01

S h iqm im I

Cha lco l i th ic . The e ffec ts o f t he e co log ica l d ifferences b e tween t he a d jacen t g eograph ica l r eg ions a l so r enders c ross -reg iona l c ompar isons d iff icu lt t o f u l ly c ontro l , e ven i n ar e lat ive ly w e l l r esearched a rea l i ke t he Negev . Never the les s , t he l i th ic a ssemb lages s eem t o c l ear ly r ef lec t t he d ec l ine o f h un t ing , t he e vo lut ion o f a gr icu ltura l a nd p as tora l e conom ies , a nd t he i n troduc t ion o f t he se e conom ies i n to t he d eser t r eg ions . CH RONOLOGY A ND GE OGRAPHY The p rob lems a ssoc ia ted w i th d e term in ing whe ther a p ar t icu lar s ty l is t ic c hange i s t o b e i n terpre ted a s a r eg iona l v ar ian t , o r a s a c hrono log ica l d eve lopmen t w ere a l luded t o e ar l ier . Obv ious ly t hese p rob lems a re p ar t icu lar ly a cu te i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod , when mos t o f t he s i tes a re n o t t e l l s i te s , w i th d eep ly s t ra t if ied s ec t ions . When c ompar ing t he l i th ic i ndus tr ies o f t he Cha lco l i th ic t o t hose o f t he p reced ing a nd s ucceed ing P o t tery Neo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Ages , t he t ime f ac tor i ss uff ic ien t ly w e l l c on tro l led t o b e a b le t o make g enera l s t a temen ts a bou t d iachron ic c hanges i n t he l i th ic a s semb lages . The p rob lem s o f c hrono log ica l c on tro l a re more d iff icu l t w i th in t he Cha lco l i th ic , r ender ing s ynchron ic c ompar is ions p rob lemat ic . Th is i s h igh l ighted b y t he c era m ic s tudy o f t he ma ter ia ls f rom S h iqm im d iscussed i n c hap ter * . I n s hor t , d ue t o p rob lems o f t ime c on tro l , i t i s d iff icu l t t o d e term ine whe ther a n o bserved d ifference b e tween t wo a ssemb lages i s t he r e su l t o f r eg iona l c u ltura l v ar ia t ion , o r o f c hanges w ith t ime . On t he g ross s ca le o f c hrono log ica l c hange , B ur ian a nd F r iedman ( 1979 ) h ave o u t l ined t he c hanges i n a rrowhead a nd s i ck le s egment a t tr ibute s f rom t he P re -Po t tery Neo l i th ic t hrough t he Cha lco l i th ic . W ith r espec t t o s i ck le s egmen ts , t he t ypo logy h as b een e x tended t o i nc lude t he B ronze a nd I ron Age s a s w e l l ( Ro sen 1 982 ) . S ummar iz ing t he p er t inen t d a ta f rom Cha lco l ith ic a s semb lages , s i ck le s egmen ts i n t h is p er iod w ere manufac tured o n s ma l l b lades o r b lade le ts wh ich were b acked a nd t runcated . B ur ian a nd F r iedman i nd ica ted t ha t s e rra t ion o f t he work ing e dge was c ommon i n t he e ar l ier p ha ses o f t he Cha lco l i th ic , a s t he t oo l t ype d eve loped f rom t he h eav i ly d ent icu la ted P o t tery Neo l i th ic s i ck le s egmen ts . Cha lco l i th ic a rrowheads , wh ich a re a bsen t f rom t he B eersheva s i tes , a re e i ther s ma l l w inged p o in ts ( e .g . , Neuv i l le 1 934 ; C rowfoo t 1 937 ) , o r t ransverse a rrowheads ( Bar Yosef e t a l . 1 970 ; O ren a nd G i lead 1 981 ; B ur ian a nd F r iedman 1 979 ; Rosen 1 983c ) . W i th r e spec t t o c on t inu it ies a nd d iscon t inu i t ies w ith t he Neo l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Ages , t he t wo t oo l c l asses r ef lec t b o th ( s ee T ab les 1-2 a nd 1-4 ) . Cha lco l i th ic w inged a rrowheads c an b e v iewed a s i n ad irec t l i ne f rom e ar l ier Neo l i th ic t ypes , a nd t r ansverse a rrowheads w ere a l so i n troduced p r ior t o t he Cha lco l i th ic . F ur thermore , t he m icro l ith ic l unate a rrowhead , f ound i n E ar ly B ronze c on tex ts i n t he s ou th , c an b e s een a s a n o u tgrow th o f Cha lco l i th ic t ransverse a rrowheads ( Rosen 1 984 ) . On t he o ther h and , t he a b sence o f a rrowheads i n a l l o f t he B eersheva a nd Wad i Gaza s i tes r epresen ts a c l ear d iscon t inu i ty , a lbe it p robab ly n o t s ty l is t ic i n n a ture . F l in t s i ck le s egments , wh ich u n l ike a rrowheads e xtend w e l l b eyond t he Cha lco l i th ic c hrono log ica l ly , a l so e xh ib i t d egrees o f c ont inu i ty a nd d iscon t inu i ty . A s men t ioned e ar l ier , B ur ian a nd F r iedman ( 1979 ) s ugges t b as ic

3 02

Chap ter 1 : L i th ic Ana lys is i n t he Cha lco l ith ic Nor tern Negev

c on t inu i ty b e tween P o t tery Neo l i th ic a nd Cha lco l i th ic s i ck le s egmen ts . However , t he C anaanean s i ck les i n troduced i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age a re c l ear ly p roduc ts o f at echno logy d ifferen t f rom t ha t o f Cha lco l i th ic s i ck les . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t s ma l l n umbers o f Cha lco l i th ic t ype b acked s i ck les d o a ppear i n E ar ly B ronze Age a s semb lages . S ou th o f A rad , where C anaanean t echno logy s eems n o t t o h ave e x tended , Cha lco l i th ic t ype s i ck les a re t he c ommon t ype u t i l ized i n E ar ly B ronze Age s i tes ( Rosen 1 983c ) . I n t he s ense t ha t s ty l is t ic c hange i s t he c omp lemen t o f f unc t iona l c hange ( e .g . , J e l inek 1 976 ; S acke t t 1 977 ) , t he a bove c hanges c an b e s een a s s ty l is t ic ( excep t ing p erhaps t he i n troduc t ion o f C anaanean t ech -no logy , wh ich may b e r e lated t o e ff ic iency o f manufac ture a nd l onger u se l ife ( Rosen 1 983c ) . The f ac tors e ffec t ing s uch c hanges n eed n o t b e i n terpre ted i n e thn ic t e rm s . The r e la t ive ly r ap id s oc io -cu ltura l t r ansforma t ions o ccurr ing i n t hese p er iods , a nd t he c oncom i tan t i ncreases i n l ong d is tance t r ade a nd c ommun ica t ion may t hemse lves h ave s e rved a s t he s t imu l i t o t he i n terven t ion a nd/or a dop t ion o f n ew s ty les . T o d a te , i ti s d oub tfu l t hat s ub -phases i n t he Negev Cha lco l ith ic c an b e d is t ingu ished t ypo log ica l ly f rom t he l i th ics . Wh i le a t tr ibu te a na lyses h o ld more p rom ise , t he p resen t p auc i ty o f a t tr ibute d ata p rec ludes e ven s pecu la t ion . The r econs truc t ion o f g eograph ic p at terns f rom s ty l is t ic v ar ia t ion p resu mes a g ood c on tro l o f c hrono logy , wh ich , i n f ac t , w e l ack . Never the less , t r eat ing t he e n t ire P a les t in ian Cha lco l i th ic a s a u n it , s evera l p at terns a re d iscern ib le . A s w i th c hrono logy , at ypo log ica l p erspec t ive i st aken h ere , mos t ly d ue t o ap auc i ty o f c ompara t ive a t tr ibu te d a ta . E xam in ing f i rs t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f a rrowheads , i t h as b een n o ted t hat t hey a re p resent i n t he C en tra l Negev , S ou thern Negev a nd S ina i s i tes , b ut a re a bsent f rom t he B eersheva B as in a nd Gaza s i tes . O f i n teres t i s t he ir p resence i n t he J ordan Va l ley a t Ghassu l ( Neuv i l le 1 934 ) a nd J er icho ( Crowfoo t 1 937 ) . A l though t he p resence/absence o f a rrowheads c l ear ly h as f unc t iona l mean ing i n t e rm s o f s ubs is tance , t he g eograph ica l c on tras t i n d is tr ibu t ion i s o f i mpor tance s ince d ifferences i n s ubs is tence s ugges t t hat o ther s oc ia l a nd c u l tura l c on tras ts a re a l so p resen t . A s w i th a rrowheads , t abu lar ( fan ) s crapers a re v ery r are i n t he B eersheva s i tes , i n s p i te o f r e lat ive a bundance i n t he C en tra l Negev ( Rosen 1 983c ) , S ina i ( Koz loff 1 972/73 ; O ren a nd G i lead 1 981) , Wad i Gaza ( Roshwa lb 1 981) , Ghassu l ( Neuv i l le 1 934 ; Mahan 1 940 ) a nd A rad ( Sch ick 1 978 ) . The mean ing o f t h is v ar iab i l i ty i s f ar f rom c l ear , e spec ia l ly s ince t he d is tances f rom Wad i Gaza , o r A rad t o t he B eersheva s i tes a re n o t g reat . P erhaps s o me s oc io -econom ic f ac tor n o t y e t w e l l u nders tood i sa t work , b u t a t v ery l eas t t he s carc i ty o f t abu lar s c rapers a t t he B eersheva s i tes i nd ica tes s o me t ype o f r eg iona l i nd iv idua l i ty . Th is i nd iv idua l i ty i s f ur ther r e inforced i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f b lade le t t oo ls . A lthough t hey a re r are a t t he B eersheva s i tes , t hey a re r e la t ive ly c ommon i n t hen Gaza s i tes ( Roshwa lb 1 981) , Nor th S ina i ( Oren a nd G i lead 1 981) , A rad ( Sch ick 1 978 ) a nd Ghassu l ( Neuv i l le 1 934 ) . They s eem t o b e g enera l ly a bsent f rom s i tes i n t he C en tra l Negev a nd S ina i ( e .g . , Koz loff 1 972/73 ; Ronen 1 970 ) . Wh i le o ne m igh t p os tu late f unc t iona l i n terpre ta t ions t o

3 03

S h iqm im I

a ccoun t f or t h is v ar iab i l i ty , t he v ery f ac t t ha t o ccupa t ion s i te s l i ke Ghas su l a nd S h iqm im e xh ib i t ma jor d ifference s i n t he ir r e spec t ive p ropor t ions o f t h is t oo l a ga in p o in ts t o ad egree o f r eg iona l i nd iv idua l i ty .

SUMMARY T he p re sen t s t a te o f C ha lco l i th ic f l in t s tud ie s p rec lude s d ef in i t ive s t a temn t s . T he c o l lec t ions a re s imp ly t oo f ew , t oo s ma l l , a nd o f ten t oo u nre l iab le t o b u i ld d e ta i led mode ls o f c hrono logy , r eg iona l iza t ion o r e conomy . T he h ypo these s s ugge s ted h ere a re i n tended , a s i mp l ied b y t he t i t le , t o i nd ica te t he g rea t p o ten t ia ls o f l i th ic a na lyse s t oward u nder s tand ing C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture . E ven w i th t hese c avea t s , c er ta in p a t terns a re c l ear . T he l i th ic i mp lemen ts f rom C ha lco l i th ic s i te s r ef lec t as oc ie ty where i n tra -reg iona l t r ade w as b ecom ing c ommon , a nd where c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion w as i n tegra l t o t he p roduc t ion o f n umerous e l emen t s o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture ( cf . P erro t 1 955 , 1 968 ) . T he s ub s i s tence s ys tem wa s f u l ly b ased o n d omes t ica te s , b o th p lan t s a nd a n ima ls , a nd h un t ing h ad c eased t o p lay a n i mpor tan t r o le i n f ood -ge t t ing . T he f l in t s a l so p rov ide a n i mpor tan t t oo l , who se p o ten t ia l h as n o t y e t b een f u l l r ea l ized , f or d ef in ing c hrono log ica l p hases . C onnec ted t o t h i s g enera l q ue s t ion o f s t y le , t hey a l so r ef lec t r eg iona l a nd e co log ica l v ar ia t ion . T h is a rea o f s tudy s how s much p o ten t ia l b eyond wha t h a s b een p resen ted h ere . T he p o s s ib l i t ie s a re g rea t . I f s im i lar s ys tema t ic a na lyses a re c onduc ted o n c eram ic a s semb lage s , o ur p ic ture o f C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture a nd s oc ie ty w i l l b ecome f u l ler a nd f ar more d e ta i led . I n f ac t , i ti ss ugges ted t ha t u n sy s tema t ic c o l lec t ion s a nd e xcava t ions c an n o l onger a dd t o t he s ub s tance o f o ur k now ledge o f C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture . T he p r imary g oa l o f a rchaeo logy l ong a go c eased t o b e t he c o l lec t ion o f museum p iece s . I t i so n ly t hrough c on tro l led a nd s ys tema t ic f i e ld a nd l abora tory work t ha t c urren t k now ledge o f t he C ha lco l i th ic c an a dvance . And i f n o t n ow , when?

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS I am g ra tefu l t o T homas L evy , A r lene Ro sen , a nd Ann Ro shwa lb f or r ead ing p re l im inary d raf t s o f t h is p aper , a nd mak ing v a luab le c r i t ic i sm s . However , a l l m is takes a nd m isapprehens ions o f t he ma ter ia l a re p ure ly my own r e spon s ib i l i ty .

3 04

Chap ter 1 : L i th ic Ana lys i s i n t he C ha lco l i th ic Nor tern N egev

T ab le 1 .1a : T oo ls a ccord ing t o t echno log ica l c lass .

BL ADELETS

BL ADES

CO RE TO OLS

FL AKE TO OLS

TA BULAR

m icroborer s m icro g ra t to irs t runca ted b lade le t s o ther r e t . b lade le t s t r ansver se a rrowheads

s i ck le s eg . b acked b lade s t runca ted b lades d en t icu la ted b lade s o ther r e t . b lade s o ther a rrow h eads

c e l t t oo ls a xes a dzes c h ise l s h ammer s tone s c hopper s p icks o ther

s craper s b orers n o tches d en t icu late s o ther

f an scraper s e longa te o va l r ound o ther

T ab le 1-lb : T oo l f requenc ie s a ccord ing t o t echno logy b y p ercen t .

B LADELETS

B LADE S

C ORE

F LAKE

T ABULAR

O THER

T OTAL

N

. 6

6 . 5

1 6 .3

7 5 .2

. 6

. 6

1 00 .2

3 83

1 . 4

1 7 .9

6 . 4

7 4 .2

. 4

1 00 .3

1 688

2 7 .1 8 . 6 1 7 .4

2 5 .2 3 9 .0 1 8 .8

3 . 3 5 . 7 4 . 3

3 6 .8 4 0 .0 5 2 .2

3 . 0

1 00 .0 1 00 .1 9 9 .9

3 34 1 05 1 38

8 7 .5

1 2 .5

1 00 .0

2 01

1 00 .0

3 25

1 00 1 00 .0 9 9 .9 1 00 .1 1 00 .0

144 1 49 2 60 2 78 1 41

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .1 1 00 .0 1 00 .0

3 54 7 0 9 3 1 75 1 40

H .Be ter S h iqm im 3 N .S ina i R 4 8 R 4 5 A 3 01 H .Qeren 1 5

1 . 5

1 . 4

K .Har if

1 4 .7

4 . 4

4 . 0

6 7 .1

9 . 8

W .Gaza A B D M ( F .2 ) 0

8 1 . 3 5 . 0 7 5 .9 1 . 4

2 3 1 0 .7 2 3 .8 3 . 6 2 0 .6

3 6 6 3 .1 4 7 .7 1 0 .6 3 2 .6

1 1 6 .9 1 9 .2 9 . 7 4 5 .4

7 8 . 0 2 . 3 . 3

H .Shunra 9 2 9 2/1 9 3 9 4 8 6

9 4 .9 5 . 7 6 . 5 4 . 0 5 . 0

1 . 7 7 5 .7 6 9 .9 5 5 .4 5 2 .9

. 3 5 . 7 2 . 2 4 . 6 2 . 9

3 . 1 1 2 .9 2 1 .5 3 6 .0 3 9 .2

? ? ? ? ?

3 05

4 . 6 6 . 8 5 . 8

1 5 1 . 9

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 1 .2 : S e lected t oo l f requenc ies b y p ercent . M ICRO B ORERS

S I CKLE S EGMENTS

A RROW H EADS

C ELT T OOLS

T ABULAR S CRAPERS

N

H .Be ter

3 . 9

3 . 7

. 6

3 83

S h iqm im 3

2 . 3

5 . 7

. 4

1 688

N .S ina i R 4 8 R 4 5 A 3 01

1 4 .2 1 3 .3 2 . 9

. 3

. 9 2 . 8 2 . 1

. 7

3 . 1

H .Qeren 1 5 K .Har if W .Gaza A B D M ( F .2 ) 0 N .Lavan 1 03 H .Shunra 9 2 9 2/1 9 3 9 4 8 6

T ab le 1-3 ( a) : i nc luded) .4 ( a ) F lakes P r imary F lakes B lades B lade le ts C e l t B lanks C ore R enewa l

. 3

9 . 5 8 . 7 1 3 .8 3 . 2 1 3 .4

. 4 6 8 .7

1 . 4

3 29 1 05 1 38

1 2 .5

2 01

1 2 .9

2 . 8

9 . 8

3 25

1 . 5

3 4 .5 5 8 .4 4 0 .0 1 0 .1 2 9 .1

6 . 7 8 . 0 2 . 3 . 4 ?

144 1 49 2 60 2 78 1 41

1 00 .0

> 6000

9 3 .8 1 . 4

. 6 3 8 .6 4 3 .0 2 8 .7 2 8 .6

? ? ? ?

D eb itage f requenc ies f rom s e lected s i tes ( debr is c ounts n ot

SH I QM IM

H.BE TER

K.HA R IF

H.QE REN

3 1963

2 126

5 699

2 01

N/A

1 095

5 72

9 6

3 10

1 38

1 20

1 0

4 0

8

N/A

2

3 7

9

3 06

1 03 0 1 8

1 0 5 5

3 54 7 0 9 3 1 75 1 40

Chap ter 1 : L ith ic Ana ly s is i n t he Cha lco l ith ic Nor tern Negev

T ab le 1 1 .3 ( b-d) :

( b ) F lakes

GA ZA A 3 853

P r imary F lakes

2 56

B lades

9 26

B lade le ts

6 99

C e l t B lanks C ore R enewa l O ther

1 5 1 52 1

GA ZA B

GA ZA D

GA ZA 0

1

1 0 5

GA ZA M ( F. 2 ) 7

3

3

4

1

1 2

1 2

2 4 8 8

1 1

( c ) CORES : F lake

S H IQM IM

H.BE TER

K.HA R IF

1 029

1 27

3 7

B lade

2

9

B lade le t

2

3

M ixed

6 0

3 5

1

H.QE REN 4 0

1 2

1

1 2

1

T abu lar S craper

1 2

O ther

5

( d ) CORES :

GA ZA A

GA ZA B

F lake

c a . 2 0

1

B lade

c a . 4 50

1

5

B lade le t

c a . 9 50

1 7

5

5

2

1

O ther

1

3 07

GA ZA D 2

GA ZA 0 2 1 6

GA ZA M ( F. 2 ) 5 3 3 1 7 1

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 1 .4 : H istogram o f a rrowhead p ercentages . ( Da ta f rom S h ick 1 978 ; Roshwa lb 1 981 ; Rosen 1 983 : O ren a nd G i lead 1 981 ; B ur ian a nd F r iedman 1 973 ) .

H . S hunra LA TE NE OL ITH IC/ EA RLY CH ALCOL ITH IC

CH ALCOL ITH IC

I I

K . Har if

H . B e ter S h iqm im N . S ina i

A rad G aza

EA RLY BR ONZE

8 6 9 2/1 9 3 9 4

R 4 8 R 4 5 A 3 01

I -

A B D M 0

A rad H es i R . Ma tred Y armou th 0 -

3 08

1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 1 0 2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

C hap ter 1 : L i th ic Ana ly s i s i n t he C ha lco l i th ic Nor tern Negev

NO TES 1 . Ro shwa lb ( per s . c omm . ) h a s i nd ica ted t ha t s o me o f t he Wad i Gaza s i te s may n o t b e s t r ic t ly c on temporary t o t ho se o f Wad i B eersheva , o r i n f ac t , t o e ach o ther . T herefore , s o me o f t he d ifference s a t tr ibu ted h ere t o f unc t ion , may b e c hrono log ica l . Th is may b e t rue , a nd i f s o , t hen w e h ave a n i n tere s t ing c ase o f c hrono log ica l c hange s i n t he f unc t ion a nd t echno logy o f t he s i te s , s i nce t he h igh ly c on tra s t ing p ropor t ions o f f unc t iona l t oo l t ype s ( l ike c e l t s , s i ck le s , s craper s , e tc . ) c l ear ly r epre sen t f unc t ions a s w e l l a s p o s s ib ly s ty l i s t ic c hange . L evy ( pers . c omm . ) i nd ica te s t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t a xes a nd a dze s w ere , i n f ac t , manufac tured a t S h iqm im , a nd n o te s t ha t r aw ma ter ia l f or t he ir manufac ture i s l o ca l ly a va i lab le . N ever the le s s , g iven t he e v idence f rom o ther s i te s , i t i s l i ke ly t ha t e ven i f l oca l ly manufac tured , t he t oo ls w ere t he p roduc t s o f s pec ia l ized c raf t smen . 2 . S harp ( 1952 ) d e scr ibed a n e xchange s y s tem where s ea she l ls w ere t r aded f or g round s tone a xe s . T he i n troduc t ion o f i mpor ted s t ee l a xe s n o t o n ly a ffec ted t he t e chno logy o f t he n a t ive Aus tra l ian s , b u t d i srup ted t he e n t ire e xchange s ys tem b y l ower ing t he r e la t ive v a lue o f g rounds tone a xe s , a nd t hereby r a is ing t he r e la t ive v a lue o f s eashe l ls . 3 . O r ig ina l t oo l c oun t s i nc luded o ver 4 000 f l akes w i th e dge d amage . The se h ave b een e xc luded f rom c oun t s h ere , a nd i nc luded i n d eb i tage c oun t s . 4 . Over 1 400 c ore s w ere r ecovered f rom Gaza S i te A . Abou t 2 /3 o f t hem w ere b lade le t c ore s a nd 1 /3 b lade c ore s . A lmo s t n o f l ake c ore s w ere r ecovered .

3 09

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY Am iran , R . , B e it A r ieh , Y . a nd J .G lass . 1 973 The I n terre la t ionsh ip b e tween A rad a nd S i tes i n t he S ou thern S ina i i n t he E ar ly B ronze I . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 2 3 :193 -198 . Ammerman , A .J . , a nd W . Andrefsky , J r . 1 982 R educ t ion S equences a nd t he E xchange o f Obs id ian i n Neo l i th ic C a labr ia . I n E r icson , J .E . a nd E ar le , T .K . ( eds ) , C on tex ts f or P reh is tor ic Exchange . New York : A cadem ic , 1 49 -172 . B ar Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure .

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

B ar Yosef , 0 . 1 981 The " Pre -Po t tery Neo l i th ic " P er iod i n t he S ou thern L evan t . C auv in , J .( ed ) , P rel is to ire d u L evan t . P ar is : CNRS , P p . 5 55 -569 .

I n

B e i t A r ieh , I . 1 980 A Cha lco l i th ic S i te Near S erab i t e l Khud im .

T e l A v iv 7 :4 5 -64 .

1 981 An E ar ly B ronze Age I S i te Near S he ikh ' Awad i n S ou thern S ina i . T e l A v iv 8 :8 5 -127 . B rad ley , B .A . 1 975 L i th ic R educ t ion S equences : A G lossary a nd D iscuss ion . I n Swanson , E . ( cd ) , L i th ic T echno logy : Mak ing a nd U s ing S tone T oo l s . Ch icago : Houton , P p . 5 14 . B ur ian , F . 1 984 Mak ing F l in t D r i l ls . P aper p resen ted a t Mee t ings o f t he I s rae l P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty , F eb . 2 , 1 984 , T e l Av iv . B ur ian , F . a nd E . F r iedman . 1 973 P reh is tor ic Hun ters o f Ho lo t S hunra . ( Hebrew )

Meekufa t HaEven 1 : 2 7 -35 .

1 975 P reh is tor ic S i tes Near Naha l S ekher . ( Hebrew w i th E ng l ish S ummary )

Me t 'kufa t HaEven 1 3 : 5 9 -69 .

1 979 A T ypo logy o f A rrowheads a nd S ick le B lades Chrono log ica l I mp l ica t ions . Meekufa t HaEven 1 6 : 1 16 . C rowfoo t , J . 1 937 No tes o n t he F l in t I mp lemen ts o f J er icho , 1 936 . o f A rchaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 4 : 3 5 -52 . 1 948 S ome F l in t I mp lemen ts O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 2 1 : 7 2 -79 .

f rom A ffu la .

3 10

a nd

i t s

L iverpoo l A nna l s

J ourna l o f t h e

P a les t ine

Chap ter 1 : L i th ic Ana lys is i n t he Cha lco l i th ic Nor tern Negev

Dee tz , J . 1 965 T he Dynam ics o f S ty l is t ic C hange i n A nkara C eram ics . S tud ies i n An thropo lgy 4 . U rbana : Un ivers i ty o f I l l ino is P ress .

I l l ino is

F reeman , L .G . 1 968 A Theore t ica l F ramework f or I n terpre t ing A rchaeo log ica l Mater ia ls . I n L ee , R . , a nd DeVore , I .( eds ) , Man t h e Hun ter . Ch icago : A ld ine , P p . 2 62 -267 . Heske l , D .L . 1 983 A Mode l f or t he Adop t ion o f Me ta l lurgy i n t he Anc ient M idd le E as t . C urren t A n thropo logy 2 4 : 3 62 -366 . J e l inek , A . 1 976 F orm , F unc t ion a nd S ty le . I n C le land , C . ( ed ) , C u l tura l C hange a nd C on t inu i ty . New York : A cadem ic , P p . 1 9 -33 . Koz loff , B . 1 972/73 A B r ief No te o n t he Ha 'Are tz Y earbook 1 5/16 : 3 5 -49 .

L i th ic

I ndus tr ies

o f

S ina i .

Museum

L ee , J .R . 1 973 Cha lco l i th ic Ghassu l : New A spec t s a nd Mas ter T ypo logy . Unpub l ished P h .D . d isser ta t ion . J erusa lem : Hebrew Un ivers i ty . Macdona ld , E . 1 932 B e th P e le th , I .

L ondon : B ernard Quar i tch .

Mahan , G .S . 1 940 The s t one I ndus try o f t he C ampa ign 1 936 . I n Koeppe l , R . ( ed ) , T e le i la t G hassu l , I . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tute , P p . 8 9 -114 . Neuv i l le , R . 1 930 No tes d e P reh is to ire P a les t in ienne . S oc ie ty 1 0 : 1 93 -221 .

J ourna l o f t h e P a les t ine O r ien ta l

1 934 Ob je ts e n S i lex . I n Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . a nd Neuv i l le , R . ( eds ) , T e le i la t G hassu l , I . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tu te , P p . 5 5 -65 . Noy , T . 1 970 P reh is tor ic S i tes i n t he Ha lu tza Dunes ( Survey ) . 6 : 1 10 . ( Hebrew ) O ren , E .D . a nd I .G i lead . 1 981 Cha lco l i th ic S i tes i n Nor theas tern S ina i . P erro t , J . 1 955 E xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Matar . 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 .

3 11

Me tkufa t HaEven

T e l A v iv 8 :2 5 -44 .

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -41 ,

S h iqm im I / 1 968 L a P reh is to ire P a les t in ienne S upp lemen t a u D ic t iona ire d e l a B ib le . 8 : 286 -446 Ronen , A . 1 970 F l in t I mp lemen ts f rom S ou th S ina i : P re l im inary R epor t . P a les t ine Exp lora t ion Q uar ter ly 1 02 : 3 0 -41 . Rosen , S .A . 1 982 F l in t S ick le B lades o f t he L ate P ro toh is tor ic a nd E ar ly H is tor ic P er iods i n I s rae l . T e l A v iv 9 : 1 39 -145 . 1 983a The C anaanean B lade Exp lora t ion J ourna l 3 3 : 1 5 -29 .

a nd

t he

E ar ly

B ronze

Age .

I s rae l

1 983b T abu lar S craper T rade : A Mode l o f Mater ia l Cu lture D ispers ion . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 49 : 7 9 -86 . 1 983c L i th ics i n t he B ronze a nd I ron Age s i n I s rae l . d isser ta t ion . Ch icago : Un ivers ity o f Ch icago .

Unpub l ished P h .D .

1 984 The M icro l i th ic L una te : a n O ld -New T oo l t ype f rom t he Negev , I s rae l . P a leor ien t . 9 (2 ) . Roshwa lb , A . 1 981 P ro toh is tory i n t hee Wad i Ghazzeh : A Typo log ica l a nd T echno log ica l S tudy B ased o n t he Macdona ld E xcava t ions . Unpub l ished P h .D . d isser ta t ion . L ondon : Un ivers i ty o f L ondon . S acke t t , J .R . 1 977 The Mean ing o f S ty le i n A rchaeo logy : A G enera l Mode l . A n t iqu i ty 4 3 : 3 69 -380 . S ch ick , T . 1 978 F l in t I mp lemen ts . I n Am iran , R . ( cd ) , E ar ly A rad . E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty , P p . 5 8-63 . S harp , L . 1 952 S tee l Axes f or S tone Age Aus tra l ians . 2 2 . Y e iv in , E . 1 959 F l int T oo ls f rom Horva t B e ter .

J erusa lem : I s rae l

Human O rgan iza t ion 1 : 1 9 -

A t iqo t 2 :4 0 -44 .

1 976 No te o n t he F l in t I mp lemen ts f rom ' En B esor .

3 12

Amer ican

A t iqo t 1 : 1 0 -12 .

Chapter 1 2

THE POTTERY FRO M THE SHIQ MI M V ILLAGE : TYPOLOGICAL AND SPATIAL CONSIDERATIONS

b y

Thomas E . L evy Ne lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy Hebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f Re l ig ion J erusa lem a nd Nad ine Menahem S h iqm im E xped i t ion a nd P ub l ica t ion P ro jec t J erusa lem

IN TRODUCT ION The p o t tery wh ich i s c harac ter is t ic o f t he B eer sheva Cha lco l ith ic c u lture was f i rs t s tud ied i n d e ta i l d ur ing t he e ar ly ' 5 0s b y Henr i d e C ontenson ( 1956 ) when h e worked i n c o l labora t ion w i th J ean P erro t ( 1955 ) . De Con tenson 's work i s p r imar i ly a s herd t ypo logy b ased o n t he s i tes o f Abu Ma tar , B ir e s -Safad i a nd Raq iq i n t he n or thern Negev . A l though many Cha lco l ith ic s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted i n t he L evan t ( cf . A lon 1 977 , Am iran 1 978 , B ar Adon 1 980 , B e it A r ieh 1 980 , d e Vaux a nd S teve 1 957 , Do than 1 959 , Eps te in 1 977 , G i lead 1 986 , Gophna 1 979 , Hennessy 1 969 , Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 , O ry 1 946 , P erro t 1 955 , 1 984 , S uken ik 1 948 , U s s ishk in 1 980 ) , d e C on tenson 's work r e ma ins t he mos t d e ta i led a nd u sefu l s tudy o f Cha lco l ith ic p o t tery f rom s outhern P a les t ine . Th is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue f or t he n or thern Negev r eg ion . F rom a t ypo log ica l p erspec t ive , t he p o t tery f rom S h iqm im i s r e markab ly s im i lar t o t he a ssemb lage d escr ibed b y d e C on tenson ( 1956 ) f or t he B eersheva s i tes . A l though d e C on tenson 's t ypo logy i s a c arefu l ly r e searched a nd a t hrough p ioneer s tudy , t here a re s evera l p rob lem s w i th i t . These p rob lem s o n ly c a me t o l i gh t when a n a t temp t was made t o a pp ly t he t ypo logy i n i t s e n t ire ty t o t he S h iq m im a ssemb lage . I n d e C ontenson 's work ( 1956 ) , a t o ta l o f t en ma jor t ypes o f p o t tery v esse ls a re d ef ined . These a re s ubsequen t ly s ubd iv ided i n to 4 5 s ub types b ased p r imar i ly o n r im f orm . F or e xamp le , i n t he c a tegory o f b as ins , d e C on tenson ( 1955 : 1 78 -179 ) p resen ts f i f teen s ub types d ef ined o n t he b as is o f v ar ia t ions i n t he r im a ng le a nd a pp l ied d ecora t ion o n t he r im . These i nc lude b as ins w i th : t runca ted r ounded r im , c onvex wa l l s urface , f l ared r ounded b r im , h or izonta l f l a t r im , b eve l led f l at r im , f la t r im o n a n i nc l ined p lane , f lat r im w i th e xterna l b r im , b eve l led b r im w i th e x terna l r im , f la t

3 13

C hap ter 1 2 : T he P o t tery F rom t he S h iqm im V i l lage

i nc l ined r im w i th e x terna l b r im , h or izon ta l r im w i th i n terna l b r im , b eve l led b r im w i th i n terna l r im , i nc l ined r im w i th i n terna l b r im , f l a t b r im w i th i n terna l/ex terna l r im , b eve l led b r im w i th i n terna l/ex terna l r im , i nc l ined r im , a nd s ha l low f orm s ( i b id :177 ,179 ) . Wh i le a l l o f t hese a t tr ibu te s a re r ecorded i n t h is s tudy ( F ig . 1 2 .22 ) , t he c en tra l q ue s t ion wh ich emerge s i s j us t h ow i mpor tan t t hese m inor v ar ia t ions i n r im f orm a re f or i n terpre t ing t he S h iqm im c eram ic a s semb lage . I n ap ene tra t ing e thnograph ic s tudy o f c eram ic v ar iab i l i ty i n c en tra l I nd ia , Dan ie l M i l ler ( 1985 ) h as made a d e ta i led s tudy o f t he p roce ss o f h ow p o t ter s a nd t he ir c l ien t s c rea te c a tegor ie s o f p o t tery v e sse ls . F or e xamp le , M i l ler ( i b id :42 ) p re sen t s a s e lec t ion o f r im f orm s p roduced b y o ne p o t ter d ur ing a s i ng le p o t tery mak ing s e s s ion . T hese i nc lude r im s o f t he D ohn i ( b lack c ook ing p o t ) w i th 1 0 d ifferen t r im s hape s , t he D hakan ( pa in ted r ed l i d ) w i th 5 r im s hape s , t he Mama t la ( pa in ted r ed w edd ing v e s se l ) w i th 1 0 r im s hape s a nd t he Ma tka ( pa in ted r ed w a ter j ug ) w i th 1 0 r im s hape s . M i l ler emphas izes t ha t t hese d ifferences i n " s ub type s " s how t he v ar iab i l i ty i n r im f orm made b y a n i nd iv idua l p o t ter a t temp t ing t o p roduce i den t ica l v es se ls . The p r imary w eaknes s i n d e C on tenson ' s t ypo logy , a nd many a rchaeo log ica l c eram ic t ypo log ies , i s t ha t a n e ffor t h as b een made t o d iscr im ina te v e s se l f or m s o n t he b as i s o f n om ina l v ar iab le s ( i .e . , v ar ia t ion i n r im f orm ) . A ccord ing t o M i l ler ( i b id ) , t he se n om ina l v ar iab le s d o n o t a ppear t o b e t he p r imary d iscr im ina t ing f ea tures o f p o t tery . Ano ther p rob lem w i th t he l a rge n umber o f s ub types d ef ined b y d e C on tenson ( 1956 ) a nd more r ecen t ly P e l ler in ( i n p res s ) i nvo lves t he f ragmen tary n a ture o f v es se ls u sed i n t he t ypo log ie s . A s mo s t C ha lco l i th ic c eram ic t ypo log ie s a re b ased o n t he p rof i le o f r im s herds a nd n o t who le v es se l s , t he p rof i le o f as herd w i l l b e c harac ter ized b y t he d irec t ion o f s herd b reakage . T hu s , i t s eem s more p ruden t f or t he t ypo log is t t o t ake a more g enera l a pproach i n d ef in ing p o t tery t ype s . I n t he s tudy p re sen ted h ere , w e h ave d isregarded m inor v ar ia t ion i n r im f orm a s ab as is f or i den t ify ing v e s se l s ub types a nd c oncen tra ted o n o n ly t he g ro s s t ype s c harac ter is t ic o f t he S h iqm im c eram ic a s semb lage . T he se i nc lude n ine ma jor c a tegor ies : b ow ls , h o lemou th j ars , b as in s , g lobu lar j a rs , j a r s , p i tho i , c hurns , f oo ted v es se ls a nd m isce l laneous v e s se l s .

I .TY POLOG ICAL CO NS IDERAT IONS

NO N - CH ALCOL ITH IC PO TTERY A T SH IQM IM One o f t he mo s t i n teres t ing o b serva t ions c oncern ing t he c eram ic c o l lec t ion f rom t he S h iqm im v i l lage i s t he v ery s ma l l n umber o f n on C ha lco l i th ic p o t tery r epre sen ted a t t he s i te . A l though o ver a t on o f p o t tery s herd s w ere p roce s sed a t S h iqm im ( c f . T ab le 1 5 .1) , o n ly a h andfu l o f p o t tery w as f ound t ha t c an b e d ef ined a s n on -Cha lco l i th ic . T he n on -Cha lco l i th ic p o t tery a t S h iqm im b e long s t o t wo ma jor p er iods : B yzan t ine/Ear ly A rab ( F ig . 1 2 .1 :1 ,3 ,4 ) a nd t he l a te h i s tor ic p er iod ( O t toman t o P resen t , F ig . 1 2 .1 :2 ,5 -6 ) . A l l o f t he se s herds w ere f ound o n t he s urface o f t he v i l lage a nd a ppear t o h ave

3 14

S h iqm im I

h ave b een b roken a t r andom . A s men t ioned i n Chap ter 6 , t he c loses t B yzan t ine s i te t o S h iq m im i s l oca ted c a . 1 km u ps tream f rom t he s i te a t B eer S h iqm im ; t he c loses t O t toman s i tes a re a t Mezad A luf a nd a t B eer S h iqm im .

CH ALCOL ITH IC VE SSEL TY POLOGY Cha lco l i th ic v es se l t ypo log ies h ave b een made b y a n umber o f r esearchers work ing i n P a les t ine . These i nc lude : P ere Ma l lon e t a l ( 1934 ) , R . L ee ( 1973 ) a nd C . E l l io t t ( 1974 ) a t T e le i lat Ghassu l ; H . d e C ontenson ( 1956 ) a nd C . P e l ler in ( i n p ress ) f or Abu Ma tar a nd Z oume l i a nd o ther s i tes e xcava ted b y P erro t i n t he n or thern Negev ; a nd G .E . W r igh t ( 1937 ) a nd R . Am iran ( 1969 ) who made g enera l c eram ic t ypo log ies a pp l icab le t o t he who le o f P a les t ine . The f o l low ing i s a s herd b ased t ypo logy o f t he c eram ic a s semb lage f rom t he S h iqm im v i l lage wh ich i sd iv ided a ccord ing t o o pen a nd c losed v esse l f orm s .

OP EN FO RMS 1 .B ow l s ( F ig . 1 2 .2 : 1 13 ; F ig . 1 2 .3 :3 ) The b ow ls a t S h iqm im a re c harac ter ized b y s ma l l ( F ig . 1 2 .2 : 1 13 ) a nd l a rge ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :3 ) f orms . The p redom inate t ype o f b ow l i s t he s o -ca l led V s haped b ow l ( F ig . 1 2 .2 ) u sua l ly c harac ter ized b y a r ed p a in ted b and o rnament ing t he r im o f t hese s ma l l v esse ls ( Am iran 1 969 :23 ) . A s s een i n T ab les 1 2 .1 a nd 1 2 .2 , b ow ls a re t he mos t c ommon v esse l t ype f ound i n t he u pper b u i ld ing p hases a t S h iqm im . F or e xamp le , i n B u i ld ing P hase ( BP ) I , t he ma in b u i ld ing p hase a t S h iqm im , o ver 6 0% o f a l l t he v esse ls ( N = 2 ,956 v esse ls ) f ound were b ow ls . The V -shaped b ow ls a verage c a . 1 0 -1 5 cm i n d iame ter a nd a re c a . 6 -9 cm i n h e igh t . The l a rger b ow ls a verage c a . 3 0 cm i n d iame ter a nd c a . 1 5 cm i n h e ight .

2 .B as ins ( F igs . 1 2 .3 ; 1 2 .4 :1 ,3 ,5 -7 ; 1 2 .5 :1-7 ) B as ins a re r ound c on ta iners o pen a nd w ide a t t he t op w i th s ides s l op ing i nwards t owards t he b o t tom . B as ins d iffer f rom b ow ls i n t ha t t hey a re l a rger a nd u sua l ly h ave more e labora te r im s . W ith in t h is c a tegory , t wo s ub types h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm i m wh ich i nc lude c on ica l a nd h em ispher ica l s haped b as ins . A s ment ioned i n t he i n troduc t ion , d e C on tenson ( 1956 ) d ef ined s i x teen b as in s ub types i n t he a ssemb lages f rom Abu Ma tar , B ir e s -Safad i a nd Raq iq ; a nd i t i s q ues t ionab le a s t o h ow v a l id t hese s ub types a re f or e xp la in ing c eram ic v ar iab i l i ty i n t he Negev Cha lco l ith ic ( i .e . , M i l ler 1 985 ) . A t S h iqm im , mos t o f t hese s o -ca l led " sub types " a re f ound . These i nc lude : c on ica l b as ins w i th e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :1) , e x terna l r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :2 ) , p la in r im ( F igs . 1 2 .3 :3 , 1 2 .4 :2 ,4 ) , e xterna l o b l ique f l at r im ( F igs . 1 2 .3 :4 , 1 2 .4 :1) , p la in s quare c u t e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 2 .4 :3 ) , e x terna l o b l ique f l a t r im ( F ig . 1 2 .4 :5 ) , s ha l low i n f orm ( F igs . 1 2 .4 :6 , 1 2 .5 :5 ,8 ) , r ounded r im ( F ig . 1 2 .5 :2 ) , o b l ique r im w i th e xterna l b r im ( F ig . 1 2 .5 :3 ) , h or izonta l e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 2 .5 :4 ) , e x terna l in terna l o b l ique r im ( F ig . 1 2 .5 :6 ) , p la in e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 2 .5 :7 ) , e x terna l h or izon ta l f l a t r im ( F ig . 1 2 .6 :1) ; a nd h em ispher ica l b as ins w ith e x terna l h or izon ta l r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :5 ,8) , f l at

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h or izon ta l r im w i th e x terna l b r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :6 , 1 2 .7 :3 ) , e xterna l b r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :7 ) , o b l ique e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 2 .7 :1) , i n terna l f la t r im ( F ig . 1 2 .7 :2 ) . e x terna l o b l ique r im ( F ig . 1 2 .7 :4 ) e x terna l in terna l h or izon ta l r im ( F ig . 1 2 .7 :6 ) a nd i nver ted s quare c u t r im ( F ig . 1 2 .3 :9 ) . B o th c on ica l a nd h em ispher ica l b as ins a verage c a . 3 0 -5 0 cm i n d iame ter a nd 1 7 -2 8 cm i n h e ight .

3 .P i tho i ( F igs . 1 2 .7 :1-4 ; 1 2 .8 :1-3 ,5 ; 1 2 .9 , 1 2 .10 ) I n g enera l , p i tho i a re t he l a rges t v es se l f orm f ound i n t he S h iqm im c eram ic a ssemb lage . B y d ef in i t ion , p i tho i a re l a rge p o t tery f orm s , w ith a w ide mou th o pen ing a nd t h ick f or t if ied r im . The l a t ter a t tr ibu te i s o f k ey i mpor tance i n i den t ify ing a p i thos . P i tho i a verage c a . 3 0 -45 cm i n mou th d ia me ter a nd c a . 6 0 cm i n h e igh t . The S h iqm im p i tho i c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in s ub types : P i tho i w ith e x terna l r im ( F igs . 1 2 .8 :1 ,2 ,5 ; 1 2 .9 :1) I n t h is s ub type , t he b r im i s p resen t o n t he e x ter ior o f t he v esse l a nd a lways t h ick . U sua l ly , t he b r im i s f l at , b u t s o me t imes r ounded . Th is i s t he mos t c ommon p i tho i s ub type . P itho i w i th i n terna l r im ( F ig . 1 2 .7 :2 ) I n t h is s ub type , t he r im i s i n t he i n ter ior o f t he v esse l a nd j u ts o u t s o mewha t . The r im i su sua ly f l a t . A t t he B eersheva s i tes s tud ied b y d e C on tenson ( 1955 :165 -167) a t h ird s ub type was d ef ined , i . e , a p i tho i w i th e x terna l/r im . Th is s ub type i s e xtreme ly r are a t S h iqm im .

CL OSED FO RMS

4 . Ho lemou th J ars ( F ig s . 1 2 .11 , 1 2 .12 ) The h o lemou th i s a n o vo id j ar w i thout a n eck . I t c on ta ins a n o pen ing wh ich i s g enera l ly n arrow . The g enera l s hape i s q u i te v ar iab le . A t S h iqm im , s ma l l h o lemou th j ars a verage c a . 9 cm i n d iame ter a nd 1 2 cm i n h e ight . L arge h o lemou th j ars a verage c a . 1 7 -4 5 cm i n d iame ter a nd c a . 3 0 -5 0 cm i n h e igh t . Var ia t ion i n r im f orm l ed d e C on tenson ( 1956 ) t o d ef ine t he f o l low ing t ypes : p la in i nver ted r im ( i b id : F ig . 2 : 10 -12 ) , p la in e ver ted r im ( i b id : F igs . 3 : 10 -17 ; 4 : 1 4 ) , p la in s quare c u t r im ( i b id : F ig . 4 : 5 ) , t h ickened i nver ted r im ( i b id : F ig . 4 : 7 ) , t h ickened e ver ted r im ( i b id : F ig . 4 : 8 ) , n arrow o va l o pen ing ( i b id : F ig . )a nd t urned in b r im ( i b id : F ig . 4 : 6 ) . F ew c omp le te h o lemou th j ars h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm im ( c f . P la te 6 . 13b ) . A l though w e h ave n o q uan t ita t ive d a ta , mos t o f t he S h iqm im h o lemou ths , b o th l a rge a nd s ma l l , l ack h and les ( c f . F igs . 1 2 .12 :3 ; 1 5 .21 :5 ,6 ) .

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5 .J ar s ( F ig s . 1 2 .13 :2 -13 ,15 ,16 ; 1 2 .15 :1 ,3 ,5 ,8 ) T he j a rs f rom S h iqm im c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in s ub type s : g lobu lar j a rs ( w i th s hor t a nd s t ra igh t n eck o r w i th s hor t a nd f lared n eck ) a nd j ar s w i th s l op ing s hou lder ( w i th v ery f l ared n eck o r s ma l l j ar s w i th s l op ing s hou lder a nd s l igh t ly f l ared n eck ) . I n t he s pa t ia l a na ly s is p resen ted b e low , g lobu lar j ars a nd j ar s w i th s l op ing s hou lder s h ave b een s ub -d iv ided b ecause o f t he ir a bundance i n t he a s semb lage a nd t he ir d i s t inc t f orm .

G lobu lar j a r w i th s hor t n eck ( F ig . 1 2 .13 :4 ,5 ,13 ,15 ,16 ) A ccord ing t o d e C on ten son ( 1956 :171) t h i s j ar s u sua l ly w i th a s hor t n eck wh ich c an b e e i ther d i s t ingu ished f rom p i tho i b y t he ir d is t inc t r im s , t runca t ion s . T he se v e s se ls a re c a . 2 5 cm i n h e igh t d iame ter .

t ype i s ad iver se s t ra igh t o r f l ared . s l ender f orm a nd a nd c a . 1 0 -1 5 cm

g roup o f T hey a re f requen t i n mou th

G lobu lar j a r w i th h igh n eck ( F ig . 1 2 .15 :1) On ly o ne v e s se l o f t h is k ind w as f ound . I t w as d i scovered i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t he c ache o f c omp le te c eram ic v e s se ls i n A rea B ( P la te 6 . 11b ) . T h is v e sse l i s d ecora ted w i th t wo l a rge h or izon ta l p ara l le l b ands o f r ed p a in t . T he mou th d iame ter i s 9 cm a nd t he h e igh t i s2 4 cm . J ar w i th f l ared n eck a nd s l op ing s hou lder ( 12 .15 :5 ) T he se v es se ls a re u sua l ly m ed ium s i ze a nd s o me t imes s ma l l . T hey a verage c a . 1 0 cm i n mou th d iame ter a nd c a . 2 0 -2 5 cm i n h e igh t . However , t he n eck i s a ccen tua ted w i th a f l ared r im wh ich i s mou lded t o t he s l op ing s hou lder o f t he v e sse l . D e C on tenson ( i b id ) s ugge s ts t ha t t he se w ere p or tab le r ecep tac le s u sed f or l i qu ids ( F ig . 1 2 .13 :7 ,10 ; 1 2 .15 :5 ) .

6 .C hurn ( F ig s . 1 2 .16 ; 1 2 .17 ) T he c hurn o r b ara t te i n F rench , i s o ne o f t he c eram ic t ype f o s s i ls f or t he C ha lco l i th ic c u l tures o f P a le s t ine . A s A rn iran ( 1969 :33 ) a nd o thers p o in t o u t ( c f . Kap lan 1 954 ) , t he b arre l shaped b ody o f t h is h or izon ta l v e s se l a ppear s t o i m i ta te a g oa t sk in s a 'an ( Arab ic ) i n c lay . T he g oa t s k in s a 'an i s u sed a s a c hurn b y t he B edou in t r ibe s o f t he N egev a nd mo s t p ar t s o f t he M idd le E as t t o manufac ture y ogur t a nd o ther p roduc t s f rom t he m i lk o f t he ir s heep/goa t h erds . T he n eck o n mo s t C ha lco l i th ic c hurns f rom t he N egev emerge s l i ke a b o t t le f rom t he m idd le o f t he c hurn b ody . A ccord ing t o Am iran ( i b id ) , many o f t he s ma l ler v es se ls h ave a s t ra iner s e t i n t he n eck . I n t he se s ma l l s pec imens , b o th e nds a re t apered a nd f orm s ma l l l oop -hand les . A t S h iqm im o n ly l a rge c hurns h ave b een f ound t o d a te a nd i n t he se , o ne e nd i s t apered ( F ig . 1 2 .16 :1) wh i le t he o ther i s f l a t ( F ig s . 1 2 .16 :2 -5 ; 1 2 .17 ) . Mo s t o f t he s herds f rom c hurn s a t S h iqm im s how e v idence o f r ed p a in ted b ands , i m i ta t ing r opes ( c f . Am iran : i b id ) .

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I n s ou thern P a les t ine , c hurns h ave b een f ound a t v ir tua l ly e very Cha lco l i th ic s i te . S ome o f t hese s i tes i nc lude : T e le i la t Ghassu l (Ma l lon e t a t 1 934 :111 , F ig . 5 9 :3 ) , Horva t B e ter ( Do than 1 959 : P l . 4 ) , T e l l Abu Matar ( Perro t 1 955 , d e C on tenson 1 956 , P e l ler in i n p ress ) , Umm Qa tafa i n t he J udaen D eser t ( Neuv i l le a nd Ma l lon 1 931 : P l . XVIII ) , T e l A rad ( Am iran 1 979 : P 1 .5 :1-4 ) a nd o ther s i tes . Accord ing t o d e C on tenson ( 1956 :226 ) , c hurns a verage i n l eng th f rom 4 0 t o 6 0 cm . One o f t he mos t c omp le te c hurns f rom S h iq m im measures c a . 6 0 cm i n l eng th ( F ig . 1 2 .17 :1) . The q ues t ion a r ises a s t o whe ther t hese c hurn v esse ls w ere a c tua l ly u sed t o manufac ture y ogur t a nd/or o ther m i lk p roduc ts . A t t he Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage s i te o f G i la t l oca ted 1 5 km n or th o f S h iqm im , a n a nthropomorph ic s t a tue t te was f ound o f a woman c arry ing a c hurn o n h er h ead ( F ig . 7 . 7 ; A lon 1 976 ) . Th is u nusua l f ind was d iscovered i n ap oss ib le t emp le c omp lex . The c on tex t o f t h is f ind s ugges ts t ha t c eram ic c hurns may h ave h ad a more s ymbo l ic t han f unc t iona l r o le i n Negev Cha lco l i th ic s oc ie t ies . Goa t s k in c hurns , l i ke t he B edou in s a 'an may h ave b een u sed d ur ing t he Cha lco l i th ic b u t s imp ly d o n o t s urv ive i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . Thus , i f c hurns a re i n terpre ted a s s y mbo l ic r a ther t han f unc t iona l a r tefac ts , t he l oca t ion o f t hese v esse ls i n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te may b e a n i mpor tan t f ac tor i n h e lp ing t o i n terpre t t he n a ture o f d ifferen t b u i ld ing s . A t S h iqm im , a s s hown i n Chap ter 6 , c hurns a re f ound p r imar i ly i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he l a rger " non -domes t ic " b u i ld ings .

MI S CELLANEOUS FO RMS 7 .F oo ted V esse l s ( F igs . 1 2 .14 ; 1 2 .19 :5 ) F oo ted v esse ls ( c f . d e C ontenson 1 956 :227 -228 ) , s o me t imes r eferred t o a s c ha l ices o r i ncense -burners ( cf . Am iran e t a l 1 970 :24 ) a re v ery r are a t S h iqm im a nd o ther s i tes . I n B P I t hey r epresen t o n ly 0 . 60% o f t he e nt ire c eram ic a s semb lage . I n g enera l t e rm s , t hese a re v esse ls t ha t a re f or t if ied a t t he ir b ase . These v esse ls a re d iv ided i n to t wo g roups b y d e C on tenson ( i b id ) : t he s hor t f oo t , wh ich i s s l igh t ly r ound i n s hape a nd s e rves a s a s uppor t f or a s ma l l g ob let o r d r ink ing v esse l ; a nd t he r a ised f oo t , wh ich i s a l a rge f orm t ha t f requen t ly f orms a f enes tra ted b ase w i th o pen ings wh ich a re t rapezo ida l i n s hape . A t S h iqm im , f enes tra ted v esse ls ( F ig . 1 2 .14 ) w ere f ound i n t he v i l lage a nd s hor t f oo ted v esse ls , s uch a s g ob le ts , w ere f ound i n t he c eme tery ( F ig . 1 3 .16 :8 ) . Unfor tuna te ly , t he s ma l l s a mp le s i ze p rec ludes a ny d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t h is i n teres t ing c on tex tua l c on tras t . The c omp le te f enes tra ted v es se l p ub l ished h ere i s2 2 .5 cm i n h e igh t .

8 .H igh N eck B o t t le ( F ig . 1 2 .15 :3 ) The h igh n eck b o t t le r epresen ts a n ew v esse l f orm n o t p rev ious ly f ound a t a ny o f t he B eersheva s i tes . Th is i s as ma l l v esse l wh ich measures 1 8 cm i n h e igh t . The h igh n eck b o t t le i s ah ybr id f orm wh ich i ncorpora tes a g lobu lar p o t a s t he ma in b ody o f t he v esse l , al ong n arrow c y l indr ica l h o l low n eck ( ca . 6 cm i n l eng th ) a nd a s ma l l V -Shaped b ow l a s af l ar ing r im f or t h is u nusua l v esse l f orm . Th is v esse l i sd ecora ted w i th t h ick h or izon ta l b ands o f r ed p a in t .

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S h iqm im I

I n t he l ower p or t ion o f t he b o t t le , t wo o f t hese b ands a re s epara ted b y t h in v er t ica l l i nes o f r ed p a in t . I ns ide t he mou th o f t he r im , r ed f l ame l ike p a t terns a re p re sen t . T he e xamp le p ub l ished h ere i st he o n ly o ne o f i t s k ind t o h ave b een f ound a t S h iqm im . I t w a s d iscovered i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he c ache o f c omp le te p o t tery v es se ls i n A rea B i n t he l ower v i l lage ( P la te 6 . 11b ) .

9 .G lobu lar P o t ( F ig . 1 2 .13 :1 ; 1 2 .15 :2 ,4 ) G lobu lar p o ts a re s ma l l v e s se l s , u sua l ly c a . 9 cm i n h e igh t a nd s qua t s haped .

1 0 . C eram ic b and ( F ig . 1 3 .16 :10 ) C eram ic b ands a re c i rcu lar i n s hape ( ca . 1 6 cm i n d iame ter a nd c a . 6 cm i n h e igh t ) . On ly o ne e xamp le h as b een f ound a t S h iqm im a nd t ha t was i n a l a rge b ur ia l c i rc le i n C eme tery 1 . P e l ler in ( i n p re ss ; F ig . 1 5 :10 -12 ) h as p ub l i shed t hree e xamp les o f c eram ic b ands f rom t he Abu Ma tar v i l lage e xcava t ions a nd Hanbury -Ten i son ( 1985 ) r ecen t ly p ub l ished o ne f rom P e l la i n e a s tern P a les t ine .

