The Prehistory of Jordan, Parts i and ii: The State of Research in 1986 9781407389851, 9781407389868, 9780860545118, 9781407346748

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Addresses of the contributors
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Summary of Prehistoric and Palaeoenvironmental Research in the Northern Hisma
Palaeolithic Sites in the Petra Area Daniel Schyle and Hans-Peter Uerpmann
Late Epipalaeolithic - Aceramic Neolithic sites in the Petra area
Preliminary Report on the First Season of Excavations at Basta
Preliminary note on Early Neolithic human remains from Basta and Sabra
Stone rings from Baga and Basta Geographical and chronological implications
The Natufian of Beidha: Report on renewed field research
A note on a small box with flint blades and arrowheads from Beidha - and its implications
Excavations at Middle, Upper and Epipalaeolithic Sites in the Wadi Hasa, west-central Jordan
PART II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
The Paleolithic in North Central Jordan: an Overview of Survey Results from the Upper Zarqa and Azraq 1982 - 1986
Summary of Palaeoenvironmental and Prehistoric Investigations in the Azraq Basin
Multivariate analysis of geochemical data from Late Quaternary sediments in the Azraq Basin of Eastern Jordan
The Epipalaeolithic Phases of Kharaneh IV
The Black Desert Survey Prehistoric sites and subsistence strategies in eastern Jordan
The Neolithic Settlement at 'Ain Ghazal
The Fauna from Neolithic 'Ain Ghazal Ilse Köhler-Rollefson, William Gillespie and Mary Metzger
A Preliminary Assessment of the Geomorphology of 'Ain Ghazal
Stratified Burin Classes at 'Ain Ghazal: Implications for the Desert Neolithic of Jordan
Jebel Abu Thawwab: A Pottery Neolithic Village in North Jordan
Excavations at 'Ain Rahub, a Final Natufian and Yarmoukian site near Irbid (1985)
A Survey of Prehistoric sites in the Jordan Valley (1985)
Late Pleistocene Prehistory in the Wadi al-Hammeh, Jordan Valley
Abu Hamid, an early fourth millennium site in the Jordan Valley

Citation preview

The Prehistory of Jordan The State of Research in 1986

edited by

Andrew N. Garrard and Hans Georg Gebel

Part i

BAR International Series 396 (i) 1988

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S396 (i), 1988: 'T he Prehistory of Jordan', Part i © The Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389851 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389868 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545118 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346748 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545118 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

D edication

T he e ditors w ould l ike t o d edicate t his v olume t o ac lose f riend a nd c olleague - P ere F rancis H ours s .j. - w ho d ied r ecently. F rancis w as a g reat s cholar w ho c ontributed m uch t o o ur k nowledge o f N ear E astern P rehistory. H e w ill a lways b e r emembered f or h is c harm , w it a nd e nthusiasm w hich w as a d elight a nd s timulus t o t hose a round h im .

C ontents P age V olume 1 A ddresses o f c ontributors

v -vii

P reface ( Adnan H adidi)

i x

I ntroduction ( Andrew N . G arrard, H ans G eorg G ebel)

1 -6

D onald 0 . H enry: S ummary o f p rehistoric a nd p alaeoenvironmental r esearch i n t he n orthern H isma

7 -37

D aniel S chyle a nd H ans-Peter U erpmann : P alaeolithic s ites i n t he P etra-area

3 9-65

H ans G eorg G ebel: L ate E pipalaeolithic - A ceramic N eolithic s ites i n t he P etraA rea

6 7-100

H ans G eorg G ebel, M ujahed S h . M uheisen , H ans J . N issen , N abil Q adi a nd J ohannes M atthias S tarck : P reliminary r eport o n t he f irst s eason o f e xcavations a t t he L ate A ceramic N eolithic s ite o f B asta

1 01-134

O lav R oehrer-Ertl, K urt-Walter F rey, H einrich N ewesely: P reliminary n ote o n t he E arly N eolithic h uman r emains f rom B asta a nd S abra 1

1 35-136

J ohannes M atthias S tarck : C omparative a nalysis o f s tone-ring a rtefacts f rom B aga a nd B asta

1 37-174

B rian F . B yrd: T he N atufian o f B eidha.

R eport o n r enewed f ield r esearch

1 75-197

P eder M ortensen: An ote o n a s mall b ox w ith f lint b lades a nd a rrowheads f rom B eidha , a nd i ts i mplications

1 99-207

P age G eoffrey A . C lark , J ohn L indly , M arcia D onaldson, A ndrew G arrard, N ancy C oinman, J oseph S chuldenrein, S uzanne F ish , D eborah O lszewski: E xcavations a t M iddle, U pper a nd E pipalaeolithic s ites i n t he W adi H asa , w est-central J ordan

2 09-285

V olume 2 L orraine C opeland a nd F rancis H ours: T he P alaeolithic i n n orth-central J ordan, a n o verview o f s urvey r esults f rom t he U pper Z arqa a nd A zraq 1 982-86

2 87-309

A ndrew N . G arrard, A lison B etts, B rian B yrd, S usan C olledge a nd C hristopher H unt: S ummary o f p alaeoenvironmental a nd p rehistoric i nvestigations i n t he A zraq B asin

3 11-337

D avid D . G ilbertson , C hristopher O . H unt, M artin K ent a nd A ndrew G arrard: M ultivariate a nalysis o f g eochemical d ata f rom l ate Q uaternary s ediments i n t he A zraq B asin o f E astern J ordan

3 39-351

M ujahed S h . M uheisen: T he E pipalaeolithic p hases o f K haraneh I V

3 53-367

A lison V .G . B etts: T he B lack D esert S urvey. P rehistoric s ites a nd s ubsistence s trategies i n e astern J ordan

3 69-391

G ary O . R ollefson a nd A lan H . S immons: T he N eolithic s ettlement a t

' Ain G hazal

3 93-421

I lse K oehler-Rollefson , W illiam G illespie a nd M ary M etzger: T he f auna f rom N eolithic

' Ain G hazal

4 23-430

R olfe D . M andel a nd A lan H . S immons: A p reliminary a ssessment o f t he g eomorphology o f ' Ain G hazal

11

4 31-436

P age G ary 0 . R ollefson : S tratified b urin c lasses a t ' Ain G hazal. t he D esert N eolithic o f J ordan

I mplications f or

4 37-449

Z eidan A . K afafi: J ebel A bu T hawwab. J ordan

AP ottery N eolithic v illage i n n orth

4 51-471

M ujahed S h . M uheisen , H ans G eorg G ebel, C hristian H annss, R einder N eef: ' Ain R ahub , an ew F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian s ite n ear I rbid

4 72-502

M ujahed S h. M uheisen: S urvey o f p rehistoric c ave s ites i n t he n orthern J ordan V alley ( 1985)

5 03-523

P hillip C . E dwards, S tephen J . B ourke, S usan M . C olledge, J ohn H ead a nd P hillip G . M acumber: L ate P leistocene p rehistory i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh, J ordan V alley

5 25-565

G enevieve D ollfus, Z eidan K afafi, J acek R ewerski, N athalie V aillant , E ric C oqueugniot, J ean D esse, a nd R einder N eef: A bu H amid, a n e arly f ourth m illennium s ite i n t he J ordan V alley. P reliminary r esults.

i ii

5 67-601

A ddresses o f t he c ontributors

A lison V .G . B etts D epartment o f A rchaeology U niversity o f E dinburgh 1 6-20 G eorge S quare E dinburgh E H8 9 JZ G reat B ritain

J ean D esse C entre d e R echerches A rcheologiques S ophia A ntipolis 0 6565 V albonne C edex F rance

S tephen B ourke D ept. o f A rchaeology U niversity o f S ydney S ydney N SW 2 006 A ustralia

G enevieve D ollfus C NRS 1 0 r ue d e Q uatrefages 7 5005 P aris F rance

B rian F . B yrd A .C.O.R. P .O . B ox 2 470 A mman J ordan

M arcia D onaldson 2 952 N . W instel B lvd. T ucson A rizona 8 5716 U .S.A .

G eoffrey A . C lark D ept. o f A nthropology A rizona S tate U niversity T empe A Z 8 5287 U .S .A .

P hillip E dwards D ept. o f A rchaeology S ydney U niversity S ydney N .S.W . 2 006 A ustralia

N ancy C oinman D epartment o f A nthropology A rizona S tate U niversity T empe A Z 8 5287 U .S.A .

S uzanne F ish A rizona S tate M useum U niversity o f A rizona T ucson A rizona 8 5721 U .S .A.

S usan M . C olledge I nstitute o f A rchaeology 3 1-34 G ordon S quare L ondon W C1H O PY G reat B ritain L orraine C opeland 3T he G reen A ston R owant O xford O X9 S ST G reat B ritain E ric C oqueugniot M aison d e l 'Orient 7r ue R aulin 6 9007 L yon F rance

K urt-Walter F rey U niversitaetspoliklinik R oentgenabteilung P ettenkoferstr. 8 a 8 000 M uenchen 2 W est G ermany A ndrew N . G arrard B .I.A.A.H . P .O .B . 9 25071 A mman J ordan

H ans G eorg G ebel I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte S chloss 7 400 T uebingen W est G ermany o r S eminar f uer V orderasiatische A ltertumskunde F ree U niversity o f B erlin B itterstr. 8 -12 1 000 B erlin-West 3 3 W est G ermany

C hristopher H unt D ept. o f G eography C ambridge C ollege o f A rts a nd T echnology C ambridge G reat B ritain Z eidan K afafi I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology Y armouk U niversity I rbid J ordan

D avid G ilbertson D ept. o f A rchaeology a nd P rehistory U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 3 TN G reat B ritain

M artin K ent D ept. o f G eographical S ciences P lymouth P olytechnic P lymouth P L4 8 AA G reat B ritain

W illiam G illespie 2 952 N . W instel B lvd. T ucson A Z 8 5716 U .S .A .

I lse K oehler-Rollefson D ept. o f A nthropology C ollege o f A rts a nd L etters S an D iego S tate U niversity S an D iego C alifornia 9 2182 U .S.A .

A dnan H adidi D irector-General D epartment o f A ntiquities P .O . B ox 8 8 A mman J ordan

J ohn M . L indly D epartment o f A nthropology A rizona S tate U niversity T empe A Z 8 5287 U .S .A .

C hristian H annss I nstitut f uer G eographie H oelderlinstr. 7 400 T uebingen W est G ermany

P hillip M acumber V ictoria D ept. o f W ater R esources 5 90 O rrong R oad A rmadale, V ictoria 3 143 A ustralia

J ohn H ead C arbon D ating L aboratory A ustralian N ational U niversity C anberra A CT 2 600 A ustralia

R olfe M andel 1 639 V ermont L awrence K ansas 6 6044 U .S.A .

D onald 0 . H enry D ept. o f A nthropology U niversity o f T ulsa 6 00 S outh C ollege A venue T ulsa O klahoma 7 4104 U .S .A .

M ary M etzger 2 65 T aylor A venue G len E llyn I l. 6 0137 U .S.A .

v i

P eder M ortensen F orhistorisk M useum M oesgaard 8 270 H ojbjerg D enmark M ujahed S h . M uheisen I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology U niversity o f Y armouk I rbid J ordan R einder N eef B iologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut P oststraat 6 9 712 E R G roningen N etherlands H einrich N ewesely I nstitut f uer k linische u nd t heoretische Z ahn, M und- u nd K ieferheilkunde A ssmannshauserstr. 4 -6 1 000 B erlin - W est 3 3 W est G ermany

O lav R oehrer-Ertl T rierer S tr. 6 1 8 000 M uenchen 8 0 W est G ermany G ary O . R ollefson D ept. o f A nthropology C ollege o f A rts a nd L etters S an D iego S tate U niversity S an D iego C alifornia 9 2182 U .S .A . J oseph S chuldenrein G ilbert C ommonwealth A ssocs. I nc. 2 09 E ast W ashington A venue J ackson M I 4 9201 U .S.A . D aniel S chyle I nstitut f ur U r- u nd F ruehgeschichte I m W eyerthal 1 25 5 000 K oln 4 1 W est G ermany A lan S immons D esert R esearch I nstitute P OB 6 0220 R eno N evada 8 9506 U .S.A .

H ans J . N issen S eminar f uer V orderasiatische A ltertumskund B itterstr . 8 -12 1 000 B erlin - W est 3 3 W est G ermany

J ohannes M atthias S tarck I nstitut f uer U r- u nd F ruehgeschichte A lbert-Ludwigs-Universit B elfortstr. 2 2 D 7 800 F reiburg i . B r. W est G ermany

D eborah O lszewski 2 214 N . C ircle D rive C olorado S prings C olorado 8 0909 U .S .A .

H ans-Peter U erpmann I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte S chloss 7 400 T uebingen W est G ermany

N abil Q adi I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology U niversity o f Y armouk I rbid J ordan

N athalie V aillant 3 9 r ue B ranchion 7 5005 P aris F rance

J acek R ewerski 1 6 r ue C arl L inne 4 900 E ngres F rance

v ii

P REFACE

B y D r. J ordan.

A dnan

H adidi , D irector-General,

D epartment

o f

A ntiquities,

D uring t he l ast d ecade t here h as b een a c onsiderable i ncrease i n a rchaeological r esearch i n J ordan , a nd p articularly i n s tudies r elating t o i ts e arly p rehistory. L ying a s i t d oes w ithin t he N ear E astern " Fertile C rescent", J ordan c ontains t he r emains o f s ome o f t he e arliest f arming v illages i n t he w orld. C onsequently m uch e nergy h as b een d irected t owards s tudying t he o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t hese c ommunities. G iven J ordan 's p osition a t t he c rossroads b etween A frica , E urope a nd A sia t here h as a lso b een i nterest i n t he e vidence o f h uman a ctivity f rom e arlier p eriods e xtending b ack t o t he M iddle P leistocene . S ince I b ecame D irector o f t he A ntiquities S ervice i n J ordan , I h ave b een v ery g lad t o s upport t he m any s cholars f rom h ere a nd a broad w ho h ave b een i nterested i n s tudying t he p rehistory o f t his c ountry. I h ave a lso b een v ery h appy t o w itness t he s pirit o f i nternational c oo peration w ithin t his c ommunity. Iw as p leased t o h ear t hat a W orkshop w as t o b e h eld a t t he U niversity o f T uebingen i n A pril 1 986 d evoted t o t he P rehistory o f J ordan a nd a m d elighted t hat a v olume o f p apers h as e merged f rom t hat s ession o utlining a ll t he c urrent w ork b eing d one i n t he c ountry. Iw ould l ike t o t hank t he e ditors a nd c ontributors f or t his p ublication a nd h ope i t w ill p rovide a u seful f oundation a nd m uch s timulus t o f uture s cholars w orking i n J ordan a nd e lsewhere.

i x

I NTRODUCTION A ndrew G arrard a nd H ans G eorg G ebel

T his v olume i s c oncerned w ith t he e nvironment a nd p rehistory o f J ordan ( excluding t he W est B ank) f rom t he f irst e vidence o f h uman o ccupation t hrough t o t he e arly f ourth m illennium b .c. 1 U ntil t he l ast d ecade, v ery l ittle r esearch h ad b een u ndertaken o n t hese p eriods i n J ordan . Q uaternary a nd E arly H olocene e nvironmental s tudies h ad b een l argely r estricted t o g eological a nd g eomorphological s urveys; t he m ost n otable b eing t hose o f B urdon ( 1959), V ita F inzi ( 1964, 1 966), H uckriede a nd W iesemann ( 1968) a nd B ender ( 1968). A rchaeological s urveys w ith a s trong p rehistoric e lement w ere l imited t o t hose o f N euville ( 1929), R hotert ( 1938), W aechter e t a l ( 1938), Z euner e t a l ( 1957), K irkbride ( 1958a , 1 959), F ield ( 1960), M ellaart ( 1962), d e C ontenson ( 1964) a nd S tockton ( 1967). R eports o n t he c ollections o f n on-prehistorians w ere p ublished b y C rawford ( 1932), S tekelis ( 1944, 1 947) a nd C opeland a nd H ours ( 1971). S oundings w ere l imited t o l ate L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic s ites a t A zraq ( Harding 1 958, K irkbride p ersonal c ommunication), E pipalaeolithic s ites a t W adi D hobai ( =Jilat) ( Waechter e t a l 1 938), A la S afat ( Waechter 1 948) a nd M adamagh ( Kirkbride 1 958b), a nd N eolithic s ites a t W adi D hobai ( Waechter e t a l 1 938), G hrubba ( Mellaart 1 956), W adi e l Y abis ( Kirkbride 1 956), A in A bu N ekheileh ( Kirkbride 1 978) a nd o f c ourse B eidha ( Kirkbride 1 966 , 1 967 , 1 968). F or a m ore c omprehensive l ist o f e arly w ork o ne s hould c onsult t he b ibliographies o f B urkhalter ( 19464 8 , 1 949-50), S tockton ( 1969) a nd H omes-Fredericq a nd H ennessy ( 1986). S ince t he m id 1 970s t here h as b een a g reat i ncrease i n i nterest i n t he p rehistory a nd p alaeoenvironments o f J ordan . O n a l ogistic l evel t his i s d ue t o t he r elative s tability o f t he c ountry w ithin t he M iddle E ast a nd t he c onsiderable s upport a nd c ooperation o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd i ts p resent D irector-General, D r. A dnan H adidi, w ithout w hich n one o f t his w ork w ould b e p ossible. I n t erms o f r esearch p otential, i t i s r elated t o J ordan 's g eographical p osition - f irstly a t t he b ridge b etween t he t hree O ld W orld C ontinents, w hich h as a ttracted s cholars i nterested i n t he s pread o f e arly h umans a nd t heir c ultural/ b ehavioural t raits , a nd s econdly w ithin t he N ear E astern " Fertile C rescent", a n a rea i n w hich s edentary v illage l ife a nd p lant a nd a nimal d omestication d eveloped a t a n e arly s tage . T he c ountry i s a lso o f g reat i nterest b ecause o f t he c lose j uxtaposition o f av ery b road r ange o f e nvironments, v arying f rom M editerranean o ak a nd p ine f orest i n t he w estern h ighlands , t o I rano-Turanian s teppe a nd s ub-desert o n t he e astern p lateau , t o S aharo-Sindian a nd S udanian d esert i n t he s outh . A ll t his l ies w ithin a l and a rea o f c . 9 0 ,000 s quare k ilometres a nd m akes J ordan a f ascinating c entre f or t he s tudy o f l ong t erm m ane nvironment r elationships. O ne o f t he f rustrations o f w orking i n t he c ountry o ver t he p ast f ew y ears h as b een t o b e a ware o f s o m uch r esearch g oing o n, b ut t o k now s o l ittle o f t he d etailed r esults . T o o vercome t his, t he e ditors o rganised a W orkshop o n " The E arly P rehistory o f J ordan" t o f ollow t he

1

" Third I nternational C onference o n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan" h eld a t t he U niversity o f T uebingen i n W est G ermany i n A pril 1 986. W e w ere v ery g rateful t o P rofessor H j. M ueller-Beck f or p rovidi ng h ospitality a t t he I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte i n T uebingen , a nd f or t he j oint s ponsorship o f t he B ritish I nstitute a t A mman f or A rchaeology a nd H istory a nd t he T uebingen A tlas o f t he M iddle E ast. W e w ere f ortunate i n t hat m any o f t he s cholars w ho h ave w orked i n J ordan o ver t he l ast f ew y ears w ere a ble t o a ttend, e xchange i nformation o n t heir p rojects a nd d iscuss f uture p lans a nd c ooperation. A s a r esult o f t he W orkshop , w e d ecided t o p repare a p ublication o utlining t he c urrent s tate o f r esearch o n t he p rehistory o f J ordan. I n a ddition t o t hose w ho a ttended t he m eeting , o ther c olleagues w orking i n t he c ountry w ere i nvited t o c ontribute s o t hat t he r esulting p ublication i ncludes i nformation o n m ost r ecent/ongoing R rojects c oncerned w ith t he N eolithic a nd e arlier t ime p eriods. T he b ibliographies c ontained i n t his v olume c over m ost o f t he r ecent l iterature o n t he p rehistory a nd l ate Q uaternary/early H olocene e nvironment o f J ordan , b ut f or a f urther s ource s ee H omes-Fredericq a nd H ennessy 1 986. T he r eports i n t his v olume a re a rranged g eographically b eginning w ith t he s outhern d esert a nd s outhern h ighlands, f ollowed b y t he e astern d esert, t he n orthern h ighlands, a nd f inishing w ith t he J ordan V alley ( see F igure 1 ).

N otes 1 .

T he i nitial i ntention h ad b een t o l imit t his v olume t o p apers c onc erned w ith t he N eolithic ( 8th - 5 th m illennia) a nd e arlier t ime p eriods, b ut a v ery u seful s ummary o f t he 1 986 e xcavations a t t he e arly 4 th m illennium G hassulian s ite o f T ell A bu H amid h as b een i ncluded. L ate N eolithic l evels w ere f ound a t t his s ite d uring t he 1 987 e xcavation s eason .

9 .

I t w ould b e h elpful i f s ummaries o f c urrent r esearch o n J ordanian p rehistory c ould b e p ublished r egularly - p erhaps e very t hree y ears, a fter e ach I nternational C onference o n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan.

2

315°

3 6°

31 7°

38 °

3 3 °-

33 °

3 0 °-

F igure 1 L ocation o f p rincipal s urvey a reas a nd e xcavated s ites d escribed i n t ext. S urvey a reas : A ) H isma ; B ) P etra ; C ) H asa ; D ) J ilat; E ) U waynid; F ) A zraq; G ) ' Black D esert '; H ) K haraneh ; J ) Z arqa ; K ) J ordan V alley; L ) H ammeh . E xcavated s ites : 1 ) B asta ; 2 ) B eidha ; 3 ) K haraneh I V ; 4 ) ' A in G hazal; 5 ) A bu T hawwab; 6 ) ' A in R ahub; 7 ) A bu H amid.

3

B ibliography B ender F .

( 1968).

B urdon D .J .

( 1950).

G eologie v on J ordanien .

B erlin , B orntraeger.

H andbook o f t he G eology o f J ordan .

B urkhalter L . ( 1946-1948). M us e d e B eyrouth 8 :

B ibliographie p rehistorique. 1 29-153.

A mman. B ulletin d u

B urkhalter L . ( 1949-1959). B ibliographie p rehistorique ( suite). B ulletin d u M us e d e B eyrouth 9 : 7 -51.

d e C ontenson H . ( 1964). T he 1 958 s urvey i n t he Y armuk a nd J ordan V alleys. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 8 -9: 3 0-46. C opeland L . a nd H ours F . ( 1971). Am icrolithic f lint s ite i n W adi R um , J ordan , a nd a r eview o f t he E pipalaeolithic o f n orthern A rabia. P roceedings o f t he S eminar f or A rabian S tudies 1 : 7 -21. C rawford 0 .G .S. ( 1932). 6 : 2 16-217.

P alaeolithic a xes f rom T ransjordan.

A ntiquity

F ield H . ( 1960). N orth A rabian D esert A rchaeological S urvey, 1 9251 950 . P apers o f t he P eabody M useum o f A rchaeology a nd E thnology 4 5.2. C ambridge, H arvard U niversity.

H arding G .L . ( 1958). R ecent d iscoveries i n J ordan. E xploration Q uarterly: 7 -18. H omes-Fredericq D . a nd H ennessy J .B . ( 1966). B ibliography. A kkadica S upplement 3 .

P alestine

A rchaeology o f J ordan .

I

H uckriede R . a nd W iesemann G . ( 1968). D er J ungpleistozane P luvial S ee v on E l J afr u nd w eitere D aten Z um Q uartar J ordaniens . G eologica e t P alaeontologica 2 : 7 3-95.

K irkbride D . ( 1956). AN eolithic s ite a t W adi e l Y abis. D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 3 : 5 6-60 .

A nnual o f t he

K irkbride D . ( 1958a). N otes o n a s urvey o f P re-Roman a rchaeological s ites n ear J erash . B ulletin o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology 1 : 9 -20 . K irkbride D . ( 1958b). AK ebaran r ockshelter i n W adi M adamagh , n ear P etra , J ordan. M an 5 8: 5 5-58.

4

K irkbride D . ( 1959). S hort n ote o n s ome h itherto u nrecorded p reh istoric s ites i n T ransjordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 1: 5 2-55. K irkbride D . ( 1966). F ive s easons a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic v illage o f B eidha i n J ordan. P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 8: 8 -72. K irkbride D . ( 1967). B eidha 1 965. A n i nterim r eport. E xploration Q uarterly 9 9: 5 -13.

P alestine

K irkbride D . ( 1968). B eidha 1 967. A n i nterim r eport. E xploration Q uarterly 1 00: 9 0-96.

P alestine

K irkbride D . ( 1978). T he N eolithic i n W adi R u m : A in A bu N ekheileh. I n R . M oorey a nd P . P arr ( eds.) A rchaeology i n t he L evant: 1 -10. W arminster, A n s a nd P hillips.

M ellaart J . ( 1956). T he N eolithic s ite o f G hrubba. D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 3 : 2 4-40.

A nnual o f t he

M ellaart J . ( 1962). P reliminary r eport o f t he a rchaeological s urvey i n t he Y armuk a nd J ordan V alley f or t he P oint F our I rrigation S cheme. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 6 -7: 1 26-157.

N euville R . ( 1929). A dditions ä l a l iste d es s tations p rehistoriques d e P alestine e t T ransjordanie. J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety 9 : 1 14-121.

R hotert H . ( 1938). T ransjordanien. V orgeschichtliche F orschungen. V orgeschichtliche F orschungen i n K leinasien u nd N ordafrika 1 . S tuttgart, S trecker u nd S chroeder.

S tekelis M . ( 1944). N otes o n t he f lint i mplements f rom t he S even W ells ( Sab'a B iyar). Q uarterly o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n P alestine 1 1: 4 4-46. S tekelis M . ( 1947). Q uarterly 7 9:

N otes o n t he f lints. 2 5-26.

S tockton E .D. ( 1967). L iber A nnuus 1 7:

P alestine E xploration

S tone A ge C ulture i n t he N ebo R egion, J ordan. 1 22-128.

S tockton E .D . ( 1969). A b ibliography o f t he f lint i ndustries o f T ransjordan. L evant 1 : 1 00-103.

5

V ita-Finzi C . ( 1964). O bservations o n t he L ate Q uaternary o f J ordan. P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 6: 1 9-31. V ita-Finzi C . ( 1966). T he H asa F ormation: J ordan. M an n .s.1: 3 86-390 .

A n a lluvial d eposition i n

W aechter J . ( 1948). T he e xcavation a t A la S afat, T ransjordan. o f t he P alestine E xploration S ociety 2 1: 9 8-103.

J ournal

W aechter J ., S eton-Williams V ., B ate D .M . a nd P icard L . ( 1938). T he e xcavations a t W adi D hobai 1 937-1938 a nd t he D hobaian i ndustry . J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety 1 8 : 1 72-186, 2 92-298.

Z euner F ., K irkbride D . a nd P ark P .C . ( 1957). S tone a ge e xploration i n J ordan , 1 . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly : 1 7-54 .

6

S ummary o f P rehistoric a nd P alaeoenvironmental R esearch i n t he N orthern H isma D onald 0 . H enry

1 .

I ntroduction

T his p aper p aleoenvironments v illages o f R as g eneral t hrust o f t o:

2 .

s ummarizes a n i nvestigation o f t he p rehistory a nd o f s outhern J ordan c onducted i n t he v icinity o f t he e n N aqb a nd E l Q uweira f rom 1 979 t hrough 1 984. T he t he p aper i s d escriptive w ith s pecial a ttention g iven

( 1)

t he n ature a nd d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites

( 2)

c hronologic a nd s tratigraphic e vidence

( 3)

t echno-typologic a ssemblage c haracteristics

( 4)

e nvironmental d ata

( 5)

c ultural-historic f ramework

S urvey, T esting , E xcavation p rogram

T he r esearch f ollowed a m ulti-stage p rogram t hat i nvolved i nitial s urvey a nd s oundings s ucceeded b y s mall s cale e xcavation o f a f ew s ites . A n i ntensive, o n-foot s urvey o gf our e levationally s taggered s tudy a reas ( Figure 1 ), t otalling 3 2km', r esulted i n t he d iscovery o f 1 08 p rehistoric s ites r epresenting L ower P aleolithic t hrough C halcolithic p eriods . M aps a nd s ystematic c ollections w ere m ade a t 3 5 s ites w ith e ach a rchaeological p eriod b eing r epresented. T est e xcavat ions w ere c onducted a t 2 9 s ites , i ncluding a ll b ut t he L ower P aleolithic. A s y et, e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut a t o nly f ive s ites , c onfined t o M iddle P aleolithic , E pipaleolithic a nd C halcolithic h orizons.

3 .

S ite D istribution a nd S ettlement P atterns

T he f our s tudy a reas e ncompass t hree m ajor p hytogeographic a nd p hysiographic z ones ( Figure 2 ). T hese c onsist o f a n u pland z one a ssociated w ith M editerranean w oodlands , a p iedmont z one c overed i n s teppe v egetation , a nd a l owland d esert. M assive e rosion o f t he u plands a nd w idespread b urial o f p re-Epipaleolithic s ediments i n t he l owlands h ave l eft t he p iedmont a s t he z one w ith t he h ighest d ensity o f a rchaeological s ites.

7

8

M ap s howing t he f our

C D . 4 0 z

C Z 1 1 . ) C d C d g i • ! 1 ( 1 ) 3 CD. r i I

. 1 2 • C M ( f ) ( C I 4 -, Z C D

• E w o c n g i c d • , 1

( 1 ,000-1,300m)

P 4

>

C L ) C D . , 4 ▪ " c : J ( 1 ) { 4 4 U 0 N 1 ) U › , C D , I ( / ) r — I • c d C d g . i 0 4 -1 . H 4 U C d , 1 > . 1 ) C I ) a : I r — I

E ( 1 ) a )

. W U . C / D 4 ) C\ I C D 4 O D • , 1

9

A c omparison o f t he s ites b y e levation r eveals a t imet ransgressive p attern . T his p attern p ertains t o a n a symmetry w ithin s everal d ata s ets ( e.g. s ite a rea , t hickness o f c ultural d eposit, a rtefact d ensity) l inked t o d ifferent e levational b elts . F or P leistocene s ites ( Middle, U pper, a nd e arly E pipaleolithic P eriods), t he o ccupations o f t he h igher e levational b elts h ave c haracteristics a ttributable t o s hort-term w arm s eason e ncampments. S ites o f t he l ower e levational b elts a re m ore c onsistent w ith l ong-term w inter c amps. I n c ontrast , N atufian a nd C halcolithic s ites s how a r eversal o f t his p attern . D uring M iddle, U pper, a nd E pipaleolithic P eriods ( exclusive o f t he N atufian), t hose s ites b elow 1 ,000m a re l arger a nd h ave t hicker c ultural d eposits w ith h igher a rtefact d ensities t han t hose s ites a bove 1 ,000m . T he " lower" s ites a lso h ave s outhwest e xposures a s o pposed t o t he e astern e xposures o r o pen s ettings o f t heir u pland c ounterparts. A nalysis o f t he E pipaleolithic p oints t o t he g eneralized c onfiguration o f l owland t ool-kits, w hile p iedmont a ssemblages a re m ore s pecialized. F inally, f ixed f eatures a nd n onportable a rtefacts ( such a s b edrock m ortars , q uerns, p ictographs) a re p resent i n l owland s ites, b ut a bsent i n t he u plands. W ith t he o n-set o f h igher t emperature a nd d rier c onditions i n t he H olocene , t his p attern w as a pparently r eversed. C halcolithic s ites i n t he p iedmont z one a re q uite l arge w ith t hick c ultural d eposits. T hey c onsistently c ontain a rchitecture ( e.g. s tone l ined p it h ouses, w alls, s torage p its) i n c onjunction w ith a r ich a nd d iverse a rtefact i nventory . C halcolithic s ites o f t he l owlands a re m arkedly s maller w ith t hin c ultural h orizons t ypically l imited t o c hipped s tone a rtefacts . A rchitecture i s a bsent f rom t hese s ites. T he a symmetry i n v arious d ata s ets l inked t o e levational d ifferences , I t hink i s a n e xpression o f a t ranshumant a daptive s trategy t hat h as p ersisted i n t he a rea f rom M iddle P aleolithic t imes. A lthough t he s pecific p attern o f s ettlement a pparently u nderwent a r eversal a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene , t he s trategy o f s cheduling m ovement b etween d ifferent e levational b elts i n o rder t o b ring s easonally o ut-of-phase r esources i nto a n a nnual c ycle o f a vailability a nd t o m aximize c reature c omfort r emained t he s ame.

4 .

C ultural-History a nd P aleoenvironment

T he o ldest s ite r ecorded i n t he s urvey w as a L ate A cheulean o ccurrence ( J401 - W adi Q alkha) f ound e roding f rom t he s ides o f a d eeply i ncised w adi i n t he J ebel Q alkha s tudy a rea . D ue t o l arge a mount o f o verburden a nd s teepness o f t he w adi b anks, e xcavation w as n ever u ndertaken a t t he s ite. I n t hat t he a ssemblage h as b een d escribed i n e arlier r eports ( Henry, 1 982, 1 985) t here i s n o n eed t o r epeat t he d escription h ere. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat t he W adi Q alkha a ssemblage w as r ecovered f rom n ear t he t op o f a3 0m s ection o f a lluvial s ilts a nd s ands ( representing t he Q alkha f ormation) t hat o verlie a c ongeliofractate b ed o f i ndeterminate t hickness. I n h is g eomorphic s tudy, H assan ( n.d.) p laced t his l owest a lluvial f ill i n t he l ast i nterglacial.

1 0

4 .1

M iddle P aleolithic

M iddle P aleolithic a rtefacts ( i.e. L evallois f lakes, b lades, p oints , a nd c ores) w ere f ound i n t he u plands a nd p iedmont, b ut n ot i n t he l owlands. A lthough i solated a rtefacts w ere n umerous i n t he u plands , o nly a s ingle s ite w as r ecorded a nd i t w as s everely d eflated. W ithin t he p iedmont M iddle P aleolithic a rtefacts w ere f ound i n f our d epositional u nits. S mall l ithic s catters r epresenting s ites J 5 a nd J 410 , w ere f ound e roding f rom e arliest a lluvial f ill ( Jill M ember o f t he J udayid F ormation) o f t he J udayid B asin a nd o f w hat i s b elieved t o b e a n e quivalent u nit i n t he J ebel Q alkha a rea . T he t wo o ther s ites, T or S abiha ( J8) a nd T or F araj ( J430), a re r ockshelters a nd t heir d eposits a ppear t o f ollow t he d eposition o f t he J ill M ember. T he T or S abiha a ssemblage w as r ecovered f rom a w eakly w eathered d eposit o f d rift s and t hat h ad f illed t he s mall e mbayment f ronting t he s helter. T his d eposit, f orming t he S abiha M ember o f t he J udayid F ormation , r ests o n t he e arlier a lluvial f ill o f t he J ill M ember. T he r egional s tratigraphic c ontext o f t he T or F araj d eposit i s l ess c ertain, b ut s trong a rtefact s imilarities w ith T or S abiha i mplies a n e quivalent a ge f or t he t wo d eposits. T he a ssemblages a re c haracterized b y h igh f requencies o f L evallois p oints a nd a n e mphasis o n b lade p roduction ( Table 1 ; F igures 3 a nd 4 ). I n t his r espect t hey c losely r esemble L evantine M ousterian a ssemblages k nown f rom T abun D , T or A bou S if, R osh E in M or, a nd N ahal A qev . T hey a lso s hare a n u nusually h igh i ncidence o f i nverse r etouch ( 50% a nd 4 3%), t he t wo a ssemblages d iffer, h owever, w ith r egard t o o ther a spects o f t heir t ool-kits ( particularly d enticulates a nd b urins) a nd t heir r eduction s equences. T hese d ifferences a re l ikely t o b e a ttributed t o f unctional a s o pposed t o e thnic v ariability b etween t wo o ccupations. T he d ifferent s ettings o f t he t wo s ites a nd s ome o f t heir o ther c haracteristics a re c onsistent w ith w hat o ne w ould e xpect o f a n u pland c amp ( Tor S abiha) o ccuped f or a b rief i nterval d uring t he w arm s eason a nd a l owland c amp ( Tor F araj) i nhabited f or a m uch l onger t ime d uring t he w inter ( Table 2 ). T he s mall, s hallow s ite o f T or S abiha , l ocated a t 1 ,300m w ith a n e astern e xposure w ould h ave b een a n u nlikely s etting f or a w inter c amp . T or F araj, o n t he o ther h and, w ould h ave m ade a n i deal c old s eason c amp b ecause o f i ts l ower e levation a nd s outhwest e xposure. T he d ifferences b etween t he t wo a ssemblages w ith r espect t o t ypology a nd r eduction s equence m ay r eflect d ifferences i n s ite u sage. T race w ear s tudies a re c urrently b eing c onducted t o d etermine i f f unctional d ifferences c an b e d etected b etween t he t wo t ool-kits. O ne f inding o f t he s tudy i s t hat a lmost a ll o f t he L evallois p oints s how h afting p olish . I n e xamining t he r eduction s equences r epresented b y t he a ssemblages , i t i s s omewhat s urprising t o s ee a m uch g reater e mphasis o n p rimary r eduction ( as e videnced b y h igher f requencies o f c ores a nd p rimary e lements) a t T or F araj t han T or S abiha . T or F araj i s l ocated m uch f urther ( 10-17km ) f rom r aw m aterial s ources t hat T or S abiha ( 2-3km). T hese d ifferences, h owever, a re c onsistent w ith t he p roposed d ifferences i n l ength o f o ccupation o f t he t wo s ites. I f T or

1 1

0

a

b

C

d

e

Figure 3

Artefacts from Layer C of Tor Sabiha (JS), a Late Levantine Mousterian assemblage: (a) denticulate, (b) Levallois point, (c) side-scraper inverse on Levallois flake, (d) inverse converging side-scraper, (e) denticulate, (f) Levallois point core.

12

9

3

4c m .

a

F igure 4

•

A rtefacts f rom L ayer C o f T or S abiha ( J8): ( a) s ide-scraper o n L evallois b lade , ( b) s ide-scraper i nverse o n L evallois p oint, ( c) L evallois f lake w ith i nverse r etouch , ( d) L evallois p oint u nretouched.

1 3

J8) T or S abiha ( L ayer

L evallois P oints R etouched L evallois P oints U nretouched S ide S crapers E nd S crapers B urins P erforators B acked P ieces T runcations N otches D enticulates R etouched P ieces

1 7.8 2 1.5 3 .7 . 9 1 .9 . 9 1 .9 3 .7 5 .6 7 .5 3 4.6

( N)

1 07

C ore B lades F lakes L evallois B lades L evallois F lakes C ore T rimming E lements P rimary E lements

. 6 3 2.7 5 5.4 1 .6 . 7 1 .0 8 .0 ( N)

T able 1 :

6 89

1 1.8 2 9.1 3 .1 2 .4 1 6.5 1 .6 . 8 1 .6 3 .9 . 8 2 8.4 1 27

5 .8 1 6.2 4 0.4 3 .0 8 .6 5 .3 2 0.5 3 96

A c omparison o f t ool a nd d ebitage d istributions f rom T or S abiha a nd t he i nitial s oundings a t T or F araj.

T or F araj ( J430) E levation ( m a sl) E xposur A rea ( mL ) T hickness C ultural D eposit ( cm) A rtefact D ensity A ll A rtefacts T ools

T able 2 :

T or F araj ( J430) L ayer A

9 00 S outh 2 00-250 + 250 1 14/.1m 3 1 0 .1/.1m 3

T or S abiha ( J8) 1 300 E ast 1 00-150 1 5-20 8 5/.1m 3 4 .5/.1m 3

C omparison o f s everal n atural a nd a rtefactual c haracteristics o f t he T or F araj a nd T or S abiha r ockshelters.

1 4

S abiha w ere o ccupied e phemerally b y as mall m obile g roup w ith a l imited r ange o f a ctivities m ost t ools w ere p robably m anufactured e lsewhere n ear r aw m aterial s ources a nd i mported t o t he s ite. I n c ontrast, t he l ong-term o ccupation o f T or F araj w ould h ave p rovided a n i ncentive f or i mporting l arge q uantities o f r aw m aterial t o b e u sed f or t he d uration o f t he e ncampment. I n a ddition t o t he g reater e mphasis o n p rimary p rocessing, t he T or F araj a ssemblage e xhibits a m uch w ider r ange o f r aw m aterial v arieties . A lso, i t i s n oteworthy t hat s pecimens o f d ebitage a nd t ools h ave b een h eat-treated. B ecause L evantine M ousterian a ssemblages f all b eyond t he r ange o f c onventional r adiocarbon d ating, t he a bsolute c hronology f or t he c omplex r emains p roblematic. O ur p resent u nderstanding o f t he a ntiquity o f t he L evantine M ousterian i s b ased u pon a s ynthesis o f a mino a cid, u ranium s eries, a nd r adiocarbon d ates ( Marks, 1 981; B arY osef a nd V andermeersch , 1 981). I n g eneral, t he c omplex a ppears t o h ave p ersisted f rom a s e arly a s 9 0-100 ,000 B .P . t o a s l ate a s 3 5-40 ,000 B .P . T wo p arallel s uccessions w ere a pparently e ncompassed w ithin t his t ime-frame , h owever . W ithin t he M editerranean z one, E arly L evantine M ousterian a ssemblages ( Tabun D t ype) c haracterized b y e longate L evallois p oints a nd h igh b lade i ndices w ere r eplaced b y a ssemblages d ominated b y L evallois f lake p roduction ( Tabun C , B t ype). I n c ontrast, w ithin t he s teppe-desert z one D -type a ssemblages a ppear t o h ave p ersisted u ntil t he t ransition t o t he U pper P aleolithic a t a bout 4 6,000 B .P . T he L ate L evantine M ousterian p eriod i s p oorly r epresented i n t he s teppe-desert z one , p erhaps b ecause o f t he o nset o f d rier c ond itions a nd m assive e rosion. T or S abiha a nd T or F araj w ould a ppear t o f all i n t his L ate L evantine M ousterian i nterval. A lthough t he g eneral c haracteristics o f t hese a ssemblages a re c onsidered D -type, a c omparison o f a s eries o f a ttributes f rom t he T or S abiha a ssemblage w ith t hese f rom E arly L evantine M ousterian ( i.e. R osh E in M or, N ahal A qev) a nd M iddle P aleolithic/Upper P aleolithic t ransitional a ssemblages f rom t he N egev i ndicate a n i ntermediate p lacement ( Henry, 1 982). A dditionally, w hen w idth/thickness r atios o f c omplete f lakes f rom T or S abiha a nd T or F araj a re c ompared t o a s eriation c urve d eveloped b y J elinek ( 1981) o n d ata f rom t he T abun s equence, c hronological e stimates o f 5 0-55,000 B .P . a re i ndicated. F inally, at entative e nvironmental r econstruction b ased u pon e vidence o btained f rom p ollen , f aunal, a nd s ediment a nalysis a t T or S abiha p oints t o d ry c onditions. T his r econstruction a grees w ith t he p ostulated o nset o f a rid c onditions d uring t he L ate L evantine M ousterian, b ut d iffers s harply w ith t he p luvial c onditions r ecognized f or t he E arly L evantine M ousterian .

4 .2

U pper P aleolithic

U pper P aleolithic s ites a re p oorly r epresented b y a s ingle s mall s urface o ccurrence i n t he J udayid B asin a nd f our r ockshelter s ites i n t he J ebel Q alkha s tudy a rea. T hree o f t he r ockshelters ( J403, J 412, J 432) r eveal n ear i dentical s ettings a nd s ediments. A ll h ave s outhern e xposures a nd a re l ocated a t t he c onfluences o f W adis t hat d rain e astward i nto t he W adi Q alkha. T he c ultural d eposits a re r elatively t hick , a ll e xceeding l m , a nd a re

1 5

a

2

F igure 5

3cm .

A rtefacts f rom J ebel H umeima ( J412), a L evantine A urignacian a ssemblage: ( a, b ) e nd-scrapers , ( c) m ultiple t ool c omposed o f e nd-scraper a nd b urin , ( d) p erforator, ( e) b urin t runcation, ( f) c onical b lade c ore.

1 6

f

e a b

i

g

9 1 ?

3c m

k

;

1 7 F igure 6

A rtefacts f rom T or A yid ( J432), a L evantine A urignacian a ssemblage : ( a,f) p ointed b ladelets , E l W ad p oints, ( c ,d,e) b acked b ladelets, ( b ,g,h,j) b urins, ( k,m) e nd-scrapers, ( 1) c ore.

1 7

c ontained w ithin a p inkish s ilt. T he a ssemblages f rom t hese s ites a re q uite s imilar i n t hat t he d ebitage i s p rimarily c omposed o f t hick b lades a nd f lakes w ith b urins a nd t hick s crapers d ominating t he t oolk its ( Figures 5 a nd 6 ). W hile s ome b acked b ladelets a nd f ragments o f e l W ad p oints a re p resent, t hese n ever e xceed 1 5% o f t he t ool-kits. T hese a ssemblage p rofiles c losely r esemble t hose i ncluded w ithin t he L evantine A urignacian C omplex ( Ronen, 1 976) a s o pposed t o a n a lternative U pper P aleolithic c omplex r ecently n amed t he A hmarian ( Gilead, 1 981). T hese a ssemblages a re u ndated, b ut t he c orrelation w ith d ated L evantine A uriguacian a ssemblages i mplies a d uration f rom a s e arly a s 2 6 ,000 t o a s l ate a s 1 8,000 B .P . I t i s a lso n oteworthy t hat t hese a ssemblages a re c ontained w ithin a w idespread s ilt u nit, r esembling t he s edimentary c ontext o f l ate U pper P aleolithic s ites i n t he N egev ( Goldberg, 1 981). P ollen e vidence o btained f rom J 403 a nd J 412 t race t he s uccession f rom s lightly h umid c onditions c haracterized b y m oderate f requencies o f g rasses a nd t rees t o ad rier s etting i ndicated b y t he p resence o f h igh f requencies o f c henopods ( Emery Barbier, i n p ress). T he s ite o f J 433 d iffers f rom t he o ther U pper P aleolithic o ccurrences i n i ts s etting, d epositional c ontext, a nd t ypological p rofile. T he s helter i s l ocated n ear t he c rest o f a s teep t alus s lope w ithin t he W adi A ghar , am ajor t ributary o f t he W adi Q alkha . T he a rtefacts a re c ontained w ithin a r eddish s and t o a d epth o f c a. 4 0cm . T he a ssemblage c ontains a h igh f requency o f w ell s truck b lades a nd t he t ool-kit i s d ominated b y a p oint t ype r esembling t hat d escribed b y B ergman ( 1981) a s K sar A kil p oint.

4 .3

E pipaleolithic

W ith a bout 4 0% o f t he s ites f ound i n t he s urvey f alling w ithin t his p eriod, i t i s a n i nterval o f c onsiderable c ultural-historic c omplexity. F ive c omplexes ( Qalkhan, K ebaran, G eometric K ebaran , M ushabian , a nd N atufian) a re r epresented a s a re a t l east t wo e volutionary s uccessions ( Table 3 ). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he t axonomic l abels K ebaran , G eometric K ebaran , a nd M ushabian a re u sed a t t he s cale o f c omplex, t hus c onveying a n o nly g eneral l evel o f s imilarity b etween t he s outh J ordan a ssemblages a nd t hose a ssemblages t hat h ave t raditionally b een i ncluded u nder t hese t axa. I n f act, i n m ost c ases t he s outh J ordan a ssemblage c haracteristics f all o utside t he t echno-typological p arameters u sed i n d efining t hese t hree a ssemblage g roups. T he N atufian a ssemblages , o n t he o ther h and, s how c lose s imilarities t o o ther a ssemblages d efined f or t he i ndustry. F inally, t he Q alkhan h as n o c lear p arallels e lsewhere i n t he r egion. T he Q alkhan ( Henry, 1 982, 1 983; J ones, 1 983) i s a pparently t he e arliest o f t he E pipaleolithic c omplexes o f s outhern J ordan . E xcavation o f J 406b i n 1 984 r evealed s ome 5 0cm o f d eposit c ontaining Q alkhan a rtefacts u nderlying a n a pproximately 6 0cm t hick K ebaran ( early H amran) h orizon . B oth h orizons w ere f ound i n ar ed s and t hat c overs t he U pper P aleolithic p inkish s ilt o ver a w ide a rea. T echnologically, t he Q alkhan w as g eared t o b ladelet p roduction a s e videnced b y t he h igh f requency o f b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores. T here

1 8

P ERIOD

C OMPLEX

I NDUSTRY

A SSEMBLAGES

L ate N atufian

_ J406a

N atufian

A L E O L I T H I C

T able 3 :

E arly N atufian

J 2

M ushabian

M adamaghan

J 431, J 436

G eometric K ebaran

F inal H amran L ate H amran M iddle H amran

K ebaran

E arly H amran

J 202, J 203 J 202, J 203 J 26, J 201, J 203, J 21, J 22, J 31, J 520 J 26 , J 201, J 406b, J 504 J 405 , J 406b J 407

Q alkhan

C ultural-historic f ramework o f t he E pipaleolithic i n S outhern J ordan .

J 406b N %

J 407

J 405 N %

T ools S crapers B urins D enticulates N otches T runcations R etouched P ieces P erforators Q alkhan P oints B acked B ladelets

5 8 8 1 4 6 4 5 1 4 8 6 4 1 72

2 .9 4 .7 4 .7 8 .1 3 .5 2 6.2 8 .1 4 .7 3 7.2 1 00 .1

1 2 .0 3 5 .9 3 5 .9 2 8 5 4.9 3 5 .9 7 1 3.7 6 1.7 5 1 1 00.0

5 03 3 21 4 6 3 1 1 1 3 8 9 50

5 2.9 3 3.9 4 .8 3 .3 1 .2 4 .0 1 00.1

1 60 5 4.9 8 6 2 9.5 1 9 6 .5 1 4 4 .8 7 2 .4 5 1 .7 2 91 9 9.8

6 3 2 1 0 2 4 2 1 1 4 9

1 2.2 6 .1 4 .1 2 0.4 4 8.9 4 .1 2 .0 2 .0 9 9.8

D ebitage B lade/Bladelets F lakes P rimary E lements C ore T rimming E lements C ores M icroburins

1 69 5 0 .9 1 02 3 0.7 4 3 1 3 .0 4 1 .2 1 2 3 .6 2 . 6 3 32 1 00 .0

D ebris 7 83

T able 4 :

9 4

1 19

F requencies o f t ools, d ebitage a nd d ebris f or Q alkhan a ssemblages.

1 9

b

I g

c

d

e

f

a

i

h

i

i

k

F igure 7

A rtefacts f rom t he Q alkhan a ssemblage o f J 407: ( a-f) Q alkhan p oints , ( g) s calene t riangle , ( h) s traight b acked b lade , ( i) t ransverse b urin , ( j) b urin o pposite e nd-scraper, ( k) r etouched f lake , ( 1) o pposed p latform b lade c ore.

2 0

w as a c onsiderable d egree o f b lank s election i n f avour o f b lades , h owever, f or o ver h alf t he t ools a ppear o n b lades. B ladelets a re r elatively w ide ( R. l lmm) f or t heir l ength ( 31mm), t hus s howing a m arked c ontrast w ith t he n arrow s pike-like b ladelets o f t he K ebaran. T ool-kits a re d ominated b y b acked m icroliths a nd r etouched p ieces w ith t he r emainder o f t he t ool c lasses s howing a r ough b alance ( Table 4 ; F igure 7 ). T he b acked m icroliths a re p rincipally c omposed o f s traight b acked b ladelets t hat h ave b een t runcated o pposite a s nap. A lthough n ormally f ound i n l ow f requencies, a u nique p oint t ype c haracterizes t he c omplex. Q alkhan p oints a re t riangular i n f orm , b ut a re n ot t rue g eometrics f or o ne s ide o f t he t riangle i s o ften w ithout r etouch a nd t he b ase o f t he t riangle n ear t he p oint's t ip i s g enerally r etouched ( Figure 3 ). P oints n ormally d isplay a c oncavity o r s pur n ear t he a pex o f t he t riangle a nd a n e longated s ide o pposide t he s pur. T he s pur i s l ikely t o h ave f acilitated h afting. S everal Q alkhan p oint s pecimens e xhibit u nretouched o r p artially r etouched m icroburin s cars t hat r eflect t he m ode b y w hich t he b ladelets w ere s egmented p rior t o t heir f abrication i nto p oints. M icroburin I ndices r ange f rom c a . 1 0-18 f or t he c omplex a nd R estricted M icroburin I ndices v ary f rom c a. 2 5-35. A lthough n ot h igh, t hese i ndices c onfirm t he c onsistent h abitual u se o f t he m icroburin t echnique. T he t echnique a ppears t o h ave b een m ainly u sed i n p oint f abrication a s i ndicated b y t he s trong c orrelation b etween m icroburin a nd p oint f requencies; a nd t he g enerally l arge d imensions o f t he m icrob urins. T he p resence o f t he m icroburin t echnique w ithin t he Q alkhan i s s omewhat o f a p uzzle g iven t he s uspected e arly E pipaleolithic a ge o f t he c omplex. W ithin t he L evant, t he t echnique w as a dopted l ate i n t he E pipaleolithic ( e.g. M ushabian, N atufian, G eometric K ebaran) w ithin t hose c omplexes t hat p roduced g eometric m icroliths. T he u se o f t he t echnique w ithin t he Q alkhan t hen i s s omewhat o f a n a nachronism , f or t he c omplex ( at l east a t 4 06b) u nderlies a n on-geometric, E arly H amran ( Kebaran C omplex) h orizon. T he K ebaran C omplex i s r epresented i n s outhern J ordan b y t he e arly H amran I ndustry. E arly H amran a ssemblages h ave b een r ecorded a t f our s ites: J 26, J 201, J 406b a nd J 504. T echno-typological d ifferences b etween t he E arly H amran a nd Q alkhan p rincipally r evolve a round t he Q alkhan p oint a nd m icroburin t echnique. T he p oint a nd r elated m icrob urin t echnique a re n ot f ound i n E arly H amran a ssemblages a nd b ladelet d imensions d ecline i n l ength ( 3 Z 2 9mm). S ome t ypological s imilarities a re p resent b etween t he t wo, h owever. B acked m icroliths i ncrease s harply i n t he E arly H amran, b ut s traight b acked m edial f ragments a long w ith s napped a nd t runcated b ladelets ( Figure 8 ) f orm t he m ajority o f t he c lass i n b oth Q alkhan a nd E arly H amran a ssemblages ( Table 5 ). A t p resent, i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine t he e volutionary t ies b etween t he t wo t axa. E arly H amran a ssemblages a re c haracterized b y h igh f requencies o f b acked m icroliths f ashioned f rom r elatively w ide b ladelets. T hese a ssemblages d iffer f rom t hose o f o ther K ebaran C omplex i ndustries i n r egard t o t he p resence o f w ide b ladelets a nd t he r arity o f n arrow m icropoints ( Henry, 1 983). T he G eometric K ebaran C omplex i s r epresented b y M iddle, L ate,

2 1

a nd

H amran E arly

M iddle

L ate

F inal

7 0

S crapers B urins D enticulates N otched p ieces T runcated p ieces R etouched p ieces R etouched p oints P erforators B acked M icroliths S traight b acked m edial b ladelet f ragments S traight b acked s napped a nd t runcated b ladelets T rapeze-rectangles L unates

T able 5 :

5 -13 3 -9 0 -6 3 -13 0 -4 1 6-52 0 -6 0 -3 3 -63

2 -4 0 -1 0 -2 1 -6 2 -9 6 -12 0 -1 0 -1 7 3-84

3 -4 0 -2 1 -2 2 -8 3 -6 5 -15 0 -1 0 -2 6 0-85

3 2 2 1 3 4 1 8 1 2 5 4

3 -26

1 3-28

1 3-26

6

1 -9 -

2 0-43 7 -20 -

1 9-43 1 0-12 0 -3

1 6 7 1 3

C omparison o f t he r anges i n f requences o f t he m ajor t ool c lasses f or E arly, M iddle , L ate a nd F inal H amran a ssemblages.

2 2

F inal H amran a ssemblages. T he m ain t echno-typological f eatures o f t his s uccession i nclude: ( 1) t he a ppearance o f t rapeze-rectangles i n t he M iddle H amran, ( 2) t he a ppearance o f l unates a nd m icroburins i n t he L ate H amran, a nd ( 3) t he p redominance o f l unates ( with s ome H elwan f orms) i n t he F inal H amran. M iddle H amran a ssemblages s tratigraphically o verlie E arly H amran h orizons a t t he s ites o f J 26 a nd J ebel H amra ( J201) a nd u nderlie L ate H amran a ssemblages a t E l Q uweira ( J203). S ingle c omponent M iddle H amran s ites i nclude J 21, J 22, J 31 a nd J 520. M iddle H amran a ssemblages c losely r esemble " Group I I" G eometric K ebaran a ssemblages f rom t he N egev a nd S inai ( Bar-Yosef, 1 981; H enry, 1 983). T he c ommon c haracteristics i nclude: ( 1) h igh f requencies o f b acked m icroliths, ( 2) g eometrics e xclusively i n t he f orm o f t rapezer ectangles a nd ( 3) w ide b ladelets a nd t rapeze-rectangles. L ate a nd F inal H amran a ssemblages a re r estricted t o t he r ocks helter s ites o f Q a S alab ( J202) a nd E l Q uweira ( J203). T hey d iffer f rom t he M iddle H amran i n r egard t o: ( 1) t he p resence o f l unates, ( 2) t he p resence o f m icroburins a nd ( 3) a r eduction i n t he l ength o f b ladelets ( 5z 1 8mm). T he d istinction b etween L ate a nd F inal H amran a ssemblages i s a rbitrarily b ased u pon t he r elative p roportions o f t rapeze-rectangles a nd l unates ( Figure 9 ). A t Q a S alab a c lear s tratigraphic t rend w as d efined i n t he r eplacement o f t rapezer ectangles b y l unates f rom t he b ottom t o t he t op o f t he d eposit. L ate H amran a ssemblages a re d enoted b y am ajority o f t rapeze-rectangles, w hereas t he F inal H amran c ontains a p redominance o f l unates. M icroburin I ndices a lso r ise s harply f rom c a . 1 4 f or t he L ate H amran c ompared t o c a. 3 5 f or t he F inal H amran. A lthough r are, a f ew o f t he l unates i n F inal H amran a ssemblages a re o f t he H elwan t ype. T he p resence o f l unates i n s uch h igh f requencies ( 20%) i s u nknown f or o ther g eometric K ebaran C omplex a ssemblages a s i s m icroburin i ndices o f c a. 3 5. T hese t echno-typological c haracteristics, a long w ith t he o ccasional H elwan l unate, p oint t o t he F inal H amran a s t he p redecessor t o t he N atufian. T he M ushabian C omplex i s r epresented b y t he M adamaghan I ndustry i n s outhern J ordan. I n 1 984, t wo r ockshelter s ites ( J431, J 436) w ere d iscovered i n t he J ebel Q alkha a rea. B oth o f t he s ites w ere s ounded w ith T or H amar ( J431) p roving t o h ave a d eeper ( + 1 .3m), r icher d eposit c ontaining g round s tone, a l arge f aunal a ssemblage, a nd a n a bundant f lint a rtefacts ( Henry a nd G arrard, i n p ress). A r adiocar Inn d ate o n c harcoal f rom n ear t he b ase o f t he d eposit p roduced a CI' d ate o f 1 2,683 ± 3 23 B .P. ( SMU-1399). T he a ssemblages r ecovered f rom T or H amar a nd J 436 s hare s everal c haracteristics w hich s et t hem a part f rom o ther s outh J ordan E pipaleolithic a ssemblages a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, p oint t o c onnections w ith t he M ushabian ( Phillips a nd M intz, 1 977). T hese i nclude h igh m icroburin i ndices, m oderate f requencies o f p oints ( La M ouillah, m icrog ravette, a nd a rched b acked v arieties), a nd g eometric m icroliths ( trapeze-rectangles, n ormal a nd H elwan l unates; F igure 1 0). F urthermore, t hese t echno-typological c haracteristics a re a lso s hared b y t he a ssemblage f rom W adi M adamagh ( Kirkbride, 1 958), l ocated l ess t han 6 0km n orth o f J ebel Q alkha.

2 3

c

b

d a

J e

h

g

i 0

I

2 cm .

id ' i

F igure 8

k

1

A rtefacts f rom t he E arly H amran a ssemblage o f J 504: ( a) d ouble e nd-scrapers, ( b , c ) s traight b acked a nd t runcated b ladelets o pposite s naps , ( d, e , f ) b acked b ladelets, ( g) d enticulate , ( h , j ) b urins , ( k , 1 ) e nd-scrapers a nd b urin/ e nd-scraper , ( i) b ladelet c ore .

2 4

V.

E l a t.

0

F igure 9

I

2c m .

A rtefacts f rom t he L ate a nd F inal H amran a ssemblages r ecovered f rom t he s ite J 202: ( a , b ) l unates, ( e, f , g , j , k ) t rapeze/rectangles, ( h , i ) b acked a nd t runcated b ladelets, m , n ) n otched, ( o) b urin o pposite s craper, ( p, q ) s crapers, ( r, s ) b ladelet c ores.

2 5

S INAI M USHABIAN

E arly G eometrics H elwan R etouch L a M ouillah P ts Nech/Denticulates CI D ates ( B.P.)

T able 6 :

N EGEV M USHABIAN H an f E arly

L ate

0 -11 1 9-23 0 -1 r are c ommon 0 -33 0 -1 5 -58 9 0 -6 5 -10 5 -17 1 3,3101 2,700 1 3,530

H elwan L ate 2 -6 5 3-78 0 -1 5 -10

M ADAMAGHAN ( TOR H AMAR)

C -B

A

0 -1 0 -33 1 7-19 1 -6

2 .4 4 4 2 7 1 0

1 2,700

C omparison o f t emporal s ensitive a ttributes a nd C 14 d ates f or t he t hree M ushabian c omplex i ndustries.

2 6

A s ynthesis o f t he s eriation s chemes, r adiometric d ates, a nd s tratigraphic s uccessions f or t he S inai a nd N egev M ushabian w ould s uggest a p arallel a nd p robably s ynchronous d evelopment i n t wo s ubr egions o f t he s outhern L evant. T he e arlier p hases o f b oth i ndustries s hare a n e mphasis o n b acked b ladelet v arieties, w hereas t he l ater p hases o f t he i ndustries b oth s how a m arked r ise i n g eometric m icrol iths ( particularly l unates), d enticulates a nd H elwan r etouch. T he e mphasis u pon l unates a nd H elwan r etouch i s b elieved t o r eflect t he s ynchroneity b etween l ater p hases o f t he M ushabian a nd t he E arly N atufian. T he M adamaghan I ndustry, a s e videnced f rom t he s tratigraphic s equence a t T or H amar, a ppears t o p arallel t he t rends o bserved i n t he N egev a nd S inai M ushabian i ndustries ( Table 6 ). T he t ransition f rom L ayers C -B t o A a t T or H amar s how q uite s imilar c hanges i n t he p roportionate f requencies o f g eometric m icroliths, H elwan r etouch, a nd n otches/denticulates a s t hose o bserved b etween t he H an f a nd H elwan p hases o f t he N egev M ushabian. P arallels b etween t he M adamaghan a nd S inai M ushabian w ith r egard t o t emporal t rends i n L a M ouillah p oint f requencies a re m ore c omplex. W ithin t he e arly P hase o f t he S inai M ushabian, L a M ouillah p oints i ncrease i n r elative f requency t hrough t ime b ut t hen d ecline m arkedly i n t he L ate P hase. W ithin t he T or H amar s equence, L a M ouillah p oints i ncrease i n a bundance t hrough t ime. C omparison o f t hese s equences m ay i ndicate t hat t he T or H amar o ccupat ion ( encompassed b y L ayers C , B a nd A ) i s r oughly s ynchronous w ith t he f inal p art o f t he E arly P hase o f t he S inai M ushabian. R adiocarbon d ates f rom M ushabi V ( 12,700 ± 9 0) a nd T or H amar ( 12,683 ± 3 23) a re, i n f act, n ear i dentical. T he T or H amar s equence a lso c losely r esembles t he N egev M ushabian s uccession. W hen c ompared t o t his s equence, t he T or H amar o ccupation w ould a ppear t o b e r oughly s ynchronous w ith t he l ast o f t he H an f P hase ( Tor H amar L ayers B , C ) a nd t he e arly p art o f t he H elwan P hase ( Tor H amar L ayer A ). T hese d ata w ould i mply t hat t he o ccupation o f W adi M adamagh w ould f all w ithin t he e arly p art o f t he M adamaghan s equence g iven t he a bsence o f H elwan r etouch o n a rtefacts f rom t he d eposit. T he N atufian i s k nown f rom t wo s ites: W adi J udayid ( Henry, e t a l 1 985) a nd J 406a ( Henry, 1 982). W adi J udayid, a n E arly N atufian o ccupat ion, i s l ocated i n t he J udayid B asin a t t he b ase o f t he R as e n N aqb e scarpment a t a n e levation o f a bout 1 ,200m . S ite ( J406a), a L ate N atufian o ccurrence, i s l ocated o n t he e astern f lank o f J ebel Q alkha a t a bout 1 ,000m e levation. W adi J udayid c onsists o f a v ery h igh d ensity o f h abitation d e4ris w ith f lint a rtefacts, b one, b urned r ock a nd a sh c overing a bout 4 00m o f t he s urface a long t he b ase o f a l ong s and r idge. A t est t rench c onf irmed t hat i n s itu m aterial e xtends u nder t he s and r idge a t l east s ome 5 m . F our d istinct s tratigraphic l ayers w ere d efined w ithin a 3 0-50cm t hick d eposit. C harcoal r ecovered f rom t he m ain o ccupation h orizon ( Layer C ) y ielded t hree r adiocarbon d ates: 1 1,950 ± 8 00 B .P. ( SMU8 05); 1 2,090 ± 8 00 B .P . ( SMU-806); a nd 1 2,784 ± 6 59 B .P . ( SMU-803). T he W adi J udayid l ithic a ssemblage c losely p arallels t he t echnot ypologic p rofiles o f o ther E arly N atufian a ssemblages. T he t ool-kit i s d ominated b y l unates w hich a re n ear e qually d ivided b etween n ormal

2 7

a

i

0

I

2

3

I

1

I

4cm .

F igure 1 0 A rtefacts f rom T or H amar ( J431), a M adamaghan a ssemblage : ( a, u ) e nd-scrapers , ( b, f , k , n , p ) a rched b acked b ladelets , ( c, h ) L a M ouillah , ( d, q ) c ores , ( e, m , o ) m icroburins, ( g) r etouched b lade , ( i) H elwan l unate , ( j) t rapeze , ( 1) n otch , ( r) b urin , ( s , m icrogravette p oints.

2 8

a

F igure 1 1 A rtefacts f rom t he E arly N atufian a ssemblage o f W adi J udayid: ( a, c , d , e ) H elwan l unates , ( b) n ormal l unate, ( f, i ) b acked b ladelets, ( g) r etouched b ladelet, ( h) n otch , ( j) c ore s craper, ( k) b ladelet c ore.

2 9

N umber

P ercent

T OOLS S craper B urin L unate T rapeze-rectangle N ongeometric m icroliths A bruptly r etouched b ld & f lk T runcations R etouched p ieces D enticulates N otches P erforators M ultiple t ools P oints V aria

3 1 9 6 6 1 5 1 8 2 4

T otal

1 .9 0 .7 6 2.3 3 .9 0 .7 3 .3 1 1.7 1 5.6

1 54

1 00.1

1 ,008 2 ,221 3 89 1 9 1 23 7 4

3 6 .3 5 7.1 1 0 .2 0 .5 3 .2 1 .9

3 ,834

1 00 .0

D EBITAGE B lades a nd b ladelets F lakes P rimary e lements C ore t rimming e lements C ores M icroburins

T otal D EBRIS C hips C hunks

5 ,311 2 ,248

T otal G rand T otal

T able 7 :

7 ,559 1 1,548

A rtefact i nventory f rom W adi J udayid.

3 0

a nd H elwan t ypes ( Table 7 ). T he t echnology o f t he a ssemblage w as b ased u pon t he p roduction o f w ide b ladelets s truck f rom s mall g lobular a nd p yramidal c ores ( Figure 1 1). T he d imensions o f t he b ladelets ( i.e. m ean l ength 2 9.1mm , m ean w idth 1 1.9mm) f all n ear t he m eans o f o ther N atufian a ssemblages. T he m icroburin t echnique w as i ntensively u sed a s e xpressed b y m icroburin a nd r estricted m icroburin i ndices o f 3 2.5 a nd 4 3.5 r espectively. S ite 4 06a w as s ounded i n 1 980 a nd 1 984. T he s econd v isit t o t he s ite r evealed a m uch m ore e xtensive s ubsurface d eposit t han i nitially s uspected. T he s ite e xtends o ver s ome 5 00-600m 2 a t t he b ase o f a s teep c liff. I n a ddition t o f lint a rtefacts a c onical m ortar, t ypical o f N atufian o ccupations, w as a lso r ecorded. L ike W adi J udayid, t he a ssemblage o f 4 06a i s d ominated b y l unates. B ut n one o f t hese l unates b ear H elwan r etouch a nd t hey a re e xceedingly s mall, a veraging l ess t han l lmm i n l ength . T he M icroburin I ndex r egisters 3 5. T hese t echnot ypological d ata a re c onsistent w ith a L ate N atufian p lacement o f t he a ssemblage.

4 .3.1

C ultural H istoric F ramework o f E pipaleolithic

T he c ultural s uccession o f t he s outh J ordan E pipaleolithic f ollowed a t l east t wo t racks. T he Q alkhan I ndustry w ould a ppear t o p redate t he E arly H amran, b ut i t i s u nclear a s t o w hether t he t wo h ad a ny c ultural l inkages. T he e arly H amran, h owever, c learly i nitiates a s uccession t hat f ollowed a s mooth, g radual e volution a s r eflected i n s ubtle t echno-typological c hanges w hich d efine t he M iddle, L ate a nd F inal H amran a nd t he E arly a nd L ate N atufian. U nfortunately, w ithin t his d evelopmental s equence o nly t he E arly N atufian h as b een d ated r adiometrically. M y g uess i s t hat t he E arly H amran f alls l ate w ithin t he n on-geometric i nterval o f t he E pipaleolithic; p erhaps o n t he o rder o f 1 4-16,000 B .P. T he M iddle H amran i s l ikely t o h ave b een r oughly e quivalent i n a ge w ith o ther G eometric K ebaran i ndustries, f alling b etween 1 3,000-14,000 B .P. G iven t he a rtefact s imilarities b etween t he L ate-Final H amran a nd E arly N atufian , t hese t erminal H amran a ssemblages s hould c losely p recede t he N atufian t hereby d ating f rom c a. 1 3,000 - c a . 1 2,500 B .P. T he W adi J udayid d ates a re g enerally c onsistent w ith r adiocarbon d ates f or o ther E arly N atufian a ssemblages ( i.e., c a. 1 2,000-11,000 B .P.). I w ould e xpect t he L ate N atufian o ccupation a t J 406a t o f all n ear t he e nd o f t he i nterval ( ca. 1 0 ,500 B .P.) g iven t he a bsence o f H elwan r etouch a nd t he s mall l unate d imensions i n t he a ssemblage. T he M adamaghan, a s a c onstituent i ndustry o f t he M ushabian C omplex, p rovides e vidence o f a nother s ociety w hich o ccupied t he a rea f rom M iddle H amran t hrough E arly N atufian t imes. T he s ynchronous o ccupation o f s outhern J ordan b y g roups r epresenting G eometric K ebaran a nd M ushabian c omplexes i s n ot s urprising a s t his f ollows a p attern r ecognized i n S inai a nd t he N egev. T he c ontinued c o-occupation o f t p9 r egion d uring E arly N atufian t imes, a s e videnced b y t he o verlap i n CI' d ates o f T or H amar a nd W adi J udayid, c onfirms t he s uspected i nteraction o f E arly N atufian a nd " Late" M ushabian r esidents o f t he N egev a nd S inai ( Henry, 1 977; M arks a nd S immons, 1 977).

3 1

4 .3.2

C limatic a nd E conomic E vidence

T he p redominant c limate d uring t he E pipaleolithic a ppears t o h ave b een m ore m oist t han t oday. G eomorphic ( Hassan , 1 980), a nd p alynologic ( Henry, 1 982, 1 985; H enry, e t a l 1 985; E mery Barbier, i n p ress) e vidence i ndicates a m oist p hase d uring t he E arly H amran f ollowed b y d rier c onditions i n t he M iddle H amran. S ediment s amples f rom t he E arly H amran d eposit o f J 504 i s r ich i n a rboreal a nd g rass p ollen, w hereas s amples f rom M iddle H amran d eposits s how a r ise i n c henopods. D uring L ate a nd F inal H amran t imes, t he c limate r eturned a gain t o a m oist s etting t hat p ersisted t hrough t he e arly N atufian. P ollen s amples f rom t he d eposits a t Q a S alab ( J202) a nd W adi J udayid ( J2) d enote i ncreased a rboreal a nd g rass p ollen, i ncluding c ereal t ype a t W adi J udayid. D rier c onditions r eturn d uring t he L ate N atufian a s i ndicated b y t he o ver 2 m o f d rift s and t hat c overs t he E arly N atufian l ayers a t W adi J udayid. F aunal e vidence f or t he E pipaleolithic i s l imited t o t he e arly a nd L ate-Final H amran, t he E arly N atufian, ( Henry, e t a l 1 985), a nd t he M adamaghan ( Henry a nd G arrard, n .d.). T he s mall a ssemblages f rom J 504, b oth l ocated i n t he l owlands, a nd Q a S alab a re d ominated b y g azelle. I n c ontrast, t he p iedmont s ites o f W adi J udayid a nd T or H amar y ielded f aunal a ssemblages w ith a p redominance o f c aprids. I t i s p articularly n oteworthy t hat O vis o rientalis r emains w ere r ecovered f rom W adi J udayid f or t his c onsiderably e xtends t he k nown r ange o f w ild s heep i n s outhwest A sia. T he d ominance o f c aprids w ithin t he L ate E pipaleolithic s ites o f t he p iedmont z one i s c onsistent w ith t he n atural h abitats o f s heep a nd g oats. B ut t his e mphasis d eparts f rom t he p revailing p attern o f a nimal e xploitation d uring t he L ate P leistocene a nd H olocene. T he h unting o f g azelle d ominated m ost E pipaleolithic a nd E arly N eolithic ( PPNA) e conomies ( Bar-Yosef, 1 981). I t w as n ot u ntil t he L ate N eolithic ( PPNB) t hat t he e xploitation o f c aprids t hrough h unting a nd/or i ncipient h erding w as e mphasized. T his e arly f ocus o n t he e xploitation o f c aprids i n s outhern J ordan m ay i ndicate a m uch g reater t ime d epth f or s ome f orm o f h erd m anagement t han p reviously s uspected.

4 .4

N eolithic P eriod

T his p eriod i s p oorly r epresented i n t he a reas t hat w ere i nvestigated. O nly o ne s ite, J ebel Q ueisa ( J24), w as f ound t o c ontain a N eolithic h orizon. H ere i t w as o verlain b y c a. 1 .5-2.0m o f d rift s and c ontaining s tratified C halcolithic o ccupations. T he N eolithic h orizon w ould a ppear t o r epresent a b rief c amp, p robably a h unting s tation. T he a ssemblage i s h eavily s kewed t oward d ebitage w ith o nly a f ew t ools p resent. T he d ebitage i s c haracterized b y t he p roduction o f l ong s lender b ladelets f rom n aviform c ores. T he s parse t ool-kit c ont ains H elwan a nd K hiamian p oints, s uggesting a n e arly ( ?PPNA) p lacement o f t he a ssemblage w ithin t he i nterval. P ollen a nd f aunal e vidence w as n ot r ecovered f rom t he d eposit.

3 2

4 .5

C halcolithic P eriod

A bout o ne-quarter o f t he s ites f ound i n t he s urvey a re o f t his p eriod. W ithin t he p iedmont z one, t hese s ites a re l arge w ith t hick c ultural d eposits a nd t hey n ormally e xhibit s ome e vidence o f a rchitecture. A rchitectural f eatures c onsist o f o val s tone w alled s tructures t hat o ften f orm a n etwork r esembling a " beehive" p attern. E xcavation o f o ne o f t hese s tructures a t t he s ite o f J ebel e l J ill ( Henry, e t a l 1 985) r evealed a s emi-subterranean p ithouse l ined w ith s tone. L arge o val ( ca . 1 0m d ia .) s tructures a re a lso c ommon t o t he s ites a nd t hought t o r epresent c orrals. T he d eposits o f t he p iedmont s ites a re t ypically o ver l m t hick w ith s ome e xceeding 2 m . T hey c onsist o f w eakly w eathered d rift s and i ntrastratified w ith t hin b eds o f a sh . A rtefacts i nclude c hipped s tone, g roundstone, w orked b one a nd p ottery. T he f lint a ssemblages a re d ominated b y t hick s crapers a nd f an s crapers o n t abular f lint ( Figure 1 2). B urins a nd m icroliths a re a lso c ommon . O f t he m icroliths , m inute l unates f orm t he l argest t ype . S mall b ifacial p oints a nd t ransverse a rrowheads a re p resent b ut u ncommon . T echnologically , s mall g lobular c ores t hat s uggest b ipolar f laking c haracterizes t he a ssemblages. L arge a mounts o f a ngular d ebris, t hick p latforms, h igh p latform - i nverse s urface a ngles, a nd p ronounced b ulbs o f p ercussion p oint t o a n e mphasis o n h ard-hammer p ercussion . G roundstone i tems i nclude s addle q uerns a nd h andstones. W orked b one c onsists o f p oints, a wls a nd n eedles. P ottery s herds o ccur i n l ow f requency s howing a c onsistent c ombination o f t hick ( 6-10mm) b uff a nd t an-grey p lain w are w ith t empers o f s hale, c hert a nd s and. A lthough a sh b eds a re c ommon t o t he s ites, o nly o ne s ite, J ebel Q ueisa ( Henry, e t a l 1 981), h as b een r adiocarbon d ated: 5 ,720 ± 1 49 B .P . ( SMU-804). T he p ollen d iagrams f rom b oth t he J ebel e l J ill a nd J ebel Q ueisa d eposits a re d ominated b y c henopods t hus r esembling t he m odern s emi-desert h alophytic f lora o f t he a rea . I nterestingly, c ereal p ollen i s a bsent f rom t hese d iagrams. T he f aunal r emains f rom J ebel e l J ill c onsist m ainly o f c aprids ( Ovis s p., C apra s p., a nd O vis/Capra), t hat w ere p resumably d omesticated , a long w ith B os s p. a nd G azella s p. I n c ontrast t o t he p iedmont s ites o f t his i nterval, t he l owland s ites m ainly c onsist o f s mall, t hin l ithic s catters. P ottery a nd g roundstone a re r are a nd a rchitectural e vidence a bsent. T hese s ettlem ent d ata c losely r esemble t he h istoric B eduoin p attern i n w hich t he p iedmont w as o ccupied i n t he w inter o ver a n e xtended p eriod b y l arge g roups. T hese g roups s ubsequently d ispersed i nto s mall, h ighly m obile c amp u nits t hat o ccupied t he l owlands d uring t he e arly p art o f t he d ry s eason b efore r eturning t o t he u plands f or t he l ate s ummer a nd a utumn. F rom a c ultural-historic p erspective t he C halcolithic s ites a nd t heir a rtefact i nventories s trongly r esemble t hose o f t he T immian (4z1off, 1 972/1973) a s d escribed f rom n earby n ortheastern S inai. T he Cl g d ate f rom J ebel Q ueisa f alls n ear t he e arly e nd o f a s eries o f d ates ( i.e. r anging f rom c a . 6 ,300-4 ,300 B .P .). T he s outh J ordan

3 3

c

d

e

f

b

a

9

2cm .

h

g

i

i

k

F igure 1 2 A rtefacts f rom t he C halcolithic s ites o f J ebel e l J ill a nd J ebel Q ueisa: ( a) t runcation, ( b) b ifacial p oint, ( c-f) l unates, ( g) t abular s craper, ( h) b urin, ( i) m icrolithic c ore, ( j) b acked f lake, ( k) s teep s craper.

3 4

C halcolithic a nd t he T immian p oint t o t he p resence o f e arly p astoral n omads i n t he a rid r eaches o f t he L evant a t a t ime i n w hich m ixed a gricultural e conomies w ere p ursued i n t he b etter w atered a reas t o t he n orth a nd n orthwest.

3 5

B ibliography B ar-Yosef O . L evant. L evant:

( 1981). T he E pipalaeolithic c omplexes i n t he s outhern I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u 3 89-408. P aris , E ditions d u C .N .R .S.

B ar-Yosef O . a nd V andermeersch B . ( 1981). N otes c oncerning t he p ossible a ge o f t he M ousterian l ayers i n Q afzeh C ave. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 2 81-289. P aris , E ditions d u C .N .R .S. B ergman C .A . ( 1981). P oint t ypes i n t he U pper P alaeolithic s equence a t K sar ' Akil, L ebanon. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 19-330 . P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S.

E mery Barbier A . ( n .d.). f orthcoming.

P alynologie d u J ordanie-Sud.

P aleorient:

G ilead I . ( 1981). U pper P alaeolithic t ool a ssemblages f rom t he N egev a nd S inai. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 31-342. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S. G oldberg P . ( 1981). L ate Q uaternary s tratigraphy o f I srael. A n e clectic v iew . I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 5 5-66. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S.

H assan F .A . ( n.d.). P alaeoenvironments o f t he L ate Q uaternary i n t he L evant . U npublished M anuscript 1 980 . H enry D .O . ( 1977). A n e xamination o f t he a rtefact v ariability i n t he N atufian o f P alestine . E retz I srael ( M . S tekelis M emorial V olume) 1 3: 2 29-239. J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity. H enry D .O . ( 1982). T he p rehistory o f s outhern J ordan a nd t he r elations hip w ith t he L evant. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 9 : 4 17-444. H enry D .O . ( 1983). A daptive e volution w ithin t he E pipalaeolithic o f t he N ear E ast. A dvances i n W orld A rchaeology 2 : 9 9-160. H enry D .O . ( 1985). L ate P leistocene e nvironment a nd P alaeolithic a daptions i n s outhern J ordan. I n: A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 6 7-77. L ondon , R outledge a nd K egan P aul. H enry D .O ., H assan F .A., J ones M . a nd H enry K .C . ( 1981). A n i nvestigat ion o f t he p rehistory a nd p alaeoenvironments o f s outhern J ordan ( 1979 f ield s eason). A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 5: 1 13-146 .

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H enry D .O . a nd T urnbull P .F . ( 1985). A rchaeological a nd f aunal e vidence f rom N atufian a nd T imnian s ites i n s outhern J ordan . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 57: 4 5-64. H enry D .O . a nd G arrard A .N . ( n.d.). T or H amar, a n E pipalaeolithic r ockshelter i n s outhern J ordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly : f orthcoming.

J elinek A . ( 1981). T he M iddle P alaeolithic o f t he s outhern L evant f rom t he p erspective o f T abun C ave. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 2 56-280. P aris, E ditions d u C .N.R .S. J ones M . ( 1983). T he Q alkhan a nd H amran , T wo E pipalaeolithic I ndustries F rom S outhern J ordan . D allas , S outhern M ethodist U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis.

K irkbride D . ( 1958). AK ebaran r ockshelter i n W adi M adamagh , n ear P etra , J ordan. M an 5 8 : 5 5-58. K ozloff B . ( 1972/1973). A b rief n ote o n t he l ithic i ndustries o f S inai. M useum H aaretz Y earbook : 4 7-48.

M arks A .E . ( 1981). T he M iddle P alaeolithic o f t he N egev , I srael. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant : 2 872 98 . P aris , E ditions d u C .N .R .S . M arks A .E . a nd S immons A .H . ( 1977). T he N egev K ebaran o f t he H ar H an s . I n A .E . M arks ( ed.) P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev, I srael 2 : 2 33-270. D allas, S .M .U . P ress.

P hillips J .L . a nd M intz E . ( 1977). T he M ushabian . I n O . B ar-Yosef a nd J .L . P hillips ( eds.) P rehistoric I nvestigations i n G ebel M aghara , n orthern S inai. Q edem 7 : 1 49-163 . J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity .

R onen A . ( 1976). T he U pper P alaeolithic i n n orthern I srael, M t. C armel a nd G alilee . I X . C ongres d e l 'UISPP 2 .

3 7

Palaeolithic Sites in the Petra Area Daniel Schyle and Hans-Peter Uerpmann 1.

Introduction

Four weeks of field work in the Petra area in Southern Jordan in October 1983 - mainly aimed at the recovery of palaeoenvironmental evidence for a mapping project of the Tubinger Atlas of the Middle East - also led to the discovery of new Palaeolithic sites. The fieldwork was concentrated in the area around the Nabataean settlement of Sabra, about 8km or three hours walking distance south of the centre of Petra. Our activities were concentrated on the Neolithic periods (see Gebel this volume), but in the course of investigations a number of new Middle, Upper and Epipalaeolithic sites were found and soundings were cut at the late Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic site of Mdamagh (first sounded by Kirkbride (1958)) and in the Epipalaeolithic levels of Sabra I. The report which follows describes the archaeological findings and their geomorphological context. 2.

Middle Palaeolithic

Large surface scatters of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts were found Adh­ at the sites called Adh-Dhaman 3 and Ra's en-Nyazi (Figure 1). Dhaman 3 is situated about 1km southwest of the Neolithic village of Adh-Dhaman which was discovered and briefly described by Kirkbride (1966). The springs of Thawi are only about one hundred metres south of the site. The artefact scatter extends over the slopes around the upper end of a shallow wadi. There are no obvious indications that any in situ layers have been preserved at this site, but one cannot exclude the possibility that the artefacts were originally - and perhaps still are - partially buried in the erosional deposits covering the relatively flat surfaces of the underlying sandstone. The total number of artefacts visible on the surface of Adh-Dhaman 3 must run into thousands. Only some ten implements were collected for documentation purposes. These included the Levallois flakes shown in Figure 2. The impression obtained from this small collection is that the site is similar to the Mousterian site of Rosh Ein Mor on the opposite side of the Wadi Araba (Crew 1976) which is located in a similar environment. The site of Ra'as en-Nyazi is on a low spur on the eastern slope of Wadi Sabra just above the major bend where the wadi changes its direction from north-south to east-west. The whole spur is densely covered with pieces of chert and flint weathering from the underlying strata. Mixed with the natural fragments there is a scatter of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts of which only the examples documented in Figure 2 were collected. The site - which was outside our working area - was 39

1 1

F igure 1 M ap o f s ites s urveyed i n P etra a rea ; 1- M damagh ; 2- S unakh 2 ; 3-A bu S haher s ite; 4 - A dh D haman 2 ; 5-A dh D haman 3 ; 6 - S abra 1 ; 7-S abra 3 ; 8-S abra 4 ; 9-S abra 8 + 9 ; 1 0 A nsab; 1 - R a 's e n-Nyazi.

4 0

o nly v ery b riefly v isited a nd n o c omment c an b e g iven o n i ts p otential f or f urther r esearch .

a rea

o r

W hereas b oth L evallois s ites f ound i n 1 983 a re e roded a nd d eflated s urface s catters, M iddle P alaeolithic a rtefacts f rom i n s itu d eposits w ere f ound d uring t he e xpedition o f 1 984 l ed b y H .G . G ebel. T his s ite , w hich c an o nly b e b riefly m entioned h ere, w as c alled S unakh 2 . I t i s l ocated s ome 2 km s outh-southwest o f P etra . M iddle P alaeolithic a rtefacts w ere f ound t here i n g ravel-layers i ntercalated w ith f ineg rained " playa"-sediments. H .P.U .

3 .

U pper P alaeolithic

T here a re a t l east t hree l ocalities i n t he S abra a rea w here U pper P alaeolithic a rtefacts w ere f ound e roding f rom t he f ine-grained s ediments w hich f ill t he w estern p art o f t he S abra b asin. T hese t hree l ocalities, c alled S abra 4 , 8 a nd 9 , i n t he s equence o f t heir d iscovery, a re o nly a f ew h undred m etres a part a nd c an b e r egarded a s f orming a s ingle s ite . T he U pper P alaeolithic s ite o f A nsab w as i n a s imilar s edimentary e nvironment ( Figure 1 ). T he a rtefacts c ome f rom n aturally e roding s ections i n t he f ine-grained s ediments a t t he t op o f a h igh t errace o n t he e astern s lope o f W adi S abra a bout 5 km s outh o f t he N abataean s ettlement o f S abra. T he t hird U pper P alaeolithic s ite t o b e m entioned h ere i s a lso t he m ost p romising f or f uture r esearch i n t he a rea . I t w as c alled " Abu S haher S ite" i n t he h onour o f o ur B eduin g uide w ho f ound i t. I ts l ocation i s a l ittle m ore t han l km d ue w est o f t he N eolithic v illage o f A dh-Dhaman a t t he f oot o f t he r idge w hich f orms t he w estern b order o f t he A dh-Dhaman b asin . A t t his s ite, a rtefacts w ere a gain f ound e roding f rom a s lope h igh a bove t he p resent w adi b ottom . A lthough t he s ediments a t A bu S haher a re a rchaeological l ayers r ather t han p layad eposits , t he s ite m ay o we i ts e xistence t o t he s ame c ycle o f e nvironmental d evelopments a s t he o ther U pper P alaeolithic s ites i n t he a rea. A s hort d escription o f t he m aterials c ollected a t t hese s ites w ill p rovide t he b asis f or s ome c onclusions r egarding t heir d epositional h istory.

3 .1

S abra 4 , 8a nd 9

T he s mallest U pper P alaeolithic c ollection i s f rom S abra 9 . T his i s l ocated a bout 2 km S W o f t he N abataean t heatre o n t he w estern w adis lope j ust b elow t he e dge o f t he u pper t errace ( ="playa"-surface). T wo e ndscrapers ( Figure 3 b-c) w ere f ound a nd a lso a c ore a nd a c ore t ablet w ith e dge-preparation o f U pper P alaeolithic a ppearance . S abra 8 i s l ocated i n a s imilar s ituation a bout 2 00m w est o f S abra 9 . H ere a n e ndscraper ( Figure 3 a) w as f ound i n s itu i n ag ully-section a bout l m b elow t he s urface o f a f ine g rained s o-called p laya s ediment o f t he S abra b asin. T ogether w ith t his s craper t here w as a b adly p reserved c aprine j aw a nd s ome c harcoal, b oth t oo b rittle t o b e r ecovered. I n t he g ully b elow t his s pot, 1 0 b lades w ere c ollected. O ne o f t hese i s a p rimary c rested b lade , a nd t hree o thers a re p rismatic b lades, t wo w ith

4 1

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F igure 2

1 k

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e4

6

a -d: A dh-Dhaman 3 , l ithic a rtefacts; e -h : l ithic a rtefacts.

4 2

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ri 1 1

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7 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 19 1 , C>

F igure 3

a : S abra 8 , e ndscraper; b -c: S abra 9 , e ndscrapers ; d -e: S abra 8 , b lades ; fi: A nsah, b lades a nd b ladelets ; k : A nsah, E l-Wad-point; 1 : A nsah, c ircular e ndscraper; m : A nsah, b ladelet c ore.

4 3

fe iI • c 2>

p u i p il i n p ur imp l u pi 6 1

F igure 4

S abra 4 , l ithic a rtefacts.

4 4

• . G2 .

a p ointed e nd ( Figure 3 d-e). O ut o f e ight b lades w ith a p reserved b utt, s even h ave a p unctiform p latform . T he e xception i s a p iece w ith c ortex a ttached t o t he d orsal s ide, i n w hich t he s triking p latform i s l arge a nd t he p reparation o f t he e dge m inimal. T he i n s itu e nd s craper a lso h as a p unctiform p latform . T he l argest c ollection w as m ade a t S abra 4 w here U pper P alaeol ithic a rtefacts w ere s trewn o ver a d enuded b edrock-terrace a bout t wot hirds t he w ay u p t he w estern s lope o f W adi S abra , a bout 1 .5km S W o f t he N abataean s ettlement. S ince t hese a rtefacts h ad o bviously e roded f rom t he s ediments h igher o n t he s lope, n o c are w as t aken w ith r egard t o s ampling t echniques . A t otal o f 5 5 p ieces w ere s elected, i ncluding b urins, b road e ndscrapers o n f lakes ( some o f t hem c ircular), e nds crapers o n b lades , r etouched b ladelets , a nd a f ew o ther r etouched p ieces. A n umber o f b lades/bladelets a nd c ores w ere c ollected i n a ddition t o t he t ools. T wo-thirds o f t he b lades a re i ncurvate a nd m ore t han h alf o f t hem a re a lso t wisted. I n a ll c ases t he t wist i s c ounterc lockwise i n t he d irection o f p ercussion . A ll t he b lades , i ncluding t he r etouched s pecimens, a re s mall. T hey r ange f rom 5 t o 1 8mm i n w idth , t he m ajority b eing b etween 9 a nd 1 2mm w ide. T he c ores c orrespond t o t he d ebitage , m ost o f t hem b eing b ladelet c ores, o ften w ith t wisted n egatives. I t i s o ften d ifficult t o d ecide w hether a s pecimen i s a c ore, a b urin , o r a c arinated s craper. A s election o f i mplements f rom S abra 4 i s d epicted i n F igure 4 . I n a n a ttempt t o d etermine w hether t here w as a ny m aterial l eft i n a p rimary c ontext a t S abra 4 , w e m ade a s mall s ounding a t t he e dge w here t he b edrock t errace w as o verlain b y t he f ine-grained s ediment o f t he u pper s lope o f W adi S abra . W e f ound r edeposited s lope-wash c ont aining a rtefacts s imilar t o t hose c ollected o n t he s urface . A f ew c entimetres b elow t he s urface t he s ediment b ecame e xtremely h ard a nd a s mall s ection c hiselled i nto t he c oncreted l ayer r evealed t races o f a n i n s itu h earth . A pparently t he s lope w ash a ccumulated d uring t he U pper P alaeolithic o ccupation o f t he s ite.

3 .2

A nsab

A t otal o f 1 8 a rtefacts w ere c ollected f rom a n o utcrop o f " playa"s ediment s ome 2 0m a bove t he p resent s pring o f A in a l-Ansab i n W adi S abra . T he c ollection c onsists m ainly o f u nretouched m edium s ized b lades . W ith o ne e xception t he s triking p latforms a re h ighly r educed. O ut o f t hree b ladelets o ne i s r etouched ( Figure 3 k) a nd p ointed. T he o nly o ther t ool i s ac ircular e ndscraper ( Figure 3 1). A l arge c ortical f lake w as u sed a s a b urin-like c ore f or t he p roduction o f t wisted b ladelets ( Figure 3 m). O nly o ne o f t he t hree b ladelets f ound i s s lightly t wisted.

3 .3

A bu-Shaher S ite

T he s teep s lope b elow t he s ite i s s trewn w ith a rtefacts e roding f rom t he a rchaeological l ayers . O ne h undred a nd t wenty p ieces, w hich w ere m ainly f ound d ownslope o f t he s ite i tself, w ere t aken f or s tudy. S ome o f t hem a re t ools , i ncluding e ndscrapers o n f lakes a nd b lades , n otched a nd/or d enticulated p ieces, a nd l ightly r etouched b lades.

4 5

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r i l l i i i ir i i ip 1 1 1 1 1 19 1 1r iqu il imp ii 0

F igure 5

A bu S haher,

1

ä

t

l ithic a rtefacts .

4 6

4

s

F airly l arge b lades a re t he m ost c onspicuous e lements i n t he c ollect ion . A s ubstantial n umber o f t hem h ave l arge, u nfacetted s triking p latforms w ith t races o f d orsal r eduction. A s mall n umber o f t he b lades , w hich w ere s lightly s maller o n a verage , h ave t he h ighly r educed p latforms t ypical o f U pper P alaeolithic b lades. B lades o f b oth k inds o ften h ave c asual r etouch a long t heir e dges o r t erminal e nds. W ellf ormed e ndscrapers o ccur, b ut i rregular s hapes a re c ommon. C ores a re r are a nd r estricted t o s mall p yramidal b ladelet f orms. B ladelets a re a lso r are a nd o nly o ne o ut o f a t otal o f f ive s how a ny t wisting. T here i s a f ragment o f a b acked b ladelet a nd t here a re t wo m icroburins o n b ladelets ( Figure 5 ). W hereas t hese l ast e lements m ight i ndicate a n E pipalaeolithic o ccupation o f t he s ite , t he r est o f o ur f inds o bviously b elong t o a n U pper P alaeolithic o ccupation s imilar t o t he o ne d escribed b y M arks f rom E in A c iev i n t he N egev ( Marks 1 976). W hen c ompared w ith e ach o ther , t he U pper P alaeolithic s ites i n t he a rea s outh o f P etra s how c onsiderable d iversity . I t i s p ossible t hat t here a re t wo i ndependent i ndustrial t raditions ( see a lso G ilead 1 980). A lthough o ur s urface c ollections w ere n ot o btained s ystematically a nd d o n ot a llow f or a ny d etailed s tatistical o r m etrical a nalysis , w e h ave t he i mpression t hat t he i ndustries f rom S abra 8 a nd A nsab a re s imilar, w hilst t hat f rom A bu S haher i s c ompletely d ifferent. T hat f rom S abra 4 i s d ifferent a gain . A pplying t he c oncept m entioned a bove, A bu S haher w ould b e g rouped w ith t he " Levantine A urignacian" w hereas S abra 8 a nd A nsab w ould r epresent t he " Ahmarian" t radition. S abra 4 p robably r epresents a l ate m anifestation o f t he f ormer. T hese g roupings a re o nly t entative , a nd a part f rom S abra 4 t hey d o n ot h ave s trong c hronological i mplications. F rom t heir s edimentary c ontext, S abra 8 a nd A nsab s eem t o b elong t o t he f inal p hase o f " playa" d eposition i n t heir r espective w adi b asins. T he o ccupational l evels a t A bu S haher, w hich l ies o utside t he s andstone a rea i n w hich " playas" c ould f orm , r est o n t op o f a t hick g ravel f ill w hich m ight c orrelate w ith t he f ine-grained s ediments i n t he o ther a reas. T he d usty s ediments c ontaining t he a rchaeological h orizons a re n ot s uggestive o f f luvial d eposition . T he l ocation o f S abra 4 , i ndicates t hat t he w adi h ad a lready c ut d eeply i nto t he " playa" f ill o f t he S abra b asin b y t he t ime o f o ccupation. T here w as, h owever, e nough h umidity t o a llow t he a ccumulation o f a f ine-grained s lope-wash s ediment. C hanging c limatic c onditions m ight h ave b een a f actor b ehind t he d iversity o f U pper P alaeolithic i ndustries. I n a ny c ase, e xcavation a nd d etailed s tudy o f t hese s ites s eems w orthwhile, p articularly b ecause t hey p romise t o g ive v aluable p alaeoenvironmental i nformation i n a ddition t o w ell-defined a rchaeological d ata. H .P.U .

4 .

E pipalaeolithic

4 .1

T he r ockshelter o f M damagh

T his s ite, w hich i s o n t he n orthern p erimeter o f P etra ( Figure 1 ), w as d iscovered a nd f irst e xcavated b y D . K irkbride i n 1 956 ( Kirkbride , 1 958). S he d ug t wo t renches i n a n E -W d irection, p erpendicular t o t he r ear w all o f t he s helter. T he m icrolithic t ools r ecovered f rom t he

4 7

. a o C O E C O d Z

4 8

E -W-section o f K irkbride 's

s outhern t rench ( A) w ere c lassified a s " Micro-Kebaran", b ecause o f t he s mall s ize o f t he p redominating b acked a nd t runcated b ladelets. T he o ther a rtefacts f rom t his a nd f rom t he n orthern t rench ( B) r emained u np ublished a nd a re n ow u nder a nalysis b y B . B yrd ( pers. c ommunication). D uring o ur s tay i n P etra , w e e xcavated a v ery s mall s ounding a t M damagh t o r e-establish t he s tratigraphy a nd t o r ecover o rganic m aterials f or r adiocarbon-dating. W e f ound t he n orthern t rench c ollapsed , w hereas t he s outhern t rench w as s till o pen a nd t he s ections u ndisturbed a nd e xtremely r ich i n f aunal r emains a nd a rtefacts. T he s outhern f ace o f t he s outhern t rench o f D . K irkbride i s s hown i n F igure 6 . W hen K irkbride e xcavated t he s ite , t he u ppermost d eposits h ad a lready b een r emoved. S he m entions t hat b recciated r emnants o f t hese d eposits w ere s till a dhering t o t he r ear w all o f t he s helter. O ur s ounding m easured 2 0cm x 7 0cm a nd w as a pproximately l m i n d epth. T he s ediment w as s ieved t hrough a l mm m esh a nd t he f inds s eparated b y n atural l ayers ( and w ithin l ayer A b y a rtificial d ivisions). B ecause o f t he r estricted e xcavation a rea , o nly s mall n umbers o f a rtefacts c ould b e r ecovered f rom e ach l ayer. A t otal o f 2 252 a rtefacts ( tools i ncluded) w ere e xtracted f rom t he e xcavated s ediment a nd c ollected f rom t he s urface. R egarding t he d ebitage , b ladelets e xceed b lades s ensu s tricto i n a ll l ayers. C ores a re r are a nd m icroburins a re r epresented b y o nly t hree e xamples r estricted t o t he u pper t wo s trata o f l ayer A . C hips c onstitute n early h alf o f t he a ssemblage. M ost o f t he 9 0 t ools a re m icroliths: n onm icrolithic t ools c onsist o f f our s crapers, t wo b urins a nd e leven r etouched f ragments. T he m ost c ommon m icrolith i s av ery s mall t wisted b ladelet w ith n ibbled r etouch o n t he v entral f ace ( Figure 7 ). W hen b roken , t he f ragments a re o ften l ess t han 4 mm l ong. B acked b ladelets w hich a re s ometimes t runcated, a nd b ladelets w ith f ine, o bverse r etouch o ccur a lmost e xclusively i n l ayers A l-A2 ( Figure 8 ). T he i nverser etouched b ladelets a re c oncentrated i n t he l ower l ayers. A lthough t he n umber o f t ools e xcavated i n t he 1 983 s ounding w ere t oo s mall t o a llow d etailed s tatements t o b e m ade a bout t he c hronol ogical p osition o f t he a ssemblage , i t i s o bvious t hat o nly t he m aterial f rom t he u pper p art o f t he 1 983 s ounding c orresponds t o a t rue K ebaran a ssemblage . T he t ypology o f t he l ower l ayers i s r eminiscent o f L ate U pper P alaeolithic a ssemblages s uch a s E in A qev E ast ( D34) ( Ferring, 1 977) a nd H ar L avan I V ( Goring-Morris , 1 980) i n t he C entral J ordan V alley. T he d ifference i n t he c omposition o f t he s mall 1 983 a ssemblage ( dominated b y i nversely r etouched c urved b ladelets) a nd t he p ublished a ssemblage o f t he 1 956 e xcavation ( dominated b y c urved a nd o bliquely t runcated b acked b ladelets) m ay b e r elated t o K irkbride 's t rench b eing l ocated i n a p art o f t he s helter w here t he o riginal f ill w as m ore c omp letely p reserved, i .e. m ore o f t he u pper d eposits w ere s till i n p lace . O ur s ounding o nly i ncluded t he l ower l evels o f t hese u pper s ediments , o f w hich t races c ould s till b e s een a ttached t o t he r ear w all o f t he s helter. U nfortunately, t he t wo d ated b one s amples ( 1) d o n ot s upport t ypological c lassification :

4 9

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F igure 7 M damagh ,

l evels A 3 -E ,

l ithic a rtefacts.

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F igure 8

M damagh, s urface a nd l evels A l-A2,

5 1

l ithic a rtefacts.

.G 1

L ayer A 2:

K N3593 1 4300 ± 6 50 b .p.,

1 2350 b .c.

L ayer D l:

K N3594 1 5300 ± 6 00 b .p.,

1 3350 b .c.

A lthough t he d ates a re i n c orrect s tratigraphic o rder, t hey s eem t o b e a bout 2 000 y ears t oo l ate f or t he p eriod s uggested b y t he t ool t ypology. I t i s w orth n oting t hat s everal o ther r ecently d ated r adioc arbon s amples f rom t he E pipalaeolithic o f J ordan ( e.g . f rom K haraneh I V ( Muheisen, 1 983)) a nd f rom t he W adi e l J ilat s ites ( Gowlett , H edges , L aw a nd P erry, 1 986) g ave a berrant o r a t l east u nexpected d ates. T he t ool t ypology s uggests t hat t he r ockshelter o f M damagh m ay b e o f c onsiderable i mportance f or t he e xamination o f t he U pper P alaeolithic-Epipalaeolithic t ransition i n t he s outhern L evant. U p u ntil n ow , t he n umber o f s ites t entatively a ssigned t o as imilar L ate U pper P alaeolithic i ndustry ( probably i n t he A hmarian t radition a s d efined b y M arks ( 1981) a nd G ilead ( 1981)) i s r estricted t o t he a bove m entioned t hree s ites o f E in A qev E ast, W adi F azael X a nd H ar L avan I V . M damagh i s t he o nly s ite w ith a p otential f or f aunal a nalysis a nd r adiocarbon-dating. F urthermore, w ithin t he L evant a s a w hole, o nly t he s ites o f K sar A kil ( Tixier , 1 970) a nd J iita I I ( Hours , 1 976) i n t he L ebanon s eem t o h ave u nbroken s tratigraphic s uccessions r unning f rom L ate U pper P alaeolithic i nto K ebaran . O ther s ites ( of t he L evantine A urignacian t radition) p robably s ynchronous t o t his i ndustry a re a lso r are a nd o nly o ne s ite, E in A qev ( D31) ( Marks , 1 976) i n t he C entral N egev, h ad e nough c harcoal p reserved t o b e d ated. F urther i nformation o n t he K ebaran i ndustry f ound a t M damagh i n 1 956 a nd n ow u nder a nalysis b y B . B yrd, w ill c ertainly b e v ery h elpful i n s tudying t he r elationship b etween t he E arly E pipalaeolithic a nd L ate U pper P alaeolithic i n t he L evant.

