Britannica Book of the Year 1963
During the period 1938-2018 Encyclopædia Britannica published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past
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English Pages [899] Year 1963
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Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Introduction
Table of Contents
The Craft of Intelligence
The New Europe
BOOK OF THE YEAR
Editors and Contributors
Chronology of Events, 1962
ABYSSINIA
ALGERIA
ARCTIC
AUSTRALIA
BASEBALL
BRAZIL
CAMEROON
CHESS
COAST GUARD, US
CUBA
DETROIT
ELECTIONS, US
FAIRS AND EXHIBITIONS
FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS
GEOGRAPHY
GREAT BRITAIN
HOUSTON
INTERNATIONAL BANK
IRON AND STEEL
KENYA
LIBRARIES
MARINE CORPS, US
MINING
MUSEUMS
NEW JERSEY
OATS
PERU
POLITICAL SCIENCE
RADIO AND TELEVISION
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
SHIPBUILDING
SOUTH CAROLINA
SPANISH LITERATURE
TAXATION
TUNNELS
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
VERMONT
YUGOSLAVIA
Obituaries 1962
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K
L-M
N
O-P
Q-R
S
T
U-V-W
X-Y-Z
Citation preview
1963
\
WJ irTes
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
V
n
Dalmas—Pix from Publix
NEHRU AND MeNON (see INDIA)
A
BRITANNICA
Recoi^d of the
March of Events of 1962
BOOK OF THE YEAR
1963 \
WILLIAM BENTON,
Publisher
WJ ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, CHICAGO
•
TORONTO LONDON GENEVA SYDNEY •
•
INC.
1963 BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
COPYRIGHT UNDER INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER PAN AMERICAN AND UNIVERSAL COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Britannica Book of the Year (Trade
Mark Reg.
U.S. Pat. Off.}
PRINTED IN
U.S.A.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
The Britannica Book of is
of
the
Tear
published with the editorial advice
the faculties
of The University of Chicago
Introduction In this 1963 Book of the Year the editors of Encydopsedia Britannica again present the events, facts and developments of 365 days in a world that has changed in this annual's 26 years of publication
men
In 1962
than in
code which determines or
Gordian knot of the arcane nucleic
the development of mature beings from simple
twice they drew back.
billion
Book
dii'ects
Twice, great world political forces approached each other at the brink of
war— and
A
more
the centuries that went before.
penetrated into space and stayed longer than in the experimental
flights of the previous year. Scientists cut the
cells.
all
more men, women and children
of the
Year
first
appeared.
lived in 1962 than in 1938,
More than 90^
lived in 1962; one of the greatest, Niels Bohr, died,
Landau, won the Nobel prize as he lay
when the
of all the scientists in history
and another
gi'eat one,
death fi-om injuries in that forbidding commonplace of modern
life,
Lev near
in a hospital in his native Russia,
an auto-
mobile accident.
Many this
great events, and
more minor
1963 Britannica Book of
the Year.
ones, are recorded in
The indispensable
students, writers, editors and businessmen comprise a
population data, names of governmental
what
in the
viduals
who
word and picture
reference facts used \'ital
in
by
part of the book:
officials, election results
and who won
wonderful world of sports. Obituaries of the most prominent indidied in 1962 are grouped (this year for the
first
time) at the end of
the events of the year. Biographies of leading figures, Nehru, Khrushchev, Ken-
nedy, are balanced by biographies of others of
less global significance,
such as
the Soviet Union's Valeri Brumel and boxing's "Sonny" Listen.
Written by about 700 authorities
in different fields, illustrated
by more than
600 photographs, graphs, maps and charts and produced with painstaking
by the dedicated
editorial staff of
effort
Encydopsedia Britannica, this volume offers an
authoritative record. It brings the 24 volumes of Britannica
up
to date;
it
also
supplements these volumes by oiTering the encyclopaedia of a year.
\
Besides the annual material, the Book of the YeaY continues a recently instituted practice of offering special book-length features later to be published as separate
volumes. The two woi'ks are The Craft of Intelligence, by the former head of the Central Intelligence Agency, Allen
W.
Dulles,
and The New Europe by Marquis
Childs.
These two w^orks
permanent place
on""
subjects of vital current interest will be found in their
in the front of this book,
and
offer the
same high
level of author-
itative writing that distinguished other artic'les pre\iously chosen for this presentation.
Book
of the
Year
is
proud to publish them as extra features.
The Editors
Table of Contents 5
Introduction
How
to
Use the Book
of the
Special Feature Section
The Craft
Book
of Intelligence
Calendar for 1963
9-50
Chronology of 1962 Book of the Year
51-90
New Europe
by Marquis Childs
How
to
91-896
Year Section
7-90
by Allen W. Dulles The
of the
92-103
Editors and Contributors
6
Year
104 105-118
Obituaries
119-863 864-878
Index
879-896
Use the Book of the Year
Britannica Book of the Year is carefully planned ready availability of reference material for fast
occur in 1963, including holidays, eclipses,
The
to
for
anniversaries and other happenings of note
and convenient use. Three devices aid the reader to find information he seeks in the main section, which begins on page 119: first and most important, the Index; second, appearing
almost
in alphabetical order
cross-reference
1,000
among
the articles,
entries;
and
is
•
•
The reader
will
be repaid richly
•
if
of the past .
.
.
Sketches of hundreds of prominent
who
died in 1962
.
.
.
starts
on page
Biographies of prominent living figures appear as ners are carried in the article on those prizes.
he learns more
are named in articles on and states. Hundreds of other persons are mentioned in articles; their names
Government
an occa-
two book-length
special articles
many
first
appear
which begin on page •
features to be noted.
thing to catch the attention of the
thumbs through the volume
will
be the
pictures and other illustrations. These include
officials
their countries
In the 896 pages of this volume, in addition to the
many many
The major events
864.
about an event of the year.
sional reference question
reader as he
.
separate articles. Biographies of Nobel prize win-
of the contents than just the answers to
The
of 1962.
Obituaries.
individuals
information.
there are
.
starts on page 105.
inserted frequently in the articles, the suggestion to
7,
Chronology
year listed day by day as they happened
third,
"see also" other specific articles for further related
.
on page 104.
in the Index.
Statistical
data of
appear in
many
you
all
types, the latest available,
articles.
The Index
will
enable
to locate this material.
Above
all,
remember
to use the Index (starting on
news photographs of the over the world, and they
page 879) whenever you wish information in the Book of the Year. The alphabetical arrangement of
constitute a fascinating pictorial record of the year's
the book enables a reader to find subjects easily; the
of the outstanding
year, gathered
from
all
events.
Index
tells
not only where articles appear but often
guides the reader to other related subjects.
OTHER FEATURES OF SPECIAL INTEREST: •
A
and authors of the articles in the Book of the Year starts on page 92. Calendar of major events scheduled or expected list
of the editors
.
•
.
.
It is
a cumulative Index. It also guides the reader
to information in the four preceding issues of the
Book
of the Year.
Before using the Index be sure to
read the instructions that precede
it.
Two
book-length works
exclusively published in the
Britannica Book of the Year
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE by Allen W. Dulles For
the
first
time since his retirement as head of the Central
Intelli-
gence Agency this distinguished American diplomat and authority
on modern intelligence analyzes the international area in which he has worked for nearly 50 years.
contemporary analysis
This comprehensive history and
of intelligence is
awaited books of the postwar
one of the most eagerly
era.
\
THE NEW EUROPE by Marquis Childs The cles
noted American author and newspaper columnist here chroni-
and analyzes one
of the
most exciting developments
in history,
the amazing economic recovery, social progi'ess and steps toward
commercial and
political
authoritative, penetrating fi"om 1945 to 1963 fied
union of western Europe.
and dramatic survey
which have created a new Europe
and prosperous than ever
before.
This
is
an
of the gi'eat events far
more
uni-
1963 BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,
INC.
THE CRAFT OF
INTELLIGENCE
by Allen W. Dulles
\
Allen W. Dulles
Few Books
have been so long awaited as Allen Dulles' The
Craft of Intelligence.
Since
Then came the U.S. diplomatic service, the peace delegation Wofld War I with Pres. Woodrow Wilson, other
in Paris after
renowned international lawyer, diplomat
and
international conferences and in the mid-1920s entrance into
authority on intelligence resigned as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in 1961, editors and publishers have be-
the private practice of law with the famed firm of Sullivan and
the
sieged his Washington
home urging him
to write this book.
Britannica's Book of the Year was the fortunate winner in this free-for-all.
World War
Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles has traveled widely. His first job after graduation from Princeton was in the educational field in
II interrupted his legal career.
He was immedi-
ately tapped for the U.S. OfBce of Strategic Services
most
The Craft of Intelligence is the work of the one man in the world probably best qualified to write this story of cloak-anddagger and less romantic operations in the international area of espionage, counterespionage, propaganda and kindred activities. Member of a distinguished family which included three secretaries of state, the last of these his late brother, John
India.
Cromwell.
top
of the
OSS
war years, until the end
and spent
of 1945, in Switzerland as the
operational officer on the continent.
After a few years of private law practice he returned to intelligence with the
CIA
in
1951 and after two years as deputy
director served as director of the agency for almost nine years.
In keeping with security practices, he
made few
public utter-
ances during this period.
Now he adds to three earlier books this authoritative study, of intelligence. Nothing quite like it, nothing so authoritative and comprehensive, has before been published.
The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author and have not been either authorized or approved by the Central Intelligence Agency or any other government authority.
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE By
ALLEN W. DULLES
INTELLIGENCE COMES OF AGE
I.
He knew the world, He had a flair for
In our time the United States is being challenged by a hostile group of nations that profess a philosophy of life and of government inimical to our own. This in itself is not a new develop-
ment
ment; we have faced such challenges before. What has changed is that now, for the first time, we face an adversary possessing the military power to mount a devastating attack directly upon the United States, and in the era of nuclear missiles this can be accomplished in a matter of minutes or hours with a minimum of
qualities to be desired in an intelligence officer.
and
service
widely.
He
politics.
having traveled the unusual and
understood people.
for the dangerous,
tempered with judgment. In short, he had the
The Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor and our entry into war naturally stimulated the rapid growth of the OSS and
the
and deterrents are prepared open fashion, while our antagonists have built up a formidable wall of secrecy and security. In order to bridge this gap and help to provide for strategic warning, we have to rely more and more upon our intelligence operations. Another change is that we have had to assume the responsibility of leadership for the countries of the Free World. Accompanying this responsibility is a burden of unprecedented
intelligence operations. It was just after Pearl Harbor that I was recruited by General Donovan, who had been a close friend of mine for many years, I served with him until the end of the war in 1945, For a short time after V-J Day, it looked as though the U.S. would gradually withdraw its troops from Europe and the Far East. This would probably have included the disbanding of intelligence operations. In fact, it seemed likely at the end of 1945 fold our tents that we would do what we did after World War I and go back to business-as-usual. But this time, in contrast to 1919 when we repudiated the League of Nations, we became a charter member of the United Nations and gave it our support in
dimensions placed upon both our pohcies and our measures for
hopes that
prior alert.
To be But
sure,
we
possess the same power against our adversary.
in our free society our defenses
in a largely
military preparedness.
had
to
As a
result,
itself
with
how our
intelligence services
have been developing and what they must be equipped
to
do
in
age of perQ.
In the past, in wartime, our military commanders have had them. Nevertheless, dur-
military- intelligence services available to
World War
I
we
still
found ourselves inadequately prepared
for our intelligence responsibilities, despite the high degree of
would grow up
it
to be the
keeper of world peace.
Communists Overplayed Hand
e^uip themselves for an expanding range of problems
This report concerns
ing
—
our intelligence services have
unlike any they have ever faced before.
this
its
If the Communists had not overreached themselves, our government might well have been disposed to leave the responsibihty for keeping the peace more and more to the United Nations. In fact, at Yalta Stahn asked President Roosevelt how long we expected to keep our troops in Europe. The President answered, not more than two years. In view of the events that took place in rapid succession during the postwar years, it is clear that in the period between 1945 and 1950 Premier Stalin and Mao Tse-
competence and devotion of a small group of able army and na\'y intelligence officers. It was only in World War II and particularly after the Pearl Harbor attack' that we began to develop, side by side with our military intelligence organizations, an agency for
tung decided that they would not wait for us to retire gracefully
and operations. The origin of this agency was a summons by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to William J. Donovan in 1941 to come down to Washington and
and Potsdam. The Kremlin threatened Iran in 1946 and followed this in rapid succession by imposing a Communist regime on Hungary, activating the civil war in Greece, staging the take-over
secret intelligence collection
work on
this
problem. The result was an organization
known
as
as the father of
modern U.S.
qualified for the job.
War
I
A
Donovan
had divided
his
busy
is
intelligence.
generally regarded
He was
eminently
distinguished lawyer, a veteran of
with the distinction cf having life in
won
Moscow
the
Medal
of
World
Honor, he
peacetime between the law, govern-
installed
Communist regimes
in
out.
Poland.
Rumania and
Bulgaria before the ink was dry on the agreements signed at Yalta
of Czechoslovakia and instituting the Berlin blockade. Later, in
1950,
the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).
Colonel (later Major General)
from Europe and Asia; they would kick us
Mao
joined Stalin to mastermind the attack on South
Korea. Meanwhile
Mao had
been consolidating
his position
on
the mainland of China, These blows in different parts of the
world aroused our leaders to the need for a world-wide gence system. first
We
were, without fully realizing
it.
intelli-
witnessing the
stages of a master plan to shatter the societies of
Europe
11
Vnited Pt,
William
.
' nature
technical devices
about
of machines are used in sorting out
assembling the data of intelligence
est to the intelligence services of the
to take the final step, not
available, along with other information
is
The same kinds
If the target causes
comes
shock waves
to
mind
in the earth,
then seismographic apparatus will detect these. Moreover, the
and measure the effects of our own technological with nuclear weapons and missiles, has hastened the refinement of equipment which, with some modifications, can
need
to observe
experiments,
e.g.,
also be useful for observing other people's experiments.
Radar and accurate long-range photography are the of technical collection. Another air
samples
in the
atmosphere
in
is
basic tools
the collection and analysis of
order to determine the presence
of radioactivity. Since radioactive particles are carried
by winds
29
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE over national borders, nent's territory
by
it
air or
unnecessary to penetrate the oppo-
in
Cuba
land in order to collect such samples.
If
they had not been discovered while work on the bases was.
is
of Soviet medium-range missiles in late October of 1962.
Beginning in 194S our government instituted a program calling for round-the-clock monitoring of the atmosphere by aircraft for the purpose of detecting any experimentation with atomic
in progress
weapons. After this program was installed, the first evidence of a Soviet atomic explosion on the Asiatic mainland was detected in September of 1949. Later refinements in instrumentation en-
which
able us to discover not only the fact that atomic explosions have taken place but also the power and type of the atomic device
might have constituted a secret and deadly threat to our security and that of this hemisphere. Here too was an interesting case in classical collection
Many
targets, of course,
detonation or a missile
launching that can be traced from afar in the upper atmosphere. To observe such targets, one must get directly over them at very high altitudes, armed with long-range cameras. This requirement led to the
development of the U-2.
more accurate could be performed by
was
It
safer,
and more dependable than anything that an agent on the ground. Its feats could be equaled only by the acquisition of technical documents directly from Soviet offices and laboratories. The U-2 marked a new high, in more ways than one, in the scientific collection of intelligence.
Thomas
S.
Gates,
Radar and
)n
report to the
its
World War
II
use in the Battle
success in bending, amplifying and
means
the directional signals sent to guide
falsifying
by
scientific
German
the attacking
aircraft.
He
science had proved superior to
had been
sinister resources
struggle for survival,
concludes that "unless British
German and
We
tific
unless
its
strange,
effectively brought to bear in .the
we might
well have been defeated,
ing defeated, destroyed." Science as a vital
arm
and be-
of intelligence
is
are in a critical competitive race with the scien-
development of the Communist bloc, particularly that of the we must see to it that we remain in a posi-
Soviet Union, and
was
Some day
this
may
be as vital to us as radar
to Britain in 1940.
A
technical aid to espionage of another kind
is
the concealed
microphone and transmitter, carrying live information in the form of conversations from inside a target to a nearby listening post.
What
the public
m
a plane flying at
70,000
ft.
n
in
Pres.
1960, following the collapse
reat heights
value a hundred
its
of Britain, as well as British
tion of leadership.
i
proved
describes British development of radar and
From these flights we got information on airfields, aircraft, missiles, missile testing and training, special weapons storage, submarine production, atomic production and aircraft deployment ... all types of vital information. These results were considered in formulating our military programs. We obviously were the prime customer, and ours is the major interest.
San Diego, Calif., naval photograph in a televisi illustrate the power of
methods
the Battle of Britain
times over. Winston Churchill in his history of
here to stay.
In more recent days, it was the high-altitude U-2 reconnaissance flights which gave the "hard" evidence of the positioning
to scientific
Various agents and refugees
Scientific intelligence collection has
Secretary of Defense of the United States at the time of the U-2 incident. May 1, 1960, testified to this before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on June 2, 1960:
Jr.,
results.
from Cuba reported that something in the nature of missile bases was being constructed and pinpointed the area of construction; this led to the gathering of proof by aerial reconnaissance.
do not betray their location and
bomb
methods wedded
brought extremely valuable
detonated.
nature by any such activity as
still
and before they could be camouflaged, these bases
knows
as "tapping" telephones or as "bug-
Dwight D. Eisenhower used this summit conference, to
of the Paris
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE
Henry Cabot Lodge, U.S. Tibassador to the UN, demonstrating to the Security council in May 1960 ho ithin a wooden carving of the Great Seal of the U.S., that had been hung in t phone had been concealed the U.S. ambassador in Mc cow as a gift from the U.S.S.R. '
ging" or "miking" offices
is
called "audio-surveillance" in intel-
in the flowerpots that
decorated the
offices of a
who had
Western embassy.
Three things are required for this excellent miniaturized ele&tronic equipment, clever methods of concealment and a human agent to penetrate the premises and do the con-
The
cealing.
and then or what they did with them.
The public usually hears of this activity only when it is practised by law-enforcement or security organizations in their own locahty. But in June of 1960 Ambassador Lodge displayed before the United Nations in New York a plaque of the Great Seal of
There is hardly a technological device of this kind against which countermeasures cannot be taken. Not only can the devices themselves be neutralized, but sometimes they can be turned
ligence work.
:
the United States which had been hanging in the office of the U.S.
Ambassador
in
Moscow. He showed how
cealed a tiny instrument in the seal which,
the Soviets had con-
when
janitor of the building,
glad to comply for a the people were
against those it
is
who
was no great
office.'
The
install
He
pocket money.
who borrowed
the pots
never knew
who
from him every now
them. Once they have been detected,
often profitable to leave them in place in order to feed the
other side with false or misleading information.
activated, per-
The Field of Cryptography
mitted a Soviet listening post to overhear everything that was said in the ambassador's
little
weakness for alcohol, was
a
installation of this device
feat for the Soviets, since every foreign
embassy
in Moscow has to call on the services of local electricians, telephone men, plumbers, charwomen and the like. Performing the same trick outside one's own country is something else. Any intelligence service must consider the possible repercussions and embarrassments that may result from the discovery that an official installation has been illegally entered and its equipment tampered with. As in all espionage operations, the trick is to find the man who can do the job and who has the talent and the motive, whether patriotic or pecuniary. There was one instance when the Soviets managed to place microphones
An
area of intelligence which
only partly a technological
is
Codes and ciphers have been used throughout history, and attempts have always been made to break them. Today scientific knowledge is used to aid those who work
matter
is
that of crj-ptography.
in this field.
No
nation ever willingly reveals
or failures in cryptography, but there are the recent past
now
in the public
its
current successes
many
instances from
domain that serve
to illustrate
the important role that the deciphering of coded messages has
played in the collection of intelligence.
The diplomatic
service, the
armed
forces and the intelligence
service of every country all use secret codes
and ciphers to trans-
mit their long-distance communications between headquarters
31
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE and posts abroad. For swift transmission they must often use commercial cable lines or radio, in which case they know that any other government can generally obtain copies of the enciphered cables sent from or to its area and can intercept and record radio traffic passing from, to or over its territory. That
much
is
easy; the problem
is
to decipher such material. Since the
up similar findings. In 1917 two German dirigibles, returning from a raid over England, ran into a storm and were downed over France. Among the materials retrieved from them were coded maps and code books used by German U-boats in the Atlantic. Military operations based on breaking of codes will often tip
Once the Germans noticed
the enemy, however.
off
that their sub-
government messages on sensitive subjects, especially in times of crisis, constitute the best and "hottest" intelligence that one government can hope to gather about another,
marines were being spotted and cornered with unusual and
every government goes to great lengths to invent unbreakable codes and to protect its code materials and its cryptographic per-
result, all
contents of
official
sonnel. For that reason, every intelligence service
is
continually
startling frequency,
it
was not hard
munications with their underwater
for
them
fleet
codes were immediately changed. There
problem, then, of
manner. One can
how
to act
com-
to guess that
were being read. As a is
always the
on information derived
in
this
risk terminating the usefulness of the source in
access to cryp-
order to obtain an immediate military or diplomatic gain, or
tographic materials of other governments. Should these be ob-
one can hold back and continue to accumulate an ever-broadening
on the
alert for opportunities
which
it
made easier. But there are some codes and ciphers can be
tained, the task of breaking a code
other, less dramatic, methods, for
will give
is
knowledge of the enemy's movements and actions tually to inflict the greatest possible
broken by mathematical analysis of intercepted traffic. The uncontrollable accidents and disasters of war sometimes expose to one opponent cryptographic materials used by the other.
A
headquarters or an outpost
may be overrun and in the Many notable instances of
heat of retreat code books left behind. this
kind in World
War
I
gave the British a hfesaving insight
into the military and diplomatic intentions of the
Germans. Early
war the Russians sank the German cruiser "Magdeburg" and rescued from the arms of a drowning sailor the German naval code book, which was promptly turned over to their British allies. British salvage operations on sunken German submarines turned
in the
order even-
in
damage.
The "Black Chamber" During World War I the first serious American cryptographic undertaking was launched under the aegis of the War Department. Officially
known
as Section 8 of Military Intelligence,
liked to call itself the Black
Chamber, the name used
it
for cen-
turies by the secret organs of postal censorship of the major European nations. Working from scratch, a group of brilliant
amateurs under the direction of Herbert Yardley, graph operator, had by 1918 become a fit.
One
of
a
former
outstanding achievements after World
its
tele-
first-rate professional out-
War
was
I
the breaking of the Japanese diplomatic codes. During negotiations at the U.S. marine corps
bombers attacking the "IVIogami" during the battie
of iVIidway
Washington Disarmament Conference
in 1921, the
United States wanted very much to get Japanese argeement to a
Wide World
10:6 naval
ratio.
The Japanese came
to the conference with the
stated intention of holding to a 10:7 ratio. In diplomacy, as in
any kind of bargaining, you are at a tremendous advantage if you know your opponent is prepared to retreat to secondary positions if necessary. Decipherment of the Japanese diplomatic traffic between Washington and Tokyo by the Black Chamber revealed to our government that the Japanese were actually ready to back
down
to the desired ratio if
to force
it
we forced
the issue.
So we were able
without risking a breakup of the conference over the
issue.
The Chamber remained
De-
intact, serving chiefly the State
partment, until 1929 when Henry Stimson,
who had become
Sec-
retary of State under President Hoover, refused to allow his
department it
had
to avail itself further of its services, after which,
to close
down. "Gentlemen," so Stimson claimed, "do not
read each other's mail." Later, however, while serving as Secretary of
War
under President Roosevelt during World
War
II,
he came to recognize the overriding importance of intelligence, especially cryptographic intelligence.
When men if
the fate of a nation
is
at stake
and the
lives of its military
are in the balance, gentlemen do read each other's mail
they can get their hands on
Our navy had,
it.
fortunately, begun to address itself to the prob-
lems of cryptography in the early 1920s, with particular emphasis
on the Japanese, since U.S. naval thinking at that time foresaw Japan as the major potential foe of the United States. By 1941, the year of Pearl Harbor, navy cryptographers had broken most of the important Japanese naval and diplomatic codes and ciphers; and later we were often able to forecast Japanese action
Midway in June war in the Pacific, was an engagement our navy sought because it was able to learn from intercepted messages that a major task force of the Imperial Japanese Navy was gathering off Midway. Our information concerning its strength, disposition and intention gave Admiral Nimitz the advantage of surprise. Our successes in breaking in the Pacific before
it
took place. The battle of
1942, the turning point of the naval
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE Japanese codes were made public after World War II. From the point of view of an intelligence officer this was undoubtedly regrettable.
One
of the
most spectacular of
all
March
Department released the teleAmerican public like a bombshell. In AprD we declared war on Germany. part. In
gram
to the Associated Press. It hit the
cryptographic coups in the
Intelligence Requires Guidance
diplomacy was the British decipherment of the so-called
field of
Zimmermann
January 1917, when the United States was on the brink of World War I. The job of decipherment was telegram
in
performed by the experts of "Room 40," as British naval cryptographic headquarters was called. The message had originated with
German Foreign Secretary Zimmermann in Berlin and w-as addressed to the German Minister in Mexico City. It outlined the German plan for the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare on Feb.
1,
of 1917, the State
1917, stated the probability that this would
I
have described some of the manifold
The
gathering intelligence.
the varying opportunities for acquiring
much
could spend
field
work and could
of their time duplicating each other's
get information in one place that could be obtained in another. It
enter the war on Germany's side; with victory. Mexico would
headquarters, with
its
New
Mexico and Arizona." The famous Admiral Hall. Chief of British Naval Intelligence, had this message in his hands for over a month after its interception. His problem was how to pass its deciphered contents to the Americans in a manner that would convince them of its authenticity yet would prevent the Germans from learning of British competence in breaking their codes. Finally, and without any satisfactory solution having been found, the urgency of the war situation caused Lord Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, to communicate the Zimmermann message formally to the American Ambassador in London. The receipt of the message in Washington caused a sensation at the White House and State Department, and created serious problems for our government how to verify beyond a doubt the validity of the message and how "lost territory in Te.xas.
—
make
seem merely an Anglo-American ploy to get the United States into the war. Robert Lansing, who was then Secretary of State, and was an uncle of mine, later told me about the dramatic events of the next few days which brought America much closer to war. to
it
public without letting
it
imperative
it
exert disproportionate efforts in the attempt to
simply and quickly
its
make
it
some orderly system govern the world-wide collection process. Without appropriate guidance, intelligence officers in the that
bring the United States into the war and proposed that Mexico
regain
activities involved in
diverse needs for information and
is
much more
the task of the intelligence
world perspective, to establish the basic
guidelines along which intelligence officers in different places try
work. This
to pattern their
poses,
by
up
setting
a
accomplished, for long-range pur-
is
of priorities that give the order of
list
importance of tasks to be undertaken
in
any one
area. It also
often happens that headquarters will assign crash jobs to in-
where
telligence officers in areas
it is
believed that much-needed
information might be available.
The function of headquarters was illustrated when Khrushchev made his secret speech denouncing Stalin to the twentieth Party Congress
was
1956. It
in
clear
from various press and other
references to the speech that a text must be available somewhere.
The speech was
too long and too detailed to have been
extemporaneously even by Khrushchev, who
is
made
noted for lengthy
An intelligence "document hunt" was inand eventually the text of the speech was found but many miles from Moscow. It was necessar>' in this case for headquarters to alert all possible sources and to make sure all clues extemporary remarks.
—
stituted
were followed up to produce
coup for the west.
this intelligence
Forbidden Fruit Diplomatic Cables Abused The
There are
was complicated by the fact that the Germans had transmitted the message via their ambassador in Washington, Count Bernstorff, who relayed it to his colleague in Mexico City, and that they used American diplomatic cable facilities to do so.
situation
President Wilson had granted the
Germans
the privilege of
our communication lines between Europe and America
utilizing
on the understanding that messages to their representatives in the western heWsphere would be devoted to furthering the possibility of the peace which Wilson was so earnestly trying to mediate at the time. The President's chagrin was therefore all
when he discovered
what end the Germans had been exploiting his good offices. However, this curious arrangement turned out to be of great advantage in what happened next. First of all, it meant that the State Department had in its possession a copy of the encoded Zimmermann telegram which it had passed to Bernstorff unaware, of course, of its inflammatory the greater
to
—
how
valuable
that the
famous message had leaked
as a result of
German embassies which had received They continued using the same codes, which dis-
matter
may seem
II, I
—
When
I
in
—no
order not to jeopardize some other
was stationed
in
Switzerland during
received an instruction not to try to obtain any I
did not
know
by our
intelligence to
get a
German code
in
they changed a code
it
already reading.
my
spoke with authority, told
most trusted German agents, w-ho
me
that
if I
wished, he could get
detailed information about their diplomatic codes
This put me in quite a quandary. If I showed no interest, this would have been a giveaway that we had them already no intelligence officer would otherwise reject such an offer. I expressed great interest and sparred for time to think over how this could best be worked out. The next day I told him that as all my traffic to Washington had to go by radio (Switzerland was surrounded, in late 1942, by Nazi and Fascist forces) it would be too difficult and too perilous for me to communicate what he might give me on the German codes. I said I should prefer to wait till France was liberated the Normandy invasion had already taken place so I could send out his code information by diplomatic pouch. He readily accepted this somewhat specious answer. Sometimes even the seemingly ripest apples of intelligence should not be ;
—
In a world where so
many
countries have
some kind of
repre-
sentation abroad and where trade and travel occur in the most
unpredictable patterns, no intelligence service and no
copies of
gence
played a remarkable but welcome lack of imagination on their
me
and ciphers.
ness or theft in one of the it.
at the
Portugal had so alerted the Germans that
we were
Soon afterward one of
plucked.
Germans was some careless-
a nega-
agents to avoid material
its
time, but shortly beforehand an attempt
problem that had caused Admiral Hall so much worry, namely, how to deceive the Germans about the real source from which we had obtained the information. In the end the impression given the
it
when headquarters must perform
foreign codes without prior instructions.
—
significantly to solve the all-important
warning
intelligence source.
World War
Once this copy was identified, it was forwarded to our embassy in London, where one of Admiral Hall's men re-deciphered it for us in the preserice of an embassy representative, thus verifying beyond a doubt its true contents. Secondly, the fact that deciphered copies of the telegram had been seen by German diplomats in both Washington and Mexico City helped contents.
also times
tive function,
officer rules
intelli-
out the possibility of the random and unex-
pected and often inexplicable windfall. This happens despite the
33
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE man who
best-planned general guidance. Sometimes a
has some-
about talking to an intelligence officer 10,000 miles away from home, so he waits for the opportunity of a trip abroad to seek one out. Suddenly Korea may become the place where one picks up valuable information on
mind
thing on his
feels safer
Czechoslovakia. It can happen that way.
A
word on the
final
craft of intelligence as
it is
practised today
and the closed society. Each in its distinctive way contains weaknesses of which an opposing intelligence service can take advantage, and strengths which make requires comparison of the open
the opponent's job that in our
ponents
more
difficult.
open society we make
to learn of
Altogether it
our military secrets.
must be
it
said
far too easy for our op-
Much
that
we can
acquire
from the Soviets only through an enormous investment of manpower and money, they can get from us merely by reading what
we publish. Some years ago
my predecessor
as director of the
—
comes to clandestine collection of intelligence and then our neither side can depend wholly on overt intelligence opponents' agents run up against the FBI and other law-enforcement agencies in this country. Our system also provides other obstacles which are inherent and require no special effort on our part our free society does not breed deep-set and widespread disaffection, as does the Communist society. Even though we have had a share of "ideological" Communists and cases of entrapment, the Soviets have today no large pool of malcontents and haters of our system from which to draw when they look for it
—
—
They know that the local Communist party watched to recommend it for clandestine work.
resident agents.
Communist Mind It
is
FBI. The Communist agent, who was in the diplomatic service, was expelled from the United States. The whole case received such wide publicity that Rumania finally sought to repair its
damaged
by acceding
prestige
to President
Eisenhower's personal
request for the release of the boys.
The
ease with which the Soviets can place their intelligence
Western countries is an enormous advantage for their have already described how the Soviets use their embassies and trade missions abroad for cover. They also use their mission at the United Nations and have even placed
officers in
intelligence work. I
their intelligence personnel in such bodies as the sacrosanct Sec-
United Nations, whose employees are supposed to
be international pelled
from
this
servants. Recently two Soviets were ex-
civil
body and from the United States
for their at-
tempt to recruit a politician of the state of New York who reported the whole incident to the FBI. To the Soviets, no international organization
is
sacrosanct.
These advantages which the Soviets have in the West cannot be matched behind the Iron Curtain. There are no immigrants and few long-term visitors to the Soviet Union. So far, no international body has chosen to settle there or has been invited to do so. A Soviet citizen cannot walk into a foreign embassy without having to explain later to the police what he was doing there. The
is
do not always follow instructions) and the Soviet internal police
have the mission of seeing to
it
that the foreigner does not get
Under these conditions, espionage operations are difficult to initiate from scratch behind the Iron Curtain. The possibility that agents can be sought and found and cultivated into sensitive areas.
there without the knowledge of local police intelligence service
by
this
is
going to try to solve
is
so limited that
many
of
its
no
problems
means. Fortunately, there are other ways of achieving
the objectives of intelligence collection.
Our merely
free societies, with all their blessings, cannot be to
loopholes,
made over
even the balance sheet of intelligence. But some of the
some
indiscretions,
some
of the carelessness in our
Isolated
effectively than they are today.
also a fact that the closed society produces the kind of
mentality of a free society.
The same "wall"
and the
V.
that Soviet citizens
them when they go abroad, which makes it difficult get close to them, tends to cut them off from the societies
carry with
I
COUNTERINTELLIGENCE
have emphasized that
make
in today's
spy-conscious world each
often bad.
by its opponent by taking "security measures" in order to protect classified information, vital installations and personnel from enemy penetration. I have also indicated that these measures, while indispensable as basic safeguards, become in the end
they approach nationals of western European and North
a challenge to the opponent's intelligence technicians to devise
for us to
and governments they wish consider
much
judgment
to penetrate.
For one thing, they often
of the overt intelligence available to
tentional deception
—
their
own
them
as in-
suspicion betrays them. Their
of the true loyalties of prospective recruits
is
American countries under the impression that they have found a willing source, they often discover that their names are in the papers soon afterwards because the source was not really willing at all. Hundreds of Americans of Russian and east European origin whom the Soviets or their satellites have tried to approach have reported such approaches to our authorities immediately after they were made. An outstanding case of this kind was that of the Rumanian V. C. Georgescu. In 1953, shortly after Georgescu's escape from Communist Rumania and while he was seeking U.S. citizenship,
Communist intelligence agent acting under Soviet guidance made a cruel attempt to blackmail him. Georgescu was given to
a
understand that
if
he would agree to perform certain intelligence
tasks in the United States, his two
34
Georgescu courageously refused any discussion of the subject, threw the man out of his office and reported the full details to the
handling of public information can possibly be dealt with more
isolated mentality that cannot understand the workings
When
to their
Soviet people are taught to distrust the foreigner (although they
of our order of battle.
too closely
Rumania, would be released and returned
in
parents. Otherwise he could expect never to see his sons again.
retariat of the
CIA, General Walter Bedell Smith, was disturbed by this situation and decided to make a test. He co-opted the services of a group of able and qualified academicians from one of our large universities for some summer work. He asked them to examine open publications, news articles, hearings of the Congress, government releases, monographs, speeches and the like, in order to determine what kind of estimate of U.S. military capabilities the Soviets could put together from unclassified sources. Their conclusions indicated that in a few weeks of work by a task force on the open hterature our opponents could acquire a very good general idea But when
being held
young
sons,
who were
still
side tries to
the acquisition of intelligence
as difficult as possible
even more ingenious ways of getting around the obstacles. Clearly,
if
a country wishes to protect itself against the un-
it must do more than keep an eye on foreign travelers crossing its borders, more than placing guards around its "sensitive" areas, more than
ceasing encroachments of hostile intelligence services
checking on the loyalty of
must
also find out
tries are after,
its
what the
how they
employees
in sensitive positions. It
intelligence services of hostile coun-
are proceeding and what people they are
by penetrating the inner where the plans are made and the agents selected and trained, and, if the job can be managed, by bringing over to its side "insiders" from the other camp. Operations having this distinct aim belong to the field of counterespionage and the information that is derived from them is
using. It can best accomplish these tasks circle of hostile services
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE called counterintelligence. Counterespionage
and defensive operation.
tective
is
inherently a pro-
primary purpose
Its
espionage against one's country. Given the nature of
thwart
to
is
Communist
aims, however, counterespionage on our side inevitably entails the uncovering of secret aggression, subversion, sabotage, kid-
napping, even assassination. Although such information
not, like
is
government in the formation of policy, it often alerts the government to the nature of the thrusts of its opponents and the area in which political action is being planned. On October 30, 1962, U.S. and Venezuelan officials monitored a secret Cuban radio signal directing acts of terrorism against the Venezuelan oil fields. Before adequate preventive action could be taken saboteurs, believed to be Communists, sucpositive intelligence, of direct use to the
ceeded in doing serious damage to the there.
production
oil
facilities
Here counterintelligence helped mitigate the damage and
Cuban source
pinpointed the
of the threat. This allowed better
protective action to be taken for the future.
The function
of counterespionage
is
assigned to various U.S.
which has a special area of responsibility. The FBI's province is the territory of the United States itself; this
agencies, each of
organization guards against the hostile activities of foreign agents
on our own
soil.
The CIA has
the major responsibility for coun-
terespionage outside the United States, thereby constituting a
forward
line of
defense against foreign espionage
—
it
attempts to
detect the operations of hostile intelligence before the agents
reach their targets. Each branch of the armed forces also has a
arm whose purpose
counterintelligence
commands, and abroad
technical establishments
against
enemy
is
mainly
to protect its
and personnel both
at
home
penetration.
Co-ordination of Agencies The
effectiveness of this division of labour depends
upon the
co-ordination of the separate agencies and on the rapid dissemi-
nation of counterintelligence information from one to the other.
The
case of the Soviet "illegal" Colonel Rudolf Abel supplies an
illustration of this co-ordination.
A
close associate
and co-worker
was on his way back to While in western Europe,
of Colonel Abel's in the United States
the Soviet
Union
make
to
he decided to defect.
He
his report.
contacted a U.S. intelligence
office in
where he felt it safe to do so, showing an American passport obtained on the basis of a false birth certificate. He told a fantastic story of espionage in the United States, including specifics as to secret caches of funds, communication among agents in his netwb^k and certain details regarding Colonel Abel. All this information was immediately transmitted to Washington and
FBI
every respect.
for verification.
He was
The
agent's story stood
up
in
brought back quietly and willingly to the
United States. As soon as he reached our shores, the primary
and
responsibility for handling the investigation
of the case
was transferred
The
Justice.
The
to the
FBI and
its
legal
the
case had originated abroad with
tinued to handle
procedures
Department
CIA which
of
con-
foreign angles.
traditional purposes of counterespionage are "to locate,
and neutralize" the opposition. In more specific terras, to find out where and who the hostile spy is and posthe spymaster, too in order to thwart his work and even-
identify this
means
sibly
tually to put
—
him out
In his cell In the federal CO jrthouse in Brooklyn, N.Y., his arraignment in Aug. 1957. Col. Abel's detection and arrest were brought about by co-ordination between the CIA, which first got the tip In Europe, and the FBI and the Justice department, which handled the case in
after
a country
passed to the
Wide World Soviet spy Rudolf Abel
—
many
of business. "Neutralizing" can take
forms. Within the United States an apprehended spy can be prose-
cuted under the law; so can a foreign intelligence officer
who
is
caught red-handed having contact with agents, provided he- does
the U.S.
the Soviets are notoriously good chess players. These operations
require to plan
enormous patience and adroitness. They may take months and years to bring to fruition. Our target is massive and
diverse, for the Soviets use not only their
paratus
pean
in their
satellites
Bulgaria
—
all
own
intelligence ap-
operations against us but also those of their Euro-
— Poland, Czechoslovakia. Hungary. Rumania and of
whom
are old in the
ways
of espionage. Chinese
Communist espionage and counterespionage operations are largely independent of Moscow, though many of their senior personnel were schooled by Soviet intelligence. The mdst sophisticated operations of counterespionage, and the most rewarding if they succeed, are directed against the staff and the installations of the opponent's intelligence service.
One
of the
most famous cases in history was that of Col. Alfred Redl, who from 1900 to 1907 was chief of counterespionage in the AustroHungarian Empire's military intelligence service, and was later its
representative in Prague.
unmasked
From
1902 until the time he was
Redl actually had been
not have diplomatic immunity. If he has immunity he can only
a secret agent of the Russians and had revealed to them everything he knew of his
be expelled. But there are other ways of neutralizing agents, and
own
by exposure or the threat of exposure. A spy not of much further use once his name, face and story are in
one of the best is
is
the papers.
Counterespionage operations are often compared to chess, and
in 1913,
country's intelligence operations
—
in this case,
thing there was to kijow. But that wasn't
all.
As
almost every-
a leading officer
was a member of the General Austro-Hungarian Army and had access to all the General Staff's war plans. These too he gave to the Russians.
of the intelligence service, Redl Staff of the
35
THE CRAFT OP INTELLIGENCE Redl had been blackmailed into working for the Russians early on the basis of two weaknesses homosexuality and
wished to round up large numbers of persons on serious charges, then the revolutionary group had to do something extreme, some-
overwhelming venality.
thing
Today, when the headquarters of an intelligence service is as "impenetrable" as the best minds assigned to the task can make it, counterespionage usually aims at more accessible and vul-
a result,
nerable targets. These are chiefly the offices and units that intelligence services maintain in foreign countries from which their
appears to have originated the idea of murdering the
—
in his career
field
operations in espionage and counterespionage are directed.
In the case of the Soviets, such
offices are
often located in em-
and trade delegations. These locations provide "cover"; i.e., they conceal the inteUigence unit and at the same time afford its members the protection of diplomatic immunity.
bassies, consulates
more serious than merely holding clandestine meetings. As we encounter some astounding situations in the Russia
of the early 1900s.
The most notorious Grand Duke
of
provocateurs the agent Azeff,
all tsarist
,
and the Minister of the These murders were actually committed by the the
Sergius,
tsar's uncle,
Interior, Plehve. terrorists at the
Okhrana
instigation of Azeff solely for the sake of giving the
One
the opportunity of arresting them.
from 1912
ciates
until the Revolution,
of Lenin's closest asso-
Roman
Malinovsky, was a
agent and provocateur suspected by Lenin's entou-
tsarist police
,
the need and desire
rage but always defended by Lenin. Malinovsky did his share of
of the opposing side for information, for positive intelligence.
revealing the whereabouts of secret printing presses, secret meet-
A
factor which counterespionage exploits
If a stranger
walks into an embassy
in the
is
Free World and with a
ings
and the conspiracies of the revolutionaries to the police, but main achievement was far more dramatic. Since he openly
worried look on his face goes up to the receptionist and tells her in a hoarse whisper that he has some important information which
his
he would like to put into the hands of the "righf person," it is likely that he will sooner or later be talking to the "right person."
with police assistance and with Lenin's blessing, as representative
No
intelligence service can afford to turn
information, not, at least, without giving
it
away such an
offer of
careful scrutiny.
Some
most crucial intelligence ever received has been delivered by people who unexpectedly walked into an embassy one day in
of the
fashion.
this
just
Therefore, counterespionage often tries to
"plant" an agent with the opposing service by fixing him up with useful. It is hoped that by the opposition on a long-term become more and more trusted and will be given increas-
information which will
played the role of an active Bolshevik, he got himself elected,
Russian parliament, the
to the
had
he led the Bolshevik
The
police often
ask him to restrain the revolutionary ardour of his
to
speeches. Indeed, there
is
some question
both Azeff
in the cases of
where their allegiance really lay. Since each played his role so well, he seems frequently to have been carried away by it and to have believed in it, at least temporarily. and Malinovsky as
to
make him appear
Officials
the agent will get himself hired basis,
Duma, where
faction and distinguished himself as an orator.
Today provocation
and Newsmen Targets
is
chiefly
an operation of security services
behind the Iron Curtain directed against foreign intelligence of-
ingly sensitive assignments.
The Soviets used this method against Allied intelligence offices West Germany and Austria during the 1950s. Refugees from the East were so numerous at that time that it was necessary to employ the better-educated ones to help in the screening and interrogation of their fellow refugees. The Soviets determined to in
and diplomatic personnel.
ficers
may
It
newsmen or even casual tourists, who knows too much or to create The
usual
employed against
the image of massive
espionage against the Soviet Union. a basis for blackmail.
also be
either to get rid of a reporter
It is
method
is
to
provoke the victim him and
take advantage of this situation and cleverly inserted agents in
into an illegal or degrading act, to expose or blackmail
them with information about confail to make them seem of great interest to Western intelligence. As a result, it later turned out that some people employed as interrogators and assistants were Soviet agents. Their task for the Soviets was to find out about our methods and targets, to get acquainted with our personnel and also to keep tabs on the countless refugees who innocently told them their stories.
make him hable
the refugee channel, providing ditions behind the Curtain
which could not
to prosecution or to expulsion
by diplomatic immunity. Of there
is
no disclosure
if
if
he
is
when blackmail
protected
is
involved
the target agrees to "play the game."
When you pelled
read in the paper that an individual has been exfrom one of the Soviet bloc countries, frequently this is
made
either a case of a completely arbitrary charge being it is
the result of a provocation.
day the target
is
someone who
The
or else
routine goes like this: one
contacted at home, in a restaurant, on the street
or even in his office by a
Provocation Frequently Used
course,
Western
sometimes even used as
member
by The provoc-
of the "underground" or
feigns dissatisfaction with the regime.
This same tactic can be used to quite a different end, namely,
ateur offers important information. If the target bites and takes
provocation, which has an ancient and dishonourable tradition.
up contact with the man, he may be unpleasantly surprised during the course of one of his meetings by the sudden intervention
The term agent provocateur
points to
its
origin in
France where
The provocateur is "arrested" for The target himself may paper; if he is a diplomatic official his em-
the device was formerly used during times of political unrest. But
of the local security police.
was the Russians who made a fine art of provocation. It was the main technique of the tsarist Okhrana in smoking out revolutionaries and dissenters and was later taken over by the various Soviet police organs. In tsarist times an agent would join a subversive group and not only spy and report on it to the pohce, but also incite it to take some kind of action in order to give the police a pretext for swooping down on it and arresting some or all of its members. Since the agent reported to the pohce exactly when and where the action was going to take place, they had no
giving information to a foreign power.
problems.
about offers from the "underground."
it
Actually, such operations could plicated
become immensely
subtle,
com-
and dramatic. The more infamous of the tsarist agents all the earmarks of charasters out of Dostoev-
provocateurs have ski.
In order to incite a revolutionary group to the action that
would bring the police down on
it,
the provocateur himself
had
to
play the role of revolutionary leader and terrorist. If the pohce
36
find his
name
in the
bassy will receive a request from the local foreign
office that
he
leave the country within 24 hours.
What
is
gained through this technique
is
that
if
the victim
was engaged in the collection of intelligence, then the Soviet Union is rid of him and has also served warning that it will not put up with any kind of snooping. His replacement will probreally
ably restrict himself accordingly.
He
will
And
certainly be careful if
the victim
vate citizen knowledgeable in the ways and wiles of
is
a pri-
Communism,
then the Soviet will have deprived the West of another person
whose advice and counsel would be useful to us. The most characteristic tool of counterespionage operations is the double agent, and he comes in many guises. In an area like West Germany, with its concentration of technical and military
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE German Federal Republic and NATO,
installations of both the
there
from the Soviet bloc spying on
a steady flood of agents
is
airfields,
supply depots, factories. United States military posts
and the hke. Many of these agents are caught. Many give themselves up for a variety of personal motives. Such agents become doubles
when they can be persuaded
continue the appearance
to
Western "control."
of working for the Soviet bloc but under
Soviet agents
who
Western
are caught by
become double agents because they jail
find
it
officials
often agree to
preferable to sitting in
for a couple of years.
Using the Double Agent In order to "build up" a double agent of this kind he
lowed
to report
al-
is
harmless positive information back to his original
employers, the Soviets.
hoped that the
It is
and directives. Such briefs
in
pleased with
latter,
him new
his success in acquiring information, will give
briefs
themselves are counterintelligence
information because they show us what the opponent wants to
know and how he sible,
going about getting
is
it.
Sometimes
it is
pos-
through such an agent, to lure a courier, another agent or
even an intelligence
West.
officer into the
When
this
happens,
one has the choice of simply watching the movements of the
—hoping —or
he
visitor
West
will
lead to other agents concealed in the
of arresting him. If he
naturally over, but
it
is
arrested, the operation
has succeeded in neutralizing another person
A more
is
Western country who, when approached by
own
for them, quietly reports the encounter to his
The
authorities.
points to his trustworthiness. In such a case the target of Soviet
He
the Soviets. desire to until
and
own
intelligence authorities
to feign co-operation,
meanwhile
the activities and missions which he undertakes for
all
provided with "reports" which his principals
is
have fed
man on a was impossible to tell for certain whether anything had passed between them or whether they had even spoken to each other. However, the fact that both men acted so furtive and were apparently extremely wary of surveillance convinced the British that they were on the right track. The Yard had enough trained men in the immediate area to have the second man followed as well. He eventually led them, after many days of tireless and well-concealed surveillance, to a harmless-looking American ^couple who operated a secondhand bookstore. The role, if any, of this couple could not be imLondon
to the Soviets.
the Soviets begin to have
On
some reason
Houghton came up to London again, this who worked in the same naval establishment. While under surveillance, the two of them, walking down girl friend,
the street carrying a market bag, were approached from the rear by the same man as before. He was ready to relieve Houghton and the girl of the market bag, clearly a prearranged method for
passing the "goods."
Three
at
one swoop,
all
caught in the act, was something the
police could not afford to pass up,
Through Morros, who had checked
in
director,
with the
Lonsdale, the Soviet
"illegal" with
when things had become too hot for them here. In London they had been operating a secret transmitter to relay Lonsdale's information to Moscow, Microfilms found in their apartment eventually led to the apprehension
was
FBI
network of extremely important agents in the United States, most of them in political and intellectual circles. Morros reported on them regularly to the FBI.
Must Be Covert word
John
of
another
Vassall,
Admiralty employee. Good- counterespionage operatives never close in on an agent without first having exhausted
all
the possi-
locating and identifying everyone else associated with
bilities of
the agent.
A One
early in the game, the Soviets ran a
Surveillance
and the three were arrested on couple met the same
A few hours later, the American The man Houghton met was Gordon
to suspect their
Hollywood
it
a later occasion
time with his
This game can then be played
case of the late Boris Morros, the
of this kind.
but the encounter was so brief
mediately ascertained.
"agent," or until the agent can no longer stand the strain.
The
street,
Canadian papers who was running the show. The Americans had previously been sought by the FBI for their part in a Soviet net in the United States and had disappeared
voluntary act of the person approached in reporting this event
reporting
of passing classified information to an unidentified foreign power.
Scotland Yard observed him meeting with another
fate.
Soviets rarely approach a West-
recruitment will usually be told by his
Lonsdale ring
the-
erner unless they have something serious in mind. Secondly, the
to "accept" the Soviet offer
five Soviet agents in the
January of 1961 owed much to highly professional surveillance. Henry Houghton, an Admiralty employee, was suspected
the
Soviet or other bloc intelligence service to undertake a mission
are twofold.
roundup of
the spot.
valuable double for our counterintelligence
The advantages
British
in
is
working for the opposition. resident of a
The
Bonanza for Intelligence
of the biggest bonanzas for counterespionage
is
the defec-
tion of a staff intelligence officer of the opposition. It provides
the equivalent of a direct penetration of hostile headquarters for a period of time.
One such
intelligence "volunteer" can paralyze
months to come the service he left behind. He can describe the internal and external organization of his service and the work and character of many of his former colleagues at headquarters. He can identify some intelligence personnel stationed abroad unfor
he can deliver information about opera-
for shadowing or tailmust be-executed with maximum care lest its target become aware of it. A criminal who feels or knows he is being followed has limited possibilities open to him. The best he can hope for is to elude surveillance long enough to find a good hiding place. But an intelligence agent, once
der cover. Best of
he has been alarmed by surveillance, will take steps to leave the
bonanzas
country, and he will have plenty of assistance in doing so.
top intelhgence officers stationed abroad defected rather than
"Surveillance''
ing.
is
the professional
Like every act of counterespionage,
The purpose If a person
is
it
of surveillance in counterespionage
only suspected of being an
enemy
servation of his actions over a period of time
is
twofold.
agent, close ob-
may
lead to fur-
and supply details about the and how he is carrying it out. Secondly, an agent is rarely entirely on his own. Eventually he will get in touch, by one means or another, with his helpers, his sources, and perhaps the people from whom he is taking orders. Surveillance at its best will uncover the network to which he belongs and the channels ther facts that confirm the suspicion
agent's mission
through which he reports.
tions.
He
is
all,
not likely to
of agents, of course, for
know all
the true identity of a large
such information, and only the few with a case
will
know
The West has been
number
intelligence services compartmentalize
exactly
who
officers intimately
concerned
the agents on that case are.
singularly lucky in having
in the course of recent history.
many
of these
In 1937 two of Stalin's
return to Russia to be swallowed up in the purge of tne N.K.V.D.
One was Walter
Krivitsky,
who had been
chief of Soviet intelli-
gence in Holland. In 1941 he was found dead in a Washington
by unknown agents, presumably Soviet, who were I shall never accept the story that he committed suicide. The second was Alexander Orlov, who had been one of the N.K,V,D, chiefs in Spain at the time of the civil war. hotel, shot
never apprehended.
Unlike Krivitsky, he has managed to elude Soviet vengeance.
a
An early postwar member of Soviet
Soviet defection was that of Igor Gouzenko, military intelligence,
who had been
in charge
37
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE
Wide World
Head in shadow Is that Deriabin, former major in secret police,
of tiie
Peter Soviet
who sought asylum
in
the West in 1954. At left, Associated Press reporter Ray Shaw. Interviewed
1959, Deriabin permitted no picthough he was
in
tures of his face, even
wearing a disguise
of codes
and ciphers
in large part to
in the Soviet
Embassy
in
Ottawa. Thanks
in
lethal of all Soviet espionage efforts, to
procure the secrets of the
atom bomb, was stopped. The years 19S4-SS were the occasion of multiple desertions. After Stalin's death and the liquidation of Beria shortly afterward, it was clear that anyone prominent in the Soviet security service was in jeopardy. Among the major defections to the West at that time were those of Vladimir Petrov, who had been K.G.B. chief in Australia;
Juri Rastvorov, an intelligence officer sta-
tioned at the Soviet Mission in Japan; and Peter Deriabin,
defected from his post in Vienna. All of these
men had
at
who
Munich. Recently, Soviet diplomat Aleksandr Kaznachayev defected
information Gouzenko brought with him, the most
While Kaznachayev was was a "co-opted worker" and was used in intelligence work whenever his position as a diplomat enabled him to perform certain tasks with less risk of discovery than his colleagues in the intelligence branch. His in
Burma, where he had been
not a
staff
member
Embassy in Rangoon has done a great deal to debunk the picture of Soviet skill and American incompetence previously impressed on the American public in the book The Ugly American.
recent book describing what went on in the Soviet
one
All the important intelligence "volunteers"
time or another been stationed at intelligence headquarters in
viets.
Moscow and
satellite countries
possessed valuable information that went far beyond
their assignrnents at the time they defected.
Two
defections of a special kind that have occurred in recent
sination missions. Nikolay
West Germany
in early
Khokhlov was sent from Moscow
Numerous high-ranking
only about their
years involved Soviet intelligence personnel employed on assasto
1954 to arrange for the murder of a
prominent anti-Soviet imigre leader, Georgi Okolovich. Khokhlov told Okolovich of his mission and then defected. At Munich in
stationed.
of Soviet intelligence, he
staff officers
and were able
own
well, for the Soviets
to contribute information not
services but about Soviet intelligence as
manage and direct the satellite They do this through a
at long rang'e but in person.
visory system.
A
Soviet "advisor"
department and section of the it
in
have not been So-
have defected from the
is
services, not
so-called ad-
installed in almost every
satellite intelligence services,
This advisor
is
supposed to be shown
all
significant material con-
1957, Soviet agents tried without success to poison Khokhlov.
cerning the work being done, and must give his consent to
Bogdan Stashinskiy defected in West Germany and confessed that on Soviet orders he had murdered the two Ukrainian exile leaders Rebet and Bandera some years earher
portant operational undertakings.
In the
38
fall
of 1961,
be
Prague, Warsaw, Bucharest, or any other satellite capital.
a supervisor,
As a
and
sidelight
his
word
all
im-
He is to all intents and purposes
is final.
on Soviet relations
to its satellites,
and
as
an
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE example of counterespionage techniques, it is interesting to note that the Soviets do not rely wholly on these advisors to control the satellite intelligence services. This is not because the
excellent
latter are
incompetent, but because the
satellite services are evi-
dently not trusted by their Soviet masters. In order to prevent these ser\'ices from getting
away with anything,
the Soviets go to
the trouble of secretly recruiting intelligence officers of the satellite
services
who can supply them with information on
plans, per-
management, disaffection and the which might not have come to the attention of the advisor.
sonnel, conflicts in the local like,
Key
Satellite
Aides Fled
Joseph Swiatlo, who defected in 19S4, had been chief of the department of the Polish intelligence service which kept tabs on
government and the Polish Communist Polish military attache in Washington from 1955 to 195S, after which he returned to Warsaw and was put in charge of world-wide collection of information by Polish military attaches. He served in this job for two years be-
members
of the Polish
party, Pawel
Monat had been
fore defecting in 1959, Frantisek Tisler defected to us after hav-
Washington from 1957 Lapusnyik made a daring escape to freedom over the Austria-Hungary border in May of 1961 and reached Vienna safely, only to die of poisoning, apparently at the hands of Soviet agents, before he could tell his full story to Western authorities. ing served as to
1959.
What
Czech military attache
The Hungarian
has brought
all
secret
these
men
in
police officer Bela
over to our side
is
naturally a
matter of great interest not only to Western intelligence but to
any serious student of the Soviet system and of Soviet
Revelali
iai
who had
acted
life.
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE seems
to be the
the secrecy of their previous affiliations. This country has always
in defections.
powerful driving factor
Of course, these names by no means exhaust the list of all those who have left the Soviet intelligence service and other Soviet posts. Some of the most important and also some of the most
been a haven for those seeking to leave tyranny and espouse freedom, and it will continue to be a haven for those who do not wish to continue to work for the Kremlin and against the Free
recent defectors have so far chosen not to be "surfaced." They too have made, and are making, a continual contribution to our
World.
knowledge of the work of the Soviet intelligence and seand of the way in which the subversive war is being carried on against us by Communism. There have also been defectors from Communist China.
inside
CONFUSING THE ADVERSARY
VI.
curity apparatus
Every
effort is
made
to see to
it
that those
who
leave a
Walter Scott, when he wrote the well-known
Sir
When
Com-
munist service are helped and assisted in every way, whether they openly acknowledge their previous connections or try to preserve
Red Square during
a
May Day parade
practice to deceive
I
was not thinking of intelligence deception, but his words describe quite correctly what this kind of operation frequently entails. When one intentionally misleads, friends as well as foes are somebeing believed
always the danger of subsequently not
is
when one wants
to be.
Deception
and
in the
absence of wartime controls.
especially in time of peace
Tihh..mtrutl
we
first
times misled, and there Soviet bOfT
lines
Oh, what a tangled web we weave,
And
deception
is
easier in the closed society,
late its
information media and hide what
when
wants.
it
it
is
tricky business,
which can manipuwants, where and
In intelligence, the term deception covers a wide variety of maneuvers by which a state attempts to mislead another state, gen-
enemy,
erally a potential or actual
intentions. Its best-known use
outbreak of war, when
-^ft*^
away from
its
is
as to its
in
own
wartime or
main purpose
is
to
capabilities
and
just prior to the
draw enemy defenses
a planned point of attack, or to give the impression
that there will be no attack at all, or simply to confuse the opponent about one's plans and purposes. During the kind of peace we call the Cold War, various other forms of deception, including political deception, are practised against us by the Soviets. These
involve the propagation of false and misleading information, the
faking of documents and the use of forgeries. This
considered
is
important enough so that a special section in the Soviet gence service called the "disinformation bureau" for
is
intelli-
responsible
mounting such operations.
Soviet Parades Used for Deception Deception as to military
capabilities- is chiefly a short-range
maneuver gauged to conceal the possession or location of certain weapons or, sometimes, the lack of them. The Soviets have used military parades to place armaments on display that are intended to draw attention away from other armaments they may have in their arsenal or may plan to have. Mock-ups of planes and other equipment never intended to be operational have tactical
—
also been exhibited. In 19SS the Soviets gave the impression,
Red Aviation Day, that they were embomber production, whereas in fact they were
during an exhibition on phasizing heavy shifting their
emphasis
to missiles. Visiting diplomats
tary observers were permitted to see a "fly-by" of heavy in
numbers
far exceeding
squadron strength that
what was thought
in the area.
to
and milibombers
be the available
The impression was thereby given
many more heavy bombers were coming
off
the assembly
we had calculated. Later it was learned that the same squadron of bombers had been flying around in circles, reappearlines that
ing every
few minutes with the intention of misleading the ob-
servers.
Deception techniques of during
World War
farms from the
this sort
II. Airfields in
air.
were
utilized
Britain were
by both
made
sides
to look like
Sod was placed over the hangars and main-
tenance shacks were given the appearance of barns, sheds and outbuildings.
Even more important, mock-ups were
set
up
in
other areas to look like real airfields with planes on them. Else-
where mocked-up naval vessels were stationed where real ones might well have been. As a strategic maneuver, deception operations generally require lengthy and careful preparation. One must ascertain what
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE what he expects. Success depends on the closest co-ordination between the supreme military command and the intelligence service. Thus these operations are always of major stature and are, for the most part, one-time gambles for high stakes. The intelligence problem is to get information into the hands of the enemy by some means and in some form so that he will believe a certain move is to be made by his opponent. The information itself must be plausible and not outside the practical range of plans that the enemy knows are capable of being
pick them up and report them. Radio channels to agents in the
put into operation.
servations,
enemy
the
thinks and
After the Allies had driven the Germans out of North Africa in 1943,
it
was
clear to all that their next
move would be
The question was where. Since
southern Europe.
Sicily
into
was an
obvious stepping stone and was in fact the Allied objective,
was
felt that
every effort should be
made
Italians the impression that the Allies
To have
tried to
attack at
all
to give the
it
Germans and
were going to bypass
it.
persuade the Germans that there was to be no
or that
it
was going
of the question, for these things
The deception had
to point to
to move across Spain was out would not have been credible. something within the expected
French underground were
utilized to pass deceptive orders
German
nel to the
Germans
For quick and effective placement of plausible deception dihands of the enemy's high command, few methods beat the "accident," so long as it seems logical and has all the appearances of being a wonderfully lucky break for the enemy. Such an accident was cleverly staged by the British in 1943 and it was rectly into the
no doubt accepted by the Germans genuine. Early in
May
at the time as
of that year the corpse of a British
ma-
was found washed up on the southwest coast of Spain near the town of Huelva, between the Portuguese border and Gibraltar. A courier briefcase was still strapped to his wrist containing copies of correspondence to General Alexander in Tunisia from the Imperial General Staff.
These papers clearly hinted at an Europe via Sardinia and Greece.
make certain obGermans a heightened
the vicinity were asked to
in
thereby
indicating
the
to
reconnaissance
was organized
itself
way
such a
in
Normandy beaches
than over Le Havre and other likely areas. There are essentially two ways of planting deceptive information with the enemy. One can stage the kind of accident the
Such accidents are plausible because they
British did in Spain. do, after
frequently occur solely as a result of the misfor-
all,
tunes of war. History
of instances where couriers, loaded
is full
fell
into
enemy hands. The other way
an agent with the enemy who
to plant
is
ostensibly reporting to
him about your plans. He can be a "deserter," or some kind of "neutral." The problem, as in all counterespionage penetrations, is to get the enemy to trust the agent. He cannot simply turn up with dramatic military information and expect to be beheved.
Captured Radio Put
A
Use
to
wholly modern deception channel came into being with the
enemy
use of radio. For example, a parachutist lands in
equipped with a portable transmitter and fesses he has
been sent on
a mission to
is
captured.
make
decide he
it.
The probability is high, however, that his captors will more useful alive than dead because his radio pro-
vides a direct channel for feeding deception to the opponent's intelligence service. If the intelligence service that sent the agent
knows, however, that he has been captured and
was
called
control,
its
execution has been
main planners of the affair, Ewen Montagu, ih the book The Man Who Never Was. It was a highly sophisticated feat, made possible by the circumstances of modern warfare and the techniques of modern science. There was nothing
fully
toW by one
illogical
of
the
about the possibility that a plane on which an
carrying important documents was a passenger could have
officer
come
down, or that a body from the crash could have been washed up on the Spanish shore.
A
dressed in the uniform of a British major; in his pockets
and odds and ends He was floated into Spain from a British submarine, which surfaced close enough to the Spanish coast to make sure that he would reach his target
were
all
the identification papers, calling cards
necessary to authenticate him as Major Martin.
without
fail.
tions in sector A, is
And he
it
it
Normandy
tactic
landings.
co-operation and the complete security of
ment engaged
For
in the effort.
difficult for a
some military action
used by the Allies in prepara-
of strategic deception requires the complete
The mounting
controls.
under enemy
asks for a report on troop concentra-
gives the impression that
planned there. This was one
tion for the
is
is
can continue to send him questions with the intent of
all
parts of govern-
this reason, large-scale
deception
democratic government except under wartime
For the Soviets, of course, the situation is different. and complete control of the
their centralized organization
information media within their country they can support a decep-
Actually, a recently dead civilian was used for this operation.
He was
it
deceiving the other side. If
With
British Major's Corpse
con-
is
utiliz-
Operation "Mincemeat," and the story of
He
spy on enemy troop move-
This was perhaps one of the best cases of deception It
territory
ments and to communicate with his intelligence headquarters by radio. Such an agent stands a good chance of being shot after making this confession; he may be shot before he has a chance to
in recent intelligence history.
em-
come. Fewer aerial reconnaissance sorties were flown over the
As we learned after the war, the Germans fully believed these hints. Hitler sent an armoured division to Greece, and the Italian garrison on Sicily was not reinforced.
move
as to
phasize an urgent interest in places where the attack would not
Allied plan to invade southern
ing a single
the
Havre
Allied interest in fortifications, rail traffic, etc. Lastly, military
completely
jor
make
intelligence service. In order to
think that the landings would take place in the Le
area, agents
is
The Contrived Accident
it
was known that certain of these agents were under the control of the Germans and would pass on to them messages received from the Allies. Such agents therefore constituted a direct chan-
with important dispatches,
range.
and
requests for action to back up the coming Allied landings;
did.
"Overlord," the combined Allied invasion of Normandy, in
—
June 1944, also made effective use of deception in this case not an isolated ruse but a variety of misleading maneuvers closely co-ordinated with each other. These succeeded, as is well known,
tion operation far
more
efficiently
a Soviet diplomat drops a
remark
than a free country can.
When
in deepest confidence to a col-
league from a neutral country at a dinner party, he usually does
knowing that the neutral colleague also attends dinner parties The particular remark was contained in a directive sent to him by his Foreign Office. When it is studied in intelligence headquarters somewhere in the West and is found to agree so
with Westerners.
in
substance with a remark
made by
a Soviet military attache at
a cocktail party 10,000 miles away, the
two remarks
may
errone-
ously be thought to confirm one another.
In reality both originated with the same master source in the
in-
Kremlin. Both Russians were acting as mouthpieces for an ex-
tended Allied landing. False rumours were circulated among our own troops on the theory that German agents in England would
tremely well co-ordinated and well-timed program of political de-
in
keeping the Germans guessing as to the exact area of the
ception manipulated
month by month
in
smooth conjunction with
41
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE the Soviets' ever-shifting aggressive probes
Laos, the Congo,
One
Cuba and whatever
is
and plots
most successful acts of long-range
of the
West took
ception ever launched against the
War
in Berlin,
next on the program. political
de-
place before and
West believing that the Chinese People's Movement was not Communistic but was solely a social and agrarian reform. This was not accomplished by open Communist propaganda. Instead the fiction was planted by means of Communist-controlled journalists in the Far during World
II. It
had the
gullible in the
East and various "front" or penetrated organizations.
Any
men-
often the fear of being deceived has blinded an op-
ponent to valid intelligence accidentally coming into his hands.
you suspect an enemy of constant trickery, then almost any-
If
thing that happens can be taken as one of his tricks. effect of deception,
in its purpose,
is
A
collateral
to upset
and confuse the opponent's judgment
suspicious and distrustful.
He
will
may
receive.
He
will
not want to be caught
be off
German
among
On January
10,
1940, during the
"phony war,"
courier plane flying between two points in
Germany
German
a
invasion of France through Belgium, for which
When
the Luftwaffe
major who had been piloting the plane realized where he had landed, he quickly built a fire out of brush and tried to burn all the papers he had on board, but Belgian authorities reached him before he could finish the job and retrieved enough half-burned
and unburned documents to be able to piece together the German plan.
Some
of the high British
material
felt that
How
German government prevented
it
intelligence service
under Himmler and Kaltenbrunner and the
diplomatic service under Ribbentrop were at odds and, as a result, if
Kaltenbrunner thought information was good, Ribben-
it was bad. An objective was out of the question in a situation where rival cutthroats were vying for position and prestige. In the Cicero case Ribbentrop and the diplomatic serv-
suspected deception. The net effect was that, as far as can be ascertained, the Cicero material never had any appreciable influence on Nazi strategy. Of course, at this late date they did ice
not have
A
many
and French officials who studied the was a German deception op-
the whole thing
could the Germans be so sloppy as to allow a small
open to them anyway.
alternatives
further ironical twist to this famous case
intelligence service paid this
is
that the Nazi
most valuable agent
in counterfeit English pound notes, and he has been trying ever since to get
from the German government money.
restitution in real
German way
and made a forced landing in what be Belgium. On board were the complete plans of
Hitler had already given marching orders.
Secondly, competition and discord
circles.
a sober analysis of this source. Particularly, the
Long History
lost its
in the clouds, ran out of fuel
turned out to
—
different organs of the
from making
—
guard.
eration.
the highest
once a single piece of deception has succeeded
and evaluation of other intelligence he
the
come and
analysis of the operational data
discussion of deception would be incomplete without
how
fensives to
trop automatically tended to think
Real Accidents Suspect tioning
documents gave evidence of the massive ofthe growing power of the Allies information which collided head on with the illusions cherished in thing, the Cicero
of
for services rendered
Forgery
Certainly one of the most active agencies in the propagation of intentional deception
is
the office in the Soviet intelligence
(K.G.B.) called the disinformation section. In recent years this office has been particularly busy in formulating and service
what purport to be official documents of the United and other countries of the Free World. Its intention is to misstate and misrepresent the policies and purposes of these countries. In June of 1961 Richard Helms, a high official of the Central Intelligence Agency, presented the evidence of this activity to a congressional committee. Out of the mass of forgeries available, he selected 32 particularly succulent distributing
States, Britain
ones,
which were fabricated
He
in the period
1957-60.
pointed out that the Russian secret service has a long
plane to go aloft so close to the Belgian border in bad weather
history of forging documents, having concocted the Protocols of
with a completely detailed invasion plan on board? This reasoning focused on the circumstances, not on the contents of the
Zion over 60 years ago to promote anti-Semitism. The Soviets have been adept pupils of their tsarist predecessors. Their for-
papers.
geries
Churchill writes that he opposed
this
interpretation.
leaders, he asked
nowadays, he pointed out, are intended to discredit the West, and the United States in particular, in the eyes of the
himself what possible advantage there was in perpetrating a deception of this sort. Obviously, none. As we learned after the
rest of the world; to sow suspicion and discord among the Western allies; and to drive a wedge between the peoples of non-
Putting himself in the place of the
German
war, the invasion of Belgium, which had been set for the 16th of
January
—
six
days after the plane came down
by Hitler primarily because the plans had
—was
postponed
fallen into the Allies'
hands.
Accidents like this are not the only events that raise the spectre of deception. It has already been pointed out that if you send a deception agent to the enemy, you have to make him credible. Thus bona fide windfalls have sometimes been doubted and neglected because they were suspected of being deception. This happened to the Nazis late in World War II in the case of
"Cicero," the Albanian valet of the British Ambassador to TurHe had succeeded in cracking the ambassador's private safe
key.
and had access to top secret British documents on the conduct of the war, and one day offered to sell them to the Germans as well as to continue supplying similar documents. of Hitler's experts in Berlin could never quite believe
that this wasn't a British trick, but for
more complex reasons
than in some cases where deception is feared. The incident is an excellent example of how prejudice and preconception can cause failure to properly evaluate vahd intelligence. For one
42
countries and their governments
by promoting the
States.
The
The Ambassador's Valet
Some
Communist
notion that these governments are the puppets of the United falsified
documents include various communications pur-
porting to be from high
officials to the President of the United and from the Secretary of State or high S\ate Department, Defense Department and USIA officials. To the initiated, these documents are patent fabrications; while the
States, letters to
texts are cleverly conceived, there are always a great
number
of
and inconsistencies. Unfortunately these are not apparent to the audiences for which the letters are intended, generally the peoples of the newly independent nations. The documents are prepared for mass consumption rather than for the elite. One of the most subtle, supposedly part of a British technical errors
cabinet paper, wholly misrepresented the U.S. and British tude with respect to trade-union policies in Africa.
The forgery technique
is
particularly useful to the
atti-
Communists
because they possess the means for wide and fast distribution.
Newspapers and news outlets are available to them on a worldwide basis. While many of these are tarnished and suspect because of
Communist
affiliations,
they are nevertheless capable
of placing a fabrication before millions of people in a short time.
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE
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Rankin
ganklD Typi( :al of docu )us lelear
newspaper
in th
media of popular circulation are these two forged for propaganda purposes and made public in Washington. Published in an EngLsh-lanfluafle supposed;; sent to the Secretary of State in agencies were plotting to assassmate ChiangofRcial American that alleged documents ar East, the ,ts
kai-Shek
The
and the pinpointing of the evidence of fabrication far'behind the initial pubUcation that the forgeries have
denials
ride so
already
made
their
impact
in
spreading deception.
hand, the technique of forgery
is
On
the other
not available to Western infrom ethical considera-
telligence in peacetime, for, quite apart tions, t'here is too
own
much danger
of deceiving
and misleading our
called "papermill^" in intelligence parlance. A paperproducer of phony intelligence, primarily for profit and
what are
mill
is
a
not for the sake of the deception.
when In the latter days of World War II and in the postwar era uprooted thousands of the intelligentsia of eastern Europe were to from their homes and sought refuge in the West they came important posts rely on their wits for a living. Many had had they were forced to leave, and possessed wide of the education and knowledge of languages and peoples. Some excellent way to make less scrupulous among them found that an in the countries
a living for a time
of them had a almost impossible to reject at first glance. Many Unfortunately for the good market and brought a good price. seeking more than fabricators, they were often too zealous in much time and one market for their product. In time— but it took had been viceffort— U.S. and other intelligence services that
timized
people.
There is another type of deception that occasionally crops up which does not have its source with Communist intelligence servWestern intelligence ices but which complicates the task of the is the product officer and particularly the analyst. This deception of
and therefore attuned to the desires of prospective purchasers
was
to fabricate intelligence reports
based on
fabrisupposed contacts with their homeland. These papermill and well cations could be cleverly conceived, well constructed
made
effort has
VII.
a
common
drive to eliminate the papermills.
The
been very largely successful.
IIOW INTELLIGENCE
IS
PUT TO USE
little use Information gathered by intelligence services is of "consumers," the policy unless it is got into the hands of its intelligible makers. This must be done in good time and in clear, be read and form so that the particular intelligence can easily it deals. properly related to the policy problem with which
of intelhThese criteria are not easily met. for the sum total into CIA gence received is immense. Thousands of items come agencies of headquarters every day, directly or through other departments. government, particularly the State and Defense consider all we need to know about happenings behind
When we
and in over a hundred other countries, this could volume is not surprising. Anywhere in the world events How occur which might affect the security of the United States. the Iron Curtain
43
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE and judgment based on the whole volume of information on the sub-
mass of information handled by the various collection and how is it processed in the State Department, the Defense Department and the CIA? Between these three agencies there is immediate and often automatic exchange of important intelligence data. Of course, someone has to decide what "important" means and determine priorities. The sender of an intelligence report (who may be
essing involves the preparation of an intelligence estimate
any one of our many
off
is
this
agencies,
abroad
officials
intelligence) will often label
but the question of priority
it
is
—diplomatic,
military or
as being of a certain importance,
generally decided on the receiving
of a particularly critical character, touching
end. If a report
is
on the danger of
hostilities or
some major
security, the sender will place his
threat to our national
message
channels that pro-
in
ject of the estimate.
Of course, there
The
latter, as
dangerous thing unless
finally its
cial
watch
Through
the long night hours, spe-
do the monitoring. They and come to know each other
officers in the three agencies
are in close touch with each other
—an unevaluated
accuracy and
letins (or as
But
understood
is
report, frequently sent
the policy makers
Hence
reliability.
an isolated message
requires special treatment) are
who
if its importance and urgency warned against acting on raw
intelligence alone.
These bulletins
—both
and weekly
daily
— summarize
on a
world-wide basis the important new developments over the pre-
may
critical character.
is
it
receive such intelligence in the form of periodic intelligence bul-
ceding hours or days
anything of
a
without the originator of the message being able to determine
comes to any department of our government. This is provided for by law. There is a round-the-clock watch for important intelligence coming into the State and Defense departments and .the CIA. During office hours (which in intelligence work are never normal), designated officers scan the incoming information for that
distributed to the policy makers.
it is
co-ordinator of foreign intelligence, has the right of access to all intelligence
not time to submit every important item to
"raw" intelligence is for what it generally
vide for automatic dissemination to the intelligence officers in the State and Defense departments and the CIA.
is
detailed analysis before
give or as the
;
they include such appraisal as the sender
CIA
is
add
able to
with rep-
in consultation
resentatives of the other government intelligence agencies. These
representatives meet frequently for that purpose, going over the
New
items to be included in the daily bulletin.
hours of the day on which
it
manner
source, their
own
and are continually exchanging ideas about the sorting out any developing crisis. In the event that any dramatic item should appear in the incoming nightly stream of reports, arrangements have been made as to the notification of their immediate chiefs. The latter decide who among the high policy officials of government from the President at the top to the reshould sponsible senior officers in State, Defense and the CIA
on
be alerted. The watch
derables."
of acquisition
and
When
issued.
is
sent forward, explanatory material
is
may
information
be added to the daily bulletin up until the early morning
still
this intelligence
often included as to
is
reliability.
Some messages
most do
credentials as to authenticity;
carry
not.
well,
Position Papers
of clues to
—
—
officers also follow the press-service
radio reports, including those of Soviet and Chinese origin. of a dramatic, yet open, character
—the death
and
News
of a Stalin, a re-
volt in Iraq, the assassination of a political leader
—may
first
become known through public means of communication. Official channels today have access to the most speedy means of transmission of reports from our embassies and our overseas installations, but these messages must go through the process of being enciphered and deciphered. As a result, news flashes sometimes get through
first.
Post-Mortem Analyses
In addition to the current raw intelligence reports and the "basic intelligence" studies, there are the position papers, generally called "national estimates." telligence
is
usually an intelligence post-mortem to examine
ing
had been given by
how
effectively
was handled and how much forewarn-
intelligence. Incidents
Here we come
to a
—how
all
in-
the intelligence available
an interpretation of the "impon-
most
vital function of the entire
mass of information useful to our pohcy makers and planners as they examine the critical problems of today and tomorrow. Berlin, Cuba, Laos; Communist aims and objectives; the Soviet military and nuclear programs; the economies of the U.S.S.R. and Communist China the list could be almost indefinitely extended and is, of course, not exclusively concerned with Communist bloc matters. Sometimes estimates must be made on a crash basis. Sometimes, particularly where long-range estimates are involved, they are made after long weeks of intelligence
to deal with the
about future developments so as to make
it
—
of study.
one that has called for policy decisions and actions, there
the available information
These are prepared by the
the basis of
a certain subject along with
work
One
After there has been an important incident affecting our security,
community on
such as the Iraqi
of the
major reasons why the CIA was organized was
to
provide a mechanism for co-ordinating intelligence work so that the President, the Secretary of State and the Secretary of
fense could have before
them
De-
a single reasoned analysis of the
factors involved in situations affecting
our national security.
revolution of 1958 or the erecting of the wall dividing Berlin
President Truman, who, in 1947, submitted the legislation pro-
on August 13, 1961, required such treatment, since neither had been clearly predicted through intelligence channels. The purpose of the post-mortem is to obtain something in the nature of
posing
a batting average for the alertness of intelligence services. If
is
He
is
The
made
to find
means
of improving future performance.
processing of incoming intelligence
categories.
The first is the The second is
intelligence.
daily
falls into
three general
and hourly handling of current
the researching of
all
available intelli-
gence on a given series of subjects of interest to our policy makers; this might be given the name "basic intelligence." For
example, one group of analysts available on the Soviet
may
deal with the information
economy, another with its agriculture, a third with its steel and capital goods production, and still another with its aircraft and missile development. The third type of proc-
44
memoirs the need
for such a
—
the intelligence already at hand, the causes are sought effort
creation, expressed in his
The war taught us this lesson that we had to collect intelligence in a manner that would make the information available where it was needed and when it was wanted, in an intelligent and understandable form. If it
there has been a failure, either in prior warning or in handling
and every
its
mechanism
not intelligent and understandable,
also describes the
it
is
useless.
system by which intelligence was co-ordi-
nated and passed on to policy makers: Each time the National Security Council is about to consider a certain policy let us say a policy having to do with Southeast Asia it immediately calls upon the CIA to present an estimate of the effects such a policy is likely to have. The Director of the CI.\ sits with the staff of the National Security Council and continually informs as they go along. The estimates he submits represent the judgment of the CI.\ and a cross section of the judgments of all the advisory councils of the CI.A. These are G-2, A-2, the ONI, the State Department, the FBI, and the Director of Intelligence of the AEC. The Secretary of State then makes the final recommendation of policy, and the President makes the final decision.
—
What President Truman refers to CIA" was established in 19S0
of the
—
as "all the advisory councils as the Intelligence
Advisory
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE the United States Intelligence
Committee, which later became Board (USIB") and is often referred to as "the intelligence com-
USIB now
munity."
—
has an additional
member
to those listed
Defense Intelligence Agency, which co-ordinates the work of army, navy and air force intelligence and is playing an increasingly important role
above
the head
the newly
of
created
community. So too is the intelligence unit of secrethe State Department, whose head ranks as an assistant and more tary^ of state. The USIB meets regularly every week frequently during crises or whenever any vital new item of in-
in the intelligence
telligence
is
The Director
received.
of Central Intelligence
sponsible for the estimates arrived at
member ment
and desires
dissents
of his views
finally
by the board, but
re-
is if
any
his dissent to be recorded, a state-
included as a footnote to the estimate that
is
presented to the President and interested
members
is
of
velopment. they did not permit a firm conclusion to be drawn as to whether all the missiles were of the short-range type or
whether something more sinister was involved. The evidence that had been accumulated was
sufficient, howcommunity to the need for a more analysis of what was going on. Reconnais-
ever, to alert the intelligence scientific
and precise
sance flights were resumed and the concrete evidence obtained on which the President based his report to the nation and his action. This required, of course, not only the telligence analysis but
most careful
immediate intelligence judgments.
.\s
in-
the
President stated, the air reconnaissance established beyond a doubt that more than antiaircraft installations were being con-
Cuban
structed on it
soil.
This was a case, incidentally,
was obviously necessary
clusions.
which
in
to give publicity to intelligence con-
Khrushchev's subsequent statements and actions
testi-
fied to their accuracy.
the National Security Council. facilitate its work in making estimates, the CIA has set up Board of National Estimates, on which sits a group of experts intelligence, both civilian and military. The board has no fixed
To
A
Sense of Urgency
the in
size or
but generally comprises about a dozen an integral and vital part of the agency, and its
term of
members.
It is
office
members are officials of the agency serving on a full-time basis. The militar>' members are eminent retired officers who owe their
more ordered
of the estimating can be done on a
Most
than in such situations, although today there
urgency
whole
in the
Some
field of intelligence.
is
a
basis
sense
of
estimates are
requested by senior policy ofiicers of government to guide them in dealing with particular problems before them or to get an
may
react to a particular line of action
we
idea of
how
the duty of the board to prepare initial drafts of
may be
considering. Others are prepared on a regularly scheduled
and to co-ordinate these drafts, at the working level, with representatives from the USIB membership. To deal with highly tech-
basis, as, for example, the periodic reports
allegiance to
CIA and
not to a particular military service. It is most estimates
nical subjects, such as Soviet missiles, aircraft or nuclear pro-
grams, competent technical subcommittees of USIB have been established to work with the Board of National Estimates in
making early drafts of estimates. And, in certain outside of government may be consulted.
cases, experts
others
on Soviet military
and technical preparations. Before some estimates are prepared, a hurry-up call is sent to those who collect the intellifill certain gaps in the information required for a complete analysis of a particular problem. Such gaps might be in the military or economic information available, or in our knowledge of the intentions of a particular goverimient at a
gence to try to
particular time.
Bulganin's Missile Threat
Few
Obviously, the procedure of making an initial draft, passing on to the USIB. formulating the report along with any dissent-
it
time-consuming procon the ess. There are times when "crash" estimates are needed spur of the moment. One of these occasions was the Suez crisis ing opinions, and finally submitting
it, is
a
Washington to go to my voting I was intercepted early on election eve by a telephone message from General Charles P, Cabell, deputy director of the CIA. He read to me a Soviet note that had just come over the wires. Bulganin was threatening London and Paris with missile attacks unless the British and French
of
November
place in
1956.
New York
I
had
state
left
when
forces withdrew from Eg>'pt. I asked General Cabell to call a meeting of the intelligence community and immediately flew back to Washington. The USIB met throughout the night, and early on election morning I took to President Eisenhower our
agreed estimate of Soviet intentions and probable courses of action in this crisis.
and other estimates are generally kept mechanism exists and can operate quickly should be a matter of public knowledge. It is an
The contents
secret.
of this
However, the
important cog
in
fact that this
our national security machinery. 22. 1962. President Kennedy addressed the
When, on October
nation on the secret Soviet build-up of intermediate-range missiles in Cuba.' the intelligence community had already been re-
fields
have proved more difficult of analysis than that of weapons systems. Here one has to deal with Soviet
certain Soviet
capabihties to produce a given system, the role assigned to the system by the military and its true priority in the whole military
field.
always
It is
difficult to predict
how much emphasis
be given to any particular system until the research and development stage has been completed, the tests of effectiveness have been carried out and the factories have been given the
will
order to proceed with actual production. While a Soviet system is still in its early stages, our estimates will stress capabilities
and probable intentions; as hard facts become available, it is possible to give an estimate of the actual programming of the system.
In
was
1
954, for example, there
producing
comparable
long-range
was evidence that the Soviet Union intercontinental hea\-y bombers
to our B-52s. .^t first,
every indication pointed to
the conclusion that the Russians were adopting this weapon as a major element of their offensive strength and planned to pro-
duce heavy bombers as fast as their economy and technology permitted. Certain estimates of the build-up of this bomber force over the next few years were called for by the Defense Depart-
ment and w^re supplied by the
intelligence
community. These
were based on knowledge of the Soviet aircraft manufacturing industry and the types of aircraft under construction, and included projections concerning the future rate of build-up on the
construction of some sort of bases in Cuba. It was a well-known or the Soviets purporting fact that for some time past, Castro
dustrial capacity.
and expected expansion of inThere was hard evidence of Soviet capability to
produce bombers
at a certain rate
been installing a whole series of bases for ground-to-air missiles. These, however, were of short range and their major purpose apparently was to deal with pos-
of the estimate, the available evidence indicated that they did so desire, and, intended to translate this capability into an ac-
ceiving reports
from agents and refugees indicating mysterious
to be acting for Castro
—had
—
sible intruding aircraft. Since the reports received
from persons who had
little
came
largely
technical knowledge of missile de-
basis of existing production rates
tual
program.
.\11
if
they so desired.
this led to speculation in this
.\t
the time
country as to a
"bomber gap." Naturally, however, intelligence kept a close watch on events.
45
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE Production did not
rise as
rapidly as had seemed likely; evi-
dence accumulated that the performance of the heavy bomber
was
less
than satisfactory. At some point, probably about 19S7,
the Soviet leaders apparently decided to limit heavy
bomber
production drastically. The bomber gap never materialized. This
became quite understandable,
as evidence of progress in the
Russian intercontinental missile program was then appearing and beginning to cause concern. Thus, while previous estimates
—
make
the predictions than we are. For the intelligence service to deny this would be tantamount to saying it was not up to its job. Thus, early figures of Soviet missile production had to be developed on the basis of estimated production and development capabilities over a period in the future.
decide
system.
How much into the heavy bomber, as well as the fighter planes and ground-to-air defense to meet hostile bombers? How much into submarines"^ And, in general, how much into elements of attack and how much into
them can never be satisfactory. Witness how, just recently, our own intentions concerning the Skybolt have changed and how this must affect the calculations of estimates dealing with
missile
early,
able over great distances
— they
missile
by the
was and
—
of the
clear that a nuclear size as to
be deliver-
big boosters
their strategic requirements differ
in their
measure of incertitude during the
late
19SOs
Then, on the basis of certain proved capabilities of the Russians and of estimates of their intentions and over-all strategy, conclusions were reached as to the numbers of missiles and nuclear warheads that would be available and on launchers several years
weapon
from
soon realized that even a short- or medium-range
would have great value
to this
probably earlier
which they corbe within the range of possibility. Given their
geographical situation ours
it
so reduced in weight
was due
that the national debate over the so-called missile gap developed.
future and the potential psychological impact of space achieve-
ments. They saw this even before
rectly judged to
it
heavy bomber,
did, the significance of the missile as the
warhead could be
of
those of defense? It
missile program, like that of the
had various vicissitudes. The Soviets saw
we
the Soviet
How much
fort.
Soviet intelligence.
than
how
developing the nuclear potential?
Intentions can be modified or even reversed, and intelligence
The Soviet
Once again one had to Union would allocate its total military efwould go into missiles? How much into
bomber production remained valid, policy changes a new estimate as to future developments in
of capability in
had necessitated this particular
say to the intelligence officers: If you won't give us some estimate as to the future, we will have to prepare it ourselves but you intelligence officers should really be in a better position to
program
to
dominate
Europe,
in the future.
There is no doubt that tests of Soviet missiles in 1957 and afterward showed a high competence in the ICBM field. Soviet shots of seven to eight thousand miles into the far Pacific were well advertised and not ignored by our intelligence. Their testing in the intermediate fields
must
also
have been gratifying
them. But would they use their bulky and somewhat awkward "first generation" ICBM effective though it was as the to
—
Don't Underrate Soviets
missile to deploy, or
The origins of the program go back to the end of World War II, when the Soviet Union, having carefully followed the progress made by the Germans with their V-1 and V-2 missiles, made
generation?
every effort to gather together as much of the German developmental hardware and as many German rocket experts as they
seems
could get their hands on while they were conquering eastern
estimates
Germany. The Soviets
downward.
also hired a considerable
number
of Ger-
ment this
—
would they wait for
Were they
a
second or third
such a hurry to capitalize on a mo-
in
of possible missile superiority that to
a
they would sacrifice
more orderly program? The answer,
in
retrospect,
to be in the negative, indicating that they chose the
orderly program.
—
As soon
as this evidence appeared, the
as in the case of the
bombers
—were
more
ICBM
quickly revised
man
experts in addition to those they seized and forcibly deported. It is a
mistake, however, to credit Soviet missile proficiency
Intelligence
Good on Cuba
long history in this field and developed high competence quickly.
Today, after the Cuba incident, one may well ask whether present Soviet actions do not indicate a change of attitude toward their missile program. They were willing to take considerable
They never took the Germans fully into their confidence but pumped them dry of knowledge, kept them a few years at the drawing boards and away from the testing areas, and then sent
risks to get some and bases in Cuba to create the equivalent, as a threat to us, of a considerable additional number of bases in the heartland of Russia. Now they seem
today largely to the Germans. The Soviets themselves have a
most of them back home. While these people proved to be a useful source of intelligence, they had never been brought into contact with the actual Soviet development and could tell only what they had themselves contributed.
The first decade after the end of the war was a period when we had only a scanty knowledge of Soviet missile progress. Drawing boards are silent and short-range missiles make little commotion. As the techniques of science were put to work and the U-2 photographs became available after 1956, "hard" intelligence began to How into the hands of the impatient estimators. Their impatience was understandable, for great pressure had been put on them by those in the Department of Defense concerned with our
own
programs as well as with our own and the that this was a case in which it was
felt
justified in asking the intelligence
community to project several years in advance the probable attainments of the Soviet program. As in the earlier case of Soviet bomber production, the intelligence community, I am safe in saying, would be quite content if it
were not called upon for such crystal-ball gazing. But our
military planning requires estimates of this nature.
46
The planners
MRBM
ICBM
to
be more
in a hurry.
In any event, the intelligence collected on Soviet missiles was excellent as to the nature and quality of the potential threat.
Our
intelligence was also both good and timely as to Soviet production of high-thrust engines and the work on Sputnik. And^all of this intelligence spurred us to press forward with our
own
and space programs. one turns from the military to the political field, the problems for the estimators are often even more complex. Analymissile
When
sis of human behaviour and anticipation of human reactions in a given situation can never be assigned to a computer, and sometimes they bafile the most clever analyst.
More
missile
missile defenses. Planning in such a field takes years,
Defense Department
IRBM
had
than a decade ago,
in
the
autumn
of 1950. this country
North Korea the difficult decision, of whether or not to push forward to the Yalu River and reunite Korea. If we did so. what would be the reaction of the Chinese Communists? Would they answer with a direct attack, or would they stay quiescent under certain conditions if, for example, Korean rather than U.S. and UN troops formed the bulk of the advance to face in
—
or in
if
we
did not disturb the Chinese sources of electric
North Korea?
power
— THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE At that time, we had good intelligence as to the location and strength of the Chinese Communist forces on the far side of the Yalu. of
We had to
Moscow and
guess, or to put
Peking.
We
and decisions. In such cases
it
better, estimate the intentions
were not it is
in
on
their secret councils
arrogant, as well as dangerous,
for the intelligence officer to venture a firm opinion in the absence of telltale information on the positioning and moving of
up of
troops, the bringing
strategic supplies
and the
like. I
can
speak with detachment about the 1950 estimates, for these were
made
just before I joined the
CIA. The conclusions of the
esti-
have said publicly before:
I
know
we ourselves might do if we were in Khrushchev's shoes because, as we have seen at the United Nations, he takes off his shoes. Very often Russian poUcy moves
actions on the basis of what
seem almost
based on the ideas of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who died in 1936. His experi-
to be
the noted Russian physiologist
it was a toss-up, but they leaned to the side that under certain circumstances the Chinese would probably not intervene. In fact, we just did not know what the Chinese Com-
ments included inducing certain
munists would do, and we did not know how far the Soviet Union would press them or agrfee to support them if they moved.
abrupt changes
One cannot assume that a Communist leader will act or react as we would. For example, normally one would not have "estimated" that Khrushchev should choose the opening day of the
Paris
mators were that
Unaligned Nations Conference at Belgrade in September of 1961 to announce to the world, without forewarning, that he was breaking the gentleman's agreement on suspension of nuclear testing. Yet, this is exactly what he did. In Cuba in October of 1962
Khrushchev presumably "estimated" that he could sneak his missiles into the island, plant them and camouflage them and
own
then, at a time of his
choosing, face the United States with
a jait accompli. Certainly here
he misestimated, just as some
on our side had misestimated, that, because of the risks involved and the difficulty of maintaining secrecy, Khrushchev would not attempt to place offensive weapons in Cuba, riglit under our nose.
Whenever
—an
a dramatic event occurs in the foreign relations field
event for which the public
may
not have been prepared
one can usually count on the cry going up, "Intelligence has failed again." As we have seen, the charge may at times be cor-
But there are also many occasions when an event has been foreseen and correctly estimated but intelligence has been un-
rect.
able to advertise
its
success, at least at the time.
Intelligence
Knew
of Suez
This was true of the Suez invasion of 1956. Here, intelligence was well alerted as to both the possibility and later the probabihty
and then by Britain and France. The pubHc received the impression that there had been an intelligence failure; statements were issued by U.S. officials to the effect \-hat the country had not been given advance warning
by
of the actions taken
of the action.
Our
of course, intended to imply only
that the British and French and Israelis had failed to tell us what they were doing. In fact, United States intelligence had kept the
government informed without, as usual, advertising
its
achieve-
ment.
On other occasions the press and the public have-been mistaken about the actual role of intelligence in certain situations. Having reached their conclusions about what the intelligence estimate must have been in the light of the official action taken, they have proceeded to attack the intelligence services even though, in fact, there had been no such estimate made. Take, for example. Bay of
Summit meeting
in
and his
and then, by
action, intended to give rise to
adversary.
in 1960, the surprise
The
scuttling of
the
resumption of nuclear
testing just at the time the nonaligned nations
were assembling
Belgrade in 1961, even the famous shoe-thumping episode, were staged so that their shock effect would help produce certain in
He
results he desired.
from the
probably hoped for the same shock effects
missiles in Cuba. Estimates on
how Khrushchev
will act
given situation should take this characteristic into account. Of course, the trouble with estimating is that one rarely has
in a
all the factors bearing on any given situation. No one can clearly foresee the future or predict with assurance the
knowledge of
workings of the minds of the leaders whose decisions make history. As a matter of fact, if we were to set out to estimate what our
own
soon be called
policy decisions would be a few years hence, we would And yet our estimators are
lost in a forest of uncertainty.
upon
what others will do. Unfortunately the inmaking estimates will never become an exact
to decide
telligence process of science.
But at least progress has been made in assembling the elements of a given situation in an orderly manner so as to assist our planners and policy makers. It is possible, often, to indicate a range of probabilities or possibilities and to isolate those factors which would influence Kremlin or Peking decisions. In any event, we have come a long way since Pearl Harbor and the somewhat haphazard system of intelligence analysis which prevailed at that time.
Much
of the
American press assumed
at the
INTEJ.LIGENCE IN OUR FREE SOCIETY
VIII.
From
time to time the charge
security service
there
is
who watched the tragedy of the Hungarian patriots in 1956, would have realized that spontaneous revolutions by unarmed people in this modern age are ineffective and often disastrous. have never discussed any
Cuban opnow what I
details of the 1961
eration and do not propose to do so here, I repeat
made
that an intelligence or
sinister
and that
about the secrecy surrounding
its
is
its secret funds. The Soviet Union and its Commuhave persistently mounted the most vicious attacks on means of U.S. intelligence by means of press, radio and other
loose with nist allies
commuriication.
Many
of these attacks occur in
non-Communist
media and are not immediately recognizable as of Communist on the origin. Innocently or otherwise, many writers, especially left,
have taken up the refrain and, at times, more conservative have been misled into repeating a good deal of Commupropaganda on the subject. Of course, I have taken Commuattacks as a compliment and a measure of our adversaries'
fear of the
those
is
a potential threat to our freedoms
inconsistent with the workings of a free society. There has been some sensational writing about the CIA's supposedly making national policy on its own. and playing fast and
operations that
had, with the anti-Hitler underground behind the Nazi lines in France and Italy and in Germany itself during World War II, and
I
is
something
publicists
I
in attitude
confusion and dismay
time that this action was predicated on a mistaken intelligence estimate to the effect that a landing would touch off a widespread and successful popular revolt in Cuba. Those who had worked, as
While
reflexes in animals
abruptly changing the treatment, reducing the animals to a state of confusion. The Pavlovian touch can be seen in Khrushchev's
Israel
officials,
Pigs episode in 1961.
of no estimate that a sponta-
neous uprising of the unarmed population of Cuba would ensue. Clearly, our intelligence estimates must take into account not only the natural and the usual but also the unusual, the brutal, the unexpected. It is no longer wise to estimate actions and re-
nist nist
CIA. have already pointed out that in both tsarist and Soviet Russia, in Germany, in Japan under the war lords and in certain I
other countries, security services that exercised some intelligence functions were used to help a tyrant or a totalitarian society to suppress freedoms at home and to carry out terrorist operations
abroad. This fact has added to the confusion of
many about
the
47
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE exact function of an intelligence semce. Quite recently, from a rather unexpected quarter,
comes a comment by Supreme Court
Justice William O. Douglas.
He
suggests that "the press does not
cover the operations of the Pentagon adequately, nor can
it
report truthfully on the C.I. A.,'" which, he alleges, generates
which "are not known even to many Freedom of the Mind, American Library
"policies." the dangers of
of the informed press." Association, Chicago,
(
[1962],
111,
of course, that a relatively
new
CIA, should
structure, like the
— receive more than
its
p.
It is
8.)
understandable,
organization in our government's
—
despite
desire for anon>'mity
its
share of publicity and be subject to ques-
tioning and to attack,
this
a
study of our
intelli-
in relation to the nation's security, puts the issue
way shadow agency of government. and the secrecy enshrouding
terious, super-secret,
power and
Its
invisible, role, its
influence, its structure and operations, raise important questions regarding its place in the democratic process. One such question is: shall a democracy insure that its secret intelligence apparatus becomes neither a vehicle for conspiracy nor a suppressor of the traditional liberties of democratic self-government? (Central Intelligence and National Security, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
How
Mass. [1958],
fact, in writing this
and other questions and criticisms. In article, I have been motivated by the desire this
to put intelligence in our free society in its
As already
indicated,
CIA
of government. Its duties,
its
is
proper perspective.
a publicly recognized institution
place in our governmental structure
and the controls surrounding it are set forth partly by statute and partly under National Security Council directive. It was set up under an act of Congress on the recommendation of the President after exhaustive congressional hearings
naval intelligence: (2) General Walter Bedell Smith, who,
in
in addition to
Ambassador
ment here would be out of
many
years in intelligence
work; (4) John A. McCone, the present director, who has performed outstanding service in both the Truman and the Eisen-
hower administrations
member
to the
in
many important government
posts
—as
of the President's Air Policy Commission, as a deputy
Secretary of Defense, as undersecretary of the air force,
and then
as
chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Com-
The law provides tion of director or
that a civilian must be either in the posideputy director. While, theoretically, it is pos-
have both of these jobs
sible to
in civilian hands, military
and a
fill
The
two directors, both civilians, have had men for deputy directors General Charles Pearre Cabell during my tenure, and now Lieutenant General Marshall S. Carter under John McCone. I have gone into these details about the backgrounds of those civilian.
last
—
in positions of leadership in the
expect from such
it
must keep much of
its
work
men
CIA
because one has a right to
the highest degree of integrity and re-
sponsibility.
Relations with the President
From my own
8 of
Also like these departments,
men
both positions as the law now stands. The practice over the past decade has been to split them between a military man cannot
make policy, and aD must be consistent with the government's policy and approved by those responsible for that policy. Like the State and Defense departments, it has certain publicly assigned funcactions
experience in the agency, under three presidents,
can say with certainty that the chief executive takes a deep and continuing interest in the operations of the agency. During
my
deputy director and director of the CIA, I I had many talks with him about the day-to-day workings of the agency, particularly con11 years as
served under President Eisenhower. cerning the handling of
its
funds. I recall his telling
me
that
we
should set up procedures in the agency for the internal accounting of unvouchered funds,
secret.
It
Can't
i.e., funds appropriated by Congress and expendable on the signature of the director, which would be even more searching, if that were possible, than those of the Gen-
Happen Here
This country certainly wants no part of an organization like
Okhrana of the tsars or the N.K.V.D. of Stalin or the K.G.B. of Khrushchev. We have been nauseated by what we have read of Himmler's Sicherheitsdienst and by the military secret ser\'ice of Japan in pre-World War II days. The very nature of our government and of our society under the Constitution and the Bill of Rights would outlaw such organizations as these. They the
could never take root in this country. But even if these factors were not enough, there is a whole group of safeguards, both legal
Accounting Office. While, obviously, many expenditures must be kept secret as far as the public is concerned, the CIA always eral
stands ready to account to the President, to the
was the head committee of three that in 1949 reported to President Truman on CIA operations. There were also studies made tinder the auspices of two Hoover commissions, one in 1949 and one in 1955. These dealt with the organization of the executive branch of government and included studies on our intelof a
ligence structure.
my
CIA. The Na-
tional Security Council directives are issued
under the authority of the National Security act of 1947, which provides that, in addition to the duties and functions specifically assigned under
CIA
is
further
empowered
to
perform for the benefit of the existing intelligence agencies such additional services of common concern as the National Security Council determines can be more efficiently accomplished centrally .... perform such other functions and duties relating to intelligence affecting the national security as the National Security Council may from time to time direct. It is the President
who
and the Senate which confirms the director and the deputy director of the agency, and this choice is no routine affair. In the IS years since the agency was selects
appropria-
special investigations of its activities. I myself
responsibility for overseeing the operations of the
Intelligence
CIA
subcommittees of Congress and to the Bureau of the Budget for everj' penny expended, whatever its purpose. During the earlier years of the agency there was a series of tions
work of the CIA, Agency is placed directly under the National Security Council, which, in effect, means that it is under the President. The chief executive himself, therefore, has the practical, surrounding the
The Central
48
place, except for
Union and was later whom any comthe mention of a long
to the Soviet
period of government service and
and with practically unan-
or internal security functions." It does not
law, the
navy
an undersecretary of state; (3) myself, about
I
and
distinguished service in the
an outstanding military career, had been for almost
three years U,S.
imous bipartisan support. The law specifically provides "that the Agency shall have no police, subpoena, law enforcement powers
tions.
Vice-Admiral Roscoe
and
who had
highly experienced military
p, vi,)
propose to answer
its
(1)
Hillenkoetter,
mission.
CI.\ is the indispensable gatherer and evaluator of world-wide facts for the Xationa! Security Council. Vet to most persons CI.\ remains a mys-
I
has had four directors:
it
Henry
a
Harry Howe Ransom, who has written gence service
created
The
latter survey,
directorship, included
a
under the leadership of General the
same time,
conducted
in
1955 during
report prepared by a task force
Mark W.
Clark;
a special survey of certain of the
at
about
more
secret
operations of the agency was prepared for President Eisenhower by a task force under General James Doolittle. It is interesting to note that
General Clark's task force, expressing concern over from behind the Iron Curtain,
the dearth of intelligence data
called for "aggressive leadership, boldness and persistence." We were urged to do more, not less the U-2 was already on the drawing boards and was to fly within the year.
—
Following the report pf the 1955 Hoover Commission, I discussed with President Eisenhower one of the commission's rec-
— THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE ommendations that there should be established a permanent
tion of funds, obviously, gives the legislators a certain
watchdog board staffed by civilians. This would take the place of ad hoc investigation committees from time to time. President Eisenhower agreed completely with this recommendation and appointed a "President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities," the chairman of which for some
control over the scope of operations
presidential
time was the distinguished head of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, James R. Killian,
Jr.
President Kennedy, shortly
after he took office, reconstituted this
committee with a
Killian.
The
files,
the records, the activities and the expenditures
Agency are open
to this presidential
committee, which meets several times a year and whose recommendations and advice I found of inestimable value in my work.
A "Watchdog"
Hoover Commission in this connection that a congressional watchdog committee should has had a somewhat more stormy history. also be considered In 1953. even before the Hoover recommendations. Senator Mike Mansfield had introduced a bill to establish a joint congressional committee for the CIA, somewhat along the lines of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. On August 25, 1953, he wrote me
The other recommendation
—
of the
—
about CIA's relations with Congress and asked the agency's views on the resolution he had submitted. In my ab-
a letter to inquire
sence abroad, General Cabell,
CIA
of the
my
deputy, replied that "the
ties
with the Congress are stronger than those which exist
between any other nation's intelligence service and
its
legislative
A
few years later
this issue
came
form of a concurrent resolution sponsored by Senator Mansfield. It had considerable support, as 35 senators from both parties were co-sponsors and the resolution had been reported out favourably by the Senate Rules Committee in February of 1956, but one vote of strong dissent came from Senator Carl Hayden, who was also the chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee. Senator Hayden was supported by Senator Richard Russell, Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, and by Senator Leverett Saltonstall, the senior Republican
member
of that
Committee. In April the Senate, after a most interesting debate, voted against the watchdog committee resolution by a surprisingly large majority. In opposing the resolution. Senator Russell said:
"Although we have asked him [Allen W. Dulles] very some activities which it almost chills
searching cjuestions about the
marrow
of a
man
to hear about,
he has never failed to an-
swer us forthrightly and frankly in response to any questions we have asked him." The issue was decided when this testimony was supported by former Vice-President (then Senator) Alben Barkley,
who spoke from
Security Council.
his experience as a
He was
member
of the National
joined in opposition by Senator Stuart
Symington, who had intimate knowledge of the workings of the agency from his days as Secretary of the Air Force.
On
the final
their positions
and joined with the majority
to defeat the pro-
The procedures by the Congress
They had heard
time being at
least, the
enougfi to persuade
them
that, for the
measure was not needed.
Congress Holds Purse Strings Possibly the strongest argument against a special congressional
watchdog committee is the fact that procedures have been set up and have been functioning well for almost a decade whereby Congress exercises its legislative control over what is,
—
very distinctly a function of the executive branch. Congress, of course, holds the purse strings and, through the
after
all,
House and Senate Armed Services committees, also oversees legislative and other requirements of the agency. Appropria-
CIA
is
quite mis-
sees the
CIA
CIA budget are worked out Even before a congressional subcommittee
for dealing with the
itself.
budget, moreover, there
a review
is
must approve the amount
of the Budget, which
This, of course, includes presidential approval.
by the Bureau
set aside for
Then
House, as
is
it.
the budget
considered by a subcommittee of the Appropriations
is
Commit-
the case with other executive departments
and agencies. The only difference is that the amount of the CIA budget is not pubhcly disclosed outside of the subcommittee hearings.
This subcommittee includes three members of the majority and two members of the minority from the Appropriations Committee. The present chairman of the committee, Clarence Cannon, also
is
chairman of the
CIA
appropriations subcommittee. Until
minority
his recent retirement, the senior
member
of the sub-
committee was John Taber. Two men with longer experience in congressional procedure and two more careful watchdogs of the public treasury could hardly be found. This subcommittee is entitled to see
everything
budget and to have as All this
it
it
wishes to see with regard to the
much
CIA
explanation of expenditures, past and
desires.
was
clearly brought out in a dramatic statement that
Mr. Cannon made on the
floor of the
U-2
just after the failure of the
House on May 10, 1960, Francis Gary Powers:
flight of
The plane was on an espionage mission authorized and supported by money provided under an appropriation recommended by the House Committee on .Appropriations and passed by the Congress.
He
then referred to the fact that the appropriation and the ac-
tivity
of the
had also been approved and recommended by the Bureau Budget and. like all such expenditures and operations, was
under the aegis of the chief executive.
He
discussed the authority
subcommittee of the Appropriations Committee to recommend an appropriation for such purposes and also the fact that these activities had not been divulged to the House and to the of the
country.
when
He
recalled the circumstances during
billions of dollars
World War
II
were appropriated, through the Manhat-
bomb under
tan project, for the atomic
the
same general
safe-
on the authority of a subcommittee of the Appropriations Committee. He referred to the widespread espionage by the Soviet Union, to the activities of their spies in stealing the secret of the atomic bomb. Alluding to the surprise attack by the Communists in Korea in 1950, he justified the U-2 operation in these words:
guards as in the case of the U-2,
i.e.,
Each yeariwe have admonished the CI.\ that it must meet situations told them "This must not of this character with effective measures. happen again and it is up to you to see that it does not happen again" and the plan that they were following when this plane was taken, is their answer to that demand. .
.
We
.
posal.
Congress or in the executive
in
taken.
.
vote of 59 to 27, 10 of the measure's original co-sponsors reversed
it
cannot be thrown open
representatives can exert no power over the
to a vote in the Senate in
the
knowledge either
to general
present, as
body."
CIA budget
branch. But any general public impression that the senators and
tee of the
Considered
can do; and, to some extent, even what
it
can do. Obviously, the entire
slightly
modified membership, but again under the chairmanship of Dr. of the Central Intelligence
employ; how much
amount of
—how many people CIA can
.
.
He
took occasion to
commend
the
CIA
for its action in sending
reconnaissance planes over the Soviet Union for the four years
preceding Powers' capture and concluded:
We
have here demonstrated conclusively that free men, confronted by the most ruthless and criminal despotism, can under the Constitution ofthe United States protect this Xation and preserve world civilization. I cite this
merely
secret of the
to
show the extent
to
which even the most
CIA's intelligence operations have, under appropri-
ate safeguards, been laid before the representatives of the people in
Congress.
In addition to the scrutiny of
CIA
activities
by the House
49
THE CRAFT OF INTELLIGENCE Appropriations Committee, there
also a
is
subcommittee of the
House Armed Services Committee. The chairman committee
Armed
Carl Vinson,
is
Services
Committee
who
of this sub-
for years has been
itself.
To
this
head of the
body the agency reports
current operations to the extent and in whatever detail the
its
committee desires; here the interest
much with
not so
lies
the
—
These are some of the safeguards executive, legislative and which surround our intelligence work and help to ensure that the CIA under our government operates solely within es-
other
—
tablished policies.
In the last analysis, however, the most important safeguards are the kind of leadership the intelligence service has and the
who work
The
financial aspects of operations as with all the other elements of
character of the people
our work. In the Senate, there are comparable subcommittees of
and regulations depends upon the respect of our citizens for them, as well as upon the courts which enforce them. The hopes
Armed when the
the Appropriations and
Fifteen years ago, telligence
Services Committees. legislation to set
up a central
in-
agency was being considered, the congressional com-
mittees working on the matter sought testifying, I
my
views. In addition to
submitted a memorandum, published
in the
record
of the proceedings, in which I proposed that a special advisory
body
for the
new agency should be constituted
to include repre-
and the Secreproposed, "assume the
or fears which our citizens
gence and the job
—
its
for
may have
it.
efficacy of our laws
with regard to U.S.
intelli-
operations must centre on the integrity of those on
their respect for the democratic processes
and
their
sense of duty and devotion in carrying out their important and delicate tasks.
After ten years of service,
I
can testify that I have never seen
men and women more devoted to the defense and its way of life than those who are working
sentatives of the President, the Secretary of State
a group of
of our
tary of Defense. This group should, I
country
in the
responsibiUty for advising and counseling the Director of InteUi-
Central Intelligence Agency. Our people do not go into the in-
gence and assure the proper liaison between the Agency and
telligence service for reasons of financial
these two Departments and the Executive." This procedure has
service can give them, in return for their work, high rank or
been followed.
public acclaim. Their accomplishments
Oven
to
Public Criticism
Of course, the public and the press remain the actions taken
by
free to criticize
intelligence, including those
which are ex-
largely unsung.
of the fascination of the
work and the
security.
posed by mishap or indiscretion. This holds just as true for
ice; the
any government operations, except where the national security is involved. When an intelligence operation goes wrong and publicity results, the intelligence agency and particularly its director must stand ready to assume responsibility wherever that is possible. There have been times, as in the cases of the U-2 descent on Soviet territory and the Cuban affair of April 1961, where the chief executive has publicly assumed responsibility. Here, if the CIA had attempted to take the position that it had planned and carried out the action unguided and alone it would have been tantamount to admitting that the executive branch of the government was not on the job. Of course, in intelligence operations, silence is the best policy where silence is possible. It is not possible when it cannot be
will
intelligence activities as for
maintained without caUing into grave question the vigilance of
There are many safeguards prescribed within the agency to protect against its
meddhng
established practice
is
rector on down,
may
except to vote.
A
manded litical
aspirations
likely.
50
that
is
itself
in policy matters. In addition, the
no one
engage
in the agency,
from the diany nature,
in political activities of
resignation
— whenever
in case his
be
is
immediately accepted
— or
de-
any member with pounderstand that re-employment
this rule is violated;
given to
plunge into the political arena
is
unsuccessful
—
is
un-
make
They
as President
are there because
belief that through their
a contribution to our nation's
Most of the senior officers have had long years of servnew recruits, from whose ranks the agency of the future
built, are
chosen with utmost care and given thorough
training before they begin work.
No More I
Controls Needed
do not believe that there
is
need for more controls on our need for
intelligence work. Rather, one should stress the
all
of
more aggressively prepared to meet the requirements of this age. It is not by our intelligence organization that our liberties will be threatened, but rather by our failure us to be
more
alert,
to understand the nature of the dangers facing us throughout
we have more Cubas, if some of the counnon-Communist world that are in jeopardy today further weakened, then we could well be isolated and our
the world today. If tries of the
are
could be threatened. understand the military threat in the age of nuclear mis-
liberties, too,
We
the executive.
must remain,
Kennedy has remarked,
service they can personally
reward or because the
siles,
—
—
and we are spending billions properly so to counter it. war that we must meet Khrushchev's wars
It is the invisible
—
by the Soviet Communist party with all its ramifications and fronts, supported by the vigorous penetration activities of secret agents and espionage. We cannot afford to put intelligence in chains; we of liberation, the subversive threats orchestrated
must continue to support it and enable it to play its protective and informative role in preparing us to meet the dangers unique to this era.
^
THE NEW EUROPE Unity and the Old Nationalism
by Marquis Childs
\
Marquis Childs
The first of a dozen books from the pen of Marquis Childs was Sweden the Middle Way, published in 1936. Childs was then a young newsman of 33 in the spring of a career that has taken him to the heights of his profession in the United States as a widely syndicated columnist for the Si. Louis Post-
newspaperdom combined with the analytic permade him one of our nation's most distinguished commentators. He has marshaled the drama of the new economic, social and political order with skill and clarity that give this volume authority and, above
Dispatch.
all,
—
book came oflf the press Childs has expanded continuously the knowledge of Europe of which that maiden effort was compounded. He has made numerous trips across the Atlantic and his newest volume, The New Europe, bears Since that
first
not only the hallmark of continued study but also of a long stay abroad in the
summer
of
1962 while he was finishing his
research and writing.
To
Europe since and experience
his role of historian of the exciting events of
World War
II,
Childs brings the reportorial
skill
of 39 years in
ception and scholarly background that have
eminent readability.
Mark
Childs's reportorial career goes back to 1928, the year
he was graduated from the University of Wisconsin. leave from the United Press he took his of his native
Iowa.
Two
M.A.
While on
at the university
years later, in 1926, he joined the staff
and in 1934 became a member of the Washington bureau, of which he is now chief. His colleagues know Mr. Childs as one of the best minds in American journalism. His new work is one of the finest products of the Post-Dispatch
of that
mind.
THE NEW EUROPE Unity By
and
the
Old Nationalism
MARQUIS CHILDS
CHAPTER Europe is romance and ruins, gondolas and IN gaiety. Superimposed on a vision of antique charm is a political view, dating back to shortly after the end of World War II, of a mendicant Europe depending on American handouts. What Americans are only now beginning to realize is that revolutionary changes have occurred that completely alter our typical images of a picturesque but helpless group of disparate and often disthe travel ads
cordant countries.
stiffest
ruins are
still
there,
kind of competition in world markets. It means painful
adjustment to a new kind of economic
life,
a re-evaluation of the
and cost in this country, if the United States compete successfully with the new Europe. Take just one measure of what is happening. In 1946 only a few automobiles of prewar manufacture were moving in the streets of B^irope's capitals. In 1961 the unprecedented problem of traffic jams beset the major cities of France. Germany and rigidities of price
is
1
member
of the
community, and a number of other European
nations have applied or will soon apply for membership on
roughly the same terms as those given to Greece. In addition, several other powers are applying for full membership.
Having spurned participation in the early stages, the British now knocking on the door beseeching entry. Despite the opposition of the Labour party at home and the stiff terms being stimulated, perhaps, laid down by the Common Market nations by the reluctance of Charles De Gaulle to admit another major power into the "club"), the best guess is that sooner or later they will be allowed to join. The Communist bloc countries under the lead of Moscow have always poured scorn on this effort to shore up the rotting structure of European capitalism. But Comare
(
and the gondolas. But with economic integration, evolving toward political union, a new entity is coming into being. It promises to be one of the most productive and efficient single economic units in the world. Hardly aware as yet of what this signifies. Americans are going to have to face the
The
ciate
to
in 1962 in Moscow at a plenary Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) faced up to what effect the new force is having on world trade. Only slightly disguised by Communist gobbledygook emanating from that meeting was the appeal for an effort to come to a working arrangement with the trade community to the west. There is reason to believe that Moscow fears the economic might
munist bloc economists meeting session of
of a united
Europe
far
more than the military strength
of an
Italy,
and together these countries exported 1.615.000 motorcars valued at Si. 632.000.000. In the same year manufacturers in the United States sold 117.000 cars overseas with a value of $235,-
Atlantic alliance.
000.000. while importing 245,000 of the total export of these three
In the United States the principal legislative goal of the Kennedy administration has been passage of the Trade Expansion
European nations. This extraordinary transformaticm occurred in 16 years, and a significant footnote to the achievement is the fact that a sizable share of Europe's production came out of plants owned by American companies taking advantage of the lower corporate taxes and production costs that make Europe an attractive place for investment.
Much
of
what
the rise of the
is
happening
new Europe and
operate and compete with
it.
— —
act.
in the
world today
is
related to
the effort of other nations to co-
The European Common Market
Lowers Barriers
As enacted by congress,
authority to lower American of the Eui'opean level, in
Common
which case trade
New York
/
by Germany. France and Italy, along with Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, has been extraordinarily successful. It has developed so rapidly that, well in advance of the scheduled year of 1970, all tariff wails between the six nations will go down and a common external tariff wall for the whole community will go up. With a potential market of nearly 250,000.000 persons assuming the admission of Great Britain as the seventh power the economic expansion of recent years is expected to continue. Greece only recently became the first asso-
established
U.S.
and
this tariff
Market,
new law
gives the president
barriers in accord with those in
many
instances to the zero
be as free as that between, say,
will
New Jersey. The
adjustment
will
mean, as Ameri-
cans have only begun to realize, extensive and frequently painful alterations in our
ing
own economic
up of traditional
tion patterns.
The
structure, necessitating a loosen-
rigidities of
trade act
is
wage
only a
costs, prices,
first step.
A
and produc-
great deal will
depend on whether this country can make the profound adjustments vital to a co-operative and competitive partnership
—
with the
—
new Europe.
The course toward European
unity, political as well as eco-
motion that only a major explosion could interrupt it. Such is the strange nature of the world today, under the ever-present threat of nuclear war and annihilation, that a military accident could at one blow put an nomic, seems to have been
set so surely in
53
end to what
many Europeans
But
consider their last best hope. And,
let
us consider the steps that have been taken and
European
history, they
rapidly, in terms of
the long anguish of disengagement from a colonial empire, even
European Coal and
a political accident could gravely disrupt the evolution of the
these basic industries in each of the six countries,
new community. The nationalism
of
De
would prefer the traditional Europe of is
politically united.
tion
and
And
Gaulle suggests that he
related to this conflict
a revival of the old nationalistic rivalries
question of what the ultimate goals of the actually are. Shall living standards it
Europe that between unifica-
alliances to a
it
is
still
the
Common Market
look outward and contribute toward raising
everywhere, as
its
founders envisioned, or shall
be an exclusive club for rich Europeans, as
many
leaders in the
underdeveloped nations suspect? That question cannot be answered with
finality today,
but the kind of progress
in
Europe
will
about, not by political
economic
fiat
but by the powerful interplay of
self-interest, has not really
consciousness.
Common
sunk into the American
market? Economic unity? This
the language of a grand political design.
54
1952.
is
not
Community (E.C.S.C),
Five years later
tying together
came into being the European Atomic Community
(Euratom) was formed for the common development of atomic power which at the time seemed a potentially larger element in European power production than it does today. Also in 1957, the basic charter of the European Economic Community (E.E.C. or "the Six"), calling for the abolition of tariffs and the weaving together of the whole socioeconomic complex of the new com-
mon
market, was signed by the foreign ministers of France, Ger-
many,
made thus new order
ample reason to hope that the evolving not turn inward on itself. Impatient by nature, Americans have long lectured Europe on the need to unite and end the old futile cycle of national rivalry leading to warfare that leaves wounds which intensify distrust and nationalistic feelings. That this is in the process of coming
far provides
in
Steel
how
have come. The
given the political turmoil in France today, in the aftermath of
Italy,
Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.
U.S. as
To
Example
realize the full significance of these steps, let us
examine
American history for a moment. The colonists at the time of the Declaration of Independence were distrustful of the authority of a central government. In the ten years after 1776 the 13 original states quarreled in hopeless rivalry, each reluctant to give to the It seemed to many was bound to fail. But the men who drafted the 'constitution in Philadelphia were able to reach agreement on a federal charter that has created a form of
confederation the tools
it
needed to govern.
that the experiment of independence
THE NEW EUROPE government enduring longer than any other in the world. But suppose histop,' had taken a different turn. What if the
free
constitutional convention in Philadelphia in 17S7
able to agree on a federal form of government? that the Spanish or. later, the Russians
Spain or a
little
Russia
in California.
had been un-
And
had established a
Imagine, too. that
up
his
own American kingdom with one of
this evolving
rivalries are to
new Europe means, if inis now becoming evi-
be eliminated,
dent as a major transformation of the face of Europe.
little
his
CHAPTER
in the
of bargaining with Jefferson for the Louisiana Purchase, should set
deed the old
What
then imagine
southwest the Hispano-Mexican settlements had taken shape as a separate nation. Furthermore, suppose that Napoleon, instead
have
of western history.
innumer-
For
all its
2
great range of climate and geography western
rope has four times in
its
long history
come under
Eu-
a unifying
force imposed by men-at-arms. The first, of course, was Roman power, which extended to the wildest reaches of Wales and Scot-
able relatives as proconsul and king. There would have existed,
land: the uniformity of
then, an .-Xmerican continent
enforced in the stony fastnesses of the mountains of the Iberian
units,
segmented into separate national
with ethnic differences constantly accentuated, rather than and powerful creation of a single people standing off
the great
from the
rivalries and jealousies of Europe. Even without those and the inevitable quarrels and wars that arise between national interests, we have seen that there are always difficulties rivalries
and geography in the sweep of our continent. Florida and North Dakota are as different in these respects as, say, Norway and Portugal, Yet the two states, unequal and uneven in some respects as their development has
in reconciling the differences of climate
been, share the benefits of a
Portugal and
common
federal government, while
Norway have been caught up
in the struggle of na-
and devastating wars. These rivalries have been the principal preoccupation of Europe for centuries, and they have largely determined the course tional rivalries
of
Anthony Verlag Gluskt
wWMW
Roman
law and
Roman
practice
was
peninsula, and even the forests of the
German tribes were under nominal control. The three forces to succeed the Romans at intervals in history never quite matched the extent of their at least
forerunner. Charlemagne ruled over a Holy Roman empire that encompassed only a relatively small part of continental Europe. Almost a thousand years after him still a third "unifier," Napoleon, brought a large share of continental Europe under common rule. The bitter, brutal years in which the fourth. Adolf Hitler, sought to impose his dominion are still a U\-ing memory for most Europeans. It is a memory which has had no small part in creating the conviction that
voluntary unity
is
the only answer
to the fearful spectre of a recurrence of the old cycle of national rivalry,
war and conquest.
This has been a continent of profoundly differing rival states,
Krupp-Rheinhau
rks
reflected
in
the Rhine
THE NEW EUROPE Sweden claims
how deep those differences go view how hard and how demanding is the effort to achieve unification. One of Europe's attractions, an important element in its greatness, has been its diversity of national
in the
character and development. That diversity
of his belief that Swedish neutrality has been his country's sal-
and
it is
important to understand
in order to
keep
was a century
in
ago.
The American
visitor
the fascination of these differences.
is
is
as real today as
it
forever rediscovering
And one
question must be
whether within a unified Europe the same tolerance will exist for the variations in culture, in belief, in folkways that are still vigorous in an age of instant communication and travel at nearly the speed of sound. It
is
a question the visitor asks as he
through a Europe in which the current of unification
Moving through
moves
is
a claim that the
Europe
of
socially
motivated state can be seen
advanced technology and the protective embrace of a in its most dramatic form. In early December the Christmas fair opens in Stockholm at and a summer
—
seems
to
Communist domi-
be pouring up the
hill to
Forming the northern periphery, and for the most part physifrom the continent, is Scandinavia. Sweden, Norway and Denmark are part of Europe, but they are also separate and special. Its history and geography have given another dimension to Scandinavia, making the question of its assimilation into the new Europe a difficult one today. Sweden is determined not to abandon the neutrality that it has, through luck and skill, maintained for a century and a half. But if this political neutrality should exclude Sweden from any effective association with the Common Market countries, then its trade relations with Norway and Denmark, both of which were involved in the last war and then opted for NATO afterward, thereby becoming full members of the Atlantic club, would have to undergo an all but impossible readjustment. The economic ties in the north are close, and to alter them with new tariff barriers would work a severe cally separated
hardship.
A
further complication
is
the presence to the east of
Finland, which has bravely and proudly kept
its
independence
all
tourist haven.
of
Stockholm
pass from booth to booth where
peasant wares from a half-dozen provinces are being sold by
young men and women in gay peasant costumes. For the urban Swedes who live in small standardized apartments, this re-creation of the past obviously means a great deal, but the gaiety is curiously subdued. In the centre of the square a band is playing, and as the snow begins to drift down in large, soft flakes and the peasant barkers cry their wares, one
Scandinavia: Separate and Special
secret
It is in Scandinavia that the conflict on the emotional level between the old Europe of traditional folkways and the new
life
those nations that stand free of
vital
vation.
northern winter,
nation.
one
proud Finns tend to
in the pale light of the
dreamed of a few decades ago. It is underof course, that the "Europe" referred to here is western
as
Kekkonen makes no
resent, although privately President
Skansen, the park of peasant
strong.
of a unity that no one
is,
independent status. This
Now,
—
Europe, that
giant.
the countries on the periphery of the continent
is
and then into the "heartland" of Europe both in the geographihe finds, to varying degrees, this paracal and figurative sense doxical mixture of the traditional outlook and the new magnetism stood,
shadow of the Russian
reason for her neutrality the need to help Finland ensure her
mar Bergman,
somehow
expects to see Ing-
most distinguished contemporary the background ready to contribute a
surely one of the
film directors, standing in
note of tragic irony to this sentimental setting.
Across the border to the west, when spring begins to break through
in late
May, Norway experiences
lease, as a nature-loving people begin their
fjords. Vacations are long, protected
by
the
same sense
of re-
annual exodus to the
state regulation,
and
of-
ficial
holidays are frequent. Ambitious Norwegians complain that
their
countrymen never work in the summer and in the winter is skiing. But these people have an outward serenity that
there is
rare in the present-day world.
As it is
for the Danes, their speciality
is
a lighthearted gaiety,
epitomized in the splendid Tivoh pleasure garden.