GE NERAL RE MARKS O NT HE SH IQM IM CE RAM IC AS SEMBLAGE One o f t he mo s t r emarkab le f ea ture s c oncern ing t he S h iqm im c eram ic a s semb lage i s t he l a ck o f c orne t c up s , o ne o f t he h a l lmark v es se ls o f t he C ha lco l i th ic c u l ture i n P a le s t ine ( c f . Am iran e t a l 1 970 :23 , Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : P l . 4 8 :78 ) . A l though s o me p o s s ib le c orne t f ragmen t s w ere f ound a t S h iqm im , n o th ing wh ich c ou ld b e a b so lu te ly i den t if ied a s ac orne t w as i den t if ied . I n s ome r e spec t s , t h is i sn o t s urpr is ing i n t ha t c orne t s h ave b een k nown t o b e v ery r are i n c eram ic a s semb lage s f rom o ther s i tes a long t he Naha l B eersheva ( cf . P e l ler in i n p res s ; d e C on tenson 1 955 ) . T h is s ub -reg iona l c harac ter is t ic i s e spec ia l ly i n tere s t ing when t he c eram ic a s semb lage s f rom t he Naha l G erar a nd N aha l P a t ish n or thern N egev s ub -reg ions a re c ompared w i th t he B eer sheva s i te s . I n s urface c o l lec t ions made b y Dav id A lon ( now h oused a t t he N egev Mu seum , B eer sheva ) a t t he Naha l G erar s i te o f G erar H , r ecen t ly e xcava ted b y I .G i lead a nd J . P erro t ( c f . G i lead 1 986 :80 , F ig . 2 2 ) , a nd a t t he Naha l P a t i sh s i te o f G i la t ( A lon 1 961) , b o th v i l lages s how l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f c orne t s . G iven t he p resen t s t a te o f C ha lco l i th ic r e search i n t he L evan t a nd t he l a ck o f r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ions f or t h is p er iod ( cf . We ins te in 1 984 ) , i t i s d iff icu l t t o a s se s s whe ther t he d ifferen t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f c orne t s a t s i tes i n t he n or thern N egev h as c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions . However , i n ap re l im inary r epor t b y H enne s sy ( 1968 ) f or T e le i la t Ghas su l , t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f c orne t s a re s hown t o b e p r imar i ly i n t he u pper p hases ( A -D ) , i . e . , i n t ho se p hase s u sua l ly i n terpre ted a s c on temporary w i th t he B eersheva s i te s ( i b id :249 ) . T hus , t he d icho tomy b e tween t he B eer sheva , G erar a nd P a t ish a s semb lage s w i th r egard t o c orne ts may b e a n i nd ica t ion o f t he d is t inc t n a ture o f c on temporary C ha lco l i th ic a s semb lage s o n t he s ub -reg iona l l eve l i n t he n or thern N egev .

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C hap ter 1 2 : T he P o t tery F rom t he S h iqm im V i l lage

CE RAM IC WA RES I t s hou ld b e emphas ized t ha t t he a na lys is o f w are t ypes p resen ted h ere i s n o t a r i gourous o ne . Ob serva t ions w ere made v i sua l ly a nd g r i t m easuremen ts w ere made u s ing c a l l iper s . A Munse l l c o lor c har t w a s u sed t o d e term ine t he c o lor o f t he w are s a nd s urface s . I n t he q ua l i ta t ive s tudy o f t he S h iqm im c eram ic w ares p re sen ted h ere , f our d is t inc t w are t ype s c ou ld b e d ef ined . T hese i nc lude t he f o l low ing :

1 .C ream -Ware C ream -ware , a t e rm f i r s t s ugge s ted b y R .A .S . Maca l is ter ( 1912 :137 ; Am iran 1 955 ) , i s f ound i n l im i ted n umber s a t S h iqm im . T h i s t e rm w as g iven b y Maca l is ter b ecause o f t he l i gh t , c reamy c o lor o f t he w are . Am iran e t a l ( 1970 :29 ) h ave s ugge s ted t ha t t he p roduc t ion o f t h is w are w as a ch ieved b y u s ing k ao l in , ac lay f ound i n t he N egev , a nd t ha t t he a b sence o f c ream -ware a t T e le i la t Ghassu l many b e e xp la ined b y t he f ac t t ha t k ao l in i sn o t f ound i n t he J ordan V a l ley . T he S h iqm im e xamp le s ( c f . F ig s . 1 3 .16 :3 ,7 ) a re c harac ter ized b y v ery f ew c a lcareous i nc lus ions ( f rom 0 . 2 -0 . 5 mm ) a nd a h omogeneous c l ay . C ream w are i su sua l ly p ink ish -wh i te w i th a Munse l l c o lor d e term ina t ion o f 5 YR 8 /2 .

2 .F ine W are F ine ware i s r epresen ted b y as i l ty s andy h omogeneous c lay , p o s s ib ly l ev iga ted , wh ich c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in s ub types b ased o n d ifferences i n i nc lus ions . T hese i nc lude a f ine ware c ons is t ing o f many s ma l l m ica i nc lus ions ( up t o c a . 0 . 1 mm ) a nd v ery f ew c a lcareous g r i t ; a nd a f ine ware c ons is t ing o f f l in t a nd q uar tz p iece s ( up t o 2 . 5 mm ) w i th f ew c a lcareous g r i t ( up t o 1 mm ) a nd n umerous m ica i nc lus ions . Mo s t o f t he b ow l s , i nc lud ing V s haped f orm s , s o me d ecora ted s ma l l j a rs , s ma l l p o ts , f ene s tra ted v e s se l s , t he h igh n ecked b o t t le , a nd s o me s ma l l c on ica l b as ins a re t yp ica l ly made o f f ine w are . T he c o lor o f f ine w are v ar ie s f rom y e l low ish -red ( 5YR 5 /8 ) , l i gh t r ed ( 2 .5YR 6 /6 ) , r ed ( 2 .5YR 4 /6 ) t o l i gh t -redd ish b rown ( 5YR 6 /4 ) . F ine ware r epresen ts a pprox ima te ly 6 4% o f t he t o ta l c eram ic a s semb lage a t S h iqm im .

3 .C oar se W are C oar se ware i s c harac ter ized b y l am ina ted c l ay a nd many d ifferen t k inds o f i nc lus ions . T he ma in i nc lus ion s f ound i n c oarse w are a re f l in t c h ips ( up t o 4 . 5 mm ) , c a lcareous g ranu les ( f rom 0 . 2 t o 4 mm ) , a nd m ica f l eck s . The se i nc lus ions a re s ca t tered t hroughou t t he v e s se l i n a h e terogeneous manner . T here i s n o s t andard r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he s i ze d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he se i nc lus ions a nd t he t ype o f v es se l i n wh ich t hey a re f ound . T h is i s h igh l igh ted i n v ery c oar se w are v es se ls s uch a s p i tho i a nd h o lemou ths , wh ich c on ta in a n on -compac t c l ay . I n t he se v es se ls t he r ange o f i nc lus ions v ar ie s ag rea t d ea l f rom 0 . 05 t o 4 . 5 mm . T he c oar se w are t ype s i nc lude p i tho i , h o lemou ths , l a rge

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c on ica l a nd h em ispher ica l b as ins , c hurns , a nd j ars . The c o lour o f c oarse ware v ar ies f rom l i ght r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 6 /4 ) , r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 5 /4 ) , t o y e l low ish r ed ( 5YR 5 /6 ) .

DE CORAT ION The d ecora t ion wh ich c harac ter izes t he S h iqm im c eram ic a ssemb lage c an b e d iv ided i n to t he f o l low ing c a tegor ies : p a in t , i nc is ion , a nd d ecora t ion i n r e l ief . No q uan t i ta t ive d ata was r ecorded c oncern ing t he d ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes f ound i n t he S h iqm im a s semb lage .

1 .P a in t The mo s t c ommon p a in ted d es igns c ons is t o f c omb inat ions o f l i ght r edd ish b rown ( 2 .5 YR 6 /4 ) p a in t o n a wh i te s l ip b ackground ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :13 ,15 ) . U sua l ly t he d es igns c ons is t o f p ara l le l b ands o f r edd ish b rown p a int r unn ing h or izonta l ly a round t he v es se l ( F igs . 1 2 .2 ; 1 2 .3 :3 ,7 ; 1 2 .4 :1 ,2 ,4 ; 1 2 .5 :4 ; 1 2 .6 :1 ; 1 2 .7 :2 ; 1 2 .10 :4 ; 1 2 .11 :5 ; 1 2 .12 :1 ; 1 2 .13 :10 ,11 ,14 ; 1 2 .14 ; 1 2 .15 :1 ,3 ,5 ,9 ; 1 2 .17 ; 1 2 .19 :13 1 5 ) . P a inted d es igns a re n o t l im ited t o t ype o f v esse l . They a re f ound o n v ir tua l ly e very t ype o f p o t tery v esse l a t S h iqm im . L ike t he p a inted d es igns f rom t he s i tes s tud ied b y d e C on tenson ( 1956 : F ig . 1 :17 -23 ) , n atura l is t ic d es igns a re f ound o n s o me p o t tery f orms . F or e xa mp le , t he u nusua l f enes tra ted h o lemou th v esse l ( F ig . 1 2 .14 ) h as a mo t if made u p o f wha t a ppears t o b e p a lm f ronds a nd t he b ark o f ap a lm t r ee . A l a rge p i thos ( F ig . 1 2 .15 :9 ) was f ound w i th a n a n thropomorph ic f ace l ike d es ign i ncorporat ing o ne o f t he v er t ica l l ug h and les o f t he v esse l . Th is d es ign i s r e markab ly s im i lar t o o ne p ub l ished b y d e C ontenson ( 1956 : F ig . 1 : 6 ) . However , n a tura l is t ic d es igns a re r are a t S h iqm im .

2 .I nc is ion I nc ised p a t terns a re v ery r are a t S h iqm im . However , an umber o f t hese s herds h ave b een f ound . I n t h is v o lume w e p ub l ish f our e xa mp les o f i nc ised s hreds ( F ig . 1 2 ,19 :9 -12 ) . Mos t o f t he i nc ised p a t terns c an b e d escr ibed a s h err ing -bone d es ign . Ano ther t ype o f i nc ised p a t tern c ons is ts o f i mpres s ions made w i th a t humb -na i l s haped o b jec t ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :12 ) . S ome s ma l l l ug h and les s how i nc ised l i ne d ecora t ion a round t hem ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :3 ,4 ) .

3 .D ecora t ion i n R e l ief The mos t c ommon t ype o f d ecora t ion i n r e l ief f ound i n t he S h iqm im a s semb lage a re t humb i mpressed p a t terns f ound o n t he r ims o f b as ins ( F igs . 1 2 .3 :1 ,2 ,7 ,8 ; 1 2 .4 :1 ,6 ; 1 2 .5 :1-3 ; 1 2 .6 ) a nd p i tho i ( 12 .7 :1 ,2 ; 1 2 .8 :2 ,3 ,5 ; 1 2 .9 :1 ; 1 2 .10 :1 ,2 ,5 -7 ) .

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HA NDLES I n t he B eersheva a s semb lage d escr ibed b y d e C on tenson ( 1956 :F ig . 1 2 :10 3 1) , t wo ma jor t ype s o f h and le s a re d ef ined wh ich i nc lude n on -perfora ted a nd p erfora ted h and les . A s im i lar d icho tomy e x i t s a t S h iqm im , h owever , p erfora ted h and les a re much more c ommon . Among t he p erfora ted h and le s , t he f o l low ing t ype s s hou ld b e n o ted : " n ipp le f orm " w i th h or izon ta l p erfora t ion ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :2 ) ; " hor izon ta l " u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th r ed p a in ted d e s igns ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :10 ) ; " sma l l v er t ica l " ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :3 -4 ) - a w ide spread f orm , u sua l ly t r iangu lar i n s ec t ion ; " l arge v er t ica l " ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :1 ,7 ) ; a nd " i nden ted " ( F ig . 1 2 .18 :6 ) . D e C on tenson ( 1956 :F ig . 1 2 :31) a l so p re sen ts a " r ing s haped " h and le wh ich h e c l a im s i s v ery r are i n t he B eer sheva a s semb lage . F rom o ur s urvey a long t he l ower Naha l B e sor , " r ing s haped " h and le s ( F ig . 4 . 36 :5 ,10 ) a ppear t o b e much more c ommon i n t ho se a s semb lage s t han among t he B eersheva s i te s . Among t he n on -perfora ted h and le s , t he v er t ic le f orm i s t he mo s t c ommon ( F ig . 1 2 .15 :9 ) . L ike t he B eer sheva a s semb lage ( de C on tenson 1 956 : F ig . 1 2 :12 -14 ) , l edge h and le s , wh ich b ecome v ery c ommon i n t he f o l low ing E ar ly B ronze Age p er iod , a re f ound a t S h iqm im ( F ig .12 .18 :5 ,8 ) .

BA SE TY PES The g rea t ma jor i ty o f b ase s f ound a t S h iqm im a re r epresen ted b y " f la t b o t tom " b ase s ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :6 ,8 ) . I n t he se f orm s , t he b ase make s a n o b tu se a ng le w i th t he v e s se l wa l l . O ther t ype s i nc lude : " very t h in b ase " ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :4 ) ; " base w i th p ronounced b u lge " ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :7 ) ; a nd " po in ted b ase " ( F ig . 1 2 .19 :1) . Ano ther f orm , n o t i lus tra ted h ere , i nc lude s " base s w i th n ear ly v er t ica l w a l ls " ( de C on ten son 1 956 : F ig . 1 3 :9 -13 ) .

I.SP AT IAL CO NS IDERAT IONS

I n troduc t ion A rchaeo log is ts a re p ay ing a n i ncrea s ing amoun t o f a t ten t ion t o i n tra s i te s pa t ia l a na ly s i s a s at oo l f or u nder s tand ing a c t iv i ty p a t tern ing , v ar ia t ion i n s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion w i th in s i tes a nd s i te f orma t ion p roce s ses ( c f . H ie ta la 1 984 ) . T he a im o f t he s pa t ia l a na lys is p re sen ted h ere i st o e xam ine t he d is tr ibu t ion o f p o t tery v ar iab i l i ty i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage t hrough t ime a nd s pace . B y e xam in ing t he d ifference s i n p o t tery d is tr ibu t ions i n t h is manner , i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t o d e tec t d ifference s a nd s im i lar i t ie s i n f unc t ion a ccord ing t o t he v ar ious e xcava t ion a reas a t S h iqm im . I dea l ly , t h is t ype o f a na lys is s hou ld a l so i nc lude a s tudy o f v ar iab i l i ty i n p o t tery d is tr ibu t ions a ccord ing t o i nd iv idua l r oom s . Unfor tuna te ly , t he p oor p reserva t ion o f mo s t o f t he r oom f l oor s e xcava ted a t S h iqm im p rec lude t h is t ype o f a na lys is a t p re sen t . An a t temp t h as b een made i n C hap ter 1 5 t o e xam ine v ar iab i l i ty i n r oom f unc t ion i n t he t wo b e s t p re served r oom s ( No s . 6 a nd 1) f ound t o d a te a t S h iqm im . Hopefu l ly , f u ture e xcava t ions w i l l r evea l a l a rger s amp le o f w e l l p reserved r oom s a t t he s i te .

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I n a na lyz ing t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f c eram ic v e s se ls i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage , t he m in imum n umber o f p o t tery v es se l s was c ons idered . The me thod f o l lowed i n t h is a na lys is i s s im i lar t o t he " m in imum n umber o f i nd iv idua ls " e s t ima te c ommon ly u sed b y a rchaeozoo log is t s ( c f . H e s se a nd Wapn ish 1 985 ) . I n t he s tudy p re sen ted h ere , t he m in imum n umber o f v e s se ls wa s c a lcu la ted b ased o n r im s herds a s soc ia ted w i th c on jo inab le b ody s herds f or e ach l ocus e xcava ted . The f o l low ing p rocedure w as f o l lowed : I n t he l abora tory , a l l o f t he s herds f rom a g iven l o cus w ere s pread o u t o n t he t ab le . A l l o f t he c on jo inab le s herds a s soc ia ted w i th i den t if iab le r im s w ere g rouped i n to s epara te p i le s . Uncon jo inab le a nd u n iden t if iab le s herds w ere g rouped t oge ther a nd n o t i nc luded i n t he a na ly s is . When t h i s p roce s s w as c omp le ted , t he d iscre te p i le s o f i den t if iab le s herds w ere c ons idered t o r epresen t s epara te i den t if iab le p o t s . The t o ta l n umber o f p i le s w ere t hen a dded u p . T h is s um w as t hen c on s idered a s r epresen t ing t he m in imum n umber o f p o t tery v es se ls f or t he l ocus u nder s tudy . A s d escr ibed i n C hap ter 6 , t he f o l low ing l ayers a re r epre sen ted i n t he l ower v i l lage a t S h iqm im : T op S o i l , B u i ld ing P hase ( BP I ) , B P I , B P I I a nd B P I V . B P Ia nd B P I w ere c on s is ten t ly e xpo sed a l l o ver t he 1 979 - 1 984 e xcava t ion . T hus , t he se p hases f orm t he b as is o f t he s tudy p re sen ted h ere . I t i s p o s s ib le t ha t T op S o i l f orm s ad ef la ted ma ter ia l wh ich b e long s t o B P I , h owever , b ecause o f t he d is turbed n a ture o f t h i s ma ter ia l i t w as n o t i nc luded i n t h i s s tudy . A t o ta l m in imum n umber o f 3 , 697 v e s se ls w ere i den t if ied f or t he B P I a nd B P I s t ra t igraph ic l ayers i nc luded i n t he a na ly s is o f t he l ower v i l lage p o t tery . The a na lys is i s b ased o n t he ma ter ia l f rom f i l ls a bove f loor s , f loor s , f i l ls a bove o ccupa t ion s urface s , a nd o ccupa t ion s urface s . C ons ider ing a l l a reas a nd a l l l ayer s e xcava ted t o d a te , t he d is tr ibu t ion o f p o t tery t ype s f rom mo s t c ommon t o l e as t c ommon a re a s f o l low s : b ow l s , h o lemou th j ar s , b as ins , g lobu lar j ar s , j ar s , p i tho i , c hurns , f oo ted v es se ls a nd m isce l laneous v e s se l s .

I.VA R IAT IONS I NP OTTERY D I SRT IBUT IONS T HROUGH T IME T here a re n ear ly f our t imes a s many p o t tery v es se ls i n B P I ( N =2 ,956 ) c ompared w i th B P I( N = 7 41) . T h is may r ef lec t t he d ifference i n t he i n ten s i ty o f o ccupa t ion b e tween t he t wo p hase s a nd t he p a t terns o f e ro s ion o n t he s i te . T ab le 1 2 .1 s how s t he p ercen tage d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he m in imum n umber o f v e s se ls a ccord ing t o t he ma in b u i ld ing p hase s e xcava ted a t S h iqm im t o d a te . The p ercen tage d is tr ibu t ions s how t ha t i n B P I ( F ig . 1 2 .21) t here a re more t han t w ice a s many g lobu lar j a r s t han i n B P I( F ig . 1 2 .20 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t h is d ifference , t here a l so a pprox ima te ly t w ice a s many b as ins i n B P I c ompared w i th B P I . F or t he o ther c a tegor ie s o f p o t tery , t he d ifferences a re m inor . T h i s r ef lec t s ag enera l c ons is tency i n t he u se o f p o t tery d ur ing t he t wo p hase s . T o t e s t whe ther a s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip e x is ts t empora l ly b e tween B P Ia nd B P I , ac h i square t e s t w as u sed . When t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he d ifferen t p o t tery t ypes w ere c ompared f or t he t wo b u i ld ing p hase s , t he c h i -

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s quare = 4 4 .8 w i th 7 d egree s o f f reedom a nd a n e xac t p robab i l i ty o f . 0 000071 . T h is r e su l t i nd ica tes t ha t t here i s ah igh ly s i gn if ican t d ifference b e tween t he t wo a ssemb lage s . T h is c an b e e xp la ined b y e xam in ing t he d is tr ibu t ion o f v ar ious p o t tery v es se ls i n t he t wo p er iod s . A s s een i n T ab le 1 3 .3a t he p orpor t ion o f b ow ls i n B P I i s r emarkab ly h igher t han i n B P I( Tab le 1 2 .2a ) . T h is may b e af ur ther i nd ica t ion o f t he more l ong term d omes t ic c harac ter o f B P I i n c ompar ison w i th t he l a ter B P I . I.VA R IAT ION I NP OTTERY D I STR IBUT IONS T HROUGH S PACE

a .I n tras i te p o t tery d i s tr ibu t ion i n BP I T here i sv ery l i t t le v ar iab i l i ty i n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f v es se l s t ype s i n t he B P I a s semb lage . F igure 1 2 .20 s hows t he p ercen tage d is tr ibu t ion o f t he d ifferen t t ype s o f p o t tery v e s se ls b y a rea f or B P I . A l l o f t he e xcava t ion a reas s how t he s a me p redom inance o f b ow ls a nd h o lemou th v es se ls i n t he B P I a s semb lage . O f t he se , b ow ls a re t he mo s t c ommon v e s se l i n a l l o f t he a reas . However , i n A rea D , t here a re t he s a me p ercen tage o f h o lemou th a nd b a s in v e s se ls o ccupy ing t h is s econd r ank . I n A reas A a nd B , b a s ins a re t he t h ird mo s t c ommon t ype , whereas i n A rea C a nd D , t h i s r ank i s o ccup ied b y j a r s . Dur ing t h is p hase , t here i s ac l ear l a ck o f g lobu lar j ar s , p i tho i , c hurns a nd f oo ted v e s se l s i n A rea A . A s t hese t ype s a re p r imar i ly s t orage v e s se ls , t he ir a b sence i n t he A rea A a s semb lage may b e a f ur ther i nd ica t ion o f t he a bandonmen t o f t h i s a rea d ur ing B P I .

b .I n tras i te p o t tery d i s tr ibu t ions i n BP I F igure 1 2 .21 s how s ad is t inc t c on s is tency i n t he p ercen tage d istr ibu t ion o f t he d ifferen t p o t tery t ype s a ccord ing t o a rea i n B P I . The ma in d icho tomy e x is t s i n A rea A , where b a s in s a re more c ommon t han h o lemou th j ar s . When a c h i square t e s t w as r un t e s t ing t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween e xcava t ion a reas a nd p o t tery t ype s , t he c h i square = 8 4 .365 w i th 2 8 d egrees o f f reedo m a nd a p robab i l i ty o f . 0 00007 . T h is r e su l t i nd ica te s t ha t t here a re s t at is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t d ifferences b e tween t he se v ar iab le s a nd s uppor t s t he o b serva t ion s made o n t he h is togram ( F ig . 1 2 .21) . I n a dd i t iona l c h i square t e s t s o n t he B P I a ssemb lage , A rea A c on s is ten t ly s t ands o u t i n r e la t ion t o a l l o f t he o ther e xcava t ion a reas . F or e xamp le , when t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f c oar se w are p o t tery i s t e s ted a ga ins t f ine w are , t he c h i square v a lue = 2 6 .3 w i th 4 d egree s o f f reedom a nd a p robab i l i ty o f . 0 001 i nd ica t ing a s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t d ifference . When t h is s a me d a ta w as t e s ted w i thou t A rea A , t he c h i square v a lue = . 5 6 w i th 3 d egrees o f f reedom a nd a p robab i l i ty o f . 9 i nd ica t ing a t o ta l ly n on s ign if ican t d ifference b e tween t he a s semb lage s f rom B , C , D a nd E . T hus , t here i s as t at is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t h igher p ropor t ion o f c oarse w are i n A rea A t han i n t he o ther a reas . T h is may i nd ica te a d ifferen t ia t ion i n t he f unc t ion o f A rea A c ompared w i th t he o ther e xcava t ion a reas i n B P I . B ased o n t he c h i square t e s t s o u t l ined h ere a nd t he h is togram d is tr ibu t ion ( F ig . 1 2 .21) o f p o t tery t ypes i n B P I , more s t orage v e s se ls a re f ound i n A rea A t han t he o ther a reas . T he s ma l ler

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p ercen tage o f f ine ware i n A rea A d ur ing B P I a nd t he l a rger p ercen tage o f c oarse wares ( i .e . , p i tho i , h o lemou th v es se ls , g lobu lar j ars , j ars , e tc . ) may i nd ica te t ha t more s t orage a c t iv it ies t ook p lace i n A rea A t han t he o ther a reas . Th is o bservat ion c ou ld h ave i mpor tan t r am if ica t ions f or e xa m in ing t he n ature o f r ed is tr ibu t ion a t t he s i te i n BP I . CO NCLUS ION P o ttery s herds a re p erhaps t he mos t u b iqu i tous a r t ifac t , a long w i th f l in t d eb i tage , f ound i n Near E as tern a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . However , t he b u lk o f t h is mater ia l i s r are ly s ub jec ted t o q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is . I n t he a na lys is p resen ted h ere , we h ave a sked whe ther t here i s v ar iab i l ity i n t he d is tr ibut ion o f d ifferen t p o t tery v es se l t ypes i n t he S h iq m im v i l lage t hrough t ime a nd s pace . The p o t tery s a mp les f rom B P Ia nd B P I h ave b een t r ea ted a s g ro ss u n i ts o f o bserva t ion i gnor ing many o f t he d iscre te c ontex tua l r e la t ionsh ips t hat may h ave i mpor tance . F or e xamp le , f i l ls h ave b een c ons idered i n c on junc t ion w i th f loor d epos i ts . I n Chap ter 1 5 , f i l l d epos its h ave b een i n terpre ted a s p oss ib ly r ef lec t ing t he c o l lapse o f mudbr ick wa l ls wh ich may h ave i nc luded l a rge q uant i t ies o f s herds u sed i n t he wa l l c ons truc t ion . However , g iven t he r ough c ontempora in i ty ( by b u i ld ing p hase ) o f t he f i l l a nd f loor d epos i ts , i t was c ons idered u sefu l t o e xam ine t h is mater ia l w i th in t hese g ross u n i ts . Th is a na lys is h as a t temp ted t o q uan t ify o bserva t ions c oncern ing t he d is tr ibut ion o f p o t tery t ypes d ur ing t he l a s t o ccupat ion p hases ( BP Ia nd B P I ) a t S h iq m im . The p ic ture wh ich emerges i s o ne o f g enera l u n iform i ty i n t he d is tr ibut ion o f p o t tery v esse l t ypes i n t he l a ter o ccupat ion p hases a t S h iqm im . I t i s h oped t hat i n f uture e xcava t ions , al a rger s a mp le o f i n -s i tu ma ter ia l w i l l b e f ound o n t he f loors o f b u i ld ings i n t he v i l lage t o p erm it a more r i gourous a na lys is o n t he h ouseho ld/ large b u i ld ing l eve l o f i nves t iga t ion . However , t h is s tudy h as p rov ided s o me u sefu l i ns ights c oncern ing p oss ib le d ifferences i n f unc t ion i n t he v ar ious e xcavat ion a reas i n t he v i l lage .

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS We wou ld l i ke t o e xpress o ur g ra t itude t o t he f o l low ing i nd iv idua ls : D r . S teven Rosen f or h is s t at is t ica l h e lp , Ms . T edd i Mazzo la f or h er e xce l len t d raw ings a nd h e lp w i th t he p repara t ion o f t he p la tes u sed i n t h is c hap ter , Ms . N ira Kapo lov f or h er f ine d raw ings , D r . C a ther ine P e l ler in f or s har ing h er p re -pub l ica t ion c era m ic d a ta w i th u s a nd Mss . E i leen McAndrew a nd C la ire P eachy f or t he ir h e lp i n t he p o t tery i dent if icat ions .

3 25

Chap ter 1 2 : The P o t tery F rom t he S h iqm im V i l lage

T ab le 1 2 .1

P ercentage D is tr ibut ion o f p o ttery t ypes b y B u i ld ing P hase .

B P

P i tho i

Ho le Mou th

G lob . J ar

B PI

1 . 08

1 3 .23

1 . 49

1 . 28

1 7 .29

3 . 15

J ar

B ow l

B as in

Churn

F oo ted

2 . 16

7 3 .41

8 . 23

0 . 13

0 . 27

2 . 74

6 0 .76

1 3 .87

0 . 54

0 . 37

N= 7 41 B PII

N= 2 956

3 26

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 2 .2a A rea

P i tho i

A

0

B

M in imum n umber o f p o ttery v esse ls f ound i n BP I ,S h iqm im V i l lage . Ho le Mou th

G lob . J ar

J ar

2 2

0

1

1 23

7

6 0

8

7

3 54

C

1

1

2

6

4 7

D

0

1

2

2 0

5

B ow l

B as in

Churn

F oo ted

1 7

0

0

3 5

0

1

4

1

0

5

0

1

1

2

T o ta ls : 8

9 8

1

1 6

5 44

6 1

T o ta l No . o f v esse ls = 7 41

T ab le 1 2 .2b P ercentage d i str ibut ion o f v esse l f orms a ccord ing t o a rea , S h iqm im v i l lage BP I . A rea

P i tho i

Ho le Mouth

G lob . J ar

J ar

Churn

F oo ted

A

0 . 00

1 3 .50

0 . 00

0 . 61

7 5 .46

1 0 .43

0 . 00

0 . 00

B

1 . 48

1 2 .72

1 . 69

1 . 48

7 5 .00

7 . 42

0 . 00

0 . 21

C

1 . 40

1 5 .27

2 . 17

8 . 33

6 5 .27

5 . 56

1 . 40

0 . 00

D

0 . 00

1 4 .71

2 . 94

5 . 88

5 8 .82

1 4 .71

0 . 00

2 . 94

3 27

B ow l

B as in

Chap ter 1 2 : The P o t tery F rom t he S h iqm im V i l lage

T ab le 1 2 .3a

M in imum n umber o f p ottery v esse ls f ound i n BP I , S h iqm im V i l lage .

A rea

P itho i

Ho le Mou th

A

7

I ll

2 5

2 4

B

7

6 2

1 2

1 0

C

6

6 9

1 3

1 65

2 9

1 04

5 11

D

1 3

E

5

G lob . J ar

J ar

B as in

Churn

F oo ted

2 80

17

2

1

2 46

5 8

0

5

2 84

6 5

1

4

2 7

6 46

1 21

8

1

1 4

1 2

3 40

4 9

5

0

9 3

8 1

1 796

4 10

8

B ow l

T o ta ls : 3 8

1 6

1

T o ta l No . o f v esse ls = 2 956

T ab le 1 2 .3b P ercentage d is tr ibut ion o f v esse l f orms a ccord ing t o a rea , S h iqm im v i l lage BP I . A rea

P i tho i

Ho le Mouth

G lob . J ar

J ar

A

1 . 23

1 9 .58

4 . 41

4 . 23

B

1 . 75

1 5 .50

3 . 00

C

1 . 34

1 5 .33

D

1 . 29

E

0 . 95

B as in

Churn

F oo ted

4 9 .38

2 0 .64

0 . 35

0 . 18

2 . 50

6 1 .50

1 4 .50

0 . 00

1 . 25

2 . 89

1 . 78

6 3 .11

1 4 .44

0 . 22

0 . 89

1 6 .34

2 . 87

2 . 67

6 3 .96

1 .98

0 . 79

0 . 10

1 9 .66

2 . 65

2 . 27

6 4 .27

9 . 26

0 . 94

0 . 00

3 28

B ow l

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY

A lon , D . 1 961 E ar ly s e t t lemen ts a long M 'Befn im 1 : 87 -96 . ( Hebrew )

t he

Naha l

Gerar

a nd

Naha l

P a t ish .

1 976

Two c u l t f igur ines f rom G i la t .

A t iqo t 1 :116 -18 .

1 977

A Cha lco l i th ic t emp le a t G i lat .

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 0 :63 -65 .

Am iran , R . 1 955 The " c ream ware " o f Gezer a nd t he B eersheba L a te Cha lco l i th ic . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 :2 40 -245 . 1 979 E ar ly A rad - T he C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd E ar ly B ronze C i ty . J erusa lem : The I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . Am iran , R . , B eck , P . a nd Z evu lun , U . 1 970 A nc ien t P o t tery o f t h e Ho ly L and . P ress . B ar Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure .

New J ersey : Rutgers Un ivers i ty

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

B e i t -Ar ieh , I . 1 980 A Cha lco l i th ic s i te n ear S erab i t e l -Khad im .

T e l A v iv 7 : 45 -64 .

d e C ontenson , H . 1 956 L a c eram ique Cha lco l i th ique d e B eersheba : E tude t ypo log ique . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 6 : 163 -179 , 2 26 -238 . d e Vaux , R . a nd S teve , A .M . 1 957 L es f ou i l le ä T e l l e l -Far 'ah p ies Nap louse . g ro t te Cha lco l i th ique . R evue B ib l ique 6 4 :553 -6 . Do than , M . 1 959

E xcava t ions a t Horvat B e ter ( Beersheba ) .

E l l io t t , C . 1 974 T he G hassu l ian C u l ture i n P a les t ine . L ondon .

S ix ieme c ampagne .

A t iqo t 1 :1-42 .

P h .D . Thes is , Un ivers i ty o f

E ps te in , C . 1 977 The Cha lco l i th ic c u l ture o f t he Go lan . 4 0 :57 -62 . G i lead , I . 1 986

Gerar 1 00 : The Cha lco l i th ic s i te .

3 29

L a

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t

BASOR S upp lemen t N o . 2 4 : 7 5-87 .

Chap ter 1 2 : The P o t tery F rom t he S h iqm im V i l lage

Gophna , R . 1 979 T e l T saf - A Cha lco l ith ic s e t t lement o n t he b anks o f t he J ordan . Q admon io t 1 2 :54 -56 . ( Hebrew ) Hanbury -Ten ison , J . 1 985 A l a te Cha lco l i th ic b ow l -s tand Exp lora t in Q ua ter ly .

f rom P e l la , J ordan .

P a les t ine

Hennessy , J .B . 1 968 Chron ique LXXV : 2 47 -250 .

A rcheo log ique

-T e le i lat

Ghassu l .

R evue

B ib l ique

1 969 P re l im inary r epor t o n af i rs t s eason o f e xcava t ions a t T e le i la t Ghassu l . L evan t 1 : 1-24 . Hesse , B . a nd Wapn ish , P . 1 985 A n ima l B one A rchaeo logy : F rom O bjec t ives t o A na lys is . T araxacum . H ie ta la , H . ( ed ) 1 984 I n tras i te S pa t ia l A na lys is i n A rchaeo logy . Un ivers i ty P ress . Kap lan , J . 1 954 Two Cha lco l i th ic v esse ls f rom P a les t ine . Q uar ter ly 7 6 :97 -100 .

L ondon :

Wash ing ton :

C ambr idge

P a les t ine E xp lora t ion

L ee , R . 1 973 C ha lco l i th ic G hassu l : N ew A spec ts a nd Mas ter T ypo logy . t hes is . J erusa lem : Hebrew Un ivers i ty . Maca l is ter , R .A .S . 1 912 T he Excava t ion o f G ezer I .

P h .D .

L ondon .

Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -32 . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t itute . M i l ler , D . 1 985 A r tefac ts a s C a tegor ies -A S tudy o f C eram ic V ar iab i l i ty i n C en tra l I nd ia . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . Neuv i l le , R . a nd Ma l lon , A . 1 931 L es d ebu ts d e l ' age d es me taux d ans l e s g ro t tes d u d eser t d e J udee . S yr ia 1 2 :24 -47 . O ren , E .D . , Morr ison , M .A . a nd G i lead , I . 1 986 L and o f Gerar e xped it ion : p re l im inary r epor t f or t he s easons o f 1 982 a nd 1 983 . BASOR S upp lemen t N o . 2 4 :57 -87 .

3 30

S h iqm im I

O ry , J . 1 946 A Cha lco l i th ic n ecropo l is a t B ene B erak . D epar tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ies i n P a les t ine 1 2 : 4 3 -57 .

Quar ter ly

o f t h e

P e l ler in , C . i n p res s . L a P o ter ie d 'Abu Ma tar e t d u O uad i Z oume l i B eersheba a u I V e M id ina ire a van t l ' ire C hrt t ienne : E tude t e chn ique , t ypo log ique e t f unc t ione l le . P ar is : L es C ah iers d u C en tre d e Recherche F ranca is d e J erusa lem . P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar , Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -41 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 .

n ear

B eersheba .

I s rae l

1 984 S truc tures d 'hab itat , mode d e v ie e t e nv ironment . L es v i l lages s outerra ins d es p as teurs d e B eersheva d ans l e d u d ' Israe l , a u I Ve m i l lena ire a van t l ' ere Chre t ienne . P a lgor ien t 1 0/1 :75 -96 . S uken ik , E .L . 1 948 A rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ions a t ' Affu la . O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 2 21 :1-19 . U ss ishk in , D . 1 980 The Ghas su l ian s hr ine a t E n -Ged i .

J ourna l o f t h e P a les t ine

T e l A v iv 7 : 1-44 .

We ins te in , J .M . 1 984 Rad iocarbon d a t ing i n t he s ou thern L evant . 3 66 .

R ad iocarbon 2 6 :297 -

W r igh t , G .E . 1 937 T he P o t tery o f P a les t ine f rom t h e E ar l ies t T imes t o t h e E nd o f t h e E ar ly B ronze Age . New Haven : Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch .

3 31

Chap ter 1 3

EXCAVATIONS I N SHIQ MI M CE METERY 3 : F INAL REPORT ON THE 1 982 EXCAVATIONS

b y

Thomas E . L evy Ne lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy Hebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f R e l ig ion J erusa lem a nd Dav id A lon I s rae l D epar tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Museu m s J erusa lem

IN TRODUCT ION Dur ing t he w in ter o f 1 981 , g rave r obb ing a c t iv i t ies w i th in t he S h iqm im c eme tery c omp lex r evea led a no ther h i l l t op f i l led w ith Cha lco l i th ic mor tuary r e ma ins . W i th t he s uppor t o f t he Na t iona l G eograph ic S oc ie ty ( U .S .A . ) i n t he f a l l o f 1 982 , o ur t eam ( Sponsored b y t he I s rae l D epar tment o f An t iqu i t ies a nd Museu m s a nd t he Negev Museum , B eer S heva ) made a l a rge s ca le e xcava t ion o f more t han 7 00 s quare me ters o n t h is h i l l t op ( hereaf ter r eferred t o a s C e me tery No . 3 ) . A t o ta l o f t wen ty -f ive mor tuary s t ruc tures w ere u ncovered d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he e xcava t ion ( F ig . 1 3 .0 ) . The d iscovery o f al a rge h ouse -shaped o ssuary , L amb is s he l l b race le ts , a nd w e l l -bu i l t c i s t s t ruc tures p rov ide i mpor tan t l i nks b e tween t he n or thern Negev a nd p ro toh is tor ic s i tes a s f ar away a s e as tern P a les t ine , t he S haron c oas ta l p la in a nd t he S ina i p en insu la . Wh i le a c omprehens ive p re l im inary r epor t h as b een p ub l ished e l sewhere ( s ee L evy a nd A lon 1 985 ) , t he r epor t p ub l ished h ere i nc ludes f or t he f i rs t t ime d e ta i led p lans , s ec t ions , p ho tographs a nd d escr ip t ions o f e ach o f t he mor tuary s t ruc tures f ound i n C eme tery 3 . A s hor t r ev iew o f t he e thnograph ic l i terature c oncern ing s econdary b ur ia l i s p resen ted a t t he e nd o f t he c hap ter t o h e lp c lar ify s o me a spec t s o f t h is p rac t ice i n t he Cha lco l i th ic c ommun i ty a t S h iqm im .

TH E CI S TS The mos t e xtraord inary f ind ings o f t he 1 982 e xcavat ions were t he d iscovery o f as e r ies o f w e l l -bu i l t s t oned l i ned c i s t s t ruc tures i n C eme tery 3 . T o d a te t hese c i s ts r epresen t t he o n ly k nown Cha lco l i th ic mor tuary s t ruc tures o f t h is t ype t o h ave b een f ound i n w es tern P a les t ine . I n e as tern P a les t ine c i s t

3 33

S h iqm im I

s t ruc tures h ave b een f ound a t an umber o f s i tes . However , many o f t he c i s t s i n e as tern P a les t ine h ave b een a scr ibed t o t he E ar ly B ronze Age . I n 1 930 , A . Ma l lon , t hen d irec tor o f t he P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tu te i n J erusa lem a nd R . Neuv i l le , t hen t he F rench C onsu l Genera l i n P a les t ine , made a s urvey o f t he Ade i meh p la teau a nd d iscovered a w ide r ange o f Cha lco l i th ic mor tuary s t ruc tures a pprox ima te ly 5 km n or theas t o f t he D ead S ea . T he d ense d is tr ibu t ion o f mor tuary s t ruc tures a t Ade imeh l ed t hese s cho lars t o d ef ine t he s i te a s an ecropo l is . I n t he f i rs t r epor t o n t he ir r esearch , Neuv i l le ( 1930 :254 ) p ub l ished a c l ear e xamp le o f a r ec tangu lar c i s t s t ruc ture . I n 1 932 , Mo she S teke l is c arr ied o u t t he f i rs t s ys tema t ic e xcava t ions a t t he Ade imeh N ecropo l is . S teke l is ( 1935 ) e xcava ted 1 68 c i s t s t ruc tures a t t he s i te a nd a scr ibed t he p o t tery f ound i n t hese c i s ts t o t he Cha lco l i th ic Ghas su l ian c u l ture k nown f rom t he s i te o f T e le i lat Ghassu l , l ocated l e s s t han 2 km t o t he n or thwes t o f Ade imeh . More r ecen t ly , Ras t a nd S chaub ( 1974 , 1 980 ) i n it ia ted a s e r ies o f a rchaeo log ica l s urveys o n t he s ou theas tern p la in o f t he D ead S ea ( t he Ghor r eg ion ) a nd d iscovered a n umber o f e ar ly c i s t s t ruc tures . Ne lson G lueck ( 1939 ) d a ted a c i s t w ith a r ounded e nd a t E s -Saf i t o t he E ar ly B ronze Age . Ras t a nd S chaub ( 1974 ) f ound a dd i t iona l c i s ts a t E s -Saf i a s w e l l a s r ec tangu lar s t one l ined c i s t s a t F e ifeh l oca ted c a . 1 0 km t o t he s ou th . The s urvey work i n t he Ghor a l so i nd ica tes t he p oss ib i l i ty o f c i s ts b e ing p resent a t o ther s i tes s uch a s B ab e dh Dhra ( i b id . , 7 ) , Nume irah ( i b id . , 8 ) a nd Khanaz ir ( i b id . , 1 3 ) . A l l o f t he c i s ts i n t he Ghor a re a scr ibed t o t he E ar ly B ronze Age . I n t he r e ma in ing p or t ion o f t h is s ec t ion , ad e ta i led d iscus s ion o f t he v ar ious c i s t s t ruc tures i n t he S h iqm im C eme tery 3 w i l l b e p resen ted . T ab les 1 3 .1 a nd 1 3 .2 t abu late g enera l o bservat ions c oncern ing t he d i mens ions a nd a r tefac t i nc lus ions f ound i n t he c i s ts . T ab le 1 3 .3 s hows t he d is tr ibu t ion o f f inds f rom t he C eme tery 3 c omp lex a s a who le .

CI ST 3 4 ( SguARE D/1) Mor tuary s t ruc ture No . 3 4 was t he f i rs t c i s t t o b e d iscovered d ur ing t he 1 982 f ie ld s eason . C arefu l s c rap ing o f t he h i l l t op s urface u s ing h and t oo ls ( excava t ion h ammer o r p a t t ish , t rowe l , b rushes a nd d us t p an ) r evea led a n o va l s hape c onf igura t ion l e ss t han 1 0 cm f rom t he s i te s urface . The o va l was made u p o f d ecompos ing c ha lk b locks . The max imum i ns ide l eng th i s 1 . 70 m a nd t he max imu m i ns ide w id th , 9 0 cm . The o uts ide d i mens ions a re c ons iderab ly l a rger : max imum o u ts ide l eng th = 2 . 30 m a nd max imum o u ts ide w id th = 1 . 55 m . A s C is t 3 4 was a n ew a rchaeo log ica l p henomenon f or t he S h iqm im e xcava t ion t eam , we d ec ided t o s ec t ion t he s t ruc ture t o o bserve t he d epos i t iona l h is tory o f t he c i s t . The f i l l c ons is ted p r imar i ly o f w ind d epos i ted l oess ia l s o i ls w i th o n ly af ew wad i c obb les wh ich s eem t o h ave a cc iden t ly f a l len i n to t he c i s t . There was n o e v idence f or a c ap s t one o r c a irn b u i l t o ver t he t op o f t he s t ruc ture . I ns tead , t he c i s t s eem s t o h ave b een o pen t o t he e l emen ts d ur ing i t s u se i n a n t iqu ity . The e xcava ted c i s t a veraged - 8 0 cm b e low s urface w i th a f loor made o f t he n a tura l b asa l c ha lk r ock . On c omp le t ion o f t h is e xcava t ion ( P la te 1 3 .5a ) , i t was c l ear t ha t t he e n t ire s t ruc ture was l i ned w i th s o l id c ha lk b locks wh ich were c arefu l ly l a id o ne o n t op o f t he o ther u s ing a s imp le d ry -masonry t echn ique . These b locks a verage c a . 3 5 x2 0 x 1 5 cm i n s i ze a nd w ere v ery we l l p reserved i n t he c ourses s i tua ted b e low t he s urface .

3 34

C hap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C eme tery 3

T he a r tefac ts f ound i ns ide t he c i s t i nc luded t wo V shaped b ow ls wh ich w ere f ound s mashed o n t he f loor o f t he s t ruc ture . I t s eem s t ha t t he w ad i c obb les wh ich h ad a cc iden t ly f a l len i n to t he c i s t ( P la te 1 3 .5b ) may h ave b een r e spons ib le f or b reak ing t he v es se l s . When t he f i l l d epo s i t s f rom t he e a s tern p or t ion o f t he c i s t w ere s i eved , t wo c arne l ian a nd o ne c onnus s he l l b ead w ere r e tr ieved . T he f i l l a l so i nc luded o ther o b jec t s wh ich s eem t o h ave b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he c i s t w e l l a f ter i t s p r imary u se c ea sed . S ch iffer ( 1983 , 1 983 :679 ) a nd B inford ( 1979 ) r efer t o a r tefac t s a nd r efuse o f t h is k ind a s " de f ac to r efuse . " T he d e f ac to r efuse i n C is t 3 4 i nc luded t he f o l low ing : 2 0 f l in t f lake s , 1d isco ida l c ore , 1c ore t r imm ing e l emen t , 1f l in t b lade , 8c h ips a nd a n e nd s c raper made o n a b lade . No h uman r ema ins w ere f ound i ns ide t h is s t ruc ture e ven a f ter c arefu l d ry s iev ing o f a l l o f t he s o i l d epo s i t s i ns ide t he c i s t . T he n eare s t mor tuary s t ruc ture n e ighbour i s G rave C irc le 2 3 wh ich i s l oca ted 2 . 55 m e as t o f C is t 3 4 ( P la te 1 3 .1a ) . I n t he p re l im inary r epor t c oncern ing C eme tery 3 ( Levy a nd Adon 1 985 ) , w e s ugges t t ha t t he c i s t s t ruc ture s may h ave b een u sed a s b ody p repara t ion p i t s b efore i n ternmen t a s s econdary b ur ia ls i n t he g rave c i rc les . Wh i le t h i s i s s t i l l a n u n tes ted h ypo the s is , t he c lo se r e la t ionsh ip o f many c i s ts s uch a s No . 3 4 w i th t he g rave c i rc le s s eem s t o s uppor t t h is i n terpre ta t ion .

CI S T3 5 ( S QU ARE F /1) C is t 3 5 ( F ig . 1 3 .6 ; P la te 1 3 .3a ) i sa n o va l s t ruc ture l i ned w i th s o l id c ha lk s l ab s wh ich a ppear t o h ave b een q uarr ied f rom t he n earby c ha lk s l opes o f t he r idge wh ich makes u p t he S h iqm im mor tuary c omp lex . T he max imum l eng th o f t he c i s t i s 1 . 38 m a nd t he max imum i n s ide w id th = 8 0 cm . T he o u ts ide l eng th = 1 . 90 m a nd o u t s ide w id th 1 . 10 m . C is t 3 5 i sc ons iderab ly more s ha l low t han t he o ther c i s ts d iscovered d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he e xcava t ion . I t h as a mean d ep th o f c a . 3 8 cm . L ike many o f t he s t ruc ture s made o f c ha lk , t he r ocks c lo ses t t o t he s urface h ave b een s evere ly e roded . Un l ike mo s t o f t he c i s ts , No . 3 5 h as a c arefu l ly l a id c obb le f l oor s urface . A t o ta l o f 1 8 s moo th wad i c obb les wh i le t he e as tern p or t ion i s p r imar i ly made o f f l a t c ha lk s l ab s . The c ha lk b locks u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t h is c i s t w ere l a id v er t ica l ly i n to t he wa l ls o f t he p i t . No c ap s t one o r c a irn wa s a s soc ia ted w i th t h is s t ruc ture . One o f t he a r tefac t s f ound i n C i s t 3 5 may s hed a dd i t iona l l i gh t o n C ha lco l i th ic mor tuary b ehav iour i n t he N egev . I n t he w e s tern p or t ion o f t h is c i s t , af ine ly made t abu lar f l in t s c raper w as f ound i n s i tu o n t he f l oor o f t h is c i s t ( F ig . 1 3 .2a ) . I n ar ecen t s tudy o f p ro toh is tor ic t abu lar s c rapers , Ro sen ( 1983 ) s ugge s ts t ha t t he se t oo ls p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n af a ir ly d eve loped t rad ing n e twork i n s ou thern P a le s t ine a nd t he S ina i . T he d iscovery o f a n i n s i tu t abu lar f an scraper i n C is t 3 5 s ugge s t s t ha t i t wa s u sed i n t he mor tuary r i tua l . There a re t wo p o s s ib le i n terpre ta t ions : a ) t he t abu lar s c raper w as a r i tua l o ffer ing o f s o me k ind l e f t i n t he c i s t , o r b ) t he s c raper h ad a more f unc t iona l u se i n p repar ing b od ies i n terned i n t he c i s t . A f u ture a na lys is o f t he e dge ware o f t h is t oo l a long t he l i ne s s ugges ted b y Kee ley ( 1980 ) may p rov ide a means f or t e s t ing t he se h ypo theses . T hree V shaped b ow ls w ere a l so f ound o n t he f loor o f t h is c i s t . E ach o f t hem h ad b een s mashed . I t i s n o t

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p o s s ib le t o d iscern whe ther t hey w ere i n ten t iona l ly b roken o r h ad s imp ly d ecompo sed d ue t o t he n a tura l s i te f orma t ion p roces se s wh ich h ave o ccurred a t C eme tery 3 . O ther a r tefac t s wh ich s eem t o r epresen t d e f ac to r efu se i nc lude : 4 4 f l in t f lake s , 2 3 f l in t c h ip s , 2c hunks , 1b lade , 1d en t icu la te a nd o ne l a rge c oarse ware b ody s herd .

CI S T3 7 ( S QU ARE H /1) C is t 3 7 ( F ig . 1 3 .7 ) w as f ound i n t he s ou thea s t p or t ion o f t he C eme tery 3 h i l l t op c lus ter o r mor tuary s t ruc ture s ( P la te 1 3 .1a ) . T h is c i s t wa s o r ien ted n or thwe s t/sou theas t . T he wa l ls o f t he c i s t w ere c ons truc ted o u t o f 6 9 w ad i c obb les wh ich h ad b een c o l lec ted f rom t he Naha l B eer S heva , l e s s t han 2 00 m away . T he i ns ide max imum l eng th o f C i s t 3 7 i s 1 . 69 m w i th a n i ns ide w id th o f 1 . 05 m . T he max imum o u ts ide l eng th = 2 . 0 m w i th a n o u ts ide w idth = 1 . 58 m . T he d ep th o f t h is c i s t i sc a . 7 1 cm f rom t he s urface . The t op 1 0 cm o f s o i l i n s ide t he c i s t was d i s turbed b y g rave r obbers s o me t ime d ur ing 1 981 . However , a s t hey h ad n o i dea t ha t t hey w ere p i lfer ing a c i s t , t he t h ieve s a bandoned t he ir work a s sum ing t ha t t hey h ad f ound a n emp ty g rave c i rc le . F our V shaped b ow ls a nd a s he l l p endan t w ere f ound i n t he l oe s s ia l f i l l a pprox ima te ly 5 cm a bove t he c i s t f l oor . One o f t he V -shaped b ow l s w as f ound r e s t ing i n t he f i l l a bove t he c i s t f loor . T here a re t wo p o s s ib le e xp lana t ions f or t he d is tr ibu t ion o f f inds i n t he c i s t : a ) t he c i s t may h ave b een i n ten t iona l ly h a lf f i l led d ur ing t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod a nd t he a r tefac t s t hrown i n , o r b ) a t s o me t ime a f ter t he a bandonmen t o f t he c e me tery t he c i s t c ou ld h ave b een p i lfered a nd t he v e s se ls d ragged u p i n to t he f i l l f rom a n i n s i tu c on tex t o n t he c i s t f loor . T he p endan t ( F ig . 1 3 .14 :2 , r i gh t ) i s o f t he t r apezo ida l t ype w i th h err ingbone d e s ign a nd c ommon t o many C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t he n or thern Negev ( c f . P erro t 1 955 , L evy 1 981) , t he J udean d e ser t ( Bar Adon 1 980 ) a nd t he s ou thern J ordan V a l ley ( Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ) . O ther d e f ac to r efuse f ound i n t he f i l l i nc lude : 5 0 f l in t f l ake s , 7 4 f l in t c h ip s , 1 0 f l int c hunk s , 1d i sco ida l c ore , 3 b lades a nd 3 r e touched p ieces . Two l a rge c oar se w are s herds w ere a l so f ound .

CI S T3 9 ( SQ UARE E /0 ) T h is c i s t w as r emarkab ly s im i lar t o No . 3 5 . B o th a re o r ien ted i n a n or thwe s t d irec t ion ( F ig . 1 3 .5 ) . C i s t 3 9 i s as ha l low s t ruc ture w i th a n a verage d ep th o f c a . 4 0 cm . T he max imum o u t s ide l eng th = 1 . 78 m a nd max imum o u t s ide w id th = 1 . 40 m . L ike C is t 3 5 , t he w a l ls o f C is t 3 9 w ere made o f c ha lk s l ab s wh ich h ad b een p laced v er t ica l ly a long t he s i des o f t he c i s t p i t . A t o ta l o f t en q uarr ied c ha lk b locks a verag ing 5 0 x3 0 x2 0 cm i n s i ze w ere u sed i n c ons truc t ing t h is s t ruc ture . T he f l oor o f t h is c i s t w as l i ned w i th c a . 4 6 s moo th w ad i c obb les i den t ica l t o t he o ne s u sed i n C is t 3 5 . A c omp le te V shaped b ow l w as f ound i n s i tu o n t he f l oor o f C i s t 3 9 . T he b ow l w as u ndecora ted a nd f ound r e s t ing o n a s ma l l l imes tone r ock f ragmen t wh ich h ad b een i n ten t iona l ly p laced o n t he c i s t f l oor . A long t he e as tern w a l l al a rge c ha lk b lock ( ca . 3 0 x2 0 x3 0 cm ) w as p laced l i ke a p i l low

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o r h ead r e s t a nd w edged i n to p lace b y s evera l c ha lk f ragmen ts . Ano ther V s haped b ow l ( broken ) was f ound i n t he f i l l s evera l c en t ime ter s a bove t he c i s t f loor . T he f i l l a l so i nc luded 1 f ine w are s herd s , 1h o lemou th s herd , 1 Gaza ware s herd , 1g lobu lar p o t s herd a nd 1o chre p iece . F or c ompara t ive p urpo se s , a s e lec t ion o f V -Shaped b ow ls f ound i n C eme tery 1 i s p re sen ted i n F igure 1 3 .15 .

TH E FU NCT ION O F CI S TS T he l oca t ion o f t he c i s t s t ruc ture s i n c lo se p rox im i ty t o t he g rave c i rc le s i s ac l ear i nd ica t ion o f t he ir c onnec t ion w i th t he mor tuary r i tua l . T he r i tua l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he c i s t s a nd g rave c i rc le s i s h igh l igh ted b y t he b ur ia l o ffer ing s f ound i n t he c i s ts . A s s hown i n T ab le 1 3 .2 , e very c i s t c on ta ined a t l eas t o ne V shaped b ow l ; ab ur ia l o ffer ing f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th a lmo s t e very b ur ied i nd iv idua l i n t he S h iqm im c e me tery ( Levy a nd A lon 1 979 , 1 982 ) . A s men t ioned a bove , i n t he p re l im inary r epor t c oncern ing C eme tery 3 ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) , i t i s s ugges ted t ha t t he c i s ts w ere u sed a s r ecep tac le s f or d ecay ing b od ies . Once t he f l esh w as r emoved f rom t he b od ie s p laced i n t hese " ske le ton p repara t ion p i t s " , t he b ones wou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted a nd r ebur ied i n t he a d jacen t g rave c i rc le s . T he l a rge s i ze o f t he o va l c i s t s ( max imum o u ts ide l eng th = c a . 1 . 95 m , max imum o u t s ide w id th = c a . 1 . 34 m ) s hows t ha t a n a du l t b ody c ou ld e as i ly h ave b een p laced i n s ide t hese mor tuary s t ruc ture s .

