Britannica Book of the Year 1982 0852293941

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Contents
Feature Articles
STRUGGLING FOR NATIONHOOD: THE BIRTH OF ZIMBABWE
"NOT A SINGLE POLISH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED BY VIOLENCE"
MONETARISM -- NEITHER KILL NOR CURE
LETTER FROM WASHINGTON
OUR CHANGING CITIES
THE CHANGING FACE OF AMERICA
Calendar of Events of 1982
Chronology of Events of 1981
Disasters of 1981
People of the Year
BIOGRAPHIES
NOBEL PRIZES
OBITUARIES
Unusual, But Noteworthy Events of 1981
Special Reports
African Affairs: What It Means to Starve
Australia's New Federalism
Canada: The Raging Energy War
Defense: U.S. Military Policy: Performance or Promise?
Economy, World: Pressures for Protectionism
Environment: Earth's Jungle Heritage
Football: Colleges, Athletes, and Scandal
Historic Preservation: Too Much Preservation?
Industrial Relations: Labour's New Weapon—The Stevens Strike
Law: Television in the Courtroom
Literature: The African Muse
Music: Bonanza in Country Music
Religion: Religious Growth in a New Area
Social Security and Welfare Services: Violence Against Children
Television and Radio: Revolution on the Small Screen
BOOK OF THE YEAR
AERIAL SPORTS
ANTHROPOLOGY
ASTRONOMY
BOLIVIA
CHINA
CRICKET
DEFENSE
DEPENDENT STATES
ECONOMY, WORLD
EGYPT
ENVIRONMENT
FISHERIES
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
HISTORIC PRESERVATION
INDUSTRIAL REVIEW
IRAQ
LAOS
LIFE SCIENCES
LITERATURE
MONACO
NAURU
POLITICAL PARTIES
RELIGION
SOCIAL SECURITY AND WELFARE SERVICES
STOCK EXCHANGES
TELEVISION AND RADIO
UGANDA
UNITED STATES
VANUATU
Contributors
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K
L
M
N
O-P
Q-R-S
T
U
V-W
X-Y-Z

Citation preview

1982

BRITANNICA

BOOK OF THE YEAR

1982 BRITANNICA

BOOK OF THE YEAR

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. CHICAGO, GENEVA, LONDON, MANILA,

PARIS,

ROME, SEOUL, SYDNEY, TOKYO, TORONTO

BY ENCYCLOP/tDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

All

Copyright Under International Copyright Union Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-394-1 International Standard Serial Number: 0068-1156

Rights Reserved

No partof this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. BRITANNICA

BOOK OF THE

YEAR

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Bntannica Book of the Year

is published with the editorial advice of the faculties of the University of Chicago.

Editor-in-Chief, Yearbooks

Editors

Editorial Staff

Advisers

)ames

Ertel

Daphne Daume, Chicago J. E. Davis, London David Calhoun, Charles Cegielski, R. M. Goodwin, Karen Jacobs Justin, Arthur Latham, Louise Watson Michael D.

Martin Rennie, M.D.

Kilian,

Drummond Correspondents

Marty,

E.

loan Harris, Toronto H. W. DeWeese, Sydney Shigeki Hijino, Tokyo Sergio A. Sarmiento, Mexico City ). Amaral, Rio de Janeiro

Art Director Picture Editors

Layout Artist Cartographers

Cynthia Peterson Holly Harrington, sen/or picture editor; La Bravia Jones, Kathy Nakamura, Kathryn Creech; Barbara Hilborne, London Richard Batchelor Gerzilla Leszczynski, supervisor;

William W.Karpa John L. Draves, Paul Rios, Richard A. Roiniotis, Lillian Simcox

Geography Editor Geography Research

William A. Cleveland Sujata Banerjee, supervisor;

Pamela G. Crumbley, Donna R. Falk, David W. Foster, Geo. Kenneth Leivers,

Geography Correspondent

Copy Director Deputy Director Chief Copy Editor Senior Copy Editors

Copy

Staff

Olfat El-Mallakh, Kimberleigh S. Hemphill, Lyudmila Skoropistsev, Frank J. Yurco Marcy A. Ruhlach

Thomas Beatty Laurie A. Braun Ruth Passin Lawrence D. Kowalski, Juanita

J.

Anthony

Copy Control

Green, Anne

L.

Manager

Typesetting Staff

B.

Hedblom,

R.

Cussen

Robert H. Dehmer Frances E. Latham

Rosa E. Casas Dale H, Hoiberg, senior indexer;

Mary H. Hurley, Editorial Typesetting

Anjali Maitra

Dora

Jeffers, Judith Jr.,

Kobylecky,

Thomas Mulligan,

Arnell Reed Librarian

Library Aide

Administrative Assistant Secretary

Terry Miller

Shantha Channabasappa Naomi Gralnek Ines Baptist Rosemary A. Poole,

London

Editorial Administration

Managing

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Margaret Sutton

Editor,

Inc.

Director of Budgets and Control

Verne Pore

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Robert P Gwinn

Chairmanof the Board

President Vice President, Editorial

Kumar

Melvin Stagner Ronald Laugeman, supervisor annual products; Griselda Chaidez, Duangnetra Debhavalya, John Krom,

Associate Librarian

Murphy,

Cerilee Hundl, Steven D. Maxey, Paul Mendelson, Mary Ann Roccaforte, Barbara Runkel, Melinda Shepherd, Carol Smith, Judith West Mary C. Srodon, supervisor;

Mayme Director Composition and Indexing Index Manager Index Supervisor Index Staff

L.

Julian Ronning, Barbara Whitney Ellen Finkelstein, Claudette R Gavle,

Charles E. Swanson Charles Van Doren

CONTENTS 8

Feature article: Struggling for Nationhood: The Birth of Zimbabwe by Robert Mugabe The prime minister of this new nation, Robert Mugabe, has written a detailed account of how the majority of people in his country managed to obtain their freedom from the colonial masters who had ruled their land for so long. He tells about the political, economic, and military forces that the African peoples employed in order to become masters of their

own 15

destiny.

"Not

Feature article:

by

K.

a single Polish

problem can be solved by violence"

M. Smogorzewski

go back many M. Smogorzewski. He details the history of the Polish people and explains the significance of historical factors and the Roman Catholic Church in the drama now unfolding in that Eastern European country.

The

roots of the independent trade union. Solidarity, in Poland

years, as explained by K.

22

Calendarof Events of 1982

26

Chronology of Events of 1981 A month-by-month summary of the

54

Disasters

58

Feature article:

66

Letter from Washington by Douglass Cater Douglass Cater, one of the most respected political commentators in the U.S., views the first year of the Reagan administration in terms of a historical perspective. Mr. Cater has written a personal view based on his long experience in observing the Washington scene.

A

significant events of 1981.

catalog of the most destructive events of 1981, including

man-made and

natural disasters.

—

Monetarism Neither Kill nor Cure by Samuel Brittan Samuel Brittan writes from London that the theory of monetarism which supposedly characterizes the economic policiesof the Thatcher government in England and the Reagan administration in the U.S. is not really new but has never been fully tested. He expresses doubts as to whether so-called supply-side economics can ever really be applied.

People of the Year Individuals around the world whose names figured prominently

68

Biographies

97

Nobel Prizes

128

Unusual but Noteworthy Events Peculiar and unusual happenings

132

Feature article:

137

Feature article:

that

in

the

were reported around the world

news

in

in

1981

1981.

Our Changing Cities by R/chard

W/i/tt/nghdm Richard Whittingham has analyzed data from the 1980 census and has talked with city administrators, urbanologlsts, and others. He has discovered two trends that, if continued, may well change the nature of cities in the U.S.

The Changing Face of America by Manuel D. Plotkin The former head of the Bureau of the Census, Manuel D. Plotkin, has written a

lucid

and

revealing article dealing with population shifts within the U.S. He finds that the former rush to in the North and Midwest, has halted, and that internal migration Is

the cities, particularly

now going 153-738

in

other directions.

Book of the Year An alphabetically organized treatment

of the people, places, and developments of significance during 1981, including the following areas:

Economic Development Environment and Natural Resources Food and Agriculture Health and Disease

Human

Affairs

Review and the Arts National and International Science and Technology Industrial

Literature

Affairs

Social Sciences

Sports and

Spe
ic dfi Ailjirs

Means

It

The celebrated Norwegian account of the famine

206

to Starve

actress Liv

the

in

Horn

Ullmann and journalist Victoria Brittain give a dramatic and of the terrible toll it is taking in human life.

ol Africa

New Federalism

Australij: Australia's

Professor A. R. G. Griffiths examines the struggle going on in Australia as it tries to achieve a new balance between the states and the federal government a struggle that has parallels in the

—

United States and Canada.

231

Canada: The Raging Energy War Canada's western provinces have won the latest skirmish with Ottawa over control of the country's energy resources, but the war is by no means ended. )ournalist Peter Ward explains the forces behind the continuing controversy.

287

Defense U.S. Military Policy Performance or Promise? Pres. Ronald Reagan has announced his intention to strengthen the U.S. armed forces, but there is disagreement over how this policy is being implemented. Robin Ranger, a noted defense expert, examines the issues involved.

330

fconomy. World: Pressures for Protectionism As recession deepens in the industrial countries, demands

—

for increased protectionism

have

become more strident.

Financial writer Peter Cheeseright discusses the threat to the liberal

trading system

since World

in effect

War

II.

365

Environment: Earth's Jungle Heritage Regarded by environmentalists as vital to the maintenance of Earth's climate, the enormous rain forest that covers much of northern South America has been steadily disappearing before man's onslaughts. But |on Tinker, a writer on environmental subjects, notes that recent developments give cause for hope that this great resource will survive.

390

Football: Colleges, Athletes,

and Scandal numerous books on professional and amateur athletics, takes recent scandals in college sports and their effect on the schools and

Andrew David, author a penetrating look at

of

the athletes.

421

Too Much Preservation? we preserving too much? asks Michael D. Kilian. The news commentator and columnist favours preserving buildings that are worth preserving, but in a humorous essay he wonders whether we are going too far

Historic Preservation:

Are

435

The). R Stevens

strike, after

company by going affairs,

487

—

New Weapon The Stevens Strike many years, was finally settled when the union

Industrial Relations: Labour's

and bankers. A. H. Raskin, unprecedented tactic.

after

describes this

its

insurers

observer of labour

Law: Television in the Courtroom

Two

basic rights collide

when

television

cameras are allowed

into a

courtroom. Geoffrey

Stone, professor of law, explores the tension between the public's right to

defendant's right to a

520

put pressure on the

a long-time

/./teralure.

fair

and impartial

know and

R.

the

trial.

The African Muse

With independence

come the emergence of a distinctive now gaining attention in the outside world. Gerald Moore, a student discusses writers who are producing significant works in various parts

for the

countries of Africa has

African literature, only of African literature, of the continent.

558

Music: Bonanza in Country Music

As the U.S. becomes increasingly urbanized, the popularity of "country" music seems to be increasing. William Ivey, director of the Country Music Foundation, tells how this came about and describes the various types of country music and their roots.

606

Growth in a New Area the 1980s, there will be more Christians in the Southern

Religion: Religious

Sometime during in

the Northern. Martin

E.

Century, discusses the religious ferment south of the Equator and

world of

621

Hemisphere than

Marty, professor of theology and associate editor of The Christian its

significance for the

religion.

Social Security

and Welfare

Services: Violence Against Children

Scarcely a day passes that does not produce new headlines about violence against children, whether physical, psychological, or deprivational. Anne Harris Cohn, executive director of the National

Committee

for Prevention of Child

children and details the attempts being

659

made

Abuse, paints a grim picture of the suffering

to help them.

Television

and Radio: Revolution on the Small Screen

Once

and a modicum of news and is changing rapidly, according to editor and video-technology David Lachenbruch, who describes the new electronic wonders that will soon enter

the television screen simply provided entertainment

information. That situation specialist

our living rooms.

STRUGGLING FOR NATIONHOOD: THE BIRTH OF ZIMBABWE by Robert Mugabe, Prime Minister of Zimbabwe

when, Dutch

in

1652, jan van Riebeeck, representing the Company, landed at the Cape of

East India

Good Hope at the southern

tip

of Africa

and

laid

engulfed,

in

later.

Colony but also the Orange Free Natal, Basutoland, Swaziland,

It

Cape

successive stages, not just the

State, the Transvaal,

Bechuanaland, South-

ern Rhodesia, and Northern Rhodesia.

The

national

that transformed Southern struggle Rhodesia into Zimbabwe was an event in this proliberation

cess and was the

sum

many

of

Colonial Background.

linked events.

the competitive

In

of colonial adventures played out

in Africa

game

and the

Far East during the 15th to the 19th century, the law

of the survival of the

fittest

ruled just as

it

The Portuguese eliminated the

jungle.

did

in

the

Arabs, the

Dutch the Portuguese, while the French and

British,

as they struggled for supremacy, together annihilat-

ed the Dutch in

in

many

areas.

Having survived alone

the Cape, the British began pursuing the Dutch

settlers

dom.

moving northward

This northward

in

search of greater free-

movement by

the Afrikaners

two republics: the Orange River Republic (now the Orange Free State) and the Transvaal Republic (now Transvaal), whose northern border was the Limpopo River. resulted in the establishment of

Cecil John Rhodes, a British empire builder who had become prime minister in the Cape, saw the growing British Empire threatened by the northward thrust of the Boers. He determined to curb it in the interest not only of the British Empire but also of his

own

quest for mineral fortune.

A zone

of British

was the

realization of

one

of Rhodes's grandest dreams.

the

foundations of a future Dutch Cape Colony, no one could have foreseen that the process thus begun

would assume such proportions 250 years

called Southern Rhodesia,

In

1889 Rhodes secured

Queen

now charged

ny,

pation.

a

royal

charter from

Victoria for the British South Africa

Thus began

a colonial history that led to

of the bloodiest conflicts ever fought

in Africa:

war between the Ndebele and the

bitter

Compa-

with the task of effecting the occu-

one the

settlers in

1893 and, subsequently, the first national liberation war (Chimurenga or Chindunduma) of 1896-97. Having obtained an agreement from the Africans conferring on him the grant of mineral rights, Rhodes turned it into an instrument of political and socioeconomic control. The Africans were both cheated and invaded, and they resorted to war. The 1896-97 war, with its surprise attacks and ambushes, was aimed at exterminating the enemy. In Matabeleland, for example, 130 European settlers were killed within the first week of the war, and the survivors were driven into hiding. In Mashonaland some 450 settlers were annihilated as the uprising, beginning in

Chief Mashayamombe's area

in

the Hartley dis-

spread to other regions. Peace negotiations with the Ndebele were conducted by Rhodes himtrict,

Mashonaland British reinforcements defeated the Shonas, and their leaders were executed. The settlers' victory led to repressive measures against the Africans. All administrative power was vested in the British South Africa Company until self. In

1923,

when

ment

to the settler communities. In

Britain granted the right of self-govern-

1930 the Land Apportionment Act legalized what already existed in practice: the division of land between the whites and the blacks, with the whites owning 19.9 million

influence had, therefore, to be carved out north of

ha (49.1 million ac) out of a total of 40.3 million ha

the Transvaal. Rhodes had already foiled the

From this act, discrimination in the economic, and educational spheres also came into being. Since all urban, mining, and indus-

ter-

(99.6 million ac).

ritorial

ambitions of the Boers in Bechuanaland (Botswana) through a treaty signed by Chief Khama and

social,

the British government. North of the Limpopo, the

trial

from treaties signed in 1888 with Chief Lobengula of the Ndebele tribe, was that of occupation. The occupation of the territory, later strategy, apart

Robert Mugabe

is Prime Minister and Minister of Defense of Zimbabwe. He was ttie co-founder and presidentlgeneral ol (he Zimbabwe African National Union

(ZANU).

areas were designated as white, no African could acquire a permanent home there. Schools, hospitals, and social amenities were all within the white areas. There was racial discrimination in la-

bour conditions and job opportunities as well.

The early nationalist and movements, aware that the institutions of power were fully controlled by the settlers' govThe

Failure of Politics.

trade union

BLL CAJ*eeLL-SVGWA

Supporters oi Robert triotic Front) party

Mugabe

won

celebrated their election victory the right to form a new government.

in

ernment, confined themselves to correcting the grievances arising from racial discrimination by nonviolent means. The Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (1934-57) was the first real national grouping, but for a long time it lacked organization and drive. The National Youth League, formed in 1955 by James Chikerema, George Nyandoro, Edson Sithole, and Dunduzu Chisiza, merged with it in 1957, thus providing a broader basis for the mobilization of popular support.

The establishment of the Central African Federation (Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) in 1953, combining the territories of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland, was widely regarded by the African nationalist leaders of the three territories as a plot conceived by the white settlers (especially those in Southern Rhodesia) to thwart African aspirations and as a strategy to delay

the independence process in Malawi (Nyasaland) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia). During the federal

period (1953-63) the Africans of

all

three territories

were pitted against the whites and the tensions between them were intensified. Feeling their systems threatened, the white governments banned the African National Congress (anc) of Southern Rhodesia later the Zambia Congress, and

and Nyasaland and

nationalist leaders, including

Kamuzu

(Dr. Hastings)

March 1980,

after his

ZANU

(Pa-

Banda and Kenneth Kaunda, were detained. In Southern Rhodesia the National Democratic Party

and the Zimbabwe African People's Union both led by Joshua Nkomo, were successiveproscribed in 1961 and 1962.

(NDP)

(ZAPU), ly

For a long time, the African

Zimbabwean

leader-

ship believed that a solution to the political problem of the country lay

in

using political pressure to

pel Britain to call a constitutional conference.

com-

How-

when a Southern Rhodesian constitutional conference was held in London and Salisbury in 1960 and 1961, respectively, only 15 parliamentary

ever,

seats out of 65

were given

to the Africans.

of the whites under Prime Minister

Sir

The mood

Edgar White-

head was not inclined to compromise. Less comprostill was the mood of the rightist Dominion Party (later the Rhodesia Front), which rejected the 1961 constitution and later proceeded to win the general elections in December 1962. In 1964 it rejected the liberal Winston Field as leader in favour of the more conservative Ian Douglas Smith, thus setting the scene for the defiant and rebellious course that led to Southern Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence from Great Britain on Nov. 11, 1965. The principle of majority rule was rejected as anathema by the white minority. Meanmising

while, the failure of the Federation spelled the

end

of white

supremacy

in

dence

in

Armed

Rhodesia and to indepen-

Northern

moved on

Nyasaland, both of which

Dakarai Badza,

1964.

Struggle Begins.

The

realization by a core

of thezAPU leadership that the old political methods had failed and that a new leadership had to be found to confront the

formation of the (ZANU).

From

enemy by force of arms led to the Zimbabwe African National Union inception,

its

ZANU aimed

at

armed

struggle as the main thrust of national effort. Within

months of

it began recruiting China and Ghana. It must, however, be stated on behalf of the National Democratic Party that it was the first national-

a few

formation

its

cadres for training

in

organization to distinguish clearly between the remedial approach to grievances and a basic apist

proach that attacked the main cause of grievances

The ndp agitated for politichange leading to majority rule based on one man, one vote, zanu, however, went further by emphasizing that one man, one vote could only be

against an unjust system. cal

gained by an armed revolutionary struggle.

The

unilateral

declaration of

1965 rendered the

independence in methods of

traditional political

struggle {strikes, demonstrations, noncollaboration,

and appeals to Britain) impotent. In fact, both zanu and the People's Caretaker Council had been banned in August 1964, leaving them no option but to operate as underground movements. In

was clearly to destroy the forces that now covered most of the northeastern zone. Thomas Nhari and

became

those circumstances, external bases

necessary, and these

were established

who became

leaders of the rebellion,

kidnapped some members of dare (the Revolutionary Council) headed by Herbert Chitepo, and at the rear camp base of Chifombo, on the Zambian side near Tete, they assassinated scores of cadres, male and female, for refusing to join them. Nevertheless, the rebellion was crushed. The enemy was not deterred by this failure. Within

months of the

four

alist

leaders as a

release of the detained nation-

result

of the detente,

Herbert

Chitepo was killed on March 18, 1975, when a bomb blew up his car. For most of 1975 the armed struggle made no progress and indeed suffered serious reversals, especially since the newly formed anc umbrella organization, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, had neither direction nor set purpose other than that of stopping the war and negotiating with the Smith regime. The zanu wing of the new composite body felt offended by the tactics employed against them by the front-line states (Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, and Angola), which had coerced them into joining the anc. Following the shocking death of Herbert Chitepo, the ZANU Central Committee met in March 1975 to review the party's strategy. It was decided at that meeting that the writer, then secretary-general of the party, should leave the country immediately for Mozambique and Tanzania where he would under-

wing

Zambia and Tanzania. As Mozambique became indepen-

and

dent, another base area presented

April

that a

companion, Edgar Tekere, then secretary

what has become

youth

in

1966 ZANU engaged the enemy

in

in

itself.

In

known as the Battle of Sinoia. That battle inspired many other encounters with the enemy during 1966 -68. ZANU reckons that the second War of Liberation (Chimurenga It

II)

began

in April

became evident that the

1966.

strategy of convention-

human and enemy was stronger in manpower and equipment. A revision of strategy and

al battles

was

costly in terms of losses—

material— because the

was called for, and a period of tutelage of ZANU cadres occurred in the Tete area of Mozambique between 1970 and 1972. zanu then retactics

launched the struggle

in

December 1972,

in

the

northeastern part of Zimbabwe, after having cul-

two was sustained until the cease-fire arranged under the Lancaster House Agreement, save for a brief period in 1974-75 under tivated popular support over a period of nearly years. Thenceforth, the struggle

a detente arrangement. In

the wake of the detente exercise, sharp contra-

dictions developed

in

zanla, the

armed wing of

ZANU, as some commanders turned renegade after being infiltrated by the enemy. The enemy strategy

10

take the reorganization of the party's external

we

its

fighting wing, zanla.

The

zanu, accompany him.

left for

writer requested

On

for

April 4, 1975,

the eastern border where, at Nyafaro,

we

were joined by Chief Tangwena who led us into Mozambique. The Conflict Intensifies. The failure of the Victoria Falls talks held between the Smith delegation and that of the anc led by Bishop Muzorewa convinced the front-line states that Smith was still not amenable to political change. There was no alternative

but the continuation of the liberation war,

which was rekindled

in

January 1976 using

Mozam-

bique as a rear base. After some dissension the zanla

commanders

began to work in unison, exzones stage by stage and transforming many of them into liberated and semiliberated zones. By 1978 the armed struggle had had such remarkable progress that the collapse of the Smith regime was just a matter of time. But between the Victoria Falls conference in 1975 and the final constitutional conference at Lancaster panding

House

in

finally

their military

1979,

two other

constitutional

confer-

ences occurred: the 1976 Geneva Conference based on the Kissinger proposals and the meetings based

Bill CAft«>eELi

The

Union on April

lack

British

Salisbury

came down

18, 1980;

ir

Zim-

babwe had become an independent nation at midnight on April 17. Present at the ceremony were Prince Charles of Britain and Lord Soames.

on the Anglo-American proposals, held first in Malta in January 1978 and then in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, in March 1978. As the idea of a conference to discuss the plan proposed by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger — which aimed at stopping the war on the basis of

the party; Simon Muzenda, vice-president; Edgar

ultimate majority rule— took shape,

mand were now

all

the leaders of

the nationalist groups were invited to a meeting

with the front-line

stood as ZANU

been

states.

for the first time.

called to provide a

modicum

At this meeting zanu

of unity

on

forum

The meeting had for

reaching

some

nationalist strategy for the

prosecution of the struggle. As this could not be

Tekere, secretary-general; Josiah Tongogara, secre-

Meya Urimbo, national political commissar; Teurai Ropa, secretary of women's af-

tary of defense;

and

fairs; first

several others to various positions. For the

members of the zanla high commembers of the Central Com-

time, several

also

mittee so that they too could participate

policymaking function of the restructuring of the party

The

party.

marked

a final

phase

protracted effort to save zanu and establish national vanguard

in

the

successful

it

in

the

as the

movement.

At the end of 1977, Britain and the United States

done with the anc, now completely divorced from

published their so-called Anglo-American propos-

the war, Pres. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania took vari-

als.

ous nationalist leaders aside and advised them to form a political front so the political leadership could agree on a common political strategy for the proposed Geneva Conference. It was this idea that

Patriotic

led to the formation of the Patriotic Front,

was

adopt

to

stitutional

a

position for

all

future con-

conferences. The Geneva Conference,

however, was British

common

which

a fiasco.

Smith would not accept the

proposals and the Patriotic Front rejected the

was the Malta meeting between the Anglo-American team at which the Patriotic Front emphasized the need for

The

ples,

such as universal adult suffrage, free elections, and the disbanding

restructuring of public service,

of the Smith regime's illegal army. Negotiations

these principles

Victory lution,

ZANU strategy following the failure of the Geneva Conference was twofold. First, the zanu leadership had to be restructured. Second, the liberation war had to be intensified, and more arms had to be procured from allies and friends. The political restructuring of ZANU affected mainly the composition of its Central Committee. At a meeting held at a ZANLA military rear base outside Chimoio which lasted for nearly two weeks, it was decided that the new

resulted

Committee would

consist of elected

this

It

memwas

at

meeting that the writer was elected president of

on

failed.

in Sight.

armed

open

bers chosen from various constituencies.

Front and an

accepting certain fundamental democratic princi-

Kissinger plan completely.

Central

result

In

the absence of a political so-

struggle

remained the only option

to zanu. Formation of the Patriotic Front had in

the recruitment of

many

military struggle, but these activities

cadres for the

became con-

and western areas of Zimbabwe and never reached the magnitude of the more comprehensive and more effective zanla operations. They complemented the zanla operations, however, and by the end of 1979 martial law had been extended to 95% of the country. Between December 1972 and December 1979 (when a ceasefire was agreed to at Lancaster House) the death toll fined to the northwest

amounted to about 20,000 people. The "internal settlement" of 1978

that gave rise to

11

3. A constitutional amendment procedure requiring 100% concurrence of the total membership of the House of Assembly on certain issues. 4. The cease-fire arrangements and positioning of the warring forces during the

Muzorewa regime in what was called Zimbabwe-Rhodesia only worsened the situation and the

invited more daring raids from the guerrilla forces. ZANU, having concentrated on party restructuring in 1977, termed 1978 the Year of the People, when the party and the people would be united so that zanu

and the people would be one. The following year, 1979, was designated Year of the People's Storm (Core regukurahundi), when the struggle would escalate and enemy bases and administrative centres would be stormed and destroyed. The collapse of the Muzorewa-Smith regime was inevitable. On Aug. 1, 1979, a few days before the Commonwealth heads of government meeting opened in Lusaka, Zambia, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher told the British Parliament that her

government was

"wholly committed to genuine majority rule in Rhodesia." The Commonwealth meeting produced an agreement on Rhodesia that recognized the principle of new elections based on one man, one vote under British authority. Britain undertook to convene a constitutional conference to be attended by both the black and white leadership. A cease-fire also had to be established to create an atmosphere of peace for the elections.

The Lancaster House Negotiations. The Lancaster House conference was attended by the Patriotic Front (ZANU and zapu) delegation, jointly led by the writer and Joshua Nkomo, and by the ZimbabweRhodesia delegation, with Bishop Muzorewa, Silas Mundawarara, Ian Smith, and Ndabaningi Sithole as the principal members. The British delegation was

who chaired the conference. Lord Carrington's diplomacy was characterized by a led by Lord Carrington,

Muzorewa group. Muzorewa's became one of refraining from opposing

bias in favour of the

strategy

any of the

and the Patriotic Front poked fun at his delegation and referred to its members as "the yes men." On the other hand, the Patriotic Front put up a firm and principled stand and won some useful concessions, although they too conceded ground. They refused to be driven into walking out of the conference, as desired by the Muzorewa group and some members British constitutional proposals,

of the British team.

The proposals that caused serious debate were: 7. The composition of the House of Assembly and Senate which granted disproportionate racial representation to the white community. In the House of Assembly they have 20 out of 100 seats, and in the Senate 10 out of 40 seats. 2. The need compensation

to pay prompt and adequate for tne deprivation of property especially as this affected the right to acquire land for the resettlement of the peasants. The issue here was that Britain had to raise large funds for this purpose.

12

cease-fire. 5. The status of the guerrilla forces which Lord Carrington finally accepted as "lawful forces," while at the same time refusing to accord them an equal status with the white

Rhodesian ones. The Zimbabwe constitution agreed at the Lancaster House conference and granted by Britain represents

hard-earned

a

struggle.

more it

was

It

far

achieved

victory

political

principally through a sustained

and

from perfect, but

bitter it

armed

contained

positive than negative aspects and, insofar as

granted independence within a democratic

cal

order,

political

politi-

constituted a viable base on which

it

power could be

inherent potential that

built.

made

It it

was

basically this

acceptable to the

Patriotic Front.

The try.

constitution

There

is

is

the supreme law of the coun-

also a formidable Declaration of Rights

enshrining the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual and protecting the rights to

life,

per-

and freedom from slavery, forced labour, and inhuman treatment. It grants protection against the arbitrary deprivation of property and arsonal liberty,

bitrary searches of

persons or their property.

It

se-

cures the protection of the law, the protection of the

freedoms of conscience, of expression, of assembly, and of association. It also protects freedom of movement and forbids discrimination on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, or creed.

The

constitution creates the usual organs of gov-

ernment—Parliament, which consists of the Senate and a House of Assembly; the Executive, whose authority is vested in the president acting on the advice of the Cabinet; and the Judiciary. Elections to the House of Assembly are every five years and on the basis of adult suffrage (18 years and upward). A New Nation Is Born. The first elections were held in early March 1980, and of the 80 common roll seats, ZANU (PF) won 57, PF (zapu) won 20, and the UANC 3. All the 20 white seats were won by the Rhodesia Front (now the Republican Front). The Senate, 14 of whose seats are filled by an electoral college of the

common

roll

seat holders in the

House of Assembly, is dominated by representatives of ZANU (PF). The resounding zanu (PF) electoral victory was undoubtedly an expression of the unity and solidarity built over many years between the party and the people through the instrumentality of the armed struggle.

The Rhodesia that

Robert

public, for years fed

Mugabe was

a

on propaganda

rabid

racist

full

of

animosity and vindictiveness, was shocked to hear the new prime minister call, in his first post-election address to the nation, for national reconciliation so that those who had been enemies might recognize

Zimbabweans The prime minister prodemonstrate the meaning of national uni-

their inevitable

with

a

oneness

common

as dedicated

destiny.

ceeded to ty and reconciliation by including in his Cabinet four (now five) zapu members and two whites (one later resigned for reasons of health), zapu also has three deputy ministers. Another dimension of the prime minister's policy of reconciliation was a request to Lord Soames, who administered the country during the three-month transitional period, to join hands with him in running the country until independence. Under a gentlemen's agreement. Lord Soames remained governor until April 18, 1980, when the Union Jack gave way to the Zimbabwe flag. Confidence having been established, the most urgent tasks of the new government became the creation of greater peace, the unity of the people, the

resettlement of refugees, the rehabilitation of

com-

Prime Minister Robert Mugabe attended the June 1981 meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Nairobi, Kenya.

munities affected by the war, and the rebuilding of the economy.

Homes were

quickly found for the

refugees returning from Mozambique, Zambia, and

Botswana, numbering a quarter million, and the ternally displaced persons,

in-

numbering nearly two

and they were given plots for cultivation. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, other international agencies, and friendly million,

countries assisted generously with resettlement aid.

The program went so smoothly existing land hunger

among

that,

despite the

the peasants, a

bumper

maize (corn) harvest has been realized. The manufacturing, commercial, and mining sectors also performed well during the first year of independence, and a growth rate of 14% was achieved, most of it due to the manufacturing sector. The need for new machinery and spare parts, however, stands in the way of greater expansion. Zimbabwe's mineral resources include gold, chrome, asbestos, nickel, iron ore, coal, copper, tin, and emeralds. Its major agricultural products are tobacco, maize, cotton, wheat, sugar, groundnuts (peanuts), soybeans, beef, and dairy products. The country's infrastructure— its railway and road systems, hydroelectric and water systems — is very sound, despite a current railway locomotive shortage and a need for better roads in the rural areas. The Task Ahead. In March 1981 the government convened a Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction and Development (Zimcord). During the Lancaster House conference, Britain had proposed that.

since the resources

it

was able

to give

Zimbabwe

could help Zimbabwe sponsor a donors' conference to solicit aid for land devel-

would be inadequate,

it

reconstruction. The Zimbabwe Ministry Economic Planning and Development took the

opment and of

proposal seriously, assessed the financial require-

ments needed over a three-year Transitional NationDevelopment Plan, and convened the conference in Salisbury. It had been estimated that Z$1.2 billion would be needed, but in reality about Z$1.3 billion was pledged by donor countries, the largest single amounts coming from Britain and the United States. Soon the Transitional National Development Plan will be announced. Its emphasis will be on raising the development in the peasant sector, neglected for decades by successive colonial regimes. During the war years the Zimbabwe African National Union adopted a socialist philosophy based on Marxist-Leninist principles. Socialism is the guiding philosophy of the present government. Upon the attainment of independence, however, the government made it clear that its programs would occur in a socioeconomic context in which the historical, traditional, and objective circumstances of the country were recognized. Outright nationalization al

of the various sectors

is

not a feasible proposition,

given the lack of technology, managerial

skills,

busi-

ness experience, and even ideological consciousness class

among the must

first

The working develop worker consciousness in

majority of the people.

13

terms of its roles, needs, and duties. Similarly, the workers' technical and managerial skills must be substantially developed before any self-management programs can be undertaken.

Most of these aspects will be taken care of under the development plan, which is the formulation of the policy enunciated as "Growth with Equity" in preparation for Zimcord. To the extent that the promised funds become available, it should be posfulfill most of the objectives the government is setting for itself and for the people during the next

sible to

three years.

Since its assumption of power the present government has taken some revolutionary steps in rePrimary forming the socioeconomic system. education has been made free, and health care free for all those earning less than Z$150 dollars a month. Secondary education is now available for every child who completes his or her primary education, although this is not yet free. Racial discrimination has been abolished. The public service is fast being africanized. The monthly minimum wage, starting at Z$75 in July 1980, went up to Z$85 in January 1981 and to Z$105 in January 1982 for industrial, mining, and commercial workers, although the monthly minimum wage for farm and domestic workers has risen only from Z$30 to Z$50 over the period.

Zimbabwe

become

has

a

member

of the Organi-

zation of African Unity, the United Nations

agencies, the Nonaligned

Movement, and

other international organizations.

It

has,

the Nonaligned Movement, declared

and

several

by joining

itself

commit-

ted to the principles of that organization. Within the

7. The reduction of economic dependence, particularly, but not only, on the Republic of South Africa. 2. The forging of links to create a genuine

and equitable regional integration. 3. The mobilization of resources to promote the implementation of national, interstate, and regional policies. 4. Concerted action to secure international cooperation within the framework of our strategy for economic liberation. In July 1981 a summit meeting was held in Salisbury to appraise the work so far accomplished at the ministerial level of sadcc. Each of the members has been assigned a task. Zimbabwe is to develop a Southern African Food Security Plan. A simple coordinative machinery was also decided upon. The headquarters would be in Caberones and the president of Botswana, Quett Masire, would remain as chairman of sadcc. Zimbabwe was chosen to provide an executive secretary. These two officials, assisted by a secretariat in Caberones, will have the

and administer its nomithe post of executive secretary to sadcc and

responsibility to steer, coordinate,

the work of sadcc.

nee at

for

Zimbabwe submitted

the present writing approval

The Ongoing

is still

being awaited.

Struggle. In conclusion, the writer

has attempted to retrace the dramatic story of the

Zimbabwean

national struggle for

independence by

depicting the causes of the conflict arising from the

imposition by Rhodes of a colonial system on a society that

had neither invited

it

nor agreed to

it.

The

writer has also tried to portray the national struggle

and

to

show how

a progressive transformation oc-

curred until revolutionary

armed

struggle,

based on

Zimbabwe found

itself,

the Maoist theory of popular support, brought about

upon independence, within the brotherhood

of the

the collapse of the colonial system. Throughout the

discussions

armed struggle zanu was the undoubted and revolutionary vanguard of the people's struggle for freedom and independence. Its main arm was always zanla, without which independence would not have come as early as it did. There has also been a focusing on the problems facing the country immediately upon independence and how the present government has attempted to solve them. The reader has been provided with an insight into the policies and plans of the zanu government for the future of the country. In the view of the ZANU government, the struggle for independence must operate on the basic economic struggle

southern African region, front-line states.

It

and consultations

thus participates

in

regularly held by these states

on

matters of mutual concern, especially on the prob-

lems posed by the system of apartheid

in South and that country's continued illegal occupation of Namibia in defiance of the United Nations, as well as by its acts of unprovoked aggression and

Africa

sabotage against neighbouring other

front-line

states,

Alongside

states.

Zimbabwe

insists

that

Namibia must be granted independence on the basis

UN

of

Security Council Resolution 435,

was passed

in

Zimbabwe

which

1978. has also

become

a

member

of the

years of the political

Southern African Development Coordination Conference, whose inaugural meeting was held in Aru-

of Marxist-Leninist socialist principles.

sha, Tanzania, in 1979, followed

lished capitalist system

by

a

conference

Lusaka of heads of government of nine southern African states: Angola, Botswana, Mozamheld

in

Zambia, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, and Malawi. The objectives of sadcc are

bique,

Tanzania,

stated in the Lusaka Declaration of April

14

1,

1980:

government its

it

paramountcy and find

through popular support,

dependence

is

our

must,

in

due course,

luta continual

assert

practical application, again in

replacing the

thus a starting point of a

national struggle.

A

When

finds itself in conflict with the estab-

latter. In-

new

type of

Background

to a Fateful

Year in Poland's History

"NOT A SINGLE POLISH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED BY VIOLENCE" Cen. Woj deck jaruzelski December 13, 1981

by K.

M. Smogorzewski

The revolution that started in Poland in August 1980 was not the unexpected eruption of a dormant volcano. It was the fourth and the most vigorous pro-

secret

negotiation

between Nazi Germany and

Soviet Russia which culminated

Moscow on

in a

pact signed

it was a annex mapped a partition of eastern Europe in general and of Poland in particular. Once the two dictators had decided

in

Aug. 23, 1939. Formally

by the Polish people against the totalitarian system of government imposed on their country in 1945 — a design after the end of World War

nonaggression

and acquiesced in by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston

that the Polish state should never rise again, their

Churchill.

leadership on both sides of the partition

test

II

planned by Joseph

Poland was the

Stalin

first

country to

resist Hitler's

gression, fighting alone against an

enemy

ag-

superior

numbers and in modern weapons. Inevitably, Poland lost the September 1939 campaign, but the Polish people continued the armed struggle at home and outside their country. In the final battles of World War II, Polish divisions under Allied command entered Germany from the West and the East. The liberators in the East, however, carried with them an alien Communist regime that the minds and hearts of the Polish people never assimilated, a

treaty,

but

its

secret

urgent task was to deprive the Polish nation of

gave orders to Heinrich Himmler and

its

line. Hitler

Stalin to Lav-

renti Beria, his chief of internal security.

The

latter

in

Zyrardow staged an October on behalf of the Solidarity labour

Five tliousand workers in a flax factory at

extended

strike in

movement.

system allegedly Marxist-Leninist but in reality merely an outward cloak legitimizing the machinery of despotism.

Poles had not forgotten the major part that tsarist Russia played in the partitions of their country at the

end of the 18th century. At that time, the Russian rulers were fearful of the Polish national revival signaled by the establishment Education, the

first in

the Sejm (parliament) on cratic constitution,

in

1773 of

a Ministry of

Europe, and the adoption by

May

3,

1791, of a

demo-

greeted by the British statesman

Edmund Burke as "the noblest benefit received by any nation at any time." The people of Poland also remembered that World War II was preceded by a five-month-long A London-based

writer

on contemporary

history,

Kazimierz Smogorzewski has been a frequent visitor to Poland in recent years and was present at Solidarity's congress at Oliwa in September 1981. He was founder and editor of Free Europe during World War II, and his publications include Poland's Access to the Sea and The United States and Great Britain. GlANSANIi-SYGMA

15

ordered Rokossovsky to to

make

halt his offensive in

the Poles aware of their

order

dependence on the

Red Army. The 40,000 AK soldiers fought heroically 63 days, but on October 2 Komorowski was forced to surrender. The loss of human life was enormous: 10,200 men and women of the AK were killed in combat and 13,900 were missing; of the 950,000 civilian population, about 700,000 were forcibly evacuated by the Germans and some 200,000 for

perished

in

the fighting. Immediately after the sur-

render Hitler ordered the city of

total

destruction of the

Warsaw.

The Sovietization

of Poland. Shortly after the

Warsaw on Jan. 17, 1945, Gen. Ivan A. Serov, a high-ranking assistant of Beria, arrested 16 leaders of the Polish underground. They were flown to Moscow, where a show trial was staged at the very time when Vyacheslav Molotov, the Soviet commissar for foreign affairs, together with the U.S. and U.K. ambassadors, was busy with the formation of a "really democratic" Polish government. On June 21, 12 of the 16 leaders, charged "liberation" of the ruins of

One

of the leading figures in Poland was Stefan Cardinal zynski (left), shown in 1978 with Karol Cardinal Wojtyla

Pope John

Paul

Wys(now

II).

organized the deportation of 1.5 million Poles from

and the massacre of Red were executed in April 1940 at

eastern Poland to the gulags

15,000 Polish

Army

officers captured by the

Army. The officers Katyn and elsewhere.

The idyll of Nazi-Soviet reended on June 22, 1941, when Wehrmacht against the U.S.S.R.

Stalin's Polish Policy.

was

lations Hitler

brutally

launched

new

his

had to revise his strategy 1938 he had signaled to Hitler that he was not interested in Poland's future when he ordered the dissolution of the Communist Party of Poland (KPP) and the execution of hundreds of its members who had taken refuge in the U.S.S.R. The revival of this party, albeit under a new name, became an urgent political necessity. Some members of the old kpp cadre remained in the Soviet Union while others were hiding in Germanoccupied Poland, among them Wladyslaw GomulIn

the

and

situation, Stalin

to reverse his Polish policy. In

ka. In

November 1943 Gomulka became

general of the Polish Workers' Party

(ppr),

secretary-

which

in

design was to form the nucleus of the future government of the Polish People's Republic, indeStalin's

pendent on paper but indissolubly linked with the Soviet Union. In

legal

German-occupied Poland Polish

a delegation of the government-in-exile and a 300,000-

strong underground

be

active.

When

Home Army

the Red

Army

(AK) continued to

forces under Marshal

Konstantin Rokossovsky were approaching the Vis-

Warsaw, both Stanislaw Mikolajczyk, the Polish premier, and Gen. Tadeusz Komorowski, the AK commander, took a militarily risky and polititula River near

mistaken decision to

start an anti-German As soon as Stalin learned of the uprising, which began on Aug. 1, 1944, he

cally

uprising

16

in

the capital

city.

with "organizing terrorist acts in the rear of the Red Army," were sentenced to up to ten years' imprisonment. Seven days later the Polish "government of national unity" of 21 ministers, including 15

Com-

was formed, while Boleslaw Bierut, an old Comintern agent, was picked by Stalin to be presimunists,

dent of the Polish republic. The sovietization of Poland began. Dozens of Soviet advisers were apportioned to Polish ministries, and a Soviet-type political police was formed and manned by officers of Soviet and Polish citizenship. Thousands of AK members were arrested and deported to the U.S.S.R. On Sept. 26, 1946, Bierut signed a decree by which 76 generals and colonels in the armed forces who had fought in the West were deprived of Polish nationality. Two years later 19 officers, mainly airmen, who had served in the West and had returned to Poland after 1945, were arrested, falsely accused of spying, and sentenced to death. (They were rehabilitated in October 1956.) The Polish Army formed in the U.S.S.R. after 1943 was officered mainly by Russians. One of the few exceptions was Gen. Michal Zymierski, a prewar

Polish officer fense, but in

who became the first minister of deNovember 1949 Bierut, on Stalin's or-

appointed Marshal Rokossovsky to this post. who saw in Gomulka a dangerous rival, resolved to remove him from his position as ppr secretary-general. Gomulka, the first Communist leader in the Soviet bloc who dared to defy Stalin, considered that the dictatorship of a single party was neither essential nor expedient. He opposed the collectivization of agriculture; he refused to denounce Tito; and he proclaimed that the Polish Soders,

Bierut,

cialist Party

rendered greater services to the nation

than the pro-Soviet Social-Democracy, led by Feliks Dzierzynski. No wonder that in September 1948 Gomulka was dismissed from the post of secretarygeneral and Bierut was elected

from the

and

party,

Gomulka was

in July

be brought

Bierut ordered that he

Expelled

in his place.

arrested

"rightist-nationalist deviation."

to

1951,

trial

for

Gomulka escaped

were met, and Gomulka was restored to party membership. On October 19, when the puwp Central Committee had assembled to elect the new Politburo proposed by Gomulka, Khrushchev quite unexpectedly landed in Warsaw; with him were three other

tions

members

of the Soviet Politburo as well as Marshal

Ivan Konev,

commander

Knowing

the fate of the Czechoslovak Rudolf Slansky and the

forces.

Hungarian Laszio Raik most probably because

on the Polish

died oner

March 1953.

in

Stalin

Bierut finally released his pris-

1955.

in April

Bierut also led an unrelenting struggle against the

Roman

Catholic Church,

whose

principal defender

Poland was Stefan Cardinal Wyszynski. By the beginning of 1954 Wyszynski, six other bishops, and in

more than 900

priests

and

civilian Catholics

were

either interned or imprisoned. Bierut died in

March 1956, leaving the leadership it was

in

chief of the

that Soviet divisions

Warsaw

Pact

had gathered

Germany and the two Soviet divisions stationed inside Poland were moving toward Warsaw, the Central Committee, after coopting Gomulka as its new member, decided that the old Politburo, including Gomulka, would discuss Polish-Soviet refrontiers with East

Soviet Union, and that

lations with the Soviet visitors.

This meeting, which took place on the night of October 19-20 at the Belweder Palace, was stormy. Brave words were pronounced by Ochab and Go-

of the Polish United Workers' Party (puwp), as

mulka. The Polish leaders explained to the Soviets

deeply divided. No member of the Politburo had any prestige or authority. On March 20 Edward Ochab, a low-key personality, was elected

that the people's

an equal, independent, and sovereign state bringing

secretary-general.

the Soviet bloc. Khrushchev understood that by sup-

now

called,

The 1956 Uprising. On June

its

own

democracy of Poland wished

creative contribution to the

to

be

development of

28, 1956, an event of importance brought to an end the pretence of popular support for the Communist regime. Industrial workers of Poznan staged a general strike,

porting the "dogmatist" group he was risking bloodshed. Accordingly, the visitors retreated and on October 20 returned to Moscow. On October 21 the Central Committee elected the

and a large procession carrying the national white and red flags of Poland demanded not only more bread but also freedom and the departure of the Soviets. "We will cut off the hand that dared to

new nine-member

historic

Politburo. In a secret ballot,

made

a lengthy speech, not only to the

Central

Committee

Poznan tragedy as the work of "imperialist agents" was politically naive. Without the confidence of the working class, Gomulka insisted, no government was possible. Ansaid that to represent the

The next day Marshal Rokossovsky ordered an armoured unit to use firearms to crush the revolt. At least 53 people were killed and a few hundred wounded.

nouncing

in a

radio broadcast.

Following

speech

First

at the

Secretary

Khrushchev's

Nikita

20th congress of the

Communist

of the Soviet Union on Feb. 25, 1956,

denounced

in

Stalin's crimes, political turmoil

across the Soviet bloc, turmoil that

was

Party

which he spread

particularly

75-member He

but, via radio, to the nation.

threaten our social order," said Premier Jozef Cyran-

kiewicz

Go-

mulka obtained 74 votes. Immediately afterward he

his

program,

he

proclaimed that would remain

four-fifths of the country's arable land

the property of three million private farmers. That reform,

still

in force,

was the

first

major anomaly

differentiating Poland from other countries of the

Soviet bloc.

Poland and Hungary. Within the PUWP three trends were apparent: the "dogmatists" op-

November Rokossovsky and 32

other Soviet

officers serving in the high

command

of the Polish

posed

armed

Moscow. At the same

intense

in

all

kinds of "democratization"; the "revision-

and methods; and the "pragmatists" supported changes which would revive party unity and authority. Ochab and Cyrankiewicz, the leading representaists"

requested the uprooting of

Stalinist ideas

tives of the third trend, came to the conclusion that only Gomulka could achieve their aim, and in this

they were supported by the second group. They started negotiations with

Gomulka,

who

accepted

the mission offered to him on two conditions: that

he be solemnly rehabilitated, and that not one of his enemies remain in the Politburo. The condi-

Stalinist

In

forces returned to

time, certain

financial

problems between Poland

and the U.S.S.R. were satisfactorily settled. Gomulka was very popular throughout the country, but three years after his triumphant return to power he purged the party of the young "revisionists," curtailed the press, and dissolved the workers' councils. When the people of Warsaw were asked what had changed most in Poland since the return of Gomulka, the answer was, "The mind of Gomulka." Actually he remained what he had always been: a Communist and a martinet. Although in October 1956 he 17

The following day Jaroszewicz informed the was being withdrawn. On this occasion there was no bloodbath, but hundreds of protesters were arrested, beaten, and sentenced to imprisonment. In September a group of Polish intellectuals headed by Edward Lipinski, a well-known

released Cardinal Wyszynski and five bishops from

strike.

confinement, he soon picked fresh disputes with

public that his decree

the church. Ignoring the fact that he ruled a Catholic country,

in

January 1966 he

opposed the issuing of who was due in

a passport to Cardinal Wyszynski,

Rome

to attend the celebration of 1,000 years of

Christianity in Poland. Consequently,

canceled In ist"

Pope

Paul VI

his visit to Poland.

March 1968 Gomulka tolerated the "anti-Zioncampaign, and in August he allowed Polish

troops to take part slovakia.

in

the Soviet invasion of Czecho-

Under Soviet

economist,

Jerzy

The 1970 Shipyard Strikes. In December 1970 Gomulka announced considerable price increases on basic foodstuffs, fuel, and clothing. When workers from the Gdansk, Gdynia, and Szczecin shipyards went on strike and riots occurred, he used force against "counterrevolution" and 44 people, according to official sources, were killed by security

of

bloody tragedy— the second since driven out of power. On Dec. 20, 1970, Edward Gierek, the party first secretary in the highly industrialized province of Katowice, was elected first secretary of the puwp. Three days later, at the behest of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, he accepted Piotr jaroszewicz, a former deputy premier, as chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier). Gierek began with a clever tactical move. While Gomulka had opposed the reconstruction of the Warsaw Royal Castle, destroyed in 1944 on Hitler's order, Gierek decided that this historic edifice would be rebuilt, an announcement that roused the patriotic feelings of the nation. units. After this

Poznan— Gomulka was

17, 1972, the

West German Bundestag Warsaw Treaty of Dec. 7,

1970, which recognized that the Oder-Neisse line "forms the western state frontier of Poland." The German Democratic Republic had recognized this border on July 6, 1950. On June 28, 1972, the Holy

See adjusted the external borders of the new western and northern Polish bishoprics to the internationally recognized frontiers. This act opened a new era in Polish-Vatican relations.

On

Nov. 12, 1973,

Stefan Olszowski, the foreign minister,

was the first government received in private audience by the pope. From that day a second anomaly distinguished Poland from other members of the Soviet bloc— namely, the free pursuance by the Roman Catholic Church of its spiritual activities. In mid-1976 the Gierek regime was shaken by

member

of the Polish

large-scale workers' demonstrations resembling those of 1970. When, on June 24, Premier Jaroszewicz, in spite of Gierek's opposition, announced price increases averaging 60% on many staples, industrial workers in Radom and elsewhere went on

18

distinguished

Poland's Economic Crisis. The year 1976 was eventful for Gierek

On May

a

families.

pressure, Poland supplied

tanks and antiaircraft artillery to North Vietnam.

(parliament) ratified the

Andrzejewski,

and Jacek Kuron (see Biographies) set up the Committee of Workers' Defense (kor) to protect them from repression and to collect money for their

writer,

ish

in

another way, the significance

which was not immediately apparent people. Shortly after his

applied to the Polish

arrival in

economy

to the Pol-

power, Gierek

the so-called "spe-

maneuver." Assuming that prosperity in the West would continue, he sought considerable foreign credits to buy licenses and plants for the expansion of Polish industry. Because wages in Poland were lower than in the West, he expected to gain a competitive edge for Polish exports in Western markets and to repay the debts from hard-currency profcific

its.

But

severe

the

recession

that

affected

the

developed market economies in 1974 seriously reduced the plan's chances of success. Poland's hard-currency debt in 1971 stood at $764 million; in 1975 it jumped to $7.4 billion, and in 1979 it amounted to $21 billion. Polish imports at current prices rose from $3.6 billion to $19.1 billion

between 1970 and 1980, while exports grew from $3.5 billion to $17 billion during the same period. Poland's major supplier and customer, covering one-third of the total exchanges each way, was the U.S.S.R. Despite its rich reserves of coal (extraction reached 201 million tons in 1979), Poland imported, mainly from the U.S.S.R., crude petroleum (16.6 million tons in

1980),

1979), iron ore (20.1 million tons in

and cotton (172,000 tons

and other imports, Poland paid

in

its

1980). For these

eastern neighbour

with industrial products. One-fifth of Soviet merchant shipping was built in Polish shipyards; two-

produced in Poland were exported to the Soviet Union; the U.S.S.R. was the chief customer for electrical appliances, aircraft engines, coal-mining machinery, machine tools, telephones, and computers. More than 50 Soviet plants producing sulfuric acid were constructed by thirds of railway freight cars

Poles.

Until 1975 the price of goods and services exchanged between Poland and the U.S.S.R. was generally based on the world price expressed in U.S. dollars. In 1976 Premier Jaroszewicz agreed that all commercial transactions with the U.S.S.R. would henceforward be settled in "conversion" (perevod) rubles, that

is,

in units

of account. Originally, the

perevodny ruble was 90 the dollar was devalued in 1971 in terms of gold content, the Soviet Cosbank started revising its price within the area of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). In 1976 the dollar was valued at 77 kopeks and in 1980 exchange kopeks to

at

rate

for the

U.S. $1.

When

64 kopeks.

The consequence

of using the "conversion" ruble

Polish-Soviet exchanges

in

was

bitter.

The

Polish

engineering industry produced machinery that included equipment bought in the West and paid for in

hard currency, but Poland sold this to the U.S.S.R.

paper units inconvertible on the world market. Thus an important part of the Polish credits obtained in the West was sucked out by the East. The Emergence of Solidarity. At the eighth confor

gress of the puwp, held in

Warsaw

in

February 1980,

Gierek warned the workers

that,

difficult position of Poland's

economy,

would not

rise

by more than

considering the

9-11%

real

wages

over the next

and they must be linked to higher proAs the shops were becoming almost empty of foodstuffs and household goods, industrial workers began local strikes. Premier Edward Babifive years,

ductivity.

uch,

branded them

successor,

Jaroszewicz's

as

and recommended the use of force. Gierek went to the Crimea to seek guidance from Brezhnev, who on July 31 advised him to reach a "political"

reasonable compromise with the

strikers.

on August 14, the entire work force of 17,000 stopped production at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk. The strike spread throughout the country like a bush fire. An Interfactory Strike Committee (IFSC) was formed with the charismatic Lech Walesa as its leader. On August 24 Gierek sacked Babiuch and appointed as head of government a moderate man, )ozef Pinkowski. To Gdansk he sent Mieczyslaw Jagielski, a senior deputy premier and since 1971 Poland's representative on the Comecon executive committee. Jagielski began negotiating with Walesa and the ifsc on August 23. The negotiations were difficult but they succeeded. On August 31 Jagielski and Walesa signed the 21 Shortly afterward,

points of a charter providing for "free trade unions,

agreement. An article signed "Aleksey Petrov" appeared in Pravda warning the puwp that "antisocialist elements" were attempting to overthrow the Polish Communist system. Gierek suffered a heart

and on September 6 Stanislaw Kania was first secretary. On September 27 Pravda renewed its warnings. The mysterious "Petrov" wrote menacingly: "The Polish people remember full well how their country regained its freedom and who really helped the Poles to ensure the very exis-

attack,

elected

tence of the Polish nation."

Despite the continuous and alarming reports from the Soviet

news agency,

Tass, that pictured Poland

on the brink of chaos, the Gdansk Charter was approved on October 24 by the Warsaw District Court, and Solidarity was registered as a legal organization. On October 30 Kania and Pinkowski paid a visit to Moscow, where they met Brezhnev and Premier Nikolay Tikhonov. The official communique said that the meeting was held "in a cordial atmosphere," but the Polish leaders returned to Warsaw with mixed feelings, since their as a country

hosts had insisted that they restore the leading role of the

On

PUWP

in

the state.

Feb. 11, 1981, a

momentous

reconstruction of

the Polish government took place: Pinkowski was

dismissed and Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski (see Biographies) became premier. Perhaps this exceptional choice signaled an oblique admission that within the PUWP Central Committee there was a penury of

men

with the necessary prestige and

the government

head Those who obviously wanted at the ability to

in a critical situation.

had suggested Jaruzelski helm a military man with authority either to establish working cooperation with Solidarity or to proceed with its dismantlement. Shortly after this move, two events occurred that exerted a profound influence on Polish patriotic feelings.

On May

28 Cardinal Wyszynski died (see

Obituaries). Primate of Poland

and one of the best

he was a man of strong character but also a wise diplomat who considered that his mission was not only to avoid an open struggle between the state and the church but also to seek an intellects of his time,

spect for freedom of expression and of publica-

modus vivendi between the lords and temporal. Previously, on May 13, a Turkish assassin attempted to kill Pope John Paul II,

new

formerly Karol Cardinal Wojtyla, archbishop of Kra-

would

kow, whose views were identical with those of CarWyszynski. There is no doubt that shortly before Cardinal Wyszynski died he informed Pope who should be the next archbishop of John Paul Gniezno and Warsaw. On July 7 the pope appointed Bishop Jozef Glemp (see Biographies), who im-

independent from

political parties

and employers";

guaranteeing "the right to strike"; and ensuring "re-

The agreement

tion."

also

stated

that

the

organization, called Solidarnosc (Solidarity),

"adhere to the principles defined in the Polish constitution" and recognized "the leading role of the

PUWP

in

the state" as well as "Poland's international

alliances."

The agreement was

promise, a triumph of

On September for the

first

1,

a truly historic

common

com-

sense.

however, the Kremlin warned

time that

it

would not sanction the

honourable

spiritual

dinal

II

mediately declared himself

in

favour of continuing

the dialogue between the state and Solidarity.

19

In

the meantime, Kania and Jaruzelski discussed On August 14 they flew to the

their plan of action.

Crimea to be received by Leonid Brezhnev and were told once more that the strengthening of the Polish Marxist-Leninist party was their major task. Solidarity's First Congress. On September 5 the constituent congress of Solidarity, the largest such

had ever seen, opened at Gdansk. Its 9.5 million members, grouped in 43 regional associations, elected 892 delegates who filled the ground floor of the huge sports hall in which the congress was held, while organization

Oliwa,

Poland

near

invited guests

The

balconies.

and press representatives first

sat in

the

part of the congress, mainly

days. The second opened on September 26 and ended on October 7. The congress elected the union's officers and adopted Solidarity's program. Lech Walesa, a moderate, was

procedural, lasted

elected

chairman

six

of

the

107-member National

Commission on the first ballot; he received 426 more than double the 201 votes cast for his

votes,

radical

power. It called, for instance, democratic electoral system which would

be submitted to the Sejm, Solidarity, not later than

after consultation

many

er than the average of

years' standing.

with

Dec. 31, 1981.

The debates at the constituent congress were orand businesslike, but also at times demagogic and often anti-Soviet. The prevailing tone of the discussions was typically Western European and, considering that all this was happening 500 km east of the iron curtain. Western spectators were derly, free,

The

20 million tons, was 2 million tons above the previous year's. That amount, however, grain harvest, at

was not

sufficient to

meet demand, and

7 million

tons had to be imported. Livestock production

1981 was

in

10% below that of 1980. Shortages of food

and of practically all household goods were acute, and the long queues of people in front of shops became an everyday phenomenon in Polish towns and villages. Martial Law. Premier Jaruzelski

a share of state

for a truly

Extraction of hard coal shrank

1980 to 196 million metric tons and in 1981 to 162 million— a 20% fall in two years. Exports of coalPoland's main source of hard currency— sank between 1979 and 1981 from 41.4 million tons to 16.8 million. Because of shortages of electric power, some raw materials, industrial equipment, and spare parts for machinery purchased abroad— as well as protest strikes— industrial production was at 50 or 60% of capacity. Thanks to favourable weather conditions, arable farming production in 1981 was highin

opponent, Marian Jurczyk.

The program consisted of 38 theses, the most important being the stipulation: "A sense of responsibility compels us to respect the power setup which emerged in Europe after World War II." While Solidarity did not suggest that it was trying to become a political party, it served notice that it must have

compared with 1980.

knew

that the

Soviet leaders had reluctantly reconciled themselves to

two

Polish anomalies within the Soviet bloc: ab-

sence of compulsory collectivization of agriculture

and spiritual bonds linking the Roman Catholic Church with the Polish people. He did not attempt to discuss with Walesa the third anomaly canvassed by Solidarity. He also knew that Marshal Dmitry Ustinov, the Soviet minister of defense, had signaled by his maneuvers on the Polish borders that he was eager to crush Solidarity. To avoid Soviet military intervention, jaruzelski chose to act alone.

As

first

secretary

November 4

of

the

puwp, jaruzelski

invited Archbishop

Walesa (whom he had never met) to discuss of a

on

Glemp and Lech his idea

seven-member Council of National Under-

standing. Such an advisory institution did not ap-

exhilarated.

pear attractive to Walesa, and from his skepticism

The Kremlin, however, interpreted the debates as an "unbridled campaign of lies and slander against

was construed

the U.S.S.R." Boris Aristov, the Soviet ambassador

in

that

with Solidarity.

Having completed the plan of

his military

Warsaw, was instructed to call on Kania and jaruzelski on September 1 and demand "prompt and reso-

tion in every detail, Jaruzelski invited

measures against the counterrevolutionaries." Convinced that Aristov's demarche was an expression of Soviet criticism of his soft approach to

Warsaw

lute

Solidarity affairs, Kania resigned as first secretary on October 18 and jaruzelski, already the fourth premier since February 1980, was elected to the post with overwhelming support. He thus became the third party leader since September 1980. General jaruzelski took the helm of a country in political disarray and with a decaying economy. By 1981 Poland's hard currency debt had reached $26 billion and gross national product had fallen by 15%

20

it

no agreement could be reached

Kulikov to Warsaw. As

commander

Pact forces, Kulikov

was

in

opera-

Gen. Victor chief of the

entitled to

know

what was going to happen. On the night of December 12-13 the crackdown started. Broadcasting to the nation at 6 am as chairman of the newly created Military Council of National Salvation (composed of 15 generals, an admiral, and 4 colonels), Jaruzelski explained that the council was not striving for a military dictatorship. Maintaining that "the extrem-

were planning to destroy Poland's socialist statehood," he proclaimed that he had to act and "tie the hands of the gamblers before they push the homeists

land into the abyss of fratricidal struggle." jaruzelski

admitted that "a preventive internment of a group of persons threatening the security of the state" had been carried out. Also interned were a few dozen

who "were

people

personally responsible for bring-

ing the state to profound crisis"

and "abusing

their

office for personal profit."

added: "We want a strong Poland, its achievements, culture, forms of social life, and place in Europe." In this Poland, he went on, "A special place belongs to the party; notwithstanding its mistakes and bitter defeats, the and party remains an active and creative force we will purify the eternally living sources of our Jaruzelski

strong through

.

"the

for

which by

Solidarity

from

its

own

also

trend

in

would remove

efforts

ranks the criers of counterrevolution."

its

this part of his

of the

working-class

healthy,

.

was

ideas." In this Poland, he continued, there

room

.

Roman

speech, Jaruzelski also Catholic Church:

In

made mention

"It is

we

thus that

understand the idea of national accord, that we support it, and respect the diversity of world outlooks in

the country and evaluate the patriotic positions of

the Church."

law was imposed on Poland, and the

Martial

became

country

isolated from the outside world.

by definition, the military confrontation could not avoid being bloody. Warsaw radio admitted that Brutal

in

the

days eight miners had been killed

first

Katowice.

A

list

in

of 57 arrested "extremist activists"

was published on December 16. It included the three opponents to Walesa's presidency; Tadeusz Mazowiecki, editor in chief of the weekly

The

first

national conference of the Polish Solidarity labour

union convened

at

Oliwa, near Gdansk,

in

September.

of Solidarity

Solidarnosc; Janusz Onyszkiewicz, press spokes-

man also

Mazowsze

for the

Kuron.

A

list

regional organization;

of 32 discredited party

published,

among

naming,

and

members was

others,

Gierek,

Jaroszewicz, and four former Politburo members.

Lech Walesa was arrested ported to a

villa

near Warsaw.

had been asked by

a

his captors in

It

Gdansk and transwas alleged that he

member of the

to broadcast to the nation.

speak

in

wanted him

It

Military Council

was not known what

to say, but

he refused to

public before meeting his colleagues from

He also asked to see Archbishop Glemp, but both requests were declined. When invited to meet Jaruzelski, Archbishop Glemp replied that there would be no point in discussing anything without Walesa's presence. In spite of the internment of 5,069 (the officially Solidarity's Presidium.

if they were unable to buy the agricultural implements and artificial fertilizers they needed. In the address quoted above, Jaruzelski said that "not a single Polish problem can be solved by violence." Indeed it seemed ever more likely as 1981 drew to its close that Poland's problems could be solved only by fair negotiations between the state and the true spokesmen for the workers, the peasants, and the professional men and women. That also was the opinion of the world's most eminent Pole, Pope John Paul II, who in his message on New Year's Day threw the weight of his personal authority, and that of the Roman Catholic Church, behind Solidarity which, he said, expressed the struggle for the dignity of working men and as such belonged "to the actual patrimony of the working

men of my country." But the pontiff said nothing tending to equate the present Polish regime with

released figure) Solidarity leaders and officials, pas-

Soviet rule, or to suggest that the church leaders

sive resistance continued throughout the country.

Poland might not be free to speak in defense of human rights. Addressing a crowd of more than 50,000 in St. Peter's Square, John Paul proclaimed:

Jaruzelski restored order of a sort, but

Polish workers

would not dig

coal,

he knew that

produce

steel, or

build machinery under threat of terror; that Polish

"Workers have the

peasants would not deliver their cattle or pigs to the

unions whose role

state slaughterhouses

even

for fat

rewards of ziotys

and individual

right to set is

in

up autonomous trade

to guard their social, family,

rights."

21

CALENDAR OF EVENTS OF JANUARY 1

1982

Sr.. as its first president.

sented

its first

awards

The Academy

pre-

in 1929 (or achieve-

ments during the year from Aug. 1, 1927, to July 31 1928, The initial winners includ,

ed Wings for best picture, Emil Jannings for best actor in The Last Command and The Way

and Janet Gaynor for best actress in Seventh Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise.

of All Flesh,

The Academy presented the awards at a banquet on May 16 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with slightly more than 300 persons attending. By contrast, there

now

are

in

members

the neighbourhood of 4,300 Academy, and the world-

of the

wide audience -thanks to television — numbers in the hundreds of millions. Members of the Academy select the winners in each category by secret ballot In most cases of the Academy may vote only in the categories to which they belong Thus, performers vote for performers, directors vote for directors, and so on. The winners in each category receive golden statuettes At the 1981 Academy called Oscars. Awards presentations a film called Ordinary People won the Oscar for best picture. For the same film, Robert Redford won best di-

members

rector actor.

and Timothy Hutton best supporting Other winners in '81 included Robert

De Niro

for best actor in

Spacek

for

Raging

Coal

Sissy Miner's

Mary Steenburgen

for best

best

Daughter, and

actress

in

Bull.

supporting actress in Melvin and Howard.

APRIL 1

April Fools'

Day

fare continued for several years, a commission established by Pres. William McKinley

in 1899 concluded that, after a period of

training and experience in self-government, the Philippines should be granted independence. U.S influence was gradually phased out, though the process was delayed by the invasion of the Japanese

during World War 11. Full independence was granted on July 4, 1946. In 1962 Philippine Pres. Diosdado Macapagal changed the date to June 12, the date in 1898 on which Aguinaldo had proclaimed independence from Spain. The day also honours Jose Rizal,

n

^

Summer -J

i.

whom

the revolutionary leader

Spanish had executed of

summer

the

in 1896.

day the Northern HemiThis

solstice.

ui

the

is

first

sphere, or the exact moment when the Sun appears to reach its northernmost point above the celestial equator, "stop," and begin moving southward again. (The word solstice comes from Latin solstitium, sol meaning "sun" and iistere, "to stand still.") The apparent movement of the Sun from north to south is caused by the changing decimation of the Earth's axis as the Earth orbits the Sun. The summer solstice always occurs on or about June 21. In 1982 it will occur at exactly 1:23 pm. Eastern Standard Time, on June 21. In the Southern Hemisphere this marks the beginning of winter.

Swithin wanted to remain where he was

and

also sparked the legend of the 40 days of rain. Nevertheless, the people of Win-

chester eventually prevailed, and on July 15, 971, Swithin's remains were transferred to Winchester Cathedral, apparently under clear skies.

first

Dominion Day

4 Independence

Day

Bastille St.

18 Feast of

20

Day the

U.S. landed

22 Id

in

Swithin's

in

men on

in

the

Venice

Labor

forms of

15 Mexican Independence Days

Thus, in addition to being one of the two great feast days granted Muslims sin.

by Allah,

end

Id al-Fitr also celebrates the

The day

of the penitential season.

is

cus-

tomarily observed with reunions of friends

and

relatives

and exchanges

of gifts.

Egypt

AUGUST

LD

24

II

declared (1939)

in the U.S.

11 Miss America Pageant be-

gin

18 Rosh Hashana; Oktoberfest

Munich 23 Autumnal equinox

be-

gins in

in the

North-

24 Native American Day 27 Jewish holy day

6 Hiroshima Peace

9

Moment

Day

of Silence in Nagasaki

15 Independence Day

in India

26 U.S. women granted 30 Liberation Day

in

suffrage

Hong Kong

Dublin Horse Show. Everybody from stable boys to members of the internajet set shows up for the Dublin International Horse Show — besides riders, breeders, and others directly involved in equestrian sports, there are thousands of others who just like horses. The event is one of the most important and prestigious horse shows in the world. It was started in the 1860s by the Royal Dublin Society, which dates back even earlier to 1731. Today the program requires five full days and involves something on the order of 2,000 horses. They come from all over the world and represent every imaginable type of horse: jumpers, ponies. Thoroughbreds, tional

St. Swithin's Day. According to an 1 Jold English legend, if it rains on St. Swithin's Day, it will rain for 40 more days. At the time of his death (July 2, 862), Swithin was bishop of Winchester. Before he died he ordered that his remains be buried In a churchyard location that the townspeople had long felt was either cursed or unfit for burial. Why Swithin chose to be buried in this particular spot remains a mystery, but he may have wanted to terminate the superstitions about the plot. In any event, the townspeople followed his instructions. In the decades following his death, Swithin's popularity increased; stories circulated that prayers directed to him resulted in miraculous cures. It was decided, therefore, that Swithin should be reinterred in a more siiitable place. More than 100 years after his dtath, a lavish ceremony was arranged to reinter Swithin's remains in Winchester Cathedral. According to the legend, a great downpour disrupted the ceremony and continued for 40 days. This deluge convinced the do-gooders that

Day

ern Hemisphere ; vernal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere

2

in

SEPTEMBER World War

Moon

al-Fitr

23 National Day

five years ago, in 1947, political powpassed from the British to the Indians. The new constitution was enacted by the Constituent Assembly in November 1949 and came into force on Jan. 26, 1950. India is a sovereign democratic republic, but by virtue of its voluntary membership in the Commonwealth continues to maintain friendly relations with its former colonial master. It is the second most populous nation in the world.

6

24 Pompeii destroyed by Vesuvius (AD 79)

England

Redeemer

Independence Day in India. Thirty-

3

in the U.S.

France

Day

[-

ID

Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food, and sexual intercourse from sunrise to sunset. They are also expected to say extra prayers and work hard to avoid all liquids,

3 Columbus embarked for America (1492)

9 Calgary Stampede

15

Muslim calendar,

called Id al-Fitr, the of Shawwal, the

2 U.S. Declaration of Independence signed; Bahamas Emancipation Day: Dublin Horse Show begins

6 Total eclipse of the Moon in the Americas and Australasia

14

the is

ing

Canada

in

On

day of the month

tenth month of the year. It is one of two great feast days celebrated by Muslims; the other is Id al-Adha, celebrated on the tenth day of the 12th month (Dhu al-Hijjah). Id al-Fitr follows immediately upon Ramadan, a month-long period of fasting and other forms of self-denial for Muslims. Dur-

JULY 1

Id al-Fitr.

r)^)

Z.Z. July 22, 1982,

-I

er in India

hunters,

riding cobs, polo ponies, draft horses, and even donkeys. Many of Ireland's fox hunting clubs stage their annual

during horse show week. Thursday, Ladies Day, brings out elegant hats and fashionable gowns, many designed by the world's leading couturiers. At other times, visitors can enjoy the traditional trade balls

show,

arts

and

crafts exhibits, folk

dancing

demonstrations, and the annual flower show sponsored by the Royal Horticultural Society. Marching bands provide constant music.

of

Yom Kippur

28 Birthday of Confucius Miss America Pageant. Margaret 111 Gorman, a blue-eyed blonde from Washington, D.C., became the first Miss America in 1921. She was 16 years old, stood 5 ft 1 in, weighed 108 lb, and measured 30-25-32. Since Miss Gorman's time, pageant winners have generally been bigger and older, and emphasis on the bathing suit competition has lessened. The modernday Miss America must also perform in a talent competition and undergo a personal interview. Contestants share in over $2 million in college scholarships at the local, state, and national levels. Miss America herself receives a $20,000 scholarship, plus a one-year promotional tour that is valued at tens of thousands of dollars. Winners often parlay the Miss America title into lucrative careers in the entertainment industry. Among the Miss Americas who have done so are Bess Myerson, Lee Meriwether, and Phyllis George.

Q

-t Oktoberfest begins in Munich. Oktoberfest, despite the name, usually begins in September. This happens because the festival traditionally begins on a Saturday, runs for slightly more than two weeks, and always ends on the first Sunday of October. It all began in 1810 when Crown Prince Louis married Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen and decided to stage a celebration outside the gates of Munich. The main event was a horse race, and throngs of Bavarian subjects showed up to watch. So popular was this forerunner of the modern Oktoberfest that the Bavarians decided to perpetuate it. Today, Oktoberfest draws visitors from many lands and claims to be the largest folk festival in the world. Colourful beer tents and all manner

iO

of carnival rides flank a

mammoth midway

dominated by an imposing Ferris wheel. Brass bands fill the air with typical oompah.

Gaily decorated brewers' carts parade down the streets. But the chief activities seem to be eating and drinking. In a typical year, Oktoberfesters put away three dozen or more spit-roasted oxen, 30,000 grilled fish, 400,000 pairs of pork sausages, half a million chickens, and over a million gallons of

20th century the mischievous side of Halloween began to include acts of vandalism. Parties and parades also became common. Today children still don costumes and go trick or treating, but instead of candy they often collect money for the United Nations Children's Fund (unicef).

DECEMBER 5

200th anniversary of Martin Van Buren's birth

10

Human

Day

7

4

25th anniversary of Sputnik

5

Day

29 Massacre

Canada

22

Kennedy

Cuban Mis-

24 United Nations Day

First

at

Wounded Knee

Sunday

in

New

Year's Eve

in the U.S.

26 150th anniversary of Mary Edwards Walker's birth 28

solstice in

Hemisphere

eclipse of the Moon (North America, Asia, Australasia)

assassinat-

31

25 Thanksgiving Day of

Northern

30 Total

Pres. John F.

ed (1963)

Crisis

summer

(1890)

(1910)

tion

:

25 Christmas Day

20 Anniversary of Mexican Revolu-

18 Alaska Day sile

solstice in the

the Southern

Revolution (1917)

12 Columbus Day

22 20th anniversary

Anniversary of the Bolshevik

11 Veterans Day

of the Republic in Portugal in

22 Winter

Hemisphere

Founding of People's Republic of China (1949)

II Thanksgiving Day

Hanukka

NOVEMBER

OCTOBER I

Rights

11 First day of Jewish feast of

beer.

5

200th anniversary of Martin Van Buren's birth.

U.S.,

Advent

The eighth president

of the

Martin Van Buren, wat. born on Dec.

1782, and died on July 24, 1862 He was the first U.S. president born after the Declaration of Independence, the first president born in New York State, and the first who was born a U.S. citizen. His seven predecessors, though born in America, began life as British subjects. Van Buren held many political offices during his lifetime, including U.S. senator from New York, governor of New York, and vice-president under Andrew Jackson. He was elected president of the U.S. in 1836 but was defeated by William Henry Harrison in the election of 1840. Van Buren's defeat has been attributed in part to a severe economic depression at that time, to his antislavery sentiments, and to his opposition to the annex.3tion of Texas. He sought the presidency twice more, in 1844 and 1848, but failed miserably in both of these attempts.

5,

31 Reformation Sunday: Halloween

1-t 25th anniversary of Sputnik. The space age, and the space race, began on this date in 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first successful man-made Earth satellite. Sputnik, which was fired into orbit from the U.S.S.R.'s Tyuratam launch site, transmitted radio signals for 21 days. The U.S. successfully launched its first Earth satellite. Explorer 1 on Jan. 31 1958. The first man in space was Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin who began his historic journey on April 12, 1961. The most dramatic of all space achievements occurred on ]uly 20, 1969, when Americans Neil Armstrong and Edwin ("Buzz") Aldrin set foot on the Moon.

4

,

,

Halloween. Halloween is actually the

1921. Although he received a modern education at the Zombodze National School and at South Africa's famous missionary-run Lovedale College, the king jealously cherished and preserved Swazi traditions. Five years after Swaziland became independent in 1968, the king tore up the Westminsterstyle constitution designed by the British and restored the more ancient system of

2^/4

government in which all effective power remains in the royal capital, while a system of village government, known as the tinkundlu, operates at the grass roots. His one concession to modern government was to establish a Cabinet system and a prime minister, but all ministers were chosen by the king himself. Sobhuza's own thesis of the old

life-style reflected a

syn-

and the new African; on

formal state occasions he appeared in top full dress, but on most other occa-

hat and sions he

wore

his traditional regalia of scarloincloth and feathers. While

silk

let

in his advocacy of traditional herbal medicines, he at the same time encouraged open-heart surgery and corneal

remaining strong

Smith, Bailey Ezell the Bible free of error? Rev. Bailey Smith thinks so, and his supporters do too. On June 9, 1981, they reelected him president of the Southern Baptist Convention for a second one-year term. Smiths moderate opponents do not subscribe to his strict code of biblical inerrancy. Alleged anti-Semitism was a second issue that created controversy during Smith's first term as head of the Southern Baptist Convention, an organization representing 13.6 million members of 35,600 churches. While speaking before a political rally during the summer of 1980, Smith had remarked that "God Almighty does not hear the prayer of a Jew." This statement was widely reported; several Jewish leaders and organizations condemned Smith. He subsequently regretted in public that the remark had been made, but he did not retract it. Is

Regardless of their opinions on other matters, observers agreed that Smith was a remarkable preacher and organizer. After he took over as pastor of the First Southern Baptist Church in Del City, Okla., in 1973, membership more than doubled from 6,600 to 15,500. In 1980 First Southern performed 2,027 baptisms, more than any other Baptist church in the U.S. and the first time one church had baptized more than 2,000 in a single year. Smith's followers searched the neighbourhoods of Del City, a suburb of Oklahoma City, for new converts and never missed an opportunity to spread the Gospel. Smith was born in Dallas, Texas, on Jan. 30, 1939. Both he and his wife were de-

scended from Baptist ministers. He comhis pleted undergraduate studies at Ouachita Baptist University in Arkadelphia. Ark., in 1962 and received a bachelor of divinity degree from Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Fort Worth, Texas, four years later. He served churches in Warren, Ark., and Hobbs, N.M., before

coming

to First

Southern.

(victor m. cassidy)

Sobhuza

II

The world's longest reigning monarch. King Sobhuza 11 of Swaziland celebrated his diamond jubilee on Sept 4, 1981, in the

many counBorn on July 22, 1899, he was installed ngwenyama of the Swazi nation in

grafts.

With

a

kingdom wedged between white South Africa and Marxist

supremacist

Mozambique, Sobhuza

trod a careful path maintain good relations with both his neighbours. He was a strong supporter of the Organization of African Unity but refused to allow Swaziland to be used as a base for guerrilla attacks against South Africa. Vehemently anti-Communist, the king maintained his strong Western ties. His was among the very few African countries that maintained close diplomatic and economic ties with Israel and Taiwan. Under the king's firm rule, Swaziland enjoyed a remarkable degree of stability and a measure of economic growth. But the questo

marks for the future were who among the royal princes entitled to succeed Sobhuza would be chosen and whether the successful candidate would be strong enough tion

to

continue his traditions,

(colin legum)

Spadolini, Giovanni In June 1981 Giovanni Spadolini became It41st premier since World War II, pledging to clean up a political scandal that surfaced as a result of revelations concerning membership in a secret Freemasons' lodge called P2. He was the first non-Christian Democrat head of government in the history of the Italian republic. His success in putting together a five-party coalition, announced on June 26, was seen as setting an important precedent in limiting the Christian Democrat Party's long power monopoly in postwar Italy. Spadolini was a latecomer to national polhaving spent his earlier career itics, primarily in journalism and as an academic. He had served as minister of the environment (1974-76) and of education (MarchAugust 1979) in Christian Democrat-led coalitions before succeeding Ugo La Malta as leader of the small but influential Republican Party in 1979. As premier, he retained his connections and professional interest as a contemporary historian as he struggled with the aftermath of the P2 affair, severe economic problems, and the continued aly's

presence of dignitaries from

growth

tries.

Born in Florence on June 21, 1925, Spadolini read law at the University of Flor-

as the

92

of terrorist violence.

ence and at the early age of 25 was appointed professor of contemporary history in the faculty of political science there. Simultaneously, he began his journalistic career, writing on politics for several newspapers. In 1955 he was given the job of editor of the Bologna newspaper // Resto del Carlino; during his editorship the paper doubled its circulation. In 1968 he moved to Milan to take over editorship of the Corriere delta Sera, which has the largest circulation in Italy. He left daily journalism in 1972, was later elected senator, in politics.

and began his rapid ascent (david douglas willey)

Springsteen, Bruce By 1981 singer and songwriter Bruce Springsteen had achieved secure status as a rock 'n' roll superstar. His most recent album. The River (released in 1980), had been highly praised by critics and avidly purchased by his fans. The rock magazine Rolling Stone described the lyrics of The River as "filled with uncommon common sense," the singing as "unsparing," the album as "a rock and roll milestone." During the summer of 1981 Springsteen enjoyed a highly successful concert tour in Europe, beginning with a wildly enthusiastic reception in Hamburg, West Germany, and climaxing with sold-out shows in London. The tour was followed by an appearance in Los Angeles at a rally opposing nuclear power and nuclear weapons, a cause that had engaged Springsteen in recent years. Springsteen has often been touted as a new Bob Dylan, a reference to his abilities

as a lyricist.

Themes

of alienation, that of

individuals from one another and of workers from their jobs, recur in his songs. Cars

and the nighttime, street life and death, love and the loss of love, all appear prominently in The River. That album completed a trilogy that Springsteen began with Born to Run (1975) and continued in Darkness on the Edge of Town (1978). Springsteen's first commercial success. Born to Run, traces a day in the life of a New Jersey shore teenager, describing the urban boredom and desperation, the hours of cruising the highways. Like the people he writes and sings of, Springsteen is a product of an urban environment. He was born on Sept. 23, 1949,

Biographies into a working-class family in Freehold. N.J., and became a largely self-taught musi-

Takemitsu, Toru

playing guitar, harmonica, cian, piano. His career began in Jersey

and New and York nightclubs in the 1960s. Signed by Columbia Records in 1972. he had his Erst album. Greetings from Asbury Park, N./..

Toru Takemitsu is a maverick in a country that often admires its nonconformists with-

New

out giving them

released the next year. Though reviewers liked the record, its sales were slow, a pattern repeated with his second album. The Wild, the Innocent and the E Street Shuffle,

which appeared

later

in

1973.

However,

Springsteen's live performances drew increasingly enthusiastic crowds. He achieved national recognition with the release as a single of the song "Born to Run" shortly before the album of that title ap(;OAN N. bothell) peared.

The

ment.

fact

much that

BOOK OF THE YEAR

outright encourage-

Takemitsu

became

refusing to return to secret ballots

reduce federal spending, cut taxes, and, it was hoped, balance the budget by the end of President Reagan's

ments

Even before the administration of U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan took office, David Stockman was its most visible figure next to the president himself. As director of the Office of Management and Budget (omb). Stockman

became the "point man" in the battle of the economy, leading an uphill charge to

first term. featured a mixture of conservative fiscal ideology and ""supplyside" theories. The budget and tax cuts were expected to stimulate savings and investment, resulting in economic growth, increased employment, and reduced inflation. For Stockman, implementation of the plan was an awesome challenge. He launched an all-out attack, putting in 16-hour days as the administration pushed its budget and tax cuts through Congress. But things went wrong almost as soon as the cuts were passed. Wall Street and the

The ambitious plan

community failed to respond with show of confidence, as interest rates remained high and the stock market dropped. The federal deficit continued to grow, and President Reagan was forced to ask an infinancial

a

creasingly hostile Congress for a of

budget

new round

cuts.

Then came

the revelation that, in a series of tape-recorded interviews with a newsman. Stockman had expressed his own lack of faith in some aspects of the program. He was quoted as saying that the $35 billion budget cut figure came from an "artificial" base, that Kemp-Roth (the original supplyside tax bill) "was always a Trojan horse to bring down the top [income-tax) rate," and that "the supply-side formula was the only way to get a tax policy that was really "trickle-down." "' Stockman admitted that the administration "'didnt add up all the numbers"" and that the program had been put together too fast It was a devastating blow to the administration, providing fresh ammunition for the Democratic opposition. Stockman offered his resignation to the president. It was refused, but a much-subdued budget director came out of the Oval Office to apologize publicly and reaffirm his belief in "Reaganomics." Born Nov. 10, 1946, at Camp Hood, Texas, Stockman grew up in Michi-

gan, was graduated from Michigan State University, and later attended the Harvard University Divinity School. In 1976 he was elected to the House of Representatives from Michigan. (hal bruno)

limitation of the legal immunities of unions, dismissal of strikers

on traditional education was eloquent testimony to his dedication, determination, and musical genius. He trusted his ear to a degree few would dare to imitate because he was less concerned with memorable melodic lines than with timbres, textures, and relationships between sounds and silence. His creations were characteristically atmospheric and austere — sound streams with asymmetrical balance that somehow give coherence to the whole. In 1948 Takemitsu, who was born in Tokyo on Oct. 8, 1930, began to study intermittently with Yasuji Kiyose, a composer of vocal and chamber music who drew inspiration from German Romanticism and French Impressionism as well as from Japanese folksongs. But Takemitsu was not born to be a follower. Striving to create something new, he turned to such things as improvisation, the sounds of nature, and visual effects, and he used Japanese instru-

Stockman, David

They included

Japan's leading composer without relying

in

ways that were strikingly original.

first major work. Requiem for was first performed in 1957 but was widely appreciated until Igor Stravinsky heard and praised it several years later. In 1951 Takemitsu collaborated with other composers and artists in organizing Jikken Kobo. an experimental workshop for mixed media in Tokyo. Seven years later he joined the Institute for 20th-century Music. His works included compositions for the piano in unconventional rhythm and no bar lines and pieces for wind instruments emphasizing their sonorities. Takemitsu developed an interest in traditional Japanese instruments, particularly the biwa, which he used for the first time in 1962, when his score for the film Seppuku was awarded first prize at the Mainichi Music Festival. His 73 film credits include the scores for Woman of the Dunes, Kwaidan, and Empire of Passion. But it was not until his November Steps, a sort of double concerto for

Takemitsu"s

strings,

not

biwa and shakuhachi commissioned for the 125th anniversary of the New York Philharmonic in 1968, that Takemitsu attained true international renown. John Rockwell, writing in the New York Times, recognized Takemitsu's special genius when he called him ""probably the best composer ever to emerge

from

Japan,'"

(Barbara thoren)

Tebbit, Norman Beresford With unemployment in the U.K.

document on Nov.

a set period,

In Parliament in the 1970s Tebbit won a reputation as one of the most belligerent MP"s in the House of Commons. As a minister he adopted a different style, calm, precise,

well-briefed,

said, after his

efficient.

appointment

Though he

to the Cabinet,

""We want to avoid confrontation of any he was as determined as ever to impose legal constraints on what he called politically motivated trade unionism. Decidedly on the right wing of the Conservative Party, he was said to express the conscience of the Tory suburbs. Born in the North London suburb of Edmonton on March 29, 1931, Tebbit was educated at the local grammar school. He then served in the Royal Air Force, training as a pilot After brief spells on a London newspaper and in advertising, he returned to flying. As a civil airline pilot during 195370, he was actively involved in the British sort,""

Airline Pilots Association — the pilots" trade union. On entering Parliament in 1970 (first for Epping, then, from 1974, for as Chingford), he noted in Who's Who that his recreations were ""formerly politics, now

MP

There was no doubt about his total commitment to his own hard-line version of Thatcherite conservatism. aviation.'"

(HARFORD THOMAS)

Thatcher, Margaret Hilda Halfway through the five-year term allowed to British parliaments, the Conservative Party government headed by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1981 was deeply divided about economic policy and hardly bothered to conceal it. Thatcher's response was to dismiss or shunt aside her most outspoken critics in an autumn reshuffle of Cabinet posts and to create around her a ring of dependable Thatcherites, The argument was about the lack of success of monetarist economic policy in bringing

down

inflation

however much

it

deepened

the recession, and this at a time when BritNorth Sea oil production was approaching its peak.

ain"s

Thatcher remained adamant. Economic totaling

almost three million, the key post of secretary of state for employment was given to Norman Tebbit in the autumn government reshuffle. Tebbit had held only junior posts at the Departments of Trade and Industry, but he was highly regarded by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his tough, nononsense, and often abrasive approach to industrial relations and the trade unions. He took over from the much more conciliatory James Prior the responsibility for controversial legislation designed to curb the power of the unions. Tebbit"s initial proposals for a bill to be put before Parliament in 1982 were issued as a consultative

work after

on wage offers, and increased compensation for unfairly dismissed nonunion members. In December Tebbit proposed a £1,000 million scheme for the further training of school leavers unable to find work.

23, 1981.

policy was brought even more closely under the control of monetarists. Her critics in the Conservative Party and among businessmen who traditionally backed the party feared that the cure was killing the patient, namely, Britain"s industrial base, Thatcher insisted that the squeeze was making British industry leaner and more competitive. Her critics, seeing Conservative support slide in the opinion polls, feared that the government was heading for disaster at the next general election, Thatcher, to judge by her program for the 1981-82 session of Par-

liament announced in not change course.

November, would

All this was in keeping with the image she had cultivated as '"the iron lady"" for

93

Biographies

BOOK OF THE YEAR

whom

there

would be no U-turns. The

Brit-

system had been criticized as government in disguise, but few British prime ministers had adopted such an uncompromisingly autocratic style. Yet she began to say in her speeches that she was not so inflexible as she had been made ish Cabinet presidential

out to be.

Margaret Thatcher was Britain's first prime minister. She did not come from the traditional Conservative establishment but was one of a new generation of Conservative politicians who had made their way up in the world by their own efforts. Born on Oct. 13, 1925, she was the daughter of a successful grocer who became the mayor of the market town of Grantham.

woman

From the local school she made her way to the University of Oxford, where she took a degree in science. She was elected to Parliament in 1959, became minister of education and science in Edward Heath's government of 1970-74, and succeeded Heath as leader of the Conservative Party in 1975. (HARFORD THOMAs)

Thomson, As

Virgil honour

a gift in

a tailor, soldier

where he was strongly influenced by Erik Satie, and remained there until 1940. The recipient of numerous awards, Thomson was honoured in 1966 with the gold medal of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. (jOAN N. BOTHELL)

Thornton Bradshaw. Silverman, who had run both abc and cbs during years when they won the ratings game, asked his new

presentU.S. composer Virgil ed on Nov. 13, 1981, with a revival of his own now-classic opera entitled Four Saints in Three Acts. The first full-length production of this

staged

in more than a decade was Carnegie Hall by the Orchestra of

work at

Our Time. Three Acts, composed to a Stein, premiered in Hartford, Conn., in 1934 and later moved to

Four Saints

text

in

by Gertrude

Broadway. This work

first

brought Thom-

son national attention. With its theme of the religious life, the opera has as its main charSt. Teresa of Avila and St. Ignatius Loyola and the confidant of each. The com-

acters

poser, inspired by the musicality and clear diction he had heard in Harlem, called for an all-black cast. As with other works by Thomson, the music is often described as deceptively simple, entertaining, witty, original, and highly accessible to listeners. Its use of American musical sources — folk ballads, hymns, and other popular 19thcentury tunes — is also characteristic of

to Paris,

One morning in April 1977, some 20 armed men dressed as civilians invaded the apartment Arg.

of Jacobo Timerman in Buenos Aires, Timerman was handcuffed, covered

a blanket, thrown into the back of his and taken away. Timerman, a Jew and the publisher of the newspaper La Opinion, was not charged with any crime. Told that he was "a prisoner of the First Army Corps in action," he was held for 30 months in

with car,

confinement, beaten regularly, humiliated and insulted in every possible way, and tortured with electric shock. His solitary

captors presumably wanted

him

to confess

Timerman never did, and in 1979 international pressure secured his re-

to treason.

lease. He immigrated to Israel and wrote an account of his ordeal that was published in English during the spring of 1981 under the

Prisoner Without a

Name,

Cell

Without a

Number. In addition to describing his confinement and torture, the 58-year-old Timerman, who had come to Argentina as a child from his birthplace in the Ukraine, charged that Argentina was a neofascist society with no respect for human rights. He declared that he was tortured because he was Jewish and claimed that Argentina resembled Nazi

Germany. The book became United States

in the

a centre of controversy after Irving Kristol, a

May

that

Timerman was imprisoned

late

be-

cause of his association with David Graiver, a financier who allegedly served as a bagman for Argentina's leftist guerrillas, the Montoneros. Graiver had owned 45% of La a fact not mentioned in Timerman's book. In response to Timerman's allegations, Jewish leaders in Argentina denied that anti-Semitism was rampant there. The uproar continued through the summer of 1981 with more charges and counter-

Opinion,

many of Thomson's later compositions. In the 1930s Thomson, a pioneer in ap-

eventually affected U.S. foreign policy, contributing to the vote against confirming Ernest W. Lefever as assistant

plying serious musical composition to film,

secretary of state for

composed

humanitarian

scores for

two government-spon-

sored documentaries,TJie Plow That Broke the P/ains (1936) and The River (\937). His score for

another motion picture, Louisiana Story

(1948),

won

the composer a Pulitzer Prize. written in many musical symphonic piece was SymHymn Tune (1928), and he also

charges.

It

first

wrote one ballet. Filling Station (1937). The composer is perhaps almost as well known as a critic and writer. From 1940 to 1954 he served as the music critic for the New York Herald Tribune. His columns, highly acclaimed for their breadth, their insight into new musical directions, and their literary quality, have been collected in several books,

Thomson was born in Kansas City, Mo., on Nov. 25, 1896. He interrupted his studies at

94

Harvard University

to

spend

a year in

rights

and

countries such as Argentina.

Thomson has forms. His phony on a

human

affairs in the Foreign Rela-

Committee of the U.S. Senate. Lefever would have favoured a low-key approach toward human rights in authoritarian tions

(victor m. cassidv)

Tinker, Grant The turnover

in television's executive suite

gave critics a field day. "Hi-ho Silverman, away!" wrote the New Leader's corin 1981

respondent. In a mock TV situation comedy synopsis. Time magazine chortled, "The Supertrain is commandeered by Freddie, a brilliant but unstable technician who rearranges the schedule, fires the porters, loses most of his passengers and nearly derails the crack rca express." Apropos of Grant Tinker's appointment to the network's chairmanship. Time added, "At its current

.

.

it,

and resigned. Bradshaw, who had done some quiet scouting, then told network affiliates that Tinker would be the new man for the job.

Tinker was regarded as a talented programmer with taste, imagination, and a

proven knack of delegating authority to creative people. Born in Stamford, 11, 1926, he attended Dartmouth College. After holding several jobs in broadcasting and advertising, he became able,

Conn., on Jan.

NBC's West Coast vice-president for gramming in the 1960s. He gained his

profirst

widespread acclaim as head of mtm Enterprises, which showcased his then wife, Mary Tyler Moore, in her celebrated weekly television comedy series, "The Mary Ty-

Moore Show." Spin-off hits for mtm from this show included "Lou Grant" and "Rhoda." Tinker's latest critical success was "Hill Street Blues." (philip kopper) ler

Tojo, Teruo TeruoTcjo, according to the Japanese press, has the manner of an affable small-town mayor. But appearances can be deceiving. The new president and chief executive officer of Mitsubishi Motors Corp. (mmc), a subsidiary of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (mhi), is in fact a top-flight engineer and a

dynamic executive

conservative political scientist, charged in

.

boss for a vote of confidence, did not get

Timerman, Jacobo

title

of his 85th birthday,

Thomson was

may need more than a Tinker and spy as well." The ballyhoo followed a comparatively stately transition. The man who had hired Fred Silverman stepped down as rca chairman to be succeeded by Arco Oil Co. head

nadir nbc

Paris and then returned to the U.S. to complete his degree in 1922. Three years later he

went back

of

unusual

ability.

