Wooden Artefacts from Medieval Novgorod, Parts i and ii: Part i: Text, Part ii: Illustrations 9781407390253, 9781407390260, 9780860546351, 9781407347844

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
IN MEMORY OF PROFESSOR BORIS KOLCHIN
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAIN WORKS BY BORIS KOLCHIN
PART 1: Novgorod Antiquities Wooden Objects
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER FOUR
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
PART II: Novgorod Antiquities Carved Wood
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
CHAPTER TWO
CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER FOUR
CHAPTER FIVE
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PART II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Plates 1-240

Citation preview

Wooden Arte£acts from Medieval Novgorod B. A. Kolchin

Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of .the USSR Translated from the Russian Produced under the editorial supervision of A. V. Chernetsov

Part i Text

BAR International Series 495(i) 1989

B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -·8495 (i),

©

In.sti tut1:.�

1989:

of

'Wooden Artefac:ts from .Medieval Novgorod.' , Part i

/i rchaeology,

Acade.my of Sciences of the U SSR,

The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390253 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390260 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546351 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347844 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546351 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

1989

C ONTENTS P art P age I ntroduction I n M emory o f P rofessor B oris K olchin S elect B ibliography P art I .

4

N ovgorod A ntiquities: W ooden O bjects

1 1

I ntroduction

1 3

C hapter O ne N ovgorod f orests -W oods u sed by t he p eople o f m edieval N ovgorod f or i ndustrial a nd e very-day p urposes - C ommercial w ood - W oodworking i mplements -W oodworking t echnology

1 9

C hapter T wo G eneral l abourers' i mplements - S pades - R akes M auls -H oes - L asts - M oulds - F ishing t ackle N et n eedles a nd f rames "Net f loats a nd s inkers F ishing i nstruments - I nstruments f or g etting w ild h oney

2 5

C hapter T hree C ooper g oods - B arrels - T ubs - B uckets - B ucket m etrology - H ooped w ooden j ugs - L ower t ubs B utter c hurns - C onstruction o f h oops - T ub l ids S igns a nd i nscriptions o n b arrels - T urned d ishes B owls - S hallow d ishes - D ishes - B asins - D rinking v essels - W inebowls - B eakers - F lat-bottomed t urned b owls, s alt c ellars - A k issel d ish - S igns o n d ishes - T urned b oxes - C arved d ishes a nd h ousehold u tensils - S poons - C arved b owls D ippers - L adles - S coops - H ollowed v essels T roughs - M ortars a nd p estles - H ollowed t ubs B irch-bark d ishes - B irch-bark b oxes a nd b askets - W icker v essels

-B ast

b oxes 3 7

C hapter F our W heeled a nd s leigh t ransport - S leighs - S leigh r unners - K opyls ( vertical s upports) C argo s leighs - L ight s leighs - S weeps - H orse-collar a nd b ow - S addle - S kis - W ater t ransport - P ropulsion o ars -S tern o ars - R owlocks - B ottoms o f s hips R ibs

-S ail r igging - T he N ovgorod s hips

8 1

C hapter F ive M achines a nd c omplicated t ools v egetable s ticks

f ibres a nd w ool

( "lapa")

S pindles

-

h orizontal

l ooms

- S cutches

D istaffs

-

-H eckles

R eels

- S huttles

s hafts w ith t hreads l oom

-

p roduction r ejects r ods

-

-

L athe

-D ogs

-

( "yurki") -

-H andmill

P ulleys

C ombs

V ertical

a nd

- S wivels

T readles

-D esign o f

L athe

b osses

-B earings

-E longated w ooden t hrust b earings

d evices

c rooked

-

-W arp-lifting parallel

( "nichenki")

- Warp-holding t ubular s ticks h orizontal

-T ools f or s pinning

- F lax-threshing

a s

- F lywheel -

-B earings

L ifting

-

" Cross 1 07

p ieces" C hapter S ix H ousehold s coops

u tensils

-

-Y okes

- C hurn-staffs

H ooks o f a ll k inds

-

-

C oal

C andlesticks

a nd

o ther d evices f or l ighting - F urniture - C radles C hairs -B enches - L ever s cales - B oxes - C ombs B uttons l adder

-

S cabbards

-A h at

- S hutters

- C ages

- F iddles

- P ipes

P saltery

-W all

- Musical

p lanks

-

A

i nstruments 1 34

C onclusion

P art I I.

1 44

N ovgorod Antiquities:

C arved W ood 1 47

I ntroduction C hapter O ne T ypes o f w ood u sed f or c arving - C arving t echnology - O ne-dimensional c arving - D ecorative c arving F lat r elief c arving -O pen w ork - P ainting

-

C arving t ools

1 49

C hapter T wo C arved o bjects o f e veryday u se -

B ox l ids

- S poons

warping i nstruments Combs

-1 0th c entury b owls

-C ake m oulds - S leigh p arts

-W riting t ablets

-

D istaffs

-H orse

a nd

c ollars

- S mall b oxes a nd p egs

1 53

Maces C hapter T hree C arving

f or

C olumns

-C hair backs

f urniture F urniture d ecoration

i nterior a nd -

A

bar

d ecorated

balusters -

e xterior

-B ench b acks -B alusters

D ecorative b orders

1 1

d ecoration -

w ith u sed

D etails

o f

d ragons f or

h ouse 1 71

C hapter F our C arved w ooden s culptures -A b ear-dragon s culpture

-

S wan-shaped r ods

- D ipper handles

- S culpture o f a r am

B ird f igures p egs

-

-A h orse a nd a

- An a rm g ripping a r od

- H ouse-spirits

- D ragons

S mall-scale

- E agles

-

hare

-

T ipped 1 84

a nd o ther f igures

C hapter F ive T oys

- H orses

S words

- B irds

- D olls

- T ops

- P ropellers

-

- C hess-men

1 97

C hapter S ix P ainting a nd e ngraving o n b irchbark o f l arge b oxes v iCh 's

s poon

- P ainted s poons

- P ainted s ides

- I van Varfolomeye-

- P ainted b owls

2 06

C onclusion

A ppendix.

V .N . A

2 12

L azarev ,

1 4th

N .E.

Mneva.

T he L yudogoshcha

C entury E xample o f

B ibliography

C ross:

W ood-carving

2 14

2 25

P art

P lates

N ovgorod

1 -240

i i

2 39

1 1

I NTRODUCTION

T his b ook p resents a u nique c ollection o f w ooden o bjects

o btained

b y a rchaeological r esearch i n N ovgorod w here t he s oil c onditions--its g reat humidity--contributed t o t he p reservation o f w ood i n t he c ultural d eposit. T his c ircumstance p rovided a rchaeologists w ith a n a bundant c ollection o f w ooden o bjects d ated t o t he p eriod b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 5th c enturies, w ith v aluable e pigraphic m aterial ( more t han 6 00 b irchbark charters) and f ragments o f w ooden c onstructions a nd s treet p avements w hich e nabled t he c reation o f a n a bsolute d endrochronological s cale c overing t he p eriod f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury d own t o t he p resent d ay . I t c omprises t wo b ooks p ublished b y P rofessor B oris K olchin ( 19141 984), who f or m any y ears w as a l eading p ersonality i n t he N ovgorod A rchaeological E xpedition--Novgorod Antiquities. Wooden O bjects ( Moscow , 1 968) a nd N ovgorod A ntiquities. C arved W ood ( Moscow , 1 971). B oth of t hem d escribe a rchaeological f inds f rom t he N erevsky e xcavations, t he l argest i n N ovgorod c overing a n a rea o f 8 ,840 s q m . T he i nvestigations t o 1 962.

t here w ere

c arried o ut o ver t welve y ears,

B oth K olchin 's b ooks w ere p ublished i n t he

f rom 1 951

" Code o f A rcheological

S ources" s eries l aunched b y A cademician B oris R ybakov i n 1 961. I t w as i ntended a s a c omplete p ublication o f a ntiquities f ound o n S oviet t erritory , g rouped a ccording t o a rchaeological c ultures o r i ndividual c ategories o f o bjects. T he s eries i s e xpected t o c omprise 3 00 v olumes, e ighty o f t hem b eing p ublished u p t o n ow . S ince m aterials,

B oris K olchin w as c oncerned s olely w ith a rchaeological t he L yudogoshcha C ross, a u nique s ample o f N ovgorod w ood

c arving d ated t o 1 359 r emained o utside h is p ublication . A n a rticle o n t his r emarkable o bject p ublished b y V . L azarev a nd N . Mneva i n 1 954 i s i ncluded i n t he p resent p ublication . T he E nglish e dition a lso i ncludes P rofessor K olchin 's b ibliography a nd h is o bituary b riefly o utlining h is l ife a nd s cholarly a chievements. T his e dition w as p repared f or p ublication b y t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U SSR A cademy o f S ciences, u nder t he s upervision o f A .V . C hernetsov .

. Translated f rom t he R ussian b y V .M . L evina .

B oris A leksandrovich K olchin

1 914

- 1 984

v i

I N M EMORY O F P ROFESSOR B ORIS K OLCHIN* O n January 1 1, 1 984, B oris A leksandrovich K olchin , D .Sc. ( Hist .), P rofessor, • head o f t he L aboratory o f N atural S cientific R esearch M ethods o f t he I nstitute o f Archaeology o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences, a nd t he U SSR S tate a nd L enin p rizes l aureate, d ied . H e was b orn o n J une 1 0, 1 914, i n S ormovo ( now p art o f G orky) i nto t he f amily o f a t echnologist a t t he S ormovo p lant. S ince 1 929 h e l ived a nd w orked i n M oscow w here, u pon g raduation f rom s chool, h e e ntered t he e vening-studies d epartment o f t he S retensky E ngineering S econdary S pecialised S chool. B etween 1 930 a nd 1 932, while a s tudent, h e w orked a s a d raughtsman a t a viation p lants, b etween 1 932 a nd 1 935 h e w orked i n t he C entral A ero- a nd H ydro-dynamics I nstitute, f irst a s a d raughtsman a nd l ater a s a n e ngineer. I n 1 935 h e e ntered t he H istory D epartment o f M oscow S tate University where h e s pecialised i n S lavic-Russian a rchaeology . I mmediately f ollowing h is g raduation h e j oined t he S oviet A rmy o n June 3 . 0, 1 941 a nd t ook p art i n c ombat a ctions u ntil t he e nd o f 1 942. I n 1 946 h e b ecame a p ost-graduate s tudent o f P rofessor A rtemy A rtsikhovsky a t t he I nstitute o f t he H istory o f M aterial C ulture o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences ( now t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology). H is f irst a rticle, p ublished i n 1 949, d ealt w ith m etallographic a nalysis o f e arly i ron o bjects. I t p roved t o b e t he f irst s tep i n h is r esearch w ork d evoted t o t he a pplication o f natural-scientific m ethods i n a rchaeology . I n 1 950 h e o btained t he d egree o f c andidate o f h istorical s ciences f or his t hesis o n t he history o f m edieval Russian m etalworking; i n 1 964, u pon p resenting his d octorate o n t he d endrochonology o f m ediaeval N ovgorod , h e b ecame D octor o f S cience ( Hist.). H e e stablished a l aboratory o f n atural-scientific r esearch m ethods a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd h eaded i t f rom 1 967 t ill h is d eath. H is n ame i s w idely k nown a mong e xperts i n h istory a nd a rchaeology , b iology a nd m etal s tudies b oth i n t he U SSR a nd a broad . F orty y ears o f h is l ife w ent i nto i ntensive s cientific a ctivities. H e w as m ainly e ngaged i n a rchaeological s tudies i n N ovgorod a nd i n e laborating natural-scientific m ethods t o be a pplied t o a rchaeology. T he c ollective e fforts o f t he N ovgorod E xpedition b rought h im a nd h is c olleagues a U SSR S tate P rize i n 1 970 a nd t he L enin P rize i n 1 984. T he e xpedition w as a k ind o f a p roving g round f or i ntroducing p hysical a nd c hemical m ethods o f t he s tudy of m etals, f or m odelling e arly t echnologies o f m etal p roduction a nd f or l aunching a v ast p rogramme o f d endrochronological r esearch i nto mediaeval Russian w ooden c onstructions. H e was m ainly a ttracted b y m etallography a nd d endrochronology a nd p ioneered t heir u se i n a rchaeology . H e h imself m ade a s ubstantial c ontribution t o c ollecting a nd s ystematising a rchaeological m aterials a nd t heir s pecialised a nalyses. H is b ook C hernaya m etallurgiya m etalloobrabotka v d revnei R usi ( Ferrous M etallurgy a nd M etalworking

* T ranslated f rom :

S ovetskaya A rkheologia ,

1

1 984,

N 3 .

i i n

M ediaeval Russia) y ushchee r emeslo G reat)

( Moscow ,

( Moscow , 1 953) a nd N ovgoroda V elikogo"

1 959)

a n a rticle " Zhelezoobrabatyva( Ironworking i n N ovgorod t he

a nd s ome o ther w orks p rovide

a s weeping p anorama

o f t echnological d evelopments i n R ussian m etallurgy i n t he M iddle A ges. Hundreds u pon hundreds o f m etallographic a nalyses p oint t o t he h igh t echnological l evel and progressive d evelopment of metallurgy i n Russia. K olchin a lso s tudied t he o rganisational s ide o f Russian m etal p roduction . A c ycle t rail-blazer a rchaeology.

o f

d endrochonological

i nvestigations

o f

b e f ollowed a y ear l ater by t wo m ajor w orks, N ovgoroda ( The N ovgorod D endrochronology) ( MIA , N o. a nd D endrokhronologiya p ostroek Nerevskogo r askopa t he

which

h e

w as

a

p roved t o b e o f c rucial i mportance f or E astern E uropean H is f irst a rticles o n t his s ubject a ppeared i n 1 962 t o

N erevsky

E xcavation A rea).

( MIA ,

N o.

1 23,

D endrokhronologiya 1 17, M oscow, 1 963) ( Dendrochronology o f

M oscow,

l aid t he f oundations o f d endrochronological s tudies

1 963).

T hey

i n t he U SSR .

T heir

f irst i mpressive r esults w ere published j ointly w ith N .B. C hernykh i n 1 977 i n t he b ook D endrokhronologiya V ostochnoi Evropy ( East E uropean D endrochronology). This method, which p ermits u s t o e stablish p ractically

t he

e xact

d ate

a t

which

r evolution i n m ediaeval a rchaeology . c ultural d eposits a nd a ntiquities

t he

t ree

was

f elled ,

c aused

a

T he v ery a pproach t o t he s tudy o f

t hey y ield c hanged d ecisively .

A m ost i mportant c ontribution o f t he n ew d ating m ethod w as t he p ossibility o f e laborating a d etailed a nd p recise c hronological s ystem o f

f inds.

K olchin

e mbodied

i t

i n

•h is

p ublications,

t wo

o f

w hich,

N ovgorodskie d revnosti. D erevyannye i zdeliya ( Novgorod Antiquities. W ooden O bjects) ( Code o f A rchaeological S ources, E I55, M oscow , 1 968) and Novgorodskie drevnosti. Reznoe derevo ( Novgorod Antiquities. C arved W ood) ( Code o f A rchaeological S ources, E I55, Moscow , 1 971), b ecame

i ndispensable

s ource

materials

f or

s tudents

of

mediaeval

a rchaeology. E qually valuable a re h is s ummarising a rticles o n t he c hronology o f o bjects o f e veryday u se. T he i ntegrated a pplications o f n ew m ethods f ound i ts r eflection i n t he r esearch b y B . K olchin , Yanin a nd A . K horoshev M asterskaya n ovgorodskogo k hudozhnika X II ( Shop o f a 1 2th-century N ovgorod A rtist) P rofessor

B .

A .

K olchin was

a n

( Moscow ,

i mportant

V . v .

1 981).

l eader

a nd

o rganiser

o f

a rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he S oviet U nion . H is f orty y ears o f a ctivity a s t he D eputy H ead o f t he N ovgorod A rchaeological E xpedition e nabled h im t o i mprove f ield m ethods o f i nvestigations i n t owns. H e w as

t he

f irst

o rganised

t he

t o

m echanise

f irst

t he

m oving

l aboratories

o f

o f

s oil.

n atural

I n

t he

s cientific

t he c hair o f a rchaeology o f M oscow S tate U niversity d endrochronology, s pectral a nalysis, m etallography , a rchaeomagnetism t ransformed i nto W ith V .

E .

o f

I nstitute

s tarted

waterlogged

i n museum

c omplexes

t he

o f

A rchaeology,

a p romising

w ooden

o bjects

e xhibition m ethods

p rogramme w hich

which p ermit

1 950s

m ethods

h e

u nder

a nd s ections o f p etrography a nd

which

l ater

a l aboratory o f n atural-scientific m ethods.

V ikhrov h e

s tabilising c hanges

i n

l ate

o f

works

i ntroduced t he

w ere

T ogether

d isplay

f or

t he

d ecisive o f v ast

i ncluding d wellings a nd m ediaeval t own f acility s ystems.

K olchin e nthusiastically p romoted t echnical a nd n atural-scientific m ethods

a s

a pplied

t o

a rchaeology.

2

I n

1 963

h e

i nitiated

a n ational

c onference

o n

e stestvennye

t he

s ubject

n auki

a nd

c ompiled

( Archaeology

a nd

a p ublication ,

t he

N atural

Arkheologiya

S ciences)

i

( Moscow ,

1 965). H e w as a ctive i n S oviet a nd i nternational o rganisations c oncerned w ith t he history o f m etallurgy and d endrochronology and g reatly i nfluenced t heir d evelopment i n P oland, C zechoslovakia and o ther c ountries. H is a ctivity a s a t eacher d eserves s pecial m ention . B etween 1 956 a nd 1 966 h e l ectured a t M oscow University o n t he h istory o f f errous m etallurgy. H is l ectures o n t he a pplication o f s cientific m ethods i n a rchaeology w ere c ontinued b y h is p upils. H e s upervised t he w ork o f p ost-graduate s tudents f rom b oth t he U SSR a nd f oreign c ountries. T he s chool o f P rofessor K olchin , i n f act, h as a cquired i nternational s ignificance. S hortly b efore h is d eath B . A . K olchin p repared f or p ress a v olume D revniaya R us'. G orod , z amok, s elo . ( Medieval R ussia . T own , c astle, v illage) w hich f orms a p art o f t he s erial p ublication " Arkheologiya S SSR" ( Archaeology o f t he U SSR). H e

wrote

a rchaeological p ublished .

s ix

b ooks

problems.

a nd

a bout

S ome

o f

1 40

h is

a rticles

w orks

have

on not

d iverse y et

b een

T he m emory o f t his p rominent s cholar, l eader i n m any n ew f ields o f r esearch , a nd a w arm-hearted m an , w ill r emain w ith u s.

E .

3

N .

C hernykh,

V .

L .

Y anin

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MAIN WORKS BY BORIS KOLCHIN 1.

"Obrabotka zheleza v Moskovskom gosudarstve XVI v." (Ironworking in 16th-Century Muscovite State), Haterialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR (Materials and Research on the Archaeology of the USSR), further MIA, No. 12. Moscow, USSR Academy of Sciences Publishers, 1949, pp. 192-208, 1 map.

2.

"Opyt metallograficheskogo issledovaniya drevnerusskikh zheleznykh veshchei" (Metallographic Studies of Medieval Russian Iron Artifacts), Kratkie soobshcheniya Instituta istorii materialnoi kultury (Brief Communications of the Institute of the History of Material Culture), further KSIIMK, Issue 30, pp. 42453, with illustr.

3.

"Zheleznye i stalnye izdeliya drevnei Rusi" (Medieval Russian Iron and Steel Artifacts), Struktura i svoistva stali (Structure and Properties of Steel), Moscow Institute of Steel Technology, Collection 30, Moscow, Mashgiz Publishers, 1951, ill., 1 map (jointly with E. V. Panchenko).

4.

"Termicheskava obrabotka stali v drevnei Rusi (IX-XII vv.)" (Heat Treatment of Steel in Medieval Russia. 9th-12th Centuries), Vestnik mashinostroeniya, (Herald of Engineering), Moscow, Mashgiz Publishers, 1951, No. 6, pp. 77-80 (jointly with E.V. Panchenko).

5.

"Na raskopkakh drevnego Novgoroda" (Diggings in Novgorod), i zhizn (Science and Life), 1952, No. 4, pp. 29-32, ill.

6.

"Novye otkrytiya v Novgorode" (New Discoveries in Novgorod), VOKS Bulletin, Moscow, 1952, No. 75, pp. 55-60.

7.

"0 nekotorykh metodicheskikh priemakh arkheologicheskikh issledovaniy v SSSR" (On Some Methods of Archeological Research in the USSR), Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR (Herald of the USSR Academy of Sciences), further VAN SSSR, 1952, No. 5, pp. 32-42, ill. (jointly with L. A. Evtyukhova).

8.

"Masterstvo drevnerusskikh kuznetsov" (Craftsmanship of Medieval Russian Smiths), Po sledam drevnikh kultur. Drevnyaya Rus (Tracing Ancient Cultures. Medieval Russia), Moscow, Goskultprosvetizdat Publishers, 1953, pp. 155-186, ill., 2 pages of ill.

9.

Tekhnika obrabotki metalla v drevnei Rusi (Medieval Russian Metalworking Technology), Moscow, Mashgiz Publishers, 1953, 160 pp., ill.

10.

"Chernaya metallurgiya i metalloobrabotka v drevnei Rusi. (Domongolsky period)" (Ferrous Metallurgy and Metalworking in Medieval Russia. Pre-Mongolian Times), MIA, No. 32, 1953, 260 pp. with ill. and maps.

4

Nauka

1 1.

" Iz i storii t orgovli d revnego N ovgoroda" ( From t he H istory o f M edieval N ovgorod T rade), S ovetskaya a rkheologiya ( Soviet A rchaeology), f urther S A , V ol. X XIV, 1 955, p p. 9 3-97, i ll. ( jointly w ith V . E . V ikhrov).

1 2.

" Topografiya , ( Topography ,

s tratigrafiya i k hronologiya N erevskogo S tratigraphy a nd C hronology o f t he

E xcavation A rea),

M IA ,

N o.

5 5,

1 956,

p p.

4 4-137,

i ll.,

r askopa" N erevsky 4 p ages o f

1 3.

" Russki f eodalny g orod V eliki N ovgorod" ( The G reat N ovgorod , R ussian F eudal T own), S A , 1 957, N o. 3 , p p. 2 78-288, i ll.

1 4.

" Khronologiya n ovgorodskikh N ovgorod Antiquities), S A , 1 958,

1 5.

" Arkheologiya i m etody e stestevennykh n auk" N atural'Scientific ( jointly w ith A . L .

1 6.

d revnostei" ( Chronology N o. 2 , p p. 9 2-111, i ll.

M ethods), M ongait).

V AN S SSR ,

( Archaeology a nd

1 959,

N o.

1 2,

p p.

a

o f

t he 3 2-36

" Zhelezoobrabatyvayuchshee r emeslo N ovgoroda V elikogo ( Produktsiya, t ekhnologiya)" ( Ironworking i n N ovgorod t he G reat. P roducts a nd T echnology), M IA , N o. 6 5, 1 959, p p. 7 -120, i ll., 7 p ages o f i ll.

1 7.

" Shakhmaty v d revnem N ovgorode" S hakhmaty v S SSR ( Soviet C hess), ( jointly w ith I . M . L inder).

1 8.

" Dendrokhronologiya N ovgoroda" 1 962, N o. 1 , p p. 1 13-139, i ll.

1 9.

" Drevesina v k hozyaistve i b yte d revnego N ovgoroda" ( Timber i n N ovgorod E conomy a nd E very-Day L ife), T rudy i nstituta l esa i d revesiny ( AN S SSR , S ibirskoe o tdelenie) ( Transactions o f t he I nstitute o f T imber. S iberian B ranch o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences), V ol. 5 1, M oscow-Leningrad , 1 962, p p. 1 42-157, i ll. ( jointly w ith V . E . V ikhrov).

2 0.

" Dendrochronological M ethod i n A rchaeology", T he 6 th I nternational C ongress o f P rehistoric a nd Protohistoric S ciences, R eports a nd C ommunications b y A rchaeologists o f t he U SSR , M oscow , 1 962,

2 1.

( Chess i n M edieval N ovgorod), 1 961, N o. 8 , p p. 2 37-241, i ll.

( Novgorod D endrochronology),

S A ,

1 4 p p.

" Dendrokhronologichesky m etod d atirovaniya" ( Dendrochronological D ating), M etody e stestvennykh n auk v a rkheologii ( The N atural S cience M ethods i n A rchaeology). P aper t heses, M oscow , 1 963, p p. 5 -8.

2 2.

" Dendrokhronologiya M IA ,

2 3.

N o.

1 17,

1 963,

" Dendrokhronologiya

N ovgoroda" p p.

5 -103,

p ostroek

( The N ovgorod i ll.

N erevskogo

n ology o f t he N erevsky E xcavation A rea), 1 66-227, i ll., 3 p ages o f i ll.

5

D endrochronology),

3p ages o f i ll. r askopa" M IA ,

N o.

( Dendrochro-

1 23,

1 963,

p p.

24.

"Novye metody v arkheologii (K itogam vsesoyuznogo soveshchaniya po primeneniyu v arkheologii metodov estestvennykh i tekhni­ cheskikh nauk)" (New Methods in Archaeology. On the Results of the All-Union Conference on Using the Natural Science Methods in Archaeology), SA, 1963, No. 4, pp. 256-270.

25.

"K itogam rabot Novgorodskoi arkheologicheskoi ekspeditsii (19511962)" (On the Results of the Novgorod Archaeological Expedition's Investigations), KSIA, Issue 99, 1964, pp. 3-20, ill.

26.

"Arkheologiya i estestevennye nauki" (Archaeology and the Natural Sciences), MIA, No. 129, 1965, pp. 7-26.

27.

"Dendrokhronologiya Vostochnoi Evropy" (East chronology), Ibid., pp. 62-85, ill.

28.

"Fizicheskoe modelirovanie syrodutnogo protsessa proizvodstva zheleza" (Physical Modelling of the Oxidising Iron-Making Process), Ibid., pp. 196-215, ill., 3 pages of ill. (jointly with 0. Yu. Krug).

29.

drevnego Polotska" (Dendrochronology "Dendrokhronologiya Medieval Polotsk), MIA, No. 130, 1965, pp. 262-266, ill.

of

30.

"Dendrochronological Method in Archaeology", Atti del Congresso Internazionale d�lle Scienze Prehistoriche Protohistoriche, Rome, 1965, Vo�. II, pp. 25-32, ill.

VI e

31.

"Anomalnye godovye prirosty u sosny i usloviya tsirkulyatsii atmosfery za poslednie 65 let (po materialam issledovanii Novgorodskoi ekspeditsii Instituta arkheologii AN SSSR)" (Anomalous Annual Increments in Pines and Atmospheric Circulations During the Last 65 Years. On the Materials of Dendrochronological Research of the Novgorod Expedition of the USSR Academy of Science's Institute of Archaeology). Voprosy drevesnogo prirosta v lesoustroistve (Problems of Annual Increment in Forestry), Kaunas, 1967, pp. 82-96 (jointly with V.N. Adamenko, T.T. Bitvinskas and N.V. Lovelius).

32.

"Nekotorye printsipy dendroklimatologii" (Some Problems of Dendroclimatology), Voprosy lesnogo khozyaistva, lesnoi i khimicheskoi promyshlennosti (Problems of Forestry, Wood and Chemical Industry), Minsk, Vysshaya shkola Publishers, 1967, pp. 22-37, tables (jointly with V.E. Vikhrov).

33.

"Niekt6re zasady dendroklimatologii", Sylwan, 1967, Roe. 111, No. 6-7, pp. 113-128, fig. (jointly with V.E. Vikhrov).

34.

"Arkheologiya zavtra" (Archaeology of Tomorrow), Budushchee nauki (The Future of Science), An International Yearbook, Moscow, 1968, pp. 318-333 (jointly with B.A. Rybakov).

35.

"Muzykalnye smychkovye instrumenty drevnego Novgoroda" (Medieval Novgorod Bow Instruments), Slavyane i Rus (The Slavs and Russia), 6

European

Dendro­

On

t he

M oscow , 3 6.

6 0th

B irth Anniversary o f

N auka P ublishers,

Novgorodskie

d revnosti.

Antiquities. 1 85 p p. 3 7.

6 6-71,

B .A .

R ybakov),

i ll.

D erevyannye

W ooden A rtifacts),

i zdeliya

M oscow ,

( Novgorod

N auka P ublishers,

1 968,

i ll.

i n Archaeology),

K SIA ,

I ssue

1 18,

1 969,

p p.

8 3-100

( jointly

w ith

S her).

" Remeslo" ( Craftsmanship), O cherki i storii r usskoi k ultury X IIIXV vv . ( Essays o n t he H istory o f Russian C ulture o f t he 1 3th-15th C enturies), P art I , M aterial C ulture, M oscow University P ress, 1 969,

3 9.

A cademician

p p.

" Nekotorye i togi p rimeneniya e stestvennonauchnykh m etodov v a rkheologii". ( Some R esults o f U sing N atural-Scientific M ethods Ya.A .

3 8.

1 968,

p p.

1 56-230 p p.,

" Arkheologiya

i ll.

im atematika.

Vmesto p redisloviya".

( Archaeology

a nd M athematics. B y way o f f oreword), S tatistiko-combinatornye metody v a rkheologii ( Statistical M ethods i n A rchaeology), M oscow ,

N auka

P ublishers,

Marshak a nd Ya .A . 4 0.

1 970,

p p.

" Integratsiya

n auk i a rkheologiya"

A rchaeology),

L eninskie

o bshchestva,

3 -7

( jointly

w ith

( Integration o f

i dei v i zuchenii

r abovladeniya

i f eodalizma

S cience

i storii ( Lenin 's

4 2.

" Integration

o f

Archaeometry ,

1 970,

Novgorodskie

d revnosti.

C arved

W ood),

S cience N o.

a nd

1 2,

M oscow ,

A rchaeology

P art 2 ,

R eznoe

p p.

I deas

d erevo

N auka P ublishers,

t he

t he

U SSR",

( in E nglish).

( Novgorod 1 971,

i n

F eudalism),

i n

1 11-114

a nd

p ervobytnogo

S tudy o f P rimitive S ociety, S lave-Owning S ociety a nd M oscow , N auka P ublishers, 1 970, p p. 3 8-48. 4 1.

B .I.

S her).

Antiquities.

6 2 p p.

i ll.,

2 6

pages o f i ll. 4 3.

" 0 m etodakh i s ovremennykh p roblemakh d endrokhronologii" ( On M ethods a nd C urrent D endrochronological P roblems), R adiouglerod . ( Radiocarbon), R adiocarbon V ilnius,

4 4.

M aterials

F luctuation

1 971,

" Absolutnoe

p p.

5 7-62

a n

t he

A ll-Union

A tmosphere

( jointly w ith T .T.

d atirovanie

A rchaeology),

o f i n

v

P roblemy

a rkheologii"

C onference a nd

C14

B itvinskas). ( Absolute

a bsolutnogo d atirovaniya

v

D ating

" Dendrokhronologiya N ovgorod 1 970),

4 6.

" Sovremennye

N ovgoroda

I bid .,

p roblemy

D endrochronology),

p p.

1 970

1 13-118,

g ."

p p.

N auka

( Dendrochronology

o f

f ig .

d endrokhronologii"

I bid ,

i n

a rkheologii

( Problems o f A bsolute D ating i n A rchaeology), M oscow , P ublishers, 1 972, p p. 3 -10, f ig. ( jointly w ith Ya.A . S her). 4 5.

o n

D ating,

8 0-92,

i ll.

( Current ( jointly

P roblems w ith

o f T .T.

B itvinskas). 4 7.

" Novgorodskaya

a rkheologicheskaya e kspeditsiya

7

( Organizatsiya

metodika polevykh rabot v gorode)" (The Novgorod Archaeological Expedition. Organisation and Methods of Field Work in a City), Novo e v arkh e ologii (New Developments in Archaeology), A Collection of Articles Devoted to A.V. Artsikhovsky's 70th Birth Anniversary, Moscow University Press, 1972, pp. 15-27, ill. (jointly with V.L. Yanin). 48.

"Problemy dendrokhronologii" (Problems of Dendrochronology), Probl emy e kspertizy rastit e lnykh ob ektov (Problems of Study of Plants), Moscow, 1972, pp. 36-44.

49.

"Istoriya, vozvrashchennaya lyudyam" (The Past That Was Returned to People), Muz e inoe delo v SSSR (Museums in the USSR), Moscow, 1974, pp. 84-101.

50.

"Absolyutnye dendrokhronologicheskie shkaly severnykh regionov Vostochnoi Evropy protyazheniem v 12 stoletii" (Absolute dendrochronological Scales of the East European Northern Regions Spanning Twelve Centuries), Bio ekologich e ski e osnovy of Foundations (Bioecological d e ndrokhronologii Dendrochronology). Materials for the Symposium of the 12th International Congress of Botany, Vilnius-Leningrad, 1975, pp. 27-31 (jointly with N.B. Chernykh).

51.

"Problemy izucheniya tekhnologii drevneishikh proizvodstv" (Problems of Studying the Earliest Production Technologies), Ocherki t ekhnologii dr evn eishikh proizvodstv (Essays on the Earliest Technologies), Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1975, pp. 3-15.

52.

D e ndrokhronologiya Vostochnoi Evropy (Absolyutny e d e ndrokhro­ nologich eski e shkaly s 788 po 1970 g.) (East European Dendrochronology. Absolute Dendrochronological Scales Spanning the Period Between 788 and 1970), Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1977, 128 pp., ill. (jointly with N.B. Chernykh).

53.

"Remeslo i remeslenniki drevnego Novgoroda" (Craftsmanship and Craftsmen of Medieval Novgorod), La formation et l e d e v e loppm e nt d e s m eti e rs au moyen ag e (V e -XIV e si ecl es) Budapest, 1977, pp. 41-46.

54.

"Dendrochronology and Archaeology", D e ndrochronology and D e n­ droclimatology. Translated and edited by J. Fletcher and W. Linnard. Oxford University, 1977, pp. 8-11 (in English).

55.

"Gusli drevnego Novgoroda" (Psalteries from Medieval Novgorod), Dr e vnyaya Rus i slavyan e (Medieval Russia and the Slavs), A Collection of Articles Commemorating the 70th Birth Anniversary of B.A. Rybakov, Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1978, pp. 358-366, ill.

56.

"Itogi i perspectivy novgorodskoi arkheologii" (Some Results and Perspectives of Archaeological Investigations in Novgorod). In: Novgoroda izuchenie (Archaeological Arkheologicheskoe Investigations of Novgorod), Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1978, pp. 5-56, ill. (jointly with V.L. Yanin). 8

5 7.

" Ilyinski r askop" ( The I lyinski E xcavation A rea) S tratigraphy a nd C hronology , I bid ., p p. 5 7-116, i ll. ( jointly w ith N .B . C hernykh).

5 8.

" Mikhailovsky r askop" ( The M ikhailovski E xcavation A rea), p p. 1 35-173, i ll. ( jointly w ith A .S. K horoshev).

5 9.

" Mekhanizatsiya z emlyanykh r abot p ri r askopkakh s rednevekovykh g orodov" ( Mechanisation o f E arth M oving i n A rchaeological F ieldw ork i n M edieval T owns), I nternational S ymposium o n M echanisation o f t he Archaeological F ieldworks, A rchaeologia B altica, V ol. I II, L ödz, 1 978, p p. 5 1-62, f ig .

6 0.

" Oruzheinoe d elo d revnei R usi ( tekhnika p roizvodstva)" ( Technology o f W eapon M aking i n M edieval R ussia), Problemy s ovetskoi a rkheologii ( Problems o f S oviet A rchaeology), M oscow , N auka P ublishers, 1 978, p p. 1 88-196, i ll.

6 1.

" Dendrokhronologicheskie s hkaly N ovgoroda i B eloozera" ( Dendr ochronological S cales o f N ovgorod a nd B eloozero), D endroklimatol ogicheskie s hkaly S ovetskogo S oyuza ( Dendroclimatological S cales o f t he S oviet U nion), K aunas, 1 979, p p. 8 1-101, i ll.

6 2.

" Kollektsiya m uzykalnykh i nstrumentov d revnego N ovgoroda" ( Collection o f M usical I nstruments o f M edieval N ovgorod), P amyatniki k ultury . N ovye o tkrytiya ( Cultural M onuments. R ecent D iscoveries), a Y earbook , 1 978, V ol. 5 , L eningrad , N auka P ublishers, 1 979, p p. 1 74-187, i ll.

6 3.

" Fiziko-matematicheskie m etody v a rkheologii" ( The U se o f P hysics a nd M athematics i n A rchaeology), M aterials o f t he N ovember 2 8, 1 978 M eeting , M oscow , 1 979, p p. 3 -10.

6 4 .

" Estestvennonauchnye m etody v I nstitute a rkheologii A N S SSR" ( Natural S ciences M ethods U sed i n t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences), K SIA , I ssue 1 63, 1 980, p p. 6 8-76.

6 5.

" Dendrokhronologicheskaya s hkala v toroi p oloviny I t ysyachel etiya n ashei e ry ( po a rkheologicheskim m aterialam P riladozhskogo i P riilmenskogo r aionov)" ( Dendrochronological S cale o f t he S econd H alf o f t he F irst M illennium A .D . ( According t o A rchaeolo-

I bid .,

g ical M aterials f rom t he A reas n ear L akes L adoga a nd I lmen), D endroklimaticheskie s hkaly S ovetskogo S oyuza ( Dendroclimatic S cales o f t he S oviet U nion), P art I I, K aunas, 1 981, p p. 5 0-64, i ll. 6 6.

( jointly w ith N .B.

C hernykh).

" Osobennosti r azvitiya i o rganizatsii p roizvodstva" ( Specific F eatures o f P roduction D evelopment a nd O rganisation), S tanovlenie proizvodstva v e pokhu e neolita i b ronzy . P o m aterialam y uznogo T urkmenistana ( Emergence o f P roduction D uring t he E neolithic a nd t he B ronze A ge. O n t he M aterials f rom S outhern T urkmenistan), M oscow , N auka P ublishers, 1 981, p p. 9 -34 ( jointly w ith E .V . S aiko).

6 7.

U sadba n ovgorodskogo k hudozhnika X II v . ( Urban E state o f a 1 2thC entury N ovgorod P ainter), M oscow , N auka P ublishers, 1 981, 1 68

9

pp., ill. (jointly with A.S. Khoroshev and V.L. Yanin). 68.

"Arkheologii Novgoroda 50 let" (Novgorod Archaeology is Fifty Years Old), Novgorodsky sbornik. 50 let raskopok Novgoroda (Novgorod Collection. 50 Years of Excavations in Novgorod), Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1982, pp. 3-137, ill. (jointly with V.L. Yanin).

69.

"Raskop na ulitse Kirova" (An Excavation Area in Kirov Ibid., pp. 178-238, ill. (jointly with E.S. Rybina).

Street),

70.

"Khronologiya novgorodskikh drevnostei" (Chronology of Antiquities), Ibid., pp. 156-177, ill.

Novgorod

71.

"Rol estestvennykh nauk v izuchenii istorii drevnego proizvodstva" (The Role of the Natural Sciences in Studying Ancient Production Methods), Estestvennye nauki i arkheologiya v izuchenii drevnikh proizvodstv (Study of Earliest Production Methods by the Natural Sciences and Archaeology), Materials of the March 27, 1981 Conference, Moscow, 1982, pp. 3-12.

72.

"Obraztsy drevesiny drevnego Novgoroda dlya radiouglerodnykh issledovanii" (Wood Samples from Medieval Novgorod Used in c 14 Studies), Dendroklimatologicheskie shkaly Sovetskogo Soyuza (Dendroclimatological Scales of the Soviet Union), Part III, Kaunas, 1984, pp. 23-39, tables (jointly with T.T. Bitvinskas, I.A. Karpavi�ius and N.B. Chernykh).

73.

Drevniy Novgorod. Prikladnoe iskusstvo i arkheologia (Medieval Novgorod. Applied art and Archaeology). Moscow, 1985, 167 p. (jointly�with V.L. Yanin and S.V. Yamshchikov).

74.

Arkheologicheskie istochniki i metodika issledovaniya (Archaeological Sources and Research Methods). In: Arkheologia SSSR. Drevnyaya Rus'. Gorod, zamok, selo (Archaeology of the USSR. Medieval Russia. Town, Castle, Village). Moscow, 1985, pp. 29-38 (jointly with A.V. Kuza).

75.

Remeslo (Craftsmanship).

In the same edition, pp. 247-297.

Compiled by P.G. Gaidukov

10

P ART 1

N ovgorod Antiquities W ooden O bjects

1 1

I NTRODUCTION

T he

1 951-62

e xcavations

A rchaeological s tudies

w ood

i n

t he

N erevsky

- S tabilisation

a nd

q uarter

o ther

o f

N ovgorod

p roblems

o f

-

t imber

-N ovgorod c hronology .

A m ajor s tage i n N ovgorod a rchaeology h as c ome t o a n e nd : l arges cale e xcavations i n t he N erevsky q uarter h ave b een c ompleted . T hey w ere c arried o n f or t welve f ield s easons, f rom 1 951 t o 1 962, a nd w ere c onducted b y t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences a nd t he C hair o f A rchaeology o f M oscow S tate University . T he a rchaeologists w orked o n t he S ophia s ide, 2 50 m . n orth o f t he N ovgorod K remlin ( see p lans, p . 1 -3). T hroughout t hese y ears t he e xpedition w as h eaded by P rofessor A rtemy A rtsikhovsky w ith B oris K olchin a s h is d eputy. S eparate e xcavations, o f w hich t here w ere 3 5, w ere o ccasiona lly h eaded by G .A . A vdusina , P .I. Z asurtsev , A .F . M edvedev , V . L . Y anin , V .V. S edov , M .V . S edova , M .D. P oluboyarinova , N .V . R yndina , Yu . L . S hchapova , I .K . G olunova, G .P . S mirnova , S .N . O rlov , S .A . I zyumova , a nd A .V . Kuza . M .N . K islov w as a p ermanent s cientific a ssociate. S tudents o f M oscow S tate University , M oscow I nstitute o f A rchitecture a nd o ther h igher e ducational e stablishments i n M oscow , L eningrad , V ologda, I vanovo, N ovgorod , K iev a nd o ther c ities t ook a n a ctive p art i n t he e xcavations. A n u nprecedently b y c onsiderable f inancial m eans a nd

l arge s cale o f w ork w as e nsured t he e xtensive m echanisation o f

e arth-moving : 9 ,000 s q.m . h ave b een d ug , w ith t he c ultural d eposit 6 7 .5 m . t hick . W orkers a nd l aboratory a ssistants h andled m ore t han 6 0,000 c ubic m etres o f e arth . The

excavations

r evealed

K holopya a nd K uzmodemyanskaya ,

t hree

m edieval

s treets,

V elikaya,

a nd e xtensive u rban p roperties

o n

t hem .

A ll i n a ll, 1 8 p roperties h ave b een s tudied , t en o f t hem t horoughly i nvestigated ( pl. 4 ). F enced p lots o f l and w ith d wellings, w orkshops a nd h ousehold o utbuildings a re r eferred t o a s " urban p roperties". T heir s izes r anging f rom 7 50 t o o ver 1 ,000 s q.m ., t hey w ere e stablished a s e arly a s t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies, t heir b oundaries r emaining p ractically t he s ame t hroughout t he e ntire p eriod u nder c onsideration . T he N erevsky q uarter w as p robably a d ensely p opulated u rban d istrict . S eventy-five s imultaneous t imber s tructures, m ore t han h alf o f t hem d wellings, d ated t o t he l ate 1 3th c entury w ere f ound i n t he e xcavation a rea . R oughly 1 150 s tructures w ere i nvestigated , m ore t han 5 00 o f t hem d welling h ouses. C ommonly o ne o r t wo l ower t imber s ets h ave s urvived , t hree o r f our b eing l ess c ommon ,

w hile f ive a nd m ore s ets a re r are.

T he N erevsky e xcavations g ave u s t he f irst g limpse o f a R ussian m edieval c ity i n g eneral, a nd t he N ovgorod l ayout i n p articular, o f i ts w ood-paved s treets a nd s quares, i ts s tructures, o rchards a nd v egetable g ardens, l og c abins a nd t erems ( tower c hambers), w orkshops a nd s mall s hops. H ouses w ith a f ifth i nner w all ( from 4 0 t o 8 0 s q.m .) a nd f our l oad-bearing walls ( from 2 0 t o 6 0 s q.m .) p redominated . T he h ouses w ere m ostly built o n a s ort o f c ellar, l ow ( 1.5 m . h igh) u nheated c hambers w here p eople k ept t heir b elongings, f oodstuffs a nd h ousehold u tensils. I n s ome h ouses, t hough , t hey w ere i nhabited . T he f irst f loor w as t aken u p by t he m ain l iving c hamber t o w hich p eople a scended b y a b road

1 3

staircase. There were also houses consisting of three parts: a living chamber, a special passage and an unheated storage chamber. Finds of wooden artifacts are in general extremely rare. Up to the 1 950s there were only two more or less considerable collections of wooden articles: a collection of amazingly beautiful ancient Egyftian wooden artifacts, the bulk of which came from burial co�lexes and ships with wooden objects dated to the Viking age in Norway . A number of Neolithic sites in Switzerland, in Northern Europe and in the USSR yielded some wooden implements and household utensils. These were unique finds, though 3 . Later sites were also a source of a few wooden objects. The post-war years witnessed wide-scale excavation of medieval towns both in this country and in Western Europe. It turned out that their cultural deposits contained a considerable number of wooden articles. In general, wood is best preserved either in totally arid conditions or in waterlogged conditions. In the former case the The cultural layers of microbes lack moisture, in the latter, air. many North European cities are extremely wet which contributes to the preservation of wood and other organic matter. In the last two decade� excava�ions in �ergen4 , Lubeck 5 , Behren­ Lubchin 6 , Gdansk 7 , Szczecin 8 , Opole , Pskov1 , Staraya Ladoga11, and Beloozero12 have produced a lot of wooden objects. The largest collection has b�en gathered in Novgorod. The Novgorod cultural deposit consists of_.two levels: the upper, structural one is 1.5-2 m. thick and is normally aerated. It consists of dry soil mixed with stone, glass, etc., which has been thoroughly dug over. It is, therefore, unsuitable for the preservation of organic matter. The lower level, from 4 to 6 m. thick remained undamaged. It consisted of dark-coloured, sticky, s�lid, waterlogged earth with an an admixture of manure, chips, coal, ash and humus. This level extends down to the virgin soil and covers the period from the mid-lOth to the second half of the 15th century. This kind of soil is precisely what is needed for the preservation of organic matter (wood, cloth, leather, grain, and so on) . The humidity of the wooden objects obtained from the cultural deposit ranges between 3 00% and 4 00%. The wood found in the Nerevsky excavations is primarily the remains of wooden structures: dwellings, shops, household constructions, fences, pavements and drainage water-pipes. In addition, a huge number of wooden artifacts, sometimes intact but more often fragmentary, was found around the structures or inside them. Suffice it to mention that the number of clearly distinguishable objects has reached 20,000. The problem of the preservation of these finds is an extremely complicated one. Waterlogged wood needs stabilisation, i.e. it must be dried to restore its natural dryness. When left to dry in the air the wood starts to deform. There are no reliable stabilisation methods for use in field conditions. Therefore part of the finds were kept immersed in water tanks, while bulky objects and more common finds after being photographed and described were left in the air to dry and 14

to disintegrate. It must be indicated that the degree of deformation is greatly dependent on the kind of wood used ( softwood is more resistant to deformation when drying than hardwood), the shape of the object and the conditions in which it found its way into the cultural deposit. Throughout the twelve years of archaeological research in Novgorod 6,256 of the best finds were stored in water tanks at the Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Wet wood also presents a challenge to archaeologists. For many years now Soviet and West European Jaboratories have been engaged in a The task is to substitute some search for stabilisation methods.1 substance for the water in wet objects which will keep them wet enough, be more or less resistant to mechanical action and will preserve their shape. Some methods which have already been elaborated are reserved for specific objects of definite shapes or sizes, or made of specific kind of wood. Since a universal solution is hardly possible in the near future our finds will remain where they are. The identification of objects presented certain difficulties since the majority of the finds were merely fragments. This task becomes even more involved due to the lack of relevant archaeological works and to the scarcity of ethnographic material and literature. Estonian, ·Latvian and Slovak museums possess extensive materials which can be used for comparison. An especially varied collection of wooden folk artifacts is kept in the_Tartu Ethnographic Museum of the Estonian Academy of Sciences. A lot of household utensils can be seen in the Riga Ethnographic Museum. The best foreign collection of wooden peasant utensils is certainly that in the Slovak Folk Museum in Martin.

Works by K. Moszynski,14 U. Sirelius,15 L. Levander,16 the multivolume [ordisk Kultur, 1 7 and finally, the superb book by A. Bielenstein 1 proved to be most helpful in identifying the fragments. From among Russian publications mention should be made of Russian Wooden Folk Artifacts by A. Bobrinsky.19 Much information was drawn from books on the history of timber as a fabricating material and on woodwor�. An unsurpassed publication is Two books on woodworking were the multivolume Hout in alle Tijden.2 published in Britain by W. L. Goodman. 21 Soviet rese chers can boast �� of a single work, Estonian Folk Woodwork by A. Viires. The chronology of the finds is established stratigraphically: by the level in which they are found. The clear-cut stratigraphy of the cultural deposit and the absence of later disturbance permit archaeologists to associate any find with a high degree of accuracy with a specific architectural horizon. A discussion he¼d in the Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences 3 greatly contributed to rendering the chronology of the Nerevsky excavation area more precise. The horizon, understood as a horizontal section of the cultural deposit which was produced during the existence of one level of wooden street pavement together with contemporary dwellings and artifacts found in the earth, was adopted as the basic element of the 15

stratigraphy. The initial date of the horizon is the date when the corresponding pavement wa laid down, which is established with the help of dendrochronology. 4 This produced an absolute chronology of the pavement levels for excavations XXVIII-XXXII. The following dates have been established for pavement levels of the Velikaya, Kuzmodemyanskaya and Kholopya streets:

1

Horizon

Years

Horizon

Years

28

95 3

14

1238

27

972

13

1268

26

989

12

1281

25

1006

11

1299

24

1025

10

1313

23

105 5

9

1340

22

1076

8

1369

21

1096

7

1382

20

1116

6

1396

19

1134

5

1409

18

1161

4

1422

17

1177

3

1429

16

1197

2

1446

15

1224

1

1462

The main aim of the present publication is the fullest possible description of all the finds from the Nerevsky excavations. The finds are identified, classified, located within the framework of the typology of the Novgorod collection, and dated. The following scheme of description is adopted: first, we give a concise description of a find and a group of similar objects, then we describe their design and define their use, and finally, date them. In case of similar objects of varying sizes, we give tables of sizes together with the objects' card numbers. The card numbers of the Novgorod expedition consist of three elements25 : the first one or two figures indicate the horizon, the next one or two figures the level*, and the number of the standard 2 x 2 m. square where the object was found. Thus, card number 17-19-85 9 means that this object (a fiddle) * This is a strictly horizontal standard level process of excavations and initial fixation. 16

20

cm. thick used in the

b elongs t o t he 1 7th h orizon , t hat i s, t hat i t f ound i ts w ay i nto t he e arth b etween 1 177 a nd 1 198 a nd t hat i t w as r ecovered i n t he 1 9th l evel a nd 8 59th s quare. T he n umber o f o ne-type a rticles v aries f rom s everal i tems ( thus, o nly f ive p salteries h ave b een d iscovered) t o hundreds a nd e ven t housands. I f t he c ategory o r t he t ype e mbraces f rom 8 0 t o 1 00 o bjects w e c ite a ll t heir n umber c ards. A c omplete s cheme o f t he e xcavation a rea i s g iven i n o rder t o a ssociate e ach f ind w ith a p articular h ouse, s hop, y ard a nd o ther s tructures ( pl. 5 ,6). B oth t he s urvey a nd c lassification s cheme d eal w ith t he r eliably i dentified a rticles. W hen w e l ack s uch i dentification d ue t o t he a bsence o f r ecognisable f ragments t he n umber o f o bjects o f o ne t ype a re r oughly e stablished . P lates p resenting a bout 1 000 o f t he b est f inds a re a m ost i mportant p art o f t he p ublication s ince n o d escriptions c an s erve b etter t han d rawings a nd p hotographs. T he d rawings a re m ostly b y p hotographs a re by S .T . B ocharov .

M .N .

K islov

a nd

M .V .

Y ashkova ;

t he

N OTES 1 .

W .B.

B eekman ,

1 955.

2 .

I .

B rO ldsted ,

1 960.

3 .

D .G.

C lark ,

4 .

A .E.

H erteig ,

5 .

W .

N eugebauer,

6 .

E .

S chuldt,

7 .

R .

B arnycz-Gupieniec,

8 .

W .

F ilipowiak ,

1 956.

9 .

W .

H olubowicz,

1 956.

1 0.

G .P.

1 1.

S taraya L adoga ;

1 2.

L .A .

1 3.

A .M . R osenqvist , 1 959; M .N . K islov , O .N . N ogid , A .P. P ozdnyak , 1 965; V .E . V ikhrov ,

1 4.

K .

1 953. 1 960. 1 954.

1 965.

G rozdilov ,

G olubeva,

M oszynski,

1 959.

1 955. S .N .

O rlov ,

1 958.

1 966.

1 929.

1 7

C histyakova, 1 962; I .L . 1 959; S . A ucusti, 1 967.

15.

U. Sirelius, 1919.

16.

L. Levander, 1943.

17.

Nordisk Kultur, Vols. XIV, XVI.

18.

A. Bielenstein, 1918.

19.

A.A.

20.

W.B. Beekman, 1955.

21.

W.L. Goodman, 1962; idem, 1964.

22.

A. Viires, 1960.

23.

B.A. Rybakov, 1959; A.V. Artsikhovsky, 1959; B.A. Rybakov, 1961; A.V. Artsikhovsky, 1961.

24.

B.A. Kolchin, 1963; idem, 1963a.

25.

B.A. Kolchin, 1959, p.6.

Bobrinsky, 1910-1914.

18

C HAPTER O NE

N ovgorod F orests f or i ndustrial

- W oods u sed b y t he p eople o f m edieval N ovgorod a nd e very-day purposes - C ommercial wood -

W oodworking i mplements

-W oodworking t echnology .

Until t he 1 9th c entury , N ovgorod , t ogether w ith N orthern E urope, u sed w ood a s t he m ain f abricating m aterial. A w ide r ange o f o bjects f rom d wellings, c ity f ortifications, s treet p avements, w ater-pipes, s hips a nd s leighs t o t ools f or m achines, l abourers' t ools, v essels a nd d ishes, h ousehold u tensils a nd t oys w ere m ade o ut o f w ood . T he f orest, t his r enewable s ource o f w ood , p rovided m an w ith m aterials o f a ll k inds, a nd f or a ll p urposes. T he p eople o f N ovgorod w ere w ell a ware o f t he t echnological q ualities a nd o ther p roperties o f d ifferent k inds o f t imber w hich c ame f rom t heir f orests a nd u sed t hem a ccordingly . T he N ovgorod a rea i s a r egion o f f orests, l akes a nd m arshes. A ccording t o t he 1 836 G eneral L and S urvey ,1 N ovgorod f orests t ook u p a lmost 6 0 p ercent o f t he g ubernia 's t erritory . T he n orth-eastern a nd e astern r egions w ere e specially r ich i n c ommercial w ood . T he N ovgorod f orest c omprised m ainly c onifers ( spruce, a nd t o a l esser d egree, p ine), t he d eciduous t rees b eing o f s econdary i mportance. T here a re t wo k inds o f s pruce ( Picea e xcelsa a nd P icea v ulgaris) i n t he N ovgorod f orests. T hey a re u sually f ound i n l ow-lying , m ore o r l ess f ertile, l ands. T imber a nd e ven s hip s pruce a re o ften m et w ith. P ine g roves a re l ess r esistant a nd a re r eplaced w ith s pruce i n l owl ying a nd m arshy p laces. U niform p ine w oods h ave s urvived u ntil o ur t ime o n a rid s ands, e specially a long t he G ulf o f F inland . P inus s ilvestris, t here.

a t all

s traight p ine w ith

g narled

t wisted b oughs,

a bounds

D eciduous t rees a re r epresented b y l ime, m aple, o ak , a sh a nd a lder. L ime a nd a lder t ogether w ith m aple c an b e f ound e verywhere i n t he N ovgorod r egion, t hough t he l ast i s r estricted t o a l esser t erritory, i ts n orthern b oundary r eaching t he s outhern p arts o f t he O lonets a rea . T he s outhern p eriphery o f t he N ovgorod a rea w as a lso o ccupied b y a sh a nd o ak . A spen , b irch , t wo k inds o f e lm , E uropean b irdberry a nd m ountain a sh w ere a lso f airly w idespread t hough , a s m entioned f orests.

a bove,

P rof . V .E . c ollection w ith

c onifers

w ere

a nd

s till

a re

d ominant

i n

N ovgorod

V ikhrov h as a nalysed 9 09 a rticles f rom t he N ovgorod t he a im o f e stablishi l l ,g w hich k inds o f w ood w ere u sed

for i ndustrial a nd e veryday p urposes. 4 I t t urned o ut t hat N ovgorod b uilders, c arpenters a nd j oiners u sed 2 7 k inds o f w ood , 1 9 o f t hem o btained l ocally o r f rom t he n eighbouring a reas o f C entral R ussia ( pine, s pruce, j uniper, o ak , a sh, e lm , h azel, m ountain a sh, a pple, p ear, E uropean b irdwood a nd s pindle t ree). E ight k inds o f i mported f rom t he s outh, e ast o r w est: f ir, l arch , c edar, y ew , c hestnut, b eech a nd P ersian w alnut.

1 9

w ood w ere b ox-tree,

The technological properties of the different kinds of timber used in Novgorod for construction and for everyday purposes differ greatly: both softwood and hardwood were used along with decorative timber. Pine and spruce were the most widespread commercial timber: houses and city fortifications were built of them, they served for wooden pavements and water-pipes, for manufacturing machine tools, scoops, furniture and labourers' implements. While pine and spruce were equally used for constructing the exteriors of buildings, for fences and for laying wooden pavements, pine was a much more popular material for household utensils. This is explained by the fact that pine, being less knotty, was At the same time it was more easier to process with cutting tools. resistant to fungi and widespread in Novgorod forests. Spruce found its widest application in construction. Its use for other purpose� was restricted, though some details of ships such as ribs, vessels of small capacities, cooper hoops and some other household articles were invariably made of spruce. Among local conifers, the inhabitants of Novgorod also favoured juniper for its moderate shrinkage and swelling: articles made of it never warp or crack when being dried out. The same is true of articles extracted from the cultural deposits. Hardwood was mostly used for domestic purposes. Never or rarely was it used in construe tion. Compared with conifers, birch, lime, maple and aspen are less resistant to fungi and tend to deteriorate in the humid Novgorod climate. As for oak with its superior properties, it was put to use in articles where strength was a requirement, such as sleigh runners, barrels with a capacity of ten pailfuls, rowlocks, spades, shafts and similar things. Its use, however, was naturally restricted by the insufficient supply in the local forests. Another local kind of timber, birch wood, was widely and variously applied, being highly valued as a yellowish-white or reddish-white timber with a uniform structure and good constructional character­ istics. It is easily processed by cutting implements and takes a good Its toughness, strength and homogeneous structure make it a polish. superb material for fine carving. Besides carved artistic articles, lasts, toys, implement handles, details of bows, occasionally spoons and carved-out vessels were made of birch. Maple and ash rank highly among fabricating materials. White, compact and fine-grained, maple wood has a reddish or yellowish tint with a silky lustre. Its technological properties are superior to those of oak: it is easily processed by cutting instruments, takes a good polish, it hardly warps and preserves its colour for a long time. Ash is marked by toughness and strength. It is not abraded, is barely water-permeable, and takes a good polish. Annual growth-rings are clearly distinguished, and the timber is also characterised by silky lustre. In fact, it can be used for decoration.

20

N ovgorod c raftsmen w ere w ell a ware m aterial f or t urned a nd c arved v essels, w as r eserved f or t urned v essels.

o f t his. M aple w as a c ommon s poons a nd d ippers, while a sh

A ll o ther t imbers w ere p ractically u nused i n N ovgorod . O f t he i mported t imbers, l arch a nd b ox-wood d eserve s pecial m ention . T he f ormer p robably c ame f rom t he r egions n earest t o N ovgorod w here t hese t rees g rew , t hat i s f rom t he r egions t o t he e ast o f L ake L adoga a nd f rom t he K ama b asin . S pecialised p arts o f s hips w ere m ade o f i t. I t c an b e s urmised t hat r eady-made l arch p arts o r e ven w hole s hips w ere i mported , w hich w ere t hen r eused f or m anufacturing o ther o bjects. B ox-wood was b rought I ts e xclusive u se w as i n d etails s ee b elow .

t o N ovgorod f rom t he C aucasian t he m aking o f t wo-sided c ombs.

m ountains. F or m ore

B eing s killed s pecialists w ell v ersed i n w oodworking , N ovgorod c raftsmen n ever e rred t o t heir c hoice o f t imber. H ere a re s ome e xamples: p ine, s pruce a nd o ak a re c onsidered t o b e t he b est c oopering t imbers. I t w as p recisely f rom t hose t ypes o f w ood t hat t he p eople o f N ovgorod m anufactured b arrels, t ubs a nd buckets. O ak i s t he b est m aterial f or s leigh r unners a nd i n N ovgorod t hey w ere i nvariably m ade o f o ak . P ine, s pruce a nd o ak a re b est s uited f or m aking s pades. A s e arly a s t he 1 0th c entury , s pades i n N ovgorod w ere a lready m anufactured o f o ak. The excellent t echnological, m echanical a nd d ecorative p roperties o f m aple a nd a sh d escribed a bove s eem t o d estine t hem f or t urned v essels. T he b est w ooden s poons w ere m ade o f m aple i n N ovgorod a s w ell.

a re

m ade

o f

m aple,

a nd

t hey

W oodworking i mplements w ere o f r ather h igh q uality a s w ell. A ll k inds o f c utting a nd c h?pping i mplements w ere m ade o f h igh-carbon s teel a nd w ere h eat t reated . T he f ollowing i mplements w ere m ainly u sed b y N ovgorod c raftsmen : a xes, a dzes o f d ifferent k inds, s aws, i ron-planes, c hisels, w ood d rills, w ood c hisels, c ooper 's b arking i rons, p lanes, c hime s aws, l athe t ools, h and t ools, t ools f or w ood c arving , k nives, t ack c laws, m arking t ools ( p1.7) a nd m auls, w edges a nd a n umber o f o ther i mplements. A n a xe - t he m ost u niversal w ood f elling a nd b earding t ool. T hey had l ight b lades a nd w elded-on s teel e dges, w hich w ere h eat t reated . A s d istinct f rom m odern a xes, t he h andles o f N ovgorod a xes w ere s traight a nd r ather l ong w hich i mparted t o t he a xes a h igh e fficiency ( between 0 .8 a nd 0 .973). A n a dze - a h ollowing i nstrument. T hree t ypes o f s uch i nstruments were i n u se i n N ovgorod: l arge a dzes with w elded-on b lades f or c arpentring, s hip c onstruction a nd s imilar j obs; i mplements with s ockets f or b ent h andles ( the b lade w as f rom 1 .5 t o 4 c m . w ide) f or making hollowed a nd c arved d ishes, s poons, e tc; a wide massive i nstrument w ith a s ocket t o f it i n a l ong a nd H ollowed o ut t ubs a nd t roughs w ere m ade w ith t heir a dze b lades w ere s emicircular o r s emioval.

2 1

s traight h andle. h elp. S ometimes

S aws were u sed f rom m ost ancient t imes i n Russia both by c arpenters a nd j oiners. T he e arliest s aws f rom N ovgorod d ate f rom t he 1 0th c entury. S aws w ere o f t wo t ypes: h and s aws f or c ross-cuts a nd b ow s aws f or c learing . H and s aws r eached 4 5 c m ., a nd t heir w ooden h andles w ere f itted i n a m anner r esembling t hose o f m odern k nives. T riangular t eeth w ere a lways s et a nd f iled i n a m anner n ot much d ifferent f rom t he m odern o ne. S ometimes t he t eeth h ad t wo p oints a s i llustrated b y a 1 3th-century s aw f ound i ntact. I ts 4 4 t eeth h ad t wo p oints e ach , t heir s pacing e qualling 1 c m . S aws i n N ovgorod w ere m ade o f s teel w ith s ubsequent h igh-temperature t empering . B ow s aws w ere a lso r ather l ong , f rom 5 0 t o 6 0 c m . T heir b lades a nd t eeth d iffered f rom t hose o f a h and-saw , c losely r esembling m odern o nes. T hus, a n e arly 1 4th-century b ow s aw h ad a b lade 2 .2 c m . w ide, a nd t he o ne-sided t eeth w ere 0 .22 c m . h igh w ith a t ooth s pacing o f 0 .85 c m . T he c hisel i s e mployed f or m aking g rooves a nd n otches i n w ood . T hey w ere u sually m etal o nes w ith s teel b lades w elded o n . T heir b readth r anged b etween 0 .6 a nd 2 .5 c m .; t hey w ere m assive i mplements w ith a r ational d esign o f t he b lade a nd t he butt o ften d riven b y a w ooden m allet o r a m aul. T he d rill i s a n i nstrument f or m aking h oles. Two t ypes, w ood d rills a nd t wist b its, w ere u sed . T hey w ere o f d ifferent s izes f rom 0 .4 t o 2 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T heir c utting e dges w ere a lways m ade o f s teel. D rills w ere f itted w ith t ransverse h andles. B arking

i rons

- i mplements

u sed

f or

r ough

p laning

o r

t o

s trip

b ark . T hey w ere b oth l arge- a nd s mall-sized c omplete w ith e ither s traight o r a rched b lades w hich a fter b eing f iled w ere s harp e nough . I ron p lanes w ere e mployed f or c loser p laning w ith c hips o f p res et t hickness. T he i mplement i tself l ooked l ike a s mall-sized b arking i ron w ith a s traight b lade a nd v ertically f ixed h andles. I ts d esign p ermitted a c ontrol o f t he c hip t hickness. I t was m uch more h andy a nd e ffective. P lanes c ame

i nto u se

e arliest p lanes w ere d etails a nd e lements t he

t ime

o f

t he

i n E urope a t t he b eginning o f o ur e ra . T he . f ound i n P ompeii 4 . A t t hat t ime t hey a lready h ad s imilar t o m odern o nes. T hese t ools w ere u sed i n

M erovingians

a nd

C arolingians 5 .

I n

S candinavia

t hey

w ere k nown i n t he V iking a ge 6 . N o u ndamaged M edieval Russian p lanes h ave b een f ound s o f ar, but s everal i ron p lanes o f s pecific f orms h ave b een d iscovered 7 . S uch p lanes h ave b een f ound i n N ovgorod a s w ell. T hus, t he 1 2th-century l evels y ielded a n i ron p lane ( 18-20-1511) w hich w as w ell p reserved . I ts b readth w as 4 .8 c m ., t he l ength 1 3.2 c m . A s teel b and w as w elded o n t he b lade. L athe t ools o f t wo t ypes w ere m anufactured : t hose w ith h ooked blades d esigned t o h ollow o ut t he p rocessed o bject, a nd w ith s traight b lades f or e xternal f inishing . B oth t ypes w ere m ade o f s teel. W ood c hisels f rom N ovgorod c losely r esembled m odern o nes w ith t heir s teel e dges w elded o n b lades. C ooper i rons w ere r ather c raftsmen t o p lane s taves.

s mall

2 2

t ools h eld

i n

o ne

h and

u sed

b y

C hime

f ret

s aws,

f itted

i n

w ooden

h andles

w ere

u sed

t o

m ake

c himes. L arge a dzes w ere e mployed by b oth s coopers a nd o ther c raftsmen f or l ongitudinal p laning . T hese w ere l ong a nd s traight b lades u p t o 3 0-40 c m l ong w ith t wo h andles ( like t hose o f t he b arking-plane). T enthf ifteenth-century l evels 1 8-14-642, 9 -8-1954).

y ielded

s everal

s uch

i mplements

( 27-29-1050,

H and t ools f or m aking s poons c losely r esembled h ooked l athe t ools b ut w ere s maller. T ools e mployed f or c arving h ad e ither i rregularly s haped b lades o r T shaped b lades f itted t o l onger handles. I t must b e i ndicated o nce m ore t hat w oodworking t ools f rom 1 0th1 4th-century N ovgorod c an b e c ompar2d w ith t hose f rom W estern E urope i n t erms o f t heir q uality a nd v ariety .' W e h ave n o i nformation o n h ow t he t imber i ndustry f unctioned i n m edieval N ovgorod . L ater w ritten s ources t ell u s t hat m ore o ften t han n ot w ood f elling w as a f eudal d uty d one i n w inter. I n s pring t imber w as f loated o n s mall a nd b ig r ivers. 9 A l ot o f t imber r eached N ovgorod b y t he M sta R iver. A m ajor p art o f t he t imber w as u sed a s l ogs a nd t hin p oles, s ince m any h ouses w ere b uilt o f w hole l ogs. W hen b oards o r c ants w ere n eeded t hey w ere m anufactured o n t he s pot o r i n a s hop. I t i s a n e stablished f act t hat s aw-mills a ppeared i n R ussia a t a r ather l ater d ate, i n t he 1 7th c entury . 1U A ccording t o m any a uthors t his w as d ue t o R ussia 's b ackwardness. T hough n ot d enying t his, i t m ust b e e mphasised t hat w ood s awing u nder R ussian c onditions w as p ointless b oth e conomically a nd t echnologically . N ovgorod c arpenters a nd j oiners p referred h ewn t imber t o s awn s ince t he f ormer i s m uch m ore e lastic a nd f racture-resistant. I t i s a lso r esistant t o d amp a nd s wells a nd w arps l ess t han s awn t imber. T his i s e xplained b y t he f act t hat s awing g reatly d isturbs w ood f ibres, t hus c ausing r otting . E xtensive w ood r eserves i n R ussia a nd i n N ovgorod m ade t he e conomic s ide o f t his t echnology u nimportant. T o m ake d eals t he l og w as h ewn a nd n otched a long i ts e ntire l ength . I n t he s econd s tage w edges w ere d riven i nto t he n otch w ith t he h elp o f h eavy m auls t ill t he l og s plit i nto t wo. A b ig l og d emanded f rom 1 0 t o 1 5 w edges. W here c ross g rain o ccurred , t he r emaining f ibres w ere c hopped w ith a n a xe. T hrough a n umber o f s uccessive s plittings a nd h ewings b oards w ere o btained . I n g eneral i t w as a l ess t imec onsuming a nd l ess w asteful p rocess t han s awing . A s i s t estified b y t he t echnological a nalysis o f w ooden s tructures a nd w ooden a rtefacts, M edieval Russians had a w ide r ange o f t echnological k nowledge a t t heir d isposal. T hey u sed c hopping , h ewing , . cutting , m ortising , d rilling , s awing , p laning , t urning a nd v arious m ethods o f a rtistic c arving . C hopping w as a m ost w idespread o peration a long w ith h ewing b y a n a xe o r a n a dze. M ortising w ith a dzes, c hisels a nd t ools w as a pplied w henever j oint n otches a nd h ollows w ere n eeded . D eep h oles o r o penings w ere m ade w ith w ood d rills o r t wist b its. S ometimes o penings w ere m ade

2 3

b y r ed-hot r ound i ron p egs. C leaving a nd c ross-cut s aws w ere u sed s olely b y j oiners. C arpenters n ever s awed w ood b ut o nly c hopped i t, t o a void r otting . P laning w ith b arking i rons, i ron p lanes a nd p lanes e nsured s mooth s urfaces. L athe t ools w ere e mployed f or m aking t urned v essels a nd i rregularly s haped o bjects. K nives o f v arious f orms w ere u niversal w ood-working t ools w ith w hich a lmost a ll t he a bove-mentioned o perations c ould b e p erformed . J oints u sed i n N ovgorod a re s hown i n p 1.8. I n i ron n ails, i ron d og-anchors a nd f ibres w ere u sed t ogether.

a ddition , p egs, t o f asten l ogs

The p eople o f N ovgorod w ere f amous f or t heir c raftsmanship t hroughout t he R ussian l and , f or t heir c onstruction s kills a nd t heir a rtistic c arving . A t ale o f P rince Y aroslav 's m arch t ogether w ith N ovgorod t roops a gainst P rince S vyatopolk m entioned i n a c hronicle u nder t he y ear 1 016 t ells u s t hat S vyatopolk 's v oevoda , r eproaching t he e nemy f or i nterfering i n w hat h e c onsidered w as n ot t heir business, s houted t o t hem : " Why h ave y ou c ome h ere w ith t his l ape p erson?* Y ou a re c arpenters a nd w e s hall m ake y ou build u s h ouses!" 11

N OTES 1 .

P .P.

S emyonov ,

1 900.

2 .

V .E.

V ikhrov ,

1 958;

V .E.

3 .

B .A .

K olchin ,

1 959,

p .

4 .

J .M .

G reber,

5 .

W .L .

G oodman ,

1 964.

6 .

A .E.

H erteig ,

1 960.

7 .

B .A .

R ybakov ,

1 948,

8 .

W .L .

G oodman ,

1 964.

9 .

T he P atericon o f t he K iev-Pechersky M onastery m entions w ood f loating a nd i n p articular r afts ( floats) ( The P atericon o f t he K iev-Pechersky M onastery , p p. 1 17 a nd 2 14).

1 0.

P .G.

1 1.

P rimary C hronicle,

1 956,

L yubomirov ,

p .

p .

1 947; p .

V ikhrov ,

B .A .

K olchin ,

1 962.

2 3. 7 4.

4 13

M .A .

T seitlin ,

9 6.

[ Prince Y aroslav t he W ise w as l ame]

2 4

1 940.

C HAPTER T WO G eneral l abourers' i mplements - S pades - R akes - M auls - H oes L asts - M oulds - F ishing t ackle - N et n eedles a nd f rames - N et f loats a nd s inkers w ild h oney .

-F ishing i nstruments

- I nstruments f or

g etting

G eneral l abourers' i mplements a re w idely r epresented i n t he N ovgorod c ollection o f w ooden o bjects. T here a re s pades, r akes, m auls, w edges, d olly-pegs, p itchforks, h oes, e tc., a mong t hem . S pades. M ore t han 1 80 s pades h ave b een f ound .' T wenty-four o f t hem w ere f ound i ntact w hile o thers l ack e ither h andle o r p art o f t he b lade. I n t he p eriod b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 5th c enturies a nd e ven l ater, s pades w ere m ade e ntirely o f w ood . T heir s hape v aried w ith t heir f unctions: t he N ovgorod c ollection h as s pades a nd s hovels o f f our t ypes: s pades f or d igging a nd t urning s oil, s hovels f or h andling g ranular s ubstances, s now s hovels a nd b aking s hovels. S pades

i ntended

f or

d igging

a nd

t urning

s oil

h ave

e ither

r ectangular, t riangular o r t rapezoidal b lades ( pl. 9 ), t heir w idth w as a bout 1 2-16 c m , a nd h eight 2 5-30 c m . T he l ower e dge w as s traight o r s lightly r ounded , a nd i t w as s ometimes i ron- o r s teel-bound . I t c an b e s urmised t hat s ince t he s pades w ere a lways m ade o f o ak t hey w ere s harp e nough t o b e u sed w ithout b inding i n m any c ases. A s t hey w ere p ushed i nto t he g round w ith t he f oot, t he r ight u pper e dge w as s trictly h orizontal. T heir h andles w ere b etween 8 0 a nd 9 5 c m . l ong . S pades o f t his k ind w ere f ound i n e very l evel. 3 6 s pades h ave b een d iscovered s o f ar. T hey w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 2 8-32-102

1 5-15.1765

1 0-15-2110

2 6-24-526

1 4-20-1139

1 0-10-1778

2 5-28-1226

1 4-17-1638

1 0-8-687

2 5-23-525

1 4-17-1650

9 -10-1831

2 2-24-889

1 3-20-839

9 -7-671

2 2-22-1760

1 3-18-1294

8 -14-1128

2 2-22-1992

1 3-12-976

8 -13-288

2 1-23-1006

1 2-13-1012

8 -7-504

1 9-19-987

1 1-19-1433

7 -2-689

1 9-16-675

1 1-14-1620

5 -8-1301

1 8-23-281

1 1-14-1822

4 -11-127

1 7-22-1223

1 0-16-1354

4 -8-1205

2 5

S hovels f or h andling g ranular s ubstances a lways h ad r ectangular b lades. T he s ize v aried f rom 1 7 t o 2 7 c m . i n w idth a nd f rom 2 5 t o 4 0 c m .

i n h eight.

T hey w ere a lso p resent i n a ll l evels.

c m .

S now s hovels w ere b asically o f t he s ame d esign but much b igger: i n w idth a nd 5 0 c m . i n l ength , a nd a ppreciably l ighter.

3 5

B aking s hovels w ere q uite d ifferent: t heir b lades w ere o f o val o r r ound s hape, t heir s izes w ere s tandard : 2 7 c m . w ide a nd 3 5-37 c m . h igh . A ll i n a ll n ine s hovels o f t his k ind w ere f ound ( 23-26-294, 1 3-20-1333, 1 3-20-1381, 1 2-18-2127, 1 1-14-315, 9 -16-1438, 9 -13-1279, 7 -9-464, 5 -91 213). H oes.

H oes

w ere m ade e ntirely o f w ood ,

o ther

s oil-cultivation

t ools h ad i ron w orking p arts. T hey w ere r ather r are: o nly s even w ere f ound ( 27-25-525, 2 6-8-1270, 2 5-28-1279, 2 0-25-790, 1 4-22-1442, 1 1-191 350, 9 -12-1549). O nly t hree w ere f ound i ntact. A n e arly 1 1th-century h oe ( 25-28-1279) w as m ade o f o ak : t he b lade w as m ade f rom t he t runk , a nd t he h andle f rom a s uitable b ranch ( p1.10). I t h ad t he f ollowing d imensions: t he o blong , p laned a nd s harpened b lade w as 7 .5 c m . w ide a nd 2 9 c m . h igh , t he h andle w as 7 8 c m . l ong . P itch-forks w ere u sed f or p itching h ay ( pl. 1 1, 1 , 2 ). M ost p rimitive v ariants w ere f ound b y t he a rchaeologists. T hey c onsisted o f l ong h andles a nd b ifurcated w orking p art. T he c ard n umbers o f t hree i ntact i mplements w ere: 2 6-30-119, 2 5-28-1256, 1 3-15-927. T heir o verall l ength r anged f rom 2 25 t o 2 40 c m ., t he b ifurcations w ere f rom 5 0 t o 6 0 c m . l ong . E arlier p itch-forks, d ated t o t he 1 0th-century , h ad s horter b ifurcations, a bout 3 4 c m . R akes w ere u niversal h and t ools u sed f or g athering l eaves, h ay , g rass a nd o ther m aterial o r f or l oosening o r s moothing t he s urface o f t he g round . M ore t han 7 7 r akes w ere f ound , i ncluding 4 0 r ake p arts, a ssembled t ogether, t hat i s, h orizontal b ars w ith p rongs a nd h andle f ragments, a nd 3 7 p rongs. A ll o f t hem , e ven t he e arliest o nes d ated f rom t he 1 0th-century , a re e xact a nalogues o f m odern o nes. P l. 1 1, 3 s hows d ifferent k inds o f r ake f rom N ovgorod . H orizontal bars w ere m ade s traight o r r ounded c arrying f rom 5 t o 7 , o r m ore r arely 4 , p rongs. T he h andle w as f itted i nto o ne o r t wo n otches. B ars o f l arger r akes ( with s ix o r s even p rongs) w ere 5 4-56 c m . l ong, w hile s maller o nes, w ith f our o r f ive p rongs, w ere 3 6-38 c m . l ong w ith p rongs r eaching 1 21 5 c m . i n l ength . P rongs w ere f itted i n d ifferent w ays: e ither t he u pper s ide o f t he p rong w as f lattened , o r w edges w ere d riven , o r p rongs w ere f ixed w ith p egs ( pl. 1 2). H ere f ollows t he d escription o f t hree w ell-preserved r akes. A m id-10th-century r ake w ith f ive p rongs ( 28-32-110) h ad a c oncave b ar 5 6 c m . l ong . T he s pace b etween t he p rongs w as 1 1 c m ., t he p rongs b eing 1 2 ' cm . l ong . T he b ifurcated h andle w as f ixed i nto t wo n otches. T he l ate 1 1th-century r ake h as s ix p rongs o n t he s traight b ar 5 5 c m . l ong ( 212 3-436). T he d istance b etween t he p rongs w as 9 .5 c m ., t he l ength o f t he p rongs i s 1 4 c m . T he h andle w as f ixed i n a s ingle n otch . T he 1 3th-century r ake w ith s even p rongs ( 14-20-1128) h ad a c onvex b ar 5 3 c m . c m .

l ong , t he p rongs w ere s paced 8 c m . a part, a nd t heir l ength w as 1 1.5 T he h andle w as f itted i nto t he m iddle n otch w here t he m iddle p rong

2 6

w as a lso f ixed . T here w ere c ases w here t he b ar a nd t he p rongs w ere m ade o f o ne s pruce s tem w ith b ranches, w hich f ormed f irm p rongs. O ne o r t wo p rongs m ay b e a dded i n s uch c ases. S imilar r akes w ere f ound b oth i n e arlier a nd l ater l evels ( 22-24-909, 2 1-20-999, 1 8-18-975, 1 7-23-836, 1 3-221 403, 1 1-11-485). H ere i s h ow t he r akes w ere d istributed i n t he h orizons: 2 8-35-1318

1 8-20-1639

1 1-14-1604

2 8-35-1324

1 8-18-975

1 1-14-1615

2 8-32-110

1 8-17-1667

1 1-14-1615

2 7-29-1042

1 8-17-1667

1 1-13-903

2 6-29-373

1 7-23-836

1 1-11-485

2 4-28-1927

1 6-22-1125

1 0-16-1369

2 3-30-760

1 6-20-1534

1 0-14-1483

2 3-26-290

1 6-20-1534

1 0-12-1642

2 3-25-1497

1 6-20-1543

1 0-12-1975

2 2-24-909

1 5-21-129 •

9 -14-2117

2 2-24-1602

1 4-22-1403

8 -13-40

2 2-21-504

1 4-22-1403

8 -13-1135

2 2-20-507

1 4-20-1128

8 -9-1845

2 1-30-1420

1 4-20-1128

8 -8-1804

2 1-23-436

1 4-15-961

8 -4-1737

2 1-22-1879

1 3-21-718

7 -9-1577

2 1-21-1931

1 3-20-1381

7 -8-1576

2 1-20-999

1 3-18-1193

7 -7-1812

2 1-16-1738

1 3-15-900

7 -6-1764

. 20-24-1204

1 2-21-744

7 -3-696

2 0-22-887

1 2-21-744

5 -5-1606

2 0-21-1788

1 2-18-1136

5 -4-1995

1 9-19-464

1 2-14-1876

4 -5-1606

2 7

1 9-14-1755

1 2-11-486

4 -4-1605

1 8-23-1163

1 1-18-1455

3 -9-1402

1 8-23-1163

1 1-16-1282

S mall-sized s hovels. M ore t han 3 20 d ifferent s hovels w ere f ound . S ome o f t hem w ere i ntended f or d omestic u ses, f or u se a s t able o r k itchen u tensils. T heir s hapes a nd s izes v aried g reatly , f rom s coops w ith s hort h andles a nd b lades f rom 9 t o 2 0 c m . w ide a nd f rom 1 1 t o 1 8 c m . l ong . A l ot o f d ifferent s tirrers w ere f ound a ll o f t hem h aving l ong h andles ( 30-50 c m .) a nd s mall b lades ( 5-8 c m .). T iny s hovels u sed f or t aking s alt o r butter a t t he t able w ere a lso d iscovered , a s w ell a s f or a pplying d ifferent k inds o f c ream . b one, w ere n eatly t rimmed .

S uch s hovels,

o ften

m ade

M auls w ere c ommon i mplements, c onsisting o f a h eavy r ound h ead a nd a h ar idle ( pl. 1 3). T hey w ere u sed i n m aking b oards b y i n d riving c hisels, l evels.

a nd s o o n .

o f

w ooden h ewing

M ore t han 3 60 m auls w ere f ound i n

T hey r anged f rom h uge o nes ( 15-20 c m . i n d iameter w ith t he 9 0-100 c m . l ong) t o v ery s mall o nes ( 7-8 c m . i n d iameter a nd t he 2 8-30 c m . l ong).

a ll

h ead h ead

D olly-pegs ( rolling-pins a nd b eaters). T hese i mplements c losely r esembled m auls i n t heir s hapes, b ut s ince t hey w ere u sed f or h ousehold c hores ( for w ashing c lothes, b leaching l inen , t hreshing f lax a nd o ther p urposes) t hey w ere b etter p reserved , w hich d ifferentiated t hem f rom m auls o f t he s ame s ize ( pl. 1 4, 1 -4). A verage-sized d olly-pegs w ere 7 9 c m . i n d iameter w ith t he h ead 2 3-25 c m . l ong a nd t he r ound h andle 1 01 2 c m . l ong . T here w ere a lso f lat d olly-pegs t hough i n s maller n umbers ( pl. 1 5, 1 -4). O nly t welve c learly d efinable f lat d olly-pegs w ere f ound ( 21-23-358, 2 0-29-1344, 1 8-15-1714, 1 2-18-1198, 1 1-13-428, 1 0-161 466, 9 -10-956, 9 -7-671, 7 -10-1208, 6 -11-327, 6 -8-1547, 5 -7-1532). T hey w ere 2 7-30 c m . l ong , 9 c m . w ide a nd 3 c m . t hick , a nd t heir r ound h andles w ere 1 4 c m . F inds r estricted

l ong .

o f w ooden i mplements u sed b y N ovgorod a rtisans w ere t o t ools u sed b y c obblers a nd j ewellers: l asts, m oulds a nd

a nvils. L asts.

T he

i nhabitants

o f

m edieval

N ovgorod ,

l ike

p eople

t hroughout t he e ntire c ountry , w ore l eather f ootwear o f f our t ypes: b oots m ade o f l eather s trips, s hoes, l ow b oots a nd h igh b oots. I n N ovgorod s hoes w ere f irst h and s ewn , t hen s oft o r h ard s oles w ere a ttached a nd o nly t hen w ere t he s hoes l asted . L asts w ere m ade o f o ne p iece o f w ood o r c onsisted o f t wo p arts ( pl. 1 6, 1 7). A f ound .

hundred l asts ( 97 o ne-piece a nd 5 m ade o f t wo p ieces) w ere T he c ard n umbers o f t he l atter a re 1 7-25-626, 1 7-18-1915, 1 6-

2 2-155,

1 5-20-1190,

T he o f

t hem

8 -14-1370.

l asts w ere u nevenly d istributed i n c hronological l evels: w ere f ound i n t he 1 0th-century l evel,

2 8

t wo m ore i n

t he

t wo 1 1th-

c entury l evel, s ix i n t he 1 2th-century l evel, 2 8 i n t he 1 3th-century l evel, 4 9 i n t he 1 4th-century l evel, a nd 1 5 i n t he 1 5th-century l evel. T hey w ere d istributed i n t he h orizons i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 0th-13th c enturies 2 7-31-125

1 5-14-988

1 3-17-335

2 6-31-113

1 5-14-996

1 3-16-1645

2 2-19-529

1 4-20-1359

1 3-12-1928

2 1-23-1971

1 4-16-1606

1 3-12-1963

1 7-25-626

1 4-15-1889

1 2-19-793

1 7-18-938

1 4-15-1889

1 2-18-2144

1 7-18-1915

1 4-15-1904

1 2-15-1562

1 7-16-1108

1 4-14-190

1 2-15-1590

1 6-22-155

1 4-13-972

1 2-13-1901

1 6-15-980

1 3-18-1260

1 2-13-1013

1 5-23-1330

1 3-18-1284

1 2-10-480

1 5-20-1190

1 3-18-1294

1 2-10-489

1 5-16-409

1 3-18-1300

1 4th c entury 1 1-18-1351

1 0-15-1219

8 -14-1128

1 1-16-274

1 0-15-2056

8 -13-1013

1 1-16-347

1 0-14-1206

8 -13-1013

1 1-16-1208

1 0-14-1245

8 -13-1213

1 1-14-1552

1 0-9-994

8 -11-406

1 1-13-1805

1 0-6-628

8 -11-408

1 1-13-1805

9 -16-144

8 -11-1559

1 1-12-1060

9 -14-1131

8 -9-1892

1 1-12-1829

9 -12-374

8 -6-1957

1 1-12-1829

9 -11-1801

7 -14-126

2 9

1 1-11-583

9 -11-1831

7 -12-278

1 1-10-1105

9 -11-1831

7 -11-1270

1 0-17-629

9 -10-1074

7 -11-1477

1 0-17-1357

9 -9-1674

7 -10-1278

1 0-17-1363

9 -9-1986

7 -9-983

1 0-17-1376

8 -14-1370

1 0-16-1365

8 -14-1370

1 5th c entury 6 -12-139

6 -4-1954

4 -8-1177

6 -10-396

5 -11-168

4 -7-1259

6 -9-1532

5 -8-1190

4 -3-1764

6 -9-1540

5 -7-1540

3 -5-1231

6 -8-1570

4 -10-247

2 -2-1607

T he l asts f ound i n t he N erevsky e xcavations w ere o f a ll s izes, r anging f rom 9 t o 3 1 c m ., t hat i s, c hildren 's t o m en 's f ootwear. T he s izes o f s ome l asts a re c ited i n T able I I ( cf .: p l. 1 8, 1 ). T hey w ere o f t wo t ypes: s ymmetrical o nes, t hat i s, w ithout d istinction b etween t he r ight a nd t he l eft f eet, a nd m ore c omplicated , a symmetrical o nes. T he 1 0th-century l evels p roduced t wo e xtremely i nteresting a nvils ( pl. 1 5, 5 ; 2 1, 1 , 2 ), o r t o b e m ore e xact, f oundations f or a nvils m ade o f l ead o r r esin u sed f or c hasing . O ne o f t hem ( 26-31-784) i s h emispherical, t he d iameter o f i ts u pper p latform m easuring 1 1 c m . T en c onical h oles a re f ound o n i t. E ach h ole h as a d iameter o f 1 .4 c m . T he l ower p art o f t he a nvil w as f ixed o n a p ointed s upport. T he h eight o f t he a nvil i s 7 c m . A nother a nvil ( 25-31-723) c onsisted o f t wo c ones. E ach o f t he t wo p latforms a lso h ad c onical h oles f or t heir f irmer a ttachment t o t he a nvil p roper. T he p latforms h ad d iameters o f 7 a nd 8 c m . r espectively . T he t otal h eight o f t he a nvil was 1 1.8 c m . A f ragmentary w ooden m ould i s o f g reat i nterest f or t he s tudy o f j ewellery i n R ussia . I t w as f ound i n a 1 3th-century l evel ( 14-101 743). I t i s a p art o f a s ymmetrical t wo-part m ould f or making p lates w ith f our-petalled f lowers o n t hem a nd a h emisphere i n t he c entre ( pl. 15, 1 3). I t w as u sed f or c asting t in . T he s emicylindrical p art w as 9 .5 c m . l ong , 3 .4 c m . w ide a nd 1 .7 c m . t hick . S imilar m oulds c an b e f ound a mong e thnographic m aterial f rom t he B altic r egion . 2 T he N erevsky e xcavations y ielded i mplements u sed b y f ishermen c ollectors o f w ild h oney.

3 0

a nd

F ish a nd f ish p roducts h old a p rominent p lace i n t he d iet o f t he p eople o f N ovgorod . J udging b y 1 0th-14th-century l evels, t hey w ere e ating 2 3 t ypes o f f ish m ainly p ike-perch , b ream , p ike a nd p erch . I n a ddition t hey n e. qed s turgeon i n t he B altic S ea , s igs i n t he V olkhov R iver a nd s almon .' F ish w as b rought t o N ovgorod f rom t he c ountryside b ut p eople a lso f ished i n t he t own i tself . T he e ntire r ange o f f ishing t ackles a nd i nstruments w ere f ound i n N ovgorod . T hey w ere m ade o f i ron , s tone, w ood , b ark , s tring a nd t hread . A lso, i ron f ish-ho n k s o f d ifferent k inds, s poon-baits, h arpoons, f ish-spears, a rrows, w ooden f ishing t ackles w ith h ooks f ixed o n t hem , a nd f loats m ade o f b ark a nd w ood . H ere w e a re c oncerned s olely w ith w ooden a nd b ark o bjects ( pl. 2 2, 2 3). T he b ulk o f t he o bjects a re a ssociated w ith n ets a nd t ykes. T hese a re n eedles a nd r eels, w ooden , b irch-bark a nd b ark f loats a nd s inkers o f d ifferent k inds, l oops f or f ixing n ets a nd o ther t hings, a mong t hem t yke h oops. A s pecial d evice f or b ait f ishing w as m ade o ut o f a w ooden f ork ( pl. 1 5, 7 ). T he u pper s ide o f t he d evice i s g rooved t o f ix i t t o t he b oat o r t he p eg w ith a s tring . T he g reater p art o f t he f ishing l ine i s w ound o n t he f ork , t he r est i s f irmly a ttached t o o ne o f t he p rongs. A w ooden o r i ron h ook w ith a b ait i s f irmly f ixed t o t he f ishing l ine. M ore t han 2 0 c learly d efined i mplements o f t his s ort w ere f ound . T heir c ard n umbers a re: 2 8-36-1418

2 5-27-1539

9 -11-458

2 8-36-1419

2 5-27-1872

8 -13-1240

2 8-34-97

2 5-26-1899

7 -11-305

2 8-34-791

2 5-24-494

7 -9-887

2 8-31-63

1 4-19-208

4 -10-255

2 8-29-868

1 3-16-397

4 -9-1371

2 8-29-1782

1 0-15-5

T able I I L ast s izes,

c m .

C ard n umber

L

B

H

B1

B2

H1

2 6-31-113

1 9.5

7

7 .8

4 .5

3

4 .5

1 7-16-1108

2 4 .9

9 .5

5

6 .5

7 .3

3 .2

1 6-15-980

3 1.2

9

6

7

6

2 .5

1 5-20-1190

1 4

6 .4

4 .5

4

5

2 .2

1 5-14-988

2 8.2

9

6

6 .7

4 .7

3 .3

3 1

1 4-20-1359

2 6.8

1 0.5

4

6 .5

8

3

1 4-15-1904

2 0.5

5 .5

8

4

4

3 .4

1 3-12-1928

1 6.6

6 .4

5 .7

4 .3

5

4 .6

1 1-18-1351

2 0.5

8

3

5 .5

4 .5

2 .5

1 1-12-1060

2 2.6

7 .5

5

5 .5

3 .5

3

1 0-17-1376

1 2.4

4 .5

3 .5

4

3 .5

2

1 0-15-1219

2 4.8

8

4 .5

5 .5

4

2 .8

8 -14-1128

1 3.5

4 .2

3

3

2 .5

1 .5

2 5.5

8 .5

4 .6

5 .5

3 .5

3

8 -13-1213

2 3.8

8

5 .3

6

4 .2

3 .4

7 -10-1278

2 5.3

8 .5

5

5 .3

6 .8

3

5 -8-1190

2 1.9

7

5 .7

4 .6

4

3 .6

4 -8-1177

2 7.5

1 0

5 .3

7 .5

7

3 .7

4 -7-1259

3 0

1 1

7

7 .6

7

4 .5

3 -5-1231

1 9.5

5 .3

5

4 .5

3 .5

8 -13-1013

m ade B oth

.

6 .5

W ooden h ooks a ttached t o t he f ishing d evice d escribed a bove w ere f rom a j uniper b ranch 7 .5-10 c m . l ong w ith a t wig 2 -3 c m . l ong . w ere s harpened . T he f ishing l ine was a ttached t o t he m iddle o f

t he h ook . M ore t han 2 5 h ooks w ere f ound , l ying t ogether. T heir c ard n umbers a re:

s ometimes e ven t hree o r

2 8-31-1265

1 8-24-1351

9 -20-811

2 8-31-1311

1 7-22-1254

9 -10-1645

2 8-30-1286

1 6-24-1323

8 -14-1447

2 4-21-577

1 5-15-1764

8 -12-1278

2 1-25-329

1 4-19-291

8 -7-1775

2 1-24-1536

1 4-15-1789

6 -8-932

1 9-28-1399

1 2-18-1121

5 -7-1296

1 9-28-1447

1 2-16-328

5 -7-1540

3 2

f our

N eedles, patterns f or n et m aking a nd r eels i dentical w ith t he m odern e thnographic m aterials ( pl.

w ere a bsolutely 1 5, 8 -12).

F ive w ooden n eedles w ere f ound , t wo o f t hem c ompletely u ndamaged ( 13-21-720, 1 0-15-186, 9 -8-485, 6 -7-1080, 2 -8-1411). A 1 4th-century n eedle ( 6-7-1080) w as 2 4 c m . l ong , 2 .5 c m . w ide a nd 0 .25 c m . t hick , i ts e ye 8 .5 c m . l ong ( pl. 2 2, 1 , 2 ). A 1 5th-century n eedle ( 2-8-1411) w as a bsolutely i dentical t o t he p receding o ne, b ut w as s omewhat s horter , 2 1.5 c m . l ong . S even n et g auges w ere f ound ( 28-23-215, 1 5-20-1204 , 1 4-22-748, 1 31 0-676, 7 -10-379, 6 -12-199, 6 -3-490), t heir s izes v aried f rom 1 .5 t o 4 c m . F ishing r od f loats w ere m ade o f w ood a nd b ark ( pl. 1 5, 6 , 8 ). T hey c losely r esembled t he m odern o nes, a nd w ere f rom 5 t o 1 0 c m . l ong . M ore t han 3 0 i ntact f loats w ere f ound : 2 2-24-1573

1 1-14-1659

8 -9-1893

1 9-25-1028

1 1-13-913

7 -13-1370

1 6-23-1340

1 1-10-1680

6 -13-118

1 5-21-2198

1 0-13-18

6 -11-1195

1 4-16-1568

1 0-13-1596

6 -10-1212

1 3-20-2197

1 0-9-1773

6 -5-1960

1 3-14-1879

9 -13-35

5 -11-28

1 3-12-1917

9 -12-1042

5 -7-1284

1 3-11-703

9 -8-1951

5 -5-1975

1 1-15-1511

8 -13-1171

3 -4-1602

W ooden s weep-net f loats w ere s egment-shaped . M ore t han 4 0 o f t hem w ere f ound i n a ll l evels. P l. 2 3, 1 , 2 g ives a c lear i dea o f t heir s hapes a nd t he m anner i n w hich t hey w ere a ttached t o n ets. T heir u pper p art w as a l ittle t hicker t han t he l ower . T heir s izes r anged f rom 1 6 t o 2 8 c m . i n l ength a nd f rom 9 t o 1 5 c m . i n w idth . T heir d istribution i n h orizons w as: 2 8-32-1322

2 6-30-1118

1 4-16-918

2 8-33-165

2 6-29-888

1 2-21-1381

2 8-32-284

2 6-22-704

1 2-19-194

2 8-31-2056

2 5-29-889

1 2-19-625

2 8-30-320

2 5-29-896

1 1-15-275

3 3

2 8-30-513

1 8-22-324

1 0-13-1571

2 8-30-899

1 8-22-324

1 0-9-924

2 7-34-1436

1 8-15-570

9 -15-1128

2 7-31-229

1 6-22-145

9 -13-1490

2 7-26-473

1 6-17-940

5 -5-1643

2 6-33-1419

1 6-17-950

3 -7-1184

2 6-31-2070

1 6-17-1069

3 -7-1194

2 6-30-821 N et f loats w ere m ade o f b irch-bark a nd w ood i n t he f orm o f s mall t ubes, o vals o r r ings. T hey w ere f ixed t o n ets w ith t he h elp o f s mall h oles. A r ound b irch-bark f loat w as t he c ommonest t ype. I t u sually c onsisted o f t wo t o f ive l ayers o f b irch-bark h eld t ogether w ith b ast f ibres. D iameters o f r ound f loats r anged f rom 9 t o 1 4 c m ., t he s izes o f o val o nes f rom 1 3 x 1 1 t o 1 0 x 9 c m . A ltogether m ore t han 5 00 b irch-bark f loats i n a ll w ere f ound i n t he c hronological l evels, t hat o f t he 1 2th-century . T ube-shaped f loats w ere a lso c ommon : s everal hundred o f f ound a nd d iscarded a fter c areful e xamination .

e xcept

t hem w ere

S mall s egment-shaped f loats w ere m ade o f p ine b ark . T hey w ere n ot l onger t han 8 c m . a nd h ad h oles f or a ttachment t o n ets ( pl. 2 3, 3 ). M ore t han 2 30 s uch f loats w ere d iscovered t ogether w ith s mall l eafs haped w ooden f loats. T hey w ere 8 -9 c m . l ong . T he h ole f or a ttachment w as i n t he l ower p art ( pl. 1 5, 6 ). B oth w ooden a nd b irch-bark f loats o ften c arried o wnership b adges s uch a s t he p rince's s igns s hown i n p l. 2 4, 1 -8, a nd a lso i ndividual s yllables, l etters a nd o ther s igns. T hey a re e specially f requent o n b irch-bark n et f loats. S ome o f t hem w ere p robably m agic s igns ( a c ross, a s olar r ing , a s tar a nd s o o n). T wo w ooden f loats, d ated t o t he 1 0th ( 27-31-229) a nd e arly 1 4th ( 11-15-275) c enturies c arried s igns o f R yurikovichi p rinces. S ome f loats c arried c rosses a s d id a 1 0th-century f loat ( 28-33-165). S igns a nd m arks o n b irch-bark f loats d isplay m ore variety : t here w ere l etters a nd s ome i nscriptions ( short) o n t hem , s hown i n p l. 2 4, 9 -28, P l. 2 5, 2 4. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s ign o n a l ate 1 4thc entury f loat f ound i n u rban p roperty B ( 7-9-904) w as r epeated o n a b irch-bark v essel ( 7-10-885) ( pl. 2 4, 1 1) a nd a w ooden b owl ( 7-8-930) . ( pl. 2 4, 4 5) f ound i n t he s ame p roperty . S inkers m ade o f r ods, b irch-bark a nd s tone w ere f ixed t o s weepn ets. A s i s s een i n p l. 2 3, 7 ,8, t hey c losely r esemble r ings a ttached t o s kiing p oles, i n t he c entre o f w hich a s tone was f ixed . T hey w ere p resent i n a ll l evels, i ncluding t hose o f t he 1 0th c entury . M ore t han 1 10 o f t hem w ere r ecovered .