TH E GR AVE CI RCLES GR AVE CI RCLE 2 3 1 .C ons truc t ion G rave C irc le 2 3 w as p ar t ia l ly l oo ted s o me t ime d ur ing 1 981 . T h is i s a w e l l b u i l t a nd s imp le mor tuary s t ruc ture ( F ig . 1 3 .6 ) . T he c i rc le was c ons truc ted p r imar i ly o u t o f c ha lk r ocks ( 47 p iece s ) a nd f l in t b ou lder s ( 1 1 p iece s ) . T he max imum o u t s ide d iame ter o f t h is c i rc le i s 2 . 60 m a nd t he max imum i ns ide d iame ter i s 2 . 40 m . A ccord ing t o t he t ypo logy o f C ha lco l i th ic g rave c i rc les e s tab l i shed f or S h iqm im C eme tery 1 ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 ) , t h is c i rc le b e longs t o t he s econd o rder o f l a rge g rave c i rc le s . T h is i sb ased o n t he s i ze , s imp le l ayou t a nd mu l t ip le ma ter ia ls u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t he c i rc le . 2 .T he F inds F or tuna te ly , t he t h ieve s l e f t b eh ind l a rge f ragmen t s o f t wo c eram ic o ssuar ies i ns ide G rave C irc le 2 3 . One o f t he se o s suar ie s ( F ig . 1 3 .18 ) w as a t yp ica l h ouse shaped f orm s im i lar t o t ho se f ound f ur ther n or th a t s i te s a long t he S haron p la in . T h is o s suary was f i rs t p ub l ished i n t he p re l im inary r epor t c oncern ing C eme tery 3 ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . I n t h is c hap ter , l i ne d raw ing s o f t he o s suary a re p ub l ished t o f ac i l i ta te c ompara t ive s tudy . T he h ouse s hape o s suary i s 6 4 cm h igh , 6 1 cm l ong , 3 3 .5 cm w ide a nd c on ta in s av au l ted r oof . The f ron t c rown h as b een r econs truc ted b ased o n k nown e xamp le s o f

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r ec tangu lar o s suar ie s w i th v au l ted r oof s f rom A zor n ear T e l Av iv ( Perro t 1 961 ; P erro t a nd L ad iray 1 980 :18 -19 ) . T he b ase o f t he o s suary h as d oub le " w indows " o n e ach s ide o f i t s l ong i tud ina l s i de s a nd o ne l a rge r ec tangu lar w indow i n t he f ron ta l b ase . T he " w indow s " may h ave f ac i l i ta ted mov ing t h i s v ery h eavy o b jec t . The r ear b a se i s c omp le te ly s ea led . A d oor ( 20 x 1 8 .5 cm ) was f ound among t he s herd s o f G rave C irc le 2 3 wh ich b e long s t o t h is o s suary . A long e ach s i de o f t he o s suary d oorway a re s ma l l l ug h and le s wh ich f ac i l i ta te l ock ing o r c lo s ing t he d oor i n p lace . B e low t he d oorway e n trance i s as ma l l p orch c a . 2 . 5 cm i n w id th . T ypo log ica l ly , t he o s suary i s mo s t s im i lar t o P erro t a nd L ad iray ' s ( 1980 :32 , IVc ,Vb ) c las s I o s suary . T he o va l s haped o s suary i s o f as imp le d e s ign w i th a max i mum b ase l eng th o f 3 9 cm a nd b ase w id th o f 2 4 cm . T he h e igh t a nd s hape o f o ne s ide o f t h i s v e s se l c ou ld b e c omp le te ly r econs truc ted ( F ig . 1 3 .17 ) . The max imum h e igh t i s 1 7 cm . I ts eem s t ha t t h i s o s suary w as f u l ly o pened s l igh t ly o u tward o n t h is e xamp le wh ich i sd ecora ted w i th t h ick b ands o f r ed p a in t a round t he b ase a nd s i de s o f t he v es se l . A ccord ing t o P erro t a nd L ad iray ' s ( 1980 :28 -29 ) c l as s if ica t ion , t h is o va l e xamp le may b e c las s if ied a s aC la s s Io s suary o f t he t ub o r b a s in f orm . When t he d epo s i t s f ound i n G rave 2 3 w ere s i eved , an umber o f h uman b one s p l in ter s w ere r ecovered . Unfor tuna te ly , t hey w ere t oo s ma l l a nd t he d epo s i t s t oo d is turbed f or a na lys i s . No o ther a r tefac ts w ere f ound i n t h is c i rc le .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 4 1 .T he S truc ture G rave C irc le 2 4 ( F ig . 1 3 .1) i st he l a rge s t g rave c i rc le f ound i n C eme tery 3 . A l though g rave r obber s h ad b egun t o t amper w i th t h is i mpres s ive s t ruc ture , mo s t o f t he d epo s i t s w ere l e f t u nd is turbed . T h is c i rc le i s a lmo s t p erfec t i n s y mme tr ica l c ons truc t ion . T he o u t s ide d iame ter = 3 . 10 m a nd t he i ns ide d iame ter = 2 . 30 m . A s s een i n t he p ho tograph o f t h is c i rc le ( F ig . 1 3 .1b ) , h a lf o f t he f loor w as p aved w i th s moo th w ad i c obb le s a nd s ma l l l imes tone r ock s ( t o ta l = 5 8 p iece s ) . I t i s s t i l l n o t c l ear why o n ly c a . h a lf o f t he f loor w as p aved . I n t e rm s o f c ons truc t ion , al ayer o f c a . 5 cm o f s o i l wa s u sed t o c over t he e n t ire f l oor . T he p av ing s t one s a re s e t i n to t h i s p repared s urface . T he c i rc le w a l l i s b u i l t o f t wo w e l l l a id r ows o f wad i b ou lder s . T h is a ccoun t s f or t he d iscrepancy b e tween t he i nner a nd o u ter d iame ter o f t he c i rc le . I n t e rm s o f t he C ha lco l i th ic G rave C irc le t ypo logy u sed i n S h iqm im C eme tery 1 , t he w e l l l a id s t one p aved f l oor , t he l a rge s i ze a nd t he i mpre s s ive t wo r ow c ons truc t ion me thod h e lp d ef ine t h is s t ruc ture a s b e long ing t o t he h ighe s t o rder ( number 1 )o f g rave c i rc les . 2 .T he Human R ema ins P rofes sor B aruch A rensburg o f t he D epar tmen t o f P hys ica l An thropo logy , T e l Av iv Un iver s i ty , k ind ly made a l l o f t he i den t if ica t ions o f h uman r ema ins f rom C eme tery 3 . D a ta c oncern ing t he a ge , s ex a nd m in imum

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n umber o f i nd iv idua ls w as o b ta ined . I t i s h oped t ha t i n f u ture a na ly se s , p a leopa tho log ica l s tud ie s a long t he l i nes c arr ied o u t b y B u iks tra ( 1981) w i l l b e c arr ied o u t . I n t he 1 982 e xcava t ion , t he b ones w ere mapped a nd c o l lec ted i n d iscre te p i le s ( j us t a s t hey h ad b een p laced i n t he g rave c i rc le s i n a n t iqu i ty ) . A t o ta l o f 1 3 b one c lus ters w ere r ecorded i n C irc le 2 4 . T hese i nc luded 1 0 ma le s , 6f e ma le s , 2a du l t s o f u nknown s ex , 3j uven i les a nd 3 c h i ldren . T he f o l low ing p aragraph s s ummar ize t he c on ten ts o f e ach b one c lus ter . a ) B one C lus ter 1( Loc i 1a nd 3 1) = 1a du l t ma le L ocus 1 : 1l umbar v er tebrae w i th s pondy lo ly s is , 1 ma le h umerus , 1ma le f e mur , 1 r ad ius/u lna? , 1 ma le t i b ia , 1 f ibu la , 1 f e mur h ead , s evera l r ib f ragmen ts , s evera l r ad ius/u lna f ragmen t s , 1p ha lange , 1c oracu l i . Locus 3 1 : 1ma le f e mur ( r igh t ) , 1c l av ic le , 1r ad ius/u lna? , 1t i b ia . b ) B one C lus ter 2 ( Locus 2 ) = Ia du l t ma le Locus 2 :s ku l l f ragmen ts o f a du l t ma le . c ) B one C lus ter 4 ( Loc i 5a nd 3 3) = 1y oung f ema le , Ij uven i le Locus 5 : 1 mo lar o f a du l t w i th w are p a t terns wh ich i mp ly t ha t i t may h ave b een u sed f or a s pec ia l a c t iv i ty s uch a s s t r ing manufac ture ; c ran ia l f ragmen t s o f j uven i le . Locus 3 3 : 1f e ma le f e mur h ead ( 17 o r 1 8 y ears o ld ) , 1f e ma le h umerus . d ) B one C lus ter 5 ( Loc i 6a nd 3 9) = 1f ema le , 1 ma le , 1c h i ld ( 1 -2 y ear s o ld) Locus 6 : 1f e ma le h umerus , 1p ha lange , 1a du l t mo lar . Locus 3 9 : 1 ma le f emur , 1f e ma le h umeru s , 1r ad ius/u lna , 1 ma le u lna , 1l ong b one ( ch i ld 1 2 y ears ) , 1c lav ic le , s evera l r ib f ragmen t s . e ) B one C lus ter 6 ( Loc i 1 a nd 3 8) = 1 v e ry y oung a du l t ma le , 1 c h i ld ( 1 -2 y ear s) Locus 1 : s evera l c ran ium f ragmen ts o f y oung c ran ium f ragmen ts o f c h i ld ( 1 -3 y ears ) , 1ma le f e mur . L ocus f ragmen ts .

3 8 :

1 a du l t

t oo th ,

n umerous

u n iden t if iab le

f ) B one C lus ter 7 ( Locus 1 2 ) = ma le Locus 1 2 : n umerous ma le l ong b one f ragmen ts .

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a du l t

ma le , s evera l

a du l t

l ong

b one

S h iqm im I

g ) B one C lus ter 8 ( Loc i 1 3 a nd 3 4) = 1 r obus t ma le , I a du l t ( ? ) , 1f ema le , 1c h i ld ( 1 -2 y ear s) Locus 1 3 : 1e x treme ly r obu s t ma le f e mur ; 1l ower j aw f ragmen t w i th v ery u sed mo lar ; 1 ma le h umerus , 1f e ma le h umerus , 1j aw f rag -men t , 1r a mus o f f e ma le j aw , n umerous a du l t l ong b one f ragmen ts , a du l t j aw f ragmen t . L ocus 3 4 : 2a du l t ma le u lnae ( r igh t a nd l e f t ) , 1 ma le h umerus , 1l ong b one o f c h i le ( 1 -2 y ears ) , 1f e mur o f v ery y oung c h i ld , s evera l f ragmen t s o f c h i ld ' s c ran ium , 1t i b ia o f a du l t ma le , 1c l av ic le f ragmen t , 2a du l t p ha lange s , 1 f e ma le h umerus , 1a du l t ma le ( ? ) f e mur , 1a du l t p e lv i s f ragmen t , 1r ib , s evera l f ragmen t s o f a du l t r ad ius/u lna , 1r ad ius o f a du l t f e ma le , 2p remo lar s a nd 3 mo lar t e e th ( o ld a du l t ) , 1a t las v er tebrae , 1l a rge p ha lanx , 4 v er tebrae , 1 4 p ha lange b ones , 3a du l t c l av ic les ( r igh t ) . h ) B one C lus ter 9 ( Locus 1 4) = a du l t ( ? ) Locus 1 4 : n umerou s a du l t l ong b one f ragmen t s . i )B one C lus ter 1 0 ( Loc i 1 5 a nd 4 0) = 1f ema le a nd 1 ma le Locus 1 5 : 1f e ma le t i b ia , 1f e ma le h umerus , 1u pper c en tra l i nc i sor , n umerous l ong b one f ragmen ts . L ocus 4 0 : 5a du l t v er tebrae , 1 ma le u lna , 1a du l t p e lv i s f ragmen t , 1 s capu la , 1p ha lange , s evera l r ib f ragmen ts , 1f e ma le h umerus , 1f e ma le u lna . j )B one C lus ter 1 ( Loc i 1 6 a nd 3 5) = 1 v e ry r obus t ma le , 1y oung a du l t ma le L ocus 1 6 : 1ma le f e mur , n umerous l ong b one f ragmen t s . L ocus 3 5 : 1a du l t c a lcan ius ( l ef t ) , 1r obu s t ma le f e mur , 1 ma le u lna , 1 ma le h umerus , 1f ibu la , 1c l av ic le , 1p ha lange , 1h umeru s , 1c arpus , 1h umeru s h ead , 1u lna h ead , s evera l r ib s , s evera l t e e th o f y oung a du l t ma le . k ) B one C lus ter 1 2 ( Loc i 1 8 a nd 3 7) = 1f ema le , I ma le , I j uven i le L ocus 1 8 : 1f ibu la , 1 ma le f e mur , s evera l r ib f ragmen t s , 1r ad iu s a nd u lna , 2f e ma le ( ? ) h umer i ( r igh t a nd l e f t ) , 1s capu la , 1f e ma le r ad ius . 1 )B one C lus ter 1 3 ( Locus 3 2 ) = ma le L ocus 3 2 : ma le c ran ium f ragmen t s , 5p oor ly p reserved t e e th , 1p ha lanx , 1ma le f e mur , 1ma le h umeru s .

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3 .T he F inds a ) J ewe l lery G rave C irc le 2 4 c on ta ined a n i mpres s ive a s semb lage o f s he l l j ewe l lery . O f g rea t t empora l i mpor tance w ere t wo l a rge s he l l b race le t s ( P la te 1 3 .2b ) made f rom t he mo l lusc L amb is t r unca ta s ebae ( K iener ) . B ar Yo sef e t a l ( 1977 :76 ) f ound 1 5 o f t hese b race le t s i n t he e n igma t ic Nawam i s b ur ia l s t ruc tures n ear ' E in Hudera i n t he S ina i p en insu la . T he b race le t s f rom G rave C irc le 2 4 a re s em i -c ircu lar a nd h ave o ne h o le d r i l led n ear e ach o f t he d is ta l e nds o f t he b race le t s . E ach o f t he S h iqm im e xamp le s w ere i nc ised w i th t r iangu lar p a t tern s a long t he o u ter e dge o f t he b race le t . A s B ar Yo sef e t a l . ( i b id ) p o in t o u t , L amb i s s he l l b race le t s l i ke t ho se d e scr ibed h ere may b e i mpor tan t t empora l l i nk s f or a reas a s f ar a par t a s t he S ina i , t he N egev , n or thern P a le s t ine ( Samar ia ) , e as tern P a le s t ine a nd E gyp t . L amb i s s he l l b race le ts h ave a l so b een f ound i n n or thern P a le s t ine a t T e l e l -Farah Nor th ( Tomb s 5a nd 8 , d e V aux a nd S teve 1 951 :p l .VIb , p l .XV I I ) , a nd o ther N egev s i te s s uch a s G i la t ( A lon 1 977 ) a nd Abu Ma tar ( Perro t 1 955 :172 , F ig . 2 0 :23 ) . I n e as tern P a le s t ine t hey h ave b een f ound i n t he C ha lco l i th ic -Ear ly B ronze I s i te o f E s -Saf i ( Ras t a nd S chaub 1 974 :10 ) a nd a t T e le i la t Gha s su l ( Rockerfe l ler Museum d isp lay , J erusa lem ) . Ou t s ide o f P a les t ine , t he se b race le t s a re k nown f rom a n umber o f E gyp t ian P re -Dynas t ic , P ro to -Dynas t ic a nd F ir s t Dyna s ty s i tes ( s ee B ar Yo sef e t a l 1 977 : n o te 3 3 f or r eferences c oncern ing t h is p henomenon ) . T he S h iqm im c e me tery b race le t s a dd n ew i nforma t ion c oncern ing t he l i nkage , b o th t empora l a nd c u l tura l , b e tween t he n or thern N egev a nd n e ighbour ing a rea s . However , t he p rec ise n a ture o f t h i s l i nkage i s i mpo s s ib le t o d ef ine a t p re sen t . T he l a ck o f p rec ise c hrono log ica l c on tro l i n t he S h iqm im c eme tery a nd t he o ther C ha lco l i th ic -EB s i te s i n P a les t ine p rec lude t he p o s s ib l i l i ty o f i s o la t ing t r ad ing p a t terns , p a t terns o f c u l tura l d iffu s ion o r c u l tura l -h is tor ica l c on t inu i t ies i n t he s ou thern L evan t b ased o n t he s ma l l n umber o f f inds a va i lab le a t p resen t . T he t hree o ther j ewe l lery f inds i n G rave C irc le 2 4 i nc lude ( F ig . 1 3 .2b ) : a p erfora ted s he l l p laque , a f ine ly c arved mo ther -of -pear l p enden t a nd a f ragmen t o f ap erfora ted mo ther -of -pear l p endan t . The s he l l p laque i so va l i n s hape a nd mea sure s c a . 7 . 4 cm i n l eng th , 3 . 2 cm i n w id th , a nd . 3 0 cm i n t h ickne s s . F our h o le s w ere d r i l led i n to t h is p iece , w i th t wo h o le s p laced n ear e ach o f t he d is ta l e nds o f t he p laque . A l l o f t he se h o le s w ere d r i l led a long t he s a me a x is wh ich r uns t hrough t he c en tre o f t he p iece . T he f ine ly c arved mo ther -of -pear l p endan t measure s c a . 3 . 3 cm i n l eng th , 1 . 8 cm i n max imum w id th a nd i s . 3 0 cm t h ick . Th i s p endan t h as d en t icu la ted s ide s wh ich h ave b een c arefu l ly c arved i n ak ind o f v io l in s hape w i thou t an eck . F our h o le w ere d r i l led i n to t h i s p endan t ; t wo o n e ach e nd o f t he p endan t . A l though t hese a r tefac ts c an b e c harac ter ized a s b e long ing t o t he c l as s o f C ha lco l i th ic j ewe l lery made o f s he l l , t he ir s hape s a re u nusua l c ompared w i th t he p ub l ished r eper to ire o f s he l l f inds f rom s i te s t he J ordan V a l ley ( Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ) , t he n or thern N egev ( Perro t 1 955 ) , a nd o ther a reas o f P a le s t ine . T he t h ird j ewe l lery p iece i st oo f ragmen tary t o i den t ify .

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b ) P o t tery L ike t he ma jor i ty o f t he mor tuary s t ruc tures f ound t o d a te a t S h iqm im ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 , 1 985 ) , G rave C irc le 2 4 c on ta ined V -shape b ow ls . T hree o f t hese w ere f ound i n s i tu . A t o ta l o f 1 4 u n iden t if iab le c oar se ware s herds w ere f ound s pread t hroughou t t he f i l l o f t h is c i rc le . I t i s q u i te l i ke ly t ha t o ther c eram ic v e s se ls w ere p re sen t i n t h is c i rc le b u t w ere r e moved b y t he g rave r obbers .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 5 G rave C irc le 2 5 ( F ig s . 1 3 .1 , 1 3 .2 ) i s as ma l l c i rc le ( ca . . 9 5 m i n o u t s ide d iame ter ) a nd i s a t tached t o t he s ou thern e dge o f G rave C irc le 2 4 . No a r tefac ts w ere f ound i n t h is g rave p re sumab ly b ecau se i t w as d is turbed l i ke No . 2 4 . However , ar a ther w e l l p re served c o l lec t ion o n h uman b one r ema in s w ere r ecovered . T he se w ere l abe l led B one C lus ter 3 ( Locus 3 6 ) a nd i nc lude t he f o l low ing b one e l emen ts : c ran ia l a nd j aw f ragmen t s o f a du l t f ema le , 2 nd p remo lar o f j uven i le + 6 y ear s o ld , l ong b one f ragmen t s o f a du l t f e mur , h umerus , r ad ius , 2v er tebrae f ragmen t s , h umerus o f aj uven i le . B ased o n t hese r ema in s , a m in imum n umber o f 1 a du l t f e ma le a nd 1 j uven i le c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t h is s ma l l c i rc le . G rave C irc le 2 5 s eem s t o h ave b een c ons truc ted a d jacen t t o t he wa l l s o f t he l a rger G rave C irc le 2 4 . T hus C irc le 2 5 c an b e i n terpre ted a s h av ing b een b u i l t s o me t ime a f ter t he c o l lap se o r a bandonmen t o f G rave C irc le 2 4 . A ccord ing t o t he G rave C irc le t ypo logy e s tab l ished f or C eme tery 1 ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 ) , G rave C irc le 2 5 b e long s t o t he s ma l le s t o rder ( No . 4 ) o f mor tuary s t ruc tures .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 6 G rave C irc le 2 6 ( F ig . 1 3 .0 ) w as h igh ly d is turbed . Th is c i rc le i s l o ca ted . 6 0 m n or th o f C irc le 2 3 . T he max imum o u ts ide d iame ter o f t h i s s t ruc ture i s c a . . 9 8 m . L ike G rave C irc le 2 5 , t h is o ne b e long s t o t he s ma l le s t o rder ( No . 4 ) o f g rave c i rc les f ound i n t he S h iqm im c e me tery . T he e n t ire n or thern p or t ion o f t h is c i rc le s eem s t o h ave b een r emoved b y r obbers . No a r tefac t o r b one r ema ins w ere f ound h ere .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 7 T h is g rave c i rc le i s l o ca ted i n t he n or thwe s tern p or t ion o f C eme tery 3 , 2 . 45 m n or thwe s t o f G rave C irc le 2 3 . C irc le 2 7 ( F ig . 1 3 .11) h as a max imum o u t s ide d iame ter o f 1 . 74 m a nd i s c ons truc ted o u t o f wad i c obb les ( 17 p ieces ) a nd c ha lk r ock s ( 9 p iece s ) . B ased o n t he se o bserva t ions , t h is s t ruc ture c an b e a scr ibed t o t he 3 rd o rder o f g rave c i rc le s f ound i n t he S h iqm im C eme tery ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 ) . Unfor tuna te ly , t h is c i rc le w as c omp le te ly d is turbed b y t he g rave r obbers . G rave C irc le 2 7 w as c ons truc ted o ver a t h ick b ed o f l o e s s ia l

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s o i l . I n a ccordance w i th I s rae l i l aw , t he s ke le ta l r e ma ins r ecovered a nd s tud ied f rom c e me tery 1w ere r ebur ied i n t h is g rave c i rc le .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 8 G rave C irc le 2 8 ( F ig s . 1 3 .12 , 1 3 .13 ) i si n t he n or theas tern p or t ion o f t he c e me tery h i l l t op . Th is s t ruc ture i s c on s truc ted p r imar i ly o u t o f wad i c obb le s ( 16 p ieces ) , a nd s o me l imes tone ( 1 p iece ) a nd c ha lk r ocks ( 1 p iece ) . T he max imum o u ts ide d iame ter o f t h is c i rc le = 1 . 65 m . A ccord ing t o t he S h iqm im g rave c i rc le t ypo logy t h is s t ruc ture b e long s t o t he 3 rd o rder g roup . A s s een i n t he p lan ( F ig . 1 3 .12 ) , g rave c i rc le 2 8 i sa n i s o la ted s t ruc ture . Hundreds o f t i ny b one f ragmen ts o f a n a du l t ma le f e mur w ere f ound i n t h is c i rc le . However , t o t he n or th o f t he c i rc le f our w e l l d ef ined b urn t a shy -grey a rea s w ere f ound wh ich may r epre sen t h ear ths s o mehow c onnec ted w i th t he mor tuary r i tua l . One o f t hese b urn t a reas ( F ig . 1 3 .12 ) c on ta ined s evera l b urn t C ha lco l i th ic s herds . C irc le 2 8 was c omp le te ly r obbed w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s evera l c oarse w are s herds a nd a n umber o f d e f ac to f l in t f l ake s wh ich w ere f ound i n t he d i s turbed f i l l . T he se a shy b urn t a reas may r epre sen t t he r e ma ins o f s ma l l h ear ths t ha t w ere u sed d ur ing v ar iou s mor tuary r i tua ls .

GR AVE CI RCLE 2 9 G rave C irc le 2 9 ( F ig s . 1 3 .12 , 1 3 .13 ) was f ound i n a v ery d i s turbed c ond i t ion . Th is s t ruc ture i sl oca ted i n t he n or theas tern p or t ion o f t he h i l l t op . T he w e s tern s ide o f t he g rave s eem s t o h ave b een r e moved wh ich made i t d iff icu l t t o measure t he e xac t d i mens ions o f t h is s t ruc ture . I t s eem s t o h ave a max imum o u ts ide d iame ter o f c a . 1 . 15 m wh ich i s t yp ica l o f 3 rd o rder g rave c i rc les ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 ) . T he c i rc le was made o u t o f 1 7 w ad i c obb les . Unfor tuna te ly , mo s t o f t he f i l l h ad b een r emoved b y g rave r obber s . S evera l s herds a nd d e f ac to f l in t c h ip s w ere f ound i n t he d i s turbed f i l l .

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 0 G rave C irc le 3 0 ( F ig s . 1 3 .12 , 1 3 .13 ) i s a l so l oca ted i n t he n or thea s tern p or t ion o f t he c eme tery , . 4 m s ou th o f C irc le 2 9 . G rave C irc le 3 0 h as a max i mum o u ts ide d iam ter o f . 8 5 m a nd b e long s t o t he s ma l le s t ( No . 4 ) o rder o f g rave c i rc les . Th is s t ruc ture was c omp le te ly d is turbed b y t he r obbers who r emoved t he e as tern s ide o f t he c i rc le a nd mo s t o f t he f i l l . T he o n ly a r tefac t r ema ins f ound h ere i nc lude 2 d e f ac to f l akes a nd 1c h ip .

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 1 G rave C irc le 3 1 ( F ig . 1 3 .1 ; 1 3 .2 ) i s l oca ted o n t he w es tern p er ime ter o f t he C eme tery 3 h i l l t op e xcava t ion . L ike G rave C irc le 2 5 , t h is s ma l l s t ruc ture ( c a . 1 . 24 m i n o u t s ide d iame ter ) w as c ons truc ted o u t o f t he s t one c o l lap se a s soc ia ted w i th t he l a rge G rave C irc le 2 4 . C irc le 3 1 b e long s t o t he s ma l les t o rder o f g rave c i rc les ( No . 4 ) . A l though t he c i rc le was d is turbed a nd p or t ions

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o f t he o u ter wa l l w ere r e moved , 1V shaped b ow l was f ound i n t he f i l l . f ac to f l in t c h ip s w ere a l so f ound i n t he f i l l d epo s i ts .

S ix d e

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 2 G rave C irc le 3 2 ( F ig . 1 3 .2 ) i s a l so l oca ted i n t he n or thwe s t p or t ion o f t he C eme tery 3 e xcava t ion , 1 . 42 m w e s t o f C irc le 3 1 . Th is c i rc le w as h igh ly d i s turbed a nd o n ly h a lf o f t he f ounda t ion s t one s r e ma ined i n s i tu . W i th a max imum o u ts ide d iame ter o f 1 . 18 m , t h i s c i rc le i sa scr ibed t o t he 3 rd o rder o f S h iqm im G rave C irc le s ( Levy a nd A lon 1 982 ) . A l though t he g rave h ad b een d i s turbed , f our l a rge b one f ragmen t s a nd o ne c omp le te V -shaped b ow l w ere f ound i n t he d is turbed f i l l . A n umber o f u n iden t if iab le h uman b one f ragmen ts w ere a l so r ecovered a f ter s i ev ing t he d is turbed d epo s i t s f rom t h i s g rave .

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 3 G rave C irc le 3 3 ( F ig . 1 3 .1) i s l oca ted i n t he n or thwes tern p or t ion o f t he C eme tery 3 e xcava t ion a nd i sa t tached t o t he n or thern p or t ion o f G rave C irc le 2 4 . L ike c i rc le s 2 5 a nd 3 1 , C irc le 3 3 s eem s t o h ave b een b u i l t o u t o f t he c o l lap sed f ounda t ion s t ones f rom C irc le 2 4 . T h is i s a3 rd o rder g rave c i rc le w i th a max imum d iame ter o f 1 . 83 m . Th is c i rc le was c omp le te ly d i s turbed , h owever , 1V shape b ow l a nd a l a rge c oarse ware b ody s herd w ere f ound . D e f ac to a r tefac t i nc lus ions i nc lude 1 d isco ida l c ore , 1f l ake a nd 5 c h ip s . Human b one r e ma in s i nc luded : 1a du l t c lav ic le , s evera l v er tebrae f ragmen t s , 1j aw f ragmen t , a p ha lanx , a p e lv is f ragmen t , t he h umerus o f a n a du l t f e ma le , n umerous s ku l l f ragmen ts , a nd o ne a du l t c an ine , p re -mo lar a nd mo lar . I n t e rm s o f t he m in imum n umber o f i nd iv idua ls r epre sen ted h ere , i ti sp o s s ib le t o d ef ine t he p re sence o f 1a du l t f e ma le .

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 6 G rave C irc le 3 6 ( F ig . 1 3 .4 ) i sl oca ted a pprox ima te ly i n t he c en tre o f t he C eme tery 3 e xcava t ion . T he max imum o u t s ide d iame ter o f t h i s g rave i s c a . 1 . 82 m . Unfor tuna te ly , t he g rave c i rc le was h igh ly d is turbed . The r ema in s d i scus sed h ere c ome f rom t he w es tern w a l l a rea o f t he c i rc le wh ich a pparen t ly w en t u n touched b y t he r obbers . An i n s i tu s econdary b ur ia l was f ound i n a p i le o r ien ted l engh tw ise i n an or thwe s t/ s ou theas t d irec t ion . Th is i nc luded a n a du l t ma le f e mur , 2p ha langes a nd h undreds o f s p l in ters o f s evera l a du l t l ong b one s . I n t e rm s o f t he m in imum n umber o f i nd iv idua ls f ound h ere , t he l im i ted r e ma ins i nd ica te t he b ur ia l o f 1a du l t ma le . A f ine ly worked f an scraper was f ound i n c lo se a s soc ia t ion w i th t he se h uman r e ma in s . I n t e rm s o f S h iqm im mor tuary c omp lex a s a who le , G rave C irc le 3 6 r epre sen ts t he f i rs t i n s tance where a f an scraper was f ound i n s i tu i n c l ear a s soc ia t ion w i th a s econdary b ur ia l c on tex t . S iev ing a l so r evea led 2 b one b eads , 1b ead made o u t o f a n o s tr ich e gg s he l l a nd 2 V -shaped b ow l s herds . D e f ac to a r tefac ts i nc lude : 5 1 f l in t f l ake s , 5 0 c h ip s , 1d isco ida l c ore , 2

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c ore t r imm ing e l emen ts , 2r e touched p iece s , 1f l in t c hunk , 1d en t icu la te , 1 aw l a nd 2 n o tches .

GR AVE CI RCLE 3 8 G rave C irc le 3 8 ( F ig .13 .0 ) i s l o ca ted a t t he e x treme w e s tern e nd o f t he c e me tery e xcava t ion . I ti so ne o f t he l a rge s t c i rc les ( ou t s ide d iame ter = 2 . 90 m ) f ound i n C eme tery 3 . No i n s i tu ma ter ia l w as f ound i n t h is c i rc le b ecause o f g rave r obb ing a c t iv i t ie s . A ccord ing t o t he d iame ter a nd ma ter ia ls u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t h i s c i rc le f a l ls i n to t he 2 nd o rder o f S h iqm im G rave C irc les . T he o n ly f inds w ere d e f ac to f l in t a r tefac ts wh ich i nc lude : 4 0 f lakes , 3 2 c h ip s , 1 6 f l in t c hunk s , 4r e touched p iece s , 1c obb le s c raper , 2b lade s , 1d isco ida l c ore a nd 1a d h oc t oo l .

GR AVE CI RCLE 4 1 T h is i s ap rob lema t ic s t ruc ture wh ich may o r may n o t b e a n a c tua l g rave ( F ig s . 1 3 .12 , 1 3 .13 ) . C irc le 4 1 h a s a max imum o u t s ide d iame ter o f 1m wh ich p lace s i t i n t he l owes t o rder ( No . 4 ) o f mor tuary c i rc le s . I t was c omp le te ly d i s turbed a nd n o h uman o r a r tefac tua l ma ter ia ls w ere f ound h ere .

ET HNOGRAPH IC PE RSPECT IVES O N SE CONDARY BU R IAL One o f t he mo s t p rom inen t f ea ture s o f t he S h iqm im c eme tery i s t he p rac t ice o f s econdary b ur ia l . I n ac omprehens ive s tudy o f many o f t he b ur ia l c ave s a nd o s suar ies o f 4 th m i l lenn ium P a le s t ine , J ean P erro t ( c f . P erro t a nd L ad iray 1 980 :128 -130 ) a s sumes t ha t t he n umerous d isar t icu la ted b ur ia ls f ound a t C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t h is r eg ion a re a c l ear i nd ica t ion o f t he e x is tence o f a p r imar i ly n omad ic s oc ie ty d ur ing t h is p er iod . I n t h i s mode l , t he c oas ta l p la in o f P a le s t ine ( and c en ter o f C ha lco l i th ic b ur ia l c ave s ) i s i n terpre ted a s t he w in ter g raz ing z one o f C ha lco l i th ic p as tora l is t s f rom t he N egev , J udean a nd S amar ian h i l l s d ur ing t he ir a nnua l p as tora l c yc le . A ccord ing ly , t he mode l a s sumes t ha t t he d r ied b one s o f c orp se s w ere c arr ied t o t hese b ur ia l c aves f rom t he s e t t led a reas d ur ing t h i s a nnua l c yc le . I n t he c ase o f t he N egev , a d icho tomy i s a s sumed t o h ave e x is ted b e tween s e t t led v i l lage a reas a nd t he d i s tan t b ur ia l g round s o n t he c oas ta l p la in . However , t h i s d is t inc t ion may b e more a f unc t ion o f f i e ldwork i n tens i ty a nd s i te v i s ib i l i ty r a ther t han a r ea l d iv is ion b e tween a " s e t t led z one " a nd a " c eme tery z one " i n p ro toh is tor ic P a le s t ine . S urvey s c arr ied o u t b y R am Gophna ( 1974 ) a long t he c oa s ta l p la in h ave s hown t he e x is tence o f n umerous C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage s i tes t ha t may b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he 4 th m i l lenn ium b ur ia l c ave s . I n ar ecen t s e t t lemen t p a t tern s tudy i n t he L od V a l ley , Gophna ( i n p res s ) d emon s tra te s t he p resence o f a C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage ( Te l L od ) a nd t wo b ur ia l c aves ( Ben S hemen a nd B areqe t ) i n t he c oas ta l p la in r eg ion . T he P a lmach im c e me tery a nd v i l lage s i te a re a no ther c ase i n p o in t ( Gophna 1 982 ) . Unfor tuna te ly , v ery f ew e xcava t ions h ave t aken p lace i n t he se c oas ta l p la in v i l lages wh ich m igh t c lar ify t he ir r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he n earby b ur ia l c ave s . However , Gophna ' s s urvey d a ta

3 45

S h iqm im I

c l ear ly i nd ica te t ha t t he s o -ca l led " c eme tery z one " o n t he c oa s ta l p la in i s i n f ac t a s soc ia ted w i th n umerous v i l lage s i tes . T he d i scovery o f t he e x tens ive b ur ia l g rounds a t Ade imeh n ear T e le i la t Ghas su l ( S teke l is 1 935 ; Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 ) a nd more r ecen t ly , t he S h iqm im c eme tery i n c lo se a s soc ia t ion w i th t he l a rge v i l lage s i te a dds a no ther f ac tor wh ich mus t b e c ons idered i n e va lua t ing P erro t ' s ( 1980 : 8 8 ) mode l wh ich c harac ter ize s t he B eer sheva c u l ture a s p r imar i ly a n omad ic s oc ie ty . T he se d iscover ie s s e r ious ly c ha l lenge P erro t ' s ( 1980 , 1 984 ) mode l wh ich s ugge s t s t ha t t he se s oc ie t ie s u t i l ized t he c oas ta l p la in b ur ia l c ave s f or i n tern ing t he ir d ead . A s s ugge s ted b y Hanbury -Ten ison ( 1986 :249 ) , t here i s n o r ea l r eason t o a s sume t ha t l ong -d i s tance s easona l m igra t ion w as p rac t iced d ur ing t he C ha lco l i th ic . E thnograph ic r e search among t he B edou in i n t he B eer sheva v a l ley b y Marx ( 1967 , 1 977 ) , Noy - Me ir a nd S e l igman ( 1979 ) a nd o ther s s how t ha t t he a nnua l c yc le o f movemen t f or B edou in s heep/goa t h erd s r are ly e xceed s 6 0 km i n t o ta l , e ven u nder t oday ' s c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s wh ich o ccur a long t he s em i -ar id/ar id d e ser t i n terface . T h is r e la t ive ly s hor t a nnua l d i s tance ( compared w i th t he more t han 2 00 km a nnua l r ound s ugge s ted i n P erro t ' s mode l ) r e la tes t o t he p hys io log ica l c harac ter is t ic o f t he h erd a n ima ls , i n p ar t icu lar s heep , wh ich i n s ummer ( and o n mo s t ly d ry p as ture ) a re w a tered e very d ay o r t wo ( goa ts u p t o 4d ays ) , a nd i f p o s s ib le i n t he morn ing ( 08 :00 1 0 :00 h ) . T h is l im i t s t he max imum r ange o f g raz ing away f rom w a ter p o in t s t o a bou t 5 -8 km ( goa ts u p t o 2 0 km ) i n ad ay ( Noy - Me ir a nd S e l igman 1 979 :130 ) . G iven t he p a leoenv ionmen ta l d a ta o u t l ined i n C hap ter 2 b y Go ldberg a nd Ro sen , c l ima t ic c ond i t ions d ur ing t he C ha lco l i th ic s eem t o h ave b een more mo i s t t han t oday . I n a dd i t ion , t he f ac t t ha t l ong d i s tance p as tora l i sm u sua l ly o ccur s i n a r id z one s ( c f . Swee t 1 978 ) , t he f ac t t ha t c ond i t ions w ere more mo i s t i n t he 5 th - 4 th m i l lenn ium i n P a le s t ine w ou ld p rec lude t he n eed f or l ong d i s tance p as tora l ism . A l l o f t he se f ac tors a dd a dd i t iona l e v idence a ga in s t t he l ong -d is tance p as tora l i sm mode l . F ina l ly , t here i s t he q ue s t ion c oncern ing t he v a l id i ty o f u s ing t he o ccurrence o f s econdary b ur ia l a s a r e l iab le i nd ica tor o f t he e x is tence o f n omad ic s oc ie t ie s i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T h is i sa n i mpor tan t q ues t ion b ecause s econdary b ur ia l h as b een d ocumen ted a t n umerou s C ha lco l i th ic c e me ter ie s i n P a le s t ine . S ome o f t he se s i te s i nc lude : B ne i B eraq ( Ory 1 946 ) , B en S hemen ( Perro t 1 967 ) , G iva tay im ( Sus sman a nd B e i t A r ieh 1 966 ) , Hadera ( Suken ik 1 937 ) , Ma 'abaro t ( Pa ley a nd P ora t 1 979 ) , P a lmah im ( Gophna a nd L if sh i tz 1 980 ) , S h iqm im ( Levy a nd A lon 1 979 , 1 982 ) , G iva t B e th h a -M i tbakh im -T e l Av iv ( Kap lan 1 978 ) , Ade imeh ( S teke l is 1 935 ) a nd o ther s i te s . I n P erro t ' s ( c f . P erro t a nd L ad iray 1 980 ) w r i t ing s , t here a re n o r eferences t o e thnograph ic d a ta c oncern ing s oc ie t ie s wh ich p rac t ice s econdary b ur ia l . T h i s l e ad s t o t he q ues t ion , o n wha t b as is d o a rchaeo log is t s make t he e qua t ion s econdary b ur ia l = n omad ic s oc ie ty? A c ursory r ev iew o f t he p r imary e thnograph ic l i tera ture c oncern ing s econdary b ur ia l h igh l igh t s t he i mpor tance o f t h is d a ta f or h e lp ing a rchaeo log i s ts t o u nder s tand t h is r i tua l . V ar ious f orm s o f s econdary b ur ia l a re k nown f rom Amer ica ( Dr iver 1 961 :450 ) , G reece ( A lex iou 1 974 ) , C en tra l A s ia ( Lopa t in 1 960 ) , S ou th Amer ica ( Crocker 1 977 ) , Me lane s ia ( Haddon 1 908 , T uz in 1 975 , Wagner 1 972 ) , B orneo

3 46

C hap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C eme tery 3

( Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf 1 979 :68 ) , I ndone s ia ( Her tz 1 907 , Van G ennep 1 904 ; 1 960 :190 ) , Madagascar ( Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf 1 979 ; B loch 1 971) a nd o ther r eg ion s . I n a n t iqu i ty , i t was a l so w ide ly p rac t iced b y t he J ew s o f P a le s t ine ( Meyer s 1 971) . A l though a s t a t is t ica l s tudy o f t he e thnograph ic l i tera ture c oncern ing s econdary b ur ia l i s b eyond t he s cope o f t h is p aper , t he ma jor i ty o f s oc ie t ies wh ich d o p rac t ice s econdary b ur ia l a re c l ear ly s eden tary v i l lage s , e ven i f t hey h ave a s t rong p as tora l ( i .e . , t r an shumance ) c omponen t t o t he ir e conomy ( cf . t he B ara s eden tary p a s tora l is ts o f s ou thern Madagascar , Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf 1 979 ) . T he e thnograph ic r ecord s how s t ha t s econdary b ur ia l i s mo s t c ommon t oday i n I ndone s ia , B orneo a nd t he l a rge i s land o f Madagascar l o ca ted o ver 6 , 000 km t o t he w e s t , c a . 4 00 km f rom t he e a s t c oas t o f A fr ica . T h is " core a rea " o f s econdary b ur ia l i sn o t s urpr is ing g iven t he f ac t t ha t 9 3% o f t he b as ic Ma lagasy v ocabu lary i s Ma layo -Po lyne s ian i n o r ig in (Mack 1 986 :15 ) . T he f orebears o f t he Ma lagasy i nhab i tan ts o f t he i s land s a i led o u tr igger c anoe s f rom B orneo a nd I ndones ia t housands o f k i lome ter s a cro s s t he I nd ian O cean more t han a m i l lenn ium a go ( Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf 1 979 :93 ) . A s Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf ( i b id ) p o in t o u t , " t he v ar ie ty o f f unera l r i tes a nd t omb d e s ign i s g rea t w i th s o me g roup s c ons truc t ing l a rge s howy t omb s a nd o ther s who d i spo se o f t he ir d ead i n s ecre t a nd i n c amouf laged c ave s . Y e t , d esp i te t he v ar ie ty among t he e igh teen e thn ic g roup s t ha t c ompr ise t he Ma lagasy p eop le , t he r i tua l o f e xhuma t ion a nd r ebur ia l i so f g rea t i mpor tance t o a lmo s t a l l r eg ions o f t he i s land " ( popu la t ion = 7 . 7 m i l l ion , Ha l l 1 979 ) . The c en tra l i ty o f s econdary b ur ia l i n Ma lagasy c u l ture i s b es t h igh l igh ted b y a t ax i r ide t hrough t he c ap i ta l An tananar ivo where s i gns i ns ide t he c ab r ead " C i ty - 7 , 000 F ranc s , Marr iage s , F unera ls a nd E xhuma t ions -P r ice N ego t iab le . " G iven t he l a rge p opu la t ion wh ich p rac t ices e xhuma t ion a nd r ebur ia l i n Madagascar , t he e thnograph ic r e search c arr ied o u t t here i s mos t i ns truc t ive f or h e lp ing a rchaeo log i s t s u nders tand t he c en tra l r o le o f s econdary b ur ia l i n a n on -we s tern s oc ie ty . An i mpor tan t p o in t t o b ear i n m ind when c ons ider ing s econdary b ur ia l i n Madaga scar i st ha t t he s oc ia l a nd c u l tura l c on tex t o f t he ir f unera l s i s c omp le te ly d ifferen t f rom t ha t f ound i n J udaeo -Chr is t ian a nd I s lam ic s oc ie t ies ( c f . E ckhard t 1 973 ) . S econdary b ur ia ls i n mo s t o f Madagascar a re a s n orma l a nd p opu lar a s C hr is tmas o r t he F our th o f J u ly i n t he Un i ted S ta te s ( Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf 1 979 : i b id ) , p r imar i ly b ecause f unera ls a nd r ebur ia l a re c lo se ly a s soc ia ted w i th p o s i t ive f am i l ia l , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tures . T he f ac t t ha t Ma lagasy f unera ls a nd r ebur ia ls emphas ize l i fe a nd v i ta l i ty ( e .g . s exua l a c t iv i ty d ur ing t he mor tuary r i tua l p er iod ) , h as c au sed many We s terners t o v iew t he se r i tes a s i ndecen t . I n w es tern s oc ie ty , s exua l i ty a nd d ea th b e long o u ts ide t he n orma t ive a nd p ub l ic v a lues a ssoc ia ted w i th p roper f am i ly a nd c ommun i ty l i fe . A s Hun t ing ton a nd Me tca lf ( 1976 :96 ) p o in t o u t , i n We s tern s oc ie ty l ove a nd d ea th , s ex a nd d ea th , r eb ir th a nd d ea th p rov ide s ymbo ls who se g rea t p ower i sp ar t ia l ly d er ived f rom t he f ac t t ha t t hey o ppo se e veryday i ns t i tu t ions . I n Madagascar , t he s i tua t ion i s c omp le te ly d ifferen t b ecause d ea th a nd f unera l c us tom s p er ta in s pec if ica l ly t o e veryday i n s t i tu t ions a nd t he a nce s tra l o rder wh ich i s a t t he h ear t o f t he n orma t ive s oc ia l s y ts tem . T hese r e la t ionsh ip s a re c ommon t o p r im i t ive Non -Wes tern

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S h iqm im I

s oc ie t ie s i n g enera l . T he Ma lagasy a nce s tra l s y s tem d irec t ly r equ ire s t he b ir th o f n ew g enera t ions , a nd t he a nce s tors t hem se lves a re s een a s t he mo s t i mpor tan t a gen t s e ncourag ing v ir i l i ty a nd f er t i l i ty ( i b id ) . I n Madagascar , f unera ls , s oc ia l o rder , a nd f er t i l i ty a re a l l n a tura l ly a nd p o s i t ive ly r e la ted . I n t he ir mor tuary c eremon ie s , t he Ma lagasy c omb ine t hemes o f d ea th a nd s exua l i ty wh ich a re v iewed a s c omp le te ly a n t i soc ia l i n w es tern c u l tura l t r ad i t ions . Thus , t he r o le o f s econdary b ur ia l i n p r im i t ive s oc ie t ie s c an b e s t b e v iewed a s a n i nd ica t ion o f t he c en tra l i ty o f d ea th a nd mor tuary r i tua ls i n s us ta in ing t he a nces tra l o rder o f as oc ie ty r a ther t han a s at r a i t c harac ter i s t ic o f n omad ic s oc ie t ies .

SUMMARY The d iscovery o f t he S h iqm im c e me tery i n c lo se a s soc ia t ion w i th t he v i l lage s e t t lemen t h a s s e rved a s a c a ta lys t f or r e th ink ing a s sump t ion s c oncern ing s econdary b ur ia l a nd t he n omad ic n a ture o f C ha lco l i th ic s oc ie t ie s i n t he B eer sheva v a l ley s ugges ted b y s cho lar s s uch a s P erro t ( Perro t a nd L ad iray 1 980 ) , d e Vaux ( 1971 :526 ) a nd o thers . Wh i le s ty l is t ic p ara l le ls e x i s t b e tween s o me o f t he b ur ia l o ffer ing s f ound i n t he S h iqm im c e me tery a nd b ur ia l c ave s o n t he c en tra l c oas ta l p la in , ab r ief s urvey o f t he e thnograph ic l i tera ture c en tra l t o t he q ue s t ion o f s econdary b ur ia l h as s hown t ha t e xhuma t ion a nd r ebur ia l r i tua ls a re l i nked mo s t c lo se ly w i th s eden tary s oc ie t ie s a nd n o t n omad ic o ne s . Wh i le more d e ta i led s tud ies a re c l ear ly n eeded c oncern ing C ha lco l i th ic mor tuary r i tua l a t S h iqm im , c ro s s -cu l tura l s tud ie s d o o ffer a n a l terna t ive mode l t o t he o ne wh ich e qua tes s econdary b ur ia l w i th n omads .

A cknow legemen ts We wou ld l i ke t o t hank D r . Chr is topher Go sden a nd h i s a s s i s tan t E l izabe th S ch i l ler f or s uperv is ing t he e xcava t ion o f C eme tery 3 . We a re g ra tefu l t o P rof . Ram Gophna f or u sefu l d iscuss ions c oncern ing C ha lco l i th ic b ur ia l p rac t ice s a long t he c oas ta l z one o f I s rae l .

3 48

Chap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C eme tery 3

T ab le 1 3 .1 :

C is t D imens ions , S h iqm im C eme tery 3 .

DE PTH ( C 7 7 1)

NUMBER

3 4 3 5 3 7 3 9 4 0 4 2 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8

MA X IMUM OU TS IDE WI DTH

( m )

( m )

2 . 30 1 . 65 2 . 03 1 . 80 2 . 04 1 . 72 1 . 83 1 . 80 2 . 30 2 . 10

1 . 54 1 . 10 1 . 48 1 . 50 1 . 33 1 . 52 1 . 32 1 . 09 1 . 23 1 . 30

8 4 3 8 8 0 5 0 7 5 1 00 7 7 7 2 7 2 7 5

N=10

X=72 .3

T ab le 1 3 .2 :

CI ST NO .

MAX IMUM OU TS IDE LE NGTH

x =1 .95

x =1 .34

A rtefact i nc lus ions f ound i n s ide c i sts , S h iqm im C emetery 3 .

VSHAPE BOWL

BE ADS

CO ARSE WA RE

FL INT TO OL

3 4

+

+

+

+

3 5

+

3 7

+

3 9

+

4 0

+

4 2

+

4 5

+

4 6

+

4 7

+

4 8

+

PE NDANT

+ +

+ +

+

3 49

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 3 .3 ( a) :

The F inds f rom C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

BU R IAL ST RUCTURE#

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

BE ADS D en ta l ium C onnus C arne l ian B one O s tr ich e gg s he l l

3 2

3 3

3 4

1 2 4

BR ACELETS

2

PE NDANTS : ( Mo ther -of -pear l )

3

FL INT T OOLS T abu lar s craper

1

PO TTERY V -shaped b ow l OS SUARY

3 5

1

3

1

1

2

MI S CELLANEOUS S he l l s : ( cowr ie , h yc imer is )

2

3 50

1

2

3

C hap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C e me tery 3

T ab le 1 3 .3 ( b) :

BU R IAL ST RUCTURE*

BE ADS D en ta l ium C arne l ian B one O s tr ich e gg s he l l

3 6

PO TTERY V -shaped b ow l F ine w are s herds

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

2 5 2 1

PE NDANTS : ( Mo ther -of -pear l ) FL INT T OOLS F an -scraper

3 7

1

1

1

4

2 1 1

4 2

2

1 3

2

1 1 3

1

C hurn F ragmen t H o lemou th s herds

1

G aza w are s herds

1

L arge b ow l s herds

1

3

2 1 6 2

G lobu lar p o t s herds MI S CELLANEOUS S he l l s : ( cowr ie , h yc imer is ) O chre p i eces C ora l

1 1 1

3 51

4

1 1

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY

A lex iou , M . 1 974 T he R i tua l i n G reek T rad i t ion . P ress . A lon , D . 1 977

C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un iver s i ty

A Cha lco l i th ic t emp le a t G i la th .

B ar Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure .

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t p p . 6 3 -65 .

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

B ar Yosef , 0 . , B e lfer , A . , Goren , A . , a nd Sm ith , P . 1 977 The Nawam is n ear ' E in Huderah ( Eas tern S ina i ) . Exp lora t ion J ourna l 2 7 : 6 5 -88 .

I s rae l

B inford , L . 1 979 O rgan iza t ion a nd f orma t ion p rocesses : l ook ing a t c ura ted t echno log ies . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 5 : 2 55 -273 . B loch , M . 1 971 P lac ing t h e D ead : T ombs , A nces tra l V i l lages , a nd K insh ip O rgan iza t ion i n Madagascar . L ondon a nd New York : S em inar P re ss . B u iks tra , J .E . 1 981 Mor tuary p rac t ices , p a laeodemography a nd p a laeopa tho logy : a c ase s tudy f rom t he Kos ter s i te ( I l l ino is ) . I n R . Chapman , I .K innes , a nd K . Randsborg ( eds ) T he A rchaeo logy o f D ea th . C ambr idge : C a mbr idge Un ivers i ty p res s . P p . 1 23 -132 . C rocker , J .C . 1 977 The M irrored S e lf : I den t i ty a nd R i tua l I nvers ion amoung t he E as tern B ororo . E thno logy 1 6 : 1 29 -45 . D ecary , R . 1 958 L e mor t e t l e s c ou tumes f un ra ires'a Madagascar . Ma isonneuve e t L arose . D r iver , H . 1 961

I nd ians o f N or th Amer ica .

P ar is : G .P .

Ch icago : Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress .

E ckhard t , A .R . 1 973 Dea th i n t he J uda ic a nd Chr is t ian T rad it ions . I n A . Mack ( cd ) D ea th i n Amer ican Exper ience . P p . 1 23 -48 . New York : S chocken . G lueck , N . 1 939 E xp lora t ion i n E as tern P a les t ine , I I . A nnua l o f t h e Amer ican S choo l o f O r ien ta l R esearch XV III -XIX : 1 288 .

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Chap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C eme tery 3

Gophna , R . 1 974 T he S e t t lemen t o f t h e C oas ta l P la in o f E re tz -I srae l Dur ing t h e E ar ly B ronze Age . P h .D . t hes is , T e l Av iv Un ivers i ty . 1 982

The Cha lco l i th ic P er iod .

T he H is tory o f E re tz I s rae l , Vo l . I :7 6 -94 .

i n p ress F rom v a l ley t o t own i n t he L od v a l ley : ac ase s tudy . i n P . M irosched j i ( ed ) C o l loque d 'Emmaus " L 'urban isat ion d e l a P a les t ine ä l ' ige d u B ronze a nc ien -B i lan e t p erspec t ives d es r echerches a c tue l les " . P ar is : A ssoc ia t ion P a leor ien t . Gophna , R . a nd L ifsh itz , S . 1 980 A Cha lco l i th ic b ur ia l c ave a t P a l mah im .

A t iqo t 1 4 : 1 -8 .

Haddon , A .C . ( ed ) 1 908 C ambr idge A n thropo log ica l Exped i t ion t o T orres S tra i ts , R epor ts . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . Ha l l , P . ( ed ) 1 979 T he N ew P engu in W or ld A t las . Harr ison , T . 1 962 B orneo D ea th . 1 41 .

L ondon : P engu in B ooks .

B ijdragen T o t d e T aa l , L and e n V o lkenkunde 18 :

Her tz , R . 1 960 D ea th a nd t h e R igh t Hand . T rans la ted b y R . a nd C . Needham w ith a n I n troduc t ion b y E .E . E vans -Pr itchard . New York : F ree P ress . Hun t ing ton , W .R . 1 973 D eath a nd t he S oc ia l O rder : B ara F unera l Cus toms (Madagascar ) . Af r ican S tud ies 3 2 :65 -84 . Hun t ing ton , R . a nd Me tca lf , P . 1 979 C e lebra t ions o f D ea th - T he A n thropo logy o f Mor tuary R i tua l . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . Kap lan , J . 1 978 T e l Av iv . I n Av i -Yonah , M . a nd S tern , E . ( eds ) E ncyc loped ia o f A rchaeo log ica l Excava t ions i n t h e Ho ly L and , Vo l . I V : 159 -1168 . J erusa lem : Massada P ress . Kee ley , L . 1 980 Exper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U se . o f Ch icago P res s .

Ch icago : Un ivers i ty

L evy , T .E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence i n t h e N or thern N egev D eser t , I s rae l . P h .D . t hes is . Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lms .

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L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 982 T he C ha lco l i th ic mor tuary s i te n ear Mezad A luf , n or thern N egev d e ser t : ap re l im inary s tudy . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 48 : 3 7 -59 . 1 985 T he C ha lco l i th ic mor tuary s i te n ear Mezad A luf , n or thern N egev d eser t : t h ird p re l im inary r epor t , 1 982 s eaon . BASOR S upp lemen t No . 2 3 : 1 21-135 . 1 979 A p re l im inary n o te o n t he C ha lco l i th ic c e me ter ie s a t S h iqm im , n or thern N egev , I s rae l . M i tekufa t Haeven 1 6 : 1 09 -117 . L opa t in , I . 1 960 T he C u l t o f t h e D ead Among t h e N a t ives o f t h e Amur B as in . Hague : Mou ton .

T he

Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . , a nd N euv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -32 . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I n s t i tu te . Me tca lf , P .A . 1 976 Who a re t he B erawan? E thn ic c l as s if ica t ion a nd t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f s econdary t r ea tmen t o f t he d ead i n c en tra l n or th B orneo . O cean ia 4 7 : 8 5 -105 . Meyers , E . 1 971 J ew i sh O ssuar ies : R ebur ia l a nd R eb ir th . P re s s . B ib l ica e t O r ien ta l ia No . 2 4 . M i les , D . 1 965

Rome : B ib l ica l I n s t i tu te

S oc io -econom ic a spec t s o f s econdary b ur ia l .

N euv i l le , R . 1 930 L a n g cropo le mega l i th ique D 'e l A 'de imeh .

O cean ia 3 5 : 1 61-74 .

B ib l ica 1 : 2 49 -65 .

O ry , J . 1 946 A C ha lco l i th ic n ecropo l is a t B ene B erak . D epar tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ies i n P a les t ine 1 2 : 4 3 -57 .

Q uar ter ly o f t h e

P a ley , S .M . a nd P ora th , Y . 1 979 No te s a nd N ews : t he r eg iona l p ro jec t i n Emeq H efer , 1 979 , C ha lco l i th ic b ur ia l c ave . I s rae l E xp lora t ion J ourna l 2 9 : 2 36 -239 . P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar , n ear B eer sheba . E xp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -41 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 .

I s rae l

\ / \ % . 1 961 Une t ombe a o s suar ies d u I Ve m i l lena ire a A zor p re s d e T e l Av iv . A t iqo t 3 : 1 83 . 1 967

L es o s sua ire s d e B en S hemen .

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E re tz I s rae l 8 :4 6 -49 .

C hap ter 1 3 : E xcava t ions i n S h iqm im C eme tery 3

1 984 S truc ture s d 'hab i ta t , mode d e v ie e t e nv ironmen t . L e s v i l lage s s ou terra ins d e s p as teurs d e B eersheva d ans l e s ud d ' Israe l , a u I Ve m i l lena ire a van t l ' ere C hre t ienne . P a le/o r ien t 1 0/1 : 7 5 -96 . P erro t , J .a nd L ad iray , D . 1 980 T ombes a O ssua ires d e l a R eg ion C ö t ik ‘re P a les t in ienne a u I V e M i l ljna ire A van t L a 're C hrg t ienne . P ar is : A ssoc ia t ion P a leor ien t . R a s t , W .E . a nd S chaub , R .T . 1 974 S urvey o f t he s ou theas tern p la in o f t he D ead S ea , 1 973 . t h e D epar tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ies o f J ordan 1 9 : 5 -53 .

