Enclosures and Defences in the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts i and ii 9780860545187, 9781407389912, 9781407389929, 9781407346830

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CONTRIBUTORS
GENERAL
BRITAIN
NORTHERN AND NORTH-EASTERN FRANCE
WESTERN FRANCE
DENMARK
GERMANY

Citation preview

Enclosures and Defences in the Neolithic of Western Europe

edited by

Colin Burgess, Peter Topping, Claude Mordarit and Margaret Maddison

Part i

BAR International Series 403(i) 1988 Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S403 (I), 1988: 'Enclosures and Defences in th e Neolith ic of Western Europe' Part I

© The Individual Auth ors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389912 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389929 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545187 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346830 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C ONTENTS

P ART i

P REFACE

i ii

C ONTRIBUTORS

G ENERAL 1 :

2 :

3 :

C ontexts, A ctivities, E vents - A spects o f N eolithic a nd C opper A ge E nclosures i n C entral a nd W estern E urope A lasdair W HITTLE F rom " Space" t o " Place": a nd N eolithic S ociety J . C HAPMAN M onuments a nd A nalogy:

1

A M odel o f D ispersed S ettlement 2 1

T he I nterpretation o f C ausewayed

E nclosures C hristopher E VANS

4 7

B RITAIN 4 :

T he N eolithic S ettlements o n C rickley H ill P hilip D IXON

7 5

5 :

H ambledon H ill, R .J. M ERCER

8 9

6 :

E tton, N ear M axey , o n t he F en-Edge F rancis P RYOR

7 :

D orset,

E ngland

C ambridgeshire:

A C ausewayed E nclosure 1 07

E xcavations a t H addenham, C ambridgeshire: E nclosure a nd i ts R egional A ffinities C hristopher E VANS

A " Planned" 1 27

N ORTHERN A ND N ORTH-EASTERN F RANCE 8 :

L es C amps N äolithiques C hassäens d ans l e N ord-Ouest d u B assin P arisien

1 49

J ean-Claude B LANCHET e t R oger M ARTINEZ 9 :

L 'Elevage a u N äolithique M oyen e n P icardie P atrice M ENIEL

1 67

1 0:

T he C hassäen E nclosure a t C ompiegne, C hristophe T OUPET

1 73

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

O ise

1 1:

1 2:

1 3:

1 4:

M iddle N eolithic E nclosures i n t he A isne V alley J . D UBOULOZ, M . L EBOLLOCH, M . I LETT

2 09

I nventaire d es E nceintes N äolithiques d e l a V alläe d e l 'Yonne R epäräes p ar P rospection A ärienne J .P. D ELOR, J .P. J ACOB, A . H EURTAUX , H . L EREDDE, a nd C . P ELLET

2 27

L es E nceintes N äolithiques d e l a H aute-Valläe d e l a S eine C laude M ORDANT e t D aniel M ORDANT

2 31

F ortifications N äolithiques d ans

2 55

l 'Est d e l a F rance

J ean-Pierre N ICOLARDOT

P ART i i

W ESTERN F RANCE 1 5:

1 6:

L e

S ite N äolithique F inal a F ossäs M achecoul, L oire-Atlantique J ean L 'HELGOUACH

I nterrompus d es P rises 2 6r ,

A nalyse S tructurale d e l a T riple E nceinte d e F ossäs I nterrompus a C hamp-Durand, N ieul-Sur-L 'Autize, V endäe R oger J OUSSAUME

2 75

D ENMARK 1 7:

C ausewayed E nclosures i n S outh S candinavia

3 01

T orsten M ADSEN 1 8:

T he N eolithic C ausewayed E nclosures a t o n S outh-West F unen, N iels H . A NDERSEN

S arup,

D enmark

3 37

G ERMANY N eolithic E nclosures i n t he I sar V alley, J ohn H ODGSON

2 0:

T he G algenberg, a L ate N eolithic E nclosure i n B avaria B arbara S . O TTAWAY

3 91

2 1:

T he N eolithic H öhensiedlungen o f C entral G ermany

4 19

N .J.

S TARLING

i i

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

B avaria

3 63

1 9:

P REFACE

M ost o f t he p apers i n t his v olume w ere g iven a t a c onference o n t his t heme o rganised b y o ne o f u s ( CB ) u nder t he a uspices o f t he t hen D epartment o f A dult E ducation o f t he U niversity o f N ewcastle u pon T yne o n J anuary 6 th -8 th , 1 984. T he m ajority o f t he m anuscripts w ere s ubmitted d uring t he c ourse o f t he f ollowing e ighteen m onths, i .e. b y m id-1985. S ince t hen f urther w ork h as b een c arried o ut a t s ome o f t he s ites, a nd o n s ome o f t he w ork d escribed, a nd i t i s o nly f air t o t he a uthors t o p oint o ut t he e nsuing t ime l ag , a nd t he f act t hat i n s ome c ases t hese p apers a re f ar f rom t he l ast, o r l atest, w ord o n t he m atters t hey c onsider. A f ew c ontributions w ere n ot g iven a t t he c onference b ut w ere o ffered s ubsequently: t hose b y J ohn C hapman ( Chapter 2 ), C hristopher E vans ( Chapters 3 a nd 7 ), D rs. B lanchet a nd M artinez ( Chapter 8 ), P atrice M eniel ( Chapter 9 ), a nd J .-P. D elor a nd h is c olleagues ( Chapter 1 2). D r. N icolardot's p aper ( Chapter 1 4) s hould h ave b een p resented a t t he c onference, b ut a t a l ate s tage h e f ound h imself u nable t o t ravel t o N ewcastle. I t m ay h ave c ome a s a s urprise t o s ome t o d iscover t hat w hat f or s o l ong w as r egarded a s a t ypically B ritish p henomenon, t he c ausewayed e nclosure, i s s o w idespread o n t he C ontinent. T his v olume i ncludes p apers o n e xamples i n B ritain, D enmark a nd i n F rance, w here i t s eems t hat m any m ore a re n ow k nown t han i n B ritain. I t h as l ong b een c lear j ust f rom t he B ritish s ites t hat g reat v ariations i n f orm a nd f unction e xist; b ut o ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f t he c onference w as t o d iscover h ow r epetitive c ertain f eatures w ere t hroughout a ll t he r egions d iscussed: f or e xample, h uman b odies a nd b its o f b odies i n d itches, a nd p its c ontaining, a pparently , v otive o bjects a nd o fferings. I f t here w as a c ommon t hread i t w as t hat n owhere w ere t hese s ites m erely s imple s ettlements; a lways t here w ere a mbiguities w hich m ade i t d ifficult t o p in d own s pecific r oles. I t c ame a s a s urprise t o d iscover h ow o ften t hese s ites h ave e choes o f s trife a nd b loodshed , t his i n a n a ge w hich s o o ften h as b een s een a s a g olden t ime o f p eace a nd e quality. D efensive p alisades s eem t o r einforce m any o f t he F rench p erimeters, o ften o f g reat l ength, a s a t N oyen. E ven m ore i mpressive i s t he g reat g ateway t ower o f C hamp D urand, s urely m eant a s m uch t o m ake a p oint a bout a uthority a nd s tatus a s t o d efend i ts e nclosure. T hese d efensive w orks a re n ot o nly m atched i n B ritain, b ut p roved t o b e o f s erious i ntent a t t he s ites o f C rickley H ill a nd H ambledon , w here f ire, d ense s preads o f a rrowheads a nd t he b odies o f t he s lain s peak e loquently o f d esperate a ttack a nd r esistance. T his i s c onfirmed b y R oger M ercer's w ork a t C am nB rea i n C ornwall, a nd w ould a lso h ave b een e mphasized b y m ention o f t he g reat t imber-walled e nclosures, a lluded t o b riefly b y o ne o f u s a t t he c onference ( CB), b ut a las n ot d ealt w ith i n t hese p ages. T he d efensive a s w ell a s p restigious i ntent o f t he m assive t imber w alls p rotecting M eldon B ridge i n P eeblesshire ( Burgess, B ritish A rchaeol. R ep . 3 3, 1 976) a nd M ount P leasant i n D orset ( Wainwright, M ount P leasant , 1 979) i s c lear. T hey a re r epresentative o f a g rowing n umber o f t imber-walled e nclosures b elonging t o w hat t raditionally i s t he l ate N eolithic, c .2100-1800 b c: w hat m ay h ave b een a p eriod o f i ntense c hange a nd d islocation. M eldon B ridge i s s till t he o nly s ite i n i ts c lass t o h ave b een e xcavated, b ut s imilar t imber-walled e nclosures w ith m onumental a venue e ntrances a re s uspected f rom t he a erial p hotographic e vidence, n otably a t F orteviot, P erthshire ( St. J oseph,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. i ii E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

A ntiquity , 5 2, 1 978), a nd W alton, R adnorshire ( St. J oseph, A ntiquity , 5 4, 1 980 ). R ather d ifferent e nclosures o f t his s ame p eriod, e qually m assively w ooden w alled, h ave r ecently b een p ublished a s f ar a part a s D orchester, D orset ( Current A rchaeol., 9 5, 1 985) a nd o utside t he N ewgrange p assage t omb i n C o. M eath ( Sweetman , P roc . R oy . I rish A cad ., 8 5c, 1 985), e mphasizing t he i mportance o f t imber w alls i n t he L ate N eolithic. I reland, a las, w as r epresented n either a t t he C onference n or i n t his v olume, t hough w hispers o f I rish c ausewayed e nclosures a nd P rofessor D erek S impson's r ecent w ork a t L yles H ill s how t hat I reland s hould n ot i n f uture b e o mitted f rom t hese d eliberations. M adsen a nd A ndersen s howed t hat a lthough p alisades o f t he n ormal k inds a re f ound a t s ome D anish s ites, a t S arup a t l east t here w as e xtensive t imberwork o f a q uite d ifferent p attern, i n t he f orm o f c omplex a nd e nigmatic f ence l ines e nclosing a nd d ividing o ff i ndividual d itch s egments. T his e mphasised a p oint r aised b y s everal s peakers: t he i mportance a pparently a ttached t o d itches, a nd d itch s egments, a t s ites b oth i n B ritain a nd o n t he C ontinent. T he D anish s ites, l ike t hose i n B ritain a nd F rance, s how l ittle s ign o f d omestic a ctivity , b ut s o o ften f eatures w hich s lip t oo r eadily i nto a " ritual" o r " ceremonial" c ategory. T he w ell-known c ausewayed s ites o f W est G ermany w ere n ot c onsidered i n d etail, b ut J ohn H odgson c onsidered e nclosures o f l ess f amiliar f orms i n s outh G ermany a gainst t he g eneral c ultural a nd c hronological b ackground o f t he N eolithic t here. T he l ack o f m odern e xcavation o f t hese s ites e mphasises t he i mportance o f B arbara O ttaway 's w ork a t o ne l ate e xample, t he G algenberg. S tarling t ook a w ider, m ore t heoretical l ook a t t he G erman e vidence, a nd i ntroduced t he s ubject o f H öhensiedlungen . N icolardot a lso l ooked a t h illtop s ites, i n B urgundy , b ut h is w ere d perons b arrds , s purs d efended b y s tout r amparts o f u nequivocal a spect. T hese t wo p apers r eminded u s t hat t here a re o ther s ides t han c ausewayed e nclosures t o t he q uestion o f N eolithic e nclosure a nd d efence; t hat B ritain h as i ts o wn N eolithic H öhensiedlungen i n s ites s uch a s S outh C adbury , a nd t hat C rickley H ill i s a n d peron b arrd a s w ell a s a c ausewayed e nclosure. O nly o ne o f t he g eneral a nd t heoretical p apers w as p resented a t t he c onference: A lasdair W hittle's w ide-ranging s ummary o f t he e vidence f or e nclosure a nd d efence i n N eolithic E urope. O nly a fterwards c ame J ohn C hapman 's t hought-provoking s uggestions a bout t he " why" a nd " how" o f w hat m ight b e t ermed t he " enclosure m ovement". F inally , n o v olume o f t his k ind w ould h ave b een c omplete w ithout a n h istorical s urvey o f t hought o n m atters s o p rominent y et p erplexing, a nd t his w as o ffered b y C hristopher E vans, a s w ell a s h is p aper o n t he H addenham e nclosure e xcavations. A n umber o f s peakers a lluded t o t he c ommon t hreads w hich r an t hrough t he c onference, p articularly t he r ecurring f eatures a t c ausewayed e nclosures. T he f act t hat t hese a ll s eem t o h ave b een a f eature o f r oughly t he s ame t ime, d espite t heir g reat g eographical s pread , o nly e xaggerated t he s imilarities o f f orm , d eposit a nd a ctivity. T here w as s ome s peculation a bout t he c onnections, i f a ny, s uch p arallels i mplied, e specially b y M adsen, t hough i t w as g enerally f elt p remature t o b e t oo a dventurous o r p ositive a t t his s tage o f t he s tudy. M eanwhile w ork o n N eolithic e nclosures a nd d efences h as p roceeded a pace, i ncluding f urther e xcavations a t m any o f t he s ites Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. i v Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

d escribed i n t hese p ages. I n g en ral t his h as a dded t o r ather t han c onfounded t he i deas a nd m aterial p resented h ere, b ut c learly t he d ay i s n ot t oo f ar a way w hen t here w ill h ave t o b e a nother c onference o n t he e nclosures a nd d efences o f t he W est E uropean N eolithic.

C olin B urgess P eter T opping C laude M ordant M argaret M addison

N ovember,

1 987

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C ONTRIBUTORS

N .H.

J .

A ndersen F orhistorisk M useum,

C l. B lanchet D irection D irection P icardie,

C .

B urgess C entre T yne,

J .

R egionale d es d es A ntiquites 5 r ue H enri D aussy,

f or C ontinuing N E1

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A .

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8 0044 A miens,

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G uerchy,

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C lassical

N ottingham,

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N ewcastle u pon T yne,

8 9113 F leury l a V allee,

a nd 2 RD,

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S tudies,

T he

E ngland.

E vans D epartment

7 5006 P aris,

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A rchaeology, 3 DZ,

U niversity

S treet,

C ambridge,

C B2

H eurtaux M irämy,

8 9140 P ont

s ur Y onne,

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C ambridge,

F rance.

H odgson R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments L ane, M aybush , S outhampton, S O1 9 FP, E ngland. I lett C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche

J .P.

S cientifique,

o f E ngland,

C .N.R.S.

L es S ables-d'Olonne,

( E.R.

F rance.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

N0 2 7),

G reen

U nite d e R echerche

A rcheologiques,

J acob D irection d es A ntiquites d e P rovence-Cöte d 'Azur, d u R oy-Rene, 1 3617 A ix-en-Provence, F rance.

J oussaume C entre C ulturel,

D owning

E ngland.

A rcheologique N0 1 2, C entre d e R echerches M ichelet, 7 5006 P aris, F rance.

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C .

D enmark.

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S t.-Germain,

D ixon D epartment

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A ffaires C ulturelles d e P icardie, H istoriques e t P rehistoriques d e

C hapman D epartment o f A rchaeology, N E1 7 RU, E ngland.

J .P.

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M oesgärd,

3 r ue

2 1-23 B oulevard

A bbaye S te-Croix ,

8 5100

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N .J.

S tarling 9 1 F ordwych R oad,

L ondon,

N W2

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

E ngland.

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T opping R oyal C ommission o n t he H istorical M onuments o f U niversity, N ewcastle u pon T yne, N EI 7 RU, E ngland.

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U niversity

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

S ervice 9 5310

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B ox 7 8,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

1 : C ONTEXTS, A CTIVITIES, E VENTS A SPECTS O F N EOLITHIC A ND C OPPER A GE E NCLOSURES I N C ENTRAL A ND W ESTERN E UROPE

A lasdair W hittle

S ummary T he s tudy o f e nclosures i s c oming o f a ge . T here a ppears t o b e a d istinctive w est a nd c entral E uropean d istribution. E xamples t o s how t he d iversity o f d ate a nd f orm a re c ited f rom t he e astern p art o f t he d istribution, i n C zechoslovakia. D espite t he d iversity i t i s s uggested t hat e nclosures w ere n ot a n i nevitable f eature o f N eolithic a nd C opper A ge l ife b ut c an b e r elated t o s pecific h orizons a nd c ontexts f rom a rea t o a rea. I t i s p ossible t o v iew t heir c reation a s e vents i n r egional s equences. M any m ay h ave b een s horter- r ather t hat l onger-lived . A w ide r ange o f a ctivities a ssociated w ith e nclosures i s r eviewed , a nd t he p roblem o f a ssessing s ite s tatus d iscussed . A ttention i s g iven t o r itual a nd s ymbolism , a nd t he v iew t hat r itual p lays a n a ctive p art i n t he c reation a nd m aintenance o f s ocial o rders i s r elated t o t he c oncept o f e vents i n t he h istorical p rocess. S equential c ontrasts a re n oted w ithin E urope a s a w hole . T he s tudy o f e nclosures i s c oming o f a ge, c atching u p t hat o f m egalithic t ombs, t o f orm p art o f t he d istinctive a rchaeology o f c entral a nd w estern E urope i n t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge p eriods. P rehistorians h ave b een a ware s ince t he l ate n ineteenth c entury t hat e nclosures d efined b y b ank, d itch, o r p alisade b elonged t o t hese p eriods i n E urope. F or e xample, t he t hird m illennium b c A lmerian s ite o f L os M illares, w hich i ncludes a s tone b astioned w all a nd o utlying s tone f orts, w as f irst i nvestigated i n t he 1 890s ( Siret, 1 893; c f. A rribas a nd M olina, 1 982). I n t he R hineland, S chumacher f ound a d itch a t M ichelsberg i n 1 888/9, a nd L ehner i nvestigated t he e nclosures a t U rmitz i n 1 901, t he s ite h aving b een f ound i n 1 898, a nd a t M ayen i n 1 907 ( Lüning , 1 967). N ot a ll e arly i nvestigations w ere s o s uccessful. T he c ase o f k ivnäC i s i nstructive. T his i s t he e ponymous s ite o f a m id-third m illennium b c g roup i n B ohemia. I t i s o n a s mall p romontory h igh a bove a t ributary o f t he R . V ltava n ear P rague. I t w as f irst e xcavated i n t he 1 880s b y R izner, b ut n ot u ntil m uch l ater w ere t wo p hases o f e nclosure r ecognised, r epresented b y p alisade, s tone d ump a nd d itch ( Ehrich a nd P leslova- hikovä, 1 968, 1 35). O ther e arly d iscoveries i n c entral a nd w estern E urope w ere a lso a t f irst s poradic, s uch a s A ltheim a nd K othingeichendorf i n B avaria, o r K nap H ill i n W iltshire, t he f irst r ecognised E arlier N eolithic e nclosure i n s outhern E ngland ( Driehaus, 1 960; M aier, 1 962; C unnington, 1 912). A fter t he F irst W ar t he e xtension o f a rchaeological r esearch b rought f urther d iscoveries, e specially i n t he R hineland, a nd t he b eginnings o f l arge a rea e xcavation p roduced t he n otable L BK e nclosures a t K ölnL indenthal ( Buttler a nd H aberey , 1 936). D iscoveries c ontinued s teadily a fter t he S econd W ar w ith a v eritable b oom i n t he l ast t en o r s o y ears, d ue t o i ncreased a rchaeological a ctivity b oth r esearch- a nd r escue-oriented, a nd t o i ncreased a erial r econnaissance. T he r ecent p rogress o f d iscoveries i n s outhern E ngland i s f amiliar e nough t o t hose a cquainted w ith t he E arlier N eolithic o f t he a rea, w ith a

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

r adical e xtension i n t he n umbers a nd g eographical r ange o f i nterrupted d itch e nclosures d ue t o a erial r econnaissance ( e.g. P almer, 1 976), a nd w ith e xtensive e xcavations e specially a t H ambledon H ill, D orset, a nd C rickley H ill, G loucestershire ( Mercer a nd D ixon, t his v olume), b ut a s imilar p rocess h as b een h appening i n m any o ther a reas o f c entral a nd w est E urope. F or e xample, i n t he R hineland t he v ast r escue e xcavations o n t he A ldenhovener P latte h ave p layed a m ajor p art i n r adically i ncreasing t he n umber o f k nown L BK a nd p ost-LBK e nclosures ( e.g. L üning, 1 982; S chwellnus, 1 983; K uper e t a l., 1 977). I n w estc entral F rance a erial p hotography h as g reatly i ncreased t he n umber o f k nown e nclosures o f t he t hird m illennium i n t he l ast f ew y ears ( Joussaume a nd S carre, t his v olume; c f. B urnez a nd C ase, 1 966). I n D enmark e nclosures w ere n ot r ecorded t ill t he d iscovery o f B üdelsdorf i n n eighbouring S chleswig-Holstein i n 1 969 ( Hingst, 1 971); t he s ubsequent r ate o f d etection a nd e xcavation h as b een i mpressive. T he s ituation i n c entral E urope i s a lso i nstructive. T here h as b een a s teady f low o f d iscoveries i n C zechoslovakia a nd s everal n otable e xcavations ( outlined f urther b elow ). E nclosures h ave a lso b een n oted r ecently i n s outhern P oland, a s a t B ronocice ( Kruk a nd M ilisauskas, 1 981), a nd i n n orthern H ungary , a s a t B icske a nd S e ( Makkay , 1 978; K alicz a nd K aroli, 1 978). A erial p hotography , h owever, f or v arious r easons i s l ittle u sed i n a rchaeological r esearch i n t hese a reas, i n c ontraSt t o n orthern A ustria a nd B avaria w here t ens o f d iscoveries r ecently a re d ue t o t his t echnique. T hus t he n otable e xcavations o f a f ew L engyel e nclosures i n M oravia a nd S lovakia a re b alanced b y t he r ecognition o f m any m ore a cross t he A ustrian b orders, s ome o f w hich a re a lso n ow b eing e xcavated ( e.g. N eugebauer a nd N eugebauer, 1 981; 1 982). I n t he l ight o f t his t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat m any m ore i n t urn a wait d iscovery i n M oravia a nd S lovakia. L est e nthusiasm l ead t o c omplacency , o ne m ay s tress t hat t he n ext s tage o f r esearch s hould c onsist o f f urther l arge-scale e xcavations a nd o f m ore s ystematic a ttempts t o s et e nclosures w ithin t he c ontext o f l ocal s ettlement p atterns. F rom a ll t his w ork t here h as e merged a d istinctive w est a nd c entral E uropean d istribution o f e nclosures. T his i s n ot t he s ame a s s aying t hat i t i s a n e xclusive d istribution, a s t he b riefest o f r eviews o f t he e vidence f rom e lsewhere i n E urope i ncluding t he M editerranean, t he B alkans a nd G reece, a nd e ast o f t he C arpathians, w ill s how e xamples e nough o f t he p ractice o f e nclosure. F or e xample, i n s outhern I taly t he N eolithic d itched e nclosure o r v illaggi t rincerati a re w ell k nown, b elonging p erhaps i n t he m ain t o t he s ixth a nd f ifth m illennia b c ( e.g. T ine, 1 983). I n s outhern F rance t here a re s everal C hasseen a nd F ontbouisse e xamples o f n ote, s uch a s S t. M ichel-du-Touch a nd L ebous ( Märoc a nd S imonnet, 1 969; A rnal, 1 973). I n s outhern I beria t here a re s pectacular s tone-walled e nclosures o f t he t hird m illennium b c, s uch a s Z ambujal, V ila N ova d e So P edro a nd L os M illares, t he i mpressiveness o f t he l atter r ecently i ncreased b y t he d iscovery o f t wo m ore b astioned s tone w alls a nd s everal m ore o utlying f orts ( Sangmeister a nd S chubart, 1 981; D o P a o a nd S angmeister, 1 956; A rribas a nd M olina, 1 982). O ther s ettlements, t oo, m ay h ave b een e nclosed. I n t he B alkans t here a re s mall t ells i n n orth-east B ulgaria s uch a s P olyanitsa, V initsa, O vcharovo a nd G olyamo D elchevo e nclosed w ithin d itch a nd p alisade s ystems ( Todorova, 1 978). A zmak m ay h ave h ad a n e nclosing w all ( Georgiev, 1 965) a nd E zero h as s ome s ort o f e nclosure w all i n i ts t hird m illennium E arly B ronze A ge l evels ( Georgiev e t a l., 1 979). B oth D imini a nd S esklo i n T hessaly Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

h ave s tone-walled n uclei, a nd t here a re o ne o r t wo o ther s ites w ith d itches a round t hem ( Theocharis, 1 973). F urther e ast i n t he C ucuteni p rovince e ast o f t he C arpathians t here i s a w hole s eries o f s ettlements b ounded b y d itches. T he s ites r ange i n s ize f rom s mall o nes s uch a s T irpe ti ( Marinescu-Bilcu, 1 981) t o l arge o nes, s uch a s T raian ( Dumitrescu a nd D umitrescu, 1 962), t hough t he d itches t hemselves a re r egularly i nsubstantial. T here i s t hus a bundant e vidence f rom p arts o f E urope o ther t han t he w est a nd c entre f or t he p ractice o f e nclosure. I t m ay b e s uspected, t oo, t hat t he l esser n umbers o f e nclosures i n m ost p arts o f t he M editerranean a nd B alkans m ay t o s ome e xtent r eflect t he c urrent l evel o f r esearch r ather t han t he p rehistoric s ituation, b ut o n t he o ther h and e nclosures o f t he k ind w e a re t o c onsider i n c entral a nd w estern E urope m ay h ave b een g enuinely l ess c ommon i n t hose a reas. P ossible r easons f or t his d ifference a re t aken u p a t t he e nd o f t his p aper. S ome e xamples f rom C zechoslovakia w ill n ow b e u sed t o i llustrate t he g reat d iversity i n f orm a nd d ate t hat i s c haracteristic o f m any a reas o f w est a nd c entral E urope. T he e arliest e nclosures b elong t o t he i mmediately p ost-LBK h orizon, t he e arliest e lsewhere b eing l ate L BK , f or e xample i n t he R hineland ( Lüning, 1 982). I n B ohemia a mongst o ther e xamples o ne m ay c ite B ylany w here a c ircular d itch o ver 5 0 m i n d iameter, l ying t o t he w est o f t he L BK f ocus o f t he s ite a nd t owards t he S tichbandkeramik c emetery o f M iskovice, h as b een d ated t o t he S tichbandkeramik p hase b y p reliminary i nvestigation ( Pavl , p ers. c omm.). A nother m ore f ully i nvestigated e xample i s V ochov , w hich s eems t o b elong t o t he s ame p hase t hough t here i s a lso L BK o ccupation o n t he s ite ( Pav1 1 : 1 , 1 982). T his h as t wo c oncentric s hallow d itches, 3 6 a nd 4 9 m i n d iameter r espectively , w ith t hree p alisade t renches i nside t he i nner o ne. T here a re v arious e nclosures b elonging t o t he T RB h orizon, i ncluding o ne n ow d estroyed a t B ylany ( Pavlü, p ers. c omm.), t hough n one h as y et b een e xtensively i nvestigated. T here i s a n u nusually l arge a nd r ectilinear d itched e nclosure a t M akotrasy , s ome 3 00 b y 3 00 m , w hich s ucceeds a n a rc-shaped l ength o f d itch s ome 6 50 m l ong ( Pleslovä-gtikovä e t a l., 1 980). A t B ie -e zno n ear L ouny t here a re t wo u nusual l inear e nclosures d efined b y p alisade t renches, a nd e nclosing b urials ( Pleinerovä, 1 980). T here a re o ther e nclosures b elonging t o t he m id a nd l ater t hird m illennium , e specially t o t he R ivnä5 c ulture. A part f rom k ivnäC i tself, o ne m ay c ite t he w ell-known e xample o f H omolka n ear S tehelCeves ( Ehrich a nd P leslovä-Stikovä, 1 968). T here i s a lso V ran n ear S lang - w here t here a re t wo p hases o f p alisade, t he f irst w ith a d itch a s w ell, e nclosing o ccupation ( Pleslovä-gtikovä, 1 981). T here i s a lso a s mall p romontory t o t he e ast o f B ylany c ut o ff b y t wo d itches a nd a p alisade b elonging t o t he k ivnäC p hase ( Pavl i l a nd Z apatockY , p ers. c omm.). I n M oravia t here a re s imilar h orizons. T he e arliest e nclosures b elong t o t he e arly L engyel p hase i n s outhern M oravia. A t t he p artially i nvestigated s ite o f H luboke M asuvky a d itch u p t o 2 .8 m d eep a nd 4 .5 m w ide e ncloses a n a rea o f s ome 6h a w ith a m aximum d iameter o f 3 50 m ( J. N eustupnY, 1 948/50 ). T he d itch h as s everal i nterruptions a nd i s b acked b y t wo i nternal p alisades a nd g ateways. A t K i.e pice t here w as a gain p artial i nvestigation o f a n e lliptical e nclosure ( 50 - 6 0 ma cross t he s horter a xis), d efined b y a d itch a nd t hree i nternal p alisades ( Tichy , 1 976). O ccupation m aterial w as f ound b oth i nside a nd o utside t he e nclosed a rea. T he m ajor e xcavation t o d ate h as b een a t T egetice-Kyjovice ( Podborsk , 1 976; P odborskY a nd Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

K ogtu Hk, 1 983). T he c entral p art o f t he s ite i s d efined b y ab road , d eep , V -shaped d itch ( up t o 6m w ide a nd 3 .5 m d eep ) o f c ircular f orm , w ith f our o pposed e ntrances a nd t wo i nternal p alisades w ith o verlapping s tretches. T here i s a f urther l ength o f c oncentric p alisade s ome 4 0 m o utside t he d itch. S ettlement t races w ere n ot f ound w ithin t he e nclosure b ut w ere r ecorded o utside. T here w ere l arge q uantities o f a nthropomorphic a nd s ome a nimal f igurines m ainly f rom t he d itch, a s w ell a s l arge a mounts o f f inely p ainted e arlier L engyel p ottery. T his c ould s upport t he i nterpretation o f T ägetice a s ah igh-status s ite, w ith i mportance a s a r itual c entre w ith h igh-order s ettlement a ttached. T here a re s everal c andidates f or T RB ( or e quivalent) e nclosures i n t he s outhern M oravian a rea, t hough t he d ating o f e nclosing b anks i s u nclear, a s a t K ramolin ( Kogtu nk, 1 976) o r, n ot y et t ested b y e xcavation, a s a t a nother s ite i n t he n eighbourhood o f K i-e pice ( Kogtui-i k, p ers. c omm.). F or t he B aden p hase o f t he m id-third m illennium b c o ne m ust t urn t o n orthern M oravia , w here t he s ite o f H linsko n ear L ipnik h as b een i nvestigated o ver a n umber o f y ears. T he s ite l ies o n a s mall h illside s pur a bove a v alley a nd h as t wo p hases o f e nclosure a round i nternal o ccupation , t he f irst c onsisting o f a p alisade a nd d itch, t he s econd o f s tone, w ood, o r c lay r ampart a nd d itch. T he f inds i ndicate a h igh-order s ettlement w ith c raft s pecialisation a nd l ong-range c ontacts w ell b eyond n orthern M oravia ' ( PavelCik,

1 981).

I n S lovakia t he m ain e nclosures r ecorded t o d ate a ppear t o b elong t o t he e arlier L engyel p hase. T he o utstanding s ite s o f ar i s S vodin i n t he D anube b asin ( Nemejcovä-Pavükovä , 1 980 ). S ystematic e xcavations o ver m any s easons h ave r evealed t wo s uccessive e arly L engyel e nclosure s ystems. T he f irst h as a d itch u p t o 3 .5 m d eep b acked b y t wo p alisades. A ccompanying t his t here i s o ccupation o utside t he d itch i ncluding L engyel-style h ouses. T he s econd s ystem h as am aximum d iameter o f a bout 1 60 m a nd e ncloses t he f irst. I t h as t wo e xternal d itches o f m assive p rojections e specially a t g ateways, m easuring u p t o 5m d eep. T hese a re b acked b y t hree p alisade a nd p ost r ings, w hich m ay b e e ither f ree-standing o r p ossibly p art o f t he r evetment o f a r ampart. I t h as n ot b een p ossible t o e xcavate t he w hole e nclosure b ut t here a re t hree e ntrances k nown a nd p robably o riginally f our o pposed e ntrances. T he d itch t erminals o f t he s econd e nclosure a re o ut-turned. T here i s n o o bvious o ccupation o f t he i nterior o f t he s econd e nclosure, b ut a gain n umbers o f h ouses a nd o ther o ccupation t races h ave b een f ound i n t he i nterior o ver a c onsiderable a rea. I nterspersed w ith t hese a re n umerous e arly L engyel g raves, w hich m ay f ollow t his s econd e nclosure. T his r emarkable s ite d oes n ot e xist i n a r egional v acuum. T here i s a d ouble d itched e nclosure a t B uCany i n t he V äh v alley , a nd t hree o verlapping d itches a t N itriansky H rad a ( Bujna a nd R omsauer , 1 980; P avük, 1 981) a nd e xcavations h ave b egun a t t he n orthern H ungarian s ite o f S ä ( Kalicz a nd K aroli, 1 978). O ne m ust w onder w hether t here a re o thers l ike t hese i n T ransdanubia, i ncluding e ven a t t he e ponymous L engyel s ite i tself. D espite t he g reat v ariety o f e nclosures t hus b riefly r eviewed i n j ust o ne a rea, t here a re c ertain r egularities t o b e o bserved i n t erms o f a rea a nd l ocation, d ating a nd u se. T he f irst a spect t o r equire e mphasis i s t hat o f d ating. I t i s n oticeable t hat e nclosures d o n ot o ccur r ight t hrough t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge s equences o f t he t hree m ajor C zech p rovinces. T he s outhern e xamples a re r estricted t o Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

t he e arly L engyel p hase o f t he e arlier f ourth m illennium b c. I t i s p ossible t hat b eginnings w ill e merge i n t he l ate L BK p hase i n t his a rea a s e lsewhere i n c entral a nd w estern E urope, a nd t here a re a lready h ints f rom B icske a nd S e i n n orthern H ungary o f t his l ikelihood, t hese b eing l ate L BK a nd p roto-Lengyel r espectively. E nclosures s eem l acking i n t he l ater L engyel p hase h owever. O ne i s t herefore d ealing w ith a s pecific h orizon o f e nclosure c onstruction. T his l ate o r p ostL BK h orizon i s w idely m atched e lsewhere a s a lready n oted, a s f ar w est a s t he R hineland a nd t he P aris b asin ( Ilett, 1 983). O ne m ay a lso s uggest t hat s uch a h orizon c an b e f urther d efined a s a s pecific c ontext, i n t he s ense o f i ts b eing a p hase w ith i ndividual c haracteri stics. O f c hief i nterest h ere a cross w est a nd c entral E urope i s t he d evelopment o f l ate a nd p ost-LBK c ommunities. T here a re s everal s trands t o t he s ituation, w hich f ollows a l ong p hase o f p rimary a grarian s ettlement i n t he l ater f ifth m illennium b c. T here i s c hange i n s ettlement d istribution a nd l ayout. I n s ome a reas t he r ange o f s ettlement d istribution b egins t o b e e xtended a fter t he L BK ( cf. W hittle, 1 977a ), t hough r ecent s tudies i n c entral G ermany ( Starling p ers. c omm ,), B ohemia ( Rulf, 1 981) a nd S lovakia ( Pavük, 1 982) b y c ontrast d o n ot s how t his. F ewer s ettlements a re r ecovered t han i n t he L BK, b ut t his m ay b e d ue p artly t o t he s horter d uration o f t he p hase a nd p artly t o t he g reater p ermanence o f t he s ites, w hich m ay a lso h ave b een m ore n ucleated. T here i s a lso v ariable c hange i n m aterial c ulture, f rom t he a lready v aried l ate L BK r egional v ariants t o L engyel, S tichbandkeramik , G rossgartach a nd R össen, R uband r ecent , a nd s o o n. P articularly i n t he e astern L engyel a rea t his r epresents f urther b reak-up o f t he p rimary m aterial u niformity o f t he L BK. T here i s a lso s ome c hange i n b urial r ite, w ith r ather m ore c emeteries k nown i n t he c entral E uropean a rea a nd w ith a g reat r ange o f g rave g oods i n t he L engyel a rea. G iven t he p receding p eriod o f p rimary a grarian s ettlement, I s hould l ike t o s uggest t hat t hese v arious c hanges a re c ompatible n ot w ith i nevitable c ultural d rift b ut w ith a s ituation i n w hich t here w as s ome d egree o f i nter- a nd i ntra-community c ompetition f or, a nd c onflict o ver s uch f actors a s l and , r esources, s tatus, a nd c ontrol o f s ocial k nowledge, w hich l ed t o m aterial d ifferentiation a nd s ettlement c hange. T he r ole o f e nclosures i n t hese s pecific c hanges r emains t o b e d iscussed b ut i t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t he o ccurrence e lsewhere i n c entral a nd w estern E urope o f h orizons o f e nclosure c onstruction i n s imilar c ontexts o f c hange a fter p rimary a grarian s ettlement. T hus i n w est-central F rance t here i s a n otable h orizon o f e nclosure c onstruction b eginning i n t he e arlier t hird m illennium b c w hich s eems t o c oincide w ith e xpansion i n s ettlement a fter i nitial b eginnings i n t he f ourth ( and e ven t he l ate f ifth ) m illennium b c ( Scarre, 1 983). D enmark p rovides a nother s triking e xample w ith e nclosures a nd a lso p assage g raves c oming i n a t t he b eginning o f t he M N s equence, c . 2 700/2600 b c ( Madsen a nd A ndersen , t his v olume). T his t oo i s ap eriod o f e xpansion a nd c hange, a nd f ollows t he i nitial p hase o f a grarian s ettlement, i n t his c ase b eginning i n t he l ate f ourth m illennium b c. I ndeed t his p erspective m ay c ontribute t o t he b etter u nderstanding o f r egional s equences e lsewhere. F or e xample, i n s outhern E ngland i n t he W essex r egion a vailable d ates s uggest a n e arlier t hird m illennium b c h orizon f or t he c onstruction o f c ausewayed e nclosures. T here m ay b e a s imilar t rend i n S ussex. B y c ontrast t here a re d ates f rom i ndividual s ites t o t he w est a nd e ast, a t H embury , D evon, a nd B riar H ill, N orthamptonshire, r espectively ( Bamford, 1 979; c f. W hittle, 1 977a ), t o

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

w hich o ne m ight a dd t he d ates f rom t he C am nB rea s tone w alled e nclosure ( Mercer, 1 981), w hich s uggest t he b eginnings o f e nclosure c onstruction i n t he l ater o r e ven m id-fourth m illennium b c. R ather t han u niform b eginnings f or e nclosures ( or i ndeed f or a grarian s ettlement), d ifferent r egional t rajectories w ithin s outhern E ngland c an b e e nvisaged d epending o n t he n ature o f d evelopment w ithin t he i nitial p hase. A t t he r isk o f l abouring t he p oint, o ther s pecific h orizons a re e asily c ited. I n s outhern E ngland t here i s t he p hase i n t he L ater N eolithic c . 2 000 b c o f t he c onstruction o f v ery l arge h enges s uch a s A vebury , D urrington W alls a nd M ount P leasant. T here i s n othing l ike t his i s t he L ate N eolithic o f t he R hineland b ut t here i s t he e arlier a nd n otable p hase o f M ichelsberg e nclosures ( Lüning, 1 967). I n c entral G ermany t here i s a n e quivalent h orizon o f T RB e nclosures ( Behrens a nd S chröter, 1 980; S tarling, t his v olume). B roadening t he a rgument f rom h orizon t o c ontext, o ne c ould c ite a gain t he B ohemian s ituation o f t he m id- t o l ater t hird m illennium b c. T his i s ap eriod o f c onsiderable c hange i n c entral E urope a s a w hole ( cf. N eustupnY, 1 981). T here i s m arked d ifferentiation i n m aterial g roupings, w ith t he c ontemporary o ccurrence f or e xample o f G lobular A mphorae a nd k ivnaCi a ssemblages. T hese h ave a l argely s eparate e xistence w ithin t he s ame a reas, t hough t hey m ost i nterestingly c oincide a t H omolka i tself, a nd G lobular A mphorae b urials a re m uch m ore r ecognisable t han k ivnaC o nes. T here a re o ther s igns, t oo , o f c hange, f or e xample i n t he a gricultural e conomy . T he i ntroduction o f w heeled t ransport c an b e d etected f rom B aden c up m odels i n n orthern H ungary ( e.g. K alicz, 1 976), a nd t here i s i ndeed n ow a s triking a nd n ovel e mphasis i n g raves g iven t o p airs o f d raught o xen o ver a w ide a rea o f c entral E urope ( Behrens, 1 964). T he H linsko e vidence f rom n orthern M oravia a lso s uggests c raft s pecialisation a nd p erhaps r elated i ntensification o f a nimal h usbandry , e specially s heep , t o p roduce t he r aw m aterial f or t extile p roduction. T he a ppearance, t herefore , o f g enerally s mall d itched a nd p alisaded e nclosures s uch a s H omolka a nd V ranY h as a gain a s pecific c ontext o f s ocial c hange a nd c ompetition. I t i s o f f urther c onsiderable i nterest t hat b oth t hese e xamples w ere o f r elatively s hort d uration, t hat e ach w as r emodelled t wice, t hat H omolka i s t hought t o h ave e nded i n d estruction b y f ire ( Ehrich a nd P leslovag tikova, 1 968) a nd t hat i n t he s ucceeding C orded W are h orizon s imilar e nclosures d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een b uilt. I t f ollows f rom t hese o bservations t hat t he c onstruction a nd u se o f e nclosures w ere n ot r andom n or w ere t hey a g eneralised o r a utomatic p art o f t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge w ay o f l ife. T hat t hey d id n ot j ust h appen c an b e a ppreciated a lso f rom a c onsideration o f t he c ircumstances o f t heir c onstruction a nd m aintenance. T he c onstruction o f e ven a t imber l ong-house i s l ikely t o h ave i nvolved t he l abour o f m ore p eople t han t he i ntended r esidents c ould t hemselves s upply , a nd t he n umber o f p eople i nvolved i n t he c onstruction o f b arrows a nd e nclosures i s l ikely t o h ave b een c orrespondingly l arger s till, e ven t hough t here i s n o e asy e quation b etween t he p rojected h ours o f l abour a nd t he n umber o f p eople i nvolved ( Startin a nd B radley , 1 981). F igures o f 4 8,000 h ours h ave b een s uggested f or t he o uter d itch o f t he W indmill H ill e nclosure, a nd a s ite l ike H ambledon H ill w ith i ts e xtensive o utworks m ust r epresent a f ar g reater f igure s till. M onuments o f s uch s cale m ust t herefore b e p lanned a nd t heir e xecution o rganised. W hether p lanning a nd e xecution w ere t he r esult o f c ommunal Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.6 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

d ecisions o r c entralised l eadership o r a m ixture o f b oth, t hey m ust h ave i nvolved p eople a t aw ider l evel t han t hat o f t he h ousehold a nd p robably t han t hat o f t he i mmediate n eighbourhood. C onstruction m ust t herefore b e s et f irmly i n t he a rena o f l ocal p olitics, a nd i n t he w eb o f s ocial r elations i n a nd b eyond a ny g iven a rea. I a rgue t herefore t hat f or b oth t he p rehistorian a nd f or t he p eople i nvolved, t he c onstruction o f a n e nclosure c an b e s een a s a n e vent, f or t he p rehistorian b ecause i t i s a rchaeologically r ecognisable a nd d etecta ble a nd f or t he p eople i nvolved b ecause i t w as o f s ufficient s cale a nd u nusualness t o b e m arked o ff i n t he p assage o f t ime. M oreover, e nclosures h ave t o b e m aintained, o r e lse b anks w ill d egrade, d itches s ilt u p a nd p alisades r ot a way. T his m ay h appen r elatively q uickly , t hough t here a re u nfortunately n o g enerally a greed f igures f or t imber d ecay ( cf. W ainwright a nd L ongworth, 1 971). E xperimental e arthworks i n s outhern E ngland s uggest r apid p rimary s ilting o f d itches f ollowed b y s low , n atural s econdary s ilting, a s o n O verton D own. D itch f ills p rovide a n a rchaeological m onitor o f t he d uration o f e nclosures, w ith t he i mportant q ualification t hat t otal r ecutting o r c leaning o ut m ust d estroy o r d istort a ny p rimary a rchaeological d eposits. E nclosures t herefore p rovide a rchaeological e vidence f or s pecific e vents, o ften i n s pecific h orizons a nd c ontexts, a nd t heir m aintenance a nd d uration, t oo , c an i n f avourable c ircumstances b e m onitored w ith s ome s pecificity t oo. T his i s i mportant a nd e xciting b ecause o f i ts r elevance t o o ur u nderstanding o f c hange. M uch o f t he a rchaeological r ecord i s i n f act c omposed o f i ndividual d eposits a nd o ccurrences, b ut p rehistorians a re i nclined t o v iew i t a s a w hole, a nd i n r ecent y ears p articularly h ave c oncentrated o n g eneralising a bout p rocesses o f c hange r ather t han o n s pecific i ncidents. S uch a p erspective i s u nderstandable, b ut i t i s s urely i ncomplete f or f ull u nderstanding o f s equences o f c hange i n s ociety. T here a re t wo r easons f or t his. F irstly , t here i s t he q uestion o f t he p erception o f t he p assage o f t ime b y t he p eople i nvolved i n a s pecific p eriod. I n a v ery r eal s ense w e l ive c ontinuously i n t he p resent a nd o ne m ight a rgue t hat h istory i s e xperienced o nly i n t he p resent. T his i s n ot t o s ay , h owever, t hat p eople d o n ot h ave a s ense o f t ime, a nd s ome s cholars a rgue t hat i n f act a s ense o f l inear, d urational, i rreversible t ime i s f ar m ore c ommon t han a s ense o f s tatic o r c yclical t ime, i f i ndeed t hat g enuinely e xists a t a ll ( e.g. B arnes, 1 971; B loch, 1 977). J ust a s p eople i n t heir d aily l ives r egularly c ategorise a nd c lassify t he c ontinua o f s pace a nd t he m aterial w orld a round t hem i n o rder t o m ake s ense o f t hem ( e.g. L each , 1 982; M iller, 1 982), s o t hey d o w ith t ime a s w ell. T he o pposition b etween d ay a nd n ight, a nd b etween t he s easons i n t emperate z ones, p rovides o bvious m arkers o f t ime. C oncerns f or g roup b eginning i n m yth a nd f or a ncestors i n b urial a re e xamples o f s ocial r ecognition o f t ime b efore a s o pposed t o t ime p resent. T here i s e very r eason t o s uppose t hat p articular i ncidents i n t he p assage o f t ime c ould b e r ecognised a nd v alued a s e vents b y t he p eople i nvolved , a nd b e s ubsequently v enerated a s s uch i n l ater t radition. I ndeed w e m ight s uggest a s imple d istinction b etween i ncident a nd e vent b ased o n t he s ubjective e valuation o f t he p eople i nvolved. T he i ntroduction o f t his s ubjective e lement o f c ourse p oses p roblems f or t he p rehistorian: i s m y a rchaeological e vent m erely a p rehistoric i ncident? I t d oes, h owever, b ring u s c loser t o a m ore s pecific a nd i ndividualising p erspective o n c hange t han a c oncern w ith Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

g eneral p rocess a lone c an d o ( cf. H odder, 1 982a ). S econdly , i t i s i mportant t o r ecognise b oth c ontext a nd e vent, r ather t han e ither w ithout t he o ther. T here h as b een a n u nderstandable t endency i n s ome t raditions o f h istory t o m istrust e vents a nd t o d ecry l 'histoire 6 1 7 nementielle , a s t he F rench c all i t ( which t he r ecent a rchaeological c oncern w ith p rocess m irrors). B raudel h as s uggested t hat " resounding e vents a re o ften o nly m omentary o utbursts, s urface m anifestations o f t hese l arger m ovements a nd e xplicable o nly i n t erms o f t hem" ( 1972, 2 1), a nd a rgues t hat i ndividual t ime h as t o b e s tudied i n c onjunction w ith s ocial t ime a nd g eographical t ime. I t i s n ot c lear, h owever, h ow o ne i s t o i ntegrate t hese d ifferent p erspectives. O ne w ay i s t o a void s imple o ppositions b etween p rocess a nd e vent, b etween t rend a nd m omentary o utburst, b etween s ocial a nd i ndividual t ime ( cf. B ourdieu, 1 977, 1 06) a nd t o t ry t o i ncorporate e vent i nto p rocess a nd p rocess i nto e vent. N ot o nly i s t his k ind o f a pproach m ore h umanist a nd h istorical i n o utlook t han a lternative m odes o f a nalysis o ffered i n m uch r ecent a rchaeological t heory ( for e xample i n s ystems t heory w ith t he m ultiplier e ffect a nd d eviation-amplifying p ositive f eedback o r i n c atastrophe t heory ), b ut i t a lso p ays d irect a ttention t o h uman a ction a nd i ts c onsequences, b oth i ntended a nd u nintended, a nd t hus b egins t o a ccount f or c hange. S ome e vents m ay b e o nly m omentary o utbursts ( incidents?), b ut o thers a re t he m anifestation o f a ction w hich a lters a ll s ubsequent a ction. T he n ext s tep i s t o t ry t o a nalyse w hat s ort o f e vents w e m ay b e d ealing w ith, f or t here i s n o s ense i n s upposing t hat t hey n eed h ave b een i dentical j ust b ecause t hey c an b e d iscussed t ogether u nder t he c ommon h eading o f e nclosures. T he a nswer m ust l ie a gain i n t he r elated a spects o f c onstruction , m aintenance a nd d emise, a nd t he i nterpretative r ange i s e xtremely w ide w hen o ne t akes a ll t hree a spects i nto a ccount. S ome o f t he c ircumstances a nd b ackground o f c onstruction h ave a lready b een r eferred t o, b ut a f ew o ther p oints a re w orth n oting. T he s cale o f l abour i nput i s a n a spect w hich c an b e c ompared o bjectively f rom s ite t o s ite v ia t he v olumes o f d itches a nd s o o n, a nd i t w ould b e i nteresting t o h ave m ore c omparative d ata o n t his f rom t he g rowing b ody o f e vidence a vailable. I t i s n ot p ossible, h owever, t o i nfer t he n ature o f t he l abour o rganisation f rom t he s cale o f l abour i nput a lone. L arge s cale p rojects c an b e i nitiated b y c ommunal d ecisions a s w ell a s b y m ore i ndividual p ressures, a s i n e arly i rrigation s chemes, a nd t here i s t he m asking e ffect o f i deology t o t ake i nto a ccount a s w ell. T he s pecific o n-site o rganisation o f l abour m ay b e i nformative; i t i s n ot a n o riginal p oint, f or e xample, t hat d itch s egments i n s outhern E nglish e nclosures c ould b e t he w ork o f i ndividual g angs d rawn f rom s eparate h ouseholds, k in g roups, c ommunities o r o ther s uch g roupings, a nd c ould m atch t he s egmentary n ature b oth o f c hambers i n t ombs a nd c onstructional b ays d efined b y w attle f encing u nder e arthen l ong b arrows. c onsider i s t he n ature o f t he s ite t hus T he s econd a spect t o T oo m uch a rgument i n t he p ast h as b een c reated a nd m aintained. d evoted t o t he q uestion o f t he e xclusive f unctions o f i ndividual s ites, a s i f p articular e nclosures c ould o nly b e r itual, o r o nly s ettlements, a nd s o o n. I n m any r espects t his h as b een a s terile rofitable t o s et o ut s ome o f t he w ide d ebate, a nd i t i s m ore p p ossibilities i nvolved, t o o bserve t he n umerous a ctivities v isible a t m any e nclosures, a nd t o c onsider t he i mplications o f t he c ombinations t hus o bserved. W e m ay s et o ut s ome o f t his s chematically a s f ollows:Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

A ctivities a nd i ntentions

S ymbolic e xclusion/inclusion P ractical e xclusion/inclusion -

s pace p eople a nimals r itual e tc.

F ocus f or a ctivities -

s ettlement a gricultural p roduction e xchange c onsumption p ublic r itual, i nc. b urial e tc.