3 4

S et n ets w ere f ixed t o p oles w ith t he h elp o f t hin r od h oops ( pl. 2 2, 1 2). T he r od w as h ooped t o f orm a l oop, a nd t he s ides w ere n otched a nd j oined t ogether. T hree o r f our s uch h oops w ere u sed f or e ach s et n et. M ore t han 2 5 s uch h oops w ere f ound d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 2 8-33-1258

1 7-26-1330

1 4-20-1136

2 0-26-2162

1 7-25-623

1 3-16-676

2 0-26-2186

1 7-22-1207

1 1-17-1237

2 0-25-792

1 7-18-1999

1 1-14-1543

1 9-25-1135

1 6-17-1022

1 1-14-1593

1 9-21-862

1 5-17-884

1 0-10-1761

1 9-7-2020

1 4-22-1328

8 -14-1374

1 8-24-808

1 4-20-1129

3 -8-1368

1 8-22-1498 S pecially d esigned l ong p oles w ith r ings o r b ifurcations a ttached t o t heir e nds w ere u sed t o d rive f ish i nto s et n ets ( pl. 2 6, 2 7). P oles w ith r ings w ere m ore c ommon . M ore t han 3 50 s uch r ings w ere f ound a nd s ome i mplements c omplete w ith t he p oles ( 11-12-1077, 9 -8-1772, 6 -81 547). Judging b y t heir d istribution t his m ode o f f ishing h aving e merged i n m id-llth c entury b ecame e xtremely p opular i n t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury t hrough t o t he e arly 1 4th c entury. T he bulk o f t he f inds d ate p recisely f rom t his p eriod . P oles w ith b ifurcations a re f airly r are f inds, a bout 4 0 o f t hem b eing f ound . B oth t ypes w ere u sed s imultaneously . T ykes. A n umber o f f inds f rom t he 1 3th-14th c enturies t estify t o t yke f ishing . T hey a re w hole t yke h oops ( pl. 1 5, 1 4). I t m ust b e m entioned t hat t his i mplement i s d istinguishable o nly w hen f ound i ntact, i ts f ragments b eing u nidentifiable. F our s ets o f u ndamaged h oops w ere f ound ( 13-10-676, 1 2-14-1882, 1 0-10-514, 8 -3-1171). T he 1 2th h orizon c ontained f our o val h oops. T heir l onger d iameters w ere 8 0, 7 0, 6 3 a nd 5 5 c m . T wo c ombined h oops w ere f ound i n t he 1 0th h orizons. T heir w idth w as 8 0 c m ., t he j oints r esembled t hose o n c ooper h oops. D evices f or p rocuring w ild h oney . P eople w ho c ollected w ild h oney l ived i n t he c ountryside s o t he i mplements o f t his t rade f ound i n N ovgorod b elonged t o t hose w ho o wned p lots w ith w ild b ees. T hese i mplements i ncluded s pecial d evices t o r each b eehives h igh i n t he h ollows o f t he t rees a nd t o g ather h oney f rom t hem . T hey c onsisted o f a h ook , a w ooden s eat a nd a r ope. T wo h ooks w ere f ound i n u rban p roperty B ( 28-31-1042 a nd 1 9-20-919). T he r ope w as f ixed t o a t ree w ith t he h elp o f t he h ook o r i t w as s imply a ttached t o a b ranch . h oney c ollector t hen l ifted h imself t o t he r equired h eight. h ooks,

d ating

f rom

t he

1 0th

a nd

3 5

t he

1 2th

c entury

a re

T he B oth

a bsolutely

i dentical a nd c losely r esemble m odern o nes ( pl. 2 8). T he h ooks w ere o f t he f ollowing s izes: t he e ntire l ength o f t he 1 0th-century h ook was 2 4.5 c m ., a nd t hat o f t he 1 2th-century 2 3 c m ., t heir l ower p arts w ere 1 1.7 c m . h igh, t he o verall t hickness o f t he h ooks a t t heir b ases was 1 0.5 c m . T he h ooks w ere e vidently m ade b y c apable c raftsmen . T hree s eats w ere f ound i n c ontemporaneous l evels ( 24-29-825, 2 1-30-1366, 2 13 0-1446) w hich w ere i dentified b y t wo h oles o n t heir s ides t hrough w hich t he r ope w as f astened .

N OTES 1 .

I ncluding s pade h andles

2 .

C ollection o f t he T artu E thnographic M useum ,

3 .

E .K .

S ycl ievskaya ,

4 .

B .A .

K olchin ,

1 965

1 959

3 6

1 4,490c,

K a 8 .

C HAPTER T HREE C ooper g oods - B arrels - T ubs - B uckets - B ucket m etrology - H ooped w ooden j ugs - L ower t ubs - B utter c hurns - C onstruction o f h oops T ub l ids - S igns a nd i nscriptions o n barrels - T urned d ishes B owls - S hallow d ishes - D ishes - B asins - D rinking v essels W inebowls - B eakers - F lat-bottomed t urned b owls, s alt-cellars - A k issel d ish - S igns o n d ishes - T urned b oxes - C arved d ishes a nd h ousehold u tensils - S poons - C arved b owls - D ippers - L adles S coops - H ollowed v essels - T roughs - M ortars a nd p estles H ollowed t ubs - B irch-bark d ishes - B irch-bark b oxes - B ast b oxes a nd baskets - W icker v essels.

D ishes a nd v essels u sed i n N ovgorod a re e xtremely v aried i n t erms o f t heir purposes, s hapes, s izes a nd t he m aterials t hey w ere m ade f rom . K itchen u tensils f or c ooking a nd s torage w ere m ostly m ade o f c lay , n onf errous m etal i w ere u sed t o m ake b asins, c aldrons, f rying-pans a nd e xpensive d ishes f or d isplay , g lass w as r eserved f or l uxury i tems e specially d rinking v essels. W ood w as t he m aterial f rom w hich d ishes, c ooking u tensils o f m ass c onsumption a s w ell a s t roughs a nd h ousehold u tensils w ere m ade. T hey w ere f ound i n g reat n umbers i n a ll l evels o f t he N ovgorod c ultural d eposit. W ooden d ishes, c ooking a nd h ousehold u tensils a re d ivided i nto t he f ollowing g roups a ccording t o t heir s hapes, materials and t he t echnology e mployed : c ooper g oods, t urned , c arved , h ollowed , b irchb ark , f ibre, w icker ( made f rom t wigs, r ods, s hingle a nd b ast). W e w ill d eal w ith e ach g roup, i ts t ypology a nd c hronology , s eparately . C ooper G oods. W e u nite w ithin t his g roup a ll w ooden v essels m ade o f s taves s ecured w ith h oops. T hey f irst a ppeared i n G aul a t t he b eginning o f t he C hristian e ra .1 T heir h istory p rior t o t he s econd m illennium A .D. a nd t he w ay t hey r eached o ther r egions a re l ittle k nown t o u s. I t m ust b e m entioned , h owever, t hat i n V iking S candinavia t hey w ere r elatively w idely u sed . T he w ell-known 1 0th-century k ing 's b urial m ound a t O seberg c ontained , a mong o ther w ooden u tensils, s ome c ooper p ails a nd t ubs. T he l argest o f t hem , w ith a n i nner d iameter o f 9 6 c m . a nd a h eight o f 7 6 c m ., w as e vidently e mployed a s a b ath. 2 A g reat n umber o f c ooper g oods w ere f ound d ating t o t he 8 th-10th c enturies. 3

i n

S taraya

L adoga

i n

t he

l evels

An e normous q uantity o f p ieces o f s uch v essels h ave b een f ound i n t he N erevsky e xcavations i n N ovgorod : s taves, b ottoms, h oops, l ids, s pouts, p lugs a nd s toppers. W hole v essels a re r elatively r are. S ome h ouses h ad l arge b arrels a nd t ubs u sed a s d rainage-collectors. T hey w ere p laced i n t he e arth a nd w ere a s a r ule, w ell p reserved . S everal w hole b arrels a nd a b ucket w ere a lso f ound . T he e ntire b ody o f t he c ooper v essels c an b e c lassified a ccording t o s tave s hapes, s ome o ther p arts a nd , m ainly , a ccording t o t he c orrelation b etween t he s ize a nd s hape o f s taves a nd b ottoms. S ome l arge g roups o f s taves c an b e s ingled o ut w hich a re a ssociated w ith d efinite v essel t ypes. T hus, t he s taves f rom g roups 1 2 a nd 1 3 c ame f rom l arge b rewing b arrels, g roups 8 a nd 9 a re f rom g rain t ubs, w ater t ubs a nd l arge t ubs, g roup 7 a re f rom w asht ubs, g roup 6 a re f rom buckets, a nd g roup 2 a re f rom b arrels h olding

3 7

t en p ailfuls. A ll i n a ll, t he N erevsky e xcavations y ielded 1 ,150 s taves, b ottoms, h oops a nd o ther f ragments. A s e arly a s i n t he 1 0th c entury t he p eople o f N ovgorod u sed c ooper v essels t hough t heir c omparative r arity p robably m eant t hey w ere e xpensive. A t t hat t ime s maller v essels w ith d iameters u p t o 2 7-28 c m . w ere m ade. T he p opulation i n g eneral p referred h ollowed , b irch-bark o r c arved v essels. T he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies s aw a g radual i ncrease o f t he n umber o f c ooper g oods a nd t heir g reater v ariety . V essels w ith d iameters o f u p t o 4 2 c m . b ecame q uite c ommon . B y l ate 1 2th c entury , v essels w ith a d iameter o f 4 5-50 c m . m ade t heir a ppearance. I n t he e arly 1 3th c entury , t he i nhabitants o f N ovgorod b egan t o u se a n a ppreciably g reater n umber o f c ooper v essels i ncluding l arger o nes, w ith a d iameter o f 5 0-70 c m . L evels d ated t o t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c enturies c ontain t he g reatest q uantities o f c ooper v essels: v irtually e very N ovgorod h ousehold h ad s ome o f t hem . F inds o f c ooper v essels w ere d istributed c hronologically i n t he f ollowing way ( in p er c ent): 1 0th c entury, 2 .4; 1 1th c entury, 8 .6; 1 2th c entury, 1 0; 1 3th c entury, 1 6; 1 4th c entury , 3 5, a nd 1 5th c entury , 2 9. T he f ollowing t ypes o f c ooper g oods w ere f ound : barrels, t ubs, b uckets, h ooped w ooden j ugs, l ower t ubs w ith h andles, l ower b uckets w ith handles, w ash-tubs, m ugs, b owls, butter c hurns, m ilk p ails ( pl. 2 9, 3 0). B arrels. T hese a re h ooped , f lared v essels m ade o f s taves, w ith t wo b ottoms i n w hich t here w ere o ne o r s everal p lugged h oles. W aterc arriers' b arrels h ad l arge r ound , o val o r r ectangular h oles f or p ouring o ut w ater. T he b arrel i s m entioned i n M edieval R ussian d ocuments a s e arly a s t he 1 1th c entury . T he L ife o f S t. T heodosius r ead : " He a cquired a b arrel.., f ull o f h oney" 4 , while t he F irst N ovgorod C hronicle c ontains t he f ollowing s entence: " They p lugs o ut o f t he b arrels a nd w atched t he w ater p ouring o ut".'

t ook

t he

A ccording t o t heir s izes, b arrels r ange f rom k egs h aving a c apacity o f 1 2 l itres t o l arge w ater-carriers' b arrels w ith a c apacity o f u p t o 4 5 p ailfuls ( 540 l itres). T here a re t hree b asic b arrel t ypes: T he

f irst

t ype:

w ater-carriers'

b arrels,

w ith

d iameters

o f

u p

t o

7 0 c m ., a nd a h eight o f u p t o 1 35 c m . U p t ill n ow o nly t welve s uch b arrels h ave b een f ound i n t he 1 3th-14th-century l evels ( 15-19-260, 1 51 9-328, 1 5-16-941, 1 4-18-303, 1 3-20-1459, 1 3-18-327, 4 80, 1 0-15-371, 8 -13-1170, 8 -10-1295, 7 -6-1792). T he s econd t ype: r elatively c onstant.

1 2-18-252,

b arrels h olding t en p ailfuls, t heir s ize T hey w ere m ade e xclusively o f o ak , w hile

1 2-10-

b eing o ther

t ypes o f v essel w ere m ade m ainly o ut o f p ine a nd f ir. T he b arrels o f t his t ype h ad a c onstant d iameter o f 4 5 c m ., a nd a h eight, i ncluding t he b ottom , o f 6 5 c m . T he l ength o f t he s taves w as 7 2-75 c m ., a nd t heir w idth 1 0-12 c m . J udging b y t heir o ak b ottoms, t hey a ppeared o nly t owards l ate 1 2th c entury a nd b ecame w idely p opular i n t he 1 4th c entury . A rchaeologists f ound a n u ndamaged b arrel ( pl. 3 0, 6 ) a nd 4 5 o dd s taves a nd b ottoms.

3 8

T he b e

m ade

t hird o f

t ype:

a 1 4th

S mall-

a nd m edium-sized b arrels.

c entury m edium-sized b arrel

w hich

M ention w as

f ound

s hould i ntact

( 9-10-1657). I ts f ull h eight i s 5 2 c m ., f rom o ne b ottom t o a nother i t m easures 4 5 c m . t he d iameter o f t he b ottom i s 3 3 c m ., a nd t hat o f t he w ider p art i s 3 9 c m . I t w as m ade o f t welve s taves, i n t he m iddle o f o ne o f w hich t here i s a r ectangular h ole ( 7 x 6 c m .) i ndicating t hat i t w as a w ater-carrier 's b arrel. T he s mall-sized b arrels w ere n ot h igher t han 3 0 c m . w ith a d iameter o f n ot m ore t han 2 0 c m . T he 1 3th1 4th-century l evels c ontain t heir s taves, w hile e arlier l evels ( 11th1 2th c enturies) p roduced s imilar b ottoms. T here a re f lasks a mong t he s mall-sized b arrels, s uch a s 5 -5-1547, 4 -8-1213, 4 -4-486. T hey w ere f rom 1 0 t o 1 5 c m .

h igh w ith a d iameter o f 3 0 c m .

A ll barrel t ypes w ere s ecured w ith w ooden h oops. T able ( cf .

p l.

I II* c ites

1 8,

s izes

o f

s ome

o f

t he m ore

t ypical b arrel

s taves

2 ).

T ubs. T his i s a c ylindrical v essel w ith o ne b ottom . I t i s m entioned i n M edieval R ussian w ritten s ources a s e arly a s t he 1 1th c entury : " They p ut t here a t ub, a nd s tarted p ouring i nto i t." 6 J udging b y s taves a nd b ottoms f ound i n N ovgorod , s everal t ub t ypes w ere m anufactured i n t he c ity . S ome s tave s izes a re g iven i n T able I V . T he l argest t ub, i ntended f or b rewing b eer, w as o f a s tandard s hape a nd c apacity . I ts d iameter w as f rom 6 0 t o 1 00 c m ., a nd t he h eight f rom 5 5 t o 1 00 c m . A 1 4th-century t ub w as 1 10 c m . h igh . T he l argest t ub h ad a c apacity o f 3 0-35 p ailfuls o f b eer. T he t ype h as s urvived d own t o o ur d ay .7 B rewing t ubs a re n ot n umerous s o f ar. T his i s h ow t heir s taves a nd bottoms a re d istributed t hroughout t he d ifferent l evels: 1 3th c entury

1 4th c entury

1 5th c entury

1 4-19-2080

1 0-17-2060

6 -9-1520

1 3-20-1366

1 0-14-25

6 -9-1522

1 3-20-1465

9 -10-430

5 -20-1528

1 2-19-211

8 -7-1789

5 -9-26

1 2-10-480

8 -7-1924

4 -5-1607

1 1-17-2055

7 -11-1178

2 -9-1389

8 -17-1393

7 -9-1272 7 -9-1294

T he m iddle-sized t ubs w ere u sually u sed f or s toring w ere 5 0-60 c m . h igh a nd h ad a d iameter o f 4 0-50 c m .

g rain .

T ubs o f d ifferent c apacities w ere m ade f or d ifferent p urposes, e ach o f t hem p robably h ad i ts o wn n ame. *

T ables I II-VI s ee o n p .

7 7-79.

3 9

T hey

a nd

B uckets. A h ooped v essel o pen a t t he t op, w ith t wo l ugs t o w hich a m etal h andle i s f itted . I n m edieval t imes t hey w ere u sed i n m uch t he s ame m anner a s t oday. " And b rought t hem t o a w ell, d rew u p a l ittle f rom i t w ith a bucket a nd p oured i t o ut i nto s ome o ther v essels." I t c an b e s urmised t hat t he b ucket s hapes a nd c apacities c ontinued i n u se t hroughout t he c enturies ( pl. 3 1). A s t he s taves t o w hich t he h andle w as f itted d iffered f rom o ther s taves, e ach s uch f ind s ignified a b ucket. U p t ill n ow t here h ave b een f ound s ixteen s imilar s taves i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th-century l evels. 1 4th c entury

1 5th c entury

1 4-15-960

8 -7-1772

9 -12-411

6 -12-1461

8 -14-1124

( two s taves)

6 -5-2013

8 -13-1171

6 -5-2020

7 -9-880

2 -4-1309

6 -11-1196

2 -2-1619

6 -10-1194

1 -4-1256

O ther bucket s taves d o n ot d iffer f rom s taves v essels, s ave f or t heir s izes a nd r adii ( see T able I V)

o f o ther c ooper ( cf . p l. 1 8, 3 ).

S everal s cores o f bucket s taves w ere f ound i n l lth-13th-century l evels. F rom a ncient t imes u ntil 1 918 t he b ucket was t he b asic l iquid m easure i n R ussia . T he e xact c apacity o f a b ucket i n e arlier t imes a nd u p t o t he 1 80 1 c entury r emains u nknown a s d oes a ny d ata f or i ts e stablishment. A 1 5th-century b ucket w as f ound i ntact a long w ith s taves a nd b ottoms ( 2-4-1309). I t i s a l ittle b it n arrower t owards t he t op, t he l ower i nner d iameter b eing 2 5 c m ., a nd t he u pper i nner d iameter 2 2.5 c m . t he h eight f rom t he b ottom t o t he r im i s 2 6.5 c m ., i ts c apacity i s 1 1.75 l itres. I t s hould b e i ndicated t hat i n g eneral t heir h eights w ere b etween 2 5 a nd 2 8 c m ., w ith t heir d iameters v arying a ccordingly : t he h igher t he bucket, t he n arrower t he b ottom , t he d ifference b etween t he m inimum a nd t he m aximum s izes b eing 2 c m . A g reat n umber o f m etal h andles w ere d iscovered , t hey r anged f rom 2 2 t o 2 5 c m . i n d iameter. I n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c enturies t he bucket c apacity w as 1 1.75 l itres c ompared w ith t he p re-revolution m easuring bucket e qualling 1 2.29 l itres. T he bucket c apacity c an b e c ompared t o a n o ak c ontemporaneous b arrel. A s w as m entioned a bove, a n i ntact b arrel was f ound i n t he 1 4th c entury l evel ( pl. 3 0, 6 ). I t w as m ade o f 1 3 o ak s taves a nd f our h oops, t wo o f t hem s ecuring t he s taves a t t he t wo b ottoms a nd t wo p laced a l ittle b it h igher a nd l ower. T he d iameter o f t he b ottom i s 4 6 c m ., o ne c entimetre b eing t aken u p b y t he c hime. T he m aximum d iameter i s 6 -7 c m . g reater, a s i s t estified b y t he c urvature o f t he s taves. T he s taves f rom o ne c hime t o a nother e qualled 6 5 c m ., t his b eing t rue, w ith

a n egligible

d eviation

o f

o ne

4 0

o r

t wo

c entimetres,

f or

d etached

s taves. C onsequently , t he b arrel c apacity was 1 17 l itres. T he 1 5th1 6th-century N ovgorod c adasters g ive t he c orrelation between t he s tandard barrel a yg t he s tandard bucket a s 1 : 1 0, t hat i s, t he b arrel h olds 1 0 buckets. T his g ives u s t he c apacity o f a bucket a s 1 17 : 1 0 — 1 1.7.

A s w e s ee,

t his a grees w ith t he c apacity o f t he i ntact b ucket.

H ooped w ooden j ugs.

T his

i s

a h ooped ,

t apering v essel

w ith

o ne

b ottom , s ometimes w ith l ids a nd h andle, a nd a n a verage h eight o f 2 5-30 c m . T hey w ere p opular t hroughout t he e ntire p eriod f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 1 5th c enturies. S izes o f m ore t han 3 20 j ug s taves a re g iven i n T able V ( cf .

p l.

1 8,

4 ).

T he w ooden j ug c onstruction w as u sed t o m ake o ther t ypes o f v essel, s uch a s m ilk p ails w ith s pouts f or p ouring o ut a nd s training m ilk t hrough f lax f ibre. I t w as p recisely t he f inds o f s training s pouts ( pl. 3 1, 4 ) t hat p ermitted u s t o i dentify t his v essel t ype. A ll i n a ll, e ight s pouts w ere f ound i n t he l evels d ating t o t he 1 3th-14th c enturies ( 14-21-1353, 1 4-19-1189, 1 3-12-999, 1 1-18-1431, 1 1-9-1685, 9 1 4-4, 9 -9-1980, 6 -8-1262). I n a ddition , s pecific b eer j ugs w ere m anufactured , w hich l ooked l ike b ig-sized c ooper b eer mugs h olding a l ittle b it o ver a l itre. T wo j ug s taves w ith b roken h andles ( 5-10-323, 5 -8-1235), a p articular f eature o f t his v essel t ype, w ere f ound . L ower t ubs w ith t wo h andles. C ylindrical v essels w ith t wo l ug h andles o n t he o pposite s taves u sed t o h old o r c arry w ater, w hich w as d one b y t wo p ersons w ith t he h elp o f a p ole p assed t hrough t he l ug h oles. T heir c apacity u sually e xceeded t hat o f a bucket. E ight l ugged s taves, c entury

t hat i s l evels.

d efinitely t ub p arts, T he d iameters o f t ubs

w ere f ound i n t he 1 3th-15thr anged b etween 3 5 a nd 4 5 c m .,

t heir h eight b eing a bout 4 0 c m . L ower b uckets w ith h andles. S hallow c ircular o r e lliptical c ontainers n ot h igher t han 1 0 o r 2 0 c m ., r ather varied i n t heir w idth b ut o ften v ery w ide, 4 0-50 c m . i n d iameter. T hey w ere u sed f or d omestic p urposes s uch a s w ashing u p o r l aundering . T he 1 4th-15thc entury l evels c ontained t apering b uckets. S ometimes t hey h ad l egs ( usually t hree) f ormed b y l onger s taves. S uch s taves w ere d iscovered i n t he l lth-14th-century l evels ( 24-29-114, 1 7-25-1339, 1 5-15-387, 1 31 4-1027,

7 -11-1310,

( cf .

1 8,

p l.

6 -5-538).

S ome

s tave

s izes

a re

s hown

i n T able V I

5 ).

W ash-tubs. U sually h old f rom a t hird t o a h alf o f a bucket. T hey c an b e d istinguished s olely b y a handle i n t he u pper p art o f o ne o f t he s taves. S uch s taves a re f ound i n t he 1 2th-15th-century l evels ( 17-221 206, 1 3-21-806, 8 -11-1309, 6 -12-1461, 5 -12-192, 4 -3-1633). S pecialised

c ooper

c ontainers

a re

r epresented

b y

butter

c hurns,

mugs a nd c ups. B utter c hurns a re d istinguished b y t heir l ong , n arrow , s lightly c urved s taves. S ix o f t hem h ave b een f ound s o f ar ( 10-17-1456, 8 -118 75, 6 -12-1429, 3 -7-1184, 3 -6-1270, 2 -7-1464). T heir h eight w as a bout 4 0 c m .,

d iameter b etween 1 2 a nd 1 6 c m .

C ooper

m ugs

w ere

1 2-15

c m .

h igh

4 1

w ith

a

d iameter

o f

7 -10

c m .

S imilar s taves w ere f ound i n t he l lth-14th-century l evels ( 22-23-423, 2 1-26-2043, 1 9-23-1234, 1 8-19-1762, 1 7-25-843, 1 5-23-845, 9 -12-1017, 7 9 -1568, 7 -5-2016). T apering s taves i ndicate t hat s ome o f t hem w ere w ider a t t he t op. S mall c ooper c ups w ere e xtremely r are: o nly t hree o f t hem w ere f ound i n t he 1 3th-century l evel ( 13-18-2117, 1 2-15-1803, 1 2-13-961). T hey w ere n ot p articularly p opular i n N ovgorod a nd m ost p robably w ere i mported f rom t he W est. S uch t hing w ere e xtremely c ommon i n t he 1 8th1 9th c enturies i n t he B altic r egion a s, a s ,m ost p robably , i n t he e arlier p eriod . T hey w ere u sed i n M edieval G ermany a s w ell. T he 1 3th-14thc entury l evels i n L ubeck y ielded a bout 1 00 s imilar c ups. 12 T he t hree c ups f rom t he N ovgorod e xcavations h ave s tandard s izes: t he d iameter w as 1 0 c m ., t he l ower o ne 6 cm ., a nd t he h eight 5 c m .

u pper

W hen c onsidering t ypes o f c ooper c ontainers o ne m ust c onsider i n d etail t he t ypes o f c hime j oints. I t i s c ommon k nowledge t hat i n a ny c ooper v essels t he b ottom ( both t he l ower a nd u pper o nes) a re j oined t o t he s ides w ith t he h elp o f a c hime, t hat i s, t he b ottom e dges w ere c hamfered t o f it t he g rooves o f t he s taves. F our t ypes o f c hime j oint w ere known i n N ovgorod ( pl. 3 4, 6 -9). T he c ommonly u sed t ypes A a nd B w ere t he s implest a nd m ost r eliable o nes. C ontainers m ade w ith t he h elp o f c hime j oint o f t ype 6 a ccount f or 4 1% o f t he e ntire b ody o f c ooper v essels f ound i n N ovgorod ; t hose m ade w ith t he h elp o f t ype 7 2 4%; t hose o f t ype 8 2 0%; a nd o f t ype 9 1 5%. A ll t he f our t ypes w ere u sed w ere u sed a t o ne a nd t he s ame p eriod . I n M edieval N ovgorod , j ust a s t oday , s taves w ere s ecured w ith h oops, b oth w ooden a nd m etal o nes. O riginally t hey w ere m ostly w ooden w hich m akes i t d ifficult t o d istinguish t hem f rom c hance t wigs. C ompared w ith s taves a nd b ottoms t hey a re r are f inds, a nd s o f ar o nly 4 5 o f t hem h ave b een f ound . T hey c an b e r eliably i dentified o nly w ith t he h elp o f j oints. T heir c hronology a nd j oint t ypes d ivide t hem i nto t hree g roups. T he j oint t ypes a re c lear f rom p l. 3 4, 1 -3. T he s implest o ne i s t he b raided j oint k nown f rom t he 1 0th c entury . I ts c ontemporary , a m ore c omplicated j oint, r epresented t wo h oop e nds t ied t ogether b y r ods. I n t he 1 4th c entury a d esign w hich h as s urvived t ill o ur o wn d ays a ppeared : i t w as a h oop w ith a t enon . H oops h ad r ound s ections. T he d esigns:

f ollowing t able

1 st t ype

s hows

t he c hronological

2 nd t ype 1 0th c entury

2 7-28-480

2 8-30-1093

2 6-33-1430

2 7-31-272 1 1th c entury

2 5-30-2071

2 3-23-433

4 2

d istribution o f j oint

3 rd t ype

1 2th c entury 1 7-13-640

1 6-23-790

1 6-23-2077 1 6-19-1656 1 3th c entury 1 3-16-1596

1 4-21-1370 1 3-18-1276 1 3-18-1293 1 3-18-1733 1 3-12-1916 1 2-18-2051

1 4th c entury 1 0-13-1590

1 0-12-1613

1 0-00-655

8 -8-482

6 -9-1230

8 -7-982 7 -10-931 7 -8-944 6 -12-130 1 5th c entury 5 -6-934

2 -2-1620

S ome c ooper c ontainers h ad l ids, c an b e c lassified i nto t hree t ypes.

t welve o f w hich w ere f ound .

T hey

T he f irst t ype. T he s implest l ids r esemble t hose o f r ound b oxes, t hat i s, r ound l ids w ith l ow s kirts ( pl. 3 4, 4 ). I t w as i ntended f or l ugless v essels. A s imilar s kirt w as a ttached w ith a r od t o a c arved 1 4th-century l id ( 9-14-1312) w ith a d iameter o f 4 1 c m . T he s econd t ype. T he l ids o f t his t ype w ere i ntended f or c ontainers w ith h andles o r l ugs, a nd s o t hey w ere n otched ( pl. 3 4, 5 ). T he t hird t ype. T his g roup i s m ade u p o f m ost i nteresting which r esemble t hose o f t he s econd g roup w ith t he d ifference t hat h ad

l ocks.

T heir

d esign

i s

s hown

4 3

i n p l.

3 5.

T he

i nner

n otch

o f

l ids t hey t he

l id c ontained a l ocking b ar m oved b y a k ey i nserted f rom t he o utside. A ll i n a ll f our s uch l ids h ave b een f ound ( 28-33-124 , 2 8-26-523, 2 6-301 40, 1 5-22-1355). T heir d iameters w ere: 2 7, 2 8 a nd 2 7 c m . f or t he 1 0th c entury l ids a nd 5 0 c m . f or t he 1 3th-century l id , t hat i s t hey f itted b oth buckets a nd w ater-carrier 's b arrels ( the i nner d iameter o f t he v essels w as 4 7 c m .). T his i s h ow t he l ids w ere d istributed i n t he l evels: F irst t ype

S econd t ype

T hird t ype

1 7-21-302

2 8-33-779

2 8-33-124

9 -14-1312

2 6-31-123

2 8-26-523

3 -4-1583

1 9-21-884

2 6-30-140

9 -16-1329

1 5-22-1355

8 -9-972 S ome c ooper ( names o f o wners,

c ontainers c arried v arious l etters a nd v arious s igns).

b e s een o n s taves, b ottoms m ainly c ame o ut,

m arks o n t heir b ottoms S ometimes s uch m arks c an

t oo. J udging f rom t heir s hapes a nd s izes s uch f rom b arrels. A s t wo b ottom t ypes c an b e s ingled

t here a re t wo m arked g roups a s w ell. T he

f irst

g roup

c omprising

m arks

o n

o ak

b arrels

h olding

t en

p ailfuls. F ifty-five m arked b ottoms h ave b een f ound . A s t hey s urvive m ostly i n halves s o d o t he m arks o n t hem . O nly 1 4 b ottoms a nd f f l s taves c arry c omplete m arks. T hey a re s o-called t imber-lot b adges, ' based o n a s traight v ertical l ine ( if o ne i s t o j udge f rom i ts p osition o n a s tave), t he l ower a nd u pper s ides o f w hich a re c omplete w ith h orizontal o r s lanted l ines. I n a ddition , t here a re s ome v ertically p laced a nimal

s lanted l ines ( pl. 2 5, 1 -19). o r a n o bject u sed in h ouseholds,

S ometimes t hey r esemble a n h ence t heir n ames: p lough ,

r eel, s quirrel, a nd s o o n . T he t rue s ignificance o f t he m arks i s d ifficult t o s urmise. M ost p robably t he b arrels c ontained h oney o r m ead , a nd t he m arks i ndicated t he b arrel's o wner. What i s m ore i mportant i s t he f act t hat a ll t he m arked b ottoms a nd s taves b elong t o t he 1 4th- a nd 1 5th-century l evels. O ne a lso f inds w ords o n t he b ottoms o f o akwood barrels. T hus, a 1 4th-century b ottom ( 11-13-464) c arries t he name " Bori" ( meaning p robably B oris). Another b ottom , d ated t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 15-217 8) had t he w ord " men" ( meaning b urbot) w ritten o n i t. 15 S igns o f t he s econd g roup a re f ound o n s maller p inewood b ottoms. O ne o f t hem c arries a n ame, o thers o nly s eparate l etters ( pl. 2 5, 2 03 1). T he n ame F oma I vanovits w as c arved o n t he b ottom o f a b arrel ( 91 0-1657) d ating f rom t he 1 4th c entury . T he b ottom d iameter i s 3 3 c m ., a nd t he l etters a re 3 c m . h igh . T he l etter " y" ( u) i s c arved b elow t he n ame, j ust a t t he r ound p ouring h ole. A 1 5th-century b ucket s ide,

t aking t hree s taves.

( 2-4-1309)

h as

t he

n ame

S men c arved

T he l etters a re a lso 3 c m .

4 4

h igh .

o n

i ts

T urned v essels. T his k ind o f w ooden v essel w as v ery p opular i n N ovgorod a nd c an b e f ound v irtually i n e very h ouse. M ore t han 1 ,100 t urned v essels o r t heir f ragments w ere o btained f rom t he N erevsky e xcavations. T hirty-two o f t hem w ere f ound i ntact, 5 0 w ere o nly s lightly d amaged , 3 20 f ragments r etained t he v essel's p rofile, a nd 4 00 f ragments p ermit u s t o r estore t he v essel's s hape. Another 3 00 f ragments d efy a ny r econstruction . T his k ind o f v essel i s f ound i n a ll l evels, s tarting w ith t he m id-10th c entury . T hey w ere f ound i n e very e xcavated h ouse a nd u rban p roperty . T here a re t hree f eatures p eculiar t o t he t urned v essels. F irst, t heir l ines a re s trictly c oncentric, i mparting a s pecific s hape t o t he o bject, which c an b e a chieved o nly t hrough r apid t urning o f a n o bject r igidly f ixed t o a n a xle. S econd , t races o f s traight-shank a nd c ircular f orm t ools c an b e o ften s een b oth a long t he i nner a nd o uter s ides o f t he v essel. T hird , a ny t echnological e rror i s c onsistently r epeated a long t he e ntire c ourse o f t he l athe t ool. D ishes a re m ost n umerous a mong t he t urned w ooden c ontainers f ound i n N ovgorod . T here a re, h owever, o bjects u sed f or o ther p urposes, s uch a s s mall r ound b oxes. I t i s t he f irst t ime t hat a rchaeologists h ave h ad a t t heir d isposal a h uge c ollection o f w ooden d ishes u sed t o s erve b oth h ot a nd c old f ood, bread, d rinks a nd b everages, sweets, and t o s tore f oodstuffs. T heir s hapes a nd s izes a re e xtremely varied , but i dentification o f basic v essel t ypes a nd t heir p urposes i s a n e asy t ask s ince R ussian w ooden d ishes u sed i n p easant h ouseholds f rom t he 1 8th t o t he 1 9th c entury a re w ell s tudied . 16 D epending o n t heir s hape, f unction a nd t he material t hey w ere m ade f rom , v essels o f d ifferent t ypes h ave t heir o wn t raditional c ommon n ames. T his i s e specially t rue o f c entral a nd n orthern Russian r egions. E thnographic m aterial s hows t he f ollowing t ypes o f t urned v essel: b owls, b asins, d ishes, v essels o n a f oot a nd s tem , s maller v essels o f t he s ame k ind , w inebowls, ' glasses', e tc. W ooden d ishes a ppeared i n R ussian w ritten s ources a t a r ather l ate d ate i n t he l ate 1 5th c entury. T hey were m ostly mentioned i n m onasterial a ccount b ooks, i n c ustoms r egisters a nd c adasters, a nd i n a cts. T hus, i n 1 7th-century c ustoms r egisters t he f ollowing t ypes a re m entioned : b owls, d ishes, d rinking v essels o n a s tem a nd f lattened f oot, winebowls, g lasses, w inecups, s alt-cellars and s mall w ineglasses. 17 E arlier w ritten s ources c ontain r eferences t o s imilar v essels m ade o f m etal. 18 T hey c ite t he f ollowing n ames: b owls ( first m entioned i n t he 1 1th c entury), d ishes, b asins ( 12th c entury) a nd w inecups ( 12th c entury). 19 T he N ovgorod c ollection o f t urned varied t han a ny o ther l ater c ollections.

( 12th c entury),

w ooden

v essels

i s

b eakers

m uch

m ore

T he f ollowing s hapes w ere s ingled o ut f rom a mong t he e ntire b ody o f t he N ovgorod f inds: b owls, s hallow b owls, c ups ( winecups), b asins, d ishes, d rinking v essels o n s tems, w inebowls, b eakers, v arious v essels o n

s tems,

b asin-cups,

f lat-bottomed

4 5

b owls,

v ariously

s haped

b owls,

s alt-cellars T he

( pl.

b owl

i s

3 6-38). a h emispherical,

s lightly

f lattened

v essel

w ith

a

s traight r im a nd a l ow f lat b ottom p late. I n t he a bsence o f s uch p late, t he b owl w as p laced o n a l ow r ound b ase. T he r atio b etween t he h eight a nd t he d iameter i s u sually 1 : 3 . S imilar v essels w ere c ommonly u sed t o d ish u p f ood . T heir d iameter r anged b etween 1 4 a nd 1 9 c m ., t heir h eight b etween 4 .5 a nd 6 .5 c m . S ometimes l arger b owls a re f ound , w ith a d iameter o f 3 0 c m ., a nd a h eight o f 1 0 c m . T heir s ides a re o f v arying t hickness, f rom 0 .4 t o 1 c m . P l. 3 9-40 s how t he c ommoner b owl p rofiles. o bjects, T able V II ( cf . p l.

T o 1 8,

i llustrate m ore f ully t his c lass o f 6 ), g ives t he s izes o f t ypical b owls. T able V II

S izes o f l arge b owls,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

d

H

S

2 1-15-1005

1 7

8

6

0 .5

1 7-19-421

2 5

8 .6

0 .7

1 3-17-334

1 7

5 .5

0 .6

1 2-16-345

1 8

1 1

5 .5

0 .9

1 0-18-1394

2 9

1 2

9

1 .0

9 -9-564

2 2

1 0

7 .6

0 .8

8 -12-1208

1 8

7

5

0 .5

7 -11-1191

1 6

6

5 .5

0 .5

7 -10-1245

2 9

8

8 .5

0 .8

7 -9-1260

2 6.5

8

0 .8

1 2 7

1 0

S hallow b owls r esemble t he h emispherical b owls. T hey a re n oticeably f lattened , t heir s ides a re w idely o utsplayed , t hey h ave s traight r ims, a nd l ow f lat b ottom p lates o r s mall r ound b ases. T he r atio b etween t heir h eight a nd d iameter i s 1 : 4 . T his w as a lso a c ommon v essel t ype. I n a ll, 1 40 s hallow b owls w ere f ound . B oth b owl t ypes w ere u sed a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime. T he s izes o f t he s hallow b owls v ary f rom 1 6 t o 1 9 c m . i n d iameter a nd f rom 0 .4 t o 0 .55 c m . i n h eight. 2 5 c m .

T here a re a lso l arger s hallow b owls w ith a d iameter o f u p P l. 4 1-42 s how b owl p rofiles, a nd T able V III ( cf . p l. 1 8,

t o 7 )

' their m ost c ommon s izes. C ups ( winecups) a re d rinking r esemble t hose o f b owls, w hich a re

v essels. o f s imilar

T heir s hapes c losely f orm , t hough t hey a re

m uch s maller. T heir d iameters v ary f rom 1 0 t o 1 5 c m ., t heir h eights f rom 0 .4 t o 0 .6 c m ., a nd t heir s ides a re f rom 0 .3 t o 0 .5 c m . t hick . A ll c hronological l evels h ave t ogether y ielded 4 5 c ups. T hey w ere

4 6

d istributed i n t he l evels a s f ollows: 2 4-28-116

1 8-23-130

1 0-14-1236

2 4-28-126

1 8-20-1067

1 0-14-1493

2 4-28-126

1 8-18-470

9 -9-582

2 4-28-1005

1 8-18-470

8 -15-1324

2 3-31-1365

1 7-28-1550

8 -14-1356

2 3-26-1234

1 7-25-1365

8 -14-1356

2 3-18-2062

1 7-18-1774

8 -14-1364

2 2-27-159

1 5-12-676

8 -10-1076

2 2-23-1088

1 4-18-44

7 -14-1353

2 1-25-1005

1 3-18-1299

6 -8-1252

2 1-23-889

1 2-19-1350

6 -7-1582

2 1-23-979

1 2-16-1516

5 -11-59

2 0-25-134

1 2-13-1894

2 0-25-134

1 2-12-1990

3 -6-1280

1 9-23-226

1 0-15-1184

2 -1-1652

4 -8-1228

.

T able V III S izes o f s hallow b owls,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

d

H

S

2 8-33-133

2 1

8

4 .5

0 .6

2 8-32-132

2 0

8

4 .5

0 .5

2 2-27-164

2 2

3 .8

0 .6

1 6-18-884

1 8

4 .3

0 .4

1 4-19-208

2 6

1 2

6 .5

0 .6

1 3-20-131

3 3

1 2

8 .5

0 .5

1 3-18-1291

1 8

8

4 .8

0 .5

1 1-17-1166

2 0

7

4

0 .4

8 -9-1107

2 4

6

0 .7

1 0 9

1 3

4 7

1 -4-1299

2 1

7

5

0 .7 T able I X

C up s izes,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

d

H

2 4-28-116

1 3

5 .5

5 .4

0 .6

2 4-28-1005

1 0

6

4 .1

0 .4

2 3-26-1234

1 1

5

5 .1

0 .5

2 0-25-134

1 4

6

4 .8

0 .6

1 8-23-130

1 4

6

5 .3

0 .5

1 8-18-470

1 3

6

4 .1

0 .3

4

4 .1

0 .8

1 4-18-44

9

S

9 -9-582

1 4

8

5

0 .6

6 -8-1252

1 3

7

4 .2

0 .4

4

3 .7

0 .4

5 -11-59

9

P l. 4 1, 1 -6 s hows m ore c ommon s izes.

c up p rofiles,

a nd T able

I X

( cf .

p l.

1 8,

8 )

s ome

B asins w ere f airly c ommon i n N ovgorod . T hey a re l arge, d eep v essels p laced o n h igh b ottom p lates w ith c urving s ides a nd i rregular r ims. T hese c ontainers w ere u sed t o d ish u p f ood . T heir s hapes, s izes a nd c hronology d ivide t hem i nto t hree t ypes. L arge h eavy b asins o f t he e arlier p eriod , i n u se f rom t he 1 0th t o 1 1th c enturies, h ad a n e xternal d iameter o f 2 5-40 c m ., a nd a h eight o f 9 -12 c m . T heir s hapes w ere r ather c onstant : w idely o utsplayed c urving s ides a nd r ounded g rooved r ims. M ore t han 4 5 s uch b asins h ave b een f ound . T here f ollows t heir d istribution a mong t he l evels. 2 8-35-793

2 5-30-93

2 2-24-880

2 8-33-102

2 5-26-422

2 2-20-485

2 8-31-26

2 5-26-497

2 2-19-1680

2 8-31-26

2 5-24-514

2 1-25-240

2 8-31-1056

2 4-28-910

2 1-25-240

2 8-30-1080

2 4-27-868

2 1-15-345

2 8-27-1098

2 4-27-1223

2 1-23-218

4 8

2 7-32-818

2 4-26-1234

2 1-23-1069

2 7-29-1020

2 4-25-877

2 1-18-1724

2 7-26-497

2 3-27-1163

2 0-22-859

2 7-26-501

2 3-27-1229

2 0-22-992

2 6-30-188

2 3-25-861

1 9-20-1872

2 6-30-208

2 3-25-1580

1 9-17-540

2 6-27-948

2 2-31-716

1 8-27-1458

2 6-25-444

2 2-31-716

1 8-15-686

1 8,

P l. 4 3 s hows t ypical p rofiles o f e arlier b asins, 9 ) c ites t ypical s izes.

T able X ( cf .

p l.

T able X S izes o f b asins o f t he f irst t ype, H1

c m .

C ard n umber

D

d

H

2 8-31-26

3 4

1 3

9 .3

7 .5

1 .8

2 6-30-188

2 4

1 5

1 1.3

9 .4

1 .1

2 6-30-208

2 9

1 3

1 0

7 .7

2 .3

0 .7

2 5-26-422

3 9

1 9

9 .3

7 .1

2 .2

0 .6

2 5-24-514

3 8

1 5

1 1.8

9 .4

2 .4

0 .9

2 3-27-1163

4 0

2 0

1 2

2 .0

1 .0

2 2-24-880

3 5

1 6

1 2

9 .5

2 .5

0 .9

2 2-24-485

3 5

1 4

9 .2

7 .4

1 .8

0 .7

2 0-22-992

3 8

1 9

1 0.8

8 .5

2 .3

0 .8

1 9-17-540

3 2

1 2

1 0.2

8 .4

1 .8

0 .6

1 0

H2

S 0 .6

B asins o f t he s econd t ype a re n oticeably s maller a nd s impler i n t heir d esign . T hey c ome m ainly f rom t he 1 2th-13th-century l evels t hough i ndividual f inds h ave b een m ade i n t he 1 1th-century l evels. T heir d iameter w as f rom 1 7 t o 2 3 c m ., t heir h eight f rom 5 t o 7 c m . M ore t han 2 5 b asins f ound i n N ovgorod a re d istributed a mong t he l evels a s f ollows:

2 5-19-1751

1 8-15-686

4 9

1 4-18-318

2 2-19-1680

1 7-24-2073

1 4-18-318

2 1-25-345

1 7-20-1537

1 4-15-198

2 1-23-318

1 7-19-1046

1 3-11-610

2 1-19-1872

1 7-19-1798

1 1-16-1255

1 9-16-695

1 7-19-1798

1 1-16-1255

1 8-27-1450

1 7-17-2009

1 1-14-1630

1 8-22-1234

1 6-20-382

1 1-13-896

1 8-15-684

1 4-21-1370

P l. 4 4 i llustrates b asin p rofiles, T able X I c omplete s izes o f t he m ost t ypical s hapes.

( cf .

p l.

1 8,

1 0)

s hows

T able X I S izes o f t he b asins o f t he s econd t ype, C ard n umber

D

d

H

1 9-16-695

2 3.5

9 .5

6 .5

3 .5

0 .6

1 8-22-1234

1 8

8

6

4

0 .8

1 8-15-684

2 1

9

6

0 .8

1 3-11-610

2 0

7

5

0 .7

1 1-13-896

2 4

8

5

0 .7

i n

1 0 9 1 2

Hi

c m . S

A ppearing f irst i n t he 1 3th c entury , b asins o f t he t hird t ype w ere e xtensive u se t hroughout t he n ext c entury a s w ell. T hey b ecame

s impler, s tarting t o r esemble b owl p rofiles, but t hey s till r etained i rregularly s haped r ims a nd h igh b ottom p lates. M ore t han 4 0 b asins o f t his t ype w ere f ound . T heir d istribution i s a s f ollows: 1 4-22-1422

1 3-15-1573

9 -15-1348

1 4-20-1212

1 3-14-1775

9 -11-950

1 4-15-1890

1 3-14-1785

8 -15-1423

1 4-15-1900

1 3-12-946

8 -15-1430

1 4-15-1932

1 3-11-610

7 -14-1323

1 4-15-1981

1 2-18-1128

7 -14-1332

1 4-14-1991

1 2-15-1592

7 -8-981

5 0

1 4-13-1958

1 2-13-952

6 -15-834

1 4-13-2021

1 2-13-1915

6 -8-930

1 3-22-1393

1 2-12-1992

4 -8-1211

1 3-20-1407

1 1-17-1181

1 -6-2115

1 3-20-131

1 1-13-868

1 -4-1267

1 3-20-1457

1 1-7-1737

1 -4-1285

1 8,

1 -4-1285

9 -16-1368

1 3-18-2107

P l. 4 4 s hows t he p rofiles 1 1) t heir s izes.

o f t he b asins,

a nd T able

I n a ll, m ore t han a hundred b asins w ere c hronological d istribution i s s hown i n p l. 4 5, 1 .

X II

( cf .

f ound.

p l.

T heir

T he d ish i s a s hallow , m ore o r l ess c oncave, v essel w ith a f lat r im . T hey u sually h ad a s mall c ircular b ottom p late w hich w as r ather h igh i n t he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies. T hey w ere w idely u sed t o b ring c akes, m eat , f ish a nd s weets t o t he t able. T heir s izes, p rofiles a nd c hronology p ermit u s t o i dentify t hree d ish t ypes. T able X II S izes o f b asins o f t he t hird t ype,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

H

d

H1

1 3-22-1393

2 9

8 .5

1 2

7

1

1 3-20-131

3 2.5

1 1.5

7 .5

0 .7

1 3-20-1457

2 0

1 3

6 .5

0 .8

1 3-20-1407

2 8

1 0

1 3

8 .5

0 .8

1 2-13-952

3 2

1 1

9

6 .5

0 .9

1 0 8

S

9 -16-1368

1 8

7 .9

9 .5

6 .5

0 .7

9 -11-950

2 1

9

9 .5

7

1 .2

8 -15-1423

4 0

1 6

1 6

3 .5

0 .8

•7 -14-1323

3 5

1 2

1 5

9 .5

1

6 -15-834

2 2

9

8

0 .6

3 -6-2115

3 2

9 .5

7 .5

0 .7

9 1 4.5

5 1

D ishes o f t he f irst t ype w ere o f m edium s ize, t heir r ims w ere r ather s mall a nd c urved o utside w ith a l ow h orizontal f lange. T his t ype, m arked b y a h igh b ottom p late, a ppeared i n t he 1 1th c entury a nd w as i n u se t hroughout t he 1 4th c entury . T heir d iameter w as 2 5 c m ., t heir h eight 4 c m . T wenty-five s imilar d ishes w ere f ound , t heir d istribution b eing a s f ollows: 2 5-26-970

1 8-23-1163

1 4-13-1957

2 2-24-1603

1 8-22-1260

1 1-16-1181

2 1-27-768

1 8-20-1591

1 0-16-1132

2 1-22-1003

1 7-19-1044

9 -10-1643

2 1-19-613

1 6-17-1884

9 -8-485

2 0-26-1130

1 5-20-1168

7 -13-1367

2 0-22-902

1 5-20-1244

7 -12-1324

2 0-22-1035

1 4-21-1367

6 -7-1003

2 0-19-529 T able X III t heir p rofiles.

( cf .

p l.

1 8,

1 2)

g ives s izes o f s ome d ishes,

a nd p l.

4 6

T he 1 3th c entury s aw t he a ppearance o f t he s econd t ype d ishes r esembling t he m odern p latter . T hey w ere r ather l arge w ith a d iameter o f 4 0 c m ., a nd a h eight o f 5c m . M ore t han 3 0 h ave b een f ound . T heir c ard n umbers a re a s f ollows: 2 1-22-1093

1 1-18-183

7 -10-1522

1 8-26-1454

1 1-18-1455

7 -8-1057

1 8-22-1263

1 0-17-629

6 -12-1356

1 5-20-1180

1 0-15-1234

6 -9-1312

1 4-15-1932

1 0-10-1763

6 -5-1917

1 4-14-1934

1 0-6-635

6 -5-1994

1 3-11-552

9 -11-1638

5 -12-1456

1 2-19-841

9 -10-1643

5 -9-1212

1 2-12-985

8 -15-1428

5 -7-1554

1 1-19-744

7 -10-1268

2 -8-1760

5 2

T able X IV ( cf . 4 6 t heir p rofiles.

p l .

1 8,

1 3)

g ives t he s izes o f s ome d ishes,

a nd p l.

D ishes o f t he t hird t ype, r ather s hallow w ith h orizontally s played r ims, s omewhat r esembling a m odern p late, a ppeared i n t he l ate 1 3th c entury . T hey r anged f rom s mall o nes o f a bout 2 5 c m . i n d iameter t o v ery l arge o nes, w ith a d iameter o f 4 4 c m . S ixteen d ishes have b een f ound s o f ar . T heir c ard n umbers a re: 1 4-15-1932

9 -10-1643

7 -10-1268

1 3-14-1934

9 -8-485

7 -10-1522

1 1-13-1926

8 -15-136

7 -6-1993

1 0-15-1234

8 -12-1180

6 -12-1356

8 -11-1638

8 -9-1008

5 -12-1426 5 -7-1554

T able X V t hird t ype.

( cf .

p l.

1 8,

1 4)

g ives

t he

s izes

o f

s ome

d ishes

o f

t he

A f ind o f t wo p ractically i ntact a nd c ompletely i dentical d ishes ( 11-13-1926 a nd 7 -10-1522) i ndicates t he p ossible e xistence o f s ets o f d ishes. T hus, t he N ovgorod c ollection i ncludes m ore t han 7 1 d ishes. c hronology i s g iven i n p l. 4 5, 1 . B owl-shaped

d rinking v essels

w ith

l ow

b ases

o r

c ircular

T heir

r eliefs

f irst c ame i nto c ommon u se i n t he 1 3th c entury a nd s urvived t hrough e nsuing c enturies. T hey w ere o f a s tandard s ize a nd h ence o f a r egular c apacity o f 0 .51, w ith a d iameter o f 1 3 c m ., a nd t he h eight b etween 6 a nd 8 c m . T heir s hapes a nd c hronology d ivide t hem i nto f our t ypes. T he f irst i s d ated t o t he 1 3th a nd f irst h alf o f t he 1 4th c entury , t he s econd t o t he 1 4th a nd e arly 1 5th c entury, t he t hird t o t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c enturies, t he f ourth t o t he 1 5th c entury . T able X III S izes o f d ishes o f t he f irst t ype,

c m .

C ard number

D

H

d

H1

B

S

2 1-27-768

2 2

3 .8

1 1

2 .4

2

0 .5

2 1-19-613

2 3.5

4

1 2

2 .5

2 .5

0 .5

2 0-22-902

2 5.5

4 .5

1 2

2

2

0 .7

2 0-22-1035

2 4.5

4

1 0.5

2

2

0 .7

5 3

2 0-19-529

3 1

4

1 2

2 .7

2

0 .8

1 0-16-1132

3 2.5

4 .5

1 6.5

3 .5

2

0 .6

9 -10-1543

2 7

3 .5

1 1.5

2 .5

2 .5

1

9 -8-485

2 4

3 .5

1 1

2

1 .5

0 .7

7 -13-1367

1 7

4

7 .5

3

1 .5

0 .6

6 -7-1003

2 3

4

1 1.5

2 .5

1

0 .6

T able X IV S izes o f d ishes o f t he s econd t ype,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

D1

d

H

S

2 1-22-1093

2 4

1 9

1 1

3 .5

0 .8

1 8-26-1454

1 5

1 1.5

4

0 .4

1 2-19-841

2 4

1 9

1 2

2 .9

0 .5

1 0-15-1234

4 2

3 4

2 1

8

0 .6

1 0-6-635

2 6

2 4

1 9

3 .5

0 .4

7 -10-1268

2 3

1 8

1 2

3 .6

0 .8

7 -8-1057

4 5

3 6

2 2

4 .8

0 .5

6 -12-1356

3 8

3 1

2 2

5 .1

0 .7

6 -9-1312

2 3

1 8

1 2

3 .4

0 .5

5 -7-1554

2 8

2 0

1 0.5

4

1 .3

5

T able X V S izes o f d ishes o f t he t hird t ype, C ard number

D

Di

9 -10-1643

3 6

2 7

9 -8-485

3 8

8 -15-136

d

c m . H

S

4

1 2

0 .6

3 1

3

1 4

0 .5

2 7

2 0

3 .2

9 .4

0 .5

.8 -12-1180

3 8

2 9

4 .5

1 3.5

0 .9

8 -9-1008

3 8

3 0

5 .2

1 4

0 .6

7 -10-1522

2 5

1 7

3 .8

1 0

0 .6

5 -7-1554

3 2

2 5

3 .5

1 3

0 .6

5 4

B owl-shaped v essels o f t he f irst t ype, c losely r esembling s hallow b owls b ut d iffering f rom t hem i n t heir s traight s lightly t apering s ides ( pl. 4 7). F ourteen v essels o f t his t ype w ere f ound d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 4-16-890

1 1-13-981

9 -13-1528

1 3-13-1998

1 1-12-919

9 -9-990

1 2-20-724

1 0-13-1261

8 -11-1027

1 2-18-1226

1 0-6-1712

2 -9-825

1 1-17-1142

9 -14-2149

F urther d evelopment o f t his t ype l ed t o t he e mergence, i n e arly 1 4th c entury , o f t he s econd t ype, m arked b y h igher s ides s lightly b ent i nwards. W ith t heir s traight s mooth r ims a nd s lightly t apered s ides t hey w ere e legant a nd p leasant t o h andle. S ome o f t hem h ad a s mall b and u nder t he r im o n t he o uter s ide. T wenty-seven f inds o f t his k ind a re d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 0-6-670

8 -9-1033

7 -8-1066

9 -17-1399

8 -8-502

7 -8-1631

9 -11-959

8 -8-981

6 -13-137

9 -4-1746

8 -7-1997

6 -13-1369

8 -16-1400

7 -11-1118

6 -12-1389

8 -16-1409

7 -10-1230

6 -10-1177

8 -15-1429

7 -10-1522

6 -6-970

8 -11-1027

7 -10-1532

6 -6-970

8 -9-1001

7 -9-1567

5 -7-1653

I n t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 4th c entury m ore d eveloped v essels a ppeared : t heir o uter s ides w ere e mbellished b y r egularly p laced h alfr ound r ollers. T hirteen v essels o f t he t hird t ype w ere f ound d istributed i n t he f ollowing m anner : 8 -9-1094

6 -9-1245

4 -6-1308

7 -10-1532

5 -10-1135

4 -5-919

6 -11-1240

5 -6-933

4 -4-1643

6 -10-1154

5 -5-1653

3 -6-894 3 -5-1538

5 5

I n t he 1 5th c entury t his t ype o f o rnamentation f urther d eveloped i nto g rooves t hus f orming t he f ourth t ype. F ifteen v essels o f t his t ype w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 4 -7-1270

3 -10-1327

2 -9-1342

4 -7-1280

3 -7-1239

2 -7-1464

4 -5-969

3 -6-1190

2 -7-1474

4 -5-1080

3 -3-921

2 -7-1474

4 -5-1582

3 -3-1621

1 -3-1316

P l. 4 7 i llustrates t he p rofiles o f v essels o f a ll T ables X VI-XIX ( cf . p l. 1 8, 1 5, 1 6; p l. 1 9, 1 , 2 ) g ives t he m ost t ypical o f t hem .

t ypes, w hile t he s izes o f

T able X VI S izes o f b owl-shaped v essels o f t he f irst t ype,

c m .

C ard number

D

D1

d

H

S

1 4-16-890

2 1

1 6

1 1

7 .5

0 .8

1 1-13-981

1 6

1 1

8

6

0 .7

1 0-13-1261

1 4.5

1 0

7

5

0 .7

9 -9-990

1 6

1 2

7

6

0 .7

8 -9-1001

2 1

1 8

1 2

6 .5

0 .8

8 -9-1033

2 3

1 7

1 1

7

0 .6

8 -8-981

1 7

1 1

6

0 .6

8

T able X VII S izes o f b owl-shaped v essels o f t he s econd t ype, C ard n umber

D

8 -16-1409

1 8

8 -8-502

D1

d

H

1 3

1 0

8

1

0 .8

1 8

1 1

1 0

8 .5

1 .5

0 .6

7 -10-1230

1 6.5

1 1

8

7

1

0 .7

7 -10-1522

1 7

1 2.5

8

7 .5

1

0 .8

7 -9-1567

1 7.5

1 4

8 .5

7 .5

2

0 .7

7 -8-1631

1 7

1 1

8

1 .5

0 .5

5 6

1 0

Hl

c m . S

6 -13-137

1 3

6 -10-1177

1 1

7

6 -6-970

1 1

7

1 7.5

1 2

7

1

0 .8

6 .5

8

2

0 .7

6 .5

7

2

0 .9 T able X VIII

S izes o f b owl-shaped v essels o f t he t hird t ype,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

D1

d

S

H

H1

8 -9-1094

1 6

1 1

6

0 .6

6

2

2

7 -10-1532

1 5

1 0

7

0 .6

8

1 .7

2

6 -11-1240

1 6

1 1

8

0 .6

7 .5

1 .8

2

5 -6-933

1 2

7 .5

0 .7

6

1 .8

2

5 -5-1653

1 5

7 .5

0 .7

7 .5

1 .8

2

4 -6-1308

1 3

6

0 .7

6

1 .8

2

4 -4-1643

1 6

1 0

6 .5

0 .6

7 .5

1 .2

4

3 -5-1538

1 4

1 0

8

0 .8

6

1 .7

3

9 1 0 9

n umber o f r ollers

T able X IX S izes o f b owl-shaped v essels o f t he f ourth t ype,

c m .

C ard n umber

D

Di

d

H

H1

S

4 -7-1270

1 3

1 0

6 .5

9

2

0 .6

4 -5-969

1 8

1 3

9

9 .5

1 .5

0 .6

4 -5-1080

1 4 .5

8 .5

8

1 .7

0 .6

4 -5-1582

1 5

1 0

9

9

1 .3

0 .6

3 -3-1621

1 4

1 0

7

8

1 .2

0 .7

2 -7-1447

1 5.5

1 1

1 0

9

1 .2

0 .8

2 -7-1474

1 4

1 0

1 0

9

1 .2

0 .5

9

V essels o n s tems: d eep b owl-shaped h emispherical f ooted v essels w ith c overs. T he l ids w ere u sually c omplete w ith i rregularly s haped h andles. T hey w ere u sed t o s erve c ooked f ood a nd t o s tore b read . T heir d iameters w ere a bout 3 0 c m ., t he t otal h eight a bout 2 5 c m ., a verage t hickness o f t he s ides 0 .7 c m . S ometimes s uch v essels h ad h orizontally p laced h andles. O ne o f t hem w as f ound i n t he e arly 1 1thc entury l evel ( 25-30-94). A ll i n a ll s ix v essels ( 26-30-31, 2 5-30-94 ,

5 7

2 4-32-1462, 2 1-23-1079, 2 0-21-820, 1 9-21-890) a nd t wo c overs ( 26-281 249, 2 1-30-1334) w ere f ound , b oth i n 1 0th-llth-century l evels. T heir s hapes a re s hown i n p l. 4 3, t heir s izes--in T able XX ( cf . p l. 1 9, 3 ). W inebowls: s pherical m edium-sized v essels i n w hich s erved o n f estive o ccasions. T hey w ere t opped w ith n ecks

d rink was a nd c urved

r ims a nd r ested o n b ases. O nly s even w inebowls w ere f ound i n N ovgorod , o ne o f t hem i n t he 1 0th-century l evel, t wo i n t he 1 2th-century l evel, t hree i n t he 1 4thc entury l evel a nd o ne i n t he 1 5th-century l evel ( 26-31-2080, 1 9-24-236, 1 7-19-1813, 9 -16-1441, 8 -14-1366, 7 -11-1178, 5 -7-1296). T heir f orms a nd d ecoration c losely r esemble e ach o ther ( pl. 4 8). T hus a ll o f t hem h ave n arrow b ands o f d ecoration i n t he m iddle. T he s hape o f t he r im w as a lso s hared b y a ll w inebowls. T heir d iameters r anged f rom 1 4 t o 2 1 c m ., s ome o f t he d imensions a re c ited i n T able XXI ( cf . p l. 1 9, 4 ). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he p roportions o f t he i ntact b owls a nd o f t hose t hat w ere r econstructed ( diameters o f t he b owl i tself, t bose o f t he b ase a nd o f t he n eck) c orrespond t o t he t raditional o nes. 2U D iameters o f t he m ost f lared p arts o f b oth l ater m etal w inebowls a nd o f N ovgorod w ooden o nes e quals t he s um o f t he d iameter o f t he n ecks a nd o f a h alf o f t he b ase d iameter i n i ts n arrowest p art. T able X X S izes o f v essels o n s tems, C ard n umber

D

H

H1

2 6-30-31

2 8

9

2 5-30-94

2 1.5

9 .5

2 4-32-1462

3 0

2 1-23-1079

3 0

2 0-21-820

2 8

1 9-21-890

2 9

d

c m . h

hi .

S

1 2.5

6 .5

2

1

1 2.5

7

2

1 0 .6

1 2

1 1.5

8 .5

2

0 .6

9 .5 1 0

0 .9 1 1

8

1 .5

0 .8

T able X XI S izes o f w inebowls, C ard n umber

D

D1

d

1 9-24-236

1 9

1 4

1 7-19-1813

1 4

1 0

9

9 -16-1441

2 0

1 4

-

8 -14-1366

2 1

1 5

1 4

H

1 2.5

1 9

5 8

c m .

H1

H2

6

7

5 .5

5

7 .5

8

6

1 0

H3

2

3

h

S

1 3

0 .7

1 0.5

0 .8

1 5.5

1 .1

1 6

1 .1

F ooted v essels o n s tems. T his k ind o f s lender s temmed v essels c omprise a r ather n umerous g roup a mong t he t urned v essels. T hey h ave a r elatively b road f lattened f oot-base a nd s lender d ecorated s tems. w ere p opular i n N ovgorod f rom t he 1 0th c entury o nwards.

T hey

T hough i ntact v essels a re r are, 7 0-odd s tems w ith b ases have b een f ound . S ixteen o f t hese h ave a ttached f ragments o f t he v essels t hey s upported a nd 2 4 v essels c ontain a c onsiderable p art o f t he b roken b ase a nd s tem . A ll t he s tems f ound s o f ar c an b e d ivided i nto f our t ypes i n t erms o f t heir s hapes a nd c hronology . T he e arliest, 1 0th-century l evel, y ielded m ostly p lain v essels w ith w ide b ases, 2 1 c m . i n d iameter, a nd t hin c onical s tems ( pl. 5 6, 1 -5). F urther d evelopment o f t he f orm l ed i n t he e arly 1 1th c entury t o v essels o f t he s econd t ype ( pl. 5 6, 6 -9). T wenty-six s tems o f t his t ype a re a ll d ecorated w ith f ine g rooves a nd t riangular b elts w ith s harp r ibs r unning a round t heir g ently s loping b ases a nd c onical s tems. S ome o f t hem , w ith t heir b ase d iameters 1 9 c m ., t he s tem h eight 9 c m ., a nd i ts d iameter 8 .5 c m ., l ooked r ather m assive. T hey s urvived u ntil t he l ate 1 2th c entury . I n t he m id-12th c entury , h owever, m ore e laborate s tems o f t he t hird t ype a ppeared . T heir m anufacture c ontinued w ell i nto t he 1 4th c entury .

A ll i n a ll,

3 4

s tems have b een f ound , m arked b y a r ing e ncircling t heir m iddle p arts ( pl. 5 0, 5 1). A c ertain n umber o f s maller s tems w ith b ases i ndicates t hat t he v essels t hemselves d iminished i n s ize. B y t he e arly 1 4th c entury t he d esign b ecame m uch s impler t hus g iving r ise t o v essels o f t he f ourth t ype, w ith e longated b ases s erving a s s tems. F ourteen s imilar base-stems h ave b een f ound . T he c hronological d istribution o f s tems o f a ll t ypes

i s s hown i n p l.

4 5,

2 .

T he N ovgorod c ollection o f t urned t able v essels i ncludes a c ertain n umber o f b owl- o r c up-shaped v essels w ith s tem f ragments o f d ifferent s izes. T hey c an h ardly b e r egarded a s p arts o f b ottom p lates s ince t heir d iameters a re n ot m ore t han a f ourth o r a f ifth o f t hat o f t he b owl i tself . T o b e s table, s uch v essels s hould r est o n much w ider bases. T heir r econstructions a re s hown i n p l. 5 7, 1 . Their p roportions d epend o n t he s tem t ype a nd i ts d ate. W ith l avishly d ecorated r ings, c oves, g rooves a nd f illets, t hese v essels were e vidently u sed o n f estive o ccasions. T his c ategory i ncludes b eakers, d rinking v essels o n h igh s tems. T welve o r s o v essels o f t his t ype, s ix o f t hem i ntact, w ere o btained f rom 1 1th-, 1 2th- a nd 1 3th-century l evels. T heir s hape c hanged l ittle t hroughout t he c enturies. T heir u pper p arts w ere m ainly r ather s hallow , s lightly f lared c ups w ith p lain r ims, p laced o n s tout s tems a nd f lat b ases. T heir s izes w ere e xtremely v aried , w ith d iameters f rom 1 0 t o XXII

1 7 c m ., a nd h eights f rom 7 t o 1 2 c m . T hey a re s hown i n T able ( cf. p l. 1 9, 5 ) while t he f ollowing i llustrates t heir

' chronological d istribution : 2 4-23-504

1 8-26-1330

1 5-18-1009

2 2-30-767

1 7-19-1046

1 1-19-1445

1 9-28-1456

1 7-18-1079

1 1-17-1170

1 9-20-424

1 6-24-1474

1 1-10-1086

5 9

F lat-bottomed b owls. T hese 1 0th- a nd 1 2th-century t urned t able v essels i mitated e arlier c arved f lat-bottomed b owls a nd d ippers a nd h ad n o b ases. T wo t ypes w ere m anufactured t hroughout t heir h istory : e arlier ( 10th-llth c enturies) s pherical, s lightly f lattened o pen b owls w ith o ut-turned r ims ( pl. 4 4). T hirteen b owls o f t his k ind w ere f ound i n t he f ollowing l evels: 2 7-25-506

2 4-25-1817

2 2-27-772

2 5-27-523

2 4-23-504

2 2-27-1840

2 5-27-523

2 3-30-764

2 2-23-1943

2 4-29-839

2 3-27-1163

2 2-17-1752

2 4-29-851 L ater b oWls, d ating f rom t he 1 2th c entury , w ere d istinguished b y n arrower n ecks a nd m ore v ertical o r e ven i nverted r ims. S even b owls f ound s o f ar w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 8-25-736

1 7-20-1540

1 6-20-307

1 8-19-988

1 7-14-1715

1 6-17-1884 1 6-17-1972

B owl s izes w ere u niform , t heir d iameters r anged n egligibly f rom 1 5 t o 1 9 c m ., t he h eights f rom 6 t o 8 c m ., a nd w all t hickness f rom 0 .5 t o 0 .6 c m . T ables X XIII s ome o f t heir s izes.

( cf .

p l.

1 9,

6 )

a nd X XIV

( cf .

p l.

1 0,

7 )

s how

S alt-cellars o f d ifferent s hapes a nd d esigns and made f rom d ifferent m aterials ( ranging f rom w ooden c arved , h ollowed , o r t urned t o w icker-work) w ere f ound i n e very h ouse. T ypically N ovgorod t urned s alt-cellars w ere s mall s hallow c ontainers w ith l ow p edestal b ases a nd h igh c overs w ith m assive h andles. E leventh-thirteenth c entury l evels y ielded f ive s alt-cellars ( two c ontainers a nd f ive d etached c overs) ( 25-29-188, 1 4-18-305, 1 4-11-706, 1 2-17-2077, 1 1-12-1833). P l. 5 7, 2 s hows s alt-cellar 1 4-11-706 a nd 1 4-18-305. F or r econstruction p urposes t he c over i s p resented a s f itting t he c ontainer, t hat i s, i ts d iameter was i ncreased by 2 c m . T he s izes o f t he s alt-cellars a re c ited i n T able XXV. T able XXII B eaker s izes, C ard n umber

D

c m .

Di

d

H

H1

S

2 4-23-504

1 0

9

7

8

4 .5

0 .6

2 2-30-767

1 0.5

9 .5

6

7

4

0 .6

1 9-28-1456

1 4 .5

1 2.5

8

8

4

1 .2

6 0

1 9-20-424

1 7

1 5

1 7-18-1079

1 2

1 0

1 1-17-1170

1 4

1 1-10-1086

1 6

1 1

1 1.5

6 .5

0 .7

7

1 0

5

1 .0

1 2

8

1 0

5

1 .2

1 4

8 .5

1 2

5 .5

1 .5 T able X XIII

S izes o f t urned b owls o f t he f irst t ype, C ard number

D

D1

H

h

S

2 5-27-523

1 4

1 2

7

3

0 .7

2 5-27-523

1 5

1 3

6 .5

3 .5

0 .5

2 4-29-839

' 1 3

1 2

6

2 .5

0 .7

2 4-29-851

1 4.5

1 4

6

2 .5

0 .6

2 3-30-764

1 8

1 7

6 .5

2 .5

0 .7

2 2-22-1943

1 3

1 1

6

3

0 .4

c m .

S izes o f t urned b owls o f t he s econd t ype, C ard n umber

D

D1

H

h

S

1 8-25-736

1 8

1 5.5

7

3 .5

0 .7

1 8-19-988

1 5

1 2.5

6 .5

3

0 .5

1 7-20-1540

1 1

8 .5

5

2

0 .6

1 6-20-307

1 6.5

6 .5

4

0 .7

1 3

T able XXIV c m .

T able X XV S izes o f s alt-cellars, C ard n umber

D

H

d

2 5-28-188 1 4-15-305 1 6

4

8

1 3-17-2077

1 4

4

7

1 1-12-1833

Di

h

hl

d l

1 1

5

2

3

5 .2

2

3 .6

6

2

3 .5

9

1 4-11-706

-

1 2

6 1

c m .

C ommonly u sed t able u tensils d o n ot e xhaust a n a mazing v ariety o f N ovgorod t urned v essels. Among u nique f orms, a v essel f or s erving k issel ( jelly-like f ood) m ust b e m entioned ( 14-24-2018). I t w as f ound i n a 1 3th-century l evel. T his l arge f lat c ontainer w ith a w ide r im ( 40 c m . i n d iameter) i s s hown i n p l. 5 7, 3 . I n i ts c entre t here i s a n a dditional c ontainer f or s erving k issel w hile w ide f lat r ims w ere u sed f or s erving c akes o r b read . A shv essels.

a nd m aple-wood L ustrous w hite

t exture l ooked e xtremely f ine i n t urned m aple-wood w hen c ut r eveals i ts t exture.

E qually f ine i s y ellowish-rose c ut a sh-wood v essels i n N ovgorod w ere m ade o f c ut d iscs.

( pl.

5 0).

A ll

t urned

F or t heir m ost p art N ovgorod v essels h ad n o c oating , t heir n atural t exture a nd c olour b eing e xtremely a ttractive. S ome v essels o ut o f t housands o f f inds r etained t races o f y ellow o r r ed p aint m ainly a round t he r im . T hus a 1 3th-century b owl ( 13-20-1424) w ith t he d iameter o f 2 0 c m . had a r ed b and 0 .6 c m . w ide a round i ts u pper r im . S ome v essels w ere e mbellished w ith c ompositions w ith p oker-work d one w ith a f ine s teel n eedle. S ometimes

F or m ore d etails s ee t he s econd p art o f t his b ook . t urned

w ooden

o bjects

c arry

m arks

( letters

o r

o ther

s igns) m ade b y t heir o wners. T oday , t he n umber o f m arked o bjects h as r eached 2 2. P l. 2 4, 2 9-53 s hows a ll t he m arks f ound o n t he b ottoms o f t able u tensils. S mall t urned b oxes. T his i s a nother a nd r ather n umerous c ategory o f N ovgorod w ooden o bjects. T hey w ere u sed f or h olding c osmetics, o intments, r ouge o r s mall j ewellery . M ore t han 2 20 f ragments w ere f ound , i ncluding 2 15 l ids a nd f ive b ody p arts. T hree o f t hem a re b ox b ottoms w ith p artly p reserved s ides h olding w hat w as p robably s ome k ind o f o intment ( 22-27-2143, 1 3-20-1465, 6 -2-626). J udging b y t heir d istribution t hey w ere u sed t hroughout t he e ntire p eriod u nder i nvestigation , t hough 8 0% o f t hem c ome f rom t he 1 3th-and 1 4th-century l evels. T he

l ids

i ndicate

t hat

t he

b oxes

t hemselves

w ere

o f

s imple

a nd

s table s hapes ( pl. 5 4, 4 -6). T heir d iameters w ere f rom 4 t o 5 c m . ( 70% o f a ll f inds), b ut t here w ere b oth s maller ( 2.8 c m . d iameter) a nd c onsiderably l arger o nes ( 6, 9 , 1 0, 1 2, 1 7 o r e ven 2 7 c m . d iameter), t hough l arge b oxes w ere e xtremely r are. T he l ids w ere e ither f lat o r h emispherical.

T able X XVI

( cf .

p l.

t ypical b ox l ids.

6 2

1 9,

9 )

s hows

t he s izes

o f t he m ost

T able XXVI S izes o f b ox l ids,

C ard number

D

2 6-28-1249

c m .

d

H

6 .4

4 .6

1 .2

0 .3

2 3-26-1187

1 1.8

1 0.8

0 .9

0 .5

1 6-18-1067

2 1

1 4.4

3 .1

2 .4

4

1 .2

0 .5

9

3 .1

1 .7

1 5-18-1013 1 5-15-1098

5 1 0

h

1

h2

1 .6

0 .5

1 2-19-1128

3 .6

3

0 .8

0 .3

1 2-17-1234

6 .2

5 .4

0 .9

0 .4

1 1-16-1293

8 .2

6 .2

1 .1

0 .5

1 0-16-1360

4

2

1

0 .7

0 .2

9 -15-1342

1 0

7 .2

1

0 .4

9 -15-1362

1 0.2

7 .6

0 .7

0 .4

B y t he e arly 1 5th c entury t he b ox d esign h ad u ndergone s ome c hanges, t he b oxes b ecoming l arger ( with d iameters o f u p t o 6 -8 c m .), w hile t he l ids w ere s upplied w ith l atches, a nd s ometimes, w ith h andles ( spherical o r o therwise). T he l atch w as b asically o f t he c onstruction t hat i s u sed t oday i n t ea-pots a nd s mall b oxes, t hat i s, i t h eld t he l id i n p lace b y e ntering an otch . C arved a nd h ollowed o ut t able a nd k itchen u tensils m ade o ut o f w ood b y t he u se o f s harp s teel i mplements. T he f ollowing t ypes o f h ollowed o r c arved o ut u tensils w ere w idely u sed i n N ovgorod s ince e arly t imes: s poons, d ippers, l adles, b owls, d rinking b owls, w ith t wo l ugs f or s erving d rink , s alt-cellars a nd s coops. S poons a re

f ound i n

l arge

n umbers;

6 50

i tems

h ave b een

v essels

f ound b ut

o nly 1 10 o f t hem w ere i ntact o r o nly s lightly d amaged . T he e ntire c ollection m ay b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups, t he f irst o f t hem e mbracing p lain s oup s poons, t he s econd m ore c omplicated f orms. A ccording t o t he ' spoon c hronology a nd u ses t he l atter i s s ubdivided i nto s everal t ypes. P l.

5 8,

1 2-16

s hows

t he

s hapes

a nd c onstruction o f s impler

f orms.

T hey a ppeared i n N ovgorod i n t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury a nd s urvived t hroughout t he e ntire p eriod u nder r eview . A ltogether 4 20 s poons o f t his k ind w ere r ecorded ; t hey w ere m ainly u sed d uring t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies. T hey w ere o f s tandard d imensions, t he h andle

6 3

b eing w ide.

1 5-17

c m .

l ong ,

t he

d eep

e lliptical

b owl

8 -9

c m .,

a nd

6 -7

c m .

E arlier s poons, d ating f rom t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies, a re m ore c omplicated a nd d ecorated ( pl. 5 8, 1 -11). T hey h ad l onger h andles, s harper a ngles b etween h andles a nd b owls a nd m ore f inely c arved b owls. S ome o f t hem w ere u sed a s s oup s poons, o thers f or e ating o ther k inds o f f ood . I t m ay b e n oted t hat f orks a ppeared i n N ovgorod a s l ate a s t he 1 5th c entury . S oup s poons, n aturally , w ere d eeper t han o ther s poons w hich o ften h ad f lattened b ottoms. S tarting w ith t he s econd t hird o f t he 1 1th c entury , t he s poon d esign b ecomes m uch s impler a nd t he a ngle b etween t he handle a nd b owl l arger ( pl. 5 8, 3 , 4 ). I t w as b rought a bout n ot s o m uch b y a esthetic n otions a s by t echnological c onsiderations a nd market s ituation: s harper a ngles p resent m ore t echnological d ifficulties t hat m ake t he s poon m ore e xpensive. I n t his w ay s impler s poons d ated f rom t he 1 4th c entury w ere c onsiderably c heaper t han t heir m ore e laborate 1 0th-llthc entury c ounterparts. T he d istribution o f s poons i n t he s tratigraphic l evels was a s f ollows: 1 0th c entury 2 8-33-105

2 7-31-170

2 6-32-103

2 8-33-105

2 7-27-434

2 6-31-2099

2 8-32-149

2 7-26-471

2 6-30-250

2 8-32-205

2 7-26-471

2 6-29-1031

2 8-32-347

2 7-26-482

2 6-27-443

2 8-28-1101

2 7-26-486

2 6-26-1099

2 8-27-1099

2 7-25-476

2 6-24-1000

2 7-31-163

2 6-31-95

2 6-24-1110

1 1th c entury 2 5-29-24

2 4-29-2053

2 2-27-102

2 5-29-144

2 4-29-2184

2 2-27-102

2 5-29-232

2 4-28-97

2 2-27-107

2 5-29-2050

2 4-28-282

2 2-27-120

2 5-29-2050

2 4-26-1563

2 2-27-147

2 5-28-310

2 4-25-397

2 2-27-223

2 5-28-324

2 4-25-397

2 2-27-805

6 4

2 5-26-1062

2 4-23-1958

2 2-26-323

2 5-25-430

2 3-25-1549

2 2-26-1024

2 5-00-1847

2 3-21-1689

2 2-25-1527

2 4-31-765

2 3-19-1719

2 2-24-1809

2 4-29-141

2 2-31-1428

2 2-24-1809

1 2th c entury 2 1-17-809

2 1-25-340

2 0-27-2065

2 1-26-97

2 1-23-363

2 0-24-974

2 1-26-136

2 1-23-1549

2 0-18-1662

2 1-26-165

2 1-23-1553

2 0-18-1662

2 1-26-203

2 1-21-1501

2 0-17-1724

2 1-26-802

2 1-19-575

1 9-20-1815

2 1-26-838

2 0-27-2065

1 9-19-1817

I n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury t he s implified v ariant o f e arly s poons d isappeared , t hat i s, a ll s poons m anufactured s ince t hat t ime b elonged t o t he g roup o f p lain s poons w hich h ad f irst a ppeared b ack i n t he 1 1th c entury . O ne m ore t ype o f s poon w as i n u se i n t he 1 0th t hrough t o t he e arly 1 2th c entury : t hey w ere t ravelling s poons w ith f lattened a nd s hortened h andles ( pl. 5 8, 7 , 8 ). N ineteen o f t hem w ith h andles n ot l onger t han 7 -8 c m . w ere d istributed i n t he s tratigraphic l evels o f t he 1 0th-llth c enturies

2 7-26-480

i n t he f ollowing w ay :

1 0th c entury 2 6-27-443

2 6-27-1883

1 1th c entury 2 5-27-1303

2 3-30-746

2 2-24-974

2 5-24-472

2 3-24-906

2 2-21-991

2 3-21-575

E arly 1 2th c entury 2 1-26-802

2 1-23-1006

2 1-17-1728

2 1-23-554

2 1-23-1069

2 0-25-132

2 1-20-483 6 5

T hroughout t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th t o t he 1 4th c entury o nly p lain s poons w ere m anufactured i n t he c ity . T he t ravelling s poon , t hough i n a m uch p lainer v ariant t hat i ts p redecessors o f t he 1 0th-llth c enturies, r eappeared ( pl. 5 8, 1 8, 2 0). h andles, n ot l onger t han 6 -7 c m ., w ere i n c enturies.

S poons w ith s hort r ound u se i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th

H ere i s h ow t hey w ere d istributed i n s tratigraphic l evels: 1 4th c entury

1 0-10-485

8 -14-1265

6 -9-1204

9 -9-521

7 -9-1214

6 -7-941

9 -9-1991

6 -10-1214

6 -6-984 6 -5-1960

8 -15-1429 1 5th c entury 5 -10-1142

4 -10-1375

5 -8-1290

4 -8-1180

P l. 6 1, a ll t ypes.

1 i llustrates

4 -6-1261

t he c hronological d istribution o f s poons

o f

A s s poons w ere made o f maple-wood t he t exture o f which i s e xtremely f ine-looking a nd r esistant t o f ading , t hey w ere u sed w ithout c oating . T here w ere, h owever, p ainted s poons a s w ell. S even s uch s poons d ate f rom t he 1 2th- a nd 1 3th-century l evels. S poon h andles w ere m ainly e mbellished w ith c arving, t here b eing 1 20 o f t hem , which a ccounts f or 1 8% o f t he t otal n umber. B owls. T his i s r ootstocks o r burls.

a s pecific g roup o f d rinking v essels m ade o f T heir u se i s r estricted t o t he 1 0th a nd e arly

1 1th c enturies. P l. 6 2, 1 s hows t heir d esign a nd s hape. T heir c ommonest d iameter w as 1 6 c m ., t hough i t r anged f rom 1 2 t o 2 0 c m . T he b owls w ere 3 -4 c m . d eep, w ith h andles r eaching 3 -4 c m . T he u pper s ides o f t he f lattened handles w ere s ometimes d ecorated with c arving. T wenty-two b owls w ere f ound , m ostly i n t he 2 8th l evel ( 28-25-1402, 2 83 2-128, 2 8-33-1255, 2 8-31-317 ( nine b owls), 2 8-31-901 ( two b owls), 2 83 0-886, 2 6-25-481, 2 5-27-1837, 2 4-32-1351, 2 3-30-761, 2 3-24-935). A m ost i nteresting f ind w as n ine b owls ( pl. 6 3) a rranged o n t heir s ides i n a s emicircle i n a s hallow p it. T his i s w hat w as l eft o f a p agan c eremony o f t he f irst s ettlers i n V elikaya S treet. 21 I n t he l ate 1 0th-early 1 1th c enturies t he p rofile b owls b ecame m ore e laborate w ith t heir r ims b ent i nwards ' example, 2 6-30-2064 a nd 2 3-30-761 b owls). T wo b lanks f or w ere a lso f ound . O ne o f t hem ( 25-24-2016) w as m ade o f ( 26-25-481)

o f t he c arved ( such a s, f or s imilar b owls burl, a nother

o f r ootstock .

I n t he 1 0th-14th-century s haped c ontainers w ere f ound . h eight w as 4 -5 c m .

l evels s everal s mall-sized c arved b owlT heir o uter d iameter w as 6 -7 c m ., t heir

M ost p robably t hey w ere s alt-cellars.

6 6

S ome o f t hem

a re s hown i n p l. 6 4 , 1 -5. T hese a re c ard n umbers o f t he s alt-cellars f ound i ntact: 2 7-32-814, 2 6-29-312, 2 3-27-243, 2 1-25-349, 2 1-23-1545, 1 5-20-1242, 1 4-18-44, 1 3-18-1260, 1 2-19-773, 6 -13-774, 6 -9-1313. T wo t iny b owl-shaped h andled v essels f ound i n t he 1 0th ( 26-27-945) a nd 1 1th-century ( 22-24-953) l evels d eserve s pecial m ention . T hey c losely r esemble 1 0th-century l arge f lattened b owls. T heir s izes a re: d iameter 4 a nd 5 c m ., h eight 2 c m ., a nd 3 c m . V essels w ith t wo l ugs f or s erving d rink . L arge c ircular o r e lliptical v essels w ith t wo l ugs w ere w idely u sed i n p easant h ouseholds i n t he 1 9th c entury f or s erving d rink . N o i ntact v essels o f t his k ind h ave b een f ound s o f ar, s ince t he l ugs w ere e xtremely f ragile. S till, t heir p resence i n N ovgorod i s n ot i n d oubt t hanks t o t he f inds o f t heir b lanks r anged

a nd v essels f rom 1 7 c m .

h eight was 2 3 c m . b lanks: 2 7-28-1582, 1 7-1417, 9 -11-1621,

w ith b roken l ugs ( pl. 6 2, 2 ). T heir d iameters ( 12-10-1000) t o 3 5 c m . ( 8-6-1760), t heir m aximum T hese a re t he c ard n umbers o f t he v essels 2 2-24-953, 1 7-18-1784, 1 4-19-1270, 1 2-10-1000, 8 -14-1370, 8 -6-1760, 2 -10-90.

a nd 1 0-

A c ontainer f or l iquids, t entatively d efined a s a s mall f lagon w as f ound i n t he 1 4th-century l evels ( 9-11-1621). I t was s haped l ike a f lattened b owl h aving a d iameter o f 1 0 c m . w ith a h andle. O n t he o pposite s ide t here w as a s pout f or p ouring o ut l iquids. O n t he w hole, t here w ere n o c learly d istinguishable f lagons a mong t he g reat m ass o f c arved v essels o btained i n N ovgorod . T echnology a nd m aterial w ere t he t wo f actors t hat p ermit u s t o d istinguish b etween c arved a nd t urned b owls. T he f ormer, m ostly o f l arge d iameters, w ere m ade f rom r ootstocks. M ore t han 7 9 f ragments o f v arying s izes w ere f ound i n t he l lth-14th-century l evels. T heir u sual s ize w as 2 5-35 c m . i n d iameter, b ut l arger b owls h ave a lso b een f ound : 4 5 c m . i n d iameter ( 14-14-1992) a nd e ven 5 5 c m . ( 12-12-1990). S uch a v essel h eld 1 8 l itres ( one a nd a h alf p ailfulls). T wo e lliptical b owls ( 21-17-1726 a nd 1 6-14-996) w ere a lso f ound . T he s econd f ine-textured b owl m ade o f r ootstock i s 1 6 c m . h igh a nd 3 8 a nd 3 0 c m . i n d iameter. T his i s t he s tratigraphical d istribution o f t he b owls: 1 0th-llth c enturies 2 8-33-1256

2 6-27-1652

2 2-24-924

2 8-30-876

2 5-30-2117

2 2-22-1776

2 7-29-1250

2 4-27-857

2 2-22-1918

2 6-28-1216

2 3-23-1780

2 2-19-623

1 2th c entury 2 1-30-1397

1 9-29-1398

1 7-25-1367

2 1-30-1486

1 8-27-1342

1 7-18-1789

2 1-23-891

1 8-26-1454

1 7-16-2011

6 7

2 1-17-1726

1 8-24-1356

2 0-23-1851

1 7-25-1348

1 7-15-654

1 3th c entury 1 6-23-1379

1 4-15-2013

1 3-20-1457

1 6-16-1932

1 4-14-929

1 3-16-1609

1 6-14-996

1 4-14-1992

1 3-14-467

1 4-22-1455

1 4-14-2003

1 3-14-930

1 4-22-1455

1 4-14-2015

1 2-14-1589

1 4-16-1639

1 4-14-2018

1 2-13-1921

1 4-15-1917

1 3-20-1422

1 2-12-1990

1 5th c entury 1 1-16-1190

8 -16-1393

6 -12-1367

1 1-16-1191

8 -15-1427

6 -9-1534

1 1-16-1307

8 -14-1213

8 -8-1564

1 0-15-1379

8 -13-1195

5 -6-1807

1 0-6-1739

8 -6-2002

4 -12-1401

9 -14-2113

7 -14-1341

4 -3-1621

9 -13-1222

7 -14-1347

3 -10-1400

9 -13-1483

7 -11-1193

3 -2-1652

9 -11-1595

7 -10-1190

2 -1-1650

9 -10-1862

9 -10-1249

1 -8-1329 1 -4-1296

9 -9-1785

D ippers a re m edium-sized v essels w ith o ne h andle. T hey w ere u sed t o l adle o ut a nd s erve w ater a nd o ther d rinks. T hey c omprise s everal g roups d epending o n t heir s hapes a nd h andle d esigns. R oughly 1 50 i ntact a nd f ragmentary e xamples w ere f ound , i ncluding d ipper h andles. T he e arliest o f t hem w ere e laborately c urved w ith d ragons, s ometimes h ighly s tylised ( pl. 6 5, 1 ). O nly o ne d ipper h ad a r am 's h ead o n i ts h andle ( 28-25-1667). T heir c apacity w as b etween 0 .7 a nd 1 .5 l itres, a nd t he h andle l ength w as n ot g reater t han 1 0-12 c m . T hirty-eight s imilar d ippers w ere f ound , t wo o f t hem i ntact, o thers w ere o nly h andles w ith v essel f ragments. A ll o f t hem b elong t o t he 1 0th-, 1 1tha nd p artly-12th-century

l evels

a nd

6 8

w ere

d istributed

i n

t he

f ollowing

w ay : 1 0th c entury 2 8-36-155

2 8-33-148

2 8-25-1667

2 8-36-1458

2 8-32-1255

2 7-23-691

2 8-34-782

2 8-32-2188

2 6-32-757

2 8-34-1198

2 8-29-1594

1 6-29-312

2 8-33-148

2 8-29-1621

2 6-27-918

1 1th c entury 2 5-32-745

2 4-18-233

2 4-24-1948

2 5-31-751

2 4-28-794

2 4-23-542

2 5-29-144

2 4-28-794

2 3-28-1287

2 5-27-924

2 4-27-1193

2 2-23-468

2 5-25-1929

2 4-26-1836

2 2-23-568

2 4-30-750 1 2th c entury 2 1-25-259

2 0-25-834

1 8-23-146

2 1-25-294

1 9-20-951

1 6-20-1042

2 0-29-1360 E arly i n t he 1 2th c entury h andles w ith d ragon h eads w ere r eplaced b y s traight h andles r ound i n s ection ( pl. 6 5, 2 -4, 6 ). S ometimes t hey w ere f inished i n b ulbs o r h ooks t o f ix d ippers t o s ome l arge v essel's r im . B etween t he 1 3th a nd 1 5th c enturies d ippers b ecome l arger , t heir c apacity r eaching 1 .5-2 l itres, s ometimes e ven a s m uch a s 6 l itres ( 91 3-1245). H ere a re t he s izes o f t wo t ypical 1 4th-century d ippers ( 6-91 5-16 a nd 7 -8-947). T he f ormer w ith a c apacity o f 0 .8 l itres, w as 1 4 c m . i n d iameter i n i ts c ircular u pper p art o f a d epth o f 5 c m ., a nd a c ircular h andle 1 1 c m . l ong w ith a c ross-section o f 2 c m . T he o ther , i ts c apacity b eing 2 l itres, h ad a d iameter o f 2 3 c m ., i ts d epth w as 8 c m ., a nd t he r ound h andle w as 1 2 c m . l ong , i ts c ross-section b eing 2 c m . S eventy-odd s imilar d ippers w ere f ound , f ifteen o f t hem c ompletely i ntact . D ippers w ith s traight h andles w ere d istributed a mong a ll l evels i n t he f ollowing w ay :

l lth-12th c enturies 2 5-28-869

2 1-21-1719

6 9

1 8-27-1342

2 5-28-869

2 0-27-766

1 7-27-1340

2 2-24-870

2 0-22-1654

1 7-26-1336

2 2-18-1726

1 9-20-951

1 7-24-850

2 1-30-1481

1 9-18-1679

1 7-23-1359

2 1-25-333 1 3th c entury 1 6-23-1351

1 4-14-1991

1 2-18-1375

1 6-21-190

1 4-14-1991

1 2-18-2144

1 6-18-860

1 4-13-1958

1 2-17-1298

1 6-18-1064

1 3-20-1397

1 2-17-1298

1 5-17-870

1 3-17-1493

1 2-12-1988

1 5-16-968

1 3-14-1890

1 2-12-1990

1 4-22-758

1 3-12-1796

1 2-11-2007

1 4-21-1353

1 2-20-2097 1 4th c entury

1 0-17-1457

9 -13-1230

8 -11-1552

1 0-16-1366

9 -13-1251

8 -11-1552

1 0-13-1274

9 -12-1245

7 -14-1434

1 0-12-1638

9 -11-1618

7 -8-947

9 -14-1204

8 -12-1532 1 5th c entury

6 -12-50

6 -4-2019

4 -5-929

6 -10-1240

5 -5-1624

4 -3-1953

6 -10-1240

4 -10-1432

3 -7-1241

4 -9-1121

3 -7-1242

* 6 -9-1516 6 -5-527 C ontemporary w ith c apacity o f u p t o 0 .5 f lattened h andles ( pl.

2 -1-1650 t he l arge d ippers w ere s maller o nes w ith a l itres. T hey h ad m ore e legant, h oop-like o r 6 4 , 6 , 7 ). N ineteen s uch d ippers, o r r ather

7 0

t heir h andles,

w ere

f ound i n

t he

l lth-14th-century

l evels

d istributed

a s f ollows: 2 4-30-814

1 5-19-1494

9 -12-903

2 3-20-1714

1 5-16-954

8 -9-1615

2 0-30-1421

1 2-19-1128

7 -10-1538

2 0-23-1545

1 1-19-1462

7 -10-1538

1 6-16-985

1 1-15-1534

7 -9-1568

1 5-20-1242

1 0-19-1462

7 -9-1569

9 -15-1342 F lattened u pper p arts o f s maller v essels w ere s ometimes e mbellished w ith c arving . S pecial m ention s hould b e m ade o f a n e xtremely i nteresting t wining d esign o n t he h andle o f a d ipper ( 15-191 494). A s eparate g roup c omprises l arge a nd s mall d ippers ( pl. 6 6, 5 -8) m ade o f r ootstocks, w ith h andles m ade o f s tems. T heir s hapes w ere n ecessarily m ore p rimitive a nd p lain , t hey h eld n ot m ore t han 0 .5 l itres, s ome e ven l ess, 5 0 o r 2 5 g rammes ( 25-29-107 a nd 9 -17-806). M ore t han 1 7 s mall r ootstock d ippers w ere f ound i n t he 1 0th-14thc entury l evels: 1 0th c entury

1 1th c entury

1 2th c entury

2 8-31-1136

2 5-33-1389

2 1-26-148

2 7-28-1880

2 5-29-107

2 1-25-333

2 6-33-1389

2 5-28-303

1 7-16-2011

2 6-29-312

2 3-25-386 1 3th-14th c enturies 1 4-13-1958

9 -17-806

1 3-14-469

6 -13-773

1 0-14-1524 B eer d ippers. L arge b eer d ippers w ith l ong h andles ( pl. 6 2, 4 ) ' used t o l adle b rewing w ort o r b eer o ut o f l arge b rewing t ubs a re t reated a s a s eparate g roup. A ltogether , f ive s uch d ippers w ere f ound ( 18-27-1346, 1 5-17-870, 1 4-14-2007, 6 -10-1270, 6 -4-2019). T heir c apacities w ere a bout 6 l itres. O ne h andle, 8 2 c m . l ong , w as a lso f ound ( 14-15-962). L adles a re c ommon f inds.

T hey a re m entioned a s e arly a s

7 1

t he 1 3th

c entury : " It i s i mpossible t o l adle o ut t he s ea" .. 22 S ixty-five l adles, i ntact a rticles, h andles o r b owls, f ound t o d ate c ame f rom a ll l evels i n r oughly e qual n umbers. T hey w ere o f a u niform s hape r esembling a l arge s poon ( pl. 6 6, 1 -4) a nd w ere 2 0-30 c m . l ong o verall. T he p resence o r a bsence o f ah ook d ivides t hem i nto t wo g roups ( pl . 6 7, 6 8). T his i s t heir d istribution i n t he s tratigraphic l evels: L adles w ith s traight h andles 2 8-34-105

2 1-25-216

1 1-19-744

2 8-32-128

2 1-23-903

1 1-11-2018

2 8-28-434

2 1-17-1726

1 0-13-1578

2 7-23-674

2 0-22-877

1 0-9-487

2 6-28-1494

2 0-17-644

9 -15-1119

2 5-25-1943

1 9-23-24

8 -7-2004

2 4-27-349

1 9-19-1963

7 -8-930

2 4-19-1734

1 7-19-914

6 -8-1272

2 3-25-1573

1 6-18-891

6 -6-1538

3 2-20-519

1 4-13-1958

5 -7-1540

2 3-20-1714

1 3-20-1397

4 -5-1860

2 2-22-1918

1 3-12-1796

3 -3-978

2 3-30-746

1 3-12-1967

3 -2-1963

L adles w ith h ooks 2 7-28-1099

1 7-18-1915

8 -14-1135

2 5-23-999

1 6-22-135

7 -10:1526

2 5-21-1719

1 4-13-1957

6 -8-1539

2 3-21-535

1 3-21-806

5 -8-1185

2 2-27-2118

1 3-20-2194

5 -8-1200

2 2-20-555

1 3-20-2194

5 -5-1624

2 1-26-2099

1 3-20-1405

4 -4-1095

1 9-24-175

1 1-19-1453

3 -10-1400

7 2

1 9-23-14

1 0-12-911

S coops. G rain a nd f lour s coops a re a lso c lassed a mong t he c arved u tensils. T hey w ere r ather f lat w ith c urved s ides a nd s hort h andles ( pl. 6 2, 3 ). O nly t hree s coops w ere f ound i ntact ( 26-30-1241, 9 -114 58). T heir f ragments a re p ractically u nidentifiable. I n t he 1 0th c entury s coops o f t he f ollowing d imensions w ere u sed : t otal l ength , 3 3 c m ., b readth o f t he s coop, 1 2 c m ., l ength o f t he h andles, 1 4 c m . ( 263 0-128).

t ubs.