A nnua l o f

R o sen , S . 1 983 T abu lar s c raper t r ade : a mode l o f ma ter ia l c u l tura l d i sper s ion . B u l le t in o f t h e Amer ican S choo l s o f O r ien ta l R esearch 2 49 : 7 9 -86 . S ch iffer , M .B . 1 983 T oward t he i den t if ica t ion o f f orma t ion p roce s ses . A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 6 75 -706 .

Amer ican

S teke l is , M . 1 935 L es Monumen ts Mega l i th iques d e P a les t ine . P ar is : A rch ives d e L ' Ins t i tu t d e P a leon to log ie Huma ine . Memo ire 1 5 . S uken ik , E .L . 1 937 A C ha lco l i th ic n ecropo l is a t Hadera . O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 1 7 : 1 5 -30 . S us sman , V . a nd B en -Ar ieh , S . 1 966 Anc ien t b ur ia ls i n G iva tay im .

J ourna l o f t h e P a les t ine

A t iqo t 3 :2 7 -39 .

S wee t , L .E . 1 978 C ame l p as tora l ism i n n or th A rab ia a nd t he m in ima l c amp ing u n i t . I n E nv ironmen t a nd C u l tura l B ehav iour , p p . 1 57 -178 ( cd A . Vayda ) . Aus t in a nd L ondon : Un ivers i ty o f T exas P re s s . T uz in , D . 1 975 T he B rea th o f ag ho s t : D ream s a nd t he f ear o f t he d ead . 5 59 -78 . V an G ennep , A . / . 1 904 T abou e t T o tem i sme a Madagascar . 1 960

T he R i tes o f P assage .

E thos 3 :

P ar is : E rnes t L eroux .

C h icago : Un iver s i ty o f C h icago P re ss .

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CHALCOLITHIC METAL AND METAL WORKING FRO M SHIQ M IM

b y S ane ! S ha lev I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy T e l Av iv Un ivers i ty

a nd

P e ter J . Nor thover D epar tmen t o f Me ta l lurgy a nd S c ience o f Ma ter ia ls Un iver s i ty o f Oxford

I N TRODUCT ION

I n t h is c hap ter w e p re sen t a n i n terd isc ip l inary i nves t iga t ion c omb in ing a rchaeo logy a nd m e ta l lurgy . I t i nc ludes a d e ta i led t ypo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l d e scr ip t ion o f t he c opper i t em s t ha t w ere f ound d ur ing t he P hase Ii nve s t iga t ions a t t he S h iqm im C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage a nd s o me d a ta c oncern ing f inds c onnec ted t o t he c opper i ndus try s uch a s o res , c ruc ib le s , a nd s l ag s . T he c opper i ndu s try f ound a long t he B eer sheva v a l ley r epre sen t s t he b e s t e v idence f or t he work ing o f c opper d ur ing t he f our th m i l lenn ium B .C . i n t he L evan t ( Muh ly 1 983 :353 ) . A l though a t temp t s h ave b een made t o i nve s t iga te c er ta in a spec t s o f Cha lco l i th ic me ta l lurgy ( c f . P o taszk in a nd B ar -Av i 1 980 ; Key 1 980 ; P erro t 1 955 ; T y leco te 1 974 ) , t h is p aper i st he f i r s t c omb ined p resen ta t ion o f a l l t he k nown a spec t s o f t h is s ub jec t a t o ne s i te w i th c on tex tua l d a ta . I n s p i te o f t he f ac t t ha t t he n umber o f i t em s i s n o t p ar t icu lar ly l a rge a nd t he ir s t a te o f p re serva t ion i s n o t v ery g ood , t h i s t ype o f i n terd isc ip l inary s tudy h a s p roven t o b e f ru i tfu l . A s ar e su l t o f t he a na ly s is p resen ted h ere , w e c an d ifferen t ia te v ery c l ear ly b e tween a l oca l u t i l i tar ian i ndus try ( produc ing aw l s , a xe s a nd c h i se l s ) a nd a p res t ige g ood s , " e l i te " i ndus try wh ich was h igh ly d eve loped i n t e rm s o f t he s hape s a nd t e chno logy u sed . B a sed o n t he d a ta c o l lec ted a nd a na lyzed t o d a te , w e d educe t ha t t h is " e l i te " i ndus try was n o t c onduc ted a t t he s i te o f S h iqm im . T he p re s t ige i t em s w ere p robab ly i mpor ted t o t he s i te a l ready i n t he ir f ina l s t a te . T he l o ca l me ta l i ndus try a t S h iqm im , a nd p robab ly a t o ther s i te s i n t he B eer sheva v a l ley , w as ma in ly f or mak ing u t i l i tar ian t oo l s . I n t h i s p aper , t he i nve s t iga t ion o f t he o re s , c ruc ib le s a nd s l ag s f rom S h iqm im s hed l i gh t o n t he p roce ss o f s me l t ing a nd r ef in ing wh ich was c onduc ted o n t he s i te , a nd i nd ica te t ha t r i ch o x id ic o re s w ere b rough t t o S h iqm im a nd o ther B eer sheva v a l ley s i te s , p robab ly f rom t he a rea o f Wad i F enan l oca ted a long t he e as tern s ide o f t he A rava v a l ley a s w as f i r s t s ugges ted b y J ean P erro t ( 1955 :79 ) .

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CO PPER I T EMS The o b jec ts s tud ied a re c lass if ied a s f o l lows : P res t ige I t ems ( 2 )

Macehead ( P1) S cep tre ( P2 )

O rnamen ta l ( 1 )

B ead ( P5 )

Sma l l T oo ls ( 2 )

Aw ls ( P6 a nd P 7 )

L arge T oo ls ( 4 )

Axes ( P9/10 , P 11/12 , P 16 ) Ch ise l ( P13/14 )

S amp les f or a na lys is were o b ta ined e i ther b y d r i l l ing o r b y c u t t ing w i th a j ewe l ler 's p ierc ing s aw . They w ere t hen h o t moun ted i n ac opper -f i l led a cry l ic c ompound , g round , p o l ished , a nd e xam ined u nder a n o p t ica l m icro scope b o th u ne tched a nd e tched . E tch ings w ere b ased o n f err ic c h lor ide o r ammon iaca l h ydrogen p erox ide , d epend ing o n t he i mpur it ies i n t he c opper . Ana lys is was b y e l ec tron p robe m icroana lys is u s ing t hree p o in t a na lyses f or Cu , S n , A s , S b , C o , N i , F e , Ag , Au a nd Z n , a nd s canned 5 0/ / s quares f or t he i n so lub le c omponen ts P b , B i . The a na ly t ica l d a ta a nd s o me l im i ted me ta l lograph ic d a ta a re l i s ted i n t he a ccompany ing T ab le 1 4 .3 .

P res t ige I t ems Th is c ategory c ompr ises t wo i t em s , a" macehead " a nd a " s cep tre " ( P la te 1 4 .5 : 1 , 5 ) . The macehead ( P1) was f ound i n L . 4 03 o n a n o ccupa t ion s urface i n t he u pper v i l lage a rea ( F ig . 6 . 1 -s ma l l s quare ) . I t i ss l ight ly o va l a nd measures 5 . 4 b y 5 . 3 cm . The s cep tre ( P2 ) c omes f rom A rea A , S quare E /4 , L .6 ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . I t i s 1 3 .6 cm l ong , s imp le i n s hape , a nd v ar ies i n d iame ter f rom 1 . 4 t o 2 . 9 cm f rom t he m idd le t o t he t op . I t may h ave h ad a more e labora te h ead wh ich i s n ow m iss ing . B o th i t ems a re made o f c opper c on ta in ing a rsen ic , a n t imony a nd n icke l a s i mpur i t ies ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . The macehead i s c omp le te ly c orroded s o i t i s n o t p oss ib le t o q uant ify i t s o r ig ina l c ompo s i t ion ; h owever , i t i s p robab le t ha t t he a rsen ic a nd a n t i mony c on ten ts h ave b een e nr iched a nd t he n icke l d ep le ted . D esp i te t he s t ate o f c orros ion o f t he macehead i t i s c l ear t hat b o th i t em s d er ive f rom t he s a me t ype o f o re , mos t p robab ly i n t he e t rahedr i te ( fah lerz ) f am i ly , c om ing f rom t he s econdary e nr ichmen t z one o f a c opper -bear ing d epos it . B y a na logy t o a n u nf in ished macehead ( N . 1 83 ) f rom t he Naha l M ishmar h oard ( Bar Adon 1 980 :118 ) , t hese i t ems w ere p robab ly c as t b y t he " l os t -wax " t echn ique . A f ter t he c as t ing , t he o b jec ts w ere worked a nd p o l ished t o a ch ieve t he ir f ina l a ppearance . On ly t he s cep tre c an b e s tud ied me ta l lograph ica l ly ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . Th is i s e s sen t ia l ly i n t he a s -cas t s t ate a l though i t may s ubsequent ly h ave b een a ffec ted

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C hap ter 1 4 : C ha lco l i th ic Me ta l a nd Me ta lwork ing

b y h ea t . A p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion o f i t s m e ta l lograph ic s t a te i s av ery s l ow c oo l ing r a te o r t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t work ing a nd a nnea l ing o f s o me p ar ts o f t he c a s t ing w ere n eces sary t o a ch ieve a s a t isfac tory f in ish . T he measured h ardne s s o f 7 7HV5 i s al i t t le a bove wha t i se xpec ted i n t he a s -cas t s t a te a l though a s -cas t h ardne s s i so f ten d iff icu l t t o r eproduce . Me ta l maceheads a re k nown f rom Abu Ma tar ( Perro t 1 955 :29 , P la te 1 5 :A ; 1 979 : P la te 1 03 ) , G i la t ( A lon 1 977 :63 ) , Naha l S e 'e l im ( Aharon i 1 961 :14 , P la te 8 : 1 3 l e f t ) , a nd p r imar i ly f rom t he h oard o f Naha l M i shmar ( Bar Adon 1 980 : i t em s 1 90 - 4 29 ) . A s cep tre s im i lar t o t he S h iqm im e xamp le i s k nown f rom Naha l M ishmar ( i b id : i t em 4 1) . T h is f orm c an b e c omb ined w i th d isk o r o va l shaped s imp le macehead s ( i b id : 4 9 -51 , 1 34 , 1 35 ) o r w i th more e labora te o ne s c on ta in ing g eome tr ic a nd o ther o rnamen t s ( i b id : 2 3 , 2 8 -29 , 3 1-40 , 4 3 -48 , 5 5 -102 , 1 04 , 1 06 -113 ) t o a ch ieve c omb ined ( i b id : 1 05 ) o r c omp lex s hape s ( i b id : 1 7 -18 , 2 1-22 ) . T he a na lyses o f s cep tre s a nd maceheads f rom Naha l M ishmar , Abu Ma tar a nd Naha l S e 'e l im ( Key 1 980 :239 ) s how t ha t t hey t oo d er ive f rom t he e t rahedr i te f am i ly , a l though t hey d iffer i n h av ing c on s iderab ly h igher c on ten t s o f a r sen ic . Mo s t o f t he s amp le s f rom t he se g roup s w ere t aken f rom t he s urface o f t he o b jec t s . T he p ub l i shed a r sen ic c on ten t s i mp ly t ha t t he a na lyses i nc luded a p ropor t ion o f t he A s -Cu e u tec t ic ( 2 1% A s ) i nver se ly s egrega ted a t t he s urface . An a rsen ic e nr iched s urface b ecome s more l i ke ly a s t he a r sen ic c on ten t i ncrease s b eyond t he l eve l where t he e u tec t ic f i r s t a ppear s i n a n orma l ly c oo led m icro s truc ture a t a round 2 . 5w t% A s . T he a r sen ic c on ten t o f t he s cep tre f rom S h iqm im i sn o t h igh e nough t o h ave p roduced s uch a s urface . I ndeed , a l low ing f or t he e ffec t s o f c orro s ion , i t i s p robab le t ha t t he a r sen ic c on ten t i n b o th i t em s f rom S h iqm im i ss i gn if ican t ly l ower t han i n a l l b u t o ne o f t he s e r ies f rom Naha l M ishmar . However , w i th a s a mp le o f o n ly t wo o b jec ts t he i mpor tance o f t h is d ifference c an n o t b e e va lua ted . These t wo " pre s t ige " i t em s , P 1 a nd P 2 , w ere t he o n ly me ta lwork f ound a t S h iqm im w i th a pprec iab le l eve ls o f i mpur i t ie s . T he d ifferences i n c ompo s i t ion b e tween p re s t ige m e ta lwork a nd t oo ls a re d i scus sed b e low i n more d e ta i l , b u t w e c an p o in t o u t h ere t ha t t h is d is t inc t ion i s p ara l le l ed a t o ther s i te s .

O rnamen ts T he o ne o b jec t f rom t h is c a tegory i nc luded h ere , b ead P 5 ( P la te 1 4 .5 :6 ) , w as f ound i n A rea B , S quare C /18 , L . 0 2242 ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . I t i s c y l indr ica l i n s hape , 0 . 6 cm i n d iame ter , 0 . 3 cm t h ick a nd w i th a h o le o f 0 . 2 cm d iame ter . I t i s g reen o n t he s urface a nd l ooks a s i f i t was c u t f rom a l ong t ube a nd p o l i shed . T he b ead i s s evere ly c orroded , c ons is t ing a lmo s t e n t ire ly o f c upr i te w i th s o me c opper c h lor ide a nd i r on s a l t s . G iven t he p resence o n t he s i te o f c upr i te i n t he f orm o f a n a t trac t ive a nd d is t inc t ive m inera l i t i s , o f c ourse , p o s s ib le t ha t ab ead m igh t b e made o f s uch a ma ter ia l o rg ina l ly . However , t he b ead i s p ure c upr i te w i th a m icro s truc ture t yp ica l o f c upr i te c orro s ion p roduc t s , wh i le t he o re i s r i ch i n i r on , h as a b anded m icro s truc ture , a nd c on ta ins d is t inc t ive i nc lus ions o f c ha lcoc i te a nd q uar tz . I n t he b ead , i r on i s

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i n trus ive a nd p resent o n ly o n t he s urface l ayers . Thus , we c onc lude t ha t t he b ead was made o r ig ina l ly o f c opper a nd s urv ives t oday a s a c omp le te ly c orroded e nd p roduc t o f t ha t me ta l . The s hape i s t yp ica l o f Cha lco l i th ic b eads ( U ss ishk in 1 986 :45) made o f c opper a nd o ther ma ter ia ls s uch a s a ga te , l ap is l azu l i , f a ience , s he l l , b one , a nd d en ta l ium . B eads h ave b een f ound i n Abu Ma tar ( Perro t 1 955 :172 , F ig . 2 0 :21 ; 1 979 : p late 6 6 ) , Naha l M ishmar ( Bar Adon 1 980 :152 , P l . 1 1 :22 ) , Naha l S e 'e l im ( Aharon i 1 961 : P l . 7 : A -D ) a nd T e le i la t Ghas su l (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : 8 0 , F ig . 3 2 : 1 , 2 ) .

Sma l l T oo ls S even aw l p o in ts w ere f ound i n t he P hase Ie xcava t ion a t S h iqm im , a nd a l l a re c omp le te ly c orroded . A c omp le te aw l was f ound i n A rea D , S quare Q /9 , L . 0 2604 o n t he f loor o f Room 6 ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . I t c ons is ts o f as heep/goat b one ( me tapod ia l ) h and le 8 . 5 x2 . 4 x 1 . 4 cm i n s i ze , a nd a me ta l p o in t 0 . 3 cm t h ick wh ich p ro trudes 1 . 4 cm f rom t he h and le ( P late 1 4 .5 :7 ) . Two a dd i t iona l p o in ts were f ound a longs ide t h is aw l c ons t i tu t ing a " t oo l k i t " . F our o ther aw l p o in ts were f ound e l sewhere o n t he s i te . T ab le 1 4 .1 d escr ibes t he l ocat ion o f t he p o in ts a nd t he ir s i ze . Two o f t he p o in ts ( P6 a nd P 7 ) w ere a na lysed . A s ac onsequence o f t he c orros ion n o m icros truc tura l f ea tures o f t he o r ig ina l c opper me ta l s urv ive , o n ly c upr i te a nd c upr ic c h lor ide r e ma in . The a na lyses s how n o ma jor i mpur i t ies ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . An aw l w i th a s im i lar b one h and le a nd a l onger me ta l p o in t was f ound i n t he e xcava t ions a t B ir e s -Safad i ( Perro t 1 968 : F ig . 8 49 ) . C opper p o in ts s im i lar t o t hose f rom S h iqm im w ere d iscovered i n Abu Matar , Neve Noy , A rad a nd T e le i la t Ghassu l ( Perro t 1 955 :172 , F ig . 2 0 :19 ; E ldar a nd B aumgar ten 1 985 :137 ; Am iran 1 978 :9 , P la te 6 7 :13 ; Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : 7 5 ) . A l a rger i n tac t p o in t was u near thed w i th in t he h ab itat ion l ayers i n t he C ave o f t he T reasure a t Naha l M ishmar ( Bar Adon 1 980 : 1 52 , F ig . I I , 2 5 ) . These a pparent ly d omes t ic t oo ls may h ave b een u sed f or a n umber o f t a sks i nc lud ing b o th d omes t ic work a nd/or s o me o ther t ype o f p roduc t ion s uch a s i vory c arv ing ( U ss ishk in 1 986 :36 ) wh ich may h ave h ad a more s pec ia l s oc ia l a nd r i tua l v a lue . L arge T oo ls F our c opper b lade t oo ls were f ound a nd a na lysed f rom S h iqm im ( P la tes 1 4 .3 : 1 , 2 ; 1 4 .4 : 1 , 2 ) . Three o f t hese c an b e d ef ined a s a xes a nd o ne a s ac h ise l . T ab le 1 4 .2 s hows t he l oca t ion a nd s i ze o f t hese i t ems . A l l f our o f t hese t oo ls w ere a na lyzed a nd f ound t o b e made o f c opper w i th e s sen t ia l ly i den t ica l i mpur ity p a t terns ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . The i mpur i t ies a re p resent n ear t he l im its o f d e tec t ion e xcep t f or t he moderate amoun t o f a rsen ic i n t he med ium s i ze a xe ( P15 ) . They s how a v ar ie ty o f s u lphur a nd o xygen c on ten t , i mp ly ing s o me v ar ia t ion i n t he p roduc t ion p rocess o f t he o r ig ina l me ta l . A lthough t hese f ea tures w i l l b e d iscussed i n d e ta i l b e low , i t s hou ld b e

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men t ioned h ere t ha t t he a na lyses o f t hese t oo ls i s g enera l ly c ons is tent w ith t he s l ag , c ruc ib le r e ma ins , a nd o re f ound a t S h iqm im . The c orre la t ion i s p ar t icu lar ly s t rong i n t he c ase o f t he l a rge a nd s ma l l a xes ( P9/10 , P 11/12 ) wh ich h ave a h igh s u lphur c on ten t , c omparab le t o t hat o f t he o res f ound a t S h iqm im . The c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f P 15 c an b e i n terpre ted a s r e su lt ing f rom t he a dd it ion o f as ma l l amoun t o f s crap f rom p res t ige i t ems d ur ing t he l oca l c as t ing p rocess wh ich was b ased p r imar i ly o n t he a va i lab le o re . The s hape o f t he S h iqm im t oo ls , s hown e spec ia l ly i n t he ir s ec t ions , s ugges ts t ha t t hey w ere c as t i n a n o pen mou ld . A l though a ccurate me ta l lography i si mposs ib le w i th d r i l l ings , s o me o bservat ions c an b e made . A l l t he o b jec ts a ppear t o h ave b een c o ld worked a nd a nnea led , a t l e as t i n p ar t . I n t he o b jec ts w i th a l a rge s u lphur c on ten t ( P9/10 , P 11/12 ) t he d eformat ion o f t he s u lph ides s ugges ts s evera l c yc les o f c o ld work a nd a nnea l ing . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f P 15 , t he c opper i sl a rge ly f ree o f o x ide . I n t he B eersheva v a l ley , b lade t oo ls s im i lar i n s hape a nd s i ze t o t hose f rom S h iqm im w ere f ound a t Abu Ma tar , B ir e s -Safad i a nd Neve Noy ( Perro t 1 968 : F ig . 8 49 ; 1 979 : p la tes 1 03 -105 ; Ty leco te e t a l 1 974 :34 , F ig . 3 ; E ldar a nd B aumgar ten 1 985 : 1 35 , 1 37 , F ig . B ) . I n t he n or th t hey w ere d iscovered a t A zor , G iva tay im a nd Meser ( Perro t 1 961 : F ig . 1 2 ; Hes tr in a nd T admor 1 963 : 2 68 , F ig . 3 ; Do than 1 957 : 2 20 , P late 3 7 : c ,d ) . B lades a lmos t t w ice a s t h ick a s t he B eersheva v a l ley e xamp les w ere r ecovered i n T e le i la t Ghas su l (Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : 7 5 , P l . 3 4 :2 ) . A v ar ie ty o f c opper b lade t oo ls was f ound i n t he c aves o f Naha l S e 'e l im a nd w ith in t he h oard f rom Naha l M ishmar i n t he J udean d eser t ( Aharon i 1 961 : P l . 8 :A ; B ar Adon 1 980 : 1 72 -178 , 1 64 -169 ) . The d iscovery o f b lade t oo ls w i th in t he h oard c on tex t may b e a n i nd icat ion o f t he ir o r ig ina l s oc ia l a nd r i tua l v a lue . The d is t inc t ion b e tween h igh i mpur i ty c onten t o r a l loyed me ta l d er ived f rom t ennan t i te o res i n t he p re s t ige o b jec ts , a nd t he e s sen t ia l ly p ure c opper d er ived f rom o x ide o res i n t he t oo ls o ccurs a l so a t Naha l M ish mar , Naha l S e 'e l im a nd B ir e s -Safad i ( Po taszk in a nd B ar Av i 1 980 : 2 35 ; Key 1 980 : 2 39 ; Ty leco te e t a / 1 974 :34 ) . The a na lyses o f Key h ave a h igh d e tec t ion l im i t f or a rsen ic ( 1 .9% ) . However , t he more s ens i t ive a na lys is o f P o taszk in a nd t he p at tern o f o ther i mpur i t ies i n t he t oo ls f rom t hese s i tes p o in t t o t he s a me c ho ice o f me ta l a s a t S h iqm im .

CO PPER IN DUSTRY There i s c l ear e v idence f or a l oca l c opper i ndus try d is tr ibu ted o ver t he e n t ire v i l lage a rea a t S h iqm im e xcavated t o d a te ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . O re , c ruc ib les a nd s l ags f rom t he s i te a re a na lysed i n o rder t o i nves t iga te a spec ts o f meta lwork ing w i th in a Cha lco l ith ic c ommun i ty .

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O re F ragmen t s o f o re w ere f ound s ca t tered o ver t he e n t ire e xcava t ion a rea o f t he s i te ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . T hey w ere l o ca ted mo s t ly i n a s soc ia t ion w i th s l ag s a nd c harred wood ( P18 f rom L . 0 2047 i n S quare B /6 ) a nd o ccas iona l ly w i th in o rgan ic a sh ( P19 f rom L . 0 2140 i n S quare C /5 ) . F our f ragmen t s o f o re ( P18 , 1 9 , 2 3 , 2 4 ) w ere e xam ined q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd o ne ( P20 ) , was a na lyzed q uan t i ta t ive ly ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . T he f ragmen ts c on s i s t o f av ery r i ch c opper o x ide , ma in ly c upr i te a nd ma lach i te ( P la te 1 4 .1 :1) . S amp le P 20 f rom L . 0 2303 i n S quare D /17 i sl a rge ly c upr i te w i th a l ow i r on c on ten t ( 0 -1 % ) a l ternat ing w i th b ands o f i r on o x ide a nd o ne p o in t s how ing 3 8% i r on . A l so p re sen t a re s ma l l amoun t s o f q uar tz a nd c hry soco l la ( copper s i l ica te ) a nd a v ar iab le amoun t o f c ha lcoc i te ( cuprous s u lph ide , C u 2S ) . Two o f t he o ther o re s a mp le s c on ta in u p t o 2 4% b y v o lume , o f c ha lcoc i te a l though P 20 h as o n ly a bou t 5% . A l l o f t he s a mp les c on ta in s ome c upr ic c h lor ide ( CuC 1 2) d er iv ing f rom c orro s ion o f t he o re b y s a l ine g round wa ter . Overa l l , t he c upr i te c on ten t o f t he se o res may b e a s much a s 5 0% , av ery r i ch s ource ma ter ia l a nd e as i ly s me l ted e i ther a s as e lf f lux ing p roce s s o r w i th a s u i tab le a dd i t ion o f s i l ica o r i r on o x ide . T he o re s h ave l ow l eve l s o f i mpur i t ie s t ha t p as s i n to t he c opper d ur ing s me l t ing . The c ompo s i t ion o f t he c opper t ha t c an b e p roduced f rom t hese o re s i sc omparab le t o t ha t o f t he c opper u sed t o p roduce t he l a rge t oo l s . Thus , t he l oca l c opper i ndu s try o f S h iqm im w as a pparen t ly b a sed o n l oca l ly p roces sed o re s , i n c on tras t t o t he p re s t ige i t em s t ha t w ere p robab ly i mpor ted a s f in ished a r t ic les . T he o re s f rom S h iqm im a re v ery s im i lar t o t ho se f ound i n o ther s i te s i n t he r eg ion s uch a s Abu Ma tar a nd N eve Noy ( Perro t 1 955 : 7 9 ; T y leco te e t a l 1 974 : 3 2 ; E ldar a nd B aumgar ten 1 985 : 1 36 -137 ) . C opper m inera l isa t ion o ccur s i n wh i te s ands tone o f t he Nub ian f ac ie s a long t he A rava V a l ley . T herefore , t he t ype o f o re f ound a t S h iqm im c an e i ther d er ive f rom t he a rea o f F enan i n t he e as tern s i de o f t he A rava ( Perro t 1 955 : 7 9 , 1 979 : 1 58 ; Do than 1 959 : 3 2 ; B e i t -Ar ieh a nd Gophna 1 977 : 1 05 ; T y leco te 1 981 : 4 8 ; Gophna 1 982 : 8 9 ; H aup tmann e t a l 1 985 : 1 67 , 1 68 , 1 84 , a bb . 2 6 , 2 7 ) o r f rom t he T imna Va l ley i n t he s ou thwes tern p ar t o f t he A rava ( Bamberger e t a l 1 986 : 2 -3 ; R o thenberg 1 978 : 1 15 ; 1 985 : 1 24 , 1 32 ; T y leco te e t a l 1 974 : 3 4 ) . A l though t he c opper b ased m inera l s i n b o th l o ca l i t ies a re p rac t ica l ly i den t ica l , i ti sp o s s ib le t o d is t ingu ish b e tween t he se t wo ma in s ources a ccord ing t o t he s ma l l amoun t o f l i gh t m inera ls f rom t he h o s t r ocks a dher ing t o t he c opper o re . T he s ands tone i n Wad i F enan i sf rom t he C ambr ian , t he ma in c l ay m inera l i s i l i te a nd i t c on ta ins f e ld spar ; t he T imna r ock i s f rom t he L ower C re tacous w i th t he ma in c l ay m inera l k ao l in i te , a nd i t i s f ree o f f e ldspar . S ince k ao l in i te c an a l so b e f ound i n Wad i F enan a s aw ea ther ing p roduc t , t he p re sence o r a b sence o f f e ldspar r ema ins t he b es t a va i lab le k ey t o d ifferent ia te b e tween t he se t wo ma in o re s ources . X -Ray d iffrac t ion a na lys is o f o re s f rom S h iqm im r evea led , b es ide s k ao l in i te , as ma l l amoun t o f f e ldspa t ic m inera l . Thu s , s o me o f t he o re a t l e as t wou ld a ppear t o h ave c ome f rom t he g eo log ica l m i l ieu o f Wad i F enan . However , t he amoun t o f a dher ing h o s t r ock o n t he S h iqm im s a mp les i s s ma l l a nd more e xam ina t ions a re n eces sary b efore w e c an p o in t w i th more c er ta in ty t o t he o r ig in o f t he se o re s .

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C ruc ib le s Two c l ear ly i den t if iab le c ruc ib le f ragmen ts w ere e xam ined f rom d ifferen t a reas o f t he v i l lage ( Tab le 1 4 .3 ) . F ragmen t ( P17 ) w as f ound i n A rea D , S quare P /10 , i n L . 0 2573 ( F ig . 1 4 .1) a long s ide o re s a mp le P 24 , d rop s o f s l ag a nd a n a xe ( P9/10 ) . T he f ragmen t c ons is ts o f ar im s herd w i th a t h in l ayer o f v es icu lar v i tr if ica t ion t ha t m erges w i th t he c ruc ib le f abr ic a nd c on ta in s af ew m inu te p r i l ls o f c opper . T he v i tr if ied l ayer i s m i ld ly c o loured b y c opper o x ide . One o f t he p r i l ls w as a na lysed a nd s howed i mpur i t ie s s im i lar t o t ho se i n t he l a rge t oo l g roup w i th t he a dd i t ion o f 0 . 87% i r on . However , t he p r i l l i s v ery s ma l l a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t s o me o f t he s urround ing v i tr if ied ma ter ia l , o r s o me c orros ion was e xam ined d ur ing t he a na lys i s . A l terna t ive ly , i t i s p o ss ib le t ha t t he p r i l l r epresen ts a s t age o f p ar t ia l r ef inemen t o f t he c opper . The s econd c ruc ib le f ragmen t ( P16a ) w as a t tached t o at h ick l ayer o f v i tr if ied ma ter ia l a nd a p iece o f s l ag ( P16b ) . I t w as f ound i n A rea B , S quare C /18 , i n L . 0 2243 ( F ig . 1 4 .1) , n ear t he c opper b ead P 5 a nd i n a s soc ia t ion w i th s o me p ieces o f s l ag a nd o re . T he c opper p r i l ls i n t he f ragmen t w ere a na ly sed a nd f ound t o b e o f l ow i mpur i ty c on ten t b u t s upersa tura ted w i th i r on , s ugge s t ing r ap id c oo l ing . T he v i tr if ied l ayer c ompr ise s t wo z one s , t he i nner b e ing t he v i tr if ied c ruc ib le f abr ic , a nd t he o u ter f ormed o f as me l t ing s l ag . The l a t ter c on ta ins f aya l i te o f a morpho logy i nd ica t ing r ap id c oo l ing , wh ich i s c onf irmed b y t he s uper sa tura t ion o f i r on i n t he c opper p r i l ls . I n a dd i t ion , t he s l ag l ayer s hows e uhedra l c rys ta ls o f magne t i te , q uar tz g ra ins , p ar t ic les o f c upr i te a nd c upr ic c h lor ide c orro s ion p roduc t s , a nd s o me l a rge s pheres o f c ha lcoc i te ; a l l i n a ma tr ix o f i r on c a lc ium s i l ica te . The s i l ica te ma tr ix a l so c on ta ins s o me a lum in ium a nd magne s ium d er iv ing f rom t he c ruc ib le f abr ic . The a ccompany ing s l ag f ragmen t , P1 6b , b e long s t o t he s a me t ype o f s l ag a nd c on ta ins s o me d ebr is f rom t he c ruc ib le f abr ic ( P la te 1 4 .1 : 2 , 3 ,4 ) . T he c ruc ib le f ragmen ts r ef lec t t he s econd p hase o f t he l oca l me ta l i ndus try . Th is p hase i sa l so r epre sen ted i n t he n earby s i te s o f Abu Ma tar a nd Neve Noy ( Perro t 1 957 : 1 8 , 1 9 , P l . I :6 ; E ldar a nd B aumgar ten 1 985 : 1 37 -138 ) .

S lag Sma l l p iece s o f s l ag w ere f ound i n q uan t i ty a l l o ver t he s i te ( F ig . 1 4 .1) . A f ew w ere s t i l l a t tached t o c ruc ib le f ragmen ts , s o me i n t he f orm o f s ma l l d rop s , b u t mo s t amorphous i n s hape . I n a dd i t ion t o t he s l ag s d ef in i te ly a s soc ia ted w i th c ruc ib les , f our a dd i t iona l s a mp le s w ere s tud ied . The f i rs t t wo s a mp le s ( P21 , P 22 ) a re f rom A rea A . P 21 w as f ound i n S quare H /3 , L . 1 880 , i n Room 4 , b es ide a n a xe ( P11/12 ) . S lag P 22 was f ound n or th o f Room 4 i n S quare J /4 , L . 0 2436 , n o t f ar f rom a no ther a xe a nd c h ise l ( P13/14 , P 15 ) . Two a dd i t iona l s l ag s amp les w ere t aken f rom A rea E : P 25 f rom S quare S /11 i n L . 0 2767 , a nd P 26 f rom S quare S /12 i n L . 0 2830 . They w ere d iscovered i n a n a shy ma ter ia l w i th c harred wood a nd s o me p iece s o f o re . N earby , i n S quare T /12 , at h in l ayer o f s l ag w as f ound a ppear ing a s i f t he ma ter ia l h ad b een d e l ibera te ly p oured o n to t he s and d ur ing t he me l t ing a nd r ef in ing p roce s s . T aken t oge ther , t he se f ea tures h ave b een i n terpre ted a s a c opper

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w ork ing i n s ta l la t ion wh ich i si lu s tra ted i n F igure 6 . 9 . O ther C ha lco l ith ic s l ag s w ere s tud ied f rom Abu Ma tar a nd N eve Noy , a nd t hese w i l l b e r eferred t o i n o rder t o p rov ide a f u l l d escr ip t ion o f t he r e s idue s o f Cha lco l i th ic me ta lwork ing i n t he B eer sheva V a l ley . T he f our s l ag s s tud ied f rom S h iqm im c l ear ly f a l l i n to t wo g roup s . P 21 a nd P 22 a re s me l t ing s l ag s , p erhap s f rom t he r e -me l t ing o f p rev ious ly s me l ted c opper , i n ac lay c ruc ib le . T hey h ave w i th a g las sy s i l ica te ma tr ix c on ta in ing f aya l i te a nd magne t i te c rys ta ls , p r i l ls o f c opper , a nd s phero ids o f c opper s u lph ide . T here a re a l so s o me g ra ins o f q uar tz . S ome o f t he f aya l i te h as b een a l tered b y c orro s ion t o c opper i r on o x ide a nd s o me o f t he c opper h a s b een a l tered t o c upr ic c h lor ide . T he g la s sy ma tr ix i nc lude s s o me p roduc t s o f t he v i tr if ica t ion o f ar efrac tory v e s se l a nd a l so c on ta ins s i gn if ican t c oncen tra t ion s o f v anad ium a nd t i tan ium . T he morpho logy o f t he f aya l i te a nd magne t i te c ry s ta l s i nd ica te s b o th s l ow a nd f as t c oo l ing r a tes ( P la te 1 4 .2 : 1 , 2 ) . T he o ther t wo s l ag s , P 25 a nd P 26 , c on s i s t l a rge ly o f magne t i te c rys ta ls i n a g las sy i r on c a lc ium s i l ica te ma tr ix w i th p r i l ls o f c opper a nd l a rger p ar t ic les o f c ha lcoc i te . T he s t a tus o f t hese s l ag s i s l e s s c l ear , a s t hey c ou ld d er ive f rom e i ther a s me l t ing o r ar ef in ing p roce s s ( P la te 1 4 .2 :3 ) . A s s ugge s ted e ar l ier i ti sp robab le t ha t t he s me l t ing o f t he o re s f ound a t S h iqm im wou ld p roduce a c opper w i th a f a ir amoun t o f i r on ( up t o 1 % ) , p rov ided t he i r on r ema ined i n s o l id s o lu t ion . L arger amoun t s o f i r on a ppear ing a s a s econd p hase wou ld b e d e le ter iou s a nd wou ld h ave t o b e r emoved . I f t he c opper i s m e l ted u nder s t rong ly o x id is ing c ond i t ion s , t he i r on a nd s o me o f t he c opper a re o x id ised a nd f orm a s l ag w i th t he s i l ica . S ome o f t he s l ag s f rom Abu Ma tar a nd N eve Noy c on ta in c harac ter i s t ic n eed les o f c opper i r on o x ide ( probab ly d e lafo s s i te , C uFe0 2) i n a ma tr ix o f p ar t ia l ly r eac ted s i l ica ( quar tz ) . I t i sp robab le t ha t t he se d er ive f rom a r ef in ing p roces s ( P la te 1 4 .2 :4 ) . A t p resen t , t he s l ag s a na lysed f rom S h iqm im c anno t b e d ef in i te ly a t tr ibu ted t o t he r ef in ing p roces s a l though P 25 a nd P 26 c ou ld b e ( P la te 1 4 .2 :3 ) . T he l a rge c opper s u lph ide c on ten t i n s o me o f t he s l ag s s ugges ts t ha t t he s u lphur w as n o t u sua l ly r emoved b efore s me l t ing . When t he s me l t ing s t ar t s mo s t o f t he s u lph ide s w i l l b e u nder a r educ ing a tmo sphere a nd s imp ly m e l t ( one s l ag f rom Abu Ma tar c on ta in s d endr i te s o f r e so l id if ied s u lph ide m ixed u p w i th q uar tz g ra ins , p robab ly f l oa t ing o n t he s urface o f as me lt ) . T he ir c oncen tra t ion i n r e la t ion t o t he c opper c ou ld b e s uff ic ient t o b r ing t hem i n to t he mono tec t ic r eg ion o f t he e qu i l ibr ium d iagram t o t he r i gh t o f t he e u tec t ic . I n t h is c ase t here wou ld b e as u lph ide -r ich p hase f loa t ing o n ac opper -r ich ma ter ia l a s i mp l ied b y t he s l ag j us t m en t ioned . Wha t i s n o t c l ear a t p resen t i s h ow much o f t he s u lphur wou ld d isappear i n t he r ef in ing o pera t ion . S u lph ide s a re c l ear ly s t i l l p re sen t i n t he r ef in ing s l ags f rom Abu Ma tar a nd c er ta in ly c opper i t em s w ere b e ing p roduced , a s a t S h iqm im . T he l a t ter i t em s h ave a l a rge q uan t i ty o f s u lphur b u t ar e la t ive ly l ow o xygen c on ten t . However , a h eav i ly r ef ined c opper m igh t b e e xpec ted t o b e o x id ised . C lear ly t h is q ues t ion n eeds much f ur ther s tudy .

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DI S CUSS ION A ND CO NCLUS IONS I n s ummar is ing t he r e su l t s o f t he m e ta l lurg ica l a na lyse s o f t he c opper d er ived ma ter ia l f rom S h iqm im , t hree q ue s t ion s mu s t b e c on s idered b r ief ly : 1 ) Wha t was t he c ho ice o f c opper -ba sed m e ta l f or p ar t icu lar o b jec ts a . n d wha t g overned t he c ho ice? 2 ) Wha t w ere t he me ta l lurg ica l p roces ses u nder taken a t S h iqm im a nd c ou ld t hey h ave p roduced t he c opper o b served i n t he a r tefac t s r ecovered f rom t he s i te? 3 ) Wha t i s t he a rchaeo log ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f t he r ema ins o f t he l o ca l c opper i ndu s try a nd h ow c an i tb e i n terpre ted?

We h ave d emons tra ted a marked d ifference b e tween t he c opper u sed f or p res t ige i t em s a nd t ha t u sed i n t he l a rge t oo l s . A s f ar a s S h iqm im i sc oncerned t h i s b as ica l ly r ef lec t s ad ifferen t t ype o f o re a nd e x trac t ion t echno logy f or p re s t ige i t em s . B eyond t ha t , t he l a t ter a re a s soc ia ted w i th a s pec ia l ised c as t ing t echn ique a nd t here i sn o e v idence t o l i nk t he se p roce s se s w i th S h iqm im o r a ny o ther C ha lco l i th ic s i te w i th a k nown me ta l i ndus try . I t mu s t b e c onc luded , t herefore , t ha t t he p re s t ige o b jec ts w ere i mpor ted t o t he s i te , a lmo s t c er ta in ly f rom a more s pec ia l i sed p roduc t ion c en tre . T he e v idence f rom Naha l M ishmar a nd o ther s i tes s hows t ha t u sua l ly t he p res t ige i t em s a re a s soc ia ted n o t o n ly w i th a s pec if ic o re t ype , b u t a l so w i th t he man ipu la t ion o f t he o re t o p roduce a n a l loy t ha t wou ld g ive a s pec if ic a ppearance t o t he f in i shed o b jec t . I t s hou ld b e a dded t ha t t he a l loy s u sed f or p roduc ing p re s t ige i t em s w ere b e t ter s u i ted t han o x ide o re s t o t he c omp lex c as t ing t e chno logy n eeded f or t he ir manufac ture . I n t he a b sence o f e v idence o f ap roduc t ion s i te , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o s ay e xac t ly h ow t he a l loy w as p roduced b u t i t w as w e l l w i th in t he t e chno logy o f t he t ime . I t i s q u i te p o s s ib le t ha t a l loyed a nd p ure c opper s d er ived f rom d ifferen t l eve ls i n t he s ame d epo s i t . F or e xamp le , a d eep r av ine c u t t ing t hrough b o th o x ida t ion a nd s econdary e nr ichmen t z ones wou ld e xpo se b o th f or e xp lo i ta t ion . I t m igh t b e t ha t t he d eve lopmen t o f t he t e chno logy t o e xp lo i t e nr iched o res t ha t wou ld b e more s u lph id ic t han o x id ised o res w as f or a p er iod , ag uarded s ecre t o f t he maker s o f p re s t ige i t em s . I t may b e s ummar ized t ha t t he u se o f a rsen ic r i ch c ompo s i t ion s f or p res t ige i t em s w as b a sed o n c ons idera t ions o f a ppearance a nd c as t ing p roper t ies . B e t ha t a s i t may , t he me ta l s e lec ted f or t he t oo ls a t S h iqm im w as a p ure c opper p roduced f rom t he o re b rough t t o S h iqm im a nd f ound o n t he s i te . Why w ere t he a r sen ic r i ch c ompo s i t ions o f t he p re s t ige i t em s n o t u sed a l so f or t he work ing t oo ls , s i nce t ha t wou ld h ave i mproved t he ir q ua l i ty? Was t he n ece s sary o re a s w e l l a s t he t echno logy f or t he p res t ige i t em s c arefu l ly c on tro l led? W i th t he e v idence w e h ave a t p resen t w e c an d o n o more t han p o se t he q ues t ions . T he a na lyses o f o res , c ruc ib le s , s l ag s , a nd me ta l s f rom S h iqm im h ave d emons tra ted t ha t t he c opper u sed i n t he t oo ls w as e x trac ted l oca l ly a t t he s i te . The o re a nd s l ag c l ear ly a t te s t t o c opper s me l t ing a t S h iqm im . T he s me l t ing o f

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c opper iron o re s i mp l ies t he n eed f or a r ef in ing p roce s s . No s l ag s w ere f ound t ha t c ou ld b e d ef ina te ly a scr ibed a s r ef in ing s l ags , h owever s o me w ere s ugge s t ive . One f ragmen t o f ac ruc ib le u sed f or me l t ing wa s i den t if ied , s o c a s t ing wa s l i ke ly . T here w as n o e v idence t o s ugge s t wha t was made , n or a c omp le te c ruc ib le t o i nd ica te t he s i ze o f c as t ing . N ever the le s s , b ased o n t he c opper s u lph ide s i n t he o re wh ich r ema ined i n t he s l ag s , a nd w ere p ar t ia l ly p a ssed i n to t he u t i l i tar ian e nd p roduc t s , w e c an v i sua l ize a t S h iq m im t he c omp le te c ha in o f m e ta lwork ing f rom o re t o f in i shed p roduc t . The i nves t iga t ion p re sen ted h ere s hows t ha t t he S h iqm im c opper o re s h ave t he ir o r ig in i n t he e as tern s i de o f t he A rava v a l ley . T he se r e su l t s emphas ize t he r o le o f t h is r eg ion a s as ource a rea f or r aw ma ter ia ls u sed i n t he B eersheva v a l ley me ta l i ndus try , a s w e l l a s f or ma ter ia ls u sed i n " e l i te " i ndu s tr ie s s uch a s b asa l t a nd p ho sphor i te p re s t ige v es se l s ( Goren 1 987 : 2 0 ) . The s ma l l n umber o f f in i shed c opper p roduc t s r ecovered a t t he s i te t o d a te may r ef lec t t he e conom ic v a lue o f m e ta l a nd i t s r ecyc l ing s u i tab i l i ty . T he s pec if ic v ar ie ty o f l o ca l ly p roduced c opper t oo ls s uch a s a xe s , c h ise ls a nd a w l s , a nd t he ir r e semb lance i n s hape a nd p o s s ib le f unc t ion t o c ommon f l in t t oo ls ( c f . Ro sen 1 984 : 5 04 ) , may s hed l i gh t o n t he r o le o f t hese c opper t oo l i n t he c ommun i ty , a nd t he ir u se f or s pec if ic t a sks . The i n tra s i te s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f t he c ruc ib le f ragmen t s , s l ag s a nd o re s a t S h iqm im r a ise a n umber o f q ue s t ion s c oncern ing t he l o ca t ion o f m e ta l p roduc t ion i n t he v i l lage . A s s een i n F ig . 1 4 .1 , t he se me ta l r e la ted a r tefac t s a re s pread o ver t he e n t ire e xcava ted a rea . Doe s t h i s p a t tern i nd ica te t ha t m e ta l p roduc t ion was c arr ied o u t i n e very p or t ion o f t he v i l lage? O r i s t h i s p a t tern ing d ue t o s i te f orma t ion p roce s se s? A t t h is s t age i n o ur r e search , t he se q ue s t ion s r ema in u nanswered . T he c ha in o f e v idence a nd t he i n terpre ta t ion s p resen ted h ere c l ear ly d emon s tra te t he a spec t s o f al o ca l m e ta l lurg ica l i ndus try t ha t w as c onduc ted o n t he s i te o f S h iqm im a nd o ther C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage s a long t he B eersheva v a l ley . I tc an b e e xpec ted t ha t f u ture i nves t iga t ions w i l l r evea l more work ing a reas a nd b e t ter p reserved me ta l lurg ica l f urnaces . Th is w i l l f ur ther i l lum ina te t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic r o le o f t he me ta l i ndu s try o f t he Cha lco l i th ic c ommun i t ie s i n t h is r eg ion .

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS Among s t t he many p eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ions who se a dv ice a nd s uppor t w ere o f d ec i s ive i mpor tance i n c arry ing o u t t h is r e search , w e w ou ld l i ke t o t hank : T . L evy a nd D . A lon f or t he o ppor tun i ty o f work ing o n t he S h iqm im Ma ter ia l ; T he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , T e l Av iv Un iver s i ty , a nd i n p ar t icu lar M . Kochav i ; t he B r i t ish C ounc i l a nd t he D epar tmen t o f Me ta l lurgy a t t he Un ivers i ty o f Oxford , e spec ia l ly C .J . S a l ter ; T . We is sbrod a nd A . S and ler f rom t he G eo log ica l S urvey o f I s rae l ; J . P erro t f or p erm is s ion t o a na lyze s l ag s amp les f rom B ir e s -Safad i ; a nd B . E l ie l , M . Go ldman , Y . D eke l , 0 . P aran , A . P erry , Y . Goren , I .G i lead , A . Horow i tz , N . Ha lper in a nd B . Ro thenberg who h e lped b r ing t h is work t o i t s f ina l f orm .

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T ab le 1 4 .1 No .

L ocat ion a nd S ize o f Aw l P o ints f rom S h iqm im .

P rovenance A rea S q .

L ocus

S ize ( cm ) L eng th D iame ter

No tes

P 6

C

K4

0 2454

4 . 7

0 . 4

P la te 1 4 .5 :2

P 7

D

Q9

0 2604

4 . 6

0 . 3

i n Room 6 w i th S 1-2 , P la te 1 4 .5 :3

S i

D

Q9

0 2604

1 . 4

0 . 3

i nser ted i n to a b one h and le n ear P 7 , S 2 , P la te 1 4 .5 :7

S 2

D

Q9

0 2604

2 . 1

0 . 3

b roken , i n Room 6 , n ear P 7 , S i , P la te 1 4 .5 :4

S 3

D

Q 12

0 2887

2 . 2

0 . 3

S 4

A

B 4

0 2017

3 . 0

0 . 3

b roken

S 5

A

E 3

0 1751

0 . 5

0 . 3

b roken , n ear s cep tre ( P2 )

T ab le 1 4 .2 No .

L oca t ion a nd S ize o f C opper B lade T oo ls .

P rovenance A rea S q

B aske t Number

S ize ( cm ) L eng th Cu t t ing e dge

P 9/10

D

P 10

0 2572

1 2

P 11/12

C

J 3

0 1910

6 . 9

P 13/14

C

J 5

0 2946

1 9 .8

1 . 4*

P 15

C

J 5

0 2946

1 0 .4

3 . 1

No tes B lunt e nd

C en tra l w id th

4 . 5

2 . 4

1 . 4

l a rge a xe , i n c our tyard , n or th o f Room 6 , P la te 1 4 .4 :1

3 . 3

2 . 2

1

s ma l l a xe , P la te 1 4 .4 :2

1 . 3

c h ise l , a longs ide P 15* i n m idd le , P la te 1 4 .3 :2

1 . 1

med ium a xe , a longs ide P 13/14 . P late 1 4 .3 :1

1 . 9

Chap ter 1 4 : Cha lco l i th ic Me ta l a nd Me ta lwork ing

BI BL IOGRAPHY

Aharon i , Y . 1 961 The E xped i t ion t o t he J udean D eser t , 1 960 : E xped i t ion B . Exp lora t ion J ourna l 1 :11-24 . A lon , D . 1 977

A Cha lco l i th ic t emp le a t G i la th .

I s rae l

B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 0 : 6 3 -65 .

Am iran , R . 1 978 E ar ly A rad - T he C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd E ar ly B ronze C i ty . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . B amberger , M . , W inc ierz , P . , B achmann , H .G . , Ro thenberg , B . 1 986 Anc ien t s me lt ing o f o x ide c opper o re . Me ta l l 1 ,40 : 2 -10 . B ar -Adon , P . 1 980 T he C ave o f t h e T reasure .

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty .

B e it -Ar ieh , I .a nd Gophna , R . 1 977 A n o te o n a Cha lco l ith ic s i te i n Wad i A raba . Do than , M . 1 957

E xcava t ions a t Meser , 1 956 .

Do than , M . 1 959

E xcava t ions a t Horvat B e ter ( Beer S heva ) .

T e l A v iv 4 : 105 -109

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 7 : 217 -228 .

A t iqo t 2 : 1 71 .

E ldar , I .a nd B aumgar ten , Y . 1 985 Neve Noy : A Cha lco l ith ic s i te o f t he B eer -sheba Cu lture . A rchaeo log is t 4 8 :134 -139 . Gophna , R . 1 982 The Cha lco l i th ic P er iod . ( Hebrew ) .

B ib l ica l

T he H is tory o f E re tz I s rae l , Vo l . 1 : 76 -94 .

Goren , Y . 1 987 News i n t he p e trograph ic r esearch o f c lay a nd s t one v esse ls i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod i n t he n or thern Negev . Abs trac t f rom The Th ir teen th A rchaeo log ica l C ongres s i n I s rae l ( 16 - 1 8 F ebruary , 1 987 ) . Hanbury -Ten ison , J .W . 1 986 T he L a te C ha lco l i th ic t o E ar ly B ronze I T rans i t ion i n P a les t ine a nd T rans j ordan . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts I n ternat iona l S er ie s 3 11 . Haup tmann , A . , We isgerber , G . a nd Knauf , E . A . 1 985 A rchaeome ta l lurg ische u nd b ergbauarchaeo log ische Untersuchungen i m Geb ie t v on F enan , Wad i A rabah ( Jordan ien ) . D er A nschr if t 5 -6 :163 -195 .

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Hes tr in , R . a nd T admor , M . 1 963 A Hoard o f T oo ls a nd Exp lora t ion J ourna l 1 3 :265 -288 .

Weapons

f rom Kfar

Monash .

I s rae l

Key , C . A . 1 980 The t race -e lement c ompo s i t ion o f t he c opper a nd c opper a l loy a r t ifac ts o f t he Naha l M ishmar h oard . p p . 2 38 -43 i n T he C ave o f t h e T reasure b y P . B ar -Adon . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc ie ty . L evy , T . E . 1 986 A rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he s tudy o f Cha lco l ith ic p er iod . B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 9 :82 -108 . L evy , T . E . a nd A lon , D . 1 985 S h iq m im : A Cha lco l ith ic v i l lage n or thern Negev . P a le/o r ien t 1/1 : 7 1-83 .

a nd

P a les t ine :

mor tuary c en tre

i n

The

t he

Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . , a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -32 . Rome : P ont if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tu te . Muh ly , J . 1 983 Kupfer . I n R ea l lec ikon A rchao log ie , p p . 3 48 -364 .

d er

A ssyro log ie

P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar . 1 7 -40 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -89 . 1 957

u nd

v orderas ia t ischen

I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 :

L es f ou i l les d 'Abou Matar p ies d e B eersheba .

S yr ia 3 4 :1-38 .

1 961 Une t o mbe ä o ssua ires d u I Ve m i l lena ire ä A zor p re s d e T e l Av iv . A t iqo t 3 : 1-83 . 1 968 L e p reh is to ire P a les t in ienne . P p . 2 86 -446 d ic t ionna ire d e l a B ib le 8 . P ar is : L e touzey a nd Ane . 1 979

i n

S upp lemen t

a u

S yr ia -Pa les t ine I . P ar is : Nage l P ub l ishers .

P o tazk in , R . a nd B ar -Av i , K . 1 980 A ma ter ia l i nves t igat ion o f me ta l o b jec ts f rom t he Naha l M ishmar t r easure . P p . 2 35 -37 i n T he C ave o f t h e T reasure b y P . B ar Adon . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty . Rosen , S .A . 1 984 The a dop t ion o f me ta l lurgy i n t he L evan t : al i th ic p er spec t ive . C urren t A n thropo logy 2 5 : 5 04 -5 05 . Ro thenberg , B . , Ty leco te , R .F . , a nd B oyde l l , P . J . 1 978 C ha lco l i th ic C opper Sme l t ing -Excava t ions a nd Exper imen ts . S er ies : A rchaeo - Me ta l lurgy Monograph 1 . L ondon : I ns t i tu te f or A rchaeo Me ta l lurg ica l S tud ies .

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Chap ter 1 4 : Cha lco l i th ic Me ta l a nd Me ta lwork ing

R o thenberg , B . 1 985 C opper s me l t ing f urnaces i n t he A rabah , I s rae l : The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i n F urnaces a nd s me lt ing t echno logy i n a nt iqu i ty , P . T . C raddoc a nd M . J . Hughes , e ds . B r i t ish Museum O ccas iona l P aper No 4 8 :123 -150 . T y lecote , R . F . , Ro thenberg , B . a nd L upu , A . 1 974 The e xam ina t ion o f me ta l lurg ica l I s rae l . JH MS 8 : 32 -34 .

ma ter ia l

f rom

Abu

Ma tar ,

T y lecote , R . F . 1 981 Cha lco l ith ic me ta l lurgy i n t he E as tern Med i terranean i n Cha lco l i th ic C yprus a nd Wes tern A s ia , J . Reade , e d . B r i t ish Museum O ccas iona l P aper No . 2 6 :41-51 . U ss ishk in , D . 1 986 P reh is tory . 6 000 y ears o f a r t i n t h e h o ly l and . Y . Yad in , e d . , p p . 9 -61 . ( Hebrew ) .