To
and dine
on the terrace of the Vivex restaurant at the centre of Tivoli and watch the crowds, the fireworks and the brilliant lights in the trees is all that one can ask of life. No matter that the gray wet winter will soon settle in. One can ignore in this moment of summer the fact that Denmark has one of the highest suicide rates
Black Star
Push-button control In a Swedish power plant that requires only six to eight work-
THE NEW EUROPE
Leif Schroder /rom Black Star
impersonating
Players
Gustavus
III,
and
his
ISth-century king, queen at a Swedish
festival
in the world, a cold statistic that at least suggests the
extremes
Moving
to
finds himself
as never before,
number 6,000,000
believed that tourists will
to 7,000,000
European
\
Henri Cartier-Bresson
—Magnum
lot for bicycles In
Copenhagen's
i
this
can
satellite after the
ending the
The Truman
war, although of great importance in
civil
;
future
is
Greece
For a long-impoverished and overpopulated nation,
Parking
politically.
war in northern Greece was Yugoslavia's feud with the Soviet Union this cut off supplies to the Greek Communists. Under its parliamentary monarchy, Greece became a relatively stable country politically, but perennial economic woes continued. Today the Greeks may be forgiven for feeling the
the throngs of tourists that visit Greece, the
a year.
square
and
among
The hotel and resort business is and the influx of visitors from all over the world is making an important contribution to the Greek budget and balance of payments. By the end of the present decade it is
a great deal both economically
Doctrine rescued the Greeks from becoming one more eastern
birthplace of western culture.
booming
mean
Danish temperament. the eastern end of the Mediterranean, the traveler
that exist in the
brighter. is
the
first
associate
member
of the
enjoying the benefits of free trade provided for
Common full
Market, members, but
THE NEW EUROPE
Paul Pietzich Iron
THE NEW EUROPE
United Press International
New
a
housing, old customs
In
LIsbo
move. As for Franco's Iberian brother
Antonio Salazar, he
is
of the 20th century even
The
lighting
more
difficult, if
on the stage setting
actors have too long followed their
Great Britain
is
in the
bond
of the past.
likely to find the transition to the last half
may
not in fact impossible.
be altered. The principal
own method.
geographically on the periphery of Europe,
its history is closely tied up with the continent. As the proud ruler of the waves, it has been a key force in bringing the impact of western civilization to bear on the entire globe. But there has always been an aloofness, due partly to the nation's in-
although
Using ox power to pull
sularity
(
again, figurative as well as geographical
)
toward the
continent, especially toward the major powers. Britain's determined effort during the past year to confront and become a part of the new Europe was unfortunately belated. Yet, despite the early reluctance and the hesitant approach, under Prime Minister Macmillan the British are making a bold at-
tempt to renounce the past and embrace the future. Equally important
make finally
is
the fact of progress in various fields that should
membership, comes about, comparatively easy.
British adjustment to E.E.C.
if
and when
it
THE NEW EUROPE
United Press International
War-lorn London
60
In
1941
THE NEW EUROPE The American
farm near Banbury in the exact centre of England is surprised to find two big combines at work pulled by American tractors. At the end of a rare day of full sun in the waning days of a gray rainy summer, the crew, made up of seven full-time farm hands plus the manager, works through the long twilight of northern "summertime." The work may go visitor to a SOO-ac.
on with floodlights
The manager, slightly rolling
wheat harvest built in the
to
until after midnight.
a wiry,
shrewd-looking native of the lovely,
country that was part of ancient Mercia, says the will
run two tons to the acre.
granary a special
He
oil-fired drier that
designed and had
makes
market new wheat without any waiting period
advisable, to put
it
in
"Afraid to go into the
"We
possible
it
or, if it
seems
dry storage anticipating a higher price.
Common Market? Not
get £24 [about $67] a ton for our
a bit of it," he says.
wheat and
southern
in
The commonwealth prime
ministers' conference in
Sept. 1962 resounded with cries of pain
London
in
and anguish. On the score
of both sentiment and economics, the old order, in the commonwealth and in the mother country, protested loudly against Prime Minister Macmillan's intention to enter the E.E.C. Nehru
would be no room for exports from the underdeveloped commonwealth countries that can raise
of India complained that there
their living standards only through industrialization. Australia's bluff
Bob Menzies, whose
position as his country's prime minis-
based on a one-vote parliamentary majority, was determined to get assurances on the free entry of processed fruits, one ter is
of Australia's
most important exports.
In a pub around the corner from one of the London County council's newest housing blocks, British feehngs on the commonwealth
V.
Common Market
issue w-ere put forcefully,
from the
get a higher
consumer's standpoint, by a charwoman doing day w^ork in domestic service while her husband works on the docks. Taking her
is employed on the land, and the relatively large size on the average 75 ac. of British farms. This compares with 19% in France, although, with the strong continuing movement from
half pint at the end of the day, she spoke with the forthrightness
the farm to industry, this figure is declining. The 4% in Britain produce half the food for more than 52,000,000 people. That
chop once a week or so? And there's another thing, too. They were the ones who came each time, in the two wars, to fight with us." These are words a politician can readily respond to. Senti-
Italy they get £40 to £45, If price for
what we
Today only
4%
we go
in
we should
sell."
of Britain's population
—
a reflection of both efficiency
—
there
is
a necessity to import the other half,
Canada, Australia and free of
the
tariff, is
New
much
of
it
from
Zealand and therefore free or nearly
central to the
problem of British membership
European Economic Community.
in
characteristic of her independence
:
"And how am
I goin' to
pay
two on my chop if we can't be bringing in mutton from down under? Or will it mean that I won't be getting a an extra
shilling or
cost of living is a heady mixture. But 30 mi. N. of unspoiled, rural Banbury, in Coventry, part of an industrial complex that extends all the way to Birmingham,
ment poured over the
61
THE NEW EUROPE managers sitting around a conference table chamber of commerce speak with quiet confidence of participation in the Common Market. They believe that with European tariff barriers down before the end of 1968 according Coventry can sell Jaguar and Hillman autoto present estimates mobiles, electronic computers and other devices in the European market if Britain joins the E.E.C. One of the cities almost entirely destroyed in the blitz, Coventry has been reborn. A symbol of its rebirth is the splendid new Cathedral of St. Michael, constructed in the modern idiom of glass, brick and steel and adorned with the work of England's greatest contemporary artists. In the first four months it was open, more than 2.000,000 people stood in long queues for hours at a time to walk through it. Coventry also has a new shopping centre built on two levels with motorcars barred from the area; on a Saturday it is thronged with shoppers who seem to have enough to spend for small luxuries as well as necessities.
One
a group of industrial in the
—
—
—
in
What
was, after
It
economic
life
tion to the service of the Nazi
developed the art of preserving the essential tools of their econ-
omy
with "mothballing" techniques that enable them to pick up
again
more or
From
less
clipped lawns stretch
war and are now sharing the bounty of the E.E.C.
19th-century chateau the
to vistas of Belgian
woodland care-
new Europe. He
represents the second generation of his family
is
one of the ardent initiators of the
occupy the chateau and direct the family-owned steel and coal business with plants in most European countries. They are opto
erating at full capacity. Belgium has overemployment, as does of western Europe. This convinced
all
with passionate intensity of what must
how
1961, to give the
of the
away
The host
heart of Europe, in those nations that were the actual battlefields
in the
left off.
fully landscaped.
not enough, he
amazing
where they
terrace of a big solid
the
Europe of 1962 is the completeness economy. This is evident enough in the peripheral nations, but where it strikes the traveler most is in the is
of the restoration of the
occupied for five years, and in 1945
all,
was completely distorted by its enforced adaptawar machine; it was scarcely more than IS years ago that the work of rebuilding the economy began. But one reason for this speed was that the Belgians have learned over the centuries how to outwit their conquerors; they have its
virtually
Complete Recovery
war was accomplished
of the quickest recoveries after the
Belgium.
quickly, of
the six E.E.C. countries
still
European speaks
be done and done
must co-ordinate
their
currency reserves so that they can form a more stable bloc. feels, as
when Germany revalued
the
It is
mark
in
European partners short notice on a Saturday
afternoon when the exchanges are closed.
Amenities of Life But he
talks, too,
for the details of
woodland
vistas.
with a characteristically European concern
good living, of what he is doing to improve the As if he were a painter marking off a canvas with
and blues, he is adding caand maples so that with the change of seasons he will get different and carefully calculated colour effects. This same careful attention went into planning the garden setting for the swimming pool and the pool house built after the war and handsomely furnished with a bar and gaily upholstered wicker a palette of yellows, varying greens talpas, spruce
furniture.
The Belgians had only one colony, but their parting with the Congo was a wrenching, anguishing experience. In this particular case the repercussions
were
—and
still
are
—world wide,
the traumatic shock of losing colonies seems to be a
European experience. Portugal
is
but
common
beginning to feel the same kind
of sensation in relation to Angola
and Mozambique, and Bel-
gium's neighbour to the north, the Netherlands, only recently
had
salt
rubbed into the old wound of losing the profitable colony when its administration of West New Guinea was
of Indonesia
ended. Painful adjustments like these put a strain on the Atlantic
community. Inevitably, perhaps, no small share of the blame is its policy since 1945 has been to help ease the pain of parting for the European countries while at the same time supporting self-determination. But the United Nations compromise settlement on West New Guinea, which had the backing of Washington, provoked bitter resentment in the Netherlands government, the press, and among the public. Since the Dutch had expected to make this territory independent anyway, this reaction may reflect what is the domi-
placed on the United States, since
nant fact of
life in this little
country that has for so
many
cen-
North sea. That fact is overcrowding. Nearly 12,000,000 people live in 12,000 sq.mi., which makes the Netherlands the most densely populated major independent unit in the world. T« have to absorb 200,000 Dutch soldiers and administrators from Indonesia in 1949, and then a few years later another 20,000 from West New Guinea added, if only in small measure, to the claustrophobic sense of people, people everywhere about which Dutchmen complain. It was not, of course, a problem of finding jobs or alternatively of providing telief. For the Netherlands, with a labour turies stood off the threat of the
THE NEW EUROPE
nault plant
In Paris
force of 4.500.000 almost fully employed, actually suffers a shortage of 100.000
from
workers for menial service, even though a
significant portion of the labour force
is
made up
of Spaniards
and Greeks brought in on a temporary basis. But the birth rate in this country, in which Protestants and Catholics are di\-ided in almost equal numbers, is the highest in western Europe and the net proportionate increase in population ,
is
nearly as high as in the United States. Put this alongside the
income of $S30 a year, next lowest in the E.E.C. to that of Italy, and the Dutch are faced with a stern necessity. TJiey must e.xport each year a certain number of their young men for whom no real opportunity in the upper-income level exists, and they set high intellectual and physical standards fact of a percapita
for those
who wish
to go abroad.
The
bicycle, or perhaps the
motor bike, tends to be a substitute for the motorcar with this most disciplined of people. Their discipline, together with their stamina and organizing ability, has made the Netherlands' social services and low-cost housing a model for larger and far richer European nations in their thoroughness if not in their generosity. As everywhere in Europe, there is a passion, an earnest resolve, to enjoy, to share in the pleasures so well advertised in the
become a standard item everywhere. South Holland's principal beach of Scheveningen, ten minutes from The Hague, is a sight to behold on even a faintly sunny day
picture magazines that have
—
August the narrow strip of sand between the hotels and the water swarms with people. And if anyone has ever wondered why the wicker beach chairs in Europe have high protective hoods,
in
it is
to shelter the hopeful
sunbather from the ever-present
chill
tion of
the North sea. Wind and water test the stern determinaDutch pleasure seekers. Even when the temperature of
the sea
is
wind
off
55° F. there are bathers in the gray surf. In the solid
and courageous character of the Dutch, environment has certainly been a formative agent.
—
ultimate
in
The
automati
three nations that have been given the corporate tag of
Benelux
(
with the "lux" provided by tiny Luxembourg") are fas-
cinating enough in themselves, but far
more intriguing is the Europe and of the E.E.C. in France
situation at the very core of
and Germany with Italy as an adjunct. It is here that the struggle will be lost or won: here that the conflict between reason, embodied
new est.
in a
necessary and vital motion toward a Europe in the
context of unity, and the old
This
is
true above
all in
Adam
of nationalism,
is
sharp-
France,
The organization of French production, with total output of goods and services growing each year at a rate of 5,5% to t%. is one of the remarkable phenomena of the time. It has been achieved with a system of voluntary planning under which the warring elements
— the
various unions. Communists. Socialists,
Catholics, the industrialists and the
nated their interests to the
Under
government
common good
the Commissariat du Plan
(
—have subordi-
in the
economic
field.
the over-all planning body)
by Jean Monnet at the end of the war. this has been achieved in a framework provided by the able and hard-working initiated
technocra'ts who have come out of the £cole des Sciences Polytechnique and the £cole National d'Administration, the top
technical colleges in France. So far as the outsider can determine,
the economic advance, which
is
proving resistant to the cycles
of recession that plague the United States,
from
politics.
is
entirely divorced
Because leading industrialists and leading trade
unionists co-operate with the principal ministers of the
Com-
missariat du Plan in drafting each five-year plan and setting the goals, they have, thus far at least,
been willing
to abide
by the
terms of the planning commission.
Economically France occupies a middle ground, borrowing from both capitalism and socialism with the emphasis always on voluntary participation. It is an economic cocktail with components that are singularly French, a heady mixture prescribed
63
THE NEW EUROPE rules of reason
by
and yet often defying those
herent dynamism. While terest in the
mechanism
De
rules with
an
in-
Gaulle has taken a continuing in-
of planning, in
May
19SS when he came
power he installed Antoine Pinay, whom many have considered his most likely successor, as a conservative minister of finance. Fellow conservatives like to ascribe the French version of the European miracle to Pinay's austere fiscal policy. Should a political "accident" occur, that is, the removal of De Gaulle by violence, the vigour of the French economy and the coherence of its organization would be an element of stabiHty. This might avert, in the view of .some observers, a lapse into political anarchy into
and eventual
An
civil
important component
in the
French cocktail is
subsidies
to
—
in considerable part
private industry
—out
of
the
is
the state
publicly owned. Of
the total of gross capital formation, an estimated
one form or another
50% comes
from loans and
public
sector.
The
good example of this component in the French cocktail; it illustrates, too, the consequences of the enormous upheaval of the war. The Renault family collaborated Renault auto firm
is
a
its
big plants operating for
war machine. After V-E day, it seemed to De Gaulle and the men around him in his first government that nationalization was the only solution. So Renault, with over one-third of France's total car production and an even larger share of the export market, has ever since been operated by the government in competition with Citroen and Simca, both privately owned. In the industrial complex at Billancourt, just outside Paris, 31,000 of Renault's work force of 60,000 are employed. At Billancourt you can see automation as advanced as any in America. In Hitler's
one continuous process the cast engine block
is
cylinder walls inserted and the completed engine
war.
sector, since such a large share of industry
in
with the occupying Germans and kept
be tested. Renault has sold the machinery for
finished,
moved on
this
the to
automated
process to industrialists in other European countries. In the half-
human workers are few and far between. Yet you cannot but know that you are still in France. In the basin of a modern, continuous-flow drinking fountain lie two bottles of wine, one white and one rose, under the stream of ice light of the big plant
water. After If
all,
what
is
a drinking fountain for?
one can believe the technocrats
Rene Burri— Magnum Mechanic at work on wing
who
of a
direct the planning
French Caravelle
jet
lident
De Gaulle
of
Fn
ned
commission, political pressures play no part in the operation of
what has been called a system of "guided capitalism." When the American visitor asks about salaries paid to the top personnel for example to Pierre Dreyfus. Renault's managing director he is greeted with a look of surprise. Why should anyone know what Dreyfus' salary is? But since Renault is a government-owned operation, the Amerithese state-owned industries, which
into
fit
—
can visitor persists,
is
his salar>' not a
—
matter of public record?
Of course not. is the answer. What is more, he has the power to employ high-salaried personnel for both administrative and engineering positions without having the government look over his shoulder. Except for one break-even year. Renault has shown an annual profit since it has been operated by the government, although profit is not considered its main objective.
The
pride in French technical and industrial achievements
range in relation to load factor raised a ques-
its
tion as to its
economic
feasibility,
favour among airline passengers. is told,
even though
You
see. the
it
has found
.\merican visitor
France produces something besides wines, cheeses and
jjerfumes.
In contrast to the rapid and continuing advance of the economy that
seems to
rest
on a stable base of
common
In the fears.
Cologne, Ge
Common Market
countries
De
Gaulle stirred other
His majestic progress through Germany, where he spoke
seemed to suggest that his aim was an old-fashioned tvpe of alliance between France and Germany in which other powers would accept the role of dutiful satellites in the orbit of the two major powers. in the rhetoric of a lofty past,
The German
people, as
De
Gaulle
moved from
went wild with excitement. They roared out having waited in
formal
city to city,
welcome
hours for his arrival.
in the cold rain for
German
their
consent has been
the instability and uncertainty of the French political structure
The incessant changes in government mystiand amused outsiders, even though they knew it was no joking matter. With the return to power of De Gaulle, the conever since the war. fied
speeches that he had memorized with
little
nothing of
importance
Hamburg he told a military group that had ever happened without the co-
operation of the military.
To
his critics
he seemed to be en-
couraging a renascence of the old spectre of
German mihtarism.
De, Gaulle Stirs
To
a
man
like
Apprehension
Paul Henri Spaak. the Belgian socialist
liberate invocation of the old Europe, an invitation to the Ger-
mans
to return to the old paths of glory.
Coming
at a
But. the roaring crowds to one side, there appeared to be
Germany for the kind of Franco-German De Gaulle implied and that in the aftermath
scant enthusiasm in
understanding that
Bonn and
looking to a strong chief executive, almost every political leader
Italy included as a principal partner in the alliance.
the peril of authoritarianism,
obtained a 60"^ majority cessor
in a
The Ger-
Beneath the surface in the sprawling overgrown capital of Bonn one could find little political support for a "Europe of the Two" or even, in another alternative, a "Europe of the Three" with the doubts about a
at the
same time De Gaulle
nature, there
to assure that his suc-
that the
would be chosen by popular vote.
Paris to implement.
press was almost unanimously skeptical or openly opposed.
referendum
'i'et
of
in the
of his visit he called on
be heard spoke of
moment
onward course of unification, as Britain's application for full membership raised a question as to the limits of expansion that the community should set. it appeared to Spaak and other dedicated unifiers that all they had accomplished was being imperiled. They heard the trumpets blaring again and the drums beating out the call to martial glory. pause
man
still
who has
long favoured European unity, this performance seemed a de-
stant change-over ceased, but increasingly in late 1962. authority
country with a voice that could
after
spoke
the facility of an actor. In
had come to rest on one man and that man's life was threatened by the fanatical hatreds coming out of the long agony of disengagement from colonialism, the agony of Indochina and Algeria. While De Gaulle boldly proclaimed a constitutional change in the
He
is
understandably great. The Caravelle. designed and produced by the gov^nment-owned sector of the aircraft industrj'. SudAviation. was at its introduction the finest of all passenger jets. Unfortunately,
In
Whatever Franco-German partnership of a military the same time a universal sense of relief
was at two countries were drawing together to such an extent that war between them would seem to be an impossibility.
65
THE NEW EUROPE While the long shadow cast by Chancellor Adenauer determined
effort to get
on with the job of
mon Market which would The venerable first
still
Bonn sensed a unification the Com-
obscured the political landscape, the visitor to
—
inevitably evolve into political union.
chancellor had been one of the great Europeans,
committing Germany to the new Europe. But
overstayed his time, he could only
sit
at 86,
having
back and ignore the By-
him that happy in his
zantine intrigue centring on the rivalry to succeed anticipated his departure.
He
has never been really
boom. While with complications,
4%
and unemployment
costs off,
supply of workers in the
boom
goes on throughout Europe. startled to see a
With
A
the crescent on a red ers
field.
The
Communist
flying
to
what appeared
countries.
flag
On
closer
with the star and
excursionists were Turkish work-
brought from Diisseldorf for a Sunday outing on the
Lake Como. policy and even
3^%
the wall in Berlin
motorist along the Rhine was
crowded excursion steamer
relationship with the United States since he lost his old friend,
—and other
is still
who had provided an unending
proved to be the Turkish
it
in 1961
years, the search for substitutes
to be the red flag of one of the
examination
—up 11%
the growth rate
nonexistent.
is
shutting off the flood of refugees
John Foster Dulles. He would stay on, resting
for extended pe-
wage
rising
has tapered
it
river.
riods in the sun at his favourite vacation retreat on
An Island
But he no longer gave the principal direction to power of negation was slackening as most of the principals in his government followed the line of a Europe that could encompass the membership of Britain and the association of other
sharp focus. Here
powers.
the whole structure
his
It
is
in Berlin,
Communism,
that the
crashing down.
Sharing the U.S. Burden On still
another score, a new generation in Bonn,
at the technical
and administrative
echelons, recognized the need for a
level just
Soviet
many
of
them
below the top
new and prosperous Europe
of Prosperity
an island of prosperity on the gray plain of
drama of the new Europe comes
into
the brink on which, figuratively at least,
is
poised, the abyss into which
is
With the building of the
Kommandantura
it
could
come
wall, the abolition of the
in the western half of the city,
the increasing restraints on
movement through
and
the checkpoints,
the political status of this focal point of the cold war has been
whittled down.
West
Berliners have been infuriated over such
who was
to adjust to the radical alteration occurring in the past four or
brutalities as the shooting of 18-year-old Peter Fechter,
These younger men talked frankly about the imbalance between Europe and the United States in the sharing of the burden for the security of the west. With the latter still
allowed to bleed to death at the base of the wall. As you go
five years.
carrying something like
80%
of the load and with five and
American divisions in Germany, a redress was plainly if there was to be an effective working relationship. If America continued to carry so large a share, with the resulting economic and fiscal strains, political disaffection would
a half
called for
inevitably arise in the United States
making
it
difificult
if
not
impossible for America to achieve a partnership with the E.E.C.
Perhaps the Germans were all the more aware of this imbalance and its perils because the fantastic German boom had resulted in the lars.
accumulation of an $8,000,000,000 store of gold and dolduring the same five or six years that this was being
And
amassed, the gold and dollar balance in the United States had shrunk to $16,000,000,000.
The
visitor to
Germany
is
bound
to feel the
impact of the
Workers' cars at parking
—Magnum
Erich Leasing
along Bernauerstrasse and see the bricked-up windows of apart-
ments and stores on the border as well as the small memorials decked with vases of flowers for those who have lost their lives trying to escape, the full shame of this prison wall is brought home. But the changes that have occurred as the Soviets turn the screws seem to have had little effect on either the morale or the economic vigour of the western half of the city. Immediately after the wall went up in Aug. 1961 West Berlin suffered a net loss of population. Since then, however, a net gain has been recorded as many young people come in to replace workers reaching retirement age
who wish
Berlin's Oktoberfest
ing exuberance, but
more
rides, the
lot of a
it
civilized gaiety.
may
to
spend their old age in the west.
not match that of Munich in brawl-
has what Berliners like to believe
The
is
a
brilliantly lighted Ferris wheel, the
fun house, the peep shows, are thronged with pleasure
Ruhr factory
seekers
who
might, for
all
the concern they evidence, be out for
an evening of relaxation and beer drinking
More prosperous
German
Berliners and
in
any American
tourists dining
city.
on the
roof of the 12-story Hilton hotel are being encouraged by the
bandleader and his bespangled soloist to overcome their timidity
and try that odd new American dance, the twist. From this vantage point the contrast between the brilliant glow over West Berlin and the
though a
line
sombre dark of East Berlin
as striking as
is
had been painted on the sky where one sector ends
and the other begins.
And always, night and day. the big trucks on the 1 10-mi. Autobahn between the city and West Germany carry the cargoes moving not only to Berlin but to East Germany. This commerce with the east, incidentally, which amounts to $500,000,000 to $600,000,000 annually,
is
said to be increasingly important to
the continued existence of East
German
industry.
The economy
most industrially advanced of the satellites is in difficulty. In the other major country of the E.E.C., Italy, where the annual growth rate in 1962 was between 7% and 89(-. prosperity
of the
hardly needs to be recorded in
Bruce McAllister
The dividino
statistics.
It is written large in
—Fix from Publix
—
line
bustling
new
bulldii
wall, desolation on the eastern side
West Germ friend. The request was denied Black Siar
i^*^
side of the
Berlin
THE NEW EUROPE the
traffic
jams of Rome, Milan, Turin and other
narrow, ancient streets strangle the
adjunct of modern in the
movement
Roman
the motorcar.
life,
cities
where
of that ubiquitous traffic
jams,
first
morning, then again at the lunch hour, and finally in the
evening between 7:30 and 8:30, have to be seen to be believed. It is the
chaos
temperament.
New
of, say,
An
York, compounded by the Italian
estimated
out of every 8 persons in north
1
1
are without shoes or with only the
carry their worldly possessions in bundles slung over their
from the south, from
shoulders. These are emigrants
Sicily,
Calabria and the long arid boot heel of the Italian peninsula.
—
They
arrive
two ago a similar flood
just as a generation or
from the same source
docks of
spilled onto the
New York
—
in
search of jobs ready and waiting for them. There could be no
Even though this compares with a rate of one to three United States and perhaps one to six or seven in France,
more dramatic illustration of Italy's economic miracle. As the demand for workers in the industrial centres continues,
it
to IS.
the car has
become an important
various gradations in the scale
:
status
symbol
at the lowest level
and on up
scooter, then the tiniest Fiat,
in Italy is
the
with
motor
to a flashy sports car or
American sedan.
The
Some They
would probably be
Italy has a car; with the south included
in the
men, women and children pours out onto the platform. most primitive sandals.
flood of
its
little
ancient burden of a peasant population
land,
much
of
slowly being transformed, as an effort
it
is
of doubtful arability,
being
made
to
is
improve
the level of farming and to introduce industry that might other-
wise add to the congestion of the northern centres. Hundreds of millions of dollars have gone into
the drive to transform
the impoverished area. Critics complain that too
much money
much of it has been wasted, since there has been such a steady migration from south
has been spent too quickly and that to north.
south are being abandoned.
in fertile areas in the
the export of labour to other
a part of which
now
is
home, unemployment
south, despite
crowded onto too
farms even
With
labour force. This
who
those
is
Common Market
in Italy
is
down
morning
to
about
4%
boom
at
of the total
considered a tolerable level since
it
includes
are changing jobs as well as a certain proportion of
is still widespread underemployment, no one would have dreamed seven or eight years ago that the present rate would have been possible. If the French mixture is a heady economic cocktail, what is happening in Italy defies description in terms of orthodox economics. This includes the empire of Enrico Mattel who, before his death in a plane crash in Oct. 1962, put together from what
unemployables. While there
started as a state fuel trust a fantastic
Anyone who has arrived by
countries,
returning in response to the
and semipublic
amalgam
of state, private
great industrial centres, Milan or Turin, has seen a striking
At great natural gas deposits and
phenomenon
Service stations, motels and hotels branch out from this trunk.
train in the
at
one of the
that helps to explain the transformation
taking place in Italy.
From
which
is
the third-class railway carriages a
enterprise.
the development of
its
base
is
oil
wells
and
refineries in Italy.
Among
Mattel's foreign ventures was a deal with the Soviet Union covering the importation of 2,700,000 tons of petroleum and the sale in return of pipe for the great new pipelines being built from Russian fields across the "iron curtain" and into western Europe. So far-ranging was Mattel's power, no small part of which was financed with government funds, that perhaps
he alone knew
its full
Italy
As
extent.
Takes Benelux Side
member
European club, Italy sides with and Luxembourg in rejecting the De Gaulle concept of a community that would exclude Britain. The government of Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani has exerted an important influence in countering the De Gaulle-Adenauer axis. Equally important for the stability of the new Europe is the bold "opening to the left" that the younger men in the Fanfani wing of the Christian Democratic party have helped to engineer. In 1948 it was feared that the Communist party, in alliance with the Socialists, would gain a majority and thus be able to form the first freely elected Communist government in a convinced
of the
Netherlands, Belgium
the
the world. Only the scale
American
has been their
made
most strenuous
at
mean
end
to the
Now
a beginning
this is finally
achieved
it
government and an that have depended on the splinter
a really substantial base for the
shaky coalitions
parties of the right
With
along with large-
winning the mass of the Socialists away from
union with the Communists. If
will
efforts,
help, averted such an event.
and centre. upward curve of the economy, anything
the continuing
seems possible,
If the
tween Naples and
Rome and
new superhighways, such
Rome
Florence that
as the one beopened and the one between under construction, can be built
that just is still
enough it may be possible to reduce the outrageously high rate of motor fatalities. Or it might even be possible, by tunneling under the national monuments that come at least one to a block, to resolve the Roman traffic jams. But that is expecting too much of the Italian temperament with its joy in fierce and noisy competition that surely goes back at least to the chariot fast
races of ancient
The
68
Rome, new Europe
face of the
is
in a constant state of change,
THE NEW EUROPE and the dramatic developments of the past 15 years are being matched on a smaller scale in the day-to-day developments in he
movement toward European much
But the traveler in Eusame kind of picture that lias been offered here, with only some alterations of detail. In order to understand what he sees, he should have some background in the postwar history of European unity. I
rnpe today will see pretty
unity.
the
CHAPTER
3
So remarkable has been the rise of the new Europe in little more than 15 years that the shadow which lay so darkly over the continent at the end of 1945 has been largely forgotten. For the fifth time in European history, unification by force was threatening to suppress
all
continent with ruthless
the divergence and diversities of the
disregard
the individual
for
and
his
In impoverished, half-ruined Europe the menace of Communism was not a theory but an imminent reality.
heritage.
In Italy the the voters.
Communist party could count up apparatus that had come out
to one-third of
A power
of the partisan
movement during the war was prepared to exploit every weakness. While Communist numbers in France were not so great, the party there
was
alert to the
opportunity of advancing
interests through control of the ministry of interior
fense
industries.
its
and the de-
domination of the most powerful trade
If
economy could be manipulated to Communism. This threat was painfully evident
unions could be obtained, the serve the ends of in the
De
confused and uncertain government over which General
Gaulle presided from 1944 to 1946,
modest country home political
who were
when he
retired to his
Colombey-les-Deux-Eglises.
voices outside the ranks of
defeatists Enrico Mattel
in
Communism
Among
the
there were
quite ready to rationalize to the effect that
perhaps
Communism was
Europe
still
the only
way
to unite a broken, divided
from the quarrels of centuries of national hatred. As for Germany, a misguided plan to make that consuffering
quered country into a kind of kitchen garden, thereby ignoring the lesson of what happened after the Versailles treaty, had
PubUloto—Pix Irom Fublix Twin bridges on Autostrada near Florence
THE NEW EUROPE gained some acceptance
in
Washington and London with Moscow
only too eager to participate in such an endeavour. In the months
war
of grave uncertainty following the end of the
though Europe, ravaged by
down
six
it
seemed as
years of conflict, might continue
the slippery slope to a disastrous fate.
But two things happened, so dramatic as to alter completely the gloomy prognosis for the continent. The first was the Marshall plan, which revealed that the United States had come clearly
power and
to recognize its position of world
to use that
power
with great creative imagination. At the same time the Soviet
Union showed an ineptitude that expressed an almost complete was still latent in the western system of a free market and, by comparison with totalitarianism at any rate, a free choice for the individual in the market place of goods and in the realm of ideas. lack of understanding of the west and the vitality that
—
Molotov at First Meeting
We
have tended
to forget that
to formulate the Marshall plan
when
the
first
meeting was held
June 27 to July 2, 1947) the foreign minister of the U.S.S.R. was invited. The Com-
munist bloc was to participate V.
M. Molotov
at the
(in Paris,
in this co-operative
sat at the conference table at the
end of which there was to be a brief
endeavour.
opening session,
recess.
Then, just
Molotov had received new orders from Stalin. In any case, the Moscow position was deeply disappointing to the Czechs and to a lesser degree to the Poles, who had seen in the plan a way to draw nearer to the west and to modify their dependence on Moscow. There had been serious doubts in Washington about inviting the Communist countries to take part in the first place. Their acceptance would have made it difficult if not in fact impossible to get the approval of congress for the
massive appropriations
make the plan a reality. By continuing to keep dithe Red army in the eastern bloc countries the U.S.S.R.
essential to
visions of
had made it clear that theirs was an empire based on power and power alone. The subjugation of Poland had been particularly brutal, marked by the deliberate sacrifice of thousands of brave men who believed in the freedom of their country and by palpable double-deahng and hypocrisy over the issue of a representative government in Warsaw. The invitation to the eastern countries was finally issued, but it is obvious in hindsight that if the Communist bloc powers had come in, their opportunities for sabotage and obstruction would have been unlimited.
They might
indeed have succeeded in frustrating the aim of the plan entirely.
In 1948 there occurred the Soviet blunders which aroused western Europe to an awareness of the peril in continuing
drift.
as the conferees were about to leave the table, a message of evi-
In February, the overthrow of the
dent importance was placed before Molotov. This was an episode
ernment of Czechoslovakia by means of murder and subversion cast a grim and lurid light across the eastern sky. This ruthless and brutal act had even greater impact by reason of the fact that
that the late Ernest Bevin, the foreign secretary of Britain's
Labour government, was fond of recounting. Before the session had actually adjourned, Molotov requested a longer recess, to which the other delegates agreed.
When
legal,
duly constituted gov-
only a decade earlier the western European powers had sacrificed
they returned to the
the Czechs to Hitler in the vain and foolish hope that this would
up a position quite different from that which he had held before the recess, making it clear that the Communist countries wanted no part in any recovery plan such as that under
appease his ambition. The conscience of Europe was deeply
table he took
discussion.
Bevin,
who understood
the
Communist
never faltered in his determination to counter
it,
threat but
believed that
troubled.
Here was a
Later that spring, the point was heavily underscored by the inauguration of the Soviet blockade of Berlin.
V. M. Molotov (second from left) at opening session of Marshall Pla
70
clear demonstration that popular govern-
ment, law and order meant nothing to Communist imperiaHsm.
THE NEW EUROPE But the stage was already set for Europe's recovery. In Dec. 1947 congress had approved a first appropriation of $540,000,000, thereby setting in motion the great movement that was to see the United States spend a total of $12,000,000,000 to bring about the rehabilitation and recovery of western Europe. While, as has
was an act of unparalleled generosity, more than that. For the Marshall plan was most
so often been said, this it
was
also far
decidedly in America's interest. day, namely, that Europe dustrial capacity It
and
was simply that
is
so abundantly clear to-
the world,
skills in
in the
What
one of the greatest centres of
is
was equally true
in-
then.
aftermath of the war, as a sense of
apathy and despair lay over
its
weary people,
this fact
had been
lost sight of.
Brave Neiv World There were, however, even when the hopelessness and war weariness were most pervasive, those who saw the vision of a new Europe and who began the work of bringing it into being. They saw that beyond a doubt there was no alternative to unity. Holding the vision of a united Europe that should grow out of the war and facing up to the imminent threat of Communism,
new Europeans set to work with unremitting zeal. Even before the war ended, men of many different nationalities who had fought with courage and indomitable will against Hitler's New Order were raising the hope of a brave new European world. In July 1944 the European Resistance movement declared: these
Federal union alone can insure the preservation of liberty and civilization on the continent of Europe, bring about economic recovery and enable the German people to play a peaceful role in European affairs.
This was the goal to which the Marshall plan gave tangible
hope
A
for fulfillment.
formal group
— the seed —was
m^uch has grown in succeeding years
name
of
Organization
(O.E.E.C). Formed
in
for
from which so under the
initiated
European Economic
Cooperation
1948 by the 16 European nations partici-
pating in the Marshall plan
(
Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, France,
Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Tur-
key; also present were representatives from West Germany), the O.E.E.C. had no "supranational" powers independent of the individual states that formed
was
to allot the financial aid
it.
The primary task
of the O.E.E.C.
provided by the United States and
co-ordinate the economic development and reconstruction programs of the 17 countries. But within this framework a larger concept of unification was to evolve with the O.E.E.C. serving as a negotiating body and a forum for exchange of views on the problems of trade and international payments; a new current of revival was rapidly making itself felt in Europe, and the to
O.E.E.C. was
its
phase. a
As long ago
member countries of the O.E.E.C. The took many forms during this first hopeful
the
as 1921
forming supranational
political
Belgium and Luxembourg had
customs union, and while the war was
up
set
in progress the exiled
governments of these nations agreed to join with the Netherlands to form the free-trade area of Benelux. Today Benelux
market with a common tariff on goods coming from other countries and virtually no legal obstacle to the free
operation in the economic national sovereignty. of unity provided
field
They wanted
to go
met
Strasbourg
in
O.E.E.C.'s
in
The
1949.
members together
these three highly
prosperous countries. in
eastern Europe pro-
also brought
to light
some fundamental
divisions
among
it
the
which
brought
most
on
first
of
assembly and a
were intended to provide a frameEuropean co-operation in all fields except defense. Still
ministers' committee, which
work
for
As
it
it
has turned out, played a
European federation.
movement toward unity was so submerge many of the older differences
entered the 1950s, the
strong that
vided such strong stimulus toward integration in the west,
council
in a consultative
significant part in
While 1948 was the year when events
the
federalists pressed
for political union through the Council of Europe,
in existence, the council has not. as
among
should
On
no further than the kind
by O.E.E.C. while the
in
of goods, capital or labour
which
that implied no surrender of
constitutes a single
movement
institutions
the Scandinavian countries, were satisfied to stop short with co-
code of trade liberalization that helped to restore the free flow
impetus toward unity
France, Italy and the Benelux countries, the federalists believed in
other hand the functionalists, led by the British and including
There soon developed the European Payments union and a
commerce among
the "federalists" and the "functionalists." Especially strong in
eventually transcend the powers of the sovereign states.
focal point.
Steps Toward Freer Trade
of
advocates of European unity. The principal division was between
it
seemed
to
that had so long divided continental Europe.
Even
the historic
European cleavage between clerical and anticlerical factions was bridged by the powerful and appealing concept of a united Eu-
71
THE NEW EUROPE rope. Leading advocates of unity included such Catholic states-
men as Robert Schuman of France and Konrad Adenauer of Germany and such Socialist leaders as Paul Henri Spaak of Belgium and France's Guy Mollet. But there remained other divisions that persisted beneath the surface among those who were outspokenly in favour of unity. One faction saw in the a chance to create a more equal partnership with the United States within a strong Atlantic alliance. Others saw in a
movement
united Europe a "third force" that could be the arbiter between east
and west.
cernible.
A
A
similar ambivalence in economic aims
united Europe was for
some
a step
was
dis-
toward a non-
discriminatory trading system for the entire free world, while others saw it as an end in itself, a closed trading system that would compete with other major economic powers after having torn down internal barriers. These were not the only strange bedfellows. Economic unity was supported by free-trade advocates who wished to diminish the influence of government on economic life. Yet among its foremost champions were also
those
who regarded
economy as too small a unit for who had no desire to cut down on con-
a national
effective planning, but trols.
The
attraction of the
new Europe
prevailed.
The purely
ad-
visory role of the consultative assembly of the Council of Europe
was not adequate to achieve that end. In May 1950 Schuman, then French minister for foreign affairs, proposed, "as a first step in the federation of Europe ... to demonstrate that any war between France and Germany had become not merely inconceivable, but physically impossible." This was to be achieved by placing the entire French and German production of steel and coal under a common high authority that would also be open to other European countries. This bold venture in economic integration, which soon became known as the Schuman plan, was designed to give political expression to the geographical and physical unity of the SaarRuhr-Lorraine-Pas-de-Calais industrial complex with its vast coal and steel resources. To a student of European history this was a momentous event, for this area has always been wastefuUy
I
by national
split
EUROPE: Political in NATO
ship
groupings of the countries of western Europe and
during talks on European federation
interests.
And
it
provided a solid foundation
and steel community. Britain was invited to join the negotiations and her refusal must be put down as one of the tragic errors of the postwar period. Harold Macmillan, then a cabinet minister in the Churchill government, said in the house of commons: "One thing is certain, and we may as well face it. Our people will not hand over to any supranational aufor a broader coal
thority the right to close
down our
pits or
our steel works."
France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and
Luxem-
bourg signed a treaty creating the European Coal and Steel Community in 19S1. It came into force in 1952 and the common markets, in coal, iron ore, scrap iron and most steels were set up in early 1953.
Under the
direction of the authority, with
its
head-
quarters in Luxembourg, there began the process of abolishing
and quota
tariff
many
restrictions, discriminatory transport rates
and
of the legal obstructions at the frontiers of the six nations.
Equally important, however, was the fact that the preamble of the treaty stated clearly that coal and steel were merely the
key sector of the economy where geounity easier, and that the ultimate aim of the six participants was a full European economic community which would advance common political objectives. An excerpt from that preamble reveals its tone of high idealism: first
stage, a selected
graphical factors
made
"Resolved, to substitute for historic rivalry a fusion of their essento establish, by creating an economic community, the foundation of a broad and independent community among peoples long divided by bloody conflicts; and to lay the ba.sis of institutions ." capable of giving direction to their future common destiny. tial interests
;
.
The
institutions actually created
the govermnent of a future united Europe.
72
.
by the treaty were, in embryo,
A
high authority of
THE NEW EUROPE on behalf of the community as a whole in the capacity of a supranational executive body with limited but quite real powers, including the power to tax. A nine
members was
common
to operate
become unacceptable
council of ministers served as liaison between the
member
states
in the
tensions following Stalin's death.
The Western European
assembly, as a sort of parliament, had the power to
vote the resignation of the authority, and an intergovernmental
in Korea, it had atmosphere of relaxed international
United Nations forces were in headlong retreat
union, based on the Brussels treaty of
194S. was established in 1954 to co-ordinate defense policies and to co-operate in political, social, legal
and cultural affairs. The and the United King-
and the community. A court of justice was set up in order to ensure the rule of law during the integration pro\'ided for by the
six
Jean Monnet, who is known today as the principal creator of European unity, was named the first chairman of the high authority and he moved to Luxembourg to take up his duties. He
Council of Europe. The union was created as a sequel to the
treaty.
member
dom
states of the present E.E.C.
send as delegates to the W.E.U. their representatives to the
E.D.C. In 1960
its
functions in other than military matters were
transferred to the Council of Europe.
has brought to his task the patience, the persistence and the deep
The Economic Road
inner conviction that have contributed so greatly to the once-
The
impossible dream of unity.
began to appear that an irresistible movement had motion there occurred an event that cut directly across the developing current of economic unification. Indeed, for a time it threatened to check it altogether. The war in Korea Just as
been
it
set in
profound fears that a direct Soviet attack w'ould be launched in Europe in order to achieve what intimidation and stirred
subversion had failed to do.
A
defensive alliance, with
the
United States as the principal partner, immediately took priority over the economic community. In Washington, where General Marshall had become secretary of defense,
it was determined Europe could not be effected without the creation of 12 German divisions. The armouncement of this decision at once renewed the old deep-seated fears of the French, and they refused to accept the re-establishment of a Wehrmacht and German membership in the new defensive alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty organization. At the same time the Germans, if they were to be rearmed, demanded equality of rights. As a solution, advocates of the new Europe meeting in Paris proposed a European Defense Community in w'hich national military forces would be integrated under something very close to supra-
that the defense of
E.D.C. was a grievous setback on the road to unity. The foreign ministers of the Six, meeting in Messina, Sicily, in June 1955, decided that the next approach should not cut so close to the political nerve; they declared in a statement failure of
issued at the conclusion of their conference:
"The next phase
economic field." up again the question of how the economic community that had been foreshadowed by the Coal and Steel treaty could be brought into being. The Messina conference appointed a committee of experts under the chairmanship of Spaak which met in Brussels for nine months to explore ways and means of pooling Europe's resources for the development of nuclear energy and of establishing a common market and customs union. in the building of a united It
was time
The
Europe must he
in the
to take
report of the committee, presented in April 1956. prepared
way
strongest pressures
went on for about a year. most astute analysts, U. W. Kitzinger. in his The Challenge of The Common Market (Blackwell, 1961), described these negotiations as "an intricate mixture of academic exercises in abstruse economic theory and poker games of political skill." On March 25, 1957. the separate treaties establishing the European Economic Community (E.E.C.) and the European Atomic Energj' Community (Euratom) were signed in Rome. Ratified by the six member states within a few months, the Rome treaties went into effect on Jan. 1, 195S. This was a memorable date in the painful progress toward a united Europe.
ners, the
According to the stipulations of the treaty, the transformation
national
command.
A
bitter political struggle w-as precipitated in
France such as had scarcely been seen since the Dreyfus This struggle continued for four years and
finally
from the United States and the other partFrench assembly with Pierre Mendes-France as premier rejected E.D.C. While German rearmament in accordance
with the E.D.C. formula had seemed feasible in 1950,
FiJe World Gathering in Rome's Capitoline palace to First
affair.
finally, despite the
anniversary
Marlcet treaty
of
signing
of
the
m
Comn
when
the
the
One
was
for political negotiations that
of the
to
be gradual and to gather
momentum
stages spread out over 12 to IS years the
with time. In three
component
six na-
THE NEW EUROPE tional
markets were
be merged into a
to
common
market. There
can be no doubt that in the minds of the drafters of these treaties the economic task was seen chiefly as a step toward political inte-
words of the preamble,
gration. In the
this
was
to
become "an
ever closer union."
As the second act in a sideline drama that today occupies the European stage, in 1956, when the Six accepted the Spaak report as a basis for negotiation, Britain was invited to join in working out the treaty. Once again she refused. The British seemed unable to comprehend that Germans and Frenchmen should really want to merge aspects of their national sover-
But Chancellor Adenauer was distinctly unhappy over He had been convinced from the beginning that Germany must be tied tightly to a western political framework, and therefore he distrusted any scheme that threatened to dilute the political content of the European community.
incest."
the British proposal.
Unification v. Free Trade
centre of the
eignty,
and British leaders continued to underestimate the force
of the
new Europe. They had
deliberately sought to discourage
and denigrate the formation of the Coal and Steel Community. They were caught in their beloved theory of "the three conthe commonwealth, the "special relationship" centric circles" with the United States, and finally Europe. But the Common Market of the E.E.C. was in fact threatening to put Britain in a very difficult situation right from the start. A customs union was coming into being on the continent where one-eighth of British exports are sold. Since most of Britain's exports were going to the low-tariff nations of the community, that is, Germany and Benelux, Britain was bound to suffer, for tariffs on British goods would be raised to a common level while on all goods exchanged between the continental partners tariffs were to be abolished. In the early days of the European movement at the end of the war, Jean Monnet had uttered a prophetic warning in the course of debating the necessity for the British to enter into a European economic community: "There is one thing you British will never understand: an idea. And there is one thing you are supremely good at grasping: a hard fact. We will have to make Europe without you. But then you win have to come in on our terms."
—
In the Netherlands the convinced believers in European unity, representing majority opinion, welcomed the idea of a free-trade area.
But they
also believed that in the
supranational implication would
doom
end the absence of any
the true unification of Eu-
mixed feeling was less strong in Belgium and Italy. Spaak was concerned with preserving the federaUst character of the community, but he was also anxious to secure British participation if only to balance a possible Franco-German domination rope. This
of the
The
new Europe. situation of
much when
England
in relation to the Six
had not changed
the fourth republic in France sputtered to an end
and General De Gaulle came
to
power
in
May
of 1958.
With
his
accession to the presidency and supreme personal authority,
French pohcy began rapidly to
shift
away from
the emphasis on
supranationality to I'Etirope des patries. At the end of the year
Hnk between the European Economic Community broke down. There began to emerge the first shadow of a FrancoGerman alliance, with no room for Britain and much less for the commonwealth countries under Britain's wing. Under De Gaulle's influence the concept of "exclusive" European unity, present since the inception of the movement, began to gain strength. In this conception the Six would be the core of a European trading system and of a political alliance that would become a powerful third force counterbalancing the giants of the east and the the talks aimed toward effecting an eventual free-trade association and the
west.
pied with events in Egypt and Hungary. But the government
Early in 1959 it was clear that bridges were being blown. The community had begun to function, and Britain stood well outside the long-range plans of the Six. In this situation the government in London put forward the European Free Trade association
nevertheless did reach a decision to propose a free-trade area
(E.F.T.A.) as an alternative to the Six and invited the remaining
British Attitude Suspect In the fateful month of Nov. 19S6 the British were preoccu-
Spaak report, could be superimposed on, or allied to, the Common Market. A freetrade area, it should be noted, is like a customs union in that it involves a mutual abolition of trade barriers. But unlike a that, according to its interpretation of the
customs union
common
it
external
does not tariff.
On
mean
that the participants share a
the continent this proposal, the first
British attempt to come to some sort of terms with the Common Market, was received with great skepticism. Was this a sincere attempt to arrive at a broader European base, or was it merely
another move' to prevent a truly united Europe from coming into being? After
all,
while Britain's free-trade area proposal
did envisage the abolition of internal tariffs and quotas on trading in industrial goods,
O. E.E.C,
it
Moreover,
it
with membership to be open to
included no provisions for
labour or of capital, countries and
Market
all
states of
from free trade. freedom of movement of
expressly excluded agriculture
it
it
did not extend to the overseas associated
contained none of the provisions of the
Common
treaty such as a social fund, an investment bank,
and measures for harmonizing economic policy. Varying from country to country and within individual counreaction to the British scheme revealed the deep divisions on the continent over the form that the European community tries,
should take. In
economic sidered
it
Germany Dr. Ludwig Erhard,
the minister of
and an advocate of laissez-faire the proper form for unification. He was affairs
policies, con-
distrustful of
the supranational character of the institutions provided in the
Rome treaties, and in 1957 he had referred to the European Economic Community as "economic nonsense" and even "European
74
EUROPE: Economic
Groupings
THE NEW EUROPE Popu/ofion and Arec
Iceland Ireland
Holy
.
.
.
.
.
.
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Monoco
,
.
Netherlands
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Portugo I
Morln.
Spa Switzerland United Kingdo .
on City
THE NEW EUROPE the process will be completed in the three years following.
way
which the whole process has been accelerated
in
to the success of the
Common Market
is
The
testimony
tariffs
and even national
firms,
and monetary
fiscal
distort the pattern of trade.
The E.E.C.
can
policies
all
therefore aims to har-
monize economic policies and business law, transforming the Six as effectively as possible into a single economic unit. Specific being dealt with include capital and labour mobility, com-
fields
mercial competition, transportation and agriculture.
The
share of the benefits. Despite this loophole, the intent of the
Common Market competition
in its transitional stage.
and quotas are not the only artificially imposed barriers to trade among countries. Exchange restrictions, subsidies, discrepancies in taxation, restrictive agreements between But
fair
Rome calls for all restrictions on the movement Common Market to be removed during the period. In May 1960 the Six began to implement this
treaty of
is
is
clearly to create a climate in
which active
stimulated and cartel practices are discouraged.
tentative timetable for putting the
common
effect has been set; thus far the approach is a cautious one, and emphasis has been placed on strengthening existing antitrust
legislation in each of the six countries.
Preferential freight rates can restrict free competition
Rome
seeks to eliminate this kind of discrimination against the
move-
much
the
same way
tariffs do.
The
ment of goods across national boundaries and to prevent governments from indirectly subsidizing domestic industries by allowing them to pay lower rates for public transportation than those Per Capita
objective by abolishing restraints that formerly were in effect
among member
They
also liberalized ex-
change restrictions on medium- and long-term loans, stock ings
and trading
in listed securities. Restrictions
offer-
on the right of
boundary are
a firm to establish a subsidiary across a national
also to be eliminated during the transition period. Actually, ex-
pansions and mergers without regard to nationality have already
become common within the community. The first two years of the Common Market saw hundreds of these industrial "interpenetrations."
By
types of labour will
all
be free to accept employment anywhere in the
Common
Movement of people is understandably a much than the movement of capital, but the Six hope by removing discrepancies
Market.
to
encourage
treaty of
Rome
provides the outline for a fairly strict
antitrust policy, but leaves an important loophole. Article 85 pro-
agreements that hinder the free play of competition within
Common Market by means
of direct or indirect price fixing,
market sharing, limitation or control of markets, production or investment, discriminatory pricing, and tie-in sales or contracts. However, these provisions do not apply to agreements, practices or merger decisions that contribute toward improving the production or distribution of goods, or promoting technical or economic progress, if at the same time the consumer receives a Trade of O.f.C.D. CountrieSf* by Value and Volume
Country end period
Exports
Imports
f.o.b.
c.i.f.
(monthly averoges
Trade bolancef In
$000,0001
Volume Index Exports Imports 11958=1001
O.E.C.D. countries combined
Year 1961 First half 1961 First
half
1962
E.E.C. countries
Yeor 1961 First holf 1961 First
half
1962
1962 Germony, West holf
Year 1961 half 1961
First
First
half
4,867 4,847 5,237
-430 -505 -622
133
139
134 133 144
2,693 2,627 2,807
2,681 2,662
-|-
1
-
2
35
2,950
-143
142 138 148
140 139 154
1,591
1,927 1,947 1,997
-336 -374 -345
121
1,573 1,652
126 127 130
1,057 1,032 1,076
912 876
-t-145
138 136
1,006
-1-
70
141
557 570 638
-|-
600 618
-
44 30 20
150 148
359 349 372
426 427 450
-
67
133
78 78
131
131
combined
Yeor 1961 First holf 1961 First
4,437 4,342 4,615
combined
E.F.T.A. countries
1962
4-156
120 126
154 147 172
Fronce
Yeor 1961 half 1961
601
First
First
half
1962
-f
151
127 129 147
Netherlands
Yeor 1961 First holf 1961 First
holf
1962
Belgium-Luxembourg Year 1961 First holf 1961 First
holf
321
Canada.
138
- 25 352 130 - 32 353 135 - 10 364 374 158 tMinus means imports exceed exports. 327
1962
'Excluding the U.S. ond
76
U.S.
$1
1955
Belgium
Denmark Finland
France
Germany, West Greece
204t
Icelond Irelond
holy
408t 227
Luxembourg
761
Netherlonds
500
Norwoy
721 170} 196t
Portugol
Spain
143 143 150 134 142 153
737t 437 593
Swltzerlond United Kingdom
•1960.
t1950.
J1952. MILLIONS OF TONS
it
labour laws and by retraining
in
More than 200,000 Italians have recently moved into Germany, helping to relieve both Italy's unemployment problem and Germany's labour shortage. Altogether nearly 800,000 Europeans from outside Germany's borders are employed within the Federal Republic, most of them as labourers.
the
in
$364 749 766 562 504 349t 234
Austrio
slower process
workers.
hibits
,
Sweden
the time the transition period ends,
The
Western
In
nations on direct investment and on the transfer
of earnings from direct investments.
among
treaty of
countries in
of capital within the transition
A
antitrust policy into
REST OF WORLD
i offered at
price
movements
in
world markets: and (4) to ensure that cus-
from an "ingrown" agricultural economy by enabling the processing industries to participate in markets tomers
will not suffer
outside the E.E.C. at reasonable, competitive prices.
What makes
the agricultural policy a matter of concern to
\\
I lu
modest pr
treaty are beginning to function. A European investment bank has been created with a capital of $1,000,000,000 to promote long-term projects in less-developed areas of Europe. A European social fund has been made available to finance retraining and relocation of workers. A development fund with a
Rome
United St^es exporters of farm goods are the variable levies to
capital of $581,000,000
be applied to agricultural imports from outside the community.
and newly independent countries that have chosen to maintain ties with the community, namely, all the former colonies of France that have chosen to remain within its economic sphere. But the main impetus for a continuing movement toward union comes from the basic institutions created by the treaty of Rome
These levies are intended to shelter the Common Market from world price fluctuations and to pro\nde protection for European farmers. But
the levies are set at too high a level, they
if
well keep out
American wheat, feed
grains, rice
and
may
poulin.'.
They may
also serve merely to encourage overproduction in Europe a phenomenon that is causing so many headaches in the American economy. In any event, by 1970 Europe will be producing surpluses in all but feed grains, at which time it will have
—
to be
concerned
itself
course will then raise
many
about exporting such commodities. This of
new
other fields the process of integration
is
1961 Production of
to serve and. in a real
if
community. At the
comparable
870.8
Germany,
We
Luxembourg Netherlands Inlted
Kingdom
Total
.
.
,
top.
still
circumscribed sense, govern the to the
Coal and Steel
Principal
Com-
munity's high authority, the commission functions as a supranational bxecutive power that
is
also responsible for developing
operating rules and policy, Final decision-making power, howcouncil
is
member of the own country,
intended to represent the interests of his
no single country can exercise a veto over most of the decisions Crops of Western Europe
ITtiousonds ol short tons!
Italy
to be used to assist overseas territories
ever, rests with a council of ministers; while each
prorblems.
moving forward, and agencies established within the framework of the In
is
THE NEW EUROPE reached by the council. Finally, the assembly, composed of members of the national parliaments of the Six, and a court of justice serve not only the E.E.C. but the Coal and Steel
Euratom as well. The influence of first
I960 Producdo the commission, under the leadership of
its
been considerable. The assembly at present its importance may in-
tion of unification has
has only limited powers, but eventually
The treaty has a provision that in the future assembly members will be elected by universal vote within the community. As such, this body is evidently the forerunner of a federal legiscrease.
lature for the Six.
how
bare description of
the E.E.C.
the impact that the organization intensity that surround
one must actually
its activities.
visit the
is
structured can reveal
making, the excitement and
is
In order to discover
this,
headquarters of the community, in
the stolid, bourgeois city of Brussels.
As much
as
any European
metropolis, this city gives evidence of the enormous transformation that has taken place It
may
is
intense,
but
it
on the continent
in the last decade.
not be the eventual "capital of Europe"
— the competition
and other cities like Paris are pressing has a running head start which it is striving
their claims to maintain.
Brussels Buzzes With Activity Not only
in the
modern anonymous-looking
office building that
houses the E.E.C. commission (appropriately located on a street called
La Rue de
Joyeuse Entree), but
la
in the
crowded hotel
lobbies and even in the ceaseless coming and going in Brussels'
big airport, there
is
the feeling of something new, exciting and
revolutionary going on. Traffic at the airport has doubled in
more than
five years.
that matter
One may
Delegations from
all
little
over Europe, and for
from every part of the globe, are constantly
arriving.
see spare, intense Egidio Ortona, undersecretary for
economics
in the Italian foreign ministry,
hurrying through the
terminal on one of the trips he makes so frequently that he virtually a
privy seal
is
commuter. Another commuter is Edward Heath, lord in the Macmillan cabinet, who has conducted the ne-
gotiations for Britain's entry with a passionate resolve
masked by
outward imperturbability; he has the appearance of a solid member of any number of boards of directors in London. A his
Japanese delegation arrives determined to find out what the new
European entity means
for Japan; as the principal trading nation
in the far east, the value of
whose exports ranks eighth
world, Japan must discover
how
Europe
is
to evolve.
On
its
in the
relationship with western
a smaller scale, Yugoslavia
is
sending
several of that country's ablest economist-diplomats to inquire
whether agricultural exports from the Communist bloc countries will
be admitted when a
countries goes into effect.
common
tariff
The question
is
policy for the market
vital
not only to Yugo-
Poland and, as with so many questions concerning the new colossus and its role in the world, is still to be slavia but also to
answered.
The number
was was estimated to be 2,200. Already 42 ambassadors are accredited to the E.E.C. commission. The staff of the American mission, housed in four floors of a modern bank building, numbers 24, not including secretaries and interpreters, and until recently this staff was headed by one of official meetings conducted in Brussels
already 938 in 1958, and in 1962
it
of America's ablest career ambassadors, W. Walton Butterworth. The headquarters of India's economic mission to Europe has been moved from London to Brussels. Other powers such as
Japan are considering establishing permanent trade delegations in Brussels.
The focus
of
all this
ministrative body. It
France,
78
different levels.
Community, and
president, Walter Hallstein, on policy leading in the direc-
No
Belgium and Luxembourg. The nine commissioners must function on three
is
Germany and
activity
made up Italy
is
the commission, E.E.C.'s ad-
two representatives each for and one each for the Netherlands, of
Country
They make
the day-to-day executive
:
THE NEW EUROPE
Bundesbildstelle Bonn Waller Hallstein, head
maintain that the Eurocrats, the
name
inevitably given them, are
exceptionally hard working. In contrast with what
is
reported
to prevail in most governments, up to 80% of this European bureaucracy' actually perform effective and relevant work, while
the rest
make up
racies this ratio
the inevitable excess baggage. In
is
many
bureauc-
Young, Energetic Staff of intense activity. of
The majority
Rue
de
la
Joyeuse Entree is one and most
of the staff are young,
them went through the ordeal of World War II in the respecarmed forces of their homelands. They reflect, especially
tive
in the higher echelons, a sense of sharing a stimulating
adven-
and blue licence plates, with the letters EUR preceding the numbers, that tSeir motorcars carry are but a small symbol of the larger identity to which they have committed themture.
The
red, white
is
Karl-Heinz Xarjes. one of Hallstein's deputies.
He
is
that he believes in
is never any doubt them wholeheartedly.
Mon-
phase of
new Europe. An economist of the first rank out of the fecole des Sciences Politiques. Marjolin played a leadthe evolution of the
ing part after the
war
in creating the
French Commissariat du
economy on adopted.
ment
advocated voluntary measures for guiding the European scale comparable to those France had described the French plan as embodying an assess-
He
the E.E.C.
He
the
of economic goals arrived at, in actuality, on a wholly vol-
untary basis. Such an assessment, he said, was no less essential for the Common Market than for each individual country. He predicted that unless such an effort were made in the economy of the Six, then national attempts to predict and guide the econo-
in the listener's
fail
a
former German submarine commander who has the look of an athlete in training. Narjes tempers the long hours he must spend in often-tedious conferences with an earthy sense of humour. With skeptical realism he discusses the remote political goals of the E.E.C, but there
of Jean
net's principal proteges, he has participated in every
mies of the separate countries would
selves.
Here
One
E.E.C.
Plan and the subordinate agencies that guide the French economy. In June 1962 he read a paper before a convention of farm co-op administrators in which he proposed a system of planning for
probably reversed.
Certainly the atmosphere at La
appearance, younger looking than his 51 years.
of the
mind
Robert Marjolin. one of France's two commission appointees and therefore bearing the title of vice-president, is quiet, shy in
at the Community level will help us to predict jobs will be created in the coming years and to decide will be sufficient to provide work for the young people
Only an analysis
how manv
whether they
entering the labour market
and
for
workers becoming redundant
in
sectors in which manpower requirements will be reduced. Such an analysis will have to go right down to the regional level, because wherever possible the balance between labour supply and demand should be sought within each region. Should it turn out that the number of jobs created is insufficient, that would mean that the projected rate of growth is itself inadequate and that a greater effort b called for.
79
THE NEW EUROPE in view of the solidarity which the Common Market is establishing among the six economies, this can but be a joint effort. Isolated national efforts would make for internal imbalances which would jeopardize the outcome and threaten to tear the Community apart.
But
burden of work bears down almost intolerably on everyone concerned. With all the interminable debate on the agricultural question that had been recorded in previous years, the commission's greatest trial thus far
Marjolin's proposal drew a decidedly mixed reaction. Germany's minister for economy, Ludwig Erhard, spoke scornfully of such a European planning concept as a bad joke.
To
others
it
seemed premature. But coming from Marjolin, with his experience and his authority as an economic planner, the proposal could not be cavalierly dismissed.
seemed
to point the
way
To many
the Marjolin paper
to a future course that the E.E.C.
would
of necessity follow, even though that future might be consider-
ably removed.
Another dedicated European who has exerted a commanding is Sicco L. Mansholt,
influence on the development of E.E.C.
commission vice-president for the Netherlands. A tall, broadshouldered Dutchman, he has an apparently limitless capacity for sheer hard work. As long ago as 19S0 Mansholt, then Dutch minister of agriculture, proposed to the consultative assembly of the old Council of
Europe the establishment of a
full
common
under a supranational authority similar to that of the already-existent Coal and Steel Community. Such an authority would have had the power to balance production and
market
in agriculture
and set up a single market. At that time Mansholt could scarcely have foreseen the long delays that faced the implementation of his idea, when the projected market for agriculture seemed to be stalemated beyond hope. Nor could he consumption,
fix
prices
have foreseen the bitter and prolonged struggle over the precise form it should take. But in the last phase of this struggle, Mansholt
was
still
one of the principal
when an important
step
is
At such critical times, by the commission, the
figures.
to be taken
came when
it
finally
adopted
its
system of variable levies equalizing agricultural prices for the Six.
Taking into account the constant increase
in the efficiency
and
output of French farming, the correspondingly inefficient agriculture of Germany (much of which is still based on manual labour), and the poverty of Italy's south with
— just
its
surplus farm
—
mention the outstanding barriers the goal of a common market for agriculture seemed at one time to be unattainable. Each country has its own system of farm subsidies,
population
to
and behind each system is a politically powerful farm bloc. In France, for example, farm demonstrators have repeatedly balked
De Gaulle in reforms he has sought to carry out. What made the task of the commission all the more difficult
President
was the need
to take into
account the frequent price fluctuations
many of which To accommodate such
on agricultural products,
occur in response to
political pressures.
fluctuations within a
formula of variable levies that would equalize the movement of prices from month to month seemed an impossible assignment. In an effort to compel agreement a deadline of Dec. 31, 1961, was set by that date the commission would have had to agree or ,
—
fail to
last
agree on a
common
As the from any
pricing system for agriculture.
hours of 1961 waned, the commission was
resolution of the problem. So, in order to
still
far
comply with the pub-
announced time limit, the official clock was stopped for 14 successive days. During that time the commission held almost continuous sessions, and many members of the staff worked 18and 20-hour days. When at last an agreement was ratified, the licly
Kryn Taeonit—Magnu,
^udwig
Erhard
THE NEW EUROPE
By courtesy
of
The Champagne Producers
of
France
Loading grapes
in district of
Harvesting grain Bundesbildstelie
Bo
m^'i
In
Champaon
West Germany
THE NEW EUROPE toll that had been taken in terms of human effort could be enumerated in the doctors' reports: three heart attacks and one collapse at first diagnosed as a heart condition.
heavy
But
aftermath a feeling of intense relief filled the comAgriculture had been considered the most formi-
in the
mission
offices.
dable of
the obstacles in the path toward unity of the Six.
all
Speaking at the National Press club
common
acceptance of a
in
Washington a short time
"European integration
later Hallstein said:
agricultural policy
process has already begun." This was Stage tion period,
in progress,
still
and
irreversible.
is
is
The
a pledge that this
Two
of the transi-
words it marked movement toward European
in Hallstein's
"the point of no return" in the
said, be no turning back. goes painfully and inexorably forward, the old passions, the old ambitions and rivalries still work within the new Europe that is struggling to be born, especially when the
unification.
But as
There can, he
Charlemagne
is
more than
has a counterpart
in
is
raised.
The memory
a historical souvenir. If
of
Charlemagne
contemporary Europe, there can be no doubt
of his identity. Charles
De
Gaulle sees himself as the apotheosis
would not accommodate any alteration taking it had been difficult enough to hammer out an agricultural agreement for the and in relation to her commonwealth associates. Thus the Six stand taken by France was repeatedly supported by others and the plans simply
by the commission
is
among
those
who
regard the community as
ington.
The
Moscow and Wash-
rules of admission to this Europe,
prescribed by
De
Gaulle,
if
they could be
De
Gaulle's singular difficulty in
in the 18th and 19th centuries. The effort to hold pieces of this empire long after changed circumstances made that impossible has cost France dearly. At the same time
been put together
De
Gaulle has sought to redress the balance in the psychology
of the French people, who, beginning in 1940 with the rout of
army, suffered a succession of blows
Morocco and
has sought to
Algeria.
embody
in his
As the leader
and of Napoleon
De
of France,
in
De
IndoGaulle
person the greatness of the past,
voking the symbols of Le Roi Soleil
would exclude applicants that carry such
and unwieldy encumbrances as the constellation of commonwealth countries clustered around Britain.
recognize
trying to disentangle France from the colonial empire that had
china,
He
itself.
The other partners
their once-great
a potential "third force" independent both of
—
—
of a
not integrated.
that, the admission of Britain
into account Britain's special needs in agriculture
of the greatness of France
and France as the predestined leader Europe of fatherlands. De Gaulle's Europe is united but
Gaulle might have for a Europe con-
were merely
it
and the evolution of the Common Market would provide a remedy. But as the prolonged and difficult negotiation for Britain's entry went on, the structure of the European Economic Community revealed a more or less unanimous attitude of exclusiveness. The blueprint had been drawn up for the Six and
this process
question of taking in Great Britain
De
France and President fined to the Six. If
in-
in the setting of Versailles
in all his glory.
Gaulle Insistent on
A-Bomb
vast
The problem today
is
not,
essentially,
the preference that
But while understanding his necessities, others among the Six and particularly the smaller powers have been fearful of where French nationalism may lead. De Gaulle has set France on the course of building an independent nuclear deterrent, as befitting a
power of the
first
rank. It
is
just here,
when
the hopeful score
of each successive step toward unity has been cast, that the future
hangs
in the balance.
Possession of a small, national nuclear De Gaulle has frequently expressed,
deterrent will, in the belief
give France independence to act in her
own
self-interest outside
of the umbrella of protection held over western
Europe by Amer-
massive nuclear deterrent. This dependence on the United States has tended to poison the Atlantic relationship. In reacting
ica's
against
it,
De
Gaulle has asserted the independent
command
of
France over French units as against the claim of NATO. In the view of the Kennedy administration, and of the previous administration as well, national nuclear deterrents are dangerous
France obtains such a deterrent, particuand sanction of the United States, then West Germany would have an equal claim to a national armoury of nuclear weapons. The solution, which is still in the discussion
and self-deluding.
If
larly with the help
stage,
may
lie in
control
over
formula
is
a
the
European or a NATO deterrent or in a shared American deterrent. As yet no acceptable
in prospect.
In Jan. 1961, speaking to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, C. P. Snow said that if a way were not
found to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons within six years, many as seven or eight nations would then possess them instead of three. Within ten years. Snow predicted, one of these
as
nations would have used
its
nuclear arsenal in
its
"national in-
and then there would be no drawing back from the holocaust. This prophecy of the distinguished scientist-administratornovehst may have been too gloomy insofar as the time limits he sets are concerned. It is surely evident, however, that some means terest,"
Si-'gio
Larmm—Magnu M 1962
Prime Minister Marltet In
82
must be found to prevent the further spread of this weapon of incalculable mass destruction if the civilization of the west is to survive. It is in this sense that the future of western Europe cannot be considered in isolation. A nuclear war in the United States and the Soviel, Union might leave in each giant land mass some remnant of the present order on which a society might pos-
sibly be reconstructed over the years or the centuries.
a
war would leave
little
But such hope for survival on the crowded penin-
sula of Europe.
CHAPTER
5
As soon as the dark shadow of possible nuclear conflict is invoked in a discussion of Europe's future, there is a feeling of letdown, an ominous fear that in a world of so many imponderables,
moment toward European
the activity of the a
dim
pervading gloom.
light in the
unity
may
be only
It is useful at this point to
consider the larger context of the future of European unity, to observe the effects that the Six may have on the entire world,
avoids the pitfall of becoming ingrown and exclusive. Vis-
if it
ionaries like Jean
Monnet
convinced that the course of
are
Europe's political union will lead
inevitably into a meaningful
it
and productive relationship with the cas. Asia and Africa.
Europe, the Ameri-
rest of
The question political
to be answered first of all is the nature of the union that can finally be agreed to among the Common
Market countries themselves. What form certain, since there are
still
it
will take is far
from
important areas of disagreement. The
foreign ministers of the six countries have gone over the ground at least four separate times without
firm conclusion.
One
any new
tionship between
being able to reach any
of the chief stumbling blocks political organization
Atlantic Treaty organization. Should
linked to a defense alliance that
it
is
the rela-
and the North
continue to be explicitly
by the United States and also includes Canada, Iceland, Greece, Turkey, Portugal, Norway, Denmark and Great Britain? Or should the connection be modified to become no more than an informal understanding? is
led
This question has an important bearing on the eventual form the political organization will take
and whether it is to be regarded by other western nations as a full-time participant in the cold war or as a force more independent of the struggle between east and west than some of the six countries have been separately.
French Cool
A
to British
developed among the ministers at one of their regular quarterly meetings over whether the British should take lively dispute
part in the discussion of political forms before they actually are
admitted into E.E.C. Belgium and the Netherlands argued for the presence of a British representative. After all. Britain had
Common Market and once admitted would be pledged to become a part of the political union when it took shape, and therefore it should have a voice Ln applied for full membership in the
helping to shape
Common Market
it.
in
Already at that time the opposition to the England was voicing fears that any entry
into a European political union would compromise the monarchy and reduce proud Britannia to subjection to the continental powers. But the French, with their own view of a European partnership, were opposed to extending an invitation to a nonmember, and the foreign ministers agreed to disagree.
The
and what have on fhe members of the British Commonwealth cannot go unanswered for long. The nations of the commonwealth, notably the underdeveloped countries in Asia and Africa, are distinctly unhappy over the way things are going. larger question of the terms of British entry
effect those
terms
will
At the meeting of the commonwealth prime ministers. Nehru complained bitterly that, under the terms then being put forward, the only items India would be able to tariff
barriers
Vaudrr
F,
en— Fix
would be
cricket bats
from Publix
(lop); Erich
De Gaulle (top) and Adenauer met Britain's In
1962
V
'ith
reserve
sell
and polo
U o'
to
England free of He remarked
sticks.
-Magnum rel to the
THE NEW EUROPE
Sept. 10,
sardonically that he thought the limited.
The prime minister
for both would be Abubakar Taf awa Balewa,
demand
of Nigeria,
announced that his country would refuse association with the Common Market, since Nigeria intended to hold to a strict neutrality. Britain's Heath was dismayed, for he had spent long and trying hours persuading the E.E.C. ministers that the former British colonies
which were now independent African nations
should have the privilege of association, as had the former French colonies. Even the willingness of the Six to concede special consideration for
New
Zealand and
on with a jaundiced eye
at the
its butter and wool was looked commonwealth meeting.
Broader Membership Feared On
the continent there are
many who
look upon the Six as a
manageable and realistic component of unity and feel that this entity would be diluted by the adherence and the association of a whole range of European and non-European powers. They feel the E.E.C. would lose its strength and degenerate into a loose economic bring in
alliance.
Once Britain
Norway and Denmark
is
in,
she
is
as well, since
it
bound to try to was British per-
suasion that led the two Scandinavian powers to join the European Free Trade association; moreover, Norway and Denmark are Britain's ancient trading partners. Ireland
become tariff
a full
member. With Britain
is
also eager to
a partner in an exclusive
union, Ireland's present trade relationship with the United
Kingdom would become
all
but impossible.
And
then there
is
Portugal, Albion's oldest ally on the continent.
Also related to the possible admittance of a nation like Ire-
which is not a NATO member, is the problem of how the European neutrals will fare. Sweden, Switzerland and Austria, who are either unwilling or unable to join what is expected to be
land,
a political union, present complicated questions. ciation
84
may, of course, be worked out;
this
Terms
of asso-
has already been
Period ral imports, c.i.f.
1962
:
THE NEW EUROPE Union exacted for agreeing to remove its occupybecome an independent state after 17 years, first under the Nazis and then under the victorious Allies. But in the easy coffeehouse atmosphere of price the Soviet
and
ing force
for permitting Austria to
Vienna that has survived after so of being left out of the
than
it
many
disasters, the possibility
foreign ministers meeting with the commission early in Aug.
mind the stern Heath sought to get approval for a proposal to delay the coming into effect of the variable levies on agricultural products. He was asking, that is to say, for a special dispensation so that Britain and her associates in the commonwealth would have additional years in which to work out their problems of agriculture. But the Six had worked too hard on formulating those levies, and the answer was a firm "no." That answer had been foreshadowed in the fifth general report of the E.E.C. commission on its activities, where the policy on new admissions was stated as follows
always
in their constitution a stipulation to
remain neutral. .\ny government seeking to take the country into
European union would have
to get approval of the voters to
would not be
change the constitution, and
this
people that has lived for so
many
isolation.
same reason
It was this solidarity that Britain faced as Edward Heath renewed negotiations for his country's admission. The earlier effort had come to a full stop in a dramatic all-night session of the
a less urgent matter
to survive.
born
keep the club separate
-Austrians greet their
out that their labour costs are very low and that this will enable
a
instinct to
Many
does in Stockholm and Bern.
The Swiss have
accompanied by the
new Europe seems
problem with the same philosophic smile that they have learned to use whenever they are faced by bad fortune or good, and point
them
inevitable,
and exclusive.
The Swiss
at all easy for a
centuries in proud and stub-
much
are resented in Europe for
the
have been so phenomenally successful. As bankers and innkeepers they have maintained very large reserves of gold which underwrite a currency
1962. Returning to Brussels in October, having in
commonwealth prime
strictures of the
ministers.
as the Swedes, namely, that they
as solid as the Matterhorn. If only because the dynastic storms
and a half have left Switzerland untouched, the Europeans who have experienced them look with a jealous eye on this carefully ordered oasis. And if any country can survive of the past century
the penalty of exclusion
it is
Switzerland.
Iberian Nations
measures carried out in the earliest years. Nevertheless, it appears extremely important to the Commission that the final date fixed by the Treaty for the transition period January 1, 1970 should in any event be completely observed in all fields.
Both Portugal and Spain have asked not for
full
membership
immediately because of the
dis-
ordered state of their economies, they at least hope that the
—
—
By
Worry Six
but for association, similar to that which has been granted Greece. If they could not achieve this
Doubtless a problem of "catching up" will arise for countries enter-
Community five to si.\ years after its inception. This may justify certain lime lags, in particular as regards the application of
ing the
taking this firm stand on ever\'thing connected with the
Com-
munity system, the Commission believes that it is acting in the interest not only of the Community as a whole but also of future members. The widening of the Community must not be allowed to impair its dynamic nor the confidence which European and international opinion place in it. By showing future partners the nature and extent of the obligations flowing from the Treaty and also the wealth of possibilities it offers,
the present negotiations constitute a sort of initiation to the
E.E.C. deadline of 1970 (the end of the transition period) would
Community 'way of life' which has emerged since 1952 and which now has an appreciable influence on the attitude of government depart-
be extended in their instances so they will have time to shape
ments and parUamentary and professional
them in accord with Common Market practice. From the economic viewpoint Spain is a better bet than Portugal to be admitted without any such extension. In both countries, however, the political situation certain as to cause hesitation
among
the Six. It
how
matter of moribund dictatorships and
by
stable
is
so un-
is
not merely a
they can be supplanted
governments with some popular support. Such a
tion in the future
is
transi-
not inconceivable, at least in Spain. But
across the Mediterranean, greatly complicating efforts in Iberia to achieve acceptance
powers.
M^occo,
and
Moscow
the southern shore of this great inland sea could
Communism adds
to the picture.
has
and Morocco, and the threat that
siderable inroads in Algeria
of
Muslim made con-
stability, are the left-of-centre
Algeria and Tunisia.
become
a bastion
another element of political uncertainty
The deep
feeling of
former colonial peoples
unchanged, the Six would risk the enmity of north African na-
by embracing the
munist penetration there
last
weighs the merits and
all
London speech
May
preted these words of
Monnet
as a
to
an international
Moscow apparently internew version of the "position
1;
of strength" approach:
it.
Khrushchev has been
liabilities of
The
each country on
much
six countries of the
their past differences,
Everybody will see that the partnership between the United States and a United Europe can transform the West by its own efforts and cannot be changed by any external pressures; once this b realized, conditions will have been created for a lasting settlement between the Soviet Union and the West.
and make Com-
on the scales by which the E.E.C.
the political factor counts for nearly as
potential or lack of
with
cblonial powers,
easier.
It is evident, then, that
list,
in a
it
Africa small bits of a once-great empire. If this situation remains
tions
statement by Monnet
group of manufacturers on
works especially against PortugalTnow making a determined effort to hold on to .\ngola and Mozambique. To a lesser extent it works also against Spain, which still holds in the world, and
well over the horizon, with
is
directed aeainst those powers that ruled over colonies around
circles in the six countries.
no serious thought being given to it as yet, is the question of how the Soviet Union and its satellites will relate to the new Europe, As might be expected, the reaction of Moscow to the phenomenon of European unity has been ambivalent. While eastern bloc economists were inclined to treat the phenomenon of the new Europe seriously and seemed to be trying to come to some sort of terms with it, on May 2i. 1962, Pravda, the organ of the central committee of the Communist party, delivered an angry full-page blast denouncing the Common Market as an economic device to strengthen the aggressive military machine of the west. There was speculation that the Pravda blast had been in response to a Still
its
as
waiting
economic
Common
Market,
have a certain homogeneity of
Common
He
Market,
dustrial exhibition
Italians
were moving
for the Soviet Union.
necessary to achieve unity thus far, and a certain clubbiness
is
in-
of a group of Italian
in the right direction, that
is.
toward neu-
tralism, the Soviet premier said at a reception in the Italian
consideration looms as an important one. In addition a sense of effort
visit
businessmen as a sounding board. Premier Fanfani and the
purchaser of Soviet
making the great
the forefront of the attack on the
and the concurrent
background and experience. In the continuing debate over who shall and who shall not be permitted to join, this psychological solidarity has developed in the course of
in
used the Russian opening of an Italian
embassy.
He had
fields,
Russia
world
oil
is
reason for this accolade, for Italy oil.
Oil ranks first in earning
With the reported
is
the largest
hard currency
discover>- of great
new
believed ready to direct a general assault on the
market which has been hitherto dominated by a half-
85
THE NEW EUROPE begun to be
The
what they are going
to appreciate
to
have
do
to
in order
both competitive and co-operative with the new Europe.
trade act provides for retraining of workers and realloca-
tion of industry in the U.S.
partnership will
mean
industry as yet undreamed
in the
A
this is only the beginning.
true
American pattern of
of.
At the same time, just as an important block
—
alterations in the
in
Europe, agriculture
path of any
is
bound
real. partnership.
to
be
America's
huge farm surpluses have hung over world markets, constantly
commodity prices. Even volume of farm products, this coun-
threatening to depress already-depressed so, in giving
try has
makes
made
away
a large
incursions into the markets of other nations. This
for complications that appear a great deal harder to re-
solve than those within the borders of the Six. There
world food conference to try to strike a balance
talk of a
is
in production,
consumption and distribution. This might be a way
out.
But
to
resolve the conflicting interests of farm groups in different parts
of the globe, each with fruits of the earth,
wisest and
is
its
stubborn and ancient claim on the
an undertaking to tax the powers of the
most patient of negotiators.
One can conjure up a number Market can never be more than
of reasons
why
the
Common
a close-knit economic alliance
within the frame of the old Europe.
And even
should these be
overcome, the nationalism of each individual country as such
seems
likely to evolve into a
European nationalism. And while
it will not be the new force that movement envisioned Europe as the starting point for a world-wide community of common trade and interests. Hardly more than a decade ago, however, you did not have to search far to find a hundred reasons why the Common Market would never come into being. It was impossible, and only
this will
be a striking change,
many pioneers
Amintore Fanfani
dozen international companies
in the
a
of Italy
few
of the
nai've idealists
—
put any real credence
in its
advent.
United States and Britain.
West Germany is Russia's second largest buyer with a total of more than 2,000,000 tons a year. When the E.E.C. transition pecomes
riod
have
an end,
to
member
all
to co-ordinate their respective
community
will
then decide whether
countries will presumably
economic it is
policies
and the
in its interest to con-
To be shut out of European markets would be a serious blow for the Soviets. President Kennedy, Jean Monnet and many others of lesser tinue to import Soviet petroleum.
rank have spoken confidently of a partnership between the E.E.C. and the United States. In the Trade Expansion act giving him broad powers over tariffs, the president has a charter on
which
But the terms are still far from Common Market capitals discovers a scarcely veiled suspicion of American intentions. Do you really intend to let down your tariff walls to our goods, the European asks, or do you merely want tc seem to in order to get to build this partnership.
certain,
and one who inquires
in the
entry into our markets? In part this suspicion grew out of the action that the president took, at the very time
most earnestly advocating
his liberalized trade
when he was
program, in ap-
proving an increase in U.S.
tariffs on carpets and glass. Tariffs on these particular goods are a matter of great sensitivity in the Benelux countries. In response, the Common Market countries
promptly raised the
making of
their tariffs
on polyethylene products used
plastics. If this
kind of
tit
in
for tat continues dur-
new era opened up by the trade act, then the act will have been hardly more than a gesture toward partnership. Later ing the
in the year, after the act
the right direction tariff
when
had been passed, there was a move
in
the president vetoed an increase in the
on bicycles, which are a highly sensitive British export
to
this country.
But American
86
industrialists
and trade unionists have scarcely
biy Sept. 20,
1960
THE NEW EUROPE
United Press Intemationai ;ident Kejinedy greeting Jean
Today,
How
far
in small things its
and
in large, a
how broad symbol of this new
reach and
its
new
Monnet, father
spirit is
abroad.
influence no one can say.
But a visible spirit deserves mention here, an institution called European Schools. Shortly after the Coal and Steel Gommunity set up its offices in Luxembourg in 1952, officials coming from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands were faced with the problem not only of finding
new homes but of educating their children. A parents association made up of fathers and mothers of six different nationahties was formed
to discuss the founding of a school which would enable their children to cultivate their native tongues and study their respective national cultures.
to take
too
up
much
their education at
home
This would enable them later at
an advanced level without
difficulty.
a child
can enter at the age of four, go through
and take the examination for the "European Leaving Certificate." If he passes he can enter any university in the six Common Market countries or in Austria, Switzerland or England. It was a unique venture in the field of the equivalent of high school
international education.
In April 1957 the charter of the European Schools was signed
by the
six
curriculum follows five basic principles: (1) the teaching of basic is carried out in the child's mother tongue, French, Italian, Dutch or German; (2) instruction is based on syllabuses
subjects
and schedules that represent a synthesis of those in force in the six nations; (3) each pupil must learn a second language, called the "working language." either French or German, commencing with the beginning of his primary education (in the primary school the "working language" is used in the "European lessons," which include singing, drawing, manual work and g>Tnnastics, for one hour a day; in the secondary school
governments, thereby giving
it
it is
used in teach-
ing history, geography, biologj', physics, chemistry and art his;
(4) students
must acquire
a thorough
knowledge of mod-
two or three foreign languages (besides the "working lanless fluently; (5) freedom of rehgious conviction and opinion is respected, and families may choose the form
either
for chil-
dren from four to six. This was followed in Oct. 1953 by a fiveyear primary school, and later a seven-year secondary school was
Today
proportionately allocated, of each of the governments. As put together by leading education experts of the six countries, the
tory)
The beginning was modest, with only a kindergarten
White House March 26, 1962
ern languages, so that at the end of their studies they can speak
Graduates Eligible for Universities
added.
of the E.E.C., at the
the financial support,
guage") more or
of religious instruction given their children.
The teaching
staff is
made up
of experienced teachers
country, chosen by their respective governments.
European Schools
from each
Today
there
Luxembourg, and others in Mol, Belgium; Brussels; Varese, Italy; and Karlsruhe, Germany. Each of these cities is the site of an agency of the European Economic Community, and children of community-employed families are not required to pay tuition. Others may attend on payment of a fee. In the Brussels school, for are five
:
the original one in
87
THE NEW EUROPE example, 1,400 children are enrolled representing 29 different nationalities
;
included are 50 American students.
The European
Schools are bringing together children from the Six and from other countries dedicated to building a united Europe, and educating
them from
their early years to the threshold of adulthood.
perhaps best expressed in the parchments enclosed in the cornerstones of the schools of Luxembourg and Varese:
The
goal
is
Being brought up in contact with each other and freed at an early age from the prejudices which divide, initiated into the beauties and values of various cultures, they will as they grow up become conscious of their solidarity. While retaining love for their country, they will become in spirit Europeans well prepared to complete and consoUdate the work undertaken by their fathers to establish a prosperous and united Europe.
These remarkable schools suggest what may be in store for new Europe. They are a demonstration of what the shaping of a new continent can mean for the future. In so many ways Europeans are learning to co-operate. France and Italy worked the
together to complete the tunnel under the Alps that eliminates mi. of dangerous mountain driving on the allimportant route linking the two countries. France, Britain and
more than 200
UNEMPLOYMENT
IN THE E.E.C. The trend of unemployment In the member countries of the European Economic Community had been steadily downward, ord low. Shortages of labour ocand by mid-1962 unemployment was ce: "Bulletin from the European curred. particularly in skilled categoric :
Community") END OF MONTH FIGURES (0001
1960 2,000 1,600 1,300
THE NEW EUROPE As
De
Gaulle
is
the
embodiment of one
side of
French history,
the France of martial exploits and chivalric heroism. Jean
Mon-
net embodies the France of reason, the Enlightenment, the wise and practical ordering of daily life.
Those privileged
War
II.
when
to
know him
since the beginning of
his concept of a unified
Europe
first
World
began to
take shape, have never ceased to marvel at his optimism.
word optimism
is
The
inadequate. It has been conviction, faith, an
was the only means by must come about. Monnet's deep conviction is not at first outwardly discernible. There is nothing of the flaming evangelist about this small, compact man who looks much younger than his 73 years. He speaks in a dry, even voice that is rarely raised even for emphasis. He might be unshakable belief that, since
this unity
which Europe could be saved, then
it
the proprietor of a successful business
who
entertains only the
most casual concern for public affairs. But it would be difficult to exaggerate the singleness of purpose and the quiet sense of mission that have unfailingly sustained him through all the trials and tribulations attendant upon the coming into being of the Common Market. During his years in Washington between 1940 and 1945. when he was responsible for negotiating the assistance that
planted in the minds of
Benri Cartier-Brsjat
many
went
influential
to the Free French, he
Americans the seed of
new Europe. So
a belief in the
was
p)ersuasive
he, despite his
apparently casual manner, that they became converts almost
without realizing
made
it.
The
influence he exerted
at that time helped
enormously
and the friends he
in later years.
excellent lunch or dinner in his comfortable house
Over an
on Foxhall
road Americans of ever\- rank heard Monnet speak with the
The Monnet brandy (the family business) that was passed around with the coffee seemed a part of the lesson. voice of reason.
—
If he despaired at the darkest times for example, when French participation in the European Defense Community was
turned down and the current of unity seemed to have been cut across flicted in
— then
it
was
June 195S when
An
his secret.
Only once did he seem
with doubt and uncertainty: on the
De
brilliant,
to be af-
sunny day
Gaulle was installed as president of France.
ardent nationalist had been brought into power in reaction to
an attempted military coup that had come dangerously close to bringing
down
all ci\'il
mention Europe, was in fact a in the
moment
authority.
in doubt, to
of irresolution.
The
future of France, not to
say the
least.
Monnet quickly
But
if
this
recovered.
was
Even
grimmest days of the Algerian
when authority
conflict and in those days France was threatened by the war, Monnet never wavered. Algeria would
in metropolitan
imminence of civil become independent, and France, thus unencumbered, would be
THE NEW EUROPE more nearly
has in fact seemed to occur naturally and inevitably, and there-
able to take her proper place in a unified Europe.
Luxembourg, as head of the Coal and Steel Community, and then in his Paris apartment, 87 Avenue Foch, on the
fore the force of any challenge that jealous nationalism might have offered has been nowhere near as great as might have been
edge of the Bois de Boulogne, this unflagging prophet never
expected.
First in
new Europe. The
ceased working to bring about the reality of a
The
contrast with what happened after
World War
I
could scarcely be sharper. Then, by the proclamation of a few
an informal
statesmen, the League of Nations was brought into being. While
committee made up of representatives of labour, industry and
the League performed valuable services, it was not designed to submerge national rivalries or to initiate the meshing of national economies. That kind of unity was simply not within the range of
instrument he has used since coming to Paris
Common Market
finance in each of the the mainspring, this
and
it is
countries.
Monnet
is
and decisiveness that have given
his drive
committee the force
is
exerts in postwar Europe. Within the
it
frame of European integration Monnet remains the pragmatist, the practical
man, who wants
to achieve results without stirring
up a quarrel over the words that
may
be used to describe those
results.
This characteristic was well illustrated in a
memorandum on
1962 confidential
rent of unification,
zation for
Monnet expressed
in a
statement he
made
)
ican adherence to the League
the question of
Amer-
the senate of the
United States, there was a dramatic confrontation with nationalism.
The
dire consequences of the failure of the Versailles treaty
and of the bankruptcy of the whole structure of war debts and reparations were written in the two decades that followed.
Declaration of Interdependence
his belief that the Organi-
is
When
came before
the direction of the cur-
A
Economic Cooperation and Development (O.E.C.D.
successor, in 1961, to the O.E.E.C.
vision of the statesmen in that era.
an instrument capable of
statement widely heralded around the world underscored the
Kennedy, speaking
contrast. President
at
Independence
hall in
1962, declared that the United States was
furthering the steps essential to an economic partnership between
Philadelphia on July
Europe and North America, He was saying, in effect, that a is at hand and that no grandiose declaration or
ready to take a great step forward. His speech was a call for economic partnership with Europe in the pragmatic pattern outlined by Monnet, a long-time friend of the president. The first order of
practical tool
high-sounding treaty
nomic
To
alliance.
is
his
necessary to achieve the goal of an eco-
mind,
this organization
has inherent in
it
20 Nations in O.E.C.D. The 20 members of the 0,E,C,D,
are the
European nations
that participated in the Marshall plan (including the Federal Re-
Germany)
public of
plus Canada, Switzerland and the United
At least 20 committees within this organization are workon the problems of interdependence within the Atlantic community such problems as economic and monetary policies, manpower and social services, shipping and transportation, agriStates,
ing
—
cultural surpluses
subcommittee
is
and the rate of industrial growth, A separate concerned with the balance of payments. Re-
member
nine of the
— the
European friends to go will some day make this partnership possible," Then he went on to utter words of the greatest moment for the future of western Europe and the business, the president said, "is for our
forward
the seeds of a political union spanning the Atlantic.
4,
in
forming the more perfect union which
Atlantic alliance:
But I will say here and now on this day of independence that the United States will be ready for a Declaration of Interdependence that we will be prepared to discuss with a United Europe the ways and means of forming a concrete Atlantic partnership a mutually beneficial partnership between the union now emerging in Europe and the old American union founded here 175 years ago.
—
What
surprised most observers was that American opinion
seemed to accept ther development
this as right in
and
logical. It
an evolution begun
1
7
was merely a
years earlier
fur-
when
the
helping to resolve the nagging
European assistance were being formed. Although the Tribune Tower in Chicago may have swayed a little, as James Reston noted in the New York Times, otherwise
question of the drain upon America's gold and dollar balance.
the president's declaration, directed to the annual conference of
This subcommittee, which
state governors,
stricted
to
Britain,
France,
Germany,
Switzerland and Sweden
—
is
meet O.E.C.D.'s goal of a
to
product of each six
weeks
member
Netherlands,
the is
it
nations
United States, Italy,
Canada,
responsible for trying to find
50%
ways
increase in the gross national
nation by 1970, meets every four to
to review progress.
With
the addition of Japan, the
only country with a key currency not represented,
Monnet
sees
becoming an ad hoc committee charged with approving any loans that might be made under the stand-by credit arrangements agreed to by the International Monetary Fund and these same 20 countries; late in Dec. 1961 these countries voted to inthe group
crease greatly their backing of the
Monetary Fund's
reserve.
The
O.E.C.D.'s Development Assistance committee, working on aid to underdeveloped countries, already includes Japan.
Monnet from
the beginning has envisioned the organic growth community. The small sapling planted in the soil of Europe was to take ever deeper root and its branches were to spread out over an ever widening area. Much of this growth of the Atlantic
90
first
ideas of a plan for
was taken
in stride.
Such passionate and dedi-
cated idealists as Clarence Streit, whose Union
has done so
much
Now movement
promote the concept of an Atlantic community, could scarcely have foreseen two decades ago the calm acceptance of this revolution in American attitudes. Nor could Europeans, who in an equally short span of time have rather come to take for granted the large continuing role played by to
the United States in the defense of the west, conceive of
how
it was parallel with the revolution and communications that has shrunk the globe to a mere fraction of its former size. Nonetheless, a declaration of interdependence with Europe the Europe so long regarded with suspicion by settlers who for 300 years have been emigrating from that continent to the new world uttered by a president of the United States, is confirmation of the profound alteration worked by men and events.
radical a shift
it
was. True,
in transportation
—
—
1963
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS JOHN
DODGE
V.
EDWARD
DOYLE
P.
Executive Editor
Associate Editor,
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Managing
HOWARD
E.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Editor,
Britannica Book of the Year
JAMES WHITMORE
KASGH
Managing Editor
Art Director
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica
TED LEIGHTON,
Initials
and names oj
contributors to the
Nigeria {in part)
SIR ALAN CUTHBERT BURNS. Formerly Colonial Governor. Author of History of Nigeria; Colour Prejudice; etc. A.C.Fa. Soutli Carolina A. C. FLORA. JR. Associate Professor of Economics Director. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of South Carolina,
of the
Year
Britannica Book of the Year with
The arrangement
principal articles written by them. A.C.Bs.
Book
Art Editor, Britannica
is
the
alphabetical by initials.
A.M.Ro.
Sociology ROSE. Professor of Sociology, University of Minneapolis. Author of Human Behavior and Social Processes; Theory and Method in the Social Sciences; Sociology: The
ARNOLD MARSHALL Minnesota,
Study of
Human
Relations.
;
Columbia.
A.Mu.
Dance {in part) President, National Institute of Social DancAuthor of Ballroom Dancing; Dance Secrets; How To Become a Good Dancer; etc. Producer of network TV show: "The Arthur Murray
ARTHUR MURRAY.
ing.
A.D.Bo.
Boston
(Mrs.)
ALICE DIXON BOND.
Herald and Boston Traveler.
Literary Editor. Boston (Mass.) Lecturer on books and authors.
A.E.Tr.
Argentina
AMOS
{in part); etc.
TAYLOR.
E.
Professor of Economics, American University, Formerly Director, Department of Economic
Washington, D.C. and Social Affairs, Pan American Union, Washington, D.C. A.G.
ALBERT GANADO.
ANTONE
G.
SINGSEN.
ANNE
Nursing
WARNER.
R.
{in part)
Insurance
{in part)
Vice-President, Blue Cross Association.
A.G.
Surgery
M.D. Director, Department of Surgery, Ochsner Clinic and Ochsner Foundation Hospital, New Orleans. La. Emeritus Professor of Surgery, School of Medicine, Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans. France
A.Pr.
ANDRE
PIERRE.
Author of Vie
A.J. A.M.
ANDREW JAMES ALEXANDER MANGO.
Turkey
Assistant Director. Public Relations Program,
American Nurses' Association.
ALTON OCHSNER,
Malta Lawyer, Malta.
A'G.S.
Party."
An.R.W.
{in part); French Literature {in part) of editorial staff of Le Monde, Paris.
Member
de Tolstoi (Paris)
U.R.S.S. (Paris)
;
;
etc.
{in part)
Turkish Program
Organizer, British Broadcasting Corporation.
Panama
A.R.W.
ALMON ROBERT WRIGHT.
{ir(part)
Senior Historian, U.S. Department of
State. A.J. Me.
A.
J.
Fishing
McCLANE.
Fislilng Editor, Field
&
Stream,
New
York, N.Y.
A.J.Pr.
Nevada JR. Assistant to the Nevada Legislative Counsel. Author of County Consolidation and Reorganization in Nevada; Political History of Nevada {19S9); A Study of the Presidential Primary.
ARTHUR JUDSON PALMER,
Arkansas {in part) A(NTHONY) STEPHAN. Professor of Sociology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Co-author of Guide to Studies of Social Conditions in the Twin Cities (with R. F. Sletto and C. F.
A.S.Sn.
STEPHEN
Schmid).
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates Assistant Director, Department of South Asia and Middle East, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, D.C.
A.Ste.
ALEXANDER STEVENSON.
A.J.Wr.
Geography A. JOSEPH WRAIGHT. Chief Geographer, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Washington, D.C. Author of The Field Study of Place; etc.
Operations,
At.H.D. A.Ke.
ALLAN KELLER.
New York Reporter,
New
Author of books and many magazine A-l-.A.
ANGEL LIBORIO AYUSO. ice, Belize.
AUDREY
articles.
British Honduras {in part) Program Organizer. Broadcasting Serv-
British Honduras.
A-M.Ds. istration,
City
York World Telegram and Sun.
M.
New
Municipal Government {in part) Library Director, Institute of Public AdminYork, N.Y.
DA VIES.
Housing
ALBERT HAROLD DEHNER.
(in
parO
Executive Officer of Finance-Law, Division of Business Administration, Portland State College, Portland, Ore.
A.V.A.
ALLEN V(ARLEY) ASTIN. Author of papers
in physics
A.W.Br.
Urban Transportation, U.S.
ARTHUR ciation,
National Bureau of Standards Director, National Bureau of Standards. journals.
and engineering
W. BAKEk.
New
General Secretary, American Transit AssoYork. N.Y., which prepared the article.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Japan
A.W.Bs.
ARDATH WALTER BURKS. New
ence. Rutgers University,
Aw.H.
Ohairman Professor ;
of Political Sci-
Brunswick, N.J.
Archaeology
CHARLES
ANDREW
{in part)
BORDEN.
E.
British Columbia, American Antiquity.
Congressional Investigations; Dirksen, Everett McKinley; etc. HAMILTON. Researcli writer. Congressional Quarterly.
93
Ch.E.B.
Lecturer in Archaeology, University of Vancouver. Associate Editor, Current Research,
C.J. Co.
Ireland, Republic of (in part)
CONNOLLY JAMES COLE.
Ay.Kn.
Spanish Literature (THOMAS) ANTHONY KERRIGAN. Editor and trans.. Pio Baroja's The Restlessness of Skanti Andia and Other Writings; Jorge Luis Borges" Ficciones; Miguel de Unamuno's Collected Works. British South African Territories {in pari) SILLERY. Secretary to the Curators of the Taylor InOxford University. Author of Africa: a Social Geography; The Bechuanaland Protectorate; Sechele.
Ay.Sy.
ANTHONY stitution.
C.J.S.D. C. J.
Indians, American
S. DURHAM. Former Director of Information, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Wastiington, D.C.
C.L.Wi.
CONRAD
L.
WIRTH.
DC.
National Parks and Monuments (in part) Director. National Park Service. Washington,
C.N.E.
Aluminum
B.B.M.
Diamonds {in part); etc. Commodity Industry An-
{in pari);
BERENICE BARRICK MITCHELL.
Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the
alyst,
Interior,
Washington,
D.C.
Baltimore; Maryland
CARL
N.
EVERSTINE.
ence, Baltimore, of Maryland.
Director. Department of Legislative Referof History of the Grand Lodge of Masons
Md. Author
C.P.Sm.
B.D.M.
Utah
BRIGHAM
D.
MADSEN.
Associate Professor of History,
Utah State
University, Logan.
Child Labour CLYDE P. SMITH. Acting Chief, Division of Youth Services and Employment Standards, Bureau of Labor Standards, U.S. Department of
Labor.
Church Membership
C.S.B.
X-Ray and Radiology
Be.B.
BERNARD BAKER,
M.D.
Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Radiology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago.
Machinery and Machine Tools New York, N.Y.
B.Fy.
BURNHAM FINNEY.
CHARLES
etc.
Editor, American Machinist,
C.W.A.
B.M.H.
BEN MOHR HERBSTER.
United Church of Christ
New
Insurance T.
NEWTON,
JR.
Bolivia (in part); Peru (in part)
CHARLES W. ARNADE. Florida.
President. United Cliurcli of Christ.
B.T.N.
BLAKE
{in part)
President, Institute of Life Insurance,
York, N.Y.
B.T.S.
Planktonology,
BYRON
Church Membership (in part) BENSON Y. LANDIS. Editor, Research Publications, Bureau of Research and Survey, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., New York, N.Y,
C.W.K.
C.A.A.
Donations, Bequests and Grants A. ANGER. Chairman, Board of Directors, and Chief Executive of John Price Jones Company. Inc. Author of Academic Eminence: a Study of Outstanding Scholars in SOS Graduate Fields; American Philanthropy for Higher Education; etc.
CHARLES
C.A.Bn.
Plastics
CHARLES
A.
and Modern
Plastics Encyclopedia,
BRESKIN.
Clialrman of the Board. Modern Plastics New York. N.Y.
C.Ar.
Chicago City Editor. Associated Press. Chicago.
\ CLIFFORD CHARLES KNERR.
C.C.K.
111.
Shipbuilding (in part) Secretary-Treasurer, Shipbuilders
Council of America.
Arkansas
CLOVIS COPELAND.
(in part)
Editor. The Headlight, Morrilton. Ark.
Woods Hole Oceanographlc
Institution,
Woods
Hole,
Botany
CHARLES W. HAGEN,
JR.
Professor of Botany. Indiana Unlver-
Bloomington.
sity.
Mathematics
CLIVE WILLIAM KILMISTER.
Reader In Applied Mathematics. King's College, London. Co-author of Eddington's Statistical Theory; Special Relativity for Physicists. Da.F.B.
DAVID
BRINEGAR.
F.
Arizona Executive Editor. Arizona Daily Star
(Tucson). D.A.Pe.
Veterinary Medicine
DONALD
A. Association.
PRICE. Editor
in Chief,
D.As.
American Veterinary Medical
Business
Management
(in part)
DICKSON ASH. Editor. OMce Executive magazine, official publication of National Office Management Association. Past President. Pliiladelphia Trade Association Executives and Philadelphia Booksellers Association. '
Commonwealth
D.Au.
DENNIS (GILBERT) AUSTIN. monwealth the
C.Co.
Marine Biology Research Assistant in
CONSTANCE WHITNEY CHADWICK. C.W.Hn.
B.Y.L.
Professor of History. University of South
Tampa.
C.W.Ck.
Agricultural Research Service T. SHAW. Administrator, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. D.C.
CARROLL ARIMOND.
(in part)
S. BRADEN. Emeritus Professor of History and Literature of Religions. Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Visiting Professor of Religion, Scripps College, Claremont, Calif.. 1954-56. Author ot Jesus Compared; These Also Believe; Christian Science Today;
of Nations (in part): etc, Research Fellow, Institute of ComAuthor of West Africa and
Studies, University of London.
Commonwealth.
D.Az.
Jewish Literature
DINA ABRAMOWICZ. Jewish Research.
New
Assistant
Librarian.
(in part)
Yivo Institute
for
York. N.Y.
C.CO.
Building and Construction Industry CARTER CLARKE OSTERBIND. Research Professor. College of Business Administration, University of Florida. Gainesville. Author of Florida's Commercial Fisheries; Florida's Older People.
CD.O'C.
CHARLES DAVID O'CONNELL. Assistant
Dean
of Students.
JR.
Scholarships and Student Aid Director of Admissions and of Chicago.
The University
C.E.R.
Forests:
Forestry Information Specialist. Formerly with U.S. Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. Author of Our Forests; etc.
CHARLES
F. LEWIS. Director, Pa., 1928-56; Consultant, 1956-.
C.F.Sz.
The Buhl Foundation,
Pittsburgh Pittsburgh,
Budget, National; Debt, National; etc.
CHARLES
Reserve System C. MILLER. Vice-President. Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company of Chicago. Author of Taxes, the Public Debt, and Transfers of Income.
F. SCHWARTZ. Assistant Director, Western Hemisphere Department, International Monetary Fund. Washington. D.C.
DONALD
D.D.
Economics
DUDLEY
DILLARD. Professor and Head. Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College Park. Author of Economics of John Afaynard Keynes; co-author of Post-Keynesian Economics. Dd.A.W.
DONALD U.S.
A.
WILLIAMS.
Department
Soil Conservation Administrator. Soil Conservation Service,
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
D.E.Bs.
Railroads (in part)
DAPHNE EILEEN BARNES.
Deputy Editor. Railway
CHESTER GOULD.
Christian Science DeWITT JOHN. Manager. Committees on Publication. First Church of Christ. Scientist, Boston, Mass. Author of The Christian Science Way of Life.
DONALD FREDERIC CLIFTON, Cartoonist; creator of "Dick Tracy.
Gazette.
DeW.J.
D.F.C.
C.Go.
(in part); Federal
Lumber
CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL.
C.F.Ls.
Banking
D.C. Mi.
lurgy. University of Idaho,
Moscow.
Metallurgy Associate Professor of Metal-
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
94
of Soviet Socialist Republics (in part); etc. Special correspondent on Communist affairs.
Union
D.Fd.
DAVID FLOYD.
Red Cross (in part) Assistant Director, Office of Publica-
E.A.Ri.
EDWARD
A.
RICHARDS.
American National Red Cross.
tions,
Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph. London.
Rubber
E.B.Nn.
Candy
O.Gw.
DON GUSSOW. tioners Journal,
Publisher and Editor. Candy Industry and Confec-
New
York, N.Y.
D.H.B.
DONOVAN HINER BOND.
F.
Manager, Rubber Research, B. Goodrich Research Center, Brecksvllle, O.
Tropical Diseases M.D. Emeritus Professor of Parasiof Tropical Medicine and Public Health, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans. La. Member, Expert Panel on Parasitic Diseases, World Health Organization, Genpva, Swltz. Author of Animal Agents and 'Vectors of Human Disease; etc.
E.C.F.
West Virginia Director of Development and Pro-
fessor of Journalism, West Virginia University, Morgan town. Autiior Half-Century of Nursing in West Virginia; The Wheeling In-
of
EDWIN BOHANNON NEWTON.
A
ERNEST CARROLL FAUST, tology,
Department
telligencer to 1860.
Architecture
D.HI.
DOUGLAS HASKELL. D.J.H.
DONALD
J.
HART.
Editor, Architectural Forum.
New Yorli,
N.Y.
Wages and Hours Dean, College of Business Administration, Uni-
Newspapers and Magazines
E.Ey.
Professor of Journalism, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Author of The Press and America; History of the American Newspaper Publishers Association; etc. Associate Editor of Journalism Quarterly.
Maine
E.F.D.
versity of Florida, Gainesville.
EDWARD FRENCH
Tariffs (in part)
D.Lh.
DAVID LYNCH. Chief Economist, UnltSd States Tariff Commission. Author of The Concentration of Economic Power; The Tariff Policy of Greece; etc. Co-author of Postwar Developments in Japan's Foreign Trade.
DOW. Professor of Government and Head of the Department of History and Government, University of Maine, Orono. E.F.Rg.
EDWARD
ROSENBERG, M.D.
F.
Chicago Medical School, Chicago, D.L.La.
DAVID LOWELL LADD.
(in part)
EDWIN EMERY.
Patents and Trade-Marks Commissioner of Patents, U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
E.G. An.
ESTELLE
ANDERSON
G.
Rheumatic Diseases Assistant Professor of Medicine,
111.
Shoe Industry (Mrs. Arthur D. Anderson). Associate
Editor, Boot and Shoe Recorder.
Badminton
D.L.Pa.
DOROTHY LOUISE PARSONS. lication of the
Editor, Bird Chatter, official pub-
American Badminton Association.
E.H.O.
EDWARD
OWEN.
H.
Printing Editor, Printing Production Magazine, Cleve-
land, O.
D.O.F.
DANIEL OLIVER FLETCHER.
Business Review Assistant Professor of Economics,
D.P.B.
DONALD PETER BURKE.
Associate
Chemical Industry for Technology,
Editor
Chemical Week. Liberia (in part)
D.R.Pn.
DONALD RAHL PETTERSON.
Professor of Geography,
DAVID
S.
{in part)
EDWARD HAROLD STUART SIMMONDS.
Aviation, Civil (in part); Roads and Highways
E.J.Du.
ESTHER JAMES DUDGEON.
Analyst
in
Transportation
Communications (Economics Division), Legislative Reference Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
East
and
Service,
Bowling; Track and Field Sports; etc. News Editor, The Advocate, Newark. Co-editor of Baseball Encyclopedia.
E.J.G.
Carolina College, Greenville, N.C. D.S.Br.
Thailand
E.H.S.S.
Lecturer In Thai. School of Oriental and African Studies. University of London.
Ohio State University, Columbus.
EDWARD JOSEPH GRANT.
Kennedy, Edward Moore; Political Parties, U.S. BRODER. Political writer, Washington (D.C.) Evening
Star.
N.J.
Telephone
E.J.McNe.
EUGENE JOHNSON McNEELY.
Baseball (in part); Basketball; etc. SCHIFFER. Director, Sport and Outdoor Book Division of Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, N.Y. Author of Pro Football Handbook; Major League Baseball Handbook; World Series Encyclopedia.
D.Sr.
and Telegraph Company,
DONALD
E.J.Ro. E. J.
ROLAND.
New
President, American Telephone
York, N.Y.
Coast Guard, U.S. Admiral, U.S. Coast Guard Commandant, Washing-
ton, D.C.
D.S.V.
Mississippi Acting Associate Professor of PoScience and Assistant Director, Bureau of Governmental Research, University of Mississippi, L'niversity, Miss. Co-author of Yesterday's Constitution Today; A Manual of Mississippi Municipal Government; co-editor of A Directory of Mississippi Municipalities; Problems and Prospects in Public Administration.
DONALD SHORES VAUGHAN.
litical
D.W.A.
ERNEST
BERGMAN.
L.
Horticulture Assistant Professor of Plant Nutrition,
Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Hospitals
E.L.Cy.
EDWIN L. CROSBY, M.D.
Director,
American Hospital Association.
Co-operatives
DAVID W. ANGEVINE.
Information Director, Cooperative League
Merchant Marine
D.W.Ar.
{in part)
DONALD
W. ALEXANDER. Maritime Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. D.W.M.
National Guard
DONALD
W. McGOWAN. Major General, U.S. Army. Guard Bureau, Washington, D.C.
Chief,
Burma
D.Wo.
DOROTHY WOODMAN.
Fashion and Dress
EI.L.
ELEANOR LAMBERT.
of the U.S.A., Chicago.
tional
E.L.Bn.
Na-
E.M.Bi.
{in part)
ABC
Assistant Director, Information, American Dental Association.
EVA ADAMS.
Director, United States Mint, U.S.
of
Germany
E.MI.
EVA MOLL.
Principal Administrator, Organization for
E.M.Y.
{in part)
Economic
EDWARD MERLE YOUNG,
Department of
Tunnels JR. Associate Editor, Engineering
News-Record. E.R.BI.
Money
E.Ad.
Dentistry Public
ERIC MILLER BISHOP.
Cooperation and Development.
Staff contributor on Asian Affairs, New of the Pacific; The Making of
Statesman. London. Author of Burma; Republic of Indonesia.
President. Eleanor Lambert, Inc.
EUGENE tion
R.
BLACK.
International Development Association; etc. President, International Bank for Reconstruc-
and Development, Washington, D.C. (1949-62).
the Treasury, Washington, D.C.
North Dakota
E.Rn. E.A.J.D.
Canals and inland Waterways {in part) Editor, Roads and Their TrafTraffic Engineering and Control. Author of National Enterprise; etc.
ERNEST ALBERT JOHN DAVIES. fic;
ELWYN BURNS ROBINSON. E.S.Ah.
Ea.M.
EARL MAZO. Tribune.
International Propaganda National Political correspondent. New York Herald Political and Personal Portrait.
Author of Richard Nixon: a
E-A.Pr,
EDWARD
Fisheries of Statistics. Bureau of Com-
A. POWER. Chief, Branch mercial Fisheries, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Professor of History, University of
North Dakota, Grand Forks. Author of Heroes of Dakota. Iraq (in parO; etc.
EDWARD SELIM An Arab
Tells
ATIYAH. Writer and broadcaster. Author of His Story; The Arabs; Black Vanguard; Lebanon Para-
dise; etc.
E.S.Br.
Tennis
EDWIN 8. BAKER. 'Executive Secretary, United States Lawn Tennis Association.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS E.S.K. E. S.
Foreign Credits, U.S. KERBER. Chief. GoTemment Grants and Credits Section. Balance of Payments Division. Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D.C.
F-P-K.
Brewing and Beer Chairman, United States Brewers Association.
F-fl-B.
E.V.Lh. E. T.
LAHEY.
95
FRANCIS PATON KIMBALL. Director. Bureau of New York State Department of Commerce.
licity.
Author of
New
FRANKLIN
New York Business PubAlbany. N.Y.
York, the Canal State; Albany, a Cradle of America.
R.
BRUNS.
Philately Director. Division of Philately. Post
JR.
Department; Washington. D.C. 1947-62. Acting Curator, Cardinal Spellman Philatelic Museum. 1962Sj-ndicated Stamp Columnist. Author of Stamp Co/teco a formal agreement for the final settlement of U.S. post-
announced a broad economic and social program designed to raise South Vietnamese living
wareconomicassistance to Japan.
standards.
in 2nd
Council of Organization of American States (OAS) lifted all diplomatic and economic sanctions against the Dominican
ington,
session of 87th U.S. congress convened in WashD.C.; Rep. John W. McCormack (Dem., Mass.) was elected to succeed Sam Rayburn (deceased) as speaker of the house.
$92,537,000,000, was submitted to congress by Pres.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, after an 8strike, concluded a contract with employers in New York, N.Y., providing for a 25-hr. work week plus 5 hr. overtime.
day
1Q
Pres.
lu U-\ in
Kennedy and
Secy. -Gen.
New York
-Acting
U Thant met
city for their first
private conference on outstanding world problems.
Canadian Immigration Min16th session of the UN assembly opened debate on .Angola upon reconvening at UN headquarters in New York, N.Y.
IC
ister Ellen Fairclough announced new immigration regulations to abolish discrimination based on race, colour or religion.
on bU
Bulgarian jet fighter rying
car-
photographic equipin southern Italy.
ment crashed
an agreement to reduce their
tariffs reciprocally.
F.
1962
•
Secessionist Gizenga of Conwas flown under L?N guard from his home
go's Eastern province
Netherlands navy announced
New
Stanleyville to a villa in Leopoldville where he remained custody.
Guinea, that
in
two Indonesian torpedo boats had been damaged (1 sank) in Dutch territorial waters off the
in
in Hollandia,
southern coast of
New
Guinea.
Council of state of the Dominican Republic was reported to have been ousted by a civilianmilitary junta.
UN
01 British commonwealth ^1 relations office announced that Britain and Nigeria would
abrogate their defense agreement, replacing it with an informal understanding.
lU
Republic.
Prime Minister Sir Roy Antoine Welensky Rhodesia jected a
UN
of the Federation of Nyasaland rerequest to station
UN\
observers on the Northern Rhodesia-Katanga border.
Secret
Army
Gizenga,
organization
1960 for 2nd-degree perjury, were given suspended sentences by a special-sessions judge in New York.
reported to $700,000,000
have trade
were
signed
a
5 in
tion
'
government.
U.S. Securities and Exchange commission ordered the .American Stock exchange to take prompt action to end "manifold and prolonged abuses" of trading rules
by
its
members.
Pres. Kennedy in his annual state of the union I I message to U.S. congress requested new authority- to reduce tariffs and to cut personal income taxes in an emergency.
11
the 3 Laotian princes be asked to meet in Gene\a to form a coali-
10
H
U.S.
state
dept.
issued
new regulations denying passports to Communist party members but entitling them to specified procedural safeguards.
Salvador congress promulgated a new constitution replac-
Directors of the two largest U.S. railroads the Penns\ Ivania and
ing that of 1950.
the
—
—
New York Central approved their merger, subject to the approval of stockholders
and the Dominican 6 U.S. Republic resumed diplo- and in
simultaneous
Marauding Congolese troops were reported to have murdered 19 Belgian Roman Catholic missionaries in northern Katanga.
Withdrawal of 12 Soviet tanks stationed near the East-West Berlin wall^ since Oct. 1961 followed a similar removal of a U.S. tank force 48
the
Interstate
commission
Commerce
hr. earlier.
French cabinet affirmed that would use all means to halt
it
the
El
matic relations
in
Pres. Oiosdado Macapagal of the Philippines issued a sweeping order abolishing all exchange controls on currency and in effect devaluing the peso.
OO ZZ
Pres.
Kennedy
in his first
annual economic report to
congress expressed confidence that the U.S. economy had regained its momentum. U.S.
Foreign ministers of the O.AS opened their conference at Punta del Este (Urug.); Central .American states proposed a Caribbean defense pact to the U.S.
agreement
for 1962.
14-nation conference on Laos, resuming its sessions Geneva (Switz.). voted that
quiz winders, indicted
10
Cuba and the U.S.S.R.
France.
TV
leftist
ernment
(O.A.S.),
rightist paramilitary underground in .Algeria, issued a call for insurrection against
Blue Shield Plans and the 1 1 American .Medical assn. announced a nationwide voluntary insurance program of surgical and medical care benefits for persons of 65 and over.
Congolese
leader of the rebel govin Stanleyville, agreed to return to Leopoldville to face secession charges only if the central goxernment of the Congo ended the secession of Katanga province.
and
1*7
terror
campaign
against Gaulle's .Algerian policies by the O..A.S. Pres.
Charles
De
Soviet government
in its
an-
nual economic communique "new successes in
claimed
"
peaceful competition with the U.S.; 1961 industrial production was 9.2% higher than fR 1960.
Pres. Kennedy announced the granting of a $25,000,000 emergency credit to the Dominican Republic.
1Q Civilian-military junta
Prime Minister Julius Nyere re
10 was ousted by a countercoup in the Dominican Republic and Rafael Bonelly was pro-
of
Tanganyika resigned
in
favour
claimed president.
Proposed U.S. federal budget for the fiscal \ear ending June 30, 1963. calling for revenue of
193,000,000,000 and expenditure
For disasters of 1962, see under that heading Intheteit. For obituaries of prominent persons who died In 1962, see Obituarist starting 864.
on Page
105
CHRONOLOGY OF
106
OT
Kawawa,
Rashidi nominee.
his
I
New
Zealand
L
I ran the mile in the record time of 3 min. 54.4 sec. at VVanganui, N.Z.
JANUARY— Confinwet/ of
Peter Snel of
own
EVENTS
1962
•
01 Foreign ministers
of the OAS, meeting at Punta del I Este, voted (14 to 1 with 6 abstentions) to expel Cuba from participation in inter-American
for the purpose of superthe removal of foreign mercenaries from Katanga were agreed to by Pres. Tshombe.
French Pres. De Gaulle in an address broadcast in metropolitan France and Algeria reaffirmed plans for an independent
Soviet government decree confirmed the removal of all place
affairs.
headquarters announced that member nations and other
names
nations belonging to
tov,
Argentine government crisis was brought on by the 3 cabinet secretaries for the armed forces who demanded that Pres. Arturo
UN
UN
agen-
had been asked to subscribe to a planned $200,000,000 UN
cies
bond
the
in
U.S.S.R.
desig-
nated for Vyacheslav M. Molo-
Klementi E. Voroshilov, Lazar M. Kaganovichand Georgi M. Malenkov.
issue.
OQ eu
"Muzzling" of U.S. military officers came up for hearings before the special senate armed
services
subcommittee;
charges against the administration included (1) censorship of military speeches on commu-
nism and (2) "soft on communism" policy in troop orientation programs. Directors of American Airlines and Eastern Air Lines voted to merge their companies into the world's largest airline, subject to approval of stockholders and the Civil Aeronautics board.
on Cuban government anLO nounced the immediate rationing of gasoline.
Pres.
t4
mittee refused
(9 to 6) to
clear Pres. Kennedy's create a cabinet-level ment of urban affairs.
OC ^J
combill
to
Colonial Secy. 6 British Reginald Maudling announced that
20 African heads of state, having the day before ended
decision to dissolve The West Indies federation resulted from the withdrawal of Jamaica and
UN
rejected a plea by Katanga
Moise Tshombe for more time in which to oust foreign Pres.
government
Ceylonese
on OU
Pres. Kennedy in a special tariff message to U.S. congress requested authority to (1) reduce U.S. tariffs by up to 50% in return for comparable reductions by other nations and (2) negotiate reduction or elimination of most tariffs on trade with the
E.E.C. U.S. rocket designed to land on the moon and transmit close-up TV pictures back to earth, gave indications that it would miss its target because "excessive velocity" had developed in the 1ststage booster. III,
VniUd
Jan. 13
Trinidad-Tobago. Pres.
Kennedy
in
a
special
message urged U.S. congress to it u re of
Pres. Kennedy submitted to U.S. congress a reorganiplan for absorbing the
Housing and Home Finance agency into his proposed department of urban affairs and housing.
$5,713,292,000 for a 5-yr. fededucation program.
FEBRUARY
an-
the
general assembly adopted
an Asian-African (99 to 2) resolution calling on Portugal to cease repressive measures against the people of Angola. U.S. congress was asked
secret police.
Thant
government's
authorize expend
mercenaries.
UN
Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes placed Guatemala
Pres.
Ranger
their conference at Lagos, Nig., published the draft of a charter for a confederation of African states and Malagasy.
his
eral aid to
IPres. Kennedy
in a special message to U.S. congress called for a broad program of
social welfare reforms.
Atomic Energy com2 U.S. mission reported an apparent Soviet underground nuclear test in the Semipalatinsk area of central Asia.
Pres. Kennedy in a special 7 message to U.S. congress urged creation of a privately owned corporation to operate the proposed U.S. global communications satellite system.
8 Argentina diplomatic
formally relations
broke with
Cuba.
depart-
under a state of siege following assassination of the chief of the
OP bU
Guinea.
tighter controls designed to re-
zation
rules
use of U.S. territory for commercial planes carrying Dutch Netherlands New troops to
duce surplus production.
internal self-government in 1963.
house
special
U.S. state dept. confirmed temporary U.S. prohibition on the
adjourned after 3 yr. (353 sessions), because of the continuing deadlock over an international control monitoring system.
ter Hendrik F.
Oil U.S.
a
in
Algeria.
message to U.S. congress proposed a new farm program of
Nuclear test ban conference of the U.S., the U.K. and the U.S.S.R. in Geneva was
thwarting of "a carefully planned coup d'etat" by 7 high-ranking officials.
Verwoerd announced that the Transkei, one of South Africa's largest nonwhite areas, would be granted
Kennedy
vising
on Zu
nounced
South African Prime Minis-
Frondizi reverse the government's "soft line" policy toward Cuba, adopted at the OAS conference in Punta del Este.
sions
UN
Security council rejected
(7 to 2)
a Soviet request to re-
open debate on the Congo (concerning the
UN's
New U.S. military command, headed by Gen. Paul D. Harkins, was established in South Viet-
cialists.
Pres. Kennedy invoked the doctrine of executive privilege to prevent identification of a defense dept. censor before a U.S.' senate investigating subcommittee.
in a
special message from Pres. Kennedy to appropriate $100,000,000 bonds. for U.S. purchase of
UN
Italian Premier Amintore Fanand his cabinet resigned to permit formation of a centreleftist coalition cabinet with the support of Pietro Nenni's Sofani
failure in re-
moving all mercenaries from Katanga) on the grounds the U.S.S.R. merely intended to reattempts to new attacks on achieve a Katanga settlement.
UN
3
Pres.
Kennedy
ban on almost
all
ordered a U.S. trade
with Cuba.
Atty. Gen. Robert F. 4 U.S. Kennedy and Mrs. Kennedy 9
dollar.
Bol-
elected president
Spain applied
Costa Rica.
(principal
Washington, D.C.
House.
Joint UN-Katanga commis-
Aleksei I. Izvestia editor of newspaper), Soviet held conversations at the White
Press
1.
Bonelly Jan. 18
UniUd
Minister
Francisco Jos6 Orlich
marcich was of
Adzhubei,
Kennedy and
Finance
Levi Eshkol announced the devaluation of the Israeli pound from I L. 1.80 to IL.3 to the U.S.
Prime Minister 5 Congolese Cyrille Adoula met informally with Pres. Kennedy in
Pres.
Israeli
arrived in Japan on a good-will trip around the world.
for "association" in the E.E.C. with the stated goal of ultimately becoming a full member of the Common
Market.
France, the U.K. and the U.S.
Press Irilernalional
Wide World
rejected Soviet
demands
Wide World
Adzhubei
Kekkonen
Gorman
Jan. 30
Feb. IS
Feb. IS
for ex-
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
•
1962
107
1C Urho K. Kekkonen was Cape Canaveral, Fla., the first J formally re-elected to a U.S. astronaut to achieve orbit. I
FEBRUARY— Continued
second 6-yr. term as president of Finland.
elusive use of 3 West GermanyBerlin air corridors for U.S.S.R. military aircraft ma-
West
Lieut. Col. Emily E. Gorman was appointed sixth director of
women's army
the U.S.
Pres. Kennedy submitted to U.S. congress a draft bill to increase government salaries to the levels of private industry.
corps.
01
U.S.
Z
to
providing for the granting of independence to Jamaica within the British Commonwealth was signed in
Britain, France and the U.S. protested to the U.S.S.R. against aggressive and dangerous Soviet
house rejected (264 Pres. Kennedy's 150) statutory reorganization plan for the creation of a cabinet-level
harassment of their
department
London.
West
Agreement
in
U-2
U.S.
pilot
Francis
lU Gary Powers was released by the U.S.S.R. in Berlin in exchange for convicted Soviet
flights into
Guatemalan government nounced
of
urban
affairs
and
housing.
Berlin.
armed
I
crushing
the
of
Bananera northeastern Guatemala. at
revolt
an-
an in
French cabinet approved the "conclusions" for Algerian peace negotiated by French officials and rebel representatives.
agent Rudolf Abel.
ip Gov. House
White
issued
a
new
"standards of conduct" memorandum to prevent scientific advisers from using their governmental positions for personal gain.
Trench and Algerian del-
11
II egates, at an undisclosed place near the French-Swiss border, began negotiations on a cease-fire
agreement.
Leonel Brizola of the lU Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul decreed the expropriation of the state telephone system, owned by U.S. interests.
Pres. Kennedy, in replying to a message from Soviet Premier Khrushchev, expressed hope that U.S. and Soviet representatives could meet at an early date to discuss co-operative space proj-
British defense ministry ordered the dispatch by air of reinforcements to British Guiana to restore order there.
ects.
John XXIII annPope nounced the creation of 10 new
10
British
town
a strike in Georgeagainst the proposed bud-
get of
Prime Minister Cheddi
Jagan.
government anthe appointment of Charles S. A. Ritchie to succeed Arnold D. P. Heeney as ambassador to the U.S. Canadian nounced
Sen. Carl Hayden (Dem., Iw Ariz.) completed 50 yr. of
1Q
service in the U.S. congress longest in history.
— the
5-day general strike in British Guiana ended after violent demonstrations were suppressed by British troops.
10
U.S.
10
Soviet
and the U.K.
rejected
Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev's call for an 18nation heads-of-government meeting to discuss disarmament.
ing
the
agreement on a cease-fire and accords on a provisional government.
Saudi Arabia conferred at the \\'hite House with Pres. Kennedy concerning current problems. 1 J
IH
of
Council of Organization of Am^^-ican States for-
in a special U.S. congress requested authoritv to spend up to 82,000,000,000 on expanded public works programs whenever unemployment figures indicated a recession.
message
mally excluded Cuba from par-
U.S.
any organization
that
ticipation
in
full
Kennedy
Pres.
King Saud
7''2-yr.
cluded with
the
U.S.
dept. reported balance-of-pay-
had dropped from
affairs.
ments
American Telephone and
$3,500,000,000 (annually 195860) to $2,400,000,000 in 1961.
deficit
Telegraph Co. announced plans
on ZU
Lieut. Col. Glenn, Jr., -
John H.
an $84,000,000 underwater telephone cable between Hawaii and Japan, via Midway, Wake
successfully orbited the earth three times in a
and Guam.
space
for
capsule
Fab. 19
Sanders
March
from
13
session of U.S. congress, stated
that his flight "proved that man can operate intelligently in space and can adapt rapidly to this new environment."
