Neolithic Cemeteries and Populations in the Dnieper Basin 9780860544968, 9781407346601

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Editor's Introduction
Introduction
Chapter 1: HISTORY OF RESEARCH
Chapter 2: EXCAVATIONS AT VILNYANKA, VASILYEVKA V, OSIPOVKA AND YASINOVATKA
Chapter 3: THE NIKOLSKOYE CEMETERY
Chapter 4: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BURIAL RITES
Chapter 5: CHRONOLOGY, BELIEFS AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Chapter 6: THE CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL POSITION OF THE MARIUPOL-TYPE CEMETERIES
Chapter 7: THE NEOLITHIC POPULATION OF THE DNIEPER BASIN
Chapter 8: THE LATE CRO-MAGNON POPULATION OF THE DNIEPER BASIN IN THE HISTORY OF EASTERN EUROPE
Chapter 9: CHRONOLOGY AND CULTURAL RELATIONS
REFERENCES
Appendix I: THE MARIUPOL CEMETERY

Citation preview

Neolithic Cemeteries and Populations in the Dnieper Basin D. Ya. Telegin and I. D. Potekhina

translated from the Russian by

V. A. Tikhomirov edited by

J. P. Mallory

BAR International Series ,383 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S383, 1987: 'Neolithic Cemeteries and Populations in the Dneiper Basin'

© D. Ya

. Telegin a nd I. D. Potekhina , 1987

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544968 paperback ISBN 9781407346601 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544968 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS E ditor's I ntroduction 1

I ntroduction

3

1 . H istory o f R esearch 2 . E xcavations a t V ilnyanka, V asilyevka V , O sipovka a nd Y asinovatka

2 5

3 . T he N ikolskoye C emetery

6 8

4 . G eneral C haracteristics o f t he B urial R ites

1 05

5 . C hronology, B eliefs a nd S ocial R elationships

1 17

6 . C ultural a nd H istorical P osition o f t he M ariupol-Type C emeteries 1 33 7 . T he N eolithic P opulation o f t he D nieper B asin

1 48

8 . T he L ate C ro-Magnon P opulation o f t he D nieper B asin i n t he H istory o f E astern E urope

1 82

9 . C hronology a nd C ultural R elations

1 90

R eferences

2 04

A ppendix I : T he M ariupol C emetery

2 17

i ii

E DITOR 'S I NTRODUCTION T he c emeteries o f t he D nieper b asin a re a mong t he l argest N eolithic c emeteries i n E urope. T his w ork o ffers a f ull s urvey a nd a nalysis o f b oth t he c emeteries a nd t he p hysical a nthropology o f t hose b uried. T he a uthors f irst t reat t he h istory o f r esearch a nd t hen e xamine i n d etail s ome o f t he b est p reserved a nd m ost i mportant o f t he c emeteries, t he g rave g oods f ound w ithin t hem , t he p roblems o f t heir r elative c hronology, a bsolute d ate, c ultural a ffiliation a nd t he p hysical c omposition o f t heir p opulation. F inally, b oth a uthors e valuate t he r ole o f t he c ulture a nd t he p hysical t ype ( Proto-Europoid C ro-Magnon) i n t he b roadest p erspective o f E urasian p rehistory. T hese c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype ( named a fter t he f amous s ite o f M ariupol w hich w as s ituated i n t he s outhern U kraine j ust n orth o f t he S ea o f A zov) a re a ttributed t o t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. A lthough t he a uthors r efer t o t his c ulture e xtensively i n t he t ext, a v ery b rief s ummary d escription o f t his c ulture ( even i f u nfashionably ' normative') s eems t o t he e ditor t o b e n ecessary, e specially w ith r egard t o i ts n onm ortuary a spects. T he D nieper-Donets c ulture i s k nown f rom a pproximately 2 00 s ites i n t he U kraine a nd B yelorussia. T hese s ites a re p rincipally l ocated a long t he c ourse o f t he D nieper a nd s ome o f i ts t ributaries, t he n orthern D onets a nd t he P ripet. A ccording t o D r. T elegin , t he c ulture c an b e d ivided i nto t hree m ajor p eriods. P eriod I T he e arliest p eriod s ees s ettlement p rimarily c onfined t o t he M iddle D nieper b asin a nd t he n orthern D onets. I t i s c haracterized b y p rimitive p ointed b ased p ottery a nd a l ithic i ndustry d ominated b y m icrolithic f orms; f lake a xes w ere a lso u tilized. T he r oots o f t he l ithic i ndustry l ie v ery m uch i n t he l ater M esolithic. C emeteries f rom t his p eriod a re v ery p oorly k nown . P ossibly t he b urial a t I gren 8 , d iscussed b y D r. T elegin i n t he f irst c hapter, b elongs t o t his p eriod. R adiocarbon d ates a nd i mports f rom t he n ext p eriod i ndicate t hat P eriod I p recedes c . 4 500 C al. B C . P eriod I I T he M iddle p eriod w itnesses a m ajor e xpansion o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n a ll d irections a nd t he s ubsequent f ormation o f l ocal r egional v ariants. T he r ole o f m icroliths d iminish i n t he c omposition o f t he l ithic a ssemblages a nd p olished s tone a xes b egin t o a ppear. S ome r egional v ariants a re t ypified b y t he m anufacture o f f lat-based v essels. T his p eriod m arks t he r ise o f c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype, e specially i n t he t he N adporozhe-Azov v ariant, w ith t heir a ttendant g rave g oods o f d eer a nd f ish t eeth , p lates m anufactured f rom b oar t usk e namel, s tone m aceheads a nd o ccasional o rnaments o f c opper a nd g old. B oth r adiocarbon d ates a nd c eramic i mports f rom t he w ell-dated T ripolye c ulture s uggest t hat P eriod I I f lourished c . 4 500 - 3 600 C al. B C. P eriod I II T he L ate p eriod s ees s outhern U kraine a nd B yelorussia. T ripolye w hich w ould p lace i t n orthern r egion u ntil

a c ollapse o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he i ts r estriction t o t he a rea n orth o f K iev a nd C -1 c eramics h ave b een u ncovered f rom P ustynka 5 c . 3 500 C al. B C. T he c ulture c ontinues i n t he t he B ronze A ge.

T he m ajority o f D nieper-Donets s ites a re s ettlements o r c amp s ites o ffering s urface s catters o f c eramic a nd l ithic m aterial. I t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t heir t otal s izes a lthough e xcavations h ave r anged u p t o n early 2 000 s quare m etres. T he s ettlements a re p rimarily s ituated o n t he l ower r iver t erraces, n ear l akes o r e ven o n i slands. O nly i n r are s ituations h ave c emeteries b een d iscovered i n o bvious a nd d irect a ssociation w ith t he N eolithic s ettlements; i n g eneral, t he c emeteries a re f ound i n t he h igh l oess t erraces. T he r emains o f s ettlement a rchitecture a re q uite p oor g iven t he a bundance o f m ortuary r emains ( over 8 00 b urials). W hile a n umber o f s ettlements h ave p roduced h earths, f ew h ave y ielded o ther s tructural f eatures. A t t he s ite o f V ita L itovskaya a s mall h ut m easuring 2 x 2 .5 m . w ith a h earth i n t he c entre w as u ncovered w hile t he s ite o f S osonki p roduced r emains o f a r ectangular h ut 3 .4 x 3 -2.4 m . i n s ize a nd s unk c . 2 0-30 c m . i nto t he s oil. T he l ate s ite o f P ustynka 5 p roduced a n umber o f p its, a nd a s urface d welling 3 .2 x 1 .5 m . i n s ize. I n g eneral, t he i ndustrial t echnology b egins w ith m icroliths ( both a ssymetrical a nd s ymmetrical t rapezes) w hich g radually d isappear i n t he l ater p hases w hen t hey a re r eplaced b y l arger f lint i mplements. T he q uality o f l ocal f lint r esources i n m any r egions w as r estricted a nd t he o verall s ize o f t ools w as n ot v ery l arge e xcept i n a reas s uch a s t he n orthern D onets w hich h ad a ccess t o b etter f lint s ources. F lake a xes g radually y ield t o g round s tone. A n a ssortment o f s pears a nd a rrowheads a re a lso k nown f rom P eriod I I. S crapers a nd k nives a re a bundant, s ome o f t he l atter p ossibly s erving a s s ickle b lades. B one w as u sed f or a rrowheads, h arpoons, f ish-hooks a nd a wls. N et s inkers f or f ishing a re a lso k nown. O f e special i mportance i n u nderstanding t he s tructure o f D nieperD onets s ociety a re i ts e conomic r emains. A griculture i s n ot w ell a ttested, h owever, i mpressions o f c harred b arley w ere r ecovered f rom a s herd f rom t he s ite o f V ita L itovskaya. F aunal r emains a re k nown f rom s everal s ettlements a nd t hese a re l isted i n f ull b elow :

N C attle + S heep/Goat P ig H orse D og + A urochs 9 3 E lk R ed D eer 1 R oe D eer 3 W ild P ig 2 O nager F ox 2 W ild C at R abbit 1 B eaver 4 B irds 2 1 F ish T ortoise 1 8 M olluscs -

I gren 8 M NI + + 6 3 1 1 2 4 4 5 1 -

S obachky N M NI 5 6 5 5 4 8 1 0 3 4 8 4 9 3 2 1 1 6 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 -

S redny S tog I B uzky N M NI N M NI 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 8 4 3 1 1 1 4 1 8 1 1 2 1 8 2 _ _ _ 1 1 1 2 1 1 6 3 2 8 4 2 7 4 1 1 _ _ 5 2 3 4 5 1 4 5 4 2 1 1 1 26 8 2 2 1 8

v i

W ith s uch s mall s amples, i t i s o bviously d ifficult t o g eneralize f rom t he d ata. T he s ite o f I gren 8 b elongs t o t he e arly p eriod o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture a nd d omestic c attle a re a ttributed t o t his s ite w ith t he f ull r ange o f d omestic a nimals a ppearing b y t he m iddle p eriod. T he d omestic h orse i s a ttributed t o t he D nieper-Donets c ulture b ut t here a re n o e xtensive a rguments f or i ts i nclusion a mong t he d omestic f auna ( unlike t he c ase f or t he m ore e xtensive r emains f or d omestic h orse i n t he S redny S tog c ulture ( Telegin 1 986)). O f t he t hree s ites d ating t o t he m iddle p eriod, t he t wo s outhern s ites o f S obachky a nd S redny S tog I s how a g reater p ercentage o f d omestic l ivestock t han t he m ore n ortherly f orest-steppe s ite o f B uzky. I n e valuating t he e conomic f oundations o f t he p eople w ho u tilized t he l arge c emeteries i n t he N adporozhe, D r. T elegin e specially e mphasizes f ishing. T his a rea o f t he D nieper b asin i s m arked b y a n a bundance o f r apids, c ascades, a nd p ools o ffering u nparalleled o pportunities f or f ishing ( indeed, T elegin r emarks t hat f ish c an b e o btained f rom t his a rea w ithout a ny d evices w hatsover). F ish b ones a re m arginally a ttested a t a n umber o f s ites , m ore l ikely b ecause o f t he t echniques o f r ecovery r ather t han a ny p aucity o f a ctual r emains. T he p rimary c atch a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ommon c arp, w hich m ay w eigh u p t o 2 0 k g., a nd p earl r oach ( Rutilus f risii). A s t he r eader w ill s ee, f ish t eeth a re o ne o f t he p rimary g rave g oods i n D nieper-Donets b urials. A n e xamination o f t he f ish t ooth o rnaments f rom t he c emetery o f V ovnigy r evealed t hat t hey d erived f rom 7 6 c arp a nd 1 6 p earl r oach. I n g eneral, t he u nderlying e conomic b asis o f t he s ocieties p roducing t he M ariupol-type c emeteries w as s ubstantially d ependent o n f ishing. A s D r. T elegin i ndicates, t here a re s ubstantial M esolithic c emeteries i n p recisely t he s ame r egion a s t he l ater M ariupol-type b urials. E thnographic d ata s uggests t hat f ishing-based e conomies i s o ne o f t he f ew f orms o f h unter-gather s ubsistence t hat m ay d evelop b oth s ubstantial l ong t erm s ettlement a nd t erritoriality. W ith t he l atter w e a lso f ind e vidence f or w arfare, p robably a ssociated w ith f ishing r ights, w hich i s i ndicated i n b oth t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic c emeteries o f t he r egion. T hrough w hat w ould a ppear t o b e a g radual p rocess o f a cculturation, s timulated b y t heir w estern a gricultural n eighbours, e .g. C ris, B ug-Dniester a nd L inear W are, t he D nieper-Donets c ulture a dopted v arious f orms o f t he p roductive e conomy, a t l east i n i ts m ore s outherly d istribution. T he r easons f or t his a re c omplex a nd w e s till h ave o nly t he b oldest o f h ypotheses, e .g. l ack o f f orest r esources i n t he s outhern s teppe a rea, c limatic c hange a nd d eforestation o f t he r iverine a reas t hrough i ncreased p opulation, e tc. T he r eader w ill b e e specially i nterested i n t he s ocial i mplications o f t hese c hanges, e specially a s t hey a re r eflected i n m ortuary p ractice. T his i s a s ubject w here t he D nieper b asin o ffers u s e xtensive d ata t o e xamine t he m ajor l ong t erm c hanges i n s ocial s tructure f rom p rimarily h unting-gathering ( Mesolithic) p opulations t hrough b oth S ubN eolithic a nd N eolithic s ettlements o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture t o t he l ater E neolithic c emeteries a nd b urials o f t he S redny S tog a nd Y amnaya c ultures. T here h ave b een f ew d etailed a ttempts t o a ssess t he s ocial e volution o f s ociety t hrough i ts m ortuary p ractice f or t his p articular r egion. T he m ost a ctive s pecialist i n t his a rea h as b een M . D . K lobystina ( 1979) w ho h as a nalyzed s ome o f t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic c emeteries a long t he D nieper.

v ii

T he M esolithic c emetery a t V asilyevka 1 y ielded t he r emains o f 2 6 i ndividuals b uried i n t he f lexed p osition. T he b urials w ere a rranged i n b oth i ndividual g raves a nd g roups, t he l atter p redominating. T he d istribution o f t he b urials a ccording t o s ex w as 1 9 m ales, 3 f emales ( ?), 2 u nsexed a dults, 1 ' youth ' a nd 1 c hild. O n t he b asis o f h er a nalysis, K hlobystina o bserved t hat t he c emetery r eflected a s ocial s ystem t hat i ncluded s exual s egregation i n m ortuary r itual a ccompanied b y a ge s tratification i n t hat a ll o f t he m ales r anged f rom 2 5 t o 6 0 y ears o f a ge. T he s omewhat l ater M esolithic c emetery o f V asilyevka 3 y ielded 4 5 b urials i n a ll. T hese c onsisted o f 1 6 m ales, 1 2 f emales, 4 u nsexed a dults, 1 j uvenile a nd 1 2 c hildren. B y t his t ime c ertain c hanges i n t he s ocial s ystem e xpressed i n t he m ortuary r itual c ould b e o bserved. F emales w ere n ow r egularly i ncluded w ithin t he s ame c emetery a s t he m ales a lthough o nly o ne o f t he s even g roup b urials c ould b e p ositively d etermined a s o f m ixed s ex. D espite a f ull r ange o f a ges, t he a ge g roup f rom 1 2 t o 2 5 y ears w as a bsent f rom t he c emetery s uggesting t o K hlobystina t hat t his a ge-set m ay h ave b een s ocially c lassified a s b eyond c hildhood ( children w ere n ow b uried i n t he c emetery) b ut n ot y et f ull a dults. T he f act t hat c hildren a ppeared t o b e b uried w ith b oth m ales a nd f emales s uggested t hat k inship r elations w ere r eckoned b il inearly, a t l east i n t he f inal M esolithic. T he s ubsequent D nieper-Donets c ulture, a s t he r eader w ill s ee, r etains i n s ome i nstances a rchaic M esolithic t raits b ut a lso e vidences n ew s ocial g roupings. T hese a re d iscussed b y D r. T elegin i n h is t reatment o f t he r elative c hronology a nd s ocial s tructure o f t he N eolithic c emeteries. F inally, o ne a spect t hat m ay h ave e scaped a rchaeologists p reviously u nfamiliar w ith t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s t heir p ossible r elevance t o s pecialists i n t he p rehistory o f A tlantic E urope. O ne m ight i magine t here t o b e l ittle i n c ommon b etween t he f lat-grave c emeteries o f t he U kraine a nd t he m egalithic t ombs t hat d ot w estern E urope f rom t he M editerranean t o s outhern S candinavia . N evertheless, i n b oth a reas w e a re w itnessing t wo d ifferent e xpressions o f c ollective b urial. I n b oth r egions w e f ind i ndividual a nd c ollective g raves, s econdary b urial, s equential b urial a nd t he r euse o f b urial v aults, u nceremonious d isposition o f p revious b urials, e tc. I n a s ense t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a re m egalithic t ombs w ithout m egaliths. T hey s timulate u s t o r econsider t he p redominant m ortuary r emains o f w estern E urope f rom t he p erspective o f t he a ctual b urials s etting a side f or t he m oment t he e difices i n w hich t hey w ere d eposited. W hen o ne c onsiders t he a rguments a nd h ypotheses c oncerning t he M esolithic o rigins o f c ollective a nd m egalithic b urials i n w estern E urope, e .g. T eviec i n B rittany o r C arrowmore i n I reland, t hen t he U krainian e vidence m ay s erve a s a u seful e xternal y ardstick f or e valuating t he w est E uropean e vidence. I n e diting t he t ext, I h ave r etained C yrillic l etters w hen t hey h ave b een u sed f or i dentifying e xcavation u nits. T his w as n ecessary b ecause m any o f t he m aps s o i dentified t he u nits a nd a lso b ecause o f t he h opeless c onfusion o f m aking s imple a lphabetic s ubstitutions,e.g. ' B ' i s t he t hird a nd n ot t he s econd l etter o f t he C yrillic a lphabet. T he b asic s equence t hat t he r eader w ill e ncounter i n t his t ext i s t he f ollowing:

v iii

A a

6 b

6 v

1g

M d

E e

W . zh

3 z

1 1 i

I w ish t o t hank E mma B rown a nd B arrie H artwell, D epartment o f A rchaeology, Q ueen 's U niversity, B elfast, f or a ssistance i n r edrawing a nd r eproducing a n umber o f t he i llustrations; S inclair F orrest, D ep. o f A rchaeology, Q ueen's U niversity, f or a ssisting i n t he p roofing o f t he t ext; m y w ife E imear f or t yping t he m anuscript; a nd D mitry Y akolevich a nd I na P otekhina f or b oth t heir h ospitality i n K iev a nd f or a sking m e t o s erve a gain a s ' midwife' t o a nother i mportant w ork o n U krainian a rchaeology.

J . P . M allory D epartment o f A rchaeology Q ueen 's U niversity B elfast, N orthern I reland

i x

I NTRODUCTION T he f amous s ite o f M ariupol, t he l argest a nd r ichest N eolithic c emetery i n E astern E urope, w as d iscovered a nd e xcavated m ore t han a h alf c entury a go. D uring t he p ast d ecades , t he n umber o f s uch m onuments k nown i n t he U kraine h as g reatly i ncreased. T oday a pproximately t wenty N eolithic c emeteries a re k nown w ithin t he t erritorial l imits o f t he U krainian S SR a nd t hese h ave y ielded m any h undreds o f b urials. T he o verwhelming m ajority o f t hese c emeteries a re c oncentrated i n t he v icinity o f t he D nieper r apids. T hese i nclude t he s ites o f V ovnigy, V asilyevka, N ikolskoye, M aryevka, C haply, V ilnyanka, K apulovka, Y asinovatka a nd a lso c emeteries a t S obachky, o ne i n t he r egion o f t he N enasytets r apids, a nd o n t he I gren p eninsula. S outh o f t he D nieper r apids s ome c emeteries a re k nown a t s uch s ites a t L ysaya G ora a nd K airy w hile s imilar s ites h ave a lso b een d iscovered a nd e xamined i n t he m ore n ortherly t erritory o f t he D nieper b asin. T hese i nclude t he c emeteries o f D ereivka n ear K remenchug a nd O sipovka o n t he r iver O rel. S imilar c emeteries a nd g roups o f b urials a re a lso k nown i n a reas a djacent t o t he U kraine s uch a s D olinka i n t he C rimean s teppe a nd A lexandria o n t he r iver O skol. F inally, i t i s p robable t hat a c emetery n ear N izhneterskaya s tation o n t he L ower D on w as d estroyed a t t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury w hen a r ailway w as b uilt a cross t he r iver C hyr ( Yakovlev 1 901). W e k now o f n o o ther r egion i n E astern E urope t hat h as p roduced s o m any c emeteries b elonging t o t he N eolithic p eriod a s t he D nieper v alley. U nfortunately, u p u ntil n ow t here h as b een l ittle a ttempt t o p ublish a nd i nterpret t his m aterial o utside o f t he S oviet U nion d espite t he f act t hat t hese c emeteries h ave l ong a ttracted t he a ttention o f s cholars b oth w ithin t he S oviet U nion a nd a broad a nd t hey p rovide b oth a rchaeological a nd a nthropological d ata o f g reat i nterest t o n umerous s pecialists. T he e vidence f rom t hese U krainian c emeteries b ears o n a n umber o f p roblems r elating t o t he c ultural d evelopment o f E astern E urope a nd n eighbouring t erritories. T hese i nclude t he e ntire i ssue o f s teppe i nfluences o n t he B alkans a nd t he D anube b asin ( e.g. M . G araganin), a nd t he o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t he T RB c ulture ( e.g. C . B ecker, J . L ichardus). A lso, t here a re n umerous p roblems d irectly c oncerned w ith t he r ole o f t hese c emeteries w ithin t heir o wn r egion . T hese w ould i nclude t he i ssue o f t heir c ultural i dentity a nd b oth t heir r elative a nd a bsolute c hronology. S ome a rchaeologists, f or e xample, a ssign t hose N eolithic c emeteries i n t he r egion o f t he D nieper r apids t o l ocal c ultural g roups t hus d istinguishing a s o-called D nieper-rapids a nd P reA zov t ype, e .g. A . D . S tolyar. O thers c onsider t hem t o b e a c omponent o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, e .g. D . Y a. T elegin , o r t he D nieperD onets e thno-cultural a rea, e .g. E . N . T itova, w hile V . N . D anilenko a ssigned t hem t o a s eparate A zov-Dnieper c ulture. R ecent e xcavations h ave n ow m ade i t p ossible t o r econsider t he e vidence f or t heir r elative a nd a bsolute a ge. I n a ddition , a r ee valuation o f t heir c ultural i dentity i s n ecessary b ecause t he c emeteries a re n ot q uite u niform a nd t hey a ppear t o r elate t o d ifferent v ariants o f t he D nieper-Donets ( Comb W are) c ulture. T he p urpose o f t his w ork i s t o p rovide a c omplete p ublication o f a ll t he k nown m onuments o f t he M ariupol t ype i n t he D nieper b asin. 1

M oreover, a c omprehensive s ummary o f t he N eolithic b urial r ite i n t his r egion a s w ell a s a r esolution o f t he p roblems o f c hronology w ill b e a ttempted. T he m onuments w ill b e d ivided i nto p eriods a nd a ccording t o t heir l ocal c ultural g roupings. T hese c emeteries a lso p rovide t he b asic d ata f or d etermining t he a nthropological c omposition o f t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he D nieper b asin d uring t he 5 th • a nd 4 th m illennia B C. C onsequently, a n a nalysis o f t he p hysical r emains i s p rovided i n o rder t o h elp c larify t he r ole o f t he l ate C ro—Magnon p opulations o f E astern E urope a nd a djacent r egions. T he w ork w as u ndertaken a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he U krainian A cademy o f S cience ( Kiev) o n t he b asis o f m aterial s tored t here a nd a lso m aterial h oused i n m useums i n L eningrad, D nepropetrovsk a nd o ther c ities o f t he S oviet U nion . C hapters 1 t hrough 6 a nd 9 w ere w ritten b y D . Y a. T elegin w hile c hapters 7 a nd 8 w ere w ritten b y I . D . P otekhina.

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C hapter 1 H ISTORY O F R ESEARCH T he f irst N eolithic b urials a nd s mall c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley w ere d iscovered n early c oncurrently w ith t he e xcavation o f t he f amous M ariupol c emetery ( see A ppendix 1 ). T hese d iscoveries w ere a ssociated w ith t he s urveys o f t he D neprostroy e xpedition i n 1 927-1929, h owever, t he l arger c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype w ere m ainly d iscovered o nly i n t he p ost-war p eriod. T hree s ites i n t he v icinity o f t he D nieper r apids y ielded N eolithic b urials d uring t he p re-war y ears. T hese c omprised t he s ites o f S obachky, V inogradny i sland, a nd I gren p eninsula. T he c emetery a t S obachky, n ear t he v illage o f P rivolnoye, V erkhneK hotitsk d istrict o f t he Z aporozhe r egion , w as e xcavated b y A . V . D obrovolsky ( 1949) i n 1 928. T he s ite i s s ituated o n t he r ight b ank o f t he D nieper n ear a l arge N eolithic s ettlement. F ourteen s keletons w ere u ncovered, b uried e xtended o n t heir b acks w ith l egs c lose t ogether a nd h ands o n t he p elvis. N ine o f t he s keletons w ere s prinkled w ith o chre. N o g rave g oods w ere r ecovered. T he d ead w ere o riented i n o pposite d irections a long a n orth-south a xis. T hey w ere d istributed i n o ne r ow o f s even i ndividual g rave p its a nd t wo g roup g raves c ontaining t hree a nd f our b urials e ach . T he s ingle b urials w ere s ituated a bout 4 5 c m . h igher t han t he g roup g raves. O ne o f t he s ingle b urials ( No. 4 ) w as s tratified a bove o ne o f t he g roup g raves ( Fig. 1 ,1). T he N eolithic b urials a t S obachky c learly p recede t he E neolithic Y amnaya c ulture s ince o ne o f t he s ingle g raves ( No. 7 ) h ad b een c ut b y ab urial i n t he f lexed p osition w hich w as a ccompanied b y t hree Y amnaya v essels a nd c overed w ith a s tone c airn. I n 1 929-1930 A . V . D obrovolsky e xcavated a c emetery o n V inogradny i sland w hich i s s ituated o pposite t he a forementioned v illage o f P rivolnoye. T he c emetery i ncluded m ore t han 7 0 g raves o f v arious p eriods i ncluding 1 8 N eolithic a nd E neolithic b urials. T hese w ere i nterred i n t he e xtended s upine p osition. T he N eolithic b urials y ielded n o g rave g oods w hile i n t he g raves o f t he E neolithic p eriod a n umber o f p eculiar p endants a nd b eads f ashioned f rom t ubular b ones w ere d iscovered ( Fig. 2 , 2 4-28). S even N eolithic b urials w ere u ncovered o n t he I gren p eninsula ( the p resent s outhern l imit o f D nepropetrovsk), a t t he m outh o f t he S amara r iver, n ear t he I gren c amp-site. I n 1 932 g rave n umbers 9 a nd 1 7-19 w ere e xcavated ( PIDO 1 935, 9 -10); i n 1 946 g rave n umber 6 w as e xcavated ( Dobrovolsky 1 949); a nd i n 1 974-1975 n umbers 4 a nd 1 2 w ere u ncovered b y D . Y a. T elegin. N one o f t he g raves c ontained g rave g oods a nd o nly i n a f ew i nstances w ere t races o f r ed o chre d iscovered, s ometimes i n c onsiderable a mounts. I n 1 932 a b urial i n t he s upine p osition w ith l egs s lightly b ent a t t he k nees w as d iscovered i n t he a djacent s ite o f I gren V ( Gorodok). I t w as s ituated u nder a N eolithic c ultural h orizon a nd e ight l arge f ragments o f t ortoise-shell w ere f ound. T he g reat m ajority o f N eolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper b asin w ere i nvestigated a fter t he w ar, b etween 1 948 a nd 1 978. N early a ll o f t hese

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1 N eolithic c emeteries i n t he s ettlement o f S obachky ( 1) a nd n ear t he N enasytets r apids ( 2).

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w ere d iscovered b y A . V . B odyansky, a k een p rospector o f a rchaeological s ites i n t he L ower D nieper a rea. T he r eason f or t he d iscovery o f s o m any s ites i n s uch a s hort p eriod a nd i n s uch a l imited t erritory w as t he i ntense e rosion o f t he l oessic t erraces o f t he L ower D nieper b asin. T his w as c aused b y r ising w ater l evels p roduced i n t he b asins o f t he D neprogess ( Lenin L ake) a nd K akhovka H ydroelectric s tation. I n 1 948 A . V . B odyansky ( 1951) d iscovered a s mall c emetery b y t he N enasytets r apids, n ear t he v illage o f N ikolskoe, S olonyansky d istrict o f t he D nepropetrovsk r egion. H e d iscovered n ine b urials h ere, i nterred i n t he e xtended s upine p osition . T hese i ncluded a n umber o f c hild g raves ( Fig. 1 , 2 ). A mong t he o thers w ere t wo g roup g raves c ontaining t wo a nd t hree s keletons e ach. T he d eceased l ay w ith t heir h eads i n o pposite d irections. S ix o f t he b urials h ad b een s prinkled w ith r ed o chre; e ight c ontained g rave g oods. T he r ichest g rave w as N o. 3 w hich c ontained 1 50 a nnular ( limestone?) b eads ( Fig. 2 , 1 0, 1 1) a nd 5 5 p endants o f i mmature d eer t eeth ( Fig. 2 , 2 3), U nio s hells a nd a r etouched f lake. S imilar f inds, t hough i n c onsiderably l esser a mounts, w ere f ound w ith b urials 4 , 6 , 8 , a nd 9 . A s craper a nd a k nife w ere f ound n ear b urials 2 a nd 8 ( Fig. 2 , 1 4). S pecial n ote s hould b e m ade o f s even o f t he d eer t ooth p endants w hich h ad g rooves ( Fig. 2 , 2 3) w hich a re r arely m et o n s uch a rtifacts. F our o f t he b urials b elonged t o a dults a nd f ive w ere c hildren. I n 1 949 a nd 1 952, M . Y a. R udynsky e xcavated t wo N eolithic c emeteries n ear t he v illage o f V ovnigy, S olonyansky d istrict. S avran. T he f irst o f t he c emeteries, w as o n t he l eft b ank o f t he D nieper, a nd t he s econd w as s ituated o n t he r ight b ank w ithin t he v illage o f V ovnigy. B oth c emeteries c ontained b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition. G rave g oods w ere f ew t hough m ost g raves w ere s prinkled w ith o chre. T he f irst c emetery h as a lready b een t horoughly p ublished b y R udynsky ( 1956) a nd r equires o nly s ummary t reatment h ere. T he c emetery t ook t he f orm o f a l arge s ubrectangular p it m easuring 2 x 4 m . I n i t w ere u ncovered 3 1 s keletons i n v arious s tates o f p reservation , t heir h eads o riented t o t he s outh . T hey h ad b een d eposited i n l ayers ( Fig. 3 ). F ourteen o f t he b urials h ad g rave g oods a lthough t hese w ere n ot a bundant a nd r ather s imilar. T hey i ncluded p endants o f i mmature t eeth o f d eer, p haryngeal C yprinidae t eeth w hich h ad p robably s erved a s d ecorations o n c lothes, a nd r etouched f lint f lakes ( Fig. 2 , 1 -5). I n t he f ill o f t he c emetery, w hich h ad b een c overed w ith r ed o chre, t here w as a lso f ound a g lobular b one b ead w hich h ad b een p erforated ( Fig. 2 ,22), w hich r epresents a v ery r are f ind f or t he c emeteries o f t his t ype i n t he D nieper b asin . I n a ddition, t here w ere a lso f ound t hree s herds w ith s troked o rnamentation ( Fig. 2 , 6 ,7). T hese m ay b e a ssigned t o t he I I-B s tage o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids ( Telegin 1 968, 7 3). A p erfect a nalogy t o t he g lobular b ead i s k nown f rom t he M ariupol c emetery w here s uch b eads w ere n umerous. T he e xcavation o f t he s econd V ovnigy c emetery, t he l argest i n t he D nieper r apids r egion, h as o nly s een s ummary p ublication ( Rudynsky 1 955). T he c emetery i ncluded 1 30 b urials a rranged i n t hree p arallel r ows w ith t he b odies d eposited i n a n umber o f d ifferent l ayers ( Fig. 4 ). W ith b ut a s ingle e xception, a ll t he d ead w ere o riented w ith t heir h eads t o t he n orthwest a nd a bout 7 0% o f t he s keletons h ad b een s prinkled w ith r ed o chre. G rave g oods w ere f ound w ith a bout 3 0 b urials. 5

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A s w as t he c ase w ith t he f irst c emetery, t he f inds w ere r ather m onotonous. T hey c onsisted p rimarily o f a nnular l imestone b eads w hich a ccompanied f our b urials ( Fig. 2 , 1 9), d eer t ooth p endants ( 12 b urials), f ish t eeth ( 16 b urials) a nd s ome s mall f lint a rtifacts. I n m any c ases, f resh w ater s hells w ere a lso f ound. T he a nnular b eads w ere d istributed s everal d ozens p er b urial. I n t wo i nstances t hey n umbered a s m any a s 2 42 a nd 5 00 b eads. P endants w ere g enerally f ound t o n umber a f ew p er b urial a lthough h ere a gain t wo b urials h ad a s m any a s 2 0 a nd 3 7 t eeth e ach. I n t he l atter i nstance t hey h ad p robably s erved t o d ecorate s ome f orm o f h ead-dress o n t he d eceased. F ish t eeth w ere f ound i n q uantities r anging f rom a f ew t o 5 0 o r 7 0 p ieces. V ovnigy I I y ielded 1 3 p ieces o f f lint. T hese i ncluded f ive t rapezes a nd t rapeze f ragments, t wo f lake s crapers a nd k nife-like b lades w ithout r etouch . T wo t rapezes h ad f laked b acks ( Fig. 2 , 8 , 1 6). I n t he p it f ill w ere a lso f ound t wo s herds o f D nieper-Donets p ottery a nd a n e longated l imestone b ead ( Fig. 2 , 1 8). T he d istribution o f f inds i n t he b urials o f V ovnigy I I a re a s f ollows: F lint k nives i n b urials 4 7, 5 4, 7 3-74 ( Fig. 2 , 9 ); K nife-like b lades i n b urials 2 2, 2 3, 1 05; S crapers i n b urials 9 2, 1 18 ( Fig. 2 , 1 7, 2 0); T rapezes a nd t rapeze b lanks i n b urials 3 0 , 3 2, 8 1, 1 09, 1 12 ( Fig. 2 , 1 5, 1 6); A nnular b eads i n b urials 9 , 1 0, 1 7, 7 4; D eer t ooth p endants i n b urials 1 6, 2 1, 3 3, 3 6, 4 5, 5 8, 6 6, 7 3, 7 4, 1 06, 1 09, 1 27; F ish t eeth i n b urials 3 6, 5 3, 5 8, 7 5, 9 1, 1 05, 1 09, 1 12, 1 15, 1 20, 1 21, 1 23, 1 27; T ortoise s hell i n b urials 3 3, 3 5. T he d iscovery o f t he t wo V ovnigy c emeteries w as o f g reat i mportance s ince t hey s howed t hat t he c emeteries o f t he D nieper r apids a nd t he M ariupol c emetery i n t he A zov r egion , w hich f or a l ong t ime h ad o ccupied a s eparate p lace i n t he N eolithic o f t he U kraine, h ad m uch i n c ommon. M . Y a. R udynsky, f or e xample, m aintained t hat t he V ovnigy c emeteries w ere o f g reat v alue i n e lucidating t he o rigin o f t he M ariupol c emetery. I n 1 950 A . V . B odyansky d iscovered t wo c emeteries i n t he D nieper r apids r egion . O ne o f t hese w as n ear t he v illage o f M aryevka, S inelnikovsky d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion , w hich B odyansky h imself e xcavated. T he o ther w as i n t he v illage o f C haply ( in t he p resent t erritory o f D nepropetrovsk) w hich w as e xcavated b y A . V . D obrovolsky. T he M aryevka c emetery y ielded 1 5 s keletons. I n g eneral, t hey w ere i n p oor c ondition a nd h ad l ain i n t he e xtended p osition ( Fig. 5 ). A . V . B odyansky b elieved t hey h ad b een k illed a nd t hat t heir b odies h ad b een p artly d ismembered. N ine s keletons s howed t races o f o chre. G rave g oods w ere s carce--ten b urials h ad o nly f ish t eeth w hile t hree h ad s mall f lint a rtifacts: t wo k nife-like b lades a nd a t rapeze ( Fig. 5 A-C). W ith t he e xception o f b urial N o. 1 5, a ll o ccurred i n s mall g roup g rave p its w ith t wo ( graves 2 a nd 5 ), t hree ( graves 1 a nd 4 ) a nd f our ( grave 3 ) s keletons.

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C haply c emetery. B urials 6 , 6 a, 7 a, 8 a, a nd 1 9 a re M esolithic a nd b urials l a, 2 a, 3 a, 4 a, a nd 5 a a re E neolithic.

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T he C haply c emetery y ielded 2 5 b urials o f v arious p eriods r anging f rom t he M esolithic t hrough t he E neolithic ( Fig. 6 ). S ixteen o f t he b urials b elonged t o t he N eolithic p eriod ( Dobrovolsky 1 954). A ll o f t hese o ccurred i n s andy d eposits o f t he t errace a t a d epth o f 1 .5-1.7 m . T he d eceased w ere b uried i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ith h eads o riented u sually t o t he n orth , s ometimes t o t he s outh. A ll t he g raves w ere a rranged p erpendicular t o t he f low o f t he r iver a nd f or t he m ost p art f ormed a s ingle r ow . T he e xcavator d ivided t hese N eolithic b urials i nto t hree s ubgroups w hich , a s c an b e s een f rom t he s tratigraphy, w ere n on-contemporaneous. T he e arliest b urials ( Nos. 5 , 7 , 1 1, 1 2) h ad s light t races o f o chre a nd i n o nly o ne b urial w ere t here a ny g rave g oods--a d eer t ooth p endant, t wo a nimal t eeth a nd f our C yprinidae t eeth. T he l ater b urials a lso s howed s light t races o f o chre ( Nos. 1 -4, 8 -10, 1 5-16). N o g rave g oods w ere f ound w ith t hese. I t w as i mpossible t o t race t he o utline o f t he b urial p its o f e ither t his g roup o r t he e arliest. T he b urials o f t he f inal N eolithic p eriod o ccurred i n g rave p its o f a n o val f orm a nd t hey h ad b een l iberally s prinkled w ith r ed o chre. A gain t here w ere n o g rave g oods. T he C haply c emetery r evealed f or t he f irst t ime t hat i n t he D nieper b asin e xtended b urials o f t he N eolithic p eriod h ad b een b oth p receded a nd f ollowed b y c ontracted b urials i n t he M esolithic a nd E neolithic. I n t he 1 950 's b oth n ear a nd d ownriver o f t he D nieper r apids, a nother g roup o f l arge n eolithic c emeteries w as d iscovered i n t he e roded b anks o f t he K akhovka r eservoir. T hese i ncluded V asilyevka I I ( excavated b y A . D . S tolyar i n 1 953), V ilnyanka ( excavated i n 1 955 b y D . Y a. T elegin), L ysaya G ora ( excavated i n 1 959 b y A . V . B odyansky) a nd N ikolskoe ( excavated i n 1 959 a nd 1 967 b y D . Y a. T elegin). T he c emetery o f V asilyevka I I c ontained 3 2 b urials a rranged i n g roups i n o ne r ow . T he g rave p its w ere o f o val f orm a nd w ere d ug i nto l oess. A lthough t wo s trata o f b urials w ere f ound t oward t he c entre, m ost o f t he b urials w ere c onfined t o a s ingle l ayer. T he d ead w ere i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, h eads t o t he n orth , i .e., p arallel w ith t he f low o f t he r iver. I n m ost c ases y ellow c lay h ad b een s cattered o ver t he b urials. N ear t he s keletons w ere r ecovered a g reat q uantity o f C yprinidae t eeth a lthough n o d eer t ooth p endants w ere f ound. I n a s ingle i nstance, f our d eer i ncisors w ere d iscovered. I n a ddition , t here w ere a f ew f ragments o f t ortoise s hell. O f c onsiderable i mportance a re a n umber o f b one a rm-rings w hich c arried e ngraved o rnamentation. N o p ublication o f t hese f inds i s y et a vailable, h owever, w ith t he p ermission o f t he e xcavator w e r eproduce f ield d rawings o f t hese v ery i nteresting f inds ( Fig. 7 ). T he c emetery a t L ysaya G ora i s o ne o f t he r ichest i n f inds b ut i t i s r ather c omplicated i n t erms o f g rave s tructures. A . V . B odyansky ( 1961) b oth d iscovered a nd e xcavated t he s ite i n a n o utcrop o f a l oessic t errace a t t he K akhovka r eservoir. A l arge a rea c overed w ith r ed o chre m arked t he m ain p art o f t he c emetery. I n o utline, i t h ad t he f orm o f t wo l ines c onverging a t a r ight a ngle. F rom t he d irection o f t hese l ines i t w as e vident t hat t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he o chred a rea l ay i n a n u nexcavated p ortion o f t he t errace. U nfortunately, t he n orthw estern p art o f t he c emetery h ad b een w ashed a way ( Fig. 8 ). I n s ection , t he o chred a rea c onsisted o f a l ens u p t o 6 0-70 c m . t hick w hich w as 1 1

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s ituated a t a d epth o f 0 .6 t o 0 .9 m . i n t he s ubsoil. W ithin t he o chred a rea t here w ere f ive b urial p its o f r ound ( I,V) o r e longated o val ( III V) f orm a nd a l arge q uantity o f o ther r emains, e specially s herds a s w ell a s h uman a nd a nimal b ones. T he s keletons i n t he g rave p its w ere m ainly i n a r uined s tate. T hree o f t he p its ( I-III) c ontained o nly c hild r emains: o ne s keleton i n g rave N o. I , t hree i n N o. I I a nd 4 i n N o. I II. P its I V a nd V p robably c omprised a s ingle o ssuary. I n t he e longated p ortion w ere s keletons i n t he e xtended p osition w hile i n t he a nnular p it t here w ere m ore t han t wenty h uman s kulls. B oth s kulls a nd o ther b ones i n p its I V-V w ere p artially b urnt. T wo o ther c ollections o f b urnt h uman b ones w ere d iscovered i n t he a rea o ver p it I II. A mong t hese t he s keletons o f t hree a dults c ould b e d istinguished. I n a ddition t o b oth t he g rave p its a nd t he a ccumulations o f b urnt b one, t here w ere a lso o ther s keletons i n t he c emetery t hat h ad b een d eposited d irectly i nto t he c lay w ithout a ny t race o f a g rave p it. T hese w ere i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ith o nly a f ew g rave g oods a nd n o s igns o f o chre. A . V . B odyansky r egards t he b urials l acking a g rave p it t o b e t he e arliest i n t he c emetery. T he t otal n umber o f s keletons r ecovered e xceeded 5 0. T hese i ncluded s ix-seven s keletons w ithout b urial p its, e ight i n g rave p its I -III, 2 6 i n p its I V-V a nd a bout s ix a dditional c remation b urials. T he g rave g oods f rom L ysaya G ora w ere b oth v aried a nd n umerous. W ithin t he a rea o f r ed o chre a nd t he g rave p its t here w ere f ound s herds f rom 8 0 v essels b roken d uring t he b urial r ites. S imilar c eramics a re f ound o n o ther M ariupol-type c emeteries. A bout 2 0 v essels h ave b een r estored. T he p ots w ere f lat b ottomed w ith b iconical s hapes a nd c ollared r ims. O rnamentation u sually c overed t he e ntire s urface o f t he v essel, i ncluding i ts b ase. S troked o rnament p redominated w ith i ncised a nd l inear o rnament l ess f requent ( Fig. 9 , 1 -10). C oarse-grained s and a nd t races o f v egetable m atter w ere i n t he f abric. A . V . B odyansky i ndicates t hat o ne o f t he v essels w as t empered w ith a n a dmixture o f s and. M ore t han t wenty f lint a rtifacts, i ncluding l arge k nives a nd k nifel ike b lades a nd s crapers w ere f ound ( Fig. 9 , 1 1-16). T here w as a v ariety o f o rnaments a mong w hich w ere s even p lates o f b oar t usk e namel o f t he M ariupol t ype, f ish t eeth, d eer t ooth p endants a nd n umerous a nnular b eads o f v arious s izes, r anging f rom 0 .6 t o 3 .5 c m . i n d iameter. T hey w ere f ashioned f rom s hale, g agate, b one a nd s hell ( Fig. 1 0). T here w ere a lso f our m iniature s pherical b eads o f g rey-blue c olour a nd o ne b ead o f e longated f orm ( Fig. 1 0,10). T he o rnaments f ound a ccompanying t he s ingle b urials w hich o ccurred w ithout g rave p its a nd t hose r ecovered n ear t he s keletons d eposited i n p its I -V d iffered s omewhat. N one o f t he M ariupol-type p lates w ere f ound w ith t he f irst t ype o f b urials w hile d eer t ooth p endants w ere a bsent f rom t hose b uried i n t he g rave p its. O n t he o ther h and, o ther t ypes o f o rnament w ere f ound i n b oth t ypes o f g rave. E xcavations a t L ysaya G ora a nd N ikolskoye w ere o f g reat i mportance s ince t hey h elped a ssociate t he c emeteries w ith t he N eolithic h abitation s ites n ear t he D nieper r apids. T he p resence o f a l arge a mount o f p ottery i n t hese c emeteries c onvinced t he e xcavators t hat t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley a nd i n t he a djacent

