People and Culture in Change, Parts i and ii: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Populations of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin 9781407387130, 9781407387147, 9780860546498, 9781407347998

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EDITOR'S PREFACE
Acknowledgements
ROLAND MENK (1945-1985)
SECTION ON ARCHAEOLOGY
SECTION ON PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Continuation of Section on Physical Anthropology (Part II)

Citation preview

People and Culture in Change Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Populations of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin Editor

Israel Hershkovitz Associate Editors Baruch Arensburg, Ofer Bar-Yosef and Patricia Smith Editorial Assistant Betty Ring

Part i Department of Anatomy and Anthropology Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv U ni�ersity, Israel

BAR International Series 508(i)

1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR �08 (I), 1989: 'People and Culture in Change' Part I

© The Individual •uthors, 1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387130 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387147 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546498 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347998 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546498 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS Preface I. Hershkovitz ................................................................................................................................v Roland Menk ( 1945-1985) .........................................................................................................ix INTRODUCTION TO SECTION ON ARCHAEOLOGY 0. Bar-Yosef .................................................................................................................................. l Developments in Terminal Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherer Socio-Cultural Systems: A Perspective from the Negev and Sinai Deserts A.N. Goring-Morris ..................................................................................................................... :7 Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Blades in the Levant M. Lamdan and A. Ronen ........................................................................................................... 29 Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Lower Jordan Valley from Epipalaeolithic to Neolithic Times E. Hovers .....................................................................................................................................37 Some Aspects of Natufian Mortuary Behavior at Nahal Oren T. Noy..........................................................................................................................................53 The Levantine "PPNB" Interaction Sphere 0. Bar-Yosef and A. Belfer-Cohen .............................................................................................59 The Collapse of Early Neolithic Settlements in the Southern Levant G.O. Rollefson and I. Kohler-Rollefson .............................................. � ......................................73 Diffusion Process in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic Levant: The Case of the Helwan Point A. Gopher .................................................................................................................................... 91 The Origins of Craft Specialization: Lithic Perspectives S.A. Rosen ................................................................................................................................ 107 Artificial Skull "Treatment" in the PPNB Period: Nahal Hemar B. Arensburg and I. Hershkovitz ............................................................................................... 115 PPNA Burials from Hatoula (Israel) F. Le Mort .................................................................................................................................133 The Plastered Skulls of' Ain Ghazal: Preliminary Findings C. Butler ....................................................................................................................................141 Pre-Domesticated Cereals in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Period M.E. Kislev ...............................................................................................................................147

A Reassessment of Caprovine Domestication in the Levantine Neolithic: Old Questions, New Answers L. Kolska Horwitz .....................................................................................................................153 T he Epipalaeolithic Ungulate Remains from Ksar 'Akil: Sc._>me Preliminary Results A.M.P. Kersten .......................................................................................................................... 183 Modeling the Effects of Subsistence Pattern Change on Prehistoric Populations L.A. Schepartz ..........................................................................................................................199 The Great Goddess - An Ideological Shift in the Neolithic Societies A. Wiercinski ............................................................................................................................221 INTRODUCTION TO SECTION ON PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY P. Smith .............� ...................................... ; ................................................................................231 A Taxonomy of Historic Mediterranean Populaions F.W. Rosing ...............................................................................................................................233 Characterizing Prehistoric SE Spanish Crania: Some Considerations of Metrical and Non-Metrical Observations M.J. Walker ...............................................................................................................................247 Oral Pathologies in the European Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic D.W. Fray er ...............................................................................................................................255 Reconstruction of Mesolithic Diet Using Dental Microwear and Trace Element Analysis. The Case of Grotta Dell'Uzzo (Sicily) S.M. Borgognini Tarli, D. Della Santina, P. Francalacci and E. Repetto ..................................283 Trace Element and Isotope Research in Progress: Implications for Near Eastern Archaeology A. Sillen, J. Sealy, J. Lee Thorp, L.K. Horwitz and N.J. van der Merwe .................................321 An Attempt to Reconstitute Demographically the Upper Palaeolithic Populations of Europe and the Mediterranean Region J. Nemeskeri ..............................................................................................................................335 Biological Consequences of the "Neolithic Revolution": T he Case of the Middle European Populations J. Piontek ...................................................................................................................................367 Paleonutrition and Subsistence Patterns in the Natufians P. Smith .....................................................................................................................................375 People and Environment in the Neolithic Age in Hungary I. Pap ·········································································································································385

ii

Relations du Proche-Orient a L'Europe au Paleolithique Superieur M. Otte ......................................................................................................................................397 Limb Lateralization and Social Stratification in Western European Mesolithic Societi�s T.S. Constandse-Westermann and R.R. Newell ....................................................................... .405 Les Vivants et les Morts. Les Sepultures du Paleolithique Superieur en Italie et leur Interpretation M. Mussi, D.W. Frayer and R. Macchiarelli ............................................................................ .435 La Question des Rapports entre la Sicile et L' Afrique du Nord Pendant le Paleolithique Superieur Final: La Contribution de L' Archeologie D. Zampetti ...............................................................................................................................459 Our Mediterran�an Region in Light of Archaeological and Biological Data E. Deniz and C._ �en tuna ...........................................................................................................477 Connections Between North African and Saharan Cromagnoids: New Data and Hypotheses 0. Du tour ..................................................................................................................................489 Epipaleolithic Remains from the Northeast Iberian Peninsula D. Turban ..................................................................................................................................495 Les Populations Post-Paleolithiques D'Espagne: Morphologie, Culture et Ecologie M.D. Garralda ...........................................................................................................................505 The Dramatic End of the Sardinian Paleolithic Island Economy P. Sondaar, G. Klein Hofmeijer and M. Sanges ........................................................................517 Time-Series in the Size of the Splanchnocranium Since the Upper Paleolithic Period A. Wierciftska ............................................................................................................................523 The Transition from Mesolithic to Early Neolithic in Southeastern and Eastern Europe: An Anthropological Outline R. Menk and J. Nemeskeri ........................................................................................................531 Biological Distances in Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Human Populations in Europe W. Henke ...................................................................................................................................541

iii

IV

ED ITOR 'S PREFACE O n t h e l a s t d ay o ft h e F i r s t S ympo s ium o n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic P opu la t ion s o f E u rope a nd t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in , h e ld i n P i sa i n 1 984 , Iw a s e l ec ted t o o rgan ize t h e S econd S ympo s ium i nT e l A v iv i n 1 987 . Ia ccep ted t h e n om ina t ion w i th , Ic on f e s s , t r ep ida t ion i nv i ew o ft h e c on s ide rab le r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h e u nder tak ing . I tt ook a lmos t t wo y ea r s o fh a rd w o rk t o r a ise t h e n ece ssa ry f und s a nd t o o rgan ize t h e S econd S ympos ium . Many p eop le c on t r ibu ted i nt ime a nd e f fo r t t ot h e s uccessfu l a r rangemen t s a nd o rgan iza t ion , t oo many t oc i te b y n ame . A nd t o t h e many s cho la r s f r om a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld w ho a t tended a nd a c t ive ly p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e s t imu la t ing p re sen ta t ion s a nd d i scu ss ion s , Ia m a l so i ndeb ted a nd g ra tefu l . I n s ho r t , Ia m h appy t or e por t , t h e S ympo s ium i nT e l A v iv w a s as uccess . Ia m s u re t h a t t h e n ex t S ympo s ium t o b e h e ld i n B udapes t i n 1 990 w i l l c on t inue t h e t r ad i t ion o f p a r t ic ipa t ion a nd e xce l lence . Wha t h a s made t h ese s ympos ia u n ique i st h e i n te rd isc ip l ina ry a pp roach t ot h e s t udy o f p reh is to r ic man : c u l tu ra l , b io log ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l d a ta r e la ted t o o ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t p ha ses i n h uman e vo lu t ion , s ome 2 0 ,000 -8 ,000 y ea r s B .P . , w e re a na lyzed a nd i n terp re ted b y ad i ve r s i ty o fk now ledgeab le s pec ia l is t s . T he o u tcome o ft h e i n te rac t ion b e tween r e sea rche r s o f d i f f eren t d i sc ip l ines g rea t ly e n r iched t h e k now ledge o f p a s t h uman l i f e , a nd o pened u pn ew v i s ta so fr e sea rch .

I s rae l H er shkov i tz E d i tor

V

T he S econd S ympo s ium o n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic P opu la t ion s o f E u rope a nd t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in , h e ld i nT e l A v iv , I s rae l , i n1 987 w a sg ene rou s ly s uppo r ted b yt h ef o l low ing :

T e l A v iv U n iver s i ty S ack ler F acu l ty o f Med ic ine D epar tmen to fA na tomy & An thropo logy I s rae l iA cademy o fS c ience s T he J eru sa lem C en ter f o r An thropo log ica l S tud ie s T he I s rae l Museum M in i s try o fF ore ign A f fa ir s T he I s rae l P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty Wenner -Gren F ounda t ion f or An thropo log ica l R e search

T oo ne a nd a l o ft h e a bove , o u rs pec ia l t h ank sa nd g ra t i tude !

v i

ROLAND MENK (1945-1985)

ROLAND MENK ( 1945 -1985 ) " . .wh i le ma in ta in ing i n tac t h i s i n ter es tf or s c ien t if ic r e sear ch , i n tended a s a n i n s trumen t o fk now ledge , n o t a s a n o b jec t o f c ompe t i t ion o ra s am eans o fp ower ." ( R . LEV I MONTALC IN I -I np ra ise o fi mpe r f ec t ion ,B a s ic B ook s , 1 987 )

A f ew w eek s b efo re h i s s udden d ea th , R o land Menk p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e m ee t ing o f t h e e d i to r ia l c omm i t tee o f t h e P roceed ings o f t h e F i r s t S ympo s ium o n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic P opu la t ion s o f E u rope a nd t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in , h e ld i n P i sa i n 1 984 . Unfor tuna te ly , an umbe r o fd i f f icu l t ies p reven ted t h e c omm i t tee f r om c omp le t ing w ha t wou ld . h ave b een h i s l a s ts c ien t if ic a ch ievemen t . I ti sp a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t a nd a pp ropr ia te t h a t t h e v o lume o f t h e P roceed ing s o f t h e S econd S ympo s ium o nU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic P opu la t ion s o fE u rope a nd t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in ,h e ld i nT e lA v iv i nS ep tembe r , 1 987 ,b ed ed ica ted t oh i s memory . R o land Menk w a s b or n i n Z ür ich o n J une 6 , 1 945 . H e g radua ted i n B io logy f r om t h e Un ive r s i ty o f G eneva i n 1 969 a nd r e ce ived h i s P h .D . i n An th ropo logy f r om t h e s ame Un ive r s i ty i n 1 979 , d ef end ing a t h e s is e n t i t led " An th ropo log ie d u N eo l i th ique e u ropeen . Ana lyse mu l t iva r iee e te s say d e s yn thse" . T he t h es is w a sp ub l i shed i n1 981 i nt h ec o l lec t ion o f D oc to ra l T heses o f t h e F acu l ty o f S c ience s o f G eneva a nd r ema in s a n e xamp le o f t hough tfu l a pp l ica t ion o f mu l t iva r ia te s t a t is t ics t op rob lems o fm ic roevo lu t ion i ns ke le ta lp opu la t ion s . A s i sw e l l s t a ted a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e P h .D . t h es i s , q uo t ing f r om I mmanue l K an t , t h e i n t roduc t ion o f ma thema t ica l l a nguage , p rocedu re s a nd r i gou r i np reh is to r ic a n th ropo logy w a s a mong t h e ma in c oncer n so fR o land Menk . One o f h i s c h ief r e sea rch i n te res t s w a s t h e N eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i n E u rope a nd i t s c on sequences i n t e rm s o f p opu la t ion s t ruc tu re . T he refo re , s i nce 1 969 , h e d evo ted t ime a nd e ne rgy t o t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ad a tabank o n t h e a n th ropo logy o f t h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic , t oge the rw i th al i b ra ry o fc ompu te rp rog rams d ev i sed f o ro p t ima lh and l ing o ft h is k ind o fd a ta . I n 1 975 , h e wo rked a t H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty a s aR esea rch F e l low a nd i n 1 976 , a t t h e P eabody Mu seum o f A rchaeo logy a nd An th ropo logy , d ea l ing w i th p rob lem s o f c i rcumpo la r p opu la t ion s . I n 1 976 , r e tur n ing t ot h e U n ive r s i ty o fG eneva , h e w a s a ppo in ted A ss is tan tP rof e sso ri nt h e D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , w he re h eb ecame a nA s soc ia te P rof esso ri n1 981 . Among h i s i n ter na t iona l c o l labo ra t ions , t h a t w i th t h e I n s t i tu te o f An th ropo logy o f t h e U n iver s i ty o f Ma inz ( FRG ) mu s t b e c i ted f i r s t . T oge the r w i th P rof . I l se S chw ide tzky , h e c on t r ibu ted t ot h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ad a tabank o fh i s tor ica l p opu la t ion s o fE u rope , a nd w i th D r . W inf r ied H enke t ot h ep roces s ing o f me t r ic d a ta o fE u ropean Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s . H e a l so e s tab l ished c on tac ts w i th E a s ter n E u ropean i n s t i tu t ion s a nd c o l leagues , p a r t icu la r ly w i th P rof . J anos N emesker i , w i th w hom h e s t ud ied t h e h uman s ke le ta l ma te r ia l f r om t h e I r on G a te s . T h is mos t c omp le te s ke le ta l a s semb lage , d a ted t ot h e t r an s i t ion p e r iod b e tween t h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic i nE a s ter n E u rope , i so ne o ft h e mo re i n te re s t ing b io log ica la r ch ive sd ocumen t ing t h ep a ssage f r om f ood g a the r ing t of ood p roduc t ion i nE u rope . R o land Menk p a r t ic ipa ted i n an umbe r o f s c ien t if ic s oc ie t ies . H e w a s P res iden t o f t h e S oc ie te S u isse d 'An th ropo log ie i n 1 982 a nd 1 983 a nd , s i nce t h en a nd u p t o h i s d ea th , h e e n su red t h e p ub l ica t ion o ft h e o rgan o ft h is s ame s oc ie ty , t h e A rch ives S u isse s d 'An th ropo log ie G ene ra le , e d i ted i nG eneva . i x

T o a c t a s amanage r w a s n o t a mong t h e f a vou r i te o ccupa t ion s o fR o land Menk . I ns p i te o f t h i s , h e c ou ld b e a n e xce l len t o rgan ize r o f m ee t ing s , a s d emon s t ra ted b y t h e s ucce s s o f t h e I n te rna t iona l S ympo s ium o n " An th ropo log ie e tA r cheo log ie , l ec a s d e s p rem ie re s c i v i l i sa t ion s d um e ta l" ,h e ld i nG eneva i n1 978 i nh onou ro fh i s l a te m en to r ,P rof . Ma r cR . S au te r . A t t h e momen t o fh i s d ea th , R o land Menk l e f t u nf in i shed an umbe r o fr e sea rch p ro jec t s , i n c lud ing t h e p rob lem o fI ndo -Eu ropean iza t ion o fG reece , t h e a n th ropo logy o ft h e I r on G a te s , t h ep opu la t ion b i o logy o ft h e E sk imo f r om S t . L aw rence I s land , a nd t h e t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e C oppe ra nd B ronze A ge si nE a s te rn H unga ry . F rom h i s w o rk w e may e va lua te w ha t E u ropean p r eh i s to r ic a n th ropo logy h a s l o s t i nt e rm s o f s c ien t if ic p roduc t ion w i th t h e u n t ime ly p a s s ing o f R o land Menk . I ti s mo r e d if i cu l t t o e va lua te wha tw eh ave l o s ti nt e rm so fh e lp b y at o le ran t ,b road -m inded a nd g ene rous c o l league u pon w hom many o fu sr e l ied a s ac u s tod ian o f ap e rhap so ld -f a sh ioned ,b u tv e ry a g r eeab le a nd c o rd ia lm idd le -eu ropean p rof e s s iona lm i l ieu . PUBL ICAT IONS Menk , R . 1 970 Mensura t ion e tR econs t i tu t ion d e l aC apac i te C ran ienne . E tude C ran io log ique d 'une S er ie P rovenan t d e l a V a l lee d u R hone V a la i san . T rava i l d e l i cence . D epa r temen t d 'An th ropo log ie d el 'Un ive r s i te d eG eneve . Menk , R . a nd Mö sch le r , P .1 973 A n th ropo log ie g ene t ique d an s l eC lo s d u D oub s ( J u ra b er no i s , S u i s se ) .A c te sd el aS oc ie te H e lve t ique d e sS c ience sN a tur e l le s , 1 53 :33 -35 . Menk , R . a nd P e I l i , E . 1 973 A na ly se d e l ' homogam ie d an s l eC lo s d u D oub s ( J u ra b er no i s , S u i s se ) .A c te sd el aS oc ie te H e lve t ique d e sS c ience sN a tur e I les , 1 53 :35 -37 . G a lay , A . , C ha ix , L . a nd Menk , R . 1 974 S ion , P e t i t -Cha s seu r ( V a la i s , S u i s se ) . D o lmen M X I . P rob leme s d 'e labo ra t ion . S tage d 'e tude 1 974 . D epa r temen t d 'An th ropo log ie d e l 'Un ive r s i te d eG eneve . Menk , R . 1 975 E in A u toma t i sche s D okumen ta t ion s sy s tem ü be r a n th ropo log i sche L i te ra tu r . Homo , 2 6 :261-263 . Menk , R . 1 977 L a n eo l i th i sa t ion : i mpac t d e l ' innova t ion c u l tu re l le s u r l a b i o log ie e t l a d ynam ique d e sp opu la t ion s .A r ch ives S u i s ses d 'An thropo log ie G ene ra le ,4 1 :31-36 . Menk , R . 1 978 C ommen t o n : H ennebe rg , M . , P ion tek , J .a nd S t rza lko , J .N a tu ra l s e lec t ion a nd mo rpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty : t h e c a se o f E u rope f r om N eo l i th ic t o moder n t ime s . C urr . A n thropo l . , 1 9 :75 -76 . Menk , R . 1 978 S t e reome t r ie c r an ienne : r e a l i sa t ion d 'un v i eux r e ve d e l ' an th ropo log ie . A r ch ives S u i s se sd 'Ant h ropo log ie G ene ra le ,4 2 :23 -30 . Menk , R . 1 978 L a m e su re d e s d i f f e rence s mo rpho log ique s e n t r e p opu la t ion s h uma ine s . R ev i s ion c r i t ique d e c oef f ic ien t s d e d i s tance e tl e u rp a r tage e n g randeu re tf o rme .A r ch ives S u i s se sd 'An thropo log ie G ene ra le ,4 2 :55 -74 . Menk , R . 1 979 D a tenbank f ü r d i e h i s to r i sche An th ropo log ie : e i n V o tum f ü r e i n g eme in same s V o rgehen b e id e rD a tenbe schaf f ung .A r ch ive sS u i s ses d 'An thropo log ie G enera le ,4 3 :21-25 . Menk , R . 1 979 E va lua t ion Q uan t i ta t ive d e L 'I mpor tance d e s D if f er en t s C r i t i .r es D e term ina t ion d uS exe . A kade rn ia iK iadö ,B udape s t .

d e

Menk , R . 1 979 A s ynop s i s o ft h e p hy s ica l a n th ropo logy o ft h e C o rded Wa re C omp lex o n t h e b a ckg round o ft h ee xpan s ion o ft h eK u rgan c u l tu re s .J .I ndo -European S tud ie s , 8 : 361-392 . Menk , R . 1 979 D a ta B ank s i n h i s to r ica l a n th ropo logy : t h e ma te r ia l i n f ra s truc tu re f o r i n te rd isc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch .A r ch ives S u i s se sd 'An thropo log ie G enera le ,4 3 :331-342 . Menk , R . 1 979 L e p henomene c ampan ifo rme : s t ruc tu re s b i o log ique s e ti n teg ra t ion h i s to r ique . A r ch ive sS u i s se sd 'An thropo log ie G enera le ,4 3 :259 -284 . K rama r , C h r . a nd Menk , R . 1 979 L e s c r ane s d e l a P i e r re -aux -Dame s ( T ro inex , G eneve ) . P rob leme s l i e s äl ' a t t r ibu t ion c h rono log ique e tc u l tu re l le . A r ch ives S u i s ses d 'Ant hropo log ie G ene ra le ,4 3 :11-20 .

Menk , R . 1 980 L 'ana ly se d es c l us te r s e n An th ropo log ie p hys ique , u ne n ouve l le m&hode : l e s d end rog rammes t r idemen s ionne ls .A r ch ives S u i sses d 'A n thropo log ie G6 ib -a le ,4 4 :51-59 . Menk , R . 1 981 Mo rpho log ie c r an ienne : f o rme e tg randeu r . A r ch ives S u i sses d 'A n thropo log ie G i .n &a le ,4 5 :31-4 1 . Menk , R . 1 981 N 6c ro log ie Er n s t K a r l B uech i . A r ch ives S u i s ses d 'A n thropo log ie G agra le , 4 5 :103 -104 . Menk , R . 1 981 A n thropo log ie d u N jo l i th ique e urop M 7 . A na ly se mu l t ivar i& e t e s sa i d e s yn thi .se . T hse , Un iver s i té d eG en ve . G loo r , P .A . , Houda i l le , J .a nd Menk , R . 1 981 T a i l le e t c ou leu r d e s y eux : 1 0 .064 6 16 res d e l ' Eco le P o ly techn ique d e P a r is , 1 794 -1874 . A r ch ives S u i sses d 'A n thropo log ie G jneTa le , 4 5 :17 -29 . L ag ie r , R . , B aud , C .A . , Ar naud , G . , Ar naud , S . a nd Menk , R . 1 982 L e s ion s c ha rac ter i s t ic o f i n f ec t ion o r ma l ignan t t umo r i nP a leo -E sk imo s ku l ls . An a na tom ica l a nd r ad io log ica l s t udy o ft wo s pec imen s . V i r chow sA r ch iv . ( Pa tho log ica lA na tomy ) , 3 95 :23 -26 . Menk ,

R . • 1 982

H rd l icka 's

d a ta

o n

A rc t ic

Mongo l id .

A

p re l im ina ry

s yn the s is .

I

An th ropo log ica lC ong res s o fA les H rd l icka , Un ive r s i ta sC a ro l ina P ragen s i s ,p p .23 -26 . Menk , R . a nd N emesk& i , J . 1 982 Mo rpho log ica l v a r ia t ion s d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om Meso l i th ic t oE a r ly N eo l i th ic : ah i s to r ica l i n terp re ta t ion o ft h ep opu la t ion b io logy i nt h e I r on G a te r eg ion . IC ong les I n ter na t iona l d e P a l6on to log ie H uma ine , N ice . R ésumé s d e s C ommun ica t ion s ,p . 161 . Menk ,

R .

a nd

G a l lay ,

A .

1 983

N 6c ro log ie

Ma rc -Rodo lphe

S au te r .

A r ch ives

S u isses

d 'A n thropo log ie GMjra le ,4 7 :1-12 E t te r , H .U .F . a nd Menk , R . 1 983 D ie n eo l i th ischen u nd f r üb ronzeze i t l ichen men sch l ichen S ke le t te a u sZ ü r ich - Moza r t s t ra sse .A r ch ives S u i sses d 'A n thropo log ie GMb -a le ,4 7 :83 -102 . Menk , R . 1 984 L ' info rma t ique e n An th ropo log ie : u ne c hance ma l e xp lo i t &? A r ch ives S u isses d 'A n thropo log ie GMb -a le ,4 8 :5 -8 . R o thenf luh , E . a nd Menk , R . 1 984 E ine mu l t iva r ia te Ana lyse ü be r d i e S chäde lmo rpho log ie r e zen te r h y loba t ide r u nd p ong ide r P r ima ten . A rch ives S u i sse s d 'A n thropo log ie GMjra le , 4 8 :25 -30 . S imon , C h r . a nd Menk ,R . 1 984 D iach ron ic s t ud ie so ft h ei n ter na l s t ruc tu re o fs ome p opu la t ion s o ft h e N i le V a l ley b y mean s o f mu l t iva r ia te a na lys is o f mo rphome t r ic d a ta . I V C ong re ss o f t h e E u ropean A n th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , F lo rence . R é sumés d e s C ommun ica t ions . A n tropo log ia C on temporanea , 7 : 147 -14 . S imon , C h r . a nd Menk ,R . 1 984 D iach ron ic s t ud ies o ft h ei n ter na l s t ruc tu re o fs ome p opu la t ion s o f t h e N i le V a l ley b y mean s o f mu l t iva r ia te a na lys is o f morphome t r ic d a ta . A n t ropo log ia C on temporanea , 8 : 95 -104 . U l r ich -Boch s le r , S . , Menk , R . a nd S chaub l in , E . 1 985 D ie B eö lkerung v on O be rw i l b e i B ü ren . I n : P .E ggenbe rge r &H . K e l lenbe rge r ( ed s . ) O berw i l b e in B ür en a n d er A ar e R ef orm ier te P f arrk ir che . S taa t l iche rL eh rm i t te lve r lag ,B ern . p p .80 -108 . Menk , R . 1 986 T he t r an s i t ion f r om Meso l i th ic t oE a r ly N eo l i th ic i nS ou thea s ter n a nd E a s ter n E u rope : a n a n th ropo log ica l o u t l ine . Ab s t rac t s o f t h e F ou r th C ong re ss o f t h e E u ropean A n th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion . P o s t -Cong ress S ympos ium o n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic /Me so l i th ic P opu la t ion so fE u rope a nd t h e Med i ter ranean B a s in . I n ter na t .J .A n thropo l . , 1 : 187 .