Irish
Republican army
(I.R.A.) announced the end of campaign of violence against the partition of Ireland with the laying down of its arms and disbanding of its volunteers.
its
Pres. Kennedy proposed to U.S. congress that the authorized strength of the Peace Corps
be almost
tripled.
OT
Soviet Union warned that
LI
U.S..
all
Soviet
Communist
party
military action against
Communist
guerrillas in South result in war for of southeast Asia.
British
commons
house of
newspaper Pravda reported the completion of a reorganization of the U.S.S.R. into 17 major
approved (277 to 170) a bill to restrict immigration of unskilled West Indians and Asians to
economic regions.
Britain.
UN
Presidential palace of South Vietnamese Pres. Ngo Dinh Diem in Saigon was bombed in an air attack by two dissident
general assembly adjourned after voting (57 to 21) to conduct an inquiry into whether Southern Rhodesia had attained "a full measure of selfgovernment."
fliers.
Kennedy in a special message to U.S. congress again urged the creation of a selffinanced system of health insurance for the aged under social Pres.
U.S.
Labour Secy. Goldberg
stated in a speech in Chicago that the role of the U.S. in labour disputes "should go beyond mediation of the immediate
security.
issues."
O i Chinese
foreign ministry
Zt
declared that a U.S. military' build-up in South Vietnam was a threat to Communist China's security and demanded immediate withdrawal of all U.S. personnel from that area.
OC Lv
Pres. Kennedy in a note delivered to Soviet Premier
Khrushchev again rejected the latter's proposal for a summit meeting on disarmament, stating such a conference should be prefaced by "the largest possible agreement" at lower levels.
"ress International
United Press Intn
Hayden
launched
U.S. astronaut John H. Glenn, Jr., in addressing a joint
ernment.
to
commerce
gation of interstate or intrastate transportation facilities.
Vietnam might
French-Algerian
talks on endrebellion con-
U.S. supreme court held in a brief opinion that it was settled beyond question that no state could require racial segre-
OO Turkish troops defeated LL an army uprising in Ankara aimed at overthrowing the gov00 lO
cardinals.
Guiana workers
IL began
op CV
00 Presidential railroad ZO commission headed by Simon H. Rifkind submitted to Pres. Kennedy recommendations for a revision of railroad labour and wage practices: five union
members
of the panel dissented.
MARCH IPres. Kennedy message
to
in
U.S.
a special congress
urged authorization for $1,000,000,000 to expand federal recreational areas.
CHRONOLOGY Of EVENTS
108
MARCH— Continued Benedicto Kiwanuka took
of-
prime minister of ceremonies in Kimpala marking the advent of internal self-government. as
fice
first
Uganda
in
Pakistani
Mohammed
Pres.
Ayub Khan announced
the adoption of a new constitution providing for a strong presidential
form
of
U.S.
government.
District
LaBuy
8
judgment"
Chicago, ordering E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. to divest itself of 63,000,000 shares of General Motors common stock over a 34-mo. period. in
U.S. and U.S.S.R. signed in Washington, D.C., a new 2expanding cul-
yr. agreement tural, scientific,
technical
Kennedy
designated areas of Delaware, Jersey and Virginia as federal disaster areas as a result of $160,000,000 storm Pres.
New
Power in Burma was seized 2 by a military junta headed by Gen. Ne Win who announced establishment of a 17-member
1ft
governor general of Ceylon, to succeed Sir Oliver Goonetil-
—
U.S. and Britain called on the U.S.S.R. to halt
its re-
newed harassment traffic in
sworn in as Malta's first prime minister under a constitution extending self-rule to the
Central
British colony.
Pres.
Kennedy
board to avert a threatened strike by nonoperating employees against major U.S. railroads.
4
U.S.
McMurdo
5
(7
committee
of
the
Soviet Communist party was revealed to have adopted a plan for reorganizing agriculture.
sound.
supreme court
held
that airports
must
to 2)
compensate owners
nearby property for noise, vibration and resultant nervous tension caused of
by low-flying planes. Soviet Premier Khrushchev in a speech to the opening session of the Soviet Communist party central committee's plenary meeting warned that the Soviet 7-yr. plan for agriculture was in serious danger.
U.S. pledged itself to de6 fend Thailand without waiting for prior agreement on action by the Southeast Asia Treaty organization.
U.S. central intelligence agency in a report to the senate and house armed 'services committees stated that U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers had fulfilled the terms of his contract during and after his capture by the U.S.S.R.
Kennedy announced
sev-
measures which would give
theRyukyu Islands a larger voice in their own affairs and spur their
on L\j
economic development.
Kennedy
P'"^s-
a
signed
permit designed to bill stricter federal control over employee pension and welfare plans.
01 Mrs. John
L
I
F.
Kennedy
arrived in Lahore on a visit
to Pakistan. ly approved a bill to incorporate into India the former Portuguese Diu and enclaves of Goa,
Soviet Premier Khrushchev accepted Pres. Kennedy's proposal for U.S.-Soviet talks on
Damao.
co-operation in space research.
Kennedy
Pres.
TV
metics and
in
O.A.S. terrorists armed with automatic weapons attacked French security forces in the heart of Algiers.
sets.
Defense
Secy.
Robert
McNamara
disclosed that in some instances U.S. military training personnel in South Vietnam had returned the fire of
Communist
OO ZZ
00 U.S. treasury dept. exLO tended the ban on Cuban imports to include imports of goods made from Cuban materials.
Council of ministers Common Market agreed
guerrilla forces.
British Home Affairs Secy. Richard A. Butler was named by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to assume special respon-
of
the
in prin-
meeting in Brussels to E.E.C. tariflfaccelerate the cutting time schedule. ciple at a
relations
French government an-
with the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
nounced that Pres. De Gaulle had ordered an all-out effort to
10
crush the armed insurrection developing in the Algerian cities of
sibility
Britain's
for
Soviet
10 shchev
Premier Khruasserted that
Algiers
and Oran.
U.S.S.R. scientists had developed
1Q
IVIrs.
John
Kennedy,
F.
IZ wife of the U.S. president, received a festive welcome upon her arrival in New Delhi on a good-will visit to India.
Atomic Energy com-
mission announced that the first atomic power plant in Antarctica was in operation at
U.S.
of western air the Berlin air corridor.
appointed an
emergency
prerequisite for changing his decision to resume nuclear tests in the atmosphere.
publicans.
George Borg Olivier was
3
Soviet Union rejected the Iw inspection safeguards demanded by Pres. Kennedy as a
U.S. of deputies approved Premier Fanfani's new centre-leftist cabinet a coalition of Christian Democrats, Democratic Socialists and Re-
1 1
Pres. eral
of its allies.
in the fields of food, drugs, cos-
chamber
Italian
11
Argentine government took over control of 6 key provinces to nullify the victory of Peronist candidates in March 18 elections.
State
wheat-
of 48
Geneva a 3-yr. agreement to stabilize wheat and flour prices.
in as
leke.
of
UN
nations approved
Conference
lU producing
William Gopallawa was sworn
Undersecy.
U.S.
George W. Ball in a letter to acting Secy. -Gen. U Thant refused to commit the U.S. to refraining from stationing nuclear weapons on the territory
a special message to U.S. congress proposed a consu mer-protection plan
at
Pres. Kennedy in a nationwide address announced that he would order resumption of U.S. nuclear tests in the atmosphere unless the U.S.S.R. agreed to an ironclad treaty barring all tests.
Geneva.
Indian parliament unanimous-
damage. U.S. state dept. confirmed that U.S. pilots were flying combattraining missions with South Vietnamese airmen over guerrilla-held areas of South Vietnam.
Revolutionary council.
conference on disarmament opened in
1C
coastal
Maryland,
1962
•
H17-nation UN
and
educational exchanges.
9
Judge Walter
issued a "final
Pres. Kennedy reported to 7 U.S. congress that he had cut a wide range of import duties below the "peril-point" level to save U.S. overseas markets and avoid collapse of trade negotiations with other nations.
rocket invulnerable a "global to anti-missile weapons. "
U.S. Titan
maiden
flight
5,000 mi. in
British
ministries of health
and education
rocket on its covered more than a trajectory from II
Cape Canaveral,
Fla., to a spot Island in the
started a drive to inform the British public of the dangers of cigarette smoking
near Ascension South Atlantic.
and
nPres. Kennedy
its connection with cancer and other illnesses.
10
Pres.
Kennedy
lung
in a special
lu message to U.S. congress requested $4,878,500,000 for foreign aid during the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1962. Pres.
Ahmadou
Cameroon arrived ton, D.C., Bill
Ahidjo of Washing-
in
on a state
providing
for a
visit.
temporary
Kennedy. B.
Sanders was
appointed new director of the U.S. navy's WAVES, with promotion to captain.
Israeli forces attacked a Syrian outpost on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee.
Rumanian government
and sent to the White House a compromise bill establishing a program to retrain unemployed workers who had obsolete or insufficient skills.
the presidency of South Korea from Posun Yun, who resigned 22.
OC French
government
A J forces and European residents battled for five hours in the centre of Oran, Alg. Indonesian planes attacked a small ship of the Dutch^ navy within New Guinea's territorial waters.
an-
nounced that collectivization of Rumanian agriculture had been completed.
in
Algerian cease-fire was 10 signed in Evian-les-Bains, France, by French and Algerian rebel delegations Pres. De Gaulle in a nationwide speech appealed to the French people to support it; Gen. Raoul Salan, head of the O.A.S., issued a communique that the underground would "carry on the fight."
stating
U.S. house passed by voice vote
Gen. Pak Chung Hi assumed
re-
;
Comdr. Viola
tH
general strike called to protest the annulment of the March 18 Peronist election victories.
March was
vealed to have proposed to Soviet Premier Khrushchev a 5-point program for co-operation in space exploration.
increase in the U.S. national debt limit to $300,000,000,000 during fiscal 1962 was signed by Pres.
Oyl Peronist union members in Argentina ended a 24-hr.
OC LU
U.S.
supreme court
held
(6 to 2) that the constitutionality of the distribution of seats in state legislatures was subject to the scrutiny of the federal courts.
OT H
U.S. senate approved (77 to 16) and sent to the house constitutional amendment banning the poll tax as a pre-
a
requisite for voting in elections for federal officials.
12-man executive council Iw der a 30-day
to rule .Algeria until completion of self-determination was set up
gan March
with Christian Fouchet as interim high commissioner and
1Q Guatemala was
placed un-
state of siege to curb student rioting, 'which be13.
.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS 356 of the 494 elective seats in the lower house in the Feb. 16-
MARCH— Continuec/
26 balloting.
•
tenced to 30 years
1962
109
in prison; of-
offered to free all the prisoners upon payment of $62,ficials
000,000 ransom.
Abderrahmane Fares
as
presi-
dent.
Archbishop Joseph
Pres. Jo3o Goulart of Braarrived in Washington, D.C., on a state visit to the U.S.
3
zil
Francis
Rummel ordered all Roman Catholic schools in the New Orleans (La.) diocese to end
Ecuador broke relations with
off
diplomatic
an
Full powers over Syria were reassumed b\' the Syriarmy in a bloodless coup
in
U.S. defense dept. ordered
Canadian Agriculture Ministhe sale to Communist China of an additional 39,000,000 bu. of grain for $75,000,000.
Liberia became a the International
Fund,
member of Monetary International Bank
the
Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corp. and the International Defor
velopment assn.
OQ Lv
Argentine Pres. Frondizi was deposed and arrested the armed forces after a b\' bloodless coup executed the eveU.S. house approved (219 to 196) and sent to the senate an administration-supported bill for ta.\
Pres.
defense dept. and Atomic Energy commission announced that a 600 by 800
in
a
special
executive branch.
Byron deputy
to parliament a
R. White, U.S. attorney general,
budget
for fiscal
year ending March 31, 1963, which estimated revenue at £6,797,000,000, expenditure £6,364,000,000.
U.S.
nautical-mile area surrounding Christmas Island in the central Pacific had been chosen as a nuclear test area.
in
U. S. Steel Corp. anlU nounced a steel price increase averaging $6 a ton.
Canadian Finance Minister Donald M. Fleming submitted a budget
U.S. army posed plan to guard from 365,000 and from 300,000
for the fiscal year ending 31, 1963, that estimated
announced a pro-
March
reduce the national 400,000 men to
revenue at $5,780,000,000, expenditure $6,525,000,000.
the
armv
to 277,000
reserv'e
men.
the resumption of normal relations between their military liai-
son missions.
revisions.
Kennedy
message to U.S. congress proposed the creation of an office of science and technology in the
on OU
effective racial integration in military reserve units exclusive of national guard.
Billie Sol Estes of Pecos, Tex., 3 business associates w'ere indicted by a federal grand jury in El Paso on charges of fraud, conspiracy and interstate mailing of fraudulent mortgages.
Britain declared thatit planned to play a "full part" in the political and economic future of the
Kennedy
in
a
special
of
Pres.
Major U.S.
steel
to
office
Nazam
al-
Koudsi.
led
companies
Bethlehem
by
scinded
previously
Steel
re-
announced
steel price increases, after Inland Steel refused to raise prices.
Edmond Jouhaud,
2nd
in
command
of the O.A.S. and former French air force general, was sentenced to death after a trial by a special military tribunal.
U.S. and Brazil signed in Washington, D.C., an agreement for $276,000,000 in Alliance for Progress funds for development of northeastern Brazil.
U
French Pres. De Gaulle named Georges Pompidou
succeed Michel signed) as premier. to
Debre
(re-
Market.
11 Shah Mohammed Riza I I Pahlavi of Iran arrived in Washington, D.C., on a state
60
ill
to
the
prisoners were returned U.S. from Cuba after
promises had been made for payment of $2,500,000 ransom.
visit.
and
Pres.
Maj. Gen. Abdel Karim Zahreddin, commander of the Syrian army, announced the return
tred on Johnston Island.
and Soviet army com5 U.S. manders in Berlin agreed on Common
ning before.
major
full
and
4
the establishment of a second nuclear testing area in the central Pacific cen-
British Chancellor of the Exchequer Selwyn Lloyd presented
the Aleppo area.
d'elal.
ter Alvin Hamilton announced
re-
announced
U.S.
High command of the Syrian armed forces announced the collapse of a revolt by pro-Egyptian elements
council
Cuba, Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
segregation.
OQ ^0
9 UN Security
affirmed (10 to 0) a 1956 resolution that condemned reprisal raids by Israel on Syria.
rejected the "final" plea made 3 days before by Britain and the U.S. that the U.S.S.R. accept a against treaty to safeguard secret nuclear testing and thus avert a resumption of testing by the U.S.
Alexander Bustamante, new prime minister of Jamaica,
Sir
formed
his cabinet following the victory of his Labour party in the general elections held the
day
(La.) excommunicated 3 persons attempts to provoke opposition to desegregation of church schools. for their
before.
was named as an associate justice of the U.S. supreme court to succeed Charles E. Whittaker
message to U.S. congress urged enactment of a basic national transportation policy emphasizing greater competition and less
(resigned)
federal subsidization.
Jose Maria Guido, president of the Argentine senate, was sworn
providing for an 27-day shipping, strike on the 6 Agreement interim constitution granting L'.S. west coast was halted by a
in
to succeeds Frondizi as president of Argentina.
internal self-government to Kenya was signed in London.
Pres. Fares of the Algerian executive council broadcast a warning to the O.A.S. to cease their
urged U.S. congress to grant the people of the
Kennedy accused major companies of "irresponsible
Pres. steel
1C Catholic Archbishop ID Rummel of New Orleans
defiance" of the public interest in raising steel prices.
Taft-Hartley act injunction.
U.S. Secy, of State Dean Rusk and the Soviet ambassador to the LLS., Anatoly F. Dobrynin, met in Washington to resume negotiations on Berlin.
National people's congress of China adopted a 10-point economic program with emphasis on agriculture.
Communist
Argentine Economy Minister
bombings and
terrorist acts of assassinations.
01
Steel industry and L'nited W I Steelworkers of .America announced agreement on terms for a new labour contract beginning July 1, 1962.
APRIL 1
Swiss voters
in
a
national
referendum rejected a proposed constitutional ban on nuclear weapons.
2
British house of
approved a
tion of
commons
for dissoluIndies federa-
bill
The West
Pres.
Kennedy
U.S. Virgin Islands greater
self-
government
crisis.
U.S. treasure hunters 7 7shipwrecked off the Cuban coast were released from technical custody by Cuban author-
France abrogated its 1951 convention with Monaco regulating customs, communications, transportation and banking, because of Monaco's unwillingness to alter its status as a tax haven.
ities.
Milova>n Djilas, former vicepresident of Yugoslavia, was arrested supposedly in connection with plans for publication of his new book Conversations With Stalin.
10
Roger M. Blough,
\L man
chair-
heav>- majority the peace settlement with the Algerian nationalists.
Cuban government announced that 1,179 prisoners seized in the 1961 invasion of Cuba were convicted of treason and each sen-
Bolivia severed diplomatic relations with Chile in a 23-yr. dispute over use of the waters of the Lauca river.
Strike of Spanish coal miners began in Asturias province, spread to other parts country and involved
the 60,000
of
miners.
U
Acting I' Thant
UN
Secy. -Gen.
called for "temstandstill agreements"
board of U. S. Steel Corp., defended his com-
on Berlin and other world
pany' 's price increases as a move to strengthen U.S. industrial as-
Canadian house of commons
sets.
was dissolved
of the
French people in a national 8 referendum approved by a 10 Ahti Karjalainen became
tion.
Indian election commission announced that Prime Minister Nehru's Congress party had won
Federico Pinedo announced a drastic austerity program aimed at relieving Argentina's economic
porary
in
issues.
preparation for
national elections on June 1962.
18,
10
Finland's youngest prime minister; he formed a 15-niember coalition cabinet to replace Martii Miettunen's Agrarian party minority cabinet which resigned March 1.
Soviet
Premier
Khrushchev
10
U.S. submitted to the 17-
10 nation ference at
disarmament
con-
Geneva a 3-stage program, presented in a document said to cover every basic provision of a treaty on "general and complete disarmament."
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
110
QQ Lv
APRIL— Continued in Skybolt,
Lieut. Col. Julio Adalberto Rivera, head of the National Conciliation party, was elected president of El Salvador; opposition parties boycotted the
first U.S. air-
•
1962
an estimated 500,000 nonoperating employees on U.S. for
railroads.
Kennedy was
reported to have directed a cutback in orders for nuclear warheads.
Pres.
lu borne ballistic missile, was launched from a B-52 bomber at Cape Canaveral; its 2nd stage
election.
failed to lire and the missile short of its target.
Minister Macmillan, completing two days of informal Washington, talks in D.C., stated that they would not take the initiative for a summit meet-
U.S. air force announced the
ing.
Algerian that the clared peace accords would be applied fully and on schedule.
fell
Soviet government announced the recall of Marshal Ivan S. Konev from his post as commander of Soviet troops in East
Pres.
Kennedy and
British
PriiTie
Germany.
Soviet Union announced that it had recovered its unmanned
charged that Chinese Communist troops had made a new advance into the disputed Ladakh section of eastern Kash-
satellite
India
On
Former
French Gen. commander of the 0..'\.S. in .Algeria, was arrested in Algiers and flown to t\i Raoul
Salan,
Kosmos IV
after 72 hr.
in orbit.
Qfl Pres.
OU
to
Kennedy in a speech U.S. Chamber of
the
Commerce in Washington, D.C., stated that his administration did not want the task of setting
U.S. and Soviet scientists were revealed to have agreed to establish a "world weather watch network linked by mete"
orological satellites.
J Pres.
tH
Kennedy
authorized
U.S. resumption of nuclear testing in the atmosphere.
OC tv
U.S. defense dept.
lifted
ban on governmentpaid travel by military depen-
5
French
government
MAY 1Jos6
Antonio
Mayobre,
ambassador
to
the U.S., was appointed to the new post of commissioner
UN
economic development.
Swiss government announced that it had protested to Czechoslovakia against Czech espionage activities in Switzerland.
French
with
government
carried
out a nuclear test underground in the Sahara desert. formally applied 2 Norway membership in the
for
Common
an
intermediate-size explosion near Christmas Island.
00 £0
1st international satellite —carrying British experiments and propelled aloft by
aU.S. rocket— was launched from Cape Canaveral. U.S.
spacecraft
crashed onto the
Ranger
moon
IV
64 hr.
after being launched from
U.S. committed 5 fully equipped Polaris submarines North Atlantic alliance.
Venezuelan government announced the crushing of a revolt the day before at the naval base of Carupano.
op £0
Prei. Kennedy signed a authorizing expansion of the Peace Corps to around 10,000 volunteers.
in Venezuelan
AM
special cases.
State of emergency was declared in 3 of Spain's northern provinces because of widespread work stoppages.
rived
Polaris missile armed with a
nuclear warhead and
launched from the nuclear sub-
marine "Ethan Allen" was successfully exploded in the U.S. Pacific testing area near Christmas Island.
Donald
Fleming, Canadian finance minister, announced that his government, in agreement with the International Monetary Fund, was devaluing the Canadian dollar to a par value of U.S. S0.925.
3Gherman
S. Titov, Soviet
Antonio Segni was elected president of Italy on the 9th ballot by a joint session of parlia-
increases
Morocco
ar-
Gaulle.
Pro-Communist
troops
1 1 completed the occupation of northwest Laos in an advance that brought them to the Thai-
land border.
Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnanwas
elected president of India to suc-
10
Pres.
Kennedy
ordered
Pathet Lao forces captured the important Laotian government base of Nam Tha in northwest
Thailand for defense against possible incursion of Communist forces from Laos.
Laos. for a
west African
1962 Pulitzer prize for the monetary union was initialed in 7 best play was awarded to Paris by France and 7 indeHow to Succeed in Business With- pendent French-speaking west out Really Trying by Frank Loesser and Abe Burrows; Edwin
O'Connor's The Edge of Sadtiess was adjudged the best novel. Pres. Kennedy issued an executive order placing the entire Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under the jurisdiction of the U.S. interior dept.
UN
emergency board wage
of
IL U.S. naval, air and land forces, including a battle group of 1,800 marines, to move to
to provide Indonesia with additional supplies of arms and mili-
recommended
1
ment.
Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced in Moscow that the U.S.S.R. had agreed
Presidential
1
France for high-level with French Pres. De
in
talks
ceed Rajendra Prasad.
cosmonaut, met with Pres. Kennedy at the White House.
bill
Romulo
Federal CommunicaU.S. tions commission ordered a curb on all new applications for radio stations except in
started
6
Pres.
lU Betancourt issued a decree banning the activities of the Venezuelan Communist party and an allied party.
Agreement
India made public a note accusing Communist China of creating conflict and tension among Asian nations.
Cape
Canaveral.
Pres. Kennedy condemned 9 attacks by pro-Communist troops as a clear breach of the cease-fire in Laos.
de-
Market.
Nuclear testing in the atmosphere was resumed by the U.S.
demands.
11
Venezuelan
for
Atlantic City, N.J., called on labour to exercise restraint and responsibility in its bargaining
King Hassan
its
dents to foreign posts.
4
prices.
01 Zl
OQ uO
transmission of TV pictures of an orbiting satellite.
by means
to the
Paris.
Pres. Kennedy opened the Seattle World's fair by remote control from Palm Beach, Fla.
first
Pres. Kennedy in a speech to the convention of the United Automobile Workers at
8
tary equipment.
African countries: Dahomey, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta.
Hong Kong government
re-
ported the return to Communist China of nearly 10,000 refugees who had fled across the border during the previous two weeks because of existing famine conditions.
10 Three Indonesian govern10 ment officials were reported injured in an unsuccessattempt to assassinate Pres. Sukarno. ful
CHRONOLOGY OF Kennedy's
Pres.
M AY
program
medical care for the through social security.
Continued
00 LL
for
elderly
17 Europeans were killed major outbreak of in a Muslim counterterrorism in Al-
Felix Houphouetof the Ivory Coast arrived in Washington, D.C., on
giers.
an
1 J
14
Pres. Macapagal of the Philippines announced indefinite postponement of a state visit to the U.S. because U.S. congress rejected a bill to compensate Filipinos for war damages.
1C lU
Pres. Kennedy ordered the dispatch of additional U.S.
forces to Thailand at
its
request.
Pres.
Boigny
the reduction of tariffs within the
community.
00 LO
Raoul Salan, former head
of the terrorist O..A.S. in Algeria, was sentenced to life in prison by the French high military tribunal.
tiations to avoid further conflict
New
Guinea.
Pres. Kennedy announced that action would be taken to expedite the admission into the U.S. of Chinese refugees in Hong
Kong. bill
declaring anyone
education literate for federal voting purwith
a
6th-grade
poses.
IP
Five French cabinet
isters resigned in protest against Pres. De Gaulle's attack on the concept of an integrated
supranational Europe.
moves in southeast nU.S. Asia were characterized by
Ill
0^
Pathet Lao guerrillas began new attacks in north-
Ll
western Laos.
OQ ^0
800,000,000 of value in the widest 1-dav drop since 1929; shares traded totaled 9,350,000, the largest number since July 21,
British
Pope John XXIII called for 3 an end to bloodshed in .Algeria
and appealed
peace
in
north
for
racial
.Africa.
failed
4
U.S. house began hearings on grain storage and cotton allotment transactions of Billie Sol Estes, indicted Te.\as financier. of the
OQ Aw
Federal government of Nigeria declared a state of emergency in Western Nigeria following a dispute over the re-
in
when
difficulties
developed
the launching rocket.
Council of ministers of the Common Market approved tariff increases in reprisal against increases on imports of carpets and glass by the U.S.
Venezuelan government announced the crushing of a revolt the naval base of Puerto
at
OJ
8
ambassador
committee
Shares on the New York Stock exchange rallied sharply and recovered an estimated 60% of value lost the day before.
Representatives of
an
Attempt to set off a thermonuclear explosion over Johnston Island in the central Pacific
dure under which all major foreign-owned public utilities were to be nationalized.
t"
U.S. ambassador John D. Jernegan was ordered to
2
leave Iraq in retaliation for U.S.
Intergovernmental relations
gional premiership.
U.S. astronaut M. Scott Carpenter orbited the earth 3 times after being launched from Cape Canaveral and landed safely off Puerto Rico.
the first federal construction plans for fallout shelters.
acceptance of from Kuwait.
Shares on the New York Stock exchange lost $20,-
Brazilian cabinet approved a decree providing for the proce-
min-
lU
1962
Dutch-Indonesian dispute over Netherlands New Guinea.
1933.
Acting UN Secy.-Gen. U Thant appealed to Indonesia and the Netherlands to resume nego-
U.S. senate voted (49 to 34) to set aside
•
settling the
official visit.
over Netherlands
Council of ministers of the Common Market voted unanimously in Brussels to accelerate
EVENTS
for
Cabello.
British in
Premier Khru-
Qrt Soviet
uU
shchev in a speech denouncing the Common Market called for a world conference to discuss setting up an international trade organization that would embrace
government
an-
nounced substantial relaxations regulations
for
installment
buying. First electricity to be produced by nuclear power in Canada was transmitted from the nuclearpower demonstration station at
Pres. Kennedy as an effort to promote a diplomatic solution which would avert war.
West Indian colonies formally agreed to form a new West In-
all
dies federation in 1964.
01 Adolf wl hanged
Kennedy named
British Prime IVIinister Macmillan announced the dispatch of an R..A.F. squadron to Thailand at that country's request.
at
the O..A.S. in .Algeria, appealed to it to cease its campaign of terrorism.
Port Sulman, Bahrein's new deepwater port, was opened by Sheikh Isa ibn Sulman al-
Indonesian Pres. Sukarno notified the that Indonesia was stepping up military activity against Netherlands New Guinea.
1Q
Pi'es.
10 Adm. Alan G. Kirk
to be U.S. ambassador to tionalist China.
(ret.)
Na-
on ^U
Pres. Kennedy announced the appointment of Cyrus R. Vance to succeed Elvis J. Stahr (resigned) as secy, of the
army.
Argentine
Pres.
OC
George Meany, president
Z J of the A.F.L.-C.I.O., stated that it would institute a nationwide campaign to cut the standard U.S. work week from 40 to 35 hours.
tion of all political parties.
jet fighters.
01 U.S. supreme court set L\ aside on technical grounds the contempt convictions of 6 men who refused to answer questions of congressional committees relating to communism.
American Medical assn. nationwide
telecast
in
a
attacked
'
3-judge U.S. court
in .Atlanta, Ga., ordered redistricting for election of state legislators, ruling that the present apportion-
ment violated constitutional rights of
Khalifah, Bahrein's ruler.
government
Jouhaud, condemned deputy commander
UN
1
Soviet government announced
a
presi-
dent of Cyprus, arrived in W'ashington, D.C., on a state visit.
drastic
rise
in
in Algeria ended a 6 0.A.S. 6-day truce and ordered immediate resumption of terrorist
domestic food prices to raise funds for agricultural development.
action.
South Korean military gov-
British Overseas Airways Corp. and Cunard Steam-Ship Co. signed an agreement for the
ernment announced
that
it
had
a plot to overturn the ruling junta.
ac-
cepted a 6-point U.S. plan
SEdmond of
Archbishop Makarios,
JUNE
unmasked
urban areas.
Dutch
Eichmann was
in an Israeli prison Ramie, near Tel .Aviv, after Israel Pres. Isaac Ben-Zvi rejected his plea for mercy.
Guide
announced the dissolution of the U.S. forces in Thailand were Argentine congressand the aboli-^ joined by a squadron of British
Rolphton, Ont.
countries.
formation of a new
U.S. defense dept. announced
company —
BO.AC-Cunard Ltd.— to operate services between the U.K. and North America. air
10
JUNE— Conf/nued Agreement common market was
an Arab
initialed in Cairo by representatives of Jordan, Kuwait, Moroc-
French and Spanish govern-
ments signed a convention providing for the construction of a road tunnel under the Pyrenees.
7Pres. Kennedy announced that he would ask U.S. congress to enact reductions in personal and corporate federal income tax rates, to be effective Jan. 1, 1963.
first
prime min-
Union
suspended
as
1Q
Soviet
10
negotiations with France in
new commercial agreement.
a
Kennedy and Panaman
Pres.
Syria and the U.A.R.
in
was
Jawara
Gambia.
ister of
on the creation of
K.
David
\L sworn
co,
EVENTS
CHRONOLOGY OF
112
Pres. Roberto F. Chiari issued a joint communique in Washington, l3.C., reporting agreement to arrange high-level discussions for revisions of the 1903 treaty relating to the Panama canal.
1962
•
the administration-backed farm
provide supply-management controls for wheat, corn and other feed grains.
went on
OQ LL
Soviet Union cast
dom
UN
veto in the council to bar a resolution calling for renewed talks by India and Pakistan on the Kashmir question.
Philippines in a note to the British government asserted sovereignty over British North
Britain, France and 8 other west European nations signed in Paris a convention creating a European space research organization.
It
Suvanna Phuma was
Fuklen
French Pres. De Gaulle in a 8 TV address urged constitu-
armament
Kennedy named Jerome
Pres.
W
iesner to
head the newly cre-
office of science
ated nology.
U.S.
nam.
Mohammed the
ing of martial law, in effect Oct. 8, 1958.
lift-
from
government
moved
tanks into city of
Cardenas in a show of force against counterrevolutionary ac-
(14) of Hardin,
111.
Spanish government
sus9 l^nnded for 2 years the constitutional right of Spaniards to reside wherever they chose in
leaders ordered the suspension of terrorism in
Algeria.
10
U.S.
supreme court
ruled
10 (5 to 3) that when strikes are called in violation of collective bargaining agreements the emplo>ers' recourse does not include injunction against the strike.
Canadian Conservative party
omies.
majority in the house of in parliamentary eleccompelling Prime Minister Diefenbaker's government to obtain support from minor-party
lost its
commons tions,
ill
Catholic
Arch-
bishop
.Atlanta,
I'aul J. Hallinan of (ia., announced that
students would be admitted on a nonracial basis to schools in the archdiocese of Atlanta in Sept.
1Q Thailand 13
cott of all
Southeast
.Asia
declared a boymeetings of the Treaty organiza-
tion and the recessed conference at Geneva, Switz., on the Laos
1962.
problem.
South Koreans were
2nd U.S. attempt
required to i-xi h.iiige their currency holding-, for new currency, each citizen iR-ing (jcrniitted to draw the
e(|uivalciil of S3. 80 for living expenses for the next week.
to. detonate missile-borne nuclear device over the Johnston Island prov-
a
ing ground in the central Pacific resulted in failure.
Soviet government announced
11
U.S. defense dept. ordered
II a recirgani/alioii of the military communi( ations satellite program, consolidating the air fone's priniarv jurisdiction in the military phase of the space
program.
Agreement on
formation of a
the lowering of the registration age for military call-up from 18 to 17.
supreme court
(6 to 1) oificlal
U.S. and Australia agreed to work together on problems arising from Britain's proposed entry into the Common Market.
government was announied by rival political fac-
21
held that the reading of
prayer
in
U.S. house voted (215 to 205) to return to committee
after trying to commit suicide while tieing returned to
don
the U.S. from Israel.
Soviet Premier Khrushchev
TV
speech that warned in a the U.S.S.R. would join in repelling any attack nist China.
public schools violated the first to the U.S. constitu-
tion.
resigned as prime minister of Brazil.
—
independence.
France formally pro3 claimed the independence of Algeria following an overwhelming approval of Independence by the .Algerian people in a self-determination vote.
1963, but eliminating or reducing transportation taxes effective Nov. 15, 1962.
Convicted spy Robert A. Soblen was arrested In Tel Aviv, Israel, after fleeing from the U.S. shortly before he was to enter prison. 16th session of UN general assemblv adjourned after voting (73 to I) to call on the U.K. to hold a constitutional conference to give adequate political representation to the native inhabitants of Southern Rhodesia.
OQ Lv
Pres. and Mrs. Kennedy received a tumultuous wel-
come upon
their arrival in
co City on a state
Mexi-
visit.
Soares
of deputies.
Kennedy
their ships
in a
speech in
Philadelphia proclaimed the readiness of the U.S. to join a united Europe in building a concrete Atlantic partnership.
Kennedy requested 5 Pres. U.S. congress to appropriate $23,500,000 to install electronic locks on nuclear weapons as a safeguard against accidental or unauthorized use.
West German Chancellor -Adenauer and French Pres. De Gaulle affirmed after conferences in Paris their belief that European unity should be actively pursued. Pres. Kennedy designated .Asst. Secy, of State Foy D. Kohler to succeed Llewellyn E. Thompson, Jr., as U.S. ambassador to the U.S.S.R.
6
First
known detonation
of
any hydrogen type of exploIn the U.S. was set ofT. underground at Nevada proving ,
grounds.
U.S. U.S. defense dept. announced that 1,000 of the 1,800 U.S. marines in Thailand had been ordered to return to I
Moura
resigned as premier one day after having been confirmed by the chamber
sive
JULY
de
Andrade
of Brazil
Pres.
Both houses of U.S. congress approved by voice vote and sent to the White House a bill continuing corporate and most excise tax rates In effect until June 30,
Commu-
for the purpose of seeking a final agreement on Laotian neutrality
OT UN general assembly con£1 firmed (93 to 0) the Inde- 4Auro pendence, effective July 1, 1962, of the trust territory of RuandaUrundj to be divided into the republic of Rwanda and the kingdom of Burundi.
on
14-nation conference on Laos resumed its sessions in Geneva
New York and
amendment
on iv
rd.iliiion
tions in Laos.
U.S.
op LO
members.
in Roman
Minister fcH Dlefenbaker announced that Canada had arranged for more than 81,000,000,000 In loans and credits to bolster its economy.
OC ZJ
force.
2
OJ Canadian Prime
26
Spain.
Soviet bloc nations announced in .Moscow the adoption of a scries of measures to speed a limited integration of their econ-
in
Tancredo Neves
tivity.
nO.A.S. National Spelling Bee winners In Washington, D.C., were Nettie Crawford (13) of Roswcll, N.M., and Michael Day
forces
military
of
province opposite the Nationalist-held islands of Que-
an troops and
Pres.
officers
ID were slain in the ambush of a convoy by Communist guerrillas north of Saigon, S. Viet-
Cuban
Pakistani
army
and tech-
Ayub Khan announced
admitted a
moy and Matsu.
IP Two
immigration
restricting
the U.K. from commoncountries entered into
wealth
Convicted spy Robert A. Soblen was taken off a plane in Lon-
U.S. launching centre at Wal-
build-up
Bella, a deputy
premier of Algeria's provisional government, denounced the dissolution of the liberation army's general staff by the nationalist government.
installed in
Vientiane.
1C Canada's first space veIU hide was sent into orbit at
17-nation conference on disat Geneva, Switz., recessed for one month.
Ahmed Ben
into
U.S. Surgeon Gen. Luther L. Terry announced that he would appoint an advisory committee to study the effect of cigarette smoking on health.
lops Island, Va.
Republic of Rwanda and kingof Burundi In central Africa became independent nations.
Act
OQ New coalition Laotian govCv ernment headed by Prince Communist China
tional changes to ensure the continuity of a strong French state beyond his own term of office.
100th Security
its
doctors
strike In protest against the province's medical care plan.
to
Borneo.
1i
Saskatchewan
750
bill
state
dept.
exempted
Soviet tourists, delegations and performers under the cultural exchange program from severe restrictions on travel within the U.S.
CHRONOLOGY OF after
JULY
U.A.R.
with
talks
Pres.
Nasser.
Continued
10 White House S railroad operating rejected a request
Mediation
unions
Assadollah
France announced repayment
succeed -AH .Amini (resigned) as premier of Iran.
of a projected trip to
gov-
ahead
ministers and naming Richard A, Butler to new post of first secy, of state and deputy prime
U.S.
secy, of health, education and welfare, announced plans for a thorough study of the impact of
on children
in the
U.S.
U.S. set off a 2-megaton 9 thermonuclear device at an altitude of 200 mi. over Johnston Island in the central Pacific; detonation produced auroral displa\s visible for thousands of miles.
U.S. Federal Reserve board reduced the cash requirement for purchase of stock on national stock exchanges from 70% to
50%.
Trans-Tasman submarine telephone cable linking Sydney, .-Xustr., and -Auckland, N.Z., was formally opened as a link in
Commonwealth
proposed
the
Pacific cable.
in
Brazilian chamber of delU puties confirmed Francisco Brochado da Rocha as premier.
Telstar, experimental communications satellite developed by-
British
to
displacing
cabinet,
backed
bill for
private ownership
the space communication system; filibustering senators favoured government ownership.
of
on Neutral Muslim troops ' o\er work rules be submitted to arbitration. tional
announced 1^ the postponement by Pres.
EVENTS
U.S.
missile intercepted the nose cone of an Atlas ICBM over Kwajalein Island in the central Pacific.
7
on bU
France and Tunisia announced resumption of dip-
lomatic relations.
on
10 nations and the Inull ternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced subscriptions totaling 81,070,000,000 to help India finance the 2nd year of its 5-year plan.
minister.
Kennedy named Gen.
commander
in Europe; Gen, Maxwell D. Taylor to succeed Gen. Lemnitzer as chairman of
01 Prime ministers of BritI ain and Malaya signed an agreement on the establishment of a federation of Malaysia to consist of Malaya, Sarawak, North Borneo, Brunei and Sing-
the U.S. joint chiefs of staff; and
apore.
Pres.
Eugene McNeely, president of American Telephone and Telegraph Co., and Jacques Marette, French minister of communications, held the first official trans-
atlantic telephone conversation via Telstar.
Pres. Kennedy signed bill extending the U.S. Sugar act until Dec. 31, 1966.
Anthony
U named
Celebrezze,
J.
mayor of Cleveland, was to succeed Ribicoff (resigned) as secy, of health, education and welfare.
1C
Secy, of Agriculture Or-
lu
ville L.
Lyman Gen.
L. Lemnitzer to succeed Norstad as U.S.
Lauris
Gen. Earle G. Wheeler to succeed Gen. George H. Decker as U.S. army chief of staff.
IPres. Kennedy
single-stage rockets in the desert northeast of Cairo.
system of national control posts,
Soviet government ordered resumption of nuclear
tests in reply to the series of U.S. tests.
current
Freeman and Secy,
the Interior Stewart L. Udall announced a 6-months' timetable for beginning a series of land jurisdiction shifts be-
Ben Bella group, charging that Ben Khedda was a "usurper," declared it would supplant the provisional government of Al-
tween the two government de-
geria.
P^''"*'3'' Pres. Prado's resigned over demands for annulment of the June presidential elections by
subject to international supervi-
00 LO
for test ban.
monitoring an atomic
U.S. senate passed and sent to the White House a bill appropriating 848,136,247,000 for the U.S. armed forces during fiscal year ending June 30, 1963.
Togo became
the 77th member International Monetary the 76th member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. of the
partments.
cabinet
announced
U.S. willingness to accept a
sion,
00 LL
of
1R lU
AUGUST
01 United Arab Republic Ll successfully launched 4
Fund and
Saskatchewan college of physicians and surgeons
reached
agreement with the provincial government to end its against the province's compulsory medicare plan.
American Telephone and Telegraph Co. and Bell Telephone laboratories, was orbited from Cape Canaveral and later relayed live TV pictures from -Andover, Me., to France and
armament resumed
Britain.
in
India charged that Communist China had surrounded an In-
senate 'rejected (52 nU.S. to Pres, 48) Kennedy's
dian army outpost in the region of Kashmir.
medicare program for the aged under social security.
L'l 162) and sent to the White House a compromise bill author-
1Q
izing 84,672,000,000 for U.S. aid to foreign countries during fiscal
became 6 Jamaica pendent member of
year ending June 30, 1963.
ish
Ladakh
Pres. Kennedy signed a bill authorizing the Federal Com-
the armed forces.
17-nation conference on its
dis-
meetings
Geneva.
municatipns commission to require TV set manufacturers to equip sets to receive UHF sta-
government anthe appointment of Veniamin E. Dymshits, a Jewish engineer, to the key post of chairman of the state planning
tions.
committee.
11 1 1
Generalissimo Franco Spain
appointed
of
.Agustfn
M unoz Grandes as vice-president and
suspended
vice-premier
leader
of
the
Ben
dissident
opposing Premier Ben returned to Algeria
Khedda,
Union resumed its 5 Soviet nuclear tests in the atmosphere with a 40-megaton blast in the .Arctic.
Commonwealth
Forces loyal to dissident
at
Kingston
Princess Margaret.
Vice-Premier Ben Bella seized control of the Bone and
UN
forces
Constantine regions
all
air
in
eastern
in
the
traffic
province except
British
court of appeal
rejected Robert -A. Soblen's plea that he was being illegally detained by British immigration
an indethe Brit-
ceremonattended by in
Congo banned Katanga
over
UN
planes.
Algerian provisional gov-
7 ernment itself of its
Ben
Bella's
formally divested
powers
in favour of political bureau.
authorities.
Iw
Bella, forces
constitutional
guarantees: U.S. suspended diplomatic relations.
Leaders of rival factions in -Algeria agreed to compromise on their major differences, with Ben Bella's political bureau in charge until elections could be held.
2
ies
OC
lO
OP LU
in White
Algerian
U.S. house passed (221 to
barred the convening of congress
tain.
rules and regulations accelerating depreciation of machinery and equipment for federal income tax purposes.
04
.Algeria.
the U.S. from France and Bri-
U.S. treasury dept. issued new
Representatives of 14 nations signed agreements in Geneva guaranteeing the neutrality and independence of Laos.
Peruvian armed forces ousted and imprisoned Pres. Prado, and
his successor.
Communications satellite Telstar relayed TV programs to
Soviet
10 nounced
strike
House,
charging
that the military overthrow of the Peruvian government was a setback for the .Alliance for Progress, halted U.S. economic aid to Peru.
U.S. treasury dept. reported that federal government expenditures totaled $87,667,980,000 against revenue of 881,360,367,000 during fiscal year ended June 30, 1962.
OT 1.
1
last
Guillermo Le6n Valencia was U.S. defense dept. announced withdrawal of the U.S. marines from Thailand.
U.S. justice dept. announced that General Electric Co. had agreed to pay the U.S. 87,470,000 in
damages
from price
for
overpayments
fixing.
U.S. senate began a filibuster against the administration-
inaugurated as president of Colombia, succeeding Alberto Lleras Camargo.
Juan Bautista Loza 8 Gen. resigned as .Argentine secy,
war and army commander to
resolve a dispute
among army
leaders.
9
Soviet Union categorically rejected new U.S. compro-
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
114
(circled 64 times in 95 hr.) and Popovich (48 times in 71 hr.) landed safely in the Kazakhstan desert area of the U.S.S.R.
AUGUST— Confinoed misc proposals for a end nuclear testing.
t'-eaty
to
IJJ
John (".. Diefenbaker, in announcing major changes in his cabinet, appointed George C. Nowlan, minister of national re%'enue, as finance minister to
Donald
succeed
named
M.
Fleming,
justice minister.
U.S. District Judge Sam Perry in Chicago granted 5 railroad unions a temporary in-
in
lU
junction against a management proposal to change work rules drastically.
Canadian Finance Minister George C. Nowlan reported a of deficit peacetime record $791,021,950 for the
fiscal
year
Soviet Union launched
its
—
Maj. .\nthird cosmonaut II drian G. Nikolayev— into orbit around the earth. Pres.
Kennedy named
Charles
E. Bohlen to succeed Gen. James M. Gavin (ret.) as U.S. ambassador to France.
10 iL
Soviet Union launched fourth
in London on the merger of colony of .Aden with the Federation of South Arabia.
the
government resumed nU.S. diplomatic relations with Peru and the economic aid.
furnishing
its
cosmonaut— Lieut. R. Popovich— into
Slaying of Peter Fechter at East German the Berlin wall guards incited intense demonstrations by a mob of 5,000 West U.S. soldiers were Berliners; booed for not assisting Fechter.
%
Indian Defense Minister V.K. Krishna Menon disclosed that India had entered into an agreement with the U.S.S.R. for the manufacture of engines for In-
Frances O. Kelsey, a physician with the U.S. Food and Drug administration, was awarded the gold medal for distinguished public service by Pres. Kennedy for her resistance to "rigorous" for clearance to market the drug thalidomide in the U.S.
in
U.S. house small busi10 ness committee headed by Rep. Wright Patman (Dem., Tex.) issued a report attacking tax-exempt foundations.
10
1Q Cuban Premier
Pavel
Pres. Kennedy in a nationwide address rejected income tax cuts as unnecessary and unde-
lu
immediate federal sirable.
1 J l*f
U.S. senate voted (63 to 27) to limit debate on bill to
create communications satellite corporation first invocation of closure since 1927.
U.S. nuclear ship "Savannah" —world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship— completed her maiden voyage from Vorktown, Va., to Savannah, Ga.
OQ ZO
France, U.K. and U.S. declared in a joint communique that they would take any steps necessary to preserve their position in Berlin against
Communist encroachment. France, U.K. and U.S. appealed to the U.S.S.R. to discuss measures to ease tension in Berlin; at the same time a
OJ
Ln
Soviet note protested the stoning of honour guards at the U.S.S.R. War Memorial inside West Berlin, following the Fechter slay-
Castro
Iw announced that in the fuCuban agriculture would be
ture
based en tirely on collect ive farms.
on Lv
U.S. treasury dept. announced that for the first had
time the national debt passed 8300,000,000,000.
record haul of $1,551,277.
1C
Indonesia and Netherlu lands signed at UN headquarters an agreement to transfer to Indonesia
administration Guinea,
Netherlands New of effective May 1, 1963.
Soviet
cosmonauts Nikolayev
'" '-"'-.'...-«1
Guam.
00 lL
Pres. Kennedy announced the retirement of U.S. Su-
preme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and the appointment of Secy, of Labour Arthur J. Goldberg to succeed him. Pres. Kennedy announced his support for a Soviet proposal that current series of nuclear weapons tests be terminated by Jan.
1,
on OU
1963.
Kennedy designated Undersecy. of Labour W. Willard Wirtz to succeed Goldberg as secy. Pres.
01 Colony of Trinidad and Tobago became an indeI pendent member of the Commonwealth
of Nations.
in Brussels for the
U.S. senate passed and sent to the White House a bill authorizing payment of §73,000,000 in Philippine World War II damage claims.
OC Lv
Soviet Union renewed its an international call for
trade conference to establish a world trade organization covering all regions and countries without discrimination.
OP ZO UN
U.S. gave its full support to a plan proposed by acting Secy .-Gen, U Thant for the unification of the Congo.
O"! Spacecraft Mariner II fa I was launched from Cape Canaveral on a projected 15week trajectory toward the planet Venus.
government abolthe office of Soviet connnandant of troops in East
U.S. house approved (372 to 10) and sent to the White House a
Berlin.
compromise
Pres. Kennedy confirmed recent reports that several thousand , U.S.S.R. technicians and "large quantities" of supplies were pouring into Cuba.
Proposed U.S. constitutional
Soviet ishcd
dis-
on Zw
SEPTEMBER
1UN
statisticians estimated that world population had reached 3,115,000,000 by mid1962, and was increasing at the rate of 1.8% annually.
Union announced an 2 Soviet agreement to supply arms and military technicians to Cuba.
3
Bolivia
withdrew from
par-
OAS
in proticipation in the over failure to take action of against diversion Chile's test
waters from the Lauca river. Pres. Kennedy said U.S. 4 would employ "whatever
means Pres. Kennedy rescinded a 1941 order giving the U.S. navy control over entry into
01
JLI
government
Soviet
closed that the volume of Soviet maritime shipments to Cuba in 1962 would be twice the 1961 total.
Documents were exchanged formal association of Greece with the European Common Market effective Nov. 1, 1962.
final
QQ ZO
u
—
U.S. mail truck was held up and robbed at Plymouth, Mass.; the daring gang made off with a
elections received congressional approval. federal
ing.
demands
orbit.
Col.
1962
of
dian supersonic aircraft.
ended March 31, 1962.
11
Agreement was reached
ID
Canadian Prinne Minister
•
Pres. Kennedy announced that two U.S. nuclear submarines— the U.S.S. "Skate" and the "Seadragon"— had efU.S.S. fected an under-ice rendezvous pole. north the at
prevent against
may
be
necessary"
aggression
any part
by
to
Cuba
of the western
hemisphere, but added that evidence of Cuba's build-up
showed no "significant offensive capability."
bill for creation of a U.S. satellite communications corporation.
amendment
to bar the poll tax as a requirement for voting in
Soviet Union refused to join in four-power talks proposed by the U.S., Britain and France
6
for easing tension in Berlin.
Pres. Jos6 gentina,
in
Maria Guido accord
of Arwith secre-
taries of the military forces, dis-
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS 10
solved congress and provided for elections on Oct. 27, 1963.
asked U.S.
congress for authority to call 150,000 reservists to active duty should the international situation
make
Pres.
it
advisable.
De Gaulle in
U
Premier Francisco Brochado da Rocha of Brazil
and
his cabinet resigned after failing to gain approval of the chamber of deputies for a referendum on restoration of presi-
dential powers.
of France, ad-
West German War Hamburg, proposed
dressing the college
Kennedy
said U.S. 10 would mo\e swiftly against Cuba if and when necessary to defend its security.
SEPTEMBER— Conff'nued
7Pres. Kennedy
Pres.
"organic co-operation" between the armies of France and West
Germany.
IC
Pres. Kennedy signed a IJ billauthori2ingS900,000,000 for public w'orks in economically depressed areas in the U.S.
JoSo Goulart of Brazil a plebiscite on restoration of earlier presidential powers when the chamber reversed its stand and approved a senate measure setting the referendum for Jan. 6, 1963. Pres.
U.S. Vice-Pres. Johnson,
8
after a 17-day tour of LebaIran, Turkey, Cyprus, Greece and Italy, said foreign aid had proved its value in
strengthening U.S. allies against Communist subversion.
Kurdish rebels
northern 9 Iraq reported asking U.S. aid, but U.S. officials ruled out interference
in
in
Iraq's
internal
UPres.
Duvalier of Haiti was granted full authority by the legislature the second time in his 5 years in office to take necessary economic and financial measures for a period of 6 months.
—
—
affairs.
Hermes Lima, moderate
in
U.S. Atomic Energy comlU mission and dept. of de-
fense disclosed that the radiation belt caused by U.S. high-altitude nuclear test of July 9 necessitated revising the schedule for atomic tests
and
for launching scientific
satellites.
cialist,
was
1962
115
01 U.S. Deputy Secy, of DeL I fense Roswell L. Gilpatric announced agreements with West Germany, France and Italy for
by
selected
SoPres.
M uha m mad
10 Khan, former
Zaf rulla
foreign minwas elected
Pakistan, general of the assembly at the opening of its 17th session. ister
of
president
UN
forces had shot down a tionalist Chinese U-2 plane
Naover
day before; Naacknowledged that a was missing on a recon-
east China the tionalists
U-2
naissance mission.
Soviet Union warned that any attack by the U.S. on Cuba or Soviet ships bound for Cuba would mean war.
Edward M. Kennedy, the president's brother, won the Democratic nomination for U.S. senator from Massachusetts, defeating Edward J. McCormack, Jr., in the primary.
11
Argentina's cavalry corps and
II
the military garrison near Buenos .Aires, under Gen. Juan Carlos Ongania, rebelled against the army high command, charging it had made /a puppet of Pres. Guidcr.
U.S. senate confirmed the nomination of Thurgood Marshall as a judge of the 2nd circuit court of appeals, after "sitting on the nomination" for 8 months.
Wernher von Braun,
director C. Marshall Space Flight centre in Huntsville, Ala.,
1Q Ahmad, imam
of
Yemen
10
(deceased), was succeeded by his son Prince Saif al-Islam Mohammed al-Badr.
George
of
told Pres. Kennedy his promise to put a man on the moon "by the end of this decade" would
be
fulfilled.
ide
World
on ^U
Gov. Ross R. Barnett
of
Mississippi denied the application of James H. Meredith, Negro, for admission to the University of Mississippi, in
L
Pres.
Kennedy
signed the
Food and .Agriculture act of 1962, a compromise bill providing for some of the increased
Argentina's secretary of war,
crop controls he requested.
I
Gen. Jose Octavio Cornejo Sara-
and the commander in chief of the army. Gen. Juan Carlos Lorio, resigned under pressure of the "nationalist" rebels led Gen. Juan Carlos Ongania.
00 LL
by
of
killed.
emergency in -Accra and the new harbour town of Tema because of recent attempts to assassinate him.
Gov.
Barnett of Missiswas found guilty of contempt by U.S. court of appeals and ordered to cease insippi
civil
terference with desegregation at University of Mississippi or face arrest
00 ZJ
Argentina's rebel "nationalist" forces took control in Buenos Aires under Gen. Ongania, who was named com-
mander
in chief of the Pres. Guido.
O
Army faction in Yemen seized control of the government and proclaimed a republic, stating that the new imam had been
Kwame Nkrumah Op Ghana declared a state of ^0
Pres.
army by
J University of Mississippi
tH
trustees agreed to accept registration of Negro student
James H. Meredith. U.S. house passed and sent to the White House authorization for the president to call up to 150,000 reservists for 1 year and to e.xtend the active duty of servicemen without declaring a
each
and a fine of $10,000 for day of continued inter-
ference.
U.S. Secy, of Defense McNasaid U.S. was ready to use nuclear arms in Germany if necessary to protect its vital in-
mara
terests in Berlin.
Abdullah named premier
Col.
al-Sallal was of the revolutionary government of Yemen, reportedly friendly to the U.A.R.
Rep. Kathryn
Granahan
E.
(Dem., Pa.) was designated by Pres.
Kennedy
as
treasurer of
the U.S.
state of emergency.
Communist China announced its
OT
purchase of U.S. military equipto offset U.S. gold losses.
Goulart of Brazil as premier.
10
national assembly designated .Ahmed Ben Bella as premier, to form the first regular government of Algeria.
Algerian
ment
via,
won
non,
•
defiance of a federal court order.
OC Prime
^u
Minister Castro
of
Cuba announced
on ^w
African nationalists Southern Rhodesia were
in re-
that the U.S.S.R. would collaborate in building a Cuban port as headquarters for a joint fishing fleet.
ported to be preparing to go underground in answer to the government's ban on the Zimbabwe .African People's union.
U.S. retained the America's cup in the final yacht race of the series between U.S. "Weatherly" and Australia's "Gretel" at Newport, R.I.
on wU
Negro student James H.
Meredith was escorted onto the campus of the University of Mississippi by deputy U.S. marshals; 2 men were killed in the ensuing
Charles "Sonny" Liston won the professional heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson by a knockout in the first round of bout in Chicago.
op ^0
U.S. house approved sen-
ate resolution putting congress on record as serving notice that the U.S. would use mili-
tary
force
against a security.
if
Cuban
necessary
threat to U.S.
mob
violence.
OCTOBER 1
Negro student James H. Meredith was enrolled and
began classes at University of Mississippi as federal law oflicers
and troops held back
rioters.
Former Maj. Gen. Edwin A.
Wa
ker was arrested and charged with insurrection in connection I
CHRONOLOGY OF
116
OCTOBER—
Revolutionary regime in Yemen was reported to be receiving Conf/nuec/
large-scale aid
from the United
Arab Republic. with his alleged incitement of ~ob violence against the regismob traition of James M. Meredith.
U.S. senate approved and
2
sent to the White House a tax revision bill for tax dedurtions of about SI .000,000,000 for plant modernization by industry.
Uganda became an
independent
Obote as
with
nation
.Milton prime minister.
in
Kennedy
Pres.
lU
signed
a
deductions
for U.S. tax
bill
in private pension plans by self-employed
on income invested persons.
Pre*. Kennedy signed an administration-backed bill authorizing a U.S loan of SIOO.000.000 to the UN to meet a financial
66,
Cuban
exile organiza-
announced
that a small raided Isabela de Sagua, a port about 150 mi. E. of Havana.
tion,
commando group had
U.S. astronaut Walter M.
3
Schirra, orbited the Jr., earth 6 times and landed on target in the Pacific within 4-mi. of the carrier "Kearsarge."
4
Alpha
house
U.S.
and
Pres. S6kou Tour6 of Guinea conferred with Pres. Kennedy at the V\'hite House on expansion of U.S. aid to Guinea.
a foreign trade giving Pres. Kennedy authority to negotiate tariff reductions and to assist firms and individuals injured by import competition.
U.S.
first
—
French
popular vote.
drugs.
off
Cuba by a manned by exiles.
the coast of
vessel
10
raiding
87th congress
10 journed
of U.S. adafter unusually long
session of 10
months and 4 days.
It I"
Riots occurred
1C
U.S.
in Bru.ssels,
Belg., between Flemishspeaking and French-speaking groups.
no Latin-American nation
was obligated to aid the U.S. in enforcing the Monroe Doctrine, adding that he did not consider Cuba a threat to hemisphere
supreme court
up-
IJ
held the right of the state of impose its sales tax on goods bought within the state by the federal government. Illinois to
peace.
Premier
5
U.S. house passed and sent to
Pres.
Kennedy
a
bill
in-
creasing postal rates and raising the pay of federal employees.
Ahmed Ben
Algeria, visiting Pres.
Bella of
—
cently decided upon for visiting
heads of state.
French Pres. De Gaulle 6 cepted the resignations
acof
Premier f^mpidou and his cabinet but asked that they remain following the dissolution of the national assembly and the forming of a new government.
7 Former
Brazilian Pres. JSnio Quadros was defeated as candidate for governor of Sao Paulo in Brazil's congressional
and gubernatorial
8
U.S.
elections.
senate passed and to White House a
sent $.i,')28.000,0O0 foreign aid
Pres.
R6mulo Betancourt
Venezuela
of
suspended constitubecause of in Caracas
9
interior.
Arbitrators ruled that Chicago and North Western rail-
way could
abolish telegraphers' jobs (irovided 90 days' notice was given to the union.
sectors of
in
pitched battles
the disputed
Hima-
cepting fees to influence justice dept. action in a criminal case.
world's series, San Francisco Giants the 7th game.
U
the defeating to
1
Premier Ben Bella geria,
visiting
in
in
of .W-
Havana,
endorsed Prime Mmister Castro's
demand
that the U.S. give
naval base at
King Saud
up
Guant^namo
its
bay.
of Sjiudi Arabia dis-
solved his government and ap-
Communist Chinese
forces
the Indian town of 17 mi. S. of the Tibetan
captured
Towang, border.
Uganda became the 1 10th member of the UN, bringing the strength of the African-Asian bloc to exactly half the total
Fighting broke out again
in
north Katanga, 4 days after the signing of a cease-fire agreement between government troops of the Republic of the Congo and
Katangan
00
Pres.
John Steinbeck, U.S. novelist, was named winner of the 1962 Nobel prize for
forces.
Kennedy
in
a
TV
bA, address announced a naval and air "quarantine" on shipment of offensive military supplies to Cuba, stating that the Soviet Union contrary to its assurances had been building missile and bomber bases in Cuba.
^U
chartered freighter en route to Havana, permitting it to proceed after searching.
State of emergency was declared throughout India as Communist Chinese troops made gains
Soviet Union challenged i.0 the right of U.S. to halt shipment of weapons to Cuba, stated the Kennedy administration was risking thermonuclear war.
Council of OAS voted unanimously to authorize the use of armed force to prevent the shipment of offensive weapons to Cuba. British foreign office in a statement supporting the U.S. blockade of Cuba accused the Soviet
Union of duplicity. J Soviet Premier KhrushchevinalettertoBertrand
Lt
Russell
denounced
Pres.
and
northeast
areas.
01
Soviet
shchev, in a letter to Pres.
I
Premier
Kennedy,
offered
Khruremove
to
UN
missile bases in Cuba under supervision; the broadcast of a second letter demanded that U.S. take corresponding action in
Turkey.
announced a U-2 reconnaissance plane was missing and U.S.
presumed
Op £0
lost
over Cuba.
Soviet Premier Khrushchev agreed to dismantle
installations
UN
in
Cuba and
ar-
inspection in return
for U.S. lifting of the
blockade
joining with other OAS nations in a commitment against invasion of Cuba.
and
Pres.
00
the
in
L
range British admiralty clerk, William John Vassall, who sold official secrets to Soviet agents for 6 years, was sentenced to 18 years in prison.
literature.
C U .S. na vy boarded a Soviet-
Ladakh
and
U.S. house members Thomas Johnson (Dem., Md.) and J. Frank W. Boykin (Dem., Ala.) were indicted by a federal grand jury in Baltimore on conffict-ofintcrest charges for allegedly ac-
1962
tional guarantees terrorist activities
and the
closed in Washington.
New York Yankees won
bill.
Pres.
1C
U.S. agreement to sell lU France an atomic-powered submarine, in accordance with a promise made in 1958, was dis-
sisted; however, Pres. Kennedy agreed to talks with acting Secy.-Gen. U Thant on the
Minister
lu Diefenbaker endorsed
Kennedy
Washington, D.C., was given a 21-gun salute a greeting rein
OC
membership.
1Q Canadian Prime
layan frontier.
Mexican Pres. L6pez Mateos said
of the molecular structure of dephysical oxyribonucleic acid, basis of heredity.
dian positions
patrol boat was sunk
U.S. house approved and sent to Pres. Kennedy a bill to tighten federal control of the sale of
1962 Nobel prize for medicine was awarded jointly to Maurice H. F. Wilkins of Kings college (London), Francis H. C. Crick of Cambridge, and James D. Watson of Harvard for their discovery
on both the eastern and western
secretary of
Moscow on spy
refrain
to
possibility of negotiations.
Cuban
U.S.S.R. expelled the
M
in
U.S.
against saving and time deposits, thereby increasing potential lending power by about $4,600,000,000.
on Chinese Communist £U troops overran many In-
10
U
Secy.-Gen.
from the Cuban blockade and U.S.S.R. to stop sending missiles. U.S. stated that the Cuban Z J blockade would continue as long as the missile threat per-
U.S. federal reserve board
embassy
the Vatican council in
Acting UN Thant asked
10 reduced from 5% to 4% the reserve banks' requirements
in
charges the second U.S. diplomat ordered out of the Soviet Union in 7 days.
11
bill,
national assembly passed a censure motion against the government for its acceptance of Pres. Dedaulle's plan for a constitutional change to permit elections of future presidents by
• 1962
Kennedy's proposal for a 1963 conference of ministers of countries signatory to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, to seek ways to remove obstacles to world trade.
Pope John XXIII opened Rome.
senate
approved
EVENTS
pointed Prince Faisal as premier in a move against sympathizers with the revolutionary program of Pres. Nasser of the U.A.R.
De Gaulle's
election
of
proposal for France's presidents
by popular vote was approved by almost 62% of the valid ballots, but only about 46% of the registered voters.
on LO
Indian
on OU
Acting
Prime
Minister
Nehru requested U.S. military supplies for defense against Communist China's attack, and was assured of speedy assistance.
UN
Secy.-Gen.
U
Thant flew to Havana to confer with Prime Minister Castro on arrangements for a checkup on dismantling of Soviet missiles; U.S. suspended its
UN
naval blockade and air surveillance during Thant's visit.
Ken-
nedy's quarantine against shipment of aggressive weapons to
Cuba as 'piratical" and suggested a summit meeting to discuss the situation in order to avert danger of a nuclear war.
UN
general assembly voted
(56 to 42) against admission of
Communist China.
Cuban 31
Castro
Prime told
Minister
acting
Secy.-
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS signed Oct. 31 after dismissal as defense minister.
OCTOBER — Continued
G. D. Galbraith, 8 Thomas former British civil lord of Gen. U Thant that Cuba would not accept inspection of military unless the U.S. installations agreed to five conditions, one being evacuation of U.S. naval base at Guantanamo bay.
V. K. Krishna
Menon was
dis-
missed as India's minister of defense by Prime Minister Xehru and appointed to the new post of minister of defense produc-
1962
•
117
was further heightened by ChanAdenauer's refusal to dismiss Defense Minister Franz Joseph Strauss, accused of violating the freedom of the press. cellor
the admiralty, resigned as joint
undersecretary for Scotland following disclosure of his personal correspondence with William J. C. Vassall, British admiralty clerk convicted of spying.
9
Nelson Himiob, ambassa-
U.S. bureau of labour
statis-
released statistical indicathat average purchasing power in U.S. had risen 209c to 40% in the previous 10-12 years. tics
tions
1Q
India's
forces
10 northeast
and
on both northwest
-dor from Venezuela, placed before the O.AS documents linking Cuba with recent sabotage in Venezuela.
fronts retreated under heavy assaults by the
U.S. navy ships intercepted, but did not board, Soviet cargo
Austria's Conservative People's party, governing .Austria
north of Havana and photographed objects believed to be missiles on the way back to
in coalition
the U.S.S.R.
1Q Government
renewed
Commu-
NOVEMBER
vessels in a
broadcast announced rejec-
any form of international inspection in Cuba. tion of
Joint winners bel prize in
chemists
of the 1962 Nochemistry were bioFerdinand Perutz
Max
John Cowdery Kendrew (both of Cambridge university. England); winner of the physics award was Lev Davidovich
and
Landau
stated that
aerial photographs indicated Soviet missiles in Cuba were be-
and bases dismantled; he added that U.S. surveillance would continue until a satisfac-
Irt Soviet newspaper Prai'da's lU suggestion that automatic seismic stations ("black boxes ") be used to record underground atomic explosions as an alternative to U.S. plan for international inspection was unfavourably received in Washington, D.C.
Supporters of Pres. De Gaulle won control of
France's national assembly in the first the run-off election time in modern French history that one group had a clear majority.
—
Op ^0
Several hundred
of
had
inspection
been arranged. in Venezuela blew 3 Saboteurs up four pipelines operated by
U.S. oil concerns at Puerto Cruz, 200 mi. E. of Caracas.
La
administrator to succeed Fowler
Hamilton;
party leader, was named premier of Bulgaria by the national assembly.
the council of economic advisers, was named to succeed Bell.
the
01 Chief U.S. Marshal James L P. McShane, indicted Nov.
on OU
border warfare against India, fective at midnight.
or-
the ef-
Kennedy announced the naval blockade of Cuba, following assurances from Soviet Premier Khrushchei- that all U.S.S.R. jet bombers in Cuba would be removed within 30
10 German Chancellor lo nauer
arri\ed in Washingtalks with Pres. U.^. Secy, of
State Rusk.
cratic seats in the senate
URene Maheu of France was elected director-general of at the biennial gen-
UNESCO
eral conference in Paris.
1C
16 in Oxford. Miss., on charges of "inciting riots in connection with the admission of James H. Meredith to the L'niversity of Mississippi, surrendered and was released on a writ of habeas corpus. "
U.S. air force released 14,200 men, who were called to active duty in October because of the Cuban crisis, and rescinded compulsory extensions of duty for navy and marine corps person-
lost in California.
Christian A. Herter, secy. Eisenhower administration, was chosen by
nel.
UN
as U.S. special representative for trade negotiations.
12 U.S. turbojet transport planes and their crews were dispatched to India to aid in the struggle against Communist China.
Iv
of state in the
Kennedy
Pres.
general assembly voted that
UN
sanc-
for
request
on South -Africa until abandoned racial segregation.
it
King Saud of Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with the L'nited .Arab Republic, charging attacks on his country by U.A.R. planes.
on Zw
India and Pakistan agreed
to settle question of
by negotiation the over
sovereignty
Kashmir.
Chinese Communist party organ Jenmin Jih Pao sharply criticized Premier Khrushchev for Cuban compromise, indicating
widening
of
the
China-
U.S.S.R. breach.
IP Meetings
throughout Pak-
lU
istan protested western military aid to India.
to
Communist party in a move make the National Liberation
Front the only political party in Algeria.
U Thant,
acting secretary-
general of the UN, was unanimously elected secretarygeneral by the general assembly for a term lasting to Nov. 3, 1966.
DECEMBER 1
Prime Minister Nehru of India rejected Communist
China's terms for a cease-fire, but an exchange of letters with PreEn-Iai indicated mier Chou there would be no resumption of hostilities.
OO
British Labour party capJLL tured two seats in parliament from the Conservatives in by-elections and reduced the Conservative majority in a third
Premier Khrushchev 7 Soviet staled that U.S.S.R. had removed all its rockets from Cuba.
nWest
Indian Prime Minister Nehru
growing out of a controversy over the Oct. 27 arrest
and to
the publisher of the news magazine Der Spiegel (who criticized West Germany's defenses)
gineering Corp. for a revolutionary type of supersonic tactical fighter plane suitable for use by
constituency.
deposits 2 Thorium White mountains
in
the
(N.H.)
were found by geologists to be ten times as great as earlier estimates, constituting a reserve for nuclear fuel equal to the nation's uranium deposits.
U.S. defense dept. announced that Soviet jet bombers were being shipped from
3
Cuba
German
cabinet
crisis,
accepted the resignation of Krishna Menon from the minor cabinet post to which he was as-
that would involve dismissal of workers considered unnecessary by the railroads.
days.
I
.Ade-
U.S. congressional andgu- ton, D.C, for 6 bernatorial elections- Kennedy and
(67-16)
of
Algerian government banned
preme commander of N.ATO
supplies.
members impose economic
Kermit Gordon,
U.S. court of appeals in Chicago rejected the appeal by five railroad brotherhoods for an injunction against rules changes
Pres. Kennedy signed an executive order prohibiting racial discrimination in housing built or purchased with federal aid.
Lauris Norstad, su-
land testing area in the Pacific.
Republicans took governorships from the Democrats in Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania and Michigan, although former Vice-Pres. Richard AL Ni.xon
by
Assam.
U.S. Budget Director David E. Bell was named Kennedy as foreign aid
Pres.
10 Gen.
concluded with a high-altitude explosion over the Johnston Is-
winners was Kennedy, the president's broth-
00 ZO
Todor Zhivkov, Communist
Pres.
that N.ATO was hampered by shortages of needed units and
er);
plains of
border.
lifting of the
1 1
forces in Europe, stated in Paris
the
of India admitted the loss of Bondi La, only mountain stronghold separating the Chinese from the
w
before.
India was reported to L I have shifted about half the troops from stations on the Pakistan frontier to the Chinese
Soviet newspaper Sovietskaya Rossiya reported that 47,000 construction workers had left their jobs in Siberia during the \'ear because of low wages and administrative inefficiency.
11
series of L'.S. at4 Current mospheric nuclear tests was
(among Edward M.
with the Socialists, national elections.
day
07
on Communist China ^U dered a cease-fire in
IL,
brought a gain of four Demo-
in
mem-
bers of Guatemala's air force, including most of the pilots, were held for questioning in
of controversy was raised by appearance of Alger Hiss, convicted perjurer, on TV program "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon."
ing crated
means
won
I
Storm
of the U.S.S.R.
2Pres. Kennedy
tions
OC ^J
of the
Prime Minister Castro
tory
carriers.
connection with a brief uprising
nist Chinese.
tion.
1
the U.S. air force on land bases and by the U.S. navy's aircraft
of
Oyl Contracts were awarded to General Dynamics Corp.
in accordance with Premier Khrushchev's agreement.
tH
Grumman
.Aircraft
En-
Frol R. Kozlov, U.S.S.R. Communist party secretary, denounced Communist China's "adventuristic position" in India
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS
118
UN
DECEMBER— Confinuei.i
/rom Puhlix
149 American Veterans' Committee:
Veterans' Organi-
see
sations. U.S.
American Veterans of World vets)
:
An autonomous
J
1
War 11 and
Korea
(
Am-
Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
see
Andorra
principality of Europe.
is
nllUUild.
located in the Pyrenees mountains between Spain
and France.
.Area 175 sq.mi. Pop.
est.
)
10,000. Cap. .Andorra la Vella
(Spanish! (pop., 1960 parish
est,,
(1960 census) 8,959; (1962 (
Catalan
)
or .Andorra
la
Vieja
2,250). Co-princes: the presi-
dent of the French republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, represented by their viguiers (provosts).
members appoints one
24
of
its
An
elected general council of
members
as the
first
syndic
{syndic general des vallees): in 1962, Julian Reig Ribo.
History.
— The
On
.Andorra.
year 1962 produced a constitutional
.Aug.
crisis in
30 the general council refused to seat a new
member. Jaime Casals y Vail, ostensibly because of conflict of interest. The bishop of Urgel saw in it an anticlerical move, and tarr.
F,i,,i—P,x from PuhUx
ROBERT FROST, who in
15
years, in
published In the Clearing, his first new book of poems 1962, and swapped ideas with Premier Khrushchev in Moscow
During the year U.S. poetry suffered a loss in the death of Cummings. whose lyric imagination, bright wit and daring experiments gave him a considerable and a certain place in U.S. E. E.
Norman
verse.
Mailer, the novelist, published his
first
collec-
poems. Deaths for the Ladies, which were irreverent, humorous and savage. Muriel Rukeyser offered in WatcrlHy Fire an impressive collection of poems strongly felt and richly tion of
phrased.
Four younger poets with a volume or two already to their credit advanced their reputations with new volumes: Denise Levertov with The Jacob's Ladder James Dickey with Drowuing :
With Others; James Merrill with Water Street: and Brother Antoninus with The Hazards of Holiness, 1957-1960. At least two poets of high promise made their debuts: David Ross with Three Ages of Lake Light and Edith Shiffert with In Open
Woods.
The year brought
its
budget of
whose Everyone But Thee and
from Ogden Nash, showed the old master again
light verse
Me
first
syndic
on travel documents, which require the signature of the
s>Tidic
provost refused to recognize the signature of the
his
and the initials of the proper provost. Possession of valid travel documents is vital to all Andorrans wishing to sell their dairy products and lumber in Spain. Border inspections along the Spanish frontier increased in strictness. The crisis was ended when Casals' election was invalidated and the holding of new elections was ordered. .A Canadian engineering firm made
a
survey for the construc-
to France, which would eliminate a treacherous stretch of road over the Pasa de la Casa. R. D. Ho.)
tion
of
three-kilometre-long road tunnel
a
(
Education.
— Schools (1960-61, French medium only): primary
16, pupils
713, teachers 26: secondary 1, pupils SS, teachers 6. There are also Spanish and Tatalan medium schools. Economy. Monetary units: French franc and Spanish peseta. Xo budget or taxes: public revenue derives from import, gasoline and liquor levies and frontier tolls. Broadcast services (to about 2,000 radio receivers in 1061) provided by French government-controlled .\ndorradio and Spanish privately operated Radio .\ndorra, which also built and maintains a telephone system (about 2 50 subscribers in 1961). Roads maintained by Fuerzas Hidroelectricas de .\ndorra. S..^. F.H..\.S..^.). Main sources of foreign exchange in the private sector: tobacco and manufactures (cigarette factory has annual turnover of about 50.000.000 pesetas); tourism (about 800.000 visitors in 1961; receipts [est.] XFI37.000,000) exchange and deposit banking (15 institutions and agents established by 1962). Imports from France (1961 est.) NF50,000,000.
—
(
;
in his best
form.
See also Book Publishing and
ature; Literary Prizes.
Book Sales; English LiterRa. W. (
)
—
Encyclop.'Edh Beit.annica Films. Van Wyck Brooks (The Wisdom 1960); Pearl S. Buck (The Wisdom Series, 1961^): James B. Conant (The Wisdom Series, 1960); Robert Frost (The Wisdom Series, 1958); Edit/i Hamilton (The Wisdom Series, 1960); Carl Sandburg (The Wisdom Series, 1958); John Hall Wheelock (The Wisdom Series, Series,
AngllC3n lOniniUniOn.
mumon,
especially the
Church of
England, continued to be preoccupied with the cause of Christian reunion.
The English convocations
failed to give unquali-
1958). fied
American Mathematical Society:
see Societies
and As-
sociations. U.S.
American Medical Association:
see Industri.\l He.alth;
Societies and .Associations. U.S.
American Optometric Association:
see Societies
and
.Associations, U.S. see Societies
and As-
sociations. U.S.
American Psychological Association:
and Associa-
Ramsey
World
council.
himself appeared eager to extend friendship to other
American Samoa: 5(;«^ Samoa. American Society of Civil Engineers:
gan. he arranged to continue conversations with the Scottish
Presbyterians and the English Methodists, and appointed three see
Societies
and Associations, U.S.
official
.Anglican observers to the \atican council of the
Catholic Church in
Rome
in
Roman
October. In August Agostino Cardi-
on Christian Unity, was received by Ramsey in London, the first Roman prelate to be officially welcomed at Lambeth palace since the Reformation. nal Bea. in charge of the Vatican Secretariat
see
Societies
and Associations, U.S,
American Society of Composers, Authors and Pub-
In the course of the year
lishers: see Societies and Associations. U.S.
at Istanbul, Turk.,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers: and Associations, U.S.
north India
churches. Together with the archbishop of York, F. Donald Cogsee Societies
tions, U.S.
eties
in
and Ceylon. However, the vigorous part played by .Anglican representatives at the third assembly of the World Council of Churches in New Delhi, India, in 1961 raised new hopes of progress toward closer relations with other churches. The archbishop of Canterbury, .Arthur Michael Ramsey, became one of the six presidents of the
American Philosophical Society: American Physical Society:
approval to the proposals for church union
see Soci-
Ramsey
visited the ecumenical patriarch
and the Greek archbishop at .Athens in May and the patriarch of the Russian Church in Moscow in .August. The Church of England in Australia achieved a new constitu-
ANTAR CTICA
150
Total receipts rose by $11,190,340 to $184,204,143.
The
principal events of the year were related to the church's
growing ecumenical concern. Late in 1961 the presiding bishop,
Arthur Lichtenberger, paid a courtesy visit to Pope John XXIII. Consultations with other denominations to explore the possibilities of
union, authorized
by the 1961 general convention, were
meeting in Washington, D.C., April 9 and 10, 1962, with representatives from the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., the Methodist Church and the United Church of
begun
at a
Christ.
extended to the Evangelical United
Invitations were
Brethren, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) and the Polish National Catholic Church.
During the spring, the convention of the diocese of New Hampmet jointly with a convocation convened by the New Hampshire Council of Churches. New Hampshire was also the scene shire
of an experiment in local ecclesiastical co-operation, the
Tam-
worth Associated Churches, which excited considerable interest and some controversy in the rest of the church. Three local churches, only one of which was Episcopalian, had combined to secure the services of an Episcopal clergyman while remaining independent in other respects. fifth
The
association observed
its
anniversary in 1962.
During the week of Aug. 25-Sept. 1, 1962, a conference of Lutheran and Episcopalian students met at Stephens college, Columbia, Mo., under the joint sponsorship of the Lutheran Student Association of America and the National Canterbury as-
theme was "The Word, the World, and the Sacraments." The first Negro to serve as Episcopal bishop of a predominantly white diocese was consecrated in Boston Dec. 8. He was John Melville Burgess, 55, elevated from archdeacon of Boston sociation (Episcopalian). Its
United Press International
ARCHBISHOP AND THE PRESIDENT: The
Most Rev. Arthur Michael Ramsey, archbishop of Canterbury and spiritual head of the Anglican Communion, with President Kennedy durina a visit to the White House Oct. 31, 1962. They were joined by Mrs. Kennedy and the two children for a family chat
tion giving
it
complete independence from the Church of England. full communion was signed between the
In Manila a concordat of
to suffragan bishop.
A
was taken toward the formation of a new contemplawomen, as three women began testing their vocation at the "House of Prayer" near Lake Placid, N.Y., on property donated by Bishop Allen Webster Brown of Albany. A new post of general secretary for evangelism was created under the step
tive order for
made at the general conThe Rev. Robert C. Martin was ap-
Protestant Episcopal Church of the U.S. and the Philippine Independent Church. In Africa the bishop of Accra was summarily
National council, following a request
was banned by the Ghanaian government for criticizing the alleged godlessness of (R. L. R.) the official youth organization. Protestant Episcopal Church. Statistics given by the Episcopal Church Annual at the beginning of 1962 showed moderate
pointed to
expelled and the archbishop of west Africa
—
gains under
most headings, but there was a disquieting decline
in
vention in the faU of 1961. fill it.
During the
fall
of 1962 the Protestant Episcopal
Church
re-
ceived a visit from the archbishop of Canterbury. This was his to the U.S. since his elevation to the see of Canterbury though he had visited the country previously when he was archbishop of York. (W. W. Ms.) first visit
in 1961,
the two areas most likely to affect the future growth of the
The total number of bapmembers was 3,519,685, a gain of 75,420 over the previous year. Communicants numbered 2,179,844, representing an increase of 56,734. The number of parishes reached 7,721, an increase of 64. Ordained clergy had increased by 264 to 9,343, church: baptisms and confirmations.
Angling:
tized
Angola:
raising the ratio of clergy to
communicants from
1
to 233.8 to
1
There were 15,613 lay readers, an increase of 896. The church schools (Sunday and released time) had 890,094 pupils, an increase of 15,544, and 106,737 teachers, a gain of 1,650. Parish day schools were becoming more important in the church's educational program. During the year covered, enrollment increased by 5,010 to 49,085. A total of 97,247 infants were baptized during 1961, a decrease of 1,065 from the previous year. Adult baptisms declined by 179 to 18,236. Confirmations decreased by 1,239 to 120,052. The number of ordinations to the diaconate was 431, an increase of 7, reversing a previous decline. There were 420 ordinato
233.3.
The number of candidates The number of postulants (persons
tions to the priesthood, a decrease of
for orders rose
by
12 to 812.
7.
preparing to become candidates) was 1,072, a decrease of
3.
see Fishing.
see Africa; Portuguese Overseas Provinces; United Nations. Animal Fats: see Dairy Products; Vegetable Oils and Ani-
mal Fats. Anniversaries and Centennials: page
xviii
;
Civil
War
see
Calendar,
1962,
Centennial.
During 1962 two significant steps were taken by the U.S. to provide more permanent facilities in Antarctica. On Feb. 13, 1962, a new major scientific station, replacing the old Byrd station built in 1957 and later crushed beyond repair under many tons of drifted snow, was placed in commission and occupied by scientists and logistics support per-
AntlirPtiPQ niildlbUlid.
The new station consisted of a 600-ft. steel-arch tunnel with seven access tunnels, so arranged that almost nothing prosonnel.
On March 4, 1962, a 1,500-kw. nuclear power plant was activated at McMurdo sound. The plant was designed to generate electricity for the entire statruded above the surfacg of the snow.
tion
and provide steam
to melt
snow
for the water supply. In
ANTARCTICA compliance with the 12-nation Antarctic treaty, which prohibits nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material, wastes
from the nuclear power plant would
be removed in approved containers to the U.S. for disposal. U.S. icebreakers carried scientists and engineers
more than
400 mi. along the face of the Ross ice shelf, then continued past the Hobbs coast and penetrated deep into the Getz ice shelf in west Antarctica. 35 mi.
off
En
Hobbs
the
route, an uncharted island
was sighted about
coast.
Studies were undertaken at
McMurdo
feasibility of construction of a
sound to determine the
year-round landing
field of
com-
pacted snow to replace the existing runways built on sea
which deteriorates
at high temperatures.
The
ice,
concept, previously
used in Greenland and Alaska, employs successive layers of compacted snow which elevate the surface above the natural snow level.
In Nov.-Dec. 1961 the U.S. established a
named Sky-Hi
new
scientific sta-
changed to Eights Coast station), at 75° 14' S., 77° 10' W. Transportation of all materials and personnel was accomplished by aircraft. The new station was located approximately 1,600 mi. from McMurdo sound and was tion
(later
occupied by five scientists untO late Feb. 1962.
A
was made availThe U.S.N.S. "Eltanin," a constrengthened for work in pack ice,
floating laboratory for Antarctic research
able to U.S. scientists in 1962.
verted 4,492-ton cargo ship
would expand
effective Antarctic research efforts to include the
surrounding oceans.
A
meteorite weighing approximately 70
scientists
working
in the eastern
lb.
was found by U.S.
Horlick mountains about 350
from the south pole. The meteorite was especially interesting it was of a relatively uncommon t>pe. siderolite, part iron and part stone, containing large portions of both nickel iron and silicate. mi.
because
Amundsen on his return 1911-12 was found intact by a
In Jan. 1962 a cairn erected by Roald
journey from the south pole
in
U.S. glaciological team on Mt. Betty in the Horlick mountains.
\y\
ANTHRO POLOGY
152
Nototheniidae family and was similar to several well-preserved McMurdo in 1961. fish found on the surface of the ice near shallow pond discovered in southeast Victoria
A
Land was be-
Laboratory lieved not to freeze, even during the Antarctic winter. as salty as tests of the water revealed that it is about 1 1 times sea water
and
will
not freeze at
—60°
F.
life In 1962 biologists were successful in collecting marine from beneath the Ross ice shelf where no sunlight penetrates. The collections included sea spiders, marine worms, corals,
sponges and various crustaceans. Cartography.— During the period Nov. 1961-Jan. 1962 the obtained accurate topographic data for mapping more than U.S.
100,000 sq.mi. of previously
unmapped
or partially charted ter-
In carrying out this program surveyors were flown in turbine-driven helicopters from mountain top to mountain top, some with elevations exceeding 10,000 ft., for a distance of about 1,510
ordinates of several conjugate points (opposite ends of lines of force of the earth's geomagnetic fields). For example, the north-
ern hemisphere conjugate point for Sky-Hi station is about 100 mi. N. of Quebec City. Simultaneous observations taken at these points revealed definite correlations between disturbances in the geomagnetic, auroral, very low-frequency and
conjugate
ionosphere phenomena.
In co-operation with
The area covered
Geology.
is
one-third again as large as
—A group working
in the central
New
England.
Horlick mountains
found semianthracite coal which would be commercially useful the coal bed were accessible. The coal was presumably deposited about 250,000,000 years ago, demonstrating that Antarctica once
if
had a temperate cHmate. A reconnaissance was carried out
in the Sentinel
and Heritage
ranges of the Ellsworth highland, primarily to examine bedrock of this region which is believed to be a critical clue to the geo-
west Antarctica and its relation to east Antarctica and South America. Most of the outcrops visited were found to be unfossiliferous and no reliable age could be assigned to them. John C. Behrendt led a scientific oversnow travGlaciology. logic history of
—
erse party for 1,052 statute miles in Ellsworth Highland. Early findings of the traverse revealed that a subice trench, beginning in the
Ross
much
sea, underlies
of
Marie Byrd Land and does not
terminate in the Bellingshausen sea but
may
possibly extend to
A high ice dome, about 7,000 ft. above was discovered south of the Robert English coast. Roosevelt Island in the Ross ice shelf was found to be a huge ice dome resting on bedrock, in contrast to the surrounding ice shelf which floats on water. Thickness at the highest point of the dome was found to be about 2,500 ft., of which 1,800 ft. is above sea level. Thus, if the ice were removed the island
the Filchner ice shelf. sea level,
would be a submerged
shoal.
measurements of rate of movement of bordering the west side of the Ross ice shelf.
Glaciologists continued principal glaciers
Prehminary calculations from a resurvey of a stake 1961 indicated
Seismology.
is
ft.
mountain
After that time
not seismically active, suggesting that it not subjected to tectonic disturbances or, as was suggested, literally weighted down by the icecap to an extent that does is
not permit slippage. Antarctica's seismic inactivity proved to be an advantage in monitoring distant earthquakes.
— In
February an isotope-powered automatic weather station, capable of operating unattended for many months, was installed on the Ross ice shelf approximately 54 mi. an S. of McMurdo sound. The station was contained within Meteorology.
and was buried beneath the snow with only the radio antenna and meteorological eight-foot cylinder weighing about one ton
sensing elements protruding.
It
steadily northwestward toward the
moved
Other Nations.—In 1962 year-round
Activities of
scientific
programs were continued by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Japan completed a major scientific traverse from Showa base to the Yamato mountains and back, a distance of more than
An Australian geological party traveled more than 1,000 from Mawson to the southern Prince Charles mountains and back. Another group from Wilkes station carried out glaciological studies in the Framnes mountains. The Soviet Union established a new station in Enderby Land at Alasheev bay 67° 30' S., 46° E. It was named Molodezhnaya 1,000 mi.
mi.
and was occupied during the summer months. A scientific oversnow traverse traveled a triangular route from Komsomolskaya to Sovietskaya to Vostok and back, a distance exceeding 900 mi. Soviet scientists from Novolazarevskaya carried out major geological investigations in Queen Maud Land. South Africa constructed a new scientific station approximately 12 mi. inland from the old
Norway
station in
Queen Maud Land.
France carried out a major rebuilding program at Dumont d'Urville and depots were established on the inland icecap in preparation for scientific oversnow traverses in 1963. British
major geological and survey programs on One group from Halley bay was successful first land approach to the remote Totten mountain Zealand carried out a major survey and geological
scientists carried out
the Palmer peninsula. in
making
range.
a
New
program
in Victoria
Land.
—
International Relations. On July 18 the second consultative meeting of the Antarctic treaty was held in Buenos Aires, Arg., for the purpose of discussing
and recommending measures
On Aug. 20-24
the sixth meeting of the Interna-
Committee on AntarcResearch (S.C.A.R.) was held in Boulder. During Sept. 3-7 an international symposium on Antarctic biology was held in Paris. The biology and logistics symposia were sponsored jointly by the tional Council of Scientific Unions' Special tic
host country and S.C.A.R.
The number
of scientists taking part in Antarctic scientific pro-
grams of other nations continued
to increase.
Twenty-five foreign
1961-62 program. During 1962 a U.S. biologist wintered at the U.S.S.R. Mirny station and a scientists participated in the U.S.
summer at McMurdo sound. French Community Geography Geological Sur(L. M. Gd.)
Soviet meteorologist spent the
See also vey, U.S.
;
;
— Oceanographers working through holes cut
in
devote their scienAnthrnnnlnfTU On record as desiring to nllUIIUpUIUgj. fi^,- resources to protecting mankind from
arms race and working
for peace, U.S.
the ice found the floor of
extinction, halting the
irregular as the surface of
anthropologists in 1962 organized themselves to search for
races.
McMurdo sound to be as randomly Ross Island, with no pronounced terThe submarine profile appeared to be a continuation of the
subaerial profile.
Upper Atmosphere.
to achieve those ends. set off
—
Scientists
in
furtherance of the principles and objectives of the treaty. On Aug. 13-17 a symposium on Antarctic logistics was held in
broadcast temperature, baro-
metric pressure, wind speed and direction at six-hour intervals.
Oceanography.
it
Pacific ocean.
Boulder, Colo.
annually.
— Five years of seismological observations showed
that the continent is
of the icecap in the Horlick
movement
area to be less than 16
line set in
Zealand scientists, the present posiwas determined to be about longi-
tude 143° E., latitude 67° S., just offshore in Commonwealth bay. In 1909 it was located by members of the British Antarctic expedition more than 200 mi. inland at about 155° E., 72° S.
rain.
mi.
New
tion of the south magnetic pole
had accurately determined co-
issues.
A
means
few unfavourable reactions, however,
controversy over the scientist's role with respect to public One conunent published in the American Anthropological
ARC ARO (A.A.A.) Fellow Newsletter objected to aligning anthropologists on the side of a partisan political position. The association's
scientist's job
was
to render technical advice without specifying
which it would be directed. Margaret Mead responded that the association had launched no political program but simply advocated using scientific resources to discover political goals to
conditions of disarmament and peace.
Rhoda Metraux claimed had responsibility for contributing to major problems like human survival, peace and disarmament
153
knowledge included several attempts to reconstruct aspects of the process whereby man diverged from apes; a world-wide tracing of cultural history from Pleistocene times to the threshold of urban civilizations, edited by Robert J. Braidwood and
Gordon R. Willey; Arthur Capell's review of Oceanic linguistics; and Raymond Firth's analysis of a collection of Tikopia traditions showing how claims of individuals and lineages to high
that social scientists
prestige influence
scientific
Needham
which are not partisan matters. Scientists act irresponsibly, she said, if they render technical advice without regard to goals. Through its Anthropology Curriculum Study project, directed
by Malcolm C.
Collier, the
A.A.A. appraised the place of an-
thropolog>' in high school courses
and
Simply
units.
to teach
about past civilizations, preliterates or Indians is not anthropology, the project report concluded. Such subjects must in substantial degree be dealt with comparatively and inductively
whole societies. A serious shortage of anthropologists confronted the country in 1962. Government faced the most acuteshortage but a number of teaching jobs also proved difficult to as
The question arose
as to whether professional training proanthropology took too long, exceeding even those for physicists and biological scientists. The year saw further atfill.
grams
in
tempts by
men who,
to protect segregation in the south, sought
to prove that
Negroes differed inherently from other races. Also, publications appeared that tried on supposedly scientific grounds to
defend special privileges for certain races. Alarmed by these
developments, the American Anthropological association had reaffirmed its view that "all races possess the abilities needed to participate fully in the democratic
technological civilization." At
its
and in modem April-May meeting the Ameri-
way
of life
myth construction. Allan D. Coult and Rodney published independent critiques of the explanation
advanced by George C. Romans and David M. Schneider for the fact that cross-cousin marriage, that
dren of the father's
sister or the
is,
marriage with the
mother's brother,
is
contracted with one side rather than the other. Both critics argued that social questions ought to be explained structurally or sociologically rather than psychologically. Jack
Goody was more willing to mix psychological and social considerations in his book Death, Property and the Ancestors, dealing with mortuary
two settlements in Ghana. Coon's The Origin of Races, which became controversial almost immediately, took the unconventional position that five geographic races must have separated in remote Pleistoinstitutions in
Carleton
S.
cene times from a
common hominid stem and
evolved inde-
pendently. Because they occupied favourable territories, Caucasoids and Mongoloids achieved early dominance. However,
Coon prophesied that other races would challenge their position. S. L. Washburn presided over the American Anthropological association with Morris Edward Opler serving as president-elect. Carleton S. Coon served his second year as head of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and James A. Ford to succeed David A. Baerreis as president of the
was elected
Society for American Archaeolog>'.
The American Ethnological
can Association of Physical Anthropologists deplored the "misuse of science to advocate racism" and said that nothing in
Ward H. Goodenough and Richard N. Adams became
science "justifies the denial of opportunities or rights to
of the Society for Applied Anthropology. .Alan
any
group by virtue of race." that Africa might well have been the cradle evolution was intensified, appearing even in popular books like Robert Ardrey's African Genesis. Charles Darwin
human
himself had expressed this opinion, and
much new
it
was supported by
paleontological evidence, especially that discovered
Many anthropologists, however, refused to the extreme age 1,750,000 or more years advanced for the appearance of man and culture in Africa without by
society chose Joseph B. Casagrande as president-elect to replace
L, S, B, Leakey,
—
comment on
—
further verification. Meanwhile, Leakey released wo'rd of dis-
covery made at Fort Ternan, Kenya, of a creature standing midway between the early apes and man. University of California
president
Dundes received Morphology of North Ameri-
the Chicago Folklore prize for his
The conviction
of
chil-
generally
can Indian Folktales. \'iking fund medals and monetarj- prizes presented by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research went to Edward E. Evans-Pritchard, Robert von S. B. Leakey and Sol Tax. See also Archaeology; Indians, American; National Geographic Society. (J. j. Ho.) Heine-Geldern, L.
Encyclop.^dia Britannica Films.
— The
.Amazon
(People and
Re-
sources of Northern Brazil) (1957); Backward Civilization (1937): The Eskimo in Life and Legend (The Living Stone) (1960): -i Giant People (The Watussi) (1939): Indians oj Early .America (1957); Man and His Culture (1954): Margaret Mead (The Wisdom Series) (I960): People oj the Congo (The Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies oj Africa (1939); Remnants oj a Race (1955).
scientists, using the
potassium-argon dating method by which the 1,750,000-year figure had been reached, assigned an age of 14,000.000 years to, this nonhominid.
The evolutionary
theories of the French Jesuit paleontologist
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin,
who
attention in 1962, a year that
Not always easy
died in 1955. achieved further
saw more of
his
work published.
to follow, Teilhard's tendentious attempt to
bridge the gap between religion and science on the whole met only critical acceptance by scientists. The Vatican stopped short of placing his
works on the Index but warned Catholics of theoand ambiguities in his writings. Aspects of the rapid, ongoing evolution of contemporary African culture were examined at the Festival of African and Neoafrican Art and Music held in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. A number of an-
Antibiotics: see Chemotherapy. Antigua: see Leeward Islands. Antimony: see Mining; Secondary Metals. Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. Arabia: see Aden; Bahrain; Kuwait; Muscat and Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Trucial States; Yemen. Arab League: see International Negotiations; Iraq; Kuwait; Middle Eastern Affairs.
logical errors
thropologists attended the assembly, which considered primarily
and other expressions of "value culture." Another international gathering, the 35th International Congress of Americanists, met in Mexico and the American Anthropological association held its 61st annual meeting in Chicago, Noteworthy contributions to anthropological theory and art
Arrarn Tririio MlldlU, CUUIC winning jockey
(George U.S.
Edward Arcaro)
jockey,
was
in racing history at the
the
(1916-
greatest
),
money-
time of his retirement on
He had won purses totaling $30,039,543, of which was approximately 109^. Born in Cincinnati on Feb, 19, he entered his first race at Bainbridge, 0,, on May 18, 193L Arcaro's first success was at .\gua Caliente, Mex,, on Jan. 14, 1932, and in his 31-year career he won 4,779 of 24,092, This record was excelled only by Sir Gordon Richards and Johnny LongApril 3, 1962, his share
ARCHAE OLOGY
154
Kentucky Derby, Arcaro set a record with five winners. He first rode in the Derby in 1935, but Lawrin. His it was not until 1938 that he had a winning mount, other Derby winners were Whirlaway in 1941, Hoop Jr. in 1945,
den. In his 20 attempts at the
He won
Citation in 1948 and Hill Gail in 1952.
the "Triple
of racing with winners at the Derby, Preakness
Crown"
and
by the Aswan high dam than on primary One temple, at Kalabishah, had already been dismantled and the salvage work was said to have reached the halfway point. Not all authorities were convinced of the wisdom of some of the more exhaustive and costly plans proposed for the
area to be flooded research.
Nile salvage project.
1941 and 1948. Although he was suspended from racing because of roughness from Sept. 28, 1942, to Sept. 19, 1943, he helped to raise standards in his hazardous profession
The two most remarkable yields of primary material in the near east resulted from the work of James Mellaart at Catal-
through personal example. In 1950 he became president of the Jockey's guild. At his retirement Arcaro became a consultant and
on the Caspian coast of Iran. Catalhuyuk is a large early village site of the 7th millennium B.C., already dependent on domesticated plants and animals and remarkable for the great variety of normally perishable artifacts which it yielded. Mural
Belmont
in
company which makes and operates
representative for a
field
(G. Pl.)
electronic betting equipment.
huyuk
in
south central Turkey and of Ezat Negahban at Marlik
decoration in both fresco and relief appeared, as well as traces
ArrhaPnlnffV nlLlldCUIUgJ.
Hemisphere.—The
^' vessels
of
the Valdivia culture,
pottery on the Ecuadorian coast, exhibit ities
to
many
the earUest
closest to the
culture appears.
of
Huamanga
(
Ayacucho)
at the
Middle Horizon
site
of Con-
chapata near Wari, Peru, resulted in the elaboration of a threephase sequence which was helping to clarify one of the most
complex archaeological situations in the Andes. Edward P. Lanning of the University of San Marcos, Lima, concentrated on preceramic and early ceramic occupations at Ancon. north of Lima. Six distinct preagricultural lithic complexes were isolated at different sites in a sequence
Pleistocene.
Emiho Rosas
may
which
reach back to the
Lanoir, also of the San Marcos
Ancon
Tank site where a stepwas uncovered. Only a small portion was revealed by the trench, but it was obviously immense and was believed to be one of the earliest known monumental edifices in Peru. Hans Horkheimer, assisted by personnel of the department project, directed excavations at the sided, stone-faced structure
of this structure
interior of
See also Anthropology; National Geographic Society.
—
EncycloP/Edia
(Ch. E. B.)
Britannica Films. Ancient Baalbek and Palmyra (1953); .Ancient Petra (1953); Carbon Fourteen (1953); Pompeii and Vesuvius (1951), ^^^ absence of the biennial world target archery ArrhorV ^" nIbllCljf. championships, held during odd-numbered years, an invitational International Trial tournament was held on the playing fields of Eton, near Windsor, Eng., April 9 and 10. Invited from the U.S. were the 1961 worid target champions. Joe Thornton and Nancy Vonderheide, who proceeded to outshoot 100 of
the best archers from England and Belgium. Thornton, a Cherokee Indian from Oklahoma, finished with an aggregate score of
of culture, history
and archaeolog>' of Peru, conducted sur\-eys and excavations in the Chancay valley. The investigations showed a dispersed pattern of occupation in late times. In Chile
2,199 for the two international rounds, 89 points ahead of secondplace H. Verhoeven of Belgium. Miss Vonderheide's total score of 2,138 for the same rounds was seven points ahead of England's
Jorge Iribarren of the Archaeological
museum of La Serena and Montane conducted surveys around Chachiyuyo north of Coquimbo and in the Combarbala region to the south, locating
Shirley Lyons.
Julio
At the U.S. national target championships, held at the Oak Brook (111.) Polo club, Aug. 7-10, Charles Sandlin of Flagstaff, Ariz., led the men's amateur division with a total score of 3.568, a scant eight points ahead of runner-up Allan Muller of Minne-
several sites of the early El
MoUe
culture. Alberto
Rex Gon-
zalez of the Anthropological institute of the National University of Cordoba, Arg.,
ceramic
site of
amassed a large surface collection
at the pre-
Totoral in the province of La Rioja, Gonzalez
suspected that the site represents a hunting culture related to but possibly older than the Ayampitin assemblage from Intikuasi cave in San Luis pro\-ince.
Early Man. gonia (8759 zuela
(c.
— New radiocarbon
± 300
B,c.),
dates for early sites in Pata-
Ecuador (7565
15.000 B.C.) indicated that
± 250
B.C.)
man was
and Vene-
established in
widely separated areas of South America at a time
when
the
numerous and better-known Late Pleistocene cultures of comparable age were flourishing farther to the north. The age of a chipped stone artifact found
in
association
with
mammoth
The defending champion. Thornton, was third with 3,549. In the women's amateur events Miss Vonderheide, of Cincinnati, retained her national title with an aggregate score of 3,577 points.
apolis.
In second place was Ann Medert, also from Cincinnati, with 3,550 points, followed by Debbie Clark, another Cincinnatian, with a third-place total of 3.522.
—
The National Field Archery association held 17th national tournament at Crj'stal Springs. Ark.. Aug. 1-3. Two national records were broken by Don Cavallero of California in the nonamateur (open) free-style class when he scored Field Archery.
its
1.054 in the field round Bell of Cambridge, 0.,
and 1,041 in the hunter's round. James was declared the N.FA.A. national cham-
ARCHITECTURE
158
open inpion after scoring a total of 2,368 points in the men's winners and stinctive (without sights) class. The various class their scores are given in the table.
vital than formal perfection " were the bronze figure of Michael conquering the Dev.l by Sir Jacob Epstem, the magical sunburst effect of John P>per^s full-height checkered
more
are St.
Open— Free
Open Men-Jomes Bell w"men-Morie stott.'
!
!
!
1
1
!
!
Amaleui M„n-l!oberl Sevev Women-Jean BotlL'
962 ^^^^^^ rouTd
^^^^^
rourd'
'.054
1,041
532
2,627
964 776
470 406
2,368
'."52
2,581
829
518 454
853
494
2,257
^^^
^^^^^
total
'
.
—
.
1,911
Free Style
'.0" 794
:'.'.'..
2,077
910 745
7
Junior Free Style (Boys) ^°''"°'°'"°^
,
^^^
,'.',..,•
'
iunior Instinctive
Bo
s— Thomos
Ford
Jr
2,061 1,957
Field Archery association's national tournament was scheduled for Lake Arrowhead, Calif. It has also been decided by the N.F.A.A. that in the future the annual nawith tional collegiate championships will be held— in co-operation
The National
for 1963
bodies— along with the regular national tournaments. The establishment of the American Indoor Archery association
the college
was announced tary of the
September by Robert
in
new group. Membership
is
open to all interested and the association's
purposes include zations
The A
I
full
AA
co-operation with all other archery organiplans to promote year-round competition in (G. Y.)
suitably equipped arenas.
^
window (geographically ,
)
,.. thlS WindoW. \
less
ambitious, Frederick Gibberd's
Roman
Catholic
Metropolitan Cathedral of Christ the King in Liverpool, Eng., ^^^ shaped Hkc a fat-stemmed inverted conical funnel, sur-
rounded by
close-fitting vertical enclosures representing chapels
and entrances, the high altar being central. Parking for 100 autou mobiles was Supplied in the basement. v/es+em Archi+ec+ure Around the WoHd.—Western archl,
,
tecture was capturing the whole world, regardless of divisions among nations. The reason might be found in the elasticity with
worlda many-sided western architecture could express the wide aspiration toward industrial civilization. In the west itself the latest trend was one of a poetic recall of the past, as distm-
which
literal copying of earlier forms, Reinforced concrete had become architecture's virtuoso ma-
guished from the
F. Kelly, executive secre-
archers, regardless of previous affiliation,
•
the glaring "west
:
^^^^^ south which opens a view to the ruins, and the effect nave, directly inside j amorphous space, neither vestibule nor
.^
, •
438 482
805 779
818 696
.'.:'.'.:'.'.'.'.
cw's-AndreoMoikut'
the chancel. Least successful elements, as >> u* n
from Way "
reported by critics
Much
Amateur-insiinciive
Men-John A. Heiimon Women-Potti Boiiey
Other
^^le
Instinctive
1
is
;
;
^^^^^^ rJund
934 729
the baptistery, behind the font which
from Bethlehem the iron crown-of-thorns entry the screen, designed by the architect for the Gethsemane chapel the rear effect of source-hidden light as the altar is faced from facing ^f ^1,6 nave, and of repeated tall stained-glass windows on
^ rough boulder
Style
•••
Men-Don Cavdiero^ Women Lucille shme
1
m
window
stained glass National Field Tournamenl.
In countries where the influence of hand craft was still strong, this led to stirring forms, sculptural, boldly articulated, frequently rough-cast and with echoes of primirive art. Le terial.
Corbusier completed the Assembly building for his capital at Chandigarh in the Punjab, India, a strong dual composition in which a dominant truncated conoid shell, containing the assembly
Although the Cathedral Church of St. Michad, Coventry, Eng., completed in 1962,
chamber, was the chief among several shapes pushing up through the flat roof of the surrounding building cube. Le Corbusier was
was the third Anglican cathedral to be built in the 20th century, of the older it evoked intense interest because of the tragic story Coventry cathedral's destruction in Worid War II; because the new cathedral was the first in which there was any effort at all
simultaneously completing his free-wheeling Visual Arts centre
be contemporary; and because an unusual supply of funds, including £900,000 for war bomb damage, secured comparatively
other provincial capital in
handsome execution. Sir Basil Spence, the architect, and his many artists drew lyrical praise from the older generation of critics
at
Kuha
generally,
was evident already in Indian buildings such as a school near Ahmedabad, by Uttam Jain. And in Abidjan, capital of Ivory Coast, a rather startling resemblance to some of Le Corbusier's Chandigarh details was discernible in the capitol by
critics
P.
Dufau and J. M. Lafon. Western Architecture Behind the "Iron Curtain."—Di-
ArCnitBCtlirfi.
to
and much curiosity from the public, although younger were skeptical and sometimes scornful. Coventry announces its all-pervading theme in its very block
As
plan.
critic
R. Furneax Jordan pointed out,
it
is
made up
of
the physical and spiritual linkage of two cathedrals. One is the bombed ruins remaining from the raid of Nov. 14, 1940, left as
and marked with a cross of
ruins
nails
the words, "Father forgive." This is
the
new
is
on charred wood and with the Sacrifice.
The
other
cathedral structure, approximately equal in length
and culminating in a huge tapestry figure of Christ triumphant by Graham Sutherland, filling most of the 70-ft.-high altar wall. This new building leads off at right angles from the choir end of the nave of the old, and stands for the Resurrection.
The
complementary unity of the two together spells Atonement. The new building is committed neither to traditional nor to modern style. "Though claiming to be modern, the whole conception flirts with Gothic the moment our back is turned," declares Jordan. Yet, he adds, "Another most curious thing has happened, in our hearts] we know Coventry is just possibly a new for move in the high cathedral game." Climaxes in a composition characterized by U.S. critic Lewis
for
Harvard
university.
In India the U.S. architect Louis D. Kahn, his architecture
somewhat
related to
Le Corbusier's, was invited to initiate anBombay. Admiration for Kahn's own
ideas
mode, the glass-and-metallic, smoothly functional approach of western architecture, formulated eariier, was often favoured behind the "iron curtain." In prosperous Rumania, a resort restaurant at Eforie could almost
rectly opposite to the sculptured
have been designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Elsewhere Rumania displayed most of the western architectural cliches, Bulgaria proceeded in a manner more quietly folksy and sometimes provincial. In Poland an official of the architectural society called the stiff Stalinism of previous Communist architecture a "blind alley" and a "flirtation with anachronism" and declared for "simplicity and moderation." Here and there exuberance
showed
too, as in a U.S.-type
"Super Sam" supermarket
in
War-
saw.
Western Architecture
in
Europe.— Most
discussed was the
projected town for 100,000 to be created near Toulouse, France, A new standard of flexibility and expansibility was claimed;
I
generous peras filled with "chaste omissions and missions," and with a "completeness and an organic richness that
Mumford
.
.
.
was sorted out among several levels, and building lobbies were designed to serve as pedestrian ways. The plan was the traffic
work of G. Candilis and S. Woods, The newer trend toward poetic recall
of the past
was
especially
H. Zinram
THE NEW COVENTRY,
ENG.,
CATHEDRAL,
blasted by bombs in World War with the new structure. Right: angels, engraved by cathedral
built on the site of tile old edifice is part of the old cathedral panels depicting saints and constitute the entire west wall of the
Above: At left, Some of the glass
II.
John Hutton, which
Camera Press— Fix from Publix
PAN AMERICAN BUILDING:
The new home of Pan American World Airways at 44th street and Park avenue In New York city was nearIng completion in 1962. The 59-story building was erected over the tracks of the New York Central railroad, near Grand Central ten
Wide World
BY FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT:
Marin at San Rafael, completed in 1962, comprises a complex of amphitheatre, library, armouries and office building, designed to harmonize with the rolling hills surrounding it. Wright designed the centre in 1957, two years before
County
Calif.,
his
Civic
centre
partially
death
Wide World
ARCTIC
160
strong in Italy and the U.S. In Italy it was manifested in one of those baffling creations that seem equally to reach backward and
forward. In their Rinascente department store in Rome, in a baroque neighbourhood, Albini & Helg displayed a conspicuous
dark metal frame and topped it with a 19th-century cornice overhang. The windowless, marble-sheathed walls bulged with vertical prisms which served as ducts for interior service installations such as air conditioning; the spacing of these prisms was syncopated not only horizontally by variations along every floor but vertically
by variations from
U.S.
and Canada.
—The
floor to floor.
This struck a fresh
was somewhat Victorian.
jazz note, but the total effect
sculptural trend in architecture pro-
duced the most imposing monuments, two airport terminals, both by Eero Saarinen. Dulles airport outside Washington, D.C., had an almost Egyptian majesty.
Two
parallel rows, each with
16
outward-reaching, 65-ft.-high concrete stanchions, supported the swung roof canopy like a hammock. Under cover all the way, passengers were to be taken on "mobile lounges" directly to their planes, which were parked economically in a great servicing yard rather than at ramps. Saarinen's other sculptural masterwork was the Trans
—
World
Airlines terminal at Idlewild airport,
New York
with widespread concrete wings and swooping interior which conveyed the excitement of flight. The functional trend was also most strikingly embodied in concrete. Prestressing of concrete beams made possible an un-
city
a "big bird" externally,
a multileveled,
precedented length in free horizontal spans. Thus there were bays of 66 by 60 ft. in the two-story United Air Lines Executive building at O'Hare field, Chicago, designed by Skidmore, Owings
were drawn for the Chicago Civic centre by C. F. Murphy Associates. In a bus station designed by Pier Luigi Nervi for the New York end of the George Washington bridge, the functional use of concrete attained an expres-
&
Merrill,
and bays 87 by 48
sion both rugged
The
ft.
At Yale university Paul Rudolph piled up boxlike
faculty houses in deliberate though distant recall of Italian
Samuel
side villages. Saarinen's
F. B.
Morse
college
hill-
and Ezra
juxtaposed to a neo-Gothic gymnasium
Stiles college at Yale,
and a Georgian graduate school, depended on jagged silhouettes around picturesque courts to supply the required multiplicity of facilities. The American Institute of Architects awarded its Gold medal
to historic reference
completed unit of
New
ing Arts (q.v.), the
The
was found again
in the first
York's Lincoln Center for the Performhall by Max Abramovitz.
new Philharmonic
19th-century Victorian or French empire
interior recalled
music palaces. Lighted at night, the exterior, with ranks of glassed galleries behind huge columns, was an animated show in itself. Decorative western architecture was well illustrated in Minoru Yamasaki's U.S. science pavilion at the Seattle "Century 21" exposition, a serenely self-enfolding building ranged in
many
wings
around fountained pools. Posthumously, Frank Lloyd Wright remained formidable; his Greek Orthodox church outside Milwaukee was finished, a concrete saucer upheld on an X of heavy concrete piers and displaying Wright's art nouveau detailing. Also finished was the shell of Wright's embattled Marin County Administration
building,
outwardly much
in
the hills
north of San Francisco
Spanish monastery, inwardly a split scheme of halls and rooms in parallel, flanking a long central like
a
Cathedral (Humanities Course)
.
.
ArCllC.
(1962).
Increasing interest in the military and resource potenDeveloptial of the Arctic was evidenced during 1962.
ment of Arctic resources, including the building of transportation and communications systems, continued, and considerable work was done in research into the Arctic environment. At the same being time, the possible military importance of the area was recognized, as nations with interests in the region installed more sophisticated military systems. In February the U.S. army carvalried out Exercise "Great Bear" in the Yukon and Tanana state. leys of central Alaska, traditionally the coldest part of the Eskimo scouts of the Alaska national guard participated as guerrillas.
Research.
— In southwestern Yukon Territory, Canada, the Ice
Field Ranges Research project of the American Geographical society and the Arctic Institute of North America completed its
second year of
field research.
The
project involved glaciological,
meteorological and other research in the upland area covering the divide between the drainage of the Kaskawulsh and Hubbard glacier systems
and studies
in
neighbouring areas at lower
alti-
tudes.
The Ward Hunt ice shelf, lying along the coast of northern EUesmere Island in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, Canada, is believed to be the source of the ice islands (as distinguished from sea ice) that drift slowly about the Arctic ocean. Sometime between the fall of 1961 and the spring of 1962 more than 200 away and drifted to sea in at least five and many small ones. Plans were under way for extensive study of the phenomenon. The Canadian department of mines and technical surveys sent a 2S-man team to northern Baffin Island. Studies were made of the gravimetry of the Penny and Barnes icecaps and of terrain
large islands
conditions and land forms in the northern part of the island. topographic engineers with the party established latitudes,
Two
longitudes and altitudes. clear sign of increasing interest in the north
by
participation
a considerable
body of good architecture of
own, but the significant building of the year, though financed with heavy Canadian and British participation, was sponsored by the New York firm of Webb & Knapp and designed by leoh Ming
its
Pei (Henry Cobb, partner in charge ). It was the first unit of the central-city complex called Place Ville-Marie in Montreal, Que.,
was the growing North America
universities in Arctic research. In
had well-organized polarmore were being formed. In the fall of 1961 the Arctic Institute of North America conducted an on-the-ground review and evaluation of Arctic research in North
alone a dozen or
more
universities
research centres or institutes and
America, including Greenland, for the U.S.
office
search. Participants included military officers
and
the U.S. and
Canada
of naval re-
scientists
from
as well as representatives of the institute.
aircraft visited U.S. facilities in Greenland; Resolute Bay,
Navy
Inuvik, Yellowknife and Churchill in Canada; and Point Barrow
and College
The
in Alaska.
Arctic Research laboratory at Point Barrow, operated
by
the University of Alaska for the office of naval research, continued a broad program in the surrounding area, including research con-
ducted at station "Arlis 11" on an
ice island drifting in the Arctic
ocean.
By Nov.
1961, 30 of 36 buildings planned at the U.S. army's
Camp
"city under the ice,"
light well.
Canada produced
:
A
to Saarinen posthumously.
The trend
—
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. The Living City (1953); Robert Moses (The Wisdom Series) (1960) Walter Gropius (The Wisdom Series) (1958); Frank Lloyd Wright (The Wisdom Series) (1958); Chartres
sq.mi. of the shelf broke
and elegant.
poetically historical trend also found significant expres-
sion in the U.S.
handsome, businesslike, 46-story cruciform tower. See also Building and Construction Industry; Housing. (D. Hl.)
a
pied.
Camp
Century
Century, were completed and occuon the Greenland icecap far to the east of
is
the air base at Thule.
A
portable nuclear reactor was in parallel
production with a conventional diesel-power system, and more than half a dozen research projects were under way. Soviet scientists continued to carry out research at station
"North Pole 11," on a
drifting ice floe first occupied about 600
(
ARGENTINA
161
tJf«tll))t
^
^ilf k«;
V
Wide World
NORTH POLE RENDEZVOUS. Above
left:
The
nuclear-powered
submarines U.S.S. •Skate" and "Seadr, photographed as they surfaced Aug. 2, 1962, at the pole ,after meeting under the ice pack during an antisubmarine exercise. The "Skate" left New London, Conn., July 7, and the "Seadragon" left Pearl Harbor. Hawaii, July 12. They met under the polar Ice pack July 31 and surfaced two days later through a small opening In the ice. Above right: Crewmen of the two submarines exchanging colours and commemorative plagues
rni.
N. of Cape Shmidta
are
numbered
in the
Chukchi
sea, Soviet ice-floe stations
was occupied
serves of beryllium in the U.S. This
had particular
significance
The
because most of the beryllium used in U.S. space exploration,
U.S.S.R. also established an Institute of Volcanic Research in
component of rocket nose cones, was imported. In 1961, the latest year for which official reports were available, the value of Alaska's mineral production increased 59%
in
sequence; the
first
in 1937.
Kamchatka near some
of the largest volcanoes in Asia. Research on the mechanisms and types of volcanic eruptions and the laws governing them. Subterranean heat was
was
to be carried out
also to be studied, along with the possibilities of putting
Equipment
of the
new
it
to use.
institute included a research ship for the
study of underwater volcanoes.
A
permanent station for glaciological research was opened by Stockholm at Tarfalain the Swedish Arctic.
the University of
Developmen'l'.
— Inuvik, the
first
community
of the Arctic circle built to provide the
in
normal
Canada north
more poorly situated Aklavik, and was officially 1961. It would serve as a base for development and
replace the in
administration, as well as a centre for bringing education, medical
care
and new opportunities
to
over the preceding year to $35,000,000. Crude
the indigenous peoples of '
At Winter Harbour on Melville Island in the Queen Elizabeth group of oil companies completed the drilling of a petroleum test hole more than 12,000 ft. deep. No significant oil
was found, but the hole yielded much information of
scientific interest.
Fishermen took a record catch from lakes the Arctic ocean were booked solidly
in the Northwest camps only 100 mi. from through July, August and
The Canadian minister
of northern affairs pre-
dicted that tourist business in the north, which
had doubled
in
1962, would double again in 1963.
Investigations continued during the year of the feasibility and desirability of constructing a
dam on
the
Yukon
river in central
Rampart project called for construction of the largest hydroelectric power development in North America. A lake 400 mi. lo^g, larger than Lake Erie, would be created, extending to the Canadian border. A continuous power Alaska. Plans for the so-called
supply of 3,750,000 kw, would be produced. that a
of the
Siberia.
See also Archaeology; Geography.
(J. C.
—
R.)
Encyclop.«dia Beitannica Films. The Arctic (Islands of the Frozen Sea) (1959); The Face oj the High Arctic (1959); High Arctic— Liie on the Land (19S9).
Areas:
see
Populations and Areas of the Countries of the
World.
Arfrontina nlgCIIUIId.
^^^
republic of Argentina, occupying the south-
eastern section of South America,
is
bounded by
It is
Uruguay, the Atlantic ocean and Chile. the second largest Latin-American country, after Brazil, with
an area of 1,072,067 sq.mi. (excluding 481,777 sq.mi, of Antarctic and South Atlantic island areas). Pop. (1962 est.) 21,247,420. Cap. Buenos Aires. Argentina
is
a
member
of the Organization
American States, the Alliance for Progress and the Latin American Free Trade association. Presidents in 1962, Arturo Frondizi and, from March 29, Jose Maria Guido. of
Territories during 1962. Sport fishing
early September.
91%
was reported that a new hydroelectric station would be built by the Soviet Union on the Ob river near Salekhard, where the Arctic circle crosses the river. The power would be used in the Urals and would supply a major industrial centre in northern
Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil,
Islands, a
or gas
(nearly $18,-
total. It
~
Canada's western Arctic.
oil
000,000), coal, sand and gravel, and gold comprised
facilities of a
Canadian town, became well established in 1962. Located on the east bank of the Mackenzie river, Northwest Territories, in one of the world's greatest muskrat-trapping areas, Inuvik was planned and constructed by the Canadian government, partly to opened
especially as a
A
survey indicated
market for the power could be developed.
A U.S. geological survey party made important discoveries of beryllium at Lost river on the Seward peninsula of northwestern Alaska. According to reports, the find was one of the largest re-
—
Census Data. Preliminary results of a census taken in 1960 showed a population of 20,005,691 (excluding J, 254 in the island areas), an increase of 3,952,926 or 24.69c over the 1947 census. The density of population was IS. 7 per square mile. Principal cities (other than provincial capitals): Rosario 671,852; Matanza 402,642; Lanus 381,561; Moron 344,041; Avellaneda 329,626; Quilmes 318,144.
—On
History.^
Dec. 25, 1961, Pres. Arturo Frondizi returned
from a mission to various foreign capitals only to be confronted by a series of crises which, within three months, brought his forced removal from office on March 29 and the assumption of the presidency by Jose Maria Guido, head of the senate and constitutional successor. The strike of railway workers, which had begun on Oct. 30, had been settled on Dec. 10 but under terms which included concessions that threatened the economic stabilization program and led to the resignation of the ministers of economy and public works and services. On Jan. 31, 1962, the
ARGENTINA
162 Polltlcol subdlvisli
in
Capital
Populofion 119601'
seized vital
sdaral capital (Buonos Aires) 2,966,816 '
Bu'eno! Air.l
Catomarca Clioco
Chubut
C6rdoba Corrientei Entre Rio.
Formosa Juiuy
La
Pompo
LaRioia
Mendoza Misiones
Nouqu«n Rio Nogro Sallo 1
Luis
Santo Fo Santiago del Estero
I
del
Totol
Fuego ' .
6,734,548 172,407 535,443 142,195 1,759,997 543,226 803,505 178,458 239,783 158,489 128,270 825,535 391,094 111,008 192,595 412,652 352,461 174,251 52,853 1,865,537 477,156
330,310
la Plata
49,291
Catomarca Resistencia
Rawson c6rdoba
.
:
:
:
:
•
....
Corriente.
Parana. Formosa Son Salvodor de Juloy Sonto Rosa '.
'.
.
80,089 17,104 589,153 112,725 111,258
i^^il
....
72,150 27,561
39,728 '09,149 77,817
Lo Rioio
Mendoio Misiones
Neuqu6n Viedma
government
Sallo
San Joan
106,746
„„ Fe
259,560
itiogodei Estero
installations
its support to the new administration, interior but another group headed by Alfredo Vitolo, the former release. minister, remained loyal to Frondizi and demanded his
the party agreed to give
canIn the face of demands by the Peronists that the victorious within the didates be allowed to take office, the military leaders government on April 24 took over the administration of all the
country's provinces.
convened on April ^2^A9\
The extraordinary
12,
was
session of congress, which
to be ended,
and an executive decree
annulled the election results. Later the president recessed con-
and dfssolved all political parties. two-month period of tension followed. In September the sharp factional differences among the armed forces brought to the fore Gen. Juan Carlos Ongania, who demanded that the president remove his military leaders from office and prepare for elections
gress for a year
780,348
„mln
103,115 287,004
7,064
Ushuolo
3.^72
20,005,691
.
But on March 28 the armed forces and the following morning removed him from office. With the assumption of office by Guido, committee of the Intransigent Radical party split. The national
sisted advice that he resign.
Po/iWco/ Subdivisions of Argenfino
•Preliminary census. ,,»,« oncj* 3,254). tExeludes Antarctic sector and Islands of the Sooth Atlantic (pop., 1 960,
A
and a return
to constitutional
government.
On
Sept. 22 General
eighth meeting of consultation of the American ministers of foreign affairs approved, with six abstentions, a resolution which
Ongania's troops staged ground and air attacks on Buenos Aires. President Guido, suddenly changing sides, announced victory for the troops that had rebelled against military control of the gov-
excluded "the present Government of Cuba from participation in the inter-American system." Argentina's abstention created a
ernment and were supporting constitutional methods and early elections. The victorious rebels, now the loyalists, announced
sharp conflict between President Frondizi and his mihtary leaders. After publicly defending the government's action, the president submitted to the pressure of the armed forces, and on Feb. 8
their support of
Argentina severed diplomatic relations with the Castro regime. A later and more serious crisis resulted from the government's decision to permit the Peronists to have a party listing ballot for the provincial elections
on March
18.
on the
The unexpected
victory gave the Peronists 10 provincial governorships and 47 seats in the chamber of deputies. The reaction of the military leaders
was immediate. Forced
to yield. President Frondi^i or-
dered intervention and military control in five provinces. During a period of eight days the president tried various means of maintaining control, including an unsuccessful attempt to form a coalition cabinet. In the midst of a strike called
by the Peronist
unions, effective only in certain industrial plants, he strongly re-
Guido
as the best
purposes. General Ongania was
hope for accompHshing their in chief by the
named commander
whose retention of Alvaro C. Alsogaray as minister of economy augured well for the continuation of economic stabilization pohcies. The formulation of plans for future elections and agreement on party rules got under way in October. In December president,
Brig. Gen.
Alsina, after being dismissed as air
force
led a brief rebellion in Cordoba, but
Cayo Antonio commander in chief,
surrendered within two days. year's serioOs crises and their by-products of labour uninvestor hesitancy and lack of confidence in the currency were reflected in the year's slowdown in industrial output in the drop of the peso, which was valued at 1.2 cents U.S. before the
The
rest,
;
crisis
and
at 0.7 cents
by the end
of August; and in the rising
which increased 24% during the first eight months of 1962. See also Foreign Investments; Latin America.
cost of living,
(A. E. Tr.)
OVERTHROW OF
PRES.
ARTURO
FRONDIZI. Left: Sentry posted by Argentine army for protection of the presidential palace In Buenos Aires. Below: The Frondizi party departing after word that the armed forces had deposed and arrested the president March 29, 1962
'SfsBS^S
SSBSiZL^-^
Photographs, Sergio La
Education In 1959 there were 17,081 primary schools with 2,800. S60 pupils and 115,564 teachers; 653 secondary schools, 135,119 pupils; 1,566 technical schools, 270,375 pupils; 518 normal schools, 144,749 students; 12 higher schools (including 6 national universities), 115,005 students and 4,82 2 teachers. According to the 1947 census, 13.3% of those 14 years of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, valued during the first nine months of 1962 at an exchange rate ranging between a high of 1.21 cents U.S. currency (Jan. 2) and a low of 0.72 cents (late August). The budget for the fiscal year ending Oct. 31, 1963, estimated revenue at 144,000,000,-
—
I
ARIZONA 000 pesos and expenditure at 149,600,000,000 pesos. Official foreign indebtedness was estimated at U.S. $2,520,300,000 on Dec, 51, 1961; the internal debt was provisionally calculated at 129,885,000.000 pesos, of which long-term debt accounted for 1 1 5. .559,000,000 pesos. Currency in circulation (Mayil. 1962) totaled 15,100,000,000 pesos: demand deposits 92.100.000.000 pesos. National income in 1960 was estimated at 626,000,000,000 pesos. The cost-of-living index (Buenos .\ires) stood at 382 in May 1962 (1958 — 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1961 (provisional figures) were $964,000,000: imports $1,460,000,000, Leading exports were: meat (22%) cereals and linseed (20fr), wool (15%), vegetable oils and oilseeds (13%)' and hides (8%-): leading import groups were: machinery and motors (28%), vehicles and parts (15%), iron and steel and manufactures (15%), fuels and lubricants (9%) and chemicals and products (6%) Leading customers were the U.K. (18%), the Netherlands (15%), Italy (11%) the U.S. (9%) and West Germany (8%): leading suppliers were the U s' (26%), West Germany (15%), the U.K. (10%,), Italy (7%,) and France
163
to help reunite estranged couples
The
general election on Nov.
6,
for a third term of Republican
1
—
(S%).