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s teppe t erritories w ere r elated t o t he D nieper r apids a nd A zov g roup o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. F ive f urther c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype w ere e xcavated i n t he 1 960 's-70 's. O ne o f t hem w as s ituated n ear t he v illage o f K apulovka, N ikopol d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion, o n t he L ower D nieper a nd e xcavated i n 1 962. T wo c emeteries w ere i n t he D nieper-rapids r egion : V asilyevka V , e xcavated i n 1 967, a nd Y asinovatka w hich w as i nvestigated i n 1 978. T he r emaining t wo c emeteries l ay f urther t o t he n orth : D ereivka n ear t he t own o f K remenchug, e xcavated 1 960-61, a nd O sipovka o n t he O rel r iver w hich w as e xamined i n 1 971-1973. O . G . S haposhnikova a nd A . V . B odyansky ( 1970) e xcavated K apulovka w hile a ll o f t he o thers w ere e xcavated b y t he a uthor. B odyansky d iscovered t he K apulovka c emetery i n t he e roded b ank o f t he K akhovka r eservoir i n 1 961. T wenty-five b urials w ere e xcavated f rom t he l oess d eposits a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .2-1.3 m . T ypical o f t hese c emeteries, t he b urials w ere i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t t he s ides w ith h ands e ither n ear o r u nder t he p elvis. T he b urials f ormed a s ingle r ow . B odyansky i ndicated t hat p rior t o t he 1 962 e xcavation s eason a bout 4 0 b urials, a ligned i n o ne o r t wo r ows, h ad b een d estroyed b y f luvial e rosion. T he s keletons l ay c lose t o o ne a nother, h eads t o t he e ast. O nly o ne b urial ( No. 1 ) w as a bout 3 .7 m . d istant f rom t he o thers. T he l egs o f t his i ndividual w ere b ent s lightly a t t he k nees ( Fig. 1). T he s keletons g enerally o ccurred i n a s ingle l ayer t hough i n s ome p laces t hey a ppeared t o h ave b een d isturbed, w hich s uggests t hat t he c emetery w as r eused. A s u sual, t here w ere o nly s light t races o f o chre. G rave g oods w ere f ew : i n t wo c ases ( Nos. 2 1, 2 2) t here w ere d eer t ooth p endants ( Fig. 1 2, 5 ). A s pearhead m ade o f h orn w as f ound b etween t he r ibs o f s keleton N o. 1 5. N ear t he s kull o f s keleton N o. 1 , a b urial t hat w as s et a part f rom t he o thers, t here w as a n u ndamaged f lat-based p ot, g rey i n c olour, w ith c omb o rnament o ver t he n eck ( Shaposhnikova a nd B odyansky 1 970 , f ig. 3 ). T he v essel i s t ypologically s imilar t o t he c eramics o f t he l ate s tage o f t he S redny S tog c ulture ( see T elegin 1 973, f igs. 4 5, 3 ; 6 1, 1 ). I n 1 961 B odyansky f ound a nother v essel, s imilar t o t his o ne, n ear t he b urial o f a c hild w hich w as l ocated o utside t he a rea o f t he c emetery. O n t he b asis o f t hese t wo f inds, t he a uthors a ssigned t he e ntire c emetery t o t he E neolithic p eriod. T his i s h ardly s upportable s ince t he s ingle g rave ( No. 1 ) d oes n ot a ppear t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he m ain c emetery. W hile i t p robably d oes r elate t o t he E neolithic S redny S tog c ulture, t he r est o f t he b urials o f t he c emetery s hould b e r egarded a s N eolithic. D ereivka i s t he l argest o f t he M ariupol t ype c emeteries y ielding 1 73 b urials ( Telegin a nd Z hilyaeva 1 964 ; a fter r eports p ublished i n 1 964, 1 965 a nd 1 967, a n a dditional 1 9 N eolithic b urials w ere u ncovered d uring t he e xcavations o f t he D ereivka s ettlement s ite). T he c emetery i s l ocated o n t he r ight b ank o f t he O melnik r iver a s i t d ischarges i nto t he D nieper n ear t he v illage o f D ereivka, K remgress d istrict, K irovograd r egion. T his i s t he m ost n ortherly c emetery o f t he D nieper v alley o f t his t ype. I t i s s ituated i n t he s outhern p art o f t he M iddle D nieper o n t he b oundary b etween t he f orest-steppe a nd t he s teppe. T he c emetery c ontains b oth s ingle a nd g roup b urials e xtending o ver 1 00 m etres a long t he b ank o f t he O melnik . T he c emetery c an b e d ivided 1 7

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i nto t wo s eparate p arts--western a nd e astern-between w hich n o g raves w ere d iscovered. O lder i nformants i n t he a rea, h owever, r ecall t hat i n t he 1 930 's e arth-moving a ctivities d estroyed a l arge g rave p it w hich c ontained n umerous o chred s keletons. T herefore, t he n umber o f b urials i n t he D ereivka c emetery w as o riginally m uch h igher t han w e w ere a ble t o r ecover. A ll b urials w ere i n t he e xtended s upine p osition. I n a ddition, s even g raves w ith f lexed b urials d ating t o t he E neolithic-Bronze A ge w ere a lso u ncovered. A n umber o f d ifferent f eatures h elp d istinguish t he b urials i n t he w estern a nd e astern h alves o f t he c emetery. I n t he w estern p art t he b urials p rimarily o ccurred i n a s ingle l arge s ub-rectangular g rave p it t hat m easured 6 x 3 .5 m . i n s ize ( Fig. 1 3A). H ere w e e xcavated 5 1 b urials, a mong w hich o nly 2 0 s keletons s howed n o e vidence o f d isturbance f rom l ater b urials. T he o ther b urials w ere g enerally r epresented b y i ndividual b urials o f s kulls a nd t he r emaining b ones. T his ' bone' l ayer m easured a s m uch a s 0 .5-0.6 m . t oward t he c entre o f t he g rave p it. T he f ill o f t he g rave p it w as d ark , s ometimes b ecause o f t he p resence o f r ed o chre f lecks. W henever i t w as p ossible t o t race t he o rientation o f t he b urials, t he d ead w ere u niformally p ositioned w ith t heir h eads t o t he w est w ith b ut a s ingle e xception ( No. 1 8a) w here t he b urial w as p ointed e ast. N ear t he l arge c ollective b urial p it i n t he w estern p art o f t he c emetery w as a g roup g rave ( Nos. 4 2-44) a nd m ore t han a d ozen s ingle g raves. T hese b urials w ere o riented d ifferently f rom t he l arge c ollective b urial p it. M ost o f t he b urials w ere l aid o ut w ith t heir h eads t o t he s outh-west o r s outh w hile s ome w ere o riented i n t he r everse d irection t o t he n orth o r n orth-east. R emains o f a v essel w ith s troked o rnamentation ( Fig. 1 2, 1 1) w as r ecovered f rom t he f ill o f t he g rave p it. I t s hould b e n oted t hat o ne o f t he s ingle b urials ( No. 4 1) a ppeared t o b e i n t he s itting p osition. N earby w as a d ecorated p late o f t he M ariupol t ype ( Fig. 1 2, 3 ). N ine o f t he b urials i n t he w estern p art o f t he c emetery c ontained g rave g oods. T he r ichest w as b urial N o. 4 9 w hich w as l ocated i n t he c ollective g rave p it. H ere t here w ere f ound f ive d eer t ooth p endants, a M ariupol-type p late a nd 3 5 f ish t eeth ( Fig. 1 2, 7 ). A mong t he b ones c oncentrated b elow b urial N o. 4 9 w ere a c onsiderable n umber o f s herds w ith c omb o rnament ( Telegin a nd Z hilyaeva 1 964, f ig. 6 ,2). I n t his s ame g rave p it t here w ere a lso f ound a p haryngeal f ish t ooth ( No. 2 9) a nd a f ragment o f a f lint k nife ( Fig. 1 2,2). A f lint s pear-point ( Fig 1 2,1) w as f ound i n t he s maller g roup g rave ( Nos. 4 2-44). A f ew f inds w ere a lso r ecovered i n t he v icinity o f t he s ingle b urial. T hese i ncluded o ne d eer t ooth p endant n ear b urials 4 a nd 5 . A f ish t ooth w as f ound n ear b urial N o. 5 . A s p reviously m entioned, a M ariupol-type p late w as f ound n ear b urial N o. 4 1 w hich w as i n t he s itting p osition . N ear s keleton N o. 4 7, w hich w as d eposited i n a s ingle g rave, t here w ere s even a nnular b eads. T he b urial a rrangement i n t he e astern p art o f t he c emetery e xhibited s ome d ifferences f rom t he w estern. T he b urials w ere m ainly a rranged i n f our r ows w ith t heir h eads o riented t o t he n orth-west ( Fig. 1 3,B). E ast o f t hese b urials w ere 2 0 s ingle g raves w here t he d ead w ere o riented w ith t heir h eads t o t he s outh-west a nd w est. S ome o f t he d ead w ere o riented i n t he o pposite d irection t o t he n orth o r n orth-east. I t h as 1 9

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b een o bserved t hat s ome o f t he s ingle b urials w ith s outh-western a nd n orth-eastern o rientation ( No. 1 34) o verlay t hose g raves a ligned i n r ows. T he s keletons e xhibited o nly s light t races o f o chre. A nother g roup g rave p it ( Nos. 1 41-143) w as a lso u ncovered i n t he e astern p art o f t he c emetery. O nly t hree a rtifacts w ere r ecovered f rom t he e astern p art o f t he c emetery: a b one h arpoon o f u nique f orm ( No. 7 6), a b one ' spoon-bait' n ear b urial N o. 8 0 ( Figs. 1 2, 4 , 8 , 1 2), a nd a f lint s craper ( No. 8 8). S herds f rom t wo v essels a ssist i n d eterming t he c ultural i dentity o f t he D ereivka c emetery. T he f orms o f b oth v essels h ave b een l argely r estored ( Fig. 1 2, 1). T he f abric o f t he v essels c ontains a n a dmixture o f g rass a nd s and a nd t he s urface o f t he v essels h ave b een d ecorated w ith s troked a nd c omb o rnament a s w ell a s d eep c ylindrical i mpressions a round t he r ims. T ypologically, t hese v essels m ay b e r elated t o t he C herkassy g roup o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture ( Telegin 1 961, f ig. 5 ). T he l arge s ize o f t he c emetery, t he v ariety o f o rientations, t he p resence o f b oth g roup g raves a nd i ndividual b urial p its a ll p oint t o t he l ong t erm u se o f t he c emetery. T he g eneral i mpression i s t hat t he c emetery w as b egun i n t he w estern p art w ith a f ew s ingle b urials ( where w e a lso f ind t he d eer t ooth p endants) a nd a g roup p it. T hen c ame t he l arge c ollective b urial p it. L ater t he c emetery w as u sed f or t he o ccasional s ingle b urial. T he r ows o f g raves i n t he e astern p art o f t he c emetery w ere p robably c ontemporary w ith t he l arge c ollective b urial p it i n t he w estern p art. T he m ost r ecent b urials s hould h ave b een t hose s ingle b urials w ith a s outh-western o r n orth-eastern o rientation. T he b urial i n t he s itting p osition ( No. 4 1) w as a lso p robably f rom t his m ost r ecent p eriod. T he s imilarity o f f inds f rom a cross t he s ite s uggest t hat t he i nterval b etween t he e arliest a nd m ost r ecent b urials w as u nlikely t o h ave b een p articularly g reat. A t D ereivka w e f ind t hat b urial i n t he s itting p osition w as l ater f ollowed b y c ontracted b urials, a f act c onfirmed b y s tratigraphic o bservations ( Telegin a nd Z hilyaeva 1 964, 1 50). I n a ddition t o t he e xtramural c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype, t here i s a lso a c onsiderable n umber o f b urials t hat h ave b een d iscovered w ithin h abitation s ites i n t he D nieper v alley. B elow w e p rovide a b rief a ccount o f t hese a dditional b urials b eginning f irst w ith t he M iddle D nieper b asin a nd t hen c ontinuing d own t he l ower c ourse o f t he r iver. O ne b urial w as r ecovered d uring t he 1 958 e xcavations o f t he N eolithic s ettlement a t B uzky , I rklivsky d istrict, C herkassy r egion. T he b urial w as d iscovered i n a n o val g rave p it b eneath t he c ultural l ayer. I t w as i n t he e xtended s upine p osition a nd l ightly p owdered w ith r ed o chre. N o g rave g oods w ere f ound ( Telegin 1 961). W hile p robing t he D nieper-Donets s ettlement o f S ivash n ear t he v illage o f K amennye-Potoky, K remenchug d istrict, P oltava r egion , t he a uthor d iscovered a N eolithic b urial i n s ondage N o. 4 . T he b ody w as i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he n orth-east. N ear t he s keleton a p haryngeal C yprinidae t ooth a nd a p iece o f o chre w ere f ound ( Telegin a nd S hmagliy 1 959).

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I n 1 954 w orkers d iscovered a b urial i n t he q uarry a t S kelyK amenolomny n ear t he v illage o f V oloshskoe, D nepropetrovsk d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion. T he s keleton w as i n t he e xtended s upine p osition a nd a ccompanied b y p haryngeal C yprinidae t eeth. A ccording t o t he q uarry w orkers, n o l ess t han s even s imilar b urials h ad b een d estroyed t here d uring t he c ourse o f q uarry o perations ( Bodyansky . 1954). A .V. B odyansky d iscovered a c emetery i n 1 952 o n t he P opov p romontory a t t he s ite o f P odkovka, o pposite t he v illage o f S taraya I gren i n t he p resent t erritory o f D nepropetrovsk. T he b urials h ad b een i n t he e xtended s upine p osition b ut h ad b een c ompletely e roded a way. M ixed w ith t he b ones w ere a d ozen s herds o f E arly D nieper-Donets p ottery w ith c omb a nd l inear d ecoration, a nd a lso a n umber o f m icrolithic a rtifacts. I n t he 1 970's, a lso i n t he a rea o f t he P opov r avine, V . I . P rivalov u nearthed t he r emains o f t wo b urials o f p robable N eolithic d ate w hich w ere e roding o ut c lose t o o ne a nother. I n 1 946 A . V . B odyansky e xamined a N eolithic b urial o n S ursky i sland n ear t he v illage o f V oloshskoye, D nepropetrovsk d istrict. I t w as c lose t o a c airn ( No. I V) u nder w hich a n umber o f b urials o f l ater t imes w ere f ound. T he N eolithic g rave ( No. 4 ) w as u nder a l ayer o f s hells. T he d eceased h ad b een d eposited i n a g rave p it w hose o utline c ould n ot b e t raced. T he b ody h ad b een i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he n orth-east, s houlders t ightly c ontracted, a rms a t s ides, h ands o n p elvic b ones a nd l egs s traightened. I n 1 954 B odyansky d iscovered a nother b urial n ear t he K lagusa r avine o n t he l eft b ank o f t he D nieper o pposite t he v illage o f V ovnigy, S olonyansky d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion. I t w as s ituated a bout 1 50 m etres e ast o f t he r ight t ip o f t he r avine. T he g rave w as f ound i n t he d eposits o f t he t hird t errace a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .5 m . T he b urial w as i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ith i ts h ead t o t he e ast, p arallel t o t he c ourse o f t he r iver. I t h ad b een p owdered w ith o chre. N o g rave g oods w ere f ound. I n 1 951 B odyansky G adyuchaya r avine, w hich i s s ituated d istrict, Z aporozhe

d iscovered a p aired b urial o n t he l eft s lope o f t he u pstream f rom t he N eolithic s ettlement a t S obachky n ear t he v illage o f P rivolnoye, V erkhne-Khortitsk r egion.

O n t he ' Map o f N eolithic S ites o f t he U krainian S SR ', h oused i n t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology ( Kiev), A . V . D obrovolsky i ndicates t he e xistence o f a N eolithic b urial w hich w as e xamined o n L okhansky i sland o pposite t he v illage o f K rupskaya, S inelnikov d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion. I n 1 950-51 d uring e xcavation o f a L ater B ronze A ge s ettlement i n t he v illage o f Z miyevka, B orislaysk d istrict, K herson r egion, A . V . B urakov u ncovered f our b urials o f p robable N eolithic a ge. T he b urials w ere a rranged i n r ows a t 2 , 4 a nd 6 m . i n l oessic d eposits a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .75 m . T here w ere n o t races o f g rave p its. T he s keletons w ere i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, l egs c lose t ogether, h ands n ear t he p elvis. T here w ere n o t races o f o chre a nd t he b ones w ere p oorly p reserved. N o g raves g oods w ere d iscovered. A t rapeze w as f ound b etween t he r ibs o f b urial N o. 1 ( Burakov 1 952).

2 2

1 01 1 1 2 1 6 1 8 2

F ig.

1 4

M ariupol-type c emeteries ( A) a nd i ndividual b urials ( B) i n t he D nieper v alley a nd a djacent t erritories: 1 . K ozintsy; 2 . B uzky; 3 . K amenny P otoky; 4 . D ereivka; 5 . O sipovka; 6 . Z asukha ; 7 . I gren; 8 . C haply; 9 . i sland s ites o f S ursky, L okhansky a nd S kelya K amenolomnya; 1 0. V asilyevka I I; V asilyevka V ; 1 2. M aryevka; 1 3. N ikolskoye; 1 4. N enasytets; 1 5. K laguza; 1 6. V ovnigy I ; 1 7. V ovnigy I I; 1 8. Y asinovatka; 1 9. V inogradny i sland; 2 0. V ilnyanka; 2 1. S obachky; 2 2. K apulovka; 2 3. Z meevka; 2 4. K airy; 2 5. A lexandria; 2 6. M ariupol; 2 7. D olinka; 2 8. G ospitalny K holm .

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D uring a s urvey i n 1 957, t he a uthor a nd A .V. B odyansky e xcavated a l arge N eolithic c emetery n ear K airy v illage, G ornostaeyvka d istrict, K herson r egion. I t w as s ituated a bout 2 00 m . n orth o f t he m outh o f t he N ovoselovskaya r avine. H ere, i n t he e roded b ank o f t he K akhovka r eservoir, w e o bserved a l arge a rea m easuring f rom 2 .5 t o 8 m . i n s ize w hich w as s tained w ith p ieces o f r ed o chre t hat a ppeared o n t he s urface o f t he l oam a s a r esult o f w ater e rosion. I n t he s aturated c lay s everal i ndividual h uman b ones w ere u ncovered s prinkled w ith r ed o chre. I n s ome p laces w ell p reserved s keletons i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ere a lso f ound. I n a ddition, t hree s kulls w ere f ound b arely v isible i n t he e roding c lay. I n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t his c oncentration o f s keletons, a s mall c airn ( 1 x 1 .5 m .) w as f ound c overing o chred h uman b ones. U nfortunately, t he h igh w ater t able p revented a m ore t horough e xamination o f t his c emetery d uring t he s urvey a nd t he e ntire c emetery w as w ashed a way i n t he n ext y ear. T hese c omprise t he a pproximately 3 0 s ites i n t he D nieper b asin ( Fig. 1 4) w here b oth N eolithic c emeteries a nd i ndividual b urials h ave b een r ecovered. I n t he n ext t wo c hapters, m ore d etailed d escriptions w ill b e p rovided o f f ive o f t he c emeteries: V ilnyanka, V asilyevka, O sipovka, Y asinovatka a nd N ikolskoye.

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C hapter 2 E XCAVATIONS A T V ILNYANKA, V ASILYEVKA V , O SIPOVKA A ND Y ASINOVATKA T he a uthor e xcavated N eolithic c emeteries a t V ilnyanka ( 1956), V asilyevka V ( 1967), O sipovka ( 1971-73) a nd Y asinovatka ( 1978). A mong t he N eolithic c emeteries o f t he D nieper b asin t hese a re a ll c omparatively l arge a nd f undamental t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he c ultural d evelopment o f t his r egion. V ilnyanka C emetery T he c emetery o f V ilnyanka i s s ituated o n t he l eft b ank o f t he D nieper ( the L enin L ake), a bout f our t o f ive k ilometres n orth o f Z aporozhe, s omewhat d ownriver o f t he V ilny r apids, a nd o ne k ilometre s outh o f t he V ilnya r avine. I t w as i n 1 928 t hat A . V . D obrovolsky e xcavated t he t wo N eolithic c ampsites o f S obachky a nd V olchek w hich w ere l ocated o n t he o pposite b ank o f t he L enin L ake n ear t he v illage o f P rivolnoye a t t he m outh o f t he G adyuchya r avine. T he V ilnyanka c emetery w as d iscovered b y A . V . B odyansky h igh i n a b ank a bout 1 0-12 m etres a bove t he l ake l evel. T he t errace o n w hich t he c emetery w as s ituated i s a bout f ive m etres h igher t han t he b ank a nd g radually l evels o ut i nto a p lateau. T he l ocation d iffers l ittle f rom t hat o f t he s urrounding t erritory. T his a rea o f t he b ank f orms a w atershed b etween t he V ilnya r avine a nd t he o ther r avines t o t he s outh . T he h ighest p oint o f t his w atershed i s d efined b y a g eodesic m ark l ocated n early o pposite t he c emetery a bout 1 t o 1 .5 k ilometres a way. T he a bsence o f a ny s urface i ndications o f t he c emetery i s t ypical f or t hese m onuments. I n t he s ection o f t he b ank , b urials c ould b e s een e xtending f or s even t o e ight m etres a nd r anging f rom 1 .2 t o 2 m etres i n d epth , e ither a t t he b ottom o f a l ayer o f b lack s oil o r o n t op o f a b ed o f l oess s ome 1 0 m etres t hick . O pposite t he e xposure o f t he b urials w e e xcavated a n a rea o f a bout 8 4 s quare m etres. W e a lso e xcavated t wo s trips a bout 1 t o 1 .5 m etres w ide a nd 6 m etres l ong o n b oth s ides o f t he m ain e xcavation a rea. I n t otal, w e r ecovered 5 0 s keletons i n v arious d egrees o f p reservation ( Fig. 1 5). S ome o f t he s keletons h ad b een d amaged t hrough e rosion o r c ollapse o f t he b ank w hile o thers h ad b een d amaged b y l ater i nterments d uring t he N eolithic,e.g. N os. 3 , 1 8-a, 1 8-6 , 1 8-B, 2 2-a, 2 6-a, 1 3-a, 1 1-a. T he m ajority o f t he b urials, a pproximately 3 0, w ere a dults. T .S. S urnina ( 1961) w as a ble t o a scertain t hat 1 3 o f t he b urials w ere m ales, 1 0 w ere f emale, 1 6 s keletons b elonged t o c hildren a nd 6 t o a dolescents. T he p ercentage o f c hild b urials i n t he c emetery w as r elatively h igh ; a t M ariupol o nly s ix c hild b urials w ere r ecovered ( Makarenko 1 933, 1 69). A ll t he d ead w ere b uried i n t he e xtended s upine p osition. T he a rms w ere s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands n ear o r o n t he p elvis, l egs s traight a nd c lose t ogether. M any o f t he s keletons ( Nos. 1 , 2 0, 2 9, e tc.) w ere c ontracted a t t he s houlders, s ome q uite s everely. I n m any i nstances o ne s keleton w as o verlain b y a nother. 2 5

0 48

2 4 $

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6 8

7 8

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6 7

7 7

0

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5 2 -58 r 6 2 -68

/

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I /v

7 2 -78 . r8 3 -85

O b i

OW

V ilnyanka c emetery. P lan a nd s ectional v iew. L egend: I - b lack s oil; I I - l oessic l oam ; I II - p it f ill; I V, V , V I - b urials o f g roups 1 , 2a nd 3 .

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F ig.

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V ilnyanka c emetery. B urial N os. 3 1, 3 2 a nd 3 8.

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T he s tratigrahy a nd d ifferences i n t he b urial r ites m ake i t p ossible t o d ivide t he b urials i n t his c emetery i nto t hree c hronological g roups. G roup 1 w as t he l argest a nd i ncluded t he r emains o f m ore t han 2 0 s keletons. A ll o f t hese h ad b een b uried i n g rave p its a bout 2 m etres d eep. F our b urials w ere s ingle ( Nos. 6 , 1 5, 1 7 a nd 1 9) w hile m ost o f t he b urials o ccurred i n g roups w here s keletons l ay i n a n umber o f l ayers. T he g roup b urials r anged f rom t wo t o s even s keletons. S ix g roup g raves m ay b e d istinguished. G rave p it A l h eld N os. 7 , 8 a nd 9 : p it A 2 h ad N os. 2 0,31,32,34 ; p it A 3 h eld N os. 1 6 a nd 2 9; p it A 4 h ad N os. 1 3,35,36,37,38 ,39,40 a nd 4 1; g rave p it A 5 h ad N os. 2 4,25,26,26a; a nd p it A 6 h ad N os. 3 3 a nd 3 8. T he r emains o f s keleton N o. 3 0 p robably b elonged t o G roup I . T he g rave p its o f t ype A w ere e longated a nd s ub-oval i n f orm a nd t heir s ize c orresponded t o t he n umber b uried w ithin t hem . T he d eceased a ppeared t o h ave b een b uried f rom t he l ower p art o f t he l ayer o f d arkc oloured s oil s ince t he f ill o f t he g rave p its c onsisted o f g rey c oloured l oam a nd s oil. M oreover, t he o utlines o f t he p its w ere f irst t raced a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .3 m etres a t t he t ransition b etween t he b lack s oil l ayer a nd t he l oam . T he s ubstantial d epth o f t he p its w as p robably d ue t o t he f act t hat t hey w ere i ntended t o s erve f or r epeated b urials a nd, t herefore, r equired a g reater d epth t o p revent d isturbance f rom l ater i nterments. T he u pper p art o f t he p its w as u sually w idened a nd c ontained a d arker f ill. T his w as p articularly e vident f rom t he f ill o f p it A 2 w here t he l owest b urials ( Nos. 3 2 a nd 3 4) w ere b uried i n n early p ure l oam w hich h ardly d iffered f rom t he n atural. T he s ame m ay b e s aid a bout b urial N o. 3 8 i n t he f ill o f p it A 6. T he ' grey' g rave p its w ere i rregularly a rranged i n t he f orm o f a c urved l ine ( Fig. 1 5). I n s ome i nstances, a n umber o f g raves c ut e arlier o nes. T hus, f or e xample, i n g rave p it A l t he i nsertion o f b urial N o. 1 9 d amaged s keleton 9 . I t i s p robable t hat t he c emetery f unctioned o ver a l ong p eriod a nd t hat s urface i ndications o f t he l ocation o f e arlier g raves h ad b ecome o bscured. T he o verwhelming m ajority o f t hose b uried i n t he t ype A o val g rave p its w ere p owdered w ith r ed o chre, a lthough t he q uantity o f t he o chre o f t his g roup w as f ar l ess t han t hat a pplied t o t he b urials o f t he 5 t ype g rave p its. T he o rientation o f t he b urials i n t he o val g rave p its w as p rimarily t o t he n orth-east ( No. 9 ) o r s outh-west ( No. 1). O nly a f ew w ere o riented t o t he s outh o r s outh-south-west ( Nos. 2 4 , 2 5, 3 3, 3 8). A c omparatively l arge q uantity o f g rave-goods w as r ecovered f rom t he b urials o f g roup 1 . T hey c onsisted p rimarily o f o rnaments s uch a s p endants a nd f ish t eeth , a nd a lso v arious t ools o f b one a nd f lint ( Fig. 1 7). D eer t ooth p endants, r anging i n n umber f rom 2 t o 1 7, a ccompanied n ine o f t he g roup I s keletons ( Nos. 7 , 8 , 1 7, 2 0, 2 9, 3 2, 3 6 , 3 7, 4 0). F ish t eeth , s ometimes n umbering i n t he d ozens u p t o o ver a h undred, w ere r ecovered f rom n ear 1 2 s keletons o f t his g roup ( Nos. 6 , 1 5, 1 6, 2 0, 2 9, 3 1, 3 4, 3 5-37, 4 0 , 4 1). I n a ddition , a U nio s hell l ay b y m ost s keletons ( Nos. 7 ,8, 1 3, 1 5, 1 7, 2 9, 3 3, 3 8). A s mall T heodactus s hell w as f ound n ear N o. 3 8. T he s hell h ad b een p erforated f or s uspension. F lint a rtifacts i nclude f our t rapezes, o ne o f w hich h ad a f laked b ack ( Nos. 1 9, 2 9, 4 0), t hree s crapers n ear b urials N os. 3 8 , 4 0 ; an umber o f 2 8

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1 0 1 2 F ig. 1 7

1 6

1 7

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V ilnyanka c emetery. A rtifacts o f f lint ( 1-9), b one ( 10-12, a nd a nimal t eeth ( 13-17).

2 9

1 8)

k nife-like b lades a nd f lakes a nd t hree a rtifacts o f b one: t wo a wls ( Nos. 3 7, 3 9) a nd a p oint ( No. 2 9). T his l atter w as r elatively m assive a nd w ell-polished a nd i t i s n ot i mprobable t hat i t s erved a s a s pearp oint ( Fig. 1 7,10). T he s econd g roup o f b urials a t V ilnyanka i ncluded 1 3 s keletons t hat h ad b een d eposited i n t hree r ectangular g rave p its. O ne o f t he p its w as w ell p reserved ( 61), b ut t he o ther t wo h ad b een s everely e roded ( 6 2, 6 3). T he s keletons, a s a r ule, w ere e ntirely c overed w ith r ed o chre. I n g rave p it 6 1, t hree w ell-preserved ( Nos. 1 4, 2 7, 2 8) a nd t wo p artly p reserved ( 13a, 2 7a) s keletons w ere u ncovered. G rave p it 62 y ielded o ne w ell-preserved s keleton ( No. 1 8) a nd t he r emains o f f our o ther s keletons ( Nos. 1 8a-R). I n p it 6 3 w ere t wo w ell-preserved s keletons ( Nos. 1 0 ,12) a nd t he r emains o f N os. 1 0a, 1 1 a nd 1 2a. T he o utlines o f t hese g rave p its w ere f irst d iscerned a t a d epth o f a bout 0 .74 m etres i n t he m iddle o f t he b lack s oil l ayer a nd t hen f ollowed d own t o a d epth o f 1 .5 t o 1 .6 m etres. T he w ell-preserved g rave p it6 1 m easured 2 x 2 m etres a nd h ad s teep w alls i nclined s lightly t owards t he i nside a t t he b ottom . B oth t he s ize o f t he p its a nd t heir r egular o utline s uggests t hat t hey w ere i ntended t o b e u sed r epeatedly. H owever, t he b ottoms o f t he p its w ere n ot l evel a nd t here w ere h ollows p rovided f or s ome o f t he l ower b urials. I n s ome c ases ( Nos. 2 7, 2 8), n iches h ad b een c ut i nto t he b ottom o f t he p it t o a ccommodate t he h ead a nd l egs o f t he d eceased. E ach o f t hese r ectangular g rave p its w as p robably i ntended a s a c ollective d omestic t omb. T hus, f or e xample, g rave p it 5 3 c ontained t he r emains o f t wo a dults a nd t hree c hildren a nd a dolescents. O ne o f t he s keletons o f a n a dolescent ( No. 1 2) w as f ound c lose t o a n a dult ( No. 1) a s i f i t w ere b eing s upported b y t he h and o f t he l atter. T he d istinguishing f eature o f t he g roup I I b urials i s t he d amage d one t o e arlier b urials b y l ater i nterments. W ith r eusable g rave p its, t he e arlier s keletons w ere p artly e xhumed a nd t hen r edeposited o n t op o f s ubsequent b urials. F or e xample, s keleton N o. 1 8 i n p it 5 2 w as e ntirely b uried i n h uman b ones, i ncluding f our s kulls. M any i ndividual b ones w ere a lso f ound n ear b urials 1 4, 2 7 a nd 2 8. I n t his r espect, t he g roup 2b urials a t V ovnigy r esemble t he s ituation a t M ariupol. A ll t he b urials o f g roup I I w ere o riented w ith h eads t o t he n orth. S ome o f t hem w ere a ccompanied b y f inds s uch a s p endants o f d eer t eeth ( Nos. 1 4, 1 8, 2 8) a nd f ish t eeth ( Nos. 1 0, 1 2, 1 4). I n t hree i nstances a n U nio s hell w as f ound n ear t he s keletons ( Nos. 1 0 , 1 8, 2 8). I n b urial 2 7, t wo s hells w ere f ound. A b acked t rapeze w as f ound n ear s keleton N o. 1 0 a nd a k nife-like b lade n ear b urial 1 4 ( Fig. 1 7). T he t hird g roup o f b urials a t V ilnyanka i ncluded e ight s keletons ( Nos. 1 ,2,4,5,21,22,22a,23). T hese h ad b een d eposited f rom t he l evel o f t he b lack s oil, a bout 1 .3 m etres b elow t he p resent s urface l evel. T he d eceased w ere o riented t o t he s outh ( Nos. 1 ,2,21,22,22a,23) o r t o t he n orth ( Nos. 4 ,5). T he g raves w ere a rranged i n t wo r ows a nd s paced a t c onsiderable i ntervals f rom o ne a nother. T hese b urials, a s a ll o thers i n t he c emetery, w ere i n t he s upine e xtended p osition, a rms a t s ides, h ands n ear t he p elvis. I n s ome c ases ( Nos. 2 ,5), t he a rms w ere b ent a t t he e lbows a nd t he l egs w ere s traightened. N o o utline o f t he g rave p its

3 0

c ould b e t raced. w ere n o f inds.

S ome

o f

t he

s keletons

s howed

t races

o f

o chre.

T here

T he V ilnyanka c emetery p robably f unctioned o ver a c onsiderable p eriod d uring w hich t ime t he b urial r ite c hanged s ignificantly. T his r esulted i n t he f ormation o f t hree g roups o f b urials t hat d iffered b oth i n b urial r itual a nd a ccording t o b urial h orizon. I n a ddition, t he e arlier b urials w ere o verlain b y b urials o f s ubsequent p eriods w hich i ncluded t he b urials o f t he s econd g roup o verlying t hose o f t he f irst a nd t hose o f t he t hird g roup o verlying t he s econd. T hus, f or e xample, s keleton N o. 5 o f g roup I II e ntirely o verlay t he ' red c oloured' g rave p it c ontaining s keletons 1 8, a nd 1 8a-A. O n t he o ther h and, t he l atter w as s ituated d irectly o ver t he r emains o f a n o val g rave p it c ontaining b urial N o. 3 0 o f g roup I . T hat g roup I w as e arlier t han g roup I I i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat o val p it A 4 w as o verlain b y t he r ectangular g rave p it o f 5 1. O ther e xamples o f s uperpositioning c an b e s een w here s keletons o f g roup I II ( Nos. 4 a nd 5 ) o verlay b urials o f g roup I ( Nos. 1 9, 2 0, 3 1, 3 2, 3 4). A ll o f t his s upports t he b asic c hronological d ivisions o f t he V ilnyanka c emetery i nto t hree g roups. T he d istinctive c haracteristics o f t he V ilnyanka b urials c an b e b est u nderstood f rom t he f ollowing b rief d escription o f s ome i ndividual b urials ( sexing a nd a geing o f t he s keletons w as p erformed b y T . S . S urnina ( 1961)). N o. 1 . B urial o f a n a dolescent c . 1 6-17 y ears o ld. H ead o riented t o t he S , s everely c ontracted a t b oth s ides. T he h ead w as d rawn i n s lightly, a rms a t s ides c lose t o t he t runk , h ands u nder p elvis, l egs s traight a nd c lose t ogether. O chre. T his b urial p artly o verlay N o. 1 5. N o. 2 . B urial o f a2 5 t o e xtended s upine p osition. a rm w as s traight a long t he a t t he e lbow w ith t he h and

3 0 y ear o ld f emale, h ead o riented t o t he S„ L egs s traight a nd c losed a t k nees. T he l eft t runk w hile t he r ight a rm w as b ent s lightly o n t he l eft p art o f t he p elvis.

N o. 3 . S ingle s kull o f ac hild c . 8t o 1 4 y ears. N o. 4 . B urial o f a5 0-60 y ear o ld f emale, h ead o riented t o t he N w ith f ace d irected w est t oward t he r iver. E xtended s upine p osition, l egs a nd f eet s traight a long t he a xis o f t he s pine, a rms a t s ides a nd c lose t o t he t runk, h ands u nder p elvis, h ead d rawn i n s lightly. N o. 5 . B urial o f f ace t o t he r iver. t ogether. T he r ight w as b ent s lightly p elvis.

a 4 5-50 y ear o ld f emale, h ead o riented t o N w ith E xtended s upine p osition , l egs s traight, f eet c lose a rm e xtended s traight a long t he t runk , t he l eft a rm a t t he e lbow w ith h and o n t he l eft s ide o f t he

A ll f ive o f t he a bove d escribed s keletons a nother a nd n early o n t he s ame h orizon.

w ere

f ound

c lose

t o

o ne

N o. 6 . B urial o f a n a dolescent, c . 1 3-14 y ears o ld. E xtended s upine p osition, S W o rientation, o chre. F our f ish t eeth w ere r ecovered. N os. 7 , 8 , a nd 9 . T riple b urial. N o. l atter c ompletely o verlay N o. 9 .

3 1

7w as c lose t o N o.

8 w hile t he

N o. 7 . B urial o f a 1 0-12 y ear o ld c hild, h ead o riented t o N NE . T he d eceased w as p robably i n t he e xtended s upine p osition . H eavily o chred. A mong t he l ower r ibs l ay a w ell-worked m icrolithic b lade ( Fig. 1 7,8). T hree p endants o f d eer t eeth w ere a lso f ound. N o. 8 . B urial o f a2 5-30 y ear o ld m ale w ith h ead t o t he N E . E xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide, h ands i n c entre o f p elvis, l egs s traight a nd d rawn s lightly t ogether a t t he k nees. N o t race o f o chre. N ear t he p elvis l ay a n U nio s hell w hile i n t he a rea o f t he a bdomen w ere t hree d eer t ooth p endants. N o. 9 . B urial o f a 2 5-30 y ear o ld f emale. E xtended s upine p osition , o riented t o t he N E. A rms w ere s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands i n c entre o f p elvis, l egs e xtended. T he s keleton w as d amaged, m ost l ikely b y t he d igging o f t he g rave p it f or N o. 1 9. B etween t he r ibs o n t he l eft s ide a d eer t ooth p endant a nd a n umber o f f ish t eeth w ere r ecovered. N os. 1 0 , 1 0-a, 1 1, 1 2, 1 2-a. T hese c onstituted a g roup b urial i n t he r ectangular p it 6 3, w hich w as p artly d estroyed b y e rosion. B urial N o. 1 0-a h ad b een t he f irst d eposited f ollowed b y N os. 1 0, 1 1 a nd 1 2, a nd o ver t he l atter w as t he i nfant b urial N o. 1 2-a. S keletons 1 0 , 1 a nd 1 2 w ere a ll o riented w ith h eads t o t he N . T he o ther b urials w ere b adly d amaged. N o. 1 0. B urial o f a 2 0-25 y ear o ld m ale. E xtended s upine p osition , h ands i n c entre o f p elvis, l egs s traight a nd d rawn c lose a t t he k nees, f eet c lose t ogether, h eavily o chred. N ear t he r ight h alf o f t he p elvis a b acked t rapeze w as f ound. O n t he r ight f emur l ay a f ragment o f a k nife-like b lade. B elow t he p elvis w ere 5 2 C yprinidae t eeth. U nder N o. 1 0 a nd n ear t he r ight h umerus w ere t he r emains o f a 1 0-12 y ear o ld c hild ( No. 1 0-a). N o.

1 1. B urial o f ap artly p reserved a dult, o chred.

N o. 1 2. B urial o f a 1 2-13 y ear o ld c hild. E xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide a nd c losely d rawn a gainst t he t runk , h ands o n p elvis, l egs s lightly b ent t o t he r ight a nd c losed t ogether, o chred. B etween t he f emurs l ay a p ile o f C yprinidae t eeth. N earby w ere t he p oorly p reserved r emains o f ac hild ( No. 1 2). N o.13. B urial o f a 4 0 t o 4 5-year f emale i n t he s upine p osition i mmediately b elow t he b ottom o f t he r ectangular g rave p it 6 1. I t w as p robably r elated t o t he g roup g rave i n t he o val p it A 4. T he h ead w as o rientated t o t he S W a nd f aced t he l eft s ide. A rms s traightened a nd p ressed c losely t o t he t runk , h ands u nder t he p elvis. O ne U nio s hell w as f ound. N o.13-a. B urial o f a 1 3 t o 1 7-year o ld a dolescent.

B adly d amaged.

N o.14. B urial o f a c hild o f a bout 1 0-12 y ears l ying o n t he b ottom o f t he r ectangular g rave p it 5 1 . H eavily o chred. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N , a rms a t s ide c lose t o t he t runk, l egs s traightened a nd c losed. N ear t he r ight f emur l ay a k nife-like b lade ( Fig.17,9) a nd a r oughly w orked a nimal b one. A n umber o f p endants o f d eer t eeth w ere o n t he s kull, a nd t wo l arge p endants w ere i n t he e ye s ockets. A n umber o f s imilar p endants c rossed t he p elvis. A f ew 3 2

p endants w ere f ound o n t he v ertebrae. p endants a long w ith a f ew f ish t eeth.

A ltogether,

t here

w ere

3 1

N o.15. B urial o f a 1 3 t o 1 7-year o ld a dolescent. I t l ay u nder s keleton N o.l. E xtended s upine p osition, S SW o rientation, a rms a t s ide, l egs s traightened, w ell o chred. N ear t he f emurs w as a p ile o f C yprinidae t eeth. N os. 1 6 a nd 2 9. T hese f ormed a s ingle p aired b urial i n g rave p it A 3. S keleton N o.16 l ay d irectly o n N o.20. T he o utline o f t he g rave p it w as b arely s een. S keleton N o.16 w as o f a 3 0 t o 3 5-year o ld f emale, h ead o rientated t o t he S SW , e xtended s upine p osition, c ontracted a t s houlders, a rms a t s ide c lose t o t he t runk , h ands i n t he c entre o f t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. T he l eft f oot o verlay t he r ight. W ell o chred. N ear t he l eft h alf o f t he p elvis l ay 1 5 C yprinidae t eeth. T he g rave p it c ontaining s keleton N o.16 c ontained m any i ndividual h uman b ones. N o.17. B urial o f a 4 0 t o 4 5-year m ale. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead o riented t o N NE, a rms a t s ide, c lose t o t he t runk , h ands n ear t he p elvis, s lightly o chred. A n U nio s hell a nd a d eer t ooth p endant w ere f ound. N os. 1 8, 1 8-a, 1 8-6, 1 8-B, 1 8-r . A c ollective b urial i n t he r ectangular g rave p it 52. S keleton N o.18 w as o verlain b y t he i ndividual b ones o f o ther b urials ( 18 a -r). S keleton N o.18 w as o f a v ery m assive m ale o f a bout 3 5-40 y ears o rientated t o t he N . E xtended s upine p osition , a rms a t s ide, h eavily c oloured. T here w ere f ound i ndividual f ish t eeth a nd a f ew p endants o f d eer t eeth. O f t he v arious s kulls, t hree w ere t hose o f c hildren ( No.18-a w as o f a n 8 -year o ld c hild; N o.18-B w as 1 1 o r 1 2 y ears o ld; N o.18-r, 4 -12 y ears) a nd o ne s kull b elonged t o a2 0 t o 3 0-year o ld m ale. N o.19. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 2 5-year f emale i n a n o val p it. E xtended s upine p osition, o riented N NE , h ands i n t he c entre o f p elvis, l egs s traightened, f eet t urned t o t he l eft. S lightly c oloured. N ear t he l eft c lavicle l ay a r ow o f f ish t eeth . U nder t he t horacic v ertebrae, w ere a b roken t rapeze a nd a f lake. T he g rave p it o f t his b urial c ut s keletons N os.8 a nd 9 . N os. 2 0, 3 1, 3 2 a nd 3 4. T hese l ay i n a s ingle g rave p it ( A2) b ut a t d ifferent d epths. N os. 3 2 a nd 3 4 w ere t he l owest, a bove t hem l ay N o.31, a nd a bout 2 5-30 c m . h igher w as s keleton N o.20. N o.20. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 2 5-year o ld m ale. O rientated N NE , e xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide, h ands n ear t he p elvis, s everely c ontracted a t t he s houlders. A r ow o f d eer t ooth p endants ( 31 p cs.) l ay o n t he s kull. A long t he c lavicles l ay C yprinidae t eeth. I ndividual f ish t eeth w ere f ound n ear t he f emurs. T he f ish t eeth w ere a rranged i n t wo r ows b elow t he p elvis. O ne a nd t wo d eer t ooth p endants w ere a t t he a nkles ( Fig.17, 1 3-16, 2 0). O chre. N o.21. B urial o f a n a dult, e xtended s upine p osition, o riented S SE , a rms a t s ide, s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened.