His

past successes include work on the YS 11, Japan's first passenger plane, and the 2, an executive aircraft. In his new position at MMC, Tojo was expected to further enhance his reputation, even though he was sure to

MU

face very difficult

problems in very

difficult

times.

During 1980 mmc accounted for only 6.9% of Japan's exports to the U.S. This happened mainly because financially strapped Chrysler Corp. had been granted sole distribution rights for mmc cars marketed in the U.S. Tojo faced the problem squarely, and Chrysler agreed to U.S.

dealer

let

network

mmc

operate

until

1990.

its

own

Tojo's

broader goal was to develop his company's engineering capabilities while keeping an eye on future world markets. Teruo Tojo was born in Tokyo on Sept. 23, 1914, the second son of Hideki Tojo, the man who would be serving as Japan's prime minister when the U.S. entered World War II. After graduating from Tokyo Imperial University in 1937, Tojo joined mhi to study aeronautical engineering. He became closely involved in designing the Zero fighter plane and the Hiryu heavy bomber but never served in the armed forces because of poor eyesight. Between 1949 and 1959 Tojo designed trucks and buses for Kawasaki Machine Works. He was then picked to head the design division of Japan Aircraft Manufacturing Co. In 1971 he became director and

manager of the Nagoya .Aircraft Works, which he had joined in 1963. Tojo returned to Tokyo in 1974 as managing director and general manager of mhi's aircraft general

Biograpliies headquarters but in 1980 was

named

and director

tive vice-president

execu-

BOOK OF THE YEAR

of mmc. shovi-ed a

During fiscal year 1980-81 mmc net profit of S37.7 million on net sales of S5 billion. Tojo expected mmc to do a great deal better tfian that during his stewardship.

which was expected to work closely with Marcos on day-to-day government prob-

(BARBARA THOREn)

lems.

After introducing his new Cabinet President Marcos listed the major problems of the Philippines; overpopulation, unemployment, underemployment, poor productivity in industry and agriculture, ,

Torrelio Villa, Celso Selected as the only man in Bolivia's governing military junta who was above U.S. suspicion of involvement in the drug business (ex-president Hugo Banzer Suarez and ex-president Luis Garcia Meza Tejada's supporters had been named as firm suspects), Celso Torrelio Villa took power as Bolivia's president on Sept. 4, 1981. The U.S. reestablished diplomatic relations with Bolivia in

early

November.

The transfer of power was smoother than predicted, with outgoing president Garcia Meza continuing to live in the presidential palace for some time after the changeover. Relations between the two men did not appear to be strained; indeed, the new president (born in Sucre. June 3, 1933) was widely reported to be Garcia Meza's friend. Torrelio Villa's career The acceleration could well have been due to Garcia Meza's influence It took Torrelio Villa 25 years to rise from sublieutenant to brigadier general but only seven months to win his next promotion to general of division on July 23, 1981. He was chosen to join the junta by

m

virtue of his seniority, and his appointment as president followed from his position as senior member of that body. President Torrelio Villa's actions in promising a return to democracy over the next three years, an increased role for foreign firms in the mining, metallurgical, and petroleum sectors, freedom from fears of nationalization, and acceptance of an Interna-

Monetary Fund presence in running economy marked him as someone who

tional

the

rejected the nationalistic economic place in Bolivia since 1952.

model

in

(MICHAEL WOOLLER)

Valenzuela, Fernando He looked out of place ambling to the pitcher's mound. His arms swung mechanically his cherubic face

was

expressionless, and

his general appearance suggested a chubby schoolboy on his way home for lunch. Not until Fernando Valenzuela began throwing baseballs was it clear that the only people lost were the batters trying to hit him. As a 20-year-old rookie, Valenzuela kept the Los Angeles Dodgers on course in 1981 for their first

World

Series

championship

in

16 years. He was the National League's rookie of the year, and he also won the league's Cy Young award for the best pitcher. He was the Sporting News player of the year. He led the league with 180 strikeouts in 192 innings, allowed just 140 hits and 61 walks, won 13 games, lost 7, and had a 2.48 earned run average.

Beyond

all

his

numbers and honours,

Valenzuela gave the strike-scarred major leagues a touch of innocence and a healthy dose of good, pure baseball He won his first eight starts, five of them shutouts, with a 0.50 earned run average He befuddled hitters and bedazzled experts with his uncanny control of the difficult screwball and with his ability to throw his whole repertoire of pitches from the same motion, in

which he kicked high and looked straight up just before letting the ball fly. He was a national sensation and an international treasure. Fellow Mexicans in the Los Angeles area became baseball fans simply because Valenzuela was a baseball star. Posh restaurants had to post guards at his table. Stadiums sold out 12 times for his regular-season starts: he brought the New York Mets alone an extra $310,000. The public learned that Fernando Valenzuela was born Nov. 1, 1960, the youngest of 12 children. He grew up in a five-room house in Etchohuaquila, Mexico, a tiny farm town of 150 in the Yaqui Valley, 565 km (350 mi) south of the Arizona border. He began playing on men's baseball teams when he was 13, dropped out of high school to play baseball at 15, and signed at 17 to play for the Yucatan Leones, becoming the Mexican League's rookie of the year. Three years later the left-hander became the youngest pitcher ever to win a World Series game, rescuing the Dodgers after they had lost the first two games in the best-of-seven (kevin m. lamb) series.

unbalanced regional development, and excessive dependence on foreign oil. Cesar Enrique Virata y .Aguinaldo had the training and experience to meet these economic challenges. Born on Dec, 12, 1930, in Manila, he earned bachelor's degrees in business administration and mechanical engineering at the University of the Philippines in 1952 and a master's degree in business administration at the University of Pennsylvania one year later. He then taught business administration at the University of the Philippines, eventually becoming a dean there. For a time he was a partner in a major Manila accounting firm. In 1965 the newly elected President Marcos invited Virata to join his transition team and to help solve problems of the rice industry. Virata performed this task and returned to the academic world, only to be summoned by Marcos once more in March 1967. Three years later he became minister of finance, a post he continued to hold in 1981. (victor m. cassidv)

Wall, James Gaius During his first year as U.S. secretary of the James G. Watt became a symbolic rallying point, both for the conservatives who supported him and for the conservainterior,

who opposed

tionists

reaction

him. But a negative from environmental groups was

expected when Pres. Konald Reagan nominated him. Born Jan. 31, 1938, in Lusk,

Wyo., and now a lawyer in Denver, Colo., Watt had been chief counsel for the Mountain States Legal Foundation,

a

law firm

that specialized in fighting environmental restrictions in the West. He had engaged in

numerous court

battles against the policies

Department he was about to head. But his pro-development views were said to be in tune with the Reagan adminis-

of the Interior

Virata, Cesar "1

have

to

rely

on people

I

have known

a long time so that I don't just get a fair weather report." This was how Cesar Virata, the new prime minister of the Philippines, gauged public reaction to his

quite well for

and it was hoped that the furor would die down after his Senate confirmatration,

tion hearing.

This serious-minded and conscien-

Instead, the storm around Watt increased in intensity, partly because of his blunt,

tious approach was typical of Virata. In a career that had combined business, the aca-

sometimes abrasive, style. Environmental organizations that seldom agreed on any-

demic world, and government service, he had acquired an international reputation as a meticulously honest and hard-working

thing united in opposition to him. On the other side, he became a sought-after speaker for business and industry meetings and fund-raising events for conservative causes. Under his aggressive leadership, many of Interior's protective programs restricting development of federal lands were relaxed or dismantled. He halted the practice of allowing the federal government to preempt

policies.

technocrat. Strictly speaking, Virata ister

of

the

fourth

was prime min-

Philippine Republic,

which began formally

in

Manila on July

28,

when the Batasan (legislature) approved the new 18-member Cabinet of Pres. 1981,

Ferdinand Marcos. The fourth republic, which was modeled after the French parliamentary system, represented a return to political normality after more than eight years of martial law rule Virata held the posts of prime minister and minister of finance concurrently, also serving as head of the Cabinet's Executive Committee,

state

water rights, planned

to lease a billion

oil and gas exploration, congressional moratorium on development in a Montana wilderness area, eased restrictions on strip mining adjacent to national parks, and advocated a policy of rehabilitating existing national parks instead of acquiring land for new

acres for offshore

moved

to

break

a

95

Biographies raised a second family in California. At San Diego State College, Wilson discovered a

Willoch, Kare Isaachsen

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Kare Willoch became prime minister of Norway on Oct. 14, 1981 at the head of the country's first purely Conservative government in more than 50 years. In the general election a month earlier he had led his party ,

ones.

The

result

was

a flood of lawsuits,

angry demonstrations, and editorials. Environmental groups gathered more than a million signatures on petitions calling for

It won 54 seats 155-member Storting (parliament), taking votes not only from its chief opponent, the Labour Party, but also from two small non-Socialist parties with which it

to its best result since 1924. in the

his ouster.

His proposal

open four

of California's offshore oil tracts to exploratory drilling provoked an outraged reaction from the to

state's Republican leaders as well as from environmentalists, and he was forced to retreat. The White House cautioned him to check before stepping into any other political minefields. But in most cases, he appeared to have administration backing, despite rumblings that he was turning into a political liability. Certainly he had become an issue in the ongoing debate over the future of the nation's natural resources.

was pledged

to

form

a coalition.

Together

the three — Conservatives, Centre (agrarian) Party, and Christian Democrats — won 80 seats, against the 69 secured by Labour and its parliamentary ally, the small Socialist

Left Party.

When

formation of a coalition

the talk of the bu-

proved impossible, because of Christian Democratic demands for reform of the abortion law, Willoch agreed to form an allConservative minority Cabinet, relying on the Christian Democratic and Centre parties to provide parliamentary support on most issues. The Conservatives' victory was very much a personal triumph for Willoch. In the media the election campaign had been dominated by a series of political duels between him and Gro Harlem Brundtland, prime minister of the preceding minority Labour government. Their lively exchanges made good viewing and rallied the faithful in both camps. Ignoring the substantial areas of agreement between the two major parties — on offshore oil development, for

elected president in 1980, he tabbed his old friend Weinberger to be secretary of defense in the new Repub-

differences, such as the Conservative belief in private initiative, lower taxes, and the need to "get Norway moving again," con-

Wein-

trasted with Labour's commitment to a regulated, caring society — the familiar concept of the Scandinavian welfare state. In a

(hal bruno)

Weinberger, Caspar Willard He is known as "Cap the Knife," and a sobriquet Caspar

it

is

W. Weinberger worked

to earn. Born Aug. 18, 1917, in San Francisco, he served as California's finance director under then-governor Ronald Reagan, as director of the office of Management

hard

and Budget under Pres. Richard M. Nixon, and as secretary of health, education, and welfare under Presidents Nixon and Gerald

And

R. Ford.

in each job his budget-trim-

ming tendencies were

instance — the debates stressed traditional

reaucracy.

When Reagan was

lican administration. But this time

berger was not asked to make budget cuts. Indeed, while the rest of the federal budget was being slashed, defense expenditures in fiscal year 1982 were allowed to grow. All told, Weinberger would be presiding over the biggest spurt in military spending in at least a decade. Still, Cap the Knife's reputation for efficiency was not entirely unneeded in the

Pentagon — even a Pentagon under Reagan. Many experts in and out of government have called the Defense Department the most wasteful of federal agencies. Wein-

country riding on an oil prosperity boom, with more people than ever in high tax brackets, Willoch's message won the most converts.

Born in Oslo on Oct. loch

was

a veteran of

3,

1928, Kare Wil-

Norwegian

politics.

He was first elected to the Storting — as a proxy member — in 1953, the year that he graduated in economics from the Universi-

He was

berger, like

elected a full member in 1957 and was reelected in every subsequent contest. He served as minister of trade and

him,

shipping in Norway's

set

Among sought

many a defense secretary before out to streamline its operation. other things, the new secretary

to cut

down on

paperwork and

internal budgetary

to delegate

more authority

keeping himself free for long-range decision-making. During his first year in office, Weinberger also found time for some internecine gamesmanship with Reagan's secretary of state (and former army general), Alexander to his subordinates,

Haig (q.v.). In public and in private the two disagreed on such matters as the U.S. role in El Salvador and the advisability of using a "demonstration" nuclear explosion to scare off

an

actual

Soviet

threat

to

Western

Europe. By the end of the year Weinberger receiving generally favourable comment, despite a growing feeling in Congress that defense expenditures should not be immune to the administration's budget-cut-

was

ting ax. Some even said Weinberger was doing so well that he might eventually replace the uneven and abrasive Haig at State.

(SIANLEY W. cloud)

96

ty of Oslo.

first

post-World

War

non-Socialist coalition Cabinets (AugustSeptember 1963 and 1965-70). In 1970 he became chairman of his party's group in the Storting. (fay gjester) II

Wilson, Lanford

won a Pulitzer Prize in 1980 for Talley's Folly and followed the triumph in 1981 with his third play about the Talley family, A Tale Told. If that output seemed impressive, it was typical of Playwright Lanford Wilson

this

new exponent

of

dramatic realism. By

the end of 1981 he had written 34 plays. More important than sheer quantity, according to Newsweek magazine's Jack Kroll, "He adores and honors the language and he can shape it to the music of anguish tenderness or nutball humor." Born in Lebanon, Mo., April 13, 1937, Wilson grew up there and in two other Missouri towns, Springfield and Ozark. After attending Southwest Missouri State Col,

lege, he left to live

with his father,

who had

knack

for

ry course.

dialogue while taking a short-sto-

Moving on

commercial

in

art,

to Chicago and a job he continued writing

which were regularly

stories,

rejected

by

magazines. There he also discovered the excitement of theatre and tried a few scripts before going to New York City in 1962. He saw every play on Broadway and disliked each one, but he found his element in the experimental off-Broadway stage. Caffe Cino, an off-off-Broadway establishment, was the first to stage a Wilson play: his one-act So Long at the Fair in the summer of 1963. The following May the same stage offered The Madness of Lady Bright. Like much of his work, it had autobiographical origins; the title character, Leslie Bright, was based on a desk clerk at the hotel where Wilson took reservations. More one-act plays followed, including Sand Castle, which Ellen Stewart presented at the celebrated Cafe La Mama. Balm in Gilead,

Wilson's

first

full-length

effort,

opened at the Cafe La Mama in 1965 and drew such large crowds that fire officials threatened to close the little Greenwich Village house. Perhaps his best-known work. The Hot L Baltimore, won the Obie and New York Drama Critics' Circle awards for best play of 1973 and ran for nearly 1,200 performances at the Circle in the Square theatre. (philip kopper)

Zerbo, Saye

On

Nov. 25, 1980, Col. Saye Zerbo, commander of the combined forces regiment in Ouagadougou, overthrew his ranking suMaj. Gen. Sangoule Lamizana, president of Upper Volta since 1966, and became the country's new ruler at the head of a Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress. Born in August 1932 in Tougan, the same village as his predecessor, Zerbo was publicly rumoured to be Lamizana's cousin and, despite the latter's confinement to house arrest after the coup — perior,

which involved no loss of life — it was that they had acted in agreement. At the age

of 18

said

Zerbo joined the French

Army and was

transferred to the armed Upper Volta in 1961, a year after the country had become independent. A forces of

former parachutist, he served in Indochina and Algeria and then received advanced training at a school in Frejus, France, that was reserved for future cadres in the armed forces of Africa and that trained many political leaders who later came to power in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1971 he entered the Ecole Superieure de Guerre, leaving in 1972 as the first officer from Upper Volta to gain his diploma from the school. Zerbo was appointed Upper Volta's minister of foreign affairs in 1974, but he left that post in 1976.

After holding various

commands he became

director of the Bureau of Studies of the armed forces staff. Speaking in December 1981 on the anniversary of the establishment of the republic in 1958, Zerbo referred to the "spectres of thirst, famine, disease, and ignorance" that the nation had to continually struggle to

overcome. He said that although progress had been made, minimal needs had not yet been met, and that self-sufficiency in food would be the Military Committee's first priority.

(PHILIPPE DECRAENE)

NOBEL PRIZES and unemployment rates have a on an economy's overall

1981 Nobel Prize for Peace went to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, a humanitarian agency that had also won the award in 1954. Elias Canetti. a Bulgarian-born writer who lives in London, received the Prize lor Literature.

domestic advocate

as inflation

and

substantial effect health.

The economics award was given to James Tobin of Yale University The Prize for Physiology or Medicine was shared by Rog-

cy often provides food, medical care, and emergency shelter. Then it tries to arrange for resettlement of displaced people The work of the unhcr has become more difficult in recent years because many traditional havens no longer accept refugees as readily as they once did.

The

er

W. Sperry

of the California Institute of

Technology and by David H. Hubel and Torsten N Wiesel, both of Harvard University. All three were honoured for studies of brain organization and function. The Prize tor Chemistry was shared by Roald Hoffmann of Cornell University and Kenichi Fukui of Kyoto University, Japan They were chosen for having worked out rules that predict various chemical reactions on the basis of quantum mechanics, a set of principles that previously had mainly ics

was

sity of

low

The

Prize for Physgiven to Kai Siegbahn of the Univer-

theoretical significance.

Uppsala, Sweden, Arthur L. SchawStanford University, and Nico-

of

Bloembergen two were cited for laas

of Harvard The latter their pioneering work in

the field of laser spectroscopy. Siegbahn, the son of a 1924 Nobel laureate, was honoured for work in the related area of electron spectroscopy The 1981 honorarium for each category amounted to $180,000.

actual.

It

UN

General Assembly estabIn 1948 the lished the International Refugee Organiza-

and political protection for refugees. .'\t that time the greatest number of refugees were Europeans displaced by World War 11. Three years later the agency was renamed the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (lnhcr), and it won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1954. Its selection again in 1981

news magazine remarked, U.S. achieved the Nobel committees prime goal: "to avoid controversy " One widely read one

registered a protest by mention the peace prize, though ered all the other Nobel Prizes.

newsweekly

failing

to

it

cov-

Hartling, former Nonetheless, Poul prime minister of Denmark and the current head of the UN Refugee Commission, said the award "could not have come at a better time " There are more refugees in the world today — mostly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America — than at any time since the end of

World War

11

During

its

existence,

highest rates of return. Rather, they tend to balance high risk investments with less speculative ones that pay lower returns, in effect

"hedging their bets." Another of his involves

ideas

influential

the

"Q-ratio,"

which measures the relationship of physical and their replacement costs. In prac-

Prize for Economics

can be used to predict how industry handle capital investment programs during times of high and low interest rates. "Tobin's creative and extensive work on the analysis of financial markets and the tice this

James Tobin won the 1981 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science for work that illuminated the practical financial behaviour of investors, consumers, and corporations. The Swedish Academy of Sciences said he has provided the "basis for understanding how subjects actually behave when they acquire different assets and incur debts." This accomplishment hardly seemed to suit a man who called himself "an ivory tower economist" when U.S. Pres. John F. Kenne-

will

transmission mechanisms between finanand real phenomena has unquestionably inspired substantial research during the 1970s on the effects of monetary policy, the implications of government budget deficits and stabilization policy in general," the Academy wrote. "Tfie lively and qualified research in progress in these areas is to a large extent based on Tobin's fundamental Few economic researchers contributions. of today could be said to have gained so many followers or exerted such influence in cial

to join the Council of EconomAdvisers 20 years earlier. Born in Champaign, III., on March 5, 1918, Tobin earned two degrees at Harvard University before World War II, then joined a naval officer training program. He

dy asked him ic

.

in

command on

serve Board.

of the 1981 Nobel would have to be one magazine critic wrote of

Prize for literature

.

.

.

invented, Bulgarian-born Elias Canetti. His "sensibilities, like those of last year's winner, Polish poet Czeslaw Milosz, are those of Europe's prewar culture. A polylingual resident of England, who writes in high, lapidary German, he is fashionably obscure widely praised but little known." "

simplification of monetary theory. He remains within the Keynesian fold, however, in opposing the view that monetary policy, i.e., control and manipulation of the money

the keystone of effective economInstead, he holds that such factors

is

ic policy.

.

Prize for Literature "A more ideal recipient

Tobin, who studied with John Maynard Keynes, describes himself as a post-Keynesian in that he takes issue with some of his mentor's unresolved hypotheses and over-

supply,

.

contemporary research." During 1981 Tobin was one of the most outspoken critics of U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan's economic policies and the tightmoney stance adopted by the Federal Re-

Navy

four years, rising to secthe destroyer USS "Kearney." After the war he returned to Harvard to teach and take a doctorate. In 1950 he moved to Yale, where he has been a stellar member of the economics faculty, reputedly one of the finest in the nation.

ond

tion to provide legal

One of Tobin's most significant single achievements was construction of the "portfolio selection theory." In this he demonstrated that investors rarely seek only the

assets

served in the

Prize for Peace

for refugees, potential represents people about to be

exiled from their native countries, working to assure their legal rights, especially with regard to passports and exit visas. In situations where an exodus may occur, the agen-

.

.

.

The 1981 Nobel Prize winners Heft to right): Nicolaas Bloembergen (Physics), Arthur L. Schawlow (Physics), Kai M. Siegbahn (Physics), Kenichi Fukui (Chemistry), Roald Hoffmann (Chemistry), Roger W. Sperry (Physiology or Medicine), David N. Wiesel (Physiology or Medicine), Elias Canetti

H,

Hubel (Physiology or Medicine), Torsten and lames Tobin (Economics).

(Literature),

unhcr

has helped some 25 million people, but there are still about 10 million refugees throughout the world. Hartling believes the problem is rooted in the emergence of so many new nations Since the UN was founded, the community of nations had tripled to 154, many with totalitarian regimes. "Democracies usually will not produce refugees because a refugee by definition is a person who is persecuted for his political opinions or his race," Hartling told an interviewer. With headquarters in Geneva and small offices scattered around the world, the UNHCR serves as an "ambassador" and

97

Nobel Prizes been shown to

BOOK OF THE YEAR The Swedish Academy noted: oeuvre consists of a novel, three plays, several volumes of notes and aphorisms, a profound examination of the origin, structure

"His

and

effects of

mass movements,

a

travel

book, portraits of authors, character studies

and memoirs. But these writings, pursued such different directions, are held together by a most original and vigorously profiled personality." Perhaps Canetti's most widely celebrated work is the novel Die Blendung ("The Deception"), translated in England as Auto da Fe and in the U.S. asTower of Babel. It traces the decline of a scholar haunting his book-filled in

apartment in Vienna, a words become the only

man reality

for

whom

when he

puts the torch to his library and immolates himself. Apropos, the Academy wrote that the widely traveled author "has one native land, and that is the German language." Canetti was born July 25, 1905, in Ruschuk Bulg. The grandson of a Turkish merchant who knew 17 languages, Canetti first spoke Ladino, the Spanish dialect of exiled ,

boy he went to England with his parents but was educated in Zurich, Frankfurt, and Vienna, where he took a doctorate in chemistry. For a thumbnail

Jews.

As

a small

biography he

listed his interests as "anthropology, history, psychiatry, history of religions, philosophy, sociology, psychology, and the civilizations of Egypt, Sumer, Greece, Rome, Persia, India, China, Japan, Mexico, Maya, Inca. ... It is ridiculous to have so many, but they are equally impor-

tant to me."

House Award for translating Canetti, said: "His early work has a very complex syntax. But his memoirs are lucid, straightforward and animated. Even though he writes in German, it is still an acquired language for him, which possibly gives his writing a greater accuracy, variety and richness." (PHILIP kopper)

Prize for Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was divided among three investigators of the details of the workings of the brain. Half of the prize was awarded to Roger W. Sperry of the California Institute of Technology, who was cited for his studies of "the functional specialization of the cerebral

The other

hemi-

half of the prize

was

shared by David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel, both of the Harvard University Medical School, for their collaborative discoveries concerning "information processing in the visual system." Neurologists have recognized for a long time that the two halves of the human brain are not interchangeable as are the kidneys or the lungs. That is, a person is not fundamentally affected by the loss of one lung or one kidney because these paired organs are simple duplicates: either can perform the task normally shared by the pair. The cerebral hemispheres, on the other hand, although they are superficially alike, have

98

evolved from experiments he conducted — in the late 1940s at the University of Chica-

go—upon

fish, in an investigation of the transfer of learning from one side of the brain to the other. Extension of this work to cats and monkeys entailed disconnecting the halves of the brain by cutting through the nerve bundles, called commissures, that make it possible for the intact animal to choose its actions by integrating the complementary but different mental processes occurring in the separate hemispheres. In the early 1960s two neurosurgeons, Joseph Bogen and Philip Vogel, applied the nerve-cutting procedure, called commis-

surotomy, to a group of patients suffering from epilepsy that had been uncontrollable

by

other treatments. After recovering the patients exthe operation, perienced relief from their seizures and improvement of their general health; they also all

from

permitted Sperry and his co-workers to evaluate their psychological condition. The findings conclusively showed that the left hemisphere is superior to the right in assembling logical sequences that are ex-

pressed in speech or writing. The right hemisphere is superior in recognizing faces, copying drawings, or distinguishing objects

His "magisterial work," according to the is Crowds and Power, a multidisciplinary study of mass movement and the search for power by individuals. Joachim Neugroschel, who won the PEN-Goethe

Academy,

spheres."

differ in their responses to perceptions of the surroundings and in the kinds of mental tasks that they undertake. Sperry, who is regarded by some experts in his field as the world's leading authority on the brain, has developed many of the surgical and experimental techniques that are necessary in testing theories concerning distinguishable mental activities and in locating the regions where they take place. The studies leading to his Nobel Prize

by

feeling them.

who was born

Sperry,

Conn.,

in 1913,

earned

in English literature in

in

Hartford, degree

a bachelor's

and

a master's degree

psychology from Oberlin (Ohio) College a doctorate in zoology from the UniverChicago in 1941. He then became an

and

sity of

associate of the late Karl Lashley,

first

at

Harvard and then

at the Yerkes LaboratoPrimate Biology in Orange Park, Fla. In 1946 he joined the faculty of the University of Chicago and in 1954 moved to the Cali-

ries of

fornia

Institute of

Technology as Hixon

professor of psychobiology. Hubel and Wiesel, who met when they were both associated with the Johns Hopkins Medical School, have been partners in research on the visual system of mammals since 1959, when they and the late Stephen W. Kuffler joined the faculty of the Harvard Medical School, becoming the nucleus of its of neurobiology. One of their outstanding achievements has been the analysis of the flow of nerve impulses from the eye to the visual cortex, which is located in the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. They have used tiny electrodes to detect the electrical discharges occurring in individual nerve fibres and brain cells as the retina responds to light and the patterns of information are processed and passed along to the sensory and motor centres of the brain. Their work has revealed many of the

department

structural

and functional

details of the visu-

They have shown

that, although determined by gemechanisms operate during netic that prenatal development, visual experience during the first few months after birth can al

cortex.

many

of these details are

modify them to some extent. Their results support the view that prompt surgery is imperative in correcting certain eye defects that are detectable in newborn children. Wiesel was born in 1924 in Uppsala, Sweden, and earned a medical degree from the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm. After remaining there for a year as an instructor in physiology, he accepted a research appointment at the Johns Hopkins University Medical School in 1955. He moved to Harvard in 1959 and was named the Robert Winthrop professor of neurobiology. He re-

mains a Swedish subject. Hubel was born in 1926 in Windsor, Ont., and attended McGill University in Montreal, receiving a bachelor's degree in 1947 and a doctorate in medicine in 1951. He held positions at the Montreal Neurological Institute, at the Johns Hopkins Medical School, and at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research in Washington, D.C., before joining the faculty of the Harvard Medical School in 1959. In 1965 he became professor of physiology and, in 1968, the George Packer Berry professor of neurobiology. He became a U.S. citizen in 1953.

Prize for Chemistry The Nobel Prize for Chemistry was divided equally between Kenichi Fukui of Kyoto University, Japan, and Roald Hoffmann of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., for their independent researches that have led to a remarkably reliable theory regarding the influence of the electronic structures of molecules on the course of reactions that they undergo. Most of the substances of interest to chemists are composed of particles called molecules, which are stable assemblages of atoms held together by the mutual attraction of adjacent pairs of atoms or pairs of electrons. The linkages between atoms, holding them at particular distances and angles, are called covalent bonds, and chemical reactions are events in which old bonds break and new ones form. Although dozens or hundreds of covalent bonds may be present in a molecule, only a few of them are susceptible to change under ordinary circumstances, and much of the art of the experimental chemist resides in the ability to recognize these and to choose conditions that favour the breaking of formation of a covalent bond between given atoms. The mechanisms of reactions — that is, the sequences of motions of atomic nuclei and electrons by which molecules of starting materials are converted to molecules of products — have been intensively and fruitfully studied for several decades. The reacthat have become best understood have been those in which one bond breaks or forms at one time, or those in which several such one-bond steps occur in succes-

tions

sion.

Many reactions, however, have been observed that involve simultaneous changes in several covalent bonds. These reactions appear to be subject to driving forces different from those previously recognized; their courses and even their possibility could not be accounted for by the older theories. The achievements of Fukui and Hoffmann are grounded in quantum mechanics, mathematical analysis of the properties of a systems of small particles. The quantum mechanical description of a molecular struc-

Nobel Prizes on the solution

ture relies

of a differential

first formulated by the Austrian theoretician Erwin Schrodinger, whose accomplishment was recognized by the Nobel

equation

Prize for Physics in 1933. The Schrodinger equation takes into account the interactions among all the electrons and atomic nuclei in the molecule as well as the wave properties exhibited by these entities. The solutions of the equation, called orbitals, specify a set of energies and spatial distributions of the electrons. Exact solutions of the equation yield results in excellent agreement with experimental observations, but such solutions have been obtained only for systems of a few particles; that is, for molecules too simple to be of much interest to chemists. Approximate solutions have been developed for larger systems, however, and the orbitals of large molecules are now understood well enough to form a useful part of the

chemist's methods of evaluating reactions. In 1954 Fukui published his first exposition of the concept that the crucial process in many chemical reactions consists of an interaction between the highest occupied molecular orbital of one compound and the lowest unoccupied orbital of the other. In effect, one molecule shares its most loosely bound electrons with the other, which accepts them at the site where they can become most tightly bound. The interaction results in the formation of a new, occupied orbital that has properties intermediate between those of the two former ones Fukui designated these labile orbitals "frontier

and provided examples

orbitals"

of

their

significance in reactions that produce important classes of organic compounds. Hoffmann undertook the research leading to his share of the prize when he and

Robert B. Woodward sought an explanation unexpected course taken by a reaction

of the

Woodward and

colleagues had hoped to use in the synthesis of the com-

that

his

plicated molecule of vitamin B,; and Woodward discovered that

Hoffmann

many

reac-

tions involving the formation or breaking of rings of atoms take courses that depend on an identifiable symmetry in the mathematical descriptions of the molecular orbitals that undergo the most change. Their theory, expressed in a set of statements

called the

Woodward-Hoffmann

now

rules, ac-

counts

for the failure of certain cyclic to form from apparently appropriate starting materials, though others are readily produced; it also clarifies the geometric arrangement of the atoms in the products formed when the rings in cyclic compounds are broken. Fukui was born in Nara Prefecture, Ja-

compounds

pan, in 1918.

He

took

interest in chemKyoto University,

little

istry before enrolling at

where he studied engineering, receiving

a

Ph.D. in 1948. He has been professor of physical chemistry at Kyoto since 1951. Hoffmann was born in Zloczow, Poland, in 1937 and immigrated to the U.S. in 1949. He graduated from Columbia University and received his Ph D. from Harvard in 1962. He collaborated with Woodward at Harvard for the next three years, then joined the Cornell faculty in 1965.

Prize for Physics The Nobel Prize for Physics was divided three scientists who have revolutionized spectroscopy, the analytical study

among

of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Half of the prize was to Kai M. Siegbahn of the UniverUppsala; the other half was shared by Nicolaas Bloembergen of Harvard University and .Arthur L. Schawlow of Stanford Uni-

BOOK OF THE YEAR

awarded sity of

versity.

Siegbahn formulated the principles underlying the technique called esca (electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis) and refined the instruments used in carrying it out. ESCA depends on a fundamental phenomenon, the photoelectric effect, which is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation strikes a material. The effect is displayed by all kinds of materials — solid, liquid, or gaseous — and is brought

about by radiation visible,

of

ultraviolet.

many wavelengths — and gamma

X-rays,

rays.

Einstein in 1905 postulated that the energy of the radiation that causes a material to emit an electron must be exactly equal to the

sum

of two other quantities of energy: the of energy required to detach the electron from its bound state in the material, and the kinetic energy possessed by the electron as it moves away. The energy of the incoming radiation can

amount

be controlled very precisely; Siegbahn's achievement has been the development of ways to measure the kinetic energies of electrons accurately

mination

enough

of their

to permit the deterbinding energies. He has

shown

that each chemical element binds electrons with characteristic energies that

by the ionic or molecuenvironment. The compound sodium

are slightly modified lar

thiosulfate, for example, contains atoms of the element sulfur in two different states of

combination. Irradiation of this substance with X-rays liberates electrons that had been bound with energies characteristic not only of sulfur but of its two states in the

compound. During the 1970s esca was adopted

all

refining.

Siegbahn -the son of Karl Manne Siegbahn, who received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1924 for his discoveries relating to X-ray spectroscopy — was born in Lund, Sweden, in 1918. He was awarded his Ph.D. in physics by the University of Stockholm in 1944. In 1951 he was appointed professor at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and in 1954 he moved to the University of Uppsala. Bloembergen and Schawlow earned their share of the Nobel Prize by investigating phenomena that are not detectable without lasers, rather than those that are obvious extensions of established spectroscopic practice.

An

inherent difficulty in the measurewavelengths of radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms and molecules arises of

from the motion

of these particles in all disame time that they are interacting with the radiation. This motion affects the wavelength of emitted radiation in the same way that the motion of an automobile affects the pitch at which the sound of its horn reaches the ears of a stationary listener The result of these so-called Doppler shifts is that an absorption or emission spectrum (a graph of intensity against

rections at the

broadened and smeared into rounded and overlapping hills and valleys from which it is hard or impossible to pick out the desired information.

Among

Schawlow's

accomplishments

was an ingenious demonstration

of a

way

to

circumvent the Doppler broadening and thus to locate precisely the wavelengths of light absorbed by the hydrogen atom. The results of this experiment were a set of highly precise values of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom; these, in turn, led to a new, accurate determination of one of the fundamental physical constants, Bloembergen became involved with the fundamental principles of masers and lasers while he was engaged in his doctoral research at Harvard in the late 1940s. Within two years after Charles Townes had demonstrated the maser in 1953, Bloembergen provided the specifications for an improved version that has become the most widely used microwave amplifier. James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century had presented a satisfactory explanation of the nature and behaviour of electromagnetic radiation that does not appreciably alter the properties of the media through which it propagates. The electric and magnetic fields within a laser beam, however, are so intense that they affect the properties that govern the behaviour of light beams.

Bloembergen and his associates have

recast

formulations to accommodate thereby establishing the effects,

Maxwell's these

theoretical basis for a

new

ty called nonlinear optics.

scientific special-

Numerous

practi-

nonlinear optical cal phenomena have already been developed; these include means of producing laser beams of previously unavailable wavelengths, and a promising method of inducing unusual chemical reactions by focusing energy on any specific covalent bond among many in complex molecules. Bloembergen was born in Dordrecht, Neth., in 1920 and received bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Utrecht. In 1946 he accepted a research apapplications

over the world for analyzing materials, including the particles in polluted air and the surfaces of solid catalysts used in petroleum

ment

frequency or wavelength) does not consist sharp peaks, each corresponding to a different interaction; the peaks are

of a series of

pointment

at

of

Harvard, where he undertook

the studies for his doctorate. His Ph.D. was granted by the University of Leiden in 1948.

Returning

to

Harvard he became an ,

associ-

ate professor in 1951 and Gerhard Cade university professor in 1980. He became a U.S. citizen in 1958.

Schawlow was born

in

Mount Vernon,

N.Y., in 1921; shortly thereafter his family moved to Canada, where he attended the University of Toronto, receiving his Ph.D. in 1949. In that year he joined Townes at Columbia University in the maser-laser project that led to Townes's share of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1964. Townes and Schawlow wrote Microwave Spectroscopy a monograph published in 1955. In 1951 Shawlow went to the Bell Telephone Laboratories; after returning to Columbia as a visiting professor in 1960, he moved to Stanford. In 1978 he was appointed J. G. Jackson and C. J. Wood professor of physics. ,

(JOHN

v.

KILLHEFFER)

99

OBITUARIES The following

who

is

a selected

list

of prominent

men and women

died during 1981.

vivor of ried in

Queen Victoria's 37 grandchildren. Mar1904 to Prince Alexander of Teck, she of Athlone when he abandoned

became countess Acland, Sir (Hugh) John (Dyke), New Zealand farmer (b. Jan, 18, 1904, Christchurch, N.Z.— d. Jan. 26, 1981, Mount Peel, South Canterbury, N.Z.), was a member (1947-72) of the New Zealand Wool Board and its chairman from I960 to 1972. He also concurrently served as vice-chairof the International Wool Secretariat. Acland local government and represented the Temuka district in the New Zealand Parliament (1942-46). He was knighted in 1968.

man

was active in

German title. She accompanied her husband on many travels, including those undertaken as governor-general of South Africa (1923-31) and of Canada (1940-46), Her adaptability, unaffected manner, and unfailing cheerfulness contributed greatly to her husband's success in these posts. Though she fulfilled fewer public engagements after his death in 1957, she served as chancellor of the University of the West Indies from 1950 to 1971. In 1966 she published her memoirs, for Mv his

his

moved

to London, then returned to Hollywood in 1938 but failed to achieve his former success. Asther lived in poverty and in 1958 went back to Sweden, where he worked for television. He then took up painting and sculpture after his retirement

from

acting.

Auchinleck, Sir Claude (John Eyre), British field marshal (b. June 21, 1884, Aldershot, England—d. March 23, 1981, Marrakesh, Morocco), defeated Gen, Erwin Rommel's better-armed forces at Cyrenaica, Libya, in 1941 and, though he was subsequently forced to retreat, helped to minimize

Grandchildren.

Albertson, Jack, U.S. actor (b. June 16, 1907, Maiden,

Mass.—d. Nov.

Calif.),

showed

nering awards

25,

his versatility in

Hollywood Hills, as an actor by gar-

1981,

three acting media; he

won

a

Tony award

for his Broadway performance as the surly Irish father in The Subject Was Roses, an Academy Award for best supporting actor in the 1968

motion picture version of the play, an Emmy (in the 1975-76 season) for his portrayal of the disgruntled garage owner in the television series "Chico and the Man," and another Emmy for a guest appearance on the "Cher" show in 1975. A onetime pool hustler, Albertson launched his ca-

award

reer in vaudeville, first as a dancer straight

man; he

later

formed

and then as a

a partnership

with

Phil Silvers. Albertson gained acclaim as a comedi-

an when he replaced Eddie Foy in the 1945 Broadway revival of The Red Mill and also won praise for the revue Tickets Please! In the 1950s and 1960s Albertson appeared in a string of motion pictures, notably Top Banana (1954), Man of a Thousand Faces (1957), Lover Come Back (1962), How to Murder Your Wife (1965), neFHm-nam Man {1967). and The Poseidon Adventure (1972). Also in 1972 he triumphantly returned to Broadway in The Sunshine Boys. His last motion picture, Dead and Buried, was released in 1981.

Amory, Derick Heathcoat Amory,

—

joined the rest of the family in Britain. As the of Nicholas II, Prince Andrew became head of the exiled Russian imperial family; during his exile he devoted himself to painting and stamp

nephew

collecting.

Mary Victoria Augusta Pauline), Countess of Athlone, member of the British royal family (b. Feb, 25, 1883, Windsor, England d. Jan. 3, 1981, London, England), was the last sur-

Alice, Princess (Alice

—

Dev-

1981, Tiverton), was chancellor of the Exchequer (1958-60) in the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan. Amory entered national politics after World War II, on,

England

d.

Jan.

20,

being elected Conservative member for Tiverton in 1945. In 1951 he was appointed minister for pensions and subsequently served as minister of state at the Board of Trade (1953-54) and as minister of agriculture, fisheries, and food (1955-58). In January 1958, when the three Treasury ministers simultaneously resigned, Macmillan offered Amory the chancellorship. Self-effacing and moderate, he ini-

no major changes in economic strategy, Amory was created a viscount when he retired from politics in 1960 and then served (1961-63) as U.K. high commissioner in Canada, tiated

Ansett, Sir Reginald Myles, Australian aviation pioneer (b. Feb. 13, 1909, Inglewood, Victoria, Australia d, Dec. 23, 1981), founded Ansett Airways Ltd. (later Ansett Transport Industries Ltd.) in 1936 and built it into one of the major airlines in Australia. Ansett was educated at Swinburne Technical College, Victoria, and, starting with one £A50

—

car, built

Alexandrovitch, Prince Andrew, grandson of Tsar Alexander III of Russia (b. Jan. 25, 1897, St. Petersburg [now Leningrad], Russia d. May 8, 1981, Provender, Kent, England), narrowly escaped death after the Russian Revolution and was freed by German troops shortly before the World War I armistice. He fled to Paris with his father. Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovitch, and later

1st Viscount,

British politician (b. Dec, 26, 1899, Tiverton,

up

learned to

a taxi fleet in

fly,

and when

western Victoria.

He also

local transport regulations

prevented him from extending his taxi business to Melbourne, he bought a small monoplane to carry

up

to six passengers. Ansett's air transport business expanded rapidly, and by 1957 he was able to purchase Australian National Airways for over £A3 million. His other business interests included

and road transport. Ansett was knighted in 1969. In 1979 his company was taken over by newspaper proprietor Rupert Murdoch. hotels, television,

the

Germans

hurst,

headquarters.

Adele Marie (Adele Marie AusTERinz), U.S. dancer and actress (b. Sept. 10, 1898, Omaha, Neb.—d. Jan, 25, 1981, Phoenix, Ariz.), with her brother, Fred, became theatrical sensations in the U.S. and England in the early part of the century, dancing in a series of 11 musical comedies. When she was only nine, Astaire toured the vaudeville circuit with seven-year-old Fred as her partner. In 1917 they appeared on Broadway in their first hit. Over the Top. followed by The Passing Show of 1918. A pixieish comedian, Astaire was a natural for such shows as Funny Face, Lady Be Good. Smiles. For Goodness Sake, and The Band Wagon. In 1931, at the height of her career, Astaire gave up dancing to marry Lord Charles Cavendish the following year. Three years after Lord Charles's death in 1944, she married investment banker Kingman Douglass, whom she also survived.

Astaire,

Asther, Nils, Swedish actor (b. Jan. 17, 1897, Malmo, Sweden—d. Oct. 13, 1981, Stockholm, Sweden), was one of Hollywood's leading actors during the late 1920s and early 1930s, playing opposite Greta Garboin Wild Orchids [1929) and Tiie Single Standard (1929), Asther, who made films in Germany before moving to the U,S, (1926) to work with the director Mauritz Stiller, also appeared in Our Dancing Daughters (1928) and The Bitter Tea of General Yen (1932). In 1934, however, his career was irreparably damaged he was blacklisted for breach of contract. He

when

100

and pave the way for victory against in North Africa, Educated at SandAuchinleck served in India and performed with distinction in the Middle East in World War I. He returned to India to command the Peshawar Brigade against the Upper Mohmands in 1933 and by the outbreak of World War II had been appointed deputy chief of the general staff at army British losses

He commanded

British

forces in

Norway and

India until his 1941 appointment to Middle East, where he replaced Sir Archibald Wavell as commander in chief. After his defeat of Rommel, Auchinleck was replaced because of his the

questionable defensive strategy. It was not until 1943 that he was given his next major command, again as commander in chief in India. He was promoted to field marshal in 1946 and as supreme commander in India administered the splitting of the Indian Army following the creation of Pakistan. In November 1947 he resigned in open disagreement with the Indian leaders. He frequently returned to the country after his retirement, however, to maintain business connections.

Bagnold, Enid, British writer (b. Oct. 27, 1889, Rochester, England d. March 31, 1981, London, England), wrote National Velvet (1935), the bestselling story of a horse-loving girl who trains and

—

rides a gelding to victory in the

Grand National

Steeplechase; in 1944 the novel was made into a successful film starring Elizabeth Taylor. This charming fantasy, however, revealed only one facet of a talent that also produced the play The Chalk Garden (published 1956), a study of eccentricity, neurosis, and love, praised for its wit and fine language. Bagnold's Autobiography (1969) tells of her youthful experiences in bohemian Chelsea and her service as a nurse and ambulance driver in World War I. She also recorded her wartime adventures

Obituaries such controversial books as Diary Without Dales (1918) and The Happu fcreigner (1920). Her novel in

Serena Blandish (1024), subtitled The Difficulty of Get-

was published anonymously after her marriage in 1920 to Sir Roderick Jones, chairman of Reuters news agency.

the University of Puerto Rico. In 1981 Pres. Jimmy Carter presented Baldwin with the nation's highest civilian

BOOK OF THE YEAR

honour, the Medal of Freedom.

ting Married,

Bahonar, Mohammad Javad, Iranian politician (b. 1933, Kerman, Iran—-d. Aug. 30, 1981, Teheran, Iran), succeeded Ayatollah Mohammad Hossein Beheshti, who died in an explosion in June 1981, as a leader of the Islamic Republican Party, Bahonar had been imprisoned for his opposition to the shah's regime, but after the overthrow of the shah in 1979, he helped draft the new constitution. In March 1981 he was appointed minister of education and carried on the work started by Moham-

mad

Ali

Raja'i

in

purging the universities of

Western cultural influences. After the fall of Pres. Abolhassan Bani-Sadr in June 1981 and Raja'i's election as president in July, Bahonar was appointed prime minister. He was in the midst of trying to restore stability to the country in the face of armed attacks by opponents of the Islamic regime when he and Raja'i were killed in a bomb blast. Baird, Tadeusz, Polish composer (b. July 26, 1928, Grodzisk Mazowiecki, Poland—d. Aug. 4, 1981, Warsaw, Poland), was a leaderof the younger generation of Polish composers. Baird was a pupil of Boleslaw Woytowicz and Kazimierz Sikorski during World War II and later of Piotr Rytek and Piotr

Perkowski

at

the

Warsaw Music Conservatory.

With Jan Krenz and Kazimierz Serocki, Baird formed "Group 49," whose members adhered to the then ideologically acceptable line of "socialist realism." Baird's later compositions owed more to influence. His Four Essays for Orchestra won first prize both at the 1958 Grzegorz Fitelberg Competition in Katowice and at the 1959 International UNESCO Composers' Rostrum in Paris Baird became a professor at the Warsaw State Higher School of Music in 1974 and also was a founder, with Serocki, of the annual Warsaw Autumn Fes-

Western

tival.

Baldwin, Roger Nash, U.S.

civil rights activist (b.

Mass.—d. Aug. 26, 1981, Ridgewood, N.J.), was the founder with Norman Thomas, Felix Frankfurter, and others (1920) of the American Civil Liberties Union (aclu) and a

Jan. 21, 1884, Wellesley,

crusader for individual rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. Because of this commitment, Baldwin defended a host of extremist groups including Nazis, Communists, and Ku Klux Klansmen and was labeled a leftist himself. During Baldwin's tenure as head of the ACLU, the organization acquired such clients as teacher John T. Scopes in the 1925 Tennessee "Monkey Trial"; the Jehovah's Witnesses, which won free press rights in 1938; James Joyce, who had the ban lifted from his novel Ulysses: and Henry Ford, who was granted the right to distribute antiunion pamphlets. The aclu also took part in the murder trial of Sacco and Vanzetti and successfully challenged (1938 and 1939) Mayor Frank Hague's interference with civil liberties and the cio in Jersey City. In 1940, though, Baldwin became tireless

Barber, Samuel, U.S. composer (b. March 9, 1910, d. Jan. 23, 1981, New York, West Chester, N.Y.), achieved early and lasting fame with his lyric and romantic compositions, including the orchestral piece Adagio for Strings (1936) and two Pulitzer Prize-winning works, the opera Vanessa (1958) and Piano Concerto (1962). At the age of seven Barber composed his first piece, "Sadness," and at ten he attempted his first opera, entitled The Rose Tree. In 1924 he entered the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia to study composition with Rosario Scalero, singing with Emilio de Gogorza, and piano with Isabella Vengerova. While still a student he wrote Serenade for String Quartet (1929), Dover Beach

Pa—

and his Overture to The School for Scandal which established his reputation after it a world premiere by the Philadelphia Orchestra under Alexander Smallens. His virtuosity was given further testimony by the renowned Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini, who in 1938 conducted world premieres of two of Barber's compositions: Adagxo for Strings and his first Essay for

(1931), (1933),

was given

Orchestra.

Inducted into the U.S.

Army

in

1943, Bar-

was soon transferred to the Army Air Forces and commissioned to write the Second Symphony ber

(1944). In this ic

work Barber used

a special electron-

instrument to imitate radio signals for air naviga1947 revised version substituted an E-flat

tion; his

clarinet. Barber, virtually all of

whose works have

been recorded, also composed Violin Concerto {\9A\), Cello Concerto (1946), and Piano Sonata (1949). His admiration for 19th-century poets Percy Bysshe Shelley and Gerard Manley Hopkins and such latter-day authors as James Joyce and James Agee inspired such works as Music for a Scene from Shelley (1933), "A Nun Takes the Veil" (1937), Fadograph of a Yestem Scene (1971), and Knoiville: Summer of 1915 (1947).

Bametson, William Denholm, Baron, British newspaper executive (b. March 21, 1917, Edinburgh, Scotland— d. March 12, 1981, London, England), who, after becoming chairman of United Newspapers Ltd. in 1966, was responsible for the group's rapid expansion and the acquisition of The Yorkshire Post and Punch in 1969. Barnetson interrupted his studies at the University of Edinburgh to cover the Spanish Civil War as a free-lance writer. After World War II he helped reorganize the West German newspaper industry, launching Die Welt in 1946. From 1948 to 1961 he held journalistic and management posts with the Edinburgh Evening News and was active in many allied fields, including

Barnetson was named chairman of Television Ltd. in 1979. Eariier he had chaired Reuters news agency (1968-79), the Press Association (1967-68), the Commonwealth Press Union Council (1972-77), and The Observer's governing board (1976-80). Knighted in 1972, Barnetson became a life peer in 1975. television.

Thames

Barnett, Stephen

Aug.

Frank, British veterinarian

(b.

1915—J. Aug. 18, 1981, Cambridge, Enmade important contributions to the under-

10,

gland),

Baldwin became head of the American Union

standing of tick-borne diseases in livestock and hence to the control of such diseases and the improvement of tropical agriculture. He was particularly noted for his work on East Coast fever, a protozoan disease of cattle, and he acted as adviser to many countries in Africa, South America, and the Middle East. Barnett studied at the Royal Veterinary College in London and in 1939 joined the Kenya Department of Veterinary Services. After obtaining his doctorate at the University of London in 1947 he continued his research in Chicago and East Africa before becoming university lecturer in animal pathology at the University of

Against Militarism (predecessor of the aclu), which mostly defended draft resistcrs and conscientious objectors. The following year Baldwin was sentenced to a year in prison for refusing to go to war. After his release he founded the aclu and was, for the remainder of his life, in the vanguard of thousands of cases involving the underdog and the oppressed. For many years Baldwin taught at

Barr, Alfred Hamilton, Jr., U.S. museum curator (b. Jan. 28, 1902. Detroit. Mich.—d. Aug. 15, 1981, Salisbury, Conn), as the enterprising director (1929-43) of the Museum of Modern Art (moma) in New York City, expanded the realm of the traditional museum to include departments of architec-

disenchanted with the Communists and removed them from the aclu's board of directors; he was also instrumental in ousting his longtime Communist friend Elizabeth Gurley Flynn from the board of directors when she refused to resign. Before his affiliation with the aclu, Baldwin received a B,A. from Harvard University in 1904 and an MA. in 1905 and taught sociology at Washington University In St. Louis, Mo. He also served (1907-10) the city as chief probation officer and produced a book with Bernard Flexner, Juvenile Courts and Probation (1912), which became a standard work. In 1917

Cambridge

education, industrial design, and photography, as well as sculpture and painting. An unqualified showman, Barr freely experimented with a gamut of exhibitions that included such impressive displays as "Picasso, 50 Years of His Art" (1946) and "Matisse: His Art and His Public" (1951). His unconventional and innovative exhibitions, which included a fur-lined teacup, a gasoline pump, an oval wheel, and an elaborate shoeshine stand, created an uproar, and the latter nearly cost him his job. As director, Barr expanded the public awareness of what art is and set forth a model for other museums to emulate. He also established MOMA as one of the most influential museums for modern art information and education in the world. A highly respected tastemaker and connoisseur of modern art, Barr nonetheless had a dictatorial manner that was resented by museum colleagues, who dubbed him "The Pope." In 1943 Barr was replaced as director but in 1947 was named director of collections, a post he held until his retirement in 1967. ture,

in 1964.

Barrington, Kenneth Frank, British cricketer (b. Nov. 24, 1930, Reading, England—d. March 14, 1981, Bridgetown, Barbados), was one of Britain's

most

reliable

post-World

War

II

batsmen and an

manager of touring teams. Because Barrington was a serious player and remained aloof from the spectators, he was sometimes criticized for unexciting play. But in his first-class career for Surrey and England he scored a total of 31,714 runs (an average of 45,63), including 6,806 runs in Test cricket (an average of 58.67 in 82 matches). Only two players exceeded his 20 centuries in play for England, His Test career, cut short by a heart attack in 1968, started in 1955 when he toured South Africa, and by 1959 he was recognized as one of the most consistent and reliable batsmen on the English team. He made his highest score, 256 runs, against Australia in 1964. After his retirement he managed tours to India, Pakistan, and New Zealand, and he was assistant manager of the England team on its West Indies tour at the time of his energetic

death.

Mohammad Hossein, Iranian politician (b. 1929, Isfahan, Iran—d. June 28, 1981, Teheran. Iran), was leader of the Islamic Republican Party (iRp) and was killed in an explosion at the party headquarters together with 71 other participants during a meeting, Beheshti, who on Feb. 3, 1979, was appointed a member of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Council by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, soon became the council's first secretary. In the Majlis (parliament) inaugurated on May 28, 1980. Beheshti led the religiously oriented IRP, the most important parliamentary group. A key figure in Iran's Islamic revolution, Beheshti was reputed to be a cunning manipulator behind the scenes. He played a leading part in the U.S. hostage crisis and was instrumental in the dismissal in June 1981 of Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, first president of the Islamic Republic.

Beheshti, Ayatollah

Benchley, Nathaniel Goddard, US. novelist

(b.

13, 1915, Newton, Mass.—d, Dec. 14, 1981, Boston, Mass.), was overshadowed by the celebrity status of his father, Robert, a well-known novelist and humorist, and his son Peter, the author of the best - seller /iJU's, but was himself a highly talented writer and humorist for over 40 years. Benchley, the author of several acclaimed children's books, also wrote novels that combined elements of satire, comedy, farce, and melodrama. His most popular book. The Off-Islanders, was later adapted for the screen with the title The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming (1966). Other writings include Side Street (1950), Catch a Falling Spy

Nov.

(1963), The Vis\tors (1965). The Hunter s Moon (1972). and two biographies, Robert Benchley (1955) and

Humphrey Bogart (1975). Bennett, Robert Russell, U.S. composer and conductor (b. June 15, 1894, Kansas City, Mo. d.

—

101

Obituaries worked behind

the scenes to reinforce the strength of the Republican Party as both Ohio state chairman (1949-65) and national chairman (1952-69) of the party. Bliss effectively demonstrated his organ-

BOOK OF THE YEAR 18, 1981. New York, N.Y.), as the fluent orchestrator of some 300 Broadway musicals, repeat-

Aug.

edly demonstrated his uncanny ability to assemble a musical number from memory after seeing it rehearsed only a few times. Bennett's impressive list of credits included orchestrations for such Broadway productions as Annie Get Your Gun: Kiss Me.

chairman by systematically investigating every complaint; under his leadership the Republicans outscored the Democrats in three of four presidential races and congressional and state elections. In 1965, as head of the Republican National Committee, he helped restructure the fragmented party after the decisive defeat of Barry izational skills as state

Show Boat: South Pacific: Oklahoma.'; My Fair Lady: The King and 1: and The Sound of Music. He also scored such motion pictures as The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Show Boat, and Oklahoma.', for which he won an

Goldwater by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 presidential election. Bliss also contributed to the presidential victory of Richard M. Nixon, who lat-

Academy Award

Bliss retired

Kate:

in

1955.

He

also orchestrated

Richard Rodgers's music for the 26-episode television series "Victory at Sea." Bennett, who studied under Carl Busch, also composed serious music, conducted symphony orchestras, and served as musical director of the National Broadcasting Co.

Berryman, Sir Frank Horton, Australian

Army

offi-

cer (b. April 11, 1894, Geelong, Victoria, Australia d. May 28, 1981, Sydney, Australia), was the

—

senior Australian staff officer in the southwest Pacific during World War II and represented Australia at the Japanese surrender on Sept. 2, 1945. He had previously shown considerable ability as a field commander in the Middle East and New Guinea. Berryman studied at Sydney University and at the Royal Military College, Duntroon, before gaining the oso during World War I. He continued his military training during the interwar period and held various appointments in Australia.

War II Berryman was promoted to lieutenant general (1944) and served as general officer commanding, I Australian Army Corps. He was awarded the U.S. Medai of Freedom with Silver Palm for his services with the Allied forces under Gen. Douglas MacArthur. After serving as During World

general officer in charge of the Australian Eastern Command during 1946-50 and 1952-53, he directed the Commonwealth jubilee celebrations and the 1954 royal visit to Australia. Berryman, who was knighted the same year he retired (1954), became a director (1954-61) of the Royal Agriculture Society, Sydney, and a colonel commandant of the Royal Australian Artillery (1956-61).

Betancourt, Romulo, Venezuelan politician (b. Feb. 22, 1908, Guatire, Miranda, Venezuela— d, Sept. 28, 1981, New York, NY.), was a self-proclaimed leftist and anti-Communist who helped restore Venezuela to democracy while twice serving as its president (1945-48 and 1959-64). As a student at the University of Caracas, Betancourt led demonstrations against the dictatorial regime of Juan Vicente Gomez, for which he was jailed and then exiled. He was a member of the Communist Party in Costa Rica for a short time before secretly returning to Venezuela in 1936. He lived in hiding for two years until he was apprehended and again expelled. In 1941 Betancourt was allowed to reenter the country, and in the same year he helped found Accion Democratica, a left-wing anti-Communist party. In 1945 the party came to power after a bloody coup that ousted Gen, Medina Angarita, and Betancourt was installed as president. Although he resigned his presidential office in 1948, another coup ousted his successor and again forced Betancourt into a ten-year exile. He directed the activities of his outlawed party from the U.S., Cuba, Costa Rica, and Puerto Rico, and when Gen. Marcos Perez Jimenez was overthrown in 1959, Betancourt returned to his homeland. In the same year his party won an absolute majority in Congress, and Betancourt was elected president. During his tenure Betancourt inaugurated agrarian reform, pushed industrial development, and approved the 50-50 formula that gave Venezuela half the profits of the oil companies. In 1964 Betancourt left office as poor as when he was elected and spent the next eight years in Switzerland. In 1972 he returned to Venezuela as an elder statesman and a champion of democracy. Bliss,

Ray Charles,

Akron, Ohio

102

d.

U.S. politician (b. Dec. 16, 1907, 6, 1981, Akron), diligently

Aug.

er replaced Bliss with tional

from

Rogers C. B. Morton in 1969, on the Republican Na-

Committee

his seat in

1980.

He fell out with the right wing of the party over his support for an incomes policy and his liberal attitudes to immigration. Boyle, who became director of Penguin Books in 1965, was made a life peer in 1970 and in 1971 was appointed chairman of the Top Salaries Review Board. election.

Bradford, The Rev. Robert John, Northern Irish Methodist clergyman and politician (b. 1941? d. Nov. 14, 1981, Belfast, Northern Ireland), had served as Unionist member of the U.K. Parliament for seven years when he was assassinated by militants of the Irish Republican Army (ira). A known

—

opponent of any conciliatory moves toward the supporter of more vigorous security measures in Northern Ireland, and a proponent of the death penalty for terrorist activities, Bradford was

IRA, a

engaged

Bohm,

Karl, Austrian conductor (b. Aug. 28, 1894, Austria d, Aug. 14, 1981, Salzburg, Austria), established his international reputation after World War II as a conductor of opera and symphonic works with his concert performances and recordings of Richard Strauss, Beethoven,

—

Graz,

Brahms, Alban Berg, and, above

all,

Mozart,

whose work was

the great love of his musical life. studied law, but in 1920 he was appointed first conductor at the Graz Opera House and in the following year joined the Munich Opera. Encouraged by Karl Muck and Bruno Walter, Bohm became musical director at Darmstadt in 1927, at Hamburg in 1931, and at Dresden in 1934, replacing Fritz Busch, who had been forced to resign by the Nazis. This appointment and his replacement of Bruno Walter at Salzburg in 1938 under similar circumstances damaged his reputation in the postwar years. Bohm directed the State Opera in Vienna from 1943 to 1945 and from 1954 to 1956. In the following year he conducted at the Metropolitan

He

Opera in New York and from 1962 was perhaps the best-known interpreter of Wagner through his work at the Bayreuth Festivals. He was dedicated and his rigorous interpretations were sometimes criticized for their lack to the search for precision,

of vision, but his best qualities emerged in his recordings of Strauss and Wagner and at performances of their operas, to which he brought warmth, subtlety,

and

at the

time of his death

campaign to

in a

discredit the ira in the eyes of its U.S. supporters.

Educated at Queen's University, Belfast, he was ordained a Methodist minister and first stood for the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1973. In the general election of 1974 he was elected to Parliament as United Ulster Unionist Coalition member for Belfast South. Expelled from the party as a supporter of power sharing, he came to revise this view and in 1975 joined the Official Unionist Party, retaining the seat for it in 1979. He was a leading member of the Orange Order and a close friend of the Rev. Ian Paisley,

who

shared Brad-

ford's opposition to the ecumenical movement. He also advocated extreme conservative policies in so-

matters, such as opposition to the recent form of the laws on homosexuality.

cial

Bradley,

Omar

Nelson, U.S.

Army

re-

officer (b. Feb.

Mo.—

12, 1893, Clark, d. April 8, 1981, New York, N.Y.), graduated from West Point in 1915 but nev-

saw a day of action on the battlefield until 1943, of the U.S. II Corps in Tunisia under Gen. George S. Patton and Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower. His lack of combat experience was countered by methodical er

when he was appointed deputy commander

textbook planning, and Bradley soon led U.S. armies through some of the bloodiest fighting of

World War

II.

He

quickly established a reputation

as a brilliant tactician after the defeat of the Ger-

mans' Afrika Korps and the invasion of Sicily. He further enhanced his record as commander of the

lyricism.

Boone, Richard Allen, U.S. actor and director (b. June 18, 1917, Los Angeles, Calif .—d. Jan. 10, 1981, St. Augustine, Fla.), portrayed Paladin, a onetime army officer who became a San Francisco-based professional gunslinger during the ld70s in the classic television Western "Have Gun Will TravGarbed in black and armed with a Colt .45, he sold his services to those who were unable to protect themselves. Boone also starred in the television shows "Medic" (1954-56), "The Richard Boone Show" (1963-64), and "Hec Ramsey" (1971-72). After Boone made his motion picture debut in The Halls of Montezuma (1951), his craggy face became familiar in such films as TTitDesert Fox (1951), Ten Wanted Men (1955), Big Jake (1971), and The Shootist (1976).

—

el" (1957-63).

Boyle of Handsworth, Edward Charles Gumey Boyle, Baron, British politician (b. Aug, 31, 1923, Kent, England—d. Sept, 28, 1981, Leeds, England), was minister of education in the Conservative govto 1964 and a leading representative of the liberal wing of the Conservative Party, Educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, Boyle worked in journalism while attempting to enter Parliament. He succeeded in 1950

ernment from 1962

member for Handsworth and in 1955 became economic secretary to the Treasury, He was parliamentary secretary (1957-59) to the minister of as

education, then financial secretary to the Treasury. As minister of education, he steered a middle course between those who favoured retention of the grammar school system with traditional selection and curriculum and supporters of the comprehensive school. Boyle set up the Plowden inquiry into primary education in 1963. In the following year he was made minister of state with special responsibility for higher education and became opposition spokesman on home affairs, then on education after the Conservative defeat in the 1964

Army in the D-Day invasion of GermanNormandy on June 6, 1944. Bradley's demeanour and dedication to avoiding risky tactics made him a favourite with infantrymen, who dubbed him the "GI's general," He favoured U.S. 1st

occupied folksy

calculated assaults using bombers, tanks, and field guns to protect the infantrymen. Later in 1944

Bradley was named commander of the U.S. 12th included 1.3 million troops the largest U.S. force ever placed under one man's command. After the Allies' near defeat at the Battle of the Bulge (1945), Bradley led his troops across the Rhine River, through the heart of Ger-

Army Group, which

Obituaries many (where oners),

they captured 325,000

and on

German

to the joining of U.S.

pris-

and Soviet

troops at the port city of Torgau on the Elbe River. In 1945, after the war, Bradley was appointed head of the Veterans Administration, and in 1949 he became first chairman of the joint Chiefs of Staff. In this post Bradley received a fifth star with his promotion to the rank of general of the army. This distinction had been held by only four other men since the Civil War: George Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Henry H Arnold, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Bradley, who served as chairman of the Bulova Watch Co. from 1958 to 1973. never formally retired from the Army because a congressional act stipulated that all five-star generals are subject to immediate recall. He thus served 69 years on active duty longer than any other sol-

—

Brassens, Georges, French singer and songwriter (b. Oct 22. 1921. Sete, France—d. Oct. 30, 1981, Sete), held a unique place in the affections of the French public and, during a career of nearly 30 years, had more than 20 million long-playing records sold. His songs, which won the poetry prize of the Academie Fran^aise in 1967, belonged to a tradition reaching back to the medieval jongleurs. They combined bawdy humour, tenderness, and contempt for the self-importance of bigots and authority figures. After arriving in Paris in 1940, he worked in the Renault car factory and was conscripted for war work in Germany. Brassens deserted but was given refuge by a couple, to whom he dedicated many of his songs. In 1952 Brassens was discovered by Jacques Grello and made his debut in a nightclub owned by the singer Patachou. His warm voice and emphatic guitar accompaniment were heard at the Olympia, the Alhambra, and the Palais de Chaillot, but he was at his best in his regular appearances in the unpretentious surroundings of the Bobino music hall. Brassens's only motion picture role was in Rene Clair's Pcrte de$ hla$ (1957). He also published poems and a novLa Tour de^ mirades (1953).

Breil,

Gregory, Russian-born physicist

1899. Nikolayev, Ore.),

was

(b. July 14,

Russia—d.

a highly

Sept. 13, 1981, Salem, esteemed theoretical physicist

who, in 1942, joined the Manhattan Project in Chicago and began making designs for an atomic bomb. Although Breit resigned from the project to embark on ballistics research at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., his expertise was needed again some seven years later when scientists feared that an explosion of a hydrogen bomb might set off a worldwide chain reaction. Breit's calculations discounted this theory, and he backed up his conclusion with tests using a new cyclotron at Oak Ridge (Tenn.) National Laboratories. He was also credited with helping to develop the resonance theory of nuclear reactions and with contributing to the first "atom smashers." For the latter he was awarded a National Medal of Science in 1967. During his long career Breit taught at the University of Minnesota (1923-24), was a physicist in the

magnetism at Carnegie Institution (1924-29), and was professor at New York University (1929-34), the University of Wisconsin (1934-47), Yale University (1937-68), and the State University of New York at Buffalo

department of

terrestrial

Mass. (1939), and the ChamberWayland, Mass. (1940). After his move to New York in 1946, Breuer's work became more heavy and sculptural. Some of his major commissions included the Sarah Lawrence College Theatre, Bronxville, N.Y. (1952); unesco Headquarters, Paris (1953-58; with Pier Luigi Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss); St. John's Abbey, Collegeville, Minn. (1953-61); De Bijenkorf department store,

house

at Lincoln,

cottage,

Rotterdam, Neth. (1955-57); the ibm research cenLa Gaude, Var, France (1960-62); the Whitney Museum of American Art. New York City (completed 1966); and the headquarters for the Departtre.

ment of Housing and Urban Development (hud), Washington, D.C. (1963-68). Among his numerous awards and tributes, Breuer received the coveted gold medal of the American Institute of Architects in 1968, and in 1976 he received the gold medal of the French Academie d'Architecture. He retired in the same year.

Brown, Christy, Irish Irish Free State— d.

writer (b. June 5, 1932, Dublin, Sept. 7, 1981, Parbrook, Somerset, England), overcame virtually total paralysis to become a successful novelist and poet. Brown

was born with cerebral palsy that left him unable any of his limbs except his left foot. His mother, who had 12 other children, refused to have him confined to an institution and taught him to read and, using his only viable limb, to write and eventually to type. In 1954 he published his highly successful autobiography. My Left Foot, and in 1970 the best-selling Down All the Days. Thanks mainly to the devoted care of his mother and his wife, Mary, whom he married in 1972, and to his own determination, his speech and muscular control improved. He published A Shadow of Summer in 1974 and Wild Grow the Lilies two years later. His last novel, A Promising Career, was due to appear in 1982. to control

Burn, Joshua Harold, British pharmacologist (b. March 6, 1892, Barnard Castle, England— d. July 13, 1981, Oxford, England), was professor of pharmacology at the University of Oxford (1937-59), the author of many standard works on the subject, and a pioneer in research into the measurement of vitamins and hormones. Burn studied at the Uni-

Cambridge and, after service during I. finished his studies at Guy's Hospijoined the Medical Research Council in 1920. In 1925 he became director of the Pharmacological Laboratories of the Pharmaceutical Society, heading an important research team. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1942 and in 1979 versity of

World War

He

tal.

became the

(1968-73).

first

logical Society's

Breuer, Marcel (Lajos), Hungarian-born architect and designer (b May 21, 1902, Pecs, Hung, d. July 1, 1981, New York, NY), was instrumental in creating modern furniture and building designs that were indicative of a technological age. Breuer was a leading exponent of the International Style, which was characterized by the use of open space and utilized reinforced concrete construction. From 1920 to 1928 he studied and then taught at the famous Bauhaus school of design. Under the tutelage of its master, Walter Gropius, Breuer designed prefabricated housing and modular furniture. In 1925, inspired by the shape of bicycle handlebars, he fashioned his classic Wassily chair, which featured leather straps slung across a tubular steel frame. In 1928 Breuer set up his own architectural firm in Berlin and created the Cesca chair, a tubular

—

BOOK OF THE YEAR

this

lain

dier in U.S. history.

el.

dining chair with a cane back and seat. During time he completed two outstanding projects: the Harnischmacher House (1932) in Weisbaden, Germany, and the Dolderthal Apartments (193436) in Zurich, Switz. Breuer then worked for a brief period in London with the architect F. R. S. Yorke. He designed some laminated plywood furniture that became widely imitated. In 1937 Breuer accepted a teaching position at Harvard University's School of Architecture and joined his old associate Walter Gropius. Together with Gropius he designed a series of wood-frame houses that combined elements of the International Style and American materials, resulting in a light, boxlike structure similar to many of his earlier European projects. Examples of this style were Breuer's steel

recipient of the British

Pharmaco-

Wellcome Gold Medal.

techniques, and began making forged iron sculptures. After holding his first exhi-

metalworking

bition in 1949, he produced two metal sculptures for the 1951 Festival of Britain and represented

1952 Venice Biennale. In the mid1950s he returned to modeling and produced a seof studies of figures in space that are among his best work. His later works include painted Britain at the

ries

bronzes. Cargill, Sir (Ian) Peter Macgillivray, British administrator (b. Sept. 29, 1915, India d. July 10,

—

1981, London, England), as senior vice-president (1974-80) of the World Bank was particulariy associated with development aid to the Indian subcontinent. Cargill was educated at the University of Oxford and in 1938 entered the Indian Civil

He joined the World Bank in 1952, became its Asian departments in 1961, and in 1974 became vice-president in charge of finance. As senior vice-president he was responsible for coordinating the work of the bank's vice-presidents and departmental directors. This administrative task grew to immense proportions as the bank continued to increase its aid and commitments to the less developed countries. Cargill was knighted Service.

director of

in

1981.

Carmichael,

public, and there was parliamentary opposition to a proposal that it should be sited on the Dover cliffs.

by

a

The model was defaced in the Tate Gallery Hungarian refugee. Butler, who trained as an

architect, taught at the Architectural Association

School from 1937 to 1939, As a conscientious objector during World War II, Butler worked as a blacksmith, gained considerable experience in

(Hoagland

Howard Car-

—

Mirage, Calif.), was a floundering lawyer before he found his niche as the songwriter of the smash hit "Stardust" and such others as "Lazy River," "Georgia on My Mind," "Old Buttermilk Sky," "Skylark," and "Lazybones." While studying for his law degree Carmichael associated with jazz cornetist Bix Beiderbecke, who greatly influenced his style, Carmichael's first composition, "Riverboat Shuffle," was recorded by Beiderbecke and the Wolverines in 1924 and became a jazz classic. In 1927 Carmichael wrote "Washboard Blues," but it was not until "Stardust" was recorded (1930) by Isham Jones's orchestra that his songs were in demand. Other favourites include "Rockin' Chair," "The Nearness of You," "Two Sleepy People," in June," "I Get Along Without You Very Well," and "In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening," for which he won an Academy Award in 1951. The self-taught pianist and singer then embarked on a highly successful acting career and

"Memphis

was featured in such films as To Have and Have Not. Johnny Angel. Young !\Aan with a Horn. The Best Years of Our Lives, and Canyon Passage. Caroe, Sir Olaf Kirkpatrick, British administrator (b. Nov. 15, 1892—d. Nov. 23,1981, Steyning, Sussex, England), was serving as governor of the North-West Frontier Province in 1946-47 during the difficult period preceding the transfer of British power in India. Educated at the University of Oxford, he served in the Army during World War I before commencing a distinguished career in the Indian Civil Service. Caroe became a recognized expert on the Indian Ocean region and on the Middle East and published such valuable works of political analysis as Wells of Power Soviet Empire (1952).

West Butler, Reg (Reginald CorrEREU Butler), British sculptor (b, April 28, 1913, Buntingford, Hertfordshire, England— d. Oct. 23, 1981, Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire, England), gained notoriety in 1953 with his prizewinning entry in an international competition for a monument to "The Unknown Political Prisoner." The work, a semiabstract construction, was greeted with bewilderment by the

Hoagy

michael), U.S. composer and actor (b. Nov. 22, 1899, Bloomington, Ind. d. Dec. 27, 1981, Rancho

As governor

(1951) and The of the North-

Frontier, he aroused opposition

by proposing

referendum to decide the fate of the region; he resigned his post as a guarantee of nonto hold a

interference while voting took place. voted to join Pakistan.

The province

Chagia, Mohomedali Currim, Indian

official

(b.

Bombay, India— d. Feb. 9, 1981, Bombay), was dedicated to preserving Indian civil liberties; while serving under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1966-67 he became highly critical of her Sept. 30, 1900,

increasingly authoritarian government. A respected liberal lawyer and jurist. Chagia was chief justice of the Bombay High Court from 1947 to 1958 and a judge to the International Court of Justice at The Hague from 1957 to l^bO. He served as ambassador to the U.S., Cuba, and Mexico from 1958

103

Obituaries 1968 of Belle du seigneur, which won the Grand Prix of the Academie Francjaise. A massive. Rabelaisian

BOOK OF THE YEAR

work, it developed the themes of his eariier novels, and Mangeclous (1938). Cohen, whose parents emigrated to France while he was still a child, studied law and in 1922 joined the International Labour Ofiice in Geneva, where he spent his working life. His small literary output also included LeLwre de ma merf (1954) and Les Valeureux (1969), originally intended as part of Belle du seigneur but published separately. Although Cohen was an atheist who claimed to venerate God, he was profoundly conscious of his Jewish background and in 1927 founded La Revue juive, contributors to which included Einstein and Freud. Solal (1930)

to 1961 and was high commissioner to Britain and ambassador to Ireland from 1962 to 1963. Chagla then became minister of education (1963-66), leader of the Indian delegation to the

UN

Security

Council during the debates on Kashmir (1964-65), and minister for external affairs (1966-67). In 1978 he received a National unesco Award for Distinguished Service to

Chambers,

Human

Rights.

Sir (Stanley) Paul, British economist

and 1904 d. Dec. 23, 1981, London, England), as chairman (1960-68) of Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. (ici), Britain's largest industrial group, helped the company to expand into Europe and the U.S. and made an unsuccessful bid to acquire the textile group Courtaulds Ltd. Chambers also became known for his outspoken views on British economic policy. He was educated at the London School of Economics and after graduating in 1928 joined the Inland Revenue and served as secretary and commissioner of its board until he joined ici in 1947. In the following year he was made finance director and in 1952 deputy chairman. As chairman from 1960 he reorganized industrialist (b. April 2,

—

the structure of the company but failed in his much-publicized bid for Courtaulds. The latter was a serious blow to his prestige; however, he served on several government committees and in 1967 formed the Industrial Policy Group to study the problems of the British economy. After his retirement from ici, he became treasurer of the Open University and prochancellor of the University of Kent. Chambers was knighted in 1965.

Chapin, Harry, U.S. singer and songwriter 7,

1942,

New

Island, N.Y.),

(b. Dec York, N.Y.— d. July 16, 1981, Long by combining elements of folksing-

ing and rock, devised his own "story songs" describing lost opportunities, cruel twists of fate, and

disappointments in love. In 1972 his ballad "Taxi" top of the record charts. Other hits included "Cat's in the Cradle," "WOLD," and "Sniper." Chapin, a persistent social activist, gave benefit hit the

concerts to raise money for a variety of causes and organizations. He raised thousands of dollars for the Performing Arts Foundation of Long Island, for the Multiple Sclerosis Foundation, for environ-

mental and consumer causes, and for a campaign to

combat world hunger. In 1979 Pres. Jimmy Carter named Chapin a commissioner on the Presidential Council on World Hunger. Chapin was killed when his car was hit from behind by a truck.

Chavanon, Christian, French lawyer and administrator (b. March 12, 1913, Pontivy, Morbihan, France— d. June 6, 1981, Neuilly, France), was honorary vice-president of the French Council of State (the administrative supreme court, which advises the government on the drafting of bills and orders) from 1979 to 1981. Trained as a lawyer, he practiced in Bordeaux until 1941. Chavanon then held various administrative posts in government as a legal adviser until becoming director of the Societe Nationale des Entreprises de Presse (195355). In 1958 Gen. Charles de Gaulle appointed him director general of radio, and in 1961 he became director of the Agence Havas news agency. Chavanon then became (1973) head of the financial section of the Council of State.

He was

a skillful

politician, known for his acid tongue and his ability to survive despite changes of regime.

Chayefsky, Paddy (Sidnev Stychevskv), US. playwright and screenwriter (b. Jan. 29, 1923, New York, d. Aug. 1, 1981, New York), was first heralded for his sensitive television play "Marty," a heartwarming story about a fat lonely butcher and his courtship of a plain schoolteacher; he later

NY—

adapted "Marty" (1955) for the screen and first

Academy Award

for scriptwriting.

won

his

Chayefsky

received two other Academy Awards for scriptwriting for the frenetic satiric films Hoipifal (1971) and Netwnrk (1976). The pervasive theme in Chayefsky's plays and scripts is of people "caught in the decline of their society." Besides his plays

Coia, Jack (Iacomo Antonio Coia), Scottish architect (b. July 17, 1898, Wolverhampton, England— d.

Aug. 14, 1981, Glasgow, Scotland), as senior partner in the firm of Gillespie, Kidd and Coia was noted in particular for his designs of Roman Cathchurches in or near his home town of Glasgow. St. Columba's, Mayhill, built in

olic

They included

1937, St. Bride's, East Kilbride (1964), and Our Lady of Good Counsel, Dennistoun (1966). His work was remarkable for its uncompromising application of plain brickwork and modern styles to for television, including "The Catered Affair" and "The Bachelor Party," Chayefsky had three Broadway hits: Middle of the Night. The Tenth Man, and Gideon. After The Passion of Joseph D. flopped, Chayefsky rejected Broadway and embarked on a

highly

successful

screenwriting career. His achievements include The Goddess (1958), The Americanization of Emily (1964), Ice Station Zebra (1967), PainI Your Wagon (1969), and his last. Altered Slates (1979).

Rene (Rene' Chomette), French film director Nov. 11, 1898, Paris, France— d. March 15, 1981, Neuilly, France), was a noted experimental filmmaker (Pans qui dort. 1923; Un Chapeau de paille

Clair, (b.

1927) who made the transition to sound with the delightful musical Sous les toits de Paris Its sentimental charm, its delight in his native city, and its concern for the lives of ordinary people also characterized his best works: Le Million (1931), A nous la liberie (1932), and Quatorie juillet (1932). There was much of the same verve in The Ghost Goes West (1935), made in England, but his exile in Hollywood during the 1940s took him outside his true milieu, and the films he made there, d'ltalie,

(1930).

including / Married a Witch (1942) and // Happened Tomorrow (1943), lacked the unaffected gaiety of his

work. Les Grandes Manoeuvres (1955), Porte des Mas (1957), and Tout I Or du monde (1961), made after his return to France in 1946, struck a more earlier

sombre note. By the mid-1960s the France he celebrated had vanished, and the cinema was dominated by a "new wave" of directors. In 1960 Clair

became the first filmmaker Academie Fran^aise.

to be elected to the

Cockburn, Claud,

British journalist and humorist (b China—d. Dec. IS, 1981, Cork, Ireland), founded the newssheet The Week in 1933 and established his reputation as the irrever-

April 12, 1904, Peking,

ent gadfly of British journalism. The Week, which frequently risked prosecution for libel under the Official Secrets Act, circulated among policymakers throughout the worid and provided a mixture

of rumour and fact not available elsewhere. Cockburn came from a distinguished Scottish family and was the son of a consular official in China. He was educated at Kebel College, Oxford, and joined the staff of The Times in 1929 but resigned in 1932

devote himself to left-wing politics. He joined Communist Party, fought in the Spanish Civil for the Dai/y Worker. In 1946 he ceased to edit The Week and became a free-lance writer for such publications as Punch and Private Eye. He also wrote an autobiography, /. Claud (1967), and several other books including Reporter in Spain (1936), Nine Bald Men (1956), Bestseller (1972), Jericho Road (1974), and Union Power (1976). to

the

War, and reported

Cohen, Albert, Swiss writer fu,

Greece—d.

mained

(b. Aug. 16, 1895, CorOct. 17, 1981, Geneva, Switz.), reunknown until the publication in

relatively

the design of communal buildings. Coia trained at the Glasgow School of Architecture, and after qualifying in 1924, he went abroad. In 1927 he returned to Glasgow to set up practice. His firm also designed schools, housing projects in Cumbernauld and East Kilbride, St. Peter's College, Cardross, housing for the University of Hull, and

Robinson College, Cambridge. Coia was president Glasgow Institute of Architects and the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland. A fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1941, he was awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the

for Architecture in 1969.

Cole, "Cozy" (Wiluam Randolph Cole), U.S. jazz musician (b. Oct. 17, 1909, East Orange, N.J.—d. Jan. 29, 1981, Columbus, Ohio), was a versatile percussionist whose drumming career was highlighted by the 1958 hit "Topsy," the only drum solo ever to sell more than one million records. jazz

After making his recording debut (1930) with Jelly Roll Morton, Cole performed with several major bands, including Stuff Smith's comedy jazz group. In 1938 he joined Cab Calloway's band, and his drumming was featured on "Crescendo in Drums," "Paradiddle," and "Ratamacue." Cole became one of the first black musicians on a network musical staff when he was hired (1942) by cbs radio to play with Raymond Scott's orchestra. In the next year he appeared in the Broadway musical Carmen Jones doing "Beat Out Dat Rhythm on a Drum" and later played with Benny Goodman's Quintet in

Obituaries SfVfn Lively Arts (1945), another musical.

From 1949

to 1953 he toured with Louis Armstrong's All Stars and in the late 1950s was a regular at the Metropole

New York City. In 1962 the U.S. Department of State sent Cole and his band on a tour of Africa. After playing in the quintet of trumpeter Jonah Jones (1969-76), Cole became artist in residence and student lecturer at Capital University in in

Columbus, Ohio. Coon, Carleton S(tevens), U.S. anthropologist and archaeologist (b. June 23, 1904, Wakefield, Mass. d. June 3, 1981, Gloucester, Mass.), often conducted anthropological studies in conjunction with archaeological investigations and was the author of the highly controversial work Origin of Races (1962). In 1949 Coon unearthed approximately 31,000 agricultural artifacts, some dated at about 6050 Bc, while exploring Belt Cave in northern

—

Iran. Two years later Coon returned to Iran and excavated Hotu Cave, which contained thick rock deposits that revealed an unbroken cultural sequence encompassing the Iron Age, Bronze Age, and New Stone .Age. Beneath a layer of rock that had fallen from the ceiling of the cave, Coon found layers of sand and gravel from the last glacial period. Ninety-three metres (39 ft) down he discovered the fossilized bones of human beings. These findings culminated in the publication of The Story

Man (1954), which traced the history of man 50,000 years from the Ice Age to modern times. Coon set forth the controversial theory that five distinct major races of man existed before the emergence of Homo sapiens as the dominant species. T^is theory was disputed and then largely ignored by scientists. Coon, who received both undergraduate and graduate degrees from Harvard University, spoke ten languages, including some used by the tribes he studied. He taught anthropology at his alma mater before becoming professor of anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania and curator of ethnology at the University Museum in of

Philadelphia in 1948. Coon was a prolific writer, and some of his other notable works included: Tnhes of the /?i/ (1931), The Race^884,736. Another prodigy, Li Yuejiang, could reportedly read 2,500 Chinese characters at the age of six — an impressive accomplishment for even the most studious high school graduate. But 12-yearold Wei Ruoyang has been acclaimed by friends to be the Chinese prodigy of prodigies. They say he has X-ray eyes that can detect hidden tumours, material objects placed behind brick walls, and the course of an underground canal or river. When asked how he was able to do such things, Wei said he simply sees these things with his ears. Any other questions? In

mid-June, George Foster found

a

$100

McDonald County bond on the shelf of his Ginger Blue Lodge and Resort in southwestern Missouri. According to notations on the back of the 1871 certificate, county

officials couldn't

redeem the bond

for

$100

in 1874, 1875, or 1876 because there wasn't

enough money

county treasury. Nor does the county have enough money to pay off the bond now. Counting interest, Foster figures he is entitled to about $3.5 million. in the

Joseph

Granville's financial predictions shook up the U.S. stock market in January, but in April his earthquake predictions weren't able to rattle the San Gabriel Mountains in California. Granville made news by saying that the Los Angeles area would be hit by a devastating earthquake at, more or less, 5;31 am (Pacific time) on April 10. But the Earth didn't tremble as Granville's statistical analysis indicated it would, so the would-be seismologist found himself standing on very shaky ground.

Driving after drinking can be dangerous, but taking a taxi home after a party also has its risks. After attending a gathering at the Hyatt Regency Chicago, Bruce Borys decided to take a cab rather than drive the 65 km (40 mi) to his suburban home in Round Lake Beach. Al Hardy, Jr., the cabbie, simply did what he was told. He headed north on Interstate 94 and waited to be told where to turn off. Some 275 km (170 mi) later Borys woke up in Wisconsin. He finally got

home by phoning his boss, who came and picked him up. But there's more to the story than

that.

registered

Hardy not only wanted the $235 on the meter but $114

he was assessed for making an illegal Uturn to head back to Illinois. Unable to pay the fine, he spent the night in jail, then picked up a $40 ticket for speeding on his way back home. He figured Borys should fine also. Since neither party was willing to yield, the matter was headed for the courts.

pay that

Midyear graduations are always something special, but when 35-year-old John Hull Francis III received his diploma from Southern Oregon State College in June, all eyes were upon him. He had graduated

with distinction

completing

after

difficult

courses in science and math. And during all that time he had not uttered a single word. Eight years earlier he had begun an experi-

ment

in

suited

him

nonverbal communication that so well he chose not to speak any more, even though he was quite capable of doing so.

showed up at the same address Houston suburb expecting to move into the three-bedroom house they had all separately rented after reading an ad in a Texas newspaper. They came with their children

Six families in a

far away as Colorado, Ohio, MinOklahoma, and Missouri. The sixth was already living in the Houston All had been victimized by a man and

from as nesota,

family area.

woman who rented a house they did not own and then vanished with nearly $5,000.

for a fine

Work-related death has been given

a star-

new interpretation by Administrative Law Judge Leo J. LaPorte of Pontiac, Mich. Though the decision was being challenged tling

Nipper will never realize it, but she played a significant role in tfie )uly wedding of Britain's Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer. The tiny female ferret was commissioned to pull a nylon thread through a small pipe that ran underground from Buckingham Palace to the Victoria Memorial. The thread was attached to the end of a television cable that was drawn through the pipe so that commentators could provide live coverage of the royal procession.

in an appeals court, 37-year-oId Signorelli's

Domenico

widow and two

children were

week

weeks.

awarded $167

a

for 500

Si-

gnorelli, a project engineer, was sent to England by his employer, gkn Automotive

Components While

Inc.

there, he

of

and

a

Birmingham, Mich. woman employee of

GKN subsidiary engaged in sex in the woman's flat after business hours. Signorel-

a

li

was overcome by carbon monoxide, went

and died a week later. In a written opinion, Judge LaPorte stated that into a coma, Signorelli's

"work assignment in England to situations and hazards that and degree" from

exposed him

were

different in nature

those found in Michigan. If a higher court concurs with the judge's reasoning and final ruling, the engineer's family could receive as much as $250,000 in workman's

compensation

benefits.

The business card was

stuck on a tree in New York City's Central Park. It read: "Quality grass delivered. Money back guar-

was all, except for a phone number. A woman jogger who spotted the card had been thinking about a new lawn for quite some time, so she passed the card on to her husband. When he phoned, the antee." That

conversation didn't quite

make

sense.

He

wanted to know the cost per square foot, but the supplier quoted his price in ounces. Both soon realized they were talking about very different varieties of grass.

128

the Far Eastern Economic Review in to receive a comphmentary copy of Leonard Silk's Economics in Plain English from the U.S. consulate. But they were somewhat surprised to discover that the only thing in plain English was the cover. Everything else was in Chinese.

Editors

at

tary

ceremony

at

Brigham Young Universi-

He injured himself severely when he somehow sat on his bayonet, which had

Hong Kong were happy

ty.

Chinese herbal medicine has been dispensed by doctors for thousands of years, but some patients in Sichuan (Szechwan)

been tossed onto the front seat of his car. Doctors were able to stitch up the wound, but no one was able to resuscitate four of Heise's canaries that were crushed to death by falling plaster. After Heise slipped on the wet carpet and badly injured his tailbone, he said he began to wonder if "God wanted me dead, but just kept missing

Province are now being sent to a restaurant rather than to a hospital. The menu includes over 100 dishes for various ailments. Diabetics are instructed to order the special

dumpling soup; those with fevers, the sliced pork spiced with chrysanthemums; and people with edema, the carp and red beans. The recommended cure for stomach problems, neuroses, and heart trouble is ginseng soup. And if you don't know what ails you, you need only describe your symptoms to the assistant manager, an expert in traditional Chinese medicine, and he'll tell

you what

to order.

Sundials came first, then clocks and watches in a bewildering array of forms

and styles. There were water, sand, and oil lamp clocks, then mechanical devices that used springs, pendulums, and weights.

Much

later, electrical clocks

made an

ap-

some relying on

batteries

for

pearance,

their power.

And

for scientists, there are

now atomic clocks, the ultimate cy. One of the newest watches

in accurato

go into

is called the omni Voice Master. looks like an ordinary digital watch, but when a button is pushed a voice announces the time of day. The tiny alarm is also new. At the designated moment, the wearer hears the time announced, then about 20 seconds of Boccherini's popular Minuet. And the next development? Only time can

production It

tell

When

a burglar tried to invade the Phoenix, Ariz., home of Gladys Kastensmith in the wee hours of the morning, he must have thought he'd have an easy time of it. But he was only halfway through the doggie door when he looked up and saw a woman pointing a .38-calibre pistol at his head. The 77-year-old woman must have told her unwanted guest she had learned to shoot in the wide open spaces of Montana, because he was huddled on the floor when the police arrived.

Brian Heise had more than his share of luck in July, and most of it was bad. When his apartment in Provo, Utah, became flooded from a broken pipe in the upstairs apartment, the manager told him to go out and rent a water vacuum. That's when he discovered his car had a flat tire. He changed it, then went inside again to phone a friend for help. The electric shock he got from the phone so startled him that he inadvertently ripped the instrument off the wall. Before he could leave the apartment a second time, a neighbour had to kick down the apartment door because wa-

damage had jammed it tight. While all was going on, someone stole Heise's it was almost out of gas. He found the car a few blocks away but had to push it to a gas station, where he filled up the

ter

"

A bank robber

in Brisbane, Australia, escaped arrest by stashing his loot under some bushes as police cars came screeching to a halt in front of the bank. He then mingled with the crowd until the commotion subsided. But when he returned to gather up the $35,000, it was gone. Police eventually traced the bank robber to Sydney, but before they could begin their interrogation

the suspect insisted on filing a police report against the unknown thief. As police pondered the case, they wondered what charges could be brought against the second man if he were ever caught. He certainly was not guilty of robbing the bank, and he certainly hadn't taken anything that belonged to the man who accused him of stealing.

When does a hole in one go down on your scorecard as an unspectacular par three? Bill Mette can tell you all about it. He, Bill Pratt, and their wives were shooting a round of golf at the Shoreacres course outside Chicago when it happened. Mette teed off at the 127-yd (115-m) 12th hole and watched with amazement as his ball rolled into the cup for a hole-in-one. That unforgettable swing was Mette's second shot. The first ball landed in water for an automatic two-stroke penalty.

The Archives of Surgery reported during the year that when less experienced surgeons are involved, surgical staples are safer than traditional sutures for closing incisions. But some surgeons with long experience also opt for staples because they are faster and thus permit patients to be transferred from operating room to recov-

Shar-Peis are a rare and still unrecognized breed that masters seem to prize for their loose skin effect. This Shar-Pei is so wrinkled it seems to have been squeezed out of a tube of putty by a fun-loving sculptor. Ernest Albright, owner of

Fawn 2nd, thinks his Shar-Pei sets a new norm for loose and wrinkled skin. Others apparently agree because in early August the one-year-old animal won first place in the Ugly Dog Contest held in Petaluma, Calif.

specified words in newspapers. Three did. They got the promised credits when they presented a newspaper ad that read: "Exorbitant, motley, augment, atheist, agnostic, acumen, embryo, hypocrite, fortitude, forlorn, inanimate,

impromptu, opaque, mes-

merize, vogue, moral, morose, nocturnal, nonchalant, obtuse, prudent, stationery, sagacious, recite, apiary." They simultaneously demonstrated that they had already learned the meaning of ingenuity: they had placed the ad in the newspaper themselves.

ery unit sooner.

Taldng an aspirin can be hazardous to your health, at least if you use a table knife to dislodge a pill that has stuck in the throat. An unidentified man in Seattle, Wash., did just that. He succeeded in loosening the aspirin but in the process swallowed the knife. Surgeons at Swedish Hospital removed the knife, which had fallen into the esophagus.

Sato hopes to make millions marketing powdered alcoholic drinks manufactured in Japan. He's convinced that travelers won't be the only ones snapping up his products because everyone will find it delightfully convenient to conjure up a shot of whiskey, brandy, or Japanese sake with just plain water and a swizzle stick. Sato's brainstorm has already created quite JInlChi

a stir

among

distillers.

this

car, but

Vocabulary building

tank. That evening Heise attended a mili-

teacher Karol Scott that she offered extra credits to her junior high school students in Northglenn, Colo., if they could find 25

is

so important

to

At a rate of thousands of characters per second, it doesn't take the computer long to print bills for Blue Cross policyholders in New York. But when it makes mistakes, the

computer's highly vaunted speed can be

its

downfall. In early April, the computer routinely addressed a $183.03 bill to George

and Mary Blagmon, then began spewing out a veritable blizzard of duplicates. Within a few days the Blagmons had received 2,500 bills calling for a cumulative payment of $457,575.

employees in Port Huron, Mich., sounded an alarm and locked all the bank's doors after a robber got away with $1,250. While they waited inside for the police to arrive, a patron pounded on the door so insistently that an assistant manager was sent to investigate. The bank robber explained through the closed door that he had had a change of heart and wanted to return Banl(

the money.

Edward Szuiult's wife was clearly upset when a magistrate in Gloucester, England, 129

because the 80-year-old retired seaman was mainly concerned with the kitchen table. The $51 in bills were gone, as was the $30 or so in change that he had placed on the table with a note. Chase smiled contentedly. The unknown intruder had complied perfectly with Chase's written request: he had not ransacked the house. Five new homes costing about $70,000 each could have been built with the government money that was poured into an experimental project in Michigan alongside Interstate 94. The project earned the state Department of Transportation's first Silver Sow award for profligate spending at a time when social programs were being cut back. In making the award, state Rep. Richard Fitzpatrick felt that $348,000 was a bit much to spend on a solar-powered restroom at a

freeway

rest stop.

Who

discovered America? In 1975 scuba diver Bob Meistrell discovered debris from an old shipwreck in shallow water off the coast of southern California. It was a huge doughnut-shaped stone that weighed some 125 kg (275 lb). After years of research and consultation with experts in Asia, two marine archaeologists from the University of Calif., became convinced that the stone relic fits the pattern of anchors

San Diego,

used by Chinese seamen more than 2,000 years ago. Other relics that were later found in the same area, they say, reinforce the belief that traditional views of the discovery of America are wrong. The scientists

For Hideaki Maruyama, getting from place to place is as simple as putting one foot down after the other. His employer, the Honda Motor Co. of Japan, was so taken with the unique design that

it

ordered one manufactured

just for kicks.

remanded her husband to custody for another week on an assault charge. Determined to stick by her mate, she entered the court's

detention

room

and

tightly

squeezed her husband's hand. The couple were then taken by ambulance to the Gloucester Royal Hospital's accident unit, where doctors slowly dissolved the superglue that 25-year-old Wendy had smeared on her hand before being searched by security guards outside the detention room.