H ollowed o ut u tensils. T his g roup i ncludes t roughs, m ortars, A ll o f t hem c an b e f ound i n t he N ovgorod c ollection .

a nd

T roughs a re c omparatively s hallow o pen s emi-cylindrical v essels w hich w ere w idely u sed f or c ooking , f lour s ifting , k neading , c abbage m incing , w ashing a nd t he f eeding o f d omestic a nimals. M ore t han 4 0 i ntact, t hough s omewhat f lattened t roughs, w ere f ound i n a ll l evels s tarting w ith t he 1 0th c entury , t he b ulk o f t hem d ating t o t he 1 3th1 5th c enturies. T hey w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 0th-llth c enturies

1 3th c entury

2 6-31-814

1 4-22-1337

1 3-13-917

2 5-29-231

1 3-15-1803

1 3-12-1928

2 3-22-361

1 3-13-917

1 3-10-677

2 3-22-561 1 4th c entury

1 1-18-113

1 0-8-1109

7 -14-1431

1 1-17-1267

9 -8-488

7 -11-325

1 1-17-1267

8 -8-511

7 -10-901

1 0-8-1097

8 -8-1901

7 -6-486

1 0-8-1107

8 -7-1999

7 -6-496

1 5th c entury 6 -11-1117

6 -6-493

5 -8-1185

6 -8-397

6 -6-494

5 -4-496

6 -7-918

6 -6-494

4 -6-1560

6 -7-931

6 -5-496

3 -3-917

6 -7-1072

5 -8-1185

3 -3-1580

7 3

A ccording t o t heir s izes a ll t he t roughs f ound t o d ate c an b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups: l arge, m edium a nd s mall t roughs. T he l ength o f t he t roughs i n t he f irst g roup w as 1 20 c m ., t heir w idth 4 0 c m ., t hose o f t he s econd g roup a bout 8 0 a nd 3 0 c m . r espectively ; t hose o f t he t hird g roup, 4 0-50 c m . a nd a bout 2 0 c m . S ome s mall t roughs w ere m ade w ith h andles. S ometimes t wo-section t roughs w ere f ound w ith a p artition i n t he m iddle. M ost t ypical s izes a re c ited i n T able X XVII ( cf .

p l.

1 9,

1 0).

M ortars a nd p estles w ere u sed f or p rocessing g rain , f lax a nd o ther m aterials. T heir p resence i n a ll c hronological l evels i s e vidence o f t heir w ide u se. W hile o nly f ive w hole m ortars w ere f ound ( 13-20-1465, 1 2-19-1135, 9 -9-1936, 5 -6-1632, 4 -3-979) t here w ere a c onsiderable p roportion o f u ndamaged p estles a mong t he 2 0 f ound s o f ar. P l. 1 25, 3 6 i llustrates t he d esign o f N ovgorod p estles. A s i s s een t hey h ave n ot c hanged s ince t hat t ime. T he i nternal d iameter o f t he m ortars w as 2 22 6 c m ., t heir l ength w as f rom 7 0 t o 1 20 c m ., t he m aximum d iameter 8 -10 C M.

T heir d istribution i n t he l evels w as a s f ollows: 2 5-25-429

8 -6-490

5 -9-1242

2 4-26-1295

7 -10-1313

4 -9-70

1 4-18-249

7 -10-1532

4 -6-430

1 0-14-1234

6 -12-1367

3 -9-69

1 0-14-1234

6 -9-1532

2 -7-1461

9 -8-603

5 -9-1199

2 -1-1603

8 -9-986

5 -9-1242

1 -3-552 T able XXVII

S izes o f t roughs,

c m .

C ard n umber

L

Ll

B

H

2 5-29-231

1 16

8 2

4 2

1 3

2 3-22-561

8 7

5 8

2 8

1 2

1 3-13-917

5 2

2 8

2 3

1 1

1 0-8-1109

1 10

9 4

3 4

1 5

8 -8-511

4 3

3 2

2 2.5

8 .5

8 -7-1999

3 9.5

2 8

1 7.5

8 .5

7 6

2 3

6 -7-918

1 16

7 4

1 2

6 -6-494

4 8

3 6

1 6

6

6 -6-494

1 24

8 3

4 4

1 2

6 -5-496

1 07

8 0

3 6

1 3

5 -4-496

8 6

5 6

2 9

7

4 -6-1560

3 3

2 1

2 3.5

9 .5

H ollowed o ut t ubs a re o ne o f t he b est p reserved c ategories s ince m ost o f t hem s erved a s d rainage c ollectors a nd w ere s unk i nto t he e arth. C ertainly s imilar t ubs w ere u sed f or o ther p urposes a s w ell b ut o nly t wo w ere n ot u sed i n t his w ay o ut o f t he t otal 2 0 t ubs f ound i n N ovgorod ( 7-12-1137, 4 -12-802). T heir i nternal d iameters w ere 2 5 a nd 2 7 c m . r espectively . O ther t ubs w ere o f m ore o r l ess t he s ame s ize, t heir i nternal d iameters w ere 4 6-47 c m ., a nd t heir l engths 7 0 c m . T here w ere t ubs o f l esser c apacity . S uch i s a 1 5th-century t ub ( 3-34 77) w ith a n i nternal d iameter o f 4 5 c m ., a nd a h eight o f 3 7 c m . Another t ub ( 5-8-1301) w ith t he i nternal d iameter 3 7 c m . had a h eight o f 4 0 c m . I t m ust b e i ndicated t hat s ome o f t he t ubs w ere c onical, t hat i s t heir u pper d iameters w ere s maller t han t he l ower o nes. S uch w as t he c ase w ith t ub 5 -8-1301 w here t his d ifference w as 9 c m . T he t ubs w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 2 3-20-703

8 -9-1620

5 -8-1535

2 0-23-1499

7 -12-1137

4 -12-802

1 8-23-1199

7 -12-1137

4 -10-1440

1 7-25-1351

6 -8-1562

4 -4-1518

1 7-23-1142

6 -7-931

3 -9-1447

1 4-21-1322

5 -8-1301

3 -3-477

9 -8-1001

3 -3-477

B irch-bark u tensils. T heir f ragments a re o ne o f t he m ost n umerous f inds. T he n umber o f b ottoms, c overs a nd s ides h as e xceeded 1 ,100, 9 0 p er c ent o f t hem b eing b ottoms a nd l ids. J udging f rom b ottom s izes, c onstruction a nd s izes o f s ides, t he s everal k inds o f b irch-bark u tensils: b oxes a nd s mall v essels ( tues).

i nhabitants o f N ovgorod u sed l arge, r ound a nd r ectangular

T he t ues i s a s mall b irch-bark v essel w ith a l id . I ts d iameter w as f rom 8 t o 1 4 c m . ( pl. 7 0). T hey a ccount f or 1 1 p er c ent i n t he ' entire b ody o f N ovgorod b irch-bark u tensils f ound s o f ar. T heir b ottoms a nd l ids w ere s ometimes m ade o f w ood a nd j oined t o t he s ides w ith w ooden p ins d riven i nto t he b ottom a nd t he l id f aces. I n c ase o f b irch-bark b ottoms a nd l ids t hey w ere t ied t o t he s ides w ith b ast f ibre u sing various s titches. T here w ere r ectangular v essels a s w ell ( 8 x 1 0 c m ., 9 x 1 2 c m ., 1 1 x 1 9 c m .). T he s ides w ere j oined t ogether e ither by b ast f ibre o r b y d ifferent k inds

7 5

o f j oints.

V arious

s ystems

o f t he

l atter s urvived u ntil o ur d ay .

L ids a nd s ides w ere o ften e mbellished

2 3

w ith s tamped o r c arved d ecoration a nd t he e nd f aces o f l ids b ore i nscriptions o f d ifferent k inds ( pl. 7 1). A l ate 1 4th-century v essel ( 7-13-85) h as a r iddle: " There i s a c ity b etween t he e arth a nd t he h eaven . A d amp e nvoy g oing t o i t w ithout a r oad c arrying a m essage w hich was n ot w ritten" ( Noah 's a rk), p l. 1 76, 3 . L arge

r ound

a nd

r ectangular

b oxes

a nd

v arious

t ypes

o f

o pen

c ontainers d iffer g reatly w hen f ound i ntact. I t i s m uch m ore d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t heir f ragments: b ottoms, r emnants o f s ides a n s o o n . T herefore a ll k inds w ill b e c onsidered j ointly . T hese w ere m ostly r ound c ontainers o f v arying s izes f rom 1 5 t o 5 56 0 c m . i n d iameter. T wo o f t he b oxes h ad a d iameter o f 1 m . ( 9-7-1404 , 7 -2-1751). Two s izes, h owever, p redominated: c ontainers w ith a d iameter o f 2 3-30 c m . ( 36%) a nd f rom 3 8 t o 4 2 c m . ( 13%), t hose w ith d iameters o f 4 5-60 c m . a ccount f or 6 %. T heir s izes w ere 2 0 x 3 4 c m ., a nd s o o n . N o u ndamaged c ontainers h ave b een f ound s o f ar, t hough a l arge n umber o f b ottoms ( more t han 3 0) w ith p arts o f s ides o r e ven f ully p reserved s ides, w hich i s e videnced b y t he t races o f j oints a long t heir l ower a nd u pper r ims, w ere f ound . T he h eight o f t he s ides w as 2 4, 3 0, 3 4 o r e ven 4 4 c m . T hese w ere c arefully-made a rticles w ith multiple b ottoms m ade o f b ast f ibre a nd b irch-bark . S ometimes o ne o r m ore b ottom l ayers w ere m ade o f i nterwoven b irch-bark s trips a nd s titched t ogether ( pl. 7 2). B ox s ides w ere e qually made o f b ast c overed w ith b irch-bark i nside a nd o utside. B utt a nd l ap j oints w ere s titched t ogether w ith b ast f ibre. F inished a rticles w ere c overed w ith b irch-bark ( either d ecorated ( pl. 7 3).

g lued o r s titched o n) w hich w as t hen l avishly T here a re m any f ragments o f d ecorated b irch-bark .

W icker c ontainers. R oughly t en l ids a nd 2 2 s ide f ragments i s a ll t hat has c ome d own t o u s o ff h ighly p erishable w icker o bjects. T heir t echnology was u niform-spirally-placed r ods, f rom 3 t o 4 mm . i n s ection , w ere t ightly i nterwoven w ith f ibres m ade o f p ine r oots ( pl. 7 5). L id d iameters v aried f rom 5 t o 1 5 c m ., s ome b ottom d iameters r eached 2 8 c m . ( 15-16-954). T his p articular b ottom w as made o f 2 7 r ods s ecured w ith f ibre, a nd i t p reserved i nsignificant f ragments o f t he s ides. W icker u tensils a re c haracteristic o f t he 1 3th-15th-century l evels, l ids m ainly b elonging t o 1 3th-14th-century l evels ( 15-22-2048, 1 3-15-881, 1 2-19-118, 1 2-18-2050, 9 -14-1206, 6 -10-1166, 6 -9-1521, 6 -91 521, 6 -7-1577, 5 -7-1540). S ide f ragments w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay: 1 5-17-1038

1 0-17-629

8 -6-1761

1 5-16-954

1 0-15-1191

8 -6-1762

1 4-19-2188

9 -16-1425

8 -6-1762

1 4-15-936

9 -16-1447

8 -6-1763

1 3-17-338

9 -14-68

7 -2-1753

1 3-15-931

9 -14-2087

4 -3-1761

7 6

1 2-19-181

9 -14-2097

2 -6-1461

1 1-18-104

9 -8-1003

1 -3-1250

W icker a rticles w ere, p robably , o f d ifferent s hapes a nd s izes i f w e c an r ely o n e thnographic e vidence w hich r ecord s alt-cellars, bulging c ontainers f or s toring g rain , r ound b askets f or c lothing , a nd s o o n . T able I II S tave s izes,

c m .

B arrel t ype

C ard n umber

L

B

B1

H

S

Water c arrier 's

1 5-16-941

9 2

9

7

2 .5

1 .5

B arrels

1 3-18-327

1 10

1 0

9 .5

4

1 .7

1 2-10-480

9 8

1 3

3

2

8

5

1 .6

7 -6-1792

1 35

1 2

9 .5

B arrels h olding

1 0-10-504

7 3

1 1

9 .5

2 .5

1 .3

T en p ailfuls

7 -10-12504

7 2

1 3

1 1.5

2 .5

1 .2

7 -8-958

7 5

1 3.5

1 2

2 .5

1

6 -12-167

7 2

1 2

1 0.5

2

1

1 3-14-960

3 1

7 .3

7

2 .5

1 .5

1 3-12-1801

3 3

9

8 .5

3

1

1 0-12-1577

3 1

6 .5

6

2 .5

0 .9

6 -7-1600

3 1

4 .5

4

2 .5

1

5 -5-1547

2 0

7 .7

7

2

2

4 -8-1213

1 3.5

7

7

2

1 .7

M edium-size b arrels

S mall-size b arrels

T able I V S tave s izes, V essel t ype

C ard n umber

B uckets

1 4-15-1892

H

c m . h

B

S

3 0

2

9

1 .2

8 -10-1295

3 0

3 .5

9

0 .8

8 -6-530

2 4

2 .6

5 .8

0 .8

7 -10-1552

3 0

3

8

1 .1

7 7

L ower t ubs w ith 2h andles

C ooper m ugs

T ubs

6 -11-1209

3 0.5

3

9

0 .9

6 -6-532

2 6

3

6

1

1 5-21-1249

1 7.5

2

4

0 .9

8 -6-530

1 7

2 .3

9 .2

1 .6

6 -8-1571

1 7

2 .5

6 .5

0 .8

2 -7-1462

1 7.6

3 .3

7 .5

1 .1

8 .5

1 .5

4

0 .5

8 -13-1181

1 4.9

2 .2

8

1 .5

5 -8-1269

1 5

3 .1

4 .8

1 .6

1 3-11-1715

4 5

3 .5

7

2

1 2-20-1410

9 -10-430

1 10

7

1 4

2 .4

8 -17-1393

1 02

4

1 2

2

7 -9-1272

7 0

5 .5

9

2 T able V

S tave s izes,

c m .

V essel t ype

C ard n umber

H

h

B

B1

S

H ooped j ugs

2 8-29-1074

2 2

2 .3

4 .7

4

1 .1

2 4-29-836

3 3

3

7 .6

6 .6

1 .4

2 4-23-481

2 3

1 .7

5 .3

3 .7

1 .7

2 2-23-423

2 5

2

8 .6

6

1 .4

1 8-19-441

2 3

2 .5

7 .5

7

0 .8

1 4-20-1163

1 8.5

2 .2

3 .8

3 .2

1

7 -11-1310

2 0

7

8 .5

6

0 .9

4 -10-200

2 7

1 .5

4 .5

3 .5

1 .2

3 -7-1184

3 8

4 .4

8 .5

7 .5

1 .7

1 0-17-1456

4 5

3 .5

9

8

1 .7

1 0-17-1456

6 5.5

3 .5

9

8

1 .7

7 -11-1178

9 7

5

T ubs

7 8

1 3.5

1 1

2 .5

6 -9-1314

4 5.5

2 .5

1 0

8

6 -9-1520

6 4.5

3 .5

1 2

2 -7-1464

4 3.5

3 .5

7

6

1 .7

B ucket

8 -9-928

2 8.5

2 .5

3 .6

2 .5

1 .4

M ug

2 2-23-423

1 2

1

4

3

0 .3

1 1

1 .5 2

T able V I S tave s izes,

c m .

T ypes o f v essels

C ard n umber

H

h

B

B1

S

L ow b uckets w ith

2 5-29-114

1 9

3

4 .5

5 .5

1 .1

h andles

2 5-26-431

2 0

3

3

4 .5

1 .2

1 9-21-1555

1 6

1 .5

2

3

0 .6

6 -6-532

1 9

2 .5

8 .5

1 0.5

1 .2

B owls

1 3-18-2117

7

0 .5

3 .4

5 .7

0 .4

1 2-15-1803

6 .5

0 .5

3 .3

5 .6

0 .5

1 2-13-961

5 .5

0 .5

3 .3

5 .2

0 .5

N OTES 1 .

C h .

D aremberg ,

E .

S aglio,

2 .

O sebergfundet...,

3 .

S .N .

O rlov ,

4 .

I .I.

S reznevsky ,

5 .

T he F irst N ovgorod C hronicle,

6 .

P rimary C hronicle,

7 .

A s l ate a s i n 1 960 s imilar t ubs ( in w hich h ot s tones w ere p laced t o b oil b eer) w ere u sed f or b rewing i n t he v illages o f L yubytino a nd K hvoininsky D istricts, N ovgorod R egion .

8 .

P rimary C hronicle,

9 .

N .V.

U styugov ,

1 949,

p p.

1 0.

N .V.

U styugov ,

1 949,

p .

1 928,

1 875

p .

1 60.

1 954 . 1 893,

p .

p .

v .

I ,

p .

2 02.

p .

4 6.

8 7.

8 8. 2 94-348. 3 16.

7 9

1 1.

A .

V iires,

1 960,

1 2.

W .

N eugebauer,

1 3.

G .N .

A npilogov ,

1 964.

1 4.

G .N .

A npilogov ,

1 964,

1 5.

A .V .

A rtsikhovsky ,

1 6.

A .A .

B obrinsky ,

1 7.

1 7th-Century M uscovy C ustoms R egisters

1 8.

V .F .

R zhiga,

1 9.

I .I.

S reznevsky,

2 0.

V .

2 1.

V .V .

S edov ,

2 2.

I .I.

S reznevsky ,

2 3.

N .S.

F ilippov ,

2 4.

A .V .

A rtsikhovsky,

N ikolsky ,

p .

1 05.

1 954,

p .

p .

M .N .

1 910;

1 929;

1 956,

A .V.

p . p .

T ikhomirov ,

1 953,

P rosvirkina ,

A rtsikhovsky, 1 895,

1 903,

v .

p .

4 6.

1 955.

1 944. I -III.

7 3. 1 38.

1 903,

1 913,

1 67.

S .K .

1 893,

1 925,

1 74.

p .

M .N .

p .

1 242.

2 15. T ikhomirov ,

1 953,

p .

4 3.

C HAPTER F OUR

W heeled a nd s leigh t ransport - S leighs - S leigh-runners - K opyls ( vertical s upports) - C argo s leighs - L ight s leighs - S weeps H orse-collar a nd b ow - S addle - S kis - W ater t ransport - P ropulsion o ars - S tern o ars - R owlocks - B ottoms o f s hips - R ibs - S ail r igging - T he N ovgorod s hips. T he

t ransport f acilities o f M edieval N ovgorod a re r epresented b y a

h uge c ollection o f v arious f inds. A g reat v ariety o f f ragments a nd p arts o f v ehicles h as b een c ollected t hat w ere u sed f or t ravel o n l and a nd o n water. A s f ar a s t he m eans o f t ransport o n l and a re c oncerned , u se w as m ade i n R ussia o f c arriages o n w heels, a nd s leighs. T he w heel c arriages a nd s leighs a re m entioned i n t he w ritten s ources o f t he 1 0th c entury . T he c hoice o f l and v ehicles i n R ussia d epended , i n t he f irst p lace, n ot on t he l evel of t echnological d evelopment a nd t he p ossibilities o ffered b y v arious d esign but o n t he c ondition o f r oads w hich r an t hrough f orests, m eadows, s wamps, s teppes, m arshes, r ivers, e tc. I n t he N orthern a reas o f R ussia t he r oads i n s pring , s ummer , a nd a utumn w ere d ifficult t o n egotiate, t he r oads S outhern Russia b eing i n ab etter c ondition .

i n

t he

s teppe

b elt

o f

W heeled a nd s leigh t ransport. S leighs w ere t he m ost w idespread t ype o f h orse-drawn c arriage i n t he n orthern a reas o f R ussia , i ncluding N ovgorod a nd i ts s urrounding a reas. S leighs a re f irst m entioned i n t he R ussian P rimary C hronicle u nder t he y ear 9 47 i n c onnection w ith t he t rip m ade b y O lga f rom K l .ev t o N ovgorod : " ... a nd h er s leigh i s s till i n P skov until t oday ..."' O lga w as t ravelling i n t he N ovgorod r egion , p robably, i n s ummer, b ecause h er i tinerary r an v ia t he M sta a nd L uga R ivers ( in w inter f rozen r ivers m ade e xcellent s leigh r oads. - A . C h.) I n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavations, t here h ave b een f ound s everal hundred f ragments a nd p arts o f s leighs, a nd o nly o ne p iece o f a w heeled c arriage - t he wheel i tself . T he c itizens o f N ovgorod e mployed s leighs a ll t he y ear r ound . I t s hould b e n oted t hat i n c ertain E astern a reas o f t he N ovgorod i t i s n ot o nly i n t he M iddle A ges but a lso i n t he 2 0th c entury t hat s leighs w ere p referred t o a ny o ther f orm o f t ransport, a nd t he t ractor-drawn s leigh t rain i s c onsidered t he b est k ind o f t ransport f or a ny t ime o f t he y ear e ven t oday . T he m ain m eans o f p assenger t ransport i n M edieval R ussia , a nd i n N ovgorod , w as r iding o n h orseback . T he w heel was f ound i n t he y ear 1 966 i n t he I lyinsky e xcavation , i n a l evel d ating f rom t he m iddle o f t he 1 1th c entury ( level 2 8, s quare 2 76). T he n ave o f t he w heel a nd s ix s pokes i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation ( pl. 7 6). i ntact, a nd t he f astening t o t he

s ixth o ne i n a b roken s eat o f t he w heel r im i n

f astened t o i t w ere f ound F ive o ak s pokes s urvived

s tate. t enons

i n

W ooden w edges f or t he u pper p art o f

e ach s poke w ere i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation . T he n ave o f t he w heel h as n ine s ockets f or s pokes. N o p ieces o f t he r im w ere f ound , but i t i s e asily r econstructed . I t w as a c urved b ar, m ade o f m any c omponent p ieces. T he w heel w as r ather l arge i n s ize, i ts d iameter b eing 8 5 c m . T he d iameter a cross t he e nds o f t he a nd l ooked s omewhat w orn , w as 8 4 c m .

8 1

s pokes

w hose

e nds

w ere

f lattened

T he n ave o f t he w heel. T he m ajor p art o f t he w heel w as a l arge b lock w hich t urned o n a n a xle w hich p assed t hrough a h ole r unning t hrough i ts a xis. T he m iddle p art o f t he n ave h ad s ockets t hat t ook t he s pokes. T he n ave h as t he f ollowing d imensions: l ength , 4 2 c m .; t he e xternal d iameter i n t he m iddle p ortion w here s poke s eats a re m ortised , 1 7.5 c m .; t he d iameter a t t he e nds o f s pokes, 1 5.5 c m .; t he h ole d rilled a long t he a xis a cross t he d iameter m easures 6 c m . T he n ine s ockets f or s pokes a re p ositioned i n a c ircular a rray a t e qual d istances f rom e ach o ther. T he s ockets h ave t he f ollowing d imensions: t he u pper p art, 5 .6 x 2 c m .; a nd t he d epth , 4 c m . I nside, t he s ocket d iameter i s l arger ( 2.5 c m .) i ncluding t he t ail t hickness o n t he l ower e nd o f t he t enon o f t he s poke. W idening o f t he s ockets o ccurs o n o pposite s ides o n a lternate s ockets. T his w as d one t o i mpart s pecial e lasticity t o t he f astenings o f t he s pokes. T his d esign o f t he j oint m ay b e c onsidered t o b e t he m ost r ational b ecause i t e xcludes t he p ossibility o f s pokes f alling o ut w hen t he w heel i s i n m ovement a nd t he r im i s w eak . T he s pokes a re 3 7.5 c m . i n l ength , t hey a re r ectangular i n c rosss ection , m easuring 4 .2 x 2 .8 c m . T he t enons o n t he s pokes w ere f or i nsertion o f t he s pokes i nto t he n ave o f t he w heel, a nd i ts r im . T o i mpart e lasticity t o t he w heel, t he l ower t enon ( in t he n ave) h ad , a s w e a lready i ndicated a bove, a c omplicated f orm , a nd t hickened t owards t he e nd . T he r ectangular t enon a t t he r im e nd h ad t he f ollowing d imensions: 2 x 2 c m . i n c ross-section , a nd 5 .5 c m . i n l ength . I n t he r im ,

t he t enon w as w edged o ut.

T hus, w e c an c onsider t hat t he o nly w heel f rom N ovgorod , d ated t o t he 1 1th c entury, w as e xcellently d esigned , a nd d id n ot d iffer i n a ny r espect f rom t he b est s pecimens o f 1 9th c entury w ooden wheels. S leighs. F ormerly w e c ould c onsider t he d esign a nd a ppearance o f e arly R ussian s leighs o nly b y t heir d epictions o n m iniatures a nd o ther i tems. The e arliest d epictions o f s leighs c an be s een o n t he m iniatures o f t he 1 4th c entury i n t he L ives o f B oris a nd G leb, a nd i n t he R adziwill C hronicle ( late 1 5th c ent.). s leighs e nables u s f or t he f irst t ime t o ( naturally f ragmented) a nd a lso a g reat

T he N ovgorod c ollection o f s ee t he s leighs t hemselves n umber o f s leigh d etails,

r unners,

n ashcheps

k opyls

( vertical

s upports),

( rows),

v yazi

( bindings), s hafts, e tc. L et u s c onsider s eparately t he v arious d etails o f s leighs w hich h ave b een f ound o n t he N erevsky e xcavations.

M ore h ave

R unners. A l ong o ak b ar w ith t he f ront b ent a nd a h igh h ead . t han 6 0 r unners h ave b een f ound o f w hich 2 3 w ere i ntact. T hey b een f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll p eriods, i ncluding t he 2 8th

h orizon . S tratigraphically , t he f ollowing w ay :

t he

f inds

o f r unners

w ere

d istributed

2 8-34-96

2 1-22-1092

1 2-19-838

2 8-31-14

2 1-21-972

1 2-17-1007

2 7-31-253

1 9-21-1040

1 2-15-1652

8 2

i n

2 7-25-1103

1 8-19-968

1 2-14-408

2 7-23-629

1 8-16-486

1 2-12-555

2 6-29-1256

1 8-15-560

1 0-15-24

2 6-25-1097

1 7-22-130

1 0-11-1777

2 6-25-1098

1 6-24-1415

1 0-9-980

2 6-25-1098

1 6-16-1076

1 0-9-1091

2 6-25-1098

1 5-18-370

1 0-9-1097

2 5-28-1010

1 5-14-1680

1 0-8-1106

2 4-23-1944

1 5-14-1681

9 -10-1629

2 3-22-992

1 4-14-503

8 -11-407

2 3-22-1111

1 4-14-503

8 -9-948

2 2-31-1321

1 4-14-534

8 -9-972

2 2-17-1757

1 3-20-102

8 -6-1946

2 1-25-69

1 3-15-400

7 -10-1204

2 1-24-1005

1 3-13-525

5 -7-1542

2 1-24-1553

1 3-13-525

5 -7-1651

2 1-23-1760

1 3-12-992

1 -9-760

2 1-22-1092

1 3-12-992

T he d imensions o f t he r unners v aried w idely . T here h ave b een f ound b oth l ong a nd m assive s pecimens, a nd a lso s mall r unners w hich a re l ighter . T he m aximum l ength o f t he r unners w as b etween 3 30 a nd 3 40 c m ., a nd t he s hortest m easures 7 5 c m . I n c ross-section , t he b ar o f t he r unner h ad v arious s hapes, f rom t rapezoidal a nd s emicircular t o m ore c omplicated s hapes ( pl. 7 7, 1 ). N o c hronological d ifferences i n t he d esign o f t he r unners h ave b een n oticed : t he r unners b elonging t o t he 1 0th c entury d o n ot d iffer f rom t he r unners o f t he 1 4th c entury . I n t he e thnographic l iterature d escribing t he s leighs o f t he 1 9th-20th c enturies o ne c an o ften c ome a cross t he d esign o f s leighs w ith r unners m ade o f k opan ( a p ole w ith t he r oot). T he a ccepted v iew i s t hat s uch ' runners w ere m ore a ncient a nd p receded t he b ent r unners. 2 I t s hould b e n oted t hat n o r unner m ade o f k opan h as b een f ound i n N ovgorod . A ll N ovgorod r unners w ere b ent ( pl. 7 7, 2 , 7 8). I n t erms o f t heir l ength a nd s hape, o ne c an d istinguish f our g roups o f r unners: t hose b etween 3 30 a nd 3 40 c m . i n l ength , a bout 2 50 c m ., a bout 1 90 c m ., a nd b etween 7 5 a nd 9 0 c m . i n l ength . T he u pper e nds o f t he r unners c arried s eats f or k opyls ( vertical s upports). D epending o n t he t ype o f s leigh a nd ,

8 3

c onsequently , t he n umber o f k opyls, o ne r unner h ad f rom t hree t o 1 2 s eats. T he s eats w ere e ither d ead o r t hose r unning t hrough. S o t hat t he v ertical s upport w ould n ot p ass f urther t han r equired t hrough t he s eat, a s upporting s helf w as p rovided o n i t. I n t he u pper p art o f t he h ead o f t he r unner, a s mall r ecess f or t he u pper b inding w as a lways p rovided o n o ne s ide. T he h eads w ere a lways d ecorated ( pl. 8 6, 2 -5). F ull d imensions o f s ome r unners a re g iven i n T able X XVIII ( cf . p l. 1 9, 1 1). K opyls ( vertical s upports) a re t he n ecessary p arts o f s leighs w hich a re f ound m ost o ften . D uring t he e xcavations 3 60 k opyls h ave b een f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll p eriods. S tructurally , t he k opyls c an b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes: w ith a b inding k not, a nd w ithout a k not ( pl. 8 0; 8 1). T he k opyls o f t he s econd t ype a re a nalogous t o m odern o nes, but k opyls o f t he f irst t ype w ith t he b inding k not w ere mainly u sed i n s leighs. T hey w ere m ore d ependable a nd s uitable. T he k opyls w ithout t he k not m ake u p o nly 2 .2 p er c ent o f t he t otal n umber. E ight s uch k opyls have b een f ound i n t he l ayers o f t he 1 2th a nd s ubsequent c enturies ( 22-23-958, 1 9-20-929, 1 8-27-1340, 1 6-18-426, 1 4-18-336, 1 31 7-332, 1 0-15-236, 8 -11-416). I n t erms o f t heir d imensions a nd p roportions, k opyls a re d ivided i nto t hree g roups. T he f irst g roup i s m ade u p o f s mall k opyls ( 20% o f a ll f ound). T he h eight o f s uch k opyls, i .e. t he d istance b etween t he l ower p art o f t he r unner t o t he r ow , v aries b etween 1 0 a nd 1 3 c m .; t he u pper p art o f t he k opyl, w hich f orms t he b ody o f t he s leigh m easures b etween 1 0 a nd 1 5 c m . T he s econd g roup i s m ade u p o f l arge, r ather m assive, k opyls ( 57%): t hey vary b etween 2 2 a nd 3 0 c m . i n h eight; t he d imensions o f t he u pper p ortion o f t he k opyl - t he b ody s upports - v ary b etween 2 0 a nd 3 0 c m . T he t hird g roup i s m ade u p o f y et m ore m assive k opyls ( 23%) w hich a re t he s ame i n h eight a s t he s econd-group k opyls ( between 2 5 a nd 3 0 c m .), but w ith a h igh s upport w hich r eaches 6 0 c m . i n h eight a nd m ore ( pl. 7 7, 3 ). T he k opyl c ommonly h ad o rnamental c arved d esigns. P laited d esigns w ere m ost p opular. C omplete d imensions o f s ome k opyls o f a ll t hree g roups a re g iven i n T ables X IX-XXXI ( cf . p l. 1 9, 1 2). N ashcheps ( rows), t he u pper h orizontal b ar, r ectangular o r o val i n c ross-section . T his b ar w as f itted b y m eans o f t he s eat u pon t he k opyl t o f orm t he u pper p latform o f s leighs. R ows h ave b een f ound i n s everal c ases t ogether w ith t he r unners f itted u pon k opyls. I n a ddition , t here h ave b een f ound s everal i ndividual r ows, f or e xample, c arved r ows 1 92 0-928 a nd 1 8-19-959), Vyazy ( bindings)

a re t hick r ods t hat w ere u sed t o p rovide b indings

b etween k opyls. A lso, t o p rovide b indings b etween o pposite k opyls, t he k nots o n t he l atter w ere o riented a ccordingly . E ach r od varied b etween 1 .5 a nd 2 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T here w ere n otches i n t he p laces w here t he v yazy w ere w rapped a round t he k opyls ( pl. 8 3, 7 ). T hese b indings h ave b een f ound b oth o n s leighs h aving k opyls a nd r unners, a nd a lso s eparately ( for e xample, 2 8-33-252, 2 6-27-928, 2 1-25-902, 1 9-25-1135). A fter t wo p arallel k opyls w ere l inked w ith t he v yazy , t he e nds o f t he v yazy w ere t ied w ith t wigs, r opes, o r r awhide s traps. T he v yazy l ength, t hat i s t o s ay, t he d istance f rom o ne k opyl t o t he n ext ( in o ther w ords, t he r un o f s leighs), v aried b etween 7 2 a nd 7 4 c m .

8 4

T able X XVIII D imensions o f R unners i n c m .

C ard n umber

L

H

L

N umber o f s eats f or v ertical s upports

2 4-23-1944

2 50

5 5

2 15

3

4 0

8

3

2 3-22-992

3 30

6 6

2 47

3

7 8

8

8 .5

2 3-22-1111

.9 5

3 0

6 6

3

1 6

3

3

2 1-24-1005

3 25

6 5

2 45

3

7 7

9

2 1-23-1760

2 75

6 2

1 95

5

2 7

6

7

2 1-22-1092

1 90

6 3

1 15

4

3 6

7

9

1 5-14-1680

3 17

6 2

2 30

6

2 7

6

7

1 5-14-1681

2 50

5 8

2 10

7

2 2

8

6

1 3-13-525

3 20

5 5

2 40

9

2 0

1 3-12-992

7 6

2 5

4 7

3

1 3

3

3 .5

1 9-11-1777

2 43

5 5

1 86

6

2 8

7

9

1 0-9-1091

2 80

5 0

2 10

3

4 6

8

6

1 0-9-1097

3 24

5 6

2 24

6

2 4

7

8

1 0-8-1106

3 40

7 0

2 70

5

3 2

9

7

8 -6-1946

3 30

6 5

2 45

3

5 0

7 .5

7

5 -7-1542

3 07

4 5

2 07

5

6 8

9

7

8 5

1 0

1 0

7

T able XXIX T he D imensions o f L ittle S leigh K opyls,

c m .

C ard n umber

hl

2 6-31-115

1 3

4

1 3

2

2

2 6-30-13

1 2

4

1 3

1 .5

2 .5

2 3-29-808

1 2

3

1 6

1

2 3-28-1121

1 0

5

2 3-21-538

1 3

3

1 6

1 .5

2 2-27-824

1 2

4

1 0

1

2 2-24-870

1 2

5

1 1

1 .5

4 -5-950

1 2

4

1 6

1 .5

7

1 2

2

T able X XX T he D imensions o f S leigh K opyls,

C ard n umber

c m .

h

1

2 8-29-1097

2 5

7

2 0

2

5

2 8-27-1399

3 0

9

3 0

2 .5

5

2 1-33-925

2 2

6

2 0

2

5

2 0-25-839

2 8

6

3 0

2

4

1 8-27-1340

2 2

7

1 8

2

7

1 6-17-951

3 3

6

3 0

2 .5

5

1 5-17-900

2 4

7

2 0

2

5

1 5-16-958

2 9

8

2 0

2 .5

6

1 4-16-880

2 6

9

2 5

2

6

1 4-14-523

2 8

9

2 0

2 .5

3

8 6

T able X XI

D imensions o f S leigh K opyls,

c m .

C ard n umber

H

B

h

S

2 7-31-147

3 0

6

6 0

2 .5

5

2 6-31-142

3 0

6

6 0

2

5

2 4-28-895

3 0

5

4 0

2

2 1-26-137

3 0

6

8 0

2

2 0-23-1499

2 6

8

4 0

2

1 8-27-1377

2 4

5

5 0

2

6

1 6-22-119

2 5

6

6 0

2

5

1 5-17-910

2 0

6

6 0

2 .5

1 4-18-342

2 5

6

6 5

2

5

1 3-12-1760

3 0

6

6 0

2 .5

6

8 7

h

1

5

S hafts. f ound . E leven a re i n various c learly i n p l. c m . i n l ength ,

I n

t he

c ourse

o f

t he

e xcavations,

5 0

s hafts

h ave

b een

o f t hem a re a bsolutely i ntact w hile t he r emaining o nes s tates o f p reservation . T he d esign o f s hafts i s s hown 8 3; 8 4. T he s haft i s a r ound p ole b etween 2 50 a nd 2 90 a nd f rom 7 t o 9 c m . i n d iameter. A t i ts l ower e nd , t he

s haft was f itted u pon t he f irst k opyl. T his s ystem c ontinued i n N ovgorod w ithout a ny c hanges f or c enturies. n oted t hat s hafts w ere f astened t o s leighs i n t he s ame w ay o f R ussia , a nd i n t he B altic a rea , i n t he 1 9th c entury .

o f f astening I t s hould b e i n t he N orth B elow i s t he

d istribution o f s hafts b y c enturies. 1 0th c entury

1 1th c entury

1 2th c entury

2 8-33-262

2 4-32-1458

2 1-30-1355

2 8-33-1372

2 4-32-1458

2 1-21-1989

2 6-33-1431

2 4-25-955

2 1-17-1732

2 6-24-474 ,

2 4-25-955

2 0-22-907

2 5-30-142

2 4-24-1944

1 9-29-1321

2 5-29-2095

2 3-24-1923

1 9-29-1337

2 5-25-1942

2 2-22-1918

1 9-20-950

2 0-21-484

1 7-19-423 1 4th c entury

1 3th c entury 1 6-20-287

1 4-15-936

1 1-14-1627

1 6-19-1583

1 3-19-1137

1 0-17-629

1 6-18-1024

1 3-18-1300

1 0-16-2057

1 6-17-1378

1 3-17-1486

1 0-16-2070

1 6-16-2010

1 3-17-1511

9 -8-1961

1 5-19-332

1 3-17-2092

9 -7-662

1 5-16-950

1 3-15-1804

8 -14-1450

1 5-15-1765

1 3-14-901

7 -12-2111

1 4-22-1447

1 3-14-1803

7 -12-2112

8 8

s tate

T he s leighs t hat h ave b een d iscovered w ere i n a f lattened-out a nd t he u pper p ortions o f t he s leigh w as n ot p reserved i n a ny

e xample. A t otal o f 1 2 s uch b roken-down s leighs w as f ound . W e w ill d escribe o nly f ive o f t hem b ecause t his s hould b e s ufficient t o g ive a g ood i dea o f t he d esign o f t he s leighs a s a w hole. B roken-down a ssemblies o f s leighs ( 24-23-1944) w ere d iscovered i n t he c ourt-yard o f a p roperty d ating f rom t he 1 1th c entury. T he s leigh h ad b een t urned u pside d own , w ith i ts r unners u pwards, w hich l ater f ell a part. I n t his a ssembly, t here w ere r unners, k opyls, r ows, a nd b indings. T he s leighs w ere f our-kopyled , w ith o ne r unner h aving o nly t hree k opyls a nd t he o ther o nly o ne. T he s leigh w as 2 45 c m . i n l ength , t he l ength b efore t he b ent f ront p ortion i s 1 45 c m ., t he h eight f rom t he b ottom o f t he r unner t o t he p latform 3 5 c m ., a nd t he w idth b etween t he r unners 7 4 c m . T he b indings o f t he k opyls w ere j oined t ogether a nd c overed f rom a bove b y w ooden k nobs t o w hich c ross b ars 7 2 c m . i n l ength w ere f astened . T hey m ade u p t he b asis o f t he u pper p latform o f t he s leigh . T he r ows a nd t he c rossbars h ad a c overing m ade o f f olds o f a w ide o ak l ynden b ast b ends. T he h eight o f t he u pper p ortion o f t he k opyl, t he s ide o f t he b ody , w as 2 0 c m . ( pl. 7 7, 2 ). I n

t he

c ourtyard o f

t he

s ame

p roperty

but

a l ittle

h igher

t here

w as d iscovered a n i ntact r unner w ith f ive k opyls a nd a r ow ( 21-231 760). T he s leigh w as 2 08 c m . i n l ength, t he r ow 1 80 c m . i n l ength , t he h eight o f p latform 3 2 c m ., a nd t he t otal h eight o f k opyls 5 4 c m . ( pl. 7 8, 2 ). H eavier s leighs d esigned f or h orse h arness t endons w ere d iscovered i n t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 15-14-1680). T he r unner w ith i ts k opyls a nd t he r ow w ere p reserved . T he l ength o f t he r unner i s 3 20 c m ., t he l ength o f t he r ow a nd c onsequently t hat o f t he s leigh p latform i s 2 15 c m ., t he t otal h eight o f t he k opyls i s 6 0 c m . ( pl. 7 8, 1 ). S imilar h eavy r unners w ere a lso d iscovered i n t he 1 1th-century l evels ( for e xample 2 3-22-992). A c ollapsed a ssembly c onsisting o f t wo r unners, s everal k opyls a nd t wo w ell-preserved b indings w as f ound n ot f ar f rom V elikaya U litsa ( The G reat S treet) i n a 1 3th-century l evel ( 13-13-525). T he l ength o f t he r unner w ith t he b roken h ead w as 2 80 c m . T he s leigh h ad n ine k opyls w hich w ere 2 0 c m . i n h eight, w hile t he l ength o f t he b indings, i .e. t he w idth o f t he s leigh , w as 7 4 c m . T he r emains

o f l arge c arriage

s leigh w ere d iscovered i n t he

1 5th-

c entury l evels ( 5-7-1542). T he a ssembly c onsisted o f o ne i ntact r unner w ith t he r ow a nd f ive k opyls ( pl. 7 9, 2 ). T he l ength o f t he r unner w as 3 00 c m . while t he l ength o f t he r ow w as 1 85 c m ., a nd t he h eight o f t he s leigh t o t he p latform w as 3 0 c m . T he l ength o f t he u pper p art o f a ll k opyls, t he b ase o f t he s leigh b ody , w as 6 7 c m ., a nd t he t otal h eight o f t he k opyl w as 9 7 c m . T echnical a nalysis o f f eatures makes i t p ossible

t he r unners, k opyls, b indings, a nd o ther t o d istinguish b etween t he m ain t ypes o f

s leigh t hat w ere u sed i n N ovgorod s ince t he 1 0th c entury . W e c an d efinitely i dentify f ive t ypes o f s leigh: g eneral-purpose f reight s leighs; l ight p assenger s leighs; c arriage s leighs w ith a h igh r ow ,

8 9

hand-pushed s ledges, T he

m ajority

g eneral-purpose f rom 2 50

t o

a nd c hildren 's s ledges.

o f

r unners

f reight

3 40 c m .

a nd

s leighs.

k opyls T he

d iscovered

l ength

o f

T he h eight o f t he p latforms

a nd i n c ertain c ases was

3 0

c m.

I n

i ts

c ome

t hese

f rom

s leighs

t he

v aried

a veraged a bout 2 5 c m.,

l ower p ortion

t he

s leighs w ere

r eminiscent o f m odern d rags. W e s hould r ecall t hat t he 1 9th-20thc entury d rags w e e b etween 2 10 a nd 2 50 c m . i n l ength a nd b etween 7 0 a nd 8 0 c m . i n w idth. s leighs w ere n ot

Judging b y t he k opyls, t he b odies o f t he m ajority o f l arge. T hose b odies o r, m ore c orrectly, t he s ide

walls o f t he p latform m easured b etween 2 0 a nd 3 0 c m .

T he b odies o f t he

N ovgorod s leighs d iffer f rom t hose o f t he R ussian s leighs o f t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c enturies ( rozvalni - l ow-wide s leigh, a nd p oshevni - b road s leigh). A s i s k nown , t he t heir p latforms a nd t his i s r unners.

T he

d istance

b ody

b etween

o f

t he

b odies a lways

N ovgorod

r unners

u pper p arts o f t he k opyls.

o f m odern s leighs a re built u pon w ider t han t he w idth b etween t he

s leighs

a nd

i ts

was

t he

s ide-walls

T he b ody w as

s ame

i n

w idth

a s

t he

w ere

f astened

t o

t he

a l ong r ectangular b ox w ith

a

h igh r ear wall. T he a ppearance o f s uch s leighs was c orrectly d epicted by Adam O learius i n h is d rawings. 4 P robably i n t he 1 7th c entury t he b ody o f

t he

by K orion has

s leigh b egan t o

I stomin

( the

e nd

i ts m odern a ppearance.

t ake o f

o n

t he

i ts m odern 1 7th

f orm .

c entury)

c an

r econstruct

basis

o f

t he

t hese

f inds

o f

t he

A BC

poshevni

b ook

a lready

5

T he l ighter p assenger s leighs w ere s horter b etween 1 90 a nd 2 50 c m .

I n

t he

i n l ength,

w hich v aried

T heir k opyls w ere o f l ighter c onstruction . l ight

s leighs

s pecial

w ith

r unners

a h ighly

( 14-14-503),

p laced

r ow

i n which

e ntered t he s eat u nder t he a ngle w ith a n i nclination i nside

W e

o n

t he

t he

k opyl

t he s leigh.

T he r unners o f t hose s leighs a s i f m oved o ut. I n a ddition m ore t han 1 0 l ighter k opyls w ere f ound w ith v ery h igh s helves f or t he r ows. T he h eight o f t he k opyl b efore 1 4-1448, e tc.)

t he r ow was 4 0 c m .

( 16-17-951,

1 5-16-956,

9 -

T he m ain c haracteristic o f t he c arriage s leigh w ith a h igh c overed b ody a re k opyls w ith t he h igh u pper s ections.

O ver 5 0 s uch k opyls have

b een f ound i n t he l evels o f t he 1 0th c entury a nd e arlier. T heir u pper p art p rovided basis f or t he c onstruction o f t he c overed b ody ( pl. 8 5). S leighs f or c arrying l ight w eights d iffer f rom l arge s leighs i n having s maller d imensions. T he a verage l ength o f s uch s leighs v aried b etween 8 0 a nd 1 00 c m . T heir w idth w as 4 5 c m ., a nd t heir h eight v aried b etween 1 2 a nd 1 5 c m . S weeps.

E xcept

s leighs,

t he

c itizens

o f

N ovgorod

m ade

u se

o f

s weeps. F rom t he s everal s weeps o f t he R ussian N orth w idespread i n t he 1 9th c entury a nd i n M edieval N ovgorod w hich a re k nown t o u s, u se was m ade i n M edieval N ovgorod o f s haft s weeps. T hey w ere u sed o nly f or ' transporting t imber, l ogs a nd b eams. A s imilar s weep i s u sed f or c utting c arting o ut l ogs f rom t he f orest a t t he p resent t ime. S uch a s weep w as p hotographed by m e i n 1 959 a t t he c ollective f arm l ogging a rea i n t he K hvoininsky D istrict o f t he N ovgorod R egion. Only d iscovered

e ight i n

t he

s weeps l evels

have o f t he

been

f ound

i n

Novgorod.

1 2-15th c enturies

9 0

T hey

( 17-22-12024,

were 1 4-15-

9 39, 1 3-20-1466, 1 3-17-2147, 1 3-15-452, 1 0-13-1305, 9 -16-14-50, 6 -111 3). T hree s weeps w ere i ntact, i .e. t ogether w ith t he s haft. T he g eneral v iew o f t he N ovgorod s weeps i s c lear f rom t he d rawing ( pl. 8 6, 1 ). E ach s haft w as m ade f rom a k opan. T he l ength o f t he p ole o f t he s haft w as b etween 2 80 a nd 3 00 c m . T he t hick e nd o f t he p ole w as 5 0 c m . i n h eight. A t hick e xtension , a b ar w ith s eats b etween 1 6 a nd 2 0 c m . i n d iameter, w as f itted o nto t he e nd o f a s haft, a s o n k opyls. An e nd o f t he l og o r b eam w as p laced u pon t he e xtension a nd t ied t o i t b y r opes. C ollars a nd b ows. Among t he a rticles w hich f orm t he h arness s et, c ollars a nd b ows w ere f ound a t t he N erevsky e xcavations. T he m odern c ollar c onsists o f t wo w ooden h ames, a c ollar p ad , a h eadstall o f f elt a nd s kin , a nd l eather t races a nd h ame-straps. Among t he various f inds o f w ood a nd o ther m aterials, i t h as b een p ossible t o i dentify o nly w ooden hames with t heir r opes and hame-straps, which w ere w ell p reserved . A s i s k nown , b efore t he M iddle A ges h orses w ere e verywhere h arnessed i n a s oft y oke. T he y oke w as p ut o n t he n eck o f t he h orse. I t e xercised p ressure o n t he c hest o f t he h orse a nd m ade i ts b reathing d ifficult, i n c onsequence o f w hich t he h orse c ould n ot b e u sed f or p ulling h eavy l oads. T his i mpeded t he d evelopment o f h orse-drawn t ransport a nd u se o f t he h orse i n t he e conomy . I n t he 7 th c entury a r igid c ollar w as i nvented i n t he E ast w h, i ch s hifted t he p ressure f rom t he c hest o f t he h orse t o i ts s houlders.' T he n ew h orse h arness m ade i t p ossible t o i ncrease s everal f old t he l oad p ulled b y t he h orse, a nd s o i t c onsiderably i ncreased t he e fficiency o f t he h orse. I t w as c onsidered t hat t his i nvention r eached E urope a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 1th c entury a nd w as u sed f irst b y t he F ranks a nd N ormans. 7 T he b asis o f t he r igid c ollar a re t he t wo w ooden h ames. T he c ollar p ad a nd h eadstall f orm t he s oft p art o f t he c ollar. A s m any a s 1 2 s ets o f w ooden h ames h ave b een f ound a t t he N erevsky e xcavation a rea i n l evels o f t he 1 0th a nd l ater c enturies ( 27-31-125, 2 1-25-1142, 1 6-22-155, 1 52 0-1246, 1 4-16-1601, 1 3-21-1464, 1 2-14-1644, 1 2-13-1062, 1 1-12-1895, 6 8 -1538, 6 -4-1949, 6 -4-2017). E ight h ames w ere i ntact, a nd t wo h ave t heir t ops b roken . O nly o ne p air o f h ames h as b een f ound i n t he r uins. T wo h ames h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he I lyinsky e xcavations. T he d esign o f t he h ames i s c lear f rom p hotographs a nd d rawings ( pl. 8 7; 8 8; 8 9). W hat s trikes t he e ye i s t he m onotony a nd t he s tandard t ype o f f orm a nd d imensions o f t he h ames. T heir d imensions a re a s f ollows: t he l ength a cross t he r ight l ine i s 5 3 c m . w ith a v ariation o f n ot m ore t han 2 c m .; t he i nternal f lexure o f t he b ow i n t he m ajority o f f inds i s 6 c m .; t he c ross-section o f t he w idest p art n ear t he h oles f or r opes i s 5 x 7 c m .; t he d istance b etween t he r ope h oles i s b etween 6 a nd 7 c m . A d egree o f v ariation c an b e d etected o nly w ith r egard t o t he w ay t he t op p art w as m ade. I n s ome e xamples . the h ames e nded i n a f lat s ection w hile i n o thers t hey h ad a r ounded s urface. I n c ertain c ases t he i nner s urface i s n ot c overed w ith a h eadstall a nd i s d ecorated w ith c arvings. T hus, a n i ngenious p laited d esign w as f ound o n t he h ame f rom a l ayer d ated t o t he e nd o f t he 1 4th c entury ( 6-4-2017). D uring t en c enturies t he s hape o f t he c ollar w as t he s ame a nd d id n ot c hange u ntil t he 2 0th c entury .

9 1

N ovgorod

T he n ew d esign o f t he h orse h arness w as a lready k nown i n N ovgorod i n t he s econd p art o f t he 1 0th c entury . T his i nvention h ad a g reat e ffect u pon a griculture. T he r igid e astern c ollar s omewhat d iffers f rom t he E uropean o ne i n t hat t he l ower p art o f t he h ames w here t hey a re c onnected w ith t he s traps i s m uch l ower, a pproximately b y a d istance which i s o ne h alf o f t he e ntire h eight o f t he c ollar. S hortening o f t he c ollar, i .e. i ts s tructural d evelopment, t ook p lace i n E astern p rope i n t he 9 th-10th c enturies a nd r eached W estern E urope o nly l ater.' H owever, i t i s d ifficult t o j udge h ow o ften b ows w ere u sed i n h orse h arness, b ecause t he a rchaeological m aterial t hat i s a vailable d oes n ot p rovide s ufficient e vidence i n t his r espect. I n e xcavations a b ow c an b e i dentified o nly i n c ases w hen i t i s f ound i ntact r ather t han i n t he f orm o f f ragments o f a r ound b ent w ooden p ole. O nly n ine w hole b ows h ave b een f ound i n t he c ourse o f e xcavations ( 17-18-1999, 1 6-179 49, 1 3-15-927, 1 2-12-1925, 1 2-12-1925, 1 6-17-1408, 9 -7-2020, 6 -111 243, 5 -10-1132). B ows d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 9-7-2020) h ave t he f ollowing d imensions: h eight, 5 5cm .; t he d istance b etween t he e nds o f t he b ow , 5 2 c m .; d iameter o f t he u pper c ross-section , 5 c m ; a nd t hat o f t he e nds, 4 .5 c m .; t he d epth o f t he r ecess f or t he s haft, 1 c m . Another b ow d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 10-17-1408) h as a h eight o f 6 5 c m ., a nd t he d istance b etween b ow e nds i s 7 0 c m . T he c ross-section o f t he b ow a t i ts e nds i s c ircular, w hile a t t he t op i n t he m iddle p art i t i s a r ounded r homb ( pl. 7 9, 1 ). T he s ystem o f s haft f astening a llowed t he N ovgorod s leighs t o b e h arnessed t o t he h orse w ithout a b ow b ecause t he d istance b etween t he s hafts n ecessary f or h eightening t he c ollar w ith a s trap c ould b e c reated w ith t he a id o f t he h eads o f t he s leigh f ront. B ut t he b ow was i ndispensable f or h arnessing t he h orse t o aw ooden p lough* o r s weep. S addle. T he o nly a lmost i ntact s addle w as f ound i n t he N erevsky e xcavation a nd i t d ates f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury . I t i s t he w ooden f rame o f a s addle s edlovishche—saddletree. I t s hould b e r ecalled t hat t he s addletree c onsists o f t wo s ide f laps w hich a re p laced u pon t he h orse's b ack a nd t wo s addle b ows ( pommel a nd c antle) w hich c onnect t he f laps. T he t wo f laps a nd t he r ear b ow o f t he t ree w ere d iscovered i n t wo n eighbouring s quares ( 24-20-687 a nd 2 4-20-701). T he c onstruction a nd t he d imensions o f t he w ooden p arts o f t he t ree a re c ompletely a nalogous t o a m odern p easant s addle ( pl. 9 0). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he N ovgorod s addletree d iffers c onsiderably f rom t he S candinavian t ype w hich i s k nown f rom t he m aterial o btained f rom t he O seberg s hip.

9

A part f rom t he w ooden s tructures o f t he s addle d escribed a bove, t here h ave b een c ollected i n t he e xcavations a bout t en w ooden p ieces ( 19-28-1447, 1 8-24-827, 1 6-18-893, 1 4-22-1328, 1 4-20-1129, 1 2-20-835, 1 3-15-1814, 8 -17-752, 7 -10-1549, 3 -8-1368), w hich c an b e i dentified a s b elonging t o t he p ommels o f t he s addletrees ( pl. 9 0, 6 , 7 ). C ertain d oubts a re r aised b y t he s tructure o f t he e nd w here t he s addle b ow i s f astened

t o

t he

* T here e xist i ncluding b ow ,

f laps.

I n

m odern

p ommels

t his

2 t raditional t ypes o f h arness a nd o ne - w ithout i t . -A . C h .

9 2

f or

e lement

i s

s omewhat

s okha—plough

- o ne

d ifferent. S kis. T he R ussian s kis w hich c aused s urprise a mong f oreign t ravellers t o R ussia i n t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies w ere n ot k nown f rom a rchaeological s ources b efore t he N ovgorod e xcavations. A d epictipn o f t hose s kis e xists o nly o n m iniatures r elating t o t he 1 6th c entury . d etailed a nd i nteresting a rticle a bout t he R ussian s kis h ad w ritten by A .V . A rtsikh l gvsky b efore t he e xcavations w ere m ade, o nly o n w ritten s ources. 11 N ow w e h ave t he s kis t hemselves.

A b een

1 0

b ased

R ussian s kis o f t he M iddle A ges d iffered s ignificantly f rom t he S candinavian t ype. T he S candinavian s kis w ere d ifferent i n l ength : t he l eft f oot w as p laced u pon a l ong g liding s ki w hile t he r ight s ki w as g s hort o ne a nd w as u sually c overed w ith f ur a nd s erved f or p ushing . 12 T he R ussian s kis w ere o f t he

s ame

l ength a nd b oth w ere

f or g liding .

A

S wedish t raveller a nd d iplomat P alm who visited Russia i n 1 617 d escribed w ith s urprise t he R ussian h igh-speed g liding s kis w hich, a s w e k now t oday; h ad a m odern l ook . N ine s kis w ere f ound i n t he N erevsky e xcavations. T wo s kis w ere c ompletely i ntact. T here w as a lso o ne w ith a b roken e nd a nd o ne w ith a b roken t ip, a nd a nother f ive t ips u p t o 3 0 c m . i n l ength . T hey w ere d iscovered i n l evels d ated t o t he l lth-14th c enturies ( 22-21-471, 2 22 1-475, 1 7-16-481, 1 3-13-502, 1 3-13-512, 9 -15-1348, 9 -12-1310, 8 -91 056, 7 -5-1949). W e s hall d escribe i n m ore d etail t he f our s pecimens w hich w ere f ound i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation . T he w hole s ki d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-13-512) i s 1 92 c m . i n l ength a nd 1 2 c m . i n w idth a t t he p oint w here t he f oot i s f astened t o t he s ki. T he t hickness o f t he s ki i n t he f ront p ortion i s 1 .5 c m . w hile a t t he e nd i t i s r educed t o 1 c m . T he t ip o f t he s ki w as s moothly b ent u p t o a h eight o f 8 c m . I t e nded i n t he s tylised h ead o f a d uck . T he f oot b lock w as l ocated n ot i n t he m iddle o f t he s ki b ut s omewhat t owards t he f ront a nd i ts d istance f rom t he t ip i s 7 5 c m . T he l ength o f t he b lock i s 2 2 c m ., a nd i t i s 3 c m . i n t hickness. T he u pper s urface o f t he b lock i s c oncave a nd h as a r ecess 1 .4 c m . d eep. I n t he s ides o f t he b lock t here i s a c ross-wise r ectangular h ole t hrough w hich w ere p assed s traps f or b inding . T he s traps w ere 2 c m . w ide. T he s ki, w hich i s i ntended f or s oft f ootwear ( skin o r f elt), has a v ery c omfortable a nd d urable f oot-block . A f oot i n a s oft f ootwear w hen i nserted i nto t he b lock w as s tably s ecured b y t he b inding s trap a nd w as r igidly a ttached s urface o f t he s ki i s s mooth ( pl. 9 1, 1 ). Another

w hole

s ki

d ated

t o

t he

1 3th

t o

t he

s ki.

c entury

T he

l ower

( 13-13-502)

w as

d iscovered i n t he n eighbouring s quare i n t he s ame p roperty . I ts d imensions w ere s maller; i t i s 1 66 c m . i n l ength a nd i s 1 0 c m . w ide a t t he p oint w here t he f oot i s a ttached t o t he s ki. T he t hickness o f t he f oot-block i s 2 .6 c m . A s w as t he c ase a bove, t he s ki n arrowed i n w idth t o 8 c m . t owards i ts e nd a nd t o 1 c m . i n t hickness. T he b lock w as t he s ame a s i n t he p receding s ki ( 13-13-512). T he s ki w as a ttached t o t he f oot b y m eans o f a s trap s mooth ( pl. 9 1, 2 ). T he

s ki

d ated

t o

2 c m .

t he

1 4th

w ide.

T he l ower

c entury

9 3

s urface

( 9-12-1310)

w ith

o f

t he

s ki

a b roken

i s

t ip

d iffering l ittle f rom m odern r unning s kis, e xcept t hat i t i s s omewhat w ider. A m odern r unning s ki a nalogous i n s ize i s b etween 6 a nd 7 c m . w ide w hile t he 1 4th c entury s ki i s 9 .5 c m . w ide. M odern hunter 's s kis a re o f t he s ame w idth . T he l ength o f t he p art o f t he s ki d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury t hat h as b een p reserved i s 1 60 c m . A t t he p lace w here t he s ki i s a ttached t o t he f oot t here i s a t hickening ; t he f oot b lock i s 6 .2 c m . w ide, a nd i s a bout 6 0 c m . i n l ength . T he t otal t hickness o f t he s ki a t t his p oint i s 3 c m . ( pl. 9 2, 2 ). T he t hickness o f t he s ki a t t he t ip a nd e nd p arts i s 1 c m . T he l ower s urface o f t he s ki i s s mooth w ith a g roove r unning l ongitudinally d own t he m iddle o f t he s ki. T he w idth o f t he r ectangular g roove i s 2 .5 c m . a nd i t i s 0 .5 c m . i n d epth . J udging b y h ave b een 1 90 c m .

t he

p roportions

o f

t he

s ki

i ts

t otal

l ength w ould

Another s ki d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 7-5-1949) w ith a b roken e nd i s t he l argest s pecimen t hat h as b een f ound . T he s urviving p art i s 1 53 oot b lock i s 1 2 c m . I n c m . i n l ength . T he w idth o f t he s ki n ear t he f he t ip, t here i s a f oot t he m iddle p art, a t a d istance o f 1 15 c m . f rom t ide. T he t hickness o f b lock w hich i s 3 7 c m . i n l ength a nd i s 8 .5 c m . w o f t h e s k i r u n n e r i s u p t he s ki i n t his p lace i s 4 c m . T he t hickness t o 1 .2 c m . T he l ower s urface o f t he s ki i s s mooth a nd h as a s mall ore t han 2 m etres ( pl. g rove. T he t otal l ength o f t he w hole s ki w as m 9 2,

1 ) W ater

T ransport.

N ovgorod

t he

G reat

w as

a c ity

f amous

n ot

o nly

f or i ts s kilful a rtisans a nd a rchitects but a lso f or i ts s hipbuilders. L ocated o n t he w ater r oute " From t he V arangians t o t he G reeks" i t w as a r iver p ort f or f our w ater r outes. T he N ovgorod s hipbuilders a lso p articipated i n f oreign t rade a nd t heir s hips c ould b e m et w ith e verywhere o n t he s ea r outes o f t he B altic a nd t he W hite S eas. T he f irst e vidence f or t he j ourneying o f N ovgorod p eople " Beyond t he S ea" c an b e f ound i n a C hronicle d ated t o t he y ear 1 130: " The s ame y ear m erchants w ere g oing o ver t he s ea a nd d rowned ; s even s hips a nd s ome o f t hem d rowned a s a lso t heir g oods. A nd s ome o thers c limbed o nto t he l and ; a nd r eturned f rom D enmark s afely". 13 R ussian w arriors a lso w ent b y s hip b eyond t he s eas. A l arge-scale m ilitary n aval e nterprise w as t he c ampaign o f t he y ear 1 187 t o t he c oasts o f S weden a gainst S igtuna , w hich w as t aken b y t he f orce f rom N ovgorod a nd d estroyed . 14 A m ilitary t rophy o f t his c ampaign , t he f amous M agdeburg m onum v ital d oors o f t he S t. S ofia i n N ovgorod h as b een p reserved t o t his d ay . I5 B ut t he m ost e xtensive a nd t he b asic f leet o f M edieval R ussia a nd o f N ovgorod i n p articular w as t he r iver f leet. T he w ater r outes o f t he c ountry w ere t he m ain c ommunication r outes f rom t he G reat R ussian P lain . T he c haracter o f t he R ussian r ivers, t he s hallowness o f t heir t ributaries, t he a bundant l akes, t he r apids o n t he D nieper, V olkhov a nd o ther r ivers, f requent t ransfers a cross w atersheds a ll t his d etermined t he d esign a nd s tructure o f t he r iver a nd l ake s hips o f M edieval R ussia , t heir s ize, d isplacement, a nd m ode o f p ropulsion . T he s ources f or t he h istory a nd t echnology o f M edieval R ussian s hipbuilding a re s till f ew a t t he p resent t ime. T he w ritten e vidence i s h aphazard a nd i ncomplete w hile t he a rchaeological m aterials a re o nly b eginning t o a ccumulate. T he f irst c ollection t hat c ontains a

9 4

c onsiderable body o f material r elating a ccumulated b y t he N ovgorod e xpedition . I n

t he

w ritten

s ources,

M edieval

t o

R ussian

d ifferent n ames a s s hips a nd b oats. T hese c hronicler t o d enote any s hip g enerally. " Naboinaya L adya", W sad", a nd s till a nd " Ushkui" ( bark) i ° w ere e mployed

s hipbuilding

s hips

a re

has

been

c alled

b y

t erms w ere u sed b y t he L ater, s uch n ames a s

l ater " Strug", " Cheln", " Uchan" t o d escribe s pecific t ypes o f

v essel. S ome i dea o f t he r elative s izes o f t he M edieval R ussian s hips i s p rovided by t he Russkaya P ravda ( The Russian Law) i n which t he c onventional v alues o f s hips a re i ndicated . T he h ighest f ine w as p aid f or t he t heft o f a s ea-going l adya: 1 50 k uns. F or t he n aboinaya l adya t he f ine w as 1 00 k uns; f or a s imple l adya, 6 0 k uns; f or t he s trug , 5 0 k uns; a nd f or t he " cheln", 8 k uns. 17 I n t erms o f s ize, t he c losest t o t he " cheln" w as p robably t he " uchan". T he N erevsky e xcavations p roduced a c onsiderable n umber o f v arious p arts o f l arge a nd s mall s hips: t heir b roken s tructural e lements a nd e quipment, s temposts, s ternposts, k eels, r ibs, p ropulsion o ars, s tern o ars, r owlocks, b ottoms, b enches, p ins, g ags, a nd i tems o f t he s ail e quipment. T aken t ogether, t hese f inds m ake i t p ossible t o f orm a n i dea o f t he s tructure o f c ertain N ovgorod s hips, t o d etermine t heir c arrying c apacity, and t o a scertain t he t ype of c onstruction c haracteristic o f t hem . W e s hall b egin o ur d escription w ith t he m ost n umerous a nd c omplete f inds. P ropulsion o ars. A t otal o f 5 6 s ide r owing o ars h ave b een f ound , o r t o b e m ore e xact 3 0 b lades b roken o ff a t v arious l engths, 2 5 b alancers w ith b roken p oles o f v arious l ength a nd o nly o ne i ntact o ar . I t i s d ifficult t o i dentify a mong t hese p ieces w hich h ave b een o nly i mperfectly p reserved , s pecific g roups o f b oat a nd s hip o ars, a nd w e t herefore d iscuss t hem t ogether. O ars h ave b een f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll c enturies a nd t hey h ave b een d istributed b y h orizons i n t he f ollowing w ay : 2 8-29-1087

1 3-17-283

8 -11-1512

2 8-29-1088

1 3-12-1936

8 -9-1582

2 7-30-328

1 2-13-1044

7 -13-1448

2 7-30-328

1 2-13-1044

7 -11-1911

2 6-30-109

1 2-12-512

7 -11-1311

2 1-26-137

1 1-17-2106

7 -10-423

2 1-24-1538

1 1-13-881

7 -10-1519

2 1-23-1556

1 1-13-881

7 -6-1991

2 1-23-1593

1 1-10-528

7 -1-1745

9 5

2 0-22-974

1 0-22-1569

6 -9-1018

1 9-20-939

1 0-15-1250

6 -8-1829

1 9-17-1681

1 0-10-959

6 -8-1834

1 7-25-1414

1 0-10-2013

6 -8-1834

1 7-24-2104

9 -13-328

5 -8-1290

1 7-16-518

9 -11-915

5 -7-1534

1 5-22-153

9 -8-1762

5 -7-1642

1 5-18-1552

8 -15-1428

5 -4-1778

1 3-21-1448

8 -15-1428

4 -11-128

1 3-20-1407

4 -4-1428

A s w e have a lready n oted a bove, o nly o ne o ar h as b een f ound i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation . T his i s a s hip o ar d ating f rom t he 1 3th c entury ( 15-22-153). I t i s 3 10 c m . i n l ength . T he m assive b alancer i s 8 0 c m . i n l ength, a nd 1 4 c m . i n d iameter. T he l ength o f t he d ecorated b lade i s 5 5 c m . T he w idth i s 1 2 c m . a nd i t i s 1 .5 c m . t hick ( pl . 9 4, 1 ). T he d iameter o f t he p ole v aries f rom 3 .5 t o 4 c m . T he b lades o f r owing o ars h ave d ifferent c onfigurations. T hey varied i n l ength f rom 5 5 t o 7 0 c m . T he w idth o f t he b lade i s n ot m ore t han 1 2 c m . W e m ay n ote t hat t he b lades h ave o ptimal d imensions a nd a lready i n t he 1 0th-llth c enturies h ad t he m ost e fficient c onstruction f or o ne r ower. A bsolutely a nalogous c onstruction o f t he o ar i s k nown a t t he p resent t ime. T he b alancers o f s hip 's o ars a re m ore m assive t han t hose o f b oat o ars, t hat i s t o s ay t hey a re t hicker a nd l onger. T his was n ecessary f rom t he s tructural p oint o f v iew f or a chieving t he balance o f t he l ong o ar. S tern O ars. T hese c onstitute o ne o f t he c haracteristic f inds providing quite e xtensive i nformation r egarding t he s ize and d isplacement o f a ncient s hips. A s i s k nown , t he c entral h elm o f m odern t ype made i ts a ppearance a t E uropean s hips o nly a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury . 18 And b efore, t here w ere o nly s tern o ars. T he s izes a nd t he s tructural f eatures o f s tern o ars a re k nown f rom t he f inds o f s hips w ell k nown t o m s f rom t he N eedham f ind 19 but m ainly o n t he basis o f t he V iking s hips. 2u S ixteen s hips' s tern o ars h ave b een f ound i n N ovgorod , s ix o f t hem b eing i ntact. T he l ength o f t he l argest o ar i s 2 40 c m . H alf o f t his l ength w as t aken u p b y a b road b lade. A c ross h andle was p rovided a t t he e nd o f t he s tem o f t he o ar t o f acilitate c ontrol . T he

s hips'

s tern o ars

h ave

b een

f ound

i n

l evels

d ating

f rom

a ll

c enturies, b eginning w ith t he 1 1th c entury . T he s ame t ype o f s tern o ars was p robably a lso u sed b y s hips i n t he 1 0th c entury, but t hey have n ot y et b een f ound . T he d istribution o f s tern o ars b etween h orizons i s g iven b elow .

9 6

2 1-24-1536

1 4-22-1331

9 -14-71

1 7-20-1081

1 2-20-1410

9 -14-1428

1 7-20-1081

1 1-14-1882

9 -10-611

1 5-16-940

1 0-10-1955

9 -7-2013

1 5-16-950

1 0-8-687

4 -8-1205 1 -4-1428

1 5-16-950

T he c omplete c onstruction o f s tern o ars i s d epicted i n P late 9 7. T he d imensions o f s ome o ars i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation a re g iven i n T able X XXII ( cf . p l. 1 9, 1 3). T able X XXII D imensions o f s hips '

C ard n umber

2 1-24-1536

s tern o ars,

c m .

L

1

2 10

9 0

2 7

2

2

8 0

2 0

2 .5

5

1 7-20-1081 1 5-16-950

2 32

1 28

3 2

2 .5

6

1 5-16-950

2 15

1 00

2 2.5

2 .5

5

1 24

3 2

2

6

1 00

2 8

2 .5

7

1 05

1 9

2

6

1 0-10-1955 9 -14-71 9 -10-611

2 05

S tern o ars f rom b oats h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he e xcavations. T hey a re n ine ( 24-28-84 8 64 , 1 5-16-950, 1 3-13-1780, 1 3-12-1800, 1 0-99 83, 8 -7-2017, 7 -11-1311, 5 -8-1290, 5 -7-1642). O ars o f t his k ind c ould w ell b e u sed a lso i n s ingle o ar m ortised d ugouts. T he m a jority o f b oat o ars a re i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation. I n t erms o f t heir c onstruction t hey d iffer f rom s hips' s tern o ars i n t he p roportions b etween t he b lade a nd t he h andle s ections. I n t hese o ars, t he b lades a re c onsiderably s maller , a nd i n t erms o f s ize t hey a pproximate t o t he b lades o f r owing o ars. T he d imensions o f s ome i ntact b oat o ars a re g iven i n T able X XXIII ( cf . p l. 1 9, 1 4).

9 7

T able XXXIII D imensions o f B oat S tern O ars,

C ard n umber

c m .

L

1

B

S

2 4-28-864

1 80

6 4

1 4

1 .4

3 .2

1 3-12-1800

1 86

6 3

1 4

1 .5

2 .5

8 -7-2017

1 62

7 1

1 6

1

3

7 -11-1311

1 70

6 7

1 3

1 .5

3

R owlocks. s tern o ars, t o s ide 1 00.

d

R owlocks g ive s pecific c haracteristics, a s d o s hips' t he s hips i n w hich t hey w ere u sed . T he r owlock i s a

r est f or r owing o ars. I ts s tructural f eatures a re s hown o n p l. M ore t han 4 0 r owlocks h ave b een f ound i n t he l evels d ated t o a ll

c enturies.

G iven b elow i s t heir d istribution b y h orizons:

2 8-33-146

2 2-24-901

1 3-17-289

2 8-33-1375

2 2-24-1590

1 3-17-336

2 8-32-156

2 1-25-1206

1 3-17-337

2 7-31-236

2 1-24-1544

1 3-17-337

2 6-31-123

2 1-23-1554

1 2-12-1905

2 6-31-126

2 0-25-137

1 1-19-1457

2 6-30-127

2 0-13-2019

1 1-13-1807

2 6-30-139

1 9-25-1135

8 -8-1878

2 6-30-145

1 9-19-984

8 -7-1889

2 6-26-1099

1 9-14-1750

8 -4-705

2 5-29-137

1 6-22-1135

7 -13-1366

2 4-29-2137

1 6-18-1809

7 -10-422

2 3-28-823

1 5-21-1136

6 -14-1391

2 3-25-1576

1 5-15-175

6 -10-1122

2 2-26-189

1 3-20-156

4 -7-1270

1 3-20-1457

9 8

D epending o n t he m ethod o f f astening t he r owlock t o t he s ide o f t he s hip, i ts l ength v aried . T he l ength o f t he r owlocks d iscovered d uring t he e xcavations v aried f rom 7 0 c m . ( 6-10-1122) t o 3 0 c m . ( 25-291 37). C hronological d ifferences n ot r elated t o t he d imensions a nd t he s tructural f eatures o f t he r owlocks. F or e xample, t he r owlock d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury ( 26-30-145) i s 5 8 c m . i n l ength, a nd w as m ore p erfect i n f orm t han t he r owlock d ated t o t he 1 5th c entury ( 6-10-1122). I n t he u pper p art ( horn), a ll r owlocks h ave a n o pening i n t he b end o f t he r owlock a nd a lso n ear t he b ase o f t he h orn . A s trap w as p assed t hrough b oth o penings; s ometimes i t was b ound t o m ake a l oop. S everal r owlocks h ave b een f ound t ogether w ith t heir s traps ( 19-19-984 a nd o thers). d imensions o f s ome w hole r owlocks a re g iven i n T able X XXIV ( cf . p l.

T he 2 0,

1 ). T able XXXIV D imensions o f R owlocks,

c m .

C ard n umber

2 0-31-123

3 1

6

1 3

2

2 .8

2 6-30-145

5 6

6

1 6

3 .5

2 .5

2 5-29-137

3 4

5 5

1 8

4

2 .3

2 2-24-901

4 6

1 1

2 1

4

2 .5

2 1-24-1544

8 3

2 5

2 .5

2 .8

2 1-23-1554

5 8

2 5

4

2 .5

1 3-17-289

6 3

5

1 2

2 .5

2

1 2-12-1905

5 0

7 .5

2 1

2 .6

2

6 -10-1122

7 0

8

1 8

2 .5

2

4 -7-1270

8 5

9

2 2

3

3 .2

9 1 1

B ottoms. T here h ave b een f ound i n t he c ourse o f e xcavations t he b ottoms o f m ore t han 2 7 l arge b oats a nd s hips. W e c onsider h ere o nly b ow a nd s tern b ottoms. B oards f rom t he b ottoms o f b oats a nd s hips i n t he m iddle p art b etween t he r ibs w ere o rdinary b oards a nd d id n ot h ave a ny s pecific f eatures which w ould p ermit u s t o i dentify t hem. S tratigraphically t he b ottoms w ere d istributed a s f ollows: 2 8-27-1106

1 9-20-928

1 3-15-923

2 3-27-1142

1 9-20-928

1 2-13-877

2 1-23-899

1 8-22-1272

1 2-13-967

9 9

2 1-23-1017

1 8-19-928

1 1-19-1457

2 1-23-1538

1 8-19-928

1 0-9-992

2 0-23-1265

1 7-24-2104

6 -11-1243

2 0-21-917

1 4-15-945

5 -10-1123

1 9-29-1321

1 4-14-504

5 -10-1132

1 9-20-928

1 3-21-1416

4 -9-1117

I n t erms o f c onfiguration a nd d imensions o ne c an d istinguish b etween t wo g roups o f b ottoms: s hort a nd l ong ( pl. 1 02). O n a verage, t he w idth o f b ottoms v aries b etween 4 5 a nd 5 5 c m ., t he l ength o f t he b ottoms b elonging t o t he f irst g roup v aries f rom 6 5 t o 7 0 c m ., a nd t hose o f t he s econd g roup b etween 1 00 c m . a nd m ore. T hus, w e c an s peak a bout t wo t ypes o f b oat o utline. B enches. B oat b enches i nclude m ore t han 4 0 f inds. T hey h ave b een f ound , l ike b ottoms, i n l evels f rom a ll c enturies. T he l ength o f t he b oat b ench v aried b etween 6 0 a nd 1 10 c m ., a nd t he w idth b etween 1 0 a nd 2 5 c m . L arge b enches w ere s uitable b oth f or s mall o r m edium-sized s hips. R ibs. B oth b oat a nd s hip r ibs w ere f ound i n t he e xcavations. M ore t han 3 5 b oat r ibs w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll c enturies. G iven b elow i s t heir d istribution b etween h orizons: 2 5-32-1430

1 3-15-1031

8 -13-1118

2 3-25-905

1 3-15-1031

8 -13-1119

2 1-23-859

1 3-14-1815

8 -12-328

2 0-18-604

1 3-14-1815

8 -7-594

1 8-19-1936

1 3-14-1815

7 -13-1337

1 7-25-1359

1 2-19-181

7 -13-1337

1 7-21-1304

1 2-16-290

6 -13-201

1 6-18-1801

1 1-16-13

6 -13-1417

1 5-18-9

1 1-16-323

6 -9-1204

1 3-20-1415

1 1-14-1560

6 -9-1204

1 3-20-1423

1 0-12-1882

4 -4-1637

1 3-10-158

1 -3).

9 -10-1649

T he b oat r ibs a re r ather s tandardised i n f orm a nd s ize T hey a ll b elong t o r ather s mall d ugouts h aving a n

1 00

( pl. 1 04, e xtension

s ideboard . T he r ibs v aried i n s ize w ithin t he f ollowing l imits: i n w idth t hey v aried b etween 8 0 a nd 1 00 c m ., a nd i n h eight t hey v aried b etween 4 0 a nd 3 0 c m . I n c ross-section , t he r ib b ar w as r ound ( diameter b etween 6 a nd 7 c m .) o r r ectangular i n f orm ( 5 x 7 c m .). I n t he u pper p art o f b oth r ibs t here w as a r ecess w ith t he s helf i n w hich t he s upporting d owel o f t he i nternal w all o f t he d ugout w as f ixed . T hese s upports o f t he s ide w ere u sed f or f astening r ibs w hich p ressed b ack t he w alls a nd t hus i mparted r igidity t o t he b oat ( cp. 1 03, 3 ). I n c ertain c ases, o n t he o uter p ortion o f t he r ib a nd i n t he m iddle p art t hereof d epressions w ere m ade f or w ater p assing o ver t he b ottom o f t he b oat . S hip r ibs ( kokory ) h ave b een f ound c omplete, a nd i n a f ragmentary s tate. A t otal o f 1 9 r ibs h ave b een f ound i n t he f ollowing h orizons: 1 9-25-1028

1 1-16-1196

7 -6-1793

1 8-26-768

1 1-13-913

6 -14-1398

1 6-15-527

1 0-17-1366

6 -12-1455

1 5-16-936

1 0-6-700

6 -10-1254

1 4-15-943

9 -12-1549

6 -9-1204

1 3-17-2134

8 -15-1421

4 -7-1275

1 2-19-212 D imensions a nd t he s tructural f eatures o f s ome s hip r ibs a re g iven i n T able X XXM ( cf . p l. 2 0, 2 ). I t i s n ecessary t o p oint o ut a lso t hat t here w ere b ow-like s hip r ibs. O nly f our w ere f ound ( 19-25-1028, 1 61 5-527, 1 2-19-212, 7 -6-1793). T hese a re m assive b ow-like f eatures i n t he s tern a nd b ow p arts o f t he s hip ( pl. 1 03, 1 , 2 ). F or e xample, t he r ib d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 7-6-1793) h as t he f ollowing d imensions: 1 15 c m . i n w idth , t he h eight o f t he b ow i s 5 5 c m ., t he c ross-section o f t he r ectangular b ar i n t he m iddle p ortion i s 1 5 x 7 c m . S temposts. T hree h ave b een f ound : o ne i ntact ( 5-11-215), a nd t wo f ragments ( 9-13-1223 a nd 4 -8-1184). T he h eight o f t he i ntact s tempost i s 1 30 c m ., t he a ngle o f b ow i nclination i n r elation t o t he h orizontal k eel i s 6 0° , t he t hickness o f t he b ar i n t he l ower p ortion t hereof i s m ore t han 3 1 c m . P ins, i .e. w ooden n ails, w ooden c ylinders w ith h eads a re v ery o ften e ncountered . T hey a re o f d ifferent s izes. S hip p ins h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he l evels o f t he 1 0th-15th c enturies. T heir n umber i s 1 20. T he d iameter o f s hip p ins i s s tandard : i t i s a lways 2 .5 c m . w hile t heir l ength v aries. T he o ldest s hip p ins c ome f rom t he 2 7th h orizon . ( 27-27-1761, 2 7-25-999, 2 7-24-476).

1 01

T able X XXV D imensions o f S hip R ibs i n c m .

C ard n umber

1 5-16-936

3 5

x

4 7

7 0

7

7

2 .5

1 4-15-943

7 8

x

6 0

7 5

9

8

2 .5

9

2 .5

1 3-17-2134

1 40

4 5

7 5

1 1

1 1-16-1196

1 30

4 5

7 7

1 2

5 0

7 7

1 1

1 1-13-913

4 3x

1 0-6-700

7 5

x

9 -12-1549

9 5

x

8 -15-1421 6 -14-1398 4 -7-1275 x

7 5

9

2 5

8 0

9

2 00

3 5

7 5

1 85

3 0

7 5

4 0

x

x

7 5

x

1 0

2 .5

8

2 .5

1 0

2 .6

9

2 .5

1 0

8

2 .5

1 0

8

2 .5

8

1 0

2 .4

F actual d imensions o f b roken d etails a re m arked .

Among t he s hip 's e quipment i t i s n ecessary t o n ote t himbles a nd l arge t himbles a nd l arge s coops f or w ater.

g ags,

s ail

G ags a re u niversal a rticles m ade o f w ood a nd b one. T hey f ound m any a pplications f rom buttons t o l arge s hip d etails ( pl. 1 06, 5 -10). E thnographic a nd a rchaeological s ources p rovided a g ood b asis f or i dentifying t he g ags d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavations a s s hips' e quipment. A mong t he v arious d etails o f s ail r igging f ound i n V iking s hips t here a re a lso g ags q uite a nalogical t o t hose t hat h ave b een f ound . 21 G ags h ave b een f ound i n t he l evels r elating t o t he 1 0th1 4th c enturies

i n t he f ollowing h orizons:

2 6-30-2052

1 4-19-1482

2 6-24-997

1 4-22-758

9 -16-13

2 5-27-1553

1 4-16-1650

9 -13-1547

1 3-20-1128

9 -9-1988

2 4-21-1699

1 2-18-1375

9 -8-2009

2 2-26-224

1 2-17-1304

8 -7-1953

2 1-25-294

1 2-17-1304

8 -7-1953

.2 4-27-866

1 02

1 0-15-2120

2 1-25-294

1 2-17-2096

8 -7-1974

2 1-25-333

1 2-13-2144

6 -14-1399

1 7-18-1996

1 2-8-638

6 -6-1892

1 7-18-1996

1 1-12-1035

5 -9-1228

1 5-23-1417

1 0-15-2126

T he

g ag v aried i n s ize b etween s ix

1 .2 a nd 3 c m .

S ail t himbles,

c m .,

a nd b etween

1 a nd

o f t he m ast. T he s tructural f eatures o f t he 1 03, 4 . F our t himbles w ere f ound , t wo o f t hem

a nd t wo w ooden .

T he w ooden

d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury S coops

1 6

s erved f or f astening h orizontal b ar a ttached t o t he

s ails t o t he u pper p art t himble a re g iven o n p l. o f b one,

a nd

i n d iameter.

f or

b ailing

( 7-8-1600, o ut

w ater

t himbles

w ere

f ound

i n

t he

l evel

7 -7-561). f rom

t he

s hip

a re

r epresented

b y

t hree f inds ( 14-25-962, 1 3-17-288, 1 0-17-1360). T wo s coops w ere f ound a bsolutely i ntact. T he l ength o f t he l arge s coop ( 13-17-288) e quals 8 4 c m ., a nd i n w idth t hey m easure 1 5 c m . P lanks

f rom

t he

s ide

a nd

b ottom

p lanking

o f

s hips.

T here

w ere

f ound i n t he e xcavations n ine i ndividual p lanks o r a ssemblies f rom t he s ides o f b oats ( 17-21-2122, 1 7-20--1541, 1 6-18-1058, 1 1-13-913, 1 0-132 110, 1 0-11-1773, 1 0-8-1002, 8 -15-1337, 5 -4-1900). W e d escribe b elow f our f inds w hich s eem t o b e o f t he g reatest i nterest. I n t he l evel d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury t here w as f ound a p lank f rom a s hip 's s ide. I t i s 3 20 c m . i n l ength ( 10-11-1773). T he t hickness o f t he b oard i s 5 c m . I n t he m iddle p ortion i t i s c onsiderably w ider t han a t i ts e nds: i n t he m iddle i t i s 4 2 c m . w ide w hile a t t he e nds i t m easures 3 6 c m . T he p lank h as t hree r ows o f h oles f or f astening b y s hip's p ins t o t he r ibs. T he d istance b etween t he r ows o f p in h oles, i .e. t he d istance b etween t he r ibs, i s 9 0 c m ., w hile t he d istance b etween n eighbouring h oles i n t he s ame r ow i s 3 0 c m . T he d iameter o f t he h oles f or t he p ins i s 2 .4 c m . Another s till m ore i nteresting s hip p lank h as b een f ound a lso i n a l evel d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 10-13-2110). I t i s 5 20 c m . i n l ength a nd i s 7 .5 c m . w ide. T he g reatest w idth i n t he m iddle p ortion i s 3 7 c m ., w hile t hat a t t he e nd i s 3 4 c m . T he h oles f or p ins a re l ocated i n f ive r ows, w ith t wo h oles i n e ach . T he d istances b etween t he i .e. b etween r ibs, w ere 1 08 c m ., 1 00 c m ., 1 00 c m ., a nd 1 08 c m . T he t hird s hip p lank h as b een f ound i n t he l evel r elating ' end o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 17-21-2122). I t i s 2 20 c m . i n l ength , 7 c m . t hick a nd 3 2 c m w ide. T he p lank h as t wo r ows w ith t he d istance b etween p ins b eing e qual 1 02 c m .

o f h oles

r ows,

t o t he a nd i s

f or

p ins

An a ssembly o f s hip p lanks h as b een f ound i n t he l evels r elating t o t he 1 5th c entury ( 5-4-1900 a nd a djacent s quares). S everal b oards w ith p in h oles w ere u sed f or c ourtyard p avement. T hose p lanks c an b e

1 03

c onsidered a s t aken f rom s hips. T he l ength o f t he p lanks r eached 1 1.5 c m ., a nd w ere b etween 7 .5 a nd 8 .5 c m . t hick , w ith t he w idth v arying f rom 4 0 t o 4 5 c m . T he p lanks h ad p in h oles a nd i n p laces t he b roken p ins s urround . T he d istance b etween t he r ows o f p ins o n v arious p lanks v aried b etween 6 0 a nd 1 10 c m . A b oard f rom s hip's p lanking w as f ound i n t he l evel d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury . I t i s 9 0 c m . l ong a nd 2 3 c m . w ide ( 8-15-1337). A p in 2 .5 c m . i n d iameter w as p reserved i n i t. T he s tructure o f t he p acking o f t he s eam j oint i s v ery i nteresting . W hen t he b oard w as s till a ttached t o t he s hip c racked t hrough a nd b egan t o l eak . T he b reak w as c losed b y p acking t he c rack . T he s tructure o f t he p acking i s a s f ollows: a long t he s eat a nd , i n t his p articular c ase, t he c rack , t here w as m ade a l ength-wise w edge-shaped g roove t o a d epth o f 2 /3 o f t he t hickness o f t he p lank ( pl. 1 05, 4 ; 1 07, 3 , 4 ); t he g roove w as t arred a nd t hen o akum w as p laced i n i t, a nd t hen i t w as a gain t arred ; t hen t he o akum a nd t he t ar w ere p ressed a nd a w edge-shaped s trip o f w ood was i nserted i nto t he g roove a ll a long i ts l ength . T he s trip w as s ecured by i ron c lamps. S uch i ron c lamps w ere f ound i n N ovgorod i n g reat n umbers i n t he l evels d ated t o t he 1 0th-14th c enturies. T he m ethod o f s eal p acking j oints o f s hip b oards a nd t hose i n l arge b oats, d escribed a bove h as s urvived u ntil o ur d ay . S uch j oints m ay b e s een , f or e xample, o n t he w ooden s hips o n L ake I lmen , a nd o n t he R iver V olga . T he d etails o f s hips f ound i n N ovgorod m ake i t p ossible t o r econstruct i n a f airly c omplete f ashion t he t ypical N ovgorod s hip o f t he 1 2th-13th c enturies. I n o ur r econstruction t here i s a s mall a nd s imple v ariant o f t he s hip. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he N ovgorod s eaf arers had l arger o f m ore c omplex c onstruction s hips, but w e d o n ot y et have a ny m aterial e vidence f or t heir r econstruction . T he e vidence various k inds: ( 1)

u sed

f or

r econstructing

t he

N ovgorod

a vailability o f t he k eel w hich c an b e u p

t o

1 0 m .

s hip

w as

a nd m ore

o f

i n

l ength; ( 2)

t he s tructural f eatures a nd d imensions o f t he s tempost;

( 3)

s everal v ariants o f s hapes a nd d imensions o f s hip r ibs;

( 4)

s ide p lanking u p t o 1 0 m .

( 5)

t he r un o f r ibs b etween 0 .6 a nd 1 .1 m .;

( 6)

t he f orms a nd d imensions o f b ow a nd s tern b ottoms;

( 7)

s tern s teering c ars;

ropulsion o ars (8 ) p

( side o ars);

t he c onstruction ( 9) g enerally; ( 10)

i n l ength ;

o f

a djacent

a l arge c ollection o f r owlocks;

1 04

s ide

p lanks

( 11)

a nd

s hip

p in f astenings.

s eams

I n a ddition , w e k now o f w ooden s hips u sed i n t he I lmen a nd L adoga b asins a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury . 22 I t i s c onsidered t hat t he I lmen and L adoga s oimas ( a k ind o f w ooden s hip) have c onstructional t raditions, g oing b ack t o t he V iking a ges. O ur r econstruction o f t he c enturies i s s hown o n p l. 1 08.

N ovgorod s hip T he l ength o f

a ncient

d ated t o t he 1 2th-13th t he k eel w as d etermined

b y u s, o n t he b asis o f t he l ength o f t he k nown s hipboards a nd b ars, a s 1 0 m etres. T he s tempost a nd t he s tern p ost l ocated a t a n a ngle o f 6 00 . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he s temposts f ound i n N ovgorod i n 1 956 o n t he T orgovaya s ite i n t he l evels r elating t o t he 1 2th c entury h ave t he s ame i nclination . T he s ternpost w as p reserved b y t he N ovgorod e xpedition , a nd i s published b y S .N . O rlov . 23 I n t his p ublication , t his f ind i s r egarded a s a s ternpost a nd i t i s c onsidered t hat i t w as l ocated o n t he k eel v ertically just a s i n a m odern s oima. O n t his b asis, h e h as t o r econstruct t he k eel a s a h eavy a ssembly w ith a s pecial a ttachment a nd t he w idth o f t he k eel i s 4 5 c m ., but t his c an h ardly b e s o. T he f act i s t hat t he *vertical bow a nd s tern a re c onstructional f eatures a ssociated w ith t he n ew c entral k eel r udder w hich m ade i ts a ppearance r ather l ate o n R ussian b oats, a nd n ot b efore t he 1 6th-17th c enturies. P reviously t he s tempost a nd t he s ternpost, w hich l ooked s imilar, w ere i nclined i n t he d irection o f t ravel o f t he s hip. O n t he b asis o f t he s hip's l ength a nd t he r un o f t he r ibs k nown t o u s ( from 6 0 c m . i n t he m iddle o f t he s hip t o 1 .1 m . i n t he b ow a nd s tern p arts) w e p lace i n o ur r econstructed s hip a s m any a s 1 2 r ibs. T he w idth o f t he c entral r ib, i .e. t he w idth o f t he s hip, i s e stablished f rom t he l ength a nd o ptimal f orm o f t he s hip. I t e quals 3 .2 c m . T he h eight o f t he s hip i s d etermined b y t he h eight o f t he s tempost a nd t he r ibs. I n t he b ow p ortion , i t e quals 1 .4 m . w hile i n t he c entre i t i s 1 .2 m . I n t he b ow w e l ocated s ix p airs o f r owlocks f or 1 2 r owers, w hich s hould b e q uite s ufficient t o a chieve a g ood s peed f or a s hip o f s uch s ize. I t i s n ecessary t o m ention h ere t hat o ne o f t he 1 4th c entury m iniatures o f t he S ilvester m anuscript, i llustrating t he l ife o f S S. B oris a nd G leb t here i s a m ention o f " Nasad", a nd a s hip i s d epicted w ith f our p airs o f r owing o ars i n t he b ow s ection , a nd a huge s tern o ar. T he d isplacement o f o ur s hip i s a bove 1 5 t onnes, i .e. i t c an c arry m ore t han 4 0 p eople: 1 2 r owers, a h elmsman , a nd o thers i n a ddition t o 2 5 p assengers w ith a ll t heir b aggage. I t i s d ifficult t o s ay t o w hich t ype o f t he N ovgorod s hip o ur s hip s hould b e r eferred , a " strug", " uchan" o r " ushkui". I t m ay b e a n " ushkui", f or t hat w as a r ather f ast a nd m anoeuvrable s hip u sed by t he N ovgorod p eople t o p ly t he r ivers t o t he S outh ,

w hich w as N orth a nd

E ast. T he N ovgorod C hronicle c ontains a s tory a bout t he c ampaign o f t he N ovgorod p eople u sing u shkui t o t he V olga R iver i n 1 375: " the b rigands f rom N ovgorod t he G reat, 7 0 u shkuis... t ook K ostroma a nd d geated i t w hile t he t otal n umber o f a ll t he b rigands w as 2 ,000..." I t i s p ossible t o c alculate a pproximately t hat e ach u shkui c arried a bout 3 0 p eople w ith t heir w eapons a nd o ther f reight. S uch c aravans o f N ovgorod s hips n umbering s ometimes u p t o 2 00 ( for e xample, t he c ampaign t o t he V olga R iver i n 1 366) t ravelled f ar b eyond N ovgorod t o t he l ower r eaches o f t he V olga a nd t o t he r ivers o f N orth-East.

1 05

N OTES 1 .

P rimary C hronicle,

2 .

A .

3 .

T he E conomy a nd E veryday L ife o f R ussian P easants,

4 .

A .

5 .

I .M .

6 .

J .

N eedham ,

7 .

R .

L efebvre d es N oettes,

8 .

R .

L opez,

9 .

O sebergfundet....,

1 0.

A .

V .

A rtsikhovsky,

1 944,

p .

6 8.

1 1.

A .

V .

A rtsikhovsky,

1 947,

p .

5 5.

1 2.

A .

Z ettersten ,

1 3.

T he F irst N ovgorod C hronicle,

1 4.

V .

V .

M avrodin ,

1 5.

I .

P .

S haskolsky ,

1 6.

N .

P .

Z agoskin ,

1 7.

R usskaya P ravda ,

1 8.

S .

G ilfillan ,

1 9.

H .

S hetelig ,

2 0.

N . N icolaysen , S hetelig , 1 950.

2 1.

A .

2 2.

A .

2 3.

S .

2 4.

T he T hird N ovgorod C hronicle,

V iires,

1 959,

O learius,

1 916,

1 954,

2 04 .

p .

2 49.

p .

H .

1 931.

5 94. 1 928,

S vahn ,

p .

2 46.

1 932. p .

2 06,

2 07.

1 949. 1 949.

1 910. p .

1 13.

1 935. 1 930.

B rogger,

O rlov ,

p .

1 954.

B oyarsky , N .

p .438.

1 906.

T arabrin ,

W .

p .43.

1 882;

H .

O sebergfundet...,

S hetelig ,

1 950,

p .

1 886. 1 958,

p .

1 07. p .

1 06

2 41.

9 5.

1 928;

A .

W .

B rogger,

H .