3 3

N os.22 a nd 2 2-a. B urial N o.22 w as o f a8t o 1 2-year o ld c hild l ain i n a s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S . A rms a t s ide, h ands o n t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. D irectly o n t he s kull o f s keleton 2 2 l ay a nother s kull ( 22-a) b ut w ith n o o ther b ones. N o.23. R emains o f a c hild s keleton o f a bout t he S , a rms a t s ide, l egs e xtended.

f our

y ears o riented t o

N o.24. B urial o f a 2 t o 4 -year o ld i nfant. V ery h eavily c oloured. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S . L eg b ones w ere n ot p reserved. N os. 2 5 a nd 2 6. P aired b urial i n a g rave p it o f i rregular o utline. S keleton N o.25 l ay d irectly o n s keleton N o.26. T here w as a lso f ound a n i ndividual s kull ( No.36a). B urial N o.25 w as o f a n a dolescent a bout 1 7 y ears o ld. N o.26 w as o f a 3 0 t o 3 5-year o ld f emale. B oth s keletons w ere e xtended i n s upine p ositions w ith h eads t o t he S , a rms s lightly b ent w ith h ands o n t he p elvis, l egs s traightened a nd c losed a t t he k nees, f eet c losed. B oth s lightly c oloured. N os. 2 7 a nd 2 8. A p art o f t he c ollective b urial i n a s mall p it d escending f rom t he b ase o f g rave p it 6 1. N ear t he s kull o f s keleton N o.27 l ay a s ingle s kull ( 27-a). B urial 2 7 w as o f a n a dolescent, N o.28 w as o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year m ale. B oth w ere e xtended i n s upine p ositions w ith h eads t o t he N , a rms a t s ides, h ands c lose t o t he p elvis, l egs s traightened a nd c losed a t t he k nees, f eet s traightened. H eavily c oloured. T he p it c ontained a n U nio a nd a n A nadonta s hell, a nd a lso a d eer t ooth p endant. O n b oth s ides o f s kull 2 8 l ay f our d eer t ooth p endants. O ne o f t he p endants s lipped i nto t he l eft ' e ye s ocket. F ive s imilar p endants w ere f ound b elow t he p elvis. T wo p endants w ere o n t he m etatarso-phalangeal b ones o f t he l eft f oot. U nder t he l eft s houlder o f t he d ead l ay a n umber o f b ones ( a f emur a nd a t ibia) f rom a nother s keleton. B etween t he t ibial b ones o f s keleton 2 8 l ay a c hild 's s kull ( No.27-a). N o.29. B urial o f a 3 0 t o 3 5-year o ld f emale l ying i mmediately u nder s keleton N o.16. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S SW f acing u pwards. A rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands o n t he p elvis, l egs s traightened a nd c losed a t t he k nees, f eet s traightened, s houlders c ontracted. C oloured. B etween t he f emurs l ay s even b ones ( 5 f emurs, a n u lna a nd a t ibia) f rom o ther b urials. T he e piphyses o f t hese b ones w ere b roken, a nd s ome o f t he b ones w ere s plintered. O ne o f t hese b ones w as o verlain b y t he h and o f t he d ead. I n t he a rea o f t he a bdomen t o t he r ight o f t he s pinal c olumn, a l ong b one p oint w as f ound ( Fig.17, 1 0). T here w ere a lso f ish t eeth . N ear t he f eet, t wo p endants o f d eer t eeth w ere f ound. B etween t he f emurs l ay t wo t rapezes a nd a f lake w ith w ear m arks ( Fig. 1 7,5). N o.30. R emains o f a n a dult b urial, w hich w ere u nearthed u nder t he b ottom o f g rave p it 6 2 . O n t he m etatarso-phalangeal b ones l ay a d eer t ooth p endant. N os. 3 1, 3 3, 3 4. A dult b urials i n s ingle g rave p it A 2 u nder s keleton N o.20. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h eads t o t he S . N o. s ide,

3 1. B urial o f a v ery m assive 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld m ale. A rms a t l egs s traightened a nd s omewhat c losed, s houlders c ontracted ( Fig. 3 4

1 6, 1 ). O n t he s kull, a I t i s l ikely t hat t hey V arious f ish t eeth w ere o f t he s keleton a nd n ear

g reat a mount o f f ish t eeth ( 79 p es) w as f ound. w ere s ewn o n t he h ead-dress o f t he d eceased. a lso f ound b etween t he r ibs o n t he r ight s ide t he c lavicle. C oloured.

N o 3 2. B urial o f a3 0 t o 4 0-year o ld m ale l ying n ear s keleton N o. 3 4 a nd u nder s keleton 3 1. A rms a t s ide, h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened, f eet c losed. C oloured. N earby l ay a n umber o f d eer t ooth p endants. T hey l ay i n a r ow o n t he s kull a nd a lso a long t he s pinal c olumn. W hen u nearthing t he s kull, t here w as f ound a s mall f ragment o f a b oar t usk a rtifact a nd a f ragment o f a s mall f lint b lade w ith r etouch . N os 3 3 a nd 3 8. o ccurred i n a s ingle g rave p it ( A6) b ut a t d ifferent d epths s eparated b y a l ayer o f f ill a bout 4 0 c m . t hick. N o. 3 3. B urial o f a 1 0 t o 1 2-year o ld c hild, e xtended i n t he s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S , a rms a t s ide, h ands o n t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. U nder t he l eft c lavicle l ay a n A nadonta s hell. N o 3 4. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 2 5-year o ld m ale. A rms a t s ide, h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. O n t he r ight f oot l ay t hree r ows o f d eer t ooth p endants ( of 4 , 4 a nd 2 p cs). A g reat a mount o f f ish t eeth w ere a lso c ollected ( 84 p cs). N os. 3 5, 3 6, 3 7, 3 9, 4 0 a nd 4 1 o ccurred i n t wo l ayers o f t hree s keletons e ach w ithin a s ingle g rave p it ( A4). T he g rave p it w as o verlain b y t he r ectangular g rave p it 6 1. T he n umber o f s keletons i n t he s ingle o val p it s hould p robably i nclude s keleton N o. 1 3, w hich l ay i mmediately b elow t he r ectangular p it a nd a bove b urials 3 5-37 a nd 3 9-41 a t a d epth o f a bout 0 .6-0.7 m . N o. 3 5. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 2 5-year o ld f emale. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o S SW , a rms a t s ide, h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. C oloured. A round t he s kull l ay t he r emains o f f ish t eeth ( 20 p cs). N o. 3 6. B urial o f a 7o r 8 -year o ld c hild l ying a longside s keleton N o. 3 5 b ut o riented i n t he o pposite d irection, i .e., N NE . A rms a t s ide c lose t o t he t runk , h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. C oloured. T wo p endants w ere f ound o n t he f eet, a nd s ome f ish t eeth w ere f ound n ear t he v ertebrae. N o. 3 7. B urial o f a 6 o r 7 -year o ld c hild l ying a longside s keleton N o. 3 6 a nd o riented i n t he s ame d irection. E xtended s upine p osition , a rms c losely p ressed t o t he t runk , h ands c arefully l aid o n t he p elvis, l egs s traightened. V ery h eavily c oloured. T here w ere f ound 8 1 C yrprinidae t eeth . T hey l ay a t t he e lbows, b elow t he p ubis a nd p elvis, a nd a lso o n t he f eet. I n a ddition, t here w ere f ound t wo d eer-tooth p endants. N ear t he l eft f emur l ay a w ell w orked a wl ( Fig. 1 7, 1 2). T here w ere t wo f lint b lades, o ne o f w hich w as m icrolithic ( it l ay n ear t he l eft t emple), a nd t he o ther w as o f m edium s ize ( Fig. 1 7, 6 , 7 ). T he l atter w as n ear t he a wl. N o. 3 8. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 2 5-year o ld m ale l ying u nder s keleton N o. 3 3 a nd o riented t o t he S SE . E xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide, h ands o n p elvis,legs s traightened ( Fig. 1 6, 2 ). V ery h eavily c oloured. 3 5

1 F ig.

1 8

2

B urials f rom V asilyevka V ( 1) a nd V ilnyanka ( 2).

3 6

N ear t he r ight s houlder l ay a n A nadonta s hell. N ear t he r ight e lbow w as a s mall p erforated s piral s hell. A p ile o f s plintered c attle a nd h uman b ones i ncluding f ragments o f a h uman s kull w as f ound b etween t he f emurs. A c onsiderable p ortion o f c attle b ones s howed t races o f b urning. A s mall s craper w as a lso f ound ( Fig. 1 7, 4 ). N o. 3 9. B urial o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld m ale l ying o n s keleton N o. 4 0 a nd o riented t o t he S SW. E xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide, h ands n ear t he p elvis, l egs s traightened, s houlders s lightly c ontracted. N ear t he l eft s houlder, a b one a wl w as f ound ( Fig. 1 7, 1 1). S lightly c oloured. N os. 4 0 a nd 4 1. B urial o f a 4 0 t o 4 5-year o ld m ale ( No. 4 0) a nd o f a n 8 t o 1 0-year o ld c hild ( No. 4 1). B urial N o. 4 0 w as u nder s keleton N o. 3 9. O n t he r ight a rm o f s keleton 4 0 l ay t he c hild's s keleton. B oth w ere o riented t o t he S , e xtended s upine p osition, a rms a t s ide, h ands w ith p alms d own o n t he f emurs, l egs s traightened ( Fig. 1 8, 2 ). H eavily c oloured. A long t he s pinal c olumn o f s keleton N o. 4 0 l ay p endants o f d eer t eeth ( Fig. 1 7, 1 7). A r ow o f f ish t eeth w as f ound b elow t he p ubis. A t t he b ottom o f t he g rave p it, n ear t he f eet o f t he s keleton, l ay a m icrolithic s craper. O ver t he s pinal c olumn, o n t he r ight s ide o f t he l umbar r egion, l ay t wo t rapezes ( Fig. 1 7, 1 ,2). T he V asilyevka V C emetery N ear t he v illage o f V asilyevka, S inelkovky d istrict, D nepropetrovsk r egion, f ive p rehistoric c emeteries w ere d iscovered a mong w hich t hree ( I, I II, I V) w ere M esolithic a nd t wo ( II, V ) w ere N eolithic. C emetery V i s s ituated o n t he r ight t ip o f t he B elyaeva r avine, w hich l ies s omewhat s outh o f c emetery I I, e xcavated b y A . D . S tolyar ( see a bove). T he f irst b urials w ere d iscovered b y t he a uthors i n t he b ank o f t he L enin L ake. T hey o ccurred i n l oessic s oils a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .2 2 .2 m . w ith n o t races o f g rave p its a s a r ule ( Telegin 1 968). I t i s l ikely t hat t he d ead w ere d eposited f rom a l evel a bout 1 m etre b elow t he p resent s urface. I n t he l oess w ere f ound v arious f lint a rtifacts a nd a f ire-place w hich m easured a bout 1 .3 x 0 .5 m . J udging b y t he n umber o f s kulls, 3 7 i ndividuals w ere u nearthed ( Fig. 1 9). T hey l ay s ingly i n i ndividual g rave p its ( Nos. 9 , 1 0, 2 8-32, 3 4, 3 7) o r i n p airs ( Nos. 7 , 8 , 3 5, 3 6) a nd i n g roups. T he g roup g rave p it c ontained s ix s keletons ( Nos. 1 3-16, 1 9, 2 0) l ying c lose t ogether a t t he s ame d epth. A ll t he s keletons w ere o riented s trictly t o t he e ast w ith s kulls a rranged i n o ne l ine. T here w ere a lso f ound r emains o f f ive s keletons ( Nos. 1, 1 2, 1 7, 1 8 a nd 2 1) l ying 2 0-25 c m . b elow a nd s omewhat a part f rom t he g roup g rave. T he m ajor p ortion o f t he s keletons ( 20) s eemed t o h ave b een d amaged i n a ntiquity p robably b ecause o f t he r epetitive u se o f t he g raves. A mong t hese d amaged s keletons, s even s ingle s kulls w ere f ound i n s econdary p osition. T en s keletons w ere i n a natomic o rder. T he d ead w ere l ain i n t he s upine p osition w ith l egs s traightened a nd c losed, a rms s lightly b ent, h ands p laced o n t he l ower p art o f t he a bdomen. A ll t he d ead w ere o riented t o t he E o r N E. W hile e xcavating t his c emetery, i t w as n ot u nusual t o f ind s keletons o verlying o ne a nother a s a r esult o f r epetitive u se o f t he g raves. T his f act a ssists u s i n c larifying t he r elative c hronology o f t he b urials.

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V asilyevka V . P lan a nd d iagrammatic s ectional v iew . L egend: I-p lough s oil; I I -b lack s oil; I II - l oessic l oam ; I V r emains o f f ire p laces; V - f inds n ear s keletons.

3 8

T here w ere t hree b urials a ccompanied b y g rave g oods ( Nos. 8 , 1 0, 2 9). T he m ost i nteresting i n t his r espect w as b urial N o. 1 0. I t c ontained 1 7 s mall f lint i mplements i ncluding a f lint k nife o n a m assive b lade, s ix s crapers o n s mall f lakes, f our s mall e nd-scrapers o n s hortened b lades, a t rapeze b lank w ith s teep r etouch o n o ne s ide, a s mall d enticulated t ool m ade f rom a t hin b lade, a nd f our f lakes ( Fig. 2 0 ,1-17). N early a ll o f t hese f inds l ay u nder t he b ack o f t he s kull o f t he d eceased, a nd o nly t wo f lint a rtifacts w ere f ound o n i ts l eft s ide a bove t he s houlder. A mong t he f lint f inds o f t he c emetery s hould a lso b e m entioned a s mall h eavily p atinated t rapeze w ith f laking o n t he b ack ( Fig. 2 0, 1 8). a nd a f ragment o f a s imilar a rtifact a lso b earing s igns o f h eavy p atination , w hich w as f ound u nder s keleton N o. 1 6. B esides t hese s mall f inds o f m icrolithic a ppearance, t here w ere t wo c omparatively l arge a rtifacts s uch a s af ragment o f ak nife m ade f rom a w ell f acetted b lade o f m edium s ize ( skeleton N o. 2 9), a nd a s craper o n a l arge i rregular b lade w hich w as f ound i n t he g roup g rave ( Fig. 2 0, 1 9, 2 0). E ighteen s keletons o f t he 3 7 b urials i n t his c emetery w ere t o s ome e xtent s prinkled w ith r ed o chre. D escription o f b urials: N os. N o.

1 , 3 , 5 ,

1 7,

1 8, 2 2, 2 4, 2 6. I ndividual s kulls o f a dults.

2 . B urial o f a n a dult, e xtended i n t he s upine p osition.

N o. 4 . R emains o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld f emale i n t he s upine p osition. O nly t he u pper p art w as p reserved; t he l ower p art o f t he s keleton h ad b een w ashed a way. N o 5 a. V arious b ones o f a n a dult s keleton w ith n o s kull. N o. 6 . B urial o f a n a ged f emale d estroyed b y w ater e rosion. O nly t he s kull a nd s ome f ragments o f t he l eft a rm w ere r ecovered. N os. 7 a nd 8 . T wo a dult b urials p robably f rom a s ingle g rave p it. S keleton N o. 7 w as p artly d estroyed b y s keleton N o. 8 . S keleton N o. 7 h ad t races o f o chre. S keleton N o. 8 w as i n t he s upine p osition , l egs s traightened, a rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands n ear t he p elvis. S lightly c oloured. A p atinated t rapeze w ith f laked b ack l ay o n t he r ight s ide o f t he p elvis ( Fig. 2 0 , 8 ). N o. 9 . B urial o f a 4 5 t o 5 5-year o ld m ale e xtended i n t he p osition, l egs c losed, f eet s traightened, h ands n ear t he p elvis.

s upine

N o 1 0. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he e xtended p osition. U nder a nd n ear t he s kull l ay 1 7 f lint a rtifacts d escribed a bove ( Fig. 2 0 , 1 -17). N o. 1 1. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he s upine p osition. O nly t he u pper p art o f t he s keleton w as p reserved; t he l ower p art w as d estroyed b y e rosion. E astern o rientation. H eavily c oloured. N o. 1 2. B urial o f a n a dult l ying n ear a nd s omewhat b elow N o. 1. O nly t he u pper p art o f t he s keleton ( skull a nd h umeri) w as p reserved; t he l ower p art w as d estroyed b y e rosion . T races o f o chre w ere n oticed. N os. 1 3-16, 1 9-20. A g roup b urial o f a dults. T he d ead w ere l ain i n a r ow a s o ne c ompact g roup w ith h eads t o t he E . A ll w ere e xtended i n t he

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4 0

s upine p osition a nd w ell o chred. I n m ost c ases, t he s keletons i n t he l ower p art o f t he g rave w ere d estroyed b y e rosion. S keleton N o. 1 6 l ay i mmediately o n N o. 1 4. S keleton N o. 1 6 o verlay s keleton N o. 1 9 w hich , i n t urn, o verlay b urial N o. 2 0. N o. 2 1. B urial o f a n a dult e xtended i n t he s upine p osition a nd p artly o verlain b y s keleton N o. 2 0. W ell c oloured. N o. 2 3. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he s upine p osition. T he l ower p art o f t he s keleton w as d estroyed, p robably b y b urial N o. 2 1. S keleton N o. 2 3 o verlay b urial N o. 3 3 a t a n a ngle. N o. 2 5. B urial o f a n a dult. O nly t he u pper p art o f t he s keleton w as p reserved. T he l ower p art w as d estroyed b y e rosion. S lightly o chred. N o. 2 7. B urial o f a 2 0 t o 3 0-year o ld f emale i n t he s upine p osition. O nly t he u pper p art ( skull a nd h umeral b ones) w as p reserved. N o. 2 8. B urial o f a n a dolescent f emale i n t he s upine p osition. s traightened, h ands n ear t he p elvis. W ell c oloured ( Fig. 1 8, 1 ).

L egs

N o. 2 9. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he s upine p osition. T he s kull o f s keleton N o. 2 9 o verlay t he f eet o f s keletons N os. 3 5 a nd 3 6. T o t he l eft o f t he p elvis o f N o. 2 9 l ay a f ragment o f a f lint k nife ( Fig. 2 0, 1 9). N o. 3 0. B urial o f a n a dolescent i n t he s upine p osition. S lightly c oloured. T he o utline o f a n o val g rave p it c ould b e t raced b y i ts c olouration a t t he s ame l evel a s t he s keleton i tself. N o. 3 1. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he s upine p osition. O nly t he p art o f t he s keleton a nd t he l eft f emur w ere p reserved. C oloured. N o. 3 2. B urial o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld f emale. E xtended p osition, s everely c ontracted a t t he s ides. W ell c oloured. N o. 3 3. B urial o f a n a dult, e xtended s keleton N o. 3 3, s lightly c oloured.

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N os. 3 5-36. B urial o f a dults i n a s ingle g rave p it. E xtended s upine p ositions. S keleton N o. 3 5 l ay d irectly o ver N o. 3 6. N ear t he c ervical v ertebrae o f s keleton N o. 3 6 l ay a f lake. N o. 3 7. B urial o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld m ale. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o E , s everely c ontracted a t s ides. S lightly c oloured. T he d istribution o f t he s keletons a nd t he d ifferences i n b urial r ites s uggest t hat t his c emetery w as p robably u tilized o ver a p eriod o f t ime. I ts d evelopment m ay b e d ivided i nto t wo s tages: t he f irst s tage c omprises t he o rientation o f t he d ead t o t he N E m ainly i n s ingle g rave p its ( Nos. 9 , 1 0, 2 8, 3 2, 3 3, e tc.) o r i n p aired g raves ( Nos. 7 , 8 , 3 5, 3 6), a nd t he s econd s tage r etains t he N E o rientation b ut n ow b urial i s m ade i n g roup g raves ( Nos. 1 3-16, 1 9-20). T he f act t hat t he b urials o f t he s econd g roup f ollow t hose o f t he f irst i s c onfirmed

4 1

s tratigraphically. T hus, s keleton N o. 2 3 o f t he s econd g roup w as d irectly o ver s keleton N o. 3 3 o f t he f irst g roup a nd o verlay t he l atter a t a n a ngle. T he s kull o f s keleton N o. 2 9 o riented t o t he E o verlay t he t ibio-fibular b ones o f s keletons N os. 3 5 a nd 3 6 o riented t o t he N E. A ttention s hould b e d rawn a lso t o t he d ifferences i n g rave g oods f ound i n t he b urials o f t hese t wo g roups. T he e arlier b urials c ontained o nly m icrolithic f inds ( Nos. 1 0, 8 ), w hile t he b urials o f t he l ater p eriod w ere a ccompanied b y m assive f lint a rtifacts ( No.29) t ypologically r elated t o a l ater t ime. T he O sipovka C emetery I n 1 970, a s a r esult o f t he ' Dnieper-Donbass' e xpedition u nder t he d irection o f t he a uthor, a l arge m ulti-period c emetery w as f ound o n t he l eft b ank o f t he O rel r iver, n ear t he v illage o f O sipovka, M agdalinovsky d istrict. T he c emetery i s s ituated o n a s mall e levation ( about 4 -5 m . a bove t he l evel o f t he f lood p lain) b etween t he r iver b ank a nd t he L iman L ake, w hich l ies t o i ts s outh. H ere, n ext t o t he r iver, a N eolithic s ettlement w as s ituated e videnced b y a c ultural l ayer c ontaining c eramics o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. T he n orthernmost b urials o f t he c emetery w ere f ound o n t he e xtreme e dge o f t his N eolithic s ettlement. A s a r esult o f e xcavations i n 1 971-73, t here w as u nearthed a n a rea o f a bout 1 000 s q.m. e ncompassing 6 7 b urials. A mong t hese b urials, t he a uthor e xcavated t en g rave p its o f N eolithic d ate ( Nos. 3 , 8 , 1 1, 2 0, 2 8, 3 1, 3 4, 3 5, 6 5, 6 6). T he o ther g raves a re m ainly f rom t he L ate B ronze A ge t o s till l ater t imes. T he N eolithic b urials o ccupied a b and m ore t han 3 0 m . l ong a nd a bout 1 0-12 m . w ide, w herein t hey w ere r ather w idely s paced ( Fig.21). A mong t hese b urials, t he m ost i nteresting w ere f our s ingle g raves ( Nos. 3 , 8 , 1 1, 2 8), o ne p aired b urial o f a n a dult w ith a n i nfant ( No.20), a nd f ive c ollective g rave p its w ith m any s keletons i n e ach; i .e., g rave p it N o.31 - 7 s keletons; N o.34 - 3 s keletons; N o.53 - 1 1 s keletons; N o.65 6 s keletons; a nd g rave p it N o.66 - 4 s keletons. I n t otal, t here w ere 3 7 b urials c omprising 2 6 a dults, o ne a dolescent a nd 1 0 c hildren. T wo s ingle b urials ( Nos. 8 a nd 2 8) w ere o f c hildren. O ne i nfant w as b uried i n t he p aired g rave N o.20. R emains o f s even c hild s keletons w ere r ecovered f rom t he c ollective g rave p its; o ne i n g rave p it 3 1 a nd s ix i n g rave p it 5 3. I n t he l ast c ase, o ne o f t he s keletons w as o f a n a dolescent. T he p ositions o f t he d ead c ould b e t raced o nly i n t he s ingle a nd p aired b urials, w herein a ll w ere e xtended i n t he s upine p osition, s everely c ontracted a t t he s houlders, a rms a t s ide, h ands m ainly o n p elvic b ones, l egs s traightened a nd c losed ( Fig. 2 2, 3 -5). S uch a n a rrangement o f b ones c ould o nly b e f easible i f t he d ead w ere b ound o r s waddled t ightly. T he m ost i ndicative i n t his r espect w as t he p aired b urial ( No. 2 0) w here t he a dult w as s waddled t ogether w ith a b aby w hose b ones w ere l iterally ' welded' a gainst t hose o f t he a dult ( Fig. 2 2, 3 ). A ll t he b urials o ccurred i n t he s ubsoil o f a s andy t errace a pproximately a t t he s ame d epth w ithin t he l imits o f 1 .5 t o 2 .0 m . f rom t he p resent s urface. T he o utline o f a g rave p it c ould b e t raced o nly i n o ne c ase ( No.3). I t w as o f a n o val f orm ( Fig.21,3). T he o rientation o f t he d ead w as t raced o nly i n t he s ingle a nd p aired b urials. H ere t he d ead w ere o riented t o t he W ( Nos.20, 2 8), t he N W 4 2

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O sipovka c emetery. C ollective g rave p its 3 1 ( 1) a nd 3 4 ( 2), p aired b urial o f a dult w ith c hild, N o. 2 0 ( 3), a nd s ingle b urials N os. 2 8 ( 4) a nd 3 ( 5).

4 4

( Nos. 3 , 8 ) o r t he S W ( No.11), i .e., g enerally a long t he f low o f t he r iver w ith h eads p ointing d ownstream. A s f or t he o rientation i n t he c ollective g rave p its, i t w as d ifficult t o c ome t o a ny c onclusion, s ince n one o f t hese s keletons o ccurred i n a natomical o rder. T he o utlines a nd d imensions o f t he c ollective g rave p its c ould n ot b e a ccurately d etermined, b ut i n v iew o f t he a rrangement o f t he b ones i t w as c lear t hat t hey v aried i n f orm. S ome o f t hem w ere r ounded ( Nos. 3 1 a nd 3 4), m easuring a bout 1 .2 x 0 .8 m . a nd 1 .1 x 0 .5 m . o r e longated ( Nos. 5 3, 6 5, 6 6). T he d imensions o f t he l atter w ere s omewhat g reater: u p t o 2 m . l ong a nd o nly 0 .5-0.6 m . w ide. I n t hese g rave p its t he b ones l ay o ut o f a natomical o rder. A mong t hem w ere s kulls, l ong b ones o f a rms a nd l egs, a nd s ometimes p elvic b ones. S mall b ones w ere s carce. I n a ll i nstances, t he s kulls h ad n o m andibles. G rave g oods w ere m et o nly i n t wo c ases; n ear a s ingle c hild b urial ( No.38) l ay a bout 2 00 C yprinidae t eeth , a nd i n c ollective g rave p it N o.53, a mong t he h uman b ones, l ay a w orked b one a rtifact - p robably a n o rnament o f p ointed o val f orm w ith t wo p erforations. T he o bject w as d ecorated w ith n ine r ounded p it m arks ( Fig. 2 3,3). N othing s imilar t o t his h as e ver b een f ound i n a ny o ther N eoltihic c emetery o f t he D nieper v alley. I n a ddition t o t hese f inds, a mong t he b ones i n e ach o f t he t wo g rave p its ( Nos. 3 a nd 3 4) l ay a c eramic f ragment o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, w hose r elation t o t hese b urials w as n ot q uite c lear, s ince s imilar c eramic f ragments w ere a lso m et i n s ome o ther p laces o f t he c emetery. P oor t races o f r ed o chre w ere n oticed o n b ones i n c ollective g rave p it N o.65. B elow i s a d etailed d escription o f t he g rave p its o f t his c emetery. N o.3. B urial o f a n a dult i n a n o val g rave p it a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .5 m . i n e xtended s upine p osition. N orth-western o rientation, c ontracted a t s houlders, a rms a t s ide ( Fig.22,5). N ear t he s kull l ay a N eolithic c omb-decorated s herd. N o.8. B urial o f a c hild v ery p oorly p reserved w ith h ead t o t he W . a t a d epth o f 1 .58 m .

i n

e xtended

p osition

N o.11. B urial o f a n a dult a t a d epth o f 1 .58 m . E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o W , c ontracted a t s houlders, a rms a t s ide, h ands o n t he p elvis, l egs c losed. N o.20. P aired b urial o f a n a dult a nd a c hild. T he a dult w as e xtended i n t he s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he W , a rms a t s ide, t he l eft h and o n t he c hild's b ones, w hich w ere p robably l ain i n t he s ame p osition ( Fig. 2 2,3). N o.28. B urial o f a c hild, e xtended i n t he s upine p osition, h ead t o t he W , a rms a t s ide, h ands o n p elvis. N ear t he c ervical v ertebrae a nd t he r ight a rm, a nd a lso i n s ome o ther p laces l ay a bout 2 00 C yprinidae t eeth ( Figs. 2 2,4; 2 3,5). N o.31. C ollective b urial o f s even a dults a nd p robably o ne c hild, a s s een f rom t he n umber o f s kulls. A ll t he b ones l ay o ut o f a natomical o rder i n a g rave p it 1 x 1 .2 m . i n s ize. T hese w ere s econdary b urials, s ince s ome o f t he b ones o f t he e ight i ndividuals w ere m issing. T here 4 5

eee

8 1

(( g

N 66 • • •• ••

A f3 1

T i

2

3

6 4

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2 3

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O sipovka c emetery. C ollective g raves 6 5 ( 1), 6 6 ( 2), 3 1 ( 4), 5 3 ( 6), s ingle c hild b urial 2 8 ( 5) a nd b one o rnament f rom g rave p it N o. 5 3 ( 3).

4 6

w ere f ound 1 0 f emurs, 2 2,1; 2 3,4).

1 0 t ibias,

6 f ibulas a nd s ome o ther b ones ( Figs.

N o.34 C ollective s econdary b urial o f t hree a dults. B ones ( 3 s kulls, 6 f emurs, 6 t ibias, 6 u lnae, 6 r adii) l ay i n a s mall g rave p it ( 0.5 x 0 .8 m ). A mong t he b ones, a N eolithic s herd w as f ound ( Fig. 2 2,2). N o.53. C ollective s econdary b urial i n a n o val g rave p it m easuring 1 .9 x 0 .6 m . i n s ize w ith i ts l ong a xis i n a n orth-south d irection. A t f irst, t here w as f ound a n a ccumulation o f s mall b urnt s tones a nd r emains o f h uman b ones w hich w ere c onsiderably b urnt a s w ell. T he b ones w ere o ut o f a ny a natomical o rder. I n t otal, t here w ere 1 1 s kulls i ncluding s ix o f a dults, o ne o f a n a dolescent, a nd t he r est o f c hildren. T here w ere a lso f ound 1 1 f emurs, 1 0 t ibias, 1 2 h umeri, 6 u lnae, 4 r adii, e tc. A mong t he p ile o f b ones, t here w as f ound a b one o rnament o f a p ointed-oval f orm d ecorated w ith p its o n o ne s ide ( Fig. 2 3,3). N o.65. C ollective s econdary b urial i n a n e longated g rave p it o f 0 .4 x 2 .0 m . i n s ize. H ere l ay t he d isordered b ones o f s ix a dults. I n t otal, t here w ere 6 s kulls, 9 h umeri, 7 r adii, 1 1 t ibias, 4 f ibulas a nd 2 f emurs. S ome o f t he b ones h ad t races o f o chre ( Fig. 2 3,1). N o.66. C ollective s econdary b urial. T he n umber o f s kulls s uggests t hat t hese b elonged t o f our p oorly p reserved a dults. T hree o f t he s kulls h ad n o m andibles. T he f ourth w as i n a v ery p oor s tate. I n a ddition, t here w ere f ound 1 2 l arge h uman b ones i ncluding 3 f emurs, 4 t ibias, 1 h umerus, 2 u lnae, p elvic b ones, a nd a lso a n umber o f s mall b ones ( Fig. 2 3,2). T he O sipovka c emetery i s o f g reat i mportance t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he d istinguishing f eatures o f t he N eolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley. T hough t here w ere n o c eramic f inds ( except f or t he t wo f ragments, w hich w ere p robably i ntroduced i nto t he p its b y a ccident), t he a ssignment o f t his c emetery t o t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i s b eyond d oubt. T his c emetery w as p robably u sed b y t he i nhabitants f rom t he a djacent s ettlement o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. I n s pite o f s ome d ifferences, t his c emetery, i n g eneral, i s u ndoubtedly r elated t o t he g roup o f t he M ariupol-type m onuments. T his c an b e s een f rom t he e xtended s upine p ositions o f t he ' swaddled' d ead, t he p resence o f C yprinidae t eeth a nd t races o f o chre. H owever, h ere a lso w e f ind t he r epetitive u se o f c ollective g rave p its a nd s econdary b urial i n c ollective p its. T hese t raits, s o c learly s een i n t he O sipovka c emetery, h ave n ot b een o bserved i n a ny o ther c emetery o f t he D nieper v alley. T he a rrangement o f t he s ingle g raves i n O sipovka w as a lso o f a n o riginal c haracter. T hey w ere s pread n onsystematically, w hile i n o ther c emeteries o f t his t ype s ingle g raves w ere u sually a rranged i n r ows. A mong t he a rtifacts f rom t he o ther c emeteries, n o a nalogy c an b e g iven t o t he a bove m entioned p ointed-oval b one p endant f ound i n t he O sipovka c emetery. T he o nly s imilar a rtifact w as f ound b y T . D . B elanovskaya a t R akushechny Y ar, w here a m ultilayer N eolithic s ettlement w as e xcavated. D ue t o t hese p articular d istinguishing f eatures i n t he b urial r ites a nd t he r ite o f s econdary b urial, i n p articular, t he O sipovka c emetery a ssumes a s pecial p osition a mong t he o ther m onuments o f t his k ind i n t he D nieper v alley. T his m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he l ocal d istinctive 4 7

c haracteristics o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. I n g eneral, t his c emetery i s p robably d ated t o t he E arlier a nd M iddle s tages o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, i .e., i t m ay b e a ssigned t o t he e nd o f t he 5 th o r t he b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. T he C -14 a nalysis o f b ones f rom g rave p it N o.53 i ndicates a n a ge i n a r ange f rom 3 990+ 4 20 t o 4 125 + 1 25 y ears b .c. U nfortunately, t he i nternal c hronology o f t he O sipovka g rave p its c ould n ot b e d iscerned d ue t o t he a bsence o f s tratigraphic e vidence. W ithin t he t erritory o f E astern E urope, o nly a f ew r eusable c ollective g rave p its m ay b e c onsidered a nalogous t o t hose o f O sipovka. I n t his r espect, w e k now o nly a g roup g rave i n t he C hernaya-Gora c emetery n orth o f R iazan. H ere w ere d iscovered f our h orizons e ach c ontaining 5 -8 s keletons l ying i n d isorder ( Tsvetkova 1 970, 1 27-128). T he Y asinovatka C emetery T he Y asinovataka c emetery i s s ituated n ear t he D nieper r apids o n t he h igh l eft b ank o f t he r iver, w here t he l atter s harply b ends t o t he w est a nd t hen n o l ess s harply r eturns t o t he s outh , i ts g eneral t rend o f f low . T he c emetery i s l ocated 4 k m . n orth-west o f t he v illage o f Y asinovatka, V ilnyanka d istrict, Z aporozhe r egion , o n t he l eft t ip o f S kelyuvataya ( or K amyanuvataya) r avine. O n t he r ight b ank o f t he D nieper, o pposite t he c emetery, i s s ituated t he v illage o f V ovnigy , D nepropetrovsk r egion, w here i n 1 952 M . Y a. R udynsky e xcavated t he N eolithic c emetery o f V ovnigy I I. I n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he Y asinovatka c emetery, o n a s eparate e levation a bout 3 0-35 m . t o t he n orth-east, M .Ya.Rudynsky e xamined t he g rave p its o f t he f irst V ovnigy c emetery ( the l eft-bank c emetery) i n 1 949. F urther t o t he e ast o n t he s ame l eft b ank o f t he D nieper, m ay b e o bserved t races o f t wo o ther N eolithic b urials: o ne o n t he r ight t ip o f t he S kelyuvataya r avine, a nd t he o ther o n t he r ight t ip o f t he n eighbouring K laguza r avine. O ne o f t he D nieper r apids ( the V ovnigy r apids) w as s ituated o pposite t he K laguza r avine a nd s omewhat t o i ts e ast p rior t o t he r ise o f t he w ater-level. D uring t he e rection o f t he D neprogess h ydropower s tation , A . V . D obrovolsky e xcavated t wo N eolithic c amp-sites ( the r ight a nd t he l eft-bank s ites) a t V ovnigy. T he l evel o f t he c emetery u nder d iscussion i s a bout 1 0 m . h igher t han t hat o f t he p resent w ater l evel ( the L enin L ake). T he D nieper r uns h ere t o t he w est. I f w e t ake i nto a ccount t he f act t hat, b ecause o f t he D nieper d am , t he w ater l evel i s c onsiderably h igher n ow t han i t w as i n a ncient t imes, t he c emetery w as o riginally l ocated o n ah igh t errace a bout 2 5-30 m . a bove t he D nieper. T he c emetery w as d iscovered b y A .V. B odyansky i n 1 964 a s a r esult o f e xcavations o f a n E neolithic c airn. U nder t his c airn, t here w as d iscovered a r ed a rea w hich i ndicated t he p resence o f a N eolithic b urial p it. T his g rave p it w as e xcavated b y t he a uthor t ogether w ith A . V . B odyansky a nd D . Y u. N uzhny i n 1 978. I n t otal, t he c emetery c overed a n a rea o f a bout 8 4 s q.m . S tratigraphically, t he d eposits i n t he v icinity o f t he c emetery a re a rranged a s f ollows: t he s teppe b lack s oil u p t o 0 .8 m . t hick g radually

4 8

4 9

•Ä sala t uaz e p flpnouTsul

F ig. 2 5

Y asinovatka c emetery. P lan a nd s ectional v iew . L egend: I s tones; I I, I II - o utlines o f g rave p its; I V -b lack s oil; V-s ubsoil; V I -p it f ill; V II - l oess.

5 0

c hanges t o a b rown s ubsoil u p t o 0 .6 m . t hick, a nd t he l atter o verlays a t hick l ight-yellow l ayer o f l oess. T he g rave p its w ere i nitiated f rom t he m iddle a nd l ower p arts o f t he s ubsoil, i .e., f rom a d epth o f a bout 1 m . f rom t he p resent s urface. O n t his h orizon , b asically a gainst t he b ackground o f t he l ight-coloured s ubsoil, t here a ppeared a l arge d ark r ed s pot o f s ubrectangular s hape. O n i ts s urface a nd n earby, t here w ere u nearthed l arge s tones ( up t o 0 .8-1.0 m . a cross) w hich l ay i n h eaps o f t hree o r f our. T hen w ithin t he l imits o f t he r ed a rea, t here w as d iscovered t he m ain c ollective g rave p it w hich w e n umbered g rave p it 6 ( Fig.24). U nder t his b urial p it a nd s omewhat a part, t here w ere d iscovered s even c omparatively s mall g rave p its ( Al7 ) o f a n o val f orm ( Fig.25). A ccording t o t he n umber o f s kulls, t he Y asinovatka c emetery c ontained b urials o f 6 8 i ndividuals i ncluding , a s I .D . P otekhina h as d etermined, 5 1 a dults, f our a dolescents a nd n ine c hildren. A mong t he a dult b urials, 3 6 s keletons w ere o f m ales a nd 1 5 o f f emales. T he s tate o f p reservation o f t he d ead v aried. T here w ere a bout 3 0 w ell a nd c omparatively w ell p reserved s keletons i ncluding s kulls. I n m ost c ases, o nly t he l ower p arts o f t he s keletons w ere r ecovered. A bout 4 0 b urials w ere r epresented o nly b y s kulls l ying i n d erived p ositions. I n m ost c ases, t he b urials i n b oth t he A -type g rave p its a nd i n t he r ed-coloured ( B) g rave w ere d estroyed. Q uite o ften , t here w ere o nly h eaps o f h uman l ong b ones l ying i n d isorder. I n s ome c ases, t he b odies h ad b een d isturbed b efore t hey w ere c ompletely d ecomposed. T he b urial r ite , a s i n a ll t he c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype, a ppeared t o b e r ather u niform . I n t he g rave p its, a ll t he d ead w ere e xtended i n s upine p ositions w ith l egs c losed a nd a rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands o n t he p elvis. B urials w ith a rms s traightened a t t he s ide w ith h ands n ear t he p elvis w ere r arer. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat s ome o f t he s keletons, e specially i n t he r ed-coloured g rave p it, w ere s everely b ent a t t he p elvis, w hile t he s kulls a nd f eet w ere a bout 1 2-15 c m . h igher t han t he p elvic b ones. S ome o f t he s keletons w ere s everely c ontracted a t t he s ides, e specially a t t he s houlders, w ith l egs s traightened a nd c losed. I t i s l ikely t hat t he d ead w ere b ound o r s waddled, o r s queezed i nto a v ery n arrow p it ( Fig.26). T he o rientation o f t he d ead w as t raced i n 4 4 c ases. I t v aried a ccording t o g roup ( Fig.27). I n t he A -type g rave p its, a ll t he d ead, w ith o ne e xception ( No.21), w ere o riented w ith h eads t o t he s outh-east. I n t he B g rave, t he o rientation o f t he d ead w as d ifferent. H ere t wo g roups c ould b e d istinguished: s ome w ere d eposited w ith h eads t o t he n orth-east, o thers t o t he n orth-north-west. D eviations f rom t hese d irections w ere i nfrequent. T he t hree g roups o f b urials a re a lso d ifferentiated b y t he n ature o f t he g rave p its. B urials i n o val g rave p its o f t he A -type A s m entioned a bove, s even g rave p its o f t his t ype w ere u ncovered. S ix o f t hem ( A1-6) w ere s ituated s outh-west o f t he r ed-coloured s pot o f t he 6 -grave o r w ere o verlain b y t he l atter. T he s eventh g rave p it ( A-7) w as a t t he n orth-eastern m argin o f t he c emetery. T he c ontours o f t he g rave p its w ere t raced a t d ifferent d epths f rom 1 .2 t o 1 .6 m . i n t he b ase o f t he s ubsoil ( A-1, A -4, A -6, A -7) o r a t t he b eginning o f t he 5 1

5 2

es 2 0. 3 1• 5 2 .4 • 3 90 3 3 4 04 I d• L i 2O S he 5 6*

•4 .

F ig. 2 7

6 ß. 6 3. 6 5. 6 4.

• -2 0-3

Y asinovatka c emetery. O rientation o f t hree b urial g roups: 6-1 ( 1), 62 ( 2), a nd A ( 3).

5 3

l oess. T he w alls o f t he g rave p its w ere m ore o r l ess s teep. T he b ottoms w ere o val ( Fig.28). T he f ill o f t hese g rave p its w as o f h umic l oess ( from t he s ubsoil). I n n early a ll c ases, t he s keletons t hemselves w ere r ather h eavily s prinkled w ith r ed o chre, e specially i n t he g roup g raves. I n s ome o f t he A -group b urials, m ainly a t t he w estern m argin ( Nos. 1 7, 1 8 , 2 1, 4 3), o chre w as b arely v isible. A mong t he 6 8 b urials o f t he Y asinovatka c emetery, 2 1 s keletons w ere i n s mall o val g rave p its, n amely: s ix s keletons ( Nos.53, 5 4, 6 1-64) w ere i n g rave p it A -1; s even s keletons ( Nos.31, 5 5-58, 5 8a, 5 9) w ere i n A -2; f our s keletons ( Nos.40-42, 6 5) w ere i n A -4; a nd e ach o f t he A -3, A -5, A -6 a nd A -7 g raves c ontained o ne s keleton , r espectively N os. 3 9, 6 0 , 2 1, 5 ( Fig.25, 2 8). S keletons i n t he g roup g rave p its w ere o ften l aid i n a n umber o f l ayers, o ne a bove t he o ther, c utting d own a nd d estroying t he e arlier b urials, w hen n ew g rave p its w ere d ug o ut. T herefore, t he g rave p its c ontained w ell p reserved s keletons a nd s eparate s kulls a s w ell a s g reat a mounts o f i ndividual b ones h eaped i n d isorder. G rave p it A -1. A t t he t op, t here w ere f ound t hree s eparate s kulls ( Nos. 5 3, 6 1, 6 2). T here w as a lso t he u pper p art o f s keleton N o.54 a nd ag reat n umber o f l ong b ones, p robably o f s keletons N os. 5 3, 6 1 a nd 6 2. B elow w ere f ound t wo u ndamaged s keletons l ying o ne a bove t he o ther: N o.63 w as a bove N o.64. T he w hole m ass o f h uman b ones w as a bout 5 0 c m . t hick. N ear s keleton N o.54 l ay s even p endants o f d eer t eeth ( Fig.29, 1 -7) a nd a s mall f ragment o f a k nife-like b lade o f f lint. N ear t he c hest o f N o.63 l ay a n U nio s hell. A p oorly p reserved b one a wl w as f ound n ear t he l eft u lna o f s keleton N o.64. I t i s q uite p robable t hat b urial N o.32 s hould a lso b e r elated t o g rave p it A -1 a s i ts o rientation w as s imilar t o a ll t he o ther b urials t hough i t l ay 2 0 c m . h igher. S keleton N o.32 w as d amaged p robably b y b urial N o. 3 2 w hich w as o riented t o t he n orth. G rave p it A -2. T his p it y ielded s even s keletons. O ne o f t he b adlyd amaged s keletons ( No.31) l ay a t ac omparatively h igh l evel - a bout 4 06 0 c m . h igher t han t he o thers. B elow , t here w ere f ound f our s ingle s kulls ( Nos. 5 5, 5 7, 5 8, 5 9) a nd m any i ndividual h uman b ones w hich c overed a nd s urrounded t wo c omparatively w ell p reserved s keletons ( Nos.56 a nd 5 8-a). T he t hickness o f t his b one l ayer w as a bout 8 0 c m . N ear t he c hild s keleton N o.56, a n umber o f o rnaments w ere r ecovered: n ear t he c hest a nd t he p elvis l ay a bout 3 0 C yprinidae t eeth ; t hree d eer t ooth p endants w ere f ound n ear t he f eet. G rave p it A -3. T his h eld a b adly p reserved a dult b urial. O nly a C yprinidae t ooth w as f ound w hich l ay n ear t he s kull. T he A -3 g rave p it a ppeared t o c ut t he e dge o f t he A -2 p it ( Fig.25). G rave p it A -4. T here w ere f our c omparatively w ell s keletons ( Nos.40-42, 6 5), w hich l ay i n t wo l ayers ( Fig.25). f eet o f t he c hild s keleton ( No.40) l ay a d eer t ooth p endant. l ike b lade w as f ound n ear s kull N o.65. H ere w ere a lso p endants o f d eer t eeth.

5 4

p reserved N ear t he A k nifef ound 1 8

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Y asinovatka c emetery. B urials i n g rave p its A -1, A -2 a nd A -4.

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Y asinovatka c emetery. D eer t ooth p endant ( 1-6) a nd p haryngeal C yprinidae t eeth ( 7-8) f ound n ear b urials i n t he A -type o val p its.