Raiza Ruiz, a 26-year-old medical student at Venezuela's Central University, was just two months away from graduation when her family was notified she had been killed in a plane crash in the Amazon jungle. In due time the coffin was turned over to the Ruiz family and buried in Caracas. Six days after the crash the girl, still very much alive, found her way out of the jungle and contacted her family. When authorities opened up the coffin it was found to contain animal bones and quicklime. Raiza received her medical diploma in November, but lawyers were still trying to bring her back

Government documents certifying to her death and burial meant that Ruiz was to

According to Berita Buana, a newspaper in Jakarta, the boy was found at the top of a coconut tree. Bandriyo swore he had been transported there by a ghost that cries for help.

had kidnapped him.

legally dead.

Boiling Springs, Pa., is not known as a convention town, but the conventioneers it

welcomed

were somewhat special. wore a name tag because each belonged to an organization open only to those named Jim Smith.

None

in July

of the 70 delegates

Shirley Rider became an unwed mother in Adelaide, South Australia, she put up her son for adoption. During the ten years that followed she married, had two more children, and then divorced. In time she met a divorced man and they fell in love. Before their planned marriage, the two began discussing their respective backgrounds. It was then that they realized Shirley's first child had been adopted the man she now planned to marry.

by

group

of

boys headed

for

Kranggan, their

native village. Suddenly they realized one number had disappeared. They searched for two hours before hearing his

130

have been traveling as fast as the arresting Not so with 19-year-old Michael Coyer. When he was nabbed in July on Interstate 15, the officer clocked him at 72 mph (116 km/h) in Cajon Pass. Cooper insisted he was going 75 mph and said he had witnesses who could back up his claim. After all, why be satisfied, he reasoned, with 3 mph less when you've just set a new world record for speed on a skateboard. officer claimed.

August 1979 Charles Adams stopped at Georgia and asked for $3 worth of gas. The attendant set the pump for that amount but it reached $4.10 before Adams noticed what had happened. Since In

a service station in

her that she would get into trouble for ing pot.

but he refused to leave his driver's license

sell-

he had only $3 in his pocket, he offered drive as

home and

security.

get the rest of the

The

Adams was jailed. During September the small African kingdom of Swaziland paid tribute to its ruler, 82-year-old King Sobhuza II. The Lion of Swaziland was obviously happy that so

many

of his relatives

could attend the

fes-

marked the 60th year of his those present were some hundred wives, five or six hundred children, and an untold number of blood rela-

to

money,

police were called and In early April 1981 after ,

Muscogee County jury found Adams innocent, the Southland Corp., which owns the gas station, was ordered to pay Adams $100,000 in punitive damages because he had been arrested without cause. a

tivities that

reign.

Among

tives belonging to later generations.

of their

America or any

Columbus

Minnie Hall was fined $250 for selling marijuana after pleading guilty before Judge Ken Porter in Sevierville, "Tenn. After expressing regret for what she had done, the 82-year-old criminal told the judge her 98-year-old mother had warned

After visiting a bazaar in Solo, Indonesia, a

certain that Chinese reached

Persons arrested for speeding on California highways often insist they could not

When

life.

still

feel

hundreds of years before other European explorer.

When his

Harry Chase returned home from vacation, he knew his house in

summer

New

Orleans, La., had been broken into. That in itself did not surprise or upset him

wants is for you to have pleasdreams and sleep in peace and quiet."

"All the lion

ant

That was the message

to Brazilian taxpayers who had already filed honest reports by early April. But for those who had not met their obligations, authorities sent a dire warning that "you have irritated the lion." To reinforce the message, the tax bureau

used advertisements showing a startled

balding man in pajamas awakened by a lion with bared teeth. Taxpayers who filed suspiciously low income figures were notified that the lion would like to see the real numbers. A doctor in Rio de Janeiro who re-

ney M.

Elliott

ceived such a message immediately sat

Ward was

down and wrote a supplementary check

about the other

for

$9,000. After cross-referencing patients' reported payments to their respective doctors, the tax bureau notified one doctor that he still owed the lion 5270,000.

not so tolerant

that tried in vain to damage a piece of luggage. The consumer affairs section of WAGA-TV in .Atlanta, Ga., decided to let Willie B., a 200-kg (450-lb) gorilla repeat the experiment in his cage at the local zoo. He not only ripped off the leather cover but tore the suitcase in two so he could use one part for a drinking cup. The TV reporter later learned that the ape in the commercial was a large chimpanzee that weighed some 135 kg (300 lb) less than Willie B.

Waiting

in line at a Battle

Creek, Mich.,

post office became so frustrating for a group of patrons in June that they decided to do

something about ing

"We want

it.

After they began chant-

service!" a third clerk sud-

denly appeared and opened up

a service

window. The patrons were so elated over the success of their clamouring that they decided to give it another try Amazingly, a fourth clerk opened another window just seconds after the chanting was renewed.

When

Janakabai Dhangar began operating her illegal still in Nasik City, India, she trained a band of monkeys to act as lookouts. Whenever the animals spotted the khaki uniforms of policemen, they swung into action and ripped off the officers' clothes. That gave the bootlegger plenty of time to stash the evidence. But the next time the police showed up, they hauled Dhangar off to jail. They had put an end to the monkey business by dressing in ordinary clothes and tossing peanuts to the lookouts. life has special meaning for Buddhists, so the news from Osaka, Japan, seemed strange only to those who did not

women

when she learned Smokey s life. In

in

mid-September Sheriff Donald Giardino, who charged Ward with bigamy, said he had so far located eight of Smokey's wives — a Connie in Missouri, a Barbara in Mon-

tana—and was During the year, American Tourister aired commercial featuring an ape

a televison

Smokey made

affirmed that

her feel safe and secure. Both were quick to defend Ward even after they discovered they were apparently married to the same man at the same time. But Marie Marshall

still

counting.

1975 a U.S. treasury agent visited Lannie Martorell at her own request. She had an unusual penny and wanted to know more about it. The agent took the penny, then In

personally returned

it

some two years

later.

He also gave Martorell a written statement certifying that she owned "one genuine silver 1975-D one-cent coin inadvertently struck on a Nepalese 25-piasa blank." Martorell says a penny is still a penny, so she has done nothing about it, but a collector of unusual coins would gladly try to convince her it is worth a great deal more if only she would part with it.

Pam Johnson of Mira Loma, Calif., admits Jonathan can be a little silly now and then. And she ought to know. Her Thoroughbred horse sometimes pulls the stable fire alarm, then gives the firemen who arrive to put out the blaze the big hee-haw.

that Lancelot, a

congressmen are forbidden to members of their immediate families. U.S.

But Rep. Billy Lee Evans of Georgia needed urgent office help, so on St. Valentine's Day he put his wife of several years on the payroll. No one saw any reason to criticize. Billy and April had divorced about three

weeks

earlier.

Airlines, which operates flights across the Pacific, added a diversion for travelers in late August. The seven batteryoperated slot machines, however, were so overworked that not one slot was operational by the time the plane set down in San Francisco.

Singapore

understand Takeo Kasabo wanted to erect modest memorial to commemorate living things that had been destroyed during scientific experiments undertaken for the benefit of mankind. So in May a stone inscription was placed in Kyoto's Manju-in temple above a buried Buddhist prayer

and the ashes of Bacillus subtilis. which represented the many microorganisms that have been destroyed in the course of scien-

scroll

tific

research.

June, Lady Luck smiled on a discouraged prospector in South Africa. Boet Sonneburg, who was about to give up his private claim near Windsorlon, found an 18-carat diamond that he sold for $25,000. Just three days later he found another gem, a 148-carat diamond worth an estimated $1 million The 40-year-old prospector decided to keep on digging because "Good things In

come

in threes, don't they?

Luther ("Smokey") Ward, according to Elka Ward, is a kind and gentle man. Daph-

young Angora

goat,

is

That being the case, Lancelot must be mythological unicorn.

hire

Respect for

a

Encyclopaedia Britannica defines a unicorn as "a mythological animal resembling a horse or with a single horn on its forehead." Visitors to Marine World, an amusement complex not far from San Francisco, are sure a kid

real.

a real

Squadron leader Dave Thomas was given was told, would give spectators an awesome view of his aircraft: 41°53' N, 87°38' E. Had Thomas followed directions, his Vulcan would have been viewed by startled inhabitants of China's coordinates that, he

northwest Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur) Autonomous Region. Incidentally, 12-year-old Chicagoan Janice Hay was among the first to point out that 87° E should have been 87° W. Pallett of Vale, Ore. didn't want to federal income tax returns for 1977 and 1978, but he was worried about the consequences of simply doing nothing. So instead of reporting incomes of $7,300 and

Donald

,

file

Bernadette Scott is not a suspicious person, though the 23-year-old woman has had plenty of reasons to become so. Her husband, Peter, insured her life for more than half a million dollars, then tried to life six times — twice by poison, twice by setting fire to the house while she was ill and confined to bed, and twice by trying to entice her to the edge of a cliff. But all the while Bernadette suspected nothing. take her

Then

computer programmer, perwife to stand in the middle of a

Peter, a

suaded his

road in order, he told her, to test their car's suspension system. As Peter sped toward his intended victim, he had a sudden

change of heart and swerved away at the last moment. Bernadette then learned the awful truth. Peter later pleaded guilty to a variety of charges and was sentenced to life imprisonment by a British court.

$13,000 for those two years, respectively, he mailed in tax forms that contained only his personal identification and a statement claiming the constitutional right to withhold information that could be incriminating.

During

after all the

Pallett's court

trial

in

May,

evidence had been presented,

U.S. District Court Judge James Burns instructed the jury that Pallett's defense could be legitimate if he honestly believed that truthful answers could incriminate him. On that basis he was acquitted.

passengers sometimes find out aflanding that their baggage was left behind. In October several passengers on a

Airline ter

morning flight from Newark, N.J., to Washington, DC, had no such worry be-

Chicago's annual lakefront air and water show is ballyhooed as one of the city's most spectacular summer events. That's one rea-

cause their luggage had been put aboard. A short time later, however, it was prematurely delivered to the roof of a Sherwin-

son, perhaps, why Britain's Royal Air Force accepted an invitation to participate

a

and show

off its

mammoth

Vulcan bomber.

Williams paint manufacturing complex and nearby backyard when the plane's cargo door opened in midflight.

131

OUR CHANGING CITIES by Richard Whittingham

Modern

cities

in

the United States as well as

bitions of

in a

constant state of

flux.

inhabitants have created an endless

its

procession of people streaming into the metropolises as well as

another marching out of them, bound

The transiency in urban residency over the last 100 years was as real as the kaleidoscopic changes that had been wrought on the cities' concrete faces by men and machines relentlessly building, razing, and renovating the urfor the suburbs or other locales.

ban landscape. There was, however, tivity, a

a distinct pattern to this ac-

pair of trends that

have been traced and

defined by a wide variety of sociologists, urbanolo-

and demographers and that now, in the 1980s, appeared to be undergoing a kind of juxtaposition of their historical directions. They were significant because they revealed quite a bit about the lifestyles, priorities, designs, and desires of the people of the U.S. and of modern society in general. The first trend was the large-scale migration from gists,

rural areas to

the central

cities, a

movement

that

began in the 1800s and accelerated at a breathtaking pace in the 1900s. It was followed by a major if not mass defection of urbanites to the suburbs in the middle of the 20th century, creating substantial entities dubbed metropolitan areas— cities and their surrounding communities. Now, in the 1980s, there appeared to be a new and not necessarily anticipated turnabout within the pattern that actually involves two movements, one the beginning of an inflow back to the central cities and the other an outflow from the urban-suburban complexes to nonmetropolitan areas, especially in the West, Southwest, and the Mountain States. The latter trend,

overall

although

still

admittedly small

scheme, was simply

in

the

a reversal of the first

one

that prompted U.S. Department of demographer Calvin Beale to observe, "How do you keep them down in Paree after

trend,

Agriculture

they've seen the farm?"

Richard Whittingham is a free-lance writer and editor. He is the author ol Martial Justice and many other books

on contemporary

132

affairs.

City dwellers are not

in

The nature of 20th-century society and the needs, whims, and amEurope are

nomadic by

nature.

They do

move for the sake of movsome desire for a new environ-

not, generally speaking,

ing merely to slake

ment, a different vista, a change of neighbours. There are distinct sociological and economic factors at

the root of these trends, and

move

impel the throngs to or from the city. nature, that

pened so

It is

it is

their effects that

in specific

directions to

the recent turnabout,

the most curious. Because

is

recently

it

is

in its

it

less substantiated,

dual

has hap-

but there

evidence that noteworthy changes are taking place in the traffic between the cities and suburbs is

clear

and also between the metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

Rise of the Cities. The city in the U.S. began to assume its modern form in the 19th century at the same time that its counterparts in Europe were growing and changing character, the results of the sweeping effect of the Industrial Revolution. As the cities grew larger, they encouraged a proliferation of individual enterprise but also generated large inin crime and slums and new and complicated problems for mass transportation and public

creases

education.

The

U.S. did not

urban nation

until

become what could be

called an

the early 1900s. Cities, of course,

had been established throughout the country, but it was not until about 1912 that the decline of the rural population would intersect the rise of the urban once and forever on the chart of a changing society. New York City, for example, until 1898 consisted only of the island of Manhattan and parts of the Bronx; with a population of 1.5 million, it was a really

thriving city but hardly the vast

become with

the

full

complex

it

would

annexation that year of what

today are the boroughs of the Bronx, Brooklyn,

Queens, and Richmond (Staten Island). It was the most dramatic example of the move toward large and politically powerful cities, which were just beginning to take their place on the national scene. Cities began to blossom everywhere in the U.S., not just on the East Coast but in the Middle West and a few other areas as well. Among those growing the fastest were Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo,

San Francisco, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, New Orand Milwaukee. Outward and upward

leans, Detroit,

C 0O( PCTOZVK-CUCK

"Cities

began

to

blossom everywhere

in

the U.S., not |ust on tne tasi Coast nut

in

the Middle

West and

a

few

other areas as well."

they began to grow as people

came

for the jobs, the

higher pay, the opportunities that were

much more

abundant there than back on the farms or in the small rural towns. The skyscrapers soared; the shopping districts grew; the one-story bungalows and the row houses were often overshadowed by multiflatapartment buildings— all the result of the growth of industry and of the nation's economy. In 1900, according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, only

39.6%

of the nation's population lived in

cities and their sub1910 this figure reached 45.6%, and by 1920 it had grown to a majority of 51.2%. The trend continued until the depression of the 1930s, when the rural exodus stalled notably; only 0.4% abandoned the farms for the city from 1930 to 1940, the lowest percentage since the 1810-20 period. Still, by 1940 approximately 56.5% of the population re-

metropolitan areas (the central

urbs);

sided

in

in

Move

urban areas.

World War then came along and changed everything. Millions of Americans, from their late teens through their 30s, left both the

to the Suburbs.

and the

II

expanses to serve in the war effort operated at peak capacity, and the cities, with their factories and plants, were the hubs of that activity. But the war would also prove to be the fulcrum on which the trend of U.S. migration turned away from the central city, which for half a century had been the destination of most migrants. When the fighting came to an end, a new and major movement of people would occur from the city to the suburbs, although there

armed

cities

rural

forces. Industry for the

would

still

be

a

continued emigration from the farms

to the metropolitan areas.

When

Johnnys had marched were vitally different from the young CI )oes who had left a few tumultuous years earlier, hardly the same young men who had grown up or toiled in the relatively tranquil days before the

home

war. for

all

of America's

again, they

And

the country that had industrially mobilized

the war effort was a

economy

ridden

that

far cry from the depressionhad preceded the years of

combat. Never had so many of the nation's key wage earners been so uprooted, sent off to foreign

and forced to live in such proximity to and on such terms of interdependency with those whom soils,

they might otherwise never have met. This experience contributed substantially to the conformism of the early postwar years and the ease with which these veterans of the military life adapted to the large corporate systems that were then evolving. An important aspect of the era was the "baby boom," an obvious consequence of the warriors' return. With it in the late 1940s came the desire for safer, roomier, and more pleasant surroundings in which to raise those families, an environment less harsh than that

The

now

logical recourse

ception

of

some

communities close

New

York's

harboured

was

old,

in

the central

to suburbia.

cities.

With the ex-

well-established,

wealthy

to the large central cities, such as

Scarsdale,

Chicago's Winnetka, and

Cleveland's Shaker Heights, land was cheap and existing

housing relatively inexpensive. There were developed land ready for

also large tracts of sparsely

133

U.S. urban

and

rural population

by census year, 1790-1980^

(as percent of total population)

1790

1900

1860

1820

years

'The urban population comprises all persons living in urbanized areas and In places of 2.500 Inhabitants or more outside urbanized areas. An urbanized area consists of a central city, or twin cities, with a total population of 50,000 or more, together with contiguous closely settled territory Source U.S. Bureau

of Itie

new construction. The U.S. government helped fuel movement by making available low-cost mort-

the

gage loans, especially through the Veterans Administration, and the entire economic climate was favourable

for

large-scale

construction,

creating

both homes and jobs in the process. Suburbia had its fundamental enticements for postwar families. Writers of the time called it the American Dream— a home of one's own with the symbolic white picket fence, backyard barbecues, friendly neighbours who were close enough but not too close, tree-shaded lanes, safe streets, and good schools. It is not hard to imagine the course that upward-bound urbanites of the late 1940s and early 1950s would choose, and soon suburbs were growing at the same phenomenal rate that cities had in the earlier days of the century. At the same time, the exodus took its toll on the central cities. This

the departure of

a

happened in good portion

several ways.

With and

of the middle-

upper-middle-class families, neighbourhoods

in

the

city deteriorated, the percentage of poor and less advantaged increased, and income was lost as the new expatriates spent their paychecks at stores in

the suburbs instead of those

in

the

city.

Government

also played a role that proved harmful to the cities.

Federal and state

moneys were

often earmarked for

such projects as the creation of networks of roads

134

Census.

....

.

„.

and highways and the expansion of public transportation to enable suburbanites to get to and from their jobs, which at that time were mostly within the central cities. As a result, many of the needs of the city and its inhabitants were unfunded, compounding the urban problems. The metropolitan structure became what George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes referred to in a 1980 article in Scientific American as the "doughnut complex." As they explained, "In many places the hole in the doughnut is a decaying central city and the ring is a prosperous region." and growing suburban The reasons for moving to suburbia became further nourished as the problems of the city grew. And, of course, those problems did grow. Crime .

.

.

rose, racial tensions increased, job opportunities de-

clined, unemployment grew, slums spread, public education foundered for lack of interest and funding,

and other human and community services were

As William Severini Kewinski wrote in the York Times Magazine, "The massive migration changed the cities, robbing them of resources curtailed.

New

while leaving poorer populations behind." It was only a matter of time until the inner suburban communities filled to capacity. The migration continued, however, to areas even farther from the central city— to "exurbia," the name coined by writer-editor A. C. Spectorsky in 1955 to describe the

outlying communities that were being developed around the established suburbs. Small businesses flourished in both the suburbs and exurbs, many of them having moved out from the cities along with their owners. And many suburban governing bodies and chambers of commerce began programs to lure large companies away from the city. By the 1960s the suburbs of America were growing at a rate four

times that of the central

cities.

The term Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) was chosen by the U.S. government as the standard for describing the new urban-suburban complex. Today an smsa is defined by the Bureau of the Census as a central urban area of at least 50,000 inhabitants and the adjacent communities that have a high degree of economic and social integration with the central area. The move from city to suburb did not initially affect the flow of people leaving rural America for its urban areas, although now it would be looked at more in terms of relocation to metropolitan areas than to the central cities as it had been in the past. In fact,

the biggest single increase

to urban areas

came during the

in rural

migration

1940s,

when

the

was in full swing. By the 1970s more people were living in the sub-

mass migration urbs than

in

to the suburbs

the central cities of America. According

to the Bureau of the Census, 85,843,000 lived in

metropolitan areas outside central

67,850,000 lived

in

cities,

while only

the core cities themselves. From

1960 to 1970 jobs had increased 44% in the suburbs, in the central cities they had declined by 7%. And the suburban plan to woo large companies into while

moving not only their corporate offices but their factories and plants as well to the more pristine countryside was becoming a marked success, further isolating the central cities as

commuted from

many workers now

suburban homes to their suburban jobs. By 1973 the suburbs provided more jobs than the central cities. the 1970s

In

their

many

of the exurbs throughout the

country grew into "minicities," as they

came

to

"At the same time, there was strong evidence of at least a trickle of people once thought to be rock-ribbed suburbanites back into the central cities."

wash," which stretches from Boston down to Washington, D.C., embracing New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and all of New Jersey and Delaware as well (currently having about 43 million inhabitants).

While the suburbs had gained

be

were in the 50,000 to 100,economic structures made

in

population over

four decades, the nation's central cities had

called. Their populations

the

000 range, and their them self-sufficient, much like the small central cities of old. At the same time many metropolitan areas had become so swollen that they now were contiguous with one another, which gave rise to another government definition, the Standard Consolidated Statistical Area (SCSA), a geographic unit made up

continued to lose population. New York City lost more than 860,000 from 1970 to 1980, and Chicago almost 383,000, according to U.S. Department of Commerce figures. It was an almost universal trend in the nation, with the exception of the so-called Sun Belt, an area of mild climate in the South and Southwest. Those locales experienced increases in both suburban and central-city populations, part of another trend that began to accelerate in the 1970s. Countertrends. Although the suburbs continued

of adjoining smsa's that are closely interrelated so-

New York-NewarkBeach-Anaheim, and Dallas-Fort Worth. Some demographers went even further, describing large metropolitan agglomera-

cially

and economically, such

as

Jersey City, Los Angeles-Long

tions as "strip cities."

The

largest of these

is

"Bos-

last

grow in the 1970s, the Utopia was collapsing. The American Dream was wilting. It was perhaps best put in perspective by Charles Haar, the Louis D. to

135

Brandeis professor of law at Harvard University Law School, as he was quoted

the

in

New

"People thought of the suburbs as the

would last

paint their daily

from

their refuge

where Norman Rockwell

of the world,

toils

York Times:

But particularly

life.

ten years, the suburbs

in

the

the East and the Mid-

in

west have become the heirs to their cities' problems. They have pollution, high taxes, crime. People thought they would escape all those things in the suburbs. But like the people in Boccaccio's Decameron, they ran away from the plague and took it with them." The things that Haar was talking about have in-

New

doughnut ring ingrew by only 0.2%, in the 1970s; Chicago's suburban growth rate dropped from 34.9% in the 1960s to 13.2% in the While

drastically.

creased by

23.7%

in

York's

the 1960s,

it

1970s, while that of Los Angeles declined from 34.9 to

18.1% during the same

On

period.

the other hand, there has been a significant

nous columns of smoke billowing from plants and poisoned waterways, and sometimes eye-watering smogs. One of the most critical problems that emerged in suburbia in the 1970s was the cost of housing, which

rise in the population of nonmetropolitan areas. Such regions grew at a rate of 15.1% during the '70s, almost 5% higher than the growth rate of smsa's, the first time in U.S. history such a turnabout had occurred. Also, businesses and manufacturing plants were moving not only to the Sun Belt but also to nonmetropolitan regions throughout the U.S. Thus, the first epic migration within the U.S., that from the country to the city, was being reversed. At the same time, there was strong evidence of at least a trickle of people once thought to be rockribbed suburbanites back into the central cities. There were obvious economic considerations to warrant such a move. For one, there was still a large job market in most of the central cities, and there were strong efforts being made to increase it. In more and more cases, young people who could not afford the high cost of housing in the suburbs were

soared with rocketlike propulsion

staying in the city.

deed ways ies.

of

modern

suburbia, in

many

1981 there were suburban neighbourhoods as crime-ridden as those in the central There were horrendous traffic jams that

In

that

much

infested

as naturally as they earlier had the central cit-

were

cities.

clogged the outlying expressways and freeways as well as the arterial suburban streets. There were omirefineries,

in that

decade,

accompanied by equally astronomical mortgage interest rates. While the median price of a suburban home in 1970 was in the vicinity of $25,000, by 1980 it was more than $64,000. Interest rates for a conventional home loan that were about 7% in 1970 had risen to 17% and more, and lending institutions were asking "points," 3-4% of the loan to be paid up front, as well as loan service fees of several hundred

dollars. In a survey of 15

major metropolitan

News & World Report found mortgage payment for a home pur-

Many were

what has come to be moving into rundown neighbourhoods and investing money in rehabilitating what were once fine houses or apartments. The results in many cases were good homes in improving neighbourhoods at a cost much lower indulging

in

called "gentrification," the process of

home in the suburbs or new development, too youthful

And

than that of a

exurbs.

this

yet to fully

evaluate

in

terms of overall population movement, what had been the whole-

areas in 1981, U.S.

may

that the average

from city to suburb. themselves had certainly made concerted efforts recently to coax not only residents but also industry and business back within their boundaries. Vast capital investments in construction projects had been made in many cities in order to enrich the urban economic situation as well as to create jobs. The $350 million Renaissance Center in Detroit was one example, and the proposed North Loop redevelopment project in Chicago was another. Almost all major cities were planning similar kinds of growth programs, although most were on

chased

in

the preceding year was $810 a month, not

including real-estate taxes or

The

was

home

insurance.

and fewer people could afford to live in the suburbs. The typical first-home owner was no longer a young family with one breadwinner and children. Instead, it was a married couple with two incomes and no children, and that kind result

that fewer

of family often had life-style

more

than that of the

in

common

more sedate

with the

city

suburbs.

The energy crisis was another factor affecting the suburbs of the 1970s. With gasoline prices in 1980 quadruple what they had been ten years earlier, the dependent on automobiles to get to work, to the store, to wherever the children had to be taken began to seem much idea of the suburban two-car family

less

appealing.

Nevertheless, suburban areas continued to grow, registering an

18.2% increase

in

population during

the 1970s. But the rate of growth had decreased

136

signal a reversal of

sale flight

The

a

cities

more modest level. It was still too early to

effect of these

new

predict the eventual overall

trends back to the hinterlands

and into the hearts of the cities or even to forecast whether they would be sustained in the 1980s. But from all outward appearances they seemed to offer the substance both for urban revitalization and for rural

growth.

THE CHANGING FACE OF AMERICA by Manuel D. Plotkin The 1980

enumeration of the was required by the Constitubasis for apportioning membership

U.S. census, the 20th

nation's population, tion to serve as a in

the House of Representatives

among the

states. In

addition to collecting the data necessary to this

fulfill

primary purpose, the decennial census provides

and insights into nademographic, social, and economic trends. Analyses of 1980 census data already published, together with findings of comprehensive demographic surveys conducted in recent years, confirm that the past decade was one of profound changes in the growth, distribution, and composition of the U.S. population and in the life-styles of the Ameri-

a great wealth of information tional

can people. Total Population

show in

that there

the U.S. Final national counts

were 226,504,825 persons residing 1,

1980. This represents

an increase of 23,202,794 people, or 11.4%, over the 203,302,031 persons counted in 1970. U.S. military and civilian personnel living abroad at the time of the census are not included in these figures. Although the population increase reported for the decade was somewhat greater than expected by professional demographers, the rate of growth was the smallest in U.S. history, except for the depression years of the 1930s.

pares with growth rates in

grow by

States should continue to

well into the 21st century, even

natural increase fertility rates re-

if

main at present low levels. But the rate of growth is expected to decline as these women become older and are replaced by a smaller number of women in the childbearing-age category. Census demographers now anticipate population increases of less

10%

than

in

The 11.4% increase comof 13.4% in the 1960s and

the 1950s. This confirms earlier indications

resumed the long-term downward trend in population growth that began in the 19th century and was interrupted for almost two "baby boom." decades by the post-World War The principal reason for the decline in population growth in the 1970s is the surprisingly sharp drop in birthrates to historic lows. The estimated 1980 fer-

that the nation had

II

only slightly from present levels.

Wide

women,

region and by state with the western and southern regions increasing

region, with an increase of largest absolute

than half of the

20%, but

it

even per

substantially lower than the rate of 2.1 children

woman

that

is

necessary for natural replacement

of the population.

total U.S. increase. In

Plotkin is division vice-president and group practice director, The Austin Company, Management Consulting Division, and a former director of the U.S.

Bureau of the Census.

more

for

sharp contrast,

the population of the Northeast remained virtually

unchanged (0.2%

increase),

and the North Central

4%

(Midwestern) region increased by only the decade. (See Map.)

These diverging trends

during

mi-

reflect the substantial

gration of population from the northern states to the

South and the West, attracted by greater economic opportunities and the warmer climate of the "Sunbelt."

Recent studies suggest that these trends in

faster than the U.S. average, as did

the

all

will

West

states in

the South except Delaware, Maryland, and the District

of Columbia. In the Northeast, population de-

clines in

increases

Manuel D.

reported the

growth and accounted

grew

the 2.5 rate for 1970 and

at

about twice the national average and accounting for approximately 90% of the total U.S. population increase. The West had the highest rate of growth, continuing a trend that began in 1850 when it was first included in the census; its population was up 24%. The South was the second fastest growing

woman, about 25% below

15 to 44 years

varia-

growth rates by occurred from 1970 to 1980,

tions in the patterns of population

old) implies a lifetime average of 1.9 children per

rate (births per 1,000

the

in

changes in the age distribution of the population and the assumption that fertility rates will increase

continue well into the 1980s. During the past decade, every state

tility

7%

the 1980s and less than

1990s. These estimates are based on predictable

Population by Regions and States. in

the United States on April

18.5%

Because of large increases in the number of women of childbearing age, the population of the United

New in

York and Rhode Island were offset by

the other seven states

in

of the Midwestern states experienced

the region.

All

some growth,

but at rates considerably below the national average. The three states with the largest numerical population gains in the

decade were

California,

which 137

Table

I.

Population and Area of the United States, 1790-1980

Table

II.

Population of the United States by Region, Division, and State, 1980 and 1970 Censuses; with Changes in Congressional Representation 1970-80

Congressional representation

Table

III.

Population of the United States by Metropolitan Status Population changes Population

1980 United States

000 1970

in

Number in

000

U.S.

1980 CENSUS

Average (+11.4%)

# Centre of popula

1970-80

Percent gain or loss of population by state (1970-80).

Households and Living Arrangements. The numin the United States increased at about two and a half times the rate of increase in the total population between 1970 and 1980. This resulted in a decline of the average household size to a historic low. According to census data, the count of households in 1980 was 80.4 million, a 27% increase over the 63.4 million in 1970. Average household size declined to 2.75 persons from the ber of households

1970 average of 3.11 persons. There were wide variations in the rates of growth of different types of households during the decade. Although 1980 census data by household type were not yet available, the March 1980 Current Population Survey conducted by the Census Bureau provides good estimates. These estimates show that the number of family households increased by approximately 14% in the 1970s and accounted for 74% of all households at the end of the decade. (Family households are maintained by a married couple or by a man or woman who shares the living quarters

with relatives but not with a spouse.) However, family households, the number of married

among

couple families increased by only 8% while households maintained by women with no husband present grew by 55%. Nonfamily households, most of which consisted of one person living alone, rose by 73% and acfor more than half of the increase in the number of households. Primary contributing factors were the growing numbers of young single

counted total

persons leaving home to live independently and the rising incidence of separation and divorce. * * *

Analyses of national demographic trends in the past decade confirm several important emerging diversities in the U.S. population. These include

changes

in

migration patterns, age distributions,

ethnic affiliations, life-styles.

tions for ues,

Many

American

economic

household arrangements, and

of these changes have vast implicapolitical institutions, social val-

policies,

and business directions.

141

U.S.

Table

V. U.S.

CENSUS 1980-

Population by Sex, Racial, and Ethnic Group, 1980 Racial

and ethnic groups

Table

VI.

Metropolitan Areas of 1,000,000 or more' Population

Rank

in

000

Change

i

Table

IX.

Population by Age, Sex, Racial, and Ethnic Group In 000 nd ethnic groups

total

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

to 14 to 19 to 24

to 29 to to to to to

to to

to to to

to

34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84

+

AM ages'

Total

Male

16.344 16.697 18.241 21.162 21.313 19.518 17.558 13.963

8.360 8,538 9,315 10,752 10,660 9,703 8.676 6,660 5,708 5,388 5.620

1 1

.668

11.088

7,984 8.159 8.926 10.410 10.652 9.814 6.882 7.103

6.797 4.793 2.934 2.240 226.505

17.283 15.983 14.643 11.759 9.825 9.456 10,157 10.237 8.974

6.089 6.133 5,416 4.879 3,944 2.945

5,481

8.781

1.847 1,019 681

Whit 12.631 13,031 14,460 16,958

5.961 5.701

4.669 3.902 2.853

10.086

female pop.

Female

7,811

6.094 4.309 2.685 2.045 188,341

10,032

31 3 '

Some

'

Persons

'

Asian and Pacific Islander groups s of Spanish origin may be of any f Detail may not add to total due to roundin Source U S Bureau of the Census

Percent distribution of the U.S. resident population, by age and sex: 1980 and 1970 Male

4

3

,

Female

65

to

69

25

to

29

2

1

percent Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Black 2.436 2.490 2.673 2.983 2.724 2.321

Population of U.S. Cities over 5,000 1970 and 1980 Censuses

ARKANSAS Alabaster AlberlviUe

Alexander City

Attalla

Auburn Bay Minette

2.642 9.9€3 12,358 10,092 31.533 4,399 14,360 8.293 7.510 22.767 6.727

BirmiRKhaiT Boaz 6,747 2,277 8.447

Brewton Brighton

Chickasaw Childersburi Clan ton

7.079 12.039 13.807 10.415 29.523 5.967 14.558 8.789 7.737 28.471 7.455 31.729 284.413 7.151 6.680 5.308 7.402 5.084 5.832

.\rkodelphia

BlvlheviUe

Camden Clarkaville

Conway Cro«»ett

Dumaa El Dorado

FayetteviUe

Cullman D«catur Demopolis Eufaula Fairfield

Fayette Florence Fort Pavne Fultondale

Gadsden Gardendale

5,720 4.568 34.031 8.435 5.163

53.928 6.537 8.033 6.491

Monticello 37.029 Morrilton 11.485 Mountain Home 6.217 47.565 7.928 7.807

Homewood 13.309

Hueytown

Jacksonville

Lanett Midfield

Mobile Monroeville

Montgomery ic.) Mountain Brook Muscle Shoala Northport Opelika

OiTord 8SFo,

190.026 4.846 133,386 19,474 6,907 9.435 19.027 6.493 4.361 13.555

Ozark Pelham Pell City

5.063 6.090 13.116 41.578 3.107

Roanoke Run^Hville Saralond

5.251

Scottaboro

Selma Sheffield

Sylacauga Talladega

12,255 17,662 6.835 11.482 65.773 8.828 11.028 12.250 48.081 14.771 6.050 6.994 3.370

ARIZONA Apache Junction Avondale Biabee

Caaa Grande Chandler Coolidge

Douglas 5.381

26.117 1.971

Globe Holbrook

Kingman

36.228 7.333 4.759 7.312

Lake Havi 63.049 8.946 6.637

Nogalea

Phoenix Preacott Safford

(

4.792 584.303 13.631

5.493 67.823

6.220 63.580 262.933 H.066 29.007

146

11.465 10,357 9,641

Riverside

Bobbins 44,251 Robinson

Ell'
in 1976-77 to 18% in 1980-81. In most cases the decline resulted from total import requirements increasing more rapidly than food aid imports. In 1975-76 Bangladesh, India, Egypt, and Pakistan—each receiving about one million tons or Table

XI

FOREIGN ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURE Although

official

commitments

of external assis-

tance to agriculture — broadly defined to include rural infrastructure, agro-industries, fertilizer

production, and regional river-basin projects — increased modestly in 1980 in nominal terms, inflation caused a fall in real terms for the second year in a row. Agriculture in the least developed countries (pier capita income under $680), however, received SI. 5 billion in concessional capital commitments, 30% more than in 1979. Nevertheless, their share of such aid going to all less developed countries rose to only 18-19% Although multilateral agencies, such as the World Bank, increased their commitments to agriculture as bilateral commitments fell, they experienced increased difficulty in obtaining donor support. For instance, financial support appeared to be weakening for the World Bank's International Development Association, which provides loans on soft terms — 40% to agriculture and rural development in fiscal 1980 — to the poorest nations. The U.S. stretched out its $3.2 billion pledged replenishment to the agency from three years to five — in effect a cut — and Congress could prove reluctant to appropriate all of that. Other countries also indicated plans to cut their contributions. The proposed $1,270,000,000 replenishment of the International Fund for Agricultural Developagency created following the ment (ifad), a 1974 World Food Conference, to finance its continued operation through 1983 was endangered by a dispute between the industrialized countries and

UN

the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun(oPEC) over their respective shares as 1981 ended. The original $1 billion of capital, $567 miltries

from industrial and $435 million from opec was all committed to projects aimed primarily at helping small farmers in poor countries. The Reagan administration cut the earlier proposed U.S. contribution, and opec countered with its own reduction; this was followed in turn by congressional action that appeared to postpone lion

countries,

,

any 1983.

likely U.S. contribution at least until fiscal

Although

some

European

nations

proposed increasing their contributions

Table

XII.

Off

had

to offset

176

Algeria

of

Ouzou

manding separation

tion of the Berber minority continued to smolder.

and

In May dissident intellectuals formed an association to preserve popular Algerian culture. The fln

Kosovo, Started a series of demonstrations deof the province from Serbia its establishment as the seventh Yugoslav republic. At the eighth congress of the Albanian Party of Labour in November, First Secretary Enver Hoxha supported these demands. In May the Yugoslav interior minister. Gen. Franjo Herljevic, disclosed that there vi'as evidence

Kosovo and the Albanian government. As a

of direct links betv^^een the leaders of the

troubles

consequence,

Yugoslavia

canceled

cultural

ex-

change programs with Albania. On May 24 two bombs exploded at the Yugoslav embassy in Tirana. Yugoslavia protested the "provocation," but Albania denied any involvement in the incident. Mehmet Shehu, premier since 1954, died on December 18 (see Obituaries), (k.

m.

smogorzewski)

Algeria A

republic on the north coast of Africa, Algeria

is

bounded by Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Libya, and Tunisia. Area: 2,-

Algeria

381,741 sq km (919,595 sq mi). Pop. (1979 est.): 19,129,000. Cap. and largest city: Algiers (pop., 1978 est., 1,998,000). Language: Arabic, Berber, French. Religion: Muslim 99%; Roman Catholic 0.3%. President in 1981, Col. Chadli Bendjedid; premier, Mohamed Ben Ahmed Abdelghani. Algeria was primarily engaged in domestic consolidation during 1981. At the National Liberation Front (fln) Central Committee meeting in July, Pres. Chadli Bendjedid's opponents in the successtruggle, Abdel Aziz Bouteflika and sion Mohamed Salah Yahiaoui, were expelled from the FLN Political Bureau. Despite the government's determination to root out corruption and the arrest of several party officials on corruption charges, the public remained unconvinced. Management cadres were demoralized by purges and austerity policies introduced in late 1980, and strikes occurred in January 1981 as inflation topped 20%. Although the first anniversary of the TiziU.S. Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher (left) and AlgeMohamed Ben Yahia signed an agreement in Algiers rian Foreign Minister

January that resulted in the release of the U.S. hostages, who had been held in Iran for 444 days.

in

Alcoholic Beverages: see Industrial Review

riots

passed without incident, the frustra-

Central Committee's June resolution on cultural

While paying lip service to popular Algerian culture, it reaffirmed the dominance of Arabic and the Middle East in national cultural life. Violent incidents in Algerian universities in May and June brought the growing proArabic fundamentalist movement into confrontation with Berberist groups. The January budgetary law showed that petroleum receipts would provide two-thirds of national income, even more than in previous years. Negotiations with the El Paso Co. of Houston, Texas, over natural gas prices finally collapsed in February, with the U.S. company writing off its investment. Oil sales were disappointing. Despite the world oil glut, Algeria refused to drop its price, proposing instead to barter imports against crude oil sales. Nonetheless, the government pushed ahead with the ambitious 1980-84 plan. The 1981 budget emphasized social spending and consumer goods industries. The advent of a Socialist government in Paris brought renewed warmth to relations with France. The visit of French Foreign Minister Claude Cheysson to Algiers in August was followed in the autumn by a visit from Pres. Francois Mitterrand. Algeria renewed relations with the U.S.S.R. in June when President Bendjedid made his first visit to Moscow. At the same time, the country remained open to friendship with the West, particularly the U.S., despite disappointment with the U.S. response to Algerian help in resolving the Iran hostage crisis at the beginning of the year. The major event in foreign affairs was President Bendjedid's tour of 11 African nations in April. Algeria also stated its support for African liberation movements and its opposition to the proposed fusion of Libya and Chad. Diplomatic support for the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario Front) in the Western Sahara continued. (george joffe) policy satisfied no one.

ANDORRA

ALGERIA Education. (1980-81) Primary, pupils 3,918,827, teachers 88,481; secondary, pupils 999,937, teachers 38,845, vocational, pupils 12,903, teachers 1,168: teacher training,

students 13,315, teachers 1,124: higher 11978-79: universities only), students 51,510, teaching staff 6,421 Finance. Monetary unit dinar, with (Sept. 21, 19811 a free rate of 4 15 dinars to U.S. $1 (7.70 dinars = £^ sterling). Cold and other reserves dune 19811 U.S. $3,654,000,000. Budget (1980 est): revenue 50,830,000,000 expenditure 27,780,000,000 dinars (excludes dinars: 23,120,000,000 dinars development expenditure). Money supply (Dec. 1980) 83,219,000,000 dinars. Foreign Trade. (1980) Importsc 36,840,000,000 dinars, exports 47,618,000,000 dinars Import sources (1978) France 18%: West Germany 18'';,, Italy 11%: lapan 9^ U.S. 7%: Spam 5";,. Export destinations (1978|: US 51%; West Germany 14^"^; France 11%,, Italy 7''^. Main exports crude oil 87^^,, petroleum products 5%,. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 78,500 lim. Motor vehicles in use (19781: passenger 396,800; commercial (including buses) 206,500. Railways (1978): 3,890 Itm; traffic 1,452,000,000 passenger-km, freight 2,016,000,000 net ton-Ism. Air traffic (1980): c 2,300,000,000 passenger-km; freight c. 13 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 130: gross tonnage 1.218,621. Shipping traffic (1978): goods loaded 49,840,000 metric tons, unloaded 13.5 million metric tons. Telephones ilan. 1979) 346,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1976) 3 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1977) 560,000. Agriculture. Production (m 000: metric tons; 1980): wheat 1,301, barley 791: oats c. 110: potatoes c. 500; tomatoes c. 187; onions c. 114; dates c. 180; oranges 305: mandarin oranges and tangerines c. 146: watermelons (1979) c 150; olives c. 140: wine c 260. Livestock (in 000; 1979) sheep c 10,900; goats c. 2,600; cattle c, 1,313; asses c. 500; horses c. 150; camels c. 140; chickens c. 16,970. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons: 1979): iron ore (53-55% metal content) 2,870; phosphate rock (1978) c. 997; crude oil (1980) 47,418; natural gas (cu m; 1979) 25,939,000; petroleum products (1978) c. 4,800: fertilizers (nutrient content: 1979-80) nitrogenous 21, phosphate c. 56, cement 3,770: crude steel (1978) 178: electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr; 1980) c. 5,500,000.

Andorra

Education. (1979-80) Primary, pupils 4,711, teachers 305; secondary, pupils (1979-80) 2,134: teachers (197475) 120. Finance and Trade. Monetary units: French franc and Spanish peseta. Budget (1979

est balanced at 3,209,000,pesetas. Foreign trade (1979): imports from France Fr 933,809,000 (U.S. $219.6 million), from Spain 8,568,945,000 pesetas (U.S. $127.7 million): exports to France Fr 22,201,000 (U.S. $5.2 million), to Spain 269,730,000 pesetas (U.S. $4 million). Tourism (1977) 6.7 million visitors. )

000

Communications. Telephones (Dec. 1978) 11,700. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 7,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1977) 3,000. Agriculture. Production: cereals, potatoes, tobacco, wool. Livestock (in 000; 1978); sheep c. 12; cattle c. 4.

broadcasting and threatened to resign as a body if the new protocol was not adopted. Andorrans believed the French co-prince, then Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, was responsible for the deadlock. Following Giscard's defeat in the French elections, the Council petitioned the new co-prince, Pres. Francois Mitterrand, for a just settlement of the dispute and the granting of a truly democratic constitution for Andorra. In late 1981 the two transmitters were still off the air. (k. m. smogorzewski)

Angola Located on the west coast of southern Africa, Anis bounded by Zaire, Zambia, South West Africa/Namibia, and the Atlantic Ocean. The small exclave of Cabinda, a province of Angola, is bounded by the Congo and Zaire. Area: 1,246,700 sq km (481,353 sq mi). Pop. (1980 est.): 6,759,000. Cap. and largest city: Luanda (pop., 1979 est., 475,300). Language: Bantu languages (predominant), Portuguese (official), and some Khoisan

gola

dialects. Religion: traditional beliefs

An

independent co-principality of Europe, Andorra is in the Pyrenees Mountains between Spain

and France. Area: 468 sq km (181 sq mi). Pop. (1980): 33,900. Cap.: Andorra la Vella (commune pop., 1980, 13,400). Language; Catalan (official),

French, Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Co-princes: the president of the French

Republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, represented by their veguers (provosts) and battles (prosecutors). An elected Council General of 28 members elects the first syndic; in 1981, Estanislau

Sangra Font. Control of the two radio stations on Andorran was a matter of dispute between the Council General and the co-princes in 1981. A protocol signed in 1961 between the principality and the French and Spanish companies controlterritory

Sud-Radio and Radio Andorra had given the companies the right to operate the stations for 20 years, after which they would reling, respectively,

vert to the principality. In

May

1981 the Council

warned that the concession would not be renewed and submitted a new draft protocol to the coprinces.

When sisted

the French and Spanish governments inon modification of the draft, the General to suspend

Council ordered both transmitters

45%; Roman

Catholicism 43%; Protestantism 12%. President in 1981, Jose Eduardo dos Santos. In December 1980 an extraordinary meeting of the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (mpla) had been held to consider the country's failure to meet the economic targets set in 1977 (viz., to achieve pre-independence production levels) and to make plans for the next five years. It was agreed that some of the aims had been unrealistic but that failure to achieve them was due chiefly to poor organization. The main lines of development were reaffirmed, but greater emphasis was to be placed on encouraging small farmers to grow more than they needed for their own consumption by making other goods more readily available for purchase. By this means it was hoped to make the country self-sufficient in food and to stamp out the black market. Defense was also to be made a priority. As a step toward achieving greater efficiency in government, a number of Cabinet changes took place on March 20, 1981, affecting the Ministries of Agriculture, Education, Planning, and Internal Trade. Various junior posts also changed hands. Development in the southern region of the coun-

was intermittently affected by raids carried out by South African troops, ostensibly in pursuit of try

Angola

American

Literature:

see Literature

Anglican

Commun-

ion:

see Religion

178

Antarctica

South West Africa PeoOrganization (swapo) who were said to have attacked targets in Namibia. A particularly sustained attack by South African ground and air forces, continuing throughout much of August, led the Angolan government to order a general mobilization. Pres. Jose Eduardo dos Santos appealed to UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim for help, indicating that if it were not forthcoming he might have to call on friendly countries for asguerrillas belonging to the ple's

France, West Germany, Britain, and Canada condemned South Africa's action. The South Africans withdrew in September. They claimed to have cleared swapo bases from a 144-km (90-mi)-wide strip of Angolan territory along the Namibian border, and they certainly struck a severe blow at Angola's antiaircraft radar and missile defenses. They also claimed to have killed Soviet soldiers operating alongside Angolan troops who had assisted the swapo guerrillas and to have captured one Soviet sergeant major. Ansistance.

gola protested that Soviet troops, though present in Angola to assist with Soviet equipment, had not

been involved

in

any

fighting.

and Angola led to some tension in relations between Angola and the U.S. In January Gen. Alexander Haig, then Pres. Ronald Reagan's nominee for the post of U.S. secretary of state, said that the U.S. could not recognize the Angolan government as long as up to 20,000 Cuban troops remained in the country. President dos Santos's U.S. distrust of the activities of the U.S.S.R.

its

Cuban

ANCOLA Education. (1977) Primary, pupils 1,026,291, teachers 25,000; secondary and vocational, pupils 105,868, teachers (1972-73) 4,393; teacher training (1972-73), students 3,388, teachers 330; higher (1978; university only), students 3,146, teaching staff 293,

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: kwanza, with a free kwanzas to U.S. $1 (62.94 = £1 sterling). Budget (1974 est,): revenue 23,540,000,000 kwanzas; expenditure 19,475,000,000 kwanrate (Sept. 21, 1981) of 33.95

kwanzas

Foreign trade imports 28,093,000,000 (1979): kwanzas; exports 39,531,000,000 kwanzas. Import sources: South Africa c. 12%; Portugal c. 12%; U.S. c. 9%; West

zas.

c. 8%; U.K. c 7%; Sweden c. 6%. Export destinaThe Bahamas c. 45%; U.S. c. 20%; U.S. Virgin Islands 8%; U.K. c. 6%. Main exports: crude oil 68%; coffee 14%; diamonds 11%,; petroleum products 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 72,323 km. Motor vehicles in use (1978): passenger 143,100; com-

Germany tions: c.

mercial (including buses) 42,600. Railways: (1977) c. 2,315 km; traffic (1974) 418 million passenger-km, freight 5,461,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): c 553 million passenger-km; freight c. 21 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 35; gross

tonnage 65,667. Shipping traffic (1976): goods loaded c. 6,250,000 metric tons, unloaded c. 1.5 million metric tons. Telephones ()an. 1979) 29,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 118,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1980) c. 2,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): corn c. 320; cassava (1979) c. 1,800; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 180; dry beans c. 42; bananas c. 300; citrus fruit (1979) c. 80; palm kernels c. 12; palm oil c. 40; coffee c. 40; cotton, lint c. 11; sisal c, 20; fish catch (1979) 106; timber (cu m; 1979) c. 6,559. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c.

sheep c. 220; goats c. 930; pigs c. 380. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1978): cec. 600; diamonds (metric carats; 1979) 841; crude oil (1980) c. 7,400; petroleum products c. 940; electricity (kwhr) c. 1,360,000.

ment

Antarctica

allies in

presence at the 26th congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February did little to change the U.S. administration's view. In Septem-

3,120;

ber the U.S. Senate, acting on the administration's initiative, voted to repeal a ban on government aid to Jonas Savimbi's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (unita) guerrillas. This measure required the assent of the U.S. House of Representatives before it could become effective, and in the meantime Savimbi claimed to have financial backing from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Morocco, Senegal, and Ivory Coast. Savimbi visited the U.S. late in the year. Despite the U.S. administration's hostility, the U.S. Export-Import Bank granted credits of $85 million in July to finance an offshore oil development project, to be run jointly by a subsidiary of Gulf Oil and Sonangol, Angola's state-run oil company. Also in July, President dos Saritos attended a meeting of the year-old Southern African Development Coordination Conference in Salisbury, Zimbabwe. The conference called on leaders of the principal industrial countries, meeting simultaneously in Ottawa, to take account of the needs of poorer nations. (kenneth ingham)

International Activities. The third International Antarctic Glaciology, sponsored by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, was held at the Institute of Polar Studies, Ohio State University, in September 1981. This was the first Antarctic glaciology symposium in 13 years. At the 11th Consultative Meeting of the Antarctic Treaty nations, held in Buenos Aires, Arg., in July, the representatives decided to hold a special consultative meeting to draft an international regime for the development of Antarctic mineral resources. Five nations — Australia, Chile, Japan, South Africa, and the U.S.S.R. — had ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Resources. Three additional ratifications were required before the convention would come into effect. Uruguay became the 22nd nation to accede to the Antarctic Treaty. National Programs. Argentina. A glacier inventory was completed on Vega, James Ross, and surrounding islands. In cooperation with the French, several ice cores, including a 155-m (508ft) core from the ice dome, were taken on James

Symposium on

Ross Island. Biweekly commercial flights between Rio Gallegos, Arg., and Auckland, N.Z., via the sub-Antarctic were begun. The Argentine Air Force announced plans to make Vicecomodoro Marambio Base on Seymour Island an intercontinental air terminal for commercial flights. Australia. Rebuilding of the bases at Casey, Davis, and Mawson began, with completion of the project expected in 1989-90. Headquarters for all Australian activities in Antarctica were being consolidated in Kingston, Tasmania, making the Hobart area an international centre for Antarctic and marine research. Glaciologic field research dominated Australia's Antarctic program, which included radio echo-sounding on the Law Dome in East Antarctica.

A new base, Chiloe, was Graham Mountain Range of

Chile. the

established in the Antarctic

Peninsula, where a 4,000-m (13,120-ft) airstrip was being constructed. Chile now had 12 permanent and temporary bases in Antarctica. Construction workers also lengthened the airstrip at Teniente Marsh on King George Island to 1,200

m

(3,900

ft).

East Germany. Scientists from East Germany had been active in Antarctic research for more than 20 years, primarily as members of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions. During 1980-81 East German scientists conducted research at Novolazarevskaya, Druzhnaya, and Bellingshausen stations and aboard marine biology research ships in the Scotia and Weddell seas. France. Glaciologic (leldwork continued during a multiyear traverse along the flow line from Dome C in East Antarctica toward the French base at Dumont d'Urville on the coast. A French-U.S. katabatic (downslope) wind study continued in coastal Adelie Land with the building of two automatic weather stations 100 km (62 mi) and 200 km (125 mi) from the coast. Four additional weather stations on 20-m (66-ft) towers were also installed. The data were transmitted to France via the argos satellite

system.

Japan. Most glaciologic research of the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition was conducted under the auspices of POLEX-South. Ice sheet and ice shelf studies near Mizuho and Syowa stations were carried out, as were aerial surveys of ice along the Soya Coast and near the Yamato and S0r Rondane mountains. Several ice cores were drilled, one to a depth of 143 (470 ft) at Mizuho Station. A marine geophysics program, begun in the Bellingshausen Sea from the ship "Hakurei-Maru," was to be expanded to the Weddell and Ross seas in future

m

mountain ranges to the huge Ross embayment continued along the North Victoria Land coast from Cape Adare to the Transantarctic Mountains. Drilling into the Ross Sea bottom continued from an annual ice platform, and marine life research was expanded with possible commercial implications for the future. relationship of the

Norway. During

1980-81 Norwegian scientists

on three large icebergs.

Poland. Biological programs continued at Arctowski Station on King George Island, but the overall size of the Polish research

program was

reduced for reasons of economy. The emphasis was to be shifted from large-scale summer programs to small teams occupying Arctowski on a rotating basis.

South Africa. Geologic, glaciologic, and atmospheric research continued at sanae Base. A longterm study of the southern ocean lithosphere was begun.

United Kingdom. Research activities were again concentrated in the Antarctic Peninsula region, but the British Antarctic Survey used a Twin Otter with an airborne radio echo sounder to fly ten profiles, including several northward from the Ellsworth Mountains, the least known area of West Antarctica. Using a doppler radar positioning system, the flights discovered evidence of a subglacial trough some 1,000 m (3,280 ft) below sea level that links the Weddell seas via the Pine Island Glacier.

and Amundsen

As

part of the

of Scott Base,

Glaciology of the Antarctic Peninsula (gap) project, an 83-m (272-ft) ice core was taken from the southern plateau of the peninsula, gap is an effort to derive a 1,000-year climatic record for the

designed to more than triple the size of the station passed the halfway mark. Geologic work on the

peninsula from evidence of impurities in ice cores. The three-man Trans Globe Expedition successful-

years.

New

Zealand. The rebuilding

indicate that the land of Antarctica is

smaller than had previously been believed. As the map to the right indicates,

some

of

what

had been thought to be land mass turned out

upon

further investiga-

tion to

joined the Scott Polar Research Institute (U.K.) to study icebergs in the Scotia Sea from hms "Endurance." Automatic weather stations were established

Recent geological studies

mass

be

ice shelf.

completed a trek from the winter camp on Ryvingen Mountain to Scott Base via the South Pole. The 2,900-km (1,800-mi) journey took 66 days. U.S.S.R. The 26th Soviet Antarctic Expedition involved some 1,400 men and women, with eight ships used to resupply the seven permanent Soviet stations and do marine research. A second summer scientific base was established on the Ronne Ice

Georg von Neumayer Station on the Ekstrom Ice Shelf at Atka Iceport. Glaciologic studies at Neumayer began, and helicopter-borne scientists visited the Filchner site to remeasure accumulation stakes left in 1979-80.

Shelf near the Lassiter Coast. About 300 scientists and technicians wintered over in 1981. The Mos-

Anthropology

Molodezhnaya Station air route was used again, and multiengine jet transports would begin

Perhaps the most important Neanderthal discovery since the early 20th century was announced in late 1980. Known as St. Cesaire, the new Neanderthal was discovered in 1979 at the site of SaintCesaire in Charente-Maritime, France. Although the fossil is fragmentary, it is indisputably a classic Neanderthal, sharing with others of this group the distinctive forward projecting face, large nasal aperture, and large curving brow-ridges. However, it is of more recent age than other known European Neanderthals and is associated with a different archaeological industry, one that in the past was thought to have been produced only by anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Both of these factors focused renewed attention on the controversy surrounding the transition from Neanderthal man to anatomically modern man in Europe. Did Neanderthal man give rise to anatomically modern man through gradual evolutionary change, or did modern man evolve elsewhere and immigrate to

ly

Anthropology

cow

to

using this route in the near future. Glaciologic traverses continued in East Antarctica. The borehole at Vostok Station was extended to 1,475 (4,835 ft), and a second deep borehole was begun at Komsomolskaya. United States. Major research efforts during 1980-81 included studies of Mt. Erebus, at Siple

m

Station, fibex (First International Biological Ex-

periment), and glaciologic studies at the South Pole. U.S., New Zealand, and Japanese scientists established three seismic stations on the Mt. Erebus volcano to improve monitoring of its internal activity. One unexpected result was the observation of earthquakes, indicating that Antarctica is active tectonically. At Siple Station radio signals were sent from the 21 -km (13-mi) antenna along the magnetic field line that returns to Earth in Roberval, Que. Several rockets and high-altitude balloons were launched to measure the effects of the radio signals, which caused an aurora in Quebec. Scientists on board the research vessel "Melville" discovered a school of some ten million tons of krill near Elephant Island, the largest swarm of sea animals ever seen. The astronomy program at the South Pole continued in cooperation with

Swedish

scientists.

West Germany. Frustrated by heavy ice conditions, the West German Antarctic Expedition did not build its planned Filchner Station on the Filchner/Ronne Ice Shelf. Instead, participating

scientists built

(peter

J.

ANDERSON)

Europe? Before the discovery of St. Cesaire, the known Neanderthal remains dated to perhaps 55,000 bp (before present) and were associated with the Mousterian stone tool industries. These industries are characterized by tools made mostly on flakes and probably struck using stone hammers. Although a continuous archaeological record existed from this time on, there were no other known human fossils until approximately 31,000 to 32,000 BP. These later fossils were anatomically modern in appearance and were associated with an entirely

Bones belonging to Australopithecus, an ancient hominid who lived two were discovered in Romania. These fossils are the first of their kind to be found in Europe. million years ago,

AUIHENTICATED NEWS

l^

different stone tool industry, the Aurignacian, an Upper Paleolithic industry characterized by tools made on distinctive long flakes (blades), probably

struck off using antler punches. Some anthropologists felt that the 20,000 years separating Neander-

181

Before this time, when Neanderthal man was the occupant of western Europe, the continental ice sheet extended far south into Europe and, together with ice sheets spreading from the Alps, virtually cut off western Europe from areas to the

Anthropology

sole

Anthropologists at Harvard and Johns Hopkins

man from anatomically modern man would have been sufficient for the transition to have taken place by gradual evolutionary change. The difference in tool traditions was most often cited as

east.

possible that the modern immigrant populations were carrying diseases to which Neanderthal was not immune. It is equally possible that the immi-

universities used scan-

the reason for the change. Under the untested assumption that the Mousterian industry was less efficient, the transition to more efficient tools was seen as taking the pressure off the use of the teeth as tools. This resulted in a decrease in the size of the teeth and in the forward projection of the face, producing the modern human cranial form. With the discovery of the St. Cesaire Neanderthal, however, there is no longer sufficient time for such a postulated gradual change. The St. Cesaire Neanderthal dates to between 34,000 and 31,000

grant population was more effective at hunting animals or gathering food. In either case, the immigrant population would have increased rapidly while the Neanderthal population declined. If this happened, even though interbreeding occurred, the Neanderthal features would rapidly be lost. The St. Cesaire discovery helps to eliminate the probability of an in situ evolution of modern man in Europe, but it does not answer the ultimate question of the origin of anatomically modern man

animal bone from a

thal

BP. In addition, its clear association

with an Upper

away

the explanation for the change. This one fossil has seriously the completely undermined weakened if not hypothesis that Neanderthal man was the direct ancestor of anatomically modern man in Europe. But what is the evidence for the immigration of modern human populations into Europe during this period? The St. Cesaire Neanderthal is associated with a type of Upper Paleolithic tool industry known as the Chatelperronian, which is different from the Aurignacian. For many years French archaeologists have suggested that this industry is a local outgrowth from the western European Mousterian, while the Aurignacian is an intrusive culture. Although this offers suggestive evidence to support the immigration hypothesis, there is little unambiguous evidence that the Aurignacian complex appears earlier in central Europe than in France. It is significant, however, Paleolithic tool industry also takes

human fossils of modern appearance are known from the Near East at Skhul and Jebel Qafthat

zeh in

Israel,

When

different

human

populations come into

contact, interbreeding occurs,

and there

is

no

rea-

son to believe that this was not the case when the populations of modern appearance came into contact with the Neanderthals. Recently found human fossils from Vindija Cave in Croatia, Yugos., may document this interbreeding. In this stratified cave site, fragmentary remains have been found associated with both the Mousterian and the Aurignacian stone tool industries. Although there are only a few specimens associated with the Aurignacian industry, they have been interpreted to show the same morphology as the Mousterian-associated specimens. Both are within the range of Neanderthal variation, but they give the impression of being nearer to the early modern European condition than most other European Neanderthals. Although this population appears to show a mixture of Neanderthal and modern features, later European Upper Paleolithic fossils are completely modern in appearance. About 35,000 bp, shortly before the appearance in western Europe of both the Aurignacian and Chatelperronian tool cultures, there

was a warm

interval in the last ice age.

Because Neanderthal had been isolated,

it is

ning electron micros-

copy marlts

to

compare

found on

cut

fossil

hominid-occupied site Kenya (bottom) with marks made on modern bone by a variety of proin

cesses, including slicing

with a stone tool (top)

and gnawing by

animals. Their study gave evidence of hominid butchering activity in the region at least 1.5 million years ago.

Antigua and Barbuda

elsewhere in the world. Along with the presence of anatomically modern forms in Israel at about 50,000 BP, fossils of anatomically modern appearance are found in Africa dating from this time (Border Cave, on the Mozambique-South Africa border, 48,000 Bp) and possibly much earlier (Omo, Ethiopia, 130,000 BP; Klasies River, South Africa, 90,000 BP). They are also found in China and in Borneo at about 40,000 bp. Understanding of the appearance of modern man is hampered by the fragmentary and, in some cases, poorly dated fossil record, as well as by insufficient understanding of the process of evolution in general and the specific causes of modern human morphology in particular. There are no convincing adaptive reasons why the robust morphology of man's earlier ancestors gave rise to the more lightly built human morphology. It is not even known whether this transition occurred in one small area or was a broader phenomenon. This uncertainty has led to a closer examination of the source populations from which anatomically modern Homo sapiens would have evolved, fossils that lived during the Middle Pleistocene, between 700,000 and 180,000 bp. For many years primary knowledge of the fossils from this time period came from the Far East — Peking man in China and Java man in Java. These are the fossils upon which the taxonomic group Homo erectus is defined. However, with the discovery of many more fossils of Middle Pleistocene age in Africa and Europe, the existence of Homo erectus as a homogeneous taxon spread widely across the Old World has come into question. Recent analyses have suggested marked differences in details of cranial morphology between the Asian, African, and European popula-

Although these studies are still in their infancy, it has been suggested that the European Middle Pleistocene hominids are so different from their Far Eastern counterparts that they should not be included in the taxon Homo erectus at all, but in Homo sapiens, albeit a primitive form that led to Neanderthal man. It has also been suggested that the African Middle Pleistocene fossils may be more closely related to the European forms than to the Far Eastern forms, belonging to Homo sapiens rathtions.

er than to

Homo

erectus.

Although much work remains

to

be done, this

information suggests that evolution may not have been proceeding in a homogenous fashion across the Old World. In Java, particularly. Homo erectus features are found in the comparatively recent Solo fossils of perhaps 100,000 bp, while in Europe populations were evolving throughout the Middle Pleistocene toward the classic Neanderthal descendants. At present the earliest dates for the appearance of anatomically modern morphology are from Africa.

The evolution of anatomically modern human morphology may have occurred in a relatively small area from an already distinct geographic race Middle Pleistocene early man, and on present paleontological evidence this area would be Africa. It must be remembered that the last 100,000-year period was the time of the last ice age, and the fluctuating temperature and associated changes in ecological zones would have provided the opof

timum circumstances

for

movement

population

across large geographic zones. This could be related not only to the spread of modern man into to replace Neanderthal man but also to his spread throughout the Old World and into Australia and the New World. (leslie c. aiello)

Europe

See also Archaeology. [411; 10/36.B]

Antigua and Barbuda An

independent state and a member of the Commonwealth, Antigua and Barbuda comprises the islands of Antigua (280 sq km), Barbuda (161 sq km), and Redonda (uninhabited, 1 sq km) and lies in the eastern Caribbean approximately 60 km north of Guadeloupe. Total area: 442 sq

km

(171 sq

mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 76,000. Cap.: Saint John's (pop., 1977 est., 24,600). Language: English. Religion:

Church

of

Protestant sects,

England (predominant), other and Roman Catholic. Queen,

Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1981, Sir Wilfred E. Jacobs; prime minister, Vere Cornwall Bird. On Nov. 1, 1981, nearly a year after a lengthy and sometimes acrimonious constitutional conference in London in December 1980, the British associated state of Antigua finally achieved

independence as Antigua and Barbuda. The new was Vere Cornwall Bird (see Biographies). The main source of disagree-

nation's prime minister

related to Antigua's island ward of Barbuda. Barbudans, who alleged years of economic neglect by Antigua, expressed particular concern over the future of their unique land tenure system and over future control of the police. The Antiguan government, however, successfully argued that these were internal issues and should be discussed sepa-

ment

rately.

In economic terms Antigua was among the best prepared of the islands of the eastern Caribbean for independence. It had a buoyant tourist industry, a small but expanding manufacturing sector, inflation in 1980 of 16%, unemployment at 19%, and an annual growth rate in 1979 of 7.8%. The government pursued policies slightly to the right of centre and placed heavy emphasis on strong regional relations. In particular, Antigua was at the forefront of moves to establish the new subregional grouping, the Organization of East

Caribbean

States.

The government

also

main-

tained close relations with the U.S., Britain, Canada, and Venezuela. (david a. jessop)

ANTIGUA Education. (T976-77) Primary, pupils 13,285, teachers 477; secondary, pupils 6,458, teachers 271; vocational, pupils 153, teachers 21; teacher training, students 89, teachers

9.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: East Caribbean dol with (Sept. 21, 1981) an official rate of ECar$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECar$5.01 = £1 sterling). Budget (1980) revenue ECar$62 million; expenditure ECar$69 million. Foreign trade (1977 est): imports ECar$110 million; ex. ports ECar$35 million. Import sources (1975): U.K. 197o; LI.S. 19%; Trinidad and Tobago 11%; The Bahamas 11%; Venezuela 9"'^: Iran 7%; Canada 5%. Export destinations (1975): bunkers 57%; U.S. 10%; Guyana 5%. Main export (1975): petroleum products 87%. lar,

published by the Centre de Recherches Archeologiques-Valbonne of the Centre Nationale de Recherches Scientifiques, France. It was announced that the considerable proceeds of the very successful traveling exhibition of treasures from the tomb of Tutankhamen would be used for renovation of the Egyptian Museum at Cairo. There was little to report, as yet, on the year's work by the long-range research teams in Egypt, such as the Oriental Institute of Chicago's Luxor expedition, which was concentrating on the copying of reliefs on the great temples. President Sadat's death appeared to have had no effect on archaeological work. An impressive number of excavations were be-

Orientate,

Archaeology No spectacular archaeologdiscoveries in the Old World were reported during 1981. The year's spectacles — to the embarrassment of real archaeologists — were both media events. A highly popular movie, Raiders of the Lost Eastern Hemisphere. ical

Ark, reached a new high level of the ridiculous in portrayal of archaeological fieldwork. And public confusion over the borderline between archaeology and paleoanthropology was apparent in the its

media coverage

of Lucy, a best-selling

book about

early African fossil hominid bones. For understandable reasons, there was

some

chaeological

news from

no

ar-

Iran. In the U.S. archaeolo-

Ronald Reagan's cutbacks in federal funding to universities and museums. In Israel ultra-Orthodox zealots did their best to disrupt excavations in Jerusalem because the bones of Jewish ancestors might be disturbed. Before his death, Egyptian Pres. Anwar as-Sadat was reportedly giving serious thought to the reburial (with full state honours) of the mummies of ancient Egyptian pharaohs now in the Cairo museum. Pleistocene Prehistory. In fact, very early artifacts were being found in east Africa, some in contexts suggesting that they were probably the work of australopithecine hominids. Stone core and flake tools found in excavations on an apparent campsite in the Hadar region of Ethiopia were dated to 2.5 miIlion-2.7 million years ago. A microscopic study of animal bones recovered from sites in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) and Koobi Fora (Kenya), of about 1.6 million years ago, revealed the cut marks of ancient butchering tools. An important summary account of work in the loess deposits of Tadzhikistan, Soviet Central Asia, appeared in Scientific American (Dec. 1980). Two sites, Lakhuti and Karatau, yielded a sequence of buried soils, some containing tools. The earliest tools — choppers and retouched flakes — came at the very base of the Pleistocene (identified as about one million years ago). Excavations on the gists braced for the effects of Pres.

I

Dordogne, France, yielded a rich collection of Mousterian side scrapers. Another open-air French site, Tanneron in the Alpes-Maritimes, had an important variety of Aurignacian II flint tools. For the first time, paleolithic cave art, in the form of engravings of animals, was found in England. The find, in Herefordshire, was dated to about 15,000 bc. At the El Juyo Cave near Santander in northern Spain, University of Chicago workers found what was demiddle Rissian terraces

scribed as the oldest

at Tares, in the

known

religious shrine.

The

sanctuary contained a stone head and altar-like slab dating to about 14,000 years ago. Work in Egypt's Western Desert, especially in the Wadi Kubbaniya, resulted in the recovery of important late Pleistocene artifacts. However, claims for the cultivation of cereals as early as 18,000 years ago were being treated with skepticism. Near East. An important new source of current archaeological information on the area appeared; the Lettre d' Information Europeenne Archeologie

ing carried out in Israel, many as locally staffed salvage operations. The Hebrew University's impressive exposures on the eastern slope of the City of David area in Jerusalem uncovered late Iron Age II structures built over an earlier ramp. It was these excavations that aroused the anger of the Orthodox Jews. At Tell Dan, in the far north, the excavations by Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, Ohio, were concentrating on clearing early 2nd-millennium bc fortifications. A French team excavated at two Natufian (10th-8th millennium Bc) sites. A British team continued its excavations at Tell Nebi Mend (ancient Kadesh) in Syria. Several French expeditions were also at work in Syria

one

at

an important coastal

site,

Ras

el Bassit.

A

Yale University expedition did more clearance at Tell Leilan in northeast Syria, once a walled Assyrian capital city. In Turkey there was considerable activity in the Euphrates salvage area (which would be flooded when new dams were completed), as well as on the Anatolian plateau and to the west. In the Malatya salvage region, an Istanbul University team uncovered important new evidence of the northern Ubaid complex, with a number of clay bullae (seals), at Dagirmen Tepe. .At Kurban Huyuk in the Urfa salvage region, an Oriental Institute excavation exposed a fine sequence of 3rd- and 2ndmillennium bc buildings. Outside the salvage re-

gion, the joint Istanbul-Chicago- Karlsruhe team to clear the remarkable 8th-millennium BC architecture at the early village site of Cayonu.

continued

The University of Ankara excavations at Kultepe, Masat, and Acemhoyuk, mainly 2nd millennium BC, were continued, as were the extraordinary end-4th-early-3rd-millennium bc exposures of Alba Palmieri of Rome University at MalatyaArslantepe.

Greco-Roman Regions.

In Greece itself, there considerable concern over the effects of industrial air pollution on the monuments. The Greek antiquities service denied, however, that the palace of Knossos on Crete was in a state of decay. To complicate matters further, an earthquake in February 1981 did substantial damage in several parts of Greece; one corner of the Parthenon was cracked, and a number of vases in the Athens museum were broken. After a five-year break, excavations were resumed on the .Athenian Agora, In November the American School of Classical Studies announced the discovery of the foundation of the Painted Stoa, which had been a gath-

was

still

183

Archaeology

184

Archaeology

An Orthodox )ew watches as excavation continues at a site le of making Quebec a unilingual (French) community while removing the safeguard it had

an absolute veto over constitutional change. Trudeau pressed ahead with the

always claimed resolution,

House

of

of

finally

securing its passage in the a vote of 246-24 on Decem-

Commons by

ber 2. Members from all three parties supported the accord establishing a new constitution which, by year's end, had been sent to London for final approval by the British Parliament. Joe Clark leader of the Progressive Conservative Party since 1976 and prime minister during the short-lived Conservative administration of June 1979-March 1980, received the support of only 66% of party delegates attending a convention in ,

Ottawa on February 27. His poor showing reflected unhappiness among party members over his part in the 1980 electoral defeat, as well as the feeling that he should be replaced by a leader with

stronger fjersonal appeal. The governing Liberal Party held onto three of

vacant Commons seats in 1981 saw a Quebec riding remain with the Conservatives, and lost a supposedly safe seat in Toronto to the ndp. The results of the by-elections left party standings in the 282-seat House of Commons as follows: Liberfive

als 147;

,

Progressive Conservatives 102;

ndp

33.

Four provinces went to the polls in 1981. The most important contest was in Quebec, where Premier Levesque led his separatist Parti Quebecois (PQ) back into office on April 13. In spite of having lost 11 consecutive by-elections in its first four and a half years of power, the PQ won 80 of the 122 seats in the assembly, a gain of 13 from its previous standing. The Liberals took the remaining 42 seats. Levesque dropped his goal of sovereignty-association for the election, campaigning instead on his party's record of competent, honest government. Ontario gave its 38-year-old Conservative administration, led by William Davis {see Biographies) since 1971, a majority position in an election on March 19. The Conservatives captured

70 seats in the legislature, their opponents 55. The victory reflected voter confidence in the middle ground position occupied by the Davis government. Nova Scotia had a general election on October 6, when Premier John Buchanan's Con-

servative government, seeking a stronger mandate, won 38 of the 52 seats in the legislature. In office since September 1978, the Buchanan govern-

ment

capitalized on the optimism regarding offshore resource development in the Atlantic area.

An

election in

Manitoba on November

17

saw

Premier Sterling Lyon's four-year-old Conservasoundly defeated by the ndp under Howard Pawley. The ndp captured 33 of the 57 seats in the legislature, the Conservatives 24. The Lyon government probably fell because of voter unhappiness over the depressed state of Manitotive administration

economy.

ba's

The Economy. The economy expanded with surprising strength in the first two quarters of 1981, then subsided and stagnated for the rest of the year. Gross national product was expected to reach Can$324.1 billion on an annual basis, representing a rate of real growth over the year of about 3.5%. Exports were generally strong, as were retail sales and business investment. There was much public concern about high interest rates. The Bank of Canada's lending rate, based on the interest paid in the weekly auction of treasury bills, topped 21% in late August, a record for Canada, then declined sharply by November. The effect of high loan rates was felt over the entire economy, choking demand and dealing a devastating blow to the

housing market. fell

On

August 4 the Canadian

to 80.4 U.S. cents, the

dollar

lowest in 50 years. For

hovered between this figure and 84 U.S. cents. Inflation continued at the highest point since the years immediately after World War 11, running around 13%. The unemployment rates also recalled 1945 figures, standing at 8.3% overall in October but with considerable variation across

most

of 1981

it

the country.

The most encouraging economic news was the resolution of the one-and-a-half-year stalemate between the federal government and the province of Alberta over oil prices and the sharing of petroleum revenues. An agreement signed in Ottawa

on September 1 by Trudeau and Premier Peter Lougheed {see Biographies) of Alberta gave Alberta most of what it had wanted: a price close to the world level for new oil and a large share of energy revenues. Over the next five years Canadian consumers would pay an additional $32 billion for oil, with both Alberta and Ottawa taking more Plans for an economic summit conference to be held in Ottawa in luly were discussed at a meeting between Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau (left) and French Pres. Francois Mitterrand.

229

Canada

230

Canada

in taxes

and

come was

royalties.

The industry's share

of in-

be reduced, but because of a two-tier, pld-new oil pricing agreement, it would actually receive more income than before. Ottawa agreed to to

drop, at least temporarily, a controversial export

on natural gas, and both governments promwork toward the start-up of new projects to recover petroleum from the oil sands of northern tax

ised to

Alberta.

The Trudeau government's continued reliance on high interest rates and a tough fiscal policy to combat inflation was revealed in Finance Minister Allan MacEachen's budget on November 12. MacEachen promised to reduce the federal deficit from its current $13.3 billion figure to $10.5 billion in 1982-83 by cutting federal transfer payments to the provinces and other expenditures. The budget closed or changed 11 personal tax loopholes while lowering federal tax rates slightly. It gave help to homeowners facing high mortgage renewal charges and to farmers in distress because of the high cost of borrowing. It contained no measures affecting future U.S. investment in Canada, nor were there policies directed at the problem of growing unemployment. Foreign Affairs. The most important event of the year for Canada was the economic summit conference, held at a large resort hotel on the edge of the Laurentian Mountains about 64 km (40 mi) Ottawa. The seventh in the series that began in France in 1975, the conference on July 20 and 21 was attended by the leaders of the seven major industrial democracies and the president of the Commission of the European Communities. Trudeau devoted considerable effort before the meeting to ensuring a thorough discussion of North-South issues: food supplies, trade rules, international financial arrangements, energy, commodity markets. The result was a tentative east of

commitment

to explore the possibility of global negotiations on these issues. To prepare the ground for consideration of the rich nation-poor nation agenda, Trudeau made three trips across the Atlantic and two to Washington before the

July summit. In August Trudeau and his three sons visited East Africa on a combined official trip and holiday. The prime minister addressed a UN Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy in Kenya,

Canadian Literature: see Literature Canoeing: see Water Sports

promising $40 million in additional Canadian funds to support research into energy sources for less developed countries. From September 30 to October 7 he was in Melbourne, Australia, for the Commonwealth heads of government meeting. Finally, on October 22 and 23, he traveled to Canciin, Mexico, for the 22-nation International Meeting on Co-operation and Development, called in an attempt to ease tensions building up in the international system over perceived economic injustices. On the eve of the meeting Trudeau's efforts to promote the North-South dialogue were recognized when he was invited to share the chairmanship of the conference with Pres. Jose Lopez Portillo of Mexico in the absence, through illness, of Chancellor Bruno Kreisky of Austria. In other developments, Canada sold a second

Candu nuclear

reactor to

Romania

for electrical

power generation, reached an agreement with Cuba on compensation to Canadians who lost ascountry following the Castro revoluagreement that auto exports to Canada would be voluntarily reduced by 6% during the 1981-82 fiscal year, and concluded a major grain sale to the Soviet Union (25 million metric tons over five years). A number of irritations, some of them deriving from Canada's nationalistic energy and investment policies, disturbed the relationship with the U.S. in 1981. The Trudeau government's national energy policy, unveiled in 1980, sought to increase sets in that

tion in 1959, received Japan's

25% Canadian control of the country's and gas industry to 50% by 1990 and provided incentives for Canadian companies in the exploration and development of energy sources. During the year there were several takeovers of U.S. oil companies by Canadian firms in pursuit of this the current

oil

goal. (See Special Report.)

U.S. officials labeled the Canadian policies unfair and discriminatory, and a number of proposals for retaliation were studied in Congress. These included prohibiting Canadian companies from participating in mineral leases on U.S. federal land and requiring Canadian companies taking over U.S. companies to abide by the same Federal Reserve Board margin rules as U.S. corporations. In July Finance Minister MacEachen asked Canadian chartered banks to restrict the availability of funds for foreign takeovers to their Canadian customers.

Canada's response to the U.S. criticism was to deny that the changes in the rules for investment were discriminatory. No U.S. firms were being nationalized or forced to sell their Canadian assets. Canada wished to correct an untenable situation in which the degree of foreign control over vital sectors of its economy was far more than the U.S. would have tolerated. Fisheries were another area of disagreement in

Two

linked treaties, signed in 1979 for the of fish stocks and the definition of maritime boundaries in the Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine areas on the Atlantic coast, were uncoupled by the U.S. The first was withdrawn by the Reagan administration; the second was approved in the Senate on April 29, sending the boundary dispute to binding arbitration by a panel of the World Court. Conservation of the valuable fish stocks in the Gulf of Maine, threatened by overfishing, remained an urgent problem. Acid rain pollution, the result of emissions of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, constituted an acute environmental problem for the two coun1981.

management

was shared equally, and there each country for tougher action to

tries.

Responsibility

were

calls in

control emissions. Pres.

Ronald Reagan made his

first state visit

outside the U.S. to Ottawa on March 10 and 11, where he discussed bilateral issues such as fisheries and pollution with Prime Minister Trudeau.

The North American Aerospace Defense Command (Norad) was renewed on this occasion for an additional five years. Its new name (Aerospace in place of Air) reflected the fact that it now watched the skies for missiles and satellites as well as for enemy aircraft. (d. m. l. farr)

ergy prices during the 1970s had created a bonanza

Canada: Special Report

with oil and gas resources, changing Canada's regional wealth patterns in favour of the western petroleum-rich provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan. The central government, controlled politically by the two populous provinces of Ontario and Quebec, sought through the national energy provinces

the

for

dramatically

THE RAGING ENERGY WAR by Peter Ward

policy to increase central control over the

economy.

But the western provinces were suspicious of the federal claim that such actions would be in the over-

Canadian

all

interest.

when

Taxation and incentive provisions of the energy policy were designed to encourage exploration for

would dominate the economic and political life of the nation throughout 1981 and possibly for several decades. So sweeping were the aims of La-

the federal

Canada's energy minister. Marc Lalonde, had his national energy policy introduced in Parliament on Oct. 28, 1980, he put in train a series of events that

londe's blueprint for Canada's energy future that Price-Waterhouse, one of Canada's leading chartered accountant firms, said

in a

detailed analysis:

program is mammoth both in terms of dollars and in its impact on Canada's energy industries, it represents a very substantial change in the tax and regulatory climate of the oil and gas sector and will affect Canadians in every walk of life for

"The

overall

years to

come."

Lalonde's energy policy put the federal govern-

new

oil

and

natural gas in areas controlled solely by

government— the Yukon and Northwest

and seabed regions offshore. In these fedthe national oil company, Petro-Canada, automatically obtained a 25% interest in any petroleum finds, and there was no bothersome conflict with provincial governments over revenue sharing. The federal share of revenue from all oil and gas production was to be increased considerably. Canadian-controlled companies would get a far better tax break than foreign-controlled companies. territories

eral areas,

Alberta,

the chief energy-producing

government impose the tax on exported natural gas that had been proposed as part of the new policy and was shortly enacted into law. Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed decreed that his province would cut also claimed that the federal

a war footing with the energy-producing provinces, the oil companies, and the new administration of Pres. Ronald Reagan in the U.S. It caused the exodus of billions of investment dollars from Canada, the departure of thousands of petroleum industry experts, and the flight of hundreds

Alberta.

and gas-exploration rigs. It also increased Canadian control over the crucial oil industry, traditionally dominated by foreign interests, and vastly strengthened the power of the central government in Ottawa at the expense of the provincial governments. It sent the stalled Canadian economy into a

stages, as a protest.

ment almost on

of

oil-

tailspin,

contributed to

a

dramatic reduction

in

the

value of the Canadian dollar, and helped push the

banks charged their best customers to 22.75%, while other interest rates rose cor-

interest rate

a record

respondingly. Oil Politics, Canadian Style. The energy policy was aimed at giving Canadians control of a domestic oil and gas industry that was 71% owned by foreign interests, bringing energy self-sufficiency to Canada by 1990, and establishing an energy pricing scale that would enlarge the federal share of revenue from oil and natural gas. By Canadian constitutional law,

resources belong to the provinces. Escalation of enPeter Ward operates Ward News Services the Parliamentary Press Gallery, Ottawa.

Canada

in

province,

reacted with anger and muscle, warning Ottawa that the new energy policy would destroy the industry in

had no

back

oil

It

right to

production by 180,000 bbl a day

Lougheed

in

three

also refused to give

the necessary approval to begin construction of two plants for extracting heavy oil from tar sands.

Ottawa had long insisted on keeping the price of Canada lower than the world price— in Can$18.75 per barrel, as opposed to Can$40 per barrel on the world market. Canada imports roughly 400,000 bbl of foreign oil daily, and the federal government pays a subsidy to make up the difference. Alberta's production cutbacks meant that Canada had to import more oil and pay heavier subsidies. Oil taxes were imposed to raise money for the subsidies, and additional taxes were put on oil to pay for

oil

government takeovers of foreign oil interests. By the fall of 1981, the effective Canadian price of oil was more than Can$28 a barrel. Politically, high-priced oil proved dangerous for Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, whose Liberal Party had defeated )oe Clark's Conservative government in February 1980 largely on the basis of a promise to keep oil prices down. Trudeau claimed that

Lalonde's

energy

policy

would meet

that

231

CANADIAN PRESS

On September 1 a news conference was called to announce an agreement on the pricing of Canadian oil; (from Alberta Energy Minister Merv Leitch, Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed, Prime Minister Pierre

left)

Trudeau, and federal Energy Minister

Marc Lalonde.

pledge, benefiting the energy-consuming provinces

Quebec the most. An Economy in Retreat. The fight between

of Ontario and

east

and west, producers and consumers, pinched the revenue of the oil and gas industry so badly that in the first nine months of 1981, 200 oil-exploration rigs left Canada to drill in the U.S., where controls were being dismantled. Foreign-controlled oil companies—most of them U.S. — were being forced to to Canadians at fire-sale prices

because they faced much more onerous taxation schedules than Canadian-owned companies. sell

announcement of the naenergy policy, an estimated Can$14 billion was spent buying out foreign-controlled oil compaIn

the year following

tional

nies.

went

The

lion's share of

the

and that Lalonde's program was to Petro-Canada,

new

controlling interest

critics

began to charge

really a drive to give

the

government— not just Canadians— control the industry. At the same time, Washington, up-

federal

of

set at the punishment U.S. investors were taking, began to threaten retaliatory action. By Sept. 1, 1981, 35% of the oil and gas industry was Canadian-controlled, and Lalonde said that 50% Canadian control could easily be achieved by 1985. Before long, however, the slowdown in the Alberta-Saskatchewan-British Columbia oil and gas industry began to pinch Ontario and Quebec deeply, just as Premier Lougheed had predicted. Jobs in the vital service and drilling-equipment industries were being sacrificed to the federal program, and criticism mounted. The cost to Canada's economy grew almost by the week. Dollars that might have been used for new investment went to buy control of foreign companies or fled the country. Massive Canadian schemes, like the two Alberta oil sands plants, were scrapped or postponed. The Canadian dollar plunged to 80.4 U.S. cents, its lowest value in 50 years, and interest

232

rates hit record highs, virtually halting the

and construction

industry.

Canada

reserves to a record low defending lar.

Inflation

A

ran its

housing foreign

its

troubled dol-

reached 13%.

Skirmish, Not the War.

In

the face of these

developments, Trudeau came under increasing pressure from within his own Liberal Party to modify his policies. On Aug. 17, 1981, Liberals lost two key by-elections called to

fill

vacant parliamentary seats

— one to the Conservatives and one to the left-wing New Democrats.

Gallup Polls indicated that Trudeau

would be defeated if he had to face an election. Circumstances and politics had given Alberta an extremely strong bargaining position.

On September

1, after

more than

a year of sporad-

bargaining, Ottawa capitulated to Alberta's

oil and demands, accepting the dictum that Canadian energy prices must move more rapidly toward world prices. The five-and-a-quarter-year pricing agreement that resulted would pour rivers of revenue into the coffers of Ottawa, Alberta, and the oil industry and cost Canadian consumers Can$212.8 billion. Alberta also forced the federal government to modify some of the discriminatory measures against petroleum companies exploring in ic

gas pricing

provincial, rather than federal, lands. But Alberta

won

only a preliminary battle, not the war.

Ottawa appeared to have no intention of retreating from its basic goal of greater federal control over the oil and gas industry. Indeed, indications were that the Trudeau government intended to expand its influence

in

other sectors of the

economy

as well.

announcements of programs to promote economic nationalism were made late in 1981. The national energy policy, which caused considerable Several

hardship to all Canadians during 1981, could be merely the leading edge of a series of policies designed to give the central government far greater control over the entire Canadian

economy.

ANORC ABEQG—MAPflESS PARIS/ RCTORIAL PAfiMX.

233

Central African Republic

Cape Verde An independent

African republic. Cape Verde

is

located in the Atlantic Ocean about 620 km (385 off the west coast of Africa. Area: 4,033 sq km

mi)

(1,557 sq mi). Pop. (1980 prelim.): 296,100. Cap. largest city: Praia (pop., 1980 prelim., 36,600). Language: Portuguese. Religion: 91% Roman Catholic. President in 1981, Aristide Pereira;

and

premier, Pedro Pires.

The government of Cape Verde condemned the coup that took place in Guinea-Bissau in November 1980, and the policy of unity between the two countries was abandoned. On Jan. 19, 1981, Cape Verde decided to leave the joint African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde (paigc) and form its own African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (paicv). In February the National Assembly approved a new constitution that formalized the split from Guinea-Bissau. It also returned Pres. Aristide Pereira for another term of office. The economy continued its slow recovery. The 1981 budget set aside $84 million for investment, with transport and communications receiving the highest priority. Almost two-thirds of investment funds came from overseas. Emigration was down to one-third of pre-independence levels. Unemployment figures fell, and the food supply improved. Emphasis was placed on the development of agriculture and on fishing, which accounted for 70% of export earnings. Although 1981 was dominated by the break with Guinea-Bissau, the two countries, together with Mali, joined forces to oppose the establishment of a defense pact by the Economic Community of West African States (ecowas).

(guy Arnold)

CAPE VERDE Education. (1978-79) Primary, pupils 46,539, teachers 1,431, secondary, pupils 6,607, teachers 220; vocational, pupils 474, teachers (1977-78) 43: teacher training (197778), pupils 198, teachers (1976-77) 32.

Rnance and

Trade. Monetary

unit:

Cape Verde

Pres.

David Dacko,

was elected

to a

who

new

March, was overthrown in Septemterm

in

ber after a state of siege had been declared.

Lebouder and, from April 4 until September

1,

Simon Narcisse Bozanga; head of state and chairman of the Military Committee of National Recovery from September 1, Gen. Andre Kolingba. On Sept. 1, 1981, Gen. Andre Kolingba {see Biographies) replaced Pres. David Dacko as head of state and set up a Military Committee of NationRecovery. Circumstances surrounding the bloodless takeover were confused, but it seemed to have been achieved with Dacko's acquiescence, perhaps at his request. It put an end to political tension that had been mounting throughout the al

Cape Verde

year. French forces stationed in the country since

the deposition of the former emperor, Bokassa were not involved.

I,

es-

cudo, with (June 30, 1981) a free rateof SOescudos to U.S. $1 (96.50 escudos = ,£1 sterling). Budget (1979 est.) balat 1,327,000,000 escudos. Foreign trade (1976): imports 911.4 million escudos; exports 48,030,(X)0 escudos (excluding transit trade). Import sources: Portugal 58%; The Netherlands 5%. Export destinations: Portugal 63%;

anced

Angola 14%; Zaire 5%. U.K. 5"^. Mam exports: fish 29% (including shellfish 16%), bananas 19%; salt 9%. Transport. Shipping traffic (1977): goods loaded 27,000 metric tons, unloaded 195,000 metric tons.

Central African Republic

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 241,201, teachers 3,690; secondary, pupils 46,084, teachers 462; vocational, pupils 2,523, teachers 128; teacher training (1976-77), students 522, teachers 47; higher, students 972, teaching staff

185.

Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 21, 1981) CFA Fr 50 to the French franc and a free rate of Fr 265 to US $1 (CFA Fr 491 = £1 sterling). Budget (total; 1980 est.) balanced at CFA Fr 25,447,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1979) Imports CFA Fr 14,816,000,000; exports CFA Fr 16,937,000,000. Import sources: France 63%; U.S. 5%. Export destinations: France 46%; Belgiuma parity of

CFA

Central African Republic

Luxembourg 21%;

Catholic Church: see Religion

Israel 11%; U.S. 8%, Main exports: dia44%,; coffee 25%; timber 12%; cotton 7%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): millet c. 50; corn (1979) c. 40; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 60; cassava (1979) c. 940; peanuts c. 127; bananas c. 78; plantains (1979) c. 63; coffee c. 11; cotton, lintc. 14. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 670; pigs c. 128; sheep c. 80; goats c. 780; chickens c. 1,433. Industry. Production (in 000; 1978): electricity (kw-hr) 60,000; diamonds (metric carats) 284; cotton fabrics (m)

monds

The landlocked Central African Republic is bounded by Chad, the Sudan, the Congo, Zaire, and Cameroon. Area: 622,436 sq km (240,324 sq mi). Pop. (1980 est.): 2,362,400. Cap.

and

largest

Bangui (pop., 1979 est., 362,700). Language: French (official), local dialects. Religion: animist

city:

60%; Christian 35%; Muslim 5%. President until Sept. 1, 1981, David Dacko; premiers, Jean-Pierre

3,000.

Cave Exploration: see Speleology

Census Data: see Demography; see also the individual

country articles; U.S. census data beginning on page 142

234

Following a referendum in February that gave approval to a French-type presidential constitution, elections on March 15 had narrowly confirmed Dacko as president with 50.23% of the votes. Violent demonstrations after the election led to the proclamation of a state of siege, which was not lifted until August 16. On April 4 Simon Nar-

Chad

Bozanga replaced Jean-Pierre Lebouder as premier. Following an announcement on May 9 cisse

that legislative

and municipal

elections

would be

deferred until 1982, the political situation deteriorated progressively, with strikes and further violence occurring against a background of economic crisis.

On January 24 six associates of Bokassa were executed. Bokassa himself, sentenced to death in absentia on Dec. 24, 1980, was living in the Ivory Coast. His former palace was featured as a tourist (philippe decraene) attraction.

Chad

CHAD Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 210,882, teachers 2,610; secondary, pupils 18,382, teachers 590; vocationpupils 649, teachers (1965-66) 30; teacher training, students 549, teachers (1973-74) 26; higher, students 758, teaching staff 62. Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a parity of CFA Fr 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFA Fr 265 to U.S. $1 (CFA Fr 491 = £1 sterling). Budget (total; 1978 est.) balanced at CFA Fr 17,084,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1976) Imports CFA Fr 28,111,000,000; exports CFA Fr 14,861,000,000. Import sources (1976): France 46%; Nigeria c 22%; Cameroon c. 5%; Netherc.

al,

lands Antilles c. 5%. Export destinations (1976): Nigeria c. 19%; lapan c. 14%; France c. 13%; West Germany c. 13%; Spain c. 11%. Main exports (1975): cotton 66%; petroleum products 8%; beef and veal 7%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): millet c. 600; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 34; cassava (1979) c. 180; peanuts c. 85; beans, dry c. 40; dates c. 25; mangoes c. 30; cotton, lintc. 46; meatc. 50; fish catch (1979) c. 115. Livestock (in 000; 1979): horses c. 154; asses c. 271; camels c. 410; cattle c. 4,070; sheep c. 2,278; goats c. 2,278.