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C hap ter 1 5

THEORY AND PRACTICE I N HOUSEHOLD ARCHAEOLOGY : A CASE STUDY FRO M THE CHALCOLITHIC V ILLAGE AT SHIQ M IM

b y

T homas E . L evy N e lson G lueck S choo l o f B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy H ebrew Un ion C o l lege -Jew ish I ns t i tu te o f R e l ig ion J erusa lem a nd Augu s t in Ho 1 1 D epar tmen t o f E thno logy a nd P reh i s tory Un iver s i te d e P ar is , Nan terre

I N TRODUCT ION A rchaeo log is t s t oday a re more aware o f t he l im i ta t ions o f t he c u l ture h i s tor ica l a pproach p re sen ted i n many a n thropo logy t ex t b ook s . T oday t here i s a n e ffor t t o l ook f or more s ub t le a nd s oph is t ica ted e xp lana t ions o f c u l tura l d ynam ics a nd t r ansforma t ions . Unfor tuna te ly t h is s e lf -consc iousne s s l eads f rom t ime t o t ime t o t he emergence o f a n tagon i s t ic s choo ls o f t hough t , where r iva lr ies o bscure t he n a ture o f t he i s sue s i n c on ten t ion . Th is c ompe t i t ion b e tween r iva l p arad igm s i s a n ece s sary c ond i t ion f or t he d eve lopmen t o f a h ea l thy a nd g enu ine s c ien t if ic i nve s t iga t ion . I n t h is r egard , wha t w e may c a l l s oc ia l a rchaeo logy i s n o t an ew s choo l o f t hough t b u t t he o u tcome o f a ma jor s h if t i n t he f i e ld o f a rchaeo logy . I t i s more a s t a te o f m ind t han a u n if ied b ody o f t heory a nd m e thod wh ich i s d irec ted t oward t he a rchaeo log ica l e xp lana t ion o f ma jor a n thropo log ica l p rob lem s . A s C o l in R enfrew ( 1984 :3 ) p o in t s o u t , I n s tudy ing t he h uman p as t i t i s n o t e nough s imp ly t o r econs truc t wha t h appened . R econs truc t ion i si ndeed o ne o f t he l eg i t ima te c oncerns o f t he h is tor ian a nd a rchaeo log is t , a nd a n ece s sary p re l im inary t o f ur ther a na lys is . B u t w e n eed t o k now more . We n eed t o u nder s tand i n s o me s ense h ow i th appened . We h ave t o d iscern s o me p a t tern , t o i den t ify s o me s imp l ify ing p r inc ip les . We h ave t o d ec ide wha t i s s i gn if ican t f or u s . . . I ncreas ing ly w e a re c om ing t o a pprec ia te t ha t a s oc ia l

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a pproach i s a p ar t icu lar ly r eward ing o ne . Thus , s oc ia l a rchaeo logy may b e c harac ter ized b y i t s me thodo log ica l s oph i s t ica t ion , t he e xp l ic i t f ormu la t ion o f r e search p rob lem s , t he w i l l ingne s s t o o vercome d isc ip l inary p rov inc ia l ism , a nd t he e labora t ion o f t e s tab le r e search c onc lus ion s . A ccord ing t o R edman e t a l ( 1975 :5 ) , w i thou t n ew me thods o f a na lys is , a rchaeo log ica l t heory c ou ld n o t e xpand e ff ic ien t ly , s i nce a modern emp ir ica l d isc ip l ine o ugh t t o b e a b le t o a im a t a more r eward ing r e su l t t han t he p i l ing u p o f d a ta a nd a s t eady o u tpu t o f i m i ta t ion h i s tory . The p urpo se o f t h is p aper i s t herefore t o e va lua te t he p o ten t ia l s o f a n a rchaeo log ica l a na lys is o f t he s ma l le s t u n i ts o f s oc ia l a ggrega t ion . C on s ider ing t he f ac t t ha t h uman b ehav iour i s modu lar , a nd t ha t t hese modu le s a re i n tegra ted i n ah ierarch ica l s cheme o f i ncreas ing i nc lu s ivenes s , a n a na lys i s o f t he b as ic s t ruc tura l n ode s o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i n s oc ia l a n thropo logy a s w e l l a s i n a rchaeo logy may c ons t i tu te a s ounder b as is f or c ro ss -cu l tura l r esearch . T h is may a l so a l low u s t o u nders tand s ome o f t he p roce s ses wh ich l ed t o t r ansforma t ion s a nd v ar ia t ions i n f orm s o f h uman s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion . T he emphas is o n t h is s ma l le s t u n i t o f s oc ia l a ggrega t ion , t he h ouseho ld , i so n ly o ne r e search s t ra tegy among many o thers . We d o n o t c la im t o r educe a l l a rchaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion t o t he a na lys is o f t ha t u n i t . However , w e wou ld p o in t o u t t ha t al a rge n umber o f a rchaeo log ica l c ons truc ts a re l og ica l ly w eak b ecause r e searchers h ave i gnored t h is l eve l o f s oc ia l i n terac t ion .

CU LTURE , BE HAV IOR A ND MA TER IAL CU LTURE A rchaeo log is t s s eek t o u nders tand t he r e la t ion b e tween h uman b ehav iour a nd ma ter ia l c u l ture , b o th i n t he p a s t a s w e l l a s t he p resen t . A l l t hese f ea tures o f h uman l i fe a re s haped b y s e ts o f s hared s ys tem s o f mean ing a nd s ymbo ls wh ich may b e c a l led c u l ture s ( Ken t 1 984 ) . E ven i f i t r e ma ins d iff icu l t t o t r ace t he f ron t ier b e tween c u l ture , b ehav iour a nd ma ter ia l c u l ture wh ich a re i n t ima te ly i n terre la ted , w e may a gree t ha t t hey a re n o t i n terchangeab le . B ehav iour i s as oc ia l a c t ion wh ich may r esu l t i n t he c rea t ion o f ma ter ia l o b jec t s . Ma ter ia l c u l ture i st hus made u p o f t he t ang ib le p roduc ts o f b ehav iour . A ccord ing t o B inford ( 1980 ) , t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i st he p roduc t o r d er iva t ive o f ac u l tura l s ys tem wh ich i s s y mp toma t ic o f t he p as t . A s s uch , w e c anno t h ope t o u nder s tand t he c ause s o f t he se r ema ins t hrough a f orma l c ompara t ive s tudy o f t he r ema ins t hem se lve s . We mu s t s earch f or a d eeper l eve l o f u nder s tand ing o f t he r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween t he d ynam ics o f al i v ing s y s tem i n t he p a s t a nd t he ma ter ia l b y -produc ts t ha t c on tr ibu ted t o t he f orma t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord r e ma in ing t oday .

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Our i nference s a bou t p as t s oc ie t ie s mus t t herefore b e b a sed u pon c oheren t s e t s o f emp ir ica l d a ta , wh ich c an b e u sed t o t e s t t he a ccuracy o f o ur t heore t ica l mode ls . One o f t he k ey c oncep t s i n t h i s i s t he a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty o f p a t terned b ehav iour . T h is means t he a b i l i ty t o s ee a p a s t e ven t o r o ccupa t ion a t as i te i n t e rm s o f t he p hys ica l c hange s t here a nd h ence , r ecord i t s o b servab le a t tr ibu te s . T h is v i s ib i l i ty g enera l ly i ncrease s w i th t ime , p ermanence a nd i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion , a cce s s t o a nd/or a b i l i ty t o a cqu ire d urab le b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls , a nd s oc io -econom ic p o s i t ion s .

TH EORY A ND PR INC IPLES A l a rge b ody o f a n thropo log ica l d a ta d emons tra te t he e x i s tence o f s o me c orre la t ions b e tween c er ta in t ype s o f s oc ia l a nd t e chno log ica l o rgan isa t ions a nd t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f l a rger a nd more p ermanen t c ons t i tuen t s o f s i te s t ruc ture ( e .g . , H i l l 1 982 ; Abe le s a nd C o l lard 1 985 ; K ramer 1 982 ; Durrenberger 1 984 ; A rdener 1 981 ; B ohannan a nd B ohannan 1 968 ; Ken t 1 984 ; Harr is 1 980 ) . A d eeper e xam ina t ion o f t he p a t tern ing o f t he se c orre la t ion s may p erm i t d iscovery o f s o me o f t he k ey d i men s ions c ond i t ion ing t he i n terre la t ion b e tween s oc io techno log ica l v ar iab les a nd t he c omponen t o f s i te s t ruc ture . T heore t ica l ly , t he s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o f a s i te may d epend o n t he s pec if ic e conom ic s y s tem o f ag iven s oc ie ty , i t s s oc io -econom ic o rgan isa t ion a nd t he s t ruc ture o f t ime space a l loca t ion s y s tem s . I t i s u sefu l t o a na lyze t he se f ea ture s i n more d e ta i l . 1 .T he E conom ic S y s tem A t temp t s t o a b s trac t ap ure e conom ic s phere f rom a g loba l s oc ia l s ys tem i s av ery h ard t a sk . N ever the le s s i t may b e u sefu l t o s pec ify t ha t e conomy p er s e i sn o t a n a na ly t ica l c on s truc t b u t a" s ugge s t ive c oncep t " : i ti st he t o ta l r e su l t o f mu l t ip le i nd iv idua l a nd/or c o l lec t ive d ec is ions r e la ted t o t he p rocuremen t , t he p roce s s ing , t he d is tr ibu t ion a nd c on sump t ion o f v ar iou s k ind s o f g oods a nd r e source s . I n t h i s p er spec t ive , e conom ic a c t iv i t ies a re a lways o rgan ised s oc ia l ly ; t he t a sk o f a ny e conom ic a na lys is i s t hus t o r evea l t he s t ruc tura l n ode s wh ich a r t icu la te a ny s pec if ic e conom ic s y s tem . I f w e c ons ider e conomy a s a s e t o f a c t iv i t ie s t hrough wh ich t he c onsumer p opu la t ion o rgan ise s , i n tegra te s a nd manages v ar ious k ind s o f r e sources f or i t s own ma in tenance a nd r eproduc t ion ( b io log ica l ly a s w e l l a s s oc ia l ly ) , t hen s ub s is tence a ppear s t o b e o n ly a c omponen t p ar t o f a l a rger who le . T hus , i t i s e as ier t o u nder s tand f rom t he n orma t ive a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew , t he c onfus ion b e tween s ub s is tence a nd e conomy a s mere ly a c onfu s ion o f s ca le s . An e conom ic s y s tem i s c ompo sed o f t wo ma jor a spec t s : f i rs t ly , t he f orce s o f p roduc t ion , l and a nd i t s p o ten t ia l , a nd s econd ly , t he s oc ia l r e la t ions o f p roduc t ion , i . e . , t he s oc ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f r o le s , t a sk s a nd p roduc ts . T he se t wo a spec t s a re a lway s i n t ima te ly i n terre la ted s o t ha t w e c an t a lk o f s pec if ic mode s o f p roduc t ion ( Gode l ier 1 978 , 1 980 , 1 984 ) .

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F rom t h is s hor t g enera l o u t l ine , w e c an f ormu la te s o me s imp le q ue s t ion s wh ich w i l l h e lp u s i n o ur a na ly s is :

-Who p roduces wha t , when , where a nd h ow? -Who p roces ses wha t , when , where a nd h ow? -Who r ece ives wha t , when , where a nd h ow? -Who c onsumes wha t , when , where a nd h ow? E ach o f t he se q ue s t ion s s ugge s t a s pec if ic i n s tance o f a n e conom ic s y s tem : p roduc t ion a nd a cqu is i t ion , t r ansforma t ion o r p roce s s ing , d is tr ibu t ion , c on sump t ion a nd d i scard . Many o f t he se i n s tance s may b e s ub jec t t o a rchaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion w i th d ue emphas i s o n a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty b ecause t hey r e su l t f rom s pec if ic b ehav iour s . T h is r econ s truc t ion o f e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s c an a l so l e ad t o t he s tudy o f d ifferen t l eve ls o f s oc ia l a r t icu la t ion o f a n e conom ic s ys tem , f or e xamp le , u n i ts o f p roduc t ion a nd u n i ts o f c onsump t ion . 2 .E conom ic a c t iv i t ies a nd t ime -space a l loca t ion I n t he b road c on tex t o f e conom ic s y s tem s wh ich a re b ased e xc lu s ive ly o n man ' s b are l abour f orce t o a cqu ire a nd p roce s s p lan t a nd a n ima l r e source s , t he a na ly t ica l c oncep t o f mode o f l and e xp lo i ta t ion c an b e o perat iona l ized ( Te s tar t 1 982 ) . A ccord ing t o Me i l las soux ( 1977 ) , i n h un t ing a nd g a ther ing e conom ie s , l and i s a n " ob jec t o f l abour " . T he p rocuremen t s ys tem c ons is t s o f t he e x trac t ion o f n a tura l r e source s t hough g a ther ing a nd f orag ing . I n f ood p roduc ing e conom ies , a gr icu l ture , p as tora l ism a nd a gro -pas tora l ism , l and b ecomes a " mean s o f l abour . " T hus , l abour i s i nve s ted i n t he l and w i th t he e xpec ta t ion o f ad e layed r e turn . T he se k inds o f a gr icu l tura l b ased s oc ie t ies w i tne s sed ma jor c hanges i n t he ir s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd i deo log ica l s t ruc ture s . A s n or thern n ece s sary p r inc ip le s

w e a re d ea l ing w i th 4 th m i l lenn ium f ood p roduc ing e conom ies i n t he N egev d e ser t , t he managemen t o f e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd t he ir c ond i t ion s may b e made more e xp l ic i t b y p inpo in t ing s o me s imp le r e la ted t o t ime space a l loca t ion .

T he f i r s t p r inc ip le i sr e la ted t o t he d i scre te n a ture o f h uman b e ing s . A t p resen t , h uman b e ing s c an n o t y e t b e a t more t han o ne p lace a t t he s a me t ime ; t h is p r inc ip le may b e c a l led " non -ub iqu i ty " . F aced w i th t he d ifferen t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f p o ten t ia l r e sources i n t ime a s w e l l a s i n s pace i n a ny g iven r eg ion , h uman s oc ie t ie s d ev ise a v ar ie ty o f m echan isms t o c ope w i th t h is g enera l s i tua t ion . T hese mechan ism s d epend o n t he n a ture o f t he r e sources d e s ired a nd p roces sed . T he s econd p r inc ip le i sr e la ted t o t he s pec if ic n a ture o f t ime , wh ich c an n o t b e s t ored . T ime i s i r revers ib le , i t i s au n id irec t iona l a nd c on t inous f l ow

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( Car ls te in 1 982 ; B a i ley 1 983 ) . I t c an t hus b e p ar t i t ioned i n to t hree ma in a spec t s : s ucce s s ion , wh ich r efer s t o t he s equence o f e ven t s i n at ime c on t inuum ; d ura t ion , r eferr ing t o at ime b loc d ur ing wh ich a n e ven t o ccur s a nd/or t he t ime i n terva l b e tween t wo s ucce s s ive e ven ts ; a nd f ina l ly , s imu l tane i ty , wh ich r efers t o t he c o -occurrence o f e ven ts i n t he s a me r eference t ime b loc . T he se t wo s pa t io tempora l p r inc ip le s h ave t r emendous i mp l ica t ion s f or e very s oc io -econom ic s ys tem . A ccord ing t o t he mechan ica l p roper t ies o f t he ma ter ia l b e ing p roce s sed , l og is t ic s a nd l o ca t ion s , s o me e conom ic t a sks may b e s ucces s ive a nd/or s imu l taneous . T o d ea l w i th t hese b a s ic f ea ture s , s oc ie t ies c rea te v ar ious managemen t s t ruc ture s among wh ich d iv is ion o f l abour , t a sk g roup s , a nd w i th t he emergence o f d ifferen t ia l s k i l ls , v ar ious k ind s o f s pec ia l isa t ion . T he se i ns tances may l e ad t o s pec if ic a c t iv i ty g roup s w i th more o r l e ss c l ear -cu t s pa t io tempora l l o ca t ions . I f w e c on s ider t he p o lar e x tremes o f t he c on t inuum p roduc t ion - p roce s s ing - d is tr ibu t ion - c onsump t ion - d i scard , wh ich i s ac ha in o f i nd iv idua l a nd/or c o l lec t ive s oc io -econom ic a c t iv i t ie s , i ti s p o ss ib le t o d e tec t t he ir s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . W i th t h is o b serva t ion i ti sp o s s ib le t o b u i ld t e s tab le i nference s c oncern ing t he s oc ia l e n t i t ie s r e spons ib le f or e ach d is t inc t a c t iv i ty s e t . T here i s n o d oub t t ha t s i te s t ruc ture i s p a t terned i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , h owever , t h is p a t tern ing r e su l t s f rom b o th p as t b ehav iour a nd s i te f orma t ion p roce s se s . I n o rder t o u nder s tand p as t b ehav ioura l s t ruc ture s , t he t aphonom ic i n tegr i ty o f a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t s mus t f i r s t b e e s tab l ished ( Sch iffer 1 978 ) t o a vo id t he " Pompe i i p rem ise " ( B inford 1 981) . A ccord ing t o O swa ld ( 1984 :297 -306 ) , t wo s e t s o f p rob lem s s hou ld b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion i n t he a na ly s is o f s i te s t ruc ture i n o rder t o i nfer s oc ia l a nd t echno log ica l o rgan isa t ion f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T he se i nc lude t he mechan ica l c harac ter is t ic s o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd t he ir s oc io techno log ica l c on tex t s . The f ormer , c oncerns t he p rocedures a nd ma ter ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th a l l a c t iv i t ies wh ich c ro s s -cu t a l l s oc ia l a nd e thn ic a ff i l ia t ions a nd e s tab l ish t he b as ic s pa t ia l r equ iremen ts f or e very t a sk . T he l a t ter l im i t t he w ay i n wh ich s pace c an b e o rgan i sed t o a ccomoda te t he m echan ica l n eeds o f a ny a c t iv i ty ; t hey c an a l so mod ify t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing b u t c anno t o verr ide i t . H ence , a c t iv i t ies h ave s chedu l ing p a t tern s wh ich d epend o n b as ic c harac ter is t ic s s uch a s f requency , p er iod ic i ty , d ura t ion , n umber o f p ar t ic ipan t s , f ac i l i ty r equ iremen t s a nd t he r e la t ive b u lk o f a s soc ia ted ma ter ia ls ( O swa ld 1 984 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese c u l tura l a c t iv i t ies , a rchaeo log is ts mus t c arefu l ly c on s ider t he n a tura l f orma t ion p roces se s ( Sch iffer 1 972 ) t ha t h ave a ffec ted t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f a r tefac t s i n t he s i te . I n t he p er spec t ive o u t l ined a bove , au n i t o f p roduc t ion may b e d ef ined a s t he m in ima l l abour c ommun i ty i n wh ich t he who le r ange o f ap rocuremen t o r p roduc t ion p roces s c an t ake p lace ( D igard 1 982 : 1 70 ) . T o o pera t iona l i se s uch a d ef in i t ion i n a rchaeo logy , o ne e ncoun ters s evera l d iff icu l t ie s d ue t o t he o ver lapp ing o f many a c t iv i t ie s i n s o me a rchaeo laog ica l f ea ture s . However , t he c o -occurrence o f s ome d iagno s t ic d a ta s uch a s s pec if ic k inds o f f ac i l i t ies , r aw ma ter ia l s a nd t oo ls i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a re s ome t imes e a s i ly r ecovered . F or e xamp le , w e may c on s ider t ha t a n a rchaeo log ica l f ea ture o r a s pec if ic

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a c t iv i ty s i te i si nd ica t ive o f aw ide r ange o f a c t iv i t ies . T hese c an i nc lude : t he p rocuremen t o f r aw ma ter ia ls s uch a s s t one f rom q uarr ie s , c lay f rom s e lec ted d epo s i t s , me ta l l ic o re f rom m ine s ; t he p roce s s ing o f t hese r aw ma ter ia l s f or l i th ic manufac ture , p o t tery o r m e ta l lurgy ; a nd h un t ing a nd b u tcher ing s i te s . T he se a c t iv i ty s i te s p rov ide a rchaeo log ica l t r aces o f d ifferen t u n i t s o f p roduc t ion , e ven i f i t r ema ins d iff icu l t t o k now p rec i se ly t he c ompos i t ion o f t he s oc ia l e n t i t ie s r e spons ib le f or t he a t te s ted a c t iv i t ies . Ana ly t ica l d ifferen t ia t ion b e tween p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion i s t heore t ica l ly v a l id a nd b ased o n t he a s sump t ion t ha t p roduc t ion i s a p recond i t ion t o c onsump t ion . E ven i f t here a re s o me a reas o f o ver lap b e tween b o th o f t hem , t he u n i t o f c onsump t ion may b e d ef ined a s t he m in ima l s oc ia l e n t i ty i n wh ich i nd iv idua ls a re i n d a i ly i n terac t ion . T he s har ing o f f ood a nd o ther c ommod i t ie s s uch a s s he l ter a re s ome o f i t s p rom inen t t r a i ts . Thu s , t he s a me s oc ia l u n i t c an b e d ependen t o n t he s chedu l ing o f a c t iv i t ies wh ich a re c on s idered b o th a u n i t o f p roduc t ion a nd a u n i t o f c onsump t ion . I n many h uman s oc ie t ies t hese f unc t ions a re o f ten a s sumed b y t he e l emen tary s oc ia l u n i ts , i . e . , t he h ouseho ld . T h i s r epre sen t s t he l owes t s oc ia l s ca le o f i n tegra t ion . T he s tudy o f h ouseho ld s t ruc ture s a nd t r an sforma t ions i n a rchaeo logy i s t herefore o f p aramoun t i mpor tance i n t he e xp lana t ion o f v ar iab i l i ty a nd c hange i n s oc ia l s ys tem s o f t he p as t .

TH EORET ICAL A ND M E THODOLOG ICAL ISUES I N HO USEHOLD AR CHAEOLOGY I n r ecen t y ears t here h as b een .c ons iderab le i n tere s t i n t he p o ten t ia ls a nd l im i t s o f h ou seho ld a rchaeo logy ( e .g . , D ee tz 1 982 ; K ramer 1 982b ; W i lk a nd R a th je 1 982 ) . S ome r e searcher s ( Tr ingham 1 983 ) h ave t r ied t o o pera t iona l i se t he c oncep t o f h ouseho ld i n o rder t o t e s t s evera l d eve lopmen ta l t r a jec tor ies o f f ood p roduc ing e conom ies i n t he ir s pec if ic s tudy a reas . E thnoarchaeo log ica l s tud ie s h ave a l so b een c arr ied o u t t o c lar ify t he r e la t ion b e tween h uman b ehav iour a nd t he ma ter ia l b iproduc ts o f t he se b ehav iour s ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 983 ; Hayden a nd C annon 1 984 ) . However , t he e n thus ia sm f or t h is a pproach t ends t o r ecede b ecause o f p rac t ica l d iff icu l t ie s i n t he f i e ld . A rchaeo log is t s d o n o t a lways h ave a t t he ir d isposa l t he f und ing a nd t he t ime n eces sary t o c arry o u t l ong a nd p a t ien t e xcava t ion c ampa igns i n o rder t o o b ta in a n a dequa te a rea l s amp le o f many h undred s o f s quare me tre s . L arge a rea l s amp les a re t he b e s t m e thod f or c o l lec t ing a rchaeo log ica l d a ta c oncern ing i nd iv idua l h ouseho lds . I n t h is s ense t he P hase I e xcava t ions a t S h iqm im p rov ide a n e x treme ly u sefu l s a mp le f or i nve s t iga t ing h ouseho lds . T he l im i ta t ions i nvo lved i n r e scue a rchaeo logy a nd c on trac t a rchaeo logy s evere ly l im i t t he o ppor tun i ty t o d eve lope f i e ld r e search s t ra teg ie s f or t he emergence o f as ound h ouseho ld a rchaeo logy . N ever the le s s , w e b e l ieve t ha t ma jor a dvance s h ave b een made i n t h is d irec t ion , s ome o f t hem e xp l ic i t a nd many o ther s i mp l ic i t . I n t he r ema inder o f t h is p aper , w e w i l l e xp lore t he n a ture o f d a ta r e levan t t o t he a rchaeo log ica l a na lys i s o f h ouseho lds , t he l eve ls a t wh ich t he se d a ta may b e i n tegra ted a nd t hen b u i ld a r e search d e s ign f or i nve s t iga t ing t he se m in ima l s oc ia l u n i t s .

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1 .T he n a ture o f h ouseho lds F o l low ing o ur p rev ious d iscu s s ion c oncern ing t he s oc io -econom ic s y s tem , w e s aw t ha t ap or t ion o f p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion o ccur s w i th in t he s oc ia l c on tex t o f h ouseho lds . T hus , e ven i f t here i s n o n eed t o a s sume a s t r ic t e qu iva lence o n ly b e tween u n i ts o f c onsump t ion a nd h ouseho ld , w e may e as i ly a gree t ha t t h i s s oc ia l u n i t i s t he c on tex t i n wh ich p referen t ia l c on sump t ion o ccur s . T he n a ture o f h ouseho lds v ary f rom o ne s oc ie ty t o a no ther ( Dee tz 1 982 ; K ramer 1 982a ,b ; Warn ier 1 985 ; H i l l 1 982 ; McNe t t ing 1 984 ; Abe les a nd C o l lard 1 985 ) . Wha tever t he c omponen t s o f ah ouseho ld may b e , i t c l ear ly r epre sen t s a n e conom ic a nd s oc ia l c oopera t ion u n i t wh ich d oe s n o t n eces sar i ly i mp ly s t r ic t c o -res idence , e ven i f t h is l a s t v ar iab le i s t he mos t r eccurren t o ne ( W i lk a nd R a th j e 1 982 : 6 20 ) . T he b a s ic h ouseho ld s t ruc ture a r t icu la te s a bove a l l o n k insh ip r e la t ion s . T h i s u n i t e nsure s f ive p rom inen t s oc ia l a nd e conom ic f unc t ions : p roduc t ion s ensu l aw , t r anforma t ion , d i s tr ibu t ion/consump t ion , t r ansm is s ion o f w ea l th a nd s oc ia l a t tr ibu te s , a nd s oc ia l a nd b io log ica l r eproduc t ion . T h is mu l t ip l ic i ty o f h ouseho ld f unc t ion s h as l ed s o me s cho lars t o d e l inea te a n e conom ic d oma in c a l led t he " Dome s t ic Mode o f P roduc t ion " ( Sah l ins 1 976 ) . 2 .H ouseho ld d ynam ics Many d i sc ip l ine s a nd r e searchers h ave s tud ied t he d ynam ic s o f h ouseho ld s . T he se s tud ie s h ave b een c arr ied o u t p r imar i ly b y h is tor ians ( Sm i th 1 984 ) , s tuden t s o f p easan t e conom ie s ( Chayanov 1 966 ; Durrenberger 1 984 ) a nd a n thropo log i s t s ( Bohannan a nd B ohannan 1 968 ; E vans -Pr i tchard 1 968 ; H i l l 1 982 ; Dumas -Champ ion 1 983 ; D igard 1 981 ; a nd o ther s ) . O f p aramoun t i mpor tance i s t he r e search c arr ied o u t b y V .A . C hayanov o n t he Ru ss ian p ea san try i n t he 1 920 ' s . T h is h a s s hown t ha t t here a re s e ts o f s t ruc tura l r e la t ions b e tween t he d emograph ic c ompo s i t ion o f h ou seho lds , t he ir e conom ic s t a tus , t he ir l abour f orce a nd t he ir f arm ing p o ten t ia l s . A t t he h ear t o f C hayanov ' s a pproach t o t he a na ly s is o f p easan t h ouseho ld e conom ie s i s t he i dea t ha t t here i s an a tura l l im i t t o p roduc t ion , d e term ined b y t he b a lance o r e qu i l ibr ium o f i ncreas ing d rudgery o f l abour a nd t he d ecrea s ing marg ina l u t i l i ty o f g oods p roduced ( Durrenberger 1 984 : 3 9 ) . A ccord ing t o C hayanov ( 1966 : 5 -6 ) , t he amoun t o f l abour p roduced i s d e term ined p r imar i ly b y t he s i ze a nd c ompo s i t ion o f t he work ing h ouseho ld , t he n umber o f i t s member s c apab le o f work , t he p roduc t ion o f t he l abour u n i t , a nd t he d egree o f s e lf -exp lo i ta t ion t hrough wh ich t he work ing members e ffec t ac er ta in q uan t i ty o f l abour u n i ts i n t he c our se o f t he y ear . Thus , C hayanov c ons idered c er ta in k ey v ar iab les t o a na lyse t he d ynam ics o f p easan t f arm o rgan i sa t ions . T hese i nc lude : ac onsumer/worker r a t io wh ich v ar ie s w i th t he l i fe c yc le o f t he h ouseho ld a nd a marg ina l u t i l i ty/drudgery r a t io wh ich l im i t s t he amoun t o f l abour i npu t a t c er ta in l eve ls . T hrough wha t h e c a l led t he " na tura l h i s tory " o f t he h ouseho ld , C hayanov d eve loped t he c oncep t o f d emograph ic d ifferen t ia t ion a ccord ing t o wh ich t he s i ze a nd i n terna l c ompo s i t ion o f h ouseho lds v ary f rom t he t ime o f

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marr iage o f ay oung c oup le t hrough t he g row th o f t he c h i ldren t o w ork ing a ge a nd marr iage o f t h is s econd g enera t ion . Th is t heory o f a p ea san t e conomy i s v ery u sefu l f or a rchaeo log ica l r e search . T he f ac t t ha t t here a re s t rong c orre la t ions b e tween t he d emograph ic s t ruc ture o f a h ou seho ld , i t s s i ze , p o ten t ia l l abour f orce , w ea l th , s oc ia l p o s i t ion a nd p robab ly s pa t ia l l ayou t , i s c l ear ly a n i nv i ta t ion t o h ouseho ld a rchaeo logy . A n umber o f a n thropo log is t s ( H i l l 1 982 ; B ohannan a nd B ohannan 1 968 ; Dumas -Champ ion 1 983 ; S ah l ins 1 969 ) h ave o b served t he d ynam ics o f h ou seho ld s i n d ifferen t c ase s tud ie s . I n a l l o f t hese w ork s , k in sh ip i st he b ase s t ruc ture o f h ouseho lds , s ince v ery l ow p ropor t ion s o f i t s members a re u nre la ted t o t he h ouseho ld h ead , whe ther b y c onsangu in i ty , marr iage o r a dop t ion . I n d ea l ing w i th r eg ions i n I nd ia a nd i n n or thern N iger ia wh ich a re c harac ter ized b y d ry g ra in f arm ing , H i l l ( 1982 :91-2 ) o b served t ha t marr ied s on s f ind c ons iderab le d iff icu l ty i n e s tab l i sh ing i ndependen t , v iab le h ouseho ld s wh ich a re ma in ly d ependen t o n f arm ing t he ir own l and , u n le ss t hey r ece ive s ome h e lp f rom t he ir f a ther . A l so c ommon t o t he se a reas wa s t ha t f a thers g enera l ly p refer f am i ly l abour t o t ha t o f h ired l abour . T hus , t hey a re u sua l ly a nx ious t o r e ta in t he s e rv ice s o f t he ir marr ied s on s , e spec ia l ly a s t he h eads o f l a rge e x tended h ousho lds a re a p t t o b e w e l l r e spec ted b y t he v i l lage c ommun i ty . B ohannan a nd B ohannan ( 1968 ) h ave f ound t he s a me f ea ture s among t he T iv where a l a rge c ompound w i th many w ive s a nd c h i ldren i s t he o p t ima l t ype o f max im i sa t ion f or a ny i nd iv idua l T iv , l e ad ing t o p re s i t ige a nd w ea l th . T h is s hor t r ev iew o f s evera l c ase s tud ie s c oncern ing h ouseho ld d ynam ic s i nd ica te s t ha t t he h ou sho ld c an a l so b e am icro terr i tor ia l u n i t . H ence , t he a na lys is o f t he mu l i tp le s pa t ia l d i mens ions o f h uman s oc ia l s y s tems i s more f ru t ifu l i f w e c ons ider s pace n o t a s ag iven s t a t ic p hys ica l c a tegory b u t a s r epre sen t ing a s e t o f s pec if ic p a t terns r ef lec t ing a c t iv i t ie s , p r ivacy , a nd s oc ia l p o s i t ion ( H i l l ier 1 985 ; A rdener 1 981 ; Ken t 1 984 ) . Once s pace h as b een b ounded a nd s haped , i t i s n o l onger mere ly a n eu tra l b ackground , i t e xer ts i t s own i nf luence a nd b ecome s i n A rdener ' s ( 1981 :13 ) words , a " s oc ia l map " . A rchaeo logy t hough i t s t e chn ique s a nd me thods c an r ecover t he se s oc ia l map s a nd u se t hem a s k ey a na ly t ica l u n i t s . 3 .O pera t iona l i s ing t h e c oncep t o f h ouseho ld One o f t he ma jor p rob lem s i n h ou seho ld a rchaeo logy c oncerns t he a rchaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty o f ah ou sho ld u n i t . T he c o -re s idence f ac tor , wh ich b e ing o ne o f i t s c en tra l c ond i t ion s , d oe s n o t s eem s uff ic ien t t o s o me r e searchers ( Kramer 1 982 ) who w arn u s t o b e c au t ious i n o ur p roces s o f a rchaeo log ica l i nference b u i ld ing . A ccord ing t o D ee tz ( 1982 :717 ) , h ouseho lds a nd h ouse s a re n o t c omponen t s o f a n i s omorph ic r e la t ion . C ond i t ions o f p re serva t ion , s a mp l ing a nd " punc tua l a na logy " c an g enera te s e r ious s hor tcom ing s . However , h ere w e a re n o t d eny ing t he c omp lex n a ture o f c orre la t ion s b e tween h ouseho lds , h ouse s a nd f am i l ie s . We s imp ly i n tend t o

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c l ar ify d ifferen t s i tua t ions i n wh ich t hese u n i t s c on s i t i tu te a r ea l s oc io e conom ic m icroco sm . T h is s hou ld e nab le u s t o g a in k now ledge c oncern ing t he s oc ie t ie s i n wh ich t he se h ouseho lds a re embedded . A s Sm i th ( 1984 : IX ) p o in t s o u t , ad oub t h as b een f requen t ly r a ised a s t o t he s t a tus o f " r e s idence " a s a c r i ter ion f or t he a na ly s is o f t he f am i ly , whe ther c ompar ison s a re b e ing made o ver s pace o r t hrough t ime . T here a re n one the les s p erfec t ly s ound r easons f or c ons ider ing t ha t t he n umber o f p er sons who s l eep a nd f requen t ly , i f n o t i nvar iab ly , t ake mea ls t oge ther u nder t he s a me r oof c ons t i tu te a u n i t f or s oc ia l a na lys is , a nd c an f orm a b as is f or r evea l ing i n tersoc ie ty c ompar isons , p ar t icu lar ly i f d ue a t ten t ion i s g iven t o t he means b y wh ich t ha t u n i t h as b een b rough t t oge ther . T he h ouseho ld , a s a n a rchaeo log ica l u n i t o f a na ly s is , p resen t s many a dvan tages f or s tudy ing t he s oc ia l d i mens ions o f a nc ien t a nd modern s oc ie t ie s . F or e xamp le , t he h ouseho ld u n i t : a ) may b e s pa t ia l ly c i rcum scr ibed a nd r e la t ive ly e asy t o d ef ine , p ar t icu lar ly i f t he b u i ld ing ma ter ia l a nd a rch i tec tura l r ema in s a re l a rge . b ) p rov ides d is tr ibu t ion s o f a c t iv i ty a reas i n as pa t ia l ly c i rcum scr ibed u n i t wh ich a l lows a n a na lys is o f t he s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t he d ome s t ic a rea . c ) may i n s o me s i tua t ions , b e c ons idered a s a p r imary u n i t o f s oc ia l r eproduc t ion ( Sah l in s 1 968 , 1 976 ; F r iedman a nd Row lands 1 978 ; T r ingham 1 983 :4 ) . Th is may a l low f or d iscus s ion o f c hanges i n s oc ia l s t ruc ture s t hrough t he s tudy o f v ar ious d i mens ions o f t he s t ruc tura l t r ansforma t ion o f i t s s pa t ia l l ayou t . I n t he f l ow -char t p re sen ted i n F igure 1 5 .1 , a mode l i s p re sen ted o f h ouseho ld o rgan isa t ion wh ich b r idge s t he g ap b e tween b o th s ys tem ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t s o f t h is p henomenon . I n t h is mode l , ma t ter , g oods , r e sources a nd r aw ma ter ia ls a re c hanne l led i n s oc ia l s ys tem s f o l low ing a s equence o f a c t iv i t ie s . T he se a c t iv i t ie s t ake p lace i n s o me s pec if ic p lace s a ccord ing t o t he ir n a ture . D a i ly a c t iv i t ie s o r ma in tenance t a sks a re more o f ten t han n o t e xecu ted i n t he d omes t ic a rea . E ven i f t h i s s pa t ia l u n i t i s s o me t ime s w e l l s t ruc tured , w e may p rov is iona l ly c on s ider i t a s a" genera l ised a c t iv i ty " a rea . S ome s pec if ic a c t iv i ty a reas may b e i nc luded i n t he d ome s t ic s pace o r l o ca ted o u ts ide i t . T he c omb ina t ion o f v ar ious a c t iv i ty a reas r ang ing f rom s pec if ic t o g enera l ised i s t he e as ie s t a rchaeo log ica l s t ra tegy f or r econ s truc t ing h ouseho ld d oma in s . F o l low ing Hamme l ( 1984 ) , w e w i l l c ons ider h ouseho lds a s t he f oc i o f max imum d ens i ty c lus ter s o f a c t iv i ty .

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A CA SE ST UDY I N HO USEHOLD AR CHAEOLGY : EX CAVAT IONS A T SH I QM IM . 1 .T he s i te The S h iqm im s i te i s al a rge ( ca 9 . 5 h a ) C ha lco l i th ic v i l lage s e t t lemen t l o ca ted a long t he n or th b ank o f t he Naha l B eersheva i n t he n or thern N egev d e ser t . L arge sca le e xcava t ions t ook p lace b e tween 1 982 - 1 984 u nder t he a u sp ice s o f t he I s rae l D epar tmen t o f An t iqu i t ie s a nd t he N egev Museum , B eer sheva ( Levy a nd A lon 1 985 ) . T he e xped i t ion was a ff i l ia ted w i th t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ien ta l R esearch . T h i s e xcep t iona l ly w e l l p re served 4 th m i l lenn ium v i l lage p rov ides a n i dea l o u tdoor l abora tory f or i nves t iga t ing t he f u l l r ange o f a rch i tec tura l r ema ins a t t h is f orma t ive s i te . H ere w e w i l l e xam ine t he f orma t ion p roce s se s o b served a t t he s i te t o c lar ify t he r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s c arr ied o u t i n d ome s t ic h ouse s . T h is w i l l l e ad t o a more g enera l d i scus s ion o f t he r e la t ion b e tween h ouseho lds a nd t he S h iqm im v i l lage a t l a rge d ur ing t he 4 th m i l lenn ium . 2 .D omes t ic a rch i tec ture i n P a les t ine D e ta i led a rch i tec tura l p lans f rom C ha lco l i th ic v i l lages s i tes a re q u i te r are i n P a les t ine . T he b e s t e xamp le s c ome f rom t he C ha lco l i th ic t ype s i te o f T e le i la t Ghas su l s t ra tum I V , T e l l I( Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : f ig . 1 2 ) ; t he Naha l B eersheva s i te o f B ir e s -Safad i ( Perro t 1 955 :74 , 1 984 ) , an umber o f s i te s i n t he Go lan H e igh t s i nc lud ing e l - Ma jam i ( Ep s te in 1 977 ) , r asm Harbush ( Ep s te in 1 976 ) a nd E in e lH in i( 1982 ) ; Meser ( Do than 1 959 ) a nd a r ecen t ly p ub l i shed s i te f rom t he J ordan V a l ley c a l led F asa 'e l ( Pora th 1 985 ) . T he P ha se I e xcava t ion s a t S h iqm im c an b e a dded t o t h is c orpus o f 4 th m i l lenn ium d ome s t ic a rch i tec ture i n P a les t ine . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f B ir e s -Safad i , t he e xcava t ion s a t S h iqm im s upercede i n many w ay s t he e ar l ier r e search c oncern ing C ha lco l i th ic d ome s t ic a rch i tec ture b ecause o f t he c arefu l a t ten t ion p a id t o s i te f orma t ion p roces ses a nd t he h or izon ta l d is tr ibu t ion o f a r tefac ts f ound i n s i tu o n l i v ing f loor s . T he l a t ter i nforma t ion i s o f k ey i mpor tance f or s tudy ing i n tra -s i te o ccupa t ion v ar iab i l i ty . T o d a te , t h is t op ic h a s b een n eg lec ted i n 4 th m i l lenn ium s tud ie s i n P a le s t ine . An i mpor tan t a t temp t a t c l ar ify ing i n tra s i te d omes t ic a rch i tec tura l v ar iab i l i ty w as made a t T e le i la t Ghas su l d ur ing t he e ar ly e xcava t ions b y Ma l lon a nd h is c o l league s ( Ma l lon e t a l 1 936 ; Koppe l e t a l 1 940 ) . T he se s cho lars c arefu l ly n o ted t he i n tra s i te d is tr ibu t ion o f aw ide r ange o f d ome s t ic f ac i l i t ies . T he se i nc lude : p aved h ear ths , p aved f i re p laces , s t orage f ac i l i t ie s , u nusua l s t orage f ac i l i t ie s , w e l ls , s imp le h ear ths , l a rge s t ore j a rs , c i rcu lar p aved i n s ta l la t ions , s t one mor tars i n s i tu , p aved a rea s , s ma l l s t one l i ned s i lo s , g rooved s t ones , r ec tangu lar s t one p avemen t s , s em i -c ircu lar i n s ta l la t ions , s ma l l c l ay s t orage p i t s , s t one v es se ls , Mas tabas , i ncomp le te s t orage f ea tures w i thou t s t one s o r b r ick s , s imp le h ear ths w i th c l ay b o t tom s , j ar f ea tures embedded i n b r ick , b asa l t v e s se ls , d oub le c o l lap sed h ear ths , s ma l l c hanne ls , i ns ta l la t ion s made o f f our l a rge s t ones , s ma l l r oom s , s ma l l d oub le s i lo s , b asa l t g r ind ing s t one s , r ec tangu lar r ecep tac le s made w i th s ma l l s t one a nd l i ned w i th w a t t le a nd d aub , s ma l l b r ick s i lo s , u nde term ined s t one f ea tures , d oor s ocke t s i n s i tu , s t one

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b ordered p avemen ts , p o s s ib le r ec tangu lar s t one p i l lar b ases , a nd mudbr ick h eaps ( i n terpre ted a t p o s s ib le p i l lar b ase s ) . Unfor tuna te ly , t h i s v ery r i ch i nven tory o f f ea ture s a s soc ia ted w i th t he d ome s t ic a rch i tec tura l u n i ts a t t he s i te w as n o t c orre la ted w i th t he s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f s ma l l p or tab le a r tefac t s f ound i n s i tu o n t he r oom f l oor s ( Ma l lon e t a l 1 934 : 3 7 -47 ) . I n t he a na lys is o f S h iqm im d ome s t ic a rch i tec tura l u n i t s p resen ted h ere , w e e xp lore t he s i gn if icance o f t he h or izon ta l s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f o ne w e l l p re served r oom ( no . 6 ) i n A rea D a nd a no ther r oom ( no . 1) i n A rea B . 3 .T he a na lys is o f f orma t ion p rocesses I n ar ecen t p aper ( Ho 1 1 a nd L evy , i n p res s ) w e o u t l ined a n umber o f me thodo log ica l i s sue s c oncern ing t he s tudy o f s i te f orma t ion p rocee se s i n a rchaeo log ica l r e search . T he se i nc lude b o th s imp le a nd c omp lex p roper t ies o f a r tefac t s . S imp le p roper t ie s r efer t o a r tefac t s i ze , s hape d ens i ty , a ccre t ions a nd w e igh t . T he more c omp lex p roper t ies i nc lude v er t ica l a nd h or izon ta l a r tefac t d is tr ibu t ions , a r tefac t d iver s i ty , n umber a nd f ragmen ta t ion i ndex . I t was c onc luded t ha t t he c omp lex p roper t ie s o f p o t tery s herds r evea l t he p o ten t ia l o f t he se me thodo log ica l t oo ls i n t he c l as s if ica t ion o f c u l tura l v er sus p o s t -depo s t iona l p roce s se s . A s w i l l b e s hown b e low , t h is s ub jec t i s o f k ey i mpor tance f or u nder s tand ing a nd r econs truc t ing p a s t s oc ia l b ehav iour . 4 .F orma t ion P rocesses i n t h e S h iqm im V i l lage I n c lar ify ing t he n a ture o f f orma t ion p roce s se s o n b o th t he v i l lage a nd i nd iv idua l h ou se s ca le , w e h ave f ound p o t tery s herd s t o b e o f k ey i mpor tance . Th is i s b ecause o f t he w ide spread d is tr ibu t ion o f c eram ic s herds t hroughou t t he v i l lage e xcava t ion . F rom 1 982 t o 1 984 , a t o ta l o f 8 6 ,732 s herds w ere r ecovered w e igh ing o ver o ne t on ( 1 174 .20 k g ) . C eram ic s herds w ere t he d om inan t a r tefac t r e tr ieved i n t he p r imary l o c i wh ich c ou ld b e t r aced t houghou t t he e n t ire e xcava t ion a rea ( = 2 , 375 s q m ) i n t he s e t t lemen t . T he se p r imary l o c i i nc lude t he f o l low ing : s urface , t op so i l d epo s i t s , B u i ld ing P ha se ( BP ) IF i l l , B P IF loors , B P I F i l l , B P I F loor s , B P I I F i l l a nd B P I I F loors . T hu s , w e a re d ea l ing w i th f our t ypes o f p r imary d epo s i t s : 1 ) s urface d epo s i ts wh ich h ave b een s ub jec t t o s evere e ro s ion p roces ses ; 2 ) t op so i l , c ons i s t ing o f ma in ly r eworked ma ter ia ls , wh ich e x tend f rom t he s urface t o ad ep th o f c a . 1 5 cm ; 3 ) f i l ls wh ich a re c harac ter ized b y r eworked mud -br ick c u l tura l ma tr ia l a nd 4 ) o ccupa t ion f l oors i n b u i ld ing s , c our tyards , a l leyway s a nd o ther l i v ing s urfaces . 5 .N umber o f S herds : V er t ica l a nd H or izon ta l D i s tr ibu t ions A s s een i n T ab le 1 5 .1 , t he l a rge s t q uan t i ty o f s herds a re f ound i n t he B P I f i l l a cros s t he e n t ire s i te . T he l owe s t v a lues o ccur o n t he B P Ia nd B P I I l i v ing f loor s . The ma in i nference t ha t c an b e d rawn f rom t hese v a lues a re a s f o l lows : 1 ) t he p re sence o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f s herds i n t he mudbr ick f i l l s i nd ica te s t he s econdary u se o f s herd s i n t he c ons truc t ion o f w a l ls a nd o ther mud -br ick f ea tures i n t he v i l lage . A s o b served b y Ho l l i n a n e thnoarchae o log ica l s tudy i n n or thern C ameroon , W e s t A fr ica ( P la te 1 5 .1) , p o t tery s herds

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a re u sed i n as econdary c on tex t i n t he c ons truc t ion o f mudbr ick wa l ls a nd o ther f ea tures made o f w a t t le a nd d aub . Mudbr icks f ound a t T e le i la t Ghas su l a nd d isp layed a t t he P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I n s t i tu te i n J erusa lem , a l so i nc lude n umerou s s herds i n t he ir ma tr ix . I t i s o ur c on ten t ion t ha t t he l a rge q uan t i ty o f s herds f ound i n t he S h iqm im B P I f i l l s r ef lec t a s im i lar b ehav ioura l c ons truc t ion t ra i t . Wherever t he r ema ins o f mudbr icks c ou ld b e d e tec ted a t S h iqm im , i t wa s p o s s ib le t o o b serve f ragmen ts o f s herds embedded i n t he b r ick ma tr ix . Th is i s h igh l igh ted i n P la te 1 5 .2 . T he l a rge q uan t i ty o f s herds i n t he B P I f i l l s a nd o ccupa t ion f l oor s may a l so p o in t t o t he f ac t t ha t t h is p hase r epre sen ts t he p er iod o f mo s t i n tense b u i ld ing a nd o ccupa t ion a t t he s i te . I n t e rm s o f t he h or izon ta l d i s tr ibu t ion o f s herds a cro s s t he s i te ( Tab le 1 5 .1) , t he l owe s t q uan t i ty o f s herds a re f ound i n A rea E ( t he mos t e as tern p or t ion o f t he P hase I e xcava t ions -s ee F ig . 1 5 .2 ) a nd t he h ighe s t q uan t i ty i s f ound i n A rea D . T he l ow q uan t i ty o f s herd s i n A rea E s ugge s t s t ha t t h is p or t ion o f t he s i te w as a n a d junc t t o A rea D wh ich p roduced s o me o f t he b e s t p re served a rch i tec tura l r ema ins a t t he s i te . S ome o f t he a c t iv i t ie s c arr ied o u t i n A rea E i nc lude : t he b ur ia l o f t hree i nd iv idua ls i n a p i t ; e v idence o f a c opper work ing i n s ta l la t ion a nd a n umber o f d i s turbed a rch i tec tura l f ea ture s . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he n umber o f s herds a l so empha s ize s a ma jor d icho tomy b e tween o ccupa t ion f l oor s a nd t he r ema in ing t ypes o f d epo s i t s wh ich a re c harac ter ized b y v ery l ow a verage q uan t i t ie s o f s herds ( Tab le 1 5 .1) . 6 .S herd W e igh t s T he w e igh t o f s herd s o n t he v i l lage l eve l t ends t o c onf irm t he o b serva t ions made c oncern ing s herd n umber s i n b o th v er t ica l a nd h or izon ta l d is tr ibu t ions . T he B P I F i l l c on ta in s a pprox ima te ly 5 96 k g o f p o t tery wh i le B P IF loor a nd B P I I F loor d epo s i t s c on ta in o n ly 7 . 72 k g a nd 8 . 60 k g r e spec t ive ly . B iased s a mp l ing , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f B P Id epo s its , c anno t b e s ugge s ted t o e xp la in t h i s o b serva t ion . 7 .S herd D ens i t ies a nd F ragmen ta t ion I nd ices a ) S herd D ens i t ies D ens i t ie s a nd f ragmen ta t ion i nd ices a re a b le t o p rov ide more d e ta i led k now ledge c oncern ing t he i n terac t ion b e tween h uman b ehav iour a nd a s soc ia ted ma ter ia l b y -produc t s . D ens i t ie s r efer ma in ly t o t he r e la t ive c oncen tra t ion o f a ny ma ter ia l i t em i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . D ens i t ies c an a l so i nform u s o n t he p a t tern ing o f a c t iv i ty a reas i n a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures a s w e l l a s t he i n tens i ty a nd/or f requency o f u se o f a ny p ar t icu lar p lace . T he measuremen t o f t h is v ar iab le p lace s a n empha s is o n s i te f orma t ion p roces ses , p r imar i ly d i scard b ehav iour . A t t he s ca le o f t he e n t ire S h iqm im s i te , t he h ighe s t t o ta l d ens i ty o f s herds o ccur s i n A rea D ( 53 .03/sq m ) a nd t he l owes t o ne o ccur s i n A rea A ( 24 .74/sq m ) . T he se f igure s may r ef lec t t he d ifferen t ia l i n ten s i ty o f o ccupa t ion a nd/or u se o f t he se a reas t hrough t he e n t ire s i te s equence . T he

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v er t ica l d i s tr ibu t ion o f s herd d ens i t ie s i nd ica te t ha t t he B u i ld ing P hase I f i l l p o s se s se s t he h ighe s t a verage f igure o f 1 7 .93 s herds p er s q m ( s ee T ab le 1 5 .2 , F ig . 1 5 .5 ) . Th is f igure r ef lec t s t he w idespread n a ture o f t h is o ccupa t ion p hase wh ich o ccur s a l l o ver t he s i te a nd c onsequen t ly t he e x tens ive u se o f mud b r ick/wa t t le a nd d aub l i ke ma ter ia l i n t he b u i ld ing c on s truc t ion t echn ique s . T h i s b u i ld ing b ehav iour may r ef lec t a n i n tens ive s econdary u se o f p o t tery s herds wh ich w ere i nc luded i n t he mud b r ick ma tr ix t ha t c harac ter ized t he s upers truc ture o f t he v i l lage a rch i tec ture . b ) F ragmen ta t ion I nd ices F ragmen ta t ion i nd ice s h ave a l ready b een p roposed a s a s ens i t ive me thodo log ica l t oo l f or t he a na lys i s o f f orma t ion p roces se s i n a rchaeo log ica l s i te s ( Sch iffer 1 983 ) . However , t he f ormu la p ropo sed b y S ch iffer i s l im i ted b ecau se i t a s sume s t ha t t he a ppropr ia te u n i t o f a na lys i s i s t he o nce -who le i nd ivdua l a r tefac t , e . g . p o t tery v e s se l , a nd i gnores t he f ac t t ha t l a rge s herds w ere o f ten c o l lec ted a nd u sed ( Ho 1 1 a nd L evy , i n p res s ) . A s imp ler f ormu la f ree o f t h is a s sump t ion c oncern ing v e s se l f orm h as b een s ugge s ted b y Ho 1 1 a nd L evy ( i n p re s s ) a nd i sb ased s o le ly o n p o t tery s herds , t he mo s t c ommon a r tefac t f ound i n p ro to -h is tor ic a nd h is tor ic e xcava t ions i n t he N ear E as t . The f o l low ing f ormu la s t a te s t he f ragmen ta t ion i ndex ( F I ) a s :

(w e igh t ) F I =

X 1 000 ( no . o f s herd s )

i n wh ich F I i s o b ta ined b y d iv id ing t he t o ta l w e igh t o f t he s a mp le o f a ny a rchaeo log ica l d a ta b y t he n umber o f i t em s i nc luded i n t ha t s a mp le . A s t he se f igures a re a lways v ery l ow i t i s u sefu l t o mu l t ip ly t hem b y ac ons tan t ( e .g . 1 000 ) i n o rder t o h ave more s imp le a nd manageab le f igure s . T hus , t he l ower t he f igures , t he h igher t he f ragmen ta t ion o f t he p o t tery i n t he a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t . F ragmen ta t ion o f ma ter ia l i t em s r e su l t s f rom a w ide r ange o f p roce s se s i nc lud ing , s pec if ic p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s , u se l ife f ac tor s s uch a s f requency o f u se a nd b reakage , r efu se d ispo sa l , t r amp l ing a nd n a tura l e ro s ion p roce s se s . A s s hown i n T ab le 1 5 .2 a nd F igure 1 5 .6 , t he h ighe s t a verage f ragmen ta t ion f igure o ccur s i n A rea A ( 16 .43 ) a nd t he l owes t o ne o ccur s i n A rea D ( 1 1 .57 ) . T he v er t ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f f ragmen ta t ion i ndex v a lues s how t ha t v ar ia t ion i st he ma jor c harac ter i s t ic . However , ac lo ser l ook r evea ls s o me p a t tern ing among t he d epo s i t s . On a verage , s herds c o l lec ted o n o ccupa t ion f l oor s a re l e s s f ragmen ted a s a t te s ted b y t he f igure s o f B P I a nd B P I( 18 .59 a nd 1 2 .00 r e spec t ive ly ) . T he v a lue s f or t he f i l ls v ary f rom 1 3 .99 i n B P I t o 1 .76 i n B P I . However , t he v ar ia t ion i s s t ronger among o ccupa t ion f loors where f ragmen ta t ion i ndex v a lue s v ary f rom 9 . 47 i n B P I I t o 1 8 .59 i n B P I . T he se v ar ia t ions r ef lec t d ifferen t d epo s i t iona l a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s ses .

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I n A rea E f or e xamp le , t he h igh f ragmen ta t ion o f s herds r ef lec t s t r amp l ing . T h is i s a n a d junc t a rea t o A rea D ( r ich i n w e l l p re served b u i ld ing s ) a nd i s d evo id o f w e l l p re served a rch i tec tura l f ea ture s . On o ther l i v ing f loor s , t he p re sence o f l a rge c on jo inab le s herd s s eem s t o r ef lec t b reakage f rom n a tura l f orma t ion ( e .g . , w a l l c o l lap se , e tc . ) .

SUMMARY T h is b r ief s tudy c oncern ing t he f orma t ion p roce s ses o n t he s ca le o f t he e n t ire S h iqm im s i te e xcava t ion ( 1982 -1984 ) r evea ls a n umber o f i n tere s t ing p a t tern s . A ccord ing t o t he n a ture o f t he d epo s i t s , t he q uan t i ty a nd w e igh t o f s herds , t he ir d ens i ty p er s q me tre a nd t he f ragmen ta t ion i nd ice s , s o me c l ear t r ends emerge . T op so i l a nd f i l ls p o s se s s t he l a rge s t amoun t o f s herds whereas l i v ing f l oors c on ta in t he l owe s t . T h is f ea ture r e su l t s f rom t wo ma jor p o s t d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s : a ) f i l ls a re c ompo sed o f c o l lap sed mud w a l l s c on ta in ing al a rge q uan t i ty o f s herds wh ich h ave b een i nc luded i n t he mud ma tr ix ( probab ly f or b r icks ) d ur ing t he p roces s o f w a l l manufac ture a nd h ou se s uper s truc ture c on s truc t ion . T hus , t h is s econdary u se o f s herds i n t he mud ma tr ix a l so r ef lec t s t he i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion a t d ifferen t p hase s o f t he who le s i te s equence . Dur ing B P I t he who le s i te w as o ccup ied . Dur ing B P I o n ly l im i ted b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s t ook p lace a t t he s i te wh ich may r ef lec t a dd i t ions t o t he p rev ious B P I v i l lage p lan . E xcava t ions c arr ied o u t i n 1 982 1 984 i nd ica te t ha t d ur ing B P Io n ly l im i ted p or t ions o f A reas A , B , C , a nd D w ere o ccup ied wh i le A rea E w a s c omp le te ly a bandoned ( F ig . 1 5 .3 ) . T he a na ly s is o f s herd w e igh t d is tr ibu t ions ( bo th v er t ica l ly a nd h or izon ta l ly ) a ccord ing t o t he d ifferen t t ype s o f a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i ts r evea l s t he s ame p a t tern ing a s t he q uan t i ty o f s herd s ( F ig . 1 5 .4 ) . S herd d ens i t i tes p er s q m a nd f ragmen ta t ion i nd ices r evea l s ounder p a t tern ing a nd a l so a w ider r ange o f v ar ia t ion . I f t he f ormer a na ly t ica l c r i ter ion i nd ica te s g enera l t r end s o f t he i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion o f s pec if ic a rchaeo log ica l f ea ture s , i t i s u nab le b y i t se lf t o d emons tra te wh ich p roces se s h ave c rea ted t he p a t tern o b served . T herefore , i t mus t a lway s b e c omp lemen ted b y t he f ragmen ta t ion i ndex wh ich i s more s ens i t ive t o t he i n terac t ion b e tween d epo s i t iona l a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T hus , l i v ing f l oor s r e su l t p r imar i ly f rom d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s s uch a s g enera l d omes t ic a nd ma in ta inance a c t iv i t ie s . T he f orma t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s d ependen t o n b reakage o f v es se l s , c ura t ion o f l a rge s herds , h ouse c l ean ing d iscard b ehav iour a nd t r amp l ing o f s ma l l a r tefac ts i mbedded i n to t he ma tr ix o f f loor s . F i l ls s eem t o h ave b een p roduced f rom t he c o l lap se o f b u i ld ing s upers truc ture s c on s truc ted o f mudbr icks a nd p erhap s w a t t le -and -daub . T he se d epo s i ts h ave b een f ur ther mod if ied b y w ea ther ing a nd o ther g eomorpho log ica l p roces se s . T op so i l a nd s urface d epo s i ts r e su l t f rom e ro s ion . T hus , t he se t hree t ypes o f d epo s i t s r e su l t f rom p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s ses s uch a s mud b r ick/wa t t le -and -daub w a l l c o l lap se . w ea ther ing , a nd e ro s ion . T he se f orma t ion p roce s ses w i l l b e d ea l t w i th i n g rea ter d e ta i l b y e xam in ing t h is p rob lem o n t he me so sca le o f i nve s t iga t ion , i . e . , t he h ouseho ld u n i t .