Railway mileage (1955) totaled 27,273. In 1956 there were 36,640 mi highways (32,000 mi. improved) and 54,600 mi. of provincial highways. Registered motor vehicles (Jan. 1, 1961) included 402,412 automobiles, 313.258 trucks and 15.687 buses. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1961) numbered 1,295,856. .According to Lloyd's Register oj Shipping, the merchant marine (June 30. 1961) had 374 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating ' 1,195,409 gross tons. Agriculture.— Production figures for the crop year 1961-62 were officially reported as follows (in metric tons): wheat 5.100,000; corn 5 '00 OOO'barley SOO.OOO; rye 510,000; linseed 818,000; rice 190.00o'- cotton (ginned) 110,000; birdseed 35.000; tung oil 104.000; peanuts 380 000tobacco (1960-61) 48.400. Exports in 1951 (metric tons) includedwheat 1.0/ (.000: corn 1.727.000; oats 237.000; barley 118,000: linseed 89 000 On June 30. 1951. there were an estimated 44.000.000 cattle, 47,500.000 sheep and 3.500,000 pigs. Production of meat in 1960 totaled 081 600 metric tons (including 804,000 tons of beef). Exports in 1961 included 233.000 tons of frozen and chilled beef and 1.583.000 frozen lamb carcasses. In 1961, 63,600 tons of butter and 152,400 tons of cheese were produced. Wool production in the wool vear ending Sept. 30 1061 was estimated at 195,000 tons. In 1961, 148, 13Q tons of quebracho extract' were of national
exported.
Manufactures.— According to the 1954 industrial census, there were 181 763 manufacturing and mining establishments with 1,536,530 employees Production figures for 1961 included Portland cement 2,424 000 metric tons; steel 441,600 tons: cotton yarn (1960) 95.240 tons; wheat flour 2,124,000 tons; motor vehicles 136,000 (units, including assemblv) The index of industrial production stood at 128 in 1961 (1953 100) Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31. 1960) was 3,255,000 kw.; production (1950, public use only) totaled 7,848,000.000 kw.hr. "' "^'^^ petroleum in 1Q61 totaled 84.412.000 uuf^'^T'^'""'',''"''"'^'"'" bbl. Other production figures included coal 342.600 metric tons and natural gas 2.328.000.000 cu.m. In 1961, 1.200,000 long tons of coal and coke were imported.
q
(IW?
\y
JJ.^^, j
"'"''*''" Bkitannica Vi-L^s.— Argentina (People of the Pampa)
Arjynnn nil^Ulld.
largest state and has a total area of 113.909 sq.mi., 334 sq.mi. of which are inland water. Arizona ranks 35th among the states in population,
with 1,302,161 (1960 census); the July
1. 1962, estimate was 1.509.000. an increase of 15.9% since 1960. The principal cities (1960 census) are: Phoenix, the capital, 439,-
170.
Tucson 212.892. Mesa 33.772. Tempe 24.S97.
Flagstaff 18.214. Glendale 15.696, Prescott 12,861 11.925.
Yuma
23.974,
and Douglas
—
History. The 1962 Arizona legislature repealed the state's miscegenation act. which already had been declared unconstitutional by a Pima county superior court judge who had ordered a marriage licence issued to a man of oriental e.xtraction and a
woman The
of Caucasian descent. legislature
also started Arizona along the road to a "Pennsylvania-type" automobile safety law, to be achieved in three successive yearly steps, by passing a law providing for an-
nual inspection of state
was having
motor
vehicles.
As 1962 ended, however, the
difficulty obtaining inspection stations;
garage owners, especially in smaller communities, were not responding as the state had anticipated. The law was scheduled to go into effect Jan. 1, 1963.
Other major acts of the legislature gave persons 65 years old or older a $1 ,000 income exemption on state income taxes pro;
vided for use of colour pictures on er's licences, as
in
all
future motor vehicle driv-
they are renewed; increased state participation
educating retarded children;
raised
the salaries of county
oflScers; raised the salaries of state officers,
the governor's salary going from $18,500 to $22,500; and set up courts of conciliation
1962, resulted in the election
Gov. Paul Fannin over Demo-
Democrats had done so. Also elected were U.S. Sen. Carl Hayden (Dem.) over Evan Mecham; Rep. John J. Rhodes (Rep.) in the
1st
congressional district;
Rep. Morris K. Udall (Dem,) George Senner (Dem.) in the newly created 3rd district. Mecham's race against Hayden. who had served longer in Congress than any man in history and who was 85 years old on Oct. 2. 1962, was a vigorous one and attracted na-
2nd
in the
district;
tional attention.
In the initiative
November measures
general election, Arizona voters approved
to provide
governmental continuity in case of nuclear disaster; to provide for direct election of a senator to fill a vacancy, removing the appointive power from the governor; to allow people to vote for president regardless of residence requirements in relation to other state office races; and to allow real estate brokers to
make
out
action. Arizona voters turned
amendment
all
papers essential to a trans-
down
a proposed constitutional
to provide for a state-wide
property re-evaluation. Principal state officers of 1962 were: governor, Paul J. Fannin; secretary of state, Wesley Bolin; attorney general, Robert
W.
Pickrell
;
and state auditor. Jewel W. Jordan.
Agriculture.- In 1959 .Arizona had 7.233 farms covering 72,688,000 ac, of which 1,018,757 ac. were harvested cropland and 36,874,392 ac. were
Table
I.
Principal
Crops of Arizona Indicated 1962
Cfop Barley, bo
"°y' '°'"
Sorghum
groin, bu
Cotton lint, iOO-lb. boles Cottonseed, tons
Oronges, 75.|b. boxes Grapefruit, 64. lb. boxes lemons, 76-lb. boxes
Gropes
of the southwestern mountain states of the United States, the "Grand Canyon" state is the 6th
children are involved.
crat Samuel P. Goddard, Jr. It was the first time in Arizona history that a Republican governor had won a third term; two
ions
Vegelobles, commercial, tons Potatoes, Irish, cwl
One
when
Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
7,800,000 1,108,000 6,076,000 885,000 372,000 1,050,000 1,900,000 500.000 12,100 698,400 2,040,000
Averogo 1961
1951-60
11.220,000 1,209,000 7,475,000 828,000 342,000 1,440,000 2,270,000 1,540,000 9,230
9,023,000 844,000 4,453,000 835,000
347.000 1.089,000 2,496,000 670,000 5,447
706,600 2,472,000
1,442.000
pasture.
Cash receipts in 1950 totaled $273,298,000 from crops and $162,256,000 from livestock and livestock products for a total of $435,554,000. This compared with $407,867,000 (including government payments) in
On Jan. 1, 1962, livestock in Arizona comprised 1,041,000 cattle and calves of which 54,000 were milch cows, 29,000 swine, 520,000 sheep, 55,000 horses and mules and 1.031.000 poultry. Banking and Finance.—On Sept. 28. 1962. there were 10 banks in Arizona, including 3 national banks and 7 state banks, and 10 savings and loan associations and other types of banking institutions. Total assets of all banks amounted to $1,620,633,825.73; deposits were $1,455,115,765.03, During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, state revenues totaled $227,336,323.68 and disbursements $235,530,705.11. Despite this excess of expenditures over revenues, the state ended the fiscal year with a general fund surplus of $14,383,457.28 (the surplus was more than $18,000,000 the previous year). Total state taxes collected in the 1961-62 fiscal year were $108,525,586.31; federal taxes collected in the state were more than $350,000,000. Net assessed valuation of real property in Arizona was $394,962,60l!
Communications. \\\ highways and roads in .Arizona in 1962 totaled 39,135.9 mi., including 2,506.1 mi. of primary and 2,065.9 mi. of secondary roads. Xew highway construction totaled 321 mi. and cost $61,949,522. Vehicle registration for 1961 totaled 515,632 passenger autoniohiles and 133,404 commercial vehicles; total vehicular registration including trailers, motorc.vcles and scooters was 741.268. Railroad mileage included 3.502 mi. of tracks and 2.516 mi. of lines. The Arizona Aviation authority estimated that there were about 2,000 airplanes in the state (Arizona does not require airplane registration), served by 125 airports. In Sept. 1952 there were 68 radio stations and 10 television stations in Arizona. As of Jan. 1, 1962, there were 501,527 telephones in use. There were S3 weekly and 14 daily newspapers. Education.—.^ total of 343.351 students were enrolled in public elementary .and secondary schools in .Arizona during the 1961-62 school year. There were 251.678 students and 9.584 teachers in elementarv schools and 81.573 students and 3.2 79 teachers in secondary schools. There were approximately 45.000 students in colleges and universities. Manufacturing and industry.— There were 994 manufacturing establishments covered by the Arizona Employment Security law during the first ijuarler of 1962, employing an average of 51,326 workers, and paying during that quarter $75,844,096 in salaries and wages. Total civilian employmeot in the state as of June 1952 was 467,500;
ARKA NSAS
164
25,700 unemployed at that date. Total personal income in 1961 was $2,885,000,000, compared with $979,000,000 in 1950. Average per capita income was $2,074 in 1961, compared with an average of $2,263 there were
nationally.
The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Arizona during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1962, was $11,781,579.72, compared with $12,438,021.18 in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1961.
primary and the general election, segregation was not a issue. Other state officers elected in Nov. 1962 included
cratic
major
Nathan Gordon, lieutenant governor; Jimmy Jones, state auditor; Mrs. Nancy Hall, state treasurer; Sam Jones, land commissioner; Bruce Bennett, attorney general; and Kelly Bryant, secretary of state.
Table
Principal Industries of Arizona
II.
and wages
All
employees Industry
48,020
Total monufacturlng
6,032 5,175 4,494 2,472
Food ond kindred products Primory metol industries Electrical machinery Stone, cloy and gloss products Source: U.S. Department of
lin
$274,374 30,848 32,151
27,293 14,225
from
$459,137 70,915 48,988 46,289 31,947
Commerce, 1940 Annual Survey of Manufaclurti (1942).
—
funds. In 1962 the state maintained one hospital for mental patients and one tuberculosis sanatorium. One penitentiary and one reformatory were maintained by the state. In Sept. 1962 the penitentiary had 1,684 prisoners and the reformatory held 3 75 inmates with an additional 500 in conditional home placement. Prison operations cost $1,818,504.89 in the (Da. F. B.) fiscal year ended June 30, 1962. III.— Minerof ProiJucflon of Arizona short tons, except as noted!
(In
1960
1961
Total*
145,000 587,000
Cloys
Copper
Gem
stones
Gold lead
(oi.)
t
Ume
.
Monoanese or. Mongoniferous or.
Molybdenum
.
.
Sand ond arov.l Silver loi.)
Stone
Uronium ore
.
Zinc
.
.
$432,414,000 240,000 352,232,000 119,000 5,109,000
t
143,000 8,000 148,000 ,424 8,477 2,180
1,223,000 2,486,000
1
t
2,439 745,000 21,953,000 5,120,000 3,582,000 228,000 30,000
Other minerolt
$415,512,000 240,000 345,784,000 120,000 5,007,000
173,000 539,000
...
...»
....
Pumice
146,000 6,000 147,000
.
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Mineral
6,232,000 1,893,000 24,706,000 4,733,000 4,424,000 4,965,000 4,804,000 18,943,000
703,000 14,490,000 4,775,000 4,249,000
284,000 34,000 ...
*Total hos been adjusted to eliminate duplication In the value of clayt tWeighl not recorded. JVolue included with other minerals.
by the
gressmen,
1959
$402,101 64,326 40,595 27,777 27,804
During the year ending June 30, Public Welfare and Related Programs 1962, the sum of $27,958,023.40 was expended for welfare programs in Arizona, including $17,566,893.09 of federal funds and $10,391,130.31 of state funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $10,004,570.05, blind assistance $758,281.09 and aid to dependent children $13,019,457.59. Child welfare cost $185,435.61 from federal funds and $681,979.77 from state
Table
six
$0001
1960
1960
I960
group
$0001
lln
In the four new congressional districts in the state, reduced
Value added by manufacture
Salaries
1,988,000 2,430,000 40,000 190,000 5,211,000 1,164,000 14,235,000 4,322,000 5,107,000 4,219,000 9,239,000 15,909,000 and Hone.
all
incumbent conWilliam Ful-
state's loss of population, four
Democrats, were re-elected. Sen.
J.
bright was re-elected to a fourth term.
An amendment of voting machines
to the state constitution authorizing the use
was approved
in the
November
election.
An-
other amendment, which would have put into the state constitution an existing state law that no child shall be denied a free public education by reason of his refusal to attend an integrated
was defeated. government continued work on the development
school,
The
federal
of the Arkansas river to create a navigable nine-foot-deep channel ect
from the Mississippi to Catoosa, Okla., near Tulsa. The projwas expected to be a major factor in the state's industrial de-
velopment.
For the third consecutive year the desegregated schools in Arkansas opened peacefully in the fall of 1962. Twelve of the 228 biracial school districts had desegregated classes in some or all of their schools, compared with 10 in 1961. Little Rock had 71
Negro students in the fall of 1962 in the high schools and junior high schools and 46 in 1961-62. Desegregated school programs were being operated in 12 school districts and in the fall of 1962 there were about 253 Negro children in desegregated school programs, compared with 152 the year before. About 25 Negro students enrolled in the fall session at the University of Arkansas,
which had been desegregated Agriculture.
— Farmers' cash
(A. S. Sn.)
in 1948.
receipts
from marketing
in
Arkansas
in
1961
totaled $769,959,000, including $2 70,660,000 from livestock and livestock products. The U.S. department of agriculture placed the value of the principal crops in the state for 1961 at $525,206,000, which was 14% above 1960. Cotton ranked first in value, with lint and seed worth $278,768,000. Soybeans ranked second with a value of $116,639,000 and rice was third
with a value of $68,544,000.
Source, U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Table
—
Mineral Produrtion. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Arizona in 1960 and 1961 whose value exceeded $100,000. The total value of Arizona's mineral output in 1961 was the highest reported since 1956. Of this value metals represented 88%; nonmetals 11%; and mineral fuels less than 1%. In 1961 Arizona continued its lead in output of copper, maintained since 1910, with 50% of the U.S. total output. It was also first in pumice; second in silver; third in asbestos, gold,
molybdenum,
perlite
and
vanadium;
and
uranium. Arizona ranked 13th among the states eral output in 1961, with
2.39%
filth in
mercury
in
and
the value of its min-
of the U.S. total.
Encyclop/edia Bkitannica Films.
— The Southwestern
States (1954).
This south-central state of the U.S. had a population of 1,786,272 in 1960.
mate was 1,823,000.
It
is
the 31st
The July
most populous
1,
1962, esti-
state,
and
in
area ranks 27th with a total of 53,104 sq.mi., 60S sq.mi. of which are inland water.
Rock, the
The
principal cities (1960 census) are: Little
capital, 107,813,
52,991, Pine Bluff 44,037,
North Little Rock 58,032, Fort Smith Hot Springs 28,337, El Dorado 25,292,
Jonesboro 21,418, Blytheville 20,797, Fayetteville 20,274, Texarkana 19,788 and West Memphis 19,374. Gov. Orval E. Faubus was elected to a fifth two-year History.
—
unprecedented in Arkansas history, in the general Nov. 1962 against Willis Ricketts (Rep.). Faubus won the nomination in the Democratic primary in July against four other opponents including Sid McMath, former governor,
term
in office,
election in
and Congressman Dale Alford, who as a write-in "independent Democrat" defeated Brooks Hays in 1958. Governor Faubus received
52%
of the vote in the primary.
The Repubhcan party
entered more candidates in state and local elections in 1962 than any other election in the state's recent history. In the Demo-
in
Principal
Crops of Arkansas Indicated 1962
4,728,000 3,080,000 4,874,000
Corn bu
Wheat
bu Oots bu
Soybeans for beans, Sorghum groin, bu Rice 100-lb. bags
Hoy
bu.
.
Cotton lint, 500-lb. i>oles Cottonseed, tons Peoches bu
Grapes
.
.
.58,200,000 334,000
....
tons
Pecans
Arkansas.
I.
Crop
tons lb
Potatoes, sweet, cwl Sourcei U.S. Department of Agriculture.
15,930,000 858,000 1,450,000 408,000 1,020,000 8,000 3,600,000 284,000
Average 1961
1951-60
8,449,000 4,941,000 5,040,000 48,524,000
13,452,000 2,194,000 8,724,000 27,813,000 1,282,000 11,940,000 984,000 1,339,000 551,000 1 ,458,000 4,680 4,015,000 292,000
351,000 13,440,000 974,000 1,456,000 404,000 1,500,000 4,000 6,100,000 297,000
—
Banking and Finance. On Dec. 31, 1961, Arkansas had 182 state banks trust companies, 56 national banks and 13 active state building and loan associations. Assets of national banks amounted to $792,056,000; state banks $773,522,000; building and loan associations $40,199,000. Deposits in national banks totaled $723,323,000; in state banks, $702,581,000. Federal tax collections for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1962, were
and
$280,236,800.
During the 1960-61 fiscal year, state general expenditures amounted to $259,518,436.98 and state tax receipts were $181,360,714.30. Connmunications. All highways and roads in ,\rkansas in 1962 totaled 79,176 mi., including 11,172 mi. of state highways and 58,078 mi. of county roads. During the fiscal year ended June 30. 1962, total expenditures for highways and roads amounted to $87,000,000, including $56,630.019 in state and federal funds spent for construction. Railway mileage in the state (1962) included 3,925.36 mi. of main track. There were 158
—
airports.
There were 441,000 telephones in use in 1962. In Jan. 1962, 6 television stations and 73 radio stations were in operation in the state. There were 30 daily and 13 5 weekly newspapers. Education. A total of 429,045 students were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in Arkansas in the 1960-61 school year. There were 251.751 students and 8,326 teachers in the 1.077 elementary schools and 177.294 students and 7.239 teachers in the 582 secondary schools. The total amount spent by the state during 1960-61 on education amounted to $109,402,666, including $80,711,527 in current expenditures. The aver-
—
ARMIES OF THE WORLD age annual salary of teachers in the elementary schools $3,163; in high schools, $3,484.
Table
II.
Salaries
group
Total monufacturing Lumber ond wood products Paper and allied products Chemicals and allied products Stone, clay and glass products Electrical machinery Furniture
ond
$0001 1940
lln
I960
102,657 23,031 6,397 3,199 3,699 3,765 7,565
fixtures
Source: U.S. Department of
movement throughout the U.S. of combating Communist insurgency campaigns wherever they might occur. The expanding army "special forces"— /.e., counterguerrilla and guerrilla troops
1960
19i9
$752,096
$719284
104,972 95,519 56,949 41,324 41,094 39,329
58 820 3 9 977
19,476 16,395 14,548 24,148
military to de\'elop successful
$000)
lin
$362,834 69,375 34,793
This effort was backed by a
Valuo oddud by manufaclure
and wages
All
98 052 87'946
—were
The prospect
Commerce, I960 Annual Survey of Monufaclure) (19621.
Borile
Bauxite Cloys Cool
Gypsum time Noturol gas (000 cu. ft.) .. Naturol gasoline (000 gol.l Petroleum (bbl.) Petroleum gases (000 gal.l . Sond and grovel Stone Other minerals .
278,000 2,164,000 815,000 409,000 67,000
in the
of the ISth air-borne corps.
With the blessing of
John
Pres.
?
ArmipC nf the U/nrlri Ul NIC VVUMU.
85,000 50,000 29,000 800,000
Canada Denmarl
value of clay, c nd stone.
4.6
Netherlands Portugal. . . Turkey . . . United States .
240,000 200,000 I 0,000
1
30,000 125,000 200,000 90,000
Continued world tension kept the
marked emphasis on modernization
of forces
to
Australia
Combodio
....
China (Peking) China (Formosa! Indonesia
21,000 100,000 27,000 2,600,000 425,000 200,000 170,000 350,000
.
. .
....
Jopon Korea, North
.
.
.
first
— The
ten
major development in the U.S. army months of 1962 was the commitment of siz-
able forces to southeast Asia to assist South gle against
Vietnam
in its strug-
Communist
insurgents from North Vietnam and to deal with closely related events in Laos and Thailand.
The mounting guerrilla threat to South Vietnam brought a U.S. decision to increase military and economic aid to the Saigon government.
By
fall it
was
10,000 U.S. military
7.2
unofficially estimated that a total of
men were engaged
in
training,
about
Guineo India Iron I'oq Israel
Jordan
Chile
Costa Rico
Communist Vietcong hide-outs and G.L's were training and advising South Vietnamese in combat areas and on air-
New
700.0
South
.
.
Zealand.
11.3
Philippines
96.4 94.9 10.0
Thailand. . Vietnam, North Vietnam, South
.
.
.
East
ond Afric
448.5
Latin
Arge
transporting and otherwise
but U.S. helicopter units were moving Vietnamese troops on raids
37,000 28,000 7,000 2,000 600,000 180,000 70,000 50,000 33,000
tihono
advising,
assisting Vietnamese forces. U.S. emphasized that the troops were not actually "fighting."
o.
too
Malaya
1,400
officials
against
1
10.6 22.3 5.7
Middle 125,000 60,000
gain
greater firepower and mobility.
United States.
1.6
7.9 13.8
armies of the east and west and
1961-62, as reservists, conscripts and volunteers called up or held in during that emergency were released. There was con-
during the
9,900
34,000 1 0,000
200,000
Southeastern States (1956).
those of some neutrals at near peak strength during 1962. The ground forces of the U.S., the U.S.S.R. and other nations declined from the levels reached during the Berlin crisis of the winter of
tinued
army
Population
Belgium
of the U.S. total.
nillllCJj
the
Approximate Sfrenglh of Armies of Ihe World*
t
6,599,000 2,148,000 83,424,000 3,735,000 10,262,000 13,555,000 10,969,000
1
— The
and
called "civic action," U.S. soldiers helped local army forces in projects of civic betterment. Such activities as the improvement of roads, communications and sanitation aimed not only at helping eliminate suffering and unrest but also at building confidence
—
.82%
air force
roles
was
Value
Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minproduced in .\rkansas in 1960 and 1961 whose value exceeded $100,000. Arkansas was first in barite and bauxite; and third in bromine. In 1961 the value of mineral output was b% less than the high record of 1960. The greater part of this decrease was due to reduced bauxite output. Mineral fuels, which declined 3% of the total value, accounted for the .largest part of the 1961 value. Arkansas ranked 25th in the value of
EncycloP/Edia Britannica Films.
its
Kennedy,
F.
erals
mineral output, with
The
missions.
$158,263,000 2,578,000 20,469,000 2,456,000 3,116,000 208,000
55,451,000 35,000 30,117,000 73,000 8,192,000 10,939,000
.
•Totol has been adjusted to eliminate duplication tVolue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Mineral Production.
Quantity
.
by army Lieut. Gen. Hamilton H.
at his request,
opposed many features of the plan as infringing on
1960
Value
McNamara,
S.
launched a new program to counter Communist-inspired subversion and guerrilla action in underdeveloped countries. In what
(Short tons, except as noted) 1961
$149,138,000 278,000 2,630,000 1,320,000 13,462,000 773,000 1,758,000 395,000 2,888,000 167,000 531,000 192,000 3,168,000 .59,547,000 8,039,000 28,000 1,640,000 29,249,000 80,435,000 75,000 3,286,000 9,389,000 9,074,000 12,029,000 12,402,000 10,934,000
A
Howze, commander
Mineral Produclion of Arkansas
Quontlly
army preoccupatioR with
more extensive battlefield mobility and close plan for doubling the number of army hehcopters and transport planes and arming them for both offensive and defensive combat was submitted to Defense Secretary Robert
Welfare and Related Programs.— The State penitentiary had an' average of 2.09 7 prisoners during the 1960-61 fiscal year and the reformatories an average of 42 7 inmates and trainees. (C. Co.)
Tolol*
marines and paratroopers.
forces to provide
air support.
Public
MInerol
to the
of a long-continuing
counterguerrilla activity brought not only an increase in special forces but also a major army effort to expand its organic aviation
ing that period.
III.
means
increasingly referred to as the nation's "elite" soldiers, a
term hitherto largely confined
36 273 36,399
Manufacturing ond Industry.— The monthly average for nonfarm employment in .\rkansas in 1961 was about 3 74,000, as compared with a monthly average of 369,000 in 1960. The Arkansas Industrial Development commission reported 3,983 new jobs in new or expanded manufacturing plants in 1961. Personal income in 1961 was $2,598,000,000, compared with $2,390,000,000 in 1960. Average per capita income in 1961 was $1,446, compared with an average of $2,2 63 for the United States. The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Arkansas during the year ended .Tune 30. 1962, was $13,920,901. There were 50,388 claimants dur-
Toblo
165
support missions, as well as helping the Vietnamese convert isolated villages into fortified hamlets and build a reliable communications and intelligence network.
Principal Industries of Arkansas
omployaes Industry
1960-61 was
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Colomblo
1,200
Cuba
250,000
Dominican Republic Ecuodor El
Solv
85,000 12,500 210,000 21,300 32,000
.
.
.
.
12,000 11,000 6,000
•Excluding poromilitory, security tNolionol police.
21.2
SoudiArobio.
Am
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
U6 in the local ci\-ic
U.S. army armies and governments. In 1962 mobile
South Vietnam, Iran, action teams were in Guatemala. Laos,
Ecuador, El Salvador and South Korea. drive to strengthen part of the Kennedy administration's in 1963 was conventional forces, spending for troop airlift for the army doubled over 1961. Congress voted $1 1,900.000.000
As
US
compared with $12,300,000,000 in fiscal 1962, general counCyrus R. Vance. pre\nously defense department
in fiscal 1963,
the army in succeeded Elvis J. Stahr, Jr.. as secretary of retiring and Gen. Earle G. Wheeler (q.v.) replaced the in October. Gen. George H. Decker as army chief of staff been built Strength and Deployment.—The army, which had increased draft up from 860,000 in 1961 to 1,065.000 in 1962 by
sel,
July,
calls,
guardsmen extension of enlistments and call-up of national
reserves and reservists, dropped back to about 960.000 when the regular army were released in .-Vugust. At the same time, tw^o new infantry (mechdivisions were created, the 1st armoured and 5th army dianized). By September there were eight combat-ready
providing, visions in the strategic reserve in the continental U.S., dewith two marine corps dixasions, a powerful force ready for
ployment. Four divisions— the 4th and 5th infantry and
1st
and
2nd armoured— were assigned to the III corps, while the others the 82nd and 101st air-borne and 1st and 2nd infantry— made up the XVIII air-borne corps. They formed ARSTRIKE, the ground element of the new U.S. strike command, which also in-
—
cluded the tactical air command of the U.S. air force. In Europe was the 7th army, made up of the 3rd, Sth and 24th infantry divisions, the 3rd and 4th armoured divisions, four
armoured cavalry regiments and supporting tank, antiaircraft, missile and other units. The 40.000 reinforcements sent to Europe late in 1961 included men to mechanize the infantry divisions with M-113 armoured personnel carriers. .Sufficient weapons and equipment were moved to West Germany and France for two which could be flown to Europe in an emergency. Three U.S. army battle groups, totaling 6,500 men, remained in Berlin, and a brigade-sized missile command, SETAF, was in divisions,
Italy.
The
1st cavalry division
fantry division and a missile
(an infantry unit), the 7th
command were
infantry division in Hawaii sent
some
in
Korea. The
forces to Thailand.
2
in-
of these functions, previously divided
and
Two
batteries were in Alaska. U.S. Caribbean forces were reor-
ganized from a static defense of the force of two battle groups with their
Panama canal intoa mobile own sea and airlift.
Europe the defense department stopped the travel of military dependents at government expense. While the reason given was shortage of shipping and aircraft, the unfavourable balance of payments was a factor. The travel ban was rescinded in 1962 for morale reasons, but Pentagon officials During the build-up
in
took other steps to save dollars, including the withdrawal of some army support units from Europe and arrangements with
France and West Germany for som.e U.S. military
logistics op-
by those countries. Training. Field exercises emphasized tests of the ability of battle groups to move quickly to Europe and the far east from U.S. bases. There was also stress on counterguerrilla and jungle-
erations to be handled
—
warfare training. Organization and Structure. the department of the
— A far-reaching reorganization of
army was
virtually completed in
Shuffling across the Pentagon lagoon in Washington, D.C., in June 1962, these civilians in uniform demonstrated water shoes to army officers in the hope of getting the eguiomenl adopted for use by soldiers in crossing rivers and jungle waterways. The shoes had been Introduced as sports equipment. IVIade of urethan foam, they support up to 350 lb, of weight and can be manipulated at three miles an hour
Sth
reinforced battle groups and two Nike-Hercules air defense missile
WATER SHOES FOR AQUATIC COMBAT?
field agencies,
procedures.
velopments command; realignment of the responsibilities and
army command; and modificadepartment of the army .staff. The materiel command was responsible for research and development, production, procurement, distribution and maintefunctions of the U.S. continental
tions in the
nance of army materiel. The grouping under a single commander
of staff
and distribution
integration of
the several technical services were placed under
The army
new
doctrine,
it.
was reduced in size and the organization of the technical services was revamped. The once key posts of chief of ordnance, chief of the chemical corps and quartermaster general were dropped. These actions and other measures relieved the army staff of its commandlike and operating functions, enabling it to devote more time and energy to planning, programming and policy making. Another important step in 1962 was the institution of ROAD staff
(reorganization objective a
more
army
divisions), designed to provide
flexible divisional structure similar to that in
countries. division,
The brigade and
other
NATO
would return to the U.S. be dropped in order to pro-
battalion
and battle groups were to
ROAD
vide forces able to meet a wide variety of situations. The division base contains command, reconnaissance, administrative, division.
field
The development and
number
was the concern of the combat developments command. Fragmented activities of
logistical
two new
a
weapons-production
organizations and materiel for future warfare
1962.
a.spccts included; the creation of
among
at a reduction in
lead time and improved, integrated procurement
commands, the U.S. army materiel command and the U.S. army combat deMajor
aimed
and combat-support elements common to four types of There are three brigade headquarters to control task
groupings of the combat elements of the division. The basic combat element is the battalion of which there are four types: infantry, mechanized infantry, air-borne infantry and tank. Thus any type of division— infantry, mechanized, air-borne, or armour
—can
be
formed through assignment of these battalions in the required numbers and types. The two new active army divisions created in 1962 were the first to be organized as divisions.
ROAD
ARMIES OF THE WORLD The new strike command made progress in meshing the eight army divisions in continental U.S. with the tactical air command and in perfecting new doctrine and joint training. Shortly after entering
the
office,
new
civilian leaders of the
defense department had proposed bolstering the army reserve to provide eight di\-isions in such a near combat-ready status that they could be deployed to a war theatre in a matter of weeks. Military men felt this was unrealistic, and the call-up of na-
guard and reserve forces in the Bedin crisis justified them. took considerably longer to get the two national guard di-
tional It
combat ready than Secretary McNamara had anticipated and the complaints of some of the reservists emphasiied the povisions
problems of using the reserve "to prevent rather than a war." As a result, McNamara presented an army reserve
litical
fight
reorganization program which provided for increased readiness for six divisions and other units on a less ambitious schedule. He
proposed to meet the increased costs by virtually eliminating eight other guard and reserve divisions and cutting the number of guardsmen and reservists on 642.000.
The
politically
pay status from 700,000 to powerful National Guard association and drill
Reserve Officers association fought the plan, and congress enMcNamara from cutting reserve manpower but not from the reorganization. On Dec. 4 McNamara announced a far-reaching reorganization of the reserves which would eliminate many obsolete units and create new ones suited to modern warfare. joined
—
Weapons and Equipment. The army's 1963 budget provided more than $2,500,000,000 for procurement of weapons and equipment about the same amount as in 1962 but 65% higher than in 1961. This speeded the army modernization program and re-
—
sulted in the re-equipment of forces in
M-60
Europe and elsewhere with
M-1 13 personnel carrier, the M-14 rifle, M-79 M-60 machine gun and Davy Crockett atomic weapons system. The Sergeant and Pershing missiles neared combat readiness and initial orders were placed for new 105-mm. the
tank, the
grenade launcher,
and 155-mm. self-propelled howitzers to replace towed w-eapons.
New
aircraft joining the
5.500-plane operational forces in-
167
was considerable. Gen. J. E. Moore. U.S. army, chief of staff to the NATO supreme commander in Europe, estimated in an address in Washington. D.C.. Oct. 9. 1962. that combat power had increased by 25%. Failure of some NATO members to match crisis
the U.S. increases, however, left strength in the crucial central front .short of the 30-division goal, and forces on the northern
and southeastern flanks remained, thin." tional
in
Moore's words, "somewhat
One innovation in N.ATO was the creation mobile force composed of battalions and
from seven nations
to provide reinforcement of
of an internaair
squadrons
any threatened
The increase in NATO conventional power brought orders from Gen. Lauris Norstad, supreme allied commander, for a forward defense strategy based on a mobile defense just west of the "iron curtain." Gen. Lyman L. LemniLzer replaced Norstad point.
commander
as
in chief of U.S. forces in
scheduled to take over as
NATO
Europe Nov. 1 and was in Europe Jan. 1,
commander
1963.
—
Great Britain. In Feb. 1962 the British cabinet presented to parliament a policy statement on defense plans for the next five years, but it contained no real innovations. The plan called for continued reliance on long-term volunteer forces (the last conscript was due to be released early in 1963 and greater reliance )
on at
and sea mobility to move forces from the home and from bases at Aden and Singapore air
in case of need.
The need
strategic reserve to trouble spots
for balance
between the ser\-ices and between nuclear and conventional forces was stressed. Army spending for 1962-63 was estimated at $1,466,922,000, a slight increase over the year before third of the total defense budget.
and a
Army
little less
than one-
strength, the defense
minister said, would total 182,700 by April 1963. compared with 200,000 in 1962 and 231.000 in 1961. U.S. pressure brought only small increases in the British army of the Rhine during the build-up. but Britain increased plans for air to
Germany
in case of trouble.
The
N.\TO commitment.
three-division
movement
B..\.O.R.
of troops
was short of
its
In Aug. 1962. after a cabinet
Iroquois, a utility tactical transport helicopter; the Chinook, a
which Peter Thorneycroft replaced Harold Watkinson major shifts in the British program. Britain dropped out of the missile race, ending develop-
cluded the
Mohawk,
fixed-wing surveillance
a
airplane;
the
shake-up
in
as defense minister, there were
multipassenger helicopter; the Seminole, a commercial-t>T3e plane
ment
adapted to wide army use; and the Caribou, a transport aircraft
ballistic missile,
capable of carrying 32 soldiers or three tons of cargo.
missiles.
By
the end of 1962. 207 Nike batteries were guarding critical
areas in 30 states.
Army
national guard units manneji
all
of the
76 Nike-Ajax units and took over 16 Nike-Hercules batteries from regular army crews.
The army's 1963 budget
pro\-ided $1,329,000,000 for research
of the army's Blue
Canada.
Water ground-to-ground nuclear-headed its U.S. -furnished Thor ballistic
and abandoned
— During
the Berlin crisis. Canada increased the armed forces from 120.000 to 135.000 men and sent 1.100 troops to West Germany to bring its 5,500-man brigade
ceiling
on
group to in the
its
full
strength. Two-thirds of Canada's
armed
forces were
army.
—
and development. Included were funds for the Nike-Zeus antimissile missile. On July 19, 1962, a Nike-Zeus missile fired from Kwajalein Island in the Pacific successfully intercepted an .Xtlas
France. The settlement of the Algerian war was followed by major troop withdrawals to metropolitan France and some de-
from California. How-
ing to the strength of the French army, which had totaled about
had been no decision to go into production with the Nike-Zeus and top Pentagon officials continued to indicate doubt
800,000 for several years. A major reorganization was under way aimed at bolstering army morale after the losses of Indochina and Algeria. In early October Pres. Charles De Gaulle attended
intercontinental
ballistic
missile
fired
ever, there
that
it
would be deployed.
The army research and development program emphasized new lightweight infantry and artillery
weapons systems with increased range, mobility and effectiveness, including the T195E1 105-mm. and T196E1 lS5-mm. howitzers, both aluminum-armoured and self-propelled. A smaller and lighter version of the Honest John artillery rocket was brought into the final stages. Development continued on the GenerarSheridan armoured reconnaissance assault vehicle, an air-borne, amphibious weapon designed to replace the 76-mm. gun. light tank and 90-mm. assault gun. Much attention was paid to rocket and machine-gun .systems for light helicopters and vertical or short take-off and landing aircraft. NATO. The build-up in the ground and air-support forces of the NATO units in western Europe as a result of the Berlin
—
mobilization.
However, secrecy shrouded
just
what was happen-
the largest French army maneuvers since 1938. which seemed to be directed toward helping rebuild forces for European service. Two French divisions remained in West Germany and a 1,500-
man
unit was in West Berlin. President De Gaulle did not recommit the two divisions pulled out of the N.\TO line in Germany when the .\lgerian war began. .\lthough official information was lacking, France's defense minister. Pierre Messmer, published a magazine article in Feb. 1962 calling for reduction of the army to about 450.000 men and of the conscription term from 2S to 18 months. The long-range plan provided for an army with three types of units mechanized combat troops with tactical atomic weapons designed for operations in Europe; internal defense forces; and "an external de-
—
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
^^8 fense force," with sea
and
airlift
trained to fight elsewhere. These
strike bombers and would complement an air force of nuclear plan called for an mcrease eventually missiles, and a navy- The from $3,505,000,000 to about in France's basic defense budget
$4,653,000,000 in 1969.
Wesf Germany.—The armed
forces continued their build-up
Defense Minister Franz and, according to an announcement by final strength of 500,000, inJosef Strauss, aimed at a planned 350,000 men had been cluding 350,000 in the army. Previously, During the Berlin crisis the planned strength of all services. additional divisions to Strauss announced plans to commit four one had during 1962, bringing the total to nine, but only
NATO
greater proThe U.S. was pressing West Germany to devote a purposes. In contrast portion of its booming economy to defense assigned to defense by to the 9'^c of the gross national product was and about 7% by Britain and France, West Germany the U.S.
5%.
forces U.S.S.R.— The Soviet Union, which enlarged its armed conscripts held crisis, later announced that the announced in service at that time had been released. It also
during the Berlin in
the
summer
men due for release in the fall on schedule. Authoritative western
of 1962 that those
would return
to civilian life
sources estimated in Oct.
1962 that the Soviet armed forces
men. including about 2,225,000 in the army. Estimates of Soviet troop strength in East Germany remained almost unchanged from previous years— about ten tank and ten motorized divisions, totaling approximately 375,000 men. totaled about 3.250.000
About 100,000 Soviet troops were estimated to be in Poland and Hungary two divisions in Poland and four in Hungary, probably about 75 at full strength. Behind these first-Hne forces were 75'^^ of strength, So\-iet divisions in European U.S.S.R. at about
—
and approximately 30 divisions in Asian U.S.S.R. at about 60%70% of strength. There were about 20 other divisions at 30% of
new
have more than 75,000 battle tanks and relatively larger quantities of artillery, antitank guns, mortars and antiaircraft guns of 37-mm. to 130-mm. calibre. Soviet missile power continued to grow. U.S.S.R. ICBM's on launchers were
The army was estimated
to
estimated at about 80, while the submarine missile fleet was believed to include about 30 ships, more than 10 of them atomic
Marshal Ivan
S.
Koniev, World
War
II hero,
who was
recalled
command of the Soviet forces in East summer of 1961, returned to the U.S.S.R. in April 1962. Gen. Ivan I. Yakubovski, who had commanded those forces previously and who had remained as deputy to
from retirement
to take
in the late
SOVIET ROCKETS ON PARADE: A wld«-angl« view
,
conscription
treaty with the U.S.S.R. ing of the long-threatened peace the Warsaw pact countries During the 1961-62 build-up, all of expansion was confined largely increased their armed forces. The summer of full strength, and by the to raising existing units to _
personnel had been released,. 1962 the bulk of the additional
However army
Communist satelstrength of the six European men in the fall of 1962, up from the
totaled about 940,000
year before. The
were patterned closely after
satellite divisions
and equipped with modern the Soviet form and were organized normally mainweapons to complement the Soviet forces. While they could quickly be tained at about three-quarters strength, satellites had expanded by calling up trained reservists. The
Czechosloabout the following strength: Bulgaria 8 divisions;
Germany
vakia 14; East
mania
6;
Hungary 6; Poland
Communist China—In other internal troubles.
and Ru-
the face of mounting economic and
Communist China maintained about 150
and armed forces totaling approximately 2,500,000 men. to be working on nuclear weapons, and William C. Foster, director of the U.S, Arms Control and Disarmament agency, estimated in September that China might have a
divisions
Peking was known
nuclear device within one to three years. Perfection of delivery systems, however, could take much longer,
Minister Fidel Castro's
Cuba.— Prime
an estimated 250,000
men
— second
Cuba
built its
largest in the
army
to
western hemi-
—
during 1962. Large-scale Soviet military assistance was given to Cuba, including nuclear missiles which led to an inter-
sphere
national crisis and a U.S. blockade of
— India
Cuba
continued the build-up of
tional infantry battalions
and
(see its
with the U.S.S.R. for the purchase of jet fighters, transports.
Cuba).
army with
artillery brigades
addi-
and negotiated helicopters and
Communist China
After the border dispute with
erupted into an invasion by the Chinese in October, however, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru turned to the U.S. and other
western nations for military
and
to
modernize
its
aid.
— Indonesia
(See India.)
continued to expand
its
army
armedforces, with large-scale aid from the
—
army made threatening gestures inarmed attacks against Dutch-held West New Guinea before a political agreement was reached.
U,S.S.R. Its 200,000-man cluding
some
small-scale
Japan completed the reorganization of
—
its
ground self-defense
of U.S.S.R. rocketj on parade In Red square, Moscow, Nov. 7 In commennorallon of Ihe 45th year of the Bolshevik revolution. This is the view that Premier Khrushchev had of Ihe parade ai h« stood (out of picture) with fellow officials
1962.
14;
12.
Other Countries.
powered.
_
_
the west following the signpresumably for a possible clash with
India.
strength.
Germany
-c. n Soviet assistance. East GerPact Forces.-With forces durmg 1962. The many substantially increased its armed men, with the help of a army expanded from 75,000 to 90,000 were modernized, law, and the fighting forces
Warsaw
lites
been added by October,
allowing only about
Koniev, resumed command.
ART EXH IBITIONS from 6 divisions and 4 combined brigades into 13 divisions, but the ground forces were still short of their 171,500-man
169
force
commemorated by an
strength because of lack of volunteers.
by a showing at the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York city. A survey of American sculpture from the late 18th century to 1962 formed another in the Newark (N.J.) museum's series devoted to American art and emphasized the renewed interest being shown in the mid- 19th century neoclassic sculptors. Among the most interesting items were Randolph Rogers' "Nydia" (lent by the Brooklyn museum) and Hiram Powers' "Greek Slave" (Newark's collection), whose frigid nudity had
See also Aircraft Industry; Atomic Energy; Aviation, Military; Defense Policies; National Guard; Navies of THE World; North Atlantic Treaty Organization; Rockets and Missiles; Selective Service, U.S.; Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. (J. G. N.)
Army,
U.S.: see Armies of the World; Defense Government Departments and Bureaus, U.S.
Policies;
;
;
Williams-Proctor institute in Utica, N.Y., his birthplace, followed
1840s.
Art Exhibitions.
foundation, honouring the completion of,
Henry VIII to William IV was shown at County museum and featured some remarkable
English silver from the Los Angeles
local collections. Francis E. Fowler, Jr., lent a set of 12
Munro
lent
an Elizabethan pyx of about 1560 and a
rare pair of Charles II silver ginger jars, inspired
porcelain. Brandeis university
opened
was exhibited at the National gallery in Washington, D.C., in 1962. During these years the foundation had given away $50,000,000 worth of paintings to 18 regional
with an exhibition of French paintings
museums and study collections universities. The finest items in
city,
a 20-year program,
to
30 other institutions, mostly
the collection were given to the
National gallery. Another important exhibition at the National gallery
was the
collection of
Mr. and Mrs. Andrew Meyer (senior
sweetmeat
dishes (London, 1567) showing the labours of Hercules, and Mrs.
William B.
from the Samuel H. Kress
selection
Munson-
been revealed to ladies and gentlemen at separate hours in the
Arsenic: see Mining. Art: see Architecture; Art Exhibitions; Art Sales; Dance; Museums; Music; Smithsonian Institution; Theatre and the literature articles such as American Literature English Literature; etc.
A
exhibition of his paintings at the
by Chinese
new Rose Art museum which had been shown at
its
the Wildenstein gallery for the benefit of the university's scholar-
ship fund and art program.
devoted
its
The Guggenheim museum. New York
entire building to
444 pieces of sculpture from
the Joseph H. Hirshhorn collection. lection in the world (less than half
The
largest private
was on exhibition),
the period from Rodin to the present.
it
col-
covers
The Guggenheim
also
partner of Lazard Freres), including works by Rembrandt, Degas,
showed the
Daumier and Gauguin. The National gallery also showed 34 rare objects from the tomb of Tutankhamen. This exhibit, which was to be shown at several U.S. museums over a two-year period, was sent to the U.S. by the Cairo (Egy.) museum to raise funds for preserving the temples on the Nile, threatened by flooding on completion of the Aswan high dam. "Masters of Seven Centuries" was shown at the Wildenstein gallery. New York city, for the benefit of the Wellesley College Faculty Salary Advancement fund. Nearly 100 paintings, sculptures and drawings came from 70 lenders. In honour of its re-
A large retrospective exhibition of 185 paintings, drawings, assemblages and sculpture by the contemporary French artist Jean Dubuffet was shown at the Museum of Modern Art, New
tiring director,
Mrs. Adelyn D. Breeskin, the Baltimore
held an exhibition of the
work
museum
Manet, Degas, Berthe Morisot Cassatt. The Virginia museum, Richmond, showed for the first time its distinguished collection of 6th- and 5th-century B.C. Greek vases. and
of
Mary
In connection with the opening^of
Morgan
library.
New
York, showed
its
a
new
from the collection of John M. Crawford, ever assembled in the western world. of the late Gothic
German
sculptor
exhibition rooms, the
group of Chinese paintings
An
Jr.,
one of the
finest
work Hans Tilman Riemenschneie.xhibition of the
shown at the North Carolina museum at from Germany and the Netherlands were in-
an e.xhibition of the work of Odilon Redon (1840-1916), Gustave Moreau (1826-98) and Rodolphe stitute also collaborated in
Bresdin
"Treasures of Versailles," an exhibition organized by the Art
by the Toledo (0.) museum, the California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco, and the Los Angeles County museum, was composed of 140 paintings, sculptures, tapestries, furniture and decorative objects from the period of Louis XIV to Louis Philippe, all lent from the palace Institute of Chicago but shared
of Versailles.
The Art
Wedgwood
institute also held an exhibition of
350
Wedgwood and Bentley period, 1768-80. The Cleveland museum and the Art institute jointly sponsored "The Japanese Decorative Style From the Sth-Century
pieces
of
Heian Period
of
to the 19th
the
can
artist
In Baltimore the Walters Art gallery featured "The International Style," displaying the art of the early Renaissance.
From
a Netherlandish altarpiece of
about 1410 came a Baptism of Christ and an unusual Crucifixion showing Christ still alive and uttering the last words.
The
centennial of Arthur B. Davies was.
1825-85). Another exhibition organized by the
whose
the retrospective of
Museum
Mark Tobey, an Ameri-
delicate, abstract style, while
has an oriental flavour.
The Milwaukee Art
based on nature,
showed a group contemporary U.S. paintings assembled by S. C. Johnson & Son, makers of wax products, at their Frank Lloyd Wrightcentre
of
designed plant in Racine, Wis. lated in nine
The coUection was
to
be circu-
European countries.
At the Carnegie International in Pittsburgh, first prize for Mark Tobey, second prize to Jules Olitski, third to Adolph Gottlieb and fourth to Ellsworth Kelly. First sculpture prize went to Alberto Giacometti, second to George Sugarman and third to David Smith. painting went to
The National
gallery, the
Art Institute of Chicago and the
museum shared a retrospective exhibition of the Thomas Eakins (1844-1916), the great American real-
Philadelphia
ist.
of
At the 31st Biennale
in Venice, Italy, the U.S. pavilion fea-
tured sculptured walls and columns by Louise Nevelson, 20 paintings
by Loren Maclver, 12 paintings of Jan MiJller and sculpture
by Dimitri Hadzi. In the central pavilion were 31 paintings by Arshile Gorky (1904-48). The Whitney museum celebrated the 30th anniversary of its founding with "American Art of Our Century." and "Geometric Abstraction in America." The Brooklyn museum showed "The Nude in American Painting," 49 paintings by 49 artists from 1800 to the present.
An
Century."
(
Modern Art was
of
work
cluded.
works of Fernand Leger, 1940-55.
York city, the Art Institute of Chicago and the Los Angeles County museum. The Museum of Modern Art and the Art in-
der (1463-1531) was Raleigh. Loans
late
exhibit of American primitive paintings from the collection Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch was featured by the Metropolitan museum. New York city, and was to travel to 21 other museums. A selection of the Walter P. Chrysler, Jr., collection called "The Controversial Century, 1850-1950," was shown at the
of
ART EXHIBITIONS
170
by the Louvre, The Musee Cernuschi Korean art, a collection of 500 works Washington, D.C., London, The Hague,
of a living artist ever held presented an exhibition of
previously shown in
exhibition at the Musee Neth., and Frankfurt, Ger. The Goya which had not Jacquemart-Andre included 91 paintings, many of engravings, lithobeen seen in public before, besides drawings,
graphs and personal and historic documents. with a winter In London, the Royal Academy began 1962
and show called "Primitives to Picasso," entirely from municipal London Galuniversity possessions outside London. The New Tilson's paintings, colleries gave a one-man showing of Joe lages
and wood constructions. Three separate exhibitions of
Spanish abstract paintings appeared simultaneously at Tooth's gallery, the Marlborough gallery and the Tate.
Throughout February bitions
included
Gwyther Irwin
at
a series of
Greaves
Derrick
Gimpel
Fils,
noteworthy one-man exhiat
Zwemmer
the
Frank Auerbach
gallery,
Beaux Art
at the
and Mark Tobey's retrospective at the Whitechapel Art London's annual art students' show, "Young Contemporaries," was full of lively and agreeable experiments. In Paris the centenary of the Paris Opera house and the 150th anniversary of the birth of Theophile Gautier were marked by
gallery
gallery.
exhibitions at the Bibliotheque de I'Opera and the Bibliotheque
Nationale, respectively.
The former included
a
number
Garnier's plans, the latter a group of Gautier's
A
oils,
of Charles
pastels
and
Arp was shown at the Musee d'Art Moderne. The Musee Massena at Nice showed 24 projects in gouache by Marc Chagall for a poster advertising the attractions of the resort and the Musee Cantini miniatures.
retrospective of 160 works by Jean
at Marseilles offered Vadiuorlh Ath.nrum. Hanjotd by Rembrandt was exhibited in Alheneum at Hartford, Conn. The gift of Robert Lehnnan of Ne was one of three Rembrandts given to the museum by various and placed on display in 1962
an exhibition of the enigmatic art of Fran-
Cour:r>y,
"PORTRAIT OF AN ARTIST"
Wadsworth
ne
York city, it mors in 1961
Picabia.
cis
Among
spring showings in
London were "East Coast and West
Coast American Painters" at Gimpel Fils and "Vanguard American Painting" at the U.S. Information service gallery of the U.S.
Chrysler
museum
Provincetown, Mass., and then at the Na-
in
Canada in Ottawa. The authenticity of several of the paintings was questioned and the matter was brought before the Canadian parliament and investigated by the U.S. internal revenue service and U.S. customs authorities. Among the paintings questioned were two Cezanne water colours, a Degas tional Gallery of
"Portrait of Suzanne Valadon," Paul Gauguin's "Brittany Girl"
and "Landscape Seurat, a
Brittany," five works ascribed to Georges
in
Van Gogh
three Manets, five
"Self-Portrait" and "Portrait of a
Monet
Woman,"
landscapes, four Modiglianis, three
Renoirs and a Picasso Cubist composition. Fifty-six of the paint-
from the Joly Hartert gallery and 14 from H. B. Yotnakparian (both of New York), and were sold
ings had been acquired
as "attributed to" the various artists.
When
Chrysler Picassos were submitted to the
two of them "faux"
Great
Britain
Picasso (F. A.
(false).
and Europe.
photographs of
artist,
— In London during Oct.
six
marked Sw.) 1961 the
Marlborough gallery's exhibition of 19th- and 20th-century French landscapes covered a period that began with Corot and ended with Bonnard, Utrillo and Dunoyer de Segonzac. In November, at the New London gallery, an impressive show of new sculpture by
Lynn Chadwick coincided with
memorial showing of Jacob Epstein's
art,
the Tate gallery's
organized by the Arts
council.
The shah and Queen Farah to Paris, inaugurated
of Iran, during their state visit
an exhibition of "7,000 Years of Iranian
Art" at the Petit Palais. Thanks partly to new archaeological research, this display excelled
works. In
November
all
previous exhibitions of Iranian
the 53rd Salon d'Automne, at the
Palais, included retrospective tributes to
Grand
Rogier Bissiere, Marcel
Gimond, Henri Malan(;on and Henri Hamm. At the end of the year, "L'Atelier de Braque" was the first display of the work
embassy. The
New London
gallery
and the Marlborough gallery
joined forces in "Painters of the Bauhaus," the Grosvenor gal-
showed "Two Decades of Experiment in Russian Art (19021922)" and the Molton gallery a display of paintings by Avinash Chandra. Outstanding spring exhibitions in Paris were those de-
lery
MONA
LISA'S ENIGMATIC SMILE: Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece at home In the Louvre in Paris. The government of France, which owns the priceless painting, sent it on a visit to the U.S. in December aboard the S.S. "France," in a choice stateroom between those of two watchful officials, for exhibit in Washington, D.C., and New York city Jean Mounicq—PiK JTom PubUx
ART SALES
The Solomon R. Guggenheim ^fuseum
GREAT PARADE" by Fernand by the Solomon R. Guggenheim museum in New York city in 1962. was exhibited with other Leger "THE
Leger, acquired
the
rks
tion."
The
lidsu
painting was homas M. Messer 's most important cus
ebulli
' of
The
and Allen Jones
commemorated
con-
at Tooth's
the 150th an-
Charles Dickens' birth w'ith a display of water
colours, prints it.
Phillips
Guildhall Art gallery
By
"pop art"
and documents describing London as he knew
Tate's exhibition of Francis Bacon's macabre visions
New London gallery's display of new pointings by Graham Sutherland were held in June. The Queen's gallery opened in July with a choice array of works from the royal collections. In the early autumn the Arts
and the
was the Erickson
sale,
which brought
$4,679,250. double the pre\-ious world record for a single auc-
In this sale was the Rembrandt "Aristotle Contemplating
Homer." which was purchased by New York's Metroof Art for $2,300,000. more than three times the previous auction record for a painting. Such a price was justified on the grounds that a Rembrandt of this quality would probably never come on the market again and. if such a picture were to be offered in Europe, an export permit would not be allowed. Other paintings in the Erickson sale were "The Reader" by Fragonard, which went to the National gallery, Washington, D.C.. for $375,000; Rembrandt's "Portrait of an Old Man," which brought $180,000; Jean Marc Nattier's "La Marquise de Baghon as Flora." $175,000; and Frans Hals's "Man With a the Bust of
politan
Museum
Herring," $145,000.
Also at Parke-Bernet. the Mr. and Mrs. Adolphe A. sale totaled $1,098,775 artists: Pierre
Marc
Jm^er
and established record prices for three
Bonnard's "La Glace Haute" brought $101,000;
rooms at the Tate with a long-awaited exby Oskar Kokoschka, a leading artist of the German expressionist movement. The Council of Europe's 1961 showing of Romanesque art was succeeded by an equally magnificent offering, "European Art Around 1400," consisting of 600 exhibits from 15 countries. This collection of paintings, drawings, carvings, tapestries, manuscripts, ivories and metalwork was on \'iew at the Kunsthistorisches museum, Vienna, from May through July. The 31st Venice Biennale opened in June; the Italian government's main awards went to .\lfred Manessier for painting and to Alberto Giacometti
Amoureux." $77,500; and Chaim Soutine's The sale of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Goldman, Martha A. ,\lford and others totaled $1,103,700. Highest price was for "Winter at Louveciennes" by Alfred Sisley,
for sculpture.
more than $9,000,000. London sold the works left by the English painter Augustus John in his studio. The sale totaled £99.540 and the top price of £8.915 was fetched by a "Self-Portrait." Another sale
council filled seven
hibition
See also
which brought $72,500. Paintings, drawings and sculpture from the collections of
George Friedland. Walter Maitland and Billy Rose, 104 objects brought $785,650. Top prices were Claude Monet's "Jean Monet dans Son Berceau." $80,000; Edgar Degas' "Danseuses, Jupes Saumon," $75,000; and Camille Pissarro's "Le Pont de Chelsea," $70,000. During the season about 2,000 paintings were in all,
sold for a total of
Museums
;
PiieTOGRAPHY.
EncycloP/Edia Britannica
Films. — Art
(F. in the
Rheumatic
W. W.-S.)
Western World (The
National Gallery of .Art) (1958): Marcel Duchamp (The (1958); Jacques Lipchitz (The Wisdom Series) (1958).
Arthritis: see
Chagall's "Les
"Valet de Chambre," $76,000.
Wisdom
Series)
Dise.ases.
Arthritis and Rheumatism Foundation: see Societies AND Associations, U.S.
Christie's of
comprised 83 items from Alvan T. Fuller, former governor of Massachusetts, and totaled $227,620. From the estate of the 4th duke of Sutherland, a wine cistern by Paul de Lamerie. in 1719,
made
was purchased for $75,600 by the Minneapolis Institute
ART SALES
172
THAT
GENTLEMAN,"
p«rt by Andrew Wycth, ohtied In Sept. 1962 by (he Muieum of Fine Arts Dallas (Ten.) (or $58,000, the highest price ever paid by a museum (or • painting by a living American artist. It had been shown In loan tihibltlons In the Dallas museum In
1960 and 1961, evoking
warm
a
response
that
fund was created (or
MAUGHAM AND
a
Its
HIS
so
special
acqulsl-
ART TREASURES: The
88-year-old
author, photographed (right) In the bedroom of his home near Nice on the French Riviera, was taking a long look •t "Seated Nude" by Renoir, one of the treasures of the W. Somerset Maugham collection sold at auction by Sotheby & Co. in London, April 10, 1962. Above, "Le Polisseur" by Toulouse-Lautrec, depicting a young man polishing a stone floor, represents a departure from the familiar style of the Oreat turn-of-the-century painter. It was purchased by Huntington Hartford for $75,600. The collection of 35 paintings
brought $1,466,864, which Maugham planned to donate to a fund (or struggling and aged writers. However, his daughter. Lady John Hope, brought suit against Sotheby's, claiming that nine o( the paintings. Including "Seated Nude" and representing almost halt the total tale price, were her property
NEW TOUCH IN ART SALES: Vincent Price describing collection on sale at a Chicago store In Nov. 1962. The showing of original works collected by the actor for Sears, Roebuck i Co. was illustrative of new method of merchandising art United Press International
ASTRO NOMY of Arts. This
was the highest
price ever paid for a piece of sUver
at auction.
Sotheby of London had a record-breaking season totaling more than £8.000.000. Of this, nearly £5.000,000 was realized on paintings. The collection of Sir Alexander Korda brought £464.470; highest bids were £80,000 for Van Gogh's "Citrons et Gants Bleus" (1SS9), £72,000 for a Degas and £42,000 for a Renoir.
on June
Rembrandt's "The Apostle Bartholomew" W. Somerset Maugham sale of 35 paintings totaled $1,466,864. of which $224X)00 was paid for a Picasso double painting. "The Death of Harlequin" with "Woman in a Garden" on the back. Two Renoirs. "Three Girls Walking" and At a
sale
27.
brought £190.000. The
"Boats
brought $134,400 each; $112,000 went
at Argenteuil,"
for Monet's "Zaandam"; $106,000 for Matisse's "Interior With Yellow Chair"; $75,000 for Toulouse-Lautrec's '"The Polisher"; and $36,000 for Gauguin's "Tahitian Girl." Another sale of 19th-
and 20th-centur\' paintings and drawings brought $1,438,000; Cezanne's "Assiette de Poires" (1895-1900) brought $189,000; Daumier's "Wagon de Troisieme Classe" (c. 1855), $103,600; Renoir's "Jeune
and
Sisley's
le Champs" Hampton Court"
dans
Fille
"Thames
at
sale of the collections of Basil Goulandris.
(c.
1900), $92,400;
(1874), $72,000.
Mme
The
Cecile Simons-
Newberry and others brought $1,050,164. Modigliani's "Man With Glass of Wine" went for $103,600 and Renoir's "Young Xude" for $100,800. "The Triptych of Jan de Witte" by the Bruges Master of 1473 brought £26.000. Roland. John
S.
Furniture and objets d'art also brought high prices: £33,000
was paid for
a
Louis
XVI
inlaid marble, signed G.
marquetry commode of
A
Nymphenburg
modeled by
royal
commode
in
ebony, ormolu and
Beneman. and £10.500 for transitional Louis XV-Louis
Comedy
Italian
F. A. Bustelli.
Harlequin's
a
bow-front
X\T
period.
Companion,
brought £5.000. a pair of Charles II
and a Queen Anne 14piece silver toilet set 1705 by Anthony Xelme. £5.200. "Christ Before Pilate." a pen and ink and red chalk drawing by Michelangelo, sold for £26.000. The Combe abbey mahogany library table, made from a design in Chippendale's Director of 1754 for the 5th Baron Craven, sold for £13.000, the record price for a chinoiserie silver ginger jars. £18.000. (
piece of
)
Enghsh furniture
At the Palais Galliera
at
an English auction.
in Paris a sale of old
was £102,950, martyrdom
paid for a late 15th-century Flemish triptych of the of St. Hippolytus.
~ /
In order to meet rising expenses, the Royal
in
Instrumentation.
— An
parabolic reflector, intended chiefly for galactic
was in operation in 1962 at the Hat Creek Radio observatory of the University of Cahfomia. A special fea-
structural studies,
ture of this instrument is its variety of receivers. A radiometer sweeps from 1,000 to 1,450 mc. per second with a band pass between 50 kc. and 1 mc. The 21 -cm. neutral hydrogen hne can be observed with a band width of 50 kc. and 100-sec. integration time to get a complete profile in one hour with a resolution of 1°. Also, with a 100-channel receiver, the
sky can be measured simultaneously.
hydrogen clouds and the
To
obser\'e clouds of ion-
ized hydrogen, a three-centimetre receiver
is provided. Recei\ang horns are designed to allow simultaneous measurements in low and high frequencies.
The
85-ft. dish built
Fort Davis. Tex., the surface
aluminum
is
by Harv'ard University observatory near
intended for work on the solar atmosphere;
is
good to three centimetres.
A
Puerto Rico. Cornell university solid surface of
which
is
hghtweight
150-ft.
reflector is being built at Stanford. CaUf.
Near Arecibo,
building a 1.000-ft. dish, the
is
covered with a reflector mesh tied down
to within about 0.1
ft. of a spherical figure. The detector is held by cables stretched from three towers and should sweep the sky to
within 20° of the zenith.
The Sugar Grove (W.Va.)
project, primarily of military in-
might have given opportunities for astronomy. A 600-ft. paraboloid was to have been built, but after foundations had terest,
been
laid
and preliminary design studies made the project was
abandoned. Earth's atmosphere produces "bad seeing," scattering and ab-
much
sorption in the ultraviolet and
Some
of the infrared.
balloons that can exceed payloads of satelUtes; also, usually
is
recoverable. This
was demonstrated
of the solar corona. Since the corona
than the sun
itself,
is
by using equipment
in 1962 in studies
1.000.000 times fainter
scattering of hght in earth's atmosphere pre-
vents observation from earth's surface of aU except the irmer, brighter part. At a height of 80,000
ft.,
however, the sky bright-
ness should be only 3'^ of that observed from the ground, except for effects of dust particles. G. A.
Newkirk of the High
.\ltitude
Academy
coronagraph in a balloon, using the guiding system from the Stratoscope I experiment developed at Princeton. The instru-
ment could be pointed
to within one minute of arc of the sun's Such balloons are launched only on clear days when the wind velocity is less than ten miles an hour. At a height of IS mi.
centre.
of Arts
England planned in the spring to auction off a charcoal drawby Leonardo Da Vinci, "The \'irgin and Child With St. John the Baptist and St. Anne." Before the sale could take place, however, there were public protests against the possible loss of what was described as a national art treasure. Although the drawing had not even been on display during most of the 200
the air
ing
ness near the sun. indicating the presence of small particles.
viewed
it
academy had owned
it.
more than 700.000 persons
summer and $980,000 toward its purchase by public subscription. Late in the summer it was
during the
was raised announced that the remainder of the $2,240,000 being asked by the academy would be made up by the government. (F. A. Sw.)
Aruba:
Netherlands Antilles. Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers): see SoaExiEs and AssoaAnoxs, U.S. Ascension: see St. Helena. Association for the Advancement of Science, American: see Societies and Associations. U.S. Associations: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Astronautics: see Space Exploration. see
ASCAP (American
of
these impediments to observation can be eliminated
in
years that the
8S-ft.
observatory (University of Colorado) flew a specially designed
masters and objets
d'art brought £338,954. Highest individual price
173 Developnnents
AQtrnnnmV nollUIIUIIIj.
is still
dusty; there
is
a detectable increase in sky bright-
are carried up from below, but
proved techniques,
it
many may be
meteoric.
Some
With im-
should be possible to observe the corona
out to six solar radii.
Among
other balloon experiments, a Princeton project was
under way to
fly
a 36-in. telescope to photograph planets
nebulae. Northwestern university successfully sent two
81,000
The
ft.
in a pressurized
and
men
to
gondola to operate a 12.5-in. telescope.
U.S. air force at Cambridge. Mass.. was scheduled to
fly
a
measure the temperature of the dark side of the moon. John Strong proposed sending a balloon to 85.000 ft. to study the atmosphere of Venus. Space experiments of astronomical interest in 1962 included detector at 86.000-120.000
ft.
to
the Ranger. Ariel. Mariner and
OSO
intended for a soft landing on the side:
projects.
moon
Ranger IV was
but crashed on the far
the experiment was to be continued.
The Mariner deep
space probe was intended to investigate the Venutian atmosphere
and possible magnetosphere. The
first
shot was unsuccessful, but
valuable information was received from the second.
On Nov.
1,
the Soviet Union launched a space probe on a seven-month trip
ASTRO NOMY
174
was intended to measure primary cosmic rays and their behaviour in earth's magnetosphere. X-ray and L>'man-alpha flux, electron densities and Ariel experiment, launched April
The
temperatures
was designed
in the
26,
The experiment rocket. The 450-lb.
space surrounding earth.
in Britain
and employed
a U.S.
OSO I, launched March 7, functioned aluntil May 22. It measured high-energy gamma
solar observatory,
most perfectly and X-rays. The latter were measured with ion chambers (for hard X-rays) and by a slit grating spectrograph (for soft X-rays). A second OSO under construction at Harvard College observatory was expected to give detailed information on the far ultrasolar spectrum and to provide spectroheliograms in important resonance radiations of hydrogen, helium and other violet
(Ariz.
)
magnitude and showed sudden and striking changes in appearance in less than one day. Effective observations were secured with the 40-in. reflector at the U.S. Naval observatory and also at the University of Michigan.
The comet showed
a stellar nu-
an asymmetrical coma exhibiting a filamentary several minutes of arc long; it reached its perihelion on within
cleus tail
Dec.
10, 1962.
Seki 1961f was discovered by Tsutomi Seki Oct. 10,
ceded from the sun and passed about 9,000,000 mi. from earth
was being made on the 80-
on Nov.
In contrast to the superb support radio and space astronomy
have received, very
little
has been done in recent years for
ground-based optical astronomy
in the U.S.
except
at
Kitt Peak.
have modern telescopes of adeCalifornia Institute of Technology at Mt. Wilson,
a handful of institutions
University of California.
The University
BEFORE THE OCCULTATION:
The ringed planet Saturn and a portion of the just before the occultatlon of the planet by the moon Sept. 10. 1962. The photograph was made with a telescope camera at the Sapporo observatory In Japan Ptrtl Inlfrnauonal
Seki-Lines, discovered on Feb. 3, 1962, passed within
3,000,000 mi. of earth. Brightness was of 1st magnitude and it developed a tail 10°-15° long. It was visible in the northern
By June 1, was 225,000,000 mi. from earth and 155,000,000 mi. from the
hemisphere only after perihelion and faded rapidly. it
sun.
Eclipses ancJ Occulta+ions.
of Chicago, University
of Texas, Ohio State and Harvard. Elsewhere, optical equipment
moon photographed
IS, 1961.
Comet
in.Teflector for Kitt Peak.
UniuJ
1961,
McMath,
Optical observatory was dedicated to Robert
quate size:
1,
so faithfully for the establishment of a national
the large solar telescope at Kitt Peak
optical observatory. Excellent progress
Only
1961e, discovered Sept.
Comets.— Comet Humason
orbit with a period by M. L. Humason, moves in a retrograde observed in the asteroid of about 2,900 years. Remarkably, when was as bright as the 8th belt at a distance of 250,000,000 mi., it
4° tail 1961, at Kochi, Jap., as an 8th-magnitude object with a near /3 Leonis. The comet was then at perihelion; it rapidly re-
November
who had worked
in
Comet
abundant elements. In early
astronomers were competing small or obsolete or both. Optical there was little 1962 with pre-1912 equipment. Unfortunately, evidence that the situation was appreciated.
is
toward Mars.
—The
total solar eclipse of Feb. 5,
was observed at Lae, New Guinea, under perfect conditions by investigators from ZiJrich, Switz. A very bright coronal "condensation" was observed on the west limb of the sun. Reported 1962,
previously as "white prominences," such
phenomena
are strong
sources of radio emission and X-rays. Normally, coronal condensations are observed only in green light
(radiation of highly
went to New Guinea; particularly fine observations of the chromosphere and corona were secured by the Kyoto group. Saturn occulted an 8th-magnitude star, BD-19° 5925, on July 22-23, 1962. Such rare events are useful for studying the rings and atmosphere of the planet. ionized iron). Five Japanese expeditions
Fireballs
and Meteorites.
—Three
bright fireballs were ob-
served in widely separated communities in the spring of 1962.
That of April 18 was seen in places as far apart as Gridley, Kan., and Las Vegas, Nev.; that of March 31 was observed in Arizona, while the best observed was one that traveled over about 100 mi.
New
Jersey on April 23. It became visible at a height of 70 and disappeared at a height of about 22 mi,, moving at 23 mi. per second and gave the appearance of being as bright as the full moon. of
mi.
To
recover freshly fallen meteorites for studies of such factors
as chemical composition
and isotope ratios, the Smithsonian Astrophysical observatory has undertaken a search project using fast, automatically operated cameras in 16 stations to cover the skies over the states of South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma, Iowa, Missouri and Illinois. Much. progress has been made with microchemical techniques in
determining the composition of meteorites. Studies of isotope can be used to assess the effects of cosmic rays and erosion,
ratios
and to provide age determinations. For example, a difference is found between the apparent age of the centre of a meteorite and that of
its
surface. This discrepancy partly arises
of cosmic rays
from effects and from a sputtering away of the surface at a
rate of about 0.3 mm. every 1,000,000 years. Thus it is found that chondrules appearing as small droplike intrusions in stone meteorites are the oldest parts.
An important advance
in the study of very small meteoric par(micrometeorites) was made at Dudley observatory in Albany, N.Y. In their "Venus's-flytrap" experiment, collector ticles
ASTRO NOMY opened only
plates in a rocket are mi.; great care
is
at heights
common
though most
of the difference
—
taken to avoid contamination. The largest
particles collected are flakelike, with diameters of about 2
particle diameters are about 0.2
/i,
175
was available in 1962. Stellar Astronomy. One of the largest stars known is the red component of VV Cephei, a binary system. B. F. Peery finds
above about 50 al-
this supergiant
has a radius 1.620 times that of the sun and a
tron diffraction shows them to be mostly nickel-iron (taenite).
mass 84.4 times
greater. Its hot B-type
Evidence
the solar mass, has an orbital size between those of Saturn and
jjl.
Elec-
fairly convincing that they arise outside earth's at-
is
mosphere, but their
flux
The Solar System.
not yet established.
is
Uranus. Jupiter's orbit could
— The Sun. — Detailed studies of large-scale
system
by R. B, Leighton, R. W. Noyes and G. W. how brightness and velocity are correlated granulation and confirmed that the brighter blobs move
The
solar velocity fields
Simon showed in solar
in 1962
proached, the texture of the lunar surface remained a question.
tory,
There are relatively few steep slopes and precipices, but it was not clear whether the surface is fine, loose dust or spongy
known
—
mm. thick, a substratum good conductor and a third layer of rock.
a relatively
Brown
Harrison
points out that about
O.S%
of the surface
is al-
ways dark and may contain materials liberated in an original degassing of the moon. Mercury. A. DoUfus' observations of polarization may indicate that Mercury is thinly surrounded by argon at a surface
—
pressure of
Venus.
1.2
mm.
— Radar echoes obtained by the Jet Propulsion labora-
tory (JPL) of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
by
star, recently
in the galaxy.
They
star ever
5
atm. for some average point in the \'enusian
atmosphere. The temperature and pressure at the surface should
be
much
higher.
There are wide daily temperature and pressure
variations in the cloud layer, indicating variable cover.
—
erts
Radio-frequency studies at Harvard by Morton Robshow the nonthermal continuum radiation of Jupiter at 21
cm.
is
Jupiter.
are similar to three previously re-
observed was a supernova 1,000,000,000 light-years
Rocket observations of stellar ultraviolet radiation above atmosphere show that very hot stars are much fainter in
earth's
this spectral region
than expected, revising temperature and total
energy-output estimates downward. This discrepancy between theory and observation remains unexplained.
A
satisfactory explanation of conventional novae appears to
have been found by Robert Kraft. Recent studies by M. F. Walker and others show these stars to be close binaries in an advanced stage of evolution. The more massive star evolves fastest
toward
its final
white-dwarf
state,
developing into a small,
companion may still be a giant or subgiant. The more slowly evolving companion sheds material that falls on the small, hot star to produce instabilities leading to violent outbursts.
a pressure of about
Luyten,
away.
a rocky surface. The rotation period of Venus is and may be synchronous with its revolution about the sun. The 235° K. temperature of Venus found radiometrically refers to layers above its clouds. H. Spinrad's studies of the carbon dioxide bands indicate a temperature of 440° K. and
come from
J.
they are 400,000 times as bright as the sun. The most distant ^
hot, blue star while its
certainly slow
W.
station of the Haute-Provence observaFrench astronomers have identified ten stars in the Large
Lincoln laboratory of California Institute of Technology seem to
discovered by
ported red supergiants. With absolute visual magnitudes of —9,
layers: a top sandlike zone about 8 is
The whole
Magellanic Cloud that are ten times as bright as any supergiant
show the surface layers are remarkably good thermal insulators. Below a few inches, the
that
inside this supergiant.
At the South African
material. Radio-frequency studies
G. Gibson concluded that the moon's surface has three
known
smallest
fit
in a cloud of gas.
times that of water and a luminosity 40/1,000,000 that of the sun.
flux.
enveloped
has a diameter of about 1,000 mi., a density about 200,000.000
upward in the lower part of the atmosphere. The Moon. As the time for a soft landing on the moon ap-
temperature remains constant despite huge variations in incident
is
companion, with 41 times
Star Clusters and Stellar Evolution. valuable clues about stellar evolution.
— Star
Most
clusters provide
investigators have
concentrated on colour luminosity arrays, but for nearby, open
dynamic considerations may also be used. Thus, at Yerkes observatory (Wis.), D. Nelson Limber's use of the virial theorem indicates the Pleiades (including the cold hydrogen gas) clusters
to
have about 900 times the solar mass. Dynamic considerations
indicate the time required for the cluster to develop
its
present
tute of
form was about 50,000,000 years as compared with 60,000,000 years as deduced from stellar-evolution arguments. One difficulty in dating clusters is that it is not known that all stars were formed
indicating the magnetic axis inclines about 9° to the rotational
intermediate and low masses can occur in a dark cloud
{e.g.,
when
high-
correlated with solar activity. Studies at California Insti-
Technology by D. Morris and G. L. Berge indicate the magnetosphere around Jupiter has a 300,000-mi. diameter and a cross section of 80,000 mi. It wobbles with Jupiter's rotation, axis.
Microwave radiation
in the belt
is
produced by
relativistic
simultaneously. G. Herbig has suggested that star formation at
the Taurus-.'Kuriga complex) for a long time; but,
electrons but leakage of charged particles into the atmosphere
luminosity stars are
may produce low-frequency
particles evaporate
bursts,
studied intensively
since
1955.
Astronomical Units.
— Conventional
orbit theory gives the rela-
tive sizes of planetary orbits accurately, but does not give the
distance to the sun in miles until the distance between earth and another planet is measured. Earlier measurements by trigonometric methods or from perturbation theory used the massratio of the earth to the
sun to find the distance.
Radar measurements give the distance directly and have been reported by the Lincoln laboratory and JPL. Using an S4-ft. dish,
the
Lincoln laborarory obtained
92,955,450
±
250 mi.,
while JPL, using both range time and Doppler shift, found
92,956,070 Jodrell
±
160 mi. Other measurements were being made at
Bank (Eng.),
in the SoNnet
Union and by the Radio
Corporation of America. These radar determinations are about 30,000 mi. greater than the most accurate determination by
K. Rabe, based on classical celestial mechanics.
No
explanation
formed, the gas becomes ionized, solid
and
star formation ceases. Ages estimated by noting in the colour-magnitude diagram the point where stars depart from the main sequence (.hydrogen-burning ages) thus represent the time since the last generation of stars was formed
rather than the total time. In the Pleiades, the ages are 60,000,-
000 and 220,000,000 years for the two types of event. Ages determined by fitting predicted evolutionarj' tracks to observed colour-magnitude diagrams of globular clusters are still very uncertain. Age estimates of globular clusters about 5,000,000,000 or 6,000,000,000 years old have been revised upward. In interpreting colour-magnitude diagrams for clusters, the absolute
now
magnitudes of
RR
Lyrae stars were taken as zero, but are
believed to be -|-0.6
{i.e.,
the stars are considered only
about 40 times as bright as the sun). Since luminosities of other stars were referred to
had burned
all
RR
Lyrae
all
stars, those stars that
the hydrogen in their cores and had been con-
sidered slightly brighter than the sun were
now
held intrin-
ATOMIC ENERGY
176
massive than the sun. Consequently, sically age estimates increased. It is not certain, however, that RR Lyrae stars in different clusters have the same intrinsic lumifit nosities. Also, the theoretical evolutionary tracks do not
and
fainter
less
those obtained by obser\ation.
The
precise theoretical age fur-
ther depends on the helium/hydroRen ratio,
as 10,000,000,000 to 15,000,000,000 years but this
is
far
from
The numbers and
varieties of atomic
Size of Galaxy.
—The old estimate of the radius of our galaxy Recently,
as 8.2 kiloparsecs appears too small.
X
estimated total galactic mass as 4 to the value for
lO*'
solar
to a value of
M31). leading
J.
C. Brandt
two nations were not publicly disclosed because of military seThe accumulated stockpiles, however, were each generally
crecy.
—The
irregular galax)'
M82
may
a radio source with emission that
shows delicate
be of synchrotron origin
fields
polarized. This galaxy
much redder than
much
suggesting that
is
).
its
aircraft, artillery,
missiles with ranges of
spectrum, A5,
of the colouring and polarization
may
up
if
fully utilized,
now known. Atomic weapons
and
advanced and inand sea-launched
land-, air-
to thousands of miles.
1962 two other nations had developed and tested atomic weapons, although to a much lesser degree. These were the U.K.,
By
with both nuclear and thermonuclear capability, and France, which had developed a capability for producing weapons of the nuclear fission type.
By
Its optical radiation is strongly
(implying strong magnetic
bomber
10 kiloparsecs
filamentary structures resembling those of the Crab nebula. It
it is
delivery systems had also been substantially
cluded
centre.
External Galaxies.
to destroy civilized society as
masses (close
(33,000 light-years) for the distance of the sun from galactic
TNT.
weapons possessed by the
regarded and often referred to as being sufficient,
settled.
is
large as the equivalent of tens of millions of tons of
for globu-
globular clusters probably are as old
Some
lar cluster stars.
unknown
uranium or plutonium atoms), which can pro-
(the splitting of
duce explosions as small as the equivalent of approximately 1,000 tons of TNT, but also the thermonuclear fusion reaction (the melding of hydrogen atoms), which can produce explosions as
the
of 1962 the U.S.
fall
had detonated approximately 250
atomic devices since 1945, the Soviet Union approximately 135 since 1949, the
U.K. 22 since 1952 and France 5 since 1960. which on the average were -much larger than
be produced by elongated dust particles aligned in a magnetic
The Soviet
field.
those of the other nations, had yielded a total explosive force
The problem
of whether clusters of galaxies (e.g.,
stable or are just disappearing into space
is
are
of considerable cur-
rent interest. S. van den Bergh concludes that stable for periods
Coma)
many
Many
intense sources are double, with
component
more than 300,000,000 tons of TNT, compared
with about 150,000,000 tons by the U.S.
An isted
Strong extragalactic radio sources pose numerous unsolved problems.
equivalent to
clusters are
comparable with their ages.
tests,
unwritten moratorium on atomic weapons testing had ex-
between the U.S. and the Soviet Union from 1958 to 1961
while negotiations were carried on between the two countries,
with the participation of the U.K., for a permanent test ban
moratorium was broken on Sept. 1, 1961, when the Union resumed atmospheric testing. This was followed
separations considerably larger than the optical sizes of the single
treaty. This
galaxies regarded as causes of radio emission. Their diameters
Soviet
are of the order of 30 seconds of arc and corresponding tempera-
within a short time by the resumption of testing underground
tures interpreted as thermal emission correspond to about 30,-
by the U.S. Atmospheric tests were resumed by the U.S. in April 1962 and continued into November, as did those of the
000.000°.
--t>-pe power, the U.S. had successfully launched two protot\-pe na^ngational
some of whose instruments were powered by 2.7 w. of produced by heat from the radioactive decay of plu-
satellites
179
and Canada to 1 coimtry. In Europe the European Atomic Energ>- Community (Euratomi, composed of Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany, was engaged in a substantial research program and in assistance to three large-scale atomic power projects, in Italy. France and West Germany. The power sistance to 12 countries
assistance
electricity
program and parts of the research program were being
carried on under a co-operative arrangement with the U.S. In
tonium-238.
1962 the United
A program was also under way in the U.S. to develop a 25-w.. isotope-powered atomic batter>- to provide electricity for space vehicles engaged in missions to the moon. Additional programs
Euratom.
Kingdom formally
applied for membership in
develop small atomic
By 1962 more than 75 nations had joined the International Atomic Energ>- agency, with headquarters in \ienna. The agency was engaged in co-operative research and studies in the fields of
would produce up to 1.000 kw. of electricity for use in satellite-based world-wide communications systems and
economics, technologv- and health and safety protection. The agency had also developed a system of internationally adminis-
to ser\-e as electric propulsion units in
tered safeguards to prevent the diversion of atomic materials
were also being carried on
in the U.S. to
reactors that
deep space probes where a
relatively small thrust over long periods of time
—
is
Radioisofope Utilization. By the end of 1962 radioisotopes were in productive use in more than 7.000 hospiuls. industrial plants, research laboratories, universities
ment
and
stations in the U.S.
in at least
from peaceful
required.
and agricultural experian equal number of in-
>
Finland, the Republic of the
its
Congo and Yugoslavia with U.S.
safeguards system, the United States agreed in June 1962 to
open four of
were being
for periods of
prexiously not clearly understood and for the selective destruction of diseased tissues. In industr>-, isotopes were being used chiefly for the radiographic insf)ection of materials and equipment
its
low-power reactors for inspection by the agency to two years.
up
See also Electric-\l Industries: Ei.-rope.\>,- Uxity: N.\BVRE.AU OF StAND.ARDS N.AMES OF THE WoRLD;
TIOXAL
:
Physics: Public Health Exgixeerixg; Uraxium.
and for the measurement of thicknesses and densities in combination with automated manufacturing processes. The principal uses of radioisotopes in agriculture, in addition to their research value,
were
in the elimination
and
in
by radiation
of insects
and crop diseases
the accelerated production of improved crop strains
in 1962
Norway,
assistance. In addition, in order to assist the agency to perfect
stallations in other parts of the world. In medicine, radioisotopes utilized primarily as tracers of biological processes
The system was appUcable
to miUtar>- use.
to four research reactors built or under construction in
(Or. Td.)
—
Ex"cYCLOP,«DiA Bkitanxica Films. Atom and Agriculture (1933); Atom and Biological Sciences (19331: Atom and Industry (1932); Atom and Medicine (1952): Atom Smashers (1953): Atomic Energy (1947); Atomic Radiation (1953); Carbon Fourteen (1953); Electrons at Work 1961 I: Evidence for Atoms and Molecules (1961). I
through radiation-induced mutations. Radioisotopes in 1962 were also beginning to be utilized as
power sources
batter>'-t>-pe
(
similar to those used in space ve-
hicles* for earthly purposes not adequately sers-ed tional
means.
Auctions: see .Art S.\les: Book Collecting. Audio-visual Education: see Motion Pictures.
by conven-
By
the end-of 1962. for example, the U.S. had placed in operation two isotope-powered unmanned weather stations, one on Axel Heiberg Island in the Canadian Arctic and one in Antarctica. Each utilized a five-watt thermoelectric gen-
'^ federal parliamentarj- state and a realm of the AllctrollQ nlloll dlld. Commonwealth of Nations, .Australia occupies the smallest continent and, with the island of Tasmania, is the sixth
largest coimtr>' in the world. Cap. Canberra, in the Federal Capital
powered by the heat emanating from the radioactive decay of strontium-90. A similar ten-watt unit was placed in ser\-ice in late 1961 in a navigational buoy in Chesapeake bay on the
territon.- of
U.S. east coast.
tories
erator
Basic Research.
At the begiiming of the atomic ^ge
generally beheved that atoms were
composed of
was com-
it
differing
binations of protons, electrons and neutrons, the so-called "build-
By the end of the second decade of the atomic age. however, continuing research had shown that atoms, ing blocks of nature.""
and particularly
their nuclei or cores,
were vastly more compli-
cated than originally envisioned, and 73 subatomic particles had
been
identified.
found
in
The newest such
was
particle to be discovered
1962 by scientists utilizing a s>-nchrotron at the Brook-
haven National
laborator>',
powerful such device
in
Upton. N.Y. The machine, the most
the world, accelerates subatomic particles
to energies of 30.000.000,000 ev.
1962 was
named
the f-zero. It
The new is
particle identified in
electrically neutral,
is
30r^
Territor>-.
Pop. (1962
10.604,000, Territories under .\us-
est.)
tralian administration, but not included in
i
New Guinea
see
i
:
the trust territorv- of
Nauru
(
it
:
Papua and the
trust
Papua-New Guinea; Trust Terri-
Norfolk Island (13.3 sq.mi. see
;
pop.. 1961 census. 844);
Trust Territories) Christmas ;
Island (62 sq.mi.; pop., 1961 census, 3.099
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (5 sq.mi.; pop., 1961 census, 606); Macquarie Island; Heard and McDonald Islands and the .\ustralian .\ntarctic terrii;
;
tory-
(about 2,472,000 sq.mi.
.\?ia
Treaty organization
i
i.
.Australia belongs to the Southeast
SE.\TO
sion, the Pacific Security pact
i
.
the South Pacific commis-
ANZUS
and the Colombo plan. Queen. Elizabeth II; governor general, Viscount De LTsle; prime minister.
(
i
RoberfGordon Menzies.
—
Census Doto. Results of the census taken in June 196 1 showed a population of 10.50S.189 (5,312.254 males, 5.195,935 females), an increase of 1,521.659 or 169''s resignation, a procedure rare in Ausits
leader,
tralian politics.
Probably because of governmental
longe\'ity,
both federal and
few novel or creative policies appeared. The federal government granted aborigines full voting rights, while the New state,
South Wales government removed special restrictions on the supply of alcoholic liquor to them. Northern Territory aborigines established a Council for Aboriginal Rights.
was amended protective
and act
to establish
tariffs.
The to
The
Board act on immediate
Tariff
to advise
residence period qualification for old-age
disability pensions fell
was modified,
an authority
The 1961 Stevedoring penalization of illegal strikers by
by about
remove the
half.
reducing their long-servicer leave. Australia joined the European
Launcher Development Organization (E.L.D.O.V To maintain the immigrant flow when Australian living standards had ceased to be higher than
Downer)
European, the minister for immigration (A. R.
Germany. France, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and Switzerland, A record 51,377 persons were naturalized in 1961-62; in 1961 the net migration gain was 87,167. visited
Britain.
aft'airs.
Catholic spokesmen leading the demand. Catholic parents
August-October he showed himself
The Common Market
to totalitarian reprisals, this
The Communist party repudiated its earlier attachment for China as against the Soviet Union. The decline of Communist influence in trade-union politics was apparent in the A.L.P.'s gain-
Vatican council. The
a probable future
Wong
criticized.
Australian Labor party leader during A. A. Calwell's illness in ;
fi-
as migrants. Simultaneously he
Malay pearl divers whose won them sympathy in 1961. Meangovernment deported to China Willie Wong,
prejudice and consignment of
Roman
tions
zies'
while (April), the
and so adjourned a
engineers,
trade-union claim for a
promising the
men
for
threatened deportation had
In June the Federal .Arbitration com-
salary
However, the minister
applied the same policy to the two
that automation might reduce this proportion.
mission granted large
on Buka Island
immigration, with the compliance of Portuguese authorities,
1960 output. Facton.' production pro-
vided about iS'^c of civilian employment, though
a rebellion
policy.
than a year before, and
actiN'e
;
February, which the Australian government forcibly put down
civil liberties and immigration Three Portuguese naval ratings left their ship at Darwin in Dec. 1961 and sought asylum. The government, insisting that the men were deserters, ordered deportation, and legal proceed-
forming a
in
were the likelihood that Indonesia would
Deportation issues involved
dairying and tobacco growing, but in Western Australia the latter
governments joined
Guinea came under closer
and the report of a United Nations mission, which urged Australia to hasten toward self-government for New Guinea.
heavy, but cereal harvests lower. The government encouraged
All
this
strive for high standards in the west
former benefiting from Japanese purchases. Rural production in 1961-62 saw records for wool, milk and cheese. Fruit crops were
seemed unlikely to sur\-ive. Water Resources council.
Prompting
notice.
achieving record figures. So did black and brown coal, the
tin
181
New
Australian policy in eastern
effective.
Commonwealth
See also
of Nations; Cricket; Foreign
IN^ESTMENTS INTERNATIONAL Trust Territories. ;
Tr.-U)E;
PaPUA-NEW GuINEA; (O. M. R.)
—
Education. Schools (1960); government (including primary, secondary, technical) 7,S67, pupils 1,612,281, teachers 56,702: private (all types) 2,229, pupils 511,293, teachers 17,795. Teacher-training colleges (1959-60) 25, students 13,800, Universities (1960-61) 10, students 56.972, Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: .\ustralian pound, with an exchange rate of £.\1.25 £1 sterling and £.\0.45 U.S. $1. Budget (1962-63 est.): revenue £.^1,973,432,000, expenditure £.\2,091. 760,000. Total public debt: (June 1961) £.\4,200,300.000. Currency circulation:
—
=
—
(June 1962) £.\405.000,000, (June 1961) £.A399.000.000. Deposit money f.^M, 299.000,000, (June 1961) £.\1. 246.000,000. Gold and
(May 1962)
foreign exchange holdings (June 1962) U.S. $1,244,400,000, (June 1961) U.S. $1,234,000,000. Foreign Trade (1961) Imports £A1, 085,550,000, exports f.\929,500,000. Main sources of imports: U.K. 35%; U.S. and Canada 24"^; Common Market countries 12%; Japan 6%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 24%; Common Market countries 22%; Japan 17%; U.S. and Canada 9%: China 4''c. Main exports: wool 35%; wheat 15%; butter 2.3%. Transport and Communications.— Roads (June 1958) 856.100 km. Licensed motor vehicles (May 1962): passenger 2,173.000; commercial 866.000. Railways (1961) 42,024 km.; freight 14.304.000.000 ton-km. Shipping (July 1961): merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over 339; total tonnage 593.080. .Mr transport (1961): 3,269.772,000 passenger-km., freight 104.268,000 ton-km. Telephones (June 1960) 2.163.962. Licensed radio receivers (March 1962) 2,234,866; licensed television receivers (March 1962) 1.355,589.
—
—
Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1961; 1960 in parentheses): wheat 6.703.000 (7.449,000); oats 1,107,000 (1.384,000); barlev 885,000 (1,481,000); corn 165,000 (159,000); potatoes 478.000 (458.000); apples 267.000 (274.000): citrus 193.000 (164.000). Wool production (metric tons, clean) 435,200 (418,400), Food production (metric tons, 1961): milk 6,276.000; butter 210.000; cheese 55.000; beef and veal 762,000; pOrk, 109,000; mutton and lamb 577,000: sugar, raw value (1961-62') 1,405,000. Wine production (1960-61) 138.000 metric tons. Livestock (March 1961); sheep 152,679,000; cattle 17,332.000; pigs 1,616,000;
horses 598,000. Industry. Fuel and power (1961): coal 24,288.000 metric tons; lignite 16.548.000 metric tons; manufactured gas (year ended June) 1.440,000,000 cu.m.; electricity 25.452,000,000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons, 1961): pig iron 3.016.000: crude steel (ingots only) 3.936.000: zinc (smelter) 140.000; copper (smelter) 52.880: refined lead 193,600; tin (smelter) 2,640; aluminum 1,344; cement (year ended June) 3,048,000;
—
AUS TRIA
182
cotton yarn (year ended June) 19,680; wool yam (year ended June) 2,400 21,840; gold 1,071,429 fine oz.; tin concentrates (metal content) 1962); metric tons. Motor vehicles (units completed, year ended June passenger car bodies 152,800; chassis, car 241,680, commercial 14,376. New houses and flats completed (year ended June 1962) 86,216. Encvclop/EDIA Britannica Films. Australia (1959); Arnold Toynthe bee; Australia (second lecture of the series, "A Changing World in
—
Light of History") (1958).
From May 9 to minimum
republic of central Europe, Austria
is
bounded
Austria.
4%
and wages
prices
A
280,000 metalworkers went on strike, gain-
13,
wage increase; in July and August pohce and customs and other officials were restive. Several remedies were attempted. Franz Olah, the chairman of the Austrian Trades Union congress, persuaded the unions to accept the recommendations of the Price and Wage commission on July 19 to keep both ing a
at their existing levels, with, of course,
some
exceptions.
On
Jan.
the Austrian constitutional court rejected Otto
von
by Germany. Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Liechtenstein. Area 32,374 sq.mi. Cap. Vienna. Austria is a member of the European Free Trade association, the Council of Europe and the Organization for Economic
Habsburg's request to be allowed to return to Austria. The position of the foreign minister was eased by develop-
Cooperation and Development. President in 1962, Adolf Scharf
Isel-Bund, founded in 1954 in Innsbruck to support the
chancellor, Alfons Gorbach.
speaking population of South Tirol (Alto Adige), was discredited by evidence of its implication in the terrorism in South Tirol in
Italy, Switzerland
—
C«nsus Doio. Results of a census taken on March 21, 1961, showed a total population of 7.073,807, an increase of 139,902 or 1.9% over 1951. The density of population was 218.5 per square mile. Federal states (1951 pop. in parentheses): Burgcnland 271,001 C276,136); Karnten 495,226 (474,764); Niederosterreich 1,374,012 (1,400,471); Oberosterreich 1,131,623 (1,108,720); Salzburg 347,292 (327,232); Stciermark 1,137,865 (1,109,335); Tirol 462,899 (427,465); Vienna 1,627,566 (1,616,125); Vorarlberg 231,323 (193,657). Principal cities (1951 pop. in parentheses): Vienna 1,627,566 (1,616,125); Graz 237,080 (226,453); Linz 195.978 (184,685); Salzburg 108,114 (102,927); Innsbruck 100,695 (95,055); Klagenfurt 69,218 (62,782).
History.
—The theme of the year 1962 was perhaps that of the
European Economic Community, which was greatly favoured by Austrian private industry but to a considerable part of the public still looked like an attempt to association of Austria with the
square a circle in view of Austria's neutrality and the political
Common
implications of the
Market. During the
first
half of 1962
the Austrian chancellor, Alfons Gorbach, paid visits in this con-
Washington at the beginning of May, then to and finally to Moscow. Periodically there had been hostile rumbles from the Communist world against Austria's association with the Six. and in Moscow Gorbach was certainly
nection,
to
first
London and
hard put to
Paris,
it
to placate the Soviets. Since Austrian trade in
directions with the U.S.S.R.
ports to the other
was vulnerable
to
had increased
Communist countries Communist menaces.
in
in
1962 and
Europe had
both
its
ex-
risen,
it
In the middle of July excitement rose to such a pitch that a rumour that Nikita S. Khrushchev had threatened an invasion if
Austria lined up with the Six had to be denied in Vienna. At
last
on July 28, after
it
had been repeatedly emphasized that
Austrian neutrality was only military, the Austrian foreign minister, Bruno Kreisky, and the minister for trade, Fritz Bock, applied in Brussels for association with the
European Economic
Community. In anticipation of intricate negotiations during the following winter, and for other reasons, the Austrian coalition government decided to hold a general election in November instead of waiting until a dissolution
fell
due
in 1963.
In the Nov. 18 election the Conservative People's party gained
two seats
in
the
came very near
new to
diet at the expense of the Socialists and an actual majority. The results showed the
Conservatives with 81 seats, the Socialists with 76 and the Freeparty with 8. The Communists, though they campaigned
dom
vigorously, again failed to win a single seat.
The
coalition govern-
ment remained in ofiice. The Austrian economy, poised between west and east, on the whole made satisfactory progress in 1962; imports rose by 2.2% and exports by 4.8% for the first eight months of the year so that the trade deficit was 4,770,000,000 schillings less than that from Jan. to Aug. 1961. Profits from tourism actually rose by 33.1%. The shortage of labour, especially for building, was extreme, hut objections to foreign labour were only now overcome, and arrangements to bring in Spanish workers hung fire. This situation contributed to the continued inflationary pressure, with demands for higher wages. Inflation was also encouraged
by
flowing capital and
by the reduction of income tax on July
in1.
ments
in
2
the
Austrian,
as
well
as
South, Tirol.
1961 and of the neo-Nazi sympathies of
many
of
The BergGerman-
its
members;
from it in February. On July 31 in Venice Foreign Minister Kreisky met the new Italian foreign minister, Attilio Piccioni, in an improved atmosphere. (E. Wi.) See also Italy. the Socialists withdrew
—
Education Schools (1960-61): primary 5,375, pupils 744,211, teachers 34,551; secondary 201, pupils 83,426, teachers (1959-60, in state schools only) 5,275; trade (1959-60) 288, pupils 141,284, teachers 4,086; other vocational (1960-61) 211, students 43,835, teachers 4,992; teachertraining 31, students 5,496, lecturers 683. Institutions of higher education (1960-61) 14 (including 4 universities and 2 Technische Hochschulen of equivalent status), students 40,815, teaching staff 2,971. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: schilling, with a par value of 26 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1962 est,): revenue 53,020.000,000 schillings; expenditure 53,896,000,000 schillings. Total public debt (Dec. 31, 1961, est.) 2 2,314,000,000 schillings. Gold and foreign exchange holdings, central bank (March 1962), U.S. $837,000,000, (March 1961) U.S. $656,000,000. Currency in circulation (March 1962; March 1961 in parentheses) 20,500.000,000 schillings (18,860,000,000 schillings). Deposit money (March 1962; March 1961 in parentheses) 15,600,000,000 schillings (14,900,-
—
000.000 schillings). Foreign Trade. (1961) Imports 38,634,000,000 schillings; exports 31,2 64,000,000 schillings. Main destinations of exports: Common Market countries 49.5%; eastern Europe 14.7%; United States and Canada 4.5%; United Kingdom 3.1%. Main sources of imports: Common Market countries 59.5%; eastern Europe 10.4%; United States and Canada 6.5%; Switzerland and Liechtenstein customs union 4.7%; U.K. 5%. Transport and Communications.— Roads (1961) 31,232 km. Motor vehicles in use (June 1962): passenger 521,207; commercial 80,455. Federal railways (1960): route length 5.939 km.; passenger-km. (1960) 6,614,000,000; freight (1960) 7,879,000,000 net ton-km. Telephones (1960) 701,465. Licensed radio receivers (end 1960) 1,977,000. Licensed television receivers (end I960) 193,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1961; 1960 in parentheses): wheat 712,000 (702.000); rye 472,000 (353,000); barley 512,000 (589,000); oats 335,000 (343,000); corn 198,000 (213,000); potatoes 3,395,000 (3,809,000); beet sugar (raw) 187,000 (271,000); wine 120,000 (81,000). Livestock (Dec. 1961): cattle 2,456,557; sheep 175,000; pigs
—
—
2,994,673; horses 135,013; goats 168,771. Industry.— Fuel and power (1961): coal 106,218 metric tons; lignite 5.660,714 metric tons; electricity (excluding industrial generation) 13,740,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (Vienna only) 328.800,000 cu.m.; crude oil 2,352,000 metric tons; natural gas 1,556,000,000 cu.m. Production (metric tons, 1961): iron ore, 30% metal content, 3.696,000; pig iron 2,268,000; crude steel 3,108,000; magnesite (1960) 1,625.400: aluminum 67,680; copper 11,880; cement 3,072,000; paper (1960) 491,000- nitrogenous fertilizers (nitrogen content, 1960-6!) 162,000; cotton yarn 28 320woven cotton fabrics 18,720; wool yarn 13,080; rayon staple fibre (1960) ^'"™ softwood (1960) 4,762,000 cu.m.; sawn hardwood (1960) ,ii AnA
Automation: see Business Management; Electronics; Machinery AND Machine Tools. Automobile Accidents: see Accidents.
A turn in the Automobile industry. ment of U.S.
pendulumlike move-
public tastes began model year. The trend toward which had been waxing for two year£ or so,
to manifest itself during the 1962
compact-size cars,
began
be modified midway through the 1961 model cycle by an increasingly insistent call for luxury models, costing materially more, the compact size. During 1962 the next step of this progression occurred: public buying to
m
continued to edge up not
only in price but
tegan 1950s,
in size as well.
The medium-priced groupings
come back after an eclipse that had begun in the midand compact-size powering, appointments and accessories
to
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Auto makers spend more for
also grew.
felt
that their customers were again
their cars after a period when it had ready to been fashionable to seek restrained dimensions and pocketbook
outlay.
Concurrently, the auto companies
went further in demonwanted an individualized the U.S. industry brought out 299 models of the 1962 groupall
strating their belief that each buyer car;
ings as against 281 of the 1961s.
from new cars and
series
their
midway between
Much
of this increase resulted
the standard-size popular-priced
compact companions
— the
Chev'y II
between
Chevrolet and Corvair, the Fairlane between Ford's Galaxie and
Falcon and the Meteor between Mercury's Monterey and Comet. Station wagons were increasingly popular. Their proportion of the total market appeared to have risen fractionally above 1961
when in
it
1962
was about 149^.
A
compilation showed 81 wagons offered
lines. Prices of all cars
terparts, the factory
list
were unchanged from 1961 coun-
quotations ranging from $1,846 for the
Rambler two-door American sedan
to $9,937 for the Cadillac
limousine.
-World Motor
Vehicle Produc/ion
Posseng
in
1961
183
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
184
Counrty. r.'n^r„l M.Hor, Corp.
Courtesy, Ford Motor Co,
1963 CORVETTE STING RAY SPORT COUPE
1963 LINCOLN CONTINENTAL
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, ida
Illinois,
Michigan,
New
Jersey, Flor-
and Indiana.
Dealer Affairs. long time for
—
many
had been the rule for a and trucks, and their number
Profitless prosperity
retailers of cars
had been steadily decreasing since the mid-1950s. In 1961-62, however, this tendency began to level off, thanks to the enlarging volume and the smaller group of retailers to divide it. At mid1962 Automotive Sews reported 31,093 agencies handling domestic cars, compared with 31,564 a year earlier; franchises had been turned in during the
The
first
only
197
half of the year.
fortunes of dealers varied with those of their makes; Gen-
addition to sealing for 30,000 mi. on
many makes), one
note-
worthy development was a single-leaf rear spring for the Chevy tapered and casehardened so as to withstand 25% more II stress than multileaf assemblies and with fatigue strength re-
—
ported up to ten times higher. Chrysler brought out a reductionits predecessors. Dual brakby Cadillac and Rambler. Oldsmobile and Fairlane offered self-adjusting brakes. Two-ply tires replaced four-plies on the smaller cars. All cars were equipped with frontseat belt anchors connected directly to the frame rather than
gear starter, quieter and smaller than ing systems were offered
to the seat itself.
—
Motors and American Motors dealers were reaping large profits while Chrysler agencies were in low spirits and Ford somewhat glum. Technology. The greatest efforts of the industry in perfecting its 1962 models went toward making them more foolproof. Evidence of success was the industry-wide decision to warrant
Labour Affairs. In 1961 American Motors had broken new ground by creating a "progress sharing" plan which the United Automobile Workers union accepted. There were reports late
cars for one year or 12,000 mi. rather than for 90 days or 4,000
profit-sharing path, but they
eral
—
mi. as in the past. Lincoln and
Dodge went
further, to
two years
or 24.000 mi. and five years or 50,000 mi., respectively.
was made
of
new 30,000-mi.
Much
lubrication cycles, 6,000-mi. inter-
vals between oil changes, self-adjusting brakes, galvanized or
otherwise treated panels for greater resistance to salt corrosion during winter and the like.
One new engine
of truly revolutionary characteristics
appearance, a V-6 by Buick, the
first
90° design of
made
its
pro-
its size
duced
in volume in the U.S. Chevrolet showed a considerably revamped V-8 and four- and six-cylinder in-line engines. Willys introduced its ingenious aluminum "Tornado-OHC" power plant,
with elimination of
many
valve train components and the operaand exhaust valves with a single cam lobe for each cylinder. This overhead-cam power plant was rated at
tion of both intake
140
550
h.p. and, lb.
because of aluminum components, weighed
This characteristic of weight reduction was
less
1962 model year that the workers would receive an average more than $200 apiece for the first year's profit distribution. The other automobile companies had refused to go along the in the
of
had acceded to economic grants of equal magnitude. Labor Trends estimated the cost of current contracts at 38 cents per hour for the three-year term of the agreement, plus whatever escalation occurs.
Other Countries. tor industry
and exports of about 400,000 were lower by spectively. Sales of cars in the
economy. In all, however, average horsepower appeared to have diminished for the 1962 model run, largely because of the new smaller cars, A summary in the Journal of
the Society oj Automotive Engineer: averaged output at 175.8 h.p. This was a weighted average, based on volume of sales of the individual makes. On a straight average basis, each make count-
Table
to 75 such vehicles during 1963 for extended cus-
testing.
Transmissions
new
all across the industry were made smaller so humps could be lowered somewhat; they were also
American .Motors, Chrysler and Chevrolet brought out and Rambler intro-
lighter automatic gear-shifting devices
duced a no-clutch unit operated manually. For suspensions
re-
declined by 28,000
Imports and Exports of Motor Vehicles By Producing Countries During 1961 III.
E.po
(in
Trucks
Trucks
Italy
,
Japon
792
4,792
642
1,645 6,537 2,945
2,301
381,430 885,655 234,893 20,016
.
.
Nelheria
12,645
40,428 221 United Kir igdom. United St. 3les. .
Total
Total
4,000 88,971 9,495
horsepower for
1962 models at 225, compared with 228 in the 1961 model year. Chrysler signaled its entry, within a year or two, into the gas turbine-powered car field. With suitable fanfare it ran a coastto-coast test of a Dodge Dart with turbine power, and said it
lightened.
26% and 35%,
to
loss in operating
front seat
home market
to 526,000.
engine, the Jetfire, aimed at providing high performance, with no
would build 50
mo-
quarter of 1961 to about 26,000 in the same period of 1962. Compared with 1960, however, 1961 was a bad year for the British industry. The production of slightly more than 1,000,000 cars
other engine redesigns for the 1962 model year. Spring of 1962 saw Oldsmobile announcing a turbo-supercharged optional
tomer
H. Bs.)
over the world at the beginning of 1961 receded
many
ing equally, a private compilation put the average
(S.
recession that had gripped the
toward the end of the year. The British motor industry's average weekly production improved from about 17,000 cars in the third
than
common
all
—The
370,758 104,453 2,153,607
61,960 16,317 9,548 37,307 3,439 11,443 46 160,993 150,180 563,152
95,954 12,440 443,821 1,006,243 245,039 57,323 16,276 51,879
1
267
1
6,912 538,663 4,525 259,158 7,395 2,734,156
Cars
and busess
Total
52,410 74,265 235,755 106,865
24,338
76,748 82,717 261,170 116,352
80,201
95,559 30,024 4,309 85,053 116,742 91,034
8,452 25,415 9,487 5,540 3,357 5,232 1,408
85,741 98,916
35,256
5,717 12,513 8,332 25,074 10,457 101,491 24,431 3,592 28,023 279,437 9,304 288,741 1,276,085 142,374 1,418,459
27,460
1 1
included with trucks.
Compiled by Automobil
ation from
U.S. imports and exports both declined in 1961,
from 445,500 and from 117,100 to 104,700 cars, respectively. The imports was attributed mainly to the introduction of smaller American models. Hardest hit were British cars, which to 279,400
declme
in
declined from 134,500 to 27,500. Imports from France and West Germany mcreased from 14,500 to 33,600 and from 187,400 to 194,800, respectively. West Germany in 1961 supplied more than two-thirds of total U.S. imports. Volkswagen produced its 5,000,000th car in Dec, 1961,
To compete
effectively in the
expanding world market, British
AUTOMOBI LE RACING
185
manufacturers introduced measures to improve quality and costs.
of
exports by 66% in the first months of 1962, for the first time, British exports to western Europe exceeded those to commonwealth countries. A number of new models were introduced. At the Geneva (Switz.) Motor show, continental manufacturers dominated the new-model market. Most prominent were the six-cylinder Alfa Romeo, Mercedes-Benz's coupe and cabriolet version of the 300 SE, Renault's Floride Speciale and Caravelle coupes and Simca's "1000 Coupe." In early 1962 Renault and .\merican Motors agreed to assemble and distribute the Rambler in continental Europe, at the Belgian works at Haren near Brussels. The Lambretta-Trojan group of companies acquired the world manufacturing and selling
with a Ferrari sports racer. Their average speed for the ten laps
The
British industry increased
quarter of 1962. In the
first
its
was 63.83 m.p.h. The
five
rights of the Elva-Courier two-seat sports cars. In Britain
Lorenzo Bandini
Road America
500.
—The
sixth
annual 500-ini. race for 9.
A
84.978 m.p.h., a
new record
new time record
of 5 hr. 53 min. 1.8 sec It
for the four-mile course, setting a
was the
first
year
had been won by a U.S. -built car. Only 24 of 44 starters completed what is now the longest Sports Car Club of America race. In second place was a Porsche driven by Bob Donner of Colorado Springs and Don Sesslar of Lancaster. O. Le Mans. Revised rules of the 1962 Le Mans race June 23 and 24 allowed protot^-pe cars of up to four litres in engine size
—
Mo-
See also Laboxir Unions; Trucking Industry.
team of Giancarlo Baghetti and
Italian
another Ferrari was second.
that the race
to
tors, that the
hicle group.
min. 56.3 sec.
Chevrolet-powered Chapparal. driven by Jim Hall and Hap Sharp of Midland. Tex., was the winner at an average speed of
Rootes
two companies were carrying out joint technical investigations. The merger of Leyland Motors and Associated Commercial Vehicles formed the biggest heaN'y commercial ve-
in
in 7 hr. 2
modified sport cars was held near Elkhart, Wis., Sept.
arranged for the Sunbeam .\lpine to be assembled in Italy by Superleggera at Milan. Rolls-Royce announced, with British
Mexico and Willy Mairesse of Belgium
compete for the first time. A 3.967-c.c. Ferrari, driven by Phil and Gendebien, won the 24-hour endurance race
Hill of the U.S. ~
for sports cars for the second straight year. Their average speed
was 115.268 m.p.h. over the enclosed 8.36-mi. course. Second place was taken by Pierre Noblet and Jean Guichet of France in a 2,863-c.c. Ferrari.
(M. M. Sh.)
Sebring.
—Two controversies affected the
final results at the
March 24 at the The winning Ferrari sports car, Sweden and Lucien Bianchi of Belgium,
12-hour endurance race for sports cars held
Two major
attempts
1962
in
to
break the world land-speed record at the Bonneville salt flats in
Utah ended
in failure
—one
in the
death of the driver and the total destruction of the vehicle. Glenn Leasher, 25-year-old drag racer from San Mateo, Calif., was nearing an eSimated 400 m.p.h. with his jet-propelled racer on Sept. 10.
when
it
burst into flames and disintegrated soon after
The other attempt was made by Nathan Ostich of Los Angeles on Aug. 9 in another jet-powered car. Ostich had reached a speed of about 330 m.p.h. on his 13th attempt when a left front wheel spindle broke off, hurling the wheel into the air. The car came to a stop on three wheels with the help of a parachute braking system but was badly battered. Ostich was uninjured. The oflicial two-way land-speed record of 394.2 m.p.h. was set in 1947 by John Cobb of England. entering the measured mile.
Indianapolis.
was
set at the
—A new record average speed of 140.292 m.p.h.
annual 500-mi. Indianapolis race
in 1962.
an estimated 200,000 spectators, 41-year-old Roger Indianapolis finished 124 sec. ahead of
Len Sutton
Before
Ward
of
of Portland,
win his second 500 race and the 46th running of the Memorial day classic. Ward had finished first in 1959, second in 1960 and third in 1961. The fprmer average speed record of 139.130 m.p.h. was set by A. J. Foyt of Houston in 1961. Sutton's average speed was 140.167 m.p.h. In third place, at an average speed of 140.075 m.p.h.. was Eddie Sachs of Coopersburg, Pa. A new qualifying record of 150.370 m.p.h. was set in 1962 by Parnelli Jones of Torrance. Cahf., the prerace favourite and winner of the first starting position. He finished seventh. Only IS of the 33 starters finished. The winner's purse, $124,515, and the total payoff, $426,202. were record highs. Pikes Peak Climb. The annual Independence day road race to the top of the famous mountain peak near Colorado Springs, Colo., was won for the fifth consecutive time by Bobby Unser
Ore., to
—
N.M. His Pontiac-powered
of Albuquerque,
racer covered the
124-mi. route to the top of 14,110-ft. Pikes peak in
diflScult
12 min. 50.8 sec, bettering' his previous year's record of 12 min.
Second place was taken by his younger brother, Al, whose time was 12 min. 56.6 sec. The stock-car winner was Curtis Turner of Charlotte, N.C., in a Ford in 14 min. 55.5 sec. S6.7 sec.
Targa
Florio.
—The 46th running of the
last
remaining Italian
road race, over a 45-mi. course near Palermo, Sic, was Olivier
won by Gendebien of Belgium and co-drivers Ricardo Rodriguez
Sebring. Fla.. closed circuit.
driven by Jo Bonnier of
was
later ruled ineligible
receive points toward the world
to
award by the Automobile Racing Club of Florida, sponsor of the race. The ten points were then given to the grand touring Ferrari driven by Phil Hill and Gendebien, which finished in second place. The other controversy arose when sports car manufacturer's
another Ferrari, driven by England's Stirling Moss and Scotland's Innes Ireland and leading the field by three laps after seven hours, was disqualified and forced to retire for having been accidentally refueled on laps.
Race
its
third pit stop after covering only 17
rules require that drivers
before opening the fuel tank. Ferrari completed 206 laps at
(
The
must
travel at least 20 laps
first-place
Bonnier-Bianchi
1,030 mi.) in the allotted 12 hours
an average speed of 89.142 m.p.h. The second-place Hill-
Gendebien Ferrari had completed 196 laps
in that time.
—
Stock Car Racing. In June, National .Association for Stock Car Auto Racing president Bill France reported that his group had imposed a 428-cu.in. limit on the engine size of cars competing on its tracks. This ruling was expected to put a damper
on the auto industry's race for bigger and more powerful engines each year. Also in June. Henry Ford II, head of the Automobile Manufacturers association, announced that the Ford Motor company was withdrawing from a 1957 resolution by the industry that opposed participation of any U.S. manufacturer in auto racing or the advertising of results of racing activity. Chrysler
corporation immediately seconded the Ford announcement.
Glenn ("Fireball") Roberts of Daytona Beach. world stock-car record when he drove a
1
Fla., set a
new
962 Pontiac at an aver-
Fla., track on Feb. 3. At the Daytona speedway on Feb. 1 1 the world's best drivers from stock car to grand prix competed for the first time in auto racing history. This new Daytona Continental race had 27 grand touring and 2S sports racing cars entered; the winner was Californian Dan Gurney in a Lotus sports car. In second place was a Ferrari driven by the 1961 world driving champion. Phil Hill, and Ricardo Rodriguez.
age speed of 158.744 m.p.h. at the Daytona,
—
Other Events.
— In
international sports car racing competi-
Rodger Penske of Gladwyne, Pa., scored a grand slam, winning the Riverside and Laguna Seca races, the Puerto Rico Grand Prix and the Bahama Tourist trophy race. Gendebien announced that he was through with racing shortly after the 1962 Le Mans tion
AVIATIO N, CIVIL
186
air-coach travel
(77%
omy
80%
fare at
78%
to
counted for 62.3% of
which ac-
A new
econ-
was introduced near the end of
first class
of
of first-class fares),
travel in fiscal 1962.
all air
cents per mile. the period. Average fares were about seven A so-called shuttle service started early in 1962 between points that furnish high-density travel
and
somewhat lower than
at fares
A
net revenues. for regular service gave promise of improving six-month trial of a program to assess penalties against passengers
who
fail to
claim reservations ("no-shows") and against airlines was extended; many airlines felt the ill-will it
for overbooking
caused far outweighed
As
of Jan.
1,
money
its
value.
numbered
1962, the general aviation fleet
81,-
693 active and 34,067 inactive aircraft. An estimated 13,300,000 hours were flown in general aviation during fiscal 1962. Of this 2,400,000, personal for 3,500,000 of United
The 1961 merger successful.
Pan-American and
Airports.
DEATH TOOK THE WHEEL: Hugh
Randall dangling from the seal of his careenLanghorne. Pa., July 1, 1962. Randall. 24. had driven only the car flipped twice in the first turn of the 61st lap. H* was pinned beneath his Vargo special and fatally injured ing car
in
—Dulles
a race al
lv»o laps in relief
when
in the Nov. 1 crash of his Mexico Grand Prix. Sterhng Moss was seriously injured at Goodwood, Eng., on April 23. The Brescia .Automobile Club of Italy announced March 26 that the
Ricardo Rodriguez, 20. died
Lotus racer
in trials for the
Mille Miglia had been called off for good. Since the 1957 race, in
which 12 spectators and a driver were
more
TWA
event had been
killed, the
(G. Y.)
in the nature of a rally.
airlines
Washington,
near
airport
1962.
17,
was apparently
also sought to merge.
International
(See Architecture;
Washington, D.C.) Federal funds of $70,108,464 were allocated in fiscal 1962 for
on a matching basis. Of the and the balance was
assistance to local airport sponsors allocation, $69,491,478
race.
and Capital
D.C., opened officially Nov.
riJt Worlil
5,500,000, commercial for and instructional for 1,900,000.
accounted for
total business use
for 20
major
was
for 327 airports
air traffic control
(ATC)
projects. Total cash ex-
penditures for federal aid to airports in fiscal 1962
amounted
to
$57,857,657. Funds totaling $75,000,000 were authorized for fiscal
As of Jan.
1963.
1962, there were 7,715 airports in operation
1,
in the U.S.
Local Service Airlines.
—Light-density routes and replacement
of piston aircraft with jets necessitated continuance of the federal
subsidy to local airlines. However, Table I.— Grond Prix (Formula One) Winners, 1962
Wmrer
Dole
Event
Cor
BRM
Dolch
May 20
Grohom
Monaco
June 3 June 17 July 8 July 21 Aug. 5 Sept. 16
Bruce McLoren Jim Clark
Cooper
Don Gurney
Porsche
Jim Clork
Lotus
Bclgion Franch tntllh
German llolian
sLx
Lotus
in 1961
1,472,755,000 revenue passenger-miles, 6,256,000 revenue tonmiles of freight service and 7,661,000 revenue ton-miles of mail,
BRM BRM
express and excess baggage transportation. Scheduled airhne pas-
Jim Clark
Lotus
BRM
senger and freight
Groliom
Grohom Grohom
7 29
Oct. Dec.
U.S.
SouHi Africon
Hill
traffic growth resulted in imand an increase of 17.5% for the first months of 1962. During fiscal 1962 local airlines provided
proved earnings
Hill Hill
Hill
increased while
traffic
traffic
by non-
carried
scheduled service continued to decrease. Toble
World Championship Standings,
II.
I
962
Couniry
Driver
Helicopter Airlines.
Car
Total Points
Englond
BRM
Jim Clork Bruce AAcloren Jolin Surfaei
Scotlond
Lotus
New
Zeolond England
Cooper
Dan Gumey
United Stotes United States South Africo United Stotes England
Porsche
Graham
Hill
Phil Hill
Tony Maggs Rkhia Ginlher Trevor Taylor Gioneorlo eoghanl
Cooper
19 15 14 13
BRM
1
Lolo Ferrori
Certified helicopter airlines operated in
New York
city.
During
revenue ton-miles of freight. Subsidy to helicopter lines for fiscal 1962 was estimated at $6,000,000. Over-all revenue ton-miles Table I.— Dofa for U.S. Certificated Air Carriers, I'em
Continued replacement of piston aircraft by PnJil AVIdliOll, lllVM. jet-propelled craft by all segments of U.S.
Aulotlnn
aviation in 1962 reduced the total
commercial
fleets
but increased capacity.
airline passenger-miles
Oct. 1962 the airline
prop
number
were flown
fleet
of aircraft in the
More than
half of
all
As
of
in jet-propelled craft.
numbered 340 turbojet and 232 turboand 24 helicopters (6
aircraft, 1,258 piston craft
jets).
volume for the first six months of 1962 was 12.3% more than 1961. A work stoppage on a major airline reduced volume in July but it rose again in September. Earnings Trunk-line
traffic
did not keep pace with
of o.rl.ne, Cities served
Express (tor.milesl Averoge foret (domestic trunk lines] Averoge fore tlinternotionol scheduled oirlines) Operolmg revenue
;
.
.
.
\,'>}2
1,
425 58,441,000 171,610 $1,214,577,256 299,216,000 732,946,000 61,167,000 6.28 cents
Operoting expense Avoilob e seol-miles Points in Alosko not included.
59,197, 100,
$422,180, 91,823, 253,140, 41,893, 5.61
(
6.08 cents
7 10(
$3,073,292,000 $3,016,537,000 71,848,663,000
$1,024,045, $896,421, 19,983,937,
tAveroge revenue per possenger-mile Source: Air Transport Association of America, Focis ond figures, 1 962 and eorlier; Aeronautics Boord, Offlc. of Corrier Accounts and Stotistics.
traffic
Table II.—Dofa for U.S. Cerlificated Route Air Carriers "" °°°'
All services
to benefit air carrier traffic.
Revenue ton.miles flown
During the 12-month period ending June
30,
54.3';;
,
^sv'lvl'^S
Revenue Lo.t^no.rm l! fl° Aro'oble seal mil^; Revenue Vos^Ir.?! i^evenue .< . passenger load factor Revenue oircrolt-mil.s ^evenue airrrnft milH. Anw.. flown I
"'""'" •ervi°e"'
'°"-'"'l»>
4,887,040 9,405,217
U7n7^in
1962, the do-
compared with 58.5% for fiscal by continued growth in
1961. Earnings were further depressed
Fiscol 1961
'
Avoilobl. ton-miles
mestic trunk lines provided 57,642,340,000 seat-miles and reported 31,313,633,000 revenue passenger-miles flown. The load
was
,95, ,.„.
55
729
Aircroft in service (oil cotegories) Fastest cruising speed (m.p.h.l Number of possengers carried (including all dosses of carriers for 1941) Number of employees Totol oi, ine poyroll U.S. moil (ton.milesi Freight llon.miles)
volume although several lines showed increases. The reduction of the tax on air passenger tickets from 10% to 5%, effective Nov. IS, 1962, was expected
factor for the group
All Classes
,94,
Number
civil
1962
fiscal
these lines carried 7,623,000 revenue passenger-miles and 135.000
6 5
Lotus Ferrari
Italy
—
Chicago, Los Angeles and
43 30 30
lown
^0-8%
51.9%
44,607,369 81,115,601
38,897,803 44,490,092
i^inor 03. U /©
58.5%
'
'
...
'
'
948,714
1,068,151 as o per cent of totol ovoiloble ton-mile I
Sourc.i Civil Aeronoullc. Board, Office of Carrier Account,
and
Statistic.,
in
dulle;
:• - AIRPORT: Passenger terminal and control tower of the Federal Aviation aaency'i hanlilly. Va.. 27 mi. W. of Washington. D.C.. which was dedicated by Pres. Kennedy Nov. 17, ned for John Foster Dulles, the former secretary of slate. Among many novel features are mobile lounges, taking passengers to the planes at 25 m.p.h. The architect was Eero Saarinen. Oriental influence is evident in the trimmings of the control tower and the sloping roof of the terminal building
1962.
It
•
totaled 851.000 for fiscal 1962, with mail accounting for 83.000 ton-miles. Combined operating revenues for calendar 1961 were
$8,602,000 and operating expenses, $8,806,000, U.S. In+erna+ional
and
Territorial Airlines.
which were
scheduled
in
transport passengers in certain instances. During fiscal
1962 U.S. all-cargo lines in domestic
serN-ice
—During
fiscal
9.497.732.000 of
Scheduled service coach and economy class amounted to 7.841.712,000 revenue passengermiles and accounted for 82.59% of total scheduled-service revenue passenger-miles. Freight revenue ton-miles totaled 435.ser\-ice.
first six months of 1962 amounted to $363,356,000; operating expenses to $342,523,000. All-Cargo Airlines. Cargo airlines continued to add jets to
—
Some
of the former all-cargo airlines received author-
Total Scheduled Services
—
and excess baggage. A work stoppage of 82 days beginning June 23. 1962. caused an estimated loss of $23,000,000 to one major airline. .Another strike, which had begun in June 1960, was ended early in Sept. 1962. The airline had continued operations on a restricted basis for most of the period. (See also Strikes.) priority mail
Labour Relations.
—
'Afghanistan Australia Austria
.
Belgium
.
.
.
.
'Bolivia tBrazil
.
.
.
Kilometres
.
30,948 3,990 103,868 3,704 395 1,995
113,548 25
•Central African Rep. "^
Ceylon
.
.
2,081
.
tChil
Chino (Rep. of)
.
.
.
Colombia
•Congo
(leopoldville)
•Costa Rica
.
.
.
tCubo Cyprus Czechoslovakia
.
.
.
•Dahomey .n
Rep.
•EcuadatEl Salv
''"?.
Nonflying Researct,
main
Air Force Installations by Category
n
9 ])
(foreign)
To'"!
158
Overseos 61
6 ^ (, ,
Total
140 12 ,5
, ,,
8
8
80
238
Although the air force did not begin construction of any new major bases, construction projects valued at $1,410,000,000. exclusive of family housing,
were completed during fiscal 1962, At the beginning of fiscal 1963 projects totaling $1,400,000,000 were under construction. With completion of housing units being built under the Wherry rehabilitation and improvement program, the
AVIATION, MILITARY
190
Deliveries to the fleet of the new designed for fleet air defense. weaircraft P3V antisubmarine fand'-based ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Tracker, a also made of the S2F-3 Continuing deliveries were of this earner-based antisubversion capable longer-range, more the of the HSS-2 helicopter marine aircraft. Introduction improvement in all-weather flight and antifleet provided marked
0-
mo
capabilities.
submarine warfare
major supporting services to During 1962 the navy rendered involved in experimental research several governmental agencies operations was the provision for logistic and testing. Among these
foundation geophysical research support of the National Science Atomic aircraft support to the Defense in Antarctica, ship and nuclear tests in the Pacific and Support agency's high-altitude forces used in the Project Merthe preponderance of recovery Aeronautics and Space adcury" orbital flights of the National ministration.
navigational Research was continued on the navy's to a
system leading
and
The
aircraft.
new method
satellite
of electronic navigation for ships
Pacific missile range, the
Navy Photographic
service began proInterpretation centre and the navy weather
PRECISION FLYING;
Jels of no.
of the Royal base at Coitishaii. Eng.. for the
74 squadron crack acrobatic team
Air Force fighter connmand, rehearsing al Ihe
viding read-out information for
led 16 Hawker Farnborough air show of Sept. 3. 1962. A flight of Lightnings part in the show Hunters. The sauadroi s brilliant aerobatics played a leading
would have available 150,127 units of family housing. Allocations by the air force from budgetary appropriations through fiscal 1962 were: operation and maintenance (including
air force
air national
guard) $4,686,000,000; military personnel (including $4,300,000,000 plus $64,000,000 from work-
guard and reserves capital
ing
aircraft
procurement $3,200,000,000 plus missile procurement
$225,000,000 from prior appropriations; $2,745,000,000; research, development,
test
and
evaluation
$2,403,000,000; other procurement $1,101,000,000; and
modernization $401,000,000, On July 1, 1962, Gen. William F. Frederic H. Smith as vice-chief of
McKee
airlift
succeeded Gen.
See also Marine Corps, Rockets and Missiles.
in the
U.S. navy inventory, and 29,998 olTicers in naval aviation. This was higher than
NATO
forces of the
composed three
in
61.6 sec; to 10,000 m, in 77 sec; to 15,000 m,
sec; to 20,000 m.
sec; and to 30,000 m.
in 178,5 sec; to 25,000
in 371.4 sec.
On
Feb.
5
m,
in
230,4
an HSS-2 Sea
air force
Fairey S.A. and in the
Fiat, the remaining 200.
\'TOL
(vertical take-off
performance of
The
new
or
improved aircraft. Several additional fighter squadrons received F4H's; other fighter squadrons received the F8U-2NE, a late version of Ihe Crusader. Delivery began on new and improved models of the A4U Skyhawk and the A3J Vigilante attack bombers, Uevelopmcnt and evaluation work continued on the A2I'-1 Intruder, the navy's replacement for the old
AD
attack
bomber. Deliveries for flight testing were
made
of the
W2F-1 Hawkeye,
The two Belgian com-
these, 140
were scheduled for the
100 for Belgium and 25 for the
West Germany and Britain agreed and landing)
fighter.
to
Hawker P.112 7 The remarkable
production of at least nine
for experimental
and
flight-test
purposes.
designation given to the improved version
evaluation.
ship and shore units were equipped with
Of
this aircraft dictated
more advanced designs
load, and then to 27,380 ft. with i 2,000-kg. load. On Sept. 15 the same aircraft was flown 5.000 km. over a closed circuit course
many
In Belgium, Avions
share the costs of further development of the
narrowed down
U.S. naval air capabilities were significantly increased during
this group.
were co-operating with Fiat of Italy
air force, 125 for Italy,
ciation with the coast guard and the USAF, set three new amphibian records with the UF-2. On Sept. 12, navy pilots set records by climbing the UF-2 first to 29,460 ft, with a 1,000-kg,
1962 as
were held by
SABCA
production of 390 more F-104G's.