On

January

6,

following a visit by Oueddei to

Chad and Libya announced their intenThough in N'Djamena the significance of this was played down, France immediately condemned the agreement as "revealing ambitions that menace African security." The French military presence in central Africa was Tripoli,

A

j

Refugees fled from Chad into

Cameroon

bloody

civil

fied in

Chad

after a

war

intensi-

in February.

landlocked republic of central Africa, Chad is bounded by Libya, the Sudan, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Niger. Area; 1,284,000 sq km (495,755 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 4,636,000, including Saras, other Africans, and Arabs. Cap. and largest city: N'Djamena (pop., 1979 est., 303,000). Language: French (official). Religion: Muslim 45%; animist 45%; Christian 10%. President in 1981, Goukouni Oueddei. In a new swing of the pendulum in Chad's continuing internal conflict, Libyan troops brought in at Pres. Goukouni Oueddei's request in December 1980 were withdrawn, again at his request, in November 1981. In a reverse movement the Armed Forces of the North of Hissen Habre, which had retreated

cupied

all

Sudan in December 1980, reocthe important towns in eastern Chad in into

November

1981.

tion to unite.

reinforced, with men and materiel being sent to the Central African Republic and aircraft to Gabon. At a meeting of 12 heads of state of the Organization of African Unity (oau) at Lome, Togo, on January 14, Nigeria, despite its opposition to French African policy, took the lead in condemning the proposed union. In the face of concerted African disapproval, Libya on several occasions expressed its willingness to leave Chad, but it was not until early November that the withdrawal was completed. Several factors may have influenced Libya's decision: the wish to end involvement in what had less a conflict between Chad's Muslim northern and black southern regions and more a struggle between northern political factions; the need for an improved Libyan image at the 1982 OAU summit conference in Tripoli; and the new French government's decision to give full logistic and other aid to Oueddei's Transitional Government of National Union (gunt). Whatever the reason, at the Franco- African summit in Paris on November 3-4, Libya's withdrawal was seen as a victory for France and its African partners. However, despite the arrival of an oau peacekeeping force composed of troops from Nigeria, Senegal, and Zaire, the threat of continued civil war remained. Habre resumed his offensive and Acyl Ahmat, the gunt foreign minister, openly opposed Oueddei. (philippe decraene)

become

Chemistry Ingenious organic syntheses, development of an and increasing automation in

all-plastic battery,

laboratory operations were among noteworthy features of 1981. Chemists also played a role in developing alternative sources of energy, in better

understanding how fluoride prevents tooth decay, and in ensuring the safety of the space shuttle "Columbia" after its historic first landing. Organic Chemistry. Recognition of a fundamental advance in understanding how compounds react led to the award of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in October to Roald Hoffmann of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., and Kenichi Fukui of Kyoto University in Japan (see Nobel Prizes). Their independent theories of the way in which electronic orbitals around atomic nuclei overlap and interact have allowed organic chemists to design

new

syntheses and

of reaction outcomes.

make

CH,0

accurate predictions

Among recent syntheses that

benefited from these fundamental theories was

N

that of the naturally occurring antileukemic agent

maytansine (1), regarded by some as the most complex natural product to be synthesized after vitamin B,,. Another was of aklavinone, a key portion of another anticancer agent, aclacinomycin A. Yoshito Kishi and his group at Harvard played a key role in the final stages of a 50-man project leading to an ingenious synthesis for the wellknown antibiotic erythromycin. This work had been started by Nobel laureate Robert B. Woodward (d. 1979), Hoffmann's collaborator in the fa-

mous Woodward-Hoffmann

theory.

Research progressed on other chemicals with pharmaceutical applications, and syntheses were increasingly supplemented by techniques involving enzymes, microorganisms, cell cultures, or genetic engineering. Announcements came from

Merck Sharp and Dohme, West Point, Pa., of the development of a new class of drugs for curing hypertension; from Beecham Pharmaceuticals, in the U.K., of an exciting antibiotic called Augmentin, based on ampicillin; and from the Wellcome

CH3O

CH3 natural isomer of

maytansine

London, of 4'6-dichloromost potent antiviral compound yet reported and to have great potential Research Laboratory,

flavan, claimed to be the for treating the

common

cold.

Organic chemists from West Germany and the U.S. made news by overturning the textbook rule

amino acids in the proteins of living organisms. Two previously unknown amino acids were discovered: one, from animal ribonucleoprotein, called amino citric acid that there are only 20 kinds of

(2) and the other, from bacteria, known as /3-carboxyaspartic acid (3). The biological functions of these new discoveries, how they are made in cells,

their distribution in living systems would be keen topics of future biochemical research. Among compounds found were tetraphenyl squaramidine, amusingly nicknamed the "man-on-the-Moon molecule" (4), and spiropentene, a molecular bow tie (5). Polymer science also surged forward on many fronts. One new polymer was employed as an adhesive for an insulating blanket on space probes, and another was used as a membrane to replace the skin of badly burned patients. Also of interest was the highly novel synthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate by Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd. (ici) in England, based on a bacterial fermen-

and

structurally interesting

A

breakthrough in polymer chemistry led to the development of a rechargeable plastic battery that developers say can deliver more energy per unit weight than conventional lead-acid stor-

age

batteries.

tation process,

native

to

which opened the way

oil-derived

H

plastics.

to an alterPerhaps most

H

^O

236

would be ideal for powering electric automobiles or in homes for storing off-peak electricity for later

Chemistry

use.

Inorganic Chemistry. Inorganic complexes

at-

tracted increased interest from medical scientists. In the field of medical imaging, for example, radiologists

were using

injections of a

complex

of

radioactive thallium-201 to provide information on the living heart, but this element had several drawbacks, including expense and low photon energy. A new material, developed by researchers at the University of Cincinnati and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Bureau of Radiological Health, is a water-soluble and nontoxic complex of the artificial element technetium. Like its thallium predecessor the new complex accumulates in heart tissue, emitting gamma rays that can be used to construct a diagnostically useful image of the heart.

Water retained

its

attraction for scientists as

they sought to understand more of its structure, chemistry, solvent properties, and its role in living systems. A new theory of water structure, proposed by Martyn Symons at the University of Leicester in the U.K., gave persuading nonmathematical evidence that the so-called anomalous behaviour of water was something that could be expected and predicted. A physicist from the same

John Enderby, together with collaborators at the University of Bristol, used one of university,

were the revolutionary developments in the field of "organic metals," polymers selectively made impure (doped) to give them some of the

exciting

electrical properties of metals.

Scientists at Bell

The simple organic

polymer polyacetylene was the key component of the first plastic battery. Designed by Alan G. MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger at the University of

made

Laboratories investigated

Pennsylvania, the rechargeable battery was

a liquid-junction solar

from two oppositely charged doped polyacetylene

can convert 11.5% of the sunlight

cell that

striking

it

into electricity,

making

it

competitive

with single-crystal solidstate devices commonly

{e.g., tetrabutyl-amperchlorate in propylene carbonate) and could generate as much as 3.7 volts and 20 milliamperes per square centimetre of film. Experts believed that such lightweight nonmetallic batteries

films in a suitable electrolyte

monium

the most intense neutron sources in the world to resolve a controversy about water that had been debated since the 19th century. The question was whether the ions of sodium (Na*) and chlorine

(Cr) that form when common

salt

(NaCl)

is dis-

solved in water affect each other in solution. The researchers used the neutron diffraction patterns of salt solutions to show that water molecules clustered around the charged ions, insulating them from each other and making them essentially independent entities. The work should lead to a muchsimplified theory of solutions. The investigation of reaction mechanisms gained impetus, especially in the field of organometallic chemistry. Of more practical importance, however, was a study by Dhanpat Rai and collaborators at Pacific Northwest Laboratory in Washington State, who explained how solutions containing compounds of plutonium-238 and -239 could change chemically over several months, becoming more corrosive and more capable of degrading and leaching through nuclear waste containers.

Work by Gobinda C. Maiti and Friedemann Freund of the University of Cologne, West Germany, on the bonelike minerals hydroxyapatite and hydroxyfluoroapatite gave clues to the mechanism by which fluoride ions in the latter act as a barrier Their study could lead to a better of the way in which fluoride reduces tooth decay. Physical Chemistry. Interest in photochemistry, particularly with respect to solar energy, blossomed during the year. Adam Heller and Barry to acid attack.

understanding

Miller of Bell Laboratories,

made

Murray

Hill,

N.J.,

headlines with specially developed photocathodes that could generate electricity from ABORAIORIES

sunlight with an efficiency of 11.5%. Research groups in Western Europe announced successes in decomposing water into its elements with light; among them were those from the Institut le Bel, Strasbourg, France, and the Ecole Polytechnique Federale in Lausanne, Swit2. Leading the Swiss group was Michael Gratzel, who later in the year reported a sunlight-driven system to split hydrogen sulfide, a process that could provide a handy alternative to present expensive and inadequate methods of removing this gas from oil refinery

emissions and industrial effluents. Spectroscopy, the study of electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted by matter, maintained its central role as an invaluable tool not only in chemistry but in astronomy, physics, and biology as well. Infrared spectra provided the cornerstone for a highly controversial theory by Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe of University College, Cardiff, Wales, who proposed that the spiectra pointed to the existence of such biologically produced molecules as cellulose in the dust grains that litter interstellar space. From this conclusion and other studies they further speculated that living cells first arose in space. Support for the possibility of molecules of life in space also came from Mayo Greenberg of the University of Leiden in The Netherlands, who simulated in his laboratory the passage of a frozen mixture of simple interstellar gases near a star and confirmed the existence of complex molecules in the final product. Despite these studies, researchers were cess in finding glycine, the acid, in the space

still having no sucmost primitive amino

between the

stars.

Many

techniques previously used by chemists alone gained ground in the life sciences. Nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr) spectroscopy, for example, was finding increasing success in the study of proteins. Eric Oldfield at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, oriented samples in a magnetic field to help in the study of the structure and dynamics of such proteins as myoglobin. The technique provided information previously impossible to obtain even by X-ray crystallography. Other noteworthy topics were the discovery of superconducting organic crystals that could be promising alternatives to metal alloys, the successful engineering of a system of oscillating chemical reactions that mirrored many biological activities, and the revelation that the magnetic field of simple stirring devices commonly used by chemists could affect the products of certain polymerization reactions.

Analytical Chemistry. Increasingly stringent regulations relating to foods, drugs, energy use.

5

238

pionship. Lev Psakhis and Aleksandr Beljavsky tied for first place. The Swedish grand master Ulf Andersson won the Hastings International Tour-

Chess

nament. In February Karpov won the Chess Oscar for the seventh time. Korchnoi was ranked second and Harry Kasparov of the U.S.S.R., third. The playoff for the British championship was won by John Nunn, who defeated William Hartston in a match in London. An intercontinental tournament at Mar del Plata, Arg., was won by Europe, which defeated the Americas IQVi-HVi. The first international tournament to be held in China was won by Robert Bellin of the U.K. ahead of I. M. Liang of China. Korchnoi was first at the Banco di Roma tournament, 2 V2 points ahead of the field. In March Mikhail Tal of the Soviet Union won the Keres Memorial Tournament in Tallinn, Estonia. Lubomir Kavalek of the U.S. was first in a tournament at Brasilia, Brazil. Oxford won the university match against Cambridge 6-2. Kavalek won a com-

Bochum, West Germany, in Marchand Psakhis was first at Sarajevo, Yugos. Korchnoi had an outstanding victory at Bad Kissingen. West Germany, in a tournament extending from April into May, with 9 points out of 10, 3 points ahead of the field. Not to be outdone, Karpov, playing at Moscow in the strongest tournament of the year, finished first 1 V2 points ahead of the 18-year-old Kasparov, Lev Polugayevsky, and Vassily Smyslov, who finished in a three-way tie for second. Later in the year Karpov suffered one of his rare semifailures when he tied for second in a tournament with Lajos Portisch of Hungary, one-half point behind Jan Timman of The Netherpetition at

April,

lands.

Politics

were

tant as chess

as

impor-

when

world champion Anatoly Karpov (left) of the U.S.S.R. successfully defended his title against Soviet defector Viktor in Merano, November.

Korchnoi aly, in

It-

Tal shared first prize with fellow countryman Oleg Romanishin at Lvov, U.S.S.R., in June. Boris Gulko of the Soviet Union, who had disappeared from the chess scene when he applied for an exit visa to go to Israel, resurfaced in June by winning a strong Moscow championship tournament one point ahead of Soviet champion Psakhis. A strong Hungarian championship tournament resulted in

18th and Last

Game

of the

World Championship Match

at

Merano

The culmination of the year's chess events was the world championship match between Karpov and Korchnoi, which had originally been scheduled to start at Merano, Italy, in September. But in an effort to secure the release of Korchnoi's family from the Soviet Union, World Chess Federation Pres. Fredrik Olafsson decided that it should start a month later in order to allow time for negotiations to take place for such a release. Karpov protested against this delay, and in the end a compromise was reached by which play would start on October 1. Korchnoi's start was disastrous. He lost three out of the first four games and, though he did make some sort of comeback, he never really seemed to have a chance of saving the match. In the end Karpov won 6-2 with 10 draws,

mines, were widely interpreted as a sign of the president's continued resolve to promote a market economy within the country. In a speech given at the inauguration of the constitution, the president stressed his desire to carry out reforms in the following seven broad areas: labour unions, social security, education, health, the judiciary, agricul-

one of the most crushing victories in the history of world championship matches. In December Maya Chiburdanidze of the Soviet Union held her compatriot Nana Aleksandriya to an 8-8 tie in matches in Borzhomi and Tbilisi, U.S.S.R., to retain the world's championship.

management had

(harry golombek)

ture,

and administration. government's new had already been enacted. The Labour

In the first three cases the legislation

Plan of 1979, which allowed collective bargaining an individual plant and strikes for a period of up to 60 days (after which workers were assumed to have dismissed themselves), led to considerable labour unrest. About 10,000 workers at the El Teniente copper mine went on strike on April 22 after

at

offered

them

a

2% pay

to accept the management's offer. In November 1980 a decree was issued making all employees directly responsible for social security contribu-

and

tions from

March

AND Welfare

1,

1981. {See

Social Security

Services.)

Within the framework of encouraging the establishment of private universities, a decree came into force in January which limited courses offered

Chile

in the eight state universities to 12

A

republic extending along the southern Pacific

coast of South America, Chile has an area of 756,-

626 sq

km

(292,135 sq mi), not including

arctic claim.

It is

bounded by Argentina,

its

Ant-

Bolivia,

and Peru. Pop. (1981

est.): 11,297,000. Cap. and Santiago (metro, pop., 1980 est., 3,853,300). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1981, Maj. Gen. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte.

largest

increase;

they were obliged to return to work 59 days later

city:

On March 11, 1981, Chile's new constitution, which had been approved by plebiscite in September 1980, was brought into effect. Pres. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte was sworn in for an additional eight-year term of office with an option to serve a subsequent eight-year term, although he had stated that he would not do this. A Cabinet reshuffle took place at the end of December 1980, and the changes, in particular of Jose Pinera to minister of

main vocational

Philosophy, journalism, and sociology were to nonuniversity level, and political activity within universities was banned. Before a new private university could be established, it had to be judged to constitute no threat to national security. A group of students occupied the unesco headquarters in Santiago to protest the government's educational policy and also the arrest of student leader Patricia Torres. The Chilean government continued to strengthen its relations abroad. In February the U.S. lifted its ban on Export-Import Bank financing for exports to Chile and invited the Chilean Navy to participate in a joint exercise. In June South Africa appointed its first resident ambassador in Sanareas.

downgraded

tiago.

The long-standing and often acute dispute with Argentina over the three islands Picton, Lennox, Pres. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte of Chile read the oath of office during his inauguration on March 11 for eight more years of power.

239

Chile

240

China

and Nueva, to the south of the Beagle Channel, had subsided following Chile's acceptance of the proposal by Pope John Paul II to mediate the conflict. In March, however, Argentina announced that the proposals were unacceptable. The dispute resumed, and there were a number of border incidents in which one country accused the other of espionage. Full diplomatic relations with Peru were restored on April 10, and it was hoped that this new rapprochement between the two countries would restore good relations within the Inter-

Council of Copper Exporting Countries (cipec). Repression continued during 1981 with no sign

governmental

any political liberalization. A state of emergency had been in force in Chile since the 1973 coup; in

of

March Pinochet declared a "state of danger," which empowered him to carry out arrests, restrict labour-union activity and the freedom of the press, and expel dissidents from the country. These powers, extended on September 11 for a further six months, were widely used by Pinochet. For example, ten unionists were arrested following made to the government in June de-

a petition

manding

a

30%

increase in the

minimum wage

to

$250 per month, respect for human rights, and greater protection for Chilean industry from for-

CHILE Education. (1980) Primary, pupils 2,332,566, teachers 66,354; secondary, pupils 422,856, teachers 24,367; vocational, pupils 211,112, teachers (1979) 11,029; higher, students 127,446, teaching staff (1975) 11,419. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, with (Sept. 21, 1981) an official rate of 39 pesos to U.S. $1 (free rate of 72.31 pesos = £1 sterling). Cold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $3,317,000,000. Budget (1979 actual): revenue 256,374,000,000 pesos; expenditure 225,888,000,000 pesos. Cross national product (1979) 736,870,000,000 pesos. Money supply (Dec. 1980) 78,874,000,000 pesos. Cost of living (Santiago; 1975 = 100; lune 1981) 1,802. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports U.S. $5,821,000,000; exports U.S. $4,818,000,000. Import sources (1979): U.S. 23%; Brazil 9%; Iran 8%; )apan 87o; West Germany 6%. Export destinations (1979): West Germany 16%; Japan 11%; U.S. 11%; Brazil 10%,; Argentina 7%; U.K. 6%,: Italy 5%). Main exports: copper 46%,; metal ores c. 10%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1979) 76,677 km. Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger 379,200; commercial 180,700. Railways: (1976) 10,819 km; traffic (1980) 1,377,000,000 passenger-km, freight 1,521,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 1,875,000,000 passenger-km; freight 103.9 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 172; gross tonnage 614,425. Telephones ()an. 1979) 531,100. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) c. 2 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1976) 710,000. Agricuiture. Production

(in

1,000; horses c. 450; poultry (1979) c. 22,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): coal oil c. 1,500; natural gas (cu m; 1979) 5,732,000; petroleum products (1978) 4,810; electricity (kw-hr; 1979) 10,940,000; iron ore (61% metal content) 10,314; pig iron 662; crude steel (ingots) 743; copper ore (metal content) 1,052; copper 687; nitrate of soda (1979) 621; manganese ore (metal content; 1979) 8.9, sulfur (1978) 32; iodine (1979) 2.4; molybdenum concentrates (metal content; 1979) 13.6; gold (troy oz; 1979) 111; silver (troy oz; 1979) 8,733; cement 1,583; nitrogenous fertilizers (1979-80) 94; newsprint 130; other paper (1978) 162; fish meal (1977) 244.

751; crude

all

but two of the ten were

released.

The case of the unionists was taken up by a number of politicians. Their involvement was the formal justification given for the sudden arrest and deportation of four major opposition figures in August. They were Jaime Castillo, a prominent Christian Democrat and president of Chile's two-year-old human rights commission; two former Cabinet ministers, Carlos Briones and Orlando Cantuarias; and former senator Alberto Jerez. All had been members of Salvador Allende's gov-

ernment (1970-73). Evidence of both physical and psychological torture was produced in an Amnesty International report published in July. The United Nations passed a resolution expressing grave concern "deterioration of the

human

at

the

rights situation in

Chile." A representative was appointed to investigate the plight of political prisoners; at the time of

the announcement some 50 Chilean prisoners were on hunger strike. In January Chile's top military court found three officers innocent of any involvement in the 1976 murder in Washington, D.C., of Orlando Letelier, a Chilean diplomat in exile and a strong critic of the Pinochet regime. In Washington a new trial was ordered in April for two Cubans, Guillermo Novo Sampol and Alvin Ross Diaz, charged with the murder of Letelier. They had been convicted of the crime in 1979, but that decision was later overturned on the grounds that the trial judge had erred in admitting testimony from "government informants" who were prisoners in the same jail as the Cubans. During 1980 the gross domestic product grew by 6.5% lower than the average rate of 7.5% between 1976 and 1979. Official forecasts for 1981 estimated that growth would remain steady at its 1980 level. The inflation rate fell from 38.9% in 1979 to 31.2% in 1980 and was expected to continue to decline. However, difficulties were experienced in the ex,

The overall balance showed a surplus it was expected to be severely reduced by the end of 1981. This was ternal sector.

of $1,244, 000, 000 in 1980, but

mainly because of the widening

deficit in the trade

The main explanations for the trade defiwere thought to be the overvaluation of the Chilean currency in relation to others and low (lucy blackburn) world copper prices. account. cit

000; metric tons; 1980):

wheat 966; barley 105; oats 173; corn 405; rice (1979) 181; potatoes 903; rapeseed 73; dry beans 84; tomatoes c. 155; sugar, raw value (1979) 104; apples c 195; wine c. 570; wool, clean c. 10; beef and veal c. 180; fish catch (1979) 2,633; timber (cu m; 1979) 11,560. Livestock (in 000; 1980): cattle 3,664; sheep (1979) 5,952; goats (1979) c. 600; pigs c.

eign imports; later

China The most populous country

in the world and the China is bounded by the U.S.S.R., Mongolia, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan and also by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the East and South China seas. From 1949 the country has been divided into the People's Republic of China (Communist) on the mainland and on Hainan and other islands, and the Republic of China (Nationalist) on Taiwan. (See Taiwan.)

third largest in area,

Area: 9,561,000 sq km (3,691,521 sq mi), including Tibet and excluding Taiwan. Population of the People's Republic (1981 est.): 982,550,000. Capital:

Beijing (Peking; metro, pop., 1980 est., 9,029,000). Largest city: Shanghai (metro. p>op., 1979 est., 11 million). Language:

Chinese (varieties

Chairman

of the Bei-

Permanent Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (nominal chief of state) in 1981 Ye Jianying (Yeh Chien-ying); chairmen of the Communist Party, Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng) and, from June 29, Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang); premier, Zhao Ziyang (Chao Tzu-yang). Convocation of the much-delayed sixth plenum of the 11th Chinese Communist Party congress proved to be the most significant event of 1981. It signaled the achievement of consensus within the hierarchy on two controversial but vital questions: the official view of Mao Zedong's (Mao Tse-tung's) place in history; and the forced resignation of Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng) as chairman of the party.

fundamental principles: "upholding the socialist road, the people's democratic dictatorship [i.e., the dictatorship of the proletariat], the leadership of

The plenary session formally named Hu Yaobang (Hu Yao-pang; see Biogr.aphies), a protege of Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing; see Biogr.a-

On June 14, about two weeks before the formal session of the sixth plenum, U.S. Secretary of State

jing dialect predominate).

of the

,

PHiEs), as chairman in place of

picked

successor.

It

also

Hua, Mao's handissued an official

document summing up the 32 years of Communist control in China and including an important assessment of Mao's rule. Mao's early contributions as founder of the Chinese Communist state were said to "far outweigh his later mistakes." His worst mistake was declared to have been the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76, which "led to domestic turmoil and brought catastrophe to the party, the state

and the whole people."

On

July 1, in his first speech to the nation as party chairman, Hu emphasized the importance of collective leadership and warned against a personality cult as practiced by Mao. The speech marked the triumph of the pragmatist leadership under Deng, the country's de facto leader, who had placed economic growth and modernization ahead of Marxist ideology and Mao's "Thought" on the class struggle.

While the pragmatist leadership repudiated Mao's basic principles and policies and succeeded

241

Mao's leftist followers, including the "gang of four" headed by his widow, it repeatedly emphasized the importance of adhering to in eliminating

China

the Communist Party, and Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought." The sixth plenum resolution on the history of the party declared: "Any word or deed which denies or undermines these four principles cannot be tolerated." On the other hand, the pragmatist leadership adopted a policy of liberalization toward intellectuals, writers, artists,

and both

traditional

and Western

cul-

turned to the West for assistance with the Four Modernizations: agriculture, industry, science and technology, and detural

values.

It

also

fense.

Alexander M. Haig, accompanied by dozens of exand Defense departments, arrived in Beijing (Peking) for three days of intensive talks with Foreign Minister Huang Hua, Deng, and others on military and intelligence matters. At the conclusion of the talks, both sides stressed the importance of Sino-U.S. cooperation in meeting serious threats to world peace and tranquillity. Before leaving Beijing, Haig declared that the U.S. was preparing to sell arms and military technology to China and also to ease export controls on sophisticated technology, thus placing China in a different category from the Soviet Union. At the same time, it was officially admitted that for a year China and the U.S. had operated a listening post in China's Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur) Autonomous Region to monitor Soviet missile tests. As China and the U.S. established closer ties, China was being encouraged to perts from the U.S. State

play a part in the global balance of power against its

former Communist allies. the eve of the People's Republic's national 1, Premier Zhao Ziyang (Chao

On

day on October

The new premier Zhao Ziyang, news conference af-

(Left)

of China, at a

the PhilipAugust. (Right)

ter a visit to

pines

in

Newly elected Communist Party Chairman Hu Yaobang took office in lune.

242

China

The widow Qing,

sat in

of

Mao Zedong,

the dock

when

liang

the

trial

of the "gang of four" began in November 1980. On |an. 25, 1981,

she received a suspended death sentence.

Tzu-yang) stated that Beijing's repeated guarantee of Taiwan's autonomy after reunification was a serious and sincere effort to reunite the country. The following day Ye Jianying (Yeh Chien-ying), the ceremonial head of state, declared that the Communist Party was willing to negotiate with the Nationalists on a basis of equality and to accept them in top posts in the Communist government.

Domestic

Affairs. Less

Mao's death on Sept.

than

month

a

after

Hua, then chairman of the party and premier, had arrested four members of the Politburo who were closely identified with the Cultural Revolution: Mao's widow, Jiang Qing (Chiang Ch'ing); Zhang Chunqiao (Chang Ch'un-ch'iao); Yao Wenyuan (Yao Wen-yiian); and Wang Hongwen (Wang Hung-wen). The arrest of this so-called gang of four paved the way for 9, 1976,

the rehabilitation of many victims of the Cultural Revolution, notably Deng and Hu. The trial of the gang of four and six other defendants on charges of treason was intended to further discredit the Cultural Revolution, as well as to demonstrate China's new legal codes. The show trial before a special tribunal began in November 1980, but the convictions were not announced until Jan. 25, 1981. Jiang Qing and Zhang received suspended death sen-

ther dead or disgraced, the People's Liberation Army was the only power base that could effectively oppose Deng. Late in November 1980, Hua agreed to give up the chairmanship of the party's

Military Commission, and Deng assumed the responsibility. In December a working conference of the Central Committee was held to pressure Hua to resign formally, but Hua refused to attend. This delayed the sixth plenum, originally scheduled for the same month and considerable backstage bargaining and maneuvering were necessary before it ,

could be convened.

The

sixth

plenum

finally held its formal session

"unanimously approved" Hua's resignation as chairman of the Central Committee and the Military Commission but made him a second vice-chairman of the Central Committee. Hu and Zhao, Deng's close and trusted associates, were elected chairman and first vice-chairman of the Central Committee, respectively. Deng formally assumed the chairmanship of the Military Commission. Under his leadership, military maneuvers were conducted in late September to demonstrate the importance of military modernization, and Deng addressed the commanders and troops on the need for military obedience to party

June 27-29.

It

tences;

Wang was given life imprisonment; and Yao was sentenced to 20 years. Defiant to the last,

directives.

Mao's widow declared before her sentencing that she did everything on Mao's orders and that "when you vilify me, you are vilifying Chairman

session, the elite standing

In accordance with the decision of the plenary committee of the 26member Politburo was composed of seven members ranked in the following order: Hu, Ye, Deng, Zhao, Le Xiannian (Li Hsien-nien), Chen Yun

Mao and

the Cultural Revolution.

." .

.

Hua's authority as party chairman had been undercut when Hu was made general secretary of the Central Committee, in charge of running the party on a day-to-day basis, and in September 1980 Hua had relinquished the post of premier to Zhao. Reportedly, there was growing opposition to the

Deng and his associates to force Hua's resignation from the party chairmanship as well.

efforts of

However, with most

of

Mao's close associates

ei-

(Ch'en Yiin), and Hua. The election of Premier Zhao to be senior vice-chairman of the Central Committee and a member of the standing committee further solidified

The

Deng's control.

resolution on "certain questions in the history" of the Chinese Communist Party since 1949, "unanimously adopted" by the plenary session, was the product of months of debate by top leaders and cadres. In realistically assessing the historical

role played

by Mao,

formally criticized his Culhim as a revolutionary hero and a "respected and beloved great leader it

tural Revolution but praised

and teacher." While

his policies and programs repudiated, Mao's Thought, defined as "Marxism-Leninism applied and developed in China," was upheld. The long document con-

duced

in

communes and

factories.

Bonuses and

material incentives to workers and farmers were being provided, private plots of peasants were enlarged, and self-employed peddlers and craftsmen

modernizing China systematically stages without resorting to unrealistic cam-

had reappeared. At the opening of the fourth session of the National People's Congress (the nominal parliament) on November 30, Premier Zhao outlined the policy of economic readjustment and reform, looking toward a more consumer-oriented mixed economy, expansion of foreign trade, and

paigns or violent actions. Nevertheless, the pragmatic policy of the new leadership still faced opposition from some cadres,

greater individual motivation. Because of the need for foreign capital, technology, equipment, and expertise during the period of

still in power who had joined the party during the Cultural Revolution and benefited from it. From outside the party, youth associations and underground publications also criticized Deng's four fundamental principles. The central leadership moved to crack down on critics among the intelligentsia who had enjoyed freedom of expression under Deng's initial liberalization. At a Sf)ecial conference in July, called by the party's propaganda department, both Deng and Hu declared that open and organized criticism in opposition to the party leadership and the socialist system would not be permissible. Late in August editorials in the official press attacked "bourgeois liberalism," indicating that strict limits on open dissent and freedom of speech would be enforced. The Economy. The policy of economic retrenchment continued, and further readjustments were made in the national economic plan. The ambitious and unrealistic ten-year plan of heavy industrial development and capital construction originally put forward by the new leadership had been drastically modified. Instead, emphasis was being placed on readjustment, reconstruction, consolidation, and improvement of the economy, mainly by giving priority to agriculture and light industry. To revitalize sluggish agriculture and industry, a measure of autonomy had been intro-

economic readjustment, China adopted an "open door" policy of expanding foreign trade and imports of technical equipment. China began to accept both governmental and nongovernmental foreign loans, and in 1981 more agreements on joint ventures with foreign firms were signed by Chinese central and local governments. These activities were reflected in the trade figures. The total value of China's imports and exports rose about 23% from $29,570,000,000 in 1979 to $38, 198, 000,-

vk^ere

stituted a party platform affirming the

new

leader-

ship's goal of

and

in

especially those

000 in 1980. In July the State Planning Commission announced China's sixth five-year plan (1981-85), along with a ten-year program to streamline the economic system. High priority was given to consumer goods. In 1980 production of consumer goods in general continued to increase appreciably, while such items as television sets, radios,

and cameras registered especially large gains. Despite these gains, the Four Modernizations progressed slowly. Budget deficits, inflation, and unemployment, plus the lack of an industrial infrastructure, capital, and trained technical personnel, continued to plague the economy. The prolonged drought in the north and disastrous flooding along the central and upper Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) compelled China to abandon Mao's policy of national self-reliance and ask for The Chinese government has begun experimenting with free enterprise, allowing people to sell whatever they can make at home. A cyclist balances an enormous load of baskets on his bicycle.

243

China

244

international assistance. In

China

March the

Internation-

Monetary Fund approved a new loan of $550 million, and in June the World Bank announced the approval of its first loan, amounting to $200 al

million.

Grain production in 1980 totaled 318,220,000 metric tons, a decline of 13,893,000 tons from 1979. The need for more grain imports was expected. Under a four-year agreement (1980-84) with the U.S., China had agreed to buy at least 6 million8 million tons of wheat and corn annually. Foreign Affairs. Under the new leadership, Chinese foreign policy had assumed a more pragmatic and outlooking posture. While soliciting the support of socialist countries and identifying its interChina ests with those of the third world, considered Soviet hegemonism rather than capitalist imperialism to be the major threat to world peace and security. Accordingly, it also moved to consolidate its ties with Japan and the Western industrialized countries. The heavy buildup of Soviet troops on China's border, the Soviet military presence in the Pacific and South Asia, and Soviet support of Vietnamese expansion in Indo-

CHINA

Chinese Literature: see Literature Christian Church (Disciples of Christ):

see Religion Christianity: see Religion

Churches of

Education. (1979-80) Primary, pupils 146,270,000, teachers (1964-65) c. 2.6 million; secondary, pupils 65 million; vocational, pupils 888,000; higher, students 850,000. Finance. Monetary unit: yuan, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a marl oi tdkuldtors in Tokyo, lapan has become a major force in the manufacturing and export of electronic calculators.

A

include the

progressive opening of the newcomers' domestic markets to Western manufactured goods. Trading has to be reciprocal, as Pres. Ronald Reagan's adin the U.S. continually argued. This was

new

tensions.

The

third

concerned the fear that adjustments in economies would not take place

the European

bottom of the running dispute between the and Japan, the three major trading powers around which the international trading system pivots. Japan, which weathered the recession better than its rivals, was managing to penetrate the U.S. and EEC markets for a relatively narrow range of products— automobiles and electronics, for example. At the same time, the U.S. and the EEC were complaining that the Japanese market was not as

quickly

U.S., the EEC,

open

as

it

should be, as the

surplus indicated.

rising

Japanese trade

The pressures on Japan

built to a

itself

create

ministration at the

would of

of the interests of smaller powers

enough to permit the growth of new high technology industries in the face of Japanese com-

some

petition, given japan's lead in

and

in robotics.

electronic fields

Various proposals for dealing with

all had in common change the trading rules, especially where they concern the use of safeguards to prevent injury to domestic industry. By the late summer of 1981 the British government was considering how to promote changes that would give international

the situation were circulated, but a

desire

to

legality to unilateral

safeguards against Japanese ex-

peak in mid-1981, resulting not only in Japan's agreement to hold back some exports but also in a conscious effort on the part of the Japanese to guide potential foreign suppliers through the thickets of their notoriously complicated distribution system. How Committed? Three efforts to deal with these

was suggested that the thrust of these had not been envisaged when the catt was drawn up, and some observers doubted that the trading system

running disputes surfaced during the year. The first was the commitment to an open trading system made at the July summit of the seven leading industrialized powers in Ottawa, Ont. Without such a commitment, conscientiously applied, the system

evident

would be in jeopardy. "An international trade system based on rules cannot be effective unless the

major round of multilateral trade negotiations began in Tokyo. The meeting would be timely. "No govern-

support it by their nacatt secretariat noted. The second was the intention of the U.S., the EEC, and Japan to meet in an attempt to forestall future friction. Any move that would ease tension was welcome, but there was a lurking fear that any attempt to coordi-

few

large trading countries

tional policies," the

nate trading policy without sufficient consideration

ports.

It

could withstand them.

Both the strength of the commitment to open would be

trading and the desire to change the rules

when

CATT held

the 86 nations that had signed the

a ministerial

conference

in

1982.

The con-

ference was being called because it was widely felt that the catt system would not work without additional political impetus.

It

would be the

terial

conference since 1973,

ment

is

really

when

the

first

minis-

last

'protection-minded'; on the contrary,

continue to resist protectionist pressures," the catt secretariat said. "Nonetheless, governments

all

do give ground to pressure now and then; the trend is on the whole in one direction, and clearly unsustainable for long."

331

ECUADOR

Ecuador A

republic on the west coast of South America, Ecuador is bounded by Colombia, Peru, and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 281,334 sq km (108,624 sq mi), including the Galapagos Islands (7,976 sq km), which is an insular province. Pop. (1981 est.): 8,644,000. Cap.: Quito (pop., 1980 est., 807,700). Largest city: Guayaquil (pop., 1980 est., 1,116,300). Language: Spanish, but Indians speak Quechuan and Jivaroan. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1981, Jaime Roldos Aguilera to May 24 and Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea. A new outbreak of the long-standing border dispute with Peru at the beginning of 1981 had the effect of consolidating the popularity of Pres. Jaime Roldos Aguilera (see Obituaries). The government took advantage of the situation to carry out a long-postponed increase in the domestic price of

Crowds

lined the streets in May as the body of Pres, laime Roldbs Aguilera was tal to 8,590,000 bbl a day, 13.9% of the world total. Middle East production as a whole fell by 14.2% (as against an increase of 1.7% in 1979) to 18,750,000 bbl a day. Iran declined by 53.4% to 1,480,000 bbl a

349 day, compared with 3,175,000 in 1979 and 5,235,000 in 1978, when it was the fourth largest producer: Kuwait dropped by 37.1% to 1 ,425,000 bbl a day and Iraq bv 23.7% to 2,645,000 bbl a day. African production, too, was down bv 9.3% to 6,090,000 bbl a day. Only in Egypt was there a real rise, 14.7% to 635,000 bbl a day, a modest 1% of the world total. Libyan production was down by 14.3% to I,790,000 bbl a day, 2.87c of the world total: Algeria's by 14.2% to 1,040,000 bbl a day: and Gabon's by 14% to 2,055,000 bbl a day, 3.3% of the world total. South .Asia's production declined by 23.2% to 230,000 bbl a day and Southeast Asia's by 1.2% to 2,120, 000 bbl a dav, with Indonesia's down slightly by 0,2% to 1,580,000 bbl a day. Australasia's production dropped by 12.2% to 400,000 bbl a dav and Eastern Europe's by 6.2% to 385,000' bbl a day. Latin-American production was up by 6% at 855,000 bbl a day. Of this, Mexico's share was the greatest, increasing by 31.8% to 2,130,000 bbl a dav, 3.5% of the world total, followed by Brazil with 10.4% (185,000 bbl a day) and Argentina with 4.8% (490,000 bbl a day) In Western Europe, up by 8.3% to 2,560,000 bbl a day, Norway had the largest annual increase, 37.3% to 525,000 bbl a day, but the U.K. remained the largest producer with 1,645,000 bbl a day, up by 3.3% to 2.6% of the world total. French production, though minor, increased by 25% to 30,000 bbl a day, equaling Austria's. Consumption. Throughout the world there was a decrease of 3.9% in consumption from 1979 to 61,705,000 bbl a day, compared with a 2% increase over the previous five years. Excluding the U.S.S.R., Eastern Europe, and China, the decrease was greater, 5.2% to 49 million bbl a day. Oil exploration

began

in

consumption declined by 8.8% (2.9% to 26.4% of the world total, 16,390,000 bbl a day, compared with a small increase of 0.7% over the previous five years. Total Western Hemisphere consumption declined 6.1% to 22,855,000 bbl a day, with Canada's down by 2.8% and Latin America's up by 3.7%. Western European consumption was down bv 6.5% to 22.7% of the world total at 14,015,000 bbl a dav. Only Turkev (up U.S. in

16.8%),

Portugal

Spain (3.2%),

(4.6%),

and Greece (1.2%) showed

increases.

Oth-

Denmark was down bv 16.7% the U.K. 14.8%, Sweden 13.4%, West Germa-

erwise,

,

ny 10.8%, Iceland 10.4%, Ireland 9.2%, and Norwav 9.1%. West Germany consumed 2,735,000 bbl a dav, 4.4% of the total, followed by France, 2,295,000 bbl a dav, 3.7%;Italv, 1,985,000 bbl a day, 3.3%: the U.K., 1,675,000 bbl a day, 2.7%; and Spain, 1,040,000 bbl a day, 17%. Japan, the third largest consumer at 5,010,000 bbl a day, 8% of the world total, was down bv 9.1%; Australasia by 4.1% to 775,000 bbl a day; and China by 3.4% to 1,770, 000 bbl a day, 2.9% of the world total. African consumption was up by 9.2% to 1,485, 000 bbladay, 2.4% of the world total; the Middle East by 8.7% to 1,630,000 bbl a day, 2.7%; South Asia by 4.5% to 785,000 bbl a day; and Southeast Asia by 2% to 2,449,000 bbl a day, 4.1%. The U.S.S.R., up by 2.1%, 14.6% of the world total, and Eastern Europe, up by 1.5% increased consumption to 8,820,000 and 2,115,000 bbl a day, respectively. Middle distillates continued to be the primary petroleum product

world

,

consumed. Refining. In 1980 world refining capaciby 2% to 81 ,715,000 bbl a day, compared with gains of 5.6% in 1979 and 2.8% over the five years preceding 1980. ty increased

the Baltic Sea as a mutual effort

Soviet Union.

SISS

Energy

1979)

among

Poland, East Germany, and the

U.S. capacity rose by 2.7% to 18.4 million bbl a day, at 22.5% the biggest world share: Canadian capacity dropped by 7.1%. In Latin America Argentina's capacity grew bv 26.7% to 840,000 bbl a dav and Brazil's by 11.9% to 1,035,000 bbl a day: Mexico's remained unchanged at 1,395,000 bbl a dav. Total Western Hemisphere capacity, at 29,695,000 bbl a day, rose 2.2% to 36.2% of the world total (35.9% in 1979). In Western Europe there was considerable underutilization of refinerv capacitv, which decreased slightly by 0'l% to 20,515,000 bbl a day, 28.2% of the world total. West Germany showed a minor increase of 1.7% to 3,095,000 bbl a day, accounting for 3.8% of the world total, and Belgium experienced a minute increase of 0.1% to 1,020,000 bbl a day. Spanish capacity decreased by 3.2% ,

The Netherlands by 2.2% Italy's by 1.5%, and France's by 1.3%. The capacity of the U.K. was unchanged at 2,460,000 bbl that of

,

a day.

In the Middle East, Iranian refining capacity increased by 17.4% to 1,225,000 bbl a day, but that of Saudi Arabia dropped by 22% to 495,000 bbl a day, with no significant changes elsewhere. The total Middle East refining capacity increased by 0.9% to 3,570,000 bbl a day. Southeast Asia's capacity, at 3,515,000 bbl a day, increased 4.5% over the previous year, with Singapore's rising to 1,070,000 bbl a day. African capacity rose by 3% to 2,080,000 bbl a dav, but the largest increase of all was in South Asia. There the rise of 20.2% to 998,000 bbl a day was much higher than the previous five-year average of 6.2%. Japanese capacity, 6.9 7o of the world total, grew by 6.6% to 5,635,000 bbl a day. The refining capacity of the U.S.S.R., Eastern Europe, and China increased by 1.7%, constituting 18.3% of the world total at 14.9 million bbl a day. North America refined the greatest volume of gasolines, 44% of the world total; Western Europe refined the largest portion of middle distillates (36%) and Japan, of fuel oil

(37%).

Tankers. The

size of the world tanker declined in 1980 by 3.1% to 324.8 million long tons deadweight (dw). Liberian tonnage dropped by 2.2% to 200.3 million tons dw but retained the largest world share at 30.9% (31.3% in 1979), followed by Japan (9.3%), the U.K. (7.6%), and Norway (7.4% ). Tonnage on order at the end of 1980 was 18.4 million tons dw, compared with 16.5 million tons dw in 1979. Tankers of between 205,000 and 285,000 tons dw made up some 43% of world tanker tonnage. Voyages from the Middle East represented 71% of tanker movements in 1980 (74.5% in 1979), about one-third going to fleet

Western Europe and North and West Africa and 12% to Japan. Interarea total oil

movements

in 1980

fell

to

31,935,000 bbl a

day in 1979: of day related to Western Europe, 6,735,000 bbl a day to the U.S., and 4,985,000 bbl a day to Japan.

day from 35,350,000 bbl

a

this total, 11,825,000 bbl a

(r.

w. ferrier)

See also Engineering Projects: Industrial Review; Mining and Quarrying; Transportation. [214.C.4: 721; 724.B,2; 724.C.1-2: 737.A.5]

350

thought was also being given by designers to the environmental impact of bridges, both during

Engineering Projects

construction and

when

in service. Interruption of

moving through the construction site could be reduced by the choice of an appropriate bridge type and erection plan. Of still greater significance was the effect of the finished structure on its surroundings. Generally speaking, function and aestraffic

Bridges. Recent dramatic increases in the cost of fuel highlighted the need to cut travel distances and therefore, where appropriate, to build new bridges. Bridges that replace ferries across waterways, especially wide ones such as Tampa Bay, Florida, or, say, the English Channel, would also save fuel since cars and trucks use only between one-third and one-half the fuel that the ferry requires to carry them. Moreover, the bridge also eliminates the time spent loading and unloading the vehicles, which, of course, would also complete the journey much faster than the ferry. Exemplifying such advantages, the Humber Bridge across the Humber estuary on England's east coast, which was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on July 17, 1981, reduced road journeys between towns on opposite sides of the estuary by approximately 95 km (1 km = 0.62 mi). The 1,410-m (1 = 3.3 ft) main span of this 2.2-km suspension bridge was the world's longest. The vulnerability of such large structures crossing heavily traveled waterways to damage from ships (the 1980 Tampa Bay disaster, for example) meant that they must be designed to withstand the impact of any accidental collision. Another design factor was the high cost of foundations of bridges in deep water. Lessons learned in building oil platforms on shore and then floating them out for use in deep water might soon be adapted for placing bridge foundations in deep waterways. More

m

The massive main dam at Itaipu, Brazil, will

span

nearly a mile when completed. The dam will be

the world's highest hollow concrete gravity the top hydroelectric energy producer.

dam and

thetics

are

interrelated.

What

correct usually looks right,

is

functionally

and the experienced

designer can achieve aesthetic merit

at little extra

initial cost.

Though many bridge engineers were engaged designing

new

in

structures for both the industrial

and the

less developed areas of the world, the majority were concerned with the maintenance of

old bridges. In the U.S. four out of ten bridgessome 200,000 — were said to be deficient. Approxi-

mately 98,000 of these were described by the FedHighway Administration in a recent report as being "structurally weak or unsound and should be closed or restricted to light vehicles or immediately rehabilitated to prevent further eral

.

.

.

and collapse." The report described the other 102,000 as functionally obsolete and no longer able to serve present traffic safely. This state

deterioration

was to be found in most industrialized and a very high expenditure — an estimated $41 billion in the U.S. — would be required to remedy the situation. At a London symposium of the International Asof affairs

countries,

and Structural Engineering in Gordon, professor emeritus materials science at the University of Reading

sociation for Bridge

September 1981, of

J.

E.

(England), observed that "structural engineering has tended to harden into a series of conventions or mystiques which, although they are held with almost religious fervour by the initiated, inevitably become irrelevant in a changing world." The time, he thought, was already in sight when traditional metal and concrete construction would join the steam engine in the filing cabinets of history. In particular, he continued, "Steel is a material whicji is peculiarly unsuited for carrying compressive loads over long distances: in fact, it is probably one of the worst materials ever conceived for diffuse structures."

Gordon was

especially critical

of the current fashion of metal plate structures.

The

new

material was likely to be found in lightweight plastics reinforced with fibreglass. Such materials would necessarily dictate new or at least modified structural forms. The objective must be to eliminate compression, except

answer

to the quest for a

components, by making greater use wherever possible of tension, which most materials accommodate more readily. Although the majority of recently built large bridges incorporated new, improved points of detail, no new principles appeared to have been introduced. However, one newly completed bridge was notable for the speed with which it was designed and built. In January 1980 the Almo arch bridge in Sweden was totally demolished when a in very short

ship ran into

it

in a fog. Just 21

months

later the

new cable-stayed bridge, with a 366-m steel main span, was opened to traffic. The span was sufficient to take the piers and concrete towers behind the high-water line and, therefore, clear of ship-

I

351

The cable-stay arrangement was such that, any time, one stay could be replaced if necessary, (david fisher) Buildings. Winners of the 1981 Aga Khan awards for architecture, given for buildings that reveal "understanding and awareness of Muslim cultural traditions," included water towers in Kuwait and the Intercontinental Hotel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The water towers were clustered in groups, one group consisting of three white, reinforced-concrete, needle-shaped towers with large spherical water storage tanks, one of which also housed a restaurant; the tanks were clad in blue, white, and turquoise enameled steel. Another, smaller sphere, high up on one tower, contained observation platforms. In another group of six, the tanks took the form of inverted cones on cylindrical shafts. The tanks had varying heights and colouring, and the group provided a shaded area with a small park. At the Intercontinental Hotel the arping.

Engineering

at

chitect

made

Projects

extensive use of tension structures.

The cables, struts, and curved suspended surfaces were reminiscent of a Bedouin tent. The intense construction activity in the Middle East, while producing some exciting engineering, also created some problems. Frequently, contractors failed to appreciate the difficulties of obtaining

durable concrete with the materials available. Many instances were coming to light of poor concrete durability because of the use of chemically contaminated aggregates and inferior cement. In some cases buildings became unserviceable within four to five years of completion. In the field of structural steelwork there was

In

mid-November the

dome

of the Hubert H.

Humphrey Metrodome Minneapolis tore and collapsed under the weight of a foot of snow. The stadium with In

Its

Inflated fabric

dome,

completed only a month was to be the home of the Minnesota sports teams beginning earlier,

in

1982.

352

Engineering Projects

sophistication in both design and manufacturing techniques. Steel remained the predominant material for large-span roofs, and in

increasing

multilayer grid construction sections of structure could be prefabricated in the relatively controlled environment of the factory, leaving a minimum of

work to be done on site. The new Winter Gardens Niagara Falls and a large church at Garden Grove, Calif., illustrated the use of glass-clad structural steel in contemporary architecture. Both buildings used light steelwork in the form of grids and trusses to support large plane areas of glass that form large enclosures. The Winter Gardens used clear glass and a shade of rusty red for the steel; the church, in the warmer climate of Caliat

employed reflective glass, to minimize heat and white painted steelwork. Other methods of enclosing large areas of space included air-supported structures. The development of improved tension materials such as Teflonfornia,

gain,

coated fibreglass ensured a continuing interest in these soft-skin fabric structures. One recent example of an air-supported roof was that at Dalhousie University at Halifax, Nova Scotia. This took the form of a stainless steel membrane covering an area 91 x 73 m. While a number of ambitious schemes had been proposed, few had been built, and it remained to be seen if air-supported tension structures would begin to displace rigid structures for enclosing large areas. Work continued on Canada's unfinished Olympic Stadium in Montreal. Its revolutionary design, with a 165-m-high sloping tower to support a re-

had encountered such problems had been only partially completed in time the 1976 Olympic Games. Work resumed in

tractable roof,

that for

it

1979 but stopped again in 1980 when structural were discovered. Alternatives under consideration included leaving the stadium essentially in its present, partially covered state; completion of the project to the original design; or the use of an alternative roof system not dependent on the defective tower. Whichever scheme was adopted, it appeared unlikely that the stadium would be completed before 1984. Europe's second tallest building, the 183-m-high National Westminster Tower in London, was completed in 1981. The main load-bearing element was a reinforced-concrete core some 25 in diameter. The floors were of lightweight concrete on a steel corrugated deck and beam system supported at the exterior on closely spaced columns doubling as window mullions. These columns were supported on three giant cantilevers extending from the central core at about the eighth-floor level, below which there were no floors external to the core. The various site and planning constraints played a part in producing an extended construction period and defects in the tower base

m

high

cost.

Among bert's

buildings of domestic scale. Ton Alde Waal house in Utrecht, Neth., was nota-

ble. This displayed how brick and concrete, generally used in precise geometric and modular fashion, could also be used with geometric freedom and made almost organic. Concrete-framed, with brick and tile cladding, the house appeared to grow out of the ground with vertical and hori-

zontal curves that were somewhat reminiscent of the work of Antonio Gaudi in Spain.

Dams. To

illustrate the

(GEOFFREY M. PINFOLD) advances made in the

construction of dams, the Hoover Dam in Nevada established world records when it was completed in 1936, but by 1981 it ranked 18th in height and 20th in the size of its reservoir. In 1976 the Tarbela Dam in Pakistan exceeded the record volume of earth that had been placed in the Fort Peck pam in

Montana in 1940. Advances in earth-moving equipment technology have improved the feasibility and economic aspects of building earth and rockfiU dams that utilize locally available materials. As a result more than 80% of the major dams under construction in 1981 were of the earth and rockfill types. The centre of activity in dam building by 1981 had shifted to the less developed countries, where water resource development is central to alleviating those nations' problems of food production, water supply, and energy development. Food production was substantially increased with the aid of irrigation by water captured during flood seasons and stored behind dams. With fossil fuel costs rising, development of hy-

was selected by some countries achieving energy independence. For example, Brazil had many such dams under way. Besides their capability of generating large amounts of energy, they also provide water to citdroelectric projects as a

means

of

and for irrigation. Canada dam sites in remote areas with great energy potentials were being developed. The James Bay Project was expected to provide 10,200 Mw by 1985, to be followed by the Grand Baleine and the Nottaway-Broadback-Rupert schemes. In China the main channel of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) was closed for the Gezhouba Dam, scheduled for completion in 1986. It was to supply 2,715 Mw of power and permit ships of 10,000 deadweight tonnage to pass through locks. All materials and equipment were being furnished from Chinese plants. The 245-m-high Chicoasen Dam was being completed in Mexico. It was designed to provide 2,400 Mw of power. Mexico was allocating more than $8 billion for the development of irrigation-related works. Dam building was not confined to large countries. Sri Lanka was constructing the 120-m-high Victoria Dam, and Ghana was completing its Kpong project. Nepal was building two dams, with the surplus power to be exported to India. ies

In

Elsewhere, innovative British engineers provided the River Thames with a rotating movable barrier or dam to protect London from floods; its cost was more than $1 billion. The 18-m-high gates could be raised in 30 minutes to block any tidal surge that could endanger London. A special category of dams, built to retain mine waste or tailings, was receiving increased attention following some failures that caused severe loss

and property. Some of these dams had been without proper regard for engineering principles or safety. A special committee was established within the International Commission on Large Dams to inventory such dams throughout of life

built

353

354

Engineering Projects

New

to cost more than $250 million Alaska a $200 million upgrading of gravel roads was planned to link the capital of Juneau with the state's interior, 520 km away. Canada's road spending was reduced due to declining investments in many provinces. Construction of the Darien Gap highway in Colombia and Panama, stalled for several years because of environmental considerations, was progressing slowly, with some sections of the 400km road already paved. A 1,200-km network of highways was approved by the government of Guatemala; it included the National Ring Road, which would connect the capital city with the Pacific Ocean. The La Paz-Cotapata Highway in

in

York City,

a mile. In

Bolivia, crossing the

up

m

Andes Mountains

and one

at

points

paved roads in the world, was almost complete. Chile's NorthSouth Highway, 3,118 km long, was to be reconstructed, and a new 1,100-km road was to be built into the country's previously impenetrable "Wild to 4,530

of the highest

South." In the Middle East a construction of a 25-km lane highway between land nation of Bahrain.

Ahmed

contract was awarded for causeway carrying a fourSaudi Arabia and the isThe $140 million General Hamdi Tunnel under the Suez Canal was

opened to traffic in 1981, the first direct link between the eastern and western Muslim worlds in more than a century. Kuwait was at the midpoint in its $2 billion expressway construction program, and an 800-km road through the desert interior of

Oman

neared completion.

The Trans-East African Highway Authority was established in 1981 to supervise planning and construction of the 8,200-km highway that would link Cairo, Egypt, with Gabarone, Botswana. Study groups from Spain and Morocco were examining methods of building a road link across the The

Furka tunnel, the world's longest

narrow-gauge railway tunnel (15 km; 9.5 mi), was completed in Switzerland

in April.

Strait of Gibraltar.

Uganda was rebuilding

its

30

,

-

000-km road network, which had deteriorated under the regime of Idi Amin. About 70% of Japan's 7,600-km expressway system was complete in 1981, and Japan's National Highway System totaled approximately 40,000 km. Indonesia was planning a $356 million highway from Jakarta to the interior of Java, while Bangladesh was building a 320-km network of roads in areas having a surplus of food grains. A 542-km section of the Great Northern Highway in Western Australia was opened to traffic in July 1981, part of the road that would eventually link Perth and Darwin. In Europe Britain planned to spend $720 million on trunk road construction annually, with more than 2,400 km needing to be built or improved. A ring road around Athens, Greece, was designed to include 29 km of depressed or underground sections, at a total cost of over $700 million. Opening of a 220-km section of the motorway linking Paris with Hendaye, on the French-Spanish border, made it possible to drive entirely on expressways from Hamburg, West Germany, or Amsterdam to Bilbao, Spain. The Soviet Union expected to build 80,000 km of new roads by 1985.

(hugh m.

Gillespie)

Tunnels. Major tunneling projects being promoted in 1981 included the Channel tunnel between England and France, a tunnel under Bombay Harbour, India, and a tunnel under Oslo Fjord, Norway. Hydraulic rock drills for the drill and blast cycle, hard rock tunneling machines, and slurry shields became established as the key equipment for tunneling projects in the 1980s. Immersed tubes for shallow crossings retained their popularity, and an estimated 60 or more were in use throughout the world. Improved methods for ground freezing to control water increased world-

'

wide applications

of this

system

for

m

by the end

of 1982.

cast as a single four-cell unit that

25,000 metric tons

at

weighed

launching.

(david [733: 734. A]

Environment

Environment As the worldwide recession continued to deepen and unemployment rose in 1981, governments showed signs of reviewing their more extreme environmental policies. In the U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan's administration saw these policies as needlessly restrictive and as impediments to economic recovery. As the influence of national environmentalist lobbies waned so did their success in Even in France, where some observers thought the closely contested presidential election had been influenced by the intervention of the "green" candidate, it was doubtful whether the environmentalists secured any genuine modifications of the incoming president's policies. There were some environmental gains at the international level. The most successful of the UN Environment Program enterprises, the program aimed at protecting regional seas, continued to prosper. The International Whaling Commission agreed to quotas that afforded much greater protection to sperm whales. In terms of the urban environment, the year was dominated by urban violence in ,

elections.

many European

a.

harries)

cities,

most seriously in

Britain.

Environmentalists, and all those who shared her passionate and informed concern for the plight of less developed countries, mourned the death on May 31 of Barbara Ward (Lady Jackson of Lodsworth; see Obituaries).

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION UN Environment Program. At the 36th

session of

UN

General Assembly, late in 1980, Mostafa Tolba was elected to continue as unep executive director for another year. The unep governing council met in Nairobi, Kenya, during May 13-16. In his "state of the environment" report, Tolba emphasized the benefits that less developed countries gain from environmental protection, even when measured in purely economic terms. He proposed to the council a levy on the use of such the

"international

Driving continued on the Kan Etsu tunnel, at a length of 10.9 km would be the longest vehicular tunnel in Japan. Full-face excavation was being carried out by drill and blast methods using hydraulic rock drills. The tunnel was to be one of the first of its kind to employ longitudinal ventilation in conjunction with shafts. Japanese engineers continued to achieve success with slurry moles, and in 1981 their machines were operating in the Americas and, for the first time, in Europe. The world's largest slurry shield, a 10. 6-m-diameter machine manufactured in West Germany, began work on the Aurelia railway tunnel in Rome. Australian engineers claimed a record for sinking what they believed was the world's largest nonarticulated immersed-tube tunnel. Required to carry cooling water to a new power station 100 km north of Sydney, the complete tunnel, 263 m long,

which

was

355

underground

works. In Switzerland appropriate ground conditions and increased shortages of skilled labour encouraged contractors to use tunneling machines on three major projects. At the Gubrist Tunnel, forming part of the N20 highway, one of the largest mechanically excavated cross sections in the world was being excavated by a full-face Robbins machine with a diameter of 11.45 m. Precast concrete segments were being used for the primary lining, and an in situ permanent concrete road deck was advanced concurrently with the drive approxibehind the face. At the Rosenberg mately 100 Tunnel at St. Gallen four Dosco road headers mounted in a shield were driving the second bore of the 11.3-m-diameter twin road tunnel. Excavating through sandstones and marls, the builders achieved a maximum progress of one meter per hour on the first drive. The third tunnel demonstrating the versatility of modern rock tunneling machines was at Karenzerberg, 50 km south of Zurich. There a single-bore two-lane highway tunnel was being driven through limestone and chalk using a Wirth three-stage tunneling machine that progressively widened the bore from 3.5 m to its full diameter of 11 m. A long-overdue sharing of practical technology between mining and civil engineering projects was evident worldwide. The largest full-face tunneling machine ever constructed in West Germany began work in a coal mine north of Dortmund. The 6.5-m-diameter, 340-metric ton machine was designed so that steel supports could be installed only 2 m behind the face. At Selby, England, the National Coal Board was carrying out one of the world's largest mining developments. An access drift was successfully driven using a Dosco road header mounted in a shield and lined with spheroidal graphite cast-iron segments. At the end of the drift a 6-m-diameter Robbins full-face tunneling machine was assembled to begin a 13.3-km drive to the main coal production area. It was planned to complete the first 5 km of the roadway

commons"

as the oceans, airspace,

telecommunications frequencies, and satellite orwith the proceeds going to environmental projects in less developed countries. The proposal was not accepted and, although Sweden suggested an increase in unep funding, Britain, France, Canada, and West Germany said they would not increase their contributions. The U.S. delegate, Elizabeth Hoinkes, said her government planned to lower its contribution by $10 million; it was disappointed in unep's achievements and felt the annual budget should be reduced from the $120 million proposed by unep itself to $65 million. Less developed countries fought hard to keep the budget at the $120 million level, but in the end it was reduced to $77 million. A Swedish proposal for a special fund to finance projects in less developed countries was defeated. In April unep announced that, at a meeting sponsored by the government of Sri Lanka and held in Colombo earlier in the year, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka had signed a declaration estabbits,

England: see United Kingdom English Literature:

see Literature Entertainment: see Dance; Motion Pictures; Music; Television and Radio; Theatre

Entomology: see Life Sciences

356 ....it.'

x^^mi&trs^m:J^^s^>

Environment

^-f-SSSSBP^**^

A

small child plays in a

dump

of as-

in India. The Indian government, like some other third world governments, had failed to recognize

bestos scrap

asbestos as a health hazard.

lishing a South Asian Cooperative

Environment

Program; Bhutan and Burma would also be invited The program was to study environmental problems in South Asia and to encourage and support projects. UNEP scientists, meeting late in 1980 at Bilthoven, Neth., called for continued monitoring and research to determine the likelihood of ozone-layer depletion and the consequences of increased penetration of ultraviolet rays from the Sun into the atmosphere. World Health Organization. At another meeting in Bilthoven, February 9-13, who was given to join.

global responsibility for devising methods to deal with accidental spills of toxic wastes. The meeting

was attended by

representatives from 17 counUNEP, and the International Labour Office. on Guidelines for the Control of Toxic and Other Hazardous Waste held its first session at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West tries,

The

WHO Working Group

Germany, March 17-20. European Communities (EC). On Oct. 10, 1980, the EC had announced new proposals aimed at eliminating disparities in legislation on asbestos in member states. They called for asbestos to be phased out of all uses and replaced where possible, as well as for tighter medical surveillance of workers exposed to it. The proposals distinguished be-

tween the more dangerous crocidolite (blue) asbestos, for which they recommended a limit of 0.2 fibres per millilitre of air, and chrysolite (white) asbestos, for which they recommended one fibre per millilitre. By late April 1981 the proposals were running into difficulty because some members of the European Parliament (mep's) and the parliamentary Public Health Committee felt it was confusing to issue two standards. However, committee members and mep's disagreed as to which of the two figures should be accepted. In

November

proved

member that

1980 the Council of Ministers apban the import into the EC states of shoes and other leather products

a proposal to

had been treated with sperm whale

oil.

UN Conference on was

the

Law

of the Sea.

What

have been the final session of unclos New York City on March 9, 1981. A week earlier, the U.S. Department of State had announced that it found serious difficulties in the sections of the draft convention that dealt with to

opened

in

deep-sea mining. This led to fears that the new U.S. administration would insist on substantial renegotiation, but on March 11 UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim stated that all the U.S. required was time to study the draft more deeply. The session was adjourned and opened again in Geneva on August 3. The U.S. objections to the draft were (1) that the proposed International Seabed Authority was to be constituted with a decision-making apparatus that offered inadequate protection for U.S. interests and failed to reflect the position of the U.S. as the world's leading producer and consumer of raw materials; and (2) that the

Authority was likely to be unduly restrictive and afforded too few guarantees to potential investors. Soviet delegate Semyon Kozyrev offered to assist in working out investment protection guarantees. However, the Group of 77 (less developed) nations considered the U.S. attitude to be an attack on the concept that seabed resources are the common property of all mankind, including the landlocked states, and that control over them and benefits from their exploitation should be shared. This view was repeated early in October at the meeting of Commonwealth heads of government in Melbourne, Australia, where island members of the

Commonwealth, led by the Solomon Islands, said the U.S. was behaving like a superpower seeking to protect its interests.

By the time the unclos session ended on August had become somewhat isolated, and the draft convention was accepted unaltered as the official text. It was agreed that the International Seabed Authority would be based in Jamaica and that the arbitration tribunal would sit in Hamburg, West Germany, unclos was to reconvene on 28, the U.S.

March 8, 1982, in New York City for a final eightweek session in which details of the convention would be settled. It was hoped that in early September 1982 the convention would be opened for signature in Caracas, Venezuela, where the first UNCLOS working session was held in 1974. The many delays in approving the convention led to pressure on governments from the mining industry. The U.S. and West Germany passed legislation permitting seabed operations to begin,

and Belgium, Italy, The Netherlands, and Britain (whose Deep Sea Mining [Temporary Provisions] Bill was considered in May by a House of Com-

mons committee) contemplated

similar legislation.

Marine Environment. Secretary-General Chandrika Srivastava of the International Maritime Consultative Organization announced in Geneva on July 6 that 15 countries, representing half the world's shipping tonnage, were about to ratify a marine pollution convention. In October 1980 a

group

of scientists

met

in

Kuwait under unep aus-

pices to pledge S5 million for a study of the ecology In this, the world's fastest

of the Persian Gulf.

growing region, unep was concerned about pollution from chloralkali works, aluminum smelters, refineries, and oil spills. In January 1981 the Arab League Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (alesco) held its Jidda III conference. Delegates from seven countries bordering on the Red Sea agreed to set up a mutual aid centre to fight pollution, which was said to be increasing rapidly. Domestic sewage, industrial wastes, disturbances caused by dredging, and oil spills were all implicated, and there was a likelihood of further problems resulting from a proposed operation to exploit metalliferous

muds.

The

latest success for the

Program came on March

24,

unep Regional Seas

when

a three-year,

West Africa was adopted at a meeting in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. The agreement followed discussion held late in 1980 at Lome, Togo, when 13 of the 20 West African coastal states met under unep auspices. The

$4.4 million conservation project for

would give priority to training in coastal management, the creation of facilities for inspectproject

ing tankers prior to deballasting, waste control legislation, and environmental assessment. Discussions began in October in Nairobi that, it

was hoped, would

lead to an environmental treaty

protecting the eastern Indian Ocean and the sea off the East African coast. A seven-man mission, led by Stjepan Keckes, a director of the unep Regional

Seas Program, planned to visit all the states in the area, from Somalia in the north to Madagascar and Mozambique, prior to a meeting of their representatives.

Scientists and lawyers from more than 20 Caribbean countries met in February at Managua,

Nicaragua, where they agreed to a $3.1 million conservation program, beginning with action to prevent oil spills and to improve watershed management. Of 66 projects considered, 25 were regarded as urgent enough to warrant implementation over the next three years. On April 6-8, 23 of the 27 Caribbean states met again, at Montego Bay, Jamaica, to endorse the Caribbean Action Plan under the terms of the Jamaica Accord. Part of the unep Regional Seas Program, the plan

had a budget target of $8.2 million, to be raised over three years, and included all 66 projects to be coordinated from a headquarters in Jamaica. Under the terms of the Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea, Finland had special responsibility for dealing with oil spills. Following the publication of a report on the 1979 grounding of the tanker "Antonio Gramsci" in the Gulf of Riga, which was critical of Finnish preparations, the Finnish government decided in October 1980 to start a research and rescue program with a $100,000 budget. Under the convention, responsibility for Soviet waters was given to East Germany because of the time needed for Soviet experts to obtain visas to attend emergency meetings. Fresh Water. On Nov. 10, 1980, the UN General Assembly had declared that the 1980s were to be the International Drinking Water Supply and "Aye, lad — she's doomed to sail these waters 'til the end o' time."

357

Environment

358

!^iT n

Environment

fi"

;f

Wpif ^^r-s I

October members of Friends o the Earth and the Sierra Club ap

In

peared

In

Washington, D.C., to pe

the removal of U.S. Secre the Interior lames C. Watt Rafe Pomerance, president of Friends of the Earth, Is at the lectern; beside him Is loseph Fontaine, president of the Sierra Club. tition for

tary of

Sanitation Decade (idwssd), with the aim of bringing clean water and adequate sanitation to everyone by 1990. This would mean providing water supplies for 1,800,000,000 people and sanitation for 2,400,000,000 in a situation that was said to be deteriorating, who estimated that poor sanitation caused some 25 million deaths a year. The iDwssD programs would cost more than $600 billion at 1978 prices, although some experts believed the cost could be reduced substantially if cheaper

technologies were used. Environment ministers from France, Switzerland, West Germany, Luxembourg, and The

Netherlands met on Jan. 26. 1981, in The Hague but failed to agree to a French proposal that all five countries contribute to the cost of a plant to extract salt from the Rhine. A counterproposal, to inject excess salt in the ground in Alsace, was rejected by France. It was then proposed that France should transport the salt from its potash mines, by barge or pipeline, to the North Sea for dumping. Population. A report by Rafael Salas, executive director of the Fund for Population Activities, published in mid-June, revised earlier estimates of the future size of the world population. The report gave a low estimate of 8,000,000,000 people by the year 2040, a median estimate of 10,500,000,000 by 2110, and a high estimate of 14,200,000,000 by 2130. The population of Europe should stabilize at 540 million around the year 2030, that of North America at 320 million around 2060, and that of the Soviet Union a little later. The main growth areas would be Africa and southern Asia, and by the year 2110 the industrialized countries would contain 13% of the world's population, as com-

UN

pared with

24%

in 1981.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS "Ecopolltics." In Malaysia on April 9 a law came into force, amending the Societies Act, 1966, that

deprived nonpolitical organizations of the right criticize official policies or to

campaign

tive changes. Directed against of the Earth,

the

to

for legisla-

Malaysian Friends

Consumers Association

of Pe-

nang, the Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia, and a

number

of scientific

and

intellec-

law prevented environmentalists from campaigning on environmental issues. In tual bodies, the

France Brice Lalonde, the ecologist candidate in the presidential election and leader of the largest of the "little" parties, received 1,126,254 votes in the

round of balloting. This represented 3.88% of the votes cast and 3.09% of the total electorate, and although Lalonde was eliminated from the contest, he was fifth in the poll and ahead of former premier Michel Debre. A proposal by the new U.S. secretary of the infirst

terior,

James Watt

[see

Biographies),

to release

federal land for mineral exploitation, starting with

2,400 sq km (600,000 ac) of seabed near Santa Barbara, Calif., enraged environmentalists. A petition opposing the move received 100,000 signatures, and Watt was taken to court by California Gov. Jerry Brown, supported by environmentalists and some Republican groups, in an effort to prevent the sale of leases on 31 tracts. The court ruled in favour of Governor Brown, and in August Watt announced that further oil exploration off the California coast would be delayed for at least two years. Leasing in other offshore areas continued, however, including the Georges Bank off New England, one of the nation's richest fishing grounds. Watt, who removed all the surviving "preser-

vationists" from his department and cut $3 million from environmental programs, was seen by many as an antienvironmental crusader devoted to the interests of ranchers and businessmen. The Sierra Club, which led a petition drive demanding his removal, reported that its membership had risen

as a result of opposition to his actions. British environmentalists lobbied vigorously and vociferously for the Wildlife and Countryside Bill, which would supply a framework for conservation and landscape management in rural areas for many years to come. The bill was enacted in October but some of its provisions would not take effect before 1982. Urban Problems. The year was marked by more violent disturbances in several European cities. In Switzerland, where young people and police had clashed in Zurich, Lausanne, and Bern in the fall of 1980, violence again broke out in Ziirich in March 1981. Young people protesting the closing of the Free Youth Centre in a disused factory broke into the building. Police used tear gas and water cannon against the demonstrators, who retaliated with bricks, gasoline (petrol) bombs, and steel balls. On March 30 it was agreed that the centre would be refurbished at the municipality's expense and reopened. In West Berlin, where there was an acute housing shortage, squatters occupying 117 apartment buildings received support from young people during the election campaign for the city government. On March 12 and over the weekend of March 14-15, rioters wrecked cars,

smashed windows, and threw paving stones at the police. They also set fire to the Reichstag building, emulating the incident in 1933 that preceded Hitler's rise to power. It was in Britain, however, that some of the most serious urban violence occurred. Deteriorating city centres, high unemployment among

young

people, especially young blacks, and aggressive and insensitive policing were blamed for

between April and July. The first was at Brixton, London, on April 9-13, and it was followed by clashes of extreme violence at Finsbury Park, London, on April 20; Southall, London, on July 3; Toxteth, Liverpool, during July 3-8; Wood Green, London, on July 7; Moss Side, Manchester, on July 7-8; and by smaller riots in Leicester, Birmingham, Leeds, and other cities. After the Brixton riot the governmost large

riots that affected

cities

ment ordered an inquiry into the causes. The inquiry was conducted by Lord Scarman, a senior judge, whose report was published in November. (See Race Relations; United Kingdom.)

On May

20 residents of Centralia, Pa. (populaby 434 to 204 to abandon their homes if necessary in order to allow a fire that had burned in a local coal mine for 20 years to be extinguished. The mine, which once provided most of the town's employment, had been closed years tion 1,017), voted

Some of its galleries had collapsed, causing severe subsidence and consequent structural damage to buildings, while the fire emitted carbon monoxide and other noxious gases.

earlier.

Nuclear Power. The massive antinuclear demonstrations that took place in several Eurof>ean cities in 1981 though primarily motivated by ,

opposition to the deployment of nuclear weapons in Europe, also attracted support from environmentalist groups and those opposed to the use of nuclear power. Demonstrations in London, Brussels, and Rome on October 24-25 surpassed all previous such gatherings in the number of participants, estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000. West Germany. An inquiry opened early in the year into the application by the West German Federal Institute of Physics and Technology in Braunschweig for permission to store spent nuclear fuel at Gorleben, Lower Saxony. On the night of February 2 a demonstration organized by the Social Democratic Party to protest the proposed Brokdorf nuclear power station led to a march by 12,000 to 14,000 people through the streets of Hamburg, and 2,500 police were brought in. A group of 50 to 100 demonstrators wearing helmets and masks stoned police, smashed hotel and shop windows, and wrecked cars; 36 people were injured and about 20 arrested. On the same evening, with the support of the Social Democrat mayor,

Hans-Ulrich Klose, Hamburg Social Democrats voted 198-157 to withdraw from the Brokdorf project. (Klose resigned on May 25 because he no longer commanded a parliamentary majority and was replaced, on June 16, by Klaus von Dohnanyi.) Police used water cannon to combat another demonstration at Brokdorf on February 25. On February 28 there was an even larger demonstration, in which more than 50,000 rioters using steel

bombs, paint bombs, and fought for three hours against more than 10,500 police equipped with helicopters, water cannon, and tear gas; 128 police and an unspecified number of demonstrators were injured, and 240 people were arrested. France. A fire in a silo containing spent nuclear fuel at the Cap de la Hague reprocessing plant bolts, stones, gasoline flares

caused minor internal contamination by cesium137 on January 7. On May 16 the government announced its approval of a scheme to rebuild the existing plant, install a second, 800-metric-toncapacity plant alongside it, and build pools to hold up to 4,000 metric tons of waste, together with a workshop for cutting up fuel elements. Environmentalists demanded abandonment of the scheme, but after the election the new government agreed to continue with it. The ecologists, led by Brice Lalonde, had demanded closing of all of France's 14 nuclear power stations. On June 3 incoming Pres. Francois Mitterrand said that work on the controversial plant at Plogoff, Brittany, would not be started, and on July 30 the Cabinet decided to halt work at five

two of which (Golfech and Cattenom) were very early stages. The nuclear energy policy was debated by the N.ational Assembly on October 8, and by a vote of 331-67 it was agreed that the strongly pro-nuclear policy inherited from the previous administration should be continued. However, Premier Pierre Mauroy said work on the five suspended stations would continue only with the consent of the local authorities unless they were deemed essential to the national interest; in that case, the National Assembly would plants, in the

decide.

359

Environment

360

Environment

There were clashes on August 6-7 between pronuclear demonstrators and police. The demonstrators blocked the main Paris-Toulouse and Bordeaux-Sete railway lines and demonstrated in Moselle over the suspension of work at the Golfech and Cattenom 3 and 4 plants. On August 6 police at Cherbourg clashed with antinuclear demonstrators protesting against the arrival of a Japanese ship carrying spent fuel for reprocessing. Despite the many protests and demonstrations at Plogoff during the presidential election campaign, people in the area voted overwhelmingly for pro-nuclear candidates. United States. In September some 3,000 demonstrators, headed by the Abalone Alliance, attempted a peaceful blockade of the Diablo Canyon nuclear power plant in California, hoping to prevent the plant from being charged with fuel and started. The attempt failed, but the start-up was postponed indefinitely when officials of the operating company, the Pacific Gas and Electric Co., announced that two containment domes, identical from the outside but constructed differently inside, had each been built on the site intended for the other. The discovery raised doubts about the ability of some of the piping to with-

stand a major earthquake in this seismically active November the Nuclear Regulatory Commission suspended the license permitting fuel loading and low-power testing until the plant had undergone seismic tests. The No. 2 reactor at Indian Point, on the Hudson River 65 km (40 mi) from New York City, was closed in October 1980 because of accidental flooding, started again in April 1981, then closed again in October because of vibration in a coolant pump and a suspicion that the plant had leaked mildly radioactive material into the river. In the aftermath of the 1979 Three Mile Island (Pennsylvania) nuclear plant accident, decontamination operations estimated to cost $1 billion began in September 1981. They involved the filtering and pumping into storage tanks of radioactive waarea. In

World's 25 Most Populous Urban Areas^

the U.S. to curb the emissions of sulfur dioxide that were said to fall as acid rain over the northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada. Relations between the two countries were becoming strained over the is-

However, the effects were said to be most serious in the U.S. itself, especially in the .Adirondack Mountains where the naturally acid soils had no buffer to protect them from the additional acid sue.

falling in rain

and snow.

The

Polish Ecological Society, formed in September 1980, campaigned throughout the year

Skawina alumiworks at Krakow. The Krakow region lies in where the circulation of air is restricted,

against pollution caused by the

num

a hollow

and each year it receives an estimated 95,000 tons of dust and 70,000 tons of sulfur dioxide from Nowa Huta to the east and 33,000 tons each of dust and sulfur dioxide from the coal-fired power station and aluminum works that comprise the Skawina complex. About 20 km (12 mi) away, the Niepolomice forest had to be sprayed with lime in the 1970s to counteract the acid rain, and in 1979 gold art treasures in the VVawel Castle museum were found to be corroding. On Jan. 5, 1981, the metallurgy minister, Zbigniew Szalajda, said that ways must be found to increase aluminum output from Poland's other plant at Konin, and on January 7 he announced that the Skawina complex

would be Mayors

closed.

towns near Marseilles, France, received support in the last week in July from Environment Minister Michel Crepeau, who ordered Charbonnages de France to install equipment to of five

reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from the coal-fired

power station it was building. The station was to burn Provencal soft brown coal with a 4 to 6% sulfur content, and it would have emitted some 540 tons of sulfur dioxide a day from a chimney 30 m (98 ft) wide at the base and as tall as the Eiffel Tower. Previously, the company had claimed that equipment that could remove sulfur from the coal did not

exist.

May

a joint working party from the U.K. Department of the Environment and the Greater London Council reported that, in Britain as a whole, 38 district councils were failing to comply with an EC Council directive on emissions of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulates. The directive was supposed to come into force on April 1, 1983. A further 33 councils might fail to meet the standards, and because the recession led people to burn high-sulfur coal instead of more expensive smokeless fuels, the problem was likely to grow worse. Powers to ban high-sulfur fuels had been vested in the secretary of state for the environment by the Control of Pollution Act, 1974, but they had never been invoked. In at least one borough, Epping, a smoke-control zone approved in 1975 had never been implemented. To protect the Taj Mahal, the Indian Department of the Environment announced in June that two coal-fired power stations at Agra, about 85 km (50 mi) from New Delhi, were to be closed. In addition, the railway authorities agreed to change from coal to oil fuel in their Agra workshops. Industrial Wastes. Recession in Brazil provided

In

361

Environment

Residents of the small

town of voted

in

fire that

the rationale for a presidential decree, issued at the insistence of detergent manufacturers, that post-

Centralia, Pa.,

May

to aban-

don theif homes if it became necessary in order to fight a coal mine has been burn-

ing for 20 years under-

neath their town.

362

>.

Environment

^.

Widespread opposition to the Brokpower plant, under construction near Hamburg, West Germany, broke into violence in late February when police armed with

dorf nuclear

tear gas faced

rock-throwing demonstrators.

indefinitely the implementation of a ban on nonbiodegradable detergents. The legislation, planned in 1976, had been due to come into force in January 1981. In the state of Sao Paulo, foaming

poned

in the rivers was now chronic. report issued in March indicated that the con-

A

dition of Lake Baikal in the Soviet Union was deteriorating, despite strict antipollution legislation. Factories

discharging effluent into rivers that

were blamed, together with paper mills, ships carrying oil, and the city of Slyudyanka, which discharged raw sewage into the lake. Delegates at the International Conference on the Effects of Pollution on the Sea, held on Nov. 17-18, 1980, in Tynemouth, England, heard an account of the activities of Riafield Ltd. The company had been engaged in importing toxic wastes from The Netherlands, which were stored in Britain and fed the lake

to the Far East. After July 1980 the held no U.K. license for this operation, but while Humberside County Council deliberated on whether to issue a license, other firms issued

then reexported

company

writs against Riafield for nonpayment of debts. In July 1981 Riafield went out of business. The House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology considered the Riafield case in the course of its hearings on toxic waste management. The hearings brought to light several cases of allegedly ille-

dumping. The committee's report, published on September 7, criticized both local authorities and the national government, but it declared safe gal

the country's largest disposal

site, at Pitsea,

Essex;

site had prompted the hearings. Canada paint bombs and smoke bombs were thrown through windows of the British Columbia Department of the Environment during protests

concern over the In

dumping of wastes containing arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, iron, and radi-

against the

it was announced dumping had been given to Canada Ltd., which planned to reopen a molybdenum mine north of Prince Rupert. The wastes would consist of mine tailings, discharged at concentrations many times higher than the max-

um-226

imum

permitted by the Fisheries Act. Despite the which were supported by the Anglican Church of Canada, the dumping began in May. Pesticides. From January 1 in accordance with an EC Council directive, the U.K. began phasing out most remaining uses for organochlorine and several mercury-based compounds. Late in 1980 British trade unions had announced their opposition to the manufacture of 2,4,5-T, rejecting the finding of the Advisory Committee on Pesticides that the herbicide was safe. On May 19, 1981, however, manufacturers rejected union appeals to cease production. In the U.S., following discussions with the Dow Chemical Co., it was announced in June that the epa would probably lift its ban on the use of 2,4,5-T, imposed in 1979. protests,

,

California Governor Brown's reluctance to authorize aerial spraying of pesticides over populated areas was blamed by growers for the spread of the Mediterranean fruit fly in that state. Imported accithe dentally, probably around June 1980,

"medfly," a serious horticultural pest, was first identified in Santa Clara County south of San Francisco. An attempt to control the fly by releasing sterilized males imported from Peru failed, apparently because some of the flies were not sterile, and by August 1981 the insect was in the San Joaquin Valley fruit-growing area. Faced with the U.S. Department of Agriculture's threat to quarantine California produce that had not been fumigated. Governor Brown finally ordered helicopter spraying of the relatively mild pesticide malathion to begin on July 14. However, some growers, fearing the possibility of a quarantine, sprayed about 350 ha (850 ac) from four aircraft using the more toxic diphos. The medfly larva can attack about 200 plant species of commercial value. {See Life (michael allaby) Sciences: Entomology.)

into the Pacific. In April

that permission for the

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

Amax

In western Europe, January

of

and February 1981 were the worst months ever recorded for the killing of sea birds by oil pollution. On January 1 five tons of dead birds were washed up at Stockholm;

by January 7, 70,000 dead birds had been counted, and a further 11,000 were recovered at Goteborg. The final toll was expected to reach about 100,000. Meanwhile, Danish wildlife protection authorities said they had found nearly 100,000 in the Kattegat and in Norway two cleansing centres for birds were opened in the Oslo Fjord. Reports reaching ,

the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds indicated that 42,000 birds, dead and dying, had

been counted in January on beaches between northwestern France and southern Norway. These included 32,000 killed by an oil spill in the Skagerrak strait between Norway and Denmark, allegedly caused in part by the Greek tanker "Stylis." In February more than 1,000 murres (auks) and puffins were found oiled off the East Anglian coast of England. At the same time, more than 10,000 oiled sea birds were found on the French, Belgian, Dutch, and West German coasts. It was clear that deliberate discharge of waste fuel oils by ships, contrary to international treaty obligations, was the major cause of the oil pollution. In February the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (iucn), meeting in New Delhi, reported the success of Project Tiger, which had saved that splendid animal from extinction. The tiger was common in India during the 19th century but had become rare by the mid-20th. Thanks to the enthusiasm of the Indian central and state governments and to financial aid from the World Wildlife Fund and others, 11 tiger reserves had been established with a total area of 15 sq km (5.8 sq mi).

Efforts to preserve the rhinoceros cessful.

The world's

remained

in

danger

were

363

less suc-

five species of rhinoceros all

of extermination.

A

Environment

possible

was the square-lipped (or white) rhinocwhich was being protected successfully in

exception eros,

Natal, South Africa. In February five tons of walrus tusks, valued at $450,000, were seized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (fws), mostly in Alaska. Under U.S. law only Alaskan natives may kill walruses or hold their ivory. Later, disquieting reports were received concerning marine turtle populations. The Atlantic ridley turtle {Lepidochehjs kempi) had declined from 40,000 to about 400 at its Mexican breeding place, and 100,000 green turtles {Chelonia mydas) were being taken annually off the Mexican Pacific coast. On the other hand, a proposal to build a tourist hotel near the main breeding place of the green turtle on Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean had been shelved. On tiny East Island in the Hawaiian National Wildlife Refuge, volunteers from the Fisheries Service and the FWS cleared beaches of debris to make them usable by nesting turtles and by the endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) Operation Oryx, the attempt to restore the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) to its desert habitat

as a wild animal, suffered a setback in April

when

young male, one of ten oryx flown from the San Diego (Calif.) Zoo to Oman, died from the bite of

a

a carpet viper.

In Jordan the oryx enclosure at to 15 sq km to accommo-

Shaumari was enlarged date

its

15 animals. Officials in

New

York

State ordered the drop-

ping of lime into lakes to counteract acid rain, which had been rendering lakes in the Adiron-

dack Mountains less capable of supporting life.

364

Environment

More than 10,000

sea birds

wen

found dead on French, Belgian, Dutch, and West German seacoasts as a result of the discharge of waste fuel oil.

Andre Dupuy

director of Nikolo-Koba National reported in May that elephant numbers had fallen from 225 to 170 in 12 months and not a single large tusker survived. The game

Park,

,

Senegal,

guards had been engaged in running battles with Vi^ell-armed ivory poachers, and two of them had been awarded the iucn medal for courage in de-

During the spring 110 whooping cranes

left

their

winter quarters in the Aransas National Wildlife Sanctuary, Texas, for their breeding grounds in Wood Buffalo National Park, Canada; 17 other recorded. In 1953,

when

Freda Davis asked in the journal ORYX, "Can the Whooping Crane be Saved?," only about 30 of these cranes had existed. The International Whaling Commission (iwc) met in Brighton, England, during July 20-25. Backed by the U.S. and by a personal message from Pres. Ronald Reagan, Britain proposed a full

moratorium on commercial whaling or, failing that, a ban on all North Atlantic whaling and all hunting of sperm whales, a ban on cruel methods of killing (especially the explosive harpoon), and an extension of the ban on cold grenade harpoons to minke whales. The moratorium and North Atlantic ban proposals were defeated. Kunio Yonizawa, representing Japan, threatened that his country would leave the iwc or exercise its right to object and so ignore any agreement. He also complained that China, Costa Rica, India, Jamaica, Uruguay, Saint Lucia, and Dominica, which had just joined the iwc, were not whaling nations. By the end of the meeting, zero quotas had been set for sperm whales in the North Atlantic and Antarctic from the end of the 1981 season, and it

was agreed to set a Pacific quota to cover Japanese operations at a special meeting in March 1982. From November 1982 the use of the cold harpoon would be banned. The Antarctic quota for minke whales was increased by about 1,000 for the 1982 season.

In January

it

was announced

that, in

implemen-

tation of the Soviet Union's 1978 pledge to the iwc,

the Soviet Far Eastern fishing fleet had ceased whaling in the Pacific. In April the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration signed a two-year agreement with the Alaskan Eskimo

Whaling Commission making management of bowhead whales the responsibility of the

stocks of

bowhead

and so remove the last enand gas drilling in the region. From August 2 it became an offense to take any cetacean within U.K. fishery limits. An unexpected threat had arisen to imperil the Californian gray whale, which has the longest known migration of any whale — summering in to extinction,

vironmental objection

fense of wildlife.

whooping cranes were

Eskimos. The agreement allowed 17 whales to be and 32 to be struck (presumed dead but not landed) during the 1981 season, with a further 17 landings permitted on payment of fees of $1,000 to $5,000 per whale. Conservation groups feared that the Eskimos would exceed their quota, bring the killed

to oil

the Arctic but breeding in Baja California, Mexico. Once in its breeding ground, it was protected from Japanese whalers by the Mexican government. However, the whales had become a tourist attraction and were being menaced by the disturbances caused by whale watchers. By October the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (cites) had been ratified by 72 countries. Both the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to

Animals and the Fauna and Flora Preservahad been specially concerned in

tion Society (ffps)

preparing the Guidelines for the Transport of Live Animals. Its aim was to reduce the cruelties of the wildlife trade.

Perhaps the most notable work in bird conservawas done on Stewart Island, where the New Zealand Wildlife Service was attempting to save the kakapo {Strigops habroptilus) from extermination. Until 1980, only male specition during the year

mens

of this large, nocturnal, flightless, owl-like

parrot had been identified in over 70 years. Trained dogs were then used to find kakapo, and

radio transmitters were attached to the birds to follow their movements. By these means a nesting

female was found on March 18. Up to August 4, 26 kakapo had been banded, and no great sexual disparity in numbers had been proved. Feral cats seemed to be the chief obstacle to kakapo recuperation.

and Countryside gave almost complete protection to all British species of bats. No other country safeguarded its bats to this extent. (c. l. boyle) In Great Britain the Wildlife

Bill

See also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Energy; ies;

Fisher-

Historic Preservation; Life Sciences; Transportation.

[355.D; 525.A.3.g

and

B.4.f.i; 534.e.2.a;

724.A; 737.C.1]

Environment: Special Report

EARTH'S JUNGLE HERITAGE by Jon Tinker

How

to describe the rain forests of tlie

A some. A basin?

green

hell

Amazon

of impenetrable jungle, say

verdant lung for the planet, whose trees supply the oxygen keeping the atmosphere breathable,

The empty which the nation A decade ago, the issues

suggest the environmentalists.

90%

work in the and animals. When forest is cleared and the vegetation burned, these nutrients blow away in smoke or wash off in the rains, lost to the soil forever. Not surprisingly,

est,

of the nutrients are actively at

forest's living plants

quarter of Brazil, claim the patriots,

the land that remains

must occupy and

tion or cattle ranching,

and unless

inputs of fertilizers,

trusteeship; short-term profit against a wise conser-

mense and continuing become in a few short

vation of natural resources. Today, the alternatives

wasteland.

seemed

simple: national sovereignty versus global

are starting to

come

exploit.

become

How

reconciled.

has this

about?

Rich Green Mantle. Tropical rain forest

ecosystem known to man.

richest

is

the

comparison,

In

is

rapidly exhausted by cultivait

receives imit

can

years an exhausted, barren

Nutrient Cycle. Such an ecological dead end is in dramatic contrast to the ecological ingenuity of

Amazonia undisturbed. Caimans, on fish swimming up the smaller

for

example, feed

rivers;

the excreta

the great plains of East Africa, with their teeming

of these small crocodiles then slowly enrich the nu-

herds of wildebeest and zebra, are biological desWhile a hectare (2.47 ac) of the most complex

trient-poor lakes fed by the rising streams— lakes to

erts.

woodland — in the Appalachians, for example— contains at most 20 species of tree, the Amazon rain forest has at least 100 and sometimes 200 tree species per hectare.

This vast expanse of virtually

flat

land stretching

from the Atlantic to the Andes lies mainly in Brazil, over into Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. One-third of it has already been deforested, and another 100,000 sq km (38,600 sq mi)— an area bigspilling

ger than felled

The

Denmark and Switzerland combined — is

each

year.

Brazilian

government, when

land to private buyers, prices

it

it

sells off state

valor da terra nua

—

the value of the naked earth — ignoring the worth of

the trees which stand there. Ecologically, the concept of valor da terra nua is peculiarly inappropri-

most ecosystems, half or more and other nutrients are locked away ate. In

in

the biological hothouse that

lon Tinker

is

of the minerals in

the

soil.

But

a tropical rain for-

is director of Earthscan, an agency ol the International Institute lor Environment and Develop-

ment.

which the turtles,

fish

themselves must go to spawn.

And

feeding on aquatic vegetation, similarly pass

on their nutrients to carnivorous on a diet of young turtlets.

fish

which

thrive

More remarkable is the very recent discovery that many Amazonian fish feed directly in the forest. From June to November the Amazon rivers inundate 100,000 sq

km

of floodplain.

The

fish

migrate with

the water into the trees, to feed on falling seeds and fruits.

Many

species (including several relatives of

the flesh-eating piranha) have developed specially

adapted molars to crush nuts and bloated stomachs to store fat through the drier season when they must return to a nutless river.

Amazonians; comes from fish, and the most important commercial species, the tambaqui, is a seed-eater. No forest, no caimans, no turtles— and no fish. Research is beginning to persuade at least some influential Brazilians that the rain forest might be more valuable standing than felled. This conclusion is not wholly a matter of ecological eye-opening, for Brazil is clearly becoming disappointed over its dramatic efforts to colonize the jungle, once seen as the Latin-American Fish are a

in

major source of protein

the city of

Manaus

for

half the protein

365

equivalent of the American West. The Transamazonian Highway, for example, was designed as a 5,000-km (3,100-mi) road from the Atlantic to Peru that would open up the interior for colonization by five million people during the 1970s. Today, the

(EMBRAPA) has discovered the cause: a

streptomycin, which

tibiotic

EMBRAPA the

is

of the cerrado,

fertility

agricultural

Amazonian deforestation

zonia. Tea, cocoa, coffee,

still be substantial bought cheaply and the newly cleared pasture abandoned after six or seven years. The

prospect than

Genetic

worldwide

kills

Now

the bacteria.

searching for other ways of enhancing

expensive dirt road is flooded in places for half the year, colonized more by the forest than by people. Pattern for Protection. Even if the benefits of are illusory in the long

fungus

soil

called Streptomycetes. This fungus releases the an-

still

seen as a better

rain forest.

House. There

Treasure

is

growing

Ama-

interest in the genetic potential of

and rubber all came out of and all must ultimately depend

term, the short-term profits can

tropical rain forests,

when

on new genetic material from the wild to reinvigorate cultivated strains. For example. West African cocoa breeders have recently introduced greater vigour, high disease resistance, and better productivity by crossing with wild and semiwild strains of the cacao plant from the upper Amazon. The rain forest contains uncounted species whose economic

land

is

momentum of attrition in Amazonia and the poverty and land-hunger in

is

so powerful,

Brazil's

nearby

Northeast Region are so great, that conservationists

expect

another third of the Amazonian

at least

forest to disappear by the

end

rain

of the century. So

instead of outright opposition to

all

deforestation,

they have been trying to determine just which parts of the forest are most worth saving. Recently they

have detected a curious pattern. During the relatively cold, dry only

rain forest persisted

unknown.

is

Almost any temperate

Amazon would succumb

tree species

grown

in

the

rapidly to attack by plant-

eating insects and fungi. Yet rain forest trees thrive glacial

periods of

the Pleistocene, a million or so years ago, the

zon

potential

Ama-

isolated frag-

in small,

there for decades, undoubtedly because their bark

contains chemicals that are powerful insecticides

and fungicides. "Studies of the

relations of insects

each of these areas the wildlife evolved rapidly, and when the warm, wet weather returned, the plants and animals of each sanctuary had become different. The new species spread out into

to tropical barks," suggested botanist Clifford Evans

the returning rain forest, but the wildlife of what

Peoples of the Forest. If an understanding of Amazonia's genetic treasure house is slowly growing, there is still little awareness of the role the region's native peoples could play in releasing this knowledge. Their scores of unique cultures, in which details of beneficial uses of hundreds of species are passed from one generation to the next, are still being wantonly destroyed, even more rapidly

ments.

In

biologists

now

call

"Pleistocene refugia" remained

permanently enriched. Clusters of species-richness have been mapped for birds, for butterflies, for reptiles, and for trees. Where all four disciplines pinpoint the same spot on the map, that area takes on a top priority for protection.

Moves by

the Amazonian nations toward at least

in

a recent presidential address to the British Ecolog-

ical

Society,

new

"would provide the

a degree of rain forest conservation, in part through

than their physical existence.

Amazon realization among

a traditional

the 1980

Treaty, have

been helped by

agriculturalists that

some

The

a

of the

whole

basis for a

generation of agricultural insecticides."

last large

Indian tribe

way

of

life,

in Brazil still

following

the Yanomami, has been

the past few years by measles and

region's soils are markedly less suitable for cultiva-

decimated

tion than others. Within the rain forest proper, only

other diseases, introduced by road builders and

whose fertile and friable renewed each year by upriver silts, offers real farming potential. The varzea, though, is at present largely inaccessible, and Brazil is beginning to look

in

the floodplain or varzea,

prospectors seeking the newly discovered mineral

soil

wealth.

is

instead to the cerrado, drier savannah scrub that

covers 1.8 million sq

km

ing the capital, Brasilia.

(700,000 sq mi) surround-

With an

regular inputs of fertilizer,

nitrates are not.

An

Rhizobium

gen from the

366

relatively

cheap, but

would be to grow soybeans, whose roots

bacteria that convert nitro-

air into nitrates in

nately, soy refuses to

and the

is

ideal solution

leguminous crops such as sustain the

liming and

acid, nutrient-poor soil

its

grows good crops. Liming

initial

the

soil.

Unfortu-

grow on the cerrado

soils,

Brazilian Agricultural Research Institution

One

Mining,

of the

companies involved

whose former

is

Rio

Doce

chief of security. Col. joao

Nobre da Veiga, is now president of funai, the Bragovernment agency responsible for protecting

zilian

the forest Indians.

The shameful neglect— and at times deliberate persecution— of the rain forest Indians is widespread If

in

ethical

flicts

other Amazonian countries besides

arguments carry

between powerful

little

weight— and

colonists

Brazil.

in

con-

and native peo-

have— then perhaps enlightened may prove more persuasive. For the

ples they usually self-interest

Amazon's indigenous nations

carry in their oral tra-

ditions the keys to the region's genetic treasures.