C HAPTER F IVE M achines a nd c omplicated t ools - T ools f or s pinning v egetable f ibres and wool - F lax-threshing c rooked s ticks ( "lapa") S cutches - H eckles - C ombs - S pindles - D istaffs - R eels - V ertical a nd h orizontal l ooms - S huttles - W arp-lifting p arallel s hafts w ith t hreads ( "nichenki") - D ogs - T readles - W arp-holding t ubular s ticks ( "yurki") - D esign o f h orizontal l oom - L athe - L athe b osses a s p roduction r ejects - H andmill - B earings - F lywheel r ods E longated w ooden t hrust b earings - L ifting d evices - P ulleys S wivels - B earings - " Cross p ieces". Until

r ecently

t he

m achines

o r

c omplicated

t ools

R ussia w ere s carcely k nown . T here i s n o m ention o f r ecords, a nd a rchaeology y ields v ery l ittle i nformation . i n N ovgorod s hed s ome

l ight

o n

t his

a spect

o f

o f

M edieval

t hem i n a ny E xcavations

t he m aterial

c ulture

o f

R ussia. T o a ppreciate h ow c losely t he h istory o f m achines

i s

r elated t o a

s tudy o f a rchaeological w ooden a rtefacts, w e m ay c ite t he d efinition o f a machine s uggested by Vitruvius: " A machine i s a s ystem o f i nterconnected p arts o f w ood" 1 . W ith r espect t o t he m aterial u sed i n h andicrafts t his d efinition o f a machine n ot only held t rue i n A ntiquity a nd i n t he M iddle A ges, but a lso p ersisted u p t o t he m id-19th c entury. Among t he f inds o f w ooden a rtefacts f rom t he l evels o f a ll c enturies t here w ere t hose w hich c ould r eliably b e i dentified a s p arts o f t ools a nd m achines u sed f or s pinning a nd w eaving , a nd f or l athet urning a nd f lour-milling . I n a ddition , a rchaeologists f ound p arts o f l ifting g ears a nd s ome g eneral-purpose i tems a nd p arts: s wivels, b earings, pulleys, c ross-pieces, e tc. We o btained e nough a rchaeological d ata t o r econstruct a h orizontal l oom , a l athe, a h and m ill, a nd s ome o ther d evices a nd a ppliances. A number o f w ooden d evices a nd g ears w ere e mployed i n m aking c loth . S imple t ools a nd c omplicated m echanical d evices w ere i nvolved i n processing t he s pinning vegetable f ibres, preparing w ool f or s pinning , m aking t hreads f rom f lax f ibres, t heir w inding-over a nd w arping, a nd l ast b ut n ot l east, i n w eaving i tself . A s l ate a s t he e arly 2 0th c entury a ll t he m echanisms a nd d evices u sv i i n m aking c loth i n R ussian v illages w ere m ade o f w ood t hroughout.' I n t he B altic l ands 3 , P oland', S lovakia 5 , a nd o ther c ountries, s pinning a nd w eaving i mplements w ere a lso m ade o f w ood . T he N ovgorod a rchaeological c ollection c omprises b oth s imple a nd h ighly-developed s pinning a nd w eaving t ools k nown t o h ave s till b een u sed i n d omestic a nd h andicraft p roduction i n t he 1 9th c entury . T he d escriptions t hat f ollow o f t ools, d evices a nd m echanisms a s w ell a s t heir c lassification a nd c hronology c orresponds t o a s equence o f o perations i nvolved i n t he t echnological p rocesses o f w orking f lax f ibre, a nd m aking y arn a nd c loth. P rocessing o f p lant f ibres:

t he h arvested f lax a nd h emp w ere d ried

1 07

a nd t hreshed . T he f lax-threshing t ools w hich w ere t he m ost p opular i n t he N ovgorod d istrict w ere a c ommon b eating m allet, o r o ther d omestic i mplements u sed f or h and t hreshing : a s ort o f d olly-peg ( pral'nik ) a nd a f lex-threshing . c rooked s tick ( also t opal'naya l apa, s wingle ( kichuga), b otog) ° w hich c ontinued i n u se e ven i nto t he e arly 2 0th c entury . T he s heaf o f f lax w as p laced u pon a w ooden b lock , i ts t op w as l oosened a nd b eaten w ith a m allet. T he w orking m ethods i nvolving t hreshing s tick a re s imilar t o t hose a pplied i n t hreshing w ith a f lail. S uch t hreshing t ools w ere a lso u sed i n M edieval N ovgorod , m allets a nd t hreshing s ticks h aving b een f ound m ore t han o nce i n e xcavations.

t he t he

T he c ylindrical m allet w ith a h andle w as o n a verage 8 c m . i n d iameter a nd 2 5 c m . l ong . S triking t ools o f t his t ype w ere v ery p opular, t he m ost w idely u sed b eing a m aul ( chekmar ') w hich has a lready b een d escribed . H owever a n ew m aul m ay s ometimes l ook v ery l ike a m allet a nd t his i s w hy t hey a re d ifferentiated , t hough a rbitrarily. M ore t han 6 0 m allets w ere r ecovered f rom t he l evels o f t he 1 0th , 1 1th a nd l ater c enturies. T hreshing s tick : o nly t hree t ools w ere f ound i ntact a nd u ndamaged . T he b est p reserved t hreshing s tick w as f ound i n a n 1 1th-century l evel ( 23-31-1432), a nd h ad t he f ollowing d imensions: t he l ength o f t he c rooked p art 2 0 c m . t he l ength o f t he a rm 1 10 c m . ( pl. 1 22, 2 ). B rake: t he t hreshed f lax a nd h emp w ere s pread o ut a nd w ashed , t hen d ried a nd w orked u pon m echanically, i .e. t hey w ere s ubject t o b raking , s cutching a nd c ombing . T he f lax w as b raked t o c rush t he w oody s talk a nd t o d isentangle u seless v egetable m atter f rom t he f ibres. T his w as d one b y a h and b rake. T he e thnographic m aterial c ontains a f ew t ypes o f h and b rake w hich a re a ll d esigned a ccording t o t he s ame p rinciple. A l ong k nife-like a rm ( "beater") i s s ecured a t o ne e nd b y m eans o f a n a xle i n a l ong b eam w ith a l engthwise s lit w hich a dmits t he b eater. T he o ther e nd o f t he b eater i s f itted w ith a h andle. A handful o f f lax o r p art o f a s heaf o f f lax w as p laced u pon t he b eam a nd s truck u pon w ith t he b eater. T he k nife-like e dge o f t he b eater e ntered t he s lit a nd b roke t he s talks. N o i ntact o r f ully p reserved b rake w as f ound i n N ovgorod , but s ome e xcavated w ooden a rtefacts c an b e i dentified a s p arts o f a b eater a nd i ts b eam . T hese w ere f ound i n t he 1 1-14thc entury l evels. T hey a re b ulky k nife-like a rms w ith h andles but w ith b roken-off e nds a nd f ragments o f r ound s lotted b eams. S cutch :

t o

f urther

d etach

t he

f ibre

o ff ,

i .e.

t o

f ree

i t

f rom

u seless v egetable m atter a nd s mall r ough p ieces, f lax was s cutched . T his w as d one b y m eans o f a s cutch w hich i s a l ong bulky k nife-like t ool. A p ortion o f a b undle o f f lax w as p laced u pon a s tand , f or e xample a barrel w ith n o b ottom , o r a b lunt w edge a nd w as w orked w ith a s cutch. B y s hifting t he b lows g radually a long t he l ength o f t he b undle t he f ibres w ere d eprived o f a ll s mall p ieces o f u seless m atter. I n N ovgorod t he a rchaeologists f ound m ore t han 3 3 s cutches. T hey o ccurred r ather e venly d istributed t hroughout t he l evels o f a ll p eriods s tarting f rom t he 1 0th c entury . A c ommon p ractice w as t o u se a k nifel ike s cutch ( pl. 1 10). T he d imensions o f a m iddle-sized s cutch v aried

1 08

a s f ollows: t he t otal l ength f rom 4 5 t o 5 0 c m ., t he h andle 1 2-15 c m ., t he h eight o f t he w edge-shaped b lade 6 c m ., i ts w idth n ear t he h ead f rom 1 .5 t o 2 c m . T he h andles w ere i nvariably o f a c ircular c rosss ection . T he l argest s cutch o f 1 5th-century d ate ( 1-1-1588) w as 8 4 c m . i n l ength. T here w ere n o s cutches s maller t han 4 0 c m .. S cutches s carcely c hanged w ith t ime a nd t he 1 4th-century t ypes w ere t he s ame a s t hose u sed i n t he 1 0th c entury . H owever i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he e arlier s cutches h ad s traight b lades a nd c urved h eads w hile t he s cutches o f t he 1 3-14th c enturies, o n t he c ontrary , h ad s traight h eads w hile t he e nds o f t heir b lades w ere r ound-ended . S ome o f t he s cutches w ere m ade i n a s word-like s tyle ( pl. 1 10). T hey o ccur i n t he l ayers o f b oth t he 1 1th a nd 1 4th c enturies a nd t heir n umber a mounts t o s ix . T he e arliest o f t hem d ates t o t he 1 1th c entury ( 25-32-1404) a nd t he l atest t o t he 1 5th c entury ( 4-3-2009). T he s tratigraphic d istribution o f s cutches a re a s f ollows: 2 7-32-788

2 0-24-300

1 1-18-1400

2 6-33-1407

2 0-24-1288

1 1-17-1225

2 6-33-1407

1 8-21-354

1 1-17-1225

2 5-32-1404

1 7-23-112

1 1-15-1535

2 5-29-22

1 7-20-1544

8 -12-1191

2 4-26-1308

1 7-20-1544

7 -11-329

2 3-28-1121

1 5-9-1746

6 -5-1797

2 3-28-2103

1 4-15-1977

6 -5-1943

2 1-30-1399

1 2-19-848

5 -8-1185

2 1-25-238

1 2-14-424

4 -3-2008

2 1-23-880

1 2-13-1896

1 -1-1588

T he e thnographers k now o f a nother f ibre-processing o peration , t hat o f p ounding t he f ibres, m ainly h emp, u sing a p estle a nd a m ortar, t he p ounding f ollowed t he s cutching o peration .7 T he p estles a nd m ortars f ound i n N ovgorod w ere a lready d escribed i n C hapter I II. N ow i t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat h ousehold a nd h andicraft p estles a nd m ortars w ere o f a lmost i dentical d esign . I f c ompared w ith o ther s pinning t ools, t he a mount o f t hreshing s ticks, a nd s cutches w as s mall. I t m ay s eem t hat

m allets, f lax a nd

h emp p rocessing w as a n i ndustry o f a f ew h ouseholds w hich m arketed t he r aw materials f or s pinning. H owever, e very household p ractised s pinning a nd t his e xplains w hy f lax w ere f ound i n n early a ll t he h ouses. H eckles:

t he

f ibres

w ere

w ere s traightened i nto a s ingle s pecial t ool k nown a s a h eckle.

h eckles

f inally

a nd

c leaned

s pindles

a nd

w ith

w horls

i ndividual

p ieces

d irection b y m eans o f c ombing u sing a T he w oman p ut a h andful o f f lax i nto

1 09

h er l ap o r o nto a b ench a nd c ombed i t w ith a h eckle a s i f u sing a n ormal c omb, t he f lax b eing h eld i n i ts p lace w ith t he o perator 's l eft h and . T his a llowed l ong f ibres t o b e o btained , t he b etter-quality f ibres h aving b een k nown a s t ow i n c ontrast t o t he c ombings l eft o n t he h eckle. H gckles a re f ound i n e thnographic c ollections i n m any E uropean c ountries. T he E stonian h eckles o f t he T eytu e thnographic museum a re e xactly s imilar t o t hose f ound i n N ovgorod .' T he N ovgorod a rchaeologists f ound m ore t han 7 40 h eckles i n l evels d ating f rom a ll p eriods, t he g reatest n umber b eing f ound i n t he l evels o f t he 1 3th a nd e specially o f t he 1 4th c entury . A bout 3 80 h eckles w ere i ntact o r but s lightly d amaged w hile t he r est o f t hem w ere o nly b roken f ragments. T he

h eckles

w ere

m ade

i n

t he

f orm

o f

a n

e longated

k nife

w ith

a

t oothed b lade ( pl. 1 11). M ost o f t he h eckles h ave t heir t eeth f acing o ne s ide a nd s lightly b ent t owards t he h andle. T he p itch o f a t ooth i s 9 -10 mm . w ith o nly o ccasional p itches a s s mall a s 8 m m . o r a s g reat a s 1 3 m m . T he h eight o f a t ooth i s 1 0-15 mm . T he h eckles w ere m ade i n d ifferent l engths, t he n umber o f t eeth v arying f rom 3 5 t o 5 0. T he t otal l ength o f a h eckle w ith a h andle i s 4 5-55 c m ., o ccasionally 7 0 c m . T he h eight o f a b lade i n i ts m iddle s ection i s 3 c m ., a nd t he t hickness i n t he h ead s ection a bout 1 c m . T he 1 2-15 c m . l ong h andle w as bulky a nd e asy t o h old . S ome o f t he h andles w ere a rtistically c arved ,

f or i nstance t hose c arved t o r esemble h orses.

T hus,

w ooden h eckles a re a c ommon f ind w ith a f ew o f t hem f ound i n

e very h ousehold . W ool

p rocessing .

T he

o perations

i nvolved

i n

t he

p reparation

o f

w ool f or s pinning w ere s impler a nd l ess l abourious t han t hose r equired f or p reparation o f v egetable f ibres. T he s heep w ere s heared w ith s teel s pring s hears w hich a re i dentical t o p resent-day s pring s heep s hears. M ore t han 1 00 e xcavations. T he

o nly

s pring

s heep

o perations

s hears

r equired

w ere

f ound

i n p rocessing w ool

i n

f or

t he

N erevsky

s pinning

a re

t hose o f s orting t he w ool o ut b y h and a nd c ombing i t t hrough . T he b asic o peration i s c ombing , w hich i s d one t o l oosen t he w ool a nd p lace t he f ibres i n t he s ame d irection . T he e thnographic e vidence i ncludes t wo m ethods u sed f or c ombing w ool i n R ussia : c ombing w ool w ith m etal a nd w ooden c ombs a nd b eating i t w ith a b ow a nd s tring d evice. 1U T he N ovgorod f inds c omprise o nly w ooden c ombs a nd w e w ere u nable t o i dentify a ny p arts o f a b ow u sed f or b eating t he w ool. T herefore w e c an s peak o nly o f c ombing . W ooden w ool c ombs w ere e ither o f a h and-held t ype o r o f l arge ' s tationary v ertical t ype. A l arge c omb w as a s pade-like i tem a bout 6 0 c m . i n h eight w ith t eeth c losely s paced o n t he b lade. T he b ottom e nd o f t he c omb w as i nserted i nto a s pinning b ench . I n t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c enturies t he p easants f lax , w hereas w ool w as

i n s ome R ussian p rovinces u sed s uch c ombs f or c ombed w ith m etal h eckles. 11 H and c ombs w ere

s maller i n s ize a nd f itted w ith a s pecially t he h ands.

1 10

s haped b ack

t o b e h eld

i n

T he e xcavations y ielded o nly s even c ombs, t wo l arge o nes a nd f ive o f t he hand-held t ype. T he d esign o f a l arge w ell-preserved c omb o f t he l ater half o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 20-25-1142) c an b e s een i n p l. 1 12, 1 , 3 . T he p ost, 4 5 c m . i n h eight, w as o f a r ectangular, 4 x 2 .5 c m ., c ross s ection . T he l ower p ortion o f t he p ost h ad a p in f or s ecuring i t t o t he s pinning b ench . T he c omb o f 1 5 c m . w idth h ad 4 4 t eeth . T he o ther l arge c omb ( 11-10-488) h ad a ll i ts t eeth b roken but i t i s o bvious t hat t here w ere a t l east 3 5 o f t hem . T he d esign o f h and c ombs i s s een i n p l. 1 12. T heir s hapes a nd d imensions a re r elatively s tandard . T he w idth o f t he c omb b lade i s 1 0 c m ., a nd t he n umber o f t eeth 2 1-23. T he h eight o f t he c omb i s 1 3 c m ., t he t hickness n ot m ore t han 1 c m . T hese c ombs w ere f ound i n t he l ayers o f t he 1 2-14th c enturies ( 19-20-917, 1 5-21-1228, 1 3-18-130, 1 3-13-930, 9 -12-862). A c ommon p ractice i n N ovgorod w as t o u se h and s pindles f or s pinning t hreads o f w ool o r v egetable f ibres f or m aking a ll t ypes o f c loth. T he t echnique o f s pinning t hreads o n a s pindle w as a s f ollows: a w oman h eld t he s pindle i n h er r ight h and u sing h er l eft h and t o d raw f ibre f rom t ow a nd t o s lightly s pin i t u p; t hen s he t wisted t he e nd o f t he t hread w ith h er f ingers a nd s ecured i t t o t he s pindle t op, a fter t his s he l et t he r olling s pindle d rop o ff h er h ands a nd w ent o n d rawing t he f ibre f rom t he t ow a nd t wisting t he s tring o f t hread t hus f ormed . W hen t he t hread b ecame a s l ong a s t he l ength o f h er e xtended a rms t he s pinner w ound i t o n t he s pindle a nd f astened a t hread l oop o n i t; t his d one s he was r eady t o b egin a nother l ength . I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat t he s pinner k ept o n w etting t he t hread w ith h ey s aliva w hich g lued t he t hread t ogether a nd d id n ot a llow i t t o u nwind . 12 S pindle. The c ollection o f s pindles f ound i n N ovgorod i s e normous, c omprising a s i t d oes m ore t han 8 00 i tems, 1 50 o f t hem i ntact, 2 00 d amaged a nd a nother 3 70 o r m ore f ragmentary . T he s pindles o ccurred i n t he l evels o f a ll c enturies s tarting f rom t he m id-10th c entury . T he 1 4th-century l evels c ontain r elatively m ore s pindles w hich i s, i ncidentally , t rue o f a ll o ther c ommon f inds. T he o nly r easonable e xplanation f or t his i s t he i ntensive d evelopment o f u rban l ife i n t he 1 4th c entury . A s pindle o f o ne p articular t ype w as g enerally u sed , a t ype w hich p roved c onstant i n d esign a nd l ooked l ike a s mall e longated c igars haped w ooden s tick . I ts l ength w as a bout 2 5-30 c m ., t he d iameter o f t he c entral t hick p ortion b eing a bout 1 2-14 m m . ( pl. 1 13). S pindles o f t his t ype s eem t o h ave b een i nvariably u sed w ith a s mall w horl i n t he f orm o f a t hick p erforated d isk . T his w as s ecured t o t he b ottom e nd o f t he s pindle t o g ive m omentum a nd s teadiness t o t he r evolving s pindle. S uch s pindle-whorls w ere m ade f rom s tone, c lay, b one, a nd m etal. T he N erevsky e xcavations y ielded m ore t han 2 400 s uch s pindle-whorls. I t Should b e n oted t hat a mong a g reat n umber o f w ooden s pindles o nly t hree w ere f ound w ith s late w horls a ttached t o t hem . M ore t han 2 0 s pindles w ere f ound w ith p ieces o f w ool t hread w ound o n t hem . I t w as a c ommon p ractice t o d ecorate t he s pindles. d ecoration w as t hat o f c ircular l ines o n t he c entral i mplement.

T he

l ines w ere a rranged

1 11

i n

g roups

o f

t wo

A v ery p opular p ortion o f t he

o r

t hree

i n e ach

g roup.

T hey

w ere

u sually

a pplied

b y

a

p oker-work

t echnique

b ut

s ometimes a k ind o f a f ine c utter w as u sed f or t he p urpose. A s t o t heir m anufacture, t he s pindles c ome i n t wo varieties: t hose t urned o n a l athe a nd t hose m ade m anually . T he f ormer a lways s how e laborate h andicraft w hile t he l atter, t oo, w hen m ade i n s izes s imilar t o t he l athe-turned s pindles, o ften h ad r ather s mooth-finished s hafts. D istaff . T o s pin t hreads, i n a ddition t o a s pindle, o ne n eeds a s taff f or h olding t he b unch o f y arn , w hich i s k nown a s a d istaff . L ike R ussian d istaffs o f t he 1 9-20th c enturies, t he N ovgorod d istaffs w ere m ade i n t he f orm o f a s pade-shape w ooden p ost w ith i ts p oint f acing u pwards a nd s ecured w ith i ts b ottom e nd i n t he s pinning b ench* s ocket ( pl. 1 15). T he t ow o f y arn w as f astened t o t he d Utaff w ith a p iece o f s tring w hose e nd c arried a n i ron o r b one n eedle. IJ T his was i nserted i nto t he h ole o n t he d istaff b lade. Twenty-one e asily-identifiable d istaffs w ere f ound a t e xcavations. T hey w ere d istributed a ccording t o t he c enturies h orizons a s f ollows: 1 1th c entury

t he a nd

1 2th c entury

2 4-25-913

2 2-24-1570

1 8-23-243

2 2-14-892

1 9-25-1142

1 6-18-1058

1 3th c entury 1 6-21-1270

1 4-19-1251

1 2-15-1589

1 5-21-2067

1 4-15-939

1 2-14-1025

1 4th c entury 1 0-18-1402

1 0-17-1341

7 -11-1311

1 0-18-1404

1 0-15-628

7 -8-1067

8 -7-1979 1 5th c entury 6 -7-1461 5 -11-138 T he d esign o f d istaffs a nd t he s hape o f t heir b lades c an b e s een i n p l. 1 14-116. O ne c an e asily d istinguish b etween d istaffs w ith l arge bulky b lades ( 25-30 c m . i n h eight, 1 0 c m . i n w idth) a nd l ittle o nes ( 17 c m . h igh a nd 6 c m . w ide). T he l atter w ere o ften i ntricately d ecorated . T he l arger d istaffs s eem t o h ave b een o f a s tationary t ype w hereas t he * T he w oman w orking w ith t he h elp f oundation , l ower p art. - A . C h .

1 12

o f

t he

d istaff

w as

s itting

o n

i ts

s maller o nes w ere p ortable

t o b e

c arried w ith

t hem b y

g irls w hen

t hey

w ent t o walk-and-talk e vening m eetings. T he h eight o f t he p ost, m ostly o f a r ounded s hape, w as a bout 7 0 c m . O ne c annot b ut w onder a t t he unchanging s imilarity i n t he s hapes o f t he d istaffs which i s, i ncidentally , a lso t rue o f a ll t he o ther w ooden i mplements. I t i s s ufficient t o e xamine o nly o ne d istaff o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 22-24-892) s hown i n p l. 1 16, 2 . E xact r eplicas o f s uch d istaffs w ere p hotographed b y u s i n 1 958 i n t he v illage o f S opki i n t he B orovichi d istrict ( minor u nit) i n t he N ovgorod r egion . S imilar i n s hape w ere t he b lades o f t he N orth-Russian c arved d istaffs d escribed b y A . B obrinsky . 14 I n

a ddition

t o

b lade-shaped

d istaffs

t he

R ussian

e thnographers

k now o f o ther t ypes l ess s ophisticated a s r egards t heir s hapes: f orks haped a nd s tick-shaped d istaffs. T hese a lso e xisted i n M edieval N ovgorod . A n i ntact f ork-shaped d istaff ( 12-15-1589) k nown a s a k uzhil i n t he 1 9th c entury , w as f ound i n t he l evel o f m id-13th c entury d ate ( pl. 1 14, 4 ). T he a rchaeologists a lso f ound s pinning b enches w hich l ook l ike s mall n arrow , t hin b oards w ith a s ocket a nd a h ole f or t he p in o f a p ost. T o k eep a d istaff s teady a nd u pright t he s pinning w oman p ut t he s pinning b ench f ast a nd s at o n i t. F our s pinning b enches w ere f ound i ntact ( 8-11-1559, 4 -6-1224, 4 -4-1657, 2 -7-1376) a nd w ere o f a s tandard s hape. T heir l ength i s 3 5 c m ., t he w idth 8 c m ., t he t hicker e nd w ith a h ole 8 x 8 c m . T he t enon h ole o f t he d istaff w as s quare ( 2.5 x 2 .5 c m). W hen d escribing h and s pindles a nd d istaffs i t i s a ppropriate t o m ention s pinnin w heels. T hese m ake t heir a ppearance i n E urope i n t he 1 3th c entury. I n a s pecial s earch f or w ooden a rchaeological a rtefacts i n N ovgorod w e d id n ot f ind a ny p arts o f s pinning w heels o r a nything w hich m ight r esemble t hem . T he a dvent o f s pinning w heels i n R ussia s eems t o b e d ated n ot e arlier t han t he 1 7th c entury . R eels. P repared t hreads w ere w ound f rom t he s pindle i nto h anks b y m eans o f s everal m echanical d evices m ade f rom w ood . E thnographic m aterial s hows t hat r eels w ere w ide-spread i n t he n orthern r egions o f E ast E urope, p articularly i n t he N ovgorod r egion . A s imilar d evice m ight a lso h ave b een u sed b y t he p eople o f N ovgorod i n m edieval p eriod . T he e xcavations a lso y ielded a n umber o f f orks, m ore t han 5 0 p ieces i n a ll. S ome o f t hem w ere m ounted o n w ooden r ods. T hese c ould w ell h ave b een f orks o f r eels. H owever i t s hould b e e mphasised t hat s uch f orked s ticks w ere a lso u sed f or o ther p urposes, f or e xample f or s ome f ishing t echniques t he s ticks b eing k nown a s ' botalos' ( see t he s ection o n f ishing). N evertheless t here a re s ome s igns t o d ifferentiate b etween t he f ork o f a ' botalo ' a nd t hat o f a r eel. T he f orks o f ' botalos ' f ound i n t he e xcavations a re a lways s eparated i nto f ibres; t hey a re w orn d own a nd b ear s igns o f h aving b een b eaten a gainst t he f loor. T he f orks o f t he o ther g roup w hich w e r elate t o r eels n ever h ave t heir e nds s eparated i nto f ibres, n or d o t hey s how a ny s igns o f h aving b een b eaten a gainst t he f loor. F urthermore, t he s urface o f t hese f orks i s p olished d ue t o t heir r ubbing a gainst t hreads. T hese a re a nd o ccur i n t he l evels o f t he 1 3-15th c enturies. i n h orizons a s f ollows:

1 13

t hus p arts o f r eels T hey a re d istributed

1 5-154-1962

9 -16-1412

7 -9-902

1 2-18-272

9 -13-1526

6 -10-1174

1 0-10-1515

7 -10-1513

5 -6-1093

9 -16-1412 A ll t his a llows u s t o d ate f ar b ack a s t he 1 3th c entury L ooms. a nd

t o

B efore w e

d efinition

o f

p roceed i ts

t he

t o

e xistence

d escription

s ystem

a nd

o f

o f

d esign ,

m echanical

t he o ne

p arts s hould

r eels

o f

a s

a l oom

m ake

t he

f ollowing n ote.

f rame

T here a re t wo t ypes o f l oom k nown : v ertical-frame a nd h orizontalo nes. T he p ieces o f c loth o f a ny t ype o f w eave c annot g ive a ny

c lue a s t o w hat k ind o f l oom w as u sed f or t heir m anufacture. T he w arpa nd-weft t hreads i n a ny c ombination c an b e m ade o n e ither a v ertical o r h orizontal l oom . lb C ertainly , t here i s s till o ne e vidence w hich d oes a llow t his d ifferentiation , t his b eing t he f abric e dge w hich c an s ometimes p rovide a c lue f or d ifferentiation b etween t he t ype o f l oom i nvolved i n m aking t he e dge. T he 4 61 p ieces o f c loth f ound i n N ovgorod a nd i nvestigated b y m eans o f a s pecial s tructural-and-technological a nalysis c ontained o nly f our p ieces b earing c lear s igns o f h aving b een m ade o n a v ertical l oom . 17 T he f ragments o f t hese c loth p ieces w ere f ound i n h orizons 2 8, 2 7, 2 0 a nd 1 8, i .e. a re d ated t o t he 1 0-12th c enturies. R ecent y ears h ave s een a h eated d iscussion a mong E uropean a uthors i n t he e thnographic a nd h istoricotechnical l iterature o n t he o rigins o f t he l oom . I n 1 954, t he P olish m agazine " Lud" p ublished a p aper b y T . W räblewski w ho a rgued t hat h orizontal a nd v ertical l ooms d eveloped s imultaneously f rom a ncient t imes. A d iffere we i n t heir d esigns c ould b e t raced o nly b y t he k inds o f w oven f abric. T . W räblewski a nd h is f ollowers m aintain t hat t he h orizontal l oom i s a s a ncient a s t he v ertical o ne. T he o pponents o f T . Wräblewski have s trong a rguments f or m aintaining t hat t he v ertical l oom w as t he e arlier d esign w hile t he h orizontal l oom, a t a ny r ate i n Europe, r esul ud f rom f urther d evelopment o f b oth t he l oom a nd w eaving t echniques. I 2 I n h is a rticle s pecially d edicated t o t he p roblem , A . N ahlik d eveloped t he a rguments o f t he l atter h ypothesis a nd p ointed o ut t hat t he a dvent o f t he h orizontal l oom i n E urope w hich i s m ore p roductive t han a v ertical o ne i s t o b e a ssociated w ith d eveloping f eudalism a nd c ommodity p roduction . 2U

b e

T he p roblem o f t he s ystem a nd d esign o f t he s olved on t he basis o f a rchaeological

a ncient l oom c an o nly materials a nd s ome

i conographic s ources. O ur i dentification o f c ertain p arts a nd s tructural e lements o f l ooms i s b ased u pon R ussian e thnographic m aterial o n s pinning a nd w eaving h andicraft, a s w ell a s o n e thnographic c ollections i n L atvia ,

1 14

E stonia a nd o ther c ountries. T he a rchaeological m aterial f rom t he N erevsky e xcavations i ncluded s huttles, h arness p arts, t hread-loop p arallel s ticks, d ogs, t readles, a nd w arp-holding r ound s ticks. N o o ther i dentifiable p arts o f a l oom w ere f ound . T he s huttle w as u sed i n w eaving f or p assing t he t hread o f t he w eft b etween t he t hreads o f t he w arp. S huttles o f t wo t ypes w ere d iscovered i n N ovgorod :

f orked a nd h ollow s huttles.

T he s hape o f a f orked s huttle c an b e s een i n p l. 2 0, 3 . T he w eft t hread w as w ound l engthwise a long t he s huttle. T he s huttle l ength v aried r ather w idely , f rom 1 0 t o 2 2 c m . T he s huttles w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll p eriods s tarting f rom t he 2 7th h orizon w hich i s t he m ost a ncient o ne. T he t otal n umber o f e asily-identifiable s huttles w hich w ere c ollected i s o ver 4 0. M ost o f t hem w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f t he 1 2-14th c enturies but o ccasionally t hey w ere a lso f ound e arlier a nd l ater l evels, a s h as a lready b een p ointed o ut.

i n

b oth

F orked s huttles a re e mployed o nly i n v ertical l ooms. 21 H owever i t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat s huttles o f t his d esign w ere u sed n ot o nly i n m aking c loth but a lso i n m aking m atting , f ishing n ets, r ugs, e tc. T he d istribution o f f orked s huttles o ver t he c enturies w as a s f ollows: t he 1 0th-century l evel c ontained o ne s huttle, t he 1 1th-century l evel h ad 3 s huttles, t he 1 2th-century l evel h ad 5 s huttles, t he 1 3th-century l evel h ad 9 s huttles, t he 1 4th-century l evel h ad 1 4 s huttles, a nd t he 1 5th-century l evel h ad 1 0 s huttles. T he d imensions o f s ome o f t he f orked s huttles c an b e s een f rom T able X XXVI ( cf . p l. 2 0, 3 '). T able XXXVI D imensions o f f orked s huttles,

c m .

C ard n umber

L

B

S

B1

2 5-33-1440

2 1

2 .4

0 .6

1 .5

2 3-25-1571

2 2.5

2 .2

0 .8

2

2 0-24-864

1 9

2

0 .5

1 .6

1 9-19-1198

1 8

3

0 .6

2 .3

1 4-9-1726

2 2

1 .4

0 .4

1 .2

1 0-17-1363

1 8

2 .5

0 .5

1 .6

8 -14-1368

2 0

1

0 .4

1 .6

7 -14-1418

1 7

1 .8

0 .4

1 .6

1 15

T he d esign o f a h ollow s huttle c an b e s een f rom p l. 1 17. T he w eft t hread w ound o n a p in w as i nserted i nto t he h ole w ith i ts a xle. T he e xcavations y ielded 2 4 s huttles, s ix o f t hem b eing a bsolutely i ntact. T hey a re d istributed i n t he l evels o f t he 1 3-15th c enturies a s f ollows: 1 3th c entury

1 4th c entury

1 5th c entury

1 5-22-155

1 0-17-97

6 -6-994

1 4-21-808

9 -7-620

5 -7-1542

1 4-19-1234

8 -16-1385

5 -6-1081

1 4-15-939

8 -13-1238

5 -6-1728

1 3-18-1285

8 -6-1771

4 -9-240

1 3-16-1570

7 -9-1572

4 -6-1547

1 2-16-1245

7 -8-1074

1 -1-1860

1 1-16-350

7 -12-296

1 1-16-21 T he P l.

2 0,

d imensions

o f h ollow

s huttles

a re

s hown

i n T able XXXVII

( cf .

4 ). T able X XXVII D imensions o f h ollow s huttles,

c m .

1

C ard number

1 5-22-155

3 2

1 5

4 .3

3 .2

1 3-18-1285

2 6

1 2

3 .5

2 .3

8 -6-1771

3 1.5

1 0.5

4 .5

2 .8

7 -8-1074

2 8

1 0

3 .9

2 .5

5 -6-1081

2 8.2

1 1

4 .2

2 .9

O ne c an e asily i dentify t he s tructurally-clear h arness p arts w hich w ere u sed f or w arp s hedding : w arp-lifting p arallel s hafts w ith t hreads, d ogs a nd t readles. W arp-lifting

p arallel

s hafts.

A

R ussian

a rrangement

o f

t wo

p arallel s hafts i s f ormed f rom t wo t wigs o f a c ertain l ength i nterc onnected b y t wo r ows o f t hread l oops i nserted i nto o ne a nother i n p airs. T he l ength o f w ooden s hafts o f t he a rrangement f ound a t t he

1 16

e xcavation s ite i s a bout 6 0-65 c m . o r 7 5-78 c m ., t he t wig d iameter b eing 1 .5-2 c m . T he e nds c arried c oncentric g rooves f or f astening p urposes ( pl. 1 18). O ne c an a ssume t hat t hese s hafts b elong t o t he l oom s haft a rrangement d escribed h ere b ecause, f irstly , t hey a re a bsolutely i dentical t o t he w ell-known e thnographic s amples a nd a re o f c onstant l engths, w ith t wo i dentifiable g roups a s f ar a s t heir l ength g oes; s econdly , s uch s hafts w ere o n s everal o ccasions f ound a s t wo p ieces o ccurring t ogether. I t s hould b e k ept i n m ind t hat t he N ovgorod s oil i s bad f or t he p reservation o f f lax t hreads a nd t his e xplains w hy s uch p arallel s hafts w ere f ound w ith n o t hread l oops o n t hem . Among t he s hafts d iscovered t here w ere 1 5 t han 2 0 e asily-identifiable l ong b roken p ieces. d istribution i s a s f ollows:

i ntact o nes a nd m ore T heir s tratigraphic

1 1-16-21

8 -9-1656

5 -10-266

1 1-16-245

7 -10-324

5 -9-1229

1 1-14-420

7 -10-1534

5 -8-1535

1 0-13-1924

7 -10-1540

5 -6-1631

1 0-11-1904

7 -9-1567

5 -5-1656

1 0-11-1804

7 -5-489

4 -11-125

9 -11-458

7 -2-637

4 -10-265

8 -14-73

6 -11-229

4 -8-1224

8 -12-35

6 -9-1540

4 -3-1601

8 -12-345

6 -7-1594

3 -8-323

8 -10-469

5 -11-235

2 -8-256

8 -9-1651

5 -11-276

T he s hafts o f t he a rrangement 1 0-11-1904, 8 -10-496, 7 -10-1534, 6 -9-1540, 5 -5-1656 w ere f ound i n p airs o f p ieces l ying t ogether. T readles. T o d rive t he p arallel s hafts, u se w as m ade o f t readles. B y s tepping o n t hem i n t he r equired s uccession t he w eaver c an f orm t he w arp s hed s he w ants. T he e xcavations y ielded m ore t han 5 8 t readles; i n s ome i nstances t hey w ere f ound a s t wo j oined p ieces. T he t readles w ere d istributed i n t he l evels o f t he 1 3-15th c enturies a s f ollows:

1 5-19-1801

1 0-12-1968

7 -8-1640

1 5-16-1772

9 -13-1219

7 -6-1992

1 3-20-1353

9 -13-1219

6 -11-71

1 17

1 3-14-941

9 -13-1220

6 -9-1516

1 3-12-976

9 -11-950

6 -8-1308

1 3-12-1804

9 -10-1830

6 -8-1308

1 3-12-1928

8 -15-1433

6 -8-1368

1 2-16-289

8 -13-29

6 -8-1640

1 2-15-1590

8 -12-360

6 -5-1954

1 2-13-960

8 -11-401

6 -5-2003

1 2-13-972

8 -11-405

5 -8-1534

1 2-12-1990

8 -9-1036

5 -7-1542

1 1-16-292

7 -13-1327

5 -5-1654

1 1-16-1251

7 -11-344

4 -9-1164

1 1-13-410

7 -11-1270

4 -3-1632

1 1-12-1063

7 -11-1313

4 -3-1632

1 1-12-1895

7 -10-1526

3 -5-1250

1 1-7-666

7 -10-1526

3 -3-221

1 0-15-2054

7 -8-966

3 -3-1621

1 0-14-1251 T he t readles w ere r ather s imple i n d esign ( pl. 1 19, 1 -6, p l . 1 20, 1 -6). T he d imensions o f s ome t readles o f d ifferent s izes a re s hown i n T able X XXVIII ( cf . p l. 2 0, 5 ). T able X XXVIII D imensions o f t readle p lates, c m . C ard n umber

L

B

S

1 3-14-941

3 6

1 2

1 .8

1 2-13-960

5 4

1 0

2

8 -11-401

5 9

1 0

2 .5

•6 -5-1954

5 6

1 0

1 .3

5 -8-1534

4 0

1 0

1 .8

4 -9-1164

6 0

1 0

1

3 -3-1621

5 8

1 18

9

1 .2

" Dogs" _ . T he " dogs" a re t he h arness p arts w hich i mpart r eciprocal m otion t o p arallel s hafts. T he d esign o f a d og i n i ts d ifferent m odifications i s s hown i n p l. 1 19, 7 , 8 ; p l. 1 20, 7 -13. T he m iddle a perture o r a r ound r ecess h as a r od a ttached t o i t g oing u p t o t he e yeboard w hile t he e xtreme a pertures o r r ecesses h ave t he r ods o f t wo d ifferent s hafts a ttached t o t hem . T he e xcavators f ound s everal d ogs w ith t he r opes o r t awing b elts f astened t o t hem . T he t otal n umber o f i ntact a nd e asily-identifiable d ogs f ound i s m ore t han 4 0. T heir s tratigraphic d istribution i s a s f ollows:

1 5-25-1401

1 0-19-625

7 -10-1543

1 5-19-1563

1 0-17-1345

6 -7-931

1 4-22-1442

8 -14-1436

5 -13-114

1 4-19-316

8 -13-139

5 -9-324

1 4-15-1904

8 -13-247

4 -10-1424

1 3-19-1366

8 -9-1633

4 -7-1238

1 3=12-1915

8 -7-1683

4 -6-1555

1 2-12-1814

8 -7-1899

4 -5-929

1 2-12-1906

8 -7-1953

4 -5-1602

1 1-17-1132

8 -7-1977

4 -5-1606

1 1-17-1238

7 -11-335

3 -6-933

1 1-13-1605

7 -10-1526

2 -5-1265

( cf .

T he d imensions o f t he m ost p l. 2 0, 6 ).

t ypical

d ogs

a re

s hown

i n T able X XXIX

W arp-holding t ubular s tick . O ne o f t he m anufacturing p rocesses p erformed o n a h orizontal f rame i s t hread w arping . T he t hreads a re p repared f or t he w arp b y a rranging t hem l engthwise a nd p arallel t o o ne a nother . I n s o d oing t hey a re p assed t hrough a s pecial d evice w hich i s a w arp-holding t ubular s tick . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his t ubular s tick i s u sed f or w arping t he t hreads o nly w hen m aking w arps o n a h orizontal f rame, n o s uch s ticks b eing n ecessary o n av ertical f rame. 2 2 T he i mplement d escribed i s a s mall t ubular l ength a nd a bout 1 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( pl. 1 21).

1 19

s tick o f

1 0-12

c m .

i n

T able X XXIX D imensions o f " dogs",

c m .

C ard n umber

L

1

1 4-22-1442

1 6

1 4

2

1 3-12-1915

1 6.5

1 4

2

1 1-17-1238

1 2

1 0-17-1345

1 7

1 5

1 .8

8 -14-1436

1 6.5

1 3

1 .8

8 -7-1953

1 3

1 1

1 .8

7 -10-1543

1 4

1 2

1 .4

4 -5-1606

1 1

9 .5

8 .5

1 .5

1 .7

A t a d istance o f 1 c m . f rom e ach e nd o n t he t ubular s tick , s lots a re p rovided s tretching a s f ar a s t he c entre o f t he s tick , t he r emaining r ound f lat e nds h aving a pertures f or t he t hreads t o p ass t hrough . T ubular s ticks a re v ery c haracteristic p arts a nd e asy t o i dentify i n a n e xcavation . T he t otal n umber f ound o n t he s ite w as 8 1, 5 8 b eing i ntact. T hey w ere f ound o nly i n t he 1 3-15th-century l evels a nd a re a rranged i n t he h orizons a s f ollows: 1 5-13-811

9 -12-1238

6 -9-1207

1 4-19-2186

9 -11-946

6 -9-1208

1 4-12-489

9 -11-1862

6 -9-1538

1 4-11-706

9 -8-576

6 -9-1540

1 3-20-1380

9 -8-608

6 -8-909

1 3-18-331

9 -6-1787

6 -8-1546

1 3-13-1986

8 -17-1401

6 -8-1761

1 3-12-1952

8 -15-1335

5 -12-116

1 2-21-731

8 -15-1350

5 -11-73

1 2-17-322

8 -15-1422

5 -7-1261

1 20

1 2-17-322

8 -15-1428

5 -6-939

1 2-10-489

8 -13-362

5 -6-1784

1 1-19-726

8 -12-363

5 -5-1631

1 1-17-2177

8 -12-1192

4 -9-287

1 1-16-22

8 -12-1205

4 -8-1226

1 1-14-1659

8 -12-1238

4 -7-1770

1 1-12-1056

8 -10-1570

4 -6-1583

1 1-11-1708

7 -12-22

4 -4-1655

1 1-10-516

7 -10-413

3 -10-156

1 0-14-1262

7 -10-1197

3 -8-1456

1 0-12-910

7 -8-952

3 -5-1545

1 0-11-467

7 -7-1822

3 -4-1581

1 0-10-1995

7 -6-576

2 -1-1606

9 -15-1346

7 -5-479

1 -4-1202

9 -15-1359

6 -12-110

1 -4-1209

9 -15-1436

6 -12-139

1 -4-1280

9 -12-910

6 -12-1334

1 -4-1302

A ll t he f inds d escribed , e xcept f or f ork-like s huttles a re t he p arts o f a h orizontal l oom . T heir f irst a ppearance i n a d eposit o f h orizons 1 5 a nd 1 4 w hich d ates f rom t he 1 320s a nd 1 340s ( see p l. 6 1, 2 ). T his m eans t hat t he f irst h orizontal l oom a ppears i n N ovgorod v ery e arly i n t he 1 3th c entury , o r m ay b e a t t he e nd o f t he 1 2th c entury . T he a dvent o f t he h orizontal l oom i n W est E urope m ay b e d ated t o t he l ate 1 2th c entury . A m anuscript o f a bout 1 210 c ontains a d rawing o f aw arping d rum s uch a s i s e mployed o nly o n h orizontal l ooms 23 T he l oom g ained a w ide a pplication b eginning f rom t he 1 3th c entury . 24 T he e arliest p icture o f a h orizontal l oom d ates f rom t he e arly 1 3th c entury . T he h arness s hown i n a m iniature d oes n ot d iffer i n a ny w ay z 5 f rom t he p resent-day d evice u sed i n w ooden h and l ooms. I t i s q uite p lausible t hat t he N ovgorod w eavers w ho h ad e xtensive e conomic t ies w ith t he c ountries o f W est E urope i n t he l ate 1 2th c entury w ere a ble t o l earn q uickly o f t echnical i nnovations a nd w ere n ot v ery f ar b ehind t he E uropean c raftsmen i n t heir m odernisation o f t he w eaving p rocess. T hus, t he e arly 1 3th c entury p robably w itnessed t he a ppearance o f a l oom o f a n ew d esign i n N ovgorod a nd o ther t owns o f M edieval R ussia . T his w as r eally a m echanical l oom t hough i t w as s till m an-powered . T wo

1 21

o perations

o f

t hree

w hich

c onstitute

t he

m anufacture

m echanised , t hose o f w arp s hedding a nd w eft b ecame m uch m ore p roductive. W e s hould n ote o f a n o ld h orizontal l oom p ersists d ifference i s t hat t he p resent-day s lay

( reed)

o f

f abric

w ere

t hread a dding . T he l oom t hat t he e ssential s cheme

i n t he p resent-day l oom . T he o nly l oom i s a ll m etal a nd t he h arness,

a nd s huttle a re d riven m echanically a nd t ravel a t v ery h igh

s peeds. I n c onnection w ith t he t ime o f t he i ntroduction o f t he h orizontal l oom i n R ussia , w e s hould r emember t hat b oth v ertical a nd h orizontal l ooms c an b e u sed f or m aking c loth w oven a ccording t o a p attern o f a ny c omplexity . T he e arly 1 3th c entury s aw t he i ntroduction o f t he h orizontal l oom w ith g reatly i ncreased e fficiency o f w eaving . C loth w as m ass-produced a nd i ts m arketability i ncreased . A t t he s ame t ime a s t he c raft d eveloped b oth t echnically b ecame, i n a way, s tandardised by

a nd e conomically s implifying t he

t he p roduction manufacturing

p rocesses a nd s omewhat d etracting f rom t he q uality o f p roducts m ade. A . Nahlik c arried o ut a t echnological i nvestigation o f t he N ovgorod a rchaeological f abrics a nd d iscovered t hat t he p roduction o f i ntricately w oven, h igh-quality f abrics, f or e xample s erge 2 /1, d ecreased i n t he 1 3th a nd e specially 1 4th a nd 1 5th c enturies. I nstead , t he p roduction o f s impler a nd c heaper f abrics o f l inen w oven 1 /1 i ncreased s harply 26 . I ncidentally , t he s ame h olds t rue o f m etalw orking i n N ovgorod a t t he s ame t ime 27 . S imilar s implification o f m anufacturing p rocesses a long w ith a p oorer q uality o f m ass-produced i tems a lso t ook p lace i n W estern E urope '8 . I n M edieval R ussia , t his p rocess o f t echnical p rogress a ccompanied b y a n umber o f n egative c onsequences p roceeded a midst t he c omplex b ackground o f a n e conomic d ecline d ue t o t he M ongol ( Tatar) i nvasion . T his i s w hy , w hen s tudying p ost-Mongol c rafts, o ne s hould n ot o nly c onsider t he g eneral e conomic s tate but a lso s hould p ay a ttention t o r egressive phenomena which r esulted f rom t he d evelopment o f n ew e quipment a nd p rogress o f t he c raft a s a w hole. P l. 1 22, 1 s hows a r econstruction o f aM edieval R ussian h orizontal l oom a s i t m ight h ave e xisted i n t he 1 4-15th c enturies. T he a ppearance o f t he l oom d iffers b ut s lightly f rom a p easant 's o r c raftsman 's l oom o f t he 1 8-19th c entury . N or s hould w e e xpect i t t o d iffer. A ll t he s tructural and t echnological e lements c reated i n t he e arly 1 3th c entury , h arness, s lay ( reed) a nd a s huttle o f a n ew s hape, b ecame a p art o f t he n ew e quipment. T he w ooden s tructure o f t he l oom p roper w as r econstructed t aking i nto c onsideration t he s tructures o f W estern E uropean l ooms o f t he 1 4th c entury . F or i nstance, a l oom s hown i n t he " Book o f c rafts a nd t rade" o f 1 310 h ad a m ore c omplicated f rame. 29 W e s hould a lso t ake i nto c onsideration t he t echnical f acilities a t t he d isposal o f N ovgorod c arpenters o f t he 1 4th c entury . W hat e xactly d id a v ertical l oom o f t he 1 0-12th c enturies l ook l ike? This c an b e d educed o nly f rom s ome Western E uropean a rchaeological m aterial a nd I talian m iniatures o f t he 1 1th c entury . P l. 1 22, 4 , 5 s hows a d esign o f a v ertical l oom o f t he 1 0th f rom O seberg 30 a nd o f a l oom d epicted o n a m iniature i n a n m anuscript o f 1 023 31 . W e

c entury I talian

w ere n ot a ble t o i dentify a ny d efinite p arts

1 22

o f av ertical l oom a mong t he w ooden a rtefacts

f ound i n t he e xcavations.

L athe. T he e xcavations y ielded a g reat n umber o f f inds o f w ooden u tensils a nd o ther w ooden a nd s tone a rtefacts m ade w ith t he h elp o f a l athe. B efore p roceeding t o a n a nalysis o f a l athe d esign w e w ould l ike t o r emind t he r eaders o f i ts o peration . T he m ain p rerequisite f or l athe o peration i s a s f ollows: t he w ork t o b e l athe-turned h as t o b e w ell s ecured a nd r otated a bout i ts a xis w ithout c hanging t he p osition o f t he a xis. T he c ommonest w ay o f m eeting t his r equirement w as t o s ecure t he w ork b etween t wo f ixed c entres w hich l ay o n t he a xis. T he r otation was i n m ost c ases i mported t o t he w ork t hrough a f lexible s haft. P ressing a s teel t ool a gainst t he s urface o f t he w orked p iece r emoved m aterial f rom i t. I t

i s

q uite

e asy t o

f ollow

t his

s cheme

i n p ractice w hen

t he w ork

t o b e l athe-turned i s i n t he f orm o f a n e longated c ylinder o f o ne o r a nother a nd o nly t he s urface i s t o b e w orked u pon .

s ize

I t b ecomes much m ore d ifficult t o f ollow t echnologically w hen t he w ork i s n ot a n e longated c ylinder. I n t his c ase o ne n eeds a n umber o f i ntermediate a ppliances t o t ransmit t he m ovement t o t he w ork . A s a lready m entioned , t he m ain m ethod u sed f or m aking l athe-turned w ooden d ishes a nd u tensils i n M edieval R ussia w as a l amellar t echnique. T his w as u sed f or m aking v essels a s e arly a s t he 1 0th c entury . A c up l athe-turned i n t his w ay h ad i ts a xis o f r evolution a t r ight a ngles t o t he d irection o f t he w ood g rain , i .e., t he l ong a xis o f t he b lank w as n ot a long but a cross t he g rain o f t he t imber. T herefore, a r adial o r t angential s lice o f t he t ree s tem h ad t o b e s ecured t o t he l athe. T he l athe w as f itted w ith a s pecial d evice f or s ecuring t he b lank w hich w as t o b e l athe-turned , w hich i s k nown a s a s pindle. N o l amellar l athe-turned c ups o f 5 0 c m . i n d iameter c ould b e m ade w ithout s uch a d evice. T he s pindle w as r otated a s f ollows: a r ope w ound w ith t wo o r t hree l oops a bout t he s pindle s tem w as a ttached a t o ne e nd t o a f ooto perated t readle w hich i mparted m otion t o i t, a nd a t t he o ther e nd t o a s pring-loaded d evice w hich b rought t he r ope b ack t o i ts i nitial p osition . T his m ethod o f c onverting r eciprocating i nto c ircular m otion w as i nvented b y m an f ar b ack i n a ntiquity a nd h as p roved v ery e nduring . I t s urvived i nto o ur t ime a nd w as t he o nly s uch a pparatus u ntil t he 1 8th c entury . I n M edieval s ources i t w as T heophylus w o d escribed s uch d evices w hich r otated t he b lanks o n a s pinning l athe. 32 T he l athes d epicted i n W estern E uropean e ngravings a nd m in Wures o f t he 1 4-15th c enturies a re a ll f itted w ith b ow t ransmissions. R ussian ' b ow d rive e xtensively u p t o t he 2 0th c entury . 34

c raftsmen

e mployed

t he

I n a ddition t o a s pindle, t he l athe n eeds a t ailstock t o s erve a s t he o ther a ttachment h olding t he b lank i n p osition. Another i ndispensable f eature o f a l athe i s a t ool-rest t o s upport t he t ool. T here a re s everal s uch s ystems, f rom s imple p osts p laced a gainst t he l athe

t o

h and r ests

s ecured

t o

t he

1 23

f rame.

T he

b ed

w hich

c arries

a ll

t hese p arts o f t he m achine h as t o b e s trong a nd m assive. T he f inal a spect o f t he p erformance o f a l athe i s h ow w ell t he p roducts a re f inished . T he e xternal a nd i nternal s urfaces o f d ishes w ere i nvariably w ell f inished a nd s mooth . T his n ecessitates h igh s peeds o f r otation , s ince s low c utting w ould r esult i n t orn , r ough a nd s plintered s urfaces. T he d esign o f t he M edieval R ussian l athe m et t he f ollowing s pecifications: 1 ) t he p rovision o f a s pindle; 2 ) r eliable s ecuring o f w ork o n t he s pindle; 3 ) e nough d riving p ower; 4 ) a s trong a nd m assive s tructure; 5 ) a mple r un f or a d riving r ope; a nd 6 ) r easonably h igh s peeds. T he a rchaeologists h ave s ucceeded i n i dentifying o nly s ome o f t he l athe p arts a mong t he f inds, f or e xample e asily i dentifiable c entre b osses f or a s pindle, a nd a lso f or a t ailstock , a nd s pindle t hrust b earings. H owever t hese parts a re q uite enough f or a r eliable r econstruction o f a l athe. T he m acroscopic i nvestigation o f t he s urfaces o f a ll t he l athet urned v essels i n o ur c ollection s howed t hat c utting t ools w ere u sed f or t he l athe-turning o f v essel w alls a nd p artially o f b ottoms a nd t rays a nd p edestals. T he c entral p ortions o f v essel b ottoms a nd t he l ow s urfaces o n t rays w ere h and-worked b y c utting c rosswise w ith a h and-held t ool o r a c hisel ( pl. 2 1, 3 ). T he a rea b earing t he t races o f s uch w orking w as n ormally 5 -8 c m . i n d iameter. T hus, t he v essel w as m ade b y l athe-turning a nd r emoved f rom t he l athe w hile t he c entre o f t he base i nside a nd o ut w ere s till unfinished p rojections w hich w ere l ater r emoved b y h and . T he c onical p rojections w ere l eft w hich k ept t he v essel b etween t he l athe

a nd

had

c onical

d ue t o t he c entre c ylinders c entres. T hey s how t hat t he

v essel w as t urned o n t he l athe w ith o ne o perational s etting a nd w as n ot r eset o n a s pindle o r t ailstock . B osses. C entre b osses a re t he t races o f t he c entre c ylinders b etween w hich t he v essel w as s ecured f or t he f inishing o perations. T hey w ere f ound i n t he e xcavations i n d ifferent c hronological l evels. T heir t otal n umber w as m ore t han 4 0, a nd t hey w ere a rranged i n g roups o f s everal p ieces i n f ive p laces, e ach e xtending o ver a n a rea o f t wo t o f ive n eighbouring s quares. T hese w ere t he p roduction r ejects f rom l athe s hops w hich w ere o n t hese p lots. T he c hronological a rrangement o f t he f inds w as a s f ollows: 9 b osses w ere f ound i n h orizon 1 3, l evel 1 2, i n s quare 1 958 a nd n eighboring o nes; 8 b osses i n h orizon 1 1, l evel 1 5 i n s quares 1 190, 1 255 a nd 1 284; 4 b osses i n h orizon 9 , l evel 1 2, i n s quares 8 86 a nd n eighbouring o nes; 5 b osses i n h orizon 4 , l evel 3 , i n s quare 6 53. T he l argest g roup o f 1 6 b osses w as f ound i n h orizon 1 3, l evels 1 -2, i n s quares 1 639, 1 645, 1 651, 1 653. A s o ne m ight e xpect, t he b osses c ome i n t wo t ypes. S ome a re c onical w ith s mooth w alls a lways s howing t he t races o f r ough l athet urning w ith a r ound l athe t ool. T he f lat c one base b ears c lear t races o f m etal p rongs w hich h eld t he b lank o f t he v essel b eing t urned ( pl. 1 23,

1 -7).

1 24

T he b osses o f t he o ther t ype h ad a n e longated c ylindrical s hape, t he c ylinder e nding a t o ne e nd i n a f lat b ottom w ith a c onical r ecess i n t he c entre o f r evolution a nd a t t he o ther e nd w ith a c one s imilar t o a b oss o f t he f irst t ype. B oth t he c one a nd t he c ylinder a lways s how t he m arks o f a r ound l athe t ool. T he d iameter o f t he c onical r ecess i n t he b ase o f t he c ylinder i s 1 -1.5 c m . T his r ecess t ook t he c entre o f t he t ailstock w hen t he b lank w as s ecured o n t he l athe. T he b lank o f a l amellar v essel w as i n f act a b lock f rom a t ree t runk ( pl. 1 23, 8 -14). T he b lock w as c ut a nd s awn i nto p arts o f a h eight e qual t o t he d iameter o f t he a rticle t o b e m ade, l eaving s ome w orking a llowances. T hese b locks w ere t hen c ut i nto h alves b oth o f w hich w ere t rimmed w ith a n a xe o n t heir c onvex s ides u ntil t hey h ad t he s hape o f a f lattened o r e longated h emisphere, d epending o n t he k ind a nd s ize o f v essel t o b e m ade. T he b lock w as t hen m ounted o n t he l athe. O n i ts h emispherical o r c onical s ide t he b lank w as s ecured t o t he l athe s pindle w hile t he t hrust c one o f t he t ailstock w as b rought u p t o t he o pposite f lat p ortion o f t he b lank , a t t he c entre o f i ts r evolution . F or t his purpose, t he b lank w as f irst p rovided w ith a c entral c onical r ecess. T hrust b earings a re a c ommon r elated t o l athe s pindles ( pl. 1 24).

f ind

b ut

o nly

s ome

o f

t hem

a re

W hen r econstructing t he l athe a s a w hole o r d eciding o n t he c onstruction o f o ne u nit o r a nother, w e p roceeded f rom t he s implest v ersions which a re a dequately d escribed i n t he e thnographic o r h istoricotechnical l iterature. T he b ed w as a v ery s trong f rame c onsisting o f t wo m assive p osts m ade f rom b road , t hick b oards. T wo c ross b eams p assed b etween t hese t wo p osts a t a h eight o f a bout 7 0 c m . t o f orm t he s tem o f a l athe. T here w as a s lot b etween t he c ross b eams w hich a dmitted t he f ront p ost o f a s pindle a nd a t ailstock s ecured t herein . T hese w ere a ttached t o t he t able b y m eans o f a d owelled t ail a nd a s ecuring w edge. T he s pindle was m ade i n t he f orm o f a r od 5 c m . i n d iameter; o ne e nd w as t apered a nd t he o ther c arried a h ead w ith f ixed i ron b lades f orming a s pindle h ead ' trident '. T he s pindle p assed t hrough a b earing i n t he f ront p ost a nd r ested a gainst t he b ed t hrust b earing a t i ts t apered e nd . A t t he l evel o f t he s pindle, t he t ailstock h ad a s quare h ole t o a dmit t he b eam i n t he d ead c entre. W hen s tationary , t he b eam w as s ecured w ith a w edge.

T he b eam e nd h ad a p oint f ixing t he w ork .

A b ow d rive w as u sed a s t he t ransmission f or t he s pindle. d riving r ope h ung d own f rom t he s pring-loaded o verhead d evice t o t readle. T he t ool w as s upported b y a s pecial p ost a gainst t he h eadstock a nd t ailstock ( pl. 1 25, 1 ).

o r

b eam

T he t he

r esting

T he l athe o perators t urning w ood i n t he S emenov d istrict o f N izhny N ovgorod p rovince i n t he 1 9th c entury e mployed a s impler l athe. W hen l athe-turning b locks i nto s mall-diameter Q ups t hey c ould d ispense w ith a f ront i ntermediate p ost f or a s pindle. 35 A l amellar b lock m ounted o nto a p en s pindle t rident w as s ecured m erely b etween t wo c entres. S hould o ne t ry t o l athe-turn l arge-diameter a rticles t he s pindle p in w ould n ot h old t he a rticles o n t he a xis o f r otation . S hould t he

1 25

o perator a ttempt t o d o s o t he s pindle p in a nd t he b lock w ould b reak i n t wo where t hey a re c onnected w ith a t rident. Therefore o ur r econstruction i s s upplied w ith a n i ntermediate p ost k nown t o h ave e xisted i n m ore c omplicated b ow-type l athes. H and

m ill.

A mong

t he

d omestic

a ppliances,

t he

a rchaeological

f inds i nclude a g ood e xample o f a h and m ill w hose p arts a nd s ome o ther i tems w hich h ave b een f ound e nable u s t o m ake a r econstruction o f i ts s tructure a nd d esign . T he e xcavations p roduced u pper a nd l ower m illstones, k nown a s a r unner a nd a m ill r espectively, a n i ron a nd w ooden t hrust b earings, s ide b earings, f lywheel r ods, a nd t hrust p ivots. T he w ooden t hrust b earings a re s ometimes f ound i nserted i n t he r unner, i .e. t hey a re f ound i n t heir w orking p ositions. T he s ide b earings a nd f lywheel r ods w hich r elate o nly t o a h andmill w ere a lso w ooden . A s ide b earing w as u sed f or t urning t he m ill. I ts d esign i s s hown i n p l. 1 26, 1 -4. T he b earing w as s ecured w ith a p iece o f r ope, w ooden r od o r r aw-hide b elt, t o a h oop o r a r im e mbracing t he m ill. T he h ole i n t he b earing t ook t he b ottom e nd o f t he s tem . T he s tem w as r otated b y h and t hus c ausing t he m ill t o t urn t oo. T he d imensions o f a t ypical m edium-sized b earing w ere a s f ollows: l ength 1 8-20 c m ., w idth 2 -2.5 c m . T he h ole i n t he s tem v aried f rom 1 .5 t o 3 c m . d epending o n h ow w orn i t w as. T he t otal n umber o f s ide b earings f ound w as 3 5, 1 8 o f t hem b eing i ntact a nd t he r est b roken . T hey o ccurred i n t he l evels o f t he 1 0-15th c enturies, w ith t he f ollowing d istribution i n h orizons: 2 7-35-1382

9 -16-2071

5 -11-1363

2 6-24-997

9 -11-1074

5 -11-1369

2 3-21-535

9 -10-1827

5 -8-1189

1 8-22-1481

9 -8-497

5 -7-1261

1 7-25-1380

7 -12-3

5 -5-984

1 7-21-299

7 -12-1365

5 -5-1645

1 5-22-1348

7 -10-866

5 -4-2003

1 4-21-1346

7 -9-1271

4 -8-1229

1 3-15-1585

6 -14-114

4 -6-1607

6 -10-1044

4 -5-1583

1 2-18-1257

6 -9-1302

4 -5-1602

1 2-15-1570

6 -9-1541

. 1 3-13-594

1 26

T able XL s hows t he d imensions o f t ypical i ntact b earings

( cf .

p l.

2 0,

7 )

T able XL

C ard n umber

L

R

1

1 8-22-1481

1 8.5

2 3

1 1

2

5

2 .5

1 7-25-1380

1 9

2 5

1 4

3

4 .5

2 .2

1 4-21-1346

1 9

2 5

1 5

3 .5

4 .5

2

1 2-18-1257

1 8

2 3

1 2.5

2 .5

4 .5

2 .5

7 -12-1365

2 2

2 5

1 4

3

3 .5

3

5 -5-1645

1 9.5

2 5

1 3

3 .5

5 .5

2 .5

4 -6-1607

1 6

2 0

1 2.5

2 .5

4 .5

1 .5

1 5

2 2

1 0.5

2

4

2

4 -5-1583

F lywheel s tems f ound i n t he e xcavations a re d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom c ommon s ticks. A s tem i s a l ong w ooden s tick 3 c m . o r s o i n d iameter ( pl. 1 26, 7 ), which c an be i dentified by t wo c haracteristic s igns, o ne b eing l ower e nd w orn t o a c onical s hape d ue t o t he r ubbing o f t he s tem a gainst t he b earing , t he o ther b eing t he w orn t op o f t he s tick w here i t w as s ecured i n t he o verhead b earing . T he l ength o f t he s tem v aried f rom 1 .4 t o 1 .6 m . T he s tems w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f t he s ame b earings, t heir n umber a mounted t o 1 7 a nd t heir h orizons was a s f ollows:

c enturies a s t he d istribution i n

2 8-32-50

1 2-10-1000

9 -11-1629

2 6-27-447

1 1-18-1436

9 -5-666

2 2-26-35

9 -15-1118

7 -8-1074

1 7-16-985

9 -15-1255

5 -9-1240

1 6-21-1231

9 -14-61

5 -5-1975

1 4-21-1346

9 -14-2071

W ooden t hrust b earings o f m ills f ound i n t he e xcavations w ere a bundant. Unlike o ther b earings, t he w ooden t hrust b earings w ere o f a m ore e longated s hape. F or e xample, a b earing f ound t ogether w ith t he m ill ( it w as p laced i n t he g rooves o f t he t op h ole) i n t he l evels o f t he e arly 1 3th c entury ( 16-19-860) w as 1 2.5 c m . i n l ength . S ome o f t he b earings w ere a s l ong a s 1 5 c m . w ith w idths o f 2 .5-3 c m ., a nd t hickness

1 27

o f 2 -3 c m . I n t he c entre o f t he f lat s ide o f t his p art t here w as a r ound r ecess 2 -3 c m . i n d iameter w ith w hich t he w ooden t hrust b earing r ested a gainst t he t op o f t he p ivot. T he w alls o f t he r ecess a lways b ear t he s igns o f r otation o r e ven t hose o f b urning d ue t o h eavy r ubbing . M ore t han 2 5 w ooden t hrust b earings w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f a ll c enturies. I ron b earings w ere m uch f ewer a nd w ere b asically u sed i n t he 1 3th c entury . T hrust p ivots o r s pindles a re r ather d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom t he e normous m ass o f w ooden s tems. T heir s ingle d istinguishing f eature i s t he f act t hat o ne o f t he s tem e nds o n w hich r an t he w ooden t hrust b earing i s w orn d own t o a h emispherical c onical s hape. T he s tem d iameter i s a t l east 3 -4 c m . S everal s tems w ith s uch f eatures w ere f ound i n t he e xcavations i n t he l evels o f t he 1 1-14th c enturies. T he

p arts

f ound a re

q uite

e nough

f or

a f ull

r econstruction

o f

a

h andmill a s u sed b y N ovgorod h ousewives f or g rinding f lour. T his w as a h andmill o f a. v ery d eveloped t ype w hich p ersisted i n u se i n 2 0thc entury R ussian v illages, s till c ompeting w ith w ater a nd w ind m ills. I t s hould b e n oted t hat a h andmill w ith a f lywheel i s a m ore a dvanced t ype a nd e asier t o o perate t han o ne w ithout a f lywheel a nd w ith t he t op m illstone b eing o perated w ith a h andle. P l. 1 25, 2 s hows o ur r econstructed m ill. S ixteenth-century m iniatures w ere u sed a s a r eliable s ource w hich a llowed u s a ccurately t o a ssemble a m ill f rom t he e xcavated p arts. T he s econd O sterman v olume o f t he N ikon c hronicle c ontains t he s tory o f l ife o f S t . S ergius w ith m iniatures s howing f lour-grinding a nd b read-making i n p rogress. O ne o f t he p ictures i s a c lear r epresentation o f a handmill w ith a f lywheel, t hrust b earings, a b earing , a f lywheel s tem a nd a t able w ith a s tone o n i t w hich i s k nown a s a m ill. A nother s uch m iniature i s i n t he m s. " Life o f S t. S ergius" 36 ( 16th c entury). T he mill s hown i n o ur r ecopstruction d oes n ot d iffer f rom h andmills o f t he 1 9-20th c enturies. A s imilar m ill was p hotographed a nd m easured b y u s i n 1 948 i n t he v illage o f L asuny i n t he L omonosov d istrict i n t he L eningrad r egion ( on t he c oast o f t he G ulf o f F inland , t he f ormer N ovgorod l ands). T he N erevsky e xcavations p roduced m ore t han 1 00 m illstones, b oth b ottom a nd t op o nes. T heir d iameters v aried f rom 4 0 t o 5 0 c m . T he o nly u nit w hich m ay b e d ebatable i s a d evice f or t he c ontrol o f f lour g rinding , i .e. t he p arts s erving t o r aise a nd l ower t he m ill p ivot. O ur r econstruction s hows t he s implest w edge-type p ivot. L ifting d evices. T he d evices w hich w ere e mployed f or l ifting materials and s tructures o n c onstruction s ites o r during t heir t ransportation w ere r ather e lementary i n d esign , s imple t o h andle a nd r eliable w hile a llowing l oads o f c onsiderable w eight t o b e r aised . A l ifting d evice w as e mployed b y t he I talian e ngineer A ristotle F ioravanti d uring t he c onstruction o f t he A ssumption C athedral i n t he M oscow K remlin i n 1 475-79: " ...made a w heel, a nd i nstead o f c arrying s tones, f astened t hem w ith a r ope; a t t he t op s ecure t he r opes w ith s maller wheels which a re c alled a s quirrel ( pulley-block), by

1 28

c arpenters..."* T he i nformation g iven i n t his c hronicle i s i mportant n ot s o m uch b ecause F ioravanti m ade u se o f a l ifting d evice w ith a l arge d riving w heel ( "... made a w heel...") i n l ine w ith t he l atest European t echnical a chievements, b ut b ecause o f t he m ention o f a p ulley-block , a d evice w idely u sed b y R ussian c arpenters i n c onstruction w ork i n e ven e arlier t imes. S uch l ifting d evices w ere k nown a s ' squirrel' s till i n t he 1 9th c entury . 38 T he d evices c onsisted o f w ooden p ulleys f itted o n a xles i n a w ooden f rame, m ounted o n a n a ngle b race, a nd a l ower m anual w inch f or w inding u p a l ifting r ope. S uch a d evice i s d epicted o n a m iniature i n a G reat M enology b ook o f 1 552.** T he p icture s hows t he b uilding o f t he T ower o f B abel w ith a v ery r ealistic r epresentation o f a t op a ngle b race w ith t wo p ulleys a nd a b ottom w inch . 39 S imilar s cenes a re k nown o n o ther m iniatures b ut t hey a re t oo s chematic t o a ppreciate t he d etails o f t he d esign . Among t he e asily i dentifiable w ooden p arts o f t he p ulley-blocks f ound i n t he e xcavations w ere p ulley w heels a nd a xles, a lthough t here w ere n ot m any o f t hem . T he p ulleys w ere o f t wo t ypes, l arge a nd s mall, t heir d iameter v arying f rom 8 t o 1 8 c m . ( pl. 1 27, 1 -5). T en p ulleys w ere f ound i n t he l evels o f t he 1 1-15th c enturies w ith t he f ollowing d istribution i n t he h orizons: 2 2-27-137, 1 3-18-1276, 1 3-15-715, 1 3-14-1052, 1 2-18-37, 1 01 7-1428, 8 -11-406, 7 -12-1538, 7 -8-1070, 4 -15-1389. T he d imensions o f s ome o f t he p ulleys c an b e s een i n T able XLI ( cf . p l. 2 0, 8 ). O ne i ntact p ulley o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-15-715) w as i n a g ood s tate. I t h ad b een t urned o n a l athe f rom a b irch k not. I t w as a w orn o ne w ith t he a xle h ole s urface p olished b y w ear. T he s urface s howed t races o f s ome l ubricant. Twenty-five

a xle

s hafts,

s ome

o f

which

may

have

had

o ther

a pplications, w ere f ound . T he s haft d iameter v aried f rom 2 t o 5 c m . S ome o f t he s hafts m ay h ave b een p arts o f s wivels. S ince t he a xle s hafts w ere o f w ide a pplication , i t i s d ifficult t o i dentify s pecific p ulley s hafts. T he p ulley l ifting d evices a lso e mployed i ron a xles w hich w ere o ften f ound i n t he e xcavations. S wivels. S ome m echanical i tems w ere o f w ide d omestic a nd t echnological a pplication , f or i nstance, s wivels s uch a s t hose s hown i n P l. 1 28. T he r ange o f u se o f a s wivel i s r ather w ide. A s wivel c an b e I t i s t he e arliest d escription o f a l ifting d evice i n t he R ussian t ext; pulley b locks w ere c ertainly i n u se m uch e arlier, i n 1 076-96 l evels. T he w ord " squirrel" p robably p oints t o t ravelling-block . -A . C h . * * T he G reat M enology i s a n e normous c ollection c ontaining l ives o f t he s aints a nd t he l ike i n m any v olumes. T he v olume i n q uestion c ontains ' Christian T opography ' o f C osmas I ndicopleustes w ith n umerous i llustrations. - A . C h .

1 29

n eeded w here a ny k ind o f p ull ( a p iece o f s tring , c hain , r ope) i s t o r evolve a bout i ts a xis but n ot t o w ind u p ( for e xample a t ether f or p astured c attle, a d og l eash , a r ope f or a f ish-net b uoy, e tc.) T he s wivels v aried c onsiderably i n s ize, a nd a re l isted i n T able XLII ( cf . p l. 2 0, 9 ). F ifty-six s wivels f ound i n l evels o f t he 1 01 5th c enturies w ere d istributed i n h orizons a s f ollows: 2 8-32-116

1 2-16-342

6 -8-1539

2 7-29-1219

1 2-10-619

6 -8-1539

2 5-27-1552

1 0-18-1402

6 -6-992

2 4-32-1326

1 0-15-1468

6 -5-1963

2 4-26-1479

1 0-15-2147

5 -6-1617

2 2-29-761

1 0-15-2147

5 -6-1617

2 2-29-761

1 0-10-1763

5 -6-1632

1 8-23-986

1 0-5-1755

5 -6-1632

1 8-23-1211

9 -16-1412

5 -6-1618

1 8-23-1211

9 -16-1412

5 -5-1792

1 7-26-1330

9 -16-1439

4 -11-1344

1 7-20-860

9 -16-1439

4 -10-1356

1 7-19-1878

9 -12-862

4 -7-1205

1 6-17-1888

9 -12-897

4 -7-1205

1 4-21-623

7 -14-1356

4 -6-1583

1 4-16-897

7 -10-397

3 -4-1594

1 3-20-1412

7 -10-1516

3 -4-1594

1 3-18-123

7 -2-1755

2 -1-1605

1 3-18-123

6 -12-199

I ron s wivels w ere a lso f ound ;

t hese w ere n ot l arger t han 3 -5 c m .4 0

T hrust b earings a re a c ommon f ind , m ore t han 2 20 o f t hem h aving c ome f rom t he l evels o f t he 1 0-15th c enturies. T he d esign o f a t hrust b earing c an b e s een f rom p l. 1 24, 1 -9. T heir a pplication w as r ather w ide s ince t hey w ere e mployed w henever o ne n eeded a n e nd t hrust f or a v ertical o r a h orizontal s haft o r a r otating b ody ( for i nstance, i n h andmills a s w ooden t hrust b earings, i n a l athe, i n d oors). T he d iameter o f t he r ound h emispherical r ecess i n t he b earing w as a bout 3

1 30

c m .

T he

l ength v aried

f rom

7 t o

1 0

c m .

I t w as

a c ommon practice

t o

m ake a b earing f rom t hat p art o f a t ree s tem w here a k not protruded a nd t he r ecess w as c ut i nto t he b ase o f t he k not , w hich i s t he hardest p ortion i n a s tem . T his i s w hy s uch b earings w ere l ong-lived a nd m oved s moothly w hen p roperly l ubricated .

Table XLI D imensions o f p ulleys,

c m .

C ard n umber

2 2-27-137

8

2 .5

3

2

1 3-18-1276

8

2 .5

3

2 .5

3 .6

5

3

1 3-15-715

1 3

1 2-18-37

8 .5

3

4 .5

3

8 -11-37

7 .5

2 .5

3

2 .5

5

6

4

4 -15-1389

1 8

Table X 1JI D imensions o f s wivels,

C ard n umber

2 2-29-761 1 4-21-623

1

1 6 6

1 1 3 .7

c m .

B

T

d

d1

3 .6

1 .7

1 .7

1

7 .5

1 .7

1 .3

0 .8

0 .7

6

1 0-18-1402

2 5

1 9

5 .5

1 .5

2 .8

1 .2

1 5

1 0-15-2147

2 1

1 5.7

4

1 .8

2

1 .2

1 1

9 -16-1439

1 3

1 0

3 .7

1 .2

2

1 .2

1 0

3 .5

1 .6

0 .5

0 .7

0 .6

6

0 .9

9

7 -10-1516

5 .5

•5 -6-1632

1 1

8 .3

2 .8

0 .8

1 .4

4 -7-1205

1 4

9 .5

5 .5

1 .8

2

3 -4-1594

1 1.5

9

2 .2

1

1 .4

0 .8

2 -1-1605

4 .5

3

3

0 .6

1

0 .4

1 31

3 .5

" Cross-pieces". Among v arious p arts o f m ore c omplex d evices f rom t he N erevsky e xcavations t here w ere r ather m any s o-called " crossp ieces". A c ross-piece i s a c ylinder o f a bout 3 o r 4 c m . i n d iameter a nd 7 t o 1 0 c m . i n l ength . T he c ylinder i s p ierced b y t wo h oles o f a bout 1 .5-2 c m . i n d iameter r unning t hrough i t c rosswise a t a n a ngle o f 9 0° ( pl. 1 24, 1 0-18). M ore t han 1 60 s uch p ieces w ere f ound , m ost o f t hem i ntact. C ross-pieces w ere f ound o nly i n h orizons 1 4-1, i .e. t hey d ate f rom t he m id-13th t o 1 4th c enturies. T hey d ominated i n h orizons 7 -4, i .e. i n l evels o f t he l ate 1 4th a nd e arly 1 5th c enturies. W e c annot i dentify t his i tem w ith c ertainty . T he m useums o f M artin , T artu , R iga a nd o ther t owns w hich p ossess c onsiderable c ollections o f e thnographic w ooden a rtefacts c ontain n o s uch i tems. T he c urator o f t he F olk M useum i n O slo, H ilmar S tigum , r esponded ( 6 O ctober 1 958) t o o ur e nquiry c oncerning s ome s imilar p art a mong t he N orwegian c ollections, o nly t hings r esembling o ur " cross-pieces" k nown t o h im a re f rom t he p arts o f t he r igging o f a G okstedt s hip w hich w ere u sed f or t ightening r opes. 41 H owever t he N ovgorod " cross-pieces" d iffer f rom t hose p arts b oth t echnologically ( no i ron c ramps) a nd i n s ize. S imilar p arts w ere o bserved b y Yu . C hebotarenko i n t he O rgey d istrict o f t he M oldavian S oviet S ocialist R epublic where t hey a re e mployed i n h orizontal l oom f rames w hen c onnecting t wo t ies e xtending f rom t he e nds o f o ne s haft w ith t hreads t o t he t readle r ope. W e w ere n ot a ble t o d iscover s uch d evices i n R ussian , P olish o r B altic l ooms o f t he 1 9th c entury . H owever, o ne m ay s uppose t hat t he N ovgorod c raftsmen u sed " cross-pieces" i n 1 3-15th-century l ooms. T his c on jecture b ecomes m ore p lausible i f o ne c onsiders t hat " cross-pieces" m ade t heir a ppearance i n t he e arlier h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury , i .e. a long w ith t he h orizontal l oom , b ecoming w idely u sed i n t he 1 4-15th c enturies. N OTES 1 .

V itruvius,

1 936,

p .

2 .

N .

L ebedeva ,

3 .

A .

B ielenstein ,

4 .

W .

S obisiak ,

5 .

K .

M oszynski,

6 .

N .

L ebedeva ,

1 956,

7 .

N .

L ebedeva,

1 956.

8 .

I .

M anninen ,

1 931.

9 .

T artu E thnographic M useum ,

1 0.

T he E conomy a nd E veryday L ife o f R ussian P easants.

1 1.

N .

L ebedeva,

1 956.

1 2.

A .

K hodosov ,

1 930.

1 956,

2 86. p .

1 918,

1 960,

4 59. p .

3 67.

p .

3 63.

p .

4 74.

1 929.

c ollection 1 6742 M a3.

1 32

1 3.

B .

K olchin ,

1 4 .

A .

B obrinsky,

1 910.

1 5.

R .

P atterson ,

1 956,

1 6.

M .

H ald ,

1 7.

A .

N ahlik ,

1 8.

T .

W röblewski,

1 9.

J .

K ostrzewski,

2 0.

A .

N ahlik ,

2 1.

J .

K aminska ,

A .

2 2.

N .

L ebedeva ,

1 956,

2 3.

R .

P atterson ,

2 4.

I bid ,

2 5.

D .

K arov ,

2 6.

A .

N ahlik ,

2 7.

B .

K olchin ,

2 8.

A .

N ahlik ,

2 9.

R .

P atterson ,

3 0.

O sebergfundet...,

3 1.

A .

N ahlik ,

3 2.

W .

T heobald ,

3 3.

G .

H irth,

3 4.

N .

F ilippov ,

3 5.

I bid ,

3 6.

A .

A rtsikhovsky ,

3 7.

D .

Z elenin ,

3 8.

V .

D ahl,

3 9.

S tate H istorical M useum ,

4 0.

B .

p .

p .

1 959,

P .

1 08.

p .

2 03.

1 950. 1 963. 1 954. 1 954.

1 956. N ahlik , p .

1 956,

1 958.

4 96.

p .

2 07.

2 12. 1 960,

p .

1 963,

7 2.

p .

1 959, 1 963,

2 93.

p . p .

2 96.

1 956,

1 963,

p .

2 13.

1 928, p .

1 933;

1 881;

1 19.

P .

1 913,

p .

1 16.

2 78. A .

L eroi-Gourhan ,

B randt, p .

1 00.

1 944,

p .

1 945.

1 927.

1 51.

1 927.

1 955,

K olchin ,

1 89.

p .

1 959,

1 75.

p .

1 14.

M oscow , 4 1.

1 33

S in 9 97, N .

f ol.

1 200 v .

N icolaysen ,

1 882,

C hapter V I.

C HAPTER S IX H ousehold u tensils - Y okes - C hurn-staffs - C oal s coops - H ooks o f a ll k inds - C andlesticks a nd o ther d evices f or l ighting - F urniture - C radles - C hairs - B enches - L ever s cales - B oxes - C ombs B uttons - S cabbards - A h at - W all p lanks - A l adder - S hutters C ages - Musical i nstruments - P saltery - F iddles - P ipes. H ousehold u tensils. H ousehold u tensils, f urniture a nd t hings o f e veryday u se: y okes, c hurn-staffs, c oal s coops, l ighting d evices, h ooks o f a ll k inds, l adders, c radles a nd o ther o bjects d escribed b elow w ere f ound b y o ur e xpedition . Y okes f or c arrying b uckets o f w ater w ere m ade o f o ak . T heir s hapes a nd s izes n ever c hanged t hroughout t he a ges. P l. 1 29, 1 , 2 s hows h ow N ovgorod y okes l ooked . T heir s izes w ere f rom 1 40 t o 1 70 c m . T he c entral, m ore f lattened p art, w as 4 5-55 c m . l ong . T heir e nds w ere 2 .5 b y 5 c m . i n s ection . T here w ere n otches o n b oth e nds t o s uspend buckets. E ight u ndamaged a nd 1 5 p artly p reserved y okes w ere f ound i n a ll l evels. T hey w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 2 4-26-1019

1 5-19-2053

8 -12-316

2 3-17-140

1 3-21-1413

7 -14-626

2 3-25-881

1 3-18-1311

7 -14-1434

1 9-24-137

1 2-15-1643

6 -12-1456

1 8-27-1370

1 1-12-1037

5 -9-324

1 8-24-2130

1 0-16-1353

5 -9-1228

1 6-22-129

1 0-16-1457

5 -7-1539

1 6-16-1980

8 -15-1433

C hurn-staffs

m ainly

m ade

f rom

s pruce

b ranches

w ith

t wo

o r

m ore

t wigs o n o ne e nd w ere u sed t o k nead , s tir, b eat o r a gitate a nd w ere e mployed m uch i n t he s imilar w ay t hey a re u sed t oday . A bout 7 00 s uch o bjects w ere f ound i n a ll l evels. T heir s izes v aried f rom v ery l arge ( up t o 7 0 c m . l ong) t o v ery s mall ( about 1 5 c m . l ong) ( see p l. 1 30). C oal t ending .

s coops. S coops

B rooms a nd c oal w ere u sed t o p ut

s coops a re a ssociated w ith w ood i nto a s tove a nd t o

s toves hovel

c oals. T he i nitial l ength o f t he s coop w as b etween 2 0 a nd 2 5 c m . ( pl. 1 4, 5 -8), but t hrough l ong u se s coops b ecame s horter, s o t he a rchaeologists f ound s coops 8 -10 c m . l ong . T hirteen f inds f rom t he l Oth-13th-century l evels a re c learly d efined . T hey w ere n ot m et w ith i n l ater l evels, t hough s imilar s coops a re u sed e ven t oday . T heir d istribution w as: 2 8-31-1019

2 1-25-902

1 4-14-1834

2 7-29-902

2 0-25-2158

1 3-16-1635

1 34

2 5-25-1942

1 7-25-1336

1 2-10-489

2 4-25-902

1 6-18-1811

1 1-13-1617

2 3-21-573 M ore t han 2 5 b rooms m ade o f s pruce t wigs w ere f ound . H ooks o f a ll k inds. T hese a re r ather c ommon f inds, a s t hey w ere w idely u sed f or h anging u p c lothes, h ousehold i tems a nd h arness. M ore t han 1 00 s uspension h ooks w ere f ound . T here a re o nly h ooks b earing t races o f w ork t aken i nto c onsideration a s a rtefacts ( pl. 1 31). T heir s izes r anged f rom 3 0-40 c m . t o 8 -10 c m .

t han

S imilarly c ommon f inds w ere w all h ooks, f ound i n a ll l evels ( more 1 30 o f t hem w ere d iscovered). T heir c onstruction w as e xtremely

p rimitive: a w edge d riven i nto t he w all a nd a t wig o nto w hich t he c lothes w ere h ung ( pl. 1 32). S imilar i tems a re m et w ith e ven t oday . S ometimes wall h ooks w ere s haped l ike a b ird , a nimal o r human h eads. C andlesticks a nd o ther d evices f or l ighting . I n N ovgorod c andlesticks w ere m ade o f i ron , c lay a nd w ood . B asically t he l atter w ere w ooden s ticks 3 -4 c m . i n d iameter a nd 6 -10 c m . l ong f ixed t o r ound o r s quare b ases ( pl. 1 29, 4 ). I n t heir u pper p arts t here w ere d eep c avities 2 -2.5 c m . i n d iameter. S uch c andlesticks d ate f rom t he 1 1th1 6th-century l evels. T heir c ard n umbers a re: 2 2-27-142, 2 2-24-1572, 1 6-18-1900,

1 5-18-1637,

1 4-15-1996,

1 1-14-1596,

9 -9-1927,

8 -12-328.

O ther d evices u sed f or t he s ame p urpose w ere w ooden s ticks 1 00-120 c m . l ong w ith t wo o r t hree f eet o r f ixed t o a m assive w ooden b ase. A n i ron d evice w as a ttached t o t he u pper e nd o f t he w ooden s tick . T hin p ieces o f w ood , f ixed i n i ron d evice w ere t he s ource o f t he l ight. T wo s imilar o bjects o n f eet w ere f ound ( 25-23-1094 a nd 2 1-25-902) t ogether w ith s everal o n r ound o r r ectangular b ases ( 26-30-129, 2 6-26-1108, 2 13 0-1388, 1 6-21-1270, 1 4-22-1397, 1 0-16-1251, 9 -13-1234). F urniture. P ieces o f f urniture o r t heir i dentifiable f ragments a re e xtremely r are f inds, t herefore w e s hall c onfine o urselves t o a d escription o f s ome u nambiguously i dentified p ieces. A w hole s eries o f a rticles which p robably c ame f rom t ables a nd c hairs, s uch a s t urned f eet, b alusters a nd c arved b acks, c an b e i nterpreted a s p arts o f s leighs, d ressers a nd s o o n . T he m ajority o f t hese o bjects a re l avishly d ecorated w ith c arving a nd c an t herefore b e c lassed a s w orks o f a rt. C radles. F our c radles w ere f ound , t wo o f t hem m ade o f b irch-bark a nd t wo o f w ood . T he f ormer w ere m uch m ore p rimitive a nd h ence c heaper. T hey c ame f rom 1 3th- a nd 1 4th-century l evels ( 14-13-537 a nd 8 -11-1530) a nd w ere m ade f rom b irch b ark a nd b ast. T hey l ooked l ike b oxes 2 0-30 c m . h igh c onstructed u pon a w ooden f rame. T he b ottom o f b irch b ark a nd b ast w as p laced o n i nterwoven s trings. T he s ides w ere s ewn t o t he b ottom . W hen i n u se, t he c radle w as a ttached t o a l ong f lexible p ole f ixed t o t he c eiling i n o rder t o r ock t he c radle. T he

1 3th-century c radle w as

8 3

1 35

c m .

l ong ,

4 2

c m .

w ide

a t

t he

h ead

a nd 3 6 c m . w ide a t t he f eet. B esides t he f rame, a rchaeologists f ound t he s trings w hich f ormed t he b ottom , t he b ottom i tself b eing p artly a ttached t o t he f rame. T he s ides h ad n ot s urvived . T he l ater c radle w as e ssentially o f t he s ame d esign b ut a l ittle s maller: i t w as 6 8 c m . l ong, 3 6 a nd 3 1 c m . w ide r espectively . I ts b ottom w as f ound i ntact . H ead a nd f oot e nds w ere a ll t hat r emained o f t he w ooden c radles. T he h ead e nd w as f ound i n a 1 3th-century l evel ( 14-12-1705) w hile t he f oot end c ame f rom a 1 5th-century l evel ( 6-8-1281). T hey a re s ufficient f or a r econstruction . T he h ead e nd i s a lways a l ittle b it h igher t han t he f oot e nd . T his w as t he c ase i n t he 1 3th c entury a s w ell. T he e xterior o f t he h ead p art h as a n i mage o f a c ross. T he b ottom w as f ormed o f f ive 4 c m .-wide b oards. T hey w ere c overed w ith b ast a nd b edding a nd a ttached t o a p ole ( pl. 1 33, 3 ). C hairs. T hirty-two f inds a re a ssociated w ith c hairs. T wo w ere f ound i n f ragments ( 12-12-1773 - p l. 1 33, 1 a nd 1 0-10-504),

c hairs a nd a n

i ntact p art w as a lso f ound ( 8-15-1422); t here a re f ragments w hich c an b e c learly i dentified a s c oming f rom c hairs a s t hey h ave s pecial n otches i nto w hich s eat b oards w ere f ixed . C hair f ragments w ere f ound i n 1 2th-14th-century l evels. I t i s q uite p robable t hat s imilar c hairs w ere m ade i n t he e arlier p eriods but n o i dentifiable p arts h ave b een f ound s o f ar. T hese f inds w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing m anner : 1 9-25-2167

1 2-13-1773

8 -14-1364

1 9-24-1163

1 2-12-1773

8 -14-1365

1 5-17-1010

1 0-16-1353

7 -15-1353

1 4-12-654

1 0-16-1466

7 -14-1353

1 3-20-1441

1 0-10-504

7 -2-1747

1 3-17-1328

9 -15-1343

6 -12-1367

1 3-15-1595

9 -14-2156

6 -12-1455

1 3-12-1801

9 -14-2156

5 -13-114

1 3-12-2008

9 -10-1860

5 -4-1764

1 2-15-1854

8 -15-1422

3 -9-10

1 2-15-1882

8 -14-1362

P l. 1 33, 2 s hows h ow w e r econstructed N ovgorod c hairs. g enerally m ade o f f our b ent r ods. E ach r od i n t wo p laces

T hey w ere f ixes t he

e nds o f a nother r od , a nd s o o n . A ll t he f our o f t hem f ormed a c ubic c hair. S eat b oards w ere i nserted i nto g rooves. C hairs o f d ifferent s izes w ere f ound : t he s eat o f a 1 4th-century c hair w as 4 1 b y 4 0 c m . ( 10-10-504), i ts h eight b eing u nknown b ecause i ts f eet w ere b roken . T he h eight o f a 1 3th-century c hair ( 12-12-1773) w as 3 2,5 c m ., i ts s eat was 3 5 b y 3 1.5 c m ., t he f rame r ods w ere 2 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( pl. 1 33, 1 ). A p iece r egistered u nder c ard n umber 8 -15-1422 i ndicates t hat

1 36

t here w ere c hairs o f o ther s hapes a c ubic c hair ( pl. 1 33, 4 ).

s ince

i t e vidently d id n ot c ome

f rom

B enches. T wo m ovable b enches w ere f ound i n a 1 5th-century l evel i n t he a rea o f o ne u rban p roperty ( 8-12-1303) - p l. 1 34, 5 , 7 . T hey w ere r ather p rimitive a s t heir f eet w ere m erely s pruce t wigs. T he l ength o f o ne o f t hem w as 1 30 c m ., a nd t hat o f t he o ther 1 50 c m . A s urviving f oot p ermits t o e stablish t he h eight o f o ne o f t hem a s 4 1 c m . I n t he 1 4th c entury N ovgorod a s w ell a s i n e arlier p eriods, b enches o f o ther t ypes o f c onstruction w ere m ade: t heir f eet w ere f ixed w ith t he h elp o f i nserted t enons o r t hey h ad e nds. S uch e nds w ere f ound i n 1 5th-century l evels. O ne o f t hem ( 5-7-1552) b eing f ixed i nto a g roove i n t he s eat p rovided a rch-shaped f eet 3 3 c m . w ide a nd 4 2 c m . h igh . Another p iece ( 5-7-1533) w as a n e nd t o w hich t he s eat w as f ixed b y t enons. T he e nd w as i rregularly s haped . T he b ench i tself w as r ather h igh , 5 7 c m ., a nd j udging f rom t he e nd , n ot l ess t han 4 0 c m . w ide. T he o verall h eight o f t he s ide w as 9 5 c m ., a nd i t w as 4 .5 c m . t hick . I t a lso h ad t wo s mall f eet. D iverse o bjects o f e veryday u se. W e w ere d aily u sed b y t he p eople o f N ovgorod .

n ow

t urn

t o

o bjects

w hich

L ever s cales. ( Wooden " steelyard"). T he e leventh a nd t welfth c entury l evels y ielded w ooden l ever s cales ( 25-28-294, 2 5-25-460, 2 42 8-231, 2 4-27-1207, 1 8-24-115). T hey c onsisted o f a r od 4 0-60 c m . l ong , r ound i n c ross-section , w ith a bulb t o s erve a s a c ounterweight o n t he o ne e nd a nd a h ook o n t he o ther. T he w eighted o bject w as a ttached t o t he h ook a nd a n e quilibrium w as f ound w ith t he h elp o f a s tring l oop ( pl. 1 35, 1 ). T here w ere s pecial m arks f or w eight m easuring . C ounterweights w ere o f t wo t ypes: a s impler o ne c onsisting o f a m assive r ound b ulb 6 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( 25-25-460); o r a c avity 5 6 c m . d eep f illed w ith a n a lloy o f l ead a nd t in ( 25-28-294 - p l. 1 73, 6 a nd 2 4-28-231). An e arly 1 1th-century i nstrument w ith a c ounterweight o f t he s econd t ype w as 4 1 c m . l ong ( 25-28-294).

w ere

R ectangular b oxes. J ewellery k ept i n c arved b oxes s imilar

o f a ll k inds a nd s ome s mall t hings t o p resent-day p encil c ases. T wo

k inds o f s uch c ontainers w ere f ound : s mall-sized o nes f or k eeping l onger a rticles i n t hem , s uch a s n eedles ( 13-11-703, 1 0-10-1783, 7 -81 046, 6 -5-1927), a nd l arger o nes d ivided i nto c ompartments ( 23-311 440), 2 3-28-2139, 1 6-14-641, 1 3-17-1576). B oxes o f t he f irst k ind a re s hown i n p l. 1 29, 3 . A 1 4th-century b ox f ound u ndamaged ( 7-8-1046) h ad t he f ollowing d imensions: 1 6 c m . l ong , 1 .9 c m . w ide i n i ts c entral p art a nd 1 .3 c m . t hick . I t h ad c arved d ecoration a nd a h inged l id . A b ox o f t he s econd k ind f ound i n a 1 3th-century l evel ( 13-17-1576) w as 1 5.5 c m . l ong , 4 .8 c m . w ide a nd 1 20, 5 ) a nd a s liding l id .

3 .8

c m .

h igh .

I t h ad

t hree

s ections

( pl.

C ombs. W ooden c ombs a re v ery c ommon f inds, 2 99 o f t hem b eing f ound o n t he N erevsky e xcavations, 5 2 o f t hem i ntact. A ll c ombs h ad t eeth o n b oth e dges: t hicker a nd w idely s paced t eeth a long t he o ne s ide a nd t hinner a nd f iner t eeth a long t he o ther ( pl. 1 36). T heir l engths r anged f rom 7 t o 9 c m ., t he b readth f rom 7 t o 1 0 c m ., a nd t he t hickness o f t heir c entral p arts w as 0 .9 t o 1 .4 c m . T he l ength o f a t hick t ooth

1 37

w as 3 .4 c m ., t hat o f v aried f rom 1 5 t o 2 2,

a f ine t ooth 3 .2 c m . T he n umber o f t hick t eeth t hat o f t he f ine t eeth f rom 4 5 t o 8 2. T hey w ere

m ade w ith a s aw a nd f inely p olished . A ccording t o t heir s hapes a nd c hronology t he c ombs c an b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups ( see, p l. 6 1, 3 ). T he f irst, m ost n umerous g roup i ncluded r ectangular o r s quare e xamples. I t i ncluded 2 09 c ombs o r 7 0% o f t hose f ound . T he s econd g roup, c omprising 7 8 c ombs, o r 2 6%, i ncluded c ombs w ith c onvex s ides. T he t hird g roup, t he c ombs w ith c ircular s ides, i ncludes 1 2 e xamples, o r 4 %. C ombs o f t he f irst g roup w ere i n u se t hroughout t he e ntire p eriod u nder c onsideration : 2 9 o f t hem ( 14%) w ere f ound i n 1 0th-century l evels; 3 1 ( 15%) c ame f rom t he 1 1th-century l evels; 1 3 ( 6%) c ame f rom 1 2th-century l evels, t he b ulk o f t hem d ating f rom t he b eginning o f t he c entury; 5 1 ( 24.5%) c ame f rom 1 3th-century l evels; 7 6 ( 36%) c ame f rom 1 4th-century l evels, a nd o nly 9 ( 4.5%)

f rom 1 5th-century l evels.

C ombs o f t he s econd g roup a re r estricted t o 1 3th-, 1 4th- a nd 1 5thc entury l evels. T wenty o f t hem ( 26%) b elong t o t he 1 3th c entury , 5 5 ( 71%) t o t he 1 4th c entury, a nd 3 ( 3%) t o t he 1 5th c entury . T he f ollowing t able s hows t heir d istribution i n t he h orizons: 1 3-21-1142

1 1-14-1644

9 -11-1596

1 4-19-1269

1 1-12-961

9 -11-1596

1 4-18-280

1 1-12-1076

9 -10-1068

1 4-14-979

1 1-12-1835

9 -10-1854

1 4-13-558

1 1-10-556

9 -10-1980

1 3-18-1167

1 1-9-500

9 -8-1766

1 3-18-1177

1 0-18-1402

9 -5-687

1 3-18-1301

1 0-16-1353

8 -15-1322

1 3-17-1029

1 0-16-1369

8 -15-1421

1 3-16-1029

1 0-16-1376

8 -15-1427

1 3-15-413

1 0-15-1209

8 -10-1570

1 3-11-952

1 0-14-275

8 -10-1578

1 2-20-172

1 0-12-1608

8 -10-1812

» 1 2-18-180

1 0-12-1605

8 -7-537

1 2-18-180

1 0-12-1648

8 -7-1883

1 2-17-276

1 0-12-1892

8 -6-1240

1 2-16-371

1 0-11-1940

7 -14-1431

1 38

1 2-12-492

1 0-10-565

7 -13-1468

1 2-12-1993

1 0-9-1675

7 -12-1225

1 2-10-489

9 -16-774

7 -11-874

1 1-19-1414

9 -15-1348

7 -8-1871

1 1-17-1170

9 -14-372

7 -4-702

1 1-15-372

9 -14-377

6 -10-1279

1 1-14-1562

9 -14-1220

6 -9-1525

1 1-14-1618

9 -12-1545

5 -8-866

1 1-14-1618

9 -12-1561

4 -1-649

C ombs o f t he t hird g roup w ere f ound e xclusively i n 1 3th-century l evels, mainly i n t he l evels c orresponding t o i ts l ater p art. T he t welve a rticles f ound s o f ar w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : 1 5-14-958

1 3-18-2138

1 2-18-19

1 4-14-1002

1 3-12-1929

1 2-18-1167

1 4-14-1958

1 3-12-1937

1 2-16-309

1 3-18-1167

1 3-9-640

1 2-16-389

T he f act t hat w ooden c ombs a re c ompletely a bsent f rom l evels l ater t han 1 120-1130 c annot f ail t o a ttract a ttention , t hree f inds f rom t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th h orizons b eing m ost p robably s trays. T he r eason l ies i n t he w ood t hey w ere m ade f rom . O ut o f 8 5 c ombs f ound i n t he N erevsky e xcavation a nd a nalysed b y P rof . V .E. V ikhrov , 8 2 w ere m anufactured f rom b oxwood , a nd o nly o ne c omb e ach f rom p ine, b irch a nd w illow . T hus, 9 7% o f t he c ombs i n N ovgorod w ere m ade o f b oxwood i mported v ia t he V olga f rom t he T alysh M ountains, f rom t he n orthern s lopes a nd t he B lack S ea c oast o f t he C aucasus. I n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies a ctive t rade b rought a l ot o f b oxwood . I n t he 1 2th c entury , h owever, t his r oute w as b locked b y t he P olovtsy t hus d epriving t he N ovgorod c raftsmen o f t heir f avourite m aterial, a nd t hey h ad t o s witch t o b one. I n t he 1 3th c entury, w ith t he r estoration o f o riental t rade, b oxwood r eappeared i n N ovgorod , w ith t he p eak b eing r eached i n t he 1 4th c entury w hich a ccounts f or 4 4% ( 131 i tems) o f a ll t he c ombs f ound . P l. 6 1, 3 i llustrates h ow w ooden c ombs w ere d istributed s tratigraphically . L et u s t urn n ow t o o f N ovgorod .

c lothing

a nd r elated

i tems

w orn b y

t he

p eople

B uttons. M ostly t hey w ere m ere s ticks w ith g rooves e ncircling t hem i n t he c entral p art t o a ttach t hem t o g arments ( toggles). F or t he m ain p art t hey w ere m ade o f b one t hough w ooden e xamples c an b e m et w ith ( pl. 1 37, 8 , 9 ).

1 39

S everal w ooden t oggles w ere f ound i n 1 2th-15th-century l evels ( 192 4-1259, 1 8-21-8, 1 4-16-1568, 1 3-11-703, 9 -8-1951, 5 -8-867). T hey w ere n ot l onger t han 3 -5 c m . S heaths a nd S cabbards f or b ig k nives, d aggers, s words a nd s abres w ere m ade o f w ood , c overed w ith l eather a nd h ooped w ith i ron . S everal w ooden f rames w ere f ound i n l lth-13th-century l evels ( 22-29-740, 2 1-221 977, 2 0-18-614, 1 3-12-1914). T heir o utward a ppearance a nd c onstruction a re s hown i n p l. 1 37, 4 , 5 , 1 0 . A h at w as f ound i n t he 1 4th-century l evels ( 9-12-1272). I t c losely r esembles a n e arly 2 0th-century ' canotier ', m ade o f p ine f ibre. I ts s ize r oughly c orresponded t o t he m odern 5 4. I ts d iameter w as 2 9.5 c m ., a nd i ts h eight 8 c m . ( pl. 7 4, 3 ). T he f ollowing d escriptions i n N ovgorod h ouses.

o f

s ome

o ther

o bjects

t hat w ere

f ound

W ooden p lanks w ere f ixed t o t he w alls t o h old s poons a nd l adles ( pl. 1 35, 2 , 3 ). S everal s uch p lanks w ere f ound : 1 3-18-1219, 1 3-131 219, 1 1-14-1604, 1 0-18-1342, 5 -7-1534. The s upport f or s poons s ometimes a lso c onsisted o f s everal w ooden r ings s upported o n a w ooden s tick . T he h oles w ere u sed f or i nserting s poons i n t he m anner s hown i n P l. 1 35, 2 , 3 . T wo s uch p ieces w ere f ound i n 1 3th- a nd 1 4th-century l evels ( 14-14-1986 a nd 8 -9-926). A l adder w as f ound i n a 1 2th-century l evel e xactly s imilar t o m odern l adders ( pl. 1 38, 7 ).