NATO's
20 J hours to establish a new world's speed record of 151.4
air
panies held responsibility for the production of 190 aircraft and
King antisubmarine helicopter achieved a record speed of 210 m.p.h. over a 15/25-km. course. In September the navy, in asso-
m.p.h.
all
and Weserflug), were turning out F-104G's at the rate of six per month. Orders for 255 aircraft for Germany and 95 for the
In Feb. 1962 the U.S.,
new world time-to-climb records were established in the F4H Phantom II: to 3,000 m, in 34,5 sec; to 6,000 m. in 48.7 Eight
use of
two Dutch companies (Fokker and Aviolanda) and
of
Netherlands.
crisis.
common
Sept. 1962 the "north group,"
By
nations.
German companies (Focke-Wulf, Hamburger Flugzeugbau
the strength a year earlier as a result of the reserve call-up during
in
(R- B. Pe.)
production of the superftghter for the
German
in 114,5
Navies of the World;
program for the proin duction of F-104G Starfighters in Europe was fully under way 1962. Under the agreement signed in Dec. 1960, W'est Germany, Belgium. Italy, the Netherlands and the U.S. undertook the mass
and 168.994 enlisted men
sec; to 9,000 m,
U.S.;
World—The NATO
Air Forces of the
Netherlands
staff.
See also Aerospace Industry; Air Races and Records; Na(Jo. W. A.) tional Guard; Rockets and Missiles. United States Navy.—On June 30, 1962, there were 7.458
the FJerlin
satel-
)
funds;
operating aircraft
NASA's two Tiros weather
lites.
selection of a
final
nounced by
late Oct. 1962,
Mirage III-V. quantity
Five
of
fighter
but the competition had apparently
to the British
Hawker P.1154 and the French
Many European
each
N.\TO
VTOL
sources believed that a small
would be ordered by
natioiis.
was the P. 11 54. had not been an-
NATO
for
further
Great Britain, Denmark. Norway, Turkey
and the U.S., agreed in August to the joint production in Europe of the Martin Rullpup air-to-surface missile. A licensing agree-
ment with the Martin Marietta corporation was executed by NATO on Sept. 25. Development of NATO's ASW (antisubmarine warfare) patrol bomber, Atlantic, continued throughout 1962; mass production of the aircraft was anticipated the despite
crash of one prototype during flight tests. [/.S.5./J.— Although the Soviet Union
failed to
air
power through any large fly-bys or public It was known that the Soviets were
demonstrate
its
shows during continuing the massive build-up of manned fighters and bombers for the air forces of their own and sateUite countries. Western European intelligence 1962
air
AVIATION. MILITARY reports indicated that the Soviet air force had about 15,000 firstline combat aircraft in service at the beginning of the year. These
included about 190 long-range bombers and 1,100 medium-range bombers. In addition, about 4,000 second-line combat aircraft were available.
About 12,000 of these aircraft, plus 700 navy combat planes, in the European Communist bloc countries. The strength of the Polish air force was estimated at 1,150 combat aircraft, plus were
90 naval aircraft and 400 Soviet combat aircraft based in Poland. East Germany had about 370 aircraft in its own air force and 900 Soviet bombers and fighters based there. The Hungarian air force consisted of 100 aircraft and 300 Soviet planes based in HunThe air force of Czechoslovalcia was estimated at 850
gary.
combat
and those of Rumania and Bulgaria at 300 and 350, respectively. In addition, the U.S.S.R. was supplying fighter aircraft
aircraft to several countries outside the
for example, had received
Communist bloc. Egypt, more than 200 combat aircraft over
several years.
While
191
of performing a variety of roles and,
where possible, of fulfilling the requirements of both the R.A.F. and the Royal Navy would be sought. The Hawker P.1154
VTOL
promised to be just such an aircraft. France. Late in Dec, 1961, the French
—
propriations to cover two spares, as well as
money
which put on an in September,
fighter,
exceptional performance at the Farnborough
show
air force received ap-
more groups of F-lOO
fighters
and
for the purchase of additional heli-
copters. Production of air force
Mirage III interceptors for the French and Etendard naval fighters continued at Dassault. By the 80th Mirage III had been delivered and 10 of
midsummer
these aircraft, plus lines
each month.
undergoing
5
Etendards, were rolling
An advanced
flight tests
off
the production
version, the Mirage III-E,
and production of
this
was model was expected
to begin shortly.
The VTOL Balzac V version of the Mirage III, first revealed by the air force in Sept. 1961, continued to undergo tests throughout the late summer. The more sophisticated version of this prototype, the Mirage III-V, was under consideration by NATO. The
was evident that the U.S.S.R. planned to rely ox) for its strategic attack forces for some time to come, the Soviets were not neglecting the build-up of their inter-' continental and medium-range ballistic missile installations. Ac-
second protot>-pe of the Breguet 1150 Atlantic patrol bomber, scheduled for production for the French and German navies, crashed during a test flight in April, after the first prototype had
cording to intelligence reports, about SO intercontinental and 200
logged more than 100 hours of successful
flight.
indication, however, that the
affect the
it
manned bombers
medium-range
ballistic missiles
were operational
at the beginning
They were strategically located throughout Union and Communist bloc countries. of the year.
the Soviet
In Oct. 1962 U.S. intelligence disclosed the presence of Soviet
medium- and long-range missile installations and more than 100 Soviet-built bombers and fighter aircraft in Cuba. The missile were subsequently dismantled and the bombers removed under U.S. pressure. Great Britain. Sweeping changes in Britain's defense program took place during 1962. The air ministry was reorganized to bring all the weapons systems of the country under a single director. A decision to terminate the Thor missile agreement with the U.S. was announced in July, and plans to replace this deterrent with installations
—
The French defense minister, Pierre Messmer, revealed in IV Mach 2 bombers would be operational
in
1963 and that negotiations with Boeing for
December
the
tankers
velopment. Production of Magister trainers continued at the Potez company and as of midsummer 744 had been delivered to the air forces of nine different countries.
German Federal first
program would have given the U.K. complete
KC-135A
bombers were under way. A ratio of one tanker for every four bombers was the expected requirement. The fourth prototype of the Mirage IV, equipped with SNECMA Atar 9K engines, was in an advanced stage of deto service these high-speed
monies were held
nuclear delivery system, but in
production
July that ten Mirage
revealed. Such a its
There was no
program.
Skybolt 1,000-mi. -range missiles fired from Vulcan bombers were control over
mishap would
Republic.
—On
June 20, 1962, formal cereWest Germany's
to observe the inauguration of
operational F-104G squadron. This marked the first European F-104G operational fighter unit to be completed.
U.S. defense department announced that the Skybolt program had been unsuccessful and was being discontinued. In August Julian Amery, the new minister of aviation, announced cancellation of the army's Blue Water ground-to-ground
The West German defense budget for 1962 called for expenditures of about $500,000,000 on aircraft and missiles, over
mobile missile
to cover the interim period before
in favour of Royal Air Force air-launched missiles. Further development of British Aircraft corporation'^ TSR.2 allpurpose attack aircraft and large-scale production of Hawker
P. 11 54s to replace the R.A.F.'s
Hawker Hunters and
the fleet air
arm's de Havilland Sea Vixens were also announced.
The
revised defense program included the continued produc-
tion of English Electric's
Steel guided stand-off 2 ship-to-air
Thunderbird
missile, A. V. Roe's
Blue
bomb, the Whitworth Gloster Seaslug Mk.
guided weapon, de Havilland's
Red Top
air-to-air
Bloodhound Mk. 2 ground-to-air missile. A Mk. 3 version of the latter was to be developed for use by all three military services. In addition, the R,A.F. was scheduled to receive 11 VClO long-range transports and a total of 105 Folland Gnat advanced jet trainers. The first of these trainers was delivered to the R.A.F.'s Central Flying school at Little missile
and
Bristol's
Rissington in Feb. 1962.
In March the Lightning Mk. the high-performance
with
Red Top
Mk.
missiles,
5
— two-seat —made a
3 fighter
the Mk,
trainer version of
its first flight.
5
Armed
could be used in combat
operations as well as for training.
The new procurement
policy, as stated
by the minister
of
aviation, called for the progressive reduction over a decade in
types of aircraft used by the military services. Aircraft capable
$100,000,000 more than was appropriated in 1961. In Feb. 1962 the German air force ordered 30 additional Noratlas transports
German-designed Transall airwould become available. Development work on the Transall C-160 transport and the Breguet Atlantic maritime reconnaiscraft
sance aircraft, both joint Franco-German projects, was carried
on by German firms throughout the year. F-104G Super StarG91 fighters, Magister jet trainers. Hawk and Sidewinder rockets, General Electric J79-GE-11A jet and Lycoming fighters,
GO-580 piston engines were the principal production items of German aircraft industry. New developments under way cluded a
VTOL
Sweden.
combat
—Work
aircraft, the
began
in
the in-
VJIOID.
1962 on a chain of naval coast de-
fense missile batteries with underground launching sites.
The
was a development of the CT.20 (Nord) target drone, with a range of about 250 km. In January the Swedish air force received government approval for the development and production of a new twin-jet trainer aircraft, the SAAB-IOS. Aircraft of several foreign nations were evaluated before the air force settled on the SAAB design. It was expected that 100 or more of these trainers would be ordered if the prototype lived up to performance specifications. Both the Swedish air force and the navy bolstered their strength with the addition of more Agusta-Bell 204 B and Vertol 107 helicopters. The navy also ordered a research ground-effect missile to be used
Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, modified with an ouUIze '^''-«s.-/I«('V'>'na Barinaga, Port Angeles, Wash., won the boys' and girls' singles championships at Seattle, U.S.
(D. L. Pa.)
April 17-20.
Baghdad Pact:
Rahomo Ddlldllld
see
Middle Eastern Affairs.
^ B"tish colony in the Atlantic ocean. klanric lOldllUo. ,hc Bahamas are an archipelago of about
700 islands and more than 2,000 cays and rocks extending ap-
Later the same month it was announced that a U.K. firm had been awarded a contract worth more than £500,000 to build tions.
a slipway at Bahrain for the repair of ships. In June
it
was
re-
ported that the U.K. government had agreed to pay £45,000 compensation to three Bahrainis detained on St. Helena during
1956-61 on charges
of,
among
other things, attempting to as-
sassinate the ruler. Education.— Schools (1959-60): infant and primary 55, infant pupils 9,111, primary pupils 9,570, teachers 654; secondary 2, pupils 778; technical 3, pupils 441, teachers (secondary and technical) 65; teacher training 1, students 860. 2
Production— Oil production (1961) 56.000 metric tons.
2,244,000 metric tons,
(1960)
2,-
^"'"—Monetary
unit: Persian Gulf Indian rupee valued (1962); revenue Rs. 75,000.000 (of which oil expenditure Rs. 75,000,000 (of which social '^'- ".879,000). Foreign trade (1961)-: imports from U.K. £8,f.^'.'nn 115.800; exports to U.K. £13,782,92 7; re-exports from U.K. £66,505. t-liiol export: petroleum products. Chief imports: textiles, foodstuffs, machinery, motor vehicles, crude oil (for refining). Important entrepot trade.
at ^i".°"i?c'""' 21 U.S. cents. Budget receipts Rs. 54,100,000);
Balance of Payments: see Banking; Exchange Control AND Exchange Rates; (Jold.
BAN KING Balearic Islands:
see Spain.
Ballet: see Dance: Ballet. Ballooning: see Air Races and Records. ^^"™°'''^' "^^ metropolis of Maryland, had 939,-
B^ltimnrP uaiUIIIUIC.
024 inhabitants according
to
the
1960 census,
when
it was the sixth largest city in the U.S. (1962 est., 933,250).' Harold Grady, Democrat, was mayor in 1962. Budget appropriations for 1962 were $302,522,672, compared with $292,301,485 for 1961. The city tax rate for 1962 was $3.91 per $100 of assessed valuation, as compared with a 1961 rate of $3.60. The taxable basis for 1962 was $3,425,056,478; for 1961 it was $3,466,866,348. The gross funded debt as of June 30, 1962, was $341,503,900; the sinking funds amounted to
J.
$9,525,68o|
leaving a net debt on that date of $331,978,220, not including
accrued income. The percentage of net debt to the taxable basis (excluding self-supporting indebtedness) was 6.S4 as of June 30 1961.
The
net enrollment in the city's public schools on Oct. 31,was 81,772 white students and 93,265 Negro students; in addition, approximately 15,000 students were enrolled in home and hospital and adult education classes. George B. Brain was 1961,
superintendent of schools. The public schools of Baltimore are a separate and distinct unit and are not under the jurisdiction of the state department of education. School integration was begun
1954 and
in Sept.
in the fall of 1961,
54.8%
of the schools
had
both white and Negro students.
has a highly diversified economic structure. Industrial employment in the 2,113 plants in the Baltimore metropolitan area averin
1961, a decrease of 2,700 from the preceding
The employment
year.
1962 was:
in the ten leading industry
groups in July primary metals 37,400; transportation equipment
14,200; food and kindred products 22,500; apparel 16,300; fabricated metal products -^26,100; electrical equipment 12,200; chemicals 10,800; printing and publishing 11,000; nonelectrical
machinery 9,700; and stone, clay and glass products 5,600. The Baltimore area continued its industrial growth in 1961 with an announced investment of $100,883,000 in new plants and expansions. During the
— In the 12 months ending Sept.
26, 1962,
total credit at all commercial banks increased more than $1S,000,000,000 to an all-time high of more than $225,000,000,000. Although the pace slowed somewhat during mid- 1962, the expansion from Feb. 1961 was about almost double that of
13%—
the two preceding recovery periods. Credit was abundantly available at relatively stable rates during the entire period, in
sharp
contrast to
marked
increases in rates during previous recoveries.
The composition
of the credit expansion also changed sharply. bank loans remained comparatively moderate, reflecting the prolonged slow upward drift of the economy during most of 1962. At the same time, the federal reserve kept bank reserves in abundant supply, enabling banks to add substantially
Demand
for
to their investments. This, together with a surge of funds into
time and savings deposits following an increase in interest rate ceilings in federal reserve regulation Q, enabled especially rapid
growth
in tax-exempt state and local government bond holdings. Holdings of government obligations fluctuated about a stable high level in 1962 and, in addition, member banks reduced their indebtedness at federal reserve banks. In contrast to 1959 when
—
borrowings
times exceeded $1,000,000,000— by Sept. 1962 borrowings at federal reserve banks were about $80,000,000 and at
had averaged only period.
From
a little
more than
early 1961 free reserves
this over the 12-month fmember-bank excess re-
serves less borrowing at federal reserve banks) averaged in the $400,000,000 to $500,000,000 range— an unusually prolonged
period of monetary ease which resulted in a climate conducive to credit e.vpansion.
Ranking 4th in factory employment among the metropolitan areas on the eastern seaboard and 1 1th in the country, Baltimore
aged 192,200
195
Commercial Banks.
Bali: see Indonesia.
—
Commercial Bank Loans. Total loans at all commercial banks reached a record high of $132,840,000,000 at the end of Sept, 1962. However, the increase of about $12,000,000,000 from the Sept. 1961 level, though substantial, lagged somewhat behind the record rise of $13,000,000,000 during business prosperity in 1959. During the period of cyclical upswing after Feb. 1961,
lending tended to rise
more slowly than
Business loans rose $2,258,000,000 at weekly-reporting
ber banks in leading
mem-
12-month period ending Sept. high of $34,063,000,000. During the rapid
cities in the
26, 1962, and reached a economic recovery in the showed a rapid rise about earlier
bank
in the previous upswings.
last half of 1961, business loans also in line
recovery periods. In
with the growth experienced in however, the growth was
1962,
months of 1962 the announced investment amounted to more than $118,999,000. Baltimore ranked as the third U.S. port in foreign-trade ton-
slower, reflecting several developments in the economy. Key areas of spending failed to meet earlier expectations, especially outlays for inventories and for new plant and equipment. The
nage in 1961. E.xports and imports handled at the [Sort during that year amounted to 19,610,000 tons, a decline of 21.8% from 1960. Low steel production at U.S. plants coupled with a general
slow increase of these expenditures, coupled with the generation of large amounts of internal funds and ready availability of funds
first
eight
at attractive rates
from the
capital markets, all
combined
to de-
decline in the nation's international trade were the prime causes for the decrease. Total foreign trade in 1961 was valued at
crease corporation reliance on commercial banks.
$1,085,000,000, exceeding $1,000,000,000 for the sixth consecu-
cities, especially New York, than in other areas. Real and consumer loans, which are an important part of outlying bank portfolios, did exceptionally well. Mortgage loans held by commercial banks increased $2,811,000.000 from the second quarter of 1961 to the second quarter
year despite the general trade decline. Ocean-going vessel
tive
arrivals in 1961 totaled 5,130, while vessel transits to
and from
Baltimore via the Chesapeake and Delaware canal aggregated 4,100. 164.
Customs
collections for fiscal 1961
There was a 2.3% decrease
amounted
in general cargo
to $30,772,-
handled
national trade.
in inter-
(C. N. E.)
Encvclop/Edia Britannica Films.
— The
Baltimore Plan (1953).
In 1962 business lending was generally more slack at banks in
major
estate
of 1962, reaching a record level of
more than $32,000,000,000. Real estate loans at larger banks also showed more rapid growth, reflecting the large inflow of savings following the increased rates
of interest paid on time and savings deposits.
Bananas: Dnnl/jng 6" total
credit
see Fruit.
Although U.S. economic activity in 1962 remained had been generally anticipated,
at lower levels than
demand
tinuation of the
Bank
increased significantly, reflecting the con-
economic expansion which began
credit increased
in similar
much more
in this
in early 1961.
recovery period than
periods following the 1953-54 and 1957-58 recessions.
The growth in time and savings deposits was especially marked in the first quarter of 1962 and continued to show large gains, although in the second and third quarters the rate of growth was cut about in half. On the other hand, there was a steady pickup in the acquisition of
tax-exempt securities and real estate loans.
Consumer
loans of weekly-reporting
strong spring pickup after exhibiting
member banks showed
little
a
strength earlier in the
upswing, but leveled out again after midyear. Total consumer
BANKING
196 credit registered sharp gains, but finance
on the open market for
their
companies
funds as market
relied heavily
rates
remamed
attractive.
remamed The commercial banks' lending rate to prime risks Increased competition m at 4\%. unchanged from Aug. 1960. together with the the mortgage market from commercial banks, financial insticondition of readily available funds from various
on mortgages
tutions, caused rates
to decline.
substantial growth of loans in 1962
The
more than
offset the
increase growth of time deposits and the more moderate banks' demand deposits and accounted for a decline in the the end of position. The ratio of loans to deposits at
large in
Uquidity
year earlier. Sept. 1962 stood at 56,2%, in contrast to 54.9% a upward trend This performance was a continuation of the long neverfrom the very low level reached after World War II, but theless remained below the June 1960 peak of 57.1%. Demands— In the first nine months of 1962
Other Credit
The corporations raised substantially less funds than in 1961. third drop in the demand for funds was especially sharp in the quarter.
New
reflecting the
stock issues
shakeout
fell
sharply from the second quarter, however, debt issues also
in stock prices;
recorded a larger than usual decline.
below $8,000,000,000 for 1962,
in
The nine-month
total
was
sharp contrast to nearly $10,-
in 1961.
000,000,000 raised
Municipal bond financing in the first three quarters totaled a new high of nearly $7,000,000.000— almost 10% above 1961. Most of this gain occurred in the first half of the year, however,
was in excess of $5,000,000,000. These capital market developments, coupled with strong demand for both corporate and municipal issues, resulted in a trend toward lower interest rates on these issues. During the first four months of 1962, consumer demand for 1961 short- and intermediate-term credit declined from a Dec. high of $57,139,000,000. This slack reversed in May and by Au-
when
gust
total flotation
demand had
increased about $2,000,000,000 to reach a rec-
ord high total of $59,146,000,000. showed a rapid rate of growth.
Money Supply.—The
Nonfarm
residential
banks are state chartered and are the ment. (Mutual savings of federal that do not have the privilege only financial institutions
'^dIposJ activity
was characterized by amounts deposited and only a small inThe resultant gain in net new money was
for the 1961-62 period
in a substantial increase
crease in withdrawals.
with $599,851,000 for the correspond$1 119 624 000, compared Record interest payments to depositors ing months of 1960-61. 12brought total deposit gains for the of about $1 400,000,000 $2,480,000,000, compared month period ended Aug. 31, 1962, to period ended Aug. 31, 1961. The with $1 959,000.000 for the in part uncertainty in the stock record deposit gains reflected of consumer spendmg and a a less than buoyant rate
market
savings account. to public favour of the liquid savings banks continued In their investment programs, mutual During the year ended Aug. 31, to emphasize mortgage loans.
marked return
their mortgage portfolios, 1962, they added $2,800,000,000 to Holdings compared with $2,200,000,000 in the previous period. slightly to $6,300,000,000, of U.S. government securities declined and municipal securities or 14% of total assets. A decline in state
resulted in total holdings of
Four savings bank mergers in Massachusetts and the opening new savings bank in Alaska in Dec. 1961 brought the number ended of mutual savings banks to 512. In the 12-month period of a
June 30, 1962, branch
offices
3.98.
Later a number of institutions announced new high rates, more, thus maintaining
particularly on deposits of one year or
commercial banks. During the 12-month period ended June 30, 1962, savings banks also in-
their competitive position with
creased their general reserve accounts, $3,859,021,000, representing
Savings banks
mortgages
life
insurance, sold
money supply—demand
daily average
—
The combined
of 1962, however, and by September had declined moder-
—
was very rapid an inabout $13,000,000,000 was shown in the 12-month pe1962
showed a more rapid
— so
that total deposits and
rate of growth.
The
currency
increase in time and
savings deposits held by commercial banks resulted mainly from the change in regulation Q. This regulation, which formerly limited commercial banks to deposits,
pay
4%
was
3%
interest
revised, effective Jan.
1,
Other Countries.
on time and savings
1962, to allow banks to
for such deposits held not less than 12 months.
by 317 savings banks
New York,
in
continued to expand.
many
nations,
(G.
W.
E. Y.)
— Despite continued inflationary pressures
in
1962 provided world bankers with a breathing
spell after the severe shocks,
ately to $145,300,000,000. Growth in time and savings deposits
to
total of life insurance in force in the three states
for the year of $127,070,468.
icies,
from $3,659,062,000
their total deposit liability.
June 30, 1962, was $1,436,105,802, covering 832,123 polincluding more than 65,000 group policies. This was a gain
about $2,800,000,000 had occurred to bring the total to $145,700,000,000. The money supply remained relatively stable during
riod ending Sept.
9.7% of
Connecticut, Massachusetts and
as of
crease of
increased from 506 to 558; the
average size of savings accounts rose from $1,654 to $1,756; and the average interest rate paid by the banks rose from 3.68 to
on a seasonally adjusted basis deposits adjusted plus currency began a rapid rise in Aug. 1961. By Dec. 1961 an increase of
much
$568,000,000, while increases in
corporate securities brought totals in this area to $5,149,000,000. These two investment areas represented 12.7% of total assets.
domestic and international, of the
previous year. Considerable efforts were-
made by
national and
supranational monetary authorities to devise improved
handling currency
crises,
ways of
and there was no slackening
efforts of financial institutions,
in
the
both public and private, to de-
new ranges of services, more suitable to a world in which incomes and production patterns were changing quickly. The U.S., which continued to lose gold from its reserves, al-
velop
though at a slower pace, invited the major trading nations to consultation through the International Monetary Fund about
mutual savings banks experienced record
ways of neutralizing possible serious speculative pressures against the dollar or the pound sterling. The discussions led to the setting up of special new drawing arrangements at the fund. Simul-
deposit gains, bringing total deposits in the 512 institutions to $40,029,000,000 in 22,421,000 accounts. Total assets reached a
taneously, central banks in the major countries of the world were arranging a series of reciprocal agreements under which unfore-
of $45,073,000,000. The acquisition of new mortgage loans was also at record levels, bringing total mortgage holdings to $30,999,800,000 or 68.6% of total assets. Other gains included
seen and undesired flows of short-term funds between countries would not put undue pressure on national currency reserves. In
record interest payments to depositors, a sharp increase in the number of branch ofliccs, the addition of a new savings bank in
taken
Alaska and the reintroduction. under bipartisan sponsorship in both houses of the congress, of legislation permitting the charter-
many, France,
(D. C. Ml.)
Mutual Savings Banks.- In the 31, 1962, the nation's
12 -month period
ended Aug.
new peak
ing of mutual savings banks by an agency of the federal govern-
a
number
of emergent African territories, significant steps were toward establishment of common currencies and co-
operation in monetary were,
Italy
affairs. With major exceptions in Gerand Japan, the economies of the free world
in general, not overstrained in 1962, and there was a widespread tendency for interest rates to fall.
BAPTIST United Kingdom.~PaTt\y because of the success of the remeasures imposed by the chancellor of the exchequer in mid-1961, the Bank of England was able early in strictive
the year to re-
duce the bank rate and loosen the restraints on bank lending. Although the budget, in April, was cautiously framed to give no added stimulus to demand pressure, the monetary
authorities
had by late April already lowered the bank rate from 7% (preNov. 1961) to 4i%, and a further fall to 4% came in September. Confidence in sterling remained relatively strong, and by the end of July the bank was able to repay the entire outstanding balance of its emergency drawing from the International Monetary Fund. Large sales of government securities and mounting evidence of industrial spare capacity led the
slow but determined the year.
The
fall in
London
11
Bank
of England to encourage a
the level of interest rates throughout clearing banks found by the end of
1961 that the measures taken to reduce the level of demand in economy were being reflected in static figures for both de-
the
and advances. The partial release of special deposits by the Bank of England in June and a wave of new capital issues by, the banks in the early months of the year combined with a slug-
posits
gish rate of increase in borrowers'
CHURCH
197
lending for long-term development projects. A revolving fund was established at the Reserve bank, to which all the banks
contributed cash and securities equal to 3% of their deposits. In New Zealand stern credit-control measures led to a continued downward trend in bank advances. Despite this, inflationary conditions continued to cause concern.
The Reserve Bank of India early in the year tightened the arrangements under which scheduled banks might borrow from in order to
it
number amount
induce them to "achieve greater self-reliance."
A
of measures were taken with a view to controlling the of unplanned spending in the private sector. The South
African Reserve bank announced an all-round reduction of |% in the oflicial pattern of long-term interest rates toward the end of July,
making a
total cut of
8%
from the peak reached
in
the
financial crisis of 1960-61.
See also Business Review; Consumer Credit; Debt, National; Economics; Exchange Control and Exchange
Rates; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Farm Credit System; Federal Reserxt System; Foreign Credits, U.S.; Foreign Investments; Gold; Housing; International Bank FOR Reconstruction and Dev'elopment; International De-
demand for funds to leave the bants uncomfortably overliquid. Europe. Thanks to the progressive relaxation of controls on the movement of funds between major European centres, banks and other financial institutions on the continent were busily en-
velopment Association; Money; Savings and Loan AssoaATioNs; Stocks and Bonds. See also statistics on banking in
gaged
(1950); Using the Bank (1947).
—
in
long-term plans to improve their
facilities for raising
data with articles on the various U.S. states and foreign
statistical
countries.
ENCYCLOP.EDIA
Britannica
Films.
— The
(J. A.
Federal
G. G.)
Reserve
System
and distributing capital across national boundaries.
Bank lending a reduced rate.
in West Germany continued to rise in 1962, at The fastest rate of increase was in longer-term
Rctntict Phlirph Dd|JUol ullUrull.
lending, partly because short-term borrowers were deciding to
tized church
consolidate their borrowing in the expectation that interest rates would not fall much further. The liquidity of German banks as
provide economic peoples in
^^^^ ^^^ Baptist World alliance, a
^"
voluntary association of 24.000,000 bap-
members, continued, through its commissions, to relief and to strive for greater freedom for several nations some communistic. Its publication,
—
whole was under some pressure by early 1962, largely because the central public authorities were making substantial payments abroad with cash which was not replaced in the banking system. There was also a widened demand for notes and coin by the
victions concerning religious liberty,
public at large. While the central
subjects.
a
terest rates,
it
Bundesbank did not
raise in-
did try to increase the attractiveness of holding
domestic short-term paper. In the Netherlands the
demand by
the private sector for
to
4j%
in April but,
aware that higher domestic short-term
might stimulate the banks to repatriate/ funds held abroad and add to inflationary demand, they arranged with the Netherlands Bankers' association to restrict the monthly rate of interest rates
increase of lending.
When
the limit
was exceeded
in
February,
the offending banks were compelled to lodge deposits equivalent to the excess lent
August, heard reports from
with the Netherlands bank, without interest.
A
all
Italy, France,
boom conditions. Other Commonwealth Countries.
in order to
moderate
the existing
— Canadian
chartered bank
and kindred
and was attended by Baptists
— Approximately
11.000 mes-
membership 9,97S,4SS, met in San Francisco in June 1962. total of 403,315 baptisms was reported for 1961-62. Con-
tion,
A
tributions to foreign missions were $10,700,000. supporting 1,563
missionaries
in
51
countries.
A
budget
of
$19,762,500 was
adopted.
A the
serious discussion of Baptist doctrine
book The Message of Genesis by Ralph
was engendered by Elliott of Midwest-
ern Baptist Theological seminary. Kansas City. Mo., in which
sale
the Central bank and the commercial
2,
Southern Bapfist Convenfion.
each of the others. In Switzerland, an agreement was reached
March between
rights
sengers from 32.59S churches of the Southern Baptist conven-
figuratively as well as literally.
banks on a tightening of credit restrictions
human
Spain and Portugal.
During the year the central banks of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Iceland signed an agreement to the effect that each bank should provide drawing rights in its own currency to late in
areas and reviewed Baptist con-
Latin conference, inspirational in content, met in
Barcelona, Spain, Aug. 30-Sept.
bank
on advances being exceeded by the banks. The monetary authorities raised the bank rate from
The 70-member Ex-
ecutive committee of the alliance, meeting in Oslo, Nor., in
from
credit led to the agreed limits
3j%
Baptist World, circulated in 107 countries.
the author maintained that the Old Testament presents truth
A
motion requiring the Sunday it from
School board to cease publishing the book and to recall
was defeated. Motions were passed reaffirming Baptist
in the Bible as the "authoritative, authentic, infallible
God
faith
Word
of
and expressing "abiding and unchanging objection" to the dissemination of views in Baptist seminaries that might undermine that faith. "
1962, but
Christian faith was emphatically asserted to be incompatible
slackened subsequently as the austerity measures introduced by
with communism, but caution was advi-sed "against irresponsible
assets continued to
grow rapidly
in the first half of
government began to^take hold. Bank liquidity, too high in months of 1962, was brought to a more profitable level in midyear when a rise in advances and in holdings of nonfederal government securities displaced some of the excess. the
use of the 'Communist' label as an accusation without sufficient
the early
evidence" and Southern Baptists were urged to "study com-
Australian trading banks signed serve
bank
in April,
new agreements with
the Re-
designed to widen their participation in
munism
as medical experts study cancer."
Referring to the supreme court's decision supporting the legality of a
the
law setting aside a day of
Baptist Joint
rest, the
Committee on Public
convention requested Affairs,
Washington,
BAR BADOS
198
Oklahoma
session Sept. 5-9 at
City. C.
D. Pettaway was
presi-
Convention of America (Negro), or^The Progressive Baptist Jan. 1962 met in Chicago ganised in Cincinnati in Nov. 1961, in attendance. The new convention with delegates from 14 states fellowship, freedom was "dedicated to work for
m
stated that
it
T M. Chambers, Sr., pastor of the Zion Hill BapThe Progressive Baptist church Los Angeles, was president. National Baptist Convention of convention separated from the members in 26,122 churches) fol-
and peace
"
tist
the
USA
(5,256,000
Inc.
meeting over the nonobservance lowing a dispute at the 1961 convention's constitution by the orof tenure provisions in the President of the National Baptist Convenganisation's officers.
Jackson of Chicago,
H. tion of the U.S.A., Inc., was J. Baptist also a vice-president of the See also
World
(R- E. E. H.)
Church Membership.
Bar Association. American:
who was
alliance.
see
Law; Societies and As-
sociations, U.S. headquarters bulldino of the American Baptist Pa., May 26, 1962, convention built In a circle, was dedicated at Valley Forge, rim of the building. with a crowd of g.OOO seated In the centre and under the to house $8,000,000 than more cost of at a The unusual structure was erected centre Is site of chapel II ofBcos and departments of the church. Circle at right
UNIQUE CHURCH EDIFICE: The
D.C,
to disseminate full information
on the decision so as to
freedom. clarify its significance for Baptist concern for religious Herschel H. Hobbs was re-elected president for 1962-63.
American Baptist Convention.— The S5th anniversary the convention was observed in Philadelphia in delegates attended, representing a
1,500,000 in 6,200 churches.
A
membership resolution
May
of
1962; 6,053
_ J D2rD3(]0S.
British colony
and former member of the West is located about 100
Indies Federation, Barbados
mi. E. of St. Vincent and St. Lucia. Area 166 sq.mi. Pop. (1962 Elizabeth II; governor est.) 242,000. Cap. Bridgetown. Queen, in 1962, Sir
John Montague Stow; premier, E.
W.
Barrow.
—
Census Data. A census taken in 1960 showed a total population of 231 785, an increase of 38,985 or 20.2% over the 1946 census. The density Bridgetown of population was 1,396.3 per square mile. Principal city: 11,304.
History.— In Jan. 1962 the U.K. secretary of state for the Barbados, where he had
of approximately
favouring medical
A
,
colonies, Reginald Maudling, visited
W. Barrow, about a new constitution would include provisions for single-member constituencies, a reduction in the voting age and reform of the
care tor the aged, opposed by some on the ground it would "strengthen the power of centralized government," was adopted. The application of the Puerto Rican Baptist convention of 52
talks with the premier, E.
churches for reception into the convention was unanimously
for the island. This
legislative council.
Following the granting of internal self-govern-
approved.
Eighteen new missionaries were commissioned to
ment
provision had already been
home and
foreign service.
in the
was reported that within a decade the convention expected a 30% increase in enrollments in its 25 four-year and 4 junior colleges and hoped to raise an additional $50,000,000 to meet the It
in Oct. 1961,
name
made
for a change
of the executive council to privy council
police service commissions with executive
powers
to deal
bers of services for which they were responsible. There
the
to
of Northern Baptist Theological seminary, Chicago,
was elected
president for the ensuing year.
The
general council of the convention unanimously adopted a by association" techniques of con-
gressional committees.
The Kansas supreme court
ruled in
May
that the First Baptist
church of Wichita, Kan., could not withdraw from the American Baptist convention, as a majority of its members had voted to do on July 13, 1960, because of the convention's affiliation with the National Council of Churches.
was contrary
The court declared
this action
to the provisions of the constitution of the church.
Other U.S.
Baptists.
—The National Association of Free Will
Baptists (225,000 members in 31 states), meeting at Nashville, Tenn., July 1962, voted unanimously to seek renewed Christian fellowship with the North Carolina Free Will Baptist convention.
The North Carolina group had withdrawn from
the National
association in March, taking nearly one-half of the state's 45,000
members with it. The division occurred when a minority of the members of the Edgemont church, Durham, N,C., endorsed by the state convention, protested the policies and doctrines of the pastor, the Rev. Ronald W. Creech, The state supreme court
ruled in favour of the majority, which had the support of the
National association.
The
National Baptist Convention of America (Negro), consti-
tuting 11,395 churches and 2,668,799 adherents, held
its
1962
mem-
was
also
be a parliamentary secretary for the ministry of development,
trade, industry tions,
resolution protesting "guilt
mainly
with appointments, dismissals and disciplinary control of
requirements.
The 1963 unified budget of $11,394,000 exceeded 1962 budget by $594,000. Benjamin P. Browne, president
and the
establishment of judicial and legal service, public service and
and labour, and for the ministry of communica-
works, housing and tourism.
In Feb. 1962 a meeting of representatives of the "little eight"
West Indian territories (Barbados, the Leeward Islands and Windward Islands groups), held in Barbados, agreed upon the formation of a new independent federation within the commonwealth.
During the year work was in progress on a cold-storage plant Bridgetown harbour site, which was expected to be ready in Jan. 1963, and on a new hospital, due for completion in 1964.
at the
5ce also West Indies, The. (G. A. Ho.) Education.— Schools (1960-61): public primary 121 (including 5 secondary modern schools); pupils 42,612; government-aided secondary 10, pupds 3.991, Erdiston teacher-training college, students 100; Barbados evenmg
institute; technical institute (full-time technical students, 195960, 597), Higher education (1960-61): Codrington (theological) college (affiliated to Durham university, Eng,), students 30,
—
^'°''° Monetary unit: West Indian dollar, with a par value /ir.'r''.""'' of W,I. $1,714 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1962-63 preliminary est.):
revenue W.I. $25,835,200, expenditure W,I, $27,813,901 Foreign trade (1961): imports W,I. $80,190,504, exports W.I. $43,284,413 Principal exports: sugar, molasses and rum (together 79%). Sugar crop (1961-62) 158,458 long tons (1960-61: 159,541 long tons).
Rqrloy
'^^^
^^^^ U.S. barley crop was indicated at 429,-
uaiicj. 495 000 bu„
9% above the 1961 crop of 395,669,000 bu, and 17% above the 1951-60 average. Acreage for harvest was 12,443,000 ac, 4% below 1961 and about 1% below average.
An
average yield of 34.5 bu. per acre was indicated,
d„„,., „..d
r Farmers
,.e
^r-L^- "°" ""•
„,.„„, .ve„,et:.\H:ru'':r;,';,.
,
.
bushel,
program
Nc-ST/oI:;'" wSl"°'7o.?''- 'n,.
A.lr:,L°;f wf^Ti.?*''- '°pc
u,"/„3ir
«..
?-r°': '«-'"
Carr>--over stocks on Oct. 1 were indicated at 447.995,000 bu up from 433.830.000 bu. on Oct. 1. 1961. Disappearance in the 1961-62 marketmg year was expected to be 444.000.000 bu. Imports were e.xpected to be a third larger than a year earlier The 1962-63 supply was estimated at 573.000.000 bu
f
p, ce-suppon loan,
Tz^vfhZ
r rr
>-'
"""-'
:
:
:
:
United States
Chine
;
;
:
:
cV:il'"":'"
:
:
;
;
;
::::::;
:
., m"!"!,^.' Umted Kingdom
WerGe..=n,:
!
!
!
!
!
I?'''"'-
Zl
U.S.
„
,.
Dep„..en; ,
o,
!
!
1961
1960
t^^fl
m'^|
395,649 ''°''°°
431,309
283,026
'''°°°
273,306 ^^^-oo"
.;.
^f°°°°
Itlfd
??f:?Jo°
l^'7°o°l
260,000 237,200
248,600 232,100
262,500 198,000
llt'ooo 89;372 100,326
!'7^:?SS
]tli°o°o
tif/o
131,630 '"''"'°
It^.^ot i24;80o
'llH'o
143,100
ii8,'28o
106;255
''''°°
''''"
"'"'
...cl^f
u,,7, 52^500
!
!
?h'ccJo
||
^
H?
H
''^
im
Hi
.
.
.
ZV:Z' a. w3ing.'oi
K='n,°=",
isso
|? '
:
'
'
:
;
7I
So
«o
101
IJ?
"' :373
^°" ^'^"^'^^
New Yorks 6,M Ihc.e 1.' vtaori •" '*'-'
™
f-
'^- '^"
^hc Giants threatened to bail out in the bottom of the ninth but with San Francisco runners at second and third, and two o"'.
'^ViJ'ie
^^^Covey
lined out to second
baseman Bobby Richard-
SOn.
t,
'""/ "^'"'^
'" ^'" ^"°"''° '""^ ^'^' ^'°'^ ''"^ '^^ 2, On Whitey Ford's record tenth Series triumph ^ord Spread ten Giant hits at his own discretion but still needed
.
n^st game, 6 to
home run bv third baseman Cletis Bover to reThe Yankees added 3 more insurance runs in to deal BiUv ODell the lo^^s The first ^^an Fran-
a seventh-inning ,
2 to 0.
(H. R. Sii.) '^^^
^^^-™^j°'''"^'^ ^35^^^" season ended much BdSBbsll as it began, still dominated by the New York . \ ankees. who won their second worid series in a row' and 20th m 27 appearances, by whipping the San Francisco Giants, four games to three, in a play-off stretched to 13 days by foul weather, The series lasted until Oct. 16 before the Yankees captured the at Candlestick park,
1
to 0.
The National league officially expanded from eight to ten teams in 1962. as the American league had done a year earlier, The new entries in the National were the New York Mets and the Houston Colt .45s. The Milwaukee Braves, after finishing in place with attendance off from
more than 1,000.000 to less Chicago syndicate in November.
than 775.000. were bought by a In the American league, the sixth-place Cleveland Indians were
bought by a syndicate headed by general manager Gabe Paul, In midsummer ceremonies at Cooperstown, N.Y.. the Hall of Fame inducted four new members: Jackie Robinson, Bob Feller,
Edd Roush and Bill McKechnie. Major League Races.^San Francisco trailed the Los Angeles Dodgers by four games in the final week of the campaign, but up the National league race on what was to have been the last day of the regular season. San Francisco won the finally tied
three-game play-off. rallying for 4 runs in the ninth inning of
game
ja?
59 'o
:=f rrr "
91895
m
the third
^1
.
^\hom he had split two earlier series tests. The Yankees got '° Sanford for the game's Only run in the fifth. New York loaded the bases with none out, and Bill Skowron scored from third as Tony Kubek bounced into a doubk plav.
000 bu., bringing total supply to an indicated 220.000.000 bu. Exports 1961-62 were nearly 45^0 below average.
fifth
tt
'^
fol
^''
j»3
9«
"•""""^'
i^i
H 120
Yoh,
•*«
"
each ot
less innings
game
86
:
Canadian barley production, indicated at 163,816,000 bu., was 4: c above the 1961 crop but 52^^ below the 1955-39 average. AJthough average yields ^ere a third above 1961, acreage for har^•est was slightly lower. Carr>'-over was indicated at 58,000,-
seventh
!?
" "
'
„.,.«
'"^^^^
linooobu.)
"'V62'' 429,495
tl
ic^llt'nX°L7L"J.'^
Barley Production of the Principal Producing Countries
Cour.rv
IS?
"7^""''
"
;
'
^
Chicogc
aboul half was acquired by Ih. ,„,,,„-
,'
'
•
•
PHiiXhic;
about l^^
te
"•*"•'
Table I.— f,no( Mo/or loooue Sfondings, 1962
cents per bushel (73 ^c of parity). Price supports were restricted growers who participated in the -1962 feed-grain
to
"--
"°
games and the third-place Angels bv ten
c . L m September received an average of 88.8 cents per compared with 96.8 cents a vear earlier The national average support price on the 1962 crop was unchanged from 93 •
'-"
at
Los Angeles
to turn a 4 to 2 deficit into a 6 to
solve a 2 to
2 tie.
the late innings cisco run
The
came
in the second and snapped Ford's record of scorepitched in world series plav at 33 j Giants evened the classic bv winning game two in style on a 3-hitter by Sanford. The lone run needed by Sanford
was produced against the
loser. Terrj'. in
the
first
inning on
Chuck Killer's leadoff double, a sacrifice and a ground out. A home run by McCovey in the seventh completed the scoring. The series switched to Yankee stadium for the third game and New York once again moved out in front, two games to one. The Yankees 3, Giants 2. Bill Stafford blanked the Giants two were down in the top of the ninth. Ed Bailey then hit
final score:
until
a 2-run
home run
but the decision was beyond reach. Stafford
choked the Giant offense on 4 5. but kayoed the starter and
hits.
The Yankees managed only
with a 3-run seventh featured by Roger Maris' 2-run single. San Francisco squared the series by capturing the fourth game, 7
to 3. Killer
became
slam a bases-loaded relief pitcher
the
home
first
National league player ever to
run
in a
Marshall Bridges
lock, brought victor>- to
loser, Billy Pierce,
in
wodd
series.
His blast
off
the seventh broke a 2-all dead-
Don Larsen
and sealed defeat for Jim Coates, who had preceded Bridges on the mound. The in relief,
Giants used four pitchers, starting with Juan Marichal, the
Yankees used three, starting with Ford. The fifth game, postponed one day by to the series
Yankees.
5 to 3.
win and Sanford
home run
Rookie
Tom
his first loss
rain in New York, went Tresh gave Terr>- his first by coming up with a 3-run
in the eighth inning to dissolve a 2 to 2 tie
and thrust
the Yankees in front, three games to two.
A
full-blown storm forced the postponement of
game
six at
Candlestick park for three days, but when the weather cleared,
BASEBALL
200
veteran Billy Pierce restored Giant hopes by halting the Yankees, home 5 to 2, on a masterful 3-hitter— including a bases-empty
run by Maris.
It
was the 13th win without defeat for Pierce
at
Candlestick park in 1962.
But while Pierce prolonged the miliar story in the seventh
The Yankees voted 34 Giants voted 29
game
series, the
The Yankee's Mickey Mantle was named the
to 0.
league's
most
each worth $7,291.49.
—
won
The Maury
Individual Performances.
pades of Dodger shortstop
1
having previously valuable player of the year for the third time, of the Dodgers received the award in 1956 and 1957. Maur>- W'ills
full shares,
full shares,
outcome was
— the Yankees
a fa-
Ray Herbert of the White Sox was 20 and 9, Camilo Pascual of Dick Donovan of Cleveland 20 and 10 and Sox won seven Minnesota 20 and 11. Early Wynn of the White games to run his lifetime total to 299. but three late-season efwere rebuked. forts to join the exclusive "300 club" leading winner.
each worth $9,882.74. The
fantastic base-stealing esca-
Wills highlighted the 1962
major league season. Wills stole 104 bases in 165 games, as compared with the 96 stolen by the immortal Ty Cobb in 1S6 games
MVP
the National league's
award.
Tom
Tresh (Yankees)
and Hubbs (Cubs) were named rookies of the year. All-Sfar Games.— Two .\11-Star games were played again in 1962. the National league taking the
first
game
3 to
1
at
Wash-
pinch single by Musial of the Cardinals and the base-running technique of the Dodgers' Wills sparked the Nationals to two sLxth-inning runs that held up to get the Giants'
A
during the 1915 campaign.
ington. D.C.
There were five no-hit. no-run games pitched in the majors: by Sandy Koufax of the Dodgers. Earl Wilson and Bill Monbouquette of the Boston Red Sox. Bo Belinsky of the Los Angeles Angels and Jack Kralick of the Minnesota Twins.
Marichal the win. The loser was the Twins' Pascual. The second game, at Chicago, went to the American league,
Wills's
teammate, outfielder
Tommy
Davis,
won
the National
league batting championship with .346, led in runs-batted-in
with 153 and
in hits
with 230, while the Giants' Willie
Mays
topped home-run output with 49.
Two Dodger
pitchers.
Koufax and Don Drysdale,
also regis-
tered National league-leading performances even though Los
Angeles
lost the
pennant. Koufax boasted the best earned-run
average, 2.54, but an ailment in the index finger of his pitching
hand shelved him
in
midseason. Koufax' record was 14 and
7.
Drysdale topped the league in wins with 25 against 9 losses and
9 to 4, on a barrage of home runs by Runnels of the Red Sox, Leon Wagner of the Angels and Rocky Cola%ito of the Tigers. The winner was Ray Herbert of the White Sox, the loser Art Mahaffey of the Phillies. The Dodgers' John Roseboro got the only National league home run. The victory marked the American league's 17th win in the series, compared with 15 losses and 1 tie.
Major league
ofiBcials
and player representatives
ber agreed to return to one All-Star
Managerial Changes.
—A
game
in
Novem-
a season.
occurred in 1962:
rarity
there
won the Cy Young award as major league pitcher of the year. The Giants' Jack Sanford was 24 and 7. Cincinnati had two 20game winners Bob Purkey, 23 and 5, and Joey Jay. 21 and 14. St. Louis veteran Stan Musial snapped Honus Wagner's National league lifetime record for base hits. 3,430, with room to
were no managerial changes during the season.
spare as he ran his total to 3.544 with 143
Red Sox elevated manager Mike Higgins into a vice-presidency and named Johnny Pesky to succeed him as field boss.
—
hits.
Rookie second baseman Ken Hubbs of the Chicago Cubs went 78 games and 418 chances without an error to set two major league records, both held previously by former Boston
Red Sox
second baseman Bobby Doerr. In the American league, Pete Runnels of the
Red Sox won his Harmon
home runs and drove
in 126 runs
to lead both departments.
Detroit's
Hank
2.21, while the
land fired
his coach,
Mel McGaha and
Hank Bauer
in
Yankees' Ralph Terry, with 23 and
THE MAURY WILLS SLIDE: M«ury
12,
was the
manager of
at
Bobby
Milwaukee. The Boston
—The Los Angeles Dodgers drew a major league
record 2.755.184 paid customers in 1962 to help the expanded
30.1% over 1961. The American
Na-
11,360,377, an increase of
league, with five
teams over the
1.000.000 mark, attracted 10,015,056 fans, a decrease of
1.5%
from 1961.
Minor Leagues.
Aguirre posted the lowest earned-run average,
as
turn hired Birdie Tebbetts.
Bragan was signed to replace Tebbetts
Attendance.
left
Eddie Lopat succeeded him. Cleve-
tional league establish a record of
second batting championship. His average was .326. Killebrew of the Twins hit 48
At season's end. however.
Kansas City and
—Table
III indicates the 1962 permant and
play-off winners in baseball's
triple-A league
minor leagues. In November the American Association (founded 1902) was dis-
Wlll« of Ihe Lot Ani eles Dodgers plunging Into second base In a game with the Chicago Cubi Sept. 14, 1962, In Chicago. Willt beat he throw for his 91st stolen base of the season. He went on to lurpais "Ty" Cobb's record of 96 stolen bases In on
BASKETBALL Table
II.
Attendance at Mo/or Leag
201
BELGIUM
202
Denver on March 31. The women's crown was regained by Nashville Business college at St. which trimmed Wayland college (Plainview, Tex.) 63-38 Joseph. Mo. ("Red' ) Professional.—The Boston Celtics of Coach Arnold defeat the Auerbach. after trailing three games to two. rallied to fourth Los Angeles Lakers in the seven-game play-off for their The straight National Basketball association championship. highlight of the N.B.A. season
The
was the play of Wilt Chamberlain.
Philadelphia Warrior centre not only set league scoring 100 for the third successive season but also scored
7-ft.
marks
points in one
game
—
at
Hershey, Pa., on March
when he
2.
scored 36 field goals and 28 foul shots against the New York Knickerbockers. Chamberlain also established new season highs
most points scored (4.029), scoring average per game (50.4 points), most field goals made (1,597) and most free throws made (835). Other leading scorers on game average were Walt Bellamy (Chicago Packers). 31.6; Bob Pettit (St. Louis Hawks), for
31.1;
Oscar Robertson (Cincinnati Royals) and Jerry West Bill Russell of the Celtics was named the most valuable player; Bellamy was voted the rookie of
(Lakers), 30.8 each. league's
the year. Toble II.— N.B.A. Championship Play-offs,
1
962
Mna
Eoii
,
Brussels districts except for the (Louvain) district and in the was bilingual. French was the Brussels agglomeration, which provinces of Liege, Luxembourg, Namur official language in the which belongs to and in the district of Nivelles,
and Hainaut ten years there was a language centhe Brabant pro%'ince. Every villages along the language frontier sus to determine which or pass from one language should be considered to be bilingual caused controversy, and the system to the other. Each census For that reason it was decided results were alwavs disputed. introduced for the stabilization to abolish the census. A bill was
adjustment of the frontiers of the language frontier and for an On Feb. 15 it was passed of the provinces according to language. abstentions. Several by the chamber by 135 votes to 18 with 23 Social members of the government coalition parties (Christian dissension was even and SociaUst) voted against or abstained. The more apparent when the bill was discussed in the senate. moveFederalism was still promoted by the Walloon Popular
ment the leader of which. Andre Renard. died on July 20, and was succeeded by Andre Genot and also by the Flemish Popular movement, but both minority movements disagreed about the form of federation. The Walloon extremists aimed at federalism based on politically and economically autonomous Wallonia (
)
ity in the
Eoslerr (inoll
country was against federalism and in favour of defor which a revision of the constitution was
centralization,
Boilon 117, Philodelphia 89 Philadelphio 1 13, Boilon 106 Baslon 129, Philadelphia 114 Philadelphia 1 10, eoston 106 Boilan 119, Philadelphia 104 Philadelphia 109, Boiton 99 Ballon 109, Philadelphia 107
We!'!
of
and Flanders, whereas the Flemings conceived federalism as a frontier between the Flemish and Walloon regions only with regard to language, culture, administration and justice. The major-
Los Angeles 132, Detroit 108 Los Angeles 1 27, Detroit 1 1 2 Los Angeles 111, Detroit 1 06
103 PhHodelphio 11 0, Syr< Philadelphio 97, Sv'ocuie 82 Syrocuie 1 01 Philadelphia 100 Syrccuie 106, Philadelphia 99 Philadelphia 121. Syracuse 104
provmces Dutch was the official language in the and Limburg, in the Leuven West and East Flanders, Antwerp
trative matters,
at
required.
The Boston 1 22, los Angeles Los Angeles Boston 1 IS, Los Angeles Boston 1 19, Boston 1 1 0,
emir.nols
DelToil 1 23, CiiKin Cincinnati 1 29, De Detroit 1 1 8, Cincin Detroit 1 I 2, Cincin
clash
in Brussels
All.chompionshlp fmalj
between Flemings and Walloons flared into rioting 14. At least 19 persons were injured and
on Oct.
50 were arrested.
los Angeles I 08 129, Boston 122 1 1 5 1 1 7, Boston Los Angeles 103 121 1 26, Boston Los Angeles 103 Los Angeles 1 07
also had repercussions on religious afLeon Cardinal Suenens. the new Roman Catholic primate of Belgium, who succeeded Joseph Cardinal van Roey (d. 1961), decided that the archbishopric of Mechelen Malines should become the archbishopric of Mechelen-Brussels and the Flemish province of Antwerp should form a new diocese. The Belgian
The language problem
fairs.
(
The Cleveland Pipers won the first American Basketball league play-off championship by edging the Kansas City Steers three games to two. The Pipers captured the last game 106-102. (D. Sr.) See also Betting and Gambling.
)
bishops decided to maintain the unity of the bilingual Catholic university at Leuven
whOe
Roman
securing the full expansion
of the two national cultures.
Basutoland: see British South African Territories. Bauxite: see .Aluminum; Mining. Bechuanaland: see British South African Territories. Beef: see Meat. Beer: see Brewing and Beer. Belgian Congo: see Congo, Republic of the.
n
1
A
•
DClglUIII.
constitutional
monarchy on the North
of Europe. Belgium
is
Germany, Luxembourg and France. Area 11.779 (
sea coast
bordered by the Netherlands, sq.mi.
Pop.
1962 est.) 9.228,729. Principal cities (pop.. 1962 est.): Brussels
(cap.) 168.438 (metropolitan area, 1,051,665);
Antwerp 254,856;
Liege 153,978; Ghent 158,414; Bruges 52,167; Charleroi
25.605.
Ruanda-Urundi
Namur
was passed on Nov.
1 by a vote of 154 to 37, members abstaining and 5 voting against. July 1 the mandated territories of Ruanda and Urundi became independent as Rwanda and Burundi, the first a republic, the latter ruled by a mwami. Belgian technicians remained but
with
7
Christian Social
On
troops were withdrawn. Diplomatic relations with Leopoldville
were resumed and
many
Belgians returned.
The Belgian govern-
ment favoured the end of the Katanga secession. Economic activity progressed. A new blast furnace able to produce 600,000 tons of steel a year was inaugurated at Seraing, bank of the Ghent-Terneuzen sea canal near Zelzate, where a steel plant would be built.
(q.v.),
which
it
administered as a United Na-
Rwanda and
the
;
—The passionate controversy over the language prob-
i>ersistcd.
reform also met strong opposition and
near Liege. Foundation laying started at a large site on the right
Theodore Lefevre. lem
for taxation
32.860;
on July 1, 1962. as kingdom of Burundi. Belgium is a member of NATO, Benelux, the European Economic and Coal and Steel communities, Euratom. the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Western European union and the Council of Europe. King. Baudouin I prime minister in 1962, History.
bill
Social party. It
Belgium's last-remaining overseas territory.
tions trust territory, achieved independence
the republic of
The
divided the trade-union and conservative wings of the Christian
According to the 1932
bill
on language
in adminis-
A
murder trial engaged the attention of the counOctober-November. It ended Nov. 10 when Mrs. Jean Noel of the murder of her infant daughter, born armless after the mother had taken the drug thalidomide during her pregnancy: and her husband, mother and sister and sensational
try in
Van de Put was acquitted
their physician.
Jacques Casters, were acquitted of charges of having aided and abetted the killing. See also Congo, Republic of the;
Foreign Investments;
Ruanda-Urundl
(H. St.)
Education —Schools (19S9-60): primary (including preprimary) 14 273 pupils 1,353,127, teachers 51,265; secondary 1,242, pupils 2 18 286 teach ers (195 7-58, official only) 10,059; vocatio,;aI 1,57^ pupHs 206 457 teacher-trammg 184, students 24,737. Institutions of higher educa'ion 19 (mdudmg 5 universities with 26,531 students in 1960-61). total studenti Finance and Banking.-^Monetary unit: Belgian franc with a par value """ '^,?- ''°"="'- ^"''S'^' »'«'
of
the
'•""
Plnba"
BIOCHE MISTRY In Jan. 1962 public hearings were completed on legali2ed bingo scandals in
New
York. Thomas B. Gilchrist, Jr., appointed by to head the inquiry, declared that "evils have permeated all phases of control and conduct of bingo at all levels." Following the official inquiry, a Rockefeller-sponsored
Gov. Nelson Rockefeller
bill
was enacted by the
state legislature
which
up stringent
set
regulations over bingo operations.
On March
1962, Joseph
("Newsboy") Moriarty, the numbers king of Hudson county, N.J., was sentenced to serve a twoto three-year prison term when he pleaded guilty to gambling 2,
charges. Subsequently a cache of $2,590,000 found in Jersey City was traced to Moriarty.
two garages
in
New
federal anticrime laws enacted' late in 1961 were invoked In March the owners of two midwestern racing "scratch sheets" were indicted by a Louisville, Ky., federal grand jury and
207
geologists prospected for mineral resources. stations were planned, for Bhutan's
Three generating
first electric net.
In April U.S. Ambassador to India John K. Galbraith visited
Bhutan, the
American envoy ever
first
See also India. Finance.
to enter the
(P.
M.
kingdom.
A. L.; G. C. Li.)
— Monetary
unit: Indian rupee. Budget (1961 est.) balanced at Rs. 4.000.000, including annual subsidy from India, Rs. 500,000. Development plan, 1961-64: total estimated expenditure Rs. 172,000,000, all granted or guaranteed by India. Production and Trode.— Chief products: (exported) timber, fruit, metal handcrafts; (other) rice, food grains, potatoes, forest products, handloom cotton cloth. Chief imports: cotton textiles, light machinery and equipment. .\bout 95% of external trade, including much unrecorded barter, is with India; total annual value about Rs. 1,000,000.
Bicycling: see Cycling.
in 1962.
charged with shipping gambling materials
On July
30, 1962,
Thomas
F. Kelly, Sr.,
in interstate
Thomas
commerce.
F. Kelly, Jr.,
and George L. Kelly, publishers of the Illitwis Sports News in Chicago, were fined $5,000 each while Louis Efkeman, publisher of the Louisville Daily Sports
News and
the Kentucky
News
Co.,
was fined $2,000. They appealed. In early Jan. 1962, with the New York arrest of a man charged with attempting to bribe two North Carolina State basketball players nearly two years before, the widespread basketball gamInc.,
had involved 37 players from 22 colleges and 48 specific games, thus overshadowing the 1951 scandals which involved 33 players from 7 colleges. (V. W. P.) bling scandal
•
Great
— The
amounts staked on various forms 1961 were: football pools i 101, 448,000; greyhound
Brifain.
of betting in
total
totalizators £62,900,000;
horse totalizators £33,247,658;
Irish
Hospitals' sweepstakes £17,912,436. These figures showed increases or decreases relative to the 1960 figures of —8.1%, -t-0.9%,
+9.9% and +2.9%,
respectively.
^''°^^''"
RinPhpinictrV DiUUIIClllloUy. thesized were
made
of units called
Collnearity.
the understanding of in 1962.
amino
— Major how
advances
in
proteins are syn-
Proteins consist of a linear sequence
acids. Since the
work of
F.
Sanger on
in-
it has been known that each protein molecule contains a unique sequence of amino acids. This sequence must be genetically determined, and so for many years it
sulin in the early 1950s,
has been assumed that there exist sequences of sites in genes that correspond with amino acid sequences in proteins. Since the 1940s it
has also been
ribonucleic
known that genetic information resides (DNA), long molecules consisting
acid
sequences of units called nucleotides. Thus
it
in
deoxy-
of linear
was widely believed
that the order of genetic sites could be identified with the order of nucleotides in
way
DNA
the order of
and that these in turn specified in some amino acids in proteins. The appeal of this
hypothesis lay chiefly in
its
simphcity. for prior to 1962
it
was
unsupported by experiment. Systems for exploring the relationship between genetic and amino acid sequences have been developed in a number of laboratories; the first system to bear fruit
published toward the end of 1961, following liberalization of the gambling laws, showed that the number of
was based on the bacterial enzyme tr>'ptophan synthetase, studied by C. Yanof sky and co-workers at Stanford. From a large number
bookmakers' permits in force in England, Wales and Scotland on June 1, 1961, was 9,944 and the number of betting-office
of tr>T3tophan-requiring mutants, two were selected that were
hcences, 8,802. Commercial bingo clubs grew and a number of clubs began to offer facilities for playing chemin de fer and
adjacent nucleotides.
Official figures
roulette for high stakes.
By
late 1962 surveys indicated that the
shown, by genetic recombination analysis, to carry alterations
Amino
in
acid analyses of the altered enz>Tne
produced by these mutants revealed that in each case the same amino acid had been replaced by another. This constitutes a first
British
were spending about £1,000.000,000 a year in about 20,000 betting shops, and it appeared that a bill might be offered
step in the proof of the hypothesis of colinearity outlined above.
to limit licensing of these establishments.
animals,
See also Horse Racing.
(H.
W.
Sv.)
Messenger and Transfer RNA. thesis,
DNA
is
— In
found exclusively
cells of
higher plants and
in the nucleus.
however, takes place predominantly
in the
Protein syn-
cytoplasm;
i.e.,
on small ribonucleoprotein particles called ribosomes. Thus information must be transferred from DN.\ to the ribosomes, and prior to 1961 it was believed that this was accomplished by in or
^^
independent monarchy of south central Asia, Bhutan is located in the eastern Himalayas between Tibet, Sikkim and India. Area 19,305 sq.mi. Pop. (1961 est.) 680,000. Capitals, Punakha (winter) and Tashi-Chho (summer). Bhutan, which joined the Colombo plan in 1962, has special treaty relations with India whereby India is responsible for the
Dhllton
DllUldll.
conduct of Bhutan's external
Maharaja, Jigme Dorji Jigme Dorji. History. In 1961 and early 1962 Bhutanese leaders had refused to allow Indian troops to guard the Chinese-Bhutan fron-
Wangchuk; prime minister
—
tier;
affairs.
in 1962,
because of the large number of traversible passes leading
down from
Tibet, Bhutan appeared even more vulnerable than Nepal or Sikkim to Chinese invasion. Peking casually claimed Bhutan as a former dependency of Tibet but did nothing in 1962 to enforce this claim.
Internal development projects continued throughout 1962. In
March work was begun on the new permanent capital at Thimbu, and a second highway to India was being developed. Two other highways were planned. Three new hospitals were planned for Thimbu, Paro and Tashigang. The 28 existing schools were to be increased to 58. Demonstration farms were opened. Indian
conventional synthesis of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RN.A) in the nucleus, using
DNA
as a template to indicate the sequence
of nucleotides in ribosomal RN.A.
in
F.
in bacteria infected
However, Jacob and M. Meselson discovered that
with a bacterial virus no ribosomal
RNA
fact, all the virus proteins are synthesized
is
1961 S. Brenner,
manufactured. In
on old ribosomes that
had been present in the bacterium prior to infection. The information for virus protein was found to reside in an unstable class of RNW molecules that were synthesized on virus DNA as template and then attached to bacterial ribosomes. Thus, the ribosomes could be visualized as nonspecific machinery capable of making any protein if provided with the appropriate information. Subsequently, "messenger" RNA was shown to be present in uninfected bacteria, plants and mammalian cells as well. After the process of transcription, in which information contained in the nucleotide sequence of
senger 4-letter
RNW. code
DNA
is
transferred to mes-
the next step must involve translation from the in
messenger
RNA
to the 20-letter
since there are only 4 kinds of nucleotides in
code
in proteins,
RN.\ and 20 kinds
208
BIOCHE MISTRY amino acids
of
in proteins.
(The precise nature of the code wiU
in this process is stUl another class be taken up below.) Central transfer RNA. There appear to be of RNA molecules called for each amino acid. Further20 species of transfer RNA, one
more,
in
every hving
enzymes that catalyze bond between one amino acid and its RNA molecule. The burden of recognition cell
there are 20
the formation of a covalent
corresponding transfer
RNA
is thus transin messenger of a specific nucleotide sequence "adaptor," the transfer ferred from the amino acid to its
RNA
by conventional molecule. This recognition can be accomplished indicated in nucleotide-pairing of the type present in DNA, as Watson and F. Crick. the now-proven structure proposed by J. was supAgain, prior to 1962 this role assigned to transfer ported by little more than faith. Early in 1962, however, M. W.
RNA
Nirenberg and co-workers at the National Institutes of Health in protein demonstrated the direct participation of transfer synthesis in a cell-free system. Subsequently the following experi-
RNA
ment was performed by
a large
group of workers at Purdue unithe
versity and the Rockefeller institute: to its specific transfer
was coupled
RNA
of the cysteine into protein catalyzed
amino acid cysteine
molecule, and transfer
by a synthetic messenger was
containing the nucleotide sequence that codes for cysteine
demonstrated. The cysteine, attached to cysteine-specific transfer
RNA, was
then chemically converted to another amino acid,
alanine. Finally, synthetic
messengers specific for alanine and
compared with respect to their ability to catalyze the transfer of alanine from this artificial complex to protein. It was observed that alanine attached to cysteine-specific transfer RNA no longer followed the code for alanine but instead behaved like cystein^. This experiment proved that transfer RNA cysteine were
plays the central role in protein synthesis attributed to
it
above.
During 1962 a number of attempts were made to fractionate the mixture of 20 transfer
RNA's. The most successful of these
appeared to be that of R. Holley and co-workers at Cornell, using countercurrent distribution. There are
RNA's, however,
since at least several
more than 20 transfer amino acids have more
RNA. In one case, two transfer RNA's specific amino acid have been purified and were shown to
than one transfer for a single
respond to different synthetic messengers in the system described above.
—
Amino Acid Code. Following the work of Brenner and coworkers, which indicated that ribosomes were nonspecific protein synthetic machinery, a
number
of laboratories
demonstrated that
ribosomes could make foreign proteins. They made lumoglobin when directed by reticulocyte and plant virus liacterial
RNA
protein
when
directed by plant virus
RNA. A
significant
advance
occurred
in the summer of 1961 when Nirenberg found that a synthetic polynucleotide containing a single repeating unit, uracil, directed the synthesis of a "protein" containing a single amino
acid, phenylalanine.
This discovery opened the door to further
tlucidation of the code
when S. Ochoa and co-workers in New found that by using synthetic polynucleotides containing an excess of uracil, plus one or more additional nucleotides ranN ork
domly
distributed along the polynucleotide chain, other amino acids could be directed into protein along with phenylalanine. By the spring of 1962 Nirenberg and
PATTERN OF HEREDITY:
Model o( DNA molccuin, the phytlcal bstli o( htrtdlly. »>> •ccompanled by (n InUrprallva modal In tha form of an InlerIwlnad laddar of haarti, diamond!, clubi and ipadei. In tha U.S Science pavilion at Iha Saatlla World'! (air In 1962. Tha 1962 Nobel prlta (or medicine wa! !hared by an American and Iwo Brltl!h lolantliU who dlioovared the molecular !truoture o( DNA
Ochoa could write down the composition of at least one set of three nucleotides that codes for each of the 20 amino acids. For some amino acids there were at least two code triplets; in this sense the code is said to be "degenerate." By Sept. 1962 the code degeneracy was found to be more extensive than suspected earlier, and some code triplets that did not contain uracil were known. The evidence that a set of three nucleotides codes for each amino acid came from genetic studies carried out by Crick and co-workers in Cambridge, Eng. They studied mutants of a bacterial virus that were induced by proflavine, a chemical believed
39.S 49.6 49.9 44.6 44.9 40.8 42.4 31.0
Tobago
.
.
.
32.4 23.4 35.3 22.4 34,7 43.4 45.8 28.1
21.4 44.4
Finlond
18.6 17.0 17.4 15,8 16,6 18.4
18.3 17.5 17.9 14.0 21.3 18.8
10.5 11.4 16.3
1
210 Rank and Table II.— £it(mo».d Dmalh Haft pmr 100,000 Populofion, Stalet, 1 96 cwifoe* o^ Total Deolh. for lh» Ttn Laoding Couwf, Uniltd
Death
Dl»ai«i of htort Molignont ntoplaimi Vascular l«ilani Accld«iMi Certain dli*ot«i of aorly Infancy Influanxo and pneumonlo •xcluding pnaumonia
General orleriotcleroiU ellit DIabe
Pei
BLOOD, DISE ASES OF THE some manner concerned with the development of leukemia in mice. During the past two years, the important role of the thymus in the production of immunity was brought out. It was shown that an animal whose thymus had been removed could no was
in
longer react either to antigens (which normally stimulate the production of antibodies) or to transplanted tissue (which nor-
mally is rejected). Further studies indicated that if the thymus was removed early in life, lymphoid tissue throughout the entire body did not develop and the animal became wasted. Thymectomized animals were exceedingly vulnerable to infections that
many
in
respects resembled certain previously unexplained dis-
turbances in humans;
agammaglobulinemia (deficiency or absence of gamma globulin in the blood and alymphocytosis (lack or absence of lymphocytes). These deficiency conditions were characterized by numerous infections, lack of the immune response and the absence of the cells concerned in immune ree.g.,
i
the plasmocytes and the lymphocytes. These cells, normally found in the blood, were missing; it seemed likely that
actions;
i.e.,
prime cause of their deficiency rested on the absence of the thymus gland. Whether the thymus acted through a special hormone (and was thus an endocrine gland) or by means of "mesa
senger" l>'mphocytes that were eventually to become immunologically competent was not clear. (See also Bacteriology.)
—
Leukemia. In 1960 an abnormality of one of the small chromosomes was described in chronic granulocytic leukemia. The abnormal chromosome was named Ph' in honour of Philadelphia, the city in which it was discovered; its consistent occurrence in this form of leukemia was confirmed by many investigators. The reduced size of the abnormal chromosome was in with the deletion hypothesis, which suggests that a somatic mutation may result in deletion of part of the genetic material, line
thereby producing a
new
(neoplastic) kind of cell growth.
The
211
Treatment of the acute leukemias was perhaps somewhat improved by the use of two new agents, leurocristine and methyl
GAG
(methyl glyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone). The
to other drugs It
was
(
corticosteroids, 6-mercaptopurine, methotrexate).
too early to define the value of the second material,
still
GAG. Reactions to this drug were often quite severe. In acute leukemia of adults, massive doses of the adrenocortical steroids were found to be
more
consistently beneficial than other
agents. Nevertheless, acute leukemia remained largely a hopeless
disease that could in the future
—
was hoped
it
than treated
in
— be better prevented sometime
the present.
Treatment of the chronic leukemias was more and more deless and less on X-rays. The effects
pendent on chemical agents,
of several agents related to nitrogen
mustard were constantly being assessed; some of them seemed to have a little more promise than others. Among those apparently offering promise were cyclophoshamide (Cytoxan) and sarcolysin. (See also Cancer.)
—
A new radioactiv'e antiglobulin test was developed measuring the amount of antibody attached to the surface of red cells; this antibody was responsible for the development of autoimmune hemolytic anemia. .\ hereditary deficiency of an Anemia.
for
enzyme in
i
pyruvate kinase
metabolism was found
spherocytic
)
that functions in phosphate transfer
)
to be the cause of a special kind
of hereditary hemolytic anemia.
hemoglobin was discovered study of certain individuals in
1962 study by British investigators indi-
chromosome damage occurred
tually called
hemoglobin
Ziirich.
was harmless
X-ray therapy for rheumatism of the spine (ankylosing These chromosomal injuries were of stable and unstable types. Unstable abnormalities such as chromosome breaks and abnormalities in size and shape might persist for days, weeks or years.
.
The
stable abnormalities, such as Ph'^ positive cells,
probably possessed a selective advantage over normal
cells,
common
in the
leukemia. In acute leukemia, the chromosome
is
cells,
glucose-6-phos-
found rather widely
Mediterranean, oriental and African regions and in people
originating from these areas.
In the treatment of aplastic anemia, massive doses of testosterone were being used, with occasional beneficial effects. Bone
marrow
transplantation was of doubtful value, chiefly because
the homograft rejection block.
To be
phenomenon was
still
the great stumbling
sure, the use of chemical agents, such as 6-mercapto-
purine, might be helpful in suppressing the rejection
phenome-
non; unfortunately, these chemicals were toxic to the bone mar-
number was
row and thus could be used only with utmost caution. Autoimmune Disease. A rather large segment of human and probably animal disease apparently was due to an abnormal immune mechanism that occurs within the body and attacks the
often increased from the normal of 46 to 47 and various chromo-
somal abnormalities were found, but by no means as consistently as in chronic granulocytic leukemia.
Some
defect of the red
cells;
haps thus resulting eventually in viable clones of abnormal i.e.,
per-
to the individual
unless he was given sulfa drugs. This condition resembles an-
after
spondylitis)
of
who had developed hemolytic anemia The new hemoglobin, even-
phate dehydrogenase deficiency, which
A
non-
response to sulfa drug therapy.
other far more
methods.
(
A new anomaly
in Ziirich. Switz.. as a result of a
exposure, as had already been demonstrated by experimental and cated that extensive and persistent
derived
methyl
mutation could occur as a result of undue chemical or X-ray statistical
first,
from the periwinkle plant, resulted in arrest of mitosis in metasome cases of acute leukemia. of childhood, the new drug brought about remissions in cases that had become resistant phase. In
types of leukemia evidently were associated with the
—
(
)
own
individual's
cells
or
tissues.
First
studied
in
hemolytic
presence in the blood of large amounts of certain proteins. This
anemia, this mechanism was then suggested for idiopathic throm-
was particularly true of the leukemiclike multiple myeloma in which there was a high concentration of an abnormal gamma
bocytopenic purpura and later for a host of other conditions.
Recent studies using the immunofluorescence technique demonstrated that the abnormal globulin was produced in the
sympathetic ophthalmia, rheumatoid arthritis and even myasthenia gravis were put into this category. Recent e.xperimenta-
cytoplasm of the plasma
tion indicated that these conditions might arise through the development of abnormal clones of immunity-producing immunocompetent) cells (immunocytes) that could then attack
globulin.
cells.
In a disorder originally called
macroglobulinemia, a high concentration of a heavy globulin with a molecular weight of 1,000,000 or more was found. This condition was associated with the presence in (macroglobulin
)
bone marrow and other organs of abnormal lymphoid cells, which apparently produce the abnormal globulin. Certain lymphoid cells, certain reticulum cells and certain plasma cells the
all
of
which are components of the immunocyte complex (i.e., were often asimmunity-producing mechanism
the cells of the
sociated with
abnormal globulins.
were antibodies. in
)
A
It
—
could be said that globulins
question raised was this: Could the conditions
which excessive amounts of abnormal globulin were found rep-
resent antibody processes that
had gone wrong?
More
recently, such conditions as thyroiditis, aspermatogenesis,
(
the host and cause disease. t>'pes of chronic
erythematosus, in which
were present normalities
I
in
Abnormal clones developed
leukemia and possibly occurred
in
in certain
systemic lupus
many abnormal antibody mechanisms
the blood and tissues. Actually the tissue ab-
skin eruption, kidney disease, etc,
I
in this
might be due to the abnormal substances circulating
and attacking small blood
in
disease
the blood
vessels. In the treatment of these dis-
orders, chemical agents that could suppress the
immune
response
were becoming increasingly prominent. The antimetabolite 6mercaptopurine and, more recently, the alkylating agent chloram-
BOBSLE DOING
212
serious cases. bucil were being tried experimentally in some
Indications were mounting
some cases a woman who
that in
is
may build up antibodies, particulariy of the of the t>pe, against her husband's antigens because group growing fetus, which can have the same pattern of blood a suffiantigens as the father. When such antibodies develop to of the fetus cient concentration, they could result in early death
a habitual aborter
white
cell
and thus
in abortion.
Detection of this abnormality was being
the exchange of skin grafts between husband and
made through
twice because of warm The four-man event, postponed usual four to two heats, took weather and reduced from the snowstorm at the Garmisch-Partenkirchen run place during a
on Jan.
sec.
An
Coagulation Defects.— In 1962
clinical
and biochemical ob-
data into a comprehensive pathophysiological theory of coagu-
sled, led
At the meeting of the International Committee for the Nomenclature of Blood Clotting Factors in Wiesbaden, Ger., in Sept. 1961, two clotting factors were added to the previously recognized of ten. This action was based on clinical and laboratory evi-
list
XI (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) and XII (Hageman factor) were distinct entities concerned
dence that factor
in the initial or contact
phase of coagulation.
A new
derivative
of purified bovine prothrombin, termed autoprothrombin C, was discovered; it was believed to play a distinct role in coagulation.
which are
platelets,
fragments of
little
derived
cells
from the huge megakaryocytes of the bone marrow, contain many
Among them
active metabolic components.
when introduced
are antigens that,
into the circulation of other individuals, could
cause the production of antibodies.
ment of isoimmunization by
The question
of the develop-
was not ordinarily con-
platelets
sidered in giving transfusions, but
who
could be of importance in
it
M.
receive multiple transfusions. S. Ebbe, platelets
donors for various kinds of transplantation since
it
had been shown that some graft donors were more some recipients than others. It also was shown that in some cases transfused platelets resulted in the development of an suitable for
by Larry McKillip of the Saranac Lake Bobsled four-man event, held at the Mt. Van Hoevenberg
ships, captained
club, took the
single-run run at Lake Placid, N.Y., Feb. 24-25. The sled set a record record for the course of 1 min. 8.26 sec. and a four-heat 36.67
sec.
McKillip's teammates were
and
J.
Lamy.
monopoly by coming in third. G. Sheffield and J. Tennant Lake Placid were first in the two-man competition with 5 min. 12.90 sec. L. McKillip and Lamy placed second and J. McKillip and P. King, third. Both the second- and third-place teams were Placid
of
from Saranac Lake.
Members of the
first
of the Saranac
Lake Bobsled club swept
Amateur Athletic union's national bobsled Van Hoevenberg run, Feb. 1011. A sled from the Lake Placid club managed to place second in the four-man event. The two-man winners were L. McKillip
championships, held at the Mt.
and
Lamy
in 4
gartner, Rogers
min. 50.86 sec; four-man, L. McKillip,
and
Lamy
in 4
tion
procedure. If the bleeding condition was relatively severe, series, the results of opera-
were good but could not be guaranteed. Rare cases of to be associated with large red
thrombocytopenia were found birthmarks (hemangiomas).
See also Che.motherapv; Gerontology; Heart and Circu-
(W. Dk.)
latory Diseases. ENCYCLOP/tDiA Bkitannica Films. Blood (19S7).
Beating:
see
— The
Blood (1961); Work oj the
Motorboat Racing; Rowing; Yachting.
DnhclarlHinir
DODolcDUing.
^^*"" weather
at
Garmisch-Partenkirchen,
Ger., delayed the 1962 world
two-man bobwas set
sled championships, but a track record for a single run
during the competition, held Jan. 20-21, 1962. Rinaldi Ruatti, replacing the retired five-time winner from Italy. Eugenio Monti, set a
new record
of
1
min. 14.26 sec. on his third run
one-mile Olympic course.
Ruatti and E.
elapsed time for the four heats of
5
down
the
DeLorenzo had an
min. 3.73 sec.
S.
Zardini
and R. Bonagura of Italy were second and H. Maurer and F.
Woernunn
of
West Germany,
third.
Baum-
(G. Y.)
min. 41.46 sec.
Dniiiiin
DUIIVId.
^
landlocked country in central South America, Bo-
livia is
bordered by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile
and Peru. Area 424,162 sq.mi. Pop. (1962
est.) 3,549,000. Princi-
pal cities (pop., 1961 est.): Sucre (legal cap.) 62,339;
La Paz
government) 350,142; Cochabamba 91,017; Oruro 83,689; Potosi 54,374; Santa Cruz 69,560. Bolivia is a member of (seat of
the Alliance for Progress
and the Organization of American
The
of
trial
one of the cortisone preparations was usually desirable as a
most
two-man
events in the 1962
longer necessary to rush into removal of the spleen; a
justified. In
but one
all
three places in both the four-man and the
States. President in 1962, Victor
splenectomy was
M. Baum-
A team
from the Lake Placid Bobsled club, captained by W. Hickey, was second. A U.S. air force team under J. O'Toole broke the usual Saranac Lake-Lake
gartner, N. Rogers
autoimmune mechanism in the recipient and thus caused thrombocytopenic purpura. The best treatment for idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura was still being debated. Certainly it was no
first
U.S.
Baldini
had antigens in common with skin; i.e., that transplantation antigens were present in platelets. Further developments in this area might allow for betand W. Dameshek showed that
ter testing of
A
by Lloyd Johnson and competing for the
field of IS. time in an international event, finished 14th in a sled in the North American champion-
of 4 min.
lation.
patients
F. Schelle, a 32-year-oId
The only U.S.-made
servations in coagulation research continued to accumulate. But as yet it had not become possible to fit these often conflicting
Blood
by
Austrian team, piloted by F. Isser, was third.
crew and first
piloted
won by less than one second over the team. The winning time was 2 min. 33.66
trucker,
second-place Italian
wife.
factor
A German team
30.
West German
History.
Paz Estenssoro.
— In April 1962 the ruling M.N.R. party (Movement
of the National Revolution) celebrated its tenth year in power.
Bolivian economy, which had suffered a terrible inflation in
and was often near collapse, showed signs of rallyThere were several reasons for this new economic strength,
the ten years ing.
among them
the hope that Alliance for Progress funds
would be was up: Bolivia now 75% of its domestic sugar need, whereas a few years ago it produced only 10%; rice, corn, wheat, potatoes and meat production had also increased, and Brazil nuts had become a major export item. Other signs of economic growth were the increase of mineral production in the private mines and more of substantial value. Agricultural production
supplied
favourable prices for mineral exports. Foreign exchange reserves increased by 63%. Bolivia returned to the Bolivian Railway company (English) its lines, and some rehabihtation in terms of equipment and loans had occurred to remedy the grave transportation problems. In October the government announced the creation of a
new basic monetary unit, the peso, equivalent to 1,000 old bolivianos; the currency reform would become effective Jan. 1, 1963. Hardly any serious strikes, which in the past have plagued Bolivia continually, took place during the year. United States aid and Alliance for Progress funds were more crucial than ever for Bolivia's economy. Some projects were still under study, and no over-all figures were released. Bolivia has received more than U.S. $40,000,000 in aid, with
Umted Nations and Great
Germany, the
Britain participating. Alliance
for
BOOK CO LLECTING Progress funds were employed for education, health, irrisation, mining, industry and transportation. There was considerable criticism in Bolivia, however, about the slowness of implementation of the program.
The United
of the Bolivian budget,
and
States again supported about
1S%
1962 two U.S. Peace Corps units health and agriculture arrived in Bolivia. Leftist and
in public
in
labour union leadership vociferously opposed the Peace Corps and .\lliance for Progress programs. Within government circles there
was
also
and
much debate over
the Alliance for Progress. Visi-
from
Communist countries continued to make stops in Bolivia. The Yugoslav foreign minister, Koca Popovic, was awarded the highest Bolivian military
tors
delegations
decoration.
The
opposition, headed by the Bolivian Falange
(
F.S.B.)
and the Party of the Authentic Revolution (P.R.A.). a splinter from the M.N.R.. campaigned vigorously. A total of 1.066,480 votes were cast, of which the M.N.R. received S86.4S0, the F.S.B. 74,178 and the P.R.A. 44,296.
The Communist party polled 20,19,82.S. The M.N.R. took
352 votes and the Christian Socialists 12 seats in congress; the F.S.B.
won
2
and the P.R.A.. the Com-
;
munist party and the Christian Socialists each took
1. As usual government was accused of election frauds. The M.N.R.'s great strength was in the rural areas. The urban vote was rela-
the
tively low.
Bolivia engaged in a dispute with Chile that
assumed grave
proportions. Bolivia charged that Chile had violated the principles of international water rights
Bolivian Lauca river ley.
(
when
it
source in Chile
diverted the waters of the )
to irrigate its .Azapa val-
Anti-Chilean demonstrations took place. Bolivia broke
off
and then walked out of the Organization of Diplomatic steps were taken to remedy the
relations with Chile
American
States.
dispute.
See also Latin America; Organization of American States.
(C.W. A.)
—
Education. In 195S there were 4.3S3 rural schools with 148.478 pupils: 734 elementary schools, 183,744 pupils; 138 secondary schools, 36,551 pu(1956) 74 technical an^ normal schools, 9,622 pupils. There were universities with more than one faculty at Cochabamba, La Paz. Oruro, Potosi and Sucre. Education was scheduled to receive \S^c of government expenditure in 1961. .\ccording to the 1950 census, 68.9% of those five years of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the boliviano, valued (1962) at 0,52 cents U,S, currency, official rate (not used for exchange transactions), and during 1962 at 0.008 cents, legal free rate. The 1062 budget estimated revenue at 476,000,000,000 bolivianos ( 1961: 430,000,000,000 bolivianos) and expenditure at 491,000,000,000 bolivianos (1961: 430,000.000.000 bolivianos). Public debt on Dec. 31, 1953. was 37,487,400.000 bolivianos, including the foreign debt of 30,487,400,000 bolivianos. Currency in circulation (May 31, 1962) totaled 397.700.000.000 bolivianos: /lemand deposits, 79,900,000,000 bolivianos. The cost-of-living inde.x (La Paz) stood at 152 in June 1962 (195S = 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1961 were estimated on a c.i.f. basis at $73,400,000 (1960: $66,200,000): imports $77,500,000 (1960: $71,500,000). Leading exports in 1961 were tin (69%), lead (6%). silver (5%), tungsten (3%) and antimony (3%). petroleum products and copper; leading imports included mining and other machinery, sugar and wheat. Leading customers in 1960 were the U.K. (52%), the r,S, (24%), Brazil (6%) and West Germany (5%); leading suppliers, the U.S, (43%), West Germany ( 13% ), .\rgentina (6%) and Japan (6%). Railway lines in operation (1959) totaled 1,468 mi. There were about 12,000 mi, of roads (1959), of which about 2,500 mi. were all-weather. Motor vehicles (Jan. 1. 1960) included 14.292 automobiles. 23,015 trucks and 1,229 buses. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1961) numbered 24,000. Agriculture. Production estimates for 1961 (in metric tons) included wheat 77.500; corn 305.000: potatoes 620,000; rice 20,800, .According to the census of agriculture (figures released in 1958), there were 2,226,629 cattle, 7,223,592 sheep, 508,782 pigs and 1,228.856 goats; in 1951 there were an estimated 1.800.000 alpacas and llamas. The principal exploited forest products were rubber (exports, 1959: 2,234 metric tons) and cinchona pils;
—
—
—
bark. Manufactures. The National Chamber of Industries reported late in 1958 that there were about 1.200 factories, with capital investment of $130,000,000 and about 21,000 workers. Most important, in terms of value of production, were textiles and- clothing, beverages, foodstuffs and chemicals. Cement production (1960) was 25.000 metric tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31. 1959) was 140,000 kw.; production (public use
—
only)
1960 totaled 294.000.000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production of tin (1961) totaled 20.440 long tons; crude petroleum 2.738.000 bbl. (refinery output 2.248,000 bbl,); silver 3,900,000 fine oz. Exports in 1961 included (in metric tons) lead 20,301; copper (J. W, Mw.) 2,079; zinc 5,332; tungsten 1,688; antimony 6,738. in
DUU^ UUIICbUllg.
sales of Dyson Perrins' illuminated manbook auctions settled back to normal routine, reflecting a steady upward trend unmarked by any spectacular advances. Toward the end of the season the London Observer noted that the newly introduced capital gains levy was diverting investments to books and works of art beyond the range of the tax.
uscripts,
Thus English
—
collectors
came
to share, in
some measure,
the ad-
vantages long enjoyed by Americans, and the increased competition
Congressional elections on June 3 provided the chief political interest.
213
Bonaire: see Netherlands Antilles. Bonds: see Banking; Stocks and Bonds.
would doubtless accelerate
prices.
This trend could be observed in
At the Parkebrought good prices: Gray's Elegy (17S1), $6,200; Keats's Lamia (1820), $2,500; the 1859 Rubdiydt, $2,600; the 1851 London edition of Melville's The Whale (Moby-Dick). $1,300; and the first issue of Whitman's Leaves of Grass 1855), $1,150. Historical Americana did even better: the 1738-40 diary kept by the Jesuit priest Pierre de \itry during an expedition against the Chickasaw and Natchez Indians. $4,500; a 1776 letter from Washington to Gen. Artemas Ward, $3,250; a 1784 deed signed by Chippewa chiefs, $3,400, Original contemporary material did best of all: the corrected typescript of Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie (1944), $6,000; 63 letters and cards from Freud to Theodor Reik, $13,500; 59 letters from Einstein to Walter Mayer on the unified field theory, $19,000. In England Johannes Balbus' Catholicon (14601 sold at Christie's for £12.000 and the "Esdaile Shelley notebook sold at Sotheby's for £10.200. The earliest printed book was again in the news, first with the issue of D. C. Norman's The 500th Anniversary Pictorial Census of the Gutenburg Bible, based on personal examination of Bernet galleries
in
New York
all
categories.
city, certain classics
(
"
45 of the 47
known
copies.
Two
of the three vellum copies of
the 1913-14 Leipzig facsimile were auctioned, one at Munich, Ger..
May
on
IS for the equivalent of £1.495. the other at
Sotheby's ten days later for £2.300.
burg
museum was
original building,
On June
24 the new Guten-
dedicated in Mainz. Ger., at the
which was destroyed
Also noteworthy was the frequent appearance of tine's
De
Civitate Dei.
A
site of
the
in 1945, St,
Augus-
1468 second edition fetched £1,800 on
April 4 at Sotheby's and a slightly defective specimen of the
1467 first edition, £1,470 on June 18 at Geneva. Switz, In September another original issue headed a list of 206 incunabula given to Southern Methodist university. Dallas, by J. S. Bridwell and Frank V. DeBellis. Of these, 83 were reported as first editions.
Two
investigations
Thomas
were of bibliophilic
discovered that a fragment of The
interest.
Alan
Book
Hawking
of
G.
(1486). disregarded at three sales within the preceding 15 years,
contained manuscript jottings of the press corrector for the
Wynkyn
de
Worde
edition of
1496. This, the only recorded
example of an English incunabulum used as a press copy, was later acquired by the British museum. London. Frederick Mosteller and David L. Wallace subjected the Federalist Papers to a computer analysis which determined that the 12 articles of disputed authorship were almost certainly written by James Madison.
Two
booksellers celebrated significant milestones. H. P. Kraus
with Catalogue 100, an elaborate display of early illuminated manuscripts, and the firm of Goodspeed with Catalogue 500,
an annotated list ranging up to the moderns. Among exhibits perhaps the most unusual were mounted by the Houghton library. Harvard, and the Peabody institute, the one on 100 books published by authors 21 or younger, the other on "Crime and the Literati: Fraud and Forgery in Literature."
(W. B, To.)
.
1
BOOK PUBLISHING
214
Book Publishing and Book Sales. oi Ecncral
books
in
the L
.S.
incrt-ased.
Book Publishers council (A.B.P.C.
I.
fe°cu;-
:;t sX
According to the American net dollar sales in 1961 of
more than 200 publishing houses reporting in the survey were lI.Kc higher than in I960 and 115% higher than in 1952. The physical volume of sales (number of copies sold) increased also, but to a lesser extent 5% higher in 1961 than in 1960. There
—
were both increases and decreases individual categories of books.
in
The
average per copy prices
in
over-all average price per
copy of all books in the A.B.P.C. survey rose by 4 cents in 1961 as compared with the average price the previous year. The 196061 dollar sales rise was in line with the trend recorded since these annual surveys were begun in 1952. fncreaio
in
Dollar Volume of Book Soles
(I
961
%l Category Adull trad« booki, hardbound Adult trade bookl, paparbound Juvenile booVs ($ I & over retail) Juvenile books (SI Religiout bookt
& under
.
retoil)
Paperbound booki, newtttond Book club books*
dittributed type*
....
University press books* & technical books
Business, scientinc
Low & medical books Other books Total net soles
.
*Estimoted total solesj oil other figures ore for the firms reporting. Note: The above Agures ore comparable from year to yeor but do not include the soles of all publishers. Soles of textbooks ond encyclopaedias ond other reference books, which ore not included in the table, totaled S730,442,000 in 1 961
The number of titles issued in 1961 was 18,060, according Weekly tabulation, and marked an all-time high
Publishers'
to in
American book publication. As 1962 neared its close, booksellers reported excellent business and it appeared that the total of new titles for the year would exceed 20,000. Textbooks. The American Textbook Publishers institute
—
(A. T.P.I.)
statistical
sales of $373,600,000,
survey for 1961 revealed total textbook
an
11%
increase over 1960. Elementary
textbook sales increased from $147,200,000
000
in 1961
;
in
1960 to $155,600,-
high school textbook sales from $83,300,000 to $96,-
300,000; and college textbook sales from $106,350,000 to $121,-
AUTOMATED BOOKSELLING:
The "Book-O-Mat," applying automation to booktelling, wat demonitrated at a San Franclico convention In October 1962, The coin'operated device contained books soiling Irom 25 cents to over $2 fnilrd Prr.j lnlr,ncli.mal
BOTANY on the
fast
fiction best-seller
Xew
The
nonfiction
English Bible
(
list.
The
New
Testament
)
dominated the
215
$1,000 of assessed valuation and was levied on real and personal property. The total tax le\->' amounted to $145,297,000.
(756.575 copies in 1961). In second place was William L. Shirer's The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (203,346 copies in 1961) its total, with book club sales, was nearly 1,000,-
ambitious.
Theodore H. White's The Making of the President, 1960
Sept. 1961
list
;
000.
sold almost 100,000 copies in 1961.
The
city's
program
rebuilding and
for
redevelopment was
The Boston Redevelopment authority and the United Urban Renewal administration signed documents in
States
whereby the
city accepted
an early acquisition loan
contract for a 54-ac. site in the city for redevelopment as an integrated centre of federal, state and municipal buildings.
Work-
ing drawings were completed
Jackie
Courtesy, Inc..
and construction was to begin in Nov, 1962. The Boston Redevelopment authority staff and the State Government Center commission also concluded negotiations on the site and on plan controls for the State Service centre, construction of which was scheduled to begin in the spring of
Kannon-Kanrom,
S.Y.
1963.
DRAWING BY MORT DRUCKER "THE
FOR
BOOK," one
JFK
A
COLORING
the many novelty books that took hold In 1962. The section devoted to the famous rocking chair ends with; "Daddy doesn't like to be off his of
national architectural competition for the design of a
city hall brought
new
256 original entries and was won by three
members
of the Columbia university faculty. Gerhardt Michael Kallmann. Noel Michael McKinnell and Edward F. Knowles,
who
rocker"
joined in submitting the design.
Among
other major projects in Boston's plan for rebuilding and development, under construction or on the drawing board (including the state government centre development), were the Prudential Center development ($100,000,000, already under way), a new city auditorium ($12,000,000), a central business
($200,000,000), a water-front development
district
Among
the leading paperbound best sellers in 1961, in addition
book, were Hawaii by James Michener (2,100.000 Exodus by Leon Uris (1,200,000 sold in 1961 for a threeyear total of 4,600.000); Advise and Consent by Allen Drury; The Chapman Report by Irving Wallace; and Berlin Diary by to the Miller
copies)
;
American Literature; English Literature; French Liter.\ture; Jewish Literature; etc. See also Literalso
ary Prizes; Printing.
DUldlljf.
in
—
field
of photosynthesis
and the carbon
fixation.
The 1961 Nobel
prize
chemistry had been awarded to Melvin Calvin for studies in
photosynthesis. Calvin and his associates demonstrated that the
incorporation of carbon from carbon dioxide into carbohydrates is
Printing
during 1962 in the
focused on the linkage between the photoactivation
of chlorophyll
(P. B. St.)
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. The Book (1955); Through the Ages (1950); Writing Through the Ages (1950).
Work
Dntonu
William L. Shirer. See
($70,000,-
000) and a family city shopping centre ($3,500,000). See also Massachusetts. (A. D. Bo.)
accomplished by a series of enzymatic reactions which are
independent of
light.
The
light reaction of
photosynthesis fur-
nishes energ>' in the form of adenosine triphosphate and reduced
Borneo:
see
British Borneo; Indonesia.
pyridine nucleotides. In 1962 D.
I.
Arnon and
his
co-workers
continued their studies of cyclic and noncyclic photophosphory-
Dncfrnn UUolUlla
Boston, the capital city of the commonwealth of
Massachusetts, the largest city in
New
England and
the 13th city in population in the United States in 1960. is the hub of a metropolitan area containing 65 municipalities and
ranking sixth in size
among metropolitan
The population of Boston,
was 697.197 (1962 est, 697.938). Boston is the major seaport on the nearest port to
areas of the country.
accor'ding to the 1960 federal census,
New
Europe from the United
England coast and the
States. It has the largest
(Logan International) in New England and air services to and from all major cities of the world. Boston also has the largest wool market in the United States and is the world's leading centre of the shoe and leather industry. As measured by employment and payroll statistics, wholesale and retail trade is the leading industry, with manufacturing second and finance, insur-
airport
ance and real estate third. Greater Boston of the nation
is
the electronic centre
and has the highest concentration of engineers
in
adding evidence
lation.
when
that
noncyclic photophosphorylation,
associated with the release of oxygen, requires a second
photochemical step which chlorophyll
a.
is
sensitized
by a pigment other than
This phenomenon was hnked to the enhancement
observed earlier by L. R. Blinks and by R. Emerson, in which marked stimulation of photosynthesis was achieved by supplementary irradiation with wave lengths not employed in effect,
exciting the primary pigment, chlorophyll a. chloroplast. the subcellular structure in which photosyn-
The thesis
is
accomplished within
all
higher plants, was also sub-
jected to further scrutiny. C. R. Stocking and E,
M.
Gifford as
Scher and L. Sagan as another independently demonstrated that chloroplasts incorporate thymine, an essential for the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DN.\). Together
one team and
S.
with evidence from the electron microscope concerning the
DNA
content of chloroplasts,- promulgated especially by H. Ris. this
observation lends impetus to an older theorj- that chloroplasts
the United States.
are independent organisms living in symbiosis within the cells of
The government of Boston is administered by a mayor, a city council of nine members and a school committee of five members. John F. Collins was elected mayor in 1959 to serve a four-
strated that
year term.
chloramphenicol. If the chloroplasts control their
The
gross funded debt of the city was $141,072,500 as of
meet these obligaamounted to $3,217,-
1962, Sinking fund reserves used to
Sept.
1.
tions
from Jan.
714.08, leaving
1,
1962, to Sept.
1,
an actual decrease
$49,011,491.71 for this period.
1962,
in the net
The 1962
funded debt of
tax rate was $99.80 per
Heber further demonamino acids are incorporated into chloroplast promechanism which is insensitive to ribonuclease or to
the plant, of which they form a part. U.
tein
by
a
own
heredity
and synthesize their own protein, even in part, botanists may have to begin a serious study of the separate evolutionary histories of chloroplasts and their cellular associates. In paleobotany, because plant remains are generally fragmentary, it is necessary to assign wood, leaves, fruit and other plant
BOWLING
216
"form" genera. Only when a fortunate
parts to separate
dis-
leaf is covery of associated bits provides proof that a particular organpart of the same plant as a particular wood can the whole and its affinities with other plants be estab-
ism be reconstructed
Abundant fernlike leaf remains from the Upper Devonian and Lower Mississippian had been placed in the form genus Archaeopteris. In 1960 C. B. Beck showed that these were lished clearly.
same plant as the wood genus Callixylon. He subsequently reconstructed the entire organism, a tree approaching 60 ft. in height. While it appears quite unlike modern gymnoparts of the
sperms, having fernlike features of
its
habit,
foliage
and reproduction by spores,
wood anatomy and reproductive
structures
suggest that plants such as these may have given rise to the primitive seed-bearing gymnosperms. It thus provides a link between the simplest vascular plants, the psilophytes, and such
gymnosperms as Cordaites. The gibberellins have assumed ever
early
growth regulators
in
increasing importance as
higher plants, although discrepancies have W. Brian, H.
occurred in the accounts by different authors. P.
Hemming and
G.
D.
Lowe
tested the nine
known
gibberellins
with seven different assays involving four plant species. The order of relative effectiveness of the gibberellins varied greatly thus revealing a previously unsuspected specificity in the gibberellin requirements of different plants and in the different assays,
even of different responses by the same species. The specificities are based on quite small differences in molecular structure of the gibberellins. Gibberellin Ai has one
more hydroxyl group
than A4, yet the ratio of effectiveness (Aj/A^) is 6 for dwarf pea stems, 1 for corn dwarf d-1, 0.6 for corn dwarfs d-3 and d-5, 0.12 for lettuce hypocotyls cotyls.
and 0.02
for
cucumber hypo-
Equally great differences were found with the other gib-
berellins.
A new advance in the controlled culture of plant parts was announced by K. Kanta, N. S. Rangaswamy and P. Maheshwari. These investigators were able to remove unfertilized ovules of Papaver somniferum shortly after flowering and culture them on agar media.
When
dusted with pollen free of microorganisms,
normal double fertilization took place and was followed by development of endosperm, embryo and seed. From the time of H. Fraenkel-Conrat's demonstration that tobacco mosaic viral infections could be brought about by viral ribonucleic acid that the protein
protect the viral
(RNA)
alone, most investigators had assumed component of the intact virus served only to RNA from decomposition by host ribonuclease.
Using an ingenious device that allowed differential infrared spectrometry of infected and noninfected bits of lower epi-
W. Cochran, G. W. Welkie, J. L. Chidester, B. K. Chandrasekhar and M. H. Lee were able to demonstrate metabolic changes in cowpea epidermal cells which were treated with dermis, G.
virus protein.
They
believed that the protein functions enzy-
matically in initiating infection and probably determines host
range in this way.
They
suggested, perhaps unnecessarily, that
residual protein subunits in viral tial
RNA
preparations are essen-
for infectivity.
L. M. Shields and P. Wells studied the invasion by plants of sites in Nevada which had been cleared of vegetation by atomic test blasts. In three to eight years from the time of the
one native species, Mentzelia albicaulis, stickleaf, had grown appreciably in areas of total destruction. Within one year, however, the ground zero areas were invaded by an introblasts. Only
duced weed, Salsola kali, the Russian thistle. See also Agricultural Research Service; Horticulture. (C.
EncycloP/kdia
Britannica
Films.
W. Hn.)
— Angiospcrms — The
Flowering Planli (19621; Bacteria (1962); The Community (1962); The Desert (1962): Evolution of Vascular Plants— The Ferns (1962); Experiments in Photosynthesis (1962); Flowers at Worh (1955); Fungi (1960); The
rrntdnnds (1962-)
'
Growth
of Seeds
(1957); Gymnosperms (1961); TAe
Formation 0962): Mitosis %AActicBiZe\mi)-. Meiosis: Sex Celland Mosses (1962) Osmosss W6l) OrifiTo LcndPionts-Liverworts Plant Growth (1931); 1962 Sea
Pankton and the Open Catchers of the Bog Jungle) il9SS)- Roots o) Plants Germination (1960); Simple Plants Seed Dispersal (1956); Seed of Life Series) (1953); -Allae (1962) The Strands Grow (Part I, Web The Temperate DecsduForest (1960); to Dune Sand Succasion From Forest (1961.); What Is Ecology? ous Forest (ml) The Tropical Rain (1962); Wheat Rust (1959). nlVs^)
;
P/L/rriXsec, nlsV)
,
r _, The failure of bowling's first major professional n bowling, league, contrasting with a successful 16-city Professional
Bowling association tour, highlighted the 1961-62 season, Don Carter of
along with the individual accomplishments of St. Louis and Billy Golembiewski of Detroit.
Carter was top winner in the P.B.A.'s winter-spring tour, earnand averaging 209.7 pins in 4S7 games. Harry
ing $21,917.50
Smith, also of St. Louis, was second with $17,305. Golembiewski Bowling league title in the loop's first
led Detroit to the National
pins went down with a thunderous crash al 40 go In unison at the 59th annual American Bowling congress tournaDes Moines, la. More than 25,000 bowlers competed In the 69-day
40 BOWLERS IN A ROW: The bowlers
ment
In
lei
tournament United Press Inl,
?*•
M
BOX ING and probably final campaign. Only 1,000 fans watched Detroit sweep a best-of-five play-off from Minneapolis-St. Paul, 4-6
UUAIIIg.
May
Four of the ten original teams dropped out during the season, and the league subsequently suspended operations. The two stars dominated other action as well. Carter formed the Don Carter Bowling Glove team from the at Detroit.
tors'
new
outfit
won both
Association of America (B.P.A.A.)
in
Archie Moore-Alejandro Lavorante. Gene Fullmer-Dick Tiger and Moore-Cassius Clay matches. The Patterson-Liston heavyweight title match was staged in Chicago before only 18.000 fans.
The
which
team. Strike
'n Spare, Northbrook, 111., 3,128; doubles, John Gribin and Gary Madison, Riverside, Cahf., 1,376; singles. Andy
Renaldy, Youngstown, 0., 720; and all-events. Billy Young, Tulsa. Okla., 2,015. During the convention held simultaneously with the tournament, the A.B.C. joined the International Bowling federation
and approved participation
in the
world champion-
ships to be held during 1963 in Mexico.
women's
Miami Beach.
Fla.,
earning $15,000.
all-
The
worth $5,000. went to Shirley Garms of Chicago, who also defended her Tourney of Champions title with a 587title,
534 victory over Marge Merrick of Columbus. 0., earher the winner of the World In\dtation women's di\-ision.
The 52nd annual Petersen Classic, which ran for three months in Chicago, saw John McDermott of Ardmore, Pa., take first prize of $30,000 with 1,676 pins in eight games.
Hall
Fame.
o-f
the 24th
—Johnny
member
Crimmins, Detroit veteran, became
of bowling's Hall of Fame.
Intercollegiate Championships.
—Jim
Nixon of Minnesota
reclaimed his national match-game championship with a 646621 victory over Tom Kuster of St. John's, Annapolis. Md., May
Madison Square Garden. Winners in the int'ercollegiate championships, April 8-9 at Des Moines, wer^ all-events, George Pajer, Bowling Green (0.), 1,822; singes, Ijim .Anderson, North Dakota State, 643 doubles, Jerry Davis, .-Arkansas, and Tony ServeUo, Texas A. and M., l,217;\teani, region 5 18 at
;
(Ohio schools), a record 2,847.
Women's
International Bowling Congress.
—Dot Wilkinson
of Phoenix, Ariz., All-.\merican softball catcher, title,
town.
won
the Queens
799-795, over Marion Ladewig of Grand Rapids, Mich.,
during the 45th annual tourney, April
Two
5-May
16, in
her
records were set in regular competition:
home
Martha
Hoffman of Madison, Wis., in singles with 693 and Linbrook Bowl of Los Angeles, in division I team with 3,061. Other winners were Jean Cowger and Sandy Hooper, Oklahoma City, in doubles; Flossie Argent, St. Louis, in all-events; and Reid Enterprises, Long Beach, Calif., in di\asion II. Duckpins. Dave Volk- of Baltimore and Maxine Allen of
—
Greensboro, N.C.,
won
top honours in the B.P.A.A. all-star
March 10-13. All-event winners at the March 17-May 6, were James Jenkins, Wash-
tourney at Norfolk, Va., national tourney, ington, D.C.,
See also
and Cecilia Rohlfing, Baltimore.
Lawn Bowling.
fall
of sev-
dleweight; Wilbert McClure, Toledo, 0., middleweight; Abel Laudonio, Argentina, lightweight; Clay, Louisville, heavyweight; Toyoshi Tanaba. Japan, bantamweight; David Floyd, .\ustralia,
and Bill Fisher, Scotland, middleweight, rose to main event talent. Each represented his country in the 1960 OhTnpics held in Rome, Other boxers who gained prominence lightweight;
-
during the year included George Benton, Philadelphia, middleweight; Brian Curvis, Wales, welterweight; Rip Randall, Dallas, welterweight; Ted Wright. Detroit, welterweight; Bunny Grant,
Jamaica, lightweight; Ismael Laguna. Panama, bantamweight;
and Bernardo Caraballo. a fl\-weight from Colombia. Molina's California bouts with Ben Medina, Len Matthews and Joe Brown drew large crowds. Those who hit the downgrade included the former world light-
Brown of Houston; Dave Charnley, British and the renowned Sugar Ray Robinson of New York. Archie Moore and Floyd Patterson both suffered resoundweight champion.
Dick Weber of Philadelphia won the 21st annual P.B.A. star title in Januar>' at
boxers and the
were recorded. Louis Molina, San Jose, Calif., junior welterweight; Sid Prior, Australia, welterweight; Francesco de Piccoh, Italy, heavyweight; Carmelo Bossi, Italy, mid-
5,292 teams and
record of 759. Jack Winters of Philadelphia broke the all-di\ision A.B.C. all-events record with 2,147 and his 792 series in doubles was another aU-division mark. Regular division winners were:
many former Olympic
rise of
eral past favourites
14-18 at Des Moines, and his third straight Tourney of Champions title. May 18 at Madison Square Garden, New York.
;
japan and the Philippines leadand number of bouts staged
only Italy stood out. In the U.S., California and Nevada came to the fore with bouts that drew big gates. Cahfornia offered the
Dec. 1961 at
more than 25,000 bowlers competed for more than $480,000 in prizes. Carter Glove set a team mark of 6,248 for six games; Dick Hoover and Glenn Allison of St. Louis, a doubles mark of 1,431 and Bob Poole of Pueblo, Colo., a singles
^^.j^jj
in the inter-
in line came Brazil and Mexico, with the U.S. and European countries trailing. South America and South Africa made headway with the importation of U.S. boxers, but in Europe
Kansas City, Mo., and the classic division of the 59th annual American Bowling congress tourney, Feb. I6-April 25 at Des Moines, la. In singles competition. Carter won his fourth World Im-itation title in five years, Nov. 16-26, 1961, at Chicago, while Golembiewski claimed his second A.B.C. Masters crown, April
All classic division records fell at the A.B.C. tourney, in
national ggjj
was
monthly. Next
the Bowling Proprietitle
biggest gain in boxing in 1962
ing in top matches, attendance
disbanded Bud-
weiser club, and the
217 The
Dnyjng
(E. J. G.)
lightweight king
;
ing defeats.
Closed circuit television made large strides and the PattersonListon bout set a record for receipts through this medium. The
Moore-Clay bout and the Tiger-Fullmer World Boxing association middleweight title bout were telex-ised by closed circuit. Fourteen deaths were recorded during the year. Four were in the United States, two professionals and two amateurs; four in the Philippines; and one each in Korea, Thailand, British Guiana, Poland, \'enezuela and Germany. The death of Benny "Kid" Paret of Cuba followng a bout in Madison Square Garden in which his opponent, Emile Griffith of
New York, a
regained the world welterweight championship caused
world-wide furore.
Bills to kill the sport
several U.S. states and in Europe. In
Rockefeller appointed a legislative ing.
The
were introduced
in
New
York, Gov. Nelson committee to investigate box-
state also refused to Ucense the Patterson-Liston title
fights
World Championship Matches. during the year, ten were fought
—Of the championship bouts
in the U.S.;
three in Japan,
two each in Brazil and Italy: and one each in Germany, Finland and the PhiUppines. The matches in Germany and Finland were the first held in those countries. In the major contest of the year Patterson lost the world hea\-j^eight crown to "Sonny" Listen, Sept. 25, in Chicago. Liston knocked out Patterson in 2 min. 6 sec. of the first
round.
Aging Moore had
him when he
his light
heavyweight crown taken from
failed to accept the challerjge of
Harold Johnson,
National Boxing association champion. Johnson gained world of New York, and strengthened his position as Moore's successor when he defeated the champion of West Germany, Gustav Scholz, June 2i. in Berlin. In a heaN-yweight bout, Moore was knocked out in four rounds by Clay, Nov. IS, and Clay immediately sought a match with the new heavyweight champioD,
recognition
May
when he outpointed Doug Jones
12, in Philadelphia,
Medel of rounds, and knocked out Jose Francisco, also in ten in the sixth round. Mexico Sept 11 in Sao Paulo of Thailand lost h.s t.tle cl!ampton Pone Kingpetch F May 30 he outpomted defense during the year. On
ywaS
in
hi'second
Kyo Noguchi
Tokyo
in
in 15
rounds but Oct. 10 he was knocked
Harada
19-year-old Masahika "Fightmg out in 11 rounds by
NBA
The
changed
its
at
name
m
Wash., annual convention in Tacoma,
its
World Boxing association. The membernew division into boxmg, a world named Denny sector, limit 154 lb., and
to the
ship also voted to place a
junior middleweight
Giambra of Buffalo to fight of Portland, Ore., and Joey championship. Moyer won the newly for the right to gain the 15-round decision in Portland. created title Oct. 21 in a trophy and title "Fighter of the Year,
Moyer
The Edward
J.
Neil
Writers association, were voted by the U.S. National Boxing
awarded to Dick Tiger. to boxmg went to The James J. Walker award for service board of the New Malcolm Stevens, chairman of the advisory State Athletic commission since 1952.
York
Amateur Boxing.— In union championship, held
the in
74th annual American Athletic in Cincinnati, the individual
March
lb. champions were: 112 lb. George Colon, New York city; 119 Freeman, Houston; Victor Melendez, Puerto Rico; 125 lb. Steve Renge, Eliza132 lb. George Foster, Cincinnati; 139 lb. Jackie
bethton, Tenn.; Ch.rle. ("Sonny") LIslon watohino ''l'^" «%';!, •';°;''knockout blow In the first round welght champion Floyd Patterson after the Chicago, Sept. 25, 1962 In match title of the
NEW CHAMPION:
champion Patterson, however, claimed
Liston. Defeated for a
rematch with
priority
title
when he outpointed Fulmer
in
15
rounds
San
in
Francisco, Oct. 16, while Paul Pender rewon the world title by outpointing Terry Downes of Great Britain in 15 rounds in .\pril 7. Then, on Nov. 9, the New York State Athletic commission, the European Boxing union and the British Board of Boxing Control withdrew recognition from Pender and declared
Boston,
Tiger the world champion. Pender filed suit against the New York commission to upset its decision. Griffith, who regained the welterweight title in his bout with Paret,
March
fended the
by
24,
title
July
a
U
12th-round knockout, successfully deLas Vegas, Nev., outpointing Ralph
in
was awarded a techniknockout victory over challenger Jorge Fernandez under the
Dupas. cal
On
"no foul"
Dec.
8, in
Las Vegas,
Griffith
rule.
In the junior welterweight division, Eddie Perkins of Gary, Ind., who fought a I5-round draw with Duilio Loi in 1961, won the
crown Sept. 14
the
title in
in
Milan, in a 15-round decision. Loi regained
New York
Gabriel "Flash" Elorde retained his world junior lightweight
championship, outpointing Auburn Copcland, Los Angeles, June 23, in Manila.
successfully.
He
stopped
Olli
Davey Moore defended Maeki, Aug.
17, in
his title
Finland
in the
second round.
Eder Jofre, Brazilian world bantamweight champion, was the all titleholdcrs. He defended his crown three times.
busiest of
He
polished off
Johnny Caldwell
of Ireland, world (^Europcan)
rounds. Jan. 18, in Sao Paulo; dis-
and British champion, posed of Herman Marquez of Stockton, in ten
218
Billy Joiner, Cincinnati;
lb.
Smith, Portland, Ore.; 156 lb. Richard Gosha, Chicago; 178
heavyweight,
Wyce Westbrook,
Cin-
cinnati.
After 34 years of competition between New York and Chicago this event was discontinued. Instead the
Chicago team played host on March U.S.,
Calif.,
except
were: 112
lb.
New Ray
3 to
teams from
all
over the
crowned James Moon,
York. The individual champions Jutras, Lowell, Mass.; 118 lb.
George Foster, Cincinnati; 135 lb. Edward 160 lb. Gary lb. Rory O'Shea, Chicago; Brown, Denver, Colo.; 175 lb. Billy Joiner, Cincinnati; heavyweight, Bennie Black, Chicago. Foster and Joiner were double
Cleveland; 126 Ellis,
Toledo;
lb.
147
(N. Fl.J in two different classes. European, British and British Empire Results. The European heavyweight championship left Great Britain after more than two years when Dick Richardson (Wales) was knocked out champions, Foster winning
in eight
—
rounds by Ingemar Johansson (Sweden) at Goteborg.
Earlier in the year Richardson
had successfully retained the title, in one round at Dortmund. John McCormack (Scotland) lost the European middleweight crown to Chris Christensen (Denmark) when he was disqualified in four rounds in Copenhagen. Dave Charnley (Eng-
knocking out Karl Mildenberger (Germany)
land) held the European and British lightweight championships,
but
ended the long reign of Brown when
he won the lightweight title by a decision, fifteen rounds, April 21, in Las Vegas. On Dec. 3, in Tokyo, he retained the title with a fifth-round knockout over Japanese champion Teruo Kosaka.
In the featherweight class,
Wade
0.; 165 lb.
lost the British
Empire
title to
Bunny Grant (Jamaica)
in 15
rounds at Kingston.
15 rounds Dec. 15, also in Milan.
Carlos Ortiz of
lb.
Golden Glove teams,
his conqueror.
The middleweight class continued to breed confusion. Tiger of Nigeria defeated Fullmer for the latter's World Boxing association
147
Roy McMillan, Toledo,
May
4, in
San
After Caldwell lost to Jofre, he challenged Freddie Gilroy
and Empire bantam championships. The two Belbantamweights met in their home city, the first time two
for the British fast
Irishmen had fought for British and Empire titles. Gilroy retained both championships when Caldwell retired at the end of nine rounds with a badly cut right eye. The British Empire featherweight championship was successfully defended in Accra by Floyd Robertson, who outpointed Love AUottey in 15 rounds.
was the first time two boxers from Ghana had contested an Empire title fight. (p. Br.)
It
Boys' Clubs of America:
see Societies
and Associations,
see Societies
and Associations,
U.S.
Boy Scouts of America: U.S.
BRA ZIL Brazil Ul am.
^
^^*^^"' republic in eastern and central South
219
Amer-
Political
ica, Brazil is
bounded by the Atlantic ocean and all the countries of South America except Ecuador and Chile Area 3,286,470 sq.mi. Pop. (1962 est.) 75,271,000. Brazil is a member of the Organization of American States, the Alliance for Progress and the Latin American Free Trade association. President in 1962, Joao Goulart prime ministers, Tancredo de Almeida
Polllical lubdlvlilon
^''ooo.
i'°'° Sonto 5 Jonelro Cuiobo
910,242 2,492,139 9,798,880
l"'".. l°'°Tnpics.
Vdlcn
),
of
the U.S.SJI., who,
lowing his leap from obscurity
became the foremost high jumper
in the
fol-
1960
Bom April 14 of Russian parentage near Chita. Siberia. Brumel was a student in the Moscow Pedagogical institute when he won the OU-mpic silver medal, clearing 7 ft. 1 in. He shared the Olympic record with his countryman. Robert Shavlakadze. placing second
on the tie-breaking
Brumel/defeated John Thomas (^U.S.k the Oh-mpic favourite, who. placed third, thus launching a rivalry in which Brumel won over Thomas in six off
couflt of misses.
— —
encounters. Brumel employs the straddle technique a takeon one leg and a face-down layout over the crossbar with a
iseven-step
approach to the take-off distinguished by exceptional
^»eed.
Following the Rome Oh-mpics. Brumel established a U.S.S.R. and European record of 7 ft. 2J in. and in 1961, jumping from a dirt take-off indoors in Leningrad, he set an unofficial mark of 7 ft. 4^ in. In three duels with Thomas in Madison Square Garden.
New York
1961^ Brumel won at 7 ft. 3 in., 7 ft. 2 7 ft. 3j in., matching Thomas" U.S. board-floor record. In the 1961 U.S.-U.S.S.R. dual meet in Moscow, in rain and senudarkness, Bnimel eclipsed Thomas' world outdoor record (winter.
m. and
of 7
ft.
3|
in.
Brumel cleared
with a leap of 7 ft.
a worid record of 7
4| ft.
7 ft.
4
in. ^However,
in.
Later in Sofia, Bulg.,
he boosted that mark
5 in. in the July
BUDDHIST BLESSING: The lupreme Buddhi.l wtriarch of Thmiland. abocrd pilgrimage to Buddhiit thrinei in India in April 1962. gave hit bleaing ia a nnall boy a< the train itapp«d at New Delhi a train on a
in athletic history.
to
1962 U.S.-U.S.S.R.
meet at Palo .Alto, Calif. At Belgrade, Yugos., in September, Brumel won the European title at 7 ft. 3 in. (J. P. Ab.)
RllHHhicm DUUUniolN. period,
grown
in
Buddhism, which had
steadily during the post-Worid
was further stimulated
War
II
1961-62 by the meeting of the sixth conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists rW.F.B.>, held in Nov. 1961 in Phnom Penh. Cambodia. There in
and elsewhere consideration was given to such subjects as the relation of Buddhism to the fluctuating .Asian political situation; the increasing interest in Buddhism in the west, particularly in North America: and the need for Buddhist missionar>' activity. Ihere are no reliable statistics as to the number of Buddhists in the world. Estimates vary
000; a more likely figure
is
difficulty lies in the fact that
between 150.000.000 and 500.000,around 350,000.000. Part of the
many
people in China and Japan,
for example, are not exclusively Buddhist but
may also mainTaoism. Shinto and other religious systems. The majority of Buddhists live in Asia, but a small number are scattered through North and South America, tain affiliations with Confucianism,
Europe and Australia. For many centuries Buddhism has been divided along doctrinal and cultic as well as national and cultural lines. It has never developed an organizational structure for
all Buddhists. In 1950 a world-wide organization, the World Fellowship of
Buddhists, was established: strict
Brunei: see British Bornto.
interest
^^ orlestimates were in the postal service, mainly because postal rate increases
were made effective
had been proposed: in agricultural programs, largely because legislation which at a later date than
had been expected to reduce expenditures was not fully enacted: and in interest on the public debt, which was revised upward because of a
somewhat higher average
and
rate of interest
volume of outstanding debt than had been assumed
Much
of the
downward
revision in budget receipts
in
a larger
January.
was
attrib-
Agencies in the defense, international
and space categories accounted
for
somewhat
less
than half of the
projected increase of $6,019,000,000 in total expenditures from fiscal
1962 to
fiscal 1963.
Apart from interest on the public debt,
other agencies amounted to 2&'~c of the total. Within the domestic civilian category of agencies, the largest
in the
by
all
from
fiscal
1961 to
fiscal
1963 occurred
department of health, education and welfare and
in the
department of agriculture.
The
fiscal
1963 expenditures of the department of defense and
the National Aeronautics and Space administration
— the
two
agencies with the largest expenditure increases during the year
were not revised
in the
budget bureau's November budget re%new.
In his January budget message presenting the original estimates for the 1963 budget President
Kennedy had
stated that. "In-
creases in expenditures for the nation's defense are largely re-
utable to a lesser rate of economic expansion in calendar 1962
sponsible for the rise in the budget of this administration com-
than had been anticipated. Gross national product for 1962 was
pared to that of
estimated in the budget review at $554,000,000,000, T^c higher than in 1961 but about $13,000,000,000 below the January estimate. Total personal income in 1962 was expected to be $441.-
expenditures for the military functions of the Department of De-
000.000.000 instead of the $448,000,000,000 assumed in January,
than would have been required to carry forward the program as
and
reduction of
stood a year ago." The president also had referred to the sharply
from individual income
higher levels of e.xpenditures and obligational authority for the
this
shortfall
was
chiefly
$1,800,000,000 in estimated taxes.
A
responsible for a
receipts
similar shortfall in corporate profits before taxes ($50.-
700.000.000 as compared with $56.500.000.000
)
affected receipts
from corporate income taxes by about $3,000,000,000. Further, the estimate of these receipts was reduced by another $2,300.-
its
predecessor. For fiscal years 1962 and 1963.
fense are estimated at about $9,000,000,000 higher, and
new
ob-
ligational authority at $12,000,000,000 to $15,000,000,000 more,
purpwse of exploring and using space. "With
this
it
increase in
funds." the president observed, "there has been a major step-up in the
programs of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminiscommunications and meteorology and in
tration in such fields as
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
228
Expenditure.- Great Tabl. ll._Go»e™m«n) Receipt, and (in
Britain
£030,0001
Exchequer Expenditures
isolidoted fund services Profits
tox ond
Total Inland
r
Civil (including
Customs Totol customs
ond
may
Detoll
Total
licen< lipts
T
225
from sundry loans)
£6,645 r
odd
not
to totals
be
by the most dramatic effort of all—mastery of space symbolized an attempt to send a man to the moon and back safely to earth .... Our space program has far broader significance, however,
manned space
than the achievement of
flight.
connected with the space program
.
.
The research
will
.
ef-
have great im-
Net payments outside the ordinary budget accounts were exdown from £621,000,000 in the previous year. For fiscal 1962-63 such tiet pay-
pected to amount to £507,000,000 in 1962-63,
ments "below the line" would thus exceed by £74,000,000 the "above the line" surplus of £433,000,000. This estimated over-all
pact in increasing the rate of technical progress throughout the
deficit, or net
economy."
deficit of
Before federal funds can be spent the congress must enact authority for each agency to incur financial obligations. However,
is
new
of the
all
.
.
Miscellaneous (including Total ordinary
.
Surplus .
Total receipts from lax-
Broadcast receiving
not
collecti
Total ordinory expenditure
exci:
vetlicle duties
fort
tax
Totol supply services
Excis
Motor
.
', at Yaounde, troops dispersed persons taking part in the national congress organized by the
moderate elements of the Union des Populations du Camcroun (UPC). In July, on the occasion of the fourth congress of the ruling Union Camerounaisc. there wa.s a rally of numerous opponents of the regime, including former members of the U.P.C.
governor general in 1962,
Scotia
?
L Edward
Prince
.
.
...
.
.
Pop.
1,331,944 1,629,082
3.7
1,304,903
22,998 14,628 18,238,247
207,076
Table II.— lorgesl 11961 '-'"'
Er^
SS-::;;:
Populoflon
850,040 554,616 415,074 694,717 5,404,933 99,285 4,628,378 880,665
34.4
47.9
3,851,809
1,123,116 1,398,464
5.2 4.4 3.7 21.1 2.9
921,686 597,936 457,853 737,007 6,236,092 104,629
.
1954 census Density per
Pop.
sq.mi.
5,259,211 925,181
,
.
Canada
2,184
""•''"
'°"''
Population of
594,860 251,700
J-,; Island.
Saskalc),ewan Northwest Ternlorlei Yukon Territory
or 69.6%r of the total.
1961 census Dersily per
255,285 366,255 251,000 28,354 156,185 21,425 '"2.582
.
....
Nova
Europeans number about 17,000, Principal cities fpop., 1959 est.): \'aounde (cap.) 55.000; Douala 120.000. Cameroon is a
member of the Inter-African and Malagasy States organization and of the Union of Africa and Malagasy States. President in
— Areo and
(sq.mi.)
,
Columbia
.
est.) 4.096,900.
I.
Toml area
NewBrunswick Newfoundlond
of.
the
—
^^''" l"9-60 there were 26.237 provincially and secondary schools with 144.061 teachers and
^nlrolleii ^n^olle'reiTm^n'.^rv'''''!!'' elementary
—
CANADIAN LITERATURE 3.8U 711 pupUs Other
provincially controlled schools included 15 schools
and deaf with j44 teachers and 2.552 pupils and U7 normal schools «ih 1056 teachers and 16.42S pupils. Indian schools numbered 4/4 with 1.1(1 teachers and 31.465 pupils. The 1 324 private acad.-mir schools had 8,S1S teachers and 165.295 pupils. There were'^350unKer7iUes and colleges with total enrollment of 249,047 and full-time university-erade for the blind
enrollment
ol
102.000.
Finance.— The monetary unit is the Canadian dollar, with a par value of 92.5 cents L.S. currency after May 2. 1962. In the free market the dollar ranged in value during the first ten months of 1962 between a high of 9^.843 cents (Jan. 2 ) and a low of 91.735 cents (June 5). The federal budget for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1963, as submitted to the house of commons on .April 10. 1962. estimated revenue at 780
$5 000 000 and expenditure at $6,52 5,000,000. .\ctual revenue in 1961-6' was '$5 7''9 623,724: expenditure. $6,520,645,674. The net federal debt on March 31 1952 (preliminary), was $13,228,137,045 (1961, $12,437 115 095) Currency in circulation (June 30, 1962") totaled $1,972,000,000: demand deposits, $4,567,000,000. National income in-1961 was estimated at $27900,000,000. The cost-of-living inde.^ stood at 105 in Aug. 1962 (1958
=
Trade.