Double Jay, was voted horse of the year, best male turf horse, and best older horse. The gelding re-

Equatorial Guinea

367

Equestrian Sports

all 191 votes cast for horse of the year, the time in the 11 -year history of Eclipse Award voting that the choice was unanimous. Jockey Bill Shoemaker, trainer Ron McAnally,

ceived first

The African republic of Equatorial Guinea consists Muni, whiich is bordered by Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west; and the offshore islands of Bioko and Pagalu. Area: 28,051 sq km (10,831 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 372,000. Cap. and largest city: Malabo, on Bioko (pop., 1974 est., 25,000). Language: Spanish. President of the Supreme of Rio

Military

Col.

Teodoro

standing breeder.

Teodoro Obiang

Nguema

colt.

Council in 1981,

Lieut.

Obiang Nguema Mbasogo. In .March 1981 Pres.

Mbasogo appointed the first civilian to the Cabinet; he was Emiiiano Buale, who was made responsible for agriculture. This was seen as an important step toward demilitarization of the government. Only days later, on April 10, the government reported a coup attempt. In its aftermath some 150 people, including former ministers, were arrested, and about 40 stood trial. Opponents of the regime suggested that the coup had been arranged by the president in order to undermine the opposition. Three Spanish newspapers were banned temporarily for carrying such suggestions.

During the year the country's economy recovered slowly. Traffic returned to a semblance of normality, and some water and electricity were available in the capital. Cocoa recovered its place as the country's chief source of income, but production was still well below the pre-independence level of 40,000 metric tons annually. In April the

International Monetary

Fund agreed

to a finance

million sdr's to cover an export earnings shortfall. (guy arnold) facility of 4.7

EQUATORIAL GUINEA Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 35,977, teachers 630; secondary (1975-76), pupils 3,984, teachers 115; vocational (1975-76), pupils 370, teachers 29; teacher training (1975-76), students 169, teachers 21.

Finance and Trade. Monetary for

more than

and the Dotsam Stable of Dorothy and Sam Rubin of New York City, all part of the implausible success story of John Henry, also won Eclipse Awards. John Henry was responsible for a seventh Eclipse Award, that won by Mrs. Verna Lehmann's Golden Chance Farm of Kentucky as out-

unit:

epkwele (bipkwele

one), with (Sept. 21, 1981) a par value of 2 Spanish peseta ifree rate of 184 bipkwele =

bipkwele to 1 U.S. $1; 341 bipkwele = ,£1 sterling). Budget (1981 est.): revenue 1,951,000,000 bipkwele; expenditure 2,025,000,(1980): imports c 10.1 billion bipkwele; exports c. 3.1 million bipkwele. Import sources: Spain c. 70%: China c 13%; Tunisia c. 5%. Export destinations: The Netherlands c 46%: West Germany c. 17%; Senegal c. 16%; Spain c. 10%; luly c. 6%. Main exports (1975): cocoa c. 60%; coffee c. 30%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): sweet potatoes c. 33; cassava c. 52; bananas c. 16; cocoa c. 8; coffee c. 6; palm kernels c. 3; palm oil c. 5. Livestock (in 000; 1979): sheep c. 34; cattle c. 4; pigs c. 8; goats c. 8; chickens c. 85.

000 bipkwele. Foreign trade

Other Eclipse winners included: two-year-old Deputy Minister; two-year-old filly. Before

Dawn;

Equatorial

Guinea

three-year-old colt, Pleasant Colony; three-

year-old filly. Wayward Lass; older filly or mare. Relaxing; female turf horse, De La Rose; sprinter. Zaccio. Aside from John Henry, male turf champion in 1980, the only repeat winner was Mrs. Lewis C. Murdock's Zaccio (Lorenzaccio-Delray Dancer, by Chateaugay). He capped his season with victory in the Colonial Cup. The 50-year-old Shoemaker, who won a special Eclipse Award in 1976, rode John Henry in his

Guilty Conscience; steeplechase,

final five starts after replacing Laffit Pincay, Jr. While helping John Henry establish two moneyearning records — $1,798,030 for a single season and $3,022,810 for a career — Shoemaker himself

added to his own standards, which were approaching 9,000 victories and $86 million in purses won. John Henry, the first $3 million horse, broke the career record of $2,781,607 set by Spectacular Bid in 1980 and the single-season mark of $1,148,800 established by Affirmed in 1979. John Henry, small and undistinguished in appearance, raced chiefly in California. It was there he suffered his two defeats, finishing fourth in both the Hollywood Gold Cup and the campaign-

ending Hollywood Turf Cup. He made two successful forays to Belmont Park and one to Arlington Park to capture the inaugural of the Arlington Million, 000.

which

carried first-prize

John Henry annexed

money

of $600,-

five other turf stakes

races besides the Million; they were the San Luis Obispo, San Luis Rey, Hollywood Invitational, Sword Dancer, and Oak Tree Invitational. On dirt trails he won the Santa Anita Handicap and the Jockey Club Gold Cup. In three consecutive starts John Henry won the Arlington Million by a nose, the Jockey Club Gold Cup by a head, and the Oak Tree Invitational by a neck. Besides John Henry, McAnally's stakes winners included Super Moment, Seafood, Syncopate, and Happy Guess. They helped his stable accumulate approximately

$4 million in earnings.

The Canadian-bred Deputy Minister (Vice Regent-Mint Copy, by Buntys Flight) won eight of nine starts, including seven stakes races, for coowners D. G. ("Bud") Willmot and Mort and Mar-

Equestrian Sports Thoroughbred Racing and Steeplechasing. United States .\nd Canada. John Henry, who passed from owner to owner for as little as $1 100 ,

won

all the annual Eclipse honours for which he was eligible in 1981. The sixyear-old son of Ole Bob Bowers-Once Double, by

early in his career,

joh Levy.

The

colt's sole defeat

came

in the

Cham-

pagne, where he finished fourth while making his first start in nine weeks because of illness. In his final two races in the U.S., Deputy Minister completed his season with victories in the Laurel Futurity and

Young America

Stakes.

Epidemics: see Health and DisEpiscopal Church: see Religion

368

Equestrian Sports

Calumet Farm's Before

Dawn

(Raise

Moonbeam, by Tim Tam) won her

A Cup-

first five starts

before suffering her only loss when competing against males in the Champagne. She finished second to Timely Writer after starting from the unfavourable number one post position. Her stakes triumphs came in the Fashion, Spinaway, As-

and Matron. Buckland Farm's Pleasant Colony (His MajestySun Colony, by Sunrise Flight) was first in the Wood Memorial, Kentucky Derby, Preakness, and Woodward Stakes and accumulated earnings of $877,415. His chance for winning the Triple Crown was ended when Summing won the Beltarita,

mont

Stakes. Flying Zee Stables' (Hail the Pirates- Young Mistress,

Wayward

Lass

by Third Martini) gained top honours by winning such stakes races as the Mother Goose and the Coaching Club American Oaks, the latter through disqualification of Real Prize.

Ogden

Phipps's Relaxing (Buckpasser-Marking won four stakes races including two against males, the Assault and Campbell handicaps. She finished third in the Jockey Club Gold Cup, three-quarters of a length back of John Henry. Her other victories came in the Delaware and Ruffian handicaps. Henryk de Kwiatkowski's De La Rose (Nijinsky II-Rosetta Stone, by Round Table) took seven turf stakes, including the Saranac, Long Branch, and a division of the Hollywood Derby against males. There was no standout sprinter, but Mrs. Richard Davison's Guilty Conscience (Court Ruling-Gracefully, by Gallant Man) was the most consistent. His most important victory came in the Vosburgh. In the Triple Crown races for Canadian-foaled three-year-olds. Fiddle Dancer Boy won the Queen's Plate, Cadet Corps the Prince of Wales Stakes, and Social Wizard the Breeder's Stakes. Open Call was winner of the Rothmans International, and Regent Miss triumphed in the Canadian Oaks. (JOSEPH c. agrella)

Time, by To Market)

Pleasant Colony, with lorge Velasquez as jockey, was the winner of the Kentucky Derby in Louisville, with a time of 2:02.

Europe and Australia. A harsh spring had a radical effect

on racing throughout Europe

in 1981.

Few of the horses

that were prepared, in unhelpful conditions, for the important races of the first part of the season held their form for the rest of the year. Shergar was the early-season champion in the British Isles. Owned by the Aga Khan and trained by Michael Stoute at Newmarket, this son of Great Nephew won five consecutive races by a total mar-

gin of 40 lengths, including the Epsom Derby, Irish Sweeps Derby, and the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Diamond Stakes. He beat Glint of Gold by ten lengths in the Epsom Derby, the easiest victory recorded in the 202-year history of the race. Shergar ran only once after winning the King George on July 25 — in the St. Leger, when he finished a never-dangerous fourth behind Cut Above, a 28-1 chance. Glint of Gold, and Bustomi. He was retired, after syndication in early July, to the Aga Khan's Ballymany Stud in Ireland. The Aga Khan owned two other top-class threeyear-old colts in Akarad and Vayrann, both of which were trained by Francois Mathet in France. Akarad won the Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud. Vayrann ended a successful year by taking the Champion Stakes, beating the 1980 winner of that race. Cairn Rouge, to give French trainers their only victory in Britain in 1981. (The result of a dope test on Vayrann made it probable that Cairn Rouge would be declared the winner, but no Jockey Club inquiry had been held by year's end.) "Their British counterparts proved much more successful, triumphing in 6 of France's 23 Group

One

races, starting with Recitation, which added the Poule d'Essai des Poulains to his victory in the 1980 Grand Criterium. Madam Gay, which was

King George and third to John Henry in the inaugural running of the Arlington Million, beat the Italian Oaks winner, Val d'Erica, in the Prix de Diane de Revlon (French Oaks). Glint of Gold won the Grand Prix de Paris, Marwell the Prix de I'Abbaye de Longalso second to Shergar in the

.

369

Prix Royal-Oak, while Moorestyle gained a repeat success in the Prix de la Foret. Marwell (July Cup) and Ardross (Ascot Gold Cup) also took Group One races at home. The biggest European prize of all, the Prix de I'Arc de Triomphe, which had been increased in value by two-thirds, with a winner's share of Fr 2 million, eluded the foreign challengers. Nine of the 24 runners came from either England or Ireland, but only Ardross, which was fifth, reached the first ten. Gold River, ridden by the Hong Kong-based Gary Moore, produced a 53-1 surprise, beating Bikala and April Run in a close

champ, and Ardross the

Equestrian Sports

finish.

Green Forest, a U.S. -bred colt owned by MahFustok, was easily the most successful twoyear-old in France, winning the Prix Morny, Prix de la Salamandre, and Grand Criterium. Zino, which he beat in the Salamandre, went on to gain an impressive win in the Criterium de Maisons-

moud

Laffitte.

who

rode 179 winners, was time but He would probaif Willie Carson, who was in the lead, had not broken his leg at York in mid- August. Yves Saint-Martin, who had been a top jockey in France for more than 20 years, gained his 13th riding championship there. Two horses that raced with distinction throughout the year were Glint of Gold and To-Agori-Mou. Glint of Gold won five races, including the Derby Italiano, the Preis von Europa, and the Grand Prix de Paris. To-Agori-Mou, which won the English Two Thousand Guineas, was later involved in some struggles with the Irish-trained King's Lake. The two milers were almost equal, but Anglo-Irish pride received a blow when they were both beaten by five lengths by Northjet in the Prix Jacques le Marois at Deauville, France, in August. Just a Dash, which had already won the Adelaide Cup and South Australian St. Leger, was a convincing winner of Australia's most celebrated race, the Melbourne Cup. Tommy Smith had trained the winners of more than 4,000 races, including all the important ones, but this was only his second success in the Cup. He would probably have been much happier if he could have won it with Kingston Town, but that colt finished 20th. Kingston Town, which was the favourite, had become the first horse ever to earn A$l million, when winning the George Main Stakes at RandLester

Piggott,

champion jockey only the

in Britain for the tenth

time since 1971. bly have had to settle for second for

first

wick on September

26.

In National Hunt racing in Britain, Aldaniti, ridden by Bob Champion, won the Grand National by four lengths from the favourite. Spartan Missile. Only 12 of the 39 runners completed the course. Sea Pigeon won his second consecutive Champion Hurdle. He was trained by M. H. ("Peter") Easterby, who also sent out Little Owl and

Night Nurse

to take the first

two

places in the

Cheltenham Gold Cup Steeplechase. J. Francome was the National Hunt champion jockey. (ROBERT W. carter) Harness Racing. In 1981 Fan Hanover became the first filly to win the Little Brown Jug, equaling the record time of 1 min 54.8 sec. She also set a new

Shergar won the Epsom Derby with a ten-length margin, the widest margin since the race was founded. The Aga Khan, the horse's owner, is at right.

pacing mark for five-eighths-mi tracks when she won a mile at The Meadows in 1 min 55.6 sec and later was named 1981 harness horse of

world

the year. Toy Poodle, 1980 three-year-old filly of the year, in 1981 set world pacing records on mile (1 min 54.4 sec) and five-eighths-mi tracks (1 min 54.6 sec). Two-year-old pacing records were broken on mile tracks, and colt and gelding records were broken on half-mile tracks. Filet Of Sole won the Kentucky Futurity; the gray filly Watering Can won the Horseman and Fair World pace. Tenujin won the Kentucky Pacing Derby for twoyear-olds.

The $540,870 World Trotting Derby for threeDu Quoin, 111., was won by Panty Raid, and the $463,000 Sheppard Pace at Yonkers was taken by Icarus Lobell. In the $838,000 Hambletonian, Shiaway St. Pat was the winner, and McKinzie Almahurst took the $1,760,000 Woodrow Wilson two-year-old classic from Lou Todd Hanover and Warren Hanover. Conquered won from Computer and Seahawk Hanover in the $1 million Meadowlands three-year-old pace. French year-olds at

horses dominated the $250,000 Roosevelt International in

New

York with Ideal du Gazeau winning

from Jorky. In Australian harness racing, five-year-old stal-

Popular Aim won the City Tattersalls Golden at Harold Park, Sydney, on Nov. 7, 1981. On November 1 the ten-year-old stallion Pure Steel paced a 1-min 56.9-sec time trial in Perth, Western Australia. The top four-year-old by the end of 1981 lion

Mile

Major Thoroughbred Race Winners, Jockey Won by United States

Pyrah (Great Britain) was second on Towerlands Anglezarke: and Bruno Candrian (Switz.) was third on Van Gogh.

(PAMELA MACGREGOR-MORRIS) Polo. England's one-day international spectacular at the Guards Polo Club, Windsor Great Park, drew a crowd of 23,000, the highest attendance for a European polo event since the 1936 Olympic Games. In the main contest South America beat England 7-6. In the supporting match, for the Silver Jubilee Cup, the England II team beat

Spain 10-5. New Zealand won all three test matches against South .Africa. Owing to bad weather, the Camacho Cup, between Mexico and the U.S., was not concluded; Mexico won the first game 11-6 and the U.S. the second 9-8. In the World Cup final at Palm Beach, Fla., Boehm-Palm Beach beat the Rolex A&K team 14-8. In the U.S. Open, Boca Raton defeated Rolex A&K 12-11. In the European polo championship, at the Guards Polo Club, the gold medal went to Hurlingham II and the silver to the European Polo

Academy II 6-5. In the British Open, .Alex Ebeid's Falcons from Egypt defeated Ronaldo de Lima's La Ipanema team from Brazil 13-3. In the Queens Cup, Cowdray Park beat Stowell Park 7-5. At Sotogrande, Spain, Cadarejo beat Brattas 7-6 for the Gold Cup. In the Australian Open, Kooralbyn defeated Shoalhaven in a tight final 9-8. In the Australian Masters, Shoalhaven easily triumphed over Gil Gil 11-3. (colin j. cross)

371

organizations to provide a foundation for the future party, directives for the general strategy for national development, improvements in government administration, the strengthening of national defense, the promotion of Socialist discipline and control, and directives for the development of education and the social services. In September more than 500 prisoners were granted amnesty. These included one of ministerial rank, Hapte Selassie Taffessa, detained since 1974, who was returned to his previous post in charge of tourism. On the eve of the anniversary of the deposing of the old monarchy in September 1974, the Provisional Military Administrative Council issued a proclamation setting up control committees and a Special Court of the Working People charged with "stamping out corruption and wastefulness." The major emphasis of the year, however, was on education. In June the director general of UNESCO launched, from Addis Ababa, an international appeal for assistance to the National Literacy Campaign. The aim of the appeal was to raise $90 million over a period of six years to 1987, the target date for the eradication of illiteracy from the country. The national campaign had been launched in June 1979 and by April 1981 had reduced the illiteracy rate to 65%. Parallel to these developments was a great increase in regular education for school-age children. It was estimated that almost 50% of the relevant age group would enroll for primary school during the school year 1981-82. At

Ethiopia

(452.B.4.h.xvii; 452.B.4.h.xxi; 452.B.5.e]

ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia

Education. (1978-79) Primary, pupils 1,376,927; sec-

A socialist state in northeastern Africa, Ethiopia is bordered by Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya, the Sudan, Sea. Area: 1,223,600 sq km (472,400 sq mi). Pop. (1980 est.): 31,065,300. Cap, and largest

and the Red city:

Addis Ababa (pop., 1980

est.,

1,277,200).

Language: Amharic (official) and other tongues. Religion: Ethiopian Orthodox and Muslim, with various minorities. Head of state and chairman of the Provisional Military Administrative Council in 1981, Lieut. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam.

During 1981 internal

political

developments

in

Ethiopia included the promulgation of new regulations concerning the powers and duties of Urban Dwellers Associations (the Kebeles). Elections to Kebele committees were held under new regulations, which involved the Commission to Organize the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (copwE) in the selection of candidates. Subsequently the Kebele representatives elected the chief municipal officials from lists of screened candidates judged on the basis of their identification with the Ethiopian revolution. In February the second plenary meeting of the COPWE Central Committee passed a series of resolutions covering copvve's responsibilities for providing political guidance pending the formation of the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia. The resolutions covered the need to exert greater efforts to attain "proletarian supremacy" in national affairs, the continuing task of consolidating mass

ondary and vocational, pupils 326,808; primary, secondary, and vocational, teachers 40,419; teacher training (197374), students 3,126, teachers 194; higher, students 13,674, teaching staff (1977-78) 476. Finance. Monetary unit: birr, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a par value of 2.07 birr to U.S. $1 (free rate of 3.84 birr = £1 sterling). Gold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $132

Budget (total; 1979-80 est.): revenue 1,971,800,birr; expenditure 2,365,000,000 birr. Gross national product (1979-80) 8,426,000,000 birr. Money supply dune 1981) 1,675,400,000 birr. Cost of living (Addis Ababa; 1975 = 100; lune 1981) 222.7. Foreign Trade. (1980) imports 1,494.700,000 birr; exports 879.3 million birr. Import sources (1979): Kuwait 15%; U.S. 12%: lapan 10%; West Germany 10%; Italy million.

000

10%; U.K. 7%. Export destinations (1979): U.S. 29%; Italy 11%; Saudi Arabia 9%; U.S.S.R. 7%; West Germany 6%; 6%; Djibouti 6%. Main exports: coffee 64%; hides and skins 12%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) 35,937 km. Motor vehicles in use (1980): passenger 38,600; com)apan

mercial 11,700. Railways: (1979) 988 km; traffic (including Djibouti traffic of Djibouti-Addis Ababa line: excluding Eritrea; 1978-79) 171 million passenger-km, freight 148 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 647 million passenger-km; freight 26.2 million net ton-km. Telephones dan.

1980) 83,800. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 215,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 30,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1980): barley c. 772; wheat c. 469; corn c. 1,144; millet c. 193; sorghum c. 689; potatoes (1979) c. 235; sugar, raw value (1979) c. 168; sesame seed c. 45; chick-pease. 79; dry peas c. 129; dry broad beans (1979) 236; bananas (1979) c. 74; coffee c. 193; cotton c. 20. Livestock (in 000; 1980): cattle c. 26,000; sheep c. 23,250; goats c. 17,180: horses c. 1,540; mules (1979) c. 1,446; asses (1979) c. 3,885; camels (1979) c. 966; poultry c. 53,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977-78): cement 103; petroleum products c. 640; cotton yarn 7.9; cotton fabrics (sq m) 65,500; electricity (kw-hr) c. 690,000.

Ethiopia

372

European Unity

Starving

women

food

at a

and children wait for camp at Bume.

refugee

the time of the 1974 revolution, tion

was

illiterate

and 18%

of

93%

of the popula-

primary school-age

children attended school. This progress was made within the program for

economic and cultural development. The primary economic objective of the program was to raise the level of productivity in the small

modern commer-

and, most importantly, in agriculture. The latter was to be accomplished by providing services to peasants and by enlarging state farms. The Central Planning Supreme Council was engaged in the elaboration of a ten-year Perspective Development Plan in which the growth of food production and agriculture was given top priority. To achieve a surplus for capital formation, heavy reliance was placed on the formation of peasant service cooperatives and the creation of Multi-Purpose Peasant Training Centres to disseminate imcial sector

proved technologies. The first of these centres, at Agarfa in the Bale administrative region, was Hearing completion. Ethiopia possessed the highest potential on the continent for hydroelectric and thermal power; although efforts to develop these resources were under way, the country remained heavily dependent upon imported oil. In 1981 the fuel bill was expected to claim almost 70% of export earnings. An important achievement during the year was

European Economic

Community: see Economy, World; European Unity

the construction of the first bridge across the Baro River at Gambela. It linked routes from the south passing through Jima and Gore with the road being constructed along the north bank of the Baro toward Malakal, Sudan. A bumper coffee crop for the year was announced. Development of the pastoral areas of the northeast rangelands (Welo region) and the southern rangelands (Sidamo region) continued with financing from international organizations, and the afforestation campaign — launched three years earlier to augment timber supplies and arrest the rapidly spreading erosion on the steep slopes of the highlands — produced significant results. Ethiopia's diplomatic activities during 1981 ap-

peared

to

emphasize nonalignment,

although

there was no doubt about the policy imperative for transition to socialism and continued reliance on Soviet assistance in the military sphere. The head of state, Lieut. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam, visited Kenya in December 1980 and held several consultations with Sudan and Djibouti. In April 1981 a tripartite consultative meeting of ministers of foreign affairs from Ethiopia, Sudan, and Kenya took place. Djibouti indicated its willingness to

meetings and, in an attempt to mediate between Ethiopia and Somalia, expressed its wish join these

that Somalia also take part in the future. Later in

the year Ethiopia, Libya, and Yemen (Aden) issued a joint declaration pledging mutual assistance and condemning U.S. activity in the Indian Ocean

and the Mediterranean. Ethiopia continued to receive considerable assistance from the West and from international organizations, most significantly from the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program, and the European Economic Community. Sweden, Italy, France, and West Germany stated their willingness to increase aid programs to Ethiopia. In August an agreement was signed on the "accelerated implementation of earlier accords between Ethi-

opia and the U.S.S.R." Diplomatic contacts with other African countries included the visits of Pres.

Siaka Stevens of Sierra Leone and Master Sgt. Samuel Doe, head of state of Liberia. In April Pres. Cvijetin Mijatovic of Yugoslavia visited Ethiopia,

and

Pres.

Gustav Husak of Czechoslovakia parAddis

ticipated in the anniversary celebrations in

Ababa

in September.

European Unity The European Communities (EC; the European Economic Community [eec], the European Coal and Steel Community [ecsc], and Euratom) began 1981 with a new member: on January 1 Greece became the tenth nation to join the organization.

The EC

also found itself with a newly appointed Commission, the executive body responsible for its day-to-day operation. The new president of the Commission, Gaston Thorn, a former prime minister of Luxembourg, took over from Britain's Roy Jenkins (see Biographies), and he quickly acknowledged that the problems facing the EC and the Commission remained dauntingly similar to those encountered under his predecessor. Before the Commission could begin to confront such problems as the European economic crisis and the promised reform of the eec budgetary system and its spending policies. Thorn had to achieve a general agreement on the distribution of

portfolios among his colleagues. This was finally agreed upon after a protracted and, at times, stormy meeting early in January which involved the intervention of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Within a few days Thorn was faced with a new difficulty when Finn Olav Gundelach (see Obituaries), the experienced Danish commissioner for agriculture and fisheries, died suddenly while attending the European Parliament in Strasbourg,

France. After internal consultations, this key post was given to Poul Dalsager, who was at the time Danish minister of agriculture and fisheries. Economic Affairs. Almost immediately the Commission began to prepare proposals for budgetary and agricultural reform. The aims of the reform were to prevent the prospective exhaustion of the EC's limited budget revenues, to achieve a more satisfactory balance between agricultural and nonagricultural expenditures, and to ensure that in the future no one country would be obliged to pay unacceptably large net contributions to the EC budget. The Commission unveiled its initial reform proposals in June.

The

original impetus for reform

of

the

common

"common" EC were need

a result of the

there

agricultural

policy

(cap). The CAP traditionally benefited the less efficient agricultural producers by maintaining high prices for their exports, thereby penalizing foodimporting countries. However, during the spring

to limit the U.K.'s

was

easier of the

nations. This agreement, reached in March, awarded EC farmers an average 9% price increase and did little to penalize the costly overproduction of foodstuffs; the surplus had to be stockpiled or exported with large subsidies. However, the pressure imposed by agricultural spending on the Community's financial resources eased a little during 1981. This was mainly because of agricultural problems in the U.S.S.R. and elsewhere, which resulted in increased world demand for food and thus raised prices for certain products. Higher world prices, in turn, meant that the

able to dispose of

its

Bonn

that

they might lose part of the net receipts the EC budget at present.

member

EC was

budget payments, but

dissatisfaction in

West Ger-

many had been given no such assurances and concern among the smaller members that in the future

mission's attempts to reduce the excessive costs of

EC budget were made no by an agreement among the farm ministers

The British Commission recognized the

policy in operation.

satisfied that the

and summer it became clear that West Germany, which took over from the U.K. as the major net contributor to the EC following a temporary rearrangement of the budget contributions, also wanted a ceiling on its future payments. The Comagriculture in the

373

European Unity

France insisted that until the Ten reached an agreement about the future of their internal policies, it would be impossible to assess the consequences of enlarging the Community. When Thorn launched the Commission's proposals, he made it clear that detailed propositions on the CAP or on budgetary contributions had to be seen in a much wider economic and political context. He referred to the need for the European Community to recover momentum in the progression toward greater unity, and in particular to develop a wider range of alternative policies designed to tackle the major economic and social problems facing the continent. As a result, the Commission proposed a series of measures to deter the overproduction of food and also suggested an expansion of the Community's action in the fields of social and regional development, industry, and energy. The initial reaction of the member states was muted; defenders of the cap objected to what they saw as a threat to the one completely

had been prothe scale of its budget

vided by British objections to payments, which arose largely as 0]7erations

lower cost in terms of export subsidy. On two occasions the Commission was able to reimburse funds totaling some £750 million from the cap. Some of this money was used to finance the EC's social and regional policies, while some was returned to the member governments. In the months prior to June, when the Commission outlined its reform proposals, it became increasingly clear that negotiations with the governments of Portugal and Spain about their applications for membership in the EC would be affected by the internal debate on reform. This led to some irritation in Spain, where the authorities imputed a certain lack of good faith to the EC for delaying the central negotiations affecting Spain's membership. But the new Socialist government of a

food surpluses at L

VERSElE—GAMMA/CtAlSON

drawn from

The Commission of the European Communities met in lanuary in Brussels to welcome Greece as its newest member. At right is Ceorgios Kontogeorgis, the Creek representative, with Italian

representative Lorenzo Natah.

374

European Unity

The start of the European Council meeting, held in Maastricht, Neth., in March, was marred by demonstrations by West German fishermen and Belgian and Dutch farmers who were protesting

Common

Market

policies.

the European Council (made up of the EC heads of government) met in Maastricht, Neth. The meeting was largely preoccupied with the In

March

growing economic recession and the relentless rise in unemployment. But while EC governments recognized the social and political dangers in continued high levels of unemployment, particularly among the young, successive meetings of EC ministers during the year produced no clear consensus about what new policies should be introduced. The European Council meeting in London in November again failed to produce agreement on budgetary and agricultural matters, and the controversy was referred back to a further special meeting of foreign ministers. During April it became clear that the special arrangements administered by the Common Market for dealing with the crisis in the EC steel industry were not sufficient to their purpose. Following protracted negotiations between the Commission, the major steel companies, and the national governments, a new system of partly mandatory and partly voluntary production limits on steel output was agreed upon in June. The summer months were overshadowed by friction between the Community and Japan concerning Japan's growing trade surplus with the EC and the difficulties reported by European exporters in penetrating the Japanese domestic market.

Some EC

of these tensions abated following a visit to

by Japanese Prime Minister Zenko Suzuki and promises by the Japanese government that it would ensure voluntary restraint by Japanese exporters in key European markets. During the year there was occasional disagreement over financial policies between the EC and the new administration of Pres. Ronald Reagan in the U.S. Some of the EC governments took particular exception to President Reagan's emphasis on capitals

high interest rates as the centrepiece of his administration's monetary strategy to reduce inflation in the U.S.

As the year passed,

growing fears in Europe that high rates would oblige EC governments and prolong the recession.

there were

U.S. interest to follow suit

Political Relations. In the area of politics, affairs

were overshadowed by

elections in the

member

EC

a series of general

nations.

New

govern-

ments took office in The Netherlands, Ireland, Belgium, Greece, and Italy; outweighing them all, however, was the election of a Socialist government in France. Although the new government in Paris did not effect any major shift in the content of French policies toward the EC, it did introduce a new and more pro-European tone to French declarations.

A

revival of interest in foreign policy coopera-

tion took place during the year.

The Council

of

Ministers agreed in principle during September that arrangements for political cooperation and, in

concerted reaction in times of

particular,

crisis

would be improved and strengthened. The West German government wanted to go further and discuss aspects of security and defense, possibly as part of a new treaty aimed at ultimate European union. In the closing months of the year there was much consideration of the project, but some clear reservations were expressed by certain member countries. For example, as a neutral country, Ire-

land was anxious that defense should not become a matter of

On July

EC

policy.

assumed the presidency of the Council of Ministers from The Netherlands for the second half of the year. U.K. Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington made it clear that foreign policy issues would be given a major priority during the U.K. presidency. In July Lord Carrington tried to 1

Britain

the Soviet government in EC political proposals for a solution of the conflict in Afghanistan. The proposals, involving a withdrawal of Soviet forces, called for a two-stage conference on the political future of Afghanistan, from which the Afghan government would initially be excluded. The Soviet government insisted that the proposals were "unacceptable." During the British presidency active discussions continued both within the EC and outside it in an effort to pursue the Community's earlier declaration on the Middle East problem. In June 1980 EC interest

leaders in Venice

had

stated their broad ideas for

negotiating Palestinian self-determination while guaranteeing Israel's right to exist in secure borders. But the Community felt unable to pursue its

pending the outcome of the presidential and the general election in Israel. The initial response from Israel — and to a lesser extent from the U.S. — was discouraging for the Europeans. The EC governments insisted that they were not trying to undermine the U.S. -sponsored Camp David process, involving Egypt and Israel, but were trying to broaden the base of the peacemaking discussions within the region. However, the EC came under increasing pressure from the initiative

election in the U.S.

Arab world, particularly the traditionally proWestern governments of Jordan and Saudi Arabia, to pursue its Middle East initiative more actively. One motive for the desire to step up foreign policy coordination appeared to be the wish to exercise a greater collective influence

over U.S. policy. Dur-

ing the year there was a marked increase in popuEurope to the planned opposition in lar deployment of some 600 cruise and Pershing medium-range nuclear missiles. West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt reflected the unease of a of EC governments when he responded to announcement in August that it would go with ahead the production of enhanced radiation ("neutron") nuclear weapons. The lack of consultation by the U.S. with its European allies was

number

the U.S.

cited

tumn

by Community foreign ministers in the auas a further reason to improve EC foreign

pwlicy coordination. In the closing months of the year the focus of attention again switched to the prospects for agreement on internal policy and financial reform. The

pace of negotiations with Portugal and Spain were stepped up to achieve an accession date of 1983 or 1984. However, the outcome of the Greek general election in October, in which a Socialist government came to power, placed a question mark over the future of that most recent member nation within the Community. At the same time, it was accepted that the forthcoming referendum in Greenland (a self-governing part of the Danish realm) on its continued accession to the EC would almost certainly lead to a decision to withdraw. On the other hand, closer relations developed in 1981 between the EC and another grouping of Western European countries, the European Free Trade Association (efta). Some efta governments, notably Norway, made known their desire to be consulted more fully on important international political questions discussed by EC foreign ministers. However, the year did not produce any noticeable progress in relations between the eec and the Soviet-led Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). (john palmer) See also Defense; Economy, World. [534.F.3.b.iv: 971. D.7)

Fashion and Dress Rather dull pantsuit,

at the start

women's

and relying mainly on the

fashion, in the course of 1981,

gradually took on a fancy dress aspect. In time it developed a strong case of gold fever, ending the

year in a sunset burst of glitter and razzle-dazzle. As the year began, the only lift to the winter street look was provided by a few down-stitched garments in bright colours carried over from the winter before. The fur-lined and belted raincoat in a neutral shade of rainproof poplin remained a classic standby, while the traditional olive-green loden coat became a 'must" for both men and women. A stitched pleat circled the armhole of the set-in sleeve, and a high box pleat reaching to the shoulder blades, pressed or unpressed according to the wearer, gave ease to the fit. Low-heeled shoes

375

Fashion and Dress

tights in dark hues were far more popular than boots with this outfit. In an effort to feminize the pantsuit in classic men's suitings, spike-heeled pumps and ruffled blouses became part of the uniform. The pants themselves gained volume at the sides, puffing the hips and slimming the legs in jodhpur fashion.

and opaque

Once

coats

were

cast off in the spring, pleated

skirts of the kilt type culottes.

Hems were

gave way

to divided skirts or

definitely up,

skimming the

knees and clearing the way for bermudas. The latter appeared most frequently in khaki or pure white — both important colours all through the spring and summer. Utility jeans were still around, stone- washed for faster wear and tear and as skintight as ever. Some jeans were dressed up with turquoise cabochons and gold nailheads and worn with frilly blouses instead of shirts. On the London scene the terrifying look elaborated by the Punks — of fierce individuals with bloodstained T-shirts, porcupine-like hair dyed all colours, and safety pins piercing the cheeks — was completely eradicated. The Chelsea world toppled over and went romantic as pirates took to the gangplank with baroque grace, dressed in velvet with

and lacy frills and wearing curled and powdered wigs. Still in the tough line of fashion were short, sexy skirts in leather and the "Western Look" with its fringes and high, cuffed boots. In the U.S. it became the "Life on the Ranch" look, country and rugged, exemplified by Pres. and Mrs. Ronald Reagan during their visits to the "western White House" in California. satin sashes

If the Reagans at leisure epitomized the western country look, the incoming U.S. administration brought to Washington a well-publicized renewal of formality and an emphasis on dressing for the occasion. Nancy Reagan's preferences — for classic styles and bright colours — were noted more carefully than those of any first lady since Jacqueline

Kennedy. In Britain it was the new princess of Wales whose clothes claimed attention, and the British were quick to pick up the romantic trend evident in her ruffled taffeta and tulle wedding

Evangelical Churches: see Religion

dress.

Exhibitions:

French and Italian designers also went ruffleand flounce-crazy. Ruffles trimmed everything in sight from necklines to hemlines, shoulder yokes, and cuffs. Ruffled or fluted blouses were a "must" with pants, supplanting the classic mannish shirt. The knee-length skirts of rock'n' roll dresses were formed entirely of ruffles, most frequently in

see Art Exhibitions; Museums; Photography

glossy silk taffeta or in black chiffon, transparent tulle, or lace. The skirt of the summer was the petticoat skirt.

Faeroe Islands: see Dependent States Falkland Islands: see Dependent States

Farming: see Agriculture and Food Supplies

strong), or in fine-ribbed corduroy. For evening

and discotheque wear, a more fancy-dress

style

prevailed, as Little Lord Fauntleroys, page boys, and toreros appeared in tight-fitting suits ready to

seams. Dresses that appeared in the daytime were more ending well above the knee, in various multiple jacquard designs. Colours were exotic and designs mostly geometric, echoing the traditional Scandinavian, Peruvian, and Scottish patterns. The gold touch was here, too, in more elaborately designed fabrics — often made in China — that combined gold or silver Lurex threads with wool. The newest separate skirts were the mini, best reserved for juniors and college girls, and the slim, knee-level style that demanded — but did not alsplit at the

like maxi-pullovers,

get — a lean body and good legs. Rough texmade unheard of matches with gold. Lame shirts were worn with heavy knit jackets; knee-

ways tures

accompanied tweed jackets; heavy canvas lumberman's jackets got a lift from gold leather trousers and were even seen over level skirts in gold kid

knee-length pleated skirts of flimsy gold silk. The gold fever spread to cosmetics and hair fashions. Lips and cheeks were dusted with gold and khaki, golden sand, gold-tinted copper, gold-dusted orange. "Golden Khaki" was one of the favourite eye shadows in the "Sahara" line presented by Helena Rubinstein. The desert country of the

American West inspired an Estee Lauder line with "Colour Wash" and "Bronze Glow" as the best-seller. Cheeks were tinted with irridescent pink and eyelids shaded with bronze to match lips

a base called

Donna Karan and Louis deiroiio designed this pleated metallic gold dress for evening for

Anne

standout

saw

a

Klein. in a

huge

It

boom

tallic fabrics,

(left)

was

a

year that in

me-

leathers,

and accessories. Perry Ellis was riding the crest of popularity with loose-

easy designs like pleated skirt with signature handknit sweater. fitting,

this soft

very

full

and

softly flaring like butterfly

wings,

made in a shieer fabric like crinkled cotton crepon or cotton poplin. Sometimes knee-length, sometimes descending to just above the ankle, it was cut in three gathered tiers, easy to make and easy to wear. Another summer trend, the underwear look, was apparent in bodices of white gauze or transparent lace, gathered all around the waistline or wrapped. Also displaying an underwear influence was the top cut straight across the chest like an underbodice, trimmed with a wide band of embroidery and with shoulder straps, usually in allwhite cotton but not, in this case, transparent. The summer all-white look was accented with gold accessories on every occasion when a bit of glitter could add a more sophisticated touch: shoes, from open spike-heeled sandals to ballerinas and flat tennis shoes with gold piping and gold lacing; T-shirts, duffle coats, waistcoats, and blazers in gold kid; knitwear with a glint of gold added to the cotton or wool thread; two-piece beach suits made of three triangles of gold Lurex. A huge range of costume jewelry — earrings and necklaces, bracelets, belts, little purses, makeup pouches, even metal suitcases — reflected a golden In the early

fall,

trousers, jeans,

light.

bermudas, and

divided skirts were all swept aside in favour of knickers. Gathered below the knee or in the form of loose breeches, knickers had the same overwhelming appeal in all the major fashion centres, particularly among the junior crowd. The daytime version was in small-checked tweed or gray flannel, in leather (with a preference for khaki still

golden-bronzed with Elizabeth Arden.

"Autumn

Bittersweets" from

Golden-wrapped pigtails and gold-lacquered ornaments kept side hair strands in place, while the remainder was controlled by gold tinsel headbands and hairnets. The new direction in hairstyles was achieved through a natural approach with only very light permanent waving. Most important was the cut. The extremes were the short, curly, boyish cut and the long, spread-over-shoulders, crinkled mass that looked straight out of the jungle and yet, paradoxically, brought to mind something of the false innocence portrayed by the Pre-Raphaelites. But the number-one hairstyle was the medium-length cut with side-brushed fringe, part of the modern romantic charm of the bride of the prince of Wales.

(thelma sweetinburgh) Men's Fashions. The business suit became even more classic and conservative in style in 1981, its sobriety relieved only by the neatest of stripes. At the same time, country suits were much more "sporty," appearing in colourful and bold checks, sometimes with equally colourful overchecks. These trends were noticeable in North America, most of Europe, and Australia. Interchangeable separates, while not new, were given a new lease on life on an international scale through promotions by the International Wool Secretariat. The depressed economy and changes in social attitudes accounted for the trend, which involved jackets and trousers, knitwear, blouson tops, belts, ties, and socks in separate colours and

i

I

1

i

',

j

377

Field

Hockey and Lacrosse

in January 1981 The Champions Trophy from Pakistan, titleholders for two years. The final standings were: The Netherlands, Australia, West Germany, Pakistan, Spain, England. This was the beginning of a number of exchange visits. Australia, Pakistan, West Germany, and The Netherlands took part in quadrangular tournaments at Frankfurt, West Germany, and Amsterdam. Australia emerged unbeaten at Amsterdam and finished third at Frankfurt, where West Germany finished first. Earlier, Poland had visited London and played two matches against England, the first won by England and the second tied. Pakistan and Scotland visited Poland. At Poznan, Scotland lost to Pakistan and Poland, and the Pakistan-Poland game ended in a tie. India's tour of Europe brought the Olympic champions convincing victories. But after winning its first match against The Netherlands, India lost the second. In August England toured in Australia, winning the international series by two matches to one with two tied. On a short tour of Europe, Malaysia beat Spain but lost to The Netherlands. In October the Hockey Association's annual tournament was

Field

Hockey. At Karachi

Netherlands

Separates, long a mainstay of womenswear, became increasingly popular for men in 1981. The look was especially suited to the "preppie" fashions in collegiate wear, such as corduroy trousers

and cable-pattern sweaters.

patterns that could be alternated for separate occaThe menswear trade called it the "put together" look; men themselves looked upon it as providing a "do-it-yourself" fashion kit. U.S. fashions—especially jeans and leisure jackets but not headwear — madea bigger impact in Europe. There was also a greater interchange of fashion among European countries, especially those in the Euro-

sions.

pean Economic Community.

A

was apparent in example, in horizonstriped sports shirts and knitwear and in

strong nautical influence

both colours and styling; tally

navy blue and

for

striped blazers.

The rolled-up

look

and sports trousers made its untidy appearance for outdoor wear among the younger age groups. The "grandfather" or collarless shirt with just a white collar band at the neck was another fashion favoured by younger men. The "flowerpot" shape tweed hat helped to keep for sports shirts

the hatters in the fashion picture. Fashion revivals in Britain included the Norfolk jacket and knickerbockers, recalling the outfits favoured by George Bernard Shaw. Prince Charles and his fashion-conscious princess both wore knickerbockers on the royal estates. One of the most exclusive tailors in London, Huntsman of Savile Row, established in 1805, launched its first collection of ready-to-wear suits and coats. They were made by Chester Barrie, internationally known makers of high-quality ready-to-wear clothes for men. (Stanley h. costin) See alio

Industrial

[451.B.2.band

Review: Furs.

d. 1; 629.C.1]

won

the

played on an artificial surface at Queen's Park Rangers football ground in London. There, England beat West Germany and lost to The Netherlands, while Scotland was beaten badly by both the Germans and the Dutch. Earlier, The Netherlands played West Germany and won easily in Amsterdam. At Warrington, England lost to Spain but avenged the defeat the next day at Preston. Indoors, Scotland won the home countries' championship at Cardiff, Wales, in January, beating England in the final, but England reversed the result in the four nations'

tournament

at

Crystal

London two months later. In women's hockey England gained the triple crown among the home countries. The big annual match at Wembley was won against Wales and, Palace in

having also beaten Scotland, England completed its triumph by defeating Ireland at Manchester. In August and September eight nations took part in a tournament organized by the U.S. at Columbus, Ohio, Springfield, Mass., and Philadelphia. Australia beat Great Britain in the final, while the U.S. took third place with a victory over West Germany. Earlier, in the World Cup tournament at Buenos Aires, Arg., West Germany beat The Netherlands in the final. (Sydney e. friskin) Lacrosse. Men. Preparation for the World Series scheduled for Baltimore, Md., in mid-June 1982 meant that international visits in 1981 were confined to the juniors. Two U.S. collegiate squads went to the U.K. In the U.S., North Carolina Uni-

won its first National Collegiate Athletic Association championship by defeating Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore 14-13 before 22,100 spectators. Loyola College in Baltimore was the second-division champion, and Hobart College at Geneva, N.Y., took the third division title. The champion club was Long Island (N.Y.) Athletic versity

Fencing:

see Combat Sports

378 Fiji

The underdog North Carolina lacrosse team scored an upset victory in

NCAA

championship competition

against mighty Johns Hopltins. lohns Hoplort duties on large

deadlocked over the financing of 0.8% of its 1982 budget. In November Koivisto secured the Social Democratic presidential nomination. Among candidates selected to oppose him were Johannes Virolainen of the Centre Party and Harri Holkeri for

cars.

the Conservatives. .At the 19th congress of the Communist Party of Finland (May 22-24), Chairman Aarne Saarinen, exponent of a national road to socialism, and Vice-

Prime Minister

In January 1981

Mara

of Fiji reshuffled his Cabinet

was

pine-harvesting scheme when a U.S. company bypassed the government and won the support of landowners. The government's refusal to deal with the company was one factor in the emergence of a new pro(by implication, anti-Indian) political Fijian movement led by Ratu Osea Gavidi, the only inde-

There

conflict

over

a

Chairman Taisto wing, kept their of

members

Sinisalo, leader of the Stalinist jobs, but the extensive

turnover

and Central Commitgrass-roots discontent with the de-

in the Politburo

tee reflected

pendent MP.

cline in effective support for the party. Saarinen

agreed to sign the South Pacific Regional Trade and Cooperation Agreement when New Zealand agreed to review its citrus juice import policy. In August the South Pacific Forum decided to send a delegation headed by Mara to Europe to discuss the future in the Pacific of the second Lome

later failed to

Fiji

Convention, which governs the European Economic Community's trade and aid relationships with less developed countries. In July Fiji agreed to provide 500 men for the U.S. -proposed Sinai peace(barrie macdonald) keeping force.

win approval as the party's presidencandidate. President Kekkonen's proposal for a Nordic zone free of nuclear weapons received a more positive tial

any time advanced in 1963. Finnish officials planned to discuss with the U.S.S.R. what Soviet Pres. Leonid Brezhnev meant when he spoke of "possible measures applying to Soviet territory adjoining the proposed zone." Prominent visitors to airing in Scandinavia during 1981 than at

since

it

was

first

Finland included Egyptian Foreign Minister KaAli, who failed to attract a Finnish contribution toward the Sinai peacekeeping force; South Korean Prime Minister Nam Duck Woo,

mal Hassan

Finland

whose

The republic of Finland is bordered on the north by Norway, on the west by Sweden and the Gulf of Bothnia, on the south by the Gulf of Finland, and on the east by the U.S.S.R. Area; 337,032 sq km (130,129 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 4,792,200. Cap. and largest city: Helsinki (pop., 1981 est., 483,700). Language: Finnish, Swedish. Religion (1980): Lutheran 97.1%; Orthodox 1.2%. President until Oct. 27, 1981 Urho Kaleva Kekkonen; acting president from September 11, Mauno Koivisto; prime ministers, Koivisto and, from September 11, Eino Uusitalo (acting). The thorny issue of who should eventually succeed Pres Urho Kaleva Kekkonen occupied the political leaders of Finland throughout 1981. Having celebrated 25 unbroken years in office on March 1 the president fell seriously ill in September with a respiratory infection and resigned on October 27. On September 11 Prime Minister ,

,

Mauno

Koivisto became acting president. Elections for a new president were scheduled for January 1982. By late 1981 interparty and personal rivalries had crystallized around the presidential question. Koivisto, Social Democratic leader of a four-party centre-left coalition, had built up a strong lead in opinion polls. Others, aware that party backing in the electoral college could be more crucial than popularity, were eager to clip his wings. Twice the Centre Party attempted to break up the government and discredit Koivisto by squabbling over ostensibly minor issues. On April 10, when Kekkonen apparently instructed him to resign because of differences between Communist and other ministers over a social benefits package, Koivisto refused on the grounds that he enjoyed the confidence of Parliament. In September Kekkonen's illness prevented the collapse of a government

interest

in

trade

was overshadowed by

FINLAND Education. (1978-79) Primary, pupils 406,921, teachers 25,142; secondary, pupils 345,603, teachers 19,549; vocational, pupils 100,438, teachers 13,102; teacher training, students 745, teachers 71; higher (universities only), students 122,825, teaching staff 5,841, Finance. Monetary unit: markka, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of 4.35 markkaa to U.S. $1 (8.07 markkaa = £1 sterling). Cold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $1,640,000,000. Budget (1980 actual): revenue 43,548,000,000 markkaa; expenditure 44,877,000,000 markkaa. Cross national product (1979) 157,160,000,000 markkaa. Money supply (May 1981) 14,634,000,000 markkaa. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 1981) 187.2, Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports 58,236,000,000 markkaa; exports 52,871,000,000 markkaa. Import sources: U.S.S.R.

21%; West Germany 13%; Sweden 12%; U.K. 9%; U.S. 6%; Saudi Arabia 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 18%; Sweden 17%; U.K. 11%,; West Germany 11%; France 5%. Main exports: paper 23%,; machinery 13%; timber 10%; wood pulp 7%; chemicals 5%; clothing 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) 74,960

km (including 208 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1980): passenger 1,225,900; commercial 149,150. Railways: (1979) 6,101 km; traffic (1980) 3,216,000,000 passenger-km, freight 8,335,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 2,130,000,000 passenger-km; freight 52.8 million net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways (1979) 6,675 km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 354; gross tonnage 2,530,091. Telephones (|an. 1980) 2,244,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 2.5 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1977) c. 2,010,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): wheat

284; barley c. 1,534; oats c. 1,680; rye c. 120; 675; sugar, raw value (1979) 95; rapeseed c. 47; cheese c. 74; eggs c. 75; meat (1979) 287; fish catch (1979) c. 125; timber (cu m; 1979) 43,885. Livestock (in 000; lune 1980): cattle 1,738; sheep 106; pigs 1,410; reindeer (1979) 205: horses 22: poultry 9,376, Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons: 1980): pig iron 2,020; crude steel 2,508; iron ore (66% metal content) c,

potatoes

butter

c.

c.

76;

809; cement 1,788: sulfuric acid 1,020; petroleum products (1978) c. 10,522; plywood (cu m; 1979) 539; cellulose (1979; 4,488; wood pulp (1977) mechanical 1,774, chemical 3,472; newsprint 1,345; other paper and board (1979) 4,216; electricity (kw-hr) 38,530,000; manufactured gas (cu

m)

c.

25,000.

379 Finland

380 Fisheries

Finnish concern about his country's human rights record; and Zimbabwean Prime Minister Robert Mugabe, who was likely to obtain further diplomatic and economic support. In the autumn, political uncertainty was accompanied by a loss of economic momentum caused largely by the recession in Western markets. With the Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development forecasting growth of 2.25% in 1981 and 2% in 1982 (against the 7.2% and 5.3% spurts in the two previous years), it was feared that unemployment would increase again above its

4-5%

level.

Attempts

to

curb inflation

(officially

estimated at 12% for 1981) proved disappointing. A two-year centralized pay settlement was concluded with relatively little friction, though the largest union — the metalworkers — held out for marginally higher increases. A slump in the sawmills appeared likely to spread to other sectors of wood processing, but metals and engineering were buoyed by huge orders for ships and construction projects from the U.S.S.R. Finland was in the process of wiping out a large deficit in bilateral trade with the U.S.S.R. that developed during 1979-80, stemming from the escalation in energy import prices. In the summer of 1981 the Soviets cut the price of their oil and gas to Finland by 8 and 20%, respectively. (DONALD fields)

Fisheries World fisheries in 1981 were not expected to show any marked recovery from the previous year, when the global catch fell by one million metric tons. This was the forecast of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (fao), whose statistics for 1980 indicated a world catch of about 70 million metric tons. After nearly five years of restricted foreign access to the fishing grounds of coastal states under the now virtually universal 200-mi exclusive economic zone regime, this was a predictable situation.

Many

excluded from were being forced to the right to fish in what

of the world's big catchers,

their traditional grounds,

sell, or negotiate for in unprofitable circumstances. On the other hand, many of the nations that now exercised control over those waters lacked the means to exploit them; others were nursing them back to health after years of overexploitation by the world's fish-hungry fleets. In some cases, too, fishing operations were restricted by the still punitive price of fuel, which had the effect of making certain established fisheries unprofitable. Everywhere there was a greater awareness of costs, and measures were developed to save fuel, particularly by the use of less energy-intensive fishing methods such as long-lining and gill-

scrap,

were now controlled waters — often

netting.

Among

the nations most able to benefit from the

were those

of North America, with their by foreign fleets, high and industrial capability, and low fuel The U.S. and Canada were both building

situation

ability to restrict activity

technical prices.

bigger trawlers to

fish

the

now

protected northern

grounds, particularly for cod, pollack, and shrimp. However, although shrimping was expanding in Oregon, the Pandalus borealis shrimp fishery in Alaska was badly affected by a rise in water temperature. Even worse hit was the Gulf of

Mexico shrimp industry, where rising fuel costs and falling catches had laid up many boats and forced the shrimp-dependent shipyards to diversify into new designs and conversion work. A number of boats turned to new fisheries such as swordfishing and long-lining. The tuna fishery was also having problems, as Mexico got tough over 200-mi-limit violations and seized U.S. boats. This brought a U.S. embargo on the importation of Mexican tuna, which hurt Mexico but also cut supplies to California canneries.

by Mexico to set up joint enterprises in Mexican waters were not taken up for fear of loss of control. U.S. tuna interests continued to expand worldwide — to France and Papua New Guinea for example — and eight 245-ft super tuna seiners were ordered from Italy. It was a bad year for British Columbia salmon, Invitations

,

although farther north Alaska reported excellent returns from hatchery-released salmon. British Columbia's problems were blamed on the activities of larger boats which restricted catches by longshore and river fishermen — particularly the Indian communities. Low prices and reduced catch quotas sparked a one-day protest by fishermen, who blocked the port of Victoria with their boats. Another cause for concern was the effect of acid rain on lakes and rivers, a problem shared with Scandinavia and blamed on the take-up of air pollution from factories and automobile exhausts. On the Atlantic coast the 200-mi limit had paid off, and cod stocks were said to have recovered. In 1980 they yielded Canadian fishermen 138,000 tons, compared with 79,500 tons in 1977. Nevertheless,

owners

of large vessels

were protesting

over the preferential allocation of catch to smaller boats. Considerable activity centred on Newfoundland, where the shrimp catch was increasing and trawling interests had proposed the building of 30 new 150-ft trawlers by South African yards. Newfoundland fishermen were also exploring new fisheries for lumpfish, dogfish, snow crab, and eels.

In

Europe prospects

of a

common

fisheries policy

within the European Economic Community (eec) improved in September 1981, when agreement was reached in Brussels on a new marketing system, primarily designed to stabilize prices and provide protection from cheap imports. Previously, lack of a sense of direction had held back planning and investment. In December 1980 agreement had seemed certain, but a last-minute and unexpected veto by France had destroyed hopes once again. The sudden death of the eec agriculture and fisheries commissioner, Finn Gundelach (see Obituaries), in January 1981 was also a blow to negotiations. There was disillusionment in Britain when France and The Netherlands were seen to be flouting the eec ban on herring fishing, imposed as an urgent conservation measure. By summer the EEC had allocated what Britain condemned as an overgenerous catch quota of 145,000 tons, but in

-3S&-THE NEW

381 Fisheries

Shayne has piothe development of shrimp Ecuador. By his innovative methods using man-made ponds, he has become the world's largest exporter of farmed shrimp. U.S. -born Peter

neered farms

Britain, at least, the

much at

up

market had contracted, and

of the first catch

went

to the fish-meal plant

rock-bottom prices. Scottish fishermen stepped their demand for unilateral action on conserva-

tion.

Also disappointing was the southwest of England mackerel fishery, which for several years had been attracting the giant factory ships of the Soviet bloc and big trawlers and purse seiners from the deep-sea ports. New controls over this multithousand-ton fishery had come too late, which was no surprise to local fishermen now once again able to fish in peace with hand lines from their small boats. During the winter, massive shoals of sprats around southeastern England had been good news for the small trawlers, which had landed direct to ,

Soviet factory vessels. In the North Sea, sprats, together with capelin and sand eel, helped to satisfy the fish-meal plants of Denmark and Norway. Scottish fishermen, now Britain's main suppliers of fresh fish, again staged a stay-in-port protest,

massive imports of cheap fish Netherlands. However, merchants out that Dutch supplies were reliable, quality was high, fish was graded, and prices were predictable. A later report on the industry confirmed that British fishermen had much to learn about marketing, and there was talk of a £3 million fish-promotion program. Building subsidies had been withdrawn in Britain to restrict fleet expansion, but owners went abroad where credit was easy and cheap. New steel inshore boats continued to join the fleet, equipped with a staggering array of electronic aids, from fuel consumption calculators to colour screen radars and echo sounders. The microchip was now firmly established in fishing, with computerized sonar displays in Norway, desk-top computers in U.S. tuna boats, and even a vocalizing navigation aid to give course and position when asked. France was placing high priority on fuel economy and commissioned its first sail-assisted tuna troller, but with disappointing results. One shipyard proposed a 100-ft catamaran with auxiliary propulsion by rotating "sail," while smaller catamarans this time against

from

The

pointed

in

in

were finding favour as trawlers and trap boats. France held its second major fishery exhibition at Nantes during the year. The French tuna industry, largely based on West Africa and Brittany, continued to expand. Building plans included a series of nine tuna superseiners, plus 64 replacement trawlers for the coastal fisheries. Senegal, the French West African base, planned a 250,000-ton-a-year increase for its

involving $187 million in aid to buy 26 tuna boats and 47 trawlers by 1990. Portugal also entered the tuna business with its first tuna purse seiner. Despite problems of lost fishing grounds, the Spanish fish catch rose in 1980 to 1.4 million metric tons. During 1981 the Mediterranean fleet ended its dispute with Morocco and returned to sea, and the giant Pescanova company set up its first joint venture in Europe as the Eiranova Company, based in Ireland. This was only one of 13 countries in which Spain had joint ventures, involving 10% of its fleet. Spanish fishermen again blockaded the frontier against imported French fish to protest reduced licenses from the EEC to fish fisheries,

Community

waters.

Table I. Whaling: 1979-80 Season (Antarctic); 1979 Season (Outside the Antarctic) Number

of

whales caught

382 Fisheries

The

healthiest eec fishery

was

that of Ireland,

with a sixfold catch increase in 17 years. Norway, on the other hand, had been cutting back its fleet, a program that ended in 1981. The emphasis was now on smaller boats in coastal waters and on providing equipment and expertise to foreign fisher-

The Soviet Union aimed at a 33% increase in the national catch by the end of the current (198185) five-year plan, together with increased mariculture and aquaculture activity. Poland, which ies.

was having doubts about the practicality of distant-water fishing, was considering a greater involvement in the Baltic. India's investment in big trawlers was being held back by tougher credits, and its shrimp industry was in trouble with the main buyers, Japan and the U.S. The former had established a united front of buyers to hold down prices, and the U.S. was maintaining a hard line on sanitary and quality control that cost India 40%) of its shrimp exports. In Pakistan a $52 million aid program, including a $12 million eec grant, was aimed at providing 7,000 motorized boats; a $2 million Japanese credit would provide inboard and outboard motors. Bangladesh was planning to raise production from inland waters to 2.6 million metric tons. Increased investment in fisheries was announced by the World Bank during the Southeast Asian Fisheries Conference, and the Asian Development

Country

Floods:

see Earth Sciences; Engineering Projects

I

Food Processing Rising energy costs, the continuing recession, and pressures against high food prices accelerated many structural changes in food manufacture and distribution. The introduction of microprocessors led to increased automation both in food manufacture and in wholesale and retail distribution systems. This resulted in numerous economies, but it also caused layoffs and the disappearance of many small enterprises. Economic and environmental factors stimulated the utilization of food-industry by-products, necessitating a reappraisal of routine methods of food analysis and law enforcement. A tighter family budget and health propaganda, supported in some countries by government action, caused discernible changes in food-consumption patterns. There was increased emphasis on low-calorie foods, products with low sugar content, and vegetable fats (margarines). Products containing dietary fibre, especially brown bread, grew in popularity. At the same time, greater leisure and travel had increased interest in unfamiliar foods. Even the habit of eating regular meals was changing in the face of new life-styles and the political

availability of fast foods, "impulse" foods,

and

snacks.

Overproduction of many commodities, notably dairy products, heightened competition within the food industry, especially as traditional foods vied for the consumer's attention with products having reduced carbohydrate or fat content, artificial sweeteners, nonnutritive fillers, and spreads with much of the fat replaced by air and water. This situation was in ironic contrast to a sombre warning from the Food and Agriculture Organization that in more than 45 countries agricultural production had not kept pace with population growth and that every African had 10% less to eat than had been the case a decade earlier. Fruits, Vegetables, and Cereals. A decline of about two million tons in the consumption of tomatoes in the U.S. was blamed on the effects of a recession tries.

on the restaurant and

fast

food indus-

Producers initiated research in an effort to

find

new

of a

wide range

outlets,

and the successful development

of tomato-based products, includ-

ing bread, crackers, and chips, was reported. British

with

a

company was engaged

A

in a joint venture

regional electricity-generating board

in

which waste heat from electrical generating equipment was utilized for fruit and vegetable production under glass. Another British company commissioned a £3 million plant for manufacturing an entirely natural onion concentrate that retained all the flavour components of the onion. Utilization of the lupine as a source of food was reviewed at an international workshop held in Peru. Lupine oil is rich in essential fatty acid, and the seeds yield 40% protein which, however, requires fortification with methionine to improve its nutritional value.

CARE and UNiCEF provided funds to equip a Soybean Foods Research Centre in Sri Lanka for train-

ing and pilot-plant production of such products as drum-dried soy beverage; fortified infant-weaning food made from full-fat soy flour, rice, and mung beans; and high-protein soy-corn mixture. Soybased yogurt and ice cream were under development. The U.S. organization intsoy was cooperating with Peruvian technologists on the development of soy-fortified bread and noodles and on liquid and powdered soy beverages. U.S. corn processors reported that high-fructose corn syrups could now replace sugar in most food-processing

383

Food Processing

operations.

Dairy Products. The advent of the microproceshad affected all aspects of the dairy industry. A British plant manufacturer, the recipient of the Queen's Award for Technical Achievement, introduced a system that provided for continuous monitoring, automatic start-up, safe routing of product and/or cleaning solution, and fault detection. Manufacturing instructions could be varied by means of a teletape machine, which also provided a timed record of processing throughout the day. Another system, developed by a U.S. company, had interchangeable modules which could handle many levels of complexity. A Swedish company introduced a novel system embracing process control, automatic fault-tracing and reporting, but with simplified circuitry that reduced installation costs and permitted additions to the system without major rewiring. In a flexible Danish system, product routing and processing data for all sections of the plant were displayed on a video monitor, and the operator could control the system manualsor

ly

if

necessary.

French dairy technologists were investigating the feasibility of immobilizing the enzyme rennin (rennet) on an inert support so that it could be recovered and reused in the cheese-making process, thereby effecting considerable economies. Scientists in the U.S., Australia, and Switzerland were reportedly studying the application of genetic engineering to the improvement of dairy bacteria. Possibilities included the development of

Grapefruit can be easily ordinary shipping methods, but

damaged using this

automatic packing a new de-

machine and

sign for packing the fruit in a

chipboard honey-

comb

will

problem.

help solve the

384

Food Processing

new

types of cheese-making bacteria that would hasten ripening and flavour development, as well as single strains of bacteria combining the characteristics of the two kinds normally used in making yogurt. Investigators in the U.S., Australia, and Europe continued their efforts to find new uses for surplus skim milk and butterfat. French technologists succeeded in making processed cheese from these products. A new method of making various cheeses of superior keeping quality from skim milk

was developed by a British energy savings were claimed, although these did not take into account the energy required to produce the skim milk powder and

powder and

butterfat

scientist. Sizable

India, the U.S.S.R., Japan, the U.S., France, Spain, and Israel had active development programs. Genetic engineering was under study in Scotland and Norway with a view to improving strains of salmon and trout. The UN was assisting China to integrate carp ponds with the growing of mulberry trees for silkworm culture. This was

proving to be a very

efficient

use of land, water,

and labour with little capital outlay; moreover, excess mud from the dikes was made into bricks. A shrimp culture project utilizing the Malaysian freshwater prawn was begun in the KwaZulu homeland in South Africa. A Guernsey company successfully completed a seven-year project for

scientists

continued research on the fractionation and modification of milk proteins with a view to developing new products, including meat ana-

rearing shellfish seed on plankton cultured in a seawater lagoon. New Products. "What constitutes a new product" was debated at an industry seminar, which concluded that genuinely innovative products are

logues.

exceedingly

butter in the

first

place. Australian

and

British

Meat and Seafood. Considerable progress was

made

in the production of food-quality products

from meat wastes. Improved processing equipment had been developed that would accept anything from bone to soft-fat trimmings and produce edible oil, meat emulsion, and pulverized bone. Protein could subsequently be extracted from these products, and the residue could be converted to phosphates suitable for use in cakes, beverages,

and

icing sugar. Progress

was

utilization of blood fractions

also

and

made in the The meat

rinds.

emulsion, protein from bone, rinds, and blood plasma had various uses in sausages, restructured hams and steaks, burgers, and in brine curing. Some consumers considered that restructured meats were moister, more tender, and more easily sliced than the conventional products. However, there was dispute as to whether some of the recovered protein could rightfully be described as "meat," and it was apparent that these new developments would necessitate a review of the legal specifications for meat products and for labeling. Australian and British technologists developed a promising method of assessing the fat/lean propor-

and of frozen and fresh meat The meat was scanned electronically as it moved on a conveyor belt, and the data were analyzed by a computer. The resulting readout of the fat/lean ratio was said to be much more accutions of carcasses portions.

than subjective assessments. international conference on aquaculture atand exhibitors from the U.S., Britain, Belgium, Canada, Ireland, and Norway. Of particular interest were Norwegian technology rate

An

tracted visitors

and the contribution of the British White Fish Authority, which had pioneered marine fish farming. During 1980 Norway's fish farm industry delivered 4, 153 metric tons of Atlantic salmon and trout worth £21 million, 21% more than in the previous year. There were also some 420 farms producing oysters and mussels. Scottish fish farmers, with a turnover approaching £20 million, were producing salmon, trout, shellfish, and, more recently, eels, dover sole, turbot, and sea bass. Aquaculture was reportedly contributing 810% of the world catch of fish and crustaceans. China accounted for about half of this total, but

rare. A British can manufacturer opened new laboratories with provision for some

550 scientists, primarily to assist customers in new product development. U.K. government approval was given to a fungal protein food developed by a British company. Another innovation was a sliceable cured turkey meat product, which fried like bacon. The Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind announced a £1.5 million plan to prevent blindness due to vitamin A deficiency in Indian children by providing them with fortified lollipops.

Recently

introduced

new

"butter-like" margarines;

products included low-sugar jams; low-

calorie carbonated citrus fruit juices;

flavoured

skim milk beverages; low-cholesterol foods; lowsalt cereal products and seasonings; a fatless, lowsugar, barley-based breakfast cereal (Denmark); cereal products containing apple and bran (U.K.); a polyunsaturated filled-milk supplement (South Africa); yogurt cake mixes (U.S.); a long-life yogurt beverage (The Netherlands); yogurt dressings (U.K.); sugarless frozen fruit salads (South Africa); bran with date topping (U.K.); and cereal and yogurt bars (West Germany). An anti-caries chewing gum containing dextranase, an enzyme that breaks down the polysaccharide plaque formed on teeth by the action of certain mouth bacteria on sugar, was introduced in Japan. In Britain and West Germany the observation that a substantial proportion of diabetic food prod-

were being purchased by nondiabetics stimudevelopment of these products. The popularity of snack foods accounted for numerous pizza variations, extruded vegetable-protein products, concentrated soups for instant reconstituucts

lated further

tion,

home

and a new commercial

line of once-common desserts such as bread-and-butter pudding.

success of high-priced "gourmet" foods in the U.S. led to the elevation of many conventional foods to this category by means of innovative packaging. Thus a "gourmet" honey cost $7.99, compared with 69 cents for honey in a con(h. b. hawley) ventional package.

The surprising

See also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Fisheries; Health and Disease; Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages. [451.B.l.c.ii;

731.E-H]

Football Association Football (Soccer). During 1981 most

member countries of the

Federation of Internation-

Football Associations (fifa) concentrated

al

on

qualifying for the World Cup finals, to be held in Spain during June and July 1982. Yet by the beginning of September 1981 only four countries were sure of a place in the 24-team finals. They were Spain (the host country), Argentina (the defending champions), Brazil, and Chile. Crowd trouble still dogged football matches in 1981, and no real solution was produced; newly erected fences did no more than keep the hooligans off the playing fields. Among other developments, synthetic playing surfaces, pioneered in the U.S., were being introduced into Europe on an experimental basis. In England, Queens Park Rangers, a London club of the Football League's Second Division, installed the first such surface in senior competition.

European Champions' Cup. With eight mingame at Paris on May

utes remaining in the final

Alan Kennedy, the Liverpool fullback, chased the left flank, beat two ill-timed challenges by Real Madrid defenders, and drilled home the ball to win the contest 1-0 and keep the European Champions' Cup in England for the fifth consecutive year. The match was won finally by the team 27,

down

that

made

the fewest mistakes, as Liverpool's well-

organized

defensive

Clemence

in particular

machine — goalkeeper Ray

— did

all

that

was required

Madrid forwards. The capacity of the Pare des Princes stadium was limited, and so fewer than 50,000 spectators, little more than Liverpool's average gate, watched the game live, although millions saw it on television. The match was far from a one-sided affair. Real Madrid coach Vujadin Boskov gambled on English-born Laurie Cunningham to provide some flair down the flanks and in the penalty area. Cunningham and Juan Juanito certainly stretched the capability of the Liverpool rear guard at times, but solid covering by Phil Thompson and Alan Hanto contain the lively Real

sen foiled their attempts to beat Clemence. Real Madrid almost scored early in the second half when Garcia Navajas chipped the ball over the defenders, but Jose Comacho lifted the final shot over Clemence — and the bar. Try as they might, Juanito, Cunningham, and Carlos Santillana never had the same authority as their Liverpool counterparts, and goalkeeper Augustin Rodriguez was in action far more than Clemence. Liverpool thus joined Real Madrid, Ajax of Amsterdam, and West Germany's Bayern Munich as three-time winners of the coveted cup.

European Cup-Winners' Cup. Dynamo Tbilisi became the second Soviet team to win a senior European trophy, narrowly defeating the East German cup holders Carl Zeiss Jena 2-1 in Diisseldorf. West Germany, on May 13. The 60,000capacity Rheinstadion had only 9,000 spectators for the contest, with probably fewer than 200 supporting the winners.

Ascendancy fluctuated back and

forth

in

the

opening

half, as Otari

Gabelia in the

Dynamo

goal

was kept busy turning back efforts from Lutz Lindemann, Jurgen Raab, and Eberhard Vogel. Urged on by midfielder David Kipiani, Dynamo had a booted out of the goal area, and Jena goalkeeper Hans-Ulrich Grapenthin collected a drive from Ramas Shengelia and tipped George Tavadze's shot over the bar. Jena scored first when Gerhardt Hoppe drove in a cross from Vogel after 63 minutes. Tbilisi then stormed back and drew even when Vladimir Gutsayev scored four minutes later, following a break by Shengelia, who outsped the Germans' defense. The Soviet players clearly scented victory and pressed Jena hard. They gained their reward when Kipiani directed a pass into the penalty area for Vitaly Daraselia to latch onto. The latter nimbly eluded three tackles before letting fly with the shot, four minutes before the end of the game, that sent the cup back to Georgia in the southern U.S.S.R. The smallness of the crowd robbed the final of some of the sense of occasion, although the game was beamed on free kick

television to 14 countries.

The leg of

crowd had also marked the return West Ham's game with Castille at Upton

lack of a

Park, London. This contest, however, was played behind closed doors because of crowd violence during the first leg in Madrid, when one West Ham fan was killed in a coach accident. The order banning spectators for the second match was made by the Union of European Football Associations (uefa).

UEFA Cup. Ipswich Town strengthened Britain's near-monopoly of the uefa Cup by defeating the Dutch entrants AZ '67 Alkmaar over two legs during May 1981. Ironically, perhaps, it was two Dutchmen, Arnold Muhren and Frans Thijssen,

New York Cosmos defender teff Durgan goes airborne to try to head off a goal attempt by the Chicago Sting's KarlHeinz Cranitza (12) In the North American Soccer League Soccer Bowl in Toronto. The Chicago team emerged victorious, 1-0,

on September

26.

386

who

helped Ipswich to collect the prize. Ipswich's was based on a three-goal advantage gained in its own Portman Road stadium on May 6 during the first leg. True to the established format of European two-legged competition, Alkmaar decided to play a defensive game at Ipswich and did so for most of a spirited, flowing contest. But that tactic played into the English club's hands, and a penalty shot by John Wark midway through the first half, along with goals by Thijssen and Paul Mariner in the opening 11 minutes of the second, gave Ipswich its 3-0 victory. Belatedly the Dutch team tried to salvage something by going for goals in the last phase of the game but to no avail, as Kees Kist and "Pier" Tol wasted good victory

Football

chances.

When the return was played a fortnight later in Amsterdam, the scene was set for a tactical encounter of attacking football. The Ipswich players did not

and

fall

into the trap of being ultradefensive

sitting

on

knew

that

their first-leg advantage, because

any goal they scored in Alkmaar would count double in the event of a tie in the aggregate scores. Within five minutes Thijssen they

During competition

home

in a

international rugby

championship match at Cardiff, Wales, Wales

scored to give Ipswich a 4-0 overall advantage, but then Alkmaar started to increase its attacks, with Johnny Metgod pushing forward. This aggressiveness paid off in the form of three goals from Kurt Welzl, Metgod, and Tol, but the not-to-be-denied Wark whipped in a second goal for Ipswich to leave the overall score at 5-3 in Ipswich's favour at halftime. In the second half Ipswich's manager, Bobby Robson, reorganized his defense to cope with the threat of Metgod, and AZ was limited to a single goal from Jos Jonker; thus, Ipswich, though beaten 4-2 in the second leg, triumphed

5^

overall.

U.K.

Home International Championship. home

(dark jerseys) defeated

The

England 21-19.

ment, which in recent years had been played

traditional end-of-season U.K.

tourna-

Table

I.

Association Football Major Tournaments Winner

Event Inler-Contmental

Cup

Country

single goal from Rudy Glenn scored in the "shoot-out" after the teams had finished even following the two seven-and-a-half-minute periods of extra time. Dieter Ferner blocked the Cosmos' final shot by Bob larusci, which secured the Bowl for Chicago. Both teams were renowned during the season for their high scoring potential, but the defenses dominated in the title match. The teams had identical records of 23 wins and 9 defeats during the season. Top scorer in the league again was Giorgio Chinaglia of the Cosmos, with 29 goals. a

and to eliminate the pileup. The main burden of the alterations was that it became no longer possible for a player on the ground — even in a sitting position or on one knee — to play the ball in any manner in a ruck-maul situation or after a tackle.

Rugby League. The chief event of 1980-81 was the game's spread to the south of England with the formation of a team

at the

Fulham

soccer club's

ground

the period the International Board made changes in the rules that could have a far-reaching effect on the game. The first team to tour was Romania, which played six games in Ireland and England in

success inspired the Cardiff City soccer club in Wales to start a Rugby League team for the 1981-82 season, and at the same time another team was

tiago, Chile.

The

New

Zealand team, the All Blacks, visited North America, beating the U.S. 53-6 in San Diego, Calif., and Canada 43-10 in Vancouver, B.C., on their way to Wales to mark the centenary of the Welsh Rugby Union. In Wales in October

and November the All Blacks won all five of their games, putting on a great display to defeat Wales 23-3

Cardiff

at

Arms

Park.

The home international championship was won by France, which gained the grand slam — beating four home countries — for only the third time in history. France beat Scotland 16-9 in Paris, Ireland

all

19-13 in Dublin, and Wales 19-15 in Paris before clinching the championship with a victory of 1612 over

England Wales

land, and

which

at

Twickenham. England,

Scot-

while Ireland, draw, finished last.

tied for second,

failed to score

even

a

All the countries involved in the international

championship went on tour at the end of the European season, with the exception of Wales. France both their tests in Australia, the scores being 17-15 and 24-14. England fared better in Argen-

lost

drawing the first of their two tests against the 19-19 and winning the second 12-6, both in Buenos Aires. Scotland was heavily defeated in New Zealand, losing 11-4 and 40-15. Ireland likewise was beaten 23-15 and 12-10 in South Africa. Then the Springboks, hounded by political demonstrators, toured New Zealand, winning 11 of their 14 games but losing the test series 2-1 The All Blacks won the first test 14-9 and the Springboks the second 24-12; the All Blacks then tritina,

Pumas

.

umphed

in the third 25-22 thanks to a penalty goal kicked in injury time. The Springboks also encountered political opposition during a tour in September of the U.S., where they defeated regional all-star teams.

Football

of serious injury

(TREVOR WILLIAMSON) Rugby. Rugby Union. The 1980-81 season featured great activity by touring teams. Also during

October 1980. The Romanians won four of their matches, and their holding of Ireland to a draw of 13-13 at Lansdowne Road, Dublin, did much to enhance their growing reputation as a rugby country. At the same time of the year France toured South Africa, winning three of its four games but losing 37-15 to South Africa (the Springboks) at Pretoria. The Springboks had themselves just returned from South America, where they won their two internationals against a South American team 22-13 in Montevideo, Uruguay, and 30-16 in San-

387

The International Board's rules changes were concerned with an attempt to reduce the likelihood

in

London. Fulham, placed

in the

second

division of the league, did so well in its first season that it won promotion to the first division. This

formed

Both were placed in the second (david frost) U.S. Football. Professional. The San Francisco 49ers climaxed one of the most remarkable comeback seasons in National Football League (nfl) history by defeating the Cincinnati Bengals 26-21 in the Super Bowl on Jan. 24, 1982, in Pontiac, Mich. Led by quarterback Joe Montana, the 49ers took a 20-0 halftime lead over the Bengals and then withstood Cincinnati's second-half rally. at Carlisle.

division.

Among

the highlights of the game was a goal-line stand by the 49ers during which they turned back Cincinnati three times from the one-yard line. In reaching the Super Bowl for the first time in its history, San Francisco compiled a 13-3 regularseason record, the best in the nfl. This followed seasons of 2-14, 2-14, and 6-10 in 1978-80. In the play-offs the 49ers defeated the New York Giants 38-24 and then won the National Conference championship 28-27 over Dallas on a last-minute pass from Montana to Dwight Clark.

Cincinnati Bengals running back Pete Johnson (46)

was stopped

just

short of the goal line when the San Francisco 49ers beat the Bengals in the Super Bowl at the Stiverdome in Pontiac,

Michigan, on January The Bengals were

24.

thwarted several times before the 49ers goalline defense.

388 Football

Table

III.

Southwest Conference championship to Texas because it was on probation for recruiting violations. Two other teams in the Associated Press Top 20, Miami of Florida and Arizona State, were on probation, and Clemson was under investigation for similar violations as the year ended. Alabama lost to Texas 14-12 in the Cotton Bowl, its coach, Paul ("Bear") Bryant {see Biogr.aPHiEs), broke Amos Alonzo Stagg's record for college coaching victories with his 315th in the final regular-season game on November 28. In other postseason contests Pittsburgh defeated Georgia

but

24-20 in the Sugar Bowl and Michigan triumphed over UCLA 33-14 in the Bluebonnet Bowl. Iowa had its first winning season in 20 years and made its first trip in 22 years to the Rose Bowl. However, it was defeated there 28-0 by Washington in the first Rose Bowl shutout since 1953. The Big Ten, with Iowa and Ohio State its co-champions, departed from its cloud-of-dust tradition by averaging more passing yards per game than any other conference and shed its "Big Two" subtitle by keeping Ohio State and Michigan out of the Rose Bowl for the first time in 14 years. Washington survived a Pacific 10 Conference race in which five teams finished within a game of first place. One of them. Southern California, lost to Penn State 26-10 in the Fiesta Bowl, which joined the Rose, Cotton, Sugar, and Orange Bowl games on New Year's Day. Marcus Allen became the fourth Southern Cali,

fornia tailback in 17 years to

win the Heisman

Trophy, the award for the best college player. Allen set ten major college records and tied one. His 2,342 yd rushing broke the old record by 394 yd, and he also set records with an average of 212.9 yd per game, five consecutive 200-yd games, and 11 200-yd games in his career. During the 1981 season he also led the country with 23 touchdowns. overshadowed sophomore Allen Georgia Herschel Walker, who ran for 1,891 yd and 20 touchdowns. Georgia's defense ranked third in scoring and second against the run as the Bulldogs

Alabama for the Southeast Conference. The unprecedented balance among major teams was attributed partly to the effect of a 1978 rule limiting teams to 95 scholarships, which kept the traditional powers from stockpiling good players on their benches, away from other schools. Televitied

sion

money

making

also contributed to the balance

by

it attractive for top-ranked teams of approximately equal strength to play each other. Nebraska, the Big Eight champion, ranked second in rushing and led the country in pass defense, allowing 100.1 yd per game. Nebraska's David Rimington became only the third junior and the second centre to win the Outland Award for the outstanding college lineman. Pittsburgh led the country defensively by allowing 224.8 yd and 62.4 rushing yards per game. Pittsburgh also ranked fourth in scoring, and its quarterback, second-ranked Dan Marino, led in touchdown passes with 34. The top-ranked quarterback, Jim McMahon of 10-2 Brigham Young, finished his college career with 60 passing or total offense records, including 84 touchdowns, a career passing efficiency grade of

156.9, and 9,723 yd of total offense, which broke the old record by 1,279 yd. McMahon led the country with 272 pass completions, a .643 completion percentage, and a .165 interception percentage.

Clemson's Frank Mag-

wood

catches a pass as Nebraska's Jeff Krejci looks on. Clemson won Ifie Orange Bowl 22-15,

Iowa punter Reggie Roby's 49.8-yd average set a Gary Anderson's .947 field-goal percentage for Syracuse. Darrin Nelson of Stanford set an all-purpose yardage record of 6,885 yd rushing, pass receiving, and returning punts and kickoffs. Canadian Football. The Edmonton Oilers won a record fourth consecutive Canadian Football League (cfl) championship by defeating the Ottawa Rough Riders 26-23 in the Grey Cup game at Montreal on November 22. Dave Cutler's 27-yd field goal with three seconds to play decided the game for Edmonton, which was favoured by 22 '/2 points but trailed 20-1 at halftime. Western Conference champion Edmonton had a 14-1-1 record for the regular season and Ottawa had 5-11, the record, as did

worst record ever for a cfl finalist. Quarterback Dieter Brock, of 11-5 Winnipeg, won the cfl outstanding player award for the second year in a row as he led the league with 32 touchdown passes and set a record with 4,796 yd passing. Among his teammates, guard Larry Butler was named outstanding lineman and wide receiver Joe Poplawski outstanding native Canadian

Winnipeg wide receiver Eugene Goodlow record with 100 catches, and kicker Trevor Kennard led the league with 185 points. Edmonton's award winners were linebacker Danny Ray Kepley, named outstanding defensive player, and quarterback Warren Moon, the passing leader. Saskatchewan had rookie of the year linebacker Vince Goldsmith and receiving yardage leader Joey Walters, with 1,715. Calgary's Jimmy Sykes led in rushing with 1,107 yd. (KEVIN M. lamb) player. set a

Foreign Aid: see Economy, World Foreign Exchange: see Economy, World

tional Collegiate Athletic Association (ncaa).

Football: Special Report

not only bend the rules but

Not

all

student-athletes, of course,

fall

Some

them.

totally distort

into this

Many have been quite successful in school of it, some becoming Rhodes scholars and

category.

COLLEGES, ATHLETES,

and out

AND SCANDAL

all-star,

Kappa key holders; one college football Byron White, was appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court, and another, Gerald Ford, served as Phi Beta

by Andrew David

the nation's president. But

many

athletes

occupy

the other end of the scholastic spectrum, and that

where the scandals cruited

statesman Benjamin Disraeli once said in a speech before the House of Commons: "A university should be a place of light, of liberty, and of learning." A century later, were he alive and on the other side of the Atlantic, he would no doubt be astonBritish

ished at the

way

his

counsel

is

many United States. He

interpreted

of the major universities of the

in

for some college students the nothing more than the enormous football stadium that is their playground on autum-

would

find

that

"place of light" nal

is

Saturday afternoons, that the "liberty"

is

the

freedom to avoid classes and still receive passing grades, and the "learning" is either nonexistent or limited to the lore of the coach's playbook.

The Business of Winning. Certainly no stock can be put in Grantland Rice's starry-eyed observation; "When the one great scorer comes to write against your name, he marks not that you won or lost but how you played the game"; it is about as appropriate in the universities of the 1980s as Ptolemy's view of an Earth-centred universe. Winning is the name of the game today, and the principal concerns are the team's standing

week game

week

to to

in

which

the

it

in its

conference,

AP and

will

UPi polls,

its

rank from

and the Bowl

receive an invitation.

College football (and college basketball as well) big business. At

some major

is

universities football

hundreds of thousands of dollars each year in revenue and binds some affluent alumni to the school more tightly than any other single factor. But to achieve and maintain that kind of fiscal bliss, the university must produce a winner or at least it must

brings

in

do so. To produce teams that win, a university must have exceptionally good players. But the problem all too often is that consummate athletic skills and intellectual prowess do not always coexist in the same person. So to get the young athletes and keep them, schools bend the rules of eligibility that have been set down by the college conferences and the Nastrive to

Andrew David merous 390

articles

is

the author of several books and nu-

on contemporary

affairs.

into

Some young men

arise.

is

are re-

college without being able to read

beyond the fourth-grade level; there have even been cases of functional illiterates attending college on

football or basketball scholarships.

How do

these student-athletes

passing grades

in

courses

in

manage

to earn

otherwise academically

respected colleges? There are various ways, and

though they are

monplace

all

as bootleg

they are about as comwhiskey was during the era of

illegal

Prohibition.

Crackdown on Violators. Many get away with vimany do not. Since the ncaa began

olations, but

enforcing athletic rules of conduct

in

1952, virtually

hundreds of major violations have been cited and acted upon. The university with the dubious distinction of having the most citations is Wichita (Kan.) with five during the past three decades. Close behind at four each are Auburn, the University of Oklahoma, Southern Methodist, and Texas A & M. Twenty schools have felt the sting of ncaa censure three times, and 32 others twice. And the schools State,

represent, although not uniformly,

all

areas of the

imposed on the censured colleges range from probation to restrictions on recruiting and post-season competition. Perhaps the most dramatic incident occurred in 1980 when the Pacific Ten conference was reduced U.S. Penalties

to the "Pacific Five," at least as far as post-season or

championship play was concerned. Literally half of the Pacific Ten schools (Arizona State, Oregon, Oregon State, UCLA, and Southern California) were punished by their own conference and denied access to all Bowl games (and any revenues from them) because of academic malfeasance. Among the violations were the accepting of bogus credits for athletes from junior colleges or from correspon-

dence or extension courses that were never taken and nonattendance by athletes at courses at their own university— courses for which they received passing grades. 7/'me magazine cited the ultimately absurd when it described how one University of Oregon linebacker received full credit for a course in jogging from a community college although he never set one running foot anywhere near that campus. Instead, credit was awarded on the grounds that the

According to legend, the famous Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne (left) played professional football under an assumed name during his col-

r^^ggs^CfiMig

lege football days.

running he did during football practice at school qualified as enough course work.

his

own

football revenues; other

one of the most controversial cases in recent Ten conference in May placed the University of Illinois on three-year probation, barred

An Old

In

years, the Big

any post-season event in any men's sport for two years, and cut off all conference revenue that Illinois would have rethe school from participating

ceived

for the

next two years.

quarterback David Wilson, 11 Big Ten, ords.

in

The case centred on

who

and 15 University of

in

1980

Illinois

set 6 ncaa,

passing rec-

He became the first quarterback in history to more than 600 yd in one game by totaling

pass for

621 yd against Ohio

Before the season, however, the Big Ten had ruled

Wilson had only one more year of

first

year consisted of three plays

junior college

in

in

eligibility (his

one game

for a

California before an injury side-

and that he would have to sit out the 1980 season and acquire academic senior status before playing football. Wilson responded with a lawsuit against the ncaa and the Big Ten; the courts granted him an injunction, and he was allowed to play. After the season the Big Ten accused Illinois of backing Wilson in the lawsuit, a charge that the school denied, and of submitting to it an incorrect high school transcript of Wilson's grades. The unilined him)

admitted the latter charge but maintained that it had been a clerical error that was soon rectified. Subsequently, the courts denied Wilson his bid versity

for

another year of

eligibility,

Story. Scandals are hardly

and he was drafted

alumni have been around

new

wealthy, for

to college

overzealous

decades. Over the

years there have been the cars that magically materi-

some players, the loans that were never expected to be paid back, the secret bank accounts, the jobs at which athletes never worked but for

alized for

which they received enviable

salaries,

and, more

recently, the job given to an athlete's father by a

generous alumnus. Even the famous have been involved. I

many

college stars

Just after

played

professional football on the side to earn

a

some

little

extra

was considered the cardiKnute Rockne played for money under an assumed name for the old Massillon (Ohio) Tigers. And George Gipp, the legend Rockne coached at Notre Dame, also was known to take a different name and participate in various pro games in Illinois, Michigan, and Indiana. In 1922, 16 college stars were caught playing in a professional game in southern Illinois, and the Big Ten declared all of them ineligible for the rest of

money, even though sin

nal

of the day.

that

For example,

their college careers.

Today's scandals often have a different set of consequences, however. Some of the young men

who

are enticed into college for their athletic abili-

ties are led to

believe that there will be a lucrative

professional career at the

into the professional National Football League. Rela-

them make

between Illinois and the Big Ten were strained but later were eased when, in August, the Big Ten reduced the sanctions to a ban of one year on postseason football play and on a share in conference

to

tions

funds and

Slush

football.

World War

State.

that

men's sports would not be

penalized under the revised sanctions.

it

end

of the line. But few of

to the pros, and, instead,

many come

an inglorious end with neither that career nor an

a one-way ticket back to the city neighbourhoods or small towns from which they

education, only

came

so hopefully four years

earlier.

391

France A

republic of Western Europe, France is bounded by the English Channel, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Italy, the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco, Spain, Andorra, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 544,000 sq km (210,040 sq mi), including Corsica. Pop. (1981 est.): 53,957,000. Cap. and largest city: Paris (pop., 1980 est., 2,050,500). Language: French. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1981, Valery Giscard d'Estaing and, from May 21, Francois Mitterrand; premiers, Raymond Barre and, from May 21, Pierre

Mauroy.

Domestic Affairs. The year 1981 marked a turning point in the history of modern France. After 23 years during which Charles de Gaulle, Georges Pompidou, and Valery Giscard d'Estaing had held undisputed power, Francois Mitterrand (see Biographies) became France's 21st president and its first Socialist president to be elected by universal suffrage. Subsequently, the French people confirmed and expanded their decision in the legislative elections by giving the left a considerable majority in the National Assembly. With the first round of the presidential election on April 26, the stage was set for a close contest between the two leaders of right and left on the lines of the previous election in 1974. Giscard (28.31%) and Francois Mitterrand (25.84%) came well ahead of the other eight candidates allowed by the Constitutional Council. The Gaullist candidate, Jacques Chirac, gained 17.99%, while the

Communist

Party's Georges Marchais finished fourth with 15.34%. The result itself was less surprising than the decline in the Communist vote. Marchais saw his support fall to the lowest level Fran(;ois Mitterrand (right),

the

new

presi-

dent of France, is escorted by former president Valery Giscard d'Estaing after swearing-in ceremonies in the Elysee Palace.

recorded by the Communists in France since the 1936 Popular Front led by Leon Blum. As had occurred seven years earlier, the twohour confrontation on television between Giscard and Mitterrand, held on May 5 in the presence of two independent journalists, was the high point of the presidential election campaign. Afterward, the second round still promised to be close, although unofficial opinion polls at that time gave Mitterrand 51% of the vote. On May 10, according to the official figures released by the Constitutional Council, of 36,398,762 registered voters, the number of votes cast was 31 ,249,552, of which 30,350,568 were valid. Of these, Mitterrand gained 15,708,262 (51.76%) and Giscard 14,642,306 (48.24% ). The number of abstentions was just over 14%, a little above the 1974 figure. What might explain this turn of the tide? Among the factors were the world economic crisis, an element of hostility toward the personality of Giscard, and, above all, a massive desire for change. Mitterrand also benefited from the excel-

Communist electorate, the of almost one million votes from Brice Lalonde's Ecologist Party, and the contributions from some who in the first round voted for Chirac. Finally, as a result of the lowering of the voting age, more than two million people under 21 were entitled to vote for president for the first time. All the polls on this topic showed that these young voters were significantly inclined toward the left. Giscard's personal standing was affected by the continuing controversies of the Bokassa affair and the de Broglie case. In March Giscard finally announced that the diamonds given to him by Bokassa, the former emperor of the Central African Empire, had been sold and the proceeds sent to charities in that country. The investigations into the murder of Prince Jean de Broglie (December lent discipline of the

winning

1976), however, were not so easily dismissed. An inquiry into the involvement of Michel Poniatowski, former minister of the interior and Giscard's

found that there were no grounds for impeaching Poniatowski: but in November, during the trial of the four charged with the murder, the judge accused him, along with several senior police officers, of withholding evidence.

close aide,

On May 21 Mitterrand officially took up his post as president of the republic at the Elysee Palace. Before continuing with the traditional round of ceremonial visits to the Arc de Triomphe, the Pantheon, and the Hotel de Ville, Mitterrand appointed Pierre Mauroy [see Biogr.aphies) as premier.

The next day Mauroy formed a government reflecting the different tendencies and age groups in the Socialist Party (PS). The resulting Cabinet also in-

transport, Louis

Herve

Mermaz

(PS); leisure,

(PS); health,

Andre Henry

(PS);

Edmond

youth and

sport, Edwige Avice (PS); culture. Jack Lang (PS); communications, Georges Fillioud (PS); housing, Roger Quilliot (PS); environment, Michel Crepeau (mrg); sea, Louis Le Pensec (PS); postal services, Louis Mexandeau (PS); veterans, Jean Laurain (PS).

Under

Offidel on Assembly was dissolved and the electors called to vote on June 14 and 21. The first round of these legislative elections went well beyond a simple confirmation of the poll on May

May

bills

published in the Journal

23, the National

10 for President Mitterrand. Despite a decline in

Movement (MD), and

the Communist Party (PC) vote, the voters gave the PS, and with it the whole of the left, electoral support without precedent under the Fifth Republic. This ballot filled 156 of the 491 seats, but al-

Left Radicals (mrg).

There were no Communists,

new

ministries had significant titlesnational solidarity, leisure, and the sea — while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (on the Quay d'Orsay) became the Ministry of Foreign Relations. The

but three

ministers of state, 25 ministers, and 12 secretaries of state. This total of 42 ministers was two more than in outgoing premier Raymond Barre's gov-

ready the Socialist landslide was evident in the rise PS vote from 22.6% in the first round of the 1978 elections to 37.51% in 1981, giving it 9,432,362 votes out of the total of 25, 141 190 cast. On the other hand, the PC was in a precarious situation: despite its 4,065,540 votes, it had lost 6% of the total vote since 1978 and, at 16.17% of the total

ernment.

poll, stood to lose half its seats in the

Cabinet included six women, compared with three in the outgoing Cabinet, and in all there were 5

The following were the main

officeholders in the

new government:

premier, Pierre Mauroy (PS); ministers of state: interior and decentralization, Gaston Defferre (PS); national solidarity, Nicole Questiaux (PS; see Biographies); foreign trade,

Michel Jobert (MD); planning and development, Michel Rocard (PS); research and technology,

Chevenement (PS); ministers-delegate women's rights, Yvette Roudy relations with Parliament, Andre Labarrere

Jean-Pierre

the premier:

to

(PS);

ministers and ministers-delegate: justice, Maurice Faure (mrg); foreign relations, Claude Cheysson (PS; see Biographies); European affairs, Andre Chandernagor (PS): cooperation, Jean(PS);

defense, Charles Hernu (PS); and finance, Jacques Delors (PS); budget.

Pierre Cot

economy

(PS);

France

Pierre Joxe (PS); trade and crafts, Andre Delelis (PS); labour, Jean Auroux (PS); equipment and

cluded Michel Jobert, leader of the Democratic three representatives of the

393

Laurent Fabius (PS); education, Alain Savary (PS); agriculture, Edith Cresson (PS); industry,

of the

,

Assembly.

The two major parties of the outgoing "majority" (the Gaullist Rassemblement pour la Republique, or RPR, and the Giscardian Union pour la Democratie Frangaise, or

udf) had fallen back

signifi-

cantly in comparison with 1978. The second round of the legislative elections brought a resounding confirmation of the PS victory. The Socialists gained ground throughout the country at the expense of almost all other parties, which, in broad terms, lost half their seats. In the new 491-seat National Assembly, the PS, even without its left-wing allies, emerged with an absolute majority. (See Political Parties.) The next

day, in accordance with tradition, Mauroy handed in the resignation of his government to the president, who called on him to form the second

FRANCE Education. (1979-80) Primary, pupils 5,405,056, teachers 11978-79) 230,634; secondary, pupils 3,844,733, teachers (1978-79) 300,145; vocational, pupils 1,253,666, teachers (1978-79) 58,771; higher (universities only), students 859,646, teaching staff (1978-79) 41,978

Rnance. Monetary

unit;

franc,

with (Sept. 21,

5.29 to U.S. $1 (Fr 9.81 = ,C1 sterling). Gold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $28,744,000,000. Budget (total; 1980 actual): revenue Fr 600. 7 billion; expenditure Fr 601 billion. Cross domestic product (1980) Fr 2,754,900,000,000. Money supply (May 1981) Fr 666 billion. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 19811 184. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports Fr 569,990,000,000, exports Fr 490,550,000,000. Import sources;

1981) a free rate of

Fr

46"^;, (West Germany 16"L, Italy 9"^, BelgiumLuxembourg 8%, The Netherlands 5'",,, UK S"^,,); U.S. 8%; Saudi Arabia 6%. Export destinations; EEC 51% (West Germany 15%, Italy 12%, Belgium-Luxembourg 9%, U.K. 7"'^, The Netherlands 5%); Switzerland 5%. Main exports; machinery 19%; food 13%: chemicals 12%; motor vehicles 12%; iron and

EEC

steel 7%. Tourism (1979): visitors 28 million; gross receipts U.S. $6,826,000,000. Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) 802,964 km (including 5,264 lout her nation's plight. July's People

C.