x i

P ar ti

I NTRODUCT ION TO S ECT ION ON ARCHAEOLOGY O f er B ar -Y o sef Harvard U n iver s i ty , U SA Wr i t ing a n i n t roduc t ion f o r t h is g roup o fp aper s i sn o t a n e a sy t a sk . A s semb led h e re in a r e p ape r s b y s cho la r s who a r e e n thus ia s t ica l ly i n te res ted i ns t udy ing t h e L a te rP reh is to ry , b u t a l so c ome f r om d ive r se " schoo ls" o f A rchaeo logy a nd An th ropo logy . Is ha l l t h e refo re a t temp t a n o verv iew , s ha r ing w i th r eade r s s ome o ft h e i d ea s wh ich emerged f r om t h e i n fo rma l d i scu ss ion s d u r ing t h e c onf e rence a s w e l l a s s ome c u r ren t v i ews c once r n ing t h e i s sue s r a ised b y s eve ra l p a r t ic ipan t s . T he a r chaeo log ica l p ape r s i n t h is v o lume d ea l w i th d ive r se s ub jec t s . A f ew o f t h ese a r e d i rec t ly c oncer ned w i th t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic o f b o th E u rope a nd t h e L evan t , wh i le o the r s t r ea t t h e i s sue s o ft h e N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd i t s a f te rma th . T he g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e p ape r s , w hen v i ewed o n aL evan t ine s ca le , i s q u i te l a rge . T he e n t i re E u ropean wo r ld , t h eN ea rE a s ta nd E a s tA f r ica a r e d ea l tw i th , b u tt h e ma in r eg ion i st h a to ft h e s ou the rn a nd c en t ra l L evan t . N eed le ss t o s ay , t h is i st h e r e su l t o f h o ld ing ac onf e rence i nT e l A v iv , whe re a l a rge n umbe r o f l o ca l a r chaeo log is t s w e re a b le t o p a r t ic ipa te , b u t i ta l so r ep resen t st h el a rge amoun to ff i e ld wo rk d one i nr e cen ty ea r s i nt h is r eg ion . One o f t h e ma jo r i s sue s i ns uch ad i ve r s if ied mee t ing i sc u l tu ra l c ompa r ison s a c ro ss l a nd ma s ses . S uch c ompa r ison s a r e o f ten u sed a s t h e b a s i s f o r w r i t ing u p t h e h i s to ry o fp reh is to r ic g roup s . Howeve r , t h e s ca le o f s uch c ro ss -cu l tu ra l s t ud ies d i f f e r s f r om o ne p ape r t o a no the r . Wh i le t h e o ne b y M . O t te c ove r s l a rge p o r t ion s o f t h e E u ropean wo r ld , t h e s i ze o f t h e g eog raph ic r eg ion d ea l t w i th i nt h e p ape r s b y D . Z ampe t t i , 0 . B a r -Yo sef a nd A . B e lf e r -Cohen , A . Gophe r ,N . Gor ing - Mo r r is ,a nd E . Hove r s ,i sr educed . Mos t o ft h ese p ape r s d e sc r ibe a nd d i scuss t h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e c l o s ing m i l lenn ia o ft h e P l e is tocene a nd t h eE a r ly Ho locene . T he i mp ress ion o ne g e t sf r om r ev iew ing t h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e T erm ina l P le is tocene i so f as t eady g row th o f h uman p opu la t ion s . Many b i o topes wh ich w e re n o t e xp lo i ted d ur ing t h e max imum o f t h e L a te G lac ia l w e re o pened f o r h uman h ab i ta t ion . T hese i n c lude t h e h ighe ra l t i tude s , v a s td ese r ta r ea s i nt h e N ea rE a s t , a nd t h e Med i te r ranean i s land s . E ach o ft h ese d eserves s ome a dd i t iona lc ommen t s . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o fh ighe ra l t i tudes , s uch a st h eZ ag ro sr ange so rt h eA lps w a st h er e su l to f t h e c l ima t ic ame l io ra t ion wh ich r e su l ted i nt h e e xpan s ion o f f o re s t s a nd s t epp ic e nv i ronmen t s i n to t h e h ighe r moun ta ins . F o r h un te r -ga the re r e conom ies i td id n o t c au se ama jo r c hange , b u t e nab led t h em t ol im i t t h e i r movemen t s b y e xp lo i t ing t h e v a l leys a nd t h e s l opes . I n s tead o fb y l o ng d i s tance l o g is t ica l movemen t s , t h e n eeded f ood a nd r aw ma ter ia ls c ou ld b e a cqu i red b y p rac t ic ing t r an shumance . S uch ac hange i nt h e p a t ter n o f e xp lo i ta t ion a cce le ra ted t h e " b reak d own" o ft h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic w o r ld i n to "Meso l i th ic" e conom ies a nd p repa red t h e c u l tu ra l b ackg round f o rl a te rp a s to ra l s ub s is tence s t ra teg ies . T he t r u ly a r id l a nd scape s o ft h e L evan t w i tne ssed , d u r ing v a r iou s w e t p e r iod s o ft h e L a te M idd le P le i s tocene a nd U ppe rP le is tocene , t h ee pheme ra lo ccupa t ion b y s ma l l h uman g roup s . I t i so n ly d u r ing t h e p luv ia l s pe l ls o ft h e T e rm ina l P le is tocene , a nd e spec ia l ly w i th t h e a dven t o f t h e E a r ly H o locene , t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n d ica te s ac on t inuou s e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h is d ese r t ic r eg ion wh ich t oday f o rms a bou t 7 0% o f t h e e n t ire N ea r E a s t . T he q ues t ion w h ich i mmed ia te ly c omes t oo u rm ind i s 'Why d id i ta l l h appen s ol a te? ' A ssum ing t h a t t h e r e co rd , a tl e a s t s i nce t h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic , i so n ly s l igh t ly d i s to r ted b y e ro s ion , d ef la t ion a nd b u r ia l p roce sse s , t h e a n swe r c an b e s ough t i nt h e r e a lm o ft e chno logy i n i t s s oc ia l s phe re . A l though h un t ing t e chn iques w e re a l ready d eve loped e a r l ie r a nd t h e a cqu is i t ion o f v ege ta l f ood s tuf f s w a s t h e b a s ic s u rv iva l s t ra tegy o f h om in id s s i nce p r imo rd ia l 1

t imes , t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f d eser t s r equ ired much mo re t han t h e k now ledge o f s ea sona l a bundance

a nd

s ho r tages

o r

t h e

s imp le

h un t ing

t e chno logy .

E phemera l

o ppo r tun i s t ic

e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e d e ser t s c ou ld h ave b een p rac t iced b y g roup s wh ich b a s ica l ly r e l ied o n t h e p red ic tab i l i ty , a ccess ib i l i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty o f r e sou rces w i th in t h e Med i te r ranean v ege ta t iona l b e l t . A l l y ea r r ound e xp lo i ta t ion a nd s e t t lemen t o ccupa t ion o f t h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id r eg ion s r equ i red a p rofound a nd d e ta i led k now ledge o f i t s p l an t a nd a n ima l s ou rces , s ea sona l a nd a nnua l f l uc tua t ion s a nd t h e i r u np red ic tab i l i ty , t h e s po t t ine ss o f r a in s a nd t h e l o ca l iza t ion o f p e renn ia l a nd e pheme ra l w a te r s ou rces . On t h e t e chno log ica l l e ve l i tr equ i red t h e d eve lopmen t o f s t o rage t e chn iques . B u t a bove a l l , p e renn ia l s u rv iva l i n t h e d e se r t s n ece ss i ta ted t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f s oc ia l n e two rk s wh ich wou ld e nab le l ong d i s tance mob i l i ty a nd t h e u np red ic tab le u se o f a d jacen t t e r r i to r ies i n t ime s o f s t re ss . T hu s t h e e vo lu t ion o f a mo re c omp lex s oc ia l n e two rk w a s a n e s sen t ia l p re -adap ta t ion t oe n su re t h e b io log ica l s u rv iva l o ft h e d eser t ic g roups . T he d eve lopmen t o f t h i s t ype o f s oc ia l n e two rk p robab ly b egan d u r ing t h e G eome t r ic ' K eba ran t imes ( 14 ,000 -12 ,500 B .P . ) , a nd l a te r when t h e N a tuf ian c u l tu ra l c omp lex f l ou r i shed ( 12 ,500 -10 ,300 B .P . , e . g . B a r -Yo sef , 1 987 ) . T hese e nab led i n t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic p e r iod t h e s u rv iva l o fh un te r -ga the re r s i nt h e S yro -A rab ian d e ser t a nd l a te r , w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o fg oa t s a nd s heep , t h e eme rgence o f p a s to ra l c ommun i t ie s . T he h igh ly mob i le N ea r E a s te rn p a s to ra l n omad s d epended o n t h e i r n e ighbo r s f o r s upp lemen t ing t h e i r n eeded c a rbohyd ra te s , a r e la t ion sh ip wh ich i ss t i l l ma in ta ined t oday . T he o ccupa t ion o ft h e Med i te r ranean i s land s i s ar e sea rch s ub jec t o fu tmos t i mpo r tance a s i tr e f lec t s t h e t e chno log ica l c apac i t ies o f h uman s t o n av iga te a nd p os s ib ly k eep c on s tan t t i e s w i th t h e i r c oun te rpa r t c on t inen ta l s e t t lemen t s . T he e v idence f o r h uman o ccupa t ion o fS a rd in ia d u r ing t h e Mou s ter ian ( A rca e ta l . , 1 982 ) c an b e c on s ide red a s d oub tfu l ma in ly b ecau se t h e s i te s a r e d a ted s o le ly o nt h e b a s i s o ft oo l mo rpho logy . T he re i s ,h oweve r , a ni n crea s ing b ody o f d a ta o f e a r ly n av iga t ion s i nt h e A egean S ea , a mong o the r s , f o r t h e p rocu remen t o ft h e Me lo s o b s id ian ( Pe r le s , 1 979 ) , a nd r e cen t ly f r om C yp ru s , wh ich d a tes a s f a r b ack a s t h e 11t h -1 0 th m i l lenn ia B .P . ( e .g . S immon s , 1 988 ) . S uch a L a te P le i s tocene d a te w ou ld a ccommoda te t h e f i nd s o fh uman r ema in s a nd f auna lc hanges a sr e co rded i nt h ee xcava t ion so fC o rbeddu C ave i n S a rd in ia ( Sondaa re ta l . , 1 986 , 1 987 ) . T he t e chno log ica l i mp rovemen t s a nd t h e o ccupa t ion o f av a r ie ty o fe co log ica ln i che s ma rk t h e o n se t o ft h e L a te r P reh is to ry i nt h e c i rcum - Med i te r ranean B a s in . T h i s w a s t h e c u lm ina t ion o f al ong p rocess wh ich b egan w i th t h e " T ran s i t ion" f r om t h e M idd le t ot h e Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic . T h is ma jo r c u l tu ra l s h if t , wh ich o ccur red s ome 4 0 ,000 y ea r s a go , i nvo lved c hanges i n many a spec t s o fh uman l i f eways a bou t wh ich w e h ave o n ly f r agmen ta ry i n fo rma t ion . I na l l t h e s i te s , s t one a r t ifac t s r ema in t h e c ommon f i nd s . I ti s , t h e refo re , t h e l i th ic t e chno logy w h ich b e s t r e f lec t s t h e " T ran s i t ion" ( s ee p ape r b y R onen a nd L amdan ) , a l though o the rc hange s t o ok p l ace a tt h a t t ime a nd i nt h e e n su ing m i l lenn ia . T hu s t h e a ppea rance o fb ody d eco ra t ion s ( b ead s a nd p endan t s ) , a r to b jec t s a nd mu ra le ng rav ing s a nd p a in t ing s a r ec on s ide red a so ne o ft h er e su l t so f t h e " Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" , a s a r e t h e b one a nd a n t le r i ndu s t r ies . I ti si n te res t ing t o n o te t h a t a r t is t ic e xp re ss ion s w e re r a re o r a b sen t i n t h e N ea r E a s t u n t i l b one a nd a n t le r i n dus t r ies p ro l if e ra ted i n L evan t ine Au r ignac ian a s semb lage s , wh ich a r e r ough ly d a ted t o 3 2 /30 ,000 t h rough 2 7 ,000 B .P . T he s im i la r i ty b e tween s ome o f t h e L evan t ine Au r ignac ian a s semb lage s a nd E u ropean o nes a r e s t r ik ing . I f ac en t ra l E u ropean s ou rce f o r t h is c u l tu ra l c omp lex i sa ccep ted ( Bacho K i ro i nB u lga r ia ) , t h en movemen t s b o th t owa rd s t h e e a s t a nd t h e w es t w e re r e spon s ib le f o r i t s g eog raph ic d i spe r sa l . S uch a mode l w a s a l ready s ugges ted b y G a r rod ( e .g . 1 957 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l a nd c h rono log ica l s i tua t ion i n t h e L evan t i so pen t o c r i t ic ism b u t t h e p ro l if e ra t ion i n b one a nd a n t le r o b jec t s i nc ompa r ison w i th e a r l ie r a nd l a te r U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic a s semb lages i su nden iab le ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen , 1 988 ) . Mo s t o f t h e L evan t ine U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s equence l a ck s t h e i n forma t ion c oncer n ing

s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o r h un t ing t e chn ique s w h ich a r e u n t i l n ow b e t te r r e co rded i nt h e E u ropean s equence w he re s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion sh ave al onge rr e co rd ( Gamb le , 1 987 ) . I ti s i mpo s s ib le t o d e tach t h e c u l tu ra l p roce s se s wh ich t ook p l ace d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic f r om t h e l a te r d eve lopmen t s . Af ew c ommen t s c oncer n ing t a xonom ica l i s sue s a r e r e qu i red . Amb igu i t ie s o r ig ina te f r om t h e t ime s when a r chaeo logy a s ah i s to r ica l d i sc ip l ine h ad n oo b jec t ive m ean sf o rd a t ing s i te s a nd a s semb lage s a nd t h e refo re s egmen t so ft ime w e re g i ven n ame s i n o rde r t o b u i ld a r e la t ive c h rono logy . T he r e ade r s hou ld b e r em inded t h a t t h e t e rm "Me so l i th ic" , a s d e s igna t ing a t ime s pan a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic i ndu s t r ie s , i s c u r ren t ly ma in ly l im i t ed t ot h eN o r thwe s ter nE u ropean w o r ld . H oweve r , i ti ss t i l l w ide ly u sed i no the rE u ropean q ua r t e r s a nd s ome t ime se ven f o rr e f e r r ing t oN ea rE a s ter ni ndu s t r ie s . "Me so l i th ic" m ean st h a ta g i ven l i th ic a s semb lage i sm ic ro l i th ic i ni t s m e t r ica l a t t r ibu te s , h a s v a r iou s f o rm s o fm ic ro l i th s i n c lud ing g eome t r ic s , a nd i so fp o s t -P le i s tocene d a te . T he t e rm " Ep i -Pa laeo l i th ic" i su sed i nt h e L evan tt o ma rk t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o ft h eL a te P le i s tocene f r om a bou t2 0 / 19 ,000 t h rough 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go . T he t e rm " Neo l i th ic" d e s igna te s l i th ic a s semb lage s w h ich d i f f e r f r om t h e . E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic o ne sb yt h ep r e sence o fa r rowhead s ,n ume rou sp e r fo ra to r s ,b i f ac ia lt oo l s , s t one p o l i shed c e l t s a nd n ume rou s b l ade s . C u r ren t d eba te s a r e c en te red o n t h e s ubd iv i s ion s o f t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic w h i le i t s b a s ic d ef in i t ion i sc ommon ly a ccep ted . Whe the r w e f o l low t h e L yon c onven t ion o fP e r iod 1 , 2 ,3 . . . ( e .g . C auv in , 1 987 ) , Moo re ' s ( 1985 ) s ugge s t ion s , o ra dhe re t ot h e m ix tu re o ft r ad i t iona l l a be l s a sc o ined b y K . K enyon d u r ing h e re xcava t ion s i nJ e r icho w i th t h e c u l tu ra l d e s igna t ion s a ss ugge s ted b y C rowfoo t -Payne ( 1976 ; a nd , e . g . B a r -Yo sef , 1 981 ; G ebe l , 1 984 ) , make s n o ma jo r d if e rence . T he re i s ag row ing u nde r s tand ing t h a t t h e ' a g r icu l tu ra l r e vo lu t ion ' o r t h e ' t ran s i t ion f r om E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic ' t ook p lace i n ac e r ta in p a r t o ft h e " Fe r t i le C re scen t" wh i le o the rp opu la t ion s c on t inued t o ma in ta in t h e i r f o rag ing l i f eway s . T he d ynam ic i n te rac t ion wh ich d eve loped b e tween t h e f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a nd t h e d e se r t ic g roup s ma rk s t h e h i s to ry o ft h e N ea r E a s tb u t , a sw e l e a rn f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s , i t s o r ig in s a r er oo ted i nt h eT e rm ina lP le i s tocene . T he p roce ss o ft h e" Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" c an b e s e en a sg radua lo ra s as e r ie so fs t ep s ( an e xamp le f o rc u l tu ra l " punc tua ted e qu i l ib r ia" ) . I ta l ld epend so nt h e s cho la rw ho d i scu s se si ta nd h i s /he r p e r cep t ion o f c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion . H oweve r , i fw e t a ke t h e s ca le f o r s i te s i ze a s a m ea su r ing d ev ice , i tw i l l b e i mpo s s ib le t od eny t h e ' j ump ' b e tween .t h e N a tuf ian a nd P PNA . Wh i le t h e l a rge s t N a tuf ian s i te i s0 . 5 h ec ta r s (W ad i H ammeh 2 7 ) ( Edwa rd s e ta l . , 1 988 ) , t h e l a rge s t E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s a r e 3 . 5 h ec ta r s ( Mu reybe t ) , 2 . 4 h ec ta r s ( J e r icho ) a nd 1 . 5 h ec ta r s ( Ne t iv H agdud ) . N eed le s s t os t re ss , 2 , 000 r ad ioca rbon y ea r s d id n o t c hange much i nt e rm s o f s i te s i ze w i th in t h e N a tuf ian c u l tu re , b u t at hou sand r ad ioca rbon y ea r s d u r ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic b rough ta bou ts i te so f 1 0 -12 h ec ta r s ( Abu H u r ie ra , ' A in G haza l ,B e i samoun a nd C a ta l H üyük s l igh t ly l a te r ) . S uch ad rama t ic c hange , w h ich d oe s n o tn ece s sa r i ly m ean t h a ti fr e f lec t s t h e s ame g row th r a te o f t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion , i sw ha t ma rk s t h e " Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" . An i mpo r tan t c onc lu s ion ( s ee B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen , t h i s v o lume ) m ean s t ha t o ne v i l lage c ou ld a ccommoda te ab io log ica l ly v i ab le g roup . T h i s w a s , i n t e rm s o f p opu la t ion d ynam ic s , s ome th ing t h a tn eve rh appened b efo re . O ne may s ugge s tt h a tt h i sb iocu l tu ra lc hange t ook p l ace o ve r s eve ra l h und r ed y ea r s , b u t t h e i n tu i t ive f e e l ing o f s ome r e sea r che r s i st h a t i to ccu r red w i th in a f ew g ene ra t ion s . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e c u r ren t s t a tu s o f r ad ioca rbon a na ly s i s c anno t p rov ide ad ef in i te a n swe rt ot h i si n t r igu ing q ue s t ion . A b r ie f s umma ry o f t h e ma in s t age s w h ich l e d t o t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt h eL evan tw ou ld b e a sf o l low s : A . D u r ing t h e L a te G lac ia l max imum c o ld a nd d ry c ond i t ion s o ve r mo s t o f t h e N ea r E a s t made t h e c oa s ta l r ange s o f t h e L evan t a nd i n te r -moun ta in v a l ley s a s t h e b e s t h ab i tab le a r ea s f o r f o rage r s . A p a t ter n o f s em i -seden t ism b a sed o n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f v ege ta l r e sou rce s a nd h un t ing d eve loped a mong t h e s ma l l l o ca l K eba ran b and s ( s ee Hove r s , t h i s v o lume ) . W in te r a gg lome ra t ion s r e su l ted i n l a rge s i te s i n t h e l ow land s a nd s ma l l , 3

e pheme ra la nd d i spe r sed s umme rc amp s i nt h eh igh land s ( c a . 1 9 ,000 -14 ,500 / 14 ,000 B .P . ) . B .

P luv ia l c ond i t ion s , wh ich ma rked t h e f o l low ing m i l lenn ium , o pened f o r f o rag ing n ew a nd l a rge ra r ea s b o th i nt h e f o rme r ly d eser t ic r eg ion a nd i nt h eh ighe ra l t i tudes . T he se e cozone s w e re e xp lo i ted b y t h e d i rec t d escendan t s o ft h e K eba ran s , k nown a s G eome t r ic K eba ran s , a nd i nt h e s ou th ( Negev a nd S ina i ) b y d ese r t a dap ted g roup s c l a ss if ied a s t h e Mu shab ian C omp lex ( ca . 1 4 ,000 -13 / 13 ,800 B .P . ; e . g . B a r -Yo sef a nd P h i l l ip s , 1 977 ; Go r ing - Mo r r is , 1 987 ) . Dur ing t h is p e r iod t wo d i f f e ren t s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s r e f lec t t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies . T he f i r s t o ne w a s t h e t r ad i t iona l p a t te rn w i th in t h e Med i ter ranean v ege ta t ion b e l t wh ich f avo red a d i cho tomy b e tween l ow land w in te r o ccupa t ion s a nd s umme rh igh land c amp s . T he s e cond o ne w a se s tab l i shed i nt h eI r ano -Tu ran ian s t epp ic b e l t a nd t h e d eser t ic r eg ion wh ich f a vo red w in te r d i sper sa ls , o f ten i nl ow land s , c l o se t ow a te r s ou rces , a nd s umme r a gg lome ra t ion s i n h igh land s . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e l a t te r p a t te rn i nd ica tes a h ighe r d eg ree o f mob i l i ty w hen c ompa red t o t h e mo re s em i s eden t i sm i nt h el u she ra r ea s .

C .

T he N a tuf ian C u l tu re eme rged a s ar e spon se t o e nv i ronmen ta l s t re ss c aused b y b o th a n a b rup t c l ima t ic c hange , i n c rea s ing p opu la t ions a nd p e rhaps a c on s ide rab le d ec rea se i n o p t ion s f o r l ong d i s tance move s . S oc ia l d ec is ion s l e d t o t h e c l us te r ing o f g roup s i n l o ca l ized , l im i ted t e r r i to r ie s

D .

whe re

s t ab le Med i te r ranean p a rk land c ond i t ion s c ou ld

r ep len i sh l a rge rb and s ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ,i np ress ) . N a tuf ian s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s w e re s ucce ssfu l a nd L a te N a tuf ian s i tes w e re f ounded i n o the r e cozones . O ve r -exp lo i ta t ion p o ss ib ly l e d t o ar e tur n t o a mo re mob i le s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a nd e spec ia l ly t o i n c rea sed h un t ing a nd t r app ing . Howeve r , c ond i t ion s d ur ing t h e l a s t m i l lenn ium o f t h e P le is tocene , a l so k nown a s t h e " Yonge r D rya s" , c aused i n c rea sed s t ress a nd N a tuf ian a dap ta t ion s t o a ma rg ina l z one , s uch a s t h e H a r if ian c u l tu re i n t h e N egev ,c ou ld n o ts u rv ive .

E .

T he r enewa l o fw e t c ond i t ion s a nd s l ow r i s ing o ft empe ra tu res e nhanced t h e p r ev iou s p re a dap ta t ion f o rt h e u se a nd c u l t iva t ion o fc e rea ls ( ma in ly b a r ley ) a nd l e gume s . Whe the rt h e f o rme ro rt h e l a t te rw e re t h e o r ig ina l d omes t ica tes i nt h e N ea rE a s t ( K is lev a nd B a r -Yo sef , 1 988 ) i sl e ss i mpor tan t f r om t h e v i ewpo in t o f s u rv iv ing c ommun i t ies . No o ne d oub t s t h a t t h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o ft h e N ea rE a s t a tt h e t ime ( c a . 1 0 ,300 / 10 ,000 -9 ,200 B .P . ) f avo red t h e n ew s ub s i s tence s t ra tegy . H un t ing a nd t r app ing c on t inued a nd w e re p oss ib ly s o i n tense t h a t t h e h e rd ing o f g oa t s a nd s heep b ecame a p rof i tab le p rac t ice i n t h e f o l low ing m i l lenn ium . A tt h is p o in tt h e re i sn on eed t od i scu ss t h ee n su ing c u l tu ra l c hanges o ft h eP PNB p e r iod a s

t h ey a r e d e scr ibed i nv a r ious p ape r s ( Gophe r , R o l lef son , K o lska -Ho rw i tz a nd T chernov , B a r Y o sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ) . N eed le ss t os t ress , t h e r e ade r s hou ld n o te t h e d i ve r se o p in ion s o n t h e t im ing a nd p l ace o ft h ef i r s ts t age so fa n ima ld ome s t ica t ion . I ti s f r om t h e f o l low ing s t age t h a t t h e f i r s t s i gn s o f p a s to ra l s oc ie t ies eme rge i n t h e L evan t ine d eser t s . One may a t t r ibu te t h e a dop t ion o f g oa t h e rd ing t o t h e h un te r -ga the re r s oc ie t ies wh ich r ema ined d u r ing t h ep rev iou sm i l lenn ia a dap ted w e l l t ot h e i ra r id e nv i ronmen t s . B u t t h e e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re , a t l e a s t f o r t h e a va i lab le c a ses o f mode r n h un te r -ga the re r s , t e ache s u s a n i mpo r tan t l e sson o n t h e i r d ec is ion -mak ing p rocesses . On t h e who le , h un te r g a the re r s p ref e r t h e i r own w ay o f l i f e a nd r e fuse t o b ecome c ompe t i to r s w i th f a rm ing c ommun i t ies ( e .g . H ead land , n .d . ) . A s t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s i nd ica te t h a t h e rd ing w a s f i r s t a nd f o remo s tp rac t iced b y f a rme r s , i ts e em st h a tt h ep a s to ra ln omad s , v i s ib le i nt h eN ea rE a s t i n t h e ir e pheme ra l a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s , o r ig ina ted f r om t h e b e l t o f f a rm ing c ommun i t ies ( t he " Fer t i le C re scen t" ) .

4

REFERENCES A r ea , M . , Ma r t in i , F . , P i tza l i s , G . , T uve r i , C . a nd U lzega , A . 1 982 . I lp a leo l i t ica d e l l 'Ang lona ( Sa rdegna S e t te t r iona le )R ice r che 1 979 -1980 . Q uad ern i , 1 2 :7 -11 . B a r -Y o sef , 0 . 1 981 . T he " P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic" p e r iod i nt h e s ou ther nL evan t . I n : J .C auv in & P .S an lav i l le ( ed s . )P ra i s to ir ed uL evan t . C .N .R .S . ,P a r is . p p .551-570 . B a r -Y o sef , 0 . 1 987 . L a te P le i s tocene a dap ta t ion s i n t h e L evan t . I n : 0 . Sa f e r ( e d . ) T he P le i s tocene O ld W or ld :R eg iona lP er spec t ive s . P lenum ,N ew Y o rk . p p .219 -236 . B a r -Y o sef , 0 . a nd B e lf e r -Cohen , A . 1 988 . T he E a r ly U ppe rP a leo l i th ic i nL evan t ine c ave s . I n : J .H . H of f ecke r &C .A . Wo l f ( e d s . ) T he E ar ly U pper P a leo l i th ic i nE urope a nd t h e N ear E a s t . B .A .R . I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s4 37 . O xfo rd .p p .23 -41 . B a r -Y o sef , 0 . a nd B e l f e r -Cohen , A . ( i n p re s s ) T he o r ig in s o f s eden t i sm a nd f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt h eL evan t .J .W or ld P r eh i s t . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . Sa nd P h i l l ip s , J . L . 1 977 . P r eh i s tor ic I nves t iga t ions i nG ebe l Maghara , N or thern S i na i . Q edem , Monog raph so ft h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,H eb rew U n ive r s i ty ,J e ru sa lem . C auv in , J .1 987 . C h rono log ie r e la t ive e tc h rono log ie a b so lue d an s l eN eo l i th ic d u L evan t e t d 'Ana to l ie e n t re 1 0 ,000 e t 8 , 000 BR I n : 0 . A u renche , J . E v in & E H ou r s ( e d s . ) C hrono log ie si nt h eN ear E as t . B .A .R .I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s 3 79 . O xfo rd .p p .325 -342 . C rowfoo t -Payne , J .1 976 . T he t e rm ino logy o ft h e A ce ram ic N eo l i th ic p e r iod i nt h e L evan t . I n : F . Wendo r f ( ed . ) T erm ino logy o fP r eh i s tory o ft h e N ear E a s t . p re -p r in t U ISPP C ong re s s , N ice .p p .131-137 . E dwa rd s , P h .C . , B ou rke , S . J . , C o l ledge , S .M . , H ead , J . & Macumbe r , P h .G . 1 988 . L a te P le i s tocene p reh i s to ry i nt h e Wad i e lH ammeh , J o rdan . I n : A .Ga r ra rd a nd H . G ebe l ( e d s . ) B .A .R . I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s . G amb le , C . 1 986 . T he P a leo l i th ic S e t t lemen to fE urope . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . G a r rod , D .A .E . 1 957 . No te s ü rl eP a l6o l i th ique s upe r ieu rd u Moyen O r ien t . B u l l . S oc . P rjh is t . F ranca i se , 5 4 :439 -446 . G ebe l , A .G . 1 984 . Das A keram i sche N eo l i th ikum V ordera s iens . B ehe if te z um T ub inge r A t la s d e sV o rde r en O r ien s . R e iche r tV e r lag , We i sbaden . G o r ing - Mo r r i s , N .A . 1 987 .A t t h e E dge : T erm ina lP le i s tocene Hun t er -Ga ther er s i nt h e N egev a nd S ina i . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 61 ,O xfo rd . H en ry , D .O . 1 983 . Adap t ive e vo lu t ion w i th in t h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic o f t h e N ea r E a s t . I n : F . Wendo r f&A . C lo se ( e d s . )A dvance s i nW or ld A r chaeo logy . V o l . 2 .A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk . p p .99 -160 . K i s lev , M .E . a nd B a r -Y o sef , 0 . 1 988 . T he l e gume s : t h e e a r l ie s td ome s t ica ted p l an t s i nt h e N ea r E a s t? C ur r .A n thropo l . , 2 9 :175 -179 . P e r le s ,C . 1 979 . D e sn av iga teu rm ed i te r raneen si lya1 0 ,000 a n s .L aR echer che ,9 6 :82 -83 . S immon s , A .H . 1 988 . E x t inc tp igmy h ippopo tamu s a nd e a r ly man i nC yp ru s . N a tur e , 3 33 :554 5 57 . S ondaa r , P .Y . 1 987 . P le i s tocene man a nd e x t inc t ion s o f i s land s e ndem ic s . W m . S oc . G eo l . F rança i se , 1 50 :159 -165 . S ondaa r , P .Y . , S ange s , M . , K o t sak i s , T .a nd d e B oe r , P . L . 1 986 . T he P le i s tocene d ee rh un te r o f S a rd in ia . G eob ios , 1 9 :17 -25 .