—Exports
1961 were valued at SS. 755. 500.000 (1960 $5 255 600,000): re-exports. $140,229,000 ($131,217,000): imports $5 '771000'000 ($5,482,700,000). In the first six months of 1962. exports were valued at $2,929,600,000 (1961. $2,614,600,000): re-exports. $83.100 000 ($65600,000); imports. $3,139,100,000 (S2.762.QOO.OOO). In 1061 Canada''s principal customers were the U.S. (5417',204 1.753,947
+i.253'.ooo
,,907,ooo
+,53,000
+8.7
he was active in slum clearance and other urban renewal matters and in expanding the city's transportation facilities. He •. «f *!,„ J .L J c ot tne received the U.S. order of merit and the order ot merit
Delaware
^469,ooo
^446,292
^-f23.ooo
+S.2
also given the brother-
3.943.1,6 632.772 667.19, ,0.08,.,58
+,57.000 +60.000 +3, .000 +65.OQO
-1-4.0
imnoi,^.-
00,000 693.000 698.000 ,o.,46,ooo 2,777,000
2.757,537
+,9.ooo
+0.7
3'.082iooo
+44.000
+,.5
-|-73,00U
'y-A.i
999.000
3!o38;,56 3,257,022 969,265
+30.000
+3.0
?;1J°;||| 7.823,194
itnloSS +^68.000
toil
V7^%\';\ 4.J V.o J
±?2'nm -t-/o.uuu
±oi -t-u.o
+35.000 +73.000 +49.000
+5.2 +,7.3
in 1953
and
state senator in 1951
mayor
secutive elections for
he
won
the
first
"°l^„^
of five con-
;
During
of Cleveland.
his terms in
office
,
Italian republic in 1955. In 1955 he
was
u;97o.ooo
;
'.'.'.
Georgia Hawaii
.
,.
,.509,'ooo
*;,';.°^'^°.'^
4'.i
....
...
^^^^^
hood award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews. Municipal association in 1958 He was president of the American _- _ j^ r 11* , and also president of the U.S. Conference of Mayors. On July 14, 1962, Pres. John F. Kennedy announced Cele-
lowo^^:
brezze's appointment to the cabinet to succeed Abraham A. Ribicoff.whohadresipnedonjuly 12 to run for the U.S. senate from
MicHi^a-
l:i:i;g°g 7.99,.ooo
Mississippi Missouri
5'?i!'°°° 4.34o.uOy
-
,
,.
Celebrezze became the
Connecticut
,
cabinet post
.
.
.
by the U.S. senate. At
51
1
his first press conference,
[J^^
n.w
,
•
,..,„_,
335.000
285.278 ^606.92,
^-f2|,ooo
.
+4.,
j5,,023
_+69.ooo
+7.2
4.73, .000
4.556.155
642.000 ,0.097.000 2.448.000 , .864.000 ,,,376.000 865.000 2.436,000 3,634.ooo
632.446 9.706.397 2,328.284 1.768.687 ,1.3,9.366 859.488 2.382,594 680,514 3.5671089
+,75.000 +,0,000 +39,. 000 +,20,000 +95.000 +57.000 +6.000 +54.000 +40.000 +67.000
+3.8 +,.S +4.0 +5.2 +5.4 +0.5 +0.7 +2.3 +5.9 +,.9
i
^"Wi'lll
'|9o'627
"+77:20?
XH
•
,390,ooo
^389.88,
^^
^t^3
3.006,000 1.773.000 4.092.000 365,000
2.853.2,4
+,53.000 -88.000 +,4, .000 +35.000 +20.000
......
^1,020,000
North Carolina North Dolioto
,
ohio
Oklahoma q^^^^^
(r ri.;\ (,u. Vi
ing testmg on humans.
V4,767 1.4,1,330
.^^^.ooo
.
Pennsylvanio
Rhode
_ -& rPinPIIT
In 1961 world production of cement was 1,997,319,J t ooi ,^^^,^^Ul.l ,.^^I bClliClll. 000 ... bbl., compared With 1,886,277,000 bbl. in 1960.
A
Europe 32%, Soviet bloc in EuEurope supplied 54.3% North America was second with 19.7%. rope n.y', of portland cement in Domestic production •.'"• United jtuio». States. UniTea f
iTZ
(free
I;„
,
.
over 1960 and comprised 17% of world pro,„,„ n , ,„„ J 11 duction, compared With 18% in 1960. Principal producing States were California, Pennsylvania,Texasand Michigan; 35 states and 1961 rose
2%
,
.
.
•
1
Puerto Rico supplied the rest. According to the mines 176 cement plants were active in 1961 . M-L1 '^'t', ^^^ LLi At year's end, capacity was 422,722,000 bbl., Capacity 1960. in bbl. 000 941 432 tJ utilized was ^•"'' '
.
'
•
U.S. bureau of
(175 in 1960).
1.1
compared with 73.7% in 1960. The construction of four new ... , ,«,, J plants and expansion of six existing plants announced in 1961 would add 20,000,000 bbl. to capacity. Shipments into 32 sUtes ,
.
;
;
t^^^^^
;
;
Wisconsin
Wyoming District of
Columbia
coJ^t'.^''"'.
^
.'
;
+5.,
.'
]
::::::::
fZl,-,,, Samoa (American)
,.860,421
3.951.777 330.066
784.ooo
763.956
"'''f'°°°
'^'^llf4
2,4l8.ooo 21.100
2349'?44 2o',o5,
+^-*\^-°°°
+,^9.000 +,.,00
+5.4 -4.7 +3.6 +10.7 +2.6
+f* +4.6 +5.2
trust Territory of the Pacific
compared with 73.2% in 1961, ,
.
•
;
;
Wa,hi„gion West Virginia
,,
,
721.000
:;:;::;::;
^.-r
I.
—
island
South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee
,
I
709.000
^,°:j';'""
Mexico.
I
+2.,
1.484,000
n.^^^j,,
7,
"
;:;;::
Nebrosica
11
he endorsed the president's "medicare" bill and the bill to aid hisher education. On Aug. 9 he issued a new ruling that would ,. u J V. t 11 ensure adequate prechnical research on new drugs betore allow-
Aug.
3,330,000
Momono
J„ „ alter „(f„, sworn in on July 31, 11 days T
'.'.'.'.'.'.'... '.
Ma;^^-^,.^^,.
Italian-American in a
first
.
,
when he was
his confirmation
Kent'°cky Louisiana ^^„,„,
+9.5 +4.6 +0.6
islands
75545 ",099
§ § 5 "''"''• +i,.3 +3,600 , , Total figures include persons In the ormod forces stotioned in eoch area. For slolel -pe
included penicillins resistant to destruc-
by acid and hence more
examples of
The
when given by mouth and phenethicillin were
easily effective \')
by methicillin, by penicillinase, the enzyme present in some bacteria that makes them nonsusceptible to penicillin. A still more effective member of this group was o.xacillin Resistopen; Prostaphlin), which was resistant to destruction not only by penicillinase but also by acid, which methicillin was not. Finally, in ampicillin (Penbritin) a fourth type became availwas
this type.
third type, represented
resistant to destruction
l
able;
penicillin
this
destroys Gram-negative bacteria, a large
group of organisms that cause fever and
many
urinarv' tract infections, t)phoid
all of which are relatively little by the other types of penicillin. Also increasingly used for Gram-negative infections were the antibiotics known as polymyxins, especially polymyxin B tAerosporin) and colistin (Colyrhycin), which was probably the same as polymyxin E. Advances in other types of anti-infective drugs were less strik-
other diseases,
affected
ing,
but minor modifications octurred
the broad spectrum
among
the sulfonamides,
tetracyclines and antituberculosis agents.
Little change was seen in antifungal drugs, but one antiprotozoal compound, metronidazole (Flagyl), appeared to be highly useful in
trichomonas vaginitis.
Although
it
was
still
impossible to treat systemic virus infec-
CHESS
260 tions
specifically,
cornea,
was found
mfection of the
virus
herpetic keratitis, a
to to respond rather favourably
(2'-deo.xv-5-iodouridine). This drug
is
idoxundme
acid a substituted nucleic
by
effective
therapeutically base and therefore was presumably the for the nucleic acid of virtue of being a false building block have been tried unsucvirus Manv hundreds of such derivatives but the application to in generalized virus infections, cessfully
novel and fortunate. the relativelv segregated cornea was pursued; new antibiCancer chemotherapv was extensively other agents were tested but otics alkvlating compounds and A possible exception was the vield was disappointingly small. from the periwinkle plant_ the introduction of additional alkaloids was steady proliferation of
Cardiovascular Agenh.-There
thiazide diuretics but
change in performance. However,
little
relief by the oral route these agents continued to bring welcome that from heart failure, to many persons with edema, especially was inhypertensives. A new thiazide variant that
and also to vestigated had hypertensive
little
effect.
prove valuable
if
the antior no diuretic action but possessed This compound, called diazoxide. should
the
observations are confirmed and ex-
initial
tended. in the body natural hormone that governs salt retention by the adrenal aldosterone, a steroid produced in tiny amounts related to excessive cortex. Some forms of edema that are the amounts of this hormone were found to be ameliorated by of their administration of spironolactone (Aldactone). Because thought to act as similar chemical structure, this diuretic was
The
is
a competitor of aldosterone.
were
Immunological Agents.— Useful immunological agents groups: (1) immunizing agents still largely embraced in two sympa(serums, vaccines) and (2) antiallergics (antihistamines, came thomimetics Among the first group, oral poliovirus vaccine I
like
continued unabated although the drugs to lower appetite generally supposed, and transient effects were less than
beneficial
Nervous System.-Tranquilizers and Drugs Acting on the but "energizers," remained m steady use or stimulants, psvchic were either group. Last year s drugs
''
innovation in modifications appeared in sedatives modified only slightly; few wi'th little
and
analgesics.
However
and measles vaccine underwent investigaOf the second group, the most useful agents were
fective alternatives in asthma.
Agents Acting on the Blood.—There was
increased use of
for the dispersal of products of inflammation, as in the
treatment of sprains. In addition to the previously used
tr>'psin
and chymotrypsin, proteolytic enzymes from various other sources, including pineapples, were obtained.
Hormones.
—The general situation as regards adrenal
cortical
hormones, which continued to be used in large quantities for the treatment of inflammatory conditions and allergic states, was not greatly changed. effect
Male sex hormones with amplified anabolic
were used widely
wasting diseases and during conva-
in
lescence to assist the building of
new
to both types of oral
were added
•
methoxyflurane
and including halothane (Fluothane) appears useful since (Penthrane). The former especially not explosive. potent easy to administer and
it
is
Market.-Casualties among new Drugs Withdrown from the
because better drugs are disdrugs occasionally occur, usually proves them less efficacious covered sometimes because time occasionally because unexpected than originally thought, and Casualties of the last sort are much toxic manifestations appear. etryptamine (Monase), a dreaded; recent examples included another psychic stimupsychic stimulant; iproniazid (Marsilid), muscle relaxant; furaltadone lant, zoxazolamine (Flexin), a (MER/ an antibacterial compound; and triparanol (.\ltafur),
atherosclerosis. 29), a cholesterol-lowering drug used in
(For the
thalidomide incident, see Pediatrics.)
Diseases of the; See also Allergy; Bacteriology; Blood, Cancer; Dermatology; Drug Production and Sales; Endocrinology; Eye, Diseases of the; Food and Drug Administration, U.S.; Heart and Circulatory Diseases; Medicine; Nutrition; Pediatrics; Rheumatic Diseases; Stomach and Intestines, Diseases of the; Venereal Diseases. (W. Cu.)
Cherries:
see Fruit.
.
perhaps a number of isopropyl derivatives of an epinephrinelike compound, isoproterenol (Isuprel), that were introduced as ef-
enzymes
,
,
appeared in recent several fluorinated hydrocarbons
years
into widespread use tional trials.
r 4i introduced only infrequently. ,
New general anesthetic agents are
tissue.
New
synthetic drugs
hypoglycemic agents, the
sul-
fonylureas (tolbutamide, chlorpropamide) and the biguanides (phenformin), especially the former.
Perhaps the most
lively interest
was
in
the field of orally
rhocc
UllcSS.
Tigran Petrosian of the U.S.S.R. won the Candidates' tourney, held May 7-June 28 at Willemstad, Curasao, to
In addition to norethynodrel
(constituent of Enovid),
a second preparation, norethindrone (constituent of Norlutin), came into use. Both were extremely widely prescribed and ap-
peared to be almost entirely effective in preventing pregnancy if taken daily from the 5th through the 24th day of the menstrual cycle. Serious side effects have Hot appeared. Also, the cost of
the
22
from qualifying. Tal, who dropped out
lost the title to
Botvinnik in 1961,
Curasao due to illness. Botvinnik won major international tournaments at Hastings, at
Eng., and Stockholm, going undefeated in both competitions.
Other winners were: (Utrecht, Belg.) Count Alberic O'Kelly de (Naples, Italy) Mato Damianovic, Yugo(Geza Maroczy Memorial, Budapest, Hung.) Victor Korchnoi, U.S.S.R.; (Havana, Cuba) Miguel Najdorf, Argentina;
Galway, Belgium;
its
world students' championship at Lazne, Czech., with the U.S.
—
the medications was reduced so that most married couples could afford them.
New York, who last took
—The problem of obesity saw no
relaxation.
Low-
caloric formulas were widely used with considerable satisfaction in the difficult problem of how to eat less. Use of amphetamine-
,
not competing.
U.S. Tournaments. Both Fischer and Samuel Reshevsky were missing from the men's closed championship which ended in January at New York city. The winner was Larry Evans of
Nutrition.
i
from the U.S. Fischer had easily -man interzonal tourney, Jan. 26-March 8 at Stockholm, Swed., which qualified six men for the Curagao tournament. Former world champions Keres and Mikhail Tal were exempt
garian refugee Pal Benko,
(Moscow) Yuri Auerbach and Yevgeny Yasyukov, U.S.S.R.; (Reggio Emilia, Italy) Alberto Giustolisi, Italy. De Galway also won the world's correspondence title. The Soviet Union defended
lation.
;
|
won
inhibition of the anterior pituitary, which in turn inhibited ovu-
,
j
Bobby Fischer of with 14-13. There were eight international grand masters in the tourney, six from the U.S.S.R. and two, Fischer and the Hun-
with 17-10 records, while
slavia;
)
|
the U.S. was fourth
administered fertility inhibitors. The agents in use were modified which were presumed to act through progestins progestcrones (
j
meet his fellow countryman Mikhail Botvinnik won for the world's championship sometime in 1963. Petrosian eight matches, drew 19 and lost none for a 17i-9i record. Two other Russians, Ewfim Geller and Paul Keres, placed second
and qualified
the title in 1954.
He had
a 7^-3^ record
won the George P. Edgar trophy with a over Bill Lombardy of New York and the U.S.
and. later in the year,
5i-4i victory Chess federation 30/30
title
at Poughkeepsie,
N.Y.
'
CHIC AGO
Antonio
Medina of Venezuela won the open men's title wth a 10-2 record at the tournament held Aug. 13-25 at San Antonio
Tex. Benko and
Lombardy
tied for second with 9i-2i records title, decided during this tourney, with a 6-2 mark. The national intercollegiate crown went to Larry Gilden of the University of Maryland with a 6\~i record at Howard university. Washington. D.C., in Dec. 1961". Gisele Kahn Gresser of New York retired the Edith L. Weart trophy when she won the women's closed title for the fifth time April 22-May 6 at New York. She had an 8\~n record to top defending champion Lisa Lane, who showed a 7^-2^ mark At the open competition. Katherine Slater of New York topped the women entries with a 64-5+ record.
Benko won
the speed
Chess Olympics— Botvinnik
led a Sowet team to \-ictorv' over Yugoslavia. Argentina and the U.S. in the biennial Chess Olymwhich ended in October at \arna, Bulg.
pics,
World Women's Championship.— Nonna the U.S.S.R. defeated defending
Gaprindasvili of champion Elizabeth Bvkova in
Moscow, winning seven matches and drawing
four.
261
$100 of assessed valuation. U.S. customs collections reflected Chicago's growing importance in international trade. For the first eight months of 1962, duties on imports to the port of Chicago totaled $35,134,868
as against $32,475,867 in the comparable
The annual
International Trade fair in
months of 1961.
McCormick
place, the
city's exposition hall on the lake front, attracted more than 600,000 visitors in 1962, Nearly 1,000 firms from the U.S. and 25 other nations exhibited.
The Chicago Symphony orchestra lengthened its concert season from 33 weeks in 1962-63 to 40 weeks by 1964-65. This ended a dispute between the Orchestral association and the musicians' union that had threatened to cause cancellation of the season entirely. An outstanding event at the Art institute was an exhibition of nearly 150 art treasures from the palace of Versailles.
At the Museum of Science and Industry, No. 999. speedrecord-breaking steam locomotive of the New York Central, was
(E. J. G.)
^^^ ^^^' °^ ^°°^ county. 111., and an international port on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan, Chicago is the second largest city in the U.S. Its population in the 1960 federal census was 3.550.404. The 1962 estimate was
ChiCdEO 6
•
3,554,000. Chicago's
mayor
in
1962 was Richard
J.
Daley, a
Democrat. Chicago is the core of a metropolitan area consisting of Cook and neighbouring Illinois counties and the populous northwestern corner of Indiana. In mid-1962 the metropolitan area population was estimated by the Chicago Association of Commerce and Industry as 7.076.700. Public-school enrollment for the 1962-63 scholastic year totaled 345.204 in the elementary- grades and 104,536 in high schools. Enrollment in Roman Catholic parochial schools was estimated at 290.000 in the grades and 68,500 in high schools. All figures represented increases.
Construction, public and'private. continued at a high rate in and many cherished landmarks crumbled under WTeckers'
1962.
hammers. Land was being cleared just east of the City HallCook County building for a civic centre that would be Chicago's tallest building. It was scheduled for completion in 1964 at an estimated cost of $76,000,000. While stories, its height
needed
in its
would be 631.5.
ft.
it
would have only 32
because of high ceilings
110 courtrooms.
It ^Iso would contain executive offices of the health department, the Chicago Transit authority and other agencies that had been dispersed throughout the city. Among the landmarks wrecked for the ci\-ic centre were the Erlanger and Grand theatres, the Victorian-style Reaper block and the Henrici restaurant building. Nearby, the Garrick theatre,
one of Louis Sullivan's architectural gems, was demolished and replaced by a parking garage despite protests from leaders
many
civic
and organizations.
East of the old, rising to
Chicago. 000,000.
domed Federal building a new structure was accommodate U.S. government offices scattered about The building would be 30 stories high and cost $35,The Great Northern theatre and hotel once occupied
part of the site.
Chicago's 1961 property tax bill, payable in 1962, totaled $539,786,467. equivalent to an average of $152.04 for each inhabitant. This per capita bill was apportioned as follows: board of education $60.62; city $5''8.73: metropolitan sanitary district
$12.91; park district $10.84; ser\-e district
Cook county
$7.66;
forest pre-
$1.23: South side mosquito abatement district $.05.
The overlapping debt per capita amounted
to $204.93 in general
obligations for streets, sewers, expressways
and similar projects.
Property was assessed for 1962 billing at a rate of $5.16 for each
Hrdrich glrisint
UNITED OF AMERICA BUILDING,
completed In Chlc.go In 1962 for lh« United Insurance Company of America, wat designed by the architectural firm Metj and associates, with John Dolio as associate engineer. Its tint 23 stories and three basements were framed on a new high-tensile steel that permits the use of smaller columns, said to involve a saving of 60% of lh« floor area usually occupied by columns. The building It 514 ft Ull and fiocd with Georgia Cherokee marble of Sliaw,
CHILD
262
L
ABOUR find showed that nearly 21% were unable to about 9% of those enrolled m employment, as opposed to only In the older dropout group, which inschool and seeking work. unemployed, while only 24, nearly 27% were school, the survey
cluded ages 16 to age about 18% of those of similar
who had
finished high school
20% of those who dropped out could not find jobs. In addition, were working part time for ecoof school before graduation compared with 7% of those who had finished.
nomic reasons, the 26,000,000 young Americans unIt was estimated that of labour force in the 1960s, 7,500,000 der 25 who would enter the and, of this number, 2,would not have completed high school than eight years of school. 500,000 would have completed less and contraction The realization that, with increasing automation market for unskilled labour, future dropouts and inadeof the
more difficulty in findquately prepared youth would face even past led to greater efforts ing suitable employment than in the remedy
to
the situation.
These included
efforts to increase
youth
and employability; increasing public awareness of the problem stay-instimulating action on local and regional levels; and school campaigns.
laws enacted during the year
Two
by congress, the Area Re-
development act and the Manpower Development and Training training of unemployed act of 1962, provided for education and youth and adults to qualify them for available openings. In
May 1961 Pres. John F. Kennedy created the president's committee on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Since the comprehensive planning and demonstration grants being awarded to
communities under the Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Of1961 included youth employment, this
fenses Control act of
committee had close working relations with the president's committee on youth employment (created in Nov. 1961). The division of youth services and employment standards,
H--Hr{rhlllr,unc
Continental Casualty compai and a pleted In Chicago in 1962. has 42-ft.-sauare structural bays painted steel and glass. It Is joined to the company's old offices by connecting bridges. The architects were C. F. Murphy associates
CONTINENTAL BUILDING, new home
of
of
'all
bureau of labour standards, U.S. department of labour, developed
iclosed
in making more effective use The division also published a manual entitled Design for Community Action, which describes a community-action approach for helping young people make a successful transition from school to work. The department of labour
a
program
to assist
communities
of their youth services.
added to the permanent collection of industrial trophies. Among religious events of 1962 was the 19-day "Crusade for Christ" conducted by evangelist Billy
Graham in McCormick Graham reported that
place, with a final rally in Soldier field.
more than 700.000 persons attended his sermons. Always a sports centre. Chicago was host July 30. 1962. to the season's second All-Star baseball game. The American league defeated the National league, 9 to 4. in Wrigley field. On Sept. 25 Floyd Patterson lost his world heavyweight boxing championship to
Sonny Liston
in
a first-round knockout in Comiskey
—
of minors 14 and 15 years of age in retail, foodand gasoline-service establishments subject to the childlabour provisions of the Fair Labor Standards act. One additional Hazardous Occupations order was promulgated under the
employment service
act, establishing
park.
was transferred from Midway airport on the southwest side to Chicago-O'Hare International airport on the northwest side. Efforts were being made to put Midway, once the world's busiest air terminal, to some use. During 1962
all air traffic
The Dan Ryan expressway, Congress
street,
was
Chicago Skyway, a toll
was promoting a year-round stay-in-school campaign. Federal Legislation. On June 1, 1962, an amendment to Child-Labor Regulation No. 3 became effective covering the
also
feeding
off
a circular interchange at
completed in 1962, It carried traffic to the
toll
bridge leading to the Indiana East-West
road, and to Calumet expressway connecting with the
Illinois
tollway.
See also City and Regional Planning.
During
Ph"M
unilU
I
ohniir
LdUUUL
'^
sons of
the U.S. during (he school year Sept. 1961 to June 1962. cial
sur\'cy taken for a t>pical
1961, showed that of
all
A
spe-
school-enrollment month, Oct.
high-school-age youth employed,
more
than three-fourths (76.1%) were enrolled in school. Unemployment in the high-school-age nonenrolled group and
among
high-school
dropouts of older ages was, however, of
major concern. Among the
14- to 17-year-olds not enrolled in
in
1962, 10,440 minors were found
employed in Labor Stand-
Of these, 6,204 worked in nonagricultural establishments and 4,236 were employed contrary to the 16-year-niiniards act.
mum
age required for employment in agriculture during school
Of those found illegally employed in nonagricultural es3,364 were employed in occupations declared hazardous by the secretary of labour.
hours.
tablishments.
S+d-e Legislofion. permit
of 2,363,000
fiscal
violation of the child-labour provisions of the Fair
(C. Ar.)
young perhigh-school age were employed in
monthly average
an 18-year-minimum age for employment
roofing operations.
to
girls of
work
— Night-work provisions were
modified to
16 and 17 enrolled in vocational-education courses
until 9 p.m. in Arizona,
and those in distributive eduwork until 8:30 p.m. for three nights a week in LouisiNew York modified its law relating to employment of chil-
cation to ana.
dren under 16 as models; New Jersey; for those in theatrical productions; and Massachusetts, for participants in fashion shows.
New York
established
work and counseling programs for
of-school youth under 21
out-
who present particular employment problems, and authorized combination school-work programs for
'
CHrLD WELFARE 15-year-old potential dropouts. In
West
Virg:inia
an experimen-
program was authorized for one county, under which unemployed boys of 16 and 17 who had dropped out of high school tal
were subject to compulsory- job training during the summer of 1962.
Hundreds of thousands of refugee children were among the displaced persons in need of housing, clothing and food in countries bordering on Algeria, in the wartom parts of the Republic of the Congo and southeast Asia, in Hong Kong, Palestine
many
Other Countries.— During 1961
action to promote vocational
young persons was taken in such diverse countries Upper Volta, Haiti. Bulgaria. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Israel and the United Kingdom. In the field of traditional childtraining for
as
Hong Kong
labour legislation.
issued
new
regulations restricting
hours of work, overtime and night work for persons between 14 and 16; Lebanon set a minimum age" of 16 for certain state employment; Pakistan, in regulating the hours of road-transport
minimum
workers, set a
workers;
age of 18 for drivers and 21 for other
and Turkey adopted new constitutional
pro\-isions
containing special protective measures governing the working conditions of children.
International Labour Organization.
n
ing July 1962,
—During the year end-
ratifications of child-labour conventions
were
registered with the ILO. Thirteen dealt with the setting of a minimum age for work as fishermen or in work at sea. and six for
263
school children in 80 countries. Another 35,000,000 people in family units were being fed by C.A.R,E. and various rehgious agencies.
work
Peru and
in industry.
five African nations
sponsible for 22 of the ratifications.
(^C.
were
P.
re-
Sm.)
Child Psychology: see Psychology.
and
in the state of Florida,
escapees from Cuba.
concentrated
its efforts on the Algerian refugees in Tunisia and Morocco. Its rehabilitative program, conducted by well-qualified teams from the U.S. and Europe, assisted refugees in learning
sewing, hygiene, child care, nutrition, literacy, carpentr>-, electrical work and masonr>'. By 1962 agencies of the UX. especially the
Worid Health organization
several years of experience in
WplfarO nclldie.
by many
and the year saw noteworthy International
international and national leaders
some of these gaps. "Freedom
efforts to close
Needs and
Services.
—A five-year
from Hunger" campaign, begun July 1, 1960, under sponsorship UX Food and Agriculture organization, was advanced in 1962 by the request of U Thant. acting U\ secretar>--general,
of the
that world-wide resources for
welfare, be mobilized
by
pro\-ided dren's
UX
human
aid,
and especially
Fund (UXICEF;i in June 1962 included S^. 693.000 for more than 16
supplied by the United Nations Chll
CH ILE
264
and underwent several changes. There was recognition of need for increased grants to such families in most of the states. The meagre aid available in many states did not families with children
permit the rehabilitation essential to the welfare of the children involved.
Expansion of the federal child welfare services program was authorized, in particular by the addition of provisions for day
care for children of working mothers and for grants to train child welfare personnel. Another provision was for co-ordination in the states
between the several services for children operated under
federal subsidies.
The
fiscal
provisions of this act included au-
thorization of five annual increases of $5,000,000 each
(from
the previous level of $25,000,000 to $50,000,000 for the fiscal year 1969 and each year thereafter), but when congress ad-
had not made supplemental appropriations for day care and training. It was probable that when congress reconvened these appropriations would be forthcoming. The number of employed mothers was increasing at a higher rate among the middle- and higher-income groups, but most
journed
in
October
it
meagre incomes. Many of the women requiring day care for their children were the only wage earners in their families (often "one-parent families"). Census data showed about 15,000,000 children under 18 whose 7,500,000 mothers were working outside the home. The demand for suitable working mothers
still
existed on
care in day nurseries for children over two and for family day care,
which
is
considered preferable for children under three, was
more than 10.000 population, as a practical follow-up to the 1960 White House Conference on Children and Youth. Upon returning from that conference a local delegate, Billy M. Hightower, helped fellow citizens organize the Wilson County Youth commission, and through it to implement many of the recommendations of the conference. A chief concern was idleness among youth who failed to complete high school and consequently were unemploy-
Many youth were in trouble as a result of inadequate housboth parents working, lack of organized recreation, the influence of obscene printed matter and night prowling in autoable. ing,
mobiles. Within a year the
Youth commission and the county
school board had developed projects to attract potential school drop-outs, including construction of a house under the tutelage of a cabinetmaker and the employment of special instructors in various trades. Counsel for boys and girls confronting vocational
decisions and enriched recreational opportunities
To
were provided.
and obscene publications, the Youth seal which newsstands and merchants
deal with pornographic
commission provided a could display
if
they agreed to participate in a drive to keep ob-
away from impressionable youth. Steps
jectionable magazines
were being planned toward keeping juvenile offenders out of the city and county jails, where they had been confined with adult prisoners.
An account
dren's bureau
of the project
was published by the
chil-
(The Lebanon Story).
among adolescents, as measured by reported 130% from 1956 to 1960. A three-year
Venereal diseases
cases in the U.S., rose
being recognized by local and state, as well as by national plan-
study by the American Social Health association in co-operation
ning bodies. Increased co-operation of professional workers in
with the
providing day care was deemed essential by national authorities.
focused on the attitudes of 600 youth receiving treatment in so-
More adequate understanding
of mentally retarded children
cial
New York
hygiene
city
department of health, completed in 1961,
Among the 600 were youth who were promwho already seemed defeated in life. They
clinics.
and better planning in their behalf was the concern of a panel appointed by President Kennedy. Its report late in 1962 estimated that about 126,000 children born each year will become
ising as well as those
mentally retarded. The panel recommended the founding of a
though, as clients in a
national research institute to investigate basic learning processes
educationally and culturally.
and the organization of other research centres to study factors affecting mental retardation in the fields of biology, behaviour and social development. It also recommended that $30,000,000
entered high school had graduated. Findings of this study, as
be spent to provide thorough maternal and child health services to those in low-income groups where the incidence of mental retardation
is
highest. It pointed to a need for
services to the mentally retarded to
more voluntary assure that those who are
seriously deprived will not be forgotten.
Children of migrant workers and their parents were assured by congressional action taken late in 1962 of federal aid to help establish clinics
and other health projects
in
their behalf.
Up
to
came from
a great variety of family, racial
and
religious back-
grounds and included some highly intelligent boys and clinic,
girls al-
most of them were impoverished Only one-fifth of those who had
reported in Children (July-Aug.
showed the most common need and venereal disease.
1962) by
Celia
S.
to be better education
Desclin,
about sex
Physical abuse of infants and young children was the subject of a U.S. children's bureau conference in Washington, D.C., in Jan. 1962. "The. Battered-Child
Syndrome," an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association, reported that data from
showed 302 cases of extreme abuse of children mothers or fathers in one year. Some of these parents apparently had been subjected to similar abuse in their childby
71 hospitals
their
$4,000,000 annually for three years was authorized to make available seasonal ser%'ices whereby these deprived families might be immunized against communicable diseases and treated for
hood.
other illnesses.
The 50th anniversary of the children's bureau of the department of health, education and welfare was celebrated in Washing-
Juvenile delinquency continued to
various
official
command
and professional leaders and
cially in efforts to deal constructively
the attention of
citizen groups, espe-
with youth
who have
quit
school and through idleness, bad
company and lack of skills have drifted into delinquency. Current Projects in the Prevention, Control and Treatment of Crime and Delinquency, published in 1962 by the National Research and Information centre of the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, listed 721 projects pertaining to delinquency in the U.S. and 25 other countries
The responsibility of physicians and hospitals to report such cases to police or children's protective agencies was recognized.
ton, D.C., April 9, 1962.
The bureau's 1962 publications included
a statistical account of Services in Public
and Voluntary Child Welfare Programs, a comprehensive description of these services and their scope. See also Birth and Death Statistics; Child Labour; Education; Juvenile Delinquency; Pedmtrics; Social Secu''"^-
(H.
and
included summaries describing about 500 of these projects. The authors pointed out the need for more systematic information about the development of adolescents and the lack of objective in many of the projects. An outstanding example of community
study
B^aUk'imt)"''
ChilS planning and action
toward prevention of juvenile delinquency and treatment of delinquent youth developed in Lebanon, Tenn., a town of slightly
^
W. Hk.)
B8ITANNICA Films.— Aoorf a„d People (19S6); Mental
'^P"^''*^
of South
extending along the southern Pacific coast
America for about 2.600
mi., Chile has an bounded on the north by Peru, on and Argentina and on the south and west by
average width of 110 ml. the east by Bolivia the Pacific ocean.
It is
Area 286,396 sq.mi. Pop. (1961
est.) 7,802,000.
,
CHINA Cap. Santiago. Chile is a member of the Organization of American States, the Alliance for Progress and the Latin American Free Trade association. President in 1962, Jorge Alessandri Rodriguez. Census Data.— The 1960 census indicated that the population of Chile
had grown to 7,339,546, an increase of 23.7% over the 19S1 census. Principal cities: Santiago 1,895,198; Valparaiso 259,865; Concepcion 148 015Vina del Mar 115,467; .Antofagasta 87,860.
—
Because of a critical exchange and balance-of-payHistory. ments situation early in 1962, the Central Bank of Chile suspended all operations in foreign exchange. Imports, which had
were made subject to unusually high prior import deposits. The exchange crisis created a number of probbeen hea\'y
in 1961,
lems for both industry and government, especially in debt management and currency stability. The situation prompted a new sys-
tem of trade and exchange controls, and on Jan. 15. 1962, two exchange rates, official and free, were established. The official foreign exchange rate, which since Jan. 1959 had made 1.053 escudos equivalent to $1 U.S., fell to October. Chile thereupon abandoned its established a free rate that in the
escudos per dollar by
2
official
would respond
to
exchange rate and
supply and
demand
policy,
announced
in 1961, relative to the future place
of the copper industry within the Chilean
of increasing investment
by the
economy had
8%
the effect
large foreign-owned copper
panies in both output capacity and refinery tional tax of
of gross profits under the
com-
An addiGeneral Wage Adjustfacilities.
ment law of Oct. 1961, together with several costly labour disputes and low metal prices, accounted for a decline in profits during the
half of the year as
first
compared with those of
January-June 1961. New wage settlements in the copper industry the year were reached without prolonged strikes or
early in
serious disturbance.
The government
itself
became
directly involved in
several
A strike by the employees of the Banco del Estado and another by physicians in the national health centres raised walkouts.
government employees when matters relating to security and health are in-
serious questions relative to the right of to strike
volved.
Developments during the early months of the year held forth membership in the Latin American Free Trade association, during the first three months of operation, was featured by increased sales of copper to Brazil and by decreased imports of beef cattle from Argentina. E.xports bright prospects in foreign trade. Chile's
members
of the association were valued at nearly six times payments made for imports from other member countries. In agriculture the government had to provide financial assistance to
the
after a prolonged
The United
conflict that
States
made
one of the coastal
in
a loan to Chile of $40,000,000
under the Alliance for Progress program for construction of power plants, highways, schools, houses, hospitals and water and sanitary works.
In December President Alessandri visited the United States and conferred with Pres. John F. Kennedy. See also Copper; Foreign Investments; Latin America; Organization OF American States. (A. E. Tr.)
—
Education In 1957 there were 6,886 primary schools with 1,011,429 pupils; 389 secondary schools, 163,559 pupils; 16 normal schools, 6,732 pupils; 139 technical, industrial and vocational schools, 37,080 pupils. The seven universities had 22,000 students in 1957-58. The 1952 census showed that 20% of those six years of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the escudo, initiated Jan. 1, I960, and equivalent to 1.000 pesos, the former currency. The escudo was valued at 95.2 cents U.S. currency, official rate, in early Jan. 1962 (see above, History). The 1963 budget, as submitted to congress in .^ug. 1962. balanced ordinary revenue and expenditure at 925.364,000 escudos and U.S. $54,280,000. In the capital account a balance was proposed of 26,163,000 escudos and $44,068,000. The external debt on May 1. 1961, was reported at $632,000,000: the internal debt (Dec. 31, 1958). 70.100.000 escudos. Currency in circulation (June 30, 1962) totaled 183,000,000 escudos: demand deposits, 287.000,000 escudos. National income in 1960 was estimated at 3.869,000.000 escudos. The cost-of-living index (Santiago) stood
—
June 1962 (1958 = 100). Trade and Communicotionj. E.xports in 1961 amounted to U.S. $508.139.000; impoi-ts. $590,485,000. Leading exports were copper (70%). iron ore (9%), nitrate of soda (6%), iron and steel and manufactures (2%) and wool (2%); leading imports, machinery and equipment (23%), transportation materials, including trucks (11%), petroleum and products ( 5 ) cattle (5%) and chemical products (3%). Leading customers were the U.S. (36%). the U.K. (13%). West Germany (12%), the Netherlands
—
%
(10%) and Japan (5%); chief suppliers, the U.S. (40%), West Germany (14%), .\rgentina (9%), the U.K. (7%) and Peru C4%). The railway system totaled about 5,500 mi. in 1958, of which 4,600 mi. were owned by the government. In 1959 there were 35.380 mi. of highways, of which about 15.000 mi. were surfaced. On Jan. 1. 1961, there were 57,600 automobiles and 68,800 trucks and buses, .\ccording to Lloyd's Register ol Shipping, the merchant marine had 113 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 258,005 gross tons on June 30. 1961. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1961 ) numbered 193.1 75. of which 75.8% were automatic. Agriculture. Production of the principal crops in the 1960-61 crop year was estimated as follows (in metric tons): wheat 1.100.000: barley 118.600: oats 132.000; corn 141,000; rice (rough) 100.070; potatoes 750.500; beans 86.300. Livestock estimates (1962) included cattle 2.940.000: sheep 7.520.000; pigs 980,000. Wool production in 1961 was estimated at 51,600,000 lb. The fish catch 1960) totaled 339.700 metric tons, including shellfish. Timber production (1960) totaled 5,600,000 cu.m. Manufactures. In 1957 there were 5,854 manufacturing establishments (five or more employees) employing 206,700 persons; value added by production totaled 303,398,700,000 pesos. Production estimates for 1961 included pig iron 285,600 metric tons; steel 362.800 tons; steel products 283.800 tons: woven cotton fabrics 72.240.000 m. The index of manufacturing industries stood at 128 in 1961 (1953 = 100). Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1959) was 1,072,000 kw.; production (1961) totaled 4,756,000.000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1961 included copper (bars) 502.031 metric tons; nitrate of soda 1.110,405 tons; iodine 2,452 tons; iron ore (average metal content 60%) 5.255,468 tons; coal 1,763,800 tons; gold (I960) 109,000 fine oz.; silver (1960) 1,679,000 oz.; molybdenum 3,680 short tons. Crude petroleum production on Tierra del Fuego totaled 1,472,703 cu.m. (about 8,278,000 bbl.). (J. W. Mw.)
—
(
—
—
ExcYCLOP-EDiA Britannica Films.
—
Chile
(People of
the
Country
Estates) (1940),
in
The most populous country
were expanded and railway freights were reduced.
existing credits
A
cities.
some of the southern provinces Government loans assisted the farmers,
drought
caused severe losses.
was made for financing workers' bouses
at 183 in
exchange market.
The new
265
developed between Chile and Bolivia over the
possession of the waters of the Lauca river was finally placed
before the Organization of American States by Bolivia.
On May
largest
in
area,
China
is
in the
world and the third
situated
in
eastern
Asia,
bounded by the U.S.S.R., Mongolia, North Korea, North Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal and Afghanistan.
From 1949
the country has been divided into the People's
24 the organization adopted a resolution offering the services of
Republic of China (Communist) on the mainland, plus Hainan
the council for a pacific settlement of the dispute.
and other islands, and the Republic of China (Nationalist) on Formosa yq.v.). Area 3,691,502 sq.mi., including Tibet {q.v.) but excluding Formosa. Pop. of the people's republic (1962 est.)
In June the
World bank
sent a mission to Chile to advise the
development program. With a view to mobilizdevelopment purposes, the bank financed a survey. The Inter-American Development bank, during the closing week of 1961, announced its approval of a number of loans, government on
its
ing domestic savings for
700,000,000. Principal cities: (1961 est.) Peking (cap.) 6,000,-
000; Shanghai 10,000,000; Tientsin 4,000,000; (1958 est.)
Muk-
den 2,423.000; Wu-han 2,226.000; Chungking 2,165,000; Canton
aggregating the equivalent of $27.1 10,000. to finance various areas
1.867.000; Harbin 1,595,000; Lii-Ta (urban complex including
farm settlement, agricultural credits, water supply and fisheries. The bank also gave assistance in February to the final financing of an irrigation project in the province of Talca. On June 14, $5,000,000 was ap-
Dairen and Port Arthur)
of
development
proved to
in agriculture, especially
assist the financing of
In July a $2,000,000 loan
housing projects by co-operatives. Social Progress Trust fund
from the
1,590,000;
Nanking 1,455,000; Sian
1,368,000; Tsingtao 1,144,000; Ch'eng-tu 1,135,000; T'ai-yiian
1,053,000; Fu-shun 1,019,000. in 1962,
Mao
Shao-chi; premier,
History.
Chairman
of the
Communist party
Tse-tung; chairman of the people's republic, Liu
Chou
— During
En-lai.
late 1961
and 1962 the government of the
CHINA
266
request on Sept. 18, 1962, the general assembly again debated China's representation. By a vote of 56 to 42, with 12 abstentions,
it
rejected the Soviet proposal
on Oct. 30 and upheld
Nationalist China in the United Nations. The ideological conflict and rivalry for leadership between
Peking and congress in
Moscow came into the open at the Communist party Moscow in Oct. 1961 when Chinese Premier Chou
En-lai defied Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev's action to
expel Albania from the international
abruptly
made
left
ostensible attempts to
Communist movement and
end. Subsequently, China improve relations with the Soviet
the congress before
its
On Feb. 14, 1962, the 12th anniversary of the SovietChinese alliance. Foreign Minister Chen Yi declared that the Chinese people would continue to spare no efforts to strengthen Union.
and Moscow. Later in the year, howfrom Cuba, which the Chinese termed "appeasement" of the U.S., and the growing rapprochement of the Soviets and Yugoslavia, brought the struggle the unity between Peking
ever, the Soviet Union's withdrawal
open again. Communist China's frontier and continued- ideological quarrel with the
for leadership into the
clashes with India
Soviet Union and Yugoslavia isolated it from certain Socialist and neutrahst countries. National People's Congress and Domestic Affairs. Both internal economic distress and external relations occupied the at-
—
tention of the third session of the second National People's congress,
in Peking from March 27 to April 16, 1962, two years. Deliberations at this session, uiJike
which was held
after a lapse of
those at the previous congress, were conducted behind closed
doors; no press reports were issued on the proceedings
and forand closing meetings. The fact that the achievements of the past two years and further grandiose economic planning were not publicized reflected present diflaculties in foreign and domestic affairs. eign reporters were not admitted even at the opening
1962
t
nittd Preii Inttrnauonal
ROAD BUILDING
IN RED CHINA: In mainland China, where manpower wa< never an expentlve commodity, labourers were carving a road along a steep mounUlnslde with hand tools In April 1962
People's Republic of China suffered at of setbacks which lessened
its
home and abroad
a series
prestige considerably. In spite of
the economic slump, food shortage and riots, and exodus of refu-
gees to
Hong Kong and Macao, however,
of political or
economic
there were no signs
collapse.
Perhaps the severest diplomatic blow was the vote of the United Nations general assembly on Dec.
15, 1961, to
bar the Chinese
people's republic. For over a decade the question of China's
representation in the United Nations had been shelved by a majority support of the United States proposal for postponement. In the fall of 1961, however, it became clear that, owing
membership, the number of UN members that would support the U.S. position had dropped to less than half. to the increase of
Subsequently, in the
first
two weeks of Dec. 1961, the general
.issembly debated China's representation. Both
Communist and
Nationalist China reiterated their strong opposition to a so-called two-China solution. The genera! assembly then by a vote of 61 to
with 7 abstentions, adopted a resolution backed by the United States that any proposal to change the representation of China would require a two-thirds majority. The Soviet pro34,
posal for the expulsion of Nationalist China and the admission of Communist China was rejected by a vote of 48 to 37 with 19 abstentions. In comparison with the vote of the 1960 assembly on the same question, the margin of opposition to the Com-
munist government showed an increase of
six.
Upon
the Soviet
cartoon by
Herblook for the Washington
CHI NA The only
was
publicity given
in the
form of
a
communique
267
the United Nations to help cope with
Hong Kong's
refugee prob-
dated April 16 announcing a resolution passed by the congress on Premier Chou's report on external and internal affairs. Con-
lems.
cerning foreign affairs Peking reiterated in less bellicose terms
India worsened during the year because of the border disputes,
opposition to the American "occupation"' of Formosa and
which centred on a 12.000-sq.mi. area in the Ladakh section of Kashmir bordering Sinkiang and Tibet and on a 51,000-sq.mi.
its
plans for two Chinas; emphasized
its
support of the unity of the
Chinese-Indian Dispute.
—The
relations
between China and
Socialist front and the peace-loving nations and peoples of the world in their struggle against the imperialists' armament expansion and war preparations; and advocated the banning of all
area between Tibet and India's northeastern border along the
atomic weapons. Shortly after the close of the congress the Communist regime started to improve its relations with the U.S.S.R.
western sector of the disputed area had never been clearly
by signing a trade protocol
Communist
On
to strengthen ties with other
Asian
countries.
domestic
affairs the resolution of the congress laid
em-
phasis on the importance of agricultural development and food
production and on the necessity of strengthening the united front
by winning the support of patriotic organizations, intellectuals and overseas compatriots. In the latter part of April the eight' recognized minor political parties and groups held meetings and ended in almost unanimously adopting resolutions expressing support of Chou's report to the congress on domestic and foreign
The tenth plenary session of the Central committee of Chinese Communist party in late September reported a slight
affairs.
the
improvement in the economic situation, criticized the incompetence and failures of certain leading cadres, and upheld the leadership of Mao Tse-tung and his foreign policy. Against a background of the 1958 "great leap forward" movement in industrialization, the economic program outlined by Chou at the 1962 People's congress represented a backward leap, to put emphasis on increase of agricultural production, especially grain, cotton and oilseeds. Chou made no mention of the third five-year plan, which had been scheduled to start in 1963, but listed a ten-point program of economic development, including a rational arrangement of the production of light and hea\^' industry and an increase in the output of daily necessities, and a sharp reduction of urban population by persuading urban workers
and functionaries who had come from
to rural productive
still
McMahon
Chinese government
line,
which has never been recognized by the
— imperial.
Nationalist or
Communist. The
marked, as the Indian government admitted. In Oct. 1961 India formally protested against Chinese incursion in the Ladakh area
and warned that any Chinese attempt to cross the McMahon line would meet with force. The adoption of a resolution on Dec. 20, 1961, by the United Nations general assembly appealing for the cessation of practices which deprive the Tibetan people of their functional human rights and the right to self-determination did not help to ease the tension between Peking and New Delhi. In December Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was quoted as having said that "we do not rule out war" on the border.
In the diplomatic exchange of notes of protest and accusation throughout the year, India appeared to take a much stronger position. In Feb. 1962 Peking appealed to
New
Delhi for an early
negotiated settlement of the Himalayan border disputes. ter refused to negotiate until the
former withdrew
its
The
lat-
troops from
the area in eastern Kashmir. Tension continued, with troop maneuvers and clashes on both sectors of the border during April-June. In July it was reported that Indian and Chinese ministers at the Geneva conference on Laos had agreed on an
informal cease
fire.
China accepted India's
offer to
settle
the
dispute through talks on the basis of a study to be undertaken
rural areas to return
work. Chou's statement on the people's com-
munes confirmed the general might
so-called
belief that, while the
communes
all comhad been and freedoms of the
function as an administrative framework,
munal ownership and given up temporarily.
large-scale pooling of resources
More
individual rights
peasants had been restored in order to give incentive to the
farmers and thus encourage greater production.
Crop forced
failures resulting
communal system
from natural calamities an^ the en-
led to widespread hunger. It
is
believed
on the mainland averages only 1,600 cal. per person per day as against more than 2,300 cal. in Formosa. The shortage of food and basic consumer goods intensified the feeling of population pressure, and the government was comthat the national diet
pelled to accept a policy of birth control,
which
it
had previously
opposed.
•
Another result of the food shortage and the policy of sending urban dwellers back to the rural areas was a sudden increase in April'of refugees crossing the border into Hong Kong. A climax was reached in the first three weeks of May when about 70,000 Chinese crossed the border. The indifferent attitude of the ChiThe majority of
nese border guards caused wide speculation.
these refugees were rounded up by the Hong Kong authorities and sent back to the mainland, but a considerable number managed to remain in Hong Kong. The United States decided to ease the Chinese immigration quota to admit a few thousand
refugees from Hong Kong, while the Nationalist government declared its willingness to accept all those who chose to go to Formosa. Toward the end of May Peking stemmed the flood of refugees. The Nationalist government formally appealed to
eligible
HEAVY INDUSTRY: power plant
In
Aisembling the parti of
Slianghal In
1962
ttMm lurblnx
for in altotrloll
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE
268 jointly
by
of the two countries. Because of India's
officials
in-
could sistence on certain preconditions, however, negotiations not get under way. On Sept. 19 serious fighting broke out on the eastern border and there were casualties on both sides.
month
situation worsened a
later
when
The
the Chinese launched
heav\' attacks on both sectors of the Indian lines. Encountering spirited but inadequate Indian defense, Chinese
moved forward rapidly. Then on Nov. 21 Peking announced that its forces would cease fire at midnight and, starting Dec. 1, would "withdraw to positions 20 km. behind the lines of actual control" as of Nov. 7. 1959. On Nov. 22 hostilities came troops
though India, claiming that the "line of actual control" Ladakh represented positions the Chinese had pro-
to a halt,
as of 1959 in
and by force established since 1957, refused
gressively
knowledge the truce
withdrawn
officially.
By mid-December
their troops in the northeast,
word of withdrawal
in
to ac-
the Chinese
had
of the previous year. 700 000 for the corresponding period The production of grain for 1961 was lower Agriculture and Industry. Coal and than ihp renorted figure of 180,000.000 metric tons for 1960. reported as 425.000.000 an(J 18,500,000 sVeel production in 1960 were period of "adjustment to national metric tons respectively. In 1961 the were poorly equipped economy" began. The industrial enterprises which and expansion of agricultural proand had no direct relation to the revival industries were ordered to take duction were closed down. The remaining the past policy of striving inventory. This was done in order to correct and quality. In 1962 the Chinese for greater production regardless of cost Communist party and government officially admitted the failure of the urgent task was industrial policies expounded in 1958, and decided that the development of the national economy with agriculture as the founda-
£M2
—
the
tion.
—
Bibliography. P. C. Chakravarti. India's China Policy (1962): P. Tang Communist Cflina Today. 2nd ed. rev. (1961): Donald S. S (H. T. Ch.) Zagoria, The Sino-Soviet Conflict, 1956-1961 (1962).
H
Britannica
E.NCVCLOP/EDIA
Communism. Democracy (14th
—
.Arnold Toynbee: Nationalism, Films. lecture of the series, "A Changing World
(1958): China Under Communism (1962); in the Light Pearl S. Buck (The Wisdom Series) (1960); People oj Western China (1940). of
History")
though there was no
Christian Churches
Ladakh.
(denomination):
see
Disciples
of
Chinese-U.S. Relations.— The military build-ups in spring 1962 along the mainland coast opposite Formosa caused concern in
Christ.
Washington. According to a press dispatch, the U.S. ambassador in Moscow had ascertained that China might not be able to count 29 Pres. John F. Kennedy at a press conference sought to discourage any belief that the United
A new radio series called "The Bible Christian Science. Speaks to You" was inaugurated in April 1962 by the Mother Church, the First Church of Christ, Scientist. Boston. The weekly programs were broadcast by more than 800 stations in the U.S. and Canada and by Radio Luxem-
States would support the Nationalists in an effort to put forces
bourg, reaching a large portion of western Europe. Spanish and
on the mainland. In an interview broadcast on Aug. 3 in Geneva, Chen Yi confirmed that the United States would not approve or
versions also were broadcast in Buenos Aires, Arg., and Each 15-minute program was built around selected Bible readings pertaining to a problem of current concern. The pro-
on the Soviet Union
Formosa
straits.
to
back
it
in
any military venture across the
On March
support invasion of mainland China by the Nationalists,
Peking and Washington became signatories to agreements con-
Geneva guaranteeing the neutrality and independence of Laos. Peking's pronouncements continued to regard United States aid to South Vietnam and Thailand as a menace to its security. Following the shooting down of a Nacluded on July 23
in
on Sept. 9 over east China, Peking renewed "hate America" campaign with vigour.
tionalist \^-2 plane its
See also Armies of the World;
Communism; Formosa;
India; Southeast Asia Treaty Organization; Tibet;
Union
OF Soviet Socialist Republics. Educoiion
—
The plan to eradicate illiteracy by 1962 and to enforce universal primary and secondary education between 1962 and 1967 was far from realization. On June 1, 1962, the International Children's day, the People's Daily and other official periodicals revealed that because of economic difficulties and the pressure of a fast-increasing population, a large portion of more than 100.000,000 children from 7 to IS years of age could not go to school most of the schools were on a two-shift system. ;
Many
trade and vocational schools were shut down because of economic difficulties. In selecting students for higher education new emphasis was put on political thinking, ability and health. D*l.e C.vil
W.r:o
Checklist
Ldward
co^P-^y
rAe W "'
^"'"';
B, C. E. Dornbuscb; Civil War Guns by William tsposito; Prelude to Ortalness. Atlas ol the Civil War. ed. by Vincent J. Emanc.pawn ProclaUncotn nihe ISSOs by Don E. Fehrenbachcr; The *'.
another television address, he denounced
filled
Ten days later, Communist new party, for
top
.Anibal Escalante, organizational secretar>' of the
having
on
overzealous leaders committing grave admin-
important positions almost exclusively with old-
school Communists, Escalante was dropped from the directorate,
denounced by Roca and other Communist party leaders and was have arrived in Prague. Though Castro appeared to have gained the upper hand in the secluded arena of Cuban politics, there was little hope that this might mean a victory for moderation. If either faction represented moderation of sorts, later reported to
this
was probably the Moscow-oriented Cuban Communists
Castro party was known to
ophy than
to the
feel
much
tamer Kremlin views.
this thesis, the regime, after
;
the
closer to the Peking philos.As if in
corroboration of
having earlier in the year adver-
CU BA
302
some of the confiscated farms would be returned
tised that
nounced
in
owners
in
exclusively on collectives.
—Concern
Prisoners of War.
for the fate of Castro's
Bay
of
mounted steadily through the spring and summer months. Late in March 1.179 prisoners had gone on trial in Havana before a five-man military court, with Pigs (April 1961
)
prisoners of war
only representatives of the Soviet-bloc press admitted to the proceedings.
The government announced
the verdict on April 8:
condemned to ranging from $25,000
the captives were found guilty of treason and
all
30 years of hard labour or to pay "fines" per man for the rank and file to $500,000 for each of the three leaders of the expedition.
The
fines
added up
to $62,000,000, a
in the tractors-for-prisoners negotia-
figure
mentioned previously
tions
which had bogged down
in the
summer
Families (of the prisoners) committee, claiming
$26,000,000 to
in
The Cuban
of 1961. it
already had
pledges and contributions, sent representatives
in mid-April and obtained, on undisclosed terms, re60 sick and wounded prisoners. A few others were
Havana
lease of
when ransoms were paid individually for them by famiand friends. On June 26 the formation of a special committee of prominent Americans and Europeans to raise funds for the committee was announced, and on July 27 J. B. Donovan, who had arranged Francis Gary Powers' release from the U.S.S.R. in 1961, was appointed counsel. After several conferences with Castro in Havana. Donovan secured an agreement to release the prisoners in exchange for about $50,000,000 worth of food and released
lies
drugs, and the exchange
was completed
during the first half of Exiles.— Cuban exiles marked time March some elements had bolted from Jose Miro CarRevolutionary council and there had been criticism
to
an effort to increase production, anAugust that agriculture eventually would be based
their original
just before Christmas,
Castro, w^ho jokingly declared a 24-hour "peace" with the U.S.,
1962. In
Cuban
dona's
reliance on eventual help from of his continued and excessive Miro Cardona Washington for an operation against Castro, but
and ultimately strengthened his loose coaliYet other groups started at this point A group of exiled certified to embark on independent programs. Alpha 66 came public accountants which called itself Operacion survived the
crisis
tion of exile organizations.
and entered into a secret operational agreement with an older group called Segundo Frente del Escambray whereby Alpha 66 would raise the funds and receive the publicity while the Segundo Frente would remain in the background and eventually man the gunboats. The Directorio Revointo being in Puerto Rico
lucionario Estudiantil, one of the groups that
had seceded from
Miro Cardona's council, announced in the early summer that it would soon initiate operations on its own. In mid-September another group of exiles from New York and Miami, together with representatives of the Cuban anti-Castro underground, met with other leaders in Puerto Rico, and formed a new group under
Manuel Ray, Castro's former minister of public works, to promote sabotage and guerrilla warfare within Cuba. The new organization was termed the Junta Revolucionaria (JURE) and its operational head in Miami was reported to be a former antiBatista fighter called Rogelio Cisneros.
The
students' group struck
bility for the
bombardment
first.
of a
On Aug.
Havana
ings housing Soviet personnel with a
on a gunboat. Alpha 66 staged one of
its
its first
25
it
claimed responsi-
hotel and adjacent build-
20-mm. cannon mounted
operation on Sept. 11
when
gunboats entered the port of Caibarien in north-central
,000 close relatives of prisoners to go to the
Cuba, strafed a British freighter claimed to have been loading
U.S. Although the U.S. government had taken no direct part in
sugar for the Soviet Union and attacked and boarded another
also allowed
about
1
On Oct. 10 Alpha claimed credit for another successful raid: commando action in Isabela de Sagua, a port just west of
the negotiations, administration oflicials headed by Atty, Gen,
ship.
Robert Kennedy co-ordinated the collection of supplies fronx
a
food and drug companies and the government made transportation available.
A
cash payment of nearly $3,000,000 also was
raised through efforts of administration officials.
Soviet
Arms
Build-up.
— In
late
summer
reports multiplied of
an unprecedented Soviet arms build-up
in Cuba. Earlier in the years report of the Inter-American Peace committee had charged that Castro had received from $60,000,000 to $100,000,000 worth of weapons from the Soviet Union in the preceding 12 months and that he had the largest army in Latin America. On June 16 the Cuban government held a massive show of Soviet tanks, artillery and aircraft in the city of Cardenas, apparently with intimidation as a purpose, the town having been recently in turmoil
with popular demonstrations against food shortages and the
re-
gime
itself. In August the Students Revolutionary Directorate and the Cuban Revolutionary council warned that from 4,000 to 5,000 Soviet troops had arrived in Cuba in the last month, that
many as 30 Soviet vessels had called at Cuban ports in recent weeks and that missile bases were under construction. Late that month Sen. Kenneth B. Keating said he had information that
as
there were 1,200 "uniformed" Soviet troops in the island.
administration claimed that
it
had no information as
The
to the pres-
ence of uniformed Soviet troops in Cuba or any weapons which could not be considered as defensive. It confirmed the arrival of
more than 20 Soviet
ships in
of August and that about 30
Raul Castro's trip visit of Guevara and
Cuba during the first two weeks more vessels were on their way.
to the U.S.S.R. in July
their talks
and the September with Nikita S. Khrushchev were
heralded as successful in obtaining further industrial aid pledges and other agreements from the Soviet leader. Castro's announce-
September that the Soviet Union and Cuba would modern port in the island to serve as base of operations a joint "fishing fleet" compounded the U.S. alarm.
ment
in late
build a for
Caibarien, in which 20 defenders, including Soviets, killed
and war materiel had been captured.
And on
had been Oct. 14 a
Cuban patrol boat was sunk by gunfire from a gunboat manned by Cuban exiles claiming to be operating independently and without any organizational name. Soviei-U.S. Clash.
—The Kennedy administration
in late Sep-
tember and early October received reluctant co-operation from most of the Allied nations engaged in Cuban shipping, especially after the U.S.
announced plans for setting tough penalties, including loss of U.S. cargoes and port facilities, for ships conducting Cuban-Soviet traffic and for all the ships of nations any of whose vessels transported arms for Castro. Great Britain held out still and merely asked its shippers to co-operate in not transport-
ing
arms
to
Cuba, while protesting U.S. interference with freedom mid-September congress approved a resolution
of the seas. In
sanctioning the use of force, if necessary, to defend the hemisphere from Cuban aggression or subversion. An informal inter-
American foreign ministers' conference, held in Washington in means and possibilities of curbing the
early October to assess
Castro regime through joint hemispheric action, adjourned after issuing a statement
which branded Soviet intervention in Cuba hemisphere calling for individual and collective countermeasures. A few days later at the United Nations Presi-
a threat to the
dent Dorticos reasserted
nmg
Cuban charges that the U.S. was planCuba and urged the assembly
military aggression against
condemn U.S. threats on shipping. The crisis came in late October. On Monday the 22nd, President Kennedy addressed the nation on television and announced that to
he was issuing orders for the establishment of a naval "quarantine" on Cuba on the basis of proof recently obtained of the presence on the island of construction under
way
medium-range ballistic missiles; of the of intermediate-range missile sites; and
,
CUBA *'*'«**»'
World
JTide
Uide World
THE CUBAN
CRISIS: Aerial reconnaissance by department of defense Oct. 24, 1962, showing a Soviet balphotograph listic
released
missile base installation In
Cuba
SOVIET MISSILE BASE UNDER CO^NSTRUCTION: Aerial photograph made Oct. 14, 1962.
in San Cristobal area of Cuba and released Oct. 28, showing temporary billeting and missile trailers
facilities
, VO the of
TWIN-JET SOVIET BOMBERS
U.S.
BAY
abandon
its
(afcovf)
:
One
of Cattro'l
Guantinamo naval
base.
imen there were evacuated because of possibility being returned as the year ended
attack but
CUBA
IN X;above) : U.S. demanded t)iat planes be returned to the U.S.S.R., along with missiles. Castro objected on various grounds, but the planes were finally
sent back to Russia
IN CASTRO'S PRISON (a^ove): This photograph, showing an emaciated prisoner in his cell at the Cabana fortrau In f«llow Havana, was one of a group made lurreptitiously by prisoner with a vest-pocket camera
CATTLE TRAINS FOR CUBANS lished
In
lished in
Oct.
1962
New York
being used for passenger
i.)rff>
Photograph pub• magaiine pubshowing cattle can :
Bohrmia Libre.
In
for
Cubans
in exile,
traffic In
Cuba
Inicrd PrtM Inlernaliorull
303
CUR LING
304
of the assembly of Soviet jet bombers capable of carrying nuclear weapons. The missile bases' strike capacity covered most of the as far south as Lima, Peru. This build-up of offensive military capacity had been carried on secretly and under false assurances to the contrary from the
North American continent and reached
The quarantine,
Soviet Union.
-.vhich
limited blockade, attempting, as
it
amounted
in practice to a
did, only to stop the flow of
Cuba, might be merely a preliminary measure, according to the president, if offensive installations and weapons were not both dismantled and removed from Cuba under
weapons
offensive
into
by
on-site inspection
sounded
like
reliable observers.
an ultimatum
;
"...
it
The
president added what
be the policy of this na-
shall
Castro's main threat to Latin were being hidden in caves and that usefulness as a America lay not in his rocket bases but in Cuba's point for Soviet subversion of Latin America. There were focal also reports that Soviet technicians
remaining
in
Cuba were
help-
Mikoyan left Cuba Nov. 26 ing to build up the island's defenses. demands for inspection of for New York as Castro issued new mainland bases from which attacks against Cuba might be launched. Early in December the U.S. government aimounced that the bombers had been removed. At year's end Castro stood at odds with his Soviet ally, facing a hostile hemisphere, lacking any significant support from the neutral bloc and backed with enthusiasm only by Red China. At
any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States requiring a full retaliatory response on the Soviet Union." On Tuesday, the 23rd, the council of the OAS backed the U.S. position unanimously, and expressions of support came from
home, harassed by increasing sabotage and guerrilla operations, popularity had dwindled to it was estimated that his initial 100%
Great Britain and other European former critics of U.S. policy on Cuba. The blockade went into effect Wednesday morning, and the first Soviet ship on its way to Cuba was stopped the next day
States.
tion to regard
on the high seas and allowed
from U.S.
units.
to
proceed after "visual" inspection
Before the week ended, the Soviet Union had
ordered a number of
its
Cuba-bound ships
after a series of contradictory messages
to
change course and,
from Premier Khru-
shchev and United Nations speeches by Ambassador Valerian A. Zorin.
Khrushchev informed the United States on Oct. 28 that removed
the weapons viewed as offensive by the U.S. would be as soon as possible.
During the whole proceedings Castro had not been mentioned official U.S. sources, and obviously he had not been consulted by Premier Khrushchev before making his decision. UN acting Secretary-General U Thant, seeking to obtain Castro's once by
acquiescence to the terms of the U.S. -Soviet agreement, flew to
Cuba on
Oct. 30, hoping to be able to leave behind on his return
the nucleus of a fruitful,
UN
inspection team.
The
visit did
not prove
nor did that of Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas
Mikoyan, who arrived
in
Havana
I.
later in the week. Castro did
express meanwhile that he would not interfere with the with-
drawal of the missiles as they were not Cuba's, but he refused to return the
bombers or
to allow on-site inspection. In turn, he
presented five demands of his own: suspension of the blockade, suspension of U.S. air surveillance, a guarantee of no action against his regime
by the
U.S., a U.S. guarantee of a cessation of
exile raids
on Cuba and of plotting against
nation
the hemisphere, and
in
Guantanamo naval
his
regime by any other
abandonment by
the U.S. of
its
base.
Mikoyan's stay in Cuba entered its third week without noticeable results, though in November it was apparent that the danger of an international conflagration had been averted by the Soviet Union's backdown on the issue. On Nov. 20, a few hours after a
Washington spokesman had hinted strongly that an answer on the matter of the Ilyushin-28 jet bombers was desired before President Kennedy's afternoon press conference on that day, Castro sent word to Secretary Thant that he would agree to the removal of the planes, as they were too "antiquated" for
profit-
able use. This decision was immediately confirmed to President
Kennedy by Premier Khrushchev;
later in the
day the president
announced that in view of the fact that a considerable part demands had been met by the Soviet Union surveillance
—
of his flights
and naval units having been able to ascertain both the dismantling of the bases and the withdrawal of the suspected number of missiles in
Cuba
— he was ordering
the quarantine lifted.
Still
to
be
met was his demand for adequate on-site inspection, after which he would give his formal pledge of no invasion of Cuba. Cuban exiles, on the other hand, warned the administration that missiles
25%. He was one
of the world's loneliest political figures.
See also Foreign Investments; Intelligence Operations;
International Propaganda; Latin America; Organization OF American States; Refugees; Religion; Sugar; United (L. A. Ba.)
—
Education. In 1960 primary schools had 1,231,704 pupils. There were 315 secondary schools with 91,560 pupils; 58 technical schools, 25,073 pupils; 8 normal schools, 8,241 students; and (1959) 3 universities with 17,532 students. According to the 1953 census, 22% of those ten years of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, officially pegged at par with the U.S. dollar but sold at a large discount in the free market during 1962. The budget for the calendar year 1962 totaled 1,853,500,000 pesos. According to official Cuban figures, the public debt totaled 947,136,769 pesos on Dec. 31, 1959; bond issues of quasi-governmental agencies totaled $450,000,000 on Dec. 31, 1958. Currency in circulation (Jan. 31, 1961) totaled 1,023,000,000 pesos; demand deposits, 877,000,000 pesos. National income in 1958 was estimated at 2,267,000,000 pesos. The cost-of-living indc-x (Havana) stood at 100 in July 1958 (1953 100). Trade and Communications.— Exports in 1960 totaled 618,000,000 pesos; imports were unofficially estimated at about 500,000,000 pesos. The leadtobacco and products ing e-xports were raw and refined sugar (80%) and (9%). In 1959 the U.S. took 74% of the exports and supplied 72% of the imports; those percentages were reduced sharply in 1960 and 1961 and an increasing proportion of trade was conducted with Soviet-bloc nations. Railroads (1956) included 3,677 mi. of public-service lines and 7.579 mi. of industrial lines. Roads (1956) included 5,083 mi. of all-weather roads and 3,208 mi. of other roads. In Jan. 1960 there were 173,538 automobiles, 42,480 trucks and 4,306 buses. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1961) numbered 199,964, of which 72% were located in greater Havana. Agriculture. Production of sugar in the 1961-62 season was estimated at 5,400,000 short tons; exports in 1961, 7,070,000 tons. Production of molasses (including high test) was estimated at 320,000,000 gal. Production estimates for other crops in 1961-62 included coffee 800,000 bags of 132 lb. each; cacao 6,000,000 lb.; oranges 2,500,000 boxes of 70 lb. each; grapefruit 200,000 boxes of 80 lb. each; tobacco (1961) 104,000,000 lb.; henequen 22,500,000 lb. Livestock estimates (1961) included cattle 5,772,000; pigs 1,200,000; sheep (1960) 210,000. Manufactures. Production in 1959 included beer 155,729,211 1.; cement 663,000 metric tons; alcohol 184,812,496 1.; tires 390,621 units. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1959) was 932,000 kw.; production (1959) totaled 2,806,000,000 kw.hr. Minerois. Production estimates for 1960 included copper 13,058 short tons; nickel 12,547 tons; manganese 17,644 tons; chrome ore (exports 1959) 22,780 metric tons. Crude petroleum production in I960 was 14,000 metric tons (about 107,000 bbl.); imports in 1959 totaled 3,700,000 tons.
—
=
—
—
—
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
Curacao:
riiriinO' 'o"
see
— The West Indies
W. Mw.)
Netherlands Antilles.
^^"^"^^
made
a clean sweep of all its matches in
the curling tournament held at Falkirk and Edin-
burgh, Scot.,
March 18-20, 1962, and won
blematic
the world
of
(J.
(1944).
the Scotch cup, em-
curling championship, for the fourth consecutive year. It was represented by a rink from Regina, Sask., skipped by Ernie Richardson and made up of his brother
Garnet and his cousins Arnold and Wes Richardson. These 1962 Canadian champions took the double round-robin competition with six victories and no losses. Teams from four countries-
Canada, the U.S., Sweden and Scotland— took part in the fourth annual bonspiel sponsored by the Scotch Whiskey association. The U.S. was second, with four wins' and two losses, followed in order by Scotland and Sweden.
Nafional Title.— Minnesota captured tional curling title in six years
by
!•
its
third U.S. men's na-
when a rink from Hibbing. skipped ran Kleffman, scored nine victories in ten starts at the na-
CYP RUS championships held in Detroit, March 6-10. Other bers of the winning rink were Terry Kleffman, Dick tional
mem-
Italy,
Nick Jerulle. The runner-up was a rink from Detroit skipped by Michael Slyziuk, which finished with a total of eight victories in
and Marie Rose Gaillard, Belgium, road.
Canadian Title.—The
pynrnn An
island republic and a member of the CommonUJ|JIU0. wealth of Nations, Cyprus is located in the eastern
in a sudden-death play-off for the Canadian national title, at the bonspiel held at Kitchener, Ont., March 6-10, and thereby won the MacDonald Brier tankard trophy.
Mediterranean about 40 mi. is
Women's
Title.— The Tray rink of the Wauwatosa (Wis.) Granites took top honours in the U.S. Women's Curling championships, held at St. Paul, Minn., Feb. 1-4. Mrs. Steuart Tray skipped the rink that included Mrs.'
U.S.
U
men
curlers
made
a good-will
and competed for the Herries Maxwell trophy, sponsored by the Royal Caledonian club, the world governing body for the sport. Thirty-seven matches were played in eight Scottish cities and the U.S. curlers came out ahead with 73 victories, 67 defeats and 8 ties.
The Granite Curling club
to Feb. 10
of Seattle held a special series of
invitational bonspiels during the
tending the Seattle World's
summer
to attract curlers at-
fair.
elected vice-president
and Robert Mortenson of Madison, Wis., was chosen secretary. Ray Meddaugh of Highland Park, 111., continued as treasurer.
(G. Y.)
Currency:
see Banking; Exchange Control and Exchange Money. See also jjnder various countries.
Customs and
Excises: see Tariffs; Taxation.
•'™ Rossi of Chicago,
Pvplinff
UJIillllg.
—
of
111.,
scored his fourth con-
America meet
at
St.
Louis, Mo.,
Aug. 25-26, outscoring Allen Bell of Somerville. N.J., 21-17. Allen Grieco of Hackensack, N.J., won all three junior men's events for the second straight year. Nancy Burghart o'f Jackson Heights, N.Y., sister,
who
had a perfect score, defeated her twin Elizabeth, 21-13, for the women's title.
Tim Kelley
also
of Oakland, Calif.,
-
earlier in the year.
In Oct. 1961 the supreme constitutional court ruled that conbetween the former colony of Cj^jrus and the Republic of Cyprus. In Jan. 1962 the house of representatinuity of law existed
won
amending the penal code and empowering the judgment on Cypriots for crimes committed outside the republic. It was announced in Feb. 1962 that J. L. Wilson, justice of the Ontario supreme court, had been appointed president of the Cyprus high court in succession to Barra O'Briain of courts to
sit in
who had retired in Dec. 1961. Although disputes between the Greek C>TDriot and the Turkish Cypriot communities over tax legislation continued, in Jan. 1962 the house of representatives agreed to pro\-ide sufficient funds for the Republic of Ireland,
work
to begin on the 1962 phase of the five-year development Approval was given also to proposals for tax concessions to foreign firms which brought new industries to C>-prus. There was some controversy, too. about the degree of integra-
the 7S-mi. national cham-
tion to be achieved
Kucuk wanted
title
on
May
forces.
Vice-President
the lower ranks of the army. President Makarios. on the other
ments.
such a
and
full
integration of the Greek
Kucuk alleged that Greek C\priot manner as to diminish his share in
at the
same time
suggested that
North
armed
separate units for each of the two communities in
hand, proposed
stitution. In a
of Indianapolis, Ind., captured the 125-mi.
between the Greek C>priot and the Turkish
Cy-priot elements serving in the
Dave Blaze
of 4 hr. 46 min. 36 sec.
government lands and provision of long-term loans
distribution of to farmers.
pionship road race at St. Louis, Aug. 19, in 3 hr. 40 min. 3 sec.
American
This plan, which provided for a total invest-
ment of about £62,000,000, laid special emphasis on the search for new water supplies, propagation of better farming methods,
plan.
secutive victory in the men's senior division of the
Amateur Bicycle League
Cyprus
tives passed a bill
Ralph Trieschmann of Chicago was elected president of the U.S. Men's Curling association for 1962, succeeding Joseph Carson of Milwaukee. W. Lincoln Seibert of Hastings. N.Y., was
;
of the coast of Turkey.
History. In Aug. 1961 President Makarios submitted to the house of representatives a five-year development plan based on a UN report on the economic situation of Cyprus published
Rickard.
Other Events.— Nineteen
S.
of the Council of Europe. Area 3,572 sq.mi. Cap.
Census Dolo.— Results of a census taken Dec. 11, 1960, showed a total population of 577,615. an increase of 28.3% from the census of 1946 The urban population was 206.287 or 35.7% of the total. There were 448,857 Greeks, 104.350 Turks and 24,408 others. The population density was 161.7 per square mile. Principal cities: Nicosia 95,515 (metropolitan area): Limassol 43,593: FamaRusta 34.774; and Larnaca 19.824.
Royal Eddy, Mrs. Ernest Tranter and Mrs. Grant Rutenbeck. They were awarded the winner's trophy that bears the name of their club. The runner-up Tam O'Shanter trophy was won by a rink from the Skokie (111.) Thistles, skipped by Mrs. Nor-
tour of Scotland from Jan.
member
a
Nicosia. Pop. (1962 est.) 581,000. President in 1962, Archbishop Makarios III; vice-president, Fazil Kucuk.
association's national
Rates
(E. J. G.)
Ernie Richardson rink from Regina
defeated the defending champions from Edmonton, Alta., 14-7,
man
2,
Savina, U.S.S.R., sprint; Beryl Burton, Great Britain, pursuit;
ten starts.
U.S.
305 Aug. 30-Sept.
Jean Stablinski of France won the 192-mi. professional race and Renato Bongioni of Italy the 112-mi. amateur crown. Women's honours in the two meets went to Valentina
Brown and
and Turkish
the exercise of power
to limit his right of veto under the con-
speech delivered in Jan. 1962 President Makarios it might be appropriate to revise the constitu-
In February
Kucuk asked
26 at Detroit. Mich., in the record time
tion.
Tom
to interpret certain "ambiguities" in the constitution
Veitenhaus, 24, of Spencerian col-
Milwaukee, Wis., won the national intercollegiate 50-mi. New Haven, Conn., on May 12. In major Canadian races, Robert Pearson of San Francisco, Calif., won the 258-mi. Tour
ele-
leaders were acting in
supreme constitutional court which af-
the
lege,
fected his right of veto in matters relating to foreign affairs.
race at
(V. J. P.) Education Schools (1960-61): elementary 755. pupils 83.042; secondary 70 (including 15 Greek eishlh-class schools), pupils 28.417: technical, commercial and agricultural 6, pupils (1958-59) 397: teacher-training colleges 2. students 424. There were also (1962) 1 Greek Orthodox semi-
du Lac
St.
9S9-mi.
Tour du
tained his
Jean and Aleksei Petrov of the U.S.S.R. won the St.
Laurent. Jacques Anquetil of France re-
Tour de France. Maspes and Sergio Biansuccessfully defended the professional and ama-
title in
the 22-day 2,600 mi. -plus
World Championships. chetto of Italy
— Antonio
teur sprint titles, respectively, at the world track in Milan,
championships
Aug. 24-28. Hendrik Nijdam of the Netherlands
tained the professional pursuit crown, while Guillermo of Spain took the professional paced event. Other ners were
Kaj Erik Jensen, Denmark,
pursuit,
re-
Timoner
—
nary. 6 Roman Catholic private schools, 2 U.S. mission schools, 2 English schools. 1 reform school and 1 school for the blind. Finance ond Trade. Monetary unit: pound at par with pound sterling, divided into 1.000 mils: 357.14 mils I'.S. $1. Budget (1062 est):
—
=
revenue £18,702.311, expenditure £18,313,549. Foreign trade (1961): imports £40.180,000, exports £17,630,000. Main products and exports (long tons. 1961): iron pyrites 817,394, copper pyrites 143.208. copper concentrates 96,628. cement 1,402, gypsum 28,792. asbestos 15.173. chrome ore 22.584; also wine, tobacco, citrus fruits, potatoes, grapes and raisins, olives, carobs.
amateur win-
and Romain De-
Loof, Belgium, paced. In the road championships at Brescia,
Cystic Fibrosis: THE.
see
Stomach and Intestines, Diseases of
CZECHOS LOVAKIA
306 _
.
,
,
plan for 1963 and a new seven-year be replaced by a one-year plan for 1964-70. -^ . r of 1961 that apA new penal code was introduced at the end one it was to the than liberal peared in some respects to be more decree was promulgated, applying, replace. In May an amnesty predecessors, only to pohtical crimes. The re-
people's republic of central Europe, Czechoslovakia lies between Poland, the
A
.
CZeCnOSlOV3Kl3.
U.S.S.R.. Hungary, Austria and
Germany. Area 49,367
,
sq.mi.
13,820.300. (including Slovakia 18.922 sq.mi.). Pop. (1962 est.) Treaty Cap. Prague. Czechoslovakia is a member of the Warsaw
Organization for Mutual Defense. First secretary of the nist Party of Czechoslovakia and president in 1962,
Commu-
unlike
person."
Csntui Data.— Preliminary results of a population census taken March 1, 13.741,529, an in1951, gave the total population of Czechoslovakia as square mile, and apcrease of 11.4% over 1950. Density was 278.4 per cities: proximately 28.4% of the total population was urban. Principal 264,278; Prague 998.493; Brno 323,309: Bratislava 257,856; Ostrava 1. 1960: Cmtral created July regions ten of the Population Pljen 141,583. Bohemia 1,258,391; South Bohemia 644.352; West Bohemia 8t8,464; 1,870,North Bohemia 1,104.027: East Bohemia 1,217,278; South Moravia 395- North Moravia 1.686,692; West Slovakia 1,728,205: Central Slo-
of eastern Europe, the Like the other Communist governments ambassador from AlCzechoslovakian government withdrew its with Switzerland bania "permanently" in Dec. 1961. Relations
Czech embassy in were not improved by the discovery that the Bern was implicated in two cases of espionage. nonGreat efforts were made in 1962 to develop trade with the
vakia 1.289.412; East Slovakia 1^95,820.
(D- F"-) countries. Education.— Schools (1960-61): nursery 6,633, pupils 285,863, teachers
Communist
History.— In Feb. 1962 the Central committee of the CzechoCommunist party announced the expulsion of Rudolf Barak, former minister of the interior, from all his positions in the government, from the party's Politburo and from membership in
higher primary C8-year) 17 579- primary C5-year) 9.070, pupils 485.261: pupils 355,775; teachers (primary 3 078 pupils 1,385,576; secondary 440, teachers 3,121; facand secondary) 92,918; special 728, pupils 42,247, vocational (including tory apprentice schools 1,806, pupils 241,252; institutions of teacher-training) 725, pupils 238,201, teachers 10,218: Olomouc, Brno, Bratihigher education, including 4 universities (Prague, university, for slava), 50, students 94,040, teaching staff 10,504. Another foreign students and Czechoslovak students of foreign affairs, was estab-
slovak
itself.
"abuse of the
The grounds
office of
for this action were said to be his
Minister of the Interior,
illegal
manage-
and gross violation of socialist legality." President Novotny publicly denounced Barak as "a political adventurer who aimed at seizing political power." but this charge was not maintained at Barak's trial before the supreme military
ment of
state funds
court in April.
funds and
He was found
lished in 1962. Finance. Monetary unit:
V- u koruna, with an official exchange rate, high koruny to the U.S. $1. Budget (1962 est.): revenue koruny. 123,201,000,000 123 322.000,000 koruny; expenditure Foreign Trade. (1961) Imports 14,570,000,000 koruny, exports 15,261,000,000 koruny. Main imports: iron ore. crude petroleum and products, bread grains. Main exports: machine tools, motor vehicles, coke, glass and glassware. Chief sources of imports: U,S.S.R„ German Democratic Republic, Poland, Hungary, (mainland) China. Main destinations of exports: U.S.S.R., German Democratic Republic, Poland, Hungary, (mainland)
—
and
was generally
believed that he had in fact challenged Novotny's leadership of
Communist party. The continuing problem
the
China.
of carrying out in Czechoslovakia the
Transporl and Communications.
further "de-Stalinization" decreed at the 22nd congress of the Soviet Communist party was symbolized by the gigantic monu-
two
Cumera Press.— Pix from
Communist party over the governmental organs and the econto put greater power into the hands of the Central com-
mittee.
The failure of agricultural production to keep pace with the demands placed on it continued to cause concern. The year 1961 saw only a 5% increase over 1960, with about 120,000 ac. left
An attempt
to provide farmers with greater incentive?
in
the farming population.
February of
Meat
social security benefits for
shortages, which were reported
during the year, led to student demonstrations in Prague in
May. There were many indications that industrial output was
falling
behind the planned achievement. The national assembly was told in July that
economic performance
in
1961 had been far below
Novotny addressed the party Central committee on the state of the national economy ati.l announced some government changes; among them, Otakn Simunek was replaced by Alois Indra as chairman of the St:ii'
plan. Shortly afterward President
Planning commission. Early in the year it was revealed that th famous uranium mines at Jachymov Joachimsthal) were to closed. The country's uranium mining, the output of which go( mainly to the Soviet Union, would be transferred to Pribr;ir,i, where 14 mines were already working. On Aug. 14 the Central committee announced that it was rorommending that the third five-year plan, due to expire in 1965, (
— Highways (1960)
133,071 km. including
Germans placed the blame arbitrarily on Lidice and the village was leveled. 169 adult males were executed and women and children imprisoned. Here visitors under a memorial cross survey the new Lidice which has been buill by the Czechoslovak government ing
All
omy and
unplanted.
,
Visitors flocked to the village of Lidioe, Czech., on June 10, 1962, on the 20lh anniversary of the Nazi vengeance and terrorism that wiped out the community. Following the assassination of "Hangman" Reinhard Heydrich. Hitler Gauleiter, at the hands of resistance fghters, the occupy-
party statutes to be submitted to the congress were published in July. Their main innovations were to increase the authority of
was the introduction
,
VILLAGE OF VENGEANCE:
ment to Stalin then standing in Prague. A commission appointed in Nov. 1961 announced in Aug. 1962 that the monument would be replaced by a building to serve Prague's social and cultural life and symbolize the idea of "eternal Czechoslovak-Soviet friendship." The monument was destroyed Oct. 19. Uncertainty within the party leadership was also reflected in the postponement of the 12 th party congress from October to December. The new
the
.
fictitious, of 7.20
—
guilty of misappropriating state
sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. It
three
was to be conditional for ten years, during orderly Ufe of a working which they would be obliged to "lead the
Novotny; premier, Vilem Siroky.
the party
its
lease of prisoners
Antomn
li.
-
Ptiblix
1
DAMS
mam
roads 73,393 km. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec IQSOV r-r= trucks 85.000: buses 4,100. Railways (1960 13 139 km ?nrl„ 1
:
km.
i
307
5t nnn '^°'''' '*•"' ^""'"'"< '"
HJnjT,^
electrified, passenger traffic (1961) 19.335.000.000 prssenKc" fre.ght rafhc(I961) 50,676,000.000 ton-km.; freight carried 205 692
T
STs
k
i
^iJ;t.\, Agr,cuK.re.--XIa,n
R*'°'"
t
'""""'"
^^'^'^'""S sets (March 1962) 1.188,182 crops (metric tons, I960: 1959 in
Uoii.d Kingdom
'
coa
'''/\'''°
'"
i
29:6l?
Eo!l Germany r °1'", l-
:;;::::::
B.r.""'"'"
-^-ni°es°os)"cti"?6./7T 'S and gn te 65 i04 nnn (J». ^i dCn 404. nnn\ .". "S""\ "^^"••'J'-IU 000) coke '"
c ..c Sourcei U.S.
i
. eSJAnnn la az^ nnrw electricity 26.964,000.000 kw.hr. (24.456.000,000)- crude t contentY^.3oTooo''"('3,n'o,ooo)?p°g°°irli"4;968'^o74°^^^^ "dement 5.240,000 (5,052,000): sulfuric acid 599,i
29:975 ^''°'>
!
::::;:::::
industry (I960)- 2 286 000 PrnHnr.i^n c„..,-
in
""1(25,208,000): brown m^o8"ooo")""h""
I?*'''" 113.000
B"^,----------«"**•.
''''^^°V-'
805,000. Industry.— Employed
!
r,
Departnem
*-""»•
I?l'^2 lU.OOO
,!°°"''
parentheses')-
r{:^5,i)i^^i\^^^nay-s§ojr;^5^;orr^/n^i;-^^^^^ -^" i-sV:o^:S? ir9^6°°o°oi") 'It^eVto^ctrMa^fi'9°6^^
lb.,
'""''"•"
.
000
1 79.000: cargo and ma,l 1 5,304 metric tons. Czechoslovak regfstered ocean going merchant ships (I960) 10, totaling 105 450
erots i^nl
P'mcipol Producing Countri,,
Mn 000,000
km
",425
'"•*"
'"•"^
112,500
79,080
27:933 27,530
»
If ill 2o:451
rj"
-:-
ll^n
Will
\lf.l
!I1U
11,025
11,580
*''^°
'**'
12,012 '.'^^
».8'»
Ittl
lilt o,/^^
o,j/y
tin
'.f/^ /,//
«.»'.'
-:8 616
of Aorkullure B"ciiii"re.
1
'"""^
f^°ti,ii:r\'l67)4O0"\'
.
K1-
f
^."'f
°.f
V? n° TT °^
';,
«r
^r'""
'^l
^^^^^^^y
''
""^
''
^^
^'^T.
P°""d. as compared with 60.5 cents a year earlier: prices received by farmers in September were S8.3 cents, against 60.7 cents in
'
Sept 1961
Per capita consumption of
fluid milk and cream, continuing was indicated at about 311 lb in 1962. The industrv undertook promotion programs to combat claims of a relationship between milk consumption and heart ailments as well as milk's reputation as a fattener. Pres John F
ber of the Inter-Afncan and Malagasy States organization, the Lnion of Africa and Malagasy States and the Conseil de I'Entente. President and premier in 1 962 Hubert Maga.
a decline in effect since 1956.
.
in January and September at Cotonou of the Conseil de TEntente and m May-June at Lagos of the ministers of foreign affairs of
Afro-Malagasy union. During these conferences the heads of French-speaking Africa decided to harmonize their points of view on the question of relations with France. In February the president of Togo, Sylvanus OKTnpio. was rethe
state of
ceived at Porto-Novo. Subsequently, a conference of the ministers of foreign affairs of Togo, Nigeria and Dahomey laid the basis of a future regional union of the three countries.
May
In
me in
the country suffered severely
the north,
and
from an outbreak of fam-
June serious flooding devastated the south, making 7,000 persons homeless at Porto-Novo. It was announced in
November that Justin Ahomadegbe and a number of others. sentenced to five years' detention Dec. 1961 for a ptot against
in
m
the government,
had been released.
(Ph. D.)
Education.--schools (1959-60): primary 558, pupils 88,189, teachers 1,984: secondary 15, pupils 3,175, teachers 146; vocational 7, pupils 894, teachers 35. ,""''. '"""^ ^^'''-
^"^-^
R„H»T?i^^/°"'"f'i;' Budget 11962 est.) balanced at 6,310,000,000 000,000 fr. C.F..\. guaranteed by France.
fr.
^^^- =
^'^- 5'C.F.A, including 1,000,''•
^'"P"'''^ 7.643.0()0.000 fr. C.F.A. including 6.004,nnn°nnn"/™?^~''^r'''^°' pOO.OqO fr. from franc zone (mainly France), exports 4,513,000.000 fr. including 3.825,000,000 fr. from franc zone (mainlv France). Main exportspalm kernels nuts and oil (2832,000,000 fr.: oil equivalent 25,300 metric ons, peanuts (15,400 metric tons), coffee (125,000,000 fr.: 900 metric
tons). Agriculture.
— Main crops
Kennedv
publicly endorsed increased milk drinking Butter production in 1962 was estimated at 1.625.000,000 lb about 6'T above 1961. Per capita consumption was indicated at
This was the same as a vear earlier. Retail prices declined cents per pound in the second quarter. Commodity Credit corporation purchases of butter in fiscal 1962 totaled 441 '248 047 7.4 lb.
about
2
totaled 85,801,597 lb.; stocks on Julv 1. 1962, were reported at 401,029,796 lb„ as compared with' 159,530,857 lb. a year earlier, lb.; sales
U.S. cheese production in 1962, estimated at 1,570,000,000 lb„
was 4^^ below 1961. Per capita consumption was indicated at 9.0 lb., up 6^r. CCC purchases in fiscal 1962 totaled 21 1.502,310 lb.; sales were 1.947.734 lb.; and inventories on July 1. 1962, amounted to 106.054.876 lb., as compared with 17.673.017 a year Per capita consumption of ice cream rose l'
increase in the debt limit in nine years; during this period, the
debt had expanded by $32,100,000,000.
As shown in Table II. the debt increase in fiscal 1962 was concentrated in marketable interest-bearing issues: these rose $8,924,000,000, whereas the nonmarketable public debt rose only $306,000,000. As in fiscal years 1959-6r, the increase in marketable debt centred in treasury notes and bills as the outstanding volume of treasur>- bonds declined. Although small, the increase in nonmarketable debt in fiscal 1962 was the first in a number of years. In major part it reflected
Table 11.— Changes
in fhe (In
United Slates Public Debt
$000,0001 Fiscal
Treasury
bills
indebledneu
Certiflcales of
1959
8,363 11,352
-1,014
9,611
1,625 5,818 1,398
2,640 3,303 3,308
12,447
923
-16,193
-4,312
209
-10,557
6,898
24,169
4,774
9,207
-6,080 -5,153 -2,989 -581 -1,490 -2,638 -1,481 -1.935 -18
-3,556 -4,193
.
Treosury notes Treosury bonds
10,094
Nonmarketable public debt
.
.
Special issues U.S. savings bonds
Other Detail
may
Smjrcei U.S.
yeor ending June 30 1960 1961
1958
5,816 10,970
debt Morketable interest-bearing debt
Total public
143
-2,959 -1,377
1962
9 230 8 924
5,313
-417 -5,805 -463 306 144 -104 -30 93 -777 317
add to totals because of rounding. Department of the Treasury.
not
the issuance of debt certificates to foreign countries in connection with U.S. kets.
000,000
in
outstanding U.S. savings bonds, the
since 1955. fiscal
government operations in foreign exchange marfiscal 1962 was the net increase of $93.-
Also noteworthy in
Net redemptions
first
such increase
of savings bonds were sizable in
years 1937-60 but declined to only $30,000,000 in fiscal
1961.
years 1955-62 marketable interest -bearing isby $58,155,000,000. absorbing substantially more than all of the net rise in total public debt. Such issues accounted for 66% of the debt total as of June 30. 1962. As part of the post-World War II debt-retirement program of the treasury, marketable obligations were reduced nearly $62,000,000,000 from Feb. 1946. when they formed 715^ of the total public debt, to the
Over the
fiscal
sues increased
-Average Length and Maturity
Distribution of
Interest-Bearing Public Debt* iin
Maturity classflfi
soaa.cooi
Marketabie
DEFENSE
314 Table V.
— D«bf of Stat* and Local Govtmmanli.
Sourcci U.S.
48,000 52,500 57,200 62,400 67,200 72,500
1956. 1957. 1958. 1959. 1960. 1961
14,934 16,784 16,318 16,720 13,564 8,830 5.361 Department of Commerca. 17,234 19,802 19,594 20,246 15,922 24,191
1929. 1933. 1937. 1940. 1946. 1950.
2,300 3,018 3,276 3,526 2,358
1
Slate
local
13,100 13,700 15,700 17,200 18,100 20,000
34,900 38,800 41,500 45,200 49,000 52,500
Totol
Juni
local
State
Toiol
30
U.S.
JOOO.OOOI
lln
I
.
balance of payments. Through these policies, upward pressure was maintained on short-term rates in order to deter the outflow of liquid funds sensitive to international rate differentials. The three-month treasury bill rate did not decline below 2^%
during the 1960-61 business recession, compared with a low of
around 0.9% in June 1958. Interest payments by the federal government, consisting almost wholly of charges on the public debt, amounted to $9,140,000,000 in
fiscal
compared with $9,055,000,000 in fiscal fiscal 1960. In its Nov. 1962 budget
1962,
1961 and $9,266,000,000 in
review, the bureau of the budget estimated total interest payments by the federal government in fiscal 1963 at $9,700,000,000.
The projected increase of $560,000,000 over the fiscal 1962 figure reflected a somewhat higher average rate of interest on the outstanding debt and a considerable increase
on which interest
is
in
the size of the debt
payable.
Table Vl.— National Debt of Various Counlriet Toto debt
Country
1
Dole
(Unit ol curroncyl*
12/31/39 6/30/39 12/31/37 12/31/39
Argentino (peso) Auilralio (Australian pound) Auilrlo Ischllllnal
.
.
.
Belgium (front)
12/31
Bolivio (boliyiono) Broiil (cruzeiro)
Burma (kyot) Conodo (Canadian Ceylon (rupee)
dollar).
.
.
9/30/40 3/31/39
.
9/30/39 12/31 /39
Chile Ipeto) China (hJT dollar)
12/31/39 12/31/39 12/31/39 2/28/39 12/31/39 3/31/39 12/31/41 12/31/39 12/31/39 12/31/45 12/31/39 3/31/49 6/30/52 3/31/39 6/30/39 9/30/39 6/30/39 6/30/39
Colombio (peio) Costo Rico (colin)
Cubo(pe.o) Ciecho.loyokia (koruna)
Denmork
(krone)
....
Dominican Republic (peso) Ecuodor (.ucrel El Solyodor (col6n) FInlond (morkko) France (fronc) Germany, Weit (deut.chemark) GhonolGhono pound) Greece (drachma)
Guatemala
39
12/31/39 12/31/39
Bulgaria (lev)
.
.
(quetzol)
Haiti (gourde)
Honduroi (lemplro) Hungory (pengo)
12/31 /39 3/31 /39
Icelond Ikrono) Indio (rupee) Iron (riol) Iraq (Iroqi dloor) Irelond, Republic of (pound)
3/20/40 1/1 /39
...
3/31/39 4/30/39 3/31/39
Italy (lira)
Jopan(yen) Malaya, Fed. of (Malayan Menico (peto)
dollar)
.
12/31 /49 12/31 /39
Poroguay (peio)
12/31/39 3/31/39 6/30/42 6/30/39 12/31/39 10/31/39
Perudol)
12/31 /39
Netherlands (gulden) New Zealand (N.Z. pound). Nicoroguo (c6rdoba) Norvroy (krone) Ponoma (bolboo)
.
.
.
6/30/46
Philippine! (peso)
Poland
3/31 /39
(iloty)
12/31/39 3/31/39 3/31/39 12/31/39 6/30/39 12/31/39 3/31/39 5/31/39
Portugol (eicudo)
Rumonio
(leu) South Africo (S.A.
pound)
....
Spoin Ipe.elo)
Sweden
(krono)
Switzerland (fronc) Thailand (boht) Turkey (Turkish pound) Union of SoYiel Socialist Republics
12/31/37
(ruble)
United Arab Republic, Egypt (Egyptian pound) United Kingdom (pound) United Stoles of America (dollor) Uruguay (peso) Venezuela (bonvor)
.
3/31/39 3/31/39 6/30/39 12/31/39 6/30/39
*For opproxlmote volue of various currencies see
tDomesllc debt only.
tNot
strictly
comporoble with
the
1939
figure.
iLong-term domestic debt and foreign debt. Sourcei United Nations, Deportment of Economic Affolre.
DEFENSE POLICIES
315
TOP MILITARY PLANNERS:
Assembled for a meeting of the U.S. joint chiefs of staff at the Pentagon In Washington, D.C., Nov. 19, 1962, were (from left) Gen. Earle G. Wheeler, army chief of staff; Gen. Curtis E. LeMay, air force chief of staff: army Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor, chairman of the joint chiefs; Adm. George W. Anderson, Jr., chief of naval operations; and Gen. David M. Shoup, marine corps commandant
There was considerable discussion within the over whether to create a separate
NATO
NATO
alliance
nuclear striking force
him. At the same time,
Kennedy named Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor
to replace Lemnitzer. Norstad, a U.S. air force officer,
had sponwhich
or to continue reliance on fhe U.S., with an assist from Britain.
sored the plan to create a separate
The U.S. took the position that enlargement of the "nuclear club" would be dangerous and that NATO nations could better spend
the U.S. discouraged but did not directly oppose) while
their military effort increasing their conventional forces.
mara put forth the U.S. view
NATO
McNa-
NATO
nuclear force
(
army
General Taylor had sponsored the administratioa policy of putting greater emphasis on conventional forces.
in a closed-door speech before
Following the announcement of these personnel changes, news
leaders at Athens, Greece, early in 1962, and again in a
reports from Paris and Bonn, apparently officially inspired, sug-
public address
on June 16
Ann
Arbor. Mich. His argument was
gested that the U.S. planned to use only conventional weapons
that "limited nuclear capabilities. -operating independently, are
war over Berlin, until NATO forces were about by superior Soviet conventional armies. Stories of informal discussions among White House advisers on possible
at
dangerous, expensive, prone to obsolescence and lacking in credibility as a deterrent,"
However, the growing
that support of a multilateral
way
to
NATO
belief in the U.S.
deterrent might be the best
prevent the creation of national nuclear forces was
brought to the fore in the so-called Nassau pact agreement between President Kennedy and British Prime Minister Harold
MacmUlan. During the year the British had revised their defense around the Skybolt air-to-ground missile, being
plans to centre
in the event of
to be overrun
withdrawal of tactical A-weapons from front-hne units
— pre—added to
vent their unauthorized use by subordinate commanders fuel to the
European
reports.
However, President Kennedy
command shifts meant any change in fall McNamara declared that N.\TO
denied that the
and
in early
nuclear weapons aboard, were on airstrip alert in
flatly
U.S. strategy planes, with
West Germany.
developed in the U.S. After repeated test failures, however, the
U.S. policy, he said, was to use whatever weapons were needed in
announced plans to abandon the missile. At a meeting Nassau in the Bahamas late in December, Macmillan agreed
combat situation. The talk died down after the White House announced that a system had been devised whereby remote nuclear weapons could be put under an electronic lock and key arrangement in which the key would be held at higher bead-
U.S.
in
to
accept, in place of the Skybolt, Polaris missiles which, while they
would be under British control, would be committed to the defense of
NATO
and would be used purely for British defense
only in "supreme national interests." Polaris missiles were to be
France under the same conditions, although it was generally believed that France would refuse them. The agreement offered to
encountered considerable opposition in Britain, where
many
felt
that British interests
had been surrendered. With Gen. Lauris Norstad about to retire as NATO supreme commander in Europe. President Kennedy picked Gen. Lyman
L. Lemnitzer,
chairman of the joint chiefs of
staff, to
replace
a given
quarters.
Emphasis on the build-up of U.S. conventional forces conarmy strength was increased from 870.000 to
tinued. In 1961
in order to put all 14 regular army divisions on combat-ready status and temporarily bolster land forces by calling up guard divisions and other reser\x units. During 1962 two
about 1.065.000
new
regular
army
di\'isions
were created
divisions released in Aug. 1962.
Army
to replace the
two guard
strength then was cut back
to 960,000, but the net increase over the year before provided a
GA ULLE
DE
316
U.S. to augforce of ten combat-ready divisions in continental
ment nine such units overseas. There was a continued build-up of regular units to give the army the close air support
air force tactical air
it had long wanted. went forward. Meanwhile, the blessarmy prepared plans, apparently with top-level Pentagon close air-support ing, to expand its own organic airlift and
airlift also
Expansion of military
aviation.
The
air force,
having
lost its
former favoured position
opposed the with the decline of "massive retaliation" doctrines, army move and said it should provide the increased air support Air force chiefs also sought to move into the growfor the army.
ing field of counterinsurgency.
Considerable effort was directed at opposing Communist submen, version in southeast Asia. Sizable numbers of U.S. military estimated at close to 10.000, were in South Vietnam to train and assist government troops in suppressing the Viet Cong rebels,
and there were some casualties. When Communist forces in neighbouring Laos overran government troops in a key area, Thai the U.S. moved troops into Thailand at the request of the government. This move was credited with helping to bring about an agreement to neutralize Laos, which
was hoped would
it
stabilize conditions in the area.
The defense department during 1962 authorized crease in the army's
administration suffered almost comIn one important field the the cml defense President Kennedy transferred proposed a major expansion of cml program to the Pentagon and shelters throughout the country. defense funds to set up fallout seem to "make nuclear warfare Liberals who opposed efforts who had long opposed any largeendurable" and conservatives a waste of money jomed to defeat scale civil defense effort as
plete failure.
a
25%
in-
elite antiguerrilla fighters to a strength of
6,600. but withheld approval of an air force plan to increase its commandos— the USAF counterpart of the army guerrilla
the program.
The
1962
purposes"
to nearly 7,000
men. The navy began
"white-water fleet" of shallow-draft motor gunboats for counterguerrilla warfare. The army began a "civic action" program in underdeveloped countries in Latin
construction of a
small
America and elsewhere. Under
it,
U.S.
army
experts were helping
the armies of host countries to build roads, hospitals, utilities and irrigation projects for civilian
economic development.
Before congress adjourned. President Kennedy asked and was given authority to call 150.000 reservists for up to a year's service and to extend the terms of men already in service to meet any
might arise between adjournment and the organization of a new congress early in 1963. Administration officials testified that there was no immediate intention of calling anyone, but if crisis that
Berlin, crisis,
Cuba or some other trouble spot developed into a major some limited calls might be made, principally of air force
tactical
fighter units
and naval reserve destroyers that might
to provide the technology for
enough
army
reserves could be reorganized to provide ready forces for use in cold war emergencies and he therefore opposed
more
regular divisions. Disenchanted
by
army
political
plans for
and personal
protests over the 1961 call-up, however, he later proposed a major
reorganization of
man
army
reserve forces providing for a 52,000-
cut in guard-reserve organized forces and the elimination of
eight divisions.
The
politically potent reserve leaders protested
and argued that the McNamara plan would weaken reserve forces maintained for a major war mobilization. During the ensuing congressional fight, the defense department was enjoined from reducing reserve strength but was jjermitted to go ahead with a reorganization cutting back some guard and reserve divisions in order to put
six
others in a
McNamara announced The
more ready
condition. In
November
details of the reorganization plan.
drive to unify the Pentagon continued during 1962, but
further centralization along the lines he
McNamara against has laid out. A major
reorganization of the department of the
army was completed,
the house
however.
armed
services
committee warned
manned
space projects
military spacecraft, but not
to satisfy the critics.
Military; BudSee also Armies of the World; Aviation, Credits, U.S.; get, National; Civil Defense, U.S.; Foreign
Marine Corps, U.S.; National Guard; Navies of the World; North Atlantic Treaty Organization; Rockets and Missiles; Selective Service, U.S.
|t
n
U6
b3llll6,
G. N.)
(J-
(1890), French statesman, was born on Nov. 22 in Lille and gradu-
|_-
ftL
11
Un3ri6S
He was leader of the War II and, after liberation, head of the provisional government (1944-46). When the constitution for the fourth republic was adopted in 1946 De Gaulle, who opposed it, withdrew from public life, but on May
ated from the Ecole Militaire at St. Cyr.
Free French movement during World
13, 1958,
when
ment and
civil
the
leaders in Algeria defied the govern-
army
war threatened France, he again emerged as the
only personality capable of inspiring popular confidence.
came premier, then took
On
Feb.
5,
1962,
De
office as
president on Jan.
8,
He
be-
1959.
Gaulle reaffirmed his determination to
settle the Algerian question.
In
March he asked
for support for
the peace agreement being negotiated. In the popular referen-
dum
held April
policy
8, his
was supported by 90.7% of the The Algerians voted for
votes cast (64.87% of the electorate).
Secret
concerned the reserves.
arms race should not be
in military
There were some increases
sufficient.
were extended. national guard and
•
vital military aspects. program might be dangerously neglecting civilian space program, Administration officials answered that the under the air force, was plus current military space development
independence on July
A major policy dispute during 1962 McNamara believed that the
.
,
a "space for peaceful
officials, however, were conextended into outer space. Air force U.S.S.R. space program might cerned over indications that the felt the huge U.S. space have covert military purposes, and they
be needed for a blockade. In the subsequent Cuban crisis a number of air force reserve units were called up and terms of service
Originally
UN
U S had sponsored in the policy and had said that the
air
forces— from about 800
j
. program was widely debated during ,
nation's military space
The
of the ties
on July
Army
1,
3.
and De Gaulle proclaimed the breaking
The members
assassinate the president, and on of assassins were arrested.
De
of the right-wing terrorist
organization (O.A.S.) continued their attempts to
Gaulle again escaped
May
19 and June 13-14 groups
On Aug. 22 death when
the president and their car
Mrae
was machine-
gunned.
Working toward development of common policy on European De Gaulle entertained German Chancellor Konrad
matters,
Adenauer on
a state visit
many Sept. 4-9 he was De Gaulle announced
July 2-8; on a reciprocal trip to Ger-
given a tumultuous reception.
On May
IS
would build its own atomic force, and the plan was voted by the cabinet on June 27. On Sept. 20 De Gaulle announced a plan to amend the constithat France
tution to allow popular election of the president. It was accepted by the government on Oct. 2 but censured by the assembly three
days later; Premier Georges Pompidou resigned on Oct. 6 and the assembly was dissolved Oct. 10. On Oct. 18 and Oct. 26 De Gaulle threatened to resign if not given overwhelming popular support. In the referendum, Oct. 28, his proposal received 62% of the voles cast 46' ; of the eligible voters') In general elections (
.
Nov. 18 and
De
Gaulle received, for the first time in the history of the republic, a clear majority. 25,
See also Algeria; France.
(A. Pl.)
—
—
DEN MARK ^''"^'^"^
°° ^^^ ™'ddle Atlantic seaboard, one of the original 13 states, Delaware was the first to ratify the federal constitution, Dec. 7, 1787. The state has a population of 446,292 (I960 census); the July 1962 estimate
HphwarPC. UCmnai
was 469,000.
It
ranks 46th in population and 49th
2,057 sq.mi., 79 sq.mi. of which are inland water. cities (1960 census) are: Dover, the capital,
in
area with
The
principal
7,250,
95.827.
Newark 11,404 and Elsmere
Wilmington
7,319.
History.— Delaware had a fairly successful fiscal year in that was balanced and a small surplus was anticipated by June 1963. The budget for fiscal 1962 was $82,787,000, an the state budget
increase of $10,787,000 over fiscal 1961.
The
adopted municipal home rule and created a commission. In August the legislature proposed a
legislature
state planning
constitutional
amendment
that
on the basis of population.
would reapportion the lower house
lea\-ing the senate
geographical basis. Litigation was under
way
apportioned on a to force reappor-
tionment according to population in both houses. At the end of 1961 the general assembly re-established capital punishment for murder. In 1962 the city of Wilmington passed an antibias ordinance under its licensing power: the law awaited
317
Water-borne tonnage for the year ending June 30, 1962, amounted to 749.074 gross tons valued at $62,207,635. Educotion.— .\ total of 91,490 students were enrolled in public elementa^^• and secondary schools in Delaware In the 1962 school year There were 51,922 students and 2,101 teachers in the 147 public elementary schools, and 39,568 students and 1.967 teachers in the 33 secondary schools. There were 7,352 elementary students and 3,2 75 high school students enrolled in parochial schools in 1962. .Approximately 4,169 undergraduate students were enrolled in institutions of higher education. The total amount spent by the state during 1962 on education amounted to $33,812,868. including $4,308,500 for the state-supported college and university. The average annual salary of teachers in the elementary schools in 1962 was $5,738; in high schools. $6,203. Monufocfuring and Indu.lry.— More than 550 industrial establishments m Delaware, employing about 60.000 workers and paying about 3350,000.000 in salaries and wages, produced finished products worth $420,000,000 in 1958 compared with $353,000,000 in 1954. .\dditions to capital mvestment in 1958 totaled 27.311.000. Total civilian employment in the state as of June 30, 1962, was 192,200: there were 7.800 unemployed at that date. Personal income was $1,380,000,000 in the state in 1961, compared with $1,345,000,000 in I960. Average per capita income in 1961 was $3,013 compared with an average of $2,263 for the United States. The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Delaware during the year ending June 30, 1962, was $8,749,439. compared with $10,307,836 in 1961.
Table
Principal
II.
fnduffnu of Oefowar* Value added
Salaries
ond wages
All
testing in the courts. In the 1962 elections Harris B.
McDowell, (Dem.) was returned to congress as the state's sole U.S. representative. David P. Buckson Rep.) was chosen as attorney
Industry
group
nanufacturing t and ollied products 1 kindred products
Jr.
.
.
by t'oufoclure
On OOOsI
fln^plovsas
Gn OOOsI
I960
1960
I960
1959
J8,964 5,912
J372,0S2 38.640 19,336
$$16,461
$517,214 119.107 51.188
5,691
.
109,681 51.352
(
:
Mrs. Belle Everett (Dem,~l was re-elected state treasurer and Ernest E. Killen (Dem.) auditor of accounts. The 1963
U.S. Department of Comni
e,
general.
legislature would have 22 Democrats and 13 Republicans in the house of representatives and 10 Democrats and 7 Republicans in
the state senate.
Principal state oflScers in 1962 were: governor. Elbert N. Carlieutenant governor. Eugene Lammot: secretary of state,
vel:
Elisha C. treasurer,
Dukes: attorney general. Da\nd P. Buckson: state Mrs. Belle Everett; and auditor of accounts. Ernest E.
Killen. Agriculfure
—
In 1962 Delaware had 4,250 farms covering 525,000 ac, which 420,000 ac. were cropland from which crops were harvested. Cash income for the period^Jan. 1-May 1, 1962, totaled $7,743,000 from crops, $27,279,000 from In-estock and livestock products and S2.371,000 from government payments, for a total of $37,393,000. This compared with a total of $33,794,643 for the period Jan. 1-Mav 1. 1961, and $107,777,000 for all of 1961. In 1962 Delaware ranked 44th among the states in farm receipts. On Sept. 1, 1962. livestock in Delaware comprised 54,000 cattle and calves of which 28.000 were milch cows, 42,000 swine, 5,000 sheep, 5,000 horses and mules and 855,000 poultry. of
Table
I.
Com. bu Soybeans
tor boons, bu.
Borley, bu
Potatoes, Irish, cvrt Apples, commerciol. bu Vegetables, commercial, tons
7,497,000 4,123,000 574,000 61,000 1,900,000 260,000 1
07^80
Public Welfare and Related Programs.— In 1962 the Sum of $6,646,501 was expended for welfare programs in Delaware, including $3,157,729 of federal funds. $2,389,081 of slate funds and $1,099,691 of county funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $727,519, blind assistance $224,837 and aid to dependent children $2,683,687. JTn addition, child welfare cost $478,819 from state and county funds. The monthly average of persons receiving some kind of public assistance in 1962 was 13.810. In 1962 the state maintained two institutions for Inental patients, two charity hospitals and one tuberculosis sanatorium, at a total cost for the year of $5,2 59,640. There were one penitentiary and two reformatories maintained by the state, at a total cost for 1962 of $1,905,340. The penitentiary had in Sept. 1962, 812 prisoners, and the reformatories had 165 inmates. (p. Do.) Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those
—
minerals produced in Delaware in 1960 and 1961 whose value exceeded
Toble
111.
Mineral Production of Delaware lln
sho
Average 1961
1951-60
7,378,000 5,160,000 630,000 79,000 2.250,000 300,000 106.620
7,367,000 2.465.000 461,000 83,000 1,492,000 306.000
Source: U.S. Department of Agri
1960
Value
Total
Sand ond grovel
$1,053,000 970,000 83,000
961,000
Other minerols
Quantity
Volue
1,084,000
$989,000 907.000 82.000
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
$100,000. Total value of Delaware's 1961 mineral output increased over 1960. Sand and gravel dropped 1 1 ',
was
bom
Geneva, Switz, The only son of the founder of Dillon, Read investment banking company, he attended Groton and graduated from Harvard magna cum laude in 1931. His father Aug. 21
in
bought him a seat on the New York Stock exchange in the same and he soon developed into an extremely successful invest-
year,
active duty with the U.S. na\'y in the Pacific (1941-45) he returned to Dillon. Read as board chairman. A preconvention supporter of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Dillon
ment banker. After
was appointed ambassador deputy undersecretary of
to France in 1953. In 1957 he state for
economic
affairs.
became
Congress
raised his rank to that of undersecretar>' in 1959.
His appointment to the Kennedy cabinet in 1961 evoked some he had no objections to the
surprise, but Dillon himself claimed
DIRK SEN
322 president's fiscal
and monetary views.
A
methodical, detail-con-
a pragmatic, midscious worker, the treasury secretary followed
Near
April 8
crashed in the NoTthtrsTcoiombia. Colombian DC-3 airliner aboard were killed, includmg mountainous jungle; all 38 persons members. Corps j2 U S. Peace j after ,. a landing exploded Braz. Brazilian Convair 440
April 22
dle-of-the-road course. in the evolution Domestically, Dillon played an important role recession and attempted to of policies that alleviated the 1961 economic growth. He opposed a general tax
encourage long-term
in 1962, but supported cut after the severe stock market decline in 1963, Dillon opthe Kennedy plan for thorough tax reform necessarily accomposed the view that budget reductions should greater Allied pany or precede tax cuts. He continued to press for further plans participation in foreign aid programs, and helped During Latin-American economic and social progress.
Viloria crash- 24 of the
9
r
,
I/-
(1896-
I
DirkSen, Everett MCKiniey
(Rep.,
nority leader, was born Jan. 4 in Pekin,
111.
),
U.S.
10
on landing; IS of the 21 persons the Danish government crashed
May
17
NaTrobirKeny'a.V.S.
May
22
May
22
29 persons aboard were v . j u amphibious plane chartered by Godthaab Greenland. Canadian
France, Dirksen engaged in several business and manufacturing of enterprises, and served (1927-31) as Pekin's commissioner
air force C-130 transport crashed in hilly W. of the city; all 13 men aboard were killed. Constellation exploded in mid-air; Near Munich, Ger. U.S. navy
country 20 mi.
26 persons aboard were killed j . a- u. flight Centerville, la. U.S. 707 jetliner disintegrated bomb planted in the tail following an explosion (caused by a section); all 45 persons aboard died. j burned York u bound for New ,, Paris France. French 707 jetliner at take-off from (Drly airport; after 'failure to become air-borne U.b. were 130 of the 132 persons aboard were killed (122
all
bound for BasTe^Terre Island, Guadeloupe. French 707 jetliner Raizet airport on Santiago Chile, crashed as it approached Le Grande-ferrc Island; all 113 persons aboard were killed. Bombay India. An Italian DC-8 jetliner within minutes of persons Santa Cruz airport crashed in the Nimgiri hills; all 94
July?
aboard were killed. ,. ,. „ j landNear Bangkok, Thai. U.A.R. Comet 4-C airliner making a all 2 6 persons ing approach crashed in a forest and burned; aboard were killed. Honolulu, Hawaii. Canadian turboprop airliner attempting an emergency landing missed the runway and crashed into some parked bulldozers; of the 40 persons aboard 27 were killed. from Rio de Janeiro, Braz. Brazilian DC-8 jetliner taking off bay; of Galeae International' airport plunged into Guanabara the 104 persons aboard at least 15 were killed. Barrancabermeja, Colombia. Colombian DC-3 passenger plane on take-off and burst into flames; 18 of the 31 persons .
July 19
July 22
Aug. 20
Aug. 23
more
aboard were killed. Ravenna, 0. Twin-engine Lockheed transporting oil company acciexecutives crashed and exploded in worst industrial plane dent to date; all 13 persons aboard were killed. Near Spokane, Wash. U.S. air force KC-135 tanker crashed on Mt. Kit Carson in a landing attempt through thick fog; all 44 persons aboard were killed. sea Atlantic ocean. U.S. Constellation airliner crashed into the 500 mi. off the Irish coast; 48 of the 76 persons aboard were rescued; 28 persons were killed, 21 others were seriously injured. Carmona, Spain. A Spanish airliner crashed into a hill because of poor visibility; all IS persons aboard were killed. South Vietnam. Vietnamese DC-3 airliner crashed near the summit of 6,000-ft. Mt. Hal Van; all 2 6 persons aboard were killed.
Sept. 4
floor leader in 1959.
An effective agent for Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in the Democratic-controlled 86th congress (1959-61), Dirksen, noted for his skill in leading the minority senators, backed the president's position on foreign affairs. During the 87th congress, he teamed with house minority leader Charles A. Halleck (Rep.,
Ind.) in a weekly television news conference,
known
as the
Sept. 10
Sept. 23
Oct. 12
"Ev Nov. 10
and Charlie Show," which presented the views of the Republican Dirksen, though
on
critical,
France. Hungarian airliner (Soviet-built Ilyushin-18), making an approach to Le Bourget airport through fog, crashed into a beet field and burned; all 21 persons aboard were killed. Sao Tome Island. Portuguese C-54 military transport exploded
Nov. 23
congressional leadership.
Paris,
proved helpful to the administration
legislation involving foreign affairs during the 87th congress
Nov. 23
(1961-63) while maintaining a conservative position on domestic legislation and budgetary matters. He was re-elected to the sen(Aw. H.) ate in 1962 for his third six-year term.
Nov. 23
Disabled American Veterans:
Veterans' Organiza-
Nov. 27
Disarmament: see Atomic Energy; International Negotia-
Nov. 30
see
Ulodolul
0.
loss of life
and property
Seis-
Aviation
Feb. 25
ail
March
22 persons aboard.
New
York, .\.Y. l.'.S. Boeing 707 Astrojet crashed into Jamaica bay seconds after take-off from Idlcwild airport; all 95 persons aboard were killed. March 4 Douala. Cameroon. British DC-7C airliner plunged into a jungle swamp minutes after take-off from Douala airport; all 111 persons aboard perished. March 16 Island of Guam. I'.S. Super Constellation plane disappeared in the Pacific during a flight from Guam to Manila; all 107 persons (including 93 U.S. servicemen) were presumed dead. March 28 Santiago bay. Cuba. A Cuban commercial airliner crashed into the sea near the bay entrance killing all 22 persons aboard. 1
A
Amazon
Brazilian Constellation airliner went jungles; all 50 persons aboard were
Pol. A Polish Viscount airliner crashed and exploded end of a runway at the Warsaw airport; all 33 persons aboard were killed.
Warsaw,
Dec. 19
at the
Ajaccio, Corsica. A four-engine, propeller-driven stratoliner crashed and burned on a mountaintop; all 24 persons aboard
Dec. 29
perished.
and Explosions
Fires
TinRo Maria, Peru. A Peruvian DC-3 airliner crashed in the mountains of central Peru about 125 mi. from Lima; all 18 persons aboard were killed. Margarita Island, Caribbean sea. A Venezuelan twin-engine airliner on a landini! approach hit a cloud-covered mountain killing
Feb. 4
the
killed.
cidents; Fires and Fire Losses; Floods and Flood Control;
Food and Food Processing; Meteorology; Red Cross; mology.
U.S. Viscount airliner collided with a large
aboard collided with a private cabin plane carrying 4; both aircraft fell into rugged mountain terrain killing all 2 7 persons. Near Lima, Peru. A Brazilian 707 airliner on a flight to Los Angeles. Calif., crashed on a hilltop and burned; all 97 persons aboard (including 19 U.S. citizens) were killed. New York, N.Y. U.S. DC-7B airliner approaching Idlewild airport through thick fog crashed and burned; of the 51 persons aboard 2 5 were killed.
down over
in disasters during
1962 included the following. See also articles Ac-
Md.
Near Manaus, Braz.
Dec. 14
The
from a refueling stop; of the 32 persons aboard
19 died. Ellicott City,
plummeted into a woods killing all 17 persons aboard. Near Paraibuna, Braz. A twin-engine Brazilian airliner with 23
tions; United Nations.
.
after take-off
bird and
Nov. 26
tions, U.S.
_•
,
crashed
isolationist viewpoint. Elected to the sen-
ate in 1950 and re-elected in 1956, he was chosen Republican
•
,
1932 and served until 1948. In the house, Dirksen supported many New Deal programs and Marshall Plan aid to Europe, but later shifted to a
m
Near
June 3
elected to the U.S. house of representatives in
He was
finance.
killed.
all
attended the Uni-
in versity of Minnesota law school before entering the U.S. army in 1917. Discharged in 1919 as a 2nd lieutenant after service
into a ravine;
12
senator
m.) and senate mi-
He
plunged pla— "i"-"
May
(Wa. K.)
II
XI.
air force
May
June 22
_.
persons aboard were killed.
Northern Burma. Burmese
his first 18
third quarter of 1962.
2 7
,
.
,
May
to assist
months in office, the U.S. balance of payments deficit more in the declined encouragingly, only to rise sharply once
air force C-47 crashed Villavicencio, Colombia. Colombian persons mountain in the eastern Llanos region; all, 31
into a
Jan. 15
Jan. 17
March
4
April 9
April 29
May
10
Center Ridge, Ark. Farm home burned to the ground; all 10 members of north-central Arkansas "farm family of 1960" perished. Niirnberg, Ger. Fire destroyed a downtown warehouse; 17 persons died, 10 others were injured. Teheran, Iran. Fireworks in a basement store exploded and killed 19 persons, 17 others were injured. St. Just d'Ardeche, France. A series of explosions ripped through a munitions factory; at least 18 persons were killed and 27 others injured. S.io Paulo, Braz. Explosion in a fireworks factory killed 20 persons. Toledo, O. A chemical plant was demolished by an explosion fire; 9 persons were killed and 41 others injured. Salvador, Braz. .\n explosion in a fireworks warehouse killed 13 persons and injured 60 others. Hong Kong. A Kowloon tenement building was gutted by fire;
and June 4 Aug.
1
IN IRAN. Right: A father, holding his son, mourned the death of wife and four other sons in Danesfahan, northwest of Teheran, in the earthquake that began Sept. 1, 1962, and shattered more than 200 towns and
DISASTER hli
of Iran. Below: Aerial view Danesfahan on Sept. 3. In the centre the mosque, the oniy building not
vJliages of li
destroyed Daily
Express
TRAGEDY (London)
IN PARIS. Above: Section of the tall of Jetliner In which 130 perished on a take-off crash from Orly airport June 3, 1962. Most of the victims were members of an Atlanta, Ga., art
from Pictorial
association
Wide World
Paris
Match from Pictorial Parade
SPAIN IN MOURNING. Above: Children carrying the than 800 victims of the flood that ravaged the Spanish terrain in Sept.
1962.
A
of a child who was one of mor« city of Barcelona and the surrounding
coffin
period of national mourning was declared
THE SLIDE THAT BURIED 16 VILLAGES. Left: A
section of the gigantic mass of ice. mud and debris that engulfed at least 16 Peruvian villages Jan. 10, 1962. when a glacier sheared off the northern face of volcanic Mt. Huascarin In the
Peruvian Andes. The huge avalanche roared Into the Huaylas valley, burying everything In Its path and snufRng out about 3.800 lives .
Uhrbrock--\.a9
323
1
DISASTERS
324
33 persons were burned to death. ..„„.j was d«tfoy«a Guayaquil. Ecuador. A square-block area of homes more than 700 by fire; 20 persons were killed, 30 injured and left homeless. ,„j "', ^O""™, Damascus. Syria. Blazing house trapped a group 14 perished and *"f children preparing for a wedding; 25 persons others were severely burned. company telephone in a explosion boiler New York, N.Y. A persons; about 100 office building resulted in the death of 23 others were injured.
Aug. 29
Oct 3
•
Jan.
Savithn
in the
river; at least 70 persons drowned. „ u . small boats Off east coast of South Korea. Fishing fleet of 10 presumed was caught in a gale; 94 fishermen were lost and
1
British freighter Eifglish channel. Yugoslav freighter "Sabac" and "Dorington Court" collided 3 mi. E. of the Goodwm lightship; Yugoslav seamen drowned, 1 1 others were missing and pre1 7
Jan. 8
sumed dead. r~ , Communist Near Hong Kong. A junk loaded with escapees from ,
April 28
Oct. 20
China overturned in heavy seas; of 23 persons aboard 2 2 were presumed drowned. Kyushu Island. Jap., A small Japanese fishing boat broke up in prerough seas 150 mi. offshore; 15 crewmen were missing and sumed drowned. with T'ai-pei, Formosa. The fishing trawler "Chieh Shin" loaded students watching a boat race capsized in the Yun river; at least 22 children drowned. Portuguese Guinea. Small Portuguese motorboat capsized in a canal; of the 35 persons aboard 30 drowned. Quincy, Fla. During a Sunday-school picnic a small boat sank in Lake Talquin; 17 children and their teacher drowned. Near Seoul, Korea. A ferryboat overturned in the rain-swollen Han river; of the 55 passengers 24 drowned. Lutcher, La. The 13,S00-ton Norwegian tanker "Boheme" col-
Oct. 21
lided with a string of oil barges in a fog on the Mississippi river; the cargo of explosives caught fire and 19 of the crew were killed. Norwegian coastal liner "Sanct OH Vikna Islands, Nor.
May
27
June 10
.
July
1
Aug. 18 Sept. 7
.
A
Svithun" ran aground on a reef and sank;
Natural Jan. 10
Jan. 21
bay, Jap. A Japanese tanker and a Norwegian tanker collided and burst into flames; 13 crewmen from the Japanese vessel were killed. 26 others were missing. New Bedford, Mass. Fishing scalloper "Midnight Sun" was lost off the Georges bank, east of Nantucket; 11 crewmen were pre-
Tokyo
Nov. 18
east coast after a severe snowstorm;
Netherlands coast. The 3,218-ton German freighter "Nautilus" sank in mountainous seas; of the 24 crewmen aboard 23 were lost. Hong Kong. Junk loaded with refugees from Communist China capsized near an offshore island; 22 persons were lost and preOff
Dec. 18
May
6
May
22
May
24
June
23-24
July 26
the
July 30
Feb. 27
March
9
Carterville, 111. A methane gas explosion in the Blue Blaze coal mine killed 1 1 miners. Near Saarbriicken, Ger. Methane gas explosion in the Luisentbal mine at Voelklingen killed 298 miners. Banovici, Yugos. Double explosion ripped the main shaft of a large lignite mine; 54 miners died and 11 others were injured. Heesscn, Ger. Firedamp explosion 3,000 ft. underground in the Sachen coal mine brought death to 31 miners, 6 others were injured.
March 22
Burnley. Eng. Underground gas explosion in the Hapton Valley mine killed 16 miners and injured 20 others. Odendaalsrust. S.Af. A rock fall in a gold mine killed 15 miners. Gorgan. Iran. Explosion in a coal mine killed 13 workers. Spitzbergen, Nor. Two explosions ripped through a 6S0-ft. deep shaft of an Arctic coal mine killing 21 miners. Carmichaels. Pa. Violent explosion in the U.S. Steel corporalion's Robena no. 3 mine killed 37 miners who were working 680 ft. underground. Johannesburg, S.Af. A crushing plant at the West Driefontain gold mine collapsed killing 29 African miners.
Aug.
5
2
Oct. IS Nov. 6
Dec. 6
Dec. 12
Aug. 18
Aug. 21
Aug. 25
Aug. 28
Sept.
1
Sept.
1
Miscellaneous Jan.
2 7
March
I
March
7
May
26
Volia Redonda, Braz. A tipped-over crucible poured 70 tons of molicn steel on a group of workmen; 17 died and 33 others were severely burned. Assuit, I'.A.R. A 3-slory hotel collapsed because of a weakened foundation: 29 persons were killed. Idlib. Syria. Carbon dioxide scoping into a motion-picture theatre brought death by suffocation to 14 children. Montenegro, Yugos. Construction scaffolding of a bridge collapsed into a river; at least 22 persons were killed and 16 others injured.
.
,
,
the slopes of j
^
j
left
homeless.
swept
more than 2,500 homeless. Qbour el-Beidh, Syria. Floods surging across the Syrian-Turkish border brought death to 23 persons and destroyed about 100 homes. Northeast Afghanistan. Floods caused heavy property damage and brought death to 17 persons. Between Petare and Guarenas, Venez. A landslide buried a farmland area; at least 30 persons were missing and presumed dead. Mexico City, Mex. A heat wave with temperatures as high as 110° F. brought death to at least 50 persons. Western Turkey. Heavy rains flooded coastal areas and caused the deaths of at least 15 persons. Kyushu Island, Jap. Week-end torrential rains resulting in floods and landslides brought death to 51 persons: 20 others were missing, 58 injured and more than 40,000 homeless. (Unusually heavy seasonal rains had accounted for a total of 75 deaths in Japan from July 1.) Luzon .province, Phil. Floods caused by Typhoon "Kate" as it struck north and central areas of the province brought an 8-day death toll of 41 persons; property damage was estimated at $12,000,000. Central Colombia. Worst earthquake to strike Colombia in 10 years caused 47 deaths; 65 persons were missing and 300 others
'
Colombia. An earthquake jolted central and western areas of the country; at least 47 persons were killed and more than 300 injured: estimated damage exceeded $12,000,000. Yilan. Formosa. Typhoon "Opal" with 1 70-m.p.h. winds lashed inland killing at least 87 persons; about 20 others were missing
and another 1.400 injured. Aug. 9
coal
May
_,
injured.