4 .2

S abra 3

T his s urface s ite i s s ituated o n an arrow s pur, f ormed b y t he d eep i ncision o f W adi S abra a nd o ne o f i ts t ributaries i nto t he s oft s ilty d eposits s ome 8 00m s outh o f S abra ( Figure 1 ). A t hin s catter o f a rtefacts c overing a n a rea o f a bout 2 0 x3 0m w as f irst n oticed b y H .P . U erpmann . D uring a s econd v isit, s everal t ools o f E pipalaeolithic t ype w ere f ound a nd a ll t he s urface a rtefacts w ere c ollected. T he f lints w ere c oncentrated i n s mall e rosional c hannels a nd i t w as o bvious t hat t hey h ad b een c onsiderably d ispersed b y w ater-action. 1 791 a rtefacts w ere c ollected ( including 7 6 t ools) m ade o f w hite p atinated b rown c hert a nd w hite p atinated g rey f lint. B oth r awm aterials a re l ocally a vailable a t t he b ottom o f W adi S abra . T he d ebitage i s c haracterized b y r ather l arge b lanks. T rue b ladelets a re r are. C ores ( Figure 9 ) a re v ery n umerous a nd a lso o f c onsiderable s ize. A s m ost o f t hem a re b lade a nd n ot b ladelet-cores, t he n umber o f m icroliths l ost d ue t o e rosion i s p robably n ot s ignificant. M icrob urins ( Figure 1 0) o ccur i n m oderate f requencies a nd t he d ebitage i ncludes f our c hamfer-spalls ( Figure 9 ). C hunks a re m ore n umerous t han c hips, b ut t his m ay b e r elated t o e rosional f actors.

5 2

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i

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F igure 9

S abra 3 ,

l ithic a rtefacts.

5 3

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2 cm

3

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E lag 2 1 . -

F igure 1 0 S abra 3 , l ithic a rtefacts.

5 4

N otched p ieces p redominate a mong t he n on-microlithic t ool g roup ( Figure 9 ), a nd t hese a re p robably t he w aste p roducts o f t he p roduction o f m icroliths b y s imple s napping o f n otched b lanks. S crapers a re m ore n umerous t han b urins . A s a lready i ndicated b y t he c hamfer-spalls, c hamfered p ieces o ccur a s w ell. T he r emaining n on-microlithic t ools i nclude s everal t runcated a nd r etouched b lades a s w ell a s s ome r etouched f ragments. A s ingle, d ouble p atinated b lade f ragment w ith i nvasive r etouch , m ade o f d ark b luish-grey, h omogenous f lint s eems t o b e i ntrusive. T he G eometrics c omprise b roken r ectangles a nd s everal s ymetric a nd a symetric t rapezes ( Figure 1 0). A mongst t he n on-geometric m icroliths t here a re s ingle t runcated b acked b ladelets a s w ell a s b roken t runcated b acked b ladelets, o f w hich s everal p ieces m ay b e f ragments o f t rapezes. M ost o f t he t ool b lanks b oth f or g eometrics a nd n on-geometric m icroliths a re b lades. T his c orresponds w ith t he s ize o f t he c ores .

4 .3

A dh-Dhaman 2

A s mall s catter o f a rtefacts w as c ollected s ome 2 00m w est o f t he N eolithic t ell o f A dh-Dhaman ( Figure 1 ). T he a rtefacts w ere d ispersed o n ag entle s lope. A s mall s ounding p roved t hat t here w ere n o i n s itu d eposits. D ue t o t he p oor p reservation o f t he s ite, o nly a l imited, u nsystematic s urface c ollection w as m ade. T he t ool a ssemblage i s v ery s imilar t o t hat f rom S abra 3 ( Figure 1 1). T wo c omplete a symetric t rapezes, s everal b roken t runcated b acked b lades a nd b ladelets, a s w ell a s s imple b roken b acked b ladelets a nd t he p roducts o f t he m icroburin t echnique a re p resent. T he r emainder o f t he a ssemblage i s c omposed o f o ne e ndscraper, o ne b urin a nd e ight c ores. T he a ssemblages f rom S abra 3 a nd A dh-Dhaman 2 a re s imilar t o t he a ssemblages f rom t he s ites r eported f rom S outhern J ordan a s b elonging t o t he " Qalkhan" ( Henry, 1 982 a nd t his v olume; J ones, 1 983), t o t he " Falitian" a ssemblages o f J abrud I II, 3 ( Rust, 1 959), E l K owm 1 , A in J uwal a nd A arida S ud ( Cauvin , M .-C ., 1 981) i n S yria a nd t o t he " Geometric K ebaran A " s ites, K hiriath A rieh I a nd H ofith ( Bar-Josef, 1 970) i n t he c oastal p lain o f I srael. A ll t hose s ites a re c haracterized b y " microliths" w hich a re f requently m ade f rom b lades a nd b y t he p resence o r e ven p redominance o f a symetric t rapezes a mong t he g eometrics. I n s tratigraphic t erms, a ssemblages o f t his t ype h ave b een r eported f rom b elow a n E arly N atufian a ssemblage a t E l K owm 1 a nd f rom b etween a N atufian a nd a K ebaran a ssemblage a t J abrud I II, 3 . A s f ar a s I k now , n o r adiocarbon d ates h ave y et b een p ublished f or t his i ndustry. H owever i ts s tratigraphic c ontext s uggests a c hronological p osition c lose t o t hat o f t he G eometric K ebaran A . M .-C . C auvin c ons iders t his i ndustry a s ac hronological p hase o f t he G eometric K ebaran . O wing t o t he l ack o f r adiocarbon d ates , t his c annot b e p roved a t t he p resent t ime. H opefully d atable m aterials w ill b e o btained f rom t he o ngoing e xcavations a t E l K owm 1 o r f rom S outhern J ordan.

4 .4

S abra 1 T he

s ite i s l öcated a t 8 00m a .s.l. o n t he s outhern b order o f

5 5

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F igure 1 1 A d D haman ,

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l ithic a rtefacts .

5 6

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. £ _.

C. .

S abra b asin , a bout f our h ours w alk ( ca. 8 km a s t he c row f lies) s outh o f P etra ( Figure 1 ). I t i s s ituated a t t he f oot o f a s andstone c liff, o verlooking a n e xtensive p laya-surface t o t he n orth . T he p resent s ite c onsists o f a n a rtefact c overed c one o f s ediment a t t he b ase o f as andstone c liff. T his c one i s t he r emnant o f a o net ime m ore e xtensive s ite, w hich h as f or t he m ost p art b een s everely e roded. T he a rtefacts l ittered o ver t he s urface r epresent t he c ontents o f t he e roded p arts o f t he s ite. T he r emaining s ediments h ave b een p rotected f rom e rosion b y s everal h uge b locks o f s andstone w hich h ave f allen f rom t he c liff b ehind. T he s urface s catter o f a rtefacts w as s urveyed b y H .G . G ebel i n 1 981 ( Gebel, 1 983/84). B ecause t he s ite h ad E pipalaeolithic a nd N eolithic a rtefacts o n t he s urface a nd w hat a ppeared t o b e i n s itu a rchaeological s ediments , t he t esting o f t he s ite w as o ne o f t he m ain a ims o f t he 1 983 s eason ( Gebel, t his v olume). T wo w eeks w ere d edicated t o c utting a s mall s ounding t o e xamine t he s tratigraphy o f t he s ediments w hich h ad n ot b een a ffected b y e rosion . T he s ite w as e xcavated b y 1 0cm a rtificial l evels ( Figure 1 2). T he e xcavated s ediments w ere s ieved t hrough m eshs o f 4a nd l mm . O wing t o l ack o f t ime, t he s ounding w as n ot e xcavated t o t he s terile s oil. A n e xaminat ion o f t he e xposed s ection ( Figure 1 2) r evealed t wo p rincipal u nits o f s edimentation . L ayer 1 .

A d ark b lack t o g rey c oloured, s andy d eposit a t t he t he s ection .

t op

o f

L ayer 2 .

A l ighter , r eddish b rown c oloured, s andy d eposit a t t he b ase o f t he s ection , c ontaining d iffuse l enses o f a shy s ediment, p resumably t he f illings o f f ormer r odent-holes.

D uring t he e xcavation , w e n oticed t hat t he p rincipal d iagnostic l ithics f rom l ayer 1 w ere a rrowheads, c haracteristic o f K hiamian a nd E arly N eolithic a ssemblages, w hilst t he m ain d iagnostic e lement f rom l ayer 2 w ere g eometric m icroliths. A s ar esult, t he f inds f rom l ayer 1 w ere a nalysed b y H .G . G ebel a nd t he f inds f rom l ayer 2 b y m yself. D ue t o t he i nclination o f t he s urface, t he a rea e xcavated i ncreased f rom t he t op t owards t he b ase. A s a r esult a m uch l arger n umber o f a rtefacts w ere r ecovered f rom t he b asal l evels. H owever, t he n umber o f t ools p er a rtificial l evel a re i n g eneral t oo l ow t o b e c ons idered i n i solation a nd s o f or t he p urpose o f a nalysis, t he m aterial f rom 2 0,20 t o 1 9,90 a .d. w ere t reated a s o ne e ntity - l ayer 2 A , a nd t he m aterial f rom 1 9 ,90 - 1 9,50 a .d. a s a s econd e ntity - l ayer 2 B . T he l ithics r ecovered f rom l ayer 2 a re i n g eneral o f v ery s mall s ize, a s i s i ndicated b y t he s mall d imensions o f t he c ores ( Figure 1 3), a nd t he h igh n umber o f c hips r ecovered. T his c ould r esult f rom p roblems o f a ccess t o r aw-material. A t otal o f 6 99 a rtefacts ( including t ools) w ere r ecovered f rom l ayer 2 A . O nly t wo m icroburins w ere f ound a mongst t he d ebitage ( Figure 1 4). C ores a re c ompletely a bsent, w hilst c hips a re v ery n umerous. T ools i n l ayer 2 A a re a lso r are. T he n on-microlithic t ools ( Figure 1 4) c onsist m ainly o f r etouched p ieces. T wo b roken n otched

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6 1

a rrowheads, t wo e ndscrapers, o ne t runcation a nd o ne b roken E l-Khiam p oint r epresent t he r emainder o f t he n on-microlithic t ools. G eometrics ( Figure 1 4) a re r epresented b y t wo s teep r etouched l unates, t wo H elwanl unates a nd o ne t rapeze/rectangle, a nd t he n on-geometric m icroliths ( Figure 1 4) m ainly b y b roken b acked a nd r etouched a s w ell a s t wo n otched b ladelets. A lthough t he ' number o f t ools r ecovered f rom l ayer 2 A i s v ery l imited, t he c haracteristic H elwan-lunates a nd t he E l-Khiam p oint a llow a t entative c hronological p lacement o f t he i ndustry t o b etween t he E arly N atufian a nd K hiamian. U nfortunately , t he H elwan-lunates a s w ell a s t he E l-Khiam p oint, c ome f rom t he s ame a rtificial l evel, s o i t s eems a s i f b oth i ndustries h ave b een m ixed b y r odent a ctivities i n t his c ontact-zone b etween E pipalaeolithic a nd E arly N eolithic d eposits. T his i s a lso i ndicated i n t he s ection ( Figure 1 2). 1 819 a rtefacts ( tools i ncluded) w ere r ecovered f rom l ayer 2 B . A mongst t he d ebitage a re m any m icroburins. C ores a re r are w hilst c hips a re a gain n umerous. T he n umber o f t ools i n l ayer 2 B i s c onsiderably h igher t han i n 2 A ( Figure 1 5). N on-microlithic t ools i nclude m ainly s crapers. T he r emainder a re f or t he m ost p art r etouched p ieces a s w ell a s s ome t runcations, b urins a nd o ne b orer. G eometrics c omprise m ainly H elwan-lunates a s w ell a s b roken t runcated b acked b ladelets, w hich f or t he m ost p art m ay b e f ragments o f t rapeze-rectangles. O nly s ix c omplete t rapeze/rectangles a nd o ne s teep-retouched l unate h ave b een f ound. M ost n umerous a mong t he n on-geometric m icroliths ( Figure 1 5) a re b roken b acked, b roken r etouched a nd n otched b ladelets. O ne m icrog ravette a nd t hree L a M ouillah-points a re t he m ost c haracteristic p ieces; t he r est c onsist o f a f ew o btuse b acked b ladelets a nd o ne r etouched b ladelet. N either l unates, n or t rapeze-rectangles c learly p redominate i n l ayer 2 B. A l ook a t t he d istribution o f t he c haracteristic g eometrics p er a rtificial l ayer d oes n ot s how a p redominance o f l unates i n t he u pper, o r o f t rapeze-rectangles i n t he l ower p art o f 2 B , s o t he c lassification o f t he i ndustry r emains u nclear. A n E arly N atufian d ate i s i ndicated b y t he h igh f requencies o f H elwan-lunates, h owever t he n umerous t rapeze-rectangles w ould f it b etter i nto a G eometric K ebaran A -assemblage. T he u nusual c omposition o f t he t ools c ould b e e xplained b y t he r estricted e xcavation-area d istorting t he t ool-frequencies i n t he r esulting s mall t ool s ample. T he m ost p robable e xplanation h owever s eems t o b e am ixing o f E arly N atufian a nd G eometric K ebaran A r emains a t t he s ite b y t he a ctivities o f r odents a s i s a lso i ndicated b y t he d iffuse a shy f lecks i n t he s ediments ( see a bove). T he G eometric K ebaran A m ay r emain u ndisturbed i n t he l ower u nexcavated b ase o f t he s ection. T hus, t he s tratigraphy c an b e s ummarized a s f ollows: T he u pper l evels o f S abra 1 ( layer 1 ) c ontain K hiamian t o N eolithic a rtefacts w hilst t he l ower l evels ( layers 2 A-B) c ontain p redominantly E pipalaeolithic a rtefacts b elonging t o t he E arly N atufian a nd p robably t he G eometric K ebaran. A f act o f i mportance i s t he o bvious c ontinuity i n s ettlement l ocation f rom t he G eometric K ebaran t hrough E arly ( and p erhaps e ven L ate) N atufian t o K hiamian a nd N eolithic t imes a t t he

6 2

s ite. S imilar s ettlements a re r are i n t he L evant. A s uccession o f G eometric K ebaran t o N atufian l ayers h ave b een f ound a t H ayonim t errace ( Henry, L eroi-Gourhan , D avis, 1 981) a nd i n s helter I II a t J abrud ( Rust, 1 950), b ut o nly a t N ahal O ren t errace ( Stekelis, Y izraeli, 1 963; N oy , L egge, H iggs, 1 973) a nd t he t errace a t E l K hiam ( Gonzales E chegaray, 1 966) d oes t he s equence e xtend f urther. T he m ost c omplete s equences a t N ahal O ren a nd E l K hiam a re h owever t he m ost p roblematic o nes a s w ell: m ost s cholars a ccept t hat a t E l K hiam t he g radient o f t he t errace s lope h as r esulted i n m ixed i ndustries. T he s ituation a t N ahal O ren t errace s eems t o b e s imilar o r a t l east i s v ery c omplex . U nfortunately, t he s ite o f S abra 1 s eems t o b e n o e xception a mong t hese m ulti-component s ites. D .S.

5 .

C onclusions

U p u ntil n ow , o nly a f ew d ays f ieldwork h as b een i nvested i n P alaeolithic r esearch i n t he P etra a rea. I t s eems o bvious, h owever, t hat t here i s e normous p otential f or s tudies i nto t he a rchaeology a nd e nvironmental h istory o f t he l ater h alf o f t he U pper P leistocene. B eginning w ith t he M iddle P alaeolithic o f S unakh 2 a nd e xtending t o t he L ate E pipalaeolithic o f S abra 1 t here a re a rchaeological d eposits o f a ll m ajor P alaeolithic u nits i n d iscrete g eological c ontexts. M ost o f t he s ites h ave f air t o g ood f aunal p reservation , a nd a ccording t o t he n ature o f t he s ediments i t i s l ikely t hat t here i s p ollen p reservation a s w ell. A ny a pproach t o e xcavation o f t he P alaeolithic s ites i n t he P etra a rea w ill t herefore r equire s pecialists i n g eology, z oology a nd b otany. L ogistic p roblems i n a n a rea w here c amel a nd d onkey a re s till t he o nly m eans o f t ransportation a dd t o t he d ifficulties o f p lanning a n e xcavation c ampaign a nd g etting i t f unded. N evertheless, t he h igh s cientific p otential o f t his a rea s hould f inally i nvoke e nough s upport f or a c ontinuation o f o ur w ork i n t he n ear f uture .

N otes 1 .

W e w ant t o e xpress o ur g ratitude t o W . T aute a nd J . F reundlich o f t he I nstitut f i ll - U r- u nd F ruhgeschichte d er U niversität z u K öln f or d ating t he M damagh s amples.

2 .

E nglish e dited b y A ndrew G arrard.

6 3

B ibliography B ar-Yosef O . ( 1970). T he E pipalaeolithic C ultures o f P alestine. J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis.

C auvin M .C . ( 1981). L 'epipaleolithique d e S yrie d 'apres l es p remieres r echerches d ans l a c uvette d 'el K owm ( 1978/79). I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 75-388. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S. C rew H .L . ( 1976). T he M ousterian s ite o f R osh E in M or. I n A .E . M arks ( ed.) P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev , I srael 2 : 7 5-112.

F erring C .R . ( 1977). T he l ate U pper P alaeolithic s ite o f E in A qev E ast. I n A .E . M arks ( ed.) P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev , I srael 2 : 8 1-118 .

G ebel H .G . ( 1983-84). S abra 1 u nd d ie W adi Systeme u m P etra/Wadi M usa . A rchiv f ür O rientforschung 2 9-30 : 2 82-284. G ilead I . ( 1981). T he U pper P alaeolithic i n S inai a nd t he N egev . S ites i n G ebel M aghara , K adesh B arnea a nd N ahal Z in . J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis. G onzalez E chegaray J . ( 1964 , 1 966). E xcavaciones e n l a t erraza d e " el K hiam" 1 , 2 . B ibliotheca P raehistorica H ispana 5 . M adrid , I nstituto E spanol d e P rehistoria d e l a U niversidad d e M adrid. G oring-Morris A .N . ( 1980). U pper P alaeolithic s ites f rom W adi F azael, J ordan V alley. P aleorient 6 : 1 73-197. G owlett J .A .J ., H edges R .E .M ., L aw , I .A . a nd P erry C . ( 1986). R adiocarbon d ates f rom t he O xford A MS s ystem : A rchaeometry d atelist 4 . A rchaeometry 2 8 .2: 2 06-221.

H enry D .O . ( 1982). T he p rehistory o f s outhern J ordan a nd r elationships w ith t he L evant. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 0 9.4: 4 17-444. H enry D .O ., L eroi-Gourhan A . a nd D avis S . ( 1981). T he e xcavation o f H ayonim T errace. A n e xamination o f T erminal P leistocene c limatic a nd a daptive c hanges. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 8 : 3 3-58. H ours F . ( 1976). L 'epipaleolithique a u L iban . R esultats a cquis e n 1 975. I X . C ongres d e l 'UISPP 3 : 1 06-130.

6 4

J ones M . ( 1983). T he Q alkhan a nd H amran , T wo E pipalaeolithic I ndustries F rom S outhern J ordan . D allas, S outhern M ethodist U niversity: D octoral T hesis.

K irkbride D . ( 1958). AK ebaran r ockshelter i n W adi M adamagh , n ear P etra , J ordan. M an 5 8 : 5 5-58.

M arks A .E . ( ed.) ( 1976). P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev, I srael 1 . D allas, S .M .U . P ress. M arks A .E . ( 1976). E in A gev, a l ate L evantine U pper P alaeolithic s ite i n t he N ahal A gev. I n A .E . M arks ( ed.) P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev , I srael 1 : 2 27-292. D allas , S .M .U . P ress. M arks A .E . ( ed.) ( 1977). P rehistory a nd P alaeoenvironments i n t he C entral N egev , I srael 2 . D allas , S .M .U . P ress. M arks A .E . ( 1981). T he U pper P alaeolithic o f t he N egev. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 43-352. P aris , E ditions d u C .N.R .S. M uheisen M . ( 1983). L a p rehistoire e n J ordanie. R echerches s ur l 'epipalaeolithigue. L 'exemple d u g isement d e K haraneh I V . B ordeaux, U niversity o f B ordeaux I : U npublished D octoral T hesis, 3 eme c ycle.

N oy T ., L egge A .J . a nd H iggs E .S. ( 1973). R ecent e xcavations a t N ahal O ren , I srael. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 9: 7 5-99.

S tekelis M . a nd Y izraeli T . ( 1963). E xcavations a t N ahal O ren. P reliminary r eport. I srael E xploration J ournal 2 : 2 16-217.

T ixier J . ( 1970). L 'abri s ous r oche d e K sar ' Agil. L a c ampagne d e f ouilles 1 969. B ulletin d u M us e d e B eyrouth 3 3: 1 74-191.

6 5

L ate E pipalaeolithic - A ceramic N eolithic s ites i n t he P etra a rea H ans G eorg G ebel

1 .

I ntroduction

R esear 0 i nto t he L ate E pipalaeolithic - E arly N eolithic o f t he P etra a rea i s b eing u ndertaken t o r econstruct t he d evelopment o f s ettlement a nd r esource e xploitation i n a n e cologically h ighly d ifferentiated, g eographically i solated r egion m arginal t o c entres o f n eolithization , d uring p eriods o f e arly s edentism a nd i ncreasing f oodr esource m anagement ( late 1 0th t o l ate 7 th m illennium B C). T he s tudy i s a lso b eing m ade i n o rder t o t est n on-regional e xplanatory m odels o f n eolithization. P rior t o 1 981, o ne _ Natufian ( Baida) a nd t hree P PNB s ites ( Baida , a d-Daman a nd S haqarat M usai 'id) w ere k nown ( Kirkbride 1 966) i n t he g reater P etra a rea . S ince t hen, t he a uthor h as u ndertaken t wo l ong a nd t hree s hort s easons o f f ield w ork i n t he r egion a nd f ound f urther e vidence f or i ntensified s ettled l ife d uring t he E arly N atufian a nd P PNB T hree o r p ossibly f our N atufian, o ne K hiamian a nd f ive L ate P PNB' s ites h ave b een i dentified ( Figure 1 ). S ecure e vidence f or o ther p eriods o f p ost-Pleistocene o ccupation ( e.g . P PNA , P ottery N eolithic o r " Chalcolithic") i s m issing o r santy f rom t his a rea , a s i t i s f rom o ther r egions o f s outhern J ordan.' T he p roject ( TAVO P alaeoenvironmental I nvestigations i n t he G reater P etra A rea / E arly H olocene R esearch) w as m ade p ossible t hrough t he p ermission a nd s upport o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities, A mman. W e d eeply a ppreciate t he c ontinuous c ollaboration a nd e ncouraging i nterest o f A . H adidi, D irector-General o f t he D epartment. 4 T he f ieldwork w as s ponsored b y t he T uebingen A tlas o f t he M iddle E ast, S pecial R esearch D ivision 1 9 o f t he G erman R esearch A ssociation . W e a re g rateful t o i ts C hairman , W . R oellig f or t he s upport h e g ave t he P roject. H owever, t he i n-field s uccess o f t he p roject w ould n ot h ave b een a chieved w ithout t he c onsid2rable h elp o f t he G erman a nd J ordanian m embers o f t he e xpedition.' A s t he a rchae2logical a nd p alaeoenvironmental s amples a re s till u nder i nvestigation", o nly p reliminary i nformation c an b e g iven o n t he s ites a nd f indings .

2 .

O bjectives o f r esearch

T he m ain p urpose o f t he r esearch h as b een t o i nvestigate t he d evelopment a nd c haracter o f n eolithization i n ac limatically s ensitive a nd u nstable a rea , m arginal t o t he c entres o f n eolithization . D egrees

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F igure 1 S urvey a rea i n s outhern J ordan . r ectangle : s tratified s ite e llipse: u nstratified s ite 1 E arly N atufian 2 L ate N atufian 3 K hiamian 4 E arly/middle P PNB 5 L ate P PNB 6 P ost P PNB u ncertain / q uestionable

6 8

a nd p eriods o f s edentism , a s w ell a s a lternations b etween f ood g athering /h unting a nd f ood p roduction, a re e xpected t o h ave v aried f rom t hose i n m ore f avourable l ocalities. T his s tudy s hould h elp i n t he u nderstanding o f h ow n ew d ifferentiated e conomies d eveloped i n a l arge-scale r egion s uch a s t he s outhern L evant. T he P etra a rea w as c hosen b ecause o f i ts i solated, b ut c omp aratively f avourable c limatic c onditions a nd b ecause o f t he c onsiderable e cological v ariability w ithin a s mall r egion. F our e cological z ones h ave b een i dentified w ithin a 2 0km E -W t ransect. G iven t his v ariability o ne w ould e xpect t hat m inor c limatic f luctuat ions i n t he E arly H olocene m ay h ave h ad a c onsiderable a ffect o n h abitats a nd t hus a lso o n o ccupational d evelopment i n t his a rea . A nother i mportant r eason f or c hoosing t he P etra r egion w as t he u seful p alaeoenvironmental b ackground p rovided b y t he B aida p roject. S ome o f t he m ain a ims o f t he P roject a re o utlined b elow ( see a lso G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985, G ebel 1 986). T hese h ave i nvolved t he i ntegrated a nalysis o f p alynological, p alaeozoological, p alaeobotanical, s edimentological e tc. s amples f rom t he s oundings a nd t he r ecording a nd s ampling o f t he p resent-day e nvironment a nd r esources: T o o btain e vidence o f e nvironmental c onditions f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 0th t o t he e nd o f t he 7 th m illennium B C ( Late N atufian - L ate P PNB) b ased o n v arious p alaeoenvironmental s ources ( faunal, b otanical, m alacological, p alynological, e tc.). T o d etermine s patial d istribution o f a biotic a nd r econstructable b iotic r esources ( flint, b uilding m aterials, m inerals f or o rnaments e tc.; p otential w oodland, a gricultural l and, g azelle h abitats, e tc.). T o o btain d escriptions a nd c omparisons o f s ite s ettings a nd c atchment a reas ( locational a nd t erritorial a nalysis).

t heir

T o r econstruct n etwork o f p ossible t erritorial c onnections, o n a ccessibility o f m ineral a nd b iotic r esources.

b ased

T o u ndertake c omparative a nalysis o f f lint m aterial e xploitation ( PPNB- s ites).

t echnology

a nd

r aw

T o o btain e vidence o f t ranshumance a nd s easonality o f s ite o ccupation, P PNB s ettlement p atterns, a nd m aterials o f l ongd istance e xchange, e tc.

3 .

I nvestigations u ndertaken

A fter t he i nitial s urvey i n 1 981 ( Gebel 1 983-84), w hich w as m ainly f ocussed o n t he r elocation o f a d-Daman a nd S haqarat M usai'id ( Kirkbride 1 966) p rospections w ere c arried o ut i n s elected a reas ( Wadi S abra/ ' Ain T hawi/ W adi A bu K hushaiba , Um a l-Alda/ B aga/ S haqarat M usai'id, ' Ain B rag/ ' Ain A mmoun/ ' Ain M 'allaq, a l-Tugra/ N aqb a r-Ruba li , W adi S laisl/ G abal A bu S uwwana, G abal S umr a t-Tayiba) d uring t wo l ong a nd t wo s hort s easons b etween 1 983 a nd 1 985. B esides l ocating a nd s urface s ampling s ites o f t he p eriod i n q uestion a nd e xcavating s oundings a t S abra 1 ,

6 9

3 5°20 '

3 5°25 '

F igure 2 T opographic a nd e cological i nformation o n t he ( after J .M . S tarck i n: G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985). A B C 1 2 3 4 5

3 5°30 '

s urvey

1 00/150mm i sohyets ( dry/wet y ears) ( after N WMPJ 1 977) 1 50/200mm i sohyets ( dry/wet y ears) ( after M WMPJ 1 977) 2 00/300mm i sohyets ( dry/wet y ears) ( after N WMPJ 1 977) X ero-mediterranean f orest S teppes o f A rtemisia h erba-alba V egetation o f r ocky s andstone a reas V egetation o f " playa" s urfaces V egetation o f d esert w adis S prings

7 0

a rea

a d-Daman 1 , S haqarat M usai'id 1 , a l-Tugra 1 , a nd B aga 1 , i n ve stigations f ocussed o n t he l ocation a nd s ampling o f m ineral e sources, s pecified g eomorphological q uestions, 8 a b otanical s urvey, a nd t he m apping o f p resent-day e nvironmental f eatures. T he s oundings w ere o f d ifferent s cales r anging f rom 2 t o 6 m2 i n a rea a nd f rom 1 .2 t o 5 .5m 3 i n v olume. S ediments w ere e xcavated b y a rbitrary 1 0cm l ayers. A ll t he c ultural s ediments w ere s ieved. F inds l arger t han 4 mm w ere s eparated i n t he f ield. T he 4 -1mm a nd 1 -Omm f ractions w ere s orted i n T uebingen f or f lint c hips, b eads, t errestric m olluscs, a vifavAa a nd s mall m ammals, i nsects, c harcoal, s eeds, p laster f ragments, e tc. l u T he s ections e xposed w ere s ampled b y l ayer. S ixty-four s eparate s quare m eter s urface s amples w ere c ollected f rom u neroded a reas a t B aga 1 , B asta, S haqarat M usai'id 1 , a d-Daman 1 , a nd S unkh 1 . I n a ddition, s elective s urface c ollections w ere m ade f rom t he e roded a reas o f s ites. T he s ounding p rogramme p roduced a n a rchaeologically c ontrolled s ample o f a rtefacts a nd p alaeoenvironmentally r elevant m aterials ( charcoal, s eeds, p ollen, a nimal b ones, l and s nails, s ediments, e tc.). T he p roblems c onnected w ith s uch a n a pproach a re b riefly d escribed i n G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985: 9 2, 9 2.6.

4 .

A spects o f p resent-day e nvironment "

( Figure 2 )

M any o f t he g eomorphological p rocesses a nd f actors i nvolved i n t he p reservation o f t he E arly H olocene s ites a re s till u nclear. I n s pite o f h aving a erial p hotographs a nd g ood m aps, t he p recipitous a nd o ften i naccessible t errain o f t he P etra a rea m ade i t v ery d ifficult t o s urvey t he r egion b y s ystematic m ethods a nd i t w as n ecessary t o a dopt a s elective s urvey a pproach. A n umber o f w ell d efined a reas r epresenting t he d iverse e cological a nd t opographical e nvironments o f t he r egion w ere c hosen. T he i ntensive i nvestigation o f t hese r estricted a reas a llowed u s t o g et a n i mpression o f w hat m ight l ie i n t he m ore i naccessible r egions a nd p yp litted t he c haracterization o f t he d ifferent e co-geographic u nits U nit 1 :

S teep s lopes o f t he w estern l imestone p lateau ( Eastern A rabian P lateau) w ith l ines o f s prings/springlets i n t he m iddle a nd u pper p arts ( 1300 - 1 500m). A gricultural u se o f t ali t o t he w est.

U nit 2 :

S andstone a reas o f m odest r elief ( 950 - 1 100m i n t he n orth a nd c a. 8 00m i n t he s outh), w ith " playa" f illings i n c ertain a reas. L arge a nd s mall f ields.

U nit 3 :

S andstone a reas w ith d issected r elief ( 600 - 1 000m). B road a griculturally u sed p lains i n t he u pper p arts o f t he d rainage s ystems a nd s teep-sided f ormations o f w eathered r ock i n t he l ower p arts.

U nit 4 :

A lluvial f ans a nd g ravel p lains o f m ajor r unning i nto W adi A raba ( 250 - 6 50m).

7 1

d rainage

s ystems

T he f our u nits c orrespond t o t he t hree m ajor e cological z ones o f t he a rea , w hich r oughly f ollow t he i solines o f p recipitation , t emperature a nd e vaporation ( Figure 2 ), a nd t he s tepped s uccession o f g eological f ormations i n t he a rea o f i nvestigation : Z one C ( Unit 1 a nd s ome o f t he u pper p arts o f U nit 2 ): T he s teep s lopes o f t he l imestone f ormations a nd p arts o f t he a djacent s andstone a reas o f U nit 2r eceive s imilar r ainfall. N umerous p erennial a nd e phemeral s prings e merge f rom t he u pper l imestone h orizons. F ields i n t his h ydrological s etting l ie f allow i f t here i s i nsufficient w inter r ainfall. F rom a h eight o f 1 200m u pwards t he M editerranean f loral e lement b ecomes d ominant. O pen f orests o f o ak ( Quercus c alliprinos) a nd p istachio ( Pistacia a tlantica) w ith a n u ndergrowth t hat i ncludes I rano-Turanian h erbs, a re p reserved b etween W adi M usa , a l-Haisha , a nd S haubak ( Figure 1 ). T hese o ak f orests r epresent t he e asternmost e xtension o f t he M editerranean f loral z one. A t h eights o f b etween 1 200 - 1 400m J uniperus p hoenicae - P istacia a tlantica a ssociations a re c ommon , a ccompanied b y p lants t ypical o f t he I rano-Turanian s teppe ( Artemisia h erba-alba v egetation). T his v egetation f rom t he A rabian P lateau p enetrates l ower d own t o 1 000m t hus e ntering p arts o f U nit 2 . Z one C -B ( Units 2 a nd 3 ): D ue t o t he v arying w ater / m oisture s torage c apacity o f t he s andstone f ormations t hese a reas h ave a w ide v ariety o f e nvironmental n iches ( swampy e nvironments i n t he g orges w ith h ydrophytic v egetation , d ry d esert c onditions o n t he " playa" f illings w ith x erophytic v egetation , s hady g orges ( siqs) w ith m ore t emperate c limate, w ater-storing c lefts f illed w ith f ine s ediments, i ntermittent w adis, e tc.). I n g eneral, r ainfall i s al ess i mportant f actor t han w ater s torage c apacity i n d etermining t he v egetational c ommunities. T ali f ans a re c overed b y V arthemia m ontana , A luga c hia , E chinops g laberrimus a nd O nonis v aginalis , e tc. T hose w hich a re h eavily o vergrazed, h ave m onotypic c ommunities ( Urginea m aritima). S maller c lefts a re o ccupied b y C apparis s pinosa , l arger c lefts a nd s iqs a re o ften w ooded w ith p istachio, o ak a nd j uniper. T he v ast " playa" f illings o f U nit 2h ave t he t ypical h ot d esert v egetation o f t he S aharo- A rabian r egion. C ertain s pecies , u sually c haracteristic o f a reas w ith m uch l ower p recipitation , i ndicate t hat t he " playa" s urfaces d ry o ut r apidly. A lmost u ndisturbed h ydrophytic v egetation w ith N erium o leander , P hragmites c ommunis a nd T amarix s pecies c an b e f ound n ear r emote s prings , e .g. ' Ain T hawi, ' Ain a d-Daman , ' Ain W adi S abra. Z one B -A ( Unit 4 ): T he a rea o f t he w adi o utlets i nto W adi A raba w hich i ncludes t he h igher p arts o f t he a lluvial f ans a nd g ravel s heets , r eceive 0 - 1 50mm r ainfall i n d ry y ears a nd 1 40 - 2 00mm i n w et y ears . T heir c limate a nd e cology r esembles t hat o f t he v ery h ot a nd a rid c entral W adi A raba. T he v egetation i s i nfluenced b y t he S udanian e lements f rom W adi A raba . S parsely s cattered A cacia t ortilis f orm t he a rboreal c over.

5 .

D escription o f s ites ( Figure 1 )

C ondensed s ite d escriptions a re g iven b elow w ith i nformation p resented i n t he f ollowing o rder. ( I) s ite s etting , ( II) p reservation , ( III) f ield m ethods a nd f indings, ( IV) a rtefacts a nd o ther f inds, ( V)

7 2

r elative c hronology a nd c haracter o f o ccupation. i n c hronological o rder.

5 .1

l isted

N atufian s ites

5 .1.1 I )

T he s ites a re

S abra 1

3 5 °2 3 '28" E / 3 0°1 6 '37" N ,

8 20m a .s.l.

S ituated a t t he w estern e dge o f t he " playa" f illed i ntermontane b asin o f T beitb, c . 1 .4km d ue s outh-west o f t he N abatean t heatre o f S abra , c . 2 00m s outh o f t he s pot w here t he c amel t rack f rom P etra t o W adi A raba t urns w estward t hrough t he s andstone r idges t o ' Ain a d-Daman ( Kirkbride 1 966: 5 6) a nd W adi A raba. S ite o verlooks t he b asin, w hich i s d issected t o a d epth o f 7 0m i n i ts e astern a nd s outhern p arts. O utlet i n t he s outh t hrough a n arrow , a lmost i mpassable s ig. S urroundi ng a rea c haracterized b y S aharo-Arabian v egetation. A t t he p resent t ime t here a re a n umber o f s prings w ithin 2 0-40 m inutes w alking d istance ( 'Ain S abra, ' Ain a d-Daman a nd ' Ain T hawi w ith u ndisturbed h ydrophytic v egetation) ( Figure 2 ). I I) C ultural leers o f u p t o 4 m t hickness a re p reserved i n a n a rea c overing c . 1 15m a long t he f oot o f t he s teep-sided r idge d elimiting t he T beitb " playa" s urfacy ,5 S andy a nd s andy a shy-humic d eposits c ont aining N atufian, K hiamian i 3 a nd p ossibly P PNB a rtefacts a re p reserved w here f allen s andstone b locks a nd a c rust o f d isintegrated e rosional d ebris h as s ealed o ff s trata. R un-off c hannels b etween b locks h ave c ut i nto s ome o f t he l ayers. T he l owermost e xcavated d eposits s till l ie c . l m a bove n earby " playa" s urfaces. M inor p ost-occupational d rainages h ave c aused t he d enudation o f l arge p arts o f t he s ite a nd e xposed b edr ock. E roded m aterial f rom f ormerly i n s itu l ayers h as p artially c overed t his ( Gebel 1 986: F igure 7 ). I II) A ll s ediments s ieved t hr i gugh 4 a nd l mm m eshes. E xcavated b y a rbitrary 1 0-cm l ayers. g . 5 .5m 3 e xcavated i n a s tep-trench ( Natufian a nd K hiamian). c . 4 .5m' a rea e xposed a t 1 9.50m . S ystematic r andom s urface c ollection u ndertaken o n s lope. T wo s tratigraphical u nits ( Schyle, t his v olume: F igure 1 2): N atufian s trata b elow 2 0.20-20.40m c omposed o f f ine-grained r eddish s ands w ith d iffuse p inkish-grey l enses a nd p atches; K hiamian s trata a bove c . 2 0.40m ( see b elow). B oth u nits w ere s eparated b y w hitish c alcareous l enses o r m ixtures o f m atrix f rom b oth u nits. N atufian s trata s edimentologically h omogeneous, t he l ayers b eing n either d istinguishable b y c olour o r t exture. N o l iving f loors o r s tructures f ound, b ut t here w ere r andomly d istributed a nd s ometimes b urnt f ragments o f s andstone. C oncentrations o f pwrly p reserved c harco 4, T rochoidea s eetzenii ( L . P feiffer, 1 847) 1' a nd a nimal b ones. ' " D iffuse g reyish p atches / l enses w ith a sh, a re l ikely t o b e p roduct o f r odent b urrowing a nd m ay i nclude m aterial f rom K hiamian s trata. D istribution o f a rtefacts h eavily d isturbed b y r odent a ctivities. K hiam p oints a nd H elwan l unates a ppear t ogether a t 2 0.001 9.90. A lthough l evels a re m ixed, t here i s c learly a d ecrease i n g eometric / n on-geometric m icroliths f rom 2 0 .00m u pwards a nd a n i ncrease i n K hiamian e lements.

7 3

M atrix m ay b e c ombination o f w eathered m aterial f rom a eolian m aterial. I V)

S ee S chyle,

r idge

a nd

t his v olume .

V ) S ee S chyle, t his v olume: " early, p erhaps e ven L ate N atufian" ( see a lso G ebel 1 986b). T emporarily o r s easonally o ccupied s ite.

5 .1.2 I )

S unkh 1 ( Figure 3 )

3 5 °2 5 '34" E / 3 0°1 9 02" N , 9 60-980 a .s.l.

S urface c oncentrations o f a rtefacts o n a nd i n t he t op s oil o f a n e xtensive t errace a t t he s outh-western f oot o f t he a l-Barra m assif. S ite o verlooks t he u pper W adi a l-Wagit d rainage s ystem w hich c reated t he s pur-like s etting o f i t's l ower p arts. N earest p ermanent s pring i s i n t he m iddle c ourse o f W adi a l-Wagit. I I-III) c . 1 2.000m 2 . F luvial a nd a eolian e rosion o f t op s oil e specially i n m arginal a nd l ower p arts o f s ite. N o i n s itu l ayers o r e vidence o f s tructures. A ssociations o f a rtefacts i ndicate t he s urvival o f t heir o riginal s patial d istribution i n c entral p arts o f s ite. S ystematic s urface c ollection f rom 6 4m 2 . S elective s urface c ollections t aken f rom m arginal a ccumulations o f e roded m aterial. I V) B acked b ladelets a nd l unates w ith n ormal a brupt r etouch p redominate o ver H elwan-segments a nd t riangles. L unates a s s mall a s 1.5mm o ccur. A mongst t he n on-geometric t ools: s teep-retouched b ladelets a nd f lakelets a re n umerous a nd t hese o ften h ave n otches, r ows o f n otches a nd d enticulations. M icro-piercers a re w ell a ttested. I mplements o n b lades / f lakes a re m ostly s teeply r etouched. N otched p ieces a nd b lades w ith a lmost s quare s ections a re f requent, w hich r esults f rom s teep r etouching a long b oth e dges. T here i s a h eterogeneous g roup o f m any e ndscrapers m ade o n c ores , c ore f ragments , f lakes, a nd b lades w ith c onvex a nd s ometimes s emi-straight t o s traight w orking e dges ( redundant b ladelet/blade c ores w ith a ngles u nder 8 0° w ere o ften r eused a s s crapers a fter r eshaping t he f ormer c ore e dge). E nd-of-blade s crapers w ere m ade o n t hinner b lades ( often w ith s emis teep r etouch), t hick b roken b lades , f lakes w ith t riangular a nd t rapezoid s ections, a nd p rimary c ore t ablets ( obverse e dge r etouch i s c ommon i n t his g roup). F igure 3 .1-9 d isplays a s election o f t he c ore t ypes ( in a ddition , c ores w ith o pposed s triking p latforms w ere f ound). H inges a re a c haracteristic f eature o f c ores a nd w aste m aterial. V ) T he s ite i s e ither L ate N atufian w ith a f ew H elwan l unates o r i t r epresents s everal N atufian o ccupations. P robably a l arge c amp s ite.

7 4

3

2

6 5

4

CM

3

4

5

9

1 2

NW "

1 0

1 1 e z › - 1 7

1 4

F igure 3

S unkh 1 .

I5

1 6

2 1

1 8

f 1 G 2 2

1 9

n

2 3

C z z . -

20

1

2 4

A rtefacts f rom t he s ystematic s urface c ollection.

1 -9 c ores , 1 0-13 s crapers , 1 4-16 p iercing t ools, 1 7-19 l unates, 2 0 f ragment o f a t riangle ( ?), 2 1-22 b acked b ladelets, 2 3-24 s teeply-retouched b lade f ragments.

5 .1.3 I )

T ugra 1 ( Figure 4 )

3 5 °2 5 '49" E / 3 0°1 9 '08" N , 9 80-1000m a .s.l.

A rtefacts a re c ontained w ithin s lope s ediments r esting a gainst t he s teep-sided s outh-eastern e dge o f t he a l-Barra s andstone m assif. T he s ite o verlooks t he e astern p art o f t he u pper W adi a l-Wagit d rainage s ystem . T he s lope w as b uilt u p f rom f ine w aterlaid g ra - N1 a nd s and, a nd p ossibly a lso f rom a eolian s ediments. S ounding I ( 3m L ) w as l ocated a t t he e dge o f t he s teep-sided a l-Barra m assif. 1 .8m o f s lope s tratigraphy w as r evealed w ithout r eaching i n s itu l ayers. D eposits p rovide e vidence o f p eriods w ith h igher s edimentation r ates a nd l ess s urface w ater. F lint a rtefacts w ith u ndamaged e dges a nd c harcoal h ave a ccumulated i n c ertain l ayers o nly a nd m ust d erive f rom a f luvially e roded L ate E pipalaeolithic s ite. T he s lope a rea i s c overed b y l arge s andstone b locks w ith c alcareous c rusts w hich i ndicates t hat s lope s ediments r eached a t l east o ne m etre h igher t han t oday. P ost-PPN a rtefacts w ere f ound o n t he s urface ( "Shepherd N eolithic"?). S ounding 1 ( 3m 2 ) a nd S ounding 2 ( 2m 2 ) . A ll s ediments w ere s ieved t hrough 4 a nd l mm m eshes . E xcavation w as u ndertaken b y a rbitrary 1 0cm l ayers. S elective s urface c ollections w ere m ade f rom t he s lope. 16 I V) N o d iagnostic a rtefacts. C ores f rom S ounding 1 a nd s lope s urface r esemble t hose f rom n earby S unkh 1 . O ne H elwan l unate f ound o n t he s lope. H eavy d uty t ools , i rregular f lake c ores a nd b lades w ith s triking a ngles a round 9 0° a lso o ccur o n s lope s urface. F rom S ounding 1 : b ullet-shaped b ladelet c ores, b ipolar b lade c ores a nd c ores w ith o ne s triking p latform , e ndscrapers o n t hick b lades a nd f lakes, b acked b ladelets a nd b lades a re r are. V ) U nidentified L ate ( ?) E pipalaeolithic. E roded m aterial E pipalaeolithic s ite , p ossibly t ransported f rom n earby.

5 .1.4 I -III)

f rom

a n

W adi S laisl 3 5 °2 5 '52" E / 3 0°2 1'45" N ,

1 010-1030 a .s.l.

S ingle f inds a nd s mall a rtefact c oncentrations o n s hallow e roded s ediments o r e xposed b edrock o f t he l ower a nd m iddle t erraces o f t he n orthern s lope i n u pper W adi S laisl. N o c ultural s ediments d etected. S elective s urface c ollection . I V) O nly a l imited n umber o f a rtefacts : r are b ladelet c ores w ith a cute a ngles b etween s triking p latform a nd b lade c ore s urface, e nds crapers o n t hick b ladelets, s everal b acked b ladelets a nd o ne l unate w ith n ormal a brupt r etouch. V )

U nidentified L ate ( ?) E pipalaeolithic.

7 6

E roded m aterial.

2

1

i C.

GZ )

6

5

4 3

Cm

2

8

I

z2>

7

0

F igure 4

T ugra 1 .

A rtefacts f rom S ounding 1 .

1 -2 c ores , 3 -4 e nd s crapers , r etouched b lades.

5 -6 b acked b lade/bladelets ,

7 7

7 -8

5 .2

E arly P PN s ite

5 .2.1

S abra 1 ( Figure 5 -6; S chyle, t his v olume, F igure 1 2)

I -II)

S ee a bove.

I II) h umic l enses 5 1 a nd

M arked c hange i n s ediments a bove 2 0 .40m , b ecoming a shy a nd w ith h igh p hosphate p roportions.'' S eparated b y c alcareous f rom t he l ower N atufian d eposits. S ounding w as e xtended b eyond S 2 ( towards w est) a nd e xcavated b y n atural l ayers ( A-C).

L ayer C : c . 5 0cm t hick . D usty c onsistency w ith m any s cattered b urnt o r d isintegrated s tones a nd t housands o f b urnt o r u nb ignt c omplete o r f ragmented T rochoidea s eetzenii ( L . P feiffer, 1 847). 1 4 ' S uperimposed a nd o verlapping a lignments o f b urnt s andstone a nd l imestone f ragment2 w ith c harcoal i ndicate a s uccession o f f ire-places. A nimal b ones, ' p arts o f af emale a nd a m ale h uman m andible ( Roehrer-Ertl, t his v olume) a nd f lint a rtefacts s how e vidence o f i ntense b urning. L ayer B : 2 -20cm t hick. S eals C . M atrix s imilar t o c alcareous l enses s eparating N atufian l ayers a nd l ayers A -C. D isintegrated s andstone d ebris a nd a rtefacts a re e mbedded a nd c onsolidated b y c alcium c arbonate . F inds m ay b e d erived f rom e roded c ultural l ayers a bove. L ayer A : U p t o 3 0cm t hick . T his w as t he l atest c ultural l ayer e ncountered. F ine-grained c onsolidated s andy m aterial m ixed w ith b urnt s tones , f lint a rtefacts, a nimal b ones , a nd l and s nails. L ayer A i s c overed b y e roded s andstone d ebris a nd f allen b locks f rom t he r idge w ith a c arbonate e ncrustation . T he c overing d eposit a lso c ontains c harcoal f ragments a nd b urnt f lint w hich h as e roded f rom h igher a reas o f t he s ite. F ield m ethods:

s ee a bove.

I V) B urnt a nd u nburnt a nimal a nd h uman b ones , l and s nails ( see a bove), f lint a rtefacts , a nd a f ew o rnaments. N o g rinding s labs, h andstones e tc. F lint i ndustry: f rom 2 0 .20m u p t o l ayer A , b lade / b ladelet f requencies r emain t he s ame ( blades a lways o utnumber b ladelets). T here a re v ery f ew b lade a nd b ladelet c ores i n s pite o f s triking n umbers o f u nretouched b lades / b ladelets. H eat-treatment i s i n e vidence. F lake c ores a re m ore f requent. I solated m icroburins a ppear u p t o 2 0 .80m a nd i solated t riangles a nd l unates w ith n ormal a brupt r etouch u p t o 2 0 .65m ( Layer C ). F airly h igh n umbers o f p iercing t ools s uch a s t ypes s hown i n F igure 6 .11-14 f rom l ayer C . T he i solated t ransverse a rrowhead ( Figure 6 .1) f rom 2 0 .40-20 .50m i s m ost p robably i ntrusive. C rested b lades o ccur i n l ow f requencies t hroughout l ayers A -C. S teeply r etouched b lades a nd b ladelets w hich o ften h ave i nverse r etouch a re q uite c ommon . S ickle b lades a re v ery r are . F ragments o f K hiam p oints a re f requent i n C a nd a round 2 0.40m . V ) S econd K hiamian s ite e ncountered i n s outhern J ordan .1 8 T emporarily o r s easonally o ccupied c amp s ite, p ossibly w ithout s tructures .

7 8

4 -

— +—

C • 4

7 9

a rb i tra ry l e ve ls

E .

z

c r )

S ection d rawing o f t he s ounding a t 5 01.3m E ( S4)

r ema in ing p ar ts o f f i re-p laces

uc ha rcoa l/ashes

c oncen t ra t ions o f l a nd s na i ls

a n ima l b o r rows

s ed imen ts amp le w i th f i e ld n umbe r

c d

2 03 .5m N ( S3).

6

1

1== .

3

2

8

5

4

1 2

1

1 0

9

7

1 4 1 3

1 5

1 8

0

1

2

3

4

019

5

2 0

2 3

I T 7

)2 2

F igure 6

S abra 1 . A rtefacts f rom t op l ayers/surface ( 9-10), 2 0.404 8m ( 1, 3 , 6 -8 , 1 3), a nd K hiamian l ayers ( C , a bove 2 0.20m). 1t ransverse a rrowhead, 2 l unate, 3 b acked b ladelet f ragment, 4 t riangle , 6 -8 K hiamian p oints, 9 -10 t anged a nd n otched a rrowheads , 1-14 p iercing t ools, 1 5 c hisel?, 1 6-17 b lade/ b ladelet c ores, 1 8-24 b eads o f m arine m olluscs a nd l imestone.

8 0

5 .3

P re-Pottery N eolithic B s ites

5 .3.1 I )

a d-Daman 11 9

( Figure 7 )

3 5 °2 4 '03" E / 3 0°1 6 '37" N , c .

7 60m a .s.l.

c . l km d ue w est-north-west o f S abra 1 , a bove t he c opious s pring o f ' Ain a d-Daman ( 20 m inutes f rom ' Ain T hawi). I t i s l ocated p artly o n e xposed s andstone s urface a nd p artly o n " playa" d eposits. T he l evels o f t he " playa" f ills n ear S abra 1 a nd a dD aman 1 s uggest s imultaneous a ccumulations i n b oth b asins. S trong d issection i n t he a d-Daman r egion , h as c reated t he s pur-like s etting o f t he P PNB s ite. T his m ust r esult f rom t he l q er e rosion o f a n o utlet i n t he f ormerly c losed a d-Daman / T hawi b asin. ' I I)

A lmost n o e rosion .

I II) S xst watic s urface c ollection f rom 6 4m 2 . T wo s oundings ( 2 x 1 m2 ; c . 1 .2m 3 ) .' 1 A ll s ediments s ieved t hrough 4 a nd l mm m eshes. E xcavated b y 2 0-5cm a rbitrary l ayers. R ectangular s tructures o f w orked s tones a nd " retaining w alls" a t t he s ite 's e dges, a re v isible o n t he s urface. D epth o f o ccupation u p t o 2 m . E roding " plaster" a nd o rganic m atter i s v isible i n m any p laces. M any g rinding s labs a nd h andstones s cattered o n s urface. S oundings r evealed s uccession o f b uilding d ebris a nd s andy-stony l ayers n ear w all f aces. T he t wo t renches w ere e xcavated t o 7 4cm a nd 1 00cm d epth w ithout r eaching v irgin s oil. I V) T he g eneral c haracteristics o f t he f lint i ndustry f rom t he s oundi ngs w ere a s f ollows. T here w as a h igh p roportion o f r etouched m aterial i n r elation t o d ebitage a nd d ebris. M ost o f t he b lades s how i ntentional o r " use" r etouch . T he b ipolar t echnique w as i n c ommon u se. B ladelets o ccur i nfrequently. A rrowheads r estricted t o M ortensen A 3a nd A 5- t ypes ( Mortensen 1 970). B orers/piercers w ith t ips s haped b y s teep a nd i nverse r etouch w ere f requent. V )

" Middle" P PNB .

5 .3.2 I )

V illage.

S haqarat M usai'id 11 9

( Figure 8 .6-10)

3 5 °2 6 '23" E / 3 0 °2 6 '45" N ,

c . 9 80 a .s.l.

I n as andstone r egion c . 1 3km d ue n orth o f P etra. t hrough t he o ak a nd p istachio w ooded S iq U mm a l-Alda.

C an b e

r eached

L andscape t o t he e ast i s d ominated b y t he s teep s lope o f t he l imes tone p lateau w ith f ossil s prings, t o t he n orthwest b y t ali t ypical o f t he c ontact z one b etween t he C ambrian s andstone a nd t he u nderlying i gneous r ock . T he a rea i s d rained t o t he s outh . M ore c ool a nd h umid t han t he " playa" e nvironments n ear S abra a nd a d-Daman. N o p ermanent s prings w ithin t wo h ours w alking d istance.

8 1

1

2 4

8 7

6 5

9

F igure 7

a d-Daman 1 .

1 0

1

A rtefacts f rom t he s oundings.

1 -5 p iercing t ools, 6 b acked b lade, 7 b lade f ragment w ith b ifacial r etouching, 8 f ragment o f t anged a nd n otched a rrowh ead, 9 -11 r etouched b lades.

8 2

S ite r ests i n a s addle-like s ituation b etween t wo p eaks o f 1 150m . I I) S ize q uestionable, a s a gricultural t erracing a nd h istorical b uilding a ctivities h ave l evelled a nd d estroyed p art o f t he s ite. I II) S ounding 4 91-2/ 2 96 ( 2m 2 ) . A ll s ediments ( c. 1 .6m 3 ) s ieved t hrough 4 a nd im m eshes. E xcavated b y a rbitra u l ayers ( Gebel 1 986a : F igure 1 6). S ystematic s urface c ollection ( 64m L ) . S ounding ( 80cm d eep) e xposed s uccessive l ayers o f b uilding d ebris ( possibly f allen w alls a nd/ o r l evelled d ebris). T he s tone l ayers a re s eparated b y l ayers o f h ard p laster-like m aterial. L arge q uantities o f a rtefacts a nd c harred r emains a s w ell a s b urnt c layish m aterial. I V) C hipped s tone i ndustry c omparable t o B aida . A rrowheads f rom t he s urface i nclude M ortensen 's t ypes A 3 , A 4 , A 6 , A 7 a nd A l2 ( Mortensen 1 970). F or a rrowhead t ypes f rom t he s ounding s ee F igure 8 .6-10. V )

" Middle" P PNB .

5 .3.3 1 )

V illage.

S abra 1

S ee a bove.

I I-III) P PNB a rrowheads a re e ither f rom t he s urface o r f rom t he t op c ultural l ayers b etween t he f allen s andstone b locks ( see b locks). T hey p ossibly r epresent t he r emains o f a s hallow P PNB o ccupation o verlying E arly P PN l ayers . S elective a nd 1 983.

s urface c ollections w ere m ade i n 1 981

( Gebel

1 983-84)

I V) O nly P PNB a rrowheads c an b e i dentified ( Mortensen T ype A 3 a nd A 20 ; M ortensen 1 970). T he A 3 f inds d o n ot f it i nto t he B aida s ize-range. V )

" Middle" o r l ate P PNB .

5 .3.4

C haracter o f o ccupation u nclear.

2 2

.

A bu B arqa ( Figure 8 .1-3) 23

I ) N ot w ithin t he s urvey a rea ( Figure 1 ). L ocated o n a n a lluvial i n W adi A raba s outh o f t he o utlet o f W adi A bu B arqa ( north o f G harandal p olice p ost). c . 3 00m a .s.l.

f an t he

I I) C overs c . 2 0 .000m 2 . P artly d eflated ( covered b y s tone p avement). T he o riginal d istribution o f a rtefacts m ay h ave b een d isturbed b y a h uge d une w hich h as b lown a cross t he a lluvial f an a nd a gainst t he r idge. I II) T housands o f r etouched a nd u nretouched l arge b lades ( up t o 1 3cm) w ith d esert v arnish d eveloped t o v arying d egrees. N o s tructures , c ultural l ayers o r e arly p ottery f ound . U ncertain w hether a f lint r esource w as a vailable c loseby.

8 3

3 2

1

4 C) .

4 5

6

7 I

9

0

1

2

3

4

5 ' cm

1 0

8

F igure 8

A bu B arqa ( 1-3), ' Ain T ayiba ( 4-5), S haqarat M usai 'id 1 ( 61 0). P rojectile p oints a nd b ifacially w orked " knife" w ith d esert v arnish ( 1).

8 4

S elective s urface c ollection. I V) T he t echnology a nd t he r aw m aterial u sed i n t he m anufacture o f t he l arge b lades i s c omparable t o t he f inds f rom ' Ain T ayiba a nd B asta. 7 1 3cm s ize c lass d ominates. O nly s mall n umber o f c ores f ound. D iscovered a b ifacially p ressure-flaked " knife" ( Figure 8 .1) w ith d esert v arnish d iffering f rom t hat o f b lades. S imilar m aterial f ound a t K ilwa 1 9/ J abal T ubaiq ( Rhotert 1 938). A rrowheads a lso f ound ( Figure 8 .2-3). V ) L ate P PNB o r " Post P PNB". i ng s ite ( ?).

5 .3.5 I )

P ossibly f unctioned a s b lade m anufactur-

' Ain T ayiba ( Figure 8 .4_5) 24

3 5°1 8 '30" E / 3 0 °2 0 37 N ,

c .

3 00m a .s.l.

I n a rea o f m odest r elief s outh o f G abal S umr a t-Tayiba e astern e dge o f t he v ast w adi g ravels e ntering W adi A raba.

n ear

t he

S mall a rtefact s catters o n t he g ently s loping b edrock s outh o f t he s pring. N o s tructures, c ultural l ayers o r e arly p ottery. I V) A mongst t he f ew a rtefacts t here w as a f airly h igh p roportion o f l arge b lades. A lso t wo a rrowheads, o ne s craper a nd r etouched b lades. V )

L ate P PNB o r " Post-PPNB".

5 .3.6 I )

B a b 1 ( Figures 9 -10,

C haracter o f s ite i s u nclear.

1 1.1-8) 2 5

3 5°2 7 '45" E / 3 0 °2 4 55" N ,

1 120-1160m a .s.l.

L ocated c . 1 0km d ue n orth o f W adi M usa. T he h idden e ntrance t o a n o ak-wooded S iq l eads t o t he s ite c . 0 .5km s outh o f t he c one-shaped m ountain o f U mm a l-Alda. A ccessible b y a scending t hrough t he S iq w hose w idth i s a s n arrow a s l m i n p laces ( Siq i s b locked b y f allen r ocks u p t o a h eight o f 6 m i n s ome p laces). 2b P rotected s etting o n a n i ntermontane t errq4e. N o w ater r esources i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ite t oday.`' N earest p otential f arming a rea s ituqted n ear t he S iq's e ntrance ( plain o f W adi a l-Jabu / U mm a l-Alda, 3 km L ) . I I) S ize o f s ite c a . 1 0,000m 2 . O ccupies t he e ntire t errace. V ery w ell p reserved. H ouse r uins e roded i n t he s teep a mphitheater-like p art o f t errace. I II) R etaining w alls, e specially a long t he a mphitheater-like p art o f t errace, c reated t he b uilding p lots f or t he t erraced h ousing. C urvilinear w alls a nd r ectangular r ooms o f d ressed s tones v isible o n s urface. H umic s oil b etween w alls o f u pper p arts o f s ite m ay i ndicate g ardens a nd/or e nclosures. D ump a rea a t t he w esternmost e dge o f t he s ite. D epths o f b uilding l ayers u p t o 1 .5m . H igh d ensity o f a dzes, c elts , c hisels, p icks, h ammering s tones a nd o ther h eavy d uty t ools a s w ell a s g rinding s labs a nd m anos. N o e vidence o f s tone v essels.

8 5

S ounding I : i n t he w esternmost r efuse a rea . B etween t he t opsoil ( A) a nd b edrock ( E) t here w ere t hree d ump l ayers ( B : h ighly c ons olidated d usty-ashy m aterial; C : s ame, b ut l ess c onsolidated; D : l oose , d ark s andy m aterial w ith h igh c harcoal c ontent; E : w eathered b edrock w ith a rtefacts a nd s ediments o f Dc emented i nto i ts s urface). F inds w hich i ncluded a nimal b ones, o rnaments a nd f lint a rtefacts w ere c onsiderably e ncrusted. S ounding I I: S ection c leaning o f b uilding l ayers o n t he s teep a mphitheater-like s lope e xposed s uccession o f f our s tony l ayers w ith r ed-stained p laster p articles. S ounding I II: T he s ection c leaning o f a ? looter's " excavation" ( see F igure 1 6 i n L indner 1 986) e xposed p arts o f a w all o f d ressed s tones a nd c onsolidated l ayers o f f ine g rained s ediment w ith a h igh c harcoal c ontent. S oundings I -III: S ediments r emoved w ere s ifted t hrough 4 ad l mm m eshes. A fter e xcavating a c ontrol s ection , a n a rea o f 3 m w ere e xcavated b y a rbitrary l axer i n S ounding 1 . A s ystematic s urface c ollection w as m ade f rom 6 4m'. S elective s urface c ollections w ere m ade i n h eavily e roded p arts o f s ite. I V) F lint i ndustry: t he m ost f requently e ncountered t ools w ere a rrowh eads ( eight t ypes i ncluding A muq p oints a nd a t ype w ith n on-symetrical S -curved e dges. N o n otched a rrowheads e xcept f or o ne f rom a n u ncertain c ontext). O nly o ne f oliate w as f ound a nd t his w as s imilar t o R hotert 1 938 : 1 43.2. A ll c ore t ypes a ttested a t B aida w ere r epresented a t B asta . Q uartzite w as u sed a s ar aw m aterial. O rnaments / s mall f inds ( Sounding 1 ):

o ccurred i n l arge n umbers.

O utstanding g roups a re s andstone r ings ( see S tarck , t his v olume) a nd c arved/perforated m other-of-pearl i tems ( possibly s ewn-on o rnaments, " paillettes"). A lso o ne c lay-object ( figurine f ragment ? ). A nimal b ones ( Sounding 1 ): t here w ere m any b ones o f w ild o r d omestic s heep/goat, s mall a rtiodactyles, w ild g oat, g azelle , u nidentified l arge r odents , a nd S yrian h yrax a nd a f ew b ones o f d omestic ( ?) s heep , a n e quid , w ild b oar, a urochs , a nd f ox ( W . S oeffner, p ersonal c ommunication). H uman b ones ( sounding I ): V ) L ate P PNB . V illage. a rea o f i nvestigation .

n ot s tudied y et.

L argest a nd h ighest P PNB s ettlement

8 6

i n

t he

( 1 5

1

/

2

4

3

.

. •

8

.› . 1 0

. e . . - ^ ", . , . .

6

0

,

1

2

3

4 1cm

7

. %. I 3

F igure 9

B aga 1 .

A rrowheads .

8 7

I 6

1 0

2

3

0

2 cm

'

3

5 6

F igure 1 0 B aga 1 .

H eavy d uty t ools .

1 -3 c elts , 4 a dze-like i nstrument, 5 i mplement w ith r etouched/battered e dges.

8 8

f oliate,

6

c ore

3

2

6

7

1 EZZyce .

8

9

5

1

1 0

1 5 1 2 74

1 3

1 4

0

2

3

4 cm

F igure 1 B aia 1 ( 1-8) a nd B asta ( 9-15):

S mall f inds.

1 -3 b one p iercers , 4b one p endant , 5 g rooved s tone , 6 -7 m other-of-pearl o bjects, 8 f igurine f ragment ( ?), 9 -12 b eads f rom m arine m olluscs a nd s tone , 1 3 t oken-like p iece ? , 1 4 b one p endant , 1 5 s andstone p alette.

8 9

5 .3.7 I )

J abu 12 5

c . 3 5 °2 6 '21" E / c . 3 0 °2 4 '21" N ,

c .

1 080-1120m a .s.l.

I n t he c entral a rea o f t he w estern s andstone f ormations t he a l-Jabbu p lain.

b ordering

u rface s catter o f a rtefacts a nd p ottery i n a n a rea c overing 6 000-9000m . P artly l ocated o n e xposed r ock a nd p artly o n s hallow e roded s ediments. V isible w all f ragments m ay b e l ater t han t he s upposed e arly o ccupation . S elective s urface c ollection. I V) R etouched f lakes a nd b lades , p ottery.

f ragments o f m illing s tones ,

V ) P PNB o r P ost-PPNB ( possibly P ottery N eolithic; Z . K afafi, c ommunication). C haracter o f s ite n ot c lear.

5 .3.8

B asta ,

1 984 i nvestigations ( Figure 1.9-15,

I ) 3 0°1 3 '47" E / 3 5 °3 2 '06", i nvestigation . F igure 1 ).

1 460-20m a .s.l.

c oarse

p ersonal

1 2)

( not w ithin t he a rea

o f

S ituated 1 2km d ue s outh-south-east o f W adi M usa i n t he m odern v illage o f B asta . S ite n ext t o ac opious s pring. L ocated i n t he w estern p art o f t he A rabian P lateau a mongst t reeless b ut c ultivated f ields I I) I II)

S ee G ebel, M uheisen a nd N issen,

t his v olume.

S ection t rimming o f ab ulldozer c ut ( 2m x 0 .3 - 0 .5m). E xcavated b y a rbitrary 1 0cm l ayers ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985:

F igure

5 ). S elective s urface c ollections ( Gebel 1 986:

F igure 1 4).

S ection c uts t hrough c . l m o f c ultural d eposits ( refuse a rea w ith a shes, b uilding d ebris , a nimal b ones, c arbonized s eeds, a rtefacts, a nd h uman r emains) w hich d irectly o verlie b edrock . I V)

H uman r emains:

s ee 0 . R oehrer-Ertl, t his v olume.

F lint i ndustry: b lade i ndustry d ominated b y t he u se o f b ipolar t echnique. B lades m ay b e a s l ong a s 1 2cm , b ut c luster b etween 6 5 a nd 8 5mm . R etouched b lades s how d istinct p atterns o f e dge r etouch . D iagnostic t ools a re B yblos-type a rrowheads a nd b orers ( Mortensen 1 970 : T ype B 7). N o o ther s tandardized i mplements. D enticulated b lades a re a s r are a s b lades w ith s ickle s heen. P lenty o f h eavy d uty t ools f rom t he s urface ( mainly a dzes, c elts, p icks, s pherical h ammerstones). H eavy d uty g round s tone t ools: v ery r ich i ndustry, c omparable t o B aga 1 ( see N . Q adi, t his v olume).

9 0

w ith

s hapes

4

. -2

. %.

3

-

1 5

i

I

6

0 I

1

2

3

7 4 t cm

a 8

1 0

1

1 2

9

1 4

1 5

F igure 1 2 B asta.

1 3

1 6

A rtefacts f rom t he s ection t rimming i n 1 984.

1b lade w ith t wo n otches, 2 d enticulated b lade , 3 -8 a rrowhead f ragments , 9 -14 b orers, 1 5 u nfinished b orer, 1 6 s craper.

9 1

S mall f inds: i nclude s andstone p alettes l ike F igure 1 1.16 , b one b eads, t oken-like o bject, m arine m olluscs f or o rnaments, c arved a nd p erforated m other-of-pearl i tems ( sewn-on o bjects?) e tc. A nimal b ones : W ild g oat a nd a uroch b ones w ere f requent. G azelle a nd h are w ere l ess c ommon . S mall a rtiodactyles, w ild o r d omestic c attle , a nd e quid w ere r are ( W . S oeffner, p ersonal c ommunication). V )

L ate P PNB .

V illage.

L argest P PNB v illage s o f ar k nown i n J ordan.

6 .

C hronological d iscussion ( Figure 1 3)

T he r elative d ates p roposed f or t he P PNB s ites i n t he P etra a rea a re d ependent o n a n a rrowhead c hronology, w hich w as d eveloped a round 1 980 o n t he b asis o f r adiocarbon d ates a vailable a t t hat t ime ( see c ontributions i n C auvin a nd S anlaville 1 981). S ince 1 980 t his c hronol ogical f ramework h as b een d eveloped f urther ( Gebel 1 984 : 3 16) a nd i s n ow b ecoming a ccepted i n t he l iterature. H owever, t he r adiocarbon c hronology f or t he E arly P re-Pottery N eolithic , f or w hich t here a re v ery f ew d ates, i s p oorly e stablished, a nd f or t he L ater A ceramic r ather e arly r adiocarbon d ates h ave r ecently b een o btained ( especially f rom ' Ain G hazal a nd Y ifta te l: R ollefson a nd S immons n .d.; G arfinkel, C armi a nd V ogel n .d.). I n a ddition , t he d ifferent a pproaches t o c ons tructing a r elative c hronology b ased o n a rrowheads ( Tellenbach 1 982; B ar- Y osef 1 981; G opher 1 985) i llustrates t he m ethodological p roblems w e h ave w ith t he c hronology c urrently b eing d iscussed. F ar f rom s uggesting a n a lternative c hronological s cheme a t p resent, t he c ont radictory e lements o f t he c hronology i n u se n eed t o b e e laborated a nd i ts m ethodological i mplications t o b e a nalyzed ( Gebel n .d.). I t i s c onsidered a s n ecessary f or f uture c hronological r esearch t hat p rimary p roduction i s a nalyzed t echnologically a nd s tatistically a nd c ompared a t t he c hronologically i mportant P PNB s ites i n o rder t o o btain " nonm orphological" a rguments f or t he c hronological d iscussion o f t he s outhern L evantine P PNB .2 8 T he ' Amuq p oints f rom B aga a nd t he B yblos ( and A muq p oints, C ampaigns 1 986/1987) p oints f rom B asta c ertainly i ndicate a t erminal P PNB d ate f or t hese s ites. A lthough v ery f ew d iagnostic p rojectile p oints w ere f ound a t A bu B arqa a nd ' Ain T ayiba t hey m ay w ell b e o f s imilar d ate t o B aga a nd B asta o r e ven b elong t o a n a ceramic E arly P ottery N eolithic. W hether J abu 1 i s o f t he l atter p eriod r emains d oubtful. F urther i nvestigations a re n ecessary b efore w e c an d etermine w hether t he l arge b lade t echnology a ttested a t ' Ain T ayiba , B asta a nd B aga 1 h as a ny c hronological i mplications. T his t echnology i s m issing a t a d-Daman , S haqarat M usai 'id, a nd B aga b ut f airly w ell a ttested a t B aida. A s c ertain t ypes o f r aw m aterial w ere p referred f or s uch b lades, t heir a bundance a t t hese s ites m ay r esult f rom t he l ocal a vailability o f s uitable m aterial. T he a d-Daman a nd p arts o f t he S haqarat M usai'id i nventories d iffer f rom B aga a nd B asta t echnologically a s d o t he i mplement a ssemblages. T heir a ssemblages a re m ore c losely r elated t o t hat o f B aida o r o ther s ites i n t he s outhern L evant w hich a re d ominated b y E arly P PNB e lements ( Gebel n .d.). T he B aida a ssemblage m ust a t p resent b e c onsidered a s a

9 2

c l i

o z )

• c d . 0

( O

W

C

c hronological

I

c d

V D

9 3 I

C A P Q

d iscussed.

( D 0 D 3 )

C Y < H Z

( 2Q ,

F igure 1 3 P roposed

N .

T AYIBA A RQA 1

R AT M USAI'ID 1 1

0 0 0 r —

1 1

l y N atufian e N atufian i fian a mian t anian l y P PNB r ly/Middle P PNB) e P PNB

D D D N. N• N.

0

1

I

e i •

4 4 o

0 • H 4 ) • H V ) 0 C a .

C l > • H 4 -‚ ) C O , 1

a ) g 4

r elative-chronological S hagarat M usai'id.

7 .

l ink

b etween

B aga

/ B asta

a nd

a d-Daman

/

G eneral c onclusions

A s t he a nalysis o f t he p alaeoenvironmental s amples i s n ot y et c ompleted, o nly g eneral c onclusions c an b e d rawn a bout t he 1 0th t o 7 th m illennium B C o ccupations. A fter t he e xcavations a t B aida w ere e nded, t he a uthor's p roject l ocated t hree o r p ossibly f our L ate E pipalaeol ithic a nd f ive ( Late) P PNB s ites. W hile b oth p eriods a re f airly w ell r epresented i n t he P etra a rea , o nly o ne s ite i s k nown f rom t he e arly P PNB ( the K hiamian s ite o f S abra 1 ). T his i s s urprising f or a p eriod w hich i s t hought t o h ave b een m ore h umid t han t he p resent ( LeroiG ourhan 1 981; B intcliff 1 982). S ultanian a nd t rue E arly P PNB s ites h ave n ot y et b een e ncountered. T he o ccupational e vidence f ound a t B aida i s p ossibly r epresentative o f t he o ccupational h istory o f t he P etra a rea a s a w hole. A fter t he E arly N atufian o f t he 1 0th m illennium , ad une d eveloped o n w hich r ests t he " Middle" - L ate P PNB s ettlement o f t he 7 th m illennium . T he L ate N atufian s ites i n t he a rea ( Sunkh 1 w ith f ew H elwan l unates; S abra 1 ? ) m ay r epresent a t emporary e nding t o t he s emi-sedentary o ccupation o f t he g reater P etra a rea . T he m ost e xtensive o ccupation o f t he P etra r egion o ccurred i n t he 7 th m illennium . I t i s a lso a p eriod o f s upposed i ncreased a ridity i n t he s outhern L evant. T he l ack o f P ost-PPNB p ermanent v illages i n t he P etra a rea s eems t o s upport t he w idely a ccepted a ssumption t hat t here w as a s udden c hange t owards m ore m obile o ccupations i n t he s outhern L evant a round 6 000 B C ( "hiatus p alaestinienne"), r esulting f rom t he o ver-exploitation o f b iotic r esources b y l arge v illages w ith h erding e conomies. H owever, a t p resent s uch a n e xplanation h as n o d ata b ase i n t he s ites o f t he g reater P etra a rea . T he e vidence f or d omestic o vicaprids i s l imited a nd n o s ite s hows a n o verall r eliance o n d omestic a nimals .

9 4

N otes 1 .

V arious t ransliterations a nd t ranscriptions o f t he s ite n ames h ave b een p ublished ( Gebel 1 983-84, G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985, G ebel 1 986a , G ebel 1 986b). T hese r esult f rom e ditors' r egulations a nd h ave c reated p roblems f or s ite n ame i dentification . I n t he f ollowing l ist, t he v arious t ransliterations a nd t ranscriptions s o f ar u sed a re g iven w ith a r ecommended s pelling i n b rackets . T his s pelling w ill b e u sed i n t his p aper a nd i n f uture w orks i n o rder t o a void f urther c onfusion i n s ite n ame i dentification a nd i n o rder t o f acilitate p rinting. T his d isregards p hilological o bjections o r t he p ossibility t hat i t i s n ot t he c orrect t ransliteration . ( Sabra)

S abrä

( Sunkh)

S unah ,

( Thugra)

T u ra , T u ra

( Wadi S laisl)

W adi S leisel, W ädi S ulaisil

( ad D aman)

_ _ a d -D aman , a d-Damän ••

( Shaqarat M usai 'id)

‘ a c iarat M as 'ad,

( Abu S arqa)

A bu B arka , A b i i B arqa

( 'Ain T aiyiba)

' Ain T äiyiba ,

( Baga)

B a tj a, B a, B a 'adsha

( Basta)

B asta

( Baida)

B aida ', B aida , B eidha.

S unh

M asiyäd, S haqarat a qqärat M usai'id

M usei'id,

g aqrat

' Ain T ayyiba

T he E nglish o f t his c ontribution w as e dited b y S usan C larke, T uebingen a nd A ndrew G arrard, A mman . T he a rtefact d rawings w ere p roduced b y I rmgard R aidt, M etzingen. 2 .

B asta a nd A bu B arqa a re n ot s ituated i n t he i mmediate a rea o f i nvestigation . ' Ain T ayiba , A bu B arqa a nd J abu 1 c ould b e e ither o f P ost-PPNB d ate o r i n t he L ate P PNB t radition .

3 .

T hree n ew l arge P PNB s ites w ere r ecently r eported f rom S outhern J ordan ( Suleiman F arajad, D epartment o f A ntiquities, P etra-Branch ; p ersonal c ommunication). T wo a re s ituated n ear H umaima , o ne i s l ocated a t 3 5°2 8 '02" E / 3 0 °0 1'05" N n ear ' Ain a l-Yamam ( Naba ' a l Y amam ; L ate P PNB , p ossibly a lso w ith e arly p ottery). T he s ite w as p artly d isturbed b y t he M a 'an - A qaba r oad ( visited i n a utumn 1 986 b y t he a uthor).

9 5

4 .

W e a lso g ratefully a cknowledge t he e ffective i n-field s upport o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities R epresentatives, I njazi S haba la n a nd S uleiman F arajad f rom P etra .

5 .

B esides t he a uthor a nd t he r epresentatives, t he m embers o f t he t eam w ere J .M . S tarck , A . M ueller, B . K houry, D . S chyle, H .P . U erpmann, F . H elmdach , H .J. P achur, W . Z acher, M . S alameh H usein , A . M are'e, a nd M . M ukhtar ( order o f n ames a ccording t o d uration o f i nfield p articipation).

6 .

T he f ollowing s pecialists a re i nvolved: W . F rey / C . J agiella , W . K üerschner F ree U niversity o f B erlin ( charcoal); A . H auptmann , G erman M ining M useum B ochum ( minerals); F . H elmdach , B erlin ( flint r esources); R . N eef, U niversity o f G roningen ( seeds, p ollen); H .J . P achur, F ree U niversity o f B erlin ( geomorphology); T . P etney, R hodes U niversity, S outh A frica ( land s nails); D . R eese, F ield M useum , C hicago ( marine m olluscs); O . R oehrer-Ertl, M uenchen ( human r emains); D . S chyle, U niversity o f T uebingen ( Sabra 1 : N atufian c hipped s tone i ndustry, s mall f inds); W . S oeffner / H .P . U erpmann , U niversity o f T uebingen ( faunal r emains); J .M . S tarck , U niversity o f G iessen ( recent v egetation c over; s mall f inds).

7 .

I n c ollaboration w ith t he D epartment o f G eology a nd M ineralogy o f A mman U niversity s everal f lint a nd m ineral r esources w hich m ay h ave b een e xploited w ere l ocated i n 1 984 . W e w ould l ike t o t hank H ani K houry, D irector o f t he D epartment a nd h is i n-field c ollaborator, F ritz H elmdach f or t heir s upport.

8 .

I n 1 985 a s hort f ield t rip w as m ade w ith t he p rincipal a im o f e xamining t he " playa" f ills i n t he b asins n ear T beitb / S abra a nd a d-Daman / ' Ain T hawi a nd d escribing t he g eomorphological s etting a nd p reservation o f t he s ites . T he f ield r esearch w as c arried o ut b y H .J . P achur, G eomorphological L aboratory o f F ree U niversity B erlin ( H .J . P achur a nd H .G . G ebel, T AVO P alaeoenvironmental I nvestigations i n t he G reater P etra A rea / E arly H olocene R esearch . G eomorphological r econnaissance, M arch 1 985. R eport t o t he D epartment o f A ntiquities , A mman . M arch 1 985. U npublished m anuscript).

9 .

T he s urvey w as c arried o ut a nd c ompleted b y J .M . S tarck i n 1 984.

s pring

1 0 .

T he 4 -1mm f raction o f c . 5 .5m 3 f rom S abra 1 w as c ompletely s orted.

1 1.

F or a m ore d etailed d escription o f t he h ydrology a nd c limate a nd t he v egetation c over s ee G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985. T he b rief i nformation g iven h ere o n t he v egetation c over w as c ollected b y J .M . S tarck .

9 6

1 2.

T he a reas c hosen a s r epresentative o f u nits w ere:

t he

f our

e co-geographic

1 .

R oad b etween W adi M usa a nd T ayiba.

2 .

a l-Thugra r egion t o t he e scarpment o f N aqb a ra nd a d-Daman a rea .

3 .

W adi S laisl / W adi B aida / C abal K arun / W adi J urf I bn a nd S iq U mm a l-Alda / S haqarat M usai 'id a rea.

4 .

W adi K hiara / W adi A bu K hushaiba a nd S eil W adi M usa S umr a t-Tayiba.

R uba ti ;

S abra

B akhit

/ G abal

1 3.

Af inal l ayer / l evel d esignation h as n ot b een d etermined f or t he S abra 1 - s tratigraphy. D . S chyle ( this v olume) p rovisionally n amed t he l ower s andy d eposits a s " Layer 2 A" ( 20 .20 - 1 9.90m) a nd " Layer 2 B" 9 19.90-19.50m) a nd t he u pper s andy a shy-humic d eposits ( above 2 0 .20m) a s " Layer 1 ".

1 4.

T his l and s nail a ppears i n h igh p opulation d ensities o n s ubstrates i n 1 00-200mm r ainfall a reas ( T . P etney, U niversity, S outh A frica ; p ersonal c ommunication).

1 5.

A p reliminary i dentification o f a nimal b ones f rom t he N atufian a nd K hiamian l ayers o f S abra 1w as c arried o ut b y W . S oeffner , I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte , U niversity o f T uebingen . T he f ollowi ng l ist i gnores s tratigraphic c ontext: w ild g oat ( frequent); g azelle s p ., s mall a rtiodactyle, w ild c attle, b irds ( occasionally); s heep, e quid s p., f ox , h are, r odent, r eptile ( rare).

1 6.

S everal c ollections w ere m ade b y e arlier v isitors t o t he s ite.

1 7.

R . R ottlaender, I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte, U niversity o f T uebingen; H .J . P achur, G eomorphologisches L aboratorium , F ree U niversity o f B erlin ( personal c ommunications).

1 8 .

T he o ther s ite d iscovered i s G abal K u 'aisa ( Henry 1 981:

1 9.

T he s ite w as d iscovered a nd s ounded b y D iana K irkbride ( Kirkbride 1 966 : 5 4-56).

2 0 .

H .J . P achur, G eomorphological L aboratory, B erlin ( personal c ommunication).

2 1.

T he s oundings w ere c arried o ut b y H .P. U erpmann a nd B . K houry.

2 2.

O ther P PNB e vidence c omes f rom s urface f inds o n t he n earby " playa" s urface ( Sabra 2 ) a nd f rom f lat r ock s urfaces o n t he r idge a bove S abra 1 ( Sabra 6 ). T he p ossibility t hat m aterial f rom S abra 6 w as w ashed d own o nto S abra 1 c annot b e e xcluded.

2 3.

A bu B arqa w as f ound i n U niversitaet B raunschweig.

1 984

9 7

b y

A mireh

F ree

v arious R hodes

1 13). i n

U niversity

B elal,

1 964

o f

T echnische

2 4.

T he s ite w as d iscovered d uring a s urvey a imed a t r elocating B ir a t-Tayiba ( Kirkbride 1 966). D . K irkbride 's d escription o f t he s ite s etting d iffers f rom t hat o f B ir a t-Tayiba , b ut c ould w ell b e t hat o f ' Ain T ayiba .

2 5.

T he s ite w as f ound b y M anfred L indner, N uernberg a nd h is g roup. W e g ratefully a ppreciate h is c alling o ur a ttention t o t his s ite. J abu 1 w as d esignated a s " Baga I V" b y M . L indner.

2 6.

I t h as t o b e a ssumed t hat a round 6 000 B .C. t he S iq w as n ot b locked. I n t his c ase t he a scent w ould h ave t aken o nly 1 0 m inutes, n ot 3 0 - 4 5 m inutes a s i t d oes t oday. I t r emains q uestionable w hether t he s ite w as a ccessible f rom t he e ast.

2 7.

S ame a s f or S haqarat M usai'id 1 . T he n earest w ater r esources a t t he p resent t ime a re t he s pring h orizons o n t he s teep l imestone e scarpment o f t he A rabian P lateau t o t he e ast o r i n t he p ools a nd g ravel b eds o f t he S ig(s) u p t ill A pril-May.

2 8 .

T his w ould h elp t o d ate e phemeral s ites a nd s tations w ith a s carcity o f d iagnostic i mplements a nd t o i dentify t he i nventory f rom t he l evel o f t he v illage i nventories.

9 8

B ibliography B ar-Yosef O . a nd V andermeersch B . ( 1981). N otes c oncerning t he p ossible a ge o f t he M ousterian l ayers i n Q afzeh C ave. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L avant: 2 81-289. P aris , E ditions d u C .N.R .S. B intcliff J . ( 1982). P alaeoclimatic m odelling o f e nvironmental c hanges i n t he e ast M editerranean r egion s ince t he l ast g laciation. I n J . B intcliff a nd W . v an Z eist ( eds.) P alaeoclimates, P alaeoenvironm ents a nd H uman C ommunities i n t he E astern M editerranean R egion i n L ater P rehistory. B ritish A rchaeological R eports - I nternational S eries 1 33.1: 4 85-527. O xford, B .A .R .

G arfinkel Y ., C armi I . a nd V ogel J .C . ( n .d.). D ating o f h orsebean a nd l entil s eeds f rom t he P re-Pottery N eolithic B v illage o f Y ifta te l. I srael E xploration-Quarterly: f orthcoming. G ebel H .G . ( 1983-84). S abra 1 u nd d ie W adi Systeme u m P etra/Wadi M usa . A rchiv f ür O rientforschung 2 9-30 : 2 82-284. G ebel H .G . ( 1984). D as A keramische N eolithikum V orderasiens. S ubsistenzformen u nd S iedlungsweisen . T abellarische M aterial- u nd B efundpraesentation z u F undorten d es P rotoneolithikums u nd d es A keramischen N eolithikums . B eihefte z um T uebinger A tlas d es V orderen O rients B 5 2. W iesbaden , L udwig R eichert. G ebel H .G . ( 1986a). D ie J ungsteinzeit i m P etra-Gebiet. ( ed.) P etra . N eue A usgrabungen u nd E ntdeckungen: M uenchen, D elp.

I n M . L indner 2 73-308.

G ebel H .G . ( 1986b). P etra-Region 1 983-1985. U ntersuchungen z ur S iedlungs-und U mweltgeschichte d es F rühneolithikums. A rchiv f ür O rientforschung 3 3: f orthcoming. G ebel H .G . ( n.d.). R elative a nd a bsolute c hronologies i n t he N eolithic o f t he s outhern L evant b etween 1 0000 a nd 8 000 . L yon , p aper p resented a t t he C olloque I nternational d u C .N.R.S. " Chronologies R elative a t c hronologies a bsolue d ans l e P roche O rient", N ovember 1 986. G ebel H .G . a nd S tarck J .M . ( 1985). I nvestigations i nto t he s tone a ge o f t he P etra a rea ( Early H olocene r esearch). AP reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 c ampaigns. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9: 8 9-114. G opher A . ( 1985). F lint t ool i ndustries o f t he N eolithic p eriod o f I srael. J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis.

9 9

H enry D .O ., H assan F .A., K .C . H enry a nd M . J ones ( 1981). A n i nvestigat ion o f t he p rehistory a nd p alaeoenvironments o f s outhern J ordan . R esults o f t he 1 979 f ield s eason . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 5: 1 13-146.

K irkbride D . ( 1966). F ive s easons a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic v illage o f B eidha i n J ordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 8: 8 -72.

L eroi-Gourhan A . ( 1981). L e L evant ä l a f in d u P leistocene e t a l 'Holocene d 'apres l a p alynologie. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 1 07-109. P aris, E ditions C .N .R.S. L indner M . ( 1986). A rchäologische E rkundungen i m P etraGebiet 1 9821 984 . I n M . L indner ( ed .) P etra . N eue A usgrabungen u nd E ntdeckungen : 8 7-188. M ünchen , D elp.

M ortensen P . ( 1970). Ap reliminary s tudy o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry f rom B eidha . A cta A rchaeologica 4 1: 1 -54.

N WMPJ ( 1977). N ational W ater M aster P lan o f J ordan 1 -8. H ashemite K ingdom o f J ordan , N atural R esources A uthority a nd G erman A gency f or T echnical C ooperation .

R ollefson G . a nd S immons A .H . ( n .d.). T he 1 985 s eason a t ' Ain G hazal. P reliminary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities: f orthcoming.

S chyle D . ( 1986). L evant . E pipalaeolithic a nd P rotoneolithic. T uebingen A tlas o f t he M iddle E ast, M ap B I 9 . W iesbaden , L udwig R eichert.

T ellenbach M . ( 1979). Z ur C hronologie d es F rühneolithik ums i m • w estlichen B ogen d es " Fruchtbaren H albmonds". A nsatze z u e iner T ypologie d er G eschschosspitzen . J ahrbuch d es R ömischG ermanischen N ationalmuseums M ainz 2 6: 5 2.

1 00

P reliminary R eport o n t he F irst S eason o f E xcavations a t B asta

H ans G eorg G ebel, M ujahed S h . M uheisen , H ans J . N issen , w ith c ontributions b y N abil Q adi a nd J ohannes M atthias S tarck

1 .

I ntroduction

I n e arly 1 986 t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f t he H ashemite K ingdom o f J ordan , t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology o f Y armouk U niversity a nd t he I nstitute o f N ear E astern A rchaeology o f t he F ree U niversity o f B erlin b egan a j oint p roject t o s urvey a nd e xcavate t he L ate P re-Pottery N eolithic s ite b elow t he m odern v illage o f B asta , s outh o f W adi M usa ( Figure 1 ). T he i mportance o f t he s ite h ad b een r ecorded b y e arlier v isitors, b ut f uller i nvestigation h as b ecome i mperative a s t he e xpansion o f t he m odern v illage i s c ausing m ore d amage t o t he a ncient s ite. B asta w as f irst m entioned a s aN abatean s ite b y N elson G lueck ( Glueck 1 934-35), a nd w as l ater d escribed a s C halcolithic b y D iana K irkbride ( Kirkbride 1 959). H owever , i t w as G hazi B isheh ( Bisheh 1 972) f rom t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n A mman w ho i dentified t he N eolithic o ccupation. A l ate P PNB d ate w as s uggested b y a s ounding m ade b y H ans G eorg G ebel, o ne o f t he c oordinators o f t he p resent p roject, i n a b uilding s ite i n t he v illage i n 1 984 ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985 ; G ebel 1 986). T he i nitial o bjectives f or t he 1 986 s eason w ere s imply t o c arry o ut a p reliminary s urvey a nd t o m ake s oundings. H owever, j ust p rior t o o ur a rrival a n a rea o f a bout 4 00 s quare m etres w as c leared f or c ons truction p urposes, e xposing t he o ccupation l ayers o f t he s ite a nd m aking i t n ecessary t o o pen u p a l arger a rea . A lthough w e w ere n either p repared n or f ully e quipped f or a f ull s cale e xcavation , w e o pened a n a rea o f a lmost 2 00 s quare m etres i n o ur l imited o ne m onth s eason . T he s uccess o f o ur w ork w as a ttributed t o t he g veat e nthusiasm o f o ur i ndustrious J ordanian a nd G erman t eam m embers .' W e w ould p articularly l ike t o a cknowledge t he w illing a nd a ble m anner w ith w hich t he t eam w orked u nder t he e xtraordinary t ime p ressure. T his w as o nly m ade p ossible b y t he g enerous s upport o f D r. A dnan H adidi, D irector-General o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities, o f P rofessor M oawiyah I brahim , D irector o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology o f Y armouk U niversity, a nd o f t he G erman R esearch A ssociation .

1 01

I 1 ) 3 5°3 0 '

,

0S aubak 3 0°30 —

•1 3 31

•B a ic. i a \ 0Wä c f rM i gsä

.1 07 8

N

•a l -Bas ta •1 76 6

•1 330

• 1

I

F igure 1 L ocation o f B asta i n s outhern J ordan .

1 02

0 M a r än •2 0 k m

2 .

C ourse o f w ork

A s m entioned a bove, t he p rocedure f or t he 1 986 s eason d iverged f rom o ur o riginal p lans d ue t o t he r escue o peration c onfronting u s. D espite t his, o ur p rimary g oal, t o a ssess t he e xtent o f t he N eolithic s ettlement a nd t he d epth o f o ccupation l evels, w as r eached. T his w as a ccomplished t hrough a n i ntensive s urface s urvey o f t he p rospective a rea o f t he o ld s ettlement a nd t hrough i nvestigations o f m odern c uts a t v arious l ocations o n t he s ite. A lthough f orces h ad t o b e c oncentrated o n t he r escue o peration i t w as n evertheless p ossible t o c onduct t he i ntensive s urface s urvey a s i ntended. T he d epth o f d eposits w as d etermined b y t he e xcavation i tself a nd b y i nvestigating t he b uilding c uts m ade t hroughout t he a rea o f t he m odern v illage. T he g rid s ystem w as o rganized i n 5 m x 5 m s quares w ith l m b aulks. T hirteen s quares w ere o pened, e ither p artially o r f ully, a nd t he i ntention i n e ach o f t hese w as f irstly t o e xcavate d own t o a n i n s itu s urface. E xcept f or t he m aterial r emoved d uring s ection t rimming, m ost o f t he e xcavated d eposits w ere s ieved ( using 5 a nd 2 mm s ieves). A dditional s tratigraphic i nformation w as s ecured f rom t he N E- a nd N W-Cuts o f t he b uilding p lot ( Figures 5 -6) a s t hese e xposed s ections o f u p t o 3 m d epth.

3 .

P hysical s etting ( Figures 1 a nd 2 )

B asta i s s ituated a t 3 0° 1 3 ' 4 7" N / 3 5° 3 2' 0 6" E2 a t a n a ltitude o f 1 460 - 1 420m . T he a rea p resently l ies i n a s emi-arid c old r egion o f s outhern J ordan ( Emberger c lassification) a nd r eceives 1 00mm m ean a nnual r ainfall m ost o f w hich f alls i n w inter. H owever, p recipitation m ay v ary f rom 2 00-300mm i n w et y ears t o a s l ittle a s 5 0-100mm i n d ry y ears. A s m any a s s ix c limatic r egions c an b e i dentified a long t he w est-east t ransect b etween t he W adi A raba a nd M a 'an. T he S hobak d ry f arming a rea b egins s ome 1 0-15km n orth o f B asta. G eologically, B asta i s s ituated o n t he b order b etween t he l imes tone / m arl / d olomite - f ormations o f t he w est a nd t he c halky m arls / b ituminous l imestone / m arls o f t he e ast ( Bender 1 968: S heet A qabaM a 'an). I n t his a rea t here i s a lso t he m ost w esterly a ppearance o f t he f luviatile g ravels a nd m antle r ocks, w hich a re c haracteristic o f t he a reas a round M a 'an. F igure 2 i ndicates o ur p reliminary c lassification o f p resent-day c atchment a reas a long a w est-east t ransect. T he z ones a re a s f ollows: I ) 1 000-1400/1450m : A rtemisia h erba-alba ( Irano-Turanian e lement) p enetrates f rom t he e astern p lateau i nto t he X ero-Mediterranean s avanna-type f orests o f J uniperus p hoenicea. W ild s pecies o f b arley o ccur, a s d oes h awthorn, b ut t hese a re o ften o vergrazed. D rainage s ystems a re o riented e ast-west a nd t he n etwork o f r outes u sed r uns n orth-south.

1 03

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I I) 1 400/1450 - 1 600-1700m : V egetation c over ( dwarf-shrub v egetation w ith A rtemisia - d ominated a ssociations: 3 0-35%) s ame a s I , b ut t he o ccurrence o f j uniper i s r estricted t o l inear , s teep-sided r ock f ormations w here w ater a ccumulates i n c racks a nd c lefts, a nd w hich a re l ess a ccessible t o g razing a nimals. I n t he n orth o f t he t ransect a rea s mall p eriodical a nd p erennial s prings a round 1 400-1500m a llow f or l imited g ardens. I II) 1 600 - 1 400m : A rtemisia v egetation ( 30-50%) w ith i ncreasing d ensity t owards e ast a nd o ccasional h awthorn ( Cretaegus a zarolus a nd C retaegus c f. m onogyna), s tands o f w ild b arley a nd o ats i n a reas p rotected f rom a nimals. F ields w ith m accaroni w heat ( Triticum d urum), b arley ( Hordeum d istichum), c hick p ea ( Cicer a vietinum), a nd l entils ( Lens c ulinaris) s eem t o c oncentrate a t h igher a ltitudes. U nirrigated g ardens w ith c ypresses, o live t rees, a nd s ometimes g rapes a re o n t he s lopes a round 1 500m , b ut o ften s uffer b adly f rom l ack o f w ater. S pring-fed g ardens ( Basta , ' Ail) s upport f igs, a pricots, p lums, a pples, g rapes, c orn, c ucumber, t omato a nd o ther v egetables. I V) 1 400 - 1 300m : t reeless d warf s hrub v egetation A rtemisia p roportions.

w ith

i ncreasing

T he s teep s lopes ( I, I I) b ordering t he s andstone a rea r eceive t he h ighest p recipitation a nd a re t herefore m ore f ertile, b ut f or t opographic r easons, a griculture i s l imited. T he v ast f ield a reas o n t he d rier s teppic p lateau ( III, I V) s uffers t owards e ast m ore a nd m ore f rom r educed r ainfall a nd o vergrazing.

4 .

S urface s urvey a nd t he e xtent o f t he s ite ( Figures 3 -4)

T he a ncient s ite o f B asta l ies a lmost e ntirely u nder t he m odern v illage. T he a reas c overed b y s tanding s tructures a nd r oads w ere i naccessible. M any o f t he r emaining p resently u nused a reas w ere a lso d isturbed s o t hey w ere e xcluded f rom t he a rea o f i nvestigation. I t b ecame o bvious t hat a s ystematic r andom s urface s urvey w ould r esult i n m any u nsuitable a reas b eing e xamined, a nd t herefore t he o nly p ractical s olution w as t o l imit t he c overage t o u ndisturbed a reas. O nly a g eneralized s ketch m ap w as a vailable f or t he B asta a rea. N o l and s urvey h ad b een p reviously c onducted a nd c onsequently t here w as n o g rid w hich c ould b e u sed f or r eference. H ence i t w as n ecessary t o r ely o n r elatively s table f eatures, s uch a s b uildings a nd e lectricity p oles, a s f ixed p oints. T hirty-eight s uch p oints w ere e stablished m ore o r l ess e venly o ver t he u ndisturbed a reas. I nstead o f s quares, c ircles o f 5 m d iameter ( roughly 2 0 s quare m eters) w as t aken a round t hese p oints t o m ark t he a reas f rom w hich c ollections c ould b e m ade. W ithin t hese c ircles e very a rtefact w as c ollected. A s w as e xpected, t he s ize o f t he c ollections v aried c onsiderably, a nd i t c ame a s n o s uprise t hat w hile c ollections i n a l arger c oherent p art w ere q uite r ich t hey t ended t o d ecrease i n s ize c onsiderably t owards t he e dges o f t he c entral a rea w hich a lso h appened t o m ark t he c entre o f t he m odern v illage. I n m ost c ases, m odern c uts r evealed o nly r ather t hin o ccupation l ayers, p articularly a t t he n orthwestern f ringes. I n C ut 8 ( Figure 4 ),

1 05

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M an E xcava t ton 1 986

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F igure 3 P lan o f B asta s howing t he l ocation o f t he 1 986 e xcavations.

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F igure 4 L ocation o f s urface c ollections .

1 06

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a p laster-lined r ed-stained f loor c ould b e f ollowed f or a l ength o f o ver 2 m . A s w as t o b e e xpected, C ut 1 i n t he c entral a rea e xposed 1 .5m o f o ccupation l ayers, o bviously r eaching d own i nto t he u nexposed a rea. C ut 1 3 m arks t he s pot o f t he o riginal 1 984 i nvestigation o f H .G . G ebel ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985; G ebel 1 986). I nevitably t he d ecision o n w hat s ize o f c ollection w ould i ndicate w hether a l ocus w as p art o f t he f ormerly s ettled a rea o r n ot, w as t o a c ertain e xtent a rbitrary. T he d otted b oundary l ine ( Figure 4 ) i s t herefore j ust a n a pproximation o f t he p robable m inimum e xtent o f t he e arly s ite. T aking i nto a ccount t hose a reas w hich d id n ot y ield a ny e vidence f or d efinitely b eing o utside t he s ettlement, w e a rrived a t a m aximum a rea c lose t o 1 4ha. M ore r ealistically, a nd l eaving o ut t he l oci w ith e xtremely p oor c ollections, a n a rea o f a t l east 1 0 h a c ould b e p roposed f or t he N eolithic v illage. S ince t he 1 986 s eason o nly f inished t wo m onths a go, i t i s t oo e arly t o p resent a n a nalysis o f t he s urvey m aterial. W e c an o nly m ake t he v ery t entative r emark t hat t here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a ny P reC lassical m aterial f rom t he s urvey a rea w hich c annot b e m atched w ith t he m aterial f rom t he e xcavation. I t i s, t herefor , u nlikely t hat t he v illage w as o ccupied d uring o ther p hases o f t he P re-Classical p eriods.

5 .

N otes o n t he s tratigraphy a nd t he N E- C ut ( Figure 5 )

G eneral i nformation o n t he n ature o f t he d ebris a ccumulations, t he i nter-relationship b etween a ctivity a reas, s tructural r emains e tc. w ere o btained f rom t he b ulldozed N W- a nd N Es ections. M ore d etailed s tratigraphic i nsights w ere o btained f rom t he e xcavations i n s quares 5 00-505N/685-690E , a nd t he s tratigraphical e vidence o f t he N E-Cut. F or t he s outhern c omplex, t he m ain a im r emained t o r each t he f irst f loor b elow t he b ulldozed l evel. I n t he n orthern c omplex t he m ore c omp licated s tratigraphical s ituation f orced u s t o i nvestigate t he r elationships o f b edrock, f ills, b urials, p atch-preserved f loors a nd w alls. I n t he n orthernmost c orner o f t he b uilding p lot ( 505N/685E) b edr ock w as r eached a t l evels a round 2 2.50m . B edrock w as r eached i n t he n eighbouring S quare 5 05N/690E a nd i n t he 1 984 s ounding, t oo. T he u pper s ection o f b edrock c onsists o f a y ellowish i nequigranular, c onsolidated m aterial o f v arying t hickness, w hich i s p robably t he d ecomposition p roduct o f t he u nderlying b edrock s trata. T he s keleton o f o ne b urial ( c. 5 02.5N/688E) h ad b een p laced d irectly o n s uch a s urface. O ther b urials a nd m any s cattered h uman b ones w ere e mbedded i n a reas o f a sh a nd b uilding d ebris a nd h ad b een p artly d isturbed b y l ater p its a nd l evelling-out a ctivities. I t i s a lmost i mpossible i n t his h ighly d isturbed h orizon o f i nterfering d ebris l ayers , p its a nd b urials t o t race t he o utlines o f b urial p its. H owever, t he i n s itu b urials a nd t he n umerous s cattered h uman b ones i ndicate t hat t his a rea w as u sed a s a b urial g round, p rior t o t he c onstructions o f t he e arliest a rchitectural r emains i n 5 00N/690E .

c .

W hile t he u pper i ntact a rchitectural r emains i n 5 05N/685E a ppear 2 m a bove b edrock r esting o n a t hick a ccumulation o f b uilding d ebris,

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t hose i n 5 00N/690E r est i n p art o n d eposits c lose t o b edrock. N o s tratigraphical l ink b etween t hese t wo o ccupation a reas w as p ossible f rom t he e vidence o f t he N E-Cut. I n g eneral, t he e normous t hickness o f s uccessive a nd a lmost h orizontal, o r s lightly d ownward-tilting l ayers o f b uilding d ebris ( more t han 2 m i n t he N W-Cut) m ake i t d ifficult t o u nderstand t he s tratigraphical c onnections b etween t he s tructural u nits, w hich s eem t o r est i solated o n t erraced d ebris l ayers. T he b edrock s urface, f or e xample, b etween t he N - c orner o f t he p lot a nd a p oint r oughly 7 m t o t he s outheast, i s s loping a t a n a ngle o f a bout 7 5 d egrees. T he c haracter o f t he d ebris d eposits a nd t heir s tratigraphy v isible i n t he N E-Cut i s m ore c omplicated t o u nderstand a nd d iffers c onsiderably f rom t he N W-Cut, w here a c lear s eparation i n m atrix a nd c ontents o f a lmost i dentical d ebris l ayers i s p ossible. A b rief a nd g eneral d escription o f t he N E-Cut i s g iven b elow : T he u pper l ayers ( 1, 2 , 5 , 6 ) h ave t he s ame s lope a s t he p resent d ay s urface a nd s eem t o r epresent t he f ill o f t he e roded u pper o ccupat ion e ncountered i n S quares 5 05N/685-695E. I n c ontrast, t he l ayers a nd l enses f rom L evel 7 d ownwards a re r oughly h orizontal; t heir h ighest p oint i s a pproximately a t t he s ame l evel a s t he p reserved t op o f W all 2 4, w hich b elongs t o t he l ower o ccupation. T his f ill, w hich w as i nvestigated o ver a l ength o f m ore t han 6 m , c onsists m ainly o f t hin b ands a nd l enses ( 20cm) o f a sh, c oncentrations o f f lint d ebris, a nd m ore o r l ess c onsolidated, d isintegrated m ortar-like m aterial. T here a re c onsiderable v ariations i n s ediment a nd e ach h ave d istinctive c onc entrations o f b ones, f lint d ebris, p laster p articles, c harcoal e tc., g iving e ach l ayer i ts o wn c haracter. I n m ost c ases i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he o rigin o f t he l ayer, b ut t his c an b e d one a t l east f or s ome: 1 1 a nd 1 3 a re l evelled d umps o f c hipping d ebris, 1 7 s eems t o b e a b urial i n t he b uilding d ebris, 9 a nd 1 5 a re r emoved a sh d umps, 1 0 i s d umped b uilding d ebris e tc.