5

DEVELOP MENTS I N TER M INAL PLE ISTOCENE HUNTER -GATHERER SOCIO -CULTURAL SYSTE MS : A PERSPECTIVE FRO M THE NEGEV AND S INA I DESERTS A .N . G or ing - Mor r i s ' H ebr ew U n iver s i ty , J erusa lem , I SRAEL

I NTRODUCTION N o t ion s c oncern ing t h e p a s t h ab i tab i l i ty o f t h e ma rg ina l , d e se r t r eg ion s r e la t ive t o t h e a d jacen t Med i ter ranean z one o f t h e L evan t h ave b een r ad ica l ly mod if ied f o l low ing t h e i n ten s ive p reh is to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nt h e N egev a nd S ina i a r ea s o f t h e s ou the rn L evan t d u r ing t h e p a s t 2 0 y ea r s ( Ma rk s , 1 976 , 1 977 ; B a r -Yo sef a nd P h i l l ip s , 1 977 ; B a r -Yo sef , n . d . ; Go r ing - Mo r r i s , 1 985 , 1 987 f o r o the r r e f e rence s ) . T he s um o fr e sea rch , t hough l a ck ing o ve ra l l s t ra teg ic d i rec t ion , n ever the les s p resen t s a g ene ra l ly c ohe s ive p a tchwo rk o f s y s tema t ic i n ve s t iga t ion s c ove r ing mos t o f t h e d i ve r se p hy togeog raph ica l a nd t opog raph ica l z one s c omp r i s ing t h e r eg ion . I ti st hus p o ss ib le t o i n teg ra te t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om w i th in t h is e x tended b u tg eog raph ica l ly w e l l -def ined p en in su la ; r e sea rch h a s f o cu sed e spec ia l ly i nn o r the rn S ina i , a nd t h e w e s ter n , c en t ra l a nd n or ther n N egev . D a ta a r e p a r t icu la r ly p rofu se d u r ing t h e T e rm ina l P le is tocene c a .

1 8 ,000 -8 ,000 B .C . , ap e r iod when h un te r -ga the re r a dap ta t ion s

c u lm ina ted i n i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t a r ea s i n t h e e me rgence o f l a rge s eden ta ry c ommun i t ie s b a sed o n d ome s t ica ted p l an t r e sou rce s . T he p r esen t p ape r i n ve s t iga te s v a r ious a spec t s o f d eve lop ing s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s i n t h e N egev a nd S ina i d u r ing t h is p e r iod . F o l low ing a b r ief r e v iew o f t h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l e n t i t ie s r ep re sen ted i nt h e r eg ion , c hange s i no ccupa t ion n umbe r s a nd s i ze s a r e a na lyzed o nb o th i n t ra - a nd i n te r -en t i ty p l ane s a ga in s tt h eb ackd rop o ft opog raph ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l z ona t ion , a nd i n t h e f r amewo rk o f g ene ra l c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion s . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e r e su l t s f r om t h i s ma rg ina l z one a r e t h en d i scu ssed w i th r ega rd t o t h e d emon s t ra ted c hange s i nl i f eways t h a to ccu r red e l sewhe re i nt h eL evan t . ENV IRON MENTAL CONSIDERATIONS T he N egev a nd S ina i t oge the r c omp r ise ac ompac t a nd w e l l -def ined g eog raph ica l r eg ion , c a . 7 2 ,000 s q km i ne x ten t a nd b ounded b y t h e Med i ter ranean , t h e Gu lf o f S uez , t h e Gu lf o f E i la t /Aqaba -A rava , a nd , mo re a rb i t ra r i ly i nt h e n o r th , t h e J udean H i l ls ( F ig . 1 ) . B ed rock i n mos t a r ea s i ss ed imen ta ry , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fg ran i te s i nS ou ther n S ina i . E xcep t i nt h e l a t te r a r ea , f l in t a nd c he r t a r e r e ad i ly a va i lab le t h roughou t t h e r eg ion , e spec ia l ly f r om E ocene , T uron ian a nd o cca s iona l ly J u ra ss ic s t ra ta .

' Th i s p ape r w a s w r i t ten w h i le t h e a u tho r w a s t h e r e c ip ien t o f ag ran t f r om t h e Human i ta r ian T ru s t a nd T he H a lpe r - Wo lf son F und . T he f i e ldwo rk o n w h ich much o f t h is w o rk i sb a sed w a s c onduc ted i nt h e f r amewo rk o ft h e Eme rgency A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o ft h e N egev .

7

F i g . 1T opograph ic m ap o ft h eN egev a nd S i na i ,s h ow ing t h ep r e sen td i s t r ibu t ion o fd une s . D ur ing t h e p e r iod u nde r c on s ide ra t ion s ea l e ve ls r o se f r om c a . 100 m , r e su l t ing i n c on s ide rab le s h r inkage o f t h e n o r thern S ina i Med i ter ranean c oa s t a nd c r ea t ion o f t h e Gu lf o f S uez d ue t ot h e e xpan s ion o ft h e R ed S ea . A t a bou t t h e s ame t ime t h e L isan L ake i nt h e R if t V a l ley w ou ld h ave r e t rea ted f r om i t s h igh s t and o f180 m , l a rge ly r emov ing t h is c on s ide rab le i mped imen t t oc ommun ica t ion b e tween P a les t ine a nd T ran s jo rdan ( Neev a nd H a l l , 1 977 ; B eg in e ta l . , 1 985 ) .

8

T he r ea r ev a r iou sl i ne so fe v idence t oi n d ica te t h a tc on s ide rab le c l ima t ic c hange sd id o ccu r d u r ing t h e T e rm ina l P le i s tocene . T he g rea te s t r e so lu t ion i ss t i l l p rov ided b y T sukada ' s H u leh p o l len d i ag ram wh ich n o t o n ly d i sp lay s l ong t e rm c hange s b u t a l so , t a n ta l iz ing ly , a ppa ren t ly s ho r te rf l uc tua t ion s wh ich a r e o cca s iona l ly o fc on s ide rab le a mp l i tude ( Bo t tema a nd v an Z e i s t , 1 981 ; v an Z e is ta nd B o t tema , 1 982 ) . T h i si sc omp lemen ted b y o the rl i ne s o fe v idence o fp oo re r c h rono log ica l r e so lu t ion a nd i n c lude g eomo rpho log ica l a nd ma r ine s t ud ie s , a s w e l l a s p r e l im ina ry s e t t lemen t p a t ter n i nve s t iga t ion s ( Go ldbe rg , 1 981 ; Go ldbe rg a nd B a r -Yo sef , 1 982 ; L uz , 1 982 ; R o s s igno l -S t r ick e ta l . , 1 982 ; B o t tema , i n p re s s ; G o r ing - Mo r r i s , i n p r epa ra t ion ) . W i thou t i ndependen t c o r robo ra t ion , h oweve r , c au t ion i sr equ i red i n t h e c a se o f t h e l a t te r t o a vo id c i rcu la ra r gumen ta t ion . Ap a r t icu la r ly a r id p ha se p r io rt oc a . 1 2 ,500 B .C . , a ccompan ied b y ama s s ive i n cu r s ion o f d une s i n t h e l ow land s o f n o r ther n S ina i a nd t h e w e s ter n N egev , wh ich h ad a t ta ined t h e i r max imum p ene t ra t ion b y t h e 1 3 th m i l lenn ium B .C . , r e su l ted i n as e r ie s o f b locked d ra inage s a nd p ond ing a tt h e e a s ter n d une f r inge s w h ich w e re e nhanced b y t h e o n se t o f mo re h um id c ond i t ion s ( Gebe l Magha ra , Q ade sh B a rnea , N aha l N izzana -Naha l L avan , S hune ra , N aha l B e so r -Naha l R ev iv im a nd N aha l S ekhe r ) . D une s w e re a ga in l o ca l ly a c t ive a tv a r iou s t ime s t h rough t h eH o locene ( Go r ing - Mo r r i s ,i np repa ra t ion ) . E nv i ronmen ta ld i ve r s i ty w i th in t h eN egev a nd S ina ii sp re sen t ly c on s ide rab le , t h ep r inc ipa l mod ify ing f a c to r s b e ing t opog raphy , p rec ip i ta t ion ( d ependen t u pon am ix tu re o f t h e p rev iou s v a r iab le a nd p rox im i ty t ot h e c oa s t ) , a nd g eomo rpho logy . T h ree ma jo r v ege ta t iona l z one s c an b e r e cogn ized : I r ano -Tu ran ian p ro t rud ing s ou th f r om t h e Med i te r ranean z one t h rough t h e C en t ra l N egev H igh land s , w i th a n i s land i n t h e H igh Moun ta in s o f S ou ther n S ina i ; S aha ro A rab ian , e x tend ing t h roughou t mo s t o ft h e r eg ion ; a nd S udan ian i nt h e l ow ly ing a r ea s o ft h e A rava a nd Gu lf o fE i la t . T h roughou t much o ft h e c en t ra l a nd s ou ther nl ow land s i nt h e S aha ro A rab ian z one w i th m in ima l p rec ip i ta t ion (

mme 3 6

. 3 1 .

3 2

1 2 8

3 0

L ENGTH 0F ASTRAGALUS

4-M ous te r ian 1 1K eba ran N a tu fi o n < > P PNB • P N •C ha lco l i th ic * Recen t

F ig . 6 P lo t o fm ean v a lue s o fa s t raga lu s l e ng th f r om a s e r ie s o fL evan t ine s i t e s t os how a b sence o f s i gn if ican tm e t r ica lc hange u n t i lt h eP o t t e ry N eo l i th ic ( PN )p e r iod . i nt h is p a rame te r a s s ugge s ted b y E p s te in ( 1971) o r e l se t h e e x is tence o f ab road , i l -def ined , r ange o f c r i ter ia u sed b y r e sea rche r s t o d i s t ingu ish w i ld g oa t s . C oncern ing t h is l a t te r i s sue , a g ene ra l s e t o f c r i te r ia d o e x is t ( d esc r ibed a bove ) , b u t a s t h ey a r e s ub jec t ive when i tc omes t o a pp l ica t ion ( e .g . d e term ina t ion o fe x ten t o ft o r s ion , e t c . ) , d i f f e rences may a r i se . C oncer n ing t h e w ide r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty t h a t may b e e xh ib i ted h e re , ac ompa ra t ive s e t o f d a ta o n al a rge n umbe r o fr e cen t a n ima ls n eed s t ob e e s tab l ished c oncer n ing v a r iab i l i ty i nh or n co re s hape a nd c ro ss -sec t ion . I n t h i s r ega rd i ti s i n te res t ing t o n o te t h a t a t s i tes s uch a s J e r icho , m ixed a s semb lages o f " w i ld l ook ing" h or n co res a nd " domes t ic t ype" h or n co re s h ave b een r e por ted f r om t h e s ame s t ra ta ( C lu t ton -Brock , 1 979a ) . I n mos t c a se s t h e " dome s t ic t ype" h or n co re s a r e p re sen t i n much l owe r f r equenc ie s t h an t h e w i ld f o rm . P e rhap s w e a r e d ea l ing h e re w i th a man if e s ta t ion o f t h e e n t ire r a nge o f v a r iab i l i ty i n aw i ld h e rd a s e xpec ted u nde r p ha se B 2 , P opu la t ion I s o la t ion . A l ter na t ive ly , s uch d i f f e rences may e x is t i nt h e w i ld d ue t o i n f requen t ly o ccur r ing mu ta t ion s

( Hecke r ,

1 975 ) .

An a dd i t iona l f a c to r -c hang ing r a t io s o f s exua l

d imo rph ism -t h a tw a sr a ised b yB ököny i ( 1973 ) , may a l so a f f ec tt h er ange o fv a r iab i l i ty . F o rt h e P PNB r ema in s f r om t h e s i te o fB e isamoun , D av is ( 1978 ) d e sc r ibed ah o rnco re t ha t i nh i s o p in ion c l o se ly r e semb led t h a t o ft h e b ezoa r g oa t ( Capra a egagrus ) o r ap r im i t ive f o rm o fd ome s t ic g oa t . S im i la r ly , a tA bu Gho sh , D ucos ( 1978a ) d esc r ibed ah or n co re a s s how ing n o e v idence o ft o r s ion , d i agno s t ic o fd omes t ic g oa t s . A t t h e s i te o fA t l i t , aw e l l p rese rved p a i r o f h or nco res w a s r e cove red , a nd s how many o f t h e c ha rac ter is t ics t hough t t o b e d i agno s t ic o f b ezoa r g oa t ( Ho rw i tz a nd T cher nov , 1 987 ) . A t B e idha , H ecke r ( 1975 ) a pp l ied t h e c r i te r ion f o r i d en t ify ing d omes t ic v e r sus w i ld g oa t s o n t h e b a s is o f h or n co res , a nd c onc luded t h a t t h e h or n co res

s howed g r ea t h omogene i ty ,

a nd r e semb led t hose

o f w i ld a n ima ls ,

w herea s

i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e h ornco re s f r om t h e S ina i s i te s o fU jre t e l Mehed ( Dayan e ta l . , 1 986 ) h a s i nd ica ted t h a tt h ey a r ef r om i b ex a nd n o tf r om g oa t s . 1 6 7

•

5 cm

E in

G ev

J er icho

Munha t ta

B e idha

5 cm

00 U jrat e l- Mehed

J e r icho

J er icho

B e idha

5 cm B EZOAR

GOAT

5 cm I BEX

F i g . 7 D raw ing s o f r e cen t w i ld g oa t a nd i b ex h orncor e c r o s s sec t ion s c ompar ed t o t h o se f r om a r chaeo log ica ls i t e s how ing t h e w id e r a nge o fv a r ia t ion i ns i ze a nd s h ape f r om e a ch s e xp r e sen t i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lm a t e r ia l . Z eune r( 1955 ) r epor ted t h ep resence o fd ome s t ic g oa t s i nt h eP PNB l e ve ls a tJ e r icho , b a sed o n t h e s hape a nd s i ze o fh o rnco res r e covered f r om t h e e xcava t ion . E xam ina t ion o fh i s c r i ter ia b y t h e a u tho r ( s ee h i s a ppend ix ) s how s t h e r ema in s t oh ave b een i np oo rc ond i t ion , a nd al a rge n umbe ro f mea su remen t s a r en o ted a se s t ima ted ( t e rmed b yh im a s" p robab le" , " w i th a l lowance f o rc ru sh ing" ,e t c . ) . T hough C lu t ton -Brock a nd U erpmann ( 1974 )h ave s t rong ly empha s ized t h e f a c t t h a t t h e g oa t r ema in s f r om t h e P PNA l e ve ls a tJ e r icho s how n o morpho log ica l d if erences f r om w i ld b ezoa r g oa t s [ a s p rev iou s ly c l a imed b y Z eune r ( 1955 ) ] , t h ey n o ted t h e p r esence o f mo rpho log ica l c hanges i n t h e P PNB g oa t s f r om t h e s i te . I n al a te r p ub l ica t ion o n t h is s ame a s semb lage , C lu t ton -Brock ( 1979a ) c onc luded t h a t t h e h or n s f r om t h e P ro to -Neo l i th ic , P PNA a nd P PNB w e re " a s b ig a s a ny o f t h e p resen t d ay s pec imen s o f w i ld b ezoa r . . . t h a t a r e i n t h e B r i t i sh Museum" ( p .151) . F u r thermo re , s he c onc ludes t h a t t h ese g oa t s w e re p robab ly w i ld a n ima ls h un ted b y t h e i n hab i tan t s o fJ e r icho . T h is i n d ica te s t h a t t h e re i sn o c onc lus ive me t r ica l e v idence t h a t w ou ld j u s t ify Z eune r 's c l a im s . H oweve r , i nt h e s ame p a rag raph , C lu t ton -Brock ( 1971 , 1 979a ) i n s is t s t h a t t h e re i s mo rpho log ica l e v idence f o r d omes t ic g oa t s b y 9 000 BP , a nd c i tes t h e p resence o ft wo t w is ted h or n co res i nt h e P PNB l a ye r s a tt h e s i te . S tampf l i ( 1983 , F ig . 1 81) h a s p lo t ted o ne o f t h e J e r icho g oa t h or n co res a ga in s t ma ter ia l f r om o the r a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd r e cen t g oa t s . T he h or n co res f a l l w i th in t h e r ange o ff ema le w i ld g oa t s a nd n o t w i th in t h e r ange o fd ome s t ic g oa t s . T ak ing i n to a ccoun t t h a tt h is i s av e ry s ma l l s amp le u pon wh ich t o 1 6 8

b a se s uch a n i mpo r tan t c l a im , t h e a b sence o f a ny c o r robo ra t ive f i nd ings o n h or n co res f r om o the r c on tempo raneou s s i te s i n t h i s r eg ion , a nd i n t h e a b sence o f a ny c ompa ra t ive d a ta o n h or n co re s hape v a r iab i l i ty w i th in ag oa t h e rd ( domes t ic a nd w i ld ) , o ne i sf o rced t o c onc lude t h a t t o d a te , a l l c l a im s t ha t h ave b een made f o r t h e p resence o f d ome s t ic c ap rov ines i n t h e P PNB b a sed o n t h e p re sence o f mo rpho log ica l ( a nd me t r ic ) c hange s i n t h is p er iod a r e u n sub s tan t ia ted . Unfor tuna te ly t h e re i sn o r e l iab le d a ta b a se c once rn ing p opu la t ion v a r ia t ion i nw i ld s heep a nd g oa t s f r om t h e M idd le E a s ta va i lab le ; t h i s i sp r ima r i ly b ecause o ft h e i re x t inc t ion i na lmo s t t h e e n t i re r eg ion . A s d i scu ssed p r ev iou s ly , t h is p o se s p e rhap s o ne o f t h e mo s t p rob lema t ic f e a tu res o f a r chaeozoo log ica l i n ves t iga t ion o f d omes t ica t ion i n t h is r eg ion , a s t h e r ange o f v a r ia t ion i n b o th m e t r ica l a nd mo rpho log ica l f e a tu re s o f w i ld c ap rov ine p opu la t ion s r ema in s u nknown . T he u se o fp a ra l le ls f r om a n ima l p opu la t ion s f r om o the r r eg ion s ( He sse , 1 982 ) s uch a s t h e Nor th Ame r ican moun ta in s heep ( Ge i s t , 1 971) , h ave p roved u n sa t isfac to ry . A f u r the r p rob lem , a sn o ted b y H ecke r( 1975 ) , i st h a t mo s t s i tes s t ud ied t od a te h ave y i e lded s ma l l f auna l s amp les , a nd e ven s ma l le r s amp les o f i d en t if iab le c ap rov ine ma te r ia l , e . g . , a t E l K h iam 2 9 b one s ( Ducos , 1 968 ) ; a tB e i samoun 4 1 b one s ; a nd a tA t l i t 5 5 b ones ( Ho rw i tz a nd T cher nov , 1 987 ) . H oweve r u n re l iab le

a nd p rob lema t ic

t h e

c r i ter ia ,

t h e

a bsence

o f a ny

c onv inc ing

mo rphome t r ica l e v idence f r om a ny o ft h e s ou ther n L evan t ine s i tes t o i nd ica te t h a t s i gn if ican t c hange i nt h e s i ze o r s hape o fc ap rov ine f e a tu re s h ad o ccu r red a tt h e s t a r t o ft h e P PNB , l e ad s o ne t oc onc lude t h a t a r t if ic ia l s e lec t ion o f c ap rov ines h ad , a s y e t , n o t b egun . On t h e b a s is o f w ha t h a s b een s ugge s ted i n t h e mode l a s d i agnos t ic o f t h e t e rm d ome s t ica t ion , a r t if ic ia l s e lec t ion , o nce i n i t ia ted , wou ld c ause r e la t ive ly r ap id a nd s ub s tan t ia l mo rphome t r ica l c hanges . A s s uch , t h e s ea rch f o r "m iss ing l i nk" f o rm s o fc ap rov ine s , s how ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s c ommon t o b o th w i ld a nd d ome s t ic t ypes , i s f u t i le . C hange w i l l b e r ap id a nd u n id i rec t iona l . I f t h ese c hanges a r e n o t o b se rved , t h en t h e o n ly p o ss ib le c onc lus ion i st h a t d ome s t ica t ion h ad n o t y e t b een u nde r taken . A s r e la ted t o t h e s ou ther n L evan t ine s equence , t h e c on sp icuou s a b sence o f e v idence c onf irm ing t h e p re sence o f me t r ica l o r mo rpho log ica l c hanges i nc ap rov ine s b e tween t h e P PNB a nd p reced ing p e r iod s s ugge s t s t h a t i nt h is r eg ion , d omes t ica t ion o ccur red a t al a te r p o in t i nt ime . T hough f auna l a s semb lage s f r om t h e t e rm ina l P PNB o r P o t te ry N eo l i th ic p e r iod a r e s can ty , p re l im ina ry e v idence s ugges t s t h a t t h ese c hanges h ad o ccu r red b y t h e l a te P o t te ry N eo l i th ic . Cu l ls T he d e ta i led d i scu ss ion i nt h e s e c t ion a bove o n t h e p rob lems e n ta i led i nu s ing a ge a nd s ex c u l l d a ta w i th wh ich t od e te rm ine d ome s t ica t ion a t as i te i sp e rhap s b es t i lus t ra ted b y t h e i s sue o f E p ipa leo l i th ic g aze l le e xp lo i ta t ion i n I s rae l . On t h e b a s is o f t h e h igh i mma tu re g aze l le f r equency a t a s e r ies o f E p i -Pa leo l i th ic s i te s , i t w a s s ugges ted t h a t t h e a n ima l s w e re e xpe r ienc ing s ome l e ve l o f h uman c on t ro l , p os s ib ly d omes t ica t ion ( Legge , 1 972 , 1 980 ) . C onve r se ly , u s ing a lmos t t h e s ame d a ta s e t , D av is ( 1983 ) h a s d i sc la imed a l l p ropo sa ls f o r E p ipa leo l i th ic g aze l le d omes t ica t ion a nd i n s tead a dvanced ah ypo thes is o fs ea sona l e xp lo i ta t ion o fg aze l le h e rd s w i th ah ighe r f r equency o fj uven i les f ound i nt h e s umme r t h an i nt h e w in te r . H oweve r , t h is l a t te r i n te rp re ta t ion h a s b een q ua l if ied b y Ho rw i tz ( 1988 ) u s ing d a ta d er ived f r om r e cen t r e sea rch i n to g aze l le e t ho logy i nt h e n o r th o fI s rae l ( Baha rav , 1 983 ) . T h is r e sea rch s ugge s t s t h a t g i ven ar e l iab le a nnua l w a te r s upp ly , moun ta in g aze l le h e rd s may e xpe r ience a d oub le b i r th p eak , o ne i ns p r ing t h e o the r i nt h e f a l l . A s s uch , t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e s ea son r e p re sen ted b y t h ec u l l may b e a mb iva len ta nd u n re l iab le . T ur n ing t ot h e c ap rov ines , w e s e e t h a t t h e d a ta b a se i sn o c l ea re r . Age a nd s ex p rof i les o f i b ex f r om t h e P PNB s i tes o f U jre t e l Mehed ( Dayan e ta l . , 1 986 ) a nd Wad i T be ik ( T che rnov a nd B a r -Yo sef , 1 982 ) ,have s hown t h em t o r e f lec t s e lec t ive c u l l ing o f a n ima ls , t h ough n o -one 1 6 9

h a sc on s ide red t h is e v idence o fi b ex d ome s t ica t ion . T he c u l lp a t te rn may i nf a c tr e f lec ts ea sona l h un t ing p a t ter n s . I n t h e P PNB l e ve ls a tt h e s i te o fB e idha , H ecke r ( 1975 ) h a s c l a imed t oh ave f ound e v idence f o r s e lec t ive c u l l ing o f g oa t s , b u t w he the r t h is may b e t a ken a s e v idence o f a n ima l d ome s t ica t ion o r s imp ly o f h un t ing s e lec t ion , i s i n conc lus ive i n t h e a bsence o f mo rphome t r ica l d a ta , a nd may j u s t a s w e l l r ep resen t s e lec t ive h un t ing , f o cused h un t ing o r p opu la t ion i s o la t ion . A t ' A in Ghaza l d omes t ic g oa t s h ave b een i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s is o f" age d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c u l l ing p a t ter n , e spec ia l ly when c ompa red w i th t h e g aze l le p opu la t ion a tt h e s i te" ( Ro l lef son et a l . , 1 985 , p . 93 ) . H oweve r , i tn eed s t o b e b or n e i n m ind t h a t d i f f e ren t h un t ing s t ra teg ies may h ave b een u sed f o r t h e se t wo s pec ies . T he n a tu ra l p opu la t ion s t ruc tu re o ft h e w i ld g aze l le a nd g oa t h e rds d i f f e r s s i gn if ican t ly i ns uch f e a tu res a s b ehav iou r , h e rd s i ze , s ea sona l a c t iv i t ie s e t c . A s s hown b y K le in ( 1982 ) t h e p resence o fd i f f e rences i n mo r ta l i ty p rof i les o ft wo s pec ie s a tt h e s ame s i te d oe s n o t n ecessa r i ly m ean t h a t o ne w a s d ome s t ica ted . One may p os tu la te t h a t t h is i n te rp re ta t ion a dop ted i nt h e s ou thern L evan t w a s i nf luenced b y t h e s pec ies i n vo lved a nd t h e t im ing o ft h ee ven t . I t may b e c onc luded t h en , t h a t t h e n ume rous f a c to r s a f f ec t ing c u l l p a t ter n s l im i t s t h e ir v a lue i na s ses s ing t h e p resence o fd omes t ica t ion a t as i te ,e spec ia l ly when u sed a st h e s o le b a s is o fs uch ac l a im . I n t h e c on tex t o ft h e s ou ther n L evan t ine s equence , c u l ls p rov ide i n conc lus ive e v idence o fc ap rov ine d omes t ica t ion .