5 5

G rave p its A -5, A -6, A -7. A s n oted a bove, i n e ach o f t he g raves l ay o ne s keleton ( Nos. 6 0, 2 1 a nd 5 r espectively). T here w as n o g rave g oods i n a ny o f t he b urials. B esides t he b urials i n g rave p its A 1-7, t his g roup s hould p robably i nclude a c ollective b urial o f a dults N os. 1 9, 2 0 a nd 2 0a, w hose o utline c ould n ot b e t raced c ompletely, a nd a lso a n a dult b urial N o.33 w hose o utline c ould n ot b e f ound a t a ll. T he r elation o f t hese b urials t o t his p articular g roup i n t he c emetery, i n a ddition t o o rientation, i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat s keleton N o.33 w as c ut b y s keleton N o.34 f rom t he r ed-coloured g rave p it 6 . M oreover, n ear s keletons N os. 1 9 a nd 2 0 w ere f ound t wo d eer t ooth p endants ( Fig.29,15), t ypical f or t he o val g rave p its o f t he A -type. G rave p it 5 T he r ed a rea o f t his c ollective g rave w as n oticed a t a d epth o f a bout 1 .2-1.3 m . f rom t he p resent s urface, i .e., i n t he m iddle p art o f t he s ubsoil. I n t he l oess, t his g rave p it i n i ts c entral p art d escended t o a d epth o f 0 .8 m . I ts b ottom w as s omewhat h igher a t t he s ides, e specially t owards t he s outh-west w here t he m ass o f t he r ed-coloured f ill p artly o verlay t he A -type g raves ( Figs.24 ; 2 5). I n p lan, t his r ed-coloured g rave p it w as o f a s ub-rectangular o utline, 5 .2 x 5 .6 m . i n s ize. I n i ts n orthern p art, t he l ayers o f e arth w ere c ut t hrough b y a n E neolithic Y amnaya b urial l ying u nder a m ound w hich w as p reviously e xamined b y A .V. B odyansky. T he c olouration o f t he r ed f ill o f t his g rave p it w as n ot a lways t he s ame. I n t he u pper p ortion o f t he f ill, t he c olour w as d arker, w hile b elow i t b ecame l ighter. A t t he b ottom o f t he p it, e specially i n i ts n orth-eastern p art, w ere f ound a ccumulations o f b right r ed c olour. I n s ome p laces, t hey f ormed s pots u p t o 0 .5 m . i n d iameter p enetrating s omewhat i nto t he l ight-yellow l oess a t t he b ottom o f t he p it. I n t otal, t he 6 g rave c ontained m ore t han 3 0 s keletons i n d ifferent s tates o f p reservation, w hich a ccording t o t heir o rientation, c ould b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups 6 -1 a nd 6 -2. B urials o f t he 5 -1 g roup o riented t o t he n orth-east. A ll o f t hese b urials o ccurred i n t he n orth-eastern p art o f t he 6 grave. J udging b y t he n umber o f s kulls, t here w ere 3 3 b urials. O nly s ix o f t hem l ay i n a natomical o rder a nd r etained t heir s kulls ( Nos. 3 , 2 4, 3 5, 3 6, 4 5, 5 0). T he o ther b urials w ere r epresented o nly b y s ingle s kulls ( Nos. 1 , l a, 4 , 6 , 6 , 7 -12, 2 2-28, 3 4 , 3 7, 4 4, 4 6-49 , 5 1, 5 2). I n a ddition , i n t his p art o f t he g rave p it, t here w ere f ound p ostcranial b ones o f t en s keletons, w hich l ay i n a natomical o rder. T he a rrangement o f t hese r emains m ade i t p ossible t o r econstruct t he o rientation o f t he d ead. T hus, i n t otal, t his g roup i ncluded 1 6 N E-oriented b urials. T here w ere a lso m any s ingle h uman b ones o f d ifferent d estroyed s keletons. T he d estruction o f t hese s keletons r esulted f rom r epeated u sage o f t he g rave p its w hich c ould b e c learly t raced i n a n umber o f c ases. T hus, f or e xample, w hen d igging o ut a p it f or b urial N o.35, s keleton N o.34 w as b adly d amaged, w hile s keleton N o.35, i n t urn, w as c ut b y t he g rave p it f or b urial N o.36 ( Fig.26,3). A n umber o f s keletons w ere a lso d estroyed ( Nos. 1 2 g , 4 7a, e tc.) w hen d igging o ut a p it f or b urial N o. 4 5, w hich w as t he r ichest i n t erms o f f inds. I n s ome p laces , t he b urials o ccurred i n t wo o r t hree l ayers. T hree l ayers w ere f ound, f or

5 6

e xample, n ear s keletons N os. 1 2, 1 2a-A a nd t hickness o f t he b one l ayer e xceeded 3 0 c m .

s kulls

4 8-49,

w here

t he

N ear m ost o f t he s keletons o r i ndividual b ones i n t he 6g rave p it, w hich l ay i n t he r ed-coloured f ill, t he o utlines o f t he i ndividual p its c ould n ot b e t raced. O nly i n t wo c ases, w here t he b urials h ad b een d ug t o a c onsiderable d epth, i .e., i nto t he l oessic b ottom o f t he g rave p it, w ere t he o utlines o f t he i ndividual p its s een r ather c learly ( Nos. 4 5 a nd 5 0). T hey w ere o val i n s hape a nd t heir d imensions c orresponded w ith t he s ize o f t he d ead ( Fig. 2 6, 1 ). T he f ill o f t hese i ndividual p its w as n ot a lways t he s ame. F or e xample, o ver s keleton N o. 4 5 t he s oil w as b right r ed i n c olour a nd t he f ill c ontained m any i ndividual b ones a nd t hree s kulls ( Nos. 4 4, 4 6, 4 7) b elonging t o p reviously d estroyed b urials. T he p it f ill o f s keleton N o. 5 0 w as a l ight y ellow l oess w ith n o b ones f rom a ny o ther b urials. H owever, t he s keleton h ad b een s prinkled s lightly w ith r ed o chre. A mong t he b urials o f t he 6 -1 g roup, o nly N o. 4 5 w as a ccompanied b y g rave g oods. E leven o rnaments i n t he f orm o f p lates m ade f rom b oar t usk e namel, w hich w ere p robably s ewn o nto c lothing, w ere f ound. T hey w ere a ll r ecovered n ear t he l eft h umerus a nd t he p roximal e nds o f t he l eft r adius a nd u lna. T he p lates s eemed t o h ave b een s ewn o n t he s leeves w ith t he e namel o utside. T hese p lates w ere c omparatively l arge a nd s lightly c urved, u p t o 7 .8 c m . l ong, a nd t hey v aried b oth i n s hape a nd d ecoration ( Fig. 3 0). T hree o f t hese o rnaments w ere m ade i n t he f orm o f a ' fluttering b utterfly w ith c rown ' h aving t wo i ncisions a nd s errations a t t he e nds. T wo o ther p lates h ad b oth i ncisions a nd s errations a t t he e nds. T here w as a lso f ound a d ecorated f ragment w hich c ould n ot b e a ssigned t o a ny o f t hese t ypes. T he p it f ill o f b urial N o. 4 5 a lso c ontained a s mall k nife-like b lade a nd a f ragment o f ar etouched b lade ( Fig. 3 1, 1 6, 4 1). B urial N o. 4 5 w ith o rnaments m ade o f b oar t usk e namel w as p robably n ot t he o nly g rave w ith s uch i tems i n t he 5 -grave, s ince t he r edc oloured s oil a lso c ontained f our o ther f ragments o f s uch o bjects ( Fig. 3 1, 4 4, 4 5). F inally, i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he 6 -grave, a t v arious d epths i n t he r ed-coloured f ill, t here w ere f ound m ore t han 3 0 s mall f lint i mplements a nd a bout 2 0 s herds o f N eolithic c eramics. I t i s l ikely t hat t hese f inds, f rom a c ultural a nd c hronological p oint o f v iew , r epresent a s ingle c ultural c omplex. T he r eliability o f t he a ssociation o f t he f lint f inds a nd c eramics w ith t he g raves m ay b e b ased o n t he i deal c onditions u nder w hich t hey o ccurred a nd b ecame a c losed c omplex. I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat o utside t he r ed-coloured f ill i n t he n orthw estern p art o f t he 6 -grave, i ncluding t he A -type g rave p its, t here w ere m et o nly i ndividual f inds o f f lint a nd n o c eramic f inds a t a ll. I n t he s outh-western p art o f t he 6-grave, o nly a f ew f lint p ieces w ere f ound. T he f lint a rtifacts o f t he 6 -grave c omprised 1 3 k nife-like b lades w ith r etouch ( Fig. 3 1, 1 5-19, 2 1), a s craper o n a f lake ( Fig. 3 1, 1 3), f ive t rapezes a nd b lanks o f t he s ame ( Fig. 3 1, 1 -4, 1 1), a nd s ix o btuse-backed p oints a nd b lades ( Fig. 3 1, 5 , 7 -10).

5 7

F ig.

3 0

Y asinovatka c emetery. M ariupol-type p lates o f b oar t usk f ound n ear s keleton N o. 4 5.

5 8

l e t ig ee is i k

1 0

5

45

F ig. 3 1

Y asinovatka c emetery. F lint a rtifacts ( 1-43) a nd f ragments o f b oar t usk ( 44-45). P it 6 ( 1-11,13,15-19,21,24,26-32,36,37, 4 0-45) a nd o utside ( 12,14,20 ,22,23,25,33-35, 3 8-39) .

5 9

T he r ed c oloured f ill a dditionally c ontained a bout t en s mall f lint f ragments o f b lades a nd f lakes ( Fig. 3 1, 2 8-35). T he c eramic r emains i ncluded s mall s herds o f N eolithic p ottery ( Fig. 3 2). A ll t he c eramic f inds w ere c ollected i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 5 grave a t d ifferent d epths, m ainly i n t he n orth-eastern p art b etween 1 .0 a nd 1 .5 m . O nly t hree s herds w ere f ound i n t he w ashout o f t he b ank. I n o ne c ase, s herds ( rim f ragments) b oth f rom t he e xcavation a rea a nd t he w ashout b elonged t o t he s ame v essel a nd m ade c ertain j oins. T here w ere t wo r im s herds w ith a n o ut-turned c ollar ( Fig. 3 2, 1 -2) a nd a f lat b ase. T he c lay f abric c ontained w oody a nd g rass m atter. T he c omb o rnamentation i s b arely v isible a nd o nly o n t he i nside s urface. T he v essels w ere d ecorated w ith v arious t echniques: d ouble r ows o f s trokes r unning i n l ines p roduced b y a s mall s tick ( Fig. 3 2, 1 ,4); i n t wo c ases, t he o rnament c onsists o f c omb m arks o ften a rranged i n a l ine ( Fig. 3 2,1). O ne o r t wo v essels w ere d ecorated w ith l inear o rnaments: I n o ne c ase, i t i s a ' herring-bone' o rnament ( Fig. 3 2, 3 ); i n t he o ther, t he l inear o rnament f orms i nscribed t riangles ( near t he b ase; F ig. 3 2,5,). T hese f lint a nd c eramic a rtifacts a re s imilar t o t he f inds i n s uch s ettlements n ear t he D nieper r apids a s t he V ovnigy c amp-sites ( both o n t he r ight a nd l eft b anks), S obachky, V olchek , e tc., w hich a re a ssigned t o t he e arlier s tage o f t he L ate N eolithic i n t his r egion ( Telegin 1 968, 6 7-73). B urials o f t he 6 -2 g roup o riented t o t he n orth a nd n orth-west. A ll o f t he b urials w ere f ound i n t he s outh-western p art o f t he 6 -grave. J udging b y t he n umber o f s kulls, t en i ndividuals w ere b uried h ere. A mong t he b urials w ere f ive w ell o r n early w ell p reserved s keletons ( Nos. 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7, 1 8) a nd f ive s ingle s kulls ( Nos. 1 3, 2 9, 3 0 , 3 8, 4 3). I n a ddition, h ere w ere s ix i nstances o f h uman p ostcranial b ones l ying i n a natomic o rder ( Nos. 1 6a, 1 7a, 3 2 6 -A ) a nd a n umber o f i ndividual l ong b ones. T he o rientation w as o bserved f or 1 o f t he s keletons. N o g rave g oods w ere f ound n ear t he 6 -2 b urials. I n t he f ill o f t his p art o f t he g rave, t here w ere o nly f ound a f ragment o f a c omparatively b road b lade o f f lint ( Fig. 3 1, 4 2) a nd a s mall f lake. T he S tratigraphy o f t he B urials A ccording t o s tratigraphic o bservations, t he b urials i n t he o val g rave p its o f t he A -type w ere e arlier t han t hose i n t he l arge r ectangular g rave o f t he B -type. T his i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat t he r edc oloured f ill o f t he B -type i n i ts s outh-western p art o verlay t hree p its o f t he A -type ( Fig.25). T he m ore r ecent a ge o f t he b urials i n t he 6 -type g raves c ompared t o t hose i n t he A -type g raves i s a lso c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat s keleton N o. 3 2 i n t he A -type g rave w as c ut b y b urial N o. 3 2 o f t he 6 -type. J udging b y t he n umber o f s kulls, t he b urials o f t he A -type g roup c onsisted o f 2 5 s keletons i ncluding 2 1 s keletons i n g raves A 1-7 a nd f our s keletons ( Nos. 1 9, 2 0, 2 0a , 3 3), w hose g rave p its c ould b arely b e s een o r c ould n ot b e t raced a t a ll. I f t he e arlier d ate o f t he b urials i n t he A -type g raves, i n c omparison w ith t he b urials i n t he 6 -type g rave, i s u ndoubted, i t i s r ather d ifficult t o r esolve t he p roblem o n t he c hronological r elationship b etween t he g rave p its o f t he 6 -1 a nd 6 -2 t ypes , t hough t he e xistence o f t hese a s s eparate g roups i s a lso u ndoubted. B oth o f 6 0

F ig.

3 2

Y asinovatka c emetery. C eramics f rom t he 6 -pit ( 1-5) a nd a k nife-like b lade ( 6) f ound n ear s keleton N o. 6 5.

6 1

t hem o ccupied s eparate a reas i n t he 6 -grave a nd w ere d ifferently o riented. J udging b y t he n umber o f s kulls, t he 6 1 g roup i ncluded 3 3 b urials, w hile t he 5 -2 g roup c onsisted o f o nly 1 0 s keletons. I t i s q uite e vident t hat t he 6 -1 g rave w as b egun w ith t he f irst g roup o f b urials o riented t o t he n orth-east w hich o ccupied t wo t hirds o f t he a rea o f b urial. T he d epth o f t he r ed-coloured f ill w as t wo t imes g reater h ere t han t hat i n t he a rea o f t he 6 -2 g roup. I t i s l ikely t hat t he grave w as i nitially i ntended f or t he 5 -1 g roup b urials a nd o nly a t a l ater t ime w as i t e xtended t owards t he s outh-west t o a ccommodate b urials o f t he d ifferently o riented 6 -2 g roup. T herefore, i n t he d evelopment o f t he Y asinovatka c emetery i t i s q uite p ossible t o d istinguish t wo c hronological t ypes o f a n e arlier a nd a l ater p eriod. T he f ormer i s c haracterised b y s mall p its o f a n o val f orm , w hich w ere f illed w ith s ubsoil a nd w here s keletons w ere d eposited i n a s outh-eastern o rientation. I n t hese b urials w ere f ound s uch o rnaments a s p endants o f d eer t eeth , a nd a lso f ish t eeth. S ometimes, s uch o rnaments w ere r ecovered b y t he d ozens. F lint a rticles w ere s carce, t here w ere n o c eramics a t a ll. T he s econd s tage o f t he c emetery w as c haracterised b y a r ectangular g rave p it e ntirely s aturated w ith r ed o chre. T he d ead w ere d eposited h ere w ith h eads t o t he N E ( 6-1 g roup) a nd t o t he N NW ( 5-2 g roup). N ear t he b urials o f t he 6 -1 g roup, t here w ere f ound s uch o rnaments a s M ariupol-type p lates o f b oar t usk. I n t he f ill w ere f ound f lint a rtifacts a nd c eramic f ragments d ecorated w ith c omb-stroked o rnament. O nly i n o ne c ase w ere m et p endants o f d eer t eeth . T he b urials i n t he 6 -grave, w hich a re u ndoubtedly o f a l ater o rigin c ompared t o t he A -type g raves, s eem t o b e f rom d ifferent p eriods a s w ell. A mong t hem , t he b urials o f t he 6 -1 g roup s hould b e c onsidered t o b e t he e arliest a nd t he b urials o f t he 6 -2 g roup t o b e o f a l ater p eriod. H owever, t he c hronological i nterval b etween t hese g roups w as p robably n ot v ery l ong. J udging b y t he c omposition o f t he f lint f inds a nd t he t ypological c ompostion o f c eramics, t he Y asinovatka c emetery, i n g eneral, w as u ndoubtedly e arlier t han t he l atest c emeteries o f t his t ype i n t he D nieper v alley, e specially t hose o ffering c ollective g raves s uch a s N ikolskoye, L ysaya G ora, e tc. D escription o f B urials N o.l. S ingle s kull o f a 2 5 t o 3 0-year o ld f emale w ith n o m andible, l ying i n a s econdary p osition i n t he u pper p art o f t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave. N o.la.

Af ragment o f ac hild s kull o f 6o r 7y ears l ying n ear N o.l.

N o.2. As ingle s kull o f a5 0 t o 5 5-year o ld m ale i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave. N o.3. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he r ed-coloured f ill E xtended s upine p osition i n a natomic o rder.

o f t he 6 -grave.

N o.4. S ingle s kull o f a n a dult l ying i n t he r ed-coloured f ill u nder t he e astern e dge o f t he 6 -grave. A djacent t o i t l ay t he r emains o f a n a dult s keleton ( 4-a). 6 2

N o.5. B urials o f a n a ged m ale i n p osition, r ight h and n ear t he p elvis.

t he

A -7

g rave.

N o.5a. L eg b ones p robably i n a natomical o rder c oloured f ill a t t he e astern e dge o f t he 6-grave.

E xtended

l ying

i n

s upine

t he

r ed-

N os. 6 a nd 7 . T wo s ingle s kulls w ith n o m andibles l ying t ogether i n s econdary p ositions a mong o ther h uman b ones i n t he u pper p art o f t he r ed f ill o f t he 6-grave. N o.6 w as o f a 2 0 t o 3 0-year o ld f emale. N o.7 w as o f a5 0 t o 6 0-year o ld m ale. N os. 6 a-6. D amaged r emains o f a c hild b urial ( 6a) a nd o f a n a dult s keleton ( 66) a t t he n orth-western w all o f t he B -grave. S kulls w ere m issing. N earby w ere f ound d eciduous t eeth f rom b urial N o.66 . N os. 8 , p osition N o.8 w as w as a 5 0 N o.12 w as

9 , 1 0, 1, 1 2. S ingle s kulls w ith n o m andibles i n s econdary i n t he m iddle p art o f t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 5 -grave. a 4 0 t o 4 5-year o ld f emale. N o.9 w as a m ature m ale. N o.10 t o 5 5-year o ld m ale. N o.11 w as a 3 0 t o 3 5-year o ld m ale. a n a dolescent.

N os. 1 2a-q . t hree l ayers.

F ive d amaged a dult b urials w ith n o m andibles l ying i n A mong t hem w ere t wo s ingle s kulls ( Nos. 4 8-49).

N o.13. R emains o f a s ingle v ery p oorly p reserved s kull. I t i s l ikely t hat t he s keleton w as d estroyed b y a n E neolithic b urial l ying u nder a m ound. N o.14. B urial o f a n a dult e xtended i n t he s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N NW a t t he b ase o f t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave. A rms b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands o n t he p elvis. N o.15. B urial o f am ale i n t he f ill o f t he B -grave ( at i ts w estern e dge). E xtended s upine p osition, o riented N W , l egs s traightened, a rms b ent a t t he e lbows: t he r ight a rm w as n early a t ar ight a ngle, t he l eft a rm w as b ent a l ittle l ess. H ands p laced n ear a bdomen. N o.16. B urial o f a m ale l ying c lose t o s keleton N o.15. E xtended s upine p osition, s ame o rientation ( NW). T he r ight a rm w as s lightly b ent a t t he e lbow . H ands p laced n ear a bdomen. T he s kull l acked i ts m andible. N o. 1 6a. R emains o f a n a dult e xtended i n t he s upine p osition.

w ith

n o

s kull.

T he

d eceased

w as

N o. 1 7. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he E . -grave. E xtended s upine p osition, o riented t o t he N NW . N o. 1 7a. B urial o f a n a dolescent w ith n o s kull, c lose t o s keleton N o.17. T he d eceased w as e xtended i n t he s upine p osition , h ands n ear t he p elvis. N o. 1 8. B urial o f a n a ged m ale a t t he w estern e dge o f t he g rave. T he s keleton l ay p artly o utside t he r ed-coloured a rea i n t he y ellow c lay. E xtended s upine p osition, l egs a nd t he r ight a rm s traightened, N NW o rientation. T wo d eer t ooth p endants w ere f ound.

6 3

N os. 1 9, 2 0. T wo a dult b urials o verlain b y a r ed-coloured f ill. B oth w ere i n t he s ame p osition w ith s kulls c lose t ogether. I t i s p robable t hat t hey w ere i n a n o val g rave. S keleton N o. 2 0 l ay s omewhat l ower t han s keleton 1 9. T he l ong b ones w ere v ery p oorly p reserved. B oth o f t he d ead w ere e xtended i n t he s upine p osition w ith h eads t o t he S E . Ad eer t ooth p endant w as f ound. N o.20a. B ehind t he s kulls o f s keletons N os. 1 9 a nd 2 0 l ay t he r emains o f a s kull a nd t hree l ong b ones a t t he l evel o f s kulls 1 9 a nd 2 0. N o.21. B urial o f a n a dolescent i n g rave p it A 6. E xtended s upine p osition, h ead t o t he N W , l egs s traightened, a rm ( only t he r ight a rm w as p reserved) s lightly b ent. E ast a nd n orth o f t he s kull l ay h eaps o f l arge h uman b ones. N o.22. A s ingle s kull o f a n a dult l ying i n t he y ellow f ill a t t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he 6 -grave. N o m andible. C rushed. N o.23. S ingle s kull o f a 4 0 t o 4 5-year o ld m ale l ying i n t he r edc oloured f ill a t t he s outh-eastern c orner o f t he 6 -grave. S econdary p osition. O verlain b y l ong b ones. N o m andible. N o.24. B urial o f a 3 5 t o 4 0-year o ld m ale i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N E , a rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands o n t he p elvis. N os. 2 5 a nd 2 6. S ingle s kulls o f a dults a t t he b ottom o f t he r edc oloured f ill i n t he 6 -grave. N earby, i n d isorder, l ay l ong b ones. N os. 2 7, 2 8, 2 9. S ingle s kulls o f a dults i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave u nder i ts s outh-eastern w all a mong v arious h uman b ones; N o.27 w as o f a5 0 t o 5 5-year o ld m ale. N o.30. S ingle c hild s kull o f 5 o r 6 y ears a t t he b ottom o f t he r edc oloured f ill i n 6 -grave. N o.31. B urial o f a n a dult. O nly t he s kull a nd f ragments o f h umeral b ones w ere p reserved l ying i n t he u pper p art o f g rave A -2. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S E . N o.32. B urial o f a 4 0 t o 4 5-year o ld m ale. T he p reserved p arts o f t he s keleton i nclude t he s kull, s ome b ones o f t he c hest a nd t he l eft a rm , a nd t he c lavicles. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S E , s prinkled w ith r ed o chre. N os. 3 2a-e. R emains o f s ix a dult b urials w ith n o s kulls a t t he b ottom o f t he r ed-coloured f ill i n t he s outh-eastern p art o f t he S g rave. N os. 3 2a a nd 3 2e w ere o riented t o t he N E , t he o thers w ere d irected t o t he N W a nd N ( No. 3 2 ) . N o.33. B urial o f a n a dult e xtended i n t he s upine p osition. A mong t he p reserved p arts w ere o nly t he s kull a nd f ragments o f h umeral b ones. T hese r emains w ere f ound o utside t he r ed a rea o f t he 6 -grave. T he s keleton w as p robably c ut.

6 4

N o.34. S ingle s kull o f 5o r 6 -year o ld c hild w ith n o m andible i n t he r ed f ill o f t he 5-g rave. N o.35. B urial o f a n a dult i n t he 5 -grave. h ead t o t he N E. C ut b y N o.36 ( Fig. 2 6,3).

E xtended

p osition w ith

N o.36. A dult b urial i n a n arrow o val p it i n t he y ellow c lay a t t he b ottom o f t he 6 -grave. W ell-preserved. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N E f acing u pward. L egs s traightened, a rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands o n t he p elvis ( Fig. 2 6,3). N os. 3 7 a nd 3 8. S ingle s kulls o f a f emale a nd ( No. 3 8) i n t he r ed f ill o f t he 6-g rave.

p robably

o f

a m ale

N o.39.

A dult b urial i n a s hallow o val g rave p it ( A-3) u nder t he S O verlain b y t he r ed-coloured f ill. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he S E . T o t he r ight o f t he s kull l ay a C yprinidae t ooth . g rave.

N os. 4 0, 4 1, 4 2. G roup g rave p it A -4 f illed w ith s ubsoil. T he s keletons w ere l ightly s prinkled w ith o chre a nd i n e xtended s upine p ositions w ith h eads t o t he S E ( Fig.33). N o.40 w as a 7 o r 8 -year o ld c hild; N o.41 w as a 6 o r 7 -year o ld c hild; N o.42 - b urial o f a n a ged f emale. N ear t he f eet o f N o.40 , ad eer t ooth p endant w as f ound. N o.43. S ingle s kull o f a f emale a mong t he s outh-western e dge o f t he 6-g rave. N os. N o.45.

v arious

h uman

b ones o utside

4 4, 4 6, 4 7. S ingle s kulls o f a dults i n t he g rave f ill o f b urial M andibles w ere m issing. N os.44 a nd 4 7 w ere o f m ales.

N o.45. A n a dult b urial i n a n o val e longated g rave p it i n t he y ellow b ottom o f t he 6 -grave. E xtended s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N E f acing u pward ( Fig. 2 6,1). H eavily c oloured. A n o rnament o f 1 1 M ariupol-type p lates a nd t wo f ragments o f k nife-like b lades w ere f ound ( Fig. 3 1, 1 6, 4 1). N o.47-a. R emains o f a n a dult b urial l ying i n t he l ower p art o f t he r ed-coloured f ill a t t he b ottom o f 6 -grave. N os. 4 8 a nd 4 9. S ingle s kulls o f a dults i n t he r ed-coloured f ill o f t he 6 -grave a mong t he r emains o f b urials N os. 1 2a-r . N o.50. A n a dult b urial i n a n o val e longated p it d ug u nder t he n orthern w all o f t he 6 -grave i n t he y ellow s oil a t i ts b ase. T he d epth o f t he p it f rom t he b ottom o f t he 5 -grave w as a bout 3 5 c m . T he d ead w as i n t he s upine p osition w ith h ead t o t he N E f acing t he r ight s ide. L egs s traightened, a rms s lightly b ent a t t he e lbows, h ands n ear t he p elvis. T he f eet a nd t he s kull w ere a bout 2 0-30 c m . h igher t han t he p elvis. N os. 5 1 a nd 5 2. S ingle s kulls o f am ale ( No.52) a nd a c hild o f a bout 6y ears ( No.51) a t t he b ottom o f t he s outhern s lope o f t he B -grave. N os. 5 3, 5 4, 6 1, 6 2, 6 3, 6 4. S ix b urials i n t he A -1 g rave p it. S keleton N o. 5 3 w as a t t he t op, t hen s omewhat l ower w as N o. 6 1, a nd s till l ower w ere N os. 5 4, 6 2, 6 3, 6 4. A natomical o rder w as o bserved o nly f or t hree s keletons ( Nos. 5 4, 6 3, 6 4). N os. 6 3 a nd 6 4 w ere w ell 6 5

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1 26

m illennium

B eginning o f

m illennium

A BSOLUTE A GE

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M ariupol-type c emetery a t G ospitalny K holm o n t he O rel r iver w hich l ies o utside t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids. T he c eramic f inds f rom t his s ite a re a lso r elated t o t hose o f t he C herkassy v ariant o f t he D nieperD onets c ulture. I t i s m uch m ore d ifficult t o s olve t he p roblem o f t he c ultural r elationships b etween t he b urials i n A lexandria o n t he O skol, w here c eramics w ere l acking. H owever, t he p resence o f t he l arge-sized k nifel ike b lades i n t he g raves i ndicates t hat t hese b urials s hould b elong t o t he e nd o f t he N eolithic/early E neolithic p eriod. A t t his t ime o n t he O rel a nd t he N orth D onets, t here w ere s ettlements o f b oth t he S redny S tog c ulture a nd t he r ecently d istinguished Z asukha t ype. C eramics o f t he Z asukha t ype w ere a bundant i n t he s ettlement o f A lexandria w here a g roup g rave w as u ncovered. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t hese c eramic f inds a re d irectly r elated t o t he g roup g rave. I n a ddition, a s ingle g rave ( No. 9 ) a nd a p aired g rave ( No. 5 ) w ith b urials i n e xtended s upine p osition w ere e xamined b y o ur e xpedition d irectly i n t he s ettlement o f Z asukha o n t he O rel r iver ( Fig.53). T he s ettlements o f t he Z asukha t ype a re g enetically r elated d irectly t o t he b urial m onuments o f t he s econd s tage o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture o n t he M iddle D nieper a nd r epresent t he t hird p eriod o f t his c ulture i n t he L eft-Bank U kraine. C onsequently, t his p resents a s olid b asis f or a ttributing t he g roup b urial i n A lexandria a nd t he p aired g rave i n Z asukha t o t he b urial m onuments o f t he Z asukha t ype a nd d ating t hem t o t he t hird p eriod o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. I n c onclusion, t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i n t he D nieper r apidsA zov, C herkassy a nd t he D onets r egions s hould b e a ttributed t o t hree r egional v ariants o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture t he D nieperr apids/Azov r egion, t he C herkassy a nd t he D onets v ariants. A bsolute C hronology T he p roblem o f t he c ultural a ttribution o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s c onnected w ith t he p roblem o f d etermining t heir a bsolute a ge. A mong t hese c emeteries t he a ge o f t he B -2 t ype m onuments i s b est d ated. W e h ave i n m ind t he T ripolye v essel o f t he B orisovka t ype f ound i n t he N ikolskoye c emetery. T he l atter b elongs t o t he t ransition p eriod f rom T ripolye A t o s tage B -1. T he s ynchronization o f t he l atest b urials i n t he N ikolskoye c emetery w ith t he e arly s tage o f t he T ripolye c ulture i s a lso c onfirmed b y a n a nalysis o f t he c opper a rtifacts ( Chernykh 1 966). T he e arly s tage o f t he T ripolye c ulture ( stage A , P re-Cucuteni I II), o n t he b asis o f t he r adiocarbon a nd a rchaeomagnetic d ata, b elongs t o t he s econd q uarter o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. ( Telegin 1 985, 1 986). T he T ripolye v essel i n t he N ikolskoye c emetery i s r elated t o t he l atest p hases o f i ts f unction, w hile t he c emetery i tself, a s m entioned a bove, i s t he l atest a mong t he m onuments o f t his t ype. T his ' reference' p oint e nables u s t o a ttribute t he c emeteries o f t he B -2 s tage t o t he f irst h alf o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. T his c onclusion i s i n g ood a greement w ith t he r adiocarbon d ates o btained a t t he K iev l aboratory f or t he f ollowing c emeteries: N ikolskoye c emetery ( pit 3) 3 690+400; Y asinovatka ( pit B ) - 3 850 + 3 00; O sipovka ( burial N o. 5 3) 3 990 3 E 4 20, 4 125 + 4 00 y ears b .c. T he u nusual b one o rnament ( Fig. 2 3,3), w hich w as f ound i n t he c ollective g rave o f t he O sipovka c emetery a nd i s a nalgous t o t he f inds f rom t he l ayers o f t he f irst h alf o f t he

1 27

1

F ig.

5 3

2

M ariupol-type b urials f rom t he l atest s tage ( C) f rom t he c emeteries o f A lexandria ( 1) a nd Z asukha ( 2).

1 28

4 th m illennium b .c. i n R akushechny a greement w ith t his c onclusion.

Y ar

o n

t he

L ower

D on,

i s

a lso

i n

T he c ultural a nd c hronological p lacement o f t he B -2 s tage c emeteries m akes i t p ossible t o d etermine a pproximately t he c hronology o f t he o ther t wo s tages. I f w e t ake i nto a ccount a d irect r elationship b etween t he t hree s tages o f t he c emeteries, o ne m ay c onclude t hat, i n t erms o f c ulture a nd c hronology, t he c emeteries o f s tages A a nd B -1 s hould t o s ome e xtent c orrespond t o t he f irst p eriod o f s tage I I-a o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids, w hile t he s ingle b urials o f s tage C f ollow t he l atest m onuments o f t he S redny S tog I I t ype ( Telegin 1 968). I t i s p robable t hat t hey s hould b e u nderstood a s a r elic p henomenon o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture r elating t o t he E arly E neolithic p eriod. T herefore, t he c emeteries o f t he A -B1 s tage m ay b e c hronologically a ssigned t o t he e nd o f t he 5 th m illennium - t he f irst q uarter o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c., a nd t he l atest s tage C s hould b e a ssigned t o t he b eginning o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. O n t he w hole, t he c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype a re d ated t o t he e nd o f t he 5 th - b eginning o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. B eliefs a nd S ocial R elationships T he M ariupol-type c emeteries, a ssociated w ith r ather s table b urial r ites o ver a n umber o f c enturies, i ndicate s ome s pecific n orms o f r eligious b ehaviour. I n c ontrast t o m any o ther c ultures o f t hat t ime t he d ead w ere b uried i n t he e xtended s upine p osition a nd s prinkled w ith o chre. T he d ead c ould b e d eposited i n n umbers i n o ne s ingle g rave p it a nd, a l ittle l ater, c ollective g raves c ame i nto u se. T he d ead w ere l aid f acing u p w ith l egs s traight a nd c losed, a rms a t t he s ide a nd c lose t o t he t runk, h ands a t t he s ide o r o n t he p elvis. S uch a p osition o f a rms a nd h ands s eems t o h ave b een c onstant i n t he b urial r ite f or a l ong t ime a nd w as f ollowed, a lmost w ithout e xception, e ven i n s uch c ases, f or i nstance, w hen a n a dult w as b uried t ogether w ith a b aby. A n i llustrative e xample i s f urnished a t O sipovka a nd V ilnyanka, w hen a f emale ( likely t o h ave b een a m other) d oes n ot h old t he b aby i n t he u sual m anner b ut o nly e mbraces i t a t t he s ide w ith o ne s traightened a rm. O ne o f t he d istinguishing f eatures o f t he b urial r ite i s t hat i n m ost c ases t he s keletons w ere h eavily c ontracted a t t he s ides. T his m ay b e i ndicative o f t he f act t hat p rior t o b urial t he d ead w ere t ightly b ound o r s waddled. I t i s p robable t hat i n t he D nieper v alley a nd i n s ome o ther t erritories ( Zveinieky, V edbek, S erovo), w here a s imilar b urial r itual i s a lso k nown, t he p eople l ived i n f ear o f t he d ead. T he d ead, a s m entioned a bove, w ere b uried i n s ingle p its, g roup a nd c ollective g raves. O ver t he c enturies s ome d etails o f t he b urial r itual c ould n ot r emain i nvariable. A t t he e arliest s tage, w hen i t w as t he c ustom t o b ury t he d ead i n r epeatedly u sed g roup g raves, t he s keletons o f t he p revious b urials w ere t reated w ith c are a nd, u sually, t hey r emained u ndisturbed. A q uite d ifferent c ustom a rose w hen c ollective g raves c ame i nto p ractice. A t t his t ime t he r emains o f t he p revious b urials w ere d estroyed, a nd t he b ones, e xcept f or t he s kulls, w ere r emoved o r t hrown o ut o f t he g raves. T herefore, a s m entioned a bove, i n s ome o f t he g raves o nly s kulls w ere f ound. S ometimes, t hey w ere i n a mounts o f t wo o r f our d ozens ( Nikolskoye a nd L ysaya G ora) a nd u sually l ay i n a d istant c orner f rom t he e ntrance i nto t he b urial 1 29

v ault. I t i s p robable t hat t he s kulls w ere h eld s acred a nd v enerated. I t s hould b e n oted t hat i n m ost c ases t he s kulls h ad n o m andibles ( Osipovka). A ll t his p oints t o t he f ormation o f t he c ult o f t he s kull, w hich w as w idely s pread, a ccording t o e thnographic d ata, a mong p rimitive p eople. T hus, f or e xample, t he G olds ( a s mall n ationality i n S iberia) s ave s kulls o f t heir f athers a nd g randfathers, w hile t he Y ukagirs a nd t he N enetz p eople s ave s haman's h eads o r s kulls ( Vedetskaya 1 980). T herefore, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat i n t he m ost a ncient ( first) b urial o f t he V ovnigy I c emetery t he s kull w as m issing, w hile t he o ther b ones o f t he s keleton w ere w ell p reserved ( Rudynsky 1 956, f ig.8). B urials o f s eparate s kulls a re a lso k nown i n t he c ultures o f t he N ear E ast s uch a s M ureybit a nd A bu-Hureyra ( Merpert a nd M unchayev 1 984, 3 11). T he N eolithic p eople o f t he D nieper v alley b elieved d eeply i n t he m agical p ower o f f ire. I n a ddition, t hey b elieved i n r ed o chre a s a s ubstitute f or f ire a nd p owdered t he d ead w ith i t. A d etailed d escription o f r ed o chre a s a s ymbol o f t he h earth, b lood o r f ire h as b een g iven i n l iterature ( Okladnikov 1 950, 4 07-409), t herefore, i t w ill b e o mitted f rom o ur d escription. A s f ar a s r eal f ire i s c oncerned, w here t races h ave b een n oticed i n t he b urials o f t he l atest s tages o f t he c emeteries, i ts r ole m ay b e i nterpreted i n t wo w ays. O n t he o ne h and, f ire w as u sed p rimarily f or c learing t he g rave p it o ut o f f oul o dours a nd, h ence, t o p erform a s ort o f d isinfection. O n t he o ther h and, t he m agical p ower a ttributed t o f ire p layed t he p art o f a c leaner a nd d efender o f m an. T he u se o f f ire f or s uch a p urpose i n t he b urial r ite o f p rimitive p eople i s w idely k nown f rom e thnographic s ources. T he i nformation o btained f rom t he b urials c an t hrow s ome l ight o n t he w orld v iew o f t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he t erritory u nder i nvestigation, i n p articular, t heir u nderstanding o f t he s oul i n t he o ther w orld. T he p resence o f t ools i n t he g raves p oints t o t he b elief t hat t he d ead w ill c ontinue t o l ive i n t he n ext w orld i n t he s ame w ay a s t hey l ived b efore d eath, t hat i s, t hey w ill c ontinue t o o ccupy t hemselves i n h unting o r f ishing, m ake t ools a nd n eed t he o rnaments t hey u sed t o w ear i n t his w orld. I t i s p robable t hat b y t he f inal p eriod o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries, t he p eople b egan c elebrating s omething o f a f uneral f east. T his m ay b e e videnced b y a g reat n umber o f v essels f ound i n t he a rea o f s uch c emeteries a s N ikolskoye a nd L ysaya G ora. I t i s p robable t hat t hese v essels w ere u sed f or t ransporting f ood a nd d rink. I n a ddition, t he r ed-coloured s oil o f t he N ikolskoye c emetery c ontained i ndividual b ones a nd t eeth o f a b ull a nd a h orse, w hose f lesh w as e aten d uring t he f east. A ccording t o t he c ustom o f t hat t ime, t he v essels w ere r itually w asted b y b eing b roken a nd t his i s e vident f rom t he p resence o f r egularly r ounded h oles i n t he b ottoms o f t he v essels p robably m ade b y a s olid o bject. S uch h oles m ay b e f ormed o nly w hen t he b low i s d elivered i ntentionally a nd h eavily. I t i s p robable t hat, a s m entioned a bove, t his c ustom w as a dopted f rom t he N ear E astern c ultures. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he c ustom o f b reaking v essels a t t he g rave h as a lso b een n oticed i n s ome o ther c ultures o f t he B ronze A ge, s uch a s t he T shinets c ulture. T he m aterial f rom t he c emeteries s uggests o nly t he i nitial f orms o f s ocial d ifferentiation a mong t he N eolithic s ociety i n t he D nieper v alley. T he e quality o f a ll t he m embers o f t he t ribal c ommunity w as

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e vident f rom t he g roup g raves. A mong t hem , t here w as n o b urial w hich c ould b e d istinguished b y r ich g rave g oods o r b y s pecific c haracteristics o f t he b urial r itual. H owever, t he p resence o f s tone m aces i n s ome o f t he c emeteries w as a n i ndication o f a n i nstitution o f c hiefs o r l eaders. I t i s p robable t hat a mong t he m embers o f t he t ribal a ssociation t here w ere i ndividuals d iffering f rom t he o thers b y t heir p roficiency i n m aking s ome c ategories o f a rtifacts. T hus, t he f inds f rom o ne o f t he b urials i n t he M ariupol c emetery p rompted N . M akarenko t o d istinguish t he b urial o f a c raftsman s killfull i n m aking o rnaments o f b one a nd t eeth, w ho w as l ikely t o h ave b een t he m aker o f n umerous M ariupol-type p lates f ound t here n ear t he s keletons. I t g oes w ithout s aying t hat t he i nformation o btained f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s o f g reat i mportance i n e valuating t he s ocial a nd f amily s tructure o f t he s ociety. T his p roblem h as a lready b een s pecificaly a ddressed b y M . D . K hlobystina ( 1979). I n a nalysing t he m aterial f rom t he V ilnyanka c emetery, K hlobystina c oncluded t hat t he b urial r ite o f t he D nieper-Donets p opulation r epresented a s eries o f c omplexes t hat w ere m ixed b oth s exually a nd a cross g enerations w hich s upplanted t he m ore a ncient c omplex o f s ingle s ex a nd s ingle g enerational M esolithic g raves i n t he s ame a rea o f t he D nieper r apids. O n t he w hole, t he c onclusion o f M .D. K hlobystina t hat t he M ariupol-type c emeteries w ere t he c ommonly u sed p laces f or b urying m ales a nd f emales d ifferent i n a ge, a s w ell a s a dolescents a nd c hildren, h as b een s upported b y a ll t he a vailable e vidence. A r elatively l ow p roportion o f c hild a nd p articularly i nfant s keletons, a s c ompared t o o ther b urials, m ay b e e xplained b y t he p oor p reservation o f t heir r emains. H owever, t he p ossibility o f s eparate c hildren's c emeteries i s n ot e xcluded. T hus, f or i nstance, a t t he L ysaya G ora c emetery, t hree o f t he f ive g rave p its c ontained o nly t he r emains o f c hildren. T here a re t wo o ther p roblems r equiring s ome c omment: t he f unctional d uration o f s ome o f t he c emeteries a s p laces p eriodically u sed f or b urying t he d ead, a nd t he r easons f or t he c oncentration o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i n c ertain t erritories, i n p articular, i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids. T he e vidence i ndicates t hat i n m ost c ases t he M ariupol-type c emeteries f unctioned f or a c omparatively l ong t ime. F rom t his p oint o f v iew, w e w ill c onsider t wo o f t hem i n m ore d etail: t he N ikolskoye c emetery a s t he l argest i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids, a nd t he Y asinovatka a s t he b est p reserved c emetery. I n t he N ikolskoye c emetery, o n t he w hole, 1 37 b urials w ere s tudied. U nfortunately, s ome o f t he g raves ( about 2 0-30) w ere w ashed a way p rior t o e xcavation. T herefore, w e c an c onsider t he o verall t otal t o h ave b een a bout 1 60-170 b urials. A ccording t o t he d emographic i nformation o btained f rom t he c emeteries, t he m ean l ength o f l ife f or t he D nieperD onets p eople w as a pproximately 3 0 y ears. I f w e a ssume t hat t he n umber o f a t ribal a ssociation w hich y ielded a c emetery w as a bout 2 0-30 p ersons, i t m eans t hat t he c emetery f unctioned f or a bout 2 00 y ears. T he Y asinovatka c emetery, w here 6 8 g raves w ere e xcavated, f unctioned f or a bout 1 00 y ears. I t i s n ot a t a ll i mprobable t hat t his c emetery f unctioned c ontinuously a s i s i ndicated b y t he c hanges i n t he b urial r itual.

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T he r easons f or t he c oncentration o f t he o verwhelming m ajority ( more t han 8 0 p er c ent) o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i n t he v icinity o f t he D nieper r apids s hould b e a ttributed t o t he c haracter o f t he p articular c limatic a nd g eographical c onditions i n t his a rea o f t he D nieper v alley. I t i s p robable t hat t he h uge f ish r esources a nd c omparatively s imple f ishing m ethods u sed a t t he r apids, e specially i n t he p eriod o f s pawning, c ontributed g reatly t o a s ettled w ay o f l ife a mong t he N eolithic t ribes. I t i s n atural t hat s uch a c oncentration o f p eople i n t he v icinity o f t he D nieper r apids w as f ollowed b y t he c onstruction o f l arge c emeteries n ear t he s ettlements. I n o ther s ites o f t he D nieper v alley w here p eople h ad a m ore m obile w ay o f l ife, t he c onditions f or d eveloping s uch b urial m onuments w ere l ess f avourable. F or e xample, b ecause o f a c ascade o f m an-made p onds o n t he M iddle D nieper, t he p ossibilities o f l ocating s ubstantial M ariupol-type c emeteries i n t his r egion a re n o l ess t han i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids. J ust a s w ith t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids, t he p rocess o f i ntense e rosion o f t he l oessic b ank s ides h ere i s s till v ery m uch i n p rogress. I f N eolithic c emeteries h ad b een c onstructed o n t he r iver t erraces o f t he M iddle D nieper, t hey w ould i nevitably h ave b een d iscovered b y n ow. I n e mphasizing t he f avourable c onditions f or i nhabiting t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids b y t he N eolithic p eople, o ne s hould t ake i nto a ccount t he f act t hat a s ettled w ay o f l ife w as a lso e stablished h ere d uring t he M esolithic. T his i s e videnced b y t he p resence b oth o f p ermanent M esolithic s ettlements ( Igren-8, O sokorovka) a nd l arge M esolithic c emeteries. I t i s p robable t hat t he h abitation s ites i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids d uring t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic w ere v ery v aluable. I t i s n ot i mprobable t hat t his l ed t o a rmed c onflicts b etween t he r esident g roups. E vidence f or w arfare i s s een f rom b urials ( Vasilyevka, V oloshskoye) w here w arriors h ad b een k illed b y a rrows ( Telegin 1 982, 2 20-221). I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids w as n ot t he o nly p lace i n t he M eso-Neolithic p eriod, w here a rmed c onflicts d eveloped f or c ontrol o f a dvantageous f ishing s ites. B urials w ith a rrows b etween t he b ones o f t he d eceased w ere d iscovered, f or i nstance, i n s uch c emeteries a s S chela C ladovei i n R omania ( Boroneant 1 973) a nd J ebel S ahaba i n S udanese N ubia ( Clark 1 977, 1 53). T hese t wo c emeteries a s w ell a s t he c emeteries i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids w ere s ituated i n l ocations m ost s uitable f or f ishing: n ear t he s o-called I ron G ates o n t he D anube a nd i n t he v icinity o f t he r apids a nd r ifts o n t he U pper N ile.