K.

Scott-Moncrieff's

celebrated

translation

and purifying

its purple prose and Edwardian unctuousness. Against this, new British fiction seemed rather frail and bleak, like a dying craft passing from father to son. Piers Paul Read, son of poet and writer Sir Herbert Read, wrote The Villa Colitsyn, about decadent bourgeoisie in the south of France. Martin Amis, son of Kingsley Amis, wrote Other People, about a young woman trying to find her

while correcting

lost

memory

its

errors

in a place like Hell. Ian

young and fashionable

McEwan,

a

novelist of squalor, wrote

The Comfort of Strangers, about decadent bourgeoisie in a place like Venice. Brian Moore, an inventive Irish-Canadian living in the U.S., published The Temptation of Eileen Hughes, about a well-to-do

>i-5

London. Marghanita Laski, of the Arts Council literature panel, remarked that "literary novels" seemed to be the least well liked of the art forms the Council sponsored. However, one first novel, A Separate Development by Christopher Hope, was highly praised for its blend of humour and indignation, and it was awarded the David Higham Prize for Fiction. "One of the funniest tragedies 1 have read since Catch 22," said one critic. William Boyd said it was "rich in lovingly evoked detail and character, and a profound political indictment." Hardly necessary to add that it was about South Africa. Among the writers who died in 1981 were novelists Enid Bagnold, A. J. Cronin, David Garnett, Rayner Heppenstall, Pamela Hansford Johnson, Robin Maugham, Gwyn Thomas, and Alec Waugh {see Obituaries). Lives and Letters. The Dictionary of National Biography (1961-70), mentioned above, was the most important contribution in this field. A similar scholarly confidence was apparent in the steady progression of series of volumes of letters by classic writers — from Cowper to Dickens, from Byron (a concluding volume) to Bentham (quite early in the series, the latest being a most interesting record of the years in which he was developing his "panopticon" principle for penitentiaries and other institutions). There were many contributions to the biographies of favourite subjects — plenty of Churchilliana, another Auden, a new account of the Douglas family from which the scandalous Lord Irish menage-a-trois in

Alfred sprang. In the field of Churchilliana, the most impressive volume was Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years by Martin Gilbert, who had already covered .

.

.

— the prewar period in one massive volume "and

an even more massive supplementary volume of his biography of Churchill the major biographical venture of our time." Such was the judgment of Robert Rhodes James, the Conservative member of Parliament for Cambridge and himself the author ,

V,

S.

Naipaul

506

was already

well traveled,

much

of his verse

and

fiction referring to his sojourn in Malaysia. After

Literature

publication of his sad, witty, and high-principled poems, Enright was awarded the Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry. Among anthologies was The Faber Book of Useful Verse, full of mnemonics and other practical material. Much more serious was the New Oxford Book of Christian Verse, edited by the poet Donald Davie. This should be seen as a supplement to the old Oxford Book of Christian Verse, edited by Lord David Cecil. Where Lord David was a touch defensive, Davie was militant. The anthology indicated progress from the antireligious consensus about literary values that had been so dominant in the 20th century. (d. a. n. jones) United States. Fiction. A perennial exercise in futility is the attempt to make sense of American literature at a time when little about the nation itself smacks of unity or coherence. A survey of the year's books does reveal, however, the pervasive influence of feminism, even as the Equal Rights Amendment threatened to founder. Many writers of both sexes emerged from the 1970s confused about what roles, if any, females and males may legitimately assume. Perhaps more than anything else, that concern and uncertainty have acted to narrow the novelist's vision so that a work like Robert Stone's A Flag for Sunrise may seem pano-

collected

Salman Rushdie

A Study in Failure, 1900-1939. Gilbert's new book was something more than a summary of of Churchill:

was committed

his earlier work, since he

to

whole-

heartedly arguing the case for Churchill's policies. At the opposite extreme, a strong example of the denunciatory school of biography was Edward Crankshaw's life of Bismarck, in which he traced the lineaments of Nazism. Then there was John Carey's denunciation of the great poet John Donne, which was seen as a personal attack and

was itself denounced by Sir William Empson. The once-popular playwright John Osborne published an autobiography called A Better Class of Person, displaying his well-known command of invective and

it he denounced practieverybody, especially his own mother. It was

lack of self-control; in

cally

so repellent that

it

was

Sunday child and

serialized in the

papers. Dorothy L. Sayers's illegitimate her treatment of him attracted new attention to this Christian apologist and detective-story writer. Sir Harold Nicolson's homosexuality was the attraction in the biography of

Milne.

A

him by James Leesdrew atten-

similar journalistic prurience

clumsy but interesting biography of H. H. by a probing American, A. J. Langguth. However, certain first-rate Christian tion to a

Munro

("Saki")

poets received sympathetic biographies despite their supposed sexual lapses, among them Alice Meynell of the 1890s, Edith Sitwell of the 1920s, and W. H. Auden of the 1930s. Poetry. The Society of Authors was responsible for the presentation of several awards. The Hawthornden Prize, for writers under 41, went to Christopher Reid, a poet (and critic) of peculiarly delicate

critics'

friend

An anthropology

professor named Frank Holinduced by a former cia colleague to odd goings-on that might threaten U.S. interests there. Holliwell encounters

can.

liwell is

investigate reports of

wayward priest, a politically and sexwayward nun, and cruel local authorities,

a religiously

ually

while into this miasma wanders a homicidal drug freak named Pablo who is helping a U.S. couple run guns to Tecan revolutionaries. With its superbly structured plot and colourful characters, the novel could be read for narrative and suspense alone. But Stone also gave the main characters private struggles of conscience or personal belief that, taken together, comprise an effective guide to the spiritual and political uncertainty of the U.S. in the

post-Vietnam

era.

In Rabbit Is Rich, John Updike's third novel in the series containing Rabbit, Run (1960) and Rabbit Redux (1971), the character of Harry C. ("Rabbit")

Angstrom embodies

a

mundane, domestic brand

call himself a subrealist and direct attention toward the "Martian" work of

The year is 1979 and Rabbit is 46 and prospering as part owner of a Toyota dealership, but he worries that things everywhere are falling apart, moons over ghosts from his past, and wrestles with his own sexual Hydra: his son has got a girl pregnant and needs the job currently held by Rabbit's best salesman, who used to sleep with Rabbit's wife. The sexual complications and explicitness of the books have grown with the permissiveness of the times, and Updike has maintained his role as ironic if grim chronicler of mores.

Craig Raine.

Roy Fisher and Rob-

Garioch were among the recipients of the Cholmondeley awards for poetry. Fisher's bestknown poem was early Martian, since it concerned "the last rabbit in England," visited by eager tourists and their families traveling down the motorways. D. J. Enright (who edited the Oxford Book of Contemporary Verse, published in 1980) was one of the recipients of a traveling scholarship; he

ert

(cia) agents, revolutionaries,

of those turn-of-the-decade anxieties that Stone has

surrealistic

would rather his

Agency and missionaries in an imaginary Central American country called TeSunrise featured U.S. Central Intelligence

humour — though he

and

the

ramic by comparison. Stone's third novel was often and aptly likened to the political thrillers of Joseph Conrad. A Flag for

writ large.

507 In a sequel to The Ghost Writer (1979), Philip Roth continued the fortunes of his neatly autobiographical character, Newark-born Nathan ZuckNathan Unbound finds Zuckerman erman. uncomfortable with the succes de scandale and

Literature

profitable reception of his novel Carnovsky (read Portnoy's Complaint). Though he is accused of vul-

and of betraying friends and his heritage, Nathan is often more troubled by the p>erquisites he does not rush to exploit and the expectations he does not feel obliged to fulfill. The novel was delightful for letting art hold a mirror up to art and as a vehicle for Roth's undiminished wit. Rounding out the year's bumper crop of sequels was Reinhart's Women, by Thomas Berger, the garity

fourth novel in the author's Reinhart series. A large, sententious German- American, Carlo Reinhart at 54 is a chef on a local television cooking show in Ohio valiantly coping with the more trying manifestations of women's rights among family and neighbouring females. Akin to Rabbit Is Rich in its ironic targets, Berger's novel seemed more enjoyable because Reinhart is more a survivor than a succumber. A highly regarded short-story writer, Leonard Michaels, assembled seven talkative, hungry men in his first novel. The Men's Club. A kind of pop psychotherapist leads the men on a long night of

self-revelation that deals

mainly with the

Robert Stone

women

in their lives. The conversation of these representatives of the first generation to be fully confronted and dislocated by feminism is loud with pain and confusion. Their appetites make raiding the refrig-

Mary Gordon's

first

and

their liberating

verities. Russell Hoban's Riddley Walker moved outside the common lexicon to create a world 2, 000 years hence and transformed by nuclear disaster in our time to a primitive civilization left with only the shards of the present technology. The novel's difficulty was also its reward, namely, adapting to and reveling in what the author called "a worndown, broken-apart kind of English." For fans. Cities of the Red Night by William S. Burroughs was a welcome return to and an updating of the underground terrain introduced in his Naked Lunch

(1959).

Two

in Final

Payments

(1978) aroused great expectations for this young and these were mostly fulfilled in The Company of Women. The second novel resembled the

camarade-

rite;

rie leaves

debut

writer,

the house a mess. Treating the men with terse comic irony, Michaels evoked sympathy in a context dangerously close to a college fraternity house or locker room. Stylistic variation and challenge, though less in vogue than in the previous decade, was well represented. Darconville' s Cat by Alexander Theroux was a tale of love lost and revenge plotted. In various narrative forms and with a dazzling richness of vocabulary, the author wittily and abstrusely explored Art, Life, Reality, and other capitalizable

erator an essential

literary

in its Catholic elements, its strong heroine, its

single

theme of sacrifice. A girl, raised among five working women who have banded around

a conservative priest, takes a stab at freedom but returns to the little congregation to bear her illegitimate child and establish a maturer independence. Though still capable of the mawkish or facile turns that marred her first book, Gordon retained her standing as a talented, intelligent

writer.

Another second novel of 1981 confirmed the aupromise in the first. Lisa Alther followed Kinflicks {1976) with Original Sins, an old-fashioned novel that records the fates of five Southern children as they grow up together and go their separate ways. The author controls a spacious, complex plot while forming an insightful picture of people and a region — the South — in flux. Toni Morrison, whose Song of Solomon (1977) won a National Book Critics Circle Award, described in Tar Baby an improbable love affair between two socially distant blacks on a Caribbean thor's

Written in prose as graceful as it is energetthe novel measured the quality of freedom and bondage in a society that thinks it has already taken care of those old problems. In Angel of Light, Joyce Carol Oates updated the Greek tale of the island. ic,

novelists reappeared following financially

and critically successful outings. The extraordinary excitement surrounding The World According to Carp (1978) did not recur with John Irving's The Hotel New Hampshire, however much it relied on the familiar quirks of the earlier novel. The story followed life among the members of an eccentric family to whom a certain amount of sex and violence hapi>ens while they inhabit three different

dwellings with the same

name

as the

title.

house of Atreus through the vengeful desires

of a

brother and sister who believe that their politically well-placed father, an apparent suicide, was murdered. The author, ever competent and resourcerelied too much on newspaper-headline material for interest and on adjectives for an almost ful,

smothering prose

style.

Oates also published Con-

508 traries: Essays,

Literature

on

a collection of seven critical essays

literary topics. Household Saints,

by Francine

Prose, drew wittily on the happenstance of life to give a lustrous portrait of two generations in an Italian-American family. Among the year's literary debuts were three outstanding works. In Saving Grace, Celia Gittelson displayed considerable imagination and humour in creating a Roman Catholic pope who runs away from the burdens of the office. Ted Mooney took a number of risks in Easy Travel to Other Planets, both in stepping several years into the future for a setting that demanded appropriately dislocated sen-

and in working through important themes no less compelling for the dislocation. And Joanne Meschery's In a High Place was a welcome reminder that traditional novels are often the most sibilities

engaging, as she described a single woman's struggle to make a home for herself and her family in a small, initially hostile town. As if in conscious rebuttal to the ever diminishing number of markets for the genre, collections of short stories appeared in abundance. Noteworthy among them were: Sixty Stories, a grand retro-

work of the entertainingly and irDonald Barthelme; Liars by Richard Yates; What We Talk About When We Talk About Love, by Raymond Carver; Listen, Listen, by Kate Wilhelm, a writer of stunning and thoughtful science fiction; The Lone Pilgrim, by Laurie Colwin; and two generous collections by Southern writers. The Stories of Elizabeth Spencer, which contained 33 tales from four decades of work, and The Collected Stories of Caroline Gordon, which had 24 offerings. In popular fiction the year's blockbuster came from James Clavell. With a national audience still warm from the 12-hour television production of Shogun (1975), he brought out Noble House, the spective of the

ritatingly unconventional in

Love,

fourth novel in his Asian saga. Limited in time to one week in Hong Kong in 1963, the story is nonetheless an expansive (1,206 pages) and complex blend of corporate and international intrigue, in which the ongoing struggle for business power between Asians and British is complicated by the addition of two ambitious Americans. In addition, Clavell published a modestly sized juvenile entitled The Children's Story; it was an apocalyptic parable expressing the author's concerns about

America's patriotic

The

year's

pop

failings.

fiction also

included one highly

newcomer and a number of familiar names. With Gorky Park, Martin Cruz Smith garpraised

nered

critical

lievable

and

and popular kudos for creating a bedet-'ctive and a wholly original mainly in the Soviet

Moscow

intelligent thriller set

Union. Joseph Wambaugh set his latest Los Angeles police procedural. The Glitter Dome, amid the tinsel of Hollywood and Beverly Hills. The Florida-based Travis McGee made his 19th appearance in John D. MacDonald's Free Fall in Crimson. History, Biography, and Belles Lettres. Dumas Malone completed his exhaustive 40-year effort on Thomas Jefferson with The Sage of Monticello, the sixth and final volume o( Jefferson and His Time. Theodore Roosevelt's early life, from the ages of 10 to 28, was covered with splendid detail in

Mornings on Horseback, by David McCuUough.

A

more recent and

controversial president was the subject of Fawn Brodie's Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character, an intriguing study that leaned a good deal on the questionable precepts of psy-

chobiography. In Jefferson Davis Gets His Citizenship Back, Robert Penn Warren combined biography and memoir; Warren also presented his most recent poetic works in Rumor Verified: Poems 19791980.

Past and current writers for The New Yorker were represented with Selected Letters of James Thurber, edited by Helen Thurber and Edward Weeks; The Last Laugh by S. J. Perelman, which included uncollected pieces and autobiographical fragments; Poems and Sketches of E. B. White; and Whatever Is Moving by Howard Moss, a gathering of essays, reviews, and literary profiles by the magazine's poetry editor. More than 600 letters written by a man very secretive about his correspondence were revealed in Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters 1917-1961, edited by Carlos Baker. And Nobel laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer recalled his arrival from Poland in America during the 1930s in Lost in America. Other noteworthy books in the category of belles lettres included: From Bauhaus to Our House, Tom Wolfe's idiosyncratic denunciation of modern architecture; The Language of Clothes, in which Alison Lurie turned her novelistic talents to exploring

and fashions; and Philosophical ExplaHarvard University philosophy professor Robert Nozick's sensible guide through some of his field's most basic and often-ignored questions. sartorial fads nations,

Toni Morrison

»

And

THOMAS

VKTW

509

Mrs. Harris: The Death of the Scarsdale Diet Diana Trilling applied a fine intelligence to a sensational murder trial and drew from it both its fascinating detail and its more serious implications for American culture. The number of books directly related to women or born out of feminism demands separate treatment. Betty Friedan, author of one of the movement's key works. The Feminine Mystique, caused a considerable stir with The Second Stage. In it she suggested that a "feminist mystique" had come to replace the earlier one with a new set of liberationseeking constraints and that these were forcing women to deny themselves the human pleasures of home and family. Something of a counterargument to Friedan's could be found in Colette Dowling's The Cinderella Complex: Women's Hidden Fear of Independence, which had as its thesis that "personal, psychological dependency ... is the chief force in

Literature

Doctor,

holding women down today." In Pornography and Silence: Culture's Revenge Against Nature, Susan Griffin argued well, if at times stridently, against the sexual exploitation of women, tracing its surface and subtle dangers to males' sadistic impulses. On what seemed another side of that coin, Shere Hite followed up the success of The Hite Report (1976) on female sexuality with The Hite Report on Male Sexuality, but her analysis of the proclivities and insecurities men revealed drew almost exclusively on feminist ten-

And in the first study of its kind Helen Rogan provided an informed report and thoughtful analysis in Mixed Company: Women in the Modern Army,

Margaret

ets.

which attributed most

of military

women's

diffi-

shortcomings male prejudice, insecurity, and

culties not to the traditional physical

of their sex but to inefficiency.

Poetry. It was a good year for the poetic muse. The Collected Poems: Sylvia Plath, edited by Ted Hughes, included 224 poems in chronological order. Gregory Corso published his first collection in Herald of the Autochthonic Spirit, and another figure from the Beat Generation, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, published Endless Life: Selected Poems, chosen from his past 25 years of writing. Gilbert Sorrentino offered his own preferences from his work in Selected Poems 1958-1980, and he published a diverting if strained neofictional novel. Crystal Vision. Also worthy of note were One for the Rose by Philip Levine, Landfall by David Wagoner, and The Red Coal by Gerald Stern. (JEFFREY burke) Canada. Among the most interesting first novels of the year was Obasan by Joy Kogawa, which recounts the experiences of a Japanese family that is evicted from its home in Vancouver and interned in concentration camps in the interior of British Columbia and Alberta during World War II. It is a story of silences etched in a prose fine enough to cut both ways. A sharp tongue translating for a sharper eye is also characteristic of Margaret Atwood, whose fifth novel. Bodily Harm, dissects the existence of a young journalist fleeing Toronto for the Caribbean in a futile attempt to escape herself. Timothy Findley's protagonist in Famous Last Words shares no such illusion of escape as he fights to absolve as a witness a writer sucked 11

years.

into the intellectual

by attempting

and conscious

evil of fascism

manipulate it. In Aritha Van Herk's The Tent Peg the heroine, cook for a team of nine male geologists in the J. L., Arctic, soon becomes, as the only woman. Woman as archetype, fount of feminine wisdom or to

feminist didacticism: this leads to some stark action under the Arctic stars peppered with tenden-

By contrast, Doris Anderson takes the conflict between family and career into the workplace in Rough Layout, about the struggles of a young woman to become editor of a national women's magazine. Robertson Davies, delving below the seemingly serene surface of a small univertious moralizing.

The Rebel Angels, hauls up many a and holds it, dripping and writhing, before our eyes. And in Flowers of Darkness, Matt Cohen, founder of the fictional small Ontario town of Salem, also dips down where emotions seethe like eels, displaying his catch in his own dry style. Feelings are also powerful in High Crimes by William Deverell, a complex expose of the intrigue-riddled and double-crossed course of the world's largest cache of marijuana en route from South America to Newfoundland. sity

town

in

lively or grotesque passion

Audrey Thomas's latest collection. Real Mothers, misses no nuance of that title phrase, while Sean Virgo warns his readers that his book is a collection of White Lies and Other Fictions. In Home Truths: Selected Canadian Stories, Mavis Gallant, long-time resident abroad, demonstrates that distance has not dissipated her ability to see her country and its people clearly. The stories in Death Suite by Leon Rooke are orchestrated into a complex ballet of the extraordinaire and the ordinary. Anthologies of re-

Atwood

510 Literature

gional work included Manitoba Stories, edited by Joan Parr, and Sundogs: Stories from Saskatchewan edited by Robert Kroetsch. Several retrospective collections were among the highlights of the year in Canadian poetry. They included the Collected Poems of Raymond Souster, Volume Two, 1955-62, in which, using subtle poetic effects, the author creates an ambience of deceptive simplicity around his musings on life and death; The Collected Poems of F. R. Scott, by a noted jurist and irreverent recorder of human trials and

and Cross-Section: Poems 1940-80 by Louis Dudek, which includes both previously unpublished work and some of his best, and best-known, earlier poems. Collections of new work included Margaret Atwood's True Stories, a chiaroscuro of meticulously accurate descriptions of torture and errors;

acutely crafted visions of love. P. K. Page's first collection since 1974, Evening Dance of the Grey Flies, describes a landscape of twilight calm under the advancing stroke of night's wing. In contrast, Gwen Hauser's Gophers and Swans is a shout of protest on a hot day, like a fist plunged into a haunted pond. Stephen Scobie's A Grand Memory For Forgetting collects poems defined as much by what they leave out as by what they include. An even greater mobility of play is achieved in Scobie's collaboration with Douglas Barbour in The Pirates of Pen's Chance: Homolinguistic Translations. Scobie and Barbour were also editors of the year's most untypical anthology. The Maple Laugh Forever: An Anthology of Canadian Comic Poetry.

(ELIZABETH WOODS)

FRENCH France. Although Valerie Valere, at 19, achieved startling success with her second novel. Obsession blanche, most of the year's rewards went to such veterans as Lucien Bodard, who won the Prix Goncourt with Anne-Marie, a semiautobiographical novel dominated by the personality of his mother. China, where the author lived until the age of ten, persisted as a vivid

memory

in the

background

of

account of his first experience of France. Though a popular choice, it seemed an odd one for this

a prize usually

younger

awarded as an encouragement to The Prix Renaudot was awarded which

writers.'

to Michel del Castillo's La Nuit de Decret, in

a Spanish detective gradually discovers in the personality of his boss a sinister image of the police

mentality and a reflection of his country's recent history. Other former prizewinners confirmed their reputations; Patrick

Modiano with Une

Jeu-

Conrad Detrez with Le Draguer de Dieu, and Didier Decoin, whose L'Enfant de la mer de Chine showed that he was still on the side of justice and the angels: it was as unobjectionable, and about as stimulating, as a hamburger and French fries. nesse,

The system of literary awards was slightly tarnished by the revelation that "Emile Ajar," winner of the 1975 Goncourt, had in reality been a pseudonym of the late Romain Gary. The other literary scandal of the year was more sad than farcical: in April Fran^oise Sagan's Le Chien couchant was withdrawn after a charge of plagiarism, though she had acknowledged her del^t to a short story in Jean Hougron's La vieille Femme (1965).

Even

in experimental

fiction

the Old

Guard

predominated. Claude Simon's Les Georgiques was an impressive achievement, setting the violence of three wars against the unchanging rhythm of the seasons and the monotonous labour of the fields, "the same vines, the same hedges to trim, the same fences to inspect, the same towns to besiege, the same rivers to be crossed or defended." The symphonic structure of the novel mirrored this cyclical theme, and Simon's prose, with its parentheses and interweaving of narratives, made no concessions to traditional notions of chronology. Another target of the New Novel, the convention of character, was attacked in Jean Cayrol's L' Homme dans le retroviseur, and Alain Robbe-Grillet in Djinn wove a science-fiction story into the framework of a structural grammar. Philippe Sollers did his best to fan the controversy around Paradis, dismissing most of his fellow writers as hopelessly out of touch with the audiovisual era. He may have had a case: whatever its intention, a competent conventional novel such as Michel Deon's Un Dejeuner de soleil made the literary world of the past 50 years, against which it was set, seem depressingly contrived and superficial. Myth and the power of the imagination were explored by Michel Tournier in Gaspard, Melchior et Balthazar and Jean Raspail in Moi, Antoine de Tounens, Roi de Patagonie, but the mainstream of fiction held its course through the familiar territory of family relationships. Irene Monesi (La Voie lactee) took a boy's search for his absent father as the standpoint for a study of parental feelings, while Claire Gallois's heroine was torn between her roles as wife, mother, mistress, and friend in Lucien Bodard

Le Coeur en quatre.

The suppression

of

women by

the family and by society was a continuing theme in novels, while historical works such as Regine Pernoud's La Femme au temps des cathedrales and Georges Duby's Le Chevalier, la femme et le pretre reexamined the status of women in the Middle

Ages, a period that held extraordinary appeal for the pwpular imagination. In this climate of sociological inquiry, love

had

to struggle against exter-

nal pressures like those on the Arab man and Jewish girl in Muriel Cerf's novel Une passion or the

aging painter and young girl in Francois Nourissier's L Empire des nuages. There were several interesting volumes of poetry. Jacques Roubaud's Dors, preceded by an essay on the spoken word, showed the poet's respect for formal constraints and his erudition, also displayed in Merlin I'enchanteur, a further retelling of Arthurian legend in collaboration with Florence Delay. Jean Cayrol carried on with his Poesie-]ournal; Alain Bosquet examined the tragic impermanence of things in Poemes, deux and Sonnets pour une fin de siecle; and a selection from the work of the Breton poet Charles le Quintrec appeared in La Lumiere et iargile. The death of the poet and singer Georges Brassens {see Obituaries) deprived France of a delightful and irreverent personality who had brought poetry to a vast audience. It was a good year for literary studies. After the appearance, late in 1980, of the first volume of Hubert Juin's biography of Victor Hugo came Pierre Petitfils on Paul Verlaine, Pierre Gascar on Gerard de Nerval, and Elisabeth de Fontenay on Denis Diderot. The late Jean-Paul Sartre, already in his lifetime the subject of a major scholarly industry in France, Britain, and the U.S., was recalled in Olivier Todd's Un Fils rebelle and Jeanette Colombel's Sartre ou le parti de vivre, while many forthcoming books, periodicals, and conferences on his work were announced. The fifth volume of Marcel Proust's letters appeared, as well as correspondence by Albert Camus, Jean Cocteau, and Jules-Amedee Barbey d'Aurevilly. Julien Gracq's essays. En lisant, en ecrivant, displayed a fine sensibility and contained many insights, especially into 19th-century literature. The vogue for history produced some highly readable biographies, including the third volume of Roger Peyrefitte's study of Alexander the Great and Jean Jacquart's Fran(Ois 1". Marcel Arland and Jose Cabanis published memoirs or journals and, to counteract the depressing effect of Michel Deon's fictional literary biography, there was the late Marcel Pagnol's Confidences, an amusing and affectionate record of literary

and

and

theatrical circles

(robin buss) novels in particular aroused conduring 1981 among readers and siderable interest critics alike, Le Canard de bois by Louis Caron and in the 1920s

Canada.

1930s.

Two

Le Matou by Yves Beauchemin. In Le Canard de bois, events unfold in a rural setting and reflect simultaneously the years just prececding World War II and the difficult period of the Patriote Party in 1836-37. Le Matou, however, takes place in the late 1970s in the modern urban setting of the Plateau Mont-Royal area of Montreal. The episodic content of the two works also dif-

fers. In Caron's book the story alternates between discoveries of life made by Bruno Bellerose — woodcutter and the son of a farmer — and the participation of one of his ancestors, Hyacinthe, in the patriotic demonstrations organized in the 1830s by a group of parishioners in Port St. -Francois. Beauchemin's story, however, is dispersed among a multitude of events unfolding for the

most part in Montreal but also in Quebec, Florida, and other places. The ideologies of the two novels contrast with one another. Le Canard de bois defends traditional values of Quebec society, while Le Matou stands

modern context: a society of consumerism centred on the idea of economic success. Apart from these differences, however, the two novels have one point in common, the desire for autonomy. Bruno desires to be liberated from paternal authority and from his apprenticeship to firmly fixed in a

maturity; Hyacinthe's desire takes the form of a refusal to submit to the English regime (a refusal for which he pays with exile). In Le Matou the goal is economic autonomy for the character Florent. A bit drier to read, but quite captivating, is Chroniques souterraines by Lise Harou. By writing in fragments, the content and length of which vary, the author succeeds in expressing the rending of a woman torn between her love for her husband, her children, and her male and female lovers and her thoughts on the feminine condition. Notable in the category of essays is Le journal piege ou I' art de trafiquer l information by Pierre Berthiaume. It demonstrates how the myth of The Printed Text, a form of The Word As Law, can

overwhelm

journalists

and readers. (ROBERT saint-amour)

GERMAN The most important publications of the year in German literature concerned an earlier generation of writers: two volumes of Bertolt Brecht's correspondence, autobiographical writings of Alfred Doblin, and diaries (Siebzig verweht) of the octogenarian Ernst Jiinger. Nor could the award of the Nobel Prize to Elias Canetti be counted as recognition of contemporary German literature. Canetti was 76 and, although writing in German, had lived in London since 1938. Die Fackel im Ohr the second volume of his autobiography, was nonetheless a considerable success with critics and the public and afforded fascinating glimpses of the Frankfurt of the inflation years, Vienna in the late 1920s, and the genesis of Canetti's novel Die Blendung. {See Nobel Prizes.) Autobiography was indeed the contemporary fashion; self-contemplation seemed one way of coming to terms with the hostile political and economic climate. One of the year's literary debates revolved around the accusation that writers and intellectuals were not involving themselves actively enough with the burning issues of the day: nuclear weapons, ecology, the alienation of young people. Besides Canetti's, autobiographical works appeared from Heinrich Boll, Thomas Bernhard, Luise Rinser, Eva Zeller, and Cristoph Meckel. Of Sf>ecial interest was Friedrich Diirrenmatt's Stoffe, an account not only of the dramatist's early life and

511

Literature

512 Literature

encounters but also, more importantly, of the development of tfie fictions into which he crystallizes his experiences and ideas. A number of interesting autobiographically based works appeared by writers either living in East Germany but unable to publish there or who had recently left. These included Einar Schleef's Certrud Monika Maron's Flugasche, which high:

and the suppression of this scandal; and Gert Neu-

lighted industrial pollution in Bitterfield official

mann's

Elf Uhr. Peter Weiss completed Die Asthetik des 'Widerstands, a history of socialist resistance to fascism that became a vast essay-novel on the relation between art and politics. Its reception ranged between total rejection and unstinting praise. The schematic character-drawing and the uncompromising treatment of ideas made it a "difficult" work; nevertheless, its breadth of canvas and the ambitiousness of its theme made it a major publication. More fashionable was the tendency to the miniature, the segment rather than the whole, the reflective snapshot suffused with an all-pervasive melancholy. Fine examples of the genre were Botho Strauss's Paare, Passanten and Jiirgen Becker's Erzdhlen bis Ostende. Giinter Kunert's Verspiitete Monologe was the most pessimistic of all; he saw no hope for humanity East or West and traced the mechanisms of repression and terror back to 18thcentury rationalism. Frustrated intellectuals featured prominently in fiction. The librarian heroine of Angelika Mechtel's Die andere Halfie der Welt resigns under the pressures from a small town that dislikes her including even moderately left-wing writers on the shelves; the student-teacher hero of Sten Nadolny's Netzkarte tries to escape from conformism by crisscrossing Germany by rail; the mathematics student of Franz Mechsner's Vorwartsruckwiirts finds his political commitment thwarted by the authorities, while his intellectuality frustrates the spontaneity in the personal relationships he desires. In a complementary vein two novels took conformists as their heroes: Klaus Konjetzky's Am anderen Ende des Tages painted the ironic picture of a student failure whose social connections enable him to survive beyond his deserts, while F. C. Delius's Ein Held der inneren Sicherheit brilliantly satirized the mentality and language of the industrialists' lobby — his hero is ghostwriter to the kidnapped head of the employers' organization.

More direct social criticism was to be found number of works that portrayed people on margin

in a

the

shunned, or ignored. Ludwig Fels in his Ein Unding der Liebe showed the hindside of affluence through an incompetent, unof society, exploited,

lovable cook's assistant for whom competitive society can have no time or sympathy. Austrian Ingrid Puganigg had a remarkable debut: her Fasnacht described a grotesque partnership between a woman disfigured by a dog bite and a dwarf 25 years her senior in which they find temporary refuge from a hostile, inquisitive, or apathetic envi-

ronment. Diametrically opposed to all these works, Peter Handke's Kinder geschichte turned its back on the babble of society and its interpreters. In his search

world," no less, he described the "eternal Myth" of the father and daughter relationship in language that equally eschewed the banalities of the mass media. Urs Widmer, another modern Romantic, sought the reality behind reality, whether it be in Frankfurt or the Alps, in his imaginative Das enge Land. In East Germany the most important publications were collected essays and speeches by Anna Seghers and Hermann Kant (Zu den Unterlagen). Manfred Pieske's novel Schnauzer was reckoned to be his best so far but remained a conventional account of an individual's development into a responsible socialist; similarly, Bernhard Seeger's Der Harmonikaspieler, a historical-social novel of a for the "secret of the

community's conversion from Nazi terror to from well-trodden Two shorter works were of greater interest; Max Walter Schulz's Die Fliegerin included an excellently handled account of a brief encounter between a German soldier and a female Soviet pilot during the closing stages of World War II, and Uwe Saeger's Warten auf Schnee, on the ups and downs of a schoolteacher philanderer, was remarkable especially for its unusually frank erotirural

socialist justice, barely strayed

paths.

cism,

(j.

H. reid)

SCANDINAVIAN Denmark. Over the

past few years portraits of characterized Danish fiction. In 1981, however, authors of both sexes turned to the problems of middle age, often in men. In GArs fortrced, Martha Christensen portrayed a man's career and pinpointed the decisive moments in his life. In In

women had

genting,

man

human

Keld Belert sought

qualities in a

breakdown

of his marTage Skou Hansen in Over stregen continued his novels based on the character of Holger Mikkelsen by showing him at the age of 56 embarking on an affair with a young adherent of women's liberation. Dea Trier M0rch's Den indre by (1980) was an extension of Vinterb0rn showing the demands made on those who seek to combine family life with outside activities and politics. Jette Drewsen in Midtvejsfester (1980) was concerned with an unsentimental portrayal of three middle-aged unmarried mothers. In Det sorte hul (1980), Klaus Rifbjerg told of a 46-year-old man who suddenly loses touch with his marriage and begins to behave in an unwonted fashion. Anders Bodelsen, well established as the writer

responsible for the

riage.

,

of intellectual thrillers,

published Borte Borte, a

psychological thriller based on everyday reality, with overtones of unemployment, recession, and blackmail. On the lighter side was Knud Thomsen's Klokken fra Makedonien while subtle aphorisVilly S0rensen's tic reflections characterized ,

Vejrdage.

A prolonged period of illness prompted Vagn Steen to reflect on his life and the sense of fear that infected it in the poems in 52Ar. After a silence of six years, Ivan Malinowski returned with some carefully composed poems evaluating the modern world in Vinterens hjerte (1980). A new name to emerge was that of Bo Green Jensen, whose Requiem og messe (1980) was an artistic and compelling requiem for the 1970s. In Virkelighedens farver

Uffe Harder confirmed his position as a and sensitive poet more concerned with with discussing problems. than his art From the Faeroes came William Heinesen's Her (1980),

delicate

skal danses (1980),

Torshavn (the

stories

about a mythological

islands' capital),

rank among the author's

which might well Greenland was

best.

represented by Thomas Frederiksen's Crenlandske dagbogsblade already translated into 14 languages, a lyrical and unsophisticated description of a Greenland hunter's life, past and present. (W. GLYN JONEs) Norway. Several of the year's novels had action located outside Norway. Finn Carling's Visirene stood out, with its handful of tourists seeking an escape from personal traumatic experiences at a holiday resort in Sri Lanka. With burlesque humour Terje Stigen placed his hero in Blindgjengeren in the service of Hitler's Institute for Racial Hygiene, with the task of impregnating German war widows and grass widows in order to produce high-quality Aryan offspring. Italy gave atmosphere to Marie Takvam's Brevet fr& Alexandria, a penetrating analysis of the sexual anxieties of a middle-aged woman. New York City formed the backdrop to Jon Michelet's humorous and refreshing thriller Den gule djevelens by. Other novels described pre-welfare-state Norway. Johannes Heggland's Br0d fra havet. Anna Cyria was set in a fishing community in mid-19th,

century western Norway. In powerful language and with convincing realism it told of the hardships, tender love, and subsequent disillusionment of the young heroine. The revolutionary development of Norwegian whaling in the second half of the 19th century was dealt with by Karin

Bang

in /u(0y

2.

]ag etter vind.

Much Norwegian

from the beginning of the 20th century was contained in Erling Pedersen's Din plass

social history

Anna og johan 1908-1928. The devastating consequences of excesses of loveless sex was the theme of Gunnar Lunde's best pi jorda.

novel to date, Klovnens store kjisrlighet, with a "hero" kept as a supplier of sex to an emancipated businesswoman. Female emancipation of an extreme kind was dealt with by Ketil Bj0rnstad in Bingo! eller: En Dyd Av Nodvendighet, in which a young man tries to trace his mother, who had run away from a secure marriage, only to find that she had joined an international terrorist movement.

published En alskares dagbok, a confessional memever since boyhood, of the beautiful girl destined after many complications to become his wife: and Sara Lidman, who abandoned fiction altogether for a decade during the heyday of the protest movements, delighted admirers of her powerful narrative gifts with Nabots sten, the third part of a chronicle charting the struggles against bureaucracy and financial exploitation of a small northern community of vividly presented inoir of his love,

dividuals.

Sven Delblanc published Samuels of

bok, the story

his grandfather's vain efforts to

become

or-

dained in late-19th-century Sweden on the basis of theological studies in the U.S.; Delblanc produced a moving work of fiction based on diaries and letters, which like Lidman's book spoke out powerfully, although not didactically, on behalf of all those who cannot work the system and instead

become

its

ten's Cheel.

The

victims.

Among

De galnas

stad

first

novels Per Odens-

met with

critical acclaim.

narrative, technically rather difficult to

fol-

low, concerned a Active Swedish counterpart to the Belgian town of Gheel, a community for the insane, offering its denizens human dignity and security and the chance to follow the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg, an 18th-century Swedish theologian and mystic.

The big event of the year was the publication, 60 years after his death, of the first two of the 75 planned volumes of the official and definitive collected works of August Strindberg, an enterprise of vast scholarly effort and government funding. The same was true of the new translation of the New Testament that the Swedish Bible Commission presented after a decade of work by theologians, philologists, and poets. Feminists published Kvinnornas litteraturhistoria, not in fact as its title implied a literary history of women writers but essays by and about this category. The septuagenarian poet Karl Vennberg published the richly varied Bilder l-XXVI, with his characteristic amalgam of irony and pellucid imagery; Goran Sonnevi published Smd klanger; en rost, deeply serious poems about the human struggle for freedom and justice in the face of the power structures of language and society, written in a spare, ascetic, yet powerfully expressive diction; and Eva Runefelt's third collection, Augusti, confirmed her gift for tactile, sensory verse. (karin petherick)

The

painful breakup of a close mother-son relationship was the theme of Dag Sundby's Orions

sverd.

ITALIAN

The pain of love, the meaning of life, and the nature of poetry were central themes in the poems

traction in the market,

in Stein

Mehren's Den usynlige regnbuen. Annemarta Borgen's Deg was an intimate biography of the writer Johan Borgen (d. 1979), drawing heavily on private letters. A major scholarly event was Daniel Haakonsen's richly illustrated Henrik Ibsen —

year for literature in Italy. No new ground was broken, but production in the established fields was as abundant and varied as ever and generally of good quality. The most successful novel was // nome della rasa by Umberto Eco. It was a "learned"

mennesket og kunstneren, a storehouse of pictorial information about Ibsen and the staging of his plays throughout the world.

thriller set in

(TORBJ0RN ST0VERUD)

Sweden. An undogmatic

literary climate pre-

vailed during the year in Sweden. Sven Lindqvist, once a leading exponent of the committed school.

Despite rising book prices and a considerable con1981

was an

interesting

medieval Italy in an abbey where and political interests, heresy and orthodoxy, and lust and superstition combine to produce a sequence of mysterious deaths that an English monk is called upon to explain. Particularreligious

ly

intriguing

and accurate

was

Eco's clever mixture of invention

historical detail. Also ostensibly his-

513 Literature

514 Literature

torical

was

Enzo Siciliano's La printhough in this case, history

the setting of

cipessa e I'antiquario,

served as a pretext to explore subtly the psycholoof a young man who, while investigating the disappearance of a northern princess in 18th-century Rome, is gradually destroyed by his increasing awareness of himself and the evil ways of the world. The initiation of an adolescent into adulthood in Fascist Italy was the theme of Paolo Vol-

gy

poni's

//

lanciatore di giavellotto.

religious, rather

More

specifically

than psychological, was Giorgio

Saviane's Getsemani, where the sacrifice of Christ is reenacted to explain the meaning and value of human suffering in the modern world. While hardly any work of fiction focused on the country's social and political situation, the switch toward personal, often autobiographical, exploration continued unabated. Memory novels were much in evidence. In Althenopis, Fabrizia Ramondino masterfully interwove the exemplary story of her family and of her relationship with her mother during and after World War II. A feminist theme was also at the centre of Anna Banti's clearly autobiographical // grido lacerante, the story of a woman who sacrifices her own ambitions for love of her husband and continues to live with her own unresolved dilemma even after his death. The discovery of the year was the Sicilian Gesualdo Bufalino, whose first novel, Diceria deU'untore, deservedly attracted much attention from critics and readers alike. It was a work of consummate literary skill in which lyricism constantly breaks to the surface as the narrator looks back to a period of his life spent in a sanatorium and the theme of sickness and death unfolds. Curiously similar in plot and theme, though different in style, was La veranda by Sebastiano Satta, a novel written more than 50 years earlier but not published until 1981 after the death of its author. Among other distinguished novels, but lighter in tone and inspiration, were the amusing Zio Cardellino by Luciano De Crescenzo, the story of the metamorphosis into a goldfinch of an executive working for a multinational corporation, and Piero Chiara's elegant Vedro Singapore?, in which the writer's favourite characters return to enact their lives of contented misfits on the stage of provincial Italy in the early 1930s. Giorgio Manganelli's Amore escaped classification, being neither novel nor essay nor autobiographical confession but a coherent poeme en prose about love as an idea that ultimately cannot be grasped or understood. As witty and imaginative as a work of fiction was Trans-Pacific Express, a collection of essays by Alberto Arbasino on his recent travels and experiences in the Far East. The general climate of uncertainty and fear encouraged some writers to produce "consolation books," such as La fortuna di vivere by Vittorio Buttafava, a collection of meditations, aphorisms, short pieces of narrative, and variations on the notion that life after all is not a bad thing. Finally, of considerable importance for recent Italian history was Diari 1976-1979 by the politician and skilled writer Giulio Andreotti, covering effectively in concise note form the years of the "historic compromise" and of terrorism up to the murder of Aldo Moro.

Poetry was overshadowed by the death of Eugenio Montale (see Obituaries). A few months earlier his collected verse,

L'opera in versi,

was

published in a beautiful single volume edited by R.

and G. Contini. Under the general title of volume included Montale's latest and a substantial group of poems composed over the last 60 years that were previously unpublished or not included in the poet's major collections. Other important new collections were the refreshing Poesie del sabato by the 82-yearBettarini

Altri versi, the

lyrics (1978-80)

old Carlo Betocchi, confirming again his status as a brilliant and unclassifiable outsider in the poetic tradition of 20th-century Italy; Geometria del disordine

by Maria Luisa Spaziani; and // ristorante dei by Giovanni Giudici. Amelia Rosselli offered

morti a

good overview of her poetic development with scritti 1952-1965 and her latest much-praised

Primi

long

poem Impromptu.

(lino fertile)

SPANISH Spain. In Spain 1981 was something of a boom year for the publishing industry. Millions of copies of "instant" books purporting to explain the political crisis flooded the country in the weeks following the foiled coup of February 23. The first and perhaps the best of them was Los liltimos dias de un presidente by Jose Oneto, director of Cambio-16, an influential newsmagazine. And politics was behind yet another best-seller, Alfredo Kindelan's documented memoirs. La verdad de mis relaciones

con Franco.

On the more literary side one of the year's most ambitious endeavours was that of an otherwise staid publisher, Catedra. This house, known mostly for its scholarly editions of modern classics and reference works, commissioned a series of new novels from major authors and merchandised them

in

signed to

mass editions sell at a

of 300,000-plus copies de-

fraction of the price of a standard

The works that opened the new series, Alfonso Grosso's Con (lores a Maria and Fernando Savater's Caronte aguarda, were enthusiastically received by critics and the general public. Not surprisingly, a similar mass-marketing technique was employed by another publisher, Bruguera, which filled Spain's bookstores and other outlets during the summer with huge stacks of Gabriel Garcia Marquez's latest novella, Cronica de una muerte anunciada. Other new novels by established writers such as Jose Maria Guelbenzu (El rio de la luna) and the Chilean Jose Donoso (£/ jardin de al lado) enjoyed a more usual kind of success with readers and critics. Another of the year's more memorable novels was futuristic and feminist: Rosa Montero's La funcion delta tells the story of a liberated woman of 30 in the year 2000. A feminist point of view was winning in verse as well, with the Adonais Prize going to Blanca Andrea, a previously unknown university student, for her striking account De una nina de provincias que vino a vivir en un Chagall. Also noteworthy were new volumes of poetry by Concha Lagos (Teoria de la inseguridad), Vicente Presa (Teoria de los limites), Pablo Virumbrales (Cannovel.

cionero del vaso), mi).

and Antonio Abad

(Misericor de

(ren€ de costa)

Ovalle deals with contemporary Chile's aristoc-

Latin America. Latin- American fiction in 1981 was characterized by works that were shorter than many of the extensive and even monumental novels previously published by the same novelists. Carlos Fuentes's Agua quemada and Gabriel Garcia Marquez's Cronica de una muerte anunciada were im-

triz

portant short novels that suggested this trend.

Argentina's Manuel Puig also continued and publish abroad. His novel Maldicion

Other renowned novelists who published during the year included Gustavo Alvarez Gardeazabal (Los mios), Jose

Donoso

Puig (Maldicion eterna

(El jardin de al lado),

Manuel

a quienes lean estas paginas),

and Mario Vargas Llosa (La guerra del fin del mundo). The Casa de las Americas Prizes for 1981 were as follows: Itzam Na by Arturo Arias (novel); Imitacion de la vida by Luis Rogelio Nogueras (poetry); Huelga by Albio Paz Hernandez (theatre); Las culturas populares en el capitalismo by Nestor Garcia Canclini (essay). The Premio de Novela Plaza y Janes in Colombia was awarded by Virgilio Cuesta to ManGiraldo for Conciertos del desconcierto (first and Alvarez Gardeazabal's Los mios (second prize). Jorge Luis Borges was given yet another prize in his distinguished career, the Premio Ollin uel

prize)

Yoliztli,

awarded by

Pres. Jose

Lopez

Portillo in

Mexico. that drew most attention from critics Mexico were Fuentes's Agua quemada, Jose Emilio Pacheco's Las batatlas en el desierto, and Ignacio Solaress El arbol del deseo. Agua quemada is a

The works

in

volume

of four stories,

some

of

them reminiscent

Two works awarded

racy.

Donde

prizes in Chile were Constanza, a novel by Jose Luis RosasEl circulo dramdtico, stories by Antonio Abt. Ariel Dorfman wrote and published

estas,

and Montero

co,

Viudas abroad. to write

eterna a

an extensive dialogue between two characters in a New York City setting. Given the number of writers publishing abroad, it was not surprising that Ediciones del Norte in New Hampshire began to publish fine editions of Latin-American fiction. Such was the case of the Argentine Mario Szichman's A las 20:25 la sefiora entrd en la inmortalidad a superb novel dealing with the Jewish community's history and experience in Buenos Aires. Other Argentine works were Marta Traba's Conversacion al sur and quienes lean estas paginas

is

,

the critic

Noe

Jitrik's Ritual (stories).

Two Uruguayan

writers living abroad pubprizewinning novels: Carlos Martinez Moreno's El color que el in/ierno me escondiera (Premio Proceso-Nueva Imagen) and Antonio Larreta's Volaverunt (Premio Planeta). After a hiatus of several years Reynaldo Arenas of Cuba and Salvador Garmendia of Venezuela published novels: La lished

vieja

Rosa and

El iinico lugar posible,

respectively.

One of the most ambitious and unique creations of the year was Edmundo Desnoe's Los dispositivos en

of Fuentes's writing in the late 1950s

and early book deals nostalgically with the young author's school days. Solares continued to create fiction concerned with the connections between dreams and reality in El arbol del deseo. Other novels published in Mexico in 1981 were Jaime del

la flor,

1960s. Pacheco's

Cuban

Palacio's Parejas, Luis Casas Velasco's Death Show,

to

a personal

anthology of some 500 pages of

literature since the revolution.

(RAYMOND

L.

WILLIAMs)

PORTUGUESE

and Carlos Eduardo Turon's Sobre esta piedra. Gerardo Maria Touissant was acclaimed for his first volume

The April revolution of 1974 continued haunt Portuguese fiction of the 1980s. The joys and anxieties of inner liberation and political emancipation, the deceptive mood that comes in the sequence and as a consequence of events that seem to be governed by a wicked fate, were the main lines pursued in Jose de Almeida Faria's nov-

of stories, Fdbrica de conciencias descompuestas.

el Lusitania,

Gabriel Garcia Marquez's Cronica de una muerte anunciada, in the tradition of the detective novel, was highly publicized and commented upon in the author's native Colombia and throughout Latin America. Nevertheless, Alvarez Gardeazabal's Los mios, also highly acclaimed in Colombia, was quite likely the most significant aesthetic accomplishment in Colombia in 1981. Like much recent LatinAmerican fiction Los mios deals with the traditional aristocracy. Two other important novels in Colombia were Rafael Humberto Moreno Duran's El toque de Diana and Manuel Giraldo's Conciertos del desconcierto. Mario Escobar Velasquez's Un hombre llamado Todero, his second novel, appeared in late

landowning family from the South. By adopting the epistolary device that was so fashionable with the authors of the Enlightenment, Almeida Faria

Silvia Molina's Ascencion Tun, Luis Zapata's petalos perennes.

mesa, Carlos

Roberto Paramo's

Montemayor's Mai de

De

El corazon en la

piedra,

,

1980.

Chileans continued writing with both tic

a

domes-

perspective and that of the writer in exile. Jose

Donoso's £/ jardin de al lado, about a young couple's experiences in Spain, treats the problem of the sense of rootlessness experienced by living outside one's homeland. El museo de cera by Jorge Edwards takes place in an unidentified Latin-American country. The ambience is aristocratic; the protagonist is a marquis. Jorge Marchant Lezcano's La Bea-

Portugal.

the final part of a trilogy chronicling a

succeeded admirably in presenting a narrative from many and different points of view, preserving at the same time a detachment that enhanced the objectivity of his tale. The compactness and the strict economy of the narrative, within a variety of styles, were literary achievements that owed a great deal to an original structure. For Lusitania was a novel written on a musical pattern. Neatly divided into three movements that attain dramatic intensity without ever reaching a crescendo, it pursues the constant theme that "time is evil." This statement made by one of its characters is modulated by many voices, gaining a polyphonic quality.

A similar concern with the unpredictability of national destiny also pervaded O Mosteiro, a novel by Agustina Bessa Luis. In contrast to the directness of the message conveyed by Almeida Faria's title, Bessa Luis expressed in her own title the allegorical meaning of her story. The old monastery that is having its history written by one of the

Gabriel Garcia

Marquez

516 Literature

novel's characters has been throughout the centuries the property of the same aristocratic family.

Converted eventually, and tudes, into a

the political

symbol

home

for the

follies of a

after

many

mentally sick,

vicissi-

it

houses

nation, standing then as a

for Portugal.

(l. s.

1981.

rebelo)

The year 1981 was the centenary of the Alfonso Henriques de Lima Barreto (1881-

Brazil.

birth of

1920); Maria Zilda Cury's Um mulato no reino de ]ambom was the most interesting new study of his works. Several evaluations of Jose Lins do Rego's fiction appeared. Heloisa Toller Gomes's O poder rural na fiqao is a provocative comparison of rural society in Lins do Rego's and William Faulkner's

works. Cassiano Nunes continued his pioneering studying writers' correspondence with an analysis of Monteiro Lobato's letters, while James Amado prepared an edition of Graciliano Ramos's letters in cooperation with the author's efforts in

widow. Although many publishing houses continued to suffer financial difficulties and questions arose about the orientation of their activities, production in all genres flourished. The years of military rule and the recent liberalization remained important themes in fiction. Antonio Callado's moving novel Sempreviva became an instant best-seller; it recounts the epoch of torture and self-evaluation through which Brazilians have passed. Roberto

Drummond's Sangue

de Coca-Cola is a violent satire mulo Darcy on the political liberalization. In Ribeiro presents a "coronel" of the interior whose

O

deathbed confession is a penetrating view of an almost junglelike existence and one that evokes the masterpieces of Guimaraes Rosa. Other important novels included a posthumously published work by Margues Rebelo; an autobiographical novel by

Lya Luft about the life of German immigrants to southern Brazil, and a political novel about the 1932 revolution by Afonso Schmidt. Felicidade clandestina, a collection of stories by the once again takes the reader unique world of real unreality; an interpretive biography of Lispector by Olga Borelli also appeared. Other volumes of short fiction were by Dalton Trevisan, Lygia Fagundes Telles, and Joao Ubaldo Ribeiro. The New Discovery Prize for Short Fiction was won by Joao Gilberto Noll. Carlos Drummond de Andrade wrote a new

late Clarice Lispector,

into her

A paixao medida. In addition, Romano de Sant'Anna published a study Drummond's works. Joao Cabral de Melo Neto's

volume

of poetry,

Affonso of

escola das faces invokes Brazil's northeast, while Adelia Prado's Terra de Santa Cruz has a mystical orientation. Mario da Silva Brito produced several

A

volumes of poetry, and Pedro Nava began to edit (irwin stern) his memoirs.

Literature.

many with

The

political

year's novels included themes. Typical was Alek-

sandr Chakovsky's Victory, in which the problems of the

tente

Two major events in poetry were the publication of Herbert© Helder's Poesia Toda and A. Pinheiro Torre's O Ressentimento dum Ocidental. By taking up some of the themes of the 19th-century poet Cesario Verde, Pinheiro Torres voices eloquently the anguish against the mental siege that has weighed so heavily on Portugal and gives vent to his anger in a vigorous and tempered tone. The eminent novelist and poet Carlos de Oliveira died on July 1,

RUSSIAN Soviet

contemporary struggle for international dewere featured against the background of ex-

perience of the first years after World War II. Frequently, the political novel was based on dy-

namic detective intrigue, with professional politidiplomats, journalists, and intelligence

cians,

agents

among

the characters.

were also popular. A number them commemorated the 600th anniversary of the battle of Kulikovo Pole. They included The Moscow Sovereigns by D. Balashov, featuring the establishment of Russian statehood; and The Kulikovo Field by V. Vozovikov, Redemption by V. Lebedev, and Dmitri Donskoy by Yury Loshchits, Historical novels

of

portraying the people's struggle against the Tatar-Mongolian invaders.

all

A number of writers who had made their literary debuts in the 1970s and had now reached professional maturity produced novels that met with considerable success. Among these were Leonid Bezhin's Metro Turgenevskaya, Sergey Yesin's Lit up by a Small Searchlight, and Vladimir Gusev's Spasskoe-Lutovinovo. Gusev's novel centred on the young scientist determined to find "a place Sun" by hook or by crook. The characters in Yesin's and Bezhin's books were also members of

lot of a

in the

professions" — actors, artists, "intellectual scholars, journalists. Probably the biggest popular success of the peri-

the

od under review was Daniil Granin's novel The Painting. There was not a shade of sensationalism in either the style or substance of this quiet and circumstantial narration of the daily round of a small, out-of-the-way Soviet town. The main charis the mayor of the town, in love with it and doing his best to safeguard a beautiful spot designated as a future factory site. He pins great hopes on a painting he has brought from Moscow that shows the beauty of the very spot that the factory designers propose to destroy. The painting makes

acter

the characters of the book see their town in a new light and reflect on the past and the future, elaborately intertwined. Thus Granin succeeds in demonstrating the impact of art on human souls.

Another best-seller was Yury Bondarev's The His main character, Vasiliev, an artist, seems to possess everything his stars could offer: talent, recognition, prestige in society, a good family, and the wife he loves. Yet what seemed to

Choice.

be a well-established home turns out to be uncertain and shaky in many ways. His wife has not forgotten her early passion for another man; the daughter of whom he was so fond had a great misfortune; a friend of his youthful years turns out to be an entirely different sort of man, foreign to him. Complex moral problems, which do not always find a uniform solution in the novel, make up the main ideological message of this work. The seventh Congress of Soviet Writers, held during June 30-July 4, was an important event in the literary year. Also significant was the 15th AU-

Union Pushkin

Festival of Poetry.

(SERGEY CHUPRINIn)

Prize for Literature again went to an Eastern European writer, this time to a Bulgarian Jew living in Britain. Elias Canetti, the sixth

The Nobel

and a collection of letters by the 19th-century Russian philosopher Konstantin Leontiev to his contemporary Vasily Rozanov. It was the first time the letters had been published anywhere and represented something of a coup for the publisher,

Nina Karsov. In the U.S., Ardis published Josif Oleshkovsky's novel Ruka ("The Hand") and a collection

rance of his

three

It

was

altogether a

for literary prizes.

Two

Josef

of short stories by Yevgeny Popov, one of the Moscow writers involved with the suppressed literary almanac Metropol in 1979. In Switzerland L'age

award

by Alek-

d'homme brought out sandr Zinoviev, Komunism kak realnost ("Communism as Reality"), and Life and Fate by the late Vasily Grossman. Considered lost for many years, the manuscript of Grossman's novel on microfilm sent mysteriously to Efim Etkind, a Russian

Writing in Index on Censorship about Life and Fate. Robert Chandler pointed out that the author had been an officially accepted writer who published novels and stories during the '30s and worked through World War II as a front-line correspondent for Red Star. "In 1952 he published a novel. about the Russian victory at Stalingrad, For a lust Cause. a thoroughly orthodox, patriot.

.

.

ic,

.

Socialist Realist book. Nevertheless,

was

it

heavily criticized in the press. Life and Fate is, in a Artistically, however, sense, a continuation. ... it is written in an entirely different spirit. Grossman completed this epic work in 1962 and sent off the text to a perfectly orthodox Soviet literary journal. Its editors promptly contacted the .

.

.

.

.

.

KGB." KGB officers visited Grossman and confiscated all copies of his manuscript, as well as his rough drafts, sheets of carbon paper, and typing ribbons. He died a year and a half later. In his review of Kopelev's book, Edward Crankshaw said in The Observer that it made "almost unbearable reading." "For here is the witness of a one-time persecutor. As a young man, a true believer, he was active and zealous in the collectiviBut this persecutor zation of the early 1930s. himself became a victim (he spent years in the who believes his punishment was both camps). because his own incardeserved and beneficial ceration prevented him from participating in 'still .

.

.

.

.

newer

.

villainies

and

.

.

"

deceits.

'

Voinovich and Kopelev had been deprived of their Soviet citizenship and were living abroad. In the Soviet Union the Ukrainian writer and journalist Vyacheslav Chornovil, who had spent all but 18 months of the past 14 years in labour camps or exile, was charged with attempted rape a short time before he was due for release and sentenced to five more years' imprisonment. Anatoly Marchenko, whose My Testimony/ provided the first detailed account of Soviet labour camps after Stalin's death was arrested for the fifth time in March and, in September, sentenced to ten years in a (ceorge theiner) labour camp. ,

decades.

Kundera and

received the Commonwealth in the U.S. and the Neustadt International

Skvorecky,

West Germany, respectively. Another West German prize went to Lev Kopelev, a Soviet Prize in

author living in Munich. Jaroslav Seifert, Czechoslovakia's greatest living poet, celebrated his 80th birthday in September.

Two of his verse collections

The Plague Column and Umbrella from Piccadilly, which hitherto had appeared only abroad and in Czechoslovak samizdat ,

came out in Prague; however, the poet's charming memoirs remained unpublished. After receiving a telegram of congratulations from Pres. Gustav Husak, Seifert was visited by plainclothesmen, who wanted him to publish a "thank you" message to Husak. Seifert refused, since he intended to put out a more general acknowledgment thanking all his well-wishers. No Prague newspaper would print this, however, and the incident led to a worsening of the poet's already frail health. Two books by the Hungarian author Gyorgy Konrad appeared in the West: his third novel, Der Komplize ("The Accomplice"), in West Germany and Az autonomia kisertese: Kelet-nyugati utigondolatok 1977-79 ("The Temptation of Autonomy: East-West Travel Thoughts 1977-79") by Magyar Fiizetek in Paris. "The book is courageous," wrote editions,

literary scholar living in Paris.

and

work for bumper year

exiled Czechoslovak writers, Milan

satirical

was

Literature

emigre author to be thus honoured. The 1980 laureate, Czeslaw Milosz, was able to visit his native Poland for the first time in almost 30 years, following the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm. He was given a hero's welcome by his fellow countrymen, whom the authorities had kept in igno-

liever;

a political treatise

517

EASTERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE

Expatriate Russian Literature. Several intertitles appeared in the West during 1981. In London they included Vladimir Voinovichs Preto the Throne, a sequel to his earlier satirical tender novel recounting the adventures of Private Ivan Chonkin; Lev Kopelev's The Education of a True Be-

esting

a

reviewer in World Literature Today.

tainly not be published in

Hungary

"It

could cer-

at present."

The great Romanian playwright I. L. Caragiale was also the author of many pieces of prose fiction, 11 of which appeared in Schite si povestiri ("Sketches and Stories"), a bilingual collection by Eric Tappe, professor of Romanian studies at the University of London. In Bucharest the Romanian

Academy published

a Dictionary of Romanian Literafrom the Beginning to 1900, the most comprehensive work of its kind to date, with a total of

ture

1

,311 entries.

The year brought unprecedented if short-lived freedom to the writers and publishers of Poland. Not only were the works of Milosz appearing there for the first time since his "defection" in the early 1950s but another distinguished author, 76-yearold Julian Stryjkowski, was able to tell an interviewer in London in May, "I don't think there is now any Polish writer who can't publish with the official publishing houses. They all have the green light."

Stryjkowski's semiautobiographical novel Wielki ("The Great Terror"), which had come out earlier in the unofficial literary quarterly Zapis, was the first literary treatment in Poland of the events of September 1939, when the country was strach

Aleksandr Zinoviev

518 Literature

invaded by both Soviet and German forces. AnothPoland — in this case during the period immediately following the death of Stalin — appeared in the West: Leopold Tyrmand's Diary 1954. The author had been one of his country's most popular novelists until the late 1960s, when he went to the U.S. A collection of essays by the poet Stanislaw Baranczak, who was er personal record of life in

at last able to take

ment

up

his long-deferred appoint-

Harvard University, was published in Paris by the Instytut Literacki. Jerzy Andrzejewski's novel Miazga ("Pulp"), hitherto available only in samizdat editions from the unofficial publishing house NOWA, was brought out in London by the Polonia Book Fund, which for years had published censored Polish and Soviet works. The death in November of its founder and director, at

Andrew Stypulkowski, was a great loss to the cause of free literature. Many writers and other intellectuals were among the thousands interned when the Polish government imposed martial law in December. Although news was difficult to obtain at year's end, it was reliably reported that the renowned film director Andrzej Wajda and the historian Adam Michnik were among those detained. The name of Miroslaw Chojecki, the director of now a, appeared on a list of detainees issued by the authorities, but Chojecki was in the U.S. at the time and thus escaped arrest. (george theiner)

of stories.

From

the

and Romania. Khaim Maltinsky's The Moscow the Birobidzhaners details the arrest and in the U.S.S.R. during the early 1940s

later in

Trial of trial

of

those accused of nationalism, their sentencing, and their experiences in the gulags. Alexander Lizen provides sympathetic portraits of Jews in the Ukraine during the civil war period and again during World War II in his newest collection, Nok-

hemke Esreg. Jewish

Benyumin

life

in France is the

Schlevin's collection

theme

An Unhappy

of

Dispo-

sition.

Avrom

Sutzkever, His Poetry and Prose by Itskhak is a contribution to criticism about Isleading Yiddish poet. Yakov Zvi Shargel's Springs Around the Tent analyzes the work of Yiddish writers in Israel. Reference materials were enriched by the publication of the eighth and final

Janosowicz rael's

volume of The Lexicon of Modern Yiddish Literature and by Khaim Leyb Fuks's Biographical Dictionary of Hebrew and Yiddish Writers in Canada. Mordkhe Tsanin concluded his five-volume historical opus with The Jordan Falls into the Dead Sea, dealing with the Holocaust and the establishment of the nation of Israel. Leyb Kurland's novel A

Narrow Bridge reflects on contemporary issues in Israeli life. Yehuda Elberg's Tales recast a number of Hasidic stories in modern idiom. Four noteworthy collections of poetry appeared: Mordkhe Husid's philosophical Dust and Eternity; Beyle Schaechter-Gottesman's modernist collection.

JEWISH Hebrew. During 1981 the veteran poet A. Hillel returned to active publication with his collection Devareiy. The senior poets Gavriel Preil, Avot Yeshurun, and S. Shalom also published new poetry collections, as did Yehuda Amichai (Shalva gedola, she'elot uteshuvot) and Meir Wieseltier {Motsa el hayam). New poets included Robert Whitehill, from the U.S., and the Israelis Peretz Banai, Esther Ettinger, and Yosef Yehezkel. Other collections of note were published by Aharon Shabtai, Mordecai Geldman, Hannah Barzilai, Batsheva Sharif, Michal Senunit, and Menachem Ben. Poets mourned in 1981 were Uri Zvi Greenberg, Hebrew literature's most skillful and dramatic expressionistic poet, and Yonatan Ratosh, the founder of the Canaanite movement. Prose collections included short stories by Hanoch Bartov, Uzi Behar, and Shulamit Hareven, with volumes of note by Amalia Kahana-Carmon (.Himurim gevohim), Y. Ben-Ner {Erets rehoka), and

Shiomo Abyu {Enkat madregot). Among published novelists were Benjamin Tammuz (Minotaur), Aharon Megged (Masa be'av), and H. Gouri (Hahakira: Sefer Re'u'el). Most popular were Notsot by Hayim Be'er, Shavua betashah by A. Almog, and jabotinsky va'ani

Moise Held's collection Red Bridge into the World, is set

tion of a shtetl in Bukovina.

by Yitzhak Oren.

Other interesting works included a volume of essays by A. B. Yehoshua; the collection Shirei TelAviv edited by D. Hertz and O. Rabin; diary entries by Avraham Shionsky; and literary notebooks for Hahayim Kemashal by P. Sadeh.

(warren bargad) Yiddish. Several leading writers published works about various Jewish communities throughout the world. Life Goes On is Yoysef Burg's descrip-

Dawn; and M. M. volumes. Four

two finely crafted and To Find a Moment

Shaffir's

Ells of Solitude

of Peace.

The Holocaust remained a major leitmotiv in the writing of poets and novelists. Meir Yelin's The Mirages of Jogger Oscar Frik describes the psychic evolution of an alienated Hungarian Jew who is assigned to liquidate the inhabitants of the Kovno ghetto. Josef Goldkorn's Unbelievable and Yet consists of compelling reportage about his encoun.

ters

.

.

with survivors.

(THOMAS

E.

bird; ELIAS

SCHULMAn)

CHINESE China. In 1981 China experienced a growing de-

mand by

its writers and intellectuals for greater freedom. The nation continued to stress its commitment to "let a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend," but Chinese leaders were revealing an increasing wariness in regard to Western influence and "bourgeois liberalism," which they believed were sweeping the country. A campaign of criticism and self-criticism against writers described as "pernicious" and "erroneous" was launched on the grounds that their works propagated "pessimism, nihilism, and ultra-individualism" and opposed "the leadership of the party." Those who "hold that creation is solely the expression of writers and artists" and those who crave "absolute freedom and extreme in-

were denounced. While campaign would not lead to the sweeping repression of the past, when hundreds of writers were persecuted, the Chinese audividualistic

rights"

stressing that the current

thorities

found

it

necessary to

condemn

Bai Hua's

necessity of literature

The most remarkable best-seller of the year was not a novel but a touching memoir of the girlhood of television actress Tetsuko Kuroyanagi. She was expelled from a grade school as an incorrigible dreameridler but fortunately came across a broad-minded, sympathetic teacher and could enjoy her school life in another institution. The book sold almost a million copies within a year. Its great success probably was due to the fact that it provided the Japanese public with an emotional outlet for their vague dissatisfaction with the great amount of emphasis upon grades and examinations in most

line

schools.

ordained during the Cultural Revolution (1966-

Of course, Japanese novelists were not inactive. Yasushi Inoue's Hangakubo's Testament was an impressive historical novel dealing with Sen-no Rikyu, legendary master of the tea ceremony of the 16th century, who apparently fell into disfavour with the military dictator and killed himself in a mystifying way. Hisashi Inoue's Kiri-Kiri People was a hilarious novel that sold quite well in spite of its length. The tone was comical, but the

(Pai

Huas) screenplay

uan's

(Sun

Bitter

Sun Jingxpoem "A Spectre

Love and

Ching-hsiian's)

Haunts the Land

of

China,

"

both of which seem-

ingly reveal their authors' doubts about the Comwriters Both munist rule and leadership. published self-criticisms after extensive attacks

from literary and political authorities. Another movement launched in 1981 was a campaign against pure lyric poetry and abstract works. Highly personal poetry was viewed by official critics as representing an "unhealthy tendency Several literary journals published articles on the "

and art following the party's and direction. While the new crackdown had a dampening effect on writers and artists, there was no indication that China would impose the absolute uniformity in literary and artistic works that had been

December Hu Qiaomu (Hu Ch'iaoleading ideologist, reflected the party's f>olicy by reaffirming that literature and art must "serve the people and socialism." He also struck a conciliatory note, however, by adding that writers who deviated from the party line but who repented of such errors would not be penalized. Despite the current campaigns, Chinese writers 76). In early

mu),

a

continued

to

produce

satirical

and

realistic

works

revealing China's social conditions and political Attacks on corruption, inefficiency, reality. selfishness, incompetence, and privileges enjoyed

and their families were popular themes. Stories and novels written with biting humour and ironic twists gained popularity. Love had also become an increasingly favoured subject.

by high

officials

Works reflecting these recent trends include Zhang Jie's (Chang Chieh's) stories on love, Dong Luoshan's (Tung Lo-shan's) works on intellectuals, and Jiang Zilong's (Chiang Tze-lung's) stories on cadres and bureaucrats. Taiwan. As in 1980, Taiwan witnessed the publication of few notable literary works in 1981. Established writers were unusually inactive, and few promising young writers emerged. Interest in serious literary works among readers seemed to have declined, and even literary contests failed to produce notable works. Several Taiwan writers residing abroad however, produced works that attracted considerable attention. Among them were Chang Hsi-kuo, who was the first Taiwan author to publish science fiction; Liu Ta-jen, whose novel The Plankton Community vividly reflects the life of Chinese intellectuals in Taiwan in the 1960s; and Ch'en ]o-hsi, whose story "We Went to Reno" and other pieces reveal the agony of Chinese students in the U.S. during the turbulent years of the Cultural Revolu,

(WINSTON

tion

L.

Y.

YANG; NATHAN MAO)

JAPANESE For Japanese literature 1981 could be characterized as a relatively quiet, inconspicuous year.

been rumoured that Yasushi Inoue, author

It

had

of the

Tempyd, was among the most promising candidates for the Nobel Prize for Literature, and many journalists rushed to his house on novel

Roof-tiles of

the day that the prize

was announced. However,

this expectation did not materialize.

was serious social criticism of the postII Japan of economic prosperity. "Kiripeople were Japanese hillbillies who decided to secede from Japan and create an independent state of their own. Their brave experiment was a failure, but the implied criticism of various "dirty" aspects of contemporary Japan was both funny and central idea

World War kiri

"

biting.

As

for

young authors, there were

three remark-

able books. Wahei Tatematsu described postwar scenes in a provincial town with refreshing vigour in City of foy, trying to develop a new picture of Japan at that time from the point of view of the that was then very young. Kyoko Hayashi, a woman novelist who survived the atomic bomb in Nagasaki, wrote a novel of social protest. As If Nothing Happened. In it she followed the later careers of several of her own classmates after the war, and her emphasis was on both the

generation

sufferings of those survivors and the responses to them on the part of the Japanese who did not experience "the Bomb." Although not fully integrat-

ed as a novel. As If Nothing Happened remained a moving and sharp testament. Rie Yoshiyuki's Little Lady was a charming collection of short stories dealing with reminiscences of the narrator's favourite cat (already dead), an effective mixture of

and physical sense. There were several remarkable books of biography and literary criticism. Kenkichi Yamamoto's Forms and Soul: Roots of Japanese Beauty was highly suggestive in tracing the psychic shades of Japanese imagination through various examples, both literary and artistic. Shinroku Komatsu's Attracted poetic fantasy

by Vision of Beauty contained a series of sensitive comments on the Japanese writers who had committed suicide. Toru Haga's Cennai Hiraga was a readable biography of a Japanese eccentric of the 18th century, rich in vivid episodes and remarkable for its far-reaching perspective on the international intellectual scene of that period. (SHOICHI SAEKl) See also Art [621]

Sales; Libraries;

Nobel

Prizes; Publishing.

519 Literature

Literature: Special Report

THE AFRICAN MUSE by Gerald Moore

whether because

of the conditions of literary production within the continent or because of the

temptations that entice budding writers to accept political or academic dignities, Africa remains very short of professional writers.

Too many

careers

still

follow a falling trajectory from a couple of early

successes toward silence. Nevertheless, although

few new writers who appear to have a and continuing engagement with literature have emerged since the mid-1970s, some of the continent's major writers have added significantly relatively

serious

to their achievements. In

Cameroon, Mongo

Beti,

after a long interval following his anticolonial satires

two novels

in

1974.

Remem-

ber Ruben is a work of epic scope and imaginative range. Embracing the colonial period, the war years 1939-45, the anticolonial wars that followed, and the struggle of Ruben internationalize the

dence,

it

power

um Nyobe and

Cameroonian

culminates

in

his party to

fight for

indepen-

the stage-managed transfer

1958-60 and the ensuing civil war. complementary work, focusing closely on the tragic fate of the heroine whose life and purity are sacrificed to the rampant materialism of the new black elite. In 1979 Beti published a sequel to Remember Ruben, La Ruine presque cocasse d'un polichinelle, but compared with its majestic predecessor, it proved disappointingly thin and uninventive. Nigeria's output of written work is such that it prompts examination as a national literature. Wole Soyinka's profound study of an African civilization in decline. Death and the King's Horseman (1975), contains some of his most vivid dramatic poetry, though some critics felt that the play's verbal richof

Perpetue

in

is

a different but

ness conceals

a

black nationalism

certain

seems occasionally

question, for the white

ment

ideological weakness.

man

of change rather than

here its

is

to

Its

beg the

surely the instru-

cause. Africa could

Amadi, is conshowing his culture in action but refusing to comment on it. His 1978 novel. The Slave, for all its classical beauty and symmetry, moved toward a new raciness in its rendering of African speech that was refreshing after picter of pre-colonial values, Elechi

tent to stick to the task of narration,

the proverb-laden solemnity of so

is dean o/ arts at the University of los in Nigeria. His books include Twelve African Writers, Wole Soyinka, and Modern Poetry from Africa.

520

much

African

fic-

tional dialogue.

Among

the most prolific of the younger Nigerian

Omotoso and Femi

Osofisan. Both

and for writand short novels, which are more marketable in Africa and reach a wider audience. Omotoso's novel Sacrifice (1974) is a moving defense of feminine dignity and love against the prevailing selfishness and greed of the young. Osofisan, who is primarily a dramatist, has a flair for reworking myths or historical events to make a contemporary point, evident in his use of the Moremi myth in Morountodun (1979) and the reign of the 18th-century Oyo king Abiodun in The Chattering and the Song have a preference

for local publication

ing plays

(1976). Both writers represent a

engagement

in

new mood

of public

Nigerian literature, which extends to

their publishing activities

and

criticism

and

determination to use their writing to raise consciousness.

Southern Africa.

A rejection

their

political

of literary self-indul-

gence, a determination to see the pen as just one instrument in the struggle for liberation, can be seen

new poetry pouring out of Angola and South Africa. In Angola the foundations were laid by such major poets of the older generation as Antonio Jacinto and the late Agostinho Neto, his country's

also in the

first

president

that of

much for

(d.

of the

new

comrades

work was often whereas of bitterness and grief

1979). But their

prophecy and the poetry

call

is full

to action,

fallen in the struggle.

and anger stamp the new The first announcement of the new mood was Oswald Mtshali's Sounds of a Cowhide Drum (1971). Since then a whole generation of young poets has arisen, adding a new tone

A

similar urgency, grief,

black poets of South Africa.

Gerald Moore

its

secularism and materialism. Another Nigerian de-

writers are Kole

Cameroon, Nigeria. of 1954-60, published

not have entered the 20th century unscathed by

to

South African

Most prominent of these and Wally Serote. Serote's poetry

literature.

are Sipho Sepamla

anatomizes the pain of his situation but also announces action: "I do not know where have been/ To have fear so strong like a whirlwind (will it be that brief?)/ But Brother,/ know I'm coming." One of South Africa's best known prose writers, Alex La Cuma, also showed a new direction with his fine portrayal of the obscure underground resistance worker Beukes in In the Fog of the Season's End (1972). He followed this with an explosive short novel of racial murder and revenge on the veld, 7/me of the Butcherbird (1979). Mention should also be made of Bessie Head, one of Africa's most original and powerful women writers, now settled in Botswana. Her novel A Question of Power I

I

(1973) is a haunting study of a mind passing through madness and gradually rebuilding a kind of stability and a fragmentary happiness. Farther north,

peared

in

in

Malawi, a

new

poetic talent ap-

1981 with the publication of )ack Ma-

Chameleons and Cods. Mapenje's poetry economical and full of ironic humour, as in his "Poem for 1979" (the International Year of the Child): "Today no poet sufficiently asks why dying children/ Stare or throw bombs / The year of the child must make no difference then/ Where tadpoles are never allowed to grow into frogs." Eastern Africa. The early 1970s saw the beginning of an interesting popular literature in Kenya where, for example, Meja Mwangi's proletarian heroes (Co/ng Down River Road, 1976) inhabit a world of poverty and hunger, far from the angst of exile or of the educated "been-to" (one who has lived long overseas and returned). But Kenyan literature is still dominated by the genius of Ngugi wa penje's is

.

Thiong'o,

whose epic novel

.

.

Petals of

Blood (1977)

did for Kenyan historical experience something of

what Beti did for Cameroon in Remember Ruben. In 1976 Ngugi co-authored a powerful political drama. The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, which prepared the way for his more recent works written in his

native

Kikuyu language. This direction, pio-

neered by the Ugandan poet Okot p'Bitek, is one that other African writers must be expected increasingly to follow: to

compose

first in

one's

own moth-

er tongue and later to widen one's audience through an English (or French) translation. The question of language choice leads to mention of the outstanding Somali novelist Nuruddin Farah, who surprisingly writes in English. Having grown up with both Somali and Arabic as mother tongues, Farah was educated mainly in Italian and only came to English through university studies in India. His

pressive achievement to date is Sweet and Sour Milk (1979), a terrifying depiction of a totalitarian society through which the hero makes a sad odyssey in quest of the truth about his brother's murder. Writing of a society in which the status of women particularly depressed, Farah displays a deep is imaginative sympathy with their plight.

Ghana, Francophone Africa. The recent literature and South Africa, so closely welded to action and to a deeply rooted political movement, makes some of the earlier literature of bourgeois black nationalism look like attitudinizing and breastbeating in a void. The Ghanaian novelist Ayi Kwei Armah came close to this in his third book, Why Are We So Blesti' (1974), and did not altogether avoid it in his more ambitious Two Thousand Seasons (1973), in which he attempted to encompass African history within the microcosm of a fictional plot. But with the publication of The Healers in 1978, Armah raised his reputation to new heights. The hero of this novel, Densu, represents a lone idea struggling of Angola

against a corrupt system (the structure of the novel

here closely resembles Soyinka's Season of Anomy However, Armah lends a special dimen-

of 1973).

it to the Ashanti war and the unholy alliance subsequently established between the local chiefs and the alien con-

sion to this struggle by relating

of 1874

querors. This historical consciousness

so strongly from the early 1950s to the early 1970s.

The eminent Sembene Ousmane of Senegal, who for some years turned his back on fiction in favour of the more immediate art of the film, has, however, produced an impressive new novel in two volumes, Le Dernier de I'Empire. A deeply felt feminist novel, Une si longue lettre, by a new Senegalese woman writer, Mariama Ba, also appeared in 1981. The Congolese poet Tchicaya U Tamsi remains as prolific as ever, with three volumes of poetry and several plays published during the 1970s; these include, no-

drama Le Zulu (presented at the 1976 Avignon Festival) and the lyric collection La Veste d'interieur (1977). Although not living by his pen, U Tamsi thus joins the lonely example of Leopold Senghor (president of Senegal, 1960-80, and tably, the verse

originator, with the

West

oeuvre

in

Indian

Aime

Cesaire, of

having produced a real which the development of his art can be

the concept of negritude)

in

traced over three decades.

on the works cited above the author's Twelve African Writers

Bibliographical information will

from

(1980)

closeness to Somali dialogue. His most im-

much more

Two Thousand Seasons, where the subject matter tends to be crushed under the weight of abstraction. In Francophone Africa generally there has been a slackening in the flow of fiction and poetry that ran

English has a distinctive flavour deriving, perhaps, its

is

effective than the rather diffuse effect of

be found

and

in

in

Lewis Nkosi's Tasks and

lviask
eriments and in the operation of the space station until they returned to Earth on March 30. On May 14 Leonid Popov and Dumitru Prunariu, a Romanian, were launched in Soyuz 40, and they joined Kovalenok and Savinykh at Salyut on the following day. They carried on the work of Dzhanibekov and Gurragcha and operated special detectors in Earth resources and space environmental studies. Thev returned to Earth on May 22.

After 75 days Kovalenok and Savinykh left the Salyut 6 and landed on Earth on May 26. The Sovithen announced that there would be no more manned space flights for several months. In China

ets

Wang Zhuanshan (Wang Chuan-shan), secretary general of the China Space Research Society, announced that his nation would not be launching astronauts until after the 1980s. Launch Vehicles. After a frustrating two-day delay, the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia" lifted off on its maiden voyage on April 12 from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Fla. It was piloted by veteran astronaut John Young, commander of Apollo 16 when it landed on the Moon in 1972. His co-pilot was Robert Crippen, who had never flown in space although he had been an

as-

tronaut for 15 years.

The basic objective of the mission was to prove the flightworthiness and reliability of the orbiter in delivering men into orbit and returning them to Earth, but it was also designed to verify the combined systems performance of all elements of the space shuttle. Once launched, the "Columbia" performed as its designers and builders had predicted and went smoothly into orbit. The vehicle lofted approximately 5% more than expected, a deviation that could have caused some problems in case of an aborted mission. This condition was largely offset, however, because the liquid-propellant engines produced slightly greater thrust than expected. The only other problems were the loss of or damage to 164 of the approximately 31,000 heatprotective tiles on various parts of the orbiter and trouble with the communications link among the five computers aboard the orbiter. Concern over the loss of tiles led to an attempt to photograph the underside of the orbiter during the mission using U.S. Air Force cameras at Malibar, Fla., and Maui, Hawaii. These efforts were unsuccessful, but pictures made by an Air Force KH-11 reconnaissance satellite showed that there was no damage that could cause trouble upon reentry. "Columbia" landed at Edwards Air Force Base in California

on April 14 as planned and without motor cases were

incident. Both solid-propellant

recovered for refurbishment and later reuse. In summing up the mission, Neil B. Hutchinson, flight director at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, said, "Having simulated for years, practicing every malfunction we could

possibly dream up, I just kept waiting for something to go wrong and nothing did. We took this brand-new vehicle that's never been in the air, ran it through its paces, and it performed absolutely

A view

admirably." After an eight-day postponement because of impaired auxiliary power units that operated the oil hydraulic system, "Columbia" was launched for its second mission from Cape Canaveral on November 12. Piloted by Joe Engle and Richard Truly, both making their first space flights, the orbiter again performed successfully though the mission was shortened because of a malfunctioning fuel cell. The astronauts tested the craft's 15-m (50-ft) remote-controlled mechanical arm and photographed lightning flashes from orbit. In contrast with the first mission, only 12 of the heat-

(above) was taken from the cargo bay window on the flight deck and shows the cargo area of the shuttle as well as several areas of missing tiles on the pods housing the spacecraft's maneuvering engines.

protective tiles were damaged and none was lost. Engle and Truly successfully landed "Columbia" at

Edwards Air Force Base on November was planned for March 1982.

14.

A

third flight

Elsewhere during the year the initial attempt to launch the privately financed, unmanned Percheron space vehicle from Matagorda Island, off the Texas coast, ended in disaster as the vehicle exploded on lift-off. However, the third test flight of esa's Ariane launch vehicle on June 19 from the ESA launch centre at Kourou, French Guiana, was a complete success and moved that vehicle into a more competitive position in relation to other launch vehicles. During 1981 the U.S. Department of Defense estimated that the giant lainch vehicle currently under development by the Soviet Union had a payload capability ranging from 177,000 to 206,000 kg (390,000 to 455,000 lb). If this was true.

of the cloud-covered Earth from the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia" was provided in April.

The photograph

632

Space Exploration

the vehicle would exceed greatly the capability of the Saturn V vehicle developed for the Apollo space program, w^hich had a low-Earth orbital capability of only 127,000 kg (280,000 lb). Possible payloads for the Soviet vehicle included large manned space stations and very heavy, high-energy-beam space weapons. Unmanned Satellites. Late in 1981 the U.S. Congress expressed criticism of a proposed sale by the U.S. of some $79 million worth of communications satellites and related technology to the Arab Satellite Communications Organization for the three-satellite Arabsat system. In view of this congressional disapproval, the sale was canceled. Also during the year France announced that it was undertaking studies to adapt its Spot Earth resources satellite for conversion to a military

reconnaissance satellite. The proposed satellite would operate in a Sun-synchronous, near-polar orbit.

Most launching activity during the year consisted of communications satellites. On Nov. 15, 1980, the U.S. launched the first sbs (Satellite Business Systems) satellite. Placed in a geosynchronous orit was developed to provide business data channels to commercial users such as computer services firms, insurance companies, and automotive and electronics manufacturers. A second sbs bit,

was launched on of

improved

Sept. 24, 1981.

The

first

in a series

Intelsat 5 satellites, capable of

han-

dling 12,000 telephone calls and two colour-television channels simultaneously, was launched on Dec. 6, 1980. A second satellite was put into orbit on May 23, 1981, bringing to 12 the number of satellites owned and operated by the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, which handles about two-thirds of the world's overseas communications traffic. The international cooperative space program of the U.S.S.R. continued on February 6 with the launch of Intercosmos 21. The scientific satellite contained experiments from Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. Studies were cosmonaut Leonid Popov (left) and Romanian cosmonaut Dumitru

Soviet

Prunariu aulograplied their descent module after they returned to Earth from a successful space mission in

May.

made

of the oceans and of Earth's surface. Later in the year the Soviet Union and France collaborated

equipping and launching the Arcad 3 satellite on September 21. It was designed to gather data on the magnetosphere in the polar regions. in

The U.S. Explorer series of scientific satellites gained two spacecraft when Dynamics Explorer A and B were launched together August 3. Their mission was to study the interactions between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere. Also, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was launched on October 6 to study the production of ozone in the mesosphere. Probes. On October 30 the U.S.S.R. launched Venera 13. The probe was expected to arrive at Venus in March 1982 and attempt a soft landing. As analysis of data from the U.S. Pioneer Venus probe continued, scientists became convinced that the extremely hot surface temperature of the plan482° C (900° F), is due to an atmospheric green-

et,

house effect, in which radiation arriving from the Sun is trapped by gases in the planet's atmosphere and not reflected back into space. Other data from the probe suggested that the atmosphere of Venus received much higher quantities of several elements from the Sun than did Earth during the evolution of the solar system. Gases found there included argon-36, krypton, and xenon. Data from Voyager 1 indicated that Saturn's moon Titan has a diameter of 5,117 km (3,180 mi). Its atmosphere extends about ten times higher above its surface than does that of Earth, and the pressure at the surface is 1.5 times that on Earth. The temperature at the surface of Titan is about -181.7° C (-295° F), and the atmospheric density at the surface is some five times as great as that at the Earth's surface. Even though Voyager 1 had long since left Saturn, the data gathered by it provided project scientists with much information, especially concerning the structure of the planet's rings. Two so-called shepherding satellites were discovered in Saturn's F ring. Early in 1981 nasa made the decision to target Voyager 2 for Uranus after its en-

Major

Satellites

and Space Probes Launched

Oct.

1,

1980-Sept. 30, 1981

Phyticolchoroctgfistici

Orbital elements

Name/country/' lounch vehtcle

Inclination

Perioee

inkmt

Rodugo? USS.R.DIe/ 1980-081

Apogee inkmt

Period to Equotor (min)

{deflree*)

634 Spain

Spain A

monarchy of southwest Europe, bounded by Portugal, with which it shares the Iberian Peninsula, and by France. Area: constitutional

Spain

is

504,750 sq

km

(194,885 sq mi), including the Baislands. Pop. (1981 est.): 37,547,000, including the Balearics and Canaries. Cap. and largest city: Madrid (pop., 1981 est., 3,267,500). Language: Spanish. Religion: Roman Catholic. King, Juan Carlos I; premiers in 1981, learic

and Canary

Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez and, from February 25, Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo y Bustelo. Premier Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez started 1981 under pressure, as Spain's ruling Union Centro Democratico (ucd) coalition threatened to disintegrate over the issues of terrorism in the Basque region, regional autonomy, and more liberal divorce laws. On January 29 Suarez resigned as premier and leader of the ucd. In a television broadcast he stated that he did not wish Spain's

new democracy

to become "once again a parenthethe history of Spain." Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo y Bustelo (see Biographies), the second vicepremier, was selected by the ucd executive committee to replace him, despite opposition from the Christian Democrat section. Calvo Sotelo was nominated as premier on February 10 but was unable to muster the required overall majority in the 350-member Cortes (parliament). The deputies therefore reassembled on February 23 for a plenary session to hold a second vote on Calvo Sotelo's candidacy. As they were in the process of voting, armed Civil Guards led by Lieut. Col. Antonio Tejero Molina broke into the Cortes, took members of the lower house hostage, and announced that a "competent military authority" sis in

The European Space Agency's launch vehicle, Ariane, had a successful test flight in June from Kourou, French Guiana.

counter with Saturn. In February Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere of Jupiter for the second time, and on August 25 it made its closest approach to Saturn, passing 101,386 km (63,000 mi) above the planet's cloud tops. Despite a balky sensor platform that malfunctioned while the probe was behind Saturn, the Voyager 2 mission was pronounced highly successful. Photographs of the ring system showed that there was a "kinky" ring within the Encke division similar to the "braided" strands of the F ring discovered by Voyager 1. After examining pictures of the planetary ring system, scientists placed the estimated number of rings about Saturn in the thousands. Other photographs showed that Saturn's moon Tethys has a crater some 400 km (250 mi) in diameter and 16 km (10 mi) ."leep, the largest observed in the Saturnian system. Other photographs from Voyager 2 showed in greater detail than those of Voyager 1 the turbulence and complex dynamics of the Saturnian atmosphere. Finally, Voyager 2 discovered a doughnut-shaped region of plasma surrounding the planet centred on the orbits of Rhea and Dione. In commenting on the temperature of the ring, S. M. Drimigis, of Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, said, "These temperatures are about 300 times hotter than the solar corona."

(MITCHELL

R.

SHARPE)

See also Astronomy; Defense; Earth Sciences; Industrial Review: Aerospace and Telecommunications; Television and Radio.

(thought to be Gen. Alfonso Armada Comyn, deputy chief of staff of the Army) would arrive shortly to begin the process of setting up a new government. Meanwhile, Lieut. Gen. Jaime Milans del Bosch declared a state of emergency in the name of the king in the military region of Valencia and sent tanks into the streets. King Juan Carlos I (see Biographies) reacted to the takeover by convening the Council of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and forming the secretaries and undersecretaries of state into a temporary government. The heads of the military regions were then ordered to stand firm behind the crown, and troops and police were confined to their quarters. The king personally prevailed on Lieutenant General Milans del Bosch to withdraw his troops from Valencia. After prolonged negotiations and the intervention of General Armada and the head of the Civil Guard, Tejero was persuaded to surrender and placed under arrest. Both Lieutenant General Milans del Bosch and General Armada were relieved of their posts. In the aftermath the king

warned politicians to avoid antagonizing the armed forces. Calvo Sotelo was finally endorsed as premier by 186 votes to 158. His new Cabinet contained no military representative. King Juan Carlos received a mixed welcome during his February 3-5 visit to the Basque region.

635

Spain

Curious onlookers watched as authorliies removed bodies from an automobile that had been bombed in Madrid in May, The automobile had contained a military aide to King luan Carlos and several officers. Three persons died in the blast.

The day

after his visit ended, the kidnapped chief engineer of the Lemoniz nuclear power station was found murdered; the military wing of the Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna (eta) claimed responsibility. The death in police custody of Jose Arregui Izaguirre,

a Basque militant, resulted in top-level resignations from the police. On February 28 eta's political

wing announced an

ditional cease-fire.

indefinite

In reply,

and uncon-

the military

wing

stepped up its campaign of murdering high-ranking police and military officers in an attempt to provoke a military coup. By April 1 a law was passed making it an offense to advocate terrorism or support the overthrow of democracy. Legislation to allow the government to declare states of alarm, emergency, and siege was rushed through by April 24.

While visiting West Germany in April, Calvo announced that Spain was seeking to accelits entry into nato. The opposition Socialist Party, however, proposed that the question of

Sotelo erate

NATO

entry be postponed until after the 1983 elecmade the subject of a national referendum. Negotiations on Spain's accession to the European Communities (EC) remained blocked. France continued to advocate that the EC complete its own internal negotiations on the common agricultural policy before the problem of Spanish accession was addressed. A wages pact signed by unions, employers, and the government in early June provided the backing for economic policy up to the end of 1982. A 9-11% private-sector wage increase was agreed on, allowing an extra 150 billion pesetas to be invested in the public sector. In return, the government promised to create 350,000 jobs and to ensure that the record unemployment rate of nearly 13% did not worsen significantly. Under consideration was a framework for regional autonomy based on the Enterria Report, which advised greater central control of the regions, a slowdown in the pace of devolution, and parity among the 16 autonomous tions or

SPAIN Education. (1979-60) Primary, pupils 6,896,027, teachers 224,704; secondary, pupils 1,055,788, teachers 63,645; vocational, pupils 515,119, teachers 33,583; higher, students 634,950, teachers 36,518. Finance. Moneury unit: peseta, with (Sept 21, 1981) a free rate of 92.07 peseus to U.S. SI (170.70 pesetas = £1 sterling). Cold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $11,016,000,000. Budget (1980 ac-

revenue 2,148,000,000,000 pesetas; expendi2,352,000,000,000 peseUs. Cross domestic

(1979):

visitors

38,902,000;

receipts

U.S.

$6,-

484,000,000

Transport and Communications. Roads

(includ-

ing rural paths, 1980) 237,904 km (including 2,008 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1980): passenger 7,556,500; commercial 1,338,300. Railways (1979): 15,344 km (including 5,691 km electrified); traffic 17,151,000,000 passenger-km, freight 10,912,-

(1979) 13,144,000,000,000 pesetas. Money supply (June 1981) 4,035,000,000,000 pesetas. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 1981) 258 8. Foraign Trada. (1980) imports 2,450,700,000,000 pesetas, exports 1,493,2(X),000,000 peseus Import sources: EEC 31% France 8%, West Germany 8%, Italy 5%, U.K. 5%), U.S. 13%; Saudi Arabia 9%; Iraq

000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 15,517,000,000 passenger-km; freight 417.6 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 1(X) gross tons and over 2,767; gross tonnage 8,112,245. Telephones (1979) 11,107,600. Radio receivers (1976) 9.3 million. Television receivers (1976) 7,425,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): wheat 5,901; barley 8,561; oats 664; rye 292; corn 2,297; rice 433; potatoes 5,742; sugar, raw value

5%

c

tual):

ture

produa

(

Export destinations:

EEC

50%

(France

17%,

West Germany 10%, Italy 8%, U.K. 7%), U.S. 6%. Main exports: machinery 13%,; motor vehicles 11%; fruit and vegetables 10%: iron and steel 9%; chemicals 7%; textiles and clothing 5%. Tourism

949; tomatoes 2,173; onions 914; cabbages (1979) c. 538; melons (1979) 705; watermelons (1979) 520; apples 911; pears (1979) 480; peaches (1979) 395, oranges 1,741; mandarin oranges and tangerines 993; lemons 359; sunflower seed 488; bananas 464; olives

2,435; olive oil 488; wine 4,243; tobacco c. 30; cotton, lint 45; cow's milk c. 5,996; eggs c. 649; meat 2,410; fish catch (1979) 1,205, Livestock (in 000; c.

1980): cattle 4,679; pigs 10,715; sheep 14,547; goats 2,100; horses (1979) c 260; mules (1979) c. 257; asses (1979) c. 238; chickens c. 53,500. Industry, index of industrial production (1975 100; 1980) 117. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; c.

=

1980): coal 12,733; lignite 15,704; crude

oil c.

1,220;

manufactured gas (cu m) c. 1,570,000; electricity (kw-hr) 1 10,194,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): cement 28,008; iron ore (50% metal content) 8,865; pig iron 6,723; crude steel 12,553; aluminum (1979) 254; copper (1979) 166; zinc (1979) 186; petroleum products (1978) c. 44,620; sulfuric acid

(1979) c. 2,906; fertilizers (nutrient content; 197980) nitrogenous 950, phosphate c. 478, potash 669; cotton yarn (1977) 82; wool yarn (1977) 35; manmade fibres (1978) 251; passenger cars (units) 1,024; commercial vehicles (units) 151. Merchant vessels

launched (100 gross tons and over; 1980) 510,000 gross tons.