6 .

A rchitecture ( Figures 6 -8;

P lates 1 .1-2,

2 .2)

A part f rom s ome u nrelated w all r emains, t wo m ain a rchitectural c omplexes w ere f ound i n t he e xcavation o f t he c onstruction s ite a rea. U nfortunately, d ue t o l ack o f t ime , w e w ere n ot a ble t o l ink t hese c omplexes t ogether. T he n orthern c omplex i s i mportant b ecause i t i llustrates o nce a gain h ow a ncient B asta w as b uilt o n a s teep s lope. A g ood e xample i s t he N -S w all a t t he b ottom o f t he b ulldozer c ut i n S quare 5 00N/695E, w hich l inks u p w ith t he w all i n 5 05N/690E w hich i n t urn p robably i s c onnected t o t he r emains i n 5 05N/690E . O wing t o t he f act t hat w e d id n ot f inish e xcavation i n t hese a reas, t he a ctual l ink w as n ot f ound. T he p resence o f t he s lope i s i llustrated b y t he f act t hat t he p robable f loor i n 5 05N/690E a nd t he a ctual f loors f ound i n 5 00N/695E d iffer i n h eight b y 2 .5m ( 24.39m a s a gainst 2 1.91m). A s c an b e s een i n t he N E-Cut, t he N -S w all i n 5 00N/695E h ad b een p reserved t o a h eight o f 1 .5m b efore t he b ulldozer h ad d estroyed a ll b ut t he l owest c ourse o f s tones. T his p art o f t he w all f ormed t he e astern l imit o f a s mall r oom w ith a w ell-plastered f loor, w hich h ad

1 09

b een r enewed a t l east o nce. T he s econd p lastering s howed a s a 3 cm t hick l ayer o n t op o f t he f irst f loor. T he o nly o pening w as f ound i n t he S -part o f t he W -wall w hich l ed w estwards t o a f irm , e xtremely s mooth s urface w hich s howed s igns o f b eing t he f loor o f a p it r ather t han p art o f a f loor. T he e dges s till c urved-up i n p arts a s i f o nce c ontinuing i nto a w all-plaster. U nfortunately , t his f eature l ay i mmediately b elow t he b ulldozed f loor. T he g ap i n t he w all m ay h ave b een f or a ccess t o t his p it r ather t han b eing a n e ntrance. I mmediately t o t he N o f t his " pit" w e f ound a r oughly o val r ing o f s tones a lmost e xclusively q uartzite m easuring 1 .8m x 1 .2m . T he s tones w ere s harp-edged a nd h ad e vidently b een e xposed t o h igh t emperatures. A lthough t he W -wall o f t he r oom p artly r ests o n s tones o f t his r ing, i t w as i mpossible t o s ay m ore a bout t he t emporal r elation b etween t he t wo o ther t han t hat t he w all m ust b e l ater. W e c ould n ot d ecide, h owever, h ow m uch l ater i t w as s ince i t a ppeared t hat t he r oom h ad b een c ut i nto o lder o ccupation l ayers. T he s tone r ing, t herefore, m ay b elong t o t he o lder o ccupation l ayers w hich c ontain t he b urials a nd s ome s maller f ire p laces. I n t he a djoining a rea t o t he s outh w e f ound p arts o f t wo w alls s itting o n aw ell-plastered f loor; t he l atter s howing t races o f r ed p aint. O n t his w as f ound a l arge g rinding s lab w ith o ne h andstone s till l eaning a gainst i t a nd a nother l ying o n t he f loor n ext t o i t. T he s outhern c omplex t urned o ut t o b e m ore c oherent a nd b etter p reserved. I n s quares 4 85N/685E w e f ound t he n orthern p art o f a l arge o pen a rea m easuring 5 .5m W -E b y a t l east 4 .5m . T wo s mall r ooms o f 1 .7 x 1 .1m a nd 1 .4m x l m h ad b een b uilt i nto t he N W c orner a nd t o j udge f rom t he j oints, w ere l ater a dditions. T hese r ooms h ad e ntrances l eadi ng f rom t he l arge r oom ; t he c orner r oom w as e ntered o ver a s tep o f 5 0cm i n h eight, t he o ther o ne o ver a r aised d oor s ill o f 8 0cm a bove t he f loor ( see F igure 8 ). A lthough t he u pper p arts o f t he w alls h ave b een l argely d estroyed, t hey s till s tand t o ah eight o f 1 .7m a bove t he f loor. T he s mall r ooms m ay h ave b een n ot m uch h igher a s t he d oor l intel o f t he n orthern o ne w as f ound i n s itu. T he e ntrance t o t he l arge r oom m ust h ave b een f rom t he u nexcavated a rea. T he o pen a rea s hares i t's N w all w ith a nother a rea t o t he n orth. T hese t wo f eatures, i n f act, b elong t o t he s ame p hase s ince b oth t heir w estern w alls j oin a c ommon W -E w all. O nce a gain w e c an s ee h ow t he f loors s lope; t hey d iffer i n h eight b y 1 .15m , ( 21.45 c ompared t o 2 0.30m). T he n orthern a rea i s o nly 4 .5m w ide ( W-E) b ut m easures a lmost 9 m i n t he N -S d irection. A lthough i t i nitially s eemed f rom t he c ont inuous E w all t hat t his a rea w as o ne u nit, t he f loor s hows a 2 0cm d ifference i n h eight b etween t he n orthern a nd s outhern h alves a nd t his m ay i ndicate t hat t he a rea w as d ivided. I n f act, t his s tep i s s till m arked b y a r ow o f s tones r unning f rom t he W t o t he E w alls. T he s outhern l arger a rea h as a w ell-plastered f loor b eneath d eep l ayers o f l oose f ill, w hich c onsisted o f e arth a nd s tones. T he n orthern p art d iffered i n t hat t he f ill c onsisted o f s mall s tones w ith a lmost n o s oil, s imilar t o t he f ill f ound i n o ther p arts o f t he b ulld ozer c ut. B elow t his r ubble t here w ere n o p laster r emains o r c ompacted s oil, b ut r ows o f l arge s tone s labs f orming m ultiple c rosses, w ith t he r ubble c ontinuing b etween t he r ows ( squares 4 95N/680E a nd

1 10

L im i ts o f Cons truc t ion P i t

D i r t/ M or tar B edrock B ur ia l

F igure 6

G eneral p lan o f a rchitectural r emains.

1 11

r n P

F loo r

P i t

P late 1 .1

G eneral v iew o f t he s outhern p art o f e xcavations ( from E )

B ASTA 80 495N/680E L de f

40 .7

P late 1 .2

e #1 3 7 85 E quo*

" Channel-like" s tructures i n 4 95N/680E ( Locus 1 7) a fter r emoval o f s labs c overing t he " channels". 112

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1 13

P late 2 .1

B urial i n t he s outheastern p art o f S quare 5 05N/680E .

P late 2 .2

S uperimposed f loor p lasterings i n S quare 5 00N/690E ( upper r ight: o void r ing o f h eat-affected s tones, u pper l eft: i ns itu m illing s tone).

1 14

N6 87

1 15 e astern f ace o f

6 85E , F igure 6 ). W hen s oil b egan t o f all b etween t hese l arger i t b ecame a pparent t hat t hey w ere c overing h ollow s paces.

s tones

O n r emoving t he c overing s labs w e f ound t hat t hey h ad e ffectively b een s ealing o ff a s ystem o f s mall " channels" a bout 1 5-30cm w ide a nd 5 0cm d eep ( Figure 7 ) w hich c ontained o nly a s mall s eepage o f f ine s oil i n t he l ower p arts. T his s oil c ontained n othing e xcept s ome t iny s nails ( Cecilioides a cicula O .F . M ueller, 1 774) w hich d o n ot c on4ribute a nything t owards a n e xplanation o f t he f unction o f t he f eature . T he f loors o f t he " channels" w ere m ade o f af ine , d ark-stained p laster , w hich c annot h owever b e t aken a s a n i ndication t hat t he f unction w as r elated t o w ater, s ince t he f lat s tones w hich m ade u p t he " channel" s ides w ere n ot s ealed w ith m ortar a nd w ould n ot h ave h eld l iquid. T he " channels" r un a long t he N a nd t he E w all. T o t he S a nd W t hey c ontinue i nto t he b ulldozer c ut a nd b elow t he f loor o f t he s outhern p art o f t he l arge o pen a rea d escribed a bove. T hey e xtend f or a t l east 4 m b eneath t he f loor, a s s een w hen w e i nserted a 4 m m easuring r od i nto t he " channel" o pening. T he e nd w as n ot r eached. I n a ddition a 2 m r od w as i nserted i nto t he w estward o penings i n t he N W-Cut, a gain w ithout r eaching t he " channel" e nd. I t i s p lausible, t herefore, t hat t he s outhward r unning c hannel m ay r un u p t o t he S w all o f t he o pen a rea, b ut t here i s n o o pening i n t he w all w here o ne w ould e xpect i t t o b e. I t s eems, t herefore , t hat t he " channels" f ormed a s elf-contained s ystem w ithout o penings t o t he s urrounding a rea. T hus a n e xplanation o f t he f eature a s av entilation s ystem w ould b e h ard t o s ustain . T he g eneral i mpression i s o f b uilding c omplexes o n a t erraced s lope , s imilar t o t he l ayout o f t he m odern v illage . J udging f rom t he w alls s een i n t he b ulldozer-cuts a nd f rom t hose i n t he e xcavated a reas , w e c an e xpect t hem t o b e p reserved t o ah eight o f 3 m . T he r ooms , w hich v ary i n s ize, a re r ectangular w ith e ither s harp o r r ounded-off c orners. I n t he n orthern c omplex, t he w alls a re b uilt o f p iled-up a lmost n aturally s haped s tones, w hereas t hose i n t he s outhern c omplex a re l aid i n e ven c ourses a nd a re m ade o f d ressed l imestone , u sing s maller s tones t o w edge t he j oints ( Figure 8 ).

7 .

R emarks o n t he b urial g round ( Figure 6 , P late 2 .2)

F our i n s itu b urials w ere u ncovered i n t he n orthern p art o f t he e xcavation , a long w ith m any s cattered h uman b ones i n t he d ebris o verl ying t he b edrock . T here w as n ot o nly e vidence t hat b urials h ad b een d isturbed b y p its, b ut i t a lso a ppears f rom b oth t he e xcavated a rea a nd f rom t he N E- a nd N W-Cut, t hat s kulls o f d isturbed b urials h ad b een r edeposited a nd s tones h ad b een p laced a round t hem . I t b ecame o bvious t hat s everal b urials h ad b een d estroyed b y t he b ulldozing o f t he o verl ying l ayers. F rom a ll t he e vidence, w e c an p ostulate t hat t here a re m ore b urials i n t his a rea. I n t he 1 986 s eason, o nly t hree o f t he f our i n s itu b urials w ere e xcavated d ue t o t he t ime l imit. F rom t he f our b urials u ncovered, w e m ight s peculate t hat a p roport ion o f o ther b urials a re i n c omplete a rticulation w ith t heir s kulls. I t i s t oo e arly t o s ay w hether g rave g oods a ccompany b urials, s ince o nly t he b urial a t 4 99N/687E c ontained a rtefacts . I n t his c ase i t w as a r ow o f N erita s p. s hells i n t he a rea o f t he w rist. H owever, t he

116

f requent o rnaments a ppearing i n t he d ebris l ayers w hich c ontain s cattered h uman b ones , m ay d erive f rom d isturbed b urials. W e h ave s imilar e vidence f rom t he 1 984 s ounding a t B asta a nd f rom B aga S ounding

1 .

C oncerning t he b urial p ositions a nd o rientations n o s imilarities c an b e r ecognized. A g reat d iversity i s a lso a ttested i n t he o ther P PNB-contexts, e .g. K enyon a nd H olland 1 981 I : F igure 1 6 o r L echevallier 1 978. T he b urial a t 4 99N/687E i s w ell p reserved ( no f igure) b ut w as f ound w ith t he c ranium m issing. T his w as p ossibly d isplaced b y t he p it w hich w as l ater c ut t o t he s outh ( Figure 6 ). T he b ody w as l aid d own i n a t ightly c onstricted p osition o n i ts l eft s ide w ith i ts b ackbone e xtremely b ent. O ne o f t he e lbows r ests b etween a nd t he o ther b elow t he c ontracted l egs, t he h ands ( disturbed) m ay h ave b een p laced i n f ront o f t he f ace , a s i t i s r ather c ommon a mongst P PNB b urials. A lso w ell p reserved i s t he b urial i n t he s outheastern c orner o f S quare 5 05N/685E ( Plate 2 .1). I ts o dd p osition i s - a ccording t o o ur k nowledge - n ot r eported e lsewhere. T he c orpse w as l aid d own i n a k neeling p osition w ith t he f ace p ointing d ownwards a nd t he s oles o f t he f oot d irected u pwards. T he d ifference i n l evel b etween t he s oles a nd t he l ower r esting f ace i s a bout 1 5cm . T he l egs a nd u pper a rms r un t ightly p arallel w ith t he b ody a nd t he f ore a rms r est b elow t he c hest.

8 .

N otes o n t he t echnology a nd t ypology o f t he f lint i ndustry ( Figures 9 -11)

T he w ealth o f c hipped s tone m aterial o btained f rom t he 1 986 e xcavations a t B asta p rovides a n e xcellent o pportunity t o e xamine t he t echnical f eatures o f al ate P PNB a ssemblage. T he c hipped s tone a rtefacts w hich w ere a nalysed f or t his s tudy w ere s elected f rom S quare 5 05N/695E , L ocus 4 , ar oom f ill b elonging t o t he u ppermost o ccupation. I t m ay o f c ourse n ot b e r epresentative o f a ll t he c hipped s tone a ssemblages c ollected d uring t he 1 986 s eason. L ocus 4 p roduced 1 921 p ieces o f d ebitage. M ost o f t hese a re m ade o f f lint ( 95%), b ut t here a re a lso p ieces o f q uartzite ( 3.2%), l imes tone ( 0.8%), i gneous r ock ( 0.5%) a nd c onglomerate ( 0.5%). T he f lint i s m ostly f rom t abular r esources, b ut n odules w ere p robably a lso o btained f rom t he a djacent w adi, t he q uartzite a nd l imestone w as w idely a vailable l ocally, b ut t he i gneous r ock w ould h ave b een f ar f arther a field. M ost o f t he a rtefacts m ade o f q uartzite a re f lakes. T able 1 l ists t he p rimary e lements a nd c hipping d ebitage f ound. T he s mall n umber o f b lade c ores w ould s uggest t hat t ool m anufacture w as u ndertaken o utside t his i mmediate a rea , b ut t he p resence o f m any c rest b lades, c ore t ablets a nd u nmodified f lakes/ b lades/bladelets s uggest i t m ust h ave o ccurred o n t he s ite . T he f ew c ores f ound a re m ainly i rregular a nd m ost o f t hem w ere d esigned f or f lake p roduction . S uch c ores h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he P PNB l evels a t ' Ain G hazal ( Rollefson a nd A bu G haneima 1 983). A mongst t he d ebitage, b lades a re m ore f requent t han f lakes. T able 2 l ists t he p roportions o f p latform t ypes o n f lakes a nd b lade-bladelets. A mongst t he f lakes t he d ominant p latforms w ere o f t he p lain a nd c ortical t ype. I t s eems t hat h ard p ercussion w as u sed f or r emoving t he

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F igure 1 0 C hipped s tone i ndustry: 1 -2 e nd s crapers, 3 -4 b lade f ragments w ith t wo o pposing s craping e dges, 5 " triangle", 6 " round s craper".

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F igure 1 C hipped s tone i ndustry: 1 -7 ( fragments o f) a rrowheads, v arious t ypes o f p iercing t ools.

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p rimary f lakes. I n t he c ase o f b lades m ost o f t he p latforms w ere o f t he p unctiform t ype, p ossibly p repared b y s oft h ammer. T his w as a lso o bserved a t o ther l ate P PNB s ites i ncluding B eidha ( Mortensen 1 970), B aga 1 ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985) a nd ' Ain G hazal ( Rollefson a nd A bu G haneima 1 983). T he f requent u se o f b ipolar b lade c ores ( Figure 9 .1) c an b e d etected f rom t he n egatives o f m any o f t he b lades-bladelets. I t w ould b e i nappropriate t o p resent a l ist o f t ool t ypes a t t he p resent b ased o nly o n t he c hosen s ample. H owever, c ertain g eneral s tatements c an b e m ade o n c haracteristics o f t he i ndustry a nd t ool c lasses r epresented. T he o verall p icture w hich i s a lso s upported b y t he m aterial f rom t he 1 984 s ounding ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985 ; G ebel 1 986) i s t hat w e d o n ot h ave s uch a w ide v ariety o f h ighly s tandardized t ool s hapes ( types) a t B asta a s w e f ind a t B eidha . C ompared t o B aga a nd B eidha, t his s eems e specially t rue f or t he B asta p rojectile p oints, b ut t his m ight r elate t o t he l ow n umber o f a rrowheads r epresented i n t he B asta a ssemblages. H owever, w ithin t he B asta a ssemblage, a rrowheads , b orers a nd c elts ( Figure 9 .2-3) s how a h igher d egree o f s hape s tandardization t han o ther t ools . O ther t ools a re m ore e asily s orted a ccording t o t ool c lasses ( e.g. p iercing, s craping o r c utting t ools, o r d enticulated, n otched, b acked p ieces, o r c ombinations o f t hese) t han t ool t ypes. A mongst t he s craping t ools a d istinctive s pecimen a ppeared, w hich h as a r homboid s hape ( Figure 1 0 .3-4) a nd t herefore c an b e c alled a t rue t ype. A part f rom t he m ost f requent t ype o f b orer a lready p ublished ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985 : F igure 7 .9-15), t wo a dditional t ypes c an b e r eported ( Figure 1 1.8-9 a nd 1 1.10). P ieces l ike 1 1.10 s eem t o b e m ore c haracteristic o f Y armoukian c ontexts ( Crawfoot P ayne 1 983 : F igure 3 40 .3-4). N o a rrowheads o f t he s ort i llustrated i n G ebel a nd S tarck 1 985: F igure 7 .3-4 w ere f ound i n t he s ample s elected f rom t he r oom f ill o f t he u pper o ccupation i n 5 05N/695E. F igure 1 1.1-5 r epresents a s elect ion o f a rrowheads f rom t his c ontext. T hey a re w ell k nown f rom t he l ate P PNB a nd p rovide o ur m ain a rgument f or t he p rovisional d ate s uggested f or B asta. N o e arlier B eidha-types s uch a s A l, A 3-4, A l9 ( Mortensen 1 970) h ave y et b een f ound i n t he e xcavated a nd s urface m aterial f rom B asta . O n t he o ther h and B yblos a nd A muq p oints a nd r elated t ypes a re m ost c ommon . T he l ow n umber o f b lades w ith s ickle s heen i s p uzzling. P ieces l ike t he b acked t riangle F igure 1 0 .5 o r t he p iercing t ool F igure 1 1.11 s eem t o b e u nique. T he m ajority o f t ools a re p iercing , c utting a nd s craping i mplements p repared o n b lades a nd f ormed b y a v ariety o f r etouching t echniques. T hese o ften s how a c ombination o f d ifferent w orking e dges. L ess f requent a re d enticulations , n otches, a nd b acked p ieces b oth o n f lakes a nd b lades.

9 .

G round s tone i ndustry ( Figures 1 2-13) ( Contribution b y N . Q adi) T his

p reliminary s tudy c onsiders t he t ypes o f g round s tone

1 22

t ools

f ound a t t ions. 7

B asta d uring t he 1 986 c ampaign a nd

t heir

r elative

p ropor-

T he l arge q uantity o f g rinding s tones u ncovered r eflects t he s trong r eliance o n p lant r esources. T he d ata f rom t he g rinding s tones c onfirms t hat E arly N eolithi g roups a t B asta w ere f amiliar w ith p rocessing d omesticated c rops a nd t hat s uch r esources w ere a n i mportant b asis o f t heir s ubsistence e conomy. I n t he f ollowing, a p rimary c lassification o f h eavy-duty s tone a rtefacts i s p resented: 1 .

g round-

M ill s tones: O nly n ine s pecimens, r epresented b y t hree t ypes, w ere e ncountered i n t he 1 986 s eason. T hree d erived f rom t he s ite s urvey a nd t he o thers f rom t he e xcavation, e ither f ound i n s itu ( e.g. P late 2 .2 u pper l eft: f ound a djacent t o t wo h andstones) o r i n t he f ill o f r ooms o r i n b uilding d ebris. T he s hapes a nd t ypes o f r aw m aterial s elected f or m aking t hese g rinding s tones w ere u sually t hick, b road s labs o f s ilicified, s ometimes s andy l imestones ( Bender 1 968: A qaba-Ma'an S heet), w hich w ere t hen r ounded b y p ecking a nd g rinding. T hese o ften h ave n atural o r c rudely p ecked s urfaces o n t heir l ower s ides. T he t hree t ypes o f m ill s tone f ound i n B asta c an b e a s f ollows:

d escribed

a . ( Figure 1 2.1) E longated o val-shaped p ieces w ith p lano-convex t ransverse s ections a nd c oncave-convex l ongitudinal s ections. T he p lain s hape o f t he t ransverse s ection a nd t he c oncave s hape o f t he l ongitudinal s ection r esults f rom t he p rocess o f g rinding. T he l ength c an v ary c onsiderably, b ut t he w idth d oes n ot e xceed 1 0cm . b . S addle-shaped m ill s tones w hich t end t o h ave a s light d epression a nd a s moothed r im-like e dge a nd p referably m ade o n t hick s labs. T he v entral s urfaces a re p ecked b ut o riginal n atural s urfaces m aybe v isible i n p laces. I t i s e xpected t hat s uch p ieces w ere u sed i n s itu . c . O nly o ne o f t hese m ortar-like p ieces w as f ound, w hich s uggests t hat t hey a re l ess c ommon i n t he L ate t han i n M iddle P PNB o f t he a rea ( Beidha , a d-Daman, S haqarat M usai'id). I t i s b asically a m ill s tone l ike b ., b ut i ts t hickness e ncouraged l onger u se w hich r esulted i n t he p iece b ecoming m ortar s haped. T races o f p estling i n t he b ase c onfirm t hat t his w as i ts s econdary u se. 2 .

H andstones ( manos): M ore t han 1 90 h andstones ( 70% o f t he g round s tone c ollection) w ere r ecovered, m ainly i n a f ragmentary c ond ition. M ost o f t hem w ere s emi-oval i n s hape a s a r esult o f p ecking a nd g rinding a nd t he c ontinuous u se o f m ainly o ne f ace. S uch s urfaces h ad b een g round s mooth. S everal c ombinations o f t ransverse a nd l ongitudinal s ections a re a ttested ( Figures 1 2.4 1 0), b ut m ost h ave a c onvex s ide o pposite t o t he g rinding s ide. T ransverse s ections m ay v ary b etween b eing p iano-convex, t riangular, p arallel-sided a nd b iconvex. S everal m anos s how t races o f s econdary u se ( Figure 1 2.6), h aving b ifacial f laking a long t heir n arrow e dge o r w ear f rom u se a s p estles.

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F igure 1 2 G round s tone i ndustry: 1f ragment o f s addle-shaped m illing s tone ( a-Type), 2 f ragment w ith o pposing c up-holes, 3 p ierced d isc, 4 -9 ( fragment o f) h andstones w ith p iano-convex ( 4, 9 ) p arallel-sided ( 5 , 7 ) t riangular ( 8) a nd b iconvex ( 6) t ransversal s ections , 1 0 h andstone w ith p iano-convex t ransverse s ection a nd p artly n atural s urfaces.

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F igure 1 3 G round s tone i ndustry: 1 -2 s pherical f lint h ammerstones, 3 p ierced a nd r ounded l imestone f ragment ( hammering t races?), 4 -5 l imestone t ools w ith r ound a nd o val s ections, 6 p ierced l imestone " weight", 7 g rooved s pherical l imestone " weight", 8 q uartzite p estle, 9 f ragment o f q uartzite p estle, 1 0-11 l imes tone b owls, 1 2-13 l arge s tone b owls ( only i nterior s moothed).

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3 .

S tone b owls ( Figures 1 3.10 - 1 3): F ive f ragments o f l imestone b owls w ere f ound t his s eason. O ne b owl m ade o f s ilicified l imes tone ( Figure 1 3 .10) h ad b een c arefully s moothed o ver i ts r ounded b ody a nd f lat b ottom . T he r im h as a f lattened t op. T he b owl 's i nterior d iameter i s a bout 2 5cm a nd i ts h eight a bout 9 -10cm . T races o f p estling i nside m ay r esult f rom t he b owl b eing u sed a lso a s a m ortar f or p ounding s oft m aterials. A nother b owl h as v ery t hick w alls a nd a t hickened s lightly i nverted r im ( Figure 1 3.13). I t i s o nly r oughly p ecked o n i ts e xterior.

4 .

V arious s haped s tones: S oft l imestone s eems t o h ave b een t he p referred m aterial f or t his c lass o f o bjects , b ut t his c annot b e e xplained a t t he m oment. A c haracteristic f orm i s a n e longated o val w ith r ectangular t ransverse a nd l ongitudinal s ections. L inear i ncisions m ay o ccur i f t he r aw m aterial i s o f s oft l imestone. O ne p erforated p iece ( not d epicted) s hows s imilarities w ith a n e xample f rom B eidha ( Kirkbride 1 966: F igure 9 .7), w hilst a nother s haped f rom a v ery s oft s andstone m aterial i s g rooved a round i ts n arrowest e dge. A nother o bject o f t his c lass h as b een b ifacially f laked o n i ts n arrow e dges.

5 .

" Weight" s tones : T he 1 5 o bjects i n t his c lass o f t he F igure 1 3.6t ype w ere m ostly f ound f ractured. T he p referred r aw m aterial s eems t o h ave b een a p orous l imestone. T he o bjects a re u sually p erforated t hrough t he c entral a nd n arrowest a rea . T he p erforation i s b iconical i n s ection . T he s hape t ends t o b e t hat o f ap yramidal s tump w ith r ounded e dges. T he s pherical p orous l imestone p ieces w ith a g roove a round t heir b ody h ave a lso b een c lassified w ith t he " weights".

6 .

O ther : P erforated s tone d iscs l ike F igure 1 2.3 a re r eported e .g. f rom J ericho ( Kenyon a nd H olland 1 983 : F igure 2 27.4-5) a s a re p ieces s imilar t o F igure 1 2.2 r eported f rom J ericho ( Kenyon a nd H olland 1 983 : F igures 2 26.2 o r 2 27.2) a nd A bou G osh ( Lechevallier 1 978 : 3 4 .6). N o p olished c elts/adzes m ade f rom g rindable m aterials ( Kirkbride 1 966 : 3 5) w ere f ound i n B asta s o f ar. T his i s a lso t rue o f t he l ate P PNB a t B aga 1 .

1 0 .

S mall f inds ( Figures 1 4-16)

( Contribution b y J .M . S tarck)

T he r aw m aterials u sed f or s mall f inds c an b e s ubdivided i nto m arine s hells, n on-local m inerals s uch a s s andstone, t urquoise, m alachite, e tc., b urnt c lay, p laster-like m odelling m aterial, l imestone, b one ( and d entine?). T he m ost c ommonly u sed m arine m ollusc w as N erita s p., f ollowed b y m other-of-pearl, c owrie, a nd s mall C onidae. T he N erita s p. s hells h ave u sually h ad t heir a pexes a braded w hich c reated h oles a llowing f or m ounting t hem o n s trings. A n a lignment o f N erita s p. s hells w as f ound i n t he w rist a rea o f ab urial n ear 4 99N/687E . O nly a f ew o f t he N erita s how c omplete a pexes ( Figure 1 4.1). A part f rom u nmodified s maller C onidae, t he w orked C onidae a lso h ave f lat a braded a pexes . I n a ddition t he b odies h ave b een p ecked a nd a braded t o p roduce f airly f lat b eads ( Figure 1 4.2-4). S everal f ragments o f c owrie s hell h ave b een f ound. T hese a re t he t oothed s egments w hich h ave t he i nterstice o n t he v entral

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F igure 1 4 1N erita s p. w ith i ntact a pex, 2 -4 s mall C onidae w ith a braded a pexes , 5 -11 c arved/cut/drilled m other-of-pearl o bjects, 1 21 4 b one b eads a nd p ossible t ubular b one w aste, 1 5-16 b eads o f m alachite a nd l imestone, 1 7-18 , 2 0 b urnt n ail-like c lay o bjects, 1 9 p ossible f ragments o f a f igurine. 1 27

2

Z 4

\ 3 5 cm

0

@

0

4 3

2 -

v

6

N

o

5 @

F igure 1 5 F ragments a nd s ections o f s andstone r ings.

1 28

1 o-

e

I I

2 1

r

1

4

5

0

!

3

F igure 1 6 ( Fragments s patulae, f unction .

1

2

3

4 4

c

m

6

o f) b one i mplements : 1 -3 a wls/perforators, 4 -5 6 t ip o f b one/dentine i mplement o f u nknown

1 29

s ide o f t he s hell. T heir p urpose i s u ncertain . C arved/cut a nd d rilled p ieces o f m other-of-pearl ( Figure 1 4.5-11) h ave b een f ound a nd a re l ikely t o h ave b een s ewn-on o bjects ( "paillettes"). T he e arlier s oundi ngs i n B aga 1 a nd B asta ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985 , G ebel 1 986) a lready h inted a t t he e xistence o f a r ich m other-of-pearl i ndustry i n t he l ate P PNB o f t he a rea . T he p resence o f l umps o f r aw m aterial a nd w aste i n B asta r einforces t his i dea. T he s orting o f t he 4 -1mm f raction o f t he s ieved s amples f rom t he 1 984 s ounding a lso d emonstrated t hat b ead m anufacture f rom w hat s eems t o b e D entalium a nd c oral e xisted. S ome o f t hese a re a s s mall a s 2 mm i n d iameter. B eads m ade f rom v arious m inerals ( Figure 1 4.15-16) a nd t ubular b ones ( Figure 1 4.15-14) a re a lso q uite n umerous. T he p iece s hown i n F igure 1 4 .12 i s m ost l ikely t o b e t he w aste c reated b y c utting s uch a s lice f rom a b one b lank. O bjects o f u nevenly b urnt c lay w ith r ather t hick f ired c ores w ere a lso u ncovered. T hree n ail-like o bjects ( Figure 1 4.17-18 , 2 0) d erive f rom t he u pper o ccupation i n 5 05N/695E . T hey a re c haracterized b y h aving a c oncave " base" a nd a c ircular s ection w hich d ecreases i n d iameter t owards t he a pex. F igure 1 4 .19 s eems t o b e p art o f a f igurine . M any f ragmentary r ings o f b racelet s ize ( Figure 1 5) w ere f ound d uring t he c ampaign . T hese a re m ade o f n on-local s andstone , l imestone , u nidentified r ock , a nd o f a p laster-like m aterial. T o o ur k nowledge, i t i s t he f irst t ime t hat i tems m ade o f t he l atter m aterial h ave b een f ound ( Starck , t his v olume). S ome o f t he f ragments h ave t races o f r ed a nd b lack p ainting. A d etailed s tudy o n t he m anufacture o f t hese r ings i s i n p reparation ( Starck, i n p rep.). A s b one m aterial f rom t he s ite i s h eavily f ragmented a nd c arbonate e ncrusted a nd w as n ot c leaned y et, n ot m any i mplements w ere i dentified f rom t he e normous a mount o f b one c ollected. T he p ieces f ound a nd c leaned r epresent ( fragments o f) a wls/perforators a nd s patulae ( Figure 1 6).

1 1.

C onclusions

A c omparison o f t he f inds f rom B asta w ith t hose f rom o ther P PNB s ites, p articularly w ith n earby B eidha a nd B aga, s uggest t hat t he r emains u ncovered b elong t o t he L ate P PNB . T hey c orrelate w ith B eidha I a nd I I, a nd m ost l ikely e xtend l ater a s w as s uggested i n t he p reliminary s tudy o f t he f lint m aterial. A lthough o ur h opes h ad b een h igher , m issing P ost-PPNB B asta a gain c onfront u s w ith t he " hiatus p alestinienne", s cale a bandonment o f l ate P PNB-sites. W ork i s p lanned t o c ontinue f or s ome t ime u ncovering a l arge a rea o f t he l ast o ccupation.

w ith

s trata a t t he l arge

t he

a im

o f

T wo r adiocarbon d ates h ave s o f ar b een p rocessed f rom p istachio c harcoal s amples ( W .G . M ook , C entrum v oor I sotopen O nderzoek , G roningen); R . N eef, p ersonal c ommunication :

1 30

1 .

8 380 ± 1 00 B .P. ( GrN-14537) f rom d ebris a bove b edrock).

2 .

8 155 ± 5 0 B .P. b uilding p hase).

( GrN-14538),

5 00N/685E

2 3.46-33m

l ocus 7 ( ashy l ens o f

m ajor

( cultural

e xposed

N otes 1 .

W e a re g rateful t o t he D epartment o f A ntiquities f or l etting S uleiman F arajad ( from P etra) j oin o ur t eam a s t he D epartment's r epresentative. H e, W ajih K arasneh , I brahim Z o'bi a nd N abil Q adi f rom t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology ( IAA) o f Y armouk U niversity a s w ell a s R oland L amprichs a nd G unnar L ehmann f rom t he S eminar f uer V orderasiatische A ltertumskunde o f F ree U niversity B erlin a cted a s s ite s upervisors. I n a ddition , N abil Q adi e arned o ur d eep a ppreciation b y t he e fficient a nd q uiet w ay h e m anaged t he c amp ( together w ith A dnan F alahad, P etra) a nd o rganized t he d ig e quipment. G erald S perling f rom B erlin w as o ur p hotographer a nd d raftsman, a nd T homas R ueth f rom M ainz d rew t he g eneral p lan o f m odern B asta . D uring t he l ast f ew d ays, o ur t eam w as j oined b y ' Ali O man i o f t he I AA w ho h elped t o c omplete t he g eneral p lan o f t he a rchitecture e xcavated. R einder N eef o f t he B iologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut G roningen j oined o ur t eam f or s everal d ays i n o rder t o t ake p alaeobotanical s amples f rom d ifferent l oci. W e t hank h im f or h is i nformation i n f ootnote 8 . W e a lso t hank L ouise M artin a nd A ndrew G arrard o f t he B ritish I nstitute a t A mman f or A rchaeology a nd H istory, f or t heir p atience i n e diting t he E nglish o f t his a rticle.

2 .

B asta i s l ocated c . 1 2km l inear d istance S SE o f W adi M usa a nd c an b e r eached b y t he W adi M usa - M a 'an r oad. T he P alestine B elt G rid r eference i s 9 60,0 N a nd 2 01,3 S .

3 .

W adi A raba- v ery a rid h ot ; S andstone a rea- v ery a rid m ild a nd a rid m ild; w estern e dge o f t he A rabian P lateau/Basta-semi-arid c old; S trip b etween B asta a nd M a 'an- a rid m ild; M a 'an a rea- v ery a rid m ild.

4 .

W e a cknowledge t he i nfield a dvice o f R einder N eef, w ithout w hose ' h elp t his p art c ould n ot h ave b een p resented a t t his s tage o f t he s urvey.

5 .

T he i dentifications w ere m ade b y W . R aehle, I nstitut f uer B iologie I II, T uebingen U niversity. T he s pecies f ound i n t he c avities o f t he s tructure i s k nown f or l iving i n s ubterranean e nvironments a nd f or d igging t o d epths o f 2 m . I t p refers c alcareous, d ry-warm , a nd t reeless e nvironments a nd i s o ften f ound i n c ave s ediments.

6 .

F or t he s tratigraphic c ontext o f t his b urial s ection o n t he s tratigraphy.

131

s ee

t he

p revious

7 .

A lthough t hese d o n ot b elong t o t he c lass o f g round s tone t ools, a s hort n ote s hould b e m ade h ere o n t he n umerous s pherical h ammerstones m ade o ut o f f lint: T heir s pherical s hape r esults p artially f rom b eing u sed a s h ammers b ut t he f inding o f n egatives p roves t hat t hey w ere a lso d eliberately s haped i nto s pherical f orms. T he s urfaces o f s ome i ndicate t hat s pherical b lanks w ere d eliberately o btained f rom w adi g ravels. S everal p ieces h ave f lattened s urfaces. T he g round s tone t ools a nd b owls b rought t o H .G . G ebel b y t he v illagers i n 1 984 a re s hown i n t he p hotograph i n G ebel 1 986: F igure 1 4. T his m aterial i s n ow s tored i n P etra .

8 .

A t p resent, o nly t wo m onths a fter t he e nd o f t he s eason, n o r esults c an b e p ublished o n t he f aunal s ubsistence. H owever, R einder N eef, B iologisch- A rchaeologisch I nstituut G roningen , h as p resented a b rief p alaeoethnobotanical s tatement: " The m ain c ereal c rop w as e mmerwheat ( Triticum d icoccum). B esides t hat o nly a f ew g rains o f b adly p reserved t wo-row b arley ( Hordeum d istichum ) w ere f ound. T here w ere a s urprisingly l arge n umber o f p eas ( Pisum s ativum). A lmonds ( Amygdalus) a nd p istachio n uts ( Pistacio a tlantica) w ere p robably g athered i n t he w ild. Af ew p ips o f f ig ( Ficus) w ere a lso p resent. T he f ig m ust h ave g rown a t m ore h umid p laces n ear s prings. A ll t he c harcoal I h ave e xamined b elongs t o p istachio. L arge a mounts o f p istachio w ood w as a lso r ecovered f rom n eighbouring N abataen a nd R oman U druh . N owadays P istacia a tlantica h as c ompletely d isappeared f rom t he a rea , p robably d ue t o d eforestation a nd o vergrazing ."

1 32

B ibliography B isheh G . ( 1972). R eport a bout a s urvey i n t he M a 'an D istrict ( Petraa rea , W adi R um , S hobak , A qaba), 2 5th S eptember - 8 th O ctober 1 972. A mman , D epartment o f A ntiquities. O pen F ile R eport. B ender F . ( 1968). G eological m ap o f J ordan, S heet A qaba-Ma 'an . 1 :250,000. B erlin , B orntraeger.

C rowfoot P ayne J . ( 1983). T he f lint i ndustries o f J ericho . I n K .M . K enyon a nd T .A . H olland ( eds.) E xcavations a t J ericho 5 : 6 227 59. L ondon , B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n J erusalem .

G ebel H .G . ( 1986). D ie J ungsteinzeit i m P etra-Gebiet. I n M . L indner ( ed.) P etra . N eue A usgrabungen u nd E ntdeckungen : 2 73-308 . M uenchen , D elp. G ebel H .G . a nd S tarck J .M . ( 1985). I nvestigations i nto t he s tone a ge o f t he P etra a rea ( Early H olocene r esearch). A . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 c ampaigns. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9: 8 9-114. G lueck N . ( 1934-35). E xplorations i n e astern P alestine I I. t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 1 5.

A nnual o f

K enyon K .M . a nd H olland T .A . ( 1981). E xcavations a t J ericho 3 . L ondon , B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n J erusalem . K enyon K .M . a nd H olland T .A . ( 1983). E xcavations a t J ericho 5 . L ondon , B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n J erusalem . K irkbride D . ( 1959). S hort n ote o n s ome h itherto u nrecorded p reh istoric s ites i n T ransjordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 1: 5 2-55. K irkbride D . ( 1966). F ive s easons a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic v illage o f B eidha i n J ordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 8 : 8 -72.

L echevallier M . ( 1978). A bou G osh e t B eisamoun. M emoires e t T ravaux d u C entre d e R echerches P rehistoriques F ran ais d e J erusalem 2 . P aris , A ssociation P aleorient.

M ortensen P . ( 1970). Ap reliminary s tudy o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry f rom B eidha . A cta A rchaeologica 4 1: 1 -54.

1 33

N GAJ 1 ( 1984). N ational G eographic A tlas o f J ordan 1 . C limate a nd A groclimatology. A mman , J ordan N ational G eographic C enter ( Royal J ordanian G eographic C enter).

R ollefson G . a nd A bu G haneima K . ( 1983). b lades a nd f lakes f rom ' Ain G hazal. A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7: 4 61-469.

1 34

T echnological a nalysis o f A nnual o f t he D epartment o f

P reliminary n ote o n E arly N eolithic h uman r emains f rom B asta a nd S abra O lav R oehrer-Ertl, K urt-Walter F rey , H einrich N ewesely

1 .

I ntroduction

T he h uman r emains w ere f ound d uring t he s ounding p rogramme o f t he " TAVO P alaeoenvironmental I nyestigations i n t he G reater P etra-Area ( Holocene R esearch)" p roject.' T hey w ere d iscovered i n t he L ate P reP ottery N eolithic B - s ite o f B asta 1 ( Field N o . 3 477) a nd i n K hiamian l ayers a t S abra 1 ( Field N o . 4 088). 2

2 .

M ethods

S ample 4 088 f rom S abra 1 c onsisted o f s everal h eavily c arbonate e ncrusted ( sinter) h uman j aw f ragments w hilst S ample 3 477 f rom B asta 1 c omprised a h uman s kull. T he l atter w as a lso c arbonate e ncrusted a nd s lightly d amaged b y ab low f rom a n e xcavation i nstrument. T he s tudy o f t he m aterial w as c onducted i n t wo i ndependent l aboratories u sing s eparate t echniques. R oehrer-Ertl a nd F rey u ndert ook a n a nthropological a nd m edical a nalysis u sing m acromorphological a nd r adiological t echniques. N ewesely i nvestigated t he m aterial b y m icromorphological a nd c rystallographic-chemical m ethods. T he r esults o f b oth e nquiries w ere s imilar.

3 .

M aterial f rom S abra 1

A fter t he m echanical r emoval o f t he v ery h ard c arbonate c rust, s everal f ragments c ould b e f itted t ogether. I t b ecame c lear t hat t here a re t wo j aw f ragments b elonging t o t wo i ndividuals . I ndividual I i s r epresented b y ar ight m axillary a lveolar p rocess ( Processus a lveolaris m axillae) c ontaining I l t o M 3. T his d erives f rom ay oung a dult m ale o f 2 5-30 y ears o f a ge. I ndividual I I i s r epresented b y ar ight m axillary a lveolar p rocess c ontaining C t o M 2. 1 1-2 a nd M 3 a re m issing b ut t he a lveoli a re p resent i n t he j aw . F ragments o f t he s phenoid b one ( Os s phenoidalis) a nd t he s quamous p art o f t he t emporal b one ( Squama o ssis t emporalis) a re a lso p resent. T hese d erive f rom a y oung a dult f emale o f 2 0-30 y ears o f a ge. T he j aw f ragments o f b oth i ndividuals w ere a ffected b y f ire. T he d egree o f b urning s uggests t emperatures l ess t han 2 00 ° C . a nd p robably l ess t han 1 00 ° C . T his w as r ecognized f rom t he n ature o f t he h eat

1 35

f ractures i n t he t ooth e namel a nd f rom t he s corching o f t he t ooth d entine. S imilar e ffects m ay o ccur a s ar esult o f p lacing f resh b one c lose t o a n o pen f ire .

4 .

M aterial f rom B asta 1

P rior t o t he d iscovery o f t he B asta 1 s kull a n e xcavation i nstrument d amaged t he o ccipital a rea. H owever a ncient c arbonate e ncrusted t raumas w ere d iscovered a fter c leaning t he b one. T hese a ncient i njuries w ere t he s ubject o f ad etailed s tudy. T he s kull w as d etermined a s b elonging t o am ale o f 8 -9 y ears o f a ge. T he f ace h as h igh o rbits, a n i mmature b ut f airly b road a nd c onvex n ose, a nd a b road f airly h igh p alate w ith a m echanical t rauma ( a s oc alled t humb-sucker p alate). T he m orphological c riteria i ndicate t hat t he r emains b elonged t o t he r acial g roup o f o rientalids a fter v on E ichstedt. T he a ncient i njuries m ust h ave b een i nflicted b efore d eath a s t hey c an o nly h ave o ccurred o n f lesh-covered b one . O ne t rauma c onsists o f a p erforation o f t he l eft f rontal b one ( Os f rontale). T he i njury l eft a s harp a nd c lean c ut i n t he f rontal b one a nd w as l ikely t o h ave b een i nflicted b y a s harp-edged i nstrument. T he d irection o f t he b low w as d irected f rom a bove t he h ead a nd i t m ay h ave c aused o nly t emporarily d elayed r eactions. I t c ut t hrough t he T abula e xterna i nto t he u pper d iploe. I t e nded i n az one o f f ine s quamous f ractures. O n t he i nner s ide a n o void s haped a rea o f t he T abula i nterna a nd a p ortion o f t he d iploe h ave s napped o ff. T he b low i s u nlikely t o h ave b een f atal. A s econd t rauma i s v isible i n t he o ccipital a rea . F rom h ere f ractures r adiate a cross t he c ranium . T he m ain f racture t raverses t he r ight j ugular b one ( Os j ugale) a nd e nds i n t he r ight f rontal b one. T his i njury w ould h ave c ertainly b een f atal a nd i ndicates t he b oy w as m urdered. ( Translation b y e ditors)

N otes 1 .

T he p roject w as c arried o ut b y H .G . G ebel ( this v olume) u nder t he s ponsorship o f t he T uebingen A tlas o f t he M iddle E ast, a S pecial R esearch d ivision o f t he G erman R esearch A ssociation.

2 .

T he r esults o f t he c ompleted s tudy o n t he s keletal m aterial a llow f or m ore i nterpretation t han p resented h ere a nd w ill b e p resented i n af inal r eport.

1 36

S tone r ings f rom B aga a nd B asta G eographical a nd c hronological i mplications J ohannes M atthias S tarck

1 .

I ntroduction

S tone r ings h ave b een d escribed f rom s everal s ites i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast, b ut t here h as b een l ittle d etailed a nalysis a nd d iscussion o f t his g roup o f a rtefacts. S tone r ings o f l arge d iameter h ave b een m ostly c onsidered a s " bracelets" o r " bangles" , w hilst p ieces o f s maller s ize h ave b een i dentified a s " finger r ings". S o f ar , d escri nions o f o nly f our c omplete r ings h ave b een p ublished f rom t he r egion , b ut i t i s o bvious t hat m any o ther s tone f ragments d erive f rom t hese r ings, s ince n o o ther a rtefacts h ave b een f ound i n t he N ear E ast o r a djacent r egions t o w hich t hese o bjects c ould b elong. S ome o f t hese r ing f ragments h ave b een d rilled s uggesting t heir " secondary" u se a s p endants . D uring t he 1 984 c ampaign a t B aga ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985) a nd t he 1 986 s eason a t B asta ( Gebel, M uheisen , N issen , Q adi a nd S tarck - t his v olume) a n u nusually l arge n umber o f s tone r ings w ere d iscovered. T he c haracters o f t he r aw m aterial, i ts o rnamentation a nd t he t races o f m anufacture a re d escribed i n d etail i n t his r eport ( see a ppendix) a nd a c omparison i s m ade w ith t he m aterial o f o ther s ites . T his i ncludes a d iscussion o f t he g eographical a nd c hronological d istribution o f t hese a rtefacts , a lthough i t s hould b e n oted t hat o ur k nowledge o f t his s ubject i s v ery i ncomplete. T his r eport a lso d escribes r ings f rom B asta m ade f rom a p laster-like m aterial. T his i s t he f irst t ime s uch o bjects h ave b een r eported f rom t he L evantine a rea . I t i s h oped t hat t his a rticle w ill s timulate f urther i nterest i n t his a rtefact g roup a nd l ead t o m ore c omplete d escriptions a nd d iscussions i n o ther s ite p ublications.

2 .

B aga a nd B asta f indings

B aga i s a l arge l ate P PNB v illage l ocated o n a n i ntramontane t errace i n t he s andstone f ormations n orth o f P etra . T he s ettlement e xtends o ver t he e ntire t errace c overing c . 1 0 ,000 s q. m . S urface i nvestigations s howed t hat h ousing s tructures r est o n a rtificial t erraces b uilt u sing c urvilinear r etaining w alls. H ortisols s uggest e ither a nimal k eeping o r g ardening . A shy c ultural l ayers a re v isible i n s everal p arts o f t he s ite . -D uring 1 984 , s oundings w ere c ut a t t he m argins o f t he s ettlement ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985). A fter s ection t rimming , 3 s q. m . w ere e xcavated i n 1 0cm a rbitrary l ayers, d own t o a d epth o f b etween 2 0cm - 1 00cm . A ll s ediments r emoved w ere s ifted w ith 4 mm a nd l mm s ieves. 2 5 s tone r ing f ragments w ere u ncovered f rom B aga

1 37

S ounding I . B asta o n t he w estern A rabian P lateau, c . 1 2km s outh o f W adi M usa , w as f irst s ounded i n 1 984 a nd w as a lso f ound t o b e a l ate P PNB s ettlem ent ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985), b ut n o s tone r ings o r r ings o f p lasterl ike m aterial w ere f ound d uring 1 984 . T he 1 986 i nvestigations ( Gebel, M uheisen , N issen, Q adi a nd S tarck ; t his v olume) r evealed t hat t he s ite e xtends o ver 1 0 - 1 4ha . D uring t he 1 986 c ampaign a lmost 2 00 s q. m . w ere e xcavated d own t o t he l evel o f t he u ppermost f loors a nd a n i ntensive s urface s urvey w as u ndertaken . T he 1 986 c ampaign w as c arried o ut a s ar escue o peration s ince h ouse-building e ndangered t he s ite . 4 5 s tone r ings w ere u ncovered f rom i n s itu s ituations a nd f rom s ection c leaning.

2 .1

R ing f ragments m ade o f s tone aw l p laster-like a nd B asta - g eneral d escription'

m aterial f rom B aga

O ut o f a t otal o f 7 0 s tone r ings u ncovered a t B aga a nd B asta , 6 1 f ragments w ere m ade o f t he l ocal s andstone, f ive o f l imestone , t hree o f p laster-like m aterial a nd o ne o f a n u ndetermined m aterial. W hilst B aga i s s ituated i n t he s andstone a rea , t he n earest s uch r aw m aterial t o B asta l ies 1 1 - 1 2km l inear d istance t o t he w est. T he r aw m aterial u sed f or t he s andstone r ings w as o btained f rom s chistic - t abular v eins o f t he C ambrian s andstone f ormatiog. T he s elected r aw m aterial c an b e c lassified i nto t hree m ain g roups:' 1 .

f erruginous s andstone o f h igh m echanical r esistance B aga 3 197.2);

2 .

c layish - s ilty s andstone o f m edium m echanical r esistance ( e .g. F .N o. B aga 3 329.2);

3 .

f eldspathic s andstone ( arcosic s andstone) r esistance ( e.g . F .-No . B aga 3 228.2).

o f

l ow

( e.g .

F .-No.

m echanical

W hilst a ll B aga s tone r ings w ere m ade f rom o ne o f t hese t hree t ypes o f s andstone , t he B asta r ings w ere m ade f rom a v ariety o f r aw m aterial. F ive l imestone ( ?) r ings ( e.g. B asta F .-Nos. 8 023; 8 019.2; 8 019.3 ; 8 035; 1 003.1) h ave b een r eported f rom t his s ite, w hich a re c omparable t o l imestone r ings f rom s ites s uch a s ' Ain G hazal, A ll K osh, A bu G osh , T ell R amad e tc . A p articularly u nusual g roup w ere t he " plaster" r ings f rom B asta ( e.g. B asta F .-Nos. 7 075.1; 7 075.2; 7 075.12 ; r aw m aterial c omparable t o w hite w are ? ), w hich h ave n ot b een r eported f rom a ny o ther s ite i n t he N ear E ast. A lthough m ade o f m aterial w hich c ould b e m oulded , i t l ooks a s i f t hey w ere m anufactured b y t he s ame t echnique a s t he s andstone r ings: t hat i s b y c utting t he b lank o ut o f a f lat p late o f t he r aw m aterial. T he s hape o f t he c ross-sections v ary c onsiderably, b oth i n t he s tone a nd " plaster" r ing g roups . T hey v ary f rom h igh o val, ( compare F igure 1N o. 3 197.4) t o r ounded ( Figure 1 N o. 3 197.5) a nd f lat c rosss ections ( Figure 3 N o . 1 011.2). A q ualitative a nalysis o f t he c rosss ections r eveals a t l east t wo m ain g roups: t rigonal a nd p entagonal. A n i dea o f t he f requencies o f t hese q ualitative c haracters i s g iven i n T able 1 . B efore d escribing d iscrete " types" o f s tone r ings t his

1 38

q ualitative a pproach s hould b e t ested b y a m etric ( quantitative) a nalysis o f c ross-sections ( see 3 .4 .2; F igure 1 0). T he c omparison o f t hickness ( T), w idth ( W) a nd t he r atio o f T /W a re t he m ain m easurements u sed f or t he m etric d escription o f c ross-sections , a nd s hould a void s ubjective i mpressions . A s F igure 1 0 s hows, t here i s at endency t oward f lattened c ross-sections ( T/W b etween 0 .5 a nd 0 .7) a t B asta ( compare 3 .4.2). T he r econstructed i nner d iameter ( D) o f t he s tone r ings v aries b etween 4 0mm - 8 0mm w ith a d istribution p eak a t 7 0mm ( see 3 .4.1).

T able 1 - F requencies o f c ross-sections i n r elation t o r aw m aterial

B aga

S andstone 1 2 3

L imestone

" Plaster"

u nknown

r ound o val t rigonal p entagonal h exagonal o ther

1 2 3 1 1

1 1 1 3 1

T otal

8

7

B asta

S andstone

4 1 4

-

-

1

9

-

-

1

" Plaster"

u nknown

T otal

-

1 5 2 1 9 6 1 2

L imestone

r ound o val t rigonal p entagonal h exagonal o ther

1 2 1 1 8 6 9

3 2

1 1 1

T otal

3 7

5

3

T otal

2 3 4 8 1 7 2 5

4 5

C arved o rnamentation ( grooving a round t he e xterior) w as o nly f ound o n o ne s pecimen f rom B aga ( Figure 1 N o. 3 315.2 a nd 3 197.3), b ut t his i s c omparable t o t he s hape a nd o rnamentation o f s tone r ing f ragments f rom s ites s uch a s J armo a nd ' Ain G hazal ( see 3 .3) w here d ifferent r aw m aterials w ere u sed . O ne r ing f ragment f rom B asta s howed e vidence o f d rilling ( Figure 3 N o. 8 035). T hree f ragments o f s tone r ings f rom B aga a nd n ine f rom B asta b ear t races o f b lack , r ed o r o chre c oloration ( compare B aga F .-Nos. 3 315.2/3197.3; 3 228 .1; 3 228.2; B asta F .-Nos. 7 075.2; 0 025.1; 7 075.1; 8 007.3; 7 075.1-2; 8 007.2; 0 004 ; 7 066; 4 008.2; 0 011.2). F rom t he s parse t races , t he p ainting a ppears t o h ave b een m onochrome. I n t he c ase o f t wo b lack s tained r ings f rom B asta t he p aint h ad b een a braded f rom t he h orizontal s urfaces b y g rinding t he r ing h orizontally a fter c oloration ( Basta F .-Nos. 0 025 .1 a nd 0 004). T his r esulted i n b lack a nd w hitish c olour9d r ings. C oloration o f s tone r ings i s s o f ar u nknown f rom o ther s ites.'

1 39

3 197 .3 4 291

33 15 2

3 329 .2

3 4 8 1

3 197 .5

3 197 .2

( e 2 ) 3 1 97 ,1

3 197 . 4

3 228 . 1

F igure 1 S tone r ings f rom B aga.

1 40

S cale 1 :1.

4 302 .2

3 3 15 . 1

4 302 , 1

3 265 . 1

3 2 15

3 329 .3

3 329 . 1

3 265 .2

4 3023

3 228 .3

365 .3

3 208

3 228 .4

F igure 2

3 365 . 1

S tone r ings f rom B aga.

1 41

S cale 1 :1.

3 2282

3 365 .2

r

1 0 1 1 .2

4 009 .3

7 075 .3

7 075 . 1/1 7 075 . 1/1 7 075 . 1/1

F igure 3

S tone r ings f rom B asta .

S cale 1 :1.

1 42

8 035

1

1 , ‚

f o

• 4 4 ,

ö

4 008 .2

4 009 .2

0 025 . 1

3 030 .2

8 0 13

3 030 . 1

3 075

4 0081 0 0 111

0 0 1 1 .2

8 023

4 07 1

7 031 . 1

8 007 ,2

F igure 4

4 066

7 034 .2

B 0071

5 020

8 0 19 . 1

4 068

n ,

4 085

8 0 19 .3

7 046 .2

4 079

4 072

8 0 19 .2

C 3

1 003 . 1

S tone r ings f rom B asta.

7 0761

0 004

S cale 1 :1.

1 43

8 007 .5

8 007 .4

8 007 .3

A ll t he s pecimens f rom t he t wo s ites , i ndependent o f t he r aw m aterial u sed, e xhibit t he s ame p attern o f s urface i ncisions . T hese a re t hought t o r esult f rom t he m anufacture o f t he b lank , b efore t he f inal c areful g rinding t ook p lace . T he i nner f ace o f t he r ings g enerally h ave h orizontal i ncisions, w hereas t he o uter f aces , i ndependent o f t he s hape o f c ross-section , h ave t angential - o blique i ncisions . A s t hese i ncisions r un i n o pposing d irections o n t he u pper a nd l ower s ides o f t he r ing , t hey c reate a h erringbone p attern o f i ncisions o n t he s urface o f t he a rtefact. H owever , m any s pecimens a re c arefully g round w ithout l eaving t races o f t he p rimary i ncisions ( compare F igure 3 N o. 7 075.3; f or d etailed d escription o f r ing a rtefacts s ee A ppendix). N o d ifferences i n m anufacturing m arks w ere n oticed b etween t he s tone r ings f rom B aga a nd B asta a nd t his i ndicates t hat t he s ame p roduction t echniques w ere u sed a t b oth s ites. T he h igh n umber o f s tone r ings u ncovered f rom r elatively l i r4ted e xcavations i ndicates t hat t hey w ere i n c ommon u se a t t hese s ites.'

3 .

C omparative a spects

S tone r ings a re a f airly n eglected a nd p oorly d escribed g roup o f a rtefacts i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast a nd t his s tudy p rovides t he f irst l ist o f s ites w here t hey h ave b een f ound a nd d escription o f c hronol ogical c ontext. T he d ifferences i n t he a rtefacts f rom v arious s ites a re d escribed t o a llow a n a nalysis o f g eographical a nd c hronological d istribution . T his s tudy c onsiders r aw m aterial, s hape o f c rosss ection , d iameter , t hickness , w idth , r atio o f t hickness t o w idth a nd o rnamentation ( coloration a nd/or g rooving) a s t he p arameters w hich p rovide a ccess t o q ualitative a nd q uantitative c omparisons.

3 .1

G eographical d istribution ( Figures 5 a nd 6 )

S o f ar, s tone r ing a rtefacts h ave b een r ecorded f rom 3 2 s ites i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast ( Figure 5 ), o f w hich d etails a re g iven i n F igure 6 . T he s tate o f o ur k nowledge d oes n ot a llow a d efinitive e valuation o f g eographical a nd c hronological d istribution a nd o nly g eneral r emarks c an b e m ade f rom t his p reliminary e xamination o f t he d ata . S tone r ings a re a ttested f rom E arly N eolithic ( e.g . u pper P alegawra , K arim S hahir) t o C halcolithic l evels ( e.g. S ialk , 1 4 , 1 'r sin) i n p ermanent s ettlements f rom T urkey t o I ran" a nd f rom T urkmenia t o t he s outhern L evant. F urthermore t his g roup o f a rtefacts w ith i ts r ather u niform c haracteristics i s n ot r estricted t o t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast, b ut a lso o ccurs i n c ircum-Mediterranean a reas s uch a s t he R hone e stuary ( for d etails s ee C ourtin a nd G utherz 1 976), I taly a nd t he M editerranean i slands ( Tanda G . 1 977), a nd a long t he A driatic c oast o f Y ugoslavia ( Batovic 1 981). T hey a re a lso w ell k nown f rom t he c entral E uropean N eolithic a nd C halcolithic: f rom t he P aris b §sin i n t he w est t o R oumania ( Zapotocka M . 1 984; P ape W . p ers . c omm .') a nd t o t he O ka b asin i n C entral R ussia 9 i n t he e ast. F urther e vidence c omes f rom t 1 9 1 .2 N eolithic o f t he T amanrasset-region / H oggar-Mountains i n t he S ahara l" ( Camps 1 978 : 1 86, F igure 7 :11). T he

o ccurrence

o f

s tone r ings i n t he N ear a nd

1 44

M iddle

E ast

i s

1 45

G eographical d istribution o f s tone

i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast.

S I TE P i e ff

T IM I ER

1-P EL EG A lfA

M A 1 i3 Z IAL

S TRAT IGR P f l«

R E LAT IVE 010 11 1»

m a rb le

u p per h o r izon

Z a rz ian -K a r im S h ah ir

1 PO I0 -0V 3 E0 1 D A TE R EF ERBCIS B R A IDW O OD &H o we 1 9 60

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

2 -K A R IM S H AH IR

3 -MME IB IT

1

m arb le

s i ng le p h ase

c . K ar im S h ah ir

g r een s t one

L e ve l I ( 1 )

P r otoneo lith ic

B R A IDWOOD &H O W E 1 9 60 B R A IDWOCD p e r s .c om . 8 2 652-1 7 B . C .(2 )

( 1 ) V . LOO N 1 9 68 ( 2 ) C A U V IN 1 9 7 7

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA*AAAAAAAAAAk i r** **********A-kk**A-k*AAkAk ickA k ir en k*************AAA*AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA*AAk

4 -C A YON J

2

5 -T E LL M A G ZA LL A

s e ver a l

6 -C A FER H Ö YÜK

1 0

d i ah as , m arb le

7-A L I K O S

5

Ii f es tone

8 -S A F PD I

s e ver a l

P NB

h a rd ,dark s t one

c . 7000 b . c .

C A MBEL & B R A IDWOOD 1 9 80 C A MBEL 1 9 7 4 A NA TOL IAN C I V IL ISAT IONS 1 9 83

PN l i ke J a rmo a n d S h ifnhar a

A K z o ne A l A K Z o ne A 2

B A DER 1 9 7 9

7t h .M ällenn ium

7 0 00 -6 2 00 B . C .

M AR ECHAL 1 9 85

M b haffed J a ffer P h ase A l K o sh P h ase

5 2 1 70 1 1 6 0 B . C . 6 97 Dt 1 0 0 B . C . 270t 1 9 0 B . C .

H O LE , F L A IVER Y &N E E LY 1 9 69

P O W p e r s .con n

h u nhat ta l e ve l 6 4 B eer s hev a h o r iz on I V I

9 -H A C I LAR

( 1 ) ( 1 )

4 97 6195 B . C . ( 2 ) 5 39 918 5 B . C . ( 2 )

( 1 ) M e llaa rt 1 9 70 ( 2 ) M e llaa rt 1 9 6 1 c a n n .

1 0 -C A N H A SAN

s e ver a l

1 -N E VA LLA C OR I

7

1 2 -J A RMO

3 1 6

28 m arb le 1 8g r aystone 7l i mestone

1 3 -A JN G i A ZAL

1 2 5

l i me sto ne

s u r fac e PNB l a yers f i na l P Y a rmouk ian

1 4 -B AGA

2 5

s a ndstone

s and in g

f i n a l P RE

G E BEL & S T ARC K 1 9 85

s u r face

l i ke J an n o

B RA IDWID &I GE 1 9 60

PNB

L E CHE VALL IER 1 9 78

l a te P r e lB ( c .64C0 -5900 b . c .)

D E C O NT EN SON & V A N L I ERE 1 9 65 C E CN TEN SO N p e r s .ca n n .

f in a l PNB

G E BEL & S T AR) ( 1 9 85

F R EN CH p e r s .

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

7 0 00 -6 000 b . c .

9 2 1 4 IDT u n pub l .m anu scr . B RA IDWO OD &H C WE 1 9 60 B RA IDWOOD e t a l . 1 9 82 M C HCL Y -NACN 1 9 72

PNB N B" P I P I NG ' P N A

6 5 20 t6 50 B . C . 670 t 3 2 0 B . C . 6 1 20 ± 2 3 0 B . C .

R O LLEFSON R O LLEFSON R O LLEFSCN R O LLEFSCN

1 9 84 1 9 65 &S lfüN S p er s .ca n n .

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

1 5 -K A N I S U R

m arb le

*AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA**A*AAAAA AAAAAAAAAAA

1 6 -A B U G E I SH

2

1 i n e s tcne

1 7 -B Ü ORAS

1

w h ite a l ab as ter

s ur face

*AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA k***

4 5

F igure 6

L ist o f s ites w ith s tone r ing r ecords ( sites a re l isted i n

s a nds to re p l aster l i festo ne

s o u rd in g

********

1 8 -B A STA

c hronological o rder).

1 46

k U 4 3 ER

S I TE P O PE

N A TER IAL

S TR AT IGR A F I l Y

R E LAT IVE 0 1 11 41 1 3 1C S e f id -C hoga M an i T r a ns P IT

1 9 -C H AGA S E F ID

4

l i mQsto re

S A /A4 -S D /G 1

2 0 -T E LL R A M A D

1

l i me stone

1 A /E s t 4 . 30

2 1 -S A R P8

R AD IO -CA RE CN 9 ‘ 1 13

R EF ER EK ES F I LE 1 9 7 7

6 140t 5 0 B . C . 6 25 0 ,8 0 B . C . 6 25 0. 5 0 B . 0

D E C O NTENSON & V A N L I ERE 1 9 64 D E C O NTENSON 1 9 75

6 ( x ± 9 8 B . C . 5 6 55 9 6 B . C . 5 6 94' 8 9 B . C .

B RA IDWOOD 1 9 6 1 B RA IDW OOD p e r s .comm ,

5 9 90! _ 1 5 0 5 3 501150 9 8 70t 1 5 0 8 09 0± 1 6 0

M OR T ENS EN 1 9 7 0

AA*AAAAA

2 -S H IMSHAR A

5

r . r ite m a rb le

2 3 -J E R ICHO

8

2 4 -C A P A N DR EA S

4

2 5 -M E RS IN

4

A

2 6 -

c . 5900 -5 7 00 b . c .

L ( XX Ia ( P h) 2 ) L X XX I ( P hE ) E I IIIV D III I .1 1 (2 ) E I IIIV A

p o ttery n e o lith ic p r o to-u rb an e a r ly b r onze a g e

l e ve l I -V I

a c er a meo lith ic

B . C . B . C . B . C . B . C .

k*

a l ab aster l i mestone

Y A HA

l e ve l 1 0 ; 16 ;9

s l a te a l abaster

K A N Y CN &N OLAN ) 1 9 83

4 1 90 ±2 0 0 B . C . 5 82 5 1 2 5 B . C . 50 0 ±1 2 0 B . C .

l e ve l X V I -X c . 5000 -4 5 00 b . c .

a l abaster

G A RSTANG 1 9 53 B U RK ITT 1 9 39

p e r iod V I D ( c .5 000 -4 0 0) b . c .) Z o ne D Z o ne A 3

*

A l K o sh p h ase B a y at p h ase

L E E R LN 1 9 8 1

L AMERG -KARLO V9C ( 1 9 70

2 7 -T E PE S A BZ

7

l i m es tone

4 7 90 t 190 B . C . 3 8 20 , 1 2 0 B . C .

2 8 -K H IROK IT IA

1 0

l i mestone p i cro lite

p e r iod I I II ( c .37 00 -3 4 0) b . c .)

D IKA ICE . 1 9 5 3

2 9 -S I ALK

1 2

a l abaster v o lcan ic s t one

S i a lk I- I I

0 INSMW 1 9 38

H O LE , F L A N NE R Y &N e e ly 1 9 69

*AAAAAA*AAÄAAAAAAAAA kk******

3 0 -O L YNTH US

2

b l ack s t one l i mestone

1 . 60m - 1 . 20m b e low l e ve l

c er am ic .neo l ith ic ( c .3200 -2 9 00 b . c .)

r e i rule % 'n

3 1 -( 4 1 7 1 iK U L E

7

b l ack m ar b le a l ab a s te r s l ate b l a ck s t on e

3 0 .50m -1 6 .50m

e a r ly b r onze a g e I III ( c .3000 -2 1 00 b . c .)

GWYNN 1 9 56

3 2 -W A D I F I D AN

1

c a lc ite

3 -K ö SK H O YÜK

5 0

m arb le ( ? )

AAAAAAAAAAAAAA

****

AAAAAAAA

Figure

6

cont.

List

of

s u rface

sites

chronological

R A IKES 1 9 8 3 S E L ISTRE L I p e rs .c c unt

with

stone

ring

order).

147

records

(sites

are

listed

in

S I TE N AME

9 000

8 500

8 0 00

7 5 00

7 0 00

6 5 00

6 0 00

500

5 0 00

4 500

4 0 00

1-P E LEGAWRA 2 -K AR IM S H AH IR 3 -M URE IB IT

Z

4 -V k YöNü

5-T E LL M AGZALIA 6 -C A FER H ONK 7-A L I 6

8 -S A FAD I

9- H A C ILAR

1 0 -C A N H A SAN 1 -N E VALLA C O R I 1 2 -J A RMO /

A

1 3 -A I M G H AZAL 1 4 -B A JA

1 5 -K A N I S UR

1 6 -A BU G O SH

1 7 -B U QRAS 2 -B A STA

F igure 7

C hronological

d istribution

i ndicate r elative

o f s tone r ings.

c hronological

r efer t o r adio-carbon d ates ( uncalibrated).

1 48

B lack b ars

p osition; h atched b ars

3 5 00

S I TE N A ME

9 0 00

8 500

8 000

7 5 00

7 0 00

6 500

6 000

500

5 0 00

4 500

4 0 00

1 9 -C H AGA S E F ID 2 0 -T E LL R A MAD

2 1 -S A RAB

VA

2 -S H IMSHARA

-

2 3 -J E R ICHO 2 4 -C A P A ND REAS

2 5 -M E RS IN

2 6 -T E PE Y A HA

2 7 -T E PE S A BZ 2 6 -K H IROK ITIA

2 9 -S L ALK

3 0 -O L YTHUS

3 1 -G O Z 10 K U LE 3 2 -W A D I F I DAN -K Ö SK H Ö YUK

F igure 7 c ont .

C hronological

d istribution

i ndicate r elative

o f s tone r ings.

c hronological

r efer t o r adio-carbon d ates ( uncalibrated).

1 49

B lack b ars

p osition; h atched b ars

3 5 00

o bviously r elated t o t he d istribution o f p ermanent s ettlements. I t i s d ifficult a t t he m oment t o r ecognize a ny r egional d ifferentiation o r d iffusion o f t his a rtefact t ype . S tone r ings a ppear c ontemporaneously i n e arly N eolithic s ites o ver t he e ntire a rea u nder i nvestigation . T heir d istribution i s r elated t o t he d istribution o f N eolithic s ettlem ents a nd s hows n o i ndividual p attern . T heir d istribution i n l ater p eriods i s a lso f airly u niform . C arved o rnamentation o f s tone r ings h as s o f ar b een r ecorded f rom J armo , B aga , ' Ain G hazal a nd S ialk I ; a d istribution w hich a llows n either g eographical n or c hronological d ifferentiation. T he s ame i s t rue f or t he d rilling o f f ragments , w hich h as b een uported f rom ' Ain G hazal, B asta , K hirokitia , C ap A ndreas a nd S ialk . " C oloration i s k nown o nly f rom B aga a nd B asta a nd t herefore c annot b e t aken a s a g eographical o r c hronological i ndicator. R aw m aterial s election s eems t o b e r elated t o t he g eological s etting o f s ites a nd d oes n ot s eem q a ffect s hape. H owever, a n a nalysis o f m anufacturing t echniques " s hould c onsider w hether r aw m aterial i nfluences t echnology . N othing c an b e s aid a bout t he g eographical d istribution o f " plaster" r ings s ince t hey h ave n ot b een r eported f rom s ites o ther t han B asta .I 3 A part f rom J armo l ittle m etric d ata i s a vailable o n s tone r ings ( for c omparisons o f B asta a nd B aga m aterial w ith J armo s ee 3 .4). T he d iffering q uality a nd q uantity o f s tone r ing d ocumentation i n s ite p ublications p revent a s tatistical a nalysis o f t he d ata a t p resent. S uch a n a pproach m ay i n f uture h elp w ith t he i dentification o f p ossible g eographical a nd c hronological d ifferences.

3 .2

C hronological d istribution ( Figure 7 )

N o s tone r ings h ave b een r eported f rom L ate E pipalaeolithic s ites i n t he N ear E ast o r e lsewhere. T he e arliest o ccur i n E arly P PN c ontexts a t K arim S hahir, u pper P elegawra a nd M ureybit I I ( second h alf o f t he 9 th M illennium a nd e arly 8 th M illennium B C). A s a w orking h ypothesis i t i s s uggested t hat t he a ppearance o f s tone r ings i s r elated c hronologica lly t o t he b eginning o f p ermanent v illage l ife i n t he E arly N eolithic. T his i s n ot o nly o bservable i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast, b ut i t i s a lso e pparent f rom t he c ircum-Mediterranean a nd c entral E uropean e vidence. ' H owever, m ost o f t he s tone r ing f inds c ome f rom s ites r elated t o t he P PNB a nd P ost-PPNB c ultural p eriods. T his i s p robably r elated t o t he f act t hat m ore s ites a nd o ccupations o f t his p eriod a re k nown a nd e xcavated t han fum t he e arliest P PN ( Cayonu , T all M agzaliya , C afer H oyuk , A li K osh), I u - A s h as a lready b een d iscussed i n t he s ection d ealing w ith t he g eographical d istribution o f s tone r ings, i t i s n ot p ossible t o d ifferentiate s tone r ings c hronol ogically f rom a c onsideration o f s hape a nd o rnamentation. W ithout a n a nalysis o f m easurements a nd a s tatistically b ased c omparison o f c haracters , ac hronological c ategorization w ould b e w orthless . M ore d etailed s tudies o n m anufacturing p rocesses a re n ecessa u t o d etermine w hether t here w ere t echnological c hanges t hrough t ime. W hilst t he a ppearance o f s tone r ings c an b e c orrelated w ith E arly N eolithic v illage l ife n o d efinite c hronological r estriction c an b e r ecognized f or l ater p eriods. T hey a re f ound t hroughout t he C halcolithic a nd l ater w ere p robably r eplaced b y m etal-rings.

1 50

3 .3

G eneral c haracteristics

F rom t he d ata a vailable, s tone r ings r epresent a f airly u niform g roup o f a rtefacts , w hich s eem t o b e e venly d istributed f rom t he Z agros t o t he R hone . I ndependent o f c hronological a nd g eographical c ontext, s hapes o f c ross-sections v ary c onsiderably b etween f lattened a nd h igh o val. T rigonal a nd p entagonal ( diamond-shaped) a re a lso c ommon c rosss ections . I n m ost c ases a n a cute e xterior r idge i s f ormed, w hereas t he i nner s ide i s p erpendicular t o s lightly c onvex . C arved o rnamentations a re r eported f rom s everal s ites b ut t hey d o n ot i mply a ny c hronological o r g eographical d ifferentiation. C oloration o f s tone r ings i s k nown o nly f rom B asta a nd B aga .

3 .4

M etric c omparison w ith J armo s tone r ings

T he J armo p ublication ( Moholy-Nagy 1 982) p rovides m etric d ata o n 3 16 s tone r ings w hich a llow c omparisons t o b e m ade w ith t he B asta a nd B aga s tone r ings. M easurements o f ( reconstructed) i nner d iameters a nd t hicknesses ( width i n t erms o f M oholy-Nagy) w ere p ublished i n 1 0mm s ize c lasses .

3 .4.1

C omparison o f d iameters ( Figure 8 A -C)

A c omparison o f s tone r ing i nner d iameters u sing 1 0mm s ize c lasses , r eveals n o s ignificant d ifferences b etween t he t hree s ites. A ll t hree s ites h ave a d istribution uAk a t 7 0mm d iameter a nd a m ean v alue o f b etween 6 0-70mm ( Figure 8 ).'' T he v ariation o f d iameters r esembles a s tandard f requency c urve w ith a r ange f rom 1 5mm m inimum t o 1 00mm m aximum . T his s tandard f requency c urve i mplies t hat s tone r ings w ith a n i nner d iameter v arying f rom 1 5mm t o 1 00mm f orm o ne a rtefact g roup. I t h ad b een e xpected t hat t here m ay b e t wo o r t hree a rtefact g roups r epresented b y a t wo o r t hree p eaked d istribution c urve , w ith s tatistically s ignificant d ifferences o f m ean v alues. N o t ypological d ifference c ould b e e stablished b etween J armo , B aga a nd B asta u sing t his p arameter. T his a lso i mplies t hat t here w as n o d ifference i n t he f unction o f t he r ings f ound a t J armo a nd B asta o r B aga. O n t he o ther h and, t he a rrangement o f a ll s tone r ings f rom B aga, B asta a nd J armo i n o ne f unctional/typological g roup i mplies t hat s mall r ings w ith a d iameter o f 1 5mm w ould h ave h ad t he s ame f unction a s l arge r ings o f 1 00mm d iameter. F rom t his p oint o f v iew t he i nterpretation o f s tone r ings a s b racelets o r b angles h as t o b e q uestioned. S tone r ings m ay h ave b een u sed a s p endants a nd/or c lasp-like o rnaments . T he f indi ng o f d rilled s tone r ing f ragments s upports t heir i nterpretation a s p endants ( at l east i n a s econdary u se o f b roken s tone r ings).

1 51

a

n =76

JARMO

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

B O

i n ne r d iame te r

9 0

1 00

10

1 20

1 30

1 40

[ mm }

BAäP t

n ,2 1 0

2 0

3 0

n =3 4 0

n =4 5 0

n =5

6 0

n =4 7 0

n = 1 B O

9 0

1 00

10

1 20

1 30

1 40

i n ner d i c ime ter k r im l

BASTA n =9 n = 1

1 0

210

31 0

n =3

r •• • • •

4 0

n = 1 1

5 0

= 2 6 0

7 0

B O

r 9 0

1 00

10

1 20

1 30

1 40

i nner d iame ter [ mm ]

F igure 8

M etric c omparison o f i nterior d iameters " plaster" r ings f rom B aga, B asta a nd J armo.

1 52

o f

s tone

a nd

a

JAR MO 4 0 3 3 3 3

1 6

34

1 7 1 6 ' 77

1

7 1

v 1 2 5

7

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 22 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7-30 t h ickness

[ mm )

BAäA 8 1

3

1 1 1 1

3

2

1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 02 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 t h ickness [ mm ]

BASTA 1 2 r, 9

6 • • ) : • : -• : < • : • : :

4

1 I• 1

1

I

I

.

1

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 223 2 / . 2 5 2 6 2 7 t h ickness

F igure 9

[ mm ]

M etric c omparison o f t hicknesses o f s tone a nd " plaster" r ings f rom J armo, B aga a nd B asta.

1 53

3 .4.2

C omparison o f t hickness ( Figure 9 A -C a nd F igure 1 0)

T he f requency d istribution o f s tone r ing t hicknessess ( calculated i n l mm c lasses) f rom J armo, B aga a nd B asta s hows c lear d ifferences b etween J armo o n t he o ne h and a nd B asta a nd B aga o n t he o ther. F or J armo, t he d istribution p eak i s a t 9 mm w ith a r ange f rom 5 mm t o 3 4mm ( Figure 9 A). F or B aga a nd B asta ( Figure 9 B-C) t he d istribution p eak i s a t 4 mm a nd 3 mm r espectively. R ing t hicknesses d o n ot e xceed 1 2mm a t e ither s ite. S uch l ow m aximum v alues f or t hickness w ere n ot a ttested a t j armo a s i s s hown i n F igure 9 D . W hereas t he c omparison o f i nner d iameters d id n ot r eveal a ny d ifference b etween J armo, B aga a nd B asta, t he c omparison o f r ing t hicknesses s hows c lear d ifferences. W hether t hese d ifferences h ave t o b e u nderstood a s c hronological o r t ypological d ifferences, o r a s s igns o f m aterial-dependent c onstructignal c onstraints, m ust r emain t he s ubject o f f uture i nvestigations. " T he c omparison o f t hickness -w idth r atios ( Figure 1 0 A -B) s upports t hese r esults a lthough o nly s ummary d ata a re a vailable f rom J armo. W hereas B asta a nd B aga s tone r ings h ave a d istribution p eak a t 0 .5 a nd a m aximum v ariation o f 1 ( two e xceptions o f 1 .4 a nd 1 .7), J armo r ings h ave a d istribution p eak a t 1a nd a v ariation o f 2 . F igures 1 0 A -B g ive a n i dea o f T /W f requencies f rom B aga a nd B asta . A s w ith t he i nner d iameter f requencies a nd t hickness f requencies t he c urve h as o nly o ne p eak , s howing t hat t he d istribution o f T /W r atio f requencies f ollows a s tandard d istribution. T hus, c onsidering t his p arameter, t he B aga a nd B asta r ings c an b e c ategorized i nto o ne a rtefact g roup ( whether t his g roup i s b ased o n f unctional, t echnological, c hronol ogical o r t ypological a spects h as t o b e i nvestigated l ater). T he d ifferences b etween t he m easurements o f B aga a nd B asta c ompared t o J armo r ings a re n oted b ut c annot b e i nterpreted i n o ne o r t he o ther d irection u nless m ore m aterial o f o ther s ites i s a nalysed.

4 .

C onclusions a nd s uggestions f or f uture r esearch

A d etailed s tudy h as b een m ade o f t he s tone r ings f rom t wo l ate A ceramic N eolithic s ites i n s outhern J ordan - B aga a nd B asta ( see A ppendix). A c omparison o f t he s tone r ings w ith t hose f rom o ther s ites o f N eolithic t o C halcolithic d ate s how t hat t here a re m any f eatures i n c ommon i rrespective o f g eographical c ontext. T hese i nclude s ize, s hape a nd i nferred m ethod o f m anufacture. A lthough s tone r ings s eem t o b e r ather u niform , s ome h itherto u nreported c haracteristics s uch a s c oloration a nd t he u se o f s andstone a nd " plaster" a s r aw m aterials h ave b een d escribed f rom B aga a nd B asta. Am etric c omparison o f s tone r ings f rom B aga, B asta a nd J armo r evealed c omparability i n i nner d iameters b ut d ifferences i n r ing t hicknesses a nd T /W-ratios. A s f ar a s i t c an b e j udged f rom s uch i ncomplete d ata t he c omparability i n i nner d iameter s uggests t hat t he r ings w ere u sed f or t he s ame p urpose a t B aga, B asta a nd J armo. T he w ide r ange o f v ariation i n d iameters m akes t heir u se a s b racelets o r b angles i mprobable a nd t herefore i t i s s uggested t hat t hey m ay h ave b een u sed a s p endants o r c lasp-like o rnaments. T he d ifferences i n t hicknesses a nd T /W r atios h ave t o b e n oted a s " typological" d ifferences. S o f ar, t hese d ifferences c annot b e

1 54

5

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I I T

4

5 6

2

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1

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

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ill

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1 % 1 9 2 02 1x 10 -

T /W-quot ien t

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I

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1

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7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 x10 1 T / W-quo t ien t

,

F igure 1 0 Aa nd B . M etric c omparison o f T /W r atios o f s tone r ings f rom B aga ( A) a nd B asta ( B) a nd a pproximate d istribution v alues o f J armo s tone r ings ( indicated b y b lack a rrows). ( C) C rosss ection v ariation i n r elation t o T /W r atio ( Scale 1 :1). ( D) A llometric p roportions w ith t hicknesses o f a ll r ing f ragments c alculated a s 1 .

F igure 1 1 O rientation o f s tone r ings a nd d efinition o f t erms . 1 55

i nterpreted a s b eing f unctional,

t echnological o r c hronological.

M any q uestions r emain u nanswered r elating t o t he s tone r ings o f t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast. Am ore d etailed m etrical a nd s tatistical a nalysis o f t his a rtefact g roup w ould b e r equired, t o b e c ertain w hether t here a re a ny g eographical o r c hronological d ifferences. A n a nalysis o f t he m echanical p roperties o f t he r aw m aterial a nd t heir r elation t o m anufacturing t echniques w ould b e o f c onsiderable i nterest.

A cknowledgements T he a uthor i s g rateful f or u npublished d ata a nd o ther s upport p rovided b y m any c olleagues. I 9 Ia m e specially i ndebted t o H .G . G ebel f or h is p atient s upport a nd a dvice. T he a rtefacts w ere d rawn b y I . R aidt ( Baga) a nd G . S perling ( Basta). It hank R .L . S nipes a nd A .N . G arrard f or h elp w ith t ranslation.

N otes 1 .

E xamples o f c omplete s tone r ings a re r ecorded f rom C afer H öyük ( Marechal 1 985), K ösk H öyük ( Selistreli p ers. c omm.) a nd C atal H öyük ( Mellaart 1 972). D uring t he 1 987 c ampaign a t B asta a pproximately 3 00 s tone r ing f ragments a nd s ome c omplete s tone r ings w ere u ncovered. T hese c ould n ot b e c onsidered i n t his a rticle, w hich w as s ent t o t he e ditor b efore t he 1 987 c ampaign a t B asta b egan.

2 .

Ia m v ery g rateful f or t he B asta m aterial p rovided f or m y s tudy H . N issen, M . M uheisen a nd H .G . G ebel.

3 .

T he p reliminary a nalysis a nd c lassification o f t he r aw m aterial u sed f or t he B aga s tone r ings w as u ndertaken b y M ohammad A bu-Safat, I nstitut f uer G eographie U niversitaet E rlangen. I g ratefully a cknowledge h is c ontribution t o t he d escription o f t he s tone r ings. F or g eneral i nformation o n t he P etra s andstone f ormations s ee A bu S afat 1 986.

4 .

H owever, c oloration i s r eported f or c lay r ings f rom ( Pre-) H arrapan c ontexts i n w estern P akistan; s ee F airservis 1 956 a nd 1 959 ( compare n ote 6 ).

5 .

A t ' Ain G hazal c oncentrations o f s tone r ings i n t he " middle f ield" s uggest a m anufacturing a rea ( Rollefson G . 1 984). H owever, n o s emi-finished r ings o r s andstone s labs w ere f ound a t B aga o r B asta a nd t here i s n o o ther e vidence f or m anufacture a t t he s ite.

1 56

b y

6 .

F or l ater p eriods a nd f rom f urther t o t he e ast, r ings m ade o f ( baked?) c lay, p ublished a s b angles a re k nown f rom p re-Harappan a nd H arappan s ites i n t he Q uetta V alley, t he Z hob- a nd L oralaid istrict o f W estern P akistan ( e.g. F airservis ( 1956), F airservis ( 1959)). H ard b aked p ottery r ings ( better d escribed a s s tone w are), w hich r esemble t he s tone r ings i n s hape a nd d iameter, a re r eported f rom M ohenjo-Daro. T hey a re e xtremely w ell f inished w ith a s emi-polished s urface, s ome w ith p ictographic o rnamentation ( Mackay 1 938; P late 8 6, 9 3-94; P late 9 0, 6 5; P late 9 2, 7 -8, 1 9, 2 4-26).

7 .

S tone r ings a re r eported a s a c ommon e lement i n t he l ate J eitun c ulture; e .g. C hagilli-Depe, s econd h alf o f 5 th m illennium B C ( Masson a nd S arianidi 1 972).

8 .

T he a uthor g ratefully a cknowledges t he i nformation a nd r eferences o n E uropean s tone r ings p rovided b y W . P ape, U niversity o f F reiburg.

9 .

I n C entral R ussia s tone r ings m ade o f s late a re k nown f rom t he n eolithic s ettlement o f P lekhanov i n t he O ka b asin ( Fedorov 1 956 F igure 1 3, 6 -7) a nd t he n eolithic s ettlements o f N eghenjo a nd V oznesenk; a ll d ated i n t he 4 th m illennium . F or t he 3 rd m illennium , s tone r ing e vidence c omes f rom K oubieno , O umilenia a nd V eret i n t he W estern R ussian t erritory ( Fedorov 1 956).

1 0 .

I t i s s uggested t hat s tone r ings c oming f rom s ites o utside t he a rea u nder c onsideration a re n ot b ased o n t he s ame t echnological o r c ultural t radition a s i n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast. T hus t hey m ight r epresent c onvergent d evelopments. H owever, t his h ypothesis h as t o b e t ested b y a t echnological a nalysis.

1 1.

D rilled f ragments o f s tone r ings a re r eported f rom s everal o ther s ites e .g. ' Ain G hazal ( Rollefson 1 984, 1 985), K hirokitia ( Dikaios 1 953), C ap A ndreas ( LeBrun 1 981), S ialk I I ( Ghirshman 1 938). T he d rilling o f t he s tone r ings s uggests t hat t he p ieces e ither h ung f rom a s tring o r t hat s omething e lse w as s uspended f rom t he r ing i tself ( G. R ollefson p ers. c omm .).

1 2.

J .M .

1 3.

T his e vidence s uggests t hat " plaster" r ings m ight a lso b e e xpected a t o ther s ites u sing p laster t echniques a nd p roducing w hite w are o bjects ( for d istribution o f w hite w are o bjects c ompare: K afafi 1 986). T he o ccurrence o f p laster r ings i ndicates t hat m anufacturi ng r ings o n o bviously o lder m aterial, s tone, w as t entatively r eplaced b y a n ew m aterial a nd a n ew t echnology, w hite w are.

1 4.

T he p reviously d iscussed o pinion t hat s tone r ings a re r estricted t o t he f inal P PNB a nd P NA ( Gebel H .G. a nd S tarck J .M . 1 985) c annot b e m aintained.

1 5.

S ince N eolithization r eached t hese a reas l ater, s tone r ings a re a lso c orrespondingly l ater.

S tarck,

i n p reparation.

1 57

t he

" earliest"

1 6.

H owever, d uring t he 1 984 ' Ain G hazal s eason t he e arly P PNB l evels p roduced t hree s tone r ing f ragments, t he f inal P PNB 3 3, t he Y armoukian l ayers n ine f ragments ( G. R ollefson, p ers. c omm .).

1 7.

T he n ature o f r aw m aterial, t he f unction o f t he o bject a nd t he m anufacturing t echnique a re c onsidered a s t he c onstraints o n s hape. T hus, s hape v ariation c ould o nly o ccur w ithin a r estricted r ange.

1 8.

F rom a n i nitial o bservation o f t he ' Ain G hazal m aterial i t s eems t hat t hey h ave t he s ame d istribution o f d iameter v alues ( Rollefson G . p ers. c omm .).

1 9.

A bu-Safat M ., G eographisches I nstitut, U niversitaet E rlangen; A urenche 0 ., M aison d e l 'Orient M editerraneen, L yon; B ar-Yosef 0 ., I nstitute f or A rchaeology, H ebrew U niversity J erusalem ; B etts A .V.G., D epartment o f A rchaeology U niversity o f E dinburgh; B raidwood R ., O riental I nstitute U niversity o f C hicago; C auvin M .C., M aison d e l 'Orient M editerraneen, L yon; C ontenson H .de C .N .R.S., P aris; D ornemann R .H., M ilwaukee P ublic M useum ; F rench D ., B ritish I nstitute o f A rchaeology, A nkara; G ustaysonGaube C ., U niversitaet T uebingen; G ebel H .G., I nstitut f uer U rgeschichte, U niversitaet T uebingen; G oring-Morris N ., D epartment o f P rehistory, H ebrew U niversity J erusalem ; H ole F ., D epartment o f A nthropology, Y ale U niversity; K orfmann M . I nstitut f uer V or- u nd F ruehgeschichte, U niversitaet T uebingen; M arks A .E., D epartment o f A nthropology, S outhern M ethodist U niversity D allas; M oore A ., D epartment o f A nthropology, Y ale U niversity; M uheisen M ., I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, Y armouk U niversity, I rbid; N issen, I nstitut f uer V orderasiatische A rchaeolologie, F reie U niversitaet B erlin; P ape W . I nstitut f uer U ru nd F ruehgeschichte, U niversitaet F reiburg; P errot J ., C entre R echerche F rancais d e J erusalem ; R ollefson G .O . D epartment o f A nthropology, S an D iego S tate U niversity; S nipes R .L . I nstitut f uer A natomie, U niversitaet G iessen; S trahm C ., I nstitut f uer U ru nd F ruehgeschichte, U niversitaet F reiburg.

1 58

A ppendix t o a rticle o f J .M .

S tarck o n S tone R ings f rom B aga a nd B asta

A rtefact D escriptions T he d escription o f a rtefacts f ollows a w hich t he f ollowing c haracters a re l isted:

s tandardized

s cheme

i n

1 )

S ite / F ield n umber / F igure

2 )

S tratigraphic c ontext

3 )

R aw m aterial

4 )

D escription o f s hape a nd m easurements o f t he r econstructed i nner d iameter ( Di), t hickness ( T), w idth ( W) a nd T /W r atio

5 )

D ecorations

6 )

M anufacturing t races

I nterior d iameters a re r econstructed c alculated b y t he f ollowing f ormula:

S2 = 8 h

r

r= R adius;

v alues

w hich

h ave

b een

h ' 2

s= s ecant; h = h eight,

f rom s ecant t o i nner c ontour.

C ompare F igure 1 1.

M any f ragments a re f aceted o n t heir i nner a nd/or e xterior f aces r esulting i n " polygonal" p lane s ections a nd d ifferent i nner d iameters o n o ne r ing. T herefore t he c alculation o f t he i nner d iameter, w hich i s b ased o n a r andomly p reserved p art o f a s lightly i rregular r ing i ncludes a s ystematic f ault o f c . 1 0%. A lso, t he v alues o f t hickness a nd w idth m ay c hange i n o ne f ragment. T he v alues g iven f or t hickness a nd w idth a re m ean v alues o f s everal m easurements f or o ne f ragment. T he n umber o f m easurements o n e ach f ragment a re l isted i n p arentheses. T he r elation o f t hickness t o w idth o f a rtefacts, r eferred t o a s T -W r atio, i s t he c haracter t hat c an h elp t o d etermine t he d ifferent m anufacturing m odes ( "types") o f t he s tone r ings. T he t erms " lower", " top", " upper", " exterior" a nd " interior" u sed i n t he d escription o f a rtefacts r efer t o t he o rientations o f f ragments a s d epicted ( Figure 1 1):

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B aga 3 197.5 / F igure 1 .

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.

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. e.

4 4 r 1

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. 0 0 0 4 1 4

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•

( . a )

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0 1 c

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a ) U < 1 . 1 , 4 . . . a z ) 0 . . ( 0 W. , u c l 0 3 •• 4 , 1 . 4

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c

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> c o

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r n 4 4 . 4 4 . 3 4 a . a 3 , 0 3 0 0

• e 12 1

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a l . 0 _ C o k J 4 1 . . o

a .co

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. c o c o

O

P artly d estroyed b y w eathering e ffects .

0 .

U CU

0, CV

c l . )u c o > c4 4

> ,

c ol o

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U U 4 1 0 , ( 0 • 3 4 3 4 H I

O u

C

.

0 3 , ( 0

3 4 0 C C 4 4

C 0 • r 1 a 3

. ., . ,c

3 4 0

E

I x 4 . 4 4 0 0 . 0 1 4 1 4 0 4 4 0 U 0 4 0. .c 4 4 -1 c 4, C O X 0 . • 0 0 0 3 a ) 0 4 -1 3 3 1 . 4 0 0 0 7 ,-, 0 , 1 C O M

a . > c o4 4. _ . ,

> . C0

H I a ) r 1 . 1 r 1 ( 0.. V

1 4 1 a ,

4 . 4 4 0 3 0 U O ( 1 ) 1 . 4 C 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 1 1 ( . 1 . U G C 4 1 I 1 r 1 0 1 . 4 4 , 0 3 C • 4 1 0 0 0 I . r 1 N 4 -1 0 r 1 1 1 0 4 -1 c 0 1 . 4 0 X . 4 0 0 3

C O u ) . .c 4 .

A rea I II ( surface f inding, B aga r evisited i n A pril 1 985).

C E 7 4 0 • I , , 0

0 0 . 4 3

. 4 C C

4 . 4 0

4 . . > . 0.c

EE

c o

r esistance .

0

0 U 0 1 4 1

E

-0

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d elicate

4 4

4 4 o

s andstone

c o e

4 . 4

C

. -4 0 1 0 U . 1 0 : 1 4 1 4 . 4 C O 4

> 4 . r 1 C 0

B aga 3 481 / F igure 1 .

0 0 4 , 0 U . 0 3 3 4 4 . . E H 0 C 4 ,

• - e l r 1 • 1 0 , , C 0 0 0 4 . 4 3 . 4

4-4 4 4 3 4 0 17 C 7 0 0 C 4 0 0 0. 4 1 U3 > . 4 4 4 4 0 4 I C 7 4 4 4 1 0

> , 0 3 r 1 U

2 9.20m - 2 9.10m .

0 1 4 1 ,1 a l r • •

0 ( 1 ) 0 3 c 0 4 1 4 C

0 M I • • -, U 0 . 1 C N -0 • • , C

c c w a )

>

> , 0 • 4 . 4 C : I r. . X . 0 E H >

S ection I ;

C O 4 1 4, U C U O I r n t r ) O 3 . 4 U

c 3 U . P.

B aga 3 329 .3 / F igure 2 .

. 3 , 0 1 a l r 1 C . 0 C 4-1 4 1 0 4 1

> , 4 4 4 1 0 C 0 C 0 0 0 . 4 1 C 4 , -4 -1 0 > 4 -1

i ncisions

I

O O

o rientations.

-0

C 0

E

4 1 10

0 0 C • C

4 4 O C O ( 0 0 ' 0 4 4 O • 0

0 C 4 4 E

> . 1 . 4 > O C O 0 . 0 ) . 0 0 0 + I -7 C

1▪ -1 0 0 -

0

0 4 -1 14 1 1 0 0 ( 0 a l a ) 7 O C

0 0 E

• C I) U

0 0 4 4 • D I 1 . 4 4 1 3 4 a ) u 3 • E [ 4 . 0 3 4 .

.

2 0 c 0 • 0, C V 1

• 0 1 0 H I 0 1 • H L i

0 1 0 o 0 H I 0 0 • r 4 4 0 4 L i C O ( 1 ) 4 1 C C C O C O E

E 0 0, • C s r s i •• H 4 4 . ) 4 0 3 C O c o

o , . 4 E

r I 2 c n c o

> . , 0 , 1 U

2 7 0 ' 7 0 a 0

. 0 4 1 • . i 3 0 0 0 • a , 0 , 0 U 1 , 3 C

. 4 . 0 0 H 4 ) L i 0 c O

1 . 0U 0 0 • r 1 C O › .. .0 0 U r il l / 0 E

•• 3 . . . E •

. -. H . › ., . .. r i . e0 a

E 0,

0 c o

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0 • 3 . U l 0 • OE. H u

c arbonates;

0

. Z 1 4

C O r 1

• 1 4 1 k t : 7

C O 1 .

> ,

4 0 o . ) 2 o n 0 1 4 1 1 •

E

2 3 0 0 0 1 . • 0 0 0 L i > , 0

, ,4 _ , , , 0 1 .

4 . 6 1 4 0 u

6 / 0 0 , I

2

0.1 I

E

C ' A) 0 V D 1 . 4 • 0 . s .

C O 0 4 ) 0 0 0 . 0 1 , 0 0

0 0

0 2

c • 0 • • H i 0 3

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/ • 4 ( 1 3

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,

1

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4

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E

4 -, N . H I • > L n

• C V

4 1 0 •• V Z E 0 0 •• . • • • . 4 H i

1 .

. 0 . - . ' 4 4 C O C 1 ' . , E I E C O 1 r 1 C r )

C 0 • e 4 4 -, U 4 1 ) c o

. 0 1 0 , 1 › . . 0 H 4 0

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E L n o 7 • r i 0 , I , 0 • > E .

0 0

I l l . . c n c o t o 0 0 0 C 1

( 0 U 0 t O 4 ) u ) . 1 0 0 1 .

. 2 2 6 1 C u 0 • , 4 0 1 . 0 c o.0 a 0 c n 0 . 0 E H 4 0 > 4 1 0 H I

0 V 1 . 4

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0, c v

1 . V

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0 . C O C O 2 7 , 4 r 1 1

H 4 0 0

0 0

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I

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0

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• •

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4 - 1

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C I ) • , H 4 0 0 • H U 6 1

C V

I , „ c 4 1 4 0 ( 2 . I n

H I a l t . ) H a l

V C ) C k l E

c o

mc a 0 4 4 0 n o c o , . 4 -, 0 0 0 C C k • 2 • 1

g E 0 1 . 1 .7 ••

0 $ .4 , 0 a ) c n 0

( 1 ), 4 0 2 c 0 1 1 • , 1 C O I , C a . , 0 1 . . C 1 0 2 1 . E c o U 4 -, 4 4 0 4 4 0 3 0 a , C O 4 0 0 0 > H 1 4 •. L . • 0 0.+ C . . G I 0 1 4 i , w a 0 H . = E p o 1 . 4 0 . . . 0 > 0 . c ( 1 ) 4 1.0 • H X -0 0 0 • 0 4 1 C 1 H 4 0 1 1 C O V ) a , 0 ) •• H

C 0 1 r i X 4 , 0 0 . 1 " - 1> 1 , C 0 C 0 0 H 0 U 4 u 0 c o . i -, . 4 + • 4 . 4 . 0 X e. ` 4 0 0 0 I n • H H 1 4 0 c n 0 C a 4 •• V4 0 . 0 0. 4 1 0 E • H r i 0 > . 0 4 1. . . -, 4 4 7 • • 4 .

0 0 . 4 . + 0 V C M 0 1 0 1 0 ' 0

0 • H 4 U 6 1 V )

0 . 6 / r . " E E

N

c •-;

0

0 > ,0 2 • 1 . 0 6 1 , t 4 ) 4 1

0 H L . N . , a c

L n t n • r 1 0 1 4 . )

5 c o

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C 4 . 1

" L ' C ' 0

•

X 4 1 4 ) 0.7 0 ( 1 C O C O

0 0

0 4 40 1

o o a . a s

0 ) I 0 3 0 3 0 1 . O

1

0 0 1 U 0 0

E 0 ., 4 0 0 0 ) " . C O4 . • C O 0 4 1 1 4 4 C 0 0 0 ) 0 ) U 0 0 1 .0 0 I. . -

0

C D 0 0 4 0 1 2 7 0 C O C O

• V 0

r l 4 0

0 1

CO

t a . 1 C 0 0 0 4 1 C O 0 0 3 0 4 4 N • r 4 0 4 4

I .

" C

C O 4 0 3

c s )

r 4 0 C a U H • H 0 0 0 4 0 1 . 4.0 1 . 0 0 0 E

c o0 0

0 C C D 4

3 . 0 4 1 C O 4 4 H 4 r 1 • c ,

Cn

Z.

T i : c E G ) 4 0 E • 0 0• . 7. ••

E •

> g 6 1 E • H C O > e . .

0 0 0 .• X o lE, t = 1

U " 0 0 ) f 4 C O C O 0 3 C a .I C : 4 .• 0 I

E

C O.

' ' . 1,

•• 44

O . , 0 0 . • 1

0

• : Z

V

. C 1 ° 1 H 1 .

L i H 1 .

c o

.0

0 . 0 (. 9

• H

( 1 ) 3

. c 4 1 E / 1 2 . > c o

0 2 1. 7 .3

H I ' ' c o i. 0 V 0 0 0 0 0

• M O H 4 E , i - 0 0 1 U , 1 , 4 0 3 0 4 0 2 M u

U . , 4 . 0 4 -1 C 0 C . 0 1 , _ 2 . 4 0

. 0 0 • • 4 • c ) 0 V

0 0

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; 2 9.90m

0 0 rd C . 1 .

>

P ale t races o f r eddish p aint.

w ith s ilt ,

• • 0 C O 0 . 0 )

c )• •

. 0 4 0

B aga 3 365.1 / F igure 2 .

r 1

3

B aga 3 228.4 / F igure 2 .

f eldspar a nd f erric

0 0 0 0 C O 0 L 4 4 4

4

N ot d etermined.

0 ( 1 .,

F ragment i s c arefully g round, n o r emaining m anufacturing i ncisions.

4 1 a 0

C V

C . 2

•1 1

• g 4

d escription S urface S ection I ; S quare 3 ;

B aga 3 228.2 / F igure 2 . • H . 4

0 4 0 7 0 C O

4 0

v -1

o • ,

C O 4 1 4 1 E r )

, . o _

0

L i

C • C O 4 )

r 4 0

0

. .

. 0 • 4 ., 0 , , 4 • 3 0

0 . •

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; 2 9.30m - 2 9.20m .

. ' 4 . , c u C 0

1 > 0

•

4 0

B aga 3 365.3 / F igure 2 .

• 4 4 . 1

H

B aga 3 365 .2 / F igure 2 .

4 4 4 C O 2 7 0 ( 1 ) C 4 , J D V 4 0 0 0 1 4 4 . 1 C O 0 0 X 0 ‚ 0 0 . 0 1 0 e 1 • • 1 0 3 C r 4 I V V U

f ew h orizontal m anufacturing

•• C D 4 , H I 0 4 0 C 1 4 0 ) H 0 4 1 • H 0 0 0 O N . . I 4 ) c n c n 1 . c 0 c n 0 t i 4 0 0 V . 0 O 0 1 4 • - 0 0 1 . 10 0 0 7 C O C C O.0 C O , , C . / . 0 , V 0 2 0 a, 0 ( 1 ) c r 0 U • g 0 0 4 0 v 1 N 4 • C . H 0 0 0 C C 0 4 H 7 . 0 0 4 4 • 0 7 H . 6 ) 0 4 1 4 ) C O . 0 • H o U r 1 4 1 C O 0 4 4 1 4 1 .7 I i 4 6 ) K 7 0 0 0 3 r 1 0 3 C O C E C O 0 / 1 . 1 , 4. 4 0 • r 1 E V U 0 k J C 4 0 > 4 , 6 1 4 4 0 0 a N b 4 1 . r 1 C O 0 0 1 • C / k 0 0 4 U 1 0 o l 0 4 4 ) 1 4 4 . 7 X.0 U V C V 4 1 0 3 1 C O H O 0 ) 0

L a 4 1 0 .