( 17-23-1128).

I t

i s

S hutters. T heir p urpose i s n ot q uite c lear. F our w ere f ound i ntact ( 22-24-878, 1 4-19-208, 1 4-19-1239, 1 1-13-1044). I ndividual s lats w ere a lso f ound but t hey a re n ot i ncluded i n o ur d escription . T he d esign o f t he s hutters i s c lear f rom p l. 1 35, 4 . T he b est p reserved s pecimen w as f ound i n t he e arly 1 4th-century l evels ( 11-13-1044). I t c onsists o f 8 s lats e ach o f t hem b eing 2 2.5 c m . l ong , 1 .8 c m . w ide a nd 0 .4 c m . i n c ross-section . T he s lats o verlapped e ach o ther a nd w ere t ied t ogether w ith r awhide s trips a long t heir s ides a nd i n t he m iddle. O n t he t op, t he s ides w ere c overed w ith l eather. An 1 1th-century s hutter was t ied t ogether a long t he s ides o nly. Such s hutters e vidently f ound t heir a pplication i n c himneyless huts t o p rotect w indows t hrough w hich s moke e scaped . C ages.

Judging f rom c age

f ragments

( 28-33-104,

2 8-26-536,

2 5-23-

1 094, 2 1-25-1161, 1 9-20-1815, 1 7-23-2121) t he p eople o f N ovgorod w ere s inging b ird l overs. A n e ntire c age w all c omplete w ith w ooden s lats ( 28-33-104) w as f ound i n a m id-10th-century l evel. I ts h eight w as 1 1.5 c m ., t he b readth 1 7.5 c m . F ine w ooden s lats s erving a s s ides w ere 0 .3 c m .

i n d iameter Musical

( pl.

1 35,

5 ).

i nstruments.

T he

f iddle

a nd t he p saltery w ere t wo o f t he

m ost p opular s tringed i nstruments. T he

p saltery.

This

p izzicato

musical

i l lstrument

w as

f irst

m entioned i n 1 1th-century R ussian w ritten s ources.' R ussian e pic s ongs a nd o ther t exts a s w ell a s M edieval R ussian m iniatures d escribe a nd

1 40

d epict a s mall p izzicato m usical i nstrument w ith f our o r m ore s trings. 2 A rchaeological i nvestigations i n N ovgorod y ielded f ive p salteries-t hree o f t hem a lmost i ntact a nd t wo f ragments ( pl. 1 39). S everal p ins w ere a lso f ound . T he p salteries c ame f rom t he 1 2th-14th-century l evels. T heir c ard n umbers a re: 1 4-21-1346, 8 -11-1262, 6 -12-218, 6 -81 264 , 6 -7-1576. P in-holes i ndicate t hat t hree i nstruments i n t he N ovgorod c ollection h ad f our s trings a nd o ne h ad n ine s trings. An a lmost undamaged p saltery w ith f our s trings m ade f rom a s pruce b lock , was f ound i n t he 6 th h orizon ( 6-8-1264). I ts l ength w as 3 5.5 c m ., t he w idth a t t he w idest p oint w as 8 c m ., t he d epth was 3 .5 c m . F our p in-holes w ere e venly d istributed a long t he s ide. An a dditional f ifth h ole w as s ituated b etween t he f irst a nd t he s econd o nes, p robably t o f ix a f ifth s tring o r m ade f or s ome o ther u nknown p urpose. Another s pecimen o f 8 th h orizon ( 8-11-1262).

t he f our-stringed p saltery w as f ound i n B oth t he s ound-chest o f t he i nstrument

t he a nd

t he p art where t he p ins w ere f ixed w ere p reserved . I ts t otal l ength i s 4 7 c m . T hree p in-holes a re c learly v isible, a nd j udging f rom t he i nstrument 's s hape a nd i ts p roportions, i t c an b e s urmised t hat i t i nitially h ad f our s trings, t he w idth o f t he p art w here t he p in-holes w ere f ound b eing 1 1 c m . T he d epth o f t he s ound-chest i s 4 .5 c m . T he 6 th h orizon y ielded o ne m ore p art o f a f our-stringed p saltery ( 6-12-218). T here a re f our p in-holes a nd t he s hape o f t he f ragment i ndicates t hat i t h ad o nly f our s trings. A l arge n ine-stringed p ine p saltery w as f ound i n a 1 3th-century l evel ( 14-21-1346). T hree l arge f ragments w ere s cattered o ver t wo s quares. T he i nstrument w as 8 5 c m . l ong a nd 1 9 c m . w ide a t t he w idest p art . The n arrowest p art o f t he s ound-chest w as 1 1 c m . w ide a nd i ts d epth was 7 c m . T he p art w here t he p ins w ere f ixed w as 3 2 c m . l ong . T he s ides o f t he s ound-chest w ere f rom 0 .6 t o 0 .7 c m . t hick . T wo f ragments c arried e ight p in-holes; t he p art w ith t he n inth h ole w as n ot f ound . T he h oles w ere 0 .8 c m . i n d iameter. A n unfinished p saltery f ound i n a 1 4th-century l evel

( 6-7-1576)

i s

r ather i nteresting . I t w as m ade f rom a p ine b lock . T he c raftsmen h ad f inished t he p art w here t he p in-holes w ould b e p laced l ater, a nd t he s ound-chest. T he s ound-chest w as b roken i n t he m iddle. T he w idth o f t he i nstrument i s 1 0.5 c m ., t he l ength o f t he p in p art 1 0.cm . T hese p roportions i ndicate t hat a f our-stringed p saltery w as b eing m ade. I ndividual w rest

p ins

i tems

( 12017-322,

a re

r epresented

1 2-14-426,

b y

a p eg

1 2-14-426,

( 5-9-1178)

1 2-14-1589,

a nd

e ight

1 0-18-1409,

1 0-11-1914, 9 -6-1787, 5 -10-250). P eg s hapes a re s hown i n p l. 1 41, 9 . P egs w ere f ixed t o t he e nd p art o f t he s ound-chest. S trings w ere a ttached t o a c ylindrical s tick i nserted b etween t he p egs. T he p egs w ere 6 .5 c m . l ong , t he p ins 4 -5 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 41, 5 -8). T he u pper p art o f a p in w as a c ylinder w ith a n otch t o w hich t he s tring w as f ixed ,

t he

t uning t he

l ower

p art

w as

f lattened

t o

p rovide

a b etter

g rip

w hen

i nstrument.

N o p saltery c omplete w ith s trings h as b een f ound s o f ar. A t t he s ame t ime p ieces o f b ronze w ire 3 0 t o 4 0 c m . l ong w ere f requently f ound

1 41

i n t he N erevsky e xcavations, w hich i ndicates h ad m ost p robably w ire o r g ut s trings.

t hat

N ovgorod p salteries

A f iddle ( 'gudok ') w as a t hree-stringed i nstrument p layed w ith a b ow . I n D ahl's d ictionary i t i s d efined a s a k ind o f p rimitive v iolin. 3 M edieval Russian written s ources d o n ot m ention t he i nstrument b ut f iddlers a re m entioned m ore t han o nce. 4 Another s tringed i nstrument i s m entioned i n t he 1 4th-century Russian w ritten s ources a nd i n t he N ikonovsky m anuscript o f t he P rimary C hronicle. I t i s t he s myk , a n i nstrument w hich i n a ll p robability r esembled t he f iddle. 5 D escriptions a nd d rawings o f t he f iddle c ollected by N .I. P rivalov c losely r esemble t he o bjects f ound i n N ovgorod ; t hey have t he s ame n umber o f s trings a nd a re o f t he s ame s hape. 6 T he p layer h eld t he i nstrument b y i ts n eck a nd s upported i t o n h is k nee. E ven c loser a nalogies a re f ound i n W est E uropean f rescos a nd m iniatures. T he E nglish p salter o f t he s econd q uarter o f t he 1 2th c entury i n C ambridge University L ibrary , t he S trasbourg C alendar f or 1 154, a m iniature d ated t o a bout 1 100 i n a w ork o f S t. A ugustin i n t he B ritish M useum , a m iniature f rom a B ible i n t he P aris B iblioth6que N ationale d ated t o a bout 1 200, 7 s hows u s a bsolutely a nalogous f iddles a nd f iddlers. M ore t han 2 5 s imilar i llustrations w ere c ollected b y W . B achmann , a G erman s pecialist i n m usical i nstruments. F our f iddles w ere f ound i n N ovgorod . O ne o f t hem i s p ractically u ndamaged , t hough t he s trings a re l acking , a nother i s r epresented b y i ts s ound-board , t he r emaining t wo o nly b y f ragments. An i ntact s ound-board ( 17-19-859) w as f ound i n t he l ate 1 2thc entury l evels. I t i s a n o blong s ound-chest s urmounted by a t riangular p iece ( pl. 1 42, 3 ). T he t otal l ength o f t he b ody o f t he i nstrument w as 4 1 c m ., t he s ound-chest w as 2 8 c m . l ong , t he n eck 3 c m . l ong a nd t he p in-board 1 0 c m . l ong . T he g reatest w idth o f t he s ound-chest w as 1 1.5 c m ., a nd t he g reatest d epth 5 .5 c m . T he s ides w ere 0 .5 c m . t hick o n t he a verage. T he p in-board c arried t hree p in-holes 0 .7 c m. i n d iameter. T he d istance b etween t heir c entres, t hat i s, t he d istance b etween t he s trings w as 1 .8 c m . T he v olume o f t he s ound-chest w as 5 50 c ubic c m . T he i nstrument w as m ade o f a s pruce b lock , f rom w hich t he s ound-chest w as h ollowed o ut. Another i nstrument was d iscovered i n t he r uins o f a house d estroyed b y f ire i n M ay 1 368 ( 9-9-1876). T he s ound-chest a nd t he s ound-board w ere n ot d amaged . I ts t otal l ength w as 3 0 c m ., t hat o f t he s ound-chest 1 8.5 c m . T he p in-board a nd t he s hort w ide n eck w ere 1 1.5 c m . l ong . T he g reatest w idth o f t he s ound-chest w as 1 0.5 c m ., t he g reatest d epth 3 .3 c m . T he s ides o f t he i nstrument w ere 0 .5 c m . t hick o n t he a verage. T he p in-board m easured 5 .6 c m . a t i ts w idest a nd 1 .2 ' cm . t hick . T hree p in-holes 0 .6 c m . i n d iameter w ere f ound o n t he p inb oard , t he i ntervals b etween t he s trings b eing 1 .3 c m . T he s ound-board c overed t he e ntire s ound-chest, t hat i s i t r epeated i ts f orms a nd s ize a nd w as 0 .4 c m . t hick . T wo s egment-shaped s ound-holes w ere 5 c m . l ong a nd 1 .3 c m . w ide. T he s ound-board w as s ecured w ith f ish g lue. I n t he l ower p art o f t he s ound-chest a nd a t t he c orresponding p oint i n t he s ound-board t here w as a p eg-hole.

T he h ollowed-out s ound-chest a nd t he

1 42

s ound-board a re made o f s pruce.

t he

A f iddle f ragment w as f ound i n t he l evels o f t he l atter h alf o f 1 4th c entury ( 8-12-874). I t i s a p in-board 9 .5 c m . l ong a nd 4 .5

c m .

w ide w ith t hree p in-holes

7 75) 1 42,

( pl.

1 40,

1 ).

T he 2 3rd h orizon h as y ielded t he l ower p art o f s ound-chest ( 23-29w ith n otches w hich a llowed a b etter g rip o f t he s ound-board ( pl. 2 ). T he s hape i ndicates t hat i t m ay h ave b een t he s ound-chest o f

a f iddle. T he s trings w ere i n a ll p robability m ade o f r am 's g ut.

A t t he o ne

e nd t hey w ere a ttached t o a b one s tringholder w ith t hree h oles w hich , i n i ts t urn , w as f ixed t o t he s ound-chest b y a w ooden p eg . A t t he o ther e nd , t he s trings w ere t ightened w ith p ins. N o

b ows

o r

b ow

f ragments

h ave

b een

f ound ,

but

e thnographic

m aterials a nd W est E uropean m iniatures g ive a g ood i dea o f t heir d esign a nd a ppearance. C ontemporary s hapes v aried f rom e laborately c urved o nes r esembling b ows u sed t o s hoot a rrows, f lat o nes i n w hich t he s tick a nd t he s trings w ere p ractically p arallel, o ne e nd .

a nd t hose

s harply c urved a t

B owed i nstruments s pread i n W estern E urope i n t he 1 1th c entury w ere p opular i n M edieval R ussia . T hey c ould have b een b orrowed e ither d irectly f rom C entral A sia o r v ia B yzantium . T hey w ere k nown i n N ovgorod a s e arly a s t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury . T he l ate 1 2th-century f iddle s ound-chest i s a bsolutely i dentical w ith i ts t hrees tringed c ontemporaries f rom F rance, E ngland a nd G ermany .° P ipes. W ind i nstruments a re r epresented b y t wo p ipes f rom t he l ate-llth-century a nd e arly-15th-century l evels ( 11-25-94, 5 -8-1189). T hey a re a nalogous t o 1 9th-century R ussian p ipes, 9 a nd e ven t o a c ontemporary p ipe b ought i n t he C arpathian r egion i n 1 962. P l. 1 42, 4 , 5 p rovides a c lear i dea o f t he N ovgorod p ipe. B oth p ipes w ere f ound i ntact. T he e arly 1 5th-century p ipe ( 5-8-1189) w as a t ube 1 9 c m . l ong a nd w ith a n o uter d iameter o f 2 .3 c m . ( pl. 1 42, 5 ). I ts s ides w ere 0 .3 c m . t hick . A t a d istance o f 2 c m . f rom o ne e nd t here i s a s quare o pening . T he e nd i tself i s o bstructed b y a b lock w hich l eaves o nly a n arrow s lit f or t he p assage o f a ir. T he o ther e nd o f t he p ipe h as t hree f inger-holes s paced a t 1 .9 c m . i ntervals. T heir d iameters a re 0 .7 c m . T he

s econd p ipe

( 11-25-94)

i s

a l ittle

l onger

( 22.5

c m .),

w ith

a

d iameter o f 2 .5 c m . a nd t he w alls 0 .3 c m . t hick ( pl. 1 42, 4 ). I ts c onstruction i s a nalogous t o t hat d escribed a bove, w ith t he e xception t hat i t h as f our f inger-holes s paced a t 3 .1 c m . i ntervals. T heir ' d iameters a re 1 c m . N OTES 1 .

I .I.

S reznevsky ,

2 .

A .S.

F amintsyn ,

1 893,

p .

6 10.

1 890.

1 43

3 .

V .

D ahl,

1 955,

p .

4 05.

4 .

I .I.

S reznevsky,

1 893,

p .

6 08.

5 .

I .I.

S reznevsky,

1 903,

p .

4 47.

6 .

N .I.

P rivalov ,

7 .

W .

B achmann ,

1 966.

8 .

W .

B achmann ,

1 966.

9 .

N .I.

1 904,

P rivalov,

p .

6 1.

1 907.

C ONCLUSION The world o f wooden o bjects o btained a rchaeological e xpedition i s a v aried a nd r ich o ne. o f

y ears

C entral

w ood

was

t he

a nd N orthern

p rincipal

E urope,

M iddle Ages w ere e ssentially t he t he

e veryday

u ndreamed

o f

l ife

o f

t he

b efore.

f abrication

o f which

I t

i s

m aterial

R ussia

i s

" Wooden A ge".

i nhabitants a n ew

o f

i n

t he

a rea

T he

R ussian

a p art.

o f

O ur c ollection s hows u s

M edieval

s ource

by t he N ovgorod F or m any t housands

f or

N ovgorod ,

t he

h istory

s omething o f

R ussian

f olk c ulture o f t he 1 0th-15th c enturies. Archaeologists

now

have

a c learer

i dea

o f

t he

agricultural

i mplements u sed i n Novrogod, of various i nstruments, h ousehold u tensils, t able d ishes a nd f urniture. W e w ere a mazed a t t he w ide d iversity o ut,

o f

t urned ,

c entury. i nterior

d ishes

a nd

b irch-bark

c ontainers: a nd

w icker

c oopered v essels

i tems,

u sed

F rom o ur f inds w e g ained a n i dea o f of Novgorod houses. Our f inds

a s

c arved , e arly

h ollowed

a s

t he

1 0th

t he a ppearance o f t he c ombined w ith o ther

a rchaeological m aterial r eveal t he m inutest d etails o f N ovgorod l ife. T he

e xpedition

h istory o f o f

l ooms,

has

l ikewise

o btained

t echnology a nd t ransportation, m ills

a nd

o ther

m echanisms

n ew

a nd

h ave

i nformation

r eliable

b een

m ade.

o n

t he

r econstructions T he

h istory

o f

t ransport h as b een e nriched b y o ur f inds o f s hips a nd s leighs. T hanks t o t hem w e c an v isualise f amous N ovgorod s eafarers g oing o verseas o r N ovgorod m erchants

t ravelling

a long

t he

r ivers

a nd

l akes

o f

t he

G reat

R ussian P lain . F inally,

o ur

f inds

a nd o ther

a rchaeological

m aterials

d emonstrate

t hat t he m aterial c ulture o f N orthern Russia, w ell-known f rom 1 8th 1 9th c entury s ources, i s r ooted i n t he e arliest c enturies o f

a nd t he

h istory o f Russia. Russian f olk c ulture e merged b ack i n t he l oth-llth c enturies, a ll e ssential f unctional, d esign a nd a rtistic e lements o f N ovgorod housebuilding, c raftsmanship, t echnical d evices and t ransportation b eing e stablished b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 2th c enturies.

1 44

PART II Novgorod Antiquities Carved Wood

145

146

I NTRODUCTION 2 0,000 w ooden a rtefacts f ound i n N ovgorod - 8 00-odd o bjects o f f olk-art - 1 0th-14th-century a rtistic o bjects o f e veryday u se a rtistic h ousehold u tensils

I n N ovrogod a rchaeologists t apped M edieval R ussian w ooden a rtefacts w hich

a n ew , d isplays

f antastic w orld o f a w ide v ariety a nd

s erves a s a s ource o f h istorical i nformation a bout R ussian c ulture a rt b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 5th c enturies.

a nd

S cholars have a cquired f irst-hand knowledge o f s ophisticated m achinery and t ools u sed i n N ovgorod, t heir s hips and s leighs, d wellings a nd h ousehold c onstructions, k itchen u tensils a nd f urniture, t urned a nd c arved d ishes, c hildren 's t oys a nd t he g ames o f t heir p arents, p agan i dols a nd m usical i nstruments. M ore t han 8 00 c arved o bjects f orm p art o f t he N ovgorod c ollection . T hey a re s amples o f p rtistic o bjects u sed b y t he p eople o f N ovgorod i n t heir e veryday l ife.' T he bulk a re f ragments o f d ishes, s ome d etails o f f urniture a nd k itchen u tensils, o bjects w ith w hich t he p eople o f N ovgorod e mbellished t heir h ouses b oth i nside a nd o ut, c hildren 's t oys, o bjects o f p agan w orship, p arts o f s leighs a nd s hips, a d o ther s imilar t hings. T hey a re, i n f act, o rdinary o bjects i llustrating t he u rban l ife-style a nd t he m ass-produced ,

e veryday a rt o f N ovgorod .

A lready i n t he 1 0th c entury t he i nhabitants o f N ovgorod w ere g uided by a n o bject 's s hape, t ype, c onstruction a nd t he p urpose i t s erved a s w ell a s t he q uality o f w ood , i n t heir c hoice o f d ecorative d evices r ooted i n c enturies-old f olk t radition . M edieval N ovgorod e xhibits t he a lready e stablished f orms o f e veryday a nd a rchitectural t wo-dimensional d ecoration, t hreed imensional s culpture o f c ommon u se, a nd p ainting a nd c arving o n b irchb ark . T his p art o f t he p ublication i s i ntended a s a s ystematic a nd d efinitive p ublication o f t he 1 0th-15th- c entury c arved w ooden o bjects f ound i n N ovgorod . T he a uthor h as n ot s et h imself a t ask o f t racing t he h istory o f N ovgorod w ood-carving a nd i ts p ossible a ssociations w ith t he a pplied a rt o f t he W est a nd t he O rient. T he t ext i s d ivided d ecorative e lements: . a .

a ccording

t o

f ormal

d istinctions

b etween

C arved o bjects o f e veryday u se. O ne-dimensional d ecoration f ound o n d ishes, k itchen u tensils, l abour i mplements, e tc. ( Nos. 1 -108).

b .

C arved o ne-dimensional o bjects u sed t o e mbellish i nterior d ecoration a nd f urniture ( Nos. 1 09-188).

c .

S maller

t hree-dimensional

s culpture

1 47

( Nos.

h ouses

1 89-251).

a nd

f or

d .

C hildren 's t oys a nd a dult g ames

( Nos.

e .

P aintings o n w ood a nd b irch-bark ( Nos.

2 52-289). 2 90-313).

F or t he s ake o f c onvenience e ach a rtistic o bject h as n umber c oinciding w ith t hat g iven i n c aptions t o t he p lates.

i ts

o wn

D rawings and photographs a re t he main c omponent o f t he p ublication , d epicting s pecific o bjects a nd o rnamental d esigns a nd s upplemented w ith d etailed d escriptions o f e ach o f t hem a nd w ith t heir c ard n umbers. T he p lates s how 3 00 o f t he b est f inds a nd d etails o f t heir d ecoration .

N OTE 1 .

T his number d oes n ot i nclude m ore t han 6 00 t echnical t oys.

1 48

C HAPTER O NE T ypes of wood u sed f or c arving - C arving t echnology - Oned imensional c arving - D ecorative c arving - F lat r elief c arving O pen w ork - P ainting - C arving t ools. A rtistic w ood-carving i s, p robably , t he m ost p opular o f t he a pplied d ecorative a rts. E very h ouse i n N ovgorod b oasted a rtistic c arved e veryday o bjects s uch a s b owls a nd s poons, b enches a nd t ables, c ombs a nd s mall b oxes, h orse c ollars a nd r owlocks, s pinning d istaffs a nd s huttles, c hildren 's t oys a nd c hessmen . V ery o ften t hese o bjects w ere c overed w ith c arved p atterns o r w ere a rtistically s haped t o s uit t heir p urposes p erfectly . A bout 5 00 d welling h ouses w ere s tripped by a rchaeologists o n t he N erevsky e xcavations, d ated b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 5th c enturies. P ractically a ll o f t hem y ielded m etal, g lass, o r m ainly w ooden a rtistic o bjects u sed d aily b y t he h ouse d wellers. S uch t hings w ere p ractically t he o nly o bjects o f a rt t hat r eached t he b road m asses. W ood c arving , w ith t he c arver b eing a p attern d esigner a nd a n a rtist , a nd m ore o ften t han n ot t he u ser o f t he o bject o f a rt h e h imself c reated , w as w ithin t he r each o f a nyone s kilful w ith t he knife. A rtistic o bjects o f e veryday u se i n M edieval R ussia f ollowed t heir o wn t echnological s chemes a nd a rtistic p rinciples f ormed l ong b efore t he a doption o f C hristianity . B y t he l ate-10th-century Russian a pplied a rt, i ncluding w ood c arving , h ad a ccumulated a w ealth o f i mages, o rnamental v ariety, t echnological a nd c onstructional d evices.' I n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies a pplied a rt w as s till c losely a ssociated w ith t he p agan o utlook a nd f olk r ites w hich w ere a n a rtistic e mbodiment o f e veryday u se.

t he e lements. P agan s ymbols p revailed i n o bjects o f Animal a nd f loral d esigns a nd f igures w hich w ere m ade

o rganic

o f

p arts

e ndless

t wining

p atterns,

w ere

t he

m ost

p opular

i n

t he

o f

Russia. B y

t he

l ate

1 1th

a nd

e arly

1 2th

c enturies,

h owever,

a rt

e veryday u se i n N ovgorod h ad a lready f reed i tself f rom t he o ld m agic c ontent a nd t urned t o t he a esthetics o f t he b eautiful. I n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies g eometrical p atterns, w hich h ad b ecome s tricter a nd m ore f ormal, s till r etained p agan s ymbols. T hus, a f ormal g roup c omprising a c ircle

d ivided

i nto

s ectors,

o r

a s ystem

o f

c ircles,

s egments

a nd

s ectors, r adii a nd c rosses w hich f rom t ime i mmemor al s ignified t he s un has s urvived d own t o o ur o wn d ay t hrough f olk a rt.` W ood

i s

t he

m ost

w idespread

a nd

u niversal

m aterial

k nown

t o

m ankind . T he e ntire l ife-style o f M edieval N ovgorod w as d ominated b y i t. W ood i s a m ost v ersatile m aterial i deally s uited f or c arving , w hich a ccounts f or t he g reat a dvances a nd p opularity o f t his s kill i n N ovgorod . T he

m aterial

N ovgorod t ended t o

i n

t his

p art

o f

e mbellish m any

t he

b ook

t hings

1 49

s hows

w hich

t hat

s erved

p eople

o f

t hem a t h ome

t he

o r

w ere

u sed

f or

w ork ,

f rom

a c arved

a nd

b rightly

p ainted

t oy

t o

a n

e laborately c arved s taff a nd a s evere g rave-cross. M any p rimarily

k inds o f w ood w ere u sed f or c arving , t he c hoice b eing d etermined b y c onstructional d emands. A rchaeologists h ave

f ound c arved o bjects m ade o f p inewood , s pruce, l arch , o ak , b irch , b ox, j uniper, a pple, a sh , m aple a nd l ime. A ll o f t hem w ere t echnologically w ell s uited f or c arving , T his w as l ime w ood .

t hat

w hile

o ne

m et

p articular

a rtistic

d emands.

P rof . V .E. V ikhrov 's d iagnostic a nalysis h as r evealed t he f act o ut o f 2 7 a rtistic c arved o bjects ( specifically a rtistic o bjects

w ere c hosen f or i nvestigation), f our w ere m ade o f p ine w ood , f our o f s pruce, t hree o f b irch , o ne o f l arch, o ne o f a pple a nd f ourteen o f l ime w ood . T hese w ere d ecorative p arts o f f urniture, s mall f or l arger b oxes, c ake m oulds, r osettes a nd t he l ike.

b oxes,

l ids

T he t exture o f l ime w ood a nd i ts y ellowish-white c olour m ake i t b est s uited f or t he m ost e laborate a nd f inest o rnaments. T he w ood i s l ight, s oft a nd i t d ries e venly . T hough i t i s f ar f rom p erfect f rom t he p hysical a nd m echanical p oint o f v iew t he w ood i s h omogeneous i n i ts s tructure a nd i s t herefore e asily c arved , c hipped o r p laned . I t p ractically n ever c racks. When t horoughly d ried, l ime w ood i s p ractically i mmune f rom c hanges i n humidity . O bjects m ade o f l ime n ever a lter t heir s hapes. A ll t ypes o f N ovgorod w ood c arving a re i ncised : t hey a re b ased o n h ollows d ifferently a rranged a nd c ut a nd a ssociated w ith t he m eaning o f t he d ecoration . C arving i n r elief w as v irtually a bsent. N ovgorod c arvers employed s everal t ypes o f cutting: o utline c utting, c utting o f t rihedral hollows, r elief cutting on p lane s urfaces, a nd o pen w ork f or d ecoration o f w ooden s urfaces. O utline

c utting w as

a v ery p opular m ode

o f d ecoration o f

o bjects

o f e veryday u se. T he o utline i s b oldly c ut w ith a n arrow d ihedral g roove m ade i n t wo s tages. T he r esult c losely r esembles e ngraving . G raphically,

o utline

c utting

l ooks

l ike

a c ombination

o f

f irm

s traight, b roken a nd c urved l ines c rossing a t a cute a ngles, a nd f ine p atterns. I t i s u sed f or b orders a nd e dgings o f a ll k inds d esigned t o s eparate i ndividual parts o f a l arge c omposition, f or c utting g eometrical p atterns s uch a s t he p laiting d esign a nd o ther a ttributes, a nd f or t racing t he c ontours o f d rawings o f a ll k inds. O ne c an r egard o utline c utting a s t he g raphics o f w ooden f lat s urfaces. I t w as i n u se a s e arly a s t he 1 0th c entury. I ncised t rihedral h ollows w ere n o l ess p opular . T he p atterns m ade In t his w ay a re b ased o n t riangles a rranged i n a d efinite w ay . T he c ircle a nd t he s quare d ivided i nto s ectors w ere t he m ain e lements o f s uch p atterns t ogether w ith v arious b orders a nd w ere s ometimes c ontoured w ith d ihedral g rooves.

e dgings.

T he

l atter

T he m anner i n w hich c ircles w ere d ivided i nto s ectors v aried , but t he p attern i nvariably l ooked l ike s un-rays a nd w as a ssociated w ith t he

1 50

c entre.

T his w as,

S un . T his c entury.

t ype

i n f act,

t he e arliest s ymbolic r epresentation o f t he

o f w oodcutting

w as

k nown

i n

N ovgorod

s ince

t he

1 0th

R elief c utting o n f lat s urfaces w as a lso w idely u sed i n N ovgorod . T he p attern w as o utlined w ith p erpendicular c uts. T he w ood b etween o rnaments i s r emoved t o c reate a b ackground o f v arying d epth . T he b oundaries o f s uch p atterns w ere s ometimes l evelled d own t o a c ertain d egree. T hey h ad a dditional d ecoration m ade u sing o ther t echniques. T hus, p laiting d esigns h ad a dditional g rooves o n t hem t o d ivide e ach e lement i nto s maller e lements. L ike t he t wo a bove-mentioned t ypes o f c utting t his m ethod w as i n u se s ince t he m id-10th c entury . O pen-work w as a lso r ather p opular a mong N ovgorod c raftsmen . I t was m ainly a pplied t o a rchitectural o rnaments. T he e ffect w as g ained b y v arious c ombinations o f d ecorative o penings o f a ll k inds. O pen-work s eems t o b e a d evelopment o f r elief c utting w ith r edundant w ood b eing c ompletely r emoved . V ery o ften c raftsmen r estricted t hemselves t o m aking o penings o f d ifferent f orms, t he c ombinations o f w hich c reated o rnaments. I n o ther c ases, o penings w ere a rranged i n f loral d esigns w ith s tylised t wigs a nd l eaves, w ith c urved p etals a nd s pirals. T he c hisel, t he g ouge, t he c utting t ool a nd t he k nife w ere t he m ain i nstruments f or o pen w ork . T he e arliest e xamples w ere f ound i n t he 1 1th-century l ayers. N ovgorod c raftsmen e mployed k nives, c hisels a nd g ouges, c utting t ools a nd n eedles i n h is w ork . H e a lso w orked w ith a xes, s aws, d rill, c ircular c utting t ools a nd o ther i mplements ( pl. 1 44). T hey w ere m ade o f h igh c arbon s teel w ith s ubsequent h eat t reatment w hich m ade t hem e xceedingly h ard , a nd , c onsequently, s harp. 4 A knife a nd a f orming t ool q uality o f N ovgorod i mplements.

m ay

s erve

a s

e xamples

o f

t he

h igh

S harp p oints o f w ood-cutting k nives w ere b ent m uch l ower t han t heir handles w hich m ade t hem m ore s uitable f or i ncising d ecoration . B esides, t he v ery c onstruction o f t he k nife m ade p ossible v ery s harp e dges. H eat t reatment m akes h igh c arbon s teel e xtremely b rittle a nd unsuited f or k nife b lades, w hich p rompted R ussian s miths t o a pply t echniques o f c ombining a h igh-carbon s teel e dge w ith a s oft i ron b lade a nd b utt. T hey e mployed s everal m ethods: f aggotting a nd d ifferent t ypes o f w elding . N ovgorod k nives o f t he 1 0th-llth c enturies c an b e c ompared t o m odern r azors. 5 N ovgorod w ood-carvers a lso u sed s teel c utting t ools w ith g rooved e dges i ndispensable f or m aking r eliefs o n f lat s urfaces a nd c utting c urved s urfaces. T he b ody o f s uch t ools m ade o f s oft i ron w as a lso c ombined w ith h igh c arbon s teel w elded o n e dges.

1 51

N OTES 1 .

B .A .

R ybakov ,

2 .

V .N. V oronov , 1 924; L .A . 5 6; N .N . S obolev , 1 934.

3 .

V .E.

V ikhrov ,

1 958;

V .E.

4 .

B .A .

K olchin ,

1 959,

p .

5 .

I bid .

p .

1 951,

p .

4 06. D intses,

1 951;

V ikhrov a nd B .A .

2 3.

5 4.

1 52

V .P.

D arkevich ,

K olchin ,

1 962.

1 960,

p .

C HAPTER T WO C arved o bjects

o f e veryday u se

- 1 0th

c entury

b owls

- B ox

l ids

-

S poons - C ake m oulds - D istaffs a nd w arping i nstruments - S leigh p arts - H orse c ollars - C ombs - W riting t ablets - S mall b oxes a nd p egs - Maces. C arved o bjects o f e veryday u se a re f ound i n N ovgorod i n a bundance: t hey a re d ishes, k itchen u tensils, c ake m oulds, c ombs, c askets, s mall b oxes, a nd w riting t ablets. T he s ame c an b e s aid o f t ools a nd m achines s uch a s h eckles, d etails o f d istaffs, e tc. W e s hall p roceed w ith o ur d escription a ccording t o t he g roups o f o bjects. D ishes. T he p eople o f N ovgorod m ainly u sed t urned w ooden d ishes a nd k itchen u tensils. C arved o bjects o f t his k ind a re c omparatively r are. T hey w ere r estricted t o s poons, l adles a nd d ippers c arved b y h and a nd t o s everal t ypes o f v essels o f v aried s hapes. T wenty-odd t ypes o f t urned v essel, m any o f t hem w ith h ighly d ecorative s hapes, w ere d escribed i n t he p art d evoted t o N ovgorod w ooden a rticles. S uch v essels r eceived n o c oating , m aple a nd a sh w ood b eing v ery a ttractive w ithout i t. D ishes m ade f or e veryday u se w ere n ot e mbellished , t hough d ish p ainting a nd p oker-work h ad b een p erfected b y t hat t ime. A rchaeologists h ave f ound s everal p ainted v essels, s ome o f t hem c arrying s cenes f rom e veryday l ife. N ovgorod c raftsmen c onfined a rtistic c arving t o s poons, b owls w ith h andles a nd c arved b owls, a nd t o s ome o ther o bjects.

l adles,

I n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies s hallow b owls w ith o ne h andle m ade f rom r ootstocks o r b irch burls w ere i n u se. T wenty-two s uch b owls e ach w ith o ne f lat h andle h ave b een f ound s o f ar. T he h andles w ere f rom 3 t o 6 c m . l ong . I n s ome c ases t he u pper p art o f t he h andle w as W e h ave f ound n ine b owls t o b e m ost i nteresting . 1 .

A b owl

which

c ame

f rom a h oard o f d ippers

d ated

t o

c arved .

t he

m id-

1 0th c entury ( 28-31-317). I ts f lat h andle i s 6 c m . l ong a nd 1 2 c m . w ide a nd h as t hree r ows o f v olutes c arved o n i t w ith a r ing j oining t hem i n t he m iddle ( pl. 1 45, 1 ). T he c arving i s m ade i n r elief w ith a r ather s hallow b ackground a nd d eep c arved o utlines. 2 . A b owl f rom t he s ame d ecorated i n t he m iddle p art i ntertwining l ines.

h oard . I ts h andle i s 5 .5 x 3 .5 c m . w ith b ow-shaped g rooves a nd s everal

3 . A b owl f rom a m id-10th-century l ayer ( 28-35-1402). I ts d iameter i s 1 4.5 c m . I t has a t riangular h andle, 6 c m . l ong a nd 4 c m . w ide, b eing n arrower t owards t he b ase, w ith g eometrical d esigns m ade i n s hallow g rooved o utlines o n i ts u pper p art. T he e ntire s urface o f t he h andle i s d ivided i nto f our z ones w ith l ancet a rches i nside. T here a re t hree l ines a long t he e dges o f t he h andle. 4 .

A b owl

f rom t he

l ate-10th-century

o nly t he handle a nd a f ragment

o f

1 53

t he

l ayer

w all

( 26-30-2064)

s urvived .

o f w hich

T he h andle i s

t riangular, 5 x 6 c m . i n s ize w ith a w aist . I t i s d ecorated w ith a n i nvolved p attern c onsisting o f i ntertwining S -shaped l oops. T he t wo b asic p atterned b elts a re j oined b y a r ing i n t he m iddle ( pl. 1 45, 8 ). 5 . 9 57).

I t

A h andle f rom a b owl d ated t o t he l ate-10th c entury ( 26-26i s 6 c m . h igh a nd 8 c m . w ide. T he h andle c arries a f loral

p attern c onsisting o f t hree t refoils j oined t ogether

( pl.

1 45,

6 ).

6 . A b owl d ated t o t he e arly-llth c entury , l arger t han o ther o bjects o f t he s ame k ind ( 25-27-1837). I ts d iameter i s 2 0 c m ., t he h andle i s 8 .5 c m . l ong a nd 9 c m . w ide. A r ather c omplicated p attern o n i t w as m ade w ith a c onfident h and ( pl. 1 45, 2 ). 7 . A b owl f ound i n t he v irgin s oil b roken i nto s everal f ragments a ll o f w hich c ame d own t o u s, i s d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury ( 28-319 01). I t w as 1 7 c m . i n d iameter a nd 4 .3 c m . h igh . T he f lat h andle w as 4 .5 c m . h igh a nd 1 0 c m . w ide a t i ts b ase. T he r ight s ide o f t he h andle w as c overed w ith a n o rnament c onsisting o f o verlapping t riangles ( pl. 1 45, 3 ; 1 46, 2 ). T he 1 9 e lements f ound o n t he handle a re b ordered w ith s hallow g rooves. T he r everse s ide o f t he h andle a nd t he b owl h ad t hree b idents, t he f amily s ign o f t he Ryurikovichi p rinces, probably d esignating i ts o wners. T he o rnament i tself i s h ighly s pecific w ith n o a nalozies i n S lavonic o r B yzantine a pplied a rt a s i s c ommonly t he c ase.' T he a nalogues f or t his p artic i Alar d esign a re f ound i n m edieval I reland 2 a nd o n t wo f inds f rom P oland .' 8 . A f ragment o f a m id-10th-century b owl ( 28-32-128). W e h ave p art o f t he c arved r im w ith a f loral d esign o f s emi-oval p etals b ordered w ith a s hallow g roove. E ach p etal i s 1 .2 c m . w ide. 9 . T he s ame p eriod p roduced a c arved h andle w hich s mall d ipper ( 28-26-537). I t i s 1 1 c m . l ong a nd s hows s trands, e ach o f t hem n otched .

c ame f rom a t wo p laited

1 0. A m id-12th-century l ayer y ielded a s mall c arved v essel w hich l ooked l ike a s mall b owl 8 c m . i n d iameter ( 19-29-1384). I t h ad t hree h andles i n t he f orm o f a h and w ith f ive c arving i s d one i n h igh r elief . 1 1. 1 9-1494)

f ingers h olding t he b owl.

T he

A f lat handle o f a b owl d ated t o t he e arly-13th c entury ( 15c arrying a n i ntertwined d esign . I t c onsists o f t hree o vals

m ade o f t wo s trands e ach, r esembling a s quare.

t wo o f t hem b eing e xtended ,

t he

t hird r ather

1 2. A nother b owl o f l ate-13th-century d ate d eserves m ention ( 121 9-1921). I ts d iameter i s 1 2.5 c m ., i t h as t hin walls a nd a n o rnamental g roove a long t he r im 2 .2 c m . w ide. A c omplicated f loral d esign i s m ade o f i nterlacing S -shaped e lements w ith l oops a t t heir e nds ( pl. 1 45, 1 1). C ooperage, c onsisting m ainly o utside N ovgorod h omes, r equired f ragments d o c arry c arving . 1 3.

A t ub

o f k itchen a rticles o r o f t hose l ess e laboration , t hough s everal

l id w ith a l ock d ated

1 54

t o

t he

1 0th

c entury

( 27-26-523)

i s l avishly o rnamented . I ts d iameter i s 2 8 c m . A g rooved b elt 4 c m . w ide b orders t he l id . I ts i nner p art i s d ecorated w ith o utlined t riangular p attern c losely r esembling t hose f ound i n t he b owl h andle 2 8-31-901

( pl.

1 46,

3 ;

c f .

p l.

3 5,

1 ).

1 4. A s tave f rom a l arge 1 4th-century t ub ( 8-13-1129) w ith a d iameter n ot l ess t han 6 0 c m . c arries a c arved p attern o n i ts o utside. T here i s a z ig-zag l ine a long o ne o f t he b orders f ormed b y t rihedral h ollows a nd a l ine w ith h orizontal n otches a long t he o ther. T he m iddle p art w as

d ecorated w ith

S -shaped c urls

c ut b y a h orizontal l ine, 1 5. A t ub l id d ated e ndless t wining o rnament

( pl.

1 73,

1 ).

T he

d esign w as

e vidently t o b e c ontinued b elow i t. t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 13-20-1441) h ad a n a rranged i n f our l oops f ormed b y o utline

c arving . 1 6. L arge b askets i n w hich d resses a nd l inen w ere k ept w ere s ometimes c overed w ith t hin w ooden l ids. O ne o f t hem w as f ound i n t he 1 4th-century l ayers ( 9-14-1312). I t w as 4 2 c m . i n d iameter a nd 1 .2 c m . t hick . T he c arved d ecoration o n i ts s mooth s urface w as a c ircle 2 6 c m . i n d iameter, w ith 6 S -shaped i nterlaced c urls c arved i n r elief . T he b ackground w as 0 .4 c m . d eep. T here a re t races o f f our l esser a nd s hallower c ircles o utside t he l arger c ircle. J udging b y t he w ood s tructure, t hey w ere f ormerly p ainted ( pl. 1 46, 4 ). S poons. A rchaeologists f ound m ore t han 6 50 s poons, 1 8% o f t hem , o r r oughly 1 20 e xamples, b eing c arved . I t s hould b e s aid t hat t hroughout m any c enturies N ovgorod c arvers m ade s poons o f m aple-wood which h ad a f ine t exture. E ven w ithout a ny a dditional e mbellishment, t he s poons l ooked w ell. C arved o rnaments m ade s poons m ore d ecorative a nd t hey b ecame g enuine o bjects o f a pplied a rt. T here w ere s everal t raditional m ethods o f d ecorating s poons. T he m ost p opular one, q uite w idespread i n t he 1 1th, 1 2th and 1 3th c enturies, w as a c arved i ntertwined o rnament a round t he h andle o f t he s poon , c lose t o t he b owl: 5 2% ( 62 i tems) o f t he e ntire n umber o f o rnamented s poons, w ere e mbellished i n t his w ay . T hey w ere d istributed a s f ollows i n t he h orizons:

H orizon

2 6

Number

1

A ccord . t o c ent.

1

. %

1 .5

2 5 2

2 4 2

2 3

2 2

2

3

9

2 1 1

2 0 1

1 9 2

1 0

1 5

1 7

1 55

1 8 2

H orizon N umber

1 7 4

1 6 2

1 5 4

A ccord . t o c ent.

1 4 9

1 3 1 0

1 2

1 1

7

1 0

4

3 2

6

N umber

8

1

7

5 3 H orizon

9

7 1

7

1 2

5 1

A ccord . t o c ent. 1 .5 Another

d ecorative

d evice,

c urrent

i n

t he

1 3th

c entury ,

w as

d ecoration o f t he h andle o f t he s poon a t i ts t ip. F ifteen s poons ( 12%) c arrying t his d ecoration h ave b een f ound s o f ar. I n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies t ravelling s poons h ad d ecoration o n t heir s hort f lat h andles. T hey c omprise 9 % o f t he t otal n umber ( 10 i tems). T he r emaining 2 7% o f d ecorated s poons c arried s pecific d ecoration w ithout a nalogies a mong o ther s poons, n ot o nly o n t heir h andles b ut a lso o n t heir b owls. D ecorated s poons a ppeared a s e arly a s t he 1 0th c entury a nd w ere i n u se i n t he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c enturies, t heir p opularity r eaching i ts p eak i n t he 1 3th c entury . I n t he e arly 1 4th c entury t hey t otally d isappeared , w hich was p robably a r esult n ot s o m uch o f c hanged f ashion a s b y t he l aw o f m arket-oriented p roduction . W e w ill l imit o ur d escriptions t o m ore s poons a mong t he m ass-produced i tems. 1 7.

t he

t ypical a nd d ecorative

A s poon d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury w as f ound

i ntact ( 24-29-141). I t i s a l ight a nd g racefully m ade o bject w ith a 1 6.5 c m . l ong h andle. T he p lace w here t he h andle j oins t he b owl i s d ecorated with a c arved band o f t hree r ows o f a t wo-stranded i ntertwining d esign ( pl. 1 47, 5 ). T he d esign i s f ramed b y t wo-strand c arved b orders. T he b and i s 2 .4 c m . w ide, w hile t he i ntertwined d esign i s 1 .6 c m . w ide. 1 8. An e ight-row t wined d esign 4 .3 c m . w ide a nd 1 .1 c m . i n d iameter d ecorated a s poon o f w hich t he h andle a nd p art o f t he b owl s urvived ( 22-24-878). T here w ere n o f raming b orders. 1 9. An u ndamaged s poon d ated t o t he e arly 1 2th c entury ( 20-272 065). I t c arries a n o rnamental b and 4 c m . w ide c onsisting o f t wo r ows e ach o f w hich c ontains a t wo-row t wining p attern m ade o f t wo s trands. T he b and i s f ramed b y t wo n arrow b orders ( pl. 1 48, 1 0). 2 0. T his p ractically u ndamaged s poon w as d ated t o t he m id-12th c entury ( 18-27-1370) a nd h as a d ecorative b and 2 .6 c m . w ide o n i t w ith a f ive-row t wining d esign i n r elief ( pl. 1 47, 1 4).

1 56

2 1. A m id-12th-century s poon f ound i ntact ( 18-27-1370) w ith a n o rnamental b and 2 .5 c m . w ide s et o ff b y f our c ontour l ines. T he t wined d ecoration c onsists o f f our r ows o f s trands o n t he h andle.

( pl.

1 48,

1 3)

a nd i s c arved

2 2. T he h andle o f a m id-12th-century s poon ( 18-21-8). d ecorative b and i s 2 .4 c m . w ide w ith t wo g rooves b elow a nd a bove, o rnamental t wined d esign c onsists o f f our r ows o f s trands.

T he t he

2 3. A l arge s poon o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 17-201 541). T he o rnamental b and , 2 c m . i n d iameter, i s 3 .5 c m . w ide. I t i s b ordered w ith r ollers b etween w hich t here i s a t hree-row t wined d esign i n r elief. I ts w idth i s 0 .8 c m . ( pl. 1 47, 1 ). 2 4. A s poon d ated t o t he l ate 1 2th c entury ( 16-15-527). I t w as f ound p ractically i ntact. T he t wined d ecoration i s 1 .8 c m . w ide. I t i s s et o ff w iP 1 f our g rooves a long t he u pper s ide a nd a z ig-zag l ine a long t he l ower. T he p attern i s i n r elief . 2 5. A s poon o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury w as f ound u ndamaged ( 12-19-118). T he o rnamental b and i s b ordered w ith z ig-zag l ines. I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat a ll 1 3th-century s poons h ave s imilar z ig-zag b orders o n t hem .

c m .

2 6. A p artly d amaged s poon ( 12-19-212). T he t wined d ecoration , 4 w ide, c onsists o f w ide s trands a rranged i n f our r ows. I t i s

b ordered w ith z ig-zag l ines. 2 7. T he h andle o f a s poon d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 14-20-2101). T he p oint w here i t j oined t he b owl was d ecorated w ith a band 3 .3 c m . w ide. I t i s b ordered w ith z ig-zag l ines. T he t wined d esign c onsisting o f t wo s trands a rranged i n f our r ows i s c arved i n r elief. T he handle i s d ecorated w ith o rnamental b ands: t wo b ands o f a t wo-row t wined d esign a nd t wo b ands o f z ig-zag l ines. T he t ip o f t he s poon i s d ecorated ( pl.

1 48,

1 4).

T ravelling s poons w ith f lat d ecorated h andles, c entury , w ere d istributed i n t he f ollowing way :

d ated

t o

t he

1 1th

2 6-26-1099

2 3-30-746

2 2-31-1428

2 5-26-1062

2 1-23-554

2 1-29-97

2 3-25-1549

2 2-31-1399

2 0-20-2006

2 8. A s poon o f t he l ate-10th c entury ( 26-26-1099) f ound i ntact. T he u pper s ide o f t he h andle i s c overed w ith a t hree-row t wined d esign made i n c ontour l ines. T he d ecoration a rrangement o f o vals ( pl. 1 47, 2 1).

c arries

a

s uperimposed

2 9. A s poon w ith a p art o f t he b owl m issing ( 23-30-746) a nd a b road f lat h andle, 3 .5 c m . w ide a nd 7 c m . l ong . I ts u pper s ide d ecorated w ith a t wined d esign c ombined w ith a l attice d esign ( pl. 1 47, 1 9;

1 49,

1 ).

1 57

3 0. A h andle b elonging t o a l ate-llth-century s poon ( 22-31-1399) i s d ecorated w ith t hree l ines f ormed b y t rihedral h ollows a gainst a s hallow b ackground . T he 1 3th s uch o bjects d istribution :

c entury i s m arked b y f ine c arved s poon t ips. F ifteen were f ound i n d ifferent h orizons. This i s t heir

1 6-18-1058

1 3-18-1302

8 -12-1042

1 4-16-1568

1 3-16-1609

1 0-12-1899

1 4-16-1568

1 3-16-1607

1 2-17-1007

1 3-20-1342

1 2-21-871

1 2-10-610

1 2-13-1927

1 3-22-992

1 1-13-913

3 1. T he 1 3th h orizon p roduced a w ell-preserved s poon w ith a c arved t ip ( 13-16-1607). T he bulb a t t he e nd o f t he h andle h ad a t riple d ecoration , t he f irst b eing a b elt o f S -shaped c urves, t he s econd s ix v ertically-placed p etals a nd t he t hird a s mall b all ( pl. 1 48, 4 ). T he t ip w as 4 .5 c m . l ong , a nd t he b all was 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter. 3 2. A nother i ntact s poon ( 12-13-1927) h ad d ifferent c arving . b and w ith c urves i s r eplaced i n t his c ase w ith a r oller c arrying p etals. T he h andle w as c m . l ong .

t ipped w ith a s mall b all.

T he

c arving w as

T he f our 3 .2

3 3. A f ragment o f t he h andle o f a s poon f ound i n t he 1 6th t ier ( 16-18-1058) s hows a nother v ariant o f t he t ip. H ere a band o f b raiding s upports s ix p etals w ith a s mall b all a bove t hem . T he a rrangement w as 5 .5 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 48, 3 ). S ome o f t he s poons h ave d ifferently s haped t ips. 3 4. A s poon f ound i n t he 1 3th h orizon w ith a c arved b and c rowned w ith a s prout.

( 13-16-1609)

w as

t ipped

3 5. A nother s poon f rom t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-12-1899) h ad a m ore i ntricately c arved t ip w ith a s mall r oller a nd t hree s uccessive b unches o f p etals. T he t ip w as 6 c m . l ong . ( pl. 1 48, 1 ). 3 6. A s poon d ated t o t he l ate 1 0th c entury ( 26-21-1700) h ad a c arved r elief p attern i n t he m iddle o f i ts h andle ( pl. 1 47, 1 3). T he o rnamented p art w as 2 .8 c m . l ong . 3 7. A h andle f ound i n t he 2 0th h orizon ( 20-21-876) w as o rnamented w ith a t wo-strand b raiding a nd a s mall b utton . T he h eight o f t he t ip w as 3 .4 c m . ( pl. 1 47, 1 1). 3 8.

A

h andle

d ated

t o

t he

m id-10th

c entury

d ecorated w ith s even r ows o f c arved t rihedral h ollows s imple b utton ( pl. 1 47, 1 5).

1 58

( 28-32-149)

w as

a nd e nded w ith a

3 9. A s poon o f t he l ate 1 1th c entury ( 21-26-165) w as d ecorated a t t he p lace w here t he h andle j oined t he b owl a nd n ear t he t ip w hich w as c rowned w ith a f antastic a nimal m ask ( pl. 1 48, 5 ). 4 0.

A s poon

f ound

i n

t he

m ention f or i ts u nusually b road 1 044) ( pl. 1 48, 6 , 1 49, 2 , 3 ).

1 2th-century

l evels

5 .5

o rnamental

c m .

w ide

d eserves b elt

S ome s poons h ad b owls o rnamented w ith g eometrical p atterns f inely i ncised . H ere a re t heir c ard n umbers: 2 8-31-317, 4 1.

1 3-12-1925,

2 2-17-102,

9 -15-1128,

1 3-11-703,

A s poon d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury .

s pecial ( 12-13-

o r

f loral

8 -11-406.

I t w as f ound t ogether

w ith p agan r itual w ine b owls. O nly a s mall f ragment o f i ts b owl ( 7 x 4 c m .) s urvived . I ts e xterior c arries t hree r ows o f p etals r adiating f rom t he p lace w here t he b owl j oined t he h andle. T he p etals o f t he s econd a nd t hird r ows h ave f ine n otches. T he d ecoration a s a w hole i s o utlined i n f inely i ncised g rooves. 4 2. A s poon o f t he 1 1th c entury ( 22-27-102). I ts b owl a nd p art o f t he handle h ave s urvived . T wo o vals b order t he i nside o f t he b owl w ith a Maltese c ross c omposed o f f our t riangles ( pl. 1 48, 1 5). 4 3. A l arge s poon o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-12-1945), o f w hich t he p artly d amaged b owl a nd a f ragment o f t he h andle a re p reserved . T he i nside o f t he b owl c arries a b order f ormed b y t wo l ines w ith n otched t riangles b etween . T he e ntire s urface o f t he b owl i s d ivided b y a s traight l ine i nto t wo s egments e ach o f w hich i s c overed w ith a c lose c ross-hatching . T here w as a n o rnamental b and o n t he h andle. T he o utside o f t he s poon w as d ecorated w ith b orders a nd d ivided i nto t wo p arts by a l ine. T he s pace o n e ither s ide o f t he l ine w as c losely c ross-hatched . 4 4. A s poon d ated t o t he m id-14th c entury ( 9-15-1128). T he i nside o f t he b owl h ad a n o mega-shaped s ymmetrical d esign w ith s mall t endrils a t i ts t ips. S mall c arved t riangles f ill t he n arrow s trips b etween t he l ines. I t i s q uite p robable t hat a ll f our s poons d escribed a bove w ere b rightly p ainted . T his s urmise i s b ased o n t he f act t hat t he c arving t echnique s eems t o b e a nalogous t o t he p ainting t echnique o bserved o n t he s poons d escribed b elow . 4 5. A s poon o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-11-703) h ad a s mall c arved d esign o n i ts r everse s ide. I t d epicted i ntertwined b ranches f ormed b y d eeply i ncised g rooves. 4 6. A l arge s poon o f t he 1 4th c entury ( 8-11-406) h ad t hree r ather d eeply i ncised s emicircular l ines w hich s eemed a n e xtension o f t he h andle. T hese s mall g rooves m ade t he s poon v ery d ecorative. C ake m oulds. A ll t he m oulds f ound s o f ar c arry t he s ame d ecorative e lement, t he c ross. A rchaeologists h ave f ound f ive i ntact a nd o ne d amaged m ould . H ere a re t heir c ard n umbers:

1 59

1 8-13-68,

1 3-15-438,

1 3-15-1807,

1 1-12-1829,

1 0-10-475,

3 -9-226.

4 7. A w hole c ake m ould w as d iscovered i n t he l evels o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 18-23-68). I t i s a r ound o bject, 1 3 c m . i n d iameter a nd 2 c m . t hick . I t d isplays a f our-armed c ross ( pl. 1 50 , 1 ), w ith t wo s ymmetrical b irds, c losely r esembling d oves. T he c arving i s 0 .5 c m . d eep, t he l ines f orming t he c ross a re 0 .7 c m . w ide. T here a re t wo c oncealed h oles f or f ixing h andles o n t o t he o pposite ( reverse) s ide o f t he m ould . 4 8. An a lmost i ntact m ould , w ith o nly a s mall p art m issing , w as d iscovered i n t he 1 3th h orizon ( 13-15-438). T he m ould i s 7 .2 x 6 .8 c m . w ith a n e ngraved s ix-armed c ross b ordered b y t wo p arallel l ines w ith n otches b etween t hem . T he g rooves a re r ather d eep, a nd a re 0 .4 c m . w ide. T here i s a r oller i n t he m iddle o f t he r everse s ide o f t he m ould f or f ixing a h andle ( pl. 1 50, 2 ). 4 9.

A l arge

c ake

m ould c ame

f rom

t he

s ame h orizon

( 13-15-1807).

I ts s ize i s 1 9 x 1 9 c m . I t c arries a f our-armed c ross w ith s prouts. C oncentric a rches w ere c arved i n t he c orners. T here a re t wo h oles f or f ixing h andles o n t he r everse s ide ( pl. 1 50, 4 ). 5 0. An i ntact c ake m ould c ame f rom t he l evels d ating t o t he l ate 1 3th c entury ( 11-12-1829). I t h as a f our-armed c ross a gainst a b ackground o f s lanting n otches. B oth t he d esign a nd t he b orders a round i t w ere c arved t o a d epth o f 0 .5 c m . T he m ould m easures 8 x 7 .5 c m . ( pl. 1 50, 3 ).

2 26).

5 1. A f ragment o f a c ake m ould f ound i n t he 3 rd h orizon ( 3-9I n a ll p robability i t a lso c arried a c ross, o f which o nly t he

b ase c an b e s een n ow . I n c onnection w ith t ools a ssociated w ith w eaving a nd s pinning , c arved d istaffs a nd t heir p arts a s w ell a s s pindles a nd f lax c ombs s hould b e m entioned . A w arping i nstrument i n t he f orm o f a s mall c ylindrical b ar. E ighty-one o bjects o f t his k ind h ave b een f ound i n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entury l evels. T wenty-seven o f t hem w ere c arved i n v arious w ays. T he v ery s hape o f t he i nstrument s eemed t o b e m ost s uitable f or c arving . T he m ost p opular d ecorations w ere t hose b orrowed f rom a rchitecture a nd a lso d iscs, b eads, b arrel a nd s pheres ( balls) e tc. T he b asic f orms c an b e s een i n p l.

1 21.

W e w ill p roceed w ith t he d escription o f m ore i nteresting e xamples. 5 2.

A c ylindrical

2 2) w as 8 .5 c m . f our b ands e ach 1 21,

i mplement d iscovered i n t he

7 th h orizon

( 7-12-

l ong a nd 1 .4 c m . i n d iameter. I t w as d ecorated w ith c omprising t wo r ows o f s hallow t rihedral h ollows ( pl.

1 ).

5 3. A w arping t ool f rom t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-11-73) b ore a m ore i ntricate d esign . I t i s 7 .5 c m . l ong a nd 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter. I t h as a n a symmetrically p laced s phere, s pherical d ecoration . B esides, t here

1 60

a re t hree o rnamental b ands a nalogous t o t hose d escribed b road b elt o f c ross-shaped f igures ( pl. 1 21, 2 ).

a bove

a nd

5 4. An o bject f rom t he 6 th h orizon ( 6-12-1334), 1 0 c m . l ong 1 .5 c m . i n d iameter. I t c onsisted o f s everal p arts. T he t wo c ylinders b ecome n arrower t owards t he m iddle. T hey a re d ivided b y r ollers and a s phere o rnament ( pl. 1 21, 3 ). T he r ollers

a

a nd e nd t wo a re

e mbellished w ith s lanting b roken l ines. 5 5. An o bject f rom t he 2 nd h orizon ( 2-1-1606), 1 1 c m . l ong a nd 1 .3 c m. i n d iameter. I ts t wo c ylindrical ends j oin t wo f lat s emicircular d iscs w ith a b arrel-shaped o rnament b etween t hem ( pl. 1 21, 1 4). 5 6. An o bject f rom t he 6 th h orizon ( 6-9-1207), 9 c m . l ong a nd 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter. I t c onsists o f t hree s ets o f a r ound r oller a nd a b it rapezoidal b ead ( pl. 1 21, 1 3). 5 7. An o bject f rom t he 3 rd h orizon ( 3-4-1581) 1 1 c m . l ong a nd 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter. I t i s m ade o f f our e longated b arrel-shaped o rnaments d ivided by r ollers. T hat i n t he m iddle c onsists o f t hree p arts, t hose a t t he e nds o f t wo p arts ( pl. 1 21, 1 0). 5 8. An o bject f rom t he 8 th h orizon ( 8-13-362) 1 1 c m . l ong a nd 1 c m . i n d iameter. I t h as c arved e nds s haped l ike t hree s emicircular r ollers ( pl. 1 21, 9 ). 5 9. An o bject f rom t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-5-1631), 1 0 c m . l ong a nd 1 .7 c m . i n d iameter. I t c onsists o f b arrel-shaped o rnaments d ivided b y t hree s ets o f t wo r ollers ( pl. 1 21, 4 ). H eckles. T hese a re l ong k nife-like t ools f or c ombing f lax . T heir h eavy handles w ere o ften c arved i n t he f orm o f h orses. E ight o bjects o f t his k ind have b een f ound : 1 2-17-1250, 8 -13-1266, 5 -8-1030, 4 -71 220, 9 -13-1312, 1 0-16-2100, 5 -9-1177, 8 -9-1975.

9 ),

T he m ain p art o f t he h andle, s haped l ike a h orse's b ack s ometimes c arries a c arved s addle ( 4-7-1220, 1 0-16-2100).

O nly t wo c arved d istaffs h ave b een f ound s o f ar: 7 -1979. 6 0.

A d istaff

d ated

t o

t he

m id-14th

c entury

( pl.

1 51,

1 0-17-1341 a nd 8 -

( 8-7-1979)

w ith

a

s mall b lade c arved o n b oth s ides, t he r ight s ide h aving m ore s kilful d ecoration . T he b lade i s o val a nd e nds i n h eart-shaped f igures. T he o val i s b ordered w ith a n arrow s trip c ontaining , i n i ts m iddle p art, a z ig-zag l ine a nd h as s piral t endrils o n i t. A r ectangular f igure o ccupies t he c entre. T he r everse s ide i s d ecorated i n a s imple w ay : i n a ddition t o t he b order s trip i t h as t riangles a long i ts s ides a nd s ome o ther g eometrical f igures. T he b lade i s 1 5.8 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 51, 5 ). 6 1. A d istaff b lade o f t he e arly 1 4th d ecorated w ith a p rimitive c arved h uman f igure S leighs.

O nly v ertical

c entury ( 10-17-1341) ( pl. 1 51, 6 ).

s upports a nd r unners

1 61

c an b e

i s

u nequivocally

i dentified a s s leigh p arts, t herefore o ther c arved o bjects w hich c ould e qually w ell b elong t o e ither s leighs o r f urniture w ill b e d iscussed i n t he s ection d ealing w ith t he d ecoration o f h ouses a nd t heir i nteriors. H ere w e s hall d well s olely o n v ertical s upports a nd r ows. o f

t he

s econd h alf o f t he 1 1th a nd f irst h alf o f t he 1 2th c enturies, t hat t he c ustom o f o rnamenting t hem l asted o nly a c entury . Among t he

O rnamented v ertical

i s, 2 00

s upports f rom t he c arved o ne.

1 3th-

s upports

a re

r estricted

a nd 1 4th-century l evels

t o

t he

l evels

t here was n ot a s ingle

S eventeen c arved s upports h ave b een f ound s o f ar: 2 3-25-924

2 1-24-958

1 8-16-1704

2 3-20-487

2 1-23-958

1 8-16-1699

2 2-20-495

2 2-23-958

1 8-17-999

2 2-20-537

2 2-21-503

2 2-23-930

2 1-23-891

1 9-19-955

2 0-25-222

2 1-23-862

1 8-15-1713

A ll o f t hem w ere d ecorated w ith d eeply c arved p laiting d esigns. T he c ompositions a re r ather t raditional a nd d iffer o nly i n d etails. T hey a re b ased o n a n e longated i ntertwining o f t wo o r t hree b raids, e ach c onsisting o f f our l ines. T here f ollows a d escription o f f our v ertical s upports, t he o thers b eing s imilar t o t hem . 6 2. A w ell-preserved v ertical s upport o f ( 23-20-487), 1 5 c m . h igh a nd 8 c m . w ide a t i ts

t he m id-llth l ower p art.

c entury I t c ame

f rom a c ommon s leigh. T he d ecoration c onsists o f a f our-strand b raiding w ith c losed e nds. T he o rnamented b and i s 1 .8 c m . w ide, i n t he u pper p art, t he w idth b eing c orrespondingly n arrower . T he d esign i s d eeply i ncised . 6 3. A v ertical s upport d ating f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury ( 22-20-495) w hich h as s urvived i ntact. I t i s 1 4.5 x 8 .5 c m . T he d ecoration i s l arger ( pl. 1 51, 4 ), a f igure-of-eight s haped f igure o pen o n o ne s ide. O n t he l ower s ide o f t he s upport t here a re a dditional l ines. 6 4. A v ertical s upport d ated t o t he m id-12th w as d ecorated w ith d ifferently b raided s tripes. o f t wo i ntertwined f igure-of-eight s haped f igures t he u pper p art o f t he s upport t he s pace b etween w ith f inely i ncised n otches.

c entury ( 18-15-1713) T he p attern c onsists o pen a t o ne e nd . I n t he l ines i s f illed

6 5. A v ertical s upport o f t he m id-12th c entury ( 18-16-1699) was d ecorated w ith t wo f igure-of-eight s haped f igures a s w ell, w ith t heir l ower p arts c ut i n z ig-zag . C arved

r ows

( nashcheps)

T he l ines w ere r ather d eeply i ncised . a nd

o ther

1 62

s leigh p arts

w ere

f ound

i n

t he

1 2th-century l evels; t hey w ere c ontemporary w ith t he c arved s upports. A ll o f t hem w ere d ecorated w ith s imilar d esigns. 6 6. c m .

w ide.

A r ow f rom t he

1 9th h orizon

T he l ength o f t he

( 19-20-928)

s urviving p art w as

6 9

w as 4 c m . c m .

I ts

v ertical

h igh a nd 5 e dges w ere

r ounded a nd h ad h oles f or f ixing v ertical s upports a t i ntervals o f 1 3 c m . T he d ecoration c onsists o f i ntertwined f igure-of-eight s haped f igures o pen a t o ne e nd . T he d ecorated b and w as 2 c m . w ide. I t w as f ormed by f our l ines,

t wo o f t hem r unning a long t he e dges.

6 7. T wo r unners w ith c arved s ides w ere d iscovered i n 1 4th-century l evels ( 4-8-1228 a nd 8 -11-407). U nfortunately, o nly f ragments u p t o 1 m . l ong have b een p reserved . T heir t rapezoidal c ross-section i ndicated t hat t hey c ame f rom r unners. B oth f ragments h ad t o t ake v ertical s upports.

T hey c arried b raided d esigns.

6 8. H orses h arness m ade o f w ood w as s eldom o rnamented , e xcept p arts o f h orse c ollars. T he e xcavations h ave n ot y et y ielded a ny o rnamented s haft-bows. Among t he d ecorated o bjects o f h orse h arness w as p art o f a c arved h orse-collar f ound i n t he l ate-14th c entury l evels, w hich d eserves s pecial m ention . I ts c ard n umber i s 6 -4-2017. T here was n othing s pecial a bout i ts f orm o r s ize. I ts s ides a nd t he butt-end h ad t wined d esigns w ith S -shaped t endrils. T hey w ere n ot d eeply i ncised . T he b raiding c onsisted o f f our s trands, t he d ecoration b eing b ordered w ith t wo l ines ( pl. 1 51, 7 ; c f . p l. 8 9). T here w ere 1 7 S -shaped f igures o n t he r everse b utt-end . Among p arts o f s hips a nd b oats f ound b y r owlocks h ad c arved d ecoration . S ome r owlocks o bjects o f a pplied a rt, f or e xample.

a rchaeologists o nly c an b e r egarded a s

6 9. A r owlock d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury ( 26-30-145). T he r owlock a nd t he h ole f or t he o ar t estify t o t he h igh a rtistic t aste o f i ts m aker. T he u pper p art o f t he p iece c arried n otched d ecorations. 7 0. A nother r owlock o f t he 1 0th c entury w ith f inely i ncised b raiding .

( 28-33-146) w as d ecorated

7 1. A m ost i nteresting o bject i s a r owlock o f t he 1 3th c entury f ound i n t he I lyinsky e xcavations ( 11-17-21). I ts s upport w as s haped t o r esemble a d ragon 's h ead ( pl. 1 51, 8 ), w hile l ittle h oles f or t he b elt w ere t reated a s t he d ragon 's n ostrils. C ombs. T he N erevsky e xcavations h ave y ielded 2 99 d ouble-sided c ombs m ade o f w ood . T hey w ere m ostly m ade o f b ox-wood b rought f rom d istant p laces. C ombs w ere f ound i n a ll l evels e xcept t he 1 2th-century l evels. L ight y ellow f ine-textured b ox-wood w hich l ooked l ike i vory w as n either p ainted n or l acquered , t he p eople o f N ovgorod p referring i t i n i ts n atural s tate. S ome c ombs w ere n evertheless e mbellished w ith i ncised g eometrical a nd f loral d esigns. A rchaeologists h ave f ound 4 0o dd d ecorated c ombs. T hese a re t heir c ard n umbers:

1 63

2 6-30-884

1 1-12-1835

9 -12-1561

2 2-23-1627

1 1-17-1170

9 -5-687

2 0-23-1517

1 1-10-1057

8 -15-1322

1 6-21-1184

1 0-14-44

8 -7-1883

1 5-18-1577

1 0-12-1031

9 -10-1968

1 3-11-968

1 1-14-18

8 -10-1812

1 4-14-1091

1 0-12-1893

9 -14-377

1 5-21-1142

1 0-16-1369

7 -15-113

1 1-10-1047

1 0-15-2094

1 0-15-1291

1 3-14-1980

1 0-11-1940

1 4-18-280

1 3-18-1289

1 0-10-473

9 -16-201

1 3-14-1055

1 0-12-1603

1 2-18-28

1 3-18-1266

7 -10-1534

1 3-18-180

1 1-14-1644

6 -10-339

1 1-16-243

I t s hould b e n oted t hat b ox-wood c ombs w ere e specially f ashionable i n N ovgorod i n t he 1 3th a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 4th c entury . T heir o rnamentation w as m ainly b ased o n c oncentric c ircles m ade w ith a s pecially d esigned t ool. A nother t ype o f d ecoration w as b ased o n o penw ork a nd d ifferent c ombinations o f l ozenges. T he t hird t ype t ended t o b raidings a nd b roken l ines, w hile t he f ourth t ype o f o rnament c ombined c ircles a nd f loral o rnaments w ith h uman o r a nimal r epresentations. T here f ollows a d escription o f s ome m ost t ypical c ombs. 7 2. A b ox-wood c omb f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-5-687). I ts s ize w as q uite n ormal f or o bjects o f t his k ind , 6 .6 x 6 .7 c m . B oth s ides w ere d ecorated w ith c ircles, t hree l arge o nes d ivided b y c ombinations o f s maller o nes ( pl. 1 53, 2 ). T he l arger c ircles h ad t hree a dditional c oncentric c ircles a round t hem , t heir d iameter b eing 1 c m . T he s maller c ircles w ere 0 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T wo c ontour l ines b ordered t he d ecoration a bove a nd b elow . 7 3. A c omb f rom t he 1 4th h orizon ( 9-14-377) w as 7 .8 c m . w ide. I t h ad t wo l arge c ircles a t i ts e nds, e ach s urrounded b y f our c oncentric c ircles. I n t he m iddle t here w ere t hree m edium-sized c ircles w ith s ets o f s maller c ircles ( 0.2 c m . i n d iameter) a rranged a round t hem . T he o rnament was b ordered w ith f our s traight l ines w ith n otches b etween t hem . 7 4.

A b ox-wood

c omb

f rom t he

9 th h orizon

1 64

( 9-10-1968).

T he

s trip

b etween

t he

t eeth

w as

3 c m .

b ased o n t he l ozenge. a nd t riangles ( pl. 1 50, 7 5. p atterns

w ide.

C ombinations 6 ).

I ts

o pen-work

o rnamentation

o f o rnamental h oles

f orm

w as

l ozenges

A b ox-wood c omb f rom t he 1 3th h orizon ( 13-14-1980) w ith i n t he m iddle p art a nd a long t he e dges. T hey a re b ased o n

b roken l ines m ade i n r elief ( pl. 1 54, 8 ). I n t he m iddle p art t he o rnament i s c omposed o f t hree b roken l ines a rranged i n a r ectangular f igure while o ne s uch l ine r uns a long e ach o f t he e dges. 7 6. A b ox-wood c omb f rom t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-10-473) w as m arked b y a m ore c omplicated a nd f inely e xecuted d ecoration ; t he c entre w as o ccupied by a l ion i n r elief . T he m edallion w as 1 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T he l ion was u ndoubtedly c arved b y a s killed h and ( pl. 1 54, 3 ). T he r est o f t he d ecoration c onsisted o f t he u sual s et o f c ircles. B oth s ides w ere d ecorated . 7 7. A C omb o f t he l ate-13th c entury ( 10-11-1940) h ad d ifferent c ompositions o n i ts t wo s ides. O ne c arried a s trip o f S -shaped t endrils with c omposite p etals i ncised with an e xceedingly f ine g rooving t ool o r a n eedle b y a n e xperienced c raftsman . O n t he o ther s ide t here w ere t wo t endrils s eparated b y a c ircle 1 .8 c m . i n d iameter, w hich e nclosed a r ealistically d epicted human h ead ( pl. 1 53, 1 ; 1 54, 1 , 2 ). 7 8. A b ox-wood c omb f rom t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-12-1603), 7 c m . l ong . On t he r ight s ide t here w as a r ather i ntricate p attern w hich o ccupied a s trip 1 .7 c m . w ide. T he c entre w as f illed w ith t he f igure o f a l ion 's r ampant . T his f igure i s f lanked w ith a c omposition c onsisting o f s maller o nes.

f ive s maller c ircles a nd a l arge c ircle e mbracing T he e nds b ore c ircles a rranged i n a p attern .

f our

W riting b oards w ere f ound i n t he l lth-14th-century l evels. T hey w ere a lways u sed i n p airs h inged i n a d iptych . S ix h ave b een f ound t o d ate. T he w orking s urface w as s lightly r ecessed a nd f illed w ith w ax , o n w hich o ne w rote w ith a s tylus ( pl. 1 55). Among t he s ix t here w ere t wo

w ith

c arved

d ecorations

w riting b oard w ith 1 55, 2 ).

t he

o n

e ntire

t heir

o uter

a lphabet

s ides.

c arved o n

T here i t

w as

a lso

( 10-11-937),

a

( pl.

7 9. A w riting b oard d ating t o t he l ate-llth c entury ( 21-23-1589) w as 1 6.3 x 9 .5 c m . i n s ize. I ts r everse s ide w as c overed w ith a f loral d ecoration i n r elief . I t s hows t wo v ertical s hoots w ith b ranches e nding i n f ive-petal p almettas. T he s hoots w ere d ivided b y a g roove ( pl. 1 55, 1 ). T here w ere c ross-hatched l ozenges b etween t he s hoots. T he d ecoration w as b ordered o n t hree s ides w ith a s trip 1 .2 c m . w ide i nside w hich t here w as a b roken l ine. T he f our e dges o f t he b oard w ere d ecorated i n t he s ame w ay . T his o rnament c ombines t he t raits o f f olk a nd a rtistic t raditions. 8 0. A nother w riting b oard o f t he m id-13th c entury ( 11-19-81) h ad a m ore e laborate f orm . I t w as 1 4.7 c m . l ong a nd 6 .1 c m . w ide. I ts r everse s ide b ore a c omplicated b raiding ( pl. 1 55, 3 ; 1 56, 1 ). T he d ecoration c onsisted o f f our z ones, t he l owest o f w hich w as f ormed b y a s ix-row

b raiding

2 .3

c m .

w ide.

T he

1 65

s econd

l ayer

f illed

t he

m iddle

p art. I t w as a n i ntricate i ntertwining o f t wo l oop-shaped o vals w ith a c entral s quare. T he t hird l ayer s howed i ntertwined s quares a nd o vals. T he t op l ayer c onsisted o f a t endril f ormed b y a n e ndless s trip. T here a re c ases w hen i t i s a rtistic c arving a nd t hat r equired

d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween i n t he o bject 's c onstruction . A n

e xample o f t his i s p saltery. I ts m anufacture i s l engthy p rocess d emanding g reat s kill i n w oodcarving . p ossible, t herefore, t o d raw t he l ine b etween w hat w as w hat w as c onstructionally n ecessary . S ome o f t he

a l aborious a nd I t i s n ot a lways a rtistically a nd e lements c an b e

r egarded a s p urely d ecorative. 8 1.

A p saltery d ating f rom t he m id-13th c entury

( 14-21-1346).

I t

h ad n ine s trings w ith a b lade 3 2 c m . l ong a nd 1 9 c m . w ide. T he i nstrument b ore l eaf-shaped o pen-work d ecoration . T he m ain p art w ith h oles f or p ins w as s upplemented w ith t wo o pen-work o rnaments s haped l ike c losed t endrils. 8 2.

I n

1 969

t he

T ikhvinsky

e xcavations

p reserved s ix-string p saltery d ated t o c entury ( Tikh.-21-23). I t was made

y ielded

t he f irst o f s pruce

a n

h alf ( pl.

e xcellently o f t he 1 57).

1 2th T he

i nstrument w as 3 5.3 c m . l ong a nd 1 1.5 c m . a t i ts w idest p art. T he m ain p art w as 1 2 c m . d eep, t he f lat p art w ith 6 p in h oles w as 1 2 c m . l ong . I t w as d ecorated w ith a n a nimal 's h ead c arved i n t he r ound , c losely r esembling t hat o f a d ragon , d epicted w ith a c ollar a nd a m ane. T here a re t wo a nimal f igures, a l ion a nd a b ird , c arved o n t he o utside o f t he d eeper p art, i n a ll p robability a dded l ater. 8 2a. A p saltery o f t he l ate-14th c entury ( 6-8-1264). I t w as m uch s maller t han t hose d escribed a bove. I ts u pper e dge w as e legantly s haped . N umerous s mall o bjects o f d omestic u se p egs, l ids, s mall b oxes, h andles, e tc., w ere a lso e mbellished w ith c arving . T heir d ecoration w as b ased o n g eometrical p atterns. 8 3. A s mall b ox d ating t o t he l ate-14th c entury ( 7-8-1046). I t w as 1 5.5 c m . l ong . T he e ntire s urface w as c arved i n r elief, t he l ower s urface d ecorated w ith t hree s trips ( pl. 1 58, 2 ). T he t wo m iddle s trips w ere f ormed b y b roken l ines w ith l ozenges b etween t hem , t he e dges w ere l ined w ith t wo z ig-zag l ines. T he s ides w ere d ecorated w ith t hree s trips, t he m iddle o ne b eing e mbellished w ith n otches, w hile t he e dges w ere b ordered w ith z ig-zag l ines ( pl. 1 59, 5 ). 8 4. T he s liding l id o f a s mall b ox d ated t o t he l ate-14th c entury ( 6-5-1927), 1 3.2 c m . l ong . T he l id w as d ecorated w ith t wo r ows o f i dentical c ircles 0 .3 c m . i n d iameter m ade w ith a s pecial t ool. 8 5. A w ooden s heath f or a k nife w as f ound i n t he 1 3th-century l evel i n t he N erevsky e xcavations. O ne h alf o f i t h as s urvived ; t he o bject w as m ade f rom t wo h alves g lued t ogether. I t w as 3 6 c m . l ong a nd 3 .5 c m . w ide. I t c arried t hree r ows o f b raiding ( pl. 1 58, 6 ). E ach r ow w as c overed w ith s hallow b ored h oles w hich m ade t he e ntire p attern m ore d ecorative. T he s heath h ad i ron s uspension f ittings.

1 66

T he i nhabitants t o

s mall

b oards,

o f N ovgorod u sed b oth p egs

w hich

w ere

i n

t heir

t urn

a nd s ets

f ixed

t o

t he

o f p egs w all.

f ixed S uch

b oards w ere o ften d ecorated w ith c arving . 8 6. A b oard d ated t o t he 1 2th c entury ( 18-24-1375) w as 1 6 c m . l ong a nd 3 .7 c m . w ide. I t w as d ecorated w ith a n e xtremely f ine c arved b raiding c onsisting o f t wo s trands

( pl.

1 58,

4 ).

8 7. A b oard o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 11-17-132) w as 1 4 c m . l ong . c arried t he s ame k ind o f o rnament a s t hat d escribed a bove, but m ade a l esser s cale ( pl. 1 58, 3 ).

I t o n

8 8. A s mall b oard w hich w as m ost p robably p art o f a s alt-cellar w as f ound i n t he 1 1th-century l evels ( 21-21-430). I t w as p artly d amaged . T he b oard w as 1 4.5 c m . h igh . I t w as e mbellished w ith t rihedral h ollows. T he e ntire s urface w as d ivided i nto s quares, f our a long e ach e dge. F our t riangles w ere i ncised i nside t he s quares. T here i s a g reat n umber o f u nidentified s maller o bjects f rom d ifferent l evels w hich c annot b e a ssigned t o a ny d efinite p urpose. N evertheless t hey a re i nteresting i n t hemselves, s ince a ll o f t hem h ave s ome c arved d ecoration o n t hem . N ine t wisted s ticks w ere f ound .

H ere a re t heir c ard n umbers:

1 6-16-1939

1 4-21-794

1 0-17-1360

1 9-23-331

1 4-22-768

1 1-13-913

1 8-18-439

1 4-15-968

1 0-18-1429

8 9. T he l argest s tick o f t his k ind w as d iscovered i n 1 3th-century l evels ( 14-22-768). I t was 2 1 c m . l ong a nd 2 .3 c m . i n d iameter. I t w as f ormed o f t hree s trands ( pl. 1 58, 7 ). S ome o ther o bjects o f t his t ype w ere p ainted ( such a s, f or e xample, 1 0-17-1360). T hey w ill b e d iscussed b elow . 9 0. A c ylindrical s tick o f t he 1 4th c entury ( 8-16-1417) d ecorated w ith o rnamental b ands i n r elief . E ach o f t hem c arry n otches, t wo o r t hree r ows o f n otches a lternately ( pl. 1 58, 5 ). T wo f ragments f rom o bjects u sed f or s ome u nidentified d ecorative p urposes d eserve m ention . T hey a re d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury . 9 1. A f ragment o f a c arved o bject d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury ( 28-35-781). I t i s s hown i n p l. 1 59, 1 . I t r ealistically r epresents a k not u sed b y s eamen ( "Hercules' k not"). T he l ength o f t he o bject w as 2 1 c m ., i ts w idth 4 c m . T he " rope" w as 1 .2 c m . i n d iameter. 9 2. A f ragment o f a n o pen-work p attern i s n o l ess i nteresting . I t i s d ated t o t he e arly-llth c entury ( 25-26-1632). I t i s a n e longated o val f ormed b y t wo c ylindrical s ticks ( 0.8 c m . i n d iameter) o n t he c entre o f w hich t here i s a r ing . T he e ntire f ragment w as 1 1 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 59, 6 ).

1 67

A rchaeologists h ave f ound a f airly l arge n umber o f s mall c ircular f lat w ooden p lates u sed a s d ecorations. M ore t han 2 5 o bjects h ave b een f ound t o d ate. A ll o f t hem h ave a r ound h ole i n t he m iddle t hrough w hich w as a p eg a ttaching t hem t o s ome o ther o bject. H ere i s a d escription o f s ome o f t hem . 9 3. A r ound p late d ating f rom t he 1 4th c entury ( 10-15-1191). w as 1 0 c m . i n d iameter a nd w as d ecorated w ith t wo S -shaped s crolls.

I t

9 4. Another p late d ating f rom t he s ame p eriod ( 8-10-1271), 9 c m . i n d iameter . I t b ore a n i ntricate s olar s ign c onsisting o f c rossh atched t riangles. 9 5. A r ound d iameter w as 1 1 c m . a s quare.

p late o f t he l ate-14th c entury ( 7-9-1263). I ts I t w as d ecorated w ith a f our-petal r osette s et i n

M aces. T his g roup a rchaeological f inds f rom o f o bject: t he s taffs o f h eads a nd t he s econd t ype w ith h eads o f s maller e arlier t han t he f irst. b e d iscussed e lsewhere. T he w eapons

o f f inds h olds a s pecial p lace a mong t he N ovgorod . I t c an b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes t he f irst t ype w ith t hick handles a nd l arge w ith r elatively s horter a nd f iner h andles a nd

d iameter. T he s econd t ype s eems t o b e much T hey a re a ssociated w ith p agan r ites a nd w ill

m aces o f t he f irst t ype w ere, i n and a s c eremonial o bjects b y

a ll t he

p robability , u sed a s s treet c ommunities

a dministration .* M ore o ften t han n ot t hey w ere m ade o f r ootstocks. B oth h andles a nd h eads w ere o ften d ecorated w ith g eometrical d esigns. T wenty-five m aces o ut o f s everal s core f ound i n N ovgorod w ere c arved . T hese a re t heir c ard n umbers: 1 6-21-1177

1 4-14-2018

1 4-15-1782

1 6-22-185

1 4-21-784

1 3-12-1798

1 6-20-34

1 3-14-1775

1 1-15-861

1 6-22-1259

1 3-20-1438

1 2-11-2021

1 6-23-2048

1 3-21-1436

1 1-15-1250

1 5-20-80

1 3-20-1407

8 -7-1901

1 4-20-68

1 5-21-1135

8 -12-1181

1 5-18-1657

1 4-15-1784

6 -9-1540

1 5-17-1039

* T he c ommunal a dministration o f N ovgorod h ad a c ertain s ort o f h ierarchy . T here w as a dministration o f t he w hole c ity , t hen o f 5m ajor q uarters ( 'kontsy ') a nd t hen o f s treet c ommunities, t he l atter b eing s omething l ike v illage c ommunities. T he i dea t hat t he m aces i n q uestion w ere a ssociated w ith a ny s ort o f a dministration c annot b e s upported b y c oncrete e vidence. - A . C h.

1 68

9 6. An i ntact m ace d ated t o t he l ate-13th c entury ( 11-15-861) w as 6 4 c m . l ong , t he h ead w as 9 .5 c m . i n d iameter, a nd t he h andle w as 2 .8 c m .

i n d iameter.

9 7. 2 1-1177).

T he h ead w as c overed w ith t etrahedra

( pl.

1 60,

3 ).

A s imilar m ace w as f ound i n t he l ate-12th-century l evels I ts h andle w as b roken a nd n ow i t i s o nly 4 1 c m . l ong .

( 16T he

h ead h as 9 c m . i n d iameter, a nd t he h andle 3 .2 c m . l ong . T he h ead d ecorated i n t he s ame w ay a s t he p receding m ace ( pl. 1 60, 1 ).

i s

9 8. An i ntact m ace f rom t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 14-21-784). T he h andle w as 6 5 c m . l ong , t he h ead w as 8 c m . i n d iameter, t he c ylindrical h andle w as 2 .8 c m . i n d iameter. T he h ead i s c arved i n r elief . I ts f luted l ower h emisphere s eems t o s upport t he u pper o ne w hich w as d ecorated w ith l arge c ircles i n r elief. T he t ip o f t he h andle h as a s hallow c arved t wined d esign o n i t ( pl. 1 61, 2 ). 9 9. d escribed 1 85)

T he u pper p art o f a m ace w ith a h ead i dentical t o t hat a bove ( No. 9 8) w as f ound i n t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 16-22-

1 00. A f ragment o f a m ace d ated t o t he l ate-14th c entury ( 6-91 540) h ad a f luted h ead 9 c m . i n d iameter. T he p lace w here t he h ead j oined t he h andle w as m arked b y a c ollar ( pl. 1 61, 5 ). 1 01. T he 1 6th h orizon p roduced t he h ead o f a l arge m ace ( 16-203 4), 1 0.5 c m . i n d iameter, i nterestingly d ecorated . I ts f ront c arved a d ecoration l ike a s olar d isc 5 c m . i n d iameter. T he d isc w as d ivided i nto 6 s ectors, w ith d eeply c ut t riangles. T he d isc w as b ordered w ith a z ig-zag p attern ( pl. 1 60, 2 ). T he r est o f t he b all w as c overed w ith o rnamental c ircles d ecorated w ith d eeply i ncised l ines m eeting a t r ight a ngles. T he e ntire d ecorative s cheme w as m arked b y h igh a rtistic t aste a nd w as e vidently e xecuted b y a s killed c raftsman ( pl. 1 61, 3 ). 1 02. A s imilar m ace h ead w as f ound i n t he 1 5th h orizon ( 15-181 657), but m ade w ith l ess c raftsmanship a nd t aste. T he d isc i s r eplaced b y a c ircle w ith f our s ectors f ormed b y t rihedral h ollows. T he s urface o f t he h ead i s d ivided i nto s quares b y d eeply i ncised g rooves. A rchaeologists h ave t he h andles.

f ound

t hree

m aces

w ith

t he h eads

a ttached

t o

1 03. A h ead 9 c m . i n d iameter; a ttached t o i ts h andle i s d ated t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 13-20-1438). T he s urviving p art i s 2 7 c m . l ong . T he h ead i s d ivided i nto s quares b y d eeply i ncised g rooves ( pl. 1 61, 4 ). 1 04. T he h ead o f a nother m ace s trongly r esembled b ronze b eing a c ube w ith e ight b evelled f aces e ach m easuring 8 x 8 c m . M ace

h andles

w ere

o ften

a rtistically

c arved

a nd

i n

t his

m aces,

r espect

t hey d eserve s pecial m ention . 1 05. A f ragment o f a h andle f rom t he l ate-12th c entury ( 16-232 048) i s 2 7 c m . l ong . I ts t ip w as d ecorated w ith a b road b and o f i nterlaced d esign 8 c m . w ide ( pl. 1 62, 3 ).

1 69

1 06.

A nother

f ragment

d ating

f rom

t he

1 2th

c entury

c arries

a n

i ntricate b raided d ecoration b ased o n s quares f ormed b y t wo s trands i ntertwining w ith s imilar s quares ( 16-22-1259), ( pl. 1 62, 2 ). T here a re i ntertwining b ands a mong t he s quares. T he b elt i s 1 5 c m . w ide. T he

d ecoration

D emetrius' 1 07.

c losely

r esembles

t hat

f ound

c arved

i n

s tone

o n

S t .

C athedral i n V ladimir. A nother h andle

d ated

s till m ore c omplicated d esign . n arrow b and o f b raided p attern ,

t o

t he

1 3th

c entury

( 15-20-80)

b ore

a

I ts u pper p art w as d ecorated w ith a t o b e f ollowed , o n t he l ower p arts o f

t he o bject, w ith i ntertwining s trips o f l ozenges ( pl. 1 62, 4 ). T here a re o vals w ith p almettes i n t he p laces w here t he l ozenges m eet. T he o rnament i s i ncised i n s hallow r elief . T he b and i s 2 0 c m . w ide. A s imilar d ecoration i s f ound o n t he C athedral a t S uzdal. 1 08. A f ragment o f a m ace d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury ( 14-20-68), c m . l ong . I t h as t wo d ecorative b ands. O ne o f t hem , 2 .5 c m . w ide, f ormed b y a t hree-row b raided p attern ( pl. 1 62, 6 ). Another b and t he s ame w idth i s f ormed b y f ive i ntertwining l oops.

N OTES 1 .

J .

S trzygowski,

1 929;

2 .

H .

O 'Neil H encken ,

3 .

W .

H olubowicz,

J .

H amilton ,

1 933.

1 933.

1 956,

p .

3 17;

R .

1 70

B arnycz-Gupieniec,

1 959,

p .

9 7.

3 0 i s o f

C HAPTER T HREE C arving f or i nterior a nd e xterior d ecoration - C olumns - C hair b acks - B ench b acks - D etails o f f urniture - A b ar d ecorated w ith d ragons - F urniture b alusters - B alusters u sed f or h ouse d ecoration -D ecorative b orders. T he e ntire b ody o f a rchaeological f inds, e specially o f w ooden o bjects, e nables u s t o r econstruct t he i nterior a nd t he e xterior o f N ovgorod h ouses. R ecently p ublished f undamental w orks o n R ussian p easant d wellings 1 a re o f i mmense h elp i n t his r espect s ince t hey p rovide a nalogies t o p ractically a nd 1 5th c enturies.

a ll

t he

f inds

d ated b etween

t he

1 0th

T here w ere t hree t ypes o f d welling i n N ovgorod : ( 1) h ouses w ith f our e xterior w alls s upplemented w ith o ne i nternal l oad-bearing w all; t hey m easured b etween 4 0 a nd 8 0 s q m etres; ( 2) h ouses w ith f our e xterior w alls c overing 2 5 t o 6 0 s q m etres a nd ( 3) h ouses d ivided i nto t hree p arts: l iving q uarters, p arlour a nd p assage. A ll h ouses i n N ovgorod w ere e ither r ectangular o r s quare. F or

t he m ost

p art N ovgorod d welling h ouses

h ad g round

f loors

a nd

f irst f loors. T he g round f loor, b eing u nheated a nd l ow-ceilinged , w as u sed f or s toring f oodstuffs, h ousehold u tensils a nd o ther t hings. T he m ain p art o f t he h ouse w as s ituated o n t he f irst f loor w ith a ccess f rom t he g round f loor b y a w ide s taircase. P ine-wood a nd s pruce w ere m ost c ommon t imber, l ogs b eing f rom 2 0 t o 2 5 c m . i n d iameter. T he p eople o f N ovgorod made s kilful u se o f t he p otential o f t he c onstructional m aterials t hey u sed , t heir

d ecorative t exture a nd

c olour, a nd i mparted a n i ntegral a rtistic a ppearance t o t heir h ouses. T he s olid b lock o f ah ouse w as c rowned w ith a h igh a nd e legantly s haped r oof c overed w ith d eal o r s hingles. W ell-cut w indow c asings w ere e xtremely p opular. H ouse r oofs w ere d ecorated w ith c arved f igures o f a nimals o r b irds. N umerous d etails o f s taircases, g alleries a nd p orches w ere l avishly c arved a s w ell. T he

i nterior

d ecoration

i n

t he

1 0th-llth

c enturies

e xhibited

t he m ain e lements k nown t o u s f rom e thnographic m aterials a nd 1 9th c enturies. W e c an s afely a ssert t he e xistence s leeping p laces, b eds, t ables a nd b uilt-in b enches, c hairs s mall s ideboards, c radles, l arge b oxes a nd o ther h ousehold o f t hem d ecorated w ith c arving .

a ll

o f t he 1 8th o f b uilt-in a nd b enches, i tems, m any

F inds r elated t o t he e xterior a nd i nterior d ecoration o f N ovgorod h ouses i nclude c olumns, w indow c asings, g ate w ings a nd a rches, c arved b alusters, b acks o f c hairs a nd b enches, h eadboards o f c radles . and f ragments o f o ther w ooden a rticles. C olumns w ere a rtistic c arving .

n ot

a r are

f ind ,

t hough

o nly

t wo

o f

t hem

c arry

1 09. A n o ak c olumn d iscovered i n t he l ate-llth-century l evels ( 21-20-138). A t t hat t ime i t w as u sed a s a b eam . I t f ollows t hat i t w as u sed a s a c olumn b etween t he 1 040s a nd 1 080s, t hat i s, t he p eriod

1 71

w hen S t. S ophia 's C athedral w as built i n N ovgorod . W e h ave o nly i ts u pper e nd , 1 11 c m . l ong . T he c olumn w as s plit l engthwise, o ur f ragment p resenting a q uarter o f i ts i nitial s ize. I ts o riginal d iameter was 5 9 c m . ( pl. 1 63, 1 ; 1 64). T he s urviving p art o f t he c olumn i s c overed w ith b raiding f orming t wo r ound m edallions i n i ts c entral s ection ( pl. 1 65). A g riffin a nd a c entaur w ith l eopard 's b odies, t he l atter h olding h is t ail* w hich t urns i nto a t wining d esign t owards t he e nd , a re t he s ubjects o f t he t wo m edallions. T he l eft s ides o f b oth r epresentations w ere l ost . T he d ecoration w as r estricted t o t he r ight h alf o f t he c olumn , w ith b raiding d esign b eing l imited b y a b order . I t s eems t hat i t was a h alf-column o r p ilaster. T he d ecoration i s m ade i n s hallow r elief, t he b raiding b eing l ess d eep t owards t he e dges ( pl. 1 67). E ach s trand i s a bout 2 c m . w ide, a nd t he b ackground w as 1 -1.2 c m . d eep. T he m edallion w ith t he g riffin w as 3 0 c m . i n d iameter, a nd t hat w ith t he c entaur 3 3 c m . T he g riffin 's w ings a re f ormed b y s ix s trips, t he e xtreme l eft b eing b ent f oüward , o thers b eing b ent b ackwards. I ts t ail g rows i nto a t wining d esign t owards i ts e nd . B oth t he g riffin a nd t he c entaur h ad n otches o n t hem w hich m akes t hem l ook l ike s culptures. T he c olumn i s e mbellished w ith a f rieze 7 c m . w ide r unning a long i ts u pper p art. I t i s f ormed b y f our i ntertwined t wo-strand s trips. T he d istance b etween t he c olumn 's u pper e dge a nd t he f rieze i s 5 c m . I n i ts o rnamentation t he c olumn i s c lose t o s imilar o bjects f ound i n t he d ecorated f açades o f t he c hurches i n V ladimir a nd S uzdal d ating t o t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies, t hough i t w as m ade t wo hundred y ears e arlier. 2 1 10. An o ak c olumn f ound n ear t he c olumn d escribed a bove ( 21-201 39) i s a lso d ated b etween t he 1 040s a nd 1 080s. W e h ave t he u pper p art, 8 0 c m . l ong . I t w as l ikewise s plit i nto s ections. I ts d iameter w as 5 1 c m . C arving i s r estricted s olely t o t he u pper p art o f t he f ragment. T he m ain e lement i s a s tylised p almette ( pl. 1 63, 2 ), 3 6 c m . h igh, c ut i n s hallow r elief . T he c arving g rows s hallower t owards t he e dges, t he b ackground i s 0 .5 c m . d eep. A ll d etails a re g rooved . T he u pper p art o f t he c olumn h as a f rieze 7 c m . w ide w hich i s a bsolutely i dentical w ith t hat o n t he p revious c olumn . T he c omposition i s 4 3 c m . w ide. T he s tylised t ree i s s upplemented w ith s tylised b ranches t ipped w ith S -shaped s crolls. T he l eft p art o f t he o rnament l ooks n arrower t han t he r ight s ide ( pl. 1 66, 1 ). B acks o f a rmchairs o r s leigh s eats ( pl. 1 68, 1 69), o f b enches a nd c hairs a s w ell a s o ther d etails o f f urniture w ere f ound i n g reat n umbers, t he m ajority b eing d ated t o t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies. 1 11. An a rmchair b ack d ated t o t he f irst half o f t he 1 3th c entury w as d iscovered i n t he 1 4th h orizon ( 14-14-521). I ts s emi-oval u pper p art i s a ssociated w ith r ectangular b ase. I t w as f ound i n t wo f ragments m inus a s mall m issing p iece o n t he r ight s ide. T he b ack w as 4 9 c m . h igh, o ne o f t he f ragments b eing 4 2 c m . w ide, t he o ther 1 2 c m . w ide. T he s hape o f t he o bject c an e asily b e r econstructed ; i t was 8 0 *

A c entaur h aving h is

t ail

i n h is

h and

i s

a lso

k nown

c arvings o f S t. D emetrius c athedral i n V ladimir. T he p robably B yzantine r oots - c f .: 1 2th c entury i vory W ürzburg c athedral. - A . C h .