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AR CHAEOLOG ICAL AN ALYS IS O F HO USE UN ITS Dur ing t he P hase I e xcava t ion s ( a rea = c a . 2 , 375 s q m ) a t S h iqm im , 1 8 r oom s w ere e xpo sed . S ome o f t he se a re b e t ter p re served a nd d ef ined t han o ther s . I n g enera l , t wo ma in c a tegor ies o f b u i ld ing s c an b e d is t ingu i shed : l a rge r oom s measur ing a n a verage o f 1 0 m i n l eng th a nd 5 m i n w id th a nd s ma l ler o nes m easur ing c a . 5m i n l eng th a nd 3 m w ide . A rea E i s d evo id o f a ny w e l l p reserved a rch i tec tura l u n i t s a nd t he h ouse f ea tures o f A rea B a re p oor ly p reserved . Th is i s p robab ly d ue t o i n ten s ive e ro s ion . The d is tr ibu t ion o f t he se r oom s i s q u i te r egu lar among t he d ifferen t e xcava t ion a reas . T he se v ary f rom 5 b u i ld ing s i n A rea A , Ba nd C t o 3i n A rea D . T he s urface a rea o f t he se r oom s v ary f rom 5 3 .63 s q m f or Room 1 3 i n A rea D t o 2 . 80 s q m f or Room 1 5 i n A rea A ( F ig . 1 5 .2 , T ab le 1 5 .3 ) . I ti si mpor tan t t o n o te t ha t t here i s ar egu lar p a t tern ing b e tween l a rge r oom s a nd s ma l l o nes a l l o ver t he s i te , e xcep t i n A rea B where o n ly s ma l l r oom s h ave b een u ncovered . T he p resen t a na ly s is o f h ouse u n i ts w i l l f ocus o n t he med ium s i ze Room 6 a nd a s soc ia ted c our tyard l oca ted i n A rea D a nd t he s ma l l s i ze Room 1 l o ca ted i n A rea B . T he p urpo se i s t o s tudy t he p a t tern ing a nd o rgan isa t ion o f C ha lco l i th ic d ome s t ic s pace . However , i n o rder t o b u i ld o ur i nference s o n a s t rong emp ir ica l b ase , f orma t ion p roces ses f or t he se r oom s mus t b e c lose ly e xam ined .

ST UDY ING FO RMAT ION PR OCESSES A s o u t l ined a bove , f our k inds o f d epo s i ts h ave b een f ound e x tend ing a l l o ver t he S h iqm im s i te : s urface , t op so i l , f i l ls a nd l i v ing f loor s . T he a r tefac t s c on ta ined i n t hese d ifferen t d epo s i t s r e su l t f rom d ifferen t f orma t ion p roces ses . A s p o t tery s herds a re t he mo s t u b iqu i tou s a r tefac t f ound , t hey w i l l b e u sed t o e va lua te f orma t ion p roces se s i n h ou se u n i ts . A s d iscus sed a bove , s herd q uan t i ty , w e igh t , d ens i ty p er s quare m e tre a nd f ragmen ta t ion i nd ices r evea l k ey i nforma t ion c oncern ing t he p roce s se s wh ich c on tr ibu ted t o t he f orma t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . W i thou t c arefu l c ons idera t ion o f f orma t ion p roce s se s a t as i te , t he r econs truc t ion o f s oc ia l b ehav iour c an b e d angerous ly m is in terpre ted . F or e xamp le , Y . P ora th ( 1985 ) r ecen t ly h ad g rea t d iff icu l ty i n i n terpre t ing t he f i l ls i n aw e l l p re served C ha lco l i th ic h ouse a t F asa 'e l i n t he l ower J ordan v a l ley . A ccord ing t o P ora th ( 1985 : 5 ) " The o ccupan t s o f t he s t ruc ture n ever s eem t o h ave b o thered t o c l ear o u t a ny o f t he ir r efuse a nd l e f t i t t o a ccumu la te o n t he f loor , c aus ing a g radua l r i se o f t he l i v ing l eve l o ver t he who le p er iod o f o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te . " Room 6 a nd t he c our tyard a s soc ia ted w i th i tc over a n a rea o f 8 8 s quare me tre s . Room 6 measure s 6 . 5 x 4m ( 33 s q m ) a nd t he c our tyard 5 5 s q m ( i nc lud ing a s ma l l r oom ( No . 1 6 ) l o ca ted i n s ide t he c our tyard . T he a rchaeo log ica l s equence h ere i s c ompo sed o f f our t ype s o f d epo s i ts ( t op so i l , f i l l , l i v ing f loor s a nd s urface s ) b e long ing t o B P I . T he s a me f ea tures h ave b een u ncovered i n Room 1 ( 18 s quare me tre s ) w i th t he a dd i t ion o f as pec if ic mud -br ick f i l l . A t o ta l o f 8 , 741 s herds h ave b een c o l lec ted i n t he Room 6 h ouse c omp lex ( 5 ,525 f rom t he c our tyard a nd 3 , 216 f rom t he r oom ) . The l a rge s t p ar t o f t h is s herd s a mp le c omes f rom t he f i l l a nd t op so i l wh ich a l so

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p o s ses se s t he l a rge s t w e igh t f igure s a nd t he h ighe s t d en s i ty v a lues p er s quare me tre ( Tab le 1 5 .4 a nd F igure 1 5 .7 ) . F ragmen ta t ion f igure s s how t ha t l a rger s herds o ccur p referen t ia l ly o n t he f l oor o f Room 6 ( Pho to 1 5 .4 ) where f ragmen ta t ion i s m in ima l a nd i ncrease s r egu lar ly t o r each a max imum o n t he s i te s urface . T he c our tyard p re sen t s a no ther k ind o f p a t tern ing . F ragmen ta t ion i s r e la t ive ly h igh i n t he t u mb le/f i l l l ayer ( 13 .35 c ompared t o 2 4 .19 o n t he f loor o f Room 6 ) , d ecrea ses i n t he d ebr is l ayer ( = 1 5 .20 ) a nd i ncrea se s s harp ly o n t he s urface ( 9 .51) . T he se f ea tures r ef lec t d ifferen t f orma t ion p roces ses . I n R oom 6 , l a rge c on jo inab le s herds h ave b een f ound r e s t ing o n t he f l oor a s soc ia ted w i th d omes t ic s t ruc ture s a nd e qu ipmen t . T ramp l ing was m in ima l h ere . T he f l oor s eem s t o h ave b een c l eaned o f ten a nd r efuse d i scarded . On t he o ther h and , s herds f rom t he c our tyard s how s i gns o f t r amp l ing i n t he t u mb le l ayer . W i th t he mudbr ick/wa t t le -and -daub w a l l c o l lapse v ery s im i lar d ens i ty a nd f ragmen ta t ion f igure s a re o b served i n b o th Room 6 a nd t he c our tyard . On t he s urface , f ragmen ta t ion f igure s a re v ery c lo se i n b o th u n i t s : 1 0 .97 i n Room 6 a nd 9 . 57 i n t he c our tyard . T hus , t here a re t hree ma in f orma t ion p roce s se s o pera t ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h is h ou se c omp lex : 1 ) d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s w ere t he ma in d epo s i t iona l p roce s s r e spons ib le f or t he p a t tern ing o f a r tefac t s o n t he l i v ing f loor a nd t u mb le l ayer ; 2 ) n a tura l p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce sse s w ere r e spon s ib le f or wa l l c o l lap se a nd p ar t ia l w ea ther ing o f t he f i l l a nd d ebr i s l ayer s ; a nd 3 ) s urface d epo s i ts h ave b een s hown t o b e a ffec ted b y e ro s ion a nd t r anspor t o f a r tefac ts ( Tab le 1 5 .4 , F ig . 1 5 .7 ) . T he a na ly s is o f Room 1 l o ca ted i n A rea B r evea ls t he s a me g enera l p a t tern ing a s Room 6 . However , t here i s a g enu ine d ifference i n t he ir r e spec t ive f ragmen ta t ion i ndex f igure s b e tween 2 4 .19 f or t he l i v ing f loor o f Room 6 a nd 4 6 .14 Room 1 . T he magn i tude o f t h is d ifference i s r ef lec ted b y t he n a ture o f t he a rchaeo log ica l a s semb lage o f Room 1 wh ich c on ta ins l a rge s herds o f ap i tho s ( a s t orage v es se l w e igh ing 1 .54 k g ( Tab le 1 5 .5 , F ig . 1 5 .7 a nd P ho to 1 5 .9 ) ) .

LI V ING FL OOR S : HO R IZONTAL AR TEFACT DI S TR IBUT IONS L iv ing f loor s a re a t tes ted b y t he e x i s tence o f s pec if ic f ea tures a s soc ia ted w i th a v ar ie ty o f a r tefac t s . Hor izon ta l d i s tr ibu t ions o f v ar ious c a tegor ies o f a r tefac ts i s t herefore o f p armoun t i mpor tance i n t he s tudy o f a c t iv i ty p a t tern ing i n h ouse u n i t s . I n t he Room 6 h ouse c omp lex , t he f o l low ing c a tegor ies o f a r tefac ts w ere r e tr ieved : f l in t d eb i tage ( F ig . 1 5 .9 , n o s . 2 , 3 ; F ig .15 .13 , n o .2 ; F ig . 1 5 .17 , n o . 4 ) , p ound ing a nd c hopp ing t oo ls ( F ig . 1 5 .9 , n o s . 1 , 3 ; F ig . 1 5 .10 , n o . 1 ; F ig . 1 5 .11 , n o s . 1 , 2 ; F ig . 1 5 .12 n o s . 1 , 2 ; F ig . 1 5 .13 , n o . 1 ) , g r ind ing t oo ls ( P la te 1 5 .9 ) , s p inn ing t oo ls ( F ig . 1 5 .17 , n o s . 2& 3 ) , h ide work ing t oo l s ( P la te 1 5 .8) , s crap ing t oo ls ( F ig . 1 5 .14 , n o s . 1& 2 ) , d ecora t ive f inds ( Pho to 1 5 .5 a nd F ig . 1 5 .8 ) , c eram ic v e s se ls ( F ig s . 1 5 .19 -2 1) , a nd m isce l laneous f inds ( Tab le 1 5 .6 ) . T he se f inds w ere a s soc ia ted w i th a n umber o f f ea ture s i nc lud ing a h ear th , a mud b r ick b ench , a nd a d oorway a t tes ted b y a s t one s ocke t . I n t he c our tyard

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a s soc ia ted w i th Room 6 , as ma l l r ec tangu lar r oom ( Room 1 6 , l o ca ted i n t he s ou thwe s t c orner ) was f ound w i th a c lu s ter o f c a t t le b one s , f l in t f l akes a nd a c ore . N ear t he c en ter o f t h is c our tyard , ah ear th was u ncovered . Room 1 w as i n ap oor s t a te o f p re serva t ion mak ing i t d iff icu l t t o c lar ify i t s n or thern l im i t . However , an umber o f l a rger s herds b e long ing t o a p i tho s ( F ig . P la te 1 5 .12 ) a nd o ther v e s se ls w ere r ecovered . T he p i tho s i ns ta l la t ion c on s i s ted o f ap i t d ug i n to t he l i v ing f l oor a nd a l a rge p a in ted p i thos p laced u ps ide d own i n t he p i t . T he b a se o f t h i s p i thos was i n ten t iona l ly r e moved t o c rea te a l a rge s t orage c av i ty i n t he r oom . 1 .D omes t ic A c t iv i ty A reas Three ma in a c t iv i ty a reas c an b e p lo t ted i n Room 6 b ased o n t he h or izon ta l d is tr ibu t ion o f d omes t ic a r tefac t s r e la ted t o d a i ly ma in tenance a c t iv i t ie s ( F ig . 1 5 .8 & P la te 1 5 .4 ) . T he se a c t iv i t ie s i nc lude : 1 ) s hor t t e rm s t orage a t tes ted b y f our ma in c oncen tra t ions o f c eram ic b as ins a nd j ar s n ear t he mud -br ick b ench l oca ted a long t he n or thern wa l l o f t he r oom ( F ig . 1 5 .8 & P la te 1 5 .5 ) ; 2 ) f ood p repara t ion a c t iv i t ie s -t he se a re e v idenced i n t wo a reas o f t he r oom : t he p re sence o f g r ind ing s t one s i n t he s ou thwes t p or t ion o f t he r oom a nd a h ear th i n t he s ou theas t c orner ( F ig . 1 5 .8 & P la te 1 5 .6 ) ; 3 ) f ood c onsump t ion : t oward t he c en tra l p or t ion o f t he r oom e v idence o f f ood r efuse i nc lude s s o me s heep/goa t a nd c a t t le b one s , aV - S hape b ow l ( F ig . 1 5 .20 : 4 ) a b a s in ( F ig . 1 5 .8 & P la te 1 5 .7 ) a nd o ther v es se l s ( F ig s . 1 5 .19 - 2 1) . F ina l ly , a l oo se c lus ter o f f l in t , s t one a nd c eram ic t oo ls w ere f ound a long t he marg ins o f t he n or thern a nd e as tern w a l l s . E v idence f or p o s s ib le " h ide work ing " i s s ugge s ted b y t he p re sence o f ac opper a w l i mbedded i n ab one h and le a nd a s soc ia ted w i th t wo s pare c opper p o in t s ( P la te 1 5 .8 ) a nd s evera l t abu lar s crapers . I n Room 1 6 , l oca ted i n t he s ou theas tern c orner o f t he c our tyard a s soc ia ted w i th Room 6 , t he p re sence o f f resh f l in t f l ake s , c ores a nd a n umber o f c a t t le b ones s ugges t t ha t b u tcher ing a c t iv i t ie s t ook p lace i n t h i s p ar t o f t he c our tyard ( P la te 1 5 .10 ) . I n Room 1 l o ca ted i n A rea B , t he d i scovery o f a n u nusua l ly l a rge p i tho s s ugge s t s t ha t t h is s ma l l r oom f unc t ioned a s as t orage a rea ( P la tes 1 5 .11 & 1 2 ) . T h is d iscus s ion h as s hown t ha t a d icho tomy e x is t s b e tween a s e lf c on ta ined h ouseho ld u n i t ( e .g . , Room 6 ) w i th e v idence o f d a i ly a c t iv i t ies a nd a more s pec ia l ized s t orage a rea ( e .g . , Room 1) . Th is d icho tomy h as b een o b served o ver mo s t o f t he s i te e xcava ted t hus f ar a nd c an b e i den t if ied a ccord ing t o t he s i ze o f r oom s ( Tab le 1 5 .3 ) a nd s eem s t o b e r e la ted t o as pec if ic k ind o f s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion n o t y e t f u l ly u nders tood .

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2 .A bandonmen t B ehav iour A ccord ing t o t he n a ture o f t he B P I a rchaeo log ica l d epos i t s o n l i v ing f l oor s , d ifferen t a bandonmen t p roces se s c an b e i nferred i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage t o d a te . A c ursory o b serva t ion c oncern ing s i te a bandonmen t s how s t ha t b u i ld ing s w ere d ifferen t ia l ly a bandoned a t t he s i te . I n A rea A , t hree b u i ld ing s s how e v idence o f b urn ing ( Room s 1 , 2 , & 3 ) ; i n A rea B , e ros ion o f l a rge p or t ions o f t he a rch i tec tura l p lan a nd a s soc ia ted a r tefac t s o n l i v ing f loor s p reven ts a ny k ind o f q uan t i ta t ive o b serva t ion o f a bandonmen t b ehav iour t o b e made . However , ac ache o f 1 3 c omp le te c eram ic v e s se ls ( F ig . 6 . 11b ) was f ound p laced c arefu l ly a t t he b ase o f aw a l l s ugge s t ing a n a bandonmen t r i tua l o f s ome s or t . I n A rea C , a n i n ten t iona l a bandonmen t i s s ugges ted b y t he r e la t ive ly c l ean a nd emp ty f loor s o f r oom s f ound . I n A rea D , t he p resence o f a c omp le te d ome s t ic a s semb lage o n t he f l oor o f Room 6 r epor ted h ere may i nd ica te a n u np lanned a bandonmen t o f t h is p or t ion o f t he s i te . T he se h ypo t he ses w i l l b e f u l ly t e s ted i n f u ture r e search when l a rger a rch i tec tura l s a mp le s w i l l b e made a va i lab le .

CO NCLUD ING RE MARKS Th is p aper h as a t temp ted t o c l ar ify t he n a ture o f h ouseho ld u n i ts i n t he C ha lco l i th ic o f s ou thern P a le s t ine . I t h as b een s hown t ha t t hrough t he c arefu l e xam ina t ion o f f orma t ion p roces se s , i t i s p o s s ib le t o r econs truc t t he s pa t ia l e x ten t o f t he s e t t lemen t a t ag iven p er iod , t he i n tra s i te d is tr ibu t ion o f a c t iv i ty a rea s , t he p a t tern ing o f d omes t ic a c t iv i t ies i n i nd iv idua l h ab i ta t ion u n i t s a nd d ifferen t a bandonmen t b ehav iour s . B ased o n o ur o b serva t ion o f t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ies i n t he b u i ld ing s i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage , i t i s p o s s ib le t o d ef ine t he n a ture o f t he Naha l B eer S heva C ha lco l i th ic h ou seho ld a t t h is l a rge s i te . I n g enera l , t h i s d ome s t ic u n i t i sc ompo sed o f a med ium s i zed r oom c onnec ted w i th a r ec tangu lar c our tyard . P ora th ( 1985 ) h as o u t l ined a n umber o f t he se h ouse c omp lexe s a t v ar ious C ha lco l i th ic v i l lages i n P a les t ine . T hese i nc lude T e le i la t Ghas su l , Me tzer , t he Go lan , F asa 'e l a nd more r ecen t ly P erro t ' s ( 1984 ) p ub l ica t ion c oncern ing B ir e s -Safad i i n t he n or thern N egev . T he v ar ia t ion i n s i ze o f d ome s t ic u n i t s a t S h iqm im may b e r e la ted t o t he d ynam ic s o f h ouseho ld s d ur ing t he ir l i fe c yc le . The se d ynam ic s a re g overned b y t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween man a nd h i s e nv ironmen t , t he s oc io -econom ic s ys tem a nd t he i deo log ica l a nd s y mbo l ic s ys tem .

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS T h i s p aper w as w r i t ten i n J erusa lem d ur ing t he s pr ing o f 1 986 . We a re g ra tefu l t o o ur w ive s ( Mar ie -He lene Ho 1 1 a nd A l ina L evy ) f or t he ir u nders tand ing d ur ing t h is p er iod , when w e s pen t mos t o f o ur t ime b urn ing t he m idn igh t o i l t o c omp le te t h is a na lys is . T h is work i s t herefore d ed ica ted t o t hem a nd t he ir marve l lous p a t ience . We a l so t hank A r lene Ro sen f or h er c ommen t s .

3 90

Ch ap ter 1 5 : Th eory a nd Pr ac t ice i n Ho useho ld Ar chaeo logy

Ta b le 1 5 .1a Quant ity a nd w e ight o f s herds f or t he e nt ire s i te ( 1982-1984 e xcavat ions) AR EA A ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

%

W.

%

S urface

1 844

2 6 .15

2 2 .32

2 6 .20

T op s o i l

3 349

1 4 .62

5 1 .13

1 8 .07

BP I( f loor)

2 86

4 4 .47

3 . 35

4 3 .39

BP I ( f i l l )

9 792

2 2 .98

1 73 .15

2 9 .03

BP I ( f loor)

4 39

9 . 63

9 . 77

1 .53

BP II ( f i l l )

3 73

1 9 .05

4 . 60

1 7 .79

2 64 .33

2 2 .52

BP I( f i l l )

BP II ( f loor) T o ta l

1 6083

. 1 8 .54

AR EA B ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

%

W.

%

S urface

1 397

1 9 .81

1 3 .35

1 5 .67

T op s o i l

1 0230

4 4 .66

1 33 .76

4 5 .51

BP I( f i l l )

4 759

7 7 .79

5 4 .20

7 5 .33

BP I( f loo r)

8 1

1 4 .15

2 . 12

2 7 .46

BP I ( f i l l )

7 307

1 7 .15

8 9 .50

1 5 .00

BP I ( f loor)

5 99

1 3 .15

1 3 .31

1 5 .77

BP II ( f i l l )

1 69

8 . 63

2 . 45

9 . 47

2 4552

2 8 .30

3 08 .70

2 6 .29

BP II ( f loor) T o ta l

3 91

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .1b Quan t i ty a nd w e ight o f s herds f or t he e nt ire s i te ( 1982 -1984 e xcava t ions ) AR EA C ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

%

W.

%

S urface

7 23

1 0 .25

9 . 61

1 .28

T op s o i l

1 507

6 . 57

2 3 .40

7 . 96

BP I( f i l l )

8 96

1 4 .64

1 .15

1 5 .49

BP I( f loor )

2 21

3 4 .37

1 . 60

2 0 .72

BP I ( f i l l )

5 496

1 2 .90

8 4 .78

1 4 .21

BP I ( f loor)

8 74

1 9 .19

1 3 .60

1 6 .02

BP II ( f i l l )

4 11

2 1 .00

5 . 90

2 2 .82

1 0128

1 .67

1 50 .04

1 2 .77

BP II ( f loor ) T o ta l

AR EA D ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

%

S urface

2 531

3 5 .90

2 8 .85

3 3 .86

T op s o i l

7 820

3 4 .13

8 5 .62

2 9 .13

4 62

7 . 55

6 . 60

9 . 17

BP I( f loor )

3 5

5 . 44

0 . 65

8 . 44

BP I ( f i l l )

1 6219

3 8 .07

1 79 .32

3 0 .07

1 441

3 1 .64

2 9 .00

3 4 .24

2 8508

3 2 .86

3 30 .04

2 8 .10

BP I( f i l l )

BP I ( f loor )

W.

%

BP II ( f i l l ) BP II ( f loor ) T o ta l

3 92

Ch ap ter 1 5 : Th eory a nd Pr ac t ice i n Ho useho ld Ar chaeo logy

Ta b le 1 5 .1c Quant ity a nd w e ight o f s herds f or t he e nt ire s i te ( 1982-1984 e xcavat ions) . AR EA E ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

S urface

5 55

W.

7 . 87

1 .05

T op s o i l

1 2 .97

-

BP I( f i l l ) BP I( f loor) BP I ( f i l l )

3 783

8 . 88

6 9 .54

1 .66

BP I ( f loor)

1 201

2 6 .37

1 9 .00

2 2 .43

BP II ( f i l l )

1 004

5 1 .30

1 2 .90

4 9 .90

BP II ( f loor)

9 08

1 00

8 . 60

1 00

T o ta l

7 451

8 . 59

1 21 .09

1 0 .31

TO TAL ST RAT IGRAPHY

NB

%

S urface

7 050

8 . 12

8 5 .18

7 . 25

T op s o i l

2 2906

3 6 .41

2 93 .91

2 5 .03

6 117

7 . 05

7 1 .95

6 . 12

BP I( f loor)

6 43

0 . 74

7 . 72

0 . 65

BP I ( f i l l )

4 2597

4 9 .11

5 96 .29

5 0 .78

BP I ( f loor)

4 554

5 . 25

8 4 .68

7 . 21

BP II ( f i l l )

1 957

2 . 25

2 5 .85

2 . 20

BP II ( f loor)

9 08

1 . 04

8 . 60

0 . 73

8 6732

1 00

174 .20

1 00

BP I( f i l l )

T o ta l

3 93

W.

%

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .2a

S herd d ens i t ies a nd f ragmen tat ion i nd ices f or t he e n t ire s i te . AR EA A

ST RAT IGRAPHY

AR EA B

DE NS ITY

F I

DE NS ITY

F I

S urface

2 . 99

1 2 .10

2 . 32

9 . 55

T op s o i l

5 . 15

1 5 .26

1 7 .05

1 3 .07

7 . 93

1 .38

BP I( f i l l ) BP I( f loor)

0 . 44

1 .71

0 . 15

2 3 .35

BP I ( f i l l )

1 5 .06

1 7 .68

1 2 .17

1 2 .24

BP I ( f loor)

0 . 67

2 2 .26

0 . 99

2 2 .22

BP II ( f i l l )

0 . 57

1 2 .33

0 . 28

1 4 .49

2 4 .74

1 6 .43

4 0 .92

1 2 .57

BP II ( f loor) T o ta l

AR EA 'C ST RAT IGRAPHY

AR EA D

DE NS ITY

F I

DE NS ITY

F1

S urface

1 . 86

1 3 .29

4 . 70

1 .39

T op s o i l

3 . 88

1 5 .52

1 4 .54

1 0 .94

BP I( f i l l )

2 . 31

1 2 .44

9 . 24

1 4 .28

BP I( f loor)

0 . 57

7 . 23

0 . 70

1 8 .57

BP I ( f i l l )

1 4 .18

1 5 .42

3 0 .17

1 .05

BP I ( f loor )

2 . 25

1 5 .56

2 . 68

2 0 .13

BP II ( f i l l )

1 . 06

1 4 .35

2 6 .12

1 4 .81

5 3 .03

1 .57

BP II ( f loor ) T o ta l

3 94

Chap ter 1 5 : Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy

T ab le 1 5 .2b

S herd d ens it ies a nd f ragmentat ion i nd ices f or t he e nt ire s i te . AR EA E

ST RAT IGRAPHY

AV ERAGES

DE NS ITY

F I

DE NS ITY

F I

2 . 77

1 9 .90

2 . 96

1 2 .08

T op s o i l

1 0 .53

1 2 .83

BP I( f i l l)

4 . 01

1 .76

BP I( f loor)

0 . 29

1 2 .00

S urface

BP I ( f i l l )

1 8 .91

1 8 .38

1 7 .93

1 3 .99

BP I ( f loor)

6 . 00

1 5 .82

1 . 96

1 8 .59

BP II ( f i l l)

5 . 02

1 2 .84

1 . 06

1 3 .20

BP II ( f loor)

4 . 54

9 . 47

4 . 54

9 . 47

T o ta l

3 7 .25

1 6 .25

3 6 .51

1 3 .53

T ab le 1 5-3a : R oom s i ze a nd d istr ibut ion .

Room No .

SU RFACF AR EA

LE NGTH

WI DTH

( M‘)

( m)

( m)

/

5 1 .84

1 0 .80

4 . 80

2

3 2 .00

8 . 00

4 . 00

3

2 3 .80

6 . 80

3 . 50

1 4

3 0 .80

7 . 00

4 . 40

1 5

2 . 80

2 . 00

1 . 40

AR EA A

3 95

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .3b R oom s i ze a nd d i s tr ibut ion . SU RFACg , AR EA

LE NGTH

WI DTH

( r n z)

( m)

( m)

1 0

2 9 .40

7 . 00

4 . 20

/

1 8 .00

4 . 50

4 . 00

1 2

6 . 72

2 . 80

2 . 40

1 7

1 3 .60

4 . 00

3 . 40

1 8

1 .52

3 . 60

3 . 20

SU RFACg , AR EA

LE NGTH

WI DTH

( nr6)

( m)

( m )

4

5 3 .04

1 0 .20

5 . 20

5

2 4 .80

6 . 20

4 . 00

7

8 . 00

4 . 00

4 . 00

8

1 9 .00

5 . 00

3 . 80

9

5 . 76

2 . 40

2 . 40

Room No .

SU RFACg , AR EA

LE NGTH

WI DTH

( r n‘)

(, 1)

( m)

3 3 .00

6 . 00

5 . 50

1 3

5 3 .68

1 2 .20

4 . 40

1 6

6 . 82

3 . 10

2 . 20

Room No .

AR EA B

Room No .

AR EA C

*

AR EA D 6

T r iangu lar r oom :

b ase = 4 . 00 m a nd h e igh t =4 . 00 m .

3 96

Chap ter 1 5 : Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy

T ab le 1 5 .4a ( 1 -3) A rchaeo log ica l c ontext o f s herds i n Room 6 o f t he R oom 6 House c omp lex , A rea D . Room 6 , SU RFACE AR EA = 3 3 (m 2) x

F ine

1 .S urface

( 1 ) NUMBER O F SH ERDS C oarse T o ta l

8 0

3 10

3 90

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

2 51

4 67

7 18

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

4 16

1 068

1 484

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

8 7

5 37

6 24

8 34

2 382

3 216

F ine

( 2 ) WE IGHT ( kg ) C oarse

T o ta l

1 .S urface

0 . 48

3 . 80

4 . 28

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

2 . 60

7 . 50

1 0 .10

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

4 . 20

1 6 .60

2 0 .80

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

0 . 70

1 4 .40

1 5 .10

T o ta l

7 . 98

4 2 .30

5 0 .28

T o ta l

F ine

( 3 ) DE NS ITY ( per m 1) C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

2 . 42

9 . 39

1 .81

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

7 . 60

1 4 .15

2 1 .75

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

1 2 .60

3 2 .36

4 4 .96

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

2 . 63

1 2 .27

1 4 .90

2 5 .25

6 8 .17

9 7 .42

T o ta l

3 97

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .4a ( 4) ( 4 ) FR AGMENTAT ION I NDEX F ine C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

6 . 00

1 2 .25

1 0 .97

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

1 0 .35

1 6 .05

1 4 .06

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

1 0 .09

1 5 .54

1 4 .01

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

8 . 04

2 6 .81

2 4 .19

T o ta l

9 . 56

1 7 .75

1 5 .65

T ab le 1 5-4b ( 1-2) : A rchaeo log ica l c ontext o f s herds i n t he C ourtyard o f t he R oom 6 House c omp lex , A rea D . CO URTYARD , SU RFACE AR EA = 5 5 ( m 2)

F ine

( 1 ) NUMBER O F SH ERDS C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

7 12

1 461

2 173

2 .D ebr is l ayer

7 69

1 484

2 253

3 .T umb le l ayer

2 92

8 07

1 099

T o ta l

1 773

3 752

5 525

F ine

( 2 ) WE IGHT ( kg ) C oarse

T o ta l

I .S urface

4 . 17

1 6 .50

2 0 .67

2 .D ebr is l ayer

8 . 00

2 6 .25

3 4 .25

3 .T umb le l ayer

2 . 65

1 6 .42

1 9 .07

T o ta l

1 4 .82

5 9 .17

7 3 .99

3 98

Chap ter 1 5 : Th eory a nd Pr ac t ice i n Ho useho ld Ar chaeo logy

Ta b le 1 5 .4b ( 3 -4)

F ine

( 3 ) DE NS ITY ( per m 1) C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

1 2 .94

2 6 .56

3 9 .50

2 .D ebr is l ayer

1 3 .98

2 6 .98

4 0 .96

3 .T umb le l ayer

5 . 30

1 4 .67

1 9 .98

3 2 .23

6 8 .21

1 00 .45

T o ta l

( 4 ) FR AGMENTAT ION I NDEX F ine C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

5 . 85

1 .29

9 . 56

2 .D ebr is l ayer

1 0 .40

1 7 .68

1 5 .20

3 .T umb le l ayer

9 . 07

2 0 .34

1 3 .35

T o ta l

8 . 35

1 5 .77

1 3 .39

Ta b le 1 5 .4c ( 1) : Ar chaeo log ica l c ontext o f s herds i n t he t ota l c omp lex o f t he Ro om 6 Ho use c omp lex , Ar ea D. TO TAL COMPLEX ,

SU RFACE AR EA = 8 8 (m 2)

F ine

( 1 ) NUMBER O F SH ERDS C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

7 92

1 771

2 563

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

1 020

1 951

2 971

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

7 08

1 875

2 583

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

8 7

5 37

6 24

2 607

6 134

8 741

T o ta l

3 99

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .4c ( 2-4) F ine

( 2 ) WE IGHT ( kg ) C oarse

T o ta l

1 .S urface

4 . 65

2 0 .30

2 4 .95

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

1 0 .60

3 3 .75

4 4 .35

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

6 . 85

3 3 .02

3 9 .87

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

0 . 70

1 4 .40

1 5 .10

2 2 .80

1 01 .47

1 24 .27

T o ta l

F ine

( 3 ) DE NS ITY ( per m2 ) C oarse T o ta l

I .S urface

9 . 00

2 0 .12

2 9 .12

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

1 .59

2 2 .17

3 3 .76

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

8 . 04

2 1 .30

2 9 .35

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

2 . 63

1 6 .27

1 8 .90

2 9 .62

6 9 .70

9 9 .32

T o ta l

( 4 ) FR AGMENTAT ION I NDEX F ine C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

5 . 87

1 .46

9 . 73

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I)

1 0 .39

1 7 .29

1 4 .92

3 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

9 . 67

1 7 .61

1 5 .43

4 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

8 . 04

2 6 .81

2 4 .19

T o ta l

8 . 74

1 6 .54

1 4 .21

NUMBERS O NL EFT MARG IN R EFER T O G RAPHS . C ommen ts o f T ab le 1 5 .4 : L ocus I a nd II w ere c omb ined i n to BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface) .

4 00

Ch ap ter 1 5 : Th eory a nd Pr ac t ice i n Ho useho ld Ar chaeo logy

Ta b le 1 5 .5 ( a-c) :

Ar chaeo log ica l c ontext o f s herds i n 1 3 oom 1 1 Ho use , Ar ea D. RO OM 11 , SU RFACE AR EA = 1 8 ( m ) ( a ) NUMBER O F SH ERDS F ine C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

7 4

1 30

2 04

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

1 9

4 5

6 4

3 15

3 05

6 20

4 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

8 0

1 80

2 60

5 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

9 6

3 32

4 98

T o ta l

5 84

1 012

1 596

F ine

( b ) WE IGHT ( kg ) C oarse

T o ta l

I .S urface

0 . 58

2 . 50

3 . 10

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

0 . 10

1 . 18

1 . 28

3 . Mud b r ick

3 . 10

7 . 70

1 0 .80

4 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

1 . 76

3 . 60

5 . 35

5 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

0 . 65

2 0 .03

2 0 .68

T o ta l

6 . 18

3 5 .00

4 1 .18

3 . Mud b r ick

F ine

( c ) DE NS ITY ( per m2) C oarse T o ta l

1 .S urface

4 . 11

7 . 22

1 .33

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I)

1 . 05

2 . 50

3 . 55

3 . Mud b r ick

1 7 .50

1 6 .94

3 4 .44

4 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

4 . 44

1 0 .00

1 4 .44

5 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

5 . 33

1 9 .55

2 4 .88

3 2 .44

5 6 .22

8 8 .66

T o ta l

4 01

S h iqm im I

T ab le 1 5 .5 ( d ) ( d ) FR AGMENTAT ION I NDEX F ine C oar se T o ta l

1 .S urface

7 . 77

1 9 .23

1 5 .07

2 .T op s o i l ( Locus I )

5 . 26

2 6 .11

1 9 .92

3 . Mud b r ick

9 . 84

2 5 .24

1 7 .41

4 . BP I ( F i l l a bove s urface)

2 1 .87

2 0 .00

2 0 .57

5 . BP I ( Surface o f o ccup .)

6 . 77

5 6 .88

4 6 .14

T o ta l

1 0 .57

3 4 .58

2 5 .79

NUMBER S O NL EFT MARG IN R EFER T O G RAPHS .

4 02

Chap ter 1 5 : T heory a nd P rac t ice i n Hou seho ld A rchaeo logy

T ab le 1 5 .6

L iv ing f l oor i nven tory o f R oom 6 , A rea D .

FL INT DE B ITAGE F lake ( 2 ) , 0 7945 F lake ( 2 ) , 0 7947 F lake , 0 7948 F lake , 0 9306 F lake , 0 7950 B lade , 0 9306 B lade le t , 0 7945 C hunk , 0 7944 F lake c ore , 0 9303 E xhau s ted f l ake c ore , 0 7942 E xhau s ted f l ake c ore , 0 7950d C arme l c o lor p ebb le , 0 7943 P ebb le , 0 7943 P ebb le , 0 7949 P ebb le , 0 9206

GR IND ING TO OLS Sma l l G r ind ing S tone , 0 93115 Sma l l G r ind ing S tone , 0 9319 S tone b ow/ Mor tar F rag . , 0 9303 Mor tar , 0 7925 SP INN ING TO OLS S p ind le whor l ( 2 ) , 0 9307a ,b HI DE WO RK ING TO OLS ( ? ) C opper Aw l w i th t wo s pare p o in t s , 0 7932 DE CORAT IVE FI NDS I vory b lade , 0 7935 S he l l p endan t , 0 7928 Mo ther -of -pear l , 0 7923 Mo ther -of -pear l , 0 7906

PO UND ING/ CH OPP ING TO OLS C hopper , 0 79476 C hopper , 0 2 Axe , 0 9312

SC RAP ING TO OLS U t i l ized F lakes ( 2 ) , 0 7947a T abu lar t r iangu lar S craper , 0 9323 T abu lar S craper F rag . , 0 9314

Hammers tones : L arge -c ircu lar , 0 7950a B a l l shape , 0 9309 Ad h oc , 0 79506 Ad h oc , 0 7950c a nd c ore s , 0 7943a ,b ,c

T ab le 1 5 -7 :

MI S CELLANOUS S he l l , 0 7947a S tone r ing , 0 9322 P erfora ted S tone , 0 7442 P erfora ted S tone , 0 9324

I nventory o f C eram ic V esse ls f rom R oom 6 , A rea D .

CE RAM IC VE SSELS

MI N IMUM NUMBER O FI N D IV IDUALS C oar se W are F ine W are

P i tho i : W i th e x terna l h or izon ta l r im H o lemou th : P la in i nver ted r im Sma l l V -shape b ow l s B as in : W i th c onvex wa l l s urface W i th b eve l led , i n terna l r im W i th f l a t , i n terna l/ex terna l r im * T o ta l V esse ls ( M in imun n umber )

1 7 1 5

1 1 1 1

*

M in imum n umber o f v e sse l f igures may i n f ac t b e t o o h igh .

4 03

1 5

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY

Abe les , M . e t C o l lard , C . ( eds ) // 1 985 Age , p ouvo ir e t s oc ie te e n A f r ique n o ire . P ar is : P resses d e l ' un ivers i te d e Mon trea l . Amb lard , S . 1 985 Ma ter ie l l i th ique e t c i v i l isa t ion d u D har T ich i t t -Wa la ta (Maur i tan ie) . P ar is : A .D .P .F . A rdener , S .( cd ) 1 981 G round r u les a nd s oc ia l maps f or women : An i n troduc t ion , i n W omen a nd S pace : G round R u les a nd S oc ia l Maps . L ondon : C room He lm , 1-34 . B a i ley , G . 1 983 C oncep ts o f t ime i n A n thropo logy 1 2 : 1 65 -192 .

Qua ternary

P reh is tory .

A nnua l R ev iew

o f

B ernus , E . 1 981 T ouareg s n iger iens : u n i t e c u l ture l le e t d ivers i ti • r4 iona le d 'un p eup le p as teur . P ar is : Memo ires OSTO M 9 4 . B inford , L . 1 980 W i l low s moke a nd d ogs ' t a i ls : Hun ter -gatherer s e t t lemen t s ys tem s a nd a rchaeo log ica l s i te f orma t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 : 4 -20 . 1 981 B ehav iora l a rchaeo logy a nd t he " Pompe i i p rem ise " . A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 7 : 1 95 -208 .

J ourna l o f

B ohannan , P . a nd B ohannan , L . 1 968 T iv E conomy . L ondon : L ongmans . C ar ls te in , T . 1 982 T ime , R esources , S oc ie ty a nd E co logy .

L ondon : A l len a nd Unw in .

Chang , K . 1 968 T oward a s c ience o f p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty . I n Chang , K .C . S e t t lemen t A rchaeo logy . P a lo A l to : Na t iona l P ress B ooks , p p . 1 9 .

( cd ) ,

Chayanov , A . V . 1 986 T he T heory o f P easan t E conomy , e d i ted b y Dan ie l Thorner , B as i le Kerb lay a nd R .E .F . Sm i th . Homewood , I l l ino is : R ichard D . I rw in I nc . D ee tz , J .F . 1 982 Househo lds : A s t ruc tura l k ey t o Amer ican B ehav iora l S c ien t is t 2 5 : 7 17 -24 .

4 04

a rchaeo log ica l

e xp lanat ion .

Chap ter 1 5 : Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy

D igard , J . 1 978 The s egmen ta l s ys tem : Na ture , Mode l o r Anthropo log ica l C ons truc t ion? D iscuss ion o f a n I ran ian E xamp le . I n We iss leder , W . ( cd ) , T he N omad ic A l terna t ive . The Hague -Par is : Mouton , p p . 3 15 -317 . 1 981 T echn iques d es n omades B ax tyar i d 'I ran . L ondon , P ar is : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P res s , Ma ison d es S c iences d e l ' homme . Do than , M . 1 959 E xcava t ions a t Horvat B e ter ( Beersheba ) .

A t iqo t 2 : 1 42 .

Dumas -Champ ion , F . 1 980 L e r o le s oc ia l e t r i tue l d u b e ta i l c hez l e s Massa d u T chad . Af r ica 5 0 : 1 61-181 . 1 983 L es Massa d u T chad : b eit a i l a nd s oc itg . L ondon a nd C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress a nd Ma ison d es s c iences d e l ' homme .

P ar is :

Durrenberger , E .P . 1 984 Opera t iona l iz ing C hayanov , i n C hayanov , P easan ts a nd E conom ic A n thropo logy , e d i ted b y E .P . Durrenberger . New York : Academ ic P ress , p p . 3 9 -50 . E ps te in , C . 1 976 The Cha lco l i th ic Cu l ture i n t he Go lan .

Q admon io t 9 :3 6 . ( Hebrew )

1 981 More o n t he Cha lco l i th ic Cu l ture o f t he Go lan . 1 5 -20 . ( Hebrew ) 1 982

D ie Cha lko l i th ische k u l tur a uf d em Go lan .

E re tz -I srae l 1 5 :

A n t ike W e l t 2 :3 4 -38 .

E vans -Pr itchard , E .E . L es N uer : d escr ip t ion d es modes d e v i e e t d es i n s t i tu t ions p o l i t iques d 'un p eup le n i lo t ique . P ar is : P ar is : Ga l l imard . F ran tz , C . 1 978 E co logy a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion among N iger ian F u lbe ( Fu lan i ) . I n We iss leder , W . ( cd ) , T he N omad ic A l terna t ive . The Hague -Par is : Mou ton , p p . 9 7 -118 . F r iedman , J .a nd Row lands , M .J . 1 978 No tes t owards a n e p igene t ic mode l o f t he e vo lut ion o f " c iv i l isa t ion " . I n F r iedman , J .a nd Row lands , M .J ( eds ) , T he E vo lu t ion o f S oc ia l S ys tems . L ondon : Duckwor th , p p . 2 01-276 . Gode l ier , M . 1 978 L a n o t ion d e f orma t ion s oc ia le e c onom ique . E spe le t te : Roneo .

4 05

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1 980 The c oncep t o f " As ia t ic Mode o f P roduc t ion " a nd Marx is t mode ls o f s oc ia l e vo lu t ion . I n S eddon D . ( ed ) , R e la t ions o f P roduc t ion . L ondon : F rank C ass , 2 09 -257 . 1 984 L ' idge e t l e ma tgr ie l .

P ar is : F ayard .

Harr is , M . 1 980 C u l tura l Ma ter ia l s im : T he S trugg le f or a S c ience o f C u l ture . New York : Random House . Hayden , B . a nd C annon , A . 1 983 Where t he g arbage g oes : R efuse d isposa l i n t he Maya H igh lands . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 2 : 17 -163 . 1 984 T he S truc ture o f Ma ter ia l S ys tems : E thnoarchaeo logy i n t h e Maya H igh lands . SAA P apers No . 3 , Wash ing ton D .C . H i l l , P . 1 982 D ry g ra in f arm ing f am i l ies : Hausa land ( N iger ia) Karna taka ( Ind ia) c ompared . L ondon : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . H i l l ier , B . 1 985 D iscover ing h ouse g eno types , P aper p resen ted a t t he Annua l C onference o f t he Theore t ica l A rchaeo logy G roup , G lasgow , Abs trac ts , p . 2 8 Ho 1 1 , A . 1 983 E ssa i s ur r e ' conom ie n go l i th ique Doc torate t hes is , Un ivers ity o f P ar is I .

d u

D har

T ich i t t

(Maur i tan ie) ,

1 985 T rans i t ion d u Neo l i th ique ä l 'Age d u f er d ans l a p la ine p er i tchad ienne : l e c as d e Mdaga , C ommun ica t ion p re sen tee a ux J ournees d 'e tudes h is tor iques e t c ompara t ives s ur l e b as s in d u T chad , ORSTO M , B ondy , 2 -3 O c tobre . 1 986 S ys tema t ique a rcheo log ique e t p rocessus c u lture ls . E ssa i d 'archeo log ie r eg iona le d ans l e s ec teur d e Hou louf ( Nord -Cameroun ) , P aper p resented a t t he Mee t ing o n C ameroon ian A rchaeo logy , 5 -9 J anuary . Ho 1 1 , A . a nd L evy , T .E . I n p ress . The Ana lys is o f A rchaeo log ica l F orma t ion P rocesses . J ohnson , D .L . 1 969 T he N a ture o f N omad ism . o f Ch icago .

R esearch P aper No . 18 , The Un ivers i ty

4 06

Chap ter 1 5 : Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy

Ken t , S . 1 984 A na lyz ing A c t iv i ty A reas : A n e thnoarchaeo log ica l s t udy o f t h e u se o f s pace . A lbuquerque : The Un ivers ity o f New Mex ico P ress . Khazanov , A .M . 1 978 Charac ter is t ic f ea tures o f n omad ic c ommun i t ies i n t he E uras ian s t eppes . I n We is s leder , W . ( cd ) , T he N omad ic A l terna t ive . The Hague P ar is : Mouton , p p . 19 -126 . K irch , P .V . 1 982 The a rchaeo log ica l s tudy o f a dap ta t ion : Theore t ica l a nd me thodo log ica l i s sues . I n S ch iffer , M .B . ( cd ) , Advances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory . New York : A cadem ic P res s , 1 01-156 . Koeppe l , R . e t a l . 1 940 T e le i la t G hassu l , I .

Rome : P on t if ic ia l B ib l ica l I ns t itute .

Kramer , C . 1 982a V i l lage E thnoarchaeo logy : R ura l I ran i n P erspec t ive , New York : Academ ic P re ss . 1 982b E thnograph ic h ouseho lds a nd a rchaeo log ica l i nterpre ta t ion : A c ase s tudy f rom I ran ian Kurd is tan . Amer ican B ehav iora l S c ien t is t 2 5 : 6 63 6 75 . L ebeuf , J .P . , L ebeuf , A .M .D . , T re inen -C iaus tre , F r . e t C our t in , J . 1 980 L e g i semen t s ao d e Mdaga ( T chad) : F ou i l les . P ar is : d 'e thnograph ie .

S oc ie te '

L ebeuf , A .M .D . e t Ho 1 1 , A . 1 985 F ou i l les a rcheo log iques A kuma 2 6 :5 -7 .

Nyame

d e

Hou louf

( Nord -Ca meroun ) .

L evy , T .E . 1 981 C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs i s tence i n t h e n or thern N egev d eser t , I s rae l , P h .D . t hes is , Ann A rbor : Un ivers i ty M icrof i lm s . 1 983 The emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism i n t he s ou thern L evant . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 :15 -36 . L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 983 C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lemen t p a t terns i n t he n or thern Negev . C urren t A n thropo logy 2 4 : 1 05 -107 . 1 985 S h iqm im : A Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage n or thern Negev . P a leor ien t 1/1 : 7 1-83 .

a nd

mor tuary

c entre

i n

Ma l lon , A . , Koeppe l , R . , a nd Neuv i l le , R . 1 934 T e le i la t G hassu l I ,1 929 -1932 . Rome : P on t if ica l B ib l ica l I ns t i tu te .

4 07

t he

S h iqm im I

Mayr , E . 1 982 T he G row th o f B io log ica l T hough t : D ivers i ty , I nher i tance . L ondon : Harvard Un ivers i ty P ress .

E vo lu t ion

a nd

McC . Ne t t ing , R . , e t a l ( eds ) 1 984 Househo lds : C ompara t ive a nd h i s tor ica l s t ud ies o f t h e d omes t ic g roup . B erke ley : Un ivers i ty o f C a l iforn ia P ress . Me i l lassoux , C . 1 977 T erra ins e t T heor ies .

P ar is : An thropo s .

Munson , P . J . 1 971 T ich i t t T rad i t ion : A L a te P reh is tor ic o ccupa t ion i n S ou thwes tern S ahara , P h .D . t he s is , Un ivers i ty o f U rbana -Champa ign , I l l ino is . 1 976 A rchaeo log ica l d a ta o n t he o r ig ins o f c u l t iva t ion i n S ou thwes tern S ahara a nd t he ir i mp l icat ion f or Wes t A fr ica . I n Har lan , J .R . e t a l . ( eds ) , O r ig ins o f A f r ican P lan t D omes t ica t ion . The Hague -Par is : Mouton , p p . 1 87 -209 . Ne lson , C . ( ed ) 1 973 T he D eser t a nd t h e S own . N omads i n t h e w ider s oc ie ty , Research S er ies No . 2 1 , B erke ley : Un ivers i ty o f C a l iforn ia P ress . O swa ld , D . 1 984 The u se o f s i te s t ruc ture t o i nfer s oc ia l a nd t echno log ica l o rgan iza t ion f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . I n Ha l l , M . e t a l . ( eds ) , F ron t iers : S ou thern A f r ica A rchaeo logy T oday . Oxford : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts I n terna t iona l S er ies , p p . 2 97 -309 . P erro t , J . 1 955 The E xcava t ions a t T e l l Abu Ma tar . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -40 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 . 1 984 S truc tures d 'hab i tat , mode d e v ie e t e nv ironmen t . L es v i l lages s outerra ins d es p as teurs d e B eersheva d ans l e s ud d ' Israe l , a u I V m i l lena ire a van t I ' ere c hra ienne . P a lgor ien t 1 0/1 : 7 5 -96 . P incon , F .M . 1 978 L 'adop t ion d e l ' e levage c hez l e s I nd iens Gua j iros . T echn iques e t c u l ture 3 : 5 -45 . 1 983 P as teurs d u N ouveau Monde : a dop t ion d e l 'aevage c hez l e s I nd iens G uaj iros . P ar is : E d i t ions d e l a M .S .H . P orath , Y . 1 985 A C ha lco l i th ic B u i ld ing a t F asa 'e l .

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A t iqo t 1 7 :1-19 .

Chap ter 1 5 : Theory a nd P rac t ice i n Househo ld A rchaeo logy

P r ice , B .J . 1 982 Cu l tura l mater ia l ism : A t heore t ica l 4 7 :709 -741 .

r ev iew .

Amer ican A n t iqu i ty

Redman , C . , L anghorne , W .T . , B erman , M .J . , Versag i , N . , Cur t in , E .V . a nd Wanser , J .C . 1 978 S oc ia l A rchaeo logy : B eyond s ubs is tence a nd d a t ing . New York : A cadem ic P ress . Renfrew , C .A . 1 984 A pproaches Un ivers i ty P ress . S ah l ins , M .D . 1 968 T r ibesmen .

t o

S oc ia l

A rchaeo logy .

E d inburgh :

E d inburgh

New J ersey : P ren t ice Ha l l .

1 969 L and u se a nd t he e x tended f am i ly i n Moa la , F i j i , I n Vayda , A .P . ( ed ) , E nv ironmen t a nd C u l tura l B ehav ior . New York : The Na tura l H is tory P ress , 3 95 -415 . 1 976 Age d e p ierre , a ge d 'abondance : l ' gconom ie d es s oc ig t i s p r im i t ives . P ar is : Ga l l i mard . S ch iffer , M ichae l B . 1 978 B ehav iora l A rchaeo logy .

New York : A cadem ic P ress .

Sm i th , R . 1 984 P reface , i n L and , K insh ip a nd L ondon : C a mbr idge Un ivers i ty P ress .

L if e -cyc le , e d i ted

b y

R .

Sm i th ,

Sm ith , S .E . 1 978 The e nv ironmen ta l a dap ta t ions o f n omads i n t he w es t Afr ican S ahe l : A k ey t o u nders tand ing p reh is tor ic p as tora l is ts , I n We iss leder , W . ( ed ) , T he N omad ic A l terna t ive . The Hague -Par is : Mou ton , 7 5 -96 . S pooner , B . 1 973 T he C u l tura l E co logy o f P as tora l N omads . i n An thropo logy No . 4 5 .

Add ison -Wes ley , Modu le

T es tar t , A . 1 982 L es c hasseurs -cue i l leurs o u l ' or ig ine d es i n ega l i tg s . d 'e thnograph ie .

P ar is : S oc ie te

T r ingham , R . 1 983 The d eve lopmen t o f t he h ouseho ld a s t he p r imary u n i t o f p roduc t ion i n Neo l i th ic a nd E neo l i th ic S ou th -Eas t E urope , P aper p resen ted a t t he S ympos ium o n t he d eve lopmen t o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , S oc ie ty f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy , P it tsburg , PA ( Apr i l 2 7 -30 ) .

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S h iqm im I

Warn ier , J .P . 1 985 E changes d e d i ve loppemen t e t h i erarch ies p rj co lon ia l ( Cameroun) . B er l in : F ran tz S te iner .

d ans

l e

B amenda

We is s leder , W . ( ed ) 1 978 T he N omad ic A l terna t ive .

The Hague -Par is : Mouton .

W i lk , R . a nd Ra th je , W .L . 1 982 Househo ld A rchaeo logy .

Amer ican B ehav iora l S c ien t is t 2 5 : 6 17 -639 .

4 10

A ppend ix I Chap ter 1 6 PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF POTTERY FRO M SHIQ M IM : A PRELI M INARY REPORT

b y Yuva l Goren A rchaeo log ica l D iv i s ion B en Gur ion Un iver s i ty o f t he N egev B eersheva a nd I s aac G i lead A rchaeo log ica l D iv i s ion B en Gur ion Un iver s i ty o f t he N egev B eer sheva

IN TRODUCT ION T he i nhab i tan t s o f t he n or thern N egev d e ser t p roduced t he r i ches t p reh is tor ic c u l tura l a s semb lages d ur ing t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod . R ich a s semb lage s o f p o t tery a nd s t one v es se ls , f l in t a r tefac t s a nd a n ima l b ones a re v ery c ommon i n many o f t he s i te s i n t h i s r eg ion . Un t i l r ecen t ly , mo s t s tud ie s w ere b ased o n p o t tery t ypo log ie s , t he mo s t c ommon a nd b e s t k now a r tefac tua l c a tegory o f t he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod . T he se v es se l s r epre sen t av ery d ynam ic c eram ic i ndus try wh ich p roduced a n i mmense q uan t i ty o f i t em s i n av ar ie ty o f s hape s a nd s i ze s . S ome o f t he b e s t k now v e s se l t ypes i nc lude c orne t s , c hurns a nd V shaped b ow ls . A s mo s t o f t he s tud ie s o f p o t tery a s semb lages d ea l w i th t ypo log ica l p rob lem s , v ery l i t t le a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he r aw ma ter ia ls o f wh ich t he se v e s se ls w ere made . D e ta i led p e trograph ic a na lyse s o f C ha lco l i th ic v e sse ls w ere c arr ied o u t o n as ma l l s a mp le o f s herd s f rom S tra tum V a t A rad ( G las s 1 978 ) a nd o n o n ly t wo s herd s f rom T e le i la t Ghas su l ( Edwards a nd S egn i t 1 982 ) . T here i s a g row ing i n tere s t among a rchaeo log i s t s work ing i n t he n or thern Negev t o f ocu s o n t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic a spec t s o f C ha lco l i th ic s oc ie t ies f rom t h i s r eg ion ( c f . G i lead 1 986 ; G i lead a nd Goren 1 986 ; L evy 1 983 , 1 986a , 1 986b ; L evy a nd A lon 1 985 ; R o sen 1 986 ) . T he se s tud ie s a t temp t t o d ef ine t he s oc io -econom ic n a ture o f t he C ha lco l i th ic s oc ie ty a nd p os s ib le p a t terns o f i n terac t ion . T he a bundance a nd v ar iab i l i ty o f t he p o t tery f ound a t t hese s i tes p rov ides o ne o f t he mo s t i mpor tan t a s semb lage s f or s tudy ing a nd i den t ify ing t he se p a t terns . I n o rder t o o b ta in more i nforma t ion f rom p o t tery v e s se l s , w e h ave i n i t ia ted a c omprehens ive s tudy o f C ha lco l i th ic p o t tery f rom t hroughou t t he n or thern N egev r eg ion .

4 11

S h iqm im I

T o g o b eyond t ypo logy , m e thods u sua l ly u sed i n t he n a tura l s c ience s h ave b een emp loyed t o e xam ine t he t e chno logy u sed f or t he p roduc t ion o f C ha lco l i th ic p o t tery . M inera log ica l a nd c hem ica l a na lyses w ere c arr ied o u t i n o rder t o o b ta in i nforma t ion c oncern ing t he t r ea tmen t o f t he r aw ma ter ia ls a nd t he ir p o s s ib le p rovenance ( Peacock 1 970 : 3 79 ; B i shop e t a l 1 982 : 2 81-288 ) . T h is r e search p ro jec t a im s a t c o l lec t ing r epre sen ta t ive s a mp le o f p e trograph ic t h in sec t ions f rom s i te s i n t he n or thern N egev a nd a d jacen t a reas . T o d a te , o ver 4 00 s amp le s h ave b een s tud ied . P e trograph ic s tud ie s p rov ide a more s ound d a ta b ase f or d ea l ing w i th a spec t s s uch a s t he p rovenance o f r aw ma ter ia l s a nd v e s se ls , mode s o f p roduc t ion a nd modes o f p reh is tor ic e xchange . T he r e su l t s o f t h i s r eg iona l work a re n ow b e ing p roce s sed a nd h ere t he p re l im inary r e su l t s o f t he s a mp le s f rom S h iqm im a re p re sen ted .