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C hapter 6 T HE C ULTURAL A ND H ISTORICAL P OSITION O F T HE M ARIUPOL-TYPE C EMETERIES T he M ariupol-type c emeteries h ave b een r epeatedly d iscussed b y m any i nvestigators. I n h is o wn t ime, N . M akarenko ( 1933) a ssigned M ariupol t o t he N eolithic. H e w as a bsolutely r ight w hen h e d istinguished t wo p arts: t he f irst ( main) g roup i ncluded a ll t he b urials i n t he m ain p itt rench, a nd t he s econd g roup w as r epresented b y b urials i n c ontracted p ositions ( Nos. 2 1, 2 4, e tc.). T he a ssociation o f t he l atter w ith a s pecific c hronological g roup h as b ecome o bvious o nly r ecently a s a r esult o f d istinguishing t he N ovodanilovka-type E neolithic c emeteries i n t he s outh o f t he U kraine ( Telegin 1 985). I n t he 1 950's t he M ariupol c emetery a nd t he o ther k nown c emeteries o f t his t ype i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids w ere s tudied b y A .D. S tolyar ( 1955) w ho w as t he f irst t o d ivide t hese b urial m onuments i nto p eriods a nd d etermine t heir c ultural r elationship. T he q uestion o f t he p lace o ccupied b y t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a mong o ther c ontemporaneous m onuments i n E urasia h as b een d iscussed i n t wo s tudies b y t he a uthor ( Telegin 1 966; 1 968, 1 85-189). T he M ariupol c emetery h as d rawn t he a ttention o f m any f oreign i nvestigators a s w ell. T hus, M . G arasanin p ointed t o t he r elationship b etween t his b urial m onument a nd t he e vidence f or a ncient s teppe i nfluence o n t he B alkans w hich i s b est r epresented i n t he c emetery o f D ecea M uresului. T he c ultural a nd c hronological a greement b etween t he M ariupol c emetery a nd t he D ecia c emetery w as a lso r emarked b y A . H äusler ( 1962, 1 067). A t p resent, t he q uestion o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries h as c ome i nto i mportance b ecause o f t he p roblem o f t he r elationship b etween t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he D nieper v alley a nd t he T RB c ulture i n n orthern E urope ( Lichardus 1 976; H äusler 1 981; D olukhanov a nd T retyakov 1 974). H owever, t hese r elationships w ere d iscussed o n t he b asis o f r elatively l imited i nformation b oth b ecause o f t he l ack o f p ublished d ata o n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f t he U kraine a nd b ecause o f t he l imited n umber o f b urial m onuments i n t he a djacent t erritories. F or t he l ast 1 0-15 y ears, t he s ituation i n t his f ield h as b een c onsiderably i mproved. I n a ddition t o t he w ell-known M esolithic a nd N eolithic c emeteries, n umbers o f m onuments o f s imilar a ge h ave b een d iscovered i n v arious p laces o f E urasia. H ere s hould b e m entioned f irst o f a ll t he e xcavations o f a N eolithic c emetery n ear t he v illage o f S 'ezzheye o n t he L ower V olga a nd a n umber o f c emeteries i n t he f orest z one o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U .S.S.R., i n t he e ast o f t he B altic S ea a reas a nd K arelia: P opovo, V ladychino, Z veinieky, A bora, K ratuonas, S yamozero, e tc. O f p articular i nterest a re t he M esolithicN eolithic c emeteries w ith b urials i n e xtended p ositions f ound i n D enmark ( Vedbaek), L ower S axony ( Peversdorf), o n t he M iddle D anube ( Schela C ladovei) a nd i n s ome o ther p laces o f E urope. A g reat b ody o f i nformation h as b een o btained o n t he c haracter o f t he M esolithic, N eolithic a nd C halcolithic b urials i n t he l ands o f t he N ear E ast. A s f ar b ack a s t he 1 960 's, t he c ultural a nd h istorical p lace o f c ulture c emeteries ( Telegin 1 966). 1 33

a uthor a dvanced a m odel f or t he t he M ariupol-type D nieper-Donets A t t hat t ime w e p roposed t he i dea

o f t wo l arge r egions o r z ones i n E urasia d iffering i n b urial r itual: t he n orthern z one a ssociated w ith b urials i n e xtended s upine p osition i ncluding t he M ariupol-type c emeteries, a nd t he s outhern z one w here t he r itual f or b urying t he d ead i n c ontracted p osition w as p redominant. T he c emeteries o f t hese z ones a re a lso d ifferent i n s ome o ther c haracteristics. T his p oint o f v iew w as s ubsequently s upported b y G . N . M atyushin ( 1970). T he r ecent s tudies o f t he c emeteries o f t he 5 th-3rd m illennium b .c. h ave g enerally p rovided s upport f or t hese c onclusions a nd i ntroduced s ome c orrections i nto o ur u nderstanding o f t his p roblem . T he d iscussion o f t he p roblem o f t he c ultural a nd h istorical p lace o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries s hould b e c ommenced w ith a c omparative a nalysis o f t he m ain c haracteristics o f t he c emeteries a nd t he b urial m onuments i n a djacent t erritories. F irst o f a ll, w e r efer t o b urial i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, t he g roup c haracter o f g raves, t he c overing o f t he d eceased w ith r ed o chre, a nd g rave g oods s pecific t o t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he a bsence o f c eramics. A n umber o f c emeteries o f t he N eolithic-Early M etal p eriod w ith e xtended b urials, o ften s prinkled w ith o chre, w ere e xcavated i n t he a rea o f L ake B aikal: I sakovka, S erovo, K itoy, e tc. ( Okladnikov 1 950, 6 7-93). S imilar i n r itual c haracter w as t he r ecently e xcavated c emetery o f C huchur-Muran o n t he L ena r iver ( Fedoseeva 1 980, 8 1-86). T he i nventory f ound i n t hese N eolithic b urials w as t ypical f or t he l ocal h unting a nd f ishing c ultures. I n c omparing t he f inds f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i t i s o nly p ossible t o p oint o ut s ome c ommon f orms o f o rnaments, s uch a s a nnular b eads, b oth i n t he U kraine a nd S iberia. T he o ther f orms o f t he i nventory a re d ifferent. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he g raves i n C huchur-Muran w ere o ften o f a g roup c haracter a nd c ontained f rom t wo t o f ive s keletons e ach. I n t his r espect, t hey r esemble t he A -type g raves o f t he c emeteries i n t he U kraine. N o c eramics w ere f ound e ither i n t he b urials o f t he C huchur-Muran c emetery a nd t he E arly K hin-type b urials i n t he B aikal a rea o r i n t he c emeteries o f t he U kraine. I t i s p robable t hat i n t he b urials o f t he B aikal a rea p ottery f irst a ppeared i n P remetal t imes ( the I sakovka g roup), b ut t he m ain b ody o f c eramics w as f ound i n t he b urials o f t he E arly M etal s tage, w hen t here a ppeared b urials i n t he c ontracted p osition ( the S erovo s tage). A mong t he m ore r ecently i nvestigated b urial m onuments o f t he N eolithic i n t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR, t he e xcavations o f a c emetery n ear t he v illage o f S 'ezzheye, K uibyshev r egion, i s o f p articular i mportance f or u nderstanding t he c ultural a nd h istorical p lace o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries ( Vasiliev a nd M atveeva 1 976). A ll n ine o f t he N eolithic b urials w ere i n e xtended s upine p ositions, s prinkled w ith o chre a nd a ccompanied w ith n umerous g rave g oods. T he b urials w ere i n s eparate g rave p its. A g reat a mount o f c eramics, s uch a s v essels i n f ragments ( in m ost c ases t heir f orms h ave b een r estored), w as f ound n ear t he r itual g round w ithin t he l imits o f t he c emetery. T he v essels, i n c ontrast t o t he o ther a rticles o f t he i nventory, c ould n ot b e r elated t o a ny o f t hese n ine b urials. I t i s p robable t hat t hey a ppeared i n t he a rea o f t he c emetery, a s i n t he c ase o f t he D nieperv alley c emeteries, a s a r esult o f a f uneral f east. T he f inds f rom t he 1 34

S 'ezzheye c emetery w ill b e d escribed i n d etail b elow i n c omparison w ith t he m aterial f rom t he D nieper v alley c emeteries. I n t he f orest z one o f E astern E urope, t he r itual o f b urying t he d ead i n t he e xtended p osition p redominated d uring t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic p eriods, f or i nstance, i n t he c emeteries o f K ubenino ( Foss 1 952, 2 15), P anfilovo ( Bader 1 936), K aravaikha ( Bryusov 1 941, 5 -12), V olodary ( Tsvetkova 1 948), a nd S akhtysh-1, 2 , 8 ( Gadzyatskaya a nd K rainov 1 973). A s a r ule, t hey w ere s ingle b urials. P aired o r g roup g raves o ccurred m uch m ore r arely a nd c ontained t hree o r f our s keletons e ach ( Sakhtysh-2) e xcept f or o ne g rave ( No. 6 ) i n t he C hernaya G ora c emetery w here f our a ccumulations o f h uman b ones ( 20 s keletons i n t otal) l ying o ut o f a natomical o rder w ere d iscovered ( Tsvetkova 1 970, 1 27-131). O ne o f t he p eculiar f eatures o f t he b urial r itual i n t he f orest z one w as t he p resence o f t he d eceased l aid i n t he p rone p osition ( Karavaikha, S akhtysh-2). T races o f o chre w ere n oticed i n t he m ajority o f t he c emeteries i n t his r egion ( Karavaikha, K ubenino, C hernaya G ora e tc.). I n s ome c ases, f or e xample, i n Y azykovo a nd I lovets ( Urban a nd I vanovskaya 1 970, 3 0 , 3 5), N avolok ( Sidorov 1 979, 7 0), K onchansk ( Zimina 1 980, 8 , 9 ), e tc., t he b urials w ere o nly i n t he f orm o f e longated p its w ith a f ew s pots o f o chre. C eramics w ere a bsent a nd o rnaments w ere f ew i n n umber. T herefore, t he c ultural a ffinity o f t hese b urials p resents d ifficulties. A s a r ule, t hey a re r elated t o t he P it-Comb W are c ulture o r t he V olosovo c ulture, w hich i s e vident f rom t he c omposition o f t ools a nd d ecorations f ound n ear t he s keletal r emains. A mong t hese o rnaments, p endants o f w ild-animal t eeth w ere p redominant. T he V olosovo c emeteries c ontained o rnaments o f a mber. A s s een f rom t he a bove d escription, a mber o rnaments w ere a bsent f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries; t he d eer t ooth p endants w ere a lso o f a d ifferent t ype. T he b urial r ites a ssociated w ith t he N eolithic c emeteries i n t he f orest z one w ere i n m any r espects s imilar t o t hose o f t he N eolithic c emeteries i n t he a reas o f t he B altic S ea, L ake L adoga a nd K arelia. T he e xtended s upine p osition o f t he d eceased p revailed t hrough t he w hole o f t his t erritory. I n m ost c ases, t he s keletons w ere c overed w ith r ed o chre. S imilar r ituals w ere n oticed, f or i nstance, i n t he c emeteries o f O leny O strov ( Gurina 1 956), K reichy a nd Z veinieky ( Zagorsky 1 962, 1 974), A bora ( Loze 1 968, 3 7), K rautuonas ( Butrimas a nd G irininkas 1 980) a nd D onkalnis ( Butrimas a nd G irinkas 1 983) i n t he t erritory o f L atvia a nd L ithuania a nd a lso i n b urials n ear t he s ettlements o f N arva, T amula a nd V alma i n E stonia ( Yanits 1 959, 9 2, 1 01, 1 05) a nd i n t he c emeteries o f C hernaya G uba a nd S yamozero i n K arelia ( Pankrushev 1 978, 6 7, 6 9). B urials w ith d ifferent p ositions o f t he d eceased w ere e xceptional i n t hese c emeteries a nd p robably b elonged t o l ater p eriods. T hus, f or i nstance, t here w ere o nly f ive s keletons i n c ontracted p ositions i n t he O leny i sland c emetery ( 3.6 p ercent), a bout 1 0 s imilar b urials ( from a t otal o f 6 1) w ere f ound i n A bora a nd a f ew c ontracted s keletons w ere i n K reichy. A s i s w ell k nown t here w ere f ive v ertical b urials i n t he O leny i sland c emetery. A f ew i ndividuals i n t he p rone p osition w ere n oticed i n K reichy a nd Z veinieky. A s u sual, t he g raves w ere s ingle, a nd l ess c ommon w ere p aired a nd t riple g raves. T hus, t he O leny O strov c emetery i ncluded o nly t hree g roup g raves. T wo s uch g raves w ere a lso e ncountered i n A bora. S ome o f t he g raves i n Z veinieky i ncluded a s m any a s f ive b urials p er p it.

1 35

T he e xtended s upine p osition i n t he b urial r ite w as a dopted b y t he t ribes o f t he E rtebolle c ulture ( Bergounioux a nd G lory 1 943). T he a bove b urial r ite w as c ontinued i n t his r egion o f E urope e ven i n t he l ate N eolithic a nd C opper A ge i ncluding t he C omb W are c ulture o f P oland a nd F inland ( Glosik 1 969; E dgren 1 965). I t m ay b e t raced i n t he H aveland ( Ostdorf, W esterbiere), t he T RB ( Jazdzewski 1 936, 3 01; G ajewski 1 949; H äusler 1 981) a nd t he W alternienburg-Bernburg c ulture, s uch a s P eversdorf, e tc. ( Häusler 1 981). T he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge c ultures i n t he m ore s outherly t erritories o f E urope ( the 5 th-4th m illennium b .c.) w ere s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t he a bove b urial r ites. I n t he D anube a nd t he B alkanS tarCevo-Cr 4 c ultures, t he B andkeramik c ulture, V inta, L engyel, T isza P olgar, G umelnitsa, e tc., t he b urial r ituals w ere d istinguished b y t he p revalence o f t he c ontracted p osition o f t he d ead l aid o n s ide u sually i n a n a doration p ose ( Garasanin 1 959; F ischer 1 956; K alke 1 954; S iska 1 968). A g reat b ody o f i nformation o n t he N eolithic c emeteries i n R omania h as b een p ublished b y E . C omsa ( 1974) w here h e r ecords t he s ame c haracter o f c ontracted-on-side b urials i n t he c ultures o f D udesti, V adastra, C ucuteni, e tc. I n a ll t hese c ultures, c emeteries w ere m et b oth i n t he s ettlements a nd o utside t heir l imits. I n s ome c ases, t hese c emeteries w ere c omparatively l arge ( Ruse, K ubrat i n B ulgaria; B otos i n Y ugoslavia) a nd i ncluded d ozens o f s ingle b urials. R ed o chre w as v ery r arely a ssociated w ith t hese b urials ( Zonderhausen, R use). I n a ny c ase, i t w as m et m ore r arely t han i n t he c emeteries o f t he n orthern p arts o f E urope a nd A sia. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a longside t he b urials s prinkled w ith r ed o chre, h ere w ere a lso t races o f t he u se o f b lue p aint ( Comsa 1 974, 1 18). T he e arly b urials o f t his r egion w ere u sually p oor i n i nventory ( Cri ), b ut t he g raves o f s uch c ultures a s t he B andkeramik, V inCa, G umelnitsa, e specially L engyel ( Zengovarkony) a nd T isza Polgar w ere c haracterised b y t he p resence o f c onsiderable a mounts o f g rave g oods i ncluding c eramics. I t s hould b e m entioned t hat i n t he N eolithic a nd E arly E neolithic i n C entral E urope a nd t he B alkans, b esides b urials f lexed o n t heir s ide, b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition a re a lso e ncountered. T hus, f or e xample, t he l atter w ere n oticed i n t he R össen c ulture a nd t he S troked-Ware c ulture i n t he a rea o f t he M iddle E lbe a nd S aale ( Behrens 1 973, 4 7, 5 5), i n t he c ultures o f H amangia, B oian, B olintineanu, C ernavoda, M angalia, L imanu, C ernica i n t he t erritory o f R omania ( Berciu 1 955, 1 0-12; F edorov a nd P olevoy 1 973, 4 5; C antacuzino a nd M orintz 1 963; C omsa 1 974,12-124), i n t he c emeteries o f B ulgaria, s uch a s V arna ( Ivanov 1 982), D urankulak ( excavations b y H . T odorova), e tc. I n c ontrast t o t he c emeteries i n t he m ore n ortherly z ones o f E astern E urope a nd A sia, t he b urial r itual w as f ree o f o chre i n t his t erritory, w hile t he g rave i nventory w as r ather r ich a nd i ncluded c lay v essels, f igurines, t ools a nd o rnaments. T he c omposition o f t he d ecorations ( pendants o f S pondylus s hells, m arble b racelets, e tc.) w as s ubstantially d ifferent f rom t hat i n t he c emeteries o f E astern E urope. I n a ddition, g reat q uantities o f g old o rnaments w ere f ound n ear t he e xtended b urials i n t he V arna c emetery ( Ivanov 1 982). I n t he t erritory o f A natolia, t he N ear E ast, M esopotamia a nd I ran, t he b urial m onuments o f t he L ate P ottery N eolithic a nd C halcolithic

1 36

p eriods ( 5000-3500 y ears b .c.) p artly p recede o r c hronologically c orrespond t o t he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f t he U kraine. A t p resent, w e k now o f d ozens o f s uch b urial m onuments w hich u sually r epresent s mall c emeteries. M any b urials h ave a lso b een u nearthed i n s ettlements. T he f irst m onographic s tudy o n t he m onuments o f t his p eriod i n A natolia w as c onducted b y T . ö zgüc ( 1948) a t t he e nd o f t he 1 940's. T he i nvestigator p ointed t o t he f act t hat t he C halcolithic c emeteries ( Tilki T epe, A latlible, K aledorug, M ashat, e tc) u sually c onsisted o f s ingle b urials i n a c ontracted p osition l ying o n t heir s ides. T he p osition o f t he d eceased's h ands w as n ot a lways d efined, b ut i n m ost c ases t hey w ere n ear t he f ace. I n A natolia, t he c emeteries o f T etekoy a nd K um-tepe, f or e xample, c ontained o nly 2 p ercent o f t he d eceased i n e xtended s upine p ositions ( Ozgüc 1 948, 8 4). H ere t he d ead w ere l aid s imply i n g rave p its o r i n s pecial v essels, o r c ists. T he m ost a bundant w ere t he b urials i n v essels. T hus, f or e xample, i n A lishar, a mong 4 6 C opper-Age b urials 2 5 w ere i n v essels ( Osten 1 938, 1 35 A s a r ule, a ll t he b urials w ere s ingle, a nd o nly i n s ix o r s even c ases w ere p aired b urials e ncountered. N o c ollective g rave, w hich c ould b e a ssigned t o t he N eolithic-Copper A ge, i s k nown i n A natolia. R ed o chre w as v ery r arely u sed ( Mersin, T ilki T epe, C atal-Hüyük, e tc.). I n A natolia, o ne-third o f t he b urials w as a ccompanied w ith g rave g oods. T . O zgüc d ivides a ll t he f inds c ollected n ear t he s keletons i nto t hree m ain g roups: 1 ) o rdinary i nventory o f e very-day l ife ( pottery, w eapons, o rnaments); 2 ) i nventory o f a r eligious c haracter ( idols); 3 ) f inds a ssociated w ith s acrifices o r a f uneral f east. T he i nventory o f t he f irst g roup w as u sually p redominant. T he r ecent e xcavations o f t he l ate N eolithic a nd C halcolithic l ayers i n A natolia ( settlements o f C atal-Hüyük, C an H asan) h ave s hown t hat, i n a ddition t o t he a bove d escribed m ode o f b urying t he d ead, t hey e mployed a q uite p eculiar b urial r ite, w hich i nvolved b urying t he d ead's b ones a fter t heir s oft t issues h ad b een c leaned b y b irds ( Mellart 1 975, 1 04). I n t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge ( the 5 th-4th m illennia b .c.) a mong t he p eople o f t he N ear E ast ( Palestine, S yria, M esopotamia) a nd I ran, t he c ontracted b urial r ite w as p redominant. T he d ead w ere b uried i n g rave p its, s epulchres o r l arge-sized v essels. T he d egree o f c ontraction v aried f rom s light t o h eavy. C ontracted b urial w as a dopted b y t he p eople o f H assuna a nd T el H alaf. I t w as a lso e mployed i n t he U baid p eriod i n t he c emeteries o f R as S hamra I II ( Dussant 1 937, 1 7), i n t he C halcolithic l ayer o f B yblos w here a bout 5 00 g raves w ere u nearthed ( Contenau 1 947), Y arim-Tepe ( Munchayev a nd M erpert 1 981), i n t he u pper l ayers o f T epe G awra ( Tobler 1 950, 9 0), S ialk ( Ghirshman 1 938), e tc. I n M esopotamia, S yria a nd P alestine, b urials o f t his p eriod w ere d iscovered i n t he a reas o f s ettlements. T hey w ere o ften f ound u nder t he f loors o f d wellings o r u nder t he w alls o f b uildings. T herefore, s uch b urials m ay b e c onsidered t o b e ' foundation s acrifices'. H owever, s eparate c emeteries w ere f ormed h ere c omparatively e arly ( Samarra). C are f or t he d ead w as d emonstrated b y t heir p rovisioning w ith g rave g oods i ncluding f ood i n c lay v essels. T he l atter w ere d iscovered i n a n umber o f c emeteries, s uch a s T epe G awra, T el H alaf, S usa ( Morgan 1 927), e tc. T hese w ere s ingle, v ery r arely p aired a nd t riple b urials. 1 37

H owever,

r ecently

t here w as

d iscovered

a c emetery

o f

t he

E arly U baid

p eriod - t he H akalan c emetery i n L uristan - w ith a n umber o f g rave p its s howing r epetitive u se. I n s ome c ases, i t w as c learly s een t hat t he r emains o f t he e arlier b urials w ere d estroyed a s a r esult o f s ubsequent b urial. H ere, a s i n t he g rave p its o f t he M ariupol t ype, t he d ead's b ones, e xcept f or t he s kulls, w ere m oved a side o r t hrown o ut o f t he g raves. N ear t he s keletons, t here w ere f ound v essels, s tone m aces, a xes, a nd b utton-seals ( Mellart 1 975, 1 78-179). C oncurrent w ith t he p revailing r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n t he c ontracted p osition o n i ts s ide, b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition w ere a lso m et a mong t he U baid c emeteries o f t he 4 th m illennium B .C. T hus, s uch b urials w ere f ound i n U r ( Woolley 1 935), S usa ( Morgan 1 927, 5 1), e tc. H owever, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat i n t he l ater P ost-Ubaid t ime i n t he l ands o f M esopotamia i ncluding i ts s outh-eastern p art ( Sumer), b urials i n c ontracted-on-side p ositions a gain b ecame p redominant. T hus, i n t he E arly D ynastic p eriod, i n U r t here w ere d iscovered t housands o f c ontracted b urials. I n m any c ases, t here w as a c lay p ot i n t he d ead's h ands p laced n ear t he h ead. I t s hould b e n oted t hat i n P alestine a s w ell a s i n t he t erritory o f A natolia i n t he C halcolithic, f or i nstance i n t he B irsheba-Ghassulian c ulture, s econdary b urial w as a lso p racticed. J . M ellaart a ssociated t his w ith a n i ntrusion o f i mmigrants. I n t he l ands o f t he N ear E ast, M esopotamia a nd I ran, b urials s prinkled w ith r ed o chre o ccurred m ore o ften t han i n A natolia, b ut i n a ny c ase, t hey w ere r ather s carce. I ndividual c oloured s keletons w ere f ound o nly i n S ialk, T epe-Gawra, H akalan, e tc. I n T epe G awra s even o f t he g raves w ere c overed w ith g reen a nd b lue p aint ( Tobler 1 950, 7 8). T he N eolithic b urial r ites i n t he N orth C aucasus, C aucasus a nd i n t he a reas o f t he C aspian S ea a nd i n C entral A sia a re s till n ot c learly u nderstood. H ere h ave b een d iscovered o nly s ingle b urials o f t hat p eriod s uch a s i n t he a reas o f t he L ower D on a nd C entral A sia. I n t he f irst c ase, t here w ere u nearthed s ix b urials i ncluding t wo b urials i n e xtended s upine p ositions a nd f our b urials i n c ontracted p ositions. I n m ost c ases, t hese b urials w ere u ncoloured a nd w ithout g rave g oods ( Belanovskaya 1 972). T he N eolithic b urials f ound i n t he s ettlement o f T utkaul i n C entral A sia w ere i n a h eavily c ontracted p osition l ying o n t heir s ide w ith n o t races o f o chre ( Korobkova a nd R anov 1 968, 1 8-21). I t i s p robable t hat d uring t he E neolithic, i n t he C aucasus a nd C entral A sia, b urial r ites w ere d eveloping u nder t he i nfluence o f b eliefs c oming f rom t he A ncient E ast. T his i s e vident f rom t he p revalence o f b urying t he d ead i n a c ontracted p osition o n t heir s ide. I n m ost c ases, t hese b urials w ere a ccompanied w ith p ottery. D ozens o f s uch b urials w ere u nearthed, f or e xample, i n t he l ower l ayer o f K ulT epe. B urials i n c ontracted p ositions w ere a lso f ound i n t he s ettlement o f A likemek-Tepesy ( Munchaev 1 975, 1 06, 1 17). A g roup o f e arly b urials e xhibiting t he s ame r ite i n t he N alchik c emetery w as a lso d ated b y R .M . M unchaev ( 1975, 1 38-139) t o t he E neolithic. I n c ontrast t o t he l ands o f t he N ear E ast, o ne o f t he d istinguishing f eatures o f t he E neolithic b urials i n t he N orth C aucusus w as t hat m ost o f t he b urials w ere c overed w ith r ed o chre. I n s ome c ases, t here w ere b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, f or i nstance i n t he L ugovoye c emetery ( Krupnov 1 954).

1 38

T he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n a c ontracted p osition l ying o n t heir s ide, o f p lacing c lay p ots s omewhere n earby a nd s prinkling t he d ead w ith r ed o chre w as s pread b oth i n t he M aikop a nd K uro-Araxes c ultures a nd a lso i n t he E neolithic c ultures o f C entral A sia: N amazga-Tepe, K ara-Tepe, G eoksyur, e tc. ( Masson 1 957; S arianidi 1 965). F rom t he a bove d escription o f t he b urial m onuments o f t he 5 th-4th m illennium b .c.. i t i s e vident t hat t he b urial r ituals d iffer t o a c omparatively g reat e xtent f rom o ne a nother i n t he v arious t erritories o f E urope a nd A sia, t hough t here a re s ome c ommon c haracteristics i n t he b urial r ites b oth o f t he n orthern t erritories o f E urasia a nd o f t he m ore s outherly r egions. A ccording t o a n umber o f d istinguishing f eatures, s uch a s p ositions o f t he d eceased i n g raves, u se o f o chre, p resence o r a bsence o f p ottery, t he b urials o f t he N eolithic a nd C halcolithic p eriod ( the 5 th-4th m illennia b .c..) i n E urasia m ay b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain z ones o r r egions t ermed t he n orthern o r E urosiberian a nd t he s outhern o r D anube-Near E astern z ones. T he f irst z one i ncludes S iberia, t he a reas o f L ake B aikal a nd t he V olga, t he f orest a nd f orest-steppe z ones o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR w here i t r uns a long t he D nieper a s f ar a s t he A zov r egion a nd t he n orthern p art o f t he C rimea, t he a reas o f t he B altic S ea , t he n orthern p art o f c entral E urope a nd S candinavia ( Fig.54). I n t he N eolithic, t he e xtended s upine p osition o f t he d ead p revailed i n t he b urial r itual h ere. A s a r ule, t he b urials w ere s prinkled w ith p owdered r ed o chre, s ometimes i n g reat a mounts. I n m ost c ases, t hese b urials w ere w ithout g oods, t hough t here w ere s ome r ather r ich g raves ( Isakovo, S 'ezzheye, M ariupol, O leny O strov, Z veinieky). W ith f ew e xceptions ( Kitoy), c lay v essels w ere n ot u sed a s g rave g oods. O ne o f t he i nteresting c haracteristics o f t he b urial r itual i n t his r egion w as t he r ite o f b inding o r s waddling t he d ead. T his r ite w as n oticed i n c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype, Z veinieky, V edbaek ( Denmark) a nd S erovo i n t he B aikal a rea ( Phillips 1 980, 1 42, f ig.42B ; O kladnikov 1 950, 1 91). I n t he c emeteries o f t he E urosiberian r egion, t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n a c ontracted p osition l ying o n t heir s ide s hould b e c onsidered a s e xceptional ( Serovo, O leny O strov, Z veinieky). T his r ite w as s pread o nly a t t he b eginning o f t he C opper A ge. T he f eatures a ssociated w ith t he c emeteries o f t he E urosiberian r egion a re g enerally t ypical f or t he h unting a nd f ishing c ultures p revailing i n t he f orest a nd f orest-steppe z ones o f S iberia a nd t he B aikal a rea, a nd t he P it-Comb W are, C omb-Stroked W are a nd C omb W are c ultures o f E astern E urope. I n t he m ore s outherly r egions o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR, t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n e xtended s upine p ositions a lso p enetrated i nto t he s teppe z one ( S'ezzheye, M ariupol) w here t he p eople w ere a cquainted w ith p roductive f orms o f e conomy. T he c emeteries o f t he s econd o r t he D anube-Near E astern r egion i nclude C entral E urope, t he C aucasus a nd C entral A sia ( Fig.54). T he m ain d istinguishing f eatures o f t he b urial r ite i n t he N eolithic a nd C halcolithic p eriods w ere r epresented b y c ontracted p ositions o f t he d ead l ying o n t heir s ide w ith h ands p redominantly n ear t he f ace, t he u se o f r ed o chre i n l imited a mounts a nd t he u se o f p aints o f s ome o ther c olours ( for i nstance, b lue o r g reen). A s a r ule, t he b urials 1 39

F ig. 5 4 N eolithic-Eneolithic c emeteries o f t he E urosiberian a nd D anube-Near E astern r egions. I - e xtended s upine p osition ; I I c ontracted p osition w ith p ottery; I II - c ontracted p osition w ithout p ottery; I V -o chred b urials. 1 . E rtebolle; 2 . V esterbjers; 3 . O storf; 4 -8. T amula, K rautonas, K reichy, Z veinieky, A bora; 9 -10 . O leny i sland; 1 1. K ubenino, K aravikha ; 1 2. P opov ( ); 1 3. S akhtysh ; 1 4. Y azykovo; 1 5-18. G avrilovka, P anphily, V olodary, C hernaya G ora; 1 9. C hu-Chur-Muransky; 2 0-21. B aikal c emeteries; 2 2. B uzky; 2 3. D ereivka; 2 4. O sipovka , Z asukha; 2 5-28. D nieper r apids c emeteries; 2 9. L ysaya G ora , K airy; 3 0. D olinka; 3 1. M ariupol; 3 2. A lexandria; 3 3. R akushechny Y ar; 3 4. S 'ezzheye; 3 5. E ntsheim ; 3 6. K otsenheim , F lomborn ; 3 8. Z onderhausen; 3 9. K lein-Hadersdorf; 4 0. Z abrouvitsy; 4 1. P odokhov; 4 2. Z engovarkony; 4 3. N ezviska; 4 4. T roian ; 4 5. B otos; 4 6. C ernica; 4 7-48. H amangia, V arna D urankulak; 4 9. V inca; 5 0. R use; 5 1. K ubrat; 5 2. K aranovo; 5 3. Z ygouries; 5 4. B abakoy; 5 5. A latlibel; 5 6. K aledorug; 5 7. T etekoy; 5 8. A lishar; 5 9. K asura ; 6 0 . M ersin ; 6 1. R as-Shamra ; 6 2. N alchik ; 6 3. L ugovoye; 6 4. M ingichaur; 6 5. A likmektepesi; 6 6. S tepanakert; 6 7. T ilki-Tepe; 6 8. H asuna ; 6 9. H alaf; 7 0 . T epe G awra ; 7 1. Y arim T epe; 7 2. S amarra, A rpachiya; 7 3. H akalan ; 7 4 . S ialk ; 7 5. S usa; 7 6. E l-Ubaid; 7 7. H issar; 7 8-80 . K ara-tepe, N amazga-tepe, T utkal.

1 40

c ontained g rave g oods, m ainly i n t he f orm o f c lay v essels. A s m entioned a bove, i n t he s outhern r egions, t he N eolithic a nd C halcolithic b urials w ere m uch m ore r arely i n t he e xtended p osition t han i n t he n orthern z one. T he c emeteries o f t he s outhern o r D anubeN ear E astern r egion w ere c onstructed b y a gricultural a nd c attleb reeding t ribes. T he t wo t ypes o f c emeteries o f t he 5 th-4th m illennia b .c. w ere s ituated i n d ifferent t erritories. T hey w ere c onstructed b y t ribes g enerally d ifferent i n e conomies a nd c ulture. I n t he E urosiberian z one, t he b earers o f s uch c ultures w ere t he t ribes o f t he l ate C roM agnon a nd M ongoloid r aces. I n t he D anube-Near E astern r egion t hey w ere r epresented b y d ifferent g roups o f M editerranean p eoples. H owever, i t s hould b e n oted t hat t here i s n o s harp b order b etween t hese t wo r egions o f b urial m onuments i n E urasia. A long t he b orders o f t hese c ultures, t here m ay b e t raced a n i ntermediate z one w here t he b urial r itual i ncluded c haracteristics o f b oth r egions. T hus, f or e xample, i n t he c emeteries o f t he s outhern z one i n C entral E urope, t here a re r ather f requent c ases o f s keletons c oloured i n o chre, T he s ame m ay b e s aid a bout t he b urials i n t he N orth C aucusus. I n C entral E urope a nd t he B alkans, t here a re v arious c emeteries w ith b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition ( Rössen, H amangia, C ernica, e tc). A t t he s ame t ime, s ome o f t he b urials i n t he n orthern z ones h ave b een u nearthed i n c ontracted p ositions o n t heir s ide. H ere i t s hould b e r ecalled t hat e xtended b urials i n t he a rea o f t he S aale a nd H amangia a nd C ernica i n t he B alkans w ere a ccompanied b y c lay v essels, w hich a lso r epresents a c ompromise b etween t he c haracteristics o f t he N orthern ( the r ite o f e xtended p osition) a nd t he s outhern ( the p resence o f p ottery) r egions. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat s ometimes t he s ame c ulture i ncluded d ifferent b urial r ites d epending o n t he r egion o f d istribution o f i ts v ariants. F or e xample, a ccording t o U . F ischer, i n t he W alternienburgB ernburg c ulture t he r ite o f e xtended b urial w as t ypical f or t he m ore n ortherly t erritories, w hile i n t he s outh t he d ead w ere b uried i n a c ontracted p osition ( Fischer 1 956, 9 8). T he c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype m ay b e a ssigned, a ccording t o t he c haracteristics o f t he b urial r ite, t o t he n orthern o r E urosiberian r egion w here t hey f orm a s eparate l ocal g roup. A mong o ther b urial m onuments o f t he n orthern r egion, t hey a re d istinguished b y t he c onsiderable p redominance o f g roup b urial s ubsequently c onverted i nto c ollective b urial v aults. I n o ther t erritories o f t his r egion, w here t he s ingle b urial r ite w as p redominant, g roup g raves o ccur m uch m ore r arely ( S te zzheye, S akhtysh-2, V olodary, Z veinieky, e tc), a nd t here i s n o b urial c hamber s imilar t o N ikolskoye, L ysaya G ora o r o ther c emeteries. H owever, i n t he f orest z one o f E astern E urope b urials a re k nown i n t he p rone p osition ( Chernaya G ora, Z veinieky, K reichy). w hich a re n owhere t o b e s een i n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T he g rave g oods f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a re c haracterized b y t heir p articular a nd u nique c omposition. F irst o f a ll, w e m ean t he o rnaments s uch a s p endants o f i mmature d eer t eeth, f ish t eeth, a nnular b eads o f s tone a nd s hells, w hich a re a bsent f rom t he N eolithic b urials o f t he f orest z one o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR, f rom t he B altic S ea a reas a nd o ther t erritories o f t his r egion. O n t he w hole, t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a s a l ocal c ultural a nd h istorical e ntity w ere d istributed o ver a c omparatively s mall a rea : t he s outhern p art o f t he M iddle D nieper, t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids, 1 41

t he A zov r egion a nd t he n orthern S teppe C rimea. I t i s p robable t hat t his r egion s hould a lso i nclude t he L ower D on v alley, w here a s imilar c emetery w ith c ollective g raves w as d iscovered o n t he C hir r iver. I n t erms o f c ulture, t he l atter s eems t o b e c lose t o t he U krainian c emeteries. A s f ar a s t he c emetery n ear t he v illage o f S 'ezzheye o n t he V olga i s c oncerned, t he p revalence o f s ingle b urials s uggests o nly m ore d istant a nalogies w ith t he M ariupol t ype c emeteries o f t he a djacent t erritories, f or e xample, i n t he N orth C aucusus ( Nalchik , M aikop), d espite s ome r esemblance t o M ariupol i n s ome o f t he f orms o f o rnaments ( flat a nnular b eads o f g agate, s erpentine ( ?), c arnelian a nd s hells, p endants o f d eer t eeth, e tc,), t hey d iffer c onsiderably f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries ( Kruglov, P iatrovsky, a nd P odgaetsky 1 941, 1 18) i n m any r espects s uch a s t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n a c ontracted p osition a nd t he c omposition o f g rave g oods. B esides, t hese b urials a re d ated t o t he p ost-Mariupol t ime. T he c ultural r elationships b etween t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s o f p rime i mportance i n e stablishing t heir h istorical p lace. I t w ill b e r ecalled t hat g rave g oods, p ottery i n p articular, c ollected i n t he a rea o f t he c emeteries a re f ully a nalogous t o t he m aterial f rom t hree v ariants o f t he N eolithic D nieper-Donets C omb-Stroked W are c ulture, w hich p oints t o t he f act t hat a ll t hese s ettlements a nd b urial m onuments b elonged t o o ne a nd t he s ame p opulation. T he m onuments o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture ( region) h ave c lose a nalogies t o t he m aterials f rom t he M iddle a nd L ower D on b asin a nd p artly o f t he V olga b asin ( in t he r egion o f V olgograd), w here w e f ind t he m onuments o f t he V oronezh g roup ( the M iddle-Don c ulture a fter A .T . S inyuk) a nd t he O rlovka t ype ( Levenok 1 973; T retyakov 1 982; T elegin 1 981). S ome a rchaeologists p oint t o a b roader r ange o f a nalogies, w hich a re c lose t o t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic c ulture. T hus, f or e xample, a ccording t o N . N . G urina ( 1973, f ig.4), t he a rea o f t he ' Comb-Stroked a nd C hannel W are C ultures o f t he D nieper-Donets t ype' ( the e nd o f t he 5 th b eginning o f t he 3 rd m illennium b .c.) i ncludes n ot o nly t he D on b asin b ut a lso a c onsiderable p art o f t he M iddle V olga b asin a nd t he b asin o f t he L ower a nd M iddle K ama. A ccording t o V .P . L evenok ( 1973, 2 ), t he n orthern b oundary o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture r uns a lso a long t he V olga v alley i n t he a rea o f K azan. I n s tudying t he q uestion o n t he p osition o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries, i t i s n ecessary t o p ay a ttention t o t he c onclusions m ade b y I . B . V asiliev ( 1981). A ccording t o h im , i n t he N eolithic-Eneolithic p eriod i n t he s outh o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR t here s hould b e d istinguished a s eparate c ultural r egion o f t he M ariupol t ype, w hich b asically i ncludes t hree c ultures: t he S amara ( S'ezzheye), t he P reC aspian a nd t he D nieper-rapids v ersions o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture ( Mariupol). T here i s r eally m uch i n c ommon b etween t he M ariupol-type a nd S 'ezzheye c emeteries: f lat g raves, b urial i n t he e xtended p osition a nd s ome c ommon t ypes o f o rnaments s uch a s p lates o f b oar t usk . H owever, a s m entioned a bove, t hese t hree c haracteristics a re c ommon f or t he w hole n orthern z one o f b urial m onuments. A s f ar a s t he p resence o f s imilar f orms o f b oar t usk p lates i s c oncerned, t his i s a n i ndication o f s ome c lose c ontacts b etween t he L ate N eolithic p opulation i n t he V olga a nd D nieper b asins. O ther f inds f rom S 'ezzheye a nd t he M ariupolt ype c emeteries d isclose c onsiderable d ifferences, f or i nstance, 1 42

z oomorphic f igures, c eramics, e tc. T he f orms o f v essels, t he d ecorative e lements a nd m otifs a nd t he f abric o f t he p ottery f rom t he Sle zzheye a nd N ikolskoye c emeteries e xhibit m any m ore d ifferences t han s imilarities ( in m ost c ases, d ifferent d ecorative e lements a nd m otifs, d ifferent t empers, t he p resence o f b eads u nder t he r im o f t he v essel f rom t he S 'ezzheye c emetery w hich i s n ot f ound o n t he c eramics f rom t he c emeteries i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids). I t i s d oubtful t hat I . B . V asiliev i s c orrect i n s eparating c emeteries o f t he r egion f rom t he o ther v ariants o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture ( the N orth D onets, t he M iddle D nieper, e tc.). N or i s i t l ikely t hat t hese m onuments t aken t ogether s hould b e s eparated f rom t he N eolithic c ulture o f t he D on b asin, w hen t hey a ctually f orm a b road z one o f r elated c ultures. I n a ny c ase, i n c eramics, t here i s m uch m ore i n c ommon b etween t he N eolithic c emeteries o f t he D nieper a nd t he M iddle D on b asins t han b etween t he D nieper a nd t he V olga b asins. T he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture w ere a c omponent o f t he v ast E urosiberian z one o f b urial m onuments, t ogether w ith t he r elated c ulture o f t he D on v alley. T hey f ormed a s ingle c ultural z one, w herein d eveloped v arious r egional v ariants a nd r elationships ( Fig.55). I n t he w est, t he m onuments o f t his t ype w ere a djacent t o t he T ripolye c ulture; i n t he s outh a nd s outh-east t hey w ere a djacent t o t he c ultures o f t he R akushechny-Yar t ype o n t he L ower D on, t he S eroglazovo t ype i n t he P re-Caspian r egion a nd t he S amara t ype o n t he L ower V olga. T he n orthern a nd n orth-western n eighbours o f t his c ultural r egion w ere t he v arious t ribes o f t he P it-Comb W are a nd t he N iemen/Nemunas N eolithic c ultures. O n the E volution o f t he B urial R itual A mong t he m ain c haracteristics o f t he M ariupol-type b urial r itual, t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n t he e xtended p osition a nd t he p resence o f g roup g raves s ubsequently c onverted i nto c ollective b urial v aults s eem t o b e t he m ost i mportant. T he e xtended p osition, a s m entioned a bove, w as a lso t ypical f or N eolithic c emeteries o f t he w hole E urosiberian r egion. T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat t his b urial r itual, o ne o f t he m ost s table m anifestations o f b eliefs h eld b y a n a ncient p eople, w as n ot f ormed a t o nce b ut h ad a l ong h istory. I f w e t ake i nto c onsideration t he l ocal M esolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley, o ne d iscerns a s harp d ifference i n t he b urial r ituals b etween t he M esolithic V oloshskoye-Vasilyevka t ype c emeteries, w here t he m ain b urial r ite w as a c ontracted-on-side p osition o f t he d ead ( Telegin 1 982, 2 02-214), a nd t he M ariupol-type c emeteries c haracterized b y b urials i n e xtended s upine p ositions. T hus, i t w ould b e d ifficult t o t race t he g enetic s ources o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries t o t he l ocal M esolithic b urial m onuments. B esides, i t s hould b e r ecalled t hat i n t heir a nthropological c omposition t he b urials i n t he c emeteries o f t hese t wo t ypes w ere d ifferent. N o g enetic r elationships c an b e t raced b etween t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a nd t he M esolithic b urials i n t he m ore s outherly t erritories o f E urope a nd A sia w here t he r itual f or b urying t he d ead i n t he f lexed p osition p revailed. F lexed b urials o n t heir s ides, f or i nstance, w ere f ound i n t he F rankhthi c emetery i n t he B alkans ( Boev 1 969, 3 0-33), t he N atufian c emeteries o f W adi F allah, A mar, e tc) i n t he N ear E ast ( Mellart 1 975, 3 7). S imilar b urials a re a lso k nown i n t he M esolithic 1 43

F ig.

5 5

T he D nieper-Donets c ommunity i n t he 5 th-3rd m illennia b c ( I a -e) a nd i ts n eighbours. T he C omb-Stroked c ultures o f t he D nieper-Volga r egion: M iddle D on ( 2), R akushechny Y ar ( 3), S eroglazovo ( 4), V olga-Ural ( 5) a nd S amara ( 6). T he B altic c ultures: N arva ( 7) a nd N ieman ( 8). T he C arpathian c ultures: L BK ( 9), T ripolye ( 10), B ug-Dniester ( 11). T he A zov-Caspian c ultures: S ursky ( 12), M ountain C rimea ( 13), E lshankaK oshelaka ( 14). P it-Comb p ottery c ultures ( 15).