1 72

i n

t he

f açade

i conography h as c asket k ept i n

c m . w ide ( pl. 1 68, 1 ) a nd 2 c m . t hick . I t w as o riginally m ade o f t wo p arts j oined t ogether b y t wo d owels f ixed i n t he b ack s ide. T he b ack , w hich i s m ade o f p ine-wood , w as a ttached t o t he a rmchair b y d owels. T he c ontour o rnament w as o utlined w ith g rooves 0 .2 c m . w ide. T he e ntire s urface i s b ordered w ith a s trip 2 c m . w ide c ontaining z ig-zag l ines. I t i s s eparated f rom t he u pper e dge b y 3 c m ., a nd f rom t he l ower by 9 c m . T he c entral p art c arries a q uadrifoliate o rnament ( pl. 1 70, 6 ), 2 3 c m . m easured d iagonally . 1 12. A b ack f rom t he e arly-14th-century l evels ( 10-15-273). I ts f orm i s s hown i n p l. 1 70, 1 . I t h as b een p reserved f or t wo-thirds o f i ts w idth. T he f ragment i s 3 8 c m . h igh, 4 2 c m . w ide, a nd 1 .5 c m . t hick . I t w as 7 6 c m . w ide, a nd w as m ade o f t wo l ime-wood b oards j oined t ogether by t wo d owels. T he b ack w as j oined t o t he a rmchair b y d owels. I ts d ecoration i s s hown i n p l. 1 70, 2 . I n t he u pper p art i t i s d ivided b y 1 .5 c m . f rom t he e dge, i n t he l ower b y 9 c m . E ach s trand i s 1 .5 c m . w ide a nd t he g rooves a re 0 .2 c m . w ide.

t he

1 13. A r ectangular b ack w ith c oncave u pper c orners w as f ound i n 1 0th h orizon ( 10-8-1108) a nd d ated t o t he l ate-13th o r e arly-14th

c entury ( pl. 1 70, 3 ). T he f ragment c m . t hick . I ts o riginal w idth w as w ood , t he t wo p arts b eing j oined b y t o t he a rmchair w ith d owels. T he

i s 3 3 c m . h igh , 4 7 c m . w ide a nd 1 6 5 c m . I t w as a lso m ade o f l imet wo d owels. T he b ack w as a ttached g eometrical d esign , w hich t akes u p

t he u pper p art o f t he o bject, i s d ivided by 1 2 c m . f rom i ts l ower e dge. T he o rnament i s b ordered w ith a n otched s trip 1 .3 c m . w ide. I t i s s hown i n p l. 1 70, 4 . A d efinite r hythm i s c reated b y a s light d isplacement o f e ach s tripe a s c ompared t o i ts c ontinuation . 1 14. A r ectangular b ack w ith r ounded u pper c orners w as f ound i n t he 1 3th h orizon r elated t o t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-14-465). W e h ave t he g reater p art o f t he o bject; i t i s 4 0 c m . h igh, 4 8 c m . w ide a nd 1 .3 c m . t hick , t he o riginal w idth o f t he b ack w as 7 0 c m . I t w as m ade o f l imew ood , t he p arts b eing j oined t ogether b y t wo d owels. T he o rnament i s i ncised i n s hallow g rooves. I n g eneral i t c losely r esembles t he o rnament o n t he b ack N o. 1 12. T he u pper s ide i s b ordered w ith f our g rooves, e ach 2 .2 c m . w ide. I n t he l ower p art t he b road l ine f orms a w ide s emi-circle. T he s pace b etween t he l ower a nd t he u pper l ines i s o ccupied by a t wo-strand b raiding f orming 5 x 5 c m . s quares. T wo s trips w ith a z ig-zag l ine b etween t hem , a re p laced l ower. I n t he r ight a nd l eft s ides t here a re p atterns f ormed b y k nots a nd b raided s trips e ach 1 .4 c m . w ide. T he l ower u ndecorated p art w as 6 c m . w ide ( pl. 1 68, 2 ). 1 15.

T wo f ragments o f a b ack d ated t o t he e arly-14th c entury w ere

f ound i n t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-9-1767). T hey a lso w ere m ade f rom a l ime b oard 2 c m . t hick , i ts s hape c losely r esembling t hat o f N o. 1 14. T he t wined d esign w as d eeply i ncised , e ach b raiding i s 1 .6 c m . w ide. T he f ragments m easured 2 5 x 1 5 c m . a nd 1 5 x 6 c m . ( pl. 1 72, 3 ). 1 16. A f ragment o f a l ime b ack d ated t o t he l ate-14th c entury ( 65 -1937). I t s hows t he o riginal l ength o f 3 8 c m ., t he w idth o f t he s urviving p ortion b eing 1 7 c m . I ts d ecoration c losely r esemble t hose d escribed i n N os. 1 12 a nd 1 14; i t i s c omposed o f f ine g rooves. T here i s a n o val i n t he c entre, w ith a d esign o f v ertical i ntertwining l ines

1 73

e ach

1 c m .

w ide

w ith a g roove

a bove

( pl.

i t.

1 72,

T he

u pper

p art

o f

t he

d esign

i s

b ordered

4 ).

1 17. A b ack ( which p robably c ame f rom a s leigh s eat) d ated t o t he e arly-15th c entury . I t w as d iscovered i n t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-9-1227). I t i s w ell p reserved a nd h as t he f orm o f a t riangle w ith a s omewhat f lattened v ertex . I t w as 2 7.5 c m . h igh , 7 0 c m . w ide a nd 1 .7 c m . t hick . T he l ower p art h ad h ollows f or f ixing i t t o t he s eat. T he b ack s ide h ad a b ast p atch o n i t. T he p attern w as d eeply i ncised . O n t he r ight s ide, d ivided i nto t hree p arts b y g rooves, t here w ere t hree s olar s ymbols, o ne 8 c m . i n d iameter, t he o ther t wo 6 .5 c m . i n d iameter . T he d esign i s s hown i n p l.

1 71,

1 .

1 18. A f ragment o f a l ime b oard , 1 .5 c m . t hick , which p robably c ame f rom a b ack o f a n a rmchair. I t c ame f rom t he l ate-14th-century l evels ( 6-12-140). I ts s ize i s 1 8 x 1 2 c m . T he b oard i s d ensely d ecorated w ith d eep ( 0.2 c m .) g rooves, t he d esign m ade u p o f s lightly b evelled r ectangles 3 x 2 c m . i n s ize a rranged i n s lanting l ines i n a r igid o rder 1 19.

( pl.

1 72,

A p art

o f

2 ). a c arved b oard m ade

o f

l ime-wood

1 .3

c m .

t hick .

I t a lso c ame f rom t he l ower p art o f a b ack . T he f ragment w as f ound i n t he l evels o f t he m id-14th c entury ( 8-11-1018). I ts s ize i s 2 4 x 2 6 c m . S ixteen c entimetres h ave n o c arving , t he o ther 8 c m . a re c overed w ith n otches o f v arying w idth . T he e ach o ther b y t hree n arrow o nes, p erpendicular l ines.

w idest, w hich a re a re d ivided i nto

s eparated f rom r ectangles b y

T he d ecoration i s i ncised .

1 20. T his f ragment i s, i n f act, t he u pper r ight p art o f a b oard v ery c lose i n f orm t o t he b ack N o. 1 13. I t w as d iscovered i n t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-13-2129). T he b oard o f l ime-wood i s 1 .3 c m . t hick , a nd t he f ragment m easures 1 2 x 1 5 c m . T here i s a c arved s trip a long t he b oard 's e dge. T he e nclosed s pace i s n eatly c arved i nto s quares w ith e ach s ide e qualling 1 .2 c m . 1 21.

F ive

f ragments

T he p attern i s s hown i n p l.

o f o ne b oard ,

1 72,

1 .

t heir c ombined s ize b eing 2 3 x

1 7 c m . T hey w ere d iscovered i n t he l ate-13th-century l evels ( 12-191 37). T he d ecoration , s omewhat r esembling t hat o n b oard N o. 1 13, c onsists o f s traight c rossed l ines. 1 22. A l ime b oard 1 .4 c m . t hick , i ts s ize b eing 2 6 x 1 2 c m . I t w as f ound i n t he 1 4th-century l evels ( 6-9-1314). I ts s urface w as c overed w ith s tripes f ormed b y t wo g rooves. I t i s 1 c m . w ide. T hey c ross a t a cute a ngles f orming l ozenges. B acks

o f

b enches

c omprise

a s pecial

g roup

o f

d ecorated

b oards.

T hey w ere m ade o f t hin l ime-wood b oards a nd a ttached w ith d owels t o s olid f rames. T hree o bjects o f t his k ind h ave b een f ound , o ne o f t hem ' intact a nd t wo o thers i n f ragments. 1 23.

A n

i ntact b oard w as

f ound

i n

t he

1 5th-century

l evels

( 3-6-

1 228). I t w as 1 20 c m . l ong , 2 5 c m . w ide a nd 2 .5 c m . t hick w ith r ounded s ides. A n o rnamental s trip 6 .5 c m . w ide r uns a long t he u pper , l eft a nd r ight s ides. T he m ain s trip, f ormed b y f our d eep g rooves, w as 4 .5 c m . w ide. T here w ere s ix h ollows w ith t wo h oles f or f ixing d owels i n e ach

1 74

o f t hem . T hey h ad c arved o rnaments a round t hem . O utside t he s trip t he b oard w as u ndecorated , b eing e mbellished s olely b y t he n atural w ood t exture. I t s eems t hat i t w as w axed t o b ring o ut t he b eauty o f t he w ood . 1 24. A f ragment o f a n a nalogous b oard f rom t he 1 4th-century l evels ( 12-13-1025). I t i s 2 5 c m . h igh w hich r epresents t he b oard 's o riginal

s ize

t hat o f N o.

a nd 4 5 c m .

l ong .

T he

o rnamental b and

i s

i dentical w ith

1 23.

1 25. T he t hird f ragment w as l evels ( 10-15-273). W e h ave a s ide

f ound i n t he e arly-14th-century p art 3 6 c m . l ong . T he b oard w as

1 .2 c m . t hick . T he c omposition o n i t r esembles t hat d escribed i n N o. 1 23. An o rnamental s trip 6 c m . w ide b orders t he u pper e dge ( pl. 1 71, 2 ). E longated a nd p aired f igure-of-eight s haped f igures o ccupy t he c entre o f t he s trip. B oth a re a bsolutely i dentical, t he l ength o f e ach i s 1 1 c m . T he r est o f t he b oard i s c overed w ith a n e xtremely c omplicated t wined d esign . I t i s c omposed o f t wo i ntertwining s trands e ach 1 c m . w ide. T he d istance b etween b raids i s 3 .5 c m . T he p attern i s m ade i n s hallow r elief . T he b ackground i s s omewhat r aised w hich m akes t he o rnament d eeper a nd m ore e xpressive. T here a re t wo p airs o f h oles f or f ixing r ods a long t he o uter o rnamental s trip. 1 26. A c radle b ack , 1 705). T he o bject w as f ound d ecorative p rojection i n t he 2 7.5 c m . h igh . O n t he r ight a rmed c ross, 1 6 c m . h igh a nd

f ound i n t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 14-12i ntact. I t i s s emi-circular w ith a s harp m iddle. T he c rib b ack w as 4 6 c m . w ide a nd s ide o f t he p ine b oard t here i s a n e ight8 c m . w ide.

P ieces o f b enches, i n-built b eds, f urniture a re n ot numerous. T heir i ntertwined a nd g eometrical d esigns, s crolls.

t ables a nd o ther p ieces o f d ecorations w ere based o n c ompleted with n otches a nd

1 27. T wo l arge b oards w ere f ound i n t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 131 5-452). T hey w ere m ade o f p ine-wood a nd w ere 1 90 c m . l ong , 2 5 c m . w ide a nd 3 c m . t hick . T he e nds h ad d owels e ach 6 c m . l ong , w hich h ad s erved t o j oin t he b oards t o s ome o ther c onstruction . T he l ength o f t he c arefully p laned s urfaces o f t he t wo b oards w as 1 78 c m . T hey c arried a d eeply i ncised t wined d esign ( pl. 1 74, 1 ) w ith i ntertwining o vals a nd t hree-strand b raiding . E ach s trand , 5 .5 c m . w ide, w as f ormed b y f our l ines. I t s eems p robable t hat b oth b oards w ere p arts o f a l arger c omposition w ith t he t hird e lement m issing . 1 28.

A nother b oard

d ated

t o

t he

1 4th

c entury

c losely

r esembles

t hat p reviously d escribed , t hough i t i s m uch s horter a nd b roader: 6 7 c m . l ong a nd 3 4 c m . w ide. T here a re d owels e ach 6 c m . l ong o n i ts e nds. T he s urface w as o rnamented w ith t wo r ows o f t wined d esign f ormed b y i ncised s trands, e ach 7 c m . w ide ( pl. 1 74, i s made u p o f a t hree-strand braiding, i ntersecting a t r ight a ngles. 1 29.

A b oard

c arved o rnament b oard i s 7 6 c m .

d ating

t o

t he

1 4th

e xactly s imilar t o t hat l ong a nd 2 0.5 c m . w ide.

1 75

6 ). t he

c entury

O ne d ecorative b and o ther by s trands

( 8-7-1762)

c arries

a

d escribed i n N o. 1 28. T he O ne o f i ts e nds h as a l ong

d owel o n i t. 1 30. A l ong b ar w as f ound i n t he 1 4th-century l evels ( 10-15-278), w hich p robably c ame f rom a b ench . T he l ength o f t he s urviving f ragment i s 1 40 c m ., b ut i ts d ecoration a nd c onstruction i ndicate t hat i t n ot s horter t han 1 90 c m . I t i s 1 0 c m . w ide a nd 2 .2 c m . t hick . O n l ower s ide t here w ere s lots 5 c m . w ide f or f ixing balusters. d ecoration i s s hown i n p l. 1 72, 7 . A s imilar b ar w as d iscovered i n 1 3th-century l evels ( 11-18-192).

w as i ts T he t he

1 31. A b ar o f a s imilar c onstruction t hough c arrying a d ifferent d esign w as f ound i n t he m id-13th-century l evels ( 13-15-886). W e h ave a f ragment 3 7 c m . l ong , 6 c m . w ide a nd 2 .2 c m . t hick . A f ine c arved d ecoration m ade b y s uccessive S -shaped s crolls 3 c m . e ach i s s hown i n P1 . 1 72,

6 .

1 32. A f ragment o f a t hin d ecorated b oard o f t he e arly-15th c entury ( 4-3 4645) i s 6 7 c m . l ong , 9 c m . w ide a nd 1 c m . t hick . O ne o f t he e nds h ad a t enon . T he d ecoration c onsists o f w ide i ncised s trips s uperimposing o n o ne o ther a t r ight a ngles. 1 33. A f ragment 7 0 c m . l ong a nd 6 c m . w ide c ame f rom a v ertical f urniture b ar ( 12-12-985). T he l ower e nd h ad a t enon . T he o rnament c onsisting o f f our g rooved l ines a nd t hree-stand b raiding b egins a l ittle b it h igher ( pl. 1 74, 2 ). 1 34.

A s mall b ar

d ated

t o

t he

e arly-15th

d ecorated w ith t hree p rotruding s quares d esigns f ormed f rom t rihedral h ollows.

( 4

c entury

x 3 .5

c m .)

( 5-8-1311) w ith

w as

z ig-zag

1 35. A f ragment ( 16 x 1 0 c m .) o f a t hin o rnamental b oard w as f ound i n t he e arly-13th-century l evels ( 15-21-1136). I t w as d ecorated w ith s crolls a nd o pen-works 1 36.

A b oard

d ated

( pl. t o

d ecorated w ith t wo s olar s igns,

1 70,

t he

5 ).

l ate-llth

6 c m .

c entury

i n d iameter,

( 21-26-1134)

w as

t heir o utlines b eing

e mphasised w ith y ellow p aint. 1 37. A s olid b oard w ith a c arved u pper s urface, 9 5 c m . h igh a nd 3 4 c m . w ide, w as d iscovered i n t he e arly-15th-century l evels ( 5-71 533). I t w as u sed e ither s tructurally o r a s p art o f a b ench .

6 52),

1 38. A s olid p ine-wood b oard d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-11d ecorated w ith c arving a nd p ainting . W e h ave a f ragment 1 53 c m .

l ong a nd 2 8 c m . w ide. I ts r ight s ide i s h eavily d ecorated : t he u pper p art h as a w inding s pray w ith b ranches, t he l ower o ne a t wined d esign . T he p attern w as f irst i ncised a nd t hen c ompleted w ith y ellow p aint, t races o f w hich h ave b een d etected o n t he f loral o rnament ( pl. 1 74, 3 ). T hree

f lat

d ecorated

b ars

c onstitute

a

s pecial

g roup

i n

t he

N ovgorod c ollection . T hey c ame e ither f rom a l arge a rmchair o r a s leigh s eat. T hey w ere p urely o rnamental e lements a nd w ere a ttached t o m ore s olid e lements w ith d owels. T hey were r ounded , t heir r econstructed d iameter b eing 6 0 t o 7 0 c m .

1 76

1 39. A f ragment 4 5.5 c m . l ong , 6 .7 c m . w ide a nd 1 .4 c m . t hick c ame f rom t he m id-llth-century l evels ( 23-25-1573). T here w as a h old i n t he back b y w hich i t w as a ttached t o a n a rmchair. P l. 1 61, 6 ; p l. 1 75, 1 -3 s hows i ts r ather s ophisticated d ecoration w hich r esembles S candinavian s amples i ncluding f our i ntertwining d ragon i mages. 1 39a. A n a nalogous b ar w as f ound i n t he S uvorovsky e xcavations ( Suv . 3 7-52). I t i s d ated t o t he e arly-llth c entury . W e h ave a f ragment 5 6 c m . l ong , 6 .2 c m . w ide a nd 2 c m . t hick . I t a lso a s a h ole f or f ixing i t t o t he m ain c onstruction . P l. 1 75, 4 a nd p l. 1 76, 1 g ives a n i dea o f i ts h ighly a rtistic a nd s kilful c raving . 1 40. T his bar d iffers b ut l ittle f rom t he t wo p revious o nes i n i ts c onstruction . I t w as f ound i n t he 1 5th h orizon ( 25-29-156). W e h ave i ts s ide p art 2 8 c m . l ong a nd 6 c m . w ide. T he r ight s ide c arries s quares m ade f rom t rihedral h ollows ( pl. 2 26, 7 ). B aluster i f orm a r ather n umerous g roup o f w ooden f inds: m ore t han 5 5 i tems have b een c ollected . T hey a re f urniture d ecorations a nd a lso o bjects o f i nterior a nd e xterior d ecoration .

t heir

F urniture balusters c an b e d ivided i nto t hree t ypes a ccording t o d ates a nd c onstruction : r ound b alusters, s olid f lat b alusters

w ithout c arved d ecoration a nd t hin f lat o nes w ith c arving . T aking i nto a ccount t heir g reat number w e c an i ndicate t heir c hronological b oundaries. R ound f urniture b alusters a re t he e arliest t ype, t hey w ere i n u se b etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 2th c enturies. H ere a re t heir c ard n umbers: 2 7-26-485

2 2-23-1462

1 6-17-1999

2 7-30-1293

2 1-16-1752

1 6-23-1374

2 7-33-816

2 1-26-1011

1 3-11-1720

2 6-27-1691

2 1-26-1074

1 3-18-1312

2 5-28-385

2 1-24-1549

1 2-11-2018

2 4-32-1462

1 7-23-1376

1 2-11-511

2 3-25-1572

1 7-24-1125

2 2-23-1790

1 41. A f ragment o f a t urned b aluster 2 3 c m . l ong d ates t o t he e arly-llth c entury ( 25-28-386). I t c onsists o f t wo p arts, t he t hicker b eing 3 .8 c m . i n d iameter, t he w aist s haped a s t wo r ings b eing 2 .2 c m . i n d iameter. 1 42. A f ragment o f a t urned b aluster d ating t o t he l ate-llth c entury i s 2 5.7 c m . l ong ( 22-23-1790). I t i s f ormed f rom b alls 4 .3 c m . i n d iameter a nd a b itrapezoidal s hape 2 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T he c ylindrical l ower p art h ad a s quare t enon . T his o bject h as i ts a nalogies: 2 7-33-816, 2 4-32-1462, 2 3-25-1572, 2 1-24-1549 ( pl. 1 77, 3 ). 1 43.

A w ell

p reserved

t urned b aluster

1 77

o f

t he

l ate-llth

c entury

( 21-26-1011). I t w as m ade b y a lternating d iscs a nd b itrapezoidal s hapes ( pl. 1 77, 5 ), 1 7 f igures o f e ach t ype. T he b aluster i s 5 5 c m . l ong ,

t he

d iscs

a re

4 .5

c m .

i n d iameter,

a nd

t here

i s

a t enon

i n

t he

l ower e nd . 1 44. A l arge p art o f a s olid t urned b aluster d ating f rom t he l ate-llth c entury ( 21-26-1074). I t i s c omposed o f b arrel-shaped f igures 3 .2 c m . h igh a nd 4 c m . i n d iameter. T hey a re s eparated b y s mall d iscs, e ach s et o f w hich i s 9 .5 c m . l ong . T he d istance b etween d iscs w as 0 .7 c m . T he f ragment i tself i s 3 3 c m . l ong . T wo s imilar o bjects w ere f ound i n l ater l evels: 1 3-11-1720 a nd 1 2-11-1018 ( pl. 1 77, 6 ). 1 45.

A b aluster

o f

t he

l ate-llth

c entury ,

2 1

c m .

l ong

( 21-16-

1 752). T he l arger p art i s 3 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T he o bject i s m ade o f c onical a nd o val s hapes. T he b utt-end h ad a t enon . A f ragment o f a b aluster d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury ( 27-30-1293) o f a s imilar s hape i s 1 7.5 c m .

l ong .

1 46. A s mall r ound b aluster c ame f rom t he l ate-12th c entury ( 172 3-1376). I t i s 6 c m . l ong a nd 3 c m . i n d iameter. I t c onsists o f t wo c onical s hapes j oined t ogether b y a b ead . T here a re t enons a t t he e nds. S imilar o bjects a lso c ame f rom 1 0th- a nd 1 2th-century l evels. A l arger o bject o f t he s ame t ype, 4 .3 c m . i n d iameter, was f ound i n t he e arly-14th-century l evels F ive

w ell-preserved

c lass o f t hese o bjects,

( 10-11-511). f lat

f igured

b alusters

r epresent

t he

e ntire

i n u se i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies.

1 47. An i ntact b aluster o f t he l ate-12th c entury ( 16-22-119) w as m ade o f a s olid o ak b ar . I t i s 2 7 c m . h igh, 1 0 c m . w ide a nd 4 .5 c m . t hick . I ts s hape i s s hown i n p l. 1 79, 2 . S imilar o bjects w ere o btained f rom t he 1 6th a nd 1 4th h orizons

( 16-23-1374 a nd 1 4-18-336).

1 48. Another b aluster o f t he s ame p eriod ( 16-14-1033). I t i s 2 4 c m . h igh a nd 9 c m . t hick . I n t he c entral p art o f e ach p iece t here w ere s quares. 1 49. A 1 3th-century b aluster ( 13-11-1711) was s omewhat l arger a nd w as d ecorated o n o ne s ide o nly . I t i s 3 0 c m . h igh a nd 1 0.5 c m . w ide. T he b ack had a l ongitudinal g roove. F lat balusters, d ated b etween t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury a nd t he e arly-14th c entury , a re t he c ommonest t ype. T heir n umber e xceeds 2 00. T hey a re u niform i n s hape, b eing f lat b oards w ith c onvex s ides a nd t enons o n t he e nds ( pl. 1 78-181). T hey d iffer f rom e ach o ther i n t heir d ecoration . T hese a re t heir c ard n umbers: 1 4-22-1434

1 2-16-285

1 1-14-1637

1 4-18-336

1 2-16-285

1 1-14-1637

1 3-20-1465

1 2-13-877

1 2-16-328

1 3-12-1934

1 1-14-1643

1 1-12-1078

1 78

1 2-20-804

1 1-14-1643

1 2-16-284

1 1-14-1643

1 2-16-284

1 1-14-1637

1 3-18-220 8 -14-1373

1 50. A baluster d ated t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 14-18-336). I t i s 2 0.5 c m . h igh n ot c ounting t he t enons, 9 .5 c m . w ide a nd 5 .2 c m . w ide a t t he waist,

1 .5

c m .

t hick .

I t

a re c m .

n otches w ide.

i ts c ontour. T here m ake t he s trip 1 .2

i s

d ecorated w ith

g rooves

r unning

a long

b etween t he t wo o utside l ines, w hich T he m iddle p art i s e mbellished w ith

c ross-hatching . 1 51. Another b aluster o f t he s ame c entury ( 14-22-1434). I t i s c onsiderably s maller, b eing 1 1.5 c m . h igh a nd 8 .5 c m . w ide. I t a lso h as g rooved

l ines

r unning a long

b y s lanting n otches 1 52.

( pl.

1 53. h igh

1 83,

A baluster o f

c m . h igh a nd , b asically t he e lements

( pl.

8 c m.

b ackground

o f

w ide.

i s

but

t he

s trips

a re

f ormed

m id-13th

c entury

( 13-20-1465).

I t

i s

1 8

t he t enons, 9 c m . w ide. T he p attern i s t he b ackground i s f ormed by d ifferent

1 ).

A b aluster

a nd

t he

n ot c ounting s ame t hough 1 83,

i ts b orders,

5 ).

m ade

t he

T he

o f

s ame

p eriod

b asic

a n arrow

( 13-12-1934).

o utline z ig-zag

r emains

I t

t he

s trip.

i s

s ame

T he

1 4

c m .

w hile

t he

m iddle

p art

i s

f illed w ith n otches. 1 54. b een

h ave

A b aluster o f t he l ate-13th c entury ( 12-16-285). T wo p ieces f ound, o ne 1 4.5 c m . h igh a nd 6 c m . w ide, t he o ther 1 3 c m .

h igh a nd 7 c m . i ncised w ith

w ide.

s trips

t ransversal

l ower

p arts,

T hey h ave

1 c m .

w ide

l ines.

a re

i dentical

p laces

T he

o ccupied

m iddle

b y

d ecoration c onsisting o f

d iagonally.

t wo

p art,

T he

a nd

t riangles

s trips

a lso

t he

a re

u pper

i nscribed

o ne

t wo

f illed a nd

t he

i nto

t he

o ther. 1 55.

T wo balusters

1 54 had a quite 1 5.5

x 8 c m .,

w ith

w ide

h ollows.

t he

t hey

s trips

f ound a longside

t he

d ecoration o n

t hem .

e vidently f illed

c ame

w ith

f rom

a

o ne

z ig-zag

T here a re e longated t riangles

1 56. s ame

a rticles

d escribed i n N o.

B eing o f s et.

l ine

t he

s ame

s ections

t hree o f

1 2.5 c m . h igh, 1 0 b alusters w ith t he

l ines t he

a re

d ecorated

f ormed

b y

t rihedral

i n t he u pper a nd l ower p arts.

e mbellished w ith n otches.

m iddle

p art

s ize,

T hey

A b aluster o f t he l ate-13th c entury ( 11-14-1637), s hape, but w ith a s omewhat d ifferent d ecoration .

b ordered w ith l ower

d ifferent

c arry

t riangles.

c m . w ide a nd 1 c m . t hick . s ame d ecoration ( 11-14-1643,

T he

b eing I t

u pper

T he

a nd

baluster

T here a re 1 1-14-1637,

o f i s t he i s

f our m ore 1 1-14-37,

1 1-14-43). 1 57.

A

b aluster

d ecoration o n i t

f rom

( 11-14-1643).

t he

s ame

I t

s et

r est b eing t aken b y a lmond-shaped n otches. c m .

w ide

( pl.

1 83,

o f

f inds

h as

i s b ordered w ith o ne

3 ).

1 79

I t

i s

a d ifferent

l ine

1 0.5 c m .

o nly,

t he

h igh a nd 9 .5

I n

s ome

o f

t he

b alusters

t he

u pper

a nd

l ower

s ides

a re

s omewhat

b evelled w hich s hows t hat t hey w ere f ixed n ot i nto p arallel b ars i nto s uch t hings a s s lanted g rooves o r o ther t hings o f t his k ind .

b ut

A rchaeologists have c ollected b alusters o f o ther f orms. 1 58. A b aluster o f t he 1 4th c entury ( 8-11-1538) i s a p lank w ith a c ircle 9 c m . i n d iameter. T he p lank i s 3 c m . w ide a nd 3 7 c m . h igh ( pl. 1 81, 2 ).

9 36) P l.

1 59. A b aluster f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-15r esembles t he p receding o bject but i s m ore s olid . I t i s s hown i n 1 78,

3 .

T here w ere c omposite h orizontal c ompositions.

balusters

f orming

both

v ertical

a nd

1 60. A a luster d ated t o t he l ate-13th c entury ( 11-15-284) i s 4 4 c m . h igh . I t c onsists o f t wo p arts, e ach 1 5 c m . l ong . T hey have a c ommon c entral t enon . I ts c onstruction i s s hown i n p l. 1 78, 1 . I t i s d ecorated i n a n o rdinary w ay w ith b ordering s trips f illed w ith s lant n otches a nd s mall t riangles a nd a lmond-shaped n otches B alusters

f rom

o rnated

handrails,

window

i n t he c entre. casings,

various

g alleries a nd p orches a re l ess f requent f inds. T wo s olid c entury l evels.

l oad-bearing

b alusters

w ere

f ound

i n

t he

e arly-15th-

1 61. A l arge baluster d iscovered i n t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-7-1533). I ts s hape i s s hown i n p l. 1 77, 2 . I t i s 9 8 c m . h igh a nd 1 9 c m . i n d iameter. E ach e nd h as a g roove 9 c m . w ide f or a r ectangular t enon . T he b aluster w as s kilfully m ade w ith a n a xe a nd a c hisel. 1 62. A b aluster o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 5th c entury ( 4-8-1196), 2 8 c m . i n d iameter, 7 3 c m . l ong . I t i s s hown i n p l. 1 77, 1 . I ts s pherical d ecoration i s 2 0 c m . i n d iameter . B oth e nds have t enons. T he b aluster w as h ewn w ith a n a xe. T hree

s ets

o f

l arge

f lat b alusters

w ere

d iscovered

i n

t he

1 5th-

c entury l evels. 1 63.

T wo

f lat

f igured

b alusters

building w ere f ound i n t he 1 st h orizon t heir t ime t hey a dorned e ither g ates o r

c oming ( 1-5-1191 a h ouse.

e vidently

f rom

a nd 1 -3-1250). E ach o f t hem i s

o ne I n 2 9

c m . h igh a nd 2 8 c m . w ide. T heir e nds c arried a l arge f lat t enon 2 4 c m . l ong . T heir f orm i s s hown i n p l. 1 83, 2 . 1 64. A b aluster f rom t he 4 th h orizon ( 4-6-1237) r esembles t he f lat c arved b alusters o f t he 1 3th c entury , a lthough i t i s c onsiderably l arger. I t i s 2 5 c m . h igh a nd 2 4 c m . w ide, w ith c onvex s ides ( pl. 1 82, 8 ). 1 65. A o ne-sided b aluster o f t he 1 5th c entury h igh a nd 1 5 c m . w ide. T he t enon i s 2 0 c m . l ong .

1 80

( 5-9-994),

3 3

c m .

T he N ovgorod c ollection i ncludes s everal 2 8-93, 1 8-22-1293, 6 -15-744) u sed a s t ips.

d ecorative

e lements

1 66. A g ood s ample i s a n e lement f rom t he l ate-14th 1 5-744) s hown i n p l. 1 82, 7 . T his o bject, m ade o f o ak , l ong , 1 4 c m . w ide i n i ts l ower p art a nd 4 c m . t hick .

( 23-

c entury ( 6w as 4 4 c m .

D ecorative e lements f ixed t o t he u pper i nner p arts o f g ates c omprise a n i ndividual g roup ( pl. 1 82, 9 ). F ive s uch o bjects w ere f ound : 2 2-27-95, 2 1-25-39, 1 8-20-983, 7 -8-919 a nd 9 -12-1015. 1 67. A n i nteresting o bject i s a n o ak b aluster o f t he 1 1th c entury ( 22-27-95). I t was 2 9 c m . h igh , 1 0.5 c m . w ide a nd 4 .5 c m . t hick . I t i s s hown i n p l. 1 82, 9 . D ecorative a rchitectural b orders a nd w indow c asings. T hirty i tems o f c arved o rnaments u sed t o d ecorate t he e xterior o f t he h ouses h ave b een f ound . F or t he m ost p art t hey s urvived a s f ragments, o nly s ix o f t hem b eing p reserved p ractically i ntact. E ven t he f ragments p ermit u s t o r econstruct t he d esign o f t he c arving o n t hem . 1 68. T wo f ragments l ooking v ery m uch a like c ame f rom a n e arly1 5th-century l evel ( 4-3-1602). O ne o f t hem i s 4 15 c m . l ong , a nother 4 00 c m . B oth o f t hem w ere 3 0 c m . l ong , w ith t he t hickness r eaching 3 c m . ( pl. 1 84, 1 ). B esides d ecorations r unning a long t he l ower e dges, t he t wo f ragments w ere s upplied w ith t hree h oles f or f ixing t hem t o t he r oof . E ach h ole i s 8 c m . i n d iameter a nd t hey a re s eparated b y 8 0 c m . T he b oards h ave n o c arving , a ll d ecoration b eing c oncentrated a long t heir l ower e dges a nd e nds. T he p itch o f t he s callop i s 1 4 c m . w ide a nd 1 0 c m . d eep. 1 69. A nother b oard f ound c lose t o t he t wo p revious o nes ( 4-31 602) w as d ifferently d ecorated , t hough i n t his c ase t he d ecoration w as l ikewise l imited t o t he l ower e dge ( pl. 1 84, 2 ). T he b oard , c arrying 1 9 f igured m otifs p laced 2 1 c m . a part, w as 4 30 c m . l ong , 2 5 c m . w ide a nd 2 .7 c m .

t hick .

1 70. T wo i dentical b oards ( borders) c ame f rom t he l ate-13thc entury l evels ( 12-13-1025). T hey a re s olid b locks 2 28 c m . l ong , 3 3 c m . w ide a nd 3 .5 c m . t hick . T hree o penwork h oles o n e ach o f t hem a re s haped l ike 1 2th-century c hurches ( pl. 1 83, 8 ). T he f igures a re 4 0 c m . w ide a nd 2 0 c m . h igh, a nd t hey a re s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y 2 1 c m . 1 71.

A b oard 1 25

t he 1 5th-century l evels F inds

f rom

l ower

c m .

l ong w ith

( 3-5-1237) l evels

a s calloped

( pl.

p resent

1 83,

l ower

m ore

i nterest

a s

d ecoration i s c oncerned . T hey a re, m ainly , f ragments b oards o r r andom f inds o f o penwork d ecorations. 1 72. c entury 1 85,

T he e arliest o f t hem i s ( 24-26-1309).

T he

a b oard

d ecorative

e dge

c ame

f rom

7 ).

f ragment

m otif

i s

f ar o f

d ated

a s

t heir

d ecorative

t o

t he

r econstructed

1 1th

i n

p l.

A n i dentical f ragment f rom t he 2 3rd h orizon ( 23-25-869),

a nd

1 . 1 73.

1 81

s imilar o bjects f rom t he h orizon ( 19-20-1397). 1 74.

T he

2 0th

( 20-20-977)

e leventh-century

l evels

( pl.

1 86,

1 ,

2 )

a nd t he

1 9th

h ave y ielded a f ragment w ith

a

d ifferent d ecorative motif ( 24-25-913). E ach d ecorative e lement c onsisted o f t wo t rapezes a nd t wo t riangular t eeth . I ts r econstruction i s i llustrated b y p l. 1 85, 6 . 1 75. A f ind f rom t he m id-llth c entury h as d ecorations i n s hallow r elief o n i ts u pper s ide ( 23-27-283). T he r elief i s m ade s till s hallower t owards t he e dges. E ach e lement i s 2 4 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 73, 1 ). 1 76. A p art o f a n i ntricately c ut t ooth w hich c ame f rom t he e arly 1 2th-century l evels ( 20-19-916) p ermits r econstruction o f t he e ntire l ower e dge ( pl. 1 85, 6 ). 1 77. E arly-13th-century l evels h ave y ielded a r ather l arge f ragment o f t he l ower p art o f a b oard w ith a rch-shaped d ecorations ( 152 3-1411). E ach e lement w as 2 9 c m . l ong ( pl. 1 73, 7 ; p l. 1 85, 9 ). 1 78. a bove i t ( pl. 1 86,

A f ragment w ith a s calloped e dge a nd r elief d ecoration just ( 17-19-876) w as d iscovered i n t he l ate-12th-century l evels 8 ).

1 79. A s olid b lock 3 0 c m . w ide a nd 7 c m . l ong w as o btained f rom m id-13th-century l evels ( 14-14-1091). I t b ears s lightly o verlapping c ircles, f ormed by t rihedral h ollows, 2 2 c m . i n d iameter. T he l ength o f t he f ragment i s 7 5 c m . 1 80.

A

f ragment,

w hich

c ame

f rom

t he

l ate-13th-century

l evels

( 12-15-1608), h as a d ouble s et o f d ecorations w hose r econstructions a re s hown i n p l. 1 85, 8 . 1 81. A f ragment f rom t he l ate-13th-century l evels ( 11-12-916) has d ouble s emi-circles a s i ts d ecoration , t heir p itch b eing 1 2 c m . ( pl. 1 86, 3 ). 1 82. An i nteresting f ragment h as b een p reserved i n a 1 2th-century l evel ( 17-22-1155). I ts r ather c omplicated d esign i s f ormed b y a lmonds haped e ngraved f igures a nd b raided p atterns, i s s hown i n p l. 1 85, 3 . 1 83. T he 4 th h orizon h as y ielded a f ragment d ecorated w ith a pples haped d ecorations ( 4-8-1199). T he d esign c an b e s een i n m ore d etail i n p l. 1 85, 7 . 1 84.

A b oard

f ragment w ith

a c omplex

o penwork d esign e mphasised

b y d eep g rooves w as o btained f rom t he l ate-14th-century l evels ( 16-20. 1 032) ( pl. 1 86, 6 ). F ragments w ith s imilar f loral o rnaments w ere f ound i n 1 4th-century l evels ( 9-15-1347 a nd 8 -12-1278). 1 85. O ther s amples o f o penwork w ere f ound ( 3-6-1206 a nd 3 -8-1121). P l. 1 86, 5 a nd p l. c onstruction w as s trengthened w ith l inking r ods. 1 86.

i n 1 5th-century l evels 1 84, 3 s how h ow t he

A f ragment w ith c arved s crolls a long i ts s calloped e dges w as

1 82

d iscovered i n t he 3 rd h orizon ( 3-5-1235)

( pl.

1 84 ,

4 ).

1 87. A d ecorative b oard 2 50 c m . l ong , 2 0 c m . w ide a nd 8 c m . t hick c ame f rom l ayers o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-20-2165). I t i s d ifficult t o s ay w hether i t w as p art o f s ome c oncrete d ecorative d etail. I t i s s hown i n p l. 1 83, 6 . 1 88. A s hort s upport , 4 0 c m . h igh a nd 1 8 c m . i n d iameter , w hich s erved a s p art o f ap orch , w as f ound i n t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-7-1545). I t c onsists o f t wo p arts.

N OTES

1 .

I .V .

M akovetsky ,

1 962;

2 .

A .V .

A rtsikhovsky ,

E .E .

1 954, p .

B lomkvist , 6 5.

1 83

1 956.

C HAPTER F OUR C arved w ooden s culptures - D ipper h andles - D ragons - A b ear-dragon - S culpture o f a r am - S mall-scale s culpture - B ird f igures - A h orse a nd a h are - S wan-shaped p egs - A n a rm g ripping a r od Tipped r ods - H ouse-spirits - E agles a nd o ther f igures. B eing

i n

v ery

c ommon

u se

i n

N ovgorod ,

d ippers

a nd

s poons

t raditional f unctional f orms a nd w ere o ften d ecorated w ith T hey w ere t he m ost p opular d ecorated o bjects a mong a ll o ther c arved a nd t urned u tensils.

h ad

c arving . t ypes o f

I n t urned a nd c arved o bjects t he c raftsman w as r estricted b y f unction a nd t he r esulting s hape, w hereas h and-made d ippers o ffered n o s uch l imitations. B etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies s poons a nd d ippers w ere t ie m ost l avishly d ecorated a rticles o f e veryday u se. D ippers w ere c ommonly s haped l ike w ater f owl w ith t he n eck a nd h ead f orming t he handle. Under t he i nfluence of s ome magical i nterpretations t hese r ealistic r epresentations g ave way t o f antastic d ragons. S ometimes c ertain a ttributes i mparted a k ind o f r ealism t o t hese m onsters, i n o ther c ases h ighly s tylised r epresentations n o m ore t han h inted a t a d ragon . T he b ear w as a f requent s ubject o f s imilar d ecorations, w hich w as o ften g iven t he f eatures o f f antastic m onsters. O ther b easts w ere s ometimes r epresented . O nly t wo 1 0th-century d ippers s urvived i ntact. O ther f inds c omprise 4 0-odd d ipper h andles d ated t o t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies. A ll o f t hem w ere c arved , m ore o r l ess s kilfully, i nto d ragon o r b ear h eads.

T his i s t heir d istribution a mong t he h orizons:

2 8-32-2188

2 8-34-1128

2 3-28-1287

2 8-36-155

2 8-34-782

2 2-23-468

2 8-29-1621

2 7-23-691

2 1-25-294

2 8-34-1198

2 6-27-918

2 2-23-1784

2 8-33-144

2 5-31-751

2 4-27-871

2 8-32-1255

2 5-25-1929

2 4-28-794

2 8-25-1667

2 5-32-745

2 4-23-542

2 8-36-1458

2 4-26-2836

2 4-30-750

2 8-29-1594

2 5-27-942

2 4-28-794

2 8-33-148

2 5-29-144

2 0-29-1360

2 6-29-312

2 4-24-1948

1 9-20-951

2 6-32-757

2 4-28-233

2 1-25-259

2 0-25-834

1 8-23-146

2 8-28-1099

2 0-23-1529 1 84

1 6-20-1042

S ome

o f

t he

o riginality.

h andles

p reserved o bjects,

a ll o f

r esembling a d ragon , 1 89.

c urved

w ith bared t eeth a long

e ither has

g rooves

w ith

d ragon 's

c arved

1 87,

a re

n ostrils

2 ;

1 89,

c arved t reated

e ars

a re

0 .3

c m .

a s

a d ragon 's

h ead

d ating

s tyle

h ead ,

f rom

n ape

e nd

T wo

w ith

f angs

t riangles. t wo

I t

o r

t he

i s

t he

1 0

a nd

a b ear

T he

m id-10th c m .

t eeth

s omewhat

T he

f orming

t he

u pper

l ids

e ach.

T wo

d ecorative

l ong .

d ragon 's

a nd s ix

c ircles.

h igh

t heir

1

1 ).

a s

i n

( 28-36-155).

a f lat

S -shaped s crolls

t he f lat n ape.

i nto

a d ragon 's a nd

e xpressive

t o t he m ost i nteresting a nd b est

2 8th h orizon

n eck

( pl.

s ide)

t wo

t hem

w ith

f ound i n t he

s moothly

n ose

e xtremely

o r a h orse's h ead.

A h andle

c entury was T he

a re

W e s hall l imit o urselves

e yes a nd

h ead

( three

f lattened

a re

m ade

b rows.

s trips

b y T he

r un

a long

T he s trips a re f ormed by a r epeated p attern o f a c ircle

f ollowed by t wo l ines. 1 90. t he

Anöther

f irst half o f

d ragon-shaped handle t he

1 1th

a nd a l ength o f 1 2 c m .

c entury

c ame

f rom

( 24-28-794).

t he I t

l evels

i s

w ell

d ated

t o

p reserved

f rom t he d ragon 's n ose t o t he b ody o f t he d ipper

h as s urvived . T he h ead i s s hown i n p l. 1 87, 1 ; 1 90, 4 . T he m outh i s s lightly o pen w ith t wo f angs. T wo n ostrils a nd t he m outh a re b ordered w ith

a l ooped

d esign .

S everal

t ransverse

l ines

i ndicate

t he w rinkled

n ose. T he e yes a re f ormed by t wo s crolls o f t he b raided p attern w hich a lso i ndicates i ts m ane. T he p attern c onsists o f s ix r ows, e ach o f w hich c ontains t hree s trands. T he b east a lso has o val e ars a nd c ollar. ( The b east s eems t o have s ome f eatures o f a h orse - A . C h.). 1 91. t o

N o.

handle

T he

1 90 i s

s ame h orizon

a bove,

t hough

s hown i n p l.

1 92.

T he

2 4th

( 24-27-871)

t he

1 88,

c arving

has y ielded a h andle

i s

1 88,

l ess

i dentical

d etailed .

T he

d ragon 's

h ead

3 .

h orizon

h as

y ielded

handle ( 24-26-1836). I t i s 1 4 c m . l ong . c arved d etails. I t h as a n o btuse muzzle ( pl.

s omewhat

a

y et

a nother

T he f inely s haped h ead has n o a nd t wo s lightly d amaged e ars

4 ).

1 93.

A handle w hich c ame f rom t he 2 0th h orizon

n eck i s s harply c urved a nd t he muzzle i s m outh w ith t eeth a re s hown o n b oth s ides

( 20-23-1529).

I ts

e longated ( pl. o f t he muzzle.

1 87, 4 ). T he T wo n ostrils

a re s hown a s c ircles. T he e yes a re b ordered w ith b rows. part o f t he n eck t here i s a z ig-zag c ollar. T he h ead i s

I n t he m iddle 1 4 c m . l ong .

1 94. l evels

A s olid

o f

t he

h andle

s econd

f rom

h alf

o f

a l arge t he

1 0th

d ipper

was

c entury

d iscovered

( 27-23-691).

i n I t

t he i s

r ather r oughly c arved . T he r oundish h ead w ith a n o pen m outh i s 1 3 c m . l ong. T he h ead i s c overed w ith a n i ntricate i ntertwined d esign w ith t wo

s ide

l oops

f orming

t he

e yes.

B road

e ars

t he b raiding o f t he m ane r unning u nder t hem 1 95.

A s omewhat

d ifferent

t reatment

o ffered by a handle f rom t he 2 8th h orizon 1 48). T he h ead h as a g oat's b eard ( pl. 1 91, a n

i ncised m outh a nd r ows

c ircles,

a re

e mphasised

o f

by

t eeth.

s lightly

1 85

T he

a re

( pl. o f

s lightly

1 89,

a f antastic

( the 2 ).

e yes,

p rotruding

r aised w ith

3 ). c reature

i s

v irgin s oil) ( 28-33T he o btuse m uzzle h as

m ade

by

t wo

e yebrows.

d eeply T he

c ut

d ragon

l ooks

t amed . 1 96.

T he

Another

1 0th c entury. h as

n o

f ragment handle

T he

c arved

i s

h ead ,

1 0.5 c m.

t ype

c ame

which

d etails.

T he

f rom

c ame

f rom

m uzzle

i s

T he e yes a re e mphasised b y e yebrows. 1 97.

T he

s ame h orizon h as

1 98. a s

1 .6 c m .

1 99.

T he

o f

d istinct

t wo

a

t he

g roup

o f h andles d ipper

i ts

l evels

a nd

o btuse

( pl.

i s 6 c m.

i s

7 .5 c m .

l ong

h orizon

l ooks

I t i s

t he

c ontemporaries

t he

1 99,

6 ).

l ong . ( 28-29-1594).

s hown i n p l.

( pl.

1 99,

e xactly 1 89,

t he

1 6th

h orizon

n eck

i s

e ach

5 ). t he

s ame

4 .

r epresenting b ear-dragons

f rom

o f

( 28-29-162)

1 96 but h as m ore d efined e ars,

s ame

( 28-34-1198).

l arge

f rom

f rom

s hort

e arliest

2 8th h orizon

T he o bject

T he muzzle

O ne m ore h ead

t he p revious

handle

h igh.

t he t he

y ielded a s imilar h andle

T he h ead l ooks q uite s imilar t o N o. o f w hich i s

l ong .

i ncludes

t he

( 26-27-918).

s teeply

b ent

A s

f orming

a

r ing w ith t he muzzle t ouching t he n eck. T he m uzzle i s 7 .5 c m . l ong a nd 4 .5 c m. w ide a t t he e ars. T he m uzzle i s o btuse, w ith a n i ncised o pen m outh. 1 90,

T wo p rotruding e ars 1 ;

d esign,

1 92, t wo

3 ).

T he

l oops

o f

a re

muzzle

w hich

e mbellished w ith

l ines

i s

a n

f orm

c overed

t he

w ith

e yes.

T wo

a nd p oints

i ntricate

s trips

o f

( pl.

b raided

p oints

r un

a long t he f lat n ape.

9 30).

2 00. A s imilar h andle c ame f rom l ate-llth-century l evels ( 21-23A s d istinct f rom o ther o bjects, t his h andle i s e legantly, t hough

r ichly, c arved . T he muzzle i s 6 c m . l ong . T he n eck d ivides i nto t hree b ranches w hich j oin t he h andle t o t he d ipper. T he m uzzle i s s omewhat f lattened , t he m outh i s o pen . T wo f angs a nd t eeth c an b e s een i n i t. T he l ower j aw t ransforms i nto a s uspended s croll. T he e yes a re t reated l ike t wo c ircles w ith p oints i n t he u pper p art. ( pl.

1 56,

4 ;

2 01.

1 89,

T he

e xhibits

t o

d ragon .

W hile t he m uzzle

w ith

g reatest

a d ragon 's

c ircles, a w hole

n ose

t he s hort, l ooks m ore

2 02. a rtistic

A

T wo s mall e ars a re

f ormed b y a b raided d esign

d ated t o

d egree

a nd

t he

t he

e arly-llth c entury

m ixing o f

i mages

o f

i ncised

i n r elief

p rotruding

t hick n eck s eems

e yes

f ormed

t o b elong

b y

t wo

t o

a b ear.

( 28-28-1099)

o ffers

( 25-31-751)

a b ear

i s unmistakably t hat o f a d ragon

( pl.

a nd

1 88,

s crolls

a 7 )

w ith

T he h ead a s

l ike a b ear t han a d ragon .

c ontemporary

i mage,

i s

2 ).

A d ipper h andle t he

i n t he c entre.

c ollar

n ot

h andle

u ncommon

i n

t he

1 1th

c entury.

I t

a i s

d ifferent a s tylised

e longated h orse's h ead b ent d ownwards. T he m outh i s m arked by a s hallow g roove. S imilar h eads c an b e s een o n c ontemporary t oys a nd s ome t ools.

W ith

T owards

t he

s impler

o bjects.

m ass p roduction .

e arly-12th M ore

o f t hem e nd i n d ragons' 2 03.

A s olid

c entury

d ecorated

T his

c an p robably

t han

7 0 h andles

b e

d ippers

e xplained

h ave b een

w ere by

r eplaced

a s witch

f ound but

o nly

t o

t hree

h eads.

h andle

f rom

a l arge

d ipper

c ame

c entury l evels ( 16-22-97). I ts t ip, 8 .5 c m . l ong , d ragon. 2 I ts l ong m outh h as t riangular t eeth ( three

1 86

f rom

e arly-13th-

i s s haped l ike a a long e ach s ide).

T he m uzzle i s o btuse a nd s omewhat f lattened . T here a re t wo e yes i n t he u pper p art o f t he h ead ( pl. 1 89, 8 ; 1 91, 6 ). T he e ars a re m arked b y t wo s pirals. T rihedral h ollows, u nited i nto a z ig-zag l ine, f orm a c ollar. 2 04. Another d ipper h andle c ame f rom t he l evels d ated t o t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 13-14-1027). I t i s r ound i n s ection a nd 2 .2 c m .

i n d iameter .

T he h andle

e nds

i n a d ragon 's h ead

3 ; 1 91, 4 ). I ts o btuse m uzzle w ith a n o pen m outh a nd t wo s lightly b ent. T he e yes a re f ormed b y t wo s mall h oles, t he

( pl.

1 90,

f angs i s n ostrils

b y t wo g rooves. T wo s trips o f w ide t wo-row b raiding f orm t he m ane. F ine z ig zags r un a long t he m uzzle o n b oth s ides. T he d ragon h as a c ollar, f ollowed b y aw ide s trip o f f ive-row b raiding . 2 05.

T his handle e nding

i n a d ragon 's

h ead w hich

c ame

f rom

l ate

1 3th-century l evels ( 11-18-1418) i s o ne o f t he b est e xamples o f N ovgorod d ecorative o bjects. I t e nded a s traight r ound h andle 2 c m . i n d iameter. T he m uzzle i s 4 .8 c m . l ong . T he d ragon h as a l arge o pen m outh ( pl. 1 90, 2 ; 1 91, 1 ) b ordered w ith a r oller, w ith f our f angs a nd a s mall t ongue. T he f all e nds i n t wo n ostrils i n i ts l ower p art a nd t wo e yebrows i n i ts u pper p art. T he e yes, l ike t hose o f t he d ragonc rocodile, a re r ound a nd s lightly p rotruding w ith c arved-out p upils. T he f orehead h as t hree r elief l oops o n i t d esignating t he m ane. I t e nds w ith t hree r ound r ollers. O n t he w hole, t he h ead i s v ery i mpressive. T hough b eing i nclined t o r epresent p agan i mages a nd f antastic b easts, 1 0th-century w ood c arvers s ometimes t urned t o t he r eal w orld a round t hem . 2 06. I n a p it c ut i nto t he v irgin s oil, i n t he l evels d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury a rchaeologists f ound a l arge d ipper b roken i nto f ive p arts ( 28-22-1680). I ts h andle w as t ipped w ith a r ealistically t reated r am 's h ead ( pl. 1 92, 1 ). I t i s a lmost a s culpture w ith a n aturalistically t reated m uzzle, f orehead , s piral h orns a nd e ars. T he h orns, which f orm a n early c omplete c ircle, s tem f rom t he f lat, s trong f orehead . T he e ars a re p laced i nside ( each h orn r ing) t he h orns. T he e yes a re m arked b y t wo b ulges. T he d ipper w as u ndoubtedly m ade b y a g reat m aster w ith a f ine f eeling f or t he t exture a nd s tructure o f h is m aterial. T he s lender l ines o f t he h ead p roduce a l iving a nd r ealistic i mage. A rchaeologists h ave a lso f ound s mall s culptures, s uch a s b ird a nd a nimal f igures which p robably d ecorated N ovgorod homes, o r were c hildren 's t oys. T wo b ird f igures, a h orse's h ead a nd a r am 's h ead h ave b een f ound . 2 07. A s culpture o f a s itting b ird w as f ound i n t he l evels o f t he " first h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 15-18-1575). T he f igure h as s urvived u ndamaged , t hough w ithout t he t ail w hich w as m ade s eparately a nd a ttached t o t he f inished f igure. T he s culpture i s 1 5 c m . l ong a nd 5 c m . w ide. I t h as a s hort t hick n eck a nd a s mall h ead w ith a s harp b eak a nd t wo d eeply i ncised r ound e yes ( pl. 1 93, 1 -3). T he w ings a re c losed . I n t he m iddle o f t he l ower p art t here i s a s lot f or f ixing i t t o

t he b ranch o n w hich t he b ird p erched .

1 87

T he

t ail

i s

r ather

l ong

a nd

f lattish w ith a h ole f or f ixing t he t ail f eathers. c reate a n i mpression o f p lumage.

F ine

i ncised l ines

2 08. Another s mall f igurine o f t he l ate-13th c entury ( 12-13-1926) w as l ess w ell p reserved . I t c losely r esembles t he f igure N o. 2 07 b ut i s s omewhat s maller ( pl. 1 93, 4 , 5 ): i t i s 1 0.5 c m . l ong a nd 4 c m . w ide. J ust l ike t he p revious o ne i t a lso p erched o n a b ranch w hich i s t estified b y a s lot i n i ts l ower p art, a nd i t has a s imilar t ail. I ts f eathers a re i ndicated b y f inely i ncised l ines. 2 09. A h orse's h ead c ame f rom 1 1th-century l evels ( 11-24-30). I t i s p art o f a f igure o f a h orse w ith a m ortise i n i t . T he m ortise a nd t enon j oint w as t he u sual w ay o f f ixing t ogether p arts o f w ooden s culptures. T he h ead i s 5 .5 c m . l ong a nd 2 .3 c m . w ide. T he s culpture i s o n t he w hole t reated r ealistically , w ith c orrect p roportions a nd d etails ( pl. 1 94, 1 ). T eeth c an b e s een i n t he s lightly o pen m outh , t he e ars, w hich a re u nmistakably e quine, a re s lightly r aised . T he u pper j aw a nd t he n ostrils l ook e specially e xpressive. T he s culpture o n t he whole i s h ighly a rtistic. 2 10. A r am 's f igure m ounted o n a l ow p latform i s d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury ( 27-31-1008) ( pl. 1 94, 2 ). T he f igure i s 7 .4 c m . h igh . I t s hows a r am w ith c urved h orns a nd t wo s mall e ars. I n i ts g eneral o utline t he h ead l ooks v ery m uch t he s ame a s t he r am 's h ead t erminal o n t he 1 0th-century h andle ( 28-22-1680, N o. 2 06). T he t wisted h orns a re b ent b ackwards. T he s hort n eck t urns i nto a t rapezoidal p latform . T he p urpose o f t he f igure i s r ather o bscure; m ost c ertainly i t w as a d ecorative o bject. 2 10a . A c arved l ion 's f igure* f ound i n 1 970 i n t he G otsky e xcavations. I t c ame f rom t he 1 4th l evel, s quare N o. 8 8, d ated t o t he m id-14th c entury. T he h ead i s 1 1 c m . h igh , 6 .5 c m . w ide a nd 8 c m . t hick ( pl. 1 92, 4 ). T he r ealistically t reated h ead has a m outh , t wo d eep n ostrils a nd t wo e yes c arved i n d eep r elief . T here a re t wo w rinkles i ncised i n t he u pper p art o f t he n ose. I t h as t wo s mall e ars a nd a c losely c ut m ane. T here i s a d eep h ole i n t he m outh w hich p erhaps h eld a r ing . T he o bject s erved a s a d oor k nob o r a handle o f a l arge c hest. T his h ighly a rtistic s culpture w as p robably i mported f rom W estern E urope.

a s

T he p urpose o f t wo o ther s culptures i s n ot q uite c lear. I t l ooks i f t wo h eads, t hat o f a h are a nd t hat o f a n u nidentified b east ,

f ormed p arts o f s ome l arger d ecorative o bject s uch a s t he w ooden p arts o f a R ussian s tove. B oth w ere d iscovered i n t he m id-13th c entury l evels. 2 11.

A h are's

( or r abbit 's)

h ead c ame

f rom t he

1 3th h orizon

( 13-

1 9-246). I t i s a r ealistic r epresentation o f a h are w ith a s mall p ointed n ose ( pl. 1 95, 1 ). T he l arge bulging e yes l ook warily . I t h as l ong e ars. T he h ead i s 1 1 c m . l ong a nd 6 .5 c m . w ide. * M ost p robably i t i s n ot a l ion , b ut a w ild-boar. S imilar z oomorfic h eads a re p resent i n s tone-carving o f V ladimir-Suzdal a rea, t he c hurch o f t he I ntercession o f t he H oly V irgin o n N erl r iver, n ear B ogolyubovo ( 1165)

-A .

C h .

1 88

2 12.

A nother

h ead ,

w hich

p robably

t erminated

a b aluster,

a lso

c ame f rom t he 1 3th h orizon ( 13-18-2071). T he u nidentifiable b east w ith i ts l ong n ose r esembles a m an , w hich s eems t o b e c onfirmed b y a c hin f ormed l ike a s mall b eard . O n t he o ther h and , t he h ead h as l arge a nimal e ars ( pl. 1 95, 2 , 4 ). T he h ead i s 1 7 c m . l ong a nd 6 .8 c m . w ide. 2 12a. I n 1 966 a c arved w ooden d ragon 's m ask w as f ound i n t he I lyinsky e xcavations i n t he 1 1th-century l evels. I t t opped a c urved p ine d etail o f a r oof ( pl. 1 96, 1 , 1 1-28-348). T he s culpture h as a l ong r ather s nake-like h ead w ith b ared t eeth , a n ose a nd a r ounded f orehead . T he p art o f t he h ead w hich m ost c ertainly f aced t he s treet c arries d eep g rooves o utlining a d ragon 's m outh w ith t wo s olid f angs. T he h ead i s 2 5 c m . l ong . T he e ntire i tem , o r r ather t he f ragment w e h ave, i s 9 8 c m . l ong w ith a d iameter o f 7 .5 c m . T he c arver m ade s kilful u se o f t he n atural s hape a nd t exture o f t he w ood t o c reate a f antastic i mage w ith t he m inimum o f w orking o f t he w ood . P ractically e very h ouse i n N ovgorod y ielded f ixtures f or h anging c lothes. T hey w ere p egs 1 0 t o 1 5 c m . l ong w ith s mall h ooks o n t he o btuse e nds. T he s harper p art w ent i nto t he w all. T he c ollection n ow c omprises m ore t han 1 60 o bjects o f t his k ind . F or t heir m ost p art t hey w ere j ust u tilitarian p ieces but s ome w ere a rtistic o bjects. T heir a rtistic t reatment w as p rompted b y t heir s hapes: s mall p egs a ttached t o t he wall c ould b e t ransformed i nto b irds o r b easts w ith l ong n ecks w hich s eemed t o b e f lying o r r eady t o l eap o ut. T he 1 0th-12th-century l evels p roduced b irds, l eaping a nimals a nd e ven human m asks.

s even

p egs

w ith

s wimming

2 13. A m ost d ecorative p eg c ombining t he n atural s hape o f t he b ranch a nd r ather e conomical c arving c ame f rom a m id-12th-century l evel ( 18-23-1207). I t s hows a s wimming s wan ( pl. 1 97, 9 ). I ts r ealistically t reated h ead w ith a t ypical c rest i s g reatly e nlivened b y i ncised e yes w ith h ollowed p upils. A n ecklace d one i n r elief c urves a nd p oints i mparts a dditional e legance t o t he f igure. o bject i s 1 5 c m . i n d iameter. 2 14.

l ong ,

A s mall

t he h ead i s

p eg

f rom

t he

1 4 c m .

h igh,

1 1th-century

a nd t he

l evels

n eck

i s

w ith T he 2 c m .

( 24-25-1877).

I t

i s s haped l ike a l ynx , w ith p ricked-up e ars, a n e longated m uzzle, a nd o utstretched n eck . T he b east i s p reparing t o l eap. T he p eg i s 1 6.5 c m . l ong , a nd t he h ead i s 8 c m . h igh ( pl. 1 97, 1 ). 2 15. A p eg w ith a b ird 's h ead v ery m uch l ike t hat o f a h en c ame f rom e arly-llth-century l evels ( 26-27-1561). I t h as a s hort s harp b eak a nd f our c rests. T he p eg i s 1 6 c m . l ong a nd 9 .5 c m . h igh ( pl. 1 07, 7 ). 2 16. l ooks l ike 7 94). T he t ools. T he

L ate-10th-century l evels p roduced a p eg w ith a h ead w hich a d og 's w ith a b lunt m uzzle a nd l arge p endant e ars ( 26-31o bject b etrays a s kilful m aker f amiliar w ith s harp c arving p eg i s 1 2 c m . h igh, t he p art w hich w ent i nto t he w all b eing

b roken o ff

( pl.

1 97,

6 ).

2 17. T he e arliest l evels o f t he 1 0th c entury ( 23-34-1444) y ielded a p eg w ith a n a nimal m ask . T he p eg i s 9 c m . l ong a nd 5 .6 c m . h igh ( pl.

1 89

1 97,

8 ).

2 18. A s mall p eg c ame f rom t he v irgin s oil o f t he 2 8th h orizon ( 28-26-1923). I t i s a human m ask w ith a l ong n ose, d eep-set e yes a nd a p ointed c ap. ( pl.

1 97,

T he

p eg

i s

6 .5

c m .

l ong ,

a nd

t he

f igure

i s

9 c m .

h igh

4 ).

S everal

g roups

o f

o bjects

s erved

a n u nknown p urpose.

T hese

a re

h ands g ripping a s tick ( pl. 1 98). O ur i nterest i s r estricted t o t heir a rtistic v alue. A ll o f t hem a re m ore o r l ess s imilar a nd d iffer i n d etails o nly . B oth l eft a nd r ight h ands w ere r epresented . A ll f inds o f t his k ind o ccur w ithin a n arrow c hronological r ange, f rom t he m id1 3th c entury t o t he f irst d ecade o f t he 1 4th c entury . O ne o bject c ame f rom t he 2 0th h orizon , t hat i s t o s ay i t p redates t he m ain b ody o f f inds b y 1 30 y ears, but i t m ay h ave f ound i ts w ay i nto t he e arly h orizons a s a r esult o f d isturbance. T his i s t heir d istribution : 2 0-25-154

1 3-19-1142

1 1-16-277

1 4-16-1628

1 2-19-1135

1 1-15-275

1 3-18-1275

1 3-10-628

1 1-16-274

1 3-18-1219

1 2-19-762

1 0-11-582

1 3-21-1448

1 2-19-1136

1 3-14-468

1 1-24-99

W e d escribe o nly t he m ost i nteresting o bjects. 2 19. A n o bject w hich c ame f rom t he l ate-13th-century l evels ( 111 6-277) w as l ess d amaged t han t he o thers. I t i s a s tick , 1 6 c m . l ong a nd 1 .1 c m . i n d iameter e nding i n a h and c lutching a s tick 9 .5 c m . l ong a nd o f t he s ame d iameter ( pl. 1 98, 1 ). T he h and i s r ealistically r epresented . 2 20. A nother o bject o f t he s ame t ype was f ound i n t he 1 2thc entury l evels ( 11-24-99). C orrect p roportions, r ealism a nd f ine c raftsmanship i ndicate t hat i t w as m ade b y a p rofessional a rtist ( pl. 1 99,

1 ).

2 21. An i nteresting f ind c ame f rom t he 2 0th h orizon ( 20-25-154). I t i s t he l argest a mong t he f inds o f t his k ind . T he a rm w as b roken a way a nd o nly t he r ight h and h olding a s tick r emained . T he s tick i s 1 6 c m . l ong w ith t wo r ollers o n b oth e nds ( pl. 1 99, 2 ). 2 22. A s tick w ith a r ight h and c ame f rom t he 1 3th-century l evels . (13-18-1275). T he h and f orms a n a cute a ngle w ith t he s tick . T he f ormer i s 1 1 c m . l ong . b y s hallow g rooves ( pl.

T he h and i s 1 99, 3 ).

s tylised w ith t he

f ingers

o utlined

2 23. A h and w ith a s tick f rom t he 1 3th h orizon ( 13-21-1448) i s o f e special i nterest s ince t he s tick i s i n t he f orm o f a r ecumbent f igure o f a c at o r l ion . T he f igure i s 1 0 c m . l ong . T he o bject i s s mall: t he

1 90

b east 's h ead i s 2 c m . A s w e c an s ee, h ad

a ttained

g reat

l ong a nd 1 .6 c m .

w ide.

( Pl.

1 89,

5 ;

2 00,

1 ,

2 ).

w ood c arvers o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury s kill

i n

r epresenting

human

h ands,

a lthough

t he

p urpose o f s uch r epresentations r emains u nclear. A l arge T hey

c an

be

d ecoration .

g roup

o f w ooden

r egarded

a s

o bjects s mall

i s

a ssociated w ith

s culptures

c overed

p agan with

r ites. c arved

T he p eople o f N ovgorod d ecorated t hem w ith multi-coloured

b ands. T hey w ere t hin w ooden r ods t erminating i n c arved h eads ( pl. 2 01) a nd h aving g rooves a round t he o ther e nd f or f ixing s ome a dditional o bjects t o t he s tick . T he h eads w ere i nvariably m ade o f butts. T hey w ere o f d ifferent s hapes: s tylised o r r ealistically c arved b ird a nd a nimal h eads, o r human m asks. S ometimes t hey w ere s imply d ecorated s pheres.

T he r ods w ere 3 0 t o 5 0 c m .

l ong .

T hese o bjects w ere f ound i n

a ll l evels, f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 1 5th c enturies, but t he bulk o f t hem c ame f rom t he 1 0th t o 1 1th c enturies. O ne hundred a nd f ifty o bjects o f t his k ind have b een f ound . T here w ere p lain r itual r ods which a re n ot i ncluded i n t his O ne hundred a nd

n umber. T his i s h ow t hese o bjects w ere d istributed . f orty-seven i tems f all w ithin t he 1 0th-14th c entury

p eriod .

H orizon

2 8

N umber o f f inds

1 5

2 7

6

2 6

2 5

2 4

2 3 . 2 2

2 1

1 0

1 3

1 5

1 4

1 2

1 4

2 0

5

1 9

1 8

6

T he t otal f or a c entury

3 0

6 3

2 9

P er c ent

2 0

4 2

2 1

H orizon Number o f f inds

1 5

8

1 4

3

1 3

3

1 2

5

1 7

1

1 6

5

8

1 1

5

T he t otal f or a c entury 2 5 . P er

c ent

W e

1 7

h ave

n o

r eliable

i nformation

o n

h ow

t hese

r ods

w ere

u sed ,

t hough w e c an t ell w ith c ertainty t hat t hey w ere a ssociated w ith p aganism . F or t he m ost p art t hey c ame f rom t he r emains o f d welling h ouses a nd o ther b uildings. T hey e vidently s erved n o p ractical p urpose. A t t he s ame t ime t hey f ollowed a u nified p attern o f a n

1 91

undoubted d ecorative value. T heir c hronological d istribution i s s ignificant: 2 0% o f t he f inds a re d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury , a nd 4 2% t o t he 1 1th c entury . T his w as t he p eriod w hen C hristianity e xisted s ide b y s ide w ith p aganism . T hese o bjects w ere p robably p agan i dols d esigned t o p rotect a gainst e vil s pirits. T here e xisted , f or e xample, " chicken i dols" w hich g uarded c attle a nd p oultry . T hey w ere u sed i n various r ituals. I b elieve t hat a l ong s tick c rowned w ith a h uman m ask c ould b e a d omestic i dol. I t i s a ppropriate, i n t his c onnection , t o m ention a l ead h uman f igurine f rom t he m id-12th-century l evels ( 19-26-732) w ith a b ig m oustache a nd a rms a kimbo, w hich t erminated a l ong r od . T he f igure i s 2 .5 c m . l ong , t he r od 5 .6 c m . l ong . A lmost c ertainly i t w as P erun , t he g od o f t hunder a nd l ightning . L ong r ods on which t he s culptures were m ounted c orrespond, p erhaps, t o h igh p illars o n w hich S lays, a ccording t o A rabic a nd o ther t ravellers, p laced t heir i dols. I bn-Fadlan w rote o f t he R ussian p agan i dols: " We a pproached a h igh p illar d riven i nto t he g round w ith a f ace r esembling a m an 's a nd s maller i mages a round i t." 3 Among t he m ore o r l ess a rtistic o bjects o f t his k ind t here a re 5 r epresentations o f human f aces, 2 7 e agle h eads, 5 s wan h eads, 4 d uck h eads, 6 c anine h eads, 7 e lk h eads a nd s ome o ther f igures w hich c annot b e a ssociated w ith a ny s pecific b ird o r b east . F igures o f d omestic s pirits c ame f rom t he 1 0th- a nd 1 3th-century l evels. T hese a re t heir c ard n umbers: 2 7-25-998, 2 6-24-991, 1 5-19-329, 1 1-12-919, 1 1-10-1681. 2 24. T he e arliest r od w ith a h uman m ask was f ound i n t he l evels o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury ( 27-25-998). I ts f lat f ace i s 5 .3 c m . l ong a nd 2 .8 c m . w ide. T he f ace was r ather c rudely a nd e conomically c ut, t he c arver m aking s kilful u se o f a t wig w ith a n e ggs haped butt. H e w orked o nly t he f ront s ide o n which h e c arved e yes, a n ose a nd a m outh ( pl. 2 02, 1 ). D eep e yesockets w ere f illed w ith p eas t he t races o f w hich s urvived . T he r od h as n ot s urvived . T he f ace i s s tern-looking . 2 25. L evels o f t he s ame p eriod y ielded a nother d omestic s pirit ( 26-24-991). I ts l ess f lat f ace i s 5 c m . l ong a nd 3 .3 c m . w ide. H ere t oo a butt w as s kilfully u sed . T he e yes, n ose a nd m outh a re f ormed b y t hree s uccessive l edges a s i s s hown i n p l. 2 02, 2 . D espite a r ather s tylised r epresentation t he i mage i s e xpressive. T he s urviving p art o f t he r od i s 4 2 c m . l ong . 2 26. A d omestic s pirit c ame f rom t he l evels o f t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 15-19-329). I t t ipped a r od 3 0 c m . l ong . I ts h ead i s 9 c m . l ong a nd 4 c m . w ide a nd i s m ade o f a butt. T he f ace i s m uch m ore e xpressive t han t hose o f t he 1 0th-century d omestic s pirits ( pl. 2 03, 2 ). T here i s a b ronze n ail i n e ach e ye w hich m akes t hem b right a nd l ight. T he m outh i s s mall w ith n arrow l ips p ainted r ed . T he o bject w as f ound i n t he r emains o f a d welling h ouse n ear V elikaya S treet.

1 92

2 27. A l ate-13th-century f igure o f a h ouse s pirit ( 8-12-919) i s, p erhaps, t he m ost e xpressive f igure a mong t he f inds o f t his k ind . T he s tick i s 1 2 c m . l ong a nd t he h ead , w hich i s m ade f rom a butt, i s 4 .8 c m . l ong a nd 2 .8 c m . w ide. T he c arving t echnique r esembles t hat o f a h ouse s pirit f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he

1 0th c entury

( 26-24-991),

b ut

t he f ace i s m ore d etailed . T he n ose i s s mall, t hey e yes a re d eep-set, t he c heeks a re p lump. T wo d eep g rooves a long t he u pper l ip i ndicate a m oustache ( pl. 2 03, 1 ). T he c hin i s s lightly p rotruding w ith b eard . T he f orehead i s n arrow a nd s loped .

a s mall

2 28. T he s ame l evels p roduced a nother human m ask ( 11-10-1681). T he r od a nd t he s pherical m ask w hich c rowns i t c losely r esemble i n s hape a nd s ize t he t raditional m aces. P erhaps t his m ask c rowned a m ace a s w ell. T he s phere i s 8 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( pl. 2 04). T he m outh a nd n ose a re d one i n r elief . T he e yes a re m arked by t wo d eep h ollows. T he s miling m outh i s 5 c m . l ong . T he t hick l ips a re e specially e xpressive. T he s urviving . part o f t he m ace h andle i s 1 3 c m . l ong , w ith a d iameter o f 2 .2 c m . 2 28a. A r od w ith a human m ask , p resumably a nother h ouse s pirit, w as f ound i n 1 970 i n t he S uvorovsky e xcavations. I t c ame f rom t he l evels d ated t o t he 1 370s a nd 1 380s ( 22nd l evel, s quare N o. 6 2). T he t otal l ength o f t he b roken r od i s 1 1 c m ., w ith t he h ead b eing 4 .3 c m . l ong a nd 1 .7 c m . w ide ( pl. 2 00, 7 ). T he o ld m an h as a c ap. T here a re e yes, a n ose, a m outh a nd a b eard o n i ts r ather f lattened f ace. B esides t hese r epresentations o f h ouse s pirits a g roup o f human f igures was a lso f ound . S ome o f t hem s erved a s t oys, o thers w ere p agan d eities, s uch a s h ouse s pirits. S mall f lat human f igures w ith h eads, a rms a nd e ven l egs w ere u ndoubtedly c hildren 's t oys. C hildren c lothed t i lem i n d ifferent w ays. S imilar t oys s urvived u ntil t he 2 0th c entury . T hey a re t he s ubject o f t he n ext c hapter. S ome o f s mall human f igures a re r egarded a s t hose o f h ouse s pirits. 2 29. T he e arliest r epresentation o f t his k ind c ame f rom t he v irgin s oil ( 28-34-1445). I t i s d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury . T his i s a t iny s tylised s culpture o f m an ( pl. 2 05, 1 ). I t i s 7 .5 c m . h igh , t he h ead b eing 3 .3 c m . T he h ead w ith t he hair c lipped i n t he c ontemporary p easant s tyle i s r ealistically d one t ogether w ith t he c learly c ut t emples a nd t he b ack o f t he h ead . T he f ace h as b een d amaged a nd l acks p art o f t he f orehead , n ose a nd t he c hin . W hat h as b een l eft o f i t g ives a n i dea o f t he m anner o f c arving : s hallow h ollows a nd s traight l ines, a r ather l ong n arrow n ose a nd a t ight-lipped m outh . 2 30. Another f igure d ated t o t he m id-10th c entury a lso p resents a t raditionally t reated p easant m an . I t i s 4 .7 c m . h igh , h alf o f t he l ength b eing t aken b y t he h ead ( pl. 2 05, 2 ). I t w ears a w ide-brimmed h at, i ts hair b eing c ut i n t he c ontemporary p easant f ashion a s w ell. T he f igure h as a l ong n ose, a m outh a nd a b eard . T he c arving o f t he d etails b etrays a s killed a rtist. A s imilar m ask a t t he e nd o f a s hort s tick c ame f rom l ater l evels

i s

( early-13th c entury ,

1 5-18-1581).

2 31. A f igure d ated t o t he e arly-llth c entury ( 25-27-1520). I t a c ylindrical r od 2 .8 c m . i n d iameter a nd 1 7 c m . l ong w ith a h uman

1 93

m ask ( pl. 2 06, 7 ; 2 15, 4 , 5 ). W hile t he t wo f igures d escribed a bove r epresented m en , i t i s i mpossible t o b e c ertain a bout t his. I t c an b e s aid , h owever, t hat t he p rofile, t he e yes a nd t he n ose a re u ndoubtedly h uman . 2 32. A s mall bust 5 c m . h igh c ame f rom l ate-10th-century l evels ( 26-28-1544). T he h ead l ooks s imilar t o t he p receding o ne ( 25-261 520).

T he m ask h as a n ose a nd e yes

2 33.

A s mall

f igurine

c ame

( pl.

2 05,

3 ).

f rom m id-llth-century

l evels

( 23-31-

1 447). I t h as a s omewhat s tylised b ody a nd f eet ( pl. 2 05, 5 ). I t i s 1 9-20 c m . h igh , t he h ead i s 6 c m . l ong a nd 3 .5 c m . w ide. T he f ace w as d amaged t hough w hat h as b een l eft o f t he n ose, e yes a nd m outh c an b e c learly s een . T he n eck i s t hin , t he s houlders n arrow a nd t he w aist i s s lim . 2 34.

O ne

m ore

f olk-style

f igurine

f rom

t he

l ate-llth-century

l evels ( 22-29-762). I t h as a c onical h at a nd a p easant s tyle h aircut. T he c hin e nds i n a s mall b eard . T he f igure i s 7 .4 c m . l ong , t he h ead i s 3 .8 c m . 2 35.

( pl.

2 06,

6 ).

Archaeologists

have

a lso

f ound

f ragments

o f

w ooden

s culptures. M ost i nteresting a mong t hem i s a f ragment f rom m id-13thc entury l evels ( 11-16-66) w hich p artly p reserved t he e yes, t he n ose a nd m outh c arved i n a r ealistic m anner. T he f ace i s 1 1 c m . l ong a nd 5 .5 c m . w ide. T he f acial p roportions a re c lose t o t he n atural o nes ( pl. 2 00, 6 ). T he f orehead i s h igh , t he n ose i s r ather w ide l ike t hat o f a d runkard . T he t hin-lipped m outh i s w ide, t he e yebrows a nd e ye-sockets a re c arved w ith g reat s kill. 2 36. O ne m ore f acial f ragment c ame f rom 1 4th-century l evels ( 71 1-351). I t w as a s mall s culpture w ith t he f ace o nly 3 .7 c m . l ong , a m ask w ith e yes, a n ose a nd a m outh ( pl. 2 05, 4 ). Another n umerous c ategory o f f inds i s s mall r ods t ipped w ith b ird o r a nimal h eads. T he r epresentations r ange w idely f rom r ealistically c ut h eads t o c onventionalised i mages o r e ven s imple h ooks. W e w ill c onsider h ere t he m ore a rtistic o bjects w ith c learly d istinguishable i mages. T he m ost n umerous a mong t hem a re r ods w ith e agle h eads. T hey a lways h ave s harp c urved b eaks. T heir r epresentation c hanged w ith t ime, t he e arliest o nes d ated t o t he 1 0th c entury s eeing t o b e m ore a rtistically p erfect. 2 37. A h ead o f t he m id-10th c entury ( 28-31-1044). T he r od w as b roken o ff ( pl. 2 07, 2 ). T he h ead i s 4 .5 c m . l ong . I t h as a c urved , s lightly f lattened b eak w ith a s harp t ip a nd t wo e yes. A b and o f c urves d one i n r elief m arks t he b eak , a s hallow g roove r uns a long t he h ead . 2 38. An e agle 's h ead f rom t he 2 7th h orizon ( 27-25-999) i s c arved i n t he s ame m anner. T he b eak i s f lattened a nd c urved d ownwards, t he h ead i s d one w ell ( pl. 2 26, 9 ). I t i s 5 c m . l ong . T he r od , s lightly b evelled a t o ne e nd , h as a h ole i n t he m iddle f or f ixing i t t o s ome f lat s urface.

1 94

2 39. T his i s a n e xample o f a nother s tyle o f c arving . T he h ead c ame f rom f irst h alf o f t he 1 3th-century l evels ( 17-16-1004). I t i s 6 .5 c m . l ong . I ts h ighly s pecific a nd e xpressive f orm i s s hown i n p l. 2 07, 9 . T here i s a n arrow r oller a long t he h ead r epresenting a c rest a nd a d ouble r oller a long t he n eck r epresenting p lumage. T he h ead i s r ealistically p resented . 2 40. A n e agle 's h ead o f t he e arly-llth c entury i s l ikewise r ealistic ( 25-28-1011). I t h as a m ore r ounded a nd b lunt c urved b eak 5 .5 c m . l ong ( pl. 2 07, 5 ). 2 41. A n umber o f o ther e agle's h eads w ere c arved m anner ( 23-22-1103, 2 1-25-100, 1 9-21-1066 a nd s ome o thers)

i n t he s ame ( pl. 2 07).

2 42. M ention s hould a lso b e m ade o f a h ighly s tylised s wan 's h ead d ated t o t he e arly-llth c entury ( 25-29-830). T his e xpressive h ead w as m ade o f a s moothly c urved t wig . T he h ead h as t wo e yes. I t i s 4 c m . l ong . 2 43. A n e agle-owl c ame f rom 1 1th-century l evels ( 21-23-1069). T his s mall h ead 5 c m . l ong h as a s harp b eak a nd d eeply s et e yes. S imilar o bjects c ame f rom t he 2 5th h orizon ( 25-29-853), t he 2 3rd h orizon ( 23-24-1012), t he 2 0th h orizon ( 20-24-2072) a nd o thers. 2 44. A h ighly r ealistic e agle h ead w as c arved f rom a b utt. I t h as a s harp c urved b eak ( 26-29-888). T he h ead i s 5 c m . l ong a nd 3 c m . w ide. T he r od i s 1 0 c m . l ong . Animal h eads a re r epresented b y e lk a nd c anine h eads. 2 45. A h ead w hich l ooks l ike t hat o f a d og f rom e arly-llthc entury l evels ( 25-24-503). A s tick 2 0 c m . l ong i s c rowned w ith a h ighly s tylised d og 's h ead 3 .5 c m . l ong . T he b lunt m uzzle, d eep g rooves a long t he s ides r esemble a d og 's h ead .

a nd t wo

e yes

f ormed b y p oints m ake

t his

o bject

2 46. A nother d og 's h ead c ame f rom t he 1 3th h orizon ( 13-16-1634). I t i s 4 c m . l ong a nd h as t wo e yes, a m outh a nd l arge p endant e ars ( pl. 1 97, 1 0). 2 47.

A d og 's h ead c arved i n a nother s tyle w as

1 1th-century l evels ( 22-23-1649). I t s mall e ars. T he h ead i s 2 .5 c m . l ong .

h as

f ound i n t he

a p ointed

2 48. A h ead l ooking l ike t hat o f a n e lk h orizon ( 24-24-469). I t i s s hown i n p l. 2 07, 4 .

c ame

m uzzle

f rom

l ate-

a nd

t he

t wo

2 4th

2 49. A s mall f igurine w ith a b east 's h ead f orms a c lass o f i ts ' own a mong t he o ther f inds. I t c ame f rom t he m id-10th-century l evels ( 28-34-1198). T he o bject i s l avishly d ecorated w ith g eometrical p atterns. T he o bject i s 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter, t he h ead i s 3 .7 c m . l ong . T he o bject i s s hown i n p l. 1 89, 6 . I n c onclusion w e s hall d escribe t wo r ods s pheres. B oth o f t hem w ere f ound u ndamaged .

1 95

c rowned

w ith

d ecorated

2 50. A r od f rom t he 1 6th h orizon ( 16-20-294) i s 2 5 c m . l ong a nd 1 .2 c m . i n d iameter. I ts e nds i n a s phere 4 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T he o ther e nd h as a g roove t o w hich b ands w ere a ttached ( pl. 2 08, 1 ). I ts d ecoration i s i dentical t o t hat o n s imilar o bjects. 2 51.

A nother

r od

w ith

a s phere

1 806). I t i s i dentical t o t he o ne S imilar o bjects w ere a lso f ound i n c enturies ( 17-18-959, 1 5-19-6).

f rom

t he

1 3th

h orizon

d escribed a bove l evels d ated t o

( pl. t he

N OTES V agner,

1 .

G .K .

1 960.

2 .

I n e arlier p ublications t his b east w as c alled a c rocodile.

3 .

A .P.

K ovilevsky ,

4 .

P .V .

I vanov ,

1 956,

p .

1 42.

1 890.

1 96

( 13-14-

2 08, 2 ). 1 2th-13th

C HAPTER F IVE T oys

- H orses

-B irds

-D olls

-T ops

- P ropellers

- S words

- C hess-

m en . T oys c onstitute a v ery numerous g roup o f f inds. W e have f ound s ome 6 50 w ooden t oys. T he N ovgorod c ollection i ncludes m echanical t oys a nd t oys

r epresenting m en a nd

a nimals.

W e

a re

m ore

i nterested

i n

t he

l atter. T oys o f t he s econd t ype t he c haracteristics

a ll

e xpressiveness

o f

qualities

t he

and

d ecoration. e xpressed i n A lthough f inal

t he

a re o f

i mage,

material,

The N ovgorod t hree a ncient

t heir

s tyle

analygis,

w as

o f

p ower

t he

based h orse,

s omewhat h eavy

t urned

out

f orms

r ealistic

o f

a nd d etails.

a f lat p iece o f w ood i nto numerous

e conomy a nd

t oy i s i mages:

c onventionalised t raits

r ather c lose t o s culpture a nd c ombine a rtistic c reativity such a s an

t o

t he

w ere

o ut

t he

carving

a nd

( a

t he

t oys

i n

t heir

d ecorative.

o ften

E ven t he m ost

a human f igure

t he

s evere,

rather

s ubjects

bringing

of

o n a rtistic primitivism b ird a nd w oman ( dolls).

a nd

be

f orm,

unable

e conomical d oll)

t o

Very

t o

c onceal

c arving

b e

t urned

i mparted w ith

r ealistic a nd f antastic q ualities.

N ovgorod m echanical t oys i ncluded w eapons: s words, b ows a nd a rrows. T oys

r epresenting

m en

a nd

t ops,

a nimals

p ropellers,

i ncluded

balls

h orses,

a nd

t oy

b irds

a nd

d olls. As

it

was

t o

b e

e xpected,

h orses

w ere

t he

m ost

numerous

f inds.

F orty-five i tems h ave b een f ound t o d ate, m ost o f t hem u ndamaged . c ame f rom a ll l evels, s tarting w ith t he m id-10th c entury. A ccording d ivided

i nto

f igures.

T he

w ith

l egs,

( pl.

2 09).

t o

t heir

t hree f lat

h orses

s hapes

t ypes: f igures

w ithout

a nd

f lat a re l egs

c onstructions,

f igures, g rouped o n

t he

s culptured i nto

a b road

t hree

s tand

h orses

f igures h orses

S culptured f igures c an b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes:

c an

a nd

c ategories:

a nd

T hey

o n

b e

h alf

h orses w heels

o n w heels

a nd w ith f lat b ottoms. E ach o f p eriod : o n

t he

b road

t hese

l ow

c enturies.

t ypes

f lat h orses s tand

o r

a nd g roups c ame

o n

C arved h orses

f rom

wheels o n

1 4th c entury a nd s urvived w ell

r elate

t he

w ere

wheels

t o

a d efinite

c hronological

1 0th-12th c enturies: p opular

a nd

i nto t he

half

i n

t he

f igures

f lat h orses

1 2th

a nd

a ppeared

i n

1 3th t he

1 5th c entury.

T he p resent p ublication d eals s olely w ith t he m ost c haracteristic t oys o f s ome a rtistic v alue a nd t echnical i ngenuity. O thers a re s imply m entioned w ith t heir c ard n umbers c ited . T he

1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies p roduced o nly o ne

a f lat f igure w ith l egs. 1 439, 2 6-25-482, 2 5-24-494,

E ight h ave b een f ound : 2 4-25-1887, 2 1-33-1612,

2 3-1223.

1 97

t ype o f a t oy h orse: 2 8-30-1055, 2 7-341 9-28-1447, a nd 1 8-

2 52.

A t oy h orse

d ated

t o

t he

m id-10th

c entury

( 27-34-1439)

s urvived a lmost i ntact, s ave f or s ome n egligible d amage t o T he f igure i s 1 4.5 c m . l ong, 5 .5 c m . h igh a nd 1 .5 c m . t hick

h as

i ts h ead . ( pl. 2 09,

3 ). 2 53.

A

t oy

f rom

t he

2 6th

h orizon

( 26-25-482)

r esembles

t he

p revious o ne. I t l ooks much m ore l ike a d achshund t han a h orse. t oy i s 1 2.5 c m . l ong, 4 c m . h igh a nd 1 .2 c m . t hick ( pl. 2 09, 4 ). 2 54.

A f igure

undamaged . b ack i s

f rom

t he

2 5th h orizon

I t l ooks v ery m uch l ike

i s b etter

9 .5 c m .

s hown w ith

l ong a nd 4 c m .

2 55.

A t oy h orse

t races h igh

f rom

( 25-24-494)

o f a s addle

( pl.

was

t he t wo p revious t oys 2 09,

a nd

T he

p ractically

s ave t hat i ts

a g irth.

T he

f igure

1 3).

l ate-llth-century l evels

( 21-23-1612).

I t

i s t he b est e xample o f t he e arliest t ype m ade w ith h igh p rofessional s kill a nd a rtistic t aste ( pl. 2 11, 1 ). I n c onformity w ith 1 0th-llthc entury t raditions t he h orse h as a s hort t ail, a nd e ars. i s

T he b ridle s hown i s

1 9 c m .

l ong,

7 .5 c m .

T oys o f t his i n t he

h igh a nd 1 .6 c m .

t ype w ere

1 9th c entury .

G ubernia h arnessed

t o

i s

a n

t hick

( pl.

f rom l ater i dentical

a s okha-plough

a tlas o f w ooden o bjects. F lat h orses

a bsent

T here

a nd a c learly c ut s addle

i ndicated w ith s hallow g rooves. 2 09,

l evels.

T he t oy

2 ). T hey r eappeared

t oy h orse made

p ublished by A .

i n t he O rel

B obrinsky

i n h is

1

o n w heels m ade

t heir

a ppearance

i n t he

s econd half o f

t he 1 3th c entury. T en t oys h ave b een f ound a nd r ecorded : 1 3-18-1276, 1 2-18-1159, 1 2-21-1385, 9 -10-1881, 9 -16-1356, 8 -13-1240, 8 -16-1417, 8 1 2-1179,

8 -14-1355,

2 56. 1 276).

I t

6 -11-1429.

An

i nteresting

i s

o nly

l egs w ith h oles

t oy

s lightly

c ame

f rom

d amaged.

t he

m id-12th

S imilar

t oys

f or a ttaching a xles w ith w heels.

c entury

w ere

a nd

m ouths.

i ncised t o c m.

T he

n eck

i ndicate h arness

i s

g rooved

( pl.

2 11,

t o

s how

2 ).

T he

( 13-18w ithout

T he h ead a cquired a

d ifferent s hape w ith a s horter n eck a nd l onger muzzle. e yes

m ade

S uch

a m ane.

t oy i s

t oys h ave

T he

2 1 c m .

b ody

i s

l ong a nd 8

h igh. 2 57.

h orizon

Another i n

t he

undamaged .

T he

h igh a nd 2 c m . 2 58.

A

t oy

h orse

was

K uzmodemyanskaya t oy i s

f ound

S t.

s hown i n p l.

o n

t he

p avement

( 9-10-1881).

2 09,

1 .

I t

I t

i s

o n

i s

t he

9 th

p ractically

2 0.5 c m .

l ong,

7 c m.

t hick . t oy

f rom

m id-14th-century

l evels

( 8-13-1240).

I t

w as

r ather l arge w ith o ne a xle, t hat i s t o s ay i t r an o n t wo w heels. T he n eck w ith a g rooved m ane i s r ather l ong . T he h orse i s 2 8 c m . l ong , 1 6 c m .

h igh a nd 2 .6 c m . 2 59.

A t oy

t wo w heels. 2 09, 9 ). F lat c enturies.

I t

h orses S ix

t hick.

f rom i s

1 3

t he

w ithout i tems

l ate-13th c entury

c m .

l ong,

w heels

h ave

b een

4 .6

d ate

c m .

f rom

f ound :

1 98

( 12-21-1385)

h igh

t he

a nd

1 .2

a lso had o nly c m .

l ate-13th

1 2-13-1928,

t hick

a nd

t he

1 1-14-1604,

( pl.

1 4th 9 -11-

9 62,

7 -14-1413, 2 60.

i s 1 8 c m .

4 3

7 -12-1170,

A h ighly

5 -9-1242.

s tylised h orse

f rom

t he

1 2th h orizon

( 12-13-1928)

l ong .

2 61. T he l argest t oy c ame f rom t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-9-1242). I t i s c m . l ong , 1 0 c m . h igh a nd 2 .5 c m . t hick . I t h as a c omparatively

s mall h ead a nd a l arge s addle. S culptured h orses a ll c ame f rom t he l evels d ated t o t he 1 320s. T wenty i tems h ave b een f ound , a ll o f t hem b eing s tylised t o a g reater d egree t han t he e arlier t oys. T hey h ave a f lat p latform o n w hich t he t oy s tands a nd l arge s addles m ade i n r elief . S ometimes t hey a re t he o nly i ndication t hat t he t oy r epresented a h orse. T here i s a t oy o f t he e arly-14th c entury w hich h ad w heels ( 10-15-69). T he f ollowing a re t he c ard n umbers o f t he t oys: 1 0-11-1783, 9 -12-1565, 9 -10-512, 9 -101 288, 9 -11-962, 8 -15-1350, 8 -15-1429, 8 -15-1350, 9 -15-223, 8 -14-1349, 8 -10-1275, 7 -13-1337, 5 -12-1438, 4 -6-1501, 4 -5-1576, 3 -3-1003, 1 -2-489, 5 -9-1242,

6 -5-488.

2 62. A h orse f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-12-1565) i s a r ather s olid p iece o f w ood w ith a s mall b ody a nd a s lightly r aised n eck w ith a d eeply g rooved m ane. T he h orse h as a l arge s addle d one i n r elief . T he f igure i s 1 6.5 c m . l ong , 5 c m . h igh a nd 5 c m . w ide. 2 63. A s d istinct f rom t he p revious o ne t he t oy f rom t he 8 th h orizon ( 8-15-1429) i s m ore a ngular a nd h as a l arge s addle t ogether w ith a g rooved b ridle a nd a m ane. T he t oy i s 1 1.5 c m . l ong , 5 c m . h igh a nd 2 .5 c m . w ide ( pl. 2 09, 1 0). 2 63a. A t oy h orse w ith a l arge c omfortable s addle c ame f rom t he 4 th h orizon ( 4-5-156). I t i s w ider t han t he p receding t oy , m easuring 2 .4 c m . 6 .5 c m .

a t t he c hest . T he h ead h as t wo e ars a nd a m ane. l ong , 3 c m . h igh a nd 2 c m . w ide ( pl. 2 09, 8 ).

T he

t oy

i s

2 65. Another t oy f rom t he s ame h orizon ( 4-6-1601) i s m ade i n a d ifferent s tyle. T he h orse h as a w ide l ower p art a nd a n e longated b ody w ith t he s addle c arved i n r elief . T he n eck i s t hick , t he h ead i s s mall. T he h orse i s 1 1.5 c m . l ong ( pl. 2 12, 9 ). 2 66. A t oy f rom t he 7 th h orizon ( 7-13-1337) i s m ore s tylised t han t he o thers. I ts b ody i s u ndoubtedly t hat o f a h orse, t he n eck i s l ong , t he h ead i s s mall. T he f igure h as n o s addle. T he t oy i s r ather s mall, m easuring o nly 1 0 c m . ( pl. 2 12, 7 ). 2 67. T his a nd t he o ther t oys d escribed b elow a re m ore p rimitive a nd c rude. T his t oy c ame f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-10-1288). I t i s a l arge o bject 2 3 c m . l ong a nd 1 0 c m . h igh . T he c arver m ade u se o f a ' piece o f w ood w ith a t wig r epresenting t he h orse's n eck a nd h ead w ith a m outh ( pl. 2 13, 2 ). S imilar t oys d ated t o t he e arly 2 0th c entury w ere p ublished by A . B obrinsky i n h is a tlas. 2 2 68.

A s imilar

f igure w as f ound i n t he 4 th h orizon ( 4-2-489).

i s 2 6 c m . l ong a nd 1 3 c m . 2 10, 4 ; 2 13, 1 ).

h igh .

T he h orse a lso h as a g rooved m ane

1 99

I t ( pl.

2 69. T his h orse w ith f our w heels a nd a s addle i s d ated t o t he 1 4th c entury ( 10-15-69). I t e xhibits t he s ame m anner o f c arving a s t he t oy N o. 4 -5-1576 a nd s ome o thers ( pl. 2 12, 3 ). I t i s 1 7 c m . l ong , 7 c m . h igh a nd 4 c m . w ide. T he c ollection o f h alf f igures o f t he h orses c ontains t welve f inds. T hey w ere m ade i n d ifferent s tyles t hough a ll o f t hem s eem t o b e r earing u p. I f t here w ere n o s addles s ome o f t he t oys w ould n ot l ook l ike h orses. T hese a re t he c ard n umbers o f t he t oys o f t his g roup: 1 0-9-1004, 9 -10-1988, 9 -11-932, 9 -11-1588, 8 -10-1811, 7 -6-1985, 6 -8-1272, 5 -8-1189, 5 -8-1030, 5 -5-994, 4 -9-1366, 4 -2-489. 2 70. A s mall t oy c ame f rom 1 4th-century l evels ( 9-11-1588) w ith a s hort h ead a nd a l ong n eck . T he s addle i ndicates t hat i t i s a h orse. T he o bject i s 6 .2 c m . h igh . 2 71.

Another t oy o f t he s ame k ind ( 9-11-932),

7 .3 c m .

h igh .

2 72. A f lat t oy f rom t he 5 th h orizon ( 5-8-1030) l ooks m ore e xpressive: i t h as a m outh a nd a s addle w ith a g irth. T he t oy i s 1 0 c m . h igh ( pl. 2 13, 4 ). F igures o f d ucks, g eese a nd c hickens w ere S ome o f t hem s tand o n p edestals.

f ound

i n g reat numbers.

T he m id-14th-century l evels y ielded t oys b oth w ith a nd w ithout p edestals. W e h ave f our i tems w ith a s tand ( 10-9-1004, 9 -12-1272, 8 -66 00, 8 -6-600) a nd s even w ithout ( 12-15-1568, 1 2-19-107, 1 0-17-1351, 9 1 6-192, 9 -11-1812, 9 -11-963, 3 -3-1003). 2 73. A t oy g oose f rom m id-14th-century l evels ( 8-6-600) h as s urvived i ntact. I n i ts m iddle p art t he t oy h as a h ole 0 .4 c m . i n d iameter i nto w hich t he s tand w as f ixed . T he b ody i s i ncised t o i mitate f eathers. T here i s a n arrow b and o f n otches a round t he n eck ( pl 2 14, 3 ). T he t ail h as a m ortise f or f ixing t he t ail p lumage. T he t oy i s 1 0.5 c m . l ong , 4 c m . w ide a nd 5 .4 c m . h igh . 2 74. Another t oy f rom t he s ame s quare ( 8-6-600) i s b asically o f t he s ame c onstruction . I ts n eck i s s omewhat s horter ( pl. 2 14 , 6 ): t he t oy i s 9 .5 c m . l ong , 4 c m . w ide a nd 5 c m . h igh . 2 75. T he t hird t oy g oose f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-12-1272) has a s imilar c onstruction a nd i ncised f eathers. I ts h ead i s d amaged. T he t oy i s 8 .5 c m . l ong , 2 .4 c m . w ide a nd 5 c m . h igh ( pl. 2 14, 1 ). 2 76. A t oy b ird w ith a b roken h ead c ame f rom t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-9-1004). I t l ooks v ery m uch t he s ame a s t hose d escribed a bove w ith a m ortise a nd i ncised w ings a nd f eathers. I t i s 2 5 c m . l ong a nd 8 c m . w ide. 2 77. A s mall t oy d uck c ame f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-11-963); i t h as n o s tand . I ts p lumage i s i ncised . T here i s a b and o f n otches a round i ts n eck . T he d uck i s 9 c m . l ong a nd 3 c m . w ide. 2 78.