4 0

L e E H a 0 0 4 1 e E 0 r . U U C S

4 1 4 1

4

0 . 1 0 0 . 0 4 1

4 6 1 •• 4 - • • • X C N s •

4 C 1 C C

a , I

0

0 0 C 7 0 O 0 E

0 U . 0 O 0 4 / > C O C 0 0 O 0 e i 1 . 4 4 .

4 1

{ 4

CD

0 0 C

04 0 4 0 C 1 U I

C •:/

C O

44

1 4

-• • g c o c r 2 . 0 e l 0 C V . 0 C n • e • 0 14 . N . 0 Z I •1 ▪ . 1 . 4 . I g o. a ) 0 0 a ) • c.0 . 4 2 4 01 . 0 0 0 4 1 0 4 -1 U C O 0 1 4 1 4 . 1 0 0 O 0 O . 0 0 a . E E o o 0-0 C 0 1

S quare 2 ; 2 9.70m - 2 9 .60m .

0.= U.0 4 0 I 1 4 0.0 U C C O 0 1 4 4 •• I c o l c i n c e i 0 0 + 4 + 4 1 . 0 0 0 4 e l C O 4 . ) u x o

B aga 3 265.2 / F igure 2 .

0

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; 2 9.50m - 2 9.40m .

4 . 0 0 - + . 1 › ,

C O 4 4 0 0

0

W 0 0 • C O

0 . 4 U C O 4 4

0 1 L i •• O C O• • • .

E 0( 0

0 )

▪ O Q 2 4 4

O 0 1 . • . 0 4 . 4 41 4 . 4 C O C O X . 0 0 1

t o

0'V C C r i 0 0 7 1 - 0 f . O X L s . 0

• " 1 0 0 • 4 1 4 0

4 0 • 1 . 14 C o

1 4 1 • ▪ o U

. 0 0 4 . 1. 1 • r i 0 > c 4 1 0 0 c , C O 4 1 E U 0 0 C O c o • .

C O ccc , e

• • • 1 7 O U

• 4 . 1

O O 4 . ) O • c ) O 0 • C O 4 1 . 1 e l 0 c o

4 4 ß . 4 j C O a l 0 ▪ E

U N . 0 O 0 ) L i 4 1 C C N

7 O • O D

•

. 0 a ) 0 . 0 0 0 0 1, o o 4 . ) 0

• • e i • C O L i • U • 1 4 0 L r ) 0 ) 0 V D

3 e l 0 1

0

• 1 C O e l 4 .

• 4 . 0 . .11 C O

C O C D . C I. . 0 0 0 ) L i 0

4 . 1 • 0 e l 4 1 3 0 a . 0 4 , L . e l t . ) C l • • 0

• L i C O •

1 1 C O . . 4 1 U c 1 V )

0

U e 4 . 0 4 1 a l c . a l 1 . 0 r 1 0 G s .

• u ) . 1 o 1 . 0 C , 1 a

•

a . ) O • 0 N e l Ö

8 •

0 ‚ I C ,

1 , a . ) c • e r 4 E 0 . , C O . 4 O

E

o c •-) 1 . 1

c u

1 4

4 I ON 4 a )

( . 4

4 ,

. 0 1

" o C • C O C O 4 1 • 1 4 4 0 4 0( 0 0 0 0 . 0 C O e l 1 . 4 4 . 4 . 0 4 ) o • 4 . ) 3 c o 4 . 1 u • c O r 1 • e i 0 0 0 4 1 U 1 0 0 . . • 0 1 4 1 1 4 3 1 0 . . 0 0 0 . E . O 0 O c r • - • 1 . . 1 0 • • • U . 4 0 . 1 . 1 . 0 " I s . . . . 0 00 e 1 0 0 2 S C 3 u-1 o 4 , • 1 : 2 0 0-4 0 4 . 1 X 0 7 . 1 0 0 •• = 0 0 3

r I C 0

0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 . O r % 0 . 1 = . 4 0 1 . 1 0 0 . I 1 . U 0 C 0 . ..

r 4

' 1 . O a . 0 c . 4 0 4 4 • G J U •0 4 . 1 0 r I 4 1 n . 4 C l ) C O e l 0 ) a ) . 0 1 . 4 J 3 0 U . . a ) = = 0 o. .0 4 . 1 . 1 G I 0 0 E C O 3 O 0 • I U e i . 0 4 1 C O O . C O 1 7 . . i O f . .

•• 0 0 L i 1 0 0 0 . 0 U . 0 0

0. 0

E .

0

•E-/ 0 , , • 0 0 e 0 E C O . 1 . 1 . r s . 0 e l 0 / . C O •4 0 0 0 0 . . i x . . 1 O 0 C O 0 U o 1 6 . 1

0 4 1 • 3 C O . 0 • 4 1 C , 0 c 0 I n = 0 4 0 0 n e • . ) 0 0 o 0 . 0 0 1 0 4 , 3 . 0 C O, . . 0 0 0 . I4 . I . • 1 2 1 . C D •7 7 . 5 e , , 0 0 1 ( )CV e , 1. . ., a l c , . c . I 0 4, E E

. ' : ' 2

a )

•

.r 1

. 1 . 0 • O rs 0 E . 0 F . I 4 . 1 0 4 , C • 4

1 . 0 . 1 0 0 0 0 L 4 0 > NC ' . 1 4 0 0.4 . 1 0 1 . e l C O •• 1 . r I 0 0 O l i 0 0 •• e l 0 0• • • 4 . e l / . 1 C,1 t ) 1 . 1 .. . . • 0 ) 0 e l C O 4 1 ä I x 1 0 0 . 1 ••0 1 C O 3 • 0 0 s e 3 . = . 1 0 0 > I

4 0 . 0 c o • ri 0 D I e l 0 U 0 C e l e l ( 0 e l 0 0 U ( 0 ( 0. ,, e i { §

0

" c aI 4 1 0

4 1 C o N , 1 L . 0 . 0

0 4 1 0 O c o E

g I 0 0 .. > L i C O 0 . 0 W 0 0 C O 0 C I ) C I 0 4 1 0 4 4 3 0 1 . 4 • I 0 . . 4 C 0 C . 0 I 1 C O

ve l

1 63

s andstone c ontaining s ilt, f eldspar, c lay-minerals

O 0 • 0 C r 1 C O

0 0

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; S urface - 2 9.90m .

▪

C a

C l .

B aga 4 302.3 / F igure 2 .

E

Ö • E t r 2 4 C O i n 4 0 4 • . c e

4 . 1 4

s urfaces h ave

0 . C O ••

O C O • I •. • C O . 0 • • .

1 ,1 • L . / L . C O

B aga 3 208 / F igure 2 .

▪

0 0

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; S urface - 2 9.90m .

E

E 0 0 t r 1 O 0, L i • • 4 1" 1 : 1

4 0

B aga 4 302.1 / F igure 2 .

I

•

4 E

m anufacturing

4 1

• > .

t he i nner f aces

•• • • E 0 . 4 0 C OI A . 0 0, 0 •c c ,1 1 . 0 • E 4 .. E . 0 0 • C s 4 E 1 4 E e l 0 E • E . 0 i n 4 1 0 0 e l • 3 ••C n

a .

s andstone , w ith s ilt , q uartz, f erric o xide

E

o

S ection I ; S quare 1 ; 2 9.70m - 2 9.60m .

1 ,1 ( 0 0 --4 .

•

B aga 3 215 / F igure 2 .

•

c n g e 3 C O

1 . )

s urface h as s ome h orizontal m anufacturing i ncisions.

• C C O 0• • • • C ' . 4 4 - 0,

0 3

w1 . •0 1 . .•

V I C O a , 1 . k . , 0 . 0 . c .1 > , 0 p H 1 4 .0 C O . K . 0 1 -1

, 1

•

>

4 4

0 0

1 . 0

Es z

0 0

0 2- E

M U a l P 41

H4 0 .0 E. .0 M 4 -, k 4 H I U 3

• 0 o • H 4 -, c o > 3 . 0

1 .

0

00

0

•• 1 . ( 4 ) O .

.0

0 C l / • • I C O 1 4 0 0 C V , 0 : 1 0 0 0 C 0 a l Hi H I .0

U

4 . 1 0

In

-

1 0 . • C I ) C l ) 0 al C O U 0 -4 O 0 I 4 44 O

H I r 4

0 . . HI .0 00 c O 1 . . • •

O c 4 -1 U 4 4 . 1 a / 3 • > . 1 . N P 1 0 .0 VD 4 -, U < L , • -C lc 0 OD 0 7 • , 1 J . 4 7 • 1 C O 0 •• 0 3 , , 3 4 , -0 C 0 4 . C 0 3 . 0 0 . 0 c o , . . . . s .

0 0 0 . )

0 1

O o pi . , . 0 CJ c r ) 7

00

X 0

0 0

Z

O k . C O 7 C r c .n

. . . 0 .

.7 . o 4, u • 0 . 1 I , $ . 4 4 4 4 O o 0

, . ,

, . .

0 0

0 . 1 a l r 1 0 4 0 0 U

e

In CO .4

3 . 0, 0 J 0 ,

. _ . 0 0

4 . 1

a

0 CO vz .

• H •K 4 1 1 . . C D 0

0

1 , c r ) 0 E 1 4 a

0 ) 0 0

O 0 4 . 4 4 1 0 0 . U C O • • . C O .0 . 1 4 , K • H 0 2 4 N H 4 C 0 0 . 0

S e 0 .1

• •

X ,. 0 0, , . . ., -0 0 C O

' '

k p • 0 in 0 C H • 4 /

4 , U . e l u 0 a ) E 1 . ) 3 4 1 C •1 0 E . . U . v : ,

1 . P.

a ) 1 4 .0 0 1 .1 'V 0 3 HI 0 0 Hi 0 C4 u

Z In CO 4

E 0 . 1 C / 3

O l • 1 = 1 4 . C O 0 r I 0 0 0 00 0 0 r i 0 K. ,. r . 1 . 1 E . .

0 1 . ,

0 1 X 0 . 0

0 . . 0 ' )

t ,' M 0 7 : 1 72 . • C 4 1 HI 4 . u c g C O 00 E 1 4 4 1 0 ‚. 0 0 I . 4 • 4 1 3 . 4 f . . I , 3 . 4 0 4 1 0 1 0 4 1 0 •• x , 1 › , 3 0 HI

C D .M 3 c . . . . a . , • 4 1 4 1 00 r 4 1 . > C C O C O 4-1 H-4 c a . f -e . , 0 . . 3 0 .2 0 4 -4 0 i , a . 6 0 U

. 1 0 .0 -0 I 4 4 0 0 0 C i l 0 0 c a . . 0 4 -, k • 7 0 0 C C . . U t . a , c I a ) 0 4 1 4 , .0 U M 64 0 4 I 0 0 0 44 0 op > 4 -, C O 1 4 a •• 0 .0 a ) 0 g . . 0 0 N , 0 › . C • , 1 0 C I ) , I 1 4 .0 0 4 4 1, . 0 0 I 4 .4 = 0 Z 0 3 1 0 .0 . , I 4 , 0 0 . 1 1 r 4 U t 0 i 1 • 0 0 H I 0 0 4 , 0 .. .0 I 7C O 4 , 0 U 4 -1 0 C O 0 C D X 00 0 U 4 4 0 1 . 0 C O V) 4 -1 U 4, 4 1

1 VD •• E . : g« .

e u E

0

0 r • -

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0 1 . 4

O

. C O 4, 0 0 C O 4 1

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4 M 1 1 4 C 0 )

0 0 C " A 1 4 7 I . 4, , 0 40 . 4 H c0

0 4 -1 7 0 • . . 0 CO 1, r • • P 4 • 3 0

0.

0 4 -1 X C . 2

0 HI 1 , . 0 C O 4 -1 c 0 0

0 0

• 0 r N 4 4 4 3 4 0 0 4 4 .0 U C > , : C E 0

7 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 . 0 C O E 4, .c

0

U

0 ••

7 0

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. 0 7 O 0 , 1 3 4 ., 3 .1 L I C ) -O 0 ) I U O 0 0 4 . 4 O I . . O 14 0 3 1 . i I 1 0 0 3 0 0 . 1 O 0

4 1 C 0 r • • . . • U c n C D • . . . • 0 0 10 X • r i 0 0 . 1 9 4 4 E I . • S . 0 0 0 4 1 4 ., r O X O 0 C O O . . 0 5 -4 0 4 -4 H 4 . 0 0-

; • + . 034 )

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um

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41

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” . .. , 0 1 C N I , . . . "

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a l . +

0

c 4 ) 0 0 > • H H " I 4 . ., 7 1 . 1 7 • , I 0 4 1 0 .4 0 0 0 0

0 0.0 0 4 -1 4 1 4 I 1 4 3 0 4 -1 U 0 0 U 1 4 . 1 7 7 4 1

a

2

. 0 H I 4 ) 0 0 N . . 1 1 . 4 0

. a

4 1

4 . 4

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0

• r 4

0 ) 0 • • • 0

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0 1. 0 0 c oII

0

> 4 0 0 0 9 1 0 . r 4 4 4 0 0 $ . .0 4 . 1 7 0 0 J -4 . 0 . 7 7 4 3 4 -4 0 4 4 . 1 0 3 C O 0 0 C O 0 us 0 0 C U O 4 1 1 . 4

0

0

'4 1 . • 'E. s

7 E 0 / C s 1 • 1

9 4 0 4 ) 0 0 N 0 4 1 4 1 1 4 X 0 ( 7 . 3 .0 . 0 • r 4

0 0

4 . 4 1 4 0 . 0 ( 0

> • . •• 7 , • C O 0 * • . . . > 4 . E.

R eddish s andstone, n ot a nalysed.

4 1

. . . 1 . . CV 0 . . . . H

0 0 1 . 1 . 1

0 ' 1 v

.0

S quare 4 95 N / 6 80 E ; L ocus 1 8.

o

4 1 0

B asta 4 068 / F igure 4 .

•

X 0,

0

r,

0 0

.0

1 . a j

E

0

R ed s andstone, n ot a nalysed.

c o

B asta 4 008.2 / F igure 4 .

NO

. 4 4 • 0 r4 0 ,1 O a l -a C E • . 4 . 4 0 0

t he e xterior

( %E

1 0 . . . . . . O D C 0 4 I

C 0 • 4 1 4 -, 0 0 1 4 4 1 '0

• c o C 0 • H C O 1 4 H 7 U 0 . 1 0 . 4 . 0 0 " 4 4 . 4 C O • H 0 0 0 0 0 1 . ) 0 9 1 C O 4 3 4 1 4 . 4 0 9 0 0 4 1 I 4 U 0 4 4 0 • H 0 44 1 . 4 0 4 1 0 0 4 -1 7 7 X 0 E 0 . 4 4 0 r 4 • • . r i 0 . 0 U 4 . 4 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 N 1 . 1 C O . 1 1 0 0 7 N . " . 1 0 > 4 . 5 1 . 0 4 0 9 . 4 4 1 . 7 7 U 4 1 4 . 1 7 . 4 0 4 1 3 1 4 0 0 0 0 4 . 1 0 3 U E 0 0 4 4 C D 4 I U 0 4 0 4 I 0 4 . 4 J 1 C 1 . 0 0 7 W . 1 C 0 0 0

0

r 1 7 4 1 0

7 7 4 -1 0 l e • •• • • • 1

0. . i n

• r t l 1 4 0

E=

1 / -10

0 I.0

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>

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• 4 1 = O C E O 00

W

e 0 ( c ). c o c i . , > 0

. 4 X W T O

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4.

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•

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1 . C V 0 . 0 . • C . 0 0 4 1

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R ed s andstone, n ot a nalysed.

0 0 C O C 4 -, I = I . 0 7 N 4 1 . 1 1 0 1. 0 0 4 . o . 0

S quare 4 95 N / 6 80 E ; L ocus 1 7, L ayer 1 .

C O

0 3 0 C l )

• C O

r 4 1 . 0 . 4 • 4 . 4 0 ) X C D 0 ) 0 4 0 1 . C O ( 0 0 ) 1. 4 4 -4 4 , 0 3 0 0 W O O t ) 0 C O 1 4 4 1 0 3 7 1 4 01 . 1 • 0 ( . 1 0 . 1 4 0 3 0 1 4 1 r i W U > C 0 4 0 • r 4 E

3 0 . 1 4 1 0 • r 4 7 O > 0 . 0 . = 4 .4 4 1 O . 4 4 • e 4 0 3 0 0 3 F . C n . . • C 0 0 O . 1 7 e l = 41 0 1 7 • U 0 1 0 3 4 ) 0 X . . . 0 1 0 E, 1 4 4 4 C 1 3 0 3 • • c o 4 1 • • 4 • • • • •

0

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4 1

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t4 . • r I t ^ 4

,

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. « . ) " c 2 E r . . . ) 4

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71

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B asta 0 011.1 / F igure 4 .

L imestone ( ?), n ot a nalysed.

S quare 4 85 N / 6 80 E ; L ocus 6 .

B asta 1 003.1 / F igure 4 .

. 0 0 W O E . 0 . C ) 1 1 O 0 4 1

r • • • 3 0 ) • . 0 • • I n 4 -1 > • • 1 I > 0 . 0 C E . • O 4 1 r i = 4 , • C 1 U 1 . 6 a l 0 0 0 0 r 1 0 1 7 $4 O U 14 1 0 r 4 0 .0 C I ) 4 , 0 4 1 U 0 ) C O • 0 . U CO .0 4 • r 1 0 ' 3 0 4 W 1 1 • Z 0 . W 0 0 1 • 1 7 4 1 4 1 W T • C O U 4 . r 1 0 1 3 1' , L . . . 4 1 > . E •

. 0 4 -1 4 -1

C C 1 3 1 0 0 •• " e l C V

0 0 ) 0 > 4. 0 . Z

6 1 '

s .0 00CIJ

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T . • • 1 1 4

0

I . W 4 . 4 0 0

. 4 4 4 1 0 4 7 4 . 0 0 C O C .) E

C I 3 4 . 4 0

E

• 4 O n F . • • ,0 4 1 X W •

4 4 4

C O 0 0 • 1 • 4 0 0 r 1 C U 0 = r f 4 1 0 ) 4 1 0 0 U = = r 4 1 1 1 4 7 . 1 4 , C O U e 4

1 3 , •• 0 E i . .

E .

4 0 _ .. 0 4 ,

1 / 1 0 • •

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.0

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4 1 O4-0 0 1 4 1

4 1 4 -1 U O 0 ) I C O C O O 4 O r f O O 0 0 0

.0

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4 0 ) C a . C I . C 0 U 0 3 i 4 4

4 4 , C O = 0 0 ) 0 P . r .

)02 0

t i

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0 r 1 .0

C C O

C 4 a t 1 3 . P . 7

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0 0 4 = 0 • , 4 4 1 C

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s . .• , . C O

0 4 , X P . 3

6 0 4 .

0-1

0 3 0

› / / 1 4 1 . 0 • 0 00 • 4 1 r 3 1 . 1 • 0 3 0

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. , . . , . . 3 .. 0 = 0 0 4

G C e 4

C L 1 • 4 1 C • 1 >

} . 4 r 1 W 0 4 , 4 , X C O 0 N e 1 4 ) 4 4 . 4 0 C .0 U O C O 0 • C 0 4 , 0 3 • , 1 14 4 3, 1 . 1 C D C 3 1

I

r • 4 0 4 , = 0 N 4 1 1 4 > , o 4. 0 r 1 0 7 0 I . 0 0

0

. s .0 0 -

W C • r i 4 . 1

•

X

• • 1

1 69

R ed s andstone , n ot a nalysed.

E 0 . 0 ▪ l / 1 C )

r 4 C D 0 7 4, O . 0 e . 0 • • 1 N .0

S quare 4 90 N / 6 80 E ;

= 7

4 4

B asta 0 011.2 / f igure 4 .

4 • W 1 2 . .N . C C 1 ) PI r l

-0

. 2 .E

0 1 0 . 0 4 .

4 . > 1 . .

4, 1 2 C C 0 0 0 . .

0

0 1 4 C O 7 c r r . / 3

1 : 4 Z C O

E 0 0 4 : , U00C•01• 04co .1.4C00 O c o C

4 . 4

in C Y, , I.

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t ;.g

4 4 0,1

•E

‚ 4

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U • 0 0 4. 0 0 3 ( 0 F . 4 -1 0 . / C C W P. e 4

0 • . 5 4 4 t C O O 0 0 0 4 . . O 4 ,

F . ( 3

4, 0 1 1 4 4 . 1 O X . 0 0 C / 3 0 • 4 . 4 •• 4 4 • • 44

C O

4 , 0 E 1 . • 0 t ii C U 1 4

' V C D C • 4 . 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 • r 1 / . 0 , r 1 4 1 r i C . ) • 0 3 4 1 4 1 0 3 1 0 E

H ard b lackish s andstone , n ot a nalysed.

4 4 • W

0 ) 4 1 C D U 0 3

0 0 C r

4 , , . i e 4 .0 3 0

S quare 4 85 N / 6 85 E ; L ocus 5 .

7 O 3

1 3 4 4 , 7

0 C 4 4

B asta 7 091.

T r i 4 1

W

0 7 0

i ncisions

• •C O 0 ) 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 4 .

S quare 4 90 N / 6 80 E ; L ocus 1 .

••

1 . . 7 •• O C r 1 0 3 7 O 4 •• 4 1 0 . ., • C 1 0 In C a , .. • 0 , 1 O.

F ine g rained r ed s andstone , n ot a nalysed.

4 1 4 1

0

P ale t races o f b lack c oloration o n t he i nner f ace.

• 4 4

B asta 0 025.2.

X Q )

W C

h orizontal

> • ( 4 4

O •

0

. 0 0 4 -1 > C O

▪ • C 0 ' V 4 M I

4 -1 3 1 0 4 1 r 4

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. • 0 X 4 • 1 4 ) 4 • > 1 ) 4 ) • .0 0 X • 0 0 0

O 0 3 00 44

r • • 1

0 0

• 0

s urfaces g round;

w ith e xterior

R ed s andstone, n ot a nalysed.

S quare 5 05 N / 6 85 E ; L ocus 4 .

B asta 3 034.

r1 4 .

>

> •

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1 . 0 r1

o

1 4,

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. 17

ID 0 .0 0 7 0 4 . 1 4 C 0 4 ) 0 U

0

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0 =

0

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•

t Z

C .1.

se.

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▪ • 1 = 1 J . > 04 4 4 1 4 4 7 I . C I 0

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4 3

00

7 I . 00 4.

( 1 )

, -.

E E •

a ,

Crr4 1 1 C O 4 1

r1 T P r l 4 -4

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••

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0

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=

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.

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0' (

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0 . ,

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r 1 3

4

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4 +

I . . 0 I 3 . 4 I . 0 0 1 -1 0 X 0 W . . 4

1 70

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v-1

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L n

03 ,0 0 3 . C O 7

c r. r i )

B oth f ragments b ear t races o f r ed c oloration.

0

1, •

4 -1

P laster-like o r c layish m aterial; n ot a nalysed.

0

I 0 • . 4 • -

B asta 1 052.

O

•

R ed s andstone w ith a v ein o f y ellow f abric o xide, n ot a nalysed.

4 . 4

4 a
s , 0 C d g + 5 ( _ ) H r i $ A

• •

• •

E i c n

1 85

• •

z

• •

T able 2 :

F requency a nd p ercentage o f c ore t ypes f rom a rea C -01

F requency B lade C ores S ingle P latform O pposed P latform 9 0 D egree P latform F ragments F lake C ores I ndeterminate

T otal

T able 3 :

P ercent

2 8 3 1 4 5 4

6 2.2 6 .7 2 .2 8 .9 1.1 8 .9

4 5

1 00.0

F requency a nd p ercentage o f p latform t ypes f lakes f rom a rea C -01

B lades

o f

b lades

F lakes

F requency

P ercent

F requency

P ercent

P lain P unctiform C rushed C ortical D ihedral M ultiple F aceted I ndeterminate

1 2 5 3 2 7 3 1 2 0

1 2.2 5 4.1 2 7.6 3 .1 1 .0 2 .0 0 .0

4 1 2 1 2 1 3 8 6 1

4 0 .6 2 0 .8 2 0 .8 3 .0 7 .9 5 .9 1 .0

T otal

9 8

T able 4 :

a nd

1 00.0

1 01

1 00 .0

F requency a nd p ercentage o f f lake s car p atterns o f b lades a nd f lakes f rom a rea C -01

B lades F requency

F lakes

P ercent

F requency

P ercent

P arallel R adiating

8 8 1 0

8 9.8 1 0 .2

5 3 4 8

5 2.5 4 7.5

T otal

9 8

1 00 .0

1 01

1 00 .0

1 86

T able 5 :

F requency a nd p ercentage o f t ool b lank f rom a rea C -01

F requency

d ebitage

P ercent

B lade O vershot B lade F lake C ore T ablet T rihedral P oint P rimary E lement C ore I ndeterminate D ebitage

1 26 6 2 0 1 1 3 3 2 5

6 8.1 3 .2 1 0.8 . 5 . 5 1 .6 1 .6 1 3.5

T otal

1 85

9 9.8

T able 6 :

F requency C -01

a nd p ercentage o f t ool g roup c ategories f rom

L evel 2

S crapers B urins N otches a nd D enticulate D rills a nd B orers R etouched p ieces M ultiple t ools T runcations L unates T riangle N ongeometrics B acked f ragments V arious

T otal

T able 7 :

c ategories

a rea

L evel 4

F requency

P ercent

F requency

P ercent

7 5 6 0 8 1 2 8 0 4 1 2 2

1 2.7 9 .1 1 0 .9 0 .0 1 4.5 1 .8 3 .6 1 4.5 0 .0 7 .3 2 1.8 3 .6

4 6 2 1 3 9 1 1 3 3 9 2 6 2 1 1

3 .2 4 .8 1 6.7 2 .4 7 .1 . 8 1 0.3 3 1.0 1 .6 4 .8 1 6.7 . 8

5 5

1 00.0

1 26

F requency a nd p ercentage o f t ypes o f b acking o n l unates a rea C -01

F requency

P ercent

H elwan H elwan a nd I nterior S emisteep I nterior A lternate S eries C ombination I ndeterminate

3 1 4 6 2 4 1

6 4.6 8 .3 1 2.5 4 .2 8 .3 2 .1

T otal

4 8

1 00.0

1 87

1 00.0

f rom

T he B eidha a ssemblage c an b e b est u nderstood i n t he c ontext o f a c ontinuous r eduction s equence, a s c ore s ize d ecreases t he p ieces r emoved b ecome s horter b ut n ot a lways n arrower. T he d istribution o f b lade/bladelet v ersus f lake s ize i s p resented i n F igure 5 . T he d istribution i s c ontinuous w ith n o b reak b etween t he t wo d ebitage c ategories. T his i dea o f a c ontinuous r eduction s equence i s f urther s upported b y t he h igh f requency o f p ieces w ith t he d imensions o f f lakes t hat h ave s imilar m orphological f eatures a s b lades/bladelets; p arallel f lake s car p atterns, a nd p unctiform a nd c rushed p latforms. I n o rder t o u nderstand h ow t his a ssemblage i s p roduced, r eliance o n t he s ize d efinition b etween f lakes a nd b lades/bladelets i s n ot r eally u seful. A m ore a ccurate a ssessment o f t he i ndustry i s g ained b y c onsidering b oth s ize d istribution a nd t he n ature o f t he f lake s car p atterns a nd p latforms.

5 .1.4

T ool b lank a nalysis

O ver 8 % o f t he p ieces r emoved f rom c ores w ere r etouched i nto t ools ( Table 1 ). T he p referred b lank f or t he m anufacture o f t ools f alls i n t he s ize c ategory o f b lades/bladelets , c onstituting 6 8% o f t he s ample ( Table 5 ). F lake s ized p ieces r epresent o nly a bout 1 0% o f t he s ample. T ools m ade o n o ther d ebitage c ategories a re i nfrequent.

5 .1.5

M icroburin p roducts

T he m icroburin t echnique i s o ften u sed t o t runcate b ladelets p rior t o t he m anufacture o f b acked p ieces ( Tixier , 1 963: 1 37-145: H enry, 1 974). T he p ercentage o f m icroburin p roducts r ecovered f rom t he 1 983 e xcavations i s q uite h igh , a veraging o ver 6 % o f t he d ebitage ( Table 1 ). M icroburins c onstitute 5 5% o f t he m icroburin p roducts . T rihedral p oints a nd t ypical K rukowski m icroburins o ccur i nfrequently . A nother m icroburin p roduct, a lthough u ndocumented a t o ther N atufian s ites ( and f rom t he p revious e xcavations a t B eidha), o ccurs i n t he 1 983 a ssemblage. I t h as b een p laced i n t he c ategory o f B eidha-Kurkowski m icroburin . I t i s c ommon i n l evel 4 , c onstituting o ver 2 5% o f t he m icroburin p roducts ( Figure 4 : a , b ). T hese p ieces a re g enerally p roximal f ragments r etouched o n t he l eft l ateral e dge. T he r etouch i s p rimarily s emisteep i nterior r etouch w ith a p ositive m icroburin s car a lways o n t he i nterior. T his c onsistent p attern s uggests t hat t his w as a n a lternate w ay o f t runcating b acked b ladelets. T he t runcation a ppears t o h ave b een e xecuted a fter t he b acking h as b egun . S everal i ndices h ave b een u sed t o m easure t he d egree t o w hich m icroburins a re u sed ( Tixier, 1 963 ; H enry, 1 973 ; M arks a nd L arson , 1 977). M arks a nd L arson 's ( 1977: 2 04-205) a djusted m icroburin i ndex m ost a ccurately r eflects t he i ntensity o f t heir u se i n t runcating b ladelets a s i t c ompares t he t otal n umber o f t runcations w ith t he n umber o f m icroburi ,ns. T his i ndex h as b een u sed h ere w ith o nly a s light m odification. T he m icroburin t echnique i s q uite c ommon a t B eidha . T he r eadjusted m icroburin i ndex f or t he l ower a nd u pper l evels o f t he a rea C -01 i s 3 9.8 a nd 2 3.2 r espectively. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he s ample

1 88

• 60 — 4

•

•

•

• 50 —

S •

.

B lades/B lade le ts

-

•

•

•

•

. . / .

•

•

. . .

•

•

•

40 — •

•

•

•

•

S

•

•

•

•

•

• •

^

• •

• •

•

• • •

•

•S •

• •

•

4

•

•

•

• •

• • •

•

•

• •

•

• •

• •

•

• •

• • •

• • •

•

•

• 5 •. •

-

•

•

• •

•

30 —

•

•

•

• •

•

•

• •

•

••

•

•

20 —

•

•

• •

-

•

• •

•

• • • • • • • 0 •

•i •

• •

•

•

1 0 -

•

•

•

•

•

•

F lakes

• • •

•

•

•

• •

•

• •

/

• •

• ./ •

•

• •

• •

•

06 0

•

•

•

•

•

-

0—T 0

r 1 0

I

W IDTH F igure 5

I

20

3 0

I 40

(m m )

L ength w idth d istribution o f b lade v ersus f lake s ize.

s ize f or t he u pper l evel i s q uite l ow . I f t he B eidha-Krukowski m icrob urins w ith t he c onsistent p attern o f f eatures a lready m entioned a re c onsidered i n t he c alculations, t he i ndices i ncrease t o 5 1.0 a nd 2 8.2 r espectively. F or t he e arlier o ccupation t his i ndicates t hat t here a re s lightly m ore m icroburins t han t runcations i n t he a ssemblage. T he l ocation o f m icroburin n otches f rom t he l evel 4 m aterial s hows a d istinct p attern. N otches a re g enerally o n t he p roximal l eft s ide ( over t wo t hirds o f t he s ample), t he m icroburin b eing t he d istal e nd o f t he b ladelet.

5 .2

R etouched p ieces

A lthough t he a ctual n umber o f p ieces r ecovered i s n ot h igh , p articularly f rom l evel 2 , s ome i nteresting t rends a re a pparent ( Table 1 ). I n g eneral, b acked b ladelets c onstitute a bout 5 0% o f t he s ample o f t ools ( Table 6 ). T hese c onsist p rimarily o f g eometrics w ith b acked f ragments , a nd n ongeometric p ieces , o ccurring i n d ecreasing f requencies. T he g eometrics a re a lmost e ntirely l unates , t he h allmark o f t he N atufian ( Figure 4 : c -f). N otched a nd d enticulated p ieces a re a lso v ery c ommon ( Figure 4 : k , 1 ). S crapers ( Figure 4 : g ), b urins ( Figure 4 : j ), r etouched p ieces ( Figure 4 : m ), a nd d rills a re p resent i n l ower f requencies. L unate s ize a nd t he t ype o f r etouch u sed t o m anufacture t hem h ave b een f ound t o b e u seful c hronological i ndicators w ithin t he N atufian ( Garrod, 1 932; B ar Y osef a nd V alla , 1 979). A t B eidha , l unate l ength d ecreases o ver t ime , a lthough t he s ample s ize f rom l evel 2 i s s mall. T he a verage l ength o f c omplete l unates f rom l evel 4 i s 2 3.2mm w hile i n l evel 2 i t o nly a verages 1 8.2mm . H elwan a nd s emisteep i nterior r etouch a re t he p rimary t ypes o f r etouch u sed o n l unates ( Table 7 ). T he l eft l ateral e dge i s c onsistently r etouched m ore o ften t han t he r ight e dge . T he e nds o f e ach l unate a re g enerally r etouched i n a m ore h aphazard m anner , n o d oubt d ictated b y t heir s hape a fter t runcation . T he n egative s car o f am icroburin o r t he p ositive s car o f K rukowski m icrob urins a re o ften v isible. I n l evel 4 t here i s ad istinct p attern t o t he m icroburin s cars. T he d istal e nds h ave s ignificantly h igher p ercentages o f m icroburin s cars o n t he e xterior w hile t he p roximal e nds h ave s ignificantly h igher p ercentages o f p ositive m icroburin s cars o n t he i nterior. T he i nterior m icroburin s cars a re t he r esult o f t runcat ions w hich y ielded t he K rukowski m icroburin b yproduct. A n i deal s eries o f s teps i n t he m anufacture o f l unates c an b e o utlined b y u tilizing i nformation o n t he p atterns o f t he m icroburin t echnique a nd l unate r etouch . I nitially , t he b ladelets w ere t runcated a t t he d istal e nd b y t he m icroburin t echnique. S emisteep i nterior r etouch w as t hen e xecuted o n t he l eft l ateral e dge , p robably s tarting a t t he p roximal e nd. T his e nd w as s ubsequently t runcated c reating a t ype o f K rukowski m icroburin ( which p robably i nvolved u se o f a n a nvil). F inally , s emisteep e xterior r etouch w as u sed t o c reate a f inished b ifacial ( Helwan) b acking. T he e nds w ere t hen f urther m odified, i f n eeded.

1 90

6 .

D iscussion

A s i ndicated, t he r esearch o n t he m aterial r ecovered f rom t he 1 983 s eason, a s w ell a s t he d etailed s tudy o f t he m aterial f rom t he e arlier s easons, i s n ot c omplete. Y et , s ome o bservations c an b e m ade i n l ight o f t he p reliminary r esults.

6 .1

D ating

F ive r adiocarbon s amples h ave b een a nalysed b y t he a ccelerator m ass s pectrometer f acility a t t he U niversity o f p roviding t he f ollowing r esults : A A-1463 A A-1465 A A-1464 A A-1462 A A-1461

C -01-24 l evel C -00-16 l evel C -01-23 l evel ( Hearth 2 ): C -01-24 l evel C -00-16 l evel

4 : 4 : 4 2 : 2 :

t andem A rizona

1 2,910 1 2 2 50 b .p. 1 2,450 1 2 1 70 b .p . 1 2,130 i t 1 90 b .p. 1 0 ,910 ± 5 20 b .p . 8 ,390 ± 3 90 b .p.

T he l ower o ccupation, l evel 4 , c an b e c onfidently d ated t o t he e arly N atufian. T hese d ates a re c lustered a nd c onfirm t he e arly N atufian d ate s uggested b y K irkbride ( 1960 : 1 41) w hich h ad b een b ased e arlier o n c omparative s tylistic g rounds. T he l ength o f t he l unates ( averaging 2 3.2mm) a nd t he h eavy e mphasis o n H elwan r etouch s upport a n e arly N atufian d ate ( Bar Y osef a nd V alla 1 979). T he t wo d ates f rom l evel 2d o n ot o verlap w ith e ach o ther b ut b oth a re l ater t han t hose f rom l evel 4 . I t i s p ossible t hat s ample A A-1461 i s i ntrusive f rom t he N eolithic l evels. T he d ates f rom l evel 4 f it q uite w ell w ith d ates n ow a vailable f or t wo o ther e arly N atufian s ites i n J ordan ; W adi J udayid i n t he R as e n N aqb ( Henry, 1 982) a nd W adi H ammeh 2 7, i n t he J ordan V alley ( Edwards , 1 986). H enry ( 1982: 4 38) h as g one s o f ar a s t o s uggest t hat t he e arly d ates f rom W adi J udayid s how t hat t he N atufian m ay h ave d eveloped i n J ordan a nd n ot o n t he e astern s ide o f t he J ordan V alley. T he d ates d o i ndicate, h owever, t hat t his c ultural c omplex , p articularly i ts c hipped s tone i ndustry , m ay o riginate s lightly e arlier t han h as b een g enerally v iewed ( Bar Y osef, 1 983).

6 .2

C hipped s tone t echnology

A nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone t echnology f rom B eidha r aises s ome b roader q uestions r egarding t he N atufian c omplex. N atufian s ites e ast o f t he J ordan R iver h ave b een c haracterized a s s haring a c ommon c hipped s tone t echnology ( Henry, 1 981; B ar Y osef, 1 983). T he p roduction o f b lades/bladelets f rom m ultiplatform b lade c ores i s a p rominent f eature o f t hese d escriptions . I f s ites e ast o f t he J ordan R iver a re t o b e i ncluded i n t he N atufian, t hen s ome r e-evaluation o f t hese c haracteristics i s n eeded. T he N atufian a t B eidha a s w ell a s o ther s ites i n s outhern J ordan , s uch a s T abaqa ( Byrd a nd R ollefson , 1 984), a re c haracterized b y t he u se o f s ingle p latform b lade c ores. M ultip latform b lade c ores a re i nfrequent . T his p attern a lso o ccurs i n t he N atufian a t M ureybit ( Calley , 1 984).

1 91

I n a ddition , s tudy o f t he B eidha m aterial s uggests t hat a r eliance o n t he s ize d efinition b etween b lades a nd f lakes i s i nadequate f or u nderstanding t he t echnology o f t he i ndustry. T hese c ategories a re n ot d iscrete . A t B eidha t his a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f a c ontinuous r eduction s equence f rom l ong n arrow p ieces , b lades , t o s horter p ieces , b ladelets, t o a f inal s tage w hich i s c haracterized b y s hort a nd w ide p ieces w hich a re o ften o f f lake d imensions. I f t his p attern o ccurs e lsewhere , t he w ide v ariation i n t he r elative f requency o f b lades/ b ladelets v ersus f lakes f rom v arious N atufian s ites a nd t he c haracterizations o f t hese i ndustries a s b lade/bladelet o r f lake d ominant ( Henry, 1 981; B ar Y osef, 1 983; G alley, 1 984 ; V alla , 1 984; O lszewski, 1 984) m ay b e o f l ittle i nterpretive v alue. W hat i s n eeded i s a b etter u nderstanding o f t he r eduction s equences u sed a t t hese s ites. T his r equires d etailed s tudy o f c hipped s tone m orphological f eatures i ncluding s ize d imensions, f lake s car p atterns, p latform t ypes, a nd t he s ize a nd n ature o f a vailable r aw m aterial. G alley 's ( 1984) r esearch o n t he t echnology o f t he M ureybit N atufian i s a n e xample o f r esearch i n t his d irection . F uture s tudies m ust b e d one i n t he c ontext o f m ore r igorous t emporal c ontrol. I t i s p otentially m isleading t o c ontrast N atufian a ssemblages w ithout k nowledge o f t he d ates f or t he o ccupations a s t he c ultural c omplex s pans 2 000 y ears. C omparative a nalysis s hould f ocus o n s ites w hich a re c ontemporaneous ( based o n a bsolute d ates) a s w ell a s a ttempting t o e xamine c hanges o ver t ime . T rends o n l ocal, r egional a nd p an-Levantine l evels w ill u ndoubtedly b e d iscernible. O nly t hen w ill r esearch o n c hipped s tone t echnology b e a ble t o c ontribute t o d etermini ng t he g eographical e xtent o f t he N atufian c ultural c omplex a s d istinct f rom o ther c ontemporary e ntities ( Perrot, 1 985).

1 92

N otes 1 .

T here w as a p reliminary s tatement t hat i n s quare L -4 t he N atufian l ies d irectly b elow t he N eolithic ( Kirkbride, 1 967: 1 1-12) b ut m y r ecent a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone a rtefacts s uggests t his m aterial i s n ot N atufian .

2 .

T he e xcavations c overed f our s quares ; C -00 , C -01, D -00 , D -01.

3 .

T he e xtremely l oose n ature o f t he s andy s ediment a nd t he d istinctive c olour o f t he a rtifacts e nabled d ry s ieving t o w ork q uite w ell a nd t he r ecovery r ate w as p robably c lose t o w et s ieving a nd s orting i n t he l ab.

4 .

R esearch o n t he N atufian c hipped s tone m aterial f rom t he e arlier s easons i s u nderway a nd i s p art o f m y D octoral d issertation ( Byrd 1 987).

5 .

T he s ample c onsisted o ccupation l evels .

6 .

T he b lade a nd f lake c ategories i nclude c omplete p ieces , a nd m icropieces ( less t han l cm i n l ength).

7 .

T he n umber o f t rihedral p oints i s s ubtracted f rom t he n umber o f m icroburins. T his p rovides a s lightly m ore a ccurate a ssessment o f t he u se o f t he m icroburin t echnique a s t rihedral p oints a re b ladelets t runcated b y t he m icroburin t echnique b ut a pparently n ot s elected f or b acking .

o f

1 99 b lades

a nd

f lakes

f rom

p ieces ,

t he

t wo

b roken

A cknowledgements I w ould e specially l ike t o t hank D iana K irkbride-Helbaek f or a llowing m e t he o pportunity t o p articipate i n t he 1 983 f ield s eason a nd t o s tudy t he N atufian c hipped s tone a ssemblage. Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank M ichael F aught a nd M ark B aumler f or c ommenting o n e arlier d rafts . R esearch o n t he N atufian o f B eidha h as b een f unded i n l arge p art b y t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 1 984 - 1 985 S hell F ellowship , a nd w ith a ddition a ssistance f rom t he A lwyn C otton F oundation a nd t he G raduate C ollege o f t he U niversity o f A rizona . I n a ddition , P eder M ortensen a nd t he M oesgaard M useum h ave p rovided c onsiderable a ssistance t o t his r esearch p roject. T he r adiocarbon s amples w ere a nalysed a t t he U niversity o f A rizona 's a ccelerator m ass s pectrometer f acility u nder t he s upervision o f D r. A .J .T . J ull t hrough s upport f rom t he S tate o f A rizona a nd a n N SF g rant ( EAR-8512761) t o D r. P .E . D ammon a nd D r. D .J . D onahue.

1 93

B ibliography A tkinson K . a nd B eaumont P . B otany 2 5: 3 05-311.

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( 1981). T he E pipalaeolithic c omplexes i n t he s outhern I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u 3 89-408 . P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S.

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C auvin J . ( 1978). L es p remiers v illages d e S yrie-Palestine d u I Xemea u V IIeme m illenaire a vant J .-C . C ollection d e l a M aison d e l 'Orient M editerraneen A ncien 4 , S erie A rcheologique 3 . L yon , M aison d e l 'Orient .

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E dwards P .C. ( n .d.). C hapter 1 . T he E pipalaeolithic p eriod. I n A . M cNicoll, J .B . H ennessy, T .F . P otts a nd R .H . S mith ( eds.) P ella i n J ordan 2 : f orthcoming. C anberra , A ustralian N ational G allery. a l-Eisawi D .M . ( 1985). V egetation i n J ordan . I n A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 4 5-58 . L ondon , R outledge a nd K egan P aul.

G arrod D .A .E . ( 1932). An ew M esolithic i ndustry. T he N atufian o f P alestine. J ournal o f t he R oyal A nthropological I nstitute 6 2: 2 57-270 . G arrod D .A .E . ( 1958). T he N atufian c ulture. T he l ife a nd e conomy o f M esolithic p eople i n t he N ear E ast. P roceedings o f t he B ritish A cademy 4 3: 2 11-227.

H enry D .O . ( 1973). T he N atufian o f P alestine. I ts M aterial C ulture a nd E cology. D allas, S outhern M ethodist U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis . H enry D .O . ( 1974). T he u tilization o f t he m icroburin t echnique i n t he L evant. P aleorient 2 .2: 3 89-398 . H enry D .O . ( 1981). A n a nalysis o f s ettlement p atterns a nd a daptive s trategies o f t he N atufian . I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 4 21-432. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R.S. H enry D .O . ( 1982). T he p rehistory o f s outhern J ordan a nd r elationships w ith t he L evant. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 9 : 4 17-444. H enry D .O . ( 1985). A daptive e volution w ithin t he E pipalaeolithic o f t he N ear E ast. A dvances i n W orld A rchaeology 2 : 9 9-160 .

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K irkbride D . ( 1968a). B eidha . E arly N eolithic v illage l ife s outh o f t he D ead S ea. A ntiquity 4 2: 2 63-274. K irkbride D . ( 1968b). B eidha 1 967 . A n i nterim r eport. E xploration Q uarterly 1 00 : 9 0-96. K irkbride D . ( 1984). B eidha 1 983. A n i nterim r eport. D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8: 9 -12.

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M oore A .M .T . ( 1983). T he f irst f armer i n t he L evant. I n T .C . Y oung , P .E .L . S mith a nd P . M ortensen ( eds.) T he H illy F lanks a nd B eyond. S tudies i n A ncient O riental C ivilizations 3 6 : 9 1-112. C hicago , U niversity o f C hicago. M oore A .M .T . ( 1985). T he d evelopment o f N eolithic s ocieties i n t he N ear E ast. A dvances i n W orld A rchaeology 4 : 1 -69. N ew Y ork , A cademic P ress . N euville R . ( 1934). 2 37-259.

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1 97

A

N ew Y ork , R oland P ress.

An ote o n a s mall b ox w ith f lint b lades a nd a rrowheads f rom B eidha a nd i ts i mplications P eder M ortensen

A mong t he P PNB h ouses e xcavated a t B eidha i n 1 965 w as a c luster o f b urnt c ircular p ost h ouses i n l evel V I ( Kirkbride 1 967: 9 -10). T he h eavy r oofs o f t hese h ouses h ad c ollapsed a nd a pparently e xtinguished t he f ire , s o t hat m any o bjects s tanding o n t he f loor w ere p reserved, s ome o f t hem i n am ore o r l ess c arbonized s tate. T he f inds f rom t hese h ouses i ncluded a v ariety o f g rinders , p olishers , a xes, h oes, q uerns, w hetstones , b askets c oated w ith b itumen a nd l ime p laster, a nd a w ooden b owl. O n t he f loor o f o ne o f t he h ouses - n o. X VIII - w ere f ound t he r emains o f a s mall b ox , c ontaining 15 p ieces o f f lint ( Kirkbride 1 967: 1 0 a nd P late V B). T he b ox i tself w as n ot p reserved, b ut i ts o val s hape, 1 2 x9 .4cm i n s ize, w as c learly i ndicated i n t he s oil b y aw hite p owderish s ubstance - t he d issolved m aterial i n w hich t he f lints h ad b een w rapped - s urrounded b y a n i rregular 0 .4 - 1 .0cm t hick l ayer o f d ark s oil , p robably r epresenting d ecayed w ood. F igure 1 s hows a p lan a nd a s ection o f t he b ox ( excavation n o. L 4 18). T he b ox c ontained t wo f ragmentary c ores a nd a s mall f lake, a ll s lightly c rushed a long t he e dges , a nd p erhaps u sed f or r etouching ( Figure 2 ), o ne t ip o f a b lade ( Figure 2 ), 7 0 u nworked b lades i ncluding t hree s econdary c rested b lades ( Figures 2 , 3a nd 4 ), 3 0 b lades s lightly m odified b y r etouch e specially t owards t he p oints ( Figures 5 -6), a nd 1 1 a rrowheads ( Figure 6 ). T he a rrowheads a re a ll o f B eidha t ype A 6-7, t he t wo m ost c ommon t ypes o f a rrowheads f rom t he P PNB s equence a t B eidha ( cf. M ortensen 1 970 : 1 7 F igure 1 4 e -n). Am ajority o f t he b lades a nd a ll t he a rrowheads w ere m ade f rom l ight g reyish t o r ed-brown , s lightly t ranslucent t abular f lint. O nly e ight b lades w ere m ade f rom a d arker b rown f lint o f g ood q uality. T his b ox c ontaining r aw m aterial a s w ell a s h alf f inished a nd f inished a rrowheads, r eflects a s ituation f ound a t m any e arly v illages i n t he N ear E ast: f lint n odules o r l arge p ieces o f t abular f lint w ere b rought t o t he v illage, w here t he r ough t rimming o f c ores a nd t he p roduction o f s uitable b lades a nd f lakes t ook p lace. O ne s mall o bservation w hich p rovides f urther s upport f or t his w as m ade d uring a s urvey o f t he H ulailan V alley i n N orthern L uristan i n 1 973 ( cf. M ortensen 1 979: 3 -8). T he H ulailan , E pipalaeolithic s ites w ere c oncentrated w ithin a n a rea o f a pproximately 8 s q. k m a t t he w estern u pland e nd o f t he v alley. T he c ave s ites w ere s ituated n ear b rooks a nd f resh w ater s prings, a nd t hey h ad a f ine v iew s outh o ver t he p lain . T hree o f t hese w ere s o

1 99

l arge a nd t heir a ssemblages o f f lints s o a bundant a nd v aried t hat t hey m ight t entatively b e i dentified a s s easonal b ase-camps f or a b and o f h unters. T he t hree o pen a ir s ites w ere s ituated a long t he n earby r iver a nd f rom t heir p osition a nd m odest s ize i t s eems l ikely t hat t hey w ere o nly u sed b riefly b y f ishers, o r b y h unters , w aiting f or a nimals t o a ppear a t t he r iver. I n o rder t o g et a n i mpression o f t he r elationship b etween s ettlements a nd a ctivity a reas, w e d ecided a s a n e xperiment t o c ollect a ll s ingle-finds ( i.e. e very w orked p iece o f f lint) f rom a s egment o f t he v alley w hich i ncluded t he f ull r ange o f e nvironments r epresented i n t he v alley . T he i nvestigation o f 3s q. k m i n a h illy a rea s ituated b etween t he c aves a nd s helters a nd t he a lluvial p lain i s o f p articular i nterest i n t his c onnection. T he a rea p roduced h undreds o f s ingle-find f lint a rtefacts w hich c learly r eflected t wo a ctivities : h unting w as t estified b y t he p resence o f s crapers, b urins, m icroliths a nd a f ew b orers , a nd f lint k napping b y t he f inding o f a l arge n umber o f f lake a nd b lade c ores a nd d ebitage. A c lose c orrelation b etween t he s pread o f r aw m aterial ( in t his c ase n odular f lint) a nd w aste f rom f lint k napping w as o bserved , a nd a t t wo l ocations f lint w orking p laces w ere f ound, r epresented b y c ores a nd w aste m aterial l ying i n a c onc entration c overing 2 s q. m a round a l arge s tone. T here w as a d istinct d ifference b etween t he d istribution o f E pipalaeolithic a nd N eolithic a rtefacts i n t his a rea . W ithin t he E pipalaeolithic p eriod t here w as n o o bservable d ifference b etween t he r ange o f t ypes f ound a t c aves a nd o pen a ir s ites , a nd t hose s pread a cross t he l andscape a s s ingle f inds. H owever i n t he c ase o f t he N eolithic, w hilst c ores a nd d ebitage o ccurred a bundantly t ogether w ith o ther f lint a rtefacts a t t he s ettlements , p yramidal b lade c ores a nd d ebitage f rom f lint k napping w ere n ever f ound o utside t he s ettlements, e ven i n a reas w ith m uch n atural f lint. T his p henomenon s eems t o i mply t hat f lint k napping h ad a lready b ecome a s pecialized t ask b y t he p eriod o f t he e arliest N eolithic s ettlements i n H ulailan - n ot n ecessarily i n t he s ense t hat f lint k napping w as o nly c arried o ut b y a f ew s pecialists , b ut m eaning t hat r aw m aterials w ere n ow c arried b ack t o t he s ettlement w here t he p roduction o f b lades a nd t ools t ook p lace p ossibly w ithin t he i ndividual h ouseholds . T his p attern c an b e d etected a t an umber o f e arly v illages i n t he N ear E ast , a nd i t i s p ossibly c haracteristic a lso o f J ordan , a s r epresented h ere i n am oderate s cale b y t he f inding o f t he s mall b ox f rom B eidha , p erhaps m eant t o b e c arried b y am an w ho o ccasionally, w hen h e h ad t he t ime a nd o pportunity, s at d own , o pened h is b ox o f b lades , a nd m ade a f ew a rrowheads! S lightly l ater, s pecialization o n a nother l evel i s e videnced a t B eidha i n t he s o-called c orridor h ouses o f l evels I n t hese h ouses , h eavy b uttresses, s eparating s ix o r e ight s mall r ooms , m ay h ave s upported a n u pper l iving s torey. T he o bjects f ound i n t hese r ooms s uggest t hat t hey w ere w orkshops, u sed f or t he m anufacture o f b one t ools, b eads, h orn o bjects e tc. W ith t hese e xamples I h ave t ried v ery b riefly t o s uggest t hat s edentary l ife, r epresented a t p ermanent N eolithic v illages s uch a s B eidha , m ade i t n ecessary t o b ring t he l ithic a ctivities u nder m ore c ontrol. L ike p lants a nd a nimals, t he f lint m aterials w ere b rought t o t he v illages a nd o ne m ight s ay - p erhaps u sing a s lightly v ulgar

2 00

p hrasing - t hat t he l ithic a ctivities w ere n ow b eing d omesticated. B ringing f ood - i n t he s hape o f s heep a nd g oat a nd e dible g rasses -a nd r aw m aterial, s uch a s f lint, t o t he v illages , c reated a n eed f or h andling a nd m anufacturing w hich s oon l ed t o s pecialized c raftmanship w ithin t he f amilies , a nd l ater o n a nother l evel, w ithin a n a rchaic c lass s tructured s ociety. A t t he s ame t ime , i t l ay t he f oundation f or a c omplicated n etwork o f t rade, w hich s oon r esulted i n t he a ppearance o f an umber o f s pecialized s ites a nd s ettlements. T hat s pecialization o n v arious l evels i s a n i mportant f actor i n t he f ormation o f t he e arliest s ettled c ommunities h as n ever b een d enied. H owever w hen i n t his c ontext Ic all a ttention t o t he r ole o f s pecialization i n t he p rocess o f c hange t hat c haracterizes t he e arliest a gricultural s ocieties i n t he N ear E ast , i t i s i n o rder t o s how t hat t he d omesticat ion o f f lint m ay a lso b e a n i nteresting a nd i mportant v ariable t o b e a ware o f .

B ibliography K irkbride D . ( 1967). B eidha 1 965. A n I nterim r eport. E xploration Q uarterly 9 9: 5 -13.

P alestine

M ortensen P . ( 1970). A p reliminary s tudy o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry f rom B eidha . A cta A rchaeologica 4 1: 1 -54 . M ortensen P . ( 1979). T he H ulailan S urvey. An ote o n t he r elationship b etween a ims a nd m ethods . A kten d es 7 . I ntern . K ongresses f ür i ranische A rchaeologie ( München , S eptember 1 976): 3 -8.

2 01

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F igure I P lan a nd s ection o f ab ox w ith f lints f rom B eidha , h ouse n o . X VIII.

2 02

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F igure 2

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U nretouched b lades o f f lint f rom b ox,

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f ound a t B eidha V I.

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F lint b lades s lightly m odified b y r etouch, B eidha V I.

2 06

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F lint b lades s lightly m odified b y r etouch f rom b ox f ound a t B eidha V I. 2 07

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E xcavations a t M iddle, U pper a nd E pipalaeolithic S ites i n t he W adi H asa , w est-central J ordan G eoffrey C lark, J ohn L indly, M arcia D onaldson, A ndrew G arrard, N ancy C oinman , J oseph S chuldenrein, S uzanne F ish , D eborah O lszewski

1 .

I ntroduction

T his e ssay i s a p reliminary r eport o n t he r esults o f t he W adi H asa P aleolithic P roject ( WHPP), c onducted a t t he e astern e nd o f t he w adi b etween S eptember 1 a nd N ovember 1 2, 1 984. T he p roject w as d esigned t o t est b y e xcavation s ites o riginally d iscovered b y B urton M acDonald's W adi H asa S urvey ( WHS), w hich t ook p lace b etween 1 979 a nd 1 983 ( MacDonald e t a l. 1 980 , 1 982, 1 983). T he i mmediate o bjectives o f t he W HPP w ere t o e xamine t he p otentially m ost i nformative W HS s ites r anging i n t ime f rom t he M iddle t o t he E pipaleolithic i n o rder ( 1) t o a cquire a dequate s amples o f l ithic a ssemblages, ( 2) t o r ecover f aunal, f loral a nd o ther k inds o f p aleoenvironmental i nformation, ( 3) t o u ndertake a g eomorphological s tudy o f t he e ast H asa d rainage, ( 4) e stablish t he b eginnings o f a r adiocarbon c hronology f or w est-central J ordan, a nd ( 5) m ap t he e xtent o f P leistocene L ake H asa, w ith w hich m ost o f t he a rchaeological s ites a re a ssociated. B roader, l ong-term g oals i nclude a n e valuation o f A nthony M arks' ( 1976a, 1 977, 1 983a) m odel f or p aleoe nvironmental c hange a nd h uman a daptation i n t he c entral N egev h ighl ands, l ocated s ome 1 00-120km s outhwest o f t he s tudy a rea ( for a c omplete d iscussion o f t he W HPP r esearch d esign a nd i ts o bjectives, s ee C lark 1 984). S ix s ites w ere t ested. A ll b ut o ne ( WHS S ite 6 21) h ad b uried, s tratified i n s itu d eposits ( Figures 1 , 2 ). ( G .C.)

2 .

G eologic a nd G eomorphic s etting

T he g eological s etting o f W adi H asa h as b een e stablished a s a r esult o f t wo p rincipal p rocesses: l ong-term t ectonism , o r s tructural d eformation, a nd s horter t erm ( i.e. Q uaternary) f luvial a nd l imnic a ctivity. T he a rchaeological s ite s urfaces, w hich s pan a p eriod o f c a. 7 0,000 y ears, c orrespond t o v arious l akeshore a nd f loodplain e nvironm ents l inked d irectly t o l ate Q uaternary c limatic c hanges. S till, s ubsurface m ovements h ave a ffected b ase l evels a nd t herefore s edimentat ion p atterns, t o a s ignificant d egree. W hile t he m agnitude o f t hese c hanges i s d ifficult t o g auge, t he H asa d rainage e mpties d irectly i nto t he D ead S ea R ift, t he l argest f ault s ystem i n t he M iddle E ast. E levations d rop f rom a m aximum o f 1 300m e ast o f t he f ault t o 300m t o t he w est. T he f ault i s l ocated j ust e ast o f S afi, s ome 5 0km n orthn orthwest o f t he s tudy a rea. D owndropping o f t he f ault m ay h ave b egun

2 09

l acustrine s e a sona l mud f i a t s MA I 1ATTAT E L TURE IF IRA 1 ABANDO

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f au l t ( and p robab le b reach p o in t ) I.

F igure 2 D etail o f t he n orthwest e nd o f t he l ake s howing t he l ocations o f W HS S ites 6 18 , 6 21, 6 23X , 7 84X , 1 065 a nd 1 067. L ake m argin p lotted a t + 825m ; i t a ctually l ies a t a bout + 815m ( from C lark 1 984 : 2 42).

211

a s e arly a s E ocene t imes ( ca . 6 0 m illion y ears a go) ( Bender 1 974), b ut s ubsequent a nd p rotracted e pisodes o f f aulting h ave b een d ocumented o n m ore r egional s cales. T he W adi H asa F ault i s l ocated s everal k ilom eters n orth o f s ite 7 84X a nd w as r esponsible f or t he d iversion o f d rainage f low f rom n orth t o w est i nto t he R ift ( see F igure 2 ). T he 1 984 f ield i nvestigations d id n ot d ocument a ny d eformation s tructures i n t he P leistocene s ediments a t t he p rehistoric s ites , b ut l ocalized t ectonism i s n oted f or t he R ift s ystem w ell i nto h istoric t imes ( Karcz e t a l. 1 977, A rieh 1 967). T he s tudy a rea i s s ituated o n t he w est s ide o f a p hysiographic p rovince k nown a s t he M ountain R idge a nd N orthern H ighlands ( Bender 1 974). R egionally t he b edrock s equence c onsists o f b asement U pper P reC ambrian t o U pper C retaceous s andstones, l imestones, b asalts, a nd u nconsolidated ( largely T ertiary) s ediments. T he b asalts a nd u nconsolidated s ediments h ave a v ery p atchy d istribution a long t he w adi f lanks ( Donahue a nd B eynon n .d.). I n t he v icinity o f t he m ain a rchaeol ogical s ites, a M esozoic b edrock s equence i s m ost p rominent a nd c onsists o f ab asal w hite s andstone o verlain b y a s eries o f m arine l imestones a nd p hosphorites. T he l imestones w ere a s ignificant p reh istoric r esource s ince t hey c ontain s ignificant q uantities o f f lint. I t i s t he l ate Q uaternary s ediments , w hich a re m ost v isible , t hat h ave i nfilled t he d epressions f ormed b y r epeated f ault a nd r elated m ovements. A t p resent i t i s t hought t hat P leistocene L ake H asa e merged a s a s elf-contained b asin t hat r eached a m aximum e levation o f + 815m ( Clark 1 984). E vidence c onsists o f a s eries o f l acustrine m arls a nd i nterdigitated f luvial s ediments t hat a re o ffset b y e xtensive t erraces a nd b enches a cross t he p roject a rea ( Plate 1 ). T he m arls a t W adi H asa a re q uite d istinctive a nd c ontain t wo p rincipal f acies. T he f irst i s a n a lternating m assive a nd b locky t o l aminar s andy s ilt t hat o ccurs a t l ower e levations ( 3cm ) D eb r i s

3 7 3 77 7 27 2 47 9 4 8 0 177 1 420

0 . 9 9 . 1 1 7 .5 5 . 9 2 . 3 1 . 9 2 8 .3 3 4 .2

T o ta l

4 159

1 00 .1

T ype G roup

( 1 )f l ake o rb l ade w i th c o r tex ( 2 )i n c lude s" Leva l lo i sb l ade s " ( s ee J e l inek [ 1 982 :75 ] , C ope land [ 1 983 ] f o r ad i scu s s ion o fp rob lem sr e la ted t ot h ed ef in i t ion o fL evalo i s b l ade s ( 3 )f l ake s +p o in t s

TABLE 1 0 S ITE 6 34 : CORE F REQUENC IES T ype

N

%

% TG

L evalo i s f l ake p o in t

2 4

5 . 4 1 0 .8

1 6 .2

S ing le P la t fo rm f l ake b l a de m ixed

7 1 5

1 8 .9 2 . 7 1 3 .5

3 5 .1

O ppo sed P la t fo rm f l ake b l ade m ixed

6 3 9

1 6 .2 8 . 1 2 4 .3

4 8 .7

9 9 .9

1 00 .0

T o ta lI d en t .C o r e s

3 7

U n id . C o r eF rag s .

5 6

2 31

TABLE 1 S ITE 6 34 : RETOUCHED TOOL F REQUENCIES N o .T ype

R ea lL i s t N umbe r

1 .T yp ica lL eva l lo i sF l ake 2 .A typ ica lL evalo i sF l ake 3 .L evalo i sP o in t 4 .R e touched L evalo i sP o in t 5 .P seudo -Leva l lo i sP o in t 3 1 .A typ ica lE nd S c r ape r 3 2 .B u r in 3 4 .P er fo ra to r 3 8 .N a t u r a l ly B a cked K n i f e 4 0 .T run ca ted F l ak e sa nd B lade s 4 2 . N o tch 4 3 .D en t icu la te 4 4 .A l t e rna te F l aked T ip 6 2 .M i scelaneou s TOTAL

2 3 5 5 6 1 5 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 4 7 2 1 6 1 7 3

2 32

% 1 . 1 2 0 .2 3 2 .4 0 . 6 2 . 9 0 . 6 6 . 4 0 . 6 1 .6 1 . 2 8 . 1 4 . 0 1 . 2 9 . 2 1 00 .1

E s sen t ia lL i s t N umbe r %

1 5 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 4 7 2 1 6 8 0

1 . 2 6 . 3 1 . 2 1 3 .8 1 . 2 2 5 .0 2 . 5 1 7 .6 8 . 8 2 . 5 2 0 .0 1 00 .1

TABLE 1 2 COMPAR ISON OF TYPOLOG ICAL I ND ICES F ROM 6 34 WITH P ROPOSED EARLY TABUN D TYPE I NDUSTR IES S i te

I L ty

I Re

H e

f i l e

We

6 34 T abun I X( 1 ) R o sh E in Mo r( 1 ) N aha lA qev 3( 1 )

5 4 .3 6 2 .2 6 0 .6 4 7 .1

0 . 0 3 6 .1 8 . 6 1 2 .8

6 . 3 4 3 .4 1 0 .8 1 3 .1

1 6 .3 1 9 .3 3 0 .4 2 0 .3

8 . 8 3 . 2 1 4 .3 9 . 2

( 1 )f r om J el inek 1 982 :72 ,T ab le XV

TABLE 1 3 CO MPAR ISON OF TYPOLOG ICAL I ND ICES F ROM 6 34 WITH P ROPOSED LATE TABUN D TYPE I NDUSTRIES S i te

I L ty

I Re

H e

i f i e

We

6 34 T o rS ab iha L aye r C( 1 ) B oke rT a ch t i tL eve l 1( 2 )

5 4 .3 3 9 .3 4 7 .0

0 . 0 6 . 2 2 . 1

6 . 3 6 . 2 2 . 1

1 6 .3 9 . 2 4 2 .5

8 . 8 1 2 .3 6 . 4

( 1 )c a lcu la ted f r om H en ry 1 982 :424 ,T ab le 3 ( 2 )c a lcu la ted f r om Ma rk sa nd K au fm an 1 983 :80 ,T ab le 5 . 9

TABLE 1 4 T ECHNOLOG ICAL I ND ICES AT 6 34 AND OTHER S ITES I L

I F

I F s

I l am

7 . 0 5 6 .3 1 4 .6 8 . 7 9 . 6 4 . 5

6 4 .7 6 1 .4 5 4 .6 5 7 .4 4 1 .2 2 8 .2

3 4 .2 4 8 .4 3 4 .7 4 3 .1

4 1 .8 7 6 .2 1 9 .5 2 5 .3 3 6 .9 1 3 .1

S i te 6 34 T abun U n i tI X( 1 ) R o sh E in Mo r( 1 ) N aha lA qev L .3 ( 1 ) T o rS ab iha ( 2 ) F a r 'ah I ( 3 )

( 1 )f r om J el inek 1 982 :72 ,T ab le XV ( 2 )f r om H en ry 1 982 :424 ( 3 )f r om G i lead 1 980 :56 ,T ab le 2

2 33

1 4 .5

3 .2.1c

T ypological C haracteristics - C omparisons

T able 1 2 c ompares t he t ypological L evallois i ndex ( ILty), r estricted s craper i ndex ( IRe), M ousterian ( IIe), U pper P aleolithic ( Tile) a nd D enticulate ( IVe) i ndices f rom 6 34 w ith t hose f rom T abun U nit I X , R osh E in M or a nd N ahal A qev. S ite 6 34 h as a f airly h igh L evallois i ndex ( 54.3) w hich c ompares w ell w ith t he i ndices f rom t he o ther t hree s ites. T he r estricted s craper i ndex a t 6 34 i s z ero a nd i s t hus v ery d ifferent f rom t he o ther s ites , b ut i t i s e vident t hat t here i s a l ot o f v ariability a mong T abun D a ssemblages . T he M ousterian i ndex i s e ffectively z ero a nd s erves t o u nderscore t he c omplete l ack o f ' Mousterian ' t ool t ypes a t 6 34 . T his l ast i s t he m ajor d iscrepancy b etween t he 6 34 t ypological i ndices a nd t hose f rom s ites c onsidered t o h ave e arly T abun D t ype i ndustries . H owever, t here a re s ites t hat a re a rgued t o h ave l ate T abun D t ype a ssemblages s uch a s T or S abiha , L ayer C ( Henry 1 982: 4 25) a nd B oker T achtit, L evel 1 ( Hietala a nd M arks 1 981: 3 07) t hat a ppear t o s how m ore o f ac orrespondance w ith t he 6 34 t ypological i ndices ( Table 1 3). T here a re f ew ' late ' T abun D t ype s ites r ecorded a s y et, a nd t he ' lateness ' o f T or S abiha i s b ased s olely o n p aleoenvironmental e vidence . T he c omparison o f t ypological i ndices f rom 6 34 w ith t hose o f b oth ' early ' a nd ' late' T abun D t ype a ssemblages c learly i ndicates t hat 6 34 i s ' Tabun D l ike.' H owever , i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he c hronological p osition o f t he s ite b y t ypol ogical a nalyses a lone. T echnological i ndices w ere a lso e xamined ( Table 1 4).

3 .2.1d

T echnological C haracteristics - C omparisons

S ite 6 34 h as a L evallois i ndex ( IL - 7 .0) s imilar t o t hose o f N ahal A qev ( 8.7), T or S abiha ( 9.6) a nd F ar 'ah I I ( 4.5). R osh E in M or h as t he h ighest L evallois i ndex o f t he s outhern s ites ( 14.6) a nd T abun av ery h igh i ndex ( 56.3) i n c omparison t o a ll t he s ites. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat t he T abun i ndex c ontains n ot o nly L evallois p oints a nd f lakes b ut a lso p rismatic b lades . I f p rismatic b lades a re i ncluded i n t he 6 34 i ndex , i t i ncreases t o 2 5.2. T he 6 34 f aceting i ndex ( IF - 6 4 .7) i s a bsolutely h igh c ompared t o t he o ther s ites ( esp. F ar 'ah I I - 2 8.2), b ut i s o verall q uite s imilar t o t he v alues f or T abun ( 61.4), R osh E in M or ( 54.6) a nd N ahal A qev ( 57.4). T he r estricted f aceting i ndex ( IFs) i s r ather l ow a t a ll t he s ites ( and v ery l ow a t F ar 'ah), r eflecting a h igh p roportion o f d ihedral ( as o pposed t o m ultiple f aceted) p latforms. T he b lade i ndex o r ' laminar t endency ' ( Ilam) a t 6 34 i s h igher t han a ny o f t he s outhern s ites ( 41.8) b ut m uch l ower t han t hat o f T abun I X ( 76.2) ( Table 1 3). O verall, 6 34 r esembles t he s outhern s ites w ith r espect t o i ts L evallois i ndex, i s o ne o f ab lock o f f our s ites ( Tabun, R osh E in M or, N ahal A qev) w ith s imilar f aceting i ndices , i s c losest t o R osh E in M or i n i ts I Fs , a nd ( along w ith T or S abiha) f alls i n b etween T abun a nd t he r est o f t he s ites i n r egard t o l aminar t endency. A lthough t here i s o bviously a g reat d eal o f v ariability i n t hese M ousterian c ollections, t he t echnol ogical i ndices r einforce t he t ypological o nes, a nd a gain s uggest t hat 6 34 h as f eatures t hat a lign i t s trongly w ith T abun D o r P hase 1 M ousterian s ites.

2 34

3 .2.2

P reliminary P ollen D ata

T he p reliminary p ollen i dentifications f rom 6 34 s uggest t hat h uman u se/occupation o f t he s ite c oincided w ith a c ool, d ry i nterval c haracterised m ainly b y A rtemisia ( 16-20%) a nd C henopodiaceae ( 40-50%). N o a rboreal p ollen h as b een i dentified s o f ar. T he a bsence o f t rees ( riparian s pecies a t l east w ould h ave b een e xpected g iven t he p roximity o f t he s ite t o t he W adi A li) a nd t he c henopodia/Artemisia d ominated N AP f raction p oint t o m ore x eric c onditions t han w ould h ave b een e xpected i f t he s ite p ertained t o t he 9 0-60000 B P i nterval, a s pan r egarded b y M arks ( 1981, 1 983b) a s o ptimal f or h uman h abitation o f t he n earby c entral N egev h ighlands. T his i n t urn i mplies t hat t he s ite i s ' late ' ( i.e., p robably f alls i n t he 6 0-50000 B P i nterval, w hen m ore x eric c onditions p revailed o ver m uch o f t he s outhern L evant).

3 .2.3

F aunal R emains

T he 6 34 f auna i s d ominated b y e quids ( Equus h emionus/asinus, E quus i ndet.), b ut g oat o r i bex ( Capra s p . i ndet.) a nd g azelle ( Gazella s p• i ndet.) a re a lso p resent. G azelle a nd e quids ( three s pecies) a re i ndicators o r s teppe o r s ubdesert e nvironments a nd a re t hus c onsistent w ith t he p ollen d ata . T hey i ndicate c ool, s teppic o r s ubdesertic c ond itions d uring t he d eposition o f t he l ithic a ssemblage a t 6 34. s p•

S ite 6 34 i s t he s ubject o f al onger e ssay f rom w hich t his b rief r eport h as b een a bstracted. F or m ore c omplete i nformation , i ncluding m etrical a nalyses o f t he l ithic a ssemblage a nd a c omparison o f t he 6 34 p aleoenvironmental d ata w ith t hose f rom t he c entral N egev h ighlands, t he r eader i s r eferred t o L indly e t a l. ( n .d.). ( J .L ., C .C.)

4 .

U pper P aleolithic S ites

4 .1

W HS S ite 6 18

S ite 6 18 i s a n e normous s catter o f a rtefacts w hich i s d istributed a cross a nd i s e roding o ut o f a s eries o f m arl f ingers a t t he n orthwest e nd o f L ake H asa . I t l ies a t a n e levation o f c a . 8 00-815m , a nd i ntersects t he h ighest s till s tand l evel o f t he l ake, w hich w as c learly i n e xistencq d uring t he t ime o f o ccupation . T he s ite, w hich c overs a bout 1 2000m', f orms a t runcated a rc w hich e xtends f rom a b edrock o utc rop a bout 1 05m i n a n E /W d irection , a nd a bout 1 10m N /S. A rtefact d ensities a re l owest i n t he w estern q uadrants o f t he s ite, a nd h ighest i n t he e ast. T here i s ar adiocarbon-dated f ossil s pring l ocated i n t he s outh-central p art o f t he s ite t hat w as a ctive a t l east d uring t he l ater p hases o f o ccupation ( Figure 8 ).

4 .1.1

S urface C ollection

T he s ite w as s ampled u sing a s tratified s ystematic d esign t hat p roduced a r epresentative c ollection c onstituting c a . 3 .3% o f t he s urface a rray. D efining t he s ite a rea a s 1 04m ( E/W) x 1 09m ( N/S), w e

2 35

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2 36

E — i a )

e stablished 2 0 1 m w ide E /W t ransects w hich w ere d ivided i nto 1 0m l ong u nits. W ithin e ach 1 0m u nit, t wo l m u nits w ere s elected f or c ollection u sing a t able o f r andom n umbers. T his p roduced 2 0 s amples p er t ransect a nd a t otal o f 4 00 s amples f or t he s ite s urface . T he s mall s ampling f raction ( 3.3%) w as n ecessitated b y t he s heer s ize o f t he s ite , a nd b y d emands o n t ime a nd t he w orkforce a vailable f or c ollection. T he e stimated n umber o f a rtefacts o n t he s ite s urface i s a bout 3 00000 ( 290424).

4 .1.1a

C ore a nd D ebitage C haracteristics

T he s urface c ollection y ielded s ome 9 584 l ithic a rtefacts o f w hich 8 377 ( 87.4%) c onsisted o f d ebitage a nd p rimary e lements ( Table 1 5). 1 T here a re a lmost e qual f requencies o f b lades ( 33.7%) a nd f lakes ( 32.9%), a s ubstantial n umber o f c ores a nd c ore f ragments ( 6.8%), a nd c ore r enewal f lakes ( 2.1%). T he h igh i ncidence o f p rimary e lements a nd s hatter ( 23.1%) c learly i ndicates a s ubstantial a mount o f i n s itu t ool p reparation a nd r eworking i n w hat i s p robably t he r emains o f a l arge ( or s eries o f l arge) b asecamps. T hat S ite 6 18 i s a s ustained l ocus o f h uman o ccupation i s b orne o ut b y ah igh f requency a nd d iversity o f r etouched p ieces ( 13%), a nd b y s tratified m idden d eposits.

4 .1.1b

R etouched P ieces

T he r etouched p ieces n umber 1 207 ( 12.6%) w hich i s ah igh p roport ion o f a n U pper P aleolithic a ssemblage ( normally r etouched p ieces a ccount f or l ess t han 5 %). T his i n i tself l ends s upport t o t he n otion o f a b asecamp s ince a h igh p roportion o f r etouched p ieces w ould p robably i ndicate a w ide r ange o f p rocessing a nd m aintenance a ctivities. C onversely, a n arrow r ange o f t ools a nd a r edundant s pectrum o f t ool t ypes w ould s uggest r edundancy i n s ite f unction a nd a r estricted s pectrum o f a ctivity t ypes ( Clark a nd L erner 1 983). T he r etouched t ool c omponent i s s ummarized i n T able 1 6. T he t ools a re g enerally m ade o n l arge, w ell-executed b lades , w hich i s p erhaps s ignificant i n t erms o f t he n ormative c ulture-stratigraphic u nit a ssignment o f t he s ite ( see b elow). E ndscrapers a nd b urins a re b oth r epresented b y a w ide r ange o f m orphological t ypes , a nd a re i n p roportional e quilibrium ( 12.6%, 1 2.7%). T here a re f ew r etouched b ladelets ( 1.4%), w hich p robably i s a r eliable d atum i n v iew o f t heir r elative s carcity i n t he e xcavated s ample. A s i s u sually t he c ase, t he r etouched t ools a re d ominated s tatistically b y c asually-made c ont inuously r etouched p ieces ( CRPs) ( 35.6%) a nd b y n otches a nd d enticulates ( 17.3%). T here i s a s ubstantial n umber o f t runcated e lements ( 9.9%). T here a re n o t anged e lements, l unates o r o ther g eometrics f rom t he s urface c ollection , a nd o nly a v ery s mall, l acklustre h eavy d uty t ool c omponent ( 0 .6%). T o t he e xtent t hat s uch t hings a re d iagnostic , t here a re a f ew A urignacian b lades , b acked b lades a nd s idescrapers ( including o ne K 'sar A kil s craper). I t w ould b e n aive t o a rgue t hat t he s urface a rray i s i n s itu i n a ny a bsolute s ense. H owever, i t l ies a top b uried d eposits o ver m ost o f t he s ite a rea , a nd t he c haracteristics o f t he s urface a rray w ere u sed s uccessfully t o i ndicate t he p lacement o f e xcavation u nits.

2 37

TABLE 1 5 S ITE 6 18 : SURFACE -DEB ITAGE AND CORE FREQUENCIES T ype G roup

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2 76

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i ndividual o ver a bout 3 0 m inutes o f t ime. E xcept f or S ite 6 34, a M ousterian r ockshelter i n t he W adi A li , t he s ites w ere a ll f ound o n f ormer s horelines o f P leistocene L ake H asa , a t a bout 8 20m a bove s ea l evel. W hile i t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat L ake H asa f luctuated i n s ize, a nd i n t he e levation o f i ts s urface w aters i n r esponse t o m acroclimatic c hange o ver t he 5 0000 y ear s pan d ocumented b y t he a rchaeological r emains, w e c annot p recisely i dentify t hose c hanges y et , a lthough w e h ope t o b e a ble t o d o s o i n t he n ear f uture .

8 .1

E nvironments P ast a nd P resent

T he e astern e nd o f t he W adi H asa i s c haracterized t oday b y I ranoT uranian v egetation a nd m ean a nnual p recipitation o f t he o rder o f 5 01 00mm ( Willimott e t a l. 1 964). T he p ollen a nd s ediments b oth p oint t o m ore m esic c onditions t han t hose o f t he p resent, b ut t here i s c ons iderable e vidence f or v ariation i n t he m oisture r egimen . P robably t he m ost m esic s ites a re 6 34 ( where t he p ollen r ecord i s p oor) a nd 1 065. S ite 6 34 ( 'Ain D ifla) i s o n t he o rder o f 5 0-60000 y ears o ld, a nd i nterpretation o f i ts p aleoenvironmental r ecord i s c omplicated b y i ts r iparian c ontext. O ccupation t here w as p robably a ssociated w ith a r elatively b road f lood p lain a s m uch a s 5 -6m h igher t han t hat o f t he p resent w adi b ed. I t i s v ery l ikely t hat t he W adi A ll c ontained a p ermanent w atercourse a t t hat t ime . T he p resence o f t wo s trong s prings w ithin 5 00m o f t he c ave i nsures a r eliable y ear-round w ater s upply e ven u nder p resent x eric c onditions. P ollen i ndicates t hat t he b edrock p lateau i nto w hich t he c ave i s c ut w as c overed b y av eneer o f r ocky s oil t hick e nough t o h ave s upported a g rassy s teppe a nd a r ich u ngulate f auna. T he o ther s ite w ith i ndications o f ( exceptionally) m esic c ond itions i s 1 065 , w ell d ated t o c a . 1 6250 B P . T his w as a n i nterval m arked b y as eries o f m ore h umid o scillations a ccording t o w ork i n n orthern P alestine a nd t he N egev ( Horowitz 1 979 , G oldberg 1 981). T his r elatively h umid p hase s eems t o b e i ndicated h ere a s w ell, a lthough t he p roximity o f t he l ake m ight c onfound i nterpretations o f t he l ocal p aleoenvironment. W hereas M editerranean p hytogeographic z ones e xpanded s outh a nd e astward a t t his t ime a long t he c oast, t his e pisode o f m oderate c limatic a melioration e vidently d id n ot l ead t o t he e stablishm ent o f f ully d eveloped M editerranean f loras i n t he e astern H asa. T he r emaining s ites a ll s eem t o b e a ssociated w ith r elatively x eric s teppe c onditions , b ut s ince t hey a re c lose t o t he l akeshore, t he l ocal m icroenvironments w ere w etter t han w ould h ave b een t he c ase o therwise. T here i s a t ufa f ormation i ndicative o f a s trong a nd l ongl ived s pring a t S ite 6 18 , w hich c ould a ccount f or t he l engthy r eoccupat ion o f t hat l ocality. T he H asa p aleoenvironmental e vidence s tops s hort o f d ocumenting t he e arly M ousterian ' paradise ' o f H orowitz ( 1979) a nd M arks ( 1983) b ut t he g eneral d rying t rend s een d uring t he l ater M ousterian a nd t he U pper P aleolithic s eems t o b e r easonably w ell e stablished. I t i s c lear, t hough , t hat n othing i n t he p ollen r ecord i ndicates c onditions a s x eric a s t hose o f t he p resent.

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8 .2

S ite F unctional T ypes

I n f unctional t erms, t he s ites r epresent a r ange o f a ctivity s ets r elated t o h unting a nd f ood c ollection , p rimary r eduction , t he p rocessi ng o f k ills a nd t he m aintenance o f h unting a nd o ther k inds o f g ear. T he a real e xtent o f t he s ite , s ize a nd d iversity o f t he 6 21 l ithic a ssemblage s uggest a b asecamp ( or , m ore l ikely , a s eries o f b asecamps), e ven t hough i t i s aM iddle P aleolithic s ite. M ousterian S ite 6 34 , w ith i ts m onotonous, r estricted i nventory , p robably r epresents a s eries o f s mall, f unctionally-similar c ampsites w here e arly H omo s apiens f abricated b lanks a nd p oints ( there a re a lmost n o r etouched p ieces). S mall, i nformal h earths a nd f ire l enses s uggest p eriodic, e phemeral o ccupation b y s mall h unting p arties . A s ubstantial q uantity o f b one, a nd t he a bsence o f t he b ones o f p redators , i ndicates a h uman c omponent i n t he a ccumulation o f t he a rchaeofauna . A hmarian S ite 6 23X i s t he o nly s ite w hose f unctional a ssignment i s a bsolutely u nambiguous - a n U pper P aleolithic k napping s tation o ccupied ' b y o ne o r t wo h ominids f or l ess t han a n h our. T he l ocation o f S ite 7 84X , o n t he f lank o f t he o nly p ossible N W/SE g ame m igration r oute i n t he a rea , s trongly s uggests t hat o ne o f t he s ite f unctions t here w as t hat o f a g ame l ookout. T he a ccumulation o f m idden d ebris , t he l arge g azelle-dominated f auna , a nd d iverse l ithic a ssemblage a lso i ndicate t hat t he l ocus s erved a s a s eries o f h unting c amps, p erhaps u tilized b y p ortions o f t he s ocial e ntity r epresented b y t he n earlyc ontemporaneous b asecamps a t 6 18 . W hether 7 84X w as i tself a b asecamp s eems d oubtful, s ince t he l iving a rea u nder t he r ockshelter o verhang w ould h ave b een t oo r estricted t o h ave a ccommodated l arge n umbers o f p eople. S ites 6 18 a nd 1 065 w ere p robably b oth b asecamps, a lthough s eparated i n t ime b y a s m uch a s 1 0000 y ears . T he s mall K ebaran c omp onent a ssociated w ith t he s pring a t 6 18 p robably r eflects c ontinued, c asual, i ntermittent v isits t o t he s pring b y E pipaleolithic f oragers d uring a t ime l ate i n t he l ake 's e xistence w hen i t m ight h ave b ecome i ncreasingly a lkaline.

9 .

C oncluding R emarks

I n a ddition t o m ore a dequate p ublication o f t he W HPP s ites , t he c hallenge o f f uture w ork w ill b e t o f it t hem i nto t he e merging e conomic a nd d emographic m odels b eing c onstructed t o a ccommodate L evantine p aleolithic d ata . T he s ites s ampled b y t he W HPP s pan t he i nterval d uring w hich h umans e volved f rom u nspecialized, o pportunistic f oragers, t hrough s tages o f s pecialized p redation i nvolving a v ariety o f h unting a nd c ollecting s trategies , t o a p oint w hen r elatively m obile s ettlement/subsistence s ystems w ere r eplaced o ver p arts o f t heir r ange b y r elatively s edentary o nes. S een f rom t his p erspective , t he a ppearance o f d omestication e conomies i s o nly a f inal s tep i n a c ontinuum o f h uman a daptation w hich e xtends b ack f ar i nto t he P leistocene ( Cohen 1 977, C lark 1 983 , C lark a nd Y i 1 983). I t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat t here a re p an-Levantine r egularities i n t his p rocess o f a daptation w hich , i f a dequate d ata c an b e o btained, m ight b ecome a menable t o d escription a nd g eneralization. D escribing t hese t hings i s o ne t hing, h owever,

2 78

a nd e xplaining t hem

i s q uite a nother. E ven t he f undamental k inds o f e xtractive p rocesses u pon w hich a rchaeologists f ocus m uch o f t heir a ttention a re u sually v ery s ubtle a nd h uman e cological a daptations a lways i nvolve t he e xploitation o f m ultiple e cosystems. I n o rder t o p ut e mpirical t eeth i nto b lase g eneralizations a bout a daptation , w e w ill u ltimately h ave t o b e a ble t o t race t he o utlines o f s ettlement/subsistence s ystems o ver p articular t ime i ntervals , d etect s easonal o r o ther s hifts i n e xploitative s trategies a nd g ain a c lear u nderstanding a t a n a dequate l evel o f r esolution o f t he n atural e nvironment a nd h ow i t v aries s patially a nd t emporally. E cological s ystems a pproaches b egin w ith t he d iscovery o f c ovariation b etween e nvironmental a nd c ultural v ariables. W hile k nowledge o f c ovariation i s n ot s ufficient, i n a nd o f i tself, t o w arrant t he p lausibility o f a n e xplanation , i t i s n evertheless r easonable t o a ssume t hat c ultural s ystems ( esp . t hose o f t he h unterg atherers o f i nterest h ere) a re a lways i ntimately l inked t o a nd g reatly i nfluenced b y a r egional e nvironment. E ven s light c hanges i n t hat e nvironment c an h ave p rofound e ffects o n t he s ystems w ith w hich i t i s a rticulated ( this i s e specially t rue i n t he L evant, w ith i ts h istorically p recarious m oisture r egimen). A rchaeological r emains p rovide a r ecord o f t hese e nvironmental e ffects i f w e a re i ngenious e nough t o d etect a nd u nderstand t hem . D isentangling c omplex, c hanging s ystems r elationships b etween h umans a nd t heir n atural a nd s ocial m ilieux i s t he p rincipal o bjective o f t he W HPP r esearch d esign .

N otes 1 .

T he a uthors w ould l ike t o a pologise f or t he l ack o f c hipped s tone t ool i llustrations, b ut t his i s d ue t o ad elay i n t he s hipment o f a rtefacts f rom J ordan t o A merica.

2 .

S ince T able 3 1 w as c ompiled, t wo f urther s pecies h ave b een i dentified f rom W I TS S ite 1 065. O ne M eles m eles m axillary t ooth w as f ound i n S tep A -level 5 , a nd o ne C olumba l ivia t ibia i n M iddenl evel 1 .

A cknowledgements W e t hank D r. A dnan H adidi, D irector G eneral, D epartment o f A ntiquities , w hose o ffice c onceded t he p ermits u nder w hich w ork w as c onducted , a nd M r. N abil B egain , o f t he K erak M useum , w ho w as t he D epartment o f A ntiquities R epresentative. T he J ordan P hosphate M ines C ompany g raciously p rovided l iving q uarters f ree o f c harge a t t he J PMC e l 'Hasa T ownsite f or t he d uration o f t he p roject. T his i s W adi H asa P aleolithic P roject C ontribution N o . 4 , f unded b y t he N ational S cience F oundation ( Grant N o. B NS-8405601), t he N ational G eographic S ociety ( Grant N o . 2 914-84) a nd t he C ollege o f L iberal A rts a nd S ciences , A rizona S tate U niversity.

2 79

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The Prehistory of Jordan The State of Research in 1986

edited by

Andrew N. Garrard and Hans GeOrg Gebel

Part ii

BAR International Series 396 (ii) 1988

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S396 (ii), 1988: 'The Prehistory of Jordan', Part ii

© The

Individual Authors, 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389851 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389868 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545118 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346748 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545118 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ontents V olume 2 L orraine C opeland a nd F rancis H ours : T he P alaeolithic i n n orth-central J ordan , a n o verview o f s urvey r esults f rom t he U pper Z arqa a nd A zraq 1 982-86

2 87-309

A ndrew N . G arrard, A lison B etts, B rian B yrd, S usan C olledge a nd C hristopher H unt: S ummary o f p alaeoenvironmental a nd p rehistoric i nvestigations i n t he A zraq B asin

3 11-337

D avid D . G ilbertson , C hristopher 0 . H unt, M artin K ent a nd A ndrew G arrard: M ultivariate a nalysis o f g eochemical d ata f rom l ate Q uaternary s ediments i n t he A zraq B asin o f E astern J ordan

3 39-351

M ujahed S h . M uheisen: T he E pipalaeolithic p hases o f K haraneh I V

A lison V .G .

3 53-367

B etts:

T he B lack D esert S urvey. P rehistoric s ites a nd s ubsistence s trategies i n e astern J ordan

3 69-391

G ary 0 . R ollefson a nd A lan H . S immons: T he N eolithic s ettlement a t

' Ain G hazal

3 93-421

I lse K oehler-Rollefson, W illiam G illespie a nd M ary M etzger: T he f auna f rom N eolithic

' Ain G hazal

4 23-430

R olfe D . M andel a nd A lan H . S immons : Ap reliminary a ssessment o f t he g eomorphology o f ' Ain G hazal G ary 0 .

4 31-436

R ollefson :

S tratified b urin c lasses a t ' Ain G hazal. t he D esert N eolithic o f J ordan

I mplications f or

4 37-449

Z eidan A . K afafi: J ebel A bu T hawwab. J ordan

AP ottery N eolithic v illage i n n orth

4 51-471

M ujahed S h. M uheisen, H ans G eorg G ebel, C hristian H annss, R einder N eef: ' Ain R ahub, a n ew F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian s ite n ear I rbid

4 72-502

M ujahed S h. M uheisen: S urvey o f p rehistoric c ave s ites i n t he n orthern J ordan V alley ( 1985)

5 03-523

P hillip C . E dwards , S tephen J . B ourke, S usan M . C olledge, J ohn H ead a nd P hillip G . M acumber: L ate P leistocene p rehistory i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh, J ordan V alley

5 25-565

G enevieve D ollfus, Z eidan K afafi, J acek R ewerski, N athalie V aillant , E ric C oqueugniot, J ean D esse , a nd R einder N eef: A bu H amid, a n e arly f ourth m illennium s ite i n t he J ordan V alley. P reliminary r esults.

5 67-601

T he P aleolithic i n N orth C entral J ordan : a n O verview o f S urvey R esults f rom t he U pper Z arqa a nd A zraq 1 982 - 1 986 L orraine C opeland a nd F rancis H ours

1 .

I ntroduction

I n 1 982, a fter h aving c arried o ut s everal y eirs o f a p articular k ind o f s urvey w ork i n L ebanon a nd S yria , o ur t eam w as i nvited t o c ome t o J ordan b y t he D epartment o f A ntiquities. T he a im o f o ur w ork i s t o r econstruct t he c ultural d evelopment o f e arly h uman t ypes i n t he N ear E ast, f rom t heir f irst a ppearance i n t he M iddle P leistocene u ntil t he a dvent o f f ood p roduction a t t he s tart o f t he H olocene. I n o rder t o b uild a c hronology w e c ombine g eomorphol ogical e vidence f rom f luviatile a nd m arine d eposits c ontaining P alaeolithic a rtefacts w ith a c omparative s tudy o f t he l atter. I n p ractice, t his m eans t hat a t eam c onsisting o f g eomorphologists a nd p rehistorians s earch o ut a nd s tudy l ocal s uites o f f ossil, a rtefactb earing, r iver t erraces o r r aised b eaches i n a c hosen a rea, w ith a v iew t o c onstructing al ocal r elative c hronology; t his c an e ventually b e c orrelated w ith o ther s uch c hronologies t o o btain a n o verall r egional v iew o f t he P aleolithic s uccession. T his k ind o f w ork h ad p roduced g ood r esults i n S yria w here i n s itu a rtefacts h ad b een f ound i n f luviatile , f luvio-marine a nd m arine f ormat ions b oth a long t he c oast ( e.g. o n t he N ahr e l-Kebir) a nd o n i nland r iver t erraces ( P . S anlaville ( ed.), 1 979; B escan cs: on e t a l., 1 978 ; B esan on a nd S anlaville, 1 981). W e a lso w orked - w ith a s omewhat s imilar o rientation - i n t he E l-Kowm b asin n orth o f P almyra ( Besancon e t a l., 1 981; C opeland a nd H ours , 1 983). A s m ost o f t he w ork i n S yria h as n ow b een p ublished ( Besancon e t a l., 1 981; H ours , 1 981; C opeland a nd H ours, 1 983; S anlaville ( ed.) 1 985) w e w ill n ot r epeat t he r esults h ere e xcept t o p resent, i n T able 1 , o ur s uggested c hronology f or J ordanian s equences b ased o n t he s urveys o f 1 982-86. T he f irst s tudy a rea c onsisted o f t he v alleys o f t he U pper Z arqa n ear S ukhne, a nd i ts m ain t ributary, t he W adi D hulail a s f ar n orth a s K hirbet S amra ( Figure 1 ). W e h oped t hat t his k ind o f t errain w ould n ot b e t oo u nfamiliar t o u s, a nd a lso t hat ( being s o f ar u pstream f rom t he R ift) i t w ould n ot h ave b een a ffected b y t he l ate t ectonics o f t he J ordan V alley. T he s econd a rea c hosen w as t he A zraq B asin ( Figure 2 ), i nteresting b ecause L ower P aleolithic a rtefacts w ere k nown t o o ccur t here ( Garrard a nd S tanley P rice, 1 975-77), a nd b ecause i t w as a c omplete e ntity: a c losed s ystem h ydrologically w ith i ntriguing

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s imilarities b asins.

2 .

a nd

d ifferences

t o t he D amascus,

P almyra

a nd

E l-Kowm

T he U pper Z arqa , D hulail a nd K hirbet S amra S urvey

T he Z arqa v alley i s c ut i nto C retaceous l imestones a nd i s f airly w ide n ear S ukhne, w here i t i s b ordered b y s ubstantial f luviatile d eposits a nd t races o f f ossil l ava f lows. T he R iver Z arqa i s a p erennial s tream , a nd, a t i ts c onfluence w ith t he ( usually d ry i n s ummer) D hulail, t akes a s udden t urn f rom n orthward t o w estward, e ventually t o f low i nto t he J ordan; t he D hulail a nd i ts m any t ributaries d rain a l arge a rea b etween h ere a nd t he J ebel D ruze, a n a rea o f l ow r olling h ills, s hallow v alleys a nd w ide s preads o f f ossil l ava f lows . E cologically w e a re a t t he l imit h ere o f r ain-fed a griculture. T he d etails o f t he g eomorphology h ave b een p ublished ( Baubron e t a l., 1 985), a s h as t he a rchaeological e vidence ( Besancon e t a l., 1 984; B esan on a nd H ours, 1 983). I n s ummary, t he r esults o f t he s urvey w ere a s f ollows: I t w as f ound t hat t he b asalts c onsist o f a t l east f our d ifferent f lows; B i a nd B 2 a re d ated t o t he U pper M iocene a nd L ower P liocene a nd s urvive a s m esas p erched a bove t he v alleys a s f ar d ownstream a s J ebel B akia . B etween t heir t ime a nd t hat o f t he f ollowing t wo f lows, a m ajor d owncutting p hase t ook p lace, c onnected t o t he d eepening o f t he G hor. B 3 a nd B 4 w ere d ated b y t he P otassium/Argon m ethod t o 3 . - 3 m illion y ears o ld a nd 3 .25 - 2 .9 m illion y ears o ld r espectively; m ore f luid t han t he f irst t wo, t hey f lowed d own t he Z arqa v alley, w hich a lready e xisted, a nd c an b e t raced a s f ar d ownstream a s t he Q uneia ' elbow '. T hey a re t herefore t oo o ld t o h elp u s d ate t he P aleolithic, a nd t he f luviatile f ills b etween f lows a re s terile. D uring t he P leistocene a s eries o f a lternating c ut a nd f ill, o r e rosion a nd a ccumulation e pisodes o ccurred w hich h ave l eft t races i n t he f orm o f t runcated p ebble t erraces, p articularly o n t he Z arqa b anks. T he o ldest o f t hese i s t he D auquara F ormation o r C omplex ( Qf I II). T he a ccumulation i s t hought t o h ave s tarted i mmediately a fter t he B 4 f low i n t he L ate P liocene a nd p robably c ontinued i n s everal E arly P leistocene p hases. T he F ormation c onsists o f a c emented c onglomerate o f l arge l imestone p ebbles i n a p ink-coloured m atrix. A t e ight l ocalities i n t he t errace, 4 2 r ather p oor f lint f lakes, c ores a nd a p ossible c hopper w ere f ound. I f t hese a re m an-made, t hey w ould r efer t o a L ower P aleolithic n ot c learly d etermined, w ith t hick, w ide-angle f lakes a nd h eavy c ores; t hey c ould b e r egarded a s d ating t o t he M iddle P leistocene. T he n ext l owest t errace ( and s econd b efore t he H olocene) i s t he B ire F ormation ( Qf I I), w hich c an c learly b e s een b elow t he c onfluence a rea , w here i t i s b anked u p, i n p laces, a gainst t he D auquara F ormation o r t runcates t he l atter. T he d eposits a re d istinct, c haracterised b y t he p resence o f v ery w eathered b asalt b locks a mong t he n umerous f lint p ebbles, a nd b y t he d ark-coloured m atrix . A t n ine l ocalities w e r ecovered 1 14 a rtefacts, p icked o ut o f t he s ection o f t his t errace, a nd

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t herefore r egarded a s b eing g eomorphically i n s itu . T he B ire a rtefacts a re j udged t o r epresent t he L ate A cheulean o f t he L evant. T hey c onsist o f e ight b ifaces, 1 6 c ores a nd 9 0 f lakes ; t he b ifaces , t hough b attered, a re o f e volved t ype w ith e dged b ases, s traight c utting e dges a nd o vate o r a mygdaloid a spect. A ll t he a rtefacts a re r olled t o t he s ame d egrees a s t he D augara p ieces , b ut a re l ess p atinated , w ith 4 7% y ellow , 4 6% g rey-beige, p atinas. T he B ire a rtefacts , i ncorporated i nto t he t errace d uring a w et p hase, c ould d ate t o t he p receeding i nterpluvial . T he l ast t errace b efore t he H olocene ( Qf I ) i s a n u ncemented, r eddish, l ocally c olluvial d eposit : t he K hirbet S amra F ormation , w ith t wo M embers , c onsisting o f g ravels a nd f ine s ediments i ncluding a eolian m aterial. A t n ine s ites w e c ollected 1 58 a rtefacts w hich i ncluded e leven ( presumably d erived) h andaxes, a s w ell a s L evallois f lakes a nd c ores o f M iddle P aleolithic t ype. I n c ontrast, a H olocene t errace e xists i n t he d ownstream s ection , t he S ukhne F ormation ( Qf 0 ) c ontaining p ottery a nd t races o f b oth N eolithic a nd ( re-distributed?) K ebaran m aterial - o ur s ite K hS.27. I n a ddition t o t he a ssemblages l ocated i n s itu , r ich s urface s ites w ere f ound, u nconnected t o t he f luviatile s tratigraphy e xcept f or o ne : s ite K hS.30 . S ome o f t hese h ave p roduced e xcellent L ate A cheulean b ifaces, 1 15 i n a ll a mong t he 1 ,100 a rtefacts c ollected. T he i mpression g iven b y t he a rtefacts, w hich i nclude h andsome b ifaces , l arge L evallois a nd p roto-Levallois c ores , a nd h eavy f lakes , i s t hat t he i ndustry i s s lightly m ore e volved t han t hat i n t he ( necessarily e arlier) Q f I I F ormation ( see H ours e t a l., 1 983 ; H ours , 1 981; M uhesen , S . 1 985). N o t races o f F inal A cheulean h ave b een f ound. A s c an b e s een o n T able 1 , t he m aterial r ecovered f rom t he s urvey c an b e f itted i nto t he M iddle - L ate P leistocene c hronology o f t he L evant. T he e arliest t races o f m an i n t he a rea s hould e quate w ith s omewhat q nigmatic f lake a ssemblages i n s imilar s tratigraphic p osition i n S yria.' T he s econd o ldest f ormation , t he B ire F ormation , n o d oubt c orrelates w ith t he J raibiyate F ormation o n t he O rontes, R oudo o n t he N ahh e l-Kebir ( Jinderiyeh F ormation) a nd A in A bu J amaa a nd H ammam e lK ebir o n t he E uphrates ( Besancon e t a l., 1 980), a ll o f w hich c ontain e quivalent L ate A cheulean m aterial, a lmost w ithout L evallois d ebitage a nd w ith e volved b iface t ypes. W e r egard t he s urface c oncentrations a t s ite K hS.30 a s r epresenting a L ate E volved A c eulean p erhaps d ating t o e arly i n t he L ast I nterglacial ( Hours, 1 981). T he o ther s urface s ites c an b e d ated o nly g enerally, b y t ypology. F inally, t he M iddle P aleolithic s eems t o h ave t ypical L evallois d ebitage b ut i t i s n ot a s d elicate a s s ome o f t he c ave L evalloisoM ousterian o r t he f acies a t W adi E noqiyya . I t n o d oubt b roadly c orrelates w ith s ome o f t he i nland M ousterians , o r a lternatively i t m ay r elate m ore w ith t he W adi R attama f acies a t A Z .121Wg a nd A Z.133b , a s w e s hall s ee. T he K ebaran s ite d iscovered c onfirms t he o ther e vidence i ndicating t hat t he U pper Z arqa V alley w as i nhabited i n t he c losing s tages o f t he P leistocene, a s w ere o ther n eighbouring v alleys ( cf. E dwards e t a l.,

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t his v olume).

3 .

T he A zraq S urveys ,

1 982-1986

T he A zraq B asin h as a v ariety o f h abitats w hich s eem t o h avq f avoured p rehistoric o ccupation . I t h as a c atchment o f 1 2-13,000km' a nd c onsists o f as teppic l imestone a rea i n t he w est, a n o asis a nd m arshes ( wetland) f ed b y p erennial s prings n ear t he c entre, a s aline p laya ( the Q a a l-Azraq) a nd s easonal l ake, r echarged a nnually b y r ainw ater , a d esertic, s andy-silty r egion t o t he s outh a nd e ast, a nd f inally, t o t he n orth a nd f urther e ast, a b asaltic p lateau o f b oulder f ields c onnected t o t he J ebel D ruze. R ain f alls w ithin t he b asin i n t he w inter w ith a n a nnual m ean 3 00mm i n t he n orth , c . 1 50mm i n t he w est , f alling t o l ess t han 5 0mm t he e ast.

o f i n

T he v iew o f Z euner w as t hat t he t opography r epresented a d eeply e roded l andscape, n ow f illed ( as i ndicated b y c ertain b prehole e vidence h e q uotes) w ith a lluvial d ebris ( Zeuner e t a l., 1 957). 3 H owever, o ur l ast s urvey ( 1986), i ndicated t hat t he b asic r elief c annot h ave c hanged g reatly, s ince t he b ig w adis a re f lowing o ver b edrock i n s hallow c hannels, f or e xample W adis R attama , B utm a nd K harana.

3 .1

T he D esert W adi A cheulean

T he t hree w adis w hich w e h ave s o f ar s tudied ( Figure 2 ) a re: t he R attama , w hich f lows b etween b asalt b luffs a nd a l imestone p lateau d irectly i nto t he w estern f ringe o f t he o asis o f A zraq, t he W adi B utm b etween Q oseir A mra a nd J ebel U weinid, a nd t he m ore d istant J anab / M ushash /K harana c omplex o f w ater c ourses s urrounding t he l imestone p latform o n w hich s tands t he Q asr K harana. T his l atter c omplex e ventually j oins a nd f lows ( as W adi M udeisisat) i nto t he l ower W adi B utm i n t he s outhwestern p art o f t he A zraq l ake b asin. T hese a reas w ere r ich i n L ower P aleolithic m aterials a nd, t o a l esser d egree, M iddle P aleolithic a rtefacts.