ME THODS A s a r u le , p e trograph ic a na ly s is s hou ld t ake i n to c ons idera t ion t he t ypo logy o f t he v e s se ls t o b e e xam ined . T he s amp l ing o f p o t tery f or p e trograph ic a na ly s is s hou ld b e made a ccord ing ly . V es se l s o f e ach c eram ic t ype w ere s e lec ted f rom t he r ange o f l o c i c harac ter is t ic o f t he S h iqm im v i l lage . T hese s herds w ere e xam ined w i th a magn ify ing g las s a nd s amp les w ere c ho sen a ccord ing t o t he t ypes o f r aw ma ter ia l u sed f or p roduc ing t he v e s se l . Th ir ty f ive p o l ished t h in sec t ions w ere made a nd e xam ined u nder a p o lar iz ing ( pe trograph ic ) m icorscope . I n a dd i t ion , h eavy m inera l a nd X -ray d iffrac t ion a na ly ses w ere made o n a mas s o f u nf ired c lay t ha t w as f ound w i th p o t tery i n Room 6 , A rea D ( Chap ter 1 5 , t h i s v o lume ; L evy a nd A lon 1 985 : P l . 4 , 7 7 -78 ) . H eavy m inera l a na lys i s s how s wh ich m inera l s a ppear i n m inor q uan t i t ies i n t he s ed imen t , a nd may , i n s ome c a se s , r ef lec t s pec if ic d epo s i t iona l e nv ironmen ts . T he se m inera ls u sua l ly h ave a l a rge s pec if ic g rav i ty , a nd t hey a re s epara ted f rom t he s ed imen t b y mean s o f h eavy l i qu ids ( Peacock 1 967 ) . X r ay d iffrac t ion w a s u sed t o e xam ine c l ay c omponen t s wh ich c anno t b e s een m icro scop ica l ly ( B i shop e t a l 1 982 : 2 88 -293 ) . A c ompara t ive e xam ina t ion o f p o ss ib le r aw ma ter ia ls , s uch a s l o es s ia l s o i l s a nd w ad i s ands n ear B eer sheva c omp le ted t h is s tudy .

RE SULTS T he m icro scop ic e xam ina t ion o f t he t h ir tyf ive t h in sec t ions o f p o t tery f rom S h iqm im i nd ica te t ha t t he me thod o f p roduc ing p o t tery w as u n iform i n mo s t c ases ( Tab le 1 6 .1) . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he C ream Ware t o b e d i scus sed b e low , l o es s w as u sed a s c l ay a nd s and f rom t he Naha l B eersheva wa s u sed a s t emper . T he l o es s c on ta in s ah igh p ropor t ion o f s i l t , i n wh ich m inor m inera ls s uch a s f e ldspars , m icas a nd h eavy m inera ls ( z ircon , t ourma l ine , h ornb lend , e tc . ) c an b e s een . T h is p rove s t ha t t he s o i l w as n o t f l oa ted b efore b e ing u sed a s ac lay b ody , a nd t h is i s p robab ly t he r eason f or i t s l ow p las t ic i ty . On t he o ther h and , s i nce s i l t i s i n f ac t an a tura l t emper , t he d ry ing p roce ss c ou ld b e s hor ter t han i n p ure c lays ( Shepard 1 956 : 2 4 ) . T he u se o f s uch a c l ay b ody l im i ted t he a b i l i ty o f t he p o t ter i n p roduc ing c omp lex s hape s d ue t o t he r e la t ive ly l ow amoun t o f c l ay i n t he l o e s s ( up t o 4 0% o f c lay m inera ls ; B en tor

4 12

Append ix I :P e trograph ic Ana lys is

1 966 : 5 4 ) , wh ich i s h ard ly s u i tab le f or p o t tery p roduc t ion . X -ray d iffrac t ion o f a n u nf ired c lay b ody f rom A rea D r evea led t ha t t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he l o e s s u sed f or c eram ic s w as s im i lar t o i t s n a tura l c ompo s i t ion . I n a l l c ase s w ad i s and w as u sed f or t emper ing . T h is i si nd ica ted b y t he s pher ic i ty o f mo s t o f t he n on -p las t ic c omponen t s , i nc lud ing c her t . T he s and w as c o l lec ted i n Naha l B eer sheva ( a s w i l l b e s hown b e low ) a nd s i eved i n to t wo ma in g ra in -s izes : u p t o a bou t 1mm f or t he f ine w are a nd u p t o a bou t 2 . 5 mm f or c oar se ware ( P la te 1 6 .1a ; s ee C hap ter 1 2 , t h is v o lume ) . S ince v ar ious c omponen ts o f t he w ad i s and d iffer i n t he ir g ra in s i zes , d ifferen t c ompo s i t ions o f s ands c an b e s een i n t he t h in -sec t ion s o f d ifferen t t ype s o f v e s se ls . I n t he V shaped b ow l s f or e xamp le , wh ich w ere u sua l ly made o f f ine t empered m ix ture , t he mean v o lume o f q uar tz g ra ins i s much h igher t han i n t he c oar se w are v es se l s . T h is a ccords w e l l w i th t he f ac t t ha t i n t he n or thern N egev wad is q uar tz a ppears u sua l ly i n s ma l ler g ra in s i ze s t han c arbona te s a nd c her t . T herefore , mo s t o f t he c ompara t ive d a ta i sb a sed o n t h in -sec t ions o f t he c oar se ware v e s se ls i n o rder t o o b ta in b e t ter i nforma t ion o n t he o r ig ina l c ompo s i t ion a nd p rovenance o f t he t emper . I n o rder t o t r ace t he p o s s ib le p rovenance o f t he r aw ma ter ia l s , s a mp les o f s and w ere c o l lec ted f rom d ifferen t p o in ts a long t he l eng th o f t he Naha l B eersheva ( Tab le 1 6 .1) . T he s a mp le s w ere s i eved t o ag ra in s i ze b e low 2 . 5 mm a nd c oun ted u nder a b inocu lar m icro scope . T he mean v o lumes o f t he t hree ma in c omponen t s ( l imes tone , q uar tz a nd c her t ) w ere c ompared t o t ho se i n t he p o t tery t emper o f v ar ious s i tes a long t he Naha l B eer sheva . A t S h iqm im , t he m ean v o lumes a re s im i lar t o t ho se i n t he p o t tery : a pprox ima te ly 5 0% q uar tz , 4 0% c arbona te s a nd 1 0% c her t . N ear B eersheva , t he q uan t i ty o f c arbona te s i s h igher a nd t ho se o f q uar tz a nd c her t a re l ower . T h is i sp robab ly c aused b y t he s ma l ler d is tance b e tween S h iqm im a nd t he w e s tern N egev s ands wh ich i ncrease t he amoun t o f q uar tz i t ic s and i n t he s o i l ( F ig s . 1 . 1 , 1 . 5 ) . T he j unc t ion o f t he Naha l B eer sheva a nd Naha l S ekher e a s t o f S h iqm im i ncrease s t he p ercen tage o f c her t , s i nce Naha l S ekher p as se s t hrough many o u tcrop s o f t he M i sha sh a nd T zoraa ' f orma t ions , wh ich a re r i ch i n c her t b eds . On t he b as i s o f t he a bove d a ta o ne c an a s sume t ha t mo s t o f t he p o t tery f rom S h iqm im was l oca l ly made . Ano ther g roup i n t he c eram ic a s semb lage o f S h iqm im wh ich i s i nfrequen t ly r epre sen ted i sk nown a s C ream Ware ( P la te 1 6 .1b ; Maca l is ter 1 912 : 1 37 ; P erro t 1 955 : 8 0 -81 ; Am iran 1 955 ; Am iran e t a l 1 969 : 4 6 ) . T h is p e trograph ic g roup h a s a l ready b een d ea l t w i th ( Goren 1 987 ) . T he C ream Ware v es se l s w ere made o f c rushed c ha lk wh ich w as m ixed w i th s o me c lay t o o b ta in am in ima l d egree o f p las t ic i ty . I n s o me c ases , g r i t s w ere m ixed i n t h is ma tr ix i n o rder t o p roduce t h ick -wa l led v es se l s . T he p e trograph ic a na ly se s p roved t ha t t he se v e s se ls w ere l o ca l ly made i n s ome s i te s i n t he B eersheva v a l ley , a nd t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t s o me o f t hem w ere p roduced a t S h iqm im c anno t b e e xc luded .

CO NCLUS ION On t he b as is o f t he a na lyse s p re sen ted a bove , ag enera l o u t l ine o f t he t e chno log ica l p roduc t ion o f p o t tery a t S h iqm im c an b e d ef ined . T he

4 13

S h iqm im I

p e trograph ic , m inera log ica l a nd c hem ica l a na lyse s d emons tra te t ha t c eram ic manufac ture w as l o ca l a nd t ha t t he r aw ma ter ia ls w ere c o l lec ted i n ar ange o f l e ss t han o ne k i lome ter f rom t he v i l lage . A s n o f ore ign i mpor ted p o t tery v e s se ls h ave b een r ecovered a t S h iqm im t o d a te , w e s ugge s t t ha t t he r ange o f t r ade i n p o t tery d ur ing t h is p er iod w as l im i ted , a s o pposed t o more l uxur iou s p roduc ts s uch a s c opper ( Chap ter 1 4 , t h i s v o lume ) , i vory ( Chap ter 1 5 , t h is v o lume ) a nd b asa l t . T hus , p o t tery s eem s t o h ave b een p roduced p r imar i ly f or d a i ly u se a nd h ad n o ( o r v ery l i t t le ) s pec ia l v a lue . On t he o ther h and , t he l o ca l o r ig in a nd u n iform i ty o f t he c eram ic r aw ma ter ia ls d emons tra te t ha t t he i nhab i tan t s o f S h iqm im d id v ery l i t t le e xchange o f d ome s t ic c eram ic wares w i th n e ighbour ing c ommun i t ies . I t s eem s t ha t o n ly l uxury p roduc t s w ere t r aded o r o b ta ined f rom e l sewhere . On ly i n t he f o l low ing E ar ly B ronze Age d oes a l a rge sca le p o t tery t r ade emerge among c en ters s uch a s A rad , t he s ou thern S ina i , a nd E gyp t ( c f . Am iran e t a l 1 973 ; Am iran a nd G las s 1 979 ) . F o l low ing t he mode l p resen ted b y R ice ( 1981) , w e c onc lude t ha t t he S h iqm im p o t ter was a l ow leve l i nforma l s pec ia l i s t .

AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS T h is s tudy w as s uppor ted b y t he F und f or B as ic R e search a dm in is tered b y t he I s rae l A cademy o f S c ience s a nd Human i t ies . We wou ld l i ke t o t hank T .E . L evy a nd D . A lon f or a l low ing u s t o s tudy t he S h iqm im ma ter ia l a nd 0 . Marder f or h is h e lp i n p repar ing t he t h in sec t ions u sed i n t h i s s tudy .

4 14

Append ix I :P e trograph ic Ana lys is

T ab le 1 6 .1 F requenc ies a nd s i zes o f q uar tz ( Qz) , c arbonates ( Ca) a nd c her t ( C t) i n t he p etrograph ic s amp les f rom S h iq im a nd t he Naha l B eersheva . No . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5

T ype

° / 0Qz .

Q z . s i ze

b as in b as in b as in b as in b as in b as in b as in b as in b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l b ow l c hurn c hurn h o lemouth h o lemou th h o lemou th h o lemou th h o lemou th h o lemouth h o lemouth h o lemouth h o lemou th j ar j ar j a r j a r v ar ia

1 5 .3 2 5 .0 3 3 .3 3 5 .7 3 8 .8 4 5 .4 6 6 .6 7 6 .0 2 0 .0 2 5 .0 3 6 .3 5 2 .9 5 4 .5 6 1 .5 7 0 .0 7 8 .5 8 8 .8 9 0 .0 1 00 .0 2 3 .0 3 7 .5 1 4 .2 2 1 .4 2 8 .5 3 3 .0 3 3 .3 3 5 .7 3 8 .0 5 0 .0 6 0 .0 2 1 .4 3 3 .3 5 0 .0 1 00 .0 3 7 .5

2 00 -2000 1 00 -1000 1 00 -900 1 00 -800 1 00 -900 1 00 -900 1 00 -800 1 00 -800 2 00 -800 1 00 -300 1 00 -900 1 00 -1400 1 00 -200 1 00 -200 1 00 -600 1 00 -300 1 00 -300 1 00 -200 1 00 -600 1 00 -1600 1 00 -1500 1 00 -800 1 00 -1700 1 00 -1400 1 00 -800 2 00 -1200 2 00 -900 1 00 -1100 2 00 -1000 1 00 -1600 1 00 -600 2 00 -800 1 00 -900 1 00 -200 1 00 -1600

N eva t im B eersheva B eer S h iqm im

2 3 .5 3 1 .7 3 5 .7

%Ca . 6 1 .5 6 2 .5 5 0 .0 4 2 .8 5 5 .5 3 6 .3 2 2 .2 2 4 .0 5 0 .0 7 5 .0 4 5 .4 4 1 .1 4 5 .4 3 0 .7 2 0 .0 2 1 .4 1 .1 1 0 .0 0 . 0 6 1 .5 5 6 .2 5 7 .1 6 4 .3 4 2 .8 6 6 .0 5 5 .5 5 7 .1 6 1 .0 3 7 .5 4 0 .0 7 8 .5 6 6 .6 5 0 .0 0 . 0 5 0 .0 5 7 .2 5 5 .5 5 4 .1

4 15

C a . s i ze 2 00 -1800 2 00 -2500 1 00 -2000 1 00 -2500 1 00 -1900 2 00 -2000 2 00 -2000 3 00 -1500 3 00 -1800 1 00 -400 3 00 -1200 1 00 -1400 1 00 -300 1 00 -400 1 00 -600 1 00 -300 1 00 -300 2 00 1 00 -3000 2 00 -2500 2 00 -1500 2 00 -2500 2 00 -2200 3 00 -3000 2 00 -2000 2 00 -2000 2 00 -2000 2 00 -1800 2 00 -2500 1 00 -3500 2 00 -2000 1 00 -900 4 00 -1600

%C t . 2 3 .0 1 2 .5 1 6 .6 2 1 .4 5 . 5 1 8 .1 1 .1 0 . 0 3 0 .0 0 . 0 1 8 .1 5 . 9 0 . 0 7 . 6 1 0 .0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 1 5 .4 6 . 2 2 8 .5 1 4 .2 2 8 .5 1 . 0 1 .1 7 . 1 1 . 0 1 2 .5 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 1 2 .5 6 . 2 6 . 5 7 . 1

C t . s i ze

Var ia

4 00 -1600 8 00 -1600 8 00 -1400 6 00 -2300 3 00 -2000 2 00 -1700 4 00 -1000 6 00 -1000 6 00 -900 4 00 -1200 8 00 5 00

8 00 -1600 8 00 -1600 7 00 -1500 5 00 -1000 8 00 -1500 2 500 2 00 -800 8 00 -2000 8 00 -1400 4 00 -1000

8 00 -1500 1 3 .0 6 . 2 2 . 8

S h iqm im I

BI BL IOGRAPHY Am iran , R . 1 955 The " Crea m Ware " o f G ezer a nd t he B eersheba L a te Cha lco l i th ic . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 :2 40 -245 . Am iran , R . , B e it -Ar ieh , Y . a nd G lass , J . 1 973 The i n ter -re la t ionsh ip b e tween A rad a nd s i tes i n s ou thern S ina i i n t he E ar ly B ronze I . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 2 3 : 1 93 -197 . Am iran , R . , S vu lun , U . , a nd B eck , P . 1 969 T he A nc ien t P o t tery o f E re tz -I srae l . S oc ie ty .

J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lorat ion

Am iran , R . a nd G lass , J . 1 979 An a rchaeo log ica l -pe trograph ica l s tudy o f 1 5 W -Ware p o t s i n t he A shmo lean Museum . T e l A v iv 6 :5 4 -59 . B en tor , Y . 1 966 T he C lays o f I s rae l . T rans la t ions .

J erusa lem : I s rae l P rogra m f or S c ien t if ic

B eynon , D . , Donahue , J . , S chaub , R . , a nd J ohns ton , R . 1 986 T emper ing t ypes a nd s ources f or E ar ly B ronze Age c eram ics f rom B ab e dh -Dhra ' a nd Nume ira . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 3 : 2 97 -305 . B ishop , R . , Rands , R . a nd Ho l ley , G . 1 982 C eram ic c ompo s i t ion a na lys is i n a rcaheo log ica l p erspect ive . I n M .B . S ch iffer ( ed ) Advances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o l . 5 . New York : A cadem ic P ress . P p . 2 75 -330 . C ontenson , H . d e 1 956 L a c eram ique Cha lco l ith ique d e B eersheba : e tude t ypo log ique . I s rae l Exp lora t ion J ourna l 6 : 1 63 -179 , 2 26 -238 . E dwards , W . a nd S egn i t , E . 1 983 P o t tery t echno logy a t t he Cha lco l i th ic s i te o f T e le i la t Ghas su l ( Jordan ) . A rchaeome try 2 6 : 6 9 -77 . G i lead , I . 1 986 The e conom ic b as is o f t he n or thern Negev i nhab i tan ts d ur ing t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . M ichman im 3 : 1 7 -29 . ( Hebrew ) . G i lead , I .a nd Goren , Y . 1 986 S ta t ions o f t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod i n t he Naha l S ekher , n or thern Negev . P a leor ien t 1 2 : 8 3 -90 . G lass , J . 1 978 P e trograph ica l a nd t e chno log ica l a na lyses . I n R . Am iran ( ed ) , E ar ly A rad . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc ie ty . P p . 8 -9 , 4 3 -44 , 5 0 , 17 .

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Append ix I :P e trograph ic Ana lys is

Goren , Y . 1 987 P e trograph ic s tud ies o f c era m ic a nd s t one v es se ls o f t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod i n t he n or thern Negev . P aper p resented a t t he Th ir teenth A rchaeo log ica l C ongress i n I s rae l , B en Gur ion Un ivers ity o f t he Negev . ( Hebrew ) . L evy , T .E . 1 983 The emergence o f s pec ia l ized p as tora l ism i n t he s outhern L evant . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 : 1 5 -36 . 1 986a A rchaeo log ica l s ources f or t he h is tory o f Cha lco l i th ic p er iod . B ib l ica l A rchaeo log is t 4 9 : 8 2 -105 .

P a les t ine :

The

1 986b S oc ia l a rchaeo logy a nd t he Cha lco l ith ic p er iod : e xp la in ing s oc ia l o rgan izat iona l c hange d ur ing t he 4 th m i l lenn iu m i n I s rae l . M ichman im 3 :5 -20 . L evy , T .E . a nd A lon , D . 1 985 S h iqm im : a Cha lco l i th ic v i l lage n or thern Negev . P a leor ien t 1/1 : 7 1-83 . Maca l is ter , R .A .S . 1 912 T he Excava t ions o f G ezer .

a nd

mor tuary

c en tre

i n

t he

L ondon : Murray .

P eacock , D . 1 967 The h eavy m inera l a na lys is o f A rchaeome try 1 0 : 9 7 -100 .

p o t tery : a p re l im inary

r epor t .

1 971 The s c ient if ic a na lys is o f a nc ient c eram ics : a r ev iew . A rchaeo logy 1 :3 75 -389 .

W or ld

P erro t , J . 1 955 The e xcava t ions o f T e l l Abu Matar , Exp lora t ion J ourna l 5 : 1 7 -40 , 7 3 -84 , 1 67 -189 .

n ear

B eersheba .

I s rae l

P ora t , N . 1 984 P e trography a nd m inera logy o f p o t tery f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n B iq 'at Uvda ' a nd s ou thern I s rae l (M .Sc . t hes is ) . J erusa lem : The Hebrew Un ivers i ty . R ice , D . 1 981 E vo lu t ion o f s pec ia l ized C urren t A n thropo logy 2 2 : 2 19 -227 .

p o t tery

p roduc t ion :

a t r ia l

mode l .

Ro sen , S . 1 986 The a na lys is o f t r ade a nd c raf t s pec ia l iza t ion i n t he Cha lco l i th ic p er iod : c ompar isons f rom d ifferen t r ea lms o f ma ter ia l c u l ture . M ichman im 3 :2 1-32 .

4 17

S h iqm im I

S hepard , A . 1 956 C eram ics f or t h e A rchaeo log is t . Wash ing ton , P ub l icat ion 6 09 .

4 18

C arneg ie

I ns t i tu t ion

o f

Shiqmim I Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982 - 1984) edited by

Thomas Evan Levy Part (ii) - Figures and Plates

with contributions by David Alon, Caroline Grigson, Paul Goldberg, Augustin Holl, Mordechai Kislev, Thomas Levy, Nadine Menahem, Peter Northover, Ann Roshwalb, Arlene Rosen, Steven Rosen and Sariel Shalev

BAR International Series 356 (ii) 1987

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S356 (ii), 1987: 'Shiqmim I', Part ii

©

Thomas Evan Levy, 1987

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388472 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388489 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544609 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346304 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544609 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ontents F ig . 1 . 1

Northern N egev D eser t , I s rae l : G eomorpho log ica l Map .

4 20

F ig . 1 . 2 The Naha l B esor a nd o ther major c a tchment a reas i n P a les t ine .

4 21

F ig . 1 . 3

E vo lu t ion o f Wes tern Negev a nd C oas ta l P la in .

4 22

F ig . 1 . 4

Geo log ica l c ross -sec t ion t hrough t he Nor thern Negev .

4 23

F ig . 1 . 5

Ma jor Northern Negev s o i l a ssoc iat ions .

4 24

F ig . 1 . 6

V ege tat ion d is tr ic ts i n s tudy a rea .

4 25

F ig . 1 . 7

Nor thern Negev mean a nnua l r a infa l l 1 931-60 .

4 26

F ig . 1 . 8

Northern N egev : a nnua l r a infa l l 1 944 -5 , ( r a iny y ear ) .

4 27

F ig . 1 . 9

Northern Negev : a nnua l r a infa l l 1 946 -47 , ( dry y ear ) .

4 28

F ig . 1 . 10

Da i ly mean r e la t ive h um id i ty ( annua l a verage ) , i n p ercent .

4 29

F ig . 1 . 11

Annua l e vaporat ion f rom a n o pen water s urface -cm .

4 30

F ig . 1 . 12

Mean a nnua l n u mber o f d äys w i th s harav c ond it ions .

4 31

F ig . 1 . 13

P lant -geograph ica l t e rr i tor ies o f I s rae l a nd a djacent a reas .

4 32

F ig . 2 . 1 I s rae l .

G raph ic s ummary o f Ho locene c l ima t ic d ata p erta in ing t o 4 34

F ig . 3 . 1 Genera l ized c ompos ite s t rat igraph ic a nd t opograph ic p rof i le t hrough S h iq m im a nd Naha l B eersheva .

4 35

F ig . 3 .2 T r iangu lar d iagra m s how ing s and , s i l t , a nd c lay c ompos it ion o f v ar ious s a mp les f rom S h iqm im .

4 36

F ig . 3 .3

P rof i le o f w es t f ace i n S quare G /4 .

4 37

F ig . 4 . 1

The n or thern Negev d esert s tudy a rea .

4 45

F ig . 4 .2

B S -16 & 1 7 .

4 46

F ig . 4 .3

B S -22 , 2 3 , 2 5 a nd BE 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , & 2 8 .

4 47

F ig . 4 .4

BE -29 .

4 48

F ig . 4 .5

BE -32 & 3 3 .

4 49

F ig . 4 .6

BE -34 & 3 5 .

4 50

F ig . 4 .7

BE -37 & 3 8 .

4 51

F ig . 4 .8

BE -42 & 4 3 .

4 52

F ig . 4 .9

BE -41 & 4 4 .

4 53 1

F ig . 4 . 10

BE -45 & 4 6 .

4 54

F ig . 4 . 11

BE -47 .

4 56

F ig . 4 . 12

BE -49 .

4 57

F ig . 4 . 13

BE -51 , 5 2 & 5 3 .

4 58

F ig . 4 . 14

BE -54 .

4 59

F ig . 4 . 15

BE -55 .

4 60

F ig . 4 . 16

B S -1 , 6 5 & 6 6 .

4 61

F ig . 4 . 17

B S -69 , 7 2 & 7 4 .

4 62

F ig . 4 . 18

' En B esor ( BE -111) .

4 63

F ig . 4 . 19 Anc ient t e rrace s ys tem a s soc iated w ith C ha lco l i th ic s i tes a long t he Naha l B eersheva , n ear M izad A luf ; 1 8 =S h iqm im .

4 64

F ig . 4 .20

Naha l B eersheva : s ec t ion C -C ' .

4 65

F ig . 4 .21

S ubd iv is ions o f t he c ropp ing s eason i n as em i -ar id c l imate .

4 67

F ig . 4 .22 p hase .

Ma msh it l a rge s ca le d ivers ion s ys tem : e ar ly a nd l a ter

F ig . 4 .23

B S -18 t e rrace s ys tem 1 .

4 68 4 69

F ig . 4 .24 Max imu m r a infa l l i n tens i t ies a t Avadat a nd M igda , n or thern Negev ( 1964/5 ) .

4 70

F ig . 4 .25 I s rae l .

4 71

Max i mum r a infa l l i n tens i ty f or Avdat a nd t he r e s t o f

F ig . 4 .26 The r e lat ionsh ip b e tween t he y ie ld o f wheat a nd a nnua l r a infa l l a t d ifferent l eve ls o f s harav d ays .

4 72

F ig . 4 .27

Nomograph o f r a infa l l -runoff a t Avda t , n or thern Negev .

4 73

F ig . 4 .28

B edou in t r iba l a reas , c a . 1 944 .

4 74

F ig . 4 .29 H is tograms i lus tra t ing t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p reh is tor ic s i tes ( y a x is ) a nd d ifferent e nv ironmenta l a nd c u l tura l v ar iab les ( x a x is ) .

4 75

F ig . 4 .30

4 77

R eg iona l s i te c atchment a na lys is : Naha l B esor ; s hee t A .

F ig . 4 .31 R eg iona l s i te c atchment a na lys is : Naha l B eersheva -l ower Naha l B esor ; s hee t B .

4 79

F ig . 4 .32

R eg iona l s i te c a tchment a na lys is : Naha l B eersheva ; s hee t C .

4 81

F ig . 4 .33

S h iqm im ( BS -18) : M icroca tch men t s ys tems .

4 82

I

F ig . 4 . 34

S e lec ted a r tefac ts c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 85

F ig . 4 .35

S e lec ted a r tefac t s c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 87

F ig . 4 . 36

S e lec ted a r tefac t s c o l lec ted d ur ing s i te s urvey .

4 89

F ig . 4 . 37

Cha lco l i th ic t e rr i tor ies b ased o n T h iessen p o lygons .

4 90

F ig . 5 . 1

P o t tery f orm s f rom t he Macdona ld E xcava t ions .

4 93

F ig . 5 .2

P o t tery f orm s f rom t he Macdona ld E xcava t ions .

4 95

F ig . 6 . 1

G enera l t opograp ic map o f S h iqm im .

4 96

F ig . 6 .2

G enera l p lan o f e xcavat ions i n t he S h iqm im v i l lage .

4 97

F ig . 6 .3

S chema t ic p lan o f S h iqm im v i l lage e xcava t ions .

4 99

F ig . 6 .4

S ec t ion d raw ing o f C /6 d eep p robe .

5 00

F ig . 6 .5

P lan o f A rea A , S h iqm im .

5 01

F ig . 6 .6

P lan o f A rea B , S h iqm im .

5 03

F ig . 6 . 7

P lan o f A rea C , S h iqm im .

5 05

F ig . 6 . 8

P lan o f A rea D , S h iqm im .

5 07

F ig . 6 .9

P lan o f A rea E , S h iqm im .

5 09

F ig . 6 . 10 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im V i l lage .

5 11

F ig . 6 . 11 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im V i l lage .

5 13

F ig . 6 . 12 S pec ia l f inds f rom S h iqm im v i l lage .

5 15

F ig . 7 . 1

F auna l r ema ins a nd b one a r tefac ts .

5 35

F ig . 7 . 2 E as t .

D ep ic t ions o f s heep f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he M idd le

F ig . 7 . 3

Horncores o f s heep ( Ov is a r ies ) f rom s ou thern I s rae l .

5 38

F ig . 7 .4

Horncores o f g oat s ( Capra h i rcus ) f rom I s rae l .

5 39

5 37

F ig . 7 .5 Age -re la ted k i l l -off p a t terns o f s heep/goa t s i n t he Kermanshah a rchaeo log ica l s equence .

5 40

F ig . 7 . 6

5 41

K i l l -off p at terns o f s heep a nd g oa ts , B ir e s -Safad i .

1 1

F ig . 7 .7 h ead .

G i lat .

Mode l o f a woman c arry ing a C ha lco l ith ic c hurn o n h er

F ig . 7 .8

F igur ines o f s heep f rom t he Cha lco l i th ic o f I s rae l .

5 43

F ig . 7 .9

L aden a n ima l f igur ines .

5 45

5 42

F ig . 7 . 10 The d is tr ibut ion o f s i tes w i th p igs a nd s i tes w ithout p igs i n t he n or thern Negev .

5 46

F ig . 9 . 1 S i tes i n S .W . A s ia a nd S . B a lkans where c u l t ivated f ood p lant s a re r ecorded .

5 49

F ig . 9 .2 Re lat ive i mportance o f c erea l , p u lse a nd f ru i t s pec ies i n s even s ub -reg ions ( S .W . A s ia a nd S . B a lkans ) .

5 50

F ig . 1 0 .0

H ierarch ica l f ra mework f or l i th ic a na lys is .

5 64

F ig . 1 0 .1

S h iq m im f l int t oo ls -s i ck le a nd b acked b lades .

5 67

F ig . 1 0 .2

S h iq m im f l int t oo ls -b lades .

5 69

F ig . 1 0 .3

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -d en t icu lates a nd b orers .

5 71

F ig . 1 0 .4

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -n o tches .

5 73

F ig . 1 0 .5

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -t abu lar s c rapers .

5 75

F ig . 1 0 .6

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -t abu lar s c raper .

5 77

F ig . 1 0 .7

S h iq m im f l in t t oo ls -s craper .

5 79

F ig . 1 0 .8

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -s crapers .

5 81

F ig . 1 0 .9

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -s crapers .

5 83

F ig . 1 0 .10

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -p erforators .

5 85

F ig . 1 0 .11

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -p erforators .

5 87

F ig . 1 0 .12

S h iq m im f l int t oo ls -p erforators .

5 89

F ig . 1 0 .13

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 91

F ig . 1 0 .14

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 93

F ig . 1 0 .15

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 95

F ig . 1 0 .16

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 97

F ig . 1 0 .17

S h iqm im f l in t t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

5 99

i v

F ig . 1 0 .18

S h iqm im f l int t oo ls -b ifac ia ls .

6 01

F ig . 1 0 .19

S h iq m im d eb itage -c ores .

6 03

F ig . 1 0 .20

S h iqm im d eb i tage -c ores .

6 05

F ig . 1 0 .21

S h iq m im d eb i tage -c ores .

6 07

F ig . 1 0 .22

S h iq m im f l int t oo ls -c ore a nd m isce l laneous .

6 09

F ig . 1 1 .1 Hypo the t ica l r econs truc t ion o f s t ages o f s i ck le manufac ture .

6 10

F ig . 1 1 .2

Map o f n or thern Negev .

6 11

F ig . 1 2 .1

S h iq m im v i l lage p o t tery : Gaza a nd B yzant ine wares .

6 13

F ig . 1 2 .2

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : s ma l l b ow ls .

6 15

F ig . 1 2 .3

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : l a rge b ow ls .

6 17

F ig . 1 2 .4

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as ins .

6 19

F ig . 1 2 .5

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as ins .

6 21

F ig . 1 2 .6

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b as in .

6 23

F ig . 1 2 .7

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 25

F ig . 1 2 .8

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 27

F ig . 1 2 .9

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i thos .

6 29

F ig . 1 2 .10

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : p i tho i .

6 31

F ig . 1 2 .11

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : h o lemouth v esse ls .

6 33

F ig . 1 2 .12

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : h o lemouth v esse ls .

6 35

F ig . 1 2 .13

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : j ars .

6 37

F ig . 1 2 .14

S h iq m im v i l lage p o t tery : f enestrated v esse l .

6 39

F ig . 1 2 .15

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c losed v esse l f orms .

6 41

F ig . 1 2 .16

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c hurns .

6 43

F ig . 1 2 .17

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : c hurn .

6 45

F ig . 1 2 .18

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : l ugs .

6 47

F ig . 1 2 .19 s herds .

S h iqm im v i l lage p o t tery : b ase s a nd d ecora ted b ody

F ig . 1 2 .20 v i l lage .

P o t tery v e s se l d is tr ibu t ion f or B P Ii n t he S h iqm im

F ig . 1 2 .21 v i l lage .

P o t tery v e s se l d is tr ibu t ion f or B P I i n t he S h iqm im

6 49

6 50

6 51

F ig . 1 2 .22 P o t tery r ecord ing s hee t u sed f or S h iqm im v i l lage e xcavat ion .

6 52

F ig . 1 3 .0

P lan o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

6 53

F ig . 1 3 .1 3 3 .

P lan a nd p erspec t ive v iew o f G rave C irc les 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2 a nd 6 55

F ig . 1 3 .2 P o ss ib le r econs truc t ion o f G rave 2 4 a nd s ec t ion s o f g raves 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2 a nd 3 3 .

6 56

F ig . 1 3 .3

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 57

F ig . 1 3 .4

P lan o f G rave 3 6 ,

6 58

F ig . 1 3 .5

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing s o f C i s t s 3 9 a nd 4 5 .

6 59

F ig . 1 3 .6

P er spec t ive v iew o f G rave 2 3 a nd C is t s 3 9 a nd 3 5 .

6 60

F ig . 1 3 .7

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is t s 3 7 a nd 4 0 .

6 61

F ig . 1 3 .8

P lans a nd s ec t ion d raw ing s o f C is t s 4 7 a nd 4 2 .

6 62

F ig . 1 3 .9

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing s C is ts 4 6 a nd 4 3 .

6 63

F ig . 1 3 .10

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing o f C is t 3 5 .

6 64

F ig . 1 3 .11 2 7 .

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is t 4 8 a nd G rave s 2 6 a nd

F ig . 1 3 .12

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 66

F ig . 1 3 .13

S ec t ion o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , a nd 4 1 .

6 67

F ig . 1 3 .14

S e lec ted o rnamen t s f rom t he S h iqm im c e me tery .

6 69

F ig . 1 3 .15

S e lec t ion o f b ow ls f rom S h iqm im c e me tery .

6 71

F ig . 1 3 .16

S e lec t ion o f s ma l l p o t tery v es se ls , S h iqm im c e me tery .

6 73

F ig . 1 3 .17

Tub -shaped o s suary f ound i n G rave 2 3 .

6 75

6 65

v i

Fi g . 1 3 .18

House -shaped o ssuary f ound i n G rave 2 3 .

6 77

Fi g . 1 4 .1

D is tr ibut ion o f c opper r e lated a r tefac ts f ound a t S h iq m im .

6 84

Fi g . 1 5 .1

Fl ow c har t mode l o f h uman a c t iv i ty s equenc ing .

6 90

Fi g . 1 5 .2

L ocat ion map o f r ooms s tud ied i n a na lys is .

6 91

Fi g . 1 5 .3

D is tr ibut ion o f s herd q uant it ies b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 92

Fi g . 1 5 .4

S herd w e igh ts b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 93

Fi g . 1 5 .5

S herd d ens i t ies p er s quare me ter b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 94

Fi g . 1 5 .6

S herd f ragmen ta t ion i nd ic ies b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

6 95

Fi g . 1 5 .7 S herd d ens i t ies a nd f ragmenta t ion i nd ic ies f or Roo m 6 c ourtyard u n i t a nd Room 1 .

6 96

Fi g . 1 5 .8

P lan o f Room 6 a c t iv ity a reas .

6 97

Fi g . 1 5 .9

S pher ica l h a mmers tones , f lake c ores .

6 99

Fi g . 1 5 .10

S pher ica l p ound ing t oo l .

7 01

Fi g . 1 5 .11

P ound ing t oo l , o vo id h a mrhers tone .

7 03

Fi g . 1 5 .12

Chopper , f l ake c ore/chopp ing t oo l .

7 05

Fi g . 1 5 .13

Axe , s ma l l f lake c ore .

7 07

Fi g . 1 5 .14

T abu lar s c rapers , b lade let .

7 09

Fi g . 1 5 .15

S tone r ing .

7 11

Fi g . 1 5 .16

P erfora ted s tones .

7 13

Fi g . 1 5 .17

S tone b ow l f ragment , s p ind le whor ls , f l ake , s he l l .

7 15

Fi g . 1 5 .18

Room 6 a r tefac ts .

7 17

Fi g . 1 5 .19

P o t tery v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 19

Fi g . 1 5 .20

P o t tery v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 21

Fi g . 1 5 .21

P o t tery s herds a nd v esse ls f rom Room 6 , A rea D .

7 23

LI ST O F PL ATES P late 0 .0

S h iqm im e xped it ion t ea ms , 1 983 & 1 984 .

v i i

4 19

P late 1 . 1a

A er ia l v iew ( wes t ) o f t he S h iq m im s i te .

4 33

P late 1 . 1b

Aer ia l v iew ( eas t ) o f S h iq m im .

4 33

P late 3 . 1 Naha l B eersheva v iewed f rom t he s ou th b ank l ook ing n or th t o t he s i te o f S h iqm im . P late 3 .2

C loser v iew o f t he t e rrace s outh o f t he s i te .

4 387 4 39

P late 3 .3 D e ta i l o f Cha lco l i th ic g rave ls s how ing i nc lus ions o f p o t tery f ra ments .

4 39

P late 3 .4

P ho tograph o f S quare G/4 T rench s how i n F ig . 3 . 3 .

4 40

P late 3 .5

S ou th b ank o f t he N . B eersheva a s s een f rom S h iqm im .

4 41

P late 3 .6

Gu l ly d eve loped i n B yzant ine f luv ia l s i l ts .

4 41

P late 3 .7

E l l ip t ica l c rys ta ls o f g ypsu m .

4 42

P late 3 .8 A lternat ing l am inae o f c a lcareous s i lty c lay a nd c oarser q uartz s i l t .

4 42

P late 3 .9 c lay .

4 43

Chao t ic m ixture o f q uartz s i lt a nd f iner c a lcareous s i lty

P late 3 . 10

We l l -sor ted s ed iment .

4 43

P late 3 . 11

Mudbr ick mater ia l .

4 44

P late 6 . 1a Overv iew o f S h iqm im v i l lage e xcava t ions a nd e xped i t ion c amp , 1 984 .

5 17

P late 6 . 1b n or th) .

5 17

A rea , S quare C /3 i lus trat ing B u i ld ing P hases I& I ( v iew

P late 6 .2 v i l lage .

A er ia l v iew ( nor thwes t ) o f 1 983 e xcava t ion i n S h iqm im

P late 6 .3 v i l lage .

Aer ia l v iew ( wes t ) o f 1 983 e xcava t ions i n S h iqm im

P late 6 .4

D eep p robe i n S quare C /6 .

P late 6 .5a

5 18

5 19 5 20

Overv iew ( s ou th ) o f Room 3 ,A rea A .

5 21

P late 6 .5b De ta i l o f b roken p o t tery v esse l f ound i n s i tu o n f loor 2 n ear W 18 o f Room 2 ( BP I ) , A rea A .

5 21

P late 6 .6a

5 22

V iew n orth o f a l ley i n A rea A ( Squares D/20 & C /3 ) .

v i i i

P la te 6 . 6b P la te 6 . 7

D e ta i l ( v iew n or th ) o f p av ing f ound i n a l leyway , A rea B . V iew t o t he s ou theas t o f Room 2 ( BP I ) f loor 2 , A rea A .

5 22 5 23

P la te 6 . 8a

Overv iew ( s ou thwes t ) o f R oom 1 4 , A rea A .

5 24

P la te 6 . 8b

Nor theas t c orner o f Room 1 4 , A rea A .

5 24

P la te 6 . 9a

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f A rea A e xcava t ions , 1 984 .

5 25

P la te 6 . 9b

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f A rea B e xcava t ions .

5 25

P late 6 . 10a

Overv iew ( s ou thwes t ) o f A rea B , 1 983 e xcava t ions .

5 26

P late 6 . 10b

D e ta i l o f Room 1 , S quare s A /15 a nd A /16 , A rea B .

5 26

P la te 6 . 11a A rea B .

Overv iew ( nor th ) o f p o t tery c ache f ound i n S quare B /18 ,

P late 6 . 11b

C lo se -up o f p o t tery c ache , A rea B .

5 27

P la te 6 . 12a

S urface c l ean ing i n A rea C , 1 983 e xcava t ion .

5 28

P la te 6 . 12b

D e ta i l ( s ou theas t ) o f Room 5 ,A rea C .

5 28

P la te 6 . 13a A rea C .

Overv iew ( s ou th ) o f Room 4 ( BP I ) a nd c our tyard ,

P la te 6 . 13b

D e ta i l o f t r iangu lar s haped Room 7 .

5 29

P late 6 . 14a

Overv iew ( nor theas t ) o f Room 1 3 ( BP I ) , A rea D .

5 30

P late 6 . 14b

D e ta i l ( nor thwes t ) o f i n s i tu p o t tery .

5 30

P late 6 . 15a A rea D .

S ou thea s t c orner o f Room 6 c our tyard w i th s ma l l r oom ,

P la te 6 . 15b

C oncen tra t ion o f a n ima l b ones ( bos ) a nd f l in t a r tefac t s .

5 31

P late 6 . 16a

E as tern p or t ion o f Room 1 3 , A rea D .

5 32

P la te 6 . 16b

The c orner o f t wo mudbr ick wa l ls f ound i n A rea E .

5 32

P la te 6 . 17a A rea E .

T hree f l exed b ur ia ls f ound i n ap i t i n S quare S /12 ,

P la te 6 . 17b A rea E .

Overv iew o f t he t hree b ur ia ls f ound i n S quare S /12 ,

P la te 6 . 18

5 27

5 29

5 31

5 33

5 33 Upper v i l lage e xcava t ion .

5 34

i x

P late 8 . 1

P hy to l i th f rom b ar ley g lu me .

5 47

P late 8 .2

P hyto l ith f rom whea t g lu me .

5 47

P late 8 .3

P hy to l i th f rom c u lm o f c erea l .

5 48

P late 9 . 1

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 53

P late 9 .2

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 55

P late 9 .3

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 57

P late 9 .4

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iqm im .

5 59

P late 9 .5

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iq m im .

5 61

P late 9 .6

Macrobo tan ica l r e ma ins f rom S h iq m im .

5 63

P late 1 3 .1a

Aer ia l v iew ( s ou th ) o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iqm im .

6 78

P late 1 3 .1b

Overv iew o f G rave C irc le 2 4 , C eme tery 3 .

6 78

P late 1 3 .2a

D e ta i l o f t abu lar s c raper f ound o n f l oor o f C is t 3 5 .

6 79

P late 1 3 .2b

O rna ments f ound i n G rave C irc le 2 4 .

6 79

P late 1 3 .3a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 5 .

6 80

P late 1 3 .3b

D e ta i l o f V -shaped b ow l f ound o n f l oor o f C is t 3 5 .

6 80

P late 1 3 .4a

Overv iew o f C is t 4 7 .

6 81

P late 1 3 .4b

De ta i l o f c hurn f ragment f ound o n f loor o f C is t 4 7 .

6 81

P late 1 3 .5a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 4 .

6 82

P late 1 3 .5b

D e ta i l o f C is t 3 4 .

6 82

P la te 1 3 .6

D e ta i l o f G rave C irc le 1 , S h iqm im C eme tery 1 .

6 83

P late 1 4 .1

O re , c ruc ib le a nd s l ag f rom S h iqm im .

6 85

P late 1 4 .2

Sme l t ing a nd r ef in ing s l ags f rom S h iqm im a nd S afad i .

6 86

P late 1 4 .3

S e lec ted me ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

6 87

P late 1 4 .4

S e lec ted me ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

6 88

P late 1 4 .5

S e lec ted me ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

6 89

x

P la te 1 5 .1 w a l l .

P o t tery s herds embedded i n t he ma tr ix o f aw a t t le -and d aub

P late 1 5 .2

D e ta i l o f mudbr icks .

7 24

P la te 1 5 .3

Overv iew o f Room 6 a nd c our tyard , A rea D .

7 25

P late 1 5 .4

Overv iew o f Room 6 o ccupa t ion f loor .

7 25

P late 1 5 .5

D e ta i l o f R oom 6 .

7 26

P la te 1 5 .6

D e ta i l o f Room 6 :s ou thwe s t p or t ion o f r oom .

7 26

P late 1 5 .7 f l oor .

D e ta i l ( v iew s ou th ) o f c en tra l p or t ion o f Room 6 l i v ing

P la te 1 5 .8

D e ta i l Room 6 ( v iew n or th ) s how ing i n s i tu c opper aw l .

P late 1 5 .9

G r ind ing t oo ls made o f b each -rock .

7 24

7 27

7 28

P la te 1 5 .10 Sma l l r oom l o ca ted i n s ou theas t c orner o f c our tyard a s soc ia ted w i th Room 6 .

7 29

P late 1 5 .11

Overv iew o f Room 1 , A rea B ( v iew n or th ) .

7 30

P la te 1 5 .12

D e ta i l o f l a rge c eram ic p i tho s .

7 30

P late 1 6 .1

P e trograph ic s a mp les f rom S h iqm im .

x i

7 31

P late 0 . 1a

P late 0 . 1b

S h iq m im e xped i t ion t ea m , 1 983

S h iq m im e xped it ion t ea m , 1 984

4 19

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4 21

A tlas o f I s rae l 1 970 ' V i I

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4 32

P late 1 . 1a Aer ia l v iew ( wes t ) o f t he S h iqm im s i te : 1 ) Naha l B ccrsheva , 2 ) L ower V i l lage , 3 ) Upper V i l lage , 4 ) C e me tery .

P late 1 . 1b

Aer ia l v iew ( eas t ) o f S h iq m im : 1 ) L ower V i l lage , 3 ) C e me tery 1 .

4 33

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1 3 F igure 2 . 1 : G raph ic s u mmary o f Ho locene c l i mat ic d ata p er ta in ing t o I s rae l . L egend : x xx = Re lat ive ly D ry ; \ \\\\ = Re lat ive ly We t

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F igure 1 0 .8 : S h iqm im F l in t T oo ls -S crapers

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

1

T abu lar s c raper

6 359

2

Round s c raper

4 703

D escr ip t ion

C rescen t s hape o n t abu lar f l in t , b u lbar t h inn ing

5 80

F ig . 1 0 .8

1

2

o

4

5 81

F igure 1 0 .9 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -S crapers

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

1

Round s c raper

4 021

2

E nd s craper

3 915

3

T ransver se s c raper

5 205

D escr ip t ion

Made o n p r imary f lake

5 82

F ig . 1 0 .9

1

2

0

3 5 83

4

F igure 1 0 .10 : S h iqm im F l in t T oo ls -P erfora tors

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

1

B orer

5 419

2

B orer

5 326

3

L arge b orer

6 752

5 84

D escr ip t ion

F ig . 1 0 .10

L

1

2

3 0

4

5 85

F igure 1 0 .11 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -P erfora tors

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

1

L arge b orer

6 804

2

B orer

5 999/6511

3

B orer

8 49

5 86

D escr ip t ion

o n wad i c obb le

F ig . 1 0 .11

A

1

0

2

3 5 87

4

F igure 1 0 .12 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -P erfora tors

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

B orer

2 028

o n p r imary f lake

2

L arge b orer

4 030

o n p r imary f lake

3

L arge b orer

4 204

5 88

F ig . 1 0 .12

1 4

0

2

3 5 89

F igure 1 0 .13 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -B ifac ia ls

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

Axe

0 2132/06325

b ifac ia l p o l ish ; o n l a rge f lake ; t r apezo ida l c ross -sec t ion

2

Adze

s urface

o n l a rge f lake , t rapezo ida l c ross -sec t ion

5 90

F ig . 1 0 .13

1 0

4

2

5 91

F igure 1 0 .14 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -B ifac ia ls

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

Axe

N20/E132 , s urface

d ia mond c ross -sec t ion

2

Axe

s urface

t ransverse e dge r e mova ls ; d ia mond c ross -sec t ion

5 92

F ig . 1 0 .14

1 4

0

2

5 93

F igure 1 0 .15 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -B ifac ia ls

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

Axe

3 902

w i th c or tex ; d ia mond c ross -sec t ion

2

P ick

6 306

made o n Mashash f l in t ; d ia mond c ross -sec t ion

5 94

1° 1 5

1

J2

o

4

5 95

F igure 1 0 .16 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -B ifac ia ls

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

Axe

1 325/1304

s ma l l ; l ens c ross s ec t ion

2

Ch isse l

4 026

d ia mond c ross -sec t ion

3

Axe

3 514

t r apezo ida l c ross -sec t ion

5 96

F ig . 1 0 .16

2

0

4

5 97

F igure 1 0 .17 : S h iqm im F l in t T oo ls -B ifac ia ls

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

C h ise l

3 800

b ifac ia l p o l ish o n c u t t ing e dge ; d iamond c ro s s sec t ion

2

Ch i sse l

6 660

t r an sver se b low o n work ing e dge ; d iamond c ro s s sec t ion

5 98

F ig . 1 0 .17

1

2 o

4

5 99

F igure 1 0 .18 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -B if ic ia l

N umber

1

T oo l T ype

Chopp ing t oo l

B aske t N o .

6 776

D escr ip t ion

mass ive wad i c obb le

6 00

F ig . 1 0 .18

6 01

F igure 1 0 .19 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -C ores

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

B lade c ore

9 0090

s ing le p latfor m

2

B lade c ore

6 511

s ing le p latform

3

B lade le t c ore

5 811

e xhaus ted

6 02

F ig . 1 0 .19

1 r

2

L

0

3

6 03

4

F igure 1 0 .20 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -C ores

N umber

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

B lade c ore

4 29 ; u pper v i l lage

s ing le p la tform

2

C ore/chopp ing t oo l

4 1

o n wad i c obb le

3

F lake c ore

s urface

amorphous , t hree p la tform s

6 04

F ig . 1 0 .20

0

3 6 05

4

F igure 1 0 .21 : S h iqm im F l in t T oo ls -C ores

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

C ore/chopp ing t oo l

3 2

o n wad i c obb le

2

F lake c ore

2 6

t wo p la tform s ; o n wad i c obb le

3

F lake c ore

4 32

t wo p la tform s ; o n w ad i c obb le

F ig . 1 0 .21

1

L

4

0

2

3 L 6 07

F igure 1 0 .22 : S h iqm im F l int T oo ls -C ore a nd M isce l laneous

Number

T oo l T ype

B aske t N o .

D escr ip t ion

1

F lake c ore

4 28

t wo p la tform s

2

Misce l laneous t oo l

s urface

b ifac ia l ly f laked b orer

6 08

F ig . 1 0 .22

L

2

4

0

6 09

TY PE O F SI TE

ST AGE

q uarry

n atura l n odu les

AC T IV ITY

WA STE

s e lec t ion p reparat ion

p r imary f lakes c hunks , c h ips

c ore p ro im du ac ry t io n

k napp ing

s i te

c ore d iscard

f l ake s , c hunks , , c h ip s , p re l im . b lades , c ore t r im . c ore ( d iscard )

b lade s s e lec t ion s econdary p roduc t ion s i te

b lades

b lades r e touch c h ip s . s ma l l f l akes , b lade s egmen ts b lanks 1 h

h af t ing

u nused s i ck le u se , s t orage , l o s s , a bandomen t

s t orage a rea , f i e ld , c ache , ( hab i tat ion ) u sed s i ck le / ( w i th g lo ss )

F igure 1-1 . Hypo the t ica l R econs truc t ion o f S tages o f S ick le Manufac ture .

6 10

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F igure 1 2 .1 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B u i ld ing P hase

B aske t Number

D escr ip t ion

1

C

BPI I

6 403/a

Type : " Cook ing P o t" , Byzan t ine/Ear ly A rab . Ware : F ine , p ink ish wh i te 7 . 5 YR 8 /4 . T e mper : F ew g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-1 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : Buf f f abr ic . R e mark s : C ombed r i b p a t tern o n s hou lder . I n trus ive s herd .

2

A

T .S .

3 51 9 /a

Type : B ody s herd , s hou lder f ragmen t . Wa re : Gaza w are , med iu m c oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish g ray 7 . 5 YR 6 /2 . D ecora t ion : P ara l le l c o mbed l i ne s .

3

A

T .S .

3 519/b

Type : B ody s herd . Ware : P ink ish wh i te 7 .5 YR 8 /4 . T e mper : F ew g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-1 mm ) . S ur face : Buf f f abr ic , p ink 7 .5 YR 7 /4 . R e marks : B yzan t ine .

4

A

T .S .

3 224

Type : L oop-hand le , ( f rom a p i lgr im f l a sk ) , Byzan t ine/U mayyad . Wa re : F ine , p ink ish wh i te 7 .5 YR 8 /4 . T e mper : G rey g r i t ( 0 .5-1 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : Buf ff abr ic .

5

B

T .S .

4 007

Type : J ug w i th l oop-hand les . Ware : Gaza wa re , g rey 7 .5 YR N 5/0 . T emper : s ome m ica . S ur face : Dark g rey 7 . 5 YR N4/0 . R e marks : C oncen tr ic whee l marks .

6

c

BPI I

6 403/b

Type : Decora ted b ody s herd . Ware : Gaza ware , v ery d a rk g rey 7 .5 YR N3/0 . T emper : a bundan t m ica . S ur face : G rey 7 . 5 YR N 5/0 . D ecora t ion : C ombed b ands ( 0 .6c m ) .

6 12

II I1

F ig . 1 2 .1

3 2

4

1 1 I

/

5 0

0

5

15

6

6 13

F igure 1 2 .2 No .

A rea

1

S h iqm im P ottery : B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion Descr ip t ion

B asket Nu mber

BPI I

6 638

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , y e l low ish-red 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : Abundan t m ica . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low , 5 YR 6 /8 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im . R e marks : T race s o f h ardf i r ing . Whee l- made .

2

B

BPI I

6 644

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , r ed 2 . 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .3-2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r ed , 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im .

3

B

BPI I

6 635

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , r ed 2 .5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : Wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .2-2 mm ) . S ur face : R ed , 2 .5 YR 5 /6 . D ecora t ion : Pa in ted b and o n r im . R e mark s : Whee l- made .

4

B

BPI I

6 642

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r ed 2 . 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey a nd wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .3-2 mm ) . S ur face : R ed , 2 .5 YR 5 /8 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im .

5

A

BPI I

3 537

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , r ed 2 . 5 Abundan t wh i te g r i t ( 0 .5-2 mm ) , s o me m ica . YR 5 /8 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im . o fh ard f i r ing . Hand- made b a se , whee l- made

6

B

BPI I

6 647

S ame a s F ig .12 .2 No 5 , a bove .

7

A

BPI I

2 004

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , r ed 2 .5 YR 4 /6 . T e mper : F ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im . R e ma rk : Whee l- made .

8

A

BPI I

3 536

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r ed 2 . 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-1 .5 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : R ed , 2 . 5 YR 5 /8 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im .

9

B

BPI I

6 637

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , r edd i sh-ye l low , 5 YR 7 /6 . T e mper : F ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish-ye l low 5 YR 6 /6 . D ecora t ion : P a inted r im : r ed ( dark r edd ish b rown , 2 .5 YR 3 /4 ) a nd wh i te ( p ink ish wh i te , 5 YR 8 /2) .

1 0

B

BPI I

6 646

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , r ed 2 . 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : F ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low , 2 .5 YR 7 /8 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im . R e mark : Whee l- made .

1 1

A

BPI I

3 529/b

Type : H em ispher ic b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown , 5 YR 6 /5 . T emper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 .5 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown , 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Pa in ted b and o n t he r im .

1 2

B

T .S .

4 209

Type : H em ispher ic b ow l . Ware : F ine , r edc t : . , . , Dwn 5 YR 5 /5 . T emper : Wh i te a nd l i gh t g rey g r it , ( 0 .2-1 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and o n l eY i n ) .

1 3

E

BPI I

0 8360

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , p ink 5 YR 7 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te g r i t a nd f ew g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 mm ) . Decora t ion : P a in ted r im . R e ma rk : Hand made b a se , whee lmade b ody .

6 14

YR 5 /8 . T e mper : S ur face : R ed , 2 . 5 R ema rks : T races b ody .

F ig . 1 2 .2

4

2

7

6

5

1 0

1

1 3 0

1 0

6 15

2 0

F igure 1 2 .3 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

•

BPI I

5 227

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e ver ted r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te , g rey a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions .

2

•

BPI I

3 889

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna l r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 3-4 mm ) , s evera l wh i te g r i t ( 0 .5-1 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Thu mb i mpres s ions o n t he r im . Upper p ar t o ft he r im , p a inted .

3

A

BPI

3 223

Type : C on ica l b a s in . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : G rey g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and o n t he r im .

4

•

BPI I

6 305/a

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna l , o b l ique , f l a t r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Abundant g rey g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpress ions o n r im .

5

A

T .S .

3 201

Type : S pher ica l b a s in , s inuous wa l l , e x terna l h or izon ta l r im . Wa re : V ery c oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T emper : Abundan t g rey a nd wh i te g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : P ink : 5 YR 7 /4 .

6

A

T .S .

6 001

Type : S pher ica l b a s in , f l a t , h or izonta l r im , e x terna l b r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 4 /4 . T emper : Da rk g rey g r i t , ( 2-4 mm ) a nd wh ite a nd l i gh t g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-1 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Upper p ar t o ft he r im p a in ted .

7

•

BP I I

4 821

Type : S pher ica l b a s in , e x terna l b r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : L igh t a nd d a rk g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Thu mb i mpres s ions o n t he b r im a nd p a in ted r im .