P resent

I n

t ogether

p ermanent

o r

o r

e mphasised

t emporary

s eparately

( including s easonal) u se

T his u sefully i ndicates t he v ery w ide r ange o f a ctivities t hat c an b e p redicted a t e nclosures i n t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge o f c entral a nd w estern E urope, a nd t he o ther p apers i n t his v olume p rovide c ase s tudies a nd o bservations o f m ost o f t hem, f rom p robable s ettlement e nclosures, a s a t B erry-au-Bac i n t he A isne v alley, t o a ttack a nd d estruction a s a t H ambledon H ill a nd C rickley H ill, t o s uggested r itual e nclosure a t S arup a nd e lsewhere. I n v iew o f t he d iversity d escribed e lsewhere i n t he v olume, I s hould l ike t o c oncentrate b riefly o n t hree a spects: t he r elationship o f a ctivities t o t he q uestion o f s ite s tatus o r c ategory , t he l ongevity a nd d emise o f e nclosures, a nd t he n ature o f r itual. W ithout a f ar b etter k nowledge o f o ther f orms o f c ontemporary s ettlement i t i s d ifficult i n m ost c ases t o e valuate t he s tatus o f i ndividual e nclosures. M any a ccounts o f t hese ( and i ndeed o f o ther l ater p rehistoric s ettlement p atterns) t end t o a ssume t hat t here i s a c learly o bservable h ierarchy o f s tatus a nd f unction, w ith n otions d erived f rom g eographical " central p lace" t heory e ither e xplicitly o r i mplicitly i n m ind ( e.g. C larke, 1 972, f ig. 1 2). F ollowing t his a im , o ne c ould s uggest t hat i n m any c ases t he s tatus o f i ndividual e nclosures i ncreases a s t he n umber o f a ctivities r epresented a t t hem g oes u p. T hus a n e nclosure w here p ractical a nd s ymbolic a spects w ere c ombined, w here r itual w as p ractised a nd c ontrolled a s w ell a s d omestic a ffairs c onducted, w here a gricultural p roduction w as m anaged a nd c onsumption o f h igh-status g oods w as d isplayed, w ould o n t his a rgument b e o f h igher s tatus t han o ne w here f ewer o f t hese a ctivities w ere c ombined. A c orollary o f t his m ight b e t he d egree o f p hysical s eparation o f s uch a ctivities w ithin a n e nclosure c omplex a s aw hole, w ith s eparation d enoting p ossibly g reater s tatus o verall. H ambledon H ill i s a n o bvious e xample t o c onsider f rom t his p oint o f v iew. T he a dvantage o f t his s ort o f p erspective i s t hat i t a llows o ne t o m ove t he d iscussion i n m any c ases f rom e ither/or c hoices t o m ore Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 9 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

i nteresting l evels. F or e xample, i t m ay i n m any c ases b e m ore i nteresting t o a sk u nder w hat c onditions r itual c ould b e c onducted, b y w hom a nd f or w hat p urpose, t han t o h ave t o d ecide w hether a p articular s ite w as e xclusively r itual i n c haracter. O n t he o ther h and i t m ay b e d angerous t o s eek o nly c entral, h igh-order s ites w ith m ultiple f unctions. T he n otion o f a c lear s ettlement h ierarchy m ay b e i nappropriate f or m any a reas i n t his p eriod, a nd h igh s tatus o r i mportance m ay b e e qually c ompatible w ith a s pecialised r ole. T he p reviously d iscussed n otion o f e vent i s a lso r elevant h ere; i t i s o bviously e asier t o a ssert t he e vent-like c haracter o f a n e nclosure c onstruction w ith f ewer r ather t han m ore a ctivities o bservable. T his q uestion c an a lso b e a pproached b y c onsideration o f t he l ongevity a nd d emise o f e nclosures. T here i s a gain c onsiderable d iversity i n t he d uration o f p articular e nclosures, a s s een t hrough d itch f ill, m aterial c ulture, r adiocarbon d ating , i nterior f eatures a nd s o o n. I t c an a lso b e d ifficult t o e stablish. I n a n e arlier p aper I s uggested t hat t he p articular a rgument f or a s hort d uration f or s outhern E nglish E arlier N eolithic e nclosures b ased o n s upposed d eliberate b ackfilling c ould b e c ountered b y o ther i nterpretations o f b ank a nd d itch s ilting f avouring g reater p ermanence ( Whittle, 1 977b ). R ecent e xcavations h ave t ended t o s upport t he n otion o f w ell-built a nd l onger-lived b anks. O ne c an a lso c ite a c ase l ike A bingdon w here t he r adiocarbon d ates a t f ace v alue s uggest c onsiderable l ongevity ( Avery, 1 982), b ut w hen t hese a re l ooked a t m ore c losely i t i s n oticeable t hat t he e arlier d ates a re b ased o n c harcoal s amples, a nd t he l ater o nes o n b one. T hough t here i s a s tratigraphic s equence, t he s pread o f d ates m ight b e i llusory , a s t he e xcavator h as n oted. L ooking n ow a t t he e nclosures i n t his a rea a nd p eriod, I w ould l ike t o r isk t he g eneralisation t hat t he m ajority w ere s horterr ather t han l ongerl ived, a nd t his f its t he s uggestion t hat m any w ere b uilt i n s pecific c ontexts a nd c an b e s een a s s pecific e vents, r ather t han a s g eneralised, u nchanging p arts o f s tatic s ettlement s ystems. T his i s n ot t o d eny t hat s ome e nclosures m ay h ave b een l ong-lived. I s uggested e arlier a lso t hat t he c hange f rom V t o U -shaped d itches c ould b e s een a s p art o f t he t rend t o g reater p ermanence a s t he l atter a re e asier t o m aintain a nd s lower t o s ilt u p ( Whittle, 1 977b ). L ongevity i n s ome c ases m ay b e t he n atural r esult o f a n i mportant r ole i n a n e stablished s ettlement p attern, b ut i n o thers t he e vent o f c onstruction m ay h ave h elped t o c reate a t radition w hich w as r esponsible f or t he m aintenance o f i nterest i n a s ite o ver m any g enerations. T wo s outhern E nglish E arlier N eolithic e xamples a re a gain a ppropriate. I n t he i nner d itch a t H ambledon H ill M ercer h as s tressed t he r esemblance o f t he s lot i n t he t ertiary f ill t o t he p rimary l inear, d eliberate d eposit o f a rtefacts, r ubbish a nd h uman r emains, a nd W indmill H ill, t oo, h as m any L ater N eolithic f inds i n t he s econdary a nd t ertiary f ill o f i ts d itches ( Mercer, 1 980; S mith, 1 965). A t b oth s ites t his d eposition m ust h ave b een m ade l ong a fter t he d emise o f t he e nclosures i n t heir o riginal f orm , w ith b anks c onsiderably d egraded. T his k ind o f s ite h istory i s a ctually r ather u nusual, t hough B ritish p rehistorians h ave f or m any y ears b een a ccustomed t o t ake W indmill H ill a s a t ypical t ype s ite. I t d eserves i nvestigation o n aw ider s cale. A nother f actor w hich r equires m uch f urther d iscussion i s t he n ature o f r itual. A gain, t his i s n ot t o i mply t hat r itual i s n ecessarily a d ominant o r e xclusive f eature o f a ll e nclosures. Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.1 0 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F ollowing t he s cheme o ffered e arlier, f or e xample, e xchange a nd t he o n-site c onsumption o f h igh-status g oods m ay i n s ome c ases b e a s i mportant a s r itual a ctivities. T he s ymbolic a spect o f e nclosures c an a lso b e s eparated u sefully f rom t he r itual a spect f or t he p urposes o f t his d iscussion, a nd t oo l ittle a ttention h as b een d evoted t o t his. N ote, h owever, t hat b oth t he c ommunication o f i nformation a nd " magical b ehaviour" h ave b een c lassed a s r itual b y L each ( 1966). I t s eems t o m e t hat t he s ymbolism o f e xclusion a nd i nclusion o n t he k ind o f s cale w e h ave b een d iscussing i s l ikely t o h ave b een p otent i ndeed. I f d omestic i nteriors c an b e s een t o p resent s ymbolic m aps o f t heir o ccupants' s ocial r elationships ( e.g. H odder, 1 982b; L each, 1 982), t hen e nclosures t oo m ay h ave h ad s imilar s ignificance i n m arking o ut a nd s tructuring t heir u sers' w orld. T urner, f or e xample, s uggests t hat t hree s ignificant p roperties o f r itual s ymbols a re c ondensation, u nification a nd p olarisation o f m eanings, a nd t hat s ymbols i nstigate s ocial a ction ( 1967, 2 8, 3 6). A t l east s ome p ast d iscussions o f e nclosures a s " ritual", i n t he s ense o f n on-domestic, m ay h ave b een i ntended t o c over t his s ymbolic a spect, b ut i t i s i mportant t o r ecognise h ow t his r ole c an b e c ombined w ith o thers a t t he s ame s ite. W hen w e c ome t o r itual i tself, t he f irst q uestion t o f ace i s i ts d efinition , a nd t he s econd i s t he a rchaeological r esidue f rom r itual a ction: T hese a re n ot e asy p roblems, t hough m any d iscussions o f e nclosures ( and o ther m atters) h ave a ssumed t hat t hey a re. A nthropol ogical d efinitions, s uch a s e xist, r ange f rom a d istinction b etween w hat i s s acred a nd w hat i s p rofane, t he s acred c ontaining b oth p ure a nd i mpure ( Durkheim, 1 912), t o a n otion o f h ighly f ormalised r epetitive a ction ( Goody , 1 972; B loch, 1 974). A ll s uch d efinitions s eem t o b e t o ad egree r elative, s ince t here i s n o s ingle e asily i dentifiable c ategory o f h uman a ction w hich t he t erm r itual d enotes. I t i s p ossible t o e nvisage s ocieties t horoughly i mmersed w ith b eliefs o f p urity a nd i mpurity , t he s acred a nd t he p rofane, w hich w ill a ffect a ll t he a ctions o f t heir m embers, a nd t hese a ctions c an t herefore i n t heir t urn b e s een a s a ll s tylised a nd r epetitive ( cf. L each, 1 954). W hat s eems t o b e o f i nterest t o p rehistorians i s t he e xistence o f p articular c ategories o f r itual a ction t hemselves e pisodic o r e ventl ike, i n t he f orm o f c eremonies a nd s o o n, i n w hich c onsciousness i s i ntensified a nd h eightened. T hus o ne m ight h ope o n t he o ne h and t o c ontrast t he s tructuring o f d aily a ctivities, a s i n t he f ormalised u se o f d omestic i nteriors o r t he f ormalised d eposition o f d omestic r ubbish ( e.g. H odder, 1 982b; M oore, 1 982) w ith p articular g atherings, e pisodes a nd r ites d e p assage w ith a n e xplicitly r itual m ode o f c ommunication ( Bloch, 1 977). T hese l atter w ould s eem t o t ake m any f orms, f rom d ancing a nd s inging, t o f easting, a nd t o t he m anufacture a nd u se o f a ppropriate m aterial s ymbols. T hese m ight a lso h ave a p ublic o r a p rivate a rena. I n t erms o f s ignificance f or t he p articipants, t he d istinction b etween t wo s orts o f r itual t hus w idely c ontrasted c ould b e s een a s a nalogues t o t he d istinction b etween c ontinuum a nd e vent, a s l ong a s t he t wo a re s een a s l inked. I n t erms o f a rchaeological r esidue h owever, t here a re s everal p roblems. D aily a ctivities m ay h ave y ielded m ore a rchaeol ogical r esidue t han e pisodic r ites, a nd w e a re l iable t o b e m isled b y o ur e xpectations o f c ontext. F or e xample, i f w e d efine e nclosures a s r itual b ecause o f t he u nusual a nd p atterned d eposition o f f inds i n t heir d itches ( as a t H ambledon H ill, s ay ), d oes t he v ery s tructured d eposition o f r ubbish i n b orrow p its f lanking L BK h ouses ( as a t C uiry-

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

l es-Chaudardes i n t he A isne v alley: I lett, p ers. c omm.) m ean t hat t hese b uildings a re l ikewise r itual? T he d efinition o f r itual, t hen, a t e nclosures r isks b eing r estricted t o n egative c riteria, s uch a s a l ack o f d efence o r a l ack o f o ccupation. P erhaps w e a re d ealing w ith a d ifference o f s cale a nd a lso w ith d iffering a renas i n w hich r itual a ctivities a re c arried o ut. T he i mportance o f t he l ong-house, f or e xample, m ay h ave b een s ymbolised n ot o nly i n i ts m assive o ver-design b ut h ave b een r egularly r einforced b y s tructured d epositions. T he i mpact o f t his a ctivity i s h owever r estricted t o h ousehold o r h amlet ( and o ccasionally v illage). E nclosures m ay h ave b een i mportant f or p roviding a l arger a rena w ith a w ider a udience. S tructured d epositions m ight b e o nly m ore s ignificant a t t hem i n t his l ight a nd t he s ymbolism o f d ivisions o f s pace c ould h ave b een a s p otent, a s a lready d iscussed. T o s ummarise, b oth d aily a nd e pisodic r itual m ust b e c onsidered, b ut s ince t heir a rchaeological r esidues m ay b e r ather s imilar, i t i s t he a rena o r c ontext i n w hich t hey a re c arried o ut t hat i s l ikely t o b e o f g reatest i nterest t o a rchaeologists. S o f ar t he d iscussion h as o nly b een c oncerned w ith t he d efinition o f t he n ature o f r itual, b ut i t i s t ime t o r elate i t t o t he n otion o f e vents. T his c an b e a ttempted b y c onsidering t he p ossible r ole o r r oles o f r itual a ction i n s ociety. T his i s f rom t he f unctionalist v iewpoint, i n t he s ense t hat o ne s phere o f a ction i s b elieved t o b e i n s ome w ay c onnected t o o thers ( even t hough i t n eed n ot i nvolve t he a nalogy o f s ociety a s a n o rganism: c f. G iddens, 1 979, 6 0-1), b ut i t i s s alutary t o n ote t hat o ther a pproaches t o s ome e xtent b y-pass t he q uestion o f r ole. L each, f or e xample, d enies t hat r itual h as a ny c learly i dentifiable r epresentative s ocial r ole, a nd c onsiders c osmology a s a n e xpression o f h uman c reativity, t hough w ith i nteresti ng t ransformations o f r eal-life e xperience ( 1982, 1 32, 2 13). H ere, h owever, t he i nterest i s i n w hat i s b eing e xpressed a nd w hy. A s a lready n oted a bove, t he f orm o f r itual m ay b e e ither p rivate o r p ublic, a nd c oncerned w ith e ither i ndividuals o r c ollective b odies. T his n eed n ot l ead t o t he e quations p rivate=individual a nd p ublic=collective, t hough M alinowski f or o ne p ut g reat s tress o n t he g enerally c ollective a nd p ublic n ature o f r ituals ( 1954, 6 6). T he c oncerns o f r ituals a re v ast. O ne m ay n ote m ajor c oncerns w ith i nitiations a nd r ites o f p assage; w ith t he p assing o f s easons, p reparation f or t he a gricultural y ear a nd h arvest; a lso w ith s pirits, t otems, t he d ead a nd a ncestors. T here a re o ther i mportant c oncerns t oo, s uch a s w itchcraft ( Mair, 1 969, 6 5-75) a nd a ffliction ( Turner, 1 968). A c ommon t heme i n m any o f t hese c oncerns, t o r isk a nother g eneralisation, s eems t o b e a c oncept o f t ime. T his c an i n t urn t ake t wo f orms, o ne e mphasising t he p assage o f t ime, t he o ther c reating a s ense o f t imelessness, e ither b y i gnoring t he p ast o r b y f using t he p ast w ith t he p resent ( cf. B loch, 1 977). T here s eems t o b e s ome s ort o f a nthropological c onsensus a t a v ery g eneral l evel t hat r itual i s a s pecial f orm o f e xpression w hich c ommunicates t o b oth p articipants a nd o bservers. R itual p rovides s ymbolic a nd c onceptual o rder a nd r edefini tion. D ouglas s uggests t hat r itual i s " an a ttempt t o c reate a nd m aintain a p articular c ulture, a p articular s et o f a ssumptions b y w hich e xperience i s c ontrolled" ( 1970, 1 53), a nd T urner t hat " ritual i s ap eriodic r estatement o f t he t erms i n w hich m en o f a p articular c ulture m ust i nteract i f t here i s t o b e a ny k ind o f c oherent s ocial l ife" ( 1968, 6 ). T here h as a lso b een a n i nfluential v iew o f r itual a s c oncerned s pecifically w ith c onflict a nd c risis, t hough t his h as r anged f rom t he n otion o f s ociety e mbodying t he s acred, a s a gainst t he Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 2 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

p rofane, t o p rovide m oral o rder ( Durkheim, 1 912) t o m ore i ndividual l ife-crises ( e.g. M alinowski, 1 954; T urner, 1 967). A d ifferent p erspective i s o ffered i n t he v iew t hat c oncepts o f t he p ast s trongly i nfluence t he a mount o f r itual p ractised i n a s ociety , t hus o ffering t ime r ather t han s ocial o r i ndividual s tress a s a k ey f actor ( Bloch, 1 977). I t m ay b e s afest t o e nd w ith t he b roadest s ort o f d efinition, f or e xample t hat o ffered b y S piro ( 1966, 1 09) w hen h e d iscusses r eligion a s c oncerned w ith t hree s orts o f d esires: c ognitive, s ubstant ive a nd e xpressive , w hose f ulfilment h e s uggests h ave r espectively a djustive, a daptive a nd i ntegrative f unctions. W hatever t he d efinition o r d efinitions p referred, i t s eems t hat w e c an t reat r itual a s a n a ctive c onstituent o f s ocial l ife a nd n ot a s a s eparate, s elfc ontained, p assive o r r eflective c ategory. B ecause o f t his, r itual c an a lso b e s een a s o pen t o m anipulation o r t o s pecific u se i n s pecial c ircumstances ( cf. T urner, 1 974, 5 5-7). T his, t ogether w ith t he f requent c oncern f or t ime i n r itual, m akes i t f urther a ppropriate t o c onsider t he f oundation a nd m aintenance o f m any e nclosures, w here a nd i f r itual a ctivity c an b e d ocumented a s w ell a s s ymbolic d emarcation o f s pace, a s a n e vent o r s eries o f e vents. E nclosure i tself m ay r egularly h ave s ymbolised a m arking o ut o f t he w orld, a nd m any r ituals w ould a lso b e a ppropriate f or m arking t he p assage o f t ime. I n - t he l ast p art o f t his p aper I w ant f inally t o c onsider b riefly t he p ossible s ignificance o f t he a llegedly d istinctive w est-central E uropean d istribution o f e nclosures. T he a bove d iscussion h as s uggested t hat e nclosures a re i nteresting f or t he e vidence t hey o ffer a bout m any a spects - s ocial c ooperation a nd c onflict, t he n ature o f s ettlement, r itual, a nd a s ense o f b oundedness. I t h as a lso s uggested t hat t hey a re i n m any w ays a menable t o b eing s een a s e vents i n t he h istorical p rocess. T heir g reatest s ignificance m ay l ie i n a iding a m ore s pecific, h istorical p erspective o n t he E uropean N eolithic a nd C opper A ge. T hey a re b ecoming a p articularly i mportant p art o f t he e vidence f or s eeing m uch m ore i ndividualised t rajectories o f c hange t han h as b een p ossible b efore, b oth w ithin w est-central E urope a nd w ithin E urope a s a w hole. T hus w ithin w est-central E urope b y t he l ater t hird m illennium b c o ne m ay c ontrast n umbers o f d ifferent s ituations, s uch a s t he s mall d efensive e nclosures i n B ohemia a nd M oravia, t he l apse o f e arlier r itual e nclosures i n t he T RB a rea, a nd t he f lourishing o f s ometimes v ery l arge r itual e nclosures i n m uch o f B ritain. T he c ontrast w ith t he B alkans m ay a lso b e i nstructive. T aking t he p resent e vidence a t f ace v alue, i t d oes n ot s eem, b y a nd l arge, t hat e nclosures w ere a ppropriate i n t he s ystem o f t ell s ettlem ents. C ertain t ells m ay t hemselves h ave s erved a s f oci f or s ocial a nd r itual c ontrol ( cf. C hapman, 1 981). T his p erspective l eads n aturally a nd s atisfactorily t o m any o ther q uestions. T here i s a n eed t o s tudy t he r elationship o f e nclosures t o s ettlement d ispersal i n g reater d etail, a nd t o a ssess f urther t he d uration o f, a nd a ctivities a t, i ndividual e nclosures. A nd n ow t hat t he s tudy o f e nclosures i s c oming o f a ge t o j oin t hat o f t he o lder s ibling m egalithic t ombs, t here a re f ascinating q uestions c oncerning t he p artial o verlap o f t heir t wo d istinctive d istributions. UviS trauss ( 1966; c f. B arnes, 1 971, 5 43) h as r eferred t o t he a nthropol ogist's t ask a s " a q uestion o f s etting u p a n i nventory o f m ental e nclosures, o f r educing a pparently a rbitrary d ata t o o rder, o f r eaching a l evel w here n ecessity r eveals i tself a s i mmanent i n t he

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

i llusions o f f reedom". I f w e s ubstitute p hysical f or m ental e nclosures, t he p rehistorian c an s hare t he f irst t wo a ims b ut s et o ff d own a m ore h istorical p ath i n r eaction t o t he t hird.

A cknowledgements

( May 1 984)

I t hank t he B ritish A cademy a nd t he C zechoslovak A cademy o f S ciences f or t he o pportunity t o v isit C zechoslovakia i n 1 983, a nd a ll t hose C zech c olleagues w ho m ade t he v isit s o i nformative. Ih ave h eard w ith p rofit r ecent l ectures o n r itual b y N ick T horpe a nd C olin R ichards, a nd o n t ime b y T im I ngold , a nd h ave b enefited f rom d iscussion w ith M ary B raithwaite. T he f aults t hat r emain a re m y o wn.

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i n n orth-west

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

2 : F ROM " SPACE" T O " PLACE": A M ODEL O F D ISPERSED S ETTLEMENT A ND N EOLITHIC S OCIETY

J . C hapman " Every m an a p roperty o wner, n ot o ne a m aster" ( Victor H ugo )

I ntroduction

I t i s f itting t o b egin a n e ssay o n t he s ocial a nd e thological b ackground t o e nclosures a nd d efences w ith a n e galitarian t ag. F or w hilst p roperty b ecomes a k ey c oncept f or t he f irst t ime w ith t he o nset o f f arming s ocieties, t here i s l ittle e vidence i n t he N eolithic o f n orthern a nd w estern E urope f or h ierarchical s ocieties o r t he d omination o f o ne c ommunity b y a nother. W ithin t hese e ssentially e galitarian s ocieties, t he c onstruction o f e nclosed a nd d efended s ites i n t he E uropean N eolithic c an b e u nderstood a s a n i ntensification a nd a f ormalisation o f t he u se o f c ertain s paces i n t he l andscape, d irectly p arallel t o t he i ncreasing f ormalisation o f m ortuary b ehaviour a s r epresented b y m egalithic b urial. T o d efine s pecific r easons f or t he c hoice o f p articular s paces r ather t han o thers ( the l ocational a spect o f s ettlement a rchaeology ) i s n ot m y a im; s uch d etailed s tudies a re p erforce b est a ccomplished a t t he r egional l evel a nd a re a nyway w ell r epresented i n t his v olume ( e.g. I lett, S carre, S tarling ). R ather, m y p urpose i s t o i nvestigate t he w ay i n w hich s pace i s u sed b y ( mostly h uman ) a nimals a nd e xplore h ow " space" i s t ranslated i nto " place" b y h uman g roups. T his d iscussion w ill i nevitably t ouch u pon t hose e motive t erms " territoriality", d efence, a nd a ggression. L ater, t he r elationship b etween o ccupation s ites i n a l argely d ispersed s ettlement p attern a nd t he r elations b etween s uch s ites a nd e nclosed a nd d efended s ites w ill b e o utlined, t ogether w ith a d iscussion o f b reeding a nd i nformation n etworks i n d ispersed s ettlem ent p atterns. T he o rientation o f t his p aper i s a vowedly t heoretical. I n i t, I a ttempt t o c onstruct am odel o f t he u se o f " space" a nd " place" b y e arly f arming c ommunities i n n orthern, w estern a nd w est-central E urope. T he f ocus o f t he m odel i s o n d ispersed s ettlement p atterns, a t ype o f s ettlement s tructure o f l asting i mportance i n t hese a reas i n m uch o f t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia b c. A s w ith m ost t heoretical m odels, n o e xact c orrespondence w ith e mpirical d ata f rom a g iven t ime o r p lace s hould b e e xpected; t esting o f t he h ypotheses f ormulated f rom s uch ag eneral m odel s hould t ake p lace w ithin a r egional f ramework o f s ettlement, b urial a nd a rtefact s tudies a nd t hereby a c luster o f r egional m odels m ay b e g enerated t o p rovide e xplanations o f t he p rimary d ata. S uch a g eneral m odel m ay a llow u s t o e scape f rom a llt oo-frequent i mmersion i n t he s tudy o f s urface c ultural v ariability a nd p roject t houghts o n t o t he i mportance o f t he u nderlying s tructural p rinciples g overning t he b ehaviour o f s mall-scale a cephalous c ommuni ties o f e arly f armers.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and 2 1 Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F rom " Space" t o " Place" F or o ver a d ecade, t he " spatial p aradigm" h as s erved t o u nify d iverse i nterests i n s patial p atterning i n a rchaeological d ata a nd r elated s patial p rocesses ( Clarke, 1 977; H odder a nd O rton, 1 976 ). B ut i n c ommon w ith t he s patial t ours d e f orce o f " New G eography" ( Haggett, 1 965), s patial m odellers i n a rchaeology h ave i gnored p rocess t o t he d etriment o f p attern a nd c larified t he u niversal w hilst c asting o ut t he d evil o f " the i ndividual" ( cf. P eet, 1 977). A n a lternative p ath t o s patial u nderstanding i s d erived f rom t he s tudy o f m an-environment r elations ( Doxiadis, 1 968; E sser, 1 971; F letcher, 1 978; H illier e t a l., 1 978; R apoport, 1 976a; 1 976b ). I n t his c ognitive a pproach t o s pace, t he m ost i mportant u nderlying q uestion c oncerns h ow s pace c ontributes t o t he o rganisation o f m eaning f or h uman s ocieties. W hat f ollows i s a n e volutionary s ketch o f t he s trategies w hich d ifferent t ypes o f s ocieties u se t o g ive m eaning t o t heir e nvironment. I n e thological s tudies ( McBride a nd C lancy , 1 976) i t h as b een p roposed t hat m ost a nimals ( especially p rimates) a nd n umerous h unterg atherer s ocieties f ormulate a " social" o rganisation o f t he e ntire n atural e nvironment. T his " social" o rganisation c onsists o f a dding s ocial p roperties t o e very p art o f t he t errain a nd i dentifying e very p lace' i n r elationship t o i ts s uitability f or d ifferent a ctivities ( e.g. h unting, g athering, c eremonial, s leeping ). A ny c hange i n t he d esign o f t heir s ocial e nvironment d epends f ully o n f unctional c onsiderations. T he b estowing o f s ocial p roperties o n t he u nbuilt e nvironment l ies a t t he h eart o f w hat M ary D ouglas ( 1972) c alls " the o rganisation o f t hought a nd s ocial r elations a s i mprinted o n t he l andscape". T he s ocial p roperties o f p laces a re i n f act b ased o n r elations b etween p eople. A s pace i s s uitable f or a " function". T hrough t he p ersonal r elations c reated t o p erform t hat a ctivity , t he " space" b ecomes a " place" - t hat i s, a s ingle u nit o f f unction a nd s ocial c ontext. T he o rganisation o f s pecific b ehaviour i s r elated t o t he c ontexts o f " place", w hilst t he r elationship b etween t hese p laces a nd t he t otal e nvironment h as a n e ffect o n t he g eneral o rganisation o f b ehaviour. I n t his s ense, t he s ocial e nvironment i s n ever o utside, o r o pposed t o , m an b ut r ather t he e nvironment b ecomes a s ocial p roperty o f t he o rganism. I t i s a s hort s tep f rom f amiliarity w ith a p lace t o r ecognition o f t hat p lace a nd, u ltimately , i dentity w ith i t. I f i dentity i s a s ocial p roperty o f p eople, c onferred b y o ther p eople, t hen i dentity c an b e f ostered b y t he u sed e nvironment, a s t he p hysical a nd s ocial c ontext o f h uman a ctivity . A f inal s tep, i n t he i mprinting o f m eaning o n t he l andscape i s t he n otion o f e xclusive i dentity w ith p lace t erritoriality ( see b elow ). S uch a s trategy f or t he c reation o f a s ocial e nvironment f or h unter-gatherer s ocieties i s b ased o n w ide u se o f f airly l arge u sed a reas o f l and, w ith c oncomitantly l ow o verall p opulation d ensities. A s b oth r egional a nd l ocal p opulation d ensities i ncrease w ith t he o nset o f f arming s ocieties, i t i s l ikely t hat t he l ow-level u se o f t he e ntire l andscape w ill b e c omplemented b y m ore i ntensive u se o f l ocali sed h ome b ases. T he d ifference b etween s ites a nd n on-sites i s r einforced b y t he c onstruction o f m ore p ermanent b uildings a nd o ther Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 2 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

s tructures o n t he f ormer, w hich a ttracted aw ider r ange o f u ses t han t he l andscape a s aw hole. T he d evelopment o f t he b uilt e nvironment, e ven i n s imple p rehistoric e xamples, g reatly e xtends t he p ossibilities o f m aking t he h uman p erceptual s ystem v isible a nd p rompts a r ange o f q uestions c oncerned w ith s patial a nd s ocial v ariables ( Fletcher, 1 977; 1 978; H illier e t a l., 1 978). H all ( 1962) h as a rgued t hat m an i s u nique i n c reating c onceptual s pace - t he t otal s patial i nformation p roduced b y w ay o f r ules, c odes a nd t heories f or c oping m ore e ffectively w ith t he p hysical a nd s ocial e nvironment. F or e arly f armers, t he c reation o f s imple b uilt e nvironments ( farms, t ombs, e nclosures, e tc.) i ncreases t he c omplexity o f t heir c onceptual s pace. R oot ( 1983) h as s uggested t hat t he r egular p resentation o f i nformation o n s uch n on-portable i tems v iolates t he e galitarian s ociety 's r ule o f f luid a nd o pen f low o f i nformation i n f avour o f c ontrol o f i nformation b y l ocal l eaders. I n l ater h ierarchical s ocieties, i n w hich t he b uilt e nvironment i s p erhaps t he d ominant s patial f ramework f or u rban p opulations, t he c omplexity o f s patial i nformation i s s o g reat t hat t here i s n o l onger a h omogenous p icture f or a ll s ocial c lasses o r g roups. A n i mportant n otion f or s uch c omplex s ocieties i s t he D urkheimian c oncept o f s ocial s pace - t he s ocial e nvironment o r g roup s etting i ndependent o f t he p hysidal s etting ( cf. B uttimer, 1 969). I n h is c lassic s tudy o f P aris, C hambart d e L auwe ( 1952) m ade t he d istinction b etween t wo t ypes o f s ocial s pace - t he o bjective a nd t he s ubjective. T he f ormer h e d efined a s " the s patial f ramework i n w hich g roups l ive" w hile " space a s p erceived b y t he m embers o f p articular h uman g roups" c onstituted t he l atter. D e L auwe c learly e stablished t hat o bjective a nd s ubjecti ve s ocial s pace o ften f ailed t o c oincide i n P aris. I n t he e thnographic r ecord, t here i s a s trong t endency f or t he d iscrepancy b etween o bjective a nd s ubjective s ocial s pace t o i ncrease i n p rogressively m ore c omplex s ocieties ( Fraser, 1 968; R apoport, 1 976b ). H ence t he a ssumption w ill b e m ade h ere t hat t he d egree o f f it b etween t hese t wo f acets o f s ocial s pace w ill h ave b een v ery c onsiderable i n p rehistoric c ontexts, i f n ever r eaching c oincidence. T he i mplications o f t his m odel o f s patial o rganisation f or N eolithic e nclosed a nd d efended s ites a re m any a nd v aried. T he f irst c oncerns t he i ntensification o f a ctivities i n r estricted a reas, e ither f armsteads, t ombs, o r e nclosures. T his c oncentration o f a ctivities i mplies t he d evelopment o f a p lace-based w orld-view a t a n e arly s tage o f t he N eolithic, i n w hich a s pecial s ocial i dentity i s g iven b oth b y t he h uman b uilders t o t he m onuments a nd b y t he m onument t o t he a ctivities t aking p lace o n t he s ite. I t i s t his r eciprocal i dentity b etween t he b uilt e nvironment a nd t he h uman c ommunities w hich b etokens a s ingle u nit o f f unction a nd c ontext - a f usion o f b ehaviour a nd s ocial s etting. S econdly , t his p lace-based v iew o f t he e arlier N eolithic i s r elated t o a c hange i n t he r elationship b etween f orm a nd f unction f rom h unter-gatherer t o f arming c ontexts. W hilst h unter-gatherers c onstitu ted t heir e nvironment p rimarily w ith f unctional c onsiderations i n m ind , t he d evelopment o f t he b uilt e nvironment m odifies t he i ntimate m atching o f f orm a nd f unction. H uman s tructures t end t o a ssume g eneral r ather t han s pecific s uitability f or f unctions - h ence m any b uildings a re m ulti-purpose a nd c an c ope w ith a w ide v ariety o f Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a ctivities. T his i s p articularly t rue o f e nclosed s ites, w here a ny f ormalist n otion o f a n i dentity b etween f orm a nd f unction i s h ard t o s upport ( Smith, 1 966; D rewett, 1 977; H edges, 1 978). L astly , a ny C artesian d uality b etween " ritual" a nd " secular" i nterpretations o f p rehistoric " space", s tructures o r a rtefacts s hould b e f irmly r ejected. P lace a nd s pace, a s S aile ( 1977-78) h as r emarked, c an b e d efined c onceptually , b ehaviourally a nd p hysically , m uch a s o bjects c an b e c ategorised a ccording t o a h ierarchy o f m eanings ( concrete o bject - u se o bject - v alue o bject - s ymbolic o bject). T he t ask o f t he a rchaeologist i s s urely t o r econstruct t he f ullest p ossible h ierarchy o f m eanings f rom p hysical r emains o f s pace, p lace, a nd o bjects. F inally , w herever p ermanent s ites o ccur i n t he l ands cape, i t i s l ikely t hat t here w ill b e i ncreased s tructuring i n t he f low o f i nformation a cross s ocial s pace. I f i t i s a ccepted , p ace M oore ( 1981; 1 983) t hat i nformation u nderpins t he c onfigurations o f s ocial r elations, t his s tructuring o f i nformation b ears i mportant c onsequences f or c ontemporary s ocial o rganisation.

T erritoriality a nd D efence D espite a d ecline i n t he i nfluence o f t he p roponents o f i nnate h uman a ggression a nd t erritoriality ( Ardrey, 1 966; L orenz, 1 966; M orris, 1 969), d ebates o n d efence a nd t erritories s till h ave a t endency t o s hed m ore h eat t han l ight o n l ong-term h uman b ehaviour. I n a nimal e thology , t erritoriality h as b een d efined a s " possession a nd d efence b ehavior", w ith t erritoriality a nd t he u se o f d ominance h ierarchies r epresenting t wo p oles o f a b ehavioural c ontinuum ( Greverus, 1 976) - h ence t he f orce o f V ictor H ugo's q uotation. H owever, t he v aried k inship a nd i nstitutional b ehaviour o f h uman g roups i n n o w ay p recludes t he u se o f b oth t erritorial b ehaviour a nd d ominance h ierarchies i n t he s ame c ontext - i ndeed t he c ombination o f b oth s trategies b ecomes o f i ncreasing s ignificance w ith t he e volution o f s ocial c omplexity. H ence t he n eed f or G reverus' ( 1976) a djustment o f t he d efinition o f h uman t erritories t o r ead " areas i n w hich t errit orial b ehaviour g uarantees t he s atisfaction o f t he n eeds f or s ecurity, s timulating a ctivity a nd i dentity". T he s ignificance o f t hese v aried h uman n eeds s hould n ow b e c larified. T he n eed f or s ecurity i s f undamental t o h uman b eings a nd r elates t o v ariables s uch a s p ersonal s afety a nd t he p rotection o f b asic b eliefs ( the d efence o f t he c onceptual/ritual c ore o f t he c ulture) a nd r esources ( structures, f acilities, a nd a rtefacts). F or t he f ollowing d iscussion, t wo a ssumptions a re m ade w hich a re l ater c larified. F irst, N eolithic c ommunities c onstructing e nclosures a nd d efended s ites e xhibit a n a cephalous s ocial o rganisation ( i.e. l acking a ny s igns o f s ocial s tratification ) ( see b elow ). S econdly , i n m ost a reas w here e nclosed a nd d efended s ites o ccur, t here i s am arked t endency t owards d ispersion o f n on-enclosed o ccupation s ites i n t he s ettlement p attern ( see b elow ). T he q uestion o f s ecurity c an b e a pproached f rom t wo v iewpoints, a ggression a nd d efence. I n t erms o f a ggressive b ehaviour, i t h as b een p roposed t hat a cephalous s ocieties f ight b ecause t here i s n o c entral a uthority t o s top t hem ( Hallpike, 1 973; D alton, 1 978). I n t his r espect, t here i s a n i mportant d istinction b etween s ocial h armony a nd Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

s ocial e quilibrium - a s ociety m ay t olerate a h igh l evel o f d isputes a nd s mall-scale a ttacks a nd s till r emain i n e quilibrium. B ut, c ontra D alton ( 1978), t his i s n ot t o s ay t hat a c onstant s tate o f s mall-scale w ar d id o btain b etween N eolithic g roups; v an d er B erghe ( 1978) h as m ade o ut a p ersuasive c ase t hat t he i ncidence o f w ar a nd o ther f orms o f a ggression i s a f unction o f t he e ase w ith w hich b alances o f p ower c an b e d isrupted , e ither b y s uperior t echnology o r b y b etter o rgani sation. T hus, c onflicts b etween i solated f armsteads o r e ven s mall k in g roups o f f armers w ould m ake l ittle d ifference t o t he o verall b alance o f p ower, w hereas a ttacks o n n ucleated s ites w ould p rovide g reater o pportunities f or p lunder, t he p restige a ssociated w ith a s uccessful a ction a nd m odifications i n p olitical a lliances a nd k in n etworks. I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t hat s everal B ritish N eolithic e nclosures r eveal e vidence f or c onflict ( e.g. C rickley H ill: D ixon's c hapter; H ambledon H ill: M ercer's c hapter)'. I t s hould a lso b e r ecalled t hat t wo a nthropological s tudies o f t he m otivation o f w ar i n s ocieties d rawn f rom t he H uman R elations A rea F iles i ndicate a n a scending o rder o f m otives i n t he f orm o f a G utman s cale ( i.e. m otive 2 i s n ever f ound w ithout m otive 1 , m otive 3 w ithout 2 a nd 1 , e tc.) ( Otterbein, 1 970 ):-

1 A

•

2

3

4

d efence

+

s ocial

d efence

+

s ocial

+

e conomic

d efence

+

s ocial

+

e conomic +

p olitical

d efence

+

p lunder

+

p restige +

p olitical c ontrol

d efence

+

p lunder

+

p restige

d efence

+

p lunder

d efence 1

T able 1 ( A a fter W right ,

2

3

4

1 942; B a fter N arol1 a nd D iva1e ,

1 976 )

W hen c onsidering a ggression f rom a d efensive p oint o f v iew , t he t wo-fold e cological p rinciples a re s traightforward. i t m akes s ense t o d efend i f t he r esource i s s ufficiently v aluable t o d efend a nd i f t here i s s ufficient l abour t o d efend t he r esource s uccessfully. T hese t wo p rinciples m ilitate a gainst d efence o f s cattered r esources a nd a ct i n f avour o f t he d efence o f n ucleated r esources s uch a s t hose f ound a t c ertain N eolithic e nclosures ( e.g. t he g rain f ound a t N ess o f G ruting: H illman, 1 981). S imilarly , i f t he r itual c ore o f t he c ulture h as b een g iven " meaning" b y t he c onstruction o f t he m onument, t he d efence o f

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t hat c onceptual c ore w ill b e d efinition o ccur a t t he m onument i tself 2 . N evertheless, w e s hould r ecall F lannery 's ( 1972) c laim t hat t hree s trategies a re a vailable f or t he d efence o f a gricultural l and p ermanent s ettlement, a t erritorial g radient ( from c ore t o p eriphery ) a nd a n i deology o f d escent. I n f act, a s t he f requent i nstances o f c onflict b etween l ineage g roups d emonstrate ( e.g. V ayda, 1 961; 1 974; C hagnon, 1 968), n one o f t hese s trategies p recludes r aids o r s malls cale w arfare o ver c rucial r esources; r ather, t hese s trategies r eflect a spects o f n on-aggressive t erritorial b ehaviour e ach o f w hich r equires f urther d ecision-making f or e scalation i nto d efensive b ehaviour. T he m ere c onstruction b y ad escent g roup o f am egalith o n c orporate l and c annot p reclude r aiding p arties f rom s eeking p restige g oods f rom l ocal s ettlements; t he l ow p robability o f s ignificant c oncentrations o f p lunder o ccurring i n d ispersed s ites i s t he k ey f actor i n t he m ainte nance o f " peace" 3 . S ince t he c ategories o f " stimulating a ctivities" i n N eolithic t imes a re b est l eft t o t he f ertile i magination o f t he r eader, I s hall t urn b riefly t o t he a pparently s ubjective q uestion o f i dentity. S ince t here i s a s y et n o s ound e thological e vidence f or a nimal i dentities ( Greverus, 1 976), t he q uestion o f h uman i dentity l ies f irmly w ithin t he r ealm o f c ulture r ather t han n ature. C olin R enfrew s ummarised t he p osition n eatly w hen h e s tated t hat " it i s p recisely t he r ecognition o f t he g roup t hat g overns g roup b ehaviour" ( Renfrew, 1 977). S ince i t i s c lear t hat g reat f lexibility a nd f luidity o f s ocial n etworks e xists i n t he N eolithic p eriod, t he i dentity o f a ny i ndividual i s d efined b y a r ange o f c ross-cutting r eference g roups c onsanguineous k in, a ffinal k in, f iliation, s odalities, e tc. ( Sahlins, 1 968; A nderson 1 971; F leming, 1 982). T he p roblem f or N eolithic s ocieties i s s imply - t o w hich c ommunities d o m embers o f ad ispersed s ettlement b elong? T he i mplication o f t he p receding d iscussion i s t hat, f or a ny g iven f armstead i n t he N eolithic l andscape , t he n otion o f t erritoriali ty i n a ny s patial o r b ehavioural s ense i s e xtremely l imited: s patially l imited t o a s mall a rea o f l and s ufficient f or b asic f ood p roduction 4 t hrough p ermanent o r c yclic a griculture; b ehaviourally l imited b ecause o f t he m ultiplicity o f c ross-cutting s ocial t ies, o nly s ome o f w hich a re p lace-based. T wo c lasses o f m onument r epresent t he c ontribution o f g roups o f d ispersed f armers t o w ider a lliances a nd n etworks - m onumental t ombs a nd s hrines, a nd e nclosed a nd d efended s ites. I n a s timulating m odel, C olin R enfrew ( 1976) h as p roposed t he h ypothesis t hat E uropean m egaliths s erved a s t erritorial m arkers f or s egmentary N eolithic s ocieties. T hree a rchaeological c riteria f or s egmentary s ocieties a re i dentified ( 1976, 2 05): ( i ) r egularly s paced a nd/or d ispersed s ettlement, ( ii) t he t erritories o f s uch d ispersed s ites a re g enerated b y a ctivities o f t he l ocal g roups r ather t han s pecialised t erritorial b ehaviour o f c ross-cutting g roups, a nd ( iii) t he a bsence o f s patial o r s ocial h ierarchy. W hilst c onditions ( i ) a nd ( iii) a re w ell s upported i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, c riterion ( ii) i s n ot t ested, t he o nus o f p roof f alling o n t hose w ho v iew m egaliths a s t he p roduct o f t erritorial b ehaviour o f c ross-cutting g roups ( 1976, 2 11). I t i s l ikely t hat R enfrew u ndervalues t he i mportance o f c rossc utting a lliances, w hich a ssume p articular i mportance i n t imes o f i mbalance b etween p opulation a nd r esources ( e.g. H arner, 1 970; Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 6 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C hagnon, 1 979). N evertheless, i n v iew o f t he v ery l imited p ossibilities f or t erritorial b ehaviour a t t he l evel o f t he i ndividual ( and p ossibly s hifting) d ispersed f armstead, i t i s l ogical t o l ook t o t he a djacent l evel o f s patial o rganisation t o p rovide a p lace-based t erritorial i dentity - n amely a r itual s ite c onstructed b y , a nd s ervicing t he n eeds o f, s everal d ispersed f armsteads. T he r elationship b etween t hese g roups a nd e nclosed a nd d efended s ites c entres o n t he b roader q uestion o f s ocial a nd p hysical r eproduction o f t he m yriad s mall, c orporate, p lace-based a lliances o n t he b ottom t wo l evels o f t he s ite s ystem. I t i s t hese a lliances w hich f orm t he s tructural l inks b etween t he d ispersed f armsteads a nd t he m ore n ucleated e nclosed s ites. I t i s t herefore i mportant t o e xamine t he r ationale b ehind n ucleated a nd d ispersed s ettlement b efore a ny c onsideration o f t he i ssue o f s ocial a nd p hysical r eproduction i n t hese N eolithic c ommunities.

N ucleation a nd D ispersion B efore d iscussion o f t he b ehavioural a spects o f t he n ucleation d ispersion ( N-D ) c ontinuum, i t i s i mportant t o d efine o ur t erms o f r eference, i f o nly t o c larify w hich E uropean N eolithic s ites f all i nto o ur p urview . R enfrew a nd P oston ( 1979) i dentify t he m id-point b etween d ispersed a nd n ucleated s ettlement a s v illages o f 5 0-1,000 i nhabitants. W hilst t here i s b road e mpirical s upport f or t hese s ize l imits, t he v ariations i n g roup d ynamics f or c ommunities o f 5 0 a nd 1 ,000 m ake f iner d istinctions n ecessary , b oth i n s ize a nd c ommunity s ervices, b ut e specially i n t he c ontinuum o f d ispersed - n ucleated s ettlement. T here a re a lso q uestions o f l ength a nd s easonality o f o ccupation a s r aised b y , i nter a lia , C hang ( 1962) a nd M acNeish ( 1972). I p ropose t o i nclude t hree o f C hang 's s ettlement c ategories:- I A p ermanent y ear-round s ettlement, I B s emi-permanent y ear-round s ettlem ent, a nd I A1 s edentary s easonal s ettlements u sed a s ap ermanent b ase. I e xclude t emporary s easonal s ettlements o f t he r equisite s ize a s l acking t he r esidential w ork-group, a nd l and-holding s tability w hich a re i mportant c orrelates o f n ucleated s ettlement. H ence t he t erm " village" i s d efined a s:" a m ore o r l ess n ucleated s ettlement o ccupied y ear-round, p ermanently o r s emi-permanently , o r s easonally a s a p ermanent b ase, w ith a c ommunity s ize r ange o f 5 0-1,000 a nd a c ommunity s ervice r ange o ften r elated t o i ts s ize." O n t his b asis, i t i s f air t o c onclude t hat t he m ajority o f t he N eolithic p opulations w hich c oalesced t o c onstruct m onumental s hrines a nd e nclosed a nd d efended s ites d welt i n s mall, s hort t erm d ispersed o ccupation s ites. B y c ontrast, m any o f t he e nclosed a nd d efended s ites d escribed e lsewhere i n t his v olume p rovide e vidence o f o ccupat ion c ontemporary w ith t he e xternal e nclosing b anks, w alls o r d efences ( e.g. C am nB rea a nd H ambledon H ill: s ee M ercer; C rickley H ill: s ee D ixon; C hamp D urand: s ee J oussaume; B erry-au-Bac: s ee D ubouloz a nd I lett; M achecoul: s ee L 'Helgouach; N oyen: s ee M ordant, C . a nd D .; t he G algenburg: s ee O ttaway ). T he l ength, s easonality, a nd p recise n ature o f s uch o ccupations a re a ll t oo r arely c lear, h owever, a nd i t s hould a lso b e s tressed t hat s everal o f t he e xcavated e nclosures r eveal l ittle o r n o e vidence o f a n o ccupation l ayer c ontemporary w ith t he

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e nclosure ( e.g. W indmill H ill: S mith, 1 966; O ffham: D rewett, L angweiler s ites 3 , 8 a nd 1 2: E ckert e t a l., 1 972, K uper e t a l., U rmitz: W hittle, 1 977).

1 977; 1 974;

I t i s a p roblem f or s ettlement s tudies a t t he r egional s cale t o a ssess t he p roportion o f p ermanent a nd s hort-term o ccupations o f e nclosed a nd d efended s ites. A t a m ore g eneral l evel, i t i s i mportant t o r ecognise t hat t he t otal r ange o f e nclosed a nd d efended s ites i s n ot r egarded a s a u nitary p henomenon i n t erms o f t heir s ocial a nd e conomic f unctions. I t i s c lear f rom t he c ontents o f t he c urrent v olume t hat t he d iversity o f s uch s ites i s c olossal. H owever, i n c ertain p eriods i n t he N eolithic, t ypes o f m ore n ucleated s ite e merged a mongst t he m ore f requent u ndefended, u nenclosed d ispersed s ettlements. T he a ppearance o f t he n ew s ite c lasses, w herever f ound, i ndicates a c hange i n s ettlement s tructure, i n w hich s ome o f t he s ocial f unctions a re c lustered a nd o thers a re d ispersed ( cf. C larke 1 977). T he d imension o f h uman b ehaviour d elineated b y t he d ispersionn ucleation c ontinuum i s u biquitous. D espite i ts u niversality , s ystematic m odelling o f t his c ontinuum i s r are i n t he a rchaeological a nd a nthropological l iterature. S ome a uthors q uestion, b y i mplication i f n ot d irectly , t he u sefulness o f s uch a n a pproach. F or i nstance, F orge ( 1972) n otes t hat, i n M elanesia, f ew d ifferences i n b ehaviour c an b e r elated t o p reference f or n ucleated o r d ispersed s ettlement s tyle. A nd A llan ( 1972) c ontends t hat p roclivity f or n ucleated o r d ispersed s ettlement i s u nrelated t o p hysical e nvironment. N either o f t hese a uthors s tates t he b asis f or h is a ssessment o f v ariation, w hether b ehavioural o r e nvironmental, a nd, m ore s eriously , n either q uantified t heir s uppositions. O ne o f t he r are a ttempts a t s ystematic i nter-relation o f v ariables a ffecting N -D i s R enfrew a nd P oston's ( 1979) w ork u sing t he f ramework o f c atastrophe t heory. H ere t hree m easures w ere d efined: R - t he m easure o f n ucleation , A - t he m easure o f l abour i ntensity a nd T - t he m easure o f r ewards f rom c ommunal l ife, a nd a t rajectory f or e ndogenous c hange f rom N t o D s ettlement i llustrated. I ndeed , R enfrew a nd P oston a side, t he l ack o f q uantifica tion o f v ariables r elated t o n ucleation-dispersion ( N-D ) i s c haracteristic o f m any o therwise e xcellent c ontributions. I n d iscussing " defence" i n a 1 972 p aper, F lannery r efers t o d ispersion a s a c ommon m eans o f d efence, b ut l ater a vers t hat v illages a re o ften u sed a s t he d efensible u nit! S imilarly i n t he s ame c ollection, R owlands ( 1972) p roposes t hat w arfare c an e xplain s ettlement n ucleation, b ut " great s tress o f w ar" c an l ead t o t he a bandonment o f n ucleated s ettlements f or d ispersed d iscrete f amily u nits. B oth d oubtless t rue, b ut n ot v ery h elpful. S imilar c hecks a nd b alances e xist f or s ocial a nd e conomic v ariables. M auss ( 1904) h as d istinguished b etween t he s easonally a lternating p ublic a nd t he p rivate l ives o f t he E squimaux. T he f ormer i s c haracterised b y i ntense s ocial i nteraction b etween l arge a gglomerations o f s mall s ocial u nits. T his p hase p roduces f ar m ore q uarrels t han t he p rivate p hase o f p opulation d ispersion, w hich i s o ften i nitiated b y u nbearably h igh d ispute l evels.

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A gain , t he a ssertion t hat n ucleated s ettlement r equires m ore t ravel t ime t o i ts d ispersed f ields c an b e c ountered b y O 'Shea's ( 1981) c laim t hat d iscontinuous p lots f orm t he b est b asis f or a l and d iversification s trategy t o c ope w ith p eriodic f amines. M y s tarting p oint i s D oxiadis' ( 1968) e thological p rinciple t hat " human s ettlement i s a s ynthesis b etween, o n t he o ne h and, k eeping p eople a s i solated a s p ossible w ith a s s hort a d istance a s p ossible b etween t hem , a nd , o n t he o ther, g iving p eople t he g reatest c hoice o f i nteractions w ith o ther p eople a nd o ther l ocalities". L est t he r eader i s b ecoming a fraid t hat t he a rgument i s a t t his j uncture t urning d own t he p roxemic c ul-de-sac, l et m e o ffer i mmediate r eassurance t hat t he i ntention i s t o s tay w ith t he a rchaeologically d etectable m acro-scale o f a nalysis. S ix v ariables a re s ystematically r elated t o t he n ucleationd ispersion c ontinuum:d efence, d isputes, s ocial r ewards, l abour i nputs, p roduction o utputs, a nd i nformation c osts. I t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he i ntervening v ariable o f p opulation d ensity s hould b e c onsidered i n a ll s uch i nteractions. A t t he r isk o f s implification, I s hall a ssume t hat p opulation d ensities i ntensify e xisting i nteractions, p rovoking c hanges i n d egree r ather t han i n k ind. F or e xample, i f h igh i nformation c osts a re n ecessary t o i ntegrate d ispersed p opulations, l ower p opulation d ensities w ould r equire e ven h igher c osts; s o w ould h igher p opulation d ensities w hen h igh i nformation c osts a re r equired t o i ntegrate n ucleated v illage c ommunities. A n a ttempt w ill n ow b e m ade t o c omment o n t hese v ariables i n t he l ight o f t he o verall p reference f or s ettlement d ispersion. I t s hould b e s tressed t hat N -D i s a nalysed n ot i n g eneral s ystems t erms b ut r ather a s a f unction o f p erceived s ocial a dvantages a nd d isadvantages. T he d iscussion o f d efence ( see a bove) c an b e s ummarised b y p roposing t hat d ispersed o ccupation u nits, w hether s ingly o r a s a t erritorial g roup f ocussing o n a s tanding m onument, h ad n either s ufficient m anpower t o d efend t heir p roperty o r p ersons s uccessfully n or p ossessed s ufficient c oncentrations o f e ither t o s timulate p ersistent a ttacks. T here i s a rchaeological e vidence t hat t he r everse i s t rue f or a t l east s ome e nclosed s ites ( see c hapters b y D ixon a nd M ercer). T he t rends f or l abour i nput a ppear l ess c omplex , i nsofar a s i ncreased n ucleation t ends t o r equire e ither l arger c ultivated a reas o r e conomic i ntensification: e ach b ought f or t he p rice o f h igher p er c apita l abour. C onversely , g iven a s uperfluity o f l and a nd a r easonably l ow p opulation d ensity , d ispersed f armsteads c ould m aintain r elatively l ow l abour i nputs i f t here w as n o d emand f or i ncreased p roductivity. I ndeed, i n t he N eolithic o f m any r egions, a s hortage o f l abour r elative t o l and s eems m uch m ore l ikely t han t he c onverse ( cf. H arner 1 970; 1 975). I f t his w as t he c ase, a m ajor g oal o f t hese s mall-scale s ocieties w ould h ave b een t he g eneration o f l arger a lliance n etworks, i n w hich t he i ncreased l abour c ould b e " converted" i nto h igher p roductivity. C hagnon ( 1979b ) h as s ummarised t he p oint a dmirably i n s tressing n ot s o m uch t he d ifferential a ccess t o r esources ( Binford, 1 972) a s t he d ifferential u tilisation o f r esources m ade p ossible b y l arger c orporate g roups. Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 2 9 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

T he f ollowing c ursory d iscussion o f p roduction o utputs i gnores s easonal a nd i nter-annual f luctuations i n p roduction a nd m uch e lse b esides. P erhaps t he g reatest e conomic a dvantage o ffered b y s ettlement d ispersal i s t he b uilt-in a gricultural d iversification p rovided b y t he e xploitation o f aw ide r ange o f s oils a nd h abitats. T his b road-spectrum s trategy i s p erhaps t he s trongest d efence a gainst s evere h arvest f ailure ( cf. O 'Shea, 1 981). I n a ddition, h ousehold a ccumulation i s f acilitated i n d ispersed f armsteads, w hereas i n c ommunal o perations t here i s a s tronger e galita rian t endency w hich m akes i t h arder f or t he i ndividual t o i ntensify. T he b alance b etween p roduction f or c onsumption , s torage, e xchange, a nd r itual u se c annot b e e asily g eneralised b ut i t i s p robable t hat d ispersed u nits w ill h ave m ore f lexibility i n t his b alance i n b ad y ears. O f p articular r elevance i s L aughlin's ( 1974) " Accordion P rinciple", w hereby t he t endency i n r eciprocal e xchange r elations i n t imes o f s carcity i s a s hift t owards n egative r eciprocity a nd , c onversely , i n t imes o f p lenty , am ove t owards b alanced r eciprocity . A lso , c raft p roduction i s o ften d eveloped t o c ompensate f or l ow l ocal f arming p otential i n d ispersed s ite t erritories ( e.g. C ornish a xe a nd g abbroic p ottery p roduction f or e xchange: M ercer, 1 981). T he m ore d eveloped r itual a nd s tatus a ctivities o n n ucleated s ites p roduce a c omplementary t endency f or a h igher l evel o f d emand f or c raft p roducts, w hether m anufactured o n s ite o r n ot. T he s ocial r ewards o f m oderate s ettlement n ucleation a re e vident e nough n ot t o r equire l engthy d iscussion - v iz, p ermanent, y ear-round " public-life" w ith i ts i ntense p ersonal i nteraction. B ut t here a re o ther a spects a part f rom s ex a nd v iolence. F or t he M ediaeval p eriod i n E urope, R oberts ( 1977) c onsiders c o-operative w ork t o b e t he v ery e ssence o f v illage l ife. H is c laim i s s upported i n t hree r espects, n amely t he p sychological a dvantages o f w ork g roups s haring t he s ame t ask, t he e fficient d evice o f f ood s haring t o e ven o ut s mall-scale l osses, a nd t he t endency t o r einforce e galitarian s ocial s tructure, w hether f act o r i deological f iction. T he i mportance o f c ommunal w ork a mongst d ispersed f amily u nits i s c learly a c rucial r eason f or l ocal c o-operation i n t he c onstruction o f m onumental t ombs a nd s hrines, a s w ell a s t he e rection o f e nclosed a nd d efended s ites ( see b elow ). Y et t here a re l imits t o t he i mportance o f c ommunal w ork f or t he w orkers, a nd t hese a re s et b y t he t endency o f b ig-men o r c hiefs t o a ppropriate t he l imits o f p ersonal l abour. T he s cale o f r itual a long t he N -D c ontinuum v aries a ccording t o p roperties o f p hysical a nd s ocial s pace. H illier e t a l. ( 1978) a rgue p ersuasively t hat t he l ess s pace p hysically i ntegrates a s ociety , t he m ore i ntegration d epends o n s ymbolic f orces. S ince t he p otential f or p hysical i ntegration i n d ispersed f armsteads i s v irtually n il, i t f ollows t hat s ymbolic i ntegration o f t he s cattered c ommunities i s c ritical t o s ocial r eproduction. T he s patial " contexts" f or s ymbolic i ntegration o ccur a t t wo l evels - c ommunal s hrines a nd e nclosures. I n d ispersed a cephalous g roups, t he c ombining o f g roups f or r itual p romotes c ollective a ction. I n o ne s uch e xample o f d ispersed g roups, t he A ustralian a borigines, t wo t ypes o f c eremony h ave b een d istinguished ( Yengoyan, 1 972):- c eremonies o f n on-temporal r egularity ( e.g r ites o f p assage ) a nd t emporally r egular c eremonies ( e.g. f ertility r ites).