P a tho logy A s d i scu ssed i n t h e s e c t ion o n p a tho logy , t h e re a r e p rob lem s i n a s soc ia t ing o ne s pec if ic b ony man if es ta t ion w i th a s i ng le a e t io logy ( Bake r a nd B ro thwe l l , 1 980 ) . Koeh le r -Ro l lef son ( Ro l lef son , 1 985 ) h a s s t a ted t h a t " Ano the rp henomenon w h ich c onf irm s t h e d ome s t ica ted s t a te o ft h e ' A in Ghaza l g oa t s i st h e u nusua l ly h igh f r equency o fs eve re p a tho log ica l d efo rm i t ies o n t h e p ha lange s" ( 1985 , p . 93 ) . S he o f f e r s t wo e xp lana t ion s : F i r s t ly , u nna tura l l i v ing c ond i t ions u nde ri n c ip ien t a n ima l h e rd ing ; a nd s e cond ly , h uman p ro tec t ion o ft h ese d i sab led a n ima ls f r om p r eda to r s . H oweve r , a s n o ted b y K oeh le r -Ro l lef son h e r se lf , u s ing t h e t e rms i n c ip ien t a nd e xpe r imen ta l h e rd ing , n e i the ro ft h ese e xp lana t ion s n eces s i ta tes t h e a n ima ls b e ing d ome s t ica ted ( i n t h e s en se o fi n ter f e rence i nt h e i r b r eed ing p a t tern s ) . P ha se B 2 o ft h e mode l , w he re a n ima ls w ou ld b e i s o la ted a nd s uf f e r r e s t r ic ted movemen t , c rowd ing a nd p o ss ib le d e te r io ra t ion i n o ve ra l l l i v ing c ond i t ions w ou ld b e c ha rac ter i sed b y i n c rea sed d i sea se l o ad s . A s n o ted b y B ro thwe l l ( 1975 ) , s uch a n i n c rea sed d i sea se l o ad c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d i f f e ren t ia l s u rv iva l o fc er ta in p heno types w i th in t h e p opu la t ion a nd s e rve a s a n a dd i t iona l " weed ing o u t" mechan ism . C lu t ton -Brock ( 1979a ) i n terp re ted t h e p r e sence o ft h e s i ng le e xo s to s is o n t h e P PNB c a t t le p ha lanx f r om J e r icho a sa ni s o la ted p henomenon , b u t s ugges ted t h a tt h eh igh f r equency o fs uch b ony g row th s o n c a t t le p ha lange s f r om t h e M idd le B ronze Age l e ve ls a tt h e s i te may b er e la ted t oa c t iv i ty p a t ter n s . T h is i lu s t ra te s t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e f r equency o ft h e p a tho logy , h oweve r t h eu nc lea ra s soc ia t ion b e tween p a tho logy a nd a e t io logy r ema ins t h ec ruc ia lp rob lem . T h is b r ief d i scuss ion o f t h e c r i te r ion a nd e v idence u pon wh ich t h e p resence o f d omes t ic c ap rov ines i nt h e P PNB o ft h e s ou ther n L evan t h a s b een b a sed , h a s a imed a tp o in t ing o u t t h e p rob lems i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e m e thodo log ies a nd i n cons i s tenc ies i n t h e d a ta . I t i s i n te res t ing t on o te t h a t a t mo s t s i tes o n ly o ne o ft h e f ou rc r i te r ia h a s b een i d en t if ied . A tn one o f t h e s i te s h a s t h e mos t i mpo r tan t , a nd i nt h e l i gh t o ft h e mode l a pp l ied h e re , t h e c r i t ica l c r i ter ion b een m e t , n ame ly , t h e p resence o f l a rge s ca le mo rphome t r ica l c hange . T h is s ugge s t s t ha t c ap rov ine d omes t ica t ion i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t d id n o t o ccu r a t t h e s t ar t o f t h e P PNB . I p ropo se t h a t i tp robab ly o ccu r red d u r ing t h e P o t tery N eo l i th ic . U nfor tuna te ly , t h e s can ty s amp les a va i lab le f r om t h is p er iod d on o t e nab le t h is h ypo the s is t ob e f u l ly t e s ted . A s s hown i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l ( Ba r -Yosef , 1 986 /87 ; B a r -Yosef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen , 1 987 ) a nd f a una l r e co rd , 1 70

t h e S ina i P en in su la i nt h is p e r iod w a s s t i l l e ngaged a tp ha se A o ft h e mode l , a nd s uppo r ted a h un t ing a nd g a the r ing e conomy w i th h un t ing p r ima r i ly o f i b ex . A l though s e lec t ive c u l l ing o f t h is s pec ie s w a s r epo r ted , n oe v idence w a sf ound t os ugges tt h a t s t eps , t owa rd se ven t h e e a r l ies t p ha ses o fI n c ip ien t Domes t ica t ion ,h ad o ccu r red .

( b ) D ome s t ica t ion p receded b yI nc ip ien tD ome s t ica t ion S pec ie sF requency A s i gn if ican t i n crea se i nt h e f r equency o f c ap rov ine r ema in s i so b servab le i nt h e P PNB p er iod a ts i te s s uch a sJ e r icho ( C lu t ton -Brock , 1 971 , 1 979a , 1 983 ) , Abu Gho sh ( Duco s , 1 978a ) , B e isamoun ( Dav is , 1 978 ) , N aha l O ren ( Noy e ta l . , 1 973 ) a nd ' A in Ghaza l ( Ro l lef son e ta l . , 1 985 ) , e i the rr e la t ive t op rev iou s s t ra ta a tt h e s i te o rc ompa red t op rev ious p er iod s ( F ig . 8 ) . T h is s h if th a s b een u sed t os uppo r t c l a im s o fc ap rov ine d omes t ica t ion w i th t h e a dven t o ft h e P PNB , e ven i ft h is i sn o t s ub s tan t ia ted b y morphome t r ic e v idence . I th a s b een c l a imed ( Dav is , 1 978 ) t h a t a tB e isamoun a n i n crea sed f r equency o fc ap rov ine s i se v iden t a sc ompa red t ot h e N a tuf ian a s semb lage f r om E ynan . I nl i gh to ft h e s ma l l s i ze o ft h e i d en t if iab le b ones f r om B e isamoun ( 78 b one s ) , t h e q ues t ion o f t h e s t a t is t ica l s i gn if icance o ft h i s f i nd ing n eed s t ob e r a ised . H oweve r , t h e s amp le s i zes f r om t h e o t he r s i tes a r e r e a sonab ly l a rge , s uch t h a t t h e t r end a ppea r s t ob e a g enu ine o ne . How t h en may w e a ccoun tf o rt h e s h if t i ns pec ie s f r equency e v iden t a ts ome s i tes a tt h e s t a r to ft h eP PNB? Iw ish t os ugges t t h a t t h e i n c rea sed p re sence o fc ap rov ines i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e p ha se o f I n c ip ien t Domes t ica t ion a nd r e f lec t s t wo p ha se s , n ame ly , I n ten s ive H un t ing o fc ap rov ine s ( B1) a nd t h e s ub sequen t P opu la t ion I s o la t ion ( B2 ) o f as e c to r o f t h e h un ted a n ima ls . A s t h e f i r s t p ha se may b e o f r e la t ive ly s ho r t d u ra t ion , d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween t h e t wo p ha se s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd may b ep rob lema t ic . P e rhap s t h e " ru l ing" i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h is s h if t ( i . e . t h a t i t s i gn if ies t h e a dven t o f d omes t ica t ion ) r e su l t s f r om u s ing t h e a s sump t ion s o ft h e " o ld" a n swe r s , n ame ly , i n te rp re t ing i t ( i n t h e a b sence o fs uppo r t ing e v idence ) a si n d ica t ive o fd omes t ica t ion p u re ly o n t h e b a s is o fi t s t im ing i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I fs uch a s im i la r s h if t w a s v i s ib le i n , f o r e xamp le , t h e Mou s ter ian p er iod , n o -one w ou ld r a ise t h e q ues t ion o fd ome s t ica t ion , b u t wou ld s ea rch f o r a n e xp lana t ion s uch a s c l ima t ic c hange o r t e chno log ica l s h if t s . Howeve r , o ccu r r ing a s i td oes a r ound t h a tp o in ti nt ime w hen d ome s t ica t ion i se xpec ted , a nd e spec ia l ly t h a to fc ap rov ine s , i ti s e a sy t of a l l i n to t h et r ap o fa s sum ing s uch a ni n te rp re ta t ion ,r a the rt h an t e s t ing i ta nd s e e ing i fi t mo s tc l o se ly f i t s t h ed a ta . I ti sp e rhap s p er t inen tt os t a te h e re t h a tt h e i d en t if ica t ion o f ap o in ti n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s i n d ica t ing I n c ip ien t Dome s t ica t ion a s o pposed t o Dome s t ica t ion p rope r , h a s mo re t h an p u re ly s eman t ic c onno ta t ion s . T he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu res r equ i red b y t h ese t wo p ha se s a r e v e ry d i f f e ren t , s uch t h a t i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h i s s h if t , w i l l i nf luence o u ri n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ee n t i re r ange o fa r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h i sp e r iod . A n a dd i t iona l f a c to r t oc on s ide r i st h a t t hough c ap rov ines d o i ndeed i n crea se i nf r equency r ep la c ing g aze l les a ts ome P PNB s i tes , a to the r s i tes s uch a sN aha l O ren ( Noy e ta l . , 1 973 ) a nd Y if tahe l ( Ho rw i tz , 1 988 ) , t h e re i s ac on t inued r e l iance u pon g aze l le h un t ing w i th g oa t s f o rm ing al owe r f r equency o f t h e a s semb lage ( t hough a tN aha l O ren t h ey s how a n i n crea se f r om t h e p reced ing P PNA ) . C oncer n ing c ap rov ine s , i ts hou ld b e b or ne i n m ind t h a t i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t , w e a r en o td ea l ing w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o ff o re ign o rn ew s pec ie s . W i ld g oa t s a nd , t oa l e s se r e x ten t , w i ld s heep w e re h un ted i np e r iod s p r io r t ot h e P PNB ( F ig . 8 ;a nd D av i s , 1 982 , T ab le 2 ) , t hough i nl owe r f r equenc ies . A t J e r icho s can ty r ema in s o fw i ld g oa t a r e f ound i nt h e P ro to -Neo l i th ic l e ve ls , wh i le C lu t ton -Brock ( 1979a ) h a s s t a ted t h a t i n t h e v i c in i ty o f J e r icho " w i ld g oa t s w e re a lways p re sen t i ns ma l l n umbe r s a nd w e re h un ted s po rad ica l ly , wh i ls tg aze l le w a s t h e p r ima ry s ou rce o fm ea t" . S eve ra l f a c to r s may b er e spon s ib le f o rt h e i rr educed v i s ib i l i ty i n t h e e a r l ie r f auna l a s semb lages s a l ien t a mong t h em t h e p ref e rence o f w i ld b ezoa r g oa t s f o r c oo le r , mo re moun ta inou s r e g ion s a sf ound i nt h e n o r ther nL evan t . T h is i s why t h e w i ld b ezoa r 1 71

P o t tery N eo l i th ic

P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B S i te

S i te

S he ikh E l i U jra t e l - Mehed

R 4 unha t ta 2

H agosh r im

, / , „ /h eZZ / / , , /2

T e l D an

J er icho

%0

,

. • 1 0 2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

9 0

1 00

A in Ghaza l

P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A S i te

Abu Gosh

G i lga l Munha t ta 3 -6

J e r icho A t l i t

H a tou la Naha l O ren

N aha l O ren

O zn

Y i f tahe l

1 0

1 0

•

2 0

I

3 0

•

4 0

I

1

5 0

6 0

I

7 0

•

I

8 0

B e isa moun

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 00

•

a o

S heep 'Goa t Gaze l le l bex iGoa t

▪ •

I bex l bex ,Gaze l le

C I

O the r S pec ies

F ig . 8H i s togram so fs p ec ie sf r equenc i e sf o rN eo l i th ic s i t e si nt h es o u thern L evan t( f rom s o u th t on or th ) . N o t et h ep r e sence o fg oa t s( i n l ow f r equenc ie s )i nt h eP PNA a s s emb lage s ,a nd t h e i rs i gn if i can ti n c r ease i nt h eP PNB a s semb lage s .N o t ea l so t h ep r e sence o fi b ex i nt h es o u the rn -mo s tL evan t ine s i t e s . g oa t i s f ound i n s uch h igh f r equenc ies a t t h e s i te o f K sa r Ak i l , L ebanon ( Hoo i je r , 1 961 ; K e r s ten , 1 987 ) , f u lf i l l ing a s im i la r r o le t o t h a t o f t h e g aze l le i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t . An a dd i t iona l p o in t t o c on s ide r , t hough o ne t h a t c anno t b e t e s ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , i s t h a t o f h uman p ref e rence . R ega rd less o f whe the r w e a s sume t h a t p r eh is tor ic s oc ie t ies i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t e xp lo i ted t ho se a n ima ls t h a t w e re mos t a bundan t i nt h e i r r eg ion ( gaze l le ) , o r a l ter na te ly f avou red g aze l le o ve r o the r s pec ie s f o r o the r r e a son s , e t ho log ica l s t ud ies h ave s hown t h a t g aze l le s a r e i l -adap ted t o u nde rgo d omes t ica t ion ( C lu t ton -Brock , 1 981 ; D av is , 1 987 ) . I n c on t ra s t , s heep a nd g oa t s a r e w e l l a dap ted t o u nde rgo s uch a c l o se r e la t ion sh ip t o h uman s a st h ey l i ve i nh e rd s w i th l o ose s ex s t ruc tu re , a r ep o lygamou s ,n on te r r i to r ia l , a dap tab le i nd i e t ( bo th g raz ing a nd b rows ing ) a nd t os ome e x ten t i nh ab i ta t . T hey a l so h ave ah igh a nnua l p roduc t iv i ty o f y oung a s w e l l a s g ood m ea t y i e ld s ( Ha le , 1 962 ; G a r ra rd , 1 984 ) . I ti sp oss ib le 1 7 2

t h a t h av ing d ec ided t o d omes t ica te a n ima ls ( f o r wha teve r r ea son s ) , h uman b e ings ( po ss ib ly a f te r e xper imen ta t ion ) t ur ned t o a nd s ucceeded i n d ome s t ica t ing t h e a n ima l s pec ies mos t a menab le t o t h is p roce ss , n ame ly , s heep a nd g oa t s . I ti si mpor tan t t on o te t h a t a tn o t ime d id t h ey a bandon g aze l le h un t ing , i t me re ly b ecame o f s e conda ry i mpo r tance i n t h e a n ima l e conomy a ts ome s i tes , a nd c on t inued t od om ina te a to the r s i te s . One o ft h e s a l ien t f e a tu re s o f I n c ip ien t D ome s t ica t ion , i s a n i n c rea s ing d eg ree o f c on t ro l a nd c l o senes s t o t h e a n ima l s u nde rgo ing t h is " expe r imen ta l" p ha se . T he p robab le l im i ted k now ledge o fc ap rov ines a ss hown b y t h e i r l ow f r equenc ies i np re -PPNB s i tes , c hanged a tt h e s t a r t o ft h e P PNB , w i th p eop le ( f o r w ha teve r r e a son ) s l ow ly d eve lop ing an ew k ind o fr e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e mo s t s u i tab le a n ima l s a th and , s heep a nd g oa t s . T h is p er iod o f mu tua l a dap ta t ion , r equ i red t ime , a nd t hough t h e t wo p ha ses o f I n c ip ien t Domes t ica t ion ( B1

a nd B 2 ) may b e

d i f f icu l t t o s epa ra te

i n t h e

a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , t h en eces s i ty f o rb o th p ha ses h a sb een e xp la ined a tl e ng th a bove . N o t o n ly i st h e p resence o f morphome t r ic c hange i mpo r tan t i nd e te rm in ing t h e p re sence o f D ome s t ica t ion ( pha se C ) a t as i te , b u t a l so t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e o bserved morphome t r ic c hange s , i si mpo r tan t . I n ad i ach ron ic s t udy o f M idd le E a s te r n s heep , U erpmann ( 1978 ) h a s o bse rved t h a t " t he a mp l if ica t ion o f s i ze v a r iab i l i ty a tt h e t ime o fe a r ly d ome s t ica t ion o ccu r red s udden ly , a nd t h e b read th o f s i ze v a r ia t ion i mmed ia te ly r eaches i t s f u l l e x ten t" ( i . e . b e tween 7 , 500 -6 ,500 B .C . ) ( Uerpmann , 1 978 , p . 43 ) . H oweve r , a s o u t l ined i nt h e mode l a bove , i ti si n t h e p ha se o f P opu la t ion I s o la t ion ( pha se B 2 ) t h a t o ne wou ld e xpec t t h e b roades t r ange o f v a r ia t ion i nt h ec ap rov ine p opu la t ion . I ti sp e rhap st h i s p ha se o fi n c ip ien td omes t ica t ion a nd n o t d ome s t ica t ion p rope rt h a tU e rpmann ( 1978 )h a s i d en t if ied . An a dd i t iona l p o in t d i scu ssed a bove i st h e i n c rea se i np a tho log ies t h a t w ou ld a ccompany t h e a dven t o fp ha se B 2 o ft h e mode l ( Popu la t ion I s o la t ion ) w i th s ome c on t inu i ty i n to p ha se C ( Dome s t ica t ion ) . T he c l a ims f o r i n c rea sed p a tho log ies a t ' A in Ghaza l , a r e c on s is ten t w i th a p ha se o fP opu la t ion I s o la t ion d ue t oc hang ing l i v ing c ond i t ion s , i n c rea sed d i sea se l o ad , r educed a c t iv i ty , a nd p o ss ib le c hanges i nd i e t . B y t h e t ime a r t if ic ia l s e lec t ion i sp rac t iced , t h e h e rd h a s b een " weeded o u t" f o r t h e mo s t s u i tab le a n ima ls , p o ss ib ly i n c lud ing t ho se w i th t h e g rea te s t d i sea se t o le rance . I nt h e a b sence o fc onv inc ing e v idence f o r mo rphome t r ic c hange a tt h e o nse t o f t h e P PNB , b o th t h e i n c rea sed c ap rov ine f r equenc ies , a nd p a tho log ies p o in t t o ap e r iod o f c l o se h uman -an ima l r e la t ion s c omp r i s ing t h e f e a tu re s d i scu ssed u nde r t h e h ead ing o fI n c ip ien t Dome s t ica t ion . T h i s f a c i l i ta ted t h e s ub sequen t p ha se o f Dome s t ica t ion when morphome t r ic c hange t ook p l ace r ap id ly ,u nde rt h ei n f luence o fa r t if ic ia l s e lec t ion .

( c )L oca lD ome s t ica t ion T od a te , t h e re i sn o s o l id d a ta ( an th ropo log ica l o ra r chaeo log ica l ) t os uppo r tt h e c l a im st h a t d ome s t ic s heep a nd g oa t s w e re i n t roduced i n to t h e s ou ther n L evan t f r om t h e No r th ( C lu t ton B rock , 1 983 ; B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen , 1 987 ) . T h i s , d esp i te t h e f a c t t h a t w i ld g oa t s c omp r ised a h ighe r f r equency o f t h e l o ca l f auna d u r ing p re -Neo l i th ic p e r iod s i n t h e n o r ther n L evan t a nd a d jacen t r eg ions , t h an i nt h e s ou ther n r e g ion . T ak ing i n to a ccoun t , t h e p resence o f w i ld g oa t s ( t hough i n s ma l l f r equenc ie s ) a nd w i ld s heep [ t he l a t te r a t s i te s s uch a s J e r icho P PNA , E p ipa leo l i th ic s i tes i nt h e N egev ( Dav is e ta l . , 1 982 ) a nd J o rdan ( Hen ry e ta l . , 1 985 ) i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t i np re -Neo l i th ic p e r iod s ( Dav is , 1 982 , 1 985 ) ] , o ne c anno t c l a im t h a t t h e se w e re n ew s pec ies i n t roduced t ot h is r eg ion . Adm i t ted ly i nt h ep re -PPNB l e ve ls , w i ld c ap rov ine s a r e p r e sen t i ns ma l le r f r equenc ies i nt h e s ou ther n L evan t t h an i nt h e n o r ther nL evan t , b u t t h e i r p r e sence p r io r t o t h e P PNB i n t h is r e g ion c anno t b e d en ied . T he s udden i n c rea se i n t h e f r equency o f t h is s pec ies a t t h e o n se t o f t h e P PNB h a s b een i n te rp re ted a s r e f lec t ing t h e i r i n ten s ive h un t ing ( pha se B 1) . T he r e a son w hy t h ey a nd n o t t h e p rev ious ly d om inan t mamma l s ( g aze l le o r d ee r ) s e rved a s t h e f ocu s f o r s uch f o cu sed h un t ing , i sp robab ly r e la ted t o t h e s u i tab i l i ty o ft h e l a t te r s pec ies t od omes t ica t ion ( s ee a bove ) , a nd t h e u n su i tab i l i ty o ft h e f o rme r t wo s pec ies . T he q ue s t ion o fw hy t h e s t ep t owa rd s d omes t ica t ion w a s t a ken p rec ise ly t h en , l i es 1 7 3

o u t s ide t h e b ounda r ies o f t h is p ape r , b u t h a s b een d eba ted a t l e ng th b y n ume rou s a u tho r s ( S ingh , 1 974 ; Me l laa r t , 1 975 ; C ohen , 1 977 ; R eed , 1 977 , 1 980 ; R edman , 1 978 ; Moo re . 1 982a ,b , 1 985 ; B ra idwood e ta l . , 1 983 ) . R ega rd le ss o f whe the r w e a r e d ea l ing w i th d omes t ica ted c ap rov ine s , o r c ap rov ine s i nt h e p ha se o f I n c ip ien t Dome s t ica t ion , s ome l e ve l o f g eog raph ic d ive r s i ty i sp o s s ib le w i th in t h e s ame p er iod . Howeve r , t h e g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i te s w i th a nd t ho se w i thou t d ome s t ic c ap rov ines , s hows n o c on s is ten t p a t tern ing . T hough J e r icho , B e idha a nd ' A in G haza l a l l f a l l w i th in t h e s ame z one o f d eser t s teppe , t h ey d i f f e r w i th r ega rd t o t h e p re sence o f d omes t ic c ap rov ines . S im i la r ly , B e isamoun , Munha t ta , Abu Gho sh , N aha l O ren , A t l i ta nd Y if tahe la l l f a l l i nt h e Med i ter ranean z one , b u t t h ey t oo d i f f e r i nt h is r e spec t . I fo ne a ccep t s c hange s i ns pec ie s f r equency a s as ound c r i ter ion f o r d omes t ica t ion , t h en t h is c r i te r ion n eed s t ob e a pp l ied t oa l l s i te s . I ft h en w e a r e d ea l ing w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion / d ifu s ion o f d ome s t ic c ap rov ines f r om t h e n or th , t h en e i the r t h e a n ima ls o r t h e c oncep t o f d omes t ica t ion e n te red a nd w a s d i s sem ina ted i n to t h is r eg ion i n ar andom , i log ica l f a sh ion . How e l se c an o ne e xp la in t h e p r e sence o f d omes t ica t ion a to ne P PNB s i te , w h i le a b sen t a ta no the r? P e rhaps p a r t o ft h e a n swe r l i e s i nt h e p rob lem o f c h rono logy , n ame ly , t h a t n o t a l l P PNB s i te s a r e s t r ic t ly c on tempo raneou s . U nfo r tuna te ly , i nf ew f auna l p ub l ica t ions h ave a t temp t s b een made t od i s t ingu ish b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t p ha se s o ft h e P PNB , s uch t h a t w e a r e l e f t c ompa r ing f auna l a s semb lage s a ccumu la ted o ve r l ong t ime s pan s , n o t n ece ssa r i ly s equen t ia l o r e ven c on tempo raneou s . I ft h is i st r ue , t h en t h e p a t te rn o f as udden r i se i nt h e f r equency o fc ap rov ines may i nf a c tp rove t ob e ag rad ien t' o f i n crea s ing i n ten s if ica t ion a s o u t l ined i np ha se B o ft h e mode l . Mo reove r , t h e p a t ter n ing o ft h is i n c rea se d oe s n o t o fn ece ss i ty i nd ica te an o r ther n o r ig in f o r d omes t ic c ap rov ine s , s t i l l l e av ing o pen t h eo p t ion o fl o ca l d omes t ica t ion . T he p o ten t ia l ly r ap id r a te o fc hanges f o l low ing P opu la t ion I s o la t ion a nd s e lec t ive b reed ing s uppo r tt h e p o ten t ia l o fi n dependen td eve lopmen t o f amo rphome t r ica l ly d ome s t ic c ap rov ine i n t h e L evan tw i th in t h ec ur ren tt ime s c a le . T he re i sn oe v idence a tt h e P PNA -PPNB i n te rpha se o f ma s s h uman m ig ra t ion s t h a t w ou ld a ccoun t f o r t h e s udden i n t roduc t ion o f d ome s t ic a n ima ls . T he c u l tu ra l d i f fus ion o f c ap rov ine d ome s t ica t ion o r t h e t r ad ing o f d ome s t ic c ap rov ine s f r om t h e n or ther nL evan t i n to t h e s ou ther nL evan t c an n e i the rb e p roven n o rd i sp roven a tt h is s t age . I n e i the r c a se , i n o rde r t o h ave a s ub s tan t ia l f l ock o f d omes t ic a n ima l s ( a s e v idenced b y t h e n umbe r s o f b ones f ound a t t h e v a r ious s i te s ) , t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion w ou ld s t i l l h ave h ad t o u nder take t h e t a sk o f d ome s t ica t ing l o ca l w i ld s t ock , a nd i n my o p in ion t h is w ou ld h ave f o l lowed t h e mode l o u t l ined i nt h is p ape r . I ts hou ld a l so b e b or ne i nm ind t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th ap opu la t ion t h a t p o ss ib ly a l ready h ad d omes t ic d og s ( Dav is a nd V a l la , 1 978 ) , s o t h a t t h e c oncep to fa n ima ld omes t ica t ion may n o th ave b een a l toge the ru nfam i l ia r . T he c y togene t ic d a ta c oncer n ing r e la t ion sh ip s o f moder n d omes t ic a nd w i ld c ap rov ines ( Nad le r e ta l . , 1 973 ; B unch e ta l . , 1 976 ) i nn o w ay e xc lude s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fl o ca l c ap rov ine d omes t ica t ion i n t h e s ou ther n L evan t . R esea rche r s ( Nad le r e ta / . , 1 973 ; B unch e ta l . , 1 976 ) h ave r epo r ted t h a t a l l d ome s t ic s heep b reed s e xam ined a r e d er ived f r om a N ea r E a s ter n mou f lon a nce s to r . Unfor tuna te ly n o c y togene t ic s t ud ie s a r e a va i lab le o n w i ld g oa t s , b u t z oogeog raph ic s t ud ies s ugge s t af a r w ide r d i s t r ibu t ion o f w i ld g oa t s i n t h e p a s t t h an t oday ( Ue rpmann , 1 981) . Mo reove r , t h e i r p re sence i nn ume rou s a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i nt h e s ou ther n L evan t ,u pu n t i l t h eN eo l i th ic , i sw e l ld ocumen ted ( Dav is , 1 982 ) . I n c on t ra s t , t h e mo s t s ou ther np a r t o ft h e s ou ther n L evan t ( e ssen t ia l ly t h e s ou ther n N egev a nd S ina i p en in su la ) d oes n o t a ppea r t o h ave a dop ted o r u nde r taken a n ima l d ome s t ica t ion d u r ing a tl e a s t t h e P PNB p er iod . T he i n t roduc t ion o fa l ready d ome s t ica ted c ap rov ines i n to t h is r e g ion o ccur red a tl e a s tb y t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod , i fn o td ur ing t h eP o t te ry N eo l i th ic p er iod ( a s i n d ica ted b y t h e p re sence o f d ome s t ic s heep , g oa t s a nd c a t t le f r om Q a t if s i te Y 3 G r igson , 1 984 ) . Howeve r , d ue t o t h e a b sence o f a s semb lages o f N eo l i th ic f a una , e spec ia l ly f r om t h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic p e r iod i nt h e se r eg ion s , t h ese c ommen t sr ema in h ypo the t ica l . 1 7 4

CONCLUSIONS

The absence of a cohesive set of criteria with which to define domestication, has given rise to confusion concerning the identification of domesticated versus wild animals. Depending upon the criteria used by the analyst, animal domestication may be deemed present or absent at a site. A synthetic, four phase, model has been attempted in this paper based, in many parts on ideas proposed by various researchers, and quoted here, who have worked on the topic of domestication. The strength of this model lies not only in that it synthesises much of what has been proposed to date, but in that it relies upon known biological processes applied today in animal breeding and farming of wild species. The case study of the southern Levant presented here has pointed out some of the "anomalies in the ruling paradigm" (in a Kuhnian sense; Kuhn, 1962), and how these may be explained using a set of well defined criteria as outlined in the model. Many of the criticisms apply to other regions where similar criteria have been used to assess domestication. By investigating these anomalies, I have suggested some "new" answers to an "old" question, though numerous aspects of this model need to be clarified through analysis of larger, well excavated faunal assemblages.