July 30
7
,
persons.
left
April 30
Mining
Feb.
7
A
sumed dead.
Jan. 11
killing
U.S. east coast. A heavy storm with high winds and racing tides in from the Atlantic; 40 persons died, 1,2 50 others were injured; property damage was estimated at $160,000,000. landslide brought on by heavy rains March 10 Pensilvania, Colombia. killed 2i persons, March 15 Lima, Peru. Two landslides near Paucartambo hydroelectric station 125 mi. N.E. of Lima killed 41 persons. March 18 Southern Albania. Severe earthquake shook the districts of Fier and Vlore leaving 15 dead; another 154 persons were injured and 1,000 homes destroyed. Tapanuli district. Sumatra. A landslide killed 12 persons and April 7
127 men were presumed
drowned. Dec. 16
huge avalanche dropping from the 16 villages; an esti-
killed.
^ Twin Lakes, Colo. An avalanche crashed down
8,000
5-9
lifeboat overturned while taking passengers ashore from a cargo ship; at least 15 persons drowned. South Korea. .\ fleet of 8 fishing boats were missing off the
Dec. 6
A
March
July 9
sumed drowned. Lake Nyasa. S. Rhod. A
Nov. 19
Huascaran, Peru.
torrential rains caused floods and Feb. 8-12 Southern California. Five-day mudslides: 20 persons died. with raging seas and winds of Storm Ger. coast, sea North Feb. 17 hurricane force brought death to at. least 343 persons; the worst port of Hamburg, but the of the storm was centred about the coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and England were lashed- a total of about 17,500 persons were left homeless, damage was estimated at $2 50,000,000. Conchucos, Peru. Heavy rains caused a mudslide that buried Feb. 28 the village; 60 persons were reported dead or missing. Mauritius and Re'union islands. A hurricane with 156-m.p.h. Feb. 28 winds whipped in from the Indian ocean killing at least 2 7 persons, several hundred others were injured and more than
presumed dead.
Nov. 18
Mt
22,205-ft. extinct volcano buried at least
Mt. Elbert
48 persons were
rescued, ii others perished in the icy waters. Atlantic ocean. Greek freighter "Captain George" caught fire and was abandoned in the storm-tossed sea 500 mi. N.E. of Bermuda: 7 crewmen were rescued, 18 others were lost and
Nov. IS
•
into
mated 3,800 persons were
Mhapal, India. A crowded passenger boat sank
1
R. Five-story housing unit collapsed during construc60 workers were killed.
u a a va office building collapsed and slid Brussels Belg A government at least 17 persons were killed and into an adjoining excavation; injured. 20 others j t. . . i.- i. a high-tension wire which Sao Paulo, Braz. Gale winds snapped a crowd; 10 persons were electrocuted. fell
Marine Jan.
UA
tion; 'about
Sept. 17
„
,
Sept. 24
Cairo
Sept. 3
Central Philippines. Typhoon "Patsy" roared in from the sea leaving in its wake at least 23 persons dead and 133 missing. Florencia, Colombia. A flash flood propelled an avalanche of water, trees and boulders through the town; 135 persons were dead or missing. Avellino, Italy. An earthquake, felt throughout southern Italy, centred in the Ariano Irpino area; 18 persons died, more than 200 others were injured and several thousand left homeless. North Sikkim, India. Floodwaters poured down the Tista river causing two bridges to collapse; about 100 road workers were washed away to their deaths. Sunchon, Korea. Several dikes on the rain-swollen river broke and floodwaters poured through the town; 242 persons died and 48 others were missing.
Nam
Hong Kong. Typhoon "Wanda" with 180-m.p.h. winds swept out of the South China sea leaving about 175 persons dead, 515 injured and 52,000 homeless. Northwestern Iran. A violent earthquake shook a 23,000-sq.mi. area centred at Danesfahan; the death toll was officially set at 12,403 persons: another 10.000 persons were injured and more than 25,000 homes destroyed in more than 200 towns and villages, leaving 100,000 homeless.
i
.
Sept. 4
Northeastern India. As a result of
10-day floods 73 persons '" ^'^'^^ °' Assam, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh ?f OA^'''',: 38,600 homes were destroyed. Philippines, Typhoon "Amy" dumped heavy rain on the islands and caused the death of 16 persons. Sfax region, Tunisia. Flash floods brought death to at least'
""
Sept. 7 Sept. 7 Sept.
22 persons. Barcelona, Spain. Devastating flash floods ripped through
,
in-
1
DJILAS 24-2
dustrial centres around the city area; the death toll mated at more than 800 persons with about 1,000
7
property damage was around $80,000,000.
Lower California. Mexican coast Typhoon "Doreen" swept across
Oct. 6
suffered
was
11-13
Nov. 9 Nov. 11
Nov. 18 Nov. 27
40 persons. Central Philippines.
least
Nov. 28
Dec.
Typhoon "Lucy" ripped through
the islands
and into the South China sea; II persons were killed and damages amounted to about $3,000,000. London. Eng. A 4-day blanket of fog lifted from the city leaving at least 106 known dead; more than 1,000 persons were hos-
7
pitalized.
Eastern and mid-United States. Week-long winter storms brought subnormal temperatures and snow to much of the nation; at least 112 deaths were attributed to the cold wave; heavy damage
Dec. 13
June
11
June
1
heavy damage as
the peninsula; at least 2S persons died. Pacific northwest. West coast area was lashed by 12I-m.p.h winds as a severe storm moved in from the ocean; at least 46 persons died and property damage in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia was estimated as high as $150000.000. Southern Thailand. Tropical Storm "Harriet" ravished three southern provinces killing at least 769 persons, including 500 who perished when an entire village disappeared into the sea; 142 others were missing and 2 52 seriously injured; damage amounted to about $20,000,000. Port de Pais, Haiti. Severe floods caused by heavy rain brought death to at least 26 persons. Guam. Typhoon "Karen," the worst storm in Guam's history, left the territory devastated by its 178-m.p.h. winds; because of early warnings and orderly evacuation of the inhabitants only 6 deaths were reported although hundreds of persons were injured and more than 35,000 homeless; damage was estimated at $100,000,000. Western Europe. Gale winds and heavy snows caused at least 13 deaths in England. Southern Tunisia. A flooded oasis on the edge of the Sahara drove thousands from their homes and brought death to at
Oct.
325
esti-
more injured-
struck the Florida citrus crops.
Railroad
July 8
40 ft. below; 69 persons were killed, 18 others Injured. Buenos .Mres, Arg. A commuter train hurtled into a crowded school bus at a fog-covered crossing; 33 persons aboard the bus (mostly children) were killed, 83 others were injured. Jaipur. India. A bus collided with a passenger train killing 25 persons and injuring 2i others. Pigg Peak, Swaziland. A truck carrying a group of Africans to a religious meeting overturned; 21 persons were killed and 10 others injured.
July 9
Garmsar, Iran. Collision of a crowded bus and a freight train 49 persons and injured 29 others. Faiyum, U.A.R. A tractor-drawn trailer loaded with farm workers snapped its coupling and rolled into a canal; 27 persons (mostly children) drowned; 23 others jumped to safety. Cuenca, Ecuador. A bus hit a rock jutting from the side of the road and burst into flames; of the 44 passengers aboard 36 died and 8 w*re severely burned. Near Bristol, Eng. Multiple crash involving 4 vehicles on the fog-covered Gloucester-Bristol highway brought death to 11 persons: 5 others were injured. Joao Pinheiro, Braz. Washed-out highway bridge collapsed and plunged a busload of Brazilians into the raging Prata river; at least 38 persons were killed. Lima, Peru. Ayacucho-to-Huancayo bus went off the road killing 29 persons, 1 seriously injured child survived. killed
Aug.
2 7
Oct. 14
Oct. 18
Dec. 14
Dec. 21
nicPinlDP nf Phriet ^^^ UlbUipmS 01 UnriSl. tian
'o'^'
membership
of the Chris-
churches (Disciples of Christ) in the United States and Canada in 1962 was 1.805,449; world membership was 2,011,352. Local congregations in the world
numbered
8,915. In the United States, Indiana
membership, 220,460 for
all
in
had the largest
706 congregations. Total contributions
causes in the U.S. and Canada amounted to $86,117,222.
Missionary and benevolent giving was reported at $13,834,129. Unified Promotion, the central receiving agency for missionary funds, received $8,418,999.91.
Woerden, Neth. An express speeding through dense fog rammed
Jan. 8
into a
commuter
causing the worst railway accident in Netherlands history; 91 persons died, almost 200 others were Feb. 22
March
8
May
3
May
31
July 21
July 22 July 23
July 28
Sept. 18
Oct. 2
injured. Near Call. Colombia. Head-on collision of a freight and a passenger train killed 40 persons; 6 7 others were injured. Castel Bolognese, Italy. A speeding express jumped the tracks; at least 12 persons were killed and more than 100 injured. Tokyo, Jap. Double wreck of a freight and two commuter trains brought death to 163 persons, more than 300 others were injured.
Voghera. Italy. Halted Milan-to-Genoa express was rammed by a speeding freight train; at least 63 persons were killed and more than 20 others injured. Buxar, India. The Amritsar-Howrah fast mail train rammed into a standing freight killing 69 persons. Bucharest, Rum. A passenger train jumped the tracks in speeding around a curve; 32 persons were killed and 54 others injured. Dijon, France. The Paris-Marseilles express train crowded with 900 vacationers derailed on a viaduct; one coach plunged 160 ft. into a deep ravine killing 40 persons. Steelton. Pa. Derailment of a baseball excursion train bound for Philadelphia caused three cars to plunge into the Susquehanna river; 20 persons died and about 116 others were injured. Belo Horizonte, Braz. Coach of a passenger train jumped the tracks and killed 13 persons, "40 others were injured./ Kroonstad, S.Af. A passenger train jumped the tracks killing 1
Oct. 2 Oct. S
Nov.
S
Nov. 12
Dec. 20 -Dec. 26
train
7
persons.
Potchefstroom, S.Af. A passenger train collided head-on with a freight; 12 persons were killed and 12 others injured. Moszczenica, Pol. Balkan-Poland express train en route to Warsaw jumped the tracks and as passengers detrained and swarmed over the adjoining tracks they were plowed into by the Chopin express headed for Vienna; 34 persons were killed and 67 others injured. Kabanovce, Yugos. Belgrade-to-Skoplje train jumped the tracks killing 2 7 persons: 17 others were injured. Northern India. Passengers riding on the roof of an overcrowded train were swept off by a low girder of an overhead bridge; all 25 were killed. Buena Vista, Guat. A speeding freight rammed into a stationary passenger train killing 20 persons and injuring 41 others. Minshull Vernon, Eng. London-bound Scot Express crashed into the rear of another passenger train standing at the station; 18 persons were killed and at least 60 others injured.
March
3
7
April 8 April
May
26
31
the International Convention of ChrisChurches (Disciples of Christ) was held in Los Angeles,
Sept. 30-Oct.
Leslie R. Smith, pastor of the Central Chris-
4.
tian church, Lexington, Ky.. served as president.
The theme of "The Power of God," an answer to the challenge of secular power which has both its benign and baneful aspects. Plans were considered for the third year of the "Decade the assembly was
of Decision," giving especial emphasis and attention to spiritual objectives and continuing the ten-year program, one of whose objectives the
is
to
obtain funds for worid-wide causes equal to
amounts spent
for local church programs.
Assembly business and resolutions dealing with such subjects as the supreme court decision on official prayers in
sessions processed 66 reports
public schools, world peace, integration, especially in institutions
of higher learning, "medicare" and capital punishment.
Robert W. Burns, pastor of the Peachtree Christian church, Atlanta, was elected president for
was scheduled
to be held in
Foreign mission Argentina,
the
1963. The 1963 assembly Miami Beach, Fla„ Oct. 11-16.
work was conducted during the year
Republic
of
Latakia. Syria. A car collided with a gasoline truck; 31 per.sons attempting to collect the spilled gas were killed when the truck exploded, 39 others were injured. Mexico City, Mex. A loaded bus, out of control, hit a station wagon; 30 persons were killed and 2 8. others injured. Tel .\viv, Israel, .^n express train crashed into a truck; 11 persons were killed and 6 others injured. Trikkala. Greece. A truck loaded with farm workers and supplies missed a turn and plunged 1.500 ft. into a mountain ravine; 13 persons were killed and 13 others injured. Bombay, India. An overloaded bus careened into the Mahor river
Congo,
India.
Jamaica,
in
Japan,
Mexico, Paraguay, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Thailand, South and Okinawa. There were 222 missionaries and
Africa, Haiti
more than 2.000 national leaders serving in this program. The pension fund reported total assets of $39,866,645.31. Membership was 5,614 and there were 1,642 beneficiaries. Ecumenical concerns were expressed through the annual offerWeek of Compassion which in 1962 totaled $577,-
ing of the
321.81. This fund was distributed for relief, rehabilitation and
educational services of the
World Council
National Council of Churches.
Traffic
March
The 1962 assembly of tian
of Churches and the
(G.
M. Ck.)
Disease: see Medicine. Displaced Persons: see Refugees. District of Columbia: see Washington, D.C. Divorce: see Marriage and Divorce.
) Yugoslav writer and former Milnwon "^"~ UJIido, lYlllUVdi! government and Communist party official,
nilloc
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
326
Another
joined the Comwas bom in Montenegro and while very young which he remunist party. At the University of Belgrade, from followmg he ceived a degree in law. and in the years immediately met Tito, then participated in political activities. In 1937 he organof the Yugoslav Communist party, and
Yugoslav voluntpers
Spanish
in the
civil
member of the opposition, Rafael F. ing as president and a Bonelly immediately pledged the Bonelly as vice-president. warned the military against inrestoration of full civil liberties, few days later the' elections. terference and promised fair (O.A.S.) ended the economic Organization of American States
war. In 1940 Djilas
party. was elected to the Politburo of the Yugoslav Communist leader of During the German occupation of Yugoslavia he was a to Moscow m the resistance movement and while on a mission he held a number of first met Stalin. From 1945 to 1953
1944
A
,
^pporter of Tito cabinet positions under Tito and was a strong this time, howin the Soviet- Yugoslav conflict in 1948. During ever, he
Communist
critical of
was becoming increasingly
ide-
and magaology, and after his views were publicized in newspaper party and in zine articles, he was deprived of all positions in the of conducting it. Arrested on a charge propaganda hostile to his government, he received an IS-month of suspended sentence and later a three-year prison term. Two The New Class: his books, written earlier, were then published: an Analysis of the Communist System f 1957) and Land Without parole Justice (1958), an autobiographical account. Released on
April 1954 resigned from
he was rearrested in April 1962, presumably in part This because of a new book. Conversations With Stalin (1962). work, a powerful attack on the Soviet leader at a time when in Jan. 1961,
Stalin
officially in disfavour,
was
scribed because of
its
was thought
have been procom-
criticism of basic assumptions of
also because of dehcate relations
munism and
to
end of the Trujilio era was uncertamty On Jan. 1 the new seven-man
government.
Balaguer continuwas inaugurated with Joaquin
council of state
secretary-general ized
result of the
instability in
and
between Yugoslavia
and the Soviet Union.
against the Dommican Republic. sanctions that had been in force the O.A.S. and the Alliance was confidentlv expected that both It
The U.S.
would aid in the nation's reconstruction. soon followed by the other resumed full diplomatic ties and was undersecretary of American republics. Teodoro Moscoso, U.S. sent to Santo Domingo to negotiate state for Latin America, was Republic into the alliance. the entrance of the Dominican became apparent. On Dissent within the council of state soon for Progress
was quickly followed by a The new junta held power for was overthrown by a countercoup
this Jan. 18 Balaguer resigned and
by army than one week when
military coup led
chiefs.
less
it
council of state. Balaguer's that restored the authority of the president. Hostility resignation was accepted and Bonelly became that their Balaguer and some army leaders became so great to
that the prosecution seemed possible. The U.S. press claimed result of the counterU.S. government was quietly pleased at the
junta by Dean coup, and a statement of mild hostility to the Rusk, U.S. secretary of state, was credited with aiding consider-
then announced its overthrow. Pres. John F. Kennedy $25,000,000 in emergency credits for the new regime under the The Alliance for Progress, to be spent over a 20-year period. ably in
accord was signed on Feb. 17. In the Dominican Republic also the overthrow of the junta caused obviously happy demonstra-
Dog Shows: see Shows and Entertainment. Dominica: sec Windward Islands.
and brought approval from the major politiresumed its work many asserted that Donald R. Cabral was now the driving force rather than Bonelly. New dissent was soon caused by the anomalous position of Balaguer. At the end of January he took asylum at the residence tions in the streets
'
n
DnniihliP
fl
UOininiCdll KGPUOIIC.
Covering the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola,
Dominican Republic is separated from Haiti, occupying the western third, by a rugged mountain range. Area 18,703 sq.mi.
the
Pop. TDe of structural unemployment which received national attention, especially in the popular literature, was the out-of-work high school dropout. The. president emeritus of Harvard, James B. Conant, dramatized the plight of the dropout in
Slums and Suburbs 1961 and set off a nationwide movement to deal with the situation. Proposals for meeting the dropout problem included more flexible school curriculums. vocational and technical education, work-study programs and improved his
(
)
counseling.
In searching out solutions to the nation's insistent economic problems of lagging growth and chronic high-level unemploy-
ment, economists appeared to be turning more and more to improvements in the quahty of education from kindergarten to the Ph.D. Economists were learning belatedly what many educators
had been saying for a long time, namely, that education is investment in human capital and provides the primary basis for the wealth of nations. Along with other groups in the American pub-
331
American Free Trade association. President in 1962, Carlos Julio .Arosemena Monroy. History. For several months after assuming office on Nov, 9. 1961. President Arosemena found it necessary to draw support from as many political groups as possible. Under increasing pressure from the military leaders, at a time when the influence of the Latin
—
groups showed growing weakness, the government in
leftist
April 1962 broke diplomatic relations with Cuba, Czechoslovakia
and Poland. Later, a
reshuffling of posts resulted in a centrist
cabinet, with the opposition largely
from the extremist elements. In the congressional and municipal elections in June the moderate liberal groups
won a
some uncertainty
The
substantial victory.
however, on both domestic and foreign relative to
economic
policies,
in
and progress bank employees
stability
the reform programs. In .August a strike of
Guayaquil and labour disturbances
victors split,
which created in
other parts of the country
and new appointments designed
led to cabinet resignations
in
to
inspire confidence.
In response to an invitation by Pres. John F. Kennedy. Presi-
economists were awakened to the strategic role of efducation power and progress by the dramatic launching of the Soviet Sputnik in 1957, and from that time the incidental recog-
dent .Arosemena visited the United States near the end of July. Both heads of state pledged their joint efforts to speed up the
by economists to education had been reby an increasing emphasis in their analytical models, as illustrated in Denison's work cited above. Another manifestation
United States had made available, under
lic,
in national
nition formerly given
placed
human resources occurred in economic thinking about foreign aid to underdeveloped countries under the Kennedy administration. There the ideas of J. K. Galbraith (Economic Development in Perspective, 1962) of the priority assigned to investment in
appeared to have carried over from the domestic economy to development economics.
aid
000
program under the Alliance to private industry in
On July 22 the program. $5.(X>0.-
for Progress. this
Ecuador. With a view to encouraging
private business investment, the Industrial Production law was revised to provide special incentives to smaller investors and enterprises.
Ecuador's economy was relatively stable in 1962. The year opened with the free exchange rate fluctuating narrowly between 21 and 21.5 sucres to U.S. $1. Stronger trade controls early in the year brought
some improvement
in
the country's
Solving economic problems such as growth and employment through more and better education would require the allocation
balance-of-payments position. In June the International Monetary Fund authorized Ecuador during the ne.xt 12 months to
of greater resources to the public sector for teaching
draw on foreign currencies up to a total of $5,000,000. In July and October there were drawings of $2,000,000 and $1,000,000. respectively. Prices remained relatively stable and the cost of living showed only minor changes. The most significant event in trade was Ecuador's signature in .April to the Montevideo agreement of the Latin .American Free Trade association under which the association, in July 1961, recognized Ecuador as a
and research. consumers to afford a redress of the imbalance between aflJuent private consumption and inadequate public expenditures was implied in a study of the cost of automobile model Ability of U.S.
M. Fisher, H. Z. Griliches and $700 per car (more than 25'^c of the average purchase price could have been saved by continuing the size, weight, horsepower and other specifications of 1949 automobiles changes during the IQoOs.'F. C.
Kaysen found
that )
through the 1950s, while incorporating the technological improvements made during the decade (American Economic Review, Supplement,
May
1962).
The
costs of producing larger, heavier
and
more powerful automobiles, accompanied by annual changes exterior design, exceeded the staggering
per year in the late 1950s.
sum
in
of $5,000,000,000
The Fisher-Griliches-Kaysen econo-
metric study was an indication of the increasing use of mathe-
matics and statistics in economics.
Some economists lamented
trend but a growing segment of the profession accepted
it
this
as a
symbol of the maturing of economics as a science. See also Banking; Budget, National; Business Manage-
ment; Business Review; Gold; Income and Product; International Bank tor Reconstruction and De\-elopment International Development Association International Trade Retail and Wholes.'vle Sales Tariffs Wealth and ;
;
;
;
Income, Distribution
;
of.
(,D.
D.)
LbUdUUI.
territory. est.):
member
countries. .An important step
was taken when the Ecua-
dorian Confederation of Trade Unions voted to
Pop. (1962 est.) 4,653.000. Principal
cities (pop..
1959
Quito (cap.) 267.700; Guayaquil 410.000; Cuenca 66,800;
Ambato 44,300; Riobamba 38,900. Ecuador is Organization of American States, the Alliance
a
member
of the
for Progress
and
affiliate
itself
with the respective international and Latin-.American regional organizations of free labour unions.
During 1962 the government of Ecuador concentrated on a of key areas in economic and social development, especiall)' in housing, education and land and tax reform. The InterAmerican Development bank in March approved a loan of $10,000,000 from the Social Progress Trust Fund to aid the financing of a housing program for low-income families, a program that benefits the economy by creating jobs for the unemployed and by increasing the demand for construction materials. .Another loan approved by the bank on the same date made available, also from the Social Progress Trust Fund. $3,000,000 to improve and expand the sewer system of Quito. Later in the year the bank made available funds to provide advisory services for the National Development bank. See also Latin America.
number
^
republic on the west coast of South America, Ecuador is bounded by Colombia, Peru and the Pacific ocean. Area 105,684 sq.mi., including the Galapagos Islands (a dependency of 3'.028 sq.mi.) and excluding claimed
pPIIQrinr
beneficiary of the special treatment accorded to the less-developed
(A. E. Tr.) Education.
— In
1959 there were 5.340 primary schools with 13.704 tcichers and 566.805 pupils: 181 secondary schools, 37.055 pupils: 98 technical schools. 19.450 pupils: 25 normal schools. 7.4S1 pupils; 10 institutions of higher learnins (including 6 universities), 7.567 students. .According to the 1950 census. 43. /'"r of those ten years of age and over were illiterate. Finonce. The monetary unit is the Sucre, the par value of which was changed on July 19, 1961. from 15 to 18 sucres per I'.S. dollar. The sucre was valued on .\ug. 31, 1962, at 5.5 cents U.S. currency, official rale, and at 4.3 cents, free rate. The total 1962 budget amounted to 2.048.000,000
—
sucres.
The
foreign
debt
(Dec.
31,
1960)
was $84,234,:il:
internal
EDUC ATION
332
(Nov. 30. 1961). 402,573,000 sucrcs. Currency in circulation (June 30. 190:) louled 874.000,000 sucn-s; demand deposits. 881,000,000 sucres. National income in 1960 was estimated at 11.700.000.000 sucres. The costof-living index (Quito) stood at 109 in .\uK. 1962 (1958 = 100). Trad* and Commonicaiionj. Exports in 1961 (Ecuadorian seaports) toat taled $96,548,000 (unadjusted (or banana undervaluation estimated $30,100,000); imports $100,784,000. Leading exports were bananas (52%), cacao (16» dropping out of high school ar,d acquiring the ""''""'"y'd" without ever having been employed. In an industrial was increasingly demanding educational oualiflcalioi the only oooupalion for a high percentage of these dropouts
t»L
oH^.„ lociely
„f
.h that
was killing timl
r« I2i
^6 w'^
S'-^
MALTS lU'
D0NUTS7'
r"
I) h
9^A
1^
T
EDUCATION
GOODBYE!"-These words are frequently "WHEN I'M OLD-ENOUGH spoken by restless high school students who look forward to the time when they'll be exempt from compulsory school attendance. The saying was used in 1962 as the title of a 28minute movie, made under the auspices of the N. Y. State Department of Labor to dramatize the fact that high school dropouts are choosing the road to frustration. Stills from the movie, left to right: Doug, a high school boy (played by Barry Primus) has reached the age of freedom This turns out to be freedom to wash dishes at a lunch counter Doug sleeps on the problem, and decides that life ought to hold something better; he's going back .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
to school.
Courtesy,
New York
State
Employment Service
reading, arithmetic, science and foreign languages.
A
survey by
expenditures. U.S. government financial aid to higher education
the National Education association in January disclosed that
included graduate fellowship programs under the National
automation had made inroads into education (see below, Technology in Education). The initial results of studies regarding the
fense Education act; a grant of $26,400,000
Science foundation for
effectiveness of teaching machines appeared good, according to
college teachers of science,
this report, in spelling, arithmetic
In secondary education, as in the curriculum. tal,
in
and
Various attempts were made by governmen-
teaching of English, social studies, mathematics, science and foreign languages. Special attention was given by business groups to demonstrating the need to teach economics in high schools.
As
previous years, debates took place in some communities as to the books suitable for reading by high-school pupils, and in in
Nov. 1961 the National Council of Teachers of English
called
for a struggle against increasing censorship.
ardized examinations taken by high-school students. Educators attending the February convention of the American Association of School Administrators emphasized such dangers as the finality
of the test scores, the high cost in time and money, limited evaluation of the pupil, control of curriculum, overlooking of children
not
fit
into the usual pattern,
and external pressure on
teachers and pupils.
In
March
the National Council of Independent Schools and the Independent Schools Education board merged to form a new organization, the National Association of Independent Schools, comprising 700 schools in 40 states. Its objective was to
strengthen programs and
and
to
facilities, to
broaden scholarship aid
Higher Educafion. that fuU-lime
—
increase teachers' salaries
in the private schools.
The U.S. office of education announced and part-time college enrollment increased in the
of 1961 to an all-time high of 3,891,000, or 7.8% more than the figure for the previous year. The enrollment in engineering, however, did not present so good a picture, A joint report by the fall
U.S. office of education and the American Society for Engineering Education indicated in Februar>' that freshman registration
had remained at the same level since 1959. Undergraduate enrollment was 0.9% below that of 1960; graduate enrollment was up S,l% on the master's level and up 22,1% on the doctor's level from 1960, One of the perennial problems in American higher education has been that of finance. The
office of
institutes for high-school and mathematics and engineering; and an
construction of medical research facilities. In Nov.
Atomic Energy commission adopted
new
1961 the
making it possible for universities to earn a profit on the management of the commission's atomic laboratories and thereby to be compensated for direct and indirect costs. A report by the Brookings institution. The Role of the Federal Govertiment in Financing Higher Education, recommended an expansion of federal aid on a more permanent basis, especially for the teaching of science, a
policy
modern foreign languages and English. Also in November, a report by the Commission on Goals for Higher Edusocial sciences,
Another controversy involved the negative professional reaction to the rising number and significance of external stand-
who do
summer
award by the U.S. public health service of more than $16,000,000 to 37 educational and research institutions in 22 states for the
science.
elementary, there was ferment
scholarly and professional bodies to modify and improve the
Deby the National
education reported
in
September that the growth of enrollment and research activities in the colleges and universities involved substantially increased
cation in the South, a committee established by the Southern Regional Education board, urged an annual expenditure of $2,900,000,000 (an increase of $1,800,000,000 a year over the current expenditure) to help achieve the goals of a changing south.
The Ford foundation,
as in previous years, gave large sums During the fiscal year 1961 it spent $16,humanities and the arts and $14,545,872 for science
for higher education.
882,000 for
and engineering. In April 1962 the foundation set up an $8,000,000 program for the preparation of doctoral students in engineering for careers as teachers of engineering. Also in April it granted $6,000,000 to enable the Johns Hopkins university "to reach and sustain wholly new levels of
academic excellence, ad-
mmistrative effectiveness, and financial support"; $27,500,000 to the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship foundation to con-
tmue
until the end of the 1967-68 academic year its graduate fellowships for future college teachers and to start a new program of fellowships for the writing of doctoral dissertations; and $14,500,000 to the National Merit Scholarship corporation
contmue through the academic year 1969-70 its undergraduate scholarships for gifted high-school students. In September the to
foundation
announced a total of $55,200,000 in unrestricted grants to 29 independent liberal arts colleges to help them in their plans for future development, '
Other large grants included $5 ,000,000 by m January to Princeton university for the Shelby Cullom Davis support of its department of history; $5,000,000 by the Alfred P, Sloan foundation m June to five mstuutions to broaden the higher education of future engineers; and an $8,600,000 bequest by Mrs. Henry Krumb
'
_
"1 July to
Columbia university for engineering education. The
.
—
EDUCATION
annual report on private financial support of higher education, released in
March by
the John Price Jones company, indicated
"
335
did not pass the desired
which
tion,
its
In April the
bill.
Fund
for Adult
Educa-
parent organization, the Ford foundation, had
that SO institutions received $345,953,000 during 1960-61, or
scheduled to be dissolved some time in 1962. announced that
22% more
it
than the amount for 1959-60.
Tuition fees and faculty salaries continued to
A
rise
during the
had disbursed $48,719,000 between 1951 and 1961. The funds
were granted
foi
educational television ($11,401,000). study-
survey by the American Association of University Pro-
discussion programs and materials in the liberal arts ($9,882,-
fessors revealed in April that a 6.5 ' of
munication. Increased attention was given to tele\ision and radio
and other tN-pes of projected maTeaching machines and programmed materials for selfinstruction were being tested in large numbers. Language laboraas well as to motion pictures terials.
tories
were becoming a standard teaching
facility in
many
school
systems, and audio equipment was being applied to other fields of teaching.
Among
the latest innovations under experimentation
was the use of electronic computers
in teaching.
Recognition by
educators of the need for radical changes in teaching methods
number
among them
appointed the former president of the Cuban Communist party,
was being forced by
Juan Marinello, as rector of the University of Havana. In August, Bolivian teachers struck for a higher minimum salary and cost-
educational costs, the continued rapid increase in the
of-living bonuses.
pansion of knowledge and the pressure for excellence in the
by teachers and students took place at various times during the year in India, Pakistan and Iran, Troops in Burma killed 15 students and wounded 27 in a riot at the University of Rangoon in July on account of the protest against "oppressive" dormitory regulations. Nine American universities joined
sciences
Strikes
government to establish the Indian nology in Kanpur. In Communist China the the U.S.
Institute of Techministrv- of educa-
tion stressed the equality of correct political thinking lastic
and scho-
abihty as criteria for the selection of students for higher
education.
A
dispute arose in Australia between
Roman
Catholics and
a
of factors,
the rise in
number
of
students in relation to the supply of qualified teachers, the ex-
and other
disciplines.
Major educational conferences held during the year reflected this interest. "Education in a Technical Age" was the theme of the 11th annual assembly of the World Confederation of Organizations
UNESCO
of
the
Teaching
Profession
held
in
Stockholm.
conferences in several countries studied the applica-
motion pictures, television, recordings and other audioimprove instruction. Utilization of technology was the principal topic of the annual meeting of the department of audio-visual instruction of the National Education association tion of
\isual devices to
of the United States; this meeting gave particular attention to
EGGS
338
developing instructional materials systems in which the various media of instruction would be integrated. At the 1962 National
producers and a number textbook publishers, educational film specializing in programmed materials. Principal of companies
newly
sciences, language subject-matter areas were mathematics, social languages. Numbers of school systems arts, science and foreign
developed program for teacher training in audio-visual media. Communications Media.— Use of both television and radio broadcasting for educational purposes continued to expand in
were using programmed materials experimentally. Educators saw in programmed self-instruction a promising method both improving the instruction for accelerating gifted students and
Audio-Visual association
(NAVA)
convention, the feature pres-
A-V Teacher," reviewed one
entation, "Orbiting
state's
1962. The development of educational television was given great impetus by legislation authorizing the appropriation of $32,000,000 by the federal government over a five-year period, beginning
July
1,
1962, to be given as matching funds to the states for
the construction of noncommercial
TV
During the year an estimated 32,000,000 persons received In addition, between 200 and 300 closed-circuit
vision systems
systems.
were
in use in educational institutions
The number
Numerous preliminary research reports indicated the effectiveprogrammed self-instruction but were not conclusive.
ness of
The
technological development project of the National Educawarned that all the questions about the value of
tion association
facilities.
open-circuit educational television broadcasts from 60 operating stations.
of poorer students.
tele-
and school
was
of educational television stations
ex-
pected to double within the next ten years. Biggest experimental program in television broadcasting for mass instruction was the Midwest Program on Airborne Television Instruction, which completed its first year of regular operation in 1961-62. In this program, 27 courses for college, highschool and elementary-school students were transmitted to schools over an area of 12 7,000 sq.mi., from an airplane circling
teaching machines and
and the relative value of automated compared with conventional instruction were supported during the year by allocations of $5,000,000 in federal funds under Title VII of the National Defense Education act. Computers.
— Research and increasing experience with techno-
was disclosing to some educators that technology would not supplant the teacher but would improve instruction. Even the most ambitious laboratory attempt to automate an logical devices
entire educational system reported in 1962 its conclusion that
the greatest significance of the study
As the program went into the 1962-63 academic year, its services were being used by 1,200 schools. The facilities for the program and the first year's operation were financed by the Ford foundation. In the second year, however, the par-
was simulated
were required
to contribute financial support.
The growth of educational programs in FM radio broadcasting was even greater than that in educational television. By mid1962, 200 FM stations were offering educational programs or were operated by educational institutions. As in preceding years, the use in schools of other types of communications equipment was greatly stimulated by the distribution of federal funds under the National Defense Education act
(NDEA). A
substantial part of the funds allocated under
Title III of this act science,
—providing
for strengthening instruction in
mathematics and modern languages
—was being used by
schools on a matching basis for the purchase of projectors and electronic
equipment, as well as motion pictures,
filmstrips,
tapes and recordings. Reporting on the progress of this program
working year, the U.S. department of health, education and welfare announced that, since its enactment in 1958,
in its fourth
$300,000,000 had been allocated to schools under Title III.
The teaching there
is
of
modern
foreign languages, an area in which
a great shortage of qualified teachers, was undergoing
more rapid automation than any other area lum.
of the school curricu-
A
publication of the United States office of education, however, recommended that language teachers not relinquish the
with tapes and recorded materials, a recommendation echoed by a study supported by an grant.
teaching role but share
NDEA
development of unique importance, also stimulated by NDEA funds, was the increase in utilization of overhead projectors. Some predicted that they might make the conventional classroom blackboard obsolete. By the end of 1962 an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 such projectors were in use in U.S. schools. Materials.
—Of
continued growth of interest
gramming
human
teacher.
was the possibility of more At the Systems Research
laboratory in Santa Monica, Calif., a complete educational system
grammed
equipped with a computer proand sequence verbal, numerical and audio-
in a laboratory
to select
visual materials, to score data on student progress
and provide
make The study demon-
students with immediate progress evaluations, as well as to decisions as to the sequencing of instruction.
more students can be simultaneously and inby a large computer. Such a machine can also simultaneous group instruction. For example, it
strated that 1,000 or
dividually tutored
be used for
would be possible for in a district in
a central computer to link up every school and simultaneously teach the same subject to classes
each school, while continuing to perform other administrative
data-processing tasks such as grade reporting, attendance checking
and
class scheduling.
See also Child Welfare; Civil Rights; Donations, Be|
QUESTS AND Grants Juvenile Delinquency Law Libraries Mathematics; Motion Pictures; Museums; Nursing; Peace Corps Radio and Television Religious Education ScholARSHips and Student Aid; for statistics of institutions see ;
;
;
;
;
;
!
;
\
Universities and Colleges; see also under various states and j
countries.
—
(J.
T. B.)
Encyclop-edia Britannica Films. George W. Beadle (Dialogue for Decade) (1962); Nadia Boulanger (Wisdom Series) (1962); Bring the World to the Classroom (1938); James B. Conant (Wisdom Series) (1960); Sterling McMurrin (Dialogue for this Decade) (1962); Mailing Films That Teach (1954); Horace Mann (1951); Mental Health (Keepmg Mentally Fit) (1952); New Tools for Learning (1952); Practicing Democracy m the Classroom (1953); The Unique Contribution (1959); Using the Classroom Film (1945); Why Vandalism? (1955); You Can Go a Long Way (1961). this
[
\
'
i
it
A
Programmed
not be answered
as
effective use of the
ticipating schools
will
ent technological devices
above Montpelier, Ind. The program reported in March that 90% of the 987 teachers considered its first semester "good" or "excellent."
programmed learning
time. Investigations of the instructional value of differ-
some
for
special significance also
in teaching
was the
machines and the pro-
of materials for self-instruction.
A
study
made by
Development project of the National Educamore than 600 commercially available programs for school and college use in 1962. There were 50 producers of programmed materials in the field, including standard the Technological
tion association reported
Education, Religious:
see
Religious Education.
^'*'^"'^''°" °f chicken eggs in the U.S. iii 1962 was estimated at 63,015,480,000, up nearly 2% from 61,828,200,000 in 1961. On Dec. 1 the laying flock numbered 306,-
'
EfffS oo^"
345,000, as compared with 309,453,000 a year earlier; flocks included 1% fewer hens one year old and older and more pullets of laying age. Pullets not of laying age numbered 40,656,-
3%
000, up
by about 3%. The laying flock on Jan. 1, 1963, was in1.5% above the 308,000,000 on hand at the
dicated at about
beginning of 1962. Production per 100 layers for six of the first nine months of 1962 ran slightly above a year eariier. On May 1 It reached 64.2, equaling the record set on the same date in 1960.
'
; '
ELECTIO NS, Storage stocks of shell eggs on Sept. 1 numbered 220,000 cases (30 doz. per case) and stocks of frozen eggs were 119,605,000 lb,,
compared with 225,000 cases and 99,573,000
on Sept.
Egg
lb.,
•
339
Eisenhower and
wife and four children
prices to producers started the year at an average of 35.4
compared with 39.4 cents on Jan,
cents per dozen,
1,
months averaged
moved
into a house nearby.
From July
18 to Aug, 30, 1962, the Eisenhowers toured Europe with their
two oldest grandchildren, Eisenhower regularly spent much time in work at his office in Gettysburg, occupied with writing and
1961, and
continued below 1961 levels until mid-September when they rose to 36,2 cents, compared with 35,5 cents a year earlier. Prices for the first nine
permanent home,
his wife settled in their first
a 190-acre farm outside Gettysburg, Pa, Their only son and his
respectively,
1961,
1,
U.S.
After his retirement, at age 70 the oldest president in history,
receiving visitors.
He
received a presidential pension of $25,000
below comparable 1961 levels. Per capita consumption of eggs was indicated at 323, as compared with 325 in 1961.
plus $50,000 for office expenses; and congress restored his five-
U.S. department of agriculture purchases of dried eggs for school lunches and institutional use in the March-July 1962 period totaled the equivalent of 1,205,000 cases; the program was
as
terminated July
2,8 cents
March 1961 at President Kennedy's reNov. 1961 President Kennedy appointed Eisenhower
star general's rank in
quest. In
head of a new, privately managed organization for the "People program that Eisenhower had launched in 1956, Showing restlessness with a life of retirement, Eisenhower spoke out more and more on public issues. He had campaigned
to People"
13.
Production in the major jDroducing countries was estimated at 205,137,000,000 eggs in 1961— an increase of 2.2% over 1960.
vigorously in elections in 1961
Spain's production rose
42%
over the previous year as a result
12 states
of the development of
new
large-scale production units near
for governorships. Before the
major cities. Decreased export demand and lower prices reduced production in both the Netherlands and Denmark. Production of 27,000.000.000 eggs in the U.S.S.R, was 6% above 1960; in Japan, production also rose 6%, U.K. production was down nearly 5%, Chicken numbers in the major producing countries, estimated at 1,728,863,000, were nearly S% above a year
in
New
See also Livestock.
(H. R. Sh.)
Jersey and
,
on behalf of Republicans running for congress and
Cuban
October he had
crisis in
viewed Cuba as the issue of the election, and afterward he continued to urge a Republican vote despite the crisis. Although he called for bipartisan support in foreign affairs, he
critical of the administration's
his disapproval in speeches in
the
first
made
critical
spending policies and expressed
May
and June and in
in a nationally
August,
"all-Repubhcan congress" was held
farm, and he was
was
Cuba and Laos, He was most
of the handling of the crises in
published magazine article which appeared
earlier.
New
York,
Texas, and on Sept. 13, 1962, he began an active campaign in
at his
On June 30 Gettysburg
the honorary chairman of the Republican
Egypt: see Middle Eastern Affairs; Syria; United Arab Re-
national citizens committee, a volunteer group to focus public
public.
attention on party activities.
(G. Pl.)
Eire: see Ireland, Republic of. p.
.. II
A
lIcLIIDMo, U.u.
Eisenhower, Dwight David born on Oct.
14, in
':,Z u^id's';.';:'™
Denison, Tex. Eisenhower spent his child-
hood in Abilene, Kan. He was graduated from the U.S. Military academy in 1915. When the U.S. entered World War II. Eisenhower was chief
He became commanding general of the commander in chief of Allied forces in north (Feb. 1943) and supreme commander of Allied Expedi-
of staff of the 3rd
European Africa
army.
theatre,
tionary forces (Dec. 1943).
invasion of France.
Made
1944, Eisenhower received in
May
He
planned and led the June
general of the
He
1944,
army on Dec.
20,
Germany's unconditional surrender
1945 and returned to WasTiington in
chief of staff.
6.
November
resigned from actjve duty Feb.
7,
as
army
1948, to
become president of Columbia university. In Dec. 1950 he was appointed supreme allied commander in Europe by Pres. Harry S. Truman. He resigned from the army in mid-1952 and in July
won
the Republican nomination for the presidency of the United
States.
He
defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the
November
election.
He
recovered from a heart attack in Sept. 19S5 and an
ileitis
operation in June 1956. Unanimously renominated in Aug. 1956, he was re-elected president in November, again over Adlai
Stevenson.
He campaigned
in the fall of
1960 to make the Re-
M. Nixon, his successor. Kennedy defeated Nixon, Eisenhower
publican nominee, Vice-Pres. Richard
When Democrat John
F.
met with the president-elect and arranged liaison between administration officials and Kennedy associates to facilitate orderly transfer of government. After Eisenhower left office, President Kennedy made periodic visits and consulted with him on foreign affairs.
On March
24, 1962. the president visited Eisen-
hower on vacation in Palm Springs, Calif., and on Sept. 10 Eisenhower and his wife were entertained at the White House for the first time after leaving.
The Nov.
6,
congress,
governors
1962, elections for the U.S.
and
state
officials
throughout the nation produced a checkerboard pattern of consuccesses and failures for each of the parties. The Democrats rejoiced in their ability to stave off the heavy congressional losses traditionally suffered in midterm elections by the party controlling the presidency. However, a close conservatrasting
tive-liberal split was maintained in the house of representatives and Republicans made some important gains among major state
governorships.
The national Democratic party entered the 1962 campaign determined to reinforce the hairbreadth plurality by which Pres. John F. Kennedy was elected in 1960. The president campaigned actively for Democratic nominees across the nation every
end
— and
some weekdays
— from
late
summer
week
to mid-October,
repeatedly urging voters to elect Democratic governors and send "more Democrats" to Washington. Most observer's agreed that the president continued to enjoy a high degree of popularity the voters. However, his domestic programs and many Democratic candidates did not appear to share his personal popularity, and observers were not sure how much his campaigning was actually helping the party. As the campaign wore on. public uneasiness over the Communist build-up in Cuba mounted and
among
Repubhcans made a key issue of urging firm U.S. action. Former Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower campaigned actively for Republican candidates from California to New Hampshire. Then, on Oct. 20. the president abruptly ended his campaigning and returned to Washington for consultations in a mounting crisis over Cuba. On Oct. 22 he announced a U.S. naval quarantine on offensive missiles and other weapons being shipped to Cuba. For a few days war seemed imminent and the country rallied behind the president. When the Soviet Union agreed on Oct. 28 to withdraw its offensive weapons from the island, the U.S. appeared to have scored a major victory
ably on the president.
—
reflecting favour-
ELECTIO NS.
340
U.S.
—
21 previously Democratic, 18 Republican. Democrats 25 of the 39, shifting the senate balance from 64 Democrats and 36 Republicans to 68 Democrats and 32 Republicans. On Nov. 18, however. Democratic Sen. Dennis Chavez of New at stake
won
12 days later
Mexico died and
was replaced by Republican Edwin
would make the senate line-up in the 88th congress 67 Democrats and 33 Republicans. The Democrats were able to register a moderate senate gain
Mechem. This
L.
shift
partly because most of the seats at stake were those last filled in
1955
— the year of the second Eisenhower sweep, when many won
Republicans Vnilrd Prrti Inlernational
NELSON
A.
re-eieoled
lican,
governor
of
marginal states.
in
Two
of those Republicans,
Prescott Bush of Connecticut and John Marshall Butler of Maryland, announced their retirements and opened the way for Demo-
ROCKEFELLER, RepubNew
cratic takeovers.
In most states the personalities and stands of individual candidates appeared to carry far greater weight than their party label. In the east Sen. Jacob K. Javits, Republican of New York, ran far ahead of his party's ticket. Another heavy winner was Edward M. ("Ted") Kennedy, 30-year-old brother of the president, who swamped George Cabot Lodge, Republican, in
Massachusetts. In
enabled
Thomas
cratic senator in S.
to
J.
New Hampshire a bitter Republican feud Mclntyre to become the state's first Demo-
more than 30
years. In Pennsylvania Sen. Joseph
Clark, a liberal Democrat, bucked a strong Republican trend
win re-election by more than 100,000 votes. veteran midwestern Republicans were .toppled.
Two United Press International
JAMES
A.
RHODES,
Homer
Republican,
elected governor of Ohio
E. Capehart of Indiana
Birch Bayh,
Jr.,
fell
Sen.
before 34-year-old state Rep.
and Sen. Alexander Wiley of Wisconsin met deGov. Gaylord A. Nelson. The South Dakota
feat at the hands of
For the Republicans,
now
stunned by their defeat in 1960 and
race, decided
by
less
than 1,000 votes, found former Food for
Peace Director George McGovern, Democrat, victorious over
important congressional gains seemed essential
interim Sen. Joe H. Bottum. In Illinois, however, senate Repub-
tion,
was
still
faced by a highly partisan national Democratic administra-
publicans also
felt
the party
they must expand their strength on the guber-
natorial level in order to their
if
an effective opposition. The Re-
to continue functioning as
own programs
have a base from which to develop 1960s and to build a party with
for the
lican leader Everett
McKinley Dirksen won
In a top southern race Alabama's Lister Hill, considered the
most
liberal
southern senator (except on
civil rights),
barely sur-
vived a challenge by conservative Republican James D. Martin.
organizational sinews.
Republican campaign arguments for 1962 were diffused, how-
Republicans ran far behind in most other southern senate conbut in Kentucky Sen. Thruston B. Morton, former Repub-
ever. Issues such as lack of a balanced national budget, econ-
tests,
omy
lican national chairman,
government and alleged executive usurpation of
in
a relatively easy
victory over Chicago Congressman Sidney R. Yates.
tive authority did not provide the necessary spark.
legisla-
By October
Republicans had decided to concentrate on Cuba, but the president's firm action deprived
them
won a surprisingly easy victory over Gov. Wilson W. Wyatt, former national chairman of Americans for Democratic Action.
Lieut.
Improved G.O.P.
In the west U.S. Rep. Peter H. Dominick upset Sen. John A.
organizations and attractive candidates permitted the party to
Wyoming former Gov. Milward L. Simpson ousted interim Sen. J. J. Hickey. In California Repubhcan Thomas H. Kuchel, the senate minority whip, defeated state Sen. Richard Richards. In Hawaii U.S. Rep. Daniel K. Inouye, Democrat, polled more than two-thirds of the vote to become the first U,S, senator of Japanese ancestry.
make
of that issue.
a respectable showing, winning close to half the national
vote for governors and senators and boosting
its
of the national party vote for U.S. representatives
1960 to
48%
in
1962. But no issue
actual share
from
45%
in
was developed that could
lead to major Republican gains.
The Republicans
did,
Carroll in Colorado and in
however, make considerable headway in
the south. Republican candidates were entered in 66 of the 120
southern house races, compared with 35 in 1958 and 53 in 1960. Republican chances for breaking the Democratic hold on the "solid south" appeared to be
enhanced by southern resentment
against the president's action in sending federal troops to stop rioting attending the entrance of a Negro into the University of Mississippi.
The Cuban
sissippi affair, but
crisis
Republicans
diverted attention from the Misstill picked up five southern house
and almost toppled veteran Democratic Sen. Lister Hill in Alabama. Most of the Republican victories appeared to be based seats
on the strongly conservative platforms of the G.O.P. candidates rather than the segregation issue.
U.S.
Senate.— Defying
gain of four senate seats.
had gained scats
at
tradition, the
The
last
midterm was
Franklin D. Roosevelt's
first
Democrats scored a net time the presidential party
in
1934, midpoint in
Pres.
term. Thirty-nine senate seats were
EDMUND
G, BROWN, Democrat, reelected governor of California
ITide H'orld
ENDiCOTT
PEABODY,
Democrat,
eieoted governor of Massachusetts
U.S. House.
ELECTIO NS, —The voters chose a house of 259 Democrats and
U.S.
341
176 Republicans, a net Democratic loss of 4 and Republican 2. The gain and loss figures were not even because house membership, temporarily at 437 because of the new seats added gain of
when .Maska and Hawaii joined
the union, would revert to 435
in the SSth congress.
Their failure to gain more than two seats was a source of
disappointment to Republican leaders,
who had pubhcly hoped win control of the house and privately expected to pick up 10 to 20 seats. Democrats maintained that their success in "holding the line" would give the president a strong psychological to
advantage
in seeking to
push programs through the new congress,
but studies of the over-all conservative-liberal line-up
GEORGE W, ROMNEY,
the
in
Rapublloan,
tieoted governor of Michigan
change. Of the 435 representatives elected, 386 were incumbents, while 65 were newcomers 35 Democrats
house indicated
little
—
and 30 Republicans. Each party
also elected one
former repre-
sentative.
As a
result of congressional
1960 census, eastern states
reapportionment following the seven seats, the south
lost a net of
one and the midwest four. The western states were the chief up ten. Eight of these went to California
beneficiaries, picking
and most of them went Democratic, thanks largely to an effecDemocratic gerrymander. Gerrymanders in many other states misfired, however. Republicans failed to make any net
tive
gains in
New
them four
York, despite a gerr>'Tnander they hoped would net The Democratic gerrymander of North Carolina
seats.
caused the election of two Republicans.
Of the 25
Widr World
apportionment. 19 approved redistricting
bills in
In five states that gained a single seat
Michigan, Ohio and Texas
— no
Governors.
Maryland,
were given
final
filled at large.
— In governorship elections
the
Democrats main-
tained their hea\^' numerical lead, winning 20 of the year's 35
new balance of 33 Democratic and 17 Republican The pre-election balance had been 34 Democrats and
contests for a
16 Republicans,
While
1 1
Republi-
can, elected governor of Pennsylvania
1961 or 1962.
— Hawaii,
redistricting bills
approval, and the additional seat was
governors.
WILLIAM W, SCRANTON.
states that gained or lost seats in the 1960 census
governorships changed hands, an analysis indicated
had by far the better part of the exchange. Among the Republican gains were governorships in the major industrial states of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan, .\dded to the re-election of Republican Nelson \. Rockefeller in New York, the victory of Republicans in these states appeared to create a
form mayor of Philadelphia. In Ohio Rhodes defeated one-term incumbent Gov. Michael V. DiSalle, In Michigan former .\merican Motors Pres. George W, Romney defeated freshman Gov. John B, Swainson, Rockefeller won an easy re-election victory over U.S. Atty. Robert M, Morgenthau, but his supporters were disappointed that his winning margin fell slightly below that of 1958. Nevertheless, the elections established him as a leading contender for the 1964 presidential nomination.
The Republicans' most devastating gubernatorial defeat was by former Vice-Pres, Richard M. Nixon, who was
that the Republicans
new base of political strength. With the exception of Gov,-elect James A, Rhodes in Ohio, aU these~men were generally identified
suffered
soundly beaten
in a bid for the California
governorship. Nixon's
defeat followed an acrimonious campaign in which observers detected
little
positive public support either for
ocratic opponent,
The
incumbent Gov.
biggest surprises occurred in
Edmund
New
him
or for his
Dem-
G. ("Pat"^ Brown.
England and the south.
In Yermont. state Rep, Philip H, Hoff unseated incumbent Gov,
as progressives.
In Pennsylvania, 4S-year old Rep, William W. Scranton won an easy victory over Richardson Dilworth, former Democratic re-
to become Yermont 's first Democratic governor War, In New Hampshire Democratic state house minority leader John W. King capitalized on a split in Republican ranks to defeat G.O,P, nominee John Pillsbury, In Oklahoma, however, Henry Bellmon scored the first Republican gubernatoF,
Ray Keyser
since the Civil
rial
victory in the history of the state.
Observers agreed that a prime reason for the high turnover in governorships was the friction created by growing public demand for expanded state services coupled with strong public resistance to the
new
taxes, with the result that
any incumbent
governor was likely to incur voter disapproval. The elections for state legislatures in 1962 left the Republicans in control of 19 legislatures, the Democrats in control of 27. and 4 with the
two chambers controlled by different parties. See also Civil Rights: Political Parties. U.S.: United States; United States Congress; and under various states. tN. R. p.)
JOHN
B, CONNALLY, ileoled governor of Texal
Dei
ORVAL
E.
FAUBUS, Democrat,
elected governor of Arkansas
re-
— The Congress
(19S5): The President (1955); Political Parties (1952); Presidential Elections (I9S2); Pressure Groups (19S2); Public Opinion (1946).
ENCYCLOPyBDiA Bhitannica Films.
—
ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES
342
000 kw.hr., an increase of 8.4% over the earlier period and
29.1%
of total sales.
The average annual tomer
use of electricity
in the contiguous U.S. increased
by the residential cusby about 6.1% during
the period to 4,193 kw.hr. Average price per kilowatt-hour deThe number of residential customers
creased 1.6% to 2.42 cents.
by 2.2%, bringing the total to 52,600,000. About 79% of the nation's 60,000.000 ultimate consumers were served by investor-owned electric utility companies. The remainder received electricity from co-operatives or various govof electric utilities rose
ernmental power operations.
Table
1.
Sales of Elecfric Energy fo Ultimale Customers by f/ecfrie Ulilities of the Contiguous U.S. (in
-Black
Slai
"BIG BATHTUB'S" OUTLET: The $50,000,000 Taum Sauk power
project, laroIhe United Slatei, neared completion In 1962. The project, detlgned to provide enouoh electrical power (or 400.000 persons a day in the St. Loull area, Involved pumping water to a huge reservoir known as the "Big Bathtub" and channeling it via a huge tunnel, which drops 800 ft., to generators. Above li a view of the 200.fl. cliff through which tunnel runs. Below, two nineloot pipes lead from main 18-(l. pipe and convey water to generators
Ml
o( Iti kind
in
In
the
Electrical Industries. Aug.
12-month
period
ended
31, 1962, sales of energy
electric utilities in the contiguous U.S. rose
758.700,000.000 kw.hr. This compared with a
8.2% 5.2%
by
to a total of
sales increase
during the preceding 12-month period.
Industry was the largest purchaser of electricity during both periods. During the 12-month period ended Aug. 31, 1962, industr>' purchased 365.600,000,000 kw.hr. or 48.2% of all energy sold
by
electric utilities. Sales to various
ments rose 11.7% sales. Residential
to
commercial establish-
141.600,000,000 kw.hr., 18.7% of total
customers purchased more than 220,600,000
-
000,000,000 kw.hr.l
ELECTRONICS Toble III.— Monufocfure of
Electric
_
U.S. Electric
Schodulod oi o( Flfsl
,
,
loit
.
Total copocity shipped and scheduled for shipment
Power Systems
,,,,...,
U.S. Industrials
„. „ .^ Outside U.S , Total ,
.
(Unit.| '''"•1 (Units)
il^,"', (Units) !!^,"-),
(Units)
(Kw.)
•Manufacturers' ratings. Source: Edison Electric
Institute,
9 mo.
I96I
I942'
109 ",911,850
64 6,735,284
16
11
296,375
999,150
212,125 22 1,795,250
142 13,207,375
8,742,661
17
343
Generaling Equipment, Thermal ond Hydraulic Unif.— .4,000 kw. ond (0
S*''PP«- she Fanfare for Elizabeth. A. L. Rowse had the good fortune to find the diar>- of Sir Arthur Throckmorton, lost for over 300 years, and made use of it to write the life of Throckmorton's brother-in-law in Ralegh and the Throckmortons. There was an
and the Hive, a began
in
important new hfe of
Thomas Cranmer by Jasper
ing to the 20th centur>\ there were the
first
Ridley. Turn-
volume of
Sir Wil-
liam Keith Hancock's biography. Smuts: the Sanguine Years,
1870-1919; Michael Foot's Aneurin Sevan; the third and Hugh Dalton's memoirs, High Tide and After; and
part of
Priestley's
Margin Released.
final J.
B.
ENGLISH LITERATURE
350
II appeared to be dimin-
The number of books on World War Earl Alexander ishing. The Memoirs of Field Marshal
of Tunis,
of World 1940-45 was announced as "the last great memoirs above War II bv the commander who was head and shoulders
World War I revived; The Guns of AuBarbara Tuchman's Decision and Barne gtut), James Cameron's 1916— Year of indication of the trend. Pitt's 1918: the Last Act gave some made attempt to get to the bottom of things was them
''
all
On
the other hand, interest in
August, 1914 (U.S.
A
title
resolute
Britain, a comprehenby Anthony Sampson in The Anatomy of Establishment, which instead sive and concentrated survey of the power found rather of discovering the source of contemporary irresponsibility where it ought a lacuna of cross-purposes and Indecision emphato have been. George K. Young's Masters of in Great Britain in sized the point. American analyses published the American 1962 included The Image, or What Happened to Dream by Daniel J. Boorstin; Patriotic Gore by Edmund Wilson, Amerstudy of the influence of the Civil War on
a fascinating
ican literature; and
The Children of Sanchez by Oscar Lewis, a must have been the envy and
brilliant sociological essay that
admiration of
many
,,,,,.
in our time." » would hardly be complete review of the year's literature F. R. Leavis from the of retirement the to without reference at Cambridge university and his readership of English literature on Sir Charles P. Snow. The press was ex-
produced
i
A
valedictory lecture
of it were at first garbled cluded from the lecture and reports Leavis had laid about him and incomplete, but it was clear that as a nonentity, and had without mercy, had denounced Snow by the spectacle of so distinguished left his audience astonished savaged. To avoid misunderstanda reputation being so brutally lecture in full in the Spectator. ing it was necessary to publish the who rushed to Sir Charles's This made it worse. There were many with a massive silence; Sir Charles himself answered
defense.
was perhaps at a loss having once described satire as "cheek" he appeared word for Leavis. Though no new novel by Snow for a
into plays and perduring the year, earlier ones were turned (P. Su.) successfully in the West End of London.
formed
novelists.
book by a non-British author was Letters From a Traveller, a posthumous work by Pierre Teilhard de almost Chardin, the French paleontologist and priest who became Phenomenon of Man a cult figure with the publication of his The Cuenot and Charles in 1961. Two biographies of him, by Claude Oxford philosE. Raven, also appeared. The reputation of the of two L. Austin was enhanced by the publication opher Another
D
Sense and Sensibiha and How to further posthumous works, reconstructed from his lecture notes. Things With Words, both Supplement to describe him The latter moved the Times Literary has acute and original minds that England as "one of the most
significant
J.
in 1962. Poetry.—Very few new poets made their appearance The most striking first collection was In a Green Night by Derek already gained Walcott, a young West Indian writer who had
attitudes and recognition for his plays. Despite the romantic volume exhibited the debts to English and French literatures, this made admifreshness of diction and imagery, and occasionally
Creagh drew heavily upon childhood memories and the "spoiled tombs" of the past to achieve a rare unity in A Row of Pharaohs, while Richard Kell's
rable use of folk music rhythms. Patrick
Control Tower contained satisfying
poems on
a variety of sub-
from undue restraint in its attack. Fighting Terms by Thom Gunn, a first volume of another kind altogether, was the revised version of one of the most influential collections jects but suffered
to appear in the 1950s.
Vernon Scannell and Dannie Abse enhanced their reputations by their ironic treatment of domestic and urban themes in A Sense of Danger and Poems, Golders Green, respectively, and although in the latter volume Abse tended to overstress his Jewish origins, it included "The Abandoned," one of the best poems he has yet written. Unusual for its development of techniques initiated in the 1920s and its rejection of current fashions, Christopher Middleton's Torse 3 attracted considerable critical
by its dynamic originality. Three volumes inaugurated the Penguin Poets
attention
to introduce poetry to a larger public
volume
series,
designed
by presenting
in each
from the work of three poets widely differing in style and temperament. These first volumes in the series were highly successful in demonstrating the range and variety of contemporary poetry and called attention to the work of two unesselections
and Martin Bell. The New Poetry, by A. Alvarez, provoked controversy by its omissions and inclusions. In the same series was Georgian Poetry, selected by James Reeves. The most notable volumes came from the more established poets. The Outcasts by Dame Edith Sitwell, A Hong Kong House by Edmund Blunden and New Poems 1962 by Robert Graves, all tablished poets, Peter Porter a personal anthology edited
extremely competent collections, illustrated the special characof these individual poets. C. Day Lewis' The Gate, though disappointingly uneven, vindicated itself by two outstanding dramatic monologues, "Not Proven" and "The Disabused," and Stevie Smith's Selected Poems was distinguished for its re-
teristics
Widt
markably plangent
r'"l a nonanllly by Dr. F. R. Laavit ol Cam. ipaach astoundad literary and unlvarilty olrclaa, but Sli Britllh
Charlai P. Snow, who bridga unlvenlty. Tha Charlai aniwarad only with illanoa, laavlng dafanie to hli (riandi
wit.
The
Collected
Poems
of
Ronald
Bottrall
and Roy Fuller emphasized the substantial nature of the achievements of these two poets and made it possible to trace the development of their poetic careers. Perhaps the most impressive
EPIDEMIOLOGY joints.
The
351 name
native
for the disease
O'nyong nyong, which means "breakbone fever." A measleslike rash occurs and the lymph nodes, especially in the back of the neck, are enlarged. Complete recovery is the rule. The epidemic in Uganda was associated with a considerable drop in malaria rates and malaria transmission. Malarial mosquitoes were quite prevalent at the time but were rarely found infected with malarial organisms.
Tom Btau—Pix from Publix P.
.*^XV
.^^f
G.
WOOEHOUSE,
"Ptibly,"
returned
"aQlno Imper-
BUndlnot
to
is
castle
—
Cholera. In the 20th century, cholera has been epidemic only in Asia, except for an outbreak in Eg>pt in 1947. Both cases and deaths are declining, although figures have not been
obtainable from
Communist China
for cholera and other disrecent statistics are for the year 1960. when 12.806 deaths were reported; of these deaths, 5,729 occurred in India and 6,608 in Pakistan. In 1957, more than 59,000 deaths were reported. eases.
The most
The recent epidemic of so-called "paracholera," due to the El Tor vibrio, in countries fringing the South China sea has caused about 20,000 cases and 3.000 deaths. It has been halted in Sarawak. Macao and Hong Kong but persists in Indonesia and the Philippines. It broke out recently in North Borneo and in Taiwan (Formosa). Cholera is spread by feces and is combated by measures against fecal-oral transmission, augmented by vaccination.
Wide World
The El Tor
ALDOUS HUXLEY, whose Island was dismissed as a tract
vibrio
is
a cholera bacillus
first
isolated in 190S
camp at El Tor (now Al Tur). Eg>'.. from the pilgrims who had died returning from Mecca. It had
at the quarantine
bodies of
been thought, until recently, that it did not cause classical epidemic cholera. But in 1962. after reviewing the clinical symptoms, severity and epidemiologj' of the paracholera epidemic,
WHO
included cholera due to El Tor vibrio as subject to inter-
national quarantine regulations.
—
volume of
;
all
was the Collected Poems of Hugh MacDiarmid
which, published to celebrate his 70th birthday, clearly estabhim as the finest Scottish poet since Robert Burns.
^
lished ;
See also American
I
Literature;
Literary Prizes. '
^.^^;"'"?^-^''''V Britannica
Canadian Literature; (Ho S )
Films.— £ar/>-
Victorian England and f*"''"^'''*^'". (Humanities Course) (1962); Great Expectation^: the 2' J "T,"*"'"" Course) (1962): Great Expectations II: the Story Inlerpreted (Humanities Course) (1962); ]V. Somerset Maugham (The Wisdom Series) (1962 ) The Xovel: What It Is. What Ifs About. What It Docs Course) (1962 ) Sean O'Casey (The Wisdom Series) (1958) L"""^"'"" Ber'"'nd Russell (Tht Wisdom Series) (1958); 5i> Osbert Sitwell (The Wisdom Series) (1958); Arnold Toynbee (The Wisdom Series) (1958).
f
\ I
,
-
;
•
;
I
I I
Entomology:
see
Agricultural Research Service.
Environmental Health:
see
Bilharzlasis.
IS
a
major problem
World Health organiza-
'
;
j
I
I
]
'
:
j
pilot project in Egj-pt is
control of the disease.
designed to yield information on the
Newly
infected areas are continually com-
ing to light, including regions in Central and South America, parts of east Africa and parts of Europe and the eastern
Medi-
terranean area.
—
Breakbone Fever. Breakbone fever, a new virus disease that has affected about 1.000.000- persons, is spread chiefly by the anopheles mosquito.
The
first
outbreak was reported early in
1959 in northwestern Uganda. into
i
United Arab Republic and in many and Latin America. A WHO-sponsored
in the
countries of Africa, Asia
Ten months later it had crossed Kenya. 300 mi. away, and then fanned out from there. The
attack rate
is
25%-50%. The symptoms
(frequently with chills)
Relapsing Fever. only
m
—Louse-borne
relapsing fever
Africa, particularly in Ethiopia. It
quarantinable chsease but Shigellosis.
—An
is
is
is endemic an internationally
not of major importance.
epidemic of this disease affected more than
37.000 persons in East Berlin;
has been ascribed to butter
it
from Communist China. West Berhn was protected by the isolation provided by the wall separating West from East Berlin. Smallpox. The number of cases of smallpox reported throughout the world in 1950 was more than 335.000. In 1961, only 78,000 cases were reported (excluding
Communist China),
of which 24,000 were in Africa. 1,900 in the Americas. 45.000 in
tion (WHO) paid increased attention in 1962 to bilharzlasis (schistosomiasis), a chronic disease of the intestinal or urinary tract caused by worms (blood flukes). It ,
6,300 in 1949-1958. Pro\'isional figures for the world (excluding mainland China) in 1960 were 412 cases, of which 256 were in South America, mostly in Bolivia. Brazil. Ecuador and Peru.
—
'
Public Health Engineering.
—The
Plague. The incidence of human plague has fallen remarkably in recent decades. In India, the average annual mortality decreased from an estimated 548.000 in the decade 1898-1908 to
consist of
and excruciating pains
sudden fever
in the
bones and
India, 3,000 in
Pakistan, 4.000 elsewhere in Asia and
25
Europe. Only a diminution of smallpox in the endemic areas
in
(i.e.,
reduction of the reservoir) can be considered a real step toward eradication of the disease. In India, the problem of reducing the reservoir
is
not so
much one
of technical knowledge as of
dealing with a very large population in a vast countr>'.
areas of which are difficult to reach. There also
is
many
a shortage
of adequately trained vaccination staffs.
most of Pakistan. A pilot eradicatwo of the most hea\-ily infected districts of East Pakistan and plans are being made to extend the area. There was an outbreak in Karachi, during which people incubating the disease went to other countries and caused outSmallpox
is
also
endemic
in
tion plan has been started in
breaks there. In Britain, cases of smallpox were introduced on five separate occasions
by
from Pakistan. The validity was questioned and there were rumours that forged certificates were easily obtainable in Pakistan. The unfortunate result was that at least 60 cases appeared, of travelers
of the smallpox certificates
ETHIOPrA
352
fever, in nine southern states, the Virgin the vector of yellow The virus of yellow fever is not present Islands and Puerto Rico, could be introduced accidentally. Moreover, in these areas but unwittingly exported to other countries these mosquitoes can be
insmallpox case arriving from Liberia which 25 were cases developed m Swiss fected at least four Germans, and a few fatal.
A
contacts.
At
August. The U.S. and Canada had a smallpox scare in prodromal stage A.M. on Aug. 11 a IS-year-old boy in the appeared) landed at of smallpox {i.e., his symptoms had not with his family from Idlewild airport in New York city en route waited eight hours in Brazil to their home in Toronto, Ont. He
that have eliminated them.
10
through New Grand Central station for a train that carried him developed York state, with many stops, to Toronto. The boy had on Aug. 12. Mass a rash by the time the train reached Toronto First, other vaccination was not encouraged for three reasons: and are measures are more economical, create less disturbance in some adequate; second, reactions to vaccination occur just as
persons; and third, vaccination
may
cause, although rarely, a
control rash that simulates smallpox and therefore complicates those work. The measures taken were to call public attention to to ask those exposed to re-
who might have been exposed and
BiBLiOGBAPHY.-"Breakbone Fever," Brit. M. 7. 1:534-535 (Feb. 24 the Possible Effect of 1067 1- T de Zulueta ct al., "An Observation on Organ.. 26:135Fever on Milaria." Bull. World Health
olyongVong
—
139 (1962)
Antibiotics (1952); Bacteria Encyclop.«dia Bfitannica Films. Foe (1954); Health in Our Community (1962); Bacteria- Friend and (1955). zation (19S9); /.
Communion. Episcopal Church: see Anglican Espionage: cee Intelligence Operations. Republics. Estonia: see Union or Soviet Socialist p.
persons were kept under surveillance so they could be isolated cases had been reif they developed the disease. No secondary
of Eritrea, Ethiopia
second exposure incident occurred on a made a ship sailing from Asia to England via Naples. The ship scheduled stop at Naples and many passengers debarked, some 1.
A
That same night a passenger remaining on the ship came down with smallpox. Those who flew to the U.S. were perhaps not exposed. In this instance also, no secondary flying
from there
to the U.S.
cases developed.
Vaccination against smallpox protects for only a few years. impracticable in countries where the disease is absent (e.g.,
It is in
that the
to expect
the U.S.)
immunity of the population
can be maintained by revaccination every three years without regimentation and without the expenditure of funds for compliance, both of which probably would be unwelcome. Quarantine
measures at the points of debarkation can be circumvented. The really critical measures are those at the point of embarkation. The ultimate solution, however, is eradication of the reservoir
by vaccination of the population of the endemic
Unless the reservoir
is
areas.
eliminated, smallpox will, at best, with-
draw a pace or two, only to burst out with renewed vigour when defenses are relaxed or when public health organizations are disrupted by war or natural disaster. Endemic areas in the Americas are Brazil, which had 1,411 cases in 1961, and Ecuador, which had 491. Ecuador plans to complete the vaccination of its popu-
two years.
lation within
It is believed that
smallpox could be
eradicated in Brazil in five years by vaccination.
Typhus.
—The
incidence of louse-borne typhus
is
declining.
In Africa, Ethiopia and Eritrea, however, major reservoirs remain with thousands of cases annually. The disease is endemic
Congo and Kenya. In the Americas, it is present in Mexico, Guatemala and especially in Colombia and Ecuador. In
in
Public
(H. E. Hi.)
erinary Medicine.
Since vacport to a physician or health officer for vaccination. exposed cination after exposure does not always protect, the
ported as of Oct.
Eye, Diseases of the;
Bacteriology;
See also
RespiraHealth Engineering; Public Health Service, U.S.; Venereal Diseases; Vettory Diseases; Tropical Diseases;
the
from India and
.
A
.
Llill0pi3.
monarchy of northeastern Africa, autonomous federated state bordered by the Somali Republic, Kenya,
constitutional
including the formerly is
Area 457,142 sq.mi., including Eritrea
Sudan and the Red
sea.
47,876 sq.mi. Pop.
(1961
1,100,000. Cap. Addis
est.)
Ababa
22,000,000,
including Eritrea
(pop., 1961 census, 449,021).
Em-
Abde Wold. year was shadowed by the
peror, Haile Selassie I; premier in 1962, Aklilou
History.— The
first
half of the
Feb. 15 and by the death of the emperor's youngest son, Prince Sahle Selassie, on April 23. Of the three sons and three daughters of the emperor and empress, death of Empress
Menen on
only the crown prince, Asfaw Wosen, and one daughter
now
survive.
Developments
in
Ethiopia were outlined by the emperor in his when he introduced the second
speech to the nation in October five-year plan
commencing
in
September. The most important
features were proposals for modification of the feudal system of
land tenure and tax.
The granting
of legal land titles for farmers,
payment of tax to the government treasury and the distribution of crown lands to landless peasants should lead to improvements in agriculture. Of the Eth. $2,670,000,000 to be spent on development, a large proportion was to be devoted to agriculture. Two items emphasized were expansion of the coffee crop and organization of a meat industry for local and export markets. It was planned to treble industrial output and to expand the transporta-
and communications systems by 28%. The new port installaAssab were inaugurated by the emperor in June and the new international airport at Bole, south of the capital, which
tion
tions at
would have
facilities for
the largest jet aircraft,
to be in operation before the
$54,000,000 was obtained from the
was scheduled
A
loan of Eth.
World bank
for highway
end of the year.
development.
Addis Ababa continued to be the scene of a number of inter-
Pakistan. There has been a
among which the most important were the meeting of the United Nations Committee of Seventeen on Colo-
stan. Iran,
nialism, the fourth session of
Asia, thousands of cases are reported annually
marked fall in incidence in AfghaniSouth Korea and Turkey. No reports were obtained
from mainland China or the USSR. Yaws. This disease was endemic in Colombia, but no new cases were reported for several months and it is considered eradicated there. In Liberia, 19% of 770,000 persons examined between 1955 and 1957 had yaws. By 1961, the areas that had been most severely infected showed a prevalence of 0.8%. The disease in Liberia is now confined to a few limited foci and
—
eradication
is
near.
Yellow Fever. mosquitoes
in
— A campaign aimed
the southern U.S.
is
national conferences,
Africa, the meeting of the
the Economic Commission for Commission for Ruanda-Urundi Pan-African Freedom Movement of
UN
and the conference of the East, Central and Southern Africa
(PAFMECSA).
Ethiopia's relations with the Somali Republic continued to be strained,
Among
and a number of diplomatic exchanges took place.
their differences, the
most
difiicult
was the thorny probmade by the
lem of the Ogadcn region of Ethiopia and the claims Somali Republic for revision of frontiers.
j
j
at eliminating yellow fever
being planned.
It
will
be
directed at the breeding grounds of the Aedes aegypii mosquito,
'
Sept, 15, 1962,
marked the tenth anniversary of the federa-
between Ethiopia and Eritrea, There had previously been a number of acts of violence by extremist groups, but the annivertion
i
EUROPEA N UNITY celebrations in Asmara, which were attended by the emperor, took place without incident. On Nov. 14 the Eritrean legislative assembly voted to end the federal status and unite with Ethiopia, a decision that met with some opposition from Eritrean Muslim nationalists, who have complained of "persecution" by the Christian majority of Ethiopia. Education.— Schools (1959-60, all grades): 643 (excluding about 10,000
353
sar>-
July
then internal
common
•
'
—
—
see
Anthropology.
European Atomic Energy Community (Eurotom):
see
European Economic Community:
International
see
—
~
European Free Trade Association:
International
see
especially agricultural, Greece could spread out
in the
community and NATO. In
Atlantic
the centre of the
first
debate
stood Great Britain; in the centre of the second. France.
The Common Market or European Economic Community was established by a treaty signed by Belgium. France, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). Italy. Luxembourg and the Netherlands in Rome in March 1957. Seven European nations outside the E.E.C. Britain. Austria. Den(E.E.C.
)
—
—
mark. Norway. Portugal. Sweden and Switzerland formed in May 1959 in Stockholm. Swed., the European Free Trade assoJuly 31. 1961. however, the leading member of E.F.T.A., Britain, announced its intention to apply for (
E.F.T.A.
membership
).
On
in the
E.E.C. The house of
commons approved
the prime minister's prop>osal on Aug. 3, 1961.
tariff
reduc-
applied.
—The
most important widening the E.E.C, however, was connected with Britain's entry. In 1962 serious obstacles appeared problem involved
in
which had a threefold source many Britishers, especially in the Labour party but including many Conservatives, opposed British :
members
the Commonwealth of Nations were and the French government under Pres. Charles De Gaulle was apparently determined to make it difficult. On April 10. 1962, the British government declared through the
Edward Heath,
of
it
;
the lord priN-y seal, in charge of conducting the its
readiness to join in
planning the political future of the E.E.C. and to play
its "full
Market, at least
On March
in its
Common
2i the council of ministers of the E.E.C. agreed
in principle to accelerate for the
ket's tariff-cutting schedule.
second time the
By July
50%, compared with
the
1,
30%
Common Mar-
1962. the total reduction originally foreseen.
government also declared that it was looking forward common approach to defense by the E.E.C. as long as it was directly related to N.\TO. Nevertheless, the talks, which were held in Paris in mid-.April. ended without any agreement. The Netherlands and Belgium opposed France, which wished to draw up an agreement on European unification for submission to the British though this agreement would make British
to the
estabhshment of a
British acceptance difficult.
On
the other hand, the Action
mittee for the United States of Europe, headed by Jean of France
President the
who did not see eye to eye De Gaulle, called for a speedy
Common
in these
Com-
Monnet
matters with
accession of Britain to
Market.
Britain's entry
was delayed
in large
measure by the unwilling-
Common Market members
to accommodate the incommonwealth. In 1961 Britain's trade with the commonwealth was much greater than with the Common Market. British exports to the commonwealth amounted to $4,100,000,-
ness of
some
terests of the
Common Market, $1,900.(X)0.000. Similarly, imports from the commonwealth were $4.700.(XX).(X)0; from Common Market countries $1.8(X).000.000. Yet British trade with westem Europe had been growing from 1957. whereas that with the 000; to the
—
Market. The Common economic aspects, showed steady growth in
The Development of the
reached
Denmark and Ireland also and the Common Market.
E.E.C.
Britain
The
^^^ ^ continuation of the great debates about the fonta which European, or more accurately western European, unity was to take and about the position of such a united Europe within the '^^^ ^'^^ '^^"
riironoon llnitii tUrOPcdll Uniiy.
1962.
its
Thus Greece would dismantle trade barriers at a slower pace than the full members of the E.E.C. On April 28, after a four-day debate, the Norwegian parliament approved by a vote of 113 to 37 a decision to apply for full membership tions over 22 years.
part" in political as well as in economic European co-operation.
Tr.ade.
full
—
negotiations with the E.E.C. countries,
Tr.u)e.
ciation
external tariff against outside countries would be two-
unanimously against
Atomic Exergv; Europe.a.v Unity.
By new
whose relatively efficient farmers demanded wider markets, and Germany, where the high-cost producers were concerned with the new competition. This agreement made the general acceleration of the Common Market timetable possible. The full customs union and partial economic integration of the six members would be accomplished by 1969. This success of the Common Market negotiations aroused great interest in other European nations, several of which wished to join in some form of association with the E.E.C. Such an interest in a loose form of association was expressed by all three European neutrals Austria. Switzerland and Sweden and even by Spain and Israel. On Nov. 1. 1962. the associate membership for Greece in the Common Market came into force. From that date on, customs duties between Greece and the E.E.C. nations were to be cut gradually over a 12-year period. On some products,
entry;
Ethnology:
the
lock was broken in Jan. 1962 by a compromise between France,
'
(1962): first class 6,850 km., others (1960) 15.504 km. >Iotor vehicles in use (including Eritrea, 1960): passenger cars 15,231, commercial vehicles 8,836. Railways (1962) 783 km. (Franco-Ethiopian government line, including section in French Somaliland). .\ir transport (1961): passenger-km. 114,768.000freight 5,450,000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1961) 12,012. Radio receivers in use (1959) 85,000. £ri7rca.— Roads (1955): first class 889 km Others 2.240 km. Railways (1962) 306 km. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, excluding Eritrea): barley (1959) S52.000 (519.000 in 195S1; rapeseed (1960) 23.000 (21.000 in 1959)sunflower seed (1961) 10.000 (10.000 in 1960): linseed (1961) 56 000 in (59.000 1960); sesame (1960) 38.000 (36.000 in 1959)- drv beans (1959) 64.000 162.000 in 1958); millet (including teff and durra) and sorghum (including Eritrea, 1959) 1.892.000; coffee (1960) 51.000; bananas (including Eritrea, 1958) 20,000; wheat (including Eritrea 1959) 162,000; corn (1959) 165.000; chick-peas (including Eritrea. 1959) 117.000. Livestock (1960, including Eritrea): cattle 22,450,000; goats (1959) 14.850.000; sheep 19,850,000; horses 2,000,000; mules 1,109,000; asses 3,690.000. Industry. Production (metric tons 1960: 1959 in parentheses): electricity 88.500,000 kw.hr. (79.000.000); cigarettes (pieces) 357.000.000 (336,000.000); cotton yarn (July 1960-61) 4.560 (4.080 in 1959-60); cotton fabrics 1.608.000 m. (76S.000); cement 28.200 (24.720); salt 157.000 (Ml.OOOt: sold 480 kg. (1.200); sugar (Sept. 1959-60) 40,000 (36,000 in 1958-59).
60% and
Common Market countries at the end of 1961 had been a common policy regarding agricultural goods and tariffs. The dead-
iull-time students, 52 professors and lecturers in 1960-61 other higher institutions. 784 students; teaching staff (all grades) 4 808 Haile Selassie I university was founded in 1961 to co-ordinate and develop higher education. Finance and Banking.— Monetary unit; Ethiopian dollar, with a par value of Eth. $2,485 to the L.S. SI. Imperial budget (1961-62 est ) revenue Eth. $281,372,217, expenditure Eth. $281,522,280. Currency circulation (March 1961) Eth. $178,300,000, (March 1962) Eth. $191 500 000 Deposit money (March 1961) Eth. $54,800,000, (Jan. 1962) Eth $49 800000. Gold and foreign e.\change reserves (June 1961) U.S. $65 500 000 ' (Jone 1962) U.S. $70,600,000. Foreign Trade (1961) Imports Eth. $231,940,000. exports Eth $186750,000. e.xports: coffee 51'.
See
Foreign
also
I.westments
;
Gold;
International
Monetary Fund; International Trade; Tariffs; and on the various countries.
articles
(A. Ste.)
Exhibitions: see Art ExHisnioNs; Fairs and ExHiBmoNs;
Shows and Entertainment. Exploration: see Antarctica; Archaeology; Geography; National Geographic Society; Space E^cploration. Explosions: see Disasters.
Export-Import Bank of Washington. of
)
(
-
fStatit
Columbia banking corporation, the Export-Import bank Eximbank was reincorporated as an independent agency of the United States government by the Export-Import Bank act of 1945 and operates under that act as amended. The basic purpose of the bank is to aid in financing and to facilitate U.S. overseas trade. It was the first public agency, national or international, to arrange credits for large-scale economic development throughout the world. During fiscal 1962 the bank authorized the expenditure of $1,800,000,000 in loans, guarantees and export credit trict
insurance.
In addition to dollar lending, the bank in 1962 inaugurated
two new programs designed "A
WELCOME LETTER FROM HOME,"
the
Baltimore (Md.) Sun
a
1962
by Richard Yardley of
After the breakaway by Syria from the United Arab Republic, the restrictions on exchange transactions introduced in Feb. 1961
To
established.
in foreign
exchange was
re-
support these measures Syria entered into a
stand-by arrangement with the International Monetary
Fund and West Ger-
obtained stabilization credits from the United States,
many and
Italy.
As part of a program to strengthen its balance of pajTnents the United Arab Republic took measures to unify its multipleexchange-rate system. This was accomplished in two stages. At the end of 1961 the number of transactions effected at the official rate of U.S. $2.87 per pound was greatly reduced, and most transactions were carried through at rates invohnng a foreignexchange premium of 20'^. Then, on of U.S. $2.30 per
May
7,
One
in-
volved formation of the Foreign Credit Insurance association, an unincorporated group of more than 70 U.S. private marine, cas-
multiple-currency practices were eliminated.
were abolished and the free market
to increase the availability of pri-
vate financing for the overseas sales of U.S. exporters.
1962, a unified rate
Egyptian pound was adopted and applied
to all
transactions except Suez canal dues.
The Turkish stabilization program, inaugurated in 1958, conand was supported by the International Monetary Fund and various countries. The country's international economic potinued
ualty and property insurance firms.
The
association, for the first
time in the U.S., was providing exporters with insurance on their credit transactions made on terms of up to five years. Under
by the FCIA. the political risks found in the met by Eximbank and the credit risks are shared between Eximbank and the FCIA. The second new program consisted of a system of Eximbank guarantees issued to U.S. com-
policies issued
transaction are
mercial banks to cover political and credit risks encountered
by a commercial bank when it finances the major portion of an exporter's sale. Eximbank requires that the commercial bank assume credit risks on the earlier maturities of the credit and therefore Eximbank guarantees cover credit risks on the later maturities and political risks on
all
maturities.
Of the approximately $1,800,000,000 in new authorizations made in fiscal 1962. $555,000,000 was for development project credits; $500,000,000 for emergency foreign trade loans, of which $400,000,000 consisted of short-term stand-by credits for Canada: $462,000,000 for exporter credits and guarantees;
a long period of currency depreci-
and $345,000,000 for export credit insurance. As of June 30, 1962, the financial position of Eximbank was as follows: loans and interest receivable $3,900,000,000; pay-
was valued rate was
able to the treasury $1,800,000,000; payable to others $348,000,000; capital stock $1,000,000,000; resen-es $747,000,000; contra
therefore set at 130 won. instead of 1.300 hwan. per U.S. dollar.
and contingent items including guarantees, insurance and letters of credit $685,000,000; undisbursed commitments $1,900,-
sition
remained precarious, however.
Far East. ation, a
at 10
— In Korea, after
new
currency, the won, was introduced.
hwan. the currency
it
replaced.
It
The new exchange
In the second half of 1961 the international economic position of the Philippines continued to deteriorate and
by the end of the
000.000.
Under the
The capital stock of the bank, amounting to $1,000,000,000, was held by the U.S. treasury. In addition, the bank was authorized to borrow from the treasury up to $6,000,000,000. On June 30. 1962. the bank had authorizations and commitments totaling $6,500,000,000. During fiscal 1962 the bank's income after expenses and interests on treasury borrowings was $105,-
new system a fluctuating rate was made applicable to all exchange payments and receipts except for 20' was co-operating fuUy through several ad-
national institutions were designed in part to prevent further
visory groups.
cute
The commission expanded its program of headwater benefit determinations through new procedures designed to bring into the U.S. treasur>'. in the future, sums of money approaching the dimensions envisioned by congress when it provided that downstream owners must pay for a share of the benefits th^y receive
ment
ing short-term interest-rate declines. Late in 1962 the reduction
from upstream federal developments. Action was being taken
in the reserve
to
up the processing of pending cases involving construction of hydroelectric power projects, and the commission was moving to fulfill its electric rate responsibilities by ensuring that utilities do not evade their obligations to file and obtain FPC approval of rate schedules when sales are made in interstate commerce step
for resale.
During the
fiscal
year ended June 30, 1962, the commission
acted on 121 applications relating to hydroelectric projects, censing 1.366.545 kw. of
new unconstructed
capacity.
li-
At year's
end there were 558 licences outstanding, designed to provide 25,297,517 kw. of ultimate installed capacity. Total installed capacity of utility generating plants on June 30, 1962, was 186,-
005,596 kw. Industrial generating capacity was 17,878,349 kw.,
making a national total of 203,883,945 kw. See Industries; Public UTU-rriES. Encyclop,€:dia Briiannica Films. Power (1937).
— Light and
also
Electrical
(J. C.
Sw.)
outflows. its
securities
short rates.
Federal Reserve System. proved
to
be
less
vigorous
—often
continued to exe-
selling short-term issues
govern-
and buy-
The discount
rate
was maintained at 3^i throughout aim in part of curtail-
recession and recovery, again with the
requirement on savings and time deposits pro-
vided another method of supplying the economy with reseri'es in a
term
manner
that avoided direct
downward pressure on
short-
rates.
—
Discount Rate. The federal reserve discount rate remained unchanged at 3% after its reduction in Aug. 1960. The maintenance of easy reser\'e positions, coupled with only moderate demand for bank loans, enabled banks to meet their reserv'e needs without frequent or heavy resort to the federal reserve discount window. Temporary needs were handled readily through the federal funds market. Under these conditions, borrowing at federal reserve banks averaged well below $100.000.0(X) over the year. This was also true throughout 1961 and was in sharp contrast to the beginning of 1960, when borrowing totaled more than $1 .000,000,000.
— Market
interest rates had showed unusual Both short- and long-term rates remained much higher during the downturn period and did not
Interest Rates.
after mid- 1960.
register the
Since the economic upturn
market
reserv-e
in all maturities of the
ing intermediate- or longer-term securities in an effort to bolster
stability
Power (1955); Water
During the year the federal
open-market operations
inter-
sharp increases characteristic of earlier recover>'
periods. Short-term interest rates in the period beginning Sept.
1961 rose generally into the early months of 1962, stabilized
FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION
368
into July and February to then declined in August before stabilizing around 2|% in September and October. Long-term rates fluctuated generally downward during the period, bringing state and local government
mid-May, increased again
late
in
bonds to a four-year low
in
May
somewhat
1962. After rising
in
fore
full
banks and Nov. 1 for country banks, freed about $750,000,000 in reserves, expanding potential lending power by about $4,500,000,000. It was not clear to what
effective Oct. 25 for reserve city
extent,
if
any, this additional lending power for the banking
by open-market operations. This marked requirements since steps were completed in Nov.-Dec. 1960 to count vault cash as reserves and to readjust reserve requirement levels among the various bank system would be the
first
change
offset
in reserve
classifications.
Other Developments.
— In July the board of governors of the
federal reserve system revised regulation
D
to abolish the desig-
nation of "central reserve cities." Although the reserve require-
— Chicago and New York these ments of member banks —had been adjusted previously, eliminating any differences which cities
in
and reserve
city banks,
the enactment of this revision officially ended the
three-way
existed between central reserve city banks
classification of
member
garding real estate and construction loans.
The amendment placed
the limitation of such loans at unimpaired capital stock plus sur-
70%
was
greater.
loans at
60%
of a bank's time and savings deposits, whichever
The law
previously had set the limitation of these
of savings-type deposits
if
these were greater than
capital plus surplus. In addition, loans to finance the construc-
tion of industrial or
the
who
same manner
take evidence and
make
commercial buildings, as well as loans to
deci-
as does a judge in a court of law.
respondent
desist order enjoining
This order
is
any continuance of the
illegal
binding unless on appeal to a federal court
activity. it is
set
and a violation is punishable by fine. The commission also works to secure voluntary compliance. Acting through the bureau of industry guidance, it formulates and publishes guides for the purpose of educating businessmen
aside,
what the commission considers illegal trade practices. Simiit issues rules which define business practices in a particular industry which the commission considers unfair, deceptive or otherwise unlawful. An example in 1962 was a guide issued for as to
lariy,
the advertising of fallout shelters.
of encouraging compliance became effective Under the rule-making authority delegated to it by con-
New methods in 1962.
gress, the
commission promulgated "trade regulation rules" ex-
pressing the experience and judgment of the commission, based
on facts of which
it
had knowledge derived from studies, reports,
investigations and other proceedings, or within official notice,
concerning the substantive requirements of the statutes
banks.
In September congress approved an amendment to the Federal Reserve act easing the restrictions placed on national banks re-
plus or
hearing examiners,
much
may appeal a hearing examiner's decision to the commission, composed of five commissioners appointed by If the commission the president with the approval of the senate. issue a cease and finds that there has been a violation it will
A
levels in Sept. 1962 than in Sept. 1961.
—
FTC
sions in
July, long-term rates continued to decline and were at lower
Reserve Requirements. Reserve requirements on memberbank time and savings deposits were reduced late in 1962 from 5% to 4%. This action of the federal reserve, which became
ministers. to assist
it
ad-
Another innovation was the adoption of procedures
businessmen
in determining, in
advance, whether a pro-
posed course of action might violate any of the laws administered by the commission.
Upon
practicable, gave advice as to
request the commission, where
whether a proposed course of action
would be
likely to result in further action by the commission. The commission began the publication of Advertising Alert, containing a summary of complaints and orders in advertising
cases, together with general
warnings concerning misrepresenta-
finance the construction of residential or farm buildings having
tion in specific areas of current interest. This publication, dis-
maturities not to exceed 18 months, were considered commercial
tributed to radio and television stations, Better Business bureaus and others, was designed to aid them in recognizing objectionable
by the above
restriction.
In an attempt to ease U.S. balance-of-payments
difficulties,
loans and were not, therefore, covered
congress also approved in October an
amendment
to the Federal
Reserve act exempting time deposits of foreign governments and certain other foreign institutions
from
interest-rate regulation
for a period of three years. In effect, this
law and also to regulation
Q
would allow
amendment to the domestic member
banks to pay rates to foreigners more competitive with the rates paid in other world money markets especially on shorter-term
—
paper.
See also Banking; Business Review; Consumer Credit; (D. C. Mi.) Gold; Prices. Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
— Federal
Reserve System (1950).
Federal Trade Commission. If' i^'porun? 7cli°Z mcnts
for this independent regulatory
ment. Changes .
reporting on the conhas the duty of investigating and and business practices. Commission attorneys prosecute violations of these laws be-
It also
dition of U.S. trade
were utilized
in
agency of the U.S. govern-
organization and procedures adopted in 1961 order to more effectively inform businessmen of
in
the nature of the laws enforced
by the commission and
to hasten
the prosecution of violators.
Organized
in
1915, the Federal Trade commission
fFTC)
is
charged with the enforcement of laws designed to protect the consumer from deceptive business practices and the inadequate
and deceptive labeling of wool, fur and textile products, and of laws designed to protect businesses and potential business firms, as well as the public welfare, by prohibiting acts and practices which restrict the freedom of competitive opportunity.
advertising practices.
In addition to its ten field offices in principal cities throughout the country, the commission maintains field stations for the limited purpose of administering the Wool, Fur, Textile Products and Flammable Fabrics acts. Four additional field stations were in 1962— in Chariotte, N.C., Denver, Colo., Miami and Houston. Arrangements were made with the Small Business administration whereby each of that agency's regional and branch oflices would receive and transmit to the commission complaints
opened
alleging violations of the various laws administered mission.
by the com-
During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1962, the commission approved 474 complaints and issued 407 orders to cease and desist. There were more than 2,800 investigations in progress at the end of the year. Actions by the commission ranged from orders requiring divestiture of properties acquired in violation of the antimerger law to orders enjoining camera trickery and spurious
demonstrations of products on television commercials. Of particular significance were the increased efforts by the commission to secure industry-wide compliance with the law as opposed to proceedings against individual respondents. The commissioners during 1962 were Paul
Rand Dixon, chairman, Sigurd Anderson, 'William C. Kern, Philip Elman and Everette Maclntyre, See also Advertising. /p j^ ^ •.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (195J)
Films.— Co
ipctition
and Big Business
FINLAND Federated Malay States: Fellowships: see
Malaya; Singapore Scholarships and Student Am.
"""^">' reP's^d
FPnpinO"
see
should
the U.S.S.R. as the leading fenc-
I cubing, mg nation, taking one team and two individual tiUes at the world championships, July 16-28, at Buenos Aires Arg. Istvan Kausz won the epee, Zoltan Horvath took
the sabre
and the Hungarian women took the team foils. Gherman Sveshnikov won in foils and was also on the winning team in this weapon. Other winners were: Olga Szabo, Rumania, women's foils; France, team epee; Poland, team sabre. The U.S. did not have a single finalist.
The New York
Athletic club outscored the New club, 49-31, for the Martini-Rossi trophy at the
championships
in
New York
York Fencers U.S. national
June 30-July 7. The N.Y.A.C. retained its honours in the epee, won sabre team honours and the club's Edwin Richards took the foils and was second to Gil Eisner of New York city in epee. Mike Dasaro of Brooklyn upset Daniel Magay of San Francisco, the defender, for the sabre title in a 10-9 final. Yoshie Takiuchie of Japan was the women's champion. The New York Fencers club took the foil and all-weapon team titles, while the Los Angeles Fencing acadcity.
emy team
of Mrs. Janice-Lee Romary of Woodlands and Mrs. Maxine Mitchell and Mrs. Bonnie Linkmeyer of Los Angeles won the women's foil crown.
In the second annual international tournament conducted by N.Y.A.C, Feb. 16-18, Ryzard Parulski, Poland, 1961 world
the
champion,
won
the foils; Bill Hoskyns, Great Britain, took the
epee; and Attila Keresztes, U.S.,
won the sabre. In the Match of Nations the U.S. defeated Great Britain, 15-12. Intercollegiate.
champion.
— The
New York
U.S. Naval
academy edged 1960-61
university, 76-74 for the National Colle-
giate Athletic association title,
March 30-31. at Columbus. O. N.Y.U. became the first fencer to win the
Herb Cohen of N.C.A.A. and Intercollegiate Fencing association in a row. Bart Nisonson of Columbia, in sabre,
whOe
titles,
the N.C.A.A. epee went to
foils
two years
won both Thane Hawkins of Navy also
and the I.F.A. epee to Jerry Halpern of N.Y.U. Columbia and N.Y.U. tied at 59 points for the I.F.A. team title, the first such deadlock since 1930. Paulette Singelakes
won
the
Women's
369
council stated that the British colonial regime should not soon give way to self-government but that when it did Fijians
Intercollegiate Fencing
acquire political and administrative control of the territory. This view, represented by spokesmen of the indigenous minority as
according with the
spirit of the original cession
years the conditions on which cane would be supplied to millers. Disturbances in the sugar industry, a drop in copra prices and a cut in Fiji's quota of the New Zealand banana market had brought the colony near to disaster. Other measures calculated to revive the
economy included
negotiations for the regular sale
of Fijian bananas to Japan. Education.
(R. p. Gn.)
—
Schools (1960); primary 534. pupils (1961) 78490secondary 45, pupils (1961) 6,228; technical and vocational (1961; in'cluding medical college) 8. pupils 513; teacher-training (1961) 2, students 273. Teachers, all schools (i960) 2,516.
—
Finance and Trade Monetary unit: Fiji pound (£FI.l 1 =: £1 sterling = U.S. $2.80). Budget (1962 est.): revenue £F8.055,270. expenditure £F8,6^1.269. Foreign trade (1961): imparts £Fl 7.205.000, exports (including re-e.xports) £F12,099,000. Chief exports: sugar and coconut products (together accounting for 80%); also gold, manganese ore, bananas.
Filberts: see Nuts. '^^^ republic of Finland
is bordered north by Norway. west by Sweden and the Gulf of Bothnia, south by the Gulf of Finland and east by the U.S.S.R. .\rea 130,119 sq.mi. Pop. (1962 est.) 4,514,000. Cap. Helsinki. Finland is
Finliinri rillldllU.
associated with the European Free Trade association. President in 1962. Urho Kaleva Kekkonen; prime ministers, Martti Miet-
tunen and, from April
13, .\hti
Karjalainen.
—
Census Data. Results of the 1960 census indicated a total population of 4.448.575. an increase of 10. 4^^ over 1950. Of these, 61.6' marched to its first touchdown, an 80-yd. drive completed by Staubach's 12-yd.
Widt World
NAVY STAR: game down
20-yd. line
field goal
scoring pass to Neil Henderson.
by
Na\y
continued
its
second as-
one which consumed 63 yd. and was culminated by its second touchdown. Vern Von Sydow's kick from placement made the score lS-0.
sault
air,
Staubach's 21 -yd. dash for
Midway through
the second quarter the black and gold clad forces of coach Paul Dietzel began a ground offensive which
seemed destined to reach the goal line. However, the cadets lost possession on a fumble and were forced to try again after regain-
Naw punt to their 44-yd. line. QuarterLewis surprised the midshipmen secondarj- with a
ing the ball following a
back
Cammy
pass deep into Na\'>' territorj'.
ran to the 2-yd. line. cells
On
ran in for the tally and
Navy made
Bob Wright made
the second
tr>'
Army
the catch
and
from scrimmage Don Parby 15-6 at the half.
trailed
a rout of the contest in the third quarter and Stau-
bach was the main executioner.
He
passed 65 yd. to Jim Markoff
for the sailors' third
touchdown and closed a nine-play. 89-yd. march late in the period by scoring-from two yards out.^ Trailing by 28-6. Army finally took to the air after throwing but two passes in the first half. Lewis completed five of six throws in
a 64-yd. advance.
John Se\'Tnour catching the touchdown toss. Ellerson aerial added two points. Navy made the touchdown after intercepting an Army pass. From the cadets'
Quarterback Roger Staubach of the U.S. Naval academy Diayed game of his life against the U.S. Military academy In the annual at Philadelphia Dec. 1, 1962. Here he's seen tossing one of hit two touchpasses. He also scored two touchdowns as Navy won 34-14
the outstandino
finished
ahead of West Virginia (4-0)
in the
Southern conference.
Grinnell (7-0-1) was champion of the
Midwest conference and Bowling Green (5-0-1) repeated as winner of the Mid-American conference.
The Western conference (Big Ten) title went to Wisconsin. The Badgers' only loss was to Ohio State. The Buckeyes, preseason favourites for the
title, had a 4-2 record in league play, with Northwestern, Minnesota (5-2) was second. Tulsa, despite a 5-5 over-all mark, was 3-0 in league play to capture the Missouri Valley conference crown, Oklahoma, undefeated in seven conference games, won the Big Eight title,
t>'ing for third
and Texas (7-0-1) was first in the Southwest conference. Only a 14-14 tie with Rice kept the Longhorns from a perfect season. New Mexico (2-1-1 gained Western Athletic conference laurels 1
and Southern California
4-0 was first in the Big Six. Oufsfanding Collegiate Perfornners. Terr)- Baker, a quarterback from Oregon State, was named the best back in the nation by a poll of sports writers and broadcasters. He received the Heisman trophy, awarded yearly to the most outstanding player. Halfback Jerry Stovall of Louisiana State was second in the voting and tackle Bobby Bell of Minnesota was third. Bell was awarded the Outland trophy for being the year's outstanding line(
)
—
A Lewis-to-John
man. Baker, who passes left-handed but kicks with
last
also led the nation in total offense, gaining 2.276 yd. (1,738 yd.
S-yd. stripe.
Ron Klemick's
end zone for the
pass found Jim Campbell free in the
passing and 583 yd. running).
Jerry Logan of West Texas State led
game.
final score of the
all
scorers with
Ivy league honours were captured by Dartmouth, the undefeated Big Green being extended only in its last two games, with
(13 touchdowns and 32 extra points). Jim Pilot of
Cornell and Princeton. Harvard, which defeated traditional foes
carries.
Delaware (university division) and Susquehanna (college division-north) were best in the Middle Atlantic conference. Neither lost a game and both had strong defensive units. Drexel and Western Maryland, with identical 5-1 records, tied for college division-south laurels.
league
games
Duke six
to top
New
Hampshire had one tie in five in the Yankee conference.
Massachusetts
finished first in the Atlantic Coast conference, winning its
league games, and had an 8-2
won
mark
the Southeastern conference
Alabama, which
lost only
for the season. Mississippi
crown with
one game
—
(Las Cruces) State was
A
Princeton and Yale, finished second.
a
to Georgia
S-0 standard;
Tech
—
tied for
second with Louisiana State. Virginia Military institute (6-0)
his right foot,
first in
1
10 points
New Mexico
rushing, gaining 1,247 yd. in 208
consensus of All-America choices by the A.P. and U.P.L to be the best in the countr>' at their re-
showed the following
—
Dave Robinson. Penn State; Pat RichHal Bedsole, Southern California; tackles Bobby Bell, Minnesota; Don Brumm. Purdue; Jim Dunaway, Mississippi; guards Johnny Treadwell. Texas; John Cvercko, Northwestern; centre Lee Roy Jordan. Alabama; backs Terry Baker. Oregon State; George Mira. Miami (Fla.); Jerry Stovall, Louisiana State; George Saimes, Michigan State; Mel Renfro, spective positions: ends ter,
Wisconsin;
—
—
—
Oregon.
Hall of Fanne. Football Hall of
—Eleven players and a coach were added Fame
at induction
to the
ceremonies Dec. 4 in
New
FOOTBALL
378
the SuYork city. Associate Justice Byron R. White (g.v.) of an Allpreme Court, known as "Whizzer" White when he was
annual Gold America performer at Colorado, received the fifth Hall of Medal award of the National Football Foundation and
Fame.
King Players inducted into the Hall of Fame were PhUip (Pennsyl(Princeton, quarterback, 1890-93), John E, Minds tackle and fullback, 1894-97), Pat O'Dea (Wisconsin,
vania,
halfback and kicker, 1896-99), Andrew
Wyant (Bucknell 1887-
Chicago 1892-95), Benny Lee Boynton (Williams, quarterback, 1917, 1919-20), Guy Chamberlain (Nebraska, halfback and end, 1913-lS), Dan ("Tiger") Hill (Duke, centre, 1936-38), 91.
Robert C. ("Cal") Hubbard (Geneva, tackle and end, 1922-24, Centenary 1925-26), John J. McEwan (Minnesota, centre, 1910-11, Army 1913-16), Joseph Routt (Texas A. & M., guard, 1937-39), W. E. ("Bill") Spears (Vanderbilt, quarterback, 1925-
The coach honoured was DeOrmond ("Tuss") McLaughry. head coach 35 years, he built successful teams at Westminster, Amherst, Brown and Dartmouth. 27).
A
Bowl Games.
— Favourites
fared poorly in the majority of
post-season games played between
colleges
and between
The
first
Three Houston, Tech 14-10 before 55,000 in the Bluebonnet Bowl at Houston overwhelmed Miami (0.) 49-21 before 7,500 in the lastTangerine Bowl at Orlando, Fla., and the South scored a minute touchdown in the Shriners' game at Miami, Fla., to defeat that Negroes the North 15-14 before 16,952. It was the first time were selected to play for the South squad. Underdogs were successful in all four games played on Dec. 29. Florida surprised Penn State 17-7 before 50,026 at the Gator
Bowl in Jacksonville, Fla. A crowd of 60,000 at San Francisco's Kezar stadium saw the East jolt the West 25-19 in the Shrine all-star contest. The Blue beat the Gray 10-6 before 18,000 in the Blue-Gray clash at Montgomery, Ala., and 9,000 at the AUAmerican Bowl in Tucson, Ariz., saw the small-college all-stars edge the major-college all-stars 14-13. In the Sun Bowl at El Paso, Tex., on Dec. 31, West Texas State shaded Ohio Univer-
active day of
(Athens) 15-14.
sity
A
re-
Bowl activity was Dec. 8 when four games were played. In the Cement Bowl at AUentown. Pa., West Chester (Pa.) State teachers' college smothered Hofstra of Hempstead, N.Y,, 46-12 before 6,000. Omaha (Neb.) downed East Central (Okla.) 34-21 in the AllSports Bowl at Oklahoma City, OUa. Central State of Okla. won the small-college championship (N.A.I.A.) by beating Lenoir Rhyne of Hickory, N.C., 28-13 in the Camellia Bowl at Sacraspective all-star squads.
Bowl at New York's Yankee (Fla.) 36-34 in the Gotham 14-10 decision over Lackstadium. Ft. Campbell (Ky.) gained a before 5,500. land (Tex.) Air Force base 14-10 games were played on Dec. 22. Missouri upset Georgia
Miami
total of 330,482 spectators 1,
1963. In the
scored 23 points in the last period. Southern California's Pete Beathard set a Rose Bowl record of four touchdown passes.
VanderKelen established another standard of 401 yd. gained by passmg.
Quarterbacks Glynn Griffing and Jim Wallace led Mississippi Bowl victory over Arkansas before 82,900 at
mento, Calif. In the Blossom Classic, Jackson (Miss.) State subdued Florida A. & M. 22-6 to win the Negro College cham-
to a 17-13 Sugar
pionship before 43.461 at Miami, Fla.
New
Bowl on Dec. 15, Terry Baker ran 99 yd. for a touchdown enabling Oregon State to edge Villanova 6-0 before 17,048 at Philadelphia. A crowd of 6,166 saw Nebraska edge
at
In the Liberty
attended the four Bowl clashes
Rose Bowl at Pasadena, Cal., the largest crowd (98,698) saw the most exciting game as Southern California, a 3-point underdog, managed to hold off rallying WisconVanderKelen, sin 42-37. The Badgers, paced by quarterback Ron
on Jan.
Orleans, La. Defensive-minded Louisiana State university blanked Texas 13-0 before 75,504 at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas and Alabama handed Oklahoma a 1 7-0 defeat in the Orange Bowl
Miami,
On
Senior Bowl lenge
before 73,380.
Fla.,
Jan. 5 at Mobile, Ala., the South sank the
Bowl
game before
at
Corpus
down
tional all-stars
played Jan.
South
and
6,
all-stars
the
Christi, Tex., 9,000 spectators
saw the Na-
North
all-stars
came from behind
to edge the
20-13 before 22,000 at the Hula Bowl in Hawaii,
in the first
Crusade Bowl game at Baltimore, a crowd of romp to a 38-10 victory over the West.
Professional Football.
New York
in the
the Southwest all-stars 33-13. In games
2,394 watched the East
the
North
38,048, and in the first Southwest Chal-
—^The
Green Bay (Wis.) Packers and
Giants again finished
first in their
ferences of the National Football league, and
senting the west again conquered play-off, gaining a
New York
in
respective con-
Green Bay reprethe championship
16-7 triumph on Dec. 30 before 64,892 frozen
New York's Yankee stadium. The Packers of coach in each period, getting field goals by Kramer Jerry in the first, third and fourth quarters and a touchdown by Jim Taylor in the second period. New York's only touchdown came in the third quarter and was made as the result
spectators at
Vincent Lombard! scored
of a blocked kick. Defensive halfback Erich
Barnes blocked an attempted punt by Max McGee and New York's Jim Collier recovered the loose ball in the end zone for a touchdown. Playing conditions were difficult, temperature below 20° F. and a 30-mileper-hour wind hampering the offenses of both teams. Total receipts of $1,243,110 set a record and each Packer received a share of $5,888.57; each Giant earned $4,166.85. In regular-season play Green Bay won its first ten games before dropping a 26-14 decision to Detroit. The Packers were
WINNER OF THE TROPHY;
Terry Baker. Oreoon State university nu.irlprba. k. with the Heltman trophy he received at New York city't Downtown Athletic club Dec. 5, 1962. Baker's total yardage for the leaion wai 2.276, and for a three-year period hit total wat 4,847 yd. no. 1 draft oholoa
He wai tha National Football
laague'l
on the offense by fullback Jim Taylor, the league's leading scorer and rusher, guard Jerry Kramer and centre Jim Ringo. On defense, end Willie Davis, tackle Henry Jordan, linebackers Dan Currie and Bill Forrester and halfback Herb Adderley were led
1
!
1
'
'
1
I
j
I
FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS
379
outstanding.
The
the president
standings in the Western conference were Green Bay Packers (13-1), Detroit Lions (11-3), Chicago Bears (9-5), Baltimore Colts (7-7), San Francisco Forty Niners (6-8), Minnesota Vikings (2-11-1), Los Angeles Rams (1-12-1). In gaining Eastern conference laurels the Giants final
:
won
last
their
nine games. Chiefly responsible for the success of coach
Sherman's team were quarterback Y. A. Tittle, end Del Brown and safety man Jim Patton. The final standings in the Eastern conference were New York Allie
Shofner, tackle Roosevelt
:
Giants (12-2), Pittsburgh Steelers (9-S), Cleveland Browns (76-1), Washington Redskins (5-7-2), Dallas Cowboys (5-8-1),
Louis Cardinals (4-9-1), Philadelphia Eagles (3-10-1). In the third year of the American Football league the Houston
St.
Oilers
won
their third straight eastern title
and the Dallas Texans The play-off championship battle on Dec. 23 at Houston produced the longest professional game in history as the Texans won 20-17 in the second overtime period. The teams were tied 17-17 at the end of the regulation were victorious
in the west.
contest of 60 min.
Two touchdowns by Abner Haynes and a field goal by Tommy Brooker had given Dallas a 17-0 lead at half time. But Houston, with George Blanda passing brilliantly, tied the score in the
had
out in 1961 provided general guidelines for U.S. aid policy, including more emphasis on development plans set
in the recipient countries; tries in
co-operation among advanced counproviding assistance; continuity in development financ-
and emphasis on loans rather than grants. Loans were expected to increase from about one-third of U.S. economic aid ing;
in the late
1950s to half or more in fiscal 1963. Military assistance continued to decline. There was also a further reduction in the aid given in the form of grants to support the economies of countries undertaking large defense com-
mitments, such as South Vietnam, South Korea, Formosa, Greece, Turkey, Pakistan and Iran. Appropriations for this aid, first called "defense support"
and from more than $900,000,000 fiscal
1963.
The
list
later "supporting assistance," fell in fiscal 1961 to
$395,000,000 for
of countries receiving supporting assistance
was shortened substantially in 1962 and plans for fiscal 1963 called for dropping this form of aid to such long-established recipients as Iran, Pakistan and Greece. Three-quarters of the supporting assistance funds were to go to Turkey, Laos. South Vietnam and South Korea. Increased efforts were being made to use military aid to contribute to economic development. One implication of the criteria set forth by the president in 1961 was a greater concentration of aid. Half the development
second half on touchdowns by Willard Dewveall and Charlie field goal by Blanda. Following a scoreless extra
loans in fiscal 1963 were expected to go to four countries, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Argentina. Nigeria and Turkey together
period of 15 min., the Texan's Brooker disappointed a partisan crowd of 37,981 by kicking a 25-yd. field goal after 2 min. 54 sec. of the second extra session. Each Texan's winning share was
would account for another 10%. At the same time the appearance
Tolar and a
$2,261.80; each Oiler received $1,471.09.
The Houston
Oilers,
coached by Frank Ivy, had an 11-3 season
record in the Eastern division. Following were the Boston Patriots
(9-4-1), the Buffalo Bills (7-6-1) and the
New York
Titans
(S-9).
African countries would receive
In leading the Western division, the Dallas Texans of coach
Hank Stram had an 11-3
season mark. Following were the Den-
ver Broncos (7-7), the San Diego Chargers (4-10) and the Oak-
land Raiders (1-13).
Canadian fully
of new nations, as yet unable to undertake satisfactory planning and administration of development, posed difficult policy problems. These were met, in part at least, by the fairly wide dispersal of relatively small development grants and by the encouragement of work on resource surveys and other forms of "preinvestment" activity. It was expected that in fiscal 1963
Football.
—The Winnipeg Blue Bombers
success-
defended their prized Grey cup, symbohc of professional
football
supremacy
in
Canada, but they had
to wait 24 hours be-
made
A
40%
of the development grants
outside the Alliance for Progress.
form of technical assistance, the Peace Corps had its first major deployment in 1962. Food for Peace, the program under which farm surpluses were sold on easy different
(g.v.),
terms or given away, continued to be an important element U.S. foreign aid. In
fiscal
1962 the U.S. agreed to
sell
000 worth of products for foreign currencies and otherwise
fore their 28-2 7 victory over the
shipped abroad another $470,000,000 worth.
More than
ficial.
of the sales were to Pakistan ($546.500,000)
;
Dec.
Hamilton Tiger-Cats was ofThe two teams started play before 32,655 in Toronto on
1
but a dense fog halted play with 9 minutes 29 seconds
remaining in the contest. The game
officials
sumed the following day and neither team was
able to score for
a substantial increase over the year before.
(D. Sr.)
When, in March 1962, Pres. John Kennedy sent congress a mes-
F.
sage proposing aid appropriations for the fiscal year ending
June no new principles of U.S. policy. Referring to the national commitment to a "Decade of Development," made in 1961, the president said that the new legislation was 1963, he set forth
"limited primarily to the
new
authorizations required annually
under the terms of last year's law." Before the year was out, however, he appointed a committee to make "an immediate review of our military and economic assistance to determine
whether the level and distribution of these programs
is
contribut-
ing materially to the security of the
United States and
and
economic and
reeled to specific
stability in the free
attaina'ble goals of
is
di-
political
world." Between the two statements lay a and questioning. At the same time the
period of debate, doubt role of
other countries and of international agencies in the aid
process
became more prominent.
United States Policy and Programs.— The broad principles
a third
other major pur-
Turkey and Indonesia. The Export-Import
bank
See also Soccer.
Foreign Aid Programs.
chasers were Egypt,
ordered play re-
the remainder of this fog-interrupted classic.
in
$1,408,800.-
(q.v.) disbursed $943,000,000 in loans during fiscal 1962,
During 1962 the Agency for International Development (AID) in personnel. Fowler Hamilton, who took office in Oct. 1961, discharged a number of employees and carefully scrutinized the qualifications and assignments of the others. New appointments were made to most major positions, usually from outside government. Late in 1962 Hamilton resigned and was replaced by David E. Bell, who had been direcunderwent substantial changes
tor of the budget.
—
The Alliance for Progress. One of the most difficult testing grounds for the Kennedy administration's new approach to aid was the Alliance for Progress, the special program of development negotiated between the U.S. and the Latin-American countries. Its principles, set out in a charter drawn up at Punta del Este, Urug., in 1961, emphasized self-help and social reform
Many countries began drawing up development plans and international machinery was set up to appraise plans and requests for development financing. In the 12 in the recipient countries.
months ending June 1962, the U.S. disbursed $1,200,000,000 in aid to Latin America through various channels, mostly as longterm loans at low interest. However, while the flow of public funds increased, the Inter-American Economic and Social coun-
—
—
380 cil
1
FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS Table
reported in Oct. 1962 that "the flow of foreign private capital America has diminished and there is strong evidence of
substantial capital flight
.
.
Political unrest in Latin
Assistance Committee,
inflationary pressures
and balance-of-payments
many
tinued to plague
severely criticized both at
ground that
it all
con-
difficulties
was
countries. Alliance for Progress aid
home
and in Latin America on the
too often followed old patterns of responding
demands and meeting foreign-exchange deficits. It was also apparent that the improvement in living standards and the pace of social and tax reforms in most Latin-American countries were slow and often met strong domestic opposition. Congressional Action. President Kennedy asked congress to to political
—
appropriate $4,900,000,000 for aid in
fiscal
1963, roughly $100,-
000,000 more than he had asked the year before and nearly $1,000,000,000 more than had been appropriated. The largest
Brlolum
.
.
f°"°. ri.rmonJ
r?' l°''l„ '.
NeArrland. Porluao" United Kinadom' Uni.d Stales
'
'
::;.
1961 T
Kimberly-Clark Corp.
New
subsidiaries
were formed by Auto-
FOREIGN
IN VESTMENTS
maUc
Poultry Feeder Co., International Latex Corp and Tyler Refrigeration International Corp. In September some concern among mvestors was reported when the French minister of industry attacked the layoff of 1.000 workers by U.S companies Germany received $165,000,000 in direct investments
m
the U.S.
middle east led to intensified investments in 1961, and further advances in 1962 and 1963 were indicated. During 1961 U.S. investments in the area, nearly all in petroleum, increased
by about $100,000,000
from
somewhat
1961.
less
than
activity
in 1960,
but a higher level was expected in 1962. A number of investments in the chemical industry were announced, including purchase of a large
Co. set up
produce hardware; and Kaiser Aluminum Corp. planned to establish an aluminum-fabricating Investments in petroleum refineries were rising facilities to
& Chemical mill.
rapidly;
Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) was planning to participate such enterprise. Italian investments
in
one
grew by
a record $83,000,000 in 1961 and were scheduled for further expansion. Developments in 1962 included announcement by United States Steel Corp. of the completion of arrangements for participation in a firm to make
fabricated steel products; formation of new subsidiaries by American Cyanamid Co. (synthetic resins). Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Co. (plate and sheet glass). Interchemical Corp. (printing inks), Olin
Mathieson Chemical Corp. (cellophane) and Leeds & Northrup Co. (measuring instruments). An oil refinery was being built by Continental Oil Co.
Growth
of direct investments in the Netherlands
was
relatively
small but regular. Developments in 1962 included acquisition by Reynolds Metals of an interest in a firm producing extruded
aluminum products; acquisition of a food-processing firm by Consolidated Foods Corp. and new subsidiaries by Albany Felt Co. and General Cigar Co.. Inc. The government of Spain under;
took to increase the small flow of foreign capital into that country. U.S. ventures in 1962 included a small pipe plant by
Armco
Steel Corp.
and participation by
Phillips
Petroleum Co.
in a petrochemical complex.
Investments
in
Switzerland by U.S. companies expanded by
$150,000,000 in 1961,
much more
than in any other year.
A
very
however, represented investments in tradjng and holding companies whose principal assets were located in other large
part,
countries.
U.S.
by
New
legislation raising the taxes to be paid in the
this t>'pe of foreign subsidiary
was
likely to reduce the
flow of funds to these Swiss companies.
in 1961. raising the total invested to $3,523,000,000
by the beginning of 1962. Projections of plant and equipment expenditures indicated a steady flow for manufacturing facilities, particularly in the automotive industry. Some 1962 developments were a merger of major British interests of Union Carbide .Corp. and a leading British chemical company; proposed entry of Safeway Stores. Inc., into the U.K. in conjunction with a local supermarket chain; acquisition by Eaton Manufacturing Co. of a large independent automotive-parts producer; joint ventures by Metal & Thermit Corp. (plastics), Phelps Dodge Corp. (magnet wire)
and
New York
to nearly $1,250,000,000.
Development
with
Iran,
Iran Pan American Oil Co. and the consortium finding oil on
ment
in that continent. Neariy $100,000,000 represented petroleum investments in north Africa, where U.S. companies had
spent considerably more than $500,000,000 to develop resources
and had scheduled further outlays. Libya became an important oil producer in 1961, and further exploration was continued by such companies as Gulf Oil in western Libya and Atlantic Refining Co.. together with Phillips
Petroleum Co., in the Gulf of At Zaitan a $50,000,000 water-pressure maintenance system was being installed; Esso Sirte's refinery was scheduled for 1963 completion; and Oasis Oil Co. of Libya was extending its Sirte.
pipeline system. In Algeria production doubled in 1961 and new discoveries continued to be made. Sinclair Oil was considering
a pipeline from
1962 discoveries. Several companies were ex-
its
ploring in the Spanish Sahara.
In west Africa a $5,000,000 exploration program was announced by the Togo-American Oil Co., and other U.S. companies were active in Sierra Leone, Gabon and Nigeria. In east Africa
Gulf Oil Corp. acquired a large exploration concession in the Somali Republic. Investments in the Republic of South Africa by U.S. companies remained relatively low in 1962. although a
number
of
new ventures were announced including a refiner,- to Town by Caltex a new joint venture by Kaiser
be built at Cape
;
Aluminum and Chemical Corp. tion of
new
aluminum; acquisitwo chemical companies by Pfizer International; and a formed by Dow Chemical International. to fabricate
subsidiar>-
—
Far East and Ausfralia. Further additions were made to U.S. direct investments in the far east and Australia in 1961, and the companies involved projected a sustained flow in 1962 and 1963. Japan showed the
largest increase
among
the Asian
New operations in 1962 were begun by Northrop Architectural Systems (aluminum and steel countries, about $56,000,000.
products); Johnson's
Wax
International (household pohshes).
Chemical Industries. Inc. (industrial Hamilton Watch Co. (assembly of watches). Atlas
chemicals),
and
India also received considerable investor attention, with about $30,000,000 added to the total in 1961. Among 1962 ventures
were
new
by American Cyanamid Co. (insecticides); a by Revere Copper and Brass Inc. (copper and brass fabrications); and manufacturing facilities by Hewitta
plant
joint venture
U.S. investors maintained a very active interest in the United
Kingdom
in
Kharg Island off the coast. In Saudi Arabia the Arabian American Oil Co. was operating at record levels. Investments in Africa were considerably stepped up in 1961, U.S. companies adding about $175,000,000 to their net invest-
•
firm producing film. In other industries. United Milk Products Co. acquired a coffee and food enterprise: Chadbourn Gotham. Inc., purchased a large hosiery firm; Yale and Towne Manufacturing
was high
striking oil in the Persian gulf
paint
manufacturer by the Glidden Co.; a jointly owned subsidiar>- to produce pharmaceuticals by Rexall Drug and Chemical Co a new subsidiary to produce toilet soaps bv Procter & Gamble' a joint venture by Standard OU Co. of California in a petrochemical plant; and purchase by E. I. du Pont of a
395
in the
Air Brake Co. (hydraulic equipment);
and acquisitions of existing companies by United-Carr Fastener
Robins. Inc.
(materials-handling equipment), Struthers Wells
International Corp. (chemicals) and (diesel engines).
The
Cummins Engine
Co.. Inc.
Philippines attracted a moderate
amount
of investment, including a joint venture
by American Radiator and Standard Sanitar>' Corp. (plumbing fixtures) and Esso Standard Eastern Inc. (fertilizers and chemicals). Additional investments of almost $1(X),000,000 were
made by
U.S. companies in Australia in 1961. raising the total to $951,(X)0,000. Some successes in developing oil promised to bring large
new capital outlays Union Oil Co. reported a promising field at Moonie and had construction of a 200-mi. pipeline to Brisbane ;
Corp. (fastening de\'ices) and Ajax Magnethermic Corp. (heat-
under consideration. Marketing of oil products was attracting large investments by Amoco Australia Pty. Ltd. and Phillips
ing
Oil Products.
equipment). Petroleum investments included service-station
to be built by Gulf Oil Corp. and a terminal near Glasgow, Scot., constructed by Continental Oil. facilities
Middle East and Africa.
— Major
increases in
oil
production
E.
W.
Manufacturing investments were undertaken by and a large expansion was begun by Chrj-sler
Bliss Co.
Australia Ltd. In the mining industry, sizable investments were
reported for Kaiser Steel Corp. in developing iron-ore reserves
FORESTS
,n, iOO
.1 . Jon II :,nUtnth,Unrt»dStal»>, ,„k\»\\-Volv.of va/u. or Fcfign e A.ft. 'abi. ii.
other
.
Privofe
^^^
Invest-
„,
to.=i i-';);^;'"
banks raised the capital outflow for purchases of foreign securities
and
bank loans
to
i:;^n:
medium-term slightly more
1
960.
Most from
l
i
:!
i
i
:
'
'
ut.To
sho?M.'It
of the increase
'Includ..
i
^
...
1.4
1.0
A
*•»
,7-^
ij
?:?
:»
>
,6
10
-
,3.0
,3, ^b.^
i'^*
'^j
^^ 'j
">
'•«
'j
*2
:2
3.,
2.7
,
22
So„«,
s.o
3.8 3.0
Is
is
ii
•''
-^
•'
^.4 1^2
nalo and munlclpol oWIoolion..
l^ZnZ.'I^JZZ
of foreign corporate stocks as
.icn,
.p^„.ncs
3.6
26.3
::::
Institu-
Con.d.
'^J
;::::::
naiionai
coun.
'5^
'
^
tjtfier
E.cpe
:'.'.'''' •n°oi>"flM"
i"'»'Latin-
Annerlcan
'2?:?
,'*
oWigoiions
i,,^^
, '
Western To-c.
'
v".*"'"'
l.
tl^ :
o„d us.' «,ov..™.n,
1962
1,
tco,
'
:
'
o.....
larger purchases
-t^S't SLial
'bTod'-.
^^Oj^.™
than $1,000,000,000 in 1961, compared with $850,000,000 resulted
::;;;;::;
lyo , and Jan. T961,
$ooo,coo,oooi
^^^ °"'
Jon
ments.-U.S. individuals and
in
J I.
.
V J f«, in western Australia and for Hanna Mining Co. and others, also in iron-ore development. »
u.s.
fc,„g. ho,d,n„ of ^^,-?"Z^t-^„t°°Z°'°^^^^^^^^^ o.por,.... o. Co...... s.r,^
increase in portfolio investments
w.
^
j;;
••="
"•"'"•
»'
">""""-
^ ^^^fC^;;^-::!^^^
:::::;^e:^ir^r;;xrKu:r^-tz;;:^^ r:rma;:^^:r.t"SeS^^^^ and a Canadian firm. Jubilee Iron Corp., acquired p^ateeiuties
or
together with a r'esumption of large-scale
financing in the U.S. market
by
the Canadian government and
ington,
D.C;
a
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
°t tL^ liXf t^hTaMdonal pressure on
the U.S. balance of payments caused by this outflow of capital to developed coun-
ment
IL
tions of the U.S,
markets the U.S. government urged that European financial this type be opened up and reorganized to take a larger part in of international financing.
A in
occurred striking change in the short-term capital outflow when such flows were reduced to minor amounts after
1962
reaching a record $1 472 000,000 in 1961. Outflows to Japan, lowa major portion of the 1960 and 1961 totals, were sharply ered after the early months of 1962. Interest-rate differentials among financial centres were very small, after taking account of the cost of covering the exchange risk, through most of 1962.
obligations increased
,„„,, ,,,,,, ,„, U.S. governby more than $2,000,000,000 in 1961,
reflecting continued large deficits
m
the mternational
Further large increases
m
foreign holdings of liquid dollar assets
were expected to occur in the last half of the year, See also Chemical Industry; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Foreign Credits, U.S.; Gold; International Bank for Recon-
struction and Development; International Development Assocmtion; International Finance Corporation; Inter(S. Pr.)
national Monetary Fund.
more domestic investment. During the year U.S. banks were given permission to pay higher interest rates on certain time deposits, and tax incentives for corporations to move liquid funds abroad were eliminated.
Trade) (1952); World Agairs Are Your Affairs (1952).
Although disbursements on credits by the U.S. government rising in 1961 and 1962, the net increase in credits out-
were
standing was lower than in earlier years as a result of large advance repayments of postwar credits by countries such as Ger-
many, France and Italy. Such advance repayments in 1962 totaled more than $500,000,000, making a considerable contribution toward reduction of the
Foreign Investments
in
long-term investments in 1961.
About
half
was
US, balance-of-payments
deficit.
the United States.— Capital flows for the U.S. amounted to $600,000,000 in
for the purchase of U.S. corporate stocks
this, together with a market appreciation of more than $2,000,000,000, raised the total value of foreign holdings of U.S. corporate stocks to $1 1,808,000,000 at the beginning of 1962.
and
Thissituation was dramatically reversed in 1962 as market values dropped to wipe out the gains of the previous year and foreign holders began to
sell in
moderate amounts
at midyear.