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I n b oth c ontexts, w e s hould d o w ell t o n ote S ahlins' ( 1968) p rinciple t hat, f or c ults, " ritual i ntensity i s i nversely r elated t o s piritual s upremacy". T he i mplication f or N eolithic r itual i s t hat t he l ower o r m ore l ocalised t he d eity i nvoked, t he m ore e mphasis i s l aid o n c ult a ctivities. I t i s r egrettable t hat t he r emains o f N eolithic h ousehold c ults, i f s uch t here w ere, h ave b ut r arely s urvived ( cf. t he N eolithic o f s outh-east E urope: C hapman, 1 981). C learly t he f requency o f d isputes c ounterbalances t he s ocial a dvantages o f i ncreased n ucleation. A s S tanner ( 1965) c omments, a gain o n a borigines, " there i s a ' propensity t o f oregather a s l ong a s p hysical c onditions a llowed a nd s ociability p ersisted'". I n d ispersed f armsteads, t he p rincipal c auses o f d isputes w ere p resumably o ver l and a nd s exual o ffences ( cf. C hagnon 1 979b ), y et s uch d ispute l evels w ere a rguably l ower t han a t n ucleated e nclosures. J ohnson ( 1982) h as d emonstrated h ow d ispute l evels a re r elated n ot o nly t o s ize o f p opulation a ggregate b ut a lso t o s ize o f o rganisational u nit ( e.g. n uclear f amily v s. e xtended f amily v s. l ineage). F inally , t he v ariable " information c osts" i s a s ummary o f a spects o f o ther v ariables, p artially c o-extensive w ith r itual, e xchange a nd d ispute f requencies. G ranted t hat s ociety c an b e u nderstood a s a n i nforf iation-processing s tructure a s m uch a s a n e nergy-consuming o rganisation, t he N -D c ontinuum m ay b e a nalysed i n t erms o f t he c osts o f i nformation a cquisition, s haring a nd i ntegration. O ne m ay e cho F leming's ( 1982) q uestion - i s t he n eed f or i ncreased s ocial s ignalling g reater f or t he i ntegration o f d ispersed r esidence u nits o r f or t he m ore i ntense s ocial i nteractions c haracteristic o f n ucleated s ettlements? A s i n h unter-gatherer c ontexts, t he a ggregate s ite i s p otentially v aluable f or t he c irculation a nd c o-ordination o f r egional i nformation r equired b y d ispersed a griculturalists. R oot ( 1983) h as p redicted h igher d ensities o f, a nd d iversity o f, h ighly c urated i tems a t s uch a ggregated s ites a s a w ay o f c onveying i mportant i nformation t hrough t he m edium o f d ecorated a rtefacts. C onversely , i n n ucleated s ettlements, p roblems o f i nformation o verload a re p osed w hich a re n ot s o c ommon i n d ispersed c ontexts; t he s olution o f s uch p roblems, t hrough h ierarchically o r h orizontally s egregated s ocial s tructures, l eads t o f urther c osts i n i nformation-processing ( Johnson 1 978; 1 982). O n a l arger s cale, i t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he c osts o f i ntegrati ng i nformation f lows o ver a r egion i ncrease s harply w ith i ncreases i n t he s ize o f t he c ommunication n etwork; t his r elationship m ay w ell b e i mportant i n h elping t o d efine t he s patial d istribution o f a rtefacts i n a r egional s ystem. F rom t he p receding d iscussion, i t i s c lear t hat t here i s a r ange o f s ocial a dvantages a nd d isadvantages t o t he s election o f g reater o r l esser d ispersion o r n ucleation. T he p rincipal a dvantages o f d ispersed s ettlement a re e conomic - t he b enefit o f a gricultural d iversification - a nd s ocial - t he l ow l evel o f d isputes a nd r aiding. C oncomitant d isadvantages - t he l ack o f g roup d ynamism a nd c ollective e nergy r esulting f rom c o-operative w ork a nd s easonally l ow l evels o f s ocial i nteraction - a ct a s a d irect s timulus t o d eveloping c oping s trategies t o o ffset t hese s ocial d eprivations. I t i s i n t his c ontext t hat w e c an a ppreciate t he i mportance o f c ommunal c onstruction o f m onumental t ombs a nd s hrines a nd e nclosed a nd d efended s ites. F rom

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t hese c ommunal t asks, i t i s b ut a s hort b reeding n etworks w hich s tructured t he c eremonial a t t hese m onuments.

s tep t o t he s ocial a nd w ork o rganisation a nd

B reeding N etworks a nd S ocial N etworks I n a p rovocative a rticle o n t he g enesis o f p astoralism i n E urope, F leming d eplored t he l ack o f a ttention p aid t o t he p roblems o f p roviding f odder f or d omestic s tock - a c omplaint s ummarised i n t he a phorism " domestication i s a s m uch a bout f eeding a s i t i s a bout b reeding" ( 1972, 1 79). O ver a d ecade l ater, i t i s j ustifiable i n t he c ontext o f a gricultural s ettlement t o i nvert F leming's p oint, a nd s uggest t hat N eolithic s ettlement s tructure i s a s m uch a bout b reeding a s i t i s a bout f eeding. I n t his c ontext, i t i s u seful t o r ecall W ilson's ( 1975) d istinction b etween a p opulation a nd a s ociety: " a p opulation i s b ounded b y a z one o f s harply r educed g ene f low; a s ociety i s b ounded b y a z one o f s harply r educed i nformation f low". W ilson w ent o n t o a ssert t hat t he r elationship b etween t he t wo r epresents t he c rux o f t heoretical s ociobiology. I t w ill b e u seful t o t ry t o c larify t hese t erms i n t he c ontext u nder d iscussion. W hilst t he t heoretical a nd e mpirical d ifficulties i n d efining e ither c oncept u sing a rchaeological d ata a re w ell-known ( e.g. H arris, 1 978), t he o verlap b etween a b reeding p opulation a nd a s ociety i s a t l east m oderately c lear i n l arge n ucleated v illages c ontaining s everal h undred o r m ore i nhabitants. N evertheless, s ince t he b asic p oint a bout k inship r ules i s t hat t hey d efine " whom n ot t o b reed w ith", t here w ill b e a t endency f or a lliances, e ven i n l arge v illages, t o b e e xogamous ( i.e. w ith m embers m arrying o ut) ( Fox , 1 979). B ut s ince l arge v illages a re o ften c omposed o f s everal k indreds o r k inship g roups, w ithin-village b reeding n etworks o ften s urvive a nd p rosper ( e.g. S chneider a nd G ough , 1 961; c f. A dams a nd K asakoff, 1 975, o n e ndogamy ). A r ather d ifferent p attern o ccurs f or d ispersed f armsteads w here t he m ating s tructure i s, b y d efinition, e xogamous. I t i s p roposed t hat t he p roblem o f p hysical r eproduction i n r elatively l ow-density d ispersed N eolithic s ettlements c omes r ather c loser t o t he b reeding n etworks o f m obile U pper P alaeolithic b ands a s d iscussed b y W obst ( 1974; 1 976) t han t o t he v illage-based k inship a lliances o f t he N ear E astern o r s outh-east E uropean N eolithic. H igher p opulation d ensities a part, t here a re t hree p oints o f r esemblance b etween d ispersed N eol ithic p opulations a nd m obile b ands: ( 1 ) b asal u nit s ize ( cf. b and s izes o f 1 5-50 w ith 5 -6 d ispersed f amilies f orming a l ocal c orporate g roup o f 3 0-48); ( 2) s easonal p atterns o f g roup f usion a nd f ission ( "private" a nd " public" p hases o f l ife ) a nd ( 3) t he n eed t o a ssociate w ith o ther s egmentary g roups t o f orm v iable b reeding n etworks. T he m ain i mplication o f h igher p opulation d ensities a mongst e arly f armers i s t hat g roup t erritorial b ehaviour i s c oncentrated i nto f ar s maller a reas, o ften b ecoming c losely a ssociated w ith a ny a vailable d ense d istribution o f i mportant r esources. O n t he b asis o f c omputer s imulations o f h unter-gatherer b reeding n etworks, W obst ( 1974) c oncluded t hat t he m inimum s ize o f n etwork w hich c onstantly g uaranteed t he p resence o f a s uitable m ate f or a

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and 3 2Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

m ature g roup m ember w as c . 4 75 3 . O n t his b asis, W obst c alculated t hat s ome t wenty l ocal b ands i nteracted o ne w ith a nother i n a t erritory w hose s ize w as i nversely p roportional t o o verall p opulation d ensity. W hilst W obstian s imulations h ave n ot y et b een c arried o ut u sing e stimates o f N eolithic p opulation d ensities, i t m ay s eem r easonable t o u se W obst's f igures a s a n i nitial a pproximation:-

N o. o f P EOPLE N o. o f B ASAL U NITS

D ISPERSED H OUSEHOLD ( BASAL U NIT )

L OCAL C ORPORATE G ROUP

R EGIONAL B REEDING N ETWORK

6

3 0 - 4 8

4 80

8

1

N o. o f L OCAL C ORPORATE G ROUPS

5 - 6

6 0 - 8 0

1

1 0 - 1 6

T able 2 T hese f igures i ndicate t hat t he i nteraction o f p erhaps a s m any a s t en l ocal c orporate g roups w ould b e r equired t o d evelop a nd m aintain v iable b reeding n etworks i n a l andscape o f s cattered f arms. W hilst e stimates f or N eolithic p opulation d ensities h ave b een p ublished f or B ritain ( Brothwell, 1 972) t he e xpected l evel o f a ccuracy c annot b e r egarded a s v ery h igh. F urthermore, t hese f igures d o n ot t ake i nto a ccount l ocalised a reas o f h igh p opulation d ensity , s uch a s w ould h ave b een a ttracted t o p articular r ich r esources. H owever, a r ange o f e stimates y ields t he f ollowing t entative t erritorial s izes f or B ritish N eolithic r egional b reeding n etworks:-

E stimated M ean P opulation D ensity ( individuals p er k m2 )

S ize o f T erritory ( km 2 )

0 .1

5 000

0 .125

4 000

0 .25

2 000

0 .5

1 000

1

5 00

2 .5

2 00

5

1 00

T able 3 Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 3 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

I f t hese e stimates a re o f t he r ight o rder o f m agnitude, w e m ay e xpect t o i dentify a s ingle N eolithic b reeding n etwork o n t he I sle o f A rran, w ith i ts e ighteen c hambered c airns ( Renfrew , 1 976, f igs. 5 -6), w hilst t he i nhabitants o f R ousay a re l ikely t o h ave p articipated i n a b reeding n etwork c ommon t o o ther O rcadian i slands ( Renfrew , 1 976, f ig. 4 ). B y c ontrast, t he m ore d ensely o ccupied l owlands i n N eolithic W essex m ay w ell h ave s upported t hree o r f our b reeding n etworks, w hose v ery c ontiguity o ffered r eal p ossibilities o f f lexible n etwork m embership. T he i mplication o f W obst's d emographic s tudies f or i nformation t heory a re i mportant. W obst's m inimum f igure o f 2 00-300 i ndividuals a pplies e qually t o t he r equirements f or a v iable i nformation n etwork, i n w hich e ach i ndividual i s c omfortable w ith a ccess t o a n i nformation f ield e ncompassing 2 00-300 i ndividuals. I n t he c ontext o f d ispersed s ettlement, o ne c an e nvisage, a s W obst ( 1976) d id f or t he P alaeolithic, a c haining o f o verlapping m ating a nd i nformation n etworks. I t g oes w ithout s aying t hat, a t t he l evel o f p hysical r eprod uction a lone, t he s tructure o f d ispersed N eolithic s ociety d emanded s easonal l oci o f i ntense i nteraction, w ider b y f ar t han t he l ocalised d istribution o f m onumental s hrines a nd t ombs. T he c lear n omination f or s uch a n i ntegrative r ole i s t he e nclosed o r d efended s ite, w hose f unctions a s s easonal f airs, m arkets o r " central" p laces ( Smith, 1 966) h ave p erhaps b een o verstressed a t t he e xpense o f m ating c onsidera tions. W hat i s a lmost a s i mportant t o n ote i s t hat t he h igher p opulation d ensities c haracteristic o f e arly f arming s ocieties p ermit g reater f lexibility o f m embership o f b reeding n etworks, e specially w here m ore t han o ne b reeding n etworks p articipates i n t he i ntegrative a ctivities o f e nclosed o r d efended " centres". T hus f ar, t he d ispersed s ettlement u nits, t heir m onumental t ombs a nd e nclosed s ites, h ave b een t reated a s i f o ccupying p laces i n a f ield o f s patial i nteraction w hich s omehow l acked a ny s ocial c orrelates o r r elationships. F or a ny r eal u nderstanding o f t he n ature o f i ntegrative m echanisms i n N eolithic s ocial l ife, t his o mission m ust b e m ade g ood. S o f ar, t he s patial h ierarchy o f N eolithic a ctivity s ites c an b e r econstructed o n t hree l evels:( a) p redominantly d ispersed r esidential u nits - f armsteads o r h omesteads o f n uclear o r s mall e xtended f amily s ize, ( b ) p redominantly d ispersed m onumental s hrines a nd/or t ombs w hich a ct a s t he r itual ( including b urial) f ocus f or a c luster o f d ispersed h ouseholds, ( c ) l arge-scale e nclosed o r d efended s ites, a t m ost o f w hich t here i s n o p ermanent s edentary p opulation ( except p erhaps a t al ate s tage o f t he s ettlement s equence ) b ut w hich a ct a s r egional c entres f or i ntense s easonal s ocial a ctivities, w ith a n i mportant f unction i n m aintenance o f v iable b reeding n etworks l inked t o t he c ompetititve d isplay a nd e xchange o f h igh-status g oods f or b rideprice a nd o ther c ritical s ocial p ayments. A t t his j uncture, i t s hould b e s tressed t hat b y aN eolithic " spatial h ierarchy", I d o n ot i mply r igidly m aintained s trata o f a ctivity a reas, i n w hich d ecision-making a nd i nformation-processing Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 3 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

p rocesses a re r estricted t o t he h ighest-order s ite. C arneiro ( 1972) h as s hown h ow " transcending v illage a utonomy w as t he f irst a nd m ost d ifficult s tep i n p olitical e volution .. t he e vidence s hows c onclusively t hat a utonomous v illages d o N OT w illingly g ive u p t heir s overeignty". A s imilar c omment w ould b e t rue o f l ocal c orporate g roups; i ndeed t here i s n o e vidence o f i nter-polity d omination i n t he N eolithic o f n orth-western E urope. A n e xample o f t his i s t he l ater N eolithic o f c entral G ermany , i n w hich H öhensiedlungen n eed n ot r epresent t he r egional c entres o f c hiefdoms a ny m ore t han m egalithic t ombs r epresent a h ierarchy o f t erritorial m arkers ( Starling, 1 985a ). W hat i s u nder a nalysis h ere i s s omething s imilar t o G reg J ohnson 's " sequential h ierarchy" ( Johnson, 1 982), i n w hich s ome g roup f unctions a re n ucleated i n a s mall a rea a t a l arge s cale a nd o ther, e qually i mportant, a ctivities a re d ispersed o ver a w ide a rea a t a s mall s cale. I t i s p roposed t hat a s imilar t ype o f n on-vertical h ierarchy i s p resent i n N eolithic s ocial o rganisation. T he e arly f arming p eriod i s e ssentially a p eriod o f s mall-scale, a cephalous s ocieties, a nd a cephalous s ocieties, N etting ( 1972) h as p ointed o ut, h ave o ne m ajor s tructural w eakness. T hese l ocal c orporate g roups a re a utonomous, l ocalised u nits a nd , t o e xpand w ithout f ission, n eed t o k eep t he p eace a nd t o e nlarge c ontacts b eyond t he k inship g roup. B ut c entral l eadership c annot e asily a chieve t hese a ims f or t he s imple r eason t hat a ny s elected l eader i s i dentified w ith o ne l ocalised g roup. N etting ( 1972) g oes o n t o g ive e xamples o f s trategies t o s olve t he p roblem o f t he t ranscendence o f o ne's o wn g roup i dentity a nd , n ot s urprisingly , t he d evelopment o f c orporate r eligious a uthority i s a v ery f requent c hoice o f s trategy . A nd s o, o ne s trategy f or t he b road s patial o rgani sation o f c orporate g roups d ispersed o ver t he N eolithic l andscape w ould b e t he d evelopment o f r itual c oncentrated n ot o nly a t t he l ocal s hrines a nd t ombs b ut a lso a t t he h igher-order d efended a nd e nclosed s ites; a r itual c ontrolled a nd o rganised b y t hose m embers o f s ociety w ith g reatest p ower o ver r itual r esources i n l ife, a nd s trongest c laim t o m onumental b urial a t t ime o f d eath. T he i dentity o f s uch l eaders c an h ardly b e o ther t han t he h eads o f t he l ocal c orporate g roups. S axe's H ypothesis # 8 c larifies t he n ature o f t he N eolithic g roups w hich c onstructed m onumental s hrines: " to t he d egree t hat c orporate g roup r ights t o u se a nd/or c ontrol c rucial b ut r estricted r esources a re a ttained a nd/or l egitimated b y m eans o f l ineal d escent f rom t he d ead, s uch g roups w ill m aintain f ormal d isposal a reas f or t he e xclusive d isposal o f t heir d ead, a nd c onversely." ( Saxe, 1 980 )6 S ince m onumental t ombs a re a dequately c ategorised a s a reas o f b ounded d isposal, i t s eems h ighly l ikely t hat t he c orporate d escent g roups i n q uestion a re o f l ineage-type o rganisation. B ut s o f ar t his a ccount o f e arly f arming c ommunities h as c aref ully o mitted d etailed r eferences t o r esources, a nd e specially t he c ritical r esources m entioned b y S axe ( 1970 ). M ichael H arner ( 1970; 1 975) h as c onsistently m aintained t hat i n p rimitive s ocieties t here i s r arely a b alance b etween t he k ey r esources o f h uman l abour a nd p roductive l and. T wo a lternatives c learly e xist - t he c ontext i n w hich i nsufficient p roductive l and i s a vailable f or a l arge l ocal p opulation, o r t he c ontext i n w hich t he l and a vailable c annot b e p roductively u tilised b ecause t he l ocal c ommunities a re t oo s mall. I f Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 3 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

w e a ccept t he s canty e vidence o f t he s ize a nd d ensity o f m ost N eolithic f armsteads i n n orth-west E urope, l et a lone t he g uesstimates o f m ean p opulation d ensities, i t b ecomes c lear w hich o f H arner's a lternatives i s m ore l ikely. I n a l argely d ispersed, s mall-scale f arming p opulation i n a t emperate f orest l andscape w hose s oil r esources h ad b een h ardly t ouched u p t o t he f ifth m illennium b c, l et a lone d epleted, i t s eems r easonable t o s uggest a s hortage o f l abour r elative t o l and r ather t han t he c onverse 7 , e ven i n t he m ost p roductive e nvironments f or t he c urrent b road-spectrum e conomy. T he i mplications o f s uch a p roposition f or k inship s ystems a re t wo-fold. F irst, t here i s t he n egative p oint t hat i n t he a bsence o f a s carcity o f l and, t here i s n o n eed ( and p recious l ittle a nthropol ogical e vidence) f or e laborate k inship u nits w hose p rimary f unction i s t o h old a nd d evelop t he n atural r esources o f a vailable l and ( Harner, 1 975). S econdly , a nd b y c ontrast, i n a reas o f l ow p opulation d ensity r elative t o p roductive l and, c ompetition b etween l ineages i s f or p roductive w omen , w hose t wo-fold r ole l ies i n t he d irect p rovision o f a gricultural l abour a nd t he p rovision o f a dditional l abour t hrough c hildbirth. S ince t he c ritical s hortage - l abour t o w ork t he l and c an o nly b e o vercome b y p hysical r eproduction v ia s ocial a lliances, t here w ill b e a n a dvantage a ccruing t o t hose l ineages w hich c an i ncrease t heir r eproductive s uccess. I n C hagnon 's c lassic p hrase, " out o f r eproductive i nequalities a lso c ome e conomic i nequalities" ( Chagnon 1 979b, 3 78). W e m ust n ow t urn t o t he r esults o f s ome o f C hagnon's w ork w ith t he Y anomamo I ndian l ineage s ocieties t o p ursue t hese t houghts f urther. C hagnon ( 1979b ) h as a rgued t hat t here a re i mportant s tatus d ifferentials i n " egalitarian" s ocieties a nd t hat t here i s c ompetition f or s uch s tatus, d espite t he a llegedly s ignificant a bsence o f d ifferential a ccess t o s trategic r esources. T he c ompetition f ound i n t he Y anomamo c ontext t ends t o r elate t o t he r egularity o f s exuality a nd t he a cquisition o f m ates. H ence n ot a ll m ales a re e qual; t hose w ho a cquire m any k in, t hose w ho a cquire m ore p owerful k in , a nd t hose w ith g reater a bility t o m anipulate k in - s uch i ndividuals a cquire h igher s tatus a nd e njoy g reater r eproductive s uccess. I n a d amning c riticism o f m aterialism , C hagnon ( 1979b, 3 77) s tates: " thinkers f rom i ndustrialized c ommunities a re c oncerned w ith s ticks, s tones a nd t he m eans o f p roduction - w ith m aterial r esources. A ctors i n t ribal s ocieties a re c oncerned a bout s ex , q uality o f m ates a nd t he m eans o f r eproduction - a nd h ow b est t o a chieve t his, i f n ot m aximize t heir o pportunities t o d o s o". O f c ourse C hagnon d oes n ot d eny t he i mportance o f m aterial r esources - f or i nstance a s t he w ay t o p ay f or r eproductive c osts b ut h e s tresses t he i mportance o f t he d ifferential u tilisation o f r esources r ather t han m erely g aining d ifferential a ccess t hereto. A lso, a t a l ater s tage i n t he e volutionary s equence, C hagnon a dmits t hat s tatus d efinition w ill r evolve m ore a round t he a cquisition o f p restige i tems t han t he a cquisition o f m ates. B ut s uch d evelopments a re m ore f itting i n t he c ontext o f l and s hortages r elative t o h igher d ensity p opulations.

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I n t he c ontext o f e arlier N eolithic d evelopments i n n orthern a nd w estern E urope, t he l ocal l ineage h eads m ay b e d efined i n t erms o f a s eries o f g reater o r l esser b ig-men , w hose s tatus w as d ifferentiated i n t wo m ain w ays:- ( 1 ) b y a ge , i .e. c loseness o f r elationship t o t he f ounding a ncestors, a nd ( 2 ) b y s ize o f l ineage v iewed a s a c orporate u nit o f l abour f or b uilding m onuments a nd p roducing f ood, e xchange a nd r itual r esources, a nd a s et o f f emale r eproductive p otentials f or f uture g enerations. T he e xistence o f c ompetition o ver w omen a s a b asic e lement o f t his s ocial s tructure f inds s patial e xpression i n t he f orm o f s hifting a lliances o f l ocal c orporate d escent g roups, w hose l ineage h eads m aintain a ttempts t o c onsolidate f riendly r elations a nd a void t he l oss o f m anpower r esulting f rom r aiding a nd o ther h ostilities. I t i s h ard t o a ssess t he d egree o f s tability i n t he r elations b etween s uch a cephalous g roups; b ut r elations w ere a t t he s ame t ime m ore t ightly s tructured t han m ay a t f irst s ight s eem l ikely f or s uch d ispersed h ousehold p opulations. O ne p articularly i mportant m ethod o f e xpressing t he h igh s tatus a cquired b y s uccessful a lliance-building w as m onument-building. I h ave a lready r eferred t o t he g reat g roup d ynamism a nd c ollective e nergy o f c ommunal w ork g roups. T he e xistence i n t he N eolithic p eriod o f s ome o f t he m ost s pectacular p re-Roman m onuments i n n orthern a nd w estern E urope m erely r einforces t his p oint. I n h is c onference p aper, T orsten M adsen s uggested t hat t he m ost i mportant a spect o f c ausewayed c amps w as t he l abour i nvestment, a M cLuhanite c omment o f g reat d epth. C an i t b e c oincidence t hat s o m any o f t he e nclosing b anks a nd d itches o f t hese N eolithic s ites a re c onstructed i n s egments - r eflecting j ust s uch c orporate s egments o f aw ider s ociety? I s i t c urious t o f ind t hat, o n s everal s ites ( e.g. E tton: P ryor, t his v olume), s pecial a rtefacts o ften o ccur a t d itch b utt-ends -p hysically t he p oint o f " transition" t o a nother e lement, s ymbolically t he p oint o f l inkage b etween t wo s ocial u nits? W hilst t here a re m any p oints o f d etail w e d o n ot y et u nderstand a bout e nclosed a nd d efended s ites, t heir e xistence a t l east c onforms t o t he g eneral s tructure o f a cephalous s ocieties, i n w hich t he v ery c onstruction o f m onuments b y f riendly c oalitions w as a s i mportant t o t he m aintenance o f ( often t emporary ) r elationships a s t he v aried r itual a ctivities w hich l ineage h eads a nd t heir f ollowers c arried o ut i n t he e nclosures a nd d itches.

A lternative P erspectives T he c riteria o f r elevance f or t he a pplication o f s pecific m odels d erived f rom t his g eneral m odel o f d ispersed s ocieties a re t he p resence o f d ispersed o ccupation s ites, l ocal m onumental s hrines o r t ombs a nd r egional e nclosed o r d efended s ites. T he l atter t wo c ategories a re c onstructed i n r esponse t o a t l east t emporary a nd m aybe l onger-term s tability c reated b y s uccessful a lliance-building b y o ccupants o f t he f ormer c ategory. A s a s imultaneous e xpression o f s uccessful c ompetitive f orces, a s tate o f t emporary p eace a nd c onspicuous c orporate l abour, t he b uilding o f p ublic m onuments p lays a k ey r ole i n e arly f arming c ommunities, p roviding n ot o nly f or t he g rowth o f p ersonal a nd g roup p restige b ut a lso f or t he s ymbolism o f l onger-term s tability i n t he N eolithic l andscape.

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B y c ontrast, t here a re c ertain a reas o f n orthern a nd w estern E urope i n w hich d ispersed o ccupational u nits a re a ccompanied b y c ommunal t ombs o r s hrines b ut n ot b y e nclosed o r d efended s ites ( e.g. t he t hird m illennium b c i n p arts o f t he P aris B asin: H owell, 1 983; a lso t he l ater N eolithic o f B rittany: H ibbs, 1 983). S imilarly , e nclosed o r d efended s ites i n a reas o f d ispersed s ettlement a re b y n o m eans u niversally a ssociated w ith m onumental s hrines, e .g. t he a bsence o f m egaliths i n t he P aris B asin a nd B urgundy i n t he m iddle N eolithic ( Burkill, 1 983) a nd t he a pparent a bsence o f m egaliths a nd l ong b arrows i n m uch o f N eolithic e astern B ritain ( Ashbee, 1 970). T here a re a lso e xamples o f a reas o f d ispersed s ettlement w here n either t ype o f c ommunal m onument h as y et b een f ound ( e.g. i n e ast c entral E urope i n t he C orded-Ware h orizon ). T he a bsence o f e nclosed a nd d efended s ites i s m ost c learly e xplained , w ithin t he p arameters o f t his m odel, b y t he f ailure o f l ocal l ineages t o a ctualise s ufficiently t heir r eproductive p otential i nto l abour°, o r t heir f ailure t o e stablish, t hrough r itual o r o ther s trategies, a n e nduring a lliance n etwork f or m onument c onstruction. C hagnon ( 1979b) s tresses t he e cological c onditions u nder w hich m atrilineages a nd p atrilineages p rosper a nd w ither, a s w ell a s s tressing t he r elevant p olitical a dvantages o f e ach t ype o f l ineage s tructure. T he a bsence o f l ocal m onumental t ombs o r s hrines w ithin t he c ontext o f g roups w ith e nclosed s ites m ay r elate e qually t o a d ifferent s et o f r itual s trategies f or t he a ttainment o r l egitimation o f u se o f r estricted r esources ( i .e. G oldstein's r efinement o f S axe's H ypothesis # 8 : s ee n ote 6 ; e .g. r itual f igurines, c ult p ottery a nd t he t ypes o f a ssemblages f ound , f or e xample, i n t he G erman H öhensiedlungen : s ee S tarling, t his v olume). T he i ncreasing n umber o f h enges, n ot t o m ention s tone c ircles, m ay w ell p lay a r ole i n s ocial i ntegration i n B ritain a nd n orth-west F rance ( Harding, 1 981). O r, a gain, b ounded c emeteries m ay r eplace s tone, e arth o r t urf m ounds i n c he a bsence o f a ppropriate g eological s trata. B ut b y f ar t he m ost i ntriguing s ite p atterning o ccurs i n d ispersed c ommunities l acking l ocal a nd r egional c ommunal m onuments. T he a pparent a bsence o f p lace-based k inship t ies a nd t he p roducts o f c ommunal l abour s uggests t hat t he c ompetition f or s tatus i s n ot c onducted f or r eproductive w omen b ut r ather, p ace H arner ( 1975), v ia e xogamous a lliances w ho c ontrol r aiding p arties a nd r eciprocal a ccess t o l and i tself. H ence, w hilst h orizons i n w hich e nclosed a nd d efended s ites o ccur m ay w ell i mply w ell-developed r egional p opulations n ot y et t oo l arge f or a vailable l and u sing e xisting t echnologies, p eriods w ith m aximum s ettlement d ispersion a nd n o m onumental s tructures c learly i mply t he d iminished r ole o f l ineality a nd c orporateness ( ? i n t he f ace o f w ider a lliance n etworks) a nd m ay i mply H arner's s econd t ype o f i mbalance - a s hortage o f a vailable l and v is-à-vis l ocal p opulations. T he a lternative i s t hat t he d ecline o f l ineality a nd c orporateness m ay r epresent a p eriod o f p opulation d ecline, i n w hich k ey r esources a re n o l onger r estricted i n d istribution a nd m aximum d ispersion b ecomes a m inimax s trategy f or a gricultural d iversification a nd m inimisation o f l abour i nput. T here a re c ertainly s trong a rguments i n f avour o f e ach t heoretical p osition; t heir r esolution f alls o utside t he s cope o f t his p aper.

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C onclusions T he m odel p resented a bove s tresses g eneralities a t t he e xpense o f s pecifics, c lasses o f s ite r elations a t t he e xpense o f s pace-time f rameworks a nd r adiocarbon d ates, l and-labour r elations a t t he e xpense o f e nvironmental, t echnological, a nd d emographic p arameters. T he g eneration o f s pecific r egional m odels f rom a b road m odel w ill b e c rucial i n e stablishing t he r elevance a nd a bility o f t he l atter, b ut t he g eneral m odel t akes l ogical p recedence. I ts f orm i s a s f ollows. T he a doption o f a d ispersed s ettlement p attern b y e arly f arming c ommunities i n m any p arts o f f ourth a nd t hird m illennium E urope h as c ertain e xplicit c onsequences f or s ocial a nd p hysical r eproduction. T he m ost i mportant b ehavioural c onsequence i s t he m aintenance o f a " place-based" w orld-view i n w hich s patial i ntegration p lays a r emarkably m inor r ole i n c omparison w ith h ighly s ignificant b ut r elatively c ostly m echanisms o f r itual i ntegration. O ne a rchaeologica lly v isible m echanism f or t he i ntegration o f i nformation a t t he r egional s cale i s t he e stablishment o f a ggregate s ites, w here i nforma tion e xchange a nd v alidation a re d ependent u pon t he u se o f p ortable a rtefacts ( axes, d ecorated p ottery , ( ditches, p its, e tc.).

e tc.)

a nd n on-portable s tructures

S ince, i n t he e arlier p hases o f f arming , m ean p opulation d ensities a re r elatively l ow , t he i mbalance o f l abour o ver l and l eads t o s tatus c ompetition o ver r eproductive w omen, e xpressed i n t erms o f l argest p ossible l ineage s ize. I n t urn, t he p roductive c apacities o f t he l ineages w hich i ntegrated t he d ispersed f armsteads c ould b e e xploited i n t he c onstruction o f l ocal c ommunal m onuments - s hrines o r t ombs - f or a ncestor w orship a nd b urial o f i mportant l ineage m embers. I n t hese ( possibly r are) s ituations i n w hich r itual s olidarity w as a chieved o n a r egional l evel t hrough t he e stablishment o f p eaceful r elations f or a s ufficiently l ong t ime b etween s everal l ineages, t he c orporate r elations w ere e xpressed i n t he c onstruction o f m onumental b anks, d itches w ith o r w ithout c auseways a nd d efences. S uch m onumental s tructures r epresented t he p eak o f c ohesion a nd c o-operation b etween s mall-scale a cephalous c ommunities. T hus, w hilst c ontinuous c irculation w as ab asic p re-requisite o f s uch s ocieties, e xtending b eyond s imple m aterial n eeds, i t m ust b e s tressed t hat c o-operation a nd c onflict, a lliance i n w ar a nd i n p eace, c orporate l abour a nd c orporate d estruction o f p eople a nd p roperty w ere a s c haracteristic o f a cephalous f arming s ocieties a s c ontinuous c irculation. T hese c ycles o f a lternation p rovided m any o pportunities f or t he t emporary r ise t o p ower o f t hose b ig-men w ho g uided t he c onstruction o f m egalithic t ombs a nd e nclosed s ites a like.

A cknowledgements M y B urgess, v olume. c omment A nthony

p rimary d ebt o f g ratitude i s t o t he j oint e ditor, C olin f or e ncouraging n on-empirical c ontributions t o ad ata-packed M any f riends a nd c olleagues h ave t aken t he o pportunity t o o n e arlier d rafts, a nd t hanks a re d ue t o A ndrew F leming, H arding , C olin H aselgrove, N igel M ills, F rancis P ryor, C hris

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S mith a nd N ick S tarling f or t heir m any h elpful s uggestions. A ny m isuse o f o ther t heorists' f elicitous t houghts, o r i nadequacies i n a ny o riginal i deas, r emain e ntirely m y o wn r esponsibility.

N otes 1 . I t s hould b e n oted , h owever, t hat a n i ntention t o d efend a s ite i s n ot a l ogical i nference f rom t he a ctual d emonstration o f a n a ttack ( pace C . S mith ). 2 . T he a uthor i s i ndebted t o N igel M ills f or t his, s uggestions.

a nd o ther h elpful

3 . B ierce h as d efined p eace, i n i nternational a ffairs, a s " a p eriod o f c heating b etween t wo p eriods o f f ighting" ( quoted i n L eeds, 1 968). 4 . B asic f ood p roduction i s d efined h ere a s p rimary s ubsistence + s eed c rop/breeding s tock + r itual s urplus + s urplus f or e xchange. 5 . I n a nother a rticle, W obst ( 1975) m akes t his e stimate, r evising i t d ownwards t o 2 -300.

a p artial r etraction o f

6 . N .B. G oldstein's ( 1981) r efinement o f t his h ypothesis i s c ritical o nly i n t he a bsence o f b ounded d isposal a reas. 7 . A lthough A mmerman a nd C avalli-Sforza 's ( 1973) d emic d iffusion m odel f or t he d evelopment o f E uropean a griculture h as b een q uoted w ith a pproval i n t his c ontext ( Renfrew , 1 976), n o s ite e vidence f or t he m odel i n n orth-west E urope h as b een a dvanced. B y c ontrast, i n t he e arly N eolithic o f C entral G ermany , c olonisation b y L inearbandkeramik f armers o f a n a lmost e mpty l andscape i s f ollowed b y am illennium w ith n o d etectable s ettlement e xpansion ( Starling , 1 985b ). 8 . T he r elatively l ow p opulation d ensities i n t he e arliest f arming p eriod i n a ny g iven r egion i n n orth-west E urope m ay e xplain t he i nitial a bsence o f c ommunal m onuments, w hilst l ineage c ompetition f or l and c ould w ell h ave b een a p otent f actor i n s timulating l ocal a nd r egional p opulation i ncrease.

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3 : M ONUMENTS A ND A NALOGY: T HE I NTERPRETATION O F C AUSEWAYED E NCLOSURES

C hristopher E vans

T he " Dumb L anguage" o f M onuments ' A fter n early e ighty y ears o f s erious, i f s omewhat s poradic, r esearch i nto N eolithic c ausewayed " camps"/enclosures i n B ritain, a s a s ite-type t hey c ontinue t o p erplex u s a nd r emain r elatively u ndefined. F ew m onument f orms h ave b een t he f ocus o f s o m uch o f t he d iscipline's e nergies a nd h ave u ndergone s uch f requent r adical r e-assessment i n t heir i nterpretation. E ven n ow , a fter t wenty-one e xamples h ave b een e xcavated, t hey s till s tubbornly f rustrate n eat c ategorisation, a nd w e a re l eft w ith t he i mpression o f t he b lind m en e ncountering t he e lephant - e ach f ocussing u pon a f acet o f i ts a natomy b ut m issing t he w hole - i f, i n t his i nstance, t he " whole" e xists. U nlike t he o ther m ajor " ritual" s ites o f t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c, t he s tatus o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s " monuments" h as b een s omewhat a mbiguous; t heir m orphology w ould l ink t hem s uperficially w ith b oth h enges a nd h illforts, y et t heir s egmented d itches h ave l ed t o d oubts a bout t heir d efensive c apability, a nd u nlike h enge m onuments t hey d o n ot h ave a S tonehenge-like m anifesta tion w hich w ould s uggest a n o bviously " ritual" f unction. c ausewayed e nclosures a lternates A ccordingly, t he i nterpretation o f b etween t he s acred a nd p rofane, a nd t he a pparent a mbiguity o f t heir f unction r aises a n umber o f i ssues c oncerning t he n ature o f a rchaeological i nterpretation a nd l ogic. T he p ast i s w eighted t owards i ts m onuments ( earthworks) a nd t he c ontrast b etween n umerous c ausewayed e nclosures a nd e lusive N eolithic " settlement s ites" h ighlights t he u nrepresentative n ature o f t he a rchaeological r ecord a s i t s tands. I f, o n o ne h and, t hese e nclosures a re " central p laces" t hen o ur a bility t o r ecognise a ll t he s ites o f t he p eriod m ust b e d oubted f or a r ange o f N eolithic d omestic a ctivities a re n ot r epresented b y t he k nown s ites. A lternatively, i f t hese e nclosures a re t hemselves s ettlements, t hen o f c ourse t he a rchaeological r ecord i s b etter b alanced; b ut t he n ucleated f orm o f s ettlement t his i mplies a ccords i ll w ith c urrent c oncepts c oncerning t he s egmented s tructure o f N eolithic s ociety a s a w hole. T he f rustrations o f t his s ituation a re a ccentuated b y t he f act t hat t he q uantity o f c ultural r emains o ften a ssociated w ith c ausewayed e nclosures i s r elatively l arge f or s outhern B ritish N eolithic s ites o f a ny c ategory. M oreover, t he a cts o f d eliberate d eposition a pparent a t a n umber o f t hese e nclosures c onvey t he s ense t hat t he p ast i s " speaking" t o u s, b ut w e l ack t he i nterpretive l anguage t o d ecipher t heir m essage ( cf. " the d umb l anguage o f p rehistoric e arthworks": C rawford, 1 927, 3 -4). F or i f w e c annot u nderstand a cts o f i ntentional d eposition a nd e ntities s o v ery a pparent a s c ausewayed e nclosures, h ow c an w e e xpect t o c omprehend l ess e vident s ite-types a nd s econdary f orms o f a rtefactual d eposition?

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 4 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C ausewayed e nclosures, f urthermore, a re t he f irst " monumental" ( non-mortuary ) e nclosures i n B ritish p rehistory a nd t ogether w ith t he l ong b arrows t hey i nitiate t he s equence o f l abour-intensive m onument c onstruction w hich c haracterises t he " ritual l andscapes" o f t he t hird a nd e arly s econd m illennia b c - a c ultural l andscape w hich e vidently o perated i n a " logic" w hich i s n ot t hat o f o ur o wn ( Evans, 1 985). I n c onsidering t heir s tatus a s " first m onuments" t he q uestion o f t heir o rigins a nd w hat s ocial i mpetus l ay b ehind t heir c onstruction b ecomes c rucial. I n r ecent y ears t he s patial a nd c hronological i nteractions o f N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge m onuments h ave b een e xplored a s a b asis o f b oth s ocial d iscourse ( Bradley , 1 984a; 1 984b ) a nd t erritorial d evelopment ( Renfrew , 1 973; 1 983). T his r aises t he g eneral i ssue o f h ow t o a pproach a rchaeologically t his a pparent i nteraction a mongst m onuments: s hould i t b e i n t erms o f a n a ssumed s equential r elationship i n w hich t he s equence o r p attern e xplains i ts p arts, o r d o w e a ttempt t o u nderstand t he o rigins o f t he t radition a nd o nly t hen i ts s ubsequent e laboration? C ausewayed e nclosures d o n ot h ave d irect o r o bvious e thnographic o r h istoric p arallels; t hey a re s olely a n a rchaeological c onstruct. Y et, f rom t he e arliest e xcavations a nalogies h ave b een e xplicitly u sed, i f i nformally , i n i nterpreting t hese s ites. R ecently , m uch a ttention h as b een g iven t o t he r ole a nd h istory o f a nalogy i n a rchaeology ( Orme, 1 974; 1 981; H odder, 1 982a ). I n t hese s tudies e mphasis h as b een p laced u pon t he i nitial e mployment o f e thnographic a nalogy i n t he 1 7th - 1 9th c enturies t o e stablish a rtefactual a nd c ultural c lassifications; a nd a lso u pon t he f ervent d ebates o f t he 1 960s. T hese a uthors, t hough, l argely i gnore o r d ismiss t he u se o f a nalogy ( "piecemeal p arallels") d uring t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury , t hough t his w as, a fter a ll, a m ajor f ormative p hase i n E uropean p rehistoric s tudies, w hen m uch o f i ts s cope a nd c onceptual f ramework w as e stablished. M ost o f a rchaeology 's " field v ocabulary" a nd s ite c lassifications w ere e stablished a t t his t ime, a nd h istoric a nd e thnographic a nalogy w as c ertainly i nfluential i n t his p rocess. I t i s p art o f o ur d isciplinary l egacy t hat w e d irectly , i f o ften n aively , t ake a broad t he c oncepts a nd a ssumptions w hich u nderlay t his r esearch a nd, t herefore, i t i s e ssential t hat w e a re a ware o f t he i ntellectual f oundations o f o ur a rchaeological e ntities. T his p aper i s i ntended a s a r eview o f t he i nterpretation o f c ausewayed e nclosures a nd a s s uch i t w ill f ocus u pon t he u se o f a nalogy i n t he c onceptualisation o f t hese s ites. F or t he a pparent f ailure i n t he a pplication/imposition o f a nalogy i n t he c ase o f t hese e lusive e nclosures n ot o nly r eflects u pon t heir c haracter b ut c an a lso p otentially i nform u s a s t o h ow a rchaeology a ttempts t o c ome t o t erms w ith t he " unknown" ( the n on-analogous). I n t his r egard t his p aper s hould b e c onsidered a s a n e xercise i n p roblem-orientated h istoriography a nd n ot a s a c omprehensive h istory o f c ausewayed e nclosure e xcavation w hich h as b een o utlined e lsewhere ( Mercer, 1 980; s ee S mith, 1 971, A ppendix; a nd P almer, 1 976 f or d etailed b ibliographies o f e xcavations). I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t his t ype o f s tudy m ust b e l imited t o p ublished s ources a nd t hat t hese " artefacts o f p rint" d o n ot a lways p rovide a c omplete p icture o f t he i ntellectual c limate a t t heir t ime. T his i s e vident i nsofar a s m uch o f t he w ork d one i n B ritish p rehistory b efore t he 1 950s w as u ndertaken b y a v ery s mall r esearch c ommunity , a nd o ne i s l eft w ith t he i mpression t hat a g reat d eal o f d iscussion t ook p lace i nformally w ith

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

o nly l imited p ublished d ebate a s s uch. I t i s e qually i mportant t o b e a ware t hat t he i nterpretive t hread o f r esearch i s n ot u nilineal a nd i t r eflects a n a ccumulation o f p remises a nd c oncepts ( "intellectual b aggage") w hich a re n ever t otally a bandoned w ith t he e xcavation a nd p ublication o f an ew s ite, i nterpretation o r s ynthesis - a nd e ach s ite c reates i ts o wn c ontext o r t radition o f r esearch.

F orts,

V illages,

a nd T owns

T he t erm " causewayed c amp", w hich h as o nly r ecently f allen o ut o f a cademic f avour, d erives b y d efault f rom t he O rdnance S urvey 's d esignation o f e nclosed e arthworks a s " camps" i n r eference t o R oman m arching c amps ( Crawford a nd K eiller, 1 928, 5 5; C urwen, 1 929, 4 3; C rawford, 1 953, 1 32). W hile h illforts h ave b ecome d ifferentiated o n t he b asis o f ad istinction o f a greed f unction, t he t erm " camp" w as l ong r etained f or N eolithic e nclosures p recisely b ecause o f d oubts a bout f unction, a nd b ecause a m ore s uitable t erm c ould n ot b e f ound. I t i s w orth m entioning t hat t he b racketing o f " camp" w ith c ausewayed e nclosures, w ith t he f ormer's c onnotations o f m ilitarism , t ransience, a nd p astoralism , m ay h ave i nfluenced s ubsequent i nterpretations a nd t he s earch f or i nterpretive a nalogy. M oreover, t his q uestion o f t he s uitability o f d esignation o r c lassification-name a lso t ouches o n t he r elationship b etween k nowledge a nd l anguage, f or i s i t p ossible t o " know" s omething w ithout b eing a ble t o n ame i t a ppropriately? T o w hat e xtent d oes a ny n ame , n o m atter h ow v ague o r i nappropriate, e ventually b ecome a m etaphor? 2 A s a d istinct t ype o f s ite, c ausewayed e nclosures w ere f ormally c lassified a s s uch i n t he l ate 1 920s a nd e arly 1 930s w ith t he p ublication o f C urwen's " Neolithic C amps" a rticle i n A ntiquity ( 1930 ) a nd K endrick a nd H awkes' T he A rchaeology o f E ngland a nd W ales ( 1932, 5 8 f f.) 3 . F rom t he o utset i t w as t he e xistence o f m ultiple c auseways w hich p roved t o b e t he m ost e nigmatic f eature o f t hese e nclosures, s o m uch s o a s t o g overn t heir n aming a nd t heir c lassification. T his m eant t hat t he c oncept o f t his k ind o f s ite w as f ounded o n a n egative c onstructional t rait r ather t han a p ositive a ttribute. B y t heir v ery n ature c auseways r epresent a l ack o f h uman a ctivity , a nd a t erm s uch a s " segmented" o r " interrupted" d itch e nclosure ( Wilson, 1 975; P almer, 1 976) w ould h ave b een m ore h elpful a s a n a rchaeological d efinition. T his i s n ot j ust a p oint o f s emantics, f or i t s ays m uch a bout h ow t hese e nclosures w ere o riginally v iewed. F or t heir e arly i nvestigators f ocussed o n t he c auseways r ather t han t he d itches i n t heir i nterpretations, a nd t hereby w ere f orced t o a scribe p ositive a ttributes t o n egative f eatures. T his e mphasis o n t he c auseways m ay n ot h ave b een q uite s o d ominant h ad t hese e nclosure b een e nvisaged a s a b roken c ircle r ather t han a s a r adial f orm. W ithin t his c ontext, t herefore, t he q uestion t o b e a nswered a bove a ll o thers w as w hy t hese e nclosures h ad m ultiple r adial e ntrance w ays. I t w as t he C unningtons, w ho, a fter e xcavating K nap H ill i n 1 908-09, f irst s uggested t hat t he c auseways r elated t o d efence, b ased o n t he p remise t hat i f a ttacked a cross o ne c auseway t he d efenders c ould i ssue o ut o f a n a djacent g ate a nd c ounter-attack f rom t he n eighbouring c auseway. I n t his m anner t he c auseways w ere i nterpreted a s p latforms f rom w here " hand-thrown m issiles" c ould b e d irected a t t hose l aying s iege ( Cunnington, 1 912, 4 8) 4 . Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 4 9

C urwen , i n h is i mportant " Neolithic C amps" a rticle ( 1930 ), a fter s ummarising t he B ritish c ausewayed e nclosures e xcavated t o t hat d ate c ited t he F rench a nd G erman e nclosures w hich L ehner h ad i nterpreted a s " forts". F or e xample, t he e nclosure a t U rmitz, w ith t wo d itch l ines a nd a n i nner c oncentric p alisade, w as c alculated a s h aving t wenty-two e ntrance w ays ( one f or e very 1 00 m o f i ts c ircumference); a nd t he e xcavated e ntrance w ays h ad g ate t owers. C urwen t hen d iscussed t he d efensibility o f t he B ritish N eolithic c amps, a nd d id h ave t o a dmit t hat t he l ow-lying a nd s addle s ituations o f s ome e nclosures ( Whitehawk a nd C ombe H ill) w as s carcely t he b est d efensive l ocation ( ibid ., 4 9). I n h is d iscussion o f t he p urpose o f t he c auseways, C urwen r ecognised t hat t here w ere t wo t ypes: t hose w hich d o , a nd t hose w hich d o n ot, c orrespond t o a b reak i n t he a ccompanying r ampart. I n r elationship t o t he l atter, C urwen a cutely r ecognised t hat t he d itches w ere i n f act q uarries d ug b y s eparate w ork-parties. C urwen t hen e laborated u pon t his i nterpretation o f t he d iscontinuous d itch f orm a nd s uggested t hat t he b uilders o f t hese f orts m ay h ave b een m ore f amiliar w ith t he c onstruction o f s tone w alls t han e arthen r amparts, " for s tone-wall f orts d o a lways h ave d itches" ( ibid ., 4 9). O n t he o ther h and, c auseways c orresponding t o g aps i n t he r ampart C urwen i nterpreted a s g ateways, a nd a gain h e c ited L ehner w ho h ad t raced t his t ype o f f ort d esign t o t he N eolithic s tone f orts o f t he A egean c oasts s uch a s D imini a nd S esklo, w hich a lso h ad w alls p ierced b y " radial a lleyways". M oreover, L ehner, a nd s ubsequently C urwen, r elated U rmitz's p lan t o H omer's d escription o f t he A chaean d efences o f T hebes i n t he I liad , w hich w as d escribed a s h aving " a h undred g ates f rom e ach o f w hich s ally f orth t wo h undred m en" ( Curwen, 1 930; 1 937, 8 5). C urwen s aw i n t he H omeric e pic a n " exact d escription" o f N eolithic c amps a s t hey s urvived i n t he f olk-memory o f t he A egean I ron A ge. I n a ll f airness i t s hould b e n oted t hat C urwen a dmitted t hat t he p roblem o f t he c auseways w as c omplicated, a nd d oubted t hat i t c ould b e s ettled w ith t he e vidence t hen a vailable ( 1930, 5 0). C urwen's e xplanation o f t he c auseways a s g aps b etween q uarries a nd a s m ultiple d efensive g ateways w as n ot u niversally a ccepted. I n 1 937, i n a n A ntiquity N ote, C rawford w rote t hat t he c auseways w ere s till t he g reatest p uzzle i n t he i nterpretation o f t hese e nclosures. B y 1 933 h e w as s uggesting t hat t he d itch s egments w ere i n f act h ouses ( see b elow ) a nd h e p ublished a p hotograph a nd n ote c oncerning a n omadic c ampsite i n A lgeria w hich d emonstrated a c ausewayed e nclosure-like p lan , w ith t ents a rranged i n a c ircle a nd t he f requent g aps i n t he p erimeter b locked b y t horn b ushes w hich c ould b e o pened t o a llow t he p assage o f h erds i nto t he i nterior. L ater h e d eveloped t his h ypothesis b y c omparing c ausewayed e nclosures t o t hen r ecently p ublished N eolithic v illage s ites f ound i n t he S oviet U nion , w here a gain a s ingle r ing o f r adially-orientated h ouses e nclosed a s pace f or a nimals ( Fig. 3 .2). T his v illage p attern, C rawford f elt, w as a p lausible p arallel w ith o bvious m orphological s imilarities t o c ausewayed e nclosures. H e a lso s peculated t hat t here m ight e ven b e s ome r elationship t o t he o rigins o f t he h illfort, t hough h e a dmitted t hat t his r equired c ontinuous l ocal e volution, a nd t here w as a d evelopmental g ap b etween t he N eolithic a nd t he I ron A ge. C rawford ( 1937) e ven t hought t hat t his t ype o f r ingwall s ettlement m ight h ave e choes i n m odern n ucleated S lav v illages o f c entral a nd e astern E urope, w hich h ave a c ircular p lan w ith h ouses f ronting o n t o a c entral s pace, t he w hole e ncircled b y a r ing r oad. I n A rchaeology i n t he F ield ( 1953) C rawford r e-iterated

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 0 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

t his " working h ypothesis" a nd t he 1 930 a rguments o f C urwen, a nd h e e xtended h is f ortified s ettlement h ypothesis t o i nclude v ault-towns, w hich h e h ad r ecently o bserved i n T unisia, a nd w alled m ediaeval t owns. C rawford's a rgument b asically r ested o n a n a ssumption o f u niversal n eed f or d efence/fortification ( 1953, 1 41), a nd i t i s t his w hich h e p ostulated g ave r ise t o t he c ircular s ettlement p lan ( i.e. c ausewayed e nclosures) w ith t he b ack w alls o f t heir r adially a rranged h ouses e ventually e xtending t o f orm a c ontinuous w all o r r ampart ( ibid ., 1 38 f f.). T he u nderlying p remise o f t his a rgument i s a b elief i n e volution w hich, w hile n ot e xplicitly s tated, i s f undamental t o t he n otion o f c ontinuous d evelopment m otivated b y a u niversal p rinciple o f d efence. H owever, e qually i mportant i s t he f ocus u pon t he f orm o f t he c ausewayed e nclosures, t hat i s t o s ay t hat s omehow t heir o verall p lan w as t hought t o h old t he k ey t o t heir f unction. I n f act, a s l ate a s 1 956 C ase ( Fig. 3 .2; 1 956, 4 3, n ote 1 4) c ompared A bingdon t o t he p lan o f Z ulu v illages p ublished i n K riges' T he S ocial S ystem o f t he Z ulus ( 1936). W hat i s r elevant i n t his e arly u se o f e thnographic a nd h istorical/archaeological c omparisons i s t hat o n t he b asis o f f orm, a lmost a ny s egmented o r r adial c ircular s ettlement p attern a ppears t o h ave b een a nd a ppropriate p arallel f or c ausewayed e nclosures. T his s earch f or p arallel s ettlement f orms o n t he b asis o f p lan i s n ot s urprising c onsidering t he s cale o f e arly e xcavations. F or a part f rom W indmill H ill a nd W hitehawk e xcavations w ere v ery l imited, u sually l ittle m ore t han s ondages a cross d itches. C onsequently t he b asis o f t he c omparison w as l argely p lans o f u nexcavated s ites a nd t here w ere n umerous d iscussions a bout t he a pplication o f b osing ( Curwen, 1 929, 1 51 f f.; 1 930, 3 0-1; C rawford, 1 953, 1 34-5) a p ercussion s urvey t echnique b y w hich t he c auseways c ould b e p lotted w ithout e xcavation. T his e mphasis o n s urveyed p lans, o f c ourse, l ed t o p reoccupations a bout t he f inal f orm o f t he e nclosure, a nd t hat t he b asis o f t heir i nterpretation w as i nherently d escriptive. I t i s f air t o s tate, t herefore, t hat w ithout m aking a s erious a ttempt t o u nderstand t he i nterrelationship b etween t he v arious c omponents o f c ausewayed e nclosures, t heir e arly i nvestigators w ere t rying t o u nderstand t heir f unction s olely o n t he b asis o f t he r adial/segmented l ayout. I t i s t his e mphasis o n t he p lans o f l argely u nexcavated s ites w hich a llowed t he p attern o f d itches t o b e c ompared v ariously w ith w alls, p alisades, t ents a nd h ouses. I n t his c apacity i nformal a nalogy w as b eing m isused, i nsomuch a s i t p rovided a n o verall f ramework o f i nterpretation o n t he b asis o f p lan, b ut d id n ot t ake i nto a ccount a rtefact p atterning o r t he i nteraction o f t he s tructural c omponents o f t he e nclosure. T his " top-downward" i mposition o f i nformal a nalogy o n t he d ata c an b e m ost c learly w itnessed i n W heeler's d esignation o f t he M aiden C astle e nclosure a s b oth a N eolithic " village" a nd " town" w hich o bviously d erived f rom h is f amiliarity w ith t he o verlying I ron A ge e nclosure a nd i ts " logic" ( Wheeler, 1 943, 1 8 f f.). I t i s e ssential t hat w e a ttempt t o p lace t his i nitial p hase o f r esearch i nto a d isciplinary c ontext. F or o bvious r easons t he e arly e xcavations o f c ausewayed e nclosures w ere c oncerned p rimarily w ith e stablishing t he N eolithic d ate o f t his t ype o f " camp". E ssentially b efore c . 1 925 t he N eolithic a s a p eriod w as l ittle m ore t han a d umping-ground o r p igeon-hole f or e verything t hat w as u ndiagnostic o f o ther A ges, a nd w hose o nly u nique t ype f ossils w ere t he p olished a xe Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 1 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a nd t he l ong b arrow ( Kendrick a nd H awkes, 1 932, 5 6; C urwen, 1 937, 6 45 ). G iven t hese c ircumstances i t i s n ot, t herefore, s urprising t hat t he e arly e xcavations o f c ausewayed e nclosures w ere p redominantly c oncerned w ith t he e stablishment o f c hronological s equence a t t he e xpense o f p lan. F or t he p eriod b etween t he t wo W ars w as m arked b y t he e stablishment a nd p roliferation o f a rchaeological c ultures i n r eaction t o V ictorian c oncepts o f r aces, e pochs, a nd u nilineal e volution ( Clark, 1 952, 1 09; D aniel, 1 962, 8 2 f f.). I n t his c ontext t he m ajor a chievement o f t his p hase o f r esearch w as t he c onscious c reation o f W indmill H ill o r N eolithic " A" C ulture ( "colonists"), a nd i ts c hronological r elationship t o P eterborough/Neolithic " B" " folk" a nd B eaker " invaders" ( Kendrick a nd H awkes, 1 932; C hilde, 1 940; P iggott, 1 932; 1 954 ).