,

·----..

. I �o,LAIM �ou. ·., , fi D OME5TIC:.. S \-\Et::V

.,

(

1\if

MEEK WILL INHERIT iHE Eft._TH

175

NOTE :THE DATA U SED FOR F IGURES 5 , 6 ,7 ,8 WAS DER IVED FRO M THE FOLLO W ING AUTHORS :

ABU GHOSH ' A IN GHAZAL

DUCOS , 1 978a ROLLEFSON ET AL . , 1 985

ATL IT BE IDHA

HOR W ITZ AND TCHERNOV , 1 987 HECKER , 1 975

BE ISA MOUN E IN GEV

DAV IS , 1 978 DAV IS , 1 987

G ILGAL HAGOSHR IM

NOY ET AL . , 1 980 DUCOS , 1 968

HATOULA

DAV IS , 1 985

J ER ICHO

CLUTTON -BROCK , 1 971 ,1979a ,1983

MUNHATTA

DUCOS , 1 968

NAHAL OREN SHE IKH EL I

NOY ET AL . , 1 973 J AR MAN , 1 974

TEL DAN

HOR W ITZ , 1 987

U JRET EL MEHED

DAYAN , 1 983

WAD I TBE IK

TCHERNOV AND BAR -YOSEF , 1 982

Y IFTAHEL '

HOR W ITZ , 1 988

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS My s pec ia l t h ank s t o P rof . E . T cher nov , P rof . 0 . B a r -Yo sef , P rof . P . Sm i th , a nd D r . A . Gophe rf o rt h e i ri n c is ive a nd h e lpfu lc ommen t sa nd c r i t ic isms o ft h ei d ea se xp ressed h ere . REFERENCES B aha rav , D . 1 983 . Ob se rva t ion o n t h e e co logy o f t h e moun ta in g aze l le i nt h e Uppe r G a l i lee , I s rae l . Mamma l ia ,4 7 :59 -69 . B ake r ,J .a nd B ro thwe l l , D . 1 980 .A n ima lD iseases i nA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss ,L ondon . B a r -Yosef , 0 . 1 977 . T he N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s i nE re tz I s rae l . Q admon io t , 1 0 :38 -59 ( i nH eb rew ) . B a r -Yosef , 0 . 1 981 . T he " P re -Po t tery N eo l i th ic" p er iod i nt h eS ou ther nL evan t . I n : J .C auv in & P .S an lav i l le ( ed s . )P r eh i s to ir ed uL evan t . C o l loques C .N .R .S . 5 98 L yon , P a r is ,p p .555 -569 . B a r -Yosef , 0 . 1 986 /87 . O r ig in s a nd a dven t o fp a s to ra l h e rd ing s oc ie t ie s i nt h e L evan t .I s rae l L and a nd P eop le . B u l le t in o fH aa re tz Mu seum ,T e l -Av iv 2 2 :85 -99 ( i nH eb rew ) . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ,A . ( t h is v o lume )T he L evan t ine P PNB i n te rac t ion s phe re . B eckof f , M . , D an ie ls , T . J . a nd G i t te lman , J .L . 1 984 . L if e h i s to ry p a t ter n s a nd t h e c ompa ra t ive s oc ia le co logy o fc a rn ivo res .A nn .R ev . E co l . S ys t . ,1 5 :191-232 . B e r ry , R .J . 1 969 . T he g ene t ica l i mp l ica t ion s o fd omes t ica t ion i na n ima l s . I n : P .U cko & G .W . D imb leby ( e d s . ) T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o fP lan t s a nd A n ima l s . D uckwor th , L ondon ,p p .207 -218 . B e r ry , R .J . 1 986 . G ene t ics o f i n su la r p opu la t ion s o f mamma ls , w i th p a r t icu la r r e f e rence t o d if e ren t ia t ion a nd f ounde r e f ec t s i n B r i t ish s ma l l mamma ls . B io l . J . L innean S oc . , 2 8 :205 -230 . B oes sneck , J .a nd v on d en D r iesch , A . 1 978 . T he s i gn if icance o f mea sur ing a n ima lb ones f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes . I n : R .H . Meadow & M .A . Z ede r ( ed s . ) A pproaches t o F auna l A na lys is i nt h eM idd le E as t , P eabody Mu seum B u l le t in 2 ,H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty p p .25 -40 . B ököny i , S . 1 969 . A rchaeo log ica l p rob lem s a nd m e thod s o fr e cogn iz ing a n ima l d omes t ica t ion . I n : P .U cko & G .W . D imb leby ( e d s . ) T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o fP lan t s a nd A n ima l s , D uckwor th ,L ondon ,p p .219 -229 . B ököny i , S . 1 973 . S ome p rob lems o fa n ima l d omes t ica t ion i nt h e M idd le E a s t . I n : J . Ma to lcs i ( e d . ) Domes t ika t ionsf or schung u nd G esch ich te D er Haus t ier e . Akadem ia i K iado , 1 76

B udape s t , p p .69 -75 . B ököny i , S .1 976 . D eve lopmen to fe a r ly s t ock r e a r ing i nt h eN ea rE a s t .N a tur e , 2 64 :19 -23 . B ra idwood , L .S . , B r a idwood , R .J . , H owe , B . , R eed , C .A . a nd Wa t son , P . J . 1 983 . P r eh i s tor ic A r chaeo logy a long t h e Z agro s F lank s . O r ien ta l I n s t . P ub l . , V o l . 1 05 , C h icago U n ive r s i ty P r e ss ,C h icago . B ro thwe l l , D .R . 1 975 . S a lvag ing t h e t e rm " Dome s t ica t ion" f o r c e r ta in t ype s o f man -an ima l r e la t ion sh ip : t h e p o s s ib le v a lue o fa n e i gh t -po in t s co r ing s y s tem . J .A r chaeo l . S c i . , 2 : 397 4 00 . B undh , T .D . , F oo te , W .C . , a nd S p i l le t t , J . J . 1 976 . T ran s loca t ion s o f a c rocen t r ic c h romo some s a nd t h e i ri mp l ica t ion si nt h ee vo lu t ion o fs heep ( Ov i s ) . C y togene t . C e l lG ene t . , 1 7 :122 -136 . C auv in , J . 1 978 . L es P r em ier s V i l lage s d e S yr ie -Pa le s t ine d u I Xeme a u V l leme M i l lena ir e a van tJ .C . Ma i son d el 'O r ien t Med i te r ranean Anc ien ,L yon . C lu t ton -Brock , J .1 971 . T he p r ima ry f ood a n ima l s o fJ e r icho t e l l f r om t h e P ro to -Neo l i th ic t o t h eB yzan t ine p e r iod .L evan t , 3 : 41-55 . C lu t ton -Brock , J .1 979a . T he mamma l ian r ema in s f r om t h e J e r icho T e l l . P roc . P r eh i s t . S oc . , 4 5 :135 -157 . C lu t ton -Brock , J .1 979b . T he d ef in i t ion o f ab reed . I n : M . K uba s iew icz ( e d . )A r chaeo zoo logy . V o lI .P roceed ing so ft h e 3 rd I n te rna t iona lA rchaeozoo log ica lC on f e r ence , S zcec in ,P o land , A g r icu l tu ra lA cademy o fP o land . C lu t ton -Brock ,J .1 981 . Dome s t ica ted A n ima l sf rom E ar ly T ime s . B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon . C lu t ton -B rock , J .1 983 T he a n ima l r ema in s : A ppend ix L . I n : K .M . K enyon & T .A . Ho l land ( e d s . )E xcava t ion sa tJ er icho . V o l5 .B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy J e ru sa lem ,p p .802 -803 . C lu t ton -Brock , J .a nd U e rpmann , H -P . 1 974 . T he s heep o f e a r ly J e r icho . J .A r chaeo l . S c i . , 1 ( 4 ) :261-274 . C ohen ,M .N . 1 977 . T he F ood C r i s i si nP r eh i s tory . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s .N ew H aven . C o l l ie r , S . a nd Wh i te , J . P . 1 976 . G e t t h em y oung . A ge a nd s ex i n f e rence s o n a n ima l d ome s t ica t ion . Amer .A n t iqu i ty ,4 1 :96 -102 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 978 . B e i samoun . E tude d e l af aune . I n : M . L echeva l l ie r ( e d . ) A bou Gosh e t B e i samoun . Memo i r se tT ravaux d uC .N .R .S . d eJ e ru sa lem ,N o . 2 ,P ar i s ,p p .195 -197 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 981 . T he e f ec t s o ft empe ra tu re c hange a nd d ome s t ica t ion o n t h e b ody s i ze o f L a te P le i s tocene t oH o locene mamma l so fI s rae l .P a leob io l . ,7 : 10 1-114 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 982 . C l ima t ic c hange a nd t h e a dven t o f d ome s t ica t ion : t h e s ucce s s ion o f r um inan t a r t iodac ty l s i n t h e L a te P le i s tocene -Ho locene i n t h e I s rae l r eg ion . P a lgor ien t , 8 (2 ) :5 -15 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 983 . T he a ge p rof i le s o f g aze l le s p reda ted b y a nc ien t man i n I s rae l : P o ss ib le e v idence f o r as h if tf r om s ea sona l i ty t os eden t i sm i nt h eN a tuf ian .P a lgor ien t ,9 ( 1) :55 -62 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 985 . Ap re l im ina ry r epor to ft h ef auna f r om H a tou la , aN a tuf ian -PPNA s i te n ea r L a t roun , I s rae l . A ppend ix B . I n : M . L ech eva l l ie r & A . R onen ( e d s . ) L e S i te N a touf ien K h iam ien d e ' Ha tou la , p r e s d e L a t roun , I s rae l . L e s c ah ie r s d u C en t re d e R eche r che F ranca i sd eJ e ru sa lem ,N o . 1.p p .71-98 . D av i s , S . J .M . 1 987 . T he A r chaeo logy o fA n ima l s . L ondon . D av i s , S . J . a nd V a l la ,F .R . 1 978 . E v idence f o rd ome s t ica t ion o ft h ed og 1 2 ,000 y ea r s a go i nt h e N a tuf ian o fI s rae l .N a tur e ,2 76 :608 -610 . D av i s , S . J .M . , G o r ing - Mo r r i s , N . a nd G ophe r , A .

1 982 . S heep b one s f r om t h e N egev

E p ipa leo l i th ic .P a lgor ien t , 8 ( 1) :87 -93 . D ayan , T . , T chemov , E . , B a r -Y o se f , 0 . a nd G ophe r , A . 1 986 . An ima l e xp lo i ta t ion i nU j ra t e l Mehed , aN eo l i th ic s i te i ns ou ther nS ina i .P a livr ien t , 1 2 (2 ) :105 -116 . D uco s , P . 1 968 . L 'Or ig ine d e s A n imaux Dome s t ique s e n P a le s t ine . P ub l ica t ion s d e l ' In s t i tu te d eP reh i s to i re d el 'Un ive r s i te d eB o rdeux , Memo i re 6 . D uco s , P .1 969 . Me thodo logy a nd r e su l t s o ft h e s t udy o f t h e e a r l ie s t d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s i n 1 7 7

t h e N ea r E a s t . In : P . J . U cko & G .W . D imb leby ( ed s . ) T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o fP lan t sa nd A n ima l s . Duckwor th ,L ondon ,p p .265 -275 . D uco s , P . 1 978a . L a f aune d 'Abou Go sh . P ro to -e levage d e l a c hevre e n P a les t ine a u N eo l i th ique p re -ce ram ic . I n : M . L echeva l l ie r ( ed . )A bou Gosh e tB e i samoun . Memo i res e t T ravaux d u C en t re d e R eche rche s P reh is tor ique F ranca is d e J e ru sa lem , No . 2 , P a r i s , p p .107 -120 . Duco s , P .1 978b . " Domes t ica t ion" d ef ined a nd me thodo log ica l a pp roache s t oi t s r e cogn i t ion i n f auna l a s semb lages . I n : R . Meadow & M .A . Z ede r ( ed s . ) A pproaches t oF auna lA na lys is i nt h eM idd le E as t . P eabody Museum B u l le t in 2 ,p p .53 -56 . Duco s , P .a nd H e lme r , D . 1 981 . L e p o in t a c tue l s u r l ' appa r i t ion d e l ad ome s t ica t ion d an s l e L evan t . I n : C o l loques I n terna t iona ld uC .N .R .S . No .598 ,L yon . p p .523 -527 . E lde r , W .H . 1 965 . P r imeva l d ee rh un t ing p re ssu res r evea led b y r ema in s f r om Amer ican I nd ian m idden s .J .W i ld l if e Managemen t , 2 9 (2 ) :366 -370 . E nd le r , J .A . 1 986 . N a tura l S e lec t ion i n t h e W i ld . P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P ress , P r ince ton , N ew J e r sey . E p s te in , H . 1 971 . T he O r ig in o ft h e Domes t ic A n ima l s o fA f r ica . V o l . I . A f r icana P ub l i sh ing , NY . G a r ra rd , A .N . 1 984 . T he s e lec t ion o f S ou th -W es t A s ian a n ima l d ome s t ica te s . I n : J .C lu t ton B rock & C . G r igson ( e d s . ) A n ima l s a nd A r chaeo logy . V o l . 3 .B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S er ie s , . 2 02 :117 -132 . G e i s t , V . 1 971 . Moun ta in S heep . AS tudy i nB ehav iour a nd E vo lu t ion . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P ress , C h icago . G i lber t , A .S . 1 975 . Mode rn n omad s a nd p reh is tor ic p a s to ra l is t s : t h e l im i t s o f a na logy . J . A nc ien tN ear E as tern S oc . C o lumb ia U n iv . ,7 : 53 -71 . G i t t leman , J .L . 1 985 . C a rn ivo re b ody s i ze : E co log ica l a nd t a xanom ic c o r re la te s . O eco log ia , 6 7 :540 -554 . Gophe r , A . 1 985 . F l in t T oo l I ndus tr ies o ft h e N eo l i th ic P er iod i n I s rae l . Unpub l ished P hD . t h e s is , H eb rew Un ive r s i ty ,J e ru sa lem . G r igson , C . 1 969 . T he u ses a nd l im i ta t ion s o f d if e rences i n a b so lu te s i ze i n t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween b ones o f a u roch s ( Bos p r im igen ius ) a nd d omes t ic c a t t le ( Bos t a urus ) .I n : P . J . U cko & G .W . D imb leby ( e d s . ) T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o f P lan t s a nd A n ima l s , Duckwo r th ,L ondon , p p .277 -294 . G r igson ,C . 1 984 . P re l im ina ry r epo r to nt h e mamma lb ones f r om N eo l i th ic Q a t if , s i te Y 3o nt h e S ina ic oa s ta lp l a in ( Excava t ion s 1 979 ,1980 a nd 1 983 ) . Unpub l ished manuscr ip t . H af ez , E .S .E . ( ed ) 1 962 . T he B ehav iour o f Domes t ic A n ima l s . B a i l l ie re , T inda l l a nd C ox , L ondon . H a f ez ,E .S .E . 1 968 .A dap ta t ion o f Domes t ic A n ima l s . L ea a nd F eb ige r ,P h i lade lph ia . H a le , E .B . 1 962 . Dome s t ica t ion a nd t h e e vo lu t ion o f b ehav iou r . I n : E .S .E . H a f ez ( e d . ) T he B ehav iour o f Domes t ic A n ima l s , B a i l l ie re ,T inda l la nd C ox ,L ondon ,p p .21-53 H ammond , J . 1 960 . F arm A n ima l s . T he ir B r eed ing , G row th a nd I nher i tance . 3 rd e d i t ion . E dwa rd Ar no ld , L ondon . H ecke r , H .M . 1 975 . T he F auna l A na lys i s o f t h e P r imary F ood A n ima l s f rom P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B e idha ( J ordan ) . Unpub l ished P h .D . t h es is , C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty . H ecke r , H .M . 1 982 . Domes t ica t ion r ev is i ted : I t s i mp l ica t ion s f o r f auna l a na lys is . J . F ie ld A r chaeo l . ,9 :217 -236 . H en ry , D .O . , T ur nbu l l , P .F . , Eme ryBa rb ie r , A . a nd L e ro i -Gou rhan , A . 1 985 . A rchaeo log ica l a nd f auna l e v idence f r om N a tuf ian a nd T imn ian s i te s i nS ou ther nJ o rdan . B u l l . Amer . S ch . O r ien ta lR es . ,2 57 :45 -64 . H er re , W . a nd R oh r s , M . 1 977 . Z oo log ica l c on s ide ra t ion s o n t h e o r ig in s o f f a rm ing a nd d omes t ica t ion . I n : C .A . R eed ( e d . ) O r ig ins o fA gr icu l tur e . Mou ton P res s , T he H ague . 1 7 8

p p .245 -280 . H e s se , B .C . 1 978 . E v idence f or Husbandry f rom t h e E ar ly N eo l i th ic S i te o f Gan j Dar eh i n W es tern I r an . P h .D . t h es i s ,C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty . Ann A rbo r Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm s . H e s se , B .C . 1 982 . S laugh te r p a t ter n s a nd d omes t ica t ion : T he b eg inn ings o f p a s to ra l ism i n We s te rn I r an . Man , 1 7 :403 -417 . H igg s , E .S . a nd J a rman , M .R . 1 969 . T he o r ig ins o f a g r icu l tu re : Ar e con s ide ra t ion . A n t iqu i ty , 4 3 :31-41 . H o le ,F .1 984 . R ea ssessmen to ft h eN eo l i th ic R evo lu t ion .P a ljor ien t , 1 0 (2 ) :49 -60 . H o le , F . , F lanne ry , K .V . a nd N ee ly , J .A . 1 969 . P reh is to ry a nd h uman e co logy o nt h e D eh L u ran P la in . Mem . Mus .A n thropo l . ,I , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan . H oo i je r , D .A . 1 961 . F o ss i l v e r teb ra te s o fK sa r Ak i l , aP a leo l i th ic r ock s he l te r i nt h e L ebanon . Z oo l . V erhand e l ingen ,L e iden ,4 9 :4 -67 . H o rw i tz , L .K . 1 987 . An ima l r ema ins f r om t h e P o t tery N eo l i th ic l e ve ls a tT e l D an . M i tekuf a t Haeven , J .I s r .P r eh is t . S oc . , 2 0 :114 -118 . H o rw i tz , L .K . 1 988 . T he F auna f rom t h e PPNB a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge o fI s rae l : Y i f tahe l a C ase S tudy . Unpub l ished M .A . t h e s is , H eb rew Un ive r s i ty ,J eru sa lem . H o rw i tz , L .K . a nd T cher nov , E . 1 987 . F auna l r ema in s f r om t h e P PNB s ubme rged s i te o fA t l i t . M i tekuf a t Haeven , 2 0 :72 -78 . I ngo ld ,T . 1 980 . Hun ter s ,P a s tora l i s t sa nd R ancher s . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P ress . J a rman , M .R . 1 974 . T he f auna a nd e conomy o fT e lE l i .M i tekuf a t Haeven , 1 2 :50 -70 . J a rman , M .R . 1 976 . E a r ly a n ima lh u sband ry .P h i los . T rans .R oy . S oc .L ondon ,B 275 :85 -97 . J a rman , M .R . a nd W i lk in son , P . F . 1 972 . C r i ter ia o fa n ima l d ome s t ica t ion . I n : E .S . H iggs ( ed . ) P aper s i nE conom ic P r eh i s tory . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . p p .83 -96 . K e r s ten , A .M .P . ( p resen t v o lume ) T he E p ipa leo l i th ic u ngu la te r ema in s f r om K sa r Ak i l : S ome p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s . K le in , R .G . 1 982 .A ge ( mor ta l i ty ) p rof i les a s amean s o f d i s t ingu ish ing h un ted s pec ies f r om s c avanged o nes i nS tone A ge a r chaeo log ica l s i tes .J .A r chaeo l . S c i . ,8 (2 ) :151-158 . K le in , R .G . a nd C ruz -U r ibe , K . 1 984 . T he A na ly s is o fA n ima l B ones f rom A r chaeo log ica l S i tes . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P ress ,C h icago . K uhn , T .S . 1 962 . T he S t ruc tur e o fS c ien t if ic R evo lu t ions . T he Un ive r s i ty o f C h icago P res s , C h icago . L egge , A .J . 1 972 . P reh is to r ic e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e g aze l le i n P a les t ine . I n : E .S . H iggs ( ed . ) P aper si nE conom ic P r eh i s tory . C ambd r ige Un ive r s i ty P re ss . p p .119 -124 . L egge , A .J . 1 980 . T he o r ig in s o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h e N ea rE a s t . I n : J .V .S . Megaw ( ed . ) Hun ters , G a ther er sa nd F ir s tF armer sB eyond E urope . L e ice s te r Un ive r s i ty P res s ,p p .51-67 . L egge , A .J . a nd R ow ley -Conwy , P .A . 1 987 . Gaze l le k i l l ing i n S tone A ge S yr ia . S c i . Amer . , 2 57 (2 ) :76 -83 . L er n e r , I .M . 1 958 . T he G ene t ic B as i so fS e lec t ion . J ohn W i ley a nd S on s , NY . L erne r , I .M . a nd D ona ld , H .P . 1 966 . Modern Deve lopmen t s i n A n ima l B r eed ing . A cadem ic P ress ,L ondon . L ush ,J .L . 1 956 .A n ima lB r eed ing P lans . I owa S ta te C o l lege P ress ,I owa . Ma r sha l l , L .G . a nd C or rucc in i , R .S . 1 978 . V a r iab i l i ty , e vo lu t iona ry r a tes a nd a l lome t ry i n d wa r f ing l i neages .P a leob io l . ,4 : 101-119 . May r ,E . 1 963 .A n ima lS pec ie sa nd E vo lu t ion . B e lknap P ress , H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty , MA . Me l laa r t ,J .1 975 . T he N eo l i th ic o ft h eN ear E as t . T hame sa nd Hud son ,L ondon . Moo re , A .M .T . 1 982a . Af ou r s t age s equence f o r t h e L evan t ine N eo l i th ic c a . 8 500 -3750 B .C . B u l l . Amer . S ch . O r ien ta lR es . ,2 46 :1-34 . Moo re , A .M .T . 1 982b . Ag r icu l tu ra l o r ig in s i n t h e N ea r E a s t : amode l f o r t h e 1 980 's . Wor ld A r cheo l ., 1 4 (2 ) :224 -236 . Moo re , A .M .T . 1 985 . T he d eve lopmen t o f N eo l i th ic s oc ie t ies i n t h e N ea r E a s t . A dv . Wor ld 1 7 9

A r chaeo l . ,4 : 1-69 . N ad le r , C .F . , K o rob i t s ina , K .V . , H of fmann , R .S . a nd V o ron t sov , N .N .

1 973 . C y togene t ic

d i f f eren t ia t ion , g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d omes t ica t ion i nP a lea rc t ic s heep ( Ov i s ) .Z ei t . S auger t ierkunde , 3 8 :109 -125 . Noy , T . , L egge , A .J . , a nd H iggs , E .S . 1 973 . R ecen t e xcava t ion s a tN aha l O ren , I s rae l . P ro c. P r eh i s t . S oc . ,3 9 :75 -99 . Noy , T . , S chu lde re in , J .a nd T cher nov , E . 1 980 . G i lga l : AP re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A s i te i nt h e L owe rJ o rdan V a l ley .I s r .E xp l .J . ,3 0 :63 -82 . O lsen , S . J . 1 979 . A rchaeo log ica l ly , w ha t c on s t i tu tes a n e a r ly d omes t ic a n ima l? A dv . A rc h aeo l . Me th . T heory , 2 : 175 -197 . P ayne , S . 1 973 . K i l l -of f p a t ter n s i n s heep a nd g oa t s : t h e mand ib le s f r om A svan K a le . A na to l ian S tud ies , 2 3 :281-303 . P ianka ,E .R . 1 970 . On r -a nd K -Se lec t ion . Amer . Na tura l i s t , 1 04 :592 -597 . P r ice , E .O . 1 984 . B ehav iou ra l a spec t so fa n ima ld omes t ica t ion . Q uar t .R ev .B io l . ,5 0 (1) :1-32 . P r ice , E .O . a nd K ing , J .A .