3 .1.1

T he R attama S ector

T he W adi R attama 's c ourse ( Figure 3 ) i s m arked b y t hickets o f W hite B room b ushes ( Retama r aetam) a s i ts n ame s uggests. I t d rains a n a rea o f b oth b asalt ( on i ts l eft b ank) a nd l imestone ( on i ts r ight b ank) w est o f A zraq O asis a nd h as b uilt u p a g ravel a nd s ilty c lay f an o n t he e dge o f t he m arsh a nd p laya b etween A zraq D ruze a nd A zraq S heshan v illages. T he v alley w as s urveyed f rom t he e dge o f t he f an t o 1 6km u pstream , a nd 3 6 s ites, s ome w ith m ultiple c ollection p oints, w ere s tudied , f rom 1 982 t o 1 986. H eavy g ravels c ontaining t he a forem entioned r olled a nd p atinated L ower P aleolithic a rtefacts a re f ound a ll a long t he w adi b ed, e roding f rom b eneath t he o verlying Q f I t errace ; i n c ertain a reas, t hese r epresent a d eposit e quivalent t o t he c onglomeFate i n t he o ther w adis ( Butm , K harana / J anab / M ushash a nd H arith), u b ut h ere, t he w ater f rom t he b asalts b eing ' soft ', t he g ravels a re n ot c onsolidated i n ac alcareous m atrix .

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C r ) ( 1 ) 0 0 • H

2 93

O verlying t he w adi b ed a s ubstantial r iver t errace c onsisting o f t wo , a t l east, l ayers o f f iner g ravel a nd s ilt d eposits , o ccurs i n p laces f rom S ite A Z .133 d own t o t he m ain r oad ( Site A Z.126); i t i s p articularly d istinct i n t he f an a rea , a nd a t t hree s ites ( AZ.133B , A Z .220 a nd A Z .121Wg), M iddle P aleolithic f lakes w ere f ound i n i t i n s itu ; i t i s a ttributed t o t he L ast P luvial. T he a rchaeological e vidence c onsists o f 8 43 a rtefacts f ound a t t he p oints m entioned a bove. O n c omparative t ypological g rounds , 6 4% o f t he m aterial w as j udged t o b e L ower P aleolithic a nd 1 4% M iddle P aleolithic , u sing a s a p oint o f d eparture t he g eomorphically i n s itu m aterial w hich c ould b e c ompared t o t hat f rom s urface c ontexts. I t w as f ound t hat a t e ach p oint w ith a g ood s ample, t he a rtefacts c ould b e s orted i nto f our p atina a nd c ondition s eries , b ased o n a d escending a mount o f r olling a nd d egree o f p atination . W e m ust s tress t hat t he o riginal c olour o f t he r aw m aterial i s t he s ame : p ale f lint, c hert o r a lternating t hin b ands o f f lint a nd c hert, o riginating f rom t abular s eams i n t he l imes tones f orming t he r ight b ank. T he d ifferent p atinas a re a ssumed t o r eflect d ifferent e nvironmental c onditions d uring t he P leistocene t o w hich t he a rtefacts w ere s ubjected a fter b eing a bandoned b y t heir m akers. T ypologically, t he f irst t hree o f t hese s eries r efer t o t he L ower P aleolithic, w hile t he f ourth i s j udged t o b e M iddle P aleolithic. T he a rtefacts c onsist o f t he f ollowing t ypes: ( 1) N umerous w ellm ade l arge c ores ( most o ften b ipolar a nd b idirectional) f or e longated f orms o f f lake a nd h eavy b lade , s ome b eing p roto-Levallois. ( 2) T he p roducts o f t hese c ores a re l arge u nretouched f lakes a nd b lades , u sually ( 50%) w ith p lain b utts a nd w ide s triking-platform a ngles, 1 7% w ith s imple f aceting. ( 3) T he t ools c onsist a lmost e xclusively o f H eavy D uty t ypes : b ifaces , b ifacial c leavers, p icks a nd n on-standard c utting t ools o r e volved c hoppers o n s labs, w hile t ools o n f lakes a re r are o r a bsent. T he b ifaces a re m ostly w ell m ade , t he p redominant a spect b eing o void ( this g roup i ncludes d iscoids, b ifacial c leavers a nd D -shaped, a t ype n oted b y R ollefson ( 1980) a t L ion S pring); L anceolates a re f airly c ommon a nd s eem t o r eplace a mygdaloids h ere. T he u nusually f requent ( 12%) p resence o f b ifacial c leavers i s t o b e n oteg; t his c ategory i s r are o r a bsent i n t he n orthern a nd c entral L evant. A s t o t he a ttributes n ot d ue t o k nappers ' c hoice ( patina , c ond ition , c ontext), t he b ifaces o f t he t hree s ectors s eem t o h ave b een a ffected b y s imilar e nvironmental c onditions: b eige-grey ( Series 2 -3) t ype p atinas o ccur i n 6 3% o f R attama s pecimens, 5 9% o f K harana s pecimens, w hile r olled c ondition o ccurs o n 5 5% ( Rattama) a nd 5 7% ( Kharana) p ieces. 8 F or t he m oment w e c annot s ay w hether S eries 1 ( the m ost r olled a nd h eaviest p atinated) r epresents a n o lder L ate A cheulean s tage a s i ts p hysical a ttributes s eem t o s uggest , n or w hether S eries 2 a nd 3 , a lthough o f t he s ame a ge , a ppear t o b e d ifferent o nly b ecause t hey h ave n ot s uffered t he s ame d egrees o f p reservation i n t he d eposits. A s t o t he M iddle P aleolithic ( Series 4 ), t he s ituation s eems t o b e f airly s traightforward: a t f ive s ites ( two i n s itu i n f luviatile

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t errace d eposits), 1 9 a rtefacts w ere f ound w hich b y t ypology a nd t echnical s tage o f d evelopment i ndicate a n e arly M iddle P aleolithic. T hey c onsist o f e longated L evallois p ieces o f b road L evallois f lakes a nd c ores. T hey a re m uch t hicker a nd l ess d elicate t han t he W adi E noqiyya p ieces , o nly 4 4% h aving f aceted b utts , a nd f or t his r eason a re r egarded a s b elonging t o a s tage e arlier t han t hat o f W adi E noqiyya ( see b elow). A lthough n o U pper P aleolithic m aterial w as f ound i n t he R attama s ector , s ome E pi-Paleolithic a nd N eolithic t races w ere n oted. O ther u ndatable m aterial o ccurred a t o ne s ite ( 128) c onsisting o f n arrow b lade c ores a nd ' ClactoniaA ' f lakes d eeply p atinated t o d ark s hiny b rown , c f. ' desert v arnish '.

3 .1.2

T he K harana S ector

T he m ain f ocus o f t he s urvey h ere w as a c orridor-like r egion , 2 km w ide , c arrying t he W adi J anab a nd i ts t ributary, W . M ushash, t o t he n orth o f t he K harana p latform . W e a lso e xamined p arts o f t he W adi K harana , w hich f lows t o t he s outh o f t he Q asr K harana . T hree m ain p hases o f t errace-building s eem t o h ave o ccurred, n ot a ll s een t ogether i n o ne p lace ( Besancon a nd H ours , 1 985). A ' High ' t errace, u sually c onglomerated, w as s terile o f a rtefacts ; t he ' Middle' t errace, u sually i n a d ismantled s tate a nd s een a s, e .g . b road g ravel s preads ( perhaps b uried w adi b eds) i n d epressions, c ontained r olled A cheulean a rtefacts; a ' Lower' t errace s eemed t o b e o f L ate P leistocene d ate a nd U pper a nd E pi-Paleolithic m aterials a re k nown t o e xist i n i t ( M . M uheisen , 1 983). F rom t he 1 8 s ites f ound w hich c ontained L ower o r M iddle P aleolithic m aterial , w e r ecovered 2 76 a rtefacts ( 181 f lakes, 6 9 c ores, 2 6 h andaxes), b ut o nly 2 6 p ieces w ere f ound i n g eomorphically s ecure p ositions, a lthough a nother 1 13 ( from S ite A Z .110 , a r eworked M iddle T errace g ravel s pread) m ight b e i ncluded. T he s mall s amples d id n ot p ermit d istinction a s b etween L ower o r M iddle P aleolithic i n t he c ase o f t he f lakes , s ince t he M iddle P aleolithic s eemed t o b e o f a n a rchaic p hase , s imilar t o t hat s een o n t he W adi R attama . W hen p ut t ogether w ith i nformation f rom t he R attama a nd B utm s ectors, t he L ower P aleolithic f inds c an b e v iewed a s r epresenting t he s ame ' Desert W adi A cheulean ' a s o ccurred t here , a nd w e h ave a lready p ointed o ut t he s imilarities a s r egards t he b ifaces. A lthough f ar f rom t he o asis , t he s teppe i n t he K harana a rea s eems t o h ave b een a ble t o s upport h unters f or a n u nknown l ength o f t ime i n t he l ate M iddle o r e arly L ate P leistocene i n a n e nvironment p robably m ore v egetated t han i t a ppears t o b e t oday . A s t o t he M iddle P aleolithic a nd l ater m aterial, p resumably t his d ates t o t he L ast P luvial a nd e arly H olocene.

3 .1.3

t he W adi B utm S ector

T his i s t he m ost v egetated w adi i n t he b asin t oday e specially i n i ts u pper r eaches , a nd i t w as p robably e ven m ore f orested i n p ast w et p hases. I t d rains a l imestone a rea d irectly w est o f t he d epression a nd

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f lows p ast t he b asalt o f J eb 0 , U weinid o nly n ear i ts m outh . C onsequently a Q f I I c onglomerate ' h as b een a ble t o s urvive i n p lace i n i ts b ed. T he c onglomerate i s g radually b eing e roded, r eleasing i ts c ontent o f L ower P aleolithic a rtefacts. O verlying t he Q f I I i s t he Q f It errace o f f iner m aterials w hich f orms t he p resent b anks o f t he w adi , a nd a bove w hich Q oseir A mra w as b uilt. T he a ssemblage c ollected i n 1 986 f rom S ite 2 47A a nd o ther p oints i n t he W adi B utm c ontains b ifaces, f lakes a nd c ores c losely c omparable t o t hose f ound o n t he o ther w adis b ut h ere a f ew p ieces w ere e xtracted f rom t he c onglomerate ; t he a rtefacts a re r olled o r u nrolled , p atinated o r n ot , t o a c omparable d egree , a nd c ould b e r eferred t o S eries 1 - 3 o n t he R attama . T he p resent b iface s ample ( a f raction o f w hat i s p resent i n t he w adi) i ncludes s ome l arge a nd b road p ieces b ut 8 5% a re ' thin ', a nd s how o ther e volved t raits: 7 0% e dged b ases, 7 0% f ine s oft h ammer f laking, 9 2% s traight c utting-edges. T ypologically t his g roup i s d ominated b y o vate t ypes ( 74%) w hich i nclude b ifacial c leavers ( 12%). T he d ebitage c onsists o f t hick f lakes a nd b lades s truck f rom l arge f lat o r o rthogonal c ores. T he W adi B utm s ample c ontains s ome e lements ( such a s s mall b ifaces a nd r adial, b iface-like c ores) r eminiscent o f C -Spring 1 985 t ypes; i t t herefore s eems l ikely t hat t he W adi B utm w as a lso v isited b y t he ' Spring A cheulian ' p eople, w hose a rtefacts a re d escribed b elow . E ven t hough t he K harana a nd B utm s urveys w ere s horter t han t hat c arried o ut o n t he R attama , t he d ata f rom t he t hree s ectors c omplement e ach o ther i n a lmost a ll r espects. I n a ddition , w e k now f rom m aterial f ound i n o ther w adis i n t he A zraq b asin ( Mushash , J ilat, U weinid) t hat s imilar m aterial o ccurs t here, a nd m ost p robably a lso a t t he s ite m entioned b y Z euner e t a l. ( 1957) i n t he W adi H arith . N o t race o f a nything e arlier t han L ate A cheulean w as f ound, e xcept p ossibly f or o ne m onster ' h andaxe i n t he W adi R attama. T hese i ndications s uggest t o u s t hat a p articular L ate A cheulean f ad es, w hich w e c all t he D esert W adi A cheulean , c haracterised b y u se o f p roto-Levallois t echnique, u se o f h eavy b lades a nd t he p roduction o f b ifacial c leavers, w as p roduced b y h unters l iving a round a nd i n t he A zraq b asin , m ost l ikely d uring t he p enultimate p luvial c omplex.

3 .2

T he S pring S ites a t A zraq O asis

W ith c ertain e xceptions ( Wadi E noqiyya a nd t he A l-Bayda a rea), t he p erennial s pring s ites c ontaining P aleolithic a rtefacts o ccur s outhe ast o f A zraq S heshan v illage a nd i ts m arshes , i n a n i rregular l ine p arallel w ith t he r oad t o S haumari; t he w ater e merges a t t he e dge o f t he b asin , a bove t he s hore o f t he Q a . F rom L ion S pring ( Ain e l-Asad), t he m ost s outherly, f our s eparate a ssemblages o f P aleolithic a rtefacts h ave n ow b een r ecovered ( G .L . H arding, 1 958 ; D . K irkbride, i n p reparat ion ; G . R ollefson , 1 980 ; 1 982; 1 983: t wo c ollections, o ne f rom s oundi ngs). B etween i t a nd t he m ain ( modern) s prings a t S heshan a re a n umber o f s ubsidiary s eeps a nd s prings , n amed A , B , C , e tc., w hich w ere d iscovered b y a n e ngineering f irm ( Baker a nd H arza, 1 958). I n 1 958, F . Z euner v isited t he a rea a nd s tudied t he e ye o f C -Spring ( see K irkbride , i n p reparation). I n 1 985 a s ounding w as m ade b y A . G arrard c . 3 0m t o o ne s ide o f t he o riginal C -Spring. W e w ill s ummarise t he r esults o f

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Kirkbride's work at Lion Spring and Garrard's sounding at since one of us (L.C.) is at present studying the artefacts soundings. As to the other work at Lion Spring, a note on the collection will be included, while Rollefson's findings have been published (e.g. Rollefson, 1983). 3.2.1

C-Spring of both Harding already

Lion Spring

Lion Spring is a relatively small spring site located beside the airfield perimeter fence, consisting of two pools connected by winding channels, as seen in the air photographs, and surrounded by a mini­ oasis of tamarisks and dense stands of reeds. 1) Kirkbride's sounding Kirkbride was enabled to make the sounding of 1956 in the centre of the spring pool after it had been pumped dry by the Baker Harza team. It produced 334 stratified artefacts from three distinct sediment horizons which we will designate lower (sandy), middle (also sandy) and uppermost (grey clay) (Kirkbride, in preparation). The lowest layer produced 55% brown-py inated and 19% grey-patinated artefacts, 45% of which were lustred. The overlying horizon produced mainly black and grey-patinated artefacts but included 10% with brown patina; only 9% were lustred. The uppermost artefact-bearing-layer (a small sample) contained only black or grey-patinated flints, none being lustred (Copeland, in preparation, b).

1

In spite of these differences and although three sedimentological phases are present, the typology of all three assemblages seems similar: a late facies of the Acheulean characterised by bifacial cleavers among the handaxes, and using virtually no Levallois technique. The fresh, unbattered appearance of the flints indicates that they were dropped in place or rolled down into the spring vent from camps set up around the pool, rather than having been transported to Lion Spring by the wadis in the vicinity. The date of the assemblages is open to question and depends on the meaning of the three sediment horizons as well as on the reasons for the differences in patina and lustre. 2) The Harding Collection Brief mention of the circumstances of the original find of Paleolithic artefacts in 1956 was made by Harding, which happened when he was Director of Antiquities (Harding 1958). The artefacts were studied by L. Copeland (in preparation, a) and the following is an interim account.

The material consists of 1 12 flint artefacts, 400 of which are handaxes, and faunal remains. 1 Half of the flints are now in the British Museum (thanks to the good offices of Dr. Adnan Hadidi) and the rest are at Yarmouk University at the Institute of Archaeology Museum. When to this total is added the number (334) of artefacts found by Kirkbride and the 1,223 pieces (including 120 handaxes) found by Rollefson, this small spring site has so far produced 2,529 artefacts, 571 of which are handaxes, making it, so far, the most prolific Lower 297

Paleolithic site in Jordan. The Harding material seems more evolved than the Desert Wadi Acheulean in having really excellent flake-tools such as big racloirs, limaces, etc. which include types grading between bifaces and racloirs; these are reminiscent of the flake-tools in the -Acheuleo-Yabrudian of Bezez C (Copeland, 1983) but the edge retouch is not quite as fine as that seen in the latter industry. As in the Kirkbride material, bifacial cleavers are a distinguishing element. The question as to how much of the Levallois and other Middle Paleolithic-like flakes belong with the Acheulean cannot yet be answered; such an element did not occur in Kirkbride's stratified levels. 3.2.2 The Canal Springs 1)

C-Spring, 1958 work

We have mentioned the visit of Kirkbride.and Zeuner to this spring (Zeuner et al., 1957 and Kirkbride, in preparation). The Pleistocene fauna recovered has been published (Clutton-Brock, 1970). The artefacts (which included handaxes and Quina racloirs with a Yabrudian ambience) were collected from the surface of the debris piles alongside the newly-excavated canal. According to Zeuner the very fresh, black or grey Acheulean artefacts derived from a buried wadi bed filled with rolled brown hamada gravels in a greenish silty matrix. Above this a calcareous crust occurred, 20 30cm thick and over this was 75cm of weathered lake bed (sic) soils.13 The material collected seems to include elements of more than one Paleolithic phase. 2)

C-Spring, 1985 work

After the initial work of 1956 there was no change for thirty years, the irrigation project having failed. However in the interim, the area had been surveyed for Paleolithic sites (Garrard and Stanley Price, 1975-77) and Garrard had relocated the Baker and Harza springs which he showed to us on our own survey. In 1985 a large fishpond was excavated in the area of the Canal Springs, effectively destroying A, B and C-Springs. Fortunately, A. Garrard and his team (which included the geomorphologist, C. Hunt) were in the vicinity during his excava­ tion season at Azraq and he was able to take advantage of the situation to put down a sounding next to the fishpond excavation. At a depth of c. 3m below the surface, large quantities of Paleolithic artefacts were discovered in situ (see Garrard et al. 1987 and this volume for the stratigraphy). Preliminary impressions suggest that the industry is an evolved Acheulean having traits which distinguish it from the 'Desert Wadi Acheulean'. The artefacts are in pristine condition although mainly grey-patinated, and are without lustre. The main Acheulean levels (19 - 21) contain c. 3,000 artefacts from a very small area. In level 19, bifacial cleavers form 27% of the handaxes, the rest being mainly of ovate or discoid aspect. The handaxes are small to medium in size and have very evolved traits (high frequencies of straight cutting-edges, 298

e dged b ases, f ine-flaking e tc.). F lake t ools a re p oorly m ade o n o val o r ' square ' f lakes w ith w ide-angle b utts, u sually b y u se o f i nverse r etouch t o f orm d enticulates , r acloirs a nd e nd-scrapers. T he L evallois i ndex i s e xtremely l ow i n s pite o f t he g enerally r adial p reparation o f t he c ores ( many o f w hich r esemble b ifaces); t he f lakes, o ften w ith r adial s car p atterns , s eem t o b e m ainly p roducts o f b iface-preparation a nd f inishing. S ome a re p lunging-flakes , o thers w ere s truck f rom c leaver-tips, a nd m any o f s uch f lakes c arry o ff p art o f t he b ifacial e dge o f t he c ore ( or b iface) o n t he i nverse s urface . T he i ndustry i s l ikely t o b e t he s ame a s t hat i n K irkbride 's l ower l evels a t L ion S pring, f ound i n a s imilar s tratigraphic c ontext b elow ( marsh o r l acustrine?) c lays. I n t he o verlying l evels ( 18 - 1 5) t here i s ah int i n t he c ores o f L evallois d ebitage . T here i s n o t race a t a ll o f e ither Y abrudian o r M iddle P aleolithic t ypes s uch a s w ere f ound o n t he s urface a t t he o riginal l ocation o f C -Spring , c . 3 0m d istant, n either a re t here a ny f lake-blade f orms o r b ipolar c ores s uch a s d o o ccur i n t he D esert W adi A cheulean. N earer t he t op o f t he s ection a re t races o f a n E piP aleolithic, t hen a N eolithic l ayer. I t s eems c lear t hat t he C -Spring 1 985 i ndustry ( may w e s uggest, a s a n ame, ' Acheulean o f A zraq f acies '?) d iffers i n m any r espects f rom t he D esert W adi A cheulean a ssemblages, e ven t hough i t h as t he s ame t radit ion o f u se o f b ifacial c leave u z I t i s i mpossible y et t o k now w hether i t i s o lder , c ontemporary w ith , o r y ounger t han, t he D WA , o r w hether i ts d ifferences r ather s tem f rom d ifferent s ite-usage ( biface p reparat ion f loor?) o r a daptation t o o asis l ife. H owever, w e c an a ssume t hat t he o ccupied a rea w as e ventually f looded b y a n e xpansion o f t he m arshes ( as i s a lso a ssumed f or L ion S pring) a nd i n t heory t his s hould i ndicate t he o nset o f aw et p hase ( Last P luvial?); i n s hort, t he C -Spring i ndustry c ould p ossibly d ate t o a s l ate a s t he L ast I nterpluvial , a n a lternative p ossible d ate b eing m entioned i n N ote 1 4.

3 )

C rab S pring ( D-Spring?) a nd E -Spring

A c ollection o f 2 2 a rtefacts w as m ade b y t he a uthors f rom a s pring, c . l km E SE o f t he F iltration B ed h ut, a t t he e nd o f t he n ow-dry s ide c anal s outh o f C anal F . T he s pring w ater n ow f lows v ia t wo p onds i nto t he Q a a nd i s i nhabited b y c rustacians, a mphibians, b irds a nd ( probably) i s f requented b y f oxes. T he s urface c ollection d iffered f rom t hat f rom C a nd E S prings i n c onsisting o f b rown-patinated p ieces o f v arious a ges: ab iface , L ower a nd M iddle P aleolithic f lake t ypes , a s w ell a s b ladelet c ores a nd b ladelets. E -Spring h as n ot b een c ertainly r elocated b ut K irkbride's s urface c ollection i ncluded e xcellent o live a nd b lack-patinated h andaxes.

3 .2.3

T he N orthern S ector

A n a rea n orth-east o f S heshan , n amed A l-Bayda o n t he m ap , w as s urveyed i n 1 986 . T he W adi E noqiyya , w hich e nters t he Q a b etween h ere a nd S heshan, w as f irst f ound b y G arrard a nd S tanley-Price a nd l ater s tudied b y F . H ours.

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1 )

W adi E noqiyya

T his w adi ( the n ame m eans ' bottleneck ' i n A rabic) i s l ocated c . 3 km n orth o f A zraq D ruze , a nd f lows t hrough b asaltic a reas, c onnecting a s mall m arsh ( now c ultivated) v ia t hree s hallow s pring p ools , t o t he Q a . T he w adi b ed c onsists o f a f lat s urface i ncised b y t wo n arrow c hannels t hrough w hich t he s tream f lows i n w inter. T he w aters s ustained s everal s prings u p u ntil r ecently ( about 4 0 y ears a go) b ut t hese h ave n ow c eased t o f unction , p robably b ecause o f o ver-pumping u pstream . S ections c an b e s een i n t he w adi b anks i n c ertain a reas , w hich a ll s how t he s ame p rofile ( Figure 4 ). A t t he s ummit t here i s a n u nstratified a eolian d eposit , 1 0 -2 0cm t hick ( Figure 4 -1). T his c overs a l ayer o f l aminated s ilt l ayers , t he w hole 3 0 - 5 0cm t hick ( Figure 4 -2), w hich i n t urn o verlies a s andy b ed e ncased a t t op a nd b ase b y t hin g ravelly l ayers ( Figure 4 -3). T he u pper l ayer ( Figure 4 2 ) c ontains a m ixture o f U pper a nd E pi-Paleolithic a nd p erhaps t races o f N atufian a nd A ceramic N eolithic, w hile t he l ower l ayer ( Figure 4 -3) p roduced f lakes a nd c ores o f a M iddle P aleolithic w ith L evallois d ebitage, m uch m ore e volved t han t hat w hich o ccurred w ith t he D WA o r t he M ousterian o f t he W adi R attama t errace. T oday t hese m aterials a re f ound i n a bundance i n t he b ottom o f t he w adi, r eworked d uring e ach w intertime f low o f t he s tream . U nderneath t he s andy l ayer, a b luish c lay d eposit o ccurs ( Figure 4 -4), s ometimes v isible f or m ore t han a m etre i n d epth a lthough i ts s tructure i s d ifficult t o d iscern; i t a ppears t o b e s terile. T he b ase o f t he d eposits a re a n u nknown q uantity a s t he s ections n ever r each t he b edrock . U nconnected w ith t he s tratigraphy, b ut d oubtless d eriving f rom s prings r ecently d ug o ut, o ne c an f ind t races o f aL ate A cheulean ( 16 h andaxes a nd f ragments) p erhaps o lder t han t he C -Spring f acies a nd m ore r esembling t hat o f t he A l-Bayda r egion. T he m ain o ccupation s eems t o h ave o ccurred d uring t he M iddle P aleolithic ( 6,348 a rtefacts o f w hich 5 71 a re t ools); t he f acies c losely r esembles t hat o f t he M editerranean c oast, w ith t hin , m edium a nd s mall f lakes a nd f aceted b utts, s uggesting a n e volved s tage o f t he L evalloiso-Mousterian. A nother g roup c onsists o f 1 ,340 a rtefacts w hich r efer t o p ost-Middle P aleolithic i ndustries, e vidently i ncluding d ifferent p hases . At rue U pper P aleolithic c an b e r ecognised, a s w ell a s a n U pper P aleolithic t ending t oward t he E pi-Paleolithic. T his r epresents t he f irst t ime i n 1 0 y ears o f r esearch t hat w e h ave c ome a cross t he U pper P aleolithic i n S yria a nd J ordan . O ne l unate a nd a n a rrowhead e voke t he N atufian a nd P PBN a nd t hese p robably r efer t o t he s urface l ayer. T he 7 ,704 a rtefacts c ollected n o d oubt r epresent s uccessive o ccupations a round t he w adi s prings , t he r emains o f w hich w ere w ashed o ut d uring a w et p hase , b efore b eing c overed b y m ore r ecent d eposits.

3 00

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F igure 4 S ection i n w adi E noqiyya .

3 01

2 )

A lBayda

A t t he j unction o f t he b asalts w ith t he n orthern f ringe o f t he Q a t here a re s everal s prings, n ow a lmost b uried b y s ilt d unes. A in e lB eidha , m arked b y ac lump o f p alms , i s p erhaps t he b est k nown . L ate A cheulean ( with e volved, b rown-patinated b ifaces), M iddle P aleolithic, a nd l ater a rtefacts o ccur o n t he s urfaces s urrounding t he n ow-dry s pring . O ther s prings a re m arked b y s tands o f c asuarina t rees a nd t amarisks. A t o ne, S ite A Z .210A , q uantities o f A cheulean a nd M iddle P aleolithic a rtefacts a re p resent, a s w ell a s aY abrudian e lement o f s mall Q ina r acloirs o f at ype n ot s een e lsewhere a t A zraq. T he r est o f t he M iddle P aleolithic p ieces c ollected a re l ike t he L evalloisoM ousterian f ad es a t n earby W adi E noqiyya. A t a nother s pring , A Z .210B , a bundant L ate ( Upper o r E pi-) P aleolithic a rtefacts , c onsisting o f e nds crapers , c arinated a nd a ngle b urins, b lades , e tc., w ere f ound; t hese r esemble t he p ost-Mousterian e lement i n W adi E noqiyya . T he N eolithic i s p resent a t at hird s ite, A Z .209, w hich a lso c ontains t he A cheulean . T his a rea d eserves f urther r esearch .

3 .2.4

T he E astern a nd S outhern s ectors

I n 1 986 t he f ans a nd d eltas o f t he e astern w adis w ere e xamined. S urveying i s d ifficult t oday d ue t o t he a mount o f c ultivation ( with t he a id o f p umps) b eing c arried o ut. H owever , r olled L ower P aleolithic a rtefacts w ere f ound i n t he Q f It errace o f W adi R ajil u pstream o f i ts d elta ( Site A Z.251). N o t race a t a ll o f a l acustrine P aleo-shoreline w as f ound. I nstead, r idges o f ad istinctive f orm o f a eolian d une ( "lunette" i n N orth A frican t erminology) o ccur n ear t he e dge o f t he p laya a nd s alt p ans ( Basan on a nd S anlaville , p ers. c omm .). T o t he s outh t here a re s everal p layas , f or e xample t he l arge i ndependent Q a e l-Oman i a nd t he s maller Q a J ashsha , s outh o f t he o ld P olice P ost, o n w hat i s a d irect r oute f rom A zraq t o t he W adi S irhan . N umerous B yzantine a nd I slamic c emeteries a nd o ther r emains a re p resent. At ravertine c rust, u p t o l m t hick , a nd e roded i n p laces , c an b e s een o utcropping o n t he s lopes. T he B edouin h ave p ierced t his c rust t o m ake w ells , w here t he w ater i s p resent a bout 2 m b elow t he s urface. T wo E pi-Paleolithic s ites a nd a nother c ontaining a n i ndeterminate f lake i ndustry m ade o n w adi p ebbles w ere l ocated i n t he Q a J ashsha a rea ( Sites A Z .238A , A Z .238B a nd A Z .239).

4 .

G eneral C onclusions

B roadly s peaking, s ome e quivalences c an b e p roposed b etween t he a ssemblages i n t he a reas w e h ave s tudied T able 1 . U ntil w e h ave m ore a nd b etter s amples, t he e vidence f rom t he D augara C omplex c an m ean l ittle e xcept t o i ndicate t he p resence o f aL ower P aleolithic e arlier t han t he L ate A cheulean.

3 02

W e c an e quate t he L ate A cheulean o f t he B ire F ormation w ith t he D WA f ound i n t he c onglomerates , o r i n g ravels n ow e roded, i n t he W adis B utm a nd R attama . A ccording t o o ur g eomorphologists, e ach p luvial p eriod c ycle b egins w ith a p hase o f d eep e rosion o f t he s lopes a nd s ubstantial f illing o f t he v alleys. A fterwards t he m oisture a llows t he v egetation t o i ncrease w hich s tops t he e rosion . I t i s d uring t hat t ime t hat as emi-permanent , t hough l ow-lying, l ake c ould e xist i n t he Q a , f orming a c layey d eposit. F inally, t he c limatic c onditions r each e quilibrium a nd a s ilty a ccumulation f orms i n t he b ottom o f t he v alleys, b efore t he n ext c ycle b egins. S o, i n t he c ase o f t he B utm a nd R attama c onglomerates w e s uggest t hat t hey r epresent t he f irst p art o f t he Q f I I f rom P hase 1 2 t o P hase 8 i n t he o xygen i sotope c hronology ( Shackleton a nd O pdyke, 1 976). T he s uccession o f l ater i ndustries s eems t o b e s ecure a t l east f rom a t ypological p oint o f v iew . W hat w e c all t he ' Late E volved A cheulean ' f ollows t he L ate A cheulean o f t he D WA a nd B ire F ormation, e .g . a t S ite K h .S . 3 0 o n t he Z arqa . T his p receeds, o r c ould c o-exist w ith t he e arliest p hases o f, t he A cheulean f acies a t t he A zraq s pring s ites. T ypologically, t he ' Spring A cheulean ' d iffers, e specially i n i ts h igh n umber o f b ifacial c leavers a nd o vates, f rom o ther L evantine A cheuleans s uch a s w ere d istinguished b y G ilead ( 1970); h ence o ur s uggested s eparate n ame f or t he f ad es. C hronologically, i f t he h ints o f aY abrudian p resence h as a ny s ignificance, t he A cheulean o f A zraq f ad es s hould d ate e arlier - a bout 2 00 ,000 y ears B .P ., b ut, a s m entioned i n N ote 1 4, t here i s at ypologically s imilar i ndustry o n t he G olan H eights d ated t o b efore 2 33,000 y ears ( Goren-Inbar, 1 985). H ence, t he c hronological s ituation a t t he e nd o f t he A cheulean i s s till n ot c lear , a nd w ill p robably r emain s o u ntil w e u nderstand t he s edimentological s uccession a ssociated w ith t he i ndustries a nd i ts P aleoclimatic m eaning. A fter t he A cheulean , t he M iddle P aleolithic o ccurs i n t wo p hases. A n e arlier o ne, f ound i n t he Q f It erraces o f t he d esert w adis a nd ( so f ar u nstratified) a t t he s pring s ites , p robably r efers t o t he s tart o f t he L ast P luvial. A l ater p hase , r eferring t o t he f irst h alf o f t he p luvial, i s k nown f rom W adi E noqiyya a nd A l-Bayda. A t s ome t ime d uring t he c ycle, t he L evalloiso-Mousterian o f W adi E noqiyya w as w ashed o ut, t ogether w ith s ome u pper P aleolithic, i nto t he w adi b ed; t his h appened b efore t he K ebaran . M any q uestions r emain u nanswered c oncerning t he P aleolithic i n n orth-central J ordan , w hich s eems t o b e m uch m ore c omplex a nd v aried t han w e h ad i magined. T his , t ogether w ith r emaining g aps i n o ur u nders tanding m akes t he a bove i nterpretation v ery t entative a nd p reliminary. H owever, w e h ope t hat o ur e fforts h ave s erved t o i ncrease t he b ody o f k nowledge a nd t o p oint u p d irections f or f uture w ork.

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p ortion o f t he v alley. I t i s d ifficult t o d ate t hese w ith a ccuracy, b ut a l evallois p oint w as f ound e mbedded i n a c onglomerate a t t he b ase o f f ill D ( see F igure 3 ) a nd a n i n s itu U pper P alaeolithic s ite ( Wadi e l-Jilat 2 8) h as b een f ound i n i ts u ppermost h orizon. T his p articular f ill i s l ithified a nd i s s ectioned b y t he g orge i n t he l ower v alley. A n U pper P alaeolithic s ite d ating t o c . 2 1,000 b .p . w as f ound e roding f rom t he s urface o f f ill C ( see J ilat 9 b elow). C hristopher H unt c ollected a nd a nalysed a p ollen s ample f rom t he u pper p art o f t he l ithified f ill D a nd i t w as d ominated b y h erbaceous p lants ( 72.5%, n =103) e specially C henopodiaceae, G ramineae a nd C ompositeae s uggesting s teppic c onditions. T he p resence o f s mall q uantities o f J uniperus, E phedra , H ypericaceae a nd P istacia i ndicates s ome s crub v egetation i n t he v icinity. T he f inding o f o ne g rain o f A bies a nd t wo o f B etula , w hich m ay h ave c ome f rom t he w estern h ills o f J ordan , s uggests a c ooler c limate t han a t p resent. W aechter e t a l. ( 1938) i dentified 1 0 p rehistoric s ites i n a 2 km s ection o f t he v alley o n e ither s ide o f t he g orge ( 1:50 ,000 s heets 3 252 I a nd 3 253 I I - 5 39 t o 5 65 E ). F urther s urvey b y o urselves w ithin a 6 km s ection ( 505 t o 5 65 E ) h as r evealed a f urther 1 6 s ites o r a rtefact c oncentrations , a nd t he a rea h as n ot b een e xhaustively c overed. S o f ar s even o f t hese s ites h ave b een i nvestigated i n s ome d etail ( for f urther i nformation s ee G arrard e t a l. 1 985b, 1 986, 1 987) ( for l ocation s ee F igure 3 ).

5 .1

W adi e l-Jilat 9

( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 252 I - 5 08 E x 8 64 N )

T his i s t he e arliest i n s itu s ite f ound i n t he v alley a nd i t i s o f l ate U pper P alaeolithic d ate. I t i s l ocated o n t he s outh b ank o f t he w adi , e roding f rom f luvial s ilts b elonging t o t errace C . T he s urface i s d eflated a nd a rtefacts a re s pread o ver a n a rea o f c . 7 ,075 s q. m . T wo 2 x 2 m s oundings w ere c ut. T hat i n t he c entre o f t he s ite r evealed 6 0cm o f f luvial s ilts o verlying c ompacted a eolian s ilts. T wo s oil p rofiles h ad d eveloped i n t he f luvial s ilts. T he u ppermost c ontained t he a rchaeological h orizon w hich h as b een d ated f rom b urnt b one t o 2 1,150 ± 4 00 b .p. ( OxA 5 19). T he s oils a re t hought t o h ave f ormed u nder w etter c onditions t han t he p resent , w hilst t he a eolian s ilts i ndicate a ridity. T he f lint i ndustry f rom t he s ite i s d etailed i n G arrard e t a l. 1 985b a nd 1 986. I t i s e ssentially n on-microlithic a nd d ominated b y e nd s crapers a nd r etouched p ieces. E dge d amaged p ieces, n otches a nd d enticulates a re p resent i n m oderate n umbers a nd s ide s crapers, b urins , t runcations a nd m icroliths i n s mall n umbers. N o n on-flint a rtefacts w ere f ound a nd t here w as n o e vidence o f f eatures/structures. B ones w ere c ollected o f E quus s p., G azella s p., L epus c apensis a nd T estudo g raeca .

3 19

5 .2

W adi e l-Jilat 6

( Waechter e t a l.

1 938 s ite K )

( 1:50,000 s heet 3 253 I I - 5 45 E x 8 87 N )

T his E pipalaeolithic s ite w hich l ies o n c olluvial-alluvial m aterial a t t he v alley s ide i s p artially d eflated a nd h as a h uge a rtefact s pread o f c . 1 8,200 s q. m . A s ingle 2 x 2 m s ounding w as c ut a t i ts h ighest p oint r evealing t hree o ccupational p hases s eparated b y s terile d eposits. T he u pper o ccupation w as 6 0cm i n d epth a nd c ontained a s ilt/clay f loor a nd t wo r ed p igmented h orizontal s urfaces. T he m atrix w as a w ind b lown s ilt i ndicating d ryish c onditions. T he l ower t wo o ccupations w ere t hin a nd c ontained i n ap alaeosol, s uggesting m ore v egetation a nd w etter c onditions. T he f lint i ndustries f rom t he s ite w ere d escribed i n G arrard e t a l. 1 985b a nd 1 986. T he l atest p hase i s m ainly a g eometric b acked b ladelet a ssemblage d ominated b y t riangles , a long w ith s ome l unates a nd m icrogravettes. T he l arger t ools i nclude e nd s crapers, b urins a nd r etouched p ieces. T he m iddle p hase i s c haracterised b y l arge n ong eometric m icroliths o f w hich l a M ouillah p oints a re t he m ost p rominent. S mall n umbers o f t rapezes a nd Q ualkan p oints a re a lso p resent a nd t he n on-microlithic c omponent i ncludes d enticulates , r etouched p ieces a nd s mall n umbers o f e nd s crapers, b urins a nd t runcat ions. T he e arliest p hase i s a lmost e ntirely a m icro1ithic t ool a ssemblage, c onsisting m ainly o f t hin , f inely m ade, c urved , p ointed, a rched-backed p ieces. L arger t ools i nclude r etouched p ieces a nd a f ew e nd s crapers, t runcations, n otches a nd d enticulates. A ll t hree p hases h ave h igh m icroburin i ndexes b ut i n t he u pper a nd l ower p hases t he m icroburin t echnique a ppears t o h ave b een t he e xclusive m ethod f or b reaking b ladelets. O ther a rtefacts i ncluded b asalt g rindstones , m arine s hell b eads, b one p oints a nd a b one p endant. M ammal b ones w ere d ominated b y G azella s p. b ut i ncluded m oderate n umbers o f E quus h emionus, L epus c apensis a nd T estudo g raeca , a nd s mall n umbers o f V ulpes s p ., C anis l upus , B os p rimigenius a nd S us s crofa . B ird b ones i ncluded S truthio c amelus, G alerida c ristata , P terocles o rientalis, P . a lchata a nd S yrrhaptes p aradaxus. C arbonised p lant r emains i ncluded s eeds f rom C henopodiaceae , C ompositae, D raba s p ., C yperaceae, E rodium s p ., G ramineae a nd S crophularia s p. T he a nimal a nd p lant s pecies s uggest a s teppic e nvironment , w ith s ome w ater i n t he v icinity. F our 1 4C d ates w ere o btained f rom t he u pper t wo p hases o f t he s ite - 1 1,450 ± 2 00 ( OxA 5 23), 1 1,740 ± 1 80 ( OxA 5 22), 1 5,520 ± 2 00 ( Oxa 5 24) a nd 1 6 ,010 =1 :200 b .p. ( OxA 5 25) - b ut t hey w ere n ot i n s trict s tratigraphic o rder. T hese a re a ccelerator d ates b ased o n s mall f ragments o f c harcoal a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hey h ad b een s hifted i n t he s oil b y v arious a gencies. T he l owest l evel m ay d ate b ack t o c . 1 9,000 b .p. o n t he b asis o f c omparisons w ith d ated i ndustries f rom W adi e l U waynid s ites 1 4 a nd 1 8 ( see b elow).

3 20

5 .3

W adi e l-Jilat 1 0

( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 252 I - 5 13 E x 8 72 N )

T his p artially d eflated E pipalaeolithic s ite w as c ontained i n a d epression i n c ompacted d une s ilts o n t he n orth b ank o f t he w adi c lose t o J ilat 9 . T he d unes a ppear t o b e m uch m ore a ncient t han t he s ite , a s a d eep b oring s hows t hat t hey a re p artially o verlain b y f luvial d eposits b elonging t o t errace C . T he d une s ilts a re p robably c ont emporary w ith t he a eolian d eposits u nderlying J ilat 9 ( see a bove). A 2x2 m t rench r evealed a t hin o ccupational h orizon o f 1 0-20cm d epth . M any o f t he f lints w ere c onjoinable a nd l ying a t av ariety o f a ngles s uggesting a s hort t erm a ccumulation. T he f lint a ssemblage w as u nusual f or t he p eriod i n h aving a l ow m icrolithic c omponent. T ools w ere l imited t o r etouched b lades, e nd s crapers, b urins a nd t runcations. O nly a f ew b ladelets w ith r etouched p oints a nd b acked b ladelets w ere p resent a nd t his a ll s uggests a s pecialised a ctivity c entre ( Garrard e t a l. 1 985b, 1 986). T wo c oncentrations o f s hell b eads w ere f ound a nd a l arge q uantity o f w ood c harcoal a nd a sh . T he b ones w ere p redominantly o f E quus s p. a nd T estudo g raeca b ut i ncluded o ne b one o f C anis l upus. T hree 1 4C d ates h ave b een o btained f rom t he s ite o f 1 4,790 i t 2 00 ( OxA 5 20), 1 3,120 ± 1 80 ( OxA 1 000) a nd 1 2,700 ± 3 00 b .p. ( OxA 9 18).

5 .4

W adi e l-Jilat 8

( Waechter e t a l. 1 938 s ite E 2) ( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 253 I I -5 53 E x 8 86 N ) T his E pipalaeolithic s ite w hich i s a lso p artially d eflated i s l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he J ilat g orge a nd h as a n a rtefact s pread o f 6 ,400 s q. m . As ingle 2 x 2 m s ounding r evealed 0 .5m o f o ccupational d eposits c ontained i n d une s ilts o verlying l ithified d eposits o f t errace D . T he d une s ilts s uggest d ry c onditions a t t he t ime o f o ccupation . T he t ool a ssemblage ( Garrard e t a l. 1 985b, 1 986) w as d ominated b y b roken b acked b ladelets, b ut a lso c ontained l a M ouillah p oints , c urved, p ointed a rched-backed b ladelets a nd o ccasional t rapezes/rectangles. T he m icroburin t echnique w as u sed f or s egmenting b ladelets. L arger t ools i ncluded e nd s crapers , r etouched p ieces a nd b urins. B asalt g rinding s labs a nd s hell b eads w ere f ound a nd a nimal b ones w ere d ominated b y G azella s p., b ut i ncluded T estudo g raeca , E quus s p., a nd a s ingle b one e ach o f L epus c apensis a nd a n o vicaprid. A1 4C d ate o f 1 3,310 ± 1 20 ( OxA 5 21) w as o btained f rom w ood c harcoal a nd o f 1 0 ,540 i t 1 60 b .p. ( OxA 6 36) f rom b urnt b one.

5 .5

W adi e l-Jilat 7

( Waechter e t a l.

1 938 s ite C ) ( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 253 I I -5 46 E x 8 85 N )

T his P re-Pottery N eolithic B s ite i s d eflated a nd h as a n a rtefact s pread o f c . 2 ,200 s q. m . I t l ies o n ar ocky s pur b eside a d eep s easonal p ool ( possibly a rtificially d eepened) i n t he J ilat g orge. T hree c lusters o f w alled s tructures a re v isible a t t he s urface. T wo 2 x2 m s oundings w ere e xcavated, o ne o f w hich c ut t he s ide o f a c ircular

3 21

5 m d iameter s tructure. I t w as b uilt f rom u pright s labs o f l imestone f rom t he u nderlying t errace D , a nd i t h ad i nternal s ubdivisions o r b ins c onstructed i n s imilar f ashion . T he s labs r est o n t he t errace l imes tone w hich a ppears t o h ave f ormed t he f irst o ccupational s urface a nd t o h ave b een s lightly h ollowed o ut. T he f lint t ool k it ( Garrard e t a l. 1 985b, 1 986) i ncluded a w ide v ariety o f a rrowheads: s ingle a nd m ultiple n otched t ypes, t anged p oints o f B yblos s tyle, w inged f orms o f J ericho t ype a nd e longated p ressure f laked A muq p oints. B urins a nd b orers ( some p repared o n b urin s palls) w ere c ommon , s crapers l ess c ommon a nd s ickle b lades r are. I n a ddition , b lack o bsidian f lakes, g reen D abba m arble a nd m arine s hell b eads, a l imestone p alette a nd a nimal f igurine, a nd a r ange o f g rounds tone p ounding a nd g rinding t ools w ere f ound ( Garrard e t a l. 1 986). T he s ource o f D abba m arble l ies o nly 1 0km t o t he n orth-west a nd t here w ere m any r ough f ragments/flakes o f t he m aterial o n t he s ite. T he m ammal b ones w ere p redominantly o f G azella s p. b ut i ncluded n umerous b ones o f T estudo g raeca a nd L epus c apensis, a nd s maller n umbers o f V ulpes s p. a nd o ne b one e ach o f C anis l upus, F ells s p. a nd B os p rimigenius. T he b ird b ones w ere f rom S yrrhaptes p aradaxus , P terocles a lchata , C iconia s p. w hich i s p resently a s pring a nd a utumn m igrant, N eophron p ercnopterus w hich i s p resently a s ummer v isitor a nd K etupa s eylonensis w hich i s t oday a ssociated w ith t he M editerranean a nd G ulf c oasts ( Heinzel e t a l. 1 972). T here w as a bsolutely n o e vidence o f e quids o r o vicaprids, a lthough t he l atter a ppears t o h ave b een u nderg oing d omestication a t c ontemporary s ites i n m ore f ertile l ocalities ( Uerpmann 1 978, C lutton B rock 1 979, K oehler-Rollefson t his v olume). O n t he o ther h and, c arbonised p lant r emains i ncluded T riticum m onococcum ( cultivated e inkorn) a nd H ordeum s ativum ( cultivated b arley) g rain a nd s pikelet f ragments. O ther p lant r emains w ere f rom H ordeum s pontaneum ( wild b arley), a r ange o f o ther g rasses, P istacia s p., C apparis s p ., C henopodiaceae, S cirpus s p., F umaria s p., E rodium s p ., M uscari s p ., P lantago s p. a nd L eguminaceae. T he a nimal a nd p lant r emains a gain s uggest a s teppic e nvironment w ith a l ittle w ater i n t he v icinity. T wo 1 4C d ates w ere o btained o n w ood c harcoal o f 8 ,520 ± 1 10 5 27) a nd 8 ,810 ± 1 10 b .p. ( OxA 5 26).

5 .6

( OxA

W adi e l-Jilat 2 3

( Waechter e t a l. 1 938 s ite G , s ee a lso W aechter 1 947) 3 253 I I - 5 56 E x 8 87 N )

( 1:50 ,000

s heet

T his " Burin N eolithic" s ite i s l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he J ilat g orge a nd c onsists o f ad iffuse s catter o f a rtefacts c overing c . 4 ,500 s q. m . W ithin t his i s a l arge s tone c ircle o r c orral o f c . 1 8m d iameter b uilt f rom u pright s labs o f l imestone f rom t he u nderlying t errace D . T hree 1 s q. m s oundings w ere c ut d own t o t he t errace l imes tone b ut o nly c ontained a s mall n umber o f f lint a rtefacts ( Garrard e t a l. 1 987). T he f lint a ssemblage w as c haracterised b y h igh p roportions o f b urins, p articularly o n c oncave t runcations, t ogether w ith s ome f lake a nd t abular s crapers, b ifacial k nives , l eaf-shaped p ieces, d rills o r

3 22

b urin s palls, b orers a nd a v ery f ew s ickles a nd s mall a rrowheads o f l ate N eolithic t ype . As imilar " Burin N eolithic" i ndustry f rom J ebel N aja t o t he e ast o f A zraq w as d ated t o 7 ,430 ± 1 00 b .p. ( OxA 3 75) ( Betts 1 986 , t his v olume).

5 .7

W adi e l-Jilat 2 4

( Waechter e t a l.

1 938 s ite E 1) ( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 253 I I -5 50 E x 8 87 N )

T his " Burin N eolithic" s ite i s a lso l ocated o n t he n orth s ide o f t he J ilat g orge a nd h as a n a rtefact s pread c overing c . 3 90 s q. m . W ithin t his i s as ingle s tone c ircle o f c . 4 m d iameter b uilt f rom t wo c oncentric r ings o f u pright l imestone s labs f rom t he u nderlying t errace D . A s ingle 3 x 2 m t rench w as c ut d own t o t he t errace l imestone, b ut p roduced v ery f ew a rtefacts ( Garrard e t a l. 1 987). T hese w ere s imilar i n r ange t o t hose f rom J ilat 2 3.

6 .

R esults o f S tudies i n W adi e l-Uwaynid

T he W adi e l-Uwaynid r uns a long t he s outhern s ide o f J ebel U waynid, a b asalt o utlier w hich i s l ocated t o t he i mmediate w est o f A zraq e shS hishan ( Figure 2 ). I t l ies o n t he n orth s ide o f a l arge r elic p laya k nown a s A l M afarish ( Qa B utm) w hich f ormerly a cted a s a s ump f or t he W adi e l-Butm a nd W adi e l-Janab. D uring 1 982, w hen w e w ere u ndertaking o ur f irst g eomorphological w ork i n t he r egion , w e n oticed w hat a ppeared t o b e l acustrine e vaporites e xtending u p t he W adi e l-Uwaynid a s f ar a s t he 5 30m c ontour. A s earch o f o ther w adis l eading i nto t he c entral p laya r evealed a s imilar s ituation . W hilst s urveying i n W adi e l-Uwaynid w e a lso n oticed t wo E pipalaeolithic s ites ( Uwaynid 1 4 a nd 1 8) e roding f rom b eneath t hese d eposits . F rom t his w e s peculated t hat t here m ay h ave b een a m uch l arger l ake i n t he B asin d uring t he l ate G lacial ( Garrard e t a l. 1 985a, 1 985b). D uring o ur 1 985 s eason , w e r eturned t o W adi e l-Uwaynid a nd e xcavated a t b oth t he s ites. W hen w e c ut o ur s ections, w e r ealised t hat t he s ediments w e h ad i dentified a s l ake d eposits w ere i n f act t hick c aliches w hich h ad f ormed e ither a s a r esult o f t he l eaching t o t he s urface o f l arge q uantities o f c arbonates a nd s ulphates f rom a h igh w ater t able o r f rom t he a eolian o r f luvial d eposition o f s ediments r ich i n t hese m inerals ( Garrard e t a l. 1 986 p . 2 4 ; 1 987).

6 .1

U waynid 1 4 a nd 1 8

( 1:50,000 1 88 N )

s heet 3 353 I V - S ite 1 4 = 8 51 E x 1 87 N , S ite 1 8 =8 49

E

x

T hese t wo s ites a re l ocated i n at errace o n t he s outh s ide o f W adi e l-Uwaynid a bout 0 .5km s outh-west o f t he R oman f ort o f Q asr U waynid a nd i ts a ssociated s pring . T he s ites l ie a bout 1 20m a part a nd a re p resently b eing e roded b y t ributaries o f t he m ain w adi. I t i s p ossible t hat t here w as o nce a c ontinuous s pread o f o ccupation b etween t he t wo

3 23

4.-

r

3 24

l ocalities ( Figure 4 ). F our s oundings w ere c ut a t U waynid 1 4 a nd 1 8 a nd t hese d isplay s imilar s edimentary s equences. A ll t he o ccupational m aterial i s c ontained i n s oil p rofiles w hich h ave d eveloped i n f ormer a eolian s ediments. T he s oils s uggest h igher w ater t ables , m ore v egetation a nd p robably w etter c onditions t han t he p resent. O verlying t he s oils a re f urther a eolian a nd p ossibly f ine g rained f luvial s ediments i n w hich a c arbonate c aliche h as f ormed. S ubsequently t he a rea h as b een i ncised b y t ributaries o f t he W adi e l-Uwaynid l eaving t he s ites e xposed a t t he e dge o f a n e roding t errace. T rench 1 ( sq. 1 -4) a t U waynid 1 4 c ontained l ittle o ccupation b ut t rench 2 ( sq. 5 -10) r evealed t hree t hin c ultural h orizons ( 2-3cm t hick), e ach s eparated b y 1 0-20cm o f s terile d eposits. V ery f ew d iagnostic a rtefacts w ere f ound i n t he l ower l evel b ut t he f lint i ndustries i n t he m iddle a nd u pper h orizons w ere d ominated b y n ong eometric m icroliths . T he m icroburin t echnique w as i n u se f or b ladelet t runcation . T he u pper p hase i ndustry w as c haracterised b y l a M ouillah p oints a nd d ouble t runcated b acked b ladelets w ith s maller q uantities o f t runated p ieces , e nd s crapers, b urins, r etouched p ieces a nd c urved p ointed a rched-backed b ladelets. T he m iddle p hase w as d ominated b y s mall c urved p ointed a rched-backed p ieces w ith l esser n umbers o f l a M ouillah p oints, d ouble t runcated b acked b ladelets, r etouched p ieces, b urins a nd t runcations ( Garrard e t a l. 1 987). T he s hift i n i ndustry b etween t he m iddle a nd u pper p hases a t U waynid 1 4 i s v ery s imilar t o t hat b etween t he l ower a nd m iddle p hases a t J ilat 6 ( see a bove) a nd i n b oth c ases t he m aterial w as c ontained i n s oil p rofiles w hich h ad d eveloped i n a eolian s ediments, s uggesting w etter c onditions t han t he p resent. A part f rom f lints, n o o ther a rtefacts w ere f ound a nd o nly e leven a nimal b ones b elonging t o G azella s p., L epus c apensis, T estudo g raeca , E quus s p. a nd B os p rimigenius. T wo 1 4C d ates w ere o btained o n f ragments o f c harcoal m iddle a nd u pper l evels o f t he s ite o f 1 8 ,400 ± 2 50 ( OxA 1 8 ,900 ± 2 50 b .p. ( OxA 8 65).

f rom 8 66)

t he a nd

T rench 1 ( sq. 1 -4) a t U waynid 1 8 y ielded l ittle c ultural m aterial b ut t rench 2 ( sq . 5 -10) p roduced 7 0cm d epth o f o ccupational d eposits i ncluding s everal h earths. O ne o f t hese c ontained a q uantity o f b asalt p ebbles w hich m ay h ave b een u sed f or h eat s torage/cooking p urposes. D iagnostic f lints w ere o nly o btained f rom t he u pper 3 5cm a nd t hese c losely r esemble t he i ndustry f rom t he m iddle p hase a t U waynid 1 4 a nd t he l ower p hase a t J ilat 6 . C urved p ointed a rched-backed b ladelets p redominate, w hilst r etouched p ieces, e nd s crapers, t runcations, p ointed b acked b ladelets a nd e dge d amaged p ieces o ccur i n l ow n umbers ( Garrard e t a l. 1 987). I n a ddition t o f lint a rtefacts , s pecial f inds i ncluded a b asalt g rinding s tone, s hell b eads a nd p ieces o f o chre. T he s ite w as r ich i n a nimal b ones a nd t hese w ere p redominantly f rom G azella s ubgutturosa b ut i ncluded m oderate n umbers o f T estudo g raeca a nd E quus s p., a nd s maller q uantities o f B os p rimigenius, a nd L epus c apensis. S ingle b ones w ere

3 25

f ound o f C amelus s p., a n o vicaprid, C anis l upus a nd R allus a quaticus . T hree 1 4C d ates w ere o btained. T he f irst, f rom t he t op c ultural l evel i n t rench 2 w as 1 9,800 j : 350 ( OxA 8 64), t he s econd f rom a h earth a t t he b ase o f t he o ccupational l evels i n t rench 2 w as 2 3 ,200 ± 4 00 b .p. ( OxA 8 67) a nd t he t hird f rom a h earth i n t rench 1 w as 1 9,500 ± 2 50 ( OxA 8 68). T here w ere n o d iagnostic i ndustries a ssociated w ith t he s econd a nd t hird d ates.

7 .

R esults o f S tudies a round t he A zraq M arshes

T he p resent s easonal l ake o r p laya a t A zraq ( Qa e l-Azraq) c an f lood t o ad epth o f 2 m a nd c over a n a rea o f 5 0 s q. k m i n w et w inters , b ut i t i s i mpossible t o g eneralise a bout t he e xtent a nd t iming o f f looding a s i n s ome y ears i t d oes n ot f lood a t a ll a nd i n r arer c ircumstances i t c an r emain f looded a ll s ummer. A s a r esult o f t he l ong-term a ccumulation o f s alts i n t his c entral s ump, t he s ubsurface a quifer i s e xtremely s aline. I n a ddition t o t he p laya, w hich f ills f rom s urface r unoff, a s eries o f c opious f reshwater s prings r ise a round i ts w estern a nd n orthern p eriphery, f ed l argely b y d rainage f rom b eneath t he b asalt f lows l ying t o t he n orth ( Figure 2 ). T he t wo l argest s prings, a t A zraq e sh-Shishan a nd A zraq e d-Duruz, s upply m arshl and a reas c overing u p t o c . 6a nd 2 s q. k m r espectively ( U.N .D .P . 1 966, N elson 1 973). D uring t he 1 985 s eason , C hristopher H unt i nvestigated a n umber o f s ections i n a nd a round t he c entral p laya , i n a n a ttempt t o r econstruct t he g eomorphological/hydrological h istory o f t he c entral B asin . H e b egan b y i nvestigating t he s ections o f t wo 5 m d eep b rine p its w hich l ay a bout 4 .5km a part, a djacent t o t he e astern p erimeter f ence o f t he R oyal S ociety f or t he C onservation o f N ature 's ' Azraq W etland R eserve ' ( pit 1c . 9 79 E x 2 11 N ; p it 2 c . 9 74 E x 2 54 N - 1 :50 ,000 s heet 3 353 I ). A lthough t here w ere s uperficial d ifferences b etween t he t wo s ections ( probably r esulting f rom o ne b eing f urther o ut i n t he p laya t han t he o ther) an umber o f m ajor s edimentary e vents a nd e rosional s urfaces c ould b e r ecognised i n b oth ( Figure 6 ). T hese a re l ikely t o r esult f rom m ajor p alaeoenvironmental c hanges, w hich w ere p robably s ynchronous t hroughout t he B asin . T he s equence d escribed b elow i s ag eneralised v ersion o f t hat f ound i n p it 1 w hich l ay a t t he S E c orner o f t he W etland R eserve. a )

c . 0 .9m o f b rown i rregularly l aminated s ilts w hich s eem l ikely t o h ave b een l aid d own i n am ud-flat e nvironment s imilar t o t he m odern p laya.

b )

R ip-up b reccia i ndicating v ery l ow l ake r epresenting a c onsiderable u nconformity . s ediments i ndicates g reat a ridity.

c )

c . 1 .4m o f g reen-grey p oorly l aminated s ilts w hich w ere d eposited i n as aline l ake. T he a bsense o f m ud-cracks r egularity o f t he l aminations s uggests i t w as p erennial.

3 26

l evels S trong

a nd p ossibly r eddening o f

p robably a nd t he

3 27

M ap o f A zraq e sh S hishan m arsh a rea s howing l ocation o f m ajor s ites.

d )

c . 1 .0m o f p ale p ink l imestones w ith t hin g reen s ilt 1i nterbeds w hich a re i nterpreted a s s ediments o f av ery s aline l ake.

e )

E rosion s urface w ith b asal g ravel.

f )

c . 1 .5m o f g reen-grey l acustrine s ilts w ith r ed m ud-flat a nd m arsh s ilt i nterbeds. T hese a re i nterpreted o n d iatom e vidence a s e vidence o f a f reshwater l ake.

A t t he p resent t ime w e h ave n o r adiometric d ates t o a nchor t his s equence, b ut c arbonate s amples h ave b een s ubmitted f or U /Th d ating. M oving i nland f rom t he c entral p laya, Q uaternary l imestones a re e xposed b eneath t he N eolithic s ite o f A zraq 3 1 o n t he w est s ide o f t he p laya ( Figure 5 a nd s ee b elow) a nd b eneath a n E pipalaeolithic s ite n ear A in e l-Beidha ( c. 0 05 E x 2 94 N - 1 :50,000 s heet 3 353 I ) o n t he n orth s ide. C arbonate s amples h ave a gain b een s ubmitted f or U /Th d ating. I n o rder t o o btain a l ong s edimentological s equence, f rom s lightly f urther i nland, w e c ut a 3 x 3 m t rench i n t he n eighbourhood o f C S pring ( Azraq 2 1), w hich i s l ocated i n t he m arshes j ust s outh o f A zraq e shS hishan ( Figure 5 ) ( c. 9 34 E x 2 30 N - 1 :50 ,000 s heet 3 353 I ). A L ower/Middle P aleolithic s ite w as f ound i n t his l ocality b ack i n 1 956 , w hilst a c anal w as b eing e xcavated ( Baker a nd H arza 1 958 , K irkbride u npublished, Z euner u npublished, C lutton-Brock 1 970 , C opeland t his v olume) a nd N eolithic a nd E pipalaeolithic i mplements h ad b een f ound i n t he a djacent c anal s poil h eaps b y t he a uthors . T he m ain f eatures o f t he s equence w ere a s f ollows: a )

T he t op 0 .9 - 1 .5m c onsisted o f a eolian s ilts, s imilar t o t hose c ollecting i n t he a rea t oday. T here w as s econdary c arbonate i nduration a t t heir b ase a nd a P re-Pottery N eolithic B t ype a rrowh ead w as f ound i n t his l evel. T he s ediments s uggest t hat a rid c onditions e xtend b ack a s f ar a s t he N eolithic.

b )

0 .4 - 1 .0m o f g reenish-grey s ilt-clay o f m arsh o rigin . S everal b acked b ladelets w ere f ound i n t his s ediment i ndicating a n E pipalaeolithic a ge. G iven t hat f reshwater s prings a nd m arshland a re s till f ound i n t his l ocality t oday, t he p resence o f a ncient m arsh c lays m ay n ot i ndicate a c hange i n c limate b ut s imply a s hift i n t he p osition o f t he s ump.

c )

A t c . 2 .0m t here w as a m ajor u nconformity i n t he s equence a nd t he s urface o f t he u nderlying s ediment w as c overed w ith a t hin v eneer o f c ompacted c reamy s and. F rom t he a rchaeological s uccession i t w ould a ppear t hat t he u nconformity r epresents a v ery l ong t ime i nterval, d uring w hich t here m ay h ave b een c onsiderable s edimentation a s w ell a s e rosion .

d )

B eneath t he u nconformity, w as a f urther 0 .8 - 1 .0m o f g reenish-grey s ilt-clay o f s aline m arsh o rigin . T his c ontained a n umber o f s mall u ndiagnostic f lint f lakes .

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1 1

e) At a depth of 2.85 - 2.95m the clay gave way to a blue-grey silt. This was water saturated and again laid down in a saline marsh. Sparse but pristine implements were found in this level which may well belong to the same evolved Acheulean as in the underlying deposit (Copeland p.c., this volume). Several fragments of poorly preserved bone and bovid teeth were also located. f) At c. 3.1 - 3.2m depth we found a 10-20cm thick layer of pristine but densely packed bifaces, flake tools and debitage with a very low levallois index (see Copeland this volume). These were con­ tained in a blue-grey silt similar to the above. At present it is unclear whether the high density of artefacts results from the removal of small particles by fluvial or perhaps aeolian activity, or whether they are sitting more or less in situ. The razor sharp edges of the artefacts and the presence of debitage of all sizes suggests that the material has not moved far. Further similar artefacts were found in a yellow-grey silt beneath. g) Underlying the artefact horizon was a culturally sterile rolled flint pebble fluvial deposit. We stopped excavation at 3.5m because of problems with controlling the seepage of ground-water in this very porous horizon. None of the layers described above would require a radically different climate than the present day's, and as can be seen there is no evidence for a major lake incursion. However there is at least one major time gap in the sequence, which in this case could represent at least 100,000 years(!). We hope in a future season to cut soundings at two other spring sites (Ain el Enoqiyya(c. 953 E x 329 N - 1:50,000 sheet 3353 I) and Ain el Beidha(see above)) on the north-west and north-eastern sides of the playa where artefacts of many periods from Acheulian through to Neolithic have been discovered (see Copeland this volume). Rollefson has been investigating a further late Acheulean / Middle Palaeolithic/ Neolithic spring site known as Ain el-Assad (Lion Spring, Azraq 1) which is located 1.5km to the south-west of C Spring (Figure 5)(c. 917 E x 222 N - 1:50,000 sheet 3353 I) (Harding 1958, Rollefson 1983, Copeland this volume). No certain Upper Paleolithic sites have been located but a number of Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites have been found in the silt dunes surrounding the marshes as well as on the rim of the basalt flows around Azraq ed-Duruz (Garrard et al. 1977, 1985, 1987). We have so far sounded three of these sites. 7.1 Azrag 17 (1:50,000 sheet 3353 I, 939 Ex 239 N) This Epipalaeolithic site is located on an island in the present Azraq esh-Shishan marshes (see Figure 5) and has a surface area of c. 5000 sq. m. Two soundings were cut, trench 1 of 6 sq. m(sq. 1-6) and trench 2 of 9 sq. m (sq. 7-15), but in both cases excavations were limited to superficial deposits as tough calcretes were encountered at 10-20cm depth. It is possible that these contain cultural material. 330

T he f lint i ndustries f rom t he t wo t renches a re q uite d issimilar a nd a re l ikely t o d ate f rom d ifferent t ime p eriods ( for d etail s ee G arrard e t a l. 1 987). T he t ools f rom t rench 1 a re p rimarily m icrol ithic a nd i nclude b roken b acked b ladelets , l unates a nd s mall s ymmetric t riangles. T he m icroburin t echnique w as i n c ommon u se a nd t he o verall i ndustry h as a s uperficial r esemblance t o t he u pper l evel a t J ilat 6 ( see a bove). B y c ontrast, m icroliths f orm a s mall c omponent o f t he t rench 2 a ssemblage a nd a re m ainly c omprised o f v ery t hin b ladelets w ith m arginal o r t hin r etouch. T he l arger t ools i nclude e ndscrapers, r etouched p ieces a nd b urins. M icroburins a re r are. T he i ndustry s hares s ome s imilarities w ith t he e arliest p hases a t K haraneh 4 ( Muheisen 1 983), s uggesting a l ate U pper P alaeolithic o r e arly E pipalaeolithic d ate . H owever, t he o nly 1 4C d ate o btained ( based o n c harcoal) w as l ate,. b eing 1 3,260 ± 2 00 b .p. ( OxA 8 69). A b asalt g rinder w as f ound i n t rench 2 a nd t he f aunal r emains w ere d ominated b y G azella s p., b ut i ncluded s mall n umbers o f B os p rimigenius a nd E quus s p. b ones.

7 .2

A zraq 1 8

( 1:50,000 s heet 3 353 I , 9 36 E x 2 27 N )

T his s econd E pipalaeolithic s ite i s l ocated a mongst s ilt d unes i n t he n eighbourhood o f a s mall s pring c . l km s outh o f t he p resent d ay A zraq e sh-Shishan m arsh ( Figure 5 ). D eflated a rtefacts w ere f ound o ver a n a rea o f c . 2 ,200 s q. m . A s ingle 6 s q. m t rench w as e xcavated, r evealing c . 3 0cm o f r ich o ccupational d eposits c ontained i n s emic arbonate i ndurated a eolian s ilts. T he s tone t ools w ere d escribed i n G arrard e t a l. 1 987 a nd s how h omogeneity t hrough a ll l evels. T he t ool a ssemblage i s d ominated b y m icroliths, o f w hich l unates c onstitute t he v ast m ajority. T hese h ave h elwan , b ipolar o r a brupt r etouch . O ther t ools i nclude r etouched p ieces a nd t runcations, a nd r are e nd s crapers, d rills a nd f inely n otched p ieces. M icroburins a re s carce . T he i ndustry h as m uch i n c ommon w ith t he P alestinian N atufian a nd w ith t hat f ound a t t he B asalt D esert s ite o f 1 4/7 ( Betts 1 982). O ther a rtefacts i nclude f ragments o f b asalt g rind-stones , a s ands tone d rill b ase , b one p oints, p ieces o f o chre a nd m arine s hell b eads. T he s ite w as r ich i n f aunal r emains a mongst w hich t he m ain s pecies w ere B os p rimigenius, E quus h emionus a nd G azella s p. C attle b ones w ere c ommoner a t t his s ite t han a t a ny o ther t ested a nd t his w as p robably r elated t o t he p roximity o f t he m arsh . T he c attle r emains i ncluded a c omplete h orn c ore w hich w as f ound s tanding i n a n a rched p osition i n t he g round a s t hough p ushed i nto s oft m ud. O ther s pecimens i ncluded t wo E quus h ydruntinus t eeth , a nd o ne b one e ach o f L epus c apensis, V ulpes s p. a nd C anis l upus. T he b ird r emains i ncluded t wo d ucks - A nas a cuta a nd A nas q uerquedula, t he f irst o f w hich i s p resently a w inter r esident a nd t he s econd a s pring a nd a utumn m igrant i n t he a rea ( Heinzel e t a l. 1 972). T he c rushed r emains o f f our o r m ore h uman s keletons w ere f ound i n t he b asal l evels, b ut t here w as n o s tratigraphic e vidence f or a b urial p it . T he s keletons h ad b een d isturbed b y l ater o ccupation .

3 31

7 .3

A zraq 3 1

( 1:50 ,000 s heet 3 353 I , 9 44 E x 2 24 N )

T his N eolithic s ite i s l ocated o n as helf o f Q uaternary l imestone w hich o utcrops o n t he w estern s hore o f t he p resent Q a e l-Azraq ( the c entral p laya) ( Figure 5 ). T he s urface s catter o f a rtefacts c overs a n a rea o f c . 4 ,300 s q. m . T hree s oundings w ere e xcavated a t t he s ite , b ut o nly t rench 1 ( sq . 1 -4), w hich w as l ocated t owards t he c entre , p roduced i n s itu u ndisturbed m aterial. T he t rench r evealed c . 4 0cm o f o ccupational d ebris i n am atrix o f a eolian s ilt/sand. A s eries o f s uperimposed h earths w ere f ound a t t he b ase , o verlain b y ap avement o f a ngular l imestone p ebbles. A s ingle 1 4C d ate o f 8 ,350 1: 1 20 b .p. ( OxA 8 70) w as o btained o n a c harcoal f ragment f rom o ne o f t he h earths. T he f lint a ssemblage i s p resently u nique i n E astern J ordan a nd s eems t o f all t ypologically b etween t he P re-Pottery N eolithic B a nd l ate N eolithic ( see G arrard e t a l. 1 987). T he a rrowheads i nclude P PNB f orms s uch a s B yblos a nd B eidha ( =Amuq) p oints a nd l ate N eolithic f orms i ncluding s mall f inely p ressure f laked p oints a nd l eaf s haped a rrowh eads o f H erzeliya t ype. B urins a re c ommon , i ncluding f orms m ade o n c oncave t runcations, d ihedral t ypes a nd b urins o n b reaks . B ifacial p ieces i nclude t ile k nives a nd s ickles ( finely p ressure-flaked , c urving, b ifacial k nives). T here a re a lso a n umber o f b orers m ade o n b urin s palls. I n a ddition t o f lint a rtefacts, a n umber o f g round a nd c arved s tone o bjects w ere f ound, i ncluding b asalt g rinding f ragments, b eads a nd a l imestone p alette . M any o f t he s tone b eads w ere m ade f rom g reen D abba m arble , w hose s ource l ies t o t he i mmediate w est o f W adi e l-Jilat , 6 5km t o t he s outh-west o f A zraq. An umber o f s hell b eads a nd b one p oints w ere a lso u nearthed. T he p lant a nd a nimal r emains w ere o f p articular i nterest. A s a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic B s ite o f J ilat 7 , w hich w as 1 4C d ated t o c . 8 ,800 - 8 ,500 b .p., t here w as e vidence o f c ultivated b arley ( Hordeum s ativum). I t i s p ossible t hat t his w as i rrigation c ultivated c lose t o t he a djacent m arsh o r o n t he m udflat, o r t hat i t w as i mported f rom f urther a field. O nly a dditional e xcavation a nd l arger s amples w ill h elp u s t o d etermine t his. I n a ddition , o ne g rain o f a f ree t hreshing w heat ( Triticum s p.) w as f ound. O ther g rasses i ncluded c f . A egilops s p. a nd P halaris s p. T here w ere a l arge n umber o f C yperaceae ( sedge) k ernals i ndicating t he p roximity o f t he m arsh . T here w ere a lso a l arge n umber o f l egume s eeds p robably b elonging t o e ither V icia o r L athyrus . I n c ommon w ith t he e arlier s ites , t he a nimal b ones w ere d ominated b y G azella s p. a nd i ncluded s maller n umbers o f L epus c apensis , E quus s p., B os p rimigenius, V ulpes s p., C anis l upus a nd F elis s p. T here w ere a lso a w ide r ange o f w ater a s w ell a s s teppe/desert b irds i ncluding F ulica a tra, C ircus a eruginosus, P terocles a lchata w hich a re p resently r esident i n t he a rea , R allus a quaticus a nd A nas c recca w hich a re w inter v isitors, B ucephala c langula w hich p resently d oes n ot w inter f urther s outh t han T urkey a nd S yrrhaptes p aradoxus w hich i s a c entral A sian s pecies ( Heinzel e t a l. 1 972). O f c onsiderable i nterest w as t he f indi ng o f 1 07 o vicaprid b ones ( 12.5% o f t otal i dentifiable s ample). S ince, w ith t he e xception o f t wo i solated f ragments, n o o ther g oat/ s heep r emains h ave b een f ound i n t he J ilat, U waynid a nd A zraq s ites, i t

3 32

s trongly s uggests t hat t hese a nimals w ere d omestic. W e h ave n ot y et d etermined w hether t here i s a ny m orphological e vidence f or s uch a r elationship.

8 .

C onclusions

T here i s o bviously s till a c onsiderable a mount o f w ork t o b e d one i n t he A zraq B asin b efore w e c an m ake a d etailed s tatement a bout t he h istory o f e nvironment, s ettlement , s ubsistence, t echnology e tc. H owever c ertain p oints a re a lready e vident. a )

I t i s c lear f rom s edimentary p rofiles i n d ated s ites i n W adi e lJ ilat a nd U waynid t hat t he c limate w as s omewhat w etter d uring p eriods b etween c . 2 3 ,000 ( Uwaynid 1 8) a nd c . 1 5,000 b .p. ( Jilat 6 ). S oils f ormed a t t his t ime s uggesting h igher w ater t ables a nd a c ontinuous v egetational c over. T he a nimal r emains s uggest s teppic r ather t han w oodland c onditions. L ate E pipalaeolithic a nd N eolithic s ites ( post 1 5 ,000 b .p.) a re c ontained i n a eolian s ediments s uggesting d rier c onditions m ore a kin t o t he p resent. I t i s h oped t hat f urther s tudy o f t he p alaeob otanical r emains , a nd t he r adiometric d ating o f t he b rine p it s ections i n Q a e l-Azraq, w ill a llow u s t o o btain a m ore d etailed p icture o f c limatic a nd e nvironmental c hange.

b )

O ur k nowledge o f s ettlement p atterns i s s till v ery s ketchy. D erived l ate L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic a rtefacts a re a bundant i n m any o f t he w adis l eading i nto t he c entral B asin a nd f rom t his i t i s o bvious t hat m uch o f t he a rea w as b eing u sed d uring s tages o f t his e xtremely l ong t ime p eriod. H owever w ith t he p ossible e xcept ion o f o ne o r t wo o f t he s pring s ites , a lmost n o i n s itu m aterial h as b een f ound a nd t his i s a lmost c ertainly r elated t o t he s hallow t opography a nd t horough s couring t he l andscape h as h ad s ince t hat d ate. U pper P alaeolithic s ites a ppear t o b e m uch s carcer, b ut t his m ay b e p artly i llusory. T he p eriod r epresented i s c onsiderably s horter t han t he p receeding M iddle a nd L ower P alaeolithic , a nd s o o ne w ould n ot e xpect s uch a h igh d ensity o f f inds. C omparisons w ith t he d ensity a nd d istribution o f l ater s ites a re m ade d ifficult b y t he r elatively g reater e ffects o f e rosional a nd a ggradational f actors. E pipalaeolithic, P re-Pottery N eolithic a nd B urin s ites a re w idespread i n t he w adis l eading i nto t he B asin , a round t he c entral s prings a nd a long t he b asalt m argins. S everal o f t he E pipalaeolithic s ites a re e xtremely l arge r elative t o o thers k nown f rom t he t ime p eriod ( e.g. J ilat 6 , K haraneh 4 - M uheisen 1 983), b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t hese s ites c onsist o f a p alimpsest o f s maller o ccupations w hich h ave p artially d eflated i nto o ne l arge m ound. I t w ould b e v ery i nteresting t o u ndertake f urther e xcavat ion a t s uch a s ite t o s ee i f t here i s a ny o bvious f unctional r eason ( such a s t he l ocation o f d wellings o r s torage f acilities) f or t he f requent r euse o f t hese l ocations.

3 33

c )

W e h ave e vidence t hat c ultivated b arley a nd e inkorn w as b eing u sed i n t he J ilat a rea b y 8 ,800 - 8 ,500 b .p. ( Jilat 7 ) a nd t hat c ultivated b arley a nd f ree t hreshing w heat w ere p roviding s ustainance i n t he A zraq r egion b y c . 8 ,350 b .p. ( Azraq 3 1). G iven t he r elatively d ry c onditions i ndicated b y t he s ediments a t t hese s ites, i t s eems l ikely t hat s ome f orm o f i rrigation m ust h ave b een p ractised i f t hey w ere g rown l ocally. T his w ould h ave b een p ossible w ith f resh w ater f rom t he s prings a t A zraq o r f rom t he g orge a t J ilat. I t i s a lso h owever p ossible t hat t he g rain w as i mported f rom m ore f ertile l ocalities t o t he w est. I t i s h oped t hat f urther e xcavation a nd l arger s amples w ill a llow u s t o d etermine m ore o f t he h abitat i n w hich t he c rops w ere g rown , a nd w hether t hey w ere p rocessed l ocally.

d )

P rior t o c . 8 ,350 b .p. t here i s n o e vidence f or t he e xploitation o f e ither w ild o r d omestic o vicaprids i n t he s tudy a reas , a nd t he p opulation a ppears t o h ave d epended o n t he l ocal s teppe f auna i .e. g azelle , a ss , h are, t ortoise e tc . f or t heir m eat d iet. C attle w ere o f l ocal i mportance i n t he A zraq o asis a rea. U ntil f urther a nalysis h as b een u ndertaken o n s laughter p atterns, w e a re u nable t o d etermine t he n ature o f m an 's r elationship w ith t he d ominant s pecies a nd p articularly w ith g azelle. T he f irst e vidence f or o vicaprid p astoralism c omes f rom t he N eolithic s ite o f A zraq 3 1 w here 1 2.5% o f t he i dentifiable b ones b elong t o g oat a nd s heep . A s ingle 1 4C d ate f rom a h earth a t t his s ite w as d ated t o 8 ,350 ± 1 20 b .p. T his i s b etween 5 00 a nd 1 000 y ears l ater t han t he f irst m orphological e vidence f or c lose h erding f rom s ites s uch a s J ericho ( Clutton B rock 1 979) a nd A in G hazal ( Koehler-Rollefson t his v olume) l ying i n m ore f ertile l ocalities t o t he w est. A t t he p resent t ime o ur s ample s izes a re t oo s mall t o d etermine w hether t he l ivestock m ay h ave b een k ept f or a nything b eyond m eat p roducts, b ut i t i s h oped t hat f urther e xcavation w ill p rovide u s w ith m ore d ata .

N ote 1 .

P lease n ote t hat t his c orrects a s tatement p ublished i n G arrard e t a l. ( 1987) p . 1 7, w hich w as b ased o n f ield o bservations o nly.

3 34

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L ondon , A llen L ane.

R ollefson G . ( 1983). T wo s easons o f e xcavation a t ' Ain e l-Assad, e astern J ordan , 1 980-81. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 52: 2 5-34.

U erpmann H -P . ( 1978). M etrical a nalysis o f f aunal r emains f rom t he M iddle E ast. I n R .H . M eadow a nd M .A . Z eder ( eds.) A pproaches t o F aunal A nalysis i n t he M iddle E ast. P eabody M useum B ulletin 2 , H arvard U niversity. ( U .N .D.P.) U nited N ations D evelopment P rogramme ( 1966). G eneral R eport o n t he G roundwater I nvestigations o f t he A zraq B asin . N ew Y ork , U .N.D .P.

W aechter J . ( 1947). S ome s urface i mplements f rom T ransjordan . P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 1 947: 1 78-180 . W aechter J ., S eton-Williams V ., B ate D .M . a nd P icard L . ( 1938). T he e xcavations a t W adi D hobai 1 937-1938 a nd t he D hobaian i ndustry. J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety 1 8: 1 72-186 , 2 92-298.

Z euner F . ( unpublished). S tone A ge E xploration i n J ordan I I. A zraq a rea . ( n.d.).

T he

Z euner F ., K irkbride D . a nd P ark P .C . ( 1957). S tone a ge e xploration i n J ordan , I . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly : 1 7-54. Z ohary M . ( 1973). G eobotanical F oundations o f t he M iddle E ast 1 -2. S tuttgart, F ischer.

3 37

M ultivariate a nalysis o f g eochemical d ata f rom L ate Q uaternary s ediments i n t he A zraq B asin o f E astern J ordan D avid G ilbertson , C hristopher H unt, M artin K ent a nd A ndrew G arrard

1 .

I ntroduction

T his n ote c onsiders w hether o r n ot a ge-associated g roupings o f g eochemical p roperties a re e vident i n d eposits o f L ate Q uaternary a ge f rom t he A zraq B asin i n J ordan ( Figure 1 ). T his a rea i s o f i mportance f or a n i mproved u nderstanding o f t he h istory o f L ate Q uaternary c limatic a nd e nvironmental c hanges a nd t heir r elationships w ith a ncient h uman o ccupance. I n c onsequence , t he r egion h as b een t he f ocus o f m uch r ecent a rchaeological r esearch , r anging f rom t he L ate Q uaternary " Azraq P roject" o f G arrard e t a l. ( 1977, 1 985a , b ; 1 986, 1 987) t o i nvestigat ions o f r ecent f loodwater f arming a nd m odern s ediments ( Gilbertson a nd K ennedy 1 984, G ilbertson e t a l. 1 984 , G ilbertson 1 986). F urther d etails o f t his r esearch t ogether w ith i nformation o n p ast a nd p resent e nvironmental c onditions a re g iven b y B ender ( 1974), H emsley a nd G eorge ( 1966), K ennedy ( 1982), M ountford ( 1965), N elson ( 1973), R ollefson ( 1983, 1 984), U nited N ations ( 1966). T his l arge b asin o f i nternal d rainage h as e xperienced m ajor c hanges o f l ake l evel i n t he Q uaternary. I n c onsequence, i ts m argin a nd t he l ower p arts o f i ts t ributary w adis a re a ssociated w ith a c omplex s equence o f a bandoned s trandlines , f luvial d eposits, a lluvial f orms , w indblown d eposits a nd o ccupation l ayers ( Figure 1 a nd s ee G arrard e t a l. 1 986 , 1 987). T he t extural p roperties o f t hese d eposits a re l ikely t o r eflect t he c haracter o f t heir m ode o f f ormation . T heref ore i t w as c onsidered i mportant t o e stablish w hether o r n ot g eochemical t rends , p ossibly d ue t o a rid-pedogenic p rocesses, c ould b e i dentified f rom a s eries o f s urfaces w hich r epresent d eposits o f i ncreasing a ntiquity i n t his a rea. P atterns i n t he c hemical m ake-up i n a rid z one s oils, c ommonly a ssociated w ith c alichification , a re w ell k nown i n d esert s oils , ( see B irkeland 1 974; D an 1 977, G ile e t a l. 1 966, 1 981, G oudie 1 973). T he s ites c hosen f or s tudy i n t he A zraq B asin b y G arrard a re l ocated i n F igure 1 a nd h is e stimates o f t heir a ntiquity a re g iven i n T able 1 ( for d ating e vidence s ee G arrard e t a l. t his v olume). T he s amples f rom W adi e l J ilat a re d eveloped o n h eterogeneous L ate Q uaternary d eposits d erived f rom C retaceous a nd C enozoic l imestones t o t he w est ( Figure 1 ). T he s amples f rom W adi e l E noqiyya a re f rom s urficial m aterials r esting o n C enozoic b asalts. A s a r esult, t heir p roperties a re l ikely t o b e d ifferent f rom t he W adi e l J ilat s equence a nd t hey a re t herefore e xcluded f rom t he f ollowing c onsideration o f a ge-related g eochemical p roperties.

3 39

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3 41

2 .

M ethods

T he f ollowing p roperties w ere d etermined i n t he l aboratory s tandard t echniques ( Avery a nd B ascomb 1 974 , B riggs 1 977).

u sing

C olour ( wet a nd d ry) u sing a M unsell s oil c olour c hart i n o rder t o g ive a n i ndication o f t he o xidation s tate, o ccurrence o f s oil c arbonates , a nd d isseminated o rganic m atter. pl i ( pH m eter a cidity/alkality) - m any a rid-zone s oils a re v ery a lkaline a s a r esult o f t he a ccumulation o f c arbonates, b icarbonates a nd o ther s alts i n t he s oil. p H d etermination m ay g ive s ome i ndication o f t hese p rocesses . C arbonate e quivalent ( Bascomb 1 974) - E nrichment o f c alcium c arbonate ( calichification) i s c ommon i n m any o ld a rid-zone s oils i n t his r egion ( see D an 1 977), a nd, s ince i t m ay b e p rogressive w ith t ime , c alichification m ay g ive a q ualified i ndication o f a ge. N a ( Sodium) b y f lame p hotometer - E nrichment w ith S odium s alts t ends t o t ake p lace i n e nvironments w here e xtreme e vaporation d raws s alts t o t he s urface. B uried s oils m ay s ometimes b e m arked b y h igh N a i n a rid e nvironments, p articularly i f i rrigation o f t hat s oil t ook p lace. K ( Potassium) b y f lame p hotometer - E nrichment w ith P otassium s alts c an t ake p lace i n t he s ame w ay a s w ith S odium s alts. P otassium i s ac ommon c onstituent i n m any o rganic m aterials ( e.g. b one , d ung) a nd i s t herefore p resent i n h igh c oncentrations i n m any o ccupation h orizons. L OI ( Loss o n I gnition) u sing t he " low t emperature" m ethod o f B all ( 1964). T his g ives a n a pproximation o f t he o rganic c arbon p resent i n a s oil a nd h elps t o m inimise p roblems o f m easurement d ue t o l oss o f C O2 a nd d ewatering o f c lays. F or e xample, h igh c arbon c ontents m ay i ndicate m ore p roductive b iological c onditions o r a n o ccupation h orizon . A vailable C a ( Calcium) - p rovides a g eneral i ndication o f h eld e ither i n s oil m oisture o r c helated t o v egetable m atter s oil.

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C onductivity - t he e lectrical c onductivity i s c oncentration o f s oluble s alts i n t he s oil.

t o

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t he

M ultivariate s tatistical a nalysis

T wenty f our o f t he o riginal 3 6 s amples w ere o f s ufficient w eight t o c arry o ut t he f ull r ange o f c hemical a nalyses d escribed a bove . T he g eochemical d ata o n c hemistry f rom t hese 2 4 s ites w ere s ubjected t o p rincipal c omponents a nalysis a nd c luster a nalysis u sing t he C LUSTAN 2 p ackage o f W ishart ( 1978) o n t he P RIME 9 950/850 c omputer a t P lymouth P olytechnic, E ngland. M ethods o f p rincipal c omponents a nalysis a nd c luster a nalysis a nd t heir a pplication t o s oils a re d escribed i n M ather

3 42

( 1976), W ebster W heeler ( 1985).

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J ohnston ( 1978), K ent ( 1981)

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T he a im o f s uch m ultivariate s tatistical a nalyses w as t o d efine a nd d isplay t he v ariability o f t he s amples , s how t heir r elationships t o e ach o ther i n t erms o f t heir c hemical p roperties a nd t o l ook f or g roupi ngs o f s imilar o r r elated s amples. P rincipal c omponents a nalysis w as c arried o ut a nd t he r esulting c omponent d ata w ere t hen a nalysed b y W ard 's M ethod ( minimum v ariance) o f c lassification . T he r esults a re s hown a s a s cattergram ( Figure 2 ) a nd a d endrogram ( Figure 3 ).

3 .

R esults

T he r esults o f t he l aboratory a nalyses a re g iven i n T able 1 . T he d eposits i n e ach s ite/estimated a ge g roup i dentified b y G arrard a re p laced a t t he t op o f t hat g roup ; t he e stimated o ldest i s l ocated a t i ts b ase . E xamination o f t he d ata o n c olour ( dry a nd w et) g iven i n T able 1 s uggests t hat n o c lear g roupings o f t he d eposits c an b e r ecognised o n t he b asis o f e ither c riterion . E xamination o f t he s cattergram a nd d endrogram ( Figures 2 a nd 3 ) s uggests t hat g roupings o f t he s amples d o e xist. T hese a nalyses s uggest t he p resence o f f our p rincipal g roupings, t he s econd a nd f ourth o f w hich c an b e u sefully s ubdivided, a s s hown i n F igure 3 . T he P leistocene d eposits a t W adi e l E noqiyya w hich o ccur o ver b asalt f orm c luster 1 a nd a re c learly d ifferentiated f rom t hose i n t he W adi e l J ilat w hich a re d eveloped o n m aterials d erived f rom l imestone b edrocks. E xamination o f b oth t he d endrogram ( Figure 3 ) a nd t he e stimated a ges o f t he s amples f rom t he W adi e l J ilat ( see T able 1 ) i ndicates t hat t he g roupings o f s ediment s amples p roduced b y m ultivariate a nalysis o f g eochemical d ata d o h ave s ome r elation t o t he a ge g roupings e stimated b y G arrard. B ecause t he p arent m aterials i n t he W adi e l J ilat a re e ssentially t he s ame , t he m ost c onservative h ypothesis t o e xplain t his f eature w ould b e t hat t he a ssociation b etween g eochemical p roperties a nd a ntiquity i n t he s amples r eflects t he p articular c haracteristics o f t he d epositional e nvironments t hat p revailed w hen t hey a ccumulated. T here m ay a lso b e t he i nfluence o f p edogenic c hanges t hrough t ime, o f t he t ype i dentified b y G ile e t a l. ( 1966, 1 981). T hese f actors a re m entioned b elow t ogether w ith a d escription o f t he c haracteristics o f e ach c luster p roduced b y t he m ultivariate a nalysis.

C luster 1 T his i s c haracterised b y v ariable C aCO 3 , v ery h igh p H , m oderately h igh N a , v ery h igh K , l ow L OT, l ow a vailable C a a nd M g , l ow c ond uctivity. T he t wo s amples i n t his g roup a re f rom A in e l-Enoqiyya. T he m ost l ikely e xplanation f or t heir d ifferentiation f rom t he W adi e l J ilat s amples a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f t he i nfluence o f t he b asalt b edrock . T he h igh N a a nd K , w ith l ow c onductivity, s uggest n on-saline s oils w ith h igh n utrient s tatus - p roperties p robably i nherited f rom b edrock m inerals. T he m oderately h igh C a l evels b ut l ow , f ree C a i n

3 43

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C luster 2 C haracterised b y f airly h igh C aCO 3 , r ather h igh p H, m oderately h igh N a , v ery l ow K , l ow L OI, l ow b ut v ariable a vailable C a a nd M g a nd m oderately h igh c onductivity. T he f airly h igh v alues f or N a a nd f or c onductivity p robably r eflect r ather s aline s oils. T he l ow L OT a nd l ow Kv alues s uggest t he s keletal n ature o f t he s oil d evelopment , a nd a lso r elatively m inor i nputs o f o rganic m aterials b y p rehistoric p eople o ccupying t he s ite.

C luster 3 T his g roup i s c haracterised b y h igh b ut v ariable C aC0 1 , h igh p H , l ow N a , m oderately h igh K , v ariable L OI, h igh a vailable C a b ut l ow a vailable M g, a nd h igh c onductivity. T hese s amples f airly c losely r esemble t hose o f C luster 2 a nd a re a lso " limestone" s oils. H owever , i n c ontrast w ith t he s oils o f C luster 2 , t hese a re n ot s aline , b ecause t hey h ave l ow N a , a nd l ow c onductivity. T he h igh K m ay s uggest t he p resence o f d ense p revious o ccupation , o r, o f a r elatively d eveloped s oil p rofile , o r b oth .

C luster 4 T his i s c haracterised b y h igh C aCO 3 , c omparatively l ow p H , h igh N a , l ow b ut v ariable K , c omparatively h igh L OI, h igh e xchangeable C a a nd M g, v ery h igh c onductivity. T his g roup a ppears t o b e c omposed o f s ediments f rom h ypersaline c alcareous s oils. T his i s i ndicated b y t he h igh N a a nd c onductivity v alues . T he h igh L OI f igures m ay r eflect t he a bsence o f d ecay i n t hese h ypersaline s oils r ather t han a ny h igh o rganic p roductivity. T he h igh a vailable C a a nd M g a nd C aCO 3 , m ay b e t he r esult o f s trong e vaporation a nd i ncipient c alichification .

J ilat 7 T he w eights o f s amples r eceived f rom t hese d eposits w ere i nsufficient f or t he r ange o f s tudies t o b e c arried o ut o n t hem t hat w ere a pplied e lsewhere. I n c onsequence m ost o f t he J ilat 7 s amples w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he c luster a nalysis. T he o ne s ample t hat w as f ully a nalysed f ell i n C luster 3 . D etailed e xamination o f t he p roperties o f t hese J ilat 7 s amples ( Table 1 ) s uggests t hat t hey w ould h ave f ormed a g roup c haracterised b y v ery h igh C aCO 3 , v ery h igh p H , m oderately h igh N a, ( but l ow i n r elation t o o ther g roups), v ery h igh K , l ow L OI, g enerally l ow c onductivity. T he h igh n utrient s tatus ( K a nd N a) m ay r eflect p ast d ense o ccupation , p ossibly m ore i ntensive t han i n a ny o ther s ite , s ampled t o d ate , i n t he W adi e l J ilat. T he h igh c arbonate a nd N a s uggest s trong e vaporation a nd d rought, o r a l arge i nput o f s trongly c alcareous, a eolian s ilts .

3 46

4 .

D iscussion

T he p roperties o f t he W adi e l E noqiyya s amples a re d ifferent f rom t hose f rom t he W adi e l J ilat. T he E noqiyya s amples a ppear t o h ave b een i nfluenced b y t he b asalt p arent m aterial u pon w hich t hey a re l ocated. T he W adi e l J ilat s amples r eflect t he i nfluence o f l imestoned erived p arent m aterials u pon w hich t hey a re d eveloped. E xamination o f t he J ilat s amples i n t erms o f t heir r elative a ntiquity i ndicates t hat a r elationship m ay e xist b etween t he r elative a ntiquity o f t he s amples a nd t heir g eochemical p roperties. T here a re s everal f urther f eatures o f p articular i nterest . T he d ata o n c arbonate e quivalent i n T able 1 m erit a ttention. T hey i ndicate l ow p ercentages o f c arbonate e quivalent o ccur i n t he U pper P alaeolithic s ite J 9 ( average 2 1.5%) a nd h igher p ercentages o ccur i n J 10 ( average 2 4.83%), J 8 ( average 2 9.1%) w ith a r egression i n J 6 ( average 2 5.4%). T he h ighest v alues a re i n J 7 ( average 4 2.93%). T he m uch h igher p ercentage o f c arbonate e quivalent d eserves e xplanation a t J 7. O ne p rocess w hich m ay h ave b een r esponsible i s a eolian s ilt a ccretion , w hich m ay n ot h ave b een a ctive a t t he o ther o lder s ites. T he v alues o f p H o btained s imilarly s how v ery h igh v alues i n t he s ediments o btained f rom J 7, a nd t o a l esser e xtent i n t he s amples f rom J 6. N a a nd c onductivity a re h ighest i n J 8. T hese v alues a re l owest i n J 9, p ossibly a s ar esult o f l eaching o r t he l ack o f t he o riginal a ccumulation o f s alt i n t he s oil. T he l ow b ut v ariable f igures f or N a i n J 7 m ay b e d ue t o w etter c onditions a t t hat t ime o r t he l ack o f t ime f or s alt a ccumulation s ince t hat t ime. P otassium ( K) v alues a re g enerally l ow e xcept i n J 7. T his m ay r elate t o am ore d ense o ccupation o n t his s ite. A lso n oteworthy m ay b e t he v alue f or K i n d eposit 4 A o f J 6 , w hich m ay r epresent a d enser o ccupat ion a t t his l evel. F inally, c onsideration o f t he a ge r elationships w ithin e ach s et o f s amples i n e ach a ge-group s hown i n T able 1 s uggests t hat s ome p ost-depositional p edogenic e ffects m ay b e e videnced i n s ome s amples f rom t he h igher p arts o f t he e xcavated p rofiles. T hese i nclude h igh f igures f or K a nd g enerally l ow f igures f or N a ( e.g. W adi e l J ilat 1 0). T here a re, a s y et, i nsufficient d ata t o r each a ny f irm c onclusions c oncerning t he p edogenic m echanisms o r p alaeoenvironmental s ituations w hich p roduced t hese m aterials . N evertheless t he p resent d ata s uggest t hat t he f ollowing i dea w ould m erit f urther i nvestigation: t hat t he d ifferences b etween t he L ate P leistocene/early H olocene s amples a nd t hose o f m ore r ecent a ge a re t he r esult o f t he o ccurrence o f w etter c onditions i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene l eading t o h igher r ates o f b iological a ctivity t han o ccurred s ubsequently.

5 .

C onclusions

M ultivariate a nalysis o f s imple g eochemical d ata f rom L ate Q uaternary d eposits f rom t he a rid A zraq B asin i n t he J ordanian D esert h as r evealed a c ler d istinction b etween d eposits d eveloped u pon b asalts a s o pposed t o l imestone-derived m aterials. O n t he c alcareous l imestone-derived L ate Q uaternary d eposits a t W adi e l J ilat, c lear a ger elated g roupings w ere i ndicated. T hese a ppear t o r eflect b oth t he i nfluence o f t he o riginal d epositional e nvironment a nd p ostd epositional p edogenic c hanges. W ithin s ome o f t hese g roupings, t he

3 47

p roperties o f m aterial f rom h igher a nd t herefore y ounger l evels t o b e s ystematically d ifferent f rom l ower a nd o lder l evels .

a ppear

A cknowledgements W e a re i ndebted t o B rian R ogers o f t he D epartment o f G eographical S ciences o f P lymouth P olytechnic f or d rawing t he i llustrations. M r. J . B ishop a nd M r. T . H omewood o f t he D epartment o f L ife S ciences, T rent P olytechnic c arried o ut t he g eochemical a nalyses a s p art o f a s pecialist t raining p rogramme i n t he U niversity o f S heffield .

3 48

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B all D .F. ( 1974). L oss-on-ignition a s a n e stimate o f o rganic c arbon i n n on-calcareous s oils. J ournal o f S oil S cience 1 5: 8 4-92. B ascomb C .L . ( 1974). P hysical a nd c hemical a nalyses o f t he 2 mm s amples. I n B .W . A very a nd C .L . B ascomb ( eds.) S oil S urvey L aboratory M ethods: 1 4-41. T echnical M onograph 6 . H arpenden , S oil S urvey o f E ngland a nd W ales . B ender F . ( 1974). G eology o f J ordan . B erlin , B orntraeger. ( Translation o f B ender F . ( 1968)). B irkeland P .W . R esearch.

( 1974). P edology, W eathering a nd G eomorphological N ew Y ork , O xford U niversity P ress.

B riggs D .J. ( 1977). B utterworths.

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C oles G .M ., G ilbertson D .D . a nd H unt C .O . ( 1984). S oil e rosion a nd s oil g enesis i n t he T uscan l andscape : I . M orphological s equences o f c arbonate i nduration i n s lope d eposits. A rchaeologia m edievale 1: 2 89-295.

D an T . ( 1977). T he d istribution a nd o rigin o f n ari a nd o ther l ime c rusts i n I srael. I srael J ournal o f E arth S ciences 2 6: 2 6-83.

G arrard A .N ., S tanley P rice N . a nd C opeland L . ( 1975-77). As urvey o f p rehistoric s ites i n t he A zraq B asin , e astern J ordan . P aleorient 3 : 1 09-126 . G arrard A .N ., B yrd B ., H arvey P . a nd H ivernel F . ( 1985a). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin. R eport o n t he 1 982 s urvey s eason . L evant 1 7: 1 -28. G arrard A .N ., H arvey P ., H ivernel F . a nd B yrd B . ( 1985b). T he e nvironm ental h istory o f t he A zraq B asin . I n A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 1 09-115. L ondon , R outledge a nd K egan P aul. G arrard A .N ., B yrd B . a nd B etts A . ( 1986). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 984 e xcavation s eason. L evant 1 8 : 5 -24.

3 49

G arrard A .N ., B etts A ., B yrd B . a nd H unt C . ( 1987). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 985 e xcavation s eason. L evant 1 9: f orthcoming. G ilbertson D .D . ( 1986). R unoff ( floodwater) f arming a nd r ural w ater s upply i n a rid l ands. A pplied G eography 6 .1: 5 -12. G ilbertson D .D ., H unt C .O . a nd B radley S . ( 1984). M icropalaeontol ogical a nd p alaeoecological s tudies o f r ecent s ediments f rom t he A zraq m arshes i n t he J ordanian D esert . I n A . H adidi ( ed .) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 3 47-352 . L ondon , R outledge a nd K egan P aul. G ilbertson D .D . a nd K ennedy D .L . ( 1984). A n a rchaeological r econnaissance o f w ater h arvesting s tructures a nd w adi w alls i n t he J ordanian D esert , n orth o f A zraq O asis. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8 : 1 51-162. G ile L .H ., P eterson E .F . a nd G rossman R .B . ( 1966). M orphological a nd g enetic s equences o f c arbonate a ccumulation i n d esert s oils. S oil s cience 1 01: 3 47-360. G ile L .H ., H awley J .H . a nd G rossman R .B . ( 1981). S oils a nd G eomorphology i n t he B asin a nd R ange a rea o f S outhern N ew M exico G uidebook t o t he D esert P roject. M emoir 3 9. S ocorro, N ew M exico B ureau o f M ines a nd M ineral R esources. G oudie A .S. ( 1973). D uricrusts i n T ropical L andscapes. C larendon P ress.

O xford,

H emsley J .H . a nd G eorge M . ( 1966). A zraq D esert N ational P ark , J ordan . D raft M anagement P lan . L ondon , I nternational B iological P rogramme : C onservation o f T errestrial C ommunities, N ature C onservancy.

J ohnston R .J . ( 1978). M ultivariate S tatistical A nalysis i n G eography. L ondon, L ongmans.

K ennedy D .L . ( 1982). A rchaeological E xplorations o n t he R oman F rontier i n N orth E ast J ordan. B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 1 34 . O xford, B .A .R. K ent M . ( 1981). R egional a ssessment o f p lant g rowth p roblems f or c olliery s poil r eclamation . I I: M ultivariate a nalysis. M inerals a nd t he E nvironment 3 : 1 -16.

3 50

M ather P .M . ( 1976). C omputational M ethods o f M ultivariate A nalysis i n P hysical G eography. C hichester a nd L ondon , W iley. M ountfort G .

N elson B .

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P ortrait o f aD esert.

A zraq.

D esert O asis.

L ondon , C ollins.

L ondon , A llen L ane.

R ollefson G . ( 1983). T wo s easons o f e xcavation a t ' Ain e l-Assad, e astern J ordan , 1 980-81. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 52: 2 5-34. R ollefson G . ( 1984). AM iddle A cheulian s urface s ite f rom J ebel U weinid, e astern J ordan. P aleorient 1 0 .1: 1 27-133.

S haw G . a nd W heeler D . ( 1985). S tatistical T echniques i n G eographical A nalysis. C hichester a nd L ondon , W iley.

U nited N ations D evelopment P rogramme ( 1966). G eneral R eport o n t he G roundwater I nvestigations o f t he A zraq B asin . N ew Y ork , U .N.D .P .

W ebster R . ( 1977). Q uantitative a nd N umerical M ethods i n S oil C lassification a nd S urvey. M onographs o f t he S oil S urvey. O xford, O xford U niversity P ress. W ishart D . ( 1978). E dinburgh.

C LUSTAN U ser M anual.

3 51

E dinburgh , U niversity o f

T he E pipalaeolithic P hases o f K haraneh I V M ujahed M uheisen

1 .

I ntroduction

K haraneh I V i s s ituated o n t he r ight b ank o f t he W adi K haraneh, a pproximately l km t o t he s outh-west o f Q asr K haraneh i n t he e ast J ordanian D esert ( Plate 1 ). I t l ies a t c . 6 50m a bove s ea l evel ( Figure 1 ) a nd r eceives a n a nnual p recipitation o f l ess t han 1 00mm . T he s ite c overs a n a rea o f 2 1,672 s q. m a nd c onsists o f ad ouble m ound ( Figure 2 ). I t o verlies l oess-like d eposits c ontaining c arbonate c oncretions. T he s ite w as f irst s urveyed b y H arding ( 1959) a nd l ater i nvestigated b y G arrard a nd P rice ( 1977). A s mall s cale e xcavation w as u ndertaken i n 1 981 b y t he J ordanian D epartment o f A ntiquities u nder t he d irection o f t he a uthor ( Muheisen 1 983, 1 985). A s econd s eason o f e xcavations t ook p lace i n t he s ummer o f 1 985 w ith t he s upport o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology a t Y armouk U niversity. T he a ims o f t he e xcavations w ere t o e stablish t he d ate a nd c hronol ogical s uccession a t t he s ite a nd t o u nderstand w hy t he s ite w as s o f requently o ccupied a nd c overed s uch a l arge a rea. F our o ccupational p hases w ere d iscovered i n t he 2 m o f e xcavated d eposits. T hese w ere a ll o f E pipalaeolithic d ate a nd h ad i ndustries d ominated b y m icrolithic t ools. T he p hases w ere d efined f rom c hanges i n s ediments, f rom t he p ositions o f l iving f loors o n w hich w ere f ound c oncentrations o f f lint, b one , m ortars a nd p estles a nd h earths, a nd f rom c hanges i n l ithic t ypology a nd t echnology .