P it-dwellings a nd P astoralists C omparisons b etween r adially-planned d efended s ettlements a nd c ausewayed e nclosures d irectly r elated t o i nterpretations o f t he i nterrupted d itches a s s ubterranean d wellings. T hese d itch-dwellings c an b e s een a s a v ariation o n p it-dwellings w hich w ere s uch a p rolific n otion i n E uropean a rchaeology b efore t he S econd W orld W ar. T he i dea t hat .c ausewayed e nclosure d itches w ere d wellings w as a pparently f irst p roposed b y A bbé B reuil f or W indmill H ill, b ased o n t he a bundance o f a rtefacts r ecovered f rom i ts d itches , a nd i t w as s uggested i ndependently b y L eeds ( "hut-holes") a fter h is e xcavations a t A bingdon ( Crawford , 1 937, 2 10; L eeds, 1 928). C urwen , e xcavating a t t he T rundle i n 1 930, f ound p ostholes s et o n t he e dge o f a d itch w hich l ed h im t o c onclude t hat " the p its w ere d wellings, a nd t he h oles a re c ontemporary w ith t hem, a nd p robably f ormed p art o f s ome s cheme f or r oofing t hem w ith l ong r idge-roofs" ( 1931, 1 09, p . I , I I); a nd t he s econd d itch l ine a t t he T rundle w as v ariously d escribed a s a " terrace" ( ibid ., 1 10) o r " chain o f p it-dwellings" ( Kendrick a nd H awkes, 1 932, 5 9 ). F urthermore, C urwen's d escription o f s quatters r esiding i n t he t hird d itch l ine o f t he W hitehawk e nclosure i s e xtremely s qualid: " our a lleged c annibal" ( cannibalism b eing b ased o n t he p resence o f h uman c ranial f ragments f ound i n t he d itch i n q uestion) " not c ontent, h owever, w ith l iving a mid t his f ilthy l itter h e m ust n eeds b ury h is y oung w ife a nd h er i nfant a t t he e nd o f h is l ittle d itch, w ithin 2 0 f eet o f h is h earth" ( 1937, 8 1) 6 . T his i nterpretation o f t he d itches a s h ouses w hich " seemed a t f irst i ncredible y et i ncontrovertible" ( Crawford , 1 937, 2 10 ), w hile n ot u niversally d emonstrated ( Lindell, 1 935, 1 61-2) w as w idely h eld, a nd i t w as s till a ccepted b y C hilde a s l ate a s 1 940 ( Childe, 1 940, 3 6). F or t he r ejection o f t he n otion o f p it- a nd d itch-dwellings i n B ritish p rehistory B ersu's r esearch a nd e xcavations h ad c rucial s ignificance. W hile h is e xcavation o f r ectangular ( non-subterranean) R össen c ulture h ouses o n t he G oldberg ( published i n E ngland d uring t he m id 1 930s; S tone, 1 933, 2 32, p l. I V; C lark, 1 937a ) p rovided a m odel f or w hat c ould b e e xpected f or B ritish N eolithic h ouses, t heir p ublication d id n ot i mmediately c ause t he r ejection o f p it-dwellings a s a h ouse-form i n o ther c ultures o r p eriods ( i.e. S tone, 1 933). B ersu's e xcavations a t L ittle W oodbury , h owever, c learly d emonstrated t hat t he p its t here w ere n ot d wellings ( Bersu, 1 938; 1 940, 6 0 ). H is a rguments g ained a cceptance d uring t he 1 940s a nd e arly 1 950s ( Clark, 1 940, 2 5; 1 952, 1 16; P iggott, 1 954 , 2 6-7) a nd b y 1 949 C hilde,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 2 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

A

F ig.

3 .1:

" The B righton o f A braham 's d ay" A : S ymbol f or " Habitation-sites ( Windmill H ill t ype)" f rom N ap o f N eolithic W essex , O rdnance S urvey , 1 932 B : P iggott's r econstruction o f " long p it-dwelling" f ound b eneath K emp H owe b arrow ( Piggott, 1 935, f ig. 7 ) C : H ungarian p otato s torage-pit ( Buttler, 1 936a, f ig. 6 )

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a ccordingly, h ad c hanged h is o pinion: " Ten y ears a go t he p rehistoric s oil o f E urope w as l iterally r iddled w ith " pit d wellings" i n w hich o ur a ncestors s lept a nd c ooked, h uddled t ogether l ike s oldiers i n ab ell t ent. I s uppose i t w as w raiths f rom T acitus a nd X iphilinus c ombining i n t he m inds o f 1 6th c entury a ntiquarians w ith m ore e xact t ravellers' t ales o f t he e arth l odges o f t he R ed I ndians t hat c aused t his o vercrowding o f t he p its. F or t he h oles i n t he g round a re t here r ight e nough: i t i s o nly i n t he l ast t en y ears t hat B ersu a nd P aret h ave e victed t heir h uman o ccupants t o m ake r oom f or t he p igs a nd w eevils t hese w ould p roperly a ccommodate" ( Childe, 1 949, 7 7). I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t hough B ersu d id m ake e xtensive u se o f e thnographic p arallels f rom c entral E urope a nd N orth A merican P lains I ndians t o i nterpret t he h ouses, s torage p its a nd g ranaries a t L ittle W oodbury, h is a rguments a gainst t he i nterpretation o f p its a s d wellings w ere d irectly b ased o n s tratigraphic d eduction r ather t han e thnographic a nalogy p er s e ( op . c it., 6 0). F urthermore, t he o bvious e xistence o f t he g reat p ost-built h ouse o n t he s ite m eant t hat r ecourse t o a s ubterranean f orm o f d welling w as n ot r equired. T he g eneral p oint c an b e m ade h ere t hat h ow e arly t he e xistence o f a t ype o f s ite w as r ecognised, w hether v illa, c rannog , o r p ile-dwelling ( Clarke, 1 937b, 4 68) d epended e ssentially o n i ts a rchaeological p rominence a nd c oherence. W hile i n r etrospect i t i s d ifficult t o a ccount f or t he w idespread a cceptance o f p it - a nd d itch-dwellings, w ithin t he r esearch c ontext o f t he t ime t his c oncept w as n ot s o i mplausible. F or c onvincing s ubterranean s tructures w ere a vailable f or c omparison, s uch a s t he I ron A ge h ouses e xcavated b y H att i n J utland a nd p ublished i n t he s ame i ssue o f A ntiquity a s C rawford's " interrupted d itch" n ote ( 1933). E ven m ore o bvious N eolithic s ettlement s ites w ere s imilarly i nterpreted, s uch a s t he l ate B andkeramik s ettlement a t K ölnL indenthal, i n w hich t he q uarry p its f lanking b uildings w ere a ctually i nterpreted a s b eing w ithin t he s tructures ( Wohngruben : B uttler, 1 936b; c f. P aret, 1 940). T he e xcavators o f t his i mportant s ite e ven u ndertook e xtensive e thnographic r esearch i n c entral a nd e astern E urope t o v erify t heir i nterpretation o f t he s ubterranean h ouse-form ( Fig. 3 .1; B uttler, 1 936a ). I n f act i t i s l ikely t hat a g eneral a wareness a mong a rchaeologists o f t he w ide e thnographic d iversity o f h ouse f orms ( tents, w igwams, l ean-to , e tc.) c ontributed t o t his i nitial u ncritical a cceptance o f t his p roposal. S imilarly, s unken m ortuary s tructures f ound b eneath b arrows w ere t hought t o r elate t o c ontemporary f orms o f d wellings a nd w ere u nderstood a s b eing r epresentative o f t he i nsubstantial c haracter a nd s emi-subterranean c onstruction o f h ouses o f t he p eriod ( Lubbock, 1 913, 1 14 f f.; C urwen, 1 931, 1 09 f f.; C hilde, 1 950, 1 41). I n f act P iggott's d epiction o f t he f acade t rench b eneath t he r ound b arrow a t K emp H owe a s a " long h ut" m ust b e a pproximate t o t he v iew o f c ausewayed e nclosure d itchd wellings a t t hat t ime ( Fig. 3 .1; P iggott, 1 935, f ig. 7 , 1 25, n ote 3 ). T he r oot o f t his c onfusion i n i nterpretation w as, h owever, e ssentially a rchaeological a nd w as r elated t o t he e quation o f o ccupation d ebris w ith i n s itu a ctivity a nd u ltimately w ith h abitation. B y a s imilar l ogic h earth d umps b ecame h earths a nd d itches e ventually h ouses. Y et, w hile i n h indsight i t i s e asy t o d ismiss p it-dwellings a s i llogical a nd a bsurd, i t s hould b e r emembered t hat, a part f rom t he d itch-side s tructure a t H embury ( Liddell, 1 935), Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

b efore t he e xcavation o f t he p ossible h ouse a t E aston D own ( Stone, 1 933, 2 32, p l. I X ) a nd t he H aldon D own h ouse ( Willock, 1 936; C lark, 1 938), t here w ere s imply n o N eolithic h ouses i n B ritain w ith w hich t o m ake c omparisons ( the d ate o f t he S kara B rae s tructures w as n ot u nderstood u ntil C hilde's l ater e xcavations a t R inyo ). W ith n o b asis f or c omparison o r e xpectation, t he n otion o f w hat c onstituted a N eolithic h ouse w as n ot o bvious o r s elf-defining. I t m ay b e t hat t he u ltimate b asis o f s uch a m isguided i nterpretation r ested o n a n eed o f t he t ime. F or a rchaeologists t hen w ere a cutely a ware o f a g eneral l ack o f h ouses a nd s ettlements i n B ritish p rehistory ( Curwen, 1 929, 2 6; C lark , 1 937b, 4 68-9). T he f act t hat N eolithic v illages h ad b een e xcavated o n t he C ontinent i mplied t hat s imilar s ettlements m ust h ave e xisted i n B ritain. T he i nterpretation o f d itches a s d wellings a nd c ausewayed e nclosures a p riori a s s ettlement s ites, t herefore, p rovided a P iltdown M an-like a nswer f or t he B ritish N eolithic. G iven t he m onumental s cale o f c ausewayed e nclosures t heir i nitial i nterpretation e ither a s p ermanent f orts a nd/or s ettlements i s q uite l ogical, i f w e a dmit t he e thnocentric v iewpoint o f t his l ogic. H owever, a ssumptions c oncerning t he s edentary n ature o f N eolithic s ociety m ay a lso h ave b een i nfluenced b y n ineteenth c entury c ultural c lassifications a nd t he c oncept o f t he s tages o f c ulture. I n t he e arly s chemes o f s ubsistence c lassification p roposed b y N ilsson a nd C oleridge t he A ge o f t he h erdsmen o r n omads w as t aken t o p recede t he A ge o f a griculture ( Daniel, 1 978, 4 9-186). I n t he l ater a nd m ore e laborate s chemata o f M organ a nd T ylor t his d istinction w as e liminated a s a s tage i n t he p rogress f rom s avagery t o b arbarism, b ut n evertheless t here w ere i mplicit a ssumptions c oncerning t he r elationship o f s edentarism a nd c ultural e volution; " The m anufacture o f p ottery p resupposes v illage l ife, a nd c onsiderable p rogress i n t he s imple a rts" ( Morgan, 1 878, 1 3). C ertainly , s uch a ssumptions c an b e s een t o i nfluence C rawford 's c hoice o f a nalogy: " We h ave a lready s een t hat t he b est a nalogy f or c ausewayed c amps w as i n t he Z areebas o f n omads. S urely i t i s o n ap riori g rounds p robable t hat, i n E urope a t a ny r ate, t he e arliest a griculturalists w ould f orm t heir p ermanent s ettlements o n t he s ame l ines a s t he t emporary o nes o f t heir n omadic p redecessors" ( 1953, 1 38). T his u nderlying p remise i s i mportant i n t hat i n t he " formal" c omparative s tages o f c ulture, t he N eolithic, s till p art o f " Lower B arbarism", w as a ssumed t o b e c haracterised b y a s edentary s ociety ( Childe, 1 942, 6 6). I t i s i n t his c ontext t hat t he i nterpretation o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s f ortified p ermanent s ettlements s hould b e s een. O f c ourse, t he i nterpretation o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s f ormal s ettlements c ould o nly r emain u nquestioned a s l ong a s t he d itch s egments w ere i nterpreted a s d wellings. D uring t he l ater 1 930s v iews o n c ausewayed e nclosures w ere m odified; s ome, i t w as s uggested, w ere t he p ermanent " head-quarters" o f p astoral t ribes ( Curwen, 1 937, 9 0; 1 946, 5 5-6; C lark, 1 940, 2 3). T his r e-assessment c ame a fter a s ubstantial a mount o f f ieldwork h ad s hown t hat, a lthough s ome d egree o f i nformal o ccupation i n c ausewayed e nclosures c ould b e a ccepted, t his w as s imilar n either i n s cale n or c haracter t o t he e vidence r ecovered f rom N eolithic v illages e xcavated o n t he C ontinent. T his l ed C lark t o c onclude t hat " such " camps", b eing p robably l ittle m ore t han e nclosures f or h erds, i t i s c lear t hat w e m ust l ook e lsewhere f or h ouse-plans" ( 1937b , 4 69). T his p ushed p astoral e xplanations t o t he Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

f ore a s i t b ecame i ncreasingly c lear t hat, c ontrary t o i nitial e xpectations, t he l argely e mpty i nteriors o f t he e nclosures y ielded l ittle e vidence o f v illage-like s ettlement. B ut a gain i t i s e ssential t o r ecognise t hat s uch a r e-appraisal o nly b ecame p ossible a fter B ritish a rchaeologists b ecame f amiliar w ith a pparently a nalogous, e nvironmentally c omparable N eolithic v illages e xcavated a broad. T his s hift i n e mphasis f rom f ortified s ettlement t o p astoral " head-quarters" a lso f itted i n w ith t he p revailing c oncept o f a " Pastoral S tage" o f c ulture, w hich w as u nderstood t o i nclude a ll o f t he N eolithic a nd t o c ontinue u ntil t he e nd o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge ( 1000 B C). W hile t his c oncept w as n ot i n i tself n ew , d uring t he 1 930s i t w as r evitalised a nd f ormalised i n t he l ight o f i ncreasing i nterest i n t he e conomic/subsistence b asis o f c ulture. I t w as a c oncept w hich s till p reserved a r eflection o f n ineteenth c entury c lassification s chemes a nd p opular w ritings o n s uch m atters. I n t hese t exts t he p astoral s tage i s c haracterised a s t he " Age o f A braham" ( Westropp , 1 872, 1 1, 2 4), a nd s imilar B iblical m etaphors c ould s till b e u sed b y a rchaeologists o f t he 1 930s s uch a s C urwen, w ho d escribed t he W hitehawk e nclosure a s t he " Brighton o f A braham 's d ay" ( 1937, 9 0) a nd m ade f requent r eferences t o t he O ld T estament i n h is w orks ( 1938; 1 946). T he a bsence o f c ontemporary f ield-systems a nd t he q uantity o f d omesticated a nimal b one f ound i n c ausewayed e nclosures w as t hought t o i ndicate t he i mportance o f s tock-raising , b ut t he c oncept o f a p astoral s tage i n B ritish p rehistory w as g iven i ts g reatest b oost b y a c ontinuing f ailure t o d iscover s ettlement s ites w hich c ould b e a ssigned t o t he e arlier B ronze A ge ( Stone a nd G ray H ill, 1 938, 2 49; C hilde, 1 940, 9 8; C lark, 1 940, 2 9). T he e arlier B ronze A ge w as, i n f act, c onsidered t o b e a n a ge o f c lassic n omadic p astoralists, l iving i n p ortable d wellings, t heir w anderings m arked b y t he d istribution o f t heir b arrows ( Lethbridge, 1 950; C urwen, 1 946, 7 9) 7 . O f c ourse, t he g rain-rubbers f ound a t a n umber o f c ausewayed e nclosures, a nd t he a ctual g rain r ecovered f rom H embury , a rgued a gainst t his i nterpretation, b ut w as h eld t o r eflect a m inor a rable i nterest a mongst a p redominantly p astoral p eople ( Curwen, 1 938; 1 946). T hat t he k nown c ausewayed " camp" d istribution m atched s o c losely t he a reas o f d ownland s eemed t o c onfirm a n i nterest i n p asture. A d istinction w as, h owever, r ecognised b etween t he f ull p astoral n omadism o f t he B ronze A ge a nd t hat o f t he N eolithic: " A c ertain n umber o f d efended c amps - p erhaps t ribal h eadquarters - b elonging t o t he N eolithic p eriod a re k nown i n S outhern E ngland , e ach s urrounded b y w ide a reas o f p astoral c ountry o n w hich t he t ribal h erds m ust h ave g razed. T hough t hese c amps w ere c ontemporary w ith o ne a nother, t he p ottery f ound i n t hem s ometimes e xhibits d ifferences o f t ype b etween o ne c amp a nd t he n ext, s uggesting t hat c ommunication b etween t hem m ust h ave b een l imited, a nd t hat p astoral n omadism m ust h ave b een c onfined t o t he t ribal a rea - p erhaps a s l arge a s a n E nglish c ounty". ( Curwen, 1 946, 5 5). T his r ecourse t o p astoralist e xplanations o bviously r eflected t he a mount o f f ieldwork u ndertaken u p t o t his t ime, a nd t he f act t hat a erial p hotography a nd e xcavation h ad l ooked e arnestly f or N eolithic a nd e arlier B ronze A ge f ield-systems a nd s ettlements w ithout s uccess. T his c oncept d id i n i tself c onstrain f ieldwork i n t hat f orested r iver v alleys a nd c lay l ands w ere t hought t o b e " impenetrable" a nd o nly

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c halk u plands w ere c onsidered t o b e v iable a reas o f p rehistoric s ettlement. I t i s, h owever, a lso i mportant t o r ecognise t hat, w ithin a n e volutionary f ramework o f c ultural-economic s tages, b ecause t he e arlier B ronze A ge w as c onsidered a p eriod o f n omadic p astoralism e arlier p eriods c ould n ot h ave " progressed" t o a m ore a dvanced a gricultural c ultural s tage, a nd t he N eolithic m ust t herefore e ither h ave b een p astoral o r h unting b ased. T o a ttempt t o u nderstand t he b ackground o f s ite i nterpretation b efore t he S econd W orld W ar i t i s n ecessary t o r ecognise t he c hanging s tatus o f f ieldwork. T here h ad b een a d ecline i n t he s tandards o f e xcavation f ollowing P itt-Rivers' e arly w ork o n C ranborne C hase, b ut a fter 1 925 a nd t he i nnovations o f W heeler m odern p rinciples o f s tratigraphic e xcavation a chieved e ver w ider a cceptance. W ith t his e mphasis o n f ieldwork t here a lso c ame a v igorous r eaction a gainst t he V ictorian l egacy o f m useum-orientated a rchaeology a nd i ts e mphasis o n c lassification. O n t his s ubject C lark d eclared t hat " treasure, s uperstition, s epulture a nd w ar a re w hat w hetted t he a ppetite o f t he a verage g entleman-archaeologist o f t he p ast a nd i t i s p redominantly o f s kulls a nd g raves, r ich p ieces, w eapons, m ilitary f ortifications a nd r eligious s ymbols t hat w e r ead i n t heir r eports: d welling-houses a nd t he e conomy o f d aily l ife s eem t o h ave b een t oo c ommon-place a nd s ordid t o h ave e ngaged t heir a ttention" ( 1937b, 4 68). F or a s e xcavation t echniques a nd m ethods d eveloped n ew q uestions c ould b e a nd w ere a sked o f t he d ata. T he " new f unctionalism" o f t his t ime w as b ased o n t he p rinciple o f t he " reconstruction o f p ast l ife", a nd t his " change o f v iew f rom t he o ld f ormality t o t he n ew f unctionalism m ay p robably b e a ttributed t o t he i mpact o f a nthropology u pon a rchaeology" ( Crawford, 1 927; 1 953, 1 46-7). I t i s, h owever, i mportant t o r ealise t hat i t w as t he l ate n ineteenth c entury a nthropological a pproaches o f P itt-Rivers a nd T ylor w hich C rawford c hampioned. I n B ritish a rchaeology t his p re-1950s f unctionalism w as " anthropological" o nly i nsofar t hat i t s tressed t he s ubsistence a nd d omestic b asis o f s ociety. U ltimately , o f c ourse, t his n ew a nthropology a nd n ew f unctionalism w as f lawed b ecause i t t ook n o a ccount o f t ime a nd c ulture, a nd t herefore " a h ouse w as a h ouse w as a .." r egardless o f c ultural c ontext ( i.e. C rawford, 1 953, 1 45). I t i s f or t his r eason t hat t he p lan o f c ausewayed e nclosures c ould b e c ompared w ith N eolithic G reek a nd I ron A ge f orts, r ingwall t owns a nd p astoralist c amps. T o b e f air, i t s hould b e n oted t hat C rawford d id r ecognise t he i mportance o f " non-material m atters" s uch a s r eligion a nd s ocial s tructure, b ut f elt t hem t o b e i naccessible t o a rchaeology e xcept b y " hazardous i nference" ( ibid ., 2 18; c f. H awkes, 1 954). T he c asual a nd i llustrative c haracter o f a nalogies a nd i nterpreta tions d uring t his t ime m ight a lso r eflect l imited a ccess t o a nthropological s ources. T hough t he a nthropological a pproach m ay h ave b een e spoused, t he i nfluence o f c ontemporary s ocial a nthropology o n B ritish a rchaeology b efore t he S econd W ar a ppears s ufficiently s light t o p ose q uestions a bout h ow m uch w as a ctually r ead o n t he s ubject. M ost " parallels" c ited d o n ot r elate t o e thnographic t exts a s s uch, b ut r ather t o f igures/photographs a nd t ravel m emoirs, a nd t he N ational G eographic M agazine w ould s eem t o h ave b een ag reater s ource o f i nspiration ( Crawford, 1 933, 3 45; C urwen, 1 938, 3 8, n ote 2 ) t han, f or e xample, t he J ournal o f t he R oyal A nthropological I nstitute . I t i s

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

o nly a fter t he W ar t hat s ocial a nthropology a ppears t o h ave m ade a s erious i mpact o n a rchaeology a nd b egan t o b e i nfluential i n t he d evelopment o f a f ormal f unctional/ecological a pproach 8 . A m ore f ormal a pproach t o t he a pplication o f e thnographic a nalogy d eveloped d uring t he e arly 1 950s a nd t his h as b een c onsidered a t l ength b y O rme ( 1974; 1 981). F or p urposes o f t his p aper i t i s s ufficient t o s tate t hat u se o f e thnographic a nalogy i n a rchaeology b efore 1 960 b asically i nvolved t wo l ines o f a rgument: t he i dea o f " clothing t he s keleton o f t he p ast", i nsofar a s t here w as a g eneral r ecognition o f t he l imitations o f t he a rchaeological r ecord i n t erms o f t he u nequal s urvival o r o rganic a rtefacts; a nd t he r ecognition o f t he v alue o f f olk-culture s tudies b ased o n t he l ong t erm s urvival o f " archaic" t raits a mongst i solated p easant c ommunities ( Crawford , 1 927; 1 953; C lark, 1 951; 1 952). W hile t his a pplication o f e thnographic a nalogy w as t hought t o b e r elevant t o t he s tudy o f s ubsistence a nd h abitation t ypes, i t h ad o nly v ery l imited r elevance t o t he u nders tanding o f m onuments a nd n on-domestic p henomena; e xcept t hat b y e lucidating t he n ature o f " occupation" a nd t he " domestic" i t i nadvertently d efined w hat w as n ot. T his a pproach t o a nalogy m ay h ave c ontributed i ndirectly t o t he r edefinition o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s i ll-defined " pastoral h ead-quarters" a s o pposed t o f ortified f ormal s ettlehents. I t i s, h owever, e ssential t o r ecognise t hat t he a nalogies e mployed t o d escribe c ausewayed e nclosures b efore c . 1 950 d id n ot j ust d erive f rom e thnography b ut a lso f rom h istoric a nd l iterary s ources. I n f act, a lmost a ny s ource a ppears t o h ave b een a ppropriate i n t he c reation o f c ontext o r m eaning, a nd t his w as b ecause t he a rchaeological f ramework w as s till s o v ery s parse a nd f ragmentary. I n o ther w ords, w ithout a f ramework o f a rchaeological r eference, r ecourse h ad t o b e m ade t o o ther s ources, a nd i f m eaning o r d efinition w as n ot a pparent t hen i t h ad t o b e i ntentionally s ought o r c reated.

F airground a nd C emetery P iggott i n N eolithic C ultures o f t he B ritish I sles ( 1954) d ismissed t he n otion o f d itch-dwellings a nd n oted t hat t he o val h ut a t H embury w as t he o nly r oofed s tructure k nown f rom a c ausewayed e nclosure. W hile o ccupation d ebris h ad b een f ound a t t hree f urther e nclosures, W indmill H ill, W hitehawk a nd M aiden C astle, P iggott s tated t hat w ith t he e xception o f H embury , t here w as n o e vidence o f p ermanent s ettlement ( Piggott, 1 954, 2 5-7). R ather, b ased o n t he q uantity a nd c haracter o f a nimal b ones r ecovered f rom t he W indmill H ill d itches, P iggott p ostulated a n " alternative e xplanation", t hat t he e nclosures w ere p rimarily c attle k raals d esigned f or t he a utumn c ulling o f y oung a nimals a nd t he m anagement o f h erds. T hough P iggott's e xplanation m ust b e s een a s a p art o f t he p revailing p astoralist m ode o f i nterpretation, w hat w as, h owever, i nnovative i n h is a nalysis w as t he e mphasis u pon s easonality: " these p laces m ay w ell h ave c onstituted c entres a nd r allying p oints f or l arge a reas p opulated w ith r elatively s mall s ocial u nits t hat t he i mperfect a griculture e mployed w ould s upport" ( ibid ., 2 9). P iggott's i nterpretation, t herefore, s hould b e c onsidered a s t ransitional i n c ausewayed e nclosure s tudies, f or w hile w orking w ithin a p redominantly e conomic f ramework o f i nterpretation h is u se o f

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a rtefacts ( faunal d ata ) t o e xplain t he e nclosures a s a n a ctive p henomenon w as a m arked d eparture f rom e arlier s tudies. P iggott's w ork, t hough, s hould b e u nderstood w ithin t he c hanging c ontext o f 1 950s a rchaeology; t he d evelopment o f e xplanatory o r o perational m odes o f i nterpretation a s o pposed t o e arlier p redominantly d escriptive i nterpretations ( Clark, 1 952; C hilde, 1 958, 5 ). P arallel w ith t his n ew e mphasis o n e xplanation t here w as ag rowing r ecognition o f t he l imitations o f a rchaeological i nference ( ibid .; H awkes, 1 954; S mith, 1 955) a nd a gainst t his b ackground I .F. S mith's i nspired i nterpretation ( 1965) o f K eiller's W indmill H ill e xcavations m ust b e s een a s a n o utstanding c ontribution t o c ausewayed e nclosure s tudies. O n t he b asis o f h er a nalysis o f t he W indmill H ill m aterial S mith d isagreed w ith P iggott's p roposal t hat t he e nclosures w ere k raals f or t he s easonal c ulling o f h erds, b ased o n t he f act t hat t he c attle s laughtered t here w ere m ature. F urthermore, h er c onclusion t hat t he d itches o f t he e nclosure h ad a pparently b een d eliberately b ack-filled, l evelling t he b anks i n t he p rocess, w ould n ot b e c onsistent w ith P iggott's i nterpretation ( 1965, 1 5 f f.). N evertheless, P iggott's e xplanation o f t hese e nclosures a s r allying p oints h ad, S mith c onsidered " arrived a t t he e ssence o f t he m atter". S he a rgued f orcefully a gainst t he n otion t hat c ausewayed e nclosures w ere i ntended f or d efence, n or w ould t he W indmill H ill e vidence a dmit p ermanent s ettlement. S he s uggested i nstead t hat t hese e nclosures w ere r allying p oints f or a d ispersed p opulation i n w hich t he f ull r ange o f c ommunal a ctivities s uch a s e xchange f easts, r ites a nd c eremonies t ook p lace, t ogether w ith s ome i ncidental i ndustrial p rocesses. S mith a lso n oted t hat t he p resence o f c arved c halk o bjects a nd s cattered h uman b ones w ould s uggest t he " performance o f m agico-religious r ites" ( 1965, 1 79 ), a n i nterpretation w hich w as c learly i nfluenced b y a ttempts t o u nderstand l ong b arrow m ortuary d eposits ( Piggott, 1 962, 6 5 f f.). W hat i s i mportant t o r ecognise, h owever, i s t hat w hile P iggott's c oncept o f s easonality w as b ased p rimarily o n e conomic f unction, S mith's p roposed p eriodic u sage w as r elated t o t he s ocial r ole. S mith s tated t hat s uch c ommunal r allying p oints p lay a n e ssential p art i n t he f abric o f c ommunities " living i n a c omparable s tage o f e conomic a nd t echnological d evelopment", a nd s he c ited I vanoff's H ead H unters o f B orneo ( 1958) a nd h istoric E nglish s heep f airs a s e xemplifying t his k ind o f s ocial c entre ( 1965, 1 9). T his v iew o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s N eolithic f airgrounds h ad a pparently f irst b een p roposed b y A tkinson d uring t he 1 962 P rehistoric S ociety C onference, i n t he d iscussion w hich f ollowed S mith 's r eport o n W indmill H ill ( Case, 1 962, 2 15). I t i s c entral t o S mith's i nterpretation t hat w hile c ausewayed e nclosures i nitially w ould h ave b een c onspicuous l andmarks, t he d enuded c onditions o f t he b anks a nd t he d itch s tratigraphy a t a n umber o f s ites a rgues t hat t he b anks w ere i ntentionally b ackfilled i nto t he d itches. S he a rgued , m oreover, t hat t he d egree o f l evelling o f t he b anks w as i n p roportion t o t he q uantity o f c ultural d ebris i n t he d itches, w hich s uggested t hat t he d estruction o f t he b anks d id i tself r elate t o t he s ocial/depositional a ctivity o ccurring i n t he d itches ( 1966, 4 71-4); " the i nescapable c onclusion s eems t o b e t hat t he c ausewayed e nclosures w ere n ot m eant t o b e p ermanent " enclosures" a t a ll, a nd t hat t heir f unction w as a n on u tilitarian o ne" ( ibid ., 4 74).

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 5 9 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

T his c oncept o f a " disappearing m onument" h as b een c rucial t o c ausewayed e nclosures s tudies s ince i t i ndicates a m arked s hift i n i nterpretive f ocus a way f rom t he s tructural f orm o f t he e nclosures a nd i nstead c oncentrates o n t he d epositional e vidence o f g roup b ehaviour. T he c oncept o f e nclosures a s a ll-embracing " non-utilitarian" c ommunal c entres h as b een e xtremely i nfluential, a s i t d epicts t he e nclosures a lmost a s a f orm o f m onumental s tage-set w hich p eriodically h osted t he f ull r ange o f c ommunal t ransactions a nd w hich w ould c onsequently c ontain a w ide s pectrum o f c ultural r emains b ut l ack o f e vidence o f i nternal s tructures. O n t he o ne h and t his c oncept o f an on-specific g roup c entre c an b e s een a s i nfluencing e xplanations o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s " central p laces" l argely b ased o n t heir a pparent l abour i nput, a nd t heir p roposed c entral s ocial r ole h as b een e xtrapolated s o a s t o c orrespond w ith a g eographic t erritorial l ocation ( Renfrew , 1 973; c f. B radley , 1 984b ). O n t he o ther h and, S mith's i nterpretation o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s c onspicuous, i f t emporary, l andmarks i s r elevant t o r ecent a rguments c oncerning t he s ocial i nteraction o f e arly m onuments ( i.e. B radley , 1 984a; 1 984b ). I n h er 1 971 p aper " Causewayed e nclosures" S mith m odified h er e arlier v iews o n t he c haracter o f t he c ultural r emains i n t he d itches, a nd s he c ited C ase's s uggestion t hat i nstead o f c onstituting t he r emains o f p eriodic g atherings, t hey m ight r epresent r edeposited s ettlement d ebris b uried f or t he " supposed m agic p owers o f i ts f ertilizing p roperties" ( Smith, 1 971, 1 00 ). T his a llowed S mith t o c ontemplate c ausewayed e nclosures i n t erms o f a m ixed N eolithic e conomy , s erving a s e xchange a nd t rade c entres ( ibid ., 1 02 f f.). I n t he s ame p aper, h owever, S mith a lso l isted t he i nhumations f ound a t e xcavated B ritish e nclosures, a nd s uggesting a f urther f unction a s c ult c entres; c ult p ractices c ould a lso b e i nferred f rom t he p attern a nd n ature o f d itch d eposits a nd f rom t he l onger t erm r elationship o f c ausewayed e nclosures t o h enges. I n r ecent y ears t he i dea o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s r itual a nd m ortuary s ites h as b een e xtensively e xplored b ased o n t he f requency o f h uman s keletal r emains r ecovered, a nd t he s patial r elationship o f t he e nclosures t o l ong b arrows. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat n ond omestic a ctivity h ad a lready b een d educed i n e arlier c ausewayed e nclosure e xcavations f rom f inds o f c omplete a nimal b urials a nd h uman r emains, b ut t hese h ad u sually b een i nterpreted i n t erms o f f oundation d eposits, c annibalism a nd h ead-hunting ( Curwen, 1 937, 8 1; P iggott, 1 954, 4 7-8). C hilde ( 1940) c onsidered a n a lternative p ossibility , t hat t hese h uman s keletal r emains r epresented t he b urial o f c ommoners a s o pposed t o t he c eremonial i nterment o f r uling e lites i n l ong b arrows. N evertheless i t w as n ot u ntil P iggott a nalysed t he W est K ennet l ong b arrow ( 1962, 6 8) i n r elationship t o t he e vidence f rom W indmill H ill t hat t he c omplementary r elationship o f s keletal m aterial r ecovered f rom l ong b arrows a nd c ausewayed e nclosures w as s eriously c onsidered. I n h is d iscussion P iggott a lso n oted S mith's s uggestion t hat t he s keletal d ebris f ound i n c ausewayed e nclosures, r ather t han r epresenting e vidence o f c annibalism , c ould i ndicate t he s elective d eposition o f s kulls a nd o ther b ones e xtracted f rom b arrows ( Smith , 1 965, 1 37).

a nd f or

I n t he p ublication o f t he O ffham e nclosure D rewett ( 1977) l isted d iscussed s even l ines o f i nterpretation w hich h ave b een p roposed c ausewayed e nclosures. I t i s i nteresting t hat a lthough D rewett

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w ent t o e xtensive l engths t o d emonstrate t he e thnocentric b asis o f i nterpretations i n t erms o f d efence a nd w arfare, h e c oncluded t hat t he p rimary f unction o f c ausewayed e nclosures m ay h ave b een a s e xposure/ b urial s ites a nd t hat t heir d itches d efined a t aboo a rea r ather t han e nclosing i n t he f ormal s ense ( ibid ., 2 25-6). D rewett a lso a rgued t hat, w hile t he p rimary f unction m ay h ave b een t hat o f e xposure g rounds, t he s ubsequent e laboration o f s ome e nclosures m ay h ave r elated t o t he s tatus o f t he . s ocial g roup o r t he i ndividual i nterred t herein. H e s uggested, u sing a n h istorical a nalogy , t hat c omplex s ites s uch a s W indmill H ill m ay h ave d eveloped i n t he m anner o f m ediaeval c ult c entres s uch a s C anterbury. S imilarly , M ercer b ased o n t he q uantity o f s keletal d ebris r ecovered f rom t he d itches a t H ambledon H ill, a nd t he l ocation o f a l ong b arrow w ithin t he e nclosure t here, h as s uggested t hat t he m ain e nclosure m ay h ave b een a " gigantic n ecropolis" f or t he e xposure o f c orpses: " it i s t herefore t empting t o s uggest t hat t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure a t H ambledon w as a v ast r eeking c emetery , i ts s ilence b roken o nly b y t he d in o f c rows a nd r avens" ( 1980, 6 3). T his r ecognition o f " spiritual a ctivities" a nd " cult p ractices", w hich a re a ttested s o p rominently a t a n umber o f c ausewayed e nclosures, h as o ccasioned ag reat d eal o f a ttention o ver t he l ast t wenty y ears. H owever, t he f act t hat s ome e nclosures w ere o f a " ritual c haracter" d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply u nderstanding o f t he p henomenon a s a w hole. M ercer, f or e xample, d escribes e xamples o f " irrational" f eatures a nd a ctivities a t H ambledon H ill ( ibid ., 2 3-5, 3 5). A s tatement o f t his k ind r eveals a m ajor s hift i n t he c onceptu alisation o f t he p ast w hen c ompared t o e arlier r esearch. F or a n a dmission t hat p ast a ctivity c annot r eadily b e c omprehended c ontrasts w ith e arlier m odes o f i nterpretation ( "top-downwards a nalogy") w hich c onsidered t hat t he p ast o ften c ould b e m ore c onfidently u nderstood t hrough f orm t han t hrough p henomenon a nd p rocess. F urthermore, t o a dmit a reas o f " ignorance" i s i mportant i nsofar a s i t c an s uggest a d irection f or f uture r esearch , o r, i n P ryor's t erms ( 1983), e xcavation c an b e f or " Questions, n ot A nswers", t hereby a voiding s imply g lossing o ver t he c omplexities o f t he p ast. O f c ourse, t he i ssue a t h and i s n ot t hat o f r ationality/irrationality b ut o f t he a pparent l imitations o f o ur c omprehension, a nd t o s tate t hat p ast s ocial a ctivity o perated i n a l ogic w hich i s n ot o ur o wn i s n ot t o s ay t hat i t i s i llogical. C oncurrent w ith i nterpretations i n n on-utilitarian t erms, d omestic f unctions h ave b een s uggested b y t he e vidence e xcavated a t s ites s uch a s S taines, O rsett, a nd A bingdon. T he d iscovery t hrough a erial p hotography t hat c ausewayed e nclosures w ere n ot m erely ad ownland p henomenon, b ut w ere d istributed t hroughout t he l owland r iver v alleys o f t he M idlands a nd e astern E ngland ( Wilson, 1 975; P almer, 1 976) h as f urthermore c ontributed t o a l ine o f f unctional/ecological i nterpretations. F or t he p resence o f " interrupted d itch s ystems" b eyond t he c lassic r itual m onumental l andscapes o f t he d owns h as p rompted t he n otion t hat t hese e nclosures m ay h ave p layed a g reater r ole w ithin t he f ramework o f N eolithic e conomies t han h ad b een e arlier t hought ( Barker a nd W ebley , 1 978). W ith s o m any l owland e xamples k nown, n o l onger c ould t hey b e l inked t o p astoral e conomies m erely o n g eographical g rounds.

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W hittle ( 1977) h as a rgued t hat a r itual e xplanation f or a ll c ausewayed e nclosures i s i nadequate a nd h e c onsiders t hem e ssentially t o b e p ermanently o ccupied d omestic s ites. A l arger p opulation m ay o ccasionally h ave b een a ttracted o n s pecific o ccasions, w hen r itual a ctivity c ould b e e xpected, b ut r itual b y i tself w as n ot t he r aison d 'être f or c onstructing t hese s ites ( 1977, 3 45). S imilarly , A very 's d etailed e xamination o f t he c ultural d ebris f rom t he i nner d itch a t A bingdon l ed h im t o i nterpret i t n ot a s t he l eft-overs o f c ommunal f easting, b ut a s d omestic r efuse i ntentionally b ackfilled i nto t he d itches d uring s ite c learance i n t he s econdary e xpansion o f t he e nclosure. B ased o n t his a nalysis C ase h as p roposed a m odel o f M iddle N eolithic l and-use f or t he A bingdon r egion i n w hich t he c ausewayed e nclosure, s ituated s o a s t o c ontrol t he f lood-plain , w as t he f armstead o f a l eading f amily o f a s mall c lan. T he d ramatic, a pparently s econdary , e xpansion o f t his e nclosure, w hich m ay h ave b een f ortified, i s i nterpreted a s r eflecting a n e xpansion i n t he s ize o f t he s ocial/political g roup, p erhaps t o a ccommodate a s econd i mportant f amily. I n t his m odel t he r elative s ize o f a n e nclosure i s t aken t o r eflect p roportionally i ts r esident a nd h interland p opulation ( Case a nd W hittle, 1 982, 2 -5, f ig. 1 ). B radley , t hough, h as r ecently c autioned t hat " although t he b uilding o f l arge e nclosures m ust h ave m ade c onsiderable d emands o n m anpower, w e s hould n ot a ssume t hat t he i dentity o f f orm p resupposes i dentity o f f unction" ( 1984a, 2 6). I n ap ublished s tudy o f t he U pper T hames v alley , B radley h as r e-assessed t he A bingdon e nclosure i n r elationship t o M ercer's i nterim p ublication o f H ambledon H ill a nd i ts o utworks. H e s uggests t hat t he t wo A bingdon d itches m ay i n f act b e c ontemporary , t hough s erving t otally d ifferent f unctions, w ith a n onu tilitarian i nner e nclosure d efined b y t he i nner d itch, a nd t he o uter d itch, w hich h ad b een r ecut w ithout c auseways, s erving t o e nclose a nd d efend a s ettlement ( Bradley a nd H olgate, 1 984, 1 16). T he s ame a uthor, h owever, h as e lsewhere a rgued t hat i n t heir p rimary p hases t hese e nclosures a re e ssentially h igh s tatus n ucleated s ettlements l ocated s o a s t o c ontrol a ccess t o r esources. B radley 's r ecent a rgument t hat t hey a re p rimarily d omestic i n c haracter i s b ased o n d etailed s tudies o f t heir a rtefacts, s pecifically t he i ndex o f t heir l ithics, c ompared w ith t hose f rom c ontemporary o pen s ites. T he q uantity a nd c haracter o f a nimal b one a nd h igh s tatus g oods a t t he e nclosures w ould, m oreover, a rgue f or o n-site c onsumption a nd u tilisation o f r esources r ather t han t heir r edistribution f rom t hese e nclosures a s " central p laces" ( 1984a, 2 8). I t s hould, t hough , b e n oted t hat B radley 's i nterpretation m ust b e r ead w ithin a p roposed f ramework o f e merging s ocial c ompetition a nd r anking. I n t his c ontext h e e mphasises t he f act t hat s ome c ausewayed e nclosures a pparently t ook o n ad efensive f unction ( Crickley H ill, H ambledon H ill, O rsett), a nd h e e nvisages t hat t he e arlier N eolithic e nded i n o vert c onflict ( ibid ., 3 4-5). I t h as b een a rgued ( Wilson, 1 975; W hittle, 1 977; C ase a nd W hittle, 1 982, 2 4) t hat t he c onstruction/quarrying t echnique c ommon t o c ausew ayed e nclosures m ay c onceal a v ariety o f f unctions, a n umber o f w hich m ay b e r epresented a t a ny o ne s ite. C ertainly t he p luralism i n c urrent i nterpretations o f c ausewayed e nclosures, b oth a s n onu tilitarian ( cult/mortuary ) a nd u tilitarian ( rallying p oint/ r edistribution ) c entres, a nd a s s ettlements a nd f orts, r aises d oubts a bout t he f unctional a nd c hronological u nity o f t he t ype a s a w hole.

6 2Ii. Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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C ausewayed E nclosures - c omparative s ources A : W indmill H ill, c ausewayed e nclosure ( after S mith, 1 965, f ig. 3 ) B : A nalogous d itch c onstruction - W or l ong b arrow ( after A shbee, 1 984, f ig. 3 0 ) C : A nalogous " ritual" f unction - A vebury h enge m onument ( after W ainwright, 1 975, f ig. 4 .2) D : A nalogous p lan i nterruptions - T ripolye c ulture v illage ( after C rawford 1 953, f ig. 1 37) E : A nalogous s patial o rganisation - Z ulu k raal ( after K rige 1 936 T he S ocial S tructures o f t he Z ulus , 4 3; c ited i n C ase, 1 956)

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 6 3 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

S uch d iversity o f i nterpretation c ould b e t aken t o r eflect t he h ealthy i ntellectual s tate o f a s ocial s cience i n w hich t here a re n o a bsolutes a s s uch. A lternatively , o f c ourse, i t p rompts s cepticism a bout t he e xtent t o w hich t he p ast c an a ctually b e d emonstrated o r " proven" ( Hodder, 1 984 ) - d oes t he d iscipline a ctually a dvance i n i ts u nderstanding o f p ast p henomena , a nd t o w hat e xtent d oes t he m ost r ecently e xcavated s ite d ictate t he l atest f rame o f r eference? C ertainly t o s ome e xtent t his s ituation i s p artially a ttributable t o a l ack o f d isciplinary h indsight a nd t he f act t hat w ithout a h istographic f ramework i t i s d ifficult t o d ifferentiate w hat a re " hard" e xcavation r esults f rom b oth i nformally a ssumed a nd e xplicitly s tated t heoretical p remises. T his a pparent d ilemma, h owever, c ould a lso b e o ne o f o ur o wn m aking, i nsofar a s i t r eflects a d esire t o c haraterise s ites b y f unction. T he c urrent d iversity o f i nterpretation m ay r eflect a p ast " truth" i nasmuch a s c oncepts o f s ite s pecialisation m ay n ot b e a ppropriate f or t hese e nclosures. F or i n t heir s tatus a s " first m onuments" t he c oncept o f a d iscreet s ite f unction ( secular/ritual), s uch a s i s m ore a pparent i n, a nd t o s ome e xtent a ppropriate t o , l ater p rehistoric a nd h istoric t imes, m ay s imply n ot y et h ave " evolved". I nstead w hat w e c ould b e i nvestigating i s a m uch m ore s ocially a nd e conoMically i ntegrated s ite f orm w ithout a p redominant " function" a s s uch. I n t his r egard a s ite s uch a s E tton, w here s mall r itual " packages" h ave b een s et a t t he b utt e nd o f i ts d itches i n w hat o therwise m ay p rove t o b e a d omestic e nclosure ( Pryor, 1 983), c ould b e c onsidered " typical". T his o scillation b etween d omestic a nd n onu tilitarian m odes o f i nterpretation w ould s uggest t hat e ither w e l ack t he a nalytical e xpertise t o d ifferentiate b etween t he t wo, o r w e d o n ot h ave t he t heoretical f ramework f or t heir i ntegration. A lternatively , o f c ourse, t here m ay b e n o r esolution t o t his i ssue, a s i t c ould i nvolve t he c ultural/cognitive c ontext o f a l anguage t hat w e m ay n ot h ave t he c onceptual f ramework t o c omprehend. T hese " sphinxl ike" m onuments m ay u ltimately l eave u s l iterally " dumbfounded".

A nalogy a nd E xcavation I f t here c an b e a c onclusion t o t his s tudy , i t i s t hat c ausewayed e nclosures h ave v ariously b een i nterpreted i n t erms o f a lmost e very t ype o f c ommunal c entre k nown i n h istory , f rom f orts t o c emeteries a nd b ack a gain , w ithout a ny c onsensus e merging a s t o a n a ppropriate o r s atisfying s olution f or t he c lass a s aw hole. I n t his r egard p erhaps, a s O rme ( 1981, 2 84 ) h as s tated, t he m ain p urpose o f a nalogy m ay b e c ontrastive, i nsomuch a s i t p rovides a m easurement o f o ur i gnorance a nd m akes c lear t he c omplexity o f p ast a nd p resent c ultural p henomena. O ver t he l ast t wenty y ears m uch h as b een w ritten a bout t he f ormal a pplication o f a nalogy i n a rchaeology, t hough a s f ar a s c ausewayed e nclosures a re c oncerned e thnographic a nd h istoric a nalogy , i f i nformal i n i ts u sage, m ade a m uch g reater i mpact o n r esearch b efore t he 1 960s. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat i n r ecent r esearch h istorical a nd e thnographic a nalogy h as n ot b een e xtensively r eferred t o, b ut t hat i ts r ole h as b een p redominantly e xemplary o r c ontrasting i n s uch a w ay a s t o h ave h ad l imited i mpact i n g enerating i nterpretations. C ertainly t his c ontrasts w ith e arlier i nvestigations i n w hich t he a nlogous " form" w as e ffectively i mposed u pon t he e xcavated d ata. Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 6 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

T his, h owever, i s n ot t o d eride t he a chievement o f p re-war r esearch, f or t oday w e a ssume a f unctional u nderstanding, o r a t l east a r ecognition, o f b asic a rchaeological p henomena s uch a s p its, d itches a nd t wuses - t he " building-blocks" o r g rammar o f f ield r esearch. Y et, i t w as p recisely t hese c oncepts w hich w ere a ssimilated d uring t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury a nd t heir r ecognition a nd o peration ( i.e. w eathering a nd r ecutting ) w ere a rrived a t t hrough a s ynthesis o f d irect o bservation ( experience), " logic" a nd a nalogy. T his g radual p rocess o f b asic e ntity c ognition i s i nteresting a s i t q uestions t he p remise o f t he s elf-definition o f " contexts"/entities w hich u nderlies t he m odern c oncept o f " analytical" e xcavation. F or s uch d efinition c an n ever o ccur i n a n i ntellectual v acuum , a nd t he r oot o f i dentification i s e xpectation a nd c omparison e ither w ith c ontemporary , h istorical o r a rchaeological p henomena, a nd i n t his m anner e xcavation i s b ased o n a l anguage o f a ssumed a nd a ccepted c oncepts. A s s uch a rchaeological c onstructs a re l iterally a nd c onceptually a t ranslation o f t he p ast w hich e ntails t he a mbiguities o f c ommunication a nd c ognition a ssociated w ith l anguage. H istoric a nd e thnographic a nalogy c an, t herefore, b e s een t o h ave p rovided a c ontext o f m eaning o r i dentification, w hich c urrently i s s ubsumed i n am ore g eneral a rchaeological c ontext. I n t his m anner t he c hanging r elevance o f a nalogy w ould a ppear t o r elate t o a s hift i n t he f ramework o f d isciplinary r eference. F or a s a rchaeology m atures t hrough a n e xpanding b ody o f e xcavation a nd r esearch , a nd b y a bsolute m eans o f, a nd g reater p recision i n, d ating, i t d oes t o s ome e xtent c reate i ts o wn c ontext o f r eference. I n t his m anner a n i ndependence o f i nterpretation d evelops t hrough i ntuitive a nd f ormal ( quantitative) p attern r ecognition i n t he d ata, a nd t his c reates a n a rchaeological b asis o f r elevance a nd d efinition. A s t he d iscipline p rogresses, f urthermore, t he u niqueness a nd c omplexity o f g iven p ast c ultures b ecomes a pparent - t he p ast b ecomes r ecognisable a s a " foreign c ountry" - a nd t his b rings i nto q uestion t he a ppropriateness o f a nalogies f rom t he a nthropological p resent. B ecause o f t he r estricted s urvival o f i ndigenous c ultures t here i s s imply n ot a s ufficiently v ast b ody o f r elevant e thnographic l iterature t o b ear o n a ll p ast p henomena ( i.e. " ditched" a nd " monumental" s ocieties), a nd c onsequently o perational a nalogies m ay o nly b e s ought i n t he h istoric a nd a rchaeological r ecord. Y et, w hile i t i s w ithin t his a rchaeological c ontext t hat p rehistoric m onuments m ust b e u nderstood, c an t his d isciplinary c ontext g enerate m eaning b eyond t he r ecognition t hat " the p ast w as d ifferent"? W hether t he a pplication o f a nthropological a nalogy d eserves t he d egree o f a ttention i t h as r ecently r eceived i s q uestionable. F or, o nce a rchaeology a s a d iscipline h as p assed a p oint i n i ts m aturity d oes i t r emain s uch a c entral i ssue e xcept i nsofar t hat w e a re a ware o f t he c ontext o f i ts s ource a nd a pplication? H odder h as r ecently a rgued t hat " the p ast i s t he p resent i n t he s ense t hat o ur r econstructions o f t he m eaning o f d ata f rom t he p ast a re b ased o n a nalogies w ith t he w orld a round u s .. a ll a rchaeology i s b ased o n a nalogy" ( 1982a , 9 ). T he v alidity o f t his s tatement d epends o n t he e xtent t o w hich t he c oncept o f a nalogy i s e laborated a nd w hether i t s till r etains a ny v estiges o f i ts m eaning. A nthropological a nalogy b y d efinition c an o nly r efer t o t he s imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween p henomena f ound i n t he e xcavated p ast a nd o bserved i n t he p resent. T hough i t c an i nform u s a bout t he r elationship b etween i ts e lements b y Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 6 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

i tself i t d oes n ot h ave t he p ower o r p otential t o g enerate a n ew f orm ( a p henomenon i n t he p ast), o nly t o s how t hat t o a g reater o r l esser e xtent t he p ast d oes m irror t he p resent. A nalogy i s b ut a r esearch " tool" a nd n ot a t heory o r m ethodology , a nd i t w ill n ever t ake u s b eyond t he s um o f i ts p arts; y et m ost a rchaeological r easoning f ollows t he l ogic o f i deas, i n w hich t he i nteraction o f c omponent p arts h as t he p otential t o a rrive a t a n ew f orm w hich c an e xceed t he s um o f t he p arts. F or e xample, a " town" i s m ore t han t he a ccumulation o f s treets, h ouses a nd m arkets; i t i s a c onceptual e ntity. O f c ourse, i t i s o ne t hing t o c onceive o f t he " ideological" s um w hen i t i s a pparent w ithin i ts c ontemporary o r h istoric c ontext, i t i s q uite a nother m atter t o r each t his l evel o f u nderstanding f rom t he u nknown, w hen t he " sum" i s c ulturally a lien o r a pparently n on-analogous. W hile t his d iscussion m ay b e s peculative, i t i s n ot i rrelevant, f or m ost a rchaeology p roceeds a long t hese l ines - a n e ntity i s f requently " known", o ften b y i ts " name" ( i.e. b arrow , t emple, s ettlement s ite) b efore i ts c omponents a re f ormally a nalysed , a nd h ence i t i s n ot s urprising t hat m ost p henomena l argely c onfirm t heir e xpectations. T his a ction o f " knowing" o r " reading" o f e ntities u sually o ccurs w ithin a m ore g eneral c ontext o f a rchaeological a nd o bservable e xperience, w hich o f c ourse w ill r elate t o a nalogous f orms, a nd m ay e ven b e b linkered b y t hem; b ut o ur c ognition a nd u nderstanding c an p otentially e xceed t he s um o f d irect a nalogical r oots. I n t his r egard t he c rucial i ssue i s w hat h appens w hen t he " unknown" - t he a s y et " unameable" - i s c onfronted, a nd t his i s t he q uestion w hich c ausewayed e nclosures p ose f or u s; a nd i n r esponse w e f ace t he S cylla a nd C harybdis o f " piecemeal p arallels" a nd " hazardous i nference". O f c ourse, t he s tudy o f t hese e nclosures c annot b e d ivorced f rom d evelopments i n l ater E uropean p rehistory i n g eneral, a nd t he d eclining r elevance o f a nalogy r elates d irectly t o t he d evelopment o f a c ontextual a nd s ocial a rchaeology. T he h istory o f c ausewayed e nclosure r esearch c an, t herefore, b e s een a s m oving t owards a t ranscendence o f a nalogy i nasmuch a s t heir i nterpretation h as p roceeded f rom s pecific p arallels t o g eneralised s tatements c oncerning t heir r ole i n t he N eolithic l andscape. T his s hifting f ocus r elates t o t he d evelopment o f a rchaeological t heory , w hich , w hile d erived l argely f rom a nthropological a nd s ocial t heory , h as e stablished a s ocial c ontext o f m onuments. T hough a nalogies h ave c ertainly b een r elevant t o t he g eneration o f a rchaeological t heory, i t c an b e a rgued t hat o nly t hrough t heory c an o ur u nderstanding o f t he p ast t ranscend t he d irectly a nalogical. B radley i n a r ecent e xamination o f t he l imits o f i nference h as w ritten t hat, a s o pposed t o t he " transient" r esults o f e thnography a nd e xcavation, a rchaeology h as t he a bility t o d istinguish l ong-term s equences o f c hange ( 1984a, 1 58). H owever, i n r ecognising t he a pparent s pecific l imitations a nd g eneral s trengths o f a rchaeological l ogic a nd i nference, a nd b y a ttempting t o d efine p henomena b y s equence a s o pposed t o c ontext, w e c an r isk l osing s ight o f t he i mmediate i ssue a t h and; w hat i s t he c haracter a nd p urpose o f c ausewayed e nclosures? F or t he i mposition o f t heory c an b e j ust a s d issatisfying a s t he i mposition o f i nappropriate a nalogies. T hus f ar t he a pplication o f s ocial t heory t o a rchaeology h as d ealt l argely w ith t he i nterpretation o f t he a pparently " irrational" a s i deological, w hereby i ntention a nd a ction a re r ead a s g esture. W ithin t he c ontext o f t his p aper t his

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 6 6 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a pproach, c ombined w ith a n u nderstanding o f t he i ndependence o f m aterial c ulture, i s v ery p owerful a s i t h as l ed t o a r ecognition o f a " logic o f m onuments". F or t he p hysical s cale ( "the m assively m aterial", S hennan, 1 983) a nd s ubsequent d urability o f m onuments g ives t hem a t emporal c ontext b eyond t hat o f t he e veryday d omestic, a nd t o s ome e xtent t heir c onstruction c an b e u nderstood a s a n i nteraction w ith o ther m onuments a nd, t herefore, t hey a re n ot j ust a d irect p roduct o f t heir p arent c ommunities ( ibid .; B radley , 1 984b ). Y et a t t he s ame t ime, t his a pproach r epresents a c onvenient a bstraction o f t he p ast a s i ts " logic" o perates o n a t ime-scale b eyond t hat o f t he h uman - t he e veryday o r t he g enerational - a nd w e c annot f ully u nderstand t he p ast b y d enying c ontent t o t he a ction o r i ntentions o f i ts p articipants. F or i t i s o nly w ithin t he f ramework o f E arly a nd M iddle N eolithic s ociety a nd l andscape t hat w e c an u nderstand t he s ocial c ontext o f t hese s pecific e nclosures a nd t he p henomenon o f e nclosure i tself. I t i s, t herefore, i nsufficient t o a rgue t hat b y t heir p hysical f orm c ausewayed e nclosures w ere f ormative m onuments a nd f rom t hat p remise p lot t heir c hronological i nteraction w ith t he o ther " players" i n t he s ocial/ritual l andscape, r egardless o f t heir c ontemporary s ocial r ole. I f p rehistory i s t o b e m eaningful i t m ust h ave s ocial c ontent a nd n ot j ust a s ocial d ynamic , a nd t herefore w e m ust a ttempt t o u nderstand t he i nterrelationship a nd t ransformation o f t he " dbmestic" w ith/into t he f ormally m onumental/ritual - w hich i s t he i ssue w hich t hese " dumb" m onuments s till b eckon u s t o a ddress.