1 968 . Domes t ica t ion a nd a dap ta t ion . I n : E .S .E . H a f ez ( e d . )

A dap ta t ion o f Domes t ic A n ima l s . L ea a nd F e rb ige r ,P h i lade lph ia ,p p .34 -45 . R edman , C . 1 978 . T he R i se o fC iv i l i sa t ion . F reeman P ress , S an F rans isco . R eed ,C .A . 1 959 . An ima ld omes t ica t ion i nt h ep reh is to r ic N ea rE a s t . S c ience , 1 30 :1629 -1639 . R eed , C .A . 1 969 . T he p a t ter n o f a n ima l d omes t ica t ion i n t h e p reh is tor ic N ea r E a s t . I n : P . J . U cko & G .W . D imb leby ( ed s . ) T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o f P lan t s a nd A n ima l s . A ld ine P ress , C h icago ,p p .361-380 . R eed , C .A . 1 977 . O r ig ins o fA gr icu l tur e . Mou ton P res s ,T he H ague . R eed , C .A . 1 980 . T he b eg inn ings o fa n ima l d omes t ica t ion . I n : H .H . C o le & W .N . G a r re t t( e d s . ) A n ima lA gr icu l tur e . 2 nd e d . ,W .H . F reeman a nd C o . , S an F ranc isco ,p p .3 -20 . R eed , C .A . 1 983 . A rchaeozoo log ica l s t ud ies i nt h eN ea rE a s t ( 1960 -1980 ) . I n : L .S . B ra idwood , R .J . B ra idwood , B . Howe , C .A . R eed & P . J . Wa t son ( e d s . )P r eh i s tor ic A r chaeo logy A long t h e Z agros F lank s . O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion , V o l . 1 05 . C h icago Un ive r s i ty P ress , C h icago ,p p .511-536 . R o l lef son , G . , S immon s , A . , Dona ld son , M . , G i l lesp ie , W . , K afaf i , Z . , Köh le r -Ro l lef son , I . , McAdam , E . , R o ls ton , S . a nd T ubb , K . 1 985 . E xcava t ion s a t t h e P PNB v i l lage o f A in Ghaza l ( J o rdan ) , 1 983 .M i t te i lungen d er D eu t schen O r ien tG ese l l schaf t , 17 :60 -116 . R yde r ,M .L . 1 982 . S heep -H i lzhe ime r4 5 y ea r so n .A n t iqu i ty , LV I :15 -23 . S ingh , P .1 974 .N eo l i th ic C u l tur es o fW e s tern A s ia . S em ina rP re ss , NY . Sm i th , P . a nd H o rw i tz , L .K . 1 984 . R ad iog raph ic e v idence f o r c hang ing p a t ter n s o f a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h e s ou ther nL evan t .J .A r chaeo l . S c i ., 1 :467 -475 . S tampf l i , H .R . 1 983 . T he f auna o f J a rmo w i th n o tes o n a n ima l b one s f r om Ma ta r rah , t h e Amuq , a nd K a r im S hah ir . I n : L .S . B ra idwood , R .J . B ra idwood , B . H owe , C .A . R eed & P . J . Wa t son ( e d s . ) P reh is tor ic A r chaeo logy A long t h e Z agros F lank s . O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion , V o l . 1 05 . C h icago Un ive r s i ty P res s , C h icago ,p p .431-483 . T chernov , E . 1 981 . T he i mpac t o f t h e p os tg lac ia l o n t h e f a una o f t h e s ou thwe s t A s ia . I n : W . F rey & H -P . U erpmann ( e d s . ) C on tr ibu t ions t o t h e E nv ironmen ta l H i s tory o f t he S ou thwes tA s ia . B e ihef te Z um T ub inge r A t la s d es V o rde ren O r ien t s , W ie sbaden , R e ihe A , 8 ,p p .197 -216 . T cher nov , E .a nd B a r -Yosef , 0 . 1 982 . A n ima le xp lo i ta t ion i nt h eP re -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B p er iod a t Wad iT be ik , S ou ther nS ina i . P a l &r ien t , 8 : 17 -37 . T ur ne r , H .W . a nd Y oung , S .S .Y . 1 969 . Q uan t i ta t ive G ene t ics i n S heep B r eed ing . C or ne l l U n ive r s i ty P ress . U erpmann , H -P . 1 978 . Me t r ica l a na lys is o f f a una l r ema in s f r om t h e M idd le E a s t . I n : R .H . Meadow & M .A . Z ede r ( ed s . )A pproaches t oF auna lA na ly s i s i nt h eM idd le E as t . P eabody Mu seum B u l le t in 2 ,H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty ,p p .41-45 . 1 80

U e rpmann , H -P . 1 981 . T he ma jo r f auna l a r ea s o ft h e M idd le E a s t d u r ing t h e L a te P le is tocene a nd e a r ly Ho locene . I n : J .C auv in & P .S an lav i l le ( e d s . ) P r eh i s to ir e d u L evan t . C o l loques C .N .R .S . 5 98 ,L yon ,P a r i s ,p p .99 -106 . U e rpmann , H -P . 1 982 . F auna l r ema in s f r om S hams e d -D in T ann i ra , AH a laf ian s i te i nn o r ther n S yr ia .B ery tus , 3 0 :3 -52 . W i lk in son , P .F . 1 972 . Oom ingmak : amode l f o r man -an ima l r e la t ion sh ip s i np reh i s to ry . C urr . A n thropo l ., 1 3 (1) :23 -44 . Z eune r ,F .E . 1 955 . T he g oa t so fe a r ly J e r icho .P a les t ine E xp l . Q uar t ., 1 7 -54 . Z eune r ,F .E . 1 963 . AH is tory o f Domes t ica ted A n ima l s . Hu tch in son ,L ondon .

1 8 1

THE EP IPALAEOLITHIC UNGULATE RE MAINS FRO M KSAR ` AKIL : SO ME PRELI MINARY RESULTS A. M .P . Kers ten R i jk sun iver s i te i t , C ron ingen THE NETHERLANDS

ABSTRACT T h is p ape r p re sen t s s ome p re l im ina ry r e su l t s o f ar e -ana lys is o f t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic v er teb ra te r ema in sf r om K sa r ' Aka ,p rev iou s ly s t ud ied b yD .A . Hoo i je r . T he t a xonom ic r e su l t s o ft h i s r e -ana lys is s uppo r t Hoo i je r 's c onc lu s ion s a s r ega rd s t h e mamma l ian s pec ie s . On ly h edgehog w a s a dded t ot h e l i s t o f mamma l s pec ie s . T he r e -ana ly s i s p rov ide s i n fo rma t ion , p rev iou s ly n o t a va i lab le , o n t h e u ngu la te a bundance s p e r l e ve l a nd t h e i r b ody p a r t r ep re sen ta t ion i nt h e a s semb lage . F a l low d ee r d om ina ted t h roughou t t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic s equence f r om l e ve l s Vt oI .T he e conom ic i mpor tance o ft h is s pec ies w a sf o l lowed b yt h a to fw i ld g oa t ,r oe d ee r , w i ld b oa r ,g aze l le , a u roch sa nd r ed d ee r , i nt h a t o rde r . T he e nv i ronmen t e xp lo i ted , w i th ma in ly a rbo rea l v ege ta t ion , u nde rwen t n o d ra s t ic c hange s d u r ing t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic . T he c hange f r om ap re -Keba ran t oa n e a r ly -Keba ran l i th ic i ndus t ry w a s a ccompan ied b y a n e conom ic s h if t , c ha rac te r ized b y ar e la t ive i n c rea se i n t h e f a l low d ee r • e xp lo i ta t ion . I nv i ew o fs ed imen to log ica l d a ta f r om K sa r ` Ak i l , t h is s h if tp robab ly r e f lec t s a n e xpan s ion o fw ood land r e su l t ing f r om ar i se i nh um id i ty . T he c hange i nt h e l i th ic i ndu s t ry s eem s t oh ave b een t h e c on sequence r a the rt h an t h e c au se o ft h e e conom ic s h if t , b u tt h e v a l id i ty o ft h is h ypo the s is i sd if i cu l tt o a s ses s . T he b ody p a r tr ep re sen ta t ion o ff a l low d ee r , w i ld g oa t , w i ld b oa r , r oe d ee ra nd g aze l le s e em t oh ave u nde rgone s im i la r b i a s ing . T he e xcava to r s ' i n ten t iona l s e lec t ivenes s i n c o l lec t ing a nd t h e d i f f e ren t ia l r e s i s tance o fs ke le ta le l emen t st od e s t ruc t ive p roce s se s may b eh e ld r e spon s ib le f o rt h is s amp le b i a s .

I NTRODUCTION T he P a laeo l i th ic r ock s he l te r o fK sa r ' Aka i nL ebanon w a s e xcava ted i n 1 937 /38 a nd i n 1 947 /48 b y a n Ame r ican t e am f r om B o s ton C o l lege ,u nde rt h e d i rec t ion o fD ohe r ty a nd Ew ing . T he e xcava to r s p ub l i shed s eve ra l , ma in ly p r e l im ina ry , a r t ic le s o n t h e a r cha eo logy , h uman r ema in s a nd s t ra t ig raphy ( Mu rphy , 1 938 , 1 939 ; Ew ing , 1 947a , 1 948 , 1 949 , 1 960 ; B ra idwood e ta l . , 1 951 ; Wr igh t , 1 962 ) . T he B o s ton C o l lege e xcava t ion s a tK sa r ` Ak i l a r er ega rded a sv e ry c a refu lo rg ood f o rt h e i rt ime ( Newcome r , 1 974 ; B e rgman a nd C ope land , 1 986 ) . T he r o ck s he l te ri ss i tua ted a tt h eb a se o f an ea r ly v e r t ica l s ou th -f ac ing l ime s tone c l if f . T he e xcava to r sd i s t ingu i shed 3 7 s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r si nt h e2 3mt h ick a ccumu la t ion o fd epo s i t s . T he l i th ic m a te r ia l , r ep r e sen t ing a s ucce s s ion o f M idd le , Uppe r - a nd E p ipa laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s , h a s b een s t ud ied b y s eve ra l a r chaeo log i s t s . T he mo s t r e cen t p ub l ica t ion s o n t h i s s ub jec t c ome f r om A zou ry ( 1986 ) , B e rgman ( 1981 , 1 987 ) , a nd Ma rk s a nd V o lkman ( 1986 ) . N ewcome r ( 1974 ) s t ud ied t h e b one t oo l s , V an R eg te ren A l tena ( 1962 ) t h e mo l lu sc s a nd e ch inode rm s ,a nd H oo i je r( 196 1) t h ev e r teb ra te r ema in s . T ix ie r a nd aF rench t e am e xcava ted t wo s e c t ion s o u t s ide t h e s he l te r o ve rhang f r om 1 969 1 975 ( T ix ie r , 1 970 , 1 974 ; T ix ie r a nd I n izan , 1 981) . U nfo r tuna te ly t h e v er teb ra te r ema in s c o l lec ted f r om t h i s e xcava t ion g o t l o s t i nt h e L ebanon w a r ( T ix ie r , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) a nd h ence o n ly t h e f auna l a s semb lage f r om t h e B o s ton C o l lege e xcava t ion s i sa va i lab le f o r s t udy . A l though H oo i je r( 1961 ) made ad e ta i led a nd v a luab le t a xonom ic a na ly s i so ft h ev e r teb ra te r ema in s , a n u p to -da te r e -ana ly s i s w i th e mpha s i s o n a r chaeozoo log ica l a spec t s b ecame d e s i rab le . T h i sp ape rp re sen t s s ome p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o nt h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic u ngu la te r ema in s a sp a r to ft h i sr e -ana ly s i s . 1 8 3

F o r d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion o n t h e s i te , t h e h i s to ry o fi t s e xcava t ion s , t h e e xcava ted ma te r ia ls a nd i t s r e sea rch , t h e r e ade r i sr e f er red t oB e rgman a nd C ope land ( 1986 ) , B e rgman ( 1987 ) a nd C ope land ( 1987 ) . H e re o n ly i n forma t ion r e levan t f o rt h ep r esen t p ape rw i l l b ed escr ibed . LOCATION AND ENV IRON MENT K sa r ` Ak i l i sl o ca ted 1 0 km n o r thea s t o ft h e c i ty o fB e iru t , a bou t 3k m f r om t h e p r esen t c oa s t ( F ig . 1 ) , i n t h e n o r thern b r anch o f t h e v a l ley o f A n te l ia s , a l ong t h e w ad i A n te l ia s . T he r o ck s he l te r i ss i tua ted j u s t o u ts ide t h e e dge o f t h e c oa s ta l p l a in , w h ich i sq u i te n a r row a nd s epa ra tes t h e s ea f r om t h e s l opes o f t h e L ebanon moun ta in s . T he L ebanon a nd A n t i -Lebanon moun ta in s , r e ach ing am ax imum a l t i tude o fo ve r 3 000 m , r un p a ra l le l t ot h e c oa s t a nd f o rm a v a s tb a r r ie rb e tween K sa r ` Ak i l a nd t h e d eser t s i nt h ee a s t .

F i g . 1L oca t ion o fK sar ' A k i l( L ebanon ) L ebanon h a s aMed i ter ranean c l ima te w i th h o t , d ry s umme r s a nd c oo l , r a iny w in te r s . I nt h e l owe r a l t i tudes t h e c l ima te i sE uMed i ter ranean , w he rea s ac oo l tempe ra te moun ta in v a r ian t w i th s eve re w in te r s a nd h eavy t o mode ra te r a infa l l p reva i l s i n t h e h i ghe r a l t i tudes o f t h e L ebanon a nd An t i -Lebanon moun ta in s ( Zoha ry , 1 973 ) . A s em i -con t inen ta l c l ima t ic v a r ian t r e su l t s i ns em i -s teppe a nd s t eppe v ege ta t ion i nt h e B eqaa v a l ley e nc lo sed b y t h e L ebanon a nd A n t i -Lebanon moun ta in s ( Zoha ry , 1 973 ) . Z oha ry ( 1981) d i s t ingu ished f ou r p l an t g eograph ica l z ones i nt h e Med i ter ranean t e r r i to ry , w h ich may a l l b e f ound a l ong t h e w e s te r n s l opes o f t h e L ebanon moun ta in s : al owe r z one w i th e ve rg reen t r ees , maqu is a nd d wa r f -shrub , a mon tane 1 8 4

z one w i th d ec iduou s t r ee s , as ub -a lp ine z one w i th c on if e rou s t r ee s a nd t h e h ighe s t moun ta in z one ( a bove 1 800 t o2 000 m ) w i th a l p ine t r aga can th ic t ho rn -cu sh ion f o rma t ion . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l o ra a nd v ege ta t ion i n t h e M idd le E a s t b ecame e s tab l i shed ma in ly b efo re t h e P l e i s tocene a nd a s y e t t h e re i sn o e v idence o f a ny d ra s t ic c hange s d u r ing t h e P le i s tocene ( Zoha ry , 1 981) . T he p a laeo -env i ronmen t o fP l e i s tocene m en i nt h e L evan t w a s n o t p a r t icu la r ly d i s s im i la r f r om t h e p re sen t -day e nv i ronmen t ( Fa r rand , 1 977 ) . T he c oa s ta l p l a in w a s w ide r a nd a Med i te r ranean t ype c l ima te p reva i led i n t h e a r ea , t hough t h e r e w e re e p i sode s o f g r ea te r mo i s tu re a nd mo re a rbo rea lv ege ta t ion t h an t oday ( Fa r rand , 1 977 ) . ARCHAEOLOGY T he l e ve l s a r e n umbe red It h rough XXXV I I f r om t op t o b o t tom . T he E p ipa laeo l i th ic , w h ich s t a r ted t od eve lop i nt h eL evan ta bou t 1 9 ,000 y ea r sB .P . ( Cauv in , 1 981 ) ,c omp r i se sl e ve ls Vt h rough I . L eve l Vc on ta ined ap re -Keba ran l i th ic i ndu s t ry , at r an s i t ion f r om U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o E p ipa laeo l i th ic , w he rea s t h e i n du s t ry o f l e ve l s I V t h rough I i s e a r ly K eba ran (W aech te r , u npub l i shed , s e eC ope land , 1 987 ; B a r -Yo sef , 1 970 ) . T he re a r e t wo C 14 d a te s f o r t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic f r om K sa r ` Ak i l b a sed o n s amp le s f r om T ix ie r ' s e xcava t ion .( Rad iocarbon 1 5 , 1 973 , p . 337 ) . O ne d a te o f 2 4 ,400±900 B .P . ( MC -4 10 ) f r om l e ve l 3 bp robab ly c o r r e spond s t o Ew ing ' s l e ve l I I , a nd as e cond d a te o f 1 4 ,100±500 B .P . ( MC -4 11) f r om l e ve l Cp robab ly c o r re spond s t ot h e t op o f Ew ing ' s l e ve l I V . T he f i r s t d a te i s r ega rded a st oo o ld a nd t h es e cond o ne a st oo y oung ( T ix ie r ,p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ) . S EDI MENTOLOGY T he c a lca reou s b rown e a r th o f t h e u ppe r 1 6 m o f d epo s i t s i si n te r rup ted b y s ome ' s tony c omp lexe s ' ( Ew ing , 1 947a ; B ra idwood e ta l . , 1 951 ; Wr igh t , 1 962 ) . T he ' s tony c omp lexe s ' a r e b ed s w i th c l o se ly p acked a ngu la r l ime s tone f r agmen t s m ixed w i th r ed c l ay ( s tony c omp lex 1 ) o ri na s soc ia t ion w i th a n a r chaeo log ica l ly n ea r ly s t e r i le r ed c l ay l a ye r ( s tony c omp lexe s 2a nd 3 ) . ' S tony c omp lex 1 'i sl o ca ted i nt h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic s equence i nl e ve lI V , f r om a bou t 1 . 50 t o 2 . 00 m d ep th .I tp robab ly c ove red ma in ly t h eu ppe rp a r to fl e ve lI V . A cco rd ing t oF a r rand ( 1979 ) t h i s E p ipa laeo l i th ic ' s tony c omp lex ' f o rm s p a r t o f a' h um id i n te rva l ' o ra n ' i n te rva lo fa bundan ta r bo rea lp o l len ' i nt h eN ea rE a s tf r om c a . 1 7 ,000 t o1 3 ,000 y ea r s B .P . T he l ime s tone f r agmen t s a r e s pa l led f r om t h e s he l te r b a ck w a l l a nd t h e r ed c l ay i s r ewo rked r ed s o i l ( t e r ra r o s sa ) f r om t h e s u r round ing s l ope s t h a t h a s w a shed i n to t h e s he l te r d u r ing a cce le ra ted s l ope w a sh ( Fa r rand , 1 979 , 1 981) .T he l ime s tone f r agmen t sa r en o tp roduced b y f r o s t w ea the r ing b u t p o s s ib ly b y h yd ra t ion w ea the r ing , a nd t h e p e r iod o f a cce le ra ted s l ope w a sh p r e sumab ly r ep re sen t s amo re h um id c l ima t ic i n te rva l ( Fa r rand , 1 979 , 1 981) . METHODS T he e xcava to r s d iv ided t h e s i te i n to t wo -me t re s qua re s a nd s i f ted t h e e a r th w i th s i eve s o f m ed ium m e sh ( Mu rphy , 1 938 ; Ew ing , 1 947a ) . T he E p ipa laeo l i th ic v e r teb ra te r ema in s w e re p acked i n s ma l l b oxe s , l a be l led w i th al e ve l n umbe r a nd as qua re . T h i s ma te r ia l w a s d e r ived f r om 6 -20 s qua re s p e r l e ve l a nd , a cco rd ing t o H oo i je r( 196 1) ,c o l lec ted i n1 947 /48 . Mo s t o f t h e b one s w e re h eav i ly e nc ru s ted w i th c a lc ium c a rbona te c onc re t ion s a nd w e re c l eaned b yi mme r s ion i n ad i lu te s o lu t ion o fa ce t ic a c id ( 10% ) . T h i st r ea tmen ts l igh t ly e nhanced t h ed eg ree o ff r agmen ta t ion o ft h eb one s ,t hough f r e sh f r ac tu re s w e re g lued a sf a ra sp o s s ib le . I d en t if iab le r ema in s w e re a s s igned t os pec ie s o r t os pec ies -ca tego r ie s ( g roup s o fs pec ie s ) . Un iden t if iab le r ema in s w e re a s s igned t o s i ze -ca tego r ie s ( s ize -g roup s ) , a s p ropo sed b y U e rpmann ( 1978 ) . R ib s a nd v e r teb rae o the r t h an a t la s a nd a x i s a r e i n c luded i n t h e s i ze -

1 8 5

c a tego r ies . T he n umbe r s o f b ones ( f requency ) a nd t h e ir w e igh t s w e re u sed t o e s t ima te t h e r e la t ive a bundance o ft h ed i f f e ren ts pec ies a nd c a tego r ies i nt h ea s semb lage . P a t ter n s o f w e igh t p e rcen tages o f d i f f e ren t b ody p a r t s o f t h e ma in u ngu la te s pec ies w e re c ompa red w i th o ne a no the r a nd w i th t ho se o f r e cen t s ke le tons t o r e vea l a ny b i a sed s amp les . T he r e cen t s ke le ton s b e long t o t h e c ompa ra t ive c o l lec t ion o f t h e B io log ica l -A rchaeo log ica l I n s t i tu te ( BA I ) i nG ron ingen ( The N e the r land s ) . S ta t is t ica l Ana lys is C hange s i nb one f r equenc ies w e re a na lyzed b y mean s o ft h e c h i -squa re ( x ,)t e s t f o r t wo i n dependen t s amp les . T he l e ve l o fs i gn if icance w a sc ho sen a t a =0 .05 . THE BONE ASSE MBLAGE T he E p ipa laeo l i th ic b one a s semb lage c on s is t s o f4 776 mamma l b one s w i th at o ta l w e igh t o f 3 8 .2 k g ( T ab le 1 ) a nd s ome 2 0 b i rd b one s . T he a s semb lage c on ta in s n o r ema in s o f a ny m ic romamma ls , a mph ib ians o rr ep t i le s . T he c ap rov ine ( w i ld g oa t /w i ld s heep ) a nd w i ld g oa t r ema ins a r e c ons ide red j o in t ly . T he p resence o f s heep s pec imens i n t h e K sa r ` Ak i l a s semb lage i so n z oogeog raph ica l g rounds ( Uerpmann , 1 981 ; D av is e t a l . , 1 982 ) mos t u n l ike ly . I n v i ew o f t h e a b sence o f s pec imen s i d en t if ied a ss heep i nb o th Hoo i je r ' s a na ly s is ( Hoo i je r , 1 961) a nd t h e p resen tr e -ana lys i s , i tc an t h e refo re b e a s sumed , f o rt h et ime b e ing ,t h a ta l lc ap rov ine b ones r ep resen tw i ld g oa t s . T he r e la t ive a bundance o f t h e c ar n ivo res ( w i ld c a t , g o lden j a cka l , c ommon r ed f ox a nd b rown b ea r ) i sv e ry l ow , b o th i nf r equency a nd i nw e igh to ft h e b one s . T he E u ropean h edgehog i sr ep resen ted b y o ne s pec imen f r om l e ve l I . T he a s semb lage c on s is t s a lmo s t e n t i re ly o f u ngu la te r ema in s ,c ompr is ing s even d i f f e ren ts pec ies . H oo i je r ( 1961) i d en t if ied b a s ica l ly t h e s ame s pec ie s a nd o b ta ined t h e s ame o rde r o f r um inan ta bundances . W i ld b oa rt ur ned o u tt ob e mo re a bundan tt h an Hoo i je r( 1961) s ugge s ted . UNGULATE EXPLOITATION AND PALAEO -ENVIRON MENTAL IMPLICATIONS When d i scus s ing t h e K sa r ` Ak i l b one r ema in s H oo i je r ( 1961) s t a ted t h a t t h e r e la t ive s pec ies a bundances r e f lec th un te r s ' f ood p ref e rence s . Howeve r , a sp o in ted o u tb y H igg s ( 1967 ) a nd U erpmann a nd F rey ( 1981) , t h is f a c to rh a s n oe s sen t ia le f ec t o nt h ec ompo s i t ion o f ab one a s semb lage o ve r al onge r p e r iod . T he r e la t ive e conom ic i mpo r tance o f t h e s pec ies r e f lec t s r a the rt h e i rl i ve a bundance a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h ee nv i ronmen te xp lo i ted b yK sa r ` Ak i lh un te r s .

Dama d ama m esopo tam ica B rooke -Mesopo tam ian f a l low d ee r T he Me sopo tam ian f a l low d ee r i st h e mos t a bundan t a n ima l a nd mu s t h ave p rov ided t h e g r ea tes t p a r t o f t h e g ame b ag . T he Mesopo tam ian f a l low d ee r p ref e r s m ixed f o res t a nd f o re s t s t eppe ( Bököny i ,

1 982 ) . T he E u ropean f a l low d ee r r a re ly r e ache s a r ea s a bove 8 00 m

( He idemann , 1 986 ) , wh i le t h e g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e Me sopo tam ian f a l low d ee r ( Uerpmann , 1 981) s ugges t st h a tt h is ( s ub )spec ie s s hunned v ery h igh moun ta in a r ea sa sw e l l .

C apra a egagrus E rx leben -w i ld b ezoa rg oa t T he w i ld b ezoa r g oa t f o l lows f a l low d eer i n e conom ic i mpor tance . T he b ezoa r g oa t f a vou r sh igh moun ta in a r ea s w i th c r ag s a nd s can ty v ege ta t iona l c ove r( N ieve rge l t , 1 986 ) .