1 44

l ayer o f H arykaramb a nd i n t he P re-Caspian a rea ( Munchayev 1 975, 1 12). I n a ddition, b urials i n c ontracted p ositions w ere i n p re-ceramic l ayers o f T epe H ural i n L uristan ( Meldgaard, M ortensen a nd T hrane 1 963), i n S hanidar c ave, e tc. H owever, q uite d ifferent c haracteristics o f b urial r itual h ave b een o bserved o n t he M iddle D anube i n C entral E urope a nd i n t he a rea o f t he B altic S ea. H ere, d uring t he M esolithic, t he e xtended s upine p osition p revailed o ver t he s itting p osition. T he b urials i n t he r ecently e xcavated c emetery o f S chela C ladovei a nd i n t he c emeteries o f V lasac n ear t he I ron G ates o n t he M iddle D anube ( Boroneant 1 973; P hillips 1 980, 1 44) a nd a lso t he b urials i n t he w ell k nown s ettlement o f L epenski V ir i n t he s ame a rea ( Srejovi t 1 969, 4 9) w ere i n e xtended p ositions. T he r ite o f s ingle b urial i n t he e xtended p osition a nd u sually s prinkled w ith o chre w as t ypical f or t he E arly H olocene b urials i n n orthern C entral E urope a nd S candinavia. T his r ite w as w ell r ecorded, f or i nstance, i n t he M esolithic c emetery o f V edbek i n D enmark, w here 2 2 g raves w ere s tudied ( Albrethsen a nd B rinch P etersen 1 976). T he M esolithic b urials i n t he c emetery o f Z veinieky, L atvia, l ay i n t he s ame p osition ( Zagorsky 1 962). A bout a d ozen s ingle b urials d ated t o t he M esolithic a re k nown i n C entral E urope, i n t he t erritory o f t he D DR ( Plan, B otendorf, D urenberg, e tc.) a nd P oland ( Janislawicka). U nfortunately, m ost o f t hese b urials w ere d iscovered a s a r esult o f e arth m oving w orks, a nd h ence t he p osition o f s keletons c ould n ot b e t raced i n a ll i nstances. H owever, i t i s k nown t hat s ome o f t he b urials ( Botendorf, D urenberg, J anislawicka, P erkunov) s eemed t o b e i n a s itting p osition ( Gramsch 1 973, 1 6-17; C hmielewska 1 954; G losik 1 969). I t i s p robable t hat t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n e xtended a nd s itting p ositions a ssociated w ith t he M esolithic b urials i n C entral E urope a nd i n t he a reas o f t he B altic S ea d erived f rom t he L ate P alaeolithic t ime. W ithin E astern E urope a bout a d ozen L ate P alaeolithic b urials h ave b een d iscovered, t wo o f w hich w ere i n a c ontracted p osition ( Markina G ora a nd K ostenky-18), t he o thers b eing e ither i n e xtended ( Sungir) o r i n s itting ( Kostenky-2, 1 5) p ositions ( Rogachev 1 955; B ader 1 967). T he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, a longside b urial i n t he c ontracted p osition w as w ide-spread i n W estern E urope d uring t he L ate P alaeolithic: C ro-Magnon, C ombe-Capelle, B arma G rande, A rene C andide, e tc. ( Breuil a nd L antier 1 959, 3 08-311). A ll t his e vidence s uggests t hat t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n t he e xtended p osition, s uch a s w e f ind i n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries, d erived f rom t he L ate P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic p ractices i n t he m ost n ortherly r egions o f E urope, p rimarily i n i ts e astern p art a nd p robably i n t he a rea o f t he B altic S ea. T he g enetic r elationship o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries w ith t his v ery c ircle o f t he L ate P alaeolithic-Mesolithic m onuments m ay a lso b e c onfirmed b y t he u se o f r ed o chre i n t he b urial r itual b oth d uring t he P alaeolithic-Mesolithic a nd t he N eolithic p eriods.

1 45

W e w ould b e w rong t o r egard t he M ariupol-type c emeteries a s w holly d erived f rom t he L ate P alaeolithic-Mesolithic b urial r itual p ractised b y t he p eople i n t he n orthern r egions o f E astern E urope a nd i n t he v icinity o f t he B altic S ea. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he f ormation o f t he b urial r itual a ssociated w ith t he D nieper r egion c emeteries w as m ore c omplicated. I n t heir d evelopment t hese b urial m onuments i n t he s outhern a reas o f t he v ast E urosiberian c ultural r egion w ere a lso s ubjected t o t he i nfluence o f t he D anube-Near E astern z one. T his i nfluence w as p rimarily r eflected i n t he c omposition o f s ome g rave g oods, f or i nstance, i n o rnaments s uch a s f lat a nnular b eads o f g agate o r o ther m aterials, w hich a re c onsidered t o b e t he r esult o f d irect c ontacts o f t he D nieper-Donets t ribes w ith t he C aucasus p opulation. I t i s p robable t hat t he s tone m aces f ound i n t he N ikolskoye a nd M ariupol c emeteries a re a lso r elated t o t he c ultures o f t he N ear E ast. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat p endants o f d eer t eeth w ere a lso k nown i n t he M esolithic b urials o f t he N atufian c ulture ( Garrod a nd B ate 1 937, 1 42 0). I t i s p robable t hat t he r itual b reaking o f p ottery i n t he a rea o f a c emetery, w hich w as n oticed f or i nstance a t N ikolskoye, w as a d istant e cho o f t he r ite o f d eliberately b reaking l arge s tone v essels d uring t he b urial r itual i n t he N atufian c ulture ( Brenties 1 976, 3 6). F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f g enesis, t he f act t hat a t t he l atest s tage o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries t he g roup g raves w ere c onverted i nto c ollective b urial v aults m ay b e e valuated i n t wo w ays: e ither i t w as a p rocess o f i nternal d evelopment o f t he b urial r ite, o r t his c ustom w as a dopted f rom s omewhere o utside. N othing i s k nown a bout s uch b urial v aults i n t he n orthern p art o f t he E urosiberian r egion, b ut t hey a re m et i n t he T rans-Caucasian a nd N ear E astern c ultures. A c lose a nalogy t o t he M ariupol a nd N ikolskoye b urial v aults i s f ound, f or e xample, i n t he c emetery o f H akalan o f t he M ehmeh c ulture i n K huzistan d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 5 th a nd t he b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. T he g rave p its i n t hese c emeteries c overed w ith s tone b locks w ere i ntended f or r epetitive u se, t he b ones o f t he p reviously b uried d ead b eing d iscourteously m oved a side o r t hrown o ut, b ut t he s kulls w ere l eft i n p lace ( Mellaart 1 975, 1 78). A nalogous s ituations w here t he r emains o f t he d ead p reviously b uried i n a c ollective g rave w ere m oved a side, h ave a lso b een n oticed i n s ome o ther c emeteries ( Catal H üyük, B yblos, e tc.). T herefore, t he p rimary s ource f or t he b urial r ite ( extended p osition o f s keletons a nd u se o f o chre) i n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s t o b e f ound i n t he r itual o f t he L ate P alaeolithic-Mesolithic p opulations i n t he m ore n ortherly t erritories o f E astern E urope a nd i n t he B altic S ea r egion. H owever, i n t heir d evelopment t he c emeteries w ere s ubstantially s ubjected t o t he i nfluence o f c ultures e manating f rom t he C aucasus a nd t he N ear E ast, w hich r esulted i n t he s pread o f s ome f orms o f t he b urial i nventory. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese f oreign i nfluences w ere r esponsible f or t he a doption o f c ollective b urial v aults. X XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX E ditor's N ote: A fter t he a uthors' c ompletion o f t he o riginal R ussian t ext t o t his b ook, a n i mportant n ew s eries o f b urials h as b een p ublished b y A . V . V inogradov e t a l. ( Drevneyshee N aselenie N izovy A mudari, M oscow , 1 986). V inogradov d escribes t he e xcavation o f a N eolithic c emetery a t T umek-Kichidzhik o n t he l ower A mu D arya, s outh o f 1 46

t he A ral S ea, a nd a ssigned t o t he K elteminar c ulture. T wenty-six N eolithic b urials w ere u ncovered. T hey w ere b uried i n s ingle g rave p its; t hey l ay i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, h eads o riented t o t he N E o r E , a nd c overed w ith o chre. G rave g oods i ncluded f lint b lades, b eads, s hell o rnaments, b ones o f b irds a nd f ish, a nimal t eeth, f ragments o f b oar t usk, b one t ools, a c lay s pindle-whorl, a nd s ome s herds. A dult m ales a nd f emales a s w ell a s c hildren w ere f ound i n t he c emetery w hich, o n t ypological g rounds, i s d ated b y t he a uthors t o t he 5 th/4th m illennium. S imilarities w ith t he M ariupol ' ethno-cultural r egion' a re r emarked u pon b y t he a uthors.

1 47

C hapter 7 T HE N EOLITHIC P OPULATION O F T HE D NIEPER B ASIN T he c ollection o f N eolithic s keletal r emains f rom t he U kraine i s o ne o f t he l argest i n E urope. T hese r emains o riginate f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i n t he D nieper v alley. A nthropological m aterial f rom t he b urial m onuments o f o ther N eolithic c ultures i n t he t erritory o f t he U kraine a re p ractically u nknown. A t t he p resent t ime, c raniological s eries f rom a g reat n umber o f M ariupol-type c emeteries h ave b een s tudied - a bout 3 00 s kulls i n a ll. T hey i nclude 1 19 s kulls f rom t he D ereivka I c emetery, 3 0 s kulls f rom N ikolskoye I , 7 4 f rom t he t wo V ovnigy c emeteries, 3 3 s kulls f rom V ilnyanka, 1 6 f rom V asilyevka I I a nd 1 5 f rom K apulovka. I n a ddition, s ome d ata a re a vailable o n i ndividual s kulls f ound o n t he i slands o f V inogradny a nd S ursky, i n t he s ites o f S kelya K amenolmnya , I gren , M aryevka, C haply, Z meevka, e tc. U nfortunately, s ome s ites h ave n ot b een t he s ubject o f a nthropological s tudy. H ence, t here i s n o i nformation o n t he a nthropology o f s uch c emeteries a s L ysaya G ora , D olinka ( the C rimea), S obachky a nd N enasytets. N othing i s k nown a bout t he s kulls f rom t hese c emeteries. B esides, n o a nthropological s tudies h ave b een c onducted o n t he m aterials f rom t he m ain g rave p it o f t he M ariupol c emetery. T wo s kulls p reserved i n t he p aired b urial ( No. 2 1) a nd s tudied b y I . I . G okhman ( 1959) a re d ated t o a l ater t ime ( the e arly E neolithic). A mong t he s keletal r emains f rom b urial N o. 5 0, w hich i s a ttributed t o t he s oc alled ' main-complex ' o f t he M ariupol c emetery, o nly o ne m ale s kull h as b een s tudied ( I. I . G okhman 1 959). B ecause o f t he u nfavourable c onditions f or p reservation s uch a s s andy s oil, a s i n C haply, t he s kulls w ere i n a s tate u nsuitable f or s tudy. M uch o f t he a vailable a nthropological m aterial f rom t he N eolithic c emeteries h as a lready b een p ublished. T hus, c omplete i nformation o n t he s kulls i s a vailable f rom t he f ollowing c emeteries: V asilyevka I I ( Gokhman 1 966), V ovnigy ( Konduktorova 1 956; G okhman 1 966), V ilnyanka ( Surnina 1 961), D ereivka ( Zinevich 1 967; P otekhina 1 978) a nd K apulovka ( Zinevich a nd K ruts 1 968). T hough t he i nvestigators p ay a ttention t o t he p ostcranial p arts o f t he s keletons m uch m ore r arely, a n umber o f i nteresting s tudies h ave b een c onducted i n t his f ield ( Gokhman 1 960 ; S urina 1 961; K onduktorova 1 956,1960). T hese s tudies o f t he N eolithic b urials h ave, a s G . F . D ebets n oted ( 1966), a ttracted s cientists t o t he i dea o f i nvestigating t he p hysical d evelopment o f a ncient p opulations a s a w hole, a nd t he s pecific f eatures o f t he p hysical s tructure o f t he D nieper-Donets p eople i n p articular. A s t he m aterials f rom t he l arge c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley a ccumulated a nd t he p rogrammes o f s tudies b roadened, a nthropologists h ave c ompiled a m ore c omplete n otion a bout t he p hysical a ppearance o f t he p opulation u nder i nvestigation. T he i nterest o f s cientists d rawn t o t hese s keletons, w hich e xhibit a u nique c omplex o f f eatures c lassified a s p roto-morphic ( after V .V. B unak) o r h ypermorphic ( after R . Y a. D enisova), h as n ot d iminished. T his c omplex i s e xpressed i n a 1 48

c ombination b etween a g reat m assiveness a nd a g reat h eight o f s kulls o f a d olicho- o r m esocranic f orm , a nd a m oderate o r v ery g reat f acial b readth a nd t he t endency o f a n umber o f s kulls t o a f latness o f t he h orizontal p rofile w ith a m oderate o rbital h eight, a m edium n asal b readth a nd s harply p rojecting n asal b ones. V . P . A lexeev n otes ( 1984) t hat t his c omplex o f f eatures ' typical f or t he a ncient p opulation o f E urasia h as b ecome t he s ubject o f d iscussion f or m any y ears, e ngendered v arious s hades o f o pinion a nd d etermined t he m ain d irections i n t he s tudy o f t he d ynamics o f t he a nthropological s tructure o f E astern E urope f or a l ong t ime'. A ll t he i nvestigators o f s kulls f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f t he U kraine ( along w ith o ther a ncient c raniological s eries f rom E astern E urope) c lassify t heir a nthropological t ype a s p roto-European. B oth t he s ize a nd t he c onsiderable l ength o f i ts d uration ( from t he U pper P alaeolithic i n w estern E urope t o t he E neolithic A fanasievo c ulture i n t he A ltay r egion) l ed G . F . D ebets ( 1948) t o c onclude t hat t his t ype w as a n u ndifferentiated a nd c ommon p rototype o f t he E uropean r acial s tem . I n t he s tructure o f s kulls f rom t he N eolithic c emeteries i n t he U kraine, G . F . D ebets ( 1961) s aw a c ompromise b etween t he f eatures t ypical f or E uropoids o f t he n orthern z one a nd b elieved t hat t his t ype d id n ot d iffer e ssentially f rom t he C ro-Magnon t ype i n t he b road s ense o f t his t erm . A s a n o riginal h uman r ace a ncestral t o t he p resent d ay s pecies, t he C ro-Magnons w ere w idely s pread i n t he L ate P alaeolithic o f E urope b ut a re n owhere r epresented t oday. I n t he t erritory d elimited b y L ake O nega o n t he n orth a nd t he M iddle D nieper ( Vovnigy a nd s ome s kulls f rom V asilyevka I I), t hey s urvived t o t he N eolithic ( Debets 1 960). I nvestigators h ave a lso t ried t o d etermine m ore s pecifically t he t ype o f N eolithic p opulation i n t he D nieper v alley a nd t he A zov a rea. T hus, i n p ointing t o t he l arge s izes o f t hese s kulls a nd a c ertain f acial f latness, V . V . B unak ( 1959), f or e xample, d istinguishes a s eparate V ovnigy t ype. T here i s a lso a nother t ype w hich i s s ubstantially d ifferent f rom t he a bove - t he s o-called V oloshskoye t ype w hich h as b een d istinguished b y t his i nvestigator o n t he b asis o f t he m aterials f rom t he M esolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley ( Voloshskoye, V asilyevka I , I II). A s pecial p lace i n t he c lassification o f t he c hronological s eries f rom t he N eolithic c emeteries o f t he U kraine h as b een g iven b y I . I . G okhman ( 1966). H e n oticed t hat s uch d istinguishing f eatures o f t he p roto-European t ype a s m assiveness a nd g reat f acial b readth a re c onsiderably p ronounced i n t he N eolithic p eople i n t he a reas o f t he D nieper r apids a nd A zov e ven i n c omparison w ith t he U pper P alaeolithic s kulls. P roceeding f rom t his c onclusion, t he i nvestigator d istinguished a s pecific D nieper r apids-Azov v ariant o f t he p rotoE uropean t ype. T he a ssignment o f t hese s kulls f rom t he D nieper-Donets c emeteries t o t he p roto-European t ype h as b een s upported b y o ther a nthropologists ( Gerasimov 1 955; K onduktorova 1 956; S urnina 1 961; Z inevich 1 967; P otekhina 1 978, e tc). H owever, i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he p opulation r esponsible f or t he M ariupol-type c emeteries w as n ot e ntirely h omogeneous, a v iew w hich h as b een s upported b y a n umber o f 1 49

a nthropologists. O n t he b asis o f m aterials f rom t he c emeteries o f V asilyevka ( Gokhman 1 958), N ikolskoye a nd K apulovka ( Zinevich 1 967, 1 968), a nd D ereivka ( Zinevich 1 967; P otekhina 1 978) m any d istinguish t wo c raniological v ariants : d olichocranic a nd m esobrachy-or m esocranic. T he m ain d ifferences i n t heir s tructures a re i n t he s ize o f t heir l ongitudinal a nd t ransversal d iameters , f acial b readth a nd h orizontal p rofile. H owever, o ther i nvestigators ( Surnina 1 961; A lexeeva 1 968) c onsider t hat t he e vidence f or t he a nthropological s ubdivision o f t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he U kraine i s i nsufficient. T . S . K onduktorova ( 1956) l eaves t his p roblem o pen t hough s he a ssumes ( 1973) t hat t hese c raniological v ariants c orrespond t o s ome e xtent w ith t he d ifferences b etween t he s eparate l ocal g roups o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. T his l ack o f a greement r egarding t he h omogeneity o f t he p opulation h as r esulted i n d ifferent s olutions t o a nother i mportant q uestion - t he p roblem o f t he o rigin o f t he p opulation u nder d iscussion. T he f lattened f orm o f a n umber o f s kulls f rom t he V asilyevka I I c emetery l ed G . F . D ebets ( 1960) t o p oint t o a r elationship b etween t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he U kraine a nd t he p eople o f t he f orest z one i n E astern E urope, i .e., C ro-Magnons s ubjected t o a n egligible M ongoloid i nfluence. T . S . K onduktorova ( 1973) f ollows a p oint o f v iew c lose t o t his o pinion w hen s he s upposes t hat t he p opulation o f t he D nieper r apids a nd A zov r egions o riginated f rom t he f orest-steppe o r f orest t erritories o f E astern E urope. T he o rigin o f t his p opulation f rom t he m ore n ortherly t erritories o f E astern E urope i s s upported b y a rchaeological d ata ( Telegin 1 968). A s omewhat d ifferent p oint o f v iew h as b een e xpressed b y I . I . G okhman , w ho b elieves t hat t he p opulation i n t he s outh U kraine r esulted f rom t he m ixing o f t he l ocal M esolithic p opulation a nd f oreign e lements. T he f ormer a re r epresented b y a n umber o f s kulls f rom V asilyevka I a nd I II, a nd t he l atter, a ccording t o h im , a re r epresented b y t he m eso-brachycranic t ype f rom t he N eolithic c emetery o f V asilyevka IL T hat i s t he g eneral c ourse o f r esearch o n t he a nthropological m aterials f rom t he N eolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper b asin. A s s een f rom t he a bove d escription , s pecialists i n t his r egion p rimarily b elieve t hat t he a rea w as o ccupied b y a l ate C ro-Magnon t ype o f p rotoE uropean p opulation. A n umber o f c raniological f eatures i ndicate t hat t hese p eople w ere e vidently h eterogeneous, a nd t his f act c onsiderably c omplicates t he p roblem b oth o f t heir o rigin a nd t heir r elationships w ith t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic t ribes w ithin t heir h istorical e nvironment. R ecently, a n a ccumulation o f n ew d ata o ffers s trong p ossibilities f or r esolving a n umber o f p roblems c oncerning t he a nthropology o f t he N eolithic p opulation. F irst o f a ll, w e r efer t o t he i ncrease i n i nformation d ue t o t he e xcavations o f a n umber o f n ew M ariupol-type c emeteries s uch a s Y asinovatka, V asilyevka V , O sipovka a nd m ore r ecent e xcavations o f b urials i n t he N ikolskoye, D ereivka a nd s ome o ther c emeteries. I t s hould b e e specially n oted t hat i n t he Y asinovatka c emetery t here w as t raced a d istinct s tratigraphic s equence o f b urials f rom d ifferent p eriods. T his h as p rovided a b asis f or c onstructing a g eneral d ivision o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries t ogether w ith t heir 1 50

a nthropological r emains i nto p eriods. T he f urther i mprovement o f o ur k nowledge o n t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic p opulation s tructure i n t he a djacent t erritories, s uch a s t he a reas o f t he B altic S ea ( Denisova 1 975), t he n orthern E uropean p art o f t he U SSR ( Gokhman 1 975), t he L ower V olga B asin ( Shevchenko 1 980), e tc., i s a lso o ne o f t he i mportant f actors c ontributing t o a d eeper u nderstanding o f t he a nthropology o f t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he D nieper v alley. T hese p rovide t he f oundation f or o ur a nalysis o f t he a nthropological m aterials o f t he N eolithic i n t he D nieper v alley. W e b egin o ur s tudy w ith a n a nalysis o f t he p reviously u npublished a nthropological m aterial f rom t hese c emeteries . Y asinovatka A mong t he a nthropological m aterials f rom t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, t he s keletal r emains f rom t he Y asinovatka c emetery a re o f g reat i mportance. T hey a re c omparatively w ell p reserved a nd, i n g eneral, r epresent a c losed c omplex, s ince t his c emetery w as c ompletely e xcavated. H ere, d ue t o d istinct s tratigraphic o bservations, i t h as b ecome p ossible t o d istinguish s eparate c hronological b urial g roups. A s n oted a bove i n C hapter 2 , a mong t he b urials c emetery, t wo m ain g roups c an b e d istinguished: T ype A - o val g rave p its o f a bout 2 s q. m . h umused l oess. S even s uch p its w ere e xamined.

o f

t he Y asinovatka

f illed w ith w eakly-

T ype 6 - a s ingle l arge b urial v ault, s ubrectangular i n f orm , a bout 3 0 s q. m . P owdered r ed o chre w as s prinkled t hrough t he e ntire p it. T he n umber o f b urials e ncountered b y t he i nvestigators o f t his c emetery t otals 6 8. T he m ajority o f t hese b urials w ere f ound i n t he A t ype o val p its. T he r ed-coloured v ault ( type 6 ) c ontained a bout 3 0 i ndividuals. T he s keletons o f t he d eceased w ere i n d ifferent s tates o f p reservation. T wenty-nine b urials w ere r epresented b y s keletons a nd s kulls; i n 2 2 c ases, o nly t he l ower p arts o f p ostcranial s keletons w ere p reserved w ith n o s kulls, a nd 3 9 b urials w ere r epresented b y s ingle s kulls l ying i n s econdary p ositions a s ar esult o f r eburial. S ex a nd a ge a nalysis i ndicates t hat t he Y asinovatka c emetery c ontained 3 6 m ale, 1 5 f emale a nd f our a dolescent b urials. I n a ddition , t here w ere n ine b urials o f c hildren f rom t he a ge o f f our t o n ine y ears. I n f our c ases, t he a ge c ould n ot b e d etermined. T he d emographic s tructure o f t he d eceased i n t he Y asinovatka c emetery i s s hown i n t he p opulation p yramid ( Fig. 5 6). I n t he ' male' p art o f t he d iagram ( Fig. 5 6,1) o ne c learly s ees t he t endency t oward i ncreased m ortality f rom 2 0 t o 5 0 y ears. T hen t here i s s een a d ecrease i n t he n umber o f i ndividuals l iving t ill 6 0 y ears. A n arrow a pex o f t he p yramid i ndicates t hat m ales v ery r arely l ived u p t o a n a dvanced a ge. T he r ight p art o f t he p yramid ( Fig. 5 6, I I) r eflects a p eculiar c haracter i n t he d ynamics o f f emale m ortality. T he f emale h alf h as a v ery b road b ase, w hich m eans t hat 4 2 p er c ent o f f emales d ied a t t he a ge o f 2 0-29 y ears. T he n ext a ge g roup o f 3 0-39 y ears r eflects t he 1 51

c

9

.3 6

• 15 6 0 -6 9 5 0-59 4 0 -49 3 0-39

%

3 4

3 0

2 6

2 2

1 8

1 4

1 0

I 6

I _ 2

-

2 0-29 2

6

1 0

1 4

I

1 8

2 2

2 6

3 0

3 4

3 8

J

4 2 %

I

6 069 5 0-59

= 64

4 0-49

1

3 0-39 2 0-2 9 1 519 1 014 5 -9 0 -4 2

F ig. 5 6

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m e 22

2 6

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P opulation p yramid o f t he Y asinovatka c emetery. I - m ales; I I -f emales; a nd I II - t otal p opulation.

1 52

l owest f emale m ortality. W ith t he e xception o f t he 2 0-29 y ear o ld f emale g roup ( the m ost a ctive p eriod i n t erms o f f ertility), t he m ortality p eak o f t he p opulation w as a t t he a ge o f 4 0-49 y ears. T hus, t his p eriod i ncludes 3 3 p er c ent o f m ales a nd 2 5 p er c ent o f f emales o r 2 6 p er c ent o f a ll t he d eceased ( Fig. 5 6, I II). T he a verage l ife e xpectancy o f m ales f rom t he Y asinovatka c emetery w as 4 2.8 y ears, t hat o f f emales w as 3 8.7 y ears a nd t hat o f a ll t he d eceased t ogether w ith c hildren w as 3 3.7 y ears, i .e., i t w as v ery h igh . T his m ay p rimarily b e e xplained b y t he a bsence o f c hild b urials y ounger t han f our y ears a nd a lso b y t he a bsence o f t he 1 0-14 y ear a ge g roup. I n g eneral, t he d ata o btained f rom t he m aterials o f t he Y asinovatka c emetery o n t he l ife e xpectancy a nd m ortality a re i n g ood a greement w ith t he i nformation a vailable o n t he p aleodemography o f t he N eolithic t ribes i n t he D nieper v alley ( V. P . A lexeev 1 972; I . D . P otekhina 1 981). A s a r esult o f r estoration , w e h ave a s eries o f 2 7 s kulls, i .e., 4 0 p er c ent o f t he d eceased. I n m ost c ases, t he s kulls w ere s atisfactorily p reserved b ut t heir b ases w ere o ften l acking. T he b ases w ere p reserved o nly i n t hree c ases ( skull N os. 3 6, 4 4, 4 5). I n 1 1 c ases, t he l ower p arts o f t he o ccipital b ones w ere p reserved, a nd t his m ade i t p ossible t o m easure t he s agittal a rches a s w ell a s t he a rches a nd c hords o f t he o cciput. T he s tate o f p reservation o f t he f acial s keletons w as c onsiderably w orse. T herefore, w e w ere o nly a ble t o o btain t he n ecessary m easurements o f s even f acial r egions. T he m andibles w ere w ell p reserved e xcept f or t heir h eads. T he t eeth w ere a lso w ell r epresented a nd e xhibited c onsiderable a brasion ; n o d ental p athology w as o bserved. T he s eries c onsists o f 1 7 m ale a nd 1 0 f emale s kulls. T he d etermination o f s ex c aused n o d ifficulties. T he m ale s kulls a re r ather s harply d istinguished f or t heir l arge s izes o f c ranial a nd f acial r egions, t hick v ault b ones a nd h eavily d eveloped r elief ( supraorbital a rches, g labellae, m astoid p rocesses, t emporal l ines, i n p articular). T he d egree o f m ale g labella d evelopment i s o n a verage 4 .4 u nits ( after M artin). I n s ome c ases, t he d egree o f d evelopment o f t his c haracteristic i s a s g reat a s 6 . T he l ength o f t he s upraorbital a rches i s r ather s ubstantial ( 2.2 u nits), t hough t hey d o n ot r un i nto t he r egion o f t he s upraorbital t riangle. T he m astoid p rocesses a re v ery l arge, a nd i n t he c ase o f m ale s kulls t heir i ndex i s, o n a verage, 2 .9 u nits. T he r elief o f t he o ccipital b one i s c haracterised b y a n umber o f d istinctive f eatures. T wo m odifications o f m ale s kulls h ave b een o bserved. O ne o f t hem r epresents a d eveloped t ransversal o ccipital t orus f ormed i n t he i nion r egion b y t he c onverging n uchal l ines ( skull N o. 1 8). I n t he o ther c ase ( skull N o. 4 4), t he s uperior n uchal l ines w ere a lso s trongly d eveloped a nd f ormed t wo t ori p rojecting m ore s harply i n t he l ateral a reas a nd d eepened i n t he m iddle p art, i .e., i n t he v icinity o f t he e xternal o ccipital t uber. I n b oth c ases, t he t ori a re i n t he f orm o f s harply p rojecting l edges o r l ips. T hese d istinguishing f eatures p oint t o a m arked r elief o f t he o ccipital b one a nd i ts i ncreased m assiveness, t hough t he s eries a lso i ncludes a n umber o f s kulls w ith r ather w eak r elief o f t he o cciput. A n a nalogous

1 53

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o steogenesis h as b een d escribed b y I . f rom t he V ovnigy r ight-bank c emetery.

I .

G okhman

( 1966)

o n t wo s kulls

T hree o f t he s kulls h ad d amages w orthy o f n otice. O n t he p arietal r egion o f s kull N o. 1 8 t here i s al arge h ole m easuring 5 2 m m . T he c haracter o f i ts e dges a nd f ractures s uggests t hat t his w as c ut o ut o f t he s kull s hortly b efore o r a fter d eath . A mong f ragments o f t his s kull, t here h as b een f ound a n o val a mulet ( ?) o f b one a nd m easuring 2 1 'x 2 7 m m .

l eft x3 2 h ole t he m ade

O n s kull N o. 4 6, n early i n t he m iddle o f i ts s agittal s uture, t here i s a n o val h ole o f 1 6 x 6 m m ., a ncient i n o rigin. S ince n o t races o f b one r egeneration a re s een , i t i s p ossible t o b elieve t hat t his h ole w as m ade n ot l ong b efore d eath a nd w as r esponsible f or i t. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t his h ole w as m ade a fter d eath o r r epresents a n e xample o f a n a rtificial t repanation , t hough i ts p osition i s n ot t ypical. T repanation h oles i n s kulls f rom t he M esolithic V asilyevka I II a nd t he N eolithic V asilyevka I I c emeteries a re d escribed b y I . I . G okhman. S kull N o. 6 4, o n i ts r ight p arietal b one, b ears t races o f a b low i n t he f orm o f a f racture d elivered b y a h eavy a nd o btuse o bject. T he f racture i s o val i n f orm a nd m easures 5 1 x 2 1 m m . I nside w ere f ound b one f ragments p ressed i n a nd s lightly a ccreted b etween e ach o ther. T he Y asinovatka s kulls a re d istinguished b y v ery l arge d imensions o f t he c ranium . T he g reatest l ength f rom g labella o f t he m ale s kulls r anges w ithin t he l imits o f h igh a nd v ery h igh ( Table 3 ). T hus, o nly i ts m inimum v alue ( 182 m m .) b elongs t o t he m edium r ange. I ts m aximum v alue ( 221 m m .) e xceeds t he l imits o f t he w orld m aximum . T he m ean v alue f or 1 8 s kulls i s v ery h igh - 1 94.5 m m . T he f emale s eries i s a lso c haracterized b y v ery h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella ( the m ean v alue i s 1 83.4 m m .). T he m inimum v alue ( 174 m m .) b elongs t o t he m edium s ize i ndex ( Table 4 ). T he g reatest p arietal b readth o f t he s kulls r anges w ithin b roader l imits, e specially i n t he m ale g roup. I n o ne c ase, t he g reatest p arietal b readth i s v ery s mall a nd m easures 1 31 m m . T he m aximum v alue o f t he g reatest p arietal b readth r eaches a v ery h igh m agnitude a nd i s a s g reat a s 1 56 m m . O n t he a verage, t he s eries i s c haracterized b y a m oderately b road c ranium ( 143.9 m m .). T he s ize r ange o f t he f emale g roup i s w ithin t he l imits o f 1 33 t o 1 48 m m . ( 140.4 m m . o n a verage), w hich i ndicates a g reat w idth f or f emale s kulls. T he s kull i ndex i n t he m ale s eries r anges f rom 6 5.8 t o 8 1.3, i .e., t he s eries i ncludes a ll t hree f orms o f b rain c ases: n ine d olichocranic, s ix m esocranic a nd o ne b rachycranic. T he f emale s kulls a re o f t he f ollowing c ranial f orms: t hree s kulls a re d olichocranic, f our a re m esocranic a nd o ne s kull i s b rachycranic. T herefore, t he f emale g roup i s m uch l ess d olichocranic, a nd t he m ean v alue o f t he c ranial i ndex o f t his g roup i s 7 3.4. T he h eight o f s kull f rom p orion f or m ales i s 1 09-127 m m . a nd t hat f or f emales i s 1 16-120 m m . O n a verage, t he f emale s eries i s d istinguished b y h igher s kulls.

1 56

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1 57

U-1

T he l arge s izes o f t he Y asinovatka s kulls a re d emonstrated b y s uch c haracteristics a s t he l ength o f t he c ranium b ase, t he l east a nd t he g reatest b readths o f f orehead, t he b readth o f c ranium b ase, t he b readth o f o cciput. A ll t hese c haracteristics a re o f d imensions a ssignable t o a h igh o r a v ery h igh i ndex. T he s izes o f t he h orizontal c ircumference t hrough t he o frion, a nd t he t ransversal a nd s agittal a rches o n m ale s kulls r each v ery s ignificant v alues. C haracteristics o f t he f acial r egion o f t he Y asinovatka s kulls a re l imited t o t he m ale g roup, s ince t he f aces o n t he f emale s kulls c ould n ot b e m easured, e xcept f or a f ew c haracteristics, d ue t o t heir f ragmentation. T he b i-zygomatic b readth o n t he m ale s kulls r anges w ithin t he l imits o f o nly v ery h igh v alues a nd t he v ariation i s n ot v ery g reat: t he g reatest b readth i s 1 56 m m. ( Skull N o.36) a nd t he l east b readth i s 1 44 m m. T he m ean f acial b readth v aries i n a b roader r ange: f rom a m ean o f 9 6 m m, t o v ery h igh ( 110 m m .). T he c ranio-facial i ndex p oints t o a g reat b readth o f t he f acial r egion r elative t o t he c ranial b readth: o n t he a verage, i t e xceeds 1 00 a nd v aries b etween 9 8.6 a nd 1 11.1 m m. T he u pper f acial b readth i s a lso c haracterized b y v ery g reat s ize. T his c haracteristic v aries i nsignificantly ( from 1 10 m m . t o 1 15 m m.) a nd i n a ll c ases d iffers f rom t he m ean v alue b y n ot m ore t han 2 m m. T he f acial h eight m easurements v ary w ithin t he l imits o f t he m edium a nd h igh c lasses. A ccording t o f acial i ndices, t he s kulls a re b rachycranic. T he o rbital b readth f rom t he m axilo-frontale i s, o n a verage, v ery g reat ( 45.0 m m.), w hile t he o rbital h eight ( from 2 8.0 m m . t o 3 3.0 m m , i s, o n a verage, v ery l ow ( 31.2 m m .). N aturally, a ccording t o t he i ndex ( 69.7), t he s kulls a re v ery l ow-orbital. T he n asal b readth a s w ell a s t he n asal h eight i s, o n a verage, h igh. A ccording t o t he n asal i ndex, t he s kulls a re m esorhinic, t hough t he s eries i ncludes o ne s tenorhinic a nd t hree b rachyrhinic s kulls. T he f acial v ertical p rofiling i s w eak o r m oderate. O f t he f our s tudied f acial s keletons, o ne i s m esognathic a nd t hree a re o rthognathic. T he n aso-malar a ngle v aries f rom 1 34° t o 1 47 ° ( 140.8 ° , o n a verage) a nd a pproximates m odern E uropoid g roups ( 140 ° ) . I n t hree o ut o f f ive c ases, t he v alue o f t his a ngle e xceeds t he a bove l imits, w hich p oints t o a t endency t owards f lattening o f t he f ace i n i ts u pper p art. O n t he a verage, t he z ygomaxilar a ngle e quals 1 32.2 ° . I n t wo o ut o f f ive c ases, i t m easures 1 35 ° a nd 1 38', w hich p oints t o a r ather w eak h orizontal p rofiling o f t he f acial r egion i n i ts m iddle p art. O n t he w hole, t he Y asinovatka s kulls e xhibit a c omplex o f f eatures c haracteristic f or t he p roto-European t ype. T hese s kulls, a s w ell a s t he s kulls f rom o ther N eolithic c emeteries i n t he D nieper b asin, m ay b e a ssigned t o t he D nieper r apids-Azov v ersion o f t his t ype d istinguished b y I . I . G okhman. A n a nalysis o f t he Y asinovatka s eries h as s hown t hat t he p opulation r esponsible f or t he c onstruction o f t his c emetery w as h eterogeneous. A ccording t o 3 0 f eatures i n t he m ale s eries a nd 1 6 f eatures i n t he f emale s eries, t he m ean-square d eviation s ubstantially e xceeds t he s tandard v alues. T herefore, t he m ale s eries h as b een d ivided i nto t wo g roups a ccording t o t he t wo t ypes o f b urial c onstructions: t he o val g rave p its ( type-A) a nd t he c ollective ' redc oloured' b urial v ault ( Type B ). T he s kulls ( Nos. 5 5, 5 7, 6 0, 6 4 ( No. 6 3 a lso b elongs t o t his g roup b ut b ecause o f i ts p osthumous d eformation i t i s n ot i ncluded i n t he c alculation o f m ean v alues)) f rom t he o val p its ( Table 5 , P it A ) a re c haracterized b y a g reat m assiveness a nd l arge s ize: a v ery h igh v alue 1 58

o f t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella ( 198.5 m m .), a nd m ean v alues o f t he g reatest p arietal b readth ( 140.3 m m .) a nd h eight o f s kull f rom p orion ( 115 m m .). T he b rain c ase i s s harply d olichocranic ( 70.5). T he f ace i s v ery b road ( bi-zygomatic b readth i s 1 47.5 m m .). I t i s o f a m edium h eight a nd s harply p rofiled i n t he h orizontal p lane ( the a ngles o f t he h orizontal p rofiling c ould b e m easured o nly o n o ne s kull). T he o rbits a re v ery l ow , t he n ose i s b road. O n t he a verage, t he s kulls f rom t he ' red-coloured' b urial v ault ( Table 5 , p it B ) a re l ess m assive t han t hose o f p it A a nd a re c haracterized b y ab roader a nd h igher m esocranic b rain c ase. A ccording t o a bsolute v alues, t he f ace i s a lso b road, h igh a nd s omewhat f lattened. H owever, t hese d ifferences a re n ot s harply p ronounced, a nd w hen t ested s tatistically, t hey s eem t o b e d oubtful. S ince t he p its o f t he A a nd B ( 6) t ypes b elong t o d ifferent c hronological p hases o f t he c emetery, a nd t he d ifferences b etween t he a ssociated s kull g roups t end t owards a n i ncrease i n t he c ranial i ndex a nd a re a ccompanied b y a d ecrease ( on a verage) o f m assiveness i n t he l ater g roup, t hese d ifferences m ay b e e xplained b y a p rocess o f t emporal c hange. H owever, t his i s i nconsistent w ith t he f act t hat o nly t he ' red-coloured' g rave c ontained s kulls ( Nos. 1 5, 1 8, 4 4) w ith v ery m assive b ones o f t he c ranial v ault, c rest-like u pper n uchal l ines ( toruli) o n t he o ccipital b ones, a nd a p ronounced d olichocranic c haracter. A n a nalysis f or h omogeneity o f 1 3 m ale s kulls f rom t he ' red' g rave r eveals t wo m orphological c omponents o f t his g roup ( Table 5 , p it 6 , t ypes I a nd I I). T he f irst c omponent i ncludes s kull N os. 1 1, 1 5, 1 8, 2 3, 4 4 a nd 4 5. T hey e xhibit a c omplex o f f eatures s imilar t o t hat f rom t he o val p its. T hese f eatures a re a v ery p ronounced d egree o f d evelopment o f g labellae, s upraorbital a rches a nd e specially u pper n uchal l ines. T he b rain c ase i s v ery l ong ( 195.3 m m .), n arrow ( 137.5 m m .) a nd h igh. T he c ranial i ndex i s 7 0 .4. T he f ace i s b road ( 146 m m .), t he o rbits a re v ery l ow a nd t he n ose i s v ery b road. T he a ngle o f t he h orizontal p rofile m easured o nly o n o ne f acial r egion p oints t o a c onsiderable f latness o f t he f ace a t t he o rbital l evel ( naso-malar a ngle i s 1 47 ° ) . B y t his c haracteristic t he d olichocranic s kulls f rom t he ' red-coloured' g rave a re d istinguished f rom t he s kulls f ound i n t he o val p its. I f t his c haracteristic i s i gnored, t he s kulls f rom t he o val p its ( type A ) a nd t he d olichocranic s kulls f rom t he ' red ' g rave ( type B ) s hould b e a ssigned t o a s ingle c raniological t ype ( I). T he v alidity o f s uch a g rouping i s d emonstrated s tatistically. W hen t ested b y m eans o f t he X2 m ethod, t he d egree o f c oincidence a ccording t o 1 0 c haracteristics i s 0 .99, w hich i ndicates a h igh d egree o f s imilarity o f t he g roups b eing c ompared. T he o ther c raniological t ype ( type I I, T able 5 ), d istinguished i n t he r ed-coloured g rave , e xhibits a q uite d ifferent c omplex o f c haracteristics. I t i ncludes a n umber o f m esocranic s kulls a nd o ne b rachycranic s kull ( Nos. 9 , 1 0, 2 4, 2 7, 3 5, 3 6, 3 7). T he m edium c ranial i ndex i s 7 8.0. E ach o f t hese s kulls h as a h igh b rain c ase a nd a v ery b road f orehead. T he f ace i s v ery b road ( 150 m m .) a nd s omewhat f lattened a t b oth p lanes. T he o rbits a re l ow , t he n ose i s o f a m oderate b readth. I n t his c ase ( except f or s kull N o. 4 7), t he d egree o f d evelopment o f g labellae, s upraorbital a rches, e xternal o ccipital t ubers a nd m astoid p rocesses i s s omewhat l ess t han i n t ype I . T he c omparison o f t hese t wo t ypes b y m eans o f t he X2 m ethod, a ccording t o 1 59

T able 5 C omparison o f Y asinovatka c raniological t ypes ( Males). D efinitions

1 8 2 0 8 :1 9 1 0 1 1 2 2 3a 4 5 4 6 4 8 4 8:45 4 5:8 5 5 5 4 5 4:55 5 2 5 2:51 S C S S S S:SC 7 7 -

C haracteristics

P it A ( Type I )

G reatest l ength f rom g labella G reatest p arietal b readth H eight o f s kull f rom p orion C ranial i ndex L east b readth o f f orehead G reatest b readth o f f orehead B iauricular b readth B readth o f o cciput H orizontal c ircum . t hro. o frion B y-zygomatic b readth M iddle f acial b readth U pper f acial h eight U pper f acial i ndex T ransverse f acial-cranial i ndex N asal h eight N asal b readth N asal i ndex O rbital h eight O rbital i ndex S imotical c hord S imotical s ubtense S imotical i ndex N asomalar a ngle Z ygomaxillar a ngle

1 60

1 98.5(4) 1 40.3(3) 15.0(1) 7 0.5(3) 1 04.0(3) 17.7(3) 1 31.5(2) 11.5(2) 5 32.0(1) 1 47.5(2) 9 8.5(2) 7 0.0(1) 4 6.7(1) 1 05.6(2) 5 2.0(2) 2 7.2(1) 5 2.8(1) 3 1.1(2) 6 7.3(2) 8 .1(3) 4 .8(1) 5 9.3(1) 1 34.0(1) 1 28.7(1)

P it

6

1 93.6(13) 1 43.8(13) 1 20.3(11) 7 4.64(13) 1 02.8(11) 1 22.2(13) 1 31.8(10) 12.8(13) 5 43.1(11) 1 49.0(4) 1 03.3(3) 7 5.5(4) 5 0 .7(4) 1 00.8(4) 5 5.8(4) 2 8.0(4) 5 0 .4(4) 3 1.3(4) 7 0.9(4) 9 .5(7) 4 .0(6) 4 5.3(6) 1 42.0(4) 1 33.0(4)

T able 5 ( Continued) P it E .

1 8 2 0 8 :1 9 1 0 1 1 2 2 3a 4 5 4 6 4 8 4 8:45 4 5:8 5 5 5 4 5 4 :55 5 2 5 2:51 S C S S S S :SC 7 7 -

T ype I

T ype I I

1 95.3(6) 1 37.5(6) 1 22.0(5) 7 0.4(6) 1 00.0(6) 1 16.5(6) 1 27.0(3) 1 10.7(6) 5 38.0(5) 1 46.0(1) 1 10.7(6) 7 2.0(1) 4 9.3(1) 1 02.1(1) 5 1.5(1) 2 8.1(1) 5 4.6(1) 2 8.0(1) 6 0 .7(1) 8 .25(2) 3 .2(2) 3 8.8(2) 1 47.0(1) 1 27.0(1)

1 91.3(7) 1 49.1(7) 18.8(6) 7 8.0(7) 1 06.2(5) 1 27.0(7) 1 33.9(7) 1 14.6(7) 5 47.3(6) 1 50.0(3) 1 00.0(2) 7 6.7(3) 5 1.7(3) 1 00.4(3) 5 7.2(3) 2 8.0(3) 4 9.0(3) 3 2.4(3) 7 4.2(3) 9 .9(5) 4 .4(4) 4 8.2(4) 1 41.0(3) 1 35.0(3)

P its A a nd T ype I

E .