8

•

BPI I

6 684

Type : S pher ica l b a s in , e x terna l h or izon ta l r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low i sh r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : L igh t g rey g r it , ( 1-3mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P inched r im .

9

•

BPI I

4 224

Type : S pher ica l b a s in , i nver ted s quare c u t r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 2-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t b rown 7 . 5 YR 6 /3 .

6 16

F ig . 1 2 .3

2 1 /

4

5

6

7

I

O

9

6 17

1 0

m

aw

20

F igure 1 2 .4 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B u i ld ing P hase

B aske t Number

Descr ip t ion

1

C

BPI I

4 820/c

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna l , o b l ique f l a t r im . Ware : Med ium f i ne , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : Wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 mm ) . S ur face : R edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 5 /5 . Decora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions . R edd ish b rown p a in ted b and i n s ide t he r im . R e ma rks : Whee l- made .

2

A

T .S .

2 38

Type : Sma l l c on ica l b a s in , p la in r im . Ware : F ine , p ink ish g rey 7 .5 YR 7 /4 . T e mper : g rey g r i t , ( 0 .3-1 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5YR 6 /4 . R ema rk : Whee l- made .

3

D

T .S .

5 702

Type : C on ica l b a s in , p la in s quare c u t e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd , l i gh t a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 1-2 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

4

D

BPI I

6 742/c

Type : Con ica l b a s in , p la in r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper :Grey g r i t , ( 2-4 mm ) , s o me q uar tz ( ? ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted b and i ns ide t he r im .

5

C

BPI I

4 820/b

Type : Bas in , e x terna l , o b l ique f l a t r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Abundant g rey a nd f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 2-2 .8 m m ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : A cc iden ta l i nc i s ions o n t he r im .

6

D

BPI I

5 222

Type : S ha l low c on ica l b a s in . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : G rey a nd wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 6 /5 . Decora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions o n t he r im .

7

B

BPI I

4 146

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : wh ite , g rey a nd b lack g r i t , ( 1-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

6 18

F ig . 1 2 .4

1

2

3

5

6

7 1 0

6 19

20

F igure 1 2 .5 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

•

T .S .

4 201

Type : L a rge c on ica l b a s in , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , d a rk r edd ish g rey 5 YR 4 /2 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpress ions .

2

•

BP I

4 117

Type : C on ica l b a s in , r ounded r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : G rey g r i t , ( 1 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpress ions .

3

B

T .S .

3 713

Type : C on ica l b a s in , o b l ique r im , e x terna l b r im . Ware : C oar se , p ink ish g rey 7 .5 YR 5 /2 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish wh i te 7 .5 YR 8 /2 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t humb i mpres s ions .

4

•

BPI I

3 827

Type : C on ica l b a s in , s l igh t ly h or izon ta l e ver ted r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : L igh t g rey a nd wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 . D ecora t ion : L arge p a in ted b and i n s ide t he r im .

5

E

BP I I

0 8358/a

Type : S ha l low c on ica l b a s in , p la in e ver ted r im . Wa re : C oar se , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

6

E

BPI I

0 8362

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna lin terna l o b l ique r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd l i gh t g rey g r i t , . (1-3 .5 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5YR 7 /4 .

7

E

BPI I

0 8358/b

Type : C on ica l b a s in , p la in e ver ted r im . Wa re : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Abundan t wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

8

B

BPI I

3 927

Type : Ex treme ly s ha l low b a s in , p la in e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , d a rk r edd ish g rey 5 YR 4 /2 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

6 20

F ig . 1 23

3

N

' „ 4

6

1 5

6 21

F igure 1 2 .6 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

1

A rea

B

V i l lage E xcavat ion

Bu i ld ing

B aske t

P hase

Nu mber

BPI I

3 840

Descr ip t ion

Type : C on ica l b a s in , e x terna l h or izon ta l f l a t r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 2-3 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Thu mb i mpres s ions a nd r ed p a int ing o n t he r im .

6 22

F ig . 1 2 .6

0 ei

0 I .'

0

6 23

Figure 12.7 Shiqmim Pottery: Village Excavation No.

Area

Building Phase

Basket Number

Description

1

B

BPII

4129

Type: Spherical basin, oblique everted rim. Ware: Very coarse, light reddish brown 5 YR 6/4. Temper: Abundant white and grey grit, (0.5-3mm). Surface: Reddish yellow 5 YR 6/6. Decoration: Oblique impressions.

2

C

BPII

4820/a

Type: Spherical baain, internal flat rim. Ware: Very coarse, reddish brown 5 YR 5/4. Temper: Dark grey and white grit, (1-3mm). Surface: Pink 5 YR 7/4. Decoration: Knob impressions on the upper edge of the rim. Painted band on the rim and traces of paint on the body.

3

C

T.S.

4409

Type: Spherical basin, external horizontal flat rim. Ware: Coarse, yellowish red 5 YR 5/5. Temper: Grey and white grit, (0.3-lmm). Surface: Reddish yellow 5 YR 6/6.

4

D

BPII

6742/d

Type: Spherical basin, external oblique rim. Ware: Very coarse, brown 7.5 YR 5/2. Temper: Abundant grey and white grit, (0.5-3mm). Surface: Pinkish gray 7.5 YR 6/2.

5

A

T.S.

859

Type: Spherical basin with internal horizontal lug handle, external-internal horizontal rim. Ware: Coarse, yellowish red 5 YR 5/6. Temper: Abundant grey grit, (0.5-3mm). Surface: Light reddish brown 5 YR 6/4.

6

C

BPII

4721/d

Type: Spherical baain, external-internal horizontal rim. Ware: Coarse, light reddish brown 5 YR 6/4. Temper: White and grey grit, (0.3-2mm). Surface: Pink 5 YR 7/4

624

F ig . 1 2 .7

1

2

S

3

i t -

%

4

\

1

5

0

1 0

6 25

6

20

F igure 1 2 .8 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

A

BPI I

3 501

Type : P ithos , e x terna l h or izon ta l r im . Wa re : V ery c oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Wh i te a nd d ark g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : Redd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /5 .

2

D

BPI I

0 7857

Type : P itho s , e x terna l , o b l ique r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh ite g r it ( - lmm ) a nd f ew g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-2 mm ) , s traw . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Thu mb i mpres s ions o n t he r im .

3

C

BPI I

4 721/a

Type : P i thos , p la in e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , p ink ish g rey 7 .6 YR 7/2 . T emper : Abundant wh i te g r it a nd f ew g rey g r i t ( 1-2rnm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Thumb i mpres s ions o n t he r im .

4

D

BPI I

6 740

Type : P ithos , s hor t , p la in e ver ted r im . Wa re : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t ( 0 .33mm ) , s o me q ua r tz (? ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

5

D

T .S .

0 7851

Type : P i thos , e x terna l , h or izon ta l r im . Wa re : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-4 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions o n t he r im .

6 26

F ig . 1 2 .8

1

2

3

4

5

1 0

6 27

20

F igure 1 2 .9 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

1

A rea

D

B u i ld ing P hase BPI I

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Number 0 8992

Descr ip t ion

Type : L arge p i tho s . Ware : C oar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Thumb i mpres s ion s o n t he r im .

6 28

F ig . 1 2 .9

1

,' / / /

\

,

' , \ ` ‘

,

\

/

\ \

/ /

\ \ \

\\ \ \

/ /7 // // // //

1

0

1 0

6 29

20

F igure 1 2 .10 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion D escr ip t ion

B aske t Nu mber

1

A

T .S .

3 413

Type : P i thos , e ver ted r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , w eak r ed 2 . 5 YR 4 /2 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-2 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions o n t he r im . R emark : T race s o fh ard f i r ing .

2

B

BP I

3 912

Type : P i tho s , s hor t f l ared e x terna l r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : Da rk g rey g r i t , ( 1-2 m m ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : I mpress ions o n t he r im .

3

B

BPI

4 118

Type : P i tho s , s hor t e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , p ink ish g rey 7 . 5 YR 6 /3 . T emper : Abundan t g rey a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 2-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish g rey 7 . 5 YR 7 /3 .

4

A

BPI I

3 533/a

Type : P i thos , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( -2 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 6 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa in ted b and o n r im ( r ed b rown ) a nd t race s o f p a in t o n t he b ody .

5

C

BPI I

6 360

Type : P i tho s , p la in e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /5 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . Decora t ion : r o l l ing t hu mb i mpre ss ions o n t he r im .

6

B

BP I I

4 141

Type : P i tho s , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Wa re : V ery c oa r se , b rown 7 . 5 YR 5 /2 . T emper : Abundan t wh ite a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 2 .53m m ) . S ur face : R edd i sh b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . D ecora t ion : Sma l l t hu mb i mpres s ions o n t he r im .

7

B

BPI

4 124

Type : P i tho s , s t ra ight r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face :L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .Decora t ion :Thu mb i mpre ss ions o n t he e dge o ft he r im .

8

C

BPI I

4 718

Type :P i thos , inver ted r im , e ver ted b r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 .Te mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r it , ( 1 .22mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

6 30

F ig . 1 2 .10

„ 7r 1-1

4

_ 5

6

7

0

1 0

6 31

20

F igure 1 2 .11 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion Descr ip t ion

B aske t Number

1

D

BPI I

0 8912

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , i nver ted h or izon ta l r im .Wa re : V ery c oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t d ark g rey a nd wh ite g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . R e ma rk : T races o fh ard f i r ing .

2

A

BPI I

3 502

Type : Ho le mou th j a r , p la in e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Wh i te a nd l i gh t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-3 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 .

3

D

BP I I

6 742/b

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in i nver ted r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 4 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t ( 0 .52 .5 mm ) , n u merous m ica . S ur face : L ight r edd i sh b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

4

D

BPI I

6 757

Type : Ho le mou th j a r , p la in i nver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 4 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 12mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R e mark : C ombed l i nes n ear t he r im? .

5

D

BPI I

5 320

Type : Ho lemou th j ar , t h ickened i nver ted r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /5 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Da rk r edd ish b rown p a inted b and o n t he r im .

6

D

BP I I

6 742/a

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in s quare c u t r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T emper : Wh i te , g rey a nd l i gh t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

7

B

T .S .

4 101

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in e ver ted r im . Wa re : V ery c oar se , b rown 7 .5 YR 5 /2 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : B rown 7 .5 YR 5 /2 .

6 32

F ig . 1 2 .11

72

N

7 3

N

7 4

5

7

N 6

7

‘, 7 0

1 0

2 0

F igure 1 2 .12 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B u i ld ing P hase

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

C

BP I I

4 82 3 /a

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in s quare c u t i nver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , b rown 7 .5 YR 4 /3 .Temper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t b rown 7 . 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a inted b and o n t he r im a nd o n t he b ody n ear t he r im , ( r edd ish b rown ) .

2

C

BP I I

4 823/b

Type : Ho lemou th j a r , i nver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .54mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /5 .

3

B

BPI I

6 641

Type : Sma l l g lobu lar h o le mouth j ar , o vo id a per ture . Ware : C oar se , r ed 2 .5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 .5 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

4

C

BP I I

6 305

Type : Ho le mou th j a r , p la in e ver ted r im ( w i th sma l l g u tter ) . Ware : V ery c oar se , l i gh t b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : a bundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish g rey 7 .5 YR 7 /2 .

5

B

BP I

4 213

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in s quare c u t , f o lded r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : G rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5YR 6 /6 .

6

A

6 656

Type : Ho lemou th j a r ,p la in i nver ted r im . Ware : C oa r se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 14mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . R e ma rk : T race s o f h ard f i r ing .

7

C

6 804

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , t h ickened i nve rted r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .Te mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

. . _

6 34

F ig . 1 2 .12

2

3

5

7

1 0

6 35

20

F igure 1 2 .13 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

1

A

2

A

3

A

4

C

5

6

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B asket Number

D escr ip t ion

1 604

Type : Sma l l j ar . Ware : C ream ware , f i ne p ink 5Yr 8 /4 . T e mper : V ery f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .2-0 .5 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 8 /3 .

3 517

Type : J ar , s hor t n ecked , f l ared r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .23mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

1 502

Type : G lobu lar j a r , s hor t n ecked , e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , 'y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-3 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 . Decora t ion : Pa in ted b and i n s ide , n ear t he r im a nd o n t he r im .

BPI

4 424

Type : J ar , h igh n ecked . Ware : C oar se , r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .3-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /3 . R e marks : Hard f i r ing i n s ide . Whee lmade .

B

BP I I

6 566

Type : J ar , s l op ing s hou lder , s hor t f l are n ecked . Wa re : Med iu m f i ne , r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd l i ght g rey g r i t ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /3 .

C

BPI I

6 407

Type : J ar , f l are n ecked , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh i te , d ark a nd l i gh t g rey g r i t , ( 1-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5YR 7 /6 .

4 909

Type : G lobu lar j ar , s hor t f l ared n eck . Ware : C oar se , r edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 .Te mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5YR 7 /4 .

BPI

7

8

D

BPI I

6 740

Type : J ar , s hor t n ecked , f l ared r im . Ware : C oa r se , b rown 7 . 5 YR 4 /3 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .3-2 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 7 .5 YR 7 /4 .

9

D

BPI I

5 219

Type : J a r , h igh n ecked , f l ared r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : g rey g r i t , ( 2-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

1 0

A

3 7

Type : G lobu lar j ar , s hor t n ecked , f l ared r im . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .32mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa in ted b and o u ts ide a nd o n t he u pper p a r t o f t he r im , ( r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 4 /3 ) .

1 1

A

5 813

Type : J a r , s hor t n ecked . Ware , Med iu m c oar se , h o mogenuou s c lay , l igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te g r i t , ( 1 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa inted b and o u ts ide a nd o n t he u pper p ar t o f t he r im .

0 9000

Type : J ar , s l op ing s hou lder , h igh s t ra i t, n ecked . Wa re : C oar se , p ink 5 YR 7 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t gh t g rey g r i t , ( 15mm ) . S ur face : P ink 7 .5 YR 7 /4 . R e ma r Whee l- made .

4 144

Type : J ar , s hor t n ecked . Ware : C oar se , p ink ish g rey 7 .5 YR 7 /3 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( -1 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish g rey 7 .5 7 /3 .

BPI I

1 2

1 3

B

BPI I

1 4

A

2 26

Type : Cup , c y l indr ica l i n s hape . Ware : c oar se , p ink 5 YR 7 /4 . T emper : Abundan t l i gh t g rey g r i t , ( 1-5 m m ) . S ur face : t h ick b and o fr ed p a in t o n r im .

1 5

A

2 36

Type : J ar , s tra igh t n ecked , f l ared r im . Ware : C oar se , p ink ish wh i te 7 .5 YR 8 /2 . T e mper : G rey g r it , ( 0 .5-3mm ) . S ur face : P ink 7 .5 YR 7 /4 .

1 6

A

3 417

Type : J a r , s l op ing s hou lder , s hor t n ecked . Ware : C oar se , d ark b rown 7 7 .5 YR 4 /2 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te g r i t , ( -0 .5 mm ) a nd a bundant g rey g r i t , ( - 2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : R edd i sh b rown 5 YR 5 /3 .

BP I I

6 36

F ig . 1 2 .13

5 4

4 / 1

„

8

7

•

1 4

1 5

1 3 1 6 0

1 0

2 0

6 37

F igure 1 2 .14 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

1

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase BPI I

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber 6 648

Descr ip t ion

Type : F ene s tra ted h o le mou th v e sse l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : F ew l i ght g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-1 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .6 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Th is v esse l c ons is ts o f af enes tra ted s tand a nd a h o lemou th p o t : t he s tand ( 7 .25cm h igh ) c on ta ins 3 d i s t inc t w indows ( 4x2 .5c m ) . The b a se i s s l igh t ly f l ared a nd d ecora ted w i th a t h ick ( 1 .75c m ) b and o f r ed p a in t ; -a l i ne o f a pp l ied k nobs a re f a s tened a t t he j unc t ion o f t he h o le mou th p o t a t t he t op o f t he s tand , t h is j unc t ion i s d ecora ted b y al a rge ( 2 .5c m ) b and o f r ed p a in t ; -t he h o le mouth p o t ( d iame ter : 1 2c m ,12 .5c m h igh ) i sh igh ly d ecora ted : p ara l le l b ands r un f rom n ear t he r im o ft he v e sse l t owa rd t he m id-po in t ; b e tween t he se b ands a n e tl ike p a ttern i sf ound ; s evera l o f t hese l ong i tud ina l b ands h ave l ea f o r b ranchl ike a ppendage s ; w i th in t h is c on tex t , t he n e tl ike d e s ign may r epresent t he t runk o f a p a lm t r ee ; t he r im i s d ecora ted b y ab and ( lc m ) o fr ed p a int .

6 38

F ig . 11 "

o im in im i

1 0

1

6 39

F igure 1 2 .15 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

1

A rea

B

B u i ld ing P hase BPI I

2

BP I I

V i l lage E xcavat ion Descr ip t ion

B aske t Number 6 643

Type : G lobu lar j ar , h igh n ecked . Wa re : C oa r se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 5 /6 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and s o n t he r im a nd o n t he l arges t p a r t o ft he b ody , r ed 2 .5 YR 4 /6 .

5 016

Type : Car ina ted p o t . Ware : F ine , y e l low i sh r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : V ery f ew g rey g r i t , ( -0 .8 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R e mark : Whee l- made .

6 636

Type : Bo t t le w i th f l ared r im . Ware : F ine , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : F ew wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 .4 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . Decora t ion : p a inted w i th p a ra l le l b ands o f r ed p a in t ; i n ter ior o f v e sse l mou th p a in ted w ith r ed f l ames .

5 010

Type : S hor t g lobu lar p o t . Wa re : F ine , y e l low i sh r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : F ew wh i te g r i t , ( -0 .3 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 .

3

B

4

C

5

A

BPI I

3 508

Type : G lobu lar j a r , s hor t n ecked , f l ared r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n t he n eck , a nd o n t he l a rge s t p ar t o ft he b ody .

6

•

BPI I

0 8363

Type : J ar , s lp ing s hou lder , h igh s tra igh t n ecked . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

7

D

0 8967

Type : Sma l l p i tho s , in terna l o b l ique f l a t r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : G rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Band o f s t ick i mpres s ion s n ea r t he t op o ft he v esse l .

8

•

BPI I

0 6770

Type : G lobu la r j a r , f l a red r im . Ware : Med iu m c oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : R edd i sh y e / low 5 YR 6 /6 . D ecora t ion : P a inted r im ,neck a nd s hou lder , r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 4 /4 .

9

•

BPI I

4 143

Type : P i tho s , w i th e a r-hand le s , v ery s hor t f l a red n eck , o b l ique r im . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r ndd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : f acel ike d e&, - 1 . , 1--, t ed i n r ed a round o ne o f t he v er t ic le n on-per fora te . ) e a r h and les o n v es se l . Two b o ld p a ra l le l b ands o fr ed p a in t n ear r im o fv es se l . No te : s ca le i ncor rec t o n p la te ; v es se l h e ig ' t t = 7 0 cm , d iame ter =6 0 cm .

6 40

F ig . 1 2 .15

2

7

o

1 0

20

6 41

F igure 1 2 .16 S h iqm im P o ttery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

B

BP I I

0 6770

Type : Churn . Ware : C oar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 1 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

2

B

BPI I

4 228

Type : Churn . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r it , ( 1-2 mm ) ,some m ica . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 .

3

D

T .S .

5 720

Type : Churn . Ware : V ery c oar se ,redd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t a nd f ew wh i te g r i t ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5YR 7 /4 .

4

D

BPI I

0 8999

Type : Churn . Wa re : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t d a rk g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

5

A

BP I I

3 412

Type : Churn . Ware : C oar se , l igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : G rey g r i t , ( 1-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

6 42

F ig . 1 2 .16

4

1 2

4

4

5 o

1 0

6 43

20

3

F igure 1 2 .17 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

1

A rea

C

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B asket Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

Type : Churn . Wa re : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 4 /6 . Abundan t g rey g r i t a nd f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . Undecora ted .

6 44

T e mper : S ur face :

F ig . 1 2 .17

0

1

6 45

1 0

2 0

F igure 1 2 .18 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion Descr ip t ion

B asket Nu mber

1

B

BPI I

3 841

Type : V er t ica l l ug h and le . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : L igh t a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

2

A

BPI I

3 027

Type : Tubu lar p ierced h and le . Ware : C ream wa re , f i ne p ink 5 YR 8 /4 . T e mper : V ery f ew wh ite g r i t , ( 0 .2-0 .5 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5YR 8 /3 .

3

C

BPI '

4 817

Type : P er fora ted , v er t ica l e ar-hand le . Wa re : V ery c oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 4 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 .

4

C

BPI

4 416

Type : P er fora ted , v er t ica l e ar-hand le . Wa re : C ream ware , f i ne , p ink ish g rey 7 .5 YR 7 /2 . T e mper : V ery f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .2 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish wh i te 7 . 5 YR 8 /2 .

5

C

BP I I

6 353

Type : Hor izon ta l l ug h and le . Wa re : C oar se , r ed 2 . 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : L igh t a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) , f ew wh i te g r i t , ( - 0 .2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

6

A

T .S .

6 701

Type : V er t ica l h and le , i ndented e dge . Ware : C oar se , r edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : Abundan t l i gh t a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 1-4 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

7

A

BP IV

0 6324

Type : F ragmen t o f a mu l t ip le h and le v esse l ( ? ) . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : F ew wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-1 mm ) . S ur face : Weak r ed 2 .5 YR 4 /2 .

8

A

BP Ia

0 6302

Type : L edge h and le . Wa re : C oar se , r edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : F inger i mpre ss ion s o n t he e dge .

9

C

BPI I

6 376

Type : Decora t ive k nob . Wa re : C oar se , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 .5 mm ) . S ur fa ce : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

1 0

A

BPI I

3 529/a

Type : Pa in ted b ody s herd , p er fora ted h or izon ta l e a r-hand le . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa in t a round t he h and le , r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 4 /3 .

6 46

F ig . 1 2 .18

2

1

3

1 4

5

6

7

/

8

1 0 0

4

0

6 47

1 0

F igure 1 2 .19 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

Descr ip t ion

1

C

BPI

4 413

Type : Po inted b a se . Ware : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Dark g rey g r it , ( 2-3 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

2

C

BPI I

4 721/b

Type : F la t n arrow b a se . Ware : F ine , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : F ew wh ite g r it , ( - 0 .5 m m ) , a bundan t m ica . S ur face : Redd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

3

A

BPI I

3 417

Type : F la t n arrow b ase . Ware : Med iu m f i ne , l i ght r edd ish b rown 5YR 6 /4 . T e mper : F ew wh ite g r it , ( 0 .2-0 .5 mm ) , a bundant m ica . S ur face : Redd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 .

4

C

BPI I

4 721/c

Type : F la t b ase . Ware : Coar se ,L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 1-2 m m ) . S ur face : L ight b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 .

5

A

BPIb

0 6307

Type : S tand o f a f enestra ted v esse l . Ware : Coar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-1 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

6

B

BPI

4 124

Type : F la t b a se o f as i nuous wa l led p o t . Ware : Coar se , l i ght b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /3 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd d ark g rey g r i t ,(13m m ) ,so me m ica . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

7

A

BPII

3 533/b

Type : F la t b a se . Ware : Coar se , l am ina ted , l i ght r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-2 .5 m m ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 .

8

B

BPI I

3 826

Type : F la t b a se . Ware : Very c oar se , l am ina ted , l i ght b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /3 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-2 .5 m m ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

9

E

BPI II

0 8602

Type : Decora ted b ody s herd . Ware : Coar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 1-2 m m ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa inted s herd , ( l ight r ed ) , a nd h err ihg b one p a ttern i nc is ions .

1 0

C

T .S .

4 801/a

Type : Decora ted b ody s herd . Ware : Coar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L ight b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Herr ingbone p a ttern i nc is ions .

1 1

C

T .S .

4 801/b

S ame a s a bove : F ig . 1 2 .19 , No 1 0 .

1 2

A

BPII

3 028

Type : Decora ted b ody s herd . Ware : Coar se , p ink 7 .5YR 8 /4 . T e mper : G rey g r it , ( 0 .5-3 m m ) . S ur face : P i . , . 1 esh wh ite 7 .5 YR 8 /2 . Decora t ion : I nc ised d ots a nd t ear s haped i mpress ions .

1 3

A

BPII

3 538

Type : Pa inted b ody s herd .

Ware : Co z , . 3 e , l i ght r ed 2 .5 YR

6 /6 . T e mper : Abundant wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-4 m m ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Pa inted b ranch l i ke p a ttern , ( Red 1 0 R 5 /6 ) . 1 4

A

3 5/a

Type : Pa inted b ody s herd . Ware : Coar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Abundant wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-4 m m ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Th ick ( 2 .5c m ) , r ed p a inted b ands .

1 5

A

3 5/ 1 3

Type : Pa inted b ody s herd . Ware : Coar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : L ight g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Redd ish b rown p a inted b ands .

6 48

F ig . 1 2 .19

2

0 1

1 1•

1 1 0

5

L Z / 7 9

1 1 1 0

6

3

1 2 1 4

\

6 49

F ig . 1 2 .20

7 0 -

60 -

4 0 -

30 -

2 0 -

1 0—

f l AREAS

e a

AB C D p ithos

AB C D h o lemouth j ar

AB C D g lob . j ar

AB C D j ar

AB C D b ow l

AB C D b as in

VESSEL T YPE ( m in i mu m n u mber)

F ig . 1 2 .20

P ottery v esse l d is tr ibut ion f or BP I i n S h iqm im . 6 50

AB C D c hurn

j AB C D f oo ted v esse l

F ig . 1 2 .21 7 0-

60-

50-

40

-

30 -

20 -

1 0

AREAS

0

AB C D E p ithos

AB C D E

AB C D E

h o le mouth j ar

g lob , j ar

AB C D E

AB C D E

j ar

b ow l

VESSEL TYPE

F ig . 1 2 .21

AB C D E b as in

AB C D E

AB C D E

c hurn

f ooted v esse l

(m in i mu m n u mber)

P ottery v esse l d istr ibut ion f or BP I i n Sh iq m im . 6 51

F ig . 1 2 .22 r o rAL

0 o g s megr is

i n 4 o u

IE -

k: t1

c

1

F

, L UC r

-a (r

L A IN M i le l ed i T O _g i h C a le Ve i l : W I . L A IW t c&M , 3 P 1 0 No _ __ ig in _ _ _ J I 1 4 c -K i t irD E VAK AM _ r t i eL .A f tA l l e_ V Ae i l ib i n R T Z . 1M 1 3I A inoW '310 i 1 1

f ee t4 W f i c i t i4 C KF i lmi ng-f ,

c ue c o terE i t is en , ieS6

k ru og iu r r tA z . i t em_ I( 2 , e xfe ßL iA a i kt _ _ _ _ 3 / Nt_ i so i t izem rA 4K im ii r ii , o i lL 14 4 ) e r ge l _ _ _ F l i f i ta Re l M I

.

SASFS

. p

P " V S I

R A M

c ou s

z —t rr u mw t o m w e 4 . ssE l . r . r ipet t o 4 c c c< b t o F wr eft s e a . Ve _

—

a

i 4

_

1 5

& LS C t iit ef eu z ez

H oe r

U .V

I •

0

= 3 .

r o I t i l

. o

AA R E ? )N i ck P are > Yi r l • • vA H &J
e z t . IL _ t • 4 Lo l l t iLA I L 1 3 6 1 4 /. I A g C one X WALL .S urKA 2 3F iAr ill4 C I . I . f I A V9 , v . j

0 4— ._ . _

_

_ I t g d eRe l .

S Z Le t _Me tI n r 14 1 4 b l ijaißf a i te

3 1 3

na it ieD _ R im

Pe

1 C A 4 1 ,

e

4 1

u t i f e l fufs e 2

c . v i tA ig e co f L e g o z d tg _ p er S TOP')E R ,

_

N e ö p, c omp l aie

t h a s$ e i4 £cit at e-M fAL , fAg L eFr) A l lh 1I SO A 4 Ale 04

1m D1 V 1DUALS L t . 10 . C . 4 .(f te 44r 4 i z ism3 J F ig . 1 2 .22

P ottery r ecord ing s heet u sed i n t he a na lyses o f t he S h iqm im p ot tery .

6 53 P lan o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iq m im .

S h iqm im 1 982 : Mezad A lu f C eme tery 3 k ey S ECT I ON

\ P ‘ CROSS

SECT ION

CARD INAL

2 3 . . .n

STRUCTURE NU MBE R CHALK

F L INT

0 2 < J e d e

NORTH

STONE

STONE

L I MESTONE

BURNT

AREAS/HEARTHS

HU MAN

CERAM IC

BONE

CLUSTER

VESSEL

6 54

S TONE

THROUGH

( 9 Z

s ect ion :

CC

s ect ion :

AA

s ect ion :

BB

er el ei5 c M , 3 1 ,3 2 ,3 3

F ig . 1 3 .2 a nd 3 3 .

P o s s ib le r econs truc t ion o f G rave 2 4 a nd s ec t ions o f g rave s 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2

6 56

F ig . 1 3 .3

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 57

F ig . 1 3 .4

P lan o f G rave 3 6 .

6 58

IL IH

s ect ion :

BB

s ec t ion :

AA

s ect ion :

BB

s ec ti on :

AA

>

( i 4ii zi4

i

f ) c e n

S tructure :39

S tructure : 45

F ig . 1 3 .5

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 3 9 a nd 4 5 .

6 59

1 S tructure :23

S tructure : 39

\ p erspect ive

S tructure : 35

F ig . 1 3 .6

P erspec t ive v iew o f G rave 2 3 a nd C is t s 3 9 a nd 3 5 .

6 60

v iew

, /h / / ,

-

•

• ; / / // / ,

e r i f / A p „MP : • M IS

. 3 4 1 1.

B

d

u-o

i

s ec t ion .

BB

s ec t ion .

AA

s ec t ion .

BB

s ec t ion ,

AA

>

S tructure :37

BI

( 4 ‘J4 e 92 i ' m e tr uc ture :40 F ig . 1 3 .7

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 3 7 a nd 4 0 .

6 61

/ c hu rn f r agmen t

S ect i on:

BB

4 Kel e la b le b a li e r t ie • 4 1 e,1 1 4 11~

W i r j'e '1 1

1 1 1 1 0 1. 20.*

s ection :

hi

AA

S tructure :47

s ection :

s ect ion :

CM

BB

AA

S tru c t ure :42

F ig . 1 3 .8

P lans a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is ts 4 7 a nd 4 2 .

6 62

7

, 97

44 34 4 40

4-.

‘ 41 04

. , • . • ,I

. •

• •0

C . )

e *• . :::. r .,, ; •b .

. ‘ 44 1 44094 ,. 44 ei;

0 ', . . I .

•

4

• v

.

40

S tructure : 43 F ig . 1 3 .9

P lan a nd s ect ion d raw ings C is ts 4 6 a nd 4 3 .

6 63

F ig . 1 3 .10

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ing o f C is t 3 5 .

6 64

s ec t ion :

BB

N .

S truc ture :4 8

s ec t ion :

AA

s ec t ion :

AA

S tructure :2 6

s ect ion :

AA

N . ( 4 " ". 1 2

6

S tructure : 27 F ig . 1 3 .11

P lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings o f C is t 4 8 a nd G raves 2 6 a nd 2 7 .

6 65

1Z c m

F ig . 1 3 .12

P lan o f G raves 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 a nd 4 1 .

6 66

6 67

F igure 1 3 .14 S h iqm im C emetery : S e lected F inds No .

L ocus

Descr ip t ion

1

C em . 1 ,G rave C ir . 1 1 :25

T rapezo id b one p endan t .

2

C em . 3 , G rave C ir . 2 4

( l ef t ) Mo ther-of p ear l p endan t , t rapezo id s hape w i th t wo h o le s a nd i nc ised h err ing b one d e s ign .

2

C em . 3 , C ist 3 7 : n o . 2

( r igh t ) s ame a s a bove .

3

C em . 3 , G rave C ir . 2 4 :30

Mo ther-of -pea r l p endant , v io l in s haped w i th f our h o les .

4

C em . 1 ,G rave C ir . 6 :23

Mo ther-o f -pear l p endan t , v io l in s haped w i th t wo h o le s .

5

C em . 3 , G rave C ir . 3 2 :2

Bone b eads

6

C em . 3 , G rave C ir . 3 6 :4

B eads made f rom o s tr ich e gg s he l l .

7

C em . 3 , C is t 3 4 :3

Carne l ian b ead

8

C em . 3 , G rave C ir . 3 2 :2

?? s he l l w ith d r i l led h o le n ea r b a se a nd s evera l r epa ir h o les .

9

C em . 3 , S truc ture 4 8 :2

D en ta l l iu m s he l l b eads .

1 0

C em . 3 , S truc ture 4 4

Mo ther-of -pea r l p endan t , r e tangu lar s hape .

6 68

2

3

A

C 1 2 4

5

6 : ,) c : 10

ci E2

C : = 10

0 CMC I P

c: 12

1 0

0

F ig . 1 3 .14

c :2: 3

8

6 0

C 7 1 :2 >

4

S e lec ted o rnamen ts f rom t he S h iq m im c eme tery .

1 0

L i

9

1 6 69

F igure 1 3 .15 S h iqm im C emetery : V -Shaped Vesse ls No .

L ocus

Descr ip t ion

1

C em . 1B 6 :2

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

2

C em . 1B 25 :1

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd i sh b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 .5 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

3

C em . 1B 14 :3

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : f i ne , r ed 2 . 5 YR 5 /6 . ( 0 .5-1 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r ed 2 . 5 YR 6 /6 .

4

C em . 1B 14 :2

S ame a s a bove

5

C em . 1B 13 :1

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 .5nun ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a inted b and o n r im , ( r edd ish b rown ) .

6

C em . 1B 2 :2

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . Decora t ion : P a in ted b and o n r im . R e mark : L u mp o fc lay a t t he b a se , t race s o f whee l .

7

C em . 1B 2 :3

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .6 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 .

8

C em . 1B 15 :5

Type : H em ispher ic b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-1 .5 ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5YR 6 /6 . R e ma rk : Whee l- made .

9

C em . 1B 11 :21

Type : Ba se o f a V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : Abundan t wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .3-1 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

1 0

C em . 1B 15 :3

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : V ery f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .1-0 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R e ma rk : Whee l- made .

1 1

C em . 1B 6 :40

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Ware : F ine , l i ght r edd i sh b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R e ma rk : Whee lmade .

1 2

C em . 33 9 :3

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i ght r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh ite a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-2 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R e mark : Whee l- made b a se .

1 3

C em . 1E 51

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : F ew wh ite a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .5-4 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . R e mark : Whee lmade .

1 4

C em . 1B 2 :4

Type : V -shaped b ow l . Wa re : F ine , l i gh t b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . T emper : F ew wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( - 0 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 6 /4 . R ema rk : C ombed l i nes .

1 5

C em . 1B 2 :1

Type : V -shaped-bow l . Ware : F ine , l i gh t b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : F ew g rey g r i t , ( - 0 .5 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 . R e ma rk : C ombed l i ne s .

6 70

T emper : F ew

T emper : Wh ite a nd g rey g r i t ,

F ig . 1 3 .15

1

2

3

6

5

4

7

\ 9

8

1 0

1 3

w

1 2

1

1 5

1 4

1 0

6 71

2 0

F igure 1 3 .16 Sh iqm im C emetery 1 : S e lected P ottery Vesse ls No .

L ocus

Descr ip t ion

1

B 19 :1

Type : Sma l l g lobu la r h o le mou th j a r . Wa re : Med iu m f i ne , y e l low i sh r ed 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : F ew g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : Y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /8 .

2

B 6 :6

Type : Sma l l p o t . Ware : C oar se , p ink 5 YR 8 /4 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .32mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 . D ecora t ion : V ery f a in t n e t l i ke p a ttern , p a in ted .

s

B 13 :3

Type : Sma l l g lobu lar p o t . Ware : F ine , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-1 .5 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : R edd i sh y e l low , 5 YR 7 /6 . R e mark : Whee l- made .

4

B 19 :2

Type : Sma l l h o le mou th j ar . Ware : F ine , y e l low i sh r ed 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-3mm ) . S ur face : Y e l low i sh r ed 5YR 5 /8 .

5

B 11 :11

Type : Sma l l h o le mouth j a r . Ware : F ine , r ed 2 . 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : V ery f ew g rey g r i t , ( - 2mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r ed 2 .5 YR 6 /6 . R e ma rk : Whee l- made .

6

A rea A B .132

Type : Sma l l g lobu la r h o le mou th j ar . Ware : Med iu m f i ne , p ink 5 YR 7 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t m ica . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 . Decora t ion : D r ip p a ttern o n t he u pper e dge , a nd p a in ted b and i ns ide t he r im . R e ma rk : C o mbed l i nes f ro m t op t o m id-po in t .

7

B 1 :22

Type : Sma l l j a r w i th e ar h and le s . Wa re : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 .

8

B 6 :35

Type : Sma l l f oo ted c up . Wa re : C oar se , p ink 5 YR 8 /4 . T emper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-2 mm ) . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 . D ecora t ion : R ed p a in ted b and .

9

C em . 1S ur f .

Type : C on ica l b a s in , i n terna l l ug h and le , h or izon ta l r im . Wa re : C oar se : y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L ight r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

1 0

B 1 :9

Type : C eram ic b and o r s tand . Wa re : C oar se , p ink 5 YR 7 /3 . g rey g r i t , ( 0 .3-2 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 8 /4 .

6 72

T e mper :

T e mper : Wh ite a nd

F ig . 1 3 .16

s

P

l

(

a)

2

D 3

U

c ) o

6

1 0

20

a

8

9

1 0

6 73

I

F igure 1 3 .17 S h iqm im C emetery 3 :T ub S haped O ssuary No .

1

L ocus

C ir . 2 3

D escr ip t ion

L eng th : 3 9 cm . Wid th : 2 4 cm . H e igh t : 1 7 cm . C o lour : S ur face -l i ght r edd i sh b rown ( 2 .5 YR 6 /4 ) ; ware -l i gh t r ed ( 2 .5 YR 6 /6 ) . Decora ted w i th a n umber o f t h ick r ed b ands o fp a in t a pp l ied w i th b o ld s t rokes o n t he e x ter ior o ft he v e sse l .

6 74

F ig . 1 3 .17

0

1 0

6 75

2 0

F igure 1 3 .18 Sh iqm im C emetery 3 :House S haped O ssuary No .

1

L ocus

C ir . 2 3

Descr ip t ion

L eng th : 6 1 cm . Wid th : 3 3 .5 cm . H e igh t : 6 4 cm . S ur face : r edd ish y e l low ( 5YR 7 /8 ) ; wa re : r edd ish y e l low ( 5YR 7 /6 ) . S im i lar i n g enera l morpho logy t o P erro t a nd L ad iray 's ( 1980 :34-35 ) Type I o ssuary .

F ig . 1 3 .18

1

s I 1

1 I I

i

o

2 0

I 1 I l l I I

I I I

/

I

40

1 i I I I I I I _5 I

P late 1 3 .1a A er ia l v iew ( s outh ) o f C eme tery 3 ,S h iq m im . G rave C irc le 2 4 i n l ower l e f t p or t ion o f p ho tograph .

P late 1 3 .1b

No te l oca t ion o f t he

Overv iew o f G rave C irc le 2 4 , C eme tery 3 .

6 78

P late 1 3 .2a

De ta i l o f t abu lar s craper f ound o n f l oor o f C is t 3 5 .

P late 1 3 .2b O rnamen ts f ound i n G rave C irc le 2 4 : 1 2 =L am is s he l l b race le ts , 3 -4 = mother -of -pear l p endan t s , 5= s he l l p endan t .

6 79

P late 1 3 .3a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 5 .

6 80

P late 1 3 .4a

P late 1 3 .4b

Overv iew o f C is t 4 7 .

De ta i l o f c hurn f rag ment f ound o n f loor o f C is t 4 7 .

6 81

P late 1 3 .5a

Overv iew o f C is t 3 4 .

P late 1 3 .5b

D e ta i l o f C is t 3 4 .

6 82

P late 1 3 .6

D e ta i l o f G rave C irc le 1 , S h iqm im C eme tery 1 .

6 83

I 1 3

1 3 P 26

1 2 _ _ 11

1 0

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0

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0

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0

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A. • •

0

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P 23

0

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ANALYSED

P 9/10

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1 2

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P 24

1

A rea E 0

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1 0

P 7

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8

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1 6

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1 5

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B

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F ig . 1 4 .1 D istr ibut ion o f c opper r e lated a rtefac ts f ound a t S h iqm im .

6 84

20 r n

1 5

6 85 4 .P 16 ( b ) : s me lt ing s l ag ( x100 ) .

O re , c ruc ib le a nd s l ag f rom S h iqm im .

3 .P 16 ( b ) : s me l t ing s l ag ( x100 ) .

2 .P 16 ( a ) : c ruc ib le/sme l t ing s l ag ( x100 ) .

6 86

3 .P 25 : r ef in ing s l ag ( x400 -x 100 ) .

4 .P 30 : r ef in ing s l ag ( x100 -x 400 ) , S afad i .

2 .P 21 : s me l t ing s l ag ( x400 ) .

1

2

5

P late 1 4 .3

S e lec ted me ta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

1 . med iu m s i ze a xe ( P16 ) ,

6 87

2 . c h ise l ( P13/14 ) .

1

0

5

2 P late 1 4 .4

S e lec ted me ta l a r tefac ts f ro m S h iq m im .

1 .l a rge a xe ( P9/10 ) , 2 . s ma l l a xe ( P11/12 ) . 6 88

1

• 3 2

4

0 1 1 1 1 1

3 C3 1 15 1•1 1

C D 0 1 1 P late 1 4 .5

4

6

S e lec ted meta l a r tefac ts f rom S h iqm im .

7 1 . macehead ( P/1) , 2 . aw l p o in t ( P/7 ) , 3 . aw l p o in t ( P/6 ) ,4 . aw l p o int , 5 .s cep tre ( P/2 ) , 6 .b ead ( P/5 ) , 7 .c opper aw l i n b one h and le ( Room 6 , L . 0 2604 ) . 6 89

P rocurement

• •• • •

AC T IV ITY AR EAS

D istr ibut ion

IN D IV IDUAL/ GR OUP 1 •

6 0 1-

0

0

1 7

1 6 1 5

1 4

S h iqm im D omes t ic U n i ts

A na lyzed

i n S tudy

1 3

1 2 J .

1 1 4 1 0

9

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7

6

5

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C

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4

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1 4

1 5

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A

20

1 9

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a Is u e .n

1 8

SH IQ MI M

1 7

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1 6

2 0I l 1 5

A

F ig . 1 5 .2 L ocat ion map o f r ooms s tud ied i n a na lys is .

6 91

Settle ment

F ig . 1 5 .3

S h iqm im : d i s tr ibu t ion o f s herd q uan t i t ie s b y a rea & s t ra t igraphy . 7 .

A rea A

7 5 5 0 2 5 0

A rea

B

10 0

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A rea C

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S tratigraphy

6 92

= o

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F ig . 1 5 .4

S h iqm im : s herd we ights b y a rea a nd s t rat igraphy .

X A rea A

7 5 50 2 5

A rea B

0 1 00 ." 7 5 50 2 5

A rea C

50 1 2 5

A rea D

0 50 2 5

. 0

A rea

E

0 1 00 -

4

4

I

7 5 50 2 5 0 75

50 2 5 0 0

o ‘. •

C i s o . 7 -

BP I f loor

E n t ire s i te

= _

S trat igraphy

6 93

o 0 a o I -

F ig . 1 5 .5

S h iqm im : s herd d ens i t ies p er s quare me ter b y a rea a nd s t ra t igraphy . X A rea A

30 20 1 0 0

A rea

B

30 2 0 1 0 0

A rea C

20 1 0

o

A rea

D

40 30

0 . 0 ‘ .

20

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1 0

A rea E

0 30 2 0 1 0

o 30 20 1 0 0 BPI I I f loor

E nt ire s ite

=

0 _ c o

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a . c o

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S trat igraphy

6 94

: S 0 a o I -

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F ig . 1 5 .6

S h iqm im : s herd f ragmen ta t ion i nd ic ies b y a rea a nd s t ra t igraphy . Z

A rea A

30 20 1 0

o A rea

B

30 — _ 20 ,_ 1 0— _

o_

A rea C

30 — _ 20-

-

1 0— — A rea

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30 20— _ 1 0—

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• ••• •

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6 96

0

0

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Roo m 6 . Courtyard . Roo m 1 .

1 0

• •• • •

0 0

I n

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0. 1 )

6 97 P lan o f Room 6 a c t iv i ty a reas .

F igure 1 5 .9 :1

S pher ica l Hammerstone ( 1159 -09309 ) , made o n f l int c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .9 :2

F lake C ore/Hammers tone ( 1159 -07943a ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .9 :3

F lake C ore/Hammers tone ( 1159-07943b ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F ig . 1 5 .9

1

L

2

F

L 6 99

F igure 1 5 .10 :1

S pher ica l P ound ing Too l ( No . 159 -0 7950a ) ,

made o n wad i c obb le .

7 00

P rovenance : Room 6 .

F ig . 1 5 .10

1

7 01

F igure 1 5 .11 :1

P ound ing t oo l ( No . 159 -07950 b ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .11 :2

O vo id Hammers tone ( No . 159 -07950C ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

7 02

F ig . 1 5 .11

1

F igure 1 5 .12 :1

Chopper ( 1159 -07947b ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .12 :2

F lake C ore/Chopp ing T oo l ( 1 159 -Room 6 , 0 2 ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Roo m 6 .

F ig . 1 5 .12

T

L

7 05

F igure 1 5 .13 :1

Axe ( 1 159 -09312 ) , made o n f l in t wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .13 :2

Sma l l F lake C ore ( 1 159 -07943c ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

7 06

F ig . 1 5 .13

1

2

7 07

F igure 1 5 .14 :1

T abu lar S craper ( 1 159 -09323 ) , c arme l c o lour . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .14 :2

T abu lar S craper ( 1 159 -09314 ) . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .14 :3

B lade lette o n t rans lucen t f l int ( 1159 -07945 ) . P rovenance : Room 6 .

7 08

F ig . 1 5 .14

c e

e i

7 09

F igure 1 5 .15 :1

S tone R ing " D igg ing S t ick We ight " ( 1159 - 0 9322 ) , P rovenance : Roo m 6 .

7 10

F ig . 1 5 .15

1

7 11

F igure 1 5 .16 :1

P erforated S tone ( unf in ished , 159 -07442 ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .16 :2

D r i l led S tone ( 1159 -09324 ) , made o n wad i c obb le . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F ig . 1 5 .16

i

7 13

F igure 1 5 .17 :1

S tone B ow l F ragment ( 1 159 -09303 ) , made o f l ime s tone . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .17 :2

S p ind le Whor l ( 1 159 -09307a ) , made o f c lay . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .17 :3

S p ind le Whor l ( 1 159 -09307b ) , made o f c lay . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .17 :4

F lake ( 1 159 -07947a ) , made o f f l in t . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F igure 1 5 .17 :5

S he l l G lyc imer i s ( 1159 -07945 ) . P rovenance : Room 6 .

F ig . 1 5 .17

I

4

5

7 15

F igure 1 5 .18 S h iqm im V i l lage E xcavat ion - Room No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

B aske t Nu mber

6 Descr ip t ion

1

D

BPI I

0 7932a

C opper a w l embedded i n s heep/goa t me tapod ia l b one .

2

D

B 121

0 7932b

C opper a w l p o in t f ound w i th No . 1a bove .

3

D

BPI I

0 7932c

C opper a w l p o in t f ound w ith No . 1a bove .

4

D

BP I I

0 7932d

I vory b lade s haped o b jec t . Decora t ion : b o th s i de s a re i nc i sed w i th t wo p ara l le l r ow s o fh o les .

7 16

F ig . 1 5 .18

e 2

3

5

J

1

se1 7 7 1 17 .7 ne

rr e,, ja.

4 F ig . 1 5 .18

Room 6 a r tefac ts .

( i vory b lade , e tc ) . 7 17

F igure 1 5 .19 Sh iq m im P ottery : No .

Area

Bu i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion - Roo m

6

Descr ipt ion

B asket Nu mber

1

D

BPI I

0 9301/a

T ype : Sma l l j ar , s l op ing s hou lder , f l ared r im . Wa re : Med ium f i ne , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5 2m m ) . S ur face : Y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 .

2

D

BPI I

0 7942/b

Type : V er t ica l , t ubu lar , p er fora ted h and le . Ware : F ine , d ark g rey 5 YR 4 /1 . T e mper : L igh t g rey g r i t , ( - 0 .4 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : P ink ish g rey 5 YR 6 /2 .

3

D

BPI I

0 9306

Type : .Ware : Med iu m f i ne , p ink 5 YR 8 /3 . T emper : Abundan t l i gh t g rey g r i t , ( - 0 .6 m m ) . S ur face : V ery p a le b rown 1 0 YR 8 /3 .

4

D

BPII

0 7943

Type : G lobu lar j ar . Ware : Med iu m f i ne , p ink i sh wh i te 5 YR 8 /2 . T emper : Abundan t l i gh t a nd d ark g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : P ink ish wh i te 7 .5 YR 8 /2 . D ecora t ion : Th ick p a in ted b and o n t he s hou lder , ( r ed 2 .5 YR 5 /6 ) .

5

D

BPI I

0 7944/b

Type : L oop h and le . Ware : V e ry c oar se , r edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Abundant g rey ( 2-3 mm ) a nd w h i te ( - 0 .5 mm ) g r it , s o me m ica . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 .

6

D

BPI I

0 7946/a

Type : F oo ted p o t . Ware : C oar se , l i gh t b rown 7 . 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 1-5 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t b rown 7 .5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted r ed b ands . R ema rk : Whee l- made .

7

D

BPI I

0 7949/c

Type : Ba se o f ac on ica l b a s in , ? . Ware : V ery c oa r se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .8-3 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5YR 6 /6 .

8

D

BPI I

0 9303

T ype : C on ica l b a s in . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T emper : Abundant wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd i sh b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . Decora t ion : Wh ite p a in ted s t r ipes .

7 18

F ig . 1 5 .19

0

4

5

6

7

1 0

20

7 19

F igure 1 5 .20 Sh iq m im P ottery : No .

Area

Bu i ld ing P hase

V i l lage Excavat ion - Room

B asket Nu mber

6

Descr ip t ion

1

D

BPI I

0 7946/b

Type : H em ispher ic b ow l . Ware : F ine , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : Wh i te g r i t , ( - 0 .5 mm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : P ink 5 YR 7 /4 . R e mark : Whee l- made .

2

D

BPI I

0 7949/a

Type : H em ispher ic b ow l . Ware : F ine , s t rong b rown 7 . 5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : R ed p a in ted o n r im .

3

D

BPI I

0 7949/b

T ype : H em ispher ic b ow l . Wa re : F ine , r edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 7 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te g r i t a nd f ew g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2lmm ) , s o me m ica . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . D ecora t ion : R ed p a in ted b and o n r im .

4

D

BPI I

0 7930

Type : V s haped b ow l . Ware : F ine , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /8 . T e mper : F ew wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-0 .5 mm ) , a bundan t m ica . S ur face : R edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . D ecora t ion : Wh i te s l ip , t h in p a in ted b and o n r im .

5

D

BP I I

0 7948/a

Type : Sma l l p la te , e x terna lin terna l r im . Ware : F ine , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .3 mm ) , s evera l m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 .

6

D

BP I I

0 9301/b

Type : H em ispher ica l b a s in , e x terna l f l a t r im . Ware : C oar se , l i ght r edd ish b rown 2 . 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-2 .5 mm ) . S ur face : R edd i sh y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . D ecora t ion : P a in ted a l l o ver i n s ide , l i gh t r ed , p ara l le l p a in ted b ands o u ts ide , f r om t he r im t o t he b a se .

7

D

BP I I

0 7942/c

Type : C orne t ( ? ) . Ware : F ine , r edd ish y e l low 7 . 5 YR 6 /6 . T emper : Wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .2-0 .5 mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : L igh t b rown 7 . 5 YR 6 /4 . D ecora t ion : Wh i te s l ip a nd r ed p ara l le l b and s .

8

D

BPI I

0 7944/a

Type : F la t b a se . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . T emper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .5-3mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 .

7 20

3

2

4

5 6

8 7

0

1 0

7 21

20

F igure 1 5 .21 S h iqm im P ottery : No .

A rea

B u i ld ing P hase

V i l lage E xcavat ion

B aske t Nu mber

- Room 6 Descr ip t ion

1

•

BPI I

0 7946/c

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in e ver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r edd ish y e l low 5 YR 6 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t g rey , ( 1-4 mm ) , a nd wh i te , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) , g r i t , s o me m ica . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

2

•

BPI I

0 7948/c

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in r im . Wa re : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r ed 2 .5 YR 5 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .54 .5 mm ) , s ome s t raw i nc lus ions . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 2 .5 YR 5 /4 .

3

•

BP I I

0 7949/d

Type : Ho le mou th j ar , p la in s quare c ut i nver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . T emper : Abundan t d ark g rey g r i t a nd f ew wh i te g r i t , ( 0 .5-3 mm ) . S ur face : L igh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 .

4

•

BPI I

0 7942/a

Type : P i thos , e x terna l o b l ique r im . Ware : V ery c oar se , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r it , ( 0 .8-4 mm ) . S ur face : R edd ish b rown 5 YR 5 /4 . D ecora t ion : Ob l ique t hu mb i mpre ss ions .

5

•

BPI I

0 7948/b

Type : Sma l l h o le mou th j ar , o va l a per ture , p la in r im . Ware : Med iu m f i ne , l i gh t r edd ish b rown 5 YR 6 /4 . T e mper : Abundant g rey g r i t , ( 1-3 mm ) . S ur face : R edd i sh b rown 2 .5 YR 5 /4 . D ecora t ion : C ombed i nc ised l i nes n ea r t he r im .

6

•

BP I I

0 9252

Type : Sma l l h o le mouth j ar , p la in i nver ted r im . Ware : C oar se , r ed 2 .5 YR 5 /6 . T e mper : Abundan t wh i te a nd g rey g r i t , ( 0 .52mm ) , s ome m ica . S ur face : Y e l low ish r ed 5 YR 5 /6 . R e mark : Whee l- made b a se .

7 22

1

2

1

3

„ ; ;, , , •

4 0

5

1 0

6

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20

P late 1 5 .1 De ta i l s how ing t he p resence o f n umerous p o t tery s herds embedded i n t he matr ix o f a wa t t le -and d aub wa l l . F ro m t he n or thern C a meroon v i l lage s i te o f Hou louf .

P late 1 5 .2 De ta i l o f mudbr icks wh ich i nc lude c era m ic s herds i n t he b r ick matr ix , S h iq m im A rea D , S quare P 9 .

7 24

P late 1 5 .3

P late 1 5 .4

Overv iew o f Room 6 a nd c our tyard , A rea D .

Overv iew o f Room 6 o ccupat ion f loor ( a rrow i nd icates d oorway ) . 7 25

P late 1 5 .5 De ta i l o f Roo m 6 : p or t ion o f mudbr ick b ench i n u pper p ar t o f p ho tograph . I vory b lade a nd c era m ic s herds i nd icate f loor l eve l .

P late 1 5 .6 De ta i l o f Roo m 6 : s outhwes t p or t ion o f r oo m . c hopp ing t oo ls i ndicate f ood p repara t ion a c t iv i t ies . 7 26

G r ind ing s t one a nd

P late 1 5 .7 D e ta i l ( v iew s ou th ) o f c entra l p or t ion o f Room 6 l i v ing f loor . F ood c onsump t ion i nca ted b y s cat ter o f a n i ma l b ones . F inds o bserved i nc lude : t wo l a rge b as ins , aV -shape b ow l , aB os r ib b one a nd a s heep/goa t me tapod ia l . The d oor s ocket o f t he r oom i sv i sab le i n t he u pper l e f t c orner o f t he p ho tograph .

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P late 1 5 .8 D e ta i l Room 6 ( v iew n or th ) s how ing c opper aw l w i th s heep/goat me tapod ia l h and le a nd t wo s pare c opper p o ints i n s i tu ( s ee P la te 1 4 .5 .2 f or d e ta i l o f t h is t oo l ) .

P la te 1 5 .9

G r ind ing t oo ls made o f b each -rock p resumab ly f rom t he l ower Naha l

B esor .

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P la te 1 5 .10 Sma l l r oom ( No . 1 6 ) l ocated i n s ou theas t c orner o f c ourtyard a s soc iated w i th Room 6 . B u tcher ing a nd f ood p reparat ion a re i nd icated b y ac o l lec t ion o f a n ima l b ones ( Bos ) , f l in t f l akes a nd c ores l ocated i n s ide t h is r oom .

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P late 1 5 .11 Overv iew o f Room 1 , A rea B ( v iew n or th ) . A rrow i nd ica tes t he l o cat ion o f p i thos f ound i mbedded i n f loor o f t h is r oom .

P late 1 5 .12 D e ta i l o f l a rge c era m ic p i thos f ound i mbedded i n f loor o f Room 1 . Th is v esse l was p laced u ps ide d own i n ap i t d ug i n to t he r oom f loor . 7 30

P late 1 6 .1a A t yp ica l v iew o f t he " r egu lar " t ype o f " coarse ware " p o t tery . Chert ( l ef t ) , q uar tz ( t op ) a nd l imes tone ( a l l t he o thers ) g ra ins i n s i l ty loa m matr ix . No t ice t hat a l l t he t emper , i nc lud ing t he c her t , a re s pher ica l a nd c haracter ist ic o f t he wad i s and u sed i n t h is c ase f or t emper ing . Magn if icat ion x 40 , c rossed p o lar izers .

P late 1 6 .1b " Crea m Ware " s herd . No t ice t he m icro -foss i ls ( t iny s pher ica l o b jec ts i n t he matr ix ) a nd t he u se o f wad i s and f or t emper ing , a s i n t he a bove e xa mp le . Magn if ica t ion x 40 , c rossed p o lar izers .

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