C apr eo lus c apr eo lus L . -r o e d ee r R oe d ee rw a s t h e t h i rd mos t a bundan t p rey s pec ies , t h ough w i ld b oa r a pp roache s r oe d ee r i n b one w e igh t p e rcen tage . T hey may h ave b een e qua l ly i mpo r tan t i n t e rm s o f m ea t y i e ld , a s sum ing t h a t t h e m ea t y i e ld o f as pec ies i si ng ene ra l d i rec t ly r e la ted t oi t s b one w e igh t . R oe 1 8 6

d ee r p r ef e r s l i gh t d ec iduou s o r m ixed f o re s t w i th r i ch u nde rg row th a nd g l ade s , b u t i ti s e x t reme ly a dap tab le a nd l i ve s a l so i n mo re o pen c oun t ry ( Hep tne r e t-a l . , 1 966 ; v on L ehmann a nd S ägesse r , 1 986 ) . R oe d ee ra s cend s t os ub -a lp ine a nd a l p ine a r ea s i n moun ta in s ( Hep tne r et a l . , 1 966 ) . T ABLE 1 T axonom ic l i s t o fE p ipa laeo l i th ic m amma l b one sf r om K sar ' M i l w i th t h e i rf r equency a nd w e igh td a ta :t h eb one n umbe r s( n ) ,t h et o ta lw e igh ti ng r am s( g )a nd t h e i rp e r cen tage s( % ) KSAR ` AKIL EP IPALAEOLITHIC : LEVELS I -V

Carn ivores F e / i ss i lves tr i s

-w i ld c a t

3

0 . 1

4

C an i sa ur eus

-g o lden j a cka l

1

0 . 0

1

0 . 0

V u lpes v u lpes

-c ommon r ed f ox

6

0 . 1

5

0 . 0

U r sus a r c tos

-b rown b ea r

1 0

0 . 2

2 13

0 . 0

0 . 6

m ed ium s i ze c a rn ivo re

1

0 . 0

1

0 .0

b i g c a rn ivo re

1

0 . 0

3

0 .0

1

0 . 0

1

0 .0

I nsec t ivores E r inaceus e uropaeus

-E u ropean h edgehog

Ungu la tes S us s c rof a

w i ld b oa r

1 83

3 . 8

1 092

2 . 9

1 604

3 3 .6

1 5811

4 1 .4

0 . 1

7 2

0 . 2

7 1

1 . 5

1 222

3 . 2

4 18

8 . 8

1 704

4 . 5

Dama d ama m esopo tam ica

Me sopo tam ian f a l low d ee r

C ervus e l aphus

r ed d ee r

Dama lCervus

5

C apr eo lus c apr eo lus

r oe d ee r

G aze / la g aze / /a

moun ta in g aze l le

7 3

1 . 5

4 34

1 . 1

0 . 8

1 37

0 . 4

w i ld b ezoa rg oa t

3 9 1 56

2 0 .1

1 779

1 8 .9

C apr eo lus lGaze l la C apra a egagrus c ap rov ine w i ld

8 0 1

B os c f .p r im igen ius c e rv id

-c f . a u roch s

5 429

1 8

0 .4

6 24

1 . 6

4 2

0 . 9

1 86

0 . 5

Dama l cap rov ine

1 71

3 . 6

1 633

4 . 3

l a rge c erv id o rc ap rov ine

3 33

7 .0

2 411

6 . 3

s ma l lc e rv id o rc ap rov ine

5 9

1 . 2

2 80

0 . 7

s ma l lr um inan t

1 9

0 . 4

2 7

0 . 1

4 015

8 4 .1

3 3069

8 6 .5

137

SUBTOTAL Un iden t if ied Re ma ins n o s i ze a s s ignmen t

0

0 . 0

r abb i t -s ize t om ed ium d og s ize

2

0 . 0

m ed ium d og -s ize t om ed ium s heep -s ize m ed ium d og -s ize t ow i ld b oa r -s ize w i ld b oa r -s ize t or ed d ee r , s ma l l c a t t le -s ize m ed ium s heep -s ize t od omes t ic c a t t le -s ize

6 6 5 65 8 10

1 . 4 1 .8

3

3 . 0 0 .0

1 80 2 828

0 . 5 7 . 4

0 . 2

12

0 . 3

2 . 3

7 46

2 . 0

r ed d ee r -s ize t od omes t ic c a t t le -s ize

6

0 . 1

9 9

0 . 3

l a rge rt h an d omes t ic c a t t le -s ize

4

0 . 1

4 3

0 . 1

1 00 .0

3 8217

1 00 .0

TOTAL

4 776

1 8 7

S us s crof a L . -w i ld b oa r W i ld b oa r i st h e f ou r th mo s t a bundan t a n ima l o ft h e a s semb lage . W i ld b oa rp ref e r s d en se f o re s t w i th s wampy a r ea s ( Bököny i , 1 982 ) . I t i s h oweve r a n a c t ive w a lke r a nd may b e e ncoun te red f a r a way f r om i t s o p t ima l h ab i ta t , w h ich makes t h is s pec ies i l -su i ted a s a n e nv i ronmen ta l i nd ica to r( Uerpmann a nd F rey , 1 981) . W i ld b oa r may a scend t oa l p ine moun ta in a r ea s i ns umme r( Hep tne re ta l . , 1 966 ) .

G aze l la g aze l la P a l la s -moun ta in g aze l le H oo i je r ( 1961) i d en t if ied t h e g aze l le s pec imen s f r om K sa r ` Ak i l a s Gaze / la c f . d or cas . T he se s pec imen s r ep resen t , a s c or rec t ly n o ted b y D av is ( 1974 , 1 977 ) a nd T cher nov a nd B a r Y o sef ( 1982 ) , G aze / /a g aze l la . T he moun ta in g aze l le h a s ar e la t ive ly l ow a bundance a nd w a s o bv ious ly n eve r a n i mpo r tan t t a rge t f o r K sa r ` Ak i l h un te r s . G aze l le p ref e r s d ry e nv i ronmen t s , l i ke g ra s sy s t eppe s ( Bököny i , 1 982 )a nd i sa b le t ol i ve w i thou tf r ee w a ter ( Ha r r ison , 1 968 ) .

B o sp r im igen iu s B o janu s -a u roch s S ome b ov ine r ema in s a r e t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a s a u roch s . T hough t h is l a rge b ov id may h ave e xceeded g aze l le i n i t s t o ta l m ea t y i e ld d ur ing t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic , i t s l ow f r equency s ugge s t s t h a t i tw a s e conom ica l ly e ven l e ss i mpo r tan t t h an g aze l le . Au roch s o ccup ied f o res t s t eppe o rl i gh tf o res t , l a rge p l a in sa nd h i l ly r eg ion s ( Bököny i , 1 982 ) .

C er vus e l aphus L . -r ed d ee r R ed d ee r i s r ep re sen ted b y o n ly f i ve s pec imens ( one f r om e ach l e ve l ) a nd w a s e conom ica l ly u n impo r tan t . R ed d ee r f avou r s l i gh t d ec iduou s f o res t , e spec ia l ly wooded r i ver v a l leys i nf l a tc oun t ry ( Bü tz le r , 1 986 ) . T he r e la t ive a bundance o ft h e d i f f e ren t u ngu la te s i nd ica te s t h a t l i gh t moun ta inou s a rbo rea l v ege ta t ion ( up t o ac er ta in a l t i tude )p r eva i led i nt h ee nv i ronmen t . K sa r ` Ak i l h un te r s i nhab i ted ar o ck s he l te ra tt h e f oo to ft h e w es ter ns l ope s o ft h e L ebanon moun ta in s a nd , a sH igg s ( 1967 ) n o ted a l ready , t h ese s l opes mu s th ave b een t h e i r ma jo rh un t ing a r ea . G aze l le w a s n eve ra n i mpo r tan tt a rge t , b ecause i t s ma in d i s t r ibu t ion a r ea l a y t ot h ee a s t i n t h e r a in -shadow s t eppes a c ro ss t h e moun ta in r ange , a nd i tw a s t h erefo re n o t r e ad i ly a ccess ib le . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ff a l low d ee r , r oe d ee r , w i ld b oa r a nd w i ld g oa t a l ong t h e w es te rn s l ope s o f t h e L ebanon moun ta ins mus t h ave a f f ec ted t h e i r a cces s ib i l i ty a s w e l l . T hough t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se u ngu la te s w i l l h ave s h if ted w i th s ea sona l c l ima t ic v a r ia t ion s , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e r o ck s he l te r w a s c l ose r t ot h e a l t i tud ina l l im i t o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff a l low d ee r t h an t ot ho se o fr oe d ee r , w i ld b oa ra nd w i ld g oa t . We may a s sume t h a t f a l low d ee rw a s n o to n ly t h e mos ta bundan t b u ta l so t h e mo s te a s i ly a ccess ib le s pec ie s . SHIFT I N THE UNGULATE EXPLOITATION H oo i je r ( 1961) d id n o t a na lyze t h e v er teb ra te r ema in s p e rl e ve l b u t g rouped t h e d a ta o ft h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic l e ve ls i n to o ne u n i t . S ince t h is may h ave o b scu red c hanges i n u ngu la te e xp lo i ta t ion d u r ing t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic s equence , a n a na lys i s o f t h e ir r e la t ive a bundance p e r l e ve l w a s made . On ly t h e n umbe r s o f i d en t if ied b one s o f f a l low d ee r , w i ld g oa t , r o e d ee r , g aze l le a nd w i ld b oa ra r e s uf f ic ien t t oa na lyze t h e i rf l uc tua t ion s a c ros s l e ve ls . T hese s pec ie s a r e r ega rded a st h e ma in u ngu la tes . W i th in t h e c omp le te a s semb lage t h e r e la t ive f r equency a bundances ( F ig . 2 a ) a nd t h e r e la t ive w e igh t a bundances ( F ig . 2 b ) o ft h e u ngu la te s r e vea l s im i la rf l uc tua t ion s , i n d ica t ing t h a t b o th a r e i ng ene ra l p os i t ive ly r e la ted . T he s pace b e tween t h e t o ta l i d en t if ied a nd t h e t o ta l o ft h e ma in u ngu la tes ( t o ta l i nd ica ted s pec ies ) a ccommoda te s , i na dd i t ion t os ome c ar n ivo re s , r ed d eer a nd a u roch s , ma in ly s pec ies -ca tego r ies ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . T he i r c omb ined f r equency d oes n o t c hange s i gn if ican t ly a c ro ss t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic l e ve ls ( Ch i -squa re=6 .79 , d f=4 , 0 . 10

(/)

Q.

60

�z

40 30

0

u

z

a:

0

:x:

w

(/)

0 0 .J

.J

�

u.J .J

(/)

� X 1 4 . X @ 0.-1-1X+X111.1X1+1X-. 2 7 X 11. 1-+X+- AXWONX+--1+1..1--X. -++ N . 1 -11-./ 1 23 . «.-+ .X. -«X . e---+ X -1. X- . . 6 2 . 0-. -.. - + . ++ . . . . XX + ++X.- Xe. - We 1 04 - . . 1 - .N. X-+Wx0.++.+--XN-+. NX . . OX-.1 . 1 2 0 + N . X . X-...-. 11XON - . ..XX.X-X -+++ .-.+ MX -. +-. 5 .. N + . 1 WXXX.--+.. N-W+M+ - . . .. MXX.+-.+++-0X O N0+.MN..+ 1 1 9 - 1 + +.+-W+X-1 0 - W . • . .X N . - O N X --+. X - 1 3 5 . X.X+. -- X +1..--.---..+.. . .. X ..* .. . . +. - 0 ) (0 N + - 0 7 4 . W. W + .+-+.X. -.. ..X . .-.. 1. + 1 6 . . W.. . X. --- . . -XN.. X . . + X Nx . 0 3 2 3 1

4 9

• . X.

_

_

--

-+ +

. N+X - . .- . X.-. . + 0+-X

N . ++

.

• .

X-

B io log ica l d i s tances o f U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s ku l l s -f ema le s amp le ( N=65 ) -

E uc l id ian d i s tance ma tr ix o f2 080 d i s tances b ased o n i nd iv idua lf ac tor s cor es 5 52

.

•

I 5 4 7 0 1 25 7 5 4 7 1 02 1 27 • 1 06 7 2 2 5 4 0 6 5 • 9 8 • 6 1 7 6 1 7 4 3 1 08 1 07 8 0 1 33 8 8 14 4 2 3 4 6 0 5 0 18 3 3 7 3 16 9 3 5 3 2 1 7 8 17 8 5 2 1 0 1 34 19 5 5 5 8 2 6 5 1 3 0 6 3 7 10 7 9 9 12 1 20 1 28 2 4 1 09 I5 6 7 3 6 1 03 9 7 2 9 1 3 1 3 7 4 5 1 8 6 8 3

• •

;

.! . ! T....

'

:

•

1 . : 1

. . . .. ..

: • •

I 2 9 3 8 6 4 4 1 2 4 5 0 6 5 5 2 3 9 1 2 2 0 3 5 4 9 3 3 4 2 8 2 2 5 4 5 3 4 5 6 8 4 6 5 8 2 1 1 7 3 2 2 5 6 1 1 6 4 0 5 9 4 7 2 8 1 0 4 3 6 0 4 2 7 6 6 9 6 2 3 0 3 1 1 3 2 6 1 5 3 4 3 5 6 4 4 5 5 7 6 3 6 6 1 5 5 7 3 6 1 8 5 1 4 8 1 4 6 7 1 9 2 3 9 3 7 2

ARENE CAND IDE 1 F F tANKTH I 2 McARTHUR 's C . 2 16 URT 1AGA I ARRUDA 2 DEVENTER 1 3 LE F tAST I L 1 VEDBAEK I ROCHERE I L 1 MAR ITZA 2 PREDMOST 1 LE B ICHC N I KOERHU ISBEEK 1 OFNET 2 496 HOHLENSTE IN ARRUDA 3 GR . DES ENFANTS 6 BOTTENDORF 1 SAN TEODORO 2 SAN TEODORO 1 ARRUDA 4 0 GLE ID INGEN MO ITA 2 3 TEV IEC 4 B LE IV 1K 1 URT IAGA I HOED IC 9 DEVENTER 9 00 TEV IEC 9 S TETTEN I MELBY 1 TEV IEC 7 OFNET 2 484 FRANKTH I 1 OBERCASSEL I ARRUDA 6 TEV IEC 8 CHEDDAR 1 FAT MA KOBA 1 CRO -MAGNON I SARSTEDT TEV IEC 1 GRAMAT 1 HOED IC 6 PREDMOST 3 ELST 2 PREDMOST 9 KAUFER 'TSBERG 1 CHANCELADE 1 S TORA B IERS I ARRUDA 1 2 COMBE -CAPELLE 1 TEV IEC 2 TEV IEC 1 2 VETERN ICA 2 PAVLOV I SAN TEODORO 3 GR . DES ENFANTS 4 KORSÖR NOR I AR ENE CAND IDE 4 RAVNSTRUP 1 444 OFNET 2 493 PREDMOST 7 PADERBORN/SANDE ARENE CAND IDE 5 CULOZ I KOSTENK I 2 , M .G . LOSCHBOUR 1 BARMA GRANDE 5

F i g .4 a B io log ica ld i s tances o fm a le U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s ku l l s -s i ng le l i nkage c l us ter so f E uc l id ian d i s tance s o fi nd iv idua lf ac tor s cor es ( N =6 9 ;2 1 v ar iab les )

A l though w e c anno t g o i n to d e ta i l , i ts e ems t o b e e v iden t t h a t t h e s o -ca l led p o lt ypes o f c r an ia l v a r ia t ion , C ro - Magnon a nd C o rnbe C ape l le , a r e n o t g ood r ep resen ta t ive s o ft h e c r an ia l s amp le o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s ku l ls . T he b es t " t ype -spec if ic" c romagnono id s pec imen s a r e g eog raph ica l ly l o ca ted i nt h e Mo rav ian a r ea t hough t h e re a r e s t rong r e la t ions t o s i ng le N or ther n a nd Wes ter n E u ropean s pec imen s . I ti si n te res t ing e nough t h a t C ro - Magnon 1 a nd t h e ma le s ku l l f r om Ma r i tza 2 s how f i r s t d eg ree a f f in i t ie s . Ma r i tza 2h a s b een d esc r ibed b y S i lvana B o rgogn in i T a r l i ( 1969 ) a sh av ing s t rong c romagnono id t ype -spec if ic f e a tu res . S he s aw t h e s t ronges t r e la t ions t o t h e Obe rca sse l f o ss i ls a nd w ro te t h a t Ma r i tza 2 w a s " mosa ic ing t h e p ecu l ia r i t ie s o fb o th t h e ma le a nd t h e f ema le" ( Bo rgogn in i T a r l i , 1 969 , p . 154 ) . T ab le 5c onf irms h e r c l a ss if ica t ion a s f a r a s t h e ma le s ku l l i sc once rned . I tc an b e a dded t h a t t h e re a r e med ium 5 53

LABELS . ...... . 2 • 4 4 • 9 2 - 8 S • 4 6 • 11 • 8 6 •1 00 • 3 8 8 9 • 1 3 • I • 6 •1 22 • 9 1 —• 1 2 :

• — •

——

•

. .

_

:7 2 ——— • 5 9 • 4 1 • 8 1 • 1 32 • 6 8 —• 3 9 •1 24 — —— • 15 —— • 9 5 •1 29 • 8 2 • 8 3 • 5 6 • 9 9 • 1 4 • 13 • 2 8 • 6 9 •1 26 •1 30 • 9 0 •1 0 1 •1 05 • 7 7 • 5 7 • 7 1 ' 2 3 • 9 4 • 8 4 • 4 8 1 21 • 9 6 • 6 4 • 4 • 2 7 •1 23 • 6 2 •1 04 • 2 0 • 5 • 1 9 • 3 5 • 7 4 1 6 ▪ 3 2 ▪ 3 1 4 9

I 2 2 4 6 4 0 2 3 5 5 4 1 5 1 1 9 4 3 7 5 4 5 9 4 5 6 4 2 1 2 2 8 2 1 3 6 6 5 3 1 2 0 6 1 5 7 4 8 6 3 3 7 3 8 2 6 S O 8 5 6 1 5 3 2 6 2 8 4 4 4 5 2 5 4 3 5 2 7 3 3 1 3 4 7 3 9 2 4 5 / 1 4 9 3 0 2 1 4 6 0 2 9 5 3 1 3 1 0 1 8 3 4 9 1 7 1 6 2 5

AVEL INE '. HOLE 9 CHE IX I OFNET 2 48 1 MO ITA 1 7 CULOZ 2 TEV IEC I MO ITA 1 8 OFNET 2 504 POEYMAU 2 MO ITA 2 8 DURUTHY ( SORDE ) C CRO -MAGNON 2 CAP B LANC I TEV IEC 1 4 OFNET 2 477 DOLN I VESTON ICE 3 MO ITA 1 9 OBERCASSEL 2 HOED IC 8 B IRSMATT / ZN-BAS ISG . I ARRUDA 9 08 B INSHOF /SPEYER KOERHU ISBEEK 2 BACKASKOG I TEV IEC 1 8 TEV 1EC 6 OFNET 2 488 VETERN 1CA 4 MO ITA 4 MO ITA 7 HOED IC I OFNET 2 50 1 F L INT J ACK ': CAVE TEV IEC 3 PREDMOST 5 MeARTHUR 's C . 2 15 URT 1AGA 2 DOBER ITZ I OFNET 1 822 ORTUCCH IO I REES 2 ARRUDA HOED IC 4 MALONNE I ABR I PATAUD I OFNET 2 487 MO ITA 1 8 DEVENTER 9 /2 TEV IEC 1 3 OFNET 2 490 KOELBJERG 1 BRNO 3 PREDMOST 4 TEV IEC 1 5 HOHLENSTE IN 2 F tEES I MLADEC 2 BRUN IQUEL 2 4 MLADEC I ARENE CAND IDE 3 b AONTCLUS I GROTTE DES E NFANTS 5 S T . GERMA INE L . R . 4 PREDMOST 1 0 DEVENTER 3 1/8

F ig .4 b B io log ica ld i s tance so ffe ma l e U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd M e so l i th ic s k u l l s -s i ng l el i nkage c l u s t er s o fE uc l id ian d i s tance so fi n d iv idua lf ac tor s c o r e s( N =6 5 ,2 1 v a r iab le s ) s t rong a ff in i t ie s b e tween Ma r i tza 2a nd O ber ca sse l 2 .D ue t ol a ck o fs pace , Ic anno tg o d eepe r i n to t h e d i scuss ion b u t o ne c an j udge f r om t h e s ma l l l i s t i n T ab le 5 t h a t O ber ca sse l 1 d emon s t ra tes a h igh d eg ree o f f i r s t a nd s e cond c l a s s morpho log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s t o Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic s ku l ls a s Ma r i tza 2 ,C ap B lanc 1 ,M ladec 1a nd 2 , Ab r i P a taud 1a nd G ro t te d e s E nfan t s 4 , a s w e l l a s t o Me so l i th ic s pec imen s f r om F rance ( e spec ia l ly B r i t tany ) , P or tuga l , D enma rk a nd G ermany . T h i s r e su l t c an b e i n te rp re ted a sp roof f o r o be rca sse lo id s t ruc tu res a l l o ve rE u rope , a nd a ga in s t ar e g iona l -poo led c l us ter ing . 5 54

2 3 0 V EDBAEK I 2 1 3 T EV IEC I 1 5 2 A RRUDA 4 0 3 0G ROTTE D E S E NFANT S 6 1 4 1 M AR ITZA 2 5 0O BERCAS SEL 1 1 2 4 H OHLENSTE 1N 2 1 2 3 H OHLENSTE 1N I 1 0 7 F ATMA K OBA 1 2 5 T EV IEC 1 6 1 8 8 O FNET 2 4 8 7 8 9B I RSMAT TEN -B . 1 2 0 2 R EE S 1 2 6D URUTHY / SORDE C 2 0 4 R OCHERE 1L I 1 0 9 F tANKTH I 2 9 7D EVENTER 1 3 1 2 1 H OED 1C 9 8 L E B I CHON 1 1 8 2 O FNET 2 4 8 1 1 8 1 O FNET 2 4 7 7 2 9 U RT IAGA 2 2 7 T EV IEC 1 8 1 9 3 O FNET 2 5 0 1 1 3 2 K OERHU ISBEEK 2 2 6 T EV IEC 1 5 1 5 8 M O ITA 7 2 3 T EV IEC 1 2 1 5 1 A RRUDA 1 2 1 4 6 A RRUDA 3 1 4 8 A RRUDA 6 1 0 0 D EVENTER 9 0 0 5A BR I P ATAUD 1 2 0 T EV IEC 9 4 M LADEC 7 1S TETTEN 1 8 2 B ÄCKA SKOG 1 2 1 7 T EV IEC 6 1 6 3 M O ITA 1 9 1 4F L INT J A CK ' s C . 2 1 8 T EV IEC 7 1 4 2 M ELBY 1 4 5M LADEC 2 1 9 5 O RTUCCH IO I 1 7 9 O FNET 1 8 2 2 1 8 3 O FNET 2 4 8 4 1 9 4 O FNET 2 5 0 4 1 9 0 O FNET 2 4 90 IC AP B LANC 1 1 9 2 O FNET 2 4 9 6 3A VEL INE 'S H OLE 9 1 3C HANCELADE 1 8 H OED IC 6 1 1 G RAMAT I 2 9G ROTTE D E S E NFANT S 5 9 5C ULOZ 2 5 7P REDMOST 1 2 1 6 T EV IEC 4 2 3 5 D ÖBER ITZ 1 1 6 0 M O ITA 1 6 2 2 T EV IEC 1 2 4 1 G LE ID INGEN /LAATZEN 1 9C RO -MAGNON 2 2A RENE C AND 1DE 1

SHAPE UI

F ig . 5 a

1

S hape d i s tances o fU pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s ku l l s . T he d ua l sequen t ie l l c l us ter w as

s p l i ti n to t h r ee p ar t s -P a r t 1 5 55

8 0 ARENE CAND IDE 5 7 9 ARENE CAND IDE 4 2 24 TEV IEC 1 3 2 07 S AN TEODORO 3 1 47 ARRUDA 5 9 8 DEVENTER 9 /2 2 33 VETERN ICA 4 2 3 DOLN I VE STON ICE 3 2 42 S ARSTEDT 2 00 L E RASTEL 1 1 36 McARTHUR 's CAVE 2 15 9 0 B LE IV IK 1 1 57 MUGEM 4 1 45 ARRUDA 2 1 68 MO ITA 2 8 9 3 CHE IX 1 1 6 1 MO ITA 1 7 1 62 MO ITA 1 8 1 44 MONTCLUS 1 1 66 MO ITA 2 3 1 55 ARRUDA 9 08 9 BRNO 3 1 89 OFNET 2 488 I1 4 HOED IC I 1 02 E LST 2 1 37 McARTHUR 's CAVE 2 16 2 19 TEV IEC 8 1 3 1 KOERHU ISBEEK I 1 29 KAUFERTSBERG I 2 15 TEV IEC 3 2 03 REES 2 2 14 T EV IEC 2 1 40 MALONNE 16 HOED IC 4 8 1 POEYMAU , ARUDY 2 1 08 FRANKT II 1 7 2 URT IAGA J P 1 6 1 PREDMOST 5 6 0 PREDMOST 4 2 06 SAN TEODORO 1 1 20 HOED IC 8 2 06 S AN TEODORO 2 9 1 BOTTENDORF 1 2 30 VEDBAEK 1 2 13 T EV IEC I 1 52 ARRUDA 4 0 3 0 GROTTE DES ENFANTS 6 1 4 1 MAR ITZA 2 5 0 OBERCASSEL 1

SHAIP E

1 :0

F ig . 5 b S hape d i s tance s o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd M e so l i th ic s k u l l s . T he d ua l sequen t ie l l c l u s t er w a s s p l i ti n to t h r ee p ar t s -P a r t2 T he s ex s pec if ic f a c to r s s co re d i s t r ibu t ions g i ven i n F igu res 3 a a nd b , i . e . t h e ma le a nd f ema le s amp le , h ave b een a na lyzed f o r a nswe r ing t h e q ue s t ion whe the r t h e " V a l lo is ian" t ypes c an b ed emons t ra ted o na no b jec t ive b a s is . B ay ( 1963 ) s aw e v idence s f o r t h e s epa ra t ion o f ab rachycran ia l t ype , r ep re sen ted b y O fne t 2 477 , 2 481 a nd 2 484 , a nd ad o l ichocran ia l O fne t t ype , r ep resen ted b y O fne t 2 493 a nd 2 496 . I t c an b e d emons t ra ted f r om F ig . 3 a t h a t e ven t h e t wo l a s t m en t ioned s ku l ls , w h ich a r e s a id t o f o rm o ne t ype , h ave w eake ra f f in i t ie s w i th o ne a no the rt h an w i th t h e o ppo s i te t ype ( s ee d i s tance m ea su re o fO fne t2 496 -O fne t2 484 a nd O fne t2 484 -O fne t2 493 ) . 56

6 3 PREDMOST 7 9 4 CULOZ 1 2 0 1 RAVENSTRUP 1 444 1 33 LOSCHBOUR 1 3 7 KOSTENK I 2 , M .G . 7 8 ARENE CAND 1DE 3 2 38 PADERBORN/SANDE 6 9 S T . GERMA INE I . R . 4 2 8 GROTTE DES ENFANTS 4 6 5 PREDMOST 1 0 6 4 PREDMOST 9 5 9 PREDMOST 3 5 6 PAVLOV I 1 8 CRO -MAGNON I 4 . 9 9 DEVENTER 3 1/8 1 6 COMBE CAPELLE I 5 1 OBERCAS SEL 2

L

1 4 CHEDDAR 1

i

1 0 BRUN 1QUEL 2 4 1 9 1 OFNET 2 493 6 BARMA GRANDE 5 2 3 1 V ETERN I CA 2 2 40 B INSHOF /SPEYER 2 28 URT IAGA

I

1 34 KORSOR NOR I 2 12 S TORA B JERS I 1 30 KOELB J ERG I 8 0 ARENE CAND IDE 5 7 9 ARENE CAND 1DE 4

g l IAPE

1 :0

F ig . 5 c S hape d i s tance s o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd M e so l i th ic s k u l l s . T he d ua l sequen t ie l l c l u s t er w a s s p l i ti n to t h r ee p a r t s -P a r t3 I th a s b een c l a imed t h a t t h e re e x is t s aUv iec t ype w i th s t rong mo rpho log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s t o H oM ic , K auf er t sberg , Mon ta rd i t , G rama t a nd R oche re i l . A s c an b e s e en f r om F ig . 3 a , t h e r e la t ion s b e tween t h e s i ng le Uv iec s ku l ls a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l c ompa red t o t hose f r om o the r l o ca l i t ies . F o r t h i s r e a son o ne c an f i nd t h e d e scr ibed a f f in i t ies i n s ome c a se s , wh i le i no the r s t h ey a r e o bv iou s ly a b sen t a nd n o t wor th b e ing m en t ioned i n r e la t ion t o o the r s . T h is c an b e i n terp re ted i ns uch aw ay t h a t t h e i n t rag roup v a r iab i l i ty a nd t h e i n te rg roup v a r iab i l i ty a r e v e ry s im i la r . T he s ame c an b ed emon s t ra ted f o rt h ec r an ia l mo rpho log ica l a f f in i t ie s i nt h ef ema le s amp le a sc oncern s t h e i n te rg roup s im i la r i t ie s o f Uv iec o rO fne t( s ee F ig . 3 b ) . T he re s e ems t o b e ap a t tern o f s im i la r i ty i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s wh ich c an b e t te rb e d escr ibed b y g radua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion s i nt ime a nd s pace t h an b y l o ca lc oncen t ra t ion so fs pec ia lt y pe -spec if ic f e a tu res a si nd ica t ion s f o re t hn ic e n t i t ies . T he s ame i mp ress ion y i e ld s f r om t h e s i ng le l i nkage c l us te r s i nt h e n ex t t wo f i gu res ( F ig . 4 a , b ) , w h ich g roup t h e i n d iv idua ls a cco rd ing t ot h e E uc l id ian d i s tance s o ft h e i n d iv idua l f a c to r s co re s . T here s e em t o b e n o p r efe r red r e g iona l g roup s t h a t p oo l t oge the r a nd s epa ra te f r om o the r s . T he o ve ra l l p i c tu re i nt h e ma le a s w e l l a s i nt h e f ema le s amp le i st h a t s ome s ku l ls a r e l e ss i n teg ra ted i n t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s amp le t h an o the r s , b u t t h e re i sn o s epa ra t ion o ft h ef o ss i ls w h ich w ou ld i n d ica te c l ea r ly s epa ra te t ypo log ica lg roups . N ow , w e w i l l g o o n w i th t h e s e cond k ind o fb io log ica l d i s tances . A s m en t ioned b efo re , I h ave a l so c a lcu la ted P en ro se d i s tances o f t h e L a te P l e is tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene h om in id s , wh ich s ha l lb ed i scu ssed b e low . 57