1 96.1(10) 1 38.4(9) 1 20.8(6) 7 0.4(9) 1 01.3(9) 1 16.9(9) 1 28.8(5) 1 10.9(8) 5 37.0(6) 1 47.0(3) 1 02.3(3) 7 1.0(2) 4 8.0(2) 1 04.4(3) 5 1.8(3) 2 7.7(2) 5 3.7(2) 3 0 .0(3) 6 5.1(3) 8 .2(5) 3 .7(3) 5 4.6(3) 1 40.5(2) 1 27.9(2)

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1 62

t he c omplex o f c haracteristics, h as r evealed t hat t here i s v ery l ittle i n c ommon ( the d egree o f c oincidence p = 0 .05-0.1), i .e., t he d ifferences b etween t ype I a nd t ype I I a re s tatistically v alid. T he f emale s eries c onsists o f 1 0 b rain c ases ( two o f t hem a re o nly r epresented b y f acial f ragments). T he v alues o f t he m ean-square d eviation , a ccording t o t he m ajority o f t he c ranial v ault c haracteristics, e xceed t he s tandard v alues. T herefore, t here i s r eason t o e xamine i ndividual s kulls o riginating f rom t he t wo t ypes o f b urial c onstruction. T wo f emale b rain c ases ( Nos. 1 9 a nd 6 5) d erive f rom t he A -type p it. O ne o f t hem i s b rachycranic ( cranial i ndex i s 8 1.6). T he o ther i s n early m esocranic ( index i s 7 4.9). T hus, i n t he o val p its, a long w ith m ales o f t he d olichocranic t ype ( I), t here w ere b uried f emales h aving h igher c ranial i ndices ( Table 6 ). I n o rder t o e lucidate t he d ifferences b etween t he a nthropological t ypes o f t he m ale a nd t he f emale s kulls, w e h ave c alculated r atios o f s exual d imorphism o n t he b asis o f t he p rincipal c haracteristics o f t he b rain r egion. I t h as b een s tated t hat a ll o f t hem , w ith o ne e xception ( horizontal c ircumference t hrough o frion), e xceed t he l imits o f t he m ean s tandard v alues ( Alexeev a nd D ebets 1 964). B y c ounting t he s izes o f t wo f emale s kulls o n t he b asis o f t he s exual-dimorphism r atios, w e o btain c orrelated m ean v alues o f t he m ain c haracteristics o f ' pseudo-male ' b rain c ases ( Table 7 ). C ompared t o t he m ale s kulls f rom t he A -pit, t he c orrelated f emale s kulls a re c haracterized b y a m uch s horter a nd b roader b rain r egion , a nd b y ap ronounced m esocrania ( the c ranial i ndex o f t he c orrelated s kulls i s 7 7.3, t hat o f t he m ale s kulls i s 7 0.5). T he c orrelated s kulls h ave m uch g reater b readth o f f orehead, b ia uricular b readth a nd b readth o f o cciput. T herefore, t he r esults o f c orrelation b etween t he m ale a nd ' pseudo-male ' s eries, t hough t hey a re b ased o nly o n t he d ata a ssociated w ith t he b rain r egions o f t he s kulls, p oint t o t he f act t hat d ifferent a nthropological t ypes w ere b uried i n t he A -pit. I n t his c ase, t he m ale s kulls b elong t o t ype I , w hile t he f emale s kulls s hould b e a ssigned t o t he s ame m esocranic t ype ( II) a s t he m ale m esocranic s kulls f rom t he 6 -pit. T able 7 M ale a nd C orrelated F emale S kulls f rom Y asinovatka P it A C haracteristics

1 8 8 :1 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

G reatest l ength f rom g labella G reatest p arietal b readth C ranial i ndex L east b readth o f f orehead G reatest b readth o f f orehead B iauricular b readth B readth o f o cciput

M ales T ype I

P seudo-males T ype I I

1 98.5 1 40.3 7 0.5 1 04.0 17.7 1 31.5 1 11.5

1 85.1 1 43.1 7 7.3 9 8.0 1 25.3 1 37.8 1 21.4

( 4) ( 3) ( 3) ( 3) ( 3) ( 2) ( 2)

( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 7) ( 2)

T here w ere e ight f emale s kulls ( Nos. 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 2 8, 4 6, 5 0) i n t he 6 -pit. T wo o f t he s kulls w ere s harply d olichocranic ( Nos. 2 8, 4 6). T hey h ave v ery h igh v alues o f t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella a nd m ean p arietal b readth. I n a ddition, t hey h ave a v ery b road f orehead 1 63

a nd, u ndoubtedly, r epresent t he s ame c hronological t ype ( I) a s d olichocranic m ale s kulls w ith b road a nd w ell p rofiled f aces. o ther f emale s kulls ( Nos. 1 , 2 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 5 0) f rom t he ' red g rave' d istinguished b y d ifferent p roportions o f b rain c ases. T hey c haracterized b y a p ronounced m esocrania w ith v ery h igh v alues f or g reatest l ength f rom g labella, t he g reatest p arietal b readth h eight.

t he T he a re a re t he a nd

J udging f rom t he f acial s keleton a t o ur d isposal ( No.50), t his g roup o f s kulls i s c haracterized b y v ery l ow ( or m edium h eight, a ccording t o i ndex) o rbits a nd b road f aces f lattened i n t he u pper p art. S even m ale s kulls ( craniological t ype I I) f rom t he s ame p it a nd t he t wo f emale s kulls d escribed a bove f rom t he A -pit h ave a s imilar c omplex o f c haracteristics. T hus, a mong t he f emale s eries o f s kulls f rom t he r ed b urial v ault, t here h ave b een d istinguished t wo c raniological t ypes c orresponding t o c raniological t ypes I a nd I I i n t he m ale s eries. T he d istribution o f t he c raniological t ypes o f m ale a nd f emale s kulls i n p its A a nd 6 a nd t he d efinition o f t heir c ranial i ndices i s g iven i n T able 8 . T able 8 T ype I P it A M ales

7 0.5

T ype I I P it 6 M ales F emales

7 0.4 7 1.7

P it A F emales

7 8.3

P it 6 M ales 7 8.0 F emales 7 8.2

I n o rder t o o btain a n a dditional b asis f or d ividing t he Y asinovatka s eries i nto t he a bove t ypes, w e h ave c alculated r atios o f s exual d imorphism f or t he m ain c haracteristics f or t he w hole s eries a nd f or t he s kulls f rom t he p its o f b oth t ypes, a s w ell a s t he r atios o f s exual d imorphism o f t he m ale a nd f emale s kulls o f t he e xcavated a nthropological t ypes. I n a ll t hese i nstances, t he s exual d imorphism i s t ransgressed, w hich p rovides s upport f or t he m orphological h eterogeneity o f t hese g roups. T he a nalysis o f t he Y asinovatka c raniological s eries m akes i t p ossible t hen t o a scertain t he p resence o f t wo a nthropological t ypes. T he f irst a nthropological t ype i s c haracterized b y a s harp d olichocrania, b y h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella a nd t he h eight o f s kull f rom b asion, b y l ow o r m edium v alues o f t he g reatest p arietal b readth a nd a lso b y a v ery b road f ace o f m edium h eight, w hich i s w ell p rofiled i n t he h orizontal p lane. T he n ose i s b road, t he o rbits a re v ery l ow. T he s econd ( mesocranic) t ype h as v ery h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella a nd t he g reatest p arietal b readth w ith a s omewhat s maller h eight o f t he s kull, a b roader, h igher a nd s omewhat f lattened f ace. T he n ose i s n arrower a nd t he o rbits a re h igher. I n t he e arly p hase o f t he c emetery, w hen t he d ead w ere b uried i n o val p its o f t he A -type, t he d olichocranic t ype i s w ell e videnced ( I). I t i s e ntirely r epresented b y m ale s kulls. T he m esocranic t ype ( II) a ssociated a t t his s tage o nly w ith f emale s kulls w as n ot s o a bundantly a ttested. A t a l ater s tage w hen t he d ead w ere b uried i n t he r ed1 64

c oloured b urial v ault ( 6), t he s kulls o f c raniological t ypes I a nd I I w ere m ore n umerous. I n t his p hase, b oth t ypes w ere e qually r epresented b y m ales a nd f emales. F or s uch a c omparatively l ong p eriod o f f unction ( not l ess t han 5 00 y ears) a nd p robably b ecause o f c oexistence, t he a nthropological t ypes c ould n ot r emain i nvariable. T hus, i n t he l ater s tage o f t he c emetery, t ype I a cquired s ome n ew f eatures s uch a s t he f acial f latness ( skull N o.44) - t he m ost c haracteristic f eature f or a ll t he s kulls o f t ype I I. I t i s p robable t hat t he a ppearance o f t he m orphological e lements c haracteristic f or t he t ype I s kulls ( for e xample, t he o ccipital t orus o n s kull N o.47) a mong t he r epresentatives o f t he t ype I I r esulted f rom a c ross-breeding o f t hese t wo t ypes. N ikolskoye c emetery T he N ikolskoye c emetery h as y ielded r ich a nthropological m aterial. T he s eries o f s kulls f rom b urials N os. 1 -71 ( excavations o f 1 959) w ere a nalyzed b y G . P . Z inevich ( 1967). O n t he b asis o f d ata o btained f rom 1 5 m ale a nd 1 0 f emale s kulls, s he c oncluded t hat t his s eries c onsists o f t wo c omponents: d olichocranic a nd m esocranic ( prognatic). W hen e xcavations o f t he N ikolskoye c emetery w ere c ontinued i n 1 967, a nthropological m aterials w ere o btained f rom a n a dditional 4 0 b urials ( Nos. 7 2-137). T his m aterial w as s tudied b y t he a uthor. I n m ost c ases, t he s kulls a nd l ong b ones o f t he e xtremities w ere p oorly p reserved. A s a r esult o f r estoration, i t w as p ossible t o o btain a s hort s eries o f b rain c ases e ven w ith f acial f ragments a nd t o o btain a ll p ossible m easurements a nd d etermine t he s ex a nd a ge. C onsequently, w e a re a ble t o d etermine t hat t his p art o f t he c emetery i ncluded 1 1 f emale a nd 2 3 m ale b urials a nd a lso o ne a dolescent b urial a nd o ne c hild b urial ( infantilis I I). I n f our c ases, t he s ex o f t he d eceased c ould n ot b e d etermined. A s a w hole, G . P . Z inevich a nd t he a uthor d etermined t he s ex a nd a ge o f 9 0 s keletons f rom t he N ikolskoye c emetery. T hese m aterials h ave p rovided v ery i nteresting m aterial f or d emographic s tudies, s ince h ere a ll a ge g roups a re w ell r epresented. T he m ean a ge o f t he p opulation a ssociated w ith t his c emetery i s 3 1.2 y ears: 4 4.4 y ears f or m ales a nd 3 8.5 y ears f or f emales ( Potekhina 1 981). I n o rder t o o btain a m ore o r l ess c omplete i dea o f t he p hysical a ppearance o f t he d eceased o n t he b asis o f r ather f ragmentary m aterial, w e h ave g eneralized f rom t he w hole b ody o f i ndividual d ata a nd, o n t he b asis o f i nformation o n i ndividual f eatures, t ried a s f ar a s p ossible t o d etermine t he a nthropological t ype o f t he d eceased i n t he p art o f t he N ikolskoye c emetery e xcavated i n 1 967. T he m ale s kulls a re r ather m assive. T hey h ave t hick b ones o f t he c ranial v ault a nd l arge m astoid p rocesses ( 2.6 o n a verage). I n n ine c ases, t he d egree o f d evelopment o f g labella i s 4 .6 a nd i n o ne c ase i t i s e ven 6 u nits. T he o ccipital b ones e xhibit a w ell p ronounced r elief o f t he u pper n uchal l ines c onverting i nto a d eveloped e xternal o ccipital t uber o f a bout 3 u nits ( Table 9 ). D olichocrania a nd m esocrania a re a lmost e qually r epresented i n t he s eries ( five a nd s ix s kulls r espectively) a nd d istributed a s f ollows: t wo s harply d olichocranic s kulls ( cranial i ndex: 7 0.2; 7 0.8) t hree s ubd olichocranic ( 70.0; 7 4.0 ; 7 6.2), f our m esocranic ( 76.7; 7 7.4; 7 9.1; 7 9.2), t wo o f t he l atter t ending t o b rachycrania. I n t wo c ases, t he

1 65

T able 9 I ndividual m easurements a nd m ean s izes o f m ale s kulls. C haracteristics 7 7

1 8 9 2 0 8 :1 4 5 4 8 5 4 5 2 7 7 4 8:54 5 2:51 5 4 :55

G reatest l ength f rom g labella G reatest p arietal b readth L east b readth o f f orehead H eight o f s kull f rom p orion C ranial i ndex B i-zygomatic b readth U pper f acial h eight N asal b readth O rbital h eight N asol-malar a ngle Z ygomaxillar a ngle U pper f acial i ndex O rbital i ndex I N asal i ndex

1 66

N ikolskoye ( new s eries) 8 4 8 8 1 06 18

1 72 1 32 1 42 9 5 7 6.7 -

1 94 1 04 -

1 77 2 00 1 37 1 48 9 4 1 13 7 7.4 7 4.0 1 38 6 9 2 1.5 3 1.7 1 38 1 27 5 0.0 7 4.9 4 5.3 -

T able 9 ( Continued)

D efinition

1 8 9 2 0 8 :1 4 5 4 8 5 4 5 2 7 7 4 8 :45 5 2:51 5 4:55

19

N ikolskoye ( new s eries) 1 22 1 23 1 25 1 29 1 35

1 89 1 83 1 92 1 91 2 00 1 44 1 45 1 36 1 34 1 48 9 7 1 03 1 01 9 9 7 6.2 7 9.2 7 0.8 7 0.2 7 4.0 -

1 91 1 51 10 18 7 9.1 -

M (n)

1 88.9 ( 10) 1 41.7 ( 10) 1 00.4 ( 8) 15.5 ( 2) 7 5.3 ( 9) 1 38.0 ( 1) 6 9.0 ( 1) 2 1.5 ( 1) 3 1.7 ( 1) 1 38 ( 1) 1 27 ( 1) 5 0.0 ( 1) 7 4.9 ( 1) 4 5.3 ( 1)

T able 9 ( Continued)

V asilyevka D efinition 9 2 6

1 8 9 2 0 8 :1 4 5 4 8

1 83 _ _

2 01 _ _

5 4 5 2 7 7 4 8:45 5 2:51 5 4:55

_ _ _

_ _ _

3 7

1 36 _ _ 2 4.3 _ 1 31.8 _ _

M (n)

1 92 ( 2) 1 36 ( 1) _ _ _ _ _

O sipovka 1 6

1 76 1 38? 9 6 1 19 7 8.4 1 40 7 5 2 5.5 3 1.0 1 37.6 1 30.2 5 3.6 7 4.7 4 5.4

d olichocrania a nd m esocrania h ave b een d etermined v isually. T he m ean v alue o f t he c ranial i ndex ( 75.3) p oints t o a c ertain p redominance o f m esocranic ( or s ub-dolichocranic) s kulls i n t he s eries. A ccording t o t he a bsolute v alues a nd c ranial i ndex , t he m ale s kulls h ave b road f oreheads. O nly i n o ne c ase ( skull N o. 1 06) a ccording t o t he t hree m ain d iameters i s t he f orehead o f m edium b readth ( the l east b readth i s 1 07 m m .). T he b readth o f o cciput v aries m ore w idely f rom v ery n arrow t o v ery b road. I n m ost c ases, t he h eight o f t he v ault f alls i n t he m iddle r ange. T he c haracteristics o f t he f acial r egion w ill b e g iven m ainly o n t he b asis o f s kull N o. 1 06. T he f ace i s b road, a ccording t o t he a bsolute v alues, a nd i t i s m oderately b road, a ccording t o t he i ndex ( mesen a nd m esoprosopic). T he n ose i s l eptorinic. I n t he o ther c ase ( skull N o. 1 35), t he n ose i s o f m edium b readth a nd o f c onsiderable s imothic h eight. T he b ridge o f t he n ose i s h igh. T he o rbits a re c hameconchnic. T he h orizontal p rofiling o f t he f ace i s w ell p ronounced a t b oth l evels. T he n aso-malar a ngle i s 1 38 ° , a nd t he z ygomaxillar a ngle i s 1 26 ° . T he a ngles o f t he v ertical p rofiling p oint t o a m esognatic n ature b oth a t t he m iddle a nd a lveolar p ortions. T he l ower p art i s m oderately m assive a nd o ften c oarse a t t he a ngles. T he b ody a nd s ymphysis a re h igh , a nd t he t hickness i s m oderate. T he m assiveness o f t he b ody i s r arely m et. T he a ngle o f t he a scending r amus i s m edium , t he c hin i s m oderately p rojecting. T he f emale s kulls ( Table 4 ) f rom t he N ikolskoye c emetery a re d istinguished f rom t he m ale s kulls p rimarily b y a p ronounced g racility, ap ronounced p rojection o f f rontal a nd p arietal t ubers, a nd b y t he w eak r elief o f t he o cciput. A ccording t o t he i ndex, t he f orehead i s b road. I n t wo c ases, w hen t he s tate o f p reservation m ade i t p ossible t o o btain t he n ecessary m easurements, t he s kulls w ere d olichocranic. T he f acial s keletons o n t he f emale s kulls a re n ot p reserved, e xcept f or f ragmented m andibles. I n a ll c ases, o ne m ay o bserve l ess m assive s kulls, a ccording t o t he i ndex, w ith a g reat h eight o f t he b ody a nd s ymphysis a nd w ith a t hin b ody. A s imilar s tructure o f t he m andible i s o bservable i n c ase o f t he d eceased f rom t he V asilyevka V c emetery. W hen c omparing t he a bove-described g roup o f s kulls w ith t he s eries f rom t he s ame c emetery w hich w as f ormerly s tudied b y G . P . Z inevich , i t b ecomes e vident t hat t hey b oth r epresent a s ingle p opulation a ssociated w ith t he N ikolskoye c emetery. T he r esemblance i s p rimarily o bserved i n t he m assiveness o f t he s kulls a nd t heir l arge s izes. T he n ew s eries o nly b roadens t o s ome e xtent t he r ange o f v ariation o f s ome o f t he c haracteristics. T hus, f or e xample, t he m inimum v alue f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella i n t he n ew s eries ( 172 m m .) r educes t he l east l imit o f t his c haracteristic b y 1 5 m m . w hich i s a lso r esponsible f or a l ower m ean v alue ( 188.9 m m .) f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella. T his i s a lso r esponsible f or t he h igher c ranial i ndex i n t he n ew s eries c ompared t o t he s eries s tudied b y G . P . Z inevich ( 75.3 a nd 7 3.1 r espectively). H owever, t hese d ifferences d o n ot e xceed t he i ntergroup l imits a nd m ake i t q uite p ossible t o i ntegrate t he t wo g roups o f s kulls, w hich s ubstantially e nlarges t he s ize o f t he s eries. T he m ean v alues o f t he m ain c haracteristics o f t he i ntegrated s eries o f t he N ikolskoye s kulls a re g iven i n T able 1 0 . T hese v alues a re c alculated o n t he b asis o f t hose c ompiled b y G . P . Z inevich ( 1967, t able 3 1) a nd i n a ccordance w ith o ur o wn d ata.

1 69

T able 1 0 M ean s izes o f N ikolskoye m ale s kulls ( integrated s eries a fter I . D . P otekhina) 1 8 8 :1 2 0 9 1 2 4 5 4 8 4 5:8 4 8 :45 5 4 5 4 :55 5 2 5 2:51 7 2 7 4 7 7 7 1a

G reatest l ength f rom g labella G reatest p arietal b readth C ranial i ndex H eight o f s kull f rom p orion L east b readth o f f orehead B readth o f o cciput B i-zygomatic b readth U pper f acial h eight T ransverse f acio-cranial i ndex U pper f acial i ndex N asal b readth N asal i ndex O rbital h eight O rbital i ndex T otal f acial a ngle A lveolar a ngle N aso-malar a ngle Z ygomaxillar a ngle L east b readth o f m andibular r amus

1 93.0 1 42.3 7 4.0 1 21.0 1 01.8 1 15.9 1 14 .3 7 4.1 9 7.4 5 1.4 2 5.4 4 7.3 3 2.0 7 1.7 8 2.1 7 4.1 1 40.0 1 24.0 3 6.1

( 24) ( 25) ( 23) ( 11) ( 21) ( 18) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 7) ( 5) ( 7) ( 13)

T he N ikolskoye m ale s kulls a re c haracterized b y h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength ( longitudinal d imaeter) a nd h eight o f t he b rain c ase ( vertical d iameter) a nd a m edium v alue f or t he b readth ( transversal d iameter): t he f orehead a nd o cciput a re b road; t he f ace i s v ery b road, h igh a ccording t o a bsolute v alue ( low a ccording t o t he f acial i ndex) a nd o rtho-or m esognathic; i n t he h orizontal p lane t he f ace i s w eakly p rofiled i n i ts u pper p art, a nd i t i s s trongly p rofiled i n i ts l ower p art; t he o rbits a re n ot h igh ( very l ow , a ccording t o t he i ndex); t he n ose i s o f m edium b readth a nd m arkedly p rotruding. G . P . Z inevich ( 1967) s uggested t hat, a ccording t o a n umber o f c haracteristics, t he s eries s he s tudied w as h eterogeneous a nd c onsisted o f t wo c omponents: a ) d olichocranic, w hich w as p redominant, a nd b ) p rognatic, m esocranic ( skulls N os. 7 7 a nd 1 64). T he f irst o f t hem i s c haracterised b y t he l arge s ize o f t he s kulls a nd t heir m assiveness, b y a h igh b rain c ase w ith m arkedly d eveloped s upraorbital a rches a nd a m oderately s loping f orehead. T he f ace i s o rtho-mesognathic, b road a nd h igh w ith l ow o r m oderately h igh o rbits. T he m esocranic ( prognathic) v ariant h as a b rain c ase o f a m edium h eight a nd a b road a nd s loping f orehead; t he f ace i s b road w ith s omewhat f lattened h orizontal p rofiling i n t he r egion o f t he o rbits. T he n ose i s s trongly p rotruding a nd h as a h igh b ridge. U nfortunately, t he d efinition o f t hese c omponents h as n ot b een e stablished s tatistically. T he f irst o f t he c omponents, a s n oted b y G . P . Z inevich , i s t he s oc alled C ro-Magnon ( in t he b road s ense) p roto-European a nthropological t ype. T he r eality o f i ts e xistence i n t he D nieper v alley d uring t he N eolithic h as b een s tated b y an umber o f i nvestigators ( Gerasimov 1 965; K onduktorova 1 960 ; G okhman 1 966; S urnina 1 961). H owever, t he s eparation o f t he s econd c omponent i n t he c omposition o f t he N ikolskoye s eries r equires m ore w eighty a rguments. I n a ctual f act, t he e nlargement o f t he m aterials i n t his s eries m ade i t p ossible t o r eveal 1 4 d olichocranic, 1 0 m esocranic a nd o ne b rachycranic s kulls. H owever, t he s ingle m esocranic s kull w ith a p reserved f ace ( No. 1 06) f rom t he n ew s eries r eveals a c omplex o f f eatures d ifferent f rom t he m esocranic c omplex d istinguished b y G . P . Z inevich. T his s kull h as a r ather p rofiled f ace i n t he h orizontal p lane a t b oth l evels a nd i s f ree o f p rognathism . H owever , t he a ppearance o f t he o riginal m esocranic s kulls f rom t he N ikolskoye c emetery s hould n ot b e a ttributed o nly t o i ndividual v ariation. I t i s p robable t hat t he r eason f or t his s hould b e s ought i n t he d ifference o f b urial c onstructions ( collective a nd s ingle g raves) o f t he N ikolskoye c emetery. V asilyevka V S tudies w ere b ased o n t he r emains o f 2 1 a dult b urials. H ere s hould b e n oted t hat t here w ere n o c hild b urials, a nd t his f act i s u nusual f or a c emetery o f t his t ype. O f 3 7 b urials, o nly o ne b urial c ontained t he r emains o f a n a dolescent ( ?) s keleton. S ince t he a nthropological m aterial i s v ery p oorly p reserved, t here a re m any d oubts c oncerning t he a ge a nd s ex o f t he d eceased. T he s ex w as d etermined i n 1 6 c ases ( nine m ales a nd s even f emales). T he a ge w as d etermined i n 2 1 c ases - 4 0.8 y ears f or m ales, 3 9.6 y ears f or f emales. T he m aximum m ortality f alls i n t he a ge g roup o f 3 4-45 y ears. O n t he w hole, t he s keletons a re p oorly p reserved. E ven a fter a t horough r estoration n one o f t he s kulls c ould b e m easured i n f ull. H owever, o n t he b asis o f s uch s carce d ata r elated t o i ndividual s kulls 1 71

T able 1 M ean S ize o f M ale B urials f rom M ariupol-type C emeteries

1 8 1 7 2 0 9 8 :1 2 0 :1 2 0 :8 4 5 4 8 5 2 5 1 5 4 5 5 7 2 7 4 7 5(1) 7 7 4 7:45 4 9:45 5 2:51 5 4:55 4 8:17 4 5.8

C haracteristics

V asilyevka I I G okhman 1 966

G reatest l ength f rom g labella G reatest p arietal b readth H eight o f s kull f rom b asion H eight o f s kull f rom p orion L east b readth o f f orehead C ranial i ndex H eight-length i ndex I I H eight-breadth i ndex I I B i-zygomatic b readth U pper f acial b readth O rbital h eight O rbital b readth f rom m /f N asal b readth N asal h eight T otal f acial a ngle A lveolar a ngle A ngle o f n asal p rofile N aso-malar a ngle Z ygo-maxillar a ngle T otal f acial i ndex U pper f acial i ndex O rbital i ndex I N asal i ndex V ertical f acio-cranial i ndex T ransverse f acio-cranial i ndex

1 89.5 1 45 .6 1 44 .3 1 22.4 1 06 .8 7 6 .7 6 5.1 8 4 .1 1 53 .5 7 5.3 3 2 .0 4 7.63 2 6.8 5 5.57 8 5.3 7 3.6 3 1.7 1 44 .0 1 29.5 7 7.3 4 9.1 6 7.3 4 8.2 5 1.8 1 05.8

1 72

( 10) ( 10) (3 ) ( 9) ( 11) ( 10) ( 9) ( 9) ( 9) (7 ) ( 8) ( 8) ( 8) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (3 ) ( 8) ( 6) (5 ) (7 ) ( 8) (7 ) (3 ) ( 9)

V ovnigy I K onduktorova

1 91.8 1 42.2 1 43.7 1 23.5 1 02.7 7 4.1 6 4.4 8 7.0 1 44.8 7 8.5 3 3.25 4 3.60 2 7.4 5 7.35 8 3.0 8 1.0 3 0.0 1 40.2 1 23.3 8 7.0 5 4.0 7 6.6 4 7.6 5 4.0 1 02.7

( 6) ( 6) ( 3) ( 6) ( 7) ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) ( 4) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 5) ( 1) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 4)

T able 1 1 ( Continued) D ef.

V ovnigy I I V ilnyanka K onduktorova S urnina 1 961 G okhman 1 966

M ariupol N .50 K apulovka G okhman 1 966 Z inevich , K ruts 1 968

N ikolskoye Z inevich P otekhina

1 8 1 7 2 0 9 8 :1 2 0 :1 2 0 :8 4 5 4 8 5 2 5 1 5 4 5 5 7 2 7 4 7 5(1) 7 7 4 7:45 4 9:45 5 2:51 5 4 :55 4 8:17 4 5:8

1 93.2 1 45.8 1 45.8 1 22.2 1 01.2 7 4.9 6 3.6 8 4.9 1 46.3 7 2.2 3 2.5 4 4.8 2 6.5 5 3.42 8 3.5 7 8.8 2 9.6 1 38.7 1 26.9 8 1.9 4 9.4 7 2.8 4 9.4 4 9.9 1 00.9

1 93.0 1 42.7 _ 1 22.0 9 7.9 7 4.0 1 50.0 7 1.5 3 4.0 2 7.0 8 1.0 7 2.0 3 3.0 1 43.0 1 35.0 4 6.4 7 3.1 4 9.6 -

1 93.0 1 42.3 1 43.0 1 21.0 1 01.8 7 4.0 6 3.12 8 3.2 1 44.3 7 4.1 3 2.0 4 5.3 2 5.4 5 3.9 8 2.1 7 4.1 3 1.5 1 40.0 1 24.0 8 3.4 5 1.4 7 1.7 4 7.3 5 0.9 9 7.4

( 35) ( 37) ( 19) ( 37) ( 37) ( 34) ( 34) ( 35) ( 36) ( 31) ( 35) ( 35) ( 30) ( 31) ( 26) ( 24) ( 19) ( 32) ( 26) ( 25) ( 31) ( 34) ( 29) ( 17) ( 36)

1 94.8 1 46.1 1 49.1 1 22.6 1 01.9 7 5.1 6 2.9 8 4.0 1 47.5 7 5.8 3 3.6 4 5.98 2 5.9 5 4.25 8 4.5 8 0.6 3 1.6 1 38.3 1 26.9 8 5.9 5 1.4 7 3.1 4 7.7 5 0.9 1 01.0

-

1 73

( 3) ( 3) ( 3) ( 3) ( 3)

( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2)

1 89.4 1 45.5 1 52.0 1 27.0 1 00.1 7 7.1 6 7.0 8 7.4 1 39.0 7 4.0 3 1.8 4 4.4 2 8.2 5 4.2 8 0.0 3 2.0 1 41.0 1 23.0 8 3.5 4 8.8 7 1.8 5 2.2 4 5.3

-

( 8) ( 8) ( 4) ( 7) ( 8) ( 8) ( 7) ( 7) ( 2) ( 4) ( 5) ( 5) ( 5) ( 4) ( 1) ( 1) ( 4) ( 1) ( 1) ( 2) ( 5) ( 4) ( 1)

( 24) ( 25) ( 3) ( 11) ( 21) ( 23) ( 10) ( 11) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) ( 4) (5 ) (7 ) ( 4) (7 ) (7 ) (7 ) ( 2) (7 )

T able 1 1 ( Continued) D ereivka Z inevich 1 967; P otekhina 1 978

1 8 1 7 2 0 9 8 :1 2 0 :1 2 0 :8 4 5 4 8 5 2 5 1 5 4 5 5 7 2 7 4 7 5(1) 7 7 4 7:45 4 9:45 5 2:51 5 4 :55 4 8 :17 4 5:8

1 93.4 1 44.8 1 45.4 1 24.0 1 01.3 7 4.8 6 4.4 8 5.6 1 43.7 7 3.2 3 2.15 4 4.0 2 6.4 5 3.9 8 4.8 7 4.5 2 7.5 1 39.2 1 25.0 8 5.2 5 1.3 7 2.9 5 0 .3 4 9.7 9 8.7

( 48) ( 57) ( 21) ( 50) ( 43) ( 48) ( 40) ( 47) ( 14) ( 18) ( 22) ( 20) ( 19) ( 19) ( 15) ( 14) ( 12) ( 13) ( 8) ( 8) ( 12) ( 20) ( 16) ( 12) ( 13)

Y asinovatka P otekhina

1 94.5 1 43.9 1 49.3 19.8 1 04.1 7 3.8 6 3.0 8 4.8 1 48.5 7 4.4 3 1.2 4 5.0 2 7.9 5 4.5 8 6.3 8 0.5 1 40.8 1 32.2 8 0.3 4 9.9 6 9.7 5 0.9 4 9.4 1 02.4

( 18) ( 17) ( 3) ( 12) ( 15) ( 15) ( 11) ( 11) ( 6) ( 5) ( 6) ( 6) ( 5) ( 6) ( 4) ( 4) ( 5) ( 5) ( 4) ( 5) ( 6) ( 5) ( 2) ( 6)

1 74

V asilyevka V P otekhina

1 92.0 1 36.0 _ _ _ _ 3 5.6 2 4 .3 _ _ _ _ 1 31.8 _ _ _ _ _

( 2) ( 1)

( 1) ( 1)

( 1)

O sipovka , N o. P otekhina

1 76.0 1 38.0 1 32.0 1 19.0 9 6.0 7 8.4 6 7.6 8 6.2 1 40.0 7 5.0 3 1.0 4 1.5 2 5.5 5 6.2 9 0.0 1 37.6 1 30.2 5 3.6 7 4.7 4 5.4 5 6.8 1 01.4

( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)

( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)

1 8

i t w as q uite p ossible t o f ormulate a g eneral c haracterization ( though i ncomplete) o f t he c raniological m aterial. I t i s b elieved t hat s uch a n a pproach t o t his p roblem i s n ot a t v ariance w ith t he p rinciple o f r andom s ampling. T he m ale s kulls g enerally h ave m assive a nd t hick ( up t o 1 5 m m .) b ones o f t he v ault, a m arkedly p ronounced r elief o f t he o cciput ( of t he u pper n uchal l ines, i n p articular), a l arge e xternal o ccipital t uber ( 3-5 u nits), e xtremely l arge m astoid p rocesses ( 3 u nits) a nd a c onvex g labella. S ome o f t he m ale s kulls a re f ree o f s o m arkedly p ronounced c haracteristics a nd m ay b e c lassified a s m oderately d eveloped. I t i s l ikely t hat w ith r espect t o t he f orm o f t he b rain c ases, t he g roup o f m ale s kulls i s h eterogeneous ( Table 1 1). T he s kull f rom b urial N o.8 h as a c onsiderable v alue f or t he g reatest p arietal b readth ( 152) a nd t his i s p robably r esponsible f or i ts m eso- o r b rachycrania. T he s kull f rom b urial N o. 9 a lso s eems t o b e m esocranic b ecause o f a l ow v alue f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella ( 183 m m.). A long w ith s uch s kulls, t he c ollection a lso i ncludes s harply d olichocranic b rain c ases ( for i nstance, b urial N o. 2 6) h aving a v ery h igh v alue f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella ( 201 m m .), a nd d olichocranic m oderately b road s kulls ( burial N o. 3 7) w ith a l ow v alue f or t he g reatest p arietal b readth ( 136 m m.). H ere a gain w e f ind t he p resence o f b oth m eso-brachycrania a nd d olichocrania, w hich i s a lso t ypical o f o ther N eolithic c emeteries o f t he D nieper v alley. T he f acial p art i s p reserved i n t he c ase o f s kull N o. 3 7. I t i s p robable t hat t he f ace w as n ot b road, j udging b y t he v alue o f i ts m ean b readth ( 89 m m.). T he b readth o f t he a lveolar a rch i s l ow ( 58 m m.). T he n asal a perture i s n arrow ( 24.3 m m.). T he o rbit i s a lso n arrow i n t he h orizontal p lane, w hich i s d emonstrated b y t he z ygo-maxillar a ngle ( 131.8 ) . T he m andible i s m oderately m assive. T he f emale s kulls a re c omparatively m ore g racile a nd g enerally c haracterized b y p oorly d eveloped c ranial r elief, s mall m astoid p rocesses ( 1 u nit), a s mall e xternal o ccipital t uber a nd a s moothed g labella ( 1-2 u nits). T he c ranial i ndices c alculated i n t wo c ases p oint t o t he p resence b oth o f m eso-crania ( 76.5) a nd b rachycrania ( 80.6) i n b urials N os. 1 0 a nd 3 2 r espectively. T he f orehead i s o f a m oderate b readth. I n o ne c ase ( burial N o. 3 2), t he f orehead a nd t he o cciput a re v ery b road. T he c onsiderable f acial b readth m ay b e i ndirectly d emonstrated b y a v ery h igh v alue o f t he c ondyle b readth ( 121 m m .) o f m andible ( burial N o. 3 2). T he f acial r egion o f t his s kull i s c haracterized b y a n arrow n ose w ith a n a nthropic f orm o f t he l ower e dge o f t he p iriform o pening. T he m andibles a re g enerally g racile, t hough o ne o f t hem h as a r ather d eveloped m uscular r elief a nd t orus ( burial N o. 3 4). T here a re a lso c ombinations b etween h igh v alues o f t he b readth o f r amus ( 34 m m .) a nd t he f ront b readth ( 46 m m.), a nd a lso b etween a v ery h igh s ymphysis ( 35 m m .), a h igh ( 36 m m .) a nd c omparatively t hin b ody a s i n t he c ase o f t he m andible f rom b urial N o. 2 8. T his c ombination i s s pecific t o f emale m andibles f rom t he N ikolskoye c emetery. O f t he p ostcranial s keleton, o nly a n i ncomplete f oot f rom f emale b urial N o. 4 a nd t he r ight f emur f rom m ale b urial N o. 1 8 w ere s tudied. T he m aximum l ength o f t he l atter ( 483 m m.) c onsiderably e xceeds t he 1 75

m ean v alue o f t hat o f m odern p opulations. T he c ircumference o f i ts d iaphysis ( in t he m iddle p art) i s o f a v ery h igh v alue ( 99 m m .). T he p ilaster i s s trongly d eveloped ( the p ilaster i ndex i s 1 23.3). T he f orm o f t he d iaphysis i n c ross-section i n i ts u pper p art i s d istinguished b y a m oderately p ronounced p latymeria ( 83.9). T he h eight o f t he d eceased c alculated f rom t he f emur i s 1 75.2 c m., i .e., a bove t he m edium h uman h eight. T hese c haracteristics a re v ery c lose t o t hose o f m ale f emurs f rom t he N eolithic V asilyevka I I c emetery ( Gokhman 1 966). I n c onclusion i t s hould b e n oted t hat t hough t he c raniological m aterial f rom V aSilyevka V i s s canty a nd f ragmentary, i t p rovides a c ertain b asis f or d istinguishing t he a nthropological c omposition o f t he d eceased t hrough t he d ifferent c hronological s tages o f t he c emetery. A s t he f irst c hronological s tage i s r epresented b y m esocranic a nd b rachycranic m ale ( Nos. 8 a nd 9 ) a nd f emale ( Nos. 1 0 a nd 3 2) s kulls, t he t wo m ale s kulls ( Nos. 2 6 a nd 3 7) i n t he b urials o f t he s econd s tage a re d olichocranic. T his f act i s i n a greement w ith t he h ypothesis t hat t he p opulation a ssociated w ith t he e arly c emeteries o f t he D nieperD onets c ulture i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids w as n ot q uite h omogeneous. O sipovka c emetery T he s kulls a nd b ones o f t he p ostcranial s keletons a re v ery p oorly p reserved a nd i t w as i mpossible t o t ake a ll t he n ecessary m easurements e ven a fter a t horoughly p erformed r estoration. D espite t he v ery p oor s tate o f p reservation, w e w ere a ble t o d etermine t he s ex, s ince t he f eatures o f s exual d emorphism a re q uite w ell d eveloped i n t he s eries o f N eolithic s kulls f rom t he D nieper b asin. T he m ale s kulls a re d istinguished b y a d istinct m assiveness, l arge m astoid p rocesses, t hick v ault b ones, c onvex s upraorbital a rches, a s trong m uscular r elief o f t he o cciput ( often t he t ransversal o ccipital t orus) a nd b y a l arge e xternal o ccipital t uber. D oubts a rose o nly i n d etermining t he s ex o f s kull N o. 1 8 f rom t he s ettlement n ear t he s ite o f P lyazh, w hich w ill b e t reated b elow . O f t he 2 6 b urials e xamined, 1 1 w ere m ales, s even - f emales, a nd t hree b urials w ere o f c hildren. I n t hree c ases, t he s ex a nd a ge o f a dults c ould n ot b e d etermined. I n t wo c ases, o nly t he a ge o f a dults w as d etermined. T he m ean a ge o f t he d eceased f rom t his c emetery i s r ather h igh. I t i s 4 2.6 y ears f or m ales a nd 3 5.6 y ears f or f emales. A mong t he d eceased, o nly a f ew w ere c hildren: t wo i nfants ( not o lder t han t wo y ears) a nd a c hild o f a bout s ix o r s even y ears. T here w ere n o g raves o f a dolescents a t a ll. T herefore, t he m ean l ife e xpectancy f or t he p opulation a ssociated w ith t he O sipovka c emetery, w hen a llowance i s m ade f or a h igh c hildren's m ortality, w as 3 5.2 y ears. A s m entioned a bove, t he O sipovka m ale s kulls a re c haracterized b y c onvex s upraorbital a rches, w hose d egree o f d evelopment m ay b e e stimated a t 4 o r 5 u nits, b y l arge e xternal o ccipital t ubers ( 3-5 u nits) a nd l arge m astoid p rocesses ( 3 u nits). T he f orehead, a s a r ule, i s b road ( 102 m m.). I n b oth c ases a ccessible f or s tudy, t he b rain c ase h as b een f ound t o b e m esocranic ( burials N os. 1 8 a nd 5 3 A; T able 1 1). T he w ell p reserved s kull f rom b urial N o. 1 8 w ill b e d escribed i n d etail. T he b rain c ase o f t his s kull i s m eso-cranic ( cranial i ndex i s 1 76

7 8 .4) a nd i s o f m edium h eight. I ts c ranial c apacity c orresponds t o t he m ean v alue o f t his c haracteristic a nd, a ccording t o P earson 's f ormula, i s 1 377 c u. c m . A ccording t o M anouvrier's f ormula, i t i s 1 414 c u. c m . J udging b y t he s tate o f s utures, t ooth d eterioration a nd t he p resence o f c ertain a ge c hanges o n b ones o f t he u pper e xtremeties, o ne m ay c onclude t hat t he d eceased w as a bout 4 5-55 y ears o ld. T he a ssignment o f t his s kull t o t he m ale s ex i s e vident f rom s uch c haracteristics a s a s loping f orehead, a d eveloped s agittal t orus, l ow o rbits, m oderate r elief o f t he g labella a nd t he o cciput, a s trongly d eveloped m uscular r elief a nd m assiveness o f a rm b ones. H owever, i n d etermining t he s ex s ome d oubts a rose b ecause o f t he s ize o f t he s kull, e specially o f i ts b rain r egion , a nd b ecause o f t he v ery s hort b ones o f t he u pper e xtremities. T he f ace, a ccording t o t he i ndex, i s o f m edium h eight a nd, a ccording t o t he a bsolute v alues, i s h igh a nd b road i n z ygomata ( 140). I t i s w ell p rofiled i n t he h orizontal p lane. T he o rbits a re c hameconchnic, t he n ose i s l eptorinic w ith a n arrow a nd h igh g labella. T he m andible o f t his s kull i s m issing. T here w ere m andible f ragments o f t wo m ales ( burials N os. 2 1 a nd 3 4B), t wo f emales ( Nos. 3 4a a nd 5 36) a nd o ne c hild ( No. 3 1). T he m ale m andibles a re d istinguished b y a v ery h igh s ymphysis a nd b y a t hick b ody. T he r amus i s m oderately b road, t he f ront b readth i s s mall. T he i ndex o f m assiveness w as c alculated f or o ne c ase ( No. 2 1) a nd i ndicates at hin m andible. T he f emale s kulls a re a lso h eavily f ragmented. T he b ones o f t he v ault a re c omparatively t hick. S ome o f t he s kulls e xhibit a w ell d eveloped o ccipital r elief. T he s upraorbital a rches, m astoid p rocesses a nd e xternal o ccipital t uber a re w eakly d eveloped, a s u sual, a nd t heir e stimated v alues a re l ow . T he f orm o f t he b rain c ase o f s kull N o. 3 1 w as d etermined v isually a s m esocranic. U nfortunately, t he s tandard m easurements c ould b e t aken o nly o n t he f orehead o f s kull N o. 3 4a. T his f orehead i s e ven, t he l east a nd g reatest b readths a re a ssigned t o t he m edium r ange ( 93 m m . a nd 1 11 m m . r espectively). T he f emale m andibles a re m ore g racile t han t hose o f t he m ales a nd h ave a l ower s ymphysis a nd a l ower b ody. T he r amus i s n arrower. N o m easurements c ould b e t aken b ecause o f t he f ragmented s tate o f t he m aterial. P ostcranial r emains w ere o btained f rom b urials N os. 1 8 a nd 2 06 . T he b ones o f a n u pper l imb o f N o. 1 8 a re c haracterized b y a h igh m assiveness a nd a h ighly d eveloped m uscular r elief. H owever, t heir l ength i s s mall i n c omparison w ith t he s imilar b one s izes o f o ther N eolithic s eries f rom t he t erritory o f t he U kraine. T he d eceased w as n ot o f a l arge s tature. I ts h eight, c alculated a ccording t o f ormulas o f d ifferent a uthors, w as a bout 1 60 c m . I n c ase o f m ale s keleton N o.206 , t he e piphyses o n t he r ight f emur a nd t ibia w ere d estroyed. T he f emoral b ones a re c onsiderably b ent a nd h ave a w eak m uscular r elief. T he d iameters o f t he d iaphysis i n c rosss ection i n t he m iddle p art a re n ot g reat. A ccording t o t he i ndex , t he p ilaster i s m oderately d eveloped ( 100.0). T he d iaphysis c ircumference i s n ot g reat ( 88 m m .). T he d iaphysis f orm i n c ross-section i n t he u pper p art i s c haracterized b y a m oderate p latymeria ( 84.8). T he

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d iaphysis d iameter o f t he t ibia i s s mall i n c ross-section. c ircumference t hereof i s a lso s mall ( 75 m m .).

T he l east

AN eolithic B urial f rom I gren-8 I n 1 975, w hen e xcavating a m ulti-layer s ettlement a nd c emetery o n t he I gren p eninsula ( on t he D nieper), a N eolithic b urial ( No. 4 ) o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture w as u ncovered ( Telegin a nd Z aliznyak 1 974). T he s kull i s s atisfactorily p reserved. T he r ight z ygomatic a rch, t he r ight r amus o f t he m andible a nd t he r egion o f t he l arge o ccipital o rifice a re d estroyed. T he c oronal s uture i s c ompletely o bliterated. A ll t he r est e xhibit t races o f o bliteration. T he d egree o f t ooth w ear i s s mall ( 2 u nits). T he s upraorbital a rches a nd o ccipital b ones a re p oorly d eveloped. T he m astoid p rocesses a re s mall ( 1 u nit). T he d egree o f g labella d evelopment i s n o g reater t han 1 u nit. T aking i nto a ccount t hese f eatures a nd t he m inor a ge c hanges o bservable o n t he l ong b ones, i t m ay b e s upposed t hat t his b urial w as o f af emale a bout 4 0 y ears o ld. T he s kull i s l arge a nd i ts h orizontal c ircumference, t ransversal a nd s agittal a rches r ange i nto v ery h igh v alues ( Table 4 ). T he b rain c ase i s o f m esocranic f orm ( the c ranial i ndex i s 7 6.8) w ith a v ery h igh v alue f or t he g reatest p arietal b readth ( 149) a nd a h igh v alue f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella ( 181 m m .). T he h eight o f t he b rain r egion m easured a t t he l evel o f p orions i s g reat ( 115 m m.), b ut a ccording t o t he i ndex, t he s kull i s m oderately h igh . J udging b y t he r estored z ygomatic a rch ( 130 m m .), t he f ace i s b road a nd m esen-and l eptoprosopic, a ccording t o t he i ndices. T he o rbits a re s pherical a nd m esocranic. T he p iriform o pening i s l eptorhinic a nd i ts l ower e dge i s o f a n i nfantile f orm . T he f acial h orizontal p rofile i s s omewhat p oorly p ronounced a t b oth l evels ( the n aso-malar a ngle i s 1 45.8 ° ; t he z ygomaxillar a ngle i s 1 30 .4 ° ) . T he a ngles o f t he f acial v ertical p rofile p oint t o a n o rthognathia o f t he f ace i n i ts m iddle p art a nd t o m esognathia i n i ts a lveolar r egion. T he d egree o f p rojection o f t he n ose i s m edium . J udging b y t he a vailable f ragments, t he m andible w as l arge. T he l east b readth o f t he b ranch , t he f ore b readth a nd t he s ymphysis h eight a re i n t he r ange o f v ery h igh v alues. T he t hickness o f t he m andible b ody i s a lso v ery g reat ( 14 m m .), b ut i ts e xceptional h eight ( 37.5 m m !) i s r esponsible f or a m inor m assiveness o f t he b ody a ccording t o t he i ndex. T he p ostcranial s keleton i s i n a m uch w orse s tate a nd i ncludes o nly t he r ight h umerus, u lna , f emur a nd t ibia - a ll w ithout e piphyses. T he h umerus i s r ather m assive a s e vident f rom t he s ectional d iameter i n t he m iddle o f t he d iaphysis a nd i ts c ircumference v alue. T he f orm o f t he d iaphysis i n c ross-section t ends t o p latybrachia w ith a n i ndex o f 7 2.7. T he u lna i s a lso r ather m assive a s e vident f rom t he v alue o f t he l east c ircumference ( 36 m m .). T he d ifference b etween t he s ectional d iameters b oth a t t he p lace o f m aximum d evelopment o f t he c rista i nterossea a nd t he u pper d iameters i s r ather g reat. T his r esults i n a c ertain p latolenia. T he f emur i s m assive. T he d iaphysis c ircumference i s a s g reat a s 8 .5 m m . T he p ilaster i s m oderately d eveloped ( 112.0), a nd t his i s q uite i n a greement w ith a r ather s ubstantial p latymeria ( 78.6). T he l east c ircumference o f t he t ibia i s r ather g reat ( 69 m m .). B y t he f orm o f d iaphysis a t t he l evel o f f oramen n utrition , t he t ibia i s d istinguished b y ah igh i ndex o f p latycnemia ( 80 .8).