636

The Helsinki Accords Review Conference

Speleology

The second follow-up meeting to review the 1975 Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (cscE) started in Madrid on Nov. 11, 1980, and was adjourned for three months at the end of July 1981. After a further session (October 27-December 18), the meeting recessed again unfollow-up meeting, held in Belgrade, Yugos., in 1977-78, provisions on human rights and fundamental freedoms under Principle VII of the 1975 Helsinki Final Act formed the centre of debate. The Madrid meeting tackled the same issues in its first phase, but security issues remained at the top of the agenda thereafter. The main arguments were about a conference on disarmament in Europe (cde) and the so-called confidence-building measures (cbm). Under some pressure from its Western European allies, the U.S. agreed to the proposal, first put forward by France in January 1978, for a European disarmament conference. The Soviet Union showed keen interest, but disagreement arose over modalities. The Soviet Union and its allies wanted a mandate for the conference to be held in 1982. The Western side insisted that there should be a first phase that would set out a substantive framework for the Cbm's to cover troop movements on the European til

Feb. 9, 1982. At the

first

continent.

There was disagreement about the area to be covered by cbm's. On the basis of the definitions in

the Helsinki Final Act, the Soviet leadership

and Communists conducted active campaigns which included wall posters against the proposed entrance of Spain into

NATO.

divorce law was passed in June. During the May-November period 12,522 people were affected by a mysterious disease and over 200 people died. Symptoms included respiratory complaints, rashes, and blindness. Finally, a laboratory in Valencia connected the illness with the consumption of adulterated rapeseed oil being sold as "olive oil." The cooking oil scandal involved the ministries of agriculture, commerce, health,

and labour. remained in the grip

Iberia

of the

military movements, including those of the U.S. and Canadian armies, had to be reported. In Madrid the Western side proposed a zone that would cover the whole continent of Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals and also the "adjoining sea area and air space ... in so far as the activities of

forces operating there are an integral part of notifi[I.e., maneuvers] on the continent." The Soviet side counterproposed a cbm zone covering the whole of the European continent with adjoin-

able acts

ing sea and air areas of "corresponding width." According to the Western side this was ambiguous and could be interpreted to cover an area stretching as far west as Philadelphia. During 1981 the Soviet Union continued its repressive measures against various groups of dissidents. As the meeting entered its final phase, little hope was held out for any agreement in this sphere, but there was held to be some possibility of agreement on the cbm's because of the Soviet side's wish for a conference to promote its "peace campaign" in Europe. However, the Polish military takeover, strongly condemned by the Western side before the meeting adjourned on December 18, created a

new

impasse.

was

areas to be established by 1983. The Basque and Catalan communities reacted negatively. A liberal

Socialists

under no obligation to report troop movements unless they took place in the 250-km (155-mi) zone along the western frontier of the Soviet Union. In Western Europe, however, all major

worst drought

(k. v.

in a century. Harvests of cereals

and

cviic)

olive oil

were

estimated to be 40% below 1980 figures, and 1.3 million people had drinking water for only a few hours a day. Rifts in the ucd widened during the year. In protest against what was seen as a swing to the right, the 16 parliamentary representatives of the Social Democrat wing left the ucd in November to form the Democratic Action (AD) Party, together with defectors from the Socialist Party. However, they continued to cooperate with the government to avoid provoking an early crisis. In the same month Suarez announced his intention to resign from the party. Four right-wingers also left to join the right-wing Alianza Popular after disagreement with the Cabinet over policies on devolution and the divorce bill. Calvo Sotelo reshuffled his Cabinet in early December in an attempt to reunite the (michael wooller) UCD.

Speleology In 1981 explorers continued to discover new passages in many of the world's longest and deepest

The longest of all, the combined Mammoth Cave and Flint Ridge system in Kentucky, was extended to 361.6 km (224.7 mi), and additional passages were being mapped. The length of the Optimisticheskaya cave in the U.S.S.R. was confirmed as 142.4 km (88.5 mi), making it the second longest. The third longest cave, the H61loch in Switzerland, was also lengthened, to 139.8 caves.

km

(86.9 mi).

A new

entrance into this cave

al-

lowed the frequently flooded old entrance passage to be avoided. In South Dakota, Jewel Cave reached 107.2 km (66.6 mi) with the survey still in progress, making this cave the fourth longest. The deepjest cave became significantly deeper. The two caves Gouffre Jean Bernard and Aven B21, joined under the name Reseau de Foillis, were further explored in February by a French expedition led by Pierre Rias. Underground camps were set up at depths of 500 m (1,640 ft) and 900 m (2,95.3 ft), and the end of the cave was reached at a sump 1,455 m (4,774 ft) deep. Exploration led by Jean-Franijois Pernette in the Sima de las Puertas de Illamina (BU56) in the Spanish Pyrenees reached a depth of 1 ,338 m (4,390 ft). Deeper than the Pierre Saint-Martin in the French Pyrenees, it became the second deepest cave in the world. A revised survey of the Pierre Saint-Martin system reduced its overall depth to 1,321 (4,334 ft). This resulted from an improved surface survey between the top and bottom entrances. It was now the third deepest in the world. The fourth deepest became the Snezhnaya cave (U.S.S.R.), where a depth of 1,280 (4,199 ft) was claimed. Sistema Huautia in Mexico remained in fifth place although its depth increased slightly to 1,240 (4,067 ft). A new and higher entrance to the French Gouffre Berger increased its total depth to 1,198 (3,930 ft), thus placing it sixth.

m

m

m

m

A Franco-Spanish team, led by Jean-Francois Pernette, explored the recently discovered Sima Uquerdi (BU56) in Spain, close to the French border at Pierre Saint-Martin. A depth of 1,195

m

ft) was reached, with the cave still continuThe explorers had to stop at the top of a deep rift owing to lack of equipment. In northern Spain a connection discovered between Avenc B15 and

Recurring racial tension between Sri Lanka's Sinhalese and Tamil communities erupted into violence during 1981. The most serious wave of clashes occurred during the second week of August, taking a heavy toll of casualties (no official estimates were released) and damage to property. Pres. Junius Richard Jayawardene used emergency powers more than once to curb riots. Leaders of the Tamil United Liberation Front (tulf) continued their demands for a separate homeland for the Tamil minority. In September the government appointed a high-level committee of Cabinet ministers and TULF leaders to try to resolve the racial problems and to look into the development of the island's poorer areas. The economy failed to make headway despite government measures to attract private investment and improve public sector performance. Government expenditure was slashed by 10%. Nationalized tea, rubber, and coconut plantations, the mainstays of the economy, operated at a loss. Tea production suffered work stoppages during the racial riots. The budget for 1981 showed a massive deficit of SLRs 15 billion. Increased taxes on tobacco and liquor and a 10% surcharge on income tax covered only a fraction of the total deficit. Aid totaling some $830 million was pledged by the 14-nation Sri Lanka Aid Consortium, which met in Tokyo in June. The government pressed ahead with the ambitious Mahaweli River basin development project. The trade agreement with

637 Sri

Lanka

China was renewed

for another year, with China agreeing to provide 80,000 metric tons of rice in exchange for 20,000 metric tons of rubber.

(govindan unny)

(3,921 ing.

the Fuente de Escuain gave a vertical depth to the combined system, renamed Sistema Badalona, of 1,130 (3,707 ft). It became the world's eighth deepest, while a revised survey of the Schneeloch (Austria) reduced it to ninth, at 1,101 (3,612 ft). Tenth was the Gouffre Mirolda in France. The 1980-81 British expedition to Mulu in Sarawak, Borneo, found some 70 km (43.5 mi) of new cave passages. One discovery was the Sarawak Chamber in Nasib Bagus Cave. Measuring nearly 700 (2,297 ft) long by more than 300 (984 ft) wide and 70 (230 ft) high, this was by far the largest known cave in the world. (t. r. shaw)

m

m

m

m

m

Sri

Lanka

Asian republic and member of the Commonwealth, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) occupies an island in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of peninsular India. Area: 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi).

Pop. (1981): 14,859,300, including (1978) Sinhalese about 73% Tamil 19% Moors 7% Cap. and ;

Colombo

LANKA

Education. (1979) Primary, pupils 1,975,749; secondary, primary and secondary, teachers 1,159,967;

pupils

138,488; vocational (19761, pupils 4,778, teachers 1,239; teacher training, students 4,119, teachers 532; higher (1976), students 13,154, teaching staff 2,498. Finance. Monetary unit: Sri Lanka rupee, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of SLRs 19.72 to U.S. $1 (SLRs 36.57 = £1 sterling). Gold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $223 million. Budget (1980 actual); revenue SLRs 14,068,000,000; expenditure SLRs 28,841,000,000. Cross national product (1980) SLRs 68,096,000,000. Money supply (June 1981) SLRs 8,986,000,000. Cost of living (Colombo, 1975 = 100; May 1981) 186.9. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports SLRs 33,360,000,000; exports SLRs 17,799,000,000. Import sources: lapan 13%; Saudi Arabia 10%; U.K. 9%; Iraq 6%; Iran 6%; India 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 11%; U.K. 7%; West Germany 5%; China 5%. Main exports: tea 36%; rubber 15%; clothing 10";,: petroleum products 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1978) 24,911 km Motor vehicles in use 1979) passenger 114,500; commercial 51,700. Railways (1980): c. 1,453 km; traffic c. 3,660,(X)0,000 passenger-km, freight 165 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): c. 691 million passenger-km; freight c. 9.8 million net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1978) 74,200. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 1 million. Agriculture. Production (m 000; metric tons; 1980): rice 2,120; cassava (1979) c, 590; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 130; onions c 67; mangoes c, 58; lemons c. 55; pineapples c. 95; copra c. 126; tea c. 191; coffee c. 10; rubber c. 155; fish catch (19791 166. Livestock (in 000; )une 1979): cattle 1,623; buffalo 844; sheep 24; goals 461; pigs 49; chickens 1

An

largest city:

SRI

;

(pop.,

.

1978

est.,

624,000).

Language: Sinhalese (official), Tamil, English. Religion (1971 ): Buddhist 67% Hindu 18% Christian 8%; Muslim 7%. President in 1981, Junius Richard Jayawardene; prime minister, Ranasinghe Premadasa. ;

;

5,882.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): cec. 650; salt (1979) 123; graphite (exports; 1979) 9.5; c. 1,270; cotton yarn (1979) 8.5; electricity (kw-hr) 1,670,000.

ment

petroleum products (1979)

Squash Rackets: see Racket Games

Stamp Collecting: see Philately and Numismatics Steel Industry:

see Industrial Review

638

Stock Exchanges Despite worldwide recession, record high unemployment rates, unsettling political developments, and turmoil in international currency markets, many of the world's major stock market indexes staged broad-based advances in 1981. In countries where economic activity and stock-market prices moved in opposite directions, equity prices were generally anticipating future changes in economic and business conditions. Of 17 major stock price indexes, 10 were higher at the end of 1981 than at the end of 1980 (Table I). The failure of the global economy to emerge from the recession that hit Western Europe in late 1979 was mainly due to the pursuit of restrictive monetary and fiscal policies by virtually all major industrialized nations in order to restrain inflationary pressures. The resulting sky-high interest rates discouraged capital investment and darkened the prospects for reducing the highest unemployment levels since the depression of the 1930s. Moreover, high inflationary expectations re-

New

York Slock Exchange Composite Index, 1981

Stock prices (Dec. 31. 1965

=

50)

sharply from an annualized level of 1.6 million units in January to 871,000 by November; auto fell

production fell to the lowest level since 1961. The Index of Leading Indicators dropped steadily throughout most of the year, from 136 in January to 127 by December.

Dow

The Jones industrial averages displayed a roller-coaster pattern, starting at 970 in January, dipping

to

932 in February, climbing to 1,015 in

March, achieving the year's high of 1,024 in April, and dropping to 850 between June and September. The index ended the year at 875. All of the component indexes of the Dow Jones averages were off for the year. Dividend yields on the 30 Dow Jones blue-chip stocks averaged 6.46% in November, compared with a 13.16% average yield on Barron's best-grade corporate bonds. Interest rates

remained

at

high levels during

1981 as the Federal Reserve Board acted throughout the year to curb the growth in the money sup-

ply within

its

target range of 3.5 to

6%

in order to

combat inflation. The actual growth rate was only 3%. The prime rate, which rose to a historic high in December 1980 at 21.5%, declined to 17% in April 1981 and then rose to 20.5% during the summer before declining to 15.75% by the year's end.

Money market funds maintained their popularity because of their high short-term yields, and their grew by $111.4 billion. The volume of trading on the New York Stock Exchange (nyse) during 1981 was 11,853,740,659 shares, up 4% from the 1980 figure of 11, 352, 293,531. This slight gain compared with the 39% growth in volume recorded in 1980. The most actotal assets

were ibm Corp. with a turnover of 1,329,659,100 shares, Exxon Corp. 115,818,000, Sony Corp. 105,281,000, AT&T 103,857,200, Mobil Corp. 92,195,100, Texaco Inc. 91,964,000, General Motors Corp. 85,350,900, and Sears, Roebuck and Co. 80,459,600. Bond sales on the nyse totaled $5,733,071,000 in 1981, up 10% from the volume of $5,190,304,000 the year before. Block trades of more than 10,000 shares, an indicator of institutional activity, rose to about 35% of the total volume on the exchange. On Jan. 7, 1981, Joseph Granville (see Biographies), a leading investment adviser, triggered a massive sell-off in the market with a record volume of 92,881,420 shares and a price drop of 23.80 on the Dow industrials as a result of his midnight warning to his subscribers to "sell everything." tive stocks

Three securities firms collapsed

in 1981, includ-

& Co., a leader in "hot new issues." major concern was the potential invasion of the investment banking field by banks and insurance companies as a response to the successful development of money market instruments by the brokerage firm Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc. Dean Witter Reynolds Organization Inc. merged with Sears, Roebuck and Co. to create the largest financial services empire in the U.S. American Express Co. acquired Shearson, Loeb Rhoades Inc., and Prudential Insurance Co. of America bought Bache Group Inc. Morgan Stanley & Co., the largest underwriter of securities issues in 1981 reported $11,910,000,000 of securities underwritten as either sole manager or lead manager, an ing John Muir

A

all-time record.

The entire volume was $57.7 billion.

of

639

underwrit-

ings for the year

Stock Exchanges

A number of significant innovations were introin 1981 including debt-equity swaps and zero-coupon bonds. A debt-equity swap permitted a company to exchange treasury stock for outstanding debt, thereby improving the debt-equity ratio on its balance sheet. The zero-coupon bonds were offered at deep discounts from face value to be redeemed at full face amount at maturity, thereduced

by locking

in the effective interest rate and providing protection against early call.

Table

I.

Selected Major World Stock Price Indexes'

640

Stock Exchanges

Volume of trading on the American Stock Exchange (Amex) in 1981 was 1,343,525,000 shares, down 17% from the 1980 figure of 1,625,790,000. Of the 957 issues traded, 424 advanced, 521 declined, and 12 were unchanged over the year. This contrasted with the 1980 figures, in which there were 600 advances and only 369 declines. Bond sales on the Amex were also off sharply with a year-to-year drop of 15%. The over-the-counter markets recorded record activity levels as volume hit 7,640,811,342 shares on the Nasdaq system in 1981, compared with 6,547,983,023 in 1980 and only 3,560,058,254 in 1979. Nasdaq, a nationwide electronic system in which 3,700 stocks are quoted by members of the National Association of Securities Dealers, raised its listing requirements. Mutual funds staged a comeback in 1981, with

New

York Slock Exchange Common Stock Index Closing Prices = 50)

Stock prices (Dec. 31. 1965

1959

14 000

1961

1963

1965

1967

1969

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

arm of the nyse. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange offered to trade options on five foreign currencies; the Amex proposed trading options on certificates of deposit and on certain promissory notes; and the Pacific Stock Exchange sought to trade options on gold tures Exchange, the trading

coin securities.

The Securities and Exchange Commission (sec) and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) settled their conflict over which agency

and cable television, down 38.79%. The Montreal Stock Exchange agreed with the European Options Exchange in Amsterdam to establish a joint gold options market. The Montreal exchange would operate the market in Canada, and the European Options Exchange would do so in Europe. Options bought on one exchange could be sold on the other. Later, other options classes on commodities of an international nature would be added. The Investment Dealers Association of Canada

should oversee trading in a vast array of proposed nonstock options, stock-index futures contracts, and options on futures contracts. Their informal agreement gave the sec exclusive authority over most options on nonstock securities; the cftc gained control over options on futures contracts for the securities. The sec approved nyse and Amex proposals to trade options contracts on 13- week Treasury bills with principal amounts of $200,000

recorded 1981 as a year of positive developments, with employment up to 20,000 from the prior year's level of 18,500 and with the belief that there were substantial cash funds waiting for an opportunity to reenter the market. This viewpoint conflicted with the attitudes expressed in a poll of Canadian businessmen, who expected higher

options contracts on 26week Treasury bills with principal amounts of $100,000 and $150,000. The commission also approved an NYSE proposal to trade options on Treasury bonds and notes with principal amounts of $20,000 and $100,000. Canada. The Canadian recession was felt in the second half of 1981, as industrial production fell month after month in the face of tight money and unemployment hit a record level of 8.6% in December, the highest figure in 35 years. While the gross national product (gnp) rose during the year, the real gains were small after accounting for the inflation factor. Interest rates were high, and a bearish mood prevailed in the stock markets. The Conference Board expressed concern about poor

(IRVING PFEFFER) Western Europe. Stock markets in the four largest European economies recorded mixed results in 1981. Italy and the United Kingdom experienced gains of 13 and 12% respectively. In contrast, France posted a decline of 18% and West Germany ended the year down 1%. Among the remaining European stock markets, higher prices

and SI million and

to

list

unemployment and a deterioration of nomic performance by the end of the

overall ecoyear.

,

,

economic performance

prevailed in Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Norway, and Belgium. On the bearish side were Austria and Switzerland, while in The Netherlands prices showed no change. The stock market in Italy not only had the best relative performance among Europe's largest economies in 1981, but it was also the most volatile. Prices on the Milan Stock Exchange at the end of December were 13% higher than at the begin-

rates,

ning of the year.

as a result of high interest continuing double-digit inflation, a weak

economy, and growing emphasis on restraint in government spending. Monetary policy was extremely tight. Short-term rates were below the levels of 1980, but long-term rates rose. Canada 90-day treasury bills ended the year at 15% compared with 17% a year earlier. Bellwether bonds such as the Canada 10% 1984's yielded 15.15%, compared with 12.77% a year earlier, and Canada 10V4% 2004's yielded 15.50%, contrasted with 12.71% in 1980. The prime rate, which started the

A

strong rally began in January

U.S.

,

year

at

18%

,

climbed to a record 22.75% in early

August but closed 1981 at 16.5%, the lowest level in more than a year. The Toronto Stock Exchange recorded a poor performance in 1981, well behind the gains of the previous year. Share prices dropped sharply, and both volume and value were down. The market, as measured by its broadly based composite index of 300 stocks,

fell

14%

in 1981, closing at 1,954.24.

Volume from

totaled 1,520,000,000 shares, 1980, while the value of trading

down 28% was Can$25

down from the record CanS29.3 billion a year earlier. The major factor affecting the Toronto exchange in 1981 was the continuing high level of interest rates. All of the major indexes of stocks billion,

were down except

for electrical

and

electronics,

up

47.07%; property management and investment, up 61.10%; and tobacco, up 24.70%. Large losses were reflected in transportation equipment, down 41.62%; metal mines, off 39.55%; gold, off 36.38%;

The Financial Times Industrial Ordinary Share Index Annual averages. 1959-81

641

Stock Exchanges

642

Stock Exchanges

and accelerated over the next five months. On June 3 stock prices were nearly 70% above the 1980 close. This increase was triggered by a financial and political climate replete with uncertainty and

of the loss by the end of March. Investors, nevbecame disheartened by news of a deep drop in industrial output, which pointed to a widening of the recession that had begun in the all

ertheless,

fears of

runaway inflation. As a result investors flocked to the stock market as a means of protecting savings against an inflation rate that in March was

last

18% higher than a year earlier. Moreover, the collapse of Italy's 41st post-World War II government near the end of May was viewed as causing more

emerged victorious

delay in rejuvenating the stagnant Italian economy and attacking inflation. However, the speculative fever was substantially reduced when equity investors were required to settle transactions in three days instead of the month permitted in the past. From June 3 to July 24 equity values fell by 43%. A resumption of the rally following a slight easing of the settlement rules caused equity prices to retrace more than one-half of the previous losses by the end of August before profit takers gained the upper hand. From that point until mid-October the market plunged another 23 ?o. The subsequent rebound was relatively moderate (11%) despite an improved political climate following the formation of a new coalition government in July and its announced intention to achieve a 15% inflation rate for 1982. Stock prices finished nearly 33% below the year's high and 17% above the low. In Great Britain the Financial Times index of 30 industrial issues traded on the London Stock Exchange rose for the second year in a row. From the end of 1980 to the end of 1981 stock prices on average jumped 12% and the index recorded an alltime high on April 30, surpassing the previous ,

set on May 4, 1979. Throughout 1981 the British economy continued

peak

to deteriorate as the

Conservative Party govern-

ment continued its anti-inflationary policies aimed at curbing government expenditures, reducing the public sector borrowing requirement, and keeping a close rein on the nation's money supply. As a

quarter of 1979, and by signs that Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing's bid for reelection was in jeopardy. When Socialist leader Francois Mitterrand in the May 10 presidential runoff election, thus ending 23 years of conservative rule in France, heavy selling took place. By mid-June equity values had fallen nearly 30% from their level the day before the election. Subsequently, the Mitterrand government announced plans to nationalize 11 of the nation's largest industrial firms along with the remaining privately owned banks and insurance companies. Terms of the government's compensation for stockholders, however, were much more favourable than expected, and an August rally to correct market's the oversold condition continued

through September. Following that advance, the general index of share prices on the Paris Bourse traded between a high of 98 and a low of 86 from September through December. In an attempt to buoy investor confidence, Mitterrand pledged no further nationalization of publicly owned companies for at least five years. Stock prices at the end of December were 18% lower than at the end of 1980 but 19% above the June lows. In West Germany the stock market drifted within a relatively narrow range throughout 1981 and ended the year at about the same level as the 1980 close. The Commerzbank index of 60 issues traded on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange reached its 1981 high on July 3; the low was set on February 16. After a hesitant start stock prices followed the downward trend that had been in force since January 1979. The bearish attitude of investors reflected the country's worst economic performance since the recovery after World War II. Equity selling picked up in July, when it became evident that

West Germany's economy would remain

in reces-

economic recession that began in mid1979 was sharper and steeper than in other Western nations. Unemployment during 1981 reached

sion at least until 1982. From July 4 to October 31, share prices slipped 10%. Industrial output was

highest level since the 1930s. However, the government's deflationary policies led to a sharp recovery in investor confidence and widespread hope that the recession would soon end. In addition, the rate of decline of industrial output slowed appreciably as the year progressed, suggesting that the recession might have bottomed

in November rose to 6.4% of the labour force, the highest rate in 28 years. This relatively poor economic performance was aggravated by the increased value of the U.S. dollar against the Deutsche Mark in foreign exchange markets. The weakness of the mark against the dollar meant that more marks were required to pay for dollar-denominated imports, thus feeding in-

result the

its

The government's September announcement it would keep public sector wage increases to 4% coupled with the decline in wage settlements out.

that

,

in the private sector, further reinforced investor beliefs that future gains in productivity

spectacular.

and

would be

Expectations of economic recovery

grim economic picture were also fueled by the British government's proposed 1982 legislative program, which a significant reversal of a

reaffirmed anti-inflationary policies as the nation's highest priority, as well as by economic predictions that the country's worst recession since

World War

II

would end within months.

Stock prices in France took a beating in 1981. fell sharply in January but recovered

Equity values

expected to decline during the year as a whole.

Unemployment

and forcing a restrictive monetary policy. At the first sign of solid strength in the Deutsche Mark, the West German Central Bank in October reduced its interest rate to commercial banks for borrowing on securities, the first such cut since January 1979. It appeared, however, that it would take more than the potentially bullish consequences of an ease in monetary policy to drive up stock prices, which finished the year not far from the levels recorded in October but almost 34% below the all-time highs set on Sept. 5, 1960. Sweden experienced a strong stock market for the second year in a row. After a modest decline in January, average share prices on the Stockholm flation

Exchange moved steadily higher until the end of April, when prices began to advance much faster. In May and June stock prices jumped 9 and 9 2 % resp>ectively. By August 10 prices had surged 63% above the January lows. The technical correction '

,

industrial shares traded on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange also climbed to a record high. From the

end

of 1980 to the

end

of 1981 the index

despite the country's problems with race relations and border .

tensions. South Africa's inflation-adjusted

most 18% before the rally resumed in early October. The ensuing rebound recovered nearly all of these losses and kept the bullish trend intact. For 1981 as a whole the gain in equity value amounted to 45% the best performance among the 17 major

of

,

The stock market in Spain was also a star performer in 1981. The price index of shares traded on the Madrid Stock Exchange was up 24% after rising 6% in 1980. The rally appeared to be an extension of the upward trend established in April 1980 a reversal of the long decline in equity prices

and

that had begun in 1974. The rise in equity values occurred following the political violence that led to the selection of Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo (see Biographies) as premier after an attempted coup by right-wing military forces. Deep resentment over double-digit inflation and rising unemployment reportedly played a part in the attempted coup.

Thus, spirited rallies in the stock market were touched off when the new government announced an easing of regulations in order to spur investments, and a wage agreement was concluded between the country's principal unions and the national employers' confederation, which guaranteed

wage

After stock prices peaked in late September, they moved gradually lower until November, when the decline accelerated following the resignation of 17 members from Premier Calvo Sotelo's party and the outbreak of social unrest among disenchanted farm workers. As a result stock prices ended the year 15% below the peak recorded in September. Other Countries. Stock markets in Japan and South Africa followed a bullish pattern. The index of 225 issues traded on the Tokyo Stock Exchange jumped 9% in 1981 to its highest level ever recorded. Extending the bull market that began near the end of 1977, stock prices began rising sharply in March and by the end of June were up over 9%. Despite the 1980 oil price increases of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, which produced inflationary pressures and hurt economic growth, the Japanese economy turned in the best performance of the major industrial countries. Much of the country's success could be attributed to maintaining productivity gains at a rate higher than wage increases and to restricting the growth of the money supply. The Nikkei Dow Jones average of leading industrial stocks pierced the 8,000 level for the first time in mid-August, but increased credit requirements on share purchases triggered a sharp reaction. By the end of October equity values had fallen 7%. News that the government planned to stimulate lagging industries and that the Bank of Japan had lowered its discount rate to S'/iz from 6'/2% to encourage domestic activity set the stage for a rebound. Consequently, as 1981 came to a close the Tokyo stock market was headed higher. In South Africa the Rand Daily Mail index of restraint in

1982.

gained

18% This strong performance occurred

that followed caused stock prices to backtrack al-

stock price indexes.

643

Stock Exchanges

GNP was among

growth

the highest in the world, and

the dividend rate on equity securities grew at an annual rate of 20%. This exceeded the 16% inflation rate and thus provided investors with a real

gain after inflation. The influence of worldwide recession and social unrest was especially apparent in the Australian stock market. Average share prices on the Sydney Stock Exchange dipped 17% from year-end 1980 to year-end 1981, while the retreat in the All Ordinaries Index from its record high set in October 1980 to the October 1981 low amounted to 48%. This reflected the general decline in world demand for raw materials and precious metals, a result of lower economic activity and the trend toward energy conservation. In addition, labour turbulence in coal, wool, and several service industries raised doubts among major foreign buyers about the reliability of Australia as a source of supply for natural resources and threatened to drive up costs, making the country less competitive internationally.

Commodity

IMarlcets.

Sharply

lower

generally prevailed in international

prices

commodity commodity

markets during 1981. The Economist's which measures spot prices in terms of the U.S. dollar for 29 internationally traded commodities, fell 20% from the end of 1980 to mid-December 1981. Major factors underlying the weakness in overall commodity prices included the slowdown in real growth of the economies of the developed nations, record high interest rates, a strong U.S. dollar, lower oil prices, and decelprice indicator,

erating inflation. The four major

components of The Economist's index of commodity prices all declined in 1981. The average price level of foodstuffs plunged 23% fibres 20%, industrial materials 13%, and metals 3% Relatively high interest rates played a major role in keeping down prices of key agricultural commodities, since they discourage inventory replenishment and encourage farmers to sell products rather than store them. The softness in nonfood commodity prices reflected an unwinding of .

inflationary expectations. Weakening world trade and the strength in the U.S. dollar tended to drive European countries to raise interest rates, thereby hindering demand for raw materials and metals in particular.

The price of gold, an inflation bellwether, fell below $400 an ounce in July for the first time since 1979. At the end of 1980 gold closed in the London market at $589.50 an ounce. By March 5 the price had dropped to $457 before a rally pushed it to $547.25 on March 27. After the price of gold fell below the $400 level, it rebounded and traded between $464 and $395 for the rest of the year. At the end of December the London gold quotation settled at $400, a net decline of

32%

whole.

(ROBERT

See a/so Economy, World. [534.D.3.g.i]

for 1981 as a H.

TRIGC)

Strilces:

see Industrial Relations

claimed that Libyan planes had bombed several border towns, and Egypt successfully appealed for

Sudan

U.S. assistance in protecting the frontiers of the

Sudan and Egypt. The assassination

A republic of northeast Africa, the Sudan is bounded by Egypt, the Red Sea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, the Central African Republic, Chad, and Libya. Area: 2,503,890 sq km (966,757 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 18,895,000, including Arabs in the north and Negroes in the south. Cap. and largest city: Khartoum (pop., 1980 est., 1,621,000). Language: Arabic, various tribal languages in the south. Religion: Muslim (66%) mainly in the north; predominantly animist (29%) with Christian minority (5%) in the south. President and prime minister in 1981, Gen. Gaafar Nimeiry. Efforts to rejuvenate the Sudan's economy continued in 1981, with a marked lack of success, against a background of growing fear of aggression by Libya. Tension began with Libya's military intervention in Chad, the Sudan's western neighbour, and intensified when the Sudan restored full diplomatic relations with Egypt. In June an explosion in the Chad embassy in Khartoum was attributed to Libya. A few days later Pres. Gaafar Nimeiry, with three other African presidents, accused Libya's Col. Muammar alQaddafi (see Biographies) of gross interference in the affairs of member states of the Organization of African Unity. In September the government

SUDAN Education. (1978-79) Primary, pupils 1,358,193, teachers 38,881; secondary, pupils 335,322, teachers 17,072; vo-

pupils 11,784, teachers 602; teacher training, students 4,878, teachers 723; higher, students (1977-78) 24,109, teaching staff (1976-77) 1,963. Finance. Monetary unit: Sudanese pound, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a par value for a commercial rate of Sud£0.50 to U.S. $1 (free rate of Sud£0.93 = £1 sterling) and a par value for other transactions of Sud£0.80 to U.S. $1 (free rate of Sud£1.48 = £1 sterling). Cold and other reserves (June 1981) U.S. $33 million. Budget (total; 1980-81 est.): cational,

revenue Sud£1,006 million; expenditure Sud£1,347 million. Cross national product (1977-78) Sud£2,868 million. supply (June 1981) Sud£1, 254.8 million. Cost of living (1975 = 100; Dec. 1980) 248.5. Foreign Trade. (1980r Imports Sud£788,190,000; exports Sud£271, 340,000. import sources (1979): U.K. 16%; West Cermany 14%; U.S. 8%; Italy 7%; Belgium-Luxembourg 6%; France 6%; Japan 5%; China 5%. Export destinations (1979): China 16%,; Italy 11%; Saudi Arabia 11%,;

Money

Japan 7%,; U.S.S.R. 6%; Yugoslavia 6%. Main exports: cotton 45%; food c. 17%; sesame 9%; gum arable 7%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) c. 48,000 km (mainly tracks, including c. 2,000 km asphalted). Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger c. 35,000; commercial (including buses)

c.

37,000. Railways: (1980)

c. 5,

km; freight traffic (1973-74) 2,324,000,000 ne ton-km. Air traffic (1980): c. 710 million passenger-km, freight c. 12.5 million net ton-km. Inland navigable water ways (1979) c. 4,100 km. Telephones (Jan. 1980) 63,400, Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 1.4 million. Television recei ers (Dec. 1977) 100,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): wheat 231; millet c. 450; sorghum c. 2,200; sesame seed c. 200; cottonseed c 200; peanuts c. 810; sugar, raw value (1979) c. 130; dates c. 113; cotton, lint c. 114; cow's milk c. 940; goat's milk c. 387; beef and veal 208; mutton and goat meat c. 126; timber (cu m; 1979) c. 33,432. Livestock

500

000; 1980): cattle 18,354; sheep c. 17,800; goats c. 12,570; camels (1979) c. 2,500; asses (1979) c. 680; chickc. 27,000, Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1978): petroleum products c. 1,010; electricity (kw-hr) 911,000; salt 72; cement c. 140. (in

ens

Sumo: see

Combat

Sports

Surfing:

see Water Sports

Pres.

Anwar as-Sadat

{see

of Egypt's

Obituaries) on October

was a serious blow to the Sudan. In March the government forestalled a military coup, backed, Nimeiry claimed, by Syria and the U.S.S.R. The huge influx of refugees from Chad led the government to impose strict measures to prevent the stirring up of discontent. 6

On

October 5 Nimeiry dissolved the National

People's Assembly in the north and called for elections in the near future to a Parliament reduced by

more than

half

and with many

of its

ferred to five regional assemblies.

powers

trans-

The Southern

Region People's Assembly was also dissolved, and were scheduled within six months. On

elections

November 9 the president dismissed his Cabinet, simultaneously devaluing the currency by 12.5% and increasing

taxes.

(kenneth ingham)

Suriname A

republic of northern South America, Suriname

bounded by Guyana, Brazil, French Guiana, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 181,455 sq km (70,is

060 sq mi). Pop. (1980 prelim.): 352,000, including (1971) Hindustanis 37%, Creoles 30.8%, Indonesians 15.3%, Bush Negroes 10.3%, Amerindians 2.6%. Cap. and largest city: Paramaribo (pop., 1980 prelim., 67,700). Language: Dutch (official); English and Sranan (a Creole) are lingua francas; Hindi, Javanese, Chinese, and various Amerindian languages are used within individual ethnic Religion: predominantly Hindu, Christian, and Muslim. President and prime minister in 1981, Hendrick R. Chin A Sen.

communities.

SURINAME Education. (1980-81) Primary, pupils 75,139, teachers 2,803; secondary, pupils 29,790, teachers 1,854; vocational (1978-79), pupils 4,394, teachers 249; teacher training, students 1,275, teachers 148; higher, students 2,353, teaching staff 155.

Finance. Monetary

unit: Suriname guilder, with (Sept. Suriname guilders to U.S. $1 Suriname guilders = £1 sterling). Cold and other reserves (June 1981) U.S. $215 million. Budget (1978 est.): revenue 623 million Suriname guilders; expenditure 650 million Suriname guilders. Foreign Trade. (1979) Imports 734 million Suriname guilders; exports 793 million Suriname guilders. Import

21, 1981) a par value of 1.785 (free rate of 3.31

sources (1977): U.S. 31%: The Netherlands 21%; Trinidad and Tobago 14%; Japan 7%. Export destinations (1977): U.S. 41%; The Netherlands 24%; Norway 8%; U.K. 7%; Japan 5%. Main exports: alumina 42%; aluminum 16%; bauxite 13%, Transport and Communications. Roads (1977) c. 2,500 km. Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger c 22,800; commercial (including buses) c, 8,900, Railways (1980) 167 km. Navigable inland waterways (1979) c. 1,500 km. Telephones (Jan. 1980) 21,300. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 182,000, Television receivers (Dec, 1977) 39,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): rice 240; oranges (1979) c 11; grapefruit c. 7; bananas c. 35; palm kernels c. 24; sugar, raw value (1979) c. 12. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 27; pigs c. 19; goats c. 5; chickens c.

1,038, Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): bauxite 4,769; alumina 1,312; aluminum 54; electricity (kw-hr) 1,529,000 (86% hydroelectric in 1977), c.

During 1981 the political situation in Suriname remained confused, with the direction of social, economic, and foreign policies in dispute between the National Military Council (nmc), headed by Sgt. Maj. Daysi Bouterse, and Pres. Hendrick R. Chin A Sen's civilian government. Bouterse was

known In

to favour a revolutionary socialist course.

March

Cuban

a

trade

delegation

visited

Paramaribo, and it was reported that full diplomatic relations with Cuba would be established. Also in March, the government defeated an attempted coup led by Sgt. Maj. Willem Hawker, who had taken part in the 1980 coup. Late in the year there were reports of the impending removal of President Chin A Sen by the nmc and of the formation of a Revolutionary People's Front. Relations with The Netherlands remained tense, with discussions on the allocation of Dutch grant aid proceeding at a slow pace. It was announced that plans for building a Dutch-financed hydroelectric plant and bauxite smelter were to be (dick boonstra) dropped.

The Royal Swaziland Sugar Corporation opened Simunye sugar mill at Lusothi in 1980; supported by a 9,000-ha (22,500-ac) sugarcane estate, it was expected to produce, by 1982, 120,000 metric tons of raw sugar, about one-third of Swaziland's total output in 1980. The estate employed 3,000 workers and the new mill an additional 360. A its

major hydroelectric project in the Ezulwini valley was announced. To be financed in part by the World Bank and the African Development Bank, the project involved damming the Little Usutu River, thus creating a reservoir of 20 million cu m (26 million cu yd). The plant was expected to provide additional power capacity of 20,000 kv; it was program to reduce dependence

part of a long-term

upon imported power. From August

A

landlocked monarchy of southern Africa and a

member

of the Commonwealth, Swaziland is bounded by South Africa and Mozambique. Area;

17,364 sq km (6,704 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 572,and largest city: Mbabane (pop., 1976 census, 23,100). Language: English and siSwati (official). Religion: Christian 60%; animist 40%. King, Sobhuza II; prime minister in 1981, Prince

000. Cap.

Mandabala Fred Dlamini. Swaziland celebrated the diamond jubilee of King Sobhuza II (see Biogr.\phies) on Sept. 4, 1981. The festivities, to which 22 heads of state were invited, also marked 13 years of stable progress since independence was achieved in 1968. Proof of Swaziland's remarkably balanced econoto replace those of iron ore, 1980, while sugar, wood pulp, asbestos, citrus fruits, and tourism also provided important contributions to the economy.

my, coal exports began which had ceased in

SWAZILAND Education. (1980) Primary, pupils 112,019, teachers 3,278: secondary, pupils 23,198, teachers 1,292, vocational, pupils 1,109, teachers 105; higher, students 1,403, teaching staff

139

Finance and Trade. Monetary emalangeni),

at

unit;

lilangeni

(plural

par with the South African rand, with (Sept.

21, 1981) a free rate of 0.93 lilangeni to U.S. $1 (173 emalangeni = £1 sterling). Budget (1980-81 est): revenue 145 million emalangeni; expenditure 85 million ema-

langeni (excludes capiul expenditure of 123 million emalangeni) Foreign trade (1979): imports 299 million emalangeni, exports 185 million emalangeni. Import sources (1977): South Africa 96%. Export destinations (1977): U.K. 33%; South Africa 20%. Mam exports: sugar 35%; wood pulp 14%; asbestos 9%; citrus and canned fruit

9%.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): corn c. 55; rice c 5; potatoes c. 6; sugar, raw value (1980) c. 330, pineapples c. 20; cotton, lint c. 6; timber (cu m) c. 2,588 Livestock (in 000: 1979): cattle c. 650; sheep c. 33: pigs c 22. goats c. 265. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1978): coal 166; iron ore (metal content) 624; asbestos 37, electricity kw-hr) 281,000.

Septem-

(guv arnold)

fair.

Sweden A

Swaziland

21 to

ber 7, Swaziland was host to an international trade

constitutional

monarchy

of northern

Europe

ly-

ing on the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Sweden has common borders with Finland and Norway. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 8,317,900. Cap. and largest city: Stockholm (pop., 1981 est., 647,200). Language: Swedish, with some Finnish and Lapp in the north. Religion: predominantly Lutheran. King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime minister in 1981, Thorbjorn Falldin. In 1981 Sweden found itself at the centre of a remarkable international incident. On October 27 a U.S.S.R. Whisky-class submarine 137 went aground on rocks deep inside Swedish territorial waters in a military area eight nautical miles (14 km) from the main southern naval base, Karlskrona. What was at first a huge joke at the expense of the Soviet Navy assumed more sinister aspects when it was revealed that Swedish naval experts who had examined the submarine believed it to be carrying nuclear warheads. This possibility deeply alarmed a small neutral nation and brought home to its population the uncomfortable facts of life in the nuclear age. The submarine's captain blamed the whole affair on a "navigational error." This remained the official Soviet line throughout, but it was never accepted by the Swedish government. The submarine was kept under armed guard as "clarification" was sought from the Soviet Union concerning radioactivity detected by Swedish naval experts in the region of the torpedo tubes. When no clarification was forthcoming, the Swedes announced their belief that the submarine was armed with

On November 6, Whisky 137 was towed back to international waters. The incident was expected to cloud relations between the two countries for many years and to dent severely the credibility of Moscow's support for a zone free of nuclear weapons in the Nordic nuclear weapons.

Prime Minister Thorbjorn Falldin described Swedish neutrality. The U.S.S.R., which did not admit that there were nuclear weapons on the submarine, in turn ac-

area. it

as a "flagrant violation" of

cused Sweden of espionage.

645

Sweden

SWEDEN Education. (1979-80) Primary, pupils 556,481; secondary, pupils vocational, 486,852; pupils 103,485; primary, secondary, and vocational, teachers 129,969; higher (including teacher training), students 155,352. Finance. Monetary unit: krona, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of 5.44 kronor to U.S. $1 (10.09 kronor = £ 1 sterling). Cold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $4,058,000,000. Budget (total; 1980-81 est.): revenue 155,459,000,000 kronor; expenditure 209,277,000,000 kronor. Gross national product (1979) 431,140,000,000 kronor. Money supply (Dec. 1979) 65,750,000,000 kronor. Cost of living (1975 = 100; June 1981) 183.9. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports 141,332,000,000 kronor; exports 130,777,000,000 kronor. Import sources: West Cermany 177o; U.K. 12%; U.S. 7%; Finland 7%; Denmark i,%; Norway 5%; Saudi Arabia 5%. Export destinations: West Cermany 12%; U.K.

107o;

Norway 10%; Denmark 8%;

Finland

6%;

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): wheat 1,291; barley 2,486; oats 1,685; rye c 241; potatoes 1,153; sugar, raw value 327; rapeseed

5%; The Netherlands 5%. Main exmachinery 26%; motor vehicles 12%; paper 10%; iron and steel 7%; chemicals 5%; wood pulp

France 6%,; U.S. ports:

356; apples c, 85; milk c 3,475; butter c. 65; cheese 100; beef and veal c. 154; pork c. 317: fish catch (1979) 206; timber (cu m; 1979) 60,916. Livestock (in 000; lune 1980): cattle c, 1,923; sheep (1979) c. 384; pigs c. 2,710; chickens (1979) c. 11,650. Industry. Index of industrial production (1975 = 100; 1980) 99. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): cement 2,524; electricity (kw-hr) 93,570,000 (59%, hydroelectric in 1977); iron ore (60-65% metal content) 27,183; pig iron 2,436; crude steel 4,235; c.

5%.

c.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) 129,018 km (including 850 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1980); passenger 2,882,960; commercial 181,570. Railways: (1979) 12,010 km (including 7,583 km electrified); traffic (1980) 6,841,000,000

passenger-km, freight 15,627,000,000 net ton-km.

Swedish apportionment of operations of Scandinavian Airlines System; 1980): 5,Air traffic (including

aluminum

342,000,000 passenger-km; freight 190.9 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 700; gross tonnage 4,233,977. Telephones (Dec. 1979) 6,407,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 8.3 million. Television licenses (Dec. 1979)

97; petroleum products c. 17,600; sulfuric acid (1979) 764; wood pulp (1979) 8,400; newsprint 1,534; other paper (1979) 4,797; passenger cars (units) 256. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1980) 326,000 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1980) 52,800.

3,103,200.

In the wake of the incident, faith in the effectiveness of Sweden's policy of armed neutrality was badly shaken. Although there had been al-

most unanimous applause in the West for the tough stand taken by the government, the uncomfortable fact remained that the submarine had spent 12 hours aground before being spotted. One immediate result of the affair was a demand from all of Sweden's political parties for increased defense spending on submarine-detection vessels and equipment. Another was a series of angry demonstrations against the Soviet Union. At the start of the year the protests had all been against the U.S. for its involvement in El Salvador. One of these, held in a snowstorm and attended by several thousand Swedes, had the distinction of being the largest anti-U.S. demonstration since the days of the war in Vietnam. International political discontent became subordinate to the domestic scene in May, when the Conservative Party walked out of the Centre-Lib-

eral-Conservative coalition government. This precipitated a three-week-long crisis that coincided with a major labour dispute involving 17,000 white-collar workers, which, in turn, threatened to escalate into

massive industrial action similar

to

wave of strikes and Sweden in April-May

lockouts that had paralyzed 1980. Industrial peace was saved at the last minute, as was Prime Minister the

who announced

that he would remain as minority coalition government comprising his own Centre Party and the Liberals. Falldin,

head

of a

The

issue that split the three-party

government

—a

package of income-tax reforms — remained a major bone of contention, but it was Sweden's economic crisis that dominated government policy, forcing cuts in public spending and, in September, the devaluation of the krona by 10%. Devaluation was aimed at stimulating exports. It was accompanied by a price freeze and a reduction of value-added tax from a record high 23.46% to

20%

in a bid to hold

down

inflation.

As

A

Soviet submarine ran

aground

in territorial

wa-

Sweden in OctoThe 67-m (220-ft) craft was held for several ters off

ber.

days before Swedish officials allowed it to be towed into open waters

and released.

the government's difficulties increased, so did the popularity of the Social Democrats, who

entered the 1982 election year well ahead in all public opinion polls. However, the government's tough handling of the submarine crisis greatly improved its standing, and polls showed that the Communists could lose their parliamentary representation as a result of the affair. As the year ended, the Swedish Navy reported increased recruitment as a result of its new advertising campaign, "Whiskey on the rocks — it's something we don't want." (chris mosey)

Swimming Competitive swimming in the year

after the 1980

Olympic Games was expected to suffer a postOlympic letdown but certainly not the decline that did occur, as evidenced by the meagre number of new world records set. Though the United States

Swedish Literature:

selected a national team to compete against the Soviet Union in September, even this traditional rivalry failed to provide the incentive for outstanding performances. Men and women swimmers set ten world records, but two were in events not contested in the 1980 Olympics, four were the

see Literature

effort of East

Germany's Olympic champion Ute

Geweniger, and two were bv Marv T. Meagher

647 of

World Swimming Records Set

the U.S.

world record of 1981 was set immedichampionships at the University of Texas on .April 3 during special time trials. Rowdy Gaines of Auburn (Ala.) Uni-

The

first

ately after the U.S. national indoor

versity, in his final effort before retiring, clocked 49.36 sec in the 100-m freestyle to erase the oldest world mark in the books, 49.44 sec set in August

The second world mark was men's 100-m butterfly. William Paulus of Worth, Texas, was timed in 53.81 sec, lowering the previous standard of 54.15 sec by Sweden's Par Arvidsson in the same pool a year earlier. Alex Baumann of Sudbury, Ont., competing for Canada against West Germany and the U.S.S.R. in Heidelberg, West Germany, on July 29, swam the 200-m individual medley in 2 min 2.78 sec to break the record of 2 min 3.24 sec set by William Barrett of the U.S. in 1980. In that tournament West Germany upset the Soviets, winning by two points over Canada with the U.S.S.R. a distant third. In the 200-m butterfly Craig Beardsley of Har1976 by Jonty Skinner.

in the

Fort

rington Park, N.J., cut 0.2 sec off his 1980 record swam the event in 1 min 58.01 sec on August 22 in Kiev during a dual meet between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. In this tournament the U.S. defeated the Soviet Union, the women winning 10 out of 14 events to score 104 points to 60 and the men 10 out of 15 races for a total of 99 points to 81. It was the fourth meeting between the two nations in the last decade, and the Soviets had yet to score as he

a victory. East Germany's Ute

Geweniger firmly estabOlympic and

lished herself as successor to 1976

world champion Kornelia Ender, also from East Germany. On three occasions Geweniger lowered her own world standard of 1 min 10.11 sec for the 100-m breaststroke, set in the 1980 Olympic Games. On April 21 at Gera, East Germany, swimming against the Soviet Union, she was timed in 1 min 9.52 sec. On July 2 at East Berlin she again set a new record of 1 min 9.39 sec. And finally on September 8 at the European championships in Split, Yugos.,

of

1

min

she climaxed the season with a time

8.60 sec. At the East Berlin meet

Gewenig-

er swam the 200-m individual medley in 2 min 11.73 sec, erasing the mark of 2 min 13 sec set by teammate Petra Schneider in the 1980 Olympics. Mary T. Meagher of Louisville, Ky., continued where she left off in 1980. At the U.S. national

championships

at

Brown Deer,

Wis., the 5

ft

7 in,

128-lb schoolgirl lowered her 100-m and 200-m butterfly records with clockings of 2 min 5.96 sec on August 13 for the longer event and 57.93 sec

three days later for the 100 m. Aside from these two records, the championships were conspicuously devoid of times of merit. Two multinational international swimming events were noteworthy. From July 19 to 30 the XI World University Games were staged at Bucharest, Rom. In swimming the U.S., led by Jill Sterkel, won 16 gold medals to 10 for the second-place Soviet Union. Sterkel, of Hacienda Heights, Calif., won the 100-m and 200-m freestyle and the 100-m butterfly and swam on to win the 400-m freestyle and medley relays to gain five gold medals. The XV

Event

MEN

Name

In

Country

1981 Tir

Swimming

648

national consensus on some issues, such as abortion. While there were four already in operation, construction of new nuclear power plants prompted agitated debate. There were three federal plebiscites. In April all the cantons voted against the mostly left-winginspired initiative proposing broader rights for the more than 100,000 foreign seasonal workers in Switzerland. In June more than 60% of the voters approved the introduction of measures specifying male and female equality of legal and economic rights. On November 29 a plebiscite approved the latest government-proposed plan to improve the federal budget, which was expected in 1982 to attain the record deficit of SFr 1,120,000,000. The

Switzerland

government hoped to reduce this figure by at least several hundred million Swiss francs by means of a comprehensive revision of taxes and a redistribution of financial claims and responsibilities among the cantons and the confederation.

Germany's Ute Ceweniger raised her East

arms ting a

in

victory after set-

new world

record

liiJI

\kik

\

min 8.60 sec in the women's 100-m breastof

1

stroke in the finals of the European swimming

championships in Yugoslavia in September.

**'>.^v

springboard events, respectively. Debbie Rush of Columbus, Ohio, v^ras the platform winner. At the World University Games China won three of the four events. Li Yi Hua and Chen Xiaoxia won the women's springboard and platform events. In men's competition Soviet diver Sergey Kuzmin won the springboard and China's Li Hong Ping the platform. The Soviet Union won three of the four events in the European championships. In men's competition Aleksandr Portnov won the springboard and David Ambartsumian the platform. East Germany's Katrin Zipperling won the women's platform to prevent a Soviet sweep, as Zhanna Tsirulnikova took the springboard, (albert schoenfield)

Switzerland A

federal republic in west central Europe consisting of a confederation of 23 cantons (three of which are demi-cantons), Switzerland is bounded by

West Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, France. Area: 41,293 sq

km

Italy,

and

(15,943 sq mi). Pop.

Bern (pop., 1980, 145,300). Largest city: Zurich (pop., 1980, 369,500). Language (1970): German 65%; French 18%; Italian 12%; Romansh 1% Religion (1970): Roman Catholic 49.4%; Protestant 47.7%. President in 1981, Kurt Furgler. Switzerland in 1981 once again offered a picture (1980): 6,365,400. Cap.:

.

of relative stability. Regional, cantonal, and communal interests and activities asserted themselves

against the pressure of centralizing tendencies and made it difficult, if not impossible, to obtain a

Proposals for the revised federal constitution elaborated by a team of experts were submitted for comments and counterproposals to all organizations and institutions concerned. The Federal Council was expected to announce its position during 1982, though Kurt Furgler, head of the Department of Justice and Police and guiding spirit of the revision, proposed that a totally new — not merely revised — constitution be drawn up. One of the vexing problems remained the exact interpretation of the constitutional "permanent neutrality" in light of the forthcoming campaign and plebiscite on Switzerland's accession to the UN. The federal government asked the Parliament to agree to Switzerland's joining the provided guarantees could be obtained in favour of certain implications, considered inalienable, of the principle of neutrality. While parliamentary approval was expected, final approval would require a majority vote in a national referendum, and according to some unofficial polls only one out of three Swiss citizens was prepared to approve full membership in the UN. As a result of the economies imposed in the 1982 budget, Swiss governmental aid to less developed countries was expected to fall short of the planned 0.35% of gross national product (gnp). The overall

UN

economic situation remained stable. In terms of GNP and individual living standards, Switzerland continued to figure among the world's most privileged countries. Employment remained all but full. The one industry suffering in 1981 was watchmaking, but some promising efforts to counter strong foreign competition were made. Although the balance of trade showed a record excess of imports over exports, the balance of payments remained favourable and the Swiss franc was strong. The only serious concern was the threat of inflation, with the rate increasing steadily each month so that it exceeded 7% in late autumn. Expenditure for national defense remained the first item in the federal budget, with 21.3% of the total. Great importance was attached to the acquisition of

new

defensive weapons, military train-

ing, and the construction of antinuclear civil protection shelters.

Clashes between police and young people came

SWITZERLAND

SYRIA Education. (1979-80) Primary, pupils 1,407,223, teach-

Education. n979-e0) Primary, pupils 506,100, teachers (excluding craft teachers; 1961-62) 23,761; secondary, pupils 427,900, teachers (full time; 1961-621 6,583; vocational, pupils 215,400; teacher training, students 8,600; higher, students 74,200, teaching staff (universities and equivalent institutions only; 1977-78) 5,911. Rnance. Monetary unit: Swiss franc, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of SFr 1.91 to U.S. $1 (SFr 3.54 = £1 sterling) Cold and other reserves ()une 1981) U.S.

Budget

$15,495,000,000

(1980

actual):

revenue

ers 46,132; secondary, pupils 552,677, teachers 25,945; vo-

cational, pupils 25,945, teachers 3.085; teacher training,

students 10,364, teachers 988; higher, students 96,040, teaching staff (universities only: 1975-76) 1,332. Finance. Monetary unit: Syrian pound, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a par value of SC3.925 to U.S. $1 (free rate of S£7.28 = £l sterling). Cold and other reserves (Dec. 1980) U.S. $360 million. Budget (total, 1981 est.) balanced at S£30,48O million. Cross domestic product (1979) S£35,887 million. Money supply (Dec. 1980) S£21,854 million. Cost of living (Damascus; 1975 = 100; April 1981)

SFr

16,456,000,000; expenditure SFr 16,474,000,000. Cross naproduct (1979) SFr 164.6 billion. Money supply dune 1981) SFr 70,010,000,000. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 1981) 1192 Foreign Trade. (1980) imports SFr 60.9 billion; exports SFr 49-6 billion. Import sources. EEC 67"^;, (West Cermany 28'^o, France 12%. Italy 10%. U.K. 8%); U.S. 7%. Export destinations: EEC 51% (West Cermany 20%, France 9%, Italy 8%, U.K. 6%); U.S. 7%,; Austria 5%,. Main exports: machinery 31%; chemicals 19%; precious metals and stones 8%; watches and cloclis 7%; textile yarns and fabrics 5%; instruments, etc. (excluding watches and clocks) tional

5%,.

Tourism (1979).

191.

Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports S£16,187 million; exS£8,273 million. Import sources (1979): Iraq 15%; 13%,: West Cermany 9%; Romania 6%; France 6%. Export destinations (1979) Italy lb%. France 18%; U.S. 10%. Creece 8%: Romania 6%, U.5.S.R. 5%, Main exports: crude oil 63";,; cotton S^o: 'ruit and vegetables c. ports Italy

5%. Transport and Communications. Roads 11976) c. 16,339 km. Motor vehicles in use (1978): passenger 65,400; commercial 81,400. Railways: (1976) 1,672 km; traffic (1979) 410 million passenger-km, freight 450 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 948 million passenger-km; freight 16.2 million net ton-km. Telephones (Ian. 1980) 236,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1978) 1,792,000. Television

visitors 7,608,000; gross receipts U.S.

52,568,000,000.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1980) 64,029 km (including 876 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1980): passenger 2,246,800; commercial 169,400. Railways: (1978) 4,975

km

(including 4,946

km

receivers (Dec. 1978) 454,000.

electrified);

Agriculture. Production

traffic (1980) 8,485,000,000 passenger-km, freight 7,485,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): 10,831,000,000 passenger-km: freight 453.2 million net lon-km. Shipping 1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 35; gross tonnage 310,775. Telephones (Dec. 1979) 4,446,200. Ra-

wheat

460; onions c. 160; watermelons (1979) c. 616; melons (1979) c. 212; grapes c. 288; olives c. 320; cottonseed c. 196; cotton, lint c. 127. Livestock (in 000; 1980): sheep c. 8,800; goats c 1,000; cattle (1979) c. 705; horses (1979) c. 51; asses (1979) c. 270; chickens c. 18,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): ce-

(

dio licenses (Dec. 1979) 2,209,800. Television licenses (Dec. 1979) 1,937,400. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): wheat 403, barley 201, oats 48; corn 108; potatoes 864; rapeseed 34; apples 342; pears (1979) 148; sugar, raw value (1979) 108; wine c 84; milk 3,516; butter 35; cheese 123; beef and veal 173; pork 288. Livestock (in 000; April 1980): cattle 2,031; sheep 353; pigs 2,205, chickens (1979) 6,337. Industry, index of industrial production (1975 = 100; 1980) 108. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): aluminum 83; cement 3,934; petroleum products c. 4,500; manmade fibres (1978) 83; cigarettes (units) 29,282,000; watches (exports; units) c. 33,700; manufactured gas (cu m) 53,000: electricity (kw-hr; 1980) 46,626,000.

March, as protesters sought autonomous youth centre in Zurich that had been closed by the authorities in September 1980. The city government conceded the protesters' demands. On December 9 the federal Parliament elected the Zurich radical Fritz Honegger to succeed Kurt to a

head

at the

end

of

the reopening of an

Furgler as president of the confederation in 1982. Because of the large number of items still pending on the agenda a supplementary extraordinary ses,

was scheduled

sion

for the

beginning

of 1982.

(melanie staerk)

A republic in southwestern Asia on the Mediterranean Sea, Syria is bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Area; 185,179 sq km (71,498 sq mi). Pop. (1980 est.): 8,979,000. Cap. largest city:

Damascus

(pop., 1980 est., 1,200,-

Language: Arabic (official); also Kurdish, ArCircassian, and Syriac. Turkish, menian, Religion: predominantly (over 80%) Muslim. President in 1981, Gen. Hafez al-Assad; premier, Abdul Rauf al-Kasm. Syria's involvement in Lebanon and military posturing toward Israel in 1981 were accompanied

200).

ment 1,850; crude oil (1980) 8,498; natural gas (cu m) c. 200,000; petroleum products c. 9,000; cotton yarn 13; phosphate rock 1,169; electricity (kw-hr) 3,420,000.

worsening economic crisis at home. Closer and economic cooperation with the U.S.S.R. was sought by Pres. Hafez al-Assad's government. The ill health of Premier Abdul Rauf alKasm prompted fears that his largely technocratic

by

a

military

Cabinet would disintegrate. When reports of his illness were gaining wide currency in August, the favourite to replace him was Muhammad Abu Diab, a member of the Ba'ath Party's national committee. In August the People's Council approved

the fifth five-year plan (1981-85), and on August 17 the council was dissolved pending new elections. As anticipated, the National Progressive Front (npf), led by the ruling Ba'ath Party, won

195 seats in the elections on November 10. The deputies, who included 99 workers' representatives, were elected for a four-year term of office. Sporadic acts of terrorism continued to reveal all

the potential for political instability in Syria. On August 17 an explosion killed three people in the premier's office, although it was attributed to "an

Syria

and

(in 000; metric tons; 1980): 2,229; barley 1,587; potatoes (1979) c. 201; pumpc. 148; cucumbers (1979) c. 196; tomatoes c.

kins (1979)

air-conditioning equipment short circuit." During the year the Muslim Brotherhood, an extremist organization, was blamed for several acts of violence, including a car-bomb explosion that killed

90 people in Damascus on November 29. President Assad continued to lead Syria in opposition to compromise with Israel. Diplomatic contact was maintained, however, with Saudi Arabia over the Middle East peace proposals made by Crown Prince Fahd. Deputy Premier and Foreign Minister Abdul-Halim before the November

Khaddam

visited

Arab summit

Riyadh in

Fez,

c^^,,

650

Table Tennis

for talks with Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud al-Faisal. Initial Syrian opposition to the Fahd plan, which included recognition of Israel's right to exist, was somewhat muted; Syria was dependent on Saudi aid. On December 14 the Israeli Knesset voted to annex the Golan Heights, Syrian territory captured during the 1967 war. The move, apart from further increasing tension between the two countries and provoking worldwide criticism, hardened Syrian opposition to the Fahd peace plan. Defense Minister Gen. Moustapha Tlas visited Moscow on September 17 seeking new supplies of Soviet weapons. His visit followed Syrian concern about Israel's defense agreements with the U.S. Syria had signed a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1980. In July 1981 major Soviet naval exercises were accompanied by a mock landing in Syria of about 800 Soviet marines. At the military talks Syria asked for more MiG-25 jet fighters and T-72 tanks. It was reported that Syria also asked for an improved version of the MiG-23, which would match Israel's U.S. -built F-15 jet fighters. A wider economic agreement signed in Moscow on May 14 included an undertaking by the Soviet Union to lend Syria 40 million rubles ($49.5 million) to finance five railway projects. From the Soviet point of view, friendship with Syria was designed to counter Iraq's growing links with Western countries and to give the U.S.S.R. a bulwark in the eastern Mediterranean. The broad outlines of the five-year plan were published in August. The plan aimed to cut Syria's balance of payments deficit and to increase its gross national product by an average of 8.5% a year. A total of 460,000 new jobs were to be created. Annual growth in exports was to be 6.5% with imports growing at only 3.4%. Of the total investment, about 17%, S£17,200 million ($4,354,000,000), was to be applied to agriculture. Ba'athist Party ideology had always favoured large investment. Few details were announced about specific projects despite the fact that the official starting date for the plan was Jan. 1, 1981. By 1985 Syria expected to cease exporting oil; production in 1980 was thought to have been only 8.5 million metric tons. Dependence on Arab aid — particularly from the conservative regime in Saudi Arabia — was likely to increase, posing diffi-

Morocco,

,

cult

problems of adjustment

for Syria.

(jOHN WHELAN)

Table Tennis In April 1981 Novi Sad, Yugos., played host to participants in the 36th biennial world table tennis championships. China captured both the Swaythling Cup, symbol of supremacy in the men's team competition, and the Marcel Corbillon Cup, given to the victorious women's team. In the men's team

competition, Hungary finished second to China. Others, in order of finish, were Japan, Czechoslovakia, and France. In the women's team play. South Korea was runner-up to China. Next in order were North Korea, the Soviet Union, and

West Germany.

Xie Saike of the People's Republic of China was the winner of the men's crown at the U.S. Open table tennis championships held at Princeton, N.|., in June.

The finals of all the individual championships featured Chinese athletes. Guo Yuehua defeated Cai Zhenhua for the men's singles crown. In the men's doubles Cai Zhenhua and Li Zhenshi triumphed over Guo Yuehua and Xie Saike. The

women's singles title went to Tong Ling, who defeated Cao Yanhua in a five-set match. In the women's doubles, Cao Yanhua and Zhang Deying subdued Tong Ling and Bu Qijuan in three straight sets. The mixed doubles was won by Xie Saike and Huang Junqun. During the world championships the Congress Table Tennis Federation admitted Angola, Congo, and Zimbabwe to membership, thereby bringing the total number of affiliated associations to 125. The Congress also granted Japan the right to organize the world of the International

championships in 1983; Sweden would have that privilege in 1985.

The second World Cup competition featuring the world's top 16 men players got under way in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on July 30. Prize money totaled $40,000. In the finals, Tibor Klampar (Hung.) dropped the first two sets to Xie Saike (China), then made an exciting comeback by winning the next three sets. The European top 12 players tournament began on February 6 in Miskolc, Hung. The final standings in the men's division showed Klampar at the head of the list. Next in order were Stellan Bengtsson (Sweden), Dragutin Surbek (Yugos.), Josef

1981 World Rankings

WOMEN

MEN Guo Yuehua

(China) Cai Zhenhua (China) Xie Sail' Rono the Kenyan who established .

four world records in 197S but then appeared tC' lost most of his magic. Late in 19S1 after liiree years without either a record or a maior inctory Rono b^an to produce impressive clockings. He finished the year with a new 5 000-m standard of 13 min 6 J!0 sec adiieved September 13 at NiarTik, Norway. A somewhat similar comeback -was achieved bvRenaldo Nehemiah of the United States. A record breaker in l?""?. Niehemiah w-as a bit slower in l-'SO and -was imured and out at action tor much of the l^Sl season. But by August 19 he was able to ioin Coe as a record breaker at the Zuridi Wehklasse meet where Niehemiah scored his third world nark by running the 110-m hurdles in 12.93

have

.

.

.

.

sec.

The pole xauh produced as math action as the mile, and one of the three record breakers was BriQip's Sebastian

Ccx

(6 sen a ne« world record in the TiWO-Tn race m Oslo m Uily He time was 2 T2.1B sec. 1

mm

Union -vaulted

5.?1

i

m il" % inl. And on Ai^;b9 ft

U S 5. Jv

Konstantin VolkCT- rnar^iBJ 1* ft 2 in Thus a nmr byhisfather made 5.54 pole -rauli record had beer, se: eight rimes in Ac 2 at Irkutsk

.

m

two

I.

1

years.

Controversy surrounded the two riisms iscedcI thrcwE by Ben Pluckneti ol' the US. Ihe

^Mb

Rome.

Ovett was limited to the one -world record in tie mile but he came dose in the "metric mile " the ,500-m run. He went after his own world best of 1 3 min 31.36 sec several times coining within OJU

and

m

1

spun the discus TlJlDm (235it7TOi) on May In at Modesto Calif. and "^34 (1137 ft ~ 4 in) on July at Stockholm. But he -would not he (13t>-kgi giant

m

,

given credit for the records because it -was announced after his second mark that he had iaSiB& a doping test during a cang«eririon in >igw 7fatand in January The *Bts, ^ttetiiaieiuiiuiBHSta Bi atiiM maior meets ^snred Satt nadbKK bad ssed aa i

.

anabolic steroid. It ^pas such steroids are used by by xTiany other athJet^ wto xsmSy '^^ bAaag them far enough in advaniEesR.(D) 1985 Texos— Tower, John G. (R) 1983 Bentsen. Uoyd M. (D) 1987 Utah— Gam, Joke (R) 1983 Hotch, Orrin G. (R) 1983 Vt SloHord, Robert T. (R) 1987 Leohy, Patrick J. (0) 1983 Byrd. Horry F, Jr. (I) 1985 Womer, John W. (R) 1983 Wash.— Jockion, Henry M. (D) 1987 Gorton, Slode (R) 1985 W.Vo.— Rondolph, Jennings (D) 1983 Byrd, Robert C. (0) 1983 Wil.— Proxmire, William (D) 1987 Kosten, Robert W., Jr. (R) 1983 Wyo.— Wallop, Malcolm (R) 1985 Simpson. Alon K (Rl

Ala.—Heflin, Howell

of Representatives

ej

(D)

— —

— —

— —

—

—

—

—

— — —

—

Vo—

(D)

John

5. Burton,

L.

(D)

George,

7. Miller, 9. Stork,

10.

Findley, Paul (R)

Modlgon,

Tom

John

3. Hiler,

Shumwoy, Normon IS.Coelho, Tony{0)

6. Evans,

1.

Lontos,

14.

D. (R)

16. 17. 18. 19.

Ponetto, Leon E. (D) Poihayon, Charles, Jr. (R) Thomas, Williom (R)

Logomorsino, Robert J. (R) 20. Goldwoter, Barry M., Jr. (R) 21. Fiedler, Bobbi (R) 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

4. Coots, Daniel R. (R)

9. Homilton, L. H. (0)

12. Rinoldo,

Tom

2. Touke,

(R)

Cooper

Neol (D)

5. Horkin,

Kon.— 1.

Bill

F.

M.

Williom R. (D) 6. MotfeM, Toby (D) Del.— Evons, Thomoi, Jr. (R) Flo.— 1. Hutto, EoH D, (D) 2. Fuquo, Don (D) 3. Bennett, Chories E. (D) 4. ChoppelL Williom. Jr. (D) 5. Ratchford,

McCollom, Bill (R) Young, C, Williom (R) Gibbons, Som (D)

8. Irelond,

Andrew

9. Nelson,

Bill

10. Bofolis,

L,

P.

Lee (D)

Edgar

(0) 10, Bornord, Doug (D) Howoii— 1, Heftel, Cecil (D) 2, Akoko, Doniel (01 Idoho 1, Craig, Lorry (R) 2 Honsen, George V, (R) L,

—

Worren

Snowe, Olymplo J, (R) Dyson, Roy (D)

2.

2. Long, Clarence D. (D)

Borbara A. (D)

3. Mikulski,

Morjorie S, (R) Hoyer, Steny H. (D)

4. Holt. 5.

6. Byron, Beverly (D) 7. Mitchell, Porren J. (D) 8. Bornes, Michoel 0. (D) Mass.- I.Conte, Silvio O, (R) 2. Bolond, Edward P, (D) 3. Eoriy, Joseph D. (D) 4. Fronk, Barney (D) 5. Shannon, Jomes M. (D) 6. Movroules. Nicholos (D)

J.

CoriD. (R) Wolpe, Howard ent a

good

deal of

time and energy

reorganizing the domestic leadership structure. Some observers said this was meant to ensure greater cohesion at the top, while others thought it was the result of serious differences of opinion

among

senior leaders. signs of government reorganization surfaced in January with a reshuffling of the eco-

The

first

nomic portfolios. In February there was another round of changes, again involving ministries dealing directly with the economy; new men were put in charge of the State Commission for Prices, the State Bank, and the Ministry of Labour. It was clear that the government was making an all-out attempt to cope with what threatened to become the worst food crisis since the end of the Indochinese war in 1975. Natural disasters the previous year, the devastawrought in the northern region by the Chimilitary incursion in 1979, and the debilitating war in Kampuchea had brought the Vietnamese economy to its lowest point in years. At the time of the ministerial changes, it was not made clear whether the government had devised new policy initiatives. By midyear, however. Western visitors noted some significant shifts in emphasis and a consequent improvement in the tion

nese

overall situation.

The most important new initiative appeared to be increased "material incentives" to production, presumably with a view to raising output as well as the returns of labour. There were also reports of step-up in the pace of collectivization, especially southern delta. According to some Western and Southeast Asian political sources, this was a major factor behind the increased flow of refugees out of Vietnam in the middle of the year. {See Southeast Asian Affairs.) Nevertheless, some Western visitors reported (without statistics) that the food situation at midyear — though still bleak — was better than a year earlier. The structural changes did not stop with a reorganization of the economic portfolios. The country went through the process of giving itself a new constitution. The precise objective of the exercise a

in the

VIETNAM Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 7,784,587, teach227,984; secondary, pupils 3,301,145, teachers 129,183; vocational (1980-81), pupils 131,000, teachers 12,160; teacher training, pupils 42,583, teachers (1976-77) 2,336; higher (1980-81), students 148,600, teaching staff

ers

16,400.

Finance. Monetary free rate of 2.16

unit;

dong to

dong, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a

U.S. $1 (4.01

dong = £1

sterling).

Budget (1979 est.) balanced at 10.5 billion dong. Foreign Trade. (1980) imports c. U.S. $1.4 billion; exports c. U.S. $1.1 billion. Import sources: U.S.S.R. c. 18%; Romania c. 11%; (apan c. 9%; India c. 7%; France c. 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. c. 65%; Romania c. 5%; Poland

c.

5%. Main exports (1974): clothing c 10%,; fish c. c. 10%; coal c. 5%; beverages c. 5%. and Communlcatlona. Roads (1980)

107o; rubber

Tranaport

347,243 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger c. 100,000; commercial (including buses) c. 200,000. Railways (1980) c. 2,510 km. Navigable waterways (1980) c. 6,000 km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 93; gross tonnage 240,900. Telephones (South only; Dec. 1973) 47,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 5 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 2 million.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): rice 10,000; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 2,400; cassava (1979) c. 3,800; bananas c. 540; tea (1979) c. 21; coffee (1979) c. 15; tobacco c. 22; jute c. 30; rubber c. 57; pork c. 415; fish catch (1979) c 1,010; timber (cu m; 1979) c. 63,095. Live-

c

stock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 1,600; buffalo c. 2,350; pigs c. 9,300; chickens c. 57,300; ducks c. 30,300. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1978): coal c. 6,000; cement (1977) 845; salt c 375: phosphate rock c. 1,500; fertilizers (nutrient content. 1979-80) nitrogenous c. 40, phosphate c. 30; electricity (kw-hr) c 3,420,000.

723

Vietnam

724

Water Sports

unclear, since the new charter merely underlined the established principle that "the party

was

However,

and the state manages." Elections to the National Assembly, held on April 26 under the new constitution, produced no surprises. Veteran theoretician and reigning Assembly chief Truong Chinh was elected chairman of the powerful new State Council, which had powers to pass legislation when the Assembly was not sitting. The elec-

a hopeful gesture

rules

tions

left

Pham Van Dong

undisturbed as premier

and Le Duan as secretary-general of the Communist Party and therefore the country's top leader. All the domestic revamping seemed to have little or no effect on the diplomatic-military imbroglio in which Hanoi had been caught as a result of its Kampuchea policy. China hardly tried to conceal its considered policy of "bleeding" Vietnam through constant military pressure along the common border and full military assistance to Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge guerrillas, battling Hanoi's forces in Kampuchea. Former Kampuchean head of state Prince Norodom Sihanouk said in France in September that China might even unleash a second border war with Vietnam if it thought the Khmer Rouge bands were losing ground. The Sino- Vietnamese border remained tense, with minor but frequent incidents. The most serious confrontation took place in May, when China accused Vietnam of mounting the biggest border incursion since the 1979 war. More than 150 Vietnamese were killed, Beijing (Peking) said. Amid mutual recriminations and official protests, China even ordered the evacuation of its civilian population from some border regions. The crisis passed, but Beijing (Peking) had proved that it could turn the heat on Hanoi at any given moment. Vietnam's main battlefront was still the Thailand-Kampuchea border. It had become clear that the Khmer Rouge forces were receiving aid and comfort from Thailand and that the movement of Chinese arms to the guerrillas was being facilitated by Thai officials. Hanoi kept up a constant barrage of angry protests against Thailand's role, accusing it of violating Kampuchean territory and provid-

Virgin Islands:

see Dependent States Vital Statistics:

see Demography Volleyball:

see Court

Games

Wages and Hours: see Economy, World; Industrial Relations

Wales: see United Kingdom

Warsaw

Treaty Or-

ganization:

see Defense

Water Resources: see Earth Sciences; Environment

ing sanctuaries from which Pol Pot's guerrillas could carry out "banditry and sabotage against the reconstruction efforts" in Kampuchea. In February Hanoi sent a letter to the UN charging that Thai artillery had shelled Kampuchea 515 times in January and that on 76 of those occasions the objective was to provide cover for guerrilla raids. The military preoccupations in Laos and Kampuchea clearly stretched Vietnam's capacity to its

were reports that Vietnamese troop strength in Kampuchea had declined from 200,000 to 170,000 because of the need to reinforce defenses along the Chinese border, the difficulty in replacing casualties, and desertions. Vietnam's diplomatic efforts to break out of the military impasse were unsuccessful. In January it was host to a foreign ministers' meeting of the three Indochina states in Ho Chi Minh City. The meeting proposed a regional conference of the Indochina states and the five members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (asean) to discuss "problems of common interest" and sign a "treaty of peace and stability in Southeast Asia." limits. In July there

asean paid

scant

attention

to

the

December, in what observers saw as toward the U.S., four American veterans of the Vietnam war were invited to Vietnam, where they discussed such issues as the fate of U.S. servicemen missing in action and the effects of chemical defoliants used during the war. The Vietnamese currency underwent a partial devaluation in July, from an official tourist rate of four dong to the U.S. dollar to nine to the dollar. The nontourist official rate remained at 2.7 dong to the dollar. (t. j. s. george) proposals. In

Water Sports Motorboating. Defending champion Dean Chenof Tallahassee, Fla., turned back all challengers to win his fourth unlimited hydroplane national championship and fourth American Power Boat Association (apba) Gold Cup in 1981. Chenoweth and the Rolls-Royce Griffon-powered "Miss Budweiser" hydroplane opened the 1981 season with convincing wins in the Champion Spark Plug Regatta on June 7 in Miami, Fla., and the Strqh/Spirit of Detroit Regatta on June 28 in Detroit. Following another Chenoweth victory in the Indiana Governor's Cup in Madison on July 5, Bill Muncey and his "Atlas Van Lines" ended the "Miss Budweiser" streak at three with a win in the Thunder on the Ohio race on July 12 in Evansville,

oweth

Ind.

Lee ("Chip") Hanauer in "The Squire Shop" earned a thrilling come-from-behind victory in the Columbia Cup on July 26 in Tri-Cities, Wash., before Chenoweth returned to the winner's circle at the Sea Galley-APBA Gold Cup on August 9 in Seattle, Wash. The rest of the season belonged to Chenoweth, as the 43-year-old veteran swept to victory in the Circus Thunderboat Regatta in San Diego, Calif., on September 20 and the Union of International Motorboating World Championship on October 18 in Acapulco, Mexico. The $175,000 world championship was the richest race in the history of powerboat competition and the first unlimited hydroplane event in Mexico. It cost the racing world dearly, however, as defending world champion Bill Muncey, the most successful driver in the history of the sport, was killed when his boat lifted off the water and flipped over backward while leading in the first lap of the championship heat. In his 31-year career the 52-year-old Muncey (see Obituaries) had won more than 60 races. The 1981 offshore racing season belonged to Betty Cook of Newport Beach, Calif., and Paul Clauser of Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Cook earned her third APBA offshore national championship in four years, piloting her 38-ft "Michelob Light" deep vee-hull craft to victories in the Sutphen International on May 30 at Cape Coral, Fla., the Stroh Light Challenge on June 24 at Detroit, and the Coral Gables Challenge Cup on August 8 at Saugatuck, Mich. Clauser was the only other double winner on the offshore circuit, driving his 41-ft catamaran "Satisfaction" to victories in the Benihana Grand Prix on July 15 at Point Pleasant, N.J., and the Harbour

725

Water Sports

British offshore

power-

boat racing champion

Ted Toleman

set a

new

world offshore speed record of 156.8 losure of the preceding season's Winter

Marie-Theres Nadig gained the women's title comfortably from her Swiss compatriot Erika Hess, who set a record of six straight slalom wins to edge out the third-place finisher, defending

Olympics. Significantly, the winter sports vacation business expanded at Alpine, Scandinavian, and Rocky Mountain resorts despite below-average snow conditions and the worldwide economic

champion Hanni Wenzel of Liechtenstein. Wenzel was hampered by early-season injury. Nadig was the best downhiller and Hess the top slalom scorer, while Tamara McKinney was the giant slalom

had adversely affected the vacation trade. A new ski fastening developed in Sweden was claimed to reduce the risk of broken legs on slalom runs. Whereas conventional bindings release only when skiers fall forward or sideways, the new fastening loosens when they fall backward—perhaps the most frequent skiing accident. The temporary use of a shorter ski to accelerate the progress of beginners became more widespread, as did plastic ski slopes and grass (roller) skiing for practicing technique away from the snow. Alpine Racing. Phil Mahre became the first U.S. skier to win the Alpine World Cup when the 15th series of races ended on March 29 at Laax,

front-runner, the first U.S. woman in 12 years to lead in one of the World Cup disciplines. Boosted by the performances of its women, Switzerland won the concurrently decided Nations' Cup, ending a run of eight Austrian successes. Austria, whose men were again the best, this time was overall runner-up, with the U.S. third. Andre Arnold of Austria decisively won the North American circuit's professional men's title for a fourth successive year. Hans Hinterseer was runner-up to his compatriot for the second time,

Wider

interest in the leading spwrts

727

Winter Sports

on snow and

ice

recession; the latter

summer

Skiing.

Switz. Needing to finish at least third in the final giant slalom, he achieved second place to overtake Ingemar Stenmark of Sweden in the final standings. At the end, Mahre's convincing all-round ability had earned him 266 points, 6 more than Stenmark, the slalom specialist who skied only a single downhill, at Kitzbiihel, Austria, in January — the first he had ever entered in World Cup com-

and Paco Ochoa of Spain finished third. Toril Forland from Norway recaptured the women's crown from the defending champion, Jocelyne Perillat of France. Viki Flekenstein of the U.S. finished third.

Nordic Events. The second official Nordic World Cup series, contested at ten locations in nine countries, ended in Soviet victories for Aleksandr Zavjalov in the men's cross-country events

and for Raisa Smetanina in the women's. The men's silver and bronze medals went to Norwegians Oddvar Braa and Ove Aunli. The women's runner-up was Ove's sister, Berit Aunli, with

p>etition.

Kvetoslava Jeriova third for Czechoslovakia.

Aleksandr Zhirov, the highest placed Soviet skier in World Cup history, finished third in the competition, which comprised 31 events at 20 venues in ten countries on three continents. In fourth place was Mahre's twin brother, Steve. Stenmark

narrowly edging out the Norwegian runner-up, Roger Ruud, after a seesawing season of inconsistent finishes by the leaders. Third was Horst Bulau, a promising young

The World Cup jump Kogler

of

title

was won by Armin

Austria,

The winners of the World Cup women's giant slalom in Colorado were (left

to right)

place) of

Wanda

Italy,

Bieler (third

Tamara McKinney

of the U.S., and Erika Hess (second) of Switzerland. (first)

Weather: see Earth Sciences

Weight

Lifting:

see Gymnastics and

Weight

Lifting

Welfare: see Social Security and Welfare Services

Wine: see Industrial Review

728

Winter Sports

Canadian. The Nations' Cup victor was Austria, with Norway second and Finland third. Finnish and East German ski-shooters took the major honours in the biathlon events, organized by the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne et Biathlon (uipmb). In the world biathlon championships, at Lahti, Fin., on February 10-15, Heikki Ikola won for the host country in the 20 km. Frank Ulrich of East Germany placed second, with another Finn, Erkki Antila, third. Ulrich won the 10 km, with Antila runner-up. Finishing third in the event was Yvon Mongel, who thus became the highest placed Frenchman in the history of senior international biathlon championships, indicative of appreciable French progress in recent seasons.

By contrast, Soviet competitors began to lose their previous domination. East Germany won the 4 X 10-km team relay, with West Germany second and the U.S.S.R.

third. Biathlon's

own World Cup

series, decided over 20-km and 10-km races at five meetings in five countries, ended with Ulrich a decisive winner, followed by Anatoly Albyabjev of the U.S.S.R. and Kjell Sobak of Norway. The eighth annual Finlandia ski marathon, over a 75-km cross-country course from Hameenlinna

was contested by 9,670 racers, including 803 foreigners, but Finns took the first three places. Matti Kuosko won, followed by Heikki Rapatti. Pauli Siitonen, seeking a sixth successive victory, to Lahti,

ended

third.

Puikkonnen of Finland won the sixth world ski-flying championship, at Oberstdorf, West Germany, on March 1. Armin Kogler, the defending champion, was runner-up, with Tom Levorstad from Norway third. Other Events. In the eighth biennial world skibob championships, at Lungotz, Austria, on February 1-7, Robert Miihlberger of West Germany retained the men's title. The silver medal went to Hans Irausek of Austria and the bronze to another West German, Anton Feistl. Alana Hanouskova from Czechoslovakia became the new women's champion. A West German, Rosalinde Lehner, was runner-up, with Andrea Dobler of Jari

Austria third. Ice Skating. An increase in the number of international competitions during 1981 enabled more people to see the stars in live action as well as on television. This helped influence more to take up the sport for recreation, and the number of indoor rinks continued to grow in most areas, particularly in North America, Japan, China, and Western Europe. Increasing numbers of skaters practiced ice dancing, but fewer persevered with the more physically demanding pairs competition. A plastic blade support, replacing the conventional metal stanchion, was a feature of some new skate designs, lightening the weight and trimming the cost by reducing the overall amount of steel required. Most leading performers, however, continued to use the chromium-plated steel skate.

Figure Skating.

New

winners emerged in

all

four events of the world championships, contested 116 skaters from 24 nations on March 3-7 at Hartford, Conn. The meeting was sponsored, ironically, by the insurance company that had paid the $11 million cost of rebuilding the Coli-

by

seum

damaged by ice and snow three victory for the host nation in the men's competition raised the rafters in a more welcome way when the diminutive Scott Hamilton — ft 3 in tall — became the sixth U.S. skater to acquire the crown since it was first contested in 1896. rink's roof,

years earlier.

A

Hamilton, who had taken up the sport at the age nine as therapy for Shwachman's disease, ranked third before the final free skating, but four great triple jumps punctuated by well-varied spins and intricate linking footwork earned 5.9 out of a possible 6 for technical merit from six of the nine judges, despite a fluky tumble during a simple turn. He overhauled his compatriot David Santee, who finished runner-up ahead of Igor Bobrin of the Soviet Union. Brian Orser, sixth for Canada, became the second skater to accomplish a triple axel jump in a world championship, emulating the awesome feat of his fellow Canadian Vern Taylor in 1978. Robert Wagenhoffer (U.S.) achieved a quadruple toe loop jump during practice but did not attempt it in comof

petition.

Denise Biellmann became the first Swiss skater women's title. This gracefully athletic performer had practiced acrobatics for nine years to develop her now famous and unique spin, drawing her free leg back and upward until clutching her skate high above her head. This proved the trump card enabling her to overtake the U.S. runner-up, Elaine Zayak, a petite dynamo of only 15 who landed six triple jumps and seemed certain to become a future champion. Claudia KristoficsBinder from Austria, who had led in the figures, narrowly outscored Britain's Debbie Cottrill for to take the

third place.

The pairs title went comfortably to the Soviet husband and wife team of Igor Lisovsky and Irina Vorobieva. Tassilo Thierbach recovered well from two-month-old knee operation to end runner-up for East Germany with partner Sabine Baess. The West Germans Andreas Nischwitz and Christina Riegel snatched the bronze from the Soviet title defenders, Sergey Shakhrai and Marina Tcherkasova, this time humbled in fourth place. The ice dance victory for Britain by Christopher Dean and Jayne Torvill was only the second nonSoviet success in 12 years in this event; the British pair defeated the respected Andrey Minekov and Irina Moiseyeva, victors twice previously but this time runners-up. Third place went to Andrey Bukin and Natalia Bestemianova of the U.S.S.R. The British couple was considered by many to be technically the best-ever performers in this branch of a

skating.

In the first season with a controversial new scoring system, better free skaters and free dancers had an unprecedented advantage over specialists in compulsory figures, the former being favoured in tie-break decisions when total points were equal. This ruling denied third place in ice dancing to Michael Seibert and Judy Blumberg of the U.S. Speed Skating. Amund Sj0brend of Norway became the new men's world champion in Oslo on February 14-15. His compatriots Kay Arne Stenshjemmet and Jan Egil Storholt finished second and third. In the four events, Stenshjemmet

729

won of

the 500 m, Sjebrend the 1,500 m, Piet Kleine The Netherlands the 5,000 m, and Sergey Bere-

Winter Sports

zin of the U.S.S.R. the 10,000 m. Natalia Petruseva of the U.S.S.R. retained the women's title in Quebec City on February 7-8. Karin Enke of East Germany was runner-up, and

Sarah Docter of the U.S. finished third. Petruseva was first in the 500 m and 1,000 m, Enke winning the 1,500 m and Olga Pleshkova of the U.S.S.R. the 3,000 m. In the separate world sprint championships, contested at Grenoble, France, on February 21-22, Norway's Erode Ranning gained the men's title, followed by two Soviet racers, Sergey Khlebnikov and Anatoly Medennikov. The women's title was retained by Enke, with Tatiana Tarasova of the U.S.S.R. second and Petruseva third. Two world men's records were achieved during the season. Yevgeny Kulikov of the U.S.S.R. lowsec at Medeo, and Canada's Gaetan Boucher reduced

ered the 500-m sprint to 36.91 U.S.S.R.,

m to 1 min 13.39 sec in Davos, Switz. Every major women's record was broken, all at Medeo. Petruseva clocked new times of 1 min 20.81 sec for the 1,000 m and 2 min 5.39 sec for the 1,500 m. Two East Germans, Christa Rothenburger and Gaby Schonbrunn, covered 500 m in 40.18 sec and the 1,000

3,000

m

in 4

min

21.70 sec, respectively.

Eleven countries sent 39 men and 32 women to complete in the first world short track championships (for indoor rinks) at Meudon, France, on April 4-5. The men's and women's overall titles were won by Benoit Baril (Canada) and Miyoshi Kato (Japan), respectively. Bobsledding. East German sleds, each driven by Bernhard Germeshausen and braked by Hans Jurgen Gerhardt, won both titles in the 48th world championships in February at Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. In the two-man event they avenged their 1980 Olympic defeat by Erich Scharer and Josef Benz of Switzerland, who finished third behind another East German sled steered by Horst Schonau and braked by Andreas Kirchner. Germeshausen's aggregate time for the four descents was less than a second faster than Schonau's. In the event for four-man crews Germeshausen won his second gold medal by a more comfortable margin of 2.22 sec over the Swiss runner-up, Hans Hiltebrand. Scharer gained his second bronze by steering another Swiss sled into third place. The results were overshadowed by the death of the U.S. driver Jim Morgan when his four-man sled overturned near the finish after rounding the final curve at an estimated speed of 150 km/h (93 mph). The other U.S. foursome had withdrawn the previous day after an accident on the same curve. Tobogganing. Sergey Danilin of the Soviet Union captured the men's title in the 27th world luge championships at Hammarstrand, Sweden, on February 7-8, followed by an East German, Michael Walter, and an Italian, Ernst Haspinger. Melitta Sollmann of East Germany regained the women's crown she had previously held in 1979, with her compatriot Bettina Schmidt runner-up and Vera Zozoula of the U.S.S.R. third. The doubles title went to the East German brothers Bernd

and Ulrich Hahn.

Scott Hamilton of Denver, Colo,, captured the gold medal at the Skate

America competition at Lake Placid, NY., in October. He outpointed 11 other competitors.

Swiss riders monopolized the medals in both the on the CreRun at St.-Moritz, Switz. Franco Gansser won the 72nd Grand National over the full course on February 14, with Patrick Latscha runner-up and Nico Baracchi third. The 58th Curzon Cup, over a shorter distance on January 17-18, was won for the fourth successive time by Poldi Berchtold, the track record holder, with Baracchi second and Gansser third. Curling. Swiss curling appropriately celebrated its 100th anniversary with a victory in the 23rd men's world championship for the Air Canada Silver Broom, at the Thompson Arena in London, Ont., on March 23-29. The winning rink, from Lausanne, was skipped by Jurg Tanner and also included Jurg Hornisberger, Patrick Loertscher, and Tanner's 53-year-old father, Franz. They beat

classic events for skeleton tobogganists sta

Bud Somerville's ed

U.S. rink 2-1 in a closely contest-

final.

Somerville skipped his rink from third position, with Bob Nichols throwing the skip rocks; Bob Christian and Bob Buchanan completed the team. Switzerland reached the final after defeating Kerry Burtnyk's Canadian rink 7-4. In the other semifinal Somerville beat the Norway team skipped by Kristian Soerum, who was competing in his sixth successive championship. Other nations competing were Sweden, Scotland, France, West Germany, Italy, and Denmark. The oldest curler participating in the championship was the French skip, Gerard Alazet, 66. The third women's world championship, sponsored by the Royal Bank of Scotland at Perth, Scot-

730

on March 16-21, was won for the first time by Sweden. Skipped by Elisabeth Hogstrum and also including Karin Sjogren, Birgitta Sewick, and Carina Olsson, Sweden beat Canada (skipped by land,

Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of

Susan

Seitz) 7-2 in the final.

Norway

finished

world junior championship, sponsored by Uniroyal at Megeve, France, on March 7-14, Scotland, represented by a rink from Stranraer skipped by Peter Wilson, retained the title. Canada (skip, Denis Marchand) was runnerthe seventh

(HOWARD

up.

See also

Ice

bass)

Hockey.

[452.B.4.g-h]

Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of A

people's republic in the southern coastal region

Husani

pro-Soviet policies in early 1981, less than one year after taking office in South Ye-

men. The late-1980 emphasis on economic liberalization for merchants all but disappeared in 1981. Friendship treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia, and in August a tripartite alliance

Wood

Products: see Industrial Review

World Bank: see Economy, World Wrestling:

see Combat Sports Yachting:

see Sailing Yiddish Literature: see Literature

unit:

Yemen

dinar, with

Budget (1977-78 actual): expenditure 47,370,000 dinars.

sterling).

revenue 34,890,000 dinars; Foreign trade (1979): imports 135.8 million dinars: exports 85.8 million dinars. Import sources: Kuwait c. 16%; lapan c. 8%; U.K. c. 6%; The Netherlands c. 5%; Qatar c. 5%; Saudi Arabia c. 5%. Export destinations: Italy c. 22%; (apan c. 16%; United Arab Emirates c. 8%; Mauritius c. 7%; Singapore c. 6%; China c. 6%; South Korea c 5%. Main exports (1977): petroleum products 84%; fish 9%, Transport. Roads (1976) 10,494 km (including 1,356 km with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger c. 12,500; commercial (including buses) c 15,200. There are no railways. Shipping traffic (1977): goods loaded 1,373,000 metric tons, unloaded 2,429,000 metric tons. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): millet and sorghum c. 73; wheat (1979) c. 25; watermelons (1979) c. 56; dates c. 43; cotton, lint c. 4; fish catch (1979) 52. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 110; sheep c. 970; goats c. 1,300; camels c. 100; chickens c. 1,490. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1978): petroleum products c. 1,845; salt c. 75; electricity (kw-hr) c. 242,000.

resulted in increased support for the National

Muhammad

moved toward

re-

= £1

Muhammad

Husani. Chief of state Ali Nasir

ported in February that 1,200 Cuban troops had passed through the Suez Canal and landed in South Yemen.

rate of 0.64 dinar

was signed with Libya and Ethiopia, placing South Yemen firmly in the radical Arab camp. In October 1980 a policy shift in South Yemen

Yemen)

The Egyptian press

Finance and Trade. Monetary

(Sept. 21, 1981) a par value of 0.345 dinar to U.S. $1 (free

Arabian Peninsula, Yemen (Aden; South is bordered by Yemen (San'a'), Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Area: 338,100 sq km (130,541 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 1,943,000. Cap. and largest city: Aden (pop., 1980 est., 343,000). Language: Arabic. Religion: predominantly Muslim. Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Council and prime minister in 1981, Ali Nasir of the

People's Democratic Republic of Yemen

Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 212,795; secondprimary and secondary, teachers 10,078; vocational, pupils 1,223, teachers (1976-77) 68; teacher training, students 1,070, teachers 57; higher, students 2,517, teaching staff 246.

third.

In

YEMEN, PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ary, pupils 64,388;

Democratic Front (ndf) antigovernment rebels in Yemen (San'a'; North Yemen). Nevertheless, the NDF suffered military defeats during 1981. When Pres. Ali Abdullah Saleh of North Yemen visited Aden in December, "reunification" of the Yemens

was discussed. Western economic

assistance to South

Yemen

attempt to seize the town of Ibb, but they were repulsed by heavily armed government forces. A cease-fire agreement was reached in November. In December Saleh visited Aden to discuss reunification, the first such visit there by a president from North Yemen. In October Saleh visited Moscow, where he apparently succeeded in rescheduling military loans worth more than $400 million. High military spending coupled with widespread tax evasion and smuggling reduced the government's revenue sources. Contractors and banks reported difficulty in receiving payments from the government. The second five-year plan, to be published in 1982, was expected once again to be dependent on Arab aid. Oil exploration continued, but results were disappointing. Earnings from cotton and coffee declined because farmers found more profit in growing the narcotic leaf qat for domestic consumption.

continued despite the Marxist profile of the government. A Japanese-built power station was due to open in February 1982, while Australians were helping with road construction. Oil exploration by Italian and Soviet geologists continued, and a 250room hotel in Aden was being built with Bulgarian assistance. (john whelan)

Yemen Arab Republic A

republic situated in the southwestern coastal region of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen (San'a';

North Yemen) is bounded by Yemen (Aden), Saudi Arabia, and the Red Sea. Area: 200,000 sq km (77,200 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 5,305,000. Cap.

and

largest city: San'a' (pop., 1980 est., 210,000).

Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. President in 1981, Col. Ali Abdullah Saleh; premier, Abdel

Karim

Abdullah Saleh faced crumbling security in North Yemen during 1981. Bitter fighting erupted in August between government forces and rebels of the opposition National Democratic Front (ndf). The ndf forces, backed by Yemen (Aden; South Yemen), made a determined Ali

Yugoslavia A federal socialist republic,

Yugoslavia is bordered Italy, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, and the Adriatic Sea. Area: 255,804 sq km (98,766 sq mi). Pop. (1981 est.): 22,451,000. Cap. and largest city: Belgrade (pop., 1980 est., 976,000). Language: Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, and Albanian. Religion (1953): Orthodox 41%; Roman Catholic 32%; Muslim 12%. Presidents of the Presidium of the League of Communists in 1981, Lazar Mojsov and, from October, Dusan Dragosavac; presidents of the collective Presidency, Cvijetin Mijatovicand, from May 15, Sergej Kraigher; president of the Federal Executive Council (premier), Veselin Djuranovic.

by

UN

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 221,482, teachers (1975-76) 6,604; secondary, pupils 24,873, teachers (1975 -76) c. 1,172; vocational, pupils 503, teachers (1975-76) 60; teacher training, students 1,650, teachers (1975-76) 113; higher, students (1977-78) 4,058, teaching staff (1973 -74) 58.

Rnance and Trade. Monetary 1981) a par value of 4.56

= £1

rials to

unit: rial, with (Sept. 21, U.S. $1 (free rate of 8.46

est.): revenue 4,435,rials; expenditure 6,806,000,000 rials. Foreign trade (1979); imports 6.804,0(X),000 rials; exports 61,700,000 rials. Import sources: Saudi Arabia 19%; lapan 10%;

sterling).

Budget (1980-81

000,000

France 10%; U.K.

8%: West Germany 7%;

gapore 5%: China 5%. Export destinations:

Italy

6%;

Yemen

49%: Saudi Arabia 23%; Italy 7%. Mam exports conon 49%; coffee 17%; hides and skins 12%.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric ions; 1980): barc. 56: corn (1979) c 90; wheat (1979) c. 100: sorghum 686; poutoes (1979) c. 106: grapes c. (1979) 45; dates c. 83; coffee c. 4; tobacco (1979) c. 4; cotton, lint c. 1. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 950; sheep c. 3,700; goats ley

7,800; camels

c.

106: asses

c.

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia maintained its traditional nonaligned stance between East and West during 1981. Sergej Kraigher, the president of the collective Presidency, attended the North-South summit in Canctin, Mexico, in October. However, Yugoslavia's role and importance in the nonaligned grouping showed signs of diminishing in the wake of President Tito's death in May 1980 and the eruption of new conflicts such as the Iraq-Iran war.

Sin-

(Aden) (1977):

c.

c.

Republic

(JOHN whelan)

al-Iriani.

Pres.

rials

Yemen Arab

716.

YUGOSLAVIA Education. (1978-79) Primary, pupils 1,427,769, teachers 57,335; secondary, pupils 1,912,231, vocational, pupils 487,171; teacher training, pupils 14,386; scconcJary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 127,906; higher, students 285,431, teaching staff 18,178. Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of 37.21 dinars to U.S. $1 (68.98 dinars = £1 sterling) Cold and other reserves ()une 1981) U.S. $1,511,000,000. Budget (federal; 1980 tulanced at 132 3 billion dinars Cross material product (1979) 1,165,(XX),000 dinars Money supply (May 1981) 515.5 billion dinars. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 1981) 320.1. Foreign Trade. (1980) imports 376.3 billion dinars; exports 226.7 billion dinars Import sources:

est.)

U.S.S.R.

18%,;

West Cermany 17%;

Italy

7%,, U.S.

7%; Iraq 6%. Export destinations USSR. 28%; Italy 9%; West Cermany 9%; Czechoslovakia 5% Main 18%; chemicals 11%; transport equipment 10%: food 9%: textiles and clothing 9%; exports: machinery

footwear

5%;

nonferrous

metals

5%.

Tourism

(1979): visitors 5,966,000; gross receipts U.S. $1 billion.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1979) 129,455 km (including 285 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger 1,863,2(X); commercial 129,400. Railways: (1979) 9,381 km; traffic freight passenger-km, (1980) 10,274,000,000 24,993,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): c 2,984,000,000 passenger-km; freight c. 41 7 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 486; gross tonnage 2,466,574. Telephones (Dec. 1979) 1,913,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1979) 4,634,000. Television licenses (Dec.

000; metric tons; 650; oats c. 295; corn 9,106; potatoes 2,387; sunflower seed c. 306; sugar, raw value c. 805; onions c. 280; tomatoes c 470; cabbages (1979) c. 700; chilies and peppers (1979) c. 340; watermelons (1979) c 575; plums (1979) c.

wheat

5,078; barley

m

and resins 434; cotton yarn 117; wool yarn man-made fibres (1978) 101; wood pulp (1978) 610: newsprint 51; other paper (1979) c. 780; television receivers (units: 1979) 599; passenger cars (units) 187; commercial vehicles (units) 64. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross Ions and over; 1980) plastics

1979) 4,189,000. Agriculture. Production 1980):

516; apples c. 447; wine c 687; tobacco 56: beef and c. 347; pork c. 710; timber (cu m; 1979) c. 15,898. Livestock (in 000; Ian. 1980): cattle c. 5,436; sheep c. 7,354; pigs c. 7,502; horses c. 617; chickens c. 63,055. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons: 1980): coal 391; lignite 45,446: crude oil 4,224; natu ral gas (cu m) 1,820,000; manufactured gas (cu 1979) c. 240,000; electricity (kw-hr) 59,339,000. Pro duction (in 000; metric tons; 1980): cement 9,315 iron ore (35% metal content) 4,539; pig iron 2,677 crude steel 2,437; magnesiic (1979) 293: bauxite 3,111; aluminum 184; copper 131; lead 102, zinc 85; petroleum products c. 15,400; sulfuric acid 1,196; veal

(in

c.

54;

c.

123,000 gross tons.

732

Yugoslavia

The

first

nuclear

power

plant in Yugoslavia be-

gan

test

operations

in

November. The plant located in Krsko.

is

Relations with Bulgaria cooled during the year. According to the Yugoslavs, recent events indicated an indirect renewal of Bulgaria's past aspirations to the republic of Macedonia. In response, they canceled various traditional frontier meetings between local populations on both sides. On Au-

gust 30 a Bulgarian national was shot and killed on the Yugoslav side of the border by Yugoslav border guards. The incident led to sharp recriminations, but relations subsequently improved, and in October Yugoslavia and Bulgaria signed several trade and cooperation agreements. Yugoslavia's relations with Albania deteriorated

...y—'^- \

sharply in the wake of riots in Kosovo, the largely Albanian-inhabited autonomous province in the republic of Serbia bordering on Albania. In May senior Yugoslav representatives accused Albania of involvement in the riots. Albania repeatedly denied this but expressed its concern for Kosovo Yugoslavia canceled all agreements for cultural and scientific exchanges, as well as the 1980 agreement to build a rail link connecting Albania with the European railway system. In November Albania accused Yugoslavia of jamming its television and radio broadcasts in order to prevent them from being received in Kosovo.

YUGOSLAVIA: Administrative and

Ethnic

Subotica

International

•

Provincial

Boundary

Boundarv

Autonomous Region National Capital Provincial Capital

00

150

200 Un

*

Breakdown

(1971 census)

Bosnia

Demonstrations broke out among the students of the University of Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, 11. Much larger demonstrations, involving students, school pupils, industrial workers, and farmers, occurred in the March-May p>eriod and were put down with the aid of police and army reinforcements. According to the Albanian press,

733 ZAIRE

on March

tanks, armoured cars, and helicopters were also used. Official figures stated that 11 died and 57 were injured during one week of disturbances. Yugoslav authorities rejected the main demand of the demonstrators: that Kosovo be upgraded to the status of a federal republic. On May 5 Mahmut Bakali, leader of the League

Communists in Kosovo, was dismissed, marking the start of a purge of the province's party officials, government, and university. Nearly 30 Kosovo Albanians were sentenced to prison terms of up to 15 years for their part in the spring disturbances. In November a special meeting of the League of Communists Central Committee heard that "enemy activity" in Kosovo continued. In January several Roman Catholic bishops were accused of keeping alive the cult of Alojzije Cardinal Stepinac, who had been sentenced to 16 years' imprisonment in 1946. Croatian dissident Gen. Franjo Tudjman was sentenced to three years' imprisonment for publishing "hostile interviews" abroad. Vlado Gotovac, a Croatian poet, received a two-year sentence. Marko Veselica, a professor of economics, was sentenced to 11 years, and Gojko Djogo, a Serbian poet accused of having insulted Tito in his poetry, to two years. In 1981 Yugoslavia's debt reached $20 billion; debt service charges were $2.5 billion, or 3% of national income. Yugoslav exports were 19% higher and imports 10% higher in the January-September 1981 period than in the corresponding period of 1980. For the first time in years, trade with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance countries of

accounted

for

more than 50%

of total

Yugoslav

Exports to the non-Communist world were 3% lower and imports 12% higher in January-September than in the same period of (k. f. cviic) 1980. external

trade.

Zaire A republic of equatorial Africa, Zaire is bounded by the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,344,885 sq

km

(905,365 sq mi). Pop. (1980

est.):

28,291,000.

Cap. and largest city: Kinshasa (pop., 1979 est., 2,242,300). Language: French; Bantu dialects. Religion: animist approximately 50%; Christian 43%. President in 1981, Mobutu SeseSeko; prime ministers, Nguza Karl-1-Bond and, from April 23, N'singa Udjuu. The economic stabilization program launched in Zlaire with the support of the International Mone-

Fund (IMF) in 1980 began to show results in The government deficit for 1980 fell well within the limit permitted by the imf, and inflation was reduced from 80 to 50% The external debt remained at about $5 billion, however, and there tary

1981.

.

Zaire

Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 3,818,934, teachers (1972-73) 80,481; secondary, pupils

c. 458,776; vocapupils c. 84,995; teacher training, students c. 99,904; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers (1973-74) 14,483; higher, students (1974-75) 21,021, teaching staff 2,550.

tional,

Rnance. Monetary unit: zaire, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate o( 5.42 zaires to U.S. $1 (10.04 zaires £1 ster-

=

Cold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $76 million. Budget (1978 actual): revenue 740 million zaires; expenditure 1,506,000,000 zaires. Cross national product (1978) 5,336,000,000 zaires. Money supply (May 1981) 3,413,5(X),000 zaires Cost of living (Kinshasa; 1975 = 100; May ling).

1981) 1,685. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports 2,327,800,000 zaires; exports 4,553,800,000 zaires. Import sources: Belgium-Luxembourg c. 16%; West Germany c. 10%; U.S. c. 10%; South Africa c. 9%; France c. 8%; Brazil c. 7%; Zimt)abwe

6%. Export destinations: Angola c. 22%; U.S. c. 13%; Mozambique c. 10%; India c. 9%; France c. 6%; luly c. 5%; Belgium-Luxembourg c. 5%. Main exports: copper 43%; cobalt 21%; coffee 10%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1979) c. 145,c.

000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1979), passenger c. 94,200; commercial (including buses) c 85,500. Railways: (1979) 5,254 km; traffic (1976) 467 million passenger-km, freight 2,203,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1980): c. 834 million passenger-km; freight c. 34.9 million net ton-km. Shipping (1980); merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 33; gross

tonnage 91,894. Inland waterways (including Zaire River; 1980) c. 14,000 km. Telephones (Ian. 1980) 30,300. Radio receivers (Dec. 1977) 125,(X)0. Television receivers (Dec. 1977) 8,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): rice 230; corn c. 500; sweet potatoes (1979) c. 300; cassava (1979) c. 12,000; peanuts c. 323; palm kernels c. 74; palm oil c. 180; mangoes c. 174; pineapples c. 154; bananas c. 312; oranges c. 155; coffee c. 88; rubber c. 20; cotton, lint c 17; meat (1979) c. 180; fish catch (1979) 115; timber (cu m; 1979) c 10,009. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c 1,144; sheep c. 779; goats c. 2,783; pigs c. 753; poultry c. 12,411. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): copper ore (metal content) 400; zinc ore (metal content) 73; manganese ore (metal content) 10; cobalt ore (metal content) 14; gold (troy oz) 73; silver (troy oz) 3,592; diamonds (metric carats) 11,225; crude oil (1980) 1,023; coal (1978) 105; petroleum products (1978) 183; sulfuric acid (1978) 138; cement (1978) 468; electricity (kw-hr; 1978) c. 3,957,000. c.

was Still an acute shortage of foreign exchange. This threatened the effective maintenance of communications because the nation could not afford spare parts and technical assistance; this, in turn, adversely affected the transportation of the two main exchange earners, copper and cobalt. Hopes of help from Western companies were at first tentative because expert opinion held that it would be some time before conditions were suitable for economic expansion. In June, however, the IMF authorized a loan of 912 million special drawing rights ($1,060,000,000), the largest to that date to any African country, to support economic adjustment during the period 1981-83. The object of the loan was to enable Zaire to reduce inflation

still

further and to improve the nation's

balance of payments. As a first step, the currency was devalued. The Executive Council at first set aside $50 million and later $20 million more to pay for essential imports and raw materials and spare parts for industry and agriculture. Romanian officials visiting Kinshasa promised to send technical assistance, tools, and seeds to revive the joint Zaire-Romanian agricultural company. Its main object was to teach the production of basic foodstuffs in the hope of reducing depend-

ence on

imported

food.

The Chinese deputy

minister for external cultural relations visited Zaire and discussed a cultural exchange program, while other visitors included members of a Soviet youth delegation. The election of Pres. Francois Mitterrand of France led Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko to call for a reappraisal of Franco-African relations. While the prospect of external financial aid was in the balance, Sozacom, the state-controlled mineral marketing agency, opened negotiations with a number of companies with a view to selling diamonds outside the Central Selling Organization (cso) of the Anglo-South African diamond group De Beers. Discussions aimed at negotiating a new marketing agreement with De Beers broke down, and Zaire proceeded to sell independently to three European companies. In September the cso accepted defeat and closed its market in Tshikapa. One consequence of the new arrangement was that, because customers paid in cash immediately, the cash flow to Miba, the most important mine, improved. Encouraged by the experiment, Miba

claimed that it would be able to double its output within a few years. This prospect depended upon the availability of financial aid to support plans for underground mining because the alluvial deposits were almost exhausted. In February Mobutu reshuffled his Cabinet, bringing Bomboko Lokumba to the fore once again as state commissioner for foreign affairs and international cooperation and also as deputy prime minister; foreign minister in the 1960s, Bomboko had been accused after accusations of plotting against the president in the 1970s. In October, however, Mobutu dismissed Bomboko as part of another Cabinet reshuffle. In April Prime Minister Nguza Karl-I-Bond, while on a visit to Brussels, wrote to the president announcing his resignation. He also published a pamphlet calling on the people of Zaire to overthrow the president. Mobutu then threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Belgium if that country did not curb the subversive activities of Zairian exiles. Belgium responded

by condemning the exiles' attacks on Mobutu and by summoning Nguza to the Ministry of Justice, where he was ordered to stop his political activities. Nguza, however, later insisted that he would continue to criticize the Zairian government and would be prepared to campaign as a candidate if elections were held. Nguza was succeeded as prime minister by N' singa Udjuu. Some weeks later Zairian demonstrators surrounded President Mobutu's house in Brussels, protesting the release from a Belgian prison of the former governor of Shaba Province. Mobutu countered by suing the group for trespass and damage to property. Nguza attempted to enlist U.S. sup-

campaign by releasing a document said have been prepared by the Zairian Parliament and alleging misappropriation of over $150 million in funds by the president, but the attempt met with a rebuff when the U.S. Department of State reaffirmed its support for Mobutu. Belgian Minisport for his to

Foreign Affairs Charles-Ferdinand Nothomb visited Zaire in July; in a broadcast over Zaire Radio he stressed Belgium's desire for good relations with Zaire but at the same time emphasized his nation's commitments to freedom of speech. ter of

In Zaire itself there was criticism of the government from Roman Catholic bishops, who published a document denouncing the decadence and misery that prevailed in the country and the corruption in courts, hospitals, and schools. They also cited cases of kidnapping, arbitrary arrests,

and torture by

officials.

External political relations were mainly directed toward the stabilization of the situation in Angola. In June the foreign minister called upon the U.S. not to resume aid to antigovernment forces in Angola because of the harmful consequences that internal disruption in Angola would have for Zaire.

(KENNETH INGHAm)

Zambia A republic and a member of the Commonwealth, Zambia is bounded by Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South West Africa/Namibia, Angola, and Zaire. Area: 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq mi). Pop. (1980 prelim.): 5,679,800, about 99% of whom are Africans. Cap. and largest city: Lusaka (pop., 1980 prelim., 538,500). Language: English and Bantu. Religion: predominantly animist, with Roman Catholic (21%), Protestant, Hindu, and Muslim minorities. President in 1981, Kenneth Kaunda; prime ministers, Daniel Lisulo and, from February 18, Nalumino Mundia. The Zambian government's failure to meet economic targets caused increasing unrest during 1981. Against this background, the growing political strength of the trade union movement presented a serious challenge to the ruling United National Independence Party (unip). On January

ZAMBIA Education. (1979) Primary, pupils 985,528, teachers (1977) 19,441; secondary (1978), pupils 88,842, teachers 3,669; vocational, pupils 5,284, teachers (1977) 510; teacher training, students (1978) 3,427, teachers (1977) 319; higher, students (1978) 3,773, teaching staff (1976) 412. Finance. Monetary unit: kwacha, with (Sept. 21, 1981) a free rate of 0.87 kwacha to U.S. $1 (1.61 kwachas = £1 sterling). Gold and other reserves dune 1981) U.S. $69 million. Budget (1979 actual): revenue 596.9 million kwachas; expenditure 770.9 million kwachas. Gross domestic product (1979) 2,524,000,000 kwachas. Cost of living (1975 = 100; June 1981) 232.8. Foreign Trade. (1979) Imports 595.4 million kwachas; exports 1,091,000,000 kwachas. Import sources: U.K. 267o; Saudi Arabia c. 18%; South Africa 11%; U.S. 9%; West Germany 8%. Export destinations: Japan 19%; France c. 15%; U.K. 13%; U.S. 10%; West Germany 9%; Italy c. 8%; India 6%,. Main export: copper 83%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1979) 36,415 km. Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger c. 103,500; commercial (including buses) c. 65,500. Railways (1980) 2,189 km (including 892 km of the 1,870-km Tanzam railway). Air traffic (1980): 467 million passenger-km; freight 47.5 million net ton-km. Telephones (|an. 1980) 60,500. Radio receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 125,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1978) c. 60,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): corn c. 800; cassava (1979) c. 175; millet c, 60; sorghum c. 35; peanuts c. 80; sugar, raw value (1979) c. 105; tobacco c 5. Livestock (in 000: 1979): cattle c. 1,800; sheep c 51; goats c. 300; pigs c. 180; poultry c. 14,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1979): coal 599; copper ore (metal content; 1980) 736; lead ore (metal content; 1980) 12; zinc ore (metal content; 1980) 37; petroleum products (1978) c. 850; cement 300; eiectricity (kw-hr) 8,770,000.

20 copper-belt miners began an eight-day strike in protest against the expulsion of 17 trade-union leaders from unip for allegedly meddling in poli-

Another strike of copper workers broke out while the president was paying a state visit to Zimbabwe in July. Four senior trade unionists and a tics.

businessman were arrested for inciting illegal in October one trade unionist was strikes; released, and a truce was reached between the unions and the government. In February Pres. Kenneth Kaunda promoted

Humphrey Mulemba eral of UNIP, the

to the post of secretary-gen-

second most important

office in

ZANU

of

(pf) until

August,

when he was

735 dis-

for

ty matters.

Against this background of uncertainty about

Nkomo's future, there were clashes early in February between different factions of the Zimbabwe Army stationed near Bulawayo and near Gwelo. The fighting soon involved as yet undisbanded guerrillas in the vicinity of Bulawayo, and it was several days before Nkomo was able to persuade

the country, and Nalumino Mundia replaced Daniel Lisulo as prime minister. In June security police uncovered a plot against Kaunda with the backing, it was claimed, of South African mercenaries.

those of his Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (Zipra) followers who had taken part to lay down their arms; by that time more than 200 peo-

(KENNETH INGHAM)

tion of the difficulties experienced in integrating

Zimbabwe A republic in eastern Africa and member of the Commonwealth, Zimbabwe is bounded by Zambia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Bot-

km

(150,873 sq mi). Pop. are African and 4% white. Cap. and largest city: Salisbury (urban area pop., 1980 est., 654,000). Language: English (official) and various Bantu languages (1969

swana. Area: 390,759 sq est.): 7.6

(1981

million, of

whom 96%

Shona 71%, Ndebele 15%). Religion: predominantly traditional tribal beliefs; Christian

census,

minority. President in 1981, the Rev. Canaan Banana; prime minister, Robert Mugabe. In spite of tension among political parties, both black and white, and intermittent strained relations with South Africa, during 1981 the government maintained its objectives of uniting Zimbabwe and of expanding the economy. In Feb-

ruary control of the country's five main newspapers, previously in the hands of South African interests, was taken over by the Zimbabwe Mass

Media Trust. The government said that it was committed to freedom of the press and considered that South African control was an infringement of Zimbabwean independence and had been responsible for misrepresentations in the press. At the end of June the takeover was completed by the creation

of

the

Zimbabwe

Inter-Africa

News

Agency. During the year Prime Minister Robert Mugabe announced his wish to introduce a one-

"when the people give their consent." Nkomo, leader of the Patriotic Front's Zimbabwe African People's Union (zapu [pf]) and at the time minister of home affairs, attacked the party state

Joshua

decision to transfer control of the press to the trust

when

was first announced in January, claiming would make the press the mouthpiece of Mugabe's Patriotic Front party, the Zimbabwe African National Union (zanu [pf]). Only a few days later, on January 10, Nkomo was demoted and offered the post of public service minister in a Cabinet reshuffle. At the same time, Edgar Tekere, minister of manpower planning and development, was dropped; Tekere, acquitted a month earlier on a charge of murdering a farm manager, retained that

the

it

it

important

office

of

secretary-general

Zimbabwe

constant criticism of the government. Nkomo, meantime, protested his demotion and finally agreed to become minister without portfolio with special responsibilities regarding securi-

missed

ple

had

lost their lives.

The

fighting

was

a reflec-

former guerrillas of the Zipra and the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army sections of the Patriotic Front into a united national force. Meanwhile, on February 17 a plan was set in motion to disarm the guerrillas. Zipra members, however, feared that any such action would weaken Nkomo's authority and enhance the power of Mugabe's party. Nonetheless, the campaign to disarm the guerrillas was successfully completed in May. About one-fifth of Zimbabwe's budget was devoted to the maintenance of the armed forces; in June, therefore, it was decided to halve the size of the Army by providing incentives to soldiers to return to civilian life. Progress was made on a number of other fronts, though not without setbacks. By the beginning of February the drive to make secondary education Prime Minister Robert

Mugabe of Zimbabwe made his first official to Europe in September and met with the press in Copenfiagen.

visit

736

Zoos and Botanical Gardens

Zimbabwe's second budget since independence was made public in July when Finance Minister

ZIMBABWE Education. (1981) Primary, pupils 1,235,994, teachers 33,516; secondary, pupils 74,321, teachers 4,110; vocational (including part-time), pupils 6,048, teachers (1979) 278; teacher training, students 3,484, teachers (1979) 258; higher (1979), students 4,563, teaching staff 483.

Finance. Monetary unit: Zimbabwe dollar, with (Sept. £1 21, 1981) a free rate of Z$0.71 to U.S. $1 (Z$1.31 sterling). Budget (1980-81 est.): revenue Z$863 million;

=

expenditure Z$1, 227,000,000. Gross national product (1979) Z$2, 583,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1980) Imports Z$811. 9 million; exports Z$898.5 million. Import sources (1965): U.K. 30%; South Africa 23%; U.S. 7%; Japan 6%. Export destinations (1965): Zambia 25%,; U.K. 22%; South Africa 10%,; West Germany 9%; Malawi 5%,; Japan 5%. Main exports (1978): food 17%; tobacco 17%; iron and steel 12%; asbestos 9%,; gold 8%; cotton 7%; nickel 6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1979) c. 80,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1979): passenger c. 175,000; commercial (including buses) c. 70,000. Railways: (1979) 3,470 km; freight traffic (1980) 5,842,000,000 net ton-km. Telephones (June 1980) 214,400. Radio licenses (June 1980) 214,400. Television licenses (June 1980) 74,300. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980):

corn c. 1,600; millet c. 180; wheat (1979) c 100; sugar, raw value c. 300; peanuts c. 84; tobacco 114; cotton, lint c. 61; beef and veal (1979) c. 125. Livestock (in 000; 1979): cattle c. 5,000; sheep c. 754; goats c. 2,061; pigs c. 218. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1980): coal 3,134; cement 460; asbestos (1979) 260; chrome ore (1979) 542; iron ore (metal content) 1,622; tin concentrates (metal content) 0.9; nickel ore (metal content; 1979) 15; gold (troy oz) 367; electricity (kw-hr) 4,542,000.

more widely available was under way. Teachers were recruited in Britain and Australia, and programs of internal training for local teachers were February Bernard Chidzero, mineconomic planning, announced a new economic program, which, it was hoped, would lead to the establishment of an egalitarian and socialist society under democratic conditions. The policy envisioned an investment of $4 billion within a three-year period; one major aim was the resettlement of black peasant farmers on land acquired from European owners. The government also intended to become involved in major industries — particularly mining — to an extent to be determined by mutual agreement between the government and the present owners and in the light of started. Late in ister of

national priorities. In March a conference on reconstruction and development took place in Salisbury. It was attended by delegates from 45 countries who were asked by Mugabe to contribute $1.2 billion toward the rehabilitation of

Zimbabwe. About 70%

amount was

of this

offered during the conference, and those countries that responded were Britain, the U.S., Canada, West Germany, France, Sweden, Australia, Norway, and Denmark, together with the World Bank and Development Program. Notable absentees were the Communist countries of Eastern Europe, though later in the year North Korea provided equipment and military advisers for the Army. In May Mugabe visited China for discussions on South African relations and Soviet influence in Africa. He also traveled to Japan, India, and Pakistan. In August it was agreed that China would cooperate with Zimbabwe in a number of joint ventures in mining, agriculture, and light industry.

among

Enos Nkala announced sharp increases in taxes on gasoline and on all foods except milk, meat, and bread. His aim was to increase government spending by 37% At the beginning of March it was recognized that there would be a record corn crop, the result of timely rainfall and the encouragement given by the government to farmers to grow corn after Zimbabwe had been forced to import some of the country's staple food crop from South Africa in 1980. The government increased the price offered to growers from Z$85 to Z$120 per metric ton. The cost to consumers, however, was held at Z$60 per ton, involving the government in the payment of considerable subsidies to the growers. The tobacco crop was the best since 1965. The success of the farmers was, however, offset by the difficulty experienced in exporting corn and tobacco. This

was mainly due

shortage of railacute in March by South Africa's withdrawal of 24 locomotives that had been operating in Zimbabwe. They were returned in November, but in the meantime supplies of corn that could have found a ready market in the famine-stricken areas of Somalia, Uganda, and Kenya were held up until assistance

way

locomotives, a situation

to a

made more

came from Mozambique and Botswana. South Africa struck a further blow to Zimbabwe by scrapping the preferential trade agreement between the two countries. In July the supply of diesel fuel to retailers was cut by one-fifth owing to delays in transport through South Africa. This, in turn, seriously disrupted the activities of farmers, and the government set as its target the achievement of independence from oil imports through South Africa by the end of the year. In August the South African government ordered the expulsion of all Zimbabwean workers who had arrived in the country since 1958. This was the

South Africa's own unemployment problem but also of its government's hostility toward Mugabe. The prime minister frankly result, in part, of

admitted that because of his country's economic dependence upon South Africa, it would be impossible to take part in any scheme of economic sanctions against the republic. In to a

bomb attack on

the

zanu

December, reacting (pf) headquarters in

Salisbury in which at least six persons died,

Mugabe announced forced

to

harden

whites.

that his its

government might be

attitude toward

dissident

(KENNETH INGHAM)

See a/so Feature Article: Struggling The Birth ol Zimbabwe.

lor

Nationhood:

UN

Zoology: see Life Sciences

Zoos and Botanical

Gardens Zoos. During 1981 some of the legislation needed to curb the accelerating rate of extinction among the world's animal and plant species and reduce the destruction of habitats was promulgated, including a number of international and national laws relating to the keeping of animals in captivi-

N

QowESs/PicrofM^

for the first time outside China, was progressing well and being reared by the mother. In Washington, D.C., a much-publicized arranged marriage between the visiting male from the London Zoo

Zoos and Botanical Gardens

and the resident female ended without the hopedfor consummation. Artificial insemination of London Zoo's female panda, Ching Ching, failed to induce pregnancy.

Throughout the world more and more emphasis was being given in zoos to long-term breeding programs and to manipulative techniques in reproduction. In Memphis, Tenn., the first successful insemination of a gorilla resulted in a gorilla died after only a few days, it still probably the only primate other than man to be conceived using frozen semen. In New York important progress was reported when four embryos of gaur {Bos gaurus, the Indian wild ox) were transferred to domestic cows. One embryo survived full term, and the resultant calf was being reared by the host parent. Noteworthy births included second -generation Toco toucans, bred at San Antonio (Texas) Zoo; the first emperor penguins born in captivity, in Sea World, San Diego, Calif.; a second birth of a freshwater dolphin in Jaya Ancol Oceanarium, artificial

birth;

though the baby

was

Jakarta, Indonesia; 24 gharials {Gavialis gangeticus)

hatched in Nandakana Biological Park, Orissa, India, after a male was loaned from Frankfurt Chia-Chia, a giant panda, whom it was hoped would mate with Ling-Ling, a female panda at the National Zoo, Washington, returned home to the London Zoo in June. The sign that greeted him indicated that he had tried but failed.

DC

At the third conference of the parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, which met in New Delhi, India, during February 25-March 8, ty.

50 of the 67 signatory countries, 8 international groups, 10 nonmember countries, and 72 nongovernmental organizations were represented, and many controversial issues were debated. Included in the important decisions of particular relevance to zoos were: the adoption of guidelines for the more humane transportation of live animals; a possible acceptable definition of ranching operations; and the production of forgery-proof documents to

accompany shipments

of wildlife

and

amendments

its

The total population of the Przewalski horse in was only about 330, all in captivity in about

1981

70 collections. Until 1981 no wild horses had been seen since 1968, but a report from China suggested that small numbers might still be found in the northern region of Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur). This raised the exciting possibility of new blood being found for the inbred captive population. Certainly cooperation was needed to reduce the problems of inbreeding, and a welcome example was given when three mares from San Diego, Calif., were sent in Mav to rendezvous with a stallion in Prague, Czech, it was hoped that J 1 / .L the mares would be impregnated before their re,

,

,

turn to California.

products.

Lacey Act were proposed to reduce deliberate violations of foreign and domestic wildlife laws. In Britain Parliament enacted legislation, which, for the first In the U.S. important

(West Germany) Zoo.

to the

time, made compulsory the licensing of all zoos; the granting of licenses was dependent on regular inspections. In the U.S.S.R. a new law on "the protection and utilization of the animal world" came into effect in January. It contained the important

provision that, "If an international treaty to which the U.S.S.R. is a party establishes rules other than those contained in Soviet legislation on the protection and utilization of the animal world, the rules of the international treaty shall apply." The ups and downs of the married lives of giant pandas once again made the headlines. It was announced from Beijing (Peking) that, following artificial insemination, twin pandas were born in September, though only one survived. A cub was born in Chapultepec Park Zoo, Mexico City, and.

MPWfl

•

.

(p.

J.

olney)

The new Alpine House at

the Royal Botanic Gar-

^ens ly

at

Kew was

opened

official-

in April.

738

DIEGO/KEYSTONE

Zoos and Botanical Gardens

The Mombasa pavilion, which features an African atmosphere, was opened to the public at the San Diego Wild Animal Park in February. pavilion provides dining facilities for 325 people.

The

Botanical Gardens. The International AssociaGardens held its ninth general meeting and conference in Sydney, Australia, during August 1981. The various papers presented indicated a growing preoccupation with the problems of nature conservation. Worldwide efforts to protect threatened plant species were spearheaded by the Threatened tion of Botanic

Plants

Committee (tpc)

of the International

Union

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Tpc's secretariat, based at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, reported that botanical gardens throughout the world were seeking membership in the Botanic Garden Conservation Coordinating Body, indicating their awareness of the increasing importance of collaboration among establishments in different regions. An essential need had improved proceedings for the international exchange of seeds and plants, with greater exploitation of the possibilities offered by electronic data processing in collating the necessary information. Particularly pressing problems calling for further research were the longterm storage of seeds and the cultivation of wild orchids from seed. The existing stock of naturally occurring plants in all continents and countries had to be assessed so that it could be determined which species were most threatened; then it could be ascertained which threatened species were already held in collections, with a likelihood of survival. It was considered important that botanical gardens should in the future give special attention to the species to be found in their own regions. At a meeting of environmental authorities and for

The

Windsheim, West Germany, agreement was reached and procedures

botanical garden heads in Bad

were established

for the possible transference of threatened species to suitable new habitats. While botanical gardens possessed considerable expertise in the cultivation of rare plants, collaboration in concerted moves toward conservation would tax their resources considerably. Probably only the larger, better equipped establishments with adequate personnel would be able to make an effective contribution. Many of the smaller, less up-to-date gardens already had pressing day-today problems to contend with, lack of adequate space and insufficient funds being the most common. Meanwhile, the plundering of natural resources was rising to dangerous levels everywhere. With these considerations in mind, comprehensive there arose the idea of centralizing protective collections in climatically favourable areas where saving energy would not be a primary consideration. For example, in the Mediterranean region and in the Canary Islands there were ideal

locations for such projects.

At the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew the new Alpine House was officially opened in April 1981. This remarkable greenhouse, 14 m (46 ft) square, had a pyramidal roof and was unusually well ventilated, being surrounded by a water channel to increase humidity. A refrigerated central bench enabled the cultivation of varieties of high mountain plants that require cool rooting conditions.

(JOHANNES APEl) See also Environment; Gardening. [355.C.6]

CONTRIBUTORS Nanus

of contributors to the

Book of the Year

Britannica

The arrangement

AARSDAL, STENER. Economic and Political Journalist, Borsen,

Copenhagen.

Denmark

ADAMS, ANDREW

M. Free-lance For-

eign Correspondent; Editor and Publisher, Sumo World magazine. Author of Ninja: The Invisible Assassins: Born to Die: The Cherry Blossom Squadrons. Co-author of Sumo History and Yokozuna Profiles: lapan Sports Guide. Combat Sports: ludo: Karate: Kendo: Sumo

AGRELLA, JOSEPH

C. Correspondent,

AIELLO, LESLIE C. Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University College, London. Anthropology

BEEK, JAMES.

Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. .Author of Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints: Building the City of God: Community and Cooperation Among the Mormons: The Mormon Experience: A His-

can Forest Institute. Industrial Review: Wood Products

tory of the Latter-day Saints. Religion: Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints

AYTON, CYRIL Motor

Sports: Motorcycles

BAPTIST, INES

T. Administrative Assistant, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Year-

books. Belize

BARFORD, MICHAEL F. Editor and rector, WorM Tobacco, London.

Di-

Environment

(in part)

ALLAN, J. A. Lecturer in Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Biographies {in pari): Libya ALSTON. REX. Broadcaster and Journalist; retired bbc Commentator. Author of Taking the Air: Over to Rex Alston: Test Commentary: Watching Cricket. Biographies {in part): Cricket

ANDERSON, PETER

Assistant Director, Institute of Polar Studies, Ohio State University, Columbus. Antarctic J.

APEL, JOHANNES. Curator, Botanic Garden, University of Hamburg. Author of Cartnerisch-Botanische Briefe.

Zoos and Botanical Gardens:

Botanical

Gardens

ARCHIBALD, JOHN St.

Louis Post-Dispatch.

J.

Feature Writer, of Bowling

Author

for Boys and Girls. Bowling: Tenpin Bowling Duckpins

ARNOLD, GUY. Free-lance Writer. Author of Modern Nigeria: Kenyatta and the Politics of Kenya: The Last Bunker: Britain's Oil: Aid in Africa. Botswana: Burundi; Cape Verde; Equatorial Guinea; Gambia, The; Ghana; Guinea-Bissau; Lesotho; Liberia; Maldives; Mauritius; Rwanda; Sao Tome and Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Swaziland

ARNOLD, MAVIS. Dublin. Biographies

Free-lance Journalist,

Literature:

Israeli Poetry.

Ireland

BERKOVITCH. ISRAEL.

Free-lance Writ-

er and Consultant. Author of Coal on the Switchback: Coal: Energy and Chemical Storehouse. Energy: Coal

BICKELHAUPT, DAVID

Professor of

L.

ist.

HOWARD.

Journalist and BroadWinter Sports, 1948-69. Winter Sports Correspondent, Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph. London: Evening Standard, London: Toronto Star, Toronto: Canadian Skater, Ottawa: Skating, Boston; Ski Racing, Denver; Ski, London. Author of The Sense in Sport: The Magic of Skiing: International Encyclopaedia of Winter Sports: Let's Go Skating. Co-author of Skat-

BASS,

caster. Editor,

ing for Gold. Ice Hockey: European and International

BIRD,

of Developing Patterns of Urbanization: Uses of Economics. Advisory Editor of Models in

Urban and Regional Planning.

Mining Engineering Handbook. Frequent Contributor to Mining Engineering. Mining and Quarrying {in part)

ROGER

A.

E.

Assistant Director,

tributor to Lexicon of

Modern

Yiddish

Literature.

Literature: Yiddish {in part)

BLACKBURN, LUCY.

Economist, Group

London

Biographies (in part); Chile; Costa Rica; Salvador; Guatemala; Honduras

BLUMENTHAL, MARCIA

El

A. Senior Edi-

tor, Computer Industry, Computerworld Computers

BODDY, WILLIAM

(in part)

BEALL, JOHN V. Sales Manager, Davy McKee Corp. Author of sections 1 and 34,

sociation, Geneva. Social Security and

THOMAS

Yiddish Program, Queens College, City University of New York; Chairman, Yiddish Section, Modern Language Association of America. Con-

Ltd.,

Winter Sports

BEATTIE,

Industrial Review: Paints and Varnishes

Economics Department, Lloyds Bank

BAYLISS, DAVID. Chief Transport Planner, Greater London Council. Co-author

Transportation

Columbus. Author of Transition to Multiple-Line Insurance Companies: General Insurance (10th ed.). Industrial Review: Insurance

BILEFIELD, LIONEL. Technical Journal-

Hebrew

Member

of Sec-

Welfare Services

As{in

part)

C. Editor, Motor Member, Guild of Motoring Author of The History of BrookMotor Course The World's Land Speed

Sport. Full

Writers. lands

:

Record: Continental Sports Cars: The Bugatti Story History of Montlhery. Motor Sports: Grand Prix Racing: Rallies and Other Races :

BODEN, EDWARD.

Editor, The Veteri-

nary Record: Executive Editor, Research

in

Veterinary Science.

Veterinary Science

BEATTY, JAMES

R. Research Fellow, B.

Goodrich Research and Development Center, Brecksville, Ohio. Co-author of Concepts in Compounding: Physical Testing F.

of Elastomers and Polymers in Applied Polymer Science.

Industrial Review: Rubber

BECKWITH, DAVID

A Way of Loving. Religion: Methodist Churches BOLTZ,

C.

L.

Free-lance Industrial Writ-

London.

Energy: Electricity C. National Eco-

Statistical

Developments

BOLT, PETER H. Secretary, British Committee, World Methodist Council. Author of

er,

nomic Correspondent, Time magazine, Washington, D.C. United Stales

{in part);

migration.

Migration, InternationalRace Relations

sity,

retariat, International Social Security {in part):

England. Co-author of Work, Race, and Im-

BARGAD, WARREN.

Anthology of

Free-lance Writer

Principal Lecturer

in Sociology, Sheffield City Polytechnic,

Insurance and Finance, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State Univer-

Who

:

BENTLEY, STUART.

Ameri-

Industrial Review: Tobacco

and Lecturer. Author

of The Eco- Activists: Will Eat? Inventing Tomorrow: World Food Resources. Co-author of A Blueprint for Survival: Home Farm. Editor of The Survival Handbook: Dictionary of the Environment.

Editorial Director,

BERGERRE, MAX. Vatican Affairs Correspondent, La Vie Catholique, Paris. Vatican City State

Editor, Motorcycle

J.

London.

Milton D. Ratner Professor of Hebrew Literature and Dean, Spertus College of Judaica, Chicago. Author of Hayim Hazaz: Novelist of Ideas:

ALLABY, MICHAEL.

by them.

articles written

ARRINGTON, LEONARD J. Church

Sport,

Blood-Horse magazine; former Turf Editor, Chicago Sun-Times. Co-author of Ten Commandments for Professional Handicapping: American Race Horses. Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing and Sleeplechasing (in part)

with the

alphabetical by last name.

is

Supplement:

in the States in

1981

BOONSTRA, DICK. Department versity,

Assistant Professor,

of Political Science, Free Uni-

Amsterdam

Netherlands, The; Suriname

740 Contributors

BOOTH, JOHN NICHOLLS.

Lecturer

and Writer; Co-founder, Japan Free

Reli-

gious Association; Senior Pastor of a

number

Author

of The Quest for Preaching Power; Introducing Unitarian Universalism. Religion: Unitarian (Universalist) Churches of U.S. cliurches.

BOSWALL, JEFFERY. Producer of Sound and Television Programs, bbc Natural History Unit, Bristol, England.

paring Elementary Teachers; Elementary

CHU, HUNG-TI.

School Curriculum and Instruction. Education {in part)

Affairs;

DONALD

BURKE,

P.

Executive Editor,

CHUPRININ, SERGEY.

New

York City. Industrial Review: Chemicals

Chemical Week,

BURKE, JEFFREY. Former Book

Journalist,

Literature: Russian {in part)

Col-

umnist, Harper's Magazine; Contributor, New York Times Book Review.

BURKS,

CLARKE,

R. O. Principal Administrator, Social Affairs and Industrial Relations

Division, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.

ARDATH W.

and

Emeritus Professor of Asian Studies, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. Author of The Gov-

BOWDEN,

ernment of Japan; East Asia: China, Korea, Japan; Japan: Portrait of a Postindustrial Power. Japan

Mining and Quarrying

BUSS, ROBIN. Lecturer in French, Woolwich College of Further Education,

Metallurgy, University of Idaho. Materials Sciences: Metallurgy

BOTHELL, JOAN

N. Free-lance Writer

Editor; former Staff Writer, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Biograpliies {in part)

RUSSELL. Deputy

Secretary-

General, Library Association, U.K. Libraries

(m

part)

BOX, JOHN B. H. Free-lance Writer and Researcher on Latin America and Iberia. Colombia; Mexico

BOYLE,

C. L. Lieutenant Colonel, R.A.

(retired). Chairman, Survival Service Commission, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1958-63; Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, London, 1950-63.

Environment

{in part)

C. Asian Affairs Specialist. Author of Indonesian Communism: A History; Southeast /Asia's Second Front: The Power Struggle in the Malay Archipelago; The Communist Collapse in Indonesia; The Last Emperor.

Indonesia

BRADSHER, HENRY

S.

Foreign Affairs

Writer. Philippines

BRAIDWOOD, ROBERT J. Professor Emeritus of Old World Prehistory, the Oriental Institute and the Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. Author of Prehistoric Men; and What They Do.

Archeologists

BRAZEE, RUTLAGE

J.

Manager

neering Seismology, Alexandria Laboratories, Teledyne Geotech, Alexandria, Va. Earth Sciences: Geophysics

BRECHER, KENNETH.

Professor of As-

tronomy and Physics, Boston University. Co-author and co-editor of Astronomy of the Ancients; Its

High Energy Astrophysics and

Relation to Elementary Particle Physics.

Astronomy

BRITTAIN, VICTORIA. Formerly East African Correspondent, The Guardian; presently with the paper's foreign department. African Affairs: Special Report

BRITTAN, SAMUEL.

{in part)

Assistant Editor

and Chief Economic Columnist, Financial Times, London. Author of How to End the Monetarist Controversy ; Capitalism and the Permissive Society. Feature Article: Monetarism — Neither Kill

Nor Cure

BRUNO, HAL.

Director of Political Coverage, ABC News, Washington, D.C. Biographies (in part)

BURDIN, JOEL

L. Professor of EducationAdministration, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Co-author of A Reader's Guide to the Comprehensive Models for Preal

F.

BUTLER, FRANK.

(D.C.) Star. Biographies {in part)

Sports Editor, News of of A History of

London. Author

Combat

Professor of

T. C.

J.

Editor, Electrical Review,

London.

Sports: Boxing

CALHOUN, DAVID

R. Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks.

Industrial Review: Electrical

COHN, ANNE HARRIS.

Executive Di-

rector, National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse, Chicago. Author of

{in part)

CAMERON, SARAH.

Britan-

Free-lance Writformerly Managing Editor, Washington

COGLE,

in Britain.

Economist, Group

An Approach

to

Preventing Child Abuse.

Economics Department, Lloyds Bank Ltd., London. Dominican Republic; Ecuador; Peru; Venezuela

COMBA, ALDO.

CARTER, ROBERT W.

Department of Cooperation and Witness, World Alliance of Reformed Churches;

Free-lance Jour-

London. Author of numerous newspaper and magazine articles.

Social Security cial Report

and Welfare Services: SpeExecutive Secretary,

nalist,

former President, Federation of Protestant

Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing and Steeplechasing {in part)

di Gesii.

CASSIDY, RICHARD

J.

Senior Public Re-

lations Officer, British Gas Corporation. Author of Gas: Natural Energy.

Energy: Natural Gas

Senior Editor, Specifying Engineer magazine, Chicago. of Engi-

DONALD

CLOUD, STANLEY W.

CASSIDY, VICTOR M.

Archaeology: Eastern Hemisphere

CLIFTON,

and

{in part)

er;

Boxing

A. Geography

Editor, Encyclopxdia Britannica nica Yearbooks.

Literature: French {in part)

Gambling

BRACKMAN, ARNOLD

Industrial Relations

CLEVELAND, WILLIAM

London.

the World,

Ser-

Novosti Press Agency, Moscow.

Literature: United States

Life Sciences: Ornithology

Expert in Far Eastern

Former International Civil

vant and University Professor. China; Taiwan

Biographies

CATER,

CHAPMAN, KENNETH F.

Former Editor,

Stamp Collecting and Philatelic Magazine; Philatelic Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of Good Stamp Collecting; Commonwealth Stamp Collecting. Philately and Numismatics: Stamps

ROBIN. Senior Economist, Group Economics Department, Lloyds Bank Ltd., London. Haiti;

Author

of Le Parabole

COPPOCK, CHARLES DENNIS.

VicePresident, English Lacrosse Union. Author of "Men's Lacrosse" in The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. Field Hockey and Lacrosse: Lacrosse {in part)

COSTIN, STANLEY H.

British Correspondent, Herrenjournal International and Men's Wear, Australasia. Council of Management Member, British Men's Fashion

Association Ltd. Former President, Men's Fashion Writers International. Fashion and Dress {in part)

CRATER, RUFUS W. Chief Correspondent, Broadcasting, New York City. Television and Radio {in part) CROSS, COLIN

J. Editor, The Polo Times; U.K. Chairman, European Polo Academy.

Equestrian Sports: Polo

CHAPMAN, Cuba;

in Italy.

Religion: Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational Churches

{in part)

DOUGLASS,

JR. Senior Fellow, Aspen Institute for Flumanistic Studies, Washington, D.C. Author of The Fourth Branch of Government ; Power in Washington. Feature Article: Letter from Washington S.

Churches

Latin-American Affairs

CHAPPELL, DUNCAN.

Professor, Department of Criminology, Simon Eraser University, Vancouver, B.C. Co-author of The Police and the Public in Australia and New Zealand. Co-editor of The Australian

CROSSLAND, NORMAN. Bonn

Correspondent, The Economist, London. Biographies (in part); German Democratic Republic; Germany, Federal Republic of

CVIIC, K. F. Leader Writer and East European Specialist, The Economist, London. Spain {sidebar); Yugoslavia

Criminal Justice System (1st and 2nd ed.); Violence and Criminal Justice: Forcible Rape: the Crime, the Victim and the Offender.

DAVID, ANDREW. Author

of several

books and numerous

on contem-

Crime and Law Enforcement

Football: Special Report

porary

articles

affairs.

CHEESERIGHT, PAUL. World Trade

DAVID, TUDOR. Managing

Editor, Financial Times, London. Economy, World: Special Report

cation,

London.

Education

(in part)

Editor, Edu-

Contributors 741

DONALD

A. Editor, Drug & DAVIS, Cosmetic Industry and Cosmetic Insider's Report,

New

York City. Contributor

to

The

Science and Technology of Aerosol Packaging: Advances in Cosmetic Technology. Industrial Review: Pharmaceuticals

DAVIS,

KENNETH

currently

at

work

C. Free-lance Writer, on a history of the

paperback in America.

ELI, C. R. Executive Director, U.S. Badminton Association.

Racket Games: Badminton

ENGELS, JAN

R. Editor, Vooruitgang (Bi-

monthly

Centre Paul Hymans,

of the

eral study Brussels.

and documentation

lib-

centre),

EWART, W.

f airplay International Shipping Weekly. London. Author of Marine Engines: Atomic Submarines: Hydrofoils and Hovercraft: Building a Ship. Editor of World Atlas of

Common

Digital Subsystems. Industrial Review: Machinery and Tools

Machine

D. Editor

and Director,

Shipping. Industrial Review: Shipbuilding; Trans-

portation

FARR, D. M. L. Professor of History and Director, Paterson Centre for Internation-

Brazil

al

,

PHILIPPE. Member of editorial staff, Le Monde. Paris. Former Editor in Chief, Revue fran^aise d' Etudes politiques africaines. Author of Le Panafricanisme: Tableau des Partis Politiques Africains; Lettres de I' Afrique Atlantique;

DECRAENE,

V experience

socialiste

Somalienne; Le Mali.

Benin; Biographies (in part); Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Congo; Dependent States (i>i part); Djibouti; Gabon; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Madagascar; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Senegal; Togo; Tunisia; Upper Volta

de FAINBOIM, MARIA BEKERMAN. Economist, Group Economics Department, Lloyds Bank Ltd., London. Nicaragua; Paraguay

de la BARRE, KENNETH. Director, Katimavik, Montreal. Arctic Regions

DENSELOW, ROBIN.

Rock Music

Critic,

The Guardian. London; Current Affairs Producer, bbc Television. Co-author of The Electric Muse.

DE PUY,

NORMAN

R. Minister, First

Baptist Church, Newton Centre, Mass.; Columnist, American Baptist magazine. Author of The Bible Alive: Help in Under-

Programs, Carleton University, Ottawa. Co-author of The Canadian

FENDELL, ROBERT

Auto Editor, Science &Mechanics: Auto Contributor, Gentlemen's Quarterly. Author of The New J.

Era Car Book and Auto Survival Guide:

Austrian

TOM

Editor, Ecumenical Press DORRIS, Service, Geneva. Author of several periodical articles on religion, education, and

FERRIER,

R.

W. Group

Archivist, British Petroleum Ltd.,

FIDDICK, PETER.

Guardian. London. Publishing: Newspapers (in part);

Media Operations,

EIU. The Economist Intelligence Unit,

London Economy, World

Maga-

zines (in part)

FIELDS, DONALD. Helsinki Correspondent, BBC, The Guardian, and The Sunday Times, London. Finland

FIRTH, DAVID. Editor, The Friend, London; formerly Editor, Quaker Monthly, London.

(in part)

Ltd., Silk

H

T.

Mer-

chants, Macclesfield, Cheshire, England. Honorary President, International Silk Association, Lyons. Author of Silk -How and Where It Is Produced. Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

GANADO, ALBERT.

Lawyer, Malta. of Great Britain.

(in part)

T: J. S. Editor, Asiaweek, Hong Kong. Author of Krishna Menon: A Biography: Lee Kuan Yew's Singapore: Revolt in Mindanao. Kampuchea; Korea; Laos; Southeast Asian Affairs; Thailand; Vietnam

WHITFIELD Associate J Ecologist, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia. Life Sciences: Zoology

GIBBONS,

GILLESPIE,

HUGH

M. Director

of

Com-

munications, International Road Federation,

Washington, DC.

Engineering Projects: Roads

Religion: Religious Society of Friends

GJ ESTER, FAY. Oslo Correspondent, Civil Engineer, Freeman Fox & Partners, London; formerly Executive Editor, Engineering, London. Engineering Projects: Bridges

nancial Times,

Biographies

FLANAGAN, JACK

C. Travel Counselor.

New

Norway

phy Game: The Nude in Photography The Camera and Its Images. Co-author of The

111.

Editor,

Eye of Eisenstaedt.

Water Polo Scoreboard, Newport Beach,

Photography

Calif

GOLOMBEK, HARRY.

Sports: Water Polo

Chess:

A

History of Chess.

Chess

GOODWIN, NOEL. Associate Editor, Dance b Dancers: U.K. Dance Corre-

the Air.

Contract Bridge

spondent, International Herald Tribune, Paris, and Ballet News. New York City.

President,

and Tract Society

of

Pennsylvania. Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses

FRAWLEY, MARGARET-LOUISE.

Retired Press Officer, All-England Women's Lacrosse Association. Field Hockey and Lacrosse: Lacrosse (in part)

British Chess 1947, 1949, and 1955. Chess Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of Penguin Handbook of the Came of

Champion,

FRANKLIN, HAROLD. Editor, English Bridge Quarterly. Bridge Correspondent, 'Yorkshire Post: Yorkshire Evening Post. Broadcaster. Author of Best of Bridge on

Bible

Editorial Direc-

Popular Photography and Camera Arts, York City Author of The Photogra;

Sports: Sur/ing

Water

Fi-

London.

(in part);

GOLDSMITH, ARTHUR. tor,

Watch Tower

East Nicosia, Cyprus.

Chairman,

Gaddum and Company

GEORGE, Specialist Writer, The

FRANZ, FREDERICK W.

Cyprus

Rugby

Gambling

Energy: Petroleum

Religion: Lutheran Churches

Director,

Hockey

GADDUM. PETER W.

GBGB. Gaming Board

Company

London.

medicine.

DRAKE, CHRIS Managing

Field

FROST, DAVID. Rugby Union Corre-

Malta Historian and

FRADY, WILLIAM ENSIGN,

memo: Middle

How

Make Your Car Last Forever. Co-author of Encyclopedia of Motor Racing Greats. Motor Sports: U.S. Racing to

DESHAYES-CREUILLY, MARIE-JOSE

DIRNBACHER, ELFRIEDE.

Field

Football:

Canada

Water

Civil Servant. Austria

Hockey Corre-

E.

Hockey and Lacrosse:

spondent, The Guardian, London.

Experience.

standing Theology. Religion: Baptist Churches

Head of Documentation Services, International Vine and Wine Office, Paris Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages (in part)

SYDNEY

spondent, The Times. London.

FISHER, DAVID.

Music: Popular

FRIEDLY, ROBERT LOUIS. Executive Director, Office of Communication, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Indianapolis, Ind.

FRISKIN.

RAUL. Retired from foreign service with U.S. Information Service. Coauthor of Latin American History.

COSTA, RENE. Professor of Spanish Literature, University of Chicago. Author Poetry of Pablo Neruda En pos de The of Huidobro. Literature: Spanish (in part)

Medical Center, Durham, N.C. Con-

Religion: Disciples of Christ

(in part)

d'EC^A,

de

FRIDOVICH, IRWIN. James B. Duke Professor of Biochemistry, Duke Univertributor to Oxidase and Redox Systems: Molecular Mechanisms of Oxygen Activation. Life Sciences: Molecular Biology Un part)

DEAM, JOHN

Technical Director, National Machine Tool Builders Association, McLean, Va. .Author of The Synthesis of

A. Professor of

Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, Calif. Archaeology: Western Hemisphere

sity

Belgium

Publishing: Books {in part) B.

FREDRICKSON, DAVID

of A Ballet for Scotland; editor of Royal Ballet and Royal Opera yearbooks for 1978, 1979, 1980. Contributor to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (15th ed.).

Author

Dance

(in part)

GOODWIN,

R M. Free-lance Writer,

London. Biographies

(in part)

742 Contributors

GOODWIN, ROBERT E. Formerly Executive Director, Billiard Congress of America; Managing Director, Billiard and Bowling Institute of America. Billiard

Games

GOTTFRIED, MARTIN. Drama

Critic,

Saturday Review, New York City. Author of A Theater Divided; Opening Nights;

Broadway Musicals. Theatre (in part)

GOULD, DONALD W.

Medical Writer

and Broadcaster, U.K. Health and Disease: Overview Mental Health

{in part);

GREEN, BENNY. Record Reviewer,

HESS, MARVIN G. Executive Vice-President, National Wrestling Coaches Association, Salt Lake City, Utah. Combat Sports: Wrestling

HINDIN, HARVEY

J.

Communications

New

Editor, Electronics magazine. York City. Author of numerous articles on electronics and mathematics. Industrial Review: Telecommunications

THOMAS

HOPE, W. President, Hope Reports, Inc. Rochester, N.Y. Author of Hope Reports AV-USA; Hope Reports Education and Media; Hope Reports Perspective. Motion Pictures (in part)

bbc.

My

Author of Blame It on Youth; 58 Minutes to London; Jazz Decade: Drums in Ears; Shaw's Champions. Contributor to Encyclopedia of Jazz. Music: Jazz

HORRY, JOHN H. Former Secretary, International Squash Rackets Federation. Contributor to The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. Racket Games: Squash Rackets

GREENLEAF, ARNO.

HOTZ, LOUIS. Former

My

Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham,

N.C. Life Sciences: Molecular Biology {in part)

GRIFFITHS, A.

R. G. Senior Lecturer in History, Flinders University of South Australia. Author of Contemporary Australia.

Australia; Australia: Special Report; Biog-

raphies

{in part);

Nauru; Papua

New

Guinea

GROSSBERG, ROBERT

H. Executive Di-

rector, U.S. Amateur Jai Alai Players Association, Miami, Fla.

Court Games:

Jai Alai

HARDMAN, THOMAS

C. Editor and Publisher, The Water Skier, American Water Ski Association. Co-author of Let's Go

Water

Water

Skiing.

Sports: Water Skiing

HARRIES, DAVID

A. Director, Tarmac

International Ltd., London. Engineering Projects: Tunnels

HASEGAWA, RYUSAKU.

HAWKLAND,

WILLIAM D. Chancellor of Law, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Author of Sales and Bulk Sales Under the Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Bills and Notes; Transactional Guide of the Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Sales and Security. Law: Court Decisions H.

B. Specialist,

Human Nu-

and Food Science, Switzerland.

Food Processing

HEBBLETHWAITE, PETER. Rome

Correspondent, National Catholic Reporter, Kansas City, Mo. Author of The Council Fathers and Atheism; The Runaway Church; Christian- Marxist Dialogue and Beyond; The Year of Three Popes; The New Inquisition? Biographies {in part); Religion: Roman Catholic Church

HENDERSHOTT, MYRL

HOWKINS, JOHN.

Editor, InterMedia, International Institute of Communications, London. Author of Understanding Television ; Mass Communications in China.

Television and Radio {in part)

Editorial Director, European Law Centre Ltd., London. Editor, Common Market Law Reports; European Commercial Cases. Author of Film Censors and the Law. Co-editor of Legal Problems of an Enlarged European

Community. Law: International Law

C. Professor of

Oceanography, Scripps Institution Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.

of

HERMAN, ROBIN CATHY. York Times. Ice Hockey: North American

Algeria;

Morocco

JONES,

C.

M. Consultant, World Bowls; Editor, Tennis. Member, British Society of Sports Psychology; Associate Member, British Association of National Coaches. Player-Captain, Great Britain's Britannia Cup tennis team (1979-81). Author of Winning Bowls; How to Become a Champion numerous books on tennis. Coauthor of Tackle Bowls My Way; Bryant ;

on Bowls.

Bowling: Lawn Bowls

JONES,

D. A. N. Assistant Editor, The

Listener,

London.

Literature: Introduction

JONES,

HANDEL

Concepts,

Inc.,

gensen; William Heinesen; Faero og kosmos; Danish; A Grammar and Exercises. Literature: Danish

IVEY, WILLIAM. Director, Country Mu-

H. Staff Associate for Information Services, Office of Research, Evaluation and Planning, National Council of Churches. Editor of Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches. United States Statistical Supplement: table

JARDINE, ADRIAN. Company Director. Member, Guild of Yachting Writers. Sailing

of

Life Member, Eurographic Press. Author of State of the Art. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Type Faces. Industrial Review: Printing

Policy Editor

and

Selection.

A.

Group Relations

Editor, INL (newspapers), Wellington,

N.Z.

New

Zealand

KENDLER, ROBERT W.

President, Unit-

ed States Racquetball Association. Racket Games: Racquetball.

KENNEDY, RICHARD M. Agricultural Economist, International Economics Division of the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture and Food Supplies LIVIJA. Associate Professor, Botaof

Massa-

Life Sciences: Botany

Photographic Engineers and Scientists;

Columnist, The Guardian, Lon-

Magazine

Publishing: Magazines {in part)

chusetts.

Philadelphia.

Political

Libraries (3rd ed.);

ny Department, University

Editorial Consultant. European Editor, North American Publishing Company,

A

A. Professor, School of Library Science, State University of New York, Albany. Author of Magazines for

KENT,

JASPERT, W. PINCUS. Technical

of

Health and Disease: Dentistry

KELLEHER, JOHN

JACQUET, CONSTANT

Science Writer,

and Knowlton, Chicago. Author

Doctor Discusses Allergy: Facts and Fiction Natural Childbirth; Diabetes; Childrens'

KATZ, WILLIAM

don. United Kingdom

Calif.

Professor of Scandinavian Studies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Author of Johannes j0rgensens modne ar; Johannes Jor-

Colds.

Member, Inter-Comprint Planning Committee; Member, Society

United Kingdom

Menlo Park,

Angola; Kenya; Malawi; Mozambique; Sudan; Tanzania; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia;

Church Membership

;

H. President, Gnostic

Industrial Review: Microelectronics

tory, University of Bristol, England. Author of Reformers in India; A History of East Africa.

JENKINS, PETER. Reporter,

JOFFE, GEORGE. Journalist and Writer on North African Affairs.

JOSEPH, LOU. Senior Professor of His-

Earth Sciences: Oceanography

New

bados; Biographies {in part); Dependent States {in part); Dominica; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago

Hill

INGHAM, KENNETH.

A. Editor, Caribbean

and Insight. Consultant on Caribbean affairs. Antigua and Barbuda; Bahamas, The; BarChronicle

JONES, W. GLYN.

HUNNINGS, NEVILLE MARCH.

sic Foundation, Nashville, Tenn. Music: Special Report

and Professor

trition

Johannesburg (S.Af.) Star. Co-author and contributor to The Jews in South Africa. Biographies {in part); South Africa

Zimbabwe

Editor, tbs-

Britannica Co., Ltd., Tokyo. Baseball {in part)

HAWLEY,

Editorial Writer,

DAVID

JESSOP,

KILIAN,

MICHAEL

D. Columnist, Chica-

go Tribune; News Commentator, wbbm Radio, Chicago. Captain, U.S. Air Force Civil Air Patrol. Author of Who Runs Chicago?; The Valkyrie Project. Aerial Sports; Historic Preservation: Special Report

JOHN

KILLHEFFER, V. Associate Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Nobel Prizes (in part)

Contributors 743

KIMCHE, JON.

Editor, Afro-Asian Affairs.

London. Author of There Could Have Been Peace: The Untold Story of Why We Failed With Palestine and Again with Israel Seven Fallen Pillars: Second Arab Awakening. Biographies (in part): Israel :

KIND, JOSHUA

B.

Associate Professor of

Art History, Northern Illinois University, De Kalb .Author of Rouault: Naive Art in Illinois 1830-1976: Geometry as Abstract Art: The Third Generation.

Museums

LEIFER, MICHAEL. Reader

in International Relations, London School of Economics and Political Science .Author of

KITAGAWA, JOSEPH M

MANGO. ANDREW.

,

England.

Christianity.

HUGH

Chairman, Gloucestershire Probation Training Committee, England. Secretary, Howard League for Penal Reform 1950-71. Author of People in Prison. Regular the Peace.

justice of

KNOX, RICHARD

A. Senior Public

Atomic Energy

Canada

of

Limited Engineering Company: formerly Editor, Nuclear Engineering International,

London. Author of Experiments

Astronomy for Amateurs, Foundations of Astronomy. Industrial Review. Nuclear Industry in

KOLATA, GINA

BARl. Writer, Science magazine, Washington, DC. Co-author Book CombatPressure of The High Blood ;

Number One

Killer.

Health and Disease: Overview Un

KOPPER, PHILIP Author and Journalist, Washington, DC. Biographies

(in part):

part)

Free-lance

Nobel Prizes

(in

Basketball (in part)

Executive Director,

American Power Boat Association, East Detroit, Mich. Editor, Propeller, a publication of the APBA. Water Sports: Motorboating

LULING, VIRGINIA

R.

Social

Anthro-

LUNDE, ANDERS junct Professor,

S.

Consultant; Ad-

Department

of Biostatis-

University of North Carolina. Author of The Person-Number Systems of Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Israel. tics.

Demography

McCAULEY, MARTIN.

Lecturer in Russian and Soviet Institutions, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London. Author of Khrushchev and the Development of Soviet Agriculture: The Virgin Land Programme 2955-3964; Marxism-Leninism in the German Democratic Republic: The Stalin File. Editor of The Rus-

and the Soviet State 1917-1921: Communist Power in Europe 1944-1949. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

and the Future. Biographies (in part)

MACDONALD,

LACHENBRUCH, DAVID.

Editorial Di-

rector, Television Digest: regular contributor to TV Guide. Author of Videocassette Recorders. The Complete Home Guide: Color Look Inside. Television Television and Radio: Special Report

-A

LAMB, KEVIN M.

Sports Writer, Chicago

(in part):

Football: U.S. Foot-

Canadian Football

LARSON, ROY Religion Editor, Chicago Sun-Times. Religion: Introduction Executive Director, National Organization for River Sports, Colorado Springs, Colo.

LEAPER, ERIC Water

Sports: River Sports

LEGUM, COLIN. Associate Editor, The Observer: Editor, Middle East Contemporary Survey and Africa Contemporary Record,

London. Author of Must We Lose Congo Disaster: Pan- Africanism: A

Africa?: Political

Gardening

J.

G.

SCOTT.

Horticultural

(in part)

MARTY, MARTIN

E.

Fairfax

M. Cone

sity of Chicago: Associate Editor, The Christian Century. Author of Righteous

Em-

pire A Nation of Behavers. Religion: Special Report :

L. Auto Editor and Financial Reporter, Chicago Tribune. Industrial Review: Automobiles

Guide: South Africa: Crisis for the

West.

African Affairs; Biographies

(in part)

MATTHiASSON, BJORN. Economist, European Free Trade Association, Geneva. Iceland

MAZIE, DAVID M.

Somalia

KUNKLER, JULIE. Picture Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbook of Science

ball:

MARSHALL, Consultant.

pologist.

sian Revolution

part)

Sun-Times. Biographies

NATHAN

Professor of Chinese MAO, Studies, Seton Hall University, South Author of Modern Chinese Orange, N.J. Fiction: Pa Chin. part) (in Chinese Literature:

MATEJA, JAMES

KNECHT, JEAN Formerly Assistant Foreign Editor, Le Monde, Paris; formerly Permanent Correspondent in Washington and Vice-President of the Association de la Presse Diplomatique Fran(;aise. Biographies iin pari): France

ting the

and

Distinguished Service Professor, Univer-

Membership

LOGAN, ROBERT G. Sportswriter, Chicago Tribune. Author of The Bulls and Chicago -A Stormy Affair. LOVE, JOHN H.

Prisons and Penology

Affairs Officer,

Religion: World Church

J.

Contributor to

Orientalist

Broadcaster

Religion: Buddhism

KLARE,

Weekly Market Report. Bradford, England. Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

Turkey

Editor, High Performance Textiles: European Editor, Textile World. Author of The World Fibres Book. Editor of Nonwovens '71 Publisher of OE-Report and WP-Report, New Mills,

of the East: Religion in Japanese History.

University of Chicago. Author of Religions

Editor, Wool Record

F.

LENNOX-KERR, PETER.

LITTELL, FRANKLIN H Professor of Religion, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. Co-editor of Wellkirchenlexikon: Author of Macmillan Atlas History of

Professor of History of Religions, Divinity School,

H. M.

Dilemmas of Statehood in Southeast .Asia. Biographies (in part): Malaysia; Singapore

Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

(in part)

MALLETT,

BARRIE. Senior Lecturer in History, Massey University, Palmerston North, N.Z. Author of several articles on the history and politics of Pacific islands.

Dependent States (in part): Fiji; Kiribati; Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Western Samoa M. C. Director, World London. Agriculture and Food Supplies: grain table:

MacDONALD, Economics

Ltd.,

Transportation: table: statistical sections of articles on the various countries

MACDONALD, TREVOR

J.

International Affairs, British ration. Industrial

Manager, Steel Corpo-

Review: Iron and Steel

MACGREGOR-MORRIS, PAMELA. Equestrian Correspondent, The Times and Horse and Hound, London. Author of books on equestrian topics. Equestrian Sports: Show Jumping

McLACHLAN, KEITH

Senior Lecturer, School of Oriental and African StudLondon of University ies, Iran

S.

Associate of Carl T. Free-lance

Rowan, syndicated columnist.

Writer. Social Security and Welfare Services (in part)

MAZZE, EDWARD MARK Dean and Professor of Marketing, School of Business Administration, Temple University, Philadelphia. Author of Personal Selling: Choice Against Chance: Introduction to Marketing: Readings in the Discipline.

Consumerism

(in part): Industrial

Review:

Advertising

MERMEL,

T.

W.

Consultant; formerly

Chairman, Committee on World Register of Dams, International Commission on Large Dams. Author of Register of Dams in the United Slates.

Engineering Projects: Dams: Dams

table

MEYENDORFF, JOHN

Professor of Church History and Patristics, St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary; Professor of History, Fordham University, New York City. Author of Christ in Eastern Christian Thought Byzantine Theology: Byzantium and the Rise of Russia. Religion: The Orthodox Church: Eastern ;

Non-Chalcedonian Churches

MILES, PETER W. Dean

of Agricultural Science, University of Adelaide, Australia.

Life Sciences:

Entomology

MILLIKIN, SANDRA.

Architectural His-

torian.

Architecture; Art Exhibitions;

Museums

(in part)

MISTRY. RAMILA.

Free-lance Industrial

Writer, London Industrial Review: Glass

MITCHELL, K K. Lecturer, Department of Physical Education, University of Leeds, England. Director, English Basket Ball .Association. Basketball (in part)

744 Contributors

MODIANO, MARIO.

Athens Corre-

NOEL, H. S. Free-lance Journalist; formerly Managing Editor, World Fishing, London.

spondent, The Times, London. Biographies (in part); Greece

MONACO, ALBERT Court Games:

Volleyball

MOORE, GERALD. Dean of Arts, University of Jos, Nigeria. Author of Twelve African Writers; Wole Soyinka; Modern Po-

Fisheries

NORMAN, GERALDINE.

PLOTKIN,

Saleroom Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of The Sale of Works of Art; Nineteenth Century Painters and Painting: A Dictionary; Co-author of The Fake's Progress.

NYREN, KARL.

Senior Editor, Library Journal; Editor, LJ/SLJ Hotline, New York

MOORE, JOHN

City. Libraries {in part)

Hydrologist, Reston,

Va. Earth Sciences: Hydrology

MORRISON, DONALD. Time magazine. Publishing: Newspapers

Correspondent, The Spectator, London.

Author

of Trusteeship in Practice; Kenya. of Nations; Dependent States {in part); Nigeria.

Commonwealth

MOSEY, CHRIS. Associate Editor, SweNow, Stockholm; Swedish Correspondent, The Observer, Daily Mail, and The Times Educational Supplement. Contributor to The Boat People.

den

Sweden

MOSHANSKY, MOZELLE and Writer,

Biographies

{in part);

MUCK, TERRY CHARLES.

Editor, Lead-

magazine, Carol Stream, Court Games: Handball ership

MUGABE, ROBERT

Music

Music: Classical

G. Prime Minister of

Zimbabwe. Feature Article: Struggling for Nationhood: The Birth of Zimbabwe

NAYLOR, ERNEST. Professor of Marine Biology, University of Liverpool; Director, Marine Biological Laboratory, Port Erin, Isle of Man. Author of British Marine Isopods. Co-editor, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf

NEILL, JOHN. Product Development Manager, Walker Engineering Ltd.; Consultant, Submerged Combustion Ltd. Author of Climbers' Club Guides; Silyn and Tremadoc, Snowdon South; Alpine Club Guide: Selected Climbs in the Pennine Alps.

Cwm

Mountaineering

OSTERBIND, CARTER

C. Director,

Gerontology Center, and Professor of Economics, University of Florida. Editor of Income in Retirement; Migration, Mobility, and Aging; and others. Industrial Review: Building and Construc-

PAGE, SHEILA

A. B. Research Officer, National Institute of Economic and Social Research, London.

Economy, World

{in part)

Energy

in the

Editor, The

American Economy: 1850-

New

Visiting Associate

and Strategic Studies Program, University of Southern California, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia; Department of National Defence Fellow in

Strategic Studies (1978-79); nato Fellow, 1980-81. Author of Arms and Politics, 1958-1978; Arms Control in a Changing Political Context. Defense; Defense: Special Report

RASKIN, A. H. Associate Director, National News Council, New York City. Coauthor of David Dubinsky: A Life with Labor.

tional Institute of

Senior Lecturer, Department of Applied Physics, University of Hull, England. Physics S. B.

PARKER, SANDY. Publisher of weekly international newsletter on fur industry. industrial Review: Furs PAUL, ROBERT, JR. Director of Communications, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, Colo. Author of The Olympic Games. Gymnastics and Weight

Lifting

G.

F.

Senior Research Fellow, Na-

Economic and

Social

Research, London; Visiting Professor, University of Surrey, Guildford, England. Industrial Review: Introduction

ANTHONY

READ,

A. Director, Book

Development Council, London. Publishing: Books (in part)

REBELO,

L. S. Lecturer, Department of Portuguese Studies, King's College, University of London. Literature: Portuguese {in part)

REICHELDERFER,

PENFOLD, ROBIN

C. Free-lance Writer specializing in industrial topics. Editor, Shell Polymers. Author of A Journalist's

F. W. Consultant on Atmospheric Sciences; formerly Director, Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

Earth Sciences: Meteorology

to Plastics.

Review:

Plastics

REID, in Italian,

University of Sussex, England. Literature: Italian

PETHERICK, KARIN. Reader

in

Swed-

University of London. Literature: Swedish ish,

PFEFFER, IRVING. Attorney. Chairman, Pacific American Group, Inc. Author of The Financing of Small Business; Perspectives

on Insurance.

Stock Exchanges

Del-

(in part); India

PALMER,

2975.

University Professor, Brown University, Providence, R.I. Author of Invitation to the Talmud; A History of the Mishnaic Law of Purities. Religion: Judaism

Biographies

Industrial Relations: Special Report

Energy: World Summary

NEUSNER, JACOB.

Information

RAY,

FERTILE, LINO. Lecturer

C. Vice-President, National Economic Research Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. Author of The Future Supply of Oil and Gas. Co-author of

SHARADA.

Prime Minister,

European Unity

News. Author cathlon Book; Olympic Track and People and Things. Track and Field Sports

NETSCHERT, BRUCE

H. Y.

to the

hi, India.

Guardian, London.

Industrial

Of

PRASAD,

Professor, Defense

Guide

Field;

Religion: United Church of Christ

RANGER, ROBIN.

.

NELSON, BERT.

Editor, Track and Field of Little Red Book; The De-

POST, AVERY D. President, United Church of Christ, New York City.

Rowing

CHARLES

Science. Life Sciences: Marine Biology

Chief, Section for

Operations and Training, Cultural Heri-

Editor, Rowing, 1961-63; Honorary Editor, British Rowing Almanack, 1961Author of Boat Racing in Britain, 1715-1975.

PALMER, JOHN. European

111.

POPPELIERS, JOHN.

Adviser

OSBORNE, KEITH.

tion

A. Music

International

Census Bureau.

Palearctic.

Zoos and Botanical Gardens: Zoos

MORTIMER, MOLLY. Commonwealth

Journalist Guide.

P. J. Curator of Birds, Zoological Society of London. Editor, International Zoo Yearbook. Co-editor of Birds of the

Western {in part)

D. Division Vice-

tage Division, unesco, Paris. Historic Preservation

OLNEY, Senior Editor,

MANUEL

Group Practice Director, Management Consulting Division, Austin Company; formerly Director of the U.S. President and

Feature Article: The Changing Face of America

Art Sales

etry from Africa. Literature: Special Report E.

ncl

Associate,

Consulting Engineers, London. Author of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers. Engineering Projects: Buildings

M., JR. Executive

Director, United States Volleyball Association, Colorado Springs, Colo.

PINFOLD, GEOFFREY M.

J. H. Senior Lecturer in German, University of Nottingham, England. Co-

editor of Renaissance and Modern Studies. Author of Heinrich Ball: Withdrawal and

Re-emergence; Co-author of Critical StrateGerman Fiction in the Twentieth Cen-

gies:

tury.

Literature:

RIPLEY,

German

MICHAEL

D. Public Relations

Officer, Brewers' Society, U.K.; formerly Editor, Brewing Review. Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages (in part)

(in part)

Committees on Publication, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston.

ROBINSON, DAVID. Film Critic, The Times, London. Author of Buster Keaton; The Great Funnies — A History of Screen Comedy A History of World Cinema.

Religion: Church of Christ, Scientist

Motion Pictures

PHINNEY, ALLISON W. Manager,

;

(in part)

Contributors 745

SAEKI, SHOICHl.

Professor of Literature, University of Tokyo. Author of In Search of Japanese Ego. Literature: Japanese

SAINT-AMOUR, ROBERT. Department ty of

Professor, of Literary Studies, Universi-

Quebec

at

MontreaL

Literature: French (in part)

SYNAN, VINSON.

School, and Professor of History, University of the Pacific, Stockton, Calif. Editor of Venture of Islam by M. G. S. Hodgson.

Church. Author of The Holiness- Pentecostal Movement The Old Time Power.

Religion: Islam

Religion: Pentecostal Churches

SMOGORZEWSKI,

K. M. Writer on contemporary history. Founder and Editor, Free Europe. London. Author of The United

States

SARAHETE, YRJO.

General Secretary, Federation Internationale des Quilleurs, Helsinki.

Bowling: Tenpin Bowling

(in part)

SARMIENTO, SERGIO.

Editor in Chief, Enciclopedia Barsa, Encyclopaedia Britan-

and Great

Formerly Pub-

Swimming World; Vice-Chairman, Olympic Swimming Committee. U.S.

lisher,

Representative to fina Technical

Com-

mittee. Contributor to The Technique of Water Polo: The History of Swimming; Competitive Swimming as I See It International Swimming and Water Polo magazine.

European

Lecturer in East

Political Institutions,

London

School of Economics and School of Slavonic and East European Studies, Univer-

NORMAN

Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. Editor of Electrical Conductivity in Ceramics and Glass. Materials Sciences: Ceramics

TATTERSALL, ARTHUR.

Romania; San Marino

Home DC.

A. President,

Furnishings Services, Washington, Industrial Review: Furniture

Member, Swiss

Textile

Trade

JR.

Dance

Critic,

Saturday Review magazine. New York City Author of The Dance in America: Great Male Dancers of the Ballet.

Dance

National Commission for unesco. Switzerland

Scientist,

Statistician, Manchester, England. Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

TERRY, WALTER,

STAERK, MELANIE. Member, Swiss Press Association. Former

M. Chief

(in part)

THEINER, GEORGE. STEEN,

LYNN ARTHUR.

Professor of

Olaf College, Northfield, Minn. Author of Mathematics Today: Counterexamples in Topology: Annotated Bibliography of Expository Writing in the Mathematical Sciences. St.

Assistant Editor. Index on Censorship, London. Co-author of Kill Dog: editor of New Writing in Czechoslovakia translator of Poetry of Miroslav Holub. Literature: Eastern European: Russian (in

The

;

part)

Mathematics

London. Czechoslovakia sity of

SCHULMAN,

Editor, Broadcasting,

TALLAN,

Mathematics,

SCHOPFLIN, GEORGE.

TAISHOFF. SOL). Washington, DC.

Television and Radio (in part)

Poland's Access to

Britain

,

Swimming

;

Albania; Andorra; Biographies (in part); Bulgaria; Feature Article: "Not a single Polish problem can be solved by violence" ; Hungary; Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Monaco; Mongolia; Poland; Political

SPELMAN, ROBERT

SCHOENFIELD, ALBERT.

Assistant General Superintendent, Pentecostal Holiness

the Sea.

Parties;

nica Publishers, Inc. Baseball (in part)

U.S.

SMITH, REUBEN W. Dean, Graduate

THOMAS, HARFORD. STERN, IRWIN. ELIAS. Professor, Queens

Assistant Professor of

Portuguese, Columbia University,

New

College, City University of New York. Author of Israel Tsinberg, His Life and Works; A History of Yiddish Literature in

York City. Author of Julio Dinis e o romance portugues (1860-1870): Co-editor of Modern Iberian Literature; A Library of Lit-

America: Soviet-Yiddish Literature: Portraits and Studies.

erary Criticism. Literature: Portuguese

Literature: Yiddish (in part)

SEARS, ROBERT N.

Biographies

(in part)

THOMAS, THEODORE

V. Free-lance Journalist and Press Consultant. Editor (1961-79), British Toys and Hobbies.

Games and Toys

(in part)

STEVENSON, TOM. Garden

Retired City and Financial Editor, The Guardian, London.

Columnist,

THOREN, BARBARA.

Art Critic, Japan

Times, Tokyo.

Target Sports: Shooting

Washington Post: Washington Post-Los Angeles Times News Service. Author of Pruning Guide for Trees, Shrubs, and Vines:

Lawn Guide. Gardening (in

TINGAY, LANCE. Formerly Lawn

SHACKLEFORD, PETER. Industrial Review: Tourism

STONE, GEOFFREY

Rifle Association,

Editor, National

Washington, DC.

Director, International Tourism Consultants.

SHARPE, MITCHELL

R. Science Writer;

Historian, Alabama Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville. Author of The Rocket Team: Living in Space; The Environment of the Astronaut; "It Is I, Seagull"; Vatentina Tereshkova, First Woman in Space: Satellites and Probes, the Development of Unmanned Spaceflight.

Space Exploration

SHAW,

T.

R Associate

Editor, InternaAuthor of His-

tional Journal of Speleology. tory of Cave Science.

Speleology

SHENK, CLAYTON

B.

Honorary

Presi-

dent, U.S. National Archery Association. Target Sports: Archery

SHEPHERD, MELINDA. Copy

Editor,

Encyclopedia Britannica. Biographies (in part) Director,

Sydney Bloodstock Proprietary

Ltd.,

Syd-

ney, Australia Equestrian Sports: Harness Racing B.

Public Relations

American Numismatic Associa-

Law:

Environment and Development.

Special Report

and Numismatics: Coins

TINKER, JON.

Director, Earthscan, a service of the International Institute for

Environment: Special Report

ST0VERUD, TORBJ0RN. W.

P. Ker SenNorwegian, University College, London. Literature: Norwegian

ior Lecturer in

TOWNSEND, EDWARD

T. National Labor Correspondent, Christian Science Monitor; Editor and Consultant, Manpower Education Institute, New York City.

STRAUSS, MICHAEL.

Retired Associate Editor, Business Week

Writer,

magazine.

Ski and Sports New York Times. Author of S*ci Areas, U.S.A. Combat Sports: Fencing

H. PATRICK. Dean of the College and Professor of Religion, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.

SULLIVAN,

Industrial Relations (sidebar)

TRIGG, ROBERT H.

Assistant VicePresident, Economic Research, New York

Stock Exchange. Stock Exchanges

(in part)

Religion: Hinduism

TRILLING, OSSIA. Paris Fashion Correspondent for the British Wool Textile Industry.

Fashion and Dress

(in part)

Vice-President, International Association of Theatre Critics (1956-77). Co-editor and Contributor, International Theatre. Contributor, bbc, the Financial Times, London.

Biographies

RICHARD N. Professor of PoliNew York University, New York

(in part);

Theatre

(in part)

SWIFT, City.

Author

of International Law; Current Affairs and the College

and Classic: World Curriculum.

tion.

Philately

Law,

Ten-

nis Correspondent, the Daily Telegraph, London. Author of 200 Years of Wimbledon: Tennis, A Pictorial History.

Tennis

tics,

Director,

R. Professor of

(in part)

University of Chicago Law School. Author of numerous articles on constitutional law; currently at work on Constitutional Law; Cases and Other Problems.

SWEETINBURGH, THELMA.

SIMPSON, NOEL. Managing

SMEDLEY, GLENN

part)

Biographies

United Nations

ULLMANN,

LIV. International Film and Stage Star; films include Persona; Cries and Whispers; Scenes from a Marriage. Author of Changing. African Affairs: Special Report (in part)

746 Contributors

UNHCR. The tions

Office of the United

High Commissioner

Na-

for Refugees.

WHITTINGHAM, RICHARD. tice

UNNY, GOVINDAN. Agence

rary affairs. Feature Article:

FrancePresse Special Correspondent for India,

Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Biographies (in part); Burma; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri

Lanka

NORMAN

VALE,

News

Services,

K. Retired Director of

The United Church

of

Canada. Religion: United Church of Canada

van den

HOVEN,

Consumer

ISOLA. Writer on Hague, Neth.

Affairs, The Consumerism (in part)

VERDI, ROBERT WILLIAM. er,

Sportswrit-

Chicago Tribune.

Baseball

VINT,

Initials

Our Changing

Counselor,

WOODS, ELIZABETH.

Writer. Author

of The Yellow Volkswagen

;

Argentina

Literature: English (in part)

WILKINSON, GORDON. Information Consultant and Free-lance Science Writer; formerly Chemistry Consultant, New Scientist, London. Author of Industrial Tim-

Group Economics Department, Lloyds Bank Ltd., London.

WIJNGAARD, BARBARA.

East

R. Sports Writer,

U.K.

Canada:

and Commentator.

Special Report

WARD-THOMAS, spondent, Country Golf

P.

A. Golf Corre-

Life,

London.

WARNER, ANTONY

C. Editor, Drinks Marlceting, London. Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages {in

Cor-

Italy

quarters, Salvation Army. Religion: Salvation Army

RAYMOND

LOUISE. Assistant

Editor,

Encyclopaedia Britannica, London. Biographies (in part)

WAY, DIANE er,

LOIS. Historical Research-

Ontario Historical Studies Series.

Biographies

(in part)

WHELAN, JOHN. Chief

News

Digest,

L.

Assistant

Professor of Spanish, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. Author of La novela colombiana contemporanea Aproximaciones a Gustavo Alvarez Gardeazabal. Literature: Spanish (in part)

Bahrain; Biographies (in part); Egypt; Iraq; Jordan; Kuwait; Lebanon; Middle Eastern Affairs; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Syria; United Arab Emirates; Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of; Ye-

men Arab

Republic

Editor, .4i>por(s In-

London. (in part)

L.

Associate Edi-

Research Reports, Washing-

ton, D.C. United States R. Retired Senior Historian, U.S. Department of State.

Panama J.

Liv-

ingston Professor and Chairman, Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago. Author of The Dynamic Earth; The Way the Earth Works. Earth Sciences: Geology and Geochemistry

;

WILLIAMSON, TREVOR. Chief Sports Subeditor, Daily Telegraph, London. Biographies (in part); Football: Association Football

Consultant Editor,

Jane's Publishing Co. Ltd. Industrial Review: Aerospace

WITTE,

YANG, WINSTON

L. Y.

Professor of

Chinese Studies, Department of Asian Studies, Seton Hall University, South Orange, N.J. Author of Modern Chinese Fiction; Teng Hsiao-p'ing: A Political Biography (forthcoming). Literature: Chinese (in part)

WILSON, MICHAEL.

Deputy Editor and

Editor, Middle East Economic

London.

ternational,

WYLLIE, PETER JOHN. Homer

part)

WATSON,

Portugal;

WRIGHT, ALMON

H. Director of Information Services, International Head-

WILLIAMS,

;

Economist,

(in part); Bolivia;

WORSNOP, RICHARD

WILLEY, DAVID DOUGLAS. Rome

Men The

Uruguay

tor, Editorial

WILLIAMS, MICHAEL

Service, Ottawa; Parliamen-

Biographies

Transportation

Midland Provincial Newspapers

WARD,

PETER. Owner and Operator,

WOOLLER, MICHAEL.

WOOLLEY, DAVID.

WILKINSON, JOHN

Cone;

Amateur.

Spain;

Chemistry

respondent, BBC. Biographies (in part);

tary Reporter

Economist,

ber Preservation.

International Table Tennis Federation, Hastings, East Sussex, England. Table Tennis

Ward News

Were F.D.N.

Religion: Seventh-day Adventist Church

Cities

Cycling

ARTHUR KINGSLEY.

WOOD, KENNETH

H. Editor, Adventist Review. Author of Meditations for Moderns: Relevant Religion; co-author of His

Group Economics Department, Lloyds Bank Ltd., London.

Ltd.,

(in part)

Free-lance

Writer and Editor. Author of Martial jusand many other books on contempo-

Refugees

RANDALL

E.

Associate Editor,

The Western Horseman magazine, Colorado Springs, Colo.

Rodeo

WOOD, CHRISTINA.

Free-lance Sports-

writer.

Racket Games: Rackets; Real Tennis

YOUNG, M. NORVEL. Chancellor, Pepperdine University, Malibu, California; of the Board, 20th Century Christian Publishing Company. Author of Preachers of Today History of Colleges Connected with Churches of Christ; The Church Is Building. Religion: Churches of Christ Chairman

;

YOUNG, SUSAN. News Times, London. Religion: Anglican

Editor, Church

Communion

Akulfo. Fred

Index

\\

Obituaries NO

.rr

Alabama prison overcrowding 584 United States statistics 701 \l

Ain University. United Arab Emi rales 337

The black type entries are article headings in the Book of the >>u These black lvpin. Harry: «.- Obituaries 82

( li.iiiiiiiii.

80

(

firesidential power trip to China 244 United States 695

review 482

Casablanca. Mor. 542 Casaroh. Agostino Cardinal:

srr

Biog-

Castro. Fidel

Communist ( iili.i

Party C:ongress

il

.(ili

CACM

(Central American Comn Market) 481 Caesar's World liic 396 C:aetanu. Marcelo Josi< das Neves

Calandra, Hector 186

li%liiiiK

sailing

li.i|>iMaii.

(

li.,|.ulieiiec

( (

Jaime 240

ship design 381

612

c:jtedra (publishing house) 514 Cater. Douglass |.etter from Washington" 66

684

Mark David 263 Park Zoo 737

I

(

C:assava 16 Cassettes (tapes) 555 Castillo.

I

(

raphies 80

Cable television 654 advertising 439 magazine publishing 588 professional basketball 214 television (special refiort) 659 Cabral. Luis de Almeida 410

Alves: srr Obituaries 81

Act 227

412

INDEX

archaeology 185 earthquakes 307 environmental issues 358 Mediterranean fruit fly 496 control 398 Liniled States statistics 700 census 137 Callwood. June: srr Biographies 82 t:alvo Sotelo v Bustelo, Lenpoldo: srr Biographies 82 Spain 634

crime and

Brvanl. Paul ("Bear"): irr Biogra-

Bouabid. .Abderrahim 542 Boudin. Kaihy 699 Boulangcr. Nadia Juliette: ^r. Obituaries 80 Boulin. Robert: ii-r Obituaries 80 Boun Oum na Champassak. Prince: ^rr Obituaries 81 Bourguiba. Habib 677 Boussac. Marcel: yrr Obituaries 81 Boustead. Sir ijohn Edmund) Hugh irr Obituaries 81 Boutcllika. .Abdel \tii 176 Bouterse. Daysi: ^r. Biographies 81 Suriname 645 Boulousova. Natalia 653 Bosvling 82. 81, 80 Boxing 247 Boycotts 435 Boyd. Julian Parks rr Obituaries 81 Gas: .rr Natural gas Caspar. Sandor 424 GATT (General Agreement on Tar-

Garwe.

iffs and Trade) Colombia membership 246

Gabon 396 Senegal 616

Hamid

Obituaries 82 Frank. Otto «'•' Obituaries 81 Frankenfeld. Peter »-i- Obituaries 80 Fraser. Malcolm 202. 206 Franjieh.

Bolivian politics 221) Gardening 82. 81. 80 t.arlunkel. .Art 557 (.arner. Hugh: irr Obituaries 80 l.arneii. David: >rr Obituaries 82 Garski. Dietrich 264

.>italion 674 (table) .k.iH.Lji.ipliy

80

291 (table)

336 (table) Ml. i,, mental policy 358 .1.1.- i.imis 650 iLriispuiiaiion 674 (table)

.

.IU...1

.

I.

I.

Maldives 82. 81, 80

demography 291 (table) Maldonado Aguirre. Alejandro 410 Mali 82. 81. So Cape Verde alliance 233 demography 290 (table) education 336 (table) Malina. Frank Joseph: yrr Obituaries

82 Mallalieu, Sir (Joseph Percival) William: >ri- Obituaries 81

.Malta 82. 81.

80

demography 291

(table)

United Nations 692 Maltese. Michael: irr Obituaries 82

Mamaloni. Solomon 623 Mamby. Saoul 247 Mammoth Cave. ky. 636 Man. Me of 299 lography 291 (table) Ma agen Sci< 253 Manchester. U.K. 359 Mandel. Marvin 701 Mandlikova. Hana 662 Mandrell. Barbara 559 Manganese 540 Mangope. Lucas 627

Inc

I

Manitoba, province. Canada 227 Manley. Michael 469 .Manning. Olivia: x-i- Obituaries 81 "Man ol Iron" (film) 547 Mansfield. Mike 471, il 472

M "Solar Challenger" fliKhi

Maior league Baseball Players Associ ation 213 Malawi 82. 81. 80 agriculture and lood supplies OOO demography 290 (table) education 336 (table)

Mal.issi.i S2. 81.

Mansuuri. Lotfi: ire Biographies 82 Mantovani (Annunzio Paolo): tee Obituaries 81 Manufacturers Hanover Trust Co 436 Manufacturing: iee Industrial Review Manzoor. Mohammad Abdul 210 Mao Dun (Mao Tun): see Obituaries

82

Mao Zedong (Mao

Tse-tung) 241 Mapenje. Jack 521 Mara. Sir kamisese 379 Maradona. Diegu Armando: iee Biographies 82 Marais. Jacob Albertus: tee Biographies 82 South African elections 62 Marcel Corbillon Cup 650 Marchais. Georges 392 Marchenko. Anatoly literature 517 ILSSR. 683 Marcos. Ferdinand E. 572 Marcus. Marvin 528 Marcuse. Herbert: see Obituaries 80 Maree. Sidney 071 Marek. Franz (Ephraim): iee Obiluar1

80 Margai, Sir Albert

M

:

'

Obitu

Biographies 81

McHenry. Donald F ..-^ Biographies 81 448 Machinery and machi I

Maclas Nguema. Francisco: .rr Obituaries 80 Razor Gang (Australian committee) 202. 206 RCMP (Royal Can.ldian Mounted Police)

PIP

demography 291

Romero. Gonzalo 221

Rennie. Sir John Ogiivy:

of Latter

SADCC

economy, world 322 education 336 (lablel

Seychelles 616

Rasmussen. Dorthe 672 Rather. Dan: >er Biographies 81 Ratia. Armi: yer Obituaries 80 Ralsiraka. Didier 522 Rattle. Simon: ,rr Biographies 82 music 554 Ratizza. Giuliano 467 Rawlings. Jerry John: \rr

Progrt>uvr t

Obituaries 80

Rekslen. Hilmar: irr Obituaries 81 Religion 82. 81. 80

Rjshid ibn .Vhmed 685

Puapua. TomjM 680 Public Broadcasung Service: >. il 687 Roe. Allison 672 Rogers. Bill 405 Obiluiir Rogers. Claude Maur '

ies

80

Rogers. Kenny: irr Biographies 81 Rogers. Ray 436 Rohe. Vera. Ellen: irr Vera-Ellen (Obituaries 821

Rokossovsky. Konstantin 16 Rold6s Aguilera. Jaimr: irr Obituaries 82. irr Biographies 80 Rolling Stones. The (band) 557

Roman Italy

Church 596. 601. on work 434

Catholic

encyclical

467

Latin America 221. 569 Polish crisis (fealure) 17 Yugoslavia 733 Romania 82, 81. 80 archaeology 184 Canadian reactor purchase 230

(i(l7

Sabu (Saudi rationl

Basii Industries cr Biographies 81 motion pictures 544 Space probes 632 Space shuttle ceramic insulation tiles 526 landing il 35 space exploration 630 United States 699 Spadolini. Giovanni: ti-c Biographies

82 467 534

a

Spain 82. 81. 80 Andorran radio dispute 177 archaeology 183

Still.

>,-i-

Obituaries

James: irr Biographies 81 design for Talr Gallery 188 Stock Exchanges 82, 81. 80 economy, world 316 Stockman. David: wr Biographies 82 Umird States 698 Stoffc (DUrrenmalt) 511 Sdikes. Ralph Shelton Griffin: !/•< Obituaries 80 Sloiie. Roberl 506. il 507 Stones. Dwight 671 Stone tool culture 180 Stoph. Willi

Commiinisl Party C:ongress il 684 German Democratic Republic 399 Stow Hill. Frank Soskire. Baron: irr Obituaries 80 Siraighi. Whitney Willard: >,< Obituaries 81 Wilding, Michael: .ff Obituaries Wildlife

regions 190

see

il.

16

Zaid ibn Sultan an-Nahayan 685 Zaire 82, 81, 80

demography 290

X

transportation 674 (table) Zambia 82, 81, 80

demography 290

relations with Kenya 475 religion (special report) 606

Eusi

Obitu

82 Trinidad and Tobago 677 Williams. Hank 558 Williams. Harrison A.. Jr.. 263. il. '264 Williams. John: ice Biographies 81 Williams. Mary Lou (Mary Elfrieda Scruggs): »f