N otes 1 . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his p aper w as t he p roduct o f t wo f actors: o n o ne h and i t g rew o ut o f p ost-excavation r esearch f or t he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure ( Evans, t his v olume); w hile o n t he o ther h and i t e merged a s a c ompanion-piece t o a n e arlier p aper c oncerning p lacev alue ( Evans, 1 985) a nd a s s uch i t c ould b e f urther s ub-titled " an a rchaeology o f n ame". 2 . T he i ssue o f t he a ppropriateness o f s ite-classification n ame i s n ot, o f c ourse, r estricted t o c ausewayed e nclosures. T he t erm " cursus", w hich w as f irst c oined b y W illiam S tukeley , c omes f rom t he L atin f or r ace t rack, a nd r eflects a b elief t hat t hese m onuments m ay h ave b een u sed f or g ames a nd c hariot r aces ( Fergusson, 1 872). O n t he o ther h and " henge" ( Kendrick a nd H awkes, 1 932, 8 3) d erives f rom " Stonehenge" w hich o riginates i n t he S axon n ame, " hanging s tones" ( Chippindale, 1 983, 1 0 ), - " henge" t herefore i mplies n o m ore t han " hanging". T he b latant a bsurdity o f t hese n ames s uggests t hat t hey w ere l ess i nfluential i n t he p ost-antiquarian c onceptualisation o f t hese s ites t han t he m ore w eighted t erm " causewayed c amp". 3 . T he s udden " arrival" a nd i mpact o f c ausewayed e nclosures o n B ritish N eolithic s tudies, w hich o ccurred i n t he l ate 1 920s/early 1 930s, c an b est b e a ppreciated b y c omparing t exts o f t he ' 20s s uch a s K endrick's T he A xe A ge ( 1925) a nd C urwen's P rehistoric S ussex ( 1929), t o t he s ame a uthors' w orks p roduced i n h e f ollowing d ecade ( Kendrick a nd H awkes, 1 932; C urwen, 1 937). T he p rominence o f c ausewayed e nclosures i n N eolithic s tudies f rom t his t ime c an b e a ttributed t o

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 6 7

t he s pate o f e xcavations u ndertaken d uring t he p eriod 1 925-30, n otably K eiller's e xcavations a t W indmill H ill, L eeds' a t A bingdon a nd C urwen's w ork o n t he S ussex e nclosures. 4 . I t i s w orth q uestioning t o w hat e xtent t he s ocial/political c ontext o f t he l ate 1 9th c entury w as i nfluential i n t he e arly i nterpretations o f c ausewayed e nclosures a s " forts". F or a t t he t urn o f t he c entury t he m emory o f Z ulu a nd S udan c ampaigns, f or e xample, w ould s till h ave b een r elatively f resh a nd c ertainly t he m agazine i magery o f c olonial w ars w ould h ave m ade a s trong i mpact o n t he " formative" a rchaeologists o f t he d ay . E qually , t he i mpact o n a rchaeologists o f t his c entury 's w ars s hould n ot b e u nderestimated i n t erms o f t heir e nounter w ith f oreign c ultures t hrough t ravel a nd o f t he e xperience o f t he " primitive r ealities" o f l ife. q uite d ifficult t o e valuate t he c ontemporary i mpact o f 5 . I t i s 1 925-29 e xcavations a t W indmill H ill. W hile t here w as K eiller's a n e nthusiastic r ecognition o f t he q uality o f K eiller's c ertainly nly p ublication c oncerning t he s ite i s o utstanding f or i ts w ork, h is o c omplete l ack o f i nterpretation ( Keiller, 1 934 ). T he v arious p ublished n otes w hich m ention t he W indmill H ill e xcavations ( Peake, 1 928; C rawford, 1 937; a nd t he d iscussion f ollowing L eeds' p resentation o f t he s econd s eason 's w ork a t A bingdon i n w hich B ushe-Fox c ited W indmill H ill a s d emonstrating t he o ccupation o f d itches: L eeds, 1 928, 4 77) w ould a lso s uggest t hat i ts i nterpretation w as n ot a t o dds w ith t he p revailing n otions o f i ts t ime. A rchival r eferences t o " hearths" w ithin t he W indmill H ill d itches w ould a lso i mply t hat s ome m anner o f d itch o ccupation w as a ssumed ( Smith, 1 965, 9 ). 6 . C urwen ( 1937) d istinguished b etween t he " roofed" d itch-dwellings f ound a t t he T rundle a nd d itch- " squatting" ( occupation a ctivity b ut w ithout f ormal e vidence o f r oofed s tructures) a t t he W hitehawk C amp. I t s hould b e n oted t hat w hile J .G.D. C lark w as w illing t o a ccept " squatting a ctivities" i n d itches a nd p its h e w as a lways s ceptical c oncerning p it-dwellings a s s uch ( Clark, 1 937; 1 940). 7 . T his " pastoralmania" c an m ost c learly b e s een i n L ethbridge's i maginative a nalysis o f t he S nailwell b arrows i n w hich h e d escribed t he e arly B ronze A ge n omads a s r esiding i n y urts a nd a s m igrating a long t he l ength o f t he I cknield W ay - " the b ulk o f p eople v ery l ikely w andered w ith a n a lmost A brahamic o rganisation f rom W iltshire t o t he N orth S ea a nd b ack a gain" - a nd h e v ariously c ompared t hem w ith m odern g ypsies, A merican p ioneers a nd T ransvaal D utch t rekkers ( Lethbridge, 1 950, 3 1 f f.). 8 . A s i s s o o ften t he c ase, C hilde w as a n e xception t o t his t rend a nd h e c learly w as f amiliar w ith c urrent d evelopments i n s ocial a nthropology. B y 1 935 h e w as a dvocating a f unctional a pproach t o a rchaeology a nd t he c onceptualisation o f c ulture a s a " living o rganism" ( 1935, 1 0 ). O therwise, t his c urious e mphasis o n av isual e thnography w as, f or e xample, o ne o f t he t hemes o f C rawford 's p residential a ddress t o t he P rehistoric S ociety i n 1 938 i n w hich h e s tressed t he v alue o f e thnographic f ilms f or s timulating t he i magination o f a rchaeologists, a nd h e m ade a r equest f or a erial p hotographs o f m odern p rimitive s ettlements ( Crawford , 1 938, 2 38). O f c ourse, a m ajor r eason f or t his Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 6 8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

r equest r elates t o t he f act t hat c ontemporary e thnographic a nd a nthropological s tudies r arely i ncluded d etailed s ettlement a nd h ousep lans, w hose c omparative a rchaeological v alue w as c learly r ecognised.

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessor C . R enfrew a nd I an H odder f or t heir c omments o n a n e arlier d raft o f t his p aper. I a m a lso i ndebted t o I an K innes a nd M arie L ouise S tig S orensen f or m any f ruitful d iscussions a nd t heir a ppropriate c riticisms c oncerning t his u nwieldy t opic. T he r esponsibilities f or t his p aper's s hortcomings r emain w ith i ts a uthor.

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4 : T HE N EOLITHIC S ETTLEMENTS O N C RICKLEY H ILL

P hilip D ixon

C rickley H ill l ies i n t he c ounty o f G loucester, a bout f our m iles s outh o f C heltenham , a nd h as l ong b een r ecognised a s a n I ron A ge h illfort. T he h ill i s n either l arge n or h igh. I ts e levation ( 870 f t: 2 65 m ) i s n ormal f or t he C otswold e dge. I ts s ize, a bout 9 a cres ( 4 h a ) w ithin t he p rehistoric f ortification , p laces i t w ell b elow a verage a mong I ron A ge e nclosures. I t i s, h owever, a mong t he m ore p rominent o f t he C otswold e minences, w hen v iewed f rom t he S evern v alley , a nd e xcavations h ave n ow s hown a f ascinating s equence o f i ntermittent o ccupation w hich e xtends f rom t he e arly N eolithic t o t he f ifth o r s ixth c entury A D. T he p resent a ccount s ummarises t he f irst p hases o f t his a ctivity , a nd o mits a ny f urther r eference t o t he t wo I ron A ge h illforts, a nd t o t he t wo s ub-Roman s ettlements, p arts o f w hich o verlay a nd h ave d isturbed t he N eolithic w orks. E xcavations o n t he s ite b egan i n 1 969, a t t he p rominent o uter b ank, ' which p roved t o b elong t o t he I ron A ge, a nd i t w as n ot u ntil 1 971 t hat a ttention w as t urned t o t he c entral p art o f t he h ill. H ere a l ow k noll, a bout o ne h ectare i n e xtent, f orms t he h ighest p art o f t he s ite, a nd h ad c learly b een e nclosed b y b anks a nd d itches. I n t his f irst c ampaign i n t he a rea t wo a rcs o f d itch w ere i dentified, a bout 3 0 m a part, a nd a t hird r ing o f d itches b uried b eneath t he b anks o f t he i nner a rc ( Dixon, 1 971). I n t he f ourteen s easons s ince t hen a c omplex s eries o f o ccupations h as b een u ncovered, w hose r elative p ositions a re t abulated b elow. A ll a re u ltimately t o b e r elated t o t he t wo m ajor e nclosures, a nd a re s tratified w ith r eference t o t he e nclosure b anks. E lsewhere, s tratification i s g ood, f or t he h ill h as n ever b een p loughed, b ut t he c omplexity o f t he b ank p hasing m akes e quation w ith l ayers i n t he c entre o f t he h ill v ery c onjectural. A ll t hat o ne c an s uggest w ith c onfidence i s t hat t he z one i n w hich p ost-holes a nd a rtefacts a re t hickest i n t he g round l ies o n t he t op o f t he k noll, a nd t hat t his w as t he p rincipal a rea o f o ccupation a t l east i n p hase i d, a nd p robably i n t he p hases l b a nd l c a lso.

T he E arly P rehistoric P hases S ite P hase O ne: N eolithic t o B ronze Age l a

H uts b elow o uter c ausewayed b ank. M ound w ith i nterrupted d itches b elow i nner c ausewayed b ank ( this c ould b e o f l b ( i )).

l b

( i )

B uilding o f o uter r ing o f i nterrupted d itch e nclosure

l b

( ii)

R ecut a nd r ealignment r ing o f I DE.

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M ajor r ecut o f i nner a nd r ecut o f o uter r ings o f I DE.

o f o uter r ing

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts 7 5 I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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7 6 Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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T he P re-Enclosure O ccupation I n t he o ld g round s urface b uried b eneath t he b anks o f t he i nterrupted d itch e nclosure, a s eries o f p its, p ost-holes, a nd s takeh oles m ark t he e arliest o ccupation. T hese l ie i n t wo a reas. B elow t he i nner r ing, a t i ts m ost n ortherly a ngle, a s eries o f p its l ess t han 2m a cross w ere a rranged i n a n e longated o val, a round a s pace a bout' 1 0 m b y 4m w hich h ad p robably b een c apped b y a s mall m ound. T here w ere n o o bvious s igns o f b urial, a nd t he p its h ad b een b ackfilled w ith s terile m aterial. O ur s mall m ound t hus d iffers f rom t he t iny l ong b arrow a t H ambledon ( Mercer , 1 980), a nd i s a nalogous i n p lan, t hough n ot i n d ates, t o t he s mall p it c ircles a t D orchester-onT hames ( Atkinson, 1 951). O n t he o ther s ide o f t he e nclosure t hree s mall o val h uts l ay b eneath t he f irst b ank o f t he o uter r ing . A f ourth c ircle o f s mall p ost-holes l ay a l ittle t o t he n orth. T his w as s tratified o nly b elow a p hase i d p latform , b ut i t w as s o s imilar t o t he l a h uts t hat i t, t oo, m ay r easonably b e s een a s o f t he e arliest p hase. N one o f t hese b uildings w as a ssociated w ith a rtefacts o f a ny s ort, n or w ere t here a ny s igns o f h earths o r c amp f ires n ear t hem. I n v iew o f t he l ack o f d ebris a nd o f t heir d iminutive s ize - t he l argest c an h ave b een n o m ore t han 3 m b y 2 m , a nd t he s mallest a bout 2 m b y 1m - i t i s h ard t o s ee t hem a s p ermanent d wellings. T hey m ay h ave b een o vernight s helters, u sed i n h unting o r h erding, o r e ven i n s ome s uch c ustom a s t hat o f c ouvade , a t s ome d ate b efore t he b uilding o f t he e arliest N eolithic e nclosure.

T he E nclosure B anks a nd D itches T he c ausewayed e nclosure c onsisted o f t wo w idely-spaced r ings o f i nterrupted d itches, e ach o f w hich h ad a b ank o n i ts i nner s ide ( Fig. 4 .1). S o f ar t he i nner r ing h as b een f ound t o h ave h ad t hree e ntrances, o ne o f w hich h ad c learly b een r ebuilt. F ive e ntrances ( two o f t hem r ebuildings) h ave b een f ound i n t he o uter r ing; t hough a t l east t hree o f t he o uter a nd i nner e ntrances a re p aired t o g ive s traight l ines o f a ccess b etween t he r ings, t he e arliest e ntrance p hase i n t he i nner r ing w as l inked b y ar oadway a nd f ences t o t he s econd p hase o f t he o uter c ircuit. I t t hus s eems p lausible t hat i n t he i nitial o ccupation, p hase l b ( i ), t he o uter r ing s tood a lone. T wo o f i ts e ntrances w ere a bandoned d uring t he l b ( ii) r ebuilding; t he

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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H ow l ong t he e nclosure r emained b ivallate i s u ncertain. T he i nner r ing w as r ecut m ore f requently t han t he o uter r ing, a nd t he d iagram ( Fig. 4 .2 ) s hows t he p resent i nterpretation o f t he p hasing o f l c. A ll t he s ub-phases o f l b a nd l c w ere s eparated b y p eriods o f a bandonment, i n w hich a ll o r m ost o f t he b ank m aterial w as p iled i nto t he d itches. T his w as c learest i n t he s tratification o f t he d itches o f t he i nner r ing, w hose s ize w as s ufficient t o p ermit t heir r ecutting i nto a c onsiderable d itch w ithout t he c omplete e mptying o f a ll t he d ebris f rom t he p receding p hases. T he r emnant m aterial r evealed h orizontal l ayers o f s tone a nd e arth, a nd n ot t he s lipped a nd t umbled w alling c haracteristic o f c ollapse a nd s low s ilting. A s imilar p attern e merged i n o ne o f t he s egments o f t he o uter r ing i n w hich t he r ecut o verlapped t he o riginal d itch a nd t hus l eft s ome o f i ts i nfill f or o ur e xamination. T he p rocess o f b ackfill i nvolved f ire. S everal l engths o f t he i nner d itch, i n p articular, w ere f ire-reddened o n t heir r ock f aces, a nd t he b ank m aterial i tself h ad b een t horoughly b urnt b efore i t w as o nce a gain d ug o ut a nd p iled b ehind t he d itches. T his r emarkable a nd a pparently r itualistic s lighting o f t he e nclosure w as n ot, i t s eems, a ccompanied b y t he b urial o f c oncentrations o f o ccupation o r f east d ebris s uch a s t hat f ound a t H ambledon o r W indmill H ill ( Mercer, 1 980; S mith, 1 971): s uch a rtefacts a nd b ones a s w e f ound w ere a pparently s cattered a nd a ccidental i nclusions a mong t he r ubble. T he f inal r ecut, p hase l c ( iii), w as s light a nd m ay h ave b een n o m ore t han a s lot t o r etain a f ence. T hereafter t he s ite w as a bandoned a l ong e nough t ime f or t he i nner d itch l ine t o s ilt u p - a t ime p resumably t o b e m easured i n d ecades a t l east. T he b uilders o f t he s ubsequent e nclosure ( phase i d; F ig. 4 .3) w ere c learly a ware o f t he e xistence o f t he o ld c amp , a nd a voided d isturbing i t. O n t he e astern a rc t heir n ew d itch w as c ut i mmediately o utside t he o ld i nner d itch , a nd r an p arallel t o i t, n ever m ore t han 5 0 c m. a way. I n t wo p laces t he e xact l ine o f t he c ausewayed d itches h ad b een o bliterated b y t he b ackfill, a nd t he n ew d itch b roke i nto t he s ide o f t he o ld. I n e ach c ase t he n ew d iggers b uilt a d rystone w all t o r evet t he o ld d itch i nfill a nd r ecommenced t heir w ork f urther o ut: t he b uilders w ere c learly i ntent o n r etaining w ithin t he c ausewayed d itches w hatever i t w as t hat t heir s uperstitions t old t hem h ad b een b uried w ithin t hem , a nd t hey c ompleted t heir w ork b y d epositi ng b utchered a nimal b ones u nder s labs a t t he d itch t erminals o f t he m ain e ntrance. T he e nclosure o f p hase l d w as a l ittle l arger t han t he i nterrupted d itch e nclosure, f or i t w as l aid o ut t o e ncompass t he p lateau a t t he w estern e nd o f t he h ill. I ts d itch w as l arger, a nd i t p ossessed, i t s eems, o nly t hree e ntrances: t wo o n t he e ast o verlying e ntrances o f t he o lder w ork a nd a t hird, o n t he n orth-western f lank, w hich m ay n ot h ave c orresponded w ith a n e arlier g ate. I t i s t he s imilarities, h owever, t hat a re m ost s triking. F enced r oads o n s imilar a lignments l ed i nto t he i nterior i n a ll p hases; e ach c amp c ontained r ectangular b uildings; t he g ate a rrangements w ere c ompara ble, a nd t he l ayout o f b anks a nd f ences w as i dentical. T he b anks o f t he i nterrupted d itch e nclosure h ad s uffered m ost, o f c ourse, t hanks t o t heir d eliberate d ismantling. O ne s ection o f t he o uter r ing o n t he

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w estern s ide o f t he e nclosure, h owever, w as r easonably w ell p reserved, a nd t he d esign h ere i n b oth p hases l b a nd l c s eems t o h ave b een t ypical o f t he r est. T he s hallow d itch f ronted a l ow s tone b ank n ever m ore t han h alf am etre h igh. T he p alisade l ay a t t he v ery r ear o f t his b ank, a bout 8 m f rom t he d itch. T he s mall s ize o f i ts p ost-holes s hows t hat i t w as l ess t han 2 m h igh e ven i f i t w as r evetted b ehind b y t urves. T he c onstruction o f t he i d b ank w as i dentical, e xcept t hat i ts l ow s tone p latform h ad b een b uilt i n a c omplicated s eries o f i nterlocking c ells, r eminiscent o f t he d esign o f a S evern-Cotswold c airn ( Fig. 4 .4). T he f ate o f t his f inal e nclosure w as c learly s hown b y t he t hick s pread o f f lint a rrowheads, o ver 4 00 o f w hich c hoked t he e astern e ntrance p assageways a nd f anned o ut a long t he r oadways i nto t he i nterior ( Fig. 4 .5). T he e nclosure h ad q uite o bviously b een d efended a gainst a rchery a ttack, a nd i t i s h ighly l ikely t hat i t w as b uilt w ith t his i ntention, f or t he l ow p alisade f ormed n o m ore t han a b reastwork. T he d itches w ere p resumably d esigned t o b reak u p a nd s low d own a n a ssault, a nd t he l ow b ank, o r r ather p latform , w ould t hen s erve a s a k illing g round, a t p oint-blank r ange, a gainst a ggressors c lambering o ut o f t he d itch. I t i s w orth n oting t hat d espite d itches s lighter t han t hose o f p hase i d, t he b ivallate i nterrupted d itch e nclosure w ould, o n t his i nterpretation , b e a d efence i n d epth m ore e ffective t han t he f inal r amparts o f p hase i d , e ven t hough t heir l arger s ize g ives t hem a g reater a ppearance o f s trength.

T he I nterior o f t he E nclosures I n t he c entre o f t he k noll o ccurred b y f ar t he g reatest n umber o f f inds, b oth p ottery a nd f lint. I n t his a rea, t oo, p its, g ullies, a k napping f loor, s takeholes, a nd p ost-holes d emonstrated d ense o ccupation. N one o f t he s chemes f or p hasing t his p alimpsest s tand c omparison w ith t he f ine d iscrimination p ossible i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he b anks a nd d itches, a nd i t s eems p referable f or t he m oment t o l eave u nresolved w hether t his s pot w as t he f ocus f or e ach o f t he p hases. I t s eems, h owever, q uite c lear t hat i t w as t he c entre p oint a t l east f or t he f inal, i d, p eriod: b oth t he m ain e ntrances f rom t he e ast a nd t he w est p ointed d irectly i nto t his a rea, a nd e ven t he s maller s outh-eastern g ate p assage ( which a pparently d irected t raffic d ue w estwards) i n f act g ave a ccess t o ar oad w hich a fter s ome 5 0 m t urned s harply n orthwards u p t he s lope a nd j oined t he m ain r outes i nto t he h eart o f t he s ettlement. T he l ast ( 1d ) r oad s urface, c obbled a nd c onfined b y f ences, o verlay a s imilar r oadway l aid p arallel b ut a l ittle t o t he n orth. T his l ower r oad r an s traight b ack f rom t he c ausewayed e ntrance o f p hase l c ( i ). L ike i ts s uccessor, t he r oad o f t he i nterrupted d itch e nclosure w as f enced a nd c obbled; b oth r an i nto a b road n atural h ollow w here t he p roducts o f e rosion a llowed u s t o s ee c lear s tratified l enses o f w ear a nd c onstruction. H ere l ay a s eries o f r ectangular h ouses, t he b est p reserved o f t he s ettlement, b ut ( to j udge f rom t he f inds s catters) p eripheral t o t he m ain o ccupation. T wo o f t hese b elonged t o t he f inal e nclosure. A t hird - a ligned l ike t he o thers a long t he r oads - w as o f l c ( i) d ate, a nd h ad b een c ut b y t he s outhern f ence o f t he f inal r oadway. H ere, a t a ny r ate, w ere c lear s igns o f s imilar l ayout b etween p eriods: t he f inal e nclosure w as c learly a s ettlement, a nd o n t he w hole t he u ncertain e vidence f or e arlier p hases i ndicates t hat t hey t oo h ad t his f unction.

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T he S hrine a nd t he L ong M ound T he f enced r oadway f rom t he s mall s outh-eastern e ntrance o f t he f inal p hase r an a long t he b road n atural g ully t o ac orner, a nd t hen t urned n orthwards t o t he c entre o f t he h ill. A t t his p oint t wo l arge p ost-holes s eemed t o m ark t he p osition o f ag ate, a nd t he r oadway , n ow h alved i n w idth t o am ere f ootpath o r t rack, c ontinued w estwards a long t he g ully. I ts c ourse f or s ome 5 0 m r emains u nexcavated. A t t he w estern e nd o f t he g ully , h owever, o ur e xcavations h ave r evealed a f enced t rack o f t he s ame w idth a nd o n t he s ame a lignment, a nd w e a re t hus i nclined t o c onsider t hem o pposite e nds o f t he s ame f eature. T his r uns d irectly t owards t he n orth-western e ntrance b ut n ever r eaches i t: a t t he p oint w here t he g ully w idens a nd e nds o n ab road p lateau a t t he t ail o f t he h ill, t he c entre o f t he t rack w as b locked b y a s mall u pright s tone. T raffic w ear, c learly v isible o n t he c obbled s urface, r an u p t o t he s tone, t urned t o t he l eft a round i t, a nd t hen r an b etween u pright p osts, o r aw ide g ate, o n t o a l arge s ubr ectangular p latform. T he f ences w hich f ringed t he t rack t urned o utwards a t t his p oint, t o r un i n a s eries o f s callops, r enewed t wice, c ompletely a round t he p latform. T he l atter h ad o nly t he o ne e ntrance, a nd s o t he p urpose o f t he 7 0 m -long t rack, a nd i ts g ate a t t he r oad c orner, s eems t o h ave b een t o g ive a ccess s olely t o t he p latform. T he p latform s urface w as a lmost t otally c lean: t wo y ears s pent i n c leaning i t r evealed o nly s ome t wo d ozen t iny f ragments o f c harcoal. B ut t wo e longated t roughs, p rotruding f rom t he p latform a t d iagonally o pposite c orners, c ontained ad ense c onglomeration o f b one, a ntler, f lint, a nd p ottery o f W indmill H ill t ype, c apped b y a l ayer o f s tones. T here a re s ome s igns t hat t hese t roughs w ere s econdary t o t he p latform: t he e arliest f ence l ine a ppeared t o b e c ut b y t hat o n t he n orth-east c orner. L ater f ence w ere r ealigned t o e nclose b oth t roughs. A t t he e xtreme w estern e dge o f t he p latform s tood a s mall t imber a nd s tone b uilding, r ectangular i n p lan, a nd v ery p robably o pen o n t he s ide w hich f aced e astwards b ack a long t he t rack. O utside t his s tructure w as t he s ite o f a f ire, a nd o n t he h ard-packed f loor o f t he b uilding w ere t wenty s mall f ragments o f b urnt b one. N othing h ere i ndicated a d omestic u se f or t his r emarkable s eries o f w orks, a nd I a m g rateful t o N orman H ammond f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t he c lose p arallel i n p lans b etween t he C rickley b uilding a nd t he D anish N eolithic c ult b uildings o f T ustrup a nd F erslev ( Kjaerum , 1 955; M arseen, 1 960). T he D anish b uildings a re l arger, a nd s tood i n t he v icinity o f c learly r itual s ites - m ounds a nd p assage g raves - a nd t he D anish r itual i nvolved t he c oncentration o f c onsiderable q uantities o f p ottery w ithin t he b uildings, w hile t he C rickley s ite w as k ept s crupulously c lean. D espite t he c orrespondence o f p lan, t hen , t here a re c lear d ifferences i n u sage, a nd t he D anish e xamples a re l ikely t o h ave h ad s ome b urial f unction ( Becker, 1 969), a p urpose f or w hich t here i s n o d efinite e vidence a t C rickley. T he C rickley r itual i nvolved f ire, a nd t he e ventual d eposition o f d omestic d ebris, w ithin a n a rea m arked o ut b y f ences a nd a pproached b y ap rivate t rackway. I t s eems r easonable t o c onsider i t t he s ecluded p lace f or c eremonies n ot i nvolving t he b urial o f t he d ead. W hat i s p articularly r emarkable i s t hat t hese p ractices w ere c arried o ut b eside a s ettlement, a nd w ithin t he c urtilage o f i ts d itches. F or t he m oment w e m ay c onsider i t t o h ave b een t he s ettlement's s hrine.

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0

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.8 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

L ike t he D anish e xamples, t he C rickley s hrine w as b urnt d own. N o r itual n eed h ave b een i nvolved i n t his, f or t he s ame f ate b efell t he h ouses, g ateways a nd f ences o f t he p hase l d e nclosure. S ubsequently , i n a p eriod, d esignated l e ( i), f or w hich w e h ave n o o bvious d omestic o ccupation, t he e nd o f t he a pproach t rack a nd t he e astern s ide o f t he p latform w ere b uried u nder a s tone c airn w hich s upported t hree a pproximately p arallel f ences u nder a m etre a part. T he w estern e nd o f t he c airn, a t a l ater d ate ( le ( ii)), w as t runcated b y a s mall s tone c ircle w hose c obbled p latform i ncorporated m uch o f t he d ebris f rom t he s hrine. T he c entre o f t his c ircle w as a b urnt a rea w hich l ay a lmost e xactly a bove t he p osition o f t he h earth b elonging t o t he s hrine. F inally , i n p hase l e ( iii) t he c ircle w as r ebuilt a nd m odified; t he b urnt a rea w as r eplaced b y a l arge s lab, f ire-reddened o n i ts u pper s urface a nd s urrounded b y o ver a h undred f ragments o f b urnt b one, a nd t he c airn w as b uried b y a m ound o f t urf a nd t opsoil, n early 1 00 m i n l ength, w hose s ides w ere m arked o ut b y l arge s labs ( Fig. 4 .6). F rom b elow s ome o f t hese b utchered a nimal b ones w ere r ecovered. A t t he e xtreme e astern e nd o f t he L ong M ound s tood a b road a nd p robably s tocky p ost. B y t his s tage, a t l east, i t i s c lear t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a m ajor c eremonial m onument w hose r itual i nvolved a nimal s acrifice a nd, f rom t he m arks o f t rampling, s ome p rocessing i n a n a rc i nside a nd o utside t he c ircle. P atches o f c obbling s uggest t hat t he M ound; t oo, w as a f ocus f or p rocessions, o utside t he k erb s tones. A c onsiderable o ddity o f t his m onument i s t hat i t l ay e ntirely w ithin a n atural g ully , a nd i s i nvisible f rom a lmost a ll p laces o n t he t op o f t he h ill. T he l d d itches, n ow s ilted u p, w ere r ecut i n p hase l e, t o p roduce a n arrow g roove, a bout 4 0 c m w ide a nd d eep; t his w as n ot a pparently a p alisade l ine, f or n o i mpressions o f p osts o r p acking w ere v isible. I t c ontained n o d omestic o r c eremonial d ebris, a nd i ts f ill w as s imply o f r ed- a nd p urple-burnt s mall s tones a nd b urnt e arth. O utside t his l ine o f d emarcation t he L ong M ound - a lbeit o nly i ts w estern e nd - w as v isible o nly f rom a n arrow s trip o f l and o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he h ill. T hree s ubstantial p ost-holes o f t his p eriod l ay t o t he e ast o f t he M ound. I f t hey s upported a s creen , t hen t he w hole o f t he a rea o utside t he r ecut d itches w ould h ave b een o ccluded f rom a v iew o f t he m onument. W hatever t he p lausibility o f t his o bservation, a ll a ctivity a t t he c ircle e nd o f t he M ound w as s ecluded f rom v iew. T his i s a s urprising s ecrecy , a s r ituals w hich c learly i nvolved f ire o n t his h igh p lateau w ould b e r emotely v isible f rom a g ood p ortion o f n orthern G loucestershire. W e m ust s urely c onclude f rom t he s iting t hat t he e xistence o f a r itual o n t he h ill w as t o b e p ublic k nowledge, b ut t hat f orm w hich t he r itual t ook w as t o b e c arefully c oncealed. T he m ost c onvenient v iewing p latform f or t he M ound a nd i ts a ffairs i s t o b e f ound o n t he h illside d ue e ast o f C rickley, a t a d istance o f s ome 6 00 m . I t m ay b e n o m ore t han a c oincidence t hat t his p lace i s t he l ocation o f a s mall c luster o f r ound b arrows. T he d ate o f t he e nd o f t he r itual p hase l e i s s till u ncertain, t hough r adiocarbon d ates m ay e ventually p rovide a g uide. I t o ccurred b efore t he b uilding o f t he h illfort, t he l atter p erhaps e arly i n t he f irst m illennium B C. F urther w ork o n t he M ound a nd i ts s urroundings ( which i ncluded a N eolithic c remation i n ac obbled a rea s urrounded b y p its) i s p lanned i n t he c oming s easons o f e xcavation. A ccording t o o ur c urrent t hinking, m eanwhile, i t a ppears t hat a N eolithic s ettlement, p rotected b y f ences a nd d itches, w as r ebuilt a gain a nd

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 6 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a gain, d estroyed i n a n a ttack, a nd s urvived i n m emory a s a r itual s ite w hich f ocussed m en's c eremonies, d uring a l engthy p eriod w hich m ay h ave c ontinued w ell i nto t he B ronze A ge.

B ibliography A tkinson, R .J.C., P iggott, C .M. a nd S andars, a t D orchester , O xon. I , ( Oxford). B ecker, C .J., 1 7-28.

1 969.

G ray e ller t empel?,

D ixon, P .W., 1 971. ( Cheltenham ). K jaerum,

P .,

1 967.

C rickley

T empelhus M ortuary 1 90-6.

M arseen,

F erslev-Huset,

1 960.

M ercer, R .J., 1 980. ( Edinburgh).

Excavations:

h ouses a nd

K UML ,

H ambledon

1 951.

E xcavations

N ationalmuseets A rbejdsmark ,

f ra s tenalderen,

K jaerum, P ., 1 967. A ntiquity , X LI, 0 .,

H ill

N .K.,

KUML ,

T hird

S eason ,

7 -32.

f uneral r ites

i n D enmark,

3 6-55.

H ill:

a

N eolithic

L andscape ,

S mith, I .F., 1 971. C ausewayed e nclosures, i n S impson, D .D.A. ( ed), E conomy a nd S ettlement i n N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze Age B ritain a nd E urope ( Leicester), 8 9-112.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 8 7 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

5 : H AMBLEDON H ILL,

D ORSET,

E NGLAND

R .J. M ercer

H ambledon H ill i s a g igantic " island h ill" s et a part f rom, b ut g eologically s peaking p art o f C ranborne C hase, D orset ( Fig. 5 .1). I t t akes t he f orm o f a n e normous c lover-leaf w ith t hree d iverging s purs r adiating n orthwards, e astwards a nd s outhwards f rom t he f ocal h ub o r c rown o f t he h ill, w hereon i s s et t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure. T he s ite i s s et i n a c rucial s trategic p osition c ommanding t he c orridor d riven b y t he R iver S tour t hrough t he c halk u plands o f s outhern B ritain ( see m ap ). I t i s a g reat l andmark - a h ill o f i ndelibly s triking p roportions a nd f orm, a nd a s w ell a s c ommanding t his i mportant r oute f rom S E t o , N W t hrough t he s outhern u plands a lso s its a stride a n a rea o f q uite u nusually f ertile a nd r ich p asture l and - t he V ale o f B lackmore t o t he w est a nd t he s kirts o f t he c halk u plands o f C ranborne C hase t o t he e ast. T oday t his a rea i s am osaic o f s ubtly s hifting s hades o f g reen g iven o ver a lmost e ntirely t o d airy f arming. I n t he f ourth m illennium b c t he r iver m argin o f t he a rea, p erhaps a lready s ubstantially a ltered f rom t he w ooded c over o f t he f orest m aximum b y b eaver, b y g razing a urochs, a nd b y h unting m en, m ay w ell h ave a lready s upported n atural w ater-meadows, w here g rasses w ith a l ong a nnual g rowth p eriod f lourished a nd t he u ngulates t hat r elished t hem g razed a t t he f orest e dge ( Barker a nd W ebley , 1 978). C ertainly o n t he e dge o f C ranborne C hase, o n t he d ry c halklands o verlooking t he a rea ( rich i n f lint, t he a ll-important r aw m aterial u pon w hich p rem etal-using p opulations i n t he a rea w ere d ependent) t he f lint h unting w eapons a nd a xes o f t hese e arly h unting p opulations a bound. S ome t ime a bout 3 ,500 b c ( in t erms o f u ncalibrated r adiocarbon d ates) i t w ould a ppear t hat w ithin t his s etting n ew s ounds w ere h eard a nd n ew s ights s een t hat h eralded t he a dvent o f c ontrolled f ood p roduction. T hese c hanges c reated a n ew a nd, i n p arts, s ubstantially m an-made, l andscape w ithin w hich f arming h ad e stablished a m easure o f e nvironmental e quilibrium. T his v ery e quilibrium, c ombined w ith t he s elf-investing n ature o f f arming e conomy , o nce p opulation e xpands t o u tilise a vailable r esources, m ust h ave s erved t o p roduce a n ew f orm o f s ocial p olity w ithin w hich t he c ontrol o f r esources b y e nclosure m ust h ave p layed n o s mall p art. I t t herefore c omes a s l ittle s urprise t hat i t i s f rom t his j uncture i n p rehistory t hat w e o bserve t he s urvival o f t he f irst e nclosures i n t he B ritish I sles. A bout s ixty a re n ow k nown t o e xist w ithin t he s outhern h alf o f E ngland, a nd t hey r ange i n s ize f rom a bout 1 - 6 0 h ectares a nd i n l ocation f rom s easonally w aterlogged v alley b ottom s ites t o s ites s et o n h illtop a nd p romontory p ositions. T heir d esign v aries f rom s ingle-ditched e nclosures t o s ites w ith u p t o f ive c oncentric r ings o f d itches, a nd t his v ariation i n s ize, l ocation, a nd d esign p resumably i ndicates a w ide r ange o f f unction. A s a c lass o f s ite, h owever, t hey a re u nited b y o ne i diosyncratic c onstructional f eature - t he d itches c onsistently a ppear t o b e " causewayed", o r i nterrupted a t f requent a nd i rregular i ntervals, i n a m anner t hat s uggests t hat t hey w ere n ot c onceived b y t heir b uilders a s b arriers i n t heir o wn r ight b ut s imply a s a l inear q uarry f or t he c onstruction o f a n i nternal b ank o r r ampart. S uch i nternal b anks d o s urvive, a lthough v ery o ften v ery m uch e nfeebled b y e rosion a nd, w here Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

s ufficient e vidence e xists t o a llow a ny j udgement, t hey a ppear g enerally, b ut n ot u niversally , t o h ave b een c ontinuous. T he s tructure a nd d esign o f t he b ank a ppears o nce a gain t o e xhibit v ery c onsiderable v ariety d epending t o s ome e xtent u pon l ocally a vailable r esources ( timber, t urf, g ood b uilding s tone), a nd t o s ome e xtent p robably r eflecting t he v ariability o f f unction a lready n oted. H ambledon H ill c omprises o ne o f t he g reatest o f t hese e nclosures a s k nown i n 1 974. S et i n i ts r ich f arming e nvironment, i n a n a rea o f e xtensive N ew S tone A ge a ctivity , t o j udge b y t he l arge-scale l ocal c onstruction o f f unerary l ong b arrows, i t p romised t o b e a s ite o f t he m ost i nformative c omplexity. E xcavations o f a b rief e xploratory n ature c arried o ut b y D esmond B onney o f t he R oyal C ommission f or H istorical M onuments ( England) i n 1 959 ( RCHME, 1 970 ) h ad a lso d emonstrated t he e xistence o n t he h ill o f o ther e arthworks o f N ew S tone A ge d ate b eside t he k nown e nclosure, p resaging t he e xistence o f a w ider " landscape" c ontext w ithin w hich t he e nclosure m ight b e v iewed. T he l andowners o n t he s ite w ere w illing t o c ountenance l arges cale w ork a nd w ere , t hroughout t he t en y ears o f t he p roject, t otally s upportive o f o ur a rchaeological e ndeavours, r endering p ossible t he v astness o f s cale o f t he r esearch e xercise a t H ambledon, a nd, t hus, d irectly t he n ature o f o ur r esults. T he e xcavations a t H ambledon H ill t ook p lace i n e leven s easons b etween 1 974 a nd 1 984 ( Mercer, 1 980 ). T he p roject c ommenced a s a n " orthodox" e xcavation o f a " univallate" c ausewayed e nclosure w hich, h owever, b y t hat d ate h ad b een r ealised t o b e a ssociated w ith a r estricted n umber o f o utlying e arthworks ( see a bove ). T hese c omprised t wo s ets o f c ross-dykes l ying t o t he S a nd E o f t he e nclosure a nd a n o utwork c omplex l ying s ome 2 50 m t o t he E o f t he e nclosure a t t he b reak i n s lope o f t he E s pur o f t he h ill. T he p roject w as d eveloped a s a n e xcavation a nd f ield s urvey p roceeding i n t andem w ith R oger P almer's c oordination ( with t he a ctive c ooperation o f C UCAP a nd R CHM(E ) a s w ell a s a n umber o f p rivate f liers) o f a n e xtensive p rogramme o f a erial s urvey a nd p hotography o f t he h ill. T his d ual a pproach t o t he s ite r esulted i n t he m assive e xpansion o f t he k nown e xtent o f t he N eolithic c omplex e stablishing a s i t d id t he e xistence o f a v ast o utwork s ystem t hat e nclosed s ome 6 0 h ectares o f t he s ummit o f t he e ntire h ill. O f c ourse t he n orth s pur o f t he h ill h ad b een m uch a ltered, a nd N eolithic a ctivity c onsequently m uch o bscured, b y t he c onstruction o f a m ultivallate h illfort i n l ater p rehistory. N evertheless, e ven h ere a ssiduous f ield s urvey r esulted i n t he r ecognition o f p ossible N eolithic f eatures c ognate w ith t he c omplex a s aw hole. I n o rder t o d escribe b riefly t he r esults o f t he H ambledon e xercise i t i s c onvenient t o d eal w ith t he s ite s ubdivided i nto i ts c onstituent p arts.

T he M ain C ausewayed E nclosure

( NCE )

D espite t he v ery d iminished s tature o f t he r emains o f t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure a t H ambledon i t w as o ne o f t he f irst o f s uch s ites t o b e d iscovered b y t he a cute e ye o f H eywood S umner, t he a rchitect a nd a ntiquary. H e i s b est k nown f or t he s uperb p lans a nd d rawings t hat h e e xecuted a nd p ublished i n h is t wo m agna o pera: T he Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 9 1

G e n r a l S u r v e y

r j

( j ' ed )

•

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

9 2

Earthworks of Cranborne Chase and The Earthworks of the New Forest. Working on the site in 1913, carrying out detailed inspection and survey of the Iron Age hillfort on the northern spur of this great hill, he noted the existence of the scanty remains of a much depleted, and he (rightly) felt, earlier enclosure on the summit of the hill lying SE of this northern spur. He was able to survey the remains he detected to produce one of the first plans of a Neolithic enclosure published in Britain. Later, in 1924, O.G.S. Crawford was able to bring the enclosure dramatically to life in two air photographs, of magnificent quality, with a view of the site under downland turf (now of course gone forever), and published in his great compendium Wessex from the Air (1928). The research design adopted for the main enclosure was necessarily a simple one based upon the relatively scant knowledge of the site that existed in 1974. Approximately 20% of the interior of the site was excavated in an attempt to examine the function of the site, while a similar proportion of the enclosing ditch was examined both to retrieve further information as to function and to study the chronometer of subsequent events on the site furnished by the stratified debris that comprised the filling of the ditches. The excavation revealed a subsoil that was to become familiar on the site - a much truncated surface exhibiting every trace of extensive damage by erosion, solution and agriculture (and it was rapidly to become apparent that the Lat� Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman and Medieval periods had all seen extensive arable agriculture on the hill). The result had been a total loss of some 0.70 - 1.00 m from the original level of the subsoil as it had existed in the third millennium be - very clearly posing a major archaeological difficulty. The objective was to seek pits and post-holes cut into the surface in prehistory and to derive from them the information that they contained. Any post-holes less than 70 cm deep simply would not survive - any pit would have had its upper parts, and the filling therein contained, torn away to that depth. Over the 12,000 m 2 excavated extent of the interior of the main causewayed enclosure sampled, some eighty pits, some of them much damaged, were located. Not a single post-hole was recognised, and any structures that may have existed must have been very flimsy for this to be the case. The pits were quite unusual in their filling pattern. First it was quite clear that in many cases they had been dug in prehistory and then left open for an appreciable period of time to allow for a filament of naturally eroded chalk to be deposited in the bottom. O nly once this had happened were deliberate and carefully chosen deposits placed in them. Pottery was incorporated in the filling of all but eleven of the pits, with imported gabbroic gritted ware, originating certainly in the SW of Britain and possibly within a very restricted area of Cornwall on the Lizard peninsula, occurring in four instances - material which does not occur elsewhere on the site. Three pits produced polished stone axes, one of flint and two of greenstone, both the latter of Cornish origin. Again in terms of the twenty axes from the entire hilltop, this must represent a very high proportion from this limited number of vulnerable contexts, to which must be added, the writer believes, two axes, one of nephrite and one of jadeite, located in the ploughsoil of the main enclosure interior and almost certainly derived from pit-fillings disturbed by cultivation. O ther foreign stone items located within the pits of the Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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i nterior i nclude g ranite r ubbers a nd as eries o f s andstone p ebbles f rom a s ource p robably l ocated n ear B udleigh S alterton, 8 k m t o t he E o f E xeter. I n a ll s ome t wenty-four o f t he p its h ave p roduced s tone o bjects o r f ragments t hereof, o f d istant o rigin. A ntler d eposits, v ery r are e lsewhere i n t he m ain e nclosure, w ere i n g reat q uantity i n t hirteen o f t he p its w hich a ppear t o h ave a d iscrete d istribution w ithin t he b roader s catter o f t hese p its o ver t he i nterior o f t he s ite. I t m ust b e n oted t hat o ne o f t he d eposits o f a ntler, w hich h ad b een b urnt, p roduced a r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 160 ± b c ( HAR 2041) - a d ate s ignificantly l ater t han t hose o btained f or p rimary c ontexts o n t he s ite, w hich m ight s uggest t hat r itual a ctivity w ithin t he m ain e nclosure p roceeded f or a v ery l ong t ime i ndeed a fter t he d ate o f i ts i nception. T hese p it-fills a re c learly n ot p lenished w ith t he s tuff o f d omestic r efuse. A t e very p oint t he c areful s election a nd t he r egard f or p restige-value a ppear a nd t he w riter w ould l ike t o s uggest t hat a r itual p rocedure i s w itnessed h ere a ssociated w ith t he u nretrieved a nd d eliberate d eposition o f v alued o bjects. S uch a n i nterpretation i s c learly s upported b y t he c omplex u pper s tratigraphy o f t he p its, w hich i n a n umber o f i nstances s hows r ecutting o f f illings w ith f urther d epositions t aking p lace, a nd i n o ne o r t wo u nusual i nstances w hat a ppears t o b e e vidence o f a p ost d riven i nto t he u pper f illing o f t he p it p ossibly t o m ark i ts p osition. T wo o f t hem p roduced t iny f ragments o f h uman b one. T his p ale r eflection o f t he e vents o f p rehistory w ithin t he i nterior o f t he m ain e nclosure i s p erhaps e nhanced b y t he m aterial l ocated w ithin t he d itch f illing. F irst i t i s, h owever, i mportant t o e mphasise t hat t he d itch w as d ug t o f urnish m aterial f or t he b ank. T his d itch t hen a lmost i mmediately a ccumulated a p aste-like s ilt f rom t he d itch s ides w hich a ppears a t m any p oints t o h ave b een a ssiduously r ecut o ut - a d itch c leaning e xercise w hich, i n t he c ontext o f a n i nterrupted d itch, i s d ifficult t o e xplain. T he m ost l ikely e xplanation, p erhaps, i s t hat t he p utty-like s ilt w ould h ave b een o f v alue i n m aintaining a nd r epairing t he r ampart. T he r emains o f t his r ampart a re s light t o s ay t he l east - f ive t housand y ears o f e rosion a nd c ultivation h aving s een e ffectively t o i ts n ear t otal d issolution. B are t races o f a t imber r evetment a t t he r ear o f t he r ampart s urvive, w hile p arallels e lsewhere o n t he h ill ( see b elow ) s uggest t hat t hese w ere a lmost c ertainly m atched b y a f rontal r evetment w hich h as d isappeared t hrough e rosion i nto t he d itch-head. T he b ank - r eally a t imber-built c ase i nto w hich a m ass o f c halk w as p acked t o p roduce a s omewhat u nstable b ut i mpressive b arrier - w ould h ave r equired f airly c onstant a ttention a nd o nce i t b ecame s tructurally w eakened w ould h ave b ecome h ighly u nstable ( see b elow ). T he e xtraction o f t hese l ayers o f p rimary s ilting h as h owever d eprived u s o f a rchaeological i nformation r elating t o t he i nitial u se o f t he s ite. I t i s o nly a fter t hese i nitial c leaning a ctivities t hat w e o bserve, p laced o n t he f loor o f t he d itch, a s eries o f d eposits t hat o nce a gain w ould a ppear t o b e, b roadly s peaking, o f a r itual c haracter. I n s ome s egments o f t he d itch a c arefully p laced s eries o f d eposits, p ossibly o riginally c ontained i n l eather b ags, r an d own t he a xis o f t he d itch, t he d eposits c ontaining h uman b one, a nimal b one ( mostly c attle), f lint t ools a nd p ottery. I t i s a lmost a s t hough t he r emains o f a f airly b izarre p arty h ad b een s cooped u p, p ut i n a s ack Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 9 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a nd p laced i n t he d itch b ottom w hen i t h ad a lready b een o pen f or s ome t ime. A s w ell a s t hese d eposits, h owever, a re a s eries o f d epositions m ore e xplicitly l inked w ith t he d isposal o f h uman b odies. F irst a s eries o f h uman s kulls a re p laced a round t he d itch c ircuit i n b asal p osition. S ome a re c learly s et u p i n p osition, o thers h ave c learly b een t ampered w ith a nd i n o ne i nstance, a pparently , t he s kull h as b een s ubsequently t urned u pside d own a s t he i nitial s ilting p attern o f t he s oil w ithin t he s kull i s t he r everse o f t he p attern o f t he m atrix w ithin w hich t he s kull w as s et. T he p urpose o f t hese s kull d eposits c annot b e k nown , o ther t han t hat t hey p resumably g enerated w hat m ust h ave b een a p owerfully m acabre a tmosphere o n t he s ite, b ut t heir p resence d oes c onfirm t he c ontemporary a vailability l ocally o f a v ery s ubstantial q uantity o f s keletal a nd c adaveric m aterial. C onsiderable q uantities o f f ragmented h uman b one a re p resent t hroughout t he p rimary a nd s econdary d eposits i n t he d itch. T wo c hild b urials s urvive q uite i ntact, s et b eneath n eatly c onstructed c airns o f f lint n odules a nd, p erhaps m ost s ignificantly , t he a rticulated t runk a nd t highs o f a y oung m an o f a bout f ifteen y ears o f a ge w ere a lso f ound. T his i ndividual h ad c learly b een l ying a ccessibly w hen, i n a r elatively a dvanced s tate o f d ecay , h is b ody b egan t o f all a part, a nd p art o f i t w as d ragged i nto t he d itch b ottom p resumably b y t he d og o r d ogs w ho t hen g nawed t he b ones e xtensively. I t h as l ong b een r ecognised t hat l ong b arrows, t he f unerary m onuments t hat a ppear t o b e b roadly c ontemporary w ith c ausewayed e nclosure c onstruction i n s outhern E ngland, p roduce j umbled a nd p artial b urials t hat h ave c learly b een a llowed t o d ecay b y e xposure e lsewhere t han i n t he i mmediate c ontext o f t he b arrow. T hese " tombs" t end t o p roduce r elatively f ew c hild r emains a nd , i n a n umber o f i nstances, w ould a ppear t o e xhibit a s exual b ias i n f avour o f m ale i nclusion. N ow a t H ambledon H ill M CE t he s ituation i s d iametrically o pposed. S ixty p er c ent o f t he v ery l arge q uantity o f f ragmented h uman b one p ertains t o y oung c hildren a nd n o s exual b ias i s a pparent i n t he r ecord. W as t his e nclosure o ne o f t he " elsewheres" w here h uman c orpses w ere e xposed , t he t ransient f lesh a llowed t o d eteriorate a nd u ltimately d isappear; t his p rior t o a f urther o ccasional c eremony w hereby s ome s elected b ones, m ostly a dult a nd s ometimes p reponderantly m ale, w ere p assed a long a n u ndoubtedly c omplex f unerary c ontinuum t o u ltimate i nterment i n a n earby c onstructed m ortuary e nclosure p rior t o e ncapsulation w ithin a l ong b arrow? I f t his s uggested u se f or t he n ine h ectare M CE i s a ccepted, a re w e a lso c orrect i n v isualising p restigious o fferings i n p its b eing s et o ut b eside s elected e xposed b odies? L ittle w ould h ave s urvived o f t he m ajority o f b odies s o d isposed i n t he o pen, s ubject t o w ind, w eather a nd w orse; o nly t he r elatively f ew f ragments t hat e nded u p i n t he d itch t o l ie r elatively p rotected w ould h ave r emained t o u s. O ccasionally d ogs, t he r emains o f m any o f w hich l itter t he s ite, w ould h ave g ained a ccess t o t he s ite t o r eap t heir g rizzly h arvest. T here a re t hree r adiocarbon d eterminations f or c arbons l ocated w ithin t hese p rimary d eposits: 2 610 ± 9 0 b c ( HAR 1802), 2 730 ± 1 20 b c ( HAR 2371) a nd 2 890 ± 1 50 b c ( HAR 1866) o f w hich t he l atter ( calibrated t o a c alendrical d ate c . 3 600 B C) i s y oung w ood a bsolutely h ard o n t o t he f loor o f t he d itch.