SHAPE-JAEGER_MA

1 4 6 7 2 3 5 3 5 5 5 1 3 3 2 7 1 5 1 3 6 5 3 8 1 6

2 9 1 31 4 5 9 7 1 09 1 03 6 1 5 2 3 0 2 6 1 27 7 0 2 4 1 0

PREDMOST 7 PADERBORN CULOZ I COMBE CAPELLE CHANCELADE SAN TEORORO 3 RAVNSTRUP 1 444 HOHLENSTE IN 1 FAT ' MA KOBA I PREDMOST 9 PREDMOST 3 VEDBAEK 1 McARTHUR 's CAVE 2 16 PAVLOV 1 CRO- MAGNON 1

5 6 1 9 1 8 3 6 5 2 2 9 6 3 4 4 5 9 4 0 2 0 3 2 4 2 4 3 2 5 6 1 1 6 3 9 1 0 4 9 2 4

10 3 7 3 6 6 7 1 06 5 4 1 20 7 9 16 7 3 4 0 6 0 7 6 7 8 5 0 18 3 3 7 2 6 9 8 4 7

S TORA B JERS 1 ARENE CAND IDE 5 ARENE CAND IDE 4 KORSÖR NOR 1 ROCHERE IL 1 FRANKTH I 2 TEV IEC 1 3 ARRUDA 1 2 TEV IEC 7 MELBY 1 LE B ICHON 1 HOED IC 9 ARRUDA 3 ARRUDA 4 DEVENTER 9 00 TEV IEC 9 STETTEN 1 MAR ITZA 2 OBERCASSEL 1 OFNET 2 496 DEVENTER 1 3

7 6 6 6 4 5 7 6 0 3 5 3 4 2 6 2 8 1 7 4 7 4 1 6 9 5 0 5 3 5 4 2 2 4 6 2 1

1 5 1 28 1 25 12 17 6 5 6 3 5 1 5 3 3 4 9 3 7 5 1 34 1 02 1 07 1 08 4 3 8 8 4 2

GROTTE DES ENFANTS 4 VETERN ICA 2 URT IAGA I TEV IEC 2 TEV IEC 8 KOERHU ISBEEK 1 KAUFERTSBERG 1 ELST 2 FRANKTH I 1 URT IAGA J P I OFNET 2 484 ARRUDA 2 SARSTEDT LE RASTEL 1 SAN TEODORO 1 SAN TEORORO 2 BOTTENDORF 1 MO ITA 2 3 BLE IV IK I

4 3 1 3 0 6 8 6 2 5 8 1 2 4 5 8 2 9 4 8 3 7 1

8 5 8 5 5 1 33 19 12 2 5 8 0 1 7 3 1 8 9 7 6 8 1

CHEDDAR 1 HOED IC 6 GRAMAT I GLE ID INGEN TEV IEC 2 TEV IEC 4 PREDMOST I ARRUDA 4 0 GROTTE DES ENFANTS 6 BRAMA GRANDE 5 KOSTENK 1 M .G . OFNET 2 493 LOSCHBOUR 1 ARENE CAND IDE 1

F ig . 6 a P enrose s hape d i s tance c l us ter o ft h e m a le U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s amp le ( N =6 9 ; 2 0 v ar iab les ) 5 58

1 6 1 2 1 7 3 2 5 1 8 2 3 9 6 3 6 3 7 4 3 2 2 4 0 4 1 3 4 2

3 1 PREDMOST 1 0 2 2 OBERCASSEL 2 2S T . GER MA INE 4 5 BRUN IQUEL 2 4 4 9 DEVENTER 3 1/8 3 5 ARENE CAND IDE 3 4 6 CULOZ 2 1 6 GROTTE DES ENFANTS 5 1 29 VETERN ICA 4 1 2 DOLN I VESTON ICE 3 8 2 MUGEM ( MO ITA ) 4 8 9 MO ITA 2 8 4 4 CHE IX 1 8 5 MO ITA 1 7 8 6 MO ITA 1 8 7 4 MONTCLUS 1 4 BRNO 3

5 4 3 2 3 3 2 8 2 7 4 8 1 9 5 6 2 9 5 5 5 9 4 7 2 1 1 5 1 4 6 4 3 9 5

5 4 6 9 7 1 5 9 5 7 9 5 3 8 13 6 2 11 1 22 9 4 4 1 2 8 2 7 1 30 8 4 1

REES 2 McARTHUR CAVE 2 15 MALONNE HOED IC 8 HOED IC 4 OFNET 2 488 ARUDY/POEY MAO TEV IEC 3 HOHLENSTE IN 2 TEV IEC 1 TEV IEC 1 4 OFNET 2 487 B IRSMATTEN-BAS ISG . 1 PREDMOST 5 PREDMOST 4 DÖBER ITZ 2 MO ITA 1 6 CRO- MAGNON 2

6 5 5 8 3 5 2 4 1 3 1 0 5 3 7 6 0 3 8 4 5 4 4 2 6

1 32 1 21 7 7 4 8 2 3 1 9 1 04 1 2 1 23 8 3 9 1 9 0 5 6

B INSHOF TEV IEC 1 3 ARRUDA 5 DEVENTER 9 /2 ABR I PATAUD MLADEC I REES 1 DURUTHY ( SORDE ) TEV IEC 1 5 MO ITA 7 OFNET 2 477 O FNET 1 822 HOED IC 1

S HAPE- J AEGER_FR

5 2 1 3 0 2 0 5 7 4 2 8 5 1 3 6 4 9 4 6 2 6 1 5 0 3 1 4 6 1 . ‘

‘ . 4a 4 1 .

4

1

I

1 01 ORTUCCH IO 1 2 0 MLADEC 2 6 4 KOELBJ ERG 1 3 9 BÄCKESKOG 1 15 TEV IEC 6 8 7 MO ITA 1 9 1 4 F L INT J ACK% CAVE 1 00 OFNET 2 504 8 1 ARRUDA 9 08 9 6 OFNET 2 490 6 CAP BLANC 1 26 URT IAGA 2 1 24 TEV IEC 1 8 9 9 OFNET 2 501 6 6 KOERHU ISBEEK 2 9 2 OFNET 2 481 2 AVEL INE S HOLE 9

1

• " '

F ig . 6 b P enrose s hape d i s tance c l us ter o ft h ef ema le U pper P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic s amp le ( N =6 5 ; 2 0 v ar iab les ) 5 59

T he c a lcu la t ion s , w h ich a r e b a sed o n 2 0 v a r iab le s , h ave b een d one f o r t h ree s amp le s , t h e s ex -spec if ic g roups a nd t h e m ixed s amp le , a nd i n vo lve t h e g ene ra l P en ro se -d is tance a s w e l l a s s i ze a nd s hape . T hough o ne c an g e t al o t o f i n forma t ion a bou t t h e mo rpho log ica l s im i la r i ty p a t ter nf r om t h e g ene ra l d i s tance a nd t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , Is ha l l c oncen t ra te o n ly o n t h e s hape d i s tances h e re . T he n ex t f i gu re g ives a r ough i mp ress ion o f t h e CH2 -c l u s te r o f t h e who le s amp le . T he c l us te r c an b e d i v ided a tt h e s hape l e ve l o f 1 . 0 i n to n o l e s s t h an 1 2 s ubc lus te r s a nd 5 i s o la ted s pec imen s . I no rde rt oc l ea r ly d emon s t ra te , Ih ave s p l i t t h ec l u s te ri n to t h ree p a r t s ( s ee F ig s . 5 a , b ,c ) . W i th in t h ese d i f f e ren t s ubc lus te r s w e f i nd , e . g . , i n t h e f i r s t p a r t a tt h e l owe r e nd o f t h e s ca le , f o ss i ls f r om F rance , I t a ly , P or tuga l a nd G e rmany . I ti sf u r the rmo re i n te re s t ing t h a t o n t h e o ne h and 9o u to f 1 2 O fne t -sku l ls a r e l umped i n as i ng le s ubc lu s te ra nd o nt h eo the rh and , t h e re a r e 8P o r tugue se f o ss i ls o u t o f 1 4 s i gned a s n ea r n e ighbou r s . T he s e cond p a r t c on ta in s t h e c l us te ro f Obe rca sse l 1a nd Ma r i tza 2 wh ich h a s b een men t ioned b efo re . F ina l ly w e c an f i nd a s pec ia l c oncen t ra t ion o f Kedmos t f o s s i ls i n t h e t h i rd p o r t ion . T he o t he r a f f in i t ies c anno t b e d i scus sed h e re , b u t i tb ecomes e v iden t f r om t h ese s e lec ted e xamp le s , t h a t t h e re i s ah igh i n te rg roup

r e la t ion sh ip ,

d e sp i te

h i gh

r eg iona l

a nd

c h rono log ica l

d i s tances ,

t hough

t h e

i n t rag roup r e la t ion s a r ef o rs ome g roup sd om ina t ing . B ecau se s ex h a s ag r ea t i n f luence o n t h e v a r ia t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l a nd s exua l i nf luence s e ems t o p l ay a s pec ia l r o le i n t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f t h e ma ter ia l , Ic a lcu la ted s ex -spec if ic c l u s te r s . F igu re 6 a d emons t ra tes t h e s hape c l us te r o f t h e ma le s amp le . We c an s e e t h a t ac l ea r s epa ra t ion o ft h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic f o ss i l s i sa b sen t , t hough mo s t h om in id s o f t h e o lde r s amp le a r e t ob e f ound a tt h e t op . T h is c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y s ome i s o la ted f e a tu re s b u t b ecause t h is e xp lana t ion d oes n o t f i t f o r t h e who le g roup , w e c an c onc lude t h a t t h e L a te P le i s tocene g roup s hows ab ig o ve r lap w i th t h e Meso l i th ic s amp le . C lus te r ing o ccu r s b e tween w ide ly s paced d i ve rgen ts pec imen s ,e . g . B le iv ik a nd L eR a s te lo r Obe rca sse l a nd Ma r i tza . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e f ema le c l us te r , wh ich i ss hown i n F igu re 6 b , s hows a s im i la r s t ruc tu re a s t h e ma le i n sofa r a s s ome Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic s ku l ls a r e s omewha t a pa r t f r om t h e ma in c l u s te r s , wh i le o the r s c l us ter w i th Meso l i th ic f o ss i l s . T h is c an b e d emon s t ra ted f o r t h e a f f in i t ies o ft h e f ema le Obe rca sse l f o ss i l wh ich i ss omewha t i s o la ted , a sw e l l a st h ew e l l -known f o s s i ls f r om S t . G e rma ine o rB run ique l a nd e spec ia l ly P f edmo s t , wh i le t h e DDR -fo s s i l Döber i tz c l u s te r s w i th Mo rav ian a nd F rench h om in id s o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b u t a l so w i th P or tugue se ,F rench , G erman a nd Sw iss h om in id sf r om t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod . CONCLUSIONS T he d emon s t ra ted r e su l t s o f t h is a bb rev ia ted a na lys i s o f t h e morpho log ica l r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic f o s s i ls l e ads t ot h e c onc lus ion t h a t t h e re mus t h ave b een i n tens ive g ene f l ow b e tween t h e L a te P le i s tocene a nd E a r ly H o locene p opu la t ion s . T he c r an io -ske le ta l e v idence i si na g reemen t w i th t h e e xpec ta t ion o fe t hn ic -a rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch a nd p a laeodemog raph ic mode ls o f s ma l l p opu la t ion s a s c i ted i nt h e I n t roduc t ion . Ih opefu l ly h ave d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h is f i r s t p r e l im ina ry r epo r t o n t h e c l u s ter a na lys is o fL a te P le is tocene a nd E a r ly H o locene c r an ia l ma ter ia l d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e re w a s o bv ious ly n o g ene t ic i s o la t ion o f t h ese h un te r -ga the re r p opu la t ions o f E u rope . T h is c an b e i n terp re ted i n s uch a w ay t h a t a t r iba l l e ve l o ft h e se e a r ly p opu la t ions w a s n o t f u l ly a ch ieved . I tc an b e h ypo thes ized t h a td ue t o al ow p opu la t ion d en s i ty t h e re w e re c on t inuous ly , p a r t ia l ly o ve r lapp ing ma t ing n e two rk s w i thou ta ny g rea te rb a r r ie r st og ene f l ow . R e tur n ing t ot h e q ues t ion o fh omogene i ty o r h e te rogene i ty i nt h e m a ter ia l w h ich h a s b een s t ud ied , i ti se v iden tf r om t h e f o ss i l r e co rd t h a tt h e s amp le i s much mo re h omogeneou st h an o ne w ou ld i mp ly f r om t h e t y po log ica l a pp roaches . T he e xpec ta t ion t h a t t h e s amp le i sd rawn f r om a 5 60

s i ng le , r ea sonab ly h omogeneou s g ene t ic p oo l d oe s n o tm ean t h a tt h e re i sn o v a r ia t ion . T he re i s g ood i nd ica t ion f r om t h e d if e ren t r e sea r ch w o rk s o f t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s ( c i ted a bove ) t h a t t h e re a r e d ine s w i th in t h e ma te r ia l . T he c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic /Me so l i th ic t r an s i t ion , a ccompan ied b y ar ema rkab le p opu la t ion i n c rea se a nd t h e c l ima t ic a nd e co log ica lc hange i nt h eL a te P le i s tocene /Ea r ly H o locene p e r iod l e do bv iou s ly t oa c on t inuou sg radua lc hange i nt h e mo rpho log ica la ppea rance . I ts hou ld b e t h e a im o f f u r the r s t ud ie s t o a na lyze t h e mo rpho log ica l p a t ter n w i th in a n e vo lu t iona ry c oncep t a s amo sa ic w h ich d epend s o n d i f f e ren t p roce s se s o fc u l tu ra l , s oc ia l a nd e co log ica l a dap ta t ion s , a nd w e s hou ld d ef in i te ly s ay f a rewe l l t o t h e t r ad i t iona l t ypo log ica l a pp roach a nd c oncen t ra te o nt h ei n te rac t ion so fs oc ioeco log ica lf a c to r sa nd b io logy . REFERENCES B ay , R . 1 963 . I V . D ie a n th ropo log i sche Un te r suchung . I n : H . -G . B and i ( e d . ) B i r sma t ten B a s i sgro t te .E ine m i t te l s te inze i t l iche F und s te l le i m U n ter en B ir s ta l .A c ta B ernens ia . V e r lay S t ampf l i &C ie ,B er n ,p p .101-121 . B a r ra l , L . a nd C ha r le s , R .P . 1 963 . N ouve l le s d onn6e s a n th ropome t r ique s e tp r6c i s ion s s u r l e s a f f in i t ie s s y s tema t ique s d e s N 6g ro id s d e G r ima ld i . B u l l . Mu s . d 'A n thropo l . P rgh i s t . Monaco ,9 : 171-190 . B eu te l , P . a nd S chubö , W . 1 983 . S ta t i s t ik -Programm S y s tem f ür d i e S o z ia lw i s sen schaf ten ( SPSS ) . G . F i sche rV e r lag , S tu t tga r t . B ianch i , F . , B o rgogn in i T a r l i , S .M . , Ma r ch i , M . a nd P ao l i , G . 1 980 . A n a t temp t o fa pp l ica t ion o f mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ic s t ot h e p rob lem s o ft h e I t a l ian Me so l i th ic s amp le s . H omo , 3 1 :153 1 65 . B in fo rd , L .R . 1 972 . Me thodo log ica l c on s ide ra t ion s o f t h e a r cheo log ica l u se o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta . I n : R .B . L ee & I .D eV o re ( e d s . ) , Man t h e Hun ter . A ld ine P ub l i sh ing C ompany , C h icago ,p p .268 -273 . B in fo rd , S . 1 972 . E thnog raph ic d a ta a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e P le i s tocene . I n : R .B . L ee & I . D eV o re ( ed s . ) Man t h e Hun t er . A ld ine P ub l ish ing C ompany ,C h icago ,p p .274 -275 . B ocque t -Appe l , J . -P . 1 985 . Sma l l p opu la t ion s : D emog raphy a nd p a leoan th ropo log ica l i n f e rence s .J . Hum .E vo l ., 1 4 :683 -691 . B o l l inge r ,G . ,H e r rmann ,A . a nd Mön tmann ,V . 1 983 . BMDP -S ta t i s t ikprogramme f ür d i eB io , Human - u nd S oz ia lw i s sen schaf ter . G .F i sche rV e r lag , S tu t tga r t . v .B on in ,G . 1 935 .E u ropean r a ce so fU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic . Hum .B io l . ,7 : 196 -221 . B o rgogn in i T a r l i , S .M . 1 969 . S tud io a n t ropo log ico d i u no s che le t ro d i e poca m e so l i t ica r i venu to n e l lg ro t ta Ma r i tza p re s so A va rezzo ( Ab ruzzo ) .R iv .A n t rop . ,5 6 :135 -155 . B ou le ,M . 1 921 .L es Homme sF os s i le s . Ma s son ,P a r i s . B ou le ,M . a nd V a l lo i s ,H .V . 1 957 .F o s s i l Man . D ryden P re s s , NY . C han , G .S . a nd Dunn , O .J . 1 972 . T he t r ea tmen t o fm i s s ing v a lue s i nd i scr im inan t a na ly s i s . I . T he s amp l ing e xpe r imen t .J . Am .A s soc . ,6 7 :473 -477 . C on s tand se -W e s te rmann , T .S . 1 974 . L 'homme m 6 so l i th ique d u n o rd -oue s t d e l ' Eu rope , d i s tance s b io log ique s , c on s id&a t ion s g 6n6 t ique s . B u l l . W m . S oc . d 'A n thropo l . P ar i s 1 ( s 6 r . 1 3 ) :173 -199 . C on s tand se -W e s te rmann , T .S . a nd N ewe l l , R .R . 1 984 . H uman b io log ica l b ackg round o f p opu la t ion d ynam ic s i n t h e We s te rn E u ropean Me so l i th ic . H uman p a laeon to logy . P roceed ing s o f t h e K on inkh j e N ed er land se A kad em ie v an W e ten schappen , S e r ie s B , 8 7 :139 -223 . F e rembach , D . 1 963 . L e s h omme s d u P a l6o l i th ique s up6 r ieu rd e l ' Eu rope . S oc ijW d 'E tude s e t d eR echer che sP rgh i s tor ique E y z ie s -e t -T ayac B u l le t in , 1 2 :64 -73 . F e rembach , D . 1 969 . L '6vo lu t ion d e r a ce s a u M6 so l i th ique . I n : J .N eme sk6 r i & G y . D ezo ( e d s . ) , E vo lu t ionary T r end s i nR ecen t a nd F o s s i l Hom in id s . A kadan ia i K iadö , B udape s t , 5 6 1

p p .83 -86 . F e r embach , D . 1 974 . L e s h omme s d e l ' Ep ipa l6o l i th ique e td u M6 so l i th ique d e l aF rance e td u N o rd -oue s td ub a s in M6d i te r r an6en .B u l l .W m . S oc .d 'An thropo l .P ar i s 2( X I I I ) :20 1-236 . F e rembach , D . 1 976 . L e s h omme s d u M6 so l i th ique . I n : H . d e L um ley ( ed . ) , L a P rgh i s to i r e F ran o i se . CNRS ,P a r i s ,p p .604 -611 . F e rembach , D . 1 978 . L e s N a touf ien s e t l ' homme d e C ombe C ape l le . B u l l . Mem . S oc . d 'An thropo l .P ar i s 5( X I I I ) :1 31-136 . F e rembach , D . 1 979 . F i l ia t ion P a l6o l i th ique d eh omme sd u M6 so l i th ique . I n : D . d eS onnev i l le B o rde s( e d . ) ,L aF in d es T emps G lav iar es e nE urope . CNRS ,P a r i s ,p p .179 -188 . F raye r , D . 1 978 . T he E vo lu t ion o ft h e D en t i t ion i nU pper P a leo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic E urope . Un ive r s i ty P re s so fK an sa sP ub l ica t ion si nA n th ropo logy ,L aw rence , KN . F raye r , D . 1 980 . S exua l d imo rph i sm a nd c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i n t h e l a te P le is tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene o fE u rope .J . Hum .E vo l . ,9 : 399 -415 . F raye r , D . 1 984 . B io log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l c hange i n t h e E u ropean l a te P le i s tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene . I n : ES pence r & EH . Sm i th ( ed s . ) , T he O r ig ins o f Mod ern Humans : AW or ld S urvey o ft h eF o s s i lE v id ence . A lan R .L i s s ,I nc . , NY ,p p .211-250 . H enke ,W . 1 982 . E n tw ick lung s t rend su nd V a r iab i l i tä tb e iJ ungpa läo l i th ike rn u nd Me so l i th iker n E u ropa s . Homo , 3 2 :177 -196 . H enke , W . 1 983 . F ak to renana ly t i sche r V e r such z u r T yp i s ie rung d e r J ungpa lao l i th ike r u nd Me so l i th ike rE u ropa s .Z e i t . Morph .A n thropo l . ,7 3 :279 -296 . H enke , W . 1 985 . Z u r mo rpho log i schen V a r iab i l i tä t d e r J ungpa läo l i th ike r u nd Me so l i th ike r E u ropa s -V e r such e i ne r d i sk r im inanzana ly t i schen D if f e renz ie rung . I n : J .H e r rmann & H . U l l r ich ( e d s . ) , Menschwerdung -B io t i scher u nd G e se l l schaf t l icher E n tw ick lung spro ze s s . Akad . d e rW i s s . d e r DDR , A kadem ie V e r lag B e r l in , S ch r if ten z u rU r - u nd F ruhge sch ich te , 4 1 :136 -154 . H enke ,W . 1 986 . D ie magda l6n ienze i t l ichen Men schenfunde v on O be rka s se l b e i B onn . B onner J ahrbuch , ( 1986 ) :317 -366 . H enke , W . 1 987 . A pp l ica t ion o f mu l t ivar ia te s t a t i s t ic s t ot h e p rob lem s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s amp le s . Hum .E vo l . ,2 : 149 -167 . J acob s , K .H . 1 984 . H om in id b ody s i ze , b ody p ropo r t ion s , a nd s exua l d imo rph i sm i n t h e E u ropean U ppe rP a leo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic . Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm s , Ann A rbo r ,M I , USA . J e l inek , J .1 968 . Ac on t r ibu t ion t ot h e o r ig in o ft h e Med i te r ran id t ype . C ommun ica t ions d e l a D g lgga t ion T checho s lovaque ,V I II CAES 1 968 :1-4 . K laa t sch , H . 1 910 . D ie A u r ignac ra s se u nd i h re S t e l lung i m S tammbaum d e r Men schhe i t . Z e i t . E thno l . ,4 2 :513 -577 . L ee , R .B . a nd D eV o r e , I .1 972 . Man t h e Hun ter . A ld ine P ub l i sh ing C ompany , C h icago , I L , U SA . Mo ran t , G .M . 1 930 . S tud ie s o f P a laeo l i th ic man . I V . A b iome t r ic s t udy o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s ku l l so fE u rope .A nn .E ugen . ,4 : 109 -214 . N ewe l l , R .R . a nd C on s tand se -W e s te rmann , T .S . 1 986 . T e s t ing a n e t hnog raph ic a na logue o f Me so l i th ic s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e so lu t ion o f Me so l i th ic e t hn ic g roup s a nd b reed ing p opu la t ion s . H uman P a laeon to logy . P roceed ing s o f t h e K on ink l i jk e N eder land se A kad em ie v an W e t ernschappen , S e r ie sB , 8 9 (3 ) :243 -310 . N ewe l l , R .R . , C on s tand se -W e s te rmann , T .S . a nd Me ik le john , C . 1 979 . T he s ke le ta lr ema in s o f Me so l i th ic man i nw e s te rn E u rope : An e va lua t ive c a ta logue .J . Hum .E vo l . ,8 ( 1 ) :1-228 . Q ua t re fage s d e B reau , J .L .A . d e a nd H amy , E . J .T . 1 882 . C ran ia E tn ica :L e s C räne s d es R ace s Huma ine s . B a l l ire e tF i t s , P a r i s . S a l te r , K . 1 925 . D ie C romagnon ra s se u nd i h re S t e l lung z u a nde ren J ungpa läo l i th i schen L ang schade l ra s sen .Z e i t .I nduk t ive A b s tammung s - u nd V er erbung s lehr e , 3 9 :191 -247 . T e s tu t , L . 1 890 . R eche r che s a n th ropo log ique s s u r l e s que le t te q ua t6r na i re d e C hance lade , 5 62

D o rdogne .B u l l . S oc . d 'A n thropo l . L yon , 8 : 131-246 . V a l lo is , H .V . a nd Face , S .d e . 1 977 . L es M Ao l i th iques d e F rance . I n s t i tu t d e P a l&m to log ie H uma ine , P a r is . V erneau , R . 1 906 .L es G ro t tes d e G r ima ld i( An thropo log ie ) . I mp r imer ie d e Monaco , Monaco . V l ek , E . 1 965 . R a ssend iagnose d er a u r ignac ienze i t l ichen B es ta t tungen i n d e r G ro t te d es E nfan t s b e iG r ima ld i .A n thropo l .A nz . ,2 9 :290 -300 . V r C ek , E . 1 967 . Morpho log ica l r e la t ions o f t h e f o ss i l h uman t y pes Br no a nd C ro - Magnon i n t h e E uropean L a te P l e is tocene . F o l ia Morpho l . ,1 5 :214 -221 . Wob s t , H .M .

1 974 . B ounda ry c ond i t ions f o r P a laeo l i th ic s oc ia l s y s tems : A s imu la t ion

a pp roach . Amer . A n t iq . ,3 9 :147 -178 . Wob s t , H .M . 1 976 . L oca t iona l r e la t ionsh ips i nP a laeo l i th ic s oc ie ty .J . Hum . E vo l . ,5 :49 -58 .

5 63