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T ypology o f t he N eolithic P opulation i n t he D nieper B asin T he s tudies o f t he a nthropological m aterials o n t he Y asinovatka , N ikolskoye, V asilyevka V , O sipovka a nd I gren c emeteries h ave s hown t hat t he b earers o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture b uried t here a s w ell a s t he d eceased f rom o ther c emeteries o f t he s ame c ulture ( Vasilyevka I I, V ovnigy I a nd I I, V ilnyanka, D ereivka, e tc.) b elonged t o t he p rotoE uropean C ro-Magnon t ype. T hey w ere p eople o f g ood s tature w ith l arge, m assive s kulls p redominantly d olichocranic a nd w ith f aces t hat w ere v ery b roadly o r w ell-profiled o r s omewhat f lattened ( Fig. 5 7). A s n oted a bove, t he d istinguishing f eatures o f t he s keletal s tructure m ade i t p ossible f or i nvestigators t o g ive t his a nthropological t ype a s pecific n ame. T hus, V . V . B unak a ssigns i t t o t he V ovnigy t ype. I . I . G okhman c alls i t t he D nieper r apids-Azov p roto-European t ype. H owever, t his p opulation w as n ot h omogeneous, a s n oted a bove b y I . I . G okhman, G . P . Z inevich, e tc. T hus, f rom t he m aterials o f t he V asilyevka c emetery, f or e xample, I . I . G okhman h as d istinguished t wo c raniological t ypes : d olichocranic a nd m eso-brachycranic. T he p resence o f s imilar t ypes h as b een o bserved i n t he c raniological s eries f rom Y asinovatka , V asilyevka a nd N ikolskoye. T he f irst a nthropological t ype i s c haracterised b y s harp d olichocrania , h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella a nd t he v ertical d iameter o f t he s kull, a nd b y a v ery b road, m oderately h igh a nd h orizontally p rofiled f ace. T he n ose i s b road, t he o rbits a re l ow . T he s econd, m esocranic t ype h as v ery h igh v alues f or t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella a nd t he g reatest p arietal b readth w ith s omewhat l ower h eight f or t he s kull. T he f ace i s b roader, h igher a nd a l ittle f lattened. T he n ose i s n arrower, t he o rbits a l ittle h igher. W ithin t he l imits o f t he c emeteries u nder s tudy, t he d ifference b etween t hese t ypes e xceeds t he r ange o f i ndividual d eviations a nd t hese d ifferences a re v erified b y s tatistical a nalysis. I t s hould b e n oted t hat, a s e vident f rom t he m aterials w e s tudied, t he r eality o f t he e xistence o f t hese a nthropological t ypes h as b een f urther c onfirmed b ecause s kulls a ssigned t o t he d ifferent c raniological t ypes o riginate f rom b urial c onstructions a lso d ifferent i n t ype ( oval p its a nd c ollective b urial v aults). P reviously, i t w as i mpossible t o d etermine t he c hronological p osition o f t hese v arious a nthropological t ypes. A s ar esult o f r ecent a rchaeological s tudies, t he M ariupol-type c emeteries h ave b een d ivided i nto t hree s tages : e arly A , l ate B a nd f inal C ( see a bove). T he p roportional c hange o f t hese t ypes h as b een d etermined o n t he b asis o f t he Y asinovatka m aterials. I n s tage A t he d olichocranic t ype a ccounts f or 6 6 p er c ent, w hile i n s tage B i t f alls t o 4 2 p er c ent. T he m esocranic t ype, o n t he o ther h and, i ncreases f rom 3 4 p er c ent t o 5 8 p er c ent. I n s tage A o f t he V asilyevka V c emetery, t he m esocranic c omponent c orresponds t o i ts e arlier p hase, w hile t he d olichocranic i s a ssigned t o a m uch l ater p hase. A t p resent, i t i s d ifficult t o j udge t he r easons f or s uch c hanges i n t he a nthropological c omposition o f t he p opulations. W hether t hese c hanges c an b e a ssociated w ith t he a ppearance o f an ew p opulation r equires m ore e vidence t han t he p resence o f b urials d ifferent i n t ype a t d ifferent c hronological s tages. I t i s p robable t hat t hese c hanges s hould b e a ssociated w ith i nternal p rocesses o f t he a ncient p opulation u nder s tudy. T he s olution t o t his p roblem w ill r equire m ore e xtensive i nvestigations o f t he e ntire b ody o f N eolithic s keletons f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T herefore, t he r ecent s tudies i ndicate c onclusively t he p resence o f t wo a nthropological v ariants i n t he c omposition o f t he N eolithic t ribes 1 79

F ig.

5 7

R econstruction o f t he N eolithic-Early E neolithic p hysical t ype f rom t he D nieper r apids r egion ( Vilnyanka c emetery).

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o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture: ( 1) d olichocranic a nd ( 2) m esobrachy- o r m esocranic. T he f irst o f t hem h as b een r ecorded o n t he m aterials f rom V asilyevka I I, V ovnigy I a nd I I, V ilnyanka , N ikolskoye, D ereivka, K apulovka, Y asinovatka, V asilyevka V , O sipovka a nd I gren. I t i s p robable t hat t he d olichocranic c omponent w as g enetically r elated t o t he l ocal M esolithic t ribes ( Vasilyevka I , I II). W e s upport t hose i nvestigators w ho c onsider t he s econd, m esobrachycranic c omponent w ith a b road a nd s omewhat f lattened f ace t o b e r elated t o t he m ost a ncient n orth-European r ace ( Gokhman 1 986; D enisova 1 983), w hich m igrated t o t he s outh . I t s hould b e e specially n oted t hat t he o bservable f latness o f t he f acial s keleton u nder s tudy, e specially a t i ts u pper r ange, i s n ot r elated t o M ongoloid a dmixtures. T he f eeble h orizontal p rofiling w as t ypical f or m ost o f t he a ncient n orth-Europoid g roups ( Yakimov 1 960 ; G okhman 1 966, D enisova 1 975). A n ew p roof s uggesting m igration o f p eople h aving b road a nd s omewhat f lattened f aces i n E urope h as b ecome a vailable a s a r esult o f t he s tudy o f t he s kulls f rom t he r ecently d iscovered M esolithic c emeteries o f V edbek a nd S kateholm i n D enmark a nd s outh S weden , r espectively ( Persson, O . a nd P ersson , E . 1 984 ; G okhman 1 986). S kulls w ith h eavily f lattened f aces a re n oted ( Alexeev 1 978 ; G okhman 1 983) a mong t he N eolithic p opulation o f Y ugoslavia a nd C zechoslovakia ( the c emeteries o f V lasac, B ilkov, n ear t he t own o f N itra). T he a rea o f p ropagation o f t hese f eatures w as n ot c onfined t o N orth a nd C entral E urope b ut r an , a s w e h ave a ssured o urselves, a s f ar a s t he D nieper r apids-Azov r egion, w here t his c omplex o f f eatures w as i nherent i n t he N eolithic ( Vasilyevka I I, Y asinovatka , e tc) a nd S redny S tog p opulations ( Potekhina 1 983). T he s egregation o f t wo c raniological v ersions w ithin t he c omposition o f t he N eolithic p opulation i n t he D nieper v alley a nd t he e lucidation o f t he n orth-European o rigin o f t he o ne w hich t ended t oward t he f lattened f eatures, o bviates a ny n eed t o a ttribute t his d istinguishing f eature t o aM ongoloid c omponent.

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C hapter 8 T HE L ATE C RO-MAGNON P OPULATION O F T HE D NIEPER B ASIN I N T HE H ISTORY O F E ASTERN E UROPE T he b earers o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, w hose s keletal r emains h ave b een d iscovered i n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries, w ere n orthern E uropoids, d escended f rom t he P alaeolithic C ro-Magnons ( Debets 1 966; G erasimov 1 955; K onduktorova 1 956; G okhman 1 966; Z inevich 1 967). T hese p eople w ere o f a l arge s tature w ith b rain c ases o f a c onsiderable s ize a nd d olichocranic i n f orm , w ith b road, w ell p rofiled b ut o ften s omewhat f lattened f aces e specially a t t he u pper o rbital l evel. I n t he c omposition o f t his p opulation t here h ave b een d istinguished t wo c raniological v ariants ( see c hapter 7 ), b ut i n g eneral t hey a re a ssignable t o a s ingle l ate C ro-Magnon t ype. B esides t he D nieper-Donets t ribes, t he g roup o f m assive b road-faced E uropoids i n E urope i ncludes t he M eso-Neolithic p opulation o f D enmark a nd S weden - t he c emeteries o f V edbaek a nd S kateholm o f t he E rte Wlle c ulture. A p ronounced E uropoid c omplex o f f eatures h as a lso b een a ttributed b y I . I . G okhman t o s keletons f rom t he c emetery o f P opovo i n t he a rea o f L ake L adoga w hich a re d istinguished b y l arge s tature ( not l ess t han 1 70 c m.) a nd t he m assive s tructure o f t heir s kulls ( Oshibkina 1 983, 2 01). T he s kulls o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture a nd t he V edbaekE rtebolle s eries c omprise a n umber o f t axonomic f eatures, w hich , a s s pecialists b elieve ( Denisova 1 975, 5 1), a re t he m ost r ace-diagnostic f or t he N eolithic i n E urope. T hese a re p rimarily t he b i-zygomatic b readth, t he d iameters o f t he b rain c ase, t he u pper f acial h eight, e tc. T he d ifference b etween t he z ygomatic b readths o f t he E rteb011e m ale s kulls ( 150 m m.) a nd t he m ale s kulls f rom t he N eolithic c emeteries o f t he U kraine i s o nly 3 o r 4 m m. ( Denisova 1 975; K onduktorova 1 960; G okhman 1 966; Z inevich 1 967; S urnina 1 961). S till l ess d ifference i n t he b rain c ases o f t hese s eries h as b een n oticed w ith r egard t o t he g reatest p arietal b readths ( 2.3 m m.), u pper f acial h eights ( 3.2 m m.), o rbit h eights ( 1.6 m m.), e tc. T hey a re a lso c lose t o e ach o ther a ccording t o t he g reatest l ength f rom g labella. T he h eight o f m ales o f t he l ate C ro-Magnon t ype o f E astern E urope w as 1 69.7 c m . I t h as b een d etermined b y m eans o f m easurements o f s keletal r emains f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries o f V ovnigy, V ilnyanka, V asilyevka I I a nd D ereivka c alculated b y G . F . D ebets ( 1966). R . Y a. D enisova ( 1983) b elieves t hat d uring t he M esolithic N eolithic p eriod i n p eriglacial E urope t here w as a s eparate m orphological v ariant r elated b y i ts o rigin t o t he U pper P aleolithic p opulation o f t he s ame t erritory. S he c alls i t t he m ost a ncient n orthE uropean o r h ypermorphic l ate C ro-Magnon r ace w hich i ncludes t he c raniological s eries f rom S candinavia ( Vedbaek, E reb9 011e) a s w ell a s t he s kulls f rom t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i n t he D nieper v alley a nd t he M urzak-Koba b urials i n t he C rimea. T he p eople o f t he W est-Mediterranean r ace r epresented b y t he b urials o f t he D anube-Near E astern m ortuary t radition d iffer b asically f rom t he l ate C ro-Magnon V edbaek - E rtebgale a nd V ovnigy p opulation. A mong t hem i n E urope, t he m ost a bundant w ere t he t ribes o f t he L inear-Ware c ulture i n t he D anube b asin a nd C entral E urope a s w ell a s t he N eo-Eneolithic p opulation o f t he D ude9ti, V adastra, G umelnitsa, T ripolye c ultures a nd 1 82

o ther c ultures o f t he B alkans a nd t he C arpathians ( Grimm 1 954; V elikanova 1 975, 1-31). I n g eneral, t hey w ere s hort p eople w ith n arrow , g racile f aces p rimarily w ith d olichocranic o r h yperdolichocranic b rain c ases o f a s mall s ize. A ccording t o H . G rimm , t he b i-zygomatic b readth o f t he m ale s keletons f rom t he Z onderhausen c emetery o f t he L inear W are c ulture i s 1 34 m m., i .e., 1 0-15 m m. l ess t han t he l ate C ro-Magnon p opulation. T he M editerranean s kulls a re a lso d istinguished b y s ome o ther p arameters s uch a s t he c ranial b readth, t he u pper f acial h eight, e tc., t hough i n s ubstantially s maller v alues. I n a ddition, M . S . V elikanova ( 1975, 3 0, t able 2 ) n otes t hat t he p opulation o f t he M editerranean a nd l ate C ro-Magnon t ypes i s m arkedly d istinguished b y t he u pper f acial i ndex. T he m ean h eight o f t he M editerranean p eople w as 1 0-14 m m . l ess t han t hat o f t he C ro-Magnon t ype ( Velikanova,1975, t able 1 3). I n a n umber o f f eatures, a mong t he M esolithic t ribes o f E urope, t hose b uried i n t he V oloshskoye c emetery o n t he D nieper w ere t he n earest p eople t o t he M editerranean p opulation. T hey h ad h yperdolichocranic s kulls a nd n arrow f aces ( bi-zygomatic b readth i s 1 29.2 m m.) ( Debets 1 955). B esides t hese t wo e xtreme E uropoid t ypes o f M eso-Neolithic p eople, c haracterized b y a n i ncreased m assiveness o f s keletons, t here w ere n umerous t ribes i n E astern E urope, w hich, b y t heir a nthropological i ndices, o ccupied a n i ntermediate p osition b etween t he p ure M editerraneans a nd t he h ypermorphic C ro-Magnons o f t he V edbaek-Vovnigy t ype. T his t ype h as b een d istinguished o n t he b asis o f m aterials f rom a l arge s eries o f s kulls f rom V asilyevka I , I II o n t he D nieper a nd Z veinieky i n L atvia ( Gokhman 1 966; D enisova 1 975). T his i ntermediate V asilyevka-Zveinieky t ype, a ccording t o s ome a nthropologists, a rose i n t he p rocess o f c enturies o f m ixing o f t he M editerranean a nd C ro-Magnon r aces a s f ar b ack a s t he M esolithic ( Gokhman 1 966; D enisova 1 983, 9 7). A ccording t o t he a nthropological f eatures, t his t ype i s c loser t o t he l ate C ro-Magnon t han t he M editerranean t ype, t hough t here a re s ome d ifferences b etween t hem. U nlike t he b road f aced V edbaek-Vovnigy p opulation a nd t he n arrow f aced M editerranean t ype, t his h ybrid t ype i s m oderately b road f aced ( Denisova 1 983). I n a ddition t o t he M esolithic s eries f rom Z veinieky a nd V asilyevka I , I II, t he m oderately b road f aced t ype i s r epresented b y b urials o n O leny i sland a nd i n t he N arva c ulture, a nd a lso b y t he C opper-Age b urials i n A lexandria o n t he O skol r iver a nd t he T RB c ulture ( Denisova 1 975). I t m ay b e o bserved t hat t he M editerranean p opulation b uried t heir d ead, a s a r ule, i n t he c ontracted p osition l ying o n t heir s ide p rimarily i n t he p ose o f a doration, w hile t he b urials o f t he l ate C roM agnon p opulation ( Vedbaek, E rteb011e, V ovnigy, e tc.) w ere m ainly i n t he e xtended s upine p osition. A s f ar a s t he p eople o f t he Z veinieky a nd V asilyevka ( moderately b road f aced) a re c oncerned, t hey u sed b oth t ypes o f b urials: c ontracted i n V asilyevka I , I I, A lexandria a nd e xtended s upine p ositions i n Z veinieky, O leny i sland, T RB , e tc). T herefore, i n t he M esolithic-Neolithic, t he s outh-western t erritories o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR a nd t he r egion o f t he B altic S ea m ay b e d istinguished a s a c ontact z one p opulated b y p eople o f t he t hree a bove m entioned a nthropological t ypes: t he t all a nd b road-faced V edbekV ovnigy t ype, t he m oderately b road-faced Z veinieky-Vasilyevka t ype, a nd t he s hort a nd n arrow f aced w est-Mediterranean t ype.

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O ut o f t hese c omplicated e thno-cultural c onditions i n t he 6 th-4th m illennium b .c., t here a rose t he N eolithic t ribes o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture r esponsible f or t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T heir d irect g enetic f orerunners p robably i ncluded t he e arly n orth-European r ace w ho l ived i n t he b asin o f t he M iddle a nd U pper D nieper a nd o n t he N orth D onets a s f ar b ack a s t he M esolithic s ince t he M esolithic c ultures o f t his t erritory ( the D nieper-Pripet, D onets c ultures) p rovided t he m ain g enetic f oundation f or t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic ( Telegin 1 982, 2 34). A pproximately i n t he m iddle o f t he 5 th m illennium b .c., t he l ate C roM agnon p opulation o f t he V ovnigy t ype b egan m oving s outhwards, p enetrating i nto t he a reas o f t he D nieper r apids a nd A zov. T he f act t hat t his p opulation c ame t o t he D nieper r apids f rom t he n orth ( and n ot f rom t he s outh, f or i nstance) i s c onfirmed b y t heir b urials i n e xtended p ositions, a b urial r ite w hich w as k nown i n E astern E urope a nd i n t he a rea o f t he B altic S ea a s e arly a s t he P aleolithic a nd M esolithic. M oreover, d eer t ooth o rnaments t ypical o f t he c emeteries o f t he n orthern z one, w ere f ound i n o ne o f t he e arliest ( Vasilyevka I I) c emeteries o f t he M ariupol t ype. A nalogies t o t he b one b racelets f ound i n t he s ame c emetery a re m et o nly i n t he n orth-western r egion o f P oland ( Cofta-Broniewska a nd K osko 1 982, f ig.80). T he n orthern o rigin o f t he d eceased i n t he M ariupol-type c emeteries i s c onfirmed b y t he a nthropological e vidence. T hus, f or i nstance, V . V . B unak ( 1959, 1 81) c oncluded t hat t he n earest a nalogies t o t he V ovnigy s kulls s hould b e s earched a mong t he M agdalenian-type s eries i n C entral E urope. I . I . G okhman ( 1966, 1 73) s ees t he a nalogies t o t he V ovnigy t ype a mong t he f inds f rom K ostenok-II a nd O berkassel. G . F . D ebets ( 1966) c onsidered t he b earers o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture t o b e m igrants d irectly f rom t he n orthern a reas o r t heir i mmediate d escendants. W hat c ould m ake t he b earers o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i nhabiting t he f orest a reas o f E astern E urope m igrate t o t he s teppe r egions? T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat t his t ook p lace a s a r esult o f a n o verpopulation o r a d islodgement f rom t heir t erritories b y o ther t ribes a t t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic. H ere w e r ecall a n i nteresting c onclusion m ade b y R . Y a. D enisova ( 1983) t hat i n t he M eso-Neolithic t he m assive ' ancient n orth-European r ace' w as s plit b y a w ave o f m oderately b road-faced p eople ( Zveinieky) w ho a dvanced i nto t he B altic S ea r egion f rom t he s outhwest. T he p enetration o f t his t ype i nto t he a reas o f t he B altic S ea, a ccording t o h er, g ave r ise t o t he f ormation o f t wo h ypermorphic l ate C ro-Magnon g roups - w estern ( Erteb011e) a nd e astern ( Vovnigy). I t i s p robable t hat t his m igration o f t he m oderately b road f aced Z veinieky p opulation i nto t he B altic S ea r egion w as t he v ery r eason f or t he m igration o f t he V ovnigy-type t ribes t owards t he s outh. H aving p opulated t he s outh o f t he U kraine, t he i ntrusive V ovnigy-type t ribes c ompletely d islodged t he l ocal i nhabitants o f t he S urskaya c ulture i n t he a rea o f t he D nieper r apids. A t t he b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c., t he R akushechny Y ar c ulture w as a lso u nder D nieperD onets i nfluence a nd t his r esulted, a s n oted a bove, i n t heir b urials a pproximating t o t he V ovnigy t ype.

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T herefore, t he b road C ro-Magnon w edge o f t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic a ssimilated t he l ocal c ultures o f t he s outh. T he p oint o f t his p owerful w edge a dvanced a s f ar a s t he n orthern s teppe a reas o f t he C rimea ( Dolinka) a nd t he l ower D on ( Chir, R akushechny Y ar). T he i ntruding t ribes c reated a n o riginal D nieper-Donets C omb-Stroked W are c ulture w ith a u niform b urial r ite. T hese t ribes d iffered m arkedly f rom t he s urrounding p opulation b y a n umber o f o ther f eatures o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s t ools, o rnaments, e tc. U nder o ptimum c onditions f or f ishing, e specially i n t he v icinity o f t he D nieper r apids, b oth t he p opulation a nd t heir l ife e xpectancy i ncreased s ignificantly. T he p rime h istorical i mportance o f t he l ate C ro-Magnon a dvance i nto t he s outhern U kraine i s t hat i t p roduced a f undamental c hange i n t he e thnic c omposition o f t he p opulation. T he p revailing n arrow-faced ( Voloshskoye) a nd m oderately b road-faced ( Vasilyevka I , I II) i nhabitants o f t he r egion w ere c ompletely d islodged. T he i nfluence o f t he l ate C ro-Magnon p opulation i n t he s teppe z one m ay b e t raced, a s i ndicated b elow, i n t he n ext m illennia. I n t he D nieper b asin a nd t he L eft-Bank U kraine, t he d ominance o f t he l ate V ovnigy-type C ro-Magnons c ontinued f or a bout o ne t housand y ears, i .e., u p t o t he m iddle o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. T o t his v ery p eriod ( the e nd o f t he 5 th/beginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c.) w e o bserve a n oticeable i nfluence o f t he N eolithic D nieper-Basin c ulture o n m ore w esterly a nd s outh-westerly t erritories. O n t he S outh B ug i n t he D niester V alley, t his r esulted i n t he a ppearance o f t he S amchinsky-type C omb-Decorated W are c ulture. T he o ccurrence o f s uch b urial m onuments s ignified a n i nterruption i n t he d evelopment o f t he B ug-Dniester c ulture w hich h ad p reviously d eveloped u nder t he s teady i nfluence o f t he B alkan N eolithic ( Cri§-StarCevo). D uring t he 5 th-4th m illennia b .c. b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition b egan t o a ppear o n t he L ower D anube a nd i n t he B alkans w here b urial i n t he c ontracted p osition o n t he s ide h ad b een t ypical. T his n ew b urial r ite c an b e s een i n s uch c emeteries a s H amangia, D urankulak, C ernica, a nd i ts o rigin p robably l ies i n t he D nieper b asin. T he n ew f eatures o f t he b urial r ite a ppeared c ontemporary w ith L ate C ro-Magnon t ype i ndividuals a mong t he l ocal M editerranean p opulation ( Necrasova 1 960). T herefore,it s hould b e r ecalled t hat a mong t he c eramics d ated t o t he e nd o f t he 5 th/the b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. i n R omania ( Hamangia, B oian-Bolintineanu) t here a ppeared a p unch-stroked o rnamentation t ypical f or t hose p laces. I t i s l ikely t hat i n m any r espects t hese f eatures w ere t he r elics o f m ore s outherly i nfluence f rom t he C ardial W are c ulture. H owever, i t i s n ot i mprobable t hat t he i dea f or s uch o rnamentation w as e voked b y s ome m ore n ortherly S trokedW are c ultures. D . B erciu ( 1955, 4 3) b elieved t hat t he o rigin o f t his d ecoration i n t he H amangia c ulture l ay i n C entral E urope a nd s outh P oland, b ut w e s uggest i t w ould b e w rong n ot t o t ake i nto a ccount t he D nieper a rea o f t he S troked-Ware c ulture. I t i s a lso p robable t hat t he T ripolye t ribes, w hich a ppeared a t t he b eginning o f t he 4 th m illennium B .C. w hen c hannelling w as c ombined w ith s troked p atterns o n c eramics, w ere a lso s ubjected f or s ome t ime t o t he i nfluence o f t he D nieper r egion ( Chernysh 1 956). H owever, i n t he 4 th m illennium b .c., t he h istorical c onditions i n t he D nieper b asin c hanged s harply, a nd t his c hange w as n ot i n f avour o f t he 1 85

l ate C ro-Magnon p opulation. A t t hat t ime, t he w hole t erritory o f t he s teppe L eft-Bank r egion w as a bsorbed b y t he b earers o f t he S redny S tog c ulture, w hile t he R ight-Bank r egion w as s ettled b y t he L ower M ikhailovka t ribes. T he M iddle D nieper i n t he v icinity o f K iev-Kanev w as a lso i nvaded b y T ripolye t ribes. T he a nthropological s tructure o f t his E neolithic p opulation w as q uite d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he N eolithic. T he b earers o f t he S redny S tog c ulture w ere g enerally l ess b road-faced c ompared w ith t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic p eople ( Potekhina 1 983), a nd t he T ripolye p eople, a s e vident f rom V ykhvatinsy c emetery, w ere o f a n arrow-faced M editerranean t ype ( Velikanova 1 975). T he a nthropological t ype o f t he L ower M ikhailovka t ribes m ay b e r econstructed o nly f rom i ndirect d ata. T hus, t aking i nto a ccount t he s ubstantial r esemblance o f t his c ulture t o t he K emi-Oba c ulture, i t i s p ossible t o s uppose t hat t he L ower M ikhailovka p eople l ike t he K emi-Oba p eople w ere r ather n arrow f aced, i .e., g enetically t hey a re a lso r elated t o t he s outh. W ith t he a dvent o f t he E neolithic, t he M ariupol-type c emeteries c eased f unctioning a round t he m iddle o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. T hey w ere r eplaced b y c emeteries o f s ingle b urials u sually i n t he c ontracted s upine p osition. D uring t he l ate s tages o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture, t he l ate C roM agnon p opulation s urvived o nly n orth o f K iev ( Pustynka, R ogachev), o n t he r iver P ripet ( Litvin) a nd i n s ome l ocalities o f t he f orest-steppe L eft-Bank U kraine ( Zashuka). H ere, e specially i n t he m ore n orthern t erritories o f P olesye, t his c ulture r emained u naltered u p t o t he b eginning o f t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium . T herefore, t he f ortunes o f t he D nieper-Donets p opulation i n t he m ore s outhern a nd n orthern a reas o f t he D nieper b asin w ere d ifferent. I n t he f irst c ase, t his p opulation w as t o a c onsiderable e xtent a ssimilated b y t he S redny S tog t ribes a nd p robably b y t he L ower M ikhailovka p eople. I n t he s econd c ase, t he p opulation i n t he m ore n ortherly a reas o f t he D nieper b asin s urvived i nto t he B ronze A ge, i .e., t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd m illennium b .c., a nd e ven t o a l ater p eriod i n a reas o f t he U pper D nieper a nd P ripet. I n b oth c ases, t his p opulation c ontributed g reatly t o t he m ajority o f t he p ost-Neolithic c ultures i n t he s outh-west o f t he U SSR a nd a djacent t erritories. A nthropologists p oint t o t he c onsiderable a mounts o f r emains l eft b y t he p eople o f t he S redny S tog, Y amnaya a nd C atacomb c ultures. A ccording t o T . S . S urnina ( 1963) a nd I . D . P otekhina ( 1983), t he g enesis o f t he S redny S tog p eople s hould b e p artly a ssociated w ith t he t ribes o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture i nhabiting t he D nieper r apids-Azov r egion d uring t he N eolithic. T he s ame m ay a lso b e s aid f or t he b earers o f t he N ovodanilovka c ulture. A mong t he Y amnaya a nd C atacomb c ultures, S . A . K ruts ( 1972, 1 44) d istinguishes a m assive a nthropological t ype a nd a ssigns i ts o rigin t o t he N eolithic p opulation a ssociated w ith t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T he p resence o f l ate C ro-Magnon f eatures u ntil S cythian t imes h as b een n oted b y T . S . K onduktorova. T he a nthropological d ata a re t o a c onsiderable e xtent c onsistent w ith t he o bservations o f a rchaeologists. T he r ites o f b urying t he d ead b oth i n t he c ontracted a nd e xtended p ositions w ere b y f ar t he m ost c ommon t radition i n t he s outh o f t he U kraine d uring t he C opper-Bronze A ge. I . F . K ovaleva ( 1980) a ssigns t he k urgan b urials i n t he D nieper v alley e xhibiting b oth b urial p ositions e ven t o a s ingle ' post-Mariupol' 1 86

c ulture. H owever, t hese b urials s eem t o b e c ulturally m ixed. A mong t hem , f or e xample, a re b urials o f t he l ate S redny S tog, L ower M ikhailovka a nd Y amnaya c ultures ( Telegin 1 984). B urials i n t he e xtended p osition a re k nown t o a c onsiderable e xtent i n t he C atacomb c ulture a s w ell. T he o ccurrence o f b urials i n t he e xtended s upine p osition, w hich w as i ntroduced i nto t he s outh o f t he U kraine b y t he l ate C ro-Magnon N eolithic p opulation, l eft a s ubstantial m ark o n t he b eliefs a nd b urial r ituals o f a ll s ubsequent c ultures o f t he C opper-Bronze A ge i n t he s outhern s teppe a reas o f E astern E urope. T he t ransition f rom t his r ite t o t hat o f b urying t he d ead i n t he c ontracted p osition o n t heir s ide, w hich b ecame w idespread i n t he B ronze A ge, w as r ather l ong a nd w ent t hrough a n umber o f s tages ( Telegin 1 976). D uring t he S redny S togY amnaya c ulture p eriod, f or e xample, t he r ite o f b urying t he d ead i n t he e xtended p osition w as s till i n p rogress b ut w ith l egs b ent u p. T he C atacomb c ulture w as c haracterized b y t he p resence o f c ontracted-ons ide b urials, t hough t he d ead w ere l aid o nly i n s lightly c ontracted p ositions w ith h ands n ear t he k nees o r t he p elvis ( in t he s o-called r iding p ose). A nd o nly d uring t he S rubnaya ( Timber-grave) p eriod d id b urials a ppear i n a h eavily c ontracted p osition o n t heir s ide w ith h ands n ear t he f ace ( the a doration p ose), i .e., t he r ite w hich w as a dopted i n t he s outh o f E astern E urope d uring t he M esolithic p rior t o t he e xpansion o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T he i nfluence o f t he D nieper-Donets b urial r ite w as s pread n ot o nly a mong t he p rimarily p astoral s teppe c ultures b ut w as a lso n oticeable i n s ome a djacent c ultures, s uch a s t he T ripolye c ulture. T his i s h ow V . A . K ruts ( 1977, 7 5) e xplains t he o ccurrence o f t he l ate T ripolye c emetery w ith e xtended b urials n ear t he v illage o f C hapaevka, K iev r egion, i n t he D nieper v alley. S ome a rchaeologists d o n ot r eject a d irect p hysical p enetration o f a p art o f t he D nieper-Donets p opulation i nto t he T ripolye e nvironment. I t i s p ossible t hat t his i s t rue, s ince a mong t he s kulls a ssociated w ith t his c ulture i n i ts m ore w esterly t erritories ( Nezvisko, S oloncheny, U satovo) t here a re t ypical r epresentatives o f t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic p opulation ( Kruts, S .M., 1 972, 1 34). I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a mong t he g raves o f t he U satovo c ulture, e xtended s upine b urials a re a lso k nown. A mong o ther f actors s upporting t he c ontinuation o f N eolithic t raditions i n t he E neolithic-Bronze A ge c ultures, w e m ay i nclude s ome f orms o f o rnaments s pecific t o t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. T hus, f or i nstance, b oth b urials i n t he c ontracted s upine p osition o f t he l atest p hase a t M ariupol ( the N ovodanilovka t ype) a nd a lso a s itting b urial p robably o f t he S redny S tog t ype ( No.41) i n D ereivka w ere a ccompanied b y o rnaments i n t he f orm o f M ariupol-type p lates. I n b urials o f t he C opper A ge, t here w ere a lso f ound a nnular b eads a nd p endants o f i mmature d eer t eeth t ypical o f t he M ariupol-type c emeteries. A nnular b eads o f g agate, c arnelian a nd g reen s tone a re p resent, f or i nstance, a mong t he o rnaments f rom t he c emeteries o f N alchik, M aikop, N ovosvobodnaya, e tc. ( Lemleyn 1 947; K ruglov, P iatrovsky a nd P odgaetsky 1 941, f igs, 8 , 3 ; 3 2,4; I AK, 1 897, f ig, 7 ; I AK, 1 898, 3 4). P endants o f d eer t eeth a re v ery o ften a mong t he C opper-Age f inds f rom t he s outh o f t he E uropean p art o f t he U SSR s uch a s N alchik ( Kruglov, P iatrovsky a nd P odgaetsky 1 941, 1 18), f rom Y amnaya b urials ( Artsykh, P olgrad) i n t he P ontic r egion ( Alexeeva 1 976; S ubbotin a nd S hmagly 1 970, 1 18-119), M anych ( Erdiniev 1 982, 2 4), t he K emi-Oba c ulture b urials e xcavated b y 1 87

A . A . S chepinsky ( Zolnoye, k urgan-I), t he b urial o f K rivoluchye, e tc. T he i mportance o f t he d eer t ooth o rnaments f or t he T ripolye c ulture h as b een n oted b y V . I . M arkevich ( 1981, 1 81) i n a ssociation w ith t he f inds f rom K arbuna, H abase9ti, T sviklovitsev, e tc. H e b elieves t hat p endants o f d eer t eeth w ere u sed b y t he T ripolye p eople f or e xchange. F urther e vidence f or t he p ropagation o f c ultural i nfluences f rom t he D nieper-Azov r egion i nto t he a gricultural z one o f t he m ore w esterly a nd s outh-westerly t erritories c an b e s een i n t he o ccurrence o f o chre g raves i n t he r egion o f t he L ower D anube, t he p resence o f E neolithic k nives ( Decea M uresului, C songrad) a nd h oards o f f lint a rtifacts ( Schela C ladovei). T hese s hould a ll b e a ssigned t o p recisely t he s ame t ime, t he m iddle o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. F or a l ong t ime, t he o ccurrence o f t hese b urial m onuments a long t he D anube w ere r elated, a s a w hole, t o t he M ariupol p eriod ( Gard Aanin 1 959; M erpert 1 964, f r äusler 1 962). N ow i t h as b ecome e vident, h owever, t hat t his r elationship i s t rue n ot f or t he M ariupol c emetery a s a w hole, b ut o nly f or t he l atest s ingle g raves i n c ontracted s upine p ositions ( Nos. 2 1, 2 4, e tc). T he l atter a re r elated t o a c onsiderable e xtent t o t he M ariupol c ulture b ut t hey b elong t o a s eparate g roup o f b urial m onuments o f t he s o-called N ovodanilovka t ype ( Telegin 1 984) o f t he e arly E neolithic i n t he s outhern U kraine. S pecialists i n t he E neolithic o f t he D anube v alley ( Ecsedy 1 979, 1 1-12; T a i 61 983, 1 9) h ave c ome t o s imilar c onclusions. N o m atter h ow s ignificant t he r ole o f t he l ate C ro-Magnon p opulation o f t he D nieper-Donets c ommunity i n t he h istory o f t he s outhern U kraine, i t i s p robable t hat t his p opulation w as c ompletely a ssimilated b y t he t ribes o f t he C opper-Bronze A ge, m ainly b y t he S redny S tog a nd Y amnaya c ultures, a s f ar b ack a s t he e nd o f t he 4 th m illennium b .c. M ost a rchaeologists c onsider t he s teppe t ribes o f t hese c ultures t o b e I ranian-speaking p eople p artly i ncluding t he s outhern D nieper-Donets p opulation. T he f ortunes o f t he D nieper-Donets t ribes a nd t he r elated C omb a nd C omb-Stroked W are c ultures ( Niemen, N arva) i n t he m ore n ortherly t erritories o f t he D nieper b asin w ere q uite d ifferent. I t i s p robable t hat i n t he D nieper-Dvina r egion a nd i n t he a rea o f t he B altic S ea t hese c ultures d eveloped t hrough t he w hole t hird m illennium i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he P it-Comb W are c ulture i n t he e ast, t he l ate T ripolye c ulture i n t he s outh, a nd t he T RB a nd t hen G lobular A mphora c ulture i n t he w est. E thnically, t he b earers o f t hese c ultures w ere d ifferent a nd t herefore w e c annot a gree w ith t hose i nvestigators w ho b elieve t hat t hese c ultures d eveloped o ne i nto o ther, f or e xample, t hat t he D nieper-Donets c ulture e volved i nto t he T RB c ulture a s p roposed b y J . L ichardus ( 1967). A n u nconvincing a rgument f or t he s outh-eastern o rigin o f t he T RB c ulture h as a lso b een p roposed b y o ther i nvestigators ( Kowalczyk 1 970; H äusler 1 981). I n c ontrast P .M . D olukhanov a nd V .P. T retyakov ( 1979) b elieve t hat t he D nieper-Donets c ulture w as f ormed u nder t he i nfluence o f t he T RB c ulture. I t i s p robable t hat s uch c onclusions a re t he r esult o f a n arrow i nterpretation o f s ome g eneral f eatures o f t hese c ultures s uch a s t he e xtended b urial r ite i n b oth c ultures, a nd s ome a doptions f rom t he T RB c ulture i n t he o rnamentation a nd f orms o f v essels b y t he l atest s tage o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture.

i s

A s f ar a s t he c ommon f ate o f t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic p opulation c oncerned, t he l atter, a s m ost s cholars b elieve, s urvived t o t he

1 88

B ronze 1 97).

A ge

( Sveshnikov

1 974,

1 80-181;

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A mong o ther t hings, a rchaeologists p oint t o t he d efinite r ole o f t he C omb-Stroked W are N eolithic p opulation i n t he f ormation o f t he B ronzeA ge c ultures. A s f ar b ack a s t he e nd o f t he 1 940's M . V . V oevodsky ( 1949) p ointed t o t he f act t hat t he c eramics f ound i n t he N eolithic s ettlements o n t he D esna a nd a pproximating t he M iddle-Dnieper p ottery i n f orm w ere d ecorated i n a ccordance w ith N eolithic m otifs. A n umber o f i nteresting o bservations i n t his r espect h ave b een m ade b y N . N . B ondar ( 1975) w ho s ees t he g enetic s ource o f t he M iddle-Dnieper c ollar r immed p ottery o nly i n t he l ate N eolithic b urial m onuments o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture. I . K . S veshnikov s tates t hat t he S tzhizhov c ulture a lso e xhibits f eatures o f t he p revious N eolithic c ultures i ncluding t he C omb-Stroked W are c ulture. S ome s cholars o bserve t hat d uring t he C orded W are c ulture ( Middle D nieper a nd S tzhizhov v ariants) t here w as a w idespread r ite t o b ury t he d ead i n t he e xtended p osition, a nd t his r ite, a s m entioned a bove, w as p redominant a mong t he D nieper-Donets N eolithic p opulation. T herefore, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat e ven w hen p assing t o t he r ite o f c remation, t he b earers o f t he D nieper-Donets c ulture c ontinued c onstructing e longated g rave p its t o c orrespond t o e xtended i nhumation. A ll t his m ay s upport t he c ontention t hat t he D nieper-Donets p opulation i n t he n orth U kraine a nd i n B yelorussia t ogether w ith o ther t ribes ( Sredny S tog, e arly Y amnaya, e tc.) p layed a d efinite r ole i n t he f ormation o f t he M iddle-Dnieper a nd p robably S tzhizhov c ultures. T he C orded W are c ultures p rovided t he g enetic f oundation f or t he M iddle B ronze A ge c ultures a nd, i n p articular, t he T shinets c ulture, w hich m ost b elieve p layed a m ajor p art i n t he e thnogenesis o f t he S lavic-speaking p eoples. T aking i nto a ccount t he c onclusions o f t he s pecialists, i t m ay b e s upposed t hat t he C omb- a nd C omb-Stroked W are N eolithic t ribes i n t he D nieper-Vistula r egion w ere a lso p art o f t he i nitial f ormation o f t he p re-Slavic e thnos. A ccording t o D . Y a. T elegin ( 1968, 2 38), t he C omba nd C omb-Stroked W are l ate N eolithic t ribes o f t he D nieper-Vistula r egion w ere a lready I ndo-Europeans a nd b elonged t o t he B alto-Slavic l inguistic f amily. S uch a c onclusion c ould b e m ade f rom a c orrelation o f d ata o n t he a rchaeological c ultures o f t he 6 th-3rd m illennia b .c. w ith l inguistic m aps o f t he s ame t ime ( Georgiev 1 958, 2 75). R ecently, S . S . B erezanskaya ( 1982, 1 96-97) h as c ome t o t he s ame c onclusion. A ccording t o I . K . L oze ( 1979, 1 31), t he b earers o f t he C omb-Stroked W are c ulture i n L atvia w ere a lready I ndo-Europeans. T he a bove f acts i llustrate q uite c learly t he s ignificance o f t he D nieper-Donets t ribes i n t he h istory o f t he D nieper b asin a nd t he a djacent t erritories o f E astern E urope i n t he 5 th-3rd m illennia b .c., t hough t he f ate o f t hese t ribes v aried. T he t ribes i n t he s outhern s teppe r egion w ere d islodged e arly a nd a ssimilated b y t he b earers o f t he C opper-Bronze A ge c ultures, w hich, i n t urn, w ere s ubjected t o a n oticeable D nieper-Donets i nfluence. I n t he n orthern a reas o f t he D nieper b asin, t he D nieper-Donets p opulation t ogether w ith o ther r elated c ultures f ormed t he g enetic f oundation o f t he c ultures o f t he B ronze A ge a nd s eemed t o p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he f ormation o f t he B alto-Slavic e thnos.

1 89

C hapter 9 C HRONOLOGY A ND C ULTURAL R ELATIONS D uring t he N eolithic a nd E neolithic p eriods, t he p aths o f c ultural a nd h istorical d evelopment i n t he s teppe P ontic a nd L ower D anube r egions w ere c losely i nterconnected. H owever, t he c haracter o f t hese r elations w as f ar f rom t he s ame a t d ifferent s tages. T hus, a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th-4th m illennia b .c. t he c ultural d evelopment o f t he N orth P ontic r egion w as u nder s ignificant i nfluence f rom t he B alkan a gricultural c ultures s uch a s t he C ri , P recucuteni, G umelnitsa, a nd o ther c ultures. H owever, i n t he m iddle o f t he 4 th-3rd m illennia b .c., t he c attleb reeding c ultures o f t he N orth P ontic r egion b ecame p redominant, i .e., t he S redny S tog, K emi-Oba, Y amnaya, e tc. T o e xamine t he p articular c ontacts b etween t he N orth P ontic s teppe a nd B alkan p eoples, i t i s n ecessary t o r esolve t he p roblem o f s ynchronizing t he c ultures o f t hese r egions. T his p roblem i s n ot n ew , a nd i t h as b een t he s ubject o f d iscussion f or m any y ears, e .g. ( Garaganin 1 961; P assek 1 962; M erpert 1 965; D anilenko 1 969; G imbutas 1 977; M allory 1 977, T odorova 1 980 ; C omsa 1 980 ; T a i C1 983, e tc). T he r ecent a ccumulation o f d ata m akes i t p ossible t o p lace d iscussion o f t he s ynchronization b etween t he c ultures o f t he N orth P ontic a nd B alkan r egions o n a s ound f ooting. O ver t he p ast d ecade, m ore t han 1 50 n ew r adiocarbon a nd a rchaeomagnetic d ates h ave b een o btained i n t he U kraine. B asically, t hese i nvolve b urials o f t he T ripolye a nd Y amnaya c ultures. T hese d ates m ake i t p ossibe t o s ynchronize a nd d ivide t he N eolithic a nd E neolithic c ultures i n t he s outhwest o f t he U SSR i nto p eriods ( Telegin , 1 977, 1 985. 1 986). I n t he d evelopment o f t he N eolithic a nd C opper A ge c ultures, w e d istinguish t hree m ain p eriods: t he N eolithic ( I), a nd E arly ( II) a nd L ate ( III) p eriods o f t he C opper A ge ( Fig. 5 8). T his d ivision i s b ased o n t he s ubstantial c hanges i n t he d evelopment o f m aterial a nd s piritual c ulture, w hich t ook p lace i n t he r egion u nder s tudy, a nd, i n s ome c ases, o n t he c hanges i n t he e thnic c omposition o f t he i nhabitants i n t his r egion. T hus, f or e xample, t he f irst p eriod i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f o nly N eolithic c ultures. T he s econd p eriod i s m arked b y t he o ccurrence o f t he i nitial c ultures o f t he C opper A ge ( Tripolye, G umelnitsa, e tc.). T his p eriod, w hich m ight b e l abeled t he ' CucuteniT ripolye' p eriod, i s c haracterized i n t he U kraine b y b urial i n t he c ontracted p osition i n f lat g rave c emeteries. T he t hird ' Yamnayac ulture' p eriod o f t he L ate E neolithic i s a ssociated w ith t he Y amnaya t ribes w ho w ere p redominant i n t he v ast t erritories o f t he s outhern U kraine. T his p eriod w as c oincident w ith t he s pread o f t he k urgan b urial r ite. W e s hall n ow a ttempt t o f ollow t he s ynchronization o f c ultures t he s outh-western r egions o f t he U SSR a nd o n t he L ower D anube a ccordance w ith t hese c hronological s tages.

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T he N eolithic p eriod ( the e nd o f t he 6 th-the 5 th m illennia b .c.) T he N eolithic p eriod o n t he l ower D anube i ncluded t he f ollowing c ultures: C ri9-StarCevo-Kremikovci-Karanovo I , V inCa , D ude§ti, B oian ( the e arly s tages), V adastra , H amangia, e tc. I n t he n orth P ontic 1 90

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