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T he i nitial u se-phase o f t he m onument c ompleted ( Phases I a nd I I), t he d itch-fillings ( see d itch s ection , P l. 5 .II.A ) t ell c learly o f t he u niform a nd l argely n atural c ollapse o f t he b ank i nto t he d itch, ag reat b ody o f d isordered a nd v irtually s terile c halk r ubble c omprising t he b ody o f t he d itch f illing o n t he s ite ( Phase I II). R uin a nd d esertion a ppear t o b e i mplied a nd w hile t he p rimary u se o f t he s ite m ay h ave c eased o r c hanged i t n ow a ppears t o b ecome t he f ocus o f a cts w hich a ppear t o u s a s b roadly c ommemorative a nd a pparently c ontinuing f or a v ery l ong p eriod o f t ime. T he f irst o f t hese t hat w e a re a ble t o r ecognise c omprises a s eries o f d eep p its d ug i nto t he d ecayed a nd m uch e roded t op o f t he r ubble c ollapse t hat w ere f illed w ith a sh ( yielding r adiocarbon d ates 2 530 ± 1 30 b c ( HAR 1886), 2 650 ± 1 00 b c ( HAR 2377) a nd 2 720 ± 1 00 b c ( HAR 2375), a s w ell a s q uantities o f p ottery , h uman b one a nd a nimal b one ( Phase I V ). T hese p its, d ispersed s poradically a round t he p erimeter o f t he s ite, a re s ufficiently d eep t o p enetrate t o t he f loor o f t he d itch, w hich a lmost c ertainly h as l ed t o t he a dmixture o f p rimary m aterial w ithin t heir o wn c ontent a nd i ndeed w ithin u pper l ayers. S uch v ertical a dmixture m ust l eave o ne i n d oubt a s t o t he p recise s ignificance i n t his e nclosure d itch o f a ny i ndividual d ating s ample o r a rtefact, a nd i s a p henomenon w hich i s m uch i n e vidence i n a ccounts o f e arlier c ausewayed e nclosure e xcavations w here e xcavators w ere f requently p uzzled b y a djoining s herd a nd o ther e vidence o f s tratigraphical a dmixture f rom t he u ppermost a nd l owest l ayers o f t heir d itches ( Curwen, 1 934 ). M assive d isturbance o f t he d itch f illing i n e arly p rehistory i s p resumably t he r eason f or t his w idespread p henomenon. A n i nterval f ollows o f t he s low a ccumulation o f s ilts i n t he h ead o f t he d itch ( Phase V ). S tratigraphically s uperimposed u pon t his s ilting, a nd u pon t he s poradic a sh-filled p its, i s e vidence o f a n a ltogether m ore s ubstantial r ecutting e xercise w hereby a t rench o r " slot" i s c ut a ll t he w ay a long t he t op o f t he d itch ( which i s b y n ow v ery s ubstantially f illed w ith d etritus) - t his r ecut e ncountered a t a ll p oints w here t he d itch o f t he m ain e nclosure w as e xamined. T his " slot" ( Phase V I) i s b y n o m eans a s m assive a d isturbance a s t he a shp its, s eldom e xceeding 0 .5 m i n d epth a nd t herefore o nly v ery o ccasionally p enetrating t o t he d itch f loor. N evertheless i ts u biquity i mplies a n e xercise o f " institutional" p roportions w hereby t he w hole e nclosure d itch w as m arked o ut w ith, c uriously , e very c auseway , h owever n arrow, s crupulously r espected. T he t reatment m eted o ut t o t his m ajor r ecut v aries f rom a rea t o a rea. I n p arts i t a ppears t o h ave b een i mmediately b ackfilled w ith, v ery l argely , s terile m aterial, i n o thers i t w as l eft o pen t o s ilt l argely n aturally , w hile i n m any i nstances i t w as b ack-packed w ith r ich d eposits o f a nimal b one - o ften w hole a rticulated l imbs, p articularly o f c attle - p ottery , f lint t ools a nd w orking d ebris, o nce a gain m aterial t hat o ne m ight a ssociate w ith t he r emains o f f easting i f o ne a ccepts t he a pparently w asteful " largesse" o f g ood m eat c uts t hat, d ue t o b one a rticulation, a ppear s till t o h ave b een s ubstantially m eat-clad w hen d iscarded. T he s lot i s, i n p laces, r ecut o ut a nd r efilled a gain, a nd i n p laces e xcavation h as r ecorded u p t o f our s uch r ecuts a s t his p rocess o f d emarcation o f t he o ld a nd r uined e nclosure p roceeded f or s ome t ime. S adly s uch i s t he p roximity o f t hese u ppermost " slot" r ecuts t o t he m odern d ay p loughsoil t hat r adiocarbon d ating h ad n ot b een a pplied t o t heir c ontained m aterial f or f ear o f c ontamination f rom l ater e lements ( as w ell, a s w e h ave s een, f rom e arlier); b ut t he p attern o f

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g radual e rosion f illing i n t he d itch c apping t he b ank r ubble ( Phase V ), t hrough w hich t hese r ecuts t ake p lace, a rgues f or a v ery c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime i ndeed h aving p assed b etween t he c ollapse o f t he s ite e nclosure b ank a nd t he d igging o f t his f eature. Y et i t w ould a ppear t hat m aterial c ulture ( pottery , f lint-working, e tc.) h ardly c hanged p erceptibly f rom t he s tate i n w hich w e e ncounter i t i n t he p rimary s ilts o f t he d itch. A l ong p eriod o f c ultural c ontinuity i s t hus p ostulated, s tretching o ver s ome h undreds o f y ears u p t o a t ime, p robably l ater t han 2 500 b c, d uring w hich t he m ain e nclosure f alls i nto r uin, t hough n ot d esuetude, a nd b ecomes t he f ocus o f r epeated a cts o f v eneration o r c ommemoration i nvolving r epeated r ecutting o f t he u pper l ayers o f d itch f illing. T he s tory o f t he u se o f t his m ain e nclosure a s s uch e nds w ith t he c onstruction o f a l inear c airn o f f lint a pparently m arking o ut t he l ine o f t he d itch a nd i ts r ecuts a nd b uilt o ver t he w hole c ircuit a s e xamined o n t he s ite ( Phase V II). S o c lose i s t his f eature t o t he m odern p loughsoil t hat f requently i t i s m uch d egraded b ut i t a ppears t o b e a ssociated w ith t he i ntroduction o n t o t he s ite o f B eaker p ottery - s uggesting , o f i tself, a p ossible d ate f or t his a ctivity c .2000 b c. T his a ctivity a ppears t o t ake p lace o n t he s ite a fter a p loughsoil h as a ccumulated w ithin t he m ain e nclosure d itch s uggesting t hat t he e nclosure h ad n ow b een c ultivated f or s ome t ime - i ts o riginal f unction i n a beyance, i f n ot f orgotten. Y et t he d eliberate a nd r itualised n ature o f t he l inear f lint c airn w hich m ight i n i solated c ircumstances r emain i n q uestion ( it c ould, a fter a ll, r epresent o rderly c learance o f f lint n odules f rom p loughed s urfaces i nto t he s lightly a wkward d eclivity o f t he r emaining d itch ) s eems, a s w ill b ecome a pparent, u nquestionable i n t he l ight o f o ther m aterial f rom t he h ill a s aw hole.

T he L ong B arrow S outh o f t he M ain C ausewayed E nclosure S et j ust t o t he s outh o f t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure w as a s mall l ong b arrow ( 20 m i n l ength), o ne o f a p air o n t he h ill, t he o ther, m uch l arger ( 66 m i n l ength ), l ying o n t he s pine o f t he n orthern s pur o f t he h ill w ithin t he l ater p rehistoric h illfort. B oth a re o riented, s omewhat u nusually , o n a n orth-south a xis a nd f ace e ach o ther a cross t he M CE ( see p lan ). T he h illfort b arrow a ppears t o h ave b een d amaged i n t he p ast n ear i ts c entre b ut i s o therwise i n s uperb c ondition p rotected f rom d amage w ithin t he f ort's m assive d efences. T he s maller s outhern e xample h ad b een b ulldozed i n t he 1 960s d uring p asture i mprovement o n t he s ite a nd h ad b een v ery s everely d amaged. N evertheless t he p resence o f a l ong b arrow 2 0 m f rom t he M CE, p ostulated a s a g reat a rena f or c orpse e xposure, d emanded i nvestigation a s t o t he r elationship b etween t he t wo. T he m ound o f t he b arrow h ad b een t otally o bliterated d uring t he r ecent d estruction e pisode a nd n othing w hatever s urvived i n s itu o f i ts s tructure o r c ontents. T he f lanking q uarry d itches w hence i ts m ound m aterial h ad b een d erived d id s urvive i ntact, h owever, a nd t heir t otal e xcavation r evealed a v ery s imilar s equence o f e vents t o t hat r etrieved f rom t he d itch o f t he M CE.

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T he b arrow m ound h ad a pparently b een c omposed o f c halk r ubble r evetted b y a t urf w all - a d ifferent f orm o f c onstruction t o t he b ank o f t he m ain e nclosure a s w ould b efit i ts q uite d ifferent p urpose. T he b ottom o f t he d itch p roduced a q uantity o f p ottery , a nimal b one a nd a s tone a xe, o f G roup I r ock, a n u nusual p rofusion o f m aterial f or t he p rimary l evels o f a l ong b arrow d itch. T his s uggests s ome p arallelism w ith t he p rimary d eposits o f t he e nclosure b ut w ith n o h uman b one p resent - s ignificantly , p erhaps, a s t his s ite i s d ivorced f rom t he e nclosure i nterior w here t his m aterial, p utatively, w as r eadily a vailable. W ith t he c ollapse o f t he t urf f açade, a nd t he d es tabilisation o f t he b arrow c halk r ubble c ore, t he d itch r apidly f illed u p, o nly t hen t o b e r ecut w ith p its a nd " slots" i n p recisely t he s ame w ay a s t he e nclosure d itch h ad b een. T hese r ecuts w ere a lso f urnished w ith d eposits o f a nimal b one, p ottery a nd f lintwork. I n a ddition t o t hese f eatures a n eatly b uilt f lint c airn h ad b een l aid o ut a long t he a xis o f t he t wo f lanking d itches i n p recisely t he s ame f ashion a s t he P hase V II c airn h ad b een c onstructed w ithin t he e nclosure d itch. W ithin t he d ebris o f t he r emnant m ound, p ushed i nto t he t op o f t he d itch i n t he 1 960s, w ere l ocated h uman b ones t hat m ay p ertain t o o ne i ndividual, a lthough l ittle c an b e c onstructed s oundly o n t he b asis o f s uch f limsy a nd d amaged e vidence. ( In t his p articular, a s i n a ll o thers r elating t o h uman s keletal e vidence o n t he s ite, I a m i ndebted t o t he w ork o f M rs. R obin K enwood.) A t e very s tage o f i ts d evelopment, t he l ong b arrow a ppears t o r eflect e xactly t he e vents d etected i n t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure, s uggesting a v ery c lose l ink b etween t he t wo m onuments i n t he m inds o f t heir b uilders, u sers a nd, l ater, t o t hose i n w hose m inds t radition h ad w elded t he c onceptual b asis o f t he t wo m onuments.

T he " Cross D ykes" S et A cross t he C ausewayed E nclosure

P oints o f

E asy A ccess t o t he M ain

T he " cross d itches" l ying t o t he s outh o f t his l ong b arrow a nd t o t he e ast o f t he e nclosure ( and p robably a lso o riginally t o t he n orth w here t hey w ould n ow b e c oncealed b y l ater h illfort c onstruction ) a lso p roduced p recisely t he s ame u se-history , i ndicating t heir i ntegral r elationship w ith t his g reat h illtop f unerary c omplex - a r itual c entre s et a t t he f ocus o f r outes a nd r esources f or c ommunities p robably d isposed w ithin t he s urrounding c ountryside. W e s hall o bserve t hat t he w hole h illtop a t H ambledon a ppears t o h ave b een d efended b y ag reat e arthwork c omplex ( see b elow ). T his e normous c onception d oes a ppear t o b e l ater t han t he m ain c ausewayed e nclosure o n s tratigraphic g rounds, a nd i s c ertainly l ater t han t he n ext f acet o f d evelopment o n t he h ill t o b e d escribed.

T he S tepleton E nclosure T he S tepleton e nclosure o n t he S E e xtremity o f t he h ill w as r ecognised a s aN eolithic e nclosure d uring t he p roject a s a r esult o f i ntensive f ield w alking, g round s urvey , a nd a erial p hotography. I t i s a c omplex s ite o f m ulti-phase c onstruction ( see F ig. 5 .3). I t c omprised i n i ts f irst p hase ( Phase 1 ) a n e nclosure o f c . 1h ectare b uilt a ltogether m ore s lightly t han t he M CE d escribed a bove. I ts d itch a nd i ts c ognate b ank w ere f ar l ess i mposing i n s tature a nd i ts Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 9 8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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s ituation w as a lso e ssentially d ifferent, s et o n t he s light b oss a t t he e nd o f a s teep-sided s pur a s o pposed t o t he h ill-crown p osition o f t he M CE. A rchaeological i ndications s uggest t hat i n b oth i ts i nitial a nd l ater p hases i ts f unction w as a lso s omewhat d ifferent t han t hat p roposed f or t he M CE. T he S tepleton s ite a s i t a ppears o n t he p lan ( Fig. 5 .3) i s m uch a ltered, i t w ould s eem , f rom i ts o riginal f orm. P hase 1 o n t his s ite a lmost c ertainly t ook t he f orm o f a s imple e nclosure, u nivallate a nd o f m inor s tature. I t p robably h ad o ne e ntrance i n i ts N W s ector f acing u phill t owards t he M CE ( if i ndeed t hese t wo e nclosures d ivorced b y a d istance o f m ore t han 8 00 m a re s trictly c ontemporary ). T his e ntrance w as f lanked o n i ts o uter s ide b y a v ery s ubstantial f ence o r r ow o f p osts, a k ind o f " barbican" e ffect a lso n oted a t H embury ( Liddell, 1 931) a nd C rickley H ill ( Dixon, p ers. c omm.). T he e nclosure d itch o f t his P hase 1 e nceinte s urvives o nly o n t he w estern a nd n orthern s ides, b ut h ere e xamination o f t he d itch-filling p roduced a p icture s imilar t o t he M CE i n s ome w ays b ut r adically d ifferent i n o thers. A s i n t he M CE t he d itch h ad b een c leaned o ut v ery t horoughly i n i ts p rimary p hases r obbing u s o f a ny c lear p icture o f t he i nitial d eposits t hat h ad o ccurred t here. T he f irst d eposits t o s urvive, h owever, p roduced v ery l ittle h uman b one, n o h uman s kulls, b ut i nstead a n umber o f c oncentrations o f i n s itu f lint-knapping d ebris ( see P l. 5 .II.B) a nd a n umber o f " hoards" o f r ed d eer a ntler s ome o f w hich h as b een w orked t o p rovide p icks o f a s omewhat h aphazard a nd p rimitive t ype. I ndustrial a nd d omestic p ursuits, t hen , w ould a ppear t o c haracterise t his i nitial s tage o f u se o f t he e nclosure, w ith v ery l ittle e vidence f or t he r itual a ctivities o bserved a t t he M CE. Y et t he a nimal b one r ecord i s o ne t hat i s g enerally w ell i n a ccord w ith t he M CE w ith a t endency , w hich D r. T ony L egge o f t he U niversity o f L ondon h as i ndicated, t o c onspicuous w astage a nd f easting, w ith l ittle e vidence f or t he s mashing u p o f b one t o p roduce t he h umble d omestic s tew o r s oup. W hoever u sed t his e nclosure l iked r oast m eat a nd d id n ot m ind t hrowing a way t he p arts t hey d id n ot f ancy. L egge h as a lso s uggested t hat a nalysis o f t he c attle b one s uggests t hat am ilko riented e conomy m ay w ell h ave d ominated t he s ite a nd i ts h istory ( Legge, 1 981). T he m ulti-phase n ature o f t his e nclosure m akes i t d ifficult t o a scribe t he i nternal f eatures t o a ny o ne p articular s tage b ut d espite c atastrophic e rosion s imilar t o t hat e ncountered o n t he M CE a l arge n umber o f w hat a ppear t o b e p ost-sockets s urvive o n t he s ite, i ndicating t he p resence o f s tructures a lthough c lear p lans a re i mpossible t o r econstruct. A s w ell a s t hese s tructures t here a re a n umber o f p its w hich, i n s harp c ontradistinction t o t hose w ithin t he M CE , c ontain s craps o f l ocally m ade p ottery , b roken f lint t ools, a nd a nimal b one - a n a ssemblage m uch m ore c losely a llied t o t he a rchaeologist's c onception o f p rehistoric d omestic r ubbish. O ne p it w ould a ppear t o b e t he b ase o f a k iln o r o ven a nd i t w ould s eem f rom o ther e vidence t hat p ottery m ay w ell h ave b een m anufactured o n t he s ite. O nly o ne i mported s tone a xe h as c ome f rom t his e nclosure, p erhaps h ighlighting t he c omparative l ack o f o bjects o f p restige s tatus o n t his s ite. S et a longside t he d omestic a spect o f m uch t hat h as b een r etrieved, t his p rompts t he s uggestion t hat t his r elatively s mall e nclosure m ay h ave b een a s ettlement s ite, p erhaps o f a s pecialised k ind, o ccupied b y p eople w ho, w hile t heir d iet m ay e xhibit r elatively r itualised a spects, s eem t o h ave b een p reoccupied w ith w hat Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 00

w e u nderstand a s t he r ealities o f e veryday l ife i n t he N ew S tone A ge i ndustrial a ctivities s uch a s a ntler-working, p ottery p roduction a nd f lint-tool m anufacture, t he b uilding o f s helters a nd t he b urial o f r ubbish. T he r ecutting o f t his p rimary e nclosure d itch m ay a gain h ave b een l inked w ith t he r epair o f t he r elatively m inor b ank a nd t he i nternal s tructures a lthough, w hatever t he c ause, a fter a t ime t he b ank b ecame u nstable a nd m assive c ollapse t ook p lace i nto t he d itch. T his c ollapse t ook p lace, h owever, a fter a nother e vent o f g reat i mportance h ad o ccurred o n t he h ill. A t s ome p oint w hile t he P hase 1 S tepleton e nclosure w as s till f unctioning a s i t w as o riginally c onceived a nd i ts d itch s till l argely o pen, a m ajor e arthwork ( the I nner O utwork " predecessor" P hase 2 a ) w as c onstructed e nclosing t he w hole s ummit o f H ambledon H ill a t a ll i ts v ulnerable p oints - a n a rea o f s ome 6 0 h ectares. T his i s c learly a n e xercise t hat p ost-dates t he i nception o f P hase 1o f t he S tepleton e nclosure i n t hat t he n ew e arthwork o bliterates t he P hase 1 e nclosure d itch o n t he e astern a nd s outhern s ides. T he e arthwork r an a ll t he w ay a long t he s outhern f lank o f t he h ill ( see F ig. 5 .3), t urned n orthwards a nd r an f or a l ong s tretch a long t he w estern f lank u ntil i t d isappeared b eneath t he m assive r amparts o f t he l ater p rehistoric h illfort o n t he n orthern s pur. A s i t p assed t he c ross-ditches o f t he M CE i t s wung q uite s harply o utwards t o a void t hem , i mplying t hat t hese, a nd b y i mplica tion t he M CE i tself, w ere a lso i n p osition b y t his t ime. T he r ampart o f t he P hase 1 S tepleton e nclosure c ollapsed o n t o t he t op o f t he f irst c ollapse o f t his g reat p rimary " predecessor" o utwork. T he p rimary " predecessor" o utwork i s i n f act a m onument o f w hich w e k now r elatively l ittle b ecause a fter a n u nknown p eriod o f t ime i t w ould a ppear t hat t he w hole s ystem w as r econstructed, t he d itch s egments b eing s ignificantly d eepened a nd r e-formed a nd a n e nlarged t imber-framed r ampart c onstructed o ver t he r emains o f i ts e arlier c ounterpart. T his e arthwork ( Phase 2 b ), w hich s urvives t oday a s a v ery s light u ndulation o n t he s outhern f lank o f t he h ill, c ertainly e nclosed t he w hole 6 0 h ectare h illtop. I t w as b acked, l ike i ts p redecessor, b y a t imber-frame " box-constructed" r ampart w ith u pright o aken t imbers o f 2 0 - 3 0 c m i n d iameter s et a t e very m etre a long i ts r earward a nd f orward e dge. I n o rder t o f unction e fficiently t hese t imbers m ust h ave b een b raced b y f urther m embers o f a ppropriate s ize p assing t hrough t he r ampart s o t hat o ver t he p rojected l ength o f t his g reat s ingle o utwork s ystem ( 3,000 m ) s ome 1 0,000 m assive o ak b eams w ould h ave b een u sed i n i ts c onstruction. T he i mplications f or w oodland m anagement, l abour r esources, a nd s ocial o rganisation a t t his r elatively e arly p eriod o f f arming d evelopment a re p rofound. T he r ampart w as f aced b y a s cantling o f h urdling, i ncluding a sh, h azel, a nd a lder, m ounted u pon a t imber f ramework. A s hort s tretch o f t his f acing s urvived i n ab urnt c ondition w here i t h ad u ltimately f allen f orwards i nto t he d itch. T he i nner o utwork w as c arried o n t o t he E ( Shroton) s pur o f t he h ill a nd i n a ll l ikelihood s kirted t he N ( hillfort) s pur o f t he h ill. O ver i ts l ength t hree g ateways 2 .5 m w ide w ith c entral p osts t o a ct a s g ate-stops f or c ounter-hung g ates h ave b een l ocated. T he g ate-passages t hrough t he r ampart w ere l ined w ith m assive o ak p osts. T he c onstruction o f t his e normous d efensive s ystem c learly m ade u nusual d emands u pon t he e conomy o f t he s ite. A t o ne p oint o n t he H anford s pur o f t he h ill t he r equirement f or s mall f lint t ools Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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F E A T U R E S Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 02

P L A N

S T E P L E T O N

O F D I T C H A N D B A N K

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a pparently b ecame s o a cute t hat a s eries o f s hafts o riginally s ome 2 m d eep w ere s unk f or t he o stensible o bjective o f r etrieving u nweathered f lint f rom t he c halk. T he f resh c halk r ubble f rom t hese " flint m ines" ( and s o m inimal a re t hey a nd s o d ubious t he q uality o f t heir p roduct t hat t he t erm m ust r emain w ithin i nverted c ommas) c ertainly d id n ot a ppear w ithin t he b ackfilling w ith w hich t hey w ere d eliberately l evelled a fter b ecoming am ass g rave f or c ountless f rogs a nd s mall r odents. T he f resh r ubble w as u tilised i n t he c onstruction o f t he o utwork 1 0 m a way t o t he s outh, a nd i f t his a ssumption i s c orrect i t m ay i mply c ontemporaneity b etween t he p henomena ( see F ig. 5 .3 a nd P l. 5 .III.A ). T hat t he S tepleton e nclosure c ontinued t o f unction a s a n a rea w ithin w hich o ccupation t ook p lace i s i ndicated b y t he d ebris t hat o ccurs w ithin t he b asal f ill o f t he I nner O utwork d itch i n i ts s econdary ( 2b) s tage. F urthermore, v ery c onsiderable q uantities o f i ndustrial a nd d omestic d ebris o ccur o n t op o f t he c ollapse o f t he S tepleton e nclosure P hase 1 b ank w ithin t he d iminutive d itch o n t he N a nd W s ides o f t he e nclosure, i ndicating t hat t he a rea c ontinued i n u se a fter t he P hase I d itch a nd i ts c ognate r ampart h ad l ong f allen i nto d esuetude a nd c ollapse. P resumably w ith t he e nclosure o f t he w hole h ill b y t he I nner O utwork t he n eed t o r econstruct t he " Inner" s tretch o f t he P hase Id itch w as n ot f elt. H owever, i n t hese u pper l ayers o f t he S tepleton e nclosure d itch a nd, i ndeed , u ltimately o f t he I nner O utwork n o r ecutting w hatever o f t he c omplex t ype e ncountered w ithin t he d itches o f t he M CE a nd t he L ong B arrow w as e ncountered; n or w as t here a ny s ign o f t he l inear f lint c airn p henomenon t hat w as o bserved t here. T hat a ct o f c ommemoration o r r eassertion a ppears t o h ave b een r eserved s olely f or t he n odal f unerary c omplex o n t he c rown o f t he h ill ( the M CE ). T he I nner O utwork i n i ts s econd m anifestation a ppears t o h ave l asted f or s ome t ime, t he b asal d eposits o f t he d itch b eing c leared o ut i n t he s ame w ay t hat h as b een o bserved e lsewhere. A t s ome p oint a fter t he c onstruction o f t he I nner O utwork t he d efence o f t he v ulnerable, a nd g entler s outhern s lope o f t he h ill w as r einforced b y t wo f urther e arthworks - s econd a nd t hird o utworks r unning p arallel t o t he I nner O utwork d escribed a bove ( see F ig. 5 .3). T hese n ew r amparts w ere a pparently c arried r ight a cross t he I nner O utwork g ateways o n t his f lank o f t he h ill a nd t he d itches ( which, o f c ourse, s urvive) w ere a pparently q uarries f or t wo d ifferent k inds o f r ampart. T he o utermost r ampart w as, t o j udge f rom t he s tructure o f i ts c ollapse, o f d ump c onstruction w ithout a ny k ind o f t imber r einforcement o n i ts f orward e dge, w hile t he i nner w as, l ike t he i nner o utwork i mmediately b ehind i t, a t imber r einforced " box" t ype r ampart. B y t his s tage t he s ite m ust h ave b een i mpressive b y a ny s tandards. T he w hole o f t he w estern a nd s outhern f lanks o f t he h ill l ooking o ut o ver t he V ale o f B lackmore w ere r immed w ith a g reat t imber f ramed r ampart s ome 3 ,000 m l ong. O n t he s teep w estern f lank o f t he h ill, i n o rder t o p rovide a s table b ase f or t he r ampart, a t errace h ad b een e xcavated a s w ell a s t he q uarry d itch t o i ts f ront f or t he p rovision o f r ampart m aterial. O n t he s outhern f lank a m ultivallate d efence 1 ,000 m l ong c reated a m ost i mposing o bstacle. T he w hole c omplex w ould h ave b een v isible f or m iles a round i n t he f lat p asturelands o f t he V ale o f B lackmore t o t he w est, w here g razed t he c attle t hat i t i s k nown p rovided t he f oundation o f t he s ite's e conomy , Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 03 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

p roviding 7 0% o f t he m assive b one a ssemblage f rom t he s ite. H undreds o f t housands o f m an h ours m ust h ave b een i nvested b y t he p eople l iving i n t hese l ands i n t he c onstruction o f t he s ite - f irst a s am ortuary c entre t ogether w ith i ts c ognate o ccupation s ite, p ossibly f or a s pecialist e lite g roup, a nd l ater a s ag reat d efensive c omplex. H uman s kulls a re r egularly e ncountered i n t hese o utwork d itches w hich m ust h ave o nly d eepened t he i mpression m ade b y t he s ite o n t he b eholder a nd w hich c learly l ink t he w hole s ite c onception t ogether ( see P l. 5 .III.B ). T he d efences, a s w e h ave s een, p ersisted f or s ome t ime. A s eries o f r adiocarbon d eterminations i ndicate a d ate r ange f or t he s ubstantial o ak t imbers o f w hich t he r ampart i s c onstructed o f b etween 3 090 ± 8 0 b c ( HAR 4437) a nd 2 680 ± 8 0 b c ( HAR 2372). T hese d ates m ust r eflect a s m uch t he a ge o f t hese v ery s ubstantial t imbers a s t he d ate o f c onstruction a nd f ollow t he g eneral t rend a t H ambledon o f a r ange o f s tatistically i ndistinguishable d ates c entering a round 2 ,800 b c w ith t he i nternal s equence o n t he s ite e stablished s tratigraphically. W e m ay s uggest t hat t he s ite p ersisted i n u se f or p erhaps a c entury o r t wo f rom t his c entral d ate. T hen, w hen t he o utwork d itches w ere s till i n c lean a nd o pen c ondition w ith b ut a s cattering o f d omestic r efuse o n t he f loor w here t hey r un c lose t o t he S tepleton e nclosure ( as w ell a s t he i ntact b urial o f a s till-born, o r n ew-born, c hild - a s ad l ittle m onument t o p roximate d omesticity ) a c atastrophe w as v isited u pon t he s ite t hat b rought a bout i ts a pparent a bandonment. W e k now t hat t his c atastrophe i nvolved t he d estruction b y f ire o f a s tretch s ome 2 00 m l ong o f t he o utwork s ystem o n t he s outh e astern s pur o f t he h ill. T he f ire c an h ardly h ave b een a ccidental i n t hat t he w hole t imber s tructure w as o n f ire - t he o ak p osts c ombusting r ight d own i nto t heir s ockets - a nd t o a chieve t his e ffect t he r ampart w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave h ad t o b e d eliberately s lighted. T he f ire w as a ccompanied b y am assive c ollapse o f t he r ubble c ore o f t he r ampart i nto t he d itch p receded b y t he c ollapse f orward o f b urning t imberwork w hich h eavily s corched t he s ides o f t he o pen d itch. M uch o f t he r ubble i tself i s h eavily s corched d enoting t he i ntensity o f h eat g enerated i n t his c onflagration. I n t wo i nstances a bsolutely i ntact s keletons o f y oung m ale a dults w ere l ocated d irectly s ealed b y t his r ubble. T heir c ondition m akes i t q uite c lear t hat t hey m ust h ave b een v ery q uickly b uried b y t he r ubble a nd o ne ( see P l. 5 .IV .A ) h ad a f inely w orked l eaf s haped a rrowhead w hich h ad p enetrated t he t horacic c avity f rom t he b ack. T his l atter i ndividual w ould a ppear t o h ave b een c arrying a n i nfant w hom h e c rushed b eneath h im a s h e f ell. A f urther y oung m ale w as a bandoned d ead o n t he o uter l ip o f t he o utwork d itch a nd w as t herefore n ot c overed b y t he c ollapse o f t he r ampart, h is b ody r apidly b ecoming p rey t o p redators o f a ll k inds a s t he c ondition o f h is s keleton c learly d emonstrates. A f ourth p artly i ntact s keleton w as l ocated i n t he u pper f ill o f t he P hase I S tepleton e nclosure d itch w here i t m ay w ell h ave b een d ragged a nd p artly d ismembered b y d ogs o r w olves. T wo q uite d eliberate b urials a lso o ccur o utside t he S tepleton e nclosure o n i ts n orthern s ide, o f w hich a t l east o ne c an b e d efinitely l inked t o t his e pisode. O ne o f t hese, a nother y oung m ale a dult, a ppears t o h ave b een q uite c arefully d isposed i n a p it w hich w as t hen b ack-packed w ith h eavily s corched c halk r ubble f or w hich t he o nly k nown s ource o n s ite i s t he s hattered r ampart d estroyed d uring t his a ttack. F lying f orward i n t he f ace o f a n orthwesterly w ind , a sh, Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 04 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

f lecks o f b urnt d aub a nd c halk s cattered o n t he c lean f loors o f t he t wo o uter o utwork d itches d emonstrate c learly t hat a ll t hree e lements o f t his m ultivallate d efensive s ystem w ere f unctioning a t o nce a nd w ere d estroyed i n t he s ame e pisode. T here c an r emain l ittle d oubt t hat w e s tand h ere i n t he p resence o f w arfare o n h owever l imited a s cale - w arfare w hich, h owever r itualised , h ad e xtremely u nfortunate c onsequences f or a n umber o f i ts p articipants. D uring t he l ast t en y ears i t h as b ecome a l eitmotif o f N ew S tone A ge s tudies i n B ritain t hat s uch w arfare, t he p roduct o f a ssumed s ocial p ressures f ounded u pon p opulation e xpansion a nd l and h unger, e xisted, a nd s ites l ike C rickley H ill, G loucestershire, H embury F ort n ear E xeter i n D evon, a nd C am nB rea n ear R edruth i n C ornwall ( Mercer, 1 981), h ave d emonstrated t hat f ortified s ites m ay b e a ccompanied b y a s catter o f v ery l arge n umbers o f l eaf-shaped f lint a rrowheads i n a s etting w here u ltimately t otal d estruction o f t he s ite h as f ollowed. A t H ambledon t he s ituation m ust r emain i n s ome w ays m ore, i n s ome w ays l ess, d istinct. O nly a f ew a rrowheads w ere f ound o n s ite h ere a lthough t he l ocation o f o ne o f t hem i s u tterly u nambiguous i n i ts p ortent. T he w riter i s o f t he v iew t hat t he e vents t hat t ook p lace o ne d ay , s ome f ive t housand y ears a go, o n t he S E s pur o f H ambledon H ill w ere b ut a p reliminary s kirmish i n a n a ltogether m ore s erious e ncounter. T he o bjective o f t his e ncounter w as w hat m ay b e y et a t hird c ausewayed e nclosure o n t he n orthern s pur o f t he h ill a lmost t otally d estroyed b y t he s uperimposition o f t he l ate I ron A ge h illfort. T his p ossible N eolithic e nclosure w as d etected b y a c ombination o f a erial p hotographic r ecord a nd a ssiduous f ield w alking b y t he p roject's f ield s urveyor, R oger P almer. I t i s a 4 .5 h ectare e nclosure p laced, r elatively s peaking, i n a s ituation p recisely s imilar t o t hose a t H embury a nd C rickley. I t i s s et i n a h ighly d efensive s ituation a nd m ay h ave b een t he r eal " target" o f t he o ffensive o peration o f w hich w e h ave l ocated t he d ebris o f o ne s kirmish o n t he S tepleton s pur o f t he h ill. F ortunately t he n orthern s pur o f t he h ill, r ecently a cquired b y t he B ritish N ature C onservancy C ouncil, i s a n a rea o f u nspoilt, u nthreatened d ownland, s till m uch a s i t w as k nown t o T homas H ardy w hen h e l ost h is w ay i n t he m ist o n t he h ill i n t he 1 890s. T his f inal s ecret o f t his g reat N ew S tone A ge e nclosure c omplex r emains t he l ast a spect t o b e i nvestigated.

B ibliography B arker, G . a nd W ebley , D ., 1 978. C ausewayed c amps a nd e arly N eolithic e conomies i n c entral s outhern E ngland, P roc . P rehist. S oc ., X LIV, 1 61-86. C urwen, E .C., B righton,

1 931. 1 932-33,

L egge, A .J., 1 981. ( ed ), F arming ( Edinburgh ).

E xcavations A ntiq . J ., X IV ,

i n W hitehawk 9 9-133.

N eolithic c amp,

A spects o f c attle h usbandry , i n M ercer, R .J. P ractice i n B ritish P rehistory , 1 69-81,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

1 05

L iddell, D ., 1 931. ( second s eason I (3), 9 0-120. M ercer,

R .J.,

1 980.

R eport o n e xcavations a t H embury F ort, D evon 1 931), P roc . D evon A rchaeol. a nd E kplor . S oc .,

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N eolithic L andscape ,

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C ommission o n H istorical M onuments ( England ), 1 970. o f H istorical M onuments i n t he C ounty o f D orset , I II.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 06 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

I nventory

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6 : E TTON , N EAR M AXEY , C AMBRIDGESHIRE: A C AUSEWAYED E NCLOSURE O N T HE F EN-EDGE

F rancis P ryor

I ntroduction T his p aper i s l argely b ased o n a n i nterim r eport, t o w hich t he r eader i s r eferred f or m ore d etail ( Pryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985); h ere, h owever, I a m m ore c oncerned w ith b roader m atters o f i nterpretation , w hich a re c onsidered i n t he D iscussion b elow; t his f ollows a b rief D escription o f t he s ite's p rincipal f eatures a nd f inds. F or r easons o f s pace Iw ill n ot b e a ble t o c onsider t he t wop hased, a nd p ossibly a ssociated, s ite a t E tton W oodgate i mmediately w est o f t he c ausewayed e nclosure ( see t he i nterim r eport m entioned a bove). T he s ite i s l ocated n ear t he e astern e dge o f aw ell-known c omplex o f c ropmark s ites t hat c overs l arge t racts o f t he l ower W elland V alley ' . T his n early f lat l andscape f orms p art o f t he l ow-lying p lain t hat f ringes t he F enland n orth o f P eterborough. T he s ubsoil c onsists o f f reely-draining s ands a nd g ravels. T he c ausewayed e nclosure ( TF 1 38 0 73) w as d iscovered i n 1 976, a nd f irst e xcavated i n 1 981 ( Pryor a nd K innes, 1 982). T he s ubsequent e xcavations w ere f unded b y t he B ritish M useum ( 1982) a nd E nglish H eritage ( 1981, 1 983-4 ) a s p art o f t he l arger F enland P roject ( Coles a nd H all, 1 983). U nlike t he v ast m ajority o f c ropmark s ites o f t he W elland V alley , t he E tton c ausewayed e nclosure i s u ntouched b y t he p lough, a s i t i s b uried b eneath m ore t han 5 0 c m o f c lay a lluvium. P rimary ( we p refer t o u se t he l ess s pecific t erm " initial") d itch d eposits w ere w aterlogged i n t heir l ower l evels a t l east, u ntil t he s ummer o f 1 983, w hen n earby q uarrying o perations l owered t he g round w ater t able. T he e ffects o f t his p umping w ere i mmediate a nd s evere ( French a nd T aylor, 1 985).

D escription 1 : F eatures T he E tton c ausewayed e nclosure c onsists o f a s ingle s egmented d itch o f s ub-oval p lan, m easuring c . 1 80 m E -W b y c . 1 40 m N -S. A s mall p roportion o f t he m onument, p erhaps 1 0-15% b y a rea, h as b een d amaged b y t he c onstruction o f t he M axey C ut w hich c lips t he s outhern p art o f t he s ite. T he e nclosure o ccupies t he g reater p art o f a l ow k noll, a round w hich m eander t he e xtinct c ourses o f a s tream o r r iver c hannel t hat w as o nce a n e lement i n t he ( braided ) W elland r iver s ystem. T he a erial p hotographs a re i ndistinct, o wing t o t he t hickness o f t he o verlying a lluvium, b ut t here a re i ndications ( Fig. 6 .2) o f a n early s traight Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 07

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l inear d itch r unning n orthwards f rom t he e nclosure, a t a n a ngle t o, a nd n ot r especting , t he l ater r idge-and-furrow s ystem ( Pl. 6 .1 ). T he s ingle d itch a ppears t o b e j oined b y a nother, p arallel d itch a s t he e nclosure i s a pproached. B oth d itches t hen a ppear t o p ass c leanly t hrough t he n orthernmost c auseway i n t he e nclosure d itch. O nce i nside t he e nclosure, t he t wo d itches t erminate. T he f irst t hree s easons o f e xcavation h ave c oncentrated o n t he d itch, f or t he s ingle r eason t hat i ts l ower, w aterlogged, d eposits w ere u nder t hreat o f d esiccation. T o d ate w e h ave e xcavated a l ength o f a bout 1 35 m etres o f d itch, i ncluding c auseways. T he d itch s egments ( Fig. 6 .3, n os. 1 -5) v ary i n l ength, f rom t he s hortest ( segment 2 ) a t 8 .5 m , t o t he l ongest ( segment 5 ) a t am inimum o f 4 2 m ( to d ate). T he f our c ompletely e xposed c auseways ( Fig. 6 .3, B -E ) m easure ( from S t o N ) 3 .9 m , 4 .0 m a nd 1 .2 m i n w idth. T he d itch ( Feature 1 ) w as i rregular, i n p lan a nd p rofile. T he e xploratory e xcavation o f 1 982 p roduced e vidence f or a n i nternal b ank ( Pryor a nd K innes, 1 982, f ig. 1 ); a s i s o ften t he c ase, t his t rial t rench w as n ot t ypical o f t he s ite a s aw hole, h owever, a s t he b ank, o r l ow p latform , m erely e xtended f or s ome t en m etres a long t he d itch s ide; i t h as n ot b een f ound e lsewhere o n t he s ite. T he i nitial d eposits c ontained u p t o 8 0% o rganic m aterial a nd w ater. T heir t hickness v aried c onsiderably a round t he l ength o f t he d itch, b ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat a n i nitial d eposit o f 6 0 c m a t E tton w ould s urvive j ust 1 2 c m t hick i n a d ryland l ocation. G iven c ompaction o f t his m agnitude, i t i s s carcely s urprising t hat c omparable d eposits c annot r eadily b e r ecognised o n o ther s ites. T he n ature o f f inds f rom t he i nitial d eposits w ill b e d iscussed s hor tly , b ut i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he a ction o f w ater d oes n ot s eem t o h ave a ffected t he l ower d eposits t o a n a ppreciable e xtent: c onjoining w oodchips w ere s till l ocated c lose t o e ach o ther; l onger p ieces o f w ood w ere n ot a ligned a long t he d itch a xis, a nd b one a nd f lint s till r etained v ery s harp, f resh e dges, w here b roken i n a ntiquity. F inds f rom h igher, s econdary d eposits, o n t he o ther h and, o ften s howed s igns o f w ear a nd e rosion, w hich m ight i n s ome c ases h ave r esulted f rom t he a ction o f w ater. S amples f or a s eries o f r adiocarbon d ates a re s till b eing p repared, b ut t he c oherence o f m aterial f rom t he i nitial d eposits, a nd t he g eneral a bsence o f b ackground " noise", t he r esult o f r esiduality , s uggests t hat t he d itch w as a ctually i n u se f or a r elatively s hort p eriod o f t ime. T he s econdary d eposits i nclude, i n t heir h igher l evels, a f ew w eathered s herds o f B eaker p ottery. T he i nterior o f t he e nclosure w as s ealed b eneath a lluvial c lay i n L ate I ron A ge t imes, a nd t here a re g rounds t o b elieve t hat t he a rea w ould n ot h ave b een s uitable f or y ear-round p ermanent s ettlement f or s ome c onsiderable l ength o f t ime p rior t o t hat. T he f eatures r evealed o n t he i nterior m ay b e b riefly d escribed. T he s outhern p art o f t he a rea e xcavated p roduced a t hin s catter o f s mall p its a nd p ost-holes w hich o nly b ecame v isible a fter t he r emoval o f c . 5 - 1 0 c m o f b uried s oil. T he s urface o f t he b ank/platform s howed s igns o f b urning, d oubtless t he r emains o f h earths o r b onfires,

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a nd i t b lended i nto t he b uried s oil t hree o r f our m etres b ack f rom t he d itch. T he o nly i ndubitable e vidence f or a s tructure w as f ound i nside c auseway B . A gain , a nalysis i s s till u nder w ay , b ut t he t hin ( c. 5 1 0 c m ) ' floor' o f t his s tructure w as r ich i n f lint d ebris ( c. 3 0 f lints p er s quare m etre). T he e dges o f t he ' floor' w ere m arked b y s hallow ( c. 0 .12 m ) s coops ( or b eam s lots?) a nd d eeper p ost-holes ( c. 0 .4 m ). T hese f eatures p roduced ( ?trampled ) s herds o f M ildenhall-type p ottery , a s w ell a s t he m ore u sual s mall f lint d ebris. A lthough n ot c omplete, t his s tructure w as c learly r ectilinear, r ather t han r ound.

2 : F inds F inds f rom t he i nterior, s urface o r f eatures, w ere i n g eneral s mall i n s ize, t rampled o r a braded ( complete f lint b lades, f or e xample, w ere r are). F inds f rom s econdary d itch d eposits w ere c losely s imilar i n g eneral c ondition a nd i t i s h ard t o a void t he c onclusion t hat t hey o riginally d erived f rom t he s ite's s urface. M aterial f rom i nitial d itch d eposits w as g enerally-speaking i n g ood c ondition, w ith f resh, s harp e dges. P otsherds, f or e xample, w ere u sually l arge a nd i n s ome c ases a ncient b reaks c ould b e j oined. T he p resenbe o f m ore f ragile f inds, s uch a s t he b irch b ark s heet, t he b os r ibs, h eaps o f n uts o r f ruit s tones, a nd t he s tring ( see b elow ), s trongly s uggests t hat t hese d eposits a re l argely u ndisturbed a nd i n s itu . C ertain c ategories o f m aterial, h owever, w ere n ot f inding t heir w ay i nto t he i nitial d itch d eposits: s mall f lints, s mall w eathered p otsherds, f or e xample. W hen f lints w ere f ound i n t he l ower l evels o f t he d itch, t hen t hey w ere u sually i ntact o r f reshly b roken.

S ymbolic o r P laced D eposits T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat m uch o f t he m aterial f rom t he i nitial d itch d eposits r epresents r efuse o r d ebris; t his a pplies m ost p articularly t o t he w ood a nd b one. H owever, w e s hould n ot m ake t he m istake o f a ssuming t hat t he d isposal o f " debris" w as e ither r andom , h aphazard o r u nstructured ( a t heme w e w ill r eturn t o i n t he D iscussion b elow ). A side f rom t he " debris", m aterial w as a lso r ecovered t hat s eems t o h ave b een p laced i n p osition d eliberately , a s a s ymbolic a ct o f s ome s ort. A lmost w ithout e xception w e f ind t hese s ymbolic d eposits a t t he b utt-ends o f t he d itches a t c auseways. I n s ome i nstances s mall h eaps o f b utchered a nimal b ones w ere p laced o n t he d itch b ottom. A c omplete v essel w as p laced o n a b irch b ark m at o n t he d itch b ottom a t c auseway A ( Fig. 6 .3). T he o ther e nd o f d itch s egment 1 w as m arked b y an eat ( ?wrapped ) b undle o f b os r ib b ones, a gain p laced a t t he v ery e nd o f t he d itch, o n t he b ottom , a nd a t t he c entre. I mmediately b eside i t w as a p artly d ispersed d eposit o f h azel n uts. T he o ther s ide o f c auseway B p roduced t wo r emarkable f inds. A l ength ( c. 6 0 c m ) o f f ine v egetable f ibre t wine w as f ound i n i nitial d eposits, a djacent t o t he b utt-end, a nd a t t he c entre, b ut n ot a ctually o n t he v ery b ottom o f t he d itch. N ear t o i t, o n t he b ottom ( and p arallel t o t he d itch i nside e dge ) w as a l arge p iece o f b irch b ark, l ying w ith i ts o uter s urface o n t he d itch b ottom; i t h ad b een f olded o ff-centre a nd o bliquely; t he e nds w ere t rimmed r oughly s quare, a nd i ts d imensions ( unfolded ) w ere: l ength 1 .46 i n , b readth 0 .55 i n , a nd t hickness f rom 0 .003 - 0 .007 m . T he l ength o f t he d itch i n w hich i t

1 14

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.1 15 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 16 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

l ay w as p articularly d eep a nd p robably f ormed a p ermanent w ater-hole i n a ntiquity ; a s s uch i t w ould h ave b een a s uitable a rea i n w hich t o s oak a nd b eat b irch b ark t o m ake i t s upple. T he d itch b utt-ends o n e ither s ide o f c auseway D c ontained m ore t han u sually d ense c oncentrations o f l arge w ood-working d ebris, b ut n othing t hat c ould b e s een a s o vertly s ymbolic. T he b utt-end o f d itch s egment 5 , a t c auseway E , c ontained a l arge n umber o f s loe s tones ( probably , b ut n ot c ertainly , ad ispersed h eap o r c ache), a nd t he c rown o f a r ed d eer a ntler.

T he W aterlogged W ood T o d ate w e h ave p lanned a nd r ecovered o ver 4 ,000 p ieces o f w ood, a nd t he a ccount t hat f ollows i s n ecessarily h ighly c ompressed. I t i s d rawn f rom M aisie T aylor's a ccount i n t he i nterim r eport ( Pryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985). T he f irst, a nd m ost o bvious a rtefact f ound w as a n a lmost c omplete a xe h aft ( Pl. 6 .11). I t h ad b een d iscarded i n a ntiquity a fter t he a xe h ead h ad b een f orced b ack i nto t he s ocket, e ventually c ausing t he w all o f t he h aft t o s plit a way. A v ery s light i ndentation i n t he h ead o f t he h aft i ndicated t hat t he a xe h ad b een b ound i nto t he h aft b y c rossl ashing a bove a nd b elow t he s ocket. I t i s w orth n oting h ere t hat a n umber o f p olished s tone a xe f ragments ( mainly G roup V I - L angdale) h ad b een f ound i n t he v icinity , p rior t o t he d iscovery o f t he a xe h andle. F rom t he o utset w e w ere l ooking o ut f or e vidence o f c oppicing ( Rackham, i n C oles a nd O rme, 1 977, 6 5-71). E vidence o f t his s ort w as i ndeed e ncountered, b ut w e d id n ot e xpect t o f ind t hat c oppice s tools w ould b e g rowing i n t he b ottom o f t he d itch, n or t hat r ods w ould b e h arvested t here, w ith t he d ebris d iscarded i n t he i mmediate v icinity. F ew o f t he s tems w ere c hopped f rom t he s tools, i nstead t he g eneral p ractice w as t o p ull a nd t ear, b ut o ccasionally t o g ive a h elping c hop f rom a n a xe. H owever, t he a ctual t rimming-off o f t he h eels w as d one w ith a n a xe. W e n ow h ave g ood e vidence t o s uggest t hat s tems w ere p ulled f rom t he c oppices, t he h eels w ere c ut o ff, a nd t he r ods w ere t rimmed, a ll i n t he a rea i mmediately a round w here t hey h ad b een g rowing. F inally , t he d istribution o f p artially c harred w ood f ollows a n a lmost i dentical p attern t o t hat o f t he c oppice s tools a nd t heir a ssociated d ebris; s ince, h owever, m any o f t he c harred p ieces a re a lso t rimmed, t his m ight s uggest t hat m ost o f t he d ebris g enerated d uring t he h arvest o f t he r ods w as b urnt, t o d ispose o f i t. I t i s v ery u nusual, h owever, t o f ind e vidence f or b onfires a ctually i n t he d itch ( as i t w as s o w et), a nd i t s eems m ore p robable t hat t hese w ere o n t he s urface, n earby. I n t his r egard i t i s w orth m entioning t hat t he s urface o f t he i nterior i mmediately n ext t o d itch s egment 5 s howed m uch e vidence f or f ire. F inally , i t s hould b e n oted t hat c harcoal i s r arely f ound i n t he i nitial d itch d eposits o n i ts o wn; i nstead i t i s u sually a c harred p art o f a n o therwise u nburnt p iece o f w ood. I t i s h oped t o p roduce d etailed a nalyses a nd d istributions o f o ther c ategories o f w ood. W ork o n w oodchips c ontinues, f or i nstance, w ith s tudy o f d imensions, s pecies a nd t he d ifferent w ays o f w orking b ark, s apwood a nd h e rtwood. H owever, w hile w oodchips a re r elatively c ommon a t E tton, i t i s m ost u nusual t o f ind a nything r emotely

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r esembling t imber. I t w as o f i nterest, t herefore, t o d iscover a s ubstantial p lank a t t he n orthern e nd o f d itch s egment 5 ( Fig. 6 .6). I t w as b eautifully s plit a nd t rimmed, b ut w as d iscarded b efore f inishing w as c omplete. T he p lotting o f a ll u nmodified w ood a nd r oots h elped t o s olve a p roblem w hich i s c rucial t o t he i nterpretation o f i n s itu w aterlogged d eposits: u nless i t i s p roved o therwise, i t c annot b e a ssumed t hat r oots a re n ecessarily c ontemporary w ith t he m ain d eposit, a s ab uried f eature, s uch a s a d itch , m ay b e s ought o ut b y t he r oots o f t rees a nd b ushes g rowing i n t he v icinity a t a ny t ime. A t E tton i t w as f ound t hat m any o f t he r oots p lotted i n t he d itch b elonged t o p lants t hat w ere a ctually g rowing t here a t t he t ime; i ndeed, t he n orth p art o f t he s ite h as p roduced e vidence f or q uite s ubstantial c olonisation b y s hrubs. T he d itch i n t his a rea m ust h ave b een n otably m ore o vergrown t han t hat f urther s outh. W e h ave b een f ortunate t o h ave h ad n early t wo c omplete s easons o f e xcavation b efore t he d raining o f t he a rea s tarted. T hose s easons p roduced 3 ,000 p ieces o f w ood. W ithout c omparative m aterial o f t his q uality i t w ould h ave b een i mpossible t o i nterpret o r s tudy w hat i s n ow a r apidly d eteriorating , b ut n one t he l ess u nique d eposit.

I norganic F inds a nd A nimal B one A p reliminary a ssessment h as b een m ade o f s herds ( Fig. 6 .7) f rom i nitial d itch d eposits ( Kinnes, i n P ryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985). T he g eneral o utline s eems c lear: t he a ssemblage i s o f M ildenhall c haracter, a ssignable t o t he d ecorated r egional f acies o f t he M iddle N eolithic e stablished d efinitively a t H urst F en ( Clark e t a l., 1 960). T he f abrics, o n m acroscopic e xamination s o f ar, c ompare w ell w ith t hose a t H urst F en, e ssentially b ased o n c rushed f lint w ith l esser o r g reater s and a dmixture. T he o ccasional a ppearance o f s hell i n t his w ell-preserved c ontext w ould s eem t o b e e choed b y t he ' corky ' w are i n t he a cidic m atrix a t H urst F en. T he f lintwork i s g enerally s peaking b lade-based a nd b roadly c omparable, f or e xample, w ith H urst F en ( Clark, i bid .) o r t he e arlier N eolithic h ouse a t F engate ( Pryor, 1 974 ). I n v iew o f t he r emarkable f inds f rom C rickley H ill ( Dixon, t his v olume) a nd C am nB rea ( Mercer, 1 981), i t i s p erhaps w orth n oting t hat n o u ndoubted l eaf a rrowheads h ave y et ( 1984) b een r ecognised f rom E tton ( either i n t he f ield o r i n t he p ost-excavation a nalyses, p resently i n h and ). T he b one f rom t he w aterlogged d eposits a t E tton i s v ery w ell p reserved. I n a ll, s ome 8 ,000 b ones h ave b een e xcavated t o d ate ( seasons 1 982-3 o nly ), a nd a bout 6 ,000 h ave b een i dentified ( ArmourC helu a nd C lutton-Brock, i n P ryor, F rench a nd T aylor, f orthcoming). T he p roportion o f s pecies r epresented f ollows t he p attern s et b y o ther s outhern B ritish N eolithic s ites, w ith c attle b y f ar t he c ommonest s pecies r epresented. H unted s pecies, s uch a s r ed a nd r oe d eer, a re p resent o nly i n m inimal q uantities. T he e xcellent p reservation m eans

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t hat l ittle m aterial h as b een l ost t hrough u nfavourable s oil c onditions, a lthough t he s ample a s a w hole w as s ubject t o p redation b y d ogs b efore d eposition. T he s tudy o f t he a nimal b one a ssemblage a lso s howed t hat a s ignificant p roportion o f t he m ore m ature c ows h ad s uffered f rom o steoarthritis. I t w as t entatively c oncluded t hat t hese a nimals h ad b een u sed f or t raction, b ut t he r eader i s a dvised t o c onsult t he o riginal r eport ( op . c it.) f or a d escription o f t he c ondition a nd f or a rguments t hat s upport t he h ypothesis.

3 :

E nvironment

C onditions o f p reservation w ere v ery g ood a nd t here i s m uch e nvironmental d ata. O ver-simplifying s omewhat, D r. F rench h as c oncluded t hat t he s oil o f t he i nterior w as s lightly t runcated, p robably d uring t he d eposition o f t he o verlying, b lanketing a lluvium , w hich t ook p lace i n l ater I ron A ge t imes ( Pryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985). T he e nclosure d itch d eposits w ere p robably l aid d own i n c onditions o f f luctuating, s easonal w etness, a nd i t i s p robable t hat t he s ite c ould o nly h ave b een o ccupied d uring t he d rier m onths o f t he y ear. I f c ereals w ere g rown, a s s eems p robable, t hen t hey w ould h ave h ad t o h ave b een s own i n l ater s pring , o nce t he g round h ad c eased t o b e w aterlogged. T he s hallow b raided s tream c ourse(s) t hat p artially e nclosed t he s ite m ay a lso h ave b een s easonal. A p ollen s ample w as t aken f rom p eat a t t he v ery b ottom o f t he d itch. A gain, s implifying g reatly , D r. R .G. S caife ( in P ryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985) h as c oncluded t hat t he a rea w as l argely o pen ( a f ew b irch t rees a nd l ight s crub ) w hen t he d itch w as d ug, a nd t hat t here w as f en n earby. T here i s a lso e vidence f or c ereals. T his w ould e ither i ndicate t hat c rops w ere b eing p rocessed i n t he v icinity ( pollen m ay b e d ischarged i n w innowing, f or e xample) o r g rown n earby. S ince c ereal p ollen r arely t ravels f ar, a nd t he s ite i s s urrounded b y a w ide s tream b ed w hich w ould n ot h ave b een a t a ll s uitable a s a g rowing a rea, i t i s t hought t hat t he i nterior o f t he e nclosure w ould h ave b een t he m ost a ppropriate a rea f or g rowing c rops.

D iscussion I ntroduction R ecent r esearch i n t he P eterborough r egion h as s ubstantially a ltered o ur a ppreciation o f m ost p eriods o f l ater p rehistory. T his i s n ot t he p lace t o r eview t his w ork i n a ny d epth a nd t he r eader i s r eferred t o P ryor ( 1984a ) a nd P ryor a nd F rench ( 1985) f or u p-to-date o verviews o f a f ast-changing s ubject. R ecent w ork i n t he F enland e ast o f P eterborough h as, h owever, b een p articularly i mportant, H all, f orthcoming; P ryor, 1 982). S uffice i t t o s ay t hat t he r egion m ay w ell h ave h ad a r ich a nd d iverse N eolithic b arrow-building t radition. T urning b riefly t o n on-funerary r itual o r c eremonial s ites, t he e vidence s uggests t hat t hese, e specially t he h enges a nd h engiform m onuments, w ere d istinct f rom t heir W essex c ounterparts: t hey w ere n on-monumental, t hey w ere s hort-lived, a nd t hey d o n ot a ppear t o h ave

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1 F ig. 6 .7

A s election o f p ottery f rom t he c ausewayed e nclosure d itch. D rawing b y P .K . D ean

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

1 22

p layed a n o bviously t erritorial r ole ( Pryor a nd F rench, 1 985). C ausewayed e nclosures h ave b een s een a s t he p recursors o f h enge m onuments, a nd t here i s m uch t o r ecommend t his v iew i n p arts o f t he c ountry w here t erritorial b ehaviour s eems t o h ave a l ong t radition ( e.g. R enfrew , 1 973; W ainwright, 1 979). H owever, i t i s d oubtful w hether t his n ecessarily a pplies w ith e qual f orce i n t he r egion p resently u nder r eview ( Pryor, 1 984b ). C ausewayed e nclosures i n o ur a rea d oubtless f ulfilled a n umber o f r oles, o f w hich a t erritorial/g eographical " focus" m ay o nly h ave b een o ne. I f w e t ake t he c ausewayed e nclosures i n t he P eterborough a rea a lone, n one h as y et b een f ound i n t he d eeper F en t o t he e ast; t hey m ay b e t here, b ut t hey a re b uried b eneath s uperficial d eposits. A ccordingly , t he f ive k nown e xamples ( Palmer, 1 976, f ig. 1 : B arholm , U ffington, S outhwick, T ansor; E tton w as s till u ndiscovered ) m ust r epresent a m inimum e stimate o f t he w hole. D etailed r egional c hronologies a re l acking: a t p resent w e h ave n o i dea t o w hat e xtent t he v arious c ausewayed e nclosures i n t he a rea a re s trictly c ontemporary w ith o ne a nother ( Mildenhall-style w are w as f ound i n t he d itch a t S outhwick, h owever - J . H adman, p ers. c o rm ). A ny i nterpretation o f t heir r ole m ust t ake t his u ncertainty i nto a ccount. I n t hese c ircumstances i t i s a lmost i mpossible t o g eneralise a nd e ach s ite m ust b e c losely e xamined w ithin i ts i mmediate p hysical a nd c ultural c ontexts.