A t oy

d uck

f rom

t he

1 2th

2 00

h orizon

( 12-15-1568),

m ade

o f

a

b utt. T his s omewhat s tylised f igure l acking a ny i ncised d etails n evertheless l ooks a ttractive. I t i s 6 c m . l ong a nd 3 .2 c m . w ide. 2 79. A t oy g oose f rom t he 9 th h orizon ( 9-16-192). I ts h ead w ith a s harp b eak a nd h igh b ill c rowning a l ong s lender n eck l ooks t rue t o l ife. T he b ird i s 8 .5 c m . l ong , i ncluding t he h ead , a nd 5 c m . h igh . 2 80. T his i s p robably t he m ost i nteresting o f t he t oys f ound i n N ovgorod . T his t oy h en c ame f rom t he 1 0th h orizon ( 10-17-1351). B eing s lightly d amaged i t n ow l acks a b eak . T he h en h as t wo l egs. T he n eck i s r ather s hort ( pl. 2 14, 4 ). T he c omb i s s hown . T he b ody i s i ncised t o i ndicate f eathers. T he t oy w as p ainted y ellow w ith t races s till v isible o n i ts w ings. T he h en i s 1 1 c m . h igh , 7 c m . l ong a nd 4 .2 c m . w ide. D olls c omprise o f t hem. w ere

S ome

t he t hird g roup o f t oys. d escribed i n t he f ourth

E leven h ave b een f ound . c hapter w here t hey a re

r egarded a s p agan i dols a nd h ouse s pirits. P agans, o r p eople a mong w i lom s urvivals o f p aganism w ere s trong , u sed d olls f or r itual p urposes. T hey w ere a ssociated w ith c hildbirth o r t reatment o f t he s ick , w ith t he c ult o f t he d ead a nd o ther m agic r ituals. O ur f orefathers s aw human f eatures w here n ow w e f ind n othing r esembling t hem . I t i s d ifficult, t herefore, t o i dentify t oys, s pecifically s uch a c lassification b eing c onventional. A ccording t o R ussian e thnographic m aterial, c hildren d raped f lat human f igurines i n c lothes, 4 w hich a llows u s t o r egard t hem a s t oys. T he e arly d olls a lways r epresented f emales a s c an b e s een f rom t heir f aces a nd f igures. F ive o bjects o f t his k ind h ave b een f ound ( 20-211 788, 1 5-19-6-, 1 1-24-23, 1 4-22-1443, 6 -1-670) ( pl. 2 06, 1 -5). 2 81. A f lat d oll f rom e arly-13th-century l evels ( 15-19-6). s urviving p art i s 1 7.5 c m . l ong , 4 .3 c m . w ide a nd 0 .8 c m . t hick 2 06,

T he ( pl.

3 ).

2 82. A n i dentical d oll w as f ound c omplete i n t he 6 th h orizon ( 61 -670). I t w as m ade l iterally w ith t wo s trokes o f t he k nife. I t h ad i ncised e yes a nd a n ose o n i ts f ace. T he d oll i s 1 4 c m . l ong a nd 2 .8 c m .

w ide

( pl.

2 83.

2 06,

5 ).

A p ractically

c omplete

d oll

h orizon ( 14-22-1443). I ts r ather s tout w hich t here a re e yes, a n ose a nd a m outh . 6 c m .

w ide 2 84.

( pl.

2 06,

w as

o btained

f rom

t he

1 4th

f igure e nds w ith a h ead o n T he d oll i s 1 3 c m . h igh a nd

1 ).

A s imilar f igure c ame f rom e arly-12th-century l evels

1 788). I ts l ower p art w as b roken a way . d oll i s 1 1.8 c m . h igh a nd 4 c m . w ide ( pl.

I t h as a n ose 2 06, 4 ).

( 20-21-

a nd e yes.

T he

2 85. T his i nteresting e xample w as f ound i n t he 1 1th-century l evels ( 11-24-23). B esides a h ead a nd a w aist i t h as l egs. T he d oll i s

1 3 c m . 2 85a .

h igh a nd 3 c m . B esides

t he

w ide f ive

( pl.

2 06,

2 ).

f lat d olls d escribed a bove

2 01

a rchaeologists

have a lso f ound a t hree-dimensional d oll o n a s tand . 1 5th h orizon ( 25-28-939). T he d oll i s 6 c m . h igh .

I t c ame

T ops a re t he c ommonest m echanical t oy . T here w ere 4 50 t he N ovgorod c ollection . T hey c ame f rom a ll l evels: C entury

o f t hem

1 0th

1 1th

1 2th

1 3th

N umber

5 2

3 6

3 8

5 4

1 88

7 8

P er c ent

1 2

1 2

4 2

1 8

8

8

1 4th

f rom t he

i n

1 5th

W hip t ops r emained u nchanged t hroughout t he c enturies, s o i t i s i mpossible t o d istinguish b etween o bjects d ated t o t he 1 0th , 1 5th a nd 2 0th c enturies. T hey a re e gg-shaped t apering o bjects ( pl. 2 15, 6 , 7 ). T he t oy h as a n a lignment d evice a nd a g roove a round i ts c entral part f or a s tring w hich s ets t he t oy s pinning . I ts m otion w as m aintained w ith a w hip. F or t heir m ost p art t he t ops w ere o f a s tandard s ize: 5 o r 6 c m . h igh , t he d iameter o f t he u pper p art b eing 4 o r 5 c m . S ometimes t hey w ere b igger: 1 1 c m . h igh a nd 8 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( 8-121 203) o r 7 .5 c m . h igh a nd 6 .5 c m . i n d iameter ( 4-6-1235). S uch t oys w ere m ostly h and-made t hough i n t he l ate-13th c entury, i n t he 1 4th a nd p artly i n t he 1 5th c enturies t urned t ops w ere a lso m ade. A s a r ule, s uch t oys w ere u ndecorated . O nly 3 4 o f t hem c arry i ncised d ecorative l ines a long t heir s ides a nd o n t he u pper p art. S ome t ops h ad s everal g rooved l ines m eeting i n t he c entre o n t heir u pper p arts ( 28-27-488, 5 -7-1205, 5 -7-1204, e tc.). T here a re e xamples w ith m ore i ntricate d ecorations ( 6-10-1163), s uch a s a b and f ormed f rom t rihedral h ollows w ith a n i ncised l ine a long e ither s ide. P ropellers. T en e xamples o f t his m echanical t oy w ere f ound , t he e arliest o ne i n t he 1 2th-century l evels ( 17-23-1141, 1 6-22-1125, 7 -101 253, 7 -9-1252, 5 -7-1234, 5 -12-126, 7 -10-860, 8 -11-863, 3 -17-1250, 9 1 6-1429. T he t oy 's c onstruction i s c lear f rom p l. 2 16, 5 . I ts s ize d iffers f rom 1 6 c m . ( 5-12-126) t o 2 4 c m . ( 16-22-1125). T here w ere t wo t ypes o f t oys, t hose r otating a bout t he c entral s haft a nd t hose r otating t ogether w ith a s haft r esting o n a p itch-fork b ase. W ooden b alls, s ometimes o f a r egular s pherical s hape, d ate f rom t he 1 0th-15th c enturies. T hey w ere u sed i n c hildren 's g ames. 5 T hese h and-made o bjects w ere 6 t o 9 c m . i n d iameter. A ltogether 1 13 i tems have b een f ound. C hronologically t hey were d istributed i n t he f ollowing w ay : C entury

1 0th

1 1th

1 2th

1 3th

1 4th

N umber

1 8

2 9

1 7

1 9

2 1

9

P er c ent

1 6

2 6

1 5

1 7

1 8

8

2 02

1 5th

T here a re a mong t he

a g reat number

a ll

t oy w eapons,

s words,

b ows

a nd a rrows,

f inds.

F or s everal m illenia o f

o f

n ations.

M ore

t he t han

s word h as b een a f avourite 5 0

s words

N ovgorod c hildren w ere n o e xception .

2 8

Number

2 7

4

2 6

3

Number p er c entury

1 4

P er c ent

2 8

H orizon

1 9

Number

2 4

2

2 3

4

2 2

1

2 1

2

2 0

2

1

1 8 1 7

1

1 6

1

1 5

1

1 4

1

P er c ent

1 4

2 2

H orizon

1 0

9

8

3

3

t he

s words

1 3

4

1 1

2

t hat

a re d ifficult

f ound i n a ll h orizons:

Number p er c entury 7

Number

t oy w ith b oys

t estifying

9

1 8

2

2 5

7

f ound,

S ince w ooden b lades

t o d istinguish w e c oncentrated o n h ilts H orizon

w ere

1 2

4

1 1

1

N umber p er c entury 9 P er c ent A s

1 8 m ost

o f

w ere

m ade

b y

c hildren

t hemselves

t hey

a re

r ather p rimitive t hough a n a ttempt a t c opying a f ighting s word w ere e vident e nough. S ome o f t he h ilts w ere o bviously m ade by a c raftsman . 2 86.

A h ilt f rom m id-10th-century l evels

f ragment o f t he b lade.

T he h ilt

i s

1 2.5

c m .

( 27-30-300)

l ong ,

i ts

w ith a s mall

c rossed p art

i s

7 .5 c m . w ide, t he t op i s 4 c m . w ide. T he h ilt s hown j _n p l. 2 16, 1 i s c lassified , a ccording t o A .N. K irpichnikov a s t ype T2 .° T he d ecoration i mitates

s ilver d ecorations o n f ighting s words o f t his

2 87. 2 08).

T his

T he h ilt

a c lose

c opy

s word

i s

a c ontemporary

i s much s maller,

o f

t he

T ype

B s words

t riangular h ilt.

I n E urope

t he

8 th

a nd

1 1th

c enturies.

c entury

( pl.

2 16,

3 ).

t he

t he

c ross

b eing

s omewhat

c m .

o f

t he

p receding

l ong a nd 2 .7

w ith

s words

O ur

2 88. A h ilt w ith a p art o f ( 28-36-123). I t i s p ractically w ide,

8 .5

o f

t oy

a n arrow t his

c opy

was

t ype.

c m .

b lade

t ype m ade

a re

a nd

2 03

5 c m .

w ide.

( 27-31I t

i s

a s imple

d ated b etween

i n

t he b lade c ame f rom t he l ife-size, 1 5 c m . l ong s maller,

o ne w ide.

I t

t he

m id-10th

2 8th h orizon a nd 6 .5 c m . i s

a n

e xact

r eplica o f f ighting s words o f T ype X ( pl . 2 16, t he f ollowing t o s ay a bout t hem : " All s words

2 ). K irpichnikov h as o f t his t ype f ound t o

d ate i n Russia h ad a s emi-circular t op p art m ade t ogether w ith t he h ilt...Such f inds d ate t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th a nd e arly-llth c entury . . 7 2 89. A h ilt d ating t o t he m id-14th c entury ( 8-16-1394). I t c orresponds t o t he f ighting s words o f t his p eriod a nd c an b e c lassed a s T ype V I w ith a d isc-shaped t op. T hey w ere i n u se t ill t he 1 5th c entury . A f ive-pointed s tar i s t he c raftsman 's t rademark ( pl. 2 16, 4 ). T oy b ows w ere c onsiderably r arer t han s words. Only 8 f inds w ere c learly d efined a s s uch ( 28-31-1195, 2 5-28-295, 1 7-20-1053, 1 2-18-272, 2 6-31-791, 1 8-20-1055, 9 -13-1219). T hey a re r ere o r l ess e xact c opies o f f airly s ophisticated M edieval R ussian b ows. ° * M ore t han 1 20 w ooden a rrows h ave b een f ound . I t i s r ather d ifficult t o c lass t hem s ince a ny c arefully m ade a rrow m ight have b een e qually w ell a t oy o r a r eal hunter 's o r s oldier 's o ne. C hessmen

and

d raughts

a re

numerous.

They

c ame

f rom

e very

c hronological l evel s tarting w ith t he 1 1th c entury . A ltogether 1 00 c hessmen have b een f ound i n t he N erevsky a nd I lyinsky e xcavations. T hey w ere made o f e ither w ood , b one, o r s tone. H ere w e s hall r estrict o urselves t o t he w ooden o bjects a nd c onsider t hem f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t heir a rtistic m erits. I n M edieval R ussia , j ust a s i n W estern E urope i n t he M iddle A ges, c hessmen w ere o f a g eometrical s hape b orrowed f rom t he N ear E ast. 9 A ll k inds o f c hessmen c an b e f ound i n o ur c ollection ; t here a re k ings, q ueens, r ooks, b ishops, k nights a nd p awns. T he k ings a nd q ueens d iffer s harply f rom o ther c hessmen t hough i t i s d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t hem . W e h ave n ot y et e stablished a ll t he t ypical f eatures o f b oth t ypes o f c hessman w ith t he e xception o f t he c lassical f orms s hown i n p l.

2 18,

2 a nd 5 .

T he b ishop a nd t he k night r etained t heir c enturies, a s i s s een f rom p l. 2 18, 7 t o 1 5.

s hapes

t hroughout

T he r ook h as a m ore i ntricate c onfiguration ( pl. 2 18, i s e ither a p rism o r a c ylinder w ith t wo b ulges a long t he I ndividual c hessmen e xhibit m ore s tylised v ersions.

t he

1 7-22). I t u pper e dge.

T he p awn , a s i t s hould b e, i s t he s implest i n i ts f orms. r ule i t w as a t runcated c one w ith a s omewhat r ounded u pper p art.

A s

a

T here a re s everal i tems d ecorated w ith c arving . 2 89a. A k ing f rom l ate-14th-century l evels ( 9-13-1190) i s l avishly e mbellished w ith a f loral d ecoration made i n h igh r elief ( pl. 2 13, 7 ; p l. 2 18, 5 ). T he c hessman i s 5 .5 c m . h igh a nd 4 .0 c m . i n d iameter a t t he base. *

T he b ow o f o riental t ype w ith d ouble c urvature.

2 04

2 89b. A nother k ing f rom t he s ame h orizon ( 9-11-957) i s d ecorated w ith s hallow c arving g rouped i nto t hree b ands ( pl. 2 18, 2 ). T he c hessman i s 3 .4 c m . h igh a nd 2 .6 c m . i n d iameter . 2 89c. A b ishop d ated t o t he l ate-13th c entury ( 11-19-1401). A s i s s hown i n p l. 2 18, 9 , o ne o f i ts s ides i s d ecorated w ith a g eometrical d esign f ormed f rom l ozenges a nd t riangles. T he b order o f t he c arved s urface i s m ade o f f ine c arving . S ometimes M edieval R ussian c raftsmen d eparted f rom t he t raditional a bstract f orm : t wo h orse-shaped k nights h ave b een f ound , t he w ooden o ne b eing d escribed b elow . 2 89d . T his f igure, g enerally r esembling t he m odern p iece, c ame f rom t he e arly-15th-century l evels ( 5-5-994). I t i s 4 .2 c m . h igh , i ts b ase b eing 1 .8 c m . i n d iameter ( pl. 2 18, 1 6). I t h as a h orse's h ead o n a l ong n eck .

N OTES 1 .

A .A .

B obrinsky ,

1 912,

I ssue V I, p l.

2 .

A .A .

B obrinsky ,

1 912,

I ssue I ,

3 .

V .

4 .

P .V .

I vanov ,

5 .

E .A .

P okrovsky ,

6 .

A .N .

K irpichnikov ,

7 .

I bid ., p .33.

8 .

A .F . M edvedev ,

9 .

B .A .

K haruzina ,

K olchin ,

1 912,

p .

8 5;

p l.

L .A .

1 890. 1 892. 1 966,

P .

2 0.

1 959. I .M .

L inder ,

1 961.

2 05

7 3, N o. 7 ,

F ig .

D intses,

1 . 5 .

1 951,

P .

4 65.

C HAPTER S IX P ainting a nd e ngraving o n b irchbark - P ainted s poons B irchbark w as

w idely u sed

f or m aking k itchen u tensils

t heir

t han 1 100 b ottoms,

l ids

T hree

o f l arge b oxes

s poon - P ainted b owls.

a nd o ther o bjects, l evels.

- P ainted s ides

- I van V arfolomeyevich 's

t ypes

i n N ovgorod

f ragments b eing t he

c ommonest

a nd s ides h ave b een f ound .

o f b irchbark v essels

p eople o f N ovgorod ; t hey i ncluded ( tues), s hallow b irchbark v essels

w ere

o f

f inds.

T hey c ame

m ost

p opular

s mall b irchbark v essels w ithout l ids a nd l arge

More

f rom a ll a mong

t he

w ith l ids b oxes f or

s toring d resses a nd o ther t hings. T he

t ues

w ere

b etween

b irchbark v essels w ere 4 0

8 a nd

t o

4 5

1 5

c m .

c m .

i n

i n

d iameter,

d iameter,

w hile

t he

l arge

s hallow b oxes

a s

s hown i n p l. 7 3 w ere s ometimes 6 0 c m . i n d iameter a nd 4 5 c m . h igh . T heir l ids a nd s ides w ere d ecorated w ith c arving a nd painting w hich i s s upported by numerous M ore b ases,

t han 5 0

f inds o f o rnamented f ragments.

i tems o f b ottoms a nd l ids,

h ave b een f ound i n a ll h orizons,

s ome o f t hem f ixed t o bast

i ncluding t he e arliest o ne

( the

2 8h h orizon). A

g eometrical

pattern

based

on

a braided

d esign

i ncluding

l ozenges, s quares a nd z ig zags s urvived t hroughout t he c enturies. T he p attern m ade i n o utline o n t he i nner l ayer o f b irchbark w as e ither i mpressed o r T here

i ncised .

f ollows

a d escription o f

s ome

o f

t he

f inds

d ated t o v arious

c hronological p eriods w hich b ear t he m ost i nteresting d ecorations. D ecoration o n o ther o bjects w ere m erely r epetitions o f t hose d escribed b elow. 2 90. c entury

A f ragment l evels

o f

b irchbark

( 25-26-424).

d ecoration i s s hown i n p l. 2 91.

T he undamaged

l evels ( 21-16-145). s everal l ayers, t he m otifs

( pl.

2 20,

2 92.

An

b y

6 c m . l ike

f rom

a

t he

l id

e arly

1 1th-

f ragment.

T he

2 .

l id o f a t ues

c ame

I t i s 1 1.5 c m . u pper o ne b eing

i ntact l evels

2 19,

l id

t he

2 24,

1 0

l ooks

f rom

t he

l ate-llth c entury

i n d iameter. I t c onsisted o f i ntricately d ecorated o pen-work

3 ).

1 3th-century 1 ,

I t

l id

1 5

c m .

i n

( 15-22-739).

was

p ainted

d iameter

B esides

w hite

w as

f ound

i n

t he

a d ecoration

s hown

i s

by

w hich

s upported

e arly i n

t he

p l.

paint

t races. 2 93. n ot

l arge

l evels i s

T he

d ated

l avishly

2 20,

4 .

I ts

s ize

l id o f a r ectangular b ox 3 0 x 1 9.5 c m .

c ompared

2 94.

t o

t he

t o

o ther

o bjects

s econd half

d ecorated w ith

o f

a f ine

o f

t he a nd

t his 1 3th

i n s ize,

k ind . c entury

i ntricate

I t

1 0 b y 6 c m .

T he d ecoration i s

2 06

w hich i s f rom

( 13-19-1179).

p attern

A b irchbark f ragment c ame f rom t he s ame h orizon i s

was

s hown i n p l.

s hown

i n

t he I t p l.

( 13-12-488).

2 24,

3 .

2 95. T he l id o f a s mall r ound v essel c ame f rom t he l ate-14thc entury h orizons ( 7-10-1303). I t i s 1 8.5 c m . i n d iameter. I ts c ircular g eometrical d esign c an b e s een i n p l. 2 19, 3 . 2 96. A l id o f a t ues o f c ommon s ize f rom t he l ate-14th-century l evels. I ts d iameter i s 1 3 c m . T he l id i s b ordered w ith f our c ircles, a nd a f our-pointed c ross i nside t hem i s f ormed b y a rched l ines. B y t he 1 4th c entury d ecoration o f N ovgorod b irchbark o bjects b ecame m uch s impler w ith a n o bvious p reponderance o f c ircular p atterns. T races o f p aint a ppear o n w ooden o bjects s tarting w ith t he m id1 2th-century l evels. I t d oes n ot m ean h owever, t hat t here w ere n o p ainted o bjects o f e veryday u se i n t he e arlier p eriods. S ince t he e xcessive humidity o f t he c ultural d eposit d isintegrates p aint i t s eems p robable t hat i n t he l ower l evels s uch d isintegration was m ore e xtensive. F ifty-one p ainted o bjects c ame f rom t he l evels d ated b etween t he 1 2th a nd 1 4th c enturies. T hirty-two o f t hem w ere m ade o f w ood , 1 9 w ere f ragments o f b irchbark b oxes. W ooden o bjects i ncluded s poons, b owls, t oys, a nd o ther t hings. I ndividual e lements o f g eometrical d esigns o n b irchbark b oxes w ere p ainted i n f ive c olours: b lack , r ed , b rown , d ark b lue a nd l ight y ellow w ithout u sage o f h alf-tones, T he

f ragments

w ere

m ixed c olours.

d istributed a mong

t he

l evels

i n

t he

f ollowing

w ay : 1 8-25-732

1 3-19-1121

8 -9-887

1 8-23-1221

1 4-11-694

8 -15-1443

1 6-13-676

1 3-18-1234

1 2-10-509

1 6-13-706

1 3-19-1142

8 -13-1212

1 2-18-1177

1 0-18-1395

8 -9-1030

1 2-12-1905

1 2-19-627

B elow i s t he d escription o f e ight t ypical e xamples. 2 97. F ragments o f a b irchbark b ox c ame f rom t he l evels d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury ( 18-25-732). T heir s ize i s 2 7 b y 2 5 c m . I ts m ulti-coloured d ecoration i s s hown i n p l. 2 21, 4 . 2 98. A nother f ragment 9 c m . w ide d ated t o t he s ame p eriod ( 18-23' 1221) h as b een p reserved a long i ts f ull h eight ( 27 c m .). T he s ide w as b ordered w ith b ands o f r ed a nd b rown , w hile t he m iddle b and 1 1 c m . w ide w as f ormed by a l ight y ellow b raiding d esign a gainst t he b rown b ackground . 2 99.

O ne m ore

f ragment f rom t he

2 07

1 6th h orizon

( 16-13-676)

c losely

r esembles f ragment N o. 2 97 w ith a s omewhat n arrower d ecorative s trip ( 6 c m .). I t i s f ormed b y a w ide b rown s trip a nd s everal n arrow b rown a nd d ark b lue s trips d ivided b y a l ight b ackground . 3 00. A l arge p art o f a b ox d ated t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 13-191 142). I ts o rnamentation s hown i n p l. 2 25, 5 s eems t o b e m ost a ttractive. T he s ide i s 4 0 c m . h igh . T he d ecoration c onsists o f t hree h orizontal s trips, t he u pper a nd t he l ower o nes b eing e ach 1 3 c m . w ide. 3 01. A s mall f ragment ( 18 x 1 7 c m .) d ated t o t he s ame p eriod ( 131 8-1234). I t r etained t he l ower p art o f i ts p ainting w hich w as a broad multi-coloured s trip 1 1 c m . w ide c omposed o f s ix b ands e ach 0 .5 c m . w ide ( three d ark b lue b ands a lternating w ith t hree b rown o nes). T he m iddle p art w as t aken u p b y a t wo-strand b raiding f ormed b y r ed a nd b rown s trips a gainst t he l ight y ellow b ackground . 3 02. A s mall f ragment c ame f rom t he 1 2th h orizon ( 12-10-509). I ts d ecoratibn w as c omposed o f s everal n arrow b lack a nd b rown s trips a nd i ncluded a n o rnamental b and 5 c m . w ide f ormed by b lack a nd brown s trokes a lternating w ith l ight s crolls. I t i s d oubled w ith a broad b elt o f b rown a nd y ellow s crolls w ith b lack c urling t endrils ( pl. 2 21, 3 ). T he p attern r epeats t hat o n t he f ragment d escribed u nder N o. 3 00. 3 03. A f ragment 2 2 x 8 c m . c ame f rom t he 1 905). I ts o rnamentation i s s hown i n p l. 2 21, 2 .

1 2th

h orizon

( 12-12-

3 04. A b irchbark f ragment f rom t he 8 th h orizon ( 8-13-1212) w as p art o f t he s ide o f a b ox , o riginally 4 4 c m . h igh. I ts d ecoration c onsisted o f t hree b ands. T he l owest o ne, 1 1 c m . w ide, i ncluded f our n arrow b rown s tripes a nd a n o rnamental b and 1 .7 c m . w ide. T he m iddle p art c omprises a n i ntricate g eometrical d esign 1 8 c m . w ide a nd a narrow b rown s tripe 0 .2 c m . w ide. A ll t he d etails a re s hown i n p l. 2 21, 1 . On t he whole, g eometrical d ecoration o n birchbark o bjects c onsisted o f t hree c oloured b elts, t he u pper a nd t he l ower o nes b ordering t he m iddle d ecorative o ne. T hey w ere p laced a symmetrically a nd n ever l ooked a like. T en

w ooden

s poons

f ound

s o

f ar

h ave

l ittle

o f

t heir

o riginal

d esign ( linear) o r p aint p reserved . T his n umber s hould b e s upplemented w ith s everal s poons w hose b owls c arry f ine i ncised d ecoration o f t he k ind u sually s upplemented w ith s ubsequent p ainting . A ll t hese o bjects c ame f rom t he l evels d ated t o t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies: 2 8-31-317 1 9-24-1259

1 4-18-1528

9 -15-1128

1 7-19-1645

1 2-15-1562

1 3-13-1079

2 2-27-102

1 4-17-16161

1 9-21-862

1 1-11-1643

8 -11-406

3 -12-1945 1 3-11-703

1 1-19-2145

2 08

O nly s ix s poons p ermit a r econstruction o f t heir o riginal p ainting . 3 05.

A s poon b owl d ated t o t he m id-12th c entury ( 19-24-1259).

I t

has r etained i ts p ainting t o a g reater d egree t han o ther o bjects o f t his k ind . I t w as p ainted b right y ellow w ith a b lack f our-armed c ross w ith t endrils i n t he c entre ( pl. 2 22, 2 ). T he b owl i s 5 c m . w ide. 3 06. A b owl f rom m id-13th-century l evels ( 14-17-1616) w as l ikewise p ainted b oth i nside a nd o utside y ellow w ith a p attern o utlined i n b lack i n t he c entre. T he d etails a re s hown i n p l. 2 22, 1 . T he b owl i s 5 .7 c m . w ide. 3 07. A b owl f rom t he 1 7th h orizon h as p reserved t he o utside ( 17-19-1645). I t i s s hown i n p l. 2 22, 5 .

i ts

p ainting o n

3 08. A s poon d ated t o t he m id-13th c entury ( 14-18-1528) h as c ome d own t o u s i ntact w ith t races o f p ainting o n b oth t he b owl a nd t he h andle. I t w as p ainted y ellow , w hich h as b een p reserved i nside t he b owl a nd i n t he m iddle o f t he h andle. T races o f r ed i s a ll t hat r emains o f t he m ulti-coloured p atterns. I nside t he b owl t here w as a c ruciform d esign , w hile t he r everse s ide b ore a f our-petalled f lower. T he p lace w here t he h andle j oined t he b owl w as d ecorated w ith r ed p atterns, w hile t he r est o f t he h andle w as o bviously o rnamented a s w ell ( pl. 2 22, 3 ). 3 09. A l ate-12th-century s poon p attern a gainst a y ellow background .

( 12-15-1562)

w ith t races

o f a r ed

T wo w ooden s poons w hich c ame f rom t he 1 1th h orizon ( first d ecades o f t he 1 4th c entury) c laim a s pecial p lace i n t he N ovgorod c ollection . O ne o f t hem , f ound i n 1 958, w as o btained f rom t he 1 4th l evel, s quare N o. 1 643, o n t he s ite o f t he h ousehold I . T he o ther t urned u p i n 1 961 i n t he 1 9th l evel o f s quare N o. 2 145 o n t he s ite o f h ousehold D . T hey a re i nteresting i n s everal r espects. F irst, t hey c ame f rom t he s ites b elonging t o t he M ishinichis,

a n umerous b oyar f amily.

I n t he p eriod u nder r eview y ard D was h eld by t he f amily o f t he N ovgorod n osadnik* V arfolomey Y urievich , w ho o wned t he I y ard a s w ell. W e d o n ot know e xactly w ho l ived i n t he h ouse a t t hat t ime, but w e a re q uite c ertain t hat b oth s poons b elonged t o V arfolomey 's f amily a nd t hat o ne o f t hem w as l ost i n t he y ard o f I h ouse. S econd , t here a re i ndisputable i ndications d iscussed b elow t hat b oth s poons b elonged t o t he s ame s et. T hird , b oth o f t hem a re e xamples o f h igh a rtistic s kill o f c raftsman m aking h ousehold o bjects i n t he l ate-13th a nd e arly- 1 4th c enturies. T heir t echnological a nalysis s hows t hat t hey w ere m aster e mploying i dentical m ethods a nd a rtistic d evices t hem ( pl.

m ade b y o ne f or b oth o f

2 23).

* P osadnik w as t he h ead o f c ommunal a dministration o f N ovgorod , t he m ayor o f t he c ity . I n 1 478, t he d ate o f f inal l iquidation o f N ovogord i ndependence, t he t itle o f ' posadnik ', a nd a lso t he c ommunal a ssembly ( 'veche') w ere a mended . T hese w ere t he c onditions o f p eace w ith M oscow .

-A .

C h.

2 09

T he s poons w ere d ecorated i n s imilar w ays: t he o bverse s ides o f t he b owls c arry b attle s cenes, a m an w ith a s word a nd H ercules f ighting a l ion . T heir o bverse s ides a lso h ave d ecorations i dentical i n e very d etail w ith t he e xception o f e ither d ragon 's h eads o r p almets o n t he e nds o f c entral S -shaped e lement. T he s ame c an b e s aid o f t he t hree r ows o f d ecorated b ands i n t he p laces w here t he h andles j oin t he b owls a nd o f t he d ecoration o n t he h andles. B oth s poons w ere p ainted w ith t races o f r ed , y ellow a nd b rown s till v isible. O ne o f t hem i s l arge, t he o ther i s much s maller t han t he a verage. 3 10. T he s poon f rom t he y ard o f I h ouse ( 11-14-1643) i s 2 5.4 c m . l ong a nd 7 c m . w ide. I ts b owl i s 9 .5 c m . l ong , a nd t he handle i s 1 .7 c m . i n d iameter. T he o rnamental b and i s 7 .5 c m . w ide. I t i s s hown i n P l. 2 23, 3 ; 2 24, 1 . T he s ubject w as p opular i n m edieval s culpture, i ncluding t hat o f t he V ladimir-Suzdal r egion . 3 11. T he s poon f rom t he y ard o f D h ouse ( 11-19-2145) i s 2 1 c m . l ong . T he b owl i s 5 .7 c m . w ide a nd 8 .5 c m . l ong . T he handle i s 1 .3 c m . i n d iameter, a nd t he b raided b and i s 3 .3 c m . w ide. I t has b een t he s ubject o f a n a rticle b y A . A rtsikhovsky .2 A s w as a lready p ointed o ut, i ts d ecoration i s i dentical w ith t hat o f t he s poon d escribed a bove, s ave f or a b and f ormed o f c ircles a nd p oints which b orders t he c entral p icture. O n t he h andle t here i s a n i nscription w ith t he o wner 's n ame " Ivan V arfolomeyevich" ( that i s, a s on o f t he p osadnik). J udging b y t he d ate a t w hich t he s poon w as l ost, b y i ts s mall s ize a nd b y t he i nscription d one i n a c hild 's h and , t he s poon b elonged t o a b oy** ( pl. 2 23, 1 , 2 ). B oth s poons a re s plendid e xamples o f f ine c raftsmanship i n N ovgorod . T hey w ere e vidently a ware o f t he b est e xamples o f R ussian a nd W estern E uropean d ecorative a rt. W e h ave a lready m entioned t hat t urned w ooden t able u tensils w ere r arely d ecorated w ith c arving o r p ainting . N evertheless, t he 1 3thc entury l evels h ave p roduced s everal f ragments o f t urned p ainted b owls, t wo o f t hem c arry p ainted s ubjects. 3 12.

A w ooden f ragment f rom t he l evels d ating f rom t he f irst half

o f t he 1 3th c entury ( 15-17-902). T he b owl i t c ame f rom h ad b een b roken a nd r epaired i n M edieval t imes w ith p ine c ords. T he b owl w as 2 8 c m . i n d iameter, i ts b ase b eing 1 2 c m . i n d iameter. I ts d ecoration i ncludes p ictures o f a rmed w arriors. I t i s s hown i n p l. 2 25, 1 . T he d rawing w as o utlined w ith f inely i ncised g rooves m ost p robably m ade w ith a n eedle. w ell.

T races o f d ark p aint i n t he i nside s how t hat i t w as p ainted a s

3 13. A nother f ragment c ame f rom l ate-13th-century l evels ( 11-121 060). T he b owl w as 2 2 c m . i n d iameter, i ts b ottom 8 c m . Y oung .b eardless c rowned p erson i s r epresented , t here i s a lso a n i nscription i ncluding t he n ame ' Alexander ' ( probably t he i mage w as a ssociated w ith

* * T he s poon i s r eally a t raditional g ift t o a v ery l ittle c hild i n R ussia . T he i dea t hat t he i nscription w as m ade b y t he c hild h imself s eems d oubtful. - A . C h .

2 10

t he l egendary b iography o f A lexander t he G reat s hows i ts d ecoration .

N OTES 1 .

V .L .

Y anin ,

1 965,

2 .

A .V .

A rtsikhovsky,

p .

1 11.

1 965,

p .

2 66.

2 11

- A .

C h .).

P l.

2 25,

2

C ONCLUSION M edieval R ussian d ecorative a rt i s w ell k nown t o u s e fforts o f j ewellers a nd s tone a nd b one c arvers. 1

t hanks t o

t he

P rior t o t he d iscoveries i n N ovgorod w e w ere p ractically u naware o f M edieval R ussian a rtistic o bjects o f e veryday u se. T he N ovgorod e xcavations p rovided u s w ith a g limpse i nto t he d aily l ife o f o ur f orefathers, b ringing t o l ight t housands o f o bjects a nd t ools which w ere i n c ommon u se i n t he c ity . W ood c arving was a v ery p opular a nd p racticable m ethod o f e mbellishing e veryday l ife. B etween t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies t he i nhabitants o f N ovgorod e mulated n ature i n t heir e fforts t o d ecorate t heir h ouses, u tensils a nd d resses. O n t he o ther h and , b eing a pprehensive o f " evil f orces" t hey s trove t o p rotect t hemselves w ith t he h elp o f i dols a nd o ther r eligious o bjects. A t

a ll

t imes,

m aterial p roduction c ontrols

t he

l evel

o f

a rtistic

d evelopment. I n t he 1 0th a nd 1 1th c enturies a pplied a rt w as g reatly i nfluenced b y p aganism a nd p agan s ymbols. T his w as t he p eriod when o bjects o f e veryday u se b ore r ich d ecoration i ncluding p agan s ymbols. T hough i n s ome r espects r ather c lose t o S candinavian d ecoration , t hat o f N ovgorod r etained i ts S lavic c haracteristics. A ll h ousehold u tensils s uch a s b owls, s poons, p arts o f f urniture a nd t ools w ere g iven i ntricate a nd h ighly d ecorated a rtistic f orms. T echnically t hese t hings w ere h ard t o p roduce. P eople m ainly m ade t hem f or t heir o wn u se. I n t he e arly-12th c entury t he v igorous d evelopment o f u rban c rafts, t heir d ifferentiation a nd t heir a daptation t o t he m arket c aused d ramatic t echnical c hanges. T hings b ecame m uch s impler, t heir s hapes m ore u tilitarian . T he i deas o f b eauty a s a pplied t o m ass-produced o bjects a lso c hanged . E verything w as a imed a t m ass p roduction .

r ange

F olk a rt i deas o f o bjects.

a nd s kills s urvived , t o b e a pplied t o a r estricted S uch t hings b ecame m ore e xpensive a nd h ence had

l imited m arket. T he m anner o f c arving u nderwent c ertain a lterations. G eometrical d esigns become m ore p opular and f antastic beasts undergo t ransformations,

w hile t he m agic g ave w ay t o t he b eautiful.

T he p rocess e xtended w ell i nto t he 1 3th c entury , c oupled w ith f urther t echnical p rogress a nd a esthetic e laboration . P rofessional a rtists s tarted t o p roduce o bjects o f e veryday u se. N ovgorod w ood c arving o f t his t ime s howed i nfluences V ladimir-Suzdal r egions i n p articular.

f rom

o ther

R ussian

l ands,

t he

T he e conomic a nd p olitical a chievements o f N ovgorod i n t he 1 4th c entury s purred o n t he c raftsmen i n t he t own , a nd w ood c arving w as n o e xception .

L ike a ll o ther a rts i t b ecame t he d omain o f p rofessionals.

2 12

T hings m ade b y a rtists w ere t oo c ostly t o b e m ass p roduced . C ommon p eople h ad t o b e c ontent w ith s impler , u ndecorated u tensils, w hile h ighly a rtistic o bjects w ere p urchased b y a s mall s ection o f w ell-to-do u rban d wellers, b oyars a nd t he c lergy . T wo s poons f ound i n t he y ard o f V arfolomei Y urievich b ear w itness t o t his. T hey a lso s how t hat t he p eople o f N ovgorod w ere w ell a cquainted w ith e xamples o f W estern E uropean a rt . N o c arved w ooden o bject c ame f rom 1 4th-century l evels o n t he N erevsky e xcavations, f rom t he s quares c overing t he d welling h ouses o f c ommon f olk . B ox-wood c ombs a re t he o nly e xception . W ood c arving w as e mployed o nly i n i nterior d ecoration o f t he c ommon p eople. I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t he b ulk o f c arved a rchitectural d etails c ame f rom t he 1 4th-century l evels. M ass-production d eprived o bjects o f e veryday u se o f t heir o rnamental a nd a rtistic e lements. I n t he e arly 1 4th c entury f olk a rt, a nd t he d ecoration o f c ommon o bjects, r etreated t o t he c ountryside w here i t s urvived u ntil t he 2 0th c entury .

N OTE

1 .

B .A .

R ybakov ,

1 951,

p .

1 96; A .V . A rtsikhovsky ,

2 13

1 954, p .

2 84.

A PPENDIX

V .N .

L azarev ,

N .E.

M neva

T he L yudogoshcha C ross A 1 4th-Century E xample O f N ovgorod W ood-carving*

T he L yudogoshcha C ross ( pl. 2 27), a m agnificent e xample c arving , w ith i ts e xceptionally w ell-preserved i nscriptions,

o f w oodh as l ong

a ttracted b oth h istorians o f M edieval R ussian a rt 1 a nd p alaeographers.' I t c an s afely b e a sserted , h owever, t hat u ntil t he l ate 1 940s i ts t rue v alue r emained u nappreciated . T he c ross w as, t o a l arge e xtent, d istorted b y c onsecutive r estorations w hich l ed t o m isinterpretations o f t he i mages i t c arried . T hus, S amson w as o ften m istaken f or S t. G erasimus r iding a l ion , o r S t. T heodore a nd h is m other f or S t. Z osimus a nd M ary t he E gyptian . I n 1 947-1949 a d etailed r estoration a t t he C entral Workshops f or t he R estoration o f Artistic O bjects made g enuinely s cientific i nvestigation p ossible. T he c ross w as f reed f rom t wo p riming l ayers a nd t wo l ayers o f p ainting , t he l ower o f t hem b eing d ated t o t he 1 6th a nd t he u pper t o t he 1 8th c entury . T his w ork , i n f act, w as s tarted b ack i n 1 938 i n N ovgorod , but was n ot c ompleted . T oday , t he r estored c ross l ooks e xactly a s i t d id s ix hundred y ears a go s ave t he n atural w ear o f t he w ood . I t i s i mpossible t o s ay n ow w hether i t w as p ainted : n o t races o f o riginal p aint have b een p reserved . I n a ll p robability, i n t he 1 4th c entury t he c ross a nd i ts d ecoration a nd i mages w ere o f t he n atural c olour o f t he w ood o f w hich t hey w ere m ade o f . T he L yudogoshcha C ross, a ccording t o t he i nscription o n i t, w as c ommissioned i n 1 359 by t he p eople l iving i n t he L egoshcha, o r L yudogoshcha a s i t w as c alled i n o lden t imes, S treet i n N ovgorod . P rior t o t he G reat P atriotic W ar o f 1 941-1945 i t w as k ept i n t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus i n L egoshcha S treet, w hich c onnected t he Z agorodny a nd S ophia q uarters. I n 1 942, t ogether w ith o ther o bjects o f M edieväl R ussian a rt, i t w as s tolen b y n azi i nvaders a nd r eturned t o t he S oviet U nion o nly a fter t he w ar. F ollowing i ts r estoration c ross w as e xhibited i n t he S tate H istorical Museum i n M oscow .

t he

W hether t he c ross w as f irst k ept i n t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus i s o pen t o d oubt. N .P. K ondakov s upported A rchimandrite M acarius' o pinion t hat t he c ross w as i nitially k ept i n t he C hurch o f S t. S imeon S tylite , e a nd w as l ater t ransferred t o t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus. W e h ave n o i nformation , h owever, o n a ny c hurch d edicated t o S t. S imeon i n N ovgorod ( the c hurch i n C hudintseva S treet b eing b uilt m uch l ater, i n 1 392). 4 T he s tone C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd

T ranslated f rom: S oobshcheniya I nstituta I storii i skusstv ( Communications o f t he I nstitute o f t he H istory o f A rt). M oscow , 1 954, I ssue 4 -5.

2 14

L aurus

i n L egoshcha S treet w as

e rected i n 1 379.

5

I t w as p receded b y a

w ooden c hurch o f t he s ame n ame w hich p erished i n a f ire i n 1 348. 6 I t s eems p robable t hat i t w as p romptly r ebuilt a nd t hat t he L yudogoshcha C ross w as i ntended f or t his w ooden c hurch a nd w as l ater i nherited b y i ts s tone s uccessor T his h ypothesis s eems a ll t he m ore p robable s ince t he c ross c arries t he i mages o f b oth s aints, e xtremely p opular i n N ovgorod a s p atrons o f h orse b reeding . T he c ross i s m ade o f p ine. I t i s 2 .3 m . h igh a nd 1 .87 m . w ide ( pl. 2 27). I ts h ighly o riginal s hape b ears w itness t o t he t endency t o e laborate o rnamentation i n N ovgorod . T he c ross h as a nalogies a mong t he N ovgorod s tone c rosses w ith f our w idened a rms w hich s ometimes m et t o f orm f our r ound h oles. 7 T his f orm , t he f avourite i n N ovgorod , w as f urther c omplicated i n t he L yudogoshcha C ross. E ach o f i ts f our e nds d ivided t o f orm f rames f or f our o pen-work c ircles. T he u pper a nd t wo s ide a rms h ave f our s crolled b ranches e ach . T he l ower o ne, w ith t he s tem a ttached t o i t, h as o nly t wo b ranches. I nitially, t here w ere t wenty-four s mall c rosses f ound o n t he p erimeter o f t he c ross a nd i ts f our o pen-work h oles, w hich a dded t o i ts m ystical p ower. An e ighteenth-century w ooden p late b earing a p ainted i mage o f a n a rchangel c rowns t he c ross. T he c arved i nscription o n t he s tem ( pl. 2 28; 2 29) w as r eproduced i n t he p ublications m entioned a bove, u nfortunately n ot w ithout e rrors. I t s ays t hat t he c ross w as m ade i n 1 359 b y t he p eople l iving i n L yudogoshcha S treet i n N ovgorod who t hus a ppeal t o C hrist f or p rotection . " The c ross w as e rected i n t he y ear 6 867 [ A .D. 1 359], t he 1 2th i ndiction . H elp, o h G od , a ll C hristians e verywhere p raying t o T hee w ith f aith a nd o pen h eart, a nd t hose o f y our h umble s ervants f rom t he L yudogoshcha S treet, w ho e rected t he c ross, a nd a lso m e w ho w rote [ this]." T he l ast t wo l ines i nclude s ome l etters w hich f orm a c yphered m essage. A ccording t o A rchimandrite M acarius, i t c oncealed t he n ames o f t hose w ho h ad c arved a nd i nstalled t he c ross, w hile I .A . S hlyapkin b elieved t hat t hese w ere t he i nitial l etters o f a c anon o r a p raise t o t he h oly c ross. 8 I t s eems t hat B . R ybakov 's i nterpretation i s t he m ost c onvincing s o f ar : h e r eads t he l etters f ollowing t he w ords " me w ho w rote" a s " Jacob, s on o f T heodosius." I t i s i mpossible t o s urmise w hether J acob w as t he a uthor o f t he p attern o r a c arver, o r b oth. T he p aper b y B .A . R ybakov w as p resented a t t he I nstitute o f t he H istory o f M aterial C ulture o f t he U SSR A cademy o f S ciences. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he l ast t hree l etters o f t he i nscription r emained u ndeciphered . T he f ront i s l avishly e mbellished a nd h as 1 8 m edallions w ith i mages enclosed i n t hem. T he o rnament, which i s n ot r igidly s ymmetrical, f reely s preads o ver t he e ntire s urface o f t he c ross, g raphically r eflecting t he v ivid f olklore f antasy . C urled s prouts a re i ntertwined w ith t refoils, p laiting d esigns a nd c rosses. I mmediately a bove t he i nscription t here i s a f antastic a nimal r esemb 4ng a nalogous i mages o n N ovgorod s eals,

( a p anther?), m aking p art

c losely o f t he

d esign . I n i ts g eneral o utline t he d ecoration l ooks v ery m uch l ike t he d esigns i n N ovgorod m anuscripts o f t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies, t hough , o f c ourse, i t h as i ts o wn c haracteristics. T hus, u nlike t eratology w ith i ts i ntricate i ntertwining o f l ines, t he o rnaments o n t he c ross a re m uch s impler a nd m ore n atural.

2 15

T he o nly p lace w here w e

e ncounter s uch f orms a c ross.

i ntertwining

i s

i mmediately

a bove

t he

s tem

w here

i t

W hat a ttracts a ttention i s t he c arved f igures. T hey a re g raphic i llustrations o f a f ree i nterpretation o f C hristian i conography a nd t he w ide u se o f a pocryphical s ources p ractised i n N ovgorod . T he L yudogoshcha C ross i s u nusual i n t hat i ts i mages d o n ot c ombine t o f orm a n i ntegrated t heological s ystem . T he q uestion o f w ho c ommissioned t he c ross a nd w hy i t w as m ade a re c onsidered b elow . T he c ontent o f t he i mages d ivide i nto t hree g roups: t hose a ssociated w ith J esus C hrist ( "The C rucifixion" a nd t he D eesis), t hose d epicting g uardian a ngels a nd t hose s howing s aints p opular i n N ovgorod .

2 30),

T he c entre i s o ccupied b y t hree m edallions d epicting t he V irgin M ary a nd J ohn t he B aptist ( pl. 2 31).

C hrist

( pl.

T his i s; i n f act, t he t raditional D eesis a nd i ts c entral p osition i s n ot f ortuitous. A ccording t o t he i nscription t he c ross w as i ntended b y i ts d onors a s a s upplication a ddressed t o C hrist. T he D eesis e mbodied t he i dea o f p rotection b y t he V irgin M ary, a nd J ohn t he B aptist i nvoking f orgiveness f or human s ins. C hrist e nthroned b lesses w ith h is r ight h and a nd h olds t he H oly G ospel i n h is l eft. T he V irgin M ary a nd J ohn t he B aptist f acing h im w ith t heir hands r aised i n s upplication , a re s eated o n c urious c hairs, t he b acks o f w hich f orm p art o f t he b ackground o rnament ( pl. 2 31). " The C rucifixion" ( pl. 2 32, 1 ) i s f ound o n t he c entral v ertical j ust a bove t he m edallion s howing S S. F lorus a nd L aurus. T he c rucified C hrist w ith h is h ead s urrounded w ith a h alo a nd a c ross o ccupies t he c entre o f t he c omposition . H is f ace i s b earded , a nd h is hair r eaches h is s houlders. T he H oly V irgin a nd J ohn t he E vangelist f lank t he c ross. T hey b oth d ry t heir t ears w ith o ne h and w hile h olding t he o ther o n t heir b reasts. T he h alf-length a ngelic f igures c an b e s een a bove t he c ross. T he t hree w arriors r epresented i n t he m edallion t o t he r ight ( pl. 2 32, 2 ) a re p robably a ssociated w ith t he c rucifixion . T hey w ell m ay b e t he w arriors s ometimes s hown i n t he s imilar c ontext n ear t he c enturion. 10 W earing c hain mail a nd helmets t hey f orm a n i ndependent g roup. O ne o f t hem c arries a l ance, a nother a s word . U ndoubtedly, t his t raditional g roup w as a ssociated e vent which p rompted t he c ommissioning o f t he c ross.

w ith

a m ilitary

I n t he l ower l eft a nd t he u pper r ight s ide t here a re f igures o f a g uardian a ngel c arrying t he c ross a nd S t . M ichael w ith a s pear ( pl. 2 33). T he l atter c an s afely b e i nterpreted a s a g uardian a nd p atron o f t hose who o rdered t he c ross i n s pite o f t he f act t hat h e e nters t he s cenes o f t he a pocryphical l ife o f T heodore T yron . P eople i n M edieval R ussia c onsidered a ngels t o b e a ctive i n h uman l ife: t hey s aw t hem a s c onnected w ith a ll n atural p henomena , a nd r egarded t hem a s p rotectors o f a ll l iving b eings o n e arth a nd a s p atrons o f e ntire r egions whom t hey w ere t o h elp i n m ilitary e ndeavours a ccording t o " God 's c ommand". E ach C hristian h ad h is p ersonal g uardian a ngel w ho p atronised t he " chosen p eople" i n t heir s truggle a gainst t heir e nemies. T his a ngelic d octrine r eceived i ts m ost c omplete t reatment i n t he I patyevskaya C hronicle c oncerning t he e vent o f 1 110-1111. I ts g raphic

2 16

r epresentation c an b e f ound o n t he

s outhern d oors

o f S uzdal

C athedral.

T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he g uardian a ngel a nd S t. M ichael o f t he C ross p erform t he s ame f unction : t hey a re p rotectors a nd p atrons o f t he d onors o f t he C ross a nd t hat p rimarily i n t erms o f m ilitary a ffairs. T he o ther m edallions, i nfluenced b y i mages f rom f olklore w hich i mpart a n ew v itality t o t he o ld c anonical i mages, a re d evoted t o i ndividual s aints. I n t he u pper p art o f t he c ross a nd i n i ts l ower l eft s ection t here a re t wo m edallions e nclosing s tylites. B oth o f t hem a re s hown a s s itting o n t op o f p illars h olding a c ross i n t he l eft h and a nd b lessing w ith t he r ight. T heir b earded f aces c an b e c learly s een . T he u pper m edallion b ears n o i nscription . I ts m isinterpretation h ad l ed t o a n e rroneous c aption I C X P b eing a dded l ater. T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he m edallion p resents a s tylite, a nd n ot C hrist. I t i s s upported b y a n a bacus p lainly d iscernible i n t he l ower h alf a nd a p art o f t he a rchitrave. The c ross i n t he s tylite's hand c ontradicts t he i nscription a s w ell. T here i s a n i nscription e ncircling t he o ther m edallion w ith t he S tylite: " St. S imeon t he S tylite w ho h as b een s tanding f or t wenty y ears o n a p illar." S tylites e njoyed wide p opularity i n N ovgorod , t he p henomenon s urviving i nto a m uch l ater p eriod : i n 1 461 t here l ived a s tylite n amed S abbas. T hey w ere c ommon s ubjects o f t hirteenth t o f ifteenth -century N ovgorod i cons: S t. N icholas i n t he S tate R ussian M useum i n L eningrad , t he " Paternitas" i con i n t he S tate T retyakov G allery , S t. S imeon t he S tylite f rom t he D ymsky Nonastery o f S t. Antony n ow i n t he N ovgorod Museum, a nd o thers. 1 1 I mages o f t wo s tylites ( one o f t hem h aving a n i nscription " Simeon" c an b e f ound i n t he P evchesky m esyatseslov ( Church S inger 's C alendar), a 1 2th-century N ovgorod m anuscript, k ept i n t he S tate T retyakov G allery ( N . 1 ( 5350). T he s aints a re s hown h olding c rosses w ith t he s un a nd t he m oon a bove t hem . I t s eems t hat T heophan t he G reek f ollowed t he c urrent N ovgorod t astes w hen h e a ssigned t he s tylites a p lace of prominence i n his f rescoe i n t he C hurch o f t he T ransfiguration o f t he S avior i n N ovgorod . 12 T he m edallions o n t he p opular s aints. T hey a re m edallion w ith C hrist . C osmas a nd D amian ( pl. S S.

F lorus

a nd

c entral v ertical b ar s how t wo e specially S S. F lorus a nd L aurus, p laced a bove t he

T wo l ower m edallions c ontain S t. 2 35).

L aurus

a re

s hown

i n

p rofile,

G eorge a nd S S.

t heir

h ands

b eing

r aised i n s upplication t o C hrist p laced j ust a bove t heir h eads a gainst t he b ackground o f t he s ky ( this p art h as b een p ractically d estroyed). T he c entral p osition r eserved t o t he m edallion w as d ue t o t he f act t hat t he o bject w as i ntended f or t he c hurch d edicated i n t heir h onour.

h is

I n t he l ower m edallion a m ounted S t. G eorge s lays a d ragon w ith s pear ( pl. 2 34 , 1 ). T he c arver 's m iscalculation l ed t o t he s aint

b eing p resented a s r iding u phill. S S. C osmas a nd D amian f ace t he o nlooker. T hey b less w ith t heir r ight h ands a nd h old t heir a ttributes - m edical i nstruments - i n t heir l eft h ands. I n R ussia t hey w ere c onsidered p atron s aints o f t he m edical p rofession a nd o f s miths. 13 T he i nscription e ncircling t he m edallion b eing c haritable p hysicians a nd h ealers.

2 17

p romotes

t he

i dea

o f

t hem

A mong o ther i mages t here a re S t. G erasimus, S amson , T heodore S tratilat(?) a nd T heodore T yron .

t he

p rophet

E lijah ,

T he s eated S t. G erasimus i n t he r ight l ower m edallion ( pl. 2 36) d raws a t horn f rom a l ion 's p aw . T he l ion 's t ongue i s p ut o ut a nd i ts t ail i s d ashingly c urled . T here i s a n i nscription a round t he m edallion " Upon c oming t o t he d esert S t. G erasimus d rew a t horn f rom a l ion 's p aw ." T he a llusion g oes d own , u ndoubtedly , t o a n a pocryphical " Life o f S t. G erasimus" w hich m akes p art o f o f D mitry T he G reat M enol9gy R ostovsky u nder t he 4 th o f M arch . I t t ells t hat G erasimus f rom A sia M inor w ho s ettled i n t he J ordanian d esert o nce e ncountered a l ion w ho s howed h im i ts s wollen p aw . G erasimus d rew a t horn f rom t he l ion 's p aw a nd t he g rateful a nimal s tayed w ith h im i n h is m onastery . T he S tate T retyakov G allery e xhibits a m id-16th c entury i con s howing " Gerasimus o n t he B ank o f J ordan" ( N 1 2085).

t rees

T he l eft m edallion i n t he m iddle r ow s hows t he p rophet E lijah a mid ( pl. 2 37) s ymbolising t he d esert a ccording t o i conographic

t radition . T he p rophet s tretches h is r ight h and o ut t o a d escending r aven w ith a s mall l oaf i n i ts b eak . T he n aive d evice o f p lacing t he p rophet 's r ight e ye s lightly h igher t han t he l eft w as m eant t o i ndicate t hat t he p rophet w as l ooking a t t he b ird . S amson , w hose r epresentation i s f ound j ust a bove t he m edallion w ith E lijah , m ounts a l ion a nd t ears i ts m outh a part ( pl. 2 33, 2 ). E arlier r esearchers t ook h im f or S t. G erasimus r iding a l ion , t hough o ur a ssumption s eem m ore p robable. O ur s urmise i s s upported b y t he f ollowing a nalogies: a B yzantine s ilk c loth t entatively d ated t o t he 8 th c entury k ept i n t he m useum i n C luny 4 ; a 1 0th-century c arved B yzantine i vory r elief f rom t he M useo d el C astello i n M ilan 15 ; a 1 2thc entury r elief i n t he m useum i n C omo 16 ; a R omanesque c apital o n t he s outhern f açade o f B ourges C athedral d ated t o 1 150-1160 17 ; a h eading i n 1 8 a g ospel d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury k ept i n G oslar ; a r elief o n t he w estern w all o f S t. D emetrius C athedral i n V ladimir 19 . R epresentations o f S amson c an b e m et w ith i n o bjects o f R ussian a pplied a rt o f t he 1 7th c entury ( for e xample, a s ilver s tamped g lass m ade i n 1 603 k ept i n t he S tate A rmoury , a s ilver s tamped t umbler d ated t o t he e nd o f t he 1 7th c entury f rom t he S tate H istorical Museum , a nd o ther o bjects). W hat l ooks u nusual i s t he h alo a round S amson 's h ead . T rue, t here w as S t. S ampson i n t he c hurch c alendar w ho w as m isspelt S amson i n i lluminated i conographic c odices 20 . * T he B iblical hero p robably r eceived h is h alo b y m istake. S ometimes t he m artyr M amont w as s hown a s r iding a l ion . H e w as a lso h aloed b ut w as n ever s hown a s t earing a l ion 's j aws a part. O ne s hould a lso b ear i n m ind t hat S vyatogorK olyvan , w ho w as s ometimes c alled S amson , w as o ne o f t he e arliest f igures i n t he R ussian h eroic e pos. O n t he c ross S amson w ears a l ong b elted t unic. T he l ion 's t ail c urls t o f orm a n o rnament. T he c arver s ucceeded i n h is i ntricate t ask o f i nserting b oth f igures i nto a c ircle. The a pocryphical t ale o f S amson f ound i n t he P aleya i storicheskaya d escribe t he young B iblical h ero a s a " strong a nd n oble m an" o f " amazing b ravery." Z1 T his w as w hat t he c arver s trove t o e mphasise t hrough t he l ion 's s trong a nd l arge p aws. * T he t raditional G reek a nd C hurch-Slavonic T estament i s a lso S ampson - A . C h .

2 18

s pelling o f S amson o f O ld

A haloed r ider i n t he l eft m edallion o f t he u pper r ow i s, p robably , T heodore S tratilat ( pl. 2 34, 2 ). H is b eard i s a n i ndirect i ndication o f i t s ince o ther m ounted s aints s uch a s S S. D mitry a nd M ercury w ere s hown w ithout b eards. S t. T heodore S tratilat w ears a k aftan ( a l ong t unic w ith w aist-girdle). H e h olds a b ridle g uiding h is s turdy h orse, u ndoubtedly p rompted b y t he a rtist 's v ivid i mpressions o f N ovgorod h orsemen . T hree m edallions i n t he r ight u pper p art o f t he c ross h ave s ignificance o f t heir o wn s ince t hey f orm t ogether a n i llustration o f t he a pocryphical l ife o f T heodore T yron . 22 T he R ussian s tory w hich t ells h ow T heodore T yron r escued h is m other f rom a d ragon c an b e t raced b ack t o a G reek l egend . 23 T he u pper m edallion r epresents t he a forem entioned S t. M ichael, t he p atron s aint o f w arriors, i ncluding T heodore T yron . A ccording t o a n i nscription e ncircling t he l ower m edallion , M ichael t he A rchangel a rmed T heodore T yron f or t he f ight a gainst a d ragon which l ived i n a w ell a nd d eprived p eople a nd c attle o f w ater. T he n ext m edallion s hows T heodore T yron d elivering h is m other f rom t he d ragon , w ith i ts c entre o ccupied by a t ree t o w hich a h orse i f t ethered ( pl. 2 38). T o t he r ight o f i t w e s ee T heodore s pearing t he d ragon w hich i s c oiled a round a f emale f igure w ho i s h is m other. T he m edallion h as a n i nscription a round i t: " Theodore T yron d efeated t he d ragon b eing b lessed a nd a rmed by S t. M ichael" ( pl. 2 39). T he s ame s ubject c an b e f ound o n t hree i cons, t wo o f t hem a re k ept i n t he S tate R ussian Museum . O ne o f t hem i s r elated t o 1 5th-century N ovgorod S chool, t he o ther w as p ainted b y N ikifor S avin i n t he e arly 1 7th c entury . T he t hird i con b elongs t o t he S tate T retyakov G allery , i s d ated t o t he 1 7th c entury a nd i s r elated t o t he N orthern s chool. I n i t T yron 's m other i s c alled E vdokiya . Q uite o ften S t. T heodore T yron c an b e m et w ith R ussian p rincely s eals. H e w as s bown s tanding e ither h olding a l ance a nd a s hield o r s triking a d ragon . 24 I n s ome c ases N . L ikhachev w as l eft u ndecided w hether a s eal s howed S t. T heodore T yron o r S t. T heodore S tratilat. I t i s i ndeed i mpossible i n a n umber o f c ases t o s ettle t he p roblem s ince t he f ace i s s hown i ndistinctly ( St. T heodore T yron i s i dentified b y h is l ong b eard). T his q uestion l ikewise r emains o pen i n r elation t o a B yzantine e namelled i con t entatively d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury which f orms part o f t he B azilevsky C ollection i n ; t he H ermitage. n T he i nscription d efines T heodore a s c /s o( -1 9z ieco (3 (1 , but i t d oes n ot p rove t hat w e a re d ealing w ith S t. T heodore S tratilat, a s N . L ikhachev b elieves. T he i con m ay r epresent S t. T heodore T yron , a v iew w hich i s s upported b y a t ethered h orse c losely r esembling t hat i n t he L yudogoshcha C ross. T he l ower m edallion c arries T heodore T yron w earing a c hain m ail. H e h olds h is s pear i n t he l eft h and a nd l eads h is m other b y t he r ight. H er f ace i s p resented f ull f ace w hile h er b ody i s t urned t o t he r ight. S he r ests h er l eft h and o n h er s on 's s houlder. An i nscription m akes t he c ontent c lear: " Theodore i s l eading h is m other a way f rom t he w ell a nd t he d ragon". T he r eliefs o n t he L yudogoshcha C ross a re m arked b y t he a rchaic c haracter o f t heir f igures. T hey a re s turdy, w ith l arge h eads, h ands a nd f eet a nd m assive f eatures. A ll o f t hem a re g oggle-eyed w ith o val e yes. T he f aces a re t reated f ull f ace, w hile t he f igures, t heir

2 19

f oreshortening

n otwithstanding ,

i nevitably

l ook

u nidimensional.

T he

r eliefs l ack t he n ovel f eatures o f t he 1 4th c entury g raphically m anifested i n t he f rescoes i n t he c hurches o f S t. T heodore S tratilat a nd o n t he V olotovo p ole. E ven t he V asilievskie d oors m ade a s e arly a s 1 336 s eem t o b e f ar a head o f t he c ross a s f ar a s t heir d ecorations a re c oncerned . T he r eliefs o n t he c ross c an b e c ompared w ith m ost e arliest e xamples o f N ovgorod i conography a nd m iniature p ainting o f t he 1 4th c entury . T hese a re " Christ 's L ife o n E arth" a nd " St. N icolas" i cons f rom t he C hurch o f S S. B oris a nd G leb a nd m ist 2 iatures i n a P salter i n t he S tate L enin L ibrary i n M oscow ( Rum . 3 27). " ' I n s pite o f t he f act t hat t he c arver s tood a loof f rom c ontemporary p rogressive a rtistic t rends h e m anaged t o e xpress h imself t hrough t he a rchaic i magery p eculiar t o h im . D rawing u pon t he c enturies-old t raditions o f R ussian w ood-carvers h e m akes t he b est u se o f h is c hisel t o c onvey , i n a c oncise a nd u nsophisticated way , f olds o f d resses, h air, r ings o f c hain m ail a nd b irds f eathers. H e n ever t ries t o o vercome h is m aterial o r t o e xtract f rom i t m ore t han i t T his a ustere m anner i s c haracteristic o f a ll t he m edallions.

c an g ive. A c ertain

s ort o f r ealism e nable t he c arver t o c onsciously r etreat f rom t he c hurch t raditions o f e xaggerated s pirituality . I n t his c ontext i t d oes n ot s eem f ortuitous t hat h e t urned t o l egends. H is s aints a re e arthly p eople. H is p rophet E lijah i s a w arm-hearted o ld m an , h is w arriors a re m ighty m en o f N ovgorod , h is S t. T heodore S tratilat i s a N ovgorod b oyarin r iding h is s teed , h is S t. T heodore T yron i s a Russian knight ( bogatyr). H is a rt w ith i ts s ound r ealistic c ore i s t inged w ith p atriarchal s implicity a nd t he w inning i ngenuity t ypical o f f olk a rt. T hough n ot f orming a n i ntegrated i conographic s ystem t he i mages c an b e r egarded a s a h armonious i deological e ntity . S ome o f t hem s ymbolise t he i dea o f p raying t o G od ( "The C rucifixion" a nd D eesis) a nd a re d evoted t o C hrist. O thers ( the g uardian a ngel a nd M ichael t he A rchangel) p oint, a lbeit i ndirectly , t o p atronage i n s ome m ilitary v enture. T his i s a lso s upported b y a g roup o f t hree warriors w earing m ail s hirts. I t l ooks a s i f a ll t he s aints w ere p atronal a nd c hosen s o a s t o c orrespond t o t he n ames o f t hose w ho c ommissioned t he c ross a nd t o t he n ame o f t he c hurch i t w as i ntended f or. T he c ombination o f i mages i ndicates t hat t he c ross w as d onated t o t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus i n c onnection w ith s ome e vents f raught w ith g reat d anger . I t s eems n atural, t herefore, t o t urn t o t he N ovgorod C hronicle a nd l ook , u nder t he y ear 1 359, f or a d escription o f e vents w hich l ed t o t he c ommissioning o f t he c ross. T he f ollowing p assage s hows t hat t he C hronicle d oes c ontain a n a nswer t o t his q uestion . T he C ommission m anuscript o f t he N ovgorod F irst C hronicle c ites u nder t he y ear 1 359: " That s ame s pring N ovgorod b ecame a s cene o f g reat d isturbances i nstigated b y t he D evil a nd m alicious p eople a nd p ermitted b y G od a s p unishment f or h is p ost o f p osadnik n ot l iving i n t he S lavensky S ilvestr L eontievich a nd

o ur s ins. A drian Z akharich was d eprived o f b y t he p eople o f t he e ntire c ity, but b y t hose q uarter. T hey h ad t ransferred t his p ost t o c aused a q uarrel a t t he Y aroslav D vorishche.

I t l ed t o a s kirmish . S ince t he S lavensky q uarter p eople w ore a rmour t hey d ispersed t heir e nemies w ho h ad c ome f rom b eyond t he r iver u nprotected . T hey w ounded a nd r obbed m any b oyars a nd k illed I van B orisovich L ikhinin . P eople f rom b oth s ides o f t he V olkhov r iver

2 20

c onfronted e ach o ther: t hose f rom t he S ophia s ide c ame t o a venge o n t he d isgrace o f t heir b rothers... M oses ( the f ormer a rchbishop) c ame f rom h is m onastery a nd a ddressed t he p eople o f N ovgorod t ogether w ith A lexei ( the a rchbishop) a nd f athers-superior: ' My c hildren , d o n ot l et t he i nfidels ( Tartars) g et t he u pper h and a nd o ur c hurches a nd t he c ity b ecame d evastated , d o n ot s tart y our f ight.' H is a dvice w as h eeded a nd t he p eople d ispersed; t hey s eized S ylvestr's villages and o ther v illages b elonging t o p eople f rom t he S lavensky q uarter. And m any i nnocent p eople p erished . N ikita M atveyevich b ecame p osadnik , t his b rought p eace t o t he w arring p arties. G od d id n ot p ermit t he D evil t o t riumph , C hristianity g ained a uthority f or t he g enerations t o c ome." T he c hronicler t old n othing o f w hat h ad c aused t he u prising . H e e qually k ept s ilent a bout t he p articipation o f t he c ommon f olk i n i t. I t s eems t hat i t w as m ainly a s truggle w aged by i ndividual b oyar f amilies ( clans) t o g ain t heir o wn s elfish e nds. T his s urmise i s s upported b y t he w ords t hat t he e vents w ere i nstigated b y " malicious p eople". T he p arty f rom t he S t. S ophia s ide f inally t riumphed . T he i ntervention o f M oses w ho w as n otorious f or h is h atred o f t he c ommon f olk i s s uggestive. £7 H e w as o f w ealthy b oyar o rigins, a n a rdent s upporter

o f

t he

a nti-Muscovite

p olicy

a nd

a

p ersecutor

o f

f ree-

t hinking h eretics. T he L yudogoshcha C ross w as c ommissioned i n 1 359 b y l iving i n L yudogoshcha S treet o n t he S t. S ophia s ide.

t he p eople T hey w ere,

t herefore, t hose w ho f irst s uffered a d efeat, but f inally o vercame t heir a dversaries. I t c ertainly w as a m emorial c ross d onated t o t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus t o c ommemorate a s pecific e vent. T he f ollowing a rguments p rove b eyond d oubt t hat i ts i mages w ere d irectly p rompted b y t he 1 359 e vents. T hree w arriors i n a rmour, o ccupying a n i ndividual m edallion , i mmediately a ttract a ttention . T hey c an b e a ssociated w ith " The C rucifixion", but m ore p robably t hey a re i ntended a s a r eminder o f t he f act t hat t he p eople o f t he S lavensky q uarter w ore a rmour a t t he Y aroslav D vorishche w hile t hose w ho c ame f rom t he S t. S ophia s ide w ere t aken by s urprise. T he m edallion u rges t he a lways o n g uard i n t heir p olitical s truggles.

S t.

S ophia

p eople

t o

b e

An e pisode f rom S t . T heodore T yron 's a pocryphal l ife d escribing h ow h e d elivered h is m other f rom a d ragon w as r arely u sed . H ere i t i s e mployed t o r elate a r eal e vent o f t he u prising . I n a ll p robability, t hose who h ad c ome f rom t he S lavensky q uarter a nd w ounded m any b oyars o f t he S t . S ophia s ide f ailed t o f ind t he m other o r s ome o ther c lose r elative o f o ne o f t hem w ho h ad h idden h erself t hus e nabling t he l atter t o s ave h er. A ccording t o t he f olk c alendar, S t. T heodore T yron s hould b e a ddressed t o i n c ases o f l ost p roperty o r f ugitive s erfs. T he T heodore

g uardian-angel a nd M ichael t he A rchangel T yron w ith a w eapon t o f ight h is e nemies

f inal v ictory o f

t he

S t.

S ophia

s ide

a nd

i ts

w ho p resented a lso p oint t o

m iraculous

d elivery

S t. t he f rom

t he S lavensky q uarter m enace.

t he

F inally , S S. C osmas a nd D amian , p hysicians a nd h ealers, p resent i n c ross, i ndicate t hat t he s kirmish a t t he Y aroslav D vorishche w hen

2 21

m any b oyars w ere b eaten u p a nd w ounded ( as t he F ourth C hronicle p ut i t " their c lothes w ere t orn a way f rom t hem") m any v ictims w ho n eeded p atronage o f " saintly h ealers."

N ovgorodian r esulted i n

T he o ther r epresentations f ound i n t he c ross a re c onnected e ither w ith p urely r eligious t hemes s uch a s t he C rucifixion a nd D eesis, o r w ith i ndividual s aints. T he l atter w ere e vidently c hosen t o c oincide w ith t he n ames o f t hose w ho d onated t he c ross ( the n ames o f S imeon , E lijah , S amson , T heodore, G eorge a nd G erasim a re f requently m et w ith i n N ovgorod c hronicles). T he n ame o f t he s econd s tylite s aint i s n ot i ndicated but t here i s a d istinct p ossibility t hat h e w as e ither N icetas, a n amesake o f t he n ew p osadnik N ikita M atveyevich, o r D aniel). O ur s urmises l ead t o t he f ollowing i nterpretation o f t he i mages o n t he c ross: p eople, l iving i n L yudogoshcha S treet, w ho w ere c alled S imeon , N ikita ( ?) o r D aniel ( ?), E lijah , S amson , T heodore, G eorge a nd G erasim m ade a p resent o f a c ross t o t he C hurch o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus i n m emory o f t he 1 359 e vents, w hen s ome o f t hem w ere w ounded , w hile o ne o f t hem m iraculously r escued h is m other o r a r elative. T he c entral p osition o f t he m edallion c arrying S S. F lorus a nd L aurus i s e xplained n ot o nly by t heir b eing t utelary s aints b ut a lso b y t heir b eing t he p atron s aints o f m ilitary p eople. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat D mitry D onskoi, o n t he e ve o f h is m arch a gainst t he T artars ( just b efore t he b attle o f K ulikovo), m ade a p ilgrimage t o S t. S ergius o f R adonezh o n August 1 8, 1 380, t he f east d ay o f S S. F lorus a nd L aurus. T hey w ere c onsidered t o b e n ot o nly t he p atrons o f h orses ( which c aused t heir a dmiration a mong t he R ussian p easants) b ut a lso o f m ounted w arriors, a d ecisive f orce o f m edieval a rmies. T he p eople w ho p resented t he c ross d eemed i t n ecessary t o c ommemorate t he s kirmish a t t he Y aroslav D vorishche a nd t he t emporary s etback o f t heir p arty c aused b y t he a bsence o f a rmed p eople: t hree a rmoured w arriors a re a r eminder o f t he f act. T he D eesis a nd t he g uardian-angel c arrying t he c ross s ymbolise t he i dea o f d ivine p rotection . I n t his w ay , t he c ross a nd i ts i mages a re d irect a nd v ivid r esponses t o a ctual e vents, r eligious a nd d idactic e lements b eing r elatively w eak . T hey d o n ot f orm a ny c ompleted s ystem a nd a re n ot s ubordinate t o any d ogmatic p rinciple. T hey a re i mpressive i llustrations o f a n a ctive f olk s pirit r unning c ounter t o c hurch d ogmatism a nd c reating l iving , f ull-blooded i mages d efying r eligious c anons. T he c ross i s a nother c onfirmation o f t he d iverse a spects o f m edieval a rt. T hough d ominated b y t he a bstract i conographic s ystem r igidly r egulated b y t he C hurch, i t s ometimes o ffered p rofoundly p ragmatic s olutions p rompted b y t he s ocial d emands o f t he t ime. T hey w ere, a s a r ule, a llegorical a nd s ometimes t heir i nterpretations w ere n ot e asy t o f ind . A gainst t he b ackground o f a 1 3th-century c arved w ooden d etail o f a n i conostasis k ept i n t he H istorical M useum a nd s ome m inor w ooden o bjects t he L yudogoshcha C ross i s p robably t he e arliest s urviving a rtifact o f i ts k ind . I t b ears w itness t o M edieval R ussian w ooden s culpture ( which i s r epresented b y a f ew r andom o bjects*) w ith i ts p agan r oots. W e a re a ware o f t he f act t hat i t w as a m ajor f orm o f * T his a rticle w as w ritten b efore t he p ublications c arved w ooden o bjects f rom t he N ovgorod e xcavations.

2 22

d escribing

t he

M edieval R ussian a rt .

F or m any

c enturies

w ood w as

t he b asic m aterial

o f Russian s culptors w ho m ade p agan d eities a nd c arved o rnaments f or p agan s hrines a nd d wellings, o bjects o f e veryday u se, a nd l ater f igures o f s aints a nd c rosses. s urvived u ntil o ur t ime, 1 5th

c entury,

L yudogoshcha

b eing

C ross

A n i nsignificant p art o f t his w ealth h as t he e arliest a rtifacts, d ating f rom b efore t he e specially

a cquires

s carce.

s pecial

I n

t his

s ignificance,

c ontext

t ogether

w ith

t he t he

i conostasis d etail f rom t he H istorical M useum ( pl. 2 40) a s a v ivid i llustration t hat w ood-carving r elied o n c enturies-old f olk t raditions. E ven a s c hurch o rnaments, c arved w ooden d etails w ere p ermeated w ith f olk p atterns a nd l egendary m otifs. S uch a re t he l ions o n t he i conostasis d etail p laced s ide b y s ide C hristian s aints. T he L yudogoshcha C ross

w ith s ix-winged a ngels a nd i s e specially i nteresting i n

t his r espect b eing d evoid o f a r igid i conographic s ystem a nd c arrying l egendary i mages. T hey a re S t. G erasimus d rawing a t horn f rom a l ion 's p aw , S amson t earing a l ion 's j aws a part a nd S t. T heodore T yron r escuing h is m other f rom a d ragon . T hese i mages w ere b orn o f r ich f olk f antasy a nd w ere n ot r ecognised b y t he o fficial C hurch . T he f act t hat t hey f ound t heir w ay i nto c hurches i s a nother c onfirmation o f t he v itality a nd p opularity o f f olk a rt a nd i n p articular w ooden o bjects b eing a n e ssential p art o f i t .

N OTES 1 .

D ahl L ., 1 875, p p. 7 7-79; D ahl L ., 1 872, p . 1 32; Macarius, a rchimandrite, 1 860, p p. 1 29-130; T olstoy I ., K ondakov N ., 1 899, p p. 1 67-168; S pitsin A ., 1 903, p . 2 14; S hlyapkin I ., 1 906, p . 1 2, 2 4-25; B obrinsky A ., 1 914, v . X II, p l. 9 32; S hamurin 1 914, p l. o n p . 3 3; M uravyev I ., 1 927, p . 1 1-12; A lpatov M ., B runov N ., 1 932, p . 2 81-282; S obolev N ., 1 934, p . 1 38; N ekrasov A ., 1 937, p . 2 08; S trokov A ., B ogusevich V ., 1 939, p . 1 12; L azarev V ., 1 947, p . 9 8; R ybakov B ., 1 948, p . 6 76.

2 .

Macarius, 1 860, p . 1 29; S reznevsky I ., 1 866, p . 1 01, 1 02, S pitsin A ., 1 903, p . 2 14; M ikhailov M ., 1 913, p p. 4 3-44.

3 .

Macarius, p . 1 68.

4 .

N PL ,

p .

3 85.

5 .

N PL ,

p .

3 75.

6 .

N PL ,

p .

3 61.

7 .

S hlyapkin I .,

8 .

Macarius,

1 860,

p .

1 906,

1 860,

p .

1 30;

p .

T olstoy I .,

2 7,

1 30;

N 3 26,

3 42,

S hlyapkin I .,

N ., 1 892, p . 3 56-357; R ovinsky D ., S avvaitov P ., 1 896, p . 6 6. 9 .

P orfiridov N .,

1 0.

M illet G .,

1 947,

1 916,

p .

p .

4 3-44,

4 58,

f ig .

f ig . 4 82.

2 23

K ondakov N .,

1 899,

p l.

4 1;

v .

V I,

3 45-347,

3 50-354,

3 58.

1 906,

3 6,

P okrovsky

1 881,

o n p .

p . v .

4 1.

I II,

C f . P .

3 32-333;

1 1.

L azarev V .,

1 947,

p l.

2 9,

1 2.

L azarev V .,

1 947,

p l.

5 2-55.

1 3.

R ybakov B .,

1 948,

p .

1 4.

D iehl,

1 925,

f ig 1 30.

1 5.

G oldschmidt A .,

1 6.

V enturi A .,

1 7.

Aubert M .,

1 8.

G oldschmidt A .,

1 9.

B obrinsky A .,

2 0.

S vodnyi i konopisny p odlinnik ,

2 1.

P opov A .

2 2.

P ypin A ., 1 862, p . 1 42, 1 00; P rokhorov V . 1 864,

2 3.

C od . V ind . 6 2-63. C f . 3 8.

2 4.

L ikhachev N .,

2 5.

D alton 0 .,

2 6.

L azarev V .,

1 947,

p .

9 4,

2 7.

R ybakov B .,

1 948,

p .

7 71-774.

2 8.

K alinsky I .,

2 9.

L azarev V .,

C h .,

1 929,

f ig . p l.

p .

1 928,

P .

2 20-223.

1 930,

p .

2 6,

p l.

I II.

p .

3 74

(J une,

1 25.

2 96.

1 910,

1 916,

Z hidkov G .,

7 47-753.

W eitzmann K .,

1 904,

1 881,

9 3;

p l.

v .

5 .

I ,

p l.

9 . 1 874,

2 7

) .

v .

I II, p .

1 26. 1 45; T ikhonravov N ., p . 5 8-64.

1 863,

9 3-

h ist. g r. C XXVI, f ol. 5 6 s eq.; C od . Vat. g r. 1 190, f ol. V eselovsky A ., 1 879, p . 1 -22; D elehaye H ., 1 909, p . 3 7,

1 928,

1 911,

p .

1 877, 1 947,

v .

I ,

5 28;

p . p l.

p .

1 6-18,

8 5,

L ikhachev N ., 9 6,

p l.

2 79. 3 7 a .

2 24

9 9,

1 14, 1 928,

1 00.

1 16. v .

I ,

P .

1 8,

f ig .

8

B IBLIOGRAPHY ALPATOV, 1 932

M .

A NPILOGOV, 1 964

a nd B RUNOV,

N .

G eschichte d er a ltrussischen K unst, G .

N .

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z namena a s

a

k ak

i storichesky

H istorical

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A .

S ource),

f urther S A ,

i stochnik"

N o.

V .

Drevnerusskie m iniatyury k ak i storichesky i stochnik

" Lyzhi

n a

Rusin

( Russian S kis),

Trudy

" Kölonna

i z

n ovgorodskikh

u niversiteta,

1 959

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( On t he N ovgorod C hronology),

" Otvet B .A .

Rybakovu"

" Izobrazhenie

4 ).

A .

V .

( A R eply t o B oris R ybakov),

i n adpis na l ozhke

arkheologii,

i z N ovgoroda",

N o.

3 .

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gramoty

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n a

a

N . b ereste

( Novgorod

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L eipzig.

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B ARNYCZ-GUPIENIEC, R . 1 959 N aczynia d rewniane z G danska w X -XIII w ieku, W .

S A ,

N ew A chievements of S oviet Archaeology).

M . D ie gotische P lastik Frankreichs,

M ephitis",

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S A ,

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a nd T IKHOMIROV,

Novgorodskie c harters),

B EEKMAN,

M oskovskogo

4 .

ARTSIKHOVSKY ,

A UCUSTI, 1 967

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e xcavations",

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s koi

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e tnografii

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( Medieval

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Russian M iniatures a s a H istorical S ource), 1 947

( Timber-lot

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B .

H out i n a lle T ijden,

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BLOMKVIST, E . E . 1 956 " Krestyanskie p ostroiki v ostochnykh s lavyan", a nsky

e tnografichesky s bornik ,

E astern S lays", B OBRINSKY , 1 9101 914

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d erevyannye i zdeliya

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G .

( Folk

Russian

W ooden

( Russian C arved S tone),

I ssue 1 ,

M oscow .

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Reznoi k amen v Rossii

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o f

E ast S lavonic E thnographic C ollection).

r usskie

Artifacts),

B OCHAROV,

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( "Peasant B uildings

A .

Narodnye

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M oscow

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N .

Prikladnoe

i skusstvo Novgoroda V elikogo,

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A rt

o f N ovgorod t he G reat). B OYARSKY , 1 886

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grebnykh

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S t.

P etersburg. BRANDT, 1 927

P . S chaffende Arbeit u nd b ildende K unst,

B ROGGER ,

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o cherk

( Prehistoric

M oscow .

L .

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1 875

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N o.

o f

V .

1 955

Russian

z odchestva"

A rchitecture),

Zodchii

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" Drevneishie d erevyannye W ooden C hurches),

DAHL ,

H .

O slo.

I .

T he V ikings,

C LARK,

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t serkvi R ossii"

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( Architect),

( The E arliest Russian

1 875,

N o.

6 .

I . T olkovyi

s lovar z hivogo v elikorusskogo y azyka

D ictionary

o f

t he C ontemporary Russian

( The

D efinitive

L anguage),

V ol.

I ,

r omaines,

V ol.

1 ,

M oscow . D ALTON, 1 911

O . Byzantine Art a nd Archaeology ,

D AREMBERG, 1 875

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a nd S AGLIO,

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d es

O xford.

E . a ntiquit s grecques

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e t

D ARKEVICH, V . P . 1 960 " Simvoly n ebesnykh s vetil v o rnamente d revnei Rusi", ( "Symbols o f C elestial B odies

D ELEHAYE, H . 1 909 L es l egendes grecques d es s aints m ilitaires, D IEHL , C h. 1 925 Manuel d 'art b yzantin, D INTSES, 1 951

I ,

R usi,

N o.

4

P aris.

P aris.

L . A . " Drevnie c herty v r usskom n arodnom i skusstve", d revnei

S A ,

i n M edieval Russian O rnaments").

M oscow ( "Archaic T raits

I storia k ultury

i n Russian

F olk

A rt",

H istory o f M edieval Russian C ulture). F AMINTSIN, A . S . 1 890 G ush i ( Psaltery), F ILIPOWIAK , W . 1 956 " Port

1 913

N .

I ndustry),

1 935

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I I,

promyshlennost S t.

Rossii

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A .

a nd WEITZMANN,

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K .

D ie b yzantinischen E lfenbeinskulpturen d es X -XIII Jahrhunderts I ,

G OLUBEVA, 1 966

B erlin .

L .

A .

" Raskopki d revnego B eloozera v 1 961-1962 g g." B eloozero i n 1 961-1962), K SIA , 1 10.

G OODMAN,

W .

W oodwork ,

1 964

A H istory o f W oodworking T ools,

G REBER , 1 956

J .

( Excavations

i n

L .

1 962

O xford . L ondon .

M .

D ie G eschichte d es Hobels,

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GROZDILOV, G . P . 1 955 " Raskopki d revnego P skova v 1 954 g ." 1 954),

( Excavations

i n P skov i n

S oobshcheniya GE ( Transactions o f S tate H ermitage),

8 .

1 950

Russian

C hicago.

D as Evangeliar i m Rathaus z u G oslar ,

G OLDSCHMIDT,

HALD,

( The

S .

G OLDSCHMIDT,

1 930

z achodnio-

P etersburg.

I nventing t he S hip,

1 910

Materialy

S zczecin .

A .

K ustarnaya

G ILFILLAN,

P etersburg.

w czesnosredniowiecznego W olina",

p omorskie, F ILIPPOV,

S t.

M . O lddanske t extiler ,

K openhagen .

2 27

N o.

HAMILTON, 1 933 H ERTEIG, 1 960 M IRTH,

J . Byzantine Architecture a nd D ecoration, A . E . Bryggen i Bergen,

L ondon .

B ergen .

G .

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a us

3 .

Jahrhundenderten,

F rankfurt. H OLUBOWICZ, 1 956

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I VANOV,

P .

1 890

Katowice.

W .

Igry krestyanskikh d etei v K upyanskom u ezde

( Games o f

P easant

C hildren i n t he Kupyansk d istrict). KALINSKY , 1 877

I . " Tierkovno-narodny m esyatseslov" ( Church-Folk Z apiski i mp. r usskogo geograficheskogo o bshch. po e tnografii S ociety.

KAMINSKA , 1 958 KAROV,

J .

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D epartment o f E thnography),

a nd NAHLIK ,

D .

7 ,

S t.

G eographical P etersburg.

A .

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1 960

V ol.

C alendar), o tdeleniyu

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M . " 0

r azvitii

p rimitivnykh

o rudii"

( On

t he

D evelopment

o f

P rimitive T ools), Problemy i storii pervobytnogo o bshchestva ( Problems o f t he H istory o f P rimitive S ociety), M oscow . KHARUZINA , 1 912

V .

O .

" Igrushki z nachenie,

u malokulturnykh narodov", I grushka, e e i storia i M oscow ( "Toys Among P rimitive P eople", T oys, Their

H istory a nd R ole). KHODOSOV, 1 930

A .

A .

T kachestvo

d erevni

( Domestic W eaving),

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KHOZYASTVO I B YT R USSKIKH KRESTYAN 1 959 ( Russian P easant E conomy a nd L ife S tyle), K IRPICHNIKOV, 1 966

A .

M oscow .

N .

Drevnerusskoe

oruzhie

( Medieval R ussian W eapons),

I ssue

I ,

L eningrad . K ISLOV, 1 962

M .

N .

a nd C HISTYAKOVA ,

" Konservatsiya r askopok", ( "Conservation

O .

N .

d erevyannikh

i zdelii

I storiko-arkheologicheski

i z

n ovgorodskikh

s bornik,

o f W ooden Articles f rom N ovgorod",

M oscow H istorical

a nd Archaeological C ollection). K OLCHIN, 1 959

B . A . " Zhelezoobrabatyvayushchee N o.

6 5

r emeslo N ovgoroda V elikogo",

( "Iron W orking i n N ovgorod t he G reat").

2 28

M IA ,

K OLCHIN, 1 963

B .

A .

" Dendrokhronologia

N ovgoroda",

M IA,

N o.

1 17

( "Novgorod

D endrochronology"). 1 963a

" Dendrokhronologiya ( Dendrochronology

p ostroek

N erevskogo

r askopa"

o f t he N erevsky e xcavation a rea).

M IA

N o.

1 23. 1 964

" K

i togam

r abot N ovgorodskoy

( 1951-1962)", E xpedition , K OLCHIN, 1 961

K OSTRZEWSKI,

1 947

A .

S hakhmaty

C hess

v

S SSR,

N o.

8

i n t he U SSR).

L ud,

V ol.

XLI.

P .

V .

i n 9 21-922),

Kharkov .

N .

I skusstvo N ovgoroda

i

Among

L EFEBVRE D ES N OETTES, L 'Attelage,

L EROI-GOURHAN,

1 943

N ovgorod

K niga Akhmeda I bn-Fadlana o e go p uteshestvii n a V olgu v 9 219 22 godu ( Book by Akhmed I bn-Fadlan a bout h is t ravel t o t he

( Novgorod A rt),

M oscow-Leningrad .

t kachestvo v ostochnykh s lavyan" E astern

( Transactions o f t he

L EVANDER ,

N ovgorode"

i n M edieval N ovgorod",

W eaving

1 945

e kspeditsii t he

1 951-1962").

L EBEDEVA, N . I . 1 956 " Pryademie

1 931

a rkheologicheskoi ( "On t he W ork o f

J .

V olga L AZAREV,

9 9

" Kfedy p ojawily s ie w P olsce k rosna p oziome",

K OVALEVSKY , 1 956

I ssue

B . A . a nd L INDER , I . M . " Shakhmaty v d revnem ( "Chess

1 954

K SIA ,

S lays),

Trudy

( Spinning

I nstituta

I nstitute o f E thnography),

a nd

e tnografii

I ssue XXXI.

R . P aris.

A .

M ilieu e t T echniques,

P aris.

L . Ovre Dalarhes Bondekultur ,

L IKHACHEV, N . 1 928 M aterialy

d lya

( Materials

f or

S phragistics), L OPEZ, R . 1 954 " Les

L YUBOMIROV, P . G . 1 947 O cherki

p o

I -III,

S tockholm.

i storii v izantiiskoi

i

t he

B yzantine

I ssue

i nfluences

l ' Occident",

V ols.

H istory o f 1 ,

t he

sfragistiki a nd

Russian

L eningrad .

o rientales

e t

l 'eveil

C ahiers d 'histoire m ondiale,

i storii

r usskoi

V ol.

r usskoi promyshlennosti

H istory o f R ussian I ndustry),

2 29

M oscow .

6 conomique 1 ,

N o.

( Essays

d e

3 .

o n

t he

MACARIUS, A rchimandrite. 1 860 Arhkeologicheskoe o pisanie

t serkovnykh d revnostei v

N ovgorode

i e go o krestnostyakh ( Archaeological D escription o f C hurch Antiquities i n N ovgorod a nd i ts E nvirons), M oscow , 1 860, P art

MAKOVETSKY , I . V . 1 962 Arkhitektura

r usskogo n arodnogo z hilishcha

t he F olk Russian D welling), MANNINEN, I . 1 931 D ie S achultur E stlands, 1 932

V ols.

I -II,

D ie f innisch-ugrischen V ölker ,

MAVRODIN, V . V . 1 949 N achalo

m orekhodstva

Russia),

L eningrad .

M EDVEDEV, A . F . 1 959 " Oruzhie

N ovgoroda

( Architecture

o f

o f

i n

M oscow .

T artu .

L eipzig .

na R usi

( The O rigins

V elikogo",

M IA ,

N o.

6 5

S eafaring

( "Weapons

o f

N ovgorod t he G reat"). M IKHAILOV, 1 913

M ILLET, 1 916

M .

Pamaytniki r usskoi v eshchevoi p aleografii Material P alaeography), S t. P etersburg .

G . Recherches s ur l 'iconoraphie d e L 'evangile,

MOSZYNSKI, K . 1 929 Kultura l udowa S lowian, MURAVYEV, 1 927 NAHLIK , 1 956

V ols.

I -II,

Russian

P aris.

K rak6w .

I . Novgorod V elikii

( Novgorod t he G reat),

L eningrad .

A

1 963 N EEDHAM , 1 954 N EKRASOV, 1 937

( Samples o f

" W s prawie r ozwoju k rosna k ultury m aterialnej, N o. 3 . " Tkani N ovgoroda"

t kackiego",

( Novgorod C loths),

Kwartalnik

M IA ,

N o.

h istorii

1 23.

J . S cience a nd C ivilization i n C hina,

V ol.

1 ,

C ambridge.

A . Drevnerusskoe i zobrazitelnoe i skusstvo

( Medieval Russian Art),

M oscow . • N EUGEBAUER , 1 954

W .

" Typen

m ittelalterlichen

B urgen u nd S tädte,

H olzgesschirrs

B erlin .

N ICOLAYSEN, N . 1 882 L angskibet fra G okstad,

K ristiania .

2 30

a us

L übek",

Frühe

N IKOLSKY, V . 1 925 " K

v oprosu o f ormakh i p roiskhozhdenii r usskoi

t he

P roblems

[ Winebowl]), C ollection), N OGID, 1 965

I .

o f S hapes a nd O rigins o f

bratiny"

( On

t he

Russian

Bratina

S bornik Oruzheinoi P alaty ( The

K remlin

A rmoury

M oscow .

L . a nd P OZDNAYK , A . P . " Konservatsiya m okroi a rkheologicheskoi d revesiny",

S A ,

N o.

3 .

( "Conservation o f D amp A rchaeological W ood"). N ORDISK KULTUR 1 931 1 933

V ols.

X IV,

X VI.

N OVGORODSKAYA P ERVAYA L ETOPIS 1 950

( The N ovgorod F irst C hronicle),

M oscow-Leningrad .

N OVGORODSKAYA TRETYA L ETOPIS 1 879

( The N ovgorod T hird C hronicle) ( Novgorod C hronicles), S t. P etersburg.

O LEARIUS, A . 1 906 Opisanie

p uteshestviya

Persiyu

i o bratno

v

Moskoviyu

O RLOV, 1 954

1 958

S .

i

c herez

l etopisi

Moskoviyu

( Description o f t he T ravel t o Muscovy,

A cross Muscovy t o P ersia a nd B ack), O 'NEILL H ENCKEN, H . 1 933 " A Gaming N o.l.

Novgorodskie

S t.

B oard o f t he V iking Age",

a nd

P etersburg .

A cta archaol,

V ol.

I V,

N . Derevyannye

i zdeliya

S taroi L adogi

( Wooden

Artifacts

S taraya L adoga).

S ynopsis o f t he c andidate t hesis,

" Novye

d etalei

n akhodki

d revnikh k orablei"

F ragments o f M edieval S hips),

S A ,

N o.

O SEBERGFUNDET UTGIT A V D EN N ORSKE S TAT 1 928 V ol. I I. E d . A . B r c l )gger, H . S hetelig,

f rom

M oscow .

( New

F inds

o f

2 .

O slo.

P ATERIK K IEVSKOGO P ECHERSKOGO M ONASTYRYA 1 911

( Lives

o f t he F athers o f t he K iev P echersky

M onastery),

S t.

P etersburg . P ATTERSON, 1 956

R .

" Spinning

a nd

W eaving",

A H istory of

T echnology ,

V ol.

2 ,

O xford . .P OKROVSKY , 1 892

E .

A .

R usskie

d etskie p odvizhnye i gry ( Russian

C hildren 's

G ames),

M oscow . P OKROVSKY , 1 892

N .

Evangelie v p amayatnikakh i konografii i conography), S t. P etersburg.

2 31

( The e vangelic c ycle

i n

P OPOV, A . 1 881 " Kniga

bytiya

n ebesi

i storicheskaya"

i z emli,

s o-called P aleya I storicheskaya) I

d revnostei

i ii

t ak

nazyvaemaya

Paleya

( The B ook o f t he H eaven a nd t he E arth , R ossiiskikh

C hteniya O bshchestva

( Proceedings o f

Russian H istory a nd Antiquities), P ORFIRIDOV, N . 1 947 Drevnii Novgorod

o r

M oscow ,

( Medieval N ovgorod),

t he

1 881,

t he

i storii

S ociety

f or

B ook I .

M oscow-Leningrad .

P OVEST VREMENNYKH L ET 1 950

( Primary C hronicle) M oscow-Leningrad .

P RIVALOV, 1 904

N .

I .

" Gudok"

( The

R usskogo

arkheologicheskogo o bshchestva

M edieval

Russian

Russian Archaeological S ociety), 1 907

" Myzykalnye

d ukhovye

arkheologii

1 864

V ,

t he

I ssue 2 . naroda"

( Transactions o f t he D epartment V ols.

Zapiski

( Transactions of

Z apiski O tdeleniya r usskoi

a nd S lavonic A rchaeology), P ROKHOROV,

V ol.

I nstrument),

i nstrumenty r usskogo

F olk W ind-Instruments), s koi

B ow

i o f

( Russian s lavyanRussian

V II-VIII.

V .

Khristianskie d revnosti

i a rkheologiya

a nd A rchaeology),

B ook I .

1 864,

P ROSVIRKINA , S . K . 1 955 R usskaya d erevyannaya posuda

( Christian

A ntiquities

( Russian W ooden D ishes), M oscow .

P YPIN, A . N . 1 862 Pamyatniki s tarinnoi r usskoi l iteratury ( Monuments o f M edieval Russian L iterature), V ol. I II, S t. P etersburg. R OSENQVIST, A . M . 1 959 " The S tabilising o f W ood F ound i n t he V iking S hip o f O seberg", S tudies i n C onservation, R OVINSKY , D . A . 1 881 R usskie

V ols.

narodnye k artinki

P etersburg,

V ol.

3 -4,

L ondon .

( Russian P opular

E ngravings),

S t .

I II.

RUSSKAYA P RAVDA 1 940 ( The M edieval Russian C ode o f L aws) M oscow-Leningrad RYBAKOV, 1 948 1 951

B . A . Remeslo d revnei R usi

Moscow .

" Prikladnoe i skusstvo i s kulpture", I storia k ultury drevnei Rusi ( "Applied A rt a nd S culpture", H istory o f M edieval Russian C ulture),

1 959

( Handicrafts i n M edieval Russia),

M oscow .

" K v oprosu d revnostei" S A ,

N o.

o m etodike o predelinya k hronologii n ovgorodskih ( On t he M ethods o f D ating N ovgorod Antiquities),

4 .

2 32

R YBAKOV,

B .

1 961

A .

" Chto n ovogo vnosit v n auku s tatya A .V. n ovgorodskoi k hronologii'" ( In What Way Article " On N ovgorod C hronology" S A , N o. 2 .

R ZHIGA ,

V .

1 929

L ife S AVVAITOV,

i z i storii b yta d omongolskoi Rusi

S EDOV,

s tarinnykh

V .

S EMENOV, 1 900

P .

1 930

O ld

B erlin .

N ovgorode" 6 5.

P olnoe geograficheskoe o pisanie A

C omplete V ol.

I II,

G eographical S t.

( The

P agan

nashego

o techestva

D escription

o f

O ur

P etersburg .

Yu . V elikii N ovgorod ( Novgorod t he G reat), I .

M oscow .

P .

" Predanie

o ' Sitgunskikh vratakh '"

d oors), U chenye z apiski University), N o. 1 12. S HETELIG,

o f

P

R ossiya.

S HASKOLSKY , 1 949

( Description

V .

M otherland),

1 914

u tvarei

P etersburg .

" YaZycheskaya bratchina v d revnem C eremony i n M edieval N ovgorod), K SIA ,

( Russia.

S HAMURIN,

r usskikh

S t.

E . B ehren-Lübchin,

1 956

M oscow .

P .

Russian O bjects),

1 965

( Essays o n E veryday

i n R ussia P rior t o t he M ongol I nvasion),

O pisanie

S CHULDT,

P romotes S cholarly R esearch),

F .

O cherki

1 896

Artsikhovskogo ' 0 A . A rtsikhovsky 's

LGU

( A L egend o n

( Transaction

t he o f

S igtuna L eningrad

H . " Das Nydam-schiff",

A cta Archaeologica,

V ol.

I .

K .benhavn .

S HLYAPKIN, I . A . 1 906 Drevnie r usskie kresty . 1 . Kresty n ovgorodskie d o XV v eka, nepodvizhnye i netserkovnoi s luzhby ( Medieval Russian C rosses. 1 . N ovgorod C rosses C reated E arlier t han t he 1 5th C entury, which

w ere n ot P ortable a nd n ot U sed f or H oly

S ervice),

S t.

P etersburg . S IRELIUS,

U .

1 906

S uomalaisten k alastus,

V ols.

I -III,

1 919

S uomen k ansanomaista K ulttuuria,

1 934

D ie V olkskultur F innlands,

V ol.

H elsingissaä.

V ol. I ,

I -II,

H elsinki.

L eipzig.

S MOLAREK, P . 1 955 " Inwentaryzacja z rodel d o d ziejow t echniki s zkutniczej P omorskich",

M aterialy z achodnio-pomorskie,

2 33

V ol.

I ,

S lowian

S zczecin .

S OBISIAK , W . 1 960 K ultura l udowa w ielkopolski,

V ol.

S OBOLEV, 1 934

p o

S PITSYN, 1 903

N . N . Russkaya

n arodnaya

r ezba

C arving),

M oscow .

A . " Zametka

o k amennykh k restakh,

s kikh" Z apiski

I ,

P oznan .

d erevu

( Russian

F olk

p reimushchestvenno

W ood

n ovgorod-

( Notes o n S tone, P redominantly N ovgorod , C rosses), o td. r usskoi i s lavyanskoi a rkheologii i mp. r ussk .

arkh. o bshch. ( Transactions o f t he D epartment o f R ussian a nd S lavic A rchaeology o f t he I mperial R ussian A rchaeological S ociety), S REZNEVSKY , I . I . 1 866 Drevnie

1 903,

V ol.