Direct investments in U.S. business enterprises were valued at $7,400,000,000 at the beginning of 1962, as detailed in a commerce department pubhcation. Foreign Business Investments in the United States. Capital inflows for this type of investment remained relatively small— $73,000,000 in 1961 and probably a like
amount
in 1962. Efforts
were being made to encourage
for-
-
rate of increase
This was partly the result of U.S. monetary policies designed to keep short-term interest rates as high as possible without dampening efforts to generate
ransa
contmued high in the first half of 1962, although part of the mcrease was directly matched by additions to U.S. monetary holdings of oreign currencies.
The
(p^,^:--,--\,f-;S"(.95^5)r72;
r",^ (The
U.sTin WotlS
Foreign Missions: .see Missions, Foreign (Religious). Foreign Relations, U.S.: see Intelligence Operations; International Negotiations; International Propaganda; International Trade; United Nations; United States. Foreign Trade: see International Trade. _ ^ iDIColo.
^
rapidly growing
demand
for the use of forest
lands for recreation was recognized in the report
of a three-year study of outdoor recreation resources in the U.S.,
and needs
completed in 1962 by the Outdoor Recreation Re-
sources Review commission.
The report predicted multiplying
same time that available forests, waters and other resources would be dwindling because of demands on the land for other uses. The commission recommended expansion of federal and state recreation programs, federal grantsin-aid to the states and encouragement of private enterprise
recreation needs at the
in recreation
development. Following recommendations of the commission, a bureau of outdoor recreation was established in the department of the interior to co-ordinate federal recreation activities
and administer existing and proposed co-opera-
live services to the states.
The White House Conference on Conservation, called by Pres. John F. Kennedy in May 1962, was the first such conference since Pres.
Theodore Roosevelt's conference of governors
in
eign companies to set up plants in U.S. locations where unemployment was high. Announcement was made of one such in-
1908. Administration spokesmen presented proposals for stepped-up programs of public acquisition and development of
vestment by a Japanese chemical firm. Other activity by foreign
lands for forestry and recreation purposes.
FORMOSA
387
The U.S. department to
of agriculture
made
a
number
of grants
foreign institutions for mutually beneficial forest research
projects to the Forest Research institute at Helsinki, Fin., for studies of soil fungi
and certain other organisms and for studies wood; to India for surveys of parasites
of variations in spruce
on plant pests; to Greece for genetics studies on certain pines; and to Israel for the development of new pine-propagation techniques.
Edward
P. Cliff
was named
chief of the forest service in
1962. succeeding Richard E. McArdle, as chief forester
and 39 years
who
in federal
March
retired after 10 years
government
service.
See also Lumber; Paper and Pulp Industry; Soil Conservation. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.
(C. E. R.)
—
Arteries oj Life (1948): The Conservation (1949); The Forest Grows (1949); The Forest Produces (1949); Forest Ranger (1954); The Living Forest (1950); Look to the Land (1954); Seeds of Destruction (1948); The Temperate Deciduous Forest (1962); The Tropical Rain Forest (1961); Yours Is the Land (1949).
Community (1962);
Forest
'^^^ island of Formosa (Taiwan), separated from Cfirmnc'i JUIIIIUod. mainland China (q.v.) by the Formosa strait, is
%L^SSKf^^SfJSa'-
the seat of the Republic of China
ISOTOPE SPRAY: Working on problems chemists
in protective garb applied sulfur topes to a tree at the Institute of Forestry
March nd Gamekeeping
in
1962,
Strnady, Czech.
National forests, grasslands and other lands administered by the forest service, U.S. department of agriculture, covered ap-
proximately 186,385,000
ac. in 1962.
An expanded program
development of the national forests was sent
to congress
for
by the
president, calling for acquisition of 1,450,000 ac. of intermingled
private lands within national forest boundaries, road
and
trail
construction, development of recreation facilities and other capi-
improvements,
No
period.
final
about $2,500,000,000 over a ten-year action was taken on the program during the 1962 to cost
nawa and
1963, congress appropriated $123,530,000 for pro-
fiscal
tection
and management of -national
539,000 over
fiscal
1962.
forests,
Additional
an increase of $10,-
funds for research, co-
operative work, roads and trails and other activities brought total
1963 forest service appropriations to $223,295,000.
A program
to help check the spread of urban blight by reservpermanent open-space use had been authorized by congress in the Housing act of 1961. Administration of the program, which involved grants to states and local public bodies to assist in acquisition of land for park, recreational and con-
ing land for
Hong Kong. Formosa
in the
its
has an area of 13,807
78 outlying islands (14 in the
Taiwan group
Pescadores group) the area totals 13,952 sq.mi.
Pop. (1956 census) 9.367,661 excluding armed forces and aliens;
(1962
11,301,656. Principal cities (pop., 1959 est.): T'ai-
est.)
Kao-hsiung 438.429; T'ai-nan 324.137; T'ai-
pei (cap.) 854,061:
Chung 286.058; Chi-lung
226.373.
President in
president of the executive yuan
Kai-shek;
1962, Chiang
(premier),
Ch'en
Ch'eng.
Hisfory.
— U.S.
Pres.
John
F.
Kennedy's statement
in
Oct.
1961 reaffirming the United States policy of upholding the Republic of China as the rightful government representing China its
position in the United Nations gave satisfaction and en-
couragement defense of
to
Formosa, and the president's attitude toward the
Quemoy and Matsu was
finally clarified
during the
Formosa strait in 1962. These offshore islands again were focuses of a Communist Chinese military build-up early in the year. By a defense treaty the U.S. is committed to defend Formosa and the Pescadores, and the Formosa government has crisis in the
pledged not to attack the mainland without prior consent of the U.S.
On June
27.
1962, President Kennedy, emphasizing the
defensive nature of the United States commitment, declared that the United States would not remain idle
Quemoy and Matsu
if
was assigned to the Urban Renewal administration of the Housing and Home Finance agency. Congress appropriated $35,000,000 for this work in 1962. First grants under the program were made for the acquisition of parklands in Madison, Wis., Taunton, Mass., and near Denver, Colo. A three-day workshop on forest genetics was held in Macon,
were attacked. Thus he reiterated the traditional U.S. position resulting from the 1955 congressional resolution on Formosa and
October under the sponsorship of the Southern Forest Tree Improvement committee and the Committee on Forest Tree
their return to the
ser\'ation uses,
Ga., in
Improvement of the Society of American Foresters. Subjects discussed included selection and progeny testing, intraspecific variations, natural and artificial hybridization and tree-breeding systems.
The Virginia
state division of forestry
announced the estab-
lishment of a branch of applied forest research to conduct experiments in the development and use of new materials and tech-
the policy of the Eisenhower administration.
Because of the economic
difficulties of the
Chinese Communist
regime and the people's disillusionment with the Communist experiment, the Nationalists believed in 1962 that the prospect for
mainland was brighter than at any time since During .Assistant Secretary of State \V. Averell Harriman's visit to Formosa in March it was reported that Pres. Chiang Kaishek had again appealed for an advance agreement in principle to an assault on the mainland whenever the time appeared to be ripe. Coinciding with this report was the redeployment of Communist troops along the China coast facing the offshore islands. 1949.
Through
its
diplomatic contact with the Chinese
bassador
in
Poland, the U.S.
made known
Communist am-
knowledge of the disapproval and nonsupits
niques in forest
Communist troop concentration and
States Forest
port of a Nationalist invasion of the mainland.
management. The U.S. forest service's Lake Experiment station established a research unit at
Studies in
wood formation in hydrology and watershed management were be-
new
3,845-ac. Udell Experimental forest in upper
Rhinelander, Wis., to study the physiology of trees.
gun at the '
east of
sq.mi.; including
and
session.
For
is
i
and 64
tal
(Nationalist China). It
situated north of the Philippines, southwest of Japan and Oki-
fide World
Michigan.
President
Kennedy sought
its
publicly to discourage
On March any
29
belief that
the United States would support the Nationalists in an effort to
put forces on the mainland.
The
tension was
somewhat eased following
the policy state-
FRANCE
388 ment by
Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita
President
S.
NationalKhrushchev's announcement of July 2 that should the would troops attack the mainland, the whole Socialist camp American stand by Communist China. However, on Sept. 9 an
Foundations: cation.
A republic of western Europe and head of the French
ist
made U.2 plane, which had been obtained by the Nationalist shot government in a "direct sale" by the manufacturer, was down over
east China,
and speculation was resumed
new Communist
regarding the possibility of a
Formosa
in
Formosa
offensive in the
1962, to facilitate the planning and eventual invasion of the mainland. On May 1 the rates of general taxes and public utilities were raised by 20% to 25%.
was established on April
1,
military expenditure remained an obstacle to economic
development to
in spite of U.S.
economic
which had amounted
aid,
more than $1,000,000,000 over the past ten
years.
A
revised
four-year plan for 1961-64, calling for a total capital outlay of U.S. $1,254,750,000 and including such projects as expansion of health and educational facilities, was approved on Dec. 1, 1961. The construction of a large steel mill and of another thermoelectric plant
were
most important
its
industrial
development
stock exchange was opened on Feb. 9, 1962. It was hoped that this and the recently amended foreign investment laws would attract capital from abroad for help in exefeatures.
community, France is bounded by the English chanGermany, Switzerland, Italy, the and the Atlantic ocean. Area -''^.^^'f^^^^^^^
FrSnCB. '"';";•
^^^^^.^^^g,
Pop. (1962 est.) 46,300,000. 212 821 sqmi., including Corsica. (pop., 1954 census): Paris (cap.) 2,820,534; Bordeaux 250,306; Toulouse Marseilles 605,577; Lyons 462,657; Strasbourg 193,353. 217,667; Nice' 208,453; Nantes 197,915; territories and one overFour overseas dipartements, six overseas suzerainty; New Hebrides is seas possession are under French
Principal cities strait.
Because of military emergency and the "sacred task" of preNationalist paring for eventual invasion of the mainland, the government allowed no real political opposition, although measof nonures were taken during the year to solicit the support Kuomintang leaders. An Economic Mobilization Planning board
Heavy
Donations, Bequests and Grants; Edu-
see
The
first
cuting the four-year economic plan. On Oct. 30 the United Nations general assembly again voted
condominium. France is a member of NATO, Economic and Coal and Steel communities, Eurand Developatom, the Organization for Economic Cooperation Europe and ment, the Western European union, the Council of a Franco-British
the European
the Southeast Asia Treaty organization 1962, Charles
(SEATO).
President in
Gaulle {q.v.)\ premiers, Michel
De
Debre and,
from April 14, Georges Pompidou. History.—Three important events dominated the
political
1962: the ending of the Algerian conflict; the aggravation of the dispute between Pres. Charles De Gaulle and parliament over the referendum on the election to the presidency
scene
in
France
by universal Nov. 25.
in
and the general elections of Nov. 18 and
suffrage;
i.vian Agreements.
—In
spite of a
rorism by members of the Secret
renewed outbreak of
Army
ter-
organization (O.A.S.) in
Algeria and in France at the end of 1961 and at the beginning of 1962, De Gaulle in a television speech on Feb. 5 was able to hint
Chinese people. The vote was 56 to 42 (with 12 abstentions) against the Soviet draft resolution to seat Communist China in
an early solution to the Algerian conflict. In February there were frequent secret meetings between the French government and members of the so-called Algerian provisional government,
place of Nationalist China.
the
to retain Nationalist
UN
China as the
representative of the
at
Gouvernement Provisoire de
Republique
la
Algerienne
(G.P.R.A.). Negotiations were resumed in public at Evian-les-
—
Education. Primary education is compulsory and free. In 1960-61 there were 1,79S primary schools with about 2,000,000 pupils, excluding the enrollment of kinderijartens. Secondary schools totaled 363 with an enrollment of 355,273; institutions of higher learning totaled 29 with 38,433
students. Finance and Trad*.
NT$40 = U.S. $1. NT$7 669.000,000,
—The
.
New Taiwan
dollar
has been
mamtamed
at
1960 the central government revenue totaled expenditure N"T$7,963,000,000, For fiscal 1961 revenue and expenditure totaled XT$7.9S2, 000,000 and NT$8,068,000,000 respectively For the fiscal vear ending June 30, 1961, the provincial government budget was balanced at \T$4, 459,842.824. Total exports increased from U.S, $169,866,000 in 1960 to U,S. $214,000.000 in 1961; total imports from U.S. $143,233,000 in 1960 to U.S. $193,000,000 in 1961. For the first half of 1962, exports and imports were valued at U.S. $128,613,000 and U.S. $120,129,000 respectively, increases of about 2f.% and 10% respectively over the corresponding period of 1961. The United States and Japan remained the major trade partners of Formosa. Troniporiolion. There were more than 2.800 mi. of railway and 2,000 ml, of paved roads. Between 1960 and 1961, railway freight traffic decreased from 26,744,000 to 26,035,000 metric tons. For the same period, highway freight traffic rose from 8,798,000 to 9,955,000 metric tons. Agriculture. Rice production increased from 1.912.018 metric tons in 1960 to 2,016,276 metric tons in 1961. The 1960 and 1961 indexes of agricultural production were 131.7 and 142.2 respectively (1953 = 100). For
fiscal
—
—
Bains on March
7,
and after laborious discussions a cease-fire 18. Parliament met in an extraordinary
was concluded on March
March 20
session on
in
order to examine the Evian agreements
22. A referendum which would enable show whether they approved of the fivian agreements and De Gaulle's Algerian policy was held on April 8; 75% of the electorate went to the polls and more than 90% of these voted their approval. De Gaulle thus obtained the power
and adjourned on March the French people to
to legislate
by ordinance
in order to guide Algeria to self-deter-
mination and independence. After the referendum, the premier, Michel Debre, handed in his resignation.
formed
He was
replaced by Georges Pompidou,
government on April
his
15.
On
April
who
27 parliament
agreed to the investiture of the new government by 259 votes to 128, with 119 abstentions. (The Debre government at its investiture in Jan. 1959
had received 453 votes, with 56 against and
29 abstentions.)
In /nduitriol
Output
In
forrriou
fewer and mineral production Power (000 Vw.hr.)
3,212,839 3,S«3 2,070 26,332
Cool (000 metric toni) Crude oil (kl.l Natural got 1000 eu.m.) Monufoclured producllr
Paper (metric
lonl)
tribunal
1.067,431 .
,
,
33.106 1 4,282 230.821 30.720 83,740
To
the intense surprise of
most observers, the military had pronounced the death sentence on command, the former Gen. Edmond Jouhaud
in April
Salan's second in
extenuating circumstances and
condemned him
to
life
imprisonment only. The tribunal was subsequently abolished, and on May 30 a military court of justice was created to try the O.A.S, activists. In succeeding months this court imposed a number of prison sentences and condemned Andre Canal to death.
On Nov. Indurtry.— I'ndcr the revised four-year economic plan, the bulk of the is for the expansion of industry, agriculture and communication facilities. The general indexes of industrial production increased (H. T. Ch.) from 196.9 In 1950 to 219.7 In 1961 (1953 = 100). capital outlay
the trial took place of the head of the O.A.S., the
—which
—found
Cement
Goiollne (11,1 Cotton yorn (metric Iom|
April 20. 3,627.959
887,367
Refined lugor (metric toni) (metric torn) Pig Iron (metric lonll Moctilnery ond porti (metric torn)
May
former Gen. Raoul Salan, who had been arrested in Algiers on
1959
that of
28 President
Jouhaud
On May
15.
showed renewed
De
Gaulle
commuted Canal's sentence and
to life imprisonment.
after a pre.ss conference at which De Gaulle hostility to the idea of an integrated Europe,
FRANCE five
the
ministers belonging to the
Mouvement Republicain
Populaire (M.R.P.) left the government. Refusing to obey the governing committee of their party, the four ministers belonging to the Centre des Independents remained in the government.
A
motion of censure on the government's Algerian and European policy and its attitude toward the North Atlantic Treaty organization, presented to the national assembly on June 5, was rejected, having obtained only 113 votes out of the 2 76 necessary. In a speech broadcast on radio and television on June 8
De
Gaulle opened the campaign for self-determination in Algeria, which eventually achieved independence on July 3.
—
Referendum on the Presidency. As in previous years De Gaulle pursued his policy of direct contact with the French people and did not set a high value upon parliament, which he considered to be in
many
respects
parties of the fourth republic.
still
dominated by the old
He made
frequent use of
tele-
and continued his journeys to various parts of the country. During May 17-20 he visited Lot, Correze and Limousin, and during June 14-17 he went to the east (Haute-Savoie, Jura and
Pari, M„,l. /„„„ />„-,„„„;
Doubs). The police arrested
AN ERA ENDS:
vision
plotting against his
assassinate
life.
a
number
On Aug.
him while he was on
of persons suspected of
22 an attempt was his
way from
made
to
Paris to Villa-
p„„^,
French Foreion Leflionnalrei at S,o,.i,«I.Abl>e>. Alg., .1 lh«y paraded in May 1962. It was their last parade In Algeria. The Legion was with, drawn and under the ^vlan agreement regular French troops look stations In independent Algeria for a limited period
coublay. Determined to settle as best he could his eventual succession,
he announced to the members of the government on
with a view to strengthening his authority, he explained to the country his decision that in future the president of the republic
Gaston Monnerville, delivered a strong attack upon De him of having violated the constitution by not explaining the procedure which made provision for the preliminary examination by parliament of any plan involving re-
should be elected by universal suffrage and not by a college of
vision of the constitution. After a
Sept. 12 his plan for reforming the constitution.
notables.
He
at
On
Sept. 20,
once encountered strong opposition from the
parliamentary political parties, with the exception of the Union pour la Nouvelle Republique (U.N.R.) and some left-wing Gaulbill providing for the new method of was adopted by the government on Oct. 2 and De Gaulle addressed a message to parliament, which had reassembled the same day. All the opposition parties then prepared a motion of censure against the government. lists.
Nevertheless, the
presidential election
The
council of ministers announced that the plan would be
senate,
Gaulle, accusing
except the U.N.R.
recommended
campaign a
of Oct. 28 gave the following results ritories
and departements)
:
in
which
all
parties
"no" vote, the referendum (including overseas ter-
13,150,516 voted "yes" and 7,974,-
538 voted "no," with 6,490,915 abstentions.
De resign
Gaulle had announced before the referendum that he would if he obtained only a slight majority, and the entire op-
position had consequently accused
endum
into a personal plebiscite.
him of transforming the referThough there was a marked de-
Oct. 4 the motion of
number of "yes" votes compared with the previous referendum, and the "no" votes had a majority in 15 departe-
censure was debated in the national assembly, and after a heated
ments, he considered that the result was sufficient to enable him
was approved by 280 deputies out of 480. On Oct. 6 the Pompidou cabinet resigned, and its fall led to the dissolu-
to pursue his task as the "guide" of the
submitted to a referendum on Oct. discussion
28.
On
it
tion of the national assembly.
On
Oct. 9 the president of the
crease in the
General Elections.
on Nov.
7
—De
French people.
Gaulle opened the election campaign
with a television address
in
which he invited those
^T^
,•
Malch /rom Piclnrial Pdrade
GENERAL SALAN AWAITING TRIAL:
1 . , .L. _ '.o the relln Gen. Raoul Salan, leader of the Secret Army organi;atior. . guishing of French control In Algeria, In the Sante prison In Paris before his trial for treason. Expectation was that ho would be ten tenced to death; the court's decision May 23, X962, finding him guilty but Axing the penalty at life Imprisonment, oame • turprlti
u
1
FRANCE who had voted "yes"
in the
referendum not
to
be inconsistent
deputies who approved of a send to the national assembly had been the only political group "yes" vote Since the U.N.R. the opposition accused the president to recommend such a vote, of a single-party regime. of declaring himself in favour emerge from the elections, Though such a regime did not in fact victory. For the first time in they showed a smashing Gaullist parliamentary majority was modern French history an absolute Gaullist U.N.R. and Umon gained by (in effect) one party, the du Travail (U.D.T.) and the independent deputies
and
to
Democratique
who supported De reduced
The centre bloc in the assembly was conservative wing went to the Gaullists,
Gaulle.
in strength, the
left-of-centre Socialand the extreme right was destroyed. Both their representation, the former ists and Communists increased from 43 seats to 66, the latter from 10 seats to 41. many observers the election results indicated, more than
To
Gaulle, a fundamental change in
De
the personal popularity of
in massing their votes the French people were rejecting the small parties, with their extremely fine doctrinal differences, and turning toward broader
French
politics. It
groupings that would make possible more stable governwas predicted that the next year would
political
ments
was believed that
in the future. It
with fusion of the
in party structures,
many changes
witness
most nearly related to one another. On Nov. 27 De Gaulle reappointed Pompidou premier. There were few changes in the new cabinet announced Dec. 6. Several portfolios changed hands and there were three new ministers.
parties
Gaullists, 3 independent
The 26-member cabinet contained 16 supporters of
De
Gaulle,
1
former Radical and 6 nonpolitical
"technicians" of Gaullist views.
Foreign Policy.
— De Gaulle pursued
customary policy with
his
regard to the United States, the United
Kingdom and NATO. An
was made by De Gaulle and the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan, during their meeting on June 2-3, to remove some of the differences between the two countries. On June 13,
effort
during a debate on the future of western Europe, 293 deputies
pronounced themselves peoples," to which
De
in
favour of the creation of a "Europe of
Gaulle was opposed.
division on the supplementary estimates
On
July 24 during the (which included the
credits for the atomic installation at Pierrelatte) the opposition tried but failed to obtain the
number
of signatures
t
which were
required to introduce a motion of censure in the national as-
i
sembly.
Foreign policy was essentially based on the Franco-German ,
rapprochement, and
De
Gaulle received the
West German chan-
'
Konrad Adenauer, during the latter's stay in France in July. However, the highest point of reconciliation between Frenchmen and Germans was reached with De Gaulle's triumphal visit to the German Federal Republic in September. He was received with great warmth and often spoke in German to the
'
cellor,
i
crowds that greeted him. Relations with the United Nations improved after the ending of the
war
in Algeria,
and the minister of foreign
Couve de Murville, was the first of Algeria when it was admitted
affairs,
to the
Maurice
new
to congratulate the
state
United Nations.
,
,
i
(A. PR.) I
Economy.—l^it end
of the
war
was the most imthe French economy in
in Algeria
portant single development affecting
1962, During the year 600.000 people were repatriated to metro-
NF
France and over 1,000, 000, 000 transferred from Algeria to France. This influx of both people and capital, ac-
politan
companied by an increase A.F.P. h
PREMIER QEORQES POMPIDOU OF FRANCE
roklndllna Ihe Dime over the lomb of Frincei Unknown Soldier el Ihe Arc de Triomphe In Parl» In May 1962 on Ihe 17lh enniveriery ol the end of World Wir II In Europe. The ceremony li
reputed tnnually by the French Republic
in government transfers in the form of resettlement aid, led to a substantial increase in private consumer expenditure. There was also a sharp increase in liquidities, and the money supply rose by 19% in the course of the year.
There were further important
effects
on the supply
side, par-
1
1
1
I
,
I
'
I
,
j
I
I
FREEMAN
391
ticularly with regard to
manpower. It was not always easy to find suitable work for refugees from Algeria, and this led to a marked increase in unemployment during the summer. The number of applicants for work rose from 95,000 in May to 174,000 in September (seasonally adjusted figures). On the other hand,
the additional manpower which returned to the labour after the reduction of the period of militar>' service to 18 was already qualified and thus more easily absorbed.
market months
This
facili-
tated the growth of output; from the spring onward industrial production rose at a r^-S'Tf annual rate, and, with agricultural production at satisfactorj' levels despite the dry
summer, the was 5.5^:? higher than in 1961 an even more rapid rise in 1963 seemed hkely. Other aspects of the French economy, however, were not as gross national product in 1962
;
favourable. In particular the rate of growth of fixed investment slowed down, and merchandise exports stopped rising as a result of the sharp decline in exports to Algeria.
Although the balance of trade between France and the countries of the franc zone deteriorated, trade with other countries showed a further surplus in 1962. Since movements of private long-term capital were also favourable to France, its foreign exchange earnings during the year were considerable. There was some risk, however, that the countr>''s highly favourable external position might be compromised in the period ahead by cost increases in the domestic
economy. Wage rates again rose by nearly appeared to be relatively sound, with a budget impasse (over-all deficit) not likely to exceed
10%
in 1962. Public finances
NF7,000,000,000. Public expenditures had grown rapidly but tax receipts rose with the general expansion of the economy.
See also Algeria; Armies of the World; Atomic Energy;
European Unity; Foreign Investments; French CommuFrench Literature; International Negotutions; North Atlantic Treaty Organization; Tunisu. nity;
(R. G. Be.) Education.— Schools (1960-61, state and private): primary (including preprimary) 91,340, pupils 6.926,000, teachers (1959-60. excluding private preprimary) 239.939; secondary (1959-60) 7,312, pupils 1 260 000 teachers (1959-60) 68,481; vocational ( 1959-60. state only) 1,177. pupils 545,998, teachers (state only) 24,979; state teacher-training 155, students 27,685. Institutions of higher education included (1959-bO) 16 state universities,
Finance
other state institutions and
83
versities);
total students
229,000 of
whom
6
free
faculties
(private
uni-
202,062 were at state univer-
—
=
Monetary unit: franc with a par value of \F4.937 U.S. $1. Budget (1963 est.); revenue N'F77, 41 7.000,000. expenditure XF84.367,000.000. Internal debt (Dec. 1961) NF74, 720.000, 000, external debt NFIO, 570,000.000. Currency circulation (March 1961) \F4b.470,000 000, (March 1962) XF45. 580.000, 000. Deposit money (March 1961) N'F57,060.000.000. (March 1962) XF65, 990.000.000. Gold and foreign ^-xchange, official:
(March 1961) U.S. $2,398,000,000, (March 1962)
U.S. $3,221,-
000,000.
Trade.— (1961) Imports NF32.960.000.000; exports NF35,587,Main sources of imports: Common Market countries XF10,382,028,0(30 (German Federal Republic XF5.626.326.00O) other European Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries XF3,966.675.000 (U.K. XF1,4S7, 123.000) Xorth .\merica XF4,090.266,000 (U.S. XF3. 638. 142,000); overseas franc zone XF7.353. 573.000. Main destinations of exports: Common Market XFl 1,954.045,000 (German Federal Republic XF5.407.45S,000: Belgium-Luxembourg XF2.960. 529.000) other European O.E.C.D. XF6, 455.675.000 (U.K. XFl .809.483,000; Switzerland XFl. 797, 223,000) Xorth .America XF2,348,814,000 (U.S. NF2.059.440.000): overseas franc zone XF9.3I6, 273,000. Transport and Communications.— State railways (1961) 38,840 km.: pasForeign
tons, 1961) ^'.^1"',,''",' '"9.600: Pork 726,400; mutton and lamb oionn "",'.'' -ii. ,pe
The organs
most considered that the empirical
institutlon
sTi
,
15,-
1^3.000.
interest.
The Central Fund for Economic Co-operation reported that the amount of aid granted by France during ^^e^o the overseas countries as a whole, excluding Algeria, was NF3,000,000,000.
and
(excluding France proper and the
while taHng action
o^^
mutual
member republics
^ .\
^"rc^i," r^p b ik
.
J^erHf oi
French Community
Frc«.
dominium. Total area of the community (excluding France proper and the
by
French
(3)
;f;tj orproblems
and government of U.A.M.
raised
Guadeloupe, Martinique
of
^^^^_
ro,n,rpH 3 5
state
overseas ter-
number
to create a certain
a^^^^^
'°
to see the community Although several African leaders wanted
o
into existence with the promulgation
Guiana,
(French
ht
t^g"
The French Community, which came
six
Reunion) 'and
J^J'^^^^jS^ he Un.t d Nat o
front at
1958, comof the constitution of the fifth republic on Oct. 5, the French repubhc, 'including the four overseas 1 i ses:
p diparteLnts
f
-^^^ ^
compromise bill incorporating a modified feed-gram prostated gram was signed by the president on Sept. 27. Freeman lower mcome and that the measure would prevent a return to the higher cost program of the Eisenhower admuustrafon^ ^^
bill.
—
/
m .
•.,.••
,,
.
.
protest against the possible stationing in
,.
r-
the Foreign tLegion. •
,
,
show
to .
.
The demonstrators were
^
,.
,
.
.
r
•
,
as
much
.
oft j
concerned
,, j j u considered would which they ' ,
.
their opposition to a plan
,
^
Guiana of units
j
r,,,
n ,.„„. Cayenne
„
.
,
.
.
reinforce metropohtan authority in Gu ana as they were to draw , . ,,,„„.,•„ t ,j tt j attention to their demands for autonomy. ULU um;- Leopold i^cupuiu Heder re-
,„,.-,
„.„„.,
,
J placed Justin n Catayee as deputy following dSpartement ^uc u^j/u b '"' the f y for 'nucleotide called ribonucleic acid)
;
however, the
that
had
acids.
Two
C
separate ques-
to
amino
acids,
that codes that
analysis of mutations in a bacteriophage.
The second question
was answered by using biochemical techniques. (For a description of how each question - was answered see the section Bio-
chemistry: Amino Acid Code.) The X of Mice and Men.— An hypothesis was proposed by
Mary Lyon explain
the
of the Medical Research council, Harwell, Eng.. to
variegated
gene expression
seen
in
stitute important providers of data usable in research. By such means, broad areas of the poorly known portions of the earth's surface can be photographed and mapped on a scale large enough
and infrared
serial
photography became functional
and was being used in the practical and accurate interpretation of geomorphological and other geographical phenomena. Greater emphasis than ever before was placed by professional geographers in 1962 upon the application of geographic knowledge and techniques to urban and regional planning. This subject dominated the theme of many professional meetings and conferences,
and an estimated
20%
of
new geographers
entering
this phase of the field. Encouragement of such activity was provided by research institutions and the government in the form of
by
what is the combination of A, T, G and amino acid? The first question, concerning the length of the DNA coding unit, was answered by genetic
of the 20
in 1962. Satellite
geodesy and photogrammetry became so developed as to con-
which
specific actions of proteins,
amino
wider application of this knowiedge to everj-day problems, key-
professional ranks, twice the rate in previous years, went into
be answered. (1) Since there are 20 amino acids to be coded and only four nucleotide bases to do the coding, how many nucleotides code a single amino acid? (2) For each tions
of
(deoxy-
are the cell constituents that genes control, are determined
the sequential ordering of 20
—Expansion
noted the professional activities of geographers
scale colour
genetic information of a
resides in the sequential ordering of
bases
B. B.
1962 as one of the most exciting years in their
science since experimental techniques were
cell
;
Geography.
Professional
sources of geographic information, together with
to supply details valuable to the professional geographer. Large-
of the total. (F. E. H.
PpnOTiinhv UbUgl apilji
female mice
that were heterozygous for sex-linked genes. She proposed that
and science training. Approximately 90 more colleges and universities added courses in cartography to the geography curriculum, bringing the total to nearly 500. Emphasis on space, credited with stimulating geography in recent years, was included in many basic geography grants, scholarships
courses.
This practical yet wide and all-encompassing trend was seen in the professional
Even educational conThe 48th annual meeting of the
journals and meetings.
ferences seemed to be influenced.
National Council for Geographic Education held in Chicago. Nov. 22-24. 1962, contained many papers reflecting this concept. The trend seems to be beneficial to the profession. Courses in geogin 43 more U.S. universities and colleges than bringing the total to 1.296. Course enrollment increased from 335,000 to more than 350,000, with introductory courses
raphy were offered in 1961.
G E O G RAPHY
400 accounting for nearly half.
The
practical trend
was
reflected
largely in introductory courses.
Conferences. (A.A.G.) held
— The
its
Association
of
American Geographers
Miami Beach, Fla., Miami as host. More attendance, and more than 130
58th annual meeting in
April 22-26, 1962, with the University of
than 700 geographers were in
papers were presented on a wide variety of geographical subjects.
Planning and area development were featured by papers, whereas quantitative methodology and terial
were stressed
many
of the
new source ma-
in others. In addition to the usual large pro-
portion of talks on economic geography and political geography,
some
interesting
and stimulating papers were given on military
geography and geography
in
education.
At the association's annual business meeting to employ for the first time a full-time ofi&cer
a
move was made
—a paid executive
made, also, for wider membership and closer relations with other geographical societies. A report was made on the association's part in the "Improvement of High secretary. Provisions were
AT THE SUMMIT:
Lionel
Terray, French
a
untain climber, and
his
United Press International
This stone map said by Its discoverer to be the was uncovered in Capo di Ponte, Italy, In 1962. The village found by Emanuel Anall of the Sorbonne, Paris, was estimated to be 4,000 years old and the stone carvings were believed to be much older
PREHISTORIC GEOGRAPHY:
oldest in the world
Sherpa
companion Wangdl on Jannu peak In the h malayas In April 1962. Jannu, 25,294 ft. high and never before scaled, was considered the most Inaccessible peak In the Himalayas. The 1962 expedition, hich achieved the obiectlve wlthout mishap. Involved the efforts of 13 FrencI climbers. 30 Sherpa guides and
School Geography Teaching" program, being conducted jointly
i
with the National Council for Geographic Education.
$116,000 to Dalmai—Pix from PubUx
this
A
grant of
program from the Fund for the Advancement of
Education was announced.
As part of the 1 2 9th meeting of the American Association for Advancement of Science (A.A.A.S.), a division of the A.A.G.
the
participated in the presentation of a general session of contributed papers. The A.A.A.S. meeting was held in Philadelphia, Dec. 26-30, 1962, and the A.A.G. papers were presented on Dec. 29. The emphasis was again on wider source material, application of geographic
knowledge to everyday problems, quantimethodology and military geography. Another conference of interest to geographers was the meeting
tative
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping-American March 1821, 1962. New sources and means of gathering geographic data were the subject of many papers. Progress was reported on world of the
Society of Photogrammetry held in Washington, D.C.,
mapping and information was provided that an organized beginning was finally being made on the production of a national atlas of the U.S.
—
Exploration and Field Research. The major areas of exploration in the usual broad sense remained in the Arctic and Antarctic in 1962. Programs in operation in previous years continued, and new areas were opened to exploration of geographic
phenomena, such as geomagnetism and gravimetry. Seismological methods were used to ascertain geological structure beneath iceand photogrammetric means were used in area mapping. Exploration in other than the usual broad sense was accomplished over the Pacific by the beginning of a magnetic survey caps,
using towed magnetometers behind coast and geodetic survey ships and the beginning of gravimetric surveys in the same area. In the northern part of the Pacific ocean,
survey ships discovered
five
new
sea mounts.
Field research figured largely in the expansion of sources of
geographic information in 1962. Techniques in aerial photography were improved, and methods of broad aerial mapping were developed with practically no ground control, by means of radar
on intermittent aerial photographs within sequences. By such means, large areas of the Canadian northwest were photographed, adding greatly to source material for geographic research. Similarly, colour aerial photography developed by the coast and geodetic survey made possible the accurate examination of coastal waters. to a depth of 60 ft. Concomitantly, the development of fixes
intrared aerial photography pretations. This
made possible minute coastal interhad widespread practical application with respect
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. to rights to coastal
and offshore
oil.
—
Publications and Aids. The U.S. board on geographic names produced 19 new gazetteers of various countries through its Foreign Names committee, and more than 1.000 disputes on geo-
efforts
graphic names in the U.S. were settled by decision of
lems.
tic
in
its
A
names books.
Domes-
and
regional, national, space
own
reflecting the interest in our
By and
planet
A
rash of
awakened by the space
large,
Films.
Changing
World
the use of electric analogue
in
gauging stations were operated
models for
in the
50 states and Guam. In-
vestigations of sediment and chemical quality of water covered
the most important river basins and ground-water aquifers.
Topographic Surveying and Mapping. '
a
lor
made
To obtain stream-flow data (an important objective in surface-water work) about 7,400
Geological Sur\'ey, U.S.;
—Maps
needed study of the water
analyzing ground-water flow problems.
National Geographic Society; Societies and Associations, U.S. (A. J. Wr.) Encyclop.i;dia Britaxnica (1960); Our Earth (1937).
in progress included a
progress was
growing trend toward the practical application of geographic knowledge.
See also Antarctica; Arctic;
Work
50 states. Puerto Rico and the 'Virgin Islands. At Phoenix. Ariz.,
however, books and other publications, together with aids such as films, reflected the keen interest in and age.
local agencies. Investigations
dam. A second large areal study was continued in the Mississippi embayment. a water-rich region covering 90,000 sq.mi. in parts of nine states. Mapping of urban centres to delineate areas inundated by floodwaters was carried on in many areas. There were about 500 studies of ground water under way in
invaded the market,
pictorial atlases
between federal, state and
resources of the Colorado river basin downstream from Davis
research cata-
logue by the American Geographical society was issued.
inves-
are directed at the solution of present and future water prob-
distributed as a prototype or guide
for the compilation of all state
401
—Geological survey
tigations during 1962 continued to be co-ordinated, co-operative
Names committee. A complete names book on Delaware was process by a deputy to the Domestic Names committee and,
when published, would be
U.S.
Water-Resources Investigations.
— By July 1962, 63%
of the total area of the 50 states. Puerto Rico
and the Virgin
Islands was covered by topographic surveys at scales of
1
;
24,000
and 1:62,500 (Alaska at 1:63.360). During the year ended June 30, 1962, 468 maps of previously unmapped areas and
B60l0glC3l OUrVBy, U.S. interior are
in the
us
department of the
concerned principally with appraisal of the nation's
mineral and water resources, delineation of
386 new maps ai 7V' standards of areas heretofore covered by 15" maps (1:62,500) were published. In addition, numerous
physical features
special
and supervision of mineral leasing on federal and Indian lands. Technical assistance in geology, mineral and water-resource investigations, topographic surs-eying and mapping was extended in 1962 to 23 countries in Central and South America, Africa
search,
its
and Asia through S8 geological survey representatives. In addition, 136 earth scientists from 34 countries received training in the geological sur\'ey's domestic program under sponsorship of the
Agency
for International
Development and the United Na-
tions.
Publications.
—During 1962 more than 1.600
reports, geologic
and hydrologic maps were approved for publication. This included information released in files open for public inspection; reports published by co-operating agencies and states, and others published in scientific and technical journals. Nearly 8.000.000 copies of 2.810
new and
reprinted topographic
maps produced by
the geological survey in 1962 were printed on
its
multicolour
presses.
Geologic Investigations. tions
— Field
were continued during 1962
and laboratory investiga-
to gain basic geologic data
necessary to appraise and enlarge the nation's mineral resources
and
to
augment knowledge
of the composition, structure
and
history of the earth's crust and the processes responsible for
the development of geologic features.
braced a wide variety of
The
investigations
em-
maps were published
for various purposes such as re-
administration and planning. Shaded-relief maps were prepared for Lassen. Olympic, Rocky Mountain. Wind Cave, Yellowstone and Yosemite national parks. One base map was
completed for the state of Washington. Urban-area maps were completed for Pittsburgh and Milwaukee. During 1962 plans were made for publication of a national atlas, a
compilation of maps for the use of government agencies,
business and industrial establishments, educational institutions
and and
augment, but not duphcate. geographic atlases
libraries to
map
collections issued
by commercial pubhshers. The na-
tional atlas plans included publication of four categories cover-
ing 150 or
more
subjects: (1
)
introductory material; (2) physi-
maps; (3) economic maps; and (4) cultural maps. Topographic mapping in .\ntarctica was conducted as part of the U.S. .Antarctic research program. During the 1961-62 austral summer, six engineers were assigned to the .Antarctic area to establish geodetic control for mapping, using methods that combine triangulation with solar and daylight stellar observations. Electronic distance-measuring equipment was used by a threecal
man
helicopter-supported party to establish geodetic control on
100.000 sq.mi. of mountainous terrain. Topographic maps in shaded-relief editions were published of the coast of Wilkes
Land and
of the Sentinel mountains of the Ellsworth highland.
Significant technologic accomplishments included the develop-
scientific activities including studies of
mining districts and mineral deposits, composition and structure of rocks and minerals, fossils and the rocks in which they are
ment of
found, and geophysics and geochemistry.
stacles
a lightweight, portable tower that permits operating
instruments as to
much
as 74
ft.
above the ground and over ob-
a ground-level line of sight. Astronomic observing
lights of these investigations in 1962 included: discovery
techniques appHcable to Antarctic surveying were improved.
of potential iron ore in volcanic rocks in the northern Cortez
Conservation. In 1962 conservation activities were aimed proper development and use of water, minerals and mineralfuels resources on federally controlled lands. A total of 28,506 applications for mineral classification were handled; 15 waterpower sites in southern and southeastern Alaska were classified and segregated as suitable for development of about 300,000 kw. of primary power. Approximately 356 sq.mi. were mapped geologically to assist in classification. Under supervision were 2,497 mining properties and 1S2.0(X) oil and gas leases, aggregating production valued at $1,183,000,000 and returning royalties
High
mountains. Nevada, and of an iron-rich formation up to 50 thick in the
new guides
ft.
Tobacco Root range. Montana; development of to uranium-ore deposits in several areas in Utah,
Colorado and Wyoming; discovery of important deposits of berylhum ore on .AJaska's Seward peninsula; increase of potential resources in oil shales of the Green river formation in Wyoming; and identification of ancient landslides along a proposed route of a
major sewage-disposal system for the Seattle metroin the selection of an alternate route.
pohtan area, resulting
Some of these investigations were conducted in co-operation with state or municipal agencies in IS states and Puerto Rico.
—
at
of $155,000,000.
See also A.ntarctica.
(W. Th.)
—
GEOLOGY
402 ^°*'
Conlnrru
on geologic subjects published
articles
in
bBOIUgJ.
1962 were descriptions of small geographic areas or discussions of subjects of small scope, but some publica-
were on subjects of general interest. General. The imminence of exploration of the moon prompted several discussions of the part to be played by geolotions
—
K. Rankama
gists.
OF RESERVES MORE ATOMIC FUEL: Studies of a
objected to the misuse of such terms as
and
"astrogeology"
"lunar
geology,"
which
the
link
prefix
thorium deposit the mountains of New Hampshire in Nov. 1962
low-grade
"geo" to bodies other than the earth. He suggested the use of "planetology" as a general term and of "selenology" as the
moon
term most appropriately applied to tions of the
moon
science.
In
indicated a reserve of millions of tons of rium, which can be verted into the atomic
Investiga-
of
of interest to geologists included those of
and linear features of its topography, the light from its surface, the surface materials and the hisdevelopment of the topographic surface and the sur-
made by
reflected torical
face of
materials.
Some
the
of
moon—mountains,
the
larger
clefts,
features
slopes
the
of
Statistical
analyses
assessment
thofuel
was
scientists of Rice
Houston, Tex. Research was being conducted to find economical ways of extracting thorium from its ore and using It at a breeder in atomic reactors. university,
surface
and so-called seas
were compared with known features of the Atlantic ocean floor and found to be very similar. The lunar surface is believed to be older than the subaerial surface of the earth, and as the floors of the oceans have probably changed very little over many geologic periods, the similarity was expected.
many
The
U-^.
craters
the
lent
con-
Stippled the ore
areas
show where
Is
were made of geologic phenomena in The basic problem of the cir-
kinds of investigations.
arguments based on statistical analyses of petrosections was discussed by F. Chayes. It was shown by an actual example that because of the interdependence of different measurements, opposite interpretations can be reached by different arrangements of data used in testing the analyses. R. B. McCammon attempted to determine the combination of percentile measurements that best cularity of
graphic
thin
shows size information about clastic sediments. Different methods of computation of mean size and degree of sorting, using different percentiles and numbers of percentiles, were
shown
to be of
statistical
different
efficiencies.
Greatest
effi-
accompany computations using more percentiles but they are more tedious to compute. Fundamental investigations of the Structural Geology. folding of stratified materials were made by M. A. Biot and
ciencies
—
others. Their conclusions were that
most materials
in
most de-
formations acted as viscous materials. The times predicted for
were close to actual times known from the geologic record. Model studies confirmed the theoreti-
significant folding to take place
W.
cal analyses.
P. Pratt discussed a series of north-trending
block-faulted mountain ranges in the
were dated as Pleistocene
in
Puna of Peru. The rocks
age by the diatoms preserved in
them. The ranges are normal-faulted horsts. Compressional folds in the
sediments
in the
grabens were attributed to forces caused
by compression between
rising
horst wedges.
The study was
considered to have application to the basin ranges of western
North America. fundamental
A
geochemical approach to the delineation of
structural
Slawson and C.
trends
was demonstrated by W.
F. Austin. Isotope ratios of lead in galena
F.
were
found to be consistent along the axis of the Zuni uplift in New Mexico, whereas samples collected from the flanks contained different isotope ratios.
exploration
for
The method was suggested
as useful in
buried structural features and in explaining
anomalous lead ages.
Historical Geology. —The
distribution of Permo-Carbonifer-
in time and space was discussed by M. M. Anderreviewed L. C. King's statements about migration of the continent and presented rcinterpretations and new evidence
ous glaciation son.
He
of critical importance in evaluating continental drift.
He
con-
cluded that because of the lack of strata of glacial origin of
Ghana and neighbouring areas in South America, Gondwanaland was not
Early Carboniferous Age Africa and in most of
in
astride the south pole at that time.
New
evidence useful in re-
constructing the Pleistocene history of the Mediterranean sea
was presented by K. W. Butzer and J. Cuerda. Pleistocene shore lines and shore-line features, water-lain sediments in caves and on beach terraces, aeolian sediments, soils, colluvium, the degree of weathering and cementation of sediments and faunas were used
in
levels of the
working out paleoclimates, wind directions and sea Quaternary period. Three transgressive intervals
with thermophilic faunas were noted in the Pleistocene and were considered to correspond to interglacials.
The
two transgresand Wiirm glaci-
last
sions were tentatively correlated with the Riss ations.
—
Sedimentation and Stratigraphy. The influence of climate on both continental and marine sedimentation was discussed by S. E. Hollingworth. Sediments of Pleistocene glacials and interglacials
tion
were given as examples of close controls of sedimenta-
by changes
in climate. The greatest perfection of the cyclic sedimentation of the Carboniferous period was stated to be synchronous with the glaciation in Gondwanaland. The existence of
50 to 60 cycles of sedimentation in coaly lacustrine beds in India was cited as being inadequately explained by tectonism. Climate was stated to be more significant than tectonism in controlling sedimentation for short periods and in small basins. Climatic controls were suggested for extinctions, evolutionary changes
and topographic development. Sediment properties are useful
in determining paleocurrent and thereby finding depositional strike and dip. F. J. Pettijohn stated that basin margins would be parallel to the depositional strike, and that many strike determinations would
direction
provide basic data for delineating the axis of a sedimentary basin. Criteria for determining transport direction include the vector properties of cross bedding, sole markings, grain and fossil lineation,
ripple
marks, rib-and-furrow structures and the scalar properties of variation in grain size, grain roundness and mineralogic composition. Tectonically oriented grains and slump structures with different orientations than original depositional structures may result in anomalous interpretations. Field meas-
urements have shown uniformity of current direction over long time intervals at some places. Current directions may be inter-
GEO RGIA preted from the geometry of sand bodies such as sand dunes, channel sands and bars, but present knowledge of these is inade-
quate for complete
reliability.
Fine details of sediment-particle properties were studied in shore-line environments by E. W. Biederman. Dune, beach, lagoon and marsh sediments in an area on the south coast of New Jersey were sampled. He found that pits on wind-deposited sand grains originated from impact and that pits on water-deposited grains were arranged according to crystallographic directions. Heavy minerals are more abundant in dune sands than in
beach sands.
A more
comprehensive study by G. M. Friedman in distinguishing between dune, beach and river sands on the basis of textural characteristics. provided information useful
A
discussion of dimensional and shape analysis of
and coarse-grained sediments was begun by A.
medium-
Moss.
J.
He
re-
ported three basic types of particles, called A, B and C, which occurred in four different combinations A, A and B, A and C, and A, B and C. Type A consists of particles ranging from small
—
equidimensional to large elongate over a small size range, but with different populations having a wide range of mean sizes. It
composes the major part of
alone
B
is
particles,
of type
A
when with
and the
than the smallest
A
type
C
water-lain sediments and
t>'pe A, are all smaller
largest particles in t>'pe t>'pe
A
particles. T\'pe
rent-deposited sediments.
type
all
when
characteristic of wave-deposited beach sediments. Tj-pe
Type C
B
B is
than the smallest are
more elongate
diagnostic of cur-
particles are all larger than
and are relatively equidimensional. The significance of is not known. Fossil sediments were found to contain the same types of populations. particles
—
Economic Geology. N. de Kun presented part of a monograph on niobium and tantalum deposits of the world. Much of the information was collected during visits to all the major deposits.
Of
reserves,
of tantalum
than 100
98.5^
in placers
is
known
of niobium
and
39%
is
in carbonatites
in pegmatites.
and
61%
Of the more
carbonatite-alkaline rock complexes, about 20
and most of the 20 are in southeast Africa and America. Sovite is the dominant ore mineral. A new aspect of mineral zonation was reported on by H. L. Barnes. Tin, copper, zinc, lead, antimony and mercury-ore zonation is are profitable producers
not in linear sequence with points, chloride
solubilities, boiling points,
complexing or sulfide complexing of the metals.
Stabilities of the
covalent-bonded sulfide ions of the metals were
calculated and found to be in the tion,
melting
same sequence
as the ore zona-
which suggests that the metals are transported
in this
form.
See also Geological Survey, U.S.; Oceanography; Seismology.
—
Bibliography. M. M. Anderson, "The Late Paleozoic Glaciation of Gondwanaland in Relation to West .Africa and to N'orthern South .America During Carboniferous Time," Ccol. Mag., vol. 9S, no. 6, pp. 449-457 (1961); H. L. Barnes, "Mechanisms of Mineral Zoning," Econ. Gcol., vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 30-37 (1962); E. W. Biederman, "Distinction of Shoreline Environments in New Jersey," Bull. .imer. Ass. Petrol. Gcol., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. lSl-200 (1962); M. A. Biot. "Theory of Folding of Stratified Viscoelastic Media and Its Implications in Tectonics and Orogenesis," Bull. Geol. Soc. .imer.. vol. 72, no. 11, pp. 1595-1620 (1961); M. A. Biot, H. Ode and W. L. Roever, "Experimental Verification of the Theory of Folding of Stratified Viscoelastic Media," Bull. Geol. Soc. Atiicr., vol. 72, no. 11, pp. 1621-32 (1961): K. W. Butzer and J. Cuerda, "Coastal Stratigraphy of Southern Mallorca and Its Implications for the Pleistocene Chronolog}' of the Mediterranean Sea," /. Gcol.. vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 398^16
(1962); F. Chayes, "Numerical Correlation and Petrographic Variation." Geol., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 440-452 (July 1962); G. M. Friedman, "Distinction Between Dune, Beach, and River Sands From Their Textural Characteristics," /. Sediment. Petrol., vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 514-529 (1061); S. E. Hollingworth, "The Climatic Factor in the Geological Record," /. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 98, no, 469, pp. 1-21 (1962); Nicolas de Kun, "The Economic Geology of (Jolumbium (Niobium) and of Tantalum." Econ. Geol., vol. 57. no. 3, pp. 377-404 (1962); R. B. McCammon, "Efficiencies of Percentile Measures for Describing the Mean Size and Sorting of Sedimentary Particles," J. Gcol.. vol. 70. no. 4, pp. 453-465 (1952); A. J. Moss. "The Physical Nature of Common Sandy and Pebbly Deposits. Part I." Amer. J. Sci.. vol. 260. no. 5, pp. 337-373 (1962); F. J. Pettijohn, "Paleocurrents and Paleogcography." Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 1468-93 (1962); W. P. Pratt, "Local Evidence of Pleistocene to Recent Orogeny in the Argentine Andes," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 72, no. 10, pp. 1539-50 (1961); K. Rankama, "Planetology /.
403
and Geology," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 519-S20 (1962); W. F. Slawson and C. F. Austin, "A Lead Isotope Study Defines- a Geological Structure," Econ. Geol., vol. 57, no. 1, pp 21-29 (196') (L. 6s.) Encvclop,edia Briiannica Films.— FAe Arctic (Islands of the Frozen Sea) (1959); Face oj the Earth (1953); The Face oj the High Arctic, (1959); Geological Work oj Ice (1960); The Great Lakes— How They Were Formed (1951); Ground Water (1935); Mountain Building (1935)' Volcanoes in Action (1935); llor* o/ Rivers (1935;; Work oj the Atmosphere (1935); Vosemite (1954).
One
of the original 13 states, located in the south Atlantic region of the United States, Georgia has an
pp,'ton. .'...'.'. Sourcei U.S. Deportment
.... .
.
... '
"42
1961
19il-«0
50,760,000 5,560,000 1,280,000 240,000 147,574,000 S4S,200,000 154,000 535,000 222,000 4,200,000 15,000,000
48,925,000 10,888,000 742,000 542,000 120,869,000 501,515,000 292,000
1,050,000
65,800,000 7,568,000 1,360,000 500,000 137,949,000 574,750,000 172,000 512,000 213,000 5,200,000 78,600,000 910,000
»00
1,200
1,285
in Georgia during fiscal 1962 in 1960. ond Related Programs. In fiscal 1962 the Sum of $87,295,864 was expended for public assistance programs in Georgia, including $65,834,972 of federal funds, $18,032, 9pl of state funds and $3,427,991 of county funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $53,324,925, blind assistance $2,179,142, aid to dependent children $17,237,222 and aid to the disabled $14,554,575. In addition, $1,147,150 was spent on child welfare services. The monthly average paid to persons receiving some kind of public assistance in June 1962 was $44.09. In 1962 Georgia maintained one state hospital for mental patients and one tuberculosis sanatorium at a total cost of $18,559,128. There were 1 state penitentiary with 16 branches and 4 correctional institutions maintained by the state, at a total cost for fiscal 1962 of $3,820,105. In 1962 the penitentiary and its branches had 4,324 prisoners, the 78 public work camps had 9,232 prisoners and the correctional institutions had 714 inmates. (J. Z. R.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Georgia in 1960 and 1961 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1961 Georgia continued its long-maintained upward trend.
The amount of unemployment benefits paid was $29,368,377, compared with $30,446,745
—
Public V^elfore
—
°^'°°°
250,000 3,088,000 38,280,000 992,000
Table 111.— Minora/ Production of Georgia IShon
lon.l
1960
1961
Mineral
Quanllly
Volue
Quanllly
Value
of Agrlcullure,
Total"
Cash income for the year 1961 totaled $357,683,000 from crops, $412,880,000 from livestock and livestock products and $26,926,000 from government payments for a total of $797,489,000. This compared with a total of $779,361,000 for 1960. In 1962 livestock in Georgia comprised 1,481,000 cattle and calves of which 226,000 were milch cows, 1.519,000 swine, 18,000 sheep, 70,509 horses and mules (1959), 15,336,000 chickens (four months old and over) and 61,000 turkeys. Bonking ond Finonco. On Dec. 31, 1961, Georgia had 53 national banks with assets of $1,869,501,000 and deposits of $1,672,908,000. On June 30, 1962, it had 312 state banks with assets of $1,571,833,379 and deposits of $1,388,919,013. In addition, there were 56 private banks, not subject to slate regulation, on which no information was compiled. On Sept. 30, 1962. Georgia had 98 savings and loan associations. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1962, receipts in all state funds totaled $406,004,918 and disbursemenU $419,988,535. The operating surplus on that date was $35,098,511. Total state taxes collected in fiscal 1962 were $387,952,944; federal-
—
taxes collected in the state amounted to $1,127,102,513. The per capita state tax paid was $101.83; per capita federal tax paid was $282.69. The net assessed valuation of real property in the state on Dec. 31, 1961, was
$2,542,999,446. Communicolion. All highways and roads in Georgia on June 30, 1962, totaled 87,954 mi., including 16.478 mi. in the state system and 71,476 mi of county roads. In fiscal 1962 the state highway department expended a total of $138,868,007, which included $91,791,288 from the federal government. Contracts awarded for new highway construction in fiscal 1962 totaled $87,797,318 for 1,041 mi. Vehicle registrations for 1961 totaled 1,261,014 automobiles and 298.167 trucks and buses. Mileage for the eight class I railroads in Georgia (1962) totaled 5,186 mi. There were 122 airports and 1.041 registered aircraft in the state. On Nov. 1, 1962, there were 168 radio stations and 18 television stations. On Dec. 31. 1961, 1,311,081 telephones were in use. There were 30 daily and 206 weekly newspapers. Education. A total of 1.033,264 students were enrolled In public elementary and secondary schools in Georgia in the fiscal year ending June 30. 1962. There were 713,630 students (472.965 while. 240,665 N'egro) and 21,411 teachers (14,374 white, 7,037 Negro) in the 1,353 public elementary schools (997 for whites, 356 for Negroes), and 319,634 students
$91,203,000 107,000 2,046,000 t 3,569,000 42,025,000 3,519,000 40,160,000 ? 35,000 692,000 t 181,000 835,000 143,000 613,000 349 3,000 10,000 89,000 3,150,000 3,049,000 3,338,000 3,047,000 15,854,000 38,077,000 14,297,000 37,033,000 48,000 98,000 88,000 40,000 9,476,000 ... 11,275,000 eliminate dupllcollon In the volue of cloy, ond .tone. $95,256,000
Borite
?
Cloy.
fsWspor Iron ore
Mico, Sheet (Ib.) Sard and gravel Slone lolc
Other mineral.
•Total ho. been ad|uiled to tValue included with other minerals. Sourcei U.S. Bureau of Mine..
Clays comprised 44% of the total value of mineral output. Georgia was first in the output of dimension granite; second in bauxite, dimension marble, fuller's earth and scrap mica; third in clays; fourth in barite and feldspar; and fifth m manganiferous ore. Employment in the mineral industries was 5% higher in 1961 than in 1960. Georgia ranked 29th among the states in the value of its mineral output, with 0.53% of the U.S. total. tNCVCLOP^DiA Briiannica Fii.MS.~Soutkeastertt States (1956).
Geriatrics:
see
Gerontology.
—
—
German
The German book trade
Literature.
sales increased
and
field of belles-lettres
a record
flourished in
1962 as never before: exports rose, 20,000
titles
were published. In the
the novel continued to be the preferred
form Hans Erich Nossack's Nach.dem letzten Auistand much attention but most critics seemed to find its plot
of expression.
attracted
fairly incomprehensible. GiJnter
Grass further strengthened his
literary reputation with his bizarre short novel,
The
last
Katz
tind
Maus.
portion of Hans Henny Jahn's great trilogy, Epilog: Fluss ohne Vjer, dritter Teil, incomplete at the time of the
GERM A N Y was published as a 430-page fragment. Die vollkommene Freude by Luise Rinser. which plainly reveals the author's wish to edify and strengthen her readers against hfe's temptations, was on the best-seller list for several weeks. Die Koralle, a novel by Max Brod about the intellectual life of a young non-Jew in prewar Prague, and Sturz nach oben, an overly symbolic Utopian novel by Frank Thiess, were both plainly not death,
author's
equal to the best that these established novelists had already produced. Hans Hellmut Kirst's Kameraden and Hermann Kesten's
Die Abenteuer eines Moralisten were rejected by the critics although both books admittedly were exciting stories with good plot structure. In his first published novel. Duell,
Manfred Esser
405
raphy by Otto Forst de Battaglia, marked the 100th anniversary of the Viennese dramatist. Heinz Ide made a valuable contribution to
knowledge of Heinrich von Kleist,
in the
monograph Der
junge Kleist. The novelist Werner Bergengruen gave the reader a stimulating glimpse into his workshop with his autobiographical sketch, Schreibtischerinnerungen, about his years in Berlin
and Munich, the "brown years" of Hitler's Reich. A volume of Thomas Mann's letters, Thomas Mann: Brieje 1889-1936, edited by the author's daughter Erika, was indispensable, although there were several complaints concerning the selection and omission of letters as well as of certain unfortunate excisions.
The modern
sought to shed light on the psychological background of a uni-
Kurt Tucholsky figured in Ich war Tucholskys Lottchen, the memoirs of Lisa Matthias. The American scholar Friedrich
versity student's suicide through the skilful literary use of
Hiebel stressed the importance of Goethe's morphology for
titious
fantasies in
won
Augustin
fic-
and character witnesses. Narrating the the mind of a young insurance executive, Ernst letters
diaries,
great critical notices with his
first
novel,
Der
which a century ago rivaled the novel as the most popular literary genre in Germany, had become less popular. The aging Catholic writer, Gertrud von le Fort, continued to do her novella,
work
best
of
1962 Das jremde Kind, a Germany from 1912 to 1946. In Wenn
in this field, publishing in
fairy tale-like picture of es
all
aspects of the poet's hfe and works in his fine treatise on Goethe,
Erhohung des Menschen: Perspektiven einer morphologischen Lebensschau. Welcome as always was the new book by Germany's
die
master of cultural history, Richard Benz, who lovingly penned
Kopj.
The
satirist
Herbst wird, a moving message
West German
prosperity,
to the
humanitarian conscience
Hans Lipinski-Gottersdorff
told of
the biography of a city in his Heidelberg: Schicksal und Geist.
Hermann
Kesten, whose 1962 novel received poor reviews, was more fortunate with his collection of essays on literary figures and themes, Filialen des P amass ; while Helga Malmberg contributed late
the growing interest in
to
Peter Altenberg,
the
19th-century Vieimese writer, in her book Widerhail des
Herzens.
Unquestionably two of the
two East Germans who escape to a refugee camp in West Germany. Edzard Schaper again displayed his skill with the novella Die Sohne Hiobs: Unser Vater Malchus, using the narrative of
finest books of the year were writby two journalists, both on the staff of the Hamburg weekly Die Zeit. Rudolf Walter Leonhardt in his X-mal Deutschland
Job to show the
presented the clearest picture yet of modern West
spirit of ancient
Judaism
reflected in Christian
ten
Germany
was Wolf-
through a stimulating discussion and explanation of current
gang Borchert's Die traurigen Geranien und andere Geschichten,
problems and attitudes. Marion, Countess Donhoff, the chief
thought.
Long among
18 stories
the best sellers during the year
from the unpublished legacy
left
upon the early death
With the publication of Dein Schweigen-meine Stimmen, a poems from 1958 to 1961, Marie-Luise Kaschnitz established herself as one of the greatest and most versatile contemporary women writers in Germany. Hilde Domin's small volcollection of her
ume
of poetry, Riickkehr der Schiffe, displayed her mature talent
few words. The octogenarian Wilhelm Lehmann published Abschiedslust, Gedichte aus den Jahren 19571961, a brief collection of 37 lyrical gems exhibiting an astounding youthfulness. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, a young literary for saying
much
in
and feuilletonist of the Gruppe 47, was responsible for a charming collection of 777 children's poems, Viele schone Kinderreime, which he collected and edited. This author's skill as a courageous, outspoken critic with clearly expressed opinions was critic
most evident
in his
political editor of the paper, in splendid style described her
former
East Prussian homeland as she related the history of her family,
of this popular writer.
volume
of essays
on
social, political
and
literary topics, Einzelheiten.
For the first time in many seasons first-rate German plays received unanimous critical accolades. Two of the best were by Swiss authors. Max Frisch's Andorra, written to shock the guilty conscience of his audiences, was the tragedy of a Gentile boy who thinks he is a Jew because all his fellow citizens treat him as one. Friedrich Diirrenmatt wrote the best
and most often pro-
Gertrud von Schwarzenfeld's biography, Rudolf
II,
der satur-
nische Kaiser, although not written for the professional his-
gapin
torian, filled a
historical studies.
Robert Stupperich made
an excellent start on a definitive biography of Melanchthon, the
Reformation theologian, in a monograph, Der unbekannte Melanchthon, Wirken und Denken des Praeceptor Germaniae. In Geschichte und Geschichten, a collection of essays that appeared for several weeks on the best-seller
list,
Thomas Mann,
tory professor and son of
Golo Mann,
displayed great
hisskill
as a writer in setting forth his "conservative" approach to his-
tory and politics.
A
writer
achieved public of
of
Germany, Johannes Bobrowski,
East
critical recognition
Germany with
Re-
the award of the annual prize from
Gruppe 47, the influential critical group ment would not permit him to be present
in Berlin.
His govern-
to receive the award. (J. C.
^ Cormonu acinidliy.
finally
for his poetry in the Federal
Or.)
country of central Europe, Germany was parti-
tioned
after
Republic of Germany
(
World War
II
into
the
Federal
Bundesrepublik Deutschland: West Ger-
German Democratic Republic (Deutsche DemoGermany) with a special provisional
duced new play of the year. Die Physiker, a farce about three physicists unsuccessfully tr>'ing to keep to themselves scientific
many) and
information which might destroy the world. Carl Zuckmayer,
regime for Berlin iq.v.). Located on the North and Baltic seas,
Germany's most successful dramatist, received very mixed reviews for Die Stunde schldgt eins, a wordy humanitarian plea on behalf of the younger generation. Die Triimmer des Gemsscfis, found in the literary legacy of Hans Henny Jahn, was published
though not staged
in 1962, Essentially
it is
an intense dra-
matic plea to "ban the bomb."
Among
the biographies of value
fictionalized
was Das war Miinchhausen, a
account of the baron by Carl Haensel. Johann
Nestroy, a valuable and definitive as well as readable biog-
the
kratische Republik; East
Anot and Fadarol Rapwblic of Germany
,
Populafiom, Germany and Berlin
,
—
GERMANY
406 Pictoriat ParaJ*
EXPLOSIVE MAGAZINE ARTICLE: Th« "Spieiel iff«lr" thook Wwt Germtny In 1962. Below, cover of the mao'llne Itiut that ilarled the trouble. Rigbl, Rudolf Augileln, publisher, arretted Oct. 27 and charged with "tutplclon o' treaion," shown aooompanled by hit brother, a lawyer, durIng an earlier legal proceeding
Cine
Frttt—Pil In
Publix
«i|','-r'!-if:.'i|'.T':=^
is bordered by Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and
Germany
Federal Republic of Germany.— Cap. Bonn. West Germany member of the Western European union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Council of Europe, the European Economic and Coal and Steel communities and a
Euratom. President Adenauer (q.v.).
in 1962,
Heinrich Lubke; chancellor, Konrad
affair,
although
— Preliminary
—
German Democratic cities (pop.,
Republic. Cap. East Berlin. Principal Dec. 31, 1961, est.); Leipzig 585,2S8; Dresden 491,-
Karl-Marx-Stadt
(Chemnitz)
286,100;
Halle
276,191;
it
later transpired that
he
day before federal police raided the Hamburg offices of Der Spiegel, Strauss had been exonerated from allegations by the magazine that he had im25, the
properly allocated military building contracts to a
On Nov.
Munich
firm.
19 the five Free Democratic cabinet ministers sent
in their resignations.
Their party chairman, Erich Mende, de-
Democrats would from the cabinet. Strauss bowed, unwillingly, before the overwhelming pressure of public opinion and resigned from the cabinet. After lengthy negotiations, in the course of which Adenauer approached the Social Democrats, on Dec. 11 agreement was reached with the Free Democrats on the formation of a new government in which the minister of defense was Kai-Uwe von Hassel, the Christian clared that a
results of a census taken on June 6, 1961, showed a total population of 56.173,207, an increase of 10.6% over 1950. There were 26,406,400 males. Population density was 585.5 per square mile. Principal cities: Hamburg 1,832,374; Munich 1,084,474; Cologne 809,247; Essen 726,550; Dusseldorf 702,596; Frankfurt am Main 683,081; Dortmund 641,480; Stuttgart 637,539; Hanover 573,124; Bremen 564,517; Duisburg 502,993; Niirnberg 454,520; Wuppertal 420,711; Gelsenkirchen 382,689; Bochum 361,382; Mannheim 313,890; Kiel 273,277; Oberhausen 256,773; Wiesbaden 253,280; Brunswick 246,200; Karlsruhe 241,929; Lubeck 234,643; Kreleld 213,104; .Augsburg 208,659; Kassel 207,507,
Centui Data.
699;
minister of defense, Franz Josef Strauss, denied
knowledge of the
was heavily involved. On Oct.
Poland.
is
The
sponsibility. all
new
be possible only
coalition with the Christian if
Strauss were excluded
Democratic head of the Schleswig-Holstein Land government. The Spiegel affair shook public confidence in the government and in Adenauer himself.
Magdeburg 262,437; Erfurt 186,369; Rostock 161,754; Zwickau 128,723; Potsdam 114,521; Gera 101,414. East Germany is a member of the Warsaw pact and the Council for Mutual Eco-
which was held to foreshadow some kind of Franco-German union. This was essentially the work of
nomic Assistance (Comecon). First secretary of the Socialist Unity (Communist) party and president in 1962, Walter Ulbricht
Adenauer and the French president, Charles De Gaulle. They had their first meeting of the year in Baden-Baden on Feb. IS,
(g.ii.):
minister president (premier). Otto Grotewohl.
An
outstanding feature of the year was the establishment of
closer relations with France,
when they
discussed informally steps to be taken to achieve Euro-
— For
the first time
pean
since he took office in 1949 the federal chancellor,
Konrad Ade-
gan a six-day state
History.
Federal Republic of Germany.
nauer, was confronted by a serious governmental crisis toward the end of 1962. This arose out of the so-called Spiegel affair,
which
itself
staff of the
involved the arrest of five
members
of the editorial
weekly news magazine Der Spiegel for alleged trea-
son.
surrounded the government-inspired action against Der Spiegel, which had allegedly published secret military information in
its
Oct. 10 issue.
One
assistant editor
of the paper was arrested in Spain, through the
medium
of a
West German embassy in Madrid. The Free Democratic minister of justice, Wofgang Stammberger, was
military attach^ in the
not informed of the action, although technically
it
was
his re-
economic unity.
On
July
2
Adenauer be-
France, which was a resounding succhancellor had several talks with De Gaulle and visited the provinces and the Mourmelon military camp, where German cess.
visit to
The
units were being trained (in a district
World Wars unknown soldier
place in the
All sorts of irregularities
political as well as
I
and H).
He
where heavy fighting took
laid a
wreath on the tomb of
at the Arc de Triomphe and made several speeches stressing the reconciliation of the two nations and their mutual desire for unity and peace. An official communique stated
that the two statesmen reached full lating to Europe, in particular to
agreement on questions
Germany and
re-
the Berlin prob-
lem.
President Sept. 4-9
De
Gaulle's return visit to
West Germany during
was marked by scenes of wild enthusiasm. The
presi-
GERM ANY made speeches in Bonn, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Duisburg, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart, mingling logic with an emotional appeal to his audiences. A joint communique stated the dent
two governments' mutual determination to defend Berlin and to seek a solution of the German question based on the German people's right to self-determination.
The only
flaw of the visit
was
407
pay $75,000,000 toward U.S. arms delivered during 1955-60. In other matters of foreign policy the federal government
marked time during 1962. Adenauer adopted a reserved attitude toward the Berlin problem. He rejected proposals (favoured by the United States) for an international authority to supervise
communications with the west and caused some annoy-
Berlin's
ance in Washington when on Feb. 20 he suggested that the U.S.-
who
interview with the federal president, Heinrich Liibke, reminded De Gaulle of the need for Anglo-German friend-
ship
and of the
progress
a
diflftcult
fact that Adenauer's days in office
were limited.
—which he considered —should be abandoned
Soviet exploratory talks
Less public interest was accorded to the visit to Bonn on Jan. 9 of the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan. Macmillan was
ence. (Subsequently he explained that he
accompanied by
tive attitude
his foreign secretary.
West Berlin on Jan.
10.
The two main
Lord Home, w^ho results of the
visited
Macmillan-
Adenauer meeting were agreements that the current U.S. -Soviet explorator>' talks should continue and that Britain should enter the European Economic Community E.E.C.) "at an early date." Committees were also set up to resolve the question of West (
German arms purchases from Britain to offset the foreign exchange costs of the British army of the Rhine. By an agreement
ratified
on June 6 the Federal Republic undertook
to pur-
chase in each of the U.K. financial years 1962-63 and 1963-64
about £53,000.000 worth of goods, mainly arms, over and above
normal German imports from Britain.
It
was expected, however,
Repubhc would find it difficult to fulfill this agreement in view of commitments to buy military supplies worth $1,250,000,000 from the United States during 1962-63 and to that the Federal
to be
making no
for a foreign ministers' confer-
had had
in
mind only
a
meeting of the western ministers.) Adenauer also adopted a nega-
On
Aug.
2S,,
toward the British application in a television interview,
to join the E.E.C.
he cast doubt on the de-
Common Market or a community. Britain's entry, however, was supported by the ministers of economics and foreign affairs as well as by the Social Democratic party. An isolated subject which was first publicly discussed at the end of May was an East German request to the Federal Republic for a long-term loan of about 3,000,000,000 DM., mainly for the purchase of hard coal. Adenauer said that a condition for granting the loan would be the removal of the Berhn wall. The foreign affairs committee of the Bundestag also discussed the sirability of Britain entering either the
European
political
question of setting up
West German trade missions
in
Com-
munist countries.
Four Lattd
elections
were held
in 1962. In
North Rhine-West-
GERM ANY
408
Democrats lost their absolute majority and able to form their vote declined from 50% to 46%, but they were Schleswiga new Land government with the Free Democrats. In similar Holstein the Christian Democratic vote was 45% and a Land government was formed. The Hesse and Bavarian elections confirmed the partits already in power; the Social Democrats phalia the Christian
raised their vote
from
47%
to
51%
in
Hesse, and the Christian
Social Social union vote in Bavaria rose from 45% to 47%. The Democrats increased their votes in the two other Land elections alternaas well and thus improved their chances of forming an tive national government in years to come. In June Adenauer was re-elected chairman of the Christian Democratic union. In March he had been characterized by the Social Democrats as "a tired old man" who was due for retire-
ment, and during the year there was considerable discussion of with ill this subject, particularly as the chancellor was twice
and had to take three vacations in northern Italy. In December, following the Spiegel affair, Adenauer announced his intention of resigning by Sept. 1963. U.S. intelligence estimated the strength of the banned Communist party in West Germany at between 35,000 and 50,000, influenza
with 5,000 29 the old It
still
carrying out underground political work.
to attract
was not expected
much
federal ministry of the interior,
groups
a
fell
On
July
Nationalist party was re-formed in Kassel.
German
from 52,000
support; according to the
membership
of extreme rightist
West German economy
in
1961 were
salient features of the
still
considerable expansion of production (though less strong
than
in the
full employment The most important new development
preceding year), the continuation of
a rising price trend.
was that the
new domestic and
level of
foreign orders for capital
goods, which had been the determining factors of the
German
9%
in 1960.
boom, ceased
to increase, following a rise of nearly
Gross national product (GNP) at constant prices grew by S.i% in 1961 compared with 8.8% in 1960. The slowing down in the growth rate of
GNP, which
is
closely linked to the tight
conditions on the labour market, was accompanied by the
fall
increase in productivity. This trend continued in the
off of the first
half of
only
2%
when GNP per person employed grew by 3.5% during the same period of the preceding
1962
against
year and 3.9% for the whole of 1961. Because of the shortening of the working week, however, the increase in
GNP
per working
hour was somewhat higher (3.5% in the first six months of 1962). The labour market remained strained well into 1962. Unemplo>'ment was force
)
and
less
than 100.000 (about 0.5% of the labour
unfilled vacancies
remained
at
about 600,000. Wages
increased considerably faster than productivity.
wages
in
The
share of
the cost of production rose in 1961 by about
again by
6%
tion rose
by more than 4%. Exports and domestic
in
the
first
7%
and
half of 1962. Prices of domestic produc-
tinued at a high level while the inflow of
new
deliveries con-
orders to the capital
goods industries decreased, especially after the revaluation of the deutschemark by 5% on Feb. 15, 1961. Actual investment expenditure continued to expand in 1961 and was in the
second half of 1961 than
1960 (compared with the slowing
down
20%
in the
still
12%
higher
corresponding period of
in the first half year).
Coupled with
of inventory accumulation, the decrease in
orders brought about "normal" delivery terms by mid-1962 in the
German
capital
goods industry. By contrast the strong boom
conditions in the building industry continued through 1961 into 1962.
The expansion
of private consumption continued in 1961
parallel to the increase in private disposable income.
The
ratio
income was about the same as in the preceding year. Public consumption increased by 12.5%. On Jan. 19 all parlies in the Bundestag approved the exten-
of private savings to disposable
North Atlantic Treaty organization against 15.000,000,000
DM.
be met by mid-1963. The
to
DM.
18,000,000,000
exceeded
1963
defense estimates for
(T. C. Pe.; E.
for 1962.
as
Ml.)
German Democratic Republic—During the latter part of 1962 German Socialist Unity (Communist) party (S.E.D.)
the eastern
underwent a serious psychological crisis. Four years previously had delivered to the westthe Soviet premier, Nikita Khrushchev, status of West Berlin. ern powers his ultimatum on the future party's first secretary and chairman of the German Demo-
The
cratic
Republic's council of state, Walter Ulbricht, had fremove bound to lead to the "final vic-
quently described this as a
high tory" of socialism in Germany. As late as June 1962, party functionaries told western correspondents that the muchheralded peace treaty would be concluded "very soon," and that this
would automatically lead
to the
transformation of West Ber-
a "free demilitarized city." Subsequently the highly con-
lin into
fident tone of the regime's statements changed. its end it became evident that once German Communist leaders had been compelled Soviet line. The theme of the peace treaty and "free
As the year approached again the East to toe the
West
city" plan for
Berlin,
which had dominated every speech
and every declaration of the party and the government during the last four years, had all but vanished from the new party
program announced
to 34,000 during 1959-62.
The
and
military service from 1 year to sion of the period of compulsory commitment of 12 divisions for the 18 months to enable the
at the
end of November. Press slogans calling
for the victory of socialism throughout
by appeals
to
surmount the economic
The seven-year plan (1959-65), acknowledged
man
to
be
delegation early in the
replaced
officially still in
force,
was
by an East Geryear the Soviet Union granted a sup1,300,000,000 DM. (Ostmarks). The
a failure.
plementary trade credit of
Germany were
crisis.
Following a
visit
1962 trade agreement between the two countries envisaged an increase of
Soviet
12%
visiting the fair in
over the 1961 turnover. In the presence of the
deputy premier, Anastas Mikoyan,
first
who had been
Democratic Republic on the occasion of the Leipzig
March, Ulbricht
said that labour productivity
lower than in the Federal Republic
;
in the steel
was 20%
industry the gap
was even wider. On May 25 the West German government confirmed that the Democratic Republic had made an approach to obtain a credit to finance imports of industrial products and raw materials, but not of food.
The forced
total collectivization of the
land in the spring of
1960, a poor harvest in 1961 and unfavourable weather conditions
had in effect torpedoed the agricultural basis of the June the S.E.D. organ Neues Deutschland admitted that consumption of potatoes and other vegetables as well as of meat
early in 1962 plan. In
and poultry could no longer be maintained. Shortly afterward, a government reshuffle was carried out with the avowed aim of improving the efficiency of the administrative machine. On July 19 the presidium of the council of ministers issued directives for the 1963 economic plan ture
and budget. The main task of agriculwas described as the safeguarding of the "continual supply
of the population with basic foodstuffs."
On July 20 Ulbricht explained that the restriction of private ownership of livestock at the time of total collectivization had been a mistake; private rearing of pigs and poultry should be permitted. On Sept. 18 the government press office was even more frank in admitting for the firsf time that the "transition from individual to cooperative livestock farming has resulted in losses." Evidence of this was the introduction of customer registration for meat and
meat products
in
East Berlin on July 30. In the provinces this
systcrh had already been operative for
The
some
time.
chemical industry (especially petrochemical manufacture), metalworking industries with a high processing content, ma-
GERMANY and
chine-tool production
and ceramic industries were
glass
to
receive priority under the 1963 plan. This no doubt reflected the part assigned to the Democratic Republic in plans for the eco-
nomic integration of the member states of the Council for Mutual
Economic Aid.
On Jan.
24 the
Volkskammer passed
a general conscription law.
According to the West German ministry of defense the Demo-
armed forces numbered 200,000 men (army navy 14.000 and air force 10,000). In addition, there
cratic Republic's
176,000,
were 30,000 special police, 80,000 ordinary police and several hundred thousand members of paramilitary organizations. It was
announced in Bonn in July that 3i2 soldiers and policemen in uniform had escaped to the west during the first half of 1962. On April 9 Marshal Ivan S. Koniev left his post as commander in chief of the Soviet armed forces in the German Democratic Republic and was replaced by Gen. Ivan I. Yakubovski, who had held the appointment until Aug. 10, 1961 (i.e., until three days before the erection of the Berlin wall).
On March
13 the East
German
foreign minister informed the
acting secretary-general of the United Nations,
Democratic Republic was prepared
the
and use of nuclear weapons
to
U
Thant, that
ban the manufacture
in its territory if the Federal
Republic
was ready to do likewise. On April 23 U Thant reiterated that the Federal Republic was the only German state represented at the United Nations
by
official
observers.
On
Sept. 13 the foreign
minister told a meeting of the council of state in East Berlin that
new
consulates general had been opened in Burma,
and Indonesia. The East German trade mission
in
Cambodia
Buenos Aires
ceased activities in the course of the year because the Argentine
government declined
to extend visas.
On March 8 the International Olympic committee informed the East German committee that it insisted on a joint German team for the
1964 Olympic games
in
Innsbruck and Tokyo. This was
accepted by the Democratic Republic on
At the end of July the
March
16.
state secretary for church affairs visited
the bishop of Thuringia, the leading Protestant
churchman
Democratic Republic, and described rumours that a
was
state
in the
church
to be introduced as slanderous.
An important
event in the academic sphere during 1962 was the
abohtion of the "workers and peasant faculties" at
all
universities
and technical colleges with the exception of two, which were to remain in existence for a further year. All applicants for places
would be required tificate
and
cording to
to
to
have taken
have completed
their higher school-leaving certheir occupational training.
West German government
sources, 47 academics, in-
cluding five university professors, fled to the west in the six
months of 1962, bringing the
East
Germany
Ac-
total of
academics who had
first
left
since the beginning of 1958 to 1,653.
the World; European Unity; Foreign Investments; German Literature; North Atlantic Treaty See also Armies of
(S. E. S.)
Organization. Federal Republic of Germany
.
—Schools
1960, excluding Hamburg and Bremen): primary 30,350, pupils 4,950,054, teachers 162,392: higher primary 943, pupils 328,712, teachers 16.623; secondary 1.655, pupils 779.293, teachers 48,531: all-age schools (Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg and Bremen) 532, pupils 270,293, teachers 10.684; vocational, excluding 7 higher technical institutes (Nov. 1959), 6.109, pupils 2,064,057, teachers 74.656; teachertraining (Nov. 1959) 73, students 24.998. Universities (1960) 18. students 148,557. teaching staff 7,097. Other institutions of higher education (1960) 29, students 45.55", teaching staff 2,265. Music, art and physical training colleges 2i. students 6,978. Finance and Banting. Monetary unit: deutschemark, with a par value (from Feb. 15, 1951) of 4 DM. to U.S. $1. Budget (1963 estimates) balanced at 56,800,000,000 DM. (revenue to include 1,800.000.000 DM. new loans: expenditure 18,400,000,000 DM. for defense, 1.740.000.000 DM. for Berlin, 965.000.000 DM. for foreign aid). Internal debt (March 1962) 22,050.000,000 DM.; external debt (excluding 2,512,800,000 DM. indebtedness to Bundesbank due to acquisition of claims resulting from postwar economic aid) 3.462.300,000 DM. Currency circulation (June 1961) 22.065,000,000 DM., (June 1962) 23,821,000,000 DM. Deposit money (June 1961) 26,500,000,000 DM., (June 1962) 30,028,000,000 DM. Gold Education.
(May
—
409
and foreign exchange, official holdings (June 1961) U.S. $6,845,000,000, (June 1962) U.S. $5,223,000,000. Foreign Trode. (1951, including West Berlin) Imports 44,353,200.000 DM., exports 50.978,400.000 DM. Main sources of imports: European Economic Community countries 32.4'?c European Free Trade association countries 22.1% (U.K. 4.4%); U.S. and Canada 11.4%; Latin America 8.0'7c; other commonwealth countries 5.2%; U.S.S.R., eastern Europe and mainland China 4.2%. Main destinations of exports: E.E.C. 32.3%; E.F.T..\. 31.3% (U.K. 4.2%); U.S. and Canada 7.9%; Latin America 7.0%; other commonwealth countries 5.0%; U.S.S.R., eastern Europe and mainland China 4.1%. Main imports: foodstuffs and raw materials. Main exports: capital goods and other finished and semifinished manufactures (including machinery, equipment and motor vehicles). Transport ond Communicationt.— Railways (1950) 35,919 km., including 5,258 km. private and 4,564 km. electrified; passenger-km. (Federal railways, 1960) 38,583,000,000; freight (Federal railways, 1961) 53,520,000,000 ton-km. Classified roads (Jan. 1951) 136,340 km., including 2,659 km. of Autobahnen. Motor vehicles in use (July 1952): passenger 5,130.000, commercial (including buses, Jan. 1962) 717,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1961) 2,452; total tonnage 4,771,080. Cargo in West German ports in external trade (metric tons. 1951): loaded 17,520,000; unloaded 60,780.000. Navigable inland waterways (1960) 4,375 km. Telephones (Dec. 1960, including West Berlin) 5,994,051; licensed radio receivers (.Aug. 1962) 15,593,000; licensed television receivers (.\ug. 1962) 6,747,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1961; 1960 in parentheses): wheat 4.038,000 (4,955.000); rye 2,512.000 (3,795,000): barley 2.722,000 (3,211,000); oats 1,913,000 (2,178,000); potatoes 21.504,000 -(24, 545,000); milk 18.120,000 (19,248,000); butter 458.000 (432,000); cheese 300,000 (299,000); meat 2,555,100 (2,316,000); beet sugar, raw value. 1,440.000 (1,995,000); wine 329,000 (684,000). Livestock (Dec.
—
;
—
1960, including the Saar): cattle 12,857,000; pigs 15,775.500; sheep 1,035.000; horses 710,200; poultry 63,982,500. Fish landings (1960) 574,-
000 metric
tons.
—
Industry. Fuel and power (metric tons, 1951): coal (including Saar) 142,640.000; lignite 97,188,000: crude oil 5,204,000; coke (including Saar) 37,545,000; electricity (including Saar) 122,450,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (including Saar) 23,568,000,000 cu.m. Production (metric tons, 1961): iron ore (metal content 30%) 13,104,000: pig iron (including Saar) 25,584,000; crude steel (including Saar) 33,456.000; zinc 203.280; copper 304,580; lead 140,400; aluminum 308,400; cement (including Saar) 26,940,000; cotton yarn 403,200; woven cotton fabrics (equivalent yarn input to mills) 279,600; wool yarn (including Saar) 113,540; rayon filament yarn 75,480: rayon staple fibre 154,800: potash K2O content (1960) 2,316,000: passenger cars (units) 1,751.900: commercial vehicles (units) 394,800 (including freight trucks 234,700). New dwelling units completed (including Saar) 543.600. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over. 1960) 972.000 gross tons. Index of production (general, excluding construction, June 1962; 1953 100) 206, (June I96I) 192. Cost of living index (Aug. 1962; 1958 100) 108.6, (Aug. 1961) 105.5, (Aug. 1950) 102.3. Unemployment: June 1952 0.4%; June 1951 0.5%.; 1950 average 1.2%; 1959 average 2.4%.
=
=
German Democratic Republic
—
Education. Schools (1961): nursery 9,169, pupils 419,159, teachers 25,344; primary (1960) 8,864, pupils (1960) 1,922,192, teachers (1960) 75,484; secondary (1950) 322, pupils (1960) 82,471, teachers (1960) 5.544: vocational 1,108. pupils 274,100, teachers 12,344; higher vocational 298, pupils 184.827, teachers 7,131; institutions of higher education 55, full-time students, 74,205, full-time teaching staS 4,2 75. Finance. Monetary unit: deutschemark (Ostmark) with an official exchange rate, high and fictitious, of 2.22 DM. to U.S. $1. In West Berlin the free exchange rate prior to Aug. 13, 1951, was 1 Westmark to 5 Ostmarks. Budget (Ostmarks, 1962 est.): revenue 55,826,000,000, expenditure 55.802.000.000. Foreign Trode. (1961, in rubles) Imports 1,994.600,000 (including 1,510,300,000 from Soviet bloc countries): exports 2,035,300.000 (including 1.520.300.000 to the Soviet bloc countries). The total also includes imports from the German Federal Republic (176.900,000 rubles) and exports to it (195.900,000 rubles). Chief sources of imports and destinations of exports: U.S.S.R.. Czechoslovakia, Poland. Transport and Communications. Classified roads (1961): 45.375 km., including state main highways 12.352 km. (of which 1.382 km. Autobahnen). Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1958 est): passenger cars 130,000, trucks 130.000, buses 3.800. Railways (1951): 16.160 km. including 1,273 km. narrow-gauge and 737 km. electrified: passenger traffic 19,540.000.000 passenger-km.; passengers transported 830.000.000: freight traffic (standard gauge only) 35.728,000.000 ton-km.; freight carried 244.SO0.OO0 tons. Navigable inland waterways (1961) 2.644 km.: freight transported 2.202,000.000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1961) 1.296.044; radio receiving sets (end 1960) 5.542,000: television receiving sets (1960) 1.035,030. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons. 1960: 1959 in parentheses): wheat (1961) 1,350,000 (1,455.000 in 1950): r>'e (1961) 2.070,000 (2.126.000 in 1960): barley 1,259.000 (1.039,000): oats 1,007.400 (966.000); potatoes 14.821.000 (12.435,000); sugar beets 6.840.000 (4.650,000). Livestock (Dec. 1950): cattle 4.675.000: pigs 9,282,000: sheep 2,438,900; horses 446.800: poultry 39.909,900. Industry Employed in industr>- (1962 est.) 2.750.000. (1961) 2.799,177. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated. 1961: 1960 in parentheses): coal 2.575.000 (2,724.000): lignite (of which East Germany is the world's largest producer) 263.928,000 (225.468.000); petroleum products (1960) 1.289.000 (1.158.000 in 1959); manufactured gas 3.335.000.000 cu.m. (3,324,000,000): electricity 42,504.000.000 kw.hr. (40.296.000.000): iron ore (30% metal content) 1.704.000 (1.644.000); pig iron 2 028.000 (1,992,000): steel 3.444,000 (3.336.000); copper ore 1.687.000 (1.613,000); potash 16.952 (16.899); cement 5.280.000 (5,028,000): sulfuric acid 509.400 (595.900); nitrogenous fertilizers 330.100 (334.100); phosphatic fertilizers 173.100 (165.800): svnthetic rubber 88.200 (85,550): passenger cars (units) 74.520 (64.020); trucks (units) 11.880 (12.840): electric locomotives (units) 389 (420): cotton fabrics 262.800,000 sq.m. (254,400,000); sugar, raw 734,000 (880,000).
—
—
—
—
—
GERONT OLOGY
410
tkt West (1962); Encyci.op*dia Britankica fivits.-Brrlm: Test lor Germany (People of the Industrial West) (1957).
n herOntOlOgy. 1,
I
continIn 1962 the so-called senior citizens interest exued to increase in number while
problems, in their medical in research into their medical
panded care and
opportunities for living.
in their
Allfrey of the RockeIn research, for example. Vincent G. have two types of institute found that normal cell nuclei
feller
whereas tumour histones (a kind of protein) in one proportion While the findmgs are cells have different histone properties. to limit uncon-
merely suggestive, they do point out new ways Further study could trolled cell division in neoplastic tissues. controls of nucleic acid lead to a cancer treatment using natural activity.
have Fundamental discoveries in genetics and immunology processes. produced widening concepts of the nature of disease
unknown origin are For instance, more diseases of previously an overconsidered as autoimmune types; i.e., caused by
being
activity of the natural
zation).
Many
immune
reaction
mechanism
of the diseases, e.g., rheumatoid
affect persons late in life
may be
(autosensiti-
arthritis,
in this group. {See also
that
Allergy;
Blood, Diseases of the.) treated more Diseases of the heart and blood vessels were being controlling high blood effectively in 1962. Medicines used for allowed more pressure were more refined and effective. Surgery adequate treatment of such conditions as cerebrovascular
insuffi-
plugging of the blood ciency, hardening of the heart valves and narrowing of the vessels ( atherosclerotic occlusive disease) due to arteries.
Malignant disease, particularly the inoperable types,
may
In tion
Medical associaof existence the American its seven years necessity accepted entirely Committee on Aging has from aging that can serve as a basis
of new and progressive concepts program. These concepts regard aging for a community person must prepare just part of life for which a
specialty societies,
such as the American
Practice,
Psychiatric
gerontological group. newer concepts concerning the classical presentation on the Alexander Reid. Martin made a leisure in an aging population need for a philosophy concerning distinction between free time and in which he made a sharp mobilization of religion, industry, psyleisure. He suggested a to provide for a "riper" old chiatry, education and recreation age.
In April of 1962 the
Joint Council on Health Care of the
co-ordinator
for
various groups such
centres will develop
munity
level.
habilitation
for booklets that dealt with the problem of educating children health in youth and the new era of aging; the preservation of
middle age; and the fulfillment of
life in
the later years.
from
citizen
own homes and reducing all types of institutionaliminimum. The White House Conference on Aging particularly recommended the return of the psychiatric patient from institutional
aged in their
Of the patients who receive prolonged inhave always formed the largest group. Community care results in greater economy for the taxpayer and
community
care.
stitutional care, the aged
ties in
community acregional conferences on aging to help stimulate adequate opportunities for tion in providing senior citizens with series of informational living. This effort was correlated with a
community health projects. These new and improved methods of providing
glaucoma, hyperducted for chronic conditions such as diabetes, loss. Other services tension, poor vision, cataracts and hearing with senior such as that of the visiting nurse will be co-ordinated maintaining the activities. All services will be directed at
allows
and nursing home operators at the local comThe American Medical association held several
Com-
(1961) were made to
emphasis on the needs of health services outside hospitals with prevention of disability by the aged and chronically ill. The stressed as well as the reearly and effective treatment will be chronic disability. Screening tests will be con-
the
dentists, nurses
appropriations under the
Facilities act
establish the first of several
physicians,
Aged was as
initial
munity Health Services and
to
The
American
American Geriatrics society and the were active in organizing and disseminat-
association,
ing the
Voluntary organizations, such as the American Diabetes assothe Arthritis and ciation, the American Heart association and Rheumatism foundation, provided basic, practical information on national
The various Academy of General
Gerontological society,
zation to a
care.
an
as he
prepares for early adulthood.
now be treated with a number of chemical agents. {See Chemotherapy; Heart and Circulatory Diseases; Surgery.) Health care for the aged received much attention in 1962. also
as
integral
more of the senior citizens to continue their usual activithe community and yet receive adequate care for mental
conditions.
Insurance programs were extended to meet the needs of the Many of the programs are based on a plan called
aging group.
"Connecticut-65." Both Blue Cross-Blue Shield and private in-
surance companies have offered these programs.
Community
action to provide better living for persons over
65 with limited incomes was evidenced e.g.,
of transportation
by plans
to reduce costs,
and medical care, by use of cards
Vnited Press UternaUonal
certi-
\
Alonzo StaoO. '•* coach, celebrated his 100th birthday Aug. 16, 1962, and was honoured at functions in many parts of the United Slates. A lifelong devotee of physical Alness, he had retired from coaching only a
CENTENARIAN: Amos mous
football
few years before. Mrs. Stagg, seen with him at birthday party in Stockton, Calif., observed her 90th birthday In 1962
.
Jf/M
GHANA by the town clerk. Some communities chasmg plans for the aged in this group.
fied
By
up discount pur-
(R. j Kr ) 1962, the Kerr-Mills act of 1960 had been put into
late
by 26
Monthly payments to not on welfare totaled $23,200,000 by May. effect
set
states.
the low-income aged
Efforts were made in the law so as to provide medical care to the aged as part of the social security system, but these ended in July, when an amendment was tabled in the senate
amend
congress to
(see also
Insurance: Hospital, Medical and Surgical Insurance). The National Institutes of Health in 1962 continued
its
re-
search into medical care of the aged. Under this program, hosand other medical institutions are conducting
pitals
home It
18% ing
studies of
care of the aged and other aspects of their medical care. was reported that the aged ti.e., those 65 and older) use of the beds in general hospitals and
homes although they
Two-thirds of the
someone other than
constitute only
women and their
See also Birth and
90%
9%
half of the
husband or wife
of those in nurs-
of the population.
men must
rely
on
to care for them.
Death
Statistics; Cancer; Heart and Circulatory Diseases; Insurance; Rheumatic Diseases; Social Security; Stomach and Intestines, Diseases of the.
—
Bibliography. Felix Milgrom and Ernest Witebsky, ".Autoantibodies y..-1..1/..4.. 181:706-716 (.Aug. 25 1962) "The Enigma oi Human -Aging," Part I. Special Report, Cliem Enein '.\ews 40:138-146 (Feb. 12, 1962); Frederick .A. Lewis. Jr.. "Communitv Care of and .Autoimmune Diseases,"
U
Patients Versus Prolonged Institutionalization " J 4 4 182:323-326 (Oct. 27. 1962); .Alexander Reid Martin, "Urgent Need for a Philosophy of Leisure in an .Aging Population," /. Amer Geriat Soc 10:215-224 (March 1962); M. Zborowski. ".Aging and Recreation" / 17:302-309 (July 1962); M. L. Riccitelli and Albert L. Larson,' P«""''The Connecticut 65 Plan: N'ew Low-Cost Health Insurance for the Aged " J.Amer. Geriat. Soc, 10:1003-07 (Dec. 1962). Psychiatric
'
pkApn Ulldlld.
A republic of west Africa and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Ghana is located on the Gulf
of Guinea and bordered by Ivory Coast,
Area 92,100 sq.mi. Pop. (1961 dent in 1962,
Upper Volta and Togo.
est.) 6,943,000.
Cap. Accra. Presi-
—The
political scene in
shadowed by deportations,
policies,
and
a
number
major
of
1962 continued to be over-
plots, detentions,
bomb
throwings and
of Ghana,
the
Kwame Nkrumah
Ideological institute in
Winneba on "posiby over 100 nationalists from different parts of colonial Africa. The course was followed by a four-day conference of African Freedom Fighters, attended by 200 delegates from African countries. In June came the announcement tive action," attended
that an African military high
command was
of the
cavalry
Ghanaian army, drilled
in
unit
1962
by British cavalry serfleants for participation In ceremonial events
to be established in
Accra by Ghana. Guinea, Mali. Morocco, the U.A.R. and the Algerian provisional government.
The Ghana government acted as host in January to Anastas -Mikoyan, the Soviet deputy premier, and a $42,000,000 longterm trade and payment agreement between the two countries was signed. On June 21-28 an international conference on the World Without the Bomb, held in Accra, was attended by a number of distinguished representatives from both east and west. The following month President Nkrumah was presented with the Lenin Peace prize. During 1962 Ghana was elected one of the
nonpermanent members of the United Nations Security council. The internal political scene continued dark and uncertain, though a temporary lightening occurred in May and June with the announcement of an amnesty for those who had fled the country. Between May and the end of June, about 320 detainees were released. On .\ug. 1, however, a hand grenade was thrown crowd surrounding President Nkrumah during a brief, unscheduled stop at the small northern village Kulungugu. and
into the
The
incident led
and detention (Aug. 29) of a number of leading party figures. On Sept. 9 there was a further bomb incident outside Nkrumah's residence in which two people were killed. In a to the arrest
cabinet reshuffle. Krobo Edusei. dismissed earlier in the year as minister of industries, was brought back (Sept. 3) as minister of agriculture. These changes were difficult to interpret except as merely part of a constant struggle for power and influence around the president. The most significant change was that for the first
balance. There were signs, however, of
GHANA'S LANCERS: A
in-
Guinea, Mali, Morocco and the United Arab Republic, giving their reasons for refusal to attend the "African summit" conference at Lagos. In February a three-month course was opened at
measures were taken by the government to meet a growing balance-of-payments crisis and a budgetary deficit.
Camera Pre,,— Fix from Puhlix
were
Throughout 1962, the government adhered closely to the Casablanca group of African states, and in January a joint communique was issued in Accra by the foreign ministers
who were
stringent
pan-African
industrial projects
the difficulties attendant on running a single-party republic under personal control. The economy was also under stfain. and all
its
augurated.
four persons were killed and over 70 wounded.
Kwame Nkrumah.
—
Census Data Results of the 1960 census showed a population of 6.726,815, an increase of 63% over th'e 1948 census. Fop. of the regions: Ashanti 1,109,133; Brong-Ahafo 587,920: Eastern 1.094,196: Northern 1,288,917Volta 777,285; Western 1,377.547; Accra Capital District 491.817. Principal cities: Accra 388.396; Kumasi 218.172; Sekondi-Takoradi 123,313' Ho 116,993; Tamale 58,813; Cape Coast 56,914; New Juaben 53,815; Oda-Swedru 52,539.
History.
411
Nevertheless, the government pressed forward
time President
Nkrumah was
himself a target for attack by some
previously his supporters.
Economically, Ghana had to contend with an adverse trade
improvement during the
GIBRA LTAR
412 first
under the half of the year, with a falling off of imports
tighter controls
imposed
in 1961.
Development expenditure con-
enterprise, though tinued at a high rate, not always on productive of the Volta there was impressive progress at Akosombo, the site
Agreements were signed in Washington in March, as under which the World bank granted a loan of $47,000,000
I
for the year declined
15.2%.
German production dropped 3.2%.
steady
Table II.— G/ass-Contoiner Industry
Statistics, U.S.
The new
$75,-
Nkrumah 000.000 harbour at Tema was officially opened by suspenFebruary. The growing pace of development led to the the substitution sion of the 1959 five-year development plan and (D- Au.) of a seven-year plan to run from 1962. in
teachers Educalion.-Schools (1960-61): primary 3.452, pupils 478,000 pupils (1960-61) 15.546; secondary (including middle, 1959-60) 1,463, teacner173 112 teachers 5.745; technical and trade 76, pupils 4,563; Higher education: Unitraining colleges 31, students 4,462, teachers 348. Nkrumah Iniversity ot versity of Ghana, students (1961) 682; Kwame of Administration, Science and Technolog>-, students (1962) 656; College students 201. There is also a law school. ,.,-,_ £G.l - ti Finance and Trade.— Monetary unit: Ghana pound (par value balanced at £128,sterling = U.S. $2.80). Budget (1962-63 provisional): £104,380,exports 000,000. Foreign trade (1961): imports £140,780,000, manganese ore. 000. Main exports: cocoa (66%), timber, gold, diamonds,
n
Cihroltor hlur3ll3r.
^
British colony
and
fortress, Gibraltar lies
on a
peninsula adjoining southwest Spain at the western
end of the Mediterranean. Area 2.25 sq.mi. Governors in 1962, Dudley Gen. Sir Charles Keightley and, from July 31, Gen. Sir
Ward. Censui Data.— .\ census taken on Oct. 3, 1961, disclosed a total popu5.5% over the 1951 census (23.232). The population was composed of 17,985 Gibraltarians, 4.809 British subjects, density was 10,1,281 alien residents and 427 transients. The population
lation of 24-.502, an increase of
889.7 per square mile.
History.— Capital expenditure by both the government and the service departments was again concentrated on housing. A major army rebuilding plan was approved, as a result of which a number of military properties in the city would become available for residential and commercial development. Tourist traffic continued to increase and work on new and improved hotel ac-
commodation was much
in evidence.
Plans were approved for
further port development.
(J.
D. Bs.)
Education.— Schools (I960): primary 17, pupils 2,760, teachers (1959) 101; secondary 7, pupils 1,693. teachers (1959) 102; vocational 2, pupils 158,' teachers (1959) 11. Financ* and Trad*. Currency: sterling with local notes. Budget (1962 est.): revenue £1.935.000, expenditure £1,959,000. Foreign trade (1961, excluding bunkers): imports £9,330,000, exports £2,450,000. Tourists and transit visitors (1961) 215,282.
—
Shipments
Production
river project.
part of the international financing of the scheme.
(lit
1962
(1st 6 months)
6
00,^0/
units produced, only
containers were for drugs
chemicals.
142,307 143,446 151,709 156,347 165,240 81,127 83,414
146,297 145,057 153 159 159,940 167,483 83,320 86,237
••,• months
1961 1961
were exported. The end uses for these
1%
for foods,
40.6%
30.1%
for beverages,
ment
resulted in glass with tensile strengths of as
glass
j
induced in service or testing. Flat sheets of such glass 16 ft. long and 0.1 in. thick were flexed 1,000 times into a circle of 30 in. radius without effect. Experimental glass cups
made by
a similar
100 ft. onto a quarter-inch-thick steel one instance the ware survived a drop from the top of a nine-story building. Glass tableware made by this process
process were dropped plate,
and
in
was being sold with a three-year guarantee. Among other technological advances, a new, intricate machine three stories high and weighing more than 60 tons went into
$260,000,000 $948,931,000
J282,092,000 $937,428,000
$482,799,000
$478,782,000
labia
more than $400,000,000 worth of flat which 22% was shipped to the U.S.; in spite
glass in 1961, of
of this
its
output
j
j
j
i
;
;
;
were produced by introducing neodymium into rare earth containing glass rods. in
highest
A
series of glass solders
assemblies was introduced.
electronic
known
elastic properties
for use primarily
Glass fibres
and of low
were also developed. Some of them had double or
ment winding of
glass fibres for
the space
glass
the
of
1
dielectric charactertriple
on the market. Spiral filaplastic reinforcement found ex-
and missile programs. Other space
Mercury capsules
of multi-
ple-pane glass windows consisting of two outer panes of
,
i
production of laboratory beakers and flasks. Glasses for lasers
silica
lent of
as 400,-
were chemically treated by immersion in a molten bath
and two inner panes of alumino-silicate
96%
glass.
(H. H. B.)
fti
(Incl. liohrino,
much
of lithium sulfate. This induced the formation of surface layers under extremely high compressions that offset the tensile stresses
applications included the use in the
ih.el ord plola glaii Gloiicor.lolof.fl
j
lb.
Glaciology: see Antarctica. Glands: see Endocrinology.
PrelMd ond blown gloiiwor* ond ch.mlcol wor., old
, 1
21.9%
per square inch, in contrast to 7,000 lb. for ordinary glasses and up to 30,000 lb. for tempered or heat-strengthened glasses. Special compositions such as soda-alumina-titania-silica
000
tensive use in
1940
I
comparable strength and safety. The most outstanding advance in increasing the strength of This developglass in history was announced late in the year.
U.S.
1961
!
and cosmetics and 7.4% for industrial and household The use of lightweight single-usage beverage con-
the strength of similar fibres already
Tobl* I.— Vafu* ol U.S. Clatt Production 1960-61
1
cans—increased tainers—the so-called one-way bottles or glass introduced that 61.2%. New types of television tubes were but had weighed only 20% as much as the conventional tubes
istics
flol.
lOOOgrossI
'
1000 gross!
1957 1958 1959 I960
Gilbert and Ellice Islands: see Pacific Islands, British. Girl Scouts of the U.S.A.: see Societies and Associations,
During 1962 shifting economic patterns as well as Idaa. technological advances brought noteworthy changes to the glass industry. U.S. companies continued to acquire sizable interests in their counterparts within the European Common Market countries as well as in some other parts of the world. Within the framework of the Reciprocal Trade act, Pres. John F. Kennedy increased duties on imports of cylinder, crown and sheet glass ranging from 1.3 cents to 3.5 cents per pound. The value of U.S. flat-glass production fell by about $18,000,000 from 1960 to 1961 (see Table I). Belgium exported the equiva-
i
production of glass containers continued its In contrast U S the more than 23,000,000,000 progress (see Table II). Of
Encvclop;edia Britannica Films. Through Research) (1954).
riiriinO'
UllUlllg.
^^''^ ship
taken place in tition
^^
meet
W.
The 1962
of
is
Germany
was scheduled
140 mi.
's
—Glass
(From
the Old to the
New
usual that a world gliding champion-
held biennially, with the last having '
in 1960, the
next international compe-
for Feb. 1963 at Junin, Arg.,
approximately
Buenos Aires.
British national competitions
were held at Aston down, Gloucestershire, June 2-11. A total of 80 entrants participated, with 40 pilots flying in each of two leagues. League placement was dependent upon past competition performance. Capt. H. C. N. Goodhart of the Royal Navy, who flew an Olympia 419 sailplane, became the new British champion. The Canadian national contest was flown at the municipal port of Regina, Sask. Of the 20 sailplanes some participants flying as teams, Wolf
and 31
Mix
,
air-
pilots entered,
of Toronto
,
won
'
;
GO the championship flying a Schweizer
1-23H
sailplane.
Thirty-three pilots competed in the 29th U.S. national soaring championships at El Mirage airfield, near Victorville, Calif., 2. John D. Ryan of Phoenix, Ariz., in a Sisu-1 saUbecame the new national champion. George B. Moffat, Jr.,
July 24-Aug. plane,
New
Brunswick, N.J.. flying an HP-8 sailplane at El Mirage, new world speed records for single-place sailplanes which are also U.S. national records: 79.77 m.p.h. over a of
established two
100-km. triangular course on Aug. 16 and 67.18 m.p.h. over a 300-km. triangular course on Aug. 19. U.S. pilots hold all but two of the eight recognized open-category, single-place world sailplane records.
The
following world record was accepted by the Federation
Aeronautique Internationale
a goal
:
ord of 400.72 mi. established in
New
and return single-place recZealand on Jan. 4 by S. H.
Georgeson flying a Skylark 3F sailplane. The following record claims were submitted to the F.A.I, for approval: a goal and return multiplace flight of 338.64 mi. made in Poland on July 29 by Stanislaw Batusinski with Stanislaw Maciejewski, passenger, in a Bocian sailplane; a multiplace goal flight of 391.46 mi.
by the Polish pilot Franciszek Kepka, with Edward Lopato as passenger, on Aug. 8; a speed flight over a 200-km. triangular course at an average of 52.19 m.p.h. by Daniel Barbera of France, with Sylvain Robert as passenger, on Aug. 17. In the feminine world record category the following multiwas accepted by the F.A.I. an absolute altitude
place claim
:
record of 28,120
established on Dec. 11, 1961,
ft.
by Denise
Trouillard of France with Suzanne Suclet as passenger, flying a
WA-30 sailplane at Issoire, France; this same flight also set a new feminine altitude-gained record with a chmb of 23,805 ft. Three new U.S. sailplanes made their inaugural flights during the year. Raymon H. Parker of Inglewood. Calif., completed his "T-Bird" sailplane of all-wood construction. Richard E. Schreder
new
of Toledo, 0., flew his
all-metal
HP-11
sailplane to third
place in the national competitions. Schweizer Aircraft corporation of Elmira, N.Y.,
began '
on
flight tests
its
two-place model
2-32,
(J.
Gold output
in the free
Gold. ninth consecutive year
an estimated $1,300,000,000
at
On
the other hand, gold sales
other European markets were the five preceding years, annually. fore, to
New
world increased
to a
in
D. Gr.)
1962 for the
new post-World War
II
peak
it was b'^c higher than in 1961. by the U.S.S.R. in London and
much
less
in
evidence than in
when they had averaged $240,000,000
gold supplies in the free world appeared, there-
have been somewhat smaller than the $1,500,000,000
recorded for 1961.
Of these new supplies, much less gold than in most other postwar years appeared in official monetary stocks during the first (
9 months of 1962. only $200,000,000 was so reported). The bulk was absorbed by industrial users and above all private hold-
—
ers.
the third postwar tion
—
In the broad perspective, these developments appeared as
— following
wave
of greatly enlarged private gold absorp-
Korean outbreak,
1951. the aftermath of the
and 1960, the year of the London gold rush.
The U.S. treasury stock {see Chart I).
declined by $911,000,000 in
At the end of December
000.000, the lowest since 1939 but
still
it
amounted
39%
1962
to $15,978.-
of the free world's
monetary gold stock. This was approximately the same proportion as in the 1920s; in 1949, whe^ the U.S. gold stock was at its peak, the proportion
The
was 70%.
largest additions to official gold stocks in 1962 were
made
by France, the U.K., South Africa, Austria, Spain and Belgium. The proportion of gold in total gold and foreign exchange reserves stood at around 90% in Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the U.K. about 70% in France and Italy; and approximately ;
I94J
END Of YEAR FIGURES
CHART
I:
UNTH RGUOfS
WORLD OFFICIAL GOLD STOCKS AND OFFICIAL AND PRIVATE
U.S. dollar holdlnos of countries other than the U.S. 'Excludes U.S.S.R., mainland China and countries associated with them. tShort-lerm dollar assets and U.S. government bonds and notes. ^ Includes International Monetary Fund, Bank for International Settlements, etc. (Sources: International Financial
Statistics and Federal
60%
Reserve Bulletin)
Germany, the largest holder outside the U.S. (and the The movement of reserves is shown in Chart II. Behind the changes in monetary gold stocks and foreign shortterm U.S. dollar holdings shown in Chart I were certain notable developments in international payments. The U.S. balance of payin
U.S.S.R.).
ments, though first
still
running a
deficit estimated,
on the basis of the
nine months, at $1,900,000,000 a year, showed considerable
improvement from the $3,400,000,000 annual average
deficit dur-
ing 1958-61. Expansion of exports (in part because of pressures
on costs in Germany and other countries) provided a fundamental help, but several temporary or special factors, including prepayments to the U.S. government by France and were likewise important. The U.K. also experienced an improvement in its international accounts. The reduction in the sizable debt Italy,
U.S. and U.K. deficits had
main counterpart in smaller balin some cases, the emergence the countries of continental Europe and
ance-of-pa>'ments surpluses of
payments
in
Japan.
deficits
—
in
its
—and,
The volume of world trade, which had increased by about 80% from 1950 to 1961, rose 6% in 1962. There was, therefore, no CHART
II:
OFFICIAL GOLD STOCKS OF SELECTED COUNTRIES
of western
Europe. Data for 1962 do not include the final quarter. (Sources: International Financial Statistics and Federal Reserve Bulletin) MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 4,000
GOLDBERG
414
liquidity. any general shortage of international efforts by the Against this broad background, and in view of the and preserve a sustainU.S. and other trading nations to restore was balance, the consensus was that there
evidence
of
able international
served by, raisneither need for, nor constructive purpose to be per fine ounce. ing the U.S. price ol gold from the current $35 U.S. could in some European quarters that the
It was suggested and central strengthen the confidence of foreign governments the Interbanks if it guaranteed them, either directly or through
raised
event that it national Monetar>' Fund, against loss in the pointing out that the price of gold. This idea was countered by
weakening monetary and fiscal rests not on fordiscipline in the U.S. Besides, the real guarantee of the mal compacts but on the strength and the performance
a gold guarantee
might result
in
ments and central
London market and
in the
dropped from Imports of gold (excluding coinage) oz. in 1961. Exports rose from 9,322,000 oz. in 1960 to 1,615,000 1960
in
47 000
to supply gold to the
market
22,146,000 oz.
oz. to
output was about nine months of 1962, U.S. mine gold, compared with 1,138,162 in 1,116,538 oz. of recoverable the same period of 1961. In the
oz
first
output was 506,640 Australia.— In the first half of 1962 gold 1961. compared with 510,258 in the first half of Canada.— In the first half of 1962, gold output was 2,097,000
oz.,
1962 entered into, or further deThe governveloped, a number of co-operative arrangements. banks agreed to refrain from competitive gold
Leading industrial nations
compared
arts in 1961,
in
American economy.
buying
with $58,337,000 in 1960. South Dakota $54 189 000, compared by Utah, Arizona and Washington. again led in output, followed fine troy ounces of reThe U S mint reported that 3,912,554 $136,939,390 were used in industry and the fined gold valued at with 3,000,000 oz. valued at $105,000,000
compared with 2,270,000
South Africa.— In the
was 18,898,681 See also
oz.,
in the first half of 1961.
first
nine
months of 1962, gold output
against 17,065,213 in 1961.
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; Foreign (F. E. H.; B. B.
Investments; Secondary Metals.
M.)
grip
from official reserves to strengthen the British authorities' to boron the price. They entered into reciprocal arrangements row each other's currencies and empowered the International Monetary Fund to borrow, in an emergency, currencies from members gaining reserves to lend them to those whose currencies were temporarily under pressure. The federal reserve system for the U.S.
first
time since the 1930s
exchange operations for its own account. In thinking, mutual accumulations of currencies among
in foreign
engaged
official
monetary authorities, applied widely and generally, could give added flexibility to the international monetary structure. Such a gradual organic change was regarded by many students of inter-
(1908-
»_i.L U GOldDerg, ArtnUr JOSepn I
of the
),
us
associate justice
supreme court, was
8. the youngest of eight children Goldberg worked from the age of 12 and supported himself through college, receiving his law degree summa cum laude from Northwestern university (1930), then specialized in labour law. He moved to Washington, D.C., in 1948
born
in
Chicago,
111.,
on Aug.
of Russian immigrants.
United Steelworkers of America and
as general counsel for the
the Congress of Industrial Organizations; he played a major role in merging the C.I.O. and the American Federation of Labor. He
national liquidity as preferable to institutional innovations such by a supraas the pooling and creation of international reserves
Pres. John F. Kennedy's secretary of labour in 1960. Within 72 hours of being sworn in, he settled a disruptive New York tugboat strike, later negotiated maritime and airline strikes,
national central bank.
won
How
far the principal nations
might be prepared to go
co-operative arrangements was not at
all
clear.
in these
thing was
One
became
a no-strike-no-lockout pledge at missile construction sites
and mediated
threatened to cancel the 1961-62
a dispute that
Metropolitan opera season.
however: the world's monetary system could be only as strong as each of the individual links in the chain. Students of the subject pointed out that to keep the U.S. link strong called currency for policies that would maintain the dollar as a reliable
On Feb. 23, 1962, Goldberg said that the government had to help more in the collective bargaining process through increas-
designed to for policies on the part of the European nations achieve a wider sharing of the burdens of mutual defense and economic aid, further liberalization of trade and removal of con-
labour contract in the steel industry.
certain,
and
(M. A. K.) over capital movements. Production. Total world production of gold in 1961 rose for
trols
—
the eighth consecutive year to a record high 47,700,000 fine ounces, compared with 45,400,000 oz. produced in 1960, according to the U.S. bureau of mines. This gain w-as attributed mainly
South Africa.
to expansion of gold operations in
increase in the U.S.S.R. also
augmented
World ProdlKlion of Gold (In
UnlUdSlolM Conoda
.
.
South
Am.fko
. .
.
Congo R.p
.
SoulhAlfko
USSH Xin'lrolio'.
'.'...
Tolol (.il.l •Includ.i
.
.
W«il
.
1961
1,877
1,865 4,384
1,800 4,434
1.759 4.571
1,635 4,483
1,680 4,629
1,567 4,442
350 224
346 210 914 179 374 790 537
332
314 225 941
300 214 998
269 228 963
165
161
157
318 893 563
233 970 570
221
987 170 356 853 555
351
913 567
15.897 17,032 17,656 20.066 14.602 ?.000» 10.0001 lO.OOOf lO.OOOf 10.0001 1,030 1.084 1.049 JJ^04 J^.085 40.600 38.400 39.500 42.800 34.300
lndl»l.
21,383 22,942 11,0001 12,000| _1^.086
1.070
45,400
47700
Ilnclud.! «uondo.Ufundl.
— Domestic
23 he brought together both sides in the
and obtained a settlement on June
meeting of the executive council of
At
5.
May
and at the the A.F.L.-C.I.O. on Aug. 15
the labour convention in Atlantic City, N.J., in
he reaffirmed the administration's stand against lowering the 40-
hour work week. President
Kennedy announced Goldberg's appointment
Golding, William Gerald an important
mine output of gold declined from 1,667,000 oz. in 1960 to 1,548,000 oz. in 1961 and dropped from 4% to 3% of world production. In 1961 the total value was
fictional
a film in 1962.
to the i
at
Born
work
^2lltno2'L^rTonhrm^s,
of the 1950s,
was being made
into
Cornwall on Sept. 19, he was educated Marlborough grammar school and at Brasenose college, Oxin
ford. After service in the
came a teacher
at the
Royal Navy
perimented
known
of which.
in the
in
World War
II he be-
Bishop Words\yorth school, Salisbury,
Wiltshire. Golding published a
best
United Slates.
On May
31.
railroad labour dispute
\
1960
370 687 525
of th.t
Gho'a Soulh.tn Rhodtilo
(Rtfinory Prodi cHon)
1959
209 374 638 536
on March
ouncei)
1958
211
Indlo
the talks collapsed,
Goldberg resigned from his cabinet post on Sept. 20, and he was sworn in as an associate justice on Oct. 1. (G. Pl.)
I9S5
1,014
When
he asked a resumption on March 14 and announced a settlement
U.S. supreme court on Aug. 29 to succeed Felix Frankfurter,
it.
1957
383 244 V8e
'
(ln»
new
Feb. 6 he urged an early beginning of talks for negotiating a
estimated
1956
•«,54J
U,,|,o Cnlrol An,.rlM'
000
An
On
ing guidelines to ensure settlements in the public interest.
volume of poems
in
:
;'
1934 and ex|
drama with Brass Butterfly (1958), but he
is [
for his series of strikingly original novels, the first
Lord of the
appeared in 1954. Its simple yet deeply significant account of the reversion to savagery of a group of schoolboys
Flies,
marooned on an
island brought
it
a steadily
in-
!
GOLF
415
creasing success. His versatile imagination was given full scope in his next work, The Inheritors (1955), which described the daily life of a
group of Neanderthal men and the impact on them men. For Pine her Martin (1956), he drew on his
of the first true
experience in the navy and of sailing (one of his hobbies to describe the feelings of a shipwrecked sailor on an isolated rock )
Free Fall (1959) was a further exploration of meaning of life, in the form of an introspective autobiography of a former prisoner of war. Golding was elected (1955) a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. in mid-Atlantic.
the
GOldWater, Barry Morris
leader of the Republican party
conservative wing, was born on Jan.
1
tended the University of Arizona for one year (1928). after his father died, to
manage
He
in Phoenix. Ariz.
s
at-
lea\-ing,
the family department stores.
During World War II he was a ferry pilot in the air transport command and achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel. After the war, he organized the Arizona air national guard, became a
national convention to shape the party platform in the conserva-
Rodgers, another rookie, at 285,
1962,
9,
major general. Goldwater was elected to the U.S. senate in 1952 in 1958. Attracting some support for the Republican presidential nomination in 1960, he fought hard at the tive image.
On
Jan. 11, 1962, Goldwater announced that he
of a private
group to aid Katanga
opposing
in
Young Americans
large rally of
hailed conservatism as the
wave
for
Freedom
in
of the future.
was sponsor
UN
and U.S.
March
pohcies in the Congo. As the principal speaker on
New
On
7 at a
York, he
July
2
Gold-
water published a letter he had sent declining an invitation to
same ones who had caused all the troubles of his party. In the 1962 fall election campaign Goldwater claimed that Cuba was a chief issue in the election. Although he repeated his announced plans to run for re-election to the senate in 1964, a group of Republicans met in Dec. 1962 to start a drive to win
ished six strokes back in second place.
Jockey club in Buenos Aires, Roberto de Vicenzo of Argentina
the presidential nomination for him. All sections of the nation
brilliant
(G. Pl.)
campaign.
Arnold Palmer (q.v.) broke Golf.
ficial
his previous record with of-
earnings in excess of "$81,000 while Jack Nicklaus,
22-year-old rookie in the professional ranks, boosted his to over
$61,000 according to the Professional Golfers association. The organization's total included only those amounts from tourna-
ments
it
co-sponsored; omitted was one of the year's biggest The competitors for
plums, the so-called "world series of golf."
event were Palmer, winner of the Masters and the British open: Nicklaus, winner of the U.S. open; and Gary Player of this
Sam Snead
Paired with
69 while Kel Nagle of Australia
fin-
Palmer again stood out in Canada cup matches at the Arg. Though he placed second to
as in 1960.
the International Golf association
in the individual standings, his
round enabled the U.S. team to win the cup by two strokes from .Argentina, .\ustralia was third. Engplay in the
last
Palmer for second in individual play and Snead was fourth. De Yicenzo, teamed with .\ntonio Cerda. won the first Canada cup tournament, in 1953. Palmer was thwarted in his bid to add the P.G.A. title for a triple crown. At. the .^ronomink Country club outside Philadel-
land's Peter Allis tied
phia.
Palmer finished became the
as Player
in a tie for first
17th place with a tally of 288
nonresident of the U.S. to capture the
tournament. His rounds were 72. 67. 69 and 70 for 278 to lead
Bob Goalby who was second by one stroke. In the Amateur championship at Pinehurst. N.C., Labron Harris,
20 years old, carried
Jr.,
off the
final
against 24-year-old
Consequently when Nicklaus won the 36-hole stroke play event, which the P.G.A. classed as an "exhibition." at the Firestone •Country club. Akron, 0.. his earnings for the year, "official" and "unofficial," exceeded $1 10.000. Nicklaus scored 66 and 69 for 135
ard Sikes. the national public links champion, and Deane Beman.
to beat
The
first
prize
was $50,000.
Palmer, 65 and 74 for 139, and Player, 69 and 70 for 139. two divided $25,000 as "unofficial" money, not tabu-
latter
by the P.G.A. Nicklaus earlier had established himself
pion with a remarkable victory at the
Oakmont. Pa.
He won by
as the U.S.
open cham-
Oakmont Country
beating Palmer
in
club at
an 18-hole play-off,
71 to 74. Although he had been out of the amateur ranks six months. Nicklaus closed with a 69, following rounds of 72, 70 and 72 to tie Palmer (71, 68. 73, 71) at 283 for the regulation
72 holes.
Back
of the co-leaders were
Downing Gray
3
and
1
,
in the
of Pensacola. Fla.,
other semifinal. Subsequently Harris. Patton. Rich-
the 1960 national amateur champion, were
hower cup team
for the biennial world
named
to the Eisen-
amateur tourney,
in
Japan.
There, against 23 nations, they scored 854 to win; Canada was
lated
i
71, 69. 67.
by 1 up, in 36 holes. Gray defeated Lieut. Charles Coody of Fort Worth, Tex., 3 and 2, in one semifinal. Harris beat Billy Joe Patton of Morganton, N.C.,
South Africa, the P.G.A. champion. The
I
scoring record for the championship by two strokes.
His rounds were
start the
1
new
set a
Gettysburg farm on June 30. His reason was that the leaders
were represented and about $250,000 was reportedly pledged to
i
Palmer was more successful in the play-off for the Masters Augusta, Ga. There he tied with Player, the 1961 winner, and Dow Finsterwald, with an eight-under-par score of 280 for 72 holes. In the extra session, however. Palmer had 68, Player 71 and Finsterwald 77. Palmer was also successful in Scotland where he retained the British open crow'n at Troon. He had a 12-under-par 276, which title at
Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower's all-Republican conference at his there were the
i
Fr,;s Inlcrn.iltonat
and re-elected
March
a
i
Vniud
THE WINNERS:
Arnold Palmer (leH) and Sam Snead (centre). U.S. team In the Canada cup matches at Buenos Aires, Arg., shown with U.S. Ambassador Robert M. McCllntock, and the cup they won. In Nov. 1962. Besides finishing first as a team Palmer and Snead were both high among the leaders )n Individual play
brigadier general in the air force reserve and, on
Bobby Nichols and
Phil
second at 862 and the British-Irish team third at 874.
Richard Davies of Pasadena. Calif., who lost in the fourth round of the U.S. amateur at Pinehurst. earlier became the British amateur champion at Hoylake, Eng.. by vanquishing John Povall of Wales by
up in the 36-hole final. was the only point winner for the visiting Curtis cup team as the U.S. retained the cup. 8 to 1, at the
Mrs. A. Frearson. British
1
18.
GOODMAN
416
Broadmoor Golf club. Colorado Springs. Colo. women's U.S. JoAnne Gunderson of Kirkland. Wash., won the amateur
title
for the third time. At the
Country club of Rochester
Ann Baker (N.V.t. she defeated 17-year-old high-school student scheduled 36-hole test. of Mar>•^•ille. Tenn.. by 9 and S. in a Miss Gunderson won previously in 1957 and 1960. Girardeau, Mo., Mrs. Murle MacKenzie Lindstrom of Cape Myrtle Beach, captured the women's U.S. open championship at previously. Her S.C. although she had never won a tournament score of 301 led Jo
Ann
Prentice and
Ruth Jessen who shared (L- A. 'Wn.)
second place at 303.
Bureaus, Government Departments and and
their chief
Executive officer and official
I. «, «(r.rA Department, bureou or om'-o
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
Admincslrolion foreign Bureau of "d"""'""'''""
«"'".,.
Abbo P., odministrotor W., counselor and chmn. Johnson, G. Griffith, osst. secretory p^„„„ p^^d.^ck G., asst. secretory Monning, Robert J., ossl. secretory Bottle, Ucius D., osst secretory Hilsmon,' Roger, Jr., director Mortin, Edwin M., osst. secretory Tyler, William R., osst. secretory Horrimon, W. Averell, osst. secretary Schwortz,
„,;,„. "'""" of the exports and supplied about 75% of the imports. In I960 there were 88 mi. of public railway, about 75 mi. of industrial trackage, more than 400 mi. of all-weather roads and about 1,500 mi. of secondary roads. Motor vehicles (Jan. 1, 1961) included 5.400 automobiles and 5,800 trucks and buses. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1961) numbered 4,400, 86% of which were automatic. Production. .Agricultural production in the 1961-62 season (preliminary figures) included coffee 700.000 bags of 132 lb. each; sugar 74,000 short tons: cacao 5.300,000 lb;: cottonseed 3.000 tons; sisal 86,000,000 lb.; cotton 5.000 bales of 500 lb, gross weight. In 1950 there were an estimated 582.000 cattle, 1,139,000 pigs and 892,000 goats. Production of cement in 1950 was estimated at 53.000 short tons; that of bauxite in 1951. 323,000 tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, I960) was about 28.000 kw.; production (public use only) in 1959 was estimated at 52,900,000 kw.hr. (J. W. Mw.) Encyclop,«dia BmxANNiCA Films. The West Indies (1944).
Oscar and Ruby Obert, New York Carl Obert and Harry Hyde, New York J. Scala and R. Timpone, Brooklyn
Third
New
York
on Four-Woll Champions J. Jacobs and M. Decatur, Bronx
Hondboll Associ
Ob "Chicago
Second
f .
A.A.U, National
(New
O'car and Ruby Obert John Sloan and Ken Schneider, Chicago One-Woll Champions
York metropolitan area!
ond K. Dovidoff, Brooklyn Oscar and Ruby Obert Sandler and D. Norvid, Brooklyn H. Eisenberg
,
,,,
Jler,
Brooklyn
S.
Houston Y.M.C.A. Obert's brother Carl had crown at the Philadelphia A.C. in February. With another brother, Ruby, Oscar captured the A.A.U. doubles title, and the same two were runners-up in the in
MacL.)
J.
962
jur-Woll Chompions
Corl Obert, New York Oscor Obert, t^ew Yorl