T he R ole o f t he E tton C ausewayed E nclosure T here i s n ow s ome e vidence t o s uggest ( French, i n P ryor a nd F rench, 1 985) t hat t he l ower-lying s oils m ay h ave b een l argely c leared o f f orest c over b y t he t ime t hat t he v arious c ausewayed e nclosures w ere c onstructed, s ignificantly o n r iver v alley s ides o r b ottoms. C ertainly t he p ollen e vidence a t E tton s hows t hat t he s ite w as l argely b ereft o f t ree c over w hen t he e arliest d itch d eposits w ere f orming. T here i s a lso e vidence f or o pen c ountry a nd p ossible a gricultural d isturbance b eneath t he m ound o f t he N eolithic o val b arrow a t M axey ( Pryor a nd F rench, 1 985). T he u se o f c attle f or d raught p urposes d uring t he M iddle N eol ithic d oes n ot s eem i mprobable ( M. A rmour-Chelu, p ers. c omm.). S herratt ( 1980) h as r ecently r eviewed t he e vidence f or p loughing. T here a re n ow m any i nstances o f a rd-marks b eneath b arrows t hroughout E urope i n t he f ourth a nd t hird m illennia B C, t wo w ell-known e xamples f rom E ngland b eing a t S outh S treet a nd A vebury. W hilst i t i s h ighly s uggestive t hat t he c ows f rom E tton w ere u sed f or t raction, i t i s i mpossible t o s tate, o n t he b asis o f t he f aunal r emains a lone, w hether t hey w ere e mployed t o p ull a rds, c arts o r s ledges. H owever, t he p resence o f c ereal p ollen i n t he e nclosure d itch c ould b e t aken t o i ndicate t hat t he s oil n earby w as t illed a nd c ultivated; t he e vidence i s p erhaps s lender, b ut i t c omes f rom u nrelated s ources a nd t here i s, a s y et, n othing t hat c learly r efutes i t. I n s hort, i t i s s uggested t hat t he c ausewayed e nclosure a t E tton w as a s m uch a n e nclosed f ield a s i t w as a s ettlement. I f E tton w as u sed a s a s ite f or g rowing c rops, p erhaps s imilar s ites o n s lightly h igher l and m ay a lso h ave b een u sed t o o ver-winter l ivestock. U ndoubtedly t hese s ites w ere a lso u sed f or s ettlement a nd f or o ther " ritual" p urposes, n o d oubt c losely a ssociated w ith b oth s ettlement, f arming, a nd s ocial l ife i n g eneral

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts 1 I2 and 3 Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

( we w ere l ooking f or s ymbolic o r " ritual" d eposits a nd c onsequently f ound t hem ). T here c an a lso b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he s ite w as a n a rea o f s ome i mportance, a nd t hat i ts m arking-out b y a n i nterrupted d itch w as p art o f c ommon c ustom a nd p ractice. I t i s, h owever, d ifficult t o i magine w hy a c ausewayed d itch w as e mployed, a nd p urely p ractical o r f unctional e xplanations - s uch a s g ang-labour - w hile p ossibly p artly t rue, n one t he l ess m anifestly f ail t o a ccount f or s o w idespread a E uropean p henomenon. I t s eems f ar m ore p robable t hat t he d itch w as d ug i n s hort l engths i n o rder t o s ub-divide i t ( and p erhaps t he i nterior b ounded b y i t) i nto s hort l engths. T hese l engths o f d itch c learly h ad s ymbolic i mportance, a s w itnessed b y t he u nusual m aterial p laced a t b utt-ends ( see a lso M adsen, t his v olume). I t i s h ard t o b e a t a ll c ertain, b ut w e c urrently s uppose t hat E arly N eolithic c ommunities ( in t he w estern F ens, i f n ot e lsewhere ) h ad m ore i n c ommon w ith t heir M esolithic a ntecedents t han h as b een r ecognised t o d ate. I n p articular, w e c onsider t hat t heir w ay o f l ife w as l ess s edentary , a nd m ore m obile, t han w as o nce t hought. B y M iddle N eolithic t imes, h owever, w e s ee t he f irst g ood e vidence f or a m ore f ixed w ay o f l ife a nd w e a lso s ee t he f irst s igns o f t he p arcelling-up o f t he l andscape t hat w as t o b e s o m ajor a f eature o f t he s econd m illennium b c. I n t hese c ontexts, c ausewayed e nclosures m ust h ave p layed ' a n i mportant s ocial r ole. A t t his p oint w e m ust e nquire w hat t hat s ocial r ole m ight b e. W e h ave s een t hat E tton h as p rovided e vidence f or c ereals, l ivestock w as k ept i n t he v icinity , f lints w ere k napped, p ots w ere u sed, w ood w as w orked e tc. T rees w ere c oppiced i n t he d itch. T here w as o ccupation i n t he i nterior o f t he e nclosure. W e h ave a lso s een t hat t he d itch w as a s n otable f or w hat i t d id n ot c ontain , a s f or w hat i t d id. T hus w oodworkers a pparently h ad u nrestricted a ccess t o i t, b ut f lints a nd o ther o ccupation d ebris s eem t o h ave b een l argely e xcluded, e ven i n p arts o f t he d itch c lose t o k nown s ettlement a reas. T here i s a lso s ome e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he u nusual b utt-end d eposits m ay p rovide c lues a s t o t he u se o f t he d itch s egment i nvolved ( more f ully d iscussed i n P ryor, F rench a nd T aylor, 1 985). I t i s h ard t o s ee a ny a spect o f d aily l ife t hat i s n ot r epresented a t E tton, a part, t hat i s, f rom f ormal m ortuary o r f unerary p ractice, a nd t he a bsence o f m onuments o f t his s ort f rom m ost c ausewayed e nclosure i nteriors m ust b e s ignificant. I t i s t empting ( though h ighly s peculative) t o s uggest t hat t he r estricted a ccess t o t he d itch i s a s ymbolic e xpression o f n ormal d aily b ehaviour i n t he o pen c ountryside, w here a ccess t o t he o sier b eds o r c oppice w oods m ay w ell h ave b een r estricted ( certainly a nimals c an c ause g reat d amage i n t hese a reas, a nd i t i s n ot h ard t o i magine t hat t he e xclusion o f s tock w as a ccompanied b y t he e xclusion o f, f or e xample, s tock-herders e tc.). I n s hort, d o s ites s uch a s E tton o we t heir i nitial e xistence t o t he f act t hat t hey w ere c onstructed t o p rovide t he c ountryside ( i.e. t he l andscape a s p erceived b y m an ) i n m icrocosm? I s i t p ossible t hat t he r eplication o f t he m ain e conomic a nd s ymbolic a spects o f t he e arly N eolithic o pen c ountryside, w ithin t he c onfines o f a d eliberately o pen ( causewayed ) e nclosure, m ight h ave b een a n e arly m eans o f c oming t o t erms w ith a s edentary l ife? A fter d eath o ne r eturns t o t he w orld o utside t he e nclosure, b oth s ymbolically a nd p hysically ( surely t he H ambledon s kulls m ark t his t ransition c learly ). E xplanations o f t his s ort a re n eeded i f w e a re t o e xplain t he c ontradiction b ehind

1 24 Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

c ausewayed e nclosures: t hey e nclose, y et a t t he s ame t ime t hey d o s o b oth w ith m anifest a nd w ith c alculated i nefficiency. T o m ake m atters w orse t hey r epeat t he p attern o ver l arge p arts o f E urope. T he s ocial f orce o f t he i deas b ehind t he i nitial c onstruction o f t hese m onuments m ust h ave b een p owerful i ndeed.

A cknowledgements T he p roject w as f unded b y t he B ritish M useum ( 1982) a nd t he D oE/English H eritage ( 1981; 1 983-4); r esearch g rants w ere a lso r eceived f rom t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon. S pecial t hanks a re d ue t o t he l andowners/occupiers o f t he s ite, M r. a nd M rs. S . W hitton ( and f amily ) a nd T armac R oadstone ( Eastern ) L td., M axey Q uarry. Ih ave f lagrantly p lagiarised a nd m assively o ver-simplified t he w ork o f C harles F rench ( soils), M aisie T aylor ( wood ), I an K innes ( pottery ), M iranda A rmour-Chelu a nd J uliet C lutton-Brock ( animal b ones), a nd R .G. S caife ( pollen ). S pecial t hanks a re d ue t o J anet N eve a nd J ane D ownes. J ohn C oles a nd D avid H all, a s e ver, p rovided a dvice a nd e ncouragement. P hilip D ixon, R oger M ercer a nd T orsten M adsen h ave h elped m e e nter t he w orld o f c ausewayed e nclosures, p ainlessly.

B ibliography C lark, J .G.D., H iggs, E .S., a nd L ongworth, I .H., 1 960. E xcavations a t t he N eolithic s ite a t H urst F en, M ildenhall, S uffolk , P roc . P rehist. S oc ., X XVI, 2 02-45. C oles, J .M. a nd H all, L VII, 5 1.

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D .N., f orthcoming. R egional f ieldwork o n t he W ash F enlands o f E ngland, i n C oles, J .M., a nd L awson, A .J. ( eds), E uropean W etlands i n P rehistory , ( Oxford ).

M ercer, R .J., 1 981. E xcavations 1 970-73, C ornish A rchaeol., X X , P almer, R ., 1 976. I nterrupted o f a erial p hotography f or S oc ., X LII, 1 61-86. P ryor, F .M .M., 1 974. t he F irst R eport ( Toronto ).

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P ryor, F .M.M., 1 984a. E xcavation a t F engate, P eterborough, E ngland: t he F ourth R eport = N orthants. A rchaeol. S oc . A rchaeol. M onogr. 2 = R oyal O ntario M us. A rchaeol. A bnogr . 7 , ( Leicester a nd T oronto). P ryor, F .M.M., 1 984b. P ersonalities o f B ritain: t wo e xamples o f l ong-term r egional c ontrast, S cot. A rchaeol. R ev ., I II, 8 -15. P ryor, F .M.M. a nd F rench, C .A.I., 1 985. A rchaeology a nd E nvironment i n t he L ower W elland V alley = F enland P roject M onogr . 1 = E . A nglian A rchaeol., P ryor,

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 26 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

7 : E XCAVATIONS A T H ADDENHAM , C AMBRIDGESHIRE: A " PLANNED" E NCLOSURE A ND I TS R EGIONAL A FFINITIES

C hristopher E vans

T he f irst p art o f t his p aper i s a n i nterim s tatement o n t he r ecent e xcavations o n t he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure, a nd a s s uch r eflects a l ong-term c ollaborative e ffort b etween t he p roject d irector, D r. I an H odder, a nd t he a uthor. T he s econd p art o f t he p aper c onsiders H addenham w ithin a b roader r egional c ontext a nd i s s pecifically c oncerned w ith t he i ssues o f e nclosure p lanning ( "design") i n r elationship t o t ypology a nd f unction. J udged i n t he l ight o f p ublished e nclosure c lassification s chemes ( Wilson, 1 975; P almer, 1 976) t he H addenham e nclosure i s u ncharacteristic o f t he r egion, b ut a n umber o f n ew e nclosures h ave b een r ecognised s ince t hese s chemes w ere f irst p roposed ( Appendix ) s o t hat a r eappraisal o f t hese r egional c lasses i s c alled f or. S ince 1 981 t he D ept. o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f C ambridge h as u ndertaken t hree s easons o f e xcavation o n t he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure. T he s ite ( TL 4 14/737) i s s ituated 1 4.4 k m n orth o f C ambridge o n t he s outh-west f en-edge. A rchaeological i nterest b egan i n t his a rea w hen D avid H all, i n t he e arly s tages o f F enland s urvey , d iscovered t he H addenham-Over b arrow f ield a nd s ubsequently D .R. W ilson r ecognised t he c ausewayed e nclosure o n e xisting a erial p hotographs ( Evans a nd H odder, 1 985a, f ig. 2 ). B efore t his t ime t he o nly a rchaeological f eatures k nown i n t his i mmediate a rea, a part f rom s tray f inds a nd b ronze h oards, w as a d ense b and o f a pparently R oman c ropmarks w hich J ohn B romwich h ad p lotted a nd f ieldwalked ( Phillips, 1 970, m ap 1 5). T he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure c onsists o f a s ingle i nterr upted d itch c ircuit w ith a n i nternally c oncentric p alisade t rench. T he e nclosure i s o f a s ub-circular/ovoid s hape a nd e xtends o ver a n a rea o f s ome 8 .5 h a, m aking i t o ne o f t he l argest c ausewayed e nclosures i n t his c ountry. T he e nclosure i s s ituated u pon t he " Upper D elphs", a b uried g ravel p eninsula w hich p rojects i nto t he p eat f ens i mmediately e ast o f t he p oint a t w hich t he R iver G reat O use e nters t he f en b asin ( Fig. 7 .1). T he p resent c ourse o f t he r iver ( formerly t he O ld W est R iver) a s i t s kirts t he f en-edge s eparates t his p eninsula f rom t he s outhern c lay l owlands, e ffectively i solating t he U pper D elphs a nd m aking i t a n " island". T he s urface o f t he i sland l ies a t c . 3m O .D. a s o pposed t o t he 1 - 1 .5 m O .D. h eight o f t he a djacent f ens. T hus t he H addenham s ite i s t he l owest l ying c ausewayed e nclosure k nown i n t he c ountry. T he H addenham-Over b arrow c emetery w as c onstructed o n t he b uried s and a nd g ravel t erraces w hich f lanked t he o riginal n orth-westerly ( West W ater/Hammonds E au ) l owland r eaches o f t he O use ( Seale, 1 979, f ig. 1 ). T he c ausewayed e nclosure, t herefore, w ould h ave b een l ocated s ome 1 .5 k m e ast o f t he m ain r iver c hannel. I t s hould, h owever, b e r emembered t hat t he O use w as t he m ain f enland r iver, a nd t hat u pon Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 27 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

B a r o w s & e a r t h w o r k s

D i t c h v i s i b l e a s c r o p m a r k

C o n j e c t u r e d

N E O L I T H I C T O L A T E R O M A N C E N T R A L R E S E A R C H A R E A

H A D E N H A M

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 28 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187.1 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

e ntering s uch a f lat l andscape w ould h ave b een l iable b oth t o f lood a nd d iversion, a nd i ts c ourse m eandered w ith m any o x-bow b ends a nd b ack-water c hannels, c reating a n a lmost d elta-like n etwork o f b uried c hannel c ourses i n t his a rea. T he H addenham l evel i s l ocated i n w hat c an b e c onsidered a s eparate e mbayment o f t he f ens, w hich t o t he n orth i s f lanked b y t he I sle o f E ly , t o t he s outh b y c lay l owlands, a nd t o t he n orth-west a nd s outh-east b y t he r iver v alleys o f t he O use a nd C am r espectively ( Taylor, 1 979, f ig. 2 ). T he e nvironmental s equence i n t his a rea i s c onsequently v ery c omplex , i nsomuch a s i t i s s ituated a t t he j unction o f f en a nd r iver v alley. A p rogramme o f e nvironmental r esearch h as b een u ndertaken a cross t his a rea b y A . S mith a nd E . C loutman o f t he U niversity C ollege, C ardiff P lant S cience d epartment a nd b y t he F enland p roject e nvironmentalists. U nfortunately , t here i s n ot s pace i n t his p aper t o i nclude a f ull r ésumé o f t heir p reliminary r esults e xcept t o n ote t hat i t w ould n ow a ppear t hat t his r egion d id n ot b ecome i nundated u ntil t he l atter h alf o f t he s econd m illennium ( A. S mith, p ers. c omm.). T he e arliest d ate f or p eat f ormation i n t he l owl ying b asins i mmediately a djacent t o U pper D elphs i s c . 1 000 B C, a nd o nly f rom t his t ime c an i t b e s aid t o b e " in t he f en". T herefore, d uring t he t hird m illennium b c i t i s a ppropriate t o c onsider t he c ausewayed e nclosure a s i n a r iver f lood-plain l ocation , r ather t han t he f en a s s uch. T hough a l eached s andy l oam , b uried s oil s urvives b eneath t he a lluvial l ayer a nd t he p loughsoil o n t he U pper D elphs i sland ( French, 1 985), n o h orizontal s tratigraphy ( surfaces, b anks, e tc.) s urvives i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he c ausewayed e nclosure. T his w as c onsidered t o b e r ather s urprising, g iven t he f act t hat o ver m uch o f t he i sland t his b uried s oil s till l ies b elow t he m odern p lough-zone. H owever, d uring t he c ourse o f r ecent e xcavations o n a M iddle I ron A ge e nclosure, s ituated o n t he s outh e dge o f t he i sland ( Fig. 7 .1), t he g ravel s ubsoil w as f ound t o b e m ixed a nd s ealed b y p eriglacial c lay d eposits w hich u pon c areful e xcavation w ere f ound t o b e s carred b y a g rid p attern o f a rd-marks. T hese p resumably e xist b ut h ave n ot b een d etected i n t he l oose g ravel n atural e lsewhere o n t he i sland. T his e vidence o f a rable a griculture w as d efinitely s ealed b y t he I ron A ge h ouse f loors a nd a d ate i n t he s econd m illennium b c i s s uggested f or t his a ctivity , w hich w ould t herefore a ccount f or t he d issection o f e arlier s tratigraphy . A cross t he U pper D elphs a nd a djacent t erraces t his b uried s oil h as b een e xtensively s ampled ( sieved 1 m2 u nits o n a 5 0 m g rid). W ithin t he c ausewayed e nclosure t he d ensity o f a rtefacts w as f ound t o b e e xtremely l ow: r anging f rom 0 - 8 f lints p er m2 , w ith a n a verage d ensity o f 3 .7 f lints p er m2 f rom t hose u nits p roducing f lint. L ocalised t ransect s ampling, h owever, o f t he s ame h orizon i n t he s outh-west s ector o f t he e nclosure, h as p roduced u p t o 2 6 f lints p er m2 ( average l ocal d ensity 1 4.4 ), w hich w ould s uggest t hat t here i s m uch l ocal v ariation w ithin t he e nclosure. T he g eneral l ow f inds d ensity w ithin t he e nclosure i s a lso o f i nterest g iven t he f act t hat D avid H all h as a lso f ound a d ense N eolithic f lint s catter l ocated s ome 5 00 m n orth o f t he e nclosure. T his " site" h as y et t o b e f ormally i nvestigated, b ut i ts l ocation i s s imilar t o t hat a t A bingdon ( Bradley

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 29 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a nd H olgate, 1 984, 1 12, f ig. 8 ,3) a nd K edington ( Charge, 1 985, w here N eolithic a rtefact c oncentrations h ave b een f ound i mmediate v icinity o f c ausewayed e nclosures.

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O ne o f t he m ajor c hallenges c onfronting t he i nvestigations a t H addenham i s t o c ome t o t erms w ith t he s heer s cale o f t he e nclosure, a nd i n p roportion t o i ts s ize t he e xcavations a re s till a t a n e arly s tage. F or t hat r eason, a nd w ith C 14 r esults s till a waited , t he f ollowing a ccount m ust b e c onsidered v ery m uch a s a n i nterim s tatement. T he i nitial s eason o f e xcavation w as s mall a nd e xploratory i n n ature, a nd s ucceeded i n l ocating t he c ausewayed d itch o n t he n orth s ide o f t he e nclosure ( Fig. 7 .1). T he f irst s eason a lso d emonstrated t hat e arly f eatures c ould n ot b e r ecognised i n t he u pper b uried s oil, a nd i f e xcavations w ere t o b e u ndertaken o n a n a ppropriate s cale, t his h orizon c ould o nly b e i ntensively s ampled a nd t hen m achine s tripped. I n 1 982 am uch l arger a rea w as o pened o n t he e astern s ide o f t he e nclosure a nd 4 2 m o f t he d itch ( three s egments) a nd t he a djacent l ength o f p alisade w ere e xcavated. T he 1 984 e xcavations w ere c onducted i n t he s outh-west s ector o f t he e nclosure w here 5 2 m o f t he d itch c ircuit w as e xposed a nd f ive s egments e xcavated. A b asic s equence o f r ecutting o f t he d itch w as e stablished d uring t he 1 984 s eason, t hough t his m ust r emain v ery t entative g iven t he l ocälised n ature o f t he r ecutting. C ertainly a t H addenham w e a re n ot w itnessing t he i ntense p attern o f r ecutting r ight a cross t he s ite w hich w as a pparently e vident a t t he B riar H ill e nclosure ( Bamford, 1 985). I n t he p rimary p hase o f c onstruction a t H addenham a " string" o f s ub-circular p its w as f irst d ug a nd t hen a fter a b rief i nterval ( a y ear?) l aterally e xpanded t o g ive a m ore o void s hape ( Figs. 7 .2C; 3 ). I t i s r elevant t hat t he s pacing o f t he f irst p hase p its w as r elatively i rregular, a nd i t i s o nly i n t he s ubsequent p hase o f l ateral q uarrying t hat a " standardised" c auseway w idth o f 2- 3m w as e stablished ( Fig. 7 .3). T he i mportance o f t his d iscovery i s t o s uggest t hat s ome a spects o f t he e nclosure p lanning/layout ( such a s c auseway i nterval) w ere n ot c onceived i n t he i nitial s tages, b ut e merged l ater i n i ts c onstruction/maintenance. I t c an a lso b e t entatively a rgued t hat t he c onstruction o f t he p alisade d ates f rom t his s econd p hase i nsofar a s i t r eflects t he p osition o f e ntrance c auseways ( see b elow ) w hich w ere n ot t hemselves a pparent i n t he p rimary p hase. A fter t his s econd p hase t here w as l ocalised r ecutting a ctivity , w hich w as f ollowed b y am ajor e pisode o f l inear r ecutting ( period I I) w hich e liminated s ome c auseways a ltogether t o c reate a m ore t rench l ike p attern, a nd w hich e ncroached u pon w hat w ere f ormerly m ajor e ntrance w ays. T hese p rimary p hases o f c onstruction m ust r epresent a f airly s hort p eriod o f a ctivity i nasmuch a s t he p alisade w as s till s tanding d uring t his p hase o f l inear r ecutting. T he p ottery a sociated w ith t hese e arly p hases a re p lain M ildenhall b owls ( Clark, 1 960, 2 28 f f.), a nd t his i s i n c ontrast t o E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham , w here s ome q uantities o f d ecorated M ildenhall w are h ave b een r ecovered ( Pryor, t his v olume; K innes, p ers. c omm.). T he p alisade t rench i s l ocated c oncentrically b ehind t he d itch c ircuit, a nd w hile i n t he 1 982 e xcavations i t l ay s ome 1 .5 m f rom t he d itch l ine, i n t he 1 984 s ub-site i t w as f ound 8 .5 11.0 i n b ack f rom t he d itches ( Fig. 7 .2b ). I t i s a v ery s ubstantial f eature a nd c onsists o f a c ontinuous, v ertical-sided, d eep U -shaped s lot, w hich o n

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and 1 3Ii. 0 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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a verage i s 0 .45 - 0 .6 m w ide a nd 0 .75 m d eep. I t a ppears t o h ave b een d ug i n s eparate s traight l engths e ach o f 3 - 4m , w ith b reaks i n t he a lignment p ositioned s o a s t o c onform t o t he c urvature o f t he d itchl ine. W here p ost-pipes h ave b een f ound i n t he g ravel p acking f ills o f t he p alisade t rench t hey h ave b een c . 0 .3 m i n d iameter a nd s paced 0 .35 a nd 0 .40 m a part; b ut n o s urviving t imber h as b een r ecovered. T hough t he p alisade t rench i s c ontinuous, m inor " interruptions" o f 0 .2 m a nd u p t o 0 .7 m h ave b een f ound o n b oth s ub-sites. W hile i n b oth i nstances t hese d istinct b reaks c orrespond r oughly t o d itch c auseways t hey s eem u nlikely t o h ave h ad a n o bvious f unctional p urpose ( i.e. a s m inor e ntrances) a nd i nstead c ould s uggest a d isjuncture i n t he o rganisation o f l abour/planning. W hile C 14 r esults a re a waited i t i s o bviously i mpossible t o s tate w ith c ertainty w hether t he p alisade i s d irectly c ontemporary w ith t he d igging o f t he d itch i tself. N evertheless, t he l ack o f f inds f rom i ts f ill a nd i ts r elationship t o t he d itch s equence w ould a rgue f or i ts p rimary s tatus. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o r ecognise a ny d ifferences i n t he l eached, r edeposited n atural p acking f ill o f t he p alisade t rench. G iven t his f act, t herefore, t he s uggestion t hat t he p alisade p re-dates t he p hase o f l inear/ditch r ecutting ( period I I), b ased o n t he p ossible i nfilling o f p art o f i ts l ength ( see b elow ), m ust b e c onsidered w ith c aution. F or i t i s c onceivable t hat t he p alisade i s a ctually c ontemporary w ith t his r ecutting p hase, a nd t he t wo m odifications t ogether w ould t hen r epresent a m ajor a lteration t o t he c haracter o f t he " primary" e nclosure, s hutting o ff t he i nterior m ore e ffectively t han p reviously. T here h as b een n o e vidence t hus f ar a t H addenham w hich w ould s uggest t he e xistence o f a b ank. C ertainly t he v arying d istance b etween t he p alisade a nd d itch l ine w ould m ake i t d ifficult t o a dmit o f a b ank i f t he t wo f unctioned t ogether. I f, o n t he o ther h and, t he p alisade i s c onsidered a s t he f ront r evetment o f a b ank, t he b erm o f u p t o 1 1 m b etween d itch a nd p alisade w ould s eem i mprobably w ide, a n u nlikely d istance t o c arry d itch s poil t o c onstruct a b ank. A lternati vely , i f t he p alisade s erved a s a r ear r evetment t hen t he m inimum a pproach o f p alisade t rench a nd d itch ( 1.5 m ) w ould n ot l eave e nough r oom f or a b ank. I t i s p ossible, i n f act, t hat t here w as n o f ormal b ank, p erhaps b ecause o f t he u nstable n ature o f t he g ravel s ub-soil. T he p alisade m ay h ave s erved i nstead a s a b arrier c omplementing t he d itch a nd b locking c auseways n ot i ntended a s e ntrances. I f t his w as t he c ase, t hen t he d itch u pcast c ould s imply h ave b een h orizontally s pread o r u tilised f or s urface p aving o r a s m ake-up d eposits. I t i s i mportant t o b ear i n m ind t hat a t m ost l ow-lying c ausewayed e nclosures t he e vidence f or b ank c onstruction i s s peculative; a nd v ery o ften t he e vidence o f b ank s lippage i n d itch s ections i s n ot u nequivocal. T here a re, f urthermore, e xcavated e nclosures w here t here i s s trong p ositive e vidence a gainst t he p resence o f a b ank, s uch a s t he e xceptionally w ell-preserved s ite a t E tton, w here t he b ank h as b een f ound t o b e a n e xtremely l ocalised p henomenon a nd a ppears t o h ave f unctioned m ore a s a p latform ( Pryor, t his v olume). S imilarly , i n t he t wo-phased, d ouble-ditched e nclosure e xcavated a t S arup o n F unen c ontemporary s tructural f eatures w ere f ound b etween a nd b ehind t he d itch s ystems,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 33 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a nd t heir r elative l ocation w ould c ertainly a rgue a gainst t he e xistence o f a n i nternal b ank ( Andersen, 1 960, f ig. 6 a nd 8 ; a nd t his v olume). I n b oth s ub-sites a t H addenham t here h as b een e vidence t o s uggest t he e xistence o f " formal" e ntrance w ays, i nsomuch a s m ajor b reaks i n t he p alisade t rench i n b oth i nstances c orrespond w ith s ubstantially w ider t han n ormal d itch c auseways. T here a re n o m eans a s y et b y w hich t he s pacing a nd n umber o f e ntrances m ay b e d etermined, b ut t he f act t hat o ne h as b een f ound i n b oth s easons o f e xcavation s uggests t hat t hey a re n ot u ncommon. I f e ntrances a re t his f requent a nd, l ike t he t wo e xcavated, t hey l acked g ate s tructures, t his w ould s uggest t hat t he p alisade d id n ot s erve a d efensive f unction. T he l ocation o f f ormal e ntrance w ays h as b een s uggested a t o ther c ausewayed e nclosures o n t he b asis o f r elative w idth o f c auseways a nd t he r elationship o f t heir f lanking d itches. I n h er a nalysis o f W indmill H ill, I .F. S mith ( 1965, 5 ) t hought s uch a n e ntrance c ould h ave b een l ocated a long t he n orth-western s ide o f t he i nnermost d itch c ircuit, b etween d itches X VI a nd V II ( Smith, i bid ., f ig. 5 b ), t he l atter y ielding t he g reatest c oncentration o f W indmill H ill w ares f rom t he s ite. S imilarly , i n t he r ecent e xcavations a t t he B riar H ill e nclosure a t l east t wo e ntrances, 6 0 m a part, w ere f ound i n t he o uter d ouble-ditch c ircuit, w hile a n e ntrance t hrough t he i nnermost e nclosure h ad b een m arked w ith t wo u pright p ost s ettings ( Bamford, 1 985, 7 ). I n t he a rea o f t he 1 984 e xcavations a t H addenham ( Fig. 7 .2) t he e xistence o f s uch a n e ntrance w ay c an b e a rgued f rom t he f act t hat a 3 .5 m g ap w as f ound i n t he o therwise c ontinuous p alisade l ine ,facing o n t o a 6 .5 m w ide d itch c auseway. I n p eriod I I t his g ap i n t he p alisade w as f illed a nd t he c auseway e ncroached u pon t o r educe i t t o t he s tandard w idth o f 2 .9 m , t hus r emoving t his p articular e ntrance. F urther e vidence t hat a ctivity h ad f ocussed o n t his g ap f or a w hile c omes f rom t he d itch s egments w hich f lank t his e ntrance c auseway. B oth h ad a n e xtraordinary s equence o f r e-cutting a nd e vidence o f i n s itu d eposition q uite d ifferent f rom t he n ormal p attern. T he s egment t o t he s outh ( Fig. 7 .2, D itch D ) h ad o riginally b een d ug s o a s t o l eave a n u pstanding r idge i n t he g ravel n atural u pon w hich w ere d eposited u pcast g ravels s o a s t o f orm a l ow g ravel m ound 0 .85m h igh ( Fig. 7 .4). T he b utt e nd o f a b roken g roup V I p olished a xe h ad b een s et i n t he c rown o f t his m ound a nd h uman s kull f ragments ( 2 o r 3 i ndividuals) d eposited a t i ts b ase. S ubsequently t he n orthern b utt e nd o f t his d itch ( entrance s ide) h ad b een r ecut i n a s uccession o f u s haped t roughs ( in p lan ), d emonstrating t hat t his c auseway k ept i ts i mportance o ver s ome t ime. I n t he b ase o f t he d itch w hich f lanked t he n orth s ide o f t his c rossing ( Fig. 7 .2, D itch 6 ) w as f ound a0 .7 m t hick p latform o f c ompacted, r edeposited p eriglacial s hell m arl ( possibly q uarried f rom D itch C ) w hich h ad b een p acked a round e ight o r m ore v ertical p osts c . 0 .2 - 0 .4 m i n d iameter. S corched d eposits a nd b one w ere f ound o n t he s urface o f t his p latform , w hich l ay s ome 0 .5 m b elow t he t op o f t he d itch ( Fig. 7 .4). U ntil f urther e xcavation i s u ndertaken i t w ould b e r ash t o s peculate a t l ength o n t he f unction o f t hese " ditch-works". T here i s n o e scaping t he o bservation, h owever, t hat t he g ravel m ound i n t he s outhern d itch s egment r esembles, a t l east s uperficially , am iniature

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I1 and 3 4Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 35 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

b arrow. T hough n o s keletal m aterial r emains w ere f ound w ithin i ts c ore, t he p osition o f t he a xe a nd t he h uman s kull f ragments p laced a t i ts b ase s uggest s ome e cho o f m ortuary p ractice. P arallels f or d itch s tructures o f t his n ature a re f ew. I t m ay b e r elevant, h owever, t hat L eeds i n t he f irst s eason o f e xcavation a t t he A bingdon e nclosure, w hen h e s till t hought h e w as e xcavating a s ettlem ent s ite o f " hut-holes", r eported f inding a s unken " bolster-shaped" g ravel m ound ( Leeds, 1 927, 4 43, 1 3). T his f eature m easured 6 x 3 f t a nd s tood 1 f t a bove c ontemporary " occupation" d eposits. T his m ound w as a ligned d own t he c entre o f t he " trench" ( ditch ), a nd i ts n orth s ide w as f lanked b y a n arrow g ulley ( ibid ., f ig. 2 , 4 b ). A ccepting t he p remise t hat p rehistoric h ouses w ere t hen t hought t o b e s emis ubterranean ( Evans, t his v olume), i t i s n ot s urprising t hat L eeds i nterpreted t his f eature a s a " party w all". W hile h is d escription o f t his f eature s uggests i t m ay h ave h ad s ome s imilarities w ith t he m ound e xcavated i n t he H addenham d itch, t he e xcavation s tandards o f L eeds' d ay m ake i t r isky t o m ake t oo m uch o f ar eference s uch a s t his. T he f act t hat a " hearth" w as a pparently s ealed b y t his m ound w ould a t l east i ndicate t hat L eeds w as n ot e xcavating a n atural f eature. I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat h uman c ranial f ragments w ere f ound i n t he i nner d itch c ircuit a t A bingdon ( Leeds, 1 928, 4 76). W hile f urther i nvestigation i s r equired o f t he t imber s tructure a nd m arl p latform i n t he n orthern f lanking d itch ( E ) a t H addenham b efore d efinite c onclusions c an b e d rawn, i t c an a lready b e s tated t hat t he t imber s tructure a ppears t o b e o rientated a long t he l ength o f t he d itch a nd i s n ot c onfined t o i ts b utt-end. T his w ould s uggest t hat i t i s n ot r elated t o a g ate o r t ower c onstruction, a nd t hat t he s earch f or g eneral p arallels s hould t urn t o t imber m ortuary s tructures b eneath N eolithic b arrows ( Gibson, 1 985, f ig. 5 ). I n t his c ontext i t s hould b e m entioned t hat r ecent t rial e xcavations o n a " long b arrow" s ituated a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he H addenham-Over b arrow f ield ( 3 k m n orth o f t he c ausewayed e nclosure ) h as c onfirmed i ts N eolithic d ate. E ven t hough t he s cale o f e xcavation h as b een s o l imited, t here i s, n evertheless, a lready d efinite e vidence o f m ortuary a ctivities w ithin t he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure. T his f act, a nd t he p attern o f a ctivity w ithin t he d itches, m akes i t c lear t hat w e c annot h ope t o u nderstand t he n ature o f e nclosures l ike H addenham i f w e c ontinue t o r egard t he c ausewayed d itches a s n o m ore t han a d istinctive f orm o f q uarrying t o p rovide m aterial f or t he c onstruction o f e lusive b ank s ystems. D uring t he 1 984 e xcavations a t H addenham a l ate s equence o f m inor r ecutting w as f ound i n t he t hree n orthernmost d itch s egments ( C F ) i nvolving t he d igging o f s hallow o void p its ( 0.6 m d eep ) i nto t he s econdary f ills. T hese f eatures w ere d efinitely c ut i nto t he u pper f ills o f t he d itches; t here i s n o q uestion o f t hem b eing s ubsidence f eatures, a s t hey w ere a lso f ramed b y s hallow p ost-holes s et a round t heir e dges. T he p rimary f ill o f t hese l ate f eatures c onsisted o f r ed eposited s corched s ilts, i ncorporating q uantities o f h ighly d ecorated e arly P eterborough p ottery ( Ebbsfleet/Mortlake). H addenham , t heref ore, i s t he f irst c ausewayed e nclosure w here P eterborough w ares h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith a s tructural p hase, a nd n ot m erely a ccumulating i n l ate w eathering f ills.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 36 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C ontemporary w ith t his a ctivity , t he e vidence s uggests t hat a n a djacent l ength o f t he p alisade w as r eset w ith p osts 0 .6 - 1 .0 m a part w hich, a pparently , w ere l ater b urnt. T his f inal p hase o f a ctivity i s e specially i nteresting a s i ts p attern o f d itch-side p osts a nd f encel ines i s s imilar t o t he f eatures c haracterising t he s econd p hase o f t he S arup e nclosure ( Andersen, 1 980, f ig. 8 , 2 1). T hough t his a ctivity i s a pparently l ocalised a t H addenham , i t w as f ound i n t hree c onsecutive d itch s egments c ontemporary w ith t he s econdary u se o f t he p alisade l ine. T he e vidence o verall f rom t his l ate p hase s uggests a r edefinition o f a t l east p art o f t he e nclosure c ircuit. I n t his r egard i t m ay b e r elevant t hat t he s outhern l imit o f t his a ctivity c orresponded w ith a m ajor c hange i n s ub-soils f rom g ravels t o i nterbedded f luvio-glacial d eposits ( clay , s and a nd m arl) w hich c ould h ave b een e vident i n d ifferential g round-water d rainage. I t i s d ifficult t o s ay w ith c ertainty h ow l ong t he c ausewayed e nclosure r emained a n e arthwork a nd i nfluenced l andscape o rganisation o n t he U pper D elphs. T he p roximity o f a B ronze A ge r ound b arrow 1 50 m s outh-west o f t he e nclosure a nd a pproximately 1 k m e ast o f t he m ain b arrow c emetery c ould s uggest t hat i t w as s ituated i n r elationship t o t he f ormer e nclosure. O n t he o ther h and, t he f act t hat t he 1 982 e xcavation r evealed t hat o ne s ide o f a n I ron A ge/early R oman e nclosure w as i .e cut a long t he N eolithic d itch l ine c ould b e c oincidental. A erial p hotographs i ndicate t hat t he i nterior o f t he N eolithic e nclosure i s c rossed b y . l ater p rehistoric(?) f ield-systems, b ut i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat n one o f t he l ater " domestic" e nclosures w hich d ot t he i sland a re a ctually l ocated w ithin t he i nterior o f t he c ausewayed e nclosure ( Fig. 7 .1 ), s uggesting p erhaps, i ts l ingering i nfluence i n t he l andscape ( Evans, 1 985b ).

T opographic " Planning" a nd R egional T ypology T hough a s y et o nly p reliminary s tatements a bout t he g eneral c haracter o f t he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure c an b e m ade, w e c an s tate, n evertheless, t hat t here a ppears t o b e am arked d ifference b etween t he t wo m ajor a reas o f t he e nclosure t hus f ar e xcavated. T here i s m uch m ore e vidence o f s equential r ecutting a nd i n s itu d eposition, a s w ell a s ah igher g eneral f inds d ensity i n t he w estern s ector a s o pposed t o t he e ast. W ith t his i n m ind i t i s p ossible t o r econsider t he p lan o f t he e nclosure a nd r ather t han s ee i t a s a n i rregular c ircle o r o void f orm , i nstead c onsider i t a s ap lanned o r o rientated c onstruct, i ts a pparent i rregularity c aused b y t he f act t hat i ts w estern s ide i s s traight f or a d istance o f a pproximately 2 25 m . M idway a long t his w estern s ide a erial p hotographs i ndicate t hat t here i s am ajor c auseway c . 1 5 m w ide f lanked b y d itches w hich a ppear t o i nturn. T his c ould s uggest t he e xistence o f a m ajor f ormal e ntrance w ay. T hese o bservations m ake i t p ossible t o s peculate t hat t he s traight s ide o f t he e nclosure i s p resented t owards t he f ormer c hannel o f t he R iver O use f orming, e ssentially , a f acade f rom w hich t he r est o f t he p erimeter c urves o ff t o d escribe a s ub-circle. T his p roposal o f f acade p lanning i s s ort o f g eometric d esign s uch a s h as b een B riar H ill e nclosure ( in B amford, 1 985, i nstead m ore i n t he m anner i n w hich S mith t hat t here w as a n " aspect" o r o rientation Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 37 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

n ot t o i mply b elief i n t he p roposed b y C hapman f or t he 5 7; c f. E vans, 1 985a); b ut ( 1971, 9 2, t able 1 ) p roposed i nvolved i n t he l ayout o f

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s ome c ausewayed e nclosures. W hat i s i nteresting i s t hat t his p lanning p rinciple m ay b e m ore f ormally e xpressed i n s ome l ow-lying c ausewayed e nclosures t han t hose o n h igher g round. A pplication o f t his d esign p rinciple t o t he l atter m ay a ccount f or s ome o f t he " uncomfortable" p ositionings o f u pland e nclosures i n r elation t o t heir s ite c ontours. E ven a t W indmill H ill ( Fig. 7 .5, b ) t he m arked m anner i n w hich t he f lanking d itches i nturn i n r elationship t o t he p roposed e ntrance w ay o n t he n orth-western s ide o f t he i nnermost e nclosure c ould s uggest a n i ntentional f lattening o f t he c ircuit t o p roduce, e ffectively, a " front" o r f acade. I t m ay b e r elevant t hat t his d esign p rinciple i s a lso f ound i n t he s tone a nd t imber f acades o f c ontemporary m ortuary e nclosures. F or e xample, t he p lan o f t he p rimary p hases o f t he r ecently e xcavated G rendon b arrow i s e ssentially v ery s imilar, t hough a t am uch r educed s cale, t o t hat a t t he H addenham e nclosure ( Fig. 7 .5, b ; G ibson, 1 985). T his a pparent s imilarity i n e nclosure p lanning d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply a d irect r elationship, n or f or t hat m atter g reat d esign s ophistication, b ut i ndicates t hat a f acade i s a n o bvious w ay o f o rientating a s ub-circular f orm , w hether b arrow m ound o r e nclosure p erimeter. T he d emonstration o f e merging s patial o rganisation a s t he H addenham e nclosure d eveloped ( Fig. 7 .3) i s e xtremely i mportant f or t he . concept o f e nclosure " design". W hile t hese e nclosures m ay h ave b een p lanned c onstructs, t his i s n ot t o s uggest t hat e ach v ariation i n a d itch c ircuit w as m athematically d etermined a nd g iven e lements/relationships w ithin t he e nclosure m ay h ave o nly b een c onceived o f o r r ealised t hrough t he s equence o f i ts c onstruction: a s tandardised c auseway i nterval, f ormal e ntrance w ays, a nd t he m anner i n w hich d itches/trenches e merge f rom p its ( Evans, 1 985a ). I n s ome r espects t he p lan o f t he H addenham e nclosure i s r eminiscent o f ap romontory o r r iver m eander s ituation ( like E tton o r K edington ), i nsofar a s a s imilar s patial c onfiguration i s c reated i n t he l ayout o f d itch c ircuits i n r elationship t o t opographic e lements ( river/contour) - a s ub-circular a rc i s t runcated o r b ridged b y a r oughly s traight " front". H edges a nd B uckley h ave s imilarly s peculated t hat t he d itch c ircuits o f s ome c ausewayed e nclosures, f or e xample O rsett a nd p ossibly C ardington, m ay h ave b een p lanned s o a s t o b e i ncomplete o r p artially o pen, a nd t hat t his m ay o ccur i n r elations hip t o r elatively s ubtle c ontour c hanges ( 1978, 2 48). I n t heir a rgument t hey c ite t he p ossible a ffinities o f t he l ater N eolithic " Cs haped" e nclosure e xcavated a t B roome H eath ( Wainwright, 1 972, f ig. 3 ) w ith t he p roposed o pen-plans o f e arlier c ausewayed e nclosures. T hese p lanning p rinciples a re n ot o pposed t o t he e vidence t hat c ausewayed e nclosures m ay h ave h ad m ultiple e ntrance w ays, b ut r ather t o t he c oncept t hat t hey w ere a morphous o r u nfocussed r adial c ircles w hich w ere e qually a ccessible t o t he i nflux o f c ommunities f rom a ll d irections, a s i f a long t he s pokes o f aw heel. I nstead t he p lan a nd s iting o f a n umber o f e nclosures s uggests t hat t hey w ere l aid o ut s o a s t o b e o rientated i n r elationship t o t opographic a ccess a nd p resumably t heir ' cultural g eography '. T he H addenham c ausewayed e nclosure i s t he l argest s ingle-ditched e nclosure k nown i n t his c ountry. I n i ts r egional c ontext i ts s ize i s o nly c omparable w ith t hat o f m ore c omplex m ultiple d itch e nclosures a t F reston a nd F ornham A ll S aints i n S uffolk, a nd p ossibly w ith t he C ardington, B eds., e nclosure t o j udge f rom t he k nown l imits o f i ts

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I 1 and 39Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

c ircuit. W hile t he r iver v alley l ocation o f t he H addenham s ite i s c haracteristic o f t he r egional g roup o f c ausewayed e nclosures, m orphologically i ts s ingle d itch c ircuit c ontrasts w ith t he m ultiple c lose-spaced d itches t hat h ave b een p roposed a s t he m ajor c haracteristic o f t he E astern a nd M idlands e nclosure g roup ( Wilson , 1 975, 1 84; P almer, 1 976, 1 76). P almer, f urthermore, h as s uggested t hat c ausewayed e nclosures m ay h ave d eveloped f rom s ingle t o m ultir ing p lans a nd m ay , t herefore, h ave s pread f rom t he s outh t o t he p eripheries o f t heir d istribution w here l ocal ( i.e. c losely-spaced m ulti-ring ) t ypes d eveloped i n r esponse t o d ifferent e nvironmental c onditions ( Palmer, 1 976, 1 70-1). W hile P almer's r egional c lassification s cheme h as b een c riticised ( Bradley a nd H odder, 1 979), B radley h as r ecently c ompared t he d istribution o f P almer's e nclosure g roups w ith t he m ajor s tyle z ones o f c ontemporary p ottery. B ased o n t his c orrspondence, ( Bradley , 1 984, 3 4 ).

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P almer's a nalysis c ould d raw o n r elatively f ew C 14 d ates, a nd w as s ubject t o t hat b ias o f a erial p hotography w hich m akes c omplex e nclosure t ypes m ore v isible t han s imple s ites. I t i s u nderstandable, t herefore, t hat h e s hould h ave p roposed s uch a u nilineal t ypological d evelopment i n e nclosure p lans. T hough f or t he E astern a nd M idlands e nclogures w e s till h ave v ery f ew d ates, a nd t hose t hat a re a vailable m ust b e t reated w ith c aution ( Kinnes a nd T horpe, n .d.; c f. B amford, 1 985), n evertheless t here i s s ufficient n ew e vidence t o w arrant r econsideration o f P almer's r egional c lassification. T he d iscovery o f s ingle d itch e nclosures a t R oughton, N orfolk ( Edwards, 1 978, 9 3-4), K edington, S uffolk ( Change, 1 982; 1 985), E tton, C ambs. ( Pryor, 1 983, a nd t his v olume); D allington, N orthants. ( Bamford, 1 985, 5 ), a nd H addenham , t ogether w ith " possibles" s uch a s t he " uncharacteristic" s ite a t M elbourn, C ambs. ( Palmer, 1 976, C orpus N o. 3 9) a nd t hat a t H ainford, N orfolk ( Healy , 1 984, 8 4 ), i ndicates t hat s ingle d itch c iruits a re n ot e xclusive t o t he s outh. T he a dditional f act t hat s ome m ulti-circuit e nclosures m ay h ave b een s equential c onstructions w hich b egan a s s ingle p erimeter s ites ( see b elow ) w ould a lso t hrow d oubt o n P almer's r egional c hronological s equence. N evertheless, w hile c ausewayed e nclosures i n t he M idlands a nd E astern E ngland m ay h ave g reater " typological" v ariation t han w as o riginally t hought, c losely-spaced m ultiple d itch e nclosures m ay s till p rove t o b e c haracteristic o f t his r egion. M oreover, t he f act t hat t he O rsett ( Hedges a nd B uckley , 1 978), R oughton ( Edwards, o p . c it.), M elbourn ( Palmer, o p . c it .) a nd H addenham e nclosures a ll h ave i nternally c oncentric p alisades ( Fig. 7 .5, a ) c ould s uggest t hat t his a lso w as a d istinctly e astern t rait. A g reater o bjection m ust b e t o P almer's p roposal o f a s outh t o e ast c hronological d evelopment. F or b oth c losely-spaced c oncentric d itches a nd p alisades a re a ttributes w hich t he e astern c ausewayed e nclosures s hare w ith m any C ontinental s ites ( Whittle, 1 977a; 1 977b , a nd s ee o ther p apers i n t he p resent v olume). I nstead, t he e vidence c urrently a vailable s uggests i t i s t he w idely-spaced c oncentric r ing e nclosures w hich a re a B ritish p henomenon ( Evans, 1 985a ). T his i s n ot t o i mply t hat P almer's c hronological p roposals b e r eversed, b ut r ather t hat a b roader s pectrum o f s ound d ating e vidence i s r equired b efore w e p ropose a r egional c hronological d evelopment. I f t he f requently d ouble-ditched a nd p alisaded e nclosures o f

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 40 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C ontinental M iddle N eolithic c ultures ( Michelsberg, F unnel-NeckedB eaker) h ave t heir r oots i n t he t radition o f d itch a nd p alisade s ystems o f l ate L inear p ottery c ulture ( Whittle, o p . c it .) t hen w e c annot a ssume t hat t he p resence o f a p alisade i s n ecessarily a l ate f eature. F urthermore, b efore w e d esignate m ulti-ring e nclosures ( with t hree o r m ore d itch l ines) a s a r egional ( Palmer, 1 976) o r a " native" E nglish d evelopment ( Whittle, 1 977a, 3 36-7; H edges a nd B uckley , 1 978, 2 50), g reater a ttention n eeds t o b e g iven t o t he i nternal p hasing o f c oncentric r ing e nclosures, e specially t hose w ith b oth w idely-spaced a nd c losely-spaced d itches. A s i t i s, a ny t ypological c lassification b ased o n t he n umber o f d itches a lone, a ssuming a " logic o f e nclosure" a nalogous w ith t he g rowth o f t ree-rings, r isks c onfusion w ith w hat m ight b e n o m ore t han t he p roduct o f m ultiple p eriod c onstruction. I f, f or e xample, t he i nnermost d itch c ircuits a t t he B riar H ill a nd O rsett e nclosures p re-dated t he o uter d ouble-ditch s ystem , t hen f ar f rom b eing t ypical o f a n " insular" c lass o f e nclosure, i n e ach o f t heir t wo p hases t hese s ites w ould h ave c onformed t o a C ontinental p attern. A B ritish t radition m ight b e c haracterised r ather b y c ontinuity o f l ocation a nd a t radition o f d itch m aintenance, l eading a t m any s ites t o m ultiple c ircuits. B ut t hese w ould n ot h ave b een t he p roducts o f a d istinctive i nsular e nclosure " style" a s s uch. T he p hysical d emarcation o f l andscape b y e nclosure o bviously r eflects a p rofound " world-view" c hange i n h ow n ature w as p erceived b y N eolithic c ommunities. I n c onsidering c ausewayed e nclosures w e m ust b ear i n m ind t heir s tatus a s a p rimary f orm o f l andscape e nclosure i n B ritish p rehistory . B efore w e g enerate p lan t ypologies w e m ust r ecognise t hat t he f unction o r " logic" o f e nclosure m ay n ot h ave b een c onstant t hroughout p rehistory; t he c oncept o f " enclosure", j ust a s t he " design" o r p lanning o f i ndividual e nclosures, m ay h ave e volved w ith t ime. C ertainly , g iven t he f act t hat c ausewayed e nclosures a re n ow k nown t o b e s uch a w idespread p henomenon i n n orth-western E urope, t here i s n o l onger r eason t o a ssume t hat t heir B ritish o rigins l ie i n t he s outh-west. C onsidering t he e xtent t o w hich t he H addenham e nclosure c onfounds w hat w as e xpected o f E astern e nclosure f orms, i t i s w orth r emembering W hittle's ( 1977b , 2 26) p rediction t hat e arlier e nclosure t ypes, p ossibly w ith f ewer d itch i nterruptions, m ight o ne d ay b e f ound i n t he M idlands a nd i n E ast A nglia. T hough t he r elevant d ating e vidence i s s till l acking, i t s hould b e n oted t hat i t h as b een p recisely t he l ess c omplex s ingle-circuit e nclosures w hich h ave b een r ecognised i n t he m ore r ecent, p ost-mid-1970s, a erial p hotographic c overage o f t he e astern r egion ( see A ppendix ). I t i s t he r ate a t w hich t hese s upposedly " uncharacteristic" e nclosure t ypes a re c oming t o l ight w hich d emands r e-assessment o f p ublished r egional, t ypologically-based , c hronologies.

E nclosure C hronology a nd R egional C haracter T hus f ar t he q uestion o f t he f unction o f t he H addenham e nclosure h as b een i ntentionally a voided. T his c aution i s p artly d ue t o t he r elatively l imited s cale o f t he e xcavations, b ut i s a lso a r eaction t o s uch f unctional p igeon-holes a s " ritual" a nd " domestic" t hat a rchaeologists h ave b een c ompelled t o w ork w ith. P erhaps t he m ost c oncrete w ay o f t rying t o d eal w ith t his i ssue g iven t he c urrent s tate o f r esearch, i s t o c ompare H addenham w ith n eighbouring f en-edge c ausewayed e nclosures: E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham ( Fig. 7 .6).