V ,

p amyatniki

M onuments),

S t.

I ssue 1 .

p isma

i

y azyka

( The

E arliest

Written

P etersburg .

1 893 1 895 1 903

Materialy d lya s lovarya drevnenerusskogo yazyka a

D ictionary

o f

O ld Russian

L anguage),

( Materials f or

Vols.

I -III,

S t.

P etersburg . S TARAYA LADOGA 1 948 S TROKOV, 1 939

L eningrad . A .

a nd B OGUSEVICH,

Novgorod V elikii

V .

( Novgorod t he G reat),

S TRZYGOWSKI, I . 1 929 D ie a ltslavische Kunst.

Augsburg .

S VODNY I KONOPISNY P ODLINNIK P O S PISKU G . 1 874

F ILIMONOVA

( Iconographic C odex c ompiled f rom G F ilimonov's c opy),

S YCHEVSKAYA , 1 965

L eningrad.

E .

Moscow .

K .

" Ryby d revnego N ovgoroda"

( Fish i n M edieval N ovgorod),

S A,

N o.

Vol.

1 ,

1 . TAMOZHENNYE KNIGI MOSCOWSKOGO G OSUDARSTVA X VII V . 1 950

( The

1 7th-Century

C ustoms

R egisters

i n

Muscovy),

M oscow . TARABRIN, I . M . 1 916 " Litsevoi bukvar K oriona I stomina" ( Korion I lluminated P rimary), Drevnosti ( Antiquities), XXV , T HEOBALD, 1 933

W . T echnik d es K unsthandwerks i n 1 0.

T IKHONRAVOV, 1 863

I stomin 's M oscow .

Jahrhundert,

B erlin .

N .

P amaytniki

o trechennoi

Russian A pocryphs),

V ol.

r usskoi I I,

2 34

l iteratury

M oscow .

( Monuments

o f

T OLSTOY , 1 899

I . a nd K ONDAKOV, N . R usskie d revnosti v p amyatnikakh i skusstva o f Russian Antiquity),

T SEITLIN, M . A . 1 940 L esnaya

S t.

( Artistic M onuments

P etersburg.

promyshlennost Rossii i S SSR ( Forestry i n Russia

t he U SSR), U STYUGOV, N . V . 1 949 " Ocherk

I ssue V I,

a nd

L eningrad .

d revnerusskoi m etrologii"

M etrology),

I storicheskie z apiski

( Essay o n

M edieval

Russian

( Notes o n H istory),

v .

1 9,

M oscow. VAGNER, 1 960

G . K . " K

i zucheniyu

P olskom",

S A ,

r eliefov

N o.

G eorgievskogo

1 ( "On R eliefs o f S t.

s obora

v

Yurieve-

G eorge's C athedral

i n

Yuriev-Polskoy"). VENTURI, 1 904

A . S toria d ell'arte i taliana,

I II,

M ilan .

VESELOVSKY , A . 1 879 " Razyskaniya v o blasti r usskikh d ukhovnykh s tikhov . I . G recheskii a pokrif o s v . F edore" ( Studies o f Russian R eligious P oetry,

I .

O tdeleniya

A

( Collection L iterature 1 879, V IIRES,

N o.

G reek A pocryph

A bout

S t.

r usskogo y azyka i s lovesnosti o f

t he D epartment o f t he

o f

Theodor), i mp.

S bornik

Akademii

Russian

n auk

L anguage

t he I mperial A cademy o f S ciences),

a nd

I ssue

XX ,

6 .

A .

1 959

" Sannyi t rasport u e stontsev" E stonians),

t he B altic E xpedition), 1 960 V IKHROV, 1 958

V ol.

Eesti R ahvapärane P uutööndus, V . E . " Ispolzovanie l esa

i

( Sleigh T ransportation Among t he

T rudy Pribaltiiskoi e kspeditsii I ,

( Transactions

T allinn .

d revesiny v d revnem N ovgorode"

d revesiny ( "The U se o f W ood

i n

Trudy

M edieval

P roceedings o f t he I nstitute o f W ood a nd T imber, 1 959

o f

M oscow .

i nstituta N ovrogod",

V ol.

XXXVII).

" Nekotorye n ablyudeniya n ad s toikostyu d revesiny i z a rkheologi cheskikh r askopok",

S A ,

N o.

2 ( "Some O bservations

C oncerning

S tability o f A rchaeological W ood"). V IKHROV, 1 962

V .

E .

a nd K OLCHIN,

" Drevesina

v

B .

A .

k hozyastve

i byte

d revnego

N oegoroda",

i nstituta l esa E veryday L ife",

i d revesiny ( "Wood i n N ovgorod E conomy P roceedings o f t he I nstitute o f W ood

T imber),

M oscow .

V ol.

I ,

V ITRIVIUS 1 936

O b a rkhitecture

( About A rchitecture),

2 35

L eningrad .

T rudy a nd a nd

VORONOV, 1 924

V .

N .

Krestyanskoe i skusstvo,

WROBLEWSKI, T . 1 954 " Kilka

uwag

p ionowych", YANIN,

V .

1 965

o L ud,

M oscow ( Peasant A rt).

z asiegu V ol.

wystepowania

k rosien

p oziomych

i

XLI.

L . Y a poslal

t ebe b erestu

( I've S ent Y ou a L etter o n B irch-Bark),

M oscow . Z AGOSKIN, N . P . 1 910 Russkie v odnye p uti i s udovoe d elo v d ope t rovskoi R usi ( Russian Waterways a nd S hipbuilding i n Russia P rior t o P eter t he G reat),

K azan .

Z ASURTSEV, P . I . 1 963 " Usadby i p ostroiki d revnego N ovgoroda"

Z ELENIN, 1 927

M IA ,

D . R ussische

B erlin .

( Ostslawische)

V olkskunde,

Z ETTERSTEN, A . a nd S VAHN, H . 1 932 " Skidor", Nordisk f amiljebok , Z HIDKOV. 1 928

( Urban P roperties

C onstructions o f M edieval N ovgorod),

V ol.

1 7,

N o.

S tockholm .

G . " Iz i storii r usskoi z hivopisi XV v eka" ( On t he Russian XVth c entury painting), Trudy s ektsii RANION Russian

( Transactions A ssociation

S ciences),

1 928,

o f t he A rchaeological o f

a nd

1 23.

h istory o f a rkheologii

S ection

R esearch I nstitutes

o f

o f

t he

t he

S ocial

I I.

A bbreviations: K SIA

-

B rief

C ommunications

o f t he I nstitute o f

Archaeology,

Academy o f S ciences. M IA

Materials a nd R esearches o n t he A rchaeology o f t he U SSR .

2 36

U SSR

Wooden Arte£acts from Medieval Novgorod B. A. Kolchin

Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of the USSR Translated from the Russian Produced under the editorial supervision of A. V. Chernetsov

Part ii Illustrations

BAR International Series 495(ii) 1989

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S495(ii), 1989: 'Wooden Artefacts from Xedieval lovgorod' , Part ii

© Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1989 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390253 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390260 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546351 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347844 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546351 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

P art i i P lates

2 39

P l.

1

P lan o f t he d isposition o f t he e xcavation a reas i nvestigated i n N ovgorod ( after B . K olchin a nd V . Y anin). L inear d esign s hows m odern s treets. M edieval buildings a re s hown i n b lack . 1 2

S lavno ( investigations o f 1 932-37) Y aroslavovo d vorishche ( former c ourt

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

3 9) Y aroslavovo d vorishche ( 1947-48) C hudintseva s treet r ampart N erevsky I lyinsky ( Ilyina s treet) B uyana s treet S lavensky G otsky ( Gotlander 's y ard)

1 1 1 2 1 3

T ikhvinsky M ikhailovsky T orgovy ( market-place,

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0

-

2 1 2 2

-D mitrievsky -D uboshin

' torg ')

R ogatitsky K irov s treet L yudogoshchinsky ( Lyudogoshcha s treet) V arvarinsky r ampart -T roitsky -K uzmodemyansky

2 3 -N utny 2 4 -K remlin p ark A -F e xcavations o f N ovgorod museum A B orkova s treet B Yaroslavovo d vorishche ( 1937, 3 8, C

K remlin ( 1938-39)

D E F

c hurch o f S S B oris a nd G leb Y aroslavovo d vorishche ( 1946-47) K holopya s treet ( 1948)

2 40

4 0)

o f

Y aroslav

1 938-

2 41

P l.

2 .

P lan o f N ovgorod i n 1 0-14th c enturies, a fter B . K olchin a nd V . Y anin . S t . S ophia s ide ( to t he w est o f V olkhov r iver) 1 e xisting c hurch b uildings 2 c hurches d iscovered b y a rchaeologists o r known f rom w ritten s ources 3 t he m arket-place ( see o n p l. 3 ) 4 G erman y ard ( on p l. 3 ) 5 G otsky y ard ( on p l. 3 ) C hurches A

-S t . S ophia c athedral -S S B oris a nd G leb -E ntry i nto J erusalem -F orty m artyrs f rom S ebastia -S aviour o f T ransfiguration -A rchangel G abriel -C onstantine a nd H elene i n R ostkina s treet -C onstantine a nd H elene i n Y aneva s treet -S t. J ohn t he B aptist -S t . S imeon S tylite -1 2 a postles -C osmas a nd D amian i n K uzmodem y anskaya s treet -S t. S abbas -S t. T heodor S tratilates -C osmas a nd D amian i n K holopya s treet -S t. P anteleimon -S t . M ina -S t . D emetrius -P resentation o f t he B lessed V irgin -A rchangel M ichael -S t. J acob -N ativity o f t he H oly V irgin i n D esyatinny m onastery -H oly F ace -S t. B asil o f P aria -A ll s aints -S t. B lasius -S t. B arbara -S t . G eorge -A scension -S t. N icholas -T rinity -R aising o f t he H oly C ross -A postle L uke

M edieval S treets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

-D oslanya s treet -Y akovleva -B orkova -K holopya -K uzmodemyanskaya -R ozvazha -S hcherkova Y aneva R ostkina K hrevkova -L egoshcha ( Lyudogoshcha) -C hudintseva -V elikaya ( the G reat) -P iskuplya ( the b ishop 's) -P roboynaya L yudina k ontsa -P russkaya

obrynya 1 7 -D 1 8 -V olosova 1 9 -Y arysheva 2 0 -C hernitsina 2 1 -R yadyatina ozdvizhenskaya 2 2 -V 2 3 -L ukina

a

, 5 , env

1 /

05

P l.

3 .

P lan o f N ovgorod i n 1 0-14th c enturies. V . Yanin . T orgovaya s torona ( the s ide e ast o f V olkhov r iver)

After B . K olchin a nd o f t he m arket, t o t he

C hurches - S t. N icholas i n Y aroslavovo d vorishche - S t. P arasceva-Pyatnitsa ( Friday) -S t. J ohn i n O poki - S S. B oris a nd G leb i n T org ( market) - S t. G eorge i n T org -A ssumption i n T org -S S H oly W omen a t t he S epulchre -S t. P rocopius - S t. D emetrius -A rchangel M ichael -S t. C lement - S t. D emetrius o f T hessaloniki -S t. T heodor S tratilates -A ssembly o f t he H oly V irgin -T he H oly V irgin 's N ativity i n M ikhailitsa - S t. N icetas - S t. Andrew S tratilates - S t. E uthemius m onastery - S S. B oris a nd G leb i n P lotniki -S t. E upatius i n R ogatitsa -A postle L uke i n L ubyanitsa - S aviour i n I lyina S treet -S ymbolic i con o f t he H oly V irgin -A postle P hillip -P rophet E lijah - S S. F athers -A postles P eter a nd P aul i n S lavno S t. P aul's C onfessor 's m onastery a nd R esurrection M edieval s treets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

-K onyukhova S treet - S hchitnaya -M olotkovskaya - Manitsina -N ikitina -F edorova -P lotenskaya p roboynaya -P roboynaya -K orzheva - S lavkova -R ogatitsa -B uyana -L ubyanitsa - I lyina - S lavnaya -V itkov by-street -D uboshin by-street - Nutnaya -V aretskaya -V oskresenskaya -K iroivanovskaya -K onchanskaya -B ardova -Z agorodskaya -M ikhailova

t he

c hurch

o f

I V

XV I I

X I V

V I

V I I

• •• • • ••••••••

X X I

1) (

; z i,• ; ' n : r,9 T --F -j

M I

I 1

d r i e

X IX X X

r x 7 1

r ,

X V I I

2 0m

K 2

I X X IY

P l.

r,

g03 1 4;a eM bANCKOR

4 .

T he p lan o f N erevsky e xcavation a rea 1 951-1962.

2 46

9 57 0 7 8 3 I l 5 8 4 38 1 9 8 9 1 4 77 1 3 18 3 57 2 3 7 7 5 0 8 0 8 1 9 6 8 2 0 1 8 4 7 2 7 4 2 8 3 2 8 4 7 3 67 2 4 7 1 2 6 1 7 4 9 7 3 9 2 1 9 0 97 37 1 3 9 77 8 57 2 57 8 4 58 3 77 8 1 0 s8 67 47 6 27 5 0 8 17 9 97 i 71 7 57 5 5 7 5 1 8 1 28 0 07 8 8T M1 5 2 6 4 7 8 1 38 71 8 97 0 1 7 5 7 5 3

2 5 7 1 4 1 3 87 1 5 7 3 97 2 7 7 6 2 81 7 4 07

8 5 0 8 81 3 88 2 68 1 48 0 2 7 9 07 6 67 5 4 1n 97 6 7 1 5 8 0 3 9 3 98 2 1 8 8 5 1 8 5 5 1 68 2 88 0 4 9 27 8 07 4 0 8 6 1 7 8 5 28 5 6 1 8 1 9 8 0 57 9 3 7 8 1 7 6 9 7 5 7 4 18 8 5 38 1 88 0 6 7 5 8 3 0 2 9 4 7 8 17 7 0 7 4 28 5 48 2 1 2 0 1 1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 5 1 4 1 3 2 1 9 4 1 2 3 1 5 1 2 6 1 2 2 .2 1 2 2 0 21 9 2 1 2 I l 1 5 2 1 5 2 1 • 2 6 22 5 2 2 1 22 3 22 21 3 2 1 32 0 3 1 9 3 1 7 3 2 8 31 3 2 4 32 7 3 1 2 6 32 5 3 2 6 3 1 4 31 3 0 4 1 9 4 1 4 2 3 42 1 42 5 4 2 4 2 8 4 1 6 4 1 4 1 3 4 2 6 4 2

1 4 17 3 01 8 1 9 3 1 7 7 4 37 2 0 3 2 1 7 4 7 2 7 4 57 3 31 7 4 6 7 3 4

2 2 3 48 8 4 69 2 3 3 58 8 4 7 8 8 2 4 9 3 6 8 4 8 8 3 7 8 2 5 8 4 9

8 5 9 5 1 2 6 5 2 5 2 1 52 0 5 1 5 2 4 5 2 3 52 2 1 6 2 0 6 1 9 51 8 6 3 6 4 6 2 3 6 3 5 13 5 6 3 5 1 3 4 63 4 1 3 6 3 1 3 2 63 2 1 2 6 6 2 5 2

B

0 11 1 1 1 7 1 23 2 7 2 6 79 5 72 412 3 7 2 1 7 2 7 1 6 7 1 5 7 5 2 2 E3 5 1 3 5 7 3 3 6 1 85 I S ? 33 2 8 2 6 82 5 82 4 8 2 3 8 :2 1 82 0 8 5 3 3 8 3 1 3 8 1 8 1 7 1 5 8 1 5 8 3 5 8 3 8 9 1 3 4 3 2 93 7 9 1 2 42 9 1 4 9 3 4 3 9 5 6 9 2 0 9 1 3 9 5 92 4 9 2 6 91 4 91 3 92 92 1 9 2 5 9 1 5 43 5 93 3 6 93 6 1 3 4 0 5 01 7 0 i n 1 3 7 01 3 6 0 3 5 3 5 0 3 4 53 4 0 3 53 0 2 5 0 2 4 0 2 3 0 2 0 2 1 02 0 1 9 0 1 8 0 1 o 1 92 8 4 1 6 4 0 6 4 0 1 3 9 63 9 13 8 6 3 8 15 7 6 3 0 63 0 1 2 9 62 9 12 8 52 8 12 1 6 2 7 1 1 l 1 2 2 I1 82 7 2 8 7 3 8 7 2 9 2 3 0 2 3 9 /3 7 1 9 2 0 23 3 0 1 3 0 22 9 7 2 4 0 14 02 9 4 1

0 44

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S chematic p lan o f N erevsky e xcavation a rea.

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6 3 91 5 4 0 1 5, 11 6 4 2 1 6 4 31 6 4 4 1 5 4 51 6 4 5 1 6 4 7 9 5 71 9 5 1 1 7 6 5 1 7 5 6 1 7 6 71 7 6 1 1 6 9 1 6 3 61 5 3 7 1 6 3 8 1 0 12 0 1 92 0 0 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 5' 9 5 6 1 I 2 6 5 8 ' 5 9 6 5 4 ' 6 5 1 5 5) 5 71 5 0 1 5 1 1 6 5 2 1 6 31 7 0 1 6 4 81 6 4 9 1 7 5 0 1 7 6 1 1 7 6 2 1 7 6 3 1 9 6 0 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 51 9 6 3 1 1 2 2 0 22 0 31 9 5 91 8 6 3 8 6 2 1 1 2 . 5 6 1 8 6 1 1

P l.

6 .

S chematic p lan o f N erevsky e xcavation a rea.

2 48

S outhern p art.

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W oodworking i mplements aw ; 2 - a l athe t ool; 3 - h ammer-tack-claw ; 4 - a n a xe; 1 -a s 5 -a n a dze; 6 - h and c utter; 7 - a n a dze; 8 - w ood c hisel; 9 a w ood-carving t ool; 1 0 - a c ooper 's b arking i ron ; 1 1 -a n i ron p lane; 1 2 - a n i ron p lane w ith a s traight b lade; 1 3 - a w ood d rill; 1 4 -a t wist b it; 1 5, 1 6 -c hisels 2 49

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S pades a nd s hovels 1 , 6 - b aking s hovels; 1 - 7 -9-464, 6 - 1 1-14-315; 2 -4 s pades; 2 - 2 5-28-1226, 3 - 2 6-24-526, 4 - 1 3-18-1294; 5 - a llp urpose s pade 1 1-11-945, 7 - s now s hovels 1 2-13-958

• 1 1

p 1.10.

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H oes 1 - 2 5-28-1279,

2 - 1 4-22-1442 2 52

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P 1.11.

P itch-forks

( 1,2)

1 - 2 6-30-119,

a nd r akes

( 3).

2 - 2 5-28-1256 2 53

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5

P 1.12.

R akes 1 -1 4-20-1128, 2 - 2 3-30-760, 3 - 2 1-20-999, 4 -7 -8-1576, 5 - 1 6-20-1534 , 6 -2 1-30-1420

2 54

4 -6

-r ake t eeth ,

2

I P 1.13.

1 2

M auls 1 - 1 5-21-2068,

2 - 9 -13-2149,

5 -2 8-31-318, 6 - 2 1-25-902, 9 -5 -9-1240, 1 0 - 1 3-14-887,

3 - 2 5-29-2095,

4 - 1 9-24-1259,

7 - 2 2-24-1572, 8 - 1 3-18-2084, 1 1 -1 3-17-2140, 1 2 - 2 2-24-320

P 1.14.

D olly-pegs a nd c oal s coops 1 -4

- d olly-pegs:

9 05,

4 - 6 -11-327,

9 02,

7 - 2 4-25-902,

1 - 2 2-31-1396, 5 -8

c oal

s coops:

8 -2 8-31-1019

2 56

2 - 1 9-28-1417,

3 - 2 4-27-

5 - 2 1-25-902,

6 - 2 7-29-

E 3

1 4 P 1.15.

V arious o bjects.

1 -4 f lat d olly-pegs

1 - 6 -8-1547, 2 - 7 -10-1208, 3 - 5 -7-1532, 4 - 1 8-15-1714, 5 a j eweller 's a nvil ( 26-31-784); 6 -12, 1 4 - f ishing i mplements; 6 ,8 - f loats; 7 - b ifurcated f ishing d evice; 9 - w ays o f f ixing n ets; 1 0-12 - g ill p atterns; 1 3 - a m ould ( 14-10-1743); 1 4 t yke h oops 2 57

P 1.16.

L asts 1 -6,

8 -10

-o ne p iece

l asts:

1 - 8 -14-1370,

2 - 8 -14-1370,

3 -

1 5-23-1330, 4 - 4 -7-1259, 5 - 1 6-15-980, 6 - 1 5-14-988, 8 - 1 21 8-2144, 9 - 4 -3-1764, 7 0 - 1 0-17-629, 7 - a t wo-piece l ast 1 71 8-1915

2 58

2

4

J rf r i

P 1.17.

L asts

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- t wo p iece l asts)

2 59

* 7 4

2

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6 4

2 1

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I

1 5

P 1.18.

P rincipal d imensions o f v arious o bjects 1 - l asts; 2 - t ub s taves; 3 - bucket s taves; 4 - h ooped w ooden j ug s taves; 5 - l ower bucket s taves; 6 - b ig b owls; 7 - s hallow b owls; 8 - c ups; 9 - b asins o f t he f irst t ype; 1 0 - b asins o f t he s econd t ype; 1 1 -b asins o f t he t hird t ype; 1 2 - d ishes t he f irst t ype; 1 3 - d ishes o f t he s econd t ype; 1 4 - d ishes t he t hird t ype; 1 5 -b owl-shaped v essels o f t he f irst t ype; 1 6 -b owl-shaped v essels o f t he s econd t ype

2 60

o f o f

z ,

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i 1 0 1 I

I G

P 1.19.

7 = .r D

1

1 4

S

P rincipal d imensions o f v arious o bjects 1 - b owl s haped v essels o f t he t hird t ype; 2 - b owl-shaped v essels o f t he f ourth t ype; 3 - d rinking v essels o n s tems; 4 w ine-bowls; 5 - b eakers; 6 - b owls o f t he f irst t ype; 7 - b owls o f t he s econd t ype; 8 - s alt-cellars; 9 - b ox l ids; 1 0 t roughs; 1 1 - s leigh r unners, 1 2 - s leigh k opyls ( vertical s upports); 1 3 -s hip's s tern o ars; 1 4 -b oat s tern o ars

2 61

2

a '

6

P 1.20.

P rincipal d imensions o f v arious o bjects 1 -r owlocks; 2 - s hip r ibs; 3 - f ork-like s huttles; 4 - h ollow s huttles; 5 - t readles; 6 - " dogs"; 7 - b earings; 8 - p ulleys; 9 -s wivels

2 62

P 1.21.

V arious o bjects 1 , 1 - 2 5-31-723,

2 -J eweller 's a nvils

2 - 2 6-31-784,

3 - t races l eft b y a c utting t ool

o n a l athe-turned v essel; 4 - c arved v essel f rom e xcavations, 1 1th c entury ( State H istorical M useum)

2 63

N ovgorod

6 5

1 2 7 7

11

P 1.22.

H ooks a nd f ishing t ackle 1 , 2 - n et n eedles: 1 - 2 -8-1411, 2 - 6 -7-1080, 3 -6 - r eels ( fork-like s huttles), 3 - 1 0-17-1363, 4 - 1 0-12-1577, 5 - 8 -141 455, 6 - 7 -14-1418, 7 -9 - h ooks: 7 - 2 8-31-1311, 8 - 2 8-301 286, 9 - 2 8-31-1265, 1 0 - a f loat 3 -4-1602; 1 1 - f ishing t ackle 2 8-36-1419; 1 2 -a n et l oop 2 0-26-2186

P 1.23.

F loats a nd s inkers 1 , 2 - f loats: 1 - 1 1-15-275, 2 - 1 6-17-950; 3 - b ark f loat ( 13-12-1810); 4 -6 - b irch-bark f loats; 4 - 5 -6-1260, 5 - 9 -131 514,

6 - 1 2-15-1592;

7 ,

8 - s inkers;

8 33 2 65

7 - 7 -8-1073,

8 - 7 -10-

P 1.24.

S igns a nd i nscriptions o n v arious w ooden a nd b irch-bark o bjects 1 -8

P rince 's b adges o n w ooden o bjects

1 - 1 1-27-137 2 0-23-1499, 2 8-31-901 9 -28

( 11th c entury),

5 - 2 5-29-126,

2 - 1 1-15-275,

6 - 2 1-25-1163,

3 - 2 7-31-229,

4

7 - 2 1-25-1163,

8

S igns o n b irch-bark f loats

9 -1 4-20-1146, 1 0 - 6 -8-81, 1 1 - 7 -9-904, 1 2 - 8 -11-407, 1 3 2 5-26-432, 1 4 - 7 -14-847, 1 5 - 1 0-9-498, 1 6 - 7 -10-387, 1 7 1 4-20-129, 1 8 - 7 -10-387, 1 9 - 9 -12-397, 2 0 - 8 -12-368, 2 1 -8 1 5-211, 2 2 - 3 -9-139, 2 3 - 5 -13-112, 2 4 - 5 -13-112, 2 5 - 6 -103 86, 2 9-53

2 6

- 7 -10-412,

2 7

-6 -10-386,

2 8

- 6 -14-835

I nscriptions o n t urned v essels

2 9 - 8 -13-1243, 3 0 - 1 1-14-1638, 3 1 -9 -8-981, 3 2 - 1 6-22-1141, 3 3 - 2 0-25-122, 3 4 - 1 7-22-1281, 3 5 - 1 4-19-2057, 3 6 - 6 -121 363, 3 7 -2 3-21-524, 3 8 - 1 7-23-1147, 3 9 - 7 -11-1280, 4 0 -2 22 2-1993, 4 1 - 1 2-10-653, 4 2 - 1 6-20-382, 4 3 - 2 4-27-1184, 4 4 1 2-19-1350, 4 5 - 8 -8-930, 4 6 - 2 4-28-126, 4 7 -1 9-20-1801, 4 8 2 4-26-1234, 4 9 - 1 2-16-345, 5 0 - 1 5-10-1313, 5 1 - 1 3-17-334 , 5 2 -2 1-27-101,

5 3

- 1 5-12-676

2 66

P l

. ‘ )

AA 2 2-

1 9

1 8

2 0

\ k /

( d i— )

2G

4 On

4

v i ( r ) k . t i

nß

A

G I

3 2

3 0

N

3 4

4 3

3 9

65

4 2

4 8

1 4

5I

5 3

2 67

5 2

5

1 . 9

\ A h

O

F -

T-V

t i \ P

'

r)

3 0

or )

P 1.25.

2 4

S igns

( 1-19)

3 1

a nd i nscriptions o n b arrels a nd o ther o bjects

S igns o n b arrels

( 1-19)

1 -4 - 7 -8-958, 5 - 8 -11-1260, 6 - 6 -9-1224, 7 - 1 -0-1861 ( two l etters - f IN), 8 - 9 -12-1577, 9 - 1 -0-1861, 1 0 - 1 0-17-2055, 1 1 - 6 -8-1263, 1 2 - 6 -9-1299, 1 3 - 6 -9-1540, 1 4 - 6 -8-1262, 1 5 -4 -8-1198, 1 6 - 6 -8-1266, 1 7 - 6 -9-1239, 1 8 - 7 -10-1224, 1 9 7 -10-1193 I nscriptions o n b arrels a nd o ther o bjects

( 20-31)

2 0 - 9 -10-1657, 2 1 - 2 -4-1309, 2 2 - 1 1-13-464, 2 3 - 1 5-21-78, 2 4 - 5 -9-1242, 2 5 - 9 -11-1594, 2 6 - 1 4-19-1186, 2 7 - 7 -3-868, 2 8 -6 -3-477, 2 9 - 9 -14-2135, 3 0 - 1 7-21-332 ( on a s pade), 3 1 1 8-24-2124 ( on a f ishing d evice) 2 68

P 1.26.

F ishing t ackles 1 - 7 -10-1301, 2 - 1 6-22-2139, 3 - 9 -8-1772, 4 - 2 0-22-1065, - 1 4-17-1585, 6 - 1 8-24-2110, 7 - 1 3-18-1215, 8 - 2 2-27-2142, - 1 6-18-1055,

1 0

-1 9-24-2082 2 69

5 9

P 1.27.

F ishing t ackles 1 - 2 1-30-1438, 5 - 1 5=21=2053,

2 - 1 3-18-1202, 3 - 1 9-24-1177, 4 - 1 7-20-860, 6 - 1 3-15-919, 7 - 1 3-12-1796, 8 - 1 9-23-14

2 70

P 1.28.

H ooks a nd w ooden s eats f or c ollecting w ild h oney 1 , 2 - h ooks; 1 - 2 8-31-1042, 2 - 1 9-20-919, s eat a nd h ook o f t he e arly 2 0th c entury

3 -4

- a w ooden

, ' 2 3 M N P OK A u g h . r , 5CH

a

I g OW 2 10 # l en leae ger

: 7 ,7 )

m asm e

l e i mim e I f ]e n

P 1.29.

C ooper a rticles 1 - a g lass; 2 , 3 -b owls; 4 - a b eer m ug ; 5 - a l ower t ub; a s mall-sized h ooped j ug ; 7 - a b ucket; 8 - a butter c hurn; a s mall barrel; 1 0 - a m ilk p ail; - a t ub w ith t wo h andles

2 72

1 1,

1 2

- s maller l ow t ubs;

6 9 1 3

2

4

P 1.30.

C ooper a rticles 1 - a t ub

w ith

a n

e ar;

2 ,

4 - l ow

t ubs;

3 - a barrel

t en p ailfuls; 5 - a w ater c arrier's b arrel; barrel h olding t en p ailfuls ( 7-8-958)

2 73

h olding

6 - a 1 4th-century

P 1.31.

C ooper g oods 1 - a 1 5th-century

b ucket

( 2-4-1309);

2 - b ucket

s tave

( 6-5-

2 020); 3 - a w ater c arrier 's b arrel s tave 1 5-19-328; 4 - a m ilk b ucket s pout 9 -14-4; 5 , 6 - t ub b ottoms 5 - 7 -11-1209, 6 - 8 1 0-1306; 7 - s tave ( 20-25-137)

2 74

5

/ 0c m

7

1 1 1 1 1 / 1 1 1

I I

em o v l um ' 14

i

1 0

P 1.32.

1

1 2

S taves 1 - 1 2-15-1803, 2 - 1 2-13-961, 3 - 5 -7-1531, 4 - 6 -7-1605, 5 1 0-17-1456, 6 - 6 -9-1314, 7 - 2 1-30-1465, 8 - 7 -9-1272, 9 - 2 42 5-900, 1 0 - 5 -7-1533, 1 1 - 2 8-36-1419, 1 2 - 2 -2-1628, 1 3 - 9 8 -475, 1 4 -6 -6-532, 1 5 - 7 -5-529 2 75

P 1.33.

T ub b ottoms 1 - 8 -11-1287, 1 607,

2 - 5 -8-1277

5 -1 6-21-1204,

( oak),

6 - 2 7-29-1060,

2 76

3 - 1 4-20-1366, 7 - 7 -9-1298

4 - 5 -5-

\

(

-

_

2

-

1 ,

-

P 1.34.

D etails o f t ubs 1 -3 - h oops a nd j oints; 4 , 5 - l ids 4 - t he t he s econd t ype; 6 -9 - c hime c onnections

2 77

f irst

t ype;

5

P 1.35.

L ids o f t he

t hird t ype

1 - 2 8-26-523,

2 - 1 5-22-1355,

2 78

3 - 2 8-33-124

P 1.36.

T urned v essels 1 - a s alt-cellar; 4 -6

2 - a b owl

- basins 2 79

o n a p edestal;

3 - a w ine

b owl;

CY )

P 1.37.

T urned v essels 1 - a s mall b ox; 2 - b owls; - a f lat b ottomed v essel

3 - a v ine g lass;

2 80

4 ,

6 -b eakers;

5

I

I

P 1.38.

Turned v essels 1 ,

6 - l arge b asins;

2 ,

5 - v essels

c omplete w ith a l id o n p edestal; 2 81

o n p edestals;

4 - a b owl;

7

3 - a b owl

9 - d ishes

P 1.39.

T urned v essels.

B owls

1 - 2 3-23-1088, 2 - 2 1-23-922, 3 - 2 4-28-126, 4 - 2 1-23-979, 5 - 2 1-25-1005, 6 - 2 1-23-889, 7 - 1 5-12-694, 8 - 1 3-20-1424, 9 1 3-17-334, 1 0 - 1 8-19-887, 1 1 - 1 4-15-467

2 82

L ! " ")

Cy )

P 1.40.

Turned v essels. 1 - 1 0-17-1374, - 9 -9-564, 1 657,

1 0

B owls 2 - 1 0-15-1313,

6 - 9 -12-882,

3 - 1 0-17-1368,

7 - 6 -12-1408,

- 5 -7-1570

2 83

4 - 7 -9-1260,

8 - 8 -9-1085,

5

9 - 4 -3-

E U

P 1.41.

T urned v essels.

D rinking v essels a nd b owls o f m edium s ize

1 - 2 3-26-1234, 2 - 2 3-31-1365, 3 - 2 4-28-1005, 4 - 2 -1-1652, 5 - 1 0-15-1184, 6 - 5 -11-59, 7 - 2 8-33-144, 8 - 2 2-27-128, 9 2 3-28-93, 1 0 - 1 9-20-981, 1 1 - 2 2-25-1079, 1 2 - 1 9-20-962

2 84

P 1.42.

Turned v essels. 1 - 1 9-24-1125, 5 -1 3-21-1440, 8 -12-363

B owls o f m edium s ize 2 - 1 8-20-1067, 3 - 1 1-17-1166, 4 - 1 2-17-190, 6 - 1 3-17-289, 7 - 1 0-6-629, 8 - 6 -8-1308, 9 -

2 85

6

5

7

f a

l ane

1 2:

P 1.43.

1 ' 1 7 C ie

T urned v essels 1 - 2 8-31-26,

2 - 2 5-26-422,

3 - 2 2--24-880,

1 9-17-540, 6 - 2 6-30-208, 7 - 2 3-25-861, 2 6-501, 1 0 - 2 2-31-716, 1 1 - 2 6-30-31, 2 5-30-94, 1 4 -2 0-21-820 2 86

4 - 2 5-24-514,

5 -

8 -2 0-22-992, 9 - 2 71 2 - 2 1-23-1079, 1 3 -

= E3 = 1 3 ‚ c :9 Cr _ D iG I ) L w r i t o

1

1 3 . 1

1 2

i I mm omm om i

/ 3

1 4

/ . 5

P 1.44.

T urned v essels 4-29-839, 3 - 2 1 - 2 3-30-764, 2 - 2 5-27-523, 4 - 1 6-20-307, 5 1 8-19-988, 6 - 1 7-20-1540, 7 - 1 8-22-1234, 8 - 1 9-16-695, 9 7-32-818, 1 1 - 1 2 6-27-948, 1 0 - 2 7-19-1046, 1 2 - 1 8-15-686, 1 3 -7-1554, 1 5 - 5 - 8 -9-1008, 1 4 -5 -12-1426 2 87

C enturies a nd h orizons

T ypes o f b asin _

xJ

, v z I A 7 2 W 7 X IV XI , 6 7 3/ 4 2 1 2/ 1 l a 9 876 ' 32 1 2 ,2 12 P 1 . 9 1 817 1 2 4 32

1 2 . 1 0 -0 l e 0

/7

-

) 700

24

/ 34 7 ,0

i

7 1 1

/ /

7 A 7

L 4 4

7 '

-) 1 01 31 ' r

,

/" , ,'

7 7' 7

_ —

I

,

e '

. . ... — v , e

M I

,

NI

1

/

7 4

Li P edestal

' 4

1

C enturies a nd h orizons

2 u 1 t y p e s Am i _ J t Ag g P a u g l ee . 1 1 4 2 1 1 0 „ . „ _

V

I

XV

b 5 152 1 97

2

P 1.45.

C hronology o f b ig b asins a nd d ishes ( 2)

2 88

( 1)

a nd o f t urned p edestals

-e i m m o m m " 1 "%

i l e im mor

I m inmm omm s!

NI N 1 1 11. 1 0 . 1 1 .8

9

4 1

\

Iman

— u

1 2

gN

i af f l o w

N P 1.46.

nwi ,

uev o Imam

T urned v essels.

D ishes

1 - 2 0-22-1035, 2 - 2 0-22-902, 3 - 2 0-19-529, 4 - 1 8-26-1454, 5 - 1 0-16-1132, 6 - 1 0-15-1234, 7 - 9 -11-1638, 8 - 9 -8-485, 9 9 -10-1643, 1 0 - 7 -13-1367, 1 1 - 7 -10-1522, 1 2 - 6 -9-1312, 1 3 6 -7-1003, 1 4 -6 -12-1356, 1 5 - 5 -12-1426 2 89

8

1 2 1 0

1

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 0

P 1.47.

T urned v essels 1 - 1 0-13-1261, 2 - 1 1-13-981, 3 - 9 -9-990, 4 - 6 -10-1177, 5 7 -8-1631, 6 - 8 -8-502, 7 - 6 -13-137, 8 - 6 -6-970, 9 - 7 -101 230, 1 0 - 4 -7-1270, 1 1 - 2 -7-1474 , 1 2 - 4 -5-1080, 1 3 - 5 -51 653, 1 4 - 3 -5-1538, 1 5 - 5 -6-933

2 90

2

4

7

5

8 CA l

P 1.48.

T urned v essels. 1 - 9 -16-1441, - 2 4-23-504,

W inebowls a nd b eakers 2 - 8 -14-1366,

6 - 1 9-24-58,

3 - 1 9-24-236,

7 - 2 2-30-767,

1 1-10-1086 2 91

4 - 1 7-19-1813,

8 - 1 3-20-1397,

5

9 -

P 1.49.

T urned v essels 1 -9 -13-1525, 2 - 4 -3-1657, 3 - 1 2-19-1350, 4 - 5 -8-1289, 1 2-14-1589, 6 - 1 0-17-1432, 7 - 9 -8-981, 8 - 1 7-21-1514, 1 3-15-869,

1 0

- 2 6-27-1652

2 92

5 9 -

P 1.50.

T urned v essels 1 -1 0-17-1432, 5 -1 4-15-1981 ,

2 - 1 0-15-1234, 3 - 1 3-17-2077, 6 - 8 -12-1180, 7 - 6 -12-1356 2 93

4 - 1 2-19-1350,

E 2 P 1.51.

T urned v essels 1 -1 6-21-2114,

2 - 1 3-20-1397,

3 - 9 -16-1441,

4 - 9 -16-1441,

- 5 -5-1653, 6 - 1 7-20-540, 7 - 7 -8-1631, 8 - 7 -10-1522, 7 -1653, 1 0 - 5 -7-1554, 1 1 -4 -7-1270, 1 2 - 7 -10-1230

2 94

5

9 - 5 -

C . )

C D

C \ 1

C D

-

•

\

-

N

P r )

P 1.52.

Turned v essels 1 2 5-26-422, 2 - 2 2-27-2142, 3 - 9 -8-485, 4 - 2 5-30-94, 5 2 2-27-164, 6 - 5 -26-933, 7 - 2 3-27-243, 8 - 1 0-9-1094, 9 - 1 69 -999, 1 0 - 2 7-27-523 2 95

T u r n e d v e s e l s

1 4 1 5 1 0 7 2

r c )

I II

. / // /

2 96 I

t o

C \ ?

1 !

P 1.54.

T urned v essels

( 1-3)

1 - 1 3-15-869,

2 - 1 4-18-268,

1 4-16-1034,

a nd b oxes

6 - 2 -6-1196

( 4-6) 3 - 4 -7-1270,

4 - 3 -6-1269,

5

,

P 1.55.

z e ,

T urned b oxes 1 - 1 7-22-10,

2 - 8 -3-670,

3 - 1 2-18-166,

4 - 1 4-14-1082,

5 -

2 2-24-890, 6 - 2 7-31-287, 7 - 1 7-19-421, 8 - 1 2-17-234, 9 - 1 42 0-158, 1 0 - 1 2-14-400, 1 1 - 1 5-21-116, 1 2 - 1 5-21-116, 1 3 1 2-18-189, 1 4 -1 3-17-292, 1 5 - 2 5-28-303, 1 6 - 1 9-23-260, 1 7 6 -2-626,

1 8

-2 2-27-2143

2 99

P 1.56.

P edestal p rofiles 1 -2 1-31-113, 2 - 2 8-35-281, 3 - 2 6-24-486, 4 - 2 5-24-471 , 5 2 6-29-1020, 6 - 2 2-29-746, 7 - 2 3-31-1433, 8 - 2 4-28-868, 9 2 5-24-511, 1 0 -1 5-17-919, 1 1 -1 3-21-720, 1 2 -1 2-18-189, 1 3 9 -7-996, 1 4 - 1 0-15-4, 1 5 - 9 -12-1107, 1 6 - 1 0-18-1335, 1 7 2 4-28-108, 1 8 -1 1-12-960, 1 9 -1 1-19-1445, 2 1 0-14-1236, 2 0 -1 -1 0-17-102, 2 2 -2 5-29-188, 2 3 -1 1-17-1170, 2 4 -6 -9-1540, 2 5 - 1 5-18-1009, 2 6 - 1 7-18-1079, 2 7 - 1 7-19-1046, 2 8 - 1 4-221 408, 2 9 -1 4-22-1455, 3 0 -9 -14-1219, 3 1 -1 8-19-993

3 00

CY

1 0

, o CI

3 01

P 1.57.

T urned v essels 1 - B owls o n p edestals, s erving k issel

2 - A

3 02

s alt-cellar,

3 - A b owl

f or

5

2 3

l b

I 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

2 4

P 1.58.

S poons 1 - 2 4-28-282, 2 - 2 0-27-2065, 3 - 2 4-29-141, 4 - 2 2-22-1945, 5 - 2 0-18-1662, 6 - 2 8-33-140, 7 - 2 5-27-1303, 8 - 2 6-29-97, 9 2 4-23-1958, 1 0 - 2 5-25-430, 1 1 - 2 5-28-310, 1 2 - 1 4-14-1904, 1 3- 1 2-13-1927, 1 4 - 1 3-16-1607, 1 5 - 1 2-14-1643, 1 6 - 1 3-121 914, 1 7 - 1 3-12-1946, 1 8 - 9 -9-521, 1 9 - 2 1-26-136, 2 0 -6 -101 214, 2 1 - 1 9-24-108, 2 2 - 8 -8-1896, 2 3 - 1 3-13-1939, 2 4 - 1 82 7-1370

3 03

P 1.59.

S poons 1 - 1 1-12-1833, 2 - 2 1-24-1219, 3 - 1 5-12-1714, 4 - 1 5-22-849, 5 - 8 -8-1801, 6 - 1 1-17-1255, 7 - 1 2-20-720, 8 - 1 4-20-822, 9 4 -5-1602, 1 0 - 5 -7-1540, 1 1 - 7 -11-1479, 1 2 - 7 -10-1558

3 04

P 1.60.

S poons 1 -2 0-27-2065, 2 - 4 -10-1438, 3 - 2 1-25-340, 4 - 4 -6-1261, 2 6-28-1494, 6 - 1 4-25-815, 7 - 2 2-31-1428, 8 - 2 6-29-1031, 1 9-28-1358, 1 0 - 2 5-28-324, 1 1 - 2 0-23-363

3 05

5 9 -

C enturies Types

a nd h orizons

f x i T , x i L 1 2 8e 2 5 1, 2 41 2 3 j21 2 1 2 0 1 9

o fo fs poon

1 00 0

x i v

L e . g 1 . 3 7 1 i 5 j ü 32

,

10

F

X I V

L

20

MI—

M VO

C enturies a nd h orizons L oom p arts

x i x i ' T i x i v x v 2 82 7 A 2V e 22 1 2 ( 1 9, 1 81 n1 6b l 2 l I 1 098 76 32 1 000

r ,

1

1 300

T

1

mm i n iniai ti r r• •

-° g« ; „

1 1 , 11 1 1 1 1 1

4 -

. e t

Op

rj r

v i p . N owed i an ui •

o f

C I

o b i

r o n e re n l e a r 0 P o or o 1 1 1

MU

C Z 7 ) T ypes o f

c omb

C enturies

a nd

horizons

xv 2 8 2 r7 6 n2 42 3 1 2 1 2 17 61 91 81 7c 1 6b1 41 3 1 i 2 1 1 1 098( b4 2 o 3( - 7- X i

—

j

J

X I I I

1

1 3

XIV

0

F/ ( 1 11 1 1 , 3 P 1.61.

C hronology

o f

s poons

( 1),

h orizontal

(3 ) 3 06

l oom p arts

( 2)

a nd c ombs

P 1.62.

C arved o bjects 1 -A 1 0th-century c arved b owl ( 28-31-901), 2 - A 1 3th-century v inebowl ( 12-10-100), 3 - A 1 0th-century s cooper ( 26-30-128), 4 -A n e arly 2 0th c entury b eer l adle f rom t he N ovgorod R egion

3 07

P 1.63.

1 0th-century c arved b owls

( 28-31-317)

3 08

P 1.64.

C arved v essels 1 -5

s alt-cellars;

4 - 6 -13-774,

1 - 1 2-19-773,

5 - 2 7-32-814,

s haped handles

3 09

6 ,

2 - 2 1-25-349, 7 - D ippers

3 - 2 4-23-504,

w ith

i rregularly

5

P 1.65.

D ippers 1 - 2 4-30-750, 2 - 8 -11-1552, 1 6-17-870, 6 - 6 -9-1516

3 10

3 - 7 -8-947,

4 - 9 -13-124,

5 -

3

Pl. 66.

Ladles and dippers 1 - 10-9-487, 2 - 24-27-349, 3 - 22-22-1918, 4 - 24-19-1734, 5 - 23-24-421, 6 - 21-25-333, 7 - 25-28-303, 8 - 27-28-1880

311

P 1.67.

L adles 1 - 6 -8-1272, 2 - 1 6-18-981, 3 ( a d ipper) - 2 8-30-1491, 4 - 1 62 7-135, 5 - 1 3-20-1405, 6 ( a d ipper) - 2 -1-1650, 7 - 2 8-31-1136

3 12

P 1.68.

L adles 1 -2 2-20-555, - 1 1-19-1453,

2 -7 -10-1526, 6 -2 5-21-1719,

3 13

3 - 2 2-27-2118. 7 - 1 6-21-190,

4 - 2 1-26-2099, 8 - 1 3-21-806

5

P 1.69.

H ollowed-out t ubs a nd t roughs 1 ( a t ub) - 7 -10-1205, 2 - 1 8-23-1199, 3 - 1 7-23-1142, 4 - 1 42 1-1322, 5 - 2 0-23-1499, 6 - 5 -8-1301, 7 - 1 3-10-677, 8 - 1 0-81 107

P 1.70.

B irch-bark c ontainers 1 , 3 , 4 - t ues b ottoms: 1 - 1 8-22-44, 3 - 9 -16-1428, 4 - 1 01 4-1536; 5 -7 b ottoms o f b oxes: 5 - 2 4-32-1459, 6 - 2 4-28-233, 7 -2 6-30-180; 2 , 8 -11 - t ueses: 2 - 1 7-16-518, 8 - 1 9-20-939, 9 -2 4-28-166, 1 0 -2 -2-1630, 1 1 - 1 0-9-1963 3 15

-•

4 )(0

4

( 1 )

( b )( % )

1 › .

L

, e

( 0

( 0

. ( 0

/

lf •

) ( a )% ( 4 1 )

' I )

, , , . , ,se

0

P 1.71.

B ottom

o f

a t ues

w ith

( birch-bark c harter N o.

i nscriptions 1 99,

3 16

a nd

1 3th c entury)

d rawings

by

a c hild

r e )

P 1.72.

B irch-bark c ontainers 1 - 7 -10-885, 1 1-19-1447,

2 - 2 4-25-967,

6 - 1 4-14-1630,

3 - 1 4-22-13961, 7 - 1 0-8-1094,

3 17

4 - 2 7-24-51,

8 - 2 -11-719

5 -

m eake r a rm iameemk V V y 7,, y , h , \' I' e '\N / A0 l i ei / /J >

,

1 \ i /

L

P 1.73.

B irch-bark b oxes. 1 - 7 -10-1302,

R econstruction

2 - 1 3-19-1179

3 18

1 .

I

P 1.74.

B irch-bark c ontainers 1 - 8 -11-407,

( 1,

2 )

2 - 1 0-9-980,

a nd a h at

( 3)

3 - 9 -12-1272

P 1.75.

W icker c ontainers 1 - 1 2-18-2050, 5 -7-1540,

2 - 6 -9-1521,

6 - 9 -14-1206,

3 - 6 -9-1521,

7 - 9 -14-68

: 1 20

4 - 1 3-15-931,

5 -

-

, r

/ / /

P 1.76.

A wheel I l.

2 8-276 3 21

' ,

C \ ?

P 1.77.

S leigh

a nd i ts

d etails

1 - C ross-sections 3 - S leigh k opyls

o f

s leigh

( vertical

r unners,

s upports)

2 - a s leigh

2 4-23-1944,

, .

P 1.78.

S leigh 1 - 1 5-14-1680,

2 - 2 1-23-1760

3 23

\ 2

P 1.79.

T he b ow o f t he

1 4th c entury

( 1

5 -7-1542)

3 24

- 1 0-17-1408)

a nd a s leigh

( 2

e t )

P 1.80.

V ertical

s upports o f s leighs

1 - 2 6-30-130, 2 - 2 6-30-13, 3 - 9 -13-1183, 4 - 2 5-26-1892, 2 3-25-1591, 6 - 1 9-19-991, 7 - 2 2-23-958, 8 - 1 7-19-1046, 2 2-23-958,

1 0

- 1 9-20-929

3 25

5 9

^

P 1.81.

V ertical s upports o f s leighs 1 -1 9-19-996,

( kopyls)

2 -1 6-18-1040,

3 26

3 -1 4-16-880,

4 -1 6-17-951

P 1.82.

V ertical s upports,

s hafts a nd r unners

1 - 3 -7-1244, 2 - 1 7-19-1046, 3 - 2 2-20-495, 4 - 2 6-26-979, 6 -11-1116, 6 - 2 1-30-1355, 7 - 1 9-21-1040, 8 - 2 1-24-1005, 2 8-30-1260

3 27

5 9 -

P1 .83.

Sh afts a nd j oints 1 - 1 9-29-1321,

2 - 1 9-29-1337,

3 - 2 1-30-1355,

5 - 1 0-16-2057,

6 - 2 5-25-1942,

7 - 2 8-33-262

3 28

4 - 2 3-24-1923,

1)

P 1.84.

S hafts 1 - 2 4-25-955,

2 - 2 0-22-907,

: 3 29

3 - 1 9-20-950,

4 - 1 5-16-950

P 1.85.

R econstruction o f c arriages

3 30

P 1.86.

C argo s leighs a nd s leigh r unners 1 -1 3-17-2147, -2 7-23-629

2 -2 5-28-1010,

3 31 .

3 -1 0-9-980,

4 -2 6-25-1098,

5

P 1.87.

P arts o f h orse c ollars 1 - 1 4-16-1601,

2 -1 2-13-1062,

3 32

3 -6 -4-2017

6 P 1.88.

P arts o f h orse c ollars 1 - 2 7-31-125, 2 - 2 1-25-1142, 3 - 1 6-22-155, 4 - 1 3-21-1464, - 6 -4-2017, 6 - 1 2-13-1062, 7 - 1 2-13-1062, 8 - 1 2-13-1062

3 33

5

0

P 1.89.

9

C arved p arts o f h orse c ollar

( 6-4-2017)

3 34

P 1.90.

S addletree 1 , 3 -s addle p arts: 1 - 2 4-20-701, 2 - h ind b ow 2 4-20-701, 2 4-20-687, 4 , 5 - s addletree o f t he e arly 2 0th c entury , 6 , S addle b ows: 6 - 1 4-20-4129, 7 - 1 9-28-1447

3 7

e . 1

P 1.91.

S kis 1 - 1 3-13-512,

2 - 1 3-13-502

3 36

P 1.92.

S kis 1 - 7 -5-1949,

2 - 9 -12-1310

3 37

(v)

P 1.93.

S kis 1 ,

2 - t ips:

1 310,

1 - 1 7-16-481,

3 - s ide v iew ,

2 - 1 3-13-512,

4 -b ottom v iew

3 38

3 ,

4 - a s ki

9 -12-

0 1 1

,

. 3 1 ,

l m

3 0 1

9 f 1 1 1 1

/ 4 4 .2 2 , /

h c o '

P 1.94

P ropulsion o ars 1 - 1 5-22-153,

2 - 1 7-16-518,

3 39

3 - 2 0-22-974

C 9

P 1.95.

P ropulsion o ars 1 -

8 -11-1512,

2 - 7 -10-1519,

3 - 1 1-13-881

P 1.96.

P ropulsion o ars 1 -1 3-12-1936, 2 - 1 0-10-959, - 8 -15-1428, 6 - 1 0-10-959

3 41

3 - 1 3-21-1448,

4 - 5 -7-1642,

5

J L

9

M D-

c z zZ 2 22 2 2 2 2z --

• 22 22 : z

=azz z s tS ze .-

« t tr d7 1 2 2. . .

4f f I 7 2I Z ZE I

P 1.97.

S tern o ars 1 - 1 5-16-950,

2 - 1 5-16-950,

3 42

3 -1 0-10-1955

MI ZSI M Z 22,

j

P 1.98.

S tern o ars 3 43

P 1.99.

S tern o ars 1 -1 5-16-950, 2 - 1 3-20-626, 3 - 8 -7-2017, -o ar b lades: 5 - 1 5-16-950, 6 - 1 5-16-950,

3 44

4 - 2 4-28-864, 7 - 1 5-16-950

5 ,

6

2

J -

3

5

7

P 1.100.

R owlocks 1 - 6 -10-1122, 2 - 2 6-30-145, 3 - 2 2-26-189, 4 - 2 1-25-1206, -2 2-24-901, 6 - 2 5-29-137, 7 - 1 9-19-984, 8 - 2 1-23-1554 3 45

5

' 3

P 1.101.

R owlocks 1 -2 6-30-145,

2 -2 3-16-2067,

3 46

3 -2 7-31-236

2

P 1.102.

B ottoms a nd b enches 1 -2 0-21-917, - 1 1-19-1457,

2 -6 -11-1243, 6 -2 1-23-899

3 47

3 - 2 4-32-1446,

4 - 1 9-20-928,

5

e F re i tm e or, ; , \ z g .7 : e re fe ym er k

P 1.103.

R ibs o f a s hip 1 - 7 -6-1793,

( 1,

2 )

a nd o f ab oat

2 -1 1-16-1196

3 48

( 3);

a t himble

( 4)

P 1.104.

R ibs o f ab oat 1 -1 3-20-1415,

( 1-3)

a nd a s leigh i n s itu ( 4)

2 -8 -13-1119,

3 49

3 - 2 0-18-604,

4 - 2 4-23-1944

P 1.105.

R ibs a nd b oard f rom s ide p lanking 1 -9 -13-1223,

2 -1 1-26-83,

3 -1 1-13-913,

7 -8-1600 3 50

4 - 1 4-15-943,

5

P 1.106.

D etails o f s hips 1 ,

2 ,

4 - d owels:

1 - 3 -7-1171,

2 - 2 1-23-912,

4 - 2 1-23-884,

3 -a t himble 7 -7-561, 5 -10 - g ags: 5 - 1 4-22-758, 6 - 1 5-191 482, 7 - 2 1-25-333, 8 - 1 2-17-1304, 9 - 2 4-27-866, 1 0 - 1 52 3-1417, 1 1-13 - s maller d owels: 1 1 - 1 7-22-1251, 1 2 - 1 8-231 212, 1 3 - 1 8-23-1212 3 51

c , r )

P 1.107.

W ater s coops a nd b oards f rom t he s ide a nd b ottom p lanking 1 -1 3-17-288, 1 337,

2 -l ate 1 3th c entury,

5 - 5 -10-321,

6 - 6 -10-1270

3 52

3 - 8 -12-1192,

4 - 8 -15-

• . ,• . . 1 r . , • . . . -, - . _ -i : , : , . . . , T : - , , /---

,, „ _ : _ . L. : _ _

7-. . : .--:

S ee

-. _ • . , . . , . . ,

, . . . . ; ..47 -..

S . "

x 5 "

f ig

4

P 1.108.

R econstruction o f a s hip

3 53

• 4

1 ,

4

P 1.109.

4

D etail o f a s hip. T roitsky e xcavation a rea I V , l evel 1 8, s q . 1 65 a ; i nvestigations o f 1 977. T he l ength o f d etail 1 96 c m .

3 54

1

2

3

4

5

P 1.110.

S cutches 1 - 8 -12-1191, 5 - 2 1-23-880,

2 - 2 7-32-788, 3 - 2 6-33-1407, 6 - 1 7-20-1544, 7 - 5 -8-1185

3 55

4 - 1 1-15-1535,

2

3

P 1.111.

H ackles 1 - 1 3-15-884, 4 -7-1220,

2 - 1 -4-1294,

6 - 1 2-19-1358,

3 -4 -6-1296,

7 - 4 -7-1277,

8 -1207

3 56

4 - 1 0-12-1605,

8 - 1 2-14-424,

5 -

9 - 5 -

P 1.112.

C ombs

( 1-4,

6 )

a nd a s windle

1 - 2 0-25-1142,

2 - 1 3-18-130

5 - 1 0-10-1515,

6 - 1 5-21

1

3 57

228

( 5) '

3 - 2 0-25-1142,

4 - 1 9-20-917,

P 1.113.

S pindles 1 - 3 -10-1335, 2 - 4 -10-1432, 3 - 2 2-26-1229, 4 - 1 9-24-1177, 5 - 1 2-17-1234, 6 - 1 8-19-1113, 7 - 1 9-24-1224, 8 - 1 3-201 438, 9 - 1 6-18-1807, 1 0 - 1 7-19-1803, 1 1 - 1 0-14-1222, 1 2 5 -9-1197, 1 3 - 9 -15-1135, 1 4 - 7 -12-1228, 1 5 - 7 -10-1193, 1 6 1 -4-1307, 1 7 - 9 -12-1286, 1 8 - 8 -10-1271, 1 9 - 1 0-7-664 3 58

P 1.114.

D istaffs 1 - 7 -11-1311,

2 - 2 2-24-892,

5 - 1 5-21-2067

3 59

3 - 2 2-24-1570,

4 - 1 2-15-1589,

P 1.115.

D istaffs 1 - 1 4-15-939,

2 - 8 -7-1979,

- 1 2-14-1025, 6 - 2 4-25-913, 1 1th c entury ( 22-24-892)

3 60

3 - 1 6-18-1058,

4 - 1 0-17-1341,

7 - R econstructed

d istaff o f

5

t he

P 1.116.

D istaffs a nd b ottoms 1 - 1 0-17-1341, 2 - 2 2-24-892, 3 - 1 5-21-1067, 4 - 2 2-24-1570, 5 - 1 4-15-939, 6 - 2 -7-1376, 7 - 4 -4-1657, 8 - 4 -6-1224

3 61

P 1.117.

S huttles 1 - 1 5-22-155, 2 - 5 -6-1081, 3 - 1 3-18-1285, 4 - 1 1-16-21, 5 6 -6-994, 6 , 7 - 7 -8-1074, 8 - 1 1-6-350, 9 - 8 -16-1385, 1 0 - 9 7 -620 3 62

)

. 1

' . 1

P 1.118.

W arp-lifting parallel 1 - 1 0-11-1904,

s hafts

2 - 6 -9-1540,

7 -10-1534

3 63

3 - 7 -10-1540,

4 - 9 -11-458,

5 -

; 70

P 1.119.

T readles

a nd

" dogs"

1 - 1 5-19-1801, 6 -5-1954,

2 - 5 -8-1534,

6 - 7 -10-1526,

3 - 5 -5-1654,

7 - 8 -9-1633,

3 64

4 - 8 -15-1433,

8 - 1 0-17-1345

5 -

I 0

1 3

P 1.120.

T readles a nd " dogs" 1 - 5 -5-1654, 2 - 9 -13-1219, 3 - 7 -6-1992, 4 - 6 -5-1954, 5 6 -5-2003, 6 - 1 5-16-1772, 7 - 1 0-17-1345, 8 - 2 -5-1265, 9 7 -10-1543, 1 0 - 8 -9-1633, 1 1 -4 -6-1555, 1 2 - 7 -10-1526, 1 3 6 -7-931, 1 4 -4 -5-929

e

4

p i . ZirL,j

*

.

7

.

3

5

7

9

1

1 3

> 5 / 6

P 1.121.

W arp-holding t ubular s ticks

( Warping i nstruments)

1 - 7 -12-22 ( 52), 2 - 5 -11-73 ( 53), 3 - 6 -12-1334 5 -1631 ( 59), 5 - 6 -9-1540, 6 - 1 -4-1209, 7 - t he a p it i n t he K uzmodemyanskaya 3 62 ( 58), 1 0 - 3 -4-1581 ( 57), - 6 -9-1207

( 56),

1 4

s treet, 8 - 1 -4-1280, 9 - 8 -131 1 - 9 -8-576, 1 2 - 3 -5-1545, 1 3

- 2 -1-1606

warping i nstrument w ith a t hread

3 66

( 54), 4 - 5 8 th h orizon ,

( 55),

1 5

- 6 -9-1538,

1 6

- a

4

P 1.122.

R econstructed h orizontal l oom ( 1)

a nd o ther o bjects

2 - F lax-threshing c rooked s tick ,

3 -R econstructed d istaff o f

t he 1 1th c entury ( 22-24-892), 4 , 5 - V ertical l oom , 4 - L oom o f t he 1 0th c entury f rom O seberg , 5 - L oom d epicted i n a n I talian m iniature o f 1 023 3 67

4

2 7

3

14

P 1.123.

L athe b osses v essel

( 1-7)

1 - 1 1-15-1190, 2 -1651,

a nd p rocessing c hart f or

l athe-turning o f a

( 8-14) 2 - 9 -12-886,

6 - 3 -2-1653,

3 -4 -3-653,

7 - 3 -2-1654

3 68

4 -4 -3-653,

5 - 3 -

I I

I 4

P 1.124.

T hrust b earings a nd c ross p ieces -8-1061, 4 - 1 8-23-1198, 5 1 -2 7-27-905, 2 - 7 -9-879, 3 - 7 2 8 -3 2 -1 2 3 9 , 8 6 -7-1085, 9 1 1 -1 8 -1 4 6 7 , 7 2 2-28-784, 6 6 -9 -1 5 4 0 , 1 2 7 -1 1-1303, 1 3 5 -9 -1 1 8 0 , 1 1 2 6-31-812, 1 0 7 -1 0 -1 5 3 4 , 1 5 8 -1 1 -1 3 0 9 , 1 6 6 -8 -1 2 7 2 , 1 7 1 1-15-858, 1 4 .3-163G 8 -13-1243, 1 8 -4

3

P 1.125.

R econstructed l athe 3 - 8 -6-490,

( 1),

handmill

4 - 1 0-14-1234,

3 70

( 2)

a nd p estles

5 -4 -6-430,

( 3-6)

6 - 5 -9-1242

4

2

9 P 1.126.

D etails o f ah andmill 1 -4 - s ide b earings: 1 - 4 -5-1583, 2 - 1 4-21-1346, 3 - 1 8-221 481, 4 - 6 -9-1302, 5 , 6 - t hrust b earings: 5 - 1 4-22-1315, 6 -1 4-21-1316,

7 ,

8 -s tems:

7 - 1 2-10-1000,

m illstone w ith a t hrust b earing 1 6-19-860 3 71

8 - 9 -5-666,

9 -a

P 1.127.

L ifting d evices

( pulleys)

1 -1 3-14-1052,

2 - 1 3-15-715,

1 3-18-1276,

6 - 1 2-10-619

3 72

3 -1 2-18-37,

4 - 8 -11-406,

5

P 1.128.

S wivels 1 - 5 -6-1632, 2 3-18-1211, 7 -1205,

1 0

2 - 1 8-23-1211,

6 - 9 -12-862, -2 2-2' ;-761,

1 1

3 - 4 -6-1583,

7 - 1 0-15-2147,

4 - 5 -5-1618,

8 - 2 -1-1605,

-a s crew 1 4-11-1733,

1 2

5 -

9 -4 -

- 5 -6-1632

P 1.129.

V arious o bjects 1 ,

2 -Y okes

1 - 1 1-12-1037,

2 - 2 3-25-881,

3 -

1 4th-century

c ase ( 7-8-1046) t op v iew , s ide v iew a nd b ottom c andlesticks, 5 - a 1 3th-century c ase ( 13-17-1576) 3 74

v iew ,

4

P 1.130.

C hurn-staffs 1 - 1 -4-1252, - 2 3-25-1844,

2 - 2 8-34-1170, 3 - 7 -13-1456, 4 - 7 -13-1322, 6 -2 8-32-1275, 7 - 3 -6-1206, 8 - 2 6-24-526

3 75

5

P 1.131.

H ooks 1 - 1 8-27-1370, 2 - 1 4-15-939, 3 - 5 -9-324, -1 2-12-522, 6 - 9 -12-1260, 7 - 1 3-21-1448 3 76

4 - 1 3-20-1405,

5

P 1.132.

W all h ooks 1 - a 2 0th-century h ook, 2 - 2 8-34-1444, 3 - 1 0-16-2042, 1 4-22-1442, 5 - 1 3-17-2096, 6 - 1 3-25-1877, 7 - 5 -5-1632, 2 7-29-877

3 77

4 8

f Ui w

L 7

4

P 1.133.

C hairs

( 1,

2 ,

4 )

a nd a c radle

1 - a 1 3th-century c hairs,

c hair

3 - a c radle,

0

( 3)

( 12-12-1773),

2 - r econstruction

4 - a d etail o f a 1 4th-century c hair

1 5-1422)

3 78

o f ( 8-

P 1.134.

C hairs a nd b enches 1 - 1 3-15-1596, 5 - 8 -12-1303,

2 - 6 -12-1455, 6 -1 0-10-504.

3 79

3 - 9 -14-2156, 7 - 8 -12-1303

4 - 1 3-20-1441,

C I D

P 1.135.

V arious o bjects 1 - r econstruction

o f

a l ever

s cale

r econstruction o f s poon s upports, a 1 0th-century c age

( 28-33-104)

3 80

( a

s teelyard),

4 - s hutters,

2 ,

3 -

5 - a s ide

o f

P 1.136.

C ombs 1 -1 0-14-44, 2 - 1 1-14-18, 3 - 9 -5-639, 4 - 9 -8-584, 5 - 2 83 2-53, 6 - 1 2-12-1949, 7 - 1 4-19-1269, 8 - 1 3-12-1929, 9 - 1 31 2-1937, 1 0 -1 1-10-556, 1 1 - 1 6-21-1184, 1 2 - 1 2-10-619, 1 3 2 7-31-59

3 81

P 1.137.

O bjects o f e veryday u se 1 - a k nife f or b elt-making 6 -9-1222, 2 , 3 -b raiding n eedles 2 1-22-1093 a nd 2 5-26-1887, 4 , 5 - a s heath 2 1-22-1977, 6 - a s teelyard 2 5-28-294, 7 - a s cythe h andle 2 1-23-368, 8 , 9 b uttons 1 7-22-1164 a nd 9 -13-1547,

3 82

1 0

- s heath 2 2-29-740

3

P 1.138.

W ooden o bjects 1 -a t orch 1 1-15--1250,

2 -a p estle 8 -6-490,

3 -a p estle 4 -

6 -430, 4 - a r od 1 5-23-1321, 5 - a f ishing t ackle 6 -8-1547, 6 - a f ishing t ackle 2 1-30-1430, 7 - a l adder 1 7-23-1128, 8 - a whip-handle 2 6-24-485, 9 - a b ox 2 3-28-2139

3 83

C Y )

g e -f

e ee

•

db ,

-- - - - - - - - --- - - -

P 1.139.

Musical

i nstruments

( psalteries)

1 - a 1 3th-century p saltery w ith n ine - 8 -11-1262,

-- - - -

3 - 6 -8-1264

3 84

s trings

( 14-21-1346),

2

—

C \ ?

I

P 1.140.

(

1

M usical i nstruments 1 , 3 -5 - f iddles: 1 - 8 -12-874, 3 - 9 -9-1876, 4 - 1 7-19-859, - 2 3-29-775, 2 - d etail o f a p saltery 6 -12-218

3 85

5

4

P L .141.

D etails o f m usical i nstruments 1 - u nfinished p saltery 6 -7-1576, 2 , 3 - f iddles: 2 - 9 -91 876, 3 - 9 -9-1876 ( complete w ith a s ounding b oard), 4 - a p saltery f lap 6 -12-218, 5 -8 - p ins: 5 - 5 -10-250, 6 - 1 2-144 26,

7 - 1 2-14-426,

8 - 1 2-17-322, 3 86

9 -a r ear p eg 5 -9-1178

P 1.142.

Musical

i nstruments

1 -p saltery : 2 3-29-775, 4 , 5 -8-1189

1 - 6 -8-1264, 2 , 3 - f iddles: 2 - 1 7-19-859, 5 -p ipes: 4 - 1 1-25-94 ( late 1 1th c entury),

3 87

3 5 -

Pl.143

Special wooden locks. Judging from the inscriptions, and also the presence of the badges of princes, these objects were somehow associated with the practice of tax-collecting. 1 - Nerevsky excavation area, horizon 23 (1055-1076), urban property B, sq. 49, the find of 1951, 2 - Mikhailovsky excavation area, horizon 23 (1059-1083), sq. 15, the find of 1970, 3 - Troitsky excavation area, horizon 22-25 (973-1051), sq. 347, the find of 1980, 4 - the same place and horizon, sq. 348, the find of 1980, 5 - _Nerevsky excavation area, horizon 22 (1076-1096), property B, sq. 912, the find of 1955, 6 Legoshcha excavations of 1972, Sophia side, sq. 13, the level of virginal soil (11 cent.), 7 - Nutny excavation area, horizon 16 (the beginning of 13 cent.), sq. 2, the find of 1980. After V. Yanin.

388

j (I

0 ..�=--.....c�

+@

I--� i ·

\

.· --� :1 '-��-·

I I I I I I I I

: Q

------..J

· o

I

389

P 1.144.

W ood-cutting i nstruments 1 - a k nife I L-28-87 ( the 1 1th c entury), 2 - a n a dze 2 1-186 09, 3 - a f orming w ood-chisel 1 7-22-1180, 4 - a d rill 1 3-202 096, 5 , 6 - b ow c ircular c utting t ools 1 7-18-1101, 2 3-282 063, 7 - a c utting t ool 1 8-20-1047, 8 - a b lade o f a f orming g rooved c utting t ool 1 9-21-855

3 90

P 1.145.

C arved u tensils 1 -10, 1 2 -h andles o f c arved b owls: 1 - 2 8-31-317 ( 1), 2 - 2 52 7-1837 ( 6), 3 - 2 8-31-901 ( 7), 4 - 2 8-32-128 ( 8), 5 - 2 8-265 37

( 9),

6 -2 6-26-957

( 4),

9 - 7 -11-359,

1 921

( 12),

1 2

1 0

( 5),

7 - 2 8-35-1402

- 2 6-25-471,

- 1 5-19-1494

( 11) 3 91

1 1

( 3),

8 - 2 6-30-2064

- a c arved b owl

1 2-19-

/ 0

I P 1.146.

C arved u tensils 1 -2 - h andles o f c arved b owls: 1 - 2 6-30-2064 ( 4), 2 - 2 8-319 01 ( 7), 3 - a t ub l id 2 7-26-523 ( 13), 4 - a b ox l id 9 -14-1312 ( 16), 5 -9 - s poon h andles: 5 - 1 2-10-610, 6 - 1 4-20-2101, 7 1 1-19-123, 8 - 1 1-20-16, 9 - 1 1-25-32, 1 0-11 - o rnaments o n s taff h andles: 1 0 - 5 -7-1265, 1 1 -1 6-23-2048 3 92

P 1.147

S poons 1 -1 7-20-1541 ( 23), 2 - 1 3-16-1607 ( 31), 3 - 1 2-13-1927 ( 32), 4 - 1 8-27-1370 ( 21), 5 - 2 4-29-141 ( 17), 6 - 2 2-22-1945, 7 1 6-15-527 ( 24), 8 - 2 1-26-165 ( 39), 9 - 1 2-19-118 ( 25), 1 0 2 0-27-2065 ( 19), 1 1 - 2 0-21-876 ( 37), 1 2 - 1 8-21-8 ( 22), 1 3 2 6-21-1700 ( 36), 1 4 - 1 9-24-108 ( 20), 1 5 - 2 8-32-149 ( 38), 1 6 - 1 3-16-1609 ( 34), 1 7 - 2 1-29-97, 1 8 - 2 2-31-1399 ( 30), 1 9 2 3-30-746 ( 29), 2 0 -2 3-25-1549, 2 1 - 2 6-26-1099 ( 28)

3 93

-

A

AA AAA .A .A .A . A.

C T >

r i l C r 3

1 1

P 1.148

S poons 1 - 1 0-12-1899 ( 35), 2 - 1 1-12-1042, 3 - 1 6-18-1058 ( 33), 4 1 3-16-1607 ( 31), 5 - 2 1-26-165 ( 39), 6 - 1 2-13-1044 ( 40), 7 1 7-20-1541, 8 - 1 8-21-8, 9 - 2 0-21-876, 1 0 - 2 0-27-2065 ( 19), 1 1 - 2 4-29-141 ( 17), 1 2 - 1 2-19-118 ( 25), 1 3 - 1 8-27-1370 ( 21), 1 4 - 1 4-20-2101 ( 27), 1 5 -2 2-27-102 ( 42)

3 94

P 1.149.

C arved s poons 1 - 2 3-30-746 ( 27)

( 29),

2 ,

3 - 1 2-13-1044 3 95

( 40),

4

- 1 4-20-2101

2

3

5

P 1.150.

6

7

C ake m oulds a nd c ombs 1 - 1 8-23-68 ( 47), 2 - 1 3-15-438 ( 48), 3 - 1 1-12-1829, 4 - 1 31 5-1807 ( 49), 5 - 1 0-16-1369, 6 - 9 -10-1968 ( 74), 7 - 1 4-191 185

3 96

2

5

P 1.151.

V ertical s upports o f t he s leigh,

d istaffs a nd o ther o bjects

1 -4 - v ertical s upports: 1 - 1 8-15-1713 ( 64), 2 - 2 1-13-891, 3 - 2 3-25-924, 4 - 2 2-20-495 ( 63), 5 , 6 -d istaffs: 5 - 8 -7-1979 ( 60), 6 - 1 0-17-1341 ( 61), 7 - p art o f a h orse-collar 6 -4-2017 ( 68), 8 - a r owlock 1 1-17-21 ( 71), 9 - a h andle o f a h ackle 4 7 -1220 3 97

l t

5

P 1.152.

V ertical s upports o f t he s leigh 1 - 1 8-16-1699 ( 65), 2 - 2 2-23-930, 3 - 2 1-23-891, 4 - 2 3-204 87 ( 62), 5 - 2 2-20-495 ( 63), 6 - 2 3-25-924, 7 - 1 8-15-1713 ( 64)

3 98

j

,

M f r g es2, .

L I

I LL e

t

0

i

3

P 1.153.

D ecorated c ombs 1 -1 0-11-1940 ( 77), 2 - 9 -5-687 1 0-1057, 5 - 7 -10-1534

3 99

( 72),

3 - 1 0-12-1893,

4 - 1 4-

3 :

r i K e ,

. : .- 1. : . . „ . 47 ..

i : . . .

i G$ 1, 21 *) t e 4 .)

, ,

o

. . , . --

1 -

v w. , . . __ ,

4

P 1.154.

C omb o rnaments 1 ,

2 - 1 0-11-1940

( 77),

8 -10-1812, 6 - 8 -7-1883, 9 - 1 1-10-1057

3 - 1 0-10-473

( 76),

7 - 2 0-23-1517,

4 00

4 - 1 3-18-180,

8 - 1 3-14-1980

5 -

( 75),

I

•

a

L

a

1

4 I

P 1.155.

W riting t ablets 1 - 2 1-23-1589

( 79),

2 - 1 0-11-937,

4 01

3 - 1 1-19-81

( 80)

C ' . 2

P 1.156.

V arious o bjects 1 -w riting t ablet 1 1-19-81(80), 2 - w ooden l ock ( cf. p l. 1 43, 2 ), 3 - c arved s poon , T ikhvinsky e xcavation a rea , h orizon 1 3, 4 - handle s haped l ike d ragon h ead - 2 1-23-930

4 02

( 200)

P 1.157.

C arved p saltery o f t he 2 1-23 ( 82) 1 -o verview ,

f irst half o f t he

2 - a r everse

4 -c arved d etail,

s ide,

1 2th c entury

-Tikh.-

3 - d esign o n r everse

5 - i mages o f f ront s ide

s ide,

6

P 1.158.

V arious c arved o bjects 1 - a n o penwork 2 5-26-1632 ( 92), 2 - a s mall b ox 7 -8-1046 ( 83), 3 - a w ooden b oard 1 1-17-132 ( 87), 4 - a b oard 1 8-241 375 ( 86), 5 - 8 -16-1417, 6 - 1 3th-century s word s heath ( 85), 7 -a c arved s tick 1 4-22-768

4 04

( 89)

P 1.159.

C arved o bjects 1 - H eracles k not 2 8-35-781 ( 91), 2 - a n i mitation o f t wisted s tick 1 6-16-1939, 3 - a d istaff 8 -7-1979 ( 60), 4 - a d istaff 1 0-17-341 ( 61), 5 - 7 -8-1046 ( 83), 6 - a n o pen-work d esign 2 52 6-1632 ( 92), 7 - a p late 2 5-26-1632 4 05

P 1.160.

M aces 1 -1 6-21-1177 - 1 5-18-1657

( 97),

( 102),

2 - 1 6-20-34 5 - 1 1-15-861

4 06

( 101),

3 - 1 1-15-861

( an o verview)

( 96),

4

I /

5

P 1.161.

V arious o bjects 1 -5 - M aces 1 - 1 1-15-861 ( 96), 2 - 1 4-21-784 ( 98), 3 - 1 6-203 4 ( 101), 4 - 1 3-20-1438 ( 103), 5 - 6 -9-1540 ( 100), 6 o rnamental b oard 2 3-25-1573

4 07

( 139)

5

7

1 0

e r i4 -

• .

)

• •

4 „

I f

P 1.162.

L . )

O rnamented m ace h andles 1 - 1 4-22-1417, 2 - 1 6-22-1259 ( 106), 3 - 1 6-23-2048 ( 105), 4 - 1 5-20-80 ( 107), 5 - 2 0-28-744, 6 - 1 4-20-68 ( 108), 7 - 1 92 1-1563, 2 2-1259,

8 - 1 4-20-68, 9 - 1 4-20-68, 1 0 1 2 - 1 5-20-80, 1 3 - 2 0-28-744 4 08

- 1 4-22-1417,

1 1 - 1 6-

I P 1.163.

C olumns 1 - 2 1-20-138

( 109),

2 - 2 1-20-139 4 09

( 110)

P 1.164.

R econstruction o f t he d esign o n t he c olumn 2 1-20-138

4 10

( 109)

C\ 2

F i

P 1.165.

D etails o f c olumn 2 1-20-138 1 -a g riffin ,

2 -a c entaur

4 11

( 109)

2

P 1.166.

C olumn d etails 1 - a p almette o f c olumn 2 1-20-139, 2 - a m odel o f t ower c hamber d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury ( 24-226 07). I ts h ipped r oof a nd t he r oof o f t he p orch a re s upported b y c olumns 4 12

P 1.167.

D etail o f c olumn 2 1-20-138

( 109)

-t wining d esign

4 13

P 1.168.

R econstruction o f a rmchair backs 1 - 1 4-14-521

( 111),

2 - 1 3-14-465

4 14

( 114)

2

P 1.169.

R econstruction o f a rmchair b acks 1 -1 0-15-273

( 112),

2 -1 0-8-1108

4 15

( 113)

P 1.170.

A rmchair b acks 1 - 1 0-15-273 4 - 1 0-8-1108

( 112), ( 113),

2 -1 0-15-273 ( 112), 3 - 1 0-8-1108 ( 113), 5 -1 5-21-1136 ( 135), 6 - 1 4-14-521 ( 111) 4 16

P 1.171.

C arved b acks 1 - 5 -9-1227

( 117),

2 - 1 0-15-273

4 17

( 125)

P 1.172.

P arts o f o rnamented b acks o f a rmchairs a nd o ther b oards 1 - 9 -13-2129 4 - 6 -5-1937 - 1 0-15-278

( 120), ( 116),

2 - 6 -12-140 5 - 7 -9-1263

( 130)

4 18

( 118), ( 95),

3 - 1 0-9-1767

6 - 1 3-15-886

( 115),

( 131),

7

P 1.173.

V arious d ecorative e lements 1 - a l arge

o rnamented

s tave

o f

a t ub

8 -13-1129

( 14),

r osette w ith a n o penwork c ross 9 -9-532, 3 - a b aluster 3 9, 4 - a n o rnamental b oard 6 -8-1293, 5 - part

2 - a 2 1-25o f a n

o rnamental b oard 2 3-27-283 ( 175), 6 - a n o rnamental b oard 5 -81 311, 7 - a n o rnamental b oard 1 5-23-1411 ( 177), 8 - a c ornice / 1_ 4_1 9/ ,0

5

1 7

P 1.174 .

O rnamented f urniture d etails 1 -1 3-15-452 4 -1 0-15-278

( 127), ( 130),

2 -1 2-12-985 ( 133), 3 - 1 3-11-652 ( 138), 5 -1 1-18-192, 6 - 1 -7-2000 ( 128)

4 20

P 1.175.

O rnamental b oards 1 -3 - a b oard 2 3-26-1573 d etails, 4 - a b oard o f ( 139a)

( 139): 1 - a n t he e arly 1 1th

o verview , 2 , 3 c entury S uv-37-22

c

A

( )

4 3 -

-

,

P 1.176.

V arious o bjects 1 - a b oard o f e arly 1 1th c entury - S uv-37-22 ( 139a), 2 - a c arved v essel o f 1 1th c entury ( State H istorical M useum), 3 b irch-bark t ues w ith a n i nscription ( late 1 4th c entury , 7 -138 5,

b irch-bark c harter N o.

1 0) 4 22

P 1.177.

B alusters 1 - 4 -8-1196 ( 162), 2 - 5 -7-1533 ( 161), 3 - 2 2-23-1790 ( 142), 4 - 5 -7-1533 ( 137), 5 - 2 1-26-1011 ( 143), 6 - 2 1-26-1074 ( 144),

7 -a b aluster d etail 2 1-26-1011

4 23

P 1.178.

C arved b alusters 1 - 1 1-15-284

( 160),

2 - 1 3-20-1465

4 24

( 152),

3 - 1 3-15-936

( 159)

-ff le .

M

f l W M f l. MO M M

-

-e

I

4 1 -

.-

Z»

0 : »4 " , _

P 1.179.

Ar w

C arved b alusters 1 -4 -6-1237

( 164),

2 - 1 6-22-119

4 25

( 147),

3 - 1 4-22-1434

( 151)

2 ; 4 -7 -

P 1.180.

-

C arved b alusters 1 - 1 1-14-1643,

2 - 1 1-14-1643

4 26

( 157),

3 - 2 3-25-1572

( 142)

I C

•

-

3

P 1.181.

C arved balusters 1 - 5 -7-1265,

2 - 8 -11-1538

( 158),

3 - 1 -5-1191

( 163)

( Y )

0 ' )

P 1.182.

B alusters f or e xterior a nd i nterior d ecoration 1 - 1 0-11-511, 2 - 2 3-25-1572 ( 142), 3 - 2 2-23-1790 ( 142), 4 1 7-23-1376 ( 146), 5 - 2 5-28-386 ( 141), 6 - 1 3-11-1711 ( 149), 7 - 6 -15-744 ( 166), 8 - 1 8-22-1293, 9 - 2 2-27-95 m odern g ates b aluster ( the N ovgorod R egion) 4 28

( 167),

1 0

-

5

2

6

P 1.183.

B alusters a nd p arts o f d ecorative a rchitectural b orders 1 - 1 3-20-1465 ( 152), 2 - 1 -5-1191 ( 163), 3 - 1 1-14-1643 ( 157), 4 - 1 6-22-1434 ( 147), 5 - 1 4-22-1434 ( 151), 6 - 1 3-202 165,

7 - 3 -5-1237

( 171),

8 - 1 2-13-1025

o f a n o rnamental b oard 1 2-13-1025

4 29

( 170),

9 - a d etail

a

P 1.184.

D ecorative a rchitectural b orders a nd o ther o bjects 1 -4 -3-1602 - 3 -5-1235

( 168),

2 - 4 -3-1602

( 186)

4 30

( 169),

3 - 3 -6-1206

( 185),

4

P 1.185.

R econstructions b orders

o f

l ower

e dges

o f

d ecorative

a rchitectural

1 -2 3-25-869 ( 173), 2 - 2 0-20-977, 3 - 1 7-22-1155 ( 182), 4 2 3-27-283 ( 175), 5 - 1 6-26 -1032, 6 - 2 4-25-913 ( 174), 7 - 4 -81 199, 8 - 1 2-15-1608 ( 180), 9 - 1 5-23-1411 4 31

P 1.186

D etails o f l ower e dges o f d ecorative a rchitectural b orders 1 - 2 3-25-869 ( 173), 2 - 2 0-20-977, 3 - 1 1-12-916 4 -8-1199 ( 183), 5 - 3 -6-1206 ( 185), 6 - 1 6-20-1032 1 7-22-1155

( 182),

8 - 1 7-19-876

4 32

( 178),

9 -9 -12-870

( 181), ( 184),

4 7 -

P 1.187

D ipper h andles 1 - 2 4-28-794 ( 190), 2 0-23-1529 ( 193)

2 - 2 8-36-155

4 33

( 189).

3 - 2 6-29-312,

4

P 1.188

D ipper h andles 1 - a n i ntact d ipper 2 4-30-750, 2 - 2 5-27-924, 3 - 2 4-27-871 ( 191), 4 - 2 4-26-1836 ( 192), 5 - 2 4-28-233, 6 - 2 7-23-691 ( 194), 7 - 2 5-31-751 ( 201), 8 - a h ead o f r itual m ace

4 34

3

P 1.189.

D ipper

h andles

s haped

l ike

d ragon

h eads

a nd

o ther

c arved

o bjects 1 -2 8-36-155 ( 189), 2 - 2 1-23-930 ( 200), 3 - 2 7-23-691 ( 194), 4 - 2 8-34-1198 ( 198), 5 - c arved h and a nd a b east o f p rey 1 3-21-1448 ( 223), 6 - a r od w ith c arved a nimal h ead 2 8-341 198 ( 249), 7 - t he l atter 's c arved o rnament, 8 - 1 6-22-97 ( 203) 4 35

3 1J • ••

•-•-•-1-

T

T VI I . .

• •1

. . . .

•

-

P 1.190.

D ipper h andles

-

s haped l ike d ragon h eads

1 - 2 6-27-918 ( 199), 2 - 1 1-18-1418 ( 204), 4 - 2 4-28-794 ( 190)

4 36

( 205),

3

- 1 3-14-1027

3

P 1.191.

D ipper h andles 1 - 1 1-18-1418 ( 205), 2 - 2 8-33-148 ( 195), 3 - 1 1-18-1418 - a f ront v iew , 4 - 1 3-14-1027 ( 204), 5 - 1 3-14-1027 - a f ront v iew , 6 -1 6-22-97 ( 203)

4 37

P 1.192.

D ipper handles 1 - 2 8-22-1680

( 206),

4 -a l ion m ask ,

2 - t he

s ide v iew ,

3 - 2 6-27-918

m id-14th c entury G ot-14-88 4 38

( 210a)

( 199),

P 1.193.

B irds 1 - 1 5-18-1575 1 2-13-1926

( 207),

( 208),

2 - a f ront v iew ,

5 -a r ear v iew

4 39

3 - a r ear v iew ,

4 -

6 , 1

P 1.194.

S culptures 1 - a h orse h ead 1 1-24-30 ( 209), 2 - t he s ide r am 's h ead 2 7-31-1008 ( 210), 4 - a h alf-profile

4 40

v iew ,

3

a

P 1.195.

S culptures 1 - a h are h ead

1 3-19-246

( 211),

2 - a b east

( 212), 3 - a d ragon m ask 1 1-28-348 m ask 1 3-18-2071, a s ide v iew 4 41

( a

m ask

d etail),

1 3-18-2071

4 - a b east

P 1.196.

D etail o f a r oof w ith a d ragon 's m ask a nd o ther o bjects 1 - a n o verview m ask 1 2-10-610,

1 1-28-348 ( 212a), 2 - a d etail, 3 - a b east 4 - a m ace h ead ( or t op) u sed f or r itual

p urposes 1 7-18-959,

5 -a m ace h ead

4 42

P 1.197.

W all p egs 1 - 2 4-25-1877 ( 214), 2 - a s ide v iew , 3 - a d etail, 4 - 2 2 2 6-1923 ( 218), 5 - a d etail, 6 - 2 6-31-794 ( 216), 7 - 2 6-2 1 561 ( 215), 8 - 2 8-34-1444 ( 217), 9 - 1 8-23-1207 ( 213), 1 0 h ead o f a r itual s tick w ith a d og 's m ask 1 3-16-1634 4 43

( 246)

P 1.198.

H and c lutching a s tick a nd o ther c arved o bjects 1 - 1 1-16-277 ( 219), 2 - a b owl w ith a h and 1 9-29-1381 -1 1-15-275, 4 - 1 3-14-468

4 44

( 10),

3

I

P 1.199.

S culptures 1 -1 1-24-99 ( 220), 2 - 2 0-15-154 ( 221), 3 - 1 3-18-1275 ( 222), 4 -1 0-11-582, 5 - 2 8-29-1594 ( 197), 6 - 2 8-29-162 ( 196)

4 45

7

P 1.200.

S culptures 1 - 1 3-21-1448 ( 223), 2 - a d etail, 3 - 2 6-24-991 ( 225), 4 - a d omestic s pirit 1 5-18-1581 ( 230), 5 - 1 1-27-56, 6 - 1 1-16-66 ( 235), 7 - a d omestic s pirit, s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury S uv-22-62 ( 228a)

4 46

V .

3

6

I D

9

P 1.201.

R itual s ticks 1 -2 3-22-1103 ( 241), 2 - 2 2-21-515, 3 - 1 7-16-1004 ( 239), 4 2 6-24-991 ( 225), 5 - 2 6-24-991, 6 - ' 2 4-29-96, 7 - 2 2-24-369, 8 - 2 1-23-357,

9 -2 1-25-277,

4 47

1 0

- 2 5-30-2098

P 1.202.

D omestic s pirits 1 - 2 7-25-998

( 224),

2 - 2 6-24-991

4 48

( 225)

2

P 1.203.

D omestic s pirits 1 -8 -12-919

( 227),

2 - 1 5-19-329

4 49

( 226)

P 1.204.

D omestic s pirit 1 1-10-1681

( 228) 4 50

2

5

P 1.205.

D omestic

s pirits

1 - 2 8-34-1445 - 7 -11-351

( 229),

( 236),

2 - 2 3-28-1166

5 - 2 3-31-1447

4 51

( 230),

( 233),

3 - 2 6-28-1544,

6 - 1 5-18-1581

4

2

3

6

P 1.206.

D olls

( 1-5)

a nd d omestic s pirits

( 6,

7 )

1 - 1 4-22-1443 ( 283), 2 - 1 1-24-23 ( 285), 3 - 1 5-19-6 ( 281), - 2 0-21-1788 ( 284), 5 - 6 -1-670 ( 282), 6 - 2 2-29-762 ( 234), - 2 5-27-1520

( 231)

4 52

4 7

P 1.207.

C arved w ooden o bjects 1 -2 4-24-469, 2 - 2 8-31-1044 ( 237), 3 - 2 6-29-888 ( 244), 4 2 4-24-469 ( 248), 5 - 2 5-28-1011 ( 240), 6 - 2 1-25-100, 7 - 1 42 0-179, 8 - 2 2-23-1649, 9 - 1 7-16-1004 ( 239)

4 53

e . .

P 1.208.

C arved s pherical m ace h eads 1 - 1 6-20-294

( 250),

2 - 1 3-14-1806

4 54

( 251)

C s,

c_ -

P 1.209.

T oy h orses 1 - 9 -10-1881 ( 257), 2 - 2 1-23-1612 ( 255), 3 - 2 7-34-1439 ( 252), 4 - 2 6-25-482 ( 253), 5 - 1 0-15-1191, 6 - 4 -5-1576, 7 9 -11-1588 ( 270), 8 - 1 0-10-1783 ( 264), 9 - 1 2-21-1385 ( 259), 1 0

- 8 -15-1429

2 5-24-494

( 263),

1 1

- 7 -12-1170,

( 254)

4 55

1 2

- 1 8-23-1223,

1 3

-

P 1.210.

T oy h orses 1 - e xcavations o f 1 955, l evel 1 2, s q. 1 179, r econstruction o f 9 -10-1881 ( 257), 4 - 4 -2-489 ( 268)

4 56

3

P 1.211.

T oy h orses 1 - 2 1-23-1612 ( 255), 2 - 1 3-18-1276 ( 256), ( 258), 4 - 8 -14-1355, 5 - 5 -9-1242 ( 261)

4 57

3 - 8 -13-1240

P 1.212.

T oy h orses 1 - 5 -12-1438, 2 - 4 -5-1576 ( 263a), 3 - 1 0-15-69 ( 269), 4 - 9 1 5-223, 5 - 8 -14-1349, 6 - 1 0-10-1783 ( 264), 7 - 7 -13-1337 ( 266), 8 - 8 -10-1275, 9 - 4 -6-1601 ( 265) 4 58

P 1.213.

T oys a nd c hessmen 1 -6 - t oy h orses: 1 - 4 -2-489 ( 268), 2 - 9 -10-1288 ( 267), 1 9-28-1447, 4 - 5 -8-1030 ( 272), 5 - 8 -15-1429 ( 263), 6 1 955, 7 - a k ing 9 -13-1190 4 59

3 6-

P 1.214.

T oys 1 - 9 -12-1272 ( 275), 2 - 9 -11-963 ( 277), 3 - 8 -6-600 ( 273), 7 i - a h en 1 0-17-1351 ( 280), 5 - 1 2-15-1568 ( 278), 6 - 8 -6-600 ( 274) 4 60

3

2

5

P 1.215.

T oys,

i dols,

t ops a nd s words

1 -a n i dol 2 3-31-1447 ( 233), 2 - a d oll 1 5-19-6 ( 281), 3 a d oll 1 1-24-23 ( 285), 4 - a n i dol 2 5-27-1520 ( 231), 5 - a d etail, 6 - a t op 2 8-27-488, 7 - a t op 5 -7-1205, 8 - 2 6-30-127

4 61

P 1.216.

T oy s words

( 1-4)

1 - 2 7-30-300 4 - 8 -16-1394

a nd p ropeller

( 286), ( 289),

( 5)

2 - 2 8-36-123 5 - 5 -12-126

4 62

( 288),

3 - 2 7-31-208

( 287),

P 1.217.

G rooved d rawings o n w ooden o bjects 1 ,

2

a s pade 2 8-24-1373, 4 63

3 -a d olly-peg 2 7-31-116

1) 1 1

1 4

u. ;

L s -

! 1

C \ ?

P 1.218.

C hessmen 1 - a q ueen 7 -2-697, 2 - a k ing 9 -11-957, 3 - a q ueen 1 1-162 20, 4 - a q ueen 1 0-15-198, 5 - a k ing 9 -13-1190, 6 - a q ueen 7 -2-697, 7 -11 - b ishops: 7 - 8 -8-492, 8 - 9 -12-1274, 9 - 1 11 9-1401, 1 0 - 4 -3-1649, 1 1 - 5 -11-1435, 1 2-16 - k nights: 1 2 1 0-15-158, 1 3 - 8 -8-1655, 1 4 - 4 -12-161, 1 5 - 8 -7-1974, 1 6 5 -5-994, 1 7-22 - r ooks: 1 7 - 7 -2-1735, 1 8 - 1 1-13-98 ( the 1 320s-1330s), 1 9 - 1 1-13-98, 2 0 - 9 -16-2197, 2 1 - 9 -15-2197, 2 2 - 2 -5-1291, 2 3-28 - p awns: 2 3 - 2 -9-137, 2 4 -9 -8-524, 2 5 2 -9-162, 2 6 - 1 1-18-184, 2 7 - 2 4-28-198, 2 8 - 7 -12-1224 4 64

P 1.219

C arved t ueses a nd b irch-bark b oxes 1 - 1 5-22-739

( 292),

2 - 7 -7-1088,

4 65

3 - 7 -10-1302

( 295)

4 , ve t v . ve t‚ e v ic e i l lV IU U telm u le a tem i e . . i

g elence tor meat e4 1

P 1.220.

C arved t ueses a nd b irch-bark b oxes 1 -2

- 1 7-19-1057,

3 - 2 1-26-145 4 66

( 291),

4 - 1 3-19-1179

( 293)

P 1.221.

P ainting o n b irch b ark 1 - 8 -13-1212 ( 304), 2 - 1 2-12-1905 ( 302), 4 - 1 8-25-732 ( 297)

( 303),

3 - 1 2-10-509

P 1.222.

P ainted s poons 1 - 1 4-17-1616 ( 306), 2 - 1 9-24-1259 ( 305), 3 - 1 4-18-1528 ( 308), 4 - t he r everse s ide o f s poon 1 4-17-1616 ( 306), 5 - 1 71 9-1645 ( 307), 6 - 1 3-13-1079

4 68

P 1.223.

P ainted s poons 1 - 1 1-19-2145

( 311),

2 - t he

( 310) 4 69

r everse

s ide,

3 - 1 1-14-1643

3

G

-r

4 3 1 °

eei

o j u 40 E t ix L rA

A N 0 ßP

4 , 0

4

5

P 1.224.

P ainted s poons ( 2,

( 1,

4 -6)

a nd c arved t ueses a nd b irch-bark b oxes

3 )

1 - t he r everse s ide o f 1 1-14-1643 ( 310), 2 - 2 5-26-424 ( 290), 3 - 1 3-12-488 ( 294), 5 , 6 -a n i nscription a nd o rnament o n t he s poon 1 1-19-2145 ( 311), 7 - d etail o f d ecoration o f s poon 1 11 4-1643

( 310) 4 70

4 7 /1

N o x d

\ ' • \

W

W W Wm p a m mu m N IM I Mp u r i Mf f lm m 01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14

Y

i i , 1 11 0 1

1e 1

m I l liMa4 n r i va i i4m u m moommwmm i •-' • -9 1 0 1 199 1 1 1 1 1 90 1 I NNI K IM M I I I• 1 1 1 1 d o nt i v I l l I I I I I I I I

1 1 4 1

1 m 1 1 1 1 11

ep o i ,0 1 1 1

U I P 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1

P 1.225.

P ainted (3 ,

b owls

( 1,

2 )

a nd

c arved

t ueses

a nd

e 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 feme

b irch-bark

b oxes

5)

1 - 1 5-17-902 ( 312), 2 - 1 1-12-1060 ( 313), 3 - 1 8-23-1221 ( 298), 4 - 1 3-18-1234 ( 301), 5 - 1 3-19-1142 ( 300)

4 71

P 1.226.

C arved o bjects 1 -a h andle o f v ine-bowl 1 1-29-49, 2 - a d ipper h andle 1 1-245 4, 3 - a d ipper h andle 2 5-32-1351, 4 - a h ead o f a r itual o bject 1 9-24-175, 5 - a n o rnamental r osette 8 -11-461, 6 - a b owl h andle 2 6-25-471, 7 - a d ecorative b oard 2 5-29-156 ( 140), 8 - a d ecorative s topper o f a b arrel 1 1-25-109, 9 - a m aceh ead s haped l ike a n e agle's 2 7-25-999

4 72

P 1.227.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

1 359

4 73

P 1.228.

D etail o f L yudogoshcha C ross.

4 74

H istorical i nscription

; « 7 T r a i

5;

4 7 &. 4A

0

L = r1 ` 35 ;

c A

i r *t e

i t, f b 5 7. 25

e e ,

g tx›

( )

g g

e

c e

0 2 =

0 L a,2

C i r-1 7 71

P 1.229.

I nscription o n L yudogoshcha C ross

4 75

‘ r t

•

P 1.230.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

C hrist.

4 76

A p art o f d eisis c omposition

P 1.231.

L yudogoshcha

C ross.

J ohn

t he

c omposition

4 77

B aptist.

A

p art

o f

d eisis

P 1.232.

D etails o f L yudogoshcha C ross 1 -C rucifiction ,

2 -g roup o f w arriors

P 1.233.

D etails o f L yudogoshcha C ross 1 -A rchangel M ichael,

2 - S amson a nd a l ion

P 1.234.

D etails o f L yudogoshcha C ross 1 - S t.

G eorge a nd t he d ragon , 4 80

2 -S t.

T heodor S tratilat

P 1.235.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

S S.

C osmas

4 81

a nd D amian

P 1.236.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

S t.

G erasim a nd a l ion

4 82

P 1.237.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

T he P rophet E lijah i n t he d esert

4 83

P 1.238.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

S t.

T heodor T yron a nd a d ragon

P 1.239.

L yudogoshcha C ross.

S t.

T heodor T yron a nd h is m other

4 85

P 1.240.

D etail o f i conostasis ( so-called " Olonetskoye t yablo") D ating under d iscussion ( 13-15 c enturies). M oscow H istorical M useum .

4 86

S tate