2 .

T he E pipalaeolithic P hases a t K haraneh I V

P hase A T his e arliest p hase w as c ontained i n ah omogeneous c lay-like s oil w ith c arbonate c oncretions, a sh a nd c oncentrations o f a rtefacts a nd a nimal b ones. T he t hickness o f t he d eposits r anged b etween 3 0 a nd 7 0cm ( Figure 3 ). W ithin t hese l evels w ere f ound a l iving f loor w ith a ssociated h earth , a s mall b asalt m ortar, a nd o ther f ragments o f b asalt. T he f loor s urfaced a lso y ielded l arge q uantities o f a nimal b ones b elonging t o e quids , g azelle, t ortoise, h are a nd o ther s pecies ( Garrard a nd M artin p .c.). A mongst t he t ool a ssemblage, m icroliths f ormed t he l arges g roup. T he m ost c ommon t ypes w ere b ladelets w ith p artial o r c omplete f ine r etouch ( Figure 4 : 9 -18). M icrogravettes w ith b ipolar r etouch w ere o nly f ound i n t his p hase , w hilst b acked t runcated b ladelets, c onsidered t o b e t ypically K ebaran ( Bar-Yosef

3 53

P hysiographic s etting o f K haraneh

: e 4

3 54

F igure 2

P lan 1 985.

o f K haraneh I V s howing c ontours a nd a reas e xcavated

3 55

i n

P late 1

G eneral v iew o f K haraneh I V f rom t he s outh. w estern a nd e astern e dges o f s ite).

P late 2

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B urial f ound i n P hase B ( Sq. R 2/60) o f K haraneh I V .

3 56

s how

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E ast s ection o f t rench R 2, S 2/60 s howing t he l ayers a nd t heir r elation t o t he p hases.

3 57

1 970) w ere a bsent. E nd s crapers o n b lades a nd f lakes w ere f airly n umerous, w hilst b urins, o f w hich d ihedral t ypes p redominate , w ere l ess c ommon. T here w ere r elatively f ew r etouched b lades , t runcated, n otched o r d enticulated p ieces o r m ulti-functional t ools ( Figure 4 : 1 -8). F rom t he t ypology a nd t echnology o f t he l ithic a ssemblage, a nd g iven t he s tratigraphic p osition o f t he p hase i n t he s ite , i t w ould s eem l ikely t o d ate t o t he e arliest p eriod o f t he K ebaran. O ther s ites o f t his t ime p eriod i nclude K sar A qil ( Tixier e t a l. 1 981), F azael I IIa ( Goring-Morris 1 980) a nd A in G ev ( Bar-Yosef 1 970).

P hase B P hase B d irectly o verlies P hase A , a nd h as a n a verage d epth o f 4 5cm . T he s ediment i s ac lay/silt w ith a sh a nd c arbonate i nclusions. T wo s keletons w ere f ound i n t his p hase b uried b eneath a l iving f loor . O ne o f t hese w as c omplete a nd l ay s tretched o ut o n i ts b ack w ith i ts h ead i n a n u pright p osition ( Plate 2 ). T wo m edium s ized s tones h ad b een p laced o ver i ts h ead a nd t wo o thers o ver i ts l egs. T he s econd w as f ound a longside i n a f ragmentary c ondition ( Muheisen 1 983 , R olston 1 982). Ah earth , a nimal b ones , b urnt s tones a nd a h eavy c oncentration o f c hipped s tone a rtefacts w ere a ssociated w ith t he l iving f loor. T he t ools a re m ainly m icrolithic w ith n on-geometric f orms c omprising o ver h alf t he a ssemblage. W ithin t his c ategory, o bliquely t runcated b acked b ladelets w ith f ine r etouch p redominate a nd n arrow p ointed b ladelets w ith f ine r etouch a re a lso c ommon ( Figure 5 : 7 -10). T he o nly e vidence o f g eometric m icroliths w ere o ne b itruncated b ladelet a nd o ne t rapeze. E nd s crapers p repared o n l ong r etouched b lades a nd o n f lakes, a nd b urins w hich a re m ostly o f t he s imple t ype, a re c ommonest a mong t he l arger t ools. O ther l arge t ools i nclude t runcated b lades , n otches , d enticulates a nd m ulti-functional t ools a s f or e xample a f lat e nd s craper-burin ( Figure 5 : 2 -6). C rested b ladelet c ores ( Figure 6 : 1 2 ) a re p articularly d iagnostic o f t his p hase . T hey a re n ot f ound i n o ther l evels.

P hase C P hase C c onsisted o f a l iving f loor a nd a pproximately 3 0cm o f l ight b rown l oess-like d eposits c ontaining f lint, b one f ragments a nd a sh . W ithin t he f loor w as a r ectangular h earth c ontaining c . 2 0cm o f a sh . N on-geometric m icroliths a re t he c ommonest t ools a nd i nclude b acked a nd t runcated b ladelets w ith a brupt r etouch , a nd t runcated b ladelets. G eometric m icroliths a re u ncommon b ut a re r epresented b y b acked t rapezes. E nd s crapers o n r etouched b lades a nd f lakes a re f airly n umerous w hilst b urins m ainly o f t he t runcated t ype a re r are . T he r emainder o f t he t ool a ssemblage i s r epresented b y t runcated b lades, a wls, a nd r etouched b lades a nd f lakes ( Figure 6 : 3 -21).

3 58

0

1

5

4

3

2

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8

6 7

II ( ' 1 3

1

1 4

9 't

f

1 5

F igure 4

K haraneh I V .

1 6

1 7

1 8

F lint t ools f rom P hase A .

1 -3 e nd s crapers ; 4 -6 b urins ; 7t runcated b lade ; 8 p ointed b lade w ith u nilateral s teep/abrupt r etouch ; 9 -10 , 1 4 m icrogravettes; 1-13 m icropoints w ith f ine r etouch ; 1 5-16, 1 8 p ointed b ladelets w ith b asal t runcations; 1 7 m icro-point.

3 59

1

2

3 4

7

8

6

5

0

F igure 5 K haraneh I V.

5 cm

9

1 0

F lint t ools f rom P hase B .

1f lake p ebble c ore ; 2 -4 e nd s crapers ; 5b urin ; 6 b lade w ith a lternate r etouch ; 7b ladelet w ith f ine l ateral r etouch ; 8 b ladelet w ith b ipolar r etouch ; 9 t runcated b ladelet ; 1 0 b acked t runcated b ladelet. 3 60

5 cm

2

1

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4 5

H 7

91

H 1 0

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F igure 6

K haraneh I V .

1

1 2

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F lint t ools f rom P hases B a nd C .

1 -2 C rested b lade c ore ; 3 , 6b urin ; 4 -5 e nd b acked t runcated b ladelets; 1 6-21 t rapezes.

3 61

s craper ;

7 -15

P hase D T his w as t he l atest p hase r epresented a t t he s ite, b ut i t w as o nly d iscovered i n t he s outh-west s ection o f t he t ell ( area B ). T his a rea w as s ounded i n 1 981 a nd t hen i n 1 985 a 1 2 s q. m a rea w as o pened u p a nd e xcavated i n 2 5cm q uadrants t o ad epth o f 4 0cm . A ll e xcavated t ools , s tones , l arge b ones a nd s hells w ere r ecorded i n t hree d imensions . S ediments w ere s ieved t hrough a l mm m esh t o c ollect a ll f aunal a nd a rtefactual r emains. H earth c ontents w ere s aved f or l ater f lotation . T he p hase c onsisted o f 2 5-30cm o f a eolian d eposits i n w hich w as a l iving f loor a nd a bundant a rtefacts a nd a nimal b ones. O n t he l iving f loor s urface w ere t he r emains o f f ive s eparate h earths c ontaining a sh , al arge s tone m easuring 2 0-28cm a nd a lso a p it o f 8 5-95cm d iameter a nd 1 8cm d epth. A s eries o f e leven i rregularly s paced h oles f ormed a n a rc a round t hese f eatures , b ut i nsufficient e xcavation w as d one t o d etermine i f t hese c ompletely e ncircled t he f eature. T he h oles w ere 2 0 t o 8 0cm a part a nd 1 0 t o 2 8cm i n d iameter. I t i s p robable t hat t hese w ere t he p ost h oles o f ah ut o r s imilar s tructure. T he i nternal s urface w as f irm a nd c omprised o f a shy, l ight b rown c oloured s oil c ont aining b ones, a rtefacts a nd c harcoal. M arine s hells i ncluding D entalium w ere s cattered o ver t he f loor, a nd s everal p ieces o f o chre w ere a lso f ound. A mongst t he a nimal b ones , g azelle w as t he c ommonest s pecies f ollowed b y e quid. H are, f ox, c attle a nd t ortoise w ere p resent i n v ery s mall n umbers. Ab one r adius w as f ound w hich h ad r egular i ncisions c ut a long o ne s ide ( Figure 7 ). A mongst t he f lint i ndustry, b lades a nd b ladelets a re c o-equal a nd c ommoner t han f lakes. T here a re a lso h igh f requencies o f c ore t rimm ings a nd p rimary e lements f rom b lade a nd b ladelet c ores. T he c ores t hemselves h ave a lternate s triking p latforms a nd s ome s how s igns o f h eat t reatment. T he p rincipal t ools a re g eometric m icroliths, a nd a mongst t hese t rapezes a re c ommonest. T hese a re f rom 1 10-260mm i n l ength a nd f rom 6 0-120mm i n w idth . T hey a ppear t o b e b roader t han m ost o ther e xamples f rom t he G eometric K ebaran o f t he L evant. T hey h ave e ither s traight, o bliquely t runcated o r o bliquely c onvex t runcated e nds a nd a re m ainly f ashioned b y o blique r etouch . M any o f t he t rapezes a re b roken a nd s ome a re b urnt. O ther m icrolithic t ools i nclude o bliquely t runcated b ladelets a nd m icro-awls. T he m icro-burin t echnique i s p oorly r epresented. T he s econd c ommonest g roup o f t ools i n t he a ssemblage a re e nd s crapers o n b lades. T here a re a lso t runcated b lades a mongst w hich o bliquely t runcated f orms a re c ommoner t han t hose w ith s traight o r c onvex t runcation . T here a re a lso n otched, d enticulated a nd r etouched b lades ( Figure 8 ).

3 .

C onclusions

K haraneh I V i s p resently t he o nly e xcavated o pen s ite o f E pipalaeolithic d ate w hich h as f our p hases o f o ccupation . T he p hasing i s b ased o n t he s edimentary r ecord a nd t he t ool t ypes. F our u nburnt b one s amples w ere o btained f rom t he 1 981 s oundings a nd s ent f or C 14 d ating. T he d ates o btained w ere 9 ,840 ± 1 20 b .p. ( Q 3 072), 1 0 ,620 ± 1 25 b .p. ( Q 3 073), 1 2,200 ± 1 40 b .p. ( Q 3 074) a nd 1 3,970 ± 1 50 b .p. ( Q 3 075). T hese w ould s uggest a G eometric K ebaran a nd N atufian d ate, b ut

3 62

B IM

1 1 1•

M IN I

BM

0

F igure 7

K haraneh I V . F ayez T arawneh .

Z IM I

5

I ncised b one r adius f rom P hase D .

3 63

D rawn

b y

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t 0 1 0

1

F igure 8

1 6

1 4

K haraneh I V .

5cm

1 2

P 1 3

9

1 7

g ) 1 8

1 5

F lint t ools f rom P hase D .

1 -2 e nd s crapers ; 3b urin ; 4t runcated b ladelet; 5 -6 , 1 8 b acked t runcated b ladelets; 7 , 1 3 p roto-lunates ; 8 -9, 1-12, 1 4-17 t rapezes; 1 0 m icro-awl.

3 64

t he l ithic i ndustries a re m ore c omparable w ith K ebaran a nd G eometric K ebaran m aterial r anging f rom 2 0-12,000 b .p. A c omparison o f t he i ndustries w ith o ther m aterial f rom J ordan ( e.g. f rom M adamagh ( Kirkbride 1 958), D hobai K . ( Waechter e t a l. 1 938, G arrard e t a l. 1 986), o ther s ites i n t he J ilat, A zraq a nd U waynid a reas ( Garrard e t a l. 1 986 , 1 987), W adi e l H asa ( Copeland a nd V ita F inzi 1 978), W adi R um ( Copeland a nd H ours 1 971), R as e n N aqb ( sites J 404, 4 05 ,,406, 2 01, 2 02 - H enry 1 979, 1 982, 1 985)) a nd f rom S yria a nd P alestine' s uggests t he f ollowing: K haraneh I V P hase A = A ncient K ebaran K haraneh I V P hase B = C lassic K ebaran K haraneh I V P hase C = G eometric K ebaran K haraneh I V P hase D = F inal G eometric K ebaran.

T his d ivision o f t he E pipalaeolithic h as a lso b een u sed b y B arY osef ( 1981) f or t he P alestinian s equence a nd b y H ours ( 1974 , 1 976) a nd T ixier e t a l. ( 1981) f or t he L ebanese i ndustries. I t i s a t p resent u nclear w hether t he K haraneh I V i ndustries r epresent a r egional v ariant o f t hose i n P alestine o r a s eparate e ntity. H opefully t his w ill b ecome c learer a fter t he e xcavation a nd p ublication o f f urther J ordanian s ites . M eanwhile i t i s b etter t o r efer t o t he K haraneh I V i ndustries b y p hase r ather t han c reating a n ew t erminology.

N otes 1 .

F or m ore d etailed c omparisons s ee M uheisen 1 983:

2 .

E nglish e dited b y A ndrew G arrard.

3 65

2 99-314.

B ibliography B ar-Yosef O . ( 1970). T he E pipalaeolithic C ultures o f P alestine. J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished D octoral T hesis. B ar-Yosef O . L evant. L evant:

( 1981). T he E pipalaeolithic c omplexes i n t he s outhern I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u 3 89-408. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S.

C opeland L . a nd H ours F . ( 1971). Am icrolithic f lint s ite i n W adi R um , J ordan , a nd a r eview o f t he E pipalaeolithic o f n orthern A rabia. P roceedings o f t he S eminar f or A rabian S tudies 1 : 7 -21. C opeland L . a nd V ita-Finzi C . ( 1978). A rchaeological d ating o f g eological d eposits i n J ordan. L evant 1 0 : 1 0-25.

G arrard A .N ., S tanley P rice N . a nd C opeland L . ( 1975-77). As urvey o f p rehistoric s ites i n t he A zraq B asin , e astern J ordan. P aleorient 3 : 1 09-126. G arrard A .N ., B yrd B . a nd B etts A . ( 1986). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 984 e xcavation s eason . L evant 1 8 : 5 -24. G arrard A .N. B etts, A ., B yrd, B . a nd H unt C . ( 1987). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 985 e xcavation s eason. L evant 1 9 : 5 -25. G oring-Morris A .N . ( 1980). L ate Q uaternary s ites i n W adi F azael, l ower J ordan V alley. J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished M .A .T hesis.

H arding G .L .

( 1959).

T he A ntiquities o f J ordan .

N ew Y ork, P raeger.

H enry D .O . ( 1979). P alaeolithic s ites w ithin t he R as e n-Naqb B asin, s outhern J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 3 : 9 3-99. H enry D .O . ( 1982). T he p rehistory o f s outhern J ordan a nd t he r elations hip w ith t he L evant. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 9 .4: 4 17-444. H enry D .O . ( 1985). L ate P leistocene e nvironment a nd P alaeolithic a daptions i n s outhern J ordan. I n : A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 6 7-77. L ondon, R outledge a nd K egan P aul. H ours F . ( 1974). R emarque s ur l 'utilisation d e l istes-types p our l 'etude d u P aleolithique S uperieur e t d e l 'Epipaleolithique d u L evant . P aleorient 2 .1: 3 -18.

3 66

H ours F . ( 1976). L 'Epipaleolithique a u L iban . 1 975. I X C ongres d e l 'UISPP 3 : 1 06-130.

R esultats a cquis e n

K irkbride D . ( 1958). AK ebaran r ockshelter i n W adi M adamagh , n ear P etra , J ordan. M an 5 8: 5 5-58.

M uheisen M . ( 1983). L a p rehistoire e n J ordanie. R echerches s ur l 'epipaleolithique. L 'example d u g isement d e K haraneh I V. B ordeaux, U niversity o f B ordeaux I : U npublished D octoral T hesis, 3 eme c ycle. M uheisen M . ( 1985). L 'epipaleolithique d ans l e g isement d e K haraneh I V. P aleorient 1.2: 1 49-160 .

R olston S .L . ( 1982). T wo p rehistoric b urials f rom K haraneh . t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 6: 2 21-222.

A nnual o f

T ixier J . a nd I nizan M .L . ( 1981). K sar ' Aqil, s tratigraphie e t e nsembles l ithiques d ans l e P aleolithique S uperieur. F ouilles 1 971-1975. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 53-367 . P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R.S.

W aechter J . a nd S eton-Williams V . ( 1938). T he e xcavations a t W adi D hobai 1 937-1938 a nd t he D hobaian i ndustry. J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety 1 8: 1 72-186 , 2 92-298.

3 67

T he B lack D esert S urvey P rehistoric s ites a nd s ubsistence s trategies i n e astern J ordan A .V.G . B etts

1 .

I ntroduction

T he B lack D esert S urvey w as o riginally i nitiated t o e xamine t he e vidence f or p rehistoric a ctivity i n a n u ndisturbed a rea o f t he s emia rid s teppic r egion e ast o f t he J ordan V alley. I t w as a ssumed t hat s uch e vidence w ould p rovide m uch-needed i nformation o n e arly a daptive s trategies i n t he l ess f avourable r egions o f t he N ear E ast. T he B lack D esert, a n a rea o f b asalt h ammada s tretching a cross t he " panhandle" o f e astern J ordan , w as s elected f or s tudy b ecause i ts r ugged t errain h as s everely l imited m odern d isturbance a nd b ecause t he l ava c obbles h ave p revented t otal d estruction o f o ccupation d eposits a nd s tructural f eatures ( Plate 1 ). T he B lack D esert c onsists m ostly o f al ow r olling p lateau s trewn w ith l arge b asalt c obbles , s urrounded b y o pen f lint-covered l imestone p lains. T he A shaqif R ange, t he m ain w atershed, r uns r oughly n orth/ s outh t hrough t he c entre o f t he s tudy r egion , a nd i n t he n orthwest t he l and r ises s teeply t owards t he m ain v olcano, J ebel D ruze, w hich l ies j ust o ver t he b order i n s outhern S yria . T he o nly r eliable w ater s ource i s t he o asis a t A zraq, b ut a quifers a nd r ainpools p rovide a n umber o f o ther p otential s ources t hroughout t he a rea . T hese i nclude t he w ells a t Q asr B urqu ' a nd v arious s maller i ntermittant s prings e lsewhere i n t he l ava. T emperatures f luctuate r oughly f rom 4 5' t o 10 ° C ( Nelson 1 973) w hile a nnual p recipitation r anges f rom 2 00+ i n t he n orthwest t o l ess t han 5 0mm i n t he s outh. O verall p recipitation a verages 8 4mm p er y ear , m ost o f t his o ccurring a s e rratic w inter s torms a nd c loudbursts . T he w et s eason g enerally l asts f rom N ovember u ntil M arch . F ieldwork b egan i n 1 979 w ith t wo s hort s urveys. T hese p reliminary s urveys e xamined t he n ature o f p rehistoric a ctivity i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f Q a 'a M ejalla , am udflat o n t he l ower r eaches o f W adi R ajil, o ne o f t he m ajor w adis i n t he b asalt r egion ( Betts 1 982a), a nd a lso f ocussed o n t he s tudy o f d esert " kites", a f orm o f s tone-built a nimal t rap c ommon i n t he r egion. S ince t he i nitial r esults w ere v ery p romisi ng , a t hree y ear p rogramme o f r esearch w as p roposed t o s tudy t he e xtent a nd n ature o f m an 's a ctivities i n t he b asalt r egion u p t o t he p roto-historical p eriods. T wo f ull s easons o f a rea s urvey w ere c ond ucted i n 1 981 a nd 1 982, a nd i n t he t hird s eason i n 1 983 s oundings w ere m ade a t t he f our m ost i mportant s urvey s ites ( Betts 1 983, 1 984, 1 985). O nce a gain r esults w ere r ewarding a nd t he p rogramme w as e xtended t o i nclude a s eason o f m ajor e xcavations a t D huweila , o ne o f t he s ites s ounded i n 1 983 ( Betts i n p rep.) ( Figure 1 ).

3 69

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3 71

T he m ain s tudy r egion i s d efined t o e ast a nd w est b y g eology - t he e xtent o f t he l ava f lows , a nd t o n orth a nd s outh b y p olitical b oundaries , S yria a nd S audi A rabia r espectively. I n s electing s ample s tudy a reas t he r egion w as d ivided i nto f our g eneral z ones o f e nvironm ental d iversity, t he w estern z one, a n a rea o f o lder, w ell w eathered b asalts, r ather d isturbed b y m odern s ettlement , t he s outh-western e dge , w ith b roken c ountry, l arge m udflats a nd a ccess t o t he o pen f lint d esert a nd A zraq o asis, t he c entral z one, a n e xtensive a nd r ather i naccessable r olling p lateau c overed w ith a h ammada o f l arge b asalt c obbles a nd p unctuated b y v olcanic p eaks a nd f issure c ones , a nd t he e astern e dge, a gain a b roken b asalt-strewn a rea w ith a ccess t o o pen f lint d esert . T he w estern z one w as e liminated b ecause o f m odern d isturbance. S ample a reas w ere t hen s elected w ithin e ach o f t he r emaining z ones , t aking i nto a ccount b oth r egional v ariety a nd l ogistic c riteria. W ithin e ach s ample a rea s ites o r p laces o f p otential i nterest w ere s elected, a nd t he s urvey t eam , u sually t hree o r f our p eople , c overed a s eries o f t ransects b etween t he t rack a nd t he p oint o f i nterest , r ecording a ll t races o f a ncient o ccupation e ncountered o n t he w ay. E ach f indspot w as l ocated o n t he 1 :50 ,000 m ap t o 1 00m a ccuracy ( Jordan 1 :50 ,000 S eries K 737).

2 .

L ower/Middle P aleolithic

N o L ower P aleolithic m aterial w as f ound i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey , b ut M iddle P aleolithic m aterial w as r elatively c ommon , a lthough t he f indspots c ontained o nly s cattered a rtefacts i n d erived c ontexts. M ost o f t hese f indspots w ere i n t he s outhwest, a round t he e dge o f t he o pen g ravel p lains a nd t he t able m ountains b etween W adi Q attafi a nd J ebel Q urma . S ome o f t he l arger s catters w ere o n s ummits o f t able m ountains a nd o n p eaks a t t he e dge o f t he b asalt m assif o verlooking o pen c ountry. O ther m aterial w as f ound o n t he s lopes o f t he h ills a nd t he m ain p lateau w here i t m ay h ave e nded u p a fter s liding d own t he s cree s lopes f ollowing e rosion o f t he b asalt c apping. M ost o f t he i dentifiable M iddle P aleolithic m aterial i s o f L evallois M ousterian t ype. D ominant a rtefact t ypes a re s mallish , r ather s tubby p oints a nd c ores w ith r adial p reparation ( Betts 1 986).

3 .

U pper/Epi-Paleolithic

N o U pper P aleolithic s ites w ere d efinitely i dentified a lthough U pper P aleolithic m aterial h as b een f ound o n t he e dge o f t he b asalt a t A zraq ( Hours a nd C opeland p ers. c omm .). S mall s catters o f m icrolithic m aterial i ncluding n arrow b acked a nd t runcated b ladelets w hich p robably b elong t o ap re-Natufian p hase o f t he E pipaleolithic w ere f ound a long t he u pper b anks o f W adi R ajil i mmediately d ownstream f rom J awa . T hree s izeable l ater E pipaleolithic s ites h ave b een i dentified. T wo o f t hese c an d efinitely b e c lassed a s N atufian ; t he t hird i s p robably a lso o f t he s ame p eriod b ut a s y et h as p roduced i nsufficient e vidence t o b e c ertain . O f t hese t hree s ites, t wo h ave b een i ntensively s urveyed a nd o ne p artially e xcavated ( Betts 1 986).

3 72

3 .1

3 114 Q a 'a e s-Subhi ( 3553 I V 3 04799)

3 114 i s a s mall s ite o n a l ow s ummit o verlooking Q a 'a e s-Subhi, a n e longated m udflat w hich p rovides a u seful r oute i nto t he h eart o f t he b asalt f rom t he m ore o pen c ountry t o t he s outhwest. S urvey c ollections i ncluded a n umber o f i rregular f lake a nd b ladelet c ores i n f ine s moothg rained c ream a nd i vory-coloured c halcedony, a nd a n a ssemblage i n w hich t he m ost c ommon t ools w ere e ndscrapers , m ostly o n s tubby f lakes. T here w ere a lso b urins , b orers, n otched p ieces a nd b acked b ladelets b ut v ery f ew g eometric m icroliths.

3 .2

1 422 M ugharet e l-Jawa ( 3354 I 1 17802)

1 422 i s aN atufian s ite a round t he m outh o f a nd p ossibly i nside a l ava f low c ave j ust u pstream f rom t he s ite o f J awa . A lthough t he c ave h as b een u sed a s ac istern w ith r esulting s evere d isruption t o t he o ccupation d eposits , i t i s c lear t hat i t w as o nce q uite a s ubstantial s ettlement, p robably v ery s imilar t o 1 407 d escribed b elow . N umerous f lints, s ome w orked b asalt f ragments a nd a b edrock m ortar w ere r ecorded. T he i ndustry i ncluded b orers a nd l unates , t he l atter m ostly f ormed b y a brupt r etouch.

3 .3

1 407 K hallat

' Anaza ( 3454 I V 7 91198)

1 407 l ies a f ew k ilometres d ownstream f rom J awa o n a s mall o utcrop o f j agged b asalt s labs o verlooking a n atural r ainpool i n t he g orge c ut b y W adi R ajil ( Betts 1 982b). T he r idge o f r ock o n w hich t he s ite i s l ocated h as b een j oined a t e ither e nd b y al ow c urving w all t o f orm a s mall e nclosed t errace o f a bout 2 ,000 s q. m . F rom t he e nclosure, t wo w alls r un o ff n orth a nd w estwards, e nding a bruptly a t t he t op o f t he c liff t hat d efines t he R ajil g orge. S urface m aterial w as c ollected t hrough r andom s election o f 2 0 s ample m etre s quares a nd a s ounding o f 3 x 4 m w as m ade a t t he e astern e nd o f t he s ite. A ll e arth f rom t he s oundings w as s ieved t hrough a 3 mm m esh . T he t rench w as s hallow , f illed w ith j agged r idges o f b edrock i nterspersed w ith a shy o ccupation d eposits . T he m aximum d epth r eached w as 6 5cm . S everal p ieces o f w orked b asalt w ere r ecovered f rom t he s ounding, a nd a l ittle t o t he w est o f t he t rench s urface s urvey r evealed t wo n arrow c onical b edrock m ortars. T he f lint a ssemblage w as d ominated b y b orers a nd l unates ( Figures 2 , 3 ). U se o f t he H elwan t echnique w as r are . O ther t ools i ncluded b urins, b acked b ladelets, n otches a nd d enticulates, s ome s crapers a nd a v ery f ew p ieces w ith s ilica s heen . M icroburins a lso o ccurred i n m oderate n umbers. F aunal r emains ( Garrard 1 985) w ere v aried a nd i ncluded g azelle ( Gazella s p .), s heep/goat ( Ovis/Capra s p.), e quid ( Equus s p .), c anid ( Canis c f. a ureus) a nd h are ( Lepus c f. c apensis). A nalysis o f s eed r emains p roved i nconclusive. T rade i tems f ound a t t he s ite i ncluded s ome m arine s hells a nd f ragments o f D abba m arble.

3 73

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3 74

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4 .

P re-Pottery N eolithic A -B/Late N eolithic

N o P PNA s ites w ere f ound b ut a v ery l arge n umber o f t he s urvey s ites c an b e a ttributed t o t he P PNB . T hese i nclude o ccupation s ites, k napping s ites, a nimal t raps a nd i solated f lint s catters. M any s ites c an a lso b e a ssigned t o t he l ater N eolithic. M ost o f t hese a re " burin s ites", s o c alled b ecause o f t he h igh p roportion o f c oncave t runcation b urins i n t he c hipped s tone a ssemblage. T here i s a lso s ome e vidence f or s ites w ith s mall q uantities o f c oarse-ware p ottery, c ontemporary w ith t he P ottery N eolithic o f t he m ore f ertile a reas. S oundings w ere m ade a t t wo N eolithic s ites a nd l arger-scale e xcavations a t a t hird s ite ( Betts 1 986).

4 .1

K napping s ites

T hese a re n ormally o n h illtops o verlooking w adis a nd m udflats, p resumably t o a fford a g ood v iew o f g ame o n t he m ove. S ome a re m ultip eriod, a lthough m ost p roduced p redominantly P PNB m aterial i ncluding b ipolar b lade c ores, b lades a nd t anged a nd p ressure-flaked p oints.

4 .2

H unting t raps ( "kites")

S tone-built a nimal t raps a re v ery c ommon i n t he l ava r egion. T hey c onsist g enerally o f s everal l ong g uiding w alls l eading u p o ver a l ow r ise t o at rap o r s tone e nclosure, o ften s urrounded b y a s eries o f s mall s tone " hides". S imilar t raps w ere i n u se i n t he a rea a t l east u p u ntil t he 1 9th c entury a nd t he e arliest f orms c ould p ossibly g o b ack w ell i nto t he e arly 7 th m illennium B C . S ome h ave b een d ated t o t he L ate N eolithic a nd a lso t he l ater P PNB i n t he a rea ( see D huweila b elow). T hese f orm p art o f l arger s ystems w hich s uggest t hat a c onsiderable n umber o f t he " kites" m ay h ave b een i n u se d uring t he l ater N eolithic p eriods i n t he b asalt r egion.

4 .3

" Burin s ites"

8 2 " burin s ites" w ere r ecorded i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey. M any o f t hese w ere j ust s mall s catters o f t ools , o ccasionally i n p ossible a ssociation w ith s tructures , u sually i rregular c orrals. S ome w ere q uite s ubstantial w ith e xtensive l ithic s preads , a nd a n umber w ere d efinitely a ssociated w ith c learly d efined c lusters o f w ell b uilt h uts.

4 .4

3 133 I bn e l-Ghazzi ( 3553 I V 2 62662)

I bn e l-Ghazzi i s a c omplicated s ite c omprising a s catter o f r uined s tructures, s ome i rregular c orrals, a s eries o f l arge c airns a nd a w ater-system i ncluding c anals , a p ool a nd t wo s tone-lined c orbelled c isterns ( Betts 1 985, 1 986 : H elms a nd B etts i n p rep.). H ow m uch o f t his r elates t o t he P PNB o ccupation a t t he s ite i s a s y et u nclear. T he s ite l ies o n a n e levated p lateau o verlooking a s hallow d ish-shaped h ollow c ontaining a s mall m udflat.

3 76

T hree s oundings a nd t hree t est p its w ere e xcavated. O ne t hird o f a ll s oil r ecovered w as s ieved t hrough 3 mm m esh. C ontrolled s urface s ampling w as c arried o ut o ver 2 0 r andomly s elected m etre s quares a nd t he s ite w as t hen p urposively s urveyed f or r etouched p ieces. O ccupation l evels c ontaining f lints o f P PNB t ype w ere f ound i n a ll t hree s oundings. T he t est p its w ere c ut t o e xamine t he w ater s ystems a nd a lthough t hey p rovided s tructural i nformation , t hey c ontained n o c ultural m aterial a part f rom a n u ndiagnostic f lint s craper a nd t hus n o c lue a s t o t he d ate o f t he s ystems. S tructures a ssociated w ith P PNB m aterial i n t he s oundings i ncluded at hin c urving s tone w all r esting a lmost o n b edrock , o ne s tone o f w hich w as c arved w ith f aint i ncised l ines . C ircular g rinding s tones w ith c entral h ollows w ere f ound i n a nother s ounding . B ased o n s imilar f inds a t D huweila ( see b elow) i t s eems l ikely t hat t hey c ould b e N eolithic, b ut t he s ounding w as r eally t oo s hallow t o b e c ertain a t t his s tage. T he f lint i ndustry w as t ypical o f t he P PNB i n t he a rea . B lade c ores w ere m ostly b ipolar, o ften h eavily r educed. A rrowheads a nd b urins d ominated t he r etouched p ieces. T here w ere a lso s ome s crapers, b ifacially w orked p ieces a nd a v ery f ew s ickle b lades. A rrows w ere a lmost a ll o f B eidha ( pressure-flaked a nd l eaf-shaped o r t anged b ut w ithout t he t riangular c ross-section o f t he t rue A muq p oint) o r B yblos t ype. S pecial f inds i ncluded f ragments o f w orked b asalt a nd l imestone, s ome b one a nd s tone b eads a nd a p iece o f c hert w ith a n i ncised p attern o n t he c ortex ( Figure 4 ). R esults o f b otanical a nalyses w ere i nconclusive. F aunal r emains ( Garrard 1 985) s how t hat g azelle ( Gazella s p.) f eatured s trongly i n t he e conomy o f t he i nhabitants . S ome s heep/goat ( Ovis/Capra s p.) a nd h are ( Lepus c f. c apensis) w ere a lso i dentified.

4 .5

2 202 D huweila ( 3454 I I 4 66456)

D huweila i s as mall h unting c amp o n al ow b asalt r idge i mmediately t o t he e ast o f Q a 'a D huweila , al arge m udflat ( Betts 1 985, 1 986 , i n p rep.). T here h ave b een t wo p eriods o f o ccupation a t t he s ite. T he l owest l evels r elate t o al ate s tage o f t he P PNB . AC 14 d ate o f 8 190J : 6 0 b .p. ( BM-2349) ( 6240 b c) w as o btained f rom a h earth j ust a bove b edrock. I n t he L ate N eolithic t he s ite w as r e-occupied, w ith t he n ew i nhabitants i n s ome c ases m aking u se o f e xisting w alls i n t he r econstruction o f b uildings. N o C 14 d ates a re y et a vailable f or t his l ater r e-occupation b ut p reliminary a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone a ssemblage s eems t o s uggest t hat i t p robably t ook p lace i n t he l ate 6 th t o e arly 5 th m illennium B C . T he m ain p art o f t he s ite c onsists o f a n o val p ile o f t umbled r ocks a bout 2 0m l ong a nd 1 2m w ide. F or e xcavation i t w as d ivided i nto f our q uadrants a bout a c entral p oint . E ach o f t hese q uadrants w as s ubdivided i nto s quares o f 4x4 m . I n t he p reliminary s oundings o ne t hird o f a ll s oil w as s ieved ( 3mm m esh) b ut i n t he m ain e xcavations a ll s oil w as s ieved t hrough 5 mm m esh. S amples f or f lotation w ere c ollected a fter s ieving a lthough l ogistics l imited t he a mount o f s oil w hich c ould b e p rocessed.

3 77

2

3

4

C m

F igure 4

C hert f lakes w ith i ncised c ortex f rom D huweila a nd G hazzi.

3 78

I bn

e l-

N o c lear s tructural p lan c ould b e d iscerned f or t he P PNB o ccupat ion a lthough t he g eneral p attern s eemed t o i ndicate o ne o r m ore w ell b uilt t hick-walled s tone s tructures w ith l ighter i rregular h utcircles o r s mall c orrals s et a gainst t hem . S everal p its a nd s tone-lined h earths w ere a lso f ound i n t he i mmediate v icinity. S ome o f t he s tones u sed t o l ine t he f irepits o r l aid a s r ough p avements i n t he s maller h utcircles h ad f inely s cratched c arvings o n t hem ( Plate 2 ). M ost w ere o f h orned a nimals , p ossibly g azelle, b ut o ne s howed a r ow o f h uman f igures, f ull f ace . P art o f t he d esign s uggested c ostumes a nd o ne o r t wo o f t he f igures m ight b e s hown h olding s ticks o r w eapons o f s ome k ind. T hese c arvings s eemed t o b e a ll i n s econdary c ontexts a s u sually a t l east p art o f t he d esign w as c overed b y o ther s tones a nd w as c learly n ot i ntended t o b e d eliberately d isplayed. S imilar c arvings w ere f ound o n l oose b oulders a nd b edrock o utcrops o n a nd a round t he s ite i n u nstratified c ontexts, b ut t hey w ere q uite c learly o f t he s ame s tyle. L ate N eolithic o ccupation a t t he s ite i s c oncentrated m ainly a t t he n orthwestern e nd . S ections o f w ell b uilt s tone w alls f rom t he p receding s tage w ere i ncorporated i nto a n e longated s tructure o ver 8 m l ong l ying p arallel t o t he c rest o f t he r idge. T he i nterior o f t his w as c leaned o ut a lmost t o b edrock . S everal p hases o f o ccupation a nd r ebuilding c an b e d istinguished. A c entral p artition d ivided i t l engthways a nd a t t he s outhern e nd a n arrow p assage w ith s everal s tone s teps l ed u p t o t he e ntrance. W est o f t he c entral p artition a s tonef lagged f loor w as c arefully l aid o ver m uch o f t he i nterior. I ncorporated i nto t his w as a c ircular g rinding s tone w ith a c entral h ollow . S everal b asalt r ubbers a nd f lint t ools w ere f ound o n t his f loor w hich w as i n t urn s ealed b y a s econd m ore e xtensive f lagstone f loor. T his u pper f loor c overed m ost o f t he i nterior o f t he s tructure w est o f t he p artition w all. L ater a nd l ess c learly d efined p hases c ould b e d istinguished i n t he l evels s ealing t he u pper f loor. P art o f t he u pper p hases i ncluded t wo c urving s tone p latforms, o ne e nclosing a m illstone w ith a c entral h ollow . S outh o f t he m ain s tructural c omplex i s a c orral o r m ore i nformal s tructure. I t w as f ormed i n p art b y a n e xtension o f t he e astern w all o f t he m ain c omplex w hich s wung a round t o l ink w ith a " kite" w all r unn ing u p t o t he s outhern c orner o f t he s ite. T he f lint a ssemblage f rom t he e arliest l evels a t D huweila w as a gain t ypical o f P PNB t ool k its i n t he s urvey a rea ( Figures 5 -8), w ith b ipolar b lade c ores, o ften h eavily r educed, h igh p roportions o f a rrowh eads a nd b urins, s ome b ifacial p ieces , b orers a nd a v ery f ew s ickle b lades. A rrowheads w ere m ostly o f B yblos a nd B eidha t ype. T he L ate N eolithic f lint a ssemblage w as a lso d ominated b y a rrowheads ( Figures 6 , 8 ). T here w ere a n umber o f t ypes, a lmost a ll o f t hem s mall b ifacially p ressure-flaked p oints a nd t ransverse a rrowheads. T here i s s ome e vidence f or t he s pecial s election o f f ine-grained e xotic s tone, p articularly f or t he t ransverse a rrowheads . O ther c omponents o f t he L ate N eolithic a ssemblage i nclude t abular s crapers a nd f ine p ressuref laked b ifacial k nives . A part f rom t he l arge a mounts o f b one a nd c hipped s tone, t he s ite w as n ot r ich . O ther a rtefacts p roduced b y t he e xcavations c omprised s ome b asalt g rinding i mplements, s hell, s tone a nd b one b eads, o ne l imes tone a nimal f igurine , a nd i n t he L ate N eolithic l evels a f ew r eddish

3 79

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5

d

-

oi F igure 5

C hipped s tone t ools f rom D huweila . t ype a rrowheads.

3 80

Cm

5

1

P re-Pottery N eolithic

B

e • c› , . 6 4

5

7

8

1

1 2

0

F igure 6

c m

5

C hipped s tone t ools f rom D huweila. 1 -11 L ate N eolithic a rrowheads; 1 2-15 P PNB t ype d ihedral b urins; 1 6 P PNB t runcation b urin.

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t ype t ype

2

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7

6

O

e 0 0

0 0 • • • •. ., • • • e • • • • • • 0 • • • • e

1 0

1 t

0i

c m

1 5

F igure 7 C hipped s tone t ools f rom D huweila - P PNB . 1d ihedral b urin ; 2 n ucleiform b urin ; 3b urin o n b reak ; 4 m ultiple d ihedral b urin ; 5 t anged b urin ; 6 -7 m ultiple m ixed b urins ; 9 -10 b orers; 1 s ickle b lade ; 8 -12 e ndscrapers.

3 82

3

0t

F igure 8

C 1 1 1

1 5

C hipped s tone t ools f rom D huweila k nives"; 3 b ifacial t ool.

3 83

P PNB/LN .

1 -2

" tile-

c oarse-ware s herds a nd o ne d ark b urnished b ody s herd. P reliminary i dentification o f s ome o f t he f aunal r emains ( Garrard p ers. c omm .) s hows t hat i n t he P PNB t he e conomy o f t he i nhabitants o f D huweila w as b ased o n e xploitation o f g azelle a nd o ccasionally w ild a ss, h are a nd o ther s mall g ame. I n t he L ate N eolithic g azelle s till p redominate s trongly i n t he f aunal a ssemblage b ut t here i s a lso s ome e vidence f or d omestic s heep/goat. I mported o bjects a t t he s ite i ncluded a f ew m arine s hells , s ome f ragments o f D abba m arble a nd l imes tone u sed f or a c rude s tone v essel a nd a n a nimal f igurine. A rea s urvey i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ite i dentified a t l east f our o ther s imilar s ites , a ll w ith r ock a rt o f i dentical s tyle , a ll w ith a ssociated s catters o f P PNB f lint , a nd t hree o f t hem w ith s tructures i ncorporated i nto " kite" w alls. E vidence f rom D huweila c an o nly p rove a p ositive l ink w ith t he " kites" i n t he L ate N eolithic, b ut r obbed-out w alls a round t he s ite, c oupled w ith t he e vidence f rom t he a rea s urvey s trongly s uggest t hat s ome o f t he m any " kite" w alls i n t he r egion w ere i n u se d uring t he P PNB.

4 .6

2 321 J ebel N aja ( 3453 I 2 97552)

J ebel N aja ( Betts 1 985, 1 986) i s a " burin s ite". I t l ies o n a s teep e ast f acing s lope i n t he s outhern p art o f t he s urvey a rea , s heltered f rom t he p revailing w ind b y t he r im o f t he b asalt p lateau a nd o verlooking t he a lluvial f an o f W adi Q attafi w here i t d ebouches o ut o f t he l ava c ountry o nto t he o pen g ravel p lains . T he s ite c onsists o f a d ense s catter o f f lints i n a nd a round a c luster o f c orrals a nd c leared t erraces. T hese s tructures a lmost c ertainly v ary g reatly i n d ate . S ome m ay r elate t o t he N eolithic o ccupation o f t he h illside b ut t he s oundings f ailed t o p rove t his c onclusively. F our t renches w ere o pened u p i n a reas w here t he c oncentration o f s urface a rtefacts s eemed t o b e t he g reatest. P urposive s ampling w as c arried o ut o ver t he w hole s ite t o t ry t o r ecover a rtefacts o ther t han b urins. O ne t hird o f a ll e xcavated s oil w as s ieved ( 3mm m esh) w ith t he e xception o f t he l ower l evels w here a ll t he s oil w as s ieved. T here w as v ery l ittle s oil c over, e ven a t t he d ownslope e nd o f t he t erraces. T he m aximum d epth a t w hich b edrock w as r eached w as j ust u nder 5 0cm , b ut i n m any p laces i t w as m uch l ess. T hree o f t he s oundings f ailed t o r eveal a ny o ccupation d eposit a lthough e very l evel w as f illed w ith t hick c hunks o f r oughly w orked f lint a nd t runcation b urins. O nly o ne t rench g ave a ny i ndication o f t he n ature o f t he N eolithic d eposits. T his s ounding e ncompassed t he f ill o f a s mall h ut a nd a t rench l aid o ut a long t he o utside o f t he h ut. T hree h earths o r f ire p its w ere f ound s et i nto l evels o f a shy s and c ontaining a f ew s plinters o f b one, m uch b adly f ire-cracked f lint a nd e vidence f or b ead w orking i n t he f orm o f r aw m aterial, p artially f ormed a nd c omplete b eads, a nd d rill b its o n b urin s palls. AC 14 d ate o f 7 340 ± 1 00 b p ( OxA 3 75) ( 5480 b c) w as o btained f rom c harcoal f ragments f ound i n o ne o f t he h earths. T he f lint i ndustry w as f lake b ased ( Figures 9 -12). C ores w ere i rregular, u sually w ith l ittle o r n o p reparation , a nd c ortical s urfaces w ere o ften u sed a s s triking p latforms. A mong t he r etouched p ieces b urins, e specially t hose o n t runcations, o verwhelmingly p redominate,

3 84

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8 9

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0L

F igure 9

c m

1 5

C hipped s tone t ools f rom J ebel N aja .

3 85

1 -11 t runcation b urins.

5

9

F igure 1 0 C hipped s tone t ools f rom J ebel N aja. 1 -3 t runcation 4 , 7 , 9 t abular s crapers; 4d enticulated s craper; s craper; 8 f lake s craper.

3 86

b urins; 6 e nd-

1

2

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1 5

F igure 1 1 C hipped s tone t ools f rom J ebel N aja.

3 87

1 -3 b ifacial t ools.

2

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8 4

1

9

i :

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c m

F igure 1 2 C hipped s tone t ools f rom J ebel N aja. b orers; 6 -9 d rill b its .

3 88

1 -2 b ifacial t ools ; 3 -5

a ccounting f or 8 1% o f a ll e xcavated t ools. O ther t ools i ncluded c rude f lake s crapers, b ifacial k nives , b orers a nd d rill b its o n b urin s palls. T wo s mall b ifacially w orked p oints a nd o ne t ransverse a rrowhead w ere a lso f ound. A part f rom c hipped s tone, t he o nly o ther a rtefacts t o b e r ecovered w ere t he b eads. T hese w ere m ade m ostly o f a s oft f riable p inkish s tone. A f ew w ere o n c hips o f D abba m arble. T he v irtual a bsence o f c harcoal p recluded b otanical a nalysis. F aunal r emains ( Garrard 1 985) i ncluded s heep/goat ( Ovis/Capra s p.), h are ( Lepus c f. c apensis) a nd g azelle ( Gazella s p.). T he c ondition o f t he s pecimens r endered i t i mpossible t o d etermine w hether o r n ot t he O vis/Capra p ieces w ere f rom d omesticated a nimals .

5 .

S ummary

O ne o f t he m ain r esults o f t he S urvey h as b een t o s how t he e xtent a nd d iversity o f o ccupation i n t he r ather i nhospitable l ava r egion t hrough m uch o f p rehistory. T here a re s till g aps i n t he s equence h owever. T his m ight b e t he r esult o f an umber o f f actors; f ailure o f t he s urvey t o l ocate o r i dentify s ites o f t hese p eriods, a bandonment o f t he b asalt h ammada ( although n ot o f t he w hole s teppic r egion, o r t he d estruction o r b urial o f s ites i n t he c ourse o f t he e rosion c ycle. T he b asalt h ammada w ith i ts r ather s pecial g eomorphological c haracter m ay n ot a lways h ave a ttracted p eople l iving i n t he e astern d esert. T hey m ay a t t imes h ave p referred t he m arshes a round A zraq o r t he o pen g ravel p lains. S hort-term l ocal c hanges t oo m ay h ave t emporarily a ltered t he p attern o f e nvironmental e xploitation , f or e xample a nimal d isease o r t he d struction o f w ells o r w aterholes t hrough c hanges i n d rainage p atterns, p erhaps c aused b y l ocalised t ectonic d isturbance. A rea s tudy o f t he B lack D esert h as a lso h ighlighted p atterns o f c hange i n s ettlement t hroughout t he p rehistoric p eriods. C hoice o f s ite i s g overned i n t he M iddle P aleolithic b y t he p roximity o f h igh h ills t o o pen c ountry. I n t he E pipaleolithic v antage p oints a re s till i mportant b ut s ites a re o ften d eeper i n t he b asalt h ammada a nd t end t o b e n ear t o w ater s ources. P PNB s ites a re a lso o n h igh g round i n t he h ammada , b ut n ot n ecessarily c lose t o w ater s upplies . " Burin s ites" t end t o b e o n s heltered s lopes c lose t o g razing g rounds. T aking t he s tudy r egion a s aw hole, s ites o f a ll p eriods a re g enerally c ommoner i n t he s lightly m ore f avourable a reas t o t he w est, a round t he b asalt m argins, t he l arge m udflats a nd u p t he w adis d raining f rom t he A shaqif R ange i nto t he A zraq B asin. S ites h ere t end t o b e l arger t han t hose t o t he e ast. S ettlement i s n oticable s parser e ast o f t he A shaqif R ange a nd t he s ites a re g enerally m ore i mpoverished, e ven i n b etter a reas a round t he p ools a t Q asr B urqu ' a nd t he m argins o f t he b asalt h ammada. I t i s c lear f rom t he f indings o f t he S urvey t o d ate t hat t he B lack D esert h as g reat p otential f or t he s tudy o f p rehistoric a daptive s trategies. H owever t he u ltimate a im o f t he P roject i s n ot a n e xhaustive e xamination o f t he w hole r egion ; i t i s a n a ttempt t o c onc entrate o n s pecific g roups o f s ites w hich c an y ield n ew i nformation o n s teppic a daptions a nd a lso i n s ome c ases a id i n t he i nterpretation o f s ites f ound o utside t he l ava b elt. W ith t his i n m ind i t i s h oped t hat t he n ext p hase o f t he B lack D esert S urvey w ill i nvolve f urther w ork o n

3 89

" burin s ites" t o o btain m ore d ating a nd e nvironmental e vidence . F urther w ork i s a lso p lanned a t I bn e l-Ghazzi a s t he w ater-systems, t he l arge s tructures a nd t he c ircular " Neolithic" g rinding s tones h ave n ot y et b een a dequately e xamined. T he N eolithic p eriod i n t he s teppe w as a p articularly c omplex t ime a s o ld s ubsistence s trategies w ere a dapted t o i ncorporate t he n ew c oncepts o f d omesticated p lants a nd a nimals. T his i s r eflected i n t he n umber a nd v ariety o f 7 th a nd 6 th/5th m illennium s ites. T he i mportance o f t his t ime o f c hange a nd d evelopment c ertainly m erits f urther s tudy.

3 90

B ibliography B etts A .V.G. J ordan .

( 1982a). P rehistoric s ites a t Q a 'a M ejalla , e astern L evant 1 4 : 1 -34.

B etts A .V.G. J ordan.

( 1982b). AN atufian s ite i n t he B lack D esert, e astern P aleorient 8 .2: 7 9-82.

B etts A .V.G . r eport.

( 1983). B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan . L evant 1 5: 1 -10.

F irst p reliminary

B etts A .V.G . r eport.

( 1984). B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan. L evant 1 6: 2 5-34.

S econd p reliminary

B etts A .V .G . r eport.

( 1985). B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan . L evant 1 7: 2 9-52.

T hird p reliminary

B etts A .V .G . ( 1986). T he P rehistory o f t he B asalt D esert, T ransjordan. A n a nalysis. L ondon, U niversity o f L ondon : U npublished D octoral T hesis. B etts A .V.G . J ordan ,

( in p reparation). E xcavations a t D huweila , e astern 1 986. Ap reliminary r eport.

G arrard A .N . ( 1985). F aunal r emains. A ppendix I . I n B etts A : B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan . T hird p reliminary r eport. L evant 1 7: 3 94 9.

H elms S .W . a nd B etts A .V.G . ( in p reparation). Aw ater h arvesting a nd s torage s ystem a t I bn e l-Ghazzi i n e astern J ordan .

N elson B .

( 1973).

A zraq, D esert O asis.

3 91

L ondon .

T he N eolithic S ettlement a t

' Ain G hazal

G ary 0 . R ollefson A lan H . S immons

1 .

I ntroduction

F our s easons o f e xcavations a t t he l arge N eolithic s ite o f ' Ain G hazal ( Rollefson 1 983; 1 984; 1 985; R ollefson a nd S immons 1 985; 1 986; n .d.) h ave c oncentrated o n a reas h eavily d amaged b y h ighway a nd c ommercial c onstruction. D espite t he " salvage" o rientation o f t his p hase o f t he f ieldwork , t hree s tratified p eriods o f c ultural d evelopm ent h av b een i dentified: t he P PNB p eriod, e xposed o ver a n aea o f c a. 2 00m'; a F inal P PN o r P PNC p eriod, i nvestigated t hrough 4 5m'; a nd t he Y armou lqan p hase o f t he e arly P ottery N eolithic p eriod, s ampled i n a c a . 6 0m L a rea. E ach o f t hese c ultural d evelopments i s d iscussed b elow i n p roportion t o t he a mount o f i nformation r ecovered f rom t he s everal e xposures. M ore d etailed ( although s till i ncomplete) t reatment o f e ach p eriod i s a vailable i n a s eries o f p reliminary r eports c ited i n t he b ibliography. 1

2 .

C hronological D evelopment o f

' Ain G hazal

A s eries o f 1 4 r adiocarbon d ates 2 p rovides a s ound c hronological f ramework f or t racing t he d evelopment o f t he s ettlement, a t l east f or t he P PNB p eriod ( Table 1 ). T he s ite b egan a s a s mall t o m oderate-sized v illage, p robably n ot l arger t han 4 -5 h a. a t a pproximately 7 250 b .c. n ear t he s pring o f ' Ain G hazal, o ne o f t he m any f reshwater s ources t hat f ed t he a ncient p ermanent Z arqa R iver w hich f lowed a long t he e astern m argin o f t he n ewly e stablished s ettlement. A t a pproximately 6 500 B .C . t he v illage a ppears t o h ave g rown s uddenly, e ncompassing p erhaps a s m uch a s n ine h ectares o n t he w est b ank o f t he Z arqa a s w ell a s e stablishing a f oothold o n t he e astern b ank j ust t o t he n ortheast o f t he m ain s ettlement ( Figure 1 ). T he l ast f irm d ate f or t he P PNB a t ' Ain G hazal i s 6 215 B .C. f rom a c harred l og a t t he b ase o f a 1 5m a rchitectural c omplex i n t he S outh F ield o f t he s ite ( cf. R ollefson a nd S immons 1 986). N o r adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable y et f or l ater o ccupations, b ut t hree l inear a ccelerator s amples a re p resently b eing p rocessed.

3 .

T he P PNB P eriod ( ca .

7 250-6000 B .C .)

S o f ar a m inimum o f n ine m ajor o ccupational p hases h ave b een i dentified f or t he P PNB p eriod i n o ne e xcavation t rench, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat s everal o thers e xist t hat h ave n ot y et b een r evealed i n s tratigraphic c orrelations a mong t he d isparate e xcavation s quares.

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M icrostratigraphic r elationships h ave n ot y et b een r esolved, s o t he f ollowing d iscussion s ummarizes c ultural a spects o f t he P PNB m aterial i n a g eneral m anner o nly.

3 .1

A rchitecture ( Plates 1 -3)

T he P PNB a rchitecture a t ' Ain G hazal d id n ot c hange i n a ny m ajor w ay f rom t he e nd o f t he 8 th m illennium t o t he e nd o f t he 7 th . T he m oderate s lope o f t he h illside ( ca . 1 0° ) w as t erraced t o p rovide l evel a reas f or t he c onstruction o f r ectangular d wellings o f t wo o r m ore r ooms w ith t he l ong a xis g enerally o riented e ast-west ( upsloped ownslope). N o c omplete b uilding h as b een e xcavated u p t o t he p resent t im , b ut i t a ppears t hat i ndividual r ooms v aried i n s ize f rom c a. 1 02 5m` '. W alls w ere c onstructed o f u ndressed l imestone s labs a nd c obbles. A n a pplication o f m ud p laster s moothed t he i rregular c ontours o f t he i nterior s urfaces o f t he r ooms, a nd t his w as c oated w ith a t hin l aminum o f l ime p laster. F loors c onsisted o f t wo l ayers o f p laster: a b ase l ayer o f l ime p laster m ixed w ith g ravel w as f inished w ith a t hinner s urface l ayer o f f ine l ime p laster, p olished t o a h igh g loss w ith r ubbing s tones ( Rollefson a nd S uleiman 1 983; B anning a nd B yrd 1 984). I t a ppears t hat h ouse w alls w ere d ecorated w ith r ed p igment f rom t he b eginning o f t he P PNB p eriod, b ut l ittle w all p laster h as b een p reserved i n s itu. O ne s mall f ragment s uggests t hat g eometric d esigns w ere a pplied t o w alls, b ut n ot e nough r emains f or a ny i nterpretations. T he h ouse f loors f rom t he e arliest p hases o f t he P PNB d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een i ntentionally d ecorated, f or o nly r andom s plotches a nd s pots h ave b een d etected. B ut n ear t he m iddle o f t he 7 th m illennium , h ouse f loors r eceived s ubstantial a ttention, w ith s ome f loors c overed c omp letely w ith r ed p igment a pplied u sing a f inger-painted m ethod . T wo f loors b ear p arallel, s ub-parallel, a nd i ntersecting f inger-painted l ines t hat s uggest s tylized b ird f eathers, a p ossible p arallel t o t he " vulture s hrines" e xcavated a t c ontemporary C atal H uyuk ( compare R ollefson a nd S immons 1 986 a nd M ellaart 1 965). 3 A nother h ouse f loor d ating t o t he e arly-mid-PPNB i ncludes r epeated s eries o f " commas", a lthough s o l ittle o f t he f loor r emained i ntact t hat n o s ecure i nterpretation o r s ignificance c ould b e d etermined ( Rollefson a nd S immons n .d.). O ne o f t he o utstanding f eatures o f d omestic c onstruction a t P PNB ' Ain G hazal c oncerns t he i ntricate r enovation a nd i nternal r ea rrangement o f d wellings d uring a h ouse's, " life-time". S uch a ccommodations t o c hanging n eeds a nd f unctions a re r evealed i n o ften c omplex e xpansion a nd r eduction o f h ouse s izes t hrough a dditional c ons truction, r oom a bandonments, a nd r oom a lterations ( Banning a nd B yrd 1 984: n .d.).

3 .2

S ubsistence E conomy

P PNB s ubsistence e conomy i s d etailed i n K öhler - R ollefson ( this v olume) a nd o nly a b rief s ummary i s i ncluded h ere . F aunal r emains a re c haracterized b y a r emarkably b road a rray o f s pecies t hat r eflects t he e cological d iversity o f t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he v illage ( Köhler R ollefson e t a l. n .d.). D espite t he p roximity o f t he Z arqa R iver, o nly

3 96

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P late 2

P late 3

E arliest o ccupation p hase o f a P PNB h ouse ( centre) a nd c ontemporary d welling t o t he n orth ( left), b oth b adly d amaged b y h ighway c onstruction. ( Photo: C . B lair).

L ater p hase o f o ccupation o f h ouse s hown i n F ig. C . B lair).

3 98

3 .

( Photo :

a f ew s pecimens o f f ish h ave b een r ecovered, e ven t hough b one p reservat ion w as e xcellent a nd a ll s ediments w ere d ry-sieved . P lant e xploitation c oncentrated h eavily o n d omesticated p ulses a nd g rains , w hile w ild f igs, p istachio a nd a lmonds h ave a lso b een i dentified ( Donaldson i n R ollefson e t a l . 1 985). S pecies i dentificat ion o f c harcoal r emains r eveals t hat o ak w as t he p referred m aterial f or b oth c onstruction a nd f uel, a lthough t amarisk a nd p oplar f rom t he r iver b anks w ere a lso u sed ( R . N eef, p ers. c omm .).

3 .3

C hipped S tone A rtefacts ( Figures 2 -5)

T he f irst f our s easons o f e xcavations p roduced a l arge v olume o f i n s itu c hipped s t2ne a rtefacts, m ost o f w hich h ave c ome f rom P PNB c ontexts ( Table 2 ). T he P PNB a ssemblage i s d istinct f rom t he l ater P PNC o ccupation h orizons i n t erms o f b asic b lank p roduction ( blade : f lake r atios a nd b ladelet f requencies), i ndicated b y C hi-Square t ests o f s ignificance ( Table 3 ). ( The P PNB a nd Y armoukian p hases a re d istinct f rom e ach o ther i n t he s ame w ays). Q uantitative t ests h ave n ot y et b een c onducted, b ut i t a ppears t hat P PNB a rtefacts a re g enerally t hinner a nd m ore d elicate t han t hose f rom t he l ater p eriods, a nd t he u se o f p unch b lade t echnique h eavily p redominates i n t he P PNB a s o pposed t o i ncreased r eliance o n d irect p ercussion i n t he P PNC a nd Y armoukian a ssemblages . P PNB f lintknappers a lso e vidently e xercised m ore s electivity i n t erms o f r aw m aterial q ualities, w ith m uch c ruder r esources a ppearing i n s ubsequent o ccupations ( Kh . A bu G huneima, p ers . c omm .). B urins d ominate t he P PNB t ool i nventory ( Table 4 ) a s t hey d o t o a l esser e xtent i n t he P PNC a nd Y armoukian. P PNB p rojectile p oints a re p rimarily l ong a nd r elatively h eavy, w ith o nly a h andful o f s maller s pecimens t hat m ight b e c haracterized a s " true" a rrowheads . S ickleb lades a re n umerous i n t he P PNB p eriod, c omprised o f l ong i ntegral b lades u sed s ingly i n t wo o r m ore h afting m ethods. P erforators/drills/ a wls a nd n otches a lso p layed i mportant r oles i n P PNB t ool k its, w ith o ther t ool t ypes d istributed a t v alues o f 5 % o r l ower. W hile t he p rojectile p oints i n t he t hree m ajor o ccupational p eriods r eflect s ignificant m etric, m orphological, a nd s tylistic v ariat ion , t he s ame i s t rue f or b urins. T he c onfigurations o f b urins h as b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Rollefson a nd S immons 1 986), a nd t he f igures i n T able 5 s how a c onsistent p attern i n t he i ncreasing i mportance o f "c omplex" a nd " truncation" c lasses f rom t he P PNB t hrough Y armoukian l ayers . T his a spect o f t ypological s eriation h as s ome i mportant i mplications f or u nderstanding t he e xploitation o f t he e astern d eserts o f J ordan ( see R ollefson , t his v olume).

3 .4

O ther S tone A rtefacts

G rinding s tones a re r epresented b y n umerous m ullers , p estles, q uern a nd m ortar f ragments, a nd o pen-mouthed " stone b owl" m ortars . A lthough a w ide r ange o f r esources w ere u sed, l imestone w as t he c ommon m aterial f or q uerns a nd " stone b owls", w hile b asalt , w hich w as o btaina ble n o c loser t han t he M afraq r egion 3 5-40km t o t he n ortheast,

3 99

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d

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2 cm

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h

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F igure 2 P PNB p rojectile p oints f rom ' Ain G hazal. B yrd).

4 00

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( Drawing :

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F igure 3 P PNB a rtefacts f rom ' Ain G hazal. ( a-c, hi) p rojectile p oints; ( d) t anged m icrodenticulate " saw"; ( e-f) d rills; ( g) b orer ; ( j, 1 , p -q) t ransverse b urins; ( k) o pposed b urin ; ( m) t anged s ickle b lade ; ( n) w edge. ( Drawing: B . B yrd).

4 01

0

F igure 4

3cm

F lint a rtefacts f rom ' Ain G hazal. ( a) a rrowhead; ( b) b orer; ( c-d) b urins o n t runcations; ( e-f) w edges; ( g) m icrod enticulated " saw" w ith s light s heen; ( h , 1 ) t ransverse b urins ; ( i) s idescraper; ( j) o pposed b urin ; ( k) d iverse b urin . Y armoukian: a -f; P PNB : g -1 . ( Drawing : B . B yrd).

4 02

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s ick le

F igure 5

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Y armoukian a rtefacts f rom ' Ain G hazal. ( a-c) a rrow-heads ; ( d-f) b orers ; ( g) t runcated s ickle b lade; ( h-k) t runcation b urins; ( 1) w edge ; ( m) c ortical s craper; ( n) d iverse t ool; ( o) s idescraper. ( Drawing : B . B yrd).

4 03

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B LADE :FLAKE R ATIOS P PNB P PNB P PNC

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Y armoukian

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Y armoukian

8 02.8829

3 66.2642 1 5.0361

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P PNC 2 55.7052

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A bsolute a nd r elative f requencies o f m ajor t ool c lasses f rom ' Ain G hazal, 1 983-1985

P PNB

T ool C lass S pear p oints A rrowheads S ickle b lades B urins ( all t ypes) T runcations S crapers ( all) D enticulates N otches P erforators/Drills B ifacial t ools K nives B acked b lades T anged b lades O ther

S ubtotals

P PNC

n

%

1 60 1 5 2 83 1 206 1 26 1 61 1 74 3 21 2 56 1 66 3 8 3 9 4 9 9 5

5 .2 0 .5 9 .2 3 9.0 4 .1 5 .2 5 .6 1 0 .4 8 .3 5 .4 1 .2 1 .3 1 .6 3 .1

3 089

n

Y armoukian

%

n

%

7 1 2 2 1 03 3 0 2 7 2 5 6 3 3 0 2 9 5 1 1 8

2 .0 3 .4 0 .6 2 9.3 8 .5 7 .7 7 .1 1 7.9 8 .5 8 .2 1 .4 0 .0 0 .3 5 .1

1 1 5 7 1 35 3 3 3 5 2 5 5 6 4 2 3 8 9 1 2 1 2 7

2 .5 3 .4 1 .6 3 0.3 7 .4 7 .8 5 .6 1 2.6 9 .4 8 .5 2 .0 2 .7 0 .2 6 .1

1 00.1

3 52

1 00 .0

4 46

1 00.1

R etouched P ieces

4 70

( 10 .4)

2 02

( 26.4)

1 35

( 17.8)

U tilized P ieces

6 64

( 14.7)

1 37

( 17.9)

15

( 15.1)

I ndeterminate

1 67

(3 .7)

7 3

(9 .6)

6 4

(8 .4)

T otals

4 510

7 64

4 06

7 60

T able 5 .

V ariations i n f requencies i n b urin c lasses a mong P PNB, P PNC a nd Y armoukian a ssemblages ( 1984 a nd 1 985 s amples o nly)

P PNB

P PNC

Y armoukian

B urin C lass S imple C omplex T runcation

3 69 1 23 2 0

7 2.1 2 4.0 3 .9

T otals

5 12

1 00 .0

6 2 3 2 9

1 03

6 0 .2 3 1.1 8 .7

4 7 5 9 1 8

3 7.9 4 7.6 1 4.5

1 00 .0

1 24

1 00.0

C hi-Square V alues ( and l evels o f s ignificance)

P PNB v s P PNC S imple C omplex T runcation

5 .768 2 .257 4 .455

( .02) ( ---) ( .05)

P PNB v s Y armoukian S imple C omplex T runcation

5 1.050 2 7.119 2 0.003

( .0001) ( .0001) ( .0001)

P PNC v s Y armoukian S imple C omplex T runcation

1 1.200 6 .388 1 .793

( .001) ( .02) ( ---)

4 07

c onstituted t he p referred m aterial f or m ullers , m ortars , a nd p estles. S everal r oughly t rihedral o r o vate l imestones w ere p erforated, s uggesti ng t heir u se a s w eights. S mall f lint c obbles a nd p ebbles h ad d eveloped a v ery h igh l uster t hrough u se a s b urnishing s tones , p robably i n c onnection w ith t he p olishing o f p laster f loors.

3 .5

B one T ools

As ubstantial s ample o f w orked b one h as c ome f rom P PNB l ayers , a ll o f w hich s uggest a r estricted s cope o f a ctivities a ssociated w ith w eavi ng , s ewing, a nd p ossibly l eather w ork ( Rollefson 1 984, R ollefson a nd S immons 1 985; 1 986). T he p owdery c harred r emains o f aw oven m at o f s pun f ibres w as f ound o n o ne h ouse f loor i n 1 982, b ut i t c ould n ot b e c onserved i n o rder t o d etermine a ny t echnological f eatures.

3 .6

S mall F inds a nd E xotic M aterials

A lthough a nimal b one a nd t eeth a nd l ocally a vailable s tone a nd f ossils w ere u sed b y P PNB r esidents o f ' Ain G hazal f or j ewellery a nd o ther a dornment, o ther m aterials r eflect e xtended e xchange s ystems t o p rocure s hells f rom t he M editerranean a nd R ed S eas , p ossibly c opper o re f rom t he W adi D ana ( ?) r egion o f s outhern J ordan , a n a labaster-like s ubstance f rom t he W adi e l-Hasa d rainage ( ?), a nd c arnelian a nd p erhaps c oral f rom t he W adi R um a nd A qaba a reas. T he f ew o bsidian b lade f ragments a nd s ingle o bsidian k nife i ndicate c ontacts w ith e astern A natolia , a lthough s ource a nalysis h as n ot y et b een c onducted. A sphalt f or m astic a nd d ecorative p urposes c ame f rom o ozes a long t he D ead S ea. N umerous s mall g eometric o bjects o f b aked a nd u nbaked c lay ( more r arely o f c halk a nd p laster) w ere r ecovered f rom P PNB c ontexts . S mall s pheres a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon s hape , b ut c ones, c rescents , p yramids , d iscs , c ylinders , a nd l oaf s hapes a lso o ccur . T hey a ppear t o c onform t o w hat S chmandt-Besserat ( e .g. 1 982) c onsiders t o b e a ccounti ng t okens w hich , i n v iew o f t he a rea a nd p robable l arge p opulation o f ' Ain G hazal, m ay h ave b een n ecessary t o f acilitate a llocations o f r esources a nd c ivic o bligations. D espite t he " Pre-Pottery" n omenclature o f t he p eriod, a s ubstantial s ample o f s herds o f s un-dried c eramics - s ome c oated w ith r ed o chre - c ome f rom t he e arly P PNB l ayers , a nd m ore t han 2 0 f ired s herds f rom s ecure, p robably m id-7th m illennium c ontexts i ndicate f altering e xperimentation w ith a n ew t echnological p rocess. A b road r ange o f w hite w are v essels a lso d erive f rom e arly a nd m iddle P PNB l ayers , b oth a s c arved c halk a nd a s m oulded p laster c ontainers ( cf. K afafi i n R ollefson e t a l. 1 984 , 1 985, K afafi 1 986), a ntedating b y s everal c enturies t he a ppearance o f v aisselles b lanches i n S yria a nd L ebanon .

3 .7

H uman B urials ( Plates 4 , 5 )

N early 7 5 h uman i nterments h ave b een r ecovered f rom P PNB d eposits a t ' Ain G hazal. T he m odal b urial s tyle i s i ndividual ( sometimes a dult w ith i nfant), s ubfloor , f lexed o r s emi-flexed, a nd d ecapitated. A

4 08

P late 4

T ypical P PNB b urial.

( Pho u ):

P late 5

C ache o f f our P PNB a dult s kulls. T he s kulls a t f ar r ight a nd c entre b ottom r etained p laster i n t he e ye-sockets a nd m axilla c avities. ( Photo: B . B yrd).

4 09

C . B lair

v ariant o f t his s tyle i s s imilar i n a ll a spects e xcept t hat t he l ocat ion i s o utside t he h ouse . S everal o ther b urials s uggest t hat a nother " style" e xists : s ome i ndividuals w ere d iscarded i n t rash p its i n a v ariety o f o rientations, i nvariably w ith t he s kulls i ntact. T his m ethod o f d isposal a fter d eath w ould s uggest t hat t hese p eople e njoyed l ess r espect w hile s till a live . F inally, i nfants o f ay ear o r l ess o f a ge w ere t reated i n av ariety o f w ays, a lthough i n a ll c ases t he s kull r emained i ntact w ith t he b ody . I n s ome i nstances i nfants a ppear t o h ave b een s imply " discarded", a lthough u nder s ome c ircumstances t hey m ay h ave s erved s ome c eremonial i mportance s uch a s f oundation o fferings ( cf. R ollefson a nd S immons 1 985; 1 986). T wo i nfants w ere p laced d irectly a bove a c ache o f f our a dult s kulls, e mphasizing a r itual a spect f or t he d isposal o f s ome c hildren ( Rollefson 1 983). F ar f ewer s kulls h ave b een d iscovered t han t he d ecapitated s keletons i ndicate s hould b e f ound. O ne s ubfloor c ache i nclude s kulls o f t hree a dults/subadults p laced i n a s traight l ine, a ll f acing t he e ast w all. L ike s imilar " triplet c aches" f ound a t J ericho, n o e vidence o f a ny o ther s pecial t reatment a ppears t o h ave b een a fforded t hese s kulls. A nother c ache o f f our a dult s kulls w as f ound i n a c ourtyard p it, a nd t wo o f t hem r etained p laster i n v arious c avities o f t he c ranium ( Plate 5 ). A sphalt h ad b een u sed c osmetically a s a n e yeliner a nd t o i ndicate i rises . V ery p oorly p reserved , t hese s kulls a re l ocal v ersions o f t he p lastered " portrait s kull" c ult w hich K enyon a ttributed t o s ome f orm o f a ncestor w orship ( e.g . K enyon 1 979: 5 5-56). I n o ne o ther e xample o f p ost-mortem t reatment o f t he s kull, a b adly d amaged c ranium o f a n a dolescent w as f ound b eneath a h ousefloor. T he i ntact p ortion o f t he s kull w as c oated w ith a t hin c oating o f a b lack p igment ( asphalt?), b ut n o o ther e vidence o f s pecial a ttention w as p reserved. F inally, t he s mashed s kull o f o ne i ndividual w as f ound o n t he f loor o f a n a bandoned h ouse. T his p erson a ppears t o h ave h ad t he s calp s craped o ff t he c ranium w ith a s harp t ool, f or n umerous d eep a nd s ubparallel l ines a re i ncised i nto t he b one . T he e ntire s urface o f t he r emaining p ieces ( two p arietals a nd t he o ccipital) w as c oated w ith r ed o chre . T he f ace o f t his s kull w as n ot f ound, a nd n o e vidence o f p laster w as r etained o n t he p reserved p ieces.

3 .8

H uman a nd A nimal F igurines ( Plates 6 -7)

A t l east 2 0 h uman f igurines m odelled i n c lay h ave b een e xcavated f rom t he P PNB l ayers a t ' Ain G hazal. O f t hese , a t l east f ive r epresent f emales i n a n a dvanced s tate o f p regnancy, a nd a ll b ut o ne b ear a d istinctive r ocker-stamped " tatooing" o f u ncertain i mplications. B eyond t hese r eflections o f c oncern f or h uman f ertility, o ther f igurines a re o f s uch h ighly s tylized r enditions t hat n either s ex n or f unction i s i mmediately a pparent. I n a ll b ut o ne c ase t he f igurines a re e ither h eadless t orsos o r b odiless h eads , s uggesting t hat a t t he d eath a nd d ecapitation o f a p articular i ndividual, h er o r h is p ersonal f igurine a lso r itually " died". T he s ingle i ncidence o f a c omplete h uman f igurine, w ith t he h ead a nd b ody s till j oined, s uggests i t p layed a d ifferent r ole i n t he l ife o f t he r esidents ( cf. R ollefson 1 983; 1 986 ; M cAdam i n R ollefson e t a l. 1 985).

4 10

Cm Plate 6

Headless fertility figurine (PPNB) from 'Ain Ghazal. C. Blair).

(Photo:

Cm Plate 7

Clay figurine (PPNB) with head raised, left before the face. (Photo: C. Blair).

411

arm

and hand

A nimals f ormed i n c lay a re a lso n umerous i n P PNB c ontexts a t ' Ain G hazal. S everal g oats a nd e quids/pigs a re r epresented a s w ell a s a s mall s eated f ox o r c anid, b ut b y f ar t he f ocus w as o n c attle, s ome o f w hich a re u nmistakably t he m ale o f t he s pecies . O ne r estricted l ocus p roduced m ore t han 2 0 c attle, s ome o f w hich b ore i mpressions o f a t hin t wisted c ord a round t he n eck , s uggesting s ome f orm o f h uman c ontrol. T wo o thers w ere p laced s ide-by-side i n a s ubfloor p it a fter e ach h ad b een p ierced t wice w ith s mall f lint b ladelets i n a r itual k illing ( McAdam i n R ollefson e t a l. 1 985; R ollefson 1 983 ; n .d.).

3 .9

H uman S tatuary ( Plates 8 -10)

T hree c aches o f p laster h uman s tatuary h ave c ome f rom e arly a nd m id-7th m illennium c ontexts . S imilar i n o verall c onstruction a nd s tyle t o f ragments f ound b y G arstang a t J ericho ( Garstang 1 935), t he m ore c omplete a nd b etter p reserved m aterial f rom ' Ain G hazal p romises t o p rovide m uch b etter i nsights i nto t his f acet o f r itual a nd c eremony a mong P PNB r esidents i n t he s outhern L evant . B ecause t he s low a nd p ainstaking p rocess o f e xposing , and c onserving t he m ore t han 3 5 d elicate o bjects i s s till u nderway,' f ew d etails a re a vailable, b ut i t a ppears t hat t he s tatuary m ay b e r elated t o a ncestor c ults ( cf . T ubb 1 985 ; R ollefson 1 983; 1 986; R ollefson a nd S immons n .d.).

4 .

T he P PNC o r F inal P PN P eriod

S ome t ime a fter 6 200 B .C . t here i s am ajor c hange i n t he a rchaeol ogical c haracter o f t he d eposits a cross h e 1 2 o r m ore h ectares o f t he N eolithic t own . A lthough o nly a bout 4 5m L h ave b een e xamined s o f ar, t he c ontents a re s ufficiently d ifferent t o w arrant a c ultural d istinct ion f rom t he e arlier P PNB c ounterparts . A rchitecturally, t he s imple l inear a rrangement o f r ooms i n t he P PNB i s r eplaced b y ac omplex i nterior a rrangement o f l arge a nd s mall r ooms , i ncluding o ne p lastered i nterior c orridor t hat o pened o nto s everal s mall r ooms o n e ither s ide ( Rollefson a nd S immons 1 986) ( Plate 1). I n t erms o f t he e conomic b ase, d omesticated a nimals i ncluded n ot o nly g oats b ut a lso c attle, p igs a nd d ogs , w hile t he n umber o f h unted s pecies d eclined s harply ( Köhler-Rollefson, t his v olume). E legantly f ashioned s mall p ressure-flaked a rrowheads c ompensated f or a r elative d ecline i n t he i mportance o f l arger s pear p oints. D irect p ercussion b lade m anufacture i ncreased i n f requency, a nd b urins o f c omplex c onfigurations i ncreased a t t he e xpense o f s impler s ingle-blow t ypes. H uman b urials a lso u nderwent a m ajor c hange w hich , w hile s till r etaining a s ubfloor m ode, i ncluded m ultiple b urials f or t he f irst t ime i n w hich t he s kulls r emained a rticulated w ith t he b ody. P ersonal a dornment r eflected a n i ncreased u se o f c ircular b racelets o r p endants o r p olished l imestone , a nd t he u se o f m other-of-pearl f or p endants a nd f inger r ings a ppeared f or t he f irst t ime. H uman a nd a nimal f igurines w ere r are i n t he d eposits , b ut t his m ay b e ar eflection o f t he s mall a rea s ampled b y t he e xcavations. W hite w are c ontinued t o b e m ade , a nd a f ew s herds o f r emarkably c rumbly c eramics h ave b een r ecovered s o f ar ( Rollefson a nd S immons 1 986).

4 12

P late 8

U pper l ayer o f t he s tatuary c ache d iscovered a t

i n 1 983.

( Photo:

R . H enry C owherd).

4 13

' Ain G hazal

P late 9

O ne o f t he 1 983 b usts f rom ' Ain G hazal.

4 14

( Photo:

B . B yrd).

4 15 t ier) a nd s tatue

f rom t he 1 983 s tatuary c ache a t

0 2 5

c omplex f rom P PNC

c r )

r H 1 i C L ) 4 C O r I f : L f

4 16

I t i s n ot p ossible a t t his p oint t o t race d irectly t he e mergence o f t he P PNC f rom i ts a ntecedents i n t he P PNB , a lthough s everal a spects s uggest t hat a t ransition t ook p lace r ather t han a s udden r eplacement. I t i s a lso n ot p ossible t o d etermine c onclusively w hat h appened a t t he e nd o f t his c ultural p eriod o f u nknown d uration , b ut t he a ppearance o f m assive a mounts o f r ubbly s tone d eposits n ear t he t op o f t he P PNC l ayers m ight i ndicate a n a bandonment o f ' Ain G hazal s ometime i n t he e arly 6 th m illennium . T he o nly f irm s tatement t hat c an b e m ade a t t his t ime i s t hat a m uch m ore i ntensive a nd b roader e xcavation p rogram i s n ecessary t o u nderstand t he n ature o f t his i mportant p hase o f c ultural d evelopment.

5 .

T he Y armoukian P hase

O nly s ome 6 0m 2 o f Y armoukian o ccupations h ave b een i nvestigated i n t he u ppermost d eposits a t ' Ain G hazal, s o l ittle m ore i nformation i s a vailable t han i s k nown f or t he P PNC p eriod. N evertheless, i t i s e vident t hat t he s ite h ad u ndergone a m ajor c hange i n t he w ay i t w as u sed b y t hese e arly p ottery-producing p eople. T o d ate n o e vidence o f p ermanent a rchitecture h as b een d etected i n t he Y armoukian l evels ; i nstead, o nly t he r emains o f f limsy s emis ubterranean p ithouses h ave b een e xposed. A lthough o ne f loor o f p uddled m ud r evealed s everal e pisodes o f r e-surfacing, t he d wellings s uggest t he p robability o f s easonal o ccupation . T his c hange i n r esidence p attern w ould c onform t o w hat a ppears t o b e a f undamental c hange i n t he s ubsistence e conomy, f or t he a vailable i nformation i ndicates t hat t he m ixed f arming a nd h erding s trategy t ypical o f t he P PNB a nd P PNC p eriods h ad b een r eplaced b y s eparate a gricultural c ommunities i n t he w estern p arts o f t he L evant a nd s eminomadic p astoralists i n t he e astern , m ore a rid p ortions o f t he r egion ( KöhlerR ollefson, t his v olume ; K öhler-Rollefson e t a l. n .d.). S mall a rrowheads a nd t anged s pear p oints s how c ontinued a ttention t o h unting, p articularly o f s emi-arid a nd a rid s pecies s uch a s g azelle a nd o nager, a lthough t he n umber o f w ild s pecies p resent i n t he Y armoukian l ayers i s e ven s maller t han i n t he P PNC . S ickle b lades a nd g rinding s tones a re r elatively r are , a nd b urins c ontinue t he t rend t o i ncreasingly c omplex f orms, e specially t runcation t ypes ( Rollefson a nd S immons 1 985 ; n .d.; R ollefson , t his v olume .) ( Figures 4 -5). T he p ottery p roduced b y t he n ew r esidents w as p rimitive i n c omparison t o l ater c eramic d evelopments i n t he r egion , b ut i t n evertheless r epresents c onsiderable s ophistication a nd t echnological f amiliarity c ompared t o t he n aive a ttempts w ith t his m edium i n t he P PNB a nd P PNC p eriods. Aw ide r ange o f f orms i s r epresented a mong t he c eramic r epertoire , w ith d ecoration t hat i ncluded r ed s lips a nd p aint, b urnishing, a nd c haracteristic b anded a nd i solated h erringbone i ncision . J ewellery w as r are i n t he Y armoukian d eposits, b ut w hat h as b een r ecovered c ontinued t o r eflect t he P PNC p opularity o f l imestone b racelets/pendants a nd s haped p ieces o f m other-of-pearl. H uman a nd a nimal f igurines a re f ew i n n umber a nd v ery p oorly p reserved. N o h uman b urials a re c learly a ttributable t o t he Y armoukian p eriod, a nd o verall

4 17

t here i s l ittle t o i ndicate a ny e laborate s ystem o f r itual a nd c eremony o n t he b asis o f m aterial c ulture.

6 .

C oncluding R emarks

T he p receding d iscussion h as o f n ecessity b een v ery b rief, b ut i t h as s erved t o s how s ome o f t he a spects o f t he b road a rray o f a rchaeol ogical i nformation t hat r elate t o a n i mportant p hase o f d evelopment i n t he L evant. T he d eposits a t ' Ain G hazal h old t remendous p otential f or a d etailed e xamination o f t he g rowth a nd d emise o f o ne o f t he l argest N eolithic c ommunities i n t he N ear E ast. T he s ize o f t he s ite a nd t he i nferred p opulation s uggest t hat t he b rief g limpses w e h ave s een t hus f ar o f t he s ophistication o f t he m aterial c ulture o f t he e arly N eolithic i nhabitants r eflect c oncurrent e laboration o f s ociocultural c omplexity. ' Ain G hazal m ay a lso h old t he k ey f or u nderstanding t he a s y et p erplexing w idespread a bandonment o f P PNB s ites t hroughout t he s outhern L evant a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th m illennium , o stensibly a ssociated w ith t he e mergence o f t he i ntriguing P PNC p attern o f s ocioeconomic a djustments t o a n i ncreasingly d egraded e cological b alance . T he e vidence o f s ustained s easonal o ccupations b y Y armoukian p astoral g roups p romise t o e xpand o ur a ppreciation o f t his n ew e conomic s trategy t hat f oreshadowed t he e stablishment o f t he d ual e conomic s ystems o f s ettled f armers a nd n omadic h erders t hat c haracterized t he l ater p reh istory o f t he N ear E ast.

4 18

N otes 1 .

T he ' Ain G hazal A rchaeological P roject i s c o-sponsored b y S an D iego S tate U niversity, t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology o f Y armouk U niversity, a nd t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan. P rincipal f unding h as b een p rovided b y Y armouk U niversity; t he N ational G eographic S ociety; t he D epartment o f A ntiquities; t he C obb I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f M ississippi S tate U niversity; A lia , t he R oyal J ordanian A irlines ; t he S an D iego S tate U niversity F oundation ; t he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch ; a nd b y ag ift f rom a n a nonymous d onor i n t he U nited S tates.

2 .

S ix o ther r adiocarbon d ates o f l ess r eliability a re n ot i ncluded i n T able 1 . S ee R ollefson 1 985: 6 1.

3 .

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat o f t he b ird s pecies r ecovered f rom ' Ain G hazal, m ore t han h alf a re r aptors, i ncluding v ultures, e agles a nd h awks. S ee G illespie i n R ollefson e t a l. 1 985.

4 .

T ables 1 -5 i nclude d ata r elevant o nly t o a rtefacts e xcavated i n t he 1 983-1985 s easons. A ll o f t he i n s itu m aterial f rom 1 982 i s P PNB i n d ate, b ut a t p resent t he a nalysis h as n ot s eparated o ut t he e x s itu a rtefacts. F or t he 1 983 s eason , o nly a bout o ne-third t o o ne-half o f t he s eason 's t otal c ollection h ave b een s orted.

5 .

T he s tatuary f rom t he 1 983 s eason i s c urrently b eing c onserved b y M rs . K . T ubb a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology i n L ondon . T he t wo c aches r ecovered i n 1 985 a re b eing e xcavated a nd c onserved u nder t he d irection o f M s . A nne B oulton a t t he C onservation a nd A nalytical L aboratory o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution i n W ashington , D .C .

4 19

B ibliography B anning E . a nd B yrd B . ( 1984). T he a rchitecture o f P PNB ' Ain G hazal, J ordan. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 55: 1 5-20 . B anning E . a nd B yrd B . ( n.d.). A rchitectural v ariability a t P PNB ' Ain G hazal , J ordan . P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 5 3 ( in p ress).

K afafi Z . ( 1986). W hite o bjects f rom ' Ain G hazal, n ear A mman. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 61: K enyon K .M . ( 1979). A rchaeology i n t he H oly L and. L ondon , E arnest B ann .

5 1-56.

F ourth e dition .

K oehler-Rollefson I ., G illespie W . a nd M etzger M . ( n .d.). H unting a nd h erding a t N eolithic ' Ain G hazal. P reliminary r eport o n t he a nimal b ones f rom t he f irst t hree s easons , 1 982-85. U npublished m anuscript.

M ellaart J . ( 1965). E arliest C ivilizations o f t he N ear E ast. T hames a nd H udson.

R ollefson G . J ordan .

L ondon ,

( 1983). R itual a nd c eremony a t N eolithic ' Ain G hazal, P aleorient 9 .2: 2 9-38 .

R ollefson G . ( 1984). ' Ain G hazal, a n e arly N eolithic c ommunity i n h ighland J ordan , n ear A mman . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 2 55: 3 -14. R ollefson G . ( 1985). T he 1 983 s eason a t t he E arly N eolithic s ite o f ' Ain G hazal. N ational G eographic R esearch 1 .1: 4 4-62. R ollefson G . ( 1986). N eolithic ' Ain G hazal ( Jordan). c eremony I I. P aleorient: 1 2.1.

R itual a nd

R ollefson G . a nd S uleiman E . ( 1983). S urvey o f e xposed N eolithic s tructures a t ' Ain G hazal. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7: 4 71-479. R ollefson G ., B anning E ., B yrd B ., K afafi Z ., K oehler-Rollefson I ., P etocz D ., R olston S . a nd V illiers L . ( 1984). E xcavations a t t he P PNB V illage o f ' Ain G hazal, J ordan , 1 982. M itteilungen d er D eutschen O rient-Gessellschaft 1 16: 1 39-183.

4 20

R ollefson G ., S immons A ., D onaldson M ., G illespie W ., K afafi Z ., K oehler-Rollefson I ., M cAdam E . a nd R olston S . ( 1985). E xcavation a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic B v illage a t ' Ain G hazal / J ordan , 1 983. M itteilungen d er D eutschen O rient Gesellschaft 17: 6 916. R ollefson G . a nd S immons A . ( 1985). T he E arly N eolithic v illage o f ' Ain G hazal, J ordan . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 983 s eason. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch S upplement 2 3: 3 5-52. R ollefson G . a nd S immons A . ( 1986). T he N eolithic v illage o f ' Ain G hazal , J ordan . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 s eason . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch S upplement 2 4: 1 471 64. R ollefson G . a nd S immons A . ( n.d.). T he N eolithic v illage o f ' Ain G hazal, J ordan . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 985 s eason . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch S upplement 2 5: f orthcoming.

S chmandt-Besserat D . ( 1982). H ow w riting c ame a bout. P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 4 7: 1 -5.

Z eitschrift f ür

T ubb K . ( 1985). P reliminary r eport o n t he ' Ain G hazal s tatues. M itteilungen d er D eutschen O rient Gesellschaft 17: 17-134.

4 21

T he F auna f rom N eolithic ' Ain G hazal I lse K öhler-Rollefson , W illiam G illespie a nd M ary M etzger

1 .

I ntroduction

E xcavations a t ' Ain G hazal h ave p roduced a n e stimated 5 00 ,000 f ragments o f a nimal b one o f w hich c a . 1 0% a re i dentifiable t o s keletal e lement a nd s ize c lass o f a nimal r epresented. A s o ne o f t he l argest f aunal a ssemblages f rom t he N ear E ast, t hese a nimal r emains g ive u s a c omparatively d etailed i dea o f t he v ertebrate f auna a s i t e xisted i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite d uring N eolithic t imes a nd a lso f urnish a c ons iderable a mount o f i nformation o n t he c hanges a nimal e xploitation u nderwent d uring t his c rucial p eriod.

2 .

E nvironmental S ituation

' Ain G hazal i s s ituated a t a n a ltitude o f 7 00 - 7 40m a nd s prawls o ver b oth b anks o f t he W adi Z arqa w hich w as u ntil r ecently a f ree f lowi ng r iver. T he c opious s pring o f "Ain G hazal" p rovided a nother p erennial w ater s upply. ' Ain G hazal's e cological s etting i s f urther c haracterized b y i ts l ocation o n t he 2 50mm i sohyet a nd o n t he b orderl ine o f t wo p hytogeographical z ones , t he M editerranean s crub a nd I ndoT uranian s teppe v egetation ( FAO , 1 972). M editerranean o ak a nd p ine f orest a s w ell a s t rue d esert v egetation a re a lso w ithin e asy r each ( half a d ay 's w alk) o f t he s ite . T hat a ll t hese f our e nvironmental z ones a s w ell a s an umber o f o ther e cological n iches w ere e xploited i s r eflected i n t he i nordinate v ariety o f f aunal r emains r ecovered f rom ' Ain G hazal 's a rchaeological d eposits . M ore t han 5 0 d ifferent v ertebrate t axa h ave b een d istinguished s o f ar ( Table 1 ), a nd i t i s e xpected t hat t his l ist w ill b e l engthened a s d etailed a nalysis p rogresses . I n t he f ollowing a ccount o nly t he r emains o f t he l arger m ammals a re d escribed.

3 .

C omposition o f t he s ample

C a. 2 0 ,000 f ragments h ave b een r ecorded s o f ar f rom P PNB l evels ( 7,250 - 6 ,000 B .C .). O nly v ery s mall s amples c ome f rom t he P PNC ( ca . 6 ,000 - 5 ,500 B .C .) a nd f rom t he Y armoukian p eriod ( ca. 5 ,500 - 5 ,000 B .C .). T he f aunal a ssemblage i s d ominated b y t he r emains o f g oats ( Capra s p.), w hich c ompose b etween 5 3% ( PPNB) a nd 7 0% ( Yarmoukian) o f t he n umber o f i dentified s pecimens ( NISP) ( Table 2 ). T he s econd m ost f requent m ammals a re g azelles ( 13.4% i n t he P PNB a nd 6 .4% i n t he Y armoukian), f ollowed b y B os s p. ( 12% - 6 %), S us s p., V ulpes a nd L epus ( Table 2 ). T he P PNB d eposits a lso c ontain t he r emains o f a l arge v ariety o f s mall c arnivores, w hich h ave o nly p artially b een i dentified,

4 23

b ut i nclude o ne o r t wo f elines, b adger, m arten a nd m ongoose . L arge c arnivores a re n otably r are , t hough t here a re i solated f inds o f m edium s ized c anids, a nd ac aracal l ynx h as b een t entatively i dentified. I nsectivores a re r epresented b y t wo s pecies o f h edgehogs ( Erinaceus e uropaeus a nd H emiechinus a uritus). A m edium s ized e quid o ccurs o ccasionally i n t he P PNC a nd t he Y armoukian , b ut i s a pparently a bsent f rom t he P PNB . T he a vifauna c onsists m ainly o f l arge d iurnal b irds o f p rey ( e.g. e agles, h awks a nd v ultures), b ut s ome m ore t ypical g amebirds, s uch a s q uail, p artridge a nd r ockdove a s w ell a s an umber o f c orvids a re a lso r epresented. A mong t he r eptile r emains a re a mple c arapace a nd p ostcranial f ragments o f t ortoises a nd v ertebrae o f an umber o f s nakes a nd l izards . F ish r emains a re s urprisingly s carce , c onsisting o f t hree i solated v ertebrae a nd a p artial s keleton o f a n u nidentified s pecies . T he c laws o f a s weet w ater c rab ( Potamos p otamion ? ), o ften b urned, o ccur r elatively f requently.

4 .

T aphonomic C onsiderations

T he v ast m ajority o f t he a nimal b one f ragments r epresent r efuse f rom h uman c onsuption . T he d egree o f f ragmentation i s v ery h igh c ompared w ith t hat o n p ost-Neolithic s ites i n J ordan. C utmarks a nd t races o f b urning a re p revalent n ot o nly i n t he b ones o f l arger m ammals b ut c an a lso b e o bserved i n t he b ones f rom s ome s maller m ammals ( e .g. f oxes a nd h ares) s uggesting t hat t hese a nimals a t l east o ccasionally w ere p art o f t he d iet, e ven t hough i t i s q uite p ossible t hat t hey w ere p redominantly h unted f or t heir p elts. F or m any o f t he r odent b ones i t i s i mpossible t o d ecide w hether t hey d ate b ack t o t he o riginal o ccupation o r e ntered t he s oil p ostd epositionally. T he s ame a pplies t o s ome o f t he r eptiles ( i.e. s nakes a nd l izards); i t i s c lear h owever t hat t ortoises w ere s ystematically e xploited b y P PNB i nhabitants ( use o f c arapaces a s c ontainers ? ), a nd t he s ingle v ertebra o f a d esert m onitor c ould a lso m ean t hat t his a nimal w as p rocured f or f ood. T he t hree i ncised B os m etapodials , w hich h ad b een p laced a t t he b ottom o f a p it, h owever, d id n ot f ulfil a s ubsistence r elated r ole , b ut m ust h ave h ad s ome r itual o r c ultic m eaning ( Rollefson a nd S immons, 1 986).

5 .

S pecies

C apra s p . T he m ost i mportant q uestion c oncerning t he g oats i s t heir s tatus o f d omestication . D omestic g oats h ave b een r eported f rom P PNB J ericho ( Clutton-Brock , 1 979) a nd " cultural c ontrol" o ver g oats i s a ssumed t o h ave b een p racticed a t B eidha ( Hecker, 1 982). H owever, t he f aunal s pectra o f m any o ther c ontemporary s ites i n P alestine a nd i n e astern J ordan ( Garrard e t a l., 1 987) a re s till d ominated b y g azelles w ith

4 24

r emains o f g oats o ccurring o nly s poradically. T he g oat r emains f rom ' Ain G hazal 's P PNB l evels e xhibit a l arge d egree o f s ize v ariability. P resently n o m easurements a re a vailable, b ut i t a ppears a s i f m ost o f t he b ones a re o f v ery l arge i ndividuals, t hough t here a re s ome t hat d o n ot d iffer f rom t hose o f d omesticated g oats a t l ater J ordanian s ites ( e.g . P ella). H orncores a re g enerally b adly p reserved, b ut t here s eems t o b e l ittle e vidence o f t wisting o r l ateral c ompression , t he c lassic i ndications o f d omestication . W hile i t a ppears f rom t hese o bservations t hat t he ' Ain G hazal g oats a re m orphologically s till w ild, t wo o ther f indings t end t o s uggest t hat t hey w ere i ndeed u nder a c onsiderable d egree o f c ultural c ontrol. F irst, e piphyseal f usion i ndicates t hat a h igh p roportion o f a nimals w ere k illed b efore t hey r eached m aturity. F or e xample, 5 6% o f t he l ater f using b ones ( prox. h umerus, p rox . f emur, p rox. t ibia , p rox. u lna a nd d ist . r adius) s till h ave s eparate e piphyses, c ompared w ith o nly 2 0% i n t he g azelle p opulation ( Köhler-Rollefson , 1 983). S econdly, t he f irst a nd s econd p halanges a re a ffected b y a h igher t han n ormal f requency o f p athological d eformities , w hich r ange f rom r elatively m ild a rthritis t o c omplete s ynostoses ( or f usions) b etween b ones ( KöhlerR ollefson , 1 983). T his p robably i ndicates u nsuitable h usbanding c ond itions a s w ell a s h uman p rotection f rom p redators . O nce m easurements a re a vailable t o a ssess s ize c hange d uring t he m ore t han 1 ,000 y ears o f P PNB o ccupation , i t s hould b e p ossible t o g ain a b etter u nderstanding o f t he c hanging p atterns o f g oat e xploitation , a nd p erhaps e ven p in p oint t he f irst o ccurrence o f m orphological d omesticates i n t erms o f a bsolute d ates .

G azella s p. N o a ttempt h as y et b een m ade a t i dentifying t he g azelle r emains b eyond g enus l evel, b ut s ome o f t he c ranial f ragments ( horncore b ases) a ttest t hat G azella s ubgutturosa w as o ne o f t he s pecies e xploited ( Uerpmann , p ers. c omm .). B os s p. B os b ones a re n ot f requent, b ut b ecause o f t heir l arge s ize c attle c ould s till h ave p rovided a s ignificant a mount o f m eat. T he c attle b ones a lso d isplay c onsiderable s ize v ariation , w ith s ome p halanges e xceeding t he d imensions o f D anish a urochs , w hile o thers a re c omparable i n s ize t o d omestic c attle f rom l ater p eriods i n J ordan ( KöhlerR ollefson , 1 985). I t w ould b e p remature , h owever, t o c laim f or t his r eason t hat t he s mall b ones r epresent d omestic i ndividuals. I t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t he d ifferent s ize c lasses c an b e a ttributed t o t he r ather s triking s exual d imorphism f or w hich t his s pecies i s k nown . T he a lmost c omplete a bsence o f b ones o f i mmature a nimals f urther s uggests t hat c attle w ere n ot h usbanded, s ince i t i s u nlikely t hat t hese f erocious a nimals w ere k ept u ntil t hey w ere f ully g rown . T he r itual s ignificance o f c attle f or t he ' Ain G hazal i nhabitants i s t estified b y t he l arge n umber o f c attle f igurines r ecovered a nd b y t he i ncised m etapodials .

4 25

S us s p. O steological r emains o f p igs a re n ot a s f requent a s o ne m ight e xpect i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he t hickets a nd r eeds a long t he W adi Z arqa h osted a l arge p opulation o f w ild b oar u ntil a t l east t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury ( Merrill , 1 881, p . 3 96).

E quus s p. B ones o f e quids a ppear t o b e a bsent f rom P PNB l evels , b ut o ccur i n t he l ater d eposits. N o d etailed m orphological s tudy h as y et b een p ursued, t hough E quus h emionus i s p robably t he m ost l ikely c andidate f or t he m edium s ized p ost-cranial r emains.

6 .

T he F auna i n t he L ater N eolithic P eriods

T he 1 984 s eason p rovided s mall s amples f rom t he l ater o ccupation o f t he s ite : 8 03 i dentifiable b ones w ere r ecovered f rom t he P PNC a nd 2 96 i dentifiable f ragments f rom t he Y armoukian . ( More Y armoukian m aterial w as c ollected i n 1 985, b ut h as n ot y et b een t abulated). S ince n o d etailed a nalysis h as y et b een p ossible , t he f ollowing r emarks r ely o nly o n f ield i mpressions a nd h ave t o b e c onsidered a s p reliminary. T he m ost s triking c hange i s t hat f ar f ewer s pecies a re r epresented: 1 2 i n t he P PNC a nd n ine i n t he Y armoukian . W hile t his m ay b e p artly r elated t o t he m uch s maller s ample s izes i nvolved, i t n evertheless i s c lear t hat t here w as a d ramatic d ecrease i n t he e xploitation o f s maller a nimals . B oth g oats a nd c attle o ccurred c onsistently o f s maller s ize, s uggesting a d omesticated s tate i n t he l ater p eriods. T he s ame o bservation a pplies t o t he p ig b ones. O ne m andible o f am edium s ized c anid r evealed o n c ursory e xamination w hat a ppeared t o b e a lveolar c ompacting/crowding , a pparently i ndicating d omestic d og . B asically, t he s mall s amples f rom p ost-PPNB d eposits h ardly d iffer f rom t he t ype o f f aunal a ssemblage t hat i s s tandard f or m ost J ordanian s ites: g oat a nd s heep p redominate , d omestic c attle a nd p ig a re p resent i n s mall n umbers , a nd o nly i solated f inds o f h unted a nimals o ccur ( Köhler-Rollefson e t a l., n .d.).

4 26

T able 1 .

L ist o f V ertebrate T axa I dentified f rom ' Ain G hazal

M AMMALS I nsectivora E rinaceidae E rinaceus e uropaeus H emiechinus a uritus L agomorpha L eporidae L epus c apensis R odentia S ciuridae S ciurus a nomalus M uridae S palax l eucodon M icrotus s p. M eriones s p. M us m usculus R attus c f. r attus C arnivora C anidae V ulpes v ulpes V ulpes r ueppelli C anis l upus C anis f amiliaris M ustelidae M artes f oina M eles m eles V iverridae H erpestes i chneumon F elidae F ells c f. s ylvestris c f. C aracal c aracal P erissodactyla E quidae E quus c f. h emionus A rtiodactyla S uidae S us s crofa B ovidae B os p rimigenius B os t aurus G azella s p. C apra a egagrus C apra h ircus

E uropean H edgehog L ong-Eared H edgehog

B rown H are

P ersian S quirrel B lind M ole-rat u nid. v ole u nid. l arge g erbilline H ouse M ouse c f. B lack R at

R ed F ox S and F ox W olf D omesticated D og B eech M arten E urasian B adger E gyptian M ongoose c f. W ild C at c f. C aracal L ynx

c .f. O nager

W ild B oar A urochs D omesticated C attle G azelle B ezoar G oat D omesticated G oat

B IRDS A natidae c f. A nas c f. A ythya

u nid. m arsh d uck u nid. d iving d uck

4 27

A ccipitridae N eophron p ercnopterus C ircus s p. A ccipiter g entilis A ccipiter s mall s p. B uteo b uteo A quila c f. r apax A quila c hrysaetos U nid. A ccipitrid h awk P hasianidae A lectoris c hukar C oturnix c oturnix O titidae c f. O tis t arda c f. C hlamydotis u ndulata C olumbidae C olumba l ivia S trigidae c f. A sio s p. C orvidae C orvus c orone C orvus s mall s p. C orvus c orax

E gyptian V ulture u nid. h arrier G oshawk u nid. s parrowhawk C ommon b uzzard s mall e agle c f. S teppe E agle G olden E agle

C hukar o r R ock P artridge Q uail c f. G reat B ustard c f. H oubara B ustard R ock D ove u nid. o wl H ooded C row u nid. s mall c row C ommon R aven

R EPTILES T estudidae T estudo c f. g raeca A gamidae A gama s p. V aranidae V aranus g riseus A nguidae O phisaurus a podus C olubridae l arge s p., c f. M alpolon m onspessulanus s mall u nid. s pecies V iperidae l arge u nid. s p.

s mall t ortoise u nid.

s mall a gamid l izard

D esert M onitor G lass L izard l arge c olubrid, c f. M ontperlier S nake s mall c olubrid s nake l arge v iper

A MPHIBIANS B ufonidae B ufo v iridis

G reen T oad

F ISH B arbus s p.

f resh-water c atfish

4 28

T able 2 .

T he A nimal R emains f rom t he 1 984 S eason i n t heir S tratigraphic C ontext ( n .N umber o f I dentified S pecimens) P PNB

P PNC

Y armoukian

n

%

n

%

n

%

0 /C

1 591

5 3 .1

5 49

6 8.4

2 09

7 0 .6

G az

4 01

1 3 .4

7 9

9 .8

1 9

6 .4

B os

3 64

1 2.2

4 7

5 .9

2 7

9 .1

S us

2 05

6 .8

1 05

1 3 .1

3 2

1 0 .8

-

-

9

1 .1

4

1 .35

1 28

4 .3

1

0 .1

-

-

L epus

5 7

1 .9

1

0 .1

-

-

I nsectiv.