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 41 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 42 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

( after P almer ,

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P reviously t hese " fen-edge" s ites h ave b een c onsidered e n m asse i nasmuch a s a s imilarity o f f unction h as b een a ssumed a nd t he i nfluence o f t heir s hared e nvironmental f actors s tressed ( Pryor, 1 982, 1 30-1). Y et n ot o nly d oes t he H addenham e nclosure c over m ore t han t hree t imes t he a rea o f t he o ther t wo ( c. 2 .5 h a e ach ), b ut t he d epth a nd w idth o f i ts d itches i s c orrespondingly g reater. O ne q uestion w hich m ust b e a ddressed i s w hether t his m arked d isparity i n s ize r eflects l ocal i nequalities i n e nvironmental r esources, a nd t hus i n t he s ize o f c ommunities a vailable t o p articipate i n t he c onstruction o f e nclosures. ( Such a n a rgument w ould, o f c ourse, a ssume a d irect r elationship b etween p opulation a nd e nclosure s ize.) G iven t he f act t hat t hese t hree e nclosures h ave a v ery s imilar e nvironmental s etting, u nequal p opulations w ould s eem a d oubtful e xplanation. A lternatively , t he o bvious d ifferences b etween t hese e nclosures c ould b e t he r esult o f v ariations i n t heir s ocial f unction. I n t his c ontext i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat d ecorated M ildenhall w ares h ave b een r ecovered f rom b oth E tton ( Pryor, t his v olume) a nd G reat W ilbraham ( Kinnes, p ers. c omm.), b ut n ot a t H addenham; a nd f urthermore, t hat t he h igh f inds d ensity r eported f rom t he t wo s maller s ites c ontrasts w ith t he r elative s parsity o f f inds a t H addenham. B ut j ust a s t here a re o bvious s imilarities b etween t he E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham e nclosures, s o t here a re o bvious d ifferences, s uch a s t he n umber o f d itches, t he f requency o f c auseways, a nd t he h eight a nd p ositioning o f t he t wo i n r elation t o t he f en a nd f lood-plains. N evertheless, t heir s hared s ize a nd g eneral s imilarities o f m aterial c ulture ( pottery t ype a nd r elative a rtefact d ensity ) s uggests t hat t hey f ulfilled a s ocial f unction w hich d iffered f rom t hat o f t he H addenham e nclosure. R elevant t o t his q uestion i s t he p ossibility t hat E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham r epresented a b asic s ocial u nit, w hich m ay h ave a ssembled o nly s easonally a t t hese e nclosures ( Pryor, i bid ., 1 31). T he a rea o f b oth o f t hese e nclosures i s c omparable w ith t hat o f t he o uter d oubled itch s ystems a t O rsett ( 2.7 h a ) a nd B riar H ill ( 3.15 h a ), w hich, i t h as b een a rgued, c ould h ave b een s econdary c onstructions ( see a bove); w hereas t he m arkedly s maller, a nd p ossibly p rimary , s ingle i nner d itch r ings o f t hese t wo s ites ( 0.79 a nd 0 .71 h a r espectively ) a re c omparable w ith t he s mall s ingle-circuit e nclosures a t K edington ( 0.66 h a ), R oughton ( 1.22 h a ), a nd t he m ore d ubious e nclosures a t H ainford ( 1.13 h a ) a nd M elbourn ( 0.95 h a ). U sing t he f igures g iven i n P almer's C orpus ( 1976) w e c an s ee t hat t he m ajority o f c ausewayed e nclosures i n t he M idlands a nd E astern E ngland h ave a reas o f b etween 2 - 4 .15 h a, a nd i t i s t o t his s ize g roup t hat E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham b elong. W hether t he s mall s ingle-circuit e nclosures w ere a ctually a ncestral t o t hese p redominantly m ulti-circuit e nclosures i s i mpossible t o s ay a t t his t ime, e specially g iven t he f act t hat t he s mall e nclosures a t R oughton a nd M elbourn a pparently h ave p alisades w hose r elationships t o d itches a re u nknown. F urthermore, g iven t he s ize-range o f t he s inglec ircuit e nclosures ( 0.66 h a a t K edington t o 8 .5 h a a t H addenham ) a nd t he f act t hat t he e nclosures a t E tton, D allington, a nd H addenham a re l arger t han t he s mall s ingle-circuit e nclosures m entioned a bove, t here i s c learly n o a bsolute c orrespondence b etween n umber o f d itches a nd e nclosure a rea. I n s pite o f t hese c omplications i t i s p ossible, n evertheless, t o d istinguish a verage-size a nd a bove a verage-size e nclosures. I f E tton a nd G reat W ilbraham a re r epresentative o f t he f ormer a nd o f ab asic s ocial u nit, w e m ust t hen a sk w hat i s t he s tatus o f t he l arge Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 43 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

e nclosures s uch a s F reston a nd H addenham? H ave s pecific e conomic o r l ocational f actors, s uch a s e asy a ccess t o t rade n etworks c ontributed t o t heir d evelopment, d o t hey r epresent " higher" o r m ore b roadly-based s ocial c ollectives, o r d oes t his s ize v ariation r eflect d ifferences i n c hronological d evelopment o r s ize o f t he " basic" s ocial u nit? O ne o f t he p roblems i n a pproaching t hese i ssues r elates t o o ur c oncept o f s equence i nsofar a s a rchaeology o ften a ssociates t he d evelopment o f o ne " type" w ith t he a bandonment o f a nother. B ut w ithin t he c ontext o f l arge e arthwork e nclosures t his l ogic i s n ot n ecessarily a pplicable, f or t o ag reater o r l esser e xtent t hey l eave t heir m ark o n t he c ultural l andscape a nd c an, t herefore, b e r eo ccupied, r edefined, o r r e-invested. S imilarly , o ur t ypological/ e volutionary c oncepts m ay b e i nappropriate i n t hat w e c annot n ecessarily a ssume a r ational d evelopment ( e.g. s mallest t o g reatest) i n t he p rimary e nclosure o f l andscape ( Evans, 1 985b ). W ith t hese f actors i n m ind, t herefore, i t c an b e p rovisionally s uggested t hat t here c ould b e a c hronological d ifference b etween t hese e nclosures, w ith t he l ack o f d ecorated w ares a t H addenham i ndicating a s omewhat e arlier d ate t han G reat W ilbraham a nd p ossibly E tton ( see C lark , 1 960, 2 43). M oreover, t he r elative s parsity o f f inds f rom H addenham c ould r elate t o a d ifference i n t he f unctional c haracter o f t hese e nclo ures. C onversely , t he l ater ( Peterborough ) p hase o f a ctivity f ound a t H addenham h as n ot b een e ncountered a t t hese o ther e nclosures. W hile s uch " secondary" a ctivity c ould r esult d irectly f rom t he g reater s ize o f s uch s ites i n t hat t his m ight d etermine t he e xtent t o w hich t hey s urvived a s u pstanding m onuments, i t c ould a lso a ttest a v ariation i n t heir s ocial s tatus. T hough E tton i s c ertainly n ot a s ite d evoid o f r itual a ctivity , i ts s ymbolic m anifestation i s i ntegrated w ith t he p redominantly d omestic c haracter o f t he e nclosure ( Pryor, 1 983, 6 ; a lso t his v olume ). W hile a f ew p its a nd s ome p ossible p ost-holes h ave b een f ound w ithin t he i nterior o f t he H addenham e nclosure, t hus f ar t he e vidence w ould s uggest i t s erved a n on-domestic f unction : h uman s keletal r emains a nd " structures" i n t he d itches, p roximity t o N eolithic m ortuary m onuments a nd " patterned" s equential r ecutting. W hile a dmitting t o t he e thnocentric b ias o f a rchaeological i nterpretation, i n a ttempting t o f it H addenham i nto t he f unctional s pectrum b etween " ritual" a nd " domestic" o ne w ould h ave t o i ncline t owards t he f irst o f t hese p igeon-holes, a t l east a s r egards t he p rimary p hases o f t he s ite. I n t his w e f ace s omething o f a c ontradiction i n e xpectations, f or a t H addenham w e f ind, f or e xample, e vidence o f m ortuary a ctivity o f a k ind w hich h as c ome t o b e a ssociated w ith t he m ore " classic" c ausewayed e nclosures o f t he s outhw est; w hile a t t he s ame t ime t here a re d istinct ( apparently ) e astern t raits s uch a s t he p alisade. Y et t here i s n o c ontradiction i f w e a llow t o r egional e nclosure g roups t he p ossibility o f c hronological d evelopment a nd s ocial v ariation. A p roblem o nly a rises i f, i n a ttempting t o d evelop a n a rchaeological p erspective w hich i s n ot o bsessed w ith W essex , w e r esort t o a r egional e nvironmental d eterminism a t t he e xpense o f s ocial a nd c ultural f actors. W hat i n t his i nstance w e a re t rying t o u nderstand i s t he r egional e xpression o f a m uch w ider p henomenon o f e arly l andscape e nclosure a nd t he d evelopment o f s ettled c ommunities; a nd t o t his e nd a g reat d eal m ore e xcavation n eeds t o b e u ndertaken b efore w e c an s peak w ith c onfidence a bout t he c haracter o f t he N eolithic i n E astern E ngland.

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A cknowledgements T he H addenham P roject w ould l ike t o a cknowledge t he e xpert a dvice o f I . K innes ( pottery ), C . F rench ( soils), a nd C .B. D enston ( human b ones). I w ould s pecifically l ike t o t hank J ohn A lexander a nd I an K innes f or d iscussions a bout t he e xcavation o f G reat W ilbraham a nd f or m aking i ts p lans a vailable. I a m a lso e xtremely g rateful t o I an H odder, A lex G ibson, D avid H all, F rancis P ryor, M aisie T aylor, a nd M arie L ouise S tig S orensen f or d iscussions a nd i nformation r elevant t o t his p aper - w hose f aults r eflect o nly u pon i ts a uthor. I llustrations b y C .

E vans,

M .

S amuel,

a nd J .

C laydon.

A ppendix C ausewayed E nclosures R ecognised i n t he M idlands a nd E astern E ngland S ince t he P ublication o f P almer's C orpus ( 1976 ) 1 .

H ADDENHAM , C AMBS. ( TL p alisade; 8 .50 h a

4 17737 );

2 .

E TTON , C AMBS. ( TF 1 38073); ( Pryor, t his v olume)

3 .

R OUGHTON , N ORFOLK ( TG 2 20355); p alisade; 1 .22 h a ( Edwards,

4 .

H AINFORD , N ORFOLK ( TG 2 29183); 1 5 m 0 .D.; s ingle-circuit w ith c entral f eature; 1 ,13 h a; p ossible o nly ( Healy , 1 984)

5 .

K EDINGTON , S UFFOLK ( TL 7 01477); p romontory l ocation; 0 .66 h a

6 .

D ALLINGTON , N ORTHANTS. ( SP 7 25635); 1 00 m 0 .D.; s ingle(?)-circuit w ith " ring" d itch i n i nterior; 5 h a ( Bamford, 1 985)

7 .

W ESTERN G RANGE F ARM , s ingle-circuit; p ers. c omm.)

c .

2 .50 m

6

0 .D.;

m 0 .D.;

s ingle-circuit w ith

s ingle-circuit;

3 0 m 0 .D.; 1 978)

2 .50 h a

s ingle-circuit w ith

c . 6 0 m 0 .D.; s ingle-circuit, ( Charge, 1 982, 1 985)

D ERBYSHIRE ( SK 4 28285); c . 6 0 m 0 .D.; s mall e stimated 0 .35 h a ( unconfirmed ) ( A. G ibson,

T hough t his l ist a ims t o b e c omplete a t t he t ime o f w riting, g iven t he d ifficulties o f r ecognition a nd d etermination o f s ingle i nterrupted-ditch e nclosures i t c annot g uarantee t o b e s o. C ertainly s ome o f i ts e ntries m ust b e c onsidered w ith a m easure o f d oubt ( i.e. H ainford ), b ut e qually o ne w ould e xpect i t t o b e f requently u p-dated g iven t he c urrent r ate o f d iscovery. W hile a ccepting i ts i nterim n ature, i t s hould b e n oted t hat i f w e d o a dd t hese n ew s ites t o t hose i n P almer's c orpus, 3 5% o f t he k nown c ausewayed e nclosures i n t he M idlands a nd E astern E ngland a re n ow o f t he s ingle d itch c ircuit t ype.

1 45

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B ibliography A ndersen, N .H., 1 980. S arup. b aggrund, K UM , 6 3-103. B amford, n o.

H ., 3 .

1 985.

B radley , R ., 1 984. ( London ).

B efaestede n eolitiske a nlaeg o g d eres

B riar H ill = N orthampton A rchaeological M onograph ,

T he

B radley, R . a nd H odder, I ., v iew, M an , 1 4, 9 3-104.

S ocial F oundations o f P rehistoric B ritain ,

1 979.

B ritish p rehistory:

a n i ntegrated

B radley, R . a nd H olgate, R ., 1 984. T he N eolithic s equence i n t he U pper T hames v alley , i n B radley , R ., a nd G ardiner, J . ( eds), N eolithic S tudies: a R eview o f S ome C urrent R esearch = B ritish A rchaeological R eports , 1 33, 1 07-34. C harge, B ., 1 982. F ieldwork a t a N eolithic c ropmark s ite, H all F arm , K edington, S uffolk, H averhill a nd D istrict A rchaeological G roup J ournal , I II(1), 4 -40. C harge, B ., I X(3),

1 985. 7 8-80.

A rchaeology i n H averhill,

C urrent A rchaeology ,

9 8,

C lark, J .G.D., H iggs, ES., a nd L öngworth , I .H., 1 960. E xcavation a t t he N eolithic s ite a t H urst f en , M ildenhall, S uffolk 1 954, 1 957 a nd 1 958, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety , X XVI, 2 02-45. E dwards, D ., 1 978. a rchaeological n o.8, 8 7-105.

T he u nit:

a ir p hotographs c ollection o f t he N orfolk T hird r eport, E ast A nglian A rchaeology ,

E vans, C ., 1 985a. T he c ircle e xploded: a c onsideration o f th c oncentric-plan c ausewayed e nclosures, u npublished p aper , 7 T heoretical A rchaeological G roup C onference, ( Glasgow ). E vans, C ., 1 985b. T radition a nd t he c ultural l andsape: a n a rchaeology o f p lace, A rchaeological R eview f rom C ambridge , 4 (1), 8 0-94. E vans, C ., 1 986. A " matrix" i nterrupted d itch e nclosures, 5 (3), 2 73-277. E vans, C . a nd H odder, A rchaeology , 6 (10 ),

I ., 1 985a. 3 2-40.

E vans, C . a nd H odder, R esearch 1 984-1985 ,

I ., 1 985b. 2 , 1 8-23.

t echnique f or t he a nalysis o f O xford J ournal o f A rchaeology ,

T he B lack

T he

F en-edge,

P opular

H addenham P roject,

F enland

F rench, C ., 1 985. A s ummary o f s oil a nalyses f rom t he 1 982/3 e xcavations a t H addenham , F enland R esearch 1 984-1985 , 2 , 2 3. G ibson, A ., 1 985. A ntiquity , L IX ,

A N eolithic 2 13-9.

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e nclosure a t

G rendon,

N orthants,

H all,

D .N., 1 981. C ambridge F enland: f ieldwork s urvey , T he E volution ( Oxford ).

a n i ntensive a rchaeological o f M arshland L andscapes ,

H ealy , F ., 1 984. F arming a nd f ield m onuments: N orfolk, i n B arringer, C . ( ed), A spects o f h istory , 7 7-140, ( Norwich ).

t he N eolithic i n E ast A nglian P re-

H edges, J . a nd B uckley , D ., 1 978. E xcavatons a t a N eolithic c ausew ayed e nclosure, O rsett, E ssex , 1 975. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety , 4 4, 2 19-308. K innes, I . a buse.

a nd T horpe,

L eeds, E .T., J ournal,

I .,

f orthcoming.

R adiocarbon d ating:

1 927. A N eolithic s ite a t A bingdon, V II, 3 38-464.

B erk.,

L eeds, E .T., 1 928. A N eolithic s ite a t A bingdon, R eport, A ntiquaries J ournal, V III, 4 61-77.

u se a nd

A ntiquaries

B erk.,

S econd

P almer, R ., 1 976. I nterrupted d itch e nclosures i n B ritain: t he u se d f a erial p hotography f or c omparative s tudies, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety , 4 2, 1 61-86. P hillips, C .W. ( ed ), 1 970. T he F enland i n G eographical S ociety R esearch S eries , n o. 5 .

R oman T imes

=R oyal

P ryor, F ., 1 982. P roblems o f s urvival: l ate-prehistoric s ettlement i n t he s outhern E ast A nglian f enlands, A nalecta P raehistorica L eidensia , 1 5, 1 25-43. P ryor, F ., 1 983. Q uestions, n ot e xcavations a t E tton, n ear N orthamptonshire A rchaeology , 1 8, S eale, R .S., 1 979. A ncient F enland, P roceedings o f 6 9, 1 -19. S mith,

I .F.,

1 965.

a nswers: M axey , 3 -6.

a n i nterim r eport o n P eterborough, 1 982,

c ourses o f t he G reat a nd L ittle O use i n t he C ambridgeshire A ntiquarian S ociety ,

W indmill H ill a nd A vebury ,

( Oxford ).

S mith, I .F., 1 971. C ausewayed e nclosures, i n S impson, D .D.A. ( ed ), E conomy a nd S ettlement i n N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge B ritain a nd E urope , 8 9-112, ( Leicester). T aylor, M ., 1 979. A s urvey o f p rehistoric s ites n orth o f C ambridge, P roceedings o f t he C ambridgeshire A ntiquarian S ociety , 6 9, 2 1-36. W ainwright, G .J., 1 972. T he e xcavation o f aN eolithic s ettlement a t B roome H eath , D itchingham , N orfolk, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety , 3 8, 1 -97. W hittle, A ., 1 977a. E arlier N eolithic e nclosures E urope, P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety , 4 3,

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 47 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

i n n orth-west 3 29-48.

W hittle, A ., 1 977b. T he E arlier N eolithic o f S . E ngland a nd I ts C ontinental B ackground = B ritish A rchaeological R eports , S upplementary S eries, 3 5, ( Oxford ). W ilson, D .R., s ystems',

1 975. A ntiquity ,

' Causewayed c amps' L XIX , 1 78-86.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 48 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 1 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

a nd

' interrupted d itch

8 : L ES C AMPS N EOLITHIQUES C HASSEENS D ANS L E N ORD-OUEST D U B ASSIN P ARISIEN

J ean-Claude B lanchet e t R oger M artinez

R ésumé C inq e nceintes n 6olithiques o nt ä tä f ouilläes r 6cemment d ans l e N ord-Ouest d u B assin P arisien e n P icardie s eptentrionale: J onquiäres , C atenoy , C ompiägne , B oury-en-Vexin ( Oise) e t l 'Etoile ( Somme). E lles a ppartiennent a d es h orizons c ulturels c ommen( vant a l 'EpiR oessen e t s e d 6veloppant p endant u ne g rande p artie d u C hassäen s eptentrional. I i s emblerait q u'a l a f in d u C hassäen q uelques u nes d e c es e nceintes a ient s ervi d e l ieu c ultuel ( Boury , p ar e xemple).

I ntroduction L es a nciennes r echerches f aites d ans l e B assin d e l 'Oise n 'ont p as a pporte d 'eläments t rös s ignificatifs s ur l es m odes d e c onstructi on d es f ortifications p rotohistoriques. A t itre i ndicatif n ous p ouvons s ignaler l es t ravaux e xecutes s ur l e " Camp d e C esar" a C atenoy d epuis l e p remier q uart d u X IXäme s iècle e t q ui s e s ont l imites a d e s imples e t r apides s ondages. A c ette é poque l e b ut e ssentiel e tait d e t rouver d u m ateriel e t a ccessoirement d e c omprendre l a s uccession d es o ccupations. I l f aut a ttendre l a f in d u X IX4me s iècle p our q ue l es i nvestigations d eviennent d e m eilleure q ualite, s ans q ue l 'on s 'attache p our a utant a ux r eleves d es s tructures ( Blanchet e t a lii , 1 982, 1 73-6). C e n 'est q ue d epuis u n p eu p lus d 'une d izaine d 'annees q ue l es r echerches o nt p rogresse d 'une f acon s pectaculaire a vec l e d eveloppement d e f ouilles p rogrammees d e s auvetage. L a p remiäre f ouille e xhaustive d 'un c amp c hasseen d ans l e N ord d e l a F rance a e te e ntreprise s ur " le M ont d 'Huette" a J onquiäres ( Oise), d e 1 967 a 1 974, e n r aison d u p rojet d e c onstruction d 'un i mportant l otissement. L es f ouilles p realables o nt p ermis d 'arräter l e p rojet e t d e m ettre e n r eserve c e s ite d éjà t res t ouché p ar d es a nciennes c arriäres d e p ierres. P endant c e t emps e t Us 1 972, requipe d u p rofesseur S oudsky , m ettait s ur p ied u n p rogramme d e s auvetage d es s ites a rcheologiques d ans l a V allee d e l 'Aisne. D ans l a V allee d e l a B asse S eine requipe d es f räres M ordant p rocedait a d es f ouilles s ur d es c amps n eolithiques m enaces a ussi p ar l es t ravaux d 'exploitation d u g ravier. D ans l a v alläe d e l 'Oise, l es f ouilles d e c amps c hasseens s e p oursuivaient a C ompiägne ( de 1 978 a 1 980 ), a B oury-en-Vexin ( a p artir d e 1 981) e t a C atenoy ( a p artir d e 1 982). D e n ouvelles e nceintes

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. 1 49 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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4 33

f igs.

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s outh, w ith a n e ntrance a t i ts w estern e nd. I t i s l ocated o n a c omparatively g entle e levation a bove t he H oltemme r iver ( Figs. 2 1.4 , 2 1.8). B ernburg o ccupation m aterial w as r ecovered f rom d omestic o ccupation p its: n o h ouse-plans w ere r ecorded. T he o ccupation d ates e ntirely t o t he l ater T RB .

O ther S ites F ig. 2 1.9 s hows s ome e xamples o f o ther H öhensiedlungen , i ncluding s ome w here t here i s e vidence f or e nclosure. T his i ndicates a r ange o f s ize a nd t opographical p rominence. S ome a re c learly n aturally d efended, w hile o thers a re l ocated o n o nly v ery g entle e levations ( although t he f lat l andscape g ives t hese s ome p rominence ). I n o ne e xample a t S chkauditz t here i s p ossible e vidence f or a n i nterrupted d itch e nclosure 3 . I n o ther c ases t here i s l ittle g ood e vidence b eyond t hat n oted f or i ndividual s ites a bove, f or t he n ature o f t he e nclosure a nd f orm o f p erimeter. O ften, b ecause o f e rosion, m aterial i s s canty; n evertheless i t i s p ossible t o d ate m any o f t he s ites. T his i s s ummarised i n T able 2 1.1. T his b rief o verview o f t he e vidence i ndicates t hat t he t erm H öhensiedlung c overs a w ide v ariety o f t ypes o f s ite, f rom v ery l arge a nd p rominent e xamples, t o c onsiderably s maller s ites. C ontemporary u nenclosed s ettlements, u sually i n v alley l ocations, a re k nown , a lthough f ew o f t hese h ave b een s ystematically i nvestigated. T here i s t hus a n a pparent r ange i n s ettlement s ize a nd p rominence, f rom u nenclosed s ites, t hrough v arious s mall H öhensiedlungen w here d omestic o ccupation i s a ttested , t o v ery l arge s ites w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave h ad c ontinuous d omestic o ccupation, b ut w hich d isplay e vidence f or a w ide r ange o f f unctions a nd a ctivities. I t i s a lso p ossible t o n ote a t rend i n t he n umber a nd s ize o f H öhensiedlungen : t he n umber o f s ites r elative t o u nenclosed s ettlements i ncreased d uring t he c ourse o f t he M iddle N eolithic ( Table 2 1.1). T here i s, f or e xample, a l arge n umber a ssociated w ith t he S alzmünde. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he v ery l arge o r e laborate s ites a re e arly: a s i ndicated a bove , t he l arge d efensive e nclosure o n t he D ölauer H eide i s d ated t o t he e arlier T RB a nd w as s ucceeded b y as maller d omestic B ernburg o ccupation; a nd t he r itual s ite o f t he S chalkenburg w as s imilarly s ucceeded b y aB ernburg s ettlement. A n i mportant c haracteristic o f t he H öhensiedlungen i s t he r ichness o f t he m aterial c ulture f ound, d espite e rosion. O n t hose w hich h ave b een e xcavated, m uch o f t his c omes f rom s ettlement p its w hich a re d ated t o t he l ater p hases o f t he M iddle N eolithic, i ndica ting ap ossible t rend t hroughout t he p eriod t owards g reater q uantity a nd d iversity. L arge a mounts o f p ottery h ave b een f ound i n t he B ernburg p its o n t he D ölauer H eide a nd t he S chalkenburg , i ncluding m any h ighly d ecorated v essels, a nd q uantities o f s maller i tems, s uch a s c lay s pinning w horls. S ome o f t he i tems f ound o n t hese a nd o ther H öhensiedlungen c an b e d escribed a s e laborated e veryday t ypes, s uch a s t he h ighly d ecorated p ottery. C haracteristic o f t he S alzmünde a nd W alternienburg-Bernburg a re d ecorated c eramic d rums ( Tontrommeln ) ( Fig. 2 1.10 ), w hich a re a lso f ound i n g raves. A p ointer t o t he s ymbolic a spect o f t hese i tems i s t hat i n g raves t hey a re o ften f ound d eliberately s mashed a longside i ntact p ottery ( Müller-Karpe, 1 974 , 7 33). F igurines ( Behrens, 1 973, f ig. 9 1) a nd t he s o-called G od Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

4 34

t hrones ( Götterthrone ) ( Fig. 2 1.10 ) h ave a lso b een f ound. D ecorated a xes a re k nown i n t he S alzmünde ( Behrens, 1 973, f ig. 3 5), a nd l arge n umbers o f a xes a re f ound o n t he H öhensiedlungen . M any o f t hese a xes a re m ade f rom n on-specific S aale g ravels, a lthough n umbers m ade o f W iedaer S chiefer , as late w ith a s ource i n t he H arz, a re k nown. N o a xes o f P olish f lint h ave s o f ar b een r ecorded ( Behrens, 1 983). A n i ndication o f w ider m ovement o f m aterials c omes f rom t he p ottery. M aterial f rom o ther a reas i s c ommon, s ometimes i n s ome q uantity , f or e xample M ichelsberg , B aden, V ucedol, F ürchenstich, T iefstichkeramik a nd H avelland w ares ( Behrens, 1 973). I n t he a bsence o f d etailed r ecent w ork o n t he m aterial c ulture f rom H öhensiedlungen a nd i ndeed f rom o ther s ites, i t i s o nly p ossible t o m ake t entative o bservations o n t heir m aterial c ulture. T hese a re b ased t o a l arge e xtent o n t he s mall n umber o f b etter i nvestigated s ites. A longside t he c onsiderable r egional c ultural v ariation w hich i s a pparent d uring t his p eriod, t hese s ites d isplay a r ange o f i tems w hich h int a t e laboration , e xchange a nd c onsumption, a nd h ave s ymbolic a nd r itual o vertones. O n t he e vidence a s i t s tands, t he t rend w as t owards g reater e laboration a nd v ariety o f m aterial c ulture a s t he p eriod p rogressed. I t i s t hus p ossible t o s ummarise s ome o f t he m ain f eatures o f t he H öhensiedlungen i n C entral G ermany. M any a re p rominent s ites i n a n o therwise f lat l andscape. S ome s how e vidence o f e nclosure a nd c learly d efensive i ntent. T here a re i ndications o f a r ichness o f m aterial c ulture, w ith a n a bundance o f e laborate f orms. L inked w ith t his i s e vidence t hat s ome o f t he s ites s erved a s c entres o f e xchange o r f or t he c onsumption o f e xotica. R itual a nd s ymbolic a spects a re s trongly h inted a t: d irectly i n s ites s uch a s t he S chalkenburg w ith i ts c ircu lar s tructures, a nd i ndirectly i n t he n ature o f s ome o f t he a rtefacts a nd t he l ocation o f g raves o n s ome s ites. T here i s a lso s ome i ndicati on t hat t he r itual a nd m onumental/defensive a spects w ere s pecifically e arly f eatures, a nd t hat t he m aterial c ulture b ecame r icher a nd m ore a bundant i n l ater p hases, a s t he s ites b ecame p ermanent s ettlements. T here i s i nsufficient e vidence t o p ursue t hese i ndications o f c hange f urther. T wo o ther t ypes o f s ite c an b e a ssigned t o t he M iddle N eolithic: u nenclosed s ettlements a nd g raves. T here h as b een v irtually n o i nvestigation o f t he f ormer b eyond t he e xcavation o f s cattered p its a nd p ostholes. T hese s ettlements a re l isted i n T able 2 1.1. B aalberge d omestic p ottery i s n ot d istinct f rom b urial f orms, w hereas t here a re e asily r ecognised S alzmünde a nd B ernburg d omestic w ares. T he T able m ay t herefore u nderestimate t he n umber o f B aalberge u nenclosed s ettlements. T he u nenclosed s ettlements o ccur i n m uch t he s ame l ocations a s t he E arly N eolithic s ettlements: g enerally o n t he f irst t erraces o f m edium-sized r iver v alleys, r ather t han o n t he i nterfluves ( Starling, 1 983a ). N evertheless, t he s ettlement c ontinuity o f t he E arly N eolithic c ontrasts w ith t he b reak a pparent i n t he M iddle N eolithic. W hereas m ost E arly N eolithic s ites s how c ontinuity f rom s ites o f t he p receding p hase ( Starling, 1 983b ), m ost o f t he M iddle N eolithic s ettlements ( self-evidently , a lso, t he H öhensiedlungen ) a re i n n ew l ocations c ompared w ith b oth e arly N eolithic, a nd o ther M iddle N eolithic, s ites. T he r ather s cattered d istribution o f M iddle Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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N eolithic s ettlements, c ompared w ith t he c lustered p atterns c haracteristic o f t he E arly N eolithic, t ogether w ith t he l ack o f s ettlement c ontinuity a nd g ood s ettlement e vidence s uggests t hat t he u nenclosed s ettlements w ere s omewhat e phemeral a nd s hort-lived. M iddle N eolithic g raves, l ike t he H öhensiedlungen , e xhibit v ariety a nd, i n s ome c ases, m onumentality. V ery c onsiderable d iversity i n t he t ypes a nd f orms o f b urial p ractice a ppears t o h ave i ncreased w ith t ime. B y t he W alternienburg-Bernburg p hase t here a re s o m any v ariations t hat c lassification i s a lmost i mpossible ( Fisher, 1 956). D uring t he E arly N eolithic, b urial w ithin s ettlements, o ften i n i ndividual h ouses b ut a lso i n s mall c emeteries, w as t he u sual p ractice. I n t he M iddle N eolithic t here i s t he f irst e vidence f or b urials s eparate f rom s ettlements, o ften a t ac onsiderable d istance. L arge g rave m ounds, o ften i n c onspicuous l ocations f irst a ppeared i n t he B aalberge p hase. L ater, i n t he W alternienburg-Bernburg, t rue c ollective b urials a ppeared, f or e xample t he T otenhütte , w hich w ere a bove g round t imber a nd s tone c onstructions ( Müller a nd S tahlhofen, 1 981; f or c omparison w ith B ritish a nd o ther c ontinental e xamples, s ee A shbee, 1 970 ). I n t he n orth o f t he a rea , m egalithic g raves o f N orth G erman/Scandinavian t ype a ppeared. I ndividual g raves, a s w ell a s c ollective g raves, a re f ound, a nd t here a re c emeteries o f s ingle g raves ' , c ollective g raves a nd m egaliths, f or e xample t he t ype s ite o f W alternienburg ( twenty s ingle i nhumations), a nd t he a stonishing m egalithic c emetery i n t he H aldenslebener F orst ( Preuss, 1 973; 1 980 ). T here i s a lso aw ide r ange o f s ize a nd e laboration, f rom f lat e arth g raves w ith n o s urviving e xternal m arking, t o s tone b uilt, p rominently l ocated s tructures. T he e vidence f or s pecifically f unerary c eramic a ssemblages, a nd t he d ifferent t reatment o f m aterial c ulture i n s ome g raves, h as b een n oted a bove. T his, a s g leaned f rom t he p ublished m aterial, i s i solated a nd s cant, a nd w ould c ertainly r epay f urther s tudy , a s w ould a nalysis o f d evelopments o ver t his p eriod. I t c an o nly b e n oted b riefly h ere t hat t he v ariety o f b urial t ypes i ncreased w ith t ime, a nd i ncluded t he i ntroduction i n t he l ater T RB o f t he r ite o f c ollective b urial. T hus t he H öhensiedlungen f it w ell w ith t he g eneral c haracteri stics o f M iddle N eolithic s ettlements, g raves, a nd m aterial c ulture: d iversity , s ize v ariation, a nd e laboration. W ithin t his, s ome t rends c an b e n oted: e arlier, t he s ignificance o f l arge o r c learly r itual H öhensiedlungen ; l ater, t he a ppearance o f c ollective g raves; a nd a p rogression t o i ncreasing c ultural c omplexity, d iversity , a nd r egiona lisation. T his p attern c ontrasts m arkedly w ith p receding a nd s ucceeding d evelopments, b ut s ays m uch a bout t he m eaning a nd s ignifica nce o f t he H öhensiedlungen i n t his p eriod.

T he S ocial C ontext C hapman ( this v olume) s ets o ut t o d iscuss t he s ocial c ontext o f N eolithic e nclosures a nd d efences i n g eneral, a nd a n o utline o f t he s pecific d evelopment i n C entral G ermany h as a lready b een a ttempted b y t he p resent w riter ( Starling, 1 985a ); a s ummary i s p resented h ere. I t i s t empting, f rom t he v ery d iversity a nd c lear r ange i n s ize a nd p rominence o f t he H öhensiedlungen a nd m onumental g raves - i .e., a n a pparent h ierarchy - t o t ransfer t his d irectly t o t he s ocial s phere Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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a nd s ee i n t he C entral G erman N eolithic t he d evelopment o f h ierarchi cal s ocial s ystems. M ore s pecifically , s ome w riters h ave s uggested t hat c entral e nclosure s ites a re e vidence o f t he e mergence o f a c hiefd om t ype o f s ocial o rganisation, r eflected i n t he d ominance o f s ome s ites o ver o thers, a nd t he d ominance o f s ome i ndividuals o ver o thers ( e .g. R enfrew , 1 973; K ristiansen, 1 982). A m odel w here c ommunities a re d ependent o n c entres o f p olitical c ontrol i s i ndicated; c entres w hich h ave i dentifiable t erritories, a nd a re t herefore l ikely t o b e r egularly s paced i n t he l andscape. W hile t he H öhensiedlungen a re c learly r ich s ites, a nd w ere u ndoubtedly o f g reater i mportance t han o ther s ites i n t he s ettlement p attern, t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t heir b eing d ominant c entres o f p olitical c ontrol i n t he s ense i mplied b y c hiefdom m odels. T his i s p artly b orne o ut b y t he d istribution o f s ites ( Figs. 2 1.2 - 4 ). T here i s n o r eadily d iscernible p attern i n t he l ocation o f H öhensiedlungen i n t he l andscape r elative t o e ach o ther o r r elative t o o ther s ettlements o r g raves. T here a re a reas o f l ocal c lustering, e .g. f or a ll p eriods i n t he c entral S aale v alley , a nd f or t he W alternienburgB ernburg a lso i n t he a rea t o t he n orth o f t he H arz m ountains. T hese d istributions s uggest a d istinctly c lustered p attern. T here a re o ther a reas w ith n o e xamples a t a ll, a nd s ome i solated e xamples, w ith n o a ssociated s ettlements o r g raves. W hile t hese p atterns a re i nevitably s kewed b y t he p roblems o f s ampling, t he a bsence o f a erial p hotographic e vidence ( which m ay e xplain , f or e xample, t he l ack o f s ites i n t he f lat n orth-east a rea ), a nd u ncertain c ontemporaneity , i t w ould s eem t o b e s tretching ap oint t o s uggest t hat a ll t he t hree d istributions i llustrated h ere a re t he r elics o f r egularly s paced p atterns, e specially i n v iew o f t he c lose p roximity o f s ites. T here i s t hus n o e vidence f or a s pecifically " territorial" e xplanation o f t hese s ites, a nd , i ndeed, s ome i ndication t hat s ites w ere c lustered t ogether. T he e vidence f rom C entral G ermany s uggests t hat t he i mportance o f t he H öhensiedlungen l ay i n t heir m onumentality a nd p rominence, a nd t he a ggregation a nd c o-operation t hat t heir c onstruction a nd u se r epresented. I t h as b een s uggested e lsewhere ( Starling, 1 985a ) t hat t hese s ites w ere e ssentially t he p roduct o f e galitarian, a cephalous g roups, c o-operating i n s uch a ctivities a s t he c onstruction o f t he s ites t hemselves, c eremonial, r itual a nd e xchange. T hat t hey w ere f ocal p oints f or i mportant c ollective a ctivities, b ut n ot p ermanent c entres o f p olitical a nd t erritorial c ontrol. R ather, i t i s s uggested t hat t hese s ites w ere f undamentally i mportant f or t he g roup , a nd t he i ndividuals w ho c ompeted t o m anipulate a nd c ontrol t he g roup. C hapman ( this v olume) h as s uggested t hat t hese w ere c orporate g roups, w hose h eads m anipulated c eremonial a nd w ere i nterred i n t he g raves. T hus t he c entral s ites w ere i mportant f or t he c ollective a nd i ntegrating a ctivities w hich w ere p erformed t here ( including t heir c onstruction; M adsen, 1 982 a nd t his v olume). I f t his i s t he c ase, t hen t he a ggrega tion o f t hese s ites i n s pecific a reas m ight s uggest f orms o f e mulation a nd c ompetition b etween g roups, a c ompetition m ore s tarkly u nderlined b y t he u ndoubted e vidence f or w arfare a nd d efence. I t c an f urther b e n oted t hat, w hether c ontinuously o ccupied o r n ot, t he H öhensiedlungen w ere a pparently l arge a nd p ermanent s tructures, l ike t he m onumental g raves, w hereas t he u nenclosed s ettlements o f t his t ime w ere a pparently s mall-scale a nd e phemeral i n n ature.

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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T he H öhensiedlungen t herefore i mply t he e xistence o f g roupings, a lliances, a nd a ggregation , a nd h int a t t he e mergence o f " big m en" w ho c ompeted t o c ontrol t he a ctivities w hich t ook p lace t here. T heir s ize r ange, a nd t he s maller i ntegrative u nits o f t he g rave m ounds a nd c ollective t ombs, i mplies t hat t here w ere l evels o f a ggregation a nd c o-operation a t d ifferent s cales, w ith w ithin-group a nd b etween-group a lliances m arking p atterns o f c ultural a nd g roup a ffiliation ( Starling, 1 985a ). T his s uggests a s ystem o f p rimarily r itual a nd i deological o rganisation w hich d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply t he e xistence o f a s trongly h ierarchical s tructure o f t erritorial a nd s ocial o rganisation.

O rigins Q uestions o f s ocial c ontext c annot b e c onsidered i n i solation: k eys t o t he s ignificance o f t he H öhensiedlungen a nd t he s ocial a nd s ettlement s tructures t hat t hey r epresented m ust a lso b e s ought i n w hat c ame b oth b efore a nd a fter. I n C entral G ermany , t heir a ppearance a s s ignificant c omponents o f t he s ettlement p attern c ame a fter a m illennium a nd m ore o f N eolithic s ettlement d evelopment. A t f irst g lance t his s uggests t hat t heir d evelopment c an b e l inked w ith i ncreasing p opulation, p ressure o n r esources a nd d emand f or l and, a ll p ointing t o t he v iew t hat t hese s ites d efended s pecific t erritories, a nd r esulted f rom t he n eed f or d efence a gainst c ompeting l and-hungry g roups. B ut t his a ppears s pecifically n ot t o b e t he c ase i n C entral G ermany , o r i ndeed i n o ther a reas o f p rimary N eolithic c olonisation i n c entral a nd w est-central E urope a t t his t ime. R ather, o ver a l ong p eriod o f t he E arly N eolithic t he t rend w as t owards f ewer s ettlements, a c ontraction o f t he a reas u sed f or s ettlement, a nd c lustering o f s ettlement. T he d etailed a nalysis o f t his d evelopment i s n ot p resented i n f ull h ere ( see S tarling , 1 983a; 1 985b ) b ut c an b e b riefly s ummarised. I n t he a rea o f d etailed a nalysis s hown i n F ig. 2 1.1, t here a re 5 41 s ites d ating t o t he L BK period 4 . I n t he s ucceeding S BK t here a re 3 20 s ites, o f w hich 8 2% s how d irect c ontinuity f rom t he L BK . I n t he R össen a nd G atersleben ( here a nalysed t ogether) t here a re 1 63 s ites, a gain w ith a lmost c omplete c ontinuity o f s ettlement l ocation ( 83.8% ). T here w as t hus a r eduction o f n umbers o f s ites i n t he r atio 1 00:59:30 ( consistent o ver t he e ntire a rea ) a nd, a s t here w as a lmost c omplete s ettlement c ontinuity , v irtually n o i nternal c olonisation. R ather, t here w as a s hrinkage o f t he s ettlement a rea. T he e ffect o f t his w as t o m ake t he p attern m ore a ggregated ( Starling, 1 983b , F ig. 2 1.2). T his c lustering a t t he r egional s cale, l inked w ith t he s ettlement c ontinuity a nd l ack o f ' new ' s ites, m eans t hat o ver t he E arly N eol ithic p eriod t here w as c onsiderable a bandonment o f s ites a nd a reas. T his h appened i n t wo w ays: w hole a reas i n w hich t here w ere s mall c lusters o f, f or e xample, L BK s ites s how n o s ubsequent E arly N eolithic o ccupation, a nd p eripheral s ites i n l arger L BK c lusters w ere a bandoned. T his t rajectory o f s ettlement i s t he a bsolute r everse o f t he m odel o f c ontinuous s ettlement e xpansion w hich i s o ften a ssumed f or t he N eolithic. I t m ight b e e xpected t hat s ites w ere a bandoned d uring t he E arly N eolithic p eriod f or e conomic r easons: i n o ther w ords, t hey f ailed b ecause t hey w ere i n i nitially p oor l ocations o r h ad e xhausted t heir Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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l ocal r esources ( Kaufmann, 1 975). L ocational a nalysis i ndicates, h owever, t hat t he c riteria f or s ettlement l ocation w ere t he s ame o ver t he w hole p eriod , w ith t he l arge m ajority o f s ites s ited a long a lluvial r iver v alleys o n l oess-based s oils. T here w as n o p attern o f a bandonment o f l ess s uitable s oils, a nd n o a pparent d ifference b etween t he l ocational c haracteristics o f t hose s ites a bandoned a nd t hose w ith c ontinuous E arly N eolithic o ccupation ( Starling, 1 985b, t ables 6 , 7 ). T here w as a lso n o p attern o f a bandonment i n d rier a reas ( cf. Q uitta, 1 969 ). T he i ndication t herefore i s t hat o ver t his p eriod t here w as a s low c hange i n t he o verall s tructure o f s ettlement w hich c an b e l inked w ith s ocial c hange. T his a ggregation o f s ettlement a t t he r egional s cale w as m atched b y a ggregation a t t he l evel o f t he i ndividual s ite. T his h as b een b est d emonstrated f or t he s ites o n t he M erzbachtal o n t he A ldenhovener P latte i n t he R heinland ( Lüning, 1 982; n .d.). B ut i s a lso a pparent i n C entral G ermany. L BK s ites c haracteristically c onsist o f s catters o f s ingle h ouses o r " hamlets" o f l ow d ensity , e ach w ith i ts a ssociated p its a nd ( by i mplication ) f ields. O ver t he B andkeramik p eriod , m ore v illage-like s tructures d eveloped, w ith c lusters o f h ouses s urrounded a ltogether b y p its a nd, c ommonly , a d itch. I n C entral G ermany t he e xcavated e vidence i s p oorer, b ut t here i s a c lear c hange i n t he n ature o f t he s ites o n t he g round. L BK s ites c onsist o f d ispersed, o ften l inear, s preads o f s ettlement m aterial. I n t he S BK t he m aterial i s m ore a ggregated a nd o ccurs o ver am uch s maller a rea, a nd i n t he R össen t here i s d irect e vidence f or m ore v illage-like s ites ( Wahlitz; B ehrens, 1 973, f ig. 8 0). T he a pparent c hange o ver t he E arly N eolithic i s f rom l inearity - s trings o f s ites a long r ivers, a nd s trings o f h ouses i n t hese s ites - t o c lustering : g roups o f s ites c onsisting o f c lusters o f h ouses. I t c an b e n oted i n p assing t hat t he s ame d evelopment i n p atterning c haracterises t he c eramic d ecoration o f t he p eriod ( Starling, 1 985b ). I t w as a round t he e nd o f t he L BK p eriod t hat t he f irst e nclosures a ppeared i n C entral E urope. A gain t he C entral G erman e vidence i s l imited b y t he l ack o f a erial p hotography, b ut a ppears t o a ccord w ith t he d ata f rom o ther a reas. O n t he A ldenhovener P latte , s mall r ound o r s ub-rectangular d itched e nclosures a ppeared a t t he e nd o f t he L BK , a t t he s ame t ime a s a r eduction i n t he n umber o f s ettlements. T here a re n o s ettlement t races w ithin t hese e nclosures, a nd i t c an f urther b e n oted t hat t here a re f ewer e nclosures t han t he n umber o f c ontemporary s ettlements ( Lüning, 1 982). I n C entral G ermany , t here a re f ive e nclosure s ites w hich c an b e d ated t o t he E arly N eolithic ( see S tarling, 1 985b ). I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he S chalkenburg i s e arlier t han t he T RB i n d ate ( scattered S BK a nd R össen m aterial h as b een f ound o n i t). A lthough t his i s a s mall n umber, i t i s s uggested t hat t he s ame d evelopment w as o ccurring h ere a s i n t he R heinland: a d evelopment f rom l inear, s cattered s ettlement p atterns t o m ore v illage-like s ites i n c lusters, w ith t he f irst a ppearance o f s mall e nclosures s eparate f rom t he s ettlements. A t t his s tage i n t heir d evelopment, i t w ould s eem l ikely t hat t he e nclosures h ad a p rimary e conomic f unction, f or t he h erding o f a nimals, p robably c attle. T his l inks w ith t he e vidence f or i ncreasing c learance, a nd t he p robable k eeping o f l arger h erds o f c attle, Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 4 39 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

c ompared w ith t he L BK p ractice o f s mall n umbers o f a nimals s talled i n t he l onghouses t hemselves ( Sherratt, 1 983). T here i s n o i ndication f rom t hese e arly s ites f or a r ange o f f unction, a nd t hey d o n ot a pproach t he s ize a nd p rominence o f l ater e xamples. A k ey f eature o f t heir e mergence a t t his s tage ( even i f as traightforward e conomic f unction s uch a s t he h erding o f c attle i s s et a side ) i s t hat b y i mplication t hey m ay h ave s erved m ore t han o ne v illage; i .e., t here w ere f ewer e nclosures t han t he n umber o f l ocal s ites. I t i s p ossible, t herefore, t hat t hey m ay h ave s erved a s f ocal p oints i n as ubsistence e conomy w here l arger h erds o f c attle w ere b ecoming t he n orm, p erhaps h eld i n c ommon b y an umber o f s ettlements. T he e xistence o f s uch a f ocal p oint p rovides a p ointer t o t he a ggregation o f s ettlement i nto c lusters w hich h as a lready b een n oted. I f l ocal c ommunities s tarted t o f ocus s ome o f t heir ( economic) a ctivities o n a c ommunal s ite, a lbeit s mall, i t i s p ossible t o s ee f rom t his t he e mergence o f f unctions a nd s ymbolic i mportance f ar b eyond t he o riginating r ole o f s uch s ites. O nce e nclosures b ecame a f eature o f t he s ettlement p attern, t heir u se e xtended b eyond i ndividual c ommunities. T heir i ntegrative a nd a ggregating f unction t hen b ecame a s i mportant a s, a nd p erhaps s uperseded, i n s ome c ases c ompletely , t heir o riginal u se. T hey m ay h ave d eveloped a s c entres f or t he e xchange o f c attle a nd o ther c ommodities, a t t he s ame t ime a dopting, o r l eading t o t he a doption, o f a ctivities o f f ar g reater s ymbolic a nd r itual i mportance. I n s uch a s ituation, t he b enefits o f a ggregation w ould b ecome m ore c onsiderable, a nd o utlying s ites w ould b e a bandoned i n t he g eneral c oalescing o f g roups a nd a lliances, a s t he n eed f or s ocial i nterdependence b eyond t he i mmediate c o-operation o f a g roup o f s ites e merged. I f, d uring t he E arly N eolithic, a ggregation o f s ettlement b ecame i ncreasingly d esirable, i t i s p ossible t o s ee h ow i ncreased c ompetiti on b etween g roups, a nd b etween i ndividuals w ithin g roups, m ight h ave a risen, c ompetition w hich w as n ot p rimarily c oncerned w ith r esources. I f g roups a nd a lliances b egan t o f orm , t hen t his i mplies o pposition t o, a nd c ompetition w ith, o ther g roups a nd a lliances, a nd , f urther, a s ituation w here t here w as s cope f or s ome i ndividuals t o t ake a dvantage o f c ontrolling a ctivities s uch a s e xchange. T his w ould b e m anifested a rchaeologically b y e vidence f or d efence o n s ites, f or t he c onsumption a nd e xchange o f i tems, f or r itual, f or r egional g roupings a nd t he b urial o f s eemingly i mportant i ndividuals i n c onspicuous g raves ( Sherratt, 1 984). I t w as t his f orm o f s ocial o rganisation w hich h ad, i t i s s uggested, e merged b y t he M iddle N eolithic , w here t he H öhensiedlungen , w ith av ariety o f f unctions a nd ar ange o f i mportance, d ominated t he s ettlement p attern. A t t he s ame t ime, t here w ere o ther d evelopments; a b reak-down o f t he s ettlement c ontinuity o f t he E arly N eolithic, a nd a n a pparent s hift a way f rom l ong-lived u nenclosed s ettlements t o s maller a nd m ore d ispersed s ettlement s ites; al ogical d evelopment t owards a g reater c ommunity f ocus, a lso s een i n t he g raves. T his m odel i s c learly s peculative. I t d oes f it t he e vidence b etter t han a g eneralised p icture o f c ompetition f or r esources f orcing c ommunities t o a dopt d efensive s trategies t owards t erritories a nd u se t he H öhensiedlungen a s a p recocious f orm o f h ill-fort. T his i s u nderlined m ore s trongly w hen i t i s n oted t hat t he H öhensiedlungen e merged w hen t here w as am ajor e xpansion o ff t he l oess, p rimarily Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. 4 40 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

n orthwards o n t o t he N orth E uropean P lain. C ommunities w ere c learly a ble t o d eal w ith a ny r esource s tress b y m oving i nto n ew e nvironments. A t t his s tage t hey h ad e merged a s i mportant f oci f or av ariety o f a ctivities w hich s erved t o p rovide c ohesion a nd, a long w ith t he m onumental a nd c ollective g raves ( at a d ifferent l evel), w ere p art o f a s ystem o f r itual a nd i deological o rganisation b ased o n t he i mporta nce o f c ollective s tructures: p laces a nd t he a ctivities w hich w ere c arried o ut t here. I t c an f urther b e n oted t hat t he d evelopments w hich t ook p lace o ver t he N eolithic p eriod i ndicate t hat t here w ere s hifts i n m eaning; i t i s p ossible t hat t he s ymbolic i mportance o f t he v ery l arge o r c learly r itual s ites d ecreased, w hile t hat o f c ollective g raves a nd g rave c emeteries i ncreased.

S ubsequent D evelopments T he p icture o f d iversity a nd c hange d uring t he M iddle N eolithic, o f w hich t he H öhensiedlungen w ere a p art, h elps p rovide c lues a s t o w hy t hey w ere a pparently s uddenly a bandoned: i t w as a c ase o f s hifting f unctions m oving e ventually a way f rom t hese s ites, r ather t han a s udden c hange i n av ery s tatic p icture. I n C entral G ermany , a nd o ver a w ide a rea o f E urope, t here w as a v ery p rofound c hange i n t he n ature o f s ociety a nd s ettlement t owards t he e nd o f t he 3 rd m illennium b c, w ith t he b eginning o f t he C orded W are c ulture. A t t his t ime, s everal d evelopments o ccurred w ith a pparent r apidity ( Starling, 1 985a ). E ssentially , a u niform p attern o f s ettlement, b urial a nd m aterial c ulture r eplaced t he d iversity w hich w as a c haracteristic o f t he M iddle N eolithic. T he H öhensiedlungen w ere a bandoned, a lthough i n s ome c ases g raves w ere l ocated o n t hem. T he r ange o f b urial p ractices i ncluding c ollective b urial c eased, a nd t here w as ac onsiderable e xpansion o f s ettlement i nto a ll p arts o f t he l andscape. T he e vidence f or t he C orded W are g roups 5 c onsists a lmost e ntirely o f m any t housands o f i ndividual i nhumations, w ith a s pecific r ange o f a rtefacts a ssociated w ith t hem ( e.g. b eakers, b attle-axes, d aggers); t here i s l ittle d irect s ettlement e vidence a t a ll. T his r epresents a f undamental s hift a way f rom t he p attern o f c ollective s tructures a nd a ggregation i n t he M iddle N eolithic t owards i ndividual o rganisation a nd r anking. A r econstruction o f t he M iddle N eolithic p attern a s ah ierarchi cal s ystem w ith ac oncentration o f p olitical p ower a nd t erritorial c ontrol i n t he H öhensiedlungen c ould i ndicate t hat t he C orded W are d evelopment r epresented a c omplete c ollapse. I t h as b een s uggested e lsewhere ( Starling , 1 985a ), a nd r einforced b y t he a rguments p resented a bove, t hat t his p icture o f t he c ollapse o f ah ierarchical s ystem i s m isconceived. W hat i s e ssentially i mplied b y t he C orded W are s hift i s t hat t he s ocial s tructure n o l onger n eeded t o b e s ustained b y t he i ntegrative m onuments -p rimarily , t he H öhensiedlungen . T here w as t hus a s hift a way f rom as ystem w here p laces, a nd t he r ituals a nd a ctivities p erformed t here, w ere o f i mportance, t o o ne w here t he s ocial s tructure w as m aintained b y t he e mergence o f r anked i ndividuals, w hose r ank w as d enoted b y ap ackage o f p ersonal s tatus g oods - t he b eaker n etwork ( Shennan , 1 982). T his s ystem c ould s ustain i tself w ithout t he n eed f or a ggregation a nd c o-operative r itual: i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he p hysical i ntegrative c ommunal s tructures w ere r eplaced b y t he g reater i mportance o f l ineage c ohesion: s hared Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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s ymbolic c odes a nd s pecific e xchange i tems ( Sherratt, 1 984 ). T hus t he s ystem o f t he M iddle N eolithic c hanged v ery a bruptly a nd t he H öhensiedlungen , i mportant s ymbols o f t hat s tructure, w ent o ut o f u se. T he s ubsequent B ronze A ge s aw t he d evelopment o f t he ' successful' b eaker n etwork: s uccessful i n t erms o f i ts w ide s pread t hroughout E urope. T his i nvolved t he e mergence o f g enuine r anked e lites a nd t he d evelopment o f t erritorially b ased c hiefdoms. T hese h ad t heir e xpression, a mong o ther a spects, i n t he e mergence o f f ortified c entral p laces. S uperficially s imilar t o t he N eolithic e nclosures a nd d efensive s ites, t heir f unction a nd m eaning w ere i n f act v ery d ifferent.

C oncluding R emarks I t i s ac ommonplace i n a rchaeological l iterature t o h ide b ehind t he s kirts o f i nadequacies o f t he d ata i n t he p resentation ( or l ack o f p resentation ) o f t heories o f c hange. C entral G ermany i s n o e xception, i n t hat t here a re a reas w here r esearch h as b een t horoughly c arried o ut, a nd o thers w here s ome o f t he i deas p resented i n t his p aper h ave b een b ased o nly o n a f ew h ints i n t he l iterature. I t i s a cknowledged t hat t h is p aper h as c oncentrated o n s pecific d evelopments i n o ne a rea, w ith o nly o ccasional r eferences t o t he r est o f E urope. T his v olume s hows t hat t he e mergence o f e nclosures i n t he N eolithic m ust b e s een i n aw ider E uropean c ontext. I n t his c ase, m any o f t he o ther p apers i n t his v olume f ill, o r a t l east p rovide a nalogies f or, s ome o f t he g aps a pparent i n t he C entral G erman e vidence; s imilarly, t hese p apers t ogether h elp f lesh o ut t he m ore g eneral g eographical d etail. I t c an t hus b e c heerfully a cknowledged t hat t he C entral G erman d ata h int a t t antalising a venues o f f urther r esearch i n t erms o f t he n ature o f t he s ites t hemselves a nd t he m aterial c ulture f ound o n t hem , i n t he k nowledge t hat m any o f t hese p roblems a re b eing f ruitfully t ackled i n o ther a reas o f E urope.

A cknowledgements T his p aper o wes m uch t o t he s timulating d iscussion, b oth p ublic a nd p rivate, w hich f ollowed i ts o riginal p resentation a t N ewcastle. I w ould f urther l ike t o t hank D r. h abil. H . B ehrens, w ho a llowed m e a ccess t o t he d ata i n H alle, a nd D r. A ndrew S herratt, f or m any d iscussions o n t his p roblem. M uch o f t he r esearch f or t his p aper w as c arried o ut w hile h olding a T heodor H euss R esearch F ellowship ( Alexander-von-Humboldt Stiftung ) a t t he U niversity o f C ologne.

N otes 1 . T he t erminology a s s et o ut b y B ehrens ( 1973) i s u sed h ere: E arly N eolithic = B andkeramik a nd R össen; M iddle N eolithic = T RB ; L ate N eolithic = C orded W are a nd B ell B eaker. T his c ontrasts w ith t he C entral E uropean s equence w here t he T RB i s d enoted C halcolithic ( Müller-Karpe, 1 974 ).

Burgess, Colin, et al. Enclosures and Defences In the Neolithic of Western Europe, Parts I and Ii. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1988, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545187. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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2 . T he d ata u sed w ere i n t he f orm o f a rchive m aterial, c onsisting o f f ormal u npublished r eports ( e.g. e xcavations a nd s urveys) a nd i nformal r eports m ade b y m embers o f t he p ublic t o t he L andesmuseum i n H alle, G DR. 3 . T his s ite h as p roduced n o s pecific m aterial c ulture; i t i s s uggested t hat i t i s M ichelsberg i n d ate o n t he b asis o f t he p utative i nterrupted d itch; t his r easoning i s c learly r ather d ubious. 4 . F or d etailed s ite d escriptions, a nd i nformation o n s ite d efinition, s ee S tarling, 1 983a a nd 1 985b. I n t his p aper, f igures f or c ontinuity a re b ased o n l ocatable s ites o nly; s ee S tarling, 1 985b, n .1 a nd t ables 1 -2. 5 . T he C orded W are w as p refigured t o s ome e xtent b y t he G lobular A mphorae c ulture, w hich w as p artially c ontemporary w ith t he l ater T RB a nd h ad ap redominantly n on-loess d istribution. S pace p recludes a d etailed d iscussion h ere; s ee S tarling, 1 983a a nd 1 985a.

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