1 2

0 .4

-

-

1

0 .35

R odent

1 0

0 .3

3

0 .4

-

-

B ird

5 5

1 .8

-

-

-

-

T urtle

5 3

1 .8

5

0 .6

1

0 .35

0 .2

2

0 .3

-

-

E quus V ulpes

R eptile

6

S m . C arniv .

6 1

2 .0

-

-

-

-

F elid

3 8

1 .3

1

0 .1

-

-

2

0 .7

C anid

7

0 .2

1

0 .1

M eles

6

0 .2

-

-

T otal

2 998

9 9 .9

8 03

4 29

1 00 .0

. 1 _

2 96

-

1 00 .0

B ibliography C lutton-Brock J . ( 1979). T he m ammalian r emains f rom J ericho T ell. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 5 : 1 35-157.

F AO ( 1972). R eport t o t he G overnment o f J ordan o n R ange M anagement. B ased o n t he w ork o f J . C alembert, R ome . R ome, F ood a nd A griculture O rganization o f t he U nited N ations.

G arrard A .N ., B etts A ., B yrd B . a nd H unt C . ( 1987). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 985 e xcavation s eason . L evant 1 9 : 5 -25.

H ecker H . ( 1982). D omestication r evisited . I mplications f or f aunal a nalysis. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 9 : 2 17-236.

K öhler-Rollefson I . ( 1983). J ordanian g oat h usbandry i n t he P PNB a nd t oday. D allas, p aper p resented a t t he A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 1 983 . K öhler-Rollefson I . ( 1985). C attle c ult a nd d omestication i n t he N eolithic o f t he N ear E ast. A naheim , p aper p resented a t t he A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch 1 985. K öhler-Rollefson I ., G illespie W . a nd M etzger M . ( n .d.). H unting a nd h erding a t N eolithic ' Ain G hazal. P reliminary r eport o n t he a nimal b ones f rom t he f irst t hree s easons , 1 982-85. U npublished m anuscript.

M errill S . ( 1881). E ast o f J ordan . AR ecord o f T ravel a nd O bservation i n t he C ountries o f M oab , G ilead a nd B ashan . L ondon , R ichard B entley a nd s on .

R ollefson G . a nd S immons A . ( 1986). T he N eolithic v illage o f ' Ain G hazal , J ordan . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 s eason . B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch S upplement 2 4: 1 451 64 .

4 30

AP reliminary A ssessment o f t he G eomorphology o f ' Ain G hazal R olfe D . M andel a nd A lan H . S immons

1 .

I ntroduction

T o d ate , m ost r esearch a t ' Ain G hazal h as f ocused o n i ts e conomy, l ithic a ssemblage , a rchitecture a nd s tatuary . T his c hapter , b ased o n i nitial o bservations b y t he a uthors a nd D r. W . F arrand ( University o f M ichigan), p laces t he s ite i nto a p reliminary g eologic c ontext. T he s ediments u nderlying a nd o verlying ' Ain G hazal a re d escribed a nd d efined, a nd s edimentary e nvironments a re i nterpreted . I n a ddition , g eneral d escriptions o f Q uaternary l andforms w ithin t he W adi Z arqa a rea a re p resented.

2 .

E nvironmental S etting

' Ain G hazal i s s ituated o n t he b anks a nd u pslope o f W adi Z arqa, t he l ongest d rainage i n h ighland J ordan . T he s ite 's e levation r anges f rom 7 00m t o 7 40m a bove s ea l evel. T o t he w est a nd s outhwest t he t errain c onsists o f r ugged , d eeply d issected h ills, a nd t o t he e ast a nd n ortheast t he l andscape i s c haracterized b y r olling h ills o f l ess r elief. C retaceous l imestone, d olomite , s hale, c halk, a nd g ypsum c omprise t he b edrock t hroughout m ost o f n orthwestern J ordan ( Bender 1 969). B edrock i n t he a rea o f ' Ain G hazal i s p rimarily l imestone , w hich i s e xposed o n m any r idge t ops a nd h illsides. W adi Z arqa h as d owncut a pproximately 7 0m i n b edrock , c reating s teep v alley w alls i n m any l ocations . E xtensive o utcrops o f c halk o ccur i n p ortions o f t he v alley, e specially a long W adi Z arqa n ear t he n ortheast s ection o f ' Ain G hazal. I t i s l ikely t hat t he c halk w as u sed f or p laster b y i nhabitants o f ' Ain G hazal. T he t ributaries o f W adi Z arqa a re m ostly s mall a nd e phemeral, d raining s teep-sided , n arrow v alleys . A ll o f t he t ributaries a re i ntermittent, a nd c arry a ppreciable a mounts o f r unoff o nly d uring p eriods o f i ntense o r p rolonged r ain o r o ccasional s nowmelt. S ome o f t he w adis a re f ed b y s mall s prings o r s eeps , b ut d ischarge f rom t hese s ources i s n ot a dequate t o m aintain f low i n t he w adis e xcept f or s hort d istances. T he s pring f rom w hich ' Ain G hazal t akes i ts n ame, u ndoubtedly a n i mportant r esource t o t he s ite 's o ccupants , i s p resently u nder t he h ighway, s o w e h ave n o i nformation r egarding i t. T he m odern c limate o f t he s tudy a rea i s c haracterized b y w arm , d ry s ummers a nd c ool, m oist w inters . T he m ean a nnual p recipitation a t t he n earby A mman c ivil a irport i n M arka i s a lmost 3 00mm .

4 31

' Ain G hazal i s l ocated w ithin t he e cotone b etween t he o ak-park w oodland t o t he w est a nd t he o pen g rassland-steppe t o t he e ast . M odern a griculture e vidently h as r eplaced t he w oodlands w ith f ields o f b arley a nd t obacco . A f ew t rees a re f ound a long s teep v alley w alls , w ithin r avines , o r i mmediately a djacent t o t he w adis . T he a rea o f ' Ain G hazal i s c limatically, e nvironmentally , a nd c ulturally s ensitive b ecause o f i ts p roximity t hroughout t he H olocene t o t he f luctuating g rasslandf orest b order.

3 .

M ethods

T he c onstruction o f ah ighway a nd p arking l ot i mmediately a djacent t o ' Ain G hazal, w hile d estroying s ignificant p ortions o f t he s ite, h ave p roduced e xcellent s oil/sedimentary e xposures t o d epths o f a bout 3 m b elow t he o riginal l and s urface . O bservations a nd d escriptions w ere o btained f rom t hese e xposures . I n a ddition t o t he s ite-specific g eomorphological i nvestigations a t ' Ain G hazal, f ield r econnaissance w as c onducted w ithin p ortions o f a 5 km r adius o f t he s ite. T his p reliminary f ield s urvey f ocused o n t he d istribution o f l andforms w ithin t he Z arqa V alley . F loodplains , t erraces , a lluvial f ans, a nd c olluvial f ootslope d eposits w ere e xamined a nd d escribed. S ubsurface c haracteristics o f a lluvial a nd c olluvial d eposits w ere o bserved i n s tream b anks , g ravel p its a nd r oad c uts.

4 .

S edimentary P rocesses a t ' Ain G hazal

' Ain G hazal i s l ocated a t t he s lope a nd b ase o f a h illside i mmediately a bove t he f loodplain o f W adi Z arqa . T he s ite i s c overed b y a t hin ( ca . 1 5-30cm) l ayer o f c olluvium a nd e roded a rchaeological d eposits , t he f ormer o f w hich i s d erived f rom l imestone e xposed o n a djacent s lopes. T he p laster f loors o f t he l owermost s tructures d irectly o verlie a l ayer o f r ed c lay t hat i s a t l east 3 m t hick . I n a s mall p ortion o f t he n orthwest s ector o f t he s ite, a l ayer o f f ine y ellowish-brown c lay u nderlies t he r ed c lay . T his y ellowish-brown c lay a ppears t o h ave b een u sed i n t he c onstruction o f s ome o f t he s tatuary r ecovered f rom ' Ain G hazal. R elatively u nweathered, a ngular, l imestone c obbles a re s cattered t hroughout t he c lay-rich z one. T he r ed c lay a t ' Ain G hazal r esembles t he T erra R ossas o f t he e astern M editerranean. T erra R ossas a re c onsidered t o b e p roducts o f c alcareous p arent m aterials i n w arm , s easonally h umid c limates ( Butzer 1 971: 9 5). T he c onspicuous r ed c olour o f T erra R ossas i s d ue t o t he p resence o f a nhydrous i ron, s uch a s h ematite a nd g oethite , p resumably d erived f rom t he h ydrated l imonitic f orm t hrough d essication d uring w arm , d ry s ummers ( Kubiene 1 953 ; K linge 1 958). A lthough T erra R ossas h ave b een s tudied i n m any a reas o f t he M editerranean , t he o rigin o f t he " red e arths" i s n ot c learly u nders tood. F or s ome r esearchers ( e .g. K ubiene 1 962; L amouroux 1 967), t he t erm " Terra R ossa" i s s ynonymous w ith R ed M editerranean s oil. F or o thers ( e .g. B ottner a nd L ossaint 1 967) i t i s n ot a s oil a t a ll , b ut r ather a s edimentary l ayer. B utzer ( 1971: 9 6) n oted t hat m ost T erra

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R ossas a re t oday f ound a s " soil s ediments," a nd o nly r arely c an t he h orizon b e t raced t o t he C b y a n i ntact s equence o f B -C .

B

G eomorphic i nformation g leaned f rom t he p reliminary f ield s urvey i ndicates t hat t he T erra R ossa s oil a t ' Ain G hazal i s n ot a s imple s olution p roduct o f t he b edrock b eneath t he s ite. I nstead, m ore c omplex s oil-geomorphic p rocesses a re i nvolved t hat c an m ore r eadily e xplain ( 1) t he e xcessive t hickness o f t he c lay l ayer, a nd ( 2) t he p resence o f r elatively " fresh" l imestone c obbles s cattered t hroughout t he c layey m atrix. I n o rder t o u nderstand t he o rigin o f t he r ed c lays a t ' Ain G hazal, i t i s i mportant t o r ecognize h illslope p rocesses i n t he s tudy a rea. T he l andscape i mmediately u pslope f rom ' Ain G hazal i s c haracterized b y a s eries o f f lat b enches s eparated b y s teep s carps . T hese b enches a nd s carps a re e rosional f eatures w hich c ut a cross C retaceous l imestone. R ed, c layey r esidual s oils o n t he s houlders o f h illtops h ave b een s tripped o ff b y e rosion a nd s ubsequently t ransported d ownslope a cross t he s carps. T his " soil s ediment" a ccumulated o n u pland b enches a nd o n t oeslopes a t t he b ase o f v alley w alls. T he t hickness o f c lay-rich c olluvial d eposits a verages 4 m , b ut i s g reater t han 6 m i n s ome l ocations. A ngular l imestone d etritus i s d istributed d own t he s tepped l and s urface o nto a nd i nto t he c olluvial d eposits. I n a ddition, t here a re m ultiple s tone l ines w ithin t hese d eposits. T hus, c ycles o f s oil e rosion a nd d eposition a ppear t o h ave b een r epeated m ore t han o nce. T he p resence o f r ed, c layey c olluvium b etween c ultural h orizons s uggests t hat s oil s ediment w as d eposited d uring t he o ccupation o f ' Ain G hazal. T he a bsence o f A h orizons i n u pper s ections o f e arly-Holocene c olluvial d eposits m ay b e a ttributed t o r apid a ccumulation o f s lopewash a nd/or e rosion a nd c oncomitant r emoval o f s urface h orizons. L ayers o f r ed s oil s ediment w ere s ealed b y p laster f loors a s ' Ain G hazal e volved, t hereby i nsulating t he c olluvial d eposits f rom m iddlea nd l ateH olocene p edogenesis. R egardless o f w hether b oth e rosion a nd d eposition w ere o ccuring a t ' Ain G hazal, i t i s a pparent t hat t he l andscape w as u nstable d uring t he e arly H olocene. U nfortunately, t he h istory o f s oil e rosion a nd d eposition i s n ot w ell k nown f or w estern J ordan. T hus i t i s n ot p ossible a t t his t ime t o d etermine w hether e rosional a nd d epositional e vents a t ' Ain G hazal a re r elated t o b ioclimatic c hanges o r p rehistoric l and u se. A n umber o f w riters h ave c ommented o n d eterioration o f M editerranean l andscapes r esulting f rom p rehistoric a nd h istoric u se o f v egetation a nd s oils. F or e xample, p ollen a nalysis o f p ost-Glacial s apropelic m uds o ff t he c oast o f C rete i ndicate t he l oss o f n atural v egetation i n t he e astern M editerranean d uring t he l ast 8 ,000 y ears. T his l oss h as b een a ttributed t o e arly a griculture a nd t o o vergrazing b y d omesticated a nimals ( Rossignol a nd P astouret 1 971). E isma ( 1978) s uggested t hat b eginning a bout 9 ,000 y ears a go, t he c learing o f f orests f or f arming a nd a nimal h usbandry i n w estern T urkey r esulted i n d egradation a nd e rosion o f t he l imestone-derived s oils. A lthough t here i s c lear e vidence f or d omestication o f b oth p lants a nd a nimals a t ' Ain G hazal ( Donaldson 1 986; K öhler-Rollefson , t his v olume), a dditional p aleoe nvironmental d ata a re n eeded b efore s oil e rosion i n t he r egion c an b e a ttributed t o h uman c auses.

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5 .

Q uaternary L andscapes o f t he Z arqa V alley

T he Q uaternary l andscapes o f w estern J ordan r ecord a c omplex h istory o f t errestrial d eposition , e rosion a nd s oil f ormation . T he c omplexity o f t he Q uaternary s tratigraphy o f t he v alley i s ap roduct o f t his v aried h istory. B enches a nd t erraces f lank W adi Z arqa v alley i n t he a rea o f ' Ain G hazal. B enches a re e rosional f eatures ( straths) c ut i nto b edrock , a nd a re u sually m antled w ith l ess t han 1 0cm o f a lluvium . T erraces , o n t he o ther h and , a re d epositional f eatures c omposed o f t hick a lluvial d eposits t hat m antle b edrock s traths. T he b enches a nd t erraces g enerally a re u npaired. B enches a re f ound a t b oth h igh a nd l ow e levations, w hile t erraces a re l ess c ommon a nd a re r estricted t o h igh e levations. T he h igh t erraces a re a pproximately 2 5 t o 3 0m a bove t he s urface o f t he m odern f loodplain . T he t errace f ill l argely c onsists o f c oarseg rained l ithofacies. T hese l ithofacies a re c haracterized b y p oorly s orted d eposits o f s ubrounded c obbles u p t o 2 0cm i n d iameter w ith s ubordinate a mounts o f c lay, s ilt, s and, g ranules, a nd f ine p ebbles. T hese d eposits a re m assive o r s how c rude h orizontal b edding . M ost c lasts h ave t hick c arbonate c oats, a nd m atrix p articles a re p artially t o c ontinuously c oated w ith c alcium c arbonate . A5 0 t o 1 00cm-thick p etrocalcic ( K) h orizon o ccurs a t t he s urface o f t he h igh t erraces . T he u pper p art o f t he K h orizon i s n early p ure c emented c arbonate w ith s trong p laty s tructure ( Stage V +). B ased o n c arbonate m orphology, t he s urface s oil i s a t l east c a . 4 0 ,000 y ears o ld. T hus, t he u nderlying a lluvial d eposits m ay b e c onsiderably o lder . T he f loodplain o f W adi Z arqa h as a r elatively f lat, n arrow s urface t hat i s a pproximately 3 -4m a bove t he s tream c hannel. S tream i ncision h as e xposed s everal l ate Q uaternary s tratigraphic u nits p rimarily c onsisting o f g ravels o verlain b y i nterbedded s ilts, c lays, a nd s ands. T hese s ediments a re a ssociated w ith i n s itu B yzantine a rtifacts a t o ne l ocation . S oil f ormation o n t he f loodplain i s m inimal a nd c haracterized b y E ntisols a nd I nceptisols . B ased o n t he s oils a nd a rchaeological e vidence, m ost o f t he f loodplain d eposits a re l ate H olocene i n a ge. A lluvial f ans w ere o bserved a t t he m ouths o f s mall t ributaries i n W adi Z arqa v alley. T he s urfaces o f t hese f ans a bruptly r ise m ore t han 4 m a bove t he f loodplain o f W adi Z arqa . T he p roximinal p ortion o f t he f an h as c oarse-grained l ithofacies c haracterized b y m assive , p oorly s orted d eposits o f s ubangular t o s ubrounded c obbles w ith s ubordinate a mounts o f c oarse t o v ery c oarse-grained s and , g ranules, a nd p ebbles . M ost c lasts h ave t hick c arbonate c oats, a nd m atrix p articles a re a lmost c ontinuously c oated w ith c alcium c arbonate . A3 0 t o 5 0cm-thick K h orizon ( Stage V ) o ccurs a t t he s urface o f t he p roximinal s ection o f t he f an . T he c oarse-grained d eposits a bruptly g rade d ownslope i nto a s ilt l ithofacies, w hich i s c omposed p rimarily o f v ery f ine s and a nd s ilt w ith s ubordinate a mounts o f c lay . T he s ilt l ithofacies d eposits w ere l aid d own b y u nconfined s heetflow o ver t he g ently s loping d istal p ortion o f t he f an . T hese d eposits a re g enerally m assive, w ith b edding s tructures r arely p reserved. T here a re m any c arbonate n odules, a nd

4 34

a pproximately 6 0 p ercent o f t he m atrix i s w hitened b y c arbonates. T he a ge o f t he a lluvial f an d eposits c ould n ot b e d etermined. H owever, b ased o n c arbonate m orphology, t he f ans a re a ssumed t o b e m ore t han 2 0 ,000 y ears o ld. T he e ntire a lluvial c hronology o f W adi Z arqa n eeds t o b e e valuated. W e h ave m ade o nly a f irst a pproximation a t i dentifying s ome o f t he a lluvial l andforms i n t he s tudy a rea . M uch m ore o f t his r esearch r emains t o b e c ompleted.

6 .

C onclusions a nd R ecommendations

T he r esults o f t he s oil-geomorphic i nvestigation a t ' Ain G hazal i ndicate t hat t he t hick , r ed, c lay u nderlying t he s ite i s " soil s ediment" d erived f rom e rosion o f r esidual s oils s ituated h igh i n t he l andscape . S oil s ediment a lso o ccurs b etween c ultural h orizons a t t he s ite . C ycles o f s oil e rosion a nd d eposition w ere, t herefore , r epeated d uring t he e arly H olocene . P aleoenvironmental r esearch i s n eeded i n o rder t o d etermine w hether t hese c ycles a re r elated t o b ioclimatic c hange , N eolithic l and u se, o r b oth. T he p reliminary g eomorphic s urvey o f t he a rea o f ' Ain G hazal d etermined t hat t he h ighest a nd o ldest a lluvial l andforms a nd f luvial d eposits a re P leistocene ( ?) b enches a nd t erraces, r espectively. C arbonate m orphology o f s urface s oils s uggests t hat t he d eposits o f h igh t erraces a re o lder t han c a . 4 0 ,000 y ears B .P . L arge a lluvial f ans , d ominated b y c oarse-grained s ediment, o ccur a t t he m ouths o f t ributaries i n W adi Z arqa v alley. S oil e vidence s uggests t hat t he f ans a re m ore t han 2 0 ,000 y ears o ld b ut a re y ounger t han t he h igh a lluvial t erraces . L ate-Holocene f loodplain d eposits o ccur i n t he b ottom o f W adi Z arqa v alley. T he f loodplain a lluvium c onsists o f b asal g ravels o verlain b y 3 -4m o f s tratified s ilts , c lays, a nd s ands c ontaining l enses o f g ravels a nd r emains o f B yzantine p ottery. T he p reliminary g eomorphic s urvey i n t he a rea o f ' Ain G hazal i ndicates t hat t he Z arqa V alley c ontains a c omplex b ut o rderly a rray o f l andforms a nd s edimentary d eposits. H owever , a c omprehensive f ield p rogram i s b adly n eeded i n o rder t o d escribe a nd m ap l andforms i n t he s tudy a rea . R adiometric d ating i s t hen r equired t o d etermine t he l ands cape c hronology . T his i nformation m ay b e u sed t o b etter u nderstand t he a vailability o f r esources d uring t he N eolithic, a nd t o d evelop a p redictive m odel t hat w ill i ndicate s pecific a reas w here a h igh p otential e xists f or r ecovering b uried a rchaeological s ites.

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B ibliography B ender F .

( 1968).

G eologie v on J ordanien .

B erlin , B orntraeger .

B ottner S . a nd L oissaint P . ( 1967). E tat d e n os c onnaissances s ur l es f ormations r ouges d u b assin M editerraneen . S cience S ol 1 : 4 9-80 . B utzer K . ( 1971). E nvironment a nd A rchaeology . t o P rehistory. N ew Y ork , A ldine .

A n E cological A pproach

D onaldson M . ( 1986). S ubsistence v ariation a nd a griculture i n t he e arly L evantine N eolithic. N ew O rleans , p aper p resented a t t he 5 1st A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology.

E isma D . ( 1978). S tream d eposition a nd e rosion b y t he e astern s hore o f t he A egean. I n W . B rice ( ed.) T he E nvironmental H istory o f t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast S ince t he L ast I ce A ge: 6 7-81. N ew Y ork , A cademic P ress.

K linge H . ( 1958). E ine S tellungnahme z ur A ltersfrage d er T erra-RossaV orkommen . Z eitschrift f ür P flanzennahrung, D uengung u nd B odenkunde 8 1: 5 6-93. K ubiene W .

( 1953).

T he S oils o f E urope .

L ondon , T . M urphy.

K ubiene w . ( 1962). D ie B oeden d es m editerranen R aums . S ymposium : 1 67-190 . B ern.

K ali -

L amouroux M . ( 1967). C ontribution ä l 'etude d e l a p edogenese e n s ols r ouges M editerraneens . S cience S ol 2 : 5 5-85.

R ossignol M . a nd P astouret L . ( 1971). A nalyse p ollinique d e n iveaux s apropeliques p ost-glaciares d ans u ne c arotte e n M editerranee O rientale. R eview o f P alaeobotany a nd P alynology 1 1: 2 27-238 .

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S tratified B urin C lasses a t ' Ain G hazal: I mplications f or t he D esert N eolithic o f J ordan G ary 0 . R ollefson

1 .

I ntroduction

W ithin t he p ast d ecade s urveys i n t he e astern a nd s outhern d eserts o f J ordan ( e.g . B etts 1 982; 1 983; 1 984 ; 1 985; M acDonald e t a l. 1 982; 1 983; G arrard a nd P rice 1 977; G arrard e t a l. 1 985; 1 986; 1 987; M uheisen n .d.; I brahim , G aube a nd K afafi n .d.) h ave b rought t o l ight a c onsidera ble b ody o f i nformation t hat d ocuments a r elatively i ntensive e xploitation o f t he a rid r egions i n t he N eolithic p eriod. C ircumstances o f s ettlement, s ubsistence b ase, a rchitecture a nd s pecialized a ctivity f oci a ll c ombine t o s uggest t hat t he v arious c ultural m anifestations a re s ufficiently d ifferent f rom t he l arger a griculturally b ased s ettlement s ystems t o t he w est t o w arrant t he d istinctive a ppellation o f t he " Desert N eolithic" ( Garrard, p ers. c omm . 1 986). R ecent e xcavations e ast o f A zraq h ave p roduced s ome r adiocarbon d ates t hat i ndicate D esert N eolithic p resence f rom a t l east t he l atter h alf o f t he 7 th t o t he m iddle o f t he 6 th m illennia ( Betts, t his v olume), b ut i t i s t he n ormal s tate o f a ffairs t hat d esert s ites a re d eflated, w ith f ew i f a ny r eliable i ndex f ossils t raditionally u sed f or s eriation p urposes . T his i s p articularly t he c ase f or " burin s ites" ( Betts 1 981; 1 982) w hich h ave o nly s mall c omponents o f n on-burin t ool t ypes . T he r ecent e xcavations a t ' Ain G hazal, o n t he o ther h and, i ndicate t hat a spects o f b urin c onfigurations, m etric r atios a nd t echnological a spects m ay h elp r esolve s ome o f t he c hronological o bscurity a ssociated w ith t he D esert N eolithic.

2 .

T he S amples i n T his S tudy

E leven s amples o f b urins a nd a ssociated d ebitage w ere a vailable f or s tudy i n t erms o f t echnological a nd t ypological f eatures a nd m etric d imensions. F our s amples c ome f rom e xcavated s tratified d eposits a nd s urface c ollections f rom ' Ain G hazal ( cf . R ollefson a nd S immons, t his v olume) a nd f rom s ystematic s urface c ollections a t t wo b urin s ites i n t he e astern d esert: J ebel U weinid S ite A ( Rollefson a nd F rohlich 1 982) a nd K haraneh A l5 ( Rollefson a nd M uheisen 1 985). U ncontrolled c ollect ions , u sually o f s mall s ize, b y D r . J ames A . S auer c ame f rom a nother a pparent b urin s ite i n t he W adi R ajil ( the " Wall" s ite), f rom t he s mall s ettlements o f W adi D hobai A a nd B ( cf. W aechter a nd S eton-Williams 1 938), a nd f rom t he P PNB v illage o f A bu S uwwan , n ear J erash ( cf. K irkbride 1 958). F inally , a nother s mall s urface c ollection d ominated b y b urins c ame f rom a b adly d amaged s ite i n t he U mm U theina d istrict o f

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J ebel A mman ( Rollefson e t a l. 1 982). A ll o f t he a nalysis w as c onducted b y t he a uthor o r c losely s upervised b y h im , e nsuring d irect c omp arability o f t he r esults o f t he a nalysis. '

3 .

T ypological C omparisons

T he s amples r eflect c onsiderable v ariation i n t erms o f t otal t ool c ounts f or e ach c ollection , a nd i t i s a ssumed t hat m uch o f t he v ariability r eflects t he d ifferent f unctions e ach s ite s erved i ts i nhabitants . T he b road s pectrum o f t ool c lasses ( scrapers, p rojectile p oints , s ickles , e tc.) f rom t he s tratified ' Ain G hazal d eposits , f rom A bu S uwwan , a nd f rom W adi D hobai B a ll i ndicate a w ide r ange o f a ctivities p ursued a t p ermanent o r a t l east s emi-permanent s ettlements ( cf. R ollefson a nd S immons, t his v olume; R ollefson n .d.; W aechter a nd S eton-Williams 1 938). T he v ery r estricted f ocus o n b urins a t J ebel U weinid A a nd K haraneh A 15 , a s w ell a s t he d omination o f b urins a t W adi R ajil ( Rollefson n .d.) c onform t o h ighly s pecialized f oci, p robably o f r ecurrent, s hort-term d uration . I t i s a lso a pparent t hat b urins d ominate t he s urface c ollections a t ' Ain G hazal, s uggesting a s tatus a s a b urin s ite i n l ate o r p ost-Yarmoukian t imes . T he s ituation a t W adi D hobai A a nd a t U mm U theina i s d ifficult t o a scertain i n v iew o f t he q uestionable r epresentativeness o f t he s amples . T able 1p rovides a t abulation o f t he b urin " classes" f rom t hese s amples ( cf. R ollefson a nd S immons 1 986). T hese a re a lso r epresented s chematically i n F igure 1 . T he ' Ain G hazal f igures a re c lustered a t t he t op o f t he t able t o s how t he t emporal t rends r eflected b y t he s tratification . T he r emaining s amples o ccur b elow , o rdered a ccording t o a n i ncreasing v alue f rom t op t o b ottom i n t erms o f t he " Simple B urin" c lass. I t w ill b e n oted t hat t here i s ac orresponding d ecrease i n t he t runcation c lass ( except f or W adi D hobai A ) w hich i s p aralleled b y at rend i n t he c omplex c lass t hat, e xcept f or A bu S uwwan , r eflects t he p atterns o f c hange a t ' Ain G hazal. W hile t he r esults a re n ot a p erfect d uplication , t he c hronological d evelopment a t ' Ain G hazal s hares a g eneral t rajectory o f d irected v ariation a mong t he o ther s amples.

4 .

T echnological A ttributes 2

T able 2 p resents b lade:flake r atios a nd t he i ncidence o f n aturally b acked e lements i n t he s amples o f t ools a nd d ebitage . T he d ecreasing r eliance o n b lades i n t he s tratified s amples a t ' Ain G hazal i s n ot m atched b y a ny t rends a mong t he o ther c ollections, p robably i n p art d ue t o t he n ature o f t he s ites o ccupied b y t he N eolithic p opulations. T he h igh p redominance o f b lades a t t he b urin s ites m ost l ikely r epresent t he p reference f or b lades f or t he m anufacture o f t his k ind o f t ool, a nd i n t his r egard t he ' Ain G hazal s urface s ample m ay i ndicate a b urin s ite t endency i n t erms o f f unction. T he U mm U theina f igures, w ith a d ominance o f f lakes, s uggests a w eak c oncordance w ith t he ' Ain G hazal t rends, b ut t he m eaning o f t he W adi D hobai s amples i n t his r egard i s d ifficult t o d etermine. N otably, t he s ample f rom P PNB A bu S uwwan i s s imilar t o P PNB ' Ain G hazal: t he d ifferences i n T able 2 a re n ot s ignificant b ased o n C hi-Square t ests.

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1

2

3

4

' f l 4

8 f 5k

1

6 k

9

1 0

7

1 2

1 3

I 0

l

1 4

i __ cm

I l 5

F igure 1 S chematic r epresentation o f b urin c lasses. A : S imple b urins i nclude s imple b low ( 1), s imple t ransverse ( 2), t ransverse o n l ateral r etouch ( 3), a ngle ( 4), a nd b urin o n b reak ( not s hown). B : C omplex b urins i nclude o pposed m ultiple b urins ( 5 & 6 ), o pposed b urins ( 7), c anted d ihedral ( 8) a nd d ihedral ( 9) b urins , a nd d ouble b urins ( 10). C : T runcation b urins i nclude c oncave ( 11), c onvex ( 12), s traight ( not s hown), a nd o blique t runcations ( 14), d ouble b urin o n c oncave t runcation ( 13), o pposed m ultiple b urins o n c oncave t runcations ( 15), e tc. ( Drawing: D eborah F ridell).

4 39

T able 1 . A bsolute a nd r elative f requencies o f b urin c lasses i n s amples f rom J ordanian s ites. ( Note: c ombination t ools a nd " diverse" b urins a re e xcluded) S imple S ample * AGX A GY A G P PNC A G P PNB U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S *

n

C omplex

T runcation

%

n

%

9 4 7 6 2 3 69

1 4.8 3 7.9 6 0 .2 7 2.1

1 6 5 9 3 2 1 23

2 6 .2 4 7.6 3 1.1 2 4 .0

0 3 1 3 1 2 3 1 4

0 .0 2 .9 3 .2 7 .7 1 1.1 1 3.6 4 3.8

0 .0 0 .0 0 .2 3 0 .8 1 6 .7 1 3.6 5 0 .0

0 0 1 4 3 3 1 6

n

T otal

%

N

%

3 6 1 8 9 2 0

5 9.0 1 4.6 8 .7 3 .9

6 1 1 24 1 03 5 12

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0

1 1 9 9 3 89 8 1 3 1 6 2

1 00 .0 9 7.1 9 6.5 6 1.5 7 2.2 7 2.7 6 .2

1 1 1 02 4 03 1 3 1 8 2 2 3 2

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 9 9 .9 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 9 9.9 1 00 .0

T he c odes u sed f or t he s amples i n T ables 1 -4 a re p rovided b elow : A GX A GY A G P PNC A G P PNB U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

_ -

' Ain G hazal, S urface c ollection ' Ain G hazal, Y armoukian l ayers ' Ain G hazal, P PNC l ayers ' Ain G hazal, P PNB l ayers U mm U theina , S urface c ollection J ebel U weinid S ite A , S urface c ollection K haraneh S urvey S ite A 15, S urface c ollection W adi D hobai S ite A , S urface c ollection W adi R ajil " Wall" s ite , S urface c ollection W adi D hobai S ite B , S urface c ollection A bu S uwwan , S urface c ollection

4 40

T able 2 .

A bsolute a nd r elative f requencies o f c ases p ertaining t o b lade:flake r atios ( above) a nd n atural b acking ( below ) f or a rtefact s amples ( including t ools a nd d ebitage) f rom J ordanian s ites

B LADE :FLAKE R ATIO B lade S ample A GX A GY A G P PNC A G P PNB

F lake

n

%

3 2 2 ,322 3 ,245 2 3,851

5 3.3 3 8.0 3 5.0 5 1.1

2 8 3 ,783 6 ,036 2 2,864

4 6.7 6 2.0 6 5.0 4 8.9

6 0 6 ,105 9 ,281 4 6,715

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0

5 2 1 65 7 52 5 6 3 9 1 52 5 53

4 4.1 6 5.2 7 4.8 7 2.7 6 0 .0 7 6.0 4 9.8

6 6 8 8 2 53 2 1 2 6 4 8 5 57

5 5.9 3 4.8 2 5.2 2 7.3 4 0 .0 2 4.0 5 0 .2

1 18 2 53 1 ,005 7 7 6 5 2 00 1 ,110

1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0

U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

n

T otal %

N

%

N ATURAL B ACKING Y es

T otal

%

n

%

N

%

7 2 3 2

1 0 .6 8 .7 6 .0

5 9 2 1 5 05

8 9.4 9 1.3 9 4.0

6 6 2 3 5 37

1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0

1 0 1 78 4 43 1 0 0 1

8 .5 7 0 .4 4 4 .2 1 .1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .1

1 08 7 5 5 60 8 7 6 6 2 16 186

9 1.5 2 9.6 5 5.8 9 8 .9 1 00.0 1 00 .0 9 9.9

18 2 53 1 ,003 8 8 6 6 2 16 1 ,187

S ample

n

A GX A GY A G P PNB U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

N o

4 41

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00.0

T able 3 .

A bsolute a nd r elative f requencies o f c ases p ertaining t o p latform t ype ( above) a nd p latform c ortex ( below) f or a rtefact s amples f rom J ordanian s ites

P LATFORM T YPE P unch

P lain

%

n

S ample

n

A GX A GY A G P PNB

2 4 5 8 1

8 2.8 5 0 .0 2 5.8

3 2 2 04

1 0 .3 2 0 .0 6 5.0

7 8* 1 13 3 35 2 1 1 3 5 7 2 00

9 2.9 8 3.7 8 8.1 6 0 .0 7 6 .5 6 0 .0 3 4.8

6 8 2 8 1 2 7 3 09

7 .1 5 .9 0 .5 2 2.8 5 .9 2 8 .4 5 3.8

U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

*

%

O ther

T otal %

N

%

2 3 2 9

6 .9 3 0.0 9 .2

2 9 1 0 3 14

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0

1 4 4 6 6 3 1 6 5

1 0.4 1 1.4 1 7.1 1 7.6 1 1.6 1 1.3

8 4 1 35 4 03 3 5 1 7 9 5 5 74

1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 9 9 .9 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 9 9.9

n

P lain a nd O ther p latforms a re c ombined f or s ite U U

P LATFORM C ORTEX P resent

A bsent S ample

T otal

n

%

n

%

A GX A GY A G P PNB

2 9 2 2 5 03

7 2.5 6 2.9 9 3.7

1 1 1 3 3 4

2 7 .5 3 7 .1 6 .3

4 0 3 5 5 37

1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0

U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

5 4 9 4 2 67 3 3 1 6 9 0 5 48

7 1.0 6 8.1 6 5.6 9 4 .3 9 4.1 9 4.7 9 5.5

2 2 4 4 1 40 2 1 5 2 6

2 8 .9 3 1.9 3 4 .4 5 .7 5 .9 5 .3 4 .5

7 6 1 38 4 07 3 5 1 7 9 5 5 74

9 9.9 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0

4 42

N

%

I n t erms o f n atural b acking , t he l arge b urin s ite s amples s tand o ut i n s tark c ontrast w ith t he o thers , e ven t he s mall s ample f rom t he W adi R ajil b urin s ite . T he ' Ain G hazal s urface s ample f aintly m irrors a n i ncreased r eliance o n n aturally b acked b urins, a t l east, b ut i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t he p resence o f n aturally b acked e lements i s a ssociated w ith t he k inds o f r aw m aterials a vailable. I n t he K haraneh a nd J ebel U weinid a reas, f or e xample, f lint i s p resent p rincipally a s t abular s labs , a nd i t i s e xpectable t hat n aturally b acked b lades w ould b e ac ommon p roduct. I n t he ' Ain G hazal a nd U mm U theina r egions, o n t he o ther h and, t he p redominant f orm o f f lint i s a s r ounded n odules, m aking t he p roduction o f n aturally b acked e lements m ore p roblematic. P latform c haracteristics o f t he t ool a nd d ebitage s amples a re p rovided i n T able 3 . T he v ery c lear c hange f rom p unch ( punctiform) t ypes t o p lain ( single f acet) p latforms a t ' Ain G hazal i s r epeated w ell i n t he s equence i n t he l ower p art o f t he t able . T here a ppears t o b e a c lose c orrelation o f t his a spect o f t echnology a nd t he t ypological p reference f or t runcation b urin t ypes. I t m ight b e n oted h ere t hat t he d ifferences b etween P PNB ' Ain G hazal a nd A bu S uwwan a re s ignificant a t t he . 001 l evel. S ince t he f ormer s ample d ates f rom t he l ate 8 th a nd e arly 7 th m illennia , t his d ifference m ay i ndicate t hat t he A bu S uwwan s urface s ample r epresents t he l atter h alf o f t he 7 th m illennium . I n t erms o f p latform c ortex , b oth t he Y armoukian a nd s urface s amples d iffer f rom t he ' Ain G hazal P PNB s amples a t t he . 0001 o r g reater l evel o f s ignificance i n C hi-Square t ests . T he t rend t owards i ncreasing e vidence o f p latform c ortex i s a lso p resent i n t he s equence a t t he b ottom o f T able 3 .

5 .

M etric V ariables

B etts f irst n oted t he s triking d ifferences i n t he v ariability o f b urin s izes w hen s he c ompared t he s amples o f r obust b urins f rom J ebel U weinid A w ith t he m ore d elicate t ools f rom m any o f h er s urvey s ites ( Betts, p ers. c omm . 1 982). I n f act, i t w as h er o bservation t hat w e a ppeared t o b e l ooking a t d ifferent p henomena t hat c onstituted t he g erm f or t he p resent s tudy . I n T able 4 , t he d imensions a nd v arious r atios o f d imensions a re o nce a gain l isted s tratigraphically a t t he t op . T hese d ata a re a lso r epresented s chematically i n F igure 2 . M ean l ength a nd w idth f or t he t hree ' Ain G hazal s amples v ary i nconsistently , a lthough p erhaps i t c an b e s aid t hat b urins t end t o b ecome s horter a nd b roader; c ertainly i t a ppears t hat b urins b ecame t hicker t hrough t ime . R atios o f l ength , w idth a nd t hickness d escribe i n g ross t erms t he c ross s ection ( T/W), o utline p lan ( W/L), a nd l ong s ection ( T/L). I t a ppears t hat ' Ain G hazal b urins b ecome m ore c ompacted i n c ross s ection , " squatter" i n o utline p lan , a nd m ore r obust ( T/L) t hrough t he s equence . T he r atio ( T/L)/(W/L) c ompares t he l ong s ection w ith t he o utline p lan , e mphasizi ng t hat t he ' Ain G hazal b urins b ecame s horter, w ider a nd c hunkier. F or t he o ther s amples, t rend i n a bsolute d imensions a re l ess c lear, n o d oubt a n e xpression o f t he s ize o f n odular o r t abular r esources a vailable t o t he f lint w orkers. N evertheless, t hinner b urins

4 43

N N

c l i C I )

1 •1

O

0 0" 1 2

C r )

C e

C • D

C l . ) r — I

1 1

U • r i U 4 ) C e

0

N N

O i n om

4 ) O C I

E

U 0 C . / 2 t I 1

4 44

W

E1 1

C IO

r — I • r I

c d r x i

T able 4 .

D imensions a nd r atios o f d imensions o f b urins f rom J ordanian s amples n

A GX A GY A G P PNB U U J UA K h-A15 W DA W RW W DB A S

L

W

T

T /W

W /L

T /L

( T/L)/(W/L)

6 6 2 3 4 6

4 1.2 3 9.3 4 8 .0

2 3.5 1 9.5 1 9.8

1.5 8 .9 7 .0

. 499 . 484 . 350

. 603 . 531 . 437

. 296 . 246 . 151

. 491 . 463 . 346

1 13 7 5 1 5 2 1 2 2 3 6

4 6.5 5 1.2 5 3.4 7 1.8 4 3.9 6 2.2 4 9.4

1 7.8 1 9.8 2 4.3 1 9.5 1 7.8 1 8 .7 2 2.8

9 .2 1 0 .6 1.5 1 0 .3 8 .0 8 .0 8 .7

. 514 . 554 . 487 . 519 . 473 . 436 . 420

. 442 . 403 . 471 . 291 . 400 . 360 . 527

. 256 . 218 . 220 . 163 . 182 . 141 . 202

. 579 . 541 . 467 . 560 . 455 . 392 . 383

4 45

g enerally c luster n ear t he b ottom o f t he t able, p ossibly c orrelated w ith t he k inds o f p latforms o n t he a rtefacts. T he ' Ain G hazal p atterns f or c ross s ections a nd l ong s ections a re a lso b roadly r eflected i n t he l ower s equence , a lthough t he e xtreme v ariability i n l ength a nd w idth r esults i n s omewhat c haotic d istributions f or o utline p lans. I t i s i mportant t o n ote, h owever, t hat t he l ast r atio s ignals a c lose s equential t rajectory t owards s horter , w ider, a nd m ore r obust b urins t hat f ollows t he c hronological d evelopment a t ' Ain G hazal.

6 .

D iscussion a nd C oncluding R emarks

T he s tratigraphically d efined c hange i n b urin c lasses a t ' Ain G hazal h as b een t ested a s ap ossible s eriation d evice f or o ther N eolithic s ites i n J ordan w ith t he h ope t hat s ome o f t he c hronological c onfusion t hat c haracterizes D esert N eolithic d evelopments m ight b e r esolved. T he f ollowing o bservations c an b e m ade i n t erms o f t echnol ogical a nd m etric a ttributes: 1 .

B lade:flake r atios m ay b e m eaningful o nly i f s ites o f c omparable n ature a re c ompared ( e.g. v illage v s. v illage ; h unting c amp v s. h unting c amp, e tc.), s ince s ite f unction h as a d irect b earing o n t echnological a nd t ypological r equirements.

2 .

N atural b acking m ay h ave c hronological s ignificance a t ' Ain G hazal, b ut f or i ntersite c omparisons , v ariations i n t his f eature m ost p robably r eflects l ocally a vailable r aw m aterial f orms .

3 .

P latform t ype p references a ppear t o h ave a s trong c hronological r elationship, r egardless o f s ite f unction : t he u se o f p unch t echnique i s r educed t hrough t ime , e specially a fter t he e nd o f t he 7 th m illennium .

4 .

C losely a llied t o t his, l ogical s ignificance.

5 .

T here i s a g eneral t endency f or b urins t o b ecome a bsolutely t hicker t hrough t ime, a nd i n r elative t erms t he s hapes o f b urins b ecomes s horter b roader a nd m ore r obust.

p latform c ortex a lso s eems t o h ave

c hrono-

W hile t hese a spects o f t ypology, t echnology, a nd s ize h ave p otential u tility f or u nderstanding t emporal d evelopments o f t he D esert N eolithic, i t i s f reely a dmitted h ere t hat m uch m ore i ntensive w ork i s n ecessary o n m any m ore s ite s amples t o c onfirm t he o bservations m ade a bove. I n m any c ases t he s ample s izes u sed i n t his s tudy a re v ery s mall; f urthermore , r igorous s tatistical t ests ( using b etter s amples) a re n eeded t o s ubstantiate t he p erceived c orrelations. F inally, e ven i f t he b urin c lass s eriation p roves t o b e o f m echanical a ssistance i n o rdering t he r elative c hronological p atterns o f t he D esert N eolithic , t he u ltimate c hallenge t o e xplain w hy t hese c hanges h appened r emains t o b e r esolved. T o t his e nd, i t c an o nly b e h oped t hat c urrent a nd f uture s urveys a nd e xcavations w ill p rovide i n s itu e vidence p ertinent t o t he s ocioeconomic p ursuits o f t he D esert N eolithic p eoples.

4 46

N otes 1 .

Iw ould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks t o G . M cMillan D avis o f S an D iego S tate U niversity f or h is a ssistance i n t he a nalysis o f s everal ' Ain G hazal s amples.

2 .

A ll o f t he P PNC a rtefacts f rom ' Ain G hazal a re c urrently b eing s tudied b y K haled A bu G huneima a t t he U niversity o f B ordeaux ; t hey w ere n ot a vailable f or t he p resent s tudy. F igures f or t he ' Ain G hazal P PNB s amples c ome f rom a s ample e xcavated i n 1 982 ( Rollefson a nd A bu G huneima 1 983).

4 47

B ibliography B etts A .V .G . ( 1981). A ppendix C : Q a 'a M ejalla S urvey, 1 979. I n S . H elms J awa . L ost C ity i n t he B lack D esert: 2 43-246. L ondon, M ethuen . B etts A .V .G . J ordan .

( 1982). P rehistoric s ites a t Q a 'a M ejalla , e astern L evant 1 4 : 1 -34 .

B etts A .V .G . r eport.

( 1983). B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan . L evant 1 5: 1 -10 .

F irst p reliminary

B etts A .V .G . r eport.

( 1984). B lack D esert S urvey, J ordan . L evant 1 6: 2 5-34.

S econd p reliminary

B etts A .V .G . r eport.

( 1985). B lack D esert S urvey , J ordan . L evant 1 7: 2 9-52.

T hird p reliminary

G arrard A .N ., S tanley P rice N ., C opeland L . ( 1975-77). As urvey o f p rehistoric s ites i n t he A zraq B asin , e astern J ordan . P aleorient 3 : 1 09-126. G arrard A .N ., B yrd B ., H arvey P . a nd H ivernel F . ( 1985). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . R eport o n t he 1 982 s urvey s eason . L evant 1 7: 1 -28 . G arrard A .N ., B yrd B . a nd B etts A . ( 1986). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin. A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 984 e xcavation s eason . L evant 1 8: 5 -24. G arrard A .N ., B etts A ., B yrd B . a nd H unt C . ( 1987). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 985 e xcavation s eason . L evant 1 9 : f orthcoming.

I brahim M ., G ustaysonGaube C ., G aube H . a nd K afafi Z . ( n.d.). t he D esert a nd t he S own . T he S ahab S urvey 1 983 . Y armouk U niversity M onographs i n A rchaeology: f orthcoming.

B etween

K irkbride D . ( 1958). N otes o n as urvey o f P re-Roman a rchaeological s ites n ear J erash . B ulletin o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology 1 : 9 -20 .

M acDonald B ., R ollefson G . a nd R oller D . S urvey 1 981. Ap reliminary r eport. A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 6 : 17-132.

4 48

( 1982). T he W adi e l-Hasa A nnual o f t he D epartment o f

M acDonald B ., R ollefson G ., B anning E ., B yrd B . a nd D 'Annibale C . ( 1983). T he W adi a l-Hasa S urvey 1 982. A p reliminary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7: 3 11-323 . M uheisen M . ( n.d.). S urvey o f t he K haraneh r egion . t o t he D epartment o f A ntiquities , A mman .

R ollefson G . J ordan.

U npublished r eport

( n .d.). T he l ithic a rtefacts i n t he A COR c ollections f rom A nalysis a nd r eport. U npublished m anuscript.

R ollefson G . a nd F rohlich B . ( 1982). AP PNB b urin s ite o n J abal U weinid, e astern J ordan. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 6: 1 89-198. R ollefson G ., K aechele Z . a nd K aechele J . ( 1982). Ab urin s ite i n t he U mm U theina D istrict , J ebel A mman . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 6 : 2 43-247. R ollefson G . a nd A bu G huneima K . ( 1983). b lades a nd f lakes f rom ' Ain G hazal. A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7: 4 61-469.

T echnological a nalysis o f A nnual o f t he D epartment o f

R ollefson G . a nd M uheisen M . ( 1985). C hipped s tone a rtefacts f rom a s pecialized N eolithic c amp n ear K haraneh C astle , e astern J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9: 1 41-150 . R ollefson G . a nd S immons A . ( 1986). T he N eolithic v illage o f ' Ain G hazal, J ordan . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 s eason. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch S upplement 2 4: 1 451 64 .

W aechter J . a nd S eton-Williams V . ( 1938). T he e xcavations a t W adi D hobai 1 937-1938 a nd t he D hobaian i ndustry. J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety 1 8: 1 72-186, 2 92-298.

4 49

J ebel A bu T hawwab :

AP ottery N eolithic V illage i n N orth J ordan Z eidan A . K afafi

I n 1 984 a nd 1 985 1 t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology a t Y armouk U niversity s ponsored t wo s easons o f e xcavations, i n c oo peration w ith t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n J ordan , a t J ebel A bu T hawwab ( Kafafi 1 985a , b ; 1 986a , b ; n .d.). I n a d4ition a s urvey o f t he a rea s urrounding t he s ite w as u ndertaken i n 1 985.'

1 .

S ite L ocation

J ebel A bu T hawwab i s l ocated 1 4km t o t he n orth o f t he t own o f S weileh a nd 2 0km t o t he s outh o f t he t own o f J erash , a bout 2 km E NE o f t he v illage o f e r-Rumman ( Figure 1 ). M ore p recisely, i t l ies b etween m ap c o-ordinates E -230,000 a nd 2 31,000 a nd N -174,732 a nd 1 74,750 , o n t he w est a nd n orth-west s lope o f t he h ills b earing t he s ame n ame a nd b etween t he 4 80 a nd 4 93m c ontour l ines , a bout 6 0m b elow t he s ummit. I t o verlooks W adi e r-Rumman , w hich e mpties i nto t he Z erqa R iver. T he m ain r oad b etween J erash a nd S weileh d ivides J ebel A bu T hawwab i nto t wo p arts. T he l and o f t he s ite i tself i s t he p roperty o f t he p eople o f e r-Rumman v illage . T he w ater s ource o f t he a rea i s t he p erennial W adi e r-Rumman , w hich f lows i nto ' Ain R as e l-Ma s prings. O ther s prings s uch a s ' Ain u m K aram , ' Ain u m R abi' t o t he n orth o f t he s ite , ' Ain e l-Maiyita t o t he w est a nd ' Ain S afsafeh t o t he s outh-east m ay a lso h ave s erved a s w ater s ources f or t he a rea . N owadays t he s ite a nd t he s urrounding a rea a re p lanted w ith v arious k inds o f t rees s uch a s o lives a nd f igs, a s w ell a s w ild o leander. I n a ddition , c rops a nd v egetables a re s till g rown w ithin t he b ounds o f t he s ite. T he s ite e xtends f or a bout 2 00m f rom e ast t o w est a nd a t l east 3 00m f rom n orth t o s outh a nd s lopes g radually t o t he s outh-west a nd n orth-west t owards W adi e r-Rumman . O n b oth s ides o f t his w adi, n atural c aves a nd s helters c an b e f ound.

2 .

O bjectives

A s a r esult o f r eading a n ote p ublished b y E lizabeth a nd C olin G ilet , w ho f irst d iscovered t he s ite a nd c ollected Y armoukian a nd E arly B ronze A ge p ottery s herds t here ( Gilet , E . a nd C ., 1 983), R obert G ordon a nd t he w riter, b oth f rom t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology o f Y armouk U niversity, v isited t he s ite i n t he w inter o f 1 983. S everal

4 51

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v isits w ere t o f ollow , d uring w hich s urface p ottery s herds a nd f lint t ools w ere c ollected a nd d ated t o t he L ate N eolithic ( Yarmoukian), E arly B ronze A ge, R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods. P lans f or t he e xcavation a rose d ue t o t he a nnouncement t hat t he s ite w as b eing t hreatened b y b ulldozing i n c onnection w ith t he w idening o f t he m ain A mman-Jerash r oad a nd d ue t o t he f act t hat n o Y armoukian s ites h ad b een e xcavated u p t o t hat t ime i n t he h illy a reas t o t he e ast o f t he J ordan .

3 .

M ethod o f E xcavation

O nce a c ontour m ap h ad b een d rawn, t he s ite w as d ivided i nto q uadrants, l abelled A , B , C , D f rom s outh-east r unning c lockwise t o n orth-east. I n t he f irst s eason ( 1984) e fforts w ere c oncentrated o n t he a reas d ue t o b e b ulldozed o n e ither s ide o f t he m ain r oad ( areas A a nd D ). I n t he s econd s eason ( 1985) e xcavations w ere u ndertaken i n a rea C , i n o rder t o o btain m ore i nformation o n t he B ronze A ge o ccupat ion . E ach o f t he e xcavation t renches m easured 5 x 5 m .

4 .

R esults o f t he E xcavations

A s a r esult o f t he t wo f irst s easons o f e xcavations , a g eneral u nderstanding w as o btained o f t he s tratigraphy o f t he s ite. T wo m ain o ccupational p hases w ere i dentified, t he f irst a nd e arliest d ating t o t he l ate N eolithic I ( Yarmoukian C ulture), w hich f orms t he e mphasis o f t his p aper. T he s econd p hase b elonging t o t he E arly B ronze A ge I . I n A reas A a nd D t hese t wo p hases a re s eparated b y a f ill c ontaining l arge q uantities o f s mall s tone d ebris ( Kafafi 1 985a). T here w as n o e vidence o f o ccupation i n t his f ill a part f rom p ottery s herds a nd c hipped f lint. I t w as m entioned a bove t hat t he e arliest o ccupational l evels a ttested i n t he e xcavated s quares a t t he s ite d ate b ack t o t he Y armoukian C ulture . I n t he p ast s ome s cholars m aintained t hat t his c ulture w as o nly r epresented i n a l imited a rea a round t he c onfluence o f t he Y armouk a nd t he J ordan R ivers ( Anati 1 963). H owever , d ue t o t he e xcavations u ndertaken a t A bu T hawwab, ' Ain G hazal a nd ' Ain R ahub d uring t he p ast f ive y ears , o ne c an t race t he r emains o f t his c ulture f rom B yblos ( Lebanon) i n t he n orth t o ' Ain G hazal ( Jordan) i n t he s outh . Ad escription f ollows o f t he a rchitecture , a rtefacts a nd f aunal a nd f loral r emains o btained f rom t he Y armoukian l evels a t J ebel A bu T hawwab.

5 .

A rchitecture

D uring t he 1 984 a nd 1 985 e xcavations , Y armoukian s tructural r emains w ere f ound ( Kafafi 1 985b). U nfortunately t hese w ere g reatly d isturbed b y t he E arly B ronze I p eople w ho r eused s ome o f t he b uildi ngs, a nd m ore r ecently b y t he c onstruction o f t he r oad b etween S weileh a nd J arash . I n A rea A , as traightish w all b uilt o f b oulders a nd m easuring 1 5m i n l ength w as u ncovered . A s econd w all j oins i t a t r ight a ngles o n t he

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P late 1

C ircular Y armoukian s tructure a t J ebel A bu T hawwab.

4 54

n orthern s ide. B oth w ere e rected o n t he v irgin s oil a nd w ere r eused d uring t he E arly B ronze I p eriod. I n A rea D ( Sq. D I II 5 ) t here i s a lso a s traightish w all b uilt o n v irgin s oil. T his o ne c onsists o f o ne c ourse o f m edium s ized b oulders. I t w as r eused b y t he E .B .I p eople, w ho a dded s everal m ore c ourses o f b oulders. I ts f unction w ill r emain o bscure u ntil f urther w ork i s d one. I n a ddition t o t he a bove m entioned r ectilinear s tructures , r ounded s tructures w ere a lso e xcavated. I n A rea A ( Sq . A I II 7 ) a s emic ircular w all w as e xcavated. T his c ould b e p art o f ar oom o f a t l east 4 m d iameter ( Plate 1 ). A rea C ( Sq . C I II 1 ) y ielded t wo c urved w alls b ut t hese w ere p robably n ot r elated t o e ach o ther. T hey c onsist o f a s ingle r ow o f b oulders . A rea D p roduced a c ircular r oom ( Sq. D I II 3 ) a nd a lso t he f oundations o f ap ossible c ircular t ower ( Sq. D I I 3a nd D I I 4 ) ( Kafafi 1 985b: 1 26). T he f loors o f t he h ouses w ere m ade e ither o f m ud ( Areas A a nd D ) o r o f p ebbles ( Sq . D I II 5 ). H owever, n o p lastered f loors w ere e xcavated, a nd n o b urials h ave y et b een f ound . O n s ome o f t he f loors h earths w ere n oted. T he e xcavated Y armoukian p its a t A bu T hawwab a re c ircular i n s hape a nd m ostly d ug i nto t he v irgin s oil. T heir d epth v aries f rom 0 .5 t o 1 .5m a nd t hey a verage l m i n d iameter. A ll o f t hese p its w ere f illed w ith p ottery s herds , f lint t ools a nd p lant r emains.

6 .

P ottery

T he Y armoukian p ottery a ssemblage o f A bu T hawwab i s c omposed o f a v ariety o f w ares: c oarse t empered p lain w are , f ine w are ( very l ittle w as f ound a nd t his w as p robably i mported), r ed s lip w are w ith i ncised d ecoration a nd r ed p ainted w are a lso w ith i ncised d ecoration. S urface d ecoration i ncludes h orizontally i ncised l ines w ith i ncised h erring-bone c hevrons r unning b etween ( Figures 2 , 4 ). A r ed p ainted d ecoration o f i rregular l ines i s a lso r ecognizable o n s ome o f t he v essels, e specially o n t he s maller o nes. N otched d ecorations a re v ery r are. I t a ppears t hat t he u se o f r ed s lip f or d ecoration w as p opular d uring t he L ate N eolithic I p eriod . I n av ery f ew c ases t he v essels w ere b urnished b y h and. I n g eneral t he s lip i s r elatively t hin a nd r anges i n c olour f rom r ed, t o l ight r ed, t o d usky r ed. T he p ottery v essels w ere o ften l ow f ired, t his b eing e vident i n t he g rey c ored v essels . T he i nclusions d isplayed w ide v ariations b ut s traw a nd l imes tone g rits w ere c ommonly u sed a s t emper. T he r ecognizable p ottery f orms a re c ups , s imple b owls , d eep b owls, s imple j ars , h ole-mouth j ars a nd g lobular j ars. T hese h ave k nob, l edge a nd l oop h andles a nd f lat, r ounded a nd f lat-ring b ases ( Figures 2 , 3 , 4 ). T he v essels a re h andmade.

7 .

F lint T ools

T he t echnol ley a nd t ypology o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry f rom J ebel A bu T hawwab r esembles t hat f rom a ssemblages o f L ate N eolithic I

4 55

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4 64

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4 65

( arrow-heads,

s ites i n P alestine ( Giv 'at H aparsa - O lami e t a l. 1 977) a nd L ebanon ( Byblos - D unand 1 973). A rrowheads a nd s ickle-blades w ere p lentiful. T he a rrowheads w ere t anged a nd h ad s houlders o r w ings a nd a t hin p oint ( Figures 8 ,9 , P late 2 ). T he s ickle-blades w ere d eeply d enticulated a nd h ad g loss ( Figures 5 , 6 , 1 0, P late 2 ). S crapers, k nives , b urins a nd a wls w ere a lso w ell r epresented, a nd a s ingle s pear-head w as f ound p repared l ike m any o ther t ools b y s quamous p ressure f laking ( Figures 7 , 8 , 1 0 , P late 2 ). T he a bsense o f a xes a nd c hisels i n n oteworthy i n t he A bu T hawwab f lint t ool a ssemblage.

8 .

S mall F inds

T he A bu T hawwab e xcavations p roduced a r ange o f s mall f inds i ncluding b one t ools , s hell b eads a nd c lay f igurines . T he b one t ools i ncluded a wls a nd n eedles. T he s hell b eads a re m ainly o f M editerranean o rigin , b ut o ne R ed S ea c owrie w as a lso f ound. E xamples o f t he c lay h uman , a nimal a nd s ymbolic f igurines f ound a re i llustrated i n F igure 1 1. O ne o f t he h uman f igurines h as ' coffee b ean ' e yes , r esembling t hose f ound a t e l-Qahwaneh ' ( Sha 'ar H a-Golan) a nd M unhatta i n P alestine ( Stekelis 1 952, 1 972, P errot 1 968). T he a nimal f igurines i ncluded t he r ear p ortion o f a p ossible b ovid ( Figure 1 1: 6 ) a nd a p ortion o f ah ead ( Figure 8 : 5 ) w hich i s s imilar t o a n o bject w hich w as f ound a t e l-Qahwaneh ' a nd w hich w as t hought b y t he e xcavator t o b e a f emale f igurine ( Stekelis 1 972, P late 5 0 : 1 ). I n a ddition t o f ragments o f w hat w ere o nce p robably c omplete a nimal a nd h uman f igurines, a n umber o f m ore a bstract c lay o bjects w ere f ound s ome o f w hich s eem t o r epresent t he s exual o rgans. H uman a nd a nimal p hallic s ymbols f rom t he s ame p eriod w ere f ound a t e l-Qahwaneh ' ( Stekelis 1 972, P late 5 9: 1 ) a nd A bu Z ureiq ( Hazorea) ( Anati e t a l. 1 973, P late 1 8 : 1 ). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his f orm o f a rt w as c onnected w ith f ertility m agic o r a f ertility c ult ( Anati 1 963: 2 64).

9 .

T he F loral R emains

T he p reliminary a nalysis o f f loral r emains f rom t he s ite 4 s hows t hat t he p redominant c rop p lants w ere L ens c ulinaris ( lentil) a nd T riticum d icoccum ( emmer w heat). P isum s ativum ( field p ea) a nd H ordeum d istichum ( two r owed b arley) a lso o ccur a nd P istacia s p. ( pistachio) a nd A mygdalus s p. ( almond) f ruits a ppear t o h ave b een g athered.

1 0 .

T he F aunal R emains

T he s mall p ample o f a nimal b ones ( n=125) w hich h as b een a nalysed f rom A bu T hawwab J c onsists o f 6 8% O vis/Capra s p., 1 5.2% G azella s p. a nd 1 2.8% B os s p. b ones . T hree b ones o f E quus s p. ( 2.4%) a nd o ne e ach o f C anis s p. a nd S us s p. w ere a lso p resent. M ost o f t he o vicaprid b ones f all w ithin t he s ize r ange o f d omestic a nimals a nd o ne C apra s p. h orncore s hows e vidence o f t wisting . T here i s h owever o ne h orncore w hose s ize a nd s hape i ndicates t hat i t p robably b elonged t o aw ild i ndividual.

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C I A 2

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1 1.

D ates

C 14 s amples w ere c ollected f rom t he s ite a nd h ave b een s ent t o G roningen , H olland f or a nalysis, b ut n o r esults a re a vailable a t p resent . W ork e lsewhere d oes h owever s uggest t hat t he Y armoukian c ulture d ates t o t he 6 th m illennium B .C . a nd p erhaps t o t he f irst h alf o f t he m illennium .

1 2.

C onclusions

D uring 1 984 a nd 1 985 p artial e xcavation w as u ndertaken i n t hree a reas o f t he s ite: a reas A , Ca nd D . I n a ddition a p artial s urvey w as u ndertaken c overing a 1 0km r adius o f t he s ite. T he e xcavations w hich c over m ore t han 5 00 s q. m h ave r evealed a rchitectural m aterial o f t he Y armoukian a nd E arly B ronze I p eriods. A s terile l ayer c ontaining m uch s mall s tone d ebris s eparates t he t wo c ultural p hases. A t hird s eason o f e xcavations i s p lanned f or t he s ummer o f 1 987. A t t he e nd o f t he e xcavations a m onograph w ill b e p ublished d etailing a ll a spects o f t he p roject. O ther s ites r elating t o t he Y armoukian C ulture w hich h ave r ecently b een e xcavated i n J ordan a re ' Ain G hazal ( Rollefson a nd S immons 1 985) a nd ' Ain R ahub ( Gebel a nd M uheisen 1 985). O ther s urveyed Y armoukian s ites i n t he i mmediate a rea o f A bu T hawwab a re S uleihi ( Kirkpride 1 959) a nd f ive o thers r egistered d uring t he e r-Rumman s urvey 1 985.'

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N otes 1 .

T he c ontinuous s upport o f P rofessor A dnan B adran , t he f ormer P resident o f t he Y armouk U niversity, a nd P rofessor M oawiyah I brahim , D irector o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology h as m ade a g reat c ontribution t o t he s uccess o f t he e xpeditions. M any t hanks a re a lso d ue t o D r. A dnan H adidi, D irector-General o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities , f or h is a ssistance a nd e ncouragem ent. T he m embers o f t he e xpeditions w ere a s f ollows: F irst s eason 1 984 : D r. Z eidan K afafi ( Director), M r. N abil Q adi ( Square S upervisor), M r. F uad H urani ( Square S upervisor), M r. F ayez T arawneh ( Surveyor a nd D raughtsman). S econd s eason 1 985: D r. Z eidan K afafi ( Director), D r. A xel K nauf ( Survey C o-Director), D r. R obert G ordon ( Survey C o-Director), M r. N abil Q adi ( Chief A rchaeologist), M r. R einder N eef ( Paleoethnob otanist), M rs. C iony C . M etz ( Camp D irector). I n t he S econd s eason w e a lso h ad t he h elp o f t he f ollowing s tudents f rom t he M .A . p rogramme a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology: D eifA llah O beidat , M ohammed ' Essam ' Ali , W ajih K arasneh , J um 'a K reyem , M ohammed R ousan , I brahim Z o 'bi, H ana M ismar a nd t he h elp o f s ixtten A merican e xchange s tudents : K aren A rnold, M ichael C ooperson , D aniel J . H olub , J erry D . L yon , C hristine S ieben , R obin S urrat, J effrey S . S utton , L ori B illings, T imothy H arrison , L eesteffy J enkins , N icholas M orris , A ndrea O lsen , S tephen P erkins, G erard R imel, J ulie T ayloe, C raig W anick .

2 .

T he 1 985 e r-Rumman S urvey t ook p laced u nder t he s upervision o f D rs. A xel K nauf a nd R obert G ordon o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology , Y armouk U niversity. T he f inal r eport o f t he s urvey i s i n p reparation .

3 .

Ad etailed r eport o f t he c ollection o f f lint t ools f rom A bu T hawwab i s b eing p repared b y D r. M ujahed e l-Muheisen o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, Y armouk U niversity.

4 .

M r. R einder N eef h as u ndertaken t he a nalysis o f t he b otanical r emains f rom A bu T hawwab a nd h as p rovided u s w ith t he i nformation g iven a bove.

5 .

D r. I lse K öhler Robertson i s s tudying t he f aunal r emains f rom T hawwab.

6 .

T he p ottery a nd f lint d rawings w ere d raughted b y S usan T horpe, a nd t he p hotographs w ere t aken b y C arl A ndrews, b oth o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, Y armouk U niversity.

7 .

T he E nglish w as e dited b y A ndrew G arrard.

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A bu

B ibliography A nati E . ( 1963). K nopf.

P alestine B efore t he H ebrews.

N ew Y ork , A lfred A .

A nati E . e t a l. ( 1979). H azorea . A rchivi 5 . C ollana d i P reistoria . D i A rte P reistorica a A rte P rimitiva. C entro C amuno d i S tudi P reistorica .

D unand M . ( 1973). F ouilles d e B yblos 5 . e t d 'Orient, A drien M aisoneuve.

P aris , L ibrairie d 'Amerique

G ebel H .G . a nd M uheisen M . ( 1985). N ote o n ' Ain R ahub, a n ew L ate N atufian s ite n ear I rbid , J ordan . P aleorient 1.1: 1 07-111. G ilet E . a nd G ilet C .

( 1983).

J ebel A bu T hawwab.

L evant 1 5:

1 87-191.

K afafi Z . ( 1985a). F irst s eason o f e xcavations a t J ebel A bu T hawwab, 1 984. P reliminary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9 : 3 1-42. K afafi Z . ( 1985b). 1 985, J ordan .

L ate N eolithic a rchitecture f rom J abal A bu T hawwab, P aleorient 1 1.1: 1 25-127.

K afafi Z . ( 1986a). G abal A bu T hawwab , O rientforschung 3 3: f orthcoming.

1 984.

A rchiv f ür

K afafi Z . ( 1986b). G abal A bu T hawwab , O rientforschung 3 3: f orthcoming .

1 985.

A rchiv f ür

K afafi Z . ( n .d.). S econd s eason o f e xcavations a t J ebel A bu T hawwab, 1 985. P reliminary r eport . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan : f orthcoming . K irkbride D . ( 1959). S hort n ote o n s ome h ithero u nrecorded p rehistoric s ites i n T ransjordan. P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 1: 5 2-55.

O lami Y ., B urian F . a nd F riedman E . ( 1977). G iv 'at h a-Parsa. A N eolithic s ite i n t he c oastal r egion . E retz I srael 1 3 : 3 4-38 . ( In H ebrew).

P errot J . ( 1968). L a p rehistoire p alestinienne. S upplement a u D ictionaire d e l a B ible. P aris, L etouzey e t A ne.

4 70

R ollefson G . a nd S immons a . ( 1985). E xcavation a t ' Ain G hazal 1 984. P reliminary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9 : 1 1-30 .

S tekelis M . ( 1952). T wo m ore Y armoukian f igurines. J ournal 2 : 2 16-217.

I srael E xploration

S tekelis M . ( 1972). T he Y armoukian C ulture o f t he N eolithic P eriod. J erusalem , M agness P ress.

4 71

E xcavations a t

' Ain R ahub, a F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian s ite n ear I rbid ( 1985)

M ujahed M uheisen, H ans G eorg G ebel, C hristian H annss, R einder N eef

1 .

I ntroduction a nd A cknowledgements

W ith t he p ermission o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i n A mman, i nitial e xcavations a t t he F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian s ettlements o f ' Ain R ahub w ere c arried o ut w ithin t he f ramework o f t he J oint A rchaeol ogical P rojects o f Y armouk a nd T uebingen U niversities. ' ' Ain R ahub i s t he f irst N atufian s ettlement e ncountered i n t he p resent s emi-arid m ild-warm a nd a rid-mild r egions ( Emberger c lassificat ion) o f n orthern J ordan. I ts r elative c hronological p osition, i ts g eographical s etting a nd t he e vidence o f i ts a rchitecture s trongly i ndicates a n e arly v illage. I n t he t hree-fold s cheme o f m ajor e conomic s teps f or t he p eriod o f t ransition f rom f ood-gathering a nd - h unting t o f ood-production ( Gebel 1 984), ' Ain R ahub s hould b e e xpected t o r epresent t he e arliest p hase o f a s edentary o r s emi-sedentary v illage b ased o n t he e xploitation o f w ild c ereal s tands a nd h unting.

2 .

A ims o f r esearch w ork c arried o ut a nd f ield m ethods

T he m ain g oals o f t he i nvestigation w ere t o o btain i nformation o n t he h itherto u nknown L ate N atufian o f n orthern J ordan , o n s ubsistence s trategies i n n orthern J ordan d uring t he p eriod o f i ncipient p lant d omestication , a nd t o d evelop w orking h ypotheses f or i nterpreting t he L ate E pipalaeolithic s ettlement h istory o f t he e astern d esert a nd w estern h ills a t t he t ime t hat s edentism w as d eveloping. E xcavations w ere c onducted i n t wo a reas. T he m ain e xcavation w as m ade i n t he F inal N atufian l ayers e xposed b y t he b ulldozer, a nd t he s ubsidiary e xcavation w as a d eep s ounding ( "Test U nit") o n t he s lope t o t he w est. A 1x l m h orizontal g rid w as e stablished, o f w hich t he 2 01ml ine s erved a s t he b ase l ine. A t emporary v ertical d atum o f 6 0m w as u sed, w hich w as l ater f ound t o l ie a t c . 4 20m a .s.l. I n t he m ain e xcavation a rea ( Natufian l ayers), 1 7m 2 w ere o pened ( Squares H 2 00, G -M 2 01, G -L 2 02, I -K 2 03; F igure 4 ). T he e xcavations r eached d ifferent d epths i n t he v arious s quares ( Figure 5 ). T he s oil w as r emoved b y a rbitrary l evels u ntil a s urface w as r ecognized. A ll t he s ediments w ere d ry s ieved t hrough 5 a nd im s creens. P reserved l evels w ere d rawn a t 1 :5 s cale w ith f inds n umbered i n s itu . N o r eal b uilding l evel o r o ccupational f loor w as r eached, b ut w e f ound p atchp reserved, e phemeral l iving f loors i n t he f ills b etween t he w alls.

4 73

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4 74

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T he " Test U nit" o f 3 m2 w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f 5 7.40m , e xposing 3 .20m o f s tratified p ossibly a lluvial a nd c ultural s ediments. T he g oal o f t his o peration w as t o u nderstand t he s lope s tratigraphy a nd t o s ee w hether N atufian l ayers e xtended 2 0m i n t his d irection f rom t he m ain e xcavation. W e w ere s urprised t o f ind Y armoukian m aterial i n t he " Test U nit", w hich w as n ot v isible o n t he s urface . T his w as e xcavated u sing a rbitrary 1 0cm l evels a nd w ithout s ieving. P ollen a nd s ediment s amples w ere c ollected.

3 .

L ocation a nd p reservation o f t he s ite ( Figure 1 )

T he s ite o f ' Ain R ahub i s l ocated 1 3km n orthwest o f I rbid o n t he l ower t errace o f t he w est b ank o f W adi a r-Rahub, j ust a bove t he p umping s tation o f t he c opious s pring, a fter w hich t he s ite i s n amed ( Gebel a nd M uheisen 1 985: P late 1 ). T he p lateau a rea o n e ither s ide o f t he W adi a r-Rahub i s c overed i n l arge f ields ( melons, c ereals), w hilst t he s lopes o f t he d rainage s ystem a re p lanted w ith o lives a nd g rapes. T he i rrigated g arden o f ' Ain R ahub a nd t he r eed s tands i n t he w adi a re s triking e lements i n t he p resent e nvironment. T he p resent s pur c ont aining t he a lluvial ( and p ossibly c olluvial) a nd c ultural l ayers o f t he s ite w as c reated b y a t ributary r unning i nto t he m ain w adi. T he F inal N gtufian s ettlement w as p artly d estroyed b y a b ulldozer, w hich c ut a 3 50m' h orizontal s ection t hrough t he s tructures a nd s ettlem ent i nstallations. I t a ppears t hat 4 0-60cm o f t he u pper s ettlement l ayers w ere r emoved. I t i s l ikely t hat t he e dges o f t he s uperimposed Y armoukian s ite w ere a lso r emoved i n t his a rea. T he P ost-Yarmoukian s edimentation ( see f ollowing s ection) a lmost t otally s ealed t he t wo o ccupations a nd t his m ight h elp t o e xplain w hy n o s ettlements o f t hese p eriods w ere f ound e lsewhere ( in s imilar t opographic p ositions). A s o f y et i t i s n ot p ossible t o d etermine h ow f ar t he s ite e xtends u nderneath t he p resent-day a griculturally u sed s urfaces. A s N atufian l ayers w ere a lso f ound i n t he " Test U nit" a t 5 7.70m , c qutious e stimates s uggest t he F inal N atufian s ite c overed a t l east 1 600m L .

4 .

G eomorphological s etting o f ' Ain R ahub a nd e ssential a spects o f t he r elief i n t he a l-Mughaiyir-region ( Figure 2 -3)

T he a rea u nder c onsideration l ies i n t he n orthern J ordanian h ighl ands, w hich c onstitutes a s outhern e xtension o f t he A nti-Lebanon m ountain r ange. T he h ills a re c ut t o t he w est b y t he J ordan r ift v alley w hich w as f ormed d uring t he T ertiary p eriod. C limatologically t he a l-Mughaiyir-region l ies i n t he M editerranean c limatic z one w ith w et w inters a nd d ry s ummers ( Troll Pfaffen , 1 984: m ap). T he m ean w inter r ainfall f or t he a rea i s c . 2 00-250mm , w hilst t he a nnual m ean i s a bout 4 00mm ( NGAJ I 1 984: 12). T he n ortheastern s ector o f t he J ordanian h ighlands i s m ainly f ormed f rom l ayers o f C retaceous l imestone a nd m arl, w hich s lope g ently t owards t he n orth-east a nd w hich a re c overed a t t heir m argins b y T ertiary l imestone a nd m arl. T he l atter c an b e o bserved i n t he a rea a round a l-Mughaiyir.

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I n c ertain r egions, P leistocene b asalt f lows a re p resent. S uch e ffusives f orm a n arrow S W-NE r idge a long t he w estern e dge o f l ower W adi a r-Rahub ( Bender 1 968: S heet A mman). T hey c ould b e i mportant f or t he d ating o f t he w adi t erraces. T he r elief a round a l-Mughaiyir i s c haracterized b y a g ently u ndulating p lateau o f T ertiary l imestone a nd m arl, w hich s lopes t owards t he n ortheast a nd i nto w hich w adis a re i ncised. R idges o f m ore r esistant l imestone a re v isible i n s everal p laces o n t he s urrounding p lateau, a nd t hese h ave a f airly h orizontal s tratigraphy. A way f rom t he m ain w adi s ystems t he T ertiary p lateau i s c overed b y a r elatively t hick l oamy s oil c omposed o f t he p ossible p roducts o f w eathered l imestone a nd m arl ( Bender 1 986 : S heet A mman). W adi a r-Rahub a nd W adi a sh-Shallala r un i n an ortherly d irection a nd c ut 7 0 - 1 00m i nto t he p lateau . W hilst W adi a r-Rahub h as a f airly s traight c ourse, t he W adi a sh-Shallala w inds a nd h as a n umber o f r ockc ut m eanders . T his e xplains w hy W adi a r-Rahub h as f ew w adi t erraces a nd i s V -shaped t o t he n ortheast o f t he e xcavated s ite o f ' Ain R ahub. T o t he s outhwest W adi a r-Rahub l ooses i ts V -shaped c haracter, a nd w hilst t he s outheastern s lopes a re c omparatively s teep, n orthwestern s lopes r ise g ently w ithout a m arked e dge o n t o t he p lateau . T his m ay b e r elated t o l ithological f actors. R ecent a lluvial f ills a re r are i n t he W adi a sh-Shallala a nd W adi a r-Rahub, b ut r emains o f f ormer t erraces a re p reserved a t v arious e levations, g iving t he g eneral i mpression o f aw adi w ith f lat f loors ( "Sohlental"). A s tudy o f t he a erial p hotographs r esulted i n t he i dentification o f t hree m ajor t erraces i n t he W adi a sh-Shallala , a nd e ach o f t hese c an , i n c ertain a reas , b e s ubdivided i nto t wo s ubunits ( Figure 2 ). T he r elative d ifferences i n h eight o f t he m ain t errace s ystems i s a bout 1 0 2 0m . A p recise m easurement o f a ltitudes h as s till t o b e m ade i n t he f ield. I n t he a bsence o f c ertain p hotogrammetric d ata i t w as n ot p ossible t o d etermine t he a bsolute h eights s teromicrom etrically. I n W adi a r-Rahub t here i s p resumably a s imilar t hree-terraced s ystemn . T he s ite o f ' Ain R ahub r ests o n t he l owest t errace ( = T errace 1 ). I n t he w adis t o t he W a nd E o f a l-Mughaihir, t erraces 1 , 2a nd 3 b ecome m ore s teep a nd m ore c oncave. T he r eason m ay b e t hat a t h igher e levations, o nly t he t errace r emnants a ttached t o t he s lope t end t o b e p reserved. I n m ost c ases t he l ower t errace r emnants s eemed t o h ave b een c loser t o f omer w adi c ourses, f orming o nce t heir a ctive f lat f loors. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he i ncreasing c oncavity o f t he u pper t errace r emnants i s e xaggerated b y t he a ccumulation o f s lope d ebris. T he e xtensive p roducts o f s lope e rosion o n t he t erraces o f W adi a shS hallala a nd W adi ' Ain R ahub m ay b e e xplained - a t l east f or t he H olocene - b y t he h eavy w inter r ainfall. T he p rocess w ould b e a ccelerated b y a s carcity o f v egetation d uring t he w inter, c aused b y r elatively l ow t emperatures . O n s teeper s lopes d own-wash w ould b e m ore i ntensive. T hese p rocesses s till c ontinue t oday, a s i s a ttested b y t he m any s hallow i ncisions a long t he v alley s ides , w hich a re e ven V -shaped i n c ertain a reas b ut w hich d o n ot r each t he T ertiary p lateau.

4 78

T hese e nvironmental f actors a lso e xplain w hy t he t wo m ajor w adis i n t he a rea h ave a lmost n o t ributaries. T he d rainage s ystems h ave r emained s imple b ecause o f t he c limate a nd e daphic d ryness. T he r are t ributaries h ave V -shaped s ections i n t heir l ower c ourses a nd t roughl ike s ections ( sometimes w ith a lmost f lat f loors) i n t heir u pper r eaches. T he a rtefacts f ound i n t he t errace s ounding ( "Test U nit" o f t he ' Ain R ahub E xcavations 1 985) s uggest a f airly y oung a ge f or t he l ower t errace ( Ti). H ere m ore t han l m o f s ediments a nd l imestone d ebris o verlies c . 1 .5m o f Y armoukian c ultural d ebris ( c. 7 500 B P). B elow t he Y armoukian l ayers a f urther l m o f s ediments c overs N atufian l ayers ( c. 1 1000 B P ; G ebel a nd M uheisen n .d.). T he s ediments a nd l imestone d ebris a bove a nd b etween t he Y armoukian a nd t he N atufian l ayers a re m ost p robably n ot o f d irect c olluvial o rigin b ut w ere d eposited a s w adi a ccumulations. M ajor c olluvial d eposits c annot b e e xpected h ere, a s t here a re n o e xtensive s lopes a bove t he l ower t errace o f ' Ain R ahub f rom w hich l arge q uantities o f c olluvial m aterial c ould d erive ( Figure 2 ). I f t he d eposits b etween t he a bove t he c ultural l ayers a re f luviatile t hey m ust h ave a ccumulated f rom W adi ' Ain R ahub a nd i ts c onfluent t o t he W SW . A ccording t o t he a rchaeological d eposits i t a ppears t hat t he e arlier a ccumulation m ust d ate t o b etween t he Y ounger D ryas a nd t he B oreal, t he u pper a fter 7 500 B P , m ost l ikely a nd m ainly t o t he A tlantic p eriod. A fter t hese e vents , t he w adis c ut i nto t heir y oungest a ccumulations, c reating t he p resent-day l owermost t errace. T he p eriods o f a ggradation m ay h ave b een f airly s hort a nd t he r esult o f r apid d eposition. T his w ould c ertainly h ave a ffected s ite l ocations a nd t he d uration o f o ccupation . T he r elief i n t he n eighbourhood o f a l-Mughaiyir w as a lso i ntensively m odified b y m an . T his w as n ot o nly t he r esult o f h eavy g razing b ut a lso o f e xtensive s olifluction c aused b y s oil e rosion f rom a nimal p aths. I ntensive s oil e rosion , w here t he c olluvium h as b een t ransported a s f ar a s t he w adi b eds, i s n oticable o n t he T ertiary p lateau t o t he W o f W adi a r-Rahub . A nother a nthropogenic f eature h as b een t he l evelling o f n atural t erraces f or a gricultural u se. B ut t here a re a lso e xamples o f c ompletely a rtificial a gricultural t erraces, m aking n o u se o f n atural t erraces. O ther a rtificially f lat a reas w ere c reated b y s tone q uarrying t o t he s outhwest o f a l-Mughaiyir. T he c ircular s urface d epressions e ast o f W adi a sh-Shallala a re m ost l ikely t he r esult o f o pen d iggings. S ome o f t he r ock c ut t renches a ppear t o b e t ombs.

5 .

S tratigraphy a nd s tructures o f t he F inal N atufian s ettlement ( Figure 4 -5)

T he e xcavations r evealed c urvilinear a nd l inear w alls w ith a ssociated f allen o r l evelled s tone d ebris a nd a lso o ther s tone i nstallations. I n t he s outhern a rea o f t he t rench, p art o f a c urvilinear s tructure a ppeared. O n e ither s ide f urther l arger s tones w ere s cattered, s ome l ying o n t he s ame s urface a nd o thers h igher o r l ower i n t he f ill. A s maller c urvilinear a lignment a ppeared i n G 2 01,

4 79

` A in Rahub 1 985

G- M / 200-203.

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F igure 4

A rchitectural r emains i n S quares G -M/200-203 ( Late N atufian).

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t o w hich o ne i nstallation w as a ttached ( H 2 02) a nd a s econd b onded ( G 2 02). A s i s t rue w ith a ll t he l ayers e xcavated , n o c arbonized m aterial o r c harcoal w as f ound h ere. N o s tructures w ere f ound i n I -K/201-203 d own t o t he d epths e xcavated. H ere , a lthough i t w as p ossible t o s eparate l ayers f rom t he s ections, i t w as n ot a lways p ossible d uring e xcavations . L iving f loors w ere n ot a lways o bvious f rom t he s ediments . W hat w as a ttested w as a d ense m icrostratigraphy q f i nterbedded p atch-preserved s urfaces l ittered w ith a nimal b ones a nd f lints , w hich w ere o ften s eparated b y t hicker l ayers o f f ill o f t he s ame m atrix . S uch s urfaces w ere o nly r ecognizable b y t he h orizontal a lignment/position o f c ompacted f lints a nd b ones . T he l inear w all f ound i n L -K/201-203, r unning a pproximately W NW E SE i s - l ike t he c urvilinear s tructure - a d ry-stone w all b uild o f u ndressed s tones. T he c avity i nside i s f illed w ith s maller r ubble , a nd t he o verall w all i s c a. 9 0cm t hick . A s econd s tone w all o r p ossibly j ust a s tone a lignment r uns o ff f rom t he f irst a t a n o blique a ngle t owards t he n orth . A s w e d id n ot r each a ny f loor l evels w hich m ight b e c onnected w ith t he w alls, i t i s d ifficult t o i nterprete t he s tructures f ound. A t p resent, w e e xpect t hem t o b e s ubstructures o f b uilding l evels n ot y et r eached. W e a re a lso n ot p resently s ure i f w e j ust h ave t wo b uilding p hases o r t wo s eparate o ccupational p hases. A s c an b e s een f rom t he s ection d rawings ( Figure 5 ), t he f ill l ayers a re a lmost h orizontal a nd v ary b etwen 1 0-40cm o f t hickness. T he m atrix i s s imilar i n c haracter t hroughout t he l ayers . I t c ontains a h igh c oncentration o f ( disintegrated) l imestone/gypsum p articles, a nd v aries o nly i n t he p roportion o f s mall s tone a nd a sh i nclusions . T he d eposits a re d ifficult t o d istinguish h aving s imilar c olours a nd d egree o f c ompactness . W ith t he e xception o f t he f lint a rtefacts a nd t he a nimal o nly t wo f ragments o f g round s tone t ool w ere r ecovered i n 1 985 .

6 .

b ones,

F inal N atufian c hipped s tone i ndustry ( Figure 6 -7)

A nalysis h as s o f ar c oncentrated o n t he c lassification a nd c ounti ng o f p rimary e lements a nd t ools. T o f acilitate o ur p reliminary s tudy , w e d ivided t he m aterial i nto t hree g roups . T he f irst g roup w as t he m aterial f rom t he a rbitrary l evel 5 8.40-50m . T he s econd g roup w as f rom 5 8.30-20m a nd t he t hird f rom t he l owest a rbitrary l ayer 5 8.20-10m . A t otal o f 2 7,174 c hipped l ithic a rtefacts w ere r ecovered f rom t he t hree l evels ( Table 1 ). A ll t he a rtefacts w ere m ade f rom g ood q uality f lint . T here i s n o e vidence f or t he u se o f o ther t ypes o f r ock . T he r aw m aterial w hich i ncludes n odular f lint a nd t wo v arieties o f t abular f lint, w as m ainly o btained f rom t hree s ources a djacent t o t he s ite. N odular f lint e xtends a ll o ver t he p lateau , w here t here a re a lso b asalt f lows. T he c olour o f t he n odular f lint i s l ight g reyish a nd i n s ome c ases l ight g reyish-brown. T abular f lint o utcrops a long t he r ight b ank o f W adi

4 82

R ahub. T wo k inds T he f irst, w hich b lack i n c olour, T he s econd t abular l ight b rown c olour T ertiary a nd U pper

o f t abular f lint a re v isible i n t he w adi e xposures. l ies a pproximately 1 0 - 1 5m a bove t he w adi b ed i s i s o f i nferior q uality a nd u nsuitable f or f laking. f lint s ource l ies 2 0 - 3 0m a bove t he w adi b ed, i s o f a nd i s o f g ood q uality. T he r ock b eds a re o f L ower C retaceous d ate ( Bender 1 974).

I n o rder t o d etermine t he p referred m aterial f or t ool m aking, w e t ook s amples f rom e ach s ource a nd c ompared t hem w ith t he c ores a nd a rtefacts u sed. T he r esults a re p resented i n T ables 2 , 3a nd 4 . T he r esults o f t he a nalysis d emonstrate t hat l ight g reyish-brown t abular f lint w as t he m ain m aterial u sed. B lack f lint d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een u sed, p robably o n a ccount o f i ts i nferior q uality. A nother f lint e xploited w as l ight r eddish, o r w hite f lint, b ut i t d id n ot o riginate w ithin t he a rea a round t he s ite. B asalt w hich o ccurs o n t he u pper p lateau s eems n ot t o h ave b een e xploited i n t he F inal N atufian b ut w as u sed f or t he p roduction o f g rinding s labs, m anos, e tc. d uring t he Y armoukian p eriod ( Figure 1 0). A lthough t he b lanks u sed f or t he t ools w ere p redominantly o f t he b lade/bladelet c ategory, t he c lassification o f p rimary p roducts i ndicates t hat f lakes w ere m ore c ommonly p roduced. T he s ingle p latform c ore w as w idely u sed f or t he p roduction o f b lade/bladelets . T he a ngle b etween t he c ore s urface a nd s triking p latform r anges f rom 9 0 t o 7 2°. T he s ize o f t he c ores i s g enerally s mall. F lake c ores a re c lassified a s u nidentifiable c ores ( Table 5 ) a nd o utnumber a ny o ther t ype o f c ore. O ne d isc c ore a nd o ne c ore o n a l arge f lake w as a lso u sed f or t he p roduction o f s mall f lakes. P latform f eatures o f f lake / b lade / b ladelet s amples r evealed t hat t he p unctiform t echnique w as m ore f requently u sed f or b lade / b ladelet p roduction. P lain a nd d ihedral p unctiform p latforms a re r are a mongst b lades a nd b ladelets. H owever, p lain p unctiform a nd c ortical p latform r emnants o ccur c ommonly a mongst t he f lake c ategory ( Tables 6 a nd 7 ). D ihedral a nd f aceted p latforms a re a lso a ttested. T he m ean s ize o f t he b lades i s c a . 6 3mm l ength a nd 2 5mm w idth. T he p resence o f m icroburins i ndicates t hat b ladelet s napping w as c ommonly u sed i n t he p roduction o f m icrolithic t ools. T he s imple m icroburin p redominates b ut K rukowski m icroburins a re a lso f ound. T able 8 c ontains a c lassification o f t ool t ypes w ith p ercentages b ased o n t he l ist p ublished b y F rancis H ours ( Hours 1 974). F urther d etails a re g iven i n T able 9 . T hese t ables i ndicate t hat t he t ool a ssemblage i s h omogeneous t hroughout t he l evels e xcavated. S crapers o ccur i n l ow n umbers a nd t hose o n f lakes a nd a typical f orms a re m ost c ommon. O ne c arinated e nd s craper o n a t hick f lake w as a lso n oted. B urins c an b e d ivided i nto d ihedral f orms o n a b reak o r o n a t runcation. B orers a re c haracterized b y a brupt r etouch a long b oth e dges a nd t he p oints a re i ndented o n o ne s ide. K nives a nd b acked p ieces a re u sually b acked b y d irect-abrupt r etouch a long b oth e dges. H owever i n s ome c ases t hey a re b acked o n o nly o ne s ide a nd t his e dge m ay b e c urved o r i rregularly s haped. A mongst

t he c lass o f t runcated p ieces t he m ost n umerous

4 83

t ype

i s

o

i

2

4

3

k

5

cm

4 3

2

1

5

7

1

1 0

9

1 2

) ( F igure 6

1 4

1 5

3

t

3

1 6

1 3

8

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 1

N atufian c hipped s tone a rtefacts f rom t he m ain o peration: 1 p ointed b lade w ith a brupt r etouch a long b oth e dges, 2 b acked b lade, 3 a wl, 4 b ladelet w ith a brupt r etouch a long b oth e dges, 5 b acked t runcated f lake, 6 d enticulated p iece, 7 n othced p iece, 8 p artially b acked b lade, 9 i ncomplete t riangle, 1 0 t riangle, 1 1-13, 1 7-19 l unates w ith b ipolar r etouch, 1 4-15 p artially r etouched p ieces, 1 6 b acked t runcated b ladelet, 2 0-21 m icroburins.

4 84

2

5

4

6

3 0

7

2

3

4

5 cm

8 9 1 0.

. ‘

7 1 2

F igure 7

1 3

N atufian c hipped s tone a rtefacts f rom t he m ain o peration : 1 a typical e nd-scraper o n f lake , 2 , 3 , 7r etouched f lakes, 4 t runcated b lade, 5 b urin o n b reak , 6 r etouched b lade, 8 p ointed b lade w ith s ickle s heen, 9 b acked t runcated p iece, 1 0-12 l unates w ith b ipolar r etouch , 1 3 l unate w ith a brupt r etouch .

4 85

T able 1 .

C ategories o f l ithic a rtefacts

2

1

F lakes B lades a nd B ladelets C ore t rimming e lements B urin s palls M icro b urins C hunks a nd c hips C ores T ools

T otal

n

%

n

%

n

%

4 ,300 2 ,400

3 6 .00 2 0 .00

1 ,890 2 ,080

3 1.00 3 4.00

2 ,760 1 ,670

3 9.10 2 3.60

6

0 .05

4

0 .60

3

0 .04

1 2 4 1 4 ,620

0 .10 0 .34 3 8 .50

5 3 6 1 ,890

0 .08 0 .58 3 1.00

1 2 2 ,430

0 .01 0 .02 3 4.40

6 8 5 45

0 .56 4 .45

4 0 2 29

1 1,951

T able 2 .

3

0 .64 2 .40

3 5 1 54

6 ,174

0 .50 2 .20

7 ,055

C ores l isted a ccording t o r aw m aterial u sed

A

B

C

D

E

1

-

1 5.4%

6 5%

1 5.4%

4 .6%

6 5

2

6 %

1 5%

5 7%

2 0%

2 %

4 0

3

3 %

1 4.2%

6 3%

1 5%

5 %

3 5

T otal A B C D E

-

t abular b lack f lint n odular l ight g reyish f lint t abular l ight g reyish f lint d ark b rown f lint o ther

4 86

_ n _

1 40

T able 3 .

F lakes , b lade-bladelets l isted a ccording t o r aw m aterial u sed

A _

B

C

1

8 %

3 1.3%

4 5%

2

9 .6%

3 4.4%

3

5 .3%

3 0 .1%

D

E

n

1 3%

2 .7%

1 ,029

4 1%

1 3.8%

1 .2%

3 ,506

4 6%

1 4%

4 .6%

9 65

T otal

T able 4 .

T ools l isted a ccording t o r aw m aterial u sed A _

B

1

5 .3%

1 2%

2

3 .7%

8 %

3

5 %

C

1 2%

D

E

n

7 2.2%

6 %

4 .5%

2 63

7 7%

7 %

4 .2%

2 12

7 3.6%

6 .4%

3 .0%

1 25

T otal

T able 5 .

5 ,500

C ore t ypes

S ingle p latform c ore

1

2

2 6 ( 38%)

6 ( 15.6%)

3 1 0 ( 28 .5%)

P yramidal

1( 1.4%)

-

-

S ub p yramidal

1( 1.4%)

-

-

P rismatic c ore w ith t wo s triking p latforms

3( 4.4%)

U nidentifiable c ore

5 ( 12.5%)

3 0 ( 44%)

2 8 ( 70%) -

D isc

1( 1.4%)

O ther

6( 9.8%)

1( 2.5%)

T otal

6 8 ( 100%)

4 0 ( 100%)

4 87

6 ( 7%)

1 7 ( 48.5%)

2( 6%)

3 5 ( 100%)

6 00

T able 6 .

F lake t ypes ( based o n s ample o f 3 00 c omplete p ieces)

1

2

3

C ortical

1 8%

2 1%

1 7%

P lain

6 2%

5 8%

5 1%

F acetted

4 %

5 %

4 %

L inear

1 %

2 %

-

P unctiform

3 %

7 %

1%

" en a il d 'oiseau"

4 %

-

2 %

D ihedral

8 %

7 %

1 5%

1 00%

1 00%

1 00%

T otal

T able 7 .

B lade-bladelets ( based o n s ample o f 3 00 c omplete p ieces)

1

2

3

C ortical

4 %

3 %

4 %

P lain

9 %

7 %

5 %

F acetted

2 %

4 %

1 %

L inear

2 8%

2 0%

2 2%

P unctiform

5 7%

6 6%

6 8%

1 00%

1 00%

1 00%

T otal

4 88

T able 8 .

T otal n umber a nd p ercentage o f e ach t ool t ype

1

3

A .

E nd s crapers

B .

B urins

C .

B orers

D .

K nives a nd b acked p ieces

1 2

2 .4%

E .

T runcations

2 1

4 .2%

F .

N otches a nd d enticulates

9 5

1 9%

2 7

1.8%

1 5

9 .74%

H .

R etouched p ieces

9 9

2 0%

2 7

1.8%

2 3

1 4 .93%

I .

S pecial t ools

J .

N on-geometric m icroliths

10

2 2%

5 2

2 2.7%

1 8

1.68%

K .

G eometric m icroliths

1 38

2 7.3%

8 0

3 5%

7 7

5 0%

L .

O ther

T otal

1

2 2 .1%

6

2 .6%

6

3 .89%

5

0 .9%

3

1 .3%

3

1 .94%

7

1 .4%

4

1 .7%

2

1 .29%

9 .2%

7

4 .54%

2 .6%

2

1 .29%

2

4

0 .4%

0 .7%

5 04

2 1

6

2

1

2 29

4 89

0 .9%

0 .4%

-

1

1 54

-

0 .64%

C ` 4

C

C,1

C • 1

r • •

v I C • J

a 0 41 4 )

C D

4 1

c a

1

C f l

r 1

C 4

C O I

. t

0 c v

r4

C f l

0 " ) . 4

C N 1

I

C D

0 C s i

e l

e l

e -

40 / 1

1

. i a

, i a

, 1 c e

0 E .

o E .

E .

c o 0

. 0

C 7 1 4 1 4

C I 4 , 0 r 1 0 . 0 0 ) 4 1 . 0 0 4 , C O 1 1 0 .0 c a 0 " 7 C . • H 0 0 C 0 0 0 4 , 7 0 0 0 1 . 1 0 4 -1 . 1 1 4 .0

N otches a nd D enticula

T runcations

C / 2 2 C O C U . r I

1 . 3 • H 3

C

C C L I

0

0

U l

U) C C c a 0 c a 4 -, 4 1 0 $ . 4 c a C l ) 7 0.0 4 -1 T 1 0 0 t 7 .“i 4 1 7 C O 1, 0 C 4 . 4 1 4 1 . 3 C D E 1 .3 . 1 .1 0

0 0 C _ )

C O

c ontinuous

I

R etouched P ieces

r 4

4 , 0 H 3 0 0 0 . 1 -1 C O T 1 4 4

1 4

C D C O 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 " C " 0 . 0 0 V 0 C D . c al . 7 0 7 ) C C ) c a c a C . 0 C O 0 0 4 1 4 , 1 4 0 4 / I l c a l 1 0 I ) ) I J C ) C 0 C . 0 > C V 1 4 U 0 0 U U 4 1 > . 0 0 r I . 0 1 . 1 e $ . 4 . 1 U 4 4 U . r 1 0 3 0 3 0 3 1 4 C . 0 0 0 1 I ) C L ) 4 , C D 4 , 0 -1 0 0 " 0 C D U t 1 " 7 0 1 4 C O C D 0 0 T 1 . 1 4 1 r 4 .0 . 0 3 Q. . 0

0 I V 0 3 ' 7

0 .0

C D C D 0 7 : 3 I 1 0 C D 0 0 C 0 c a C O 0 0

C L i

c n

e 1

I

1

I

r 1 r 4 4 . I R I a . , 0

, I R I 4 -I 0

E .

. 1 R / . I -I 0

E .

a )

E .

C )

T 'i g C . r 4 1 . 7 . 0

C 4 1 . 1 0 .0 0 0 0 1 4 C I 4 ' " 0 • T 1 0 0 1 4 / 4 C . 0 0 7 4 , 0 4 1 1 1 . 0 0 4 1 a 4 4 , . 1 C C O 4 , a n 0 : 1 0 U 3 4 C on " C .0 C 0 r i 0 C D • , 1 i 4 0 2 . 0 / 4 1 4 I . c o H 7 4 , 0 .7 . 0 V I.0

4 , 0 0 0 " I 0 1 4 4 , 0

. 2 U 0 . 0 C 4 1 1 1 Z . 0

C 0 4 1 4 -, C O C . ) C 1 . , 0 . 0 / 4

C l . 1 4 0 1 4 4 4 0 C D . 0 1 4 0 C D 4 r 4 4 I

' 7 C I J . I C O C 0 3

n o,

r i 1 4

p i'

0

i .

C D 1 4

o = c . 3

4 90

1 4 0

I n .

C . . 1 4 4 1 c o s . U r I 0 0 . 1 1 7 . 0 .0 E E

. 2

c a 0 0 c a

c a

.7

0 > 1 4 7 0

. 0 4 , . 1 X

r n

0 ) > 4 1

a

. 2

K

C D O. 1 4 4 1 . 0 r 1 . 0 C O 0

E nd S crapers

D etailed l ist o f t ools f rom ' Ain R ahub

I

I

a ; i

_ y . 2 i e 0 0 u t i l 0 0 J O C A . 4 0 0 " 7 1 4 C . 1 0 4 , 0 : 1 0 . 2 . 0 r I I 1 C . ) 0 0 0 Q . 0 r 4 U . C3 C a 0 ' V C • 4 / 4 C D 0 4 1 i . . 2 3 0 4 1 U 1 J 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 4, 4 , 4 , 4 1 . I T . . 1 1 X X r ' d X 4 1 C O V ) 0 C O 0 0 c i 0 > U 4 -I 0 1 1 C D I . 0 C 9 1 C O , 1

a . C ) . c L .

. I c r l 4 -I

0 E .

( W

in r-1

G eometric M icroliths

U 7 0 4 0 4

.7 1

7

C O ( . 1 0 / 4

.0

1 CN

I

r s ! c s i

c ,

r 1 r.

0 1 . 1 0

0 ) 4 0 : 1 0 0 C 4 C. 0 .0 -, 4 4 .i. 1 .0 0 44 40 .0 0 0 1 J 1 . 1. 4 = e l 0 0 3 c J 0 4 I ( 0 N 00 C I ) 4 ) U 0 0 0 4 1 -1 r < E 04 0 0 0 0. GO C o C C c C 1 . 4 C . 1 4 4 4 4 ) 4 4

0 1 00 R ) 1 -4 U C D 4

4 . 4

c 4

c s )

• 1

1 v.

CV

e4

el

00 e 1

1

r 1

rr 1

. •

4 »

el el

r ` • CV

1 4

I

In

I

r s i

I

1 s .0

0 , ui

• • 0 .

C i )

N on-Geometric M icroliths

e cial T ools

.

.Z 4 -, . 1 3 a 4 -, 0 ) I.0 0 U .0 , 0 0 0 . 4 . -M C I ) 4 . 10 0 0 1 ) 0 G 4 4 4 1 . 4 0 0.

.7 4 . 1 . 3 4 0 4 I 0 . 10 C O . .0 4 1 C 0 r 4 .0

.0 .0 4 -1 U r l 0 3 0 .0 4 4 4 0 4 ) . 1 .0 .2 1 4 44 X . 1 . 4 U 0 . 1 1 0 0 -a • 1 -, .0 3 . .c .0 0 0 0 c . ) t / .0 . 4 ) 1 .0 , . i 7 1 . 1 0 ( . 1 .0 4 4 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 .0 4, r 1 J . 4 1 0 4 1 > “ 11 0 0 0 ( 1 . ) 0 4 3 .7 0 4 , ) I . . .7 4 C 0 0 .0 a 4 a ) .7 1 . 1 . 4 . i 4 ) 0 0 0 -0 z.. n n. 0 4 1 > 0 0 a l 0 0 0 0 S . E 0 4, 1 4 1 1 4 4 ,4 "0 0 c .o. , ' 0 . a 0 .a 4. 4 ( C U 4 6 44 . 0 0 0 . 4 0 .1 .7 ) 4 4 O. .0

4 91

"2 U a .0 .0 1 1 . > 4 a ) 4 4 0 -a 0 . .0

-C -5 U 0 0 . 0 0 U 0 4 ) 4 / 0 : 1 41 . e l 0 .0 0 3 4 4 .0 C O 4 . . . 4 1 4 . 0 04 . 0 ,0 a 3 0 ( C .0 4 4 s . . 4 4 U .m 4 .0 .7 0 0 0 0 0 . 44 1 -, › . 4 C . ) >, 0 0 .0 .0 .7 4 a c n .7 . i -7 4 4 0 -, . c . ) a a. > > 0 0 1 . 4 4 4 ( 0 1 . 0 L . 0 co. a U 0 U 0 0 4 -5 1 . 44

•

4

0 4 1 4 . 1 a W C 4 I . 0 6 ) > 4 0. --I 4 . , 4 0

0 10 C , .a

4

.7 .0 . 4 . 4 4 . 4 . . 4 1 3 3 r n 4 c u . 0 •e l 0 ‚ -4 . 3 : 1

c n a ) 0 . 0 -a 0 ) I M

0 4 0 . I 0 0 ) .7 0 4 0 11 r < 4 .0 0 > -0 C C ) s . . 4 . , 00 0 3 0 u 4 0 U 0 -H 4 E .,

0 0 .0 0 .0 . "7 4 .-4 4 6 ) .H 1 1 " I 4 3 0 3 0 U U 0 ) 0 0 0 4 . 4 0 4 -1 7 0 4 0 4 . 4 ,4 4 4 . 4 4 . 41 0 4 . ) -1 0 0 -7 -7 C O 4 0 0 . 4 p a 41 0 .0 0 . .0 I 4 .0 .7 0 -7 a ) 0 1 -1 0 .2 . . )C . ) .2 0 t . / P a 4 . 4 C O 1 7 0 .0 .. .7

0

4 . 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 CO C. C .0 ” ) f a 0 E = 1 4 4 U 0 0 0 14 0 0 4 . , C 4 4 0 0 0 C .0 4 0 .1 0 00 . 4 ., c o U ) .7 7 1 1 C D 0 0 0 0 4 . .0 0 0 0 4 -1 4 U .7 0 4 0 7 1. 40 . 1 .7

) I c l ) .0 1 C 1 : 1 4 4 .7 " C I 0 .a U 0 0 4 . 4 0 4 0 .. . 1 4 I 0 4 4 4 1 . . C O 7 . .

C I ) 4 c i . 0 0 1 1 0 .0 4 I 0 4 . 4

1 . 4 C 0 0 0 4

T otal 10

4 . 1 4 ,1

5 04

1 ,0

G rand T otal

1

0 - 0'

T otal 1 38

I CV sO 0) el CV

t he t runcated b lade w ith o blique a brupt r etouch . N otches o ccur i n r elatively h igh p roportions . T he r etouched n otches a re f ashioned b y e ither d irect-abrupt o r s emi-abrupt m ethods a nd a ccount f or h alf o f t he n otched p ieces. E dges w ith m ultiple n otches o ccur o n b lades a nd b ladelets b ut t hey a re l ess f requent t han t he f ormer. I n t he c lass o f d enticulated p ieces , u nilateral d enticulations p redominate b ut t here a re a f ew t ools w ith d eep d enticulations o n b oth e dges. T he r etouched p ieces a re m ostly m ade o n b lade b lanks a nd m ostly s how s emi-abrupt o r f lat r etouching o n d orsal e dges, o r u nilateral i nverse r etouching . P ointed p ieces ( lame a ique a r etouch a brupte) w ere p repared b y a brupt r etouch . M icroliths o ccur i n h igh p roportions a nd i nclude a l arge n umber o f b roken b acked b ladelets . T here a re a lso m icro-points a nd o bliquely t runcated b ladelets. T he s izes o f t he c omplete m icroliths r ange b etween 4 8 a nd 1 2mm i n l ength a nd 6 a nd 9 mm i n w idth . A bout 7 0% o f t he r etouch i s a brupt a nd 2 4% f ine t o s emi-abrupt. T he r est i s e ither i nverse o r a lternate . G eometric m icroliths c omprise 3 2.5% o f t he t ool k it . A mongst t hese, l unates w ere f ound i n l arge n umbers a nd t hey w ere r etouched b y a brupt a nd b ipolar t echniques . N o H elwan r etouch w as n oted. T heir s ize v aries b etween 3 0 a nd 1 5.5mm i n l ength a nd 4 a nd 7 mm i n w idth . T riangles a re t he s econd m ost c ommon t ool i n t his c lass a nd a re c haracterized b y a brupt r etouch . T rapezes a nd r ectangles a re i nfrequent. A mongst t he m iscellaneous c ategory o f t ools , t wo p ointed ( sickle) b lades w ith a brupt r etouch a long o ne e dge a nd w ith l ustre o n t he c utting s urface w ere f ound. T he l ithic i ndustry f rom ' Ain R ahub r epresents t he f irst e xample o f a f inal N atufian a ssemblage f rom J ordan ( Bar-Yosef a nd V alla 1 979 ; S chyle 1 986). D uring t he l ast t hirty y ears m any N atufian s ites h ave b een f ound i n t he v arious e nvironmental z ones o f J ordan . T he i ndustry f rom B eidha i n t he s outh i s r egarded a s E arly N atufian ( Valla 1 984). T his e arly p hase w as a lso f ound a t W adi J udayid s ite J 2 w here i t w as d ated t o c a . 1 0-11,000 b .c. ( Henry 1 985) a nd a t W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Edwards 1 984). O ther N atufian s ites h ave b een f ound i n t he B lack D esert o f e astern J ordan ( Betts 1 982), i n W adi H asa ( Byrd a nd R ollefson 1 984), A zraq 1 8 ( Garrard 1 987) a nd a t S abra 1 a nd S unkh ( Gebel a nd S tarck 1 985 ; S chyle , t his v olume; G ebel, t his v olume). N one o f t he m aterial f rom t he a bove m entioned s ites i s d irectly c omparable w ith t he a ssemblage f rom ' Ain R ahub . F or c omparability o ne n eeds t o l ook a t T aibe ( Cauvin M .-C . 1 974), a nd t he b asal l evel o f M ureybat ( Cauvin J . 1 977) i n S yria a nd t o W adi F azael I V ( Goring-Morris 1 980 ; V alla 1 984), A in M allaha I B , N ahel O ren V ( Valla 1 984) a nd H atoula ( Lechevallier n .d.; L echevallier a nd R onen 1 985) i n P alestine . O nly t wo o f t hese s ites h ave p roduced C 14 d ates: N ahel O ren V ( Valla 1 984) a nd M ureybat I A ( Cauvin J . 1 977) h ave b oth p roduced d ates o f c . 8 ,000 b .c. T he f inal N atufian i ndustry a t t hese s ites i s d ominated b y h igh p roportions o f l unates w ith b ipolar o r a brupt r etouch a nd t hese

4 92

a re o f r educed s ize. O ther f eatures i nclude a n i ncrease i n t he g eom etric m icrolithic c omponent o f t he t ools, a nd h igh p roportions o f m icroburins, a s w ere f ound a t W adi F azael I V ( Goring M orris 1 980).

7 .

R emarks o n t he s tratigraphy a nd Y armoukian U nit" ( Figure 8 -10) 3

f indings f rom t he " Test

T he s lope s ounding w as c arried o ut i n o rder t o c larify t he n ature o f t he s lope s edments a nd t heir s tratigraphy. I t r eached a d epth o f 3 .3m b elow t he p resent-day s urface. U nderneath a s eries o f l ayers w ith a t hickness o f 8 0 - 1 00cm c ontaining p ottery f rom h istorical p eriods, t wo t hick l ayers c onsisting a lmost e ntirely o f l imestone r ubble w ere r eached. T hese t wo l ayers h ave a v arying t hickness o f 1- 1 .5m a nd a re p artly s eparated b y a l ens o r l ayer o f m ud b rick d ebris. W ithin t his r ubble m ost o f t he Y armoukian p ottery, f lint a rtefacts, g round s tone t ools, a nimal b ones, c harred b otanical r emains, e tc. w ere f ound. U nderneath t he l imestone r ubble a s uccession o f t hin h orizontal l ayers f ollow w ith d ecreasing q uantities o f f lint a rtefacts. T he e vidence o f t he m ud b rick f ragments i ndicates t hat t hese l ayers m aybe r elated t o t he Y armoukian. H owever, c . l m u nderneath t he b ase o f t he l imestone r ubble l ayer t he f irst c oncentrations o f N atufian a rtefacts a ppeared. F or a s hort d escription o f t he Y armoukian p ottery w e q uote t he s ummary o f Z . K afafi ( Kafafi n .d.): T he a ssemblage i s d ominated b y f ragments o f c ups a nd b owls. T here w ere a lso t wo d ifferent f orms o f j ars . A f ew w ere n ecked a nd a s maller n umber w ere e ither d ark-faced o r r ed-faced b urnished. T here w ere a lso h ole-mouth j ars. K nob, l ug a nd l oop h andles w ere u sed. T he b ases w ere o f d isc a nd f lattened t ype. D ifferent k inds o f s urface t reatments h ave b een f ound. S ome h ad r ed s lip w ith r ed p ainting a pplied o n t op. O thers w ere w et s moothed o r b urnished. M otifs w hich a re a ssignable t o t he Y armoukian i nclude i ncised c hevrons. S ome w ere b oth r ed p ainted a nd i ncised. A f ew s herds w ere d ecorated b y n otches. T he w ares d iffer f rom t hin t o t hick a nd f rom f ine t o c oarse. S traw , l imestone a nd b asalt c hips w ere u sed a s t emper. T he v essels w ere e ither b adly o r u nevenly f ired w ith t he c ores v isible. P arallels t o t his a ssemblage h ave b een f ound a t ' Ain G hazal a nd A bu T hawwab ( Kafafi 1 985) i n J ordan, a l-Qahwaneh ( Sha 'ar h aG olan) ( Stekelis 1 950-51; S tekelis 1 972) a nd M unhatta i n P alestine. H erring-bone d esigns w ere r ecognized a t B yblos i n L ebanon. N oteworthy w ere t he s herds w ith b asketry i mpressions o n t heir o uter f aces , w hich a lso o ccur r oughly s moothed ( e.g. K afafi n .d.: p iece N o. 7 9). A m ore d etailed s tudy i s r equired o f t he e vidence o f m oulding v essels i n b askets. T he Y armoukian f lint i ndustry i s f lake d ominated w ith o nly a f ew b lades . T he r aw m aterial u sed i s c ompletely d ifferent f rom t hat i n t he N atufian l ayers. I rregular a nd s ingle p latform f lake c ores p redominate. T he f laking a ngles r ange b etween 9 0 a nd 1 25 ° , c lustering a round 1 10 ° . P latform p reparation i s r are, a nd i n m any c ases t he f lakes w ere r emoved d irectly f rom t he c ortex c overed s urface o f t he p ebble. E xcept f or t he p ieces i llustrated i n F igure 9 .6-8, n o s tandardized i mplements w ere f ound i n t he s ample. N eatly r etouched e dges d o o ccasionally o ccur ( Figures 8 a nd 9 ) b ut t he m ajority o f r etouched f lakes a nd b lades h ave r andomly d istributed r etouching a long

4 93

2

•

3

0

t

2

3

4

5 4C m

5

4

6

F igure 8

Y armoukian c hipped s tone a rtefacts f rom t he " Test U nit": F lake / b lade c ores w ith o ne s triking p latform , 3 n otched f lake, 4 s craper o n f lake, 5 -6 r etouched b lades.

4 94

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1

4 3

7 6

i

3

4

8

cm 5

. n

5

F igure 9 Y armoukian c hipped s tone a rtefacts f rom t he " Test U nit": 1 -4 v arious r etouched b lades, 6 -7 f ragments o f p rojectile p oints ( ?), 8 d enticulated s ickle b lade.

4 95

1

2

4

3

5

0 I 2 Wa d

3 4

5

Im m f

I 0 CM

F igure 1 0 Y armoukian g round s tone t ools : 1 -2 f ragments o f g rinding s labs, 3 , 5m anos, 4 p erforated s pherical l imestone ( ?).

4 96

t he e dge . T he g round s tone i mplements w ere a lmost e xclusively m ade b asalt a nd s eem t o b e o f s tandardized s hape ( e.g . F igure 1 0).

8 .

f rom

N ote o n t he Y armoukian p lant r emains

T he p lant r emains o f ' Ain R ahub w ere o btained b y u sing t he w ater f lotation m ethod. H owever o nly s amples d erived f rom t he Y armoukian l ayers o f t he T est U nit c ontained c harred b otanical r emains. N either t he N atufian l ayers o f t he m ain e xcavation n or t he c ontemporary l evels i n t he T est U nit p roduced i dentifiable b otanical r emains . T he m ain c ereal c rops w ere e mmer w heat ( Triticum d icoccum) a nd t wo-rowed h ulled b arley ( Hordeum d istichum). I n t he c ase o f e mmer w heat n ot o nly g rains w ere p resent, b ut a lso a l arge q uantity o f g lume b ases a nd s pikelet f orks. T hese a re m ainly t he p roduct o f p ounding t he h ulled w heat d uring c rop p rocessing. O nly o ne g rain o f e inkorn w heat ( Triticum m onococcum) h as b een r ecovered. I ts s carcity h ere i s r eflected a t an umber o f o ther J ordanian s ites , a nd i t s eems t hat i t d id n ot p lay a n i mportant r ole a s a c ereal c rop i n t he r egion. F rom t heir s ize, a ll t he l inseeds a ppear t o b elong t o d omesticated f lax ( Linum u sitatissimum). I t w as p robably c ultivated f or i ts f ibres o r f or t he o il c ontent o f i ts s eeds. A ll t he w ood i n t he s amples b elongs t o t he d eciduous o ak s pecies, Q uercus i thaburensis . A f ew v ery o ld o aks o f t his s pecies s till e xist i n t he a rea t o t he e ast o f I rbid, a nd t hey m ay o nce h ave f ormed p art o f a w oodland c ommunity w ith P istacia a tlantica . A ny f ormer f orest h as n ow b een r eplaced b y ( over)grazed a nd c ultivated l and. M edick ( Medicago s p.), c lover ( Trifolium s p.), m ilk v etch ( Astralagus s p.), m allow ( Malva s p.), a nd r ye g rass ( Lolium s p .) m ay h ave g rown i n o r o utside t he f ields. T he t histly s pecies o f C entaurea a nd C arthamus a re o ften d ominants i n t he f ield f lora a fter h arvesting. N one o f t he w ild p lants f ound i n t he Y armoukian l ayers c ould b e i dentified t o s pecies l evel. T his o f c ourse l imits t heir i nterpretive p otential.

9 .

C onclusions

S ince o ur f irst n ote i n P aleorient 1.1 ( Gebel a nd M uheisen 1 985) w e h ave b ecome m ore c onfident, t hrough t he s tudy o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry, t hat t he e arlier o ccupation a t t he s ite i s o f L ate/Final N atufian d ate . B ut a s ' Ain R ahub i s t he o nly N atufian s ettlement i n t he n orthern H ighlands o f J ordan a nd w e c annot c ompare i ts i ndustry w ith o ther l ocal, t echno-typically d escribed i nventories , w e h esitate t o m ake f urther s tatements o n i ts r elative-chronological p osition. T he r ather l imited e xposure o f Y armoukian m aterial d oes n ot a llow c onclusions t o b e d rawn c oncerning s ettlement h istory. O nly f urther e xcavations a t ' Ain R ahub c ombined w ith a g eomorphologically c ontrolled s urvey o f t he p rehistory o f t he a rea c an h elp i n s olving t he q uestions

4 97

a rising f rom t he d iscoveries a t

' Ain R ahub.

A r adiocarbon d ate o f 7 480 ± 9 0 B .P . ( GrN-14539) h as b een o btained f or Q uercus c harcoal f rom t he Y armoukian l evels. ( W .G . M ook , C entrum v oor I sotopen O nderzoek, G roningen, R . N eef, p ersonal c ommunication).

N otes 1 .

W e w ould l ike t o e xpress o ur s incere t hanks t o A dnan H adidi, D irector-General o f t he D epartment f or h is s upport. W e a re g reatly i ndebted t o t he P roject's D irectors, S iegfried M ittmann a nd M oawiyah I brahim , f or i ncluding p rehistoric r esearch i n t he P rojects' p rogramme. T heir e ffective a nd g enerous s upport a nd t he f acilities o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology ( IAA) i n I rbid a llowed u s t o u ndertake t hree c oncentrated w eeks f ieldw ork , w hich l ed t o a n i nitial u nderstanding o f t he f eatures a nd q uestions p osed b y t he F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian o ccupations, a nd e nabled u s t o d esign a f ormat f or f uture f ieldwork . T he s ite w as f ound d uring v isits t o t he a rea i n 1 983 b y S . M ittmann a nd Z . K afafi. I n a utumn 1 984 a s hort s urface r econnaissance w as c arried o ut b y H .G . G ebel. D uring a l ater v isit w ith M . M uheisen i ssues o f e xcavations a t t he e ndangered s ite w ere d iscussed. M . I brahim a nd S . M ittmann a pproved o ur p roposal o f c arrying o ut a n i nitial e xcavation i n s ummer 1 985 i n t he f ramework o f t heir J oint P rojects. R einder N eef f rom t he B iologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut o f G roningen U niversiteit w orked a s p alaeoethnobotanist a t t he s ite a nd a lso s upervised t he d eep s ounding ( "Test U nit"). V olunteer s taff i ncluded a g roup o f A merican e xchange s tudents a nd e nthusiastic s tudents f rom Y armouk U niversity w ho i ncluded M undir D ehesh , W ajih K arasneh , J um 'a K reyem , D aif A llah O beidat , A li Z eyadeh a nd I brahim Z o 'bi. T heir e fforts w ere e ssential t o t he s uccess o f t he c ampaign. L ast b ut n ot l east w e t hank A ndreas N euber, I rmgard R aidt, A nabeth R oellig a nd G erald S perling f or d rawings o f t he a rtefacts a nd C arl A ndrews ( IAA) f or u ndertaking t he p hotography. W e a re i ndebted t o A ndrew G arrard, B ritish I nstitute a t A mman f or t he A rchaeology a nd H istory o f J ordan f or e diting t his a rticle. C hristian H annss ( Tuebingen U niversity) m ade t he a nalysis o f ' Ain R abub 's g eomorphological s etting, Z eidan K afafi k indly a ccepted o ur o ffer t o w ork o n t he Y armoukian p ottery a nd R einder N eef a greed t o s tudy t he c arbonized s eeds a nd t he p ollen s amples f rom t he T est U nit. ( M .M ., H .G.G .)

4 98

2 .

T he d etailed a nalysis o f t he a nimal b ones h as n ot b een s tarted b ut t he 1 984 c ollection f rom t he b ulldozed N atufian l ayers r evealed w ild c attle, g azelle, a n e quid, w ild s heep/goat, d eer, f ox , s mall r odent a nd b ird b ones ( analysis d one b y W . S oeffner , I nstitute f uer U rgeschichte, U niversity o f T uebingen).

3 .

T he f ollowing M uheisen n .d.

m aterial w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail i n

4 99

G ebel

a nd

B ibliography B ar-Yosef O . a nd V alla F .R . n ouvelles s uggestions. B ender F .

( 1968).

( 1979). L 'evolution d u N atoufien , P aleorient 5 : 1 45-151.

G eologie v on J ordanien .

B ender F . ( 1968). G eological m ap o f J ordan , B erlin , B orntraeger. B etts A .V .G . J ordan .

B erlin , B orntraeger. S heet A mman .

1 :

2 50 ,000 .

( 1982). AN atufian s ite i n t he B lack D esert, e astern P aleorient 8 .2: 7 9-82.

B yrd B .F . a nd R ollefson G .O . ( 1984). N atufian o ccupation i n t he W adi e l-Hasa , s outhern J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8: 1 43-150 .

C auvin J . ( 1977). L es f ouilles d e M ureybet ( 1971-74) e t l eur s ignification p our l es o rigines d e l a s edentarisation a u P rocheO rient. A nnual o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 4 4: 1 9-48 . C auvin M .C . ( 1974). L 'industrie n atoufienne d e T aibe d ans l e H auran , S yrie . B ulletin d e l a S ociete P rehistorique F ran aise 7 1 ( Etudes e t T ravaux 2 ): 4 69-478 .

E dwards P .C. ( 1984). T wo E pipalaeolithic s ites i n t he W adi H ammeh . I n M cNicoll A ., B all W ., B asset S ., E dwards P .C ., M ucumber P ., P etocz D ., P otts T ., R andle L ., V illiers L . a nd W atson P .: P reliminary r eport o n t he U niversity o f S ydney 's f ifth s eason o f e xcavation a t P ella i n J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8: 5 5-86.

G arrard A .N ., B etts A ., B yrd B . a nd H unt C . ( 1987). P rehistoric e nvironment a nd s ettlement i n t he A zraq B asin . A n i nterim r eport o n t he 1 984 e xcavation s eason. L evant 1 9 : f orthcoming. G ebel H .G . ( 1984). D as A keramische N eolithikum V orderasiens. S ubsistenzformen u nd S iedlungsweisen . T abellarische M aterial-und B efundpraesentation z u F undorten d es P rotoneolithikums u nd d es A keramischen N eolithikums . B eihefte z um T uebinger A tlas d es V orderen O rients B 5 2. W iesbaden , L udwig R eichert. G ebel H .G . a nd M uheisen M . ( 1985). N ote o n ' Ain R ahub, a n ew L ate N atufian s ite n ear I rbid , J ordan . P aleorient 1.1: 1 07-111. G ebel H .G. a nd M uheisen M . ( 1986). ' Ain R ahub. O rientforschung 3 3 : f orthcoming .

5 00

A rchiv f ür

G ebel H .G . a nd S tarck J .M . ( 1985). I nvestigations i nto t he s tone a ge o f t he P etra a rea ( Early H olocene r esearch). A . P reliminary r eport o n t he 1 984 c ampaigns. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9: 8 9-114 . G ebel H .G ., M uheisen M . w ith a c ontribution b y K afafi Z . ( n .d.). T he F inal N atufian a nd Y armoukian s ite o f ' Ain R ahub. A p reliminary r eport o n t he 1 985 c ampaign . U npublished m anuscript. G oring-Morris A .N . ( 1980). L ate Q uaternary s ites i n W adi F azael, l ower J ordan V alley . J erusalem , H ebrew U niversity: U npublished M .A . T hesis.

H enry D .O ., H assan F .A ., J ones M . a nd H enry K .C . ( 1981). A n i nvestigat ion o f t he p rehistory a nd p alaeoenvironments o f s outhern J ordan ( 1979 f ield s eason). A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 5: 13-146 . H enry D .O . a nd T urnbull P .F . ( 1985). A rchaeological a nd f aunal e vidence f rom N atufian a nd T imnian s ites i n s outhern J ordan. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 57: 4 5-64 . H ours F . ( 1974). R emarque s ur l 'utilisation d e l istes-types p our l 'etude d u p aleolithique s uperieur e t d e l 'epipaleolithique d u L evant . P aleorient 2 .1: 3 -18.

I GN-78-JOR-15/100 ( 1978). A erial P hotographs I GN-78-JOR-15/100 , N os. 4 135-4137, 4 169-4171. P aris , I nstitut G eographique N ational.

J ordan 1 :50 ,000 ( n.d.). J ordan 1 :50 ,000 , S eries K 737, S heet 3 155 I I. P repared f or t he M inistry o f E conomy a nd t he U nited S tates A gency f or I nternational D evelopment t o J ordan . D ata f urnished b y t he J ordan D epartment o f L ands a nd S urveys , A mman .

K afafi Z . ( 1985). F irst s eason o f e xcavation a t J ebel A bu T uwwab ( erR umman) 1 984 . P reliminary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 9: 3 1-42. K afafi Z . ( n.d.). L ate N eolithic p ottery f rom ' Ain R ahub , J ordan . U npublished m anuscript 1 986. K irkbride D . ( 1966). F ive s easons a t t he P re-Pottery N eolithic v illage o f B eidha i n J ordan . P alestine E xploration Q uarterly 9 8 : 8 -72.

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L echevallier M . ( n.d.). L 'occupation p ost-natoufienne d e H atoula , e n J ud e o ccidentale e t s a p lace d ans l e c adre r egional. U npublished m anuscript 1 987. L echevallier M . a nd R onen A . ( 1985). L e s ite N atufien-Khiamien d e H atoula, p res d e L atroun . F ouilles 1 980-82. R apport p reliminaire . C ahiers d u C entre d e R echerches F ran ais d e J erusalem 1 . J erusalem , C entre d e R echerches F ran ais d e J erusalem . L eroi-Gourhan A . ( 1981). L e L evant ä l a d u P leistocene e t äl 'Holocene d 'apres l a p alynologie. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant : 1 07-110 . P aris , E ditions d u C .N .R.S.

M uheisen M . ( 1983). L a p rehistoire e n J ordanie. R echerches s ur l 'epipaleolithique . L 'exemple d u g isement d e K haraneh I V . B ordeaux , U niversity o f B ordeaux I : U npublished D octoral T hesis, 3 eme c ycle .

N GAJ 1 ( 1984). N ational G eographic A tlas o f J ordan 1 . C limate a nd A groclimatology. A mman , J ordan N ational G eographic C entre ( Royal J ordanian G eographic C entre).

S chyle D . ( 1986). L evant. E pipalaeolithic a nd P rotoneolithic. T uebingen A tlas o f t he M iddle E ast. M ap B I9. W iesbaden , L udwig R eichert. S tekelis M . ( 1950-51). AN eolithic i ndustry. T he Y armoukian o f P alestine. I srael E xploration J ournal 1 : 7 -27. S tekelis M . ( 1972). T he Y armoukian C ulture o f t he N eolithic P eriod. J erusalem , M agness P ress.

T roll C . a nd P faffen K . ( 1964). E rde. E rdkunde 5 8: 5 -28.

K arte d er J ahreszeite-Klimate d er

v an Z eist W . a nd B ottema S . ( 1982). V egetational h istory o f t he e astern M editerranean a nd t he N ear E ast d uring t he l ast 2 0,000 y ears. I n J .L . B intcliff a nd W . v an Z eist ( eds.) P alaeoclimates , P alaeoenvironments a nd H uman C ommunities i n t he M editerranean R egion i n L ater P rehistory . B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 1 33: 2 77-321. O xford , B .A .R .

5 02

AS urvey o f P rehistoric s ites i n t he J ordan V alley ( 1985) M ujahed M uheisen

1 .

I ntroduction

P revious s urveys a nd e xcavations c onducted i n t he e astern J ordan V alley h ave r evealed s ites o f a ll m ajor p eriods f rom t he L ower P alaeol ithic t o t he p resent. E vidence f or L ower P alaeolithic o ccupation w as p rovided b y t he p ebble t ools f ound i n t he A bu H abil F ormation ( Huckriede 1 966) a nd t he a rtefacts f rom t he A bu e l-Khas s ounding i n t he P ella a rea ( Villiers 1 983). F urther e vidence c omes f rom t he A cheulian t ools f ound i n t he N aharayim F ormation i n t he a rea b etween W adi K ufringah a nd W adi Y abis ( Bender 1 974), a nd f rom t he p alaeoanthropological a nd p alaeontological s urvey c onducted b y J ohanson e t a l. ( 1984) i n c onjunction w ith t he J ordanian D epartment o f A ntiquities. B y c ontrast, t he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic i s p oorly d ocumented . T he o nly r eported s ites a re t hose f ound i n t he W adi H ammeh b y t he U niversity o f S ydney t eam ( McNicoll e t a l., 1 984, E dwards e t a l. t his v olume). T he E pipalaeolithic p eriod i s s lightly b etter k nown . T he U niversity o f S ydney t eam h ave s urveyed a nd s ounded s everal s ites o f t his t ime p eriod i n t he W adi H ammeh, i ncluding W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Kebaran) a nd 2 7 ( Early N atufian). W aechter ( 1948) a lso d escribed a n E pipalaeol ithic s helter o ccupation a t A la S afat n ear S uweimeh . T he N eolithic a nd C halcolithic i s t he b est k nown t ime p eriod i n t he v alley, b ut t his i s ar eflection o f s urvey i nterests . T he e arly r econnaissance o f A lbright ( 1926), G lueck ( 1951) a nd d e C ontenson ( 1960) r evealed m any s uch s ites. F urther s ites w ere d iscovered b y t he 1 975-76 J ordan V alley S urvey c onducted b y I brahim , S auer a nd Y assine ( Ibrahim e t a l. 1 976). T he l atter f ound t hat N eolithic s ites w ere c oncentrated a long t he l ower t erraces o f t he m ajor a nd t ributary w adis o f t he J ordan V alley. A lthough t he m ain p urpose o f t he 1 975-76 s urvey w as t o r ecord N eolithic a nd l ater s ites, e vidence f or t he P alaeolithic w as n oted i n m any o f t he c aves a long t he e astern f oothills o f t he J ordan V alley. C onsequently i n 1 985 t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology a t Y armouk U niversity u ndertook a m ore d etailed e xamination o f t hese c aves a nd s helters a s w ell a s o f f luvial a nd l acustrine d eposits a long t he V alley s ides.

5 03

2 .

S urvey A ims

T he p rincipal a im w as t o v isit t he c aves a nd s helters b etween t he W adi K ufrein a nd W adi J irm i n t he e astern f oothills o f t he J ordan V alley, a nd t o e xamine Q uaternary r iver a nd l ake d eposits i n t his a rea . S urface c ollections w ere m ade o f a ny a rtefacts f ound a nd a ll s ites w ere r ecorded a nd p hotographed, a nd l ocated o n s urvey m aps. T he m aps u sed w ere t he J ordan V alley P roject 1 :10 ,000 c ontour m aps ( 1952, 1 965) a nd t he g eological m aps o f t he r egion. T he s urvey w as c onducted b y M ujahed M uheisen , N abil Q adi, F ayez T arawneh a nd J uma K arim b etween 1 5 J anuary a nd 2 F ebruary 1 985. A lthough t he s urvey w as l imited t o s urface c ollecting, i t i s h oped t hat s oundings/excavations c an b e m ade a t s ome o f t hese s ites i n t he f uture.

3 .

R esults

1 68 c aves a nd s helters w ere v isited i n t he s urvey r egion b ut m any o f t hese h ad b een e mptied o f s oil i n h istoric p eriods o r a ffected b y n atural e rosion . T he f ew e xceptions w ere t he c aves i n D harar v illage, a t A bu ' Aluba a nd K ureiymah S outh . A rtefacts w ere h owever f ound o uts ide m any o f t he c aves a nd s helters i ndicating t heir p ossible e arlier u se. 5 2 s ites w ere r ecorded b y t he s urvey ( 92% f or t he f irst t ime) r anging i n d ate f rom L ower P alaeolithic t o R ecent ( see F igures 1 -3 a nd a ppendix).

4 .

L ower P alaeolithic

A s ingle L ower P alaeolithic s ite w as r ecorded t o t he e ast o f A bu H abil v illage a t a n e levation o f 150/200m ( Site 4 4 , P late 1 ). T his i s a n o pen a ir s ite e xtending c . 8 00m N .-S. w ith f lint m aterial c oming f rom a 1 6m v ertical s pread o f Q uaternary d eposits. I t i s p resently u ncertain w hether t his i s t he s ite d escribed b y H uckriede ( 1966). A rtefacts w ere c ollected i n s ystematic f ashion f rom t wo l evels. T he o ldest m aterial c ame f rom a c onglomerate ( Plate 2 ) w hich i s p art o f t he A bu H abil F ormation w hich i s r egarded a s d ating t o b etween 0 .6 a nd 1 .8 m illion y ears . I ts e xact r elationship w ith t he U beidiya F ormation i s u nknown ( Bender 1 974 , A bed 1 985). T he a rtefacts w ere p atinated a y ellow-brown c olour a nd c omprised t he f ollowing ( see F igure 4 ).

5 04

1 00 3

2 1 : 40

3 080

MO M oti fs

F igure 1 S ites l ocated i n s urvey o f S outh J ordan V alley.

5 05

1 0 0 0

S O

0

2 0 0 0

2 000

3 0 3 0

4 00 0 M eters

F igure 2 S ites l ocated i n s urvey o f c entral J ordan V alley.

5 06

KO

9 0 0

0

VA

1 , 1 0

Y IN

4 18 N M,

F igure 3 S ites l ocated i n s urvey o f N orth J ordan V alley.

5 07

A )

T ools : B ifaces C hipping T ools S ide s crapers P ick a nd p iercers S pheroid N otched a nd d enticulated p ieces R etouched f lakes

B ) 5 2 3 3

D ebitage: F lakes B lades C ores

2

5 2 1

8

1

1 7

T he b ifaces a re i rregular i n s hape a nd m ade b y h ard h ammer t echnique . O ther t ools i nclude a t rihedral p ick , a s pheroid, s ide s crapers, c hopping t ools , p iercers , n otched a nd d enticulated p ieces. T he s econd a ssemblage f rom t his s ite w as c ollected f rom a c alcreted s ilt o verlying t he c onglomerate . U nfortunately t his u pper l evel h as b een d isturbed b y m odern a gricultural a ctivities a nd t he d igging o f m ilitary t renches. S everal c hipped s tone i mplements w ere c ollected f rom t he s ection o f o ne o f t hese t renches. T heir p atina i s l ight-grey t o w hite a nd s ome a re v ery a braded. T he a rtefacts o btained f rom t his l evel w ere a s f ollows ( see F igure 5 ). A )

T ools L evallois P oint S ide S crapers E nd S craper N otches B ifaces C hopping T ools P iercers a nd P ick

B ) 1 5 1 2 4 2 3

D ebitage L evallois c ores I rregular c ores L evallois f lakes F lakes B lades

5 2 6 5 1

1 9 1 8

T he a ssemblage i s d ominated b y c oarsely f laked s ide s crapers , b ifaces, p iercers a nd n otched p ieces . T he f our b ifaces a re o f l anceolate, a mygdaloid a nd i rregular t ype. O ne t rihedral p ick w as a lso i dentified. T he L evallois t echnique i s e vident i n t he f lakes a nd c ores . T his a ssemblage i s t entatively d ated t o t he L ate A cheulian ( cf. H ours 1 981).

5 .

M iddle P alaeolithic

T hree M iddle P alaeolithic s ites w ere i dentified d uring t he s urvey. T wo o f t hese w ere i n c aves/shelters ( es-Suknah a nd M arazzah S outh) a nd t he t hird o n af luvial t errace ( Abu ' Aluba).

5 08

P late I

P late 2

V iew o f A bu H abil l ooking e ast.

C lose u p o f a rtefacts c ontained i n A bu H abil c onglomerate.

5 09

1

3

0

5 c m

F igure 4

A rtefacts f rom A bu H abil ( site 4 4), l ower s eries. 2s craper; 3 -4 b ifaces.

5 10

1c hopper;

1

F igure 5 A rtefacts f rom A bu H abil ( site 4 4), u pper s eries. 2a wl; 3 -4 s ide s crapers; 5 l evallois c ore.

5 11

1 b iface;

E s-Suknah ( Site 1 0) w hich i s ar ock s helter m easuring c . 2 0 x 1 5m i s l ocated c . 1 5m a bove t he b ed o f aw adi o f t he s ame n ame . A lthough p artly e roded t here a re s till s ome g ravel a nd l imestone s ediments i n t he s helter. F our l evallois f lakes a nd o ne s ide-scraper w ere l ocated i n s itu b eneath f allen r ocks ( Figure 6 ). M erazzah S outh ( Site 4 6) w as r ecorded a s a f lintsite b y t he 1 9757 6 s urvey ( Site n o . 6 8 o f I brahim e t a l. 1 976). I t o ccupies a f luvial t errace t o t he w est o f M arazzah v illage a nd l ies a bout 1 0m a bove t he p resent w adi b ed. T he s urface o f t he t errace i s n ow m ostly b ulldozed a nd u sed f or c ultivation , b ut f lint a rtefacts w ere f ound o ver a n a rea o f 5 0 x4 0m . T he a rtefacts f ound w ere a s f ollows ( see F igure 6 ). A )

T ools S ide s crapers E nd s crapers B urin T runcations B acked p ieces P icks N otches D enticulates R etouched p eieces

B ) 9 8 1 7 2 3 7 6 2 0

( 14.3%) ( 12.6%) (1 .6%) ( 11.1%) (3 .2%) (4 .8%) ( 11.1%) (9 .5%) ( 31.9%)

D ebitage C ores B lades F lakes L evallois b lades L evallois f lakes

1 4 6 2 1 1 1 7

( 23.7%) ( 10 .2%) ( 35.5%) (1 .7%) ( 28 .8%)

5 9

( 99 .9%)

6 3 ( 100 .1%)

T he a rtefact a ssemblage f rom t his s ite h as a r elatively h igh L evallois i ndex ( 29%) a nd a h igh i ndex o f f aceting . O ne L evallois b lade w as r ecorded b ut n o L evallois p oints . A mongst t he 1 4 c ores w ere t hree L evallois f lakes c ores, s ix f lake c ores w ith t wo s triking p latforms, o ne f lake c ore w ith o ne s triking p latform a nd f our i rregular f lake c ores. T he t ools w ere c ommonly r etouched a long t he w hole o r p art o f o ne e dge a nd o ften b y f lat o r s hallow a ngled r etouching. I nversely r etouched p ieces a re a lso p resent. T he s ide s crapers a re e ither s traight o r c onvex i n t ype a nd w ere m ade u sing a L evallois f laking t echnique . T wo t ransverse s crapers w ere a lso i dentified . E nd s crapers w ere m ade u sing t hick f lakes a nd b lades o r i rregular s hape. W ithin t he b lade a ssemblage t he t runcations a re u sually c oncave. T he t hird s ite w hich a ppears t o h ave M iddle P alaeolithic l evels i s a t A bu ' Aluba n ear M asharah v illage ( Site 5 ). H ellenistic a nd R oman p ottery w as r ecorded h ere b y t he 1 975-76 s urvey ( Ibrahim e t a l. S ite 1 0). T here a re f ive c aves a nd o ne s helter a t t his l ocation a nd d uring t he 1 985 s urvey b oth l ithic m aterial a nd p ottery w as c ollected. T he l ithics i ncluded s ix L evallois f lakes w ith f aceting, 2 0 n on-Levallois f lakes , o ne b lade a nd t hree L evallois c ores. T ools i ncluded f our s ide s crapers m ade o n L evallois f lakes , t hree n otches a nd t wo d enticulated p ieces ( Figure 7 ).

5 12

\

2

ß

1 0

9

F igure 6

1 -5 a rtefacts f rom E s S uknah ( site 1 0). 2" bec"; 3 b urin ; 4t runcation .

1 , 5 s ide

s crapers;

6 -10 a rtefacts f rom M arrazah S outh ( site 4 6). 6 a wl; l evallois f lake; 8 s ide s craper; 9 e nd s craper; t runcation .

5 13

7 1 0

1 0

7

5

F igure 7

5 cm

1 -5 a rtefacts f rom A bu ' Alubah C ave ( site 5 0). 1 L evallois c ore ( unfinished); 2 l evallois f lake; 3 " bec"; 4 s ide s craper; 5 n otch ; 6e nd s craper; 7 a wl.

5 14

6 .

U pper P alaeolithic

V ery f ew o f t he s urface c ollections c ould b e d efinitely a ssigned t o t he U pper P alaeolithic. T he e xceptions w ere s ites i n t he f luvial t erraces n ear W adi M arazzah a nd W adi A bu ' Aluba . A ll t hree o verlay a c emented g ravel c onglomerate. M arazzah N orth ( Site 4 7) i s s ituated o n af luvial t errace c . 4 m a bove t he p resent w adi b ed a nd c overs a n a rea o f c . 2 00 s q. m . T he a rea h as r ecently b een u sed f or a gricultural p urposes. 1 45 a rtefacts w ere c ollected o f w hich 4 7 w ere t ools ( Figure 8 ). B oth b lade a nd f lake p roduction w as n oted a nd t he m ost c ommon c ores w ere p rismatic t ypes w ith t wo s triking p latforms. A mongst t he t ools, e nd s crapers a nd r etouched p ieces a re d ominant. O thers i nclude a c arinated s craper a nd t hree s ide s crapers. O ne c rested b lade a nd s ome c ore t rimming e lements w ere a lso f ound. M arazzah N orth-East ( Site 4 8) i s a lso s ituated o n a f luvial t errace n ear t he m ain w adi. T he s ite c overs a n a rea o f c . 1 20 s q . m . 1 70 a rtefacts w ere c ollected o f w hich 3 4 w ere t ools ( Figure 8 ). P rismatic c ores w ere f ound a nd e vidence o f b oth b lade a nd f lake p roduction . A mongst t he t ools w ere e nd s crapers , r etouched p ieces a nd n otches . O ne c arinated s craper a nd a f ew t runcated b lades w ere a lso r ecorded. T he s ite a t A bu ' Aluba ( Site 5 1) i s l ocated o n af luvial t errace o n t he n orth s ide o f t he m ain w adi c . 3 m a bove t he p resent w adi b ed. 8 6 t ools w ere c ollected f rom a s urface g ravel, s and a nd s ilt d eposit ( Figure 8 ). A mongst t he s ample , f lakes a re m ore c ommon t han b lades . T ools i nclude 1 3 r etouched p ieces m ainly o n f lakes , f our e nd s crapers , t wo d enticulated p ieces, o ne p ick , o ne p iercer a nd s everal n otched b lades a nd f lakes. T he d ominant t ool t ypes a t a ll t hree o f t hese s ites a re e nd s crapers a nd r etouched b lades a nd f lakes. T his s uggests a n U pper P alaeolithic d ate , b ut t he a bsence o f b urins m akes i t d ifficult t o a ssign t he m aterial t o t he n ormal L evantine A urignacian ( cf. M arks 1 981). U nfortunately e xcavation i s u nlikely t o h elp w ith d ating s ince a ll t hree s ites h ave b een d isturbed b y a gricultural a nd n atural p rocesses.

7 .

E pipalaeolithic

O nly o ne E pipalaeolithic s ite w as d iscovered d uring t he s urvey, t his b eing i n ac ave o f a pproximately 1 00 s q. m a rea a t S honah S outh ( Site 5 ). U nfortunately t he l arge q uantities o f f allen r ock w ould p robably m ake i t u nsuitable f or e xcavation. T he a rtefacts w hich w ere r emoved f rom t he s ediments i ncluded 5 6 t ools . T he i ndustry w as d ominated b y b ladelets w ith p unctiform s triking p latforms. T ools i ncluded b ladelets w ith f ine d irect r etouch a nd a t runcated b acked e xample . O ne e nd s craper o n a f lake w as a lso f ound ( Figure 9 ).

5 15

7

1 0

1

0

5 c m

F igure 8

1 3

1 4

1 -7 a rtefacts f rom M arrazah N orth ( site 4 7). s craper; 3 -4 a wls . 5 -6 r etouched f lakes ; 7n otch .

1 -2

e nd

8 -11 a rtefacts f rom M arrazah N orth E ast ( site 4 8). s crapers; 1 0 n otch ; 1 t runcation.

8 -9

e nd

1 2-15 a rtefacts f rom A bu ' Alubah ( site 5 1). 1 2 s ide s craper; 1 3 e nd s craper; 1 4 a wl; 1 5 d ouble n otched p iece .

5 16

4

2

5

0

5cm

12

13

11

Figure 9

Artifacts from South Shonah (site 5). 1 retouched piece; 4, 7-8, 11 retouched blades; 5, 13 truncated blades; 6, points; 9-12 denticulated pieces.

517

210

8 .

N eolithic a nd C halcolithic

3 0% o f t he p rehistoric s ites i n t he s urvey a rea c ontained m aterial o f N eolithic/Chalcolithic d ate . T he m ajority o f t hese a re o n f luvial t erraces a nd i n d eposits a longside c aves a nd s helters. T he m ost i mpressive s ites a re a t S outh S honah ( Sites 4 , 6 ), T aradi e l H isniat ( Site 1 1), D harar ( Sites 2 0 , 2 2), e l Q arn ( Site 3 7) a nd ' Ain H anidah ( Site 4 2). T he l ithic m aterial i s c haracterised b y b lade a nd f lake t ion . T he m ain t ool t ypes a re s ickle-blades, r etouched p iercers , a dzes a nd f an s crapers.

9 .

p roducf lakes,

H istoric

P ottery, b asalt t ools a nd w all c onstruction i ndicate t hat m any o f t he c aves a nd s helters w ere u sed i n t he h istoric p eriods . T here i s e vidence o f t hem b eing u sed f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge u ntil t he p resent, b ut t he m ost i ntense u se s eems t o h ave o ccurred i n t he A yyubid t o M amluk p eriod ( Qadi p .c.).

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o t hank t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology a t Y armouk U niversity a nd e specially i ts D irector P rofessor D r. M oawiyah I brahim f or s ponsorship a nd s upport, w ithout w hich t he p roject c ould n ot h ave b een u ndertaken . Ia m a lso g rateful t o t he D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd i ts D irector D r. A dnan H adidi f or p ermission t o w ork i n t he a rea . S pecial t hanks s hould g o t o t he I nstitute m embers w ho p articipated i n t he P roject: F ayez T arawneh , N abil Q adi a nd J uma K arim . I w ould a lso l ike t o t hank I nstitute s taff m embers, A li A l-Omani a nd O ksana T aylor f or h elp w ith d rawing t he m aps a nd t yping r espectively, a nd A ndrew G arrard a nd S usan T horpe f or h elp w ith t he E nglish t ranslations.

5 18

A ppendix S ite L ist 1 .

E l-Kafrein :

f ew N eo. p ieces , L .Byz ., U m ., A y/Mam ., M od.

2 .

D haras M ashhour:

f ew f lakes U D .

3 .

D haras M ashhour:

B ones, n o a rtefacts.

4 .

S outh S honah ( caves):

5 .

S outh S honah ( cave):

6 .

S outh S honah ( cave s outh-west):

7 .

S outh S honah ( reservoir):

8 .

S outh S honah ( terrace):

9 .

W adi S hu 'eib D am ( shelter):

N eo., L .Byz., A y/Mam ., M od. E pi. N eo ., L .Byz., A y/Mam .

L .Byz. N eo., L R ., B yz . A y/Mam .

1 0.

E s-Suknah :

M P ., N eo.

1 1.

T aradi e l H isniat:

1 2.

U mm B ulwi:

1 3.

M 'addi H ousing c omplex:

1 4.

M 'addi t ombs :

1 5.

N orth M 'addi h ousing p roject:

1 6.

E s-Swalha ( cave):

1 7.

A bu E z-Zighan t ombs:

1 8.

W adi e z-Zarqa ( dolmens):

1 9.

E r-Ruweiha ( caves):

2 0.

D harar ( Hajer A bu S a 'ab):

2 1.

D harar ( big c ave):

N eo./Chalco ., A y/Mam .

2 2.

D harar ( 12 c aves):

N eo./Chalco., M B ., A y/Mam ., O tt., M od.

2 3.

K hazmah ( shelter):

N eo., M od.

2 4.

K hazmah ( dolmen):

2 5.

U mm ' Ayash ( cave):

2 6.

U mm ' Ayash N orth ( cave):

N eo.,

N eo . f ew U m ., A y/Mam . A y/Mam .

B yz. A y/Mam ., O tt., U D .

n o a rtefacts. E B ., B yz. C halco., E B .

A y/Mam ., M od. N eo ./Chalco., A y/Mam .

n o a rtefacts . N eo. U D .

5 19

2 7.

E l-Faqir ( terrace):

U m ., A y/Mam ., M am ., M od., U D .

2 8 .

E l-Khafseh ( Kureimah S outh):

2 9.

E l-Kureimah ( Tawahin e s-Sukar): U m ., A y/Mam ., O ther.

3 0.

W adi e l-Kheshnah ( Kureimah):

3 1.

W adi K ufrinjah ( northern s lope): o ne L evallois f lake , L .Byz., H ell., o ne p ossible N ab. s herd., L R., B yz., U m ., A bs ., M od., a nd t wo b asalt f ragments.

3 2.

W adi H issou ( Kureimah a rea): U m ., U D .

3 3.

E s-Saqaya :

3 4.

E l-Handaquq ( tombs):

3 5.

T ell e l-Handaquq:

3 6.

E l-Qarn :

3 7.

W adi S ubeirah ( terrace):

3 8 .

E s-Sleikhat ( terrace):

3 9.

E s-Sleikhat ( tombs):

4 0 .

( a-c) E s-Sleikhat ( terraces):

4 1.

' Ain H anidah :

4 2.

H ejeijah ( caves a nd t ombs):

4 3.

A bu H abil ( terrace):

4 4.

T ell e l K haraz: A y/Mam .

F ew C halco ., E BI., E BII., E BIV ., M B ., U m .

4 5.

M arrazah S outh :

M P .

4 6.

M arrazah N orth :

U P .

4 7.

M arrazah N orth-East ( terrace):

4 8.

A bu ' Alubah S outh ( terrace):

4 9.

A bu ' Alubah ( cave):

5 1.

A bu ' Alubah N orth-East ( terrace):

L B ., A y/Mam . f ive f lint a rtefacts , L R ., B yz.,

N eo ., L .Byz ., U m ., M am ., O ther.

E B ., M B ., L B ., H ell., E R ., B yz.,

N eo . C halco., E BIII., E BIV ., f ew M B .

N eo/Chalco ., E B .

N eo . U P .

f ew p ieces.

N eo. N eo., E B ., M B . N eo .

C halco ., L R ., B yz. C halco., E B ., B yz.

L P .

U P . p oss . U P .

M P .

5 20

M P/UP .

A bbreviations

L P

L ower P alaeolithic

M P

M iddle P alaeolithic

U P

U pper P alaeolithic

E pi

E pipalaeolithic

N eo .

N eolithic

C halco.

C halcolithic

E B

E arly B ronze

M B

M iddle B ronze

L B

L ate B ronze

I A

I ron A ge

N ab.

N abataean

H ell.

H ellenistic

E R

E arly R oman

L R

L ate R oman

B yz

B yzantine

L .Byz .

L ate B yzantine

U m

U mayyad

A bs

A bbasid

A y/Mam

A yyubid/Mamluk

O tt

O ttoman

M od.

M odern

U D

U ndetermined

5 21

B ibliography A bed A .M . ( 1985). P alaeoclimates o f t he U pper P leistocene i n J ordan R ift . I n A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan 2 : 8 1-93. L ondon , R outledge a nd K egan P aul. A lbright W .F . ( 1926). T he J ordan V alley i n t he B ronze A ge. t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 6 : 1 3-74 .

A nnual o f

B ender F . ( 1974). G eology o f J ordan . B erlin, B orntraeger. ( Translation o f B ender F . ( 1968)).

d e C ontenson H . ( 1960). T hree s oundings i n t he J ordan V alley. o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 4 -5: 1 2-99.

A nnual

G lueck N . ( 1951). E xploration i n e astern P alestine I V , P art 1 . o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 5-28.

A nnual

H ours F . ( 1981). L e P aleolithique i nferieur. S ynthese. I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 2 19-222. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R .S. H uckriede R . ( 1966). D as Q uartär d es a rabischen J ordan-Tales u nd B eobachtungen ü ber " Pebble c ultures" u nd P rae-Aurignac. E iszeitalter u nd G egenwart 1 7: 2 11-212.

I brahim M ., S auer J . a nd Y assine K . ( 1976). T he E ast J ordan V alley S urvey 1 975. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 22: 4 1-66. I brahim M ., Y assine K . a nd S auer J . ( n .d.). T he E ast V alley S urvey. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch : f orthcoming.

J ohanson D ., W hite T ., D rake R . a nd M uheisen M . ( n .d.). P alaeoanthropological s urvey o f N eogene a nd Q uaternary d eposits i n J ordan . R eport t o t he D epartment o f A ntiquities, A mman. U npublished m anuscript 1 984.

5 22

M arks A .E . ( 1981). T he U pper P alaeolithic o f t he N egev . I n J . C auvin a nd P . S anlaville ( eds.) P rehistoire d u L evant: 3 43-352. P aris, E ditions d u C .N .R.S. M cNicoll A ., B all A ., B assett S ., E dwards P ., M acumber P ., P etocz D ., P otts T ., R andle L ., V illiers L . a nd W atson P . ( 1984). P reliminary r eport o n t he U niversity o f S ydney 's f ifth s eason o f e xcavation a t P ella i n J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8 : 5 5-86 .

Q adi N . ( n.d.). P reliminary s tudy o f t he p ottery f rom t he p rehistoric c ave s ites i n t he J ordan V alley. Y armouk U niversity, I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology: U npublished m anuscript 1 986.

V illiers L . ( 1983). F inal r eport o n P alaeolithic s ampling a t A bu a lK has , n orth J ordan . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 7: 2 7-48.

W aechter J . ( 1948). T he e xcavation a t A la S afat, T ransjordan . o f t he P alestine E xploration S ociety 2 1: 9 8-103.

5 23

J ournal

L ate P leistocene P rehistory i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh , J ordan V alley P hillip C . E dwards, S tephen J . B ourke , S usan M . C olledge , J ohn H ead a nd P hillip G . M acumber

1 .

I ntroduction

A t t he t ime i nvestigations i n t he • W adi a l-Hammeh b egan i n l ate 1 982, l ittle i nformation w as a vailable a bout t he l ate P leistocene p reh istory o f t he e astern m argins o f t he J ordan R ift V alley. B etween E in G ev i n t he n orth a nd W adi M adamagh i n t he s outh f ew s tratified o r d ated E pipalaeolithic s ites h ad b een p ublished. I n 1 986 , e arly r esults f rom a n umber o f r ecent p rojects, s uch a s t he T AVO i nvestigations i n t he P etra a rea ( Gebel e t a l. t his v olume) w ork i n t he W adi a l-Hasa ( Clark e t a l. t his v olume), a nd s urvey a nd e xcavations i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh h ave a dvanced o ur k nowledge c onsiderably. 1 F ollowing t he 1 975 J ordan V alley s urvey ( Ibrahim e t a l. 1 976) i n w hich t he l ower r eaches o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh w ere i nvestigated, a m ore i ntensive s urvey o f t he a rea w as b egun b y t he U niversity o f S ydney i n 1 982/83 ( Petocz a nd V illiers 1 984). N otwithstanding t hat t he a rea s urveyed d id n ot a t t hat t ime e ncompass a ll o f t he r ich e xposures e vident i n t he A rea X X P lateau s ections , w hich d ate b ack a t l east t o t he M iddle P alaeolithic, 3 0 s ites o f v arious p eriods w ere d iscovered. W hile s urface l ithic m aterial c ollected i n t he s urvey a ttested t o t he p resence o f m any E pipalaeolithic s ites , t he e xcavation o f f ive s tratified s ites, w hich f orm t he b asis o f t his r eport, h ave p rovided m ore p recise c hronological, c ultural a nd p alaeoenvironmental i nformat ion o n t he W adi a l-Hammeh b etween t he l ate U pper P alaeolithic a nd t he N atufian p eriods. T he e ssential b ackground t o o ur a rchaeological w ork i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh h as b een a d etailed, a nd o ngoing , g eomorphological a nalysis o f t he P leistocene s ediments i n t he v alley. T his g eological w ork i s b ecoming m ore f irmly c hronologically b ased o n af ramework o f r adioc arbon d eterminations. A t t he l arge N atufian s ettlement o f W adi H ammeh 2 7 a rchaeob otanical w ork i s a ugmenting o ther s tudies b y e ndeavouring t o p rovide c ontextual i nformation i n a ddition t o t axonomic d escription o f t he p lant r emains r ecovered f rom t he s ite. T he f ollowing p aper b egins w ith a d iscussion o f t he g eology o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh s ystem f ollowed b y b rief r eports o n t he l ate P leistocene s ites , a s ummary o f t he a rchaeobotanical w ork b eing c arried o ut a t W adi

5 25

H ammeh 2 7, a nd c oncludes w ith a n ote o n h uman s keletal r emains f ound a t W adi H ammeh 2 7. T he a uthors ' i nitials a re p laced a t t he e nd o f t heir r espective c ontributions. ( PCE)

2 .

G eomorphology

T he W adi a l-Hammeh a nd i ts m ajor t ributary, t he W adi a l-Himar , ( Plate 1 ) a re l ateral s treams w hose b eds r un d own e ither s ide o f a f ormer s ingle e nlarged a ncestral W adi a l-Hammeh , w hich i n L ate P leistocene t imes f lowed i nto L ake L isan t hen o ccupying t he J ordanian R ift V alley. T he l ower w adi s ystem ( 35 ° 3 2 'N , 3 2° 2 7 'E) e ncompasses a n a rea ( up t o t he h ot s pring) o f a pproximately n ine h ectares, a nd t he p resent p erennial s tream i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh i s f ed b y a p erennial s pringh ead, t he h ot s pring b aths l ocally k nown a s H ammamat A bu D habla ( Plate 1 : a ). T he a ncestral v alley i s p artially i nfilled w ith a f luviol acustrine t o p aludal s uite o f c onglomerates w ith i nterbedded r ed a nd b uff c lays a nd s ilts , d ark g rey c lays , a nd b uff c alcareous s ilts w ith s ome r eworked t ufa . A t t he c onfluence o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh w ith t he J ordan V alley, t he w adi-fill s equences m erge w ith s horeline s ediments o f t he f ormer L ake L isan . R adiocarbon d ates f rom w ithin t he w adi s equence t aken s ome d istance u pstream f rom t he R ift V alley c onfirm t he c ontemporaneity ( at l east i n t he u pper p arts o f t he s equence) b etween a ggradation i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh a nd t he p resence o f L ake L isan . S ince t he W adi a l-Hammeh s equence i s c ontemporaneous w ith t he l ake, d eposition o f t he s equence i s s een , a t l east i n p art, a s r esulting f rom c limatically i nduced r ises i n t he l evel o f L ake L isan . T he f all i n b ase l evels a ccompanying t he d rying o f t he l ake i n L ate P leistocene t imes c aused a c oncomitant d eep i ncision o f t he v alley-fill s equence r esulting i n t he p resent t opography. T he p resence o f t he E arly N atufian s ite W adi H ammeh 2 7 d ated c . 1 2,000 b .p. ( see b elow), i n c lay s ediments a t t he t op o f t he v alley-fill s equence, s uggests t hat v alley i ncision d id n ot c ommence u ntil a fter t his t ime. G iven t hat t he d esiccation o f L ake L isan i mmediately p receded v alley i ncision , t his e vidence i ndicates a s omewhat l ater t ime f or t his d rying e vent t han t he 1 8,000 t o 1 5,000 y ears b .p. h itherto g enerally a ccepted. F urther s upport f or t his c ontention i s p rovided b y ad ate o f c . 1 5,000 b .p. f rom t he b ase o f an earby l imestone s equence u nderlying t he c lay u nit ( see b elow). I n a ddition t o b ase l evel l owering i n r esponse t o t he d rying o f t he l ake , i t i s c lear t hat n eotectonics h as i nfluenced t he c urrent r elative l evels o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh a nd t he R ift V alley s equences ( Macumber 1 984). U pstream f rom t he c onfluence o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh a nd t he W adi a l-Himar , r emnants o f t he v alley-fill s equence f orm a p arallel r idge s eparating t he w adis. O n a pproaching t heir j unction , t he r idge b roadens i nto a n arrow p lateau - t he " Area X X P lateau" ( Plates 1 , 2 ) w hich i n t urn f alls t o as addle b efore t erminating i n a s mall b utte k nown a s t he " Knob".

5 26

2 .1

T he W adi H ammeh C onglomerate

T he b asal u nit i n t he v alley-fill s equence i s t he W adi H ammeh C onglomerate ( Macumber 1 984). T he c onglomeratic u nit c onsists o f c hert p ebble b ands i nterbedded w ith r ed-brown c lays, a nd n earer t he R ift V alley, w ith c alcareous s ilts. B eneath t he A rea X X P lateau t he s equence i s a bout 6 0m t hick a nd i s c learly e xposed i n t he P lateau 's w esterly c liff f ace , c ut b y t he W adi a l-Himar ( Plate 2 ). R adiocarbon d ates f rom M elanopsis s hell-bands i n r ed c lays f rom t he u pper p arts o f t he c onglomerates ( 13.7m b elow t he P lateau 's s urface) g ave d ates o f 2 8,940J : 900 ( ANU-4657) a nd 3 3,450 ± 1 ,600 ( ANU-4656) y ears b .p . ( Table 1 ). T he c onglomerates i n t his a rea a re o verlain b y a l imestone s equence 7 m t hick ( see b elow). A s omewhat y ounger d ate f rom w ithin t he c onglomerates, 1 8,900 12 1 50 b .p. ( ANU-4658) i s f rom d isseminated c harcoal f ragments b etween p ebble b ands i mmediately u nderlying t he 1 0m t hick l imestone s equence o n t he K nob. T he p ebble b ands a re d eep w ithin t he s equence a nd c ontain a s ite s ampled b y V illiers ( Petocz a nd V illiers 1 984) w hich y ielded L evalloiso-Mousterian l ithics, s uggesting t hat t he d ate i s m uch t oo y oung . T his c ontention i s s upported b y a s hell d ate o f 3 1,280 ± 1 ,470 b .p. ( ANU-4652) f rom d irectly a bove t he l imestone - c onglomerate b oundary w hich b etter r eflects t he a ge o f t he u nderlying s tone t ool a ssemblage, t he e levation a nd s tratigraphic p osition w ithin t he l ands cape , a nd o ther r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he l ower W adi a l-Hammeh . A n e xplanation f or t he a nomalously y oung d ate i s t he p ossible p resence o f i ntroduced h umic a cids a nd o ther h umic c ontaminants ( pers. c omm . J . h ead, 1 986). O n p assing d own-valley f rom t he P lateau t o t he K nob, t he u pper u nits o f t he c onglomerates a re o verlain b y a nd p artially m erge l aterally i nto a l imestone s equence - t he K nob L imestone - i n a p artial l ateral f acies c hange . A lthough t he l ower p arts o f t he c onglomerates r emain , t he r ed c lay m atrix f ound f urther u pstream i s r eplaced b y a b uff t o l ight g rey c alcareous s ilt m atrix.

2 .2

T he B lack C lay

I n p laces t he l imestones a re s eparated f rom t he u nderlying c onglomerates b y a t hick , d iscontinuous d ark b rown t o b lack c lay s equence s everal m etres t hick - t he B lack C lay ( Macumber 1 984). W here p resent i t c onsists o f d ark g rey t o b lack c lays , o ccasionally c ontaini ng t hin p ebble b ands. C loser t o t he R ift e dge i t i s i nterbedded w ith t he l owermost l imestone u nits. S everal i n s itu K ebaran s ites a re f ound i n t he B lack c lay u nderlying t he l imestones i n t he P lateau s equence. T he m ost c ompletely a nalyzed o f t hese s ites , W adi H ammeh 2 76 ( Macumber n .d. a , a nd b elow), g ave a d ate o f 1 9,500 ± 6 00 b .p . ( SUA-2101).

2 .3

T he K nob L imestones

O n a pproaching t he m outh o f t he a ncestral v alley, t he c onglomerates a re o verlain b y, a nd p artly m erge i nto , a l imestone u nit k nown a s t he K nob L imestone, c onsisting o f c alcareous s ilts a nd t ufa. T hese s ediments a re e ssentially d etrital a nd c ontain p lant f ragments

5 27

T RUE N ORTH 2K M P late 1

A erial p hotograph o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh s ystem , s howing v arious l ocalities m entioned i n t he t ext, i ncluding a ) A : H ammamat A bu D habla s pring. b ) B : t he K nob. c ) C : E lephant R ock . d ) D : T ell A bu R amleh r idge. e ) E : u pstream l imit o f K nob L imestones . X X : A rea X X P lateau , c ontaining t he s ites W adi H ammeh 2 6 , 2 7 &3 3 . X XXI: s outh t errace o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh n ear i ts m outh , c ontaining t he s ites W adi H ammeh 3 1 & 3 2. 5 28

P late 2

V iew o f t he s outh t errace o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh n ear i ts m outh ( Area X XXI), i ndicating t he p ositions o f s ites W adi H ammeh 3 1 ( Kebaran) & W adi H ammeh 3 2 ( Upper P alaeolithic).

P late 3

V iew e ast o ver t he W adi a l-Himar t o t he A rea X X P lateau , i ndicating t he p ositions o f s ites W adi H ammeh 2 6 & 3 3 ( Kebaran) a nd W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Natufian).

5 29

T able 1 .

R adiocarbon d eterminations f rom t he W adi a l-Hammeh

L aboratory c ode

3 3,450 i t 1 600

( ANU-4656)

W adi H ammeh C onglomerates , P lateau 1 3.7m b elow t op

M elanopsis

3 1,280 ± 1 470

( ANU-4652)

A bove p ebble b ands, B ase o f t he K nob l imestones

M elanopsis

2 8,940 ±

9 00

( ANU-4657)

W adi H ammeh C onglomerates , P lateau 1 3.7m b elow t op

M elanopsis

1 9,500 ±

6 00

( SUA-2101)

W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Kebaran)

C harcoal

± 5 00

( ANU-4653)

I n K nob l imestones, a bove M elanopsis W adi H ammeh 3 2 ( Upper P al.)

1 9,480

P rovenance

S ample t ype

D ate ( years b .p.)

1 8,900 ±

1 50

( ANU-4658)

P ebble b ands, t he K nob

C harcoal

1 8,560 ±

2 30

( ANU-4655)

l imestone t errace a t E lephant R ock , 2 m b elow t op

M elanopsis

1 6,740 ±

2 20

( ANU-4654)

A bove W adi H ammeh 3 1 ( Kebaran)

M elanopsis

1 2,200 l i t 1 60

( OxA-394)

W adi H ammeh 2 7, N atufian P hase I

C harcoal ( Accelerator)

1,950 i t

1 60

( OxA-507)

W adi H ammeh 2 7, N atufian P hase I

C harcoal ( Accelerator)

1,920 ±

1 50

( OxA-393)

W adi H ammeh 2 7, N atufian P hase I

C harcoal ( Accelerator)

5 30

a nd a f rewshwater f auna o f M elanopsis p raemorsa . A t t heir f urthest u pstream o ccurrence o n t he P lateau t he l imestones a re a bout 4 .5m t hick b ut r apidly i ncrease o n p assing d ownstream t o b e 1 0m t hick b eneath t he K nob a nd 3 0 -4 0m t hick i n t he S ayl a l-Hammeh ( mouth o f t he W adi a lH ammeh) w here t hey r eplace t he u pper c onglomerates i n a l ateral f acies c hange . A s a c onsequence t he b oundary b etween t he t wo u nits i s d iachronous, b ecoming o lder o n p assing d own-valley. T he v isually d etermined d iachroneity o f t he l imestone-conglomerate b oundary i s s upported b y r adiocarbon d ates. F or e xample a t i ts f urthest u pstream l imit a t t he e astern e nd o f t he P lateau ( Plate 1 : e ), t he b ase o f t he l imestone s equence i s d ated a t 1 4,970 ± 1 80 b .p. ( ANU-4651). D ownstream a t t he K nob, t he b ase o f t he g reatly t hickened l imestone s equence w as d ated a t 3 1,280 ± 1 ,470 b .p. a lso u sing M elanopsis s hells . A s f urther d iscussed b elow , a dditional d ates f rom s hell h orizons o ccuring h igh w ithin t he l imestone s equence o n e ither s ide o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh g ave a ges o f 1 9,480 ± 5 80 b .p. ( ANU-4653); 1 8,560 ± 2 30 b .p. ( ANU-4655) a nd 1 6,740 ± 2 20 y ears b .p. ( ANU-4654). T he d ate o f 1 4,970 b .p. i s t he y oungest y et o btained f rom t he l imestone, h owever t his d ate i s f rom t he b ase o f t he s equence a t i ts t hinnest, c lose t o i ts m ost u pvalley o ccurrence o n t he P lateau. T he f inal t ermination o f l imestone d eposition c an o nly b e e stimated f rom t he a ge o f m aterials i n a n o verlying t hin d ark c lay s equence - t he P lateau C lay. D ates f rom t his l atter u nit g ive a n a ge o f 1 2,000 b .p. s howing t hat l imestone d eposition h ad c eased s ometime b etween 1 5,000 a nd 1 2,000 b .p .

2 .4

T he P lateau C lay

O verlying t he l imestone s equence o n t he P lateau, a nd f orming t he u ppermost u nit i n t he v alley s equence , i s a t hin d ark c lay l ayer a bout h alf a m etre t hick c ontaining t he E arly N atufian s ite W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Macumber n .d. a ., a nd b elow). R adiocarbon d ates f rom t he t op p hase o f t his s ite g ive a n a ge c lose t o 1 2,000 y ears b .p. ( Table 1 ). T hese s ediments r epresent t he f inal p hase o f a ggradation p rior t o t he v alley i ncision .

3 .

E nvironmental R econstruction

T he v alley-fill s equence i s s een a s b eing d eposited o ver a p eriod a t l east s panning t he e xistence o f L ake L isan f rom c a . 8 0 ,000 y ears b .p. u p t o c a . 1 2,000 y ears b .p. T he W adi H ammeh C onglomerates r epresent t ypical f luvial d eposits s imilar t o o thers o ccurring i n v alleys f urther a long t he R ift V alley, a s f or e xample i n t he W adi J irm ( Macumber n .d. a ., M acumber 1 984) a nd t he W adi a l-Yabis t o t he s outh . T he a ppearance a nd g radual t hickening o f t he c alcareous s equence o n a pproaching t he R ift V alley i s i nterpreted a s r eflecting d epositional p rocesses o ccurring i n a l ow-energy e nvironment, i n a s mall e mbayment o pening o n t o t he R ift V alley p roper. T he l imestones c ontain l arge a mounts o f p lant m aterial a nd l ayers o f M elanopsis s hells, b ut n o p ebble b ands. T he c haracter o f t he l imestones , a nd t he p resence o f i n s itu o ccupation s ites i ndicate a s ub-aerial d epositional

5 31

e nvironment, a lbeit i n a l ow-energy , p robably m arshy, p lain d eveloped o n t he a pproaches t o L ake L isan .

m arginal

f lood

T he o verall g eomorphic s etting o f t he l ower W adi a l-Hammeh s pans t he z one w here t he h igh e nergy w adi c onglomerates g ive w ay t o t he l acustrine, c hemically-deposited, R ift V alley s equences. T he s ource o f t he c arbonate f or t he K nob L imestones i s i nterpreted a s c oming f rom u pwelling g roundwater d ischarge i n t he l ower r egions o f t he a ncestral W adi a l-Hammeh . T his i s s upported b y t he p resence o f o ccasional t ufa b ands w ithin t he o therwise u niform , f ine-grained c alcareous s ilts. An umber o f i n s itu o ccupation s ites a re l ocated w ithin t he l imes tones o f t he S ayl a l-Hammeh , d own-valley f rom t he K nob. S ites h igh u p o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he w adi i nclude t he K ebaran s ite W adi H ammeh 3 1, a nd t he n earby l ate U pper P alaeolithic s ite o f W adi H ammeh 3 2 ( Plate 2 ). S hell d ates f rom i mmediately a bove b oth s ites r espectively g ave d ates o f c a . 1 6,740 b .p. a nd c a . 1 9,480 ( Table 1 ). O n t he n orthern s ide o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh s everal s mall s ites h ave b een r ecorded. O ne s uch s ite , a s y et u nsampled, i s l ocated a bout 2 m b elow t he g round s urface o f t he l imestone t errace i n t he v icinity o f E lephant R ock , a t a l evel c lose t o t hat f rom w hich M elanopsis s hells w ere d ated a t 1 8 ,560 I t 2 30 b .p. ( ANU-4655). T his s uggests a K ebaran d ate . ( PGM )

4 .

L ate P leistocene S ites i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh

T he d escriptions g iven b elow a re o f f ive s tratified s ites: t he K ebaran s ite ( Wadi H ammeh 3 1) a nd a n U pper P alaeolithic s ite ( Wadi H ammeh 3 2) a ssociated w ith a L isan s horeline f acies i n t he S ayl a lH ammeh, a nd t wo K ebaran s ites ( Wadi H ammeh 2 6 a nd 3 3) a nd a N atufian s ite ( Wadi H ammeh 2 7) e mbedded r espectively i n t he B lack C lay a nd t he P lateau C lay a t t he t op o f t he a ggraded d eposits o f t he A rea X X P lateau ( Plate 1 ).

4 .1

W adi H ammeh 3 2 ( Upper P alaeolithic)

T his s ite i s c ontained i n ad ark c lay w hich o utcrops o ver t he t op o f t he s outh t errace o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh n ear i ts m outh ( Plate 1 ). R emains w ere v isible i n t he s ections c ut b y v arious m inor e rosion g ullies , a nd a lso i n t he f loors , w alls a nd e ven t he c eilings o f s everal E arly B ronze I V s haft t ombs t hat h ad b een s unk i nto t he t errace. T he s ite i s v isible i n t his a rea d ue t o t he t runcation o f l ater d eposits w hich o ccur d irectly u pvalley a nd c ontain t he o verlying K ebaran s ite W adi H ammeh 3 1 ( Plate 2 ). R emains w ere s cattered i n v arious l ocations, b ut i n o rder t o m aintain c omparable t echniques a nd s amples w ith t he o ther s ites i nvestigated, av olume o f 0 .25 c ubic m etres f rom a s mall c utting w as s creened o nsite t hrough a n 0 .5cm m esh , a nd t he r esidue l ater w ashed a nd s orted. T he l ithic d ensity f or t his s ite i s l ower b y a n o rder o f m agnitude t han t he o thers r eported h ere ( Table 3 ). M oreover a c ont ributing f actor t o t his a ppears t o b e t he r elative s carcity o f s mall s ize-fraction m aterial, s uch a s s mall f lakes a nd c hips. T he l arge a nd

5 32

T able 2 .

C haracteristics o f W adi H ammeh s ites

W adi W adi H ammeh 2 7 H ammeh 2 6 ( Natufian) ( Kebaran)

W adi H ammeh 3 1 ( Kebaran)

W adi H ammeh 3 3 ( Kebaran)

W adi H ammeh 3 2 ( Upper P al.)

S ite a rea

2 000m 2

2 5m 2

2 5m 2

2 5m 2

6 000 m2

S tatus

i n s itu

i n s itu

i n s itu

i n s itu

i n s itu

A ltitude

83.5m

88m

180m

88m

185m

C 14 d ates

1 1,920 1 9,500 ± 1 50 b .p. ± 6 00 b .p.

1 6 ,740 ± 2 20 b .p.

1 9,480 ± 5 00 b .p.

1,950 ± 1 60 b .p. 1 2,200 ± 1 60 b .p. R econstructed e nvironment

p aludal

p aludal

l akeside

p aludal

l akeside

A verage l ithic d ensity 4 711/m 3

4 930/m3

6 750/m 3

5 000/m3

5 16/m 3

F auna

e xtensive

e xtensive

t race

t race

F lora

e xtensive

e xtensive

M illing a nd r eaping e quipment

e xtensive

A rchitecture A rt B urials ( 3+ h umans)

5 33

T able 3 .

W adi H ammeh s ites.

F laked s tone i ndustries

W .H .26 ( Keb.)

W .H .31 ( Keb.)

W .H .33 ( Keb.)

W .H .27 ( Nat.)

W .H .32 ( U .P .)

N

N

N

N

N

D EBRIS C hunks

4

9 % , o f s ample . 2 777

3

1 1,133

3

C hips M isc.

1 22

5

2 9,699 3 68

1 3

S ub-total

1 26

8

4 1,200

1 6

2 0 ,211 7 ,702

4 5 3 6

D EBITAGE F lakes B lades C ore-trimming e lements B urin s palls M icroburin t echnique C ores

3 072 1 475

S ub t otal

4 782

1 40 3 54

1 6 1 8

5 1 1 20

5 -

1 -

2 82 4 68

7 -

2 3 4 1

3 1 6

5

4 2 2 60

1

5 18

4 0

2 8,965

9 9

R ETOUCHED T OOLS S crapers M ultiple t ools B urins R etouched a nd b acked b lades T runcations M icroliths G eometric m icroliths N otches a nd d enticulated V arious S ub t otal

T otal

1 2 1 1

-

1

17 1 0 5 44

4 9

7 1 53

2 5

1

5 4 3 9 6 29

1

1

2

-

3 59

-

6 4

4 -

-

3 00 1 63

-

2

2 ,215

1 4

7 2,380

1 29

1 94

3 1

4 976*

6 75

* D oes n ot i nclude D EBRIS c ounts

5 34

5 0

d iffuse n ature o f t he s ite ( Table 2 ) c an t hen b e a ttributed t o s evere d eflation o f t he o riginal s ite . An umber o f l imestone f lakes a nd d ebris p ieces , a nd s ome f ire-cracked l imestone p ebbles w ere f ound, a lthough n o i n s itu f eatures s uch a s h earths w ere o bserved. T he f laked c hert a rtefacts w ithin t he s mall l ithic c ollection c onsist o f a v ariety o f t runction a nd d ihedral b urins, s ome e ndscrapers o n f lakes a nd b lades , a nd a s ingle, n arrow b acked b ladelet ( Table 3 ). A lone t he s mall l ithic s ample p recludes f irm c onclusions , a nd w hile i t w ould f it w ell i nto t he L ate L evantine A urignacian p eriod a s d iscussed b elow , a t p resent t he m ain c hronological i ndicator f or t he s ite l ies i n i ts s tratigraphic p lacement a nd a t erminus a nte q uem o f 1 9,480 ± 5 80 b .p. ( ANU-4653) g ained f rom M elanopsis b ands s tratified a bove t he s ite.

4 .2

W adi H ammeh 3 1 ( Kebaran)

I n c ontrast t o t he d iffuse U pper P alaeolithic s ite W adi H ammeh 3 2 w hich u nderlies i t , W adi H ammeh 3 1 i s a s mall, t ightly-clustered c onc entration o f f laked s tone m arked b y ah igh l ithic d ensity, ( Table 2 ) e mbedded i n ac alcisiltite u nit ( Plate 2 ). A r adiocarbon d ate w as o btained f rom M elanopsis s hells c ollected 3 0cm a bove t he a rchaeological m aterial, p roviding a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he s ite o f 1 6,740 ± 2 20 b .p. ( Table 1 ). A part f rom a s ingle f ragment o f b urnt m ammalian b one, f aunal r emains w ere a bsent i n t he h eavily c emented m atrix. T here i s a s trong e mphasis o n t he p roduction o f b lades ( complete a nd b roken e xamples b eing 7 0% o f d ebitage) a nd p articularly o n b ladelets s enso s tricto ( complete b ladelets w ere 2 3% o f d ebitage, N = 5 02). C ores w ere r estricted t o e xhausted b ladelet t ypes ( N = 1 4). A ll o f t he r etouched a rtefacts w ere m ade o n b ladelet b lanks, a nd a part f rom a f ew n otched p ieces , c onsisted o f n on-geometric m icroliths ( Table 3 ). T hese w ere n arrow b acked b ladelets ( mean m aximum w idth = 5 .05mm , r ange = 4 .25 - 6 .75mm , N= 3 1) w hich i ncluded o nly o ne o bliquely-truncated f orm , b ut s everal s tr gght-truncated b acked b ladelets i n a ddition t o m any b roken f ragments. L

4 .3

W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Kebaran)

T his i s t he m ost e xtensively e xcavated a nd a nalysed o f t he K ebaran s ites t o d ate ( Edwards 1 984 , E dwards 1 986 , E dwards n .d., a ). I t i s s ituated i n a3 0cm t hick d ark h umic c lay l ayer w hich u nderlies t he c apping s ilts a nd t ravertines o f t he A rea X X P lateau ( Plate 3 ). A s m uch a s p ossible o f t he s ite w as e xcavated a long t he c liff s ection o ver a l ength o f 6 m , t ogether w ith s amples o f t he o verlying a nd u nderlying d eposits . At ightly c lustered s catter o f f laked c hert w as f ound, d istributed s imilarly t o a bundant b one f ragments ( Figure 1 ), b oth m aterials c onc entrated i n t he v icinity o f n umerous c harcoal f lecks w hich a ppeared t o r epresent t he r emains o f af ireplace. S tructural f eatures w ere n ot

5 35

• b one f r agmen t (x1 0) . b one f r agment

O S

0

i m

MI

v e r t ica l s c a le

x 2

t r ave r t ine c ap-ro ck

/ c lay

w ash

b rown c l ay

---- — e r os ion g u l ly

• •

: ::• • ' •• : • • •• ; ••... N . e xuama aP i i me. . ,. •• -

•

• • J . •

A e ?» • • • "

o c cupat ion d epos it

u n uc .

c ong lome rate

d ark g rey ish- b rown c l ay

1 1

1

1 1 . //

F igure 1 D iagrammatic e levation o f t he K ebaran s ite W adi i ndicating t he d istribution o f b one f ragments . v alley d irection ( north) i s t o t he l eft .

5 36

H ammeh 2 6, T he d own-

f ound, e xcepting t wo s mall p iles o f l imestone p ebbles n orth a nd s outh o f t he c harcoal c oncentration .

f ound

t o

t he

F lotation o f t he m atrix e nabled t he i dentification o f s ix g enera o f t rees a nd s hrubs f rom w ood c harcoal ( Table 9 , W illcox n .d.), a nd a h undred e : rams o f w et c harcoal f rom t he r emnant h earth y ielded a d ate o f 1 9,500 1 6 00 b .p. ( SUA-2101). B esides t he g ood p reservation o f m aterials , t he i n s itu n ature o f t he s ite w as a ttested t o b y t he p resence o f s ome c onjoinable m icroliths , t he h igh q uantity o f s mall s ize-fraction m aterial ( Table 3 , F igure 2 ), a nd a rticulating p odial e lements o f af ox f ound n ear t o e ach o ther w hich m ay h ave d erived f rom a s ingle a nimal. C ores w ere d ominated b y s ingle p latform t ypes , b oth w ith f acetted a nd u nfacetted p latforms ( Table 4 ). F rom m any o f t he l ightly r educed c ores i t w as o bvious t hat t he a lluvial c hert c obbles o f t he W adi a lH ammeh h ad b een u tilized a s b lanks , m any h aving o nly b een l ightly s palled b efore b eing d iscarded. N o a ttempt w as m ade t o e conomize o n t his a bundant l ocal s ource o f m aterial. S imilar t o W adi H ammeh 3 1, t he u se o f t he l ocal c obbles g ave r ise t o ac haracteristic s eries o f l ight b rown k napping p roducts. P latform a ttributes o f f lakes a nd b lades i ndicate t hat p lain a nd c ortical r emnants o n f lakes w ere f requent, w hereas b oth t hese c ategories d ropped s ignificantly o n b lades t o b e r eplaced b y p unctiform p latforms, i ndicating t hat a c ombination o f h ard h ammer p ercussion a nd p unch t echnique w as u sed t o r ough o ut c ores a nd p roduce b lades a nd b ladelets ( Table 5 ). R etouched a rtefacts a re d ominated b y m icroliths ( IMt r = 7 9, T able 3 ), w hich a re c omprised o f n on-geometric m icroliths e xcept f or a s ingle " ad h oc" l unate m odified b y l ight r etouch . T he n umerically d ominant c ategory w ithin t he m icroliths a re o bliquely-truncated b acked b ladelets w ith a f ew o bliquely-truncated b ladelets . T he m icroliths a re e xtremely n arrow , w here m ean m aximum w idth = 3 .8mm , r ange = 2 ,00 - 5 .75mm ( N = 6 5). A l arge n umber o f c omminuted b one f ragments y ielded a s mall n umber o f i dentifiable b ones , m ainly p odial e lements ( Table 7 ). T hough t he f auna f rom t his c amp s ite i s f airly s mall , i t n evertheless e ncompasses a w ide d ietary v ariety , i ncluding g azelle a nd p ig , s mall m ammals s uch a s h are a nd f ox , b irds a nd t ortoise.

4 .4

W adi H ammeh 3 3 ( Kebaran)

S ituated 5 0m d own-valley f rom W adi H ammeh 2 6 i n t he s ame B lack C lay, W adi H ammeh 3 3 i s i nteresting n ot s o m uch f or t he d iagnostic v alue o f i ts a rtefacts w hich a re i ndeed f ew , b ut f or i ts l ocation r elative t o t he f ormer K ebaran s ite ( Plate 3 ). A m etres) m ainly B esides w ashed

v ery s mall s ample w as c ollected f rom t he s ite ( c. 0 .008 c ubic i n t he c ourse o f g eological p rospecting. T he l ithics c onsisted o f l ight b rown d ebitage, i ncluding s everal b ladelet c ores . a n i ntrusive H elwan b ladelet c arrying a d ifferent p atination , d own f rom t he N atufian s ite W adi H ammeh 2 7, t he o nly r etouched

5 37

1 2-

1 0-

—

6-

4-

o

2

4

0

2

2

4

4

6

w idth ( cm ) b lade/ b l ade le t N=3 80

I iIi

i i

F igure 2

f lake N =400

c o re- t r imm ing e l emen t N= 36

6 0 % 3 0 % 1 0%

D ensity d iagram o f s ize d istribution f or s everal c lasses f rom t he K ebaran s ite W adi H ammeh 2 6.

5 38

d ebitage

T able 4 .

C ore t ypes f rom W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Kebaran) a nd W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Natufian)

W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( N =4 1)

W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( N = 5 23)

f aceted

2 9.3

1 2.8

u nfaceted

3 1.7

2 0 .5

s ame s ide

7 .3

9 .2

o pposite s ide

2 .4

2 .5

c ombination

2 .4

1 .5

1 2.2

1 9.9

m ultiple p latform

4 .9

1 4 .3

f ragments

7 .3

1 8.7

I rregular, m ultiple p latform

2 .4

0 .6

s ingle p latform

o pposed p latform

B ladelet c ore c hange o f o rientation

F lake c ore

5 39

T able 5 .

A ttributes o f f lakes a nd b lades f rom W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Kebaran) a nd W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Natufian)

W adi H ammeh 2 6 F lakes ( N = 2 00)

W adi H ammeh 2 7

B lades ( N = 2 00)

F lakes ( N =4 00)

B lades ( N = 1 48)

P latform r emnants a bsent p lain c ortical c rushed d ihedral m ultifaceted p unctiform

2 8.0 2 1.0 1 0 .5 1 0 .0 6 .5 2 4.0

4 .0 1 6.0 1 .5 2 4 .5 2 .0 1 .0 5 1.0

2 9.2 1 4.7 2 2.3 2 .5 2 .5 2 8.8

1 8.0 7 .4 2 5.7 1 .4 4 7.3

B lade p rofile f lat t wisted i ncurvate o utcurving

2 8.0 1 4.0 5 7.5 0 .5

3 3.1 8 .8 5 7.4 0 .7

5 40

a rtefact w as a d ihedral b urin . S everal b one f ragments w ere r ecovered, i ncluding a p halanx o f C ervus e laphus, a t axon n ot r ecorded f rom W adi H ammeh 2 6.

4 .5

W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Early N atufian)

T he p reserved p ortion o f t his s ite o ccurs a s an arrow t ongue o f l and c apping t he A rea X X P lateau a t i ts n orthern e nd ( Plate 3 ). N ot a ll o f t he p robable s ite a rea h as y et b een t ested, a nd w e e stimate a c onservative a rea o f 2 ,000 s q. m ( Table 2 ), t hough t his i s l iable t o m odification w ith f uture w ork. T hough a n umber o f f inds o f l ater p eriods , p rincipally B yzantine/Ummayyad s herds , a re s cattered o ver t he s urface o f t he a rea , W adi H ammeh 2 7 i s a s ingle-period s ite w hich c uts t he s urface i n s everal p laces a nd d irectly o verlies t he 2 - 3 m t hick t ravertine d eposits t hat c ap t he P lateau. O ur a im h as b een t o c lear a b road a rea o f t he m ost r ecent o ccupation p hase, N atufian P hase I , c oupled w ith s mall s cale i nvestigation o f e arlier p hases b y s ondage. S o f ar t his h as r evealed p ortions o f t wo e arlier c onstructional p hases ( Figure 2 , s ection d -e). W ork i s p roceeding i n f our p lots, t otalling i n a rea j ust u nder 2 00 s q. m . ( In F igure 3 , d ot-shading r epresents t he a reas c leared t o t he P hase I o ccupation s urfaces, d arker d ot-shading r epresents r odent b urrows , w hite a reas r epresent s tone f eatures , a nd t he b lank a rea t o t he w est o f t he d ashed l ine t he e roded s lope n ear t he c liff e dge). T he r efuse a ccumulation o ver t he f loors i s c ontained w ithin a d ark g rey, c alcareous m edium c lay a bout 6 0cm t hick . A rtefact f requ ncies a re h igh , e specially f laked s tone , n umbering i n t he o rder o f 1 0 p er p lot ( Tables 2 , 3 ). A ll m atrix i s d ry- a nd w et-sieved t hrough a n 0 .5cm s creen , w ith r egular a mounts o f w hole m atrix p assed t hrough a n 0 .5mm m esh . T hree r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een o btained f rom c harred s eed f ragments f rom l ocus 8 .1 i n p lot X X D , ( Table 1 ) d emonstrating a n a ge o f 1 2,000 b .p. f or t he u ppermost o ccupation p hase. T he u tility o f t he p roportion o f H elwan r etouch a pplied t o l unates a s a t emporal i ndicator ( Henry 1 981: 4 24) i s h ere b orne o ut , s ince 8 0% o f a s ample o f 3 50 l unates w ere f inished b y t his t echnique. T wo l arge c urvilinear s tructures h ave b een e ncountered ( Figure 3 ). I n p lot X X Dw e h ave u ncovered p art o f w hat a ppears t o b e ac oncentric, t riple-walled s tructure w hich c ircumscribes a f ocal g roup o f b oulders . T he s urviving e nd o f w all 2 i n t his s tructure c onsisted o f t hree e ngraved s iltstone s labs, s et o n e dge, p laced e nd-to-end a nd s upported b y ar ubble b acking ( Edwards 1 984). T he e ngraving t ook t he f orm o f a r epeated c oncentric l ine m otif. P art o f a s econd o val s tructure w as u ncovered i n p lot X X F . I n t he r esults o f t he 1 985/86 s eason , n ot s hown o n t he p lan , i t w as f ound t hat w all 1 i n p lot X X Fc ontinued i n t he w est o f X X Ga nd c urves i nto t he e xtreme s outh-east c orner o f p lot X X E , b ut o n t he w estern s ide, w all 1 d id n ot c ontinue b ut w as r eplaced b y ag radient l eading d own t o t he i nterior o f t he s tructure w hich w as m arked b y s everal p ost h oles . T he s tructure a ppears t o b e a n i rregular e llipse w ith a xes o f a bout 1 0 a nd 8 m , o riented n orth-east t o s outh-west. S everal s maller s tone

5 41

4 ) c ) a ) c o a )

r I ( . )

•

c n

C 0 C O

3 0

c e , 4 3 1 f g • g

s‚ s ,

t CO

c r,

L 11

. 1 z

4 ) 4 )

" c ) 0

0 . ) C O

C 0 0 . ) 1 1 4 1 A . W $ . 4 6 r I " C ) 0 0 C C

c e

1 • :3 0 0 C O C • I 4 ) O

A

" 1 = 3 C O C C I )

I 4 )

•' V C N

1

1 . 4

a ) ) 1

E c oA • r I C O C L ) 4 4 • r 1

U

c e

4 1

C 0 C O • r I • r 1 4 ) 4 1 C O • 0 . 4 4 ) C O U

z u ( 1 . ) 4 ) 4 1

0

C i ) C

1 1 C D C Z

O 5

• r I 4 3 C • I ) 1 4

n c i • c z ) c o c o a ) 4 )

5 42

f eatures a re d isposed o n t he s urface o utside t hese s tructures , a nd a m ore v aried a rray o f f eatures , i ncluding s tone c ircles ( e.g. X X F , F .6), p ost h oles a nd a s tone p latform ( XX F , F .7) w as b uilt w ithin t he s tructures. T he s ite h as p roduced a n e laborate g round s tone a ssemblage, m ostly i n af ine-grained b asalt ( Table 6 ). M ost c ommon i n b asalt a re p estles, s ome o f w hich h ad t heir b its s tained w ith r ed a nd y ellow o chre ; m ullers , m ortars , h ammerstones , d isc-shaped p lates a nd m iniature b owls , g rooved p laques a nd r elief-decorated b owl f ragments a re a lso f requent ( Edwards n .d. c ). L imestone w as u sed m ore a s am edium f or i ncising a nd e ngraving v arious g eometric m otifs. Au nique p iece , b uilt i nto w all 2 o f p lot X X D , i s ab lock o f l imestone i nto w hich 6 5 h oles h ad b een d rilled a pparently w ith t he a id o f ab ow d rill. P resumably t he o bject h ad b een u sed a s a n a nvil. B one t ools i nclude p oints, g azelle t oe-bone b eads, w hich h ave a lso b een f ound i n a n u nfinished s tate a s w ell a s s mall p iles o f g azelle p halanges , t ubular b one b eads, p endants , a nd a h aul o f f ive c omplete a nd f ive f ragmentary s ickle h afts f rom t he X X F s tructure. T he f laked s tone i ndustry w as d irected t owards t he p roduction o f f lakes a nd a lso s hort, t hick b ladelets , ( Tables 3 , 5 ), t he l atter b eing m ainly s truck f rom s ingle p latform a nd c hange o f o rientation b ladelet c ores ( Table 4 ). T he r etouched t ool k it i s v aried, t he p redominant c ategories b eing, i n d escending o rder o f f requency, b urins a nd m icroliths , which a re m ostly H elwan a nd i nverse-retouched b ladelets , l unates , n otches a nd d enticulates , s crapers a nd a s maller n umber o f d rills a nd h eavy t ools s uch a s p icks , c hoppers a nd b ifaces ( Table 3 ). F auna a nd f lora f rom t he s ite a re d iscussed b elow . A way f rom t he m ain e xcavation a rea , ar escue o peration i n 1 985 s alvaged a p it b urial c ut i nto t he t ravertine a nd e roding f rom t he c liff e dge. T he b urial c ontained t he s econdarily d eposited b ones o f a t l east t hree a dult h umans. G rave g oods i ncluded t wo l arge c hunks o f o chre a nd a d entalium n ecklace b unched u nder o ne o f t he m andibles ( see b elow).

5 .

T ypology a nd C ultural D esignations

T he l imited l ithic s ample f rom t he U pper P alaeolithic s ite o f W adi H ammeh 3 2 p recludes p recise c onclusions b ased o n f requencies o f a rtefact c ategories. W e h ave t entatively a ttributed i t t o t he l ate U pper P alaeolithic m ainly b ecause o f t he s ite 's s tratigraphic p roximity, i f n ot f ull c onformability, w ith t he o verlying K ebaran s ite W adi H ammeh 3 1. T ypologically, t he r etouched a ssemblage w ith i ts e ndscrapers o n f lakes a nd b lades, a nd d ihedral a nd t runcation b urins , w ould f it w ell i n t he L evantine A urignacian C , b ased o n c omparable m aterial f rom a r ange o f s tratified n orthern P alestinian s ites ( Ronen 1 976: 1 61-64), o r t he A thlitian o f e l-Wad C ( Garrard a nd B ate 1 937: 4 1-44). T he a ssemblage i ncludes m any b ladelet c ores a nd a t l east o ne b acked b ladelet. M icroliths h ave n ow b een d escribed f rom m any n orthern P alestinian " Aurignacian" s ites ( Belfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981: 2 7,

5 43

T able 6 .

G round s tone a nd b one a rtefacts f rom W adi H ammeh 2 7 ( Natufian)

N atufian P hase I .

B asalt t ools

A rtefact t ype

P lot C .

M ortar P estle G rinding s tone H ammerstone B owl M iniature b owl P late G rooved p laque

3 6 2 1 2 -

1 4

T otal

N atufian P hase I .

X X D F .

P lot X X E C . F .

1 9 2 1 1 6 2 1

2 -

1 1 1 1 -

3 2

2

4

P lot X X F C . F . 6 4 2 -

1 2

6 1 2 5 2 1 1

1 8

P lot X X G C . F . 1 -

-

- 2 1 1 1 5 1 1 3 2 3 12 2 2 5 2 2 - 2

1

-

2 9 5 4

L imestone t ools

A rtefact t ype

P lot C .

X X D F .

M ortar P estle G rinding s tone H ammerstone A nvil S haft s traightener M iniature b owl P late I ncised p laque I ncised p ebble I ncised p iece

2 2 1 -

1 5

-

1 1 -

1 3 1 1 2 -

1 2 1 1 2 -

1 1 -

-

T otal

5

6

-

2

8

7

2

-

N atufian P hase I . A rtefact t ype

P oint " Gorget" B ead B ead i n p reparation P endant S ickle h aft

T otal

T otal C . F .

P lot X X E C . F .

P lot X X F C . F .

P lot X X G C . F .

T otal C . F . 1 2 5 1 1 2 4 -

1 2 1 1 2 3 5

1 5 1 5

B one t ools P lot C . 4 7 4 -

1 5

X X D F .

P lot X X E C . F .

2 1 2 5 1 -

2 1

1 2 1 -

2 9

3

4

5 44

P lot X X F C . F . 2 8 2 4

1 6

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Z iffer 1 978). S ince t hese m icroliths a re g enerally m odified b y l ight m arginal r etouch , t he b acked s pecimen f rom W adi H ammeh 3 2 m ay b e a n i ntrusion f rom W adi H ammeh 3 1, o r a s imilar K ebaran s ite t hat h ad e xisted i n o verlying d eposits n ow e roded a way. T he e arly K ebaran s ites W adi H ammeh 2 6 a nd 3 1 f ill a b lank s pot i n o ur k nowledge o f t his p eriod i n n orthern T ransjordan . T he t wo s ites, d ated b etween 1 9,500 a nd 1 6,500 b .p., a re c onsistent t ypologically, b oth r etouched l ithic a ssemblages b eing d ominated b y n on-geometric m icroliths. T hese c onsist o f n arrow b acked b ladelets , m ost o f w hich a re o bliquely t runcated i n t he c ase o f W adi H ammeh 2 6, a nd s ome o f w hich a re s traight-truncated i n W adi H ammeh 3 1. G eometric m icroliths a nd a rched o r c urved m icropoints a re v ery r are. T he a ssemblages a ppear s imilar t o t he s ites F azael I II A , l evel 4 , a nd F azael I II D ( Goring-Morris 1 980 : 5 6-75), s ituated o n t he w estern m argins o f t he J ordan V alley, a nd Y abrud I II, l ayer 7 ( minus t he f requent c urved m icropoints o f t hese a ssemblages) w hich u nderly d eposits t hat c ontain n umbers o f g eometric m icrolfiths ( Rust 1 950 : 1 07-116). T he d ated K ebaran s ites i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh p rovide n ew d ata o n t he t iming o f t he t ransition b etween n on-geometric t o g eometric m icrolithic K ebaran f acies i n t he J ordan V alley. A n earby s ite l ocated o n t he e astern s hore o f L ake T iberias t hat c ontains g eometrics i s r adiocarbon-dated a t 1 7,600 ±600 b .p. ( Haon I I, B ar-Yosef 1 975: 1 0) w hereas d eposits t hat l ack g eometrics o r h ave t hem i n v ery l ow f requencies s uch a s N ahal O ren I X ( Noy e t a l. 1 973: 9 6) a s w ell a s t he W adi a l-Hammeh s ites a re d ated s omewhat e arlier b etween 1 9,500 a nd 1 6 ,500 b .p., s uggesting a t ransition t o t he i ntroduction o f g eometric m icroliths i n t he J ordan V alley b etween 1 7,500 a nd 1 6,500 y ears b .p. A p oint o f n egative e vidence m ay b e m entioned i n c onnection w ith t he m icrolithic t ype k nown a s t he F alita p oint ( Bar-Yosef 1 970: 2 11, R ust 1 950 : 1 16). O n t he b asis o f k nown f inds, B ar-Yosef p redicted t hat t he F alita p oint w ould b e f ound t o b e d istributed m ost h eavily e ast o f t he J ordan . A ssemblages t hat i nclude F alita p oints , s uch a s E in G ev I ( Bar-Yosef 1 970: 1 14). W adi M adamagh ( Kirkbride 1 958 : 5 65 7) a nd Y abrud I II, 3 ( Rust 1 950 : 1 16-119) a re e ither d ated l ate ( c. 1 5,700 b .p .) o r i nclude n umbers o f g eometric m icroliths w hether t hey b e t riangles, t rapezes o r r ectangles. T he e arly K ebaran s ites o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh l ack b oth t ypes , t hus i t s eems l ikely t hat t he t emporal r ange o f t he F alita p oint i s r estricted t o t he l ater K ebaran a nd G eometric K ebaran A p eriods. I nitial o bservations s uggest t hat t he E arly N atufian s ite o f W adi H ammeh 2 7 p resents m any p oints o f s imilarity w ith t he o pen-air s ite o f A in M allaha l ocated s ome 9 0km n orth o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh. B oth s ites a re a bout t he s ame s ize , s hare f amiliar a rchitectural a ttributes, s uch a s t he c onstruction o f c urvilinear s tructures w ith s unken , d ry-built l imestone w alls a nd s tone-ringed p ost h oles , a nd e xhibit s triking p arallels a mongst t he g round s tone a rtefacts , f or e xamples i n t he t ypes o f b asalt b owls, d isc-shaped p lates w ith c entral-bored h ole, p estles , g rooved p laques a nd t he t ypes o f c renellated a nd o ther g eometric m otifs e ngraved i n b asalt a nd l imestone ( pers. c omm . G . D ollfus 1 986). I t i s w ell-known t hat f requencies o f r etouched t ools v ary w idely a mongst N atufian s ites ( Henry 1 981: 4 23), h owever t he w ide r ange o f r etouched a rtefacts p resent a t A in M allaha , i nclusive o f m any t ypes f rom l arge

5 45

p icks t o H elwan H ammeh 2 7.

6 .

l unates ( Valla 1 985) a re a lso

e ncountered

a t

W adi

P rocurement o f R aw M aterials

T o d ate t he o nly t ruly e xotic m aterials d iscovered i n a ny o f s ites r eported a bove a re t he D entalium v ulgare s hells f rom M editerranean s ea , f ound i n t he N atufian s ite W adi H ammeh 2 7.

t he t he

B asalt o utcrops a nd f lows o f v arious a ges a re n umerous a long b oth e dges o f t he J ordan R ift V alley a nd e manating f rom t he H auran , y et t he n earest p ossible s ource a re Q uaternary-Neogene o utcrops a lmost d irectly o pposite t he W adi a l-hammeh o n J abal a l-Fuqqu 'a , ad istance o f a bout 1 0km , o r n ot m ore t han a d ay 's j ourney a way. A ll o f t he o ther i norganic m aterials u tilized a re t o b e f ound i mmediately i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh d rainage b asin , n earby t o t he s outh i n t he W adi M alawi-Wadi J irm o r o n t he w atershed b etween t he t wo s ystems . T he s iltstone s labs w hich w ere e ngraved , f ound i n W adi H ammeh 2 7 w ere d erived f rom t he b asement r ock u nderlying t he C retaceous/ T ertiary l imestones o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh . T here i s a s ource o f a gates a nd o ther s emi-precious w aterworn s tones o n T ell A bu R amleh b etween t he W adi a l-Himar a nd t he W adi J irm ( Plate 1 : d ), s uch a s o ne f ound i n a p it i n W adi H ammeh 2 7; a bundant s ources o f r ed a nd y ellow o chre a nd o ther v ariously p igmented c lays a re t o b e f ound i n t he w adi s ections n ear t he H ammamat A bu D habla s pring , l imestone i s g eneral i n t he a rea , a nd t here a re s everal l ocal s ources o f c herts. R ich p rimary d eposits o ccur i n t he U pper C retaceous l imestones o n J abal S artaba o verlooking t he W adi M alawi a nd o n J ebel H ammeh i n W adi a l-Hammeh , a lluvial c obbles o f m any p igmentations f rom d ark g rey t o p ale b rown a nd r ose o ccur i n t he b ed o f t he W adi a l-Hammeh , a nd t here a re h uge a mounts o f e arlier P alaeolithic f laked s tone d ebitage i ssuing f rom t he W adi a l-Hammeh s ections. A n otable c hange i n s election h abits f or c hert o ccurs s ome t ime b etween t he K ebaran a nd t he N atufian i n t he l ocal s equence. I n t he K ebaran s ites p ale b rown a lluvial c obbles, w hich w ould h ave m ade c onv eniently s ized c ore b lanks, w ere a lmost a lways u sed t o t he e xclusion o f o ther t ypes. I n t he N atufian s ite g rey, b lack , b rown a nd r ose c herts w ere u sed a s w ell a s c halcedony.

7 .

S ettlement P atterns

D uring m uch o f t he P leistocene p eriod t he p resence o f w ater , i n t he f orm o f a s pring o r s prings a ncestral t o t he m odern H ammamat A bu D habla , a nd t he a djacent L ake L isan , m ust h ave b een a p owerful a ttract ion f or h umans t o o ccupy t he W adi a l-Hammeh . W e b elieve t his f actor t o b e t he m ajor r eason f or t he v ast a ccumulations o f a rchaeological m aterial i n t he c liff s ections o f t he w adi s ystem , o utweighing t he m any o ther u ndoubted a ttractions t hat t he a rea w ould h ave h eld, s uch a s t he a bundant a nd v aried f lora a nd f auna , a nd t he r elatively m ild w inter t emperatures ( Reiss e t a l. 1 984). T he o ccupation s ites a re d eemed t o h ave b een e stablished o n

5 46

f lat,

g rassy g rounds w ithin t he l ower W adi a l-Hammeh i n c lose p roximity t o t he R ift V alley p roper . I n t his r egion t he a djacent v alley w alls p rovide b oth p rotection f rom t he e lements a nd h igh g round f rom w hich t o o verlook t he R ift V alley. A nother c ontributory f actor w hich g oes s ome w ay t o e xplain t he a rchaeological r ichness o f E pipalaeolithic s ites f lanking t he J ordan V alley i s t he s imple f act o f t he s erendipitous e xposure o f P leistocene d eposits a long t he r ift e dge, w here s evere d owncutting f ollowed t he d esiccation o f L ake L isan y ielding d isproportionately l arge q uantities o f a rchaeological t races r elative t o t he h interland t o t he e ast o f t he v alley, o r m ore s tarkly, w ith t he r ecent a lluvial f loor o f t he J ordan V alley . E lsewhere ( Edwards 1 986) i t i s a rgued t hat i n ad issected a rea w ith h ighly d ifferential e xposures o f v arious g eological u nits , r aw s ite n umbers a lone a re a n i nadequate a nd u ncontrolled b asis f or d emographic c omparisons. T he e arliest i n s itu s ites s o f ar d iscerned a re t he K ebaran o nes l ocated i n t he d ark s ilty c lays. T hese s mall o ccurrences i ndicate a p attern o f t ransient o ccupation o f t he w adi d uring t he K ebaran , m arked b y l ateral s hifting o f s mall c amp s ites. T he s ilts a nd l imestones o verlying t he d ark K ebaran c lays m ark a h iatus i n t he W adi a l-Hammeh a rchaeological s equence, s ince n o s ites o f t he G eometric K ebaran A p eriod h ave y et b een f ound. F ollowing t his l acuna c omes t he l arge N atufian s ite o f W adi H ammeh 2 7, c onsisting o f a ggregates o f c urvilinear s tructures w hich a ppear t o h ave b een l argely r ebuilt o ver t hree c onstructional p hases, i ndicating a t l east a s emi-mobile w ay o f l ife. ( P .C .E . a nd P .G .M .)

8 .

S ubsistence D ata

8 .1

A nimal R emains

T he h igh t axonomic d iversity o f t he f auna f rom W adi H ammeh 2 7, p articularly n oticeable a mong t he a rtiodactyl m ammals ( Table 8 ), i s p robably a r eflection o f t he c omplex m osaic o f h abitats w hich e xisted a t t he t ime o f t he N atufian o ccupation w here t he R ift V alley i ntersects w ith t he T ransjordanian p lateau: c rag, r iverine, u pland, p aludal a nd l acustrine. T he i dentified f auna i ncludes l arge, m edium a nd s mall m ammals , r eptiles , c rustaceans, m olluscs a nd m any , b ird s pecies ( Garrard , W est, R ich , M engden , R eese, H uset p ers. c omm .' ). F aunal e lements f rom t he K ebaran s ite W adi H ammeh 2 6 ( Table 7 ) w ere e xtremely f ragmentary, l ike t he f auna f rom W adi H ammeh 2 7, a nd a lthough i t w as m uch s maller t he f auna f rom t he t ransitory c amp s ite r epresented m any s pecies f rom d ifferent t rophic l evels: a rtiodactyl m ammals , s mall c arnivorous m ammals , b irds a nd r